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THE 


ENCYCLOPiEDlA  BFJTAiNNICA 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


Arts,  Sciences,  and  General  Literature 


THE  R.  S.  PEALE  REPRINT 

WITH  NKW  MAPS  AND  OIUGINAL  AMERICAN  ARTICLES  BY   EMINENT  WKITERS 


WITH  AMERICAN  REVISlOiXS  AND  ADDITIONS 

By  W.  H.  DePUY,  D.T)..  LL.D., 
BRiNorNO  Each  V^olume  Vv  to  Date. 


volume  XXI 


CHICAGO 

R  S.  PEALE  COMPANY 


708684 


Encyclopaedia    Britannica. 

Vol.  XXI. — (ROT-siA). 

Total  numoer  of  Articles,  770. 

PRINCIPAL    CONTENTS. 


ROTIFERA.     Prof.  A.  G.  Bourne. 

ROUMANIA.     George  G.  Chisholm,  M.  A.,  B.Sc,  and 

A.  J.  Evans,  Author  of  "  Through  Bosnia  on  Foot." 
ROUSSEAU.     George  Saintsburt. 
ROWING.     Edwin  D.  Brickwood: 
ROYAL  SOCIETY.     Herbert  Rix. 
RUBENS.     Henp,i  Hvmans,  Conservateur  k  la  Biblio- 

tlieque  Royale,  Brussels. 
RUSSIA.    P.  A.  Kropotkine  and  W.  R.  Morfill.  M.  A. 
SABBATH.     W.  Robertson  Smith,  LL.D. 
SABINES.     Sir  E.  H.  Bcneurt,  Bart. 
SACRIFICE.     W.  Robertson  Smith,  LL.D.,  and  ReT. 

Edwin  Hatch,  D.D. 
SAIL.     E.  Jewill. 

SAINTE-BEUVE.     Matthew  Arnold,  D.C.L. 
SAINTE-CLAIRE  DEVILLE.     Prof.  A.  Cruh  Brown, 

F.E.S.,  University  of  Edinburgh. 
ST  JOHN,  KNIGHTS  OF.     A.  M.  Broadlev. 
ST  LAWRENCE.     Sir  Charles  A.  Hartley,  K.C.M.G. 
ST  LOUIS.     D.  H.  M'Adam,  St  Louis. 
ST  PETERSBURG.     P.  A.  KiioroTKiNE. 
SAINT-SIJION,  COMTE  DE.     Thomas  Kirkhp,  M.A. 
SAINT-SIMON,  DUG  DE.     George  Sajntsbuky. 
SALIC  LAW.     J.  H.  Hessels,  M.A. 
SALMONIDj?;.     J.  T.  Cdnningham,  B.A. 
SALT.     F.  Maxwell  Lvte,  F.C.S. 
SALUTATIONS.     E.  B.  Tylor,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 
SAMARITANS.     W.  Robertson  Smith,  LL.D 
SAMOS.     Sir  E.  H.  Eunbury,  Bart. 
SAN  FRANCISCO.     W.  C.  Bartlett,  LL.D. 
S.VNSKRIT.     Prof.  Jdlius  Eogeling,  Ph.D. 
SARDINIA.     George  G.  Chisholm. 
SARPI.     Richard  Garxett,  LL.D. 
SATIRE.     R.  Garnett,  LL.D. 
SAVIGNY.     John  JIacdonell,  Barrister-at-ww. 
SAVINGS  BANKS.     E.  W.  Buabrook,  F.S.A. 
SAVONAROLA.     Madame  Linda  Villari,  Florence. 
SAVOY.     H.  B.  Bniccs. 
SAWS.     G.  W.  IIotciikiss,  Chicago. 
SAXONY.     Finelay  Muirhead,  M.A. 
SAY.     J.  K.  Ingram,  LL.D.,  Librarian,  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin. 
SCALIGEU.     Richard  C.  Christie. 
SCANDINAVIAN  LANGUAGES.    Dr  Adolf  NoREE.v, 

University,  Upsala. 
SCARLET  FEVER.     J.  0.  Affleck,  M.D. 
SCEPTICISM.    Prof.  Andrew  Seth,  M.A.,  University 

College  of  South  Wales. 
SCHELLING.     Prof.  R.  Adamson,  LL.D. 
SCHILLER.     James  Simh,,  M.A. 
SCHIZOMYCETES.     II.  Marshall  Ward,  M.A. 
.SCHLEIEUMACHER.     Rev.  J.  F.  Smith. 
SCHOLASTICISM.     Prof.  A.  Sf.tii. 
SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTING.      J.  Henry  Middleton, 

F.S.A.,  Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Art,  Cambridge. 
5CII0PENHAUER.      W.    Wallace,    M.A.,    LL.D., 

AVhyte's  Pi-ofcssor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  Oxford. 
SCIPIO.     Rev.  W.  J.  Br.oDRiBD,  M.A. 


SCOTLAND  — History,    Geology,    and   Statisticst. 
jEneas  J.  G.  Mackay,  LL.D.,  Arch.  Geikie,  F.P..S., 
and  T.  F.  Henderson. 
Church.     Kev.  Allan  Menzies,  B.D. 
Early  Literature.     John  Small,  LL.D. 

SCOTT,  SIR  WALTER.     Prof.  W.  Minto,  M.A. 

SCREW.     Prof.  Henry  A.  Rowland,  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  Baltim-ore. 

SCULPTURE.     Prof.  J.  H.  Middleton. 

SCYTHIA.     Prof.  A.  voN  GuTSOBJiiD,  Tubingen. 

SEAL.     W.  H.  Flower,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Fisheries.     Rev.  M.  Harvey,  St  John's,  N.  P. 

SEA-LAWS.     SirTRAVERsTwiss,  Q.C.,  D.C.L,  F.R.S. 

SEALS.     Prof.  J.  H.  Middleton. 

SEAMANSHIP.     Capt.  H.  A.  MoRiAKTY,  R.N.,  C.B. 

SEA-SERPENT.     W.   E.   Hoyle,  M.A.,  "Challenger" 
Expedition  Office. 

SEA  WATER.     Prof.  W.  Dittmar,  F.R.b. 

SEISMOMETER.     Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing,  B.Sc. 

SELJCKS.     Prof  ,M.  Th.  Hodtsma,  Lcyden. 

SEMITIC   LANGUAGES.     Prof.    Theodor  Nc.lDEKE, 
University  of  Strasburg. 

SENECA.     R.  D.  HiOKS,  M.A. 

SENEGAMBIA.    D.  Kaltekunner,  Author  of  "Manuel 
du  Voyagenr." 

SENIOR.     J.  K.  Ingram,  LL.D. 

SEPTUAGINT.      Julius  Wellhausen,    Ph.D.,    Pro- 
fessor .of  Semitic  Languages,  University  of  Marburg. 

SEPULCHRE,  HOLY.     A.  B.  M'Grigor,  LL.D. 

SEQUOIA.     0.  Pierpont  Johnson. 

SERIES.     A.    Cayley,   M.A.,   F.R.S.,   Sadlerian   Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics,  University  of  Cambridge. 

SERVIA.     G.  G.  Chisholm  and  W.  R.  Morfill. 

SEVERUS.     J.  S.  Reid,  D.Litt. 

SfcVIGNfe.     George  Saintsuury. 

SEWERAGE.     Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing. 

SEWING  JIACHINES.     James  Paton. 

SEX.     Patrick  Geddes,  F.R.S.E. 

SEXTANT.     J.  L.  E.  Dreyer,  Ph.D. 

SHAFTESBURY,    EARLS   OF.      O.smukd   Airy  and 
Rev.  Thcmas  Fowler,  M.A. ,  Oxford. 

SHAKESPEARE.     T.  Spencer  Baynes,  LL.  D. 
Bibliography.     H.  R.  Tedder. 

SHARK.     Albert  GiJNTHER,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 

SHEEP.     W.  H.  Flower,  LL.D. 

SHELLEY.     W.  M.  Rossetti. 

SHERIDAN.     Prof.  W.  Minto. 

SHERIFF.     JE.  J.  G.  Mackay,  LL.D. 

SHIP.    '  Re V.  Edmond  Warre,  Etoji  College. 

SHIPBUILDING.     Sir  Nathaniel  Barnabt,  K.C.B., 
late  Director  of  Naval  Construction,  Whitehall. 

SHIPPING.     W.  Cunningham,  B.D. 

SHOEMAKING.     James  Paton. 

SHOOTING.     J.  Dalziel  Doucall,  Author  of  "  Shoot- 
ing, its  Appliances,  Practice,  and  Purpose." 

SHORTHAND.      The   Hon.   Ion  G.   N.    Keith -Fal- 
coner, M.A. 

SHREW.     Surgeon-Major  G.  E.  Dobson,  F.R.S. 

SIAM.     CouTT.i  Trotter, 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA    BEITANNICA. 


ROTH  E 


EOTHE,  EicHARD  (1799-1867),  theologian,  was  born 
at  Posen,  January  28,  1799,  of  parents  in  a  good 
position.  After  passing  through  the  grammar  schools  of 
Stettin  and  Breslau,  he  studied  theology  in  Ihe  universities 
»f  Heidelberg  and  Berlin  (1817-20)  under  Daub,  Schleier- 
Biacher,  and  Neander,  the  philosophers  and  historians 
Hegel,  Creuzer,  and  Schlosser,  exercising  a  considerable 
influence  in  shaping  his  thought.  From  1820  to  1822  he 
was  in  the  clerical  seminary  at  Wittenberg,  and  spent  the 
next  year  in  private  study  under  his  father's  roof  at 
Breslf>u.  In  the  autumn  of  1823  he  ^vas  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  Prussian  embassy  in  Rome,  of  which 
Baron  Bunsen  was  the  head.  This  post  he  exchanged 
in  1828  for  a  professorship  in  the  Wittenberg  seminary, 
and  hence  in  1837  he  removed  to  Heidelberg  as  professor 
and  director  of  a  new  clerical  seminary;  in  1849  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  Bonn  as  professor  and  university 
preacher,  but  in  18.54  he  returned  to  Heidelberg  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  member  of  the  Oberkirchenrath, 
a  position  he  held  until  his  death,  August  20,  1867. 
Eothe's  mental  and  religious  development  vraa  one  of 
contintwus  progress.  As  a  youth  he  was  the  subject  of 
deep  religious  feeling,  with  a  decided  bent  towards  a 
supernatural  mysticism ;  his  chosen  authors  were  those 
of  the  romantic  school,  and  Novalis  remained  his  life 
through  a  special  favourite.  In  Berlin  and  Wittenberg 
ho  came  under  the  influe.nce  of  Pietism  as  represented  by 
such  men  as  Stier  and  Tholuck,  though  the  latter  pro- 
nounced him  a  "  very  modern  Christian."  Ho  afterwards 
himself  confessed  that,  though  he  had  been  a  sincere,  he 
vras  never  a  happy  Pietist.  In  Home,  where  he  enjoyed 
the  intimate  friendship  of  Bunsen,  and  studied  church 
history  under  the  broadening  influence  of  classical  and 
ecclesiastical  art,  his  mind  broke  loose  from  the  straitened 
life  and  narrow  views  of  Pietism  and  ha  learned  to  look 
at  Christianity  in  its  human  and  univeraalistic  aspects. 
From  that  time  he  began  to  develop  and  work  out  hia 
great  idea,  the  inseparable  relation  of  religion  and  morals, 
finding  in  the  latter  the  necessary  sphere  and  th'j  realiza- 
tion of  the  idea  of  the  former.  Ho  began  then,  ami 
particularly  after  the  revolution  of  July  IS.'iO,  likewi.so 
to  give  a  more  definite  form  to  his  peculiar  view  of  the 
relations  of  church  and  state.  In  consequence  of  this 
21—1 


crilargedient  of  his  ideas  of  the  world,  religion,  morals, 
Christianity,  the  church  and  the  state,  Rothe  gradually 
found  himself  out.  of  harmony  with  the  Pietistic 
thought  and  life  of  Wittenberg,  and  his  removal  to 
Heidelberg  in  1837  and  tho  publication  of  his  first 
important  work  (Anfdnr/e  tier  ckristliehen  Kirche)  in 
that  year  coincide  with  the  attainment  of  the  principal 
theological  positions  with  which  his  name  is  associated. 
During  the  middle,  period  of  his  career  (1837-61)  he  led 
the  life  of  a  scholastic  recluse,  taking  no  active  public 
part  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  any  way.  During  the  la5;t 
six  years  of  his  life  (1801-67),  partly  owing  to  his 
liberation  from  great  domestic  cares  and  partly  to  the 
special  circumstances  of  the  church  in  Baden,  he  came 
forward  publicly  and  actively  as  the  advocate  of  a  free 
theology  and  of  tho  Protestantenverein  (q.v.).  This 
important  change  in  Eothe's  practice  was  preceded  by 
the  publication  of  a  valuable  series  of  theological  essays 
(in  the  Stmlien  und  Kritiken  for  1860),  afterwards  published 
in  a  separate  volume  (Zur  Dogmaiik,  Gotha,  Itt  ed. 
1863,  2d  ed.  1809),  on  revelation  and  inspiration  more 
particularly.  These  essays  were  a  very  searching  examina- 
tion of  the  relation  of  revelation  to  Scripture,  and  pro- 
voked much  hostile  criticism  in  quarters  previously 
friendly  to  Eothe,  where  tho  relation  was  u.-iual!y  treated 
as  almost  one  of  identity.  In  consequence  of  this  publica- 
tion, and  his  advocacy  of  the  programme  of  Ihe  Pro- 
testantenverein, he  was  nassed  at  tho  end  of  his  life 
amgngst  tho  more  decided  theological  liberals  rather  than 
with  the  moderate  orth'jilox  party,  amongst  whom  so  many 
of  his  personal  friends  were  to  bo  found. 

Rothe  was  one  of  the  most  if  not  tho  most  profound 
and  influential  of  modern  German  theologians  next  to 
Schleiermachcr.  Like  tho  latter  ho  combined  with  the 
keenest  logical  faculty  an  intensely  rcli^'ious  spirit,  while 
his  philosophical  tendencies  were  rather  in  symijathy  with 
Hegel  than  Schleiermachcr,  and  thcosophic  mysticism  was 
moro  congenial  to  him  than  tho  ab-stractions  of  Spinoza, 
to  whom  Schleiermachcr  owed  so  much.  Ho  classed  him- 
self amongst  tho  theosophists,  and  energetically  claimed 
tc  bo  a  convinced  and  happy  suiKjrnaturalist  in  a  scientific 
ago.  A  peculiarity  of  Lis  thought  was  its  systematic 
completeness   and   consistency ;  aphoristic,   unsystematic, 


R  O  T  — R  O  T 


timidly  halting  speculation  was  to  him  intolerable. 
Though  his  own  system  may  seem  to  contain  extremely 
doubtful  or  even  fantastic  elements,  it  is  allowed  by  all 
that  it  is  in  its  general  outlines  a  noble  massive  whole, 
tonstructed  by  a  profound,  comprehensive,  fearless,  and 
logical  mind.  Another  peculiarity  of  his  thought  was 
tho  realistic  nature  of  his  spiritualism  :  his  abstractions 
are  all  real  existences ;  his  spiritual  entities  are  real  and 
corporeal ;  his  truth  is  actual  being.  Hence  Rothe,  un- 
like Schleiermacher,  lays  great  stress,  for  instance,  on  the 
personality  of  God,  on  the  reality  of  the  worlds  of  good 
and  evil  spirits,  and  on  the  visible  second  coming  of 
Christ.  Hence  his  religious  feeling  and  theological  specu- 
lation demanded  their  realization  in  a  kingdom  of  God 
coextensive  with  man's  nature,  terrestrial  history,  and 
human  society  ;  and  thus  his  theological  system  became  a 
Theologische  Ethik.  It  is  on  the  work  published  under 
this  title  that  Eothe's  permanent  reputation  as  a  theo- 
logian and  ethical  writer  will  rest.  The  first  edition,  in 
three  volumes,  was  published  in  18-15-48,  and  remained 
twelve  years  out  of  print  before  the  second  (1867-71,  in 
five  volumes)  appeared.  It  was  the  author's  purpose  to 
rewrite  the  whole,  but  he  had  completed  the  first  two 
volumes  only  of  the  new  edition  when  death  overtook  him. 
The  remainder  was  reprinted  from  the  first  edition  by 
Prof.  Holtzmann,  with  the  addition  of  some  notes  and 
emendations  left  by  the  author. 

T'his  work  begins  with  a  general  sketch  of  the  author's  system 
of  speculative  theology  in  its  two  divisions,  theology  proper  and 
cosmology,  the  latter  falling  into  the  two  subdivisions  of  Physik 
(tho  world  of  nature)  and  Ethik  (the  world  of  spirit).     It  is  the  last 
subdivision  with  which  the  body  of  the  work  is  occupied.     After 
an  analysis  of  the  religious  consciousness,  which  yields  the  doctrine 
of  an  absolute  personal  and  spiritual  God,  Rothe  proceeds  to  deduce 
from  his  idea  of  God  tho  process  and  history  of  creative  development, 
which  is  etert.ally  proceeding  and  bringing  forth,  as  its  unending 
purpose,  woiida  of  spirits,  partially  self-creative  and  sharing  tho 
absolute  persc^nality  of  the  Creator.     As  a  thorough-going  evolu- 
tionist Rothe  regards  tlie  natural  man  as  the  consummation  of  the 
development  of  physical  nature,  and  obtains  spirit  as  the  personal 
attainment,  with  divine  help,  of  those  beings  in  whom  the  further 
creative  process  of  moral  develooment  is  carried  on.     His  theory 
leaves  the  natural  man,  without  hesitation,  to  be  developed  by  the 
natural  processes   of  animal   evolution.     The  attainment   of  the 
higher  stage  of  development  is  the  moral  and  religious  vocation  of 
man  ;  this  higher  stage  is  self-determination,  the  performance  o." 
every  human  funotion  as  a  voluntary  and  intelUgeut  agent,  or  as  a 
person,  having  as  its  cosmical  effect  the  subjection  of  all  material  to 
spiritual  e.':istences.     This  personal  process  of  spiritualization  is  the 
continuation  of  the  eternal  divine  work  of  creation.     Thus  the  moral 
life  and  the  religious  life  coincide,  and  when  normal  are  identical ; 
both  have  the  same  aim  and  are   occupied   with  the   same  task, 
the  accomplishment  of  the  spiritualization  of  the  world.     "  Piety, 
that  it  may  become  truth  and   reality,  demands  morality  as  its 
fulfilment,  as   the  only  concrete   element  in  which   the   idea   of 
fellowship  -a-ith  God  is  realized  ;  morality,   that  it  may  find  its 
perfect  unfolding,  requires  the  aid  of  piety,  in  the  light  of  which 
alone  it  can  comprehend  its  own  idea  in  all  its  breadth  and  depth." 
Rothe    follows    Schleiermacher    in   dividing    his   ethical   system 
into  the  three  parts  of  the  doctrine  of  moral  ends  (Giitcrlchrc),  or 
the  products  of^mor.il  action,  the  doctrine  of  virtue  (TugendlcJirc), 
or  of  the  power  producing  moral  good,  and  the  doctrine  of  duty 
{Pfiichtcnlchre),  or  the  specific   form   and  manner  in  which  that 
power  obtains  its  results.     The  process   of  human   development 
Ilothe  regards  as  necessarily  taking  an  abnormal  form  and  passing 
through  the  phase  of  sin.     This  abnormal  condition  necessitates  a 
fresh  creative  act,  that  of  salvation,  which  was,  however,  from  tho 
first  part  of-  the  divine  plan  of  development.     As  a  preparation 
for  this   salvation  supernatural  revelation  was  required  for   the 
purifying  and  revivification  of  the  religious  consciousness,  and  the 
Saviour   Himself   had   to  appear  in   humon  history   as    a    fresh 
miraculous  creation,  bom  of  a  woman  but  not  begotten  by  a  man. 
In  consequence  of   His  supernatural  birth   the   Saviour,    or   the 
second  Adam,  was  free  from  original  sin.     By  His  own  moral  and 
religious   development   He   made   possible    a  relation   of    perfect 
fellowship  between  God  and  man,  which  was  the  new  and  highest 
stage  of  the  divine  creation  of  mankind.     This  stage  of  development 
inaugurated  by  the  Saviour  is  attained  by  means'  of  His  kingdom  or 
the  commimity  of  salvation,  which  is  both  moral  ^d  religious,  and 
in  the  first  instance  and  temporarily  only  reUgious — that  >s,  a 


church.  As  men  roach  the  full  development  of  their  nature,  and 
appropriate  the  perfection  of  the  Saviour,  the  separation  between 
the  religious  and  the  moral  life  will  vanish,  and  the  Christian  state, 
as  the  highest  sphere  of  homan  life  representing  all  human 
functions,  will  disfuaco  the  church.  '•  In  proportion  as  the  Saviour 
Christianizes  the  state  by  means  of  the  church  must  the  progres- 
sive completion  of  the  structure  of  the  church  prove  the  cause  (A 
its  abolitiom "  The  decline  of  the  church  is  therefore  not  to  be 
deplored,  bat  recognized  as  the  consequence  of  the  independence 
and  completeness  of  the  Christian  life.  It  ia  the  third  section  of 
his  work — the  PJiichtcnlchre — which  is  generally  most  highly  valued, 
and  where  his  full  strength  as  an  ethical  thirker  is  displayed, 
without  any  mixture  of  theosophic  speculation. 

Since  Eothe's  death  several  volumes  of  his  Bermons  and  of  hJa  lectures  (on 
dogmatics,  the  history  of  horailetics)  and  a  collection  of  brief  essays  and  reli«iot» 
meditations  under  the  title  of  Stitle  Elunden  (Wittenberg,  1372)  have  beqn 
published.  See  F.  Nippold,  Richard  Rothe,  ein  ehriilltches  LebenibUd  (2  vola., 
Wittenberg,  1873-74) ;  Schenkel,  "  Znr  Erlnnerong  an  Dr  R.  Kothe,"  tn  tjie 
AUgemciTis  iirchlich^  Zeiischj-ift,  1867 -C3  ;  Holtzmann,  "Klchard  Rothe,"  in  the 
Jahrbuchdes  PtoCestajuenvereins,  1869 ;  Schwarz,  2ur  Otschichte  rfer  jievcslen 
Theologie  {ith  ed..  Leipslc,  1S69,  pp.  417-444);  Pflelderer,  HcligioHsphiiofophie  mtf 
geschichnicher  QrurAlagi  (2d  ed,,  Berlin,  1884,  vol.  L  pp.  611-615).        (J.  F.  S.) 

ROTHEEHAM,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough 
in  the  West  Eiding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Rother  with  the  Don  navigation,  on  several 
railway  lines,  5  miles  north-east  of  Sheffield  The  parish 
church  of  All  Saints,  occupying  the  site  of  a  building 
dating  from  Anglo-Saxon  times,  was  erected  in  the  reiga 
of  Edward  TV.,  and  is  a  good  specimen  of  Perpendicular. 
Among  the  other  principal  public  buildings  are  the  n«w 
market-hall,  the  post  office,  the  court-house,  the  temper 
ance  hall,  St  George's  Hall,  the  council  hall,  and  the  cor- 
poration offices.  There  are  a  large  number  of  educational 
and  literary  institutions,  including  the  grammar  school 
founded  in  1483,  tho  people's  charity  school,  the  Inde- 
pendent college,  the  mechanics'  institute,  the  free  library, 
and  the  literary  and  scientific  society.  There  is  a  targ« 
hospital,  besides  almshouses  and  various  other  charities. 
The  town  possesses  extensive  iron,  steel,  and  brass  works, 
potteries,  glassworks,  breweries,  saw  mills,  and  rope  yards. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area  5995  acres) 
in  1881  was  31,782. 

The  town  is  of  Roman  origin,  and  was  of  some  importance  im 
Anglo-Saxon  times.  In  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confe^or  it 
possessed  a  market  and  a  church.  Slary  queen  of  Scots  stayed  a 
night  at  Rotherham  while  a  prisoner,  as  did  also  Charles  I.  when 
in  the  hands  of  the  Scots.  During  the  Civil  War  it  sided  witli 
the  Parliament  It  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Royalists  in 
1643,  but  after  the  victory  of  Slarston  Moor  was  yielded  up  to  a 
detachment  of  the  Parliamentary  forces.  The  townships  of  Rother 
ham  and  Kimberworth  were  incorporated  as  a  munici|}al  borough 
in  August  1871,  the  adjacent  suburbs  being  included  in  1879. 
The  corporation  act  as  the  sanitary  authority,  and  own  the  water- 
works, gasworks,  and  markets.  They  have  intioduced  a  system 
of  main  drainage,  and  have  also  provided  a  public  park  and  a  firee 
library. 

ROTHESAY,  a  royal  burgh,  and  the  principal  town  of 
the  county  of  Bute,  Scotland,  is  situated  in-  the  island  of 
Bute,  at  the  head  of  a  well-sheltered  and  spacious  bay  in 
the  Firth  of  Clyde,  40  miles  W.  of  Glasgow  and  18  S.W.  of 
Greenock,  with  which  there  is  frequent  communication  \f^ 
steamers.  The  bay  affords  good  anchorage  in  any  wind, 
and  there  are  also  a  good  harbour  and  pier.  The  town  is 
the  headquarters  of  an  extensive  fishing  district,  and  is 
much  frequented  as  a  .vatering  place.  Besides  two 
hydropathic  establishments,  it  has  several  hotels  and 
numerous  lodging  houses.  Facing  the  bay  there  is  an 
extensive  esplanade.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  are  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  castle,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
erected  in  1098  by  Magnus  Barefoot,  and  by  others  at 
the  same  date  by  the  Scots  to  defend  themselves  against 
the  Norwegians.  The  village  which  grew  up  round  the 
castle  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  Robert  III,  who  created 
his  eldest  son  David  duke  of  Rothsay.  During  the 
Commonwealth  the  castle  was  garrisoned  by  Cromwell's 
troops.  It  was  burned  by  the  followers  of  Argj'll  in 
1685,  and  remained  neglected  till  the  rubbish  was  cleared 
away  by  the   marquis  of  Bute  in  1816.     The  principal 


ROT  — E  0  T 


3 


taodern   buildings  are    the  aquariam,  the  town-liall  and  I 
county   buildings,    the    public    hall?,    the    academy,   and 
the    Thomson    institute.     Tho   corj-ioration   consists   of  a  . 
provost,  three  bailies,  a  dean  of  guild,  a  treasurer,  and 
twelve  councillors.     The  population  of  the  royal  burgh  in 
1871  was  80:37  and  in  1881  it  was  8291. 

ROTHSCHILD,  the  name  of  a  Jewish  family  which 
has  acquired  an  unexampled  position  from  the  magnitude 
of    its   financial    transactions.      The   original   name   was 
Bauer,  the  founder  of  the  house  being   Mayer   Anselm 
(1743-1812),  the  son    of   Anselm  Moses   Bauer,  a  small 
Jewish   merchant  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main.      His   father 
wished  him  to  become  a  rabbi,  but  he  preferred  business, 
and  ultimately  set  up  as  a  money  lender  at  the  sign  of 
the  " Red  Shield "  {Rotlisch'dd)  in    the  Frankfort  Juden- 
■^as-ae.     He   had   already   acquired   some   standing   as    a 
banker  ^when    his    numismatic    tastes    obtained   for  him 
the    friendship   of   William,   ninth   landgrave   and  after- 
wards elector  of   Hesse-Cassel,  who   in  1801  made   him 
lis  agent.     In  the  following  year  Rothschild  negotiated 
his  first  great  Government  loan,  ten  million  thalers  for  the 
Danish  Government.     When  the  landgrave  was  compelled 
to  flee  from  his  capital  on  the  entry  of  the  French,  he 
placed  his  silver  and  other  bulky  treasures  in  the  hands 
of  Rothschild,    who,  not  without  considerable  risk,  took 
charge  of  them  and  buried  them,  it  is  said  in  a  corner  of 
his  garden,  whence  he  dug  them  up  as  opportunity  arose 
for  disposing  of  them.     This  he  did  to  such  advantage  as 
to  be  able  afterwards  to  return  their  value  to  the  elector 
at   5    per   cent,    interest.      He   died   at    Frankfort    19th 
September  1812,  leaving  ten  children,  five  sons  and  five 
daughters.     Branches  of  the  business  were  established  at 
Vienna,  London,  Pari.s,  and  Naples,  each  being  in  charge 
of  one  of  the  sons,  the  chief  of  the  firto  always  residing  at 
Franldort,    where,    in    accordance    with    the   wish  of  tho 
founder,   all    important  consultations    are    held.      By    a 
system  of  cooperation  and'  joint    counsels,  aided   by  the 
skilful  employment  of  subordinate  agents,  they  obtained 
unexampled  opportunities  of  acquiring  an  accurate  know- 
ledge   of    the   condition   of  -  the    financial    market,    and 
practically  embraced   the  whole  of   F.urope  within  their 
financial   network.     The    unity   of    the    interests   of   the 
several   members    of    the   firm    has    been    preserved    by 
■the    system     of     intermarriages     which     has     been    the 
general  practice  of  the  descendants  of  the  five  brothers, 
and  the  house  has  thus  grown  in  solidity  and  influence 
with  every  succeeding  generation.     Each  of  the  brothers 
received  in  1815  from  Austria  the  privilege  of  hereditary 
landowners,  and  in  1822  they  were  created  barons  by  the 
■same  country.     The  charge  of  the  Frankfort  house   de- 
volved on  the  eldest,  Anselm  Mayee  (1773-1855),  born 
12th  Juno  1773,  who  was  choson  a  member  of  the  royal 
Prussian  privy  council  of  commerce,  and,  in  1320,  Bavarian 
consul  and  court  banker.     The  Vienna  branch  was  under- 
taken by  Solomon  (n74-lS26),  born  9th  December  1774, 
who  entered  into  intimate  relations  with  Prince  Metter- 
nich,  which  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  bring  a.bout 
the  connexion  of  the  firm  with  the  allied  powers.     Tho 
third  brother,  Nathan  Mayeh  (1777-1S3G),  born  16th 
September  1777,  has,  however,  generally  been  regarded  a-i 
the  financial  genius  of  the  family,  and  the  chief  originator 
of  tho  transactions  which  have  created  for  tho  house  its 
unexampled  position  in  the  financial  world.     He  came  to 
Manchester   about  ISOO    to    act   as  a    purchaser  for  his 
.father  of   manufactured   goods ;  but   at  the  end  of  five 
years  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  found  full  scope 
for  his  financial  genius.     Tho   boldness   and   skill  of   his 
transactions,  which   caused  him  at  first    to   be    regarded 
as   rash    and  un.?afc    by  the   leading    bar^king   firms  and 
financial   merchants,  latterly   awakened    their   admiration 


and  envy.     By  the  employment  of  carrier  pigeons  and  of 
fast-sailing  boats  of  his  own  for  the  tropsmissioa  of  news 
he  was  able  to  utilize  to  the  best  advantage  his  special 
sources    of    information,    while    no    one    was   a   grcatev 
adept  in   the  art  of  promoting  the   rise  and  fall  of  tho 
stocks.     The  colossal   influence  of   the  house  dates  from 
an   operation  of  his  in  1810.     In   that  year  Wellington 
made  some  drafts  which  the  English  Government  couW 
not    meet  ;   these    were   purchased   by    Rothschild    at    a 
liberal  discount,  and  renewed  to  the   Government,  which 
finally  redeemed    at    par.      From    this    time    the    house 
became  associated  with   the  alljed  powers  in  the  struggle 
against   Napoleon,  it  being  chiefly  through  it  that  they 
were   able    to    negotiate   loans    to    carry    on   the    war. 
Rothschild  never   lost    faith   in  the    ultimate   overthrow 
of  Napoleon,  his  all  being  virtually  staked  on  tho  i.ssue 
of  the  contest.     He  is  said  to  have  been  present  at  the 
battle  of   Waterloo,    and   to   have    watched   the   varying 
fortunes  of  the  day  with  feverish  eagerness.     Being  able 
to  transmit  to  London  private  information  of  the  allied 
success    several   hours  before    it   reached   the   public,   he 
efl'ected  an  immense  profit  by  the  purchase  of  stock,  which 
had  been    greatly   depressed  on   account  of  the  news  of 
Blucher'a    defeat    two    days  previously.     RothschUd  was 
the  first  to  popularize  foreign  loans  in  Britain  by  fixing 
the  rate  in  sterling  money  and  making  the  dividends  pay- 
able in  London  and  not  in  foreign  capitals.     Latterly  be 
became  the  financial  agent  of  nearly  every  civilized  Govern- 
ment, although  persistently  declining  contracts  for  Spain 
or  the  American   States.     He  did  not  confine  himself  to 
operations  on  a  large  scale,  but  on  the  contrary  made  it  a 
principle  to  despise  or  neglect  no  feasible  opportunity  of 
transacting  business,  while  at  the  same  time  his  operations 
gradually  extended  to  every    quarter  of  the  globe.     Ho 
died  28th  July  1S3G,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  London  house  by  his  son  Lionel  (1808-1879), 
born   22d  November  1808,  whose  name  will   always  bo 
associated  with  the  removal  of  the  civil  disabilities  of  the 
Jews.     He  was  elected  a  nember  for  tho  City  of  Londo/i 
in  1847,  and  again  in  1S49  and  1852,  but  it  was  not  lill 
1858   that  tho  joint   operation  of  an  Act  of  ParUanirnt 
and  a  resolution  of  the  House  of  Commons,  allov.mg  the 
omission  from  the  oath  of  the  words  to  which  as  a  Jew  he 
conscientiously  objected,  rendered  it  possible  for  him  to 
take   his  seat.     He   continued  to    represent    the   city  of 
London  till  1874.     Jacob  (1792-18GS),  tho  youngest  of 
the  original  brother^     was  intrusted  with  the  important 
mission  of   starting  ttj  business  in  Paris  after  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons,  for  whom  he  negotiated  large  loans. 
At  tho  llevolution  of  1848  he  was  a  heavy  loser,  and  had 
also  to  be  protected  for  a  time  by  a  special  guard.     It 
was  by  his  capital  that  tho  earliest  railroads  were  con- 
structed   in  Franco ;   tho    profits   he   obtained   from    the 
speculation  were  very   large.     Ho  died    15th    November 
1868.     Tho    Naples    branch   was   superintended    by   an- 
other of  the  brothers,  Karl  (1780-1855).     It  was  always 
the  least  important  of  the  five,  and  after  tho  annexation  of 
Naples  to'ltalyin  1860  it  was  discontinued. 

Seo  Das  Halts  Hothschild,  1 858  ;  Picciotto,  Shirlics  of  Anrjlo-Jcwish 
History^  1875  ;  Francis,  Chronicles  and  Characters  of  the  Stoe': 
Exchange,  1853;  Trrskow,  Biographischc  Notirxn  Ubcr  jVathan  Meyer 

j  IMlischild  nchst  scinem   Testament.   1837;    Ro'iucplnn,   Le  Baron 

I  James  do  Rothschild,  1868. 

I  ROTHWELL,  an  urban  sanitary  district  in  the  West 
!  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley  four 
I  miles  south  of  Leeds.  It  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  soon 
'  after  tho  Conquest  was  granted  as  a  deiiendency  of  the 
castle  of  Pontcfract  to  the  Lacys,  who  erected  at  it  a 
baronial  residence  of  which  there  arc  still  ronie  remains. 
;  The  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  ia  an  old  structure  in 


R  O  T  — 11  O  T 


the  Later  English  style  with  embattled  parapet.  There 
are  a  mechanics'  institute  and  a  working  men's  club. 
Coal  and  stone  are  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
the  town  possesses  match  works  and  rope  and  twine 
factories.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  3302  acres)  in  1871  was  3733,  and  in  1881  it  was 
51-05. 

ROTIFERA.  The  Rotifera  (or  Rotatoria)  form  a  small, 
in  many  respects  well-defined,  but  somewhat  isolated  class 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  They  are  here  treated  of  sepa- 
rately, partly  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  placing  them 
in  one  of  the  •  large  phyla,  partly  on  account  of  their 
f^ecial  interest  to  microfscopists. 

Now  familiarly  known  as  "  wheel  animalcules "  from 
the  wheel-like  motion  produced  by  the  rings  of  cilia  which 
generally  occur  in  the  head  region,  the  so-called  rotatory 
organs,  they  were  first  discovered  by  Leeuwenhoek  (1),'  to 
whom  we  also  owe  the  discovery  of  Bacteria  and  ciliate 
Infusoria.  Leeuwenhoek  described  the  Rotifer  w.lgaris  in 
1702,  and  he  subsequently  described  Melicerta  rinyeiis  and 
other  species.  A  great  variety  of  forms  were  described 
by  other  observer.s,  but  they  were  not  separated  as  a  class 
from  the  unicellular  organisms  (Protozoa)  with  which 
they  usually  occur  until  the  appearance  of  Ehrenberg's 
great  monograph  (2),  which  contained  a  mass  of  detail 
regarding  their  structure.  The  classification  there  put 
forward  by  Ehrenberg  is  still  widely  adopted,  but  numer- 
ous observers  have  since  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
anatomy  of  the  group  (3).  At  the  present  day  few  groups 
of  the  animal  kingdom  are  so  well  known  to  the  micro- 
Bcopist,  few  groups  present  more  interesting  affinities  to 
the  morphologist,  and  few  multicellular  animals  such  a 
low  physiological  condition. 

General  Anatomy. — The  R'otifera  are  multicellular 
animals  of  microscopic  si^e  which  present  a  coelom.  They 
are  bilaterally  symmetrical  and  present  no  true  metameric 
segmentation.  A  head  region  is  generally  well  marked, 
and  most  forms  present  a  definite  tail  region.  This  tail 
region  has  been  termed  the  "  pseudopodium."  It  varies 
very  much  in  the  extent  to  which  it  is  developed.  It 
attains  its  highest  development  in  forms  like  Philodina, 
which  affect  a  leech-like  method  of  progression  and  use  it 
as  a  means  of  attachment.  We  may  pass  from  this  through 
a  series  of  forms  where  it  becomes  less  and  less  highly 
developed.  In  such  forms  as  Brachionus  it  serves  as  a 
directive  organ  in  swimming,  while  in  a  large  number  of 
other  forms  it  is  only  represented  by  a  pair  of  terminal 
styles  or  flaps.  In  the  sessijs  forms  it  becomes  a  con- 
tractile pedicle  with  a  suctorial  extremity.  A  pseudo- 
podium is  entirely  absent  in  Asplanchna,  Triarthra, 
Polyarthra,  and  a  few  other  genera.  The  pseudopodium, 
when  well  developed,  is  a  very  muscular  organ,  and  it  may 
contain  a  pair  of  glands  (fig.  2,  a,  gl)  which  secrete  an  ad- 
hesive material 

The  surface  of  the  body-is  covered  by  a  firm  homogeneous 
structureless  cuticle.  This  cuticle  may  become  hardene'd 
by  a  further  development  of  chitin,  but  no  calcareous 
deposits  ever  take  place  in  it,  Tha  cuticle  remains  softest 
in  those  forms  which  live  in  tubes.  Among  the  free-living 
forms  the  degro^  of  hardening  varies  considerably.  In 
some  cases  contraction  of  the  body  merely  throws  the 
cuticle  into  wrinkles  (Notommata,  Asplanchna) ;  in  others 
definite  ring-like  joints  are  produced  which  telescope  into 
one  another  during  contraction ;  while  in  others  again"  it 
becomes  quite  firm  and  rigid  and  resembles  the  carapace 
of  one  of  the  Entomostraca ;  it  is  then  termed  a  "lorica." 
The  lorica  may  be  prolonged  at  various  points  into  spines, 
which  may  attain  a  considerable  length.  The  surface  may 
be  variously  modified,  being  in  some  cases  smooth,  in  others 
*  These  cimbcrs  refer  to  the  bibliography  at  p.  8. 


marked,  dotted,  ridged,  or  sculptured  in  various  ways  (fig. 
1,  k).  The  curved  spines  of  Philodina  acnleata  (fig.  1,  c) 
and  the  long  rigid  spines  of  Triarthra  are  further  develop- 
ments in  this  direction.  The  so-called  setoe  of  Polyarthra  on 
the  other  hand  are  more  complex  in  nature,  and  are  moved 
by  muscles,  and  thus  approach  the  "  limbs  "  of  Pedalion. 


Fro.  1. — A,  Floscalaria,campanu1ata,  an  arlolt  male,  drawn  fromadead  Bpecimen 
(after  Hudson):  (,  testis;  oc,  eye-spotB.  B,  Flosailaria  appendieulacn,  an 
adult  feinale  (after  Gegenbaur) :  a,  the  ciliated  flexible  proboscis.  C,  Stephano- 
feros  eichhornii;  a,  the  nrceoius.  D,  Microcolon  cinrus,  venti-al  view  (after 
Grenadier) :  m,  mouth ;  a,  bristles  ;  x,  ai'chltroch  ;  s.  lateral  sense-oi  gans.  E, 
Polt/nrtfira  platyplera  :  oc,  eye-spot ;  x"  isolated  tufts  representing  a  cephalo- 
troch  ;  X,  biancliiotroch  ;  a,  h,  and  c,  three  pairs  of  appendages  which  are 
moved  by  the  muscles  m.  F,  another  figuie  of  PoJyarlUra,  to  show  the  position 
which  the  appendages  may  talce  up.  G,  Philodina  aculeata  :  oc,  eye-spot ;  s, 
calcar.  H,  AcCiiturus  neptniiius.  oc,  eye-spot;  s.  calcar.  I,  Asplanchna  sie. 
boldii.  male,  viewed  from  the  abdominal  surface  :  a,  antei-ior  short  arms;  6, 
posterior  longer  arms;  m,  mouth  ;  x" ,  cephalotrochic  tufts;  X,  branchlotroch. 
J,  Asplanchna  sieboljii.  female;  letters  as  before.  K,  Xoteas  qnadtHcomis, 
to  show  the  extent'  to  which  the  lorica  may  become  scuJpttired.  (All,  except 
ivhoi'e  otlierwise  stitted,  from  Pritehard.) 

Several  genera  present  an  e^rternal  casing  or  sheath  or 
tube  which  is  termed  an  "  urceolus."  In  Flofularia  and 
Stephanoceros  the  urceolus  is  gelatinous  ar.l  perfectly 
hyaline  ;  in  Ccnochilus  nurrierous  individuals  live  in  such  a 
hyaline  urceolus  arranged  in  a  radiating  manner.  _  The 
urceolus,  which  is  secreted  by  the  animal  itself,  may 
become  covered  with  foreign  particles,  ard  in  one  species, 
the  well-known  Melicerta  ringens,  the  a-ii:nal  builds  up  its 
urceolus  with  pellets  which  it  manufactures  from  foreign 


ROTIFER  A 


particles,  and  deposits  in  a  regular  oblique  or  spiral  series, 
and  which  are  cemented  together  by  a  speciEi  secretion. 
The  urceolos  serves  as  a  defence,  as  the  animal  can  by  con- 
tracting its  stalk  withdraw  itself  entirely  within  the  tube. 
Locomotor  Organs. — While,  as  mentioned  above,  several 
genera  or  individual  species  present  long  spines,  these 
become  movable,  and  may  be  spoken  of  as  appendages,  in 
two  genera  only.  In  Polyarikra  (fig.  1,  E,  f)  there  are 
four  groups  of  processes  or  plumes  placed  at  the  sides  of 


Fla  2 — FloscuJarin  appmdimlata.  A  and  B  repi-cat^nt  tho  eam6  animal,  some  of 
the  organs  being  Bhown  In  one  figiire  and  aome  in  tlie  other,  oc,  eyo^epota;  p, 
nerve  ganglion  ;  p,  pliarynx  (the  mouth  should  bo  shown  opcnint  opposite  the 
letter);  ma,  tho  mastax ;  e,  a»ophagus ;  «(,  slomach:  a,  anus,  opening  tho 
cloaca;  5-',  mucous  glands  in  the  pseudopodium ;  n,  nepliiidla;  /  tlamo-ceils; 
hty  contractile  vesicle  ;  m,  m,  muscles. 

the  body,  each  of  which  groups  can  be  separate.,,  moved 
np  and  down  by  means  of  muscular  fibres  attached  to  their 
bases,  which  project  into  the  body.     The  processes  them- 
selves are  nnjointed  and  rigid.      In  Pedalion  (fig.  3),  a 
remarkable  form  discovered  by  Dr  C.  J.  Hudson  in  1871 
(12,  13,  14,  and  15),  and  found  in  numbers  several  times 
since,  these  appendages  have  acquired  a  new  and  quite 
special  development.    They  are  sii^iu  number.    The  largest 
is  placea  ventrally  at  some  distance  oelow  the  mouth.     Its 
free  extremity  is  a  plumose   fan-like   expansion  (fig.    3, 
A,  a,  and  h).     It  is  (in  common  with  the  others)  a  hollow 
process  into  which  run  two  pairs  of  broad,  coarsely  trans- 
versely striated  muscles.     Each  pair  has  a  single  insertion 
on  tho  inner  wall — the  one  pair  near  the  free  extremity  of 
the  limb,  the  other  near  its  attachment ;  the  bands  run 
np,  one  of  each  pair  on  each  side  and  run  right  round 
tho  body  forming  an  incomplete  muscular  girdle,  tho  ends 
appro.ximating   in   tho   median   dorsal   line.     Below  this 
point  springs  the  large  median  dorsal  limb,  which  termin- 
ates in  groups  of  long  seta;.     It  present."*  a  single  pair  of 
muscles  attached  along  its  inner  wall  which  run  up  and 
form  a  muscular  girdle  round  the   body  in  its  posterior 
third.     On  each  side  is  attached  a  superior  dorso-lateral 
and  an  inferior  ventrolateral  appendage,  each  with  a  fan- 
like plumose  termination  consisting   of  compound  hairs, 
found  elsewhere  only  amons  the  Crvstarea  ;  each  of  these 


is  moved  by  muscles  running  upwards  towards  the  neck 
and  arising  immediately  under  the  trochal  dislc,  the  inferior 
ventro- lateral  pair  also  presenting  muscles  which  form  a 
girdle  in  the  hind  region  of  the  body.  Various  other 
muscles  are  present :  tnere  are  two  complete  girdles  in  the 
neck  region  immediately  bshind  the  mouth,  there  are  also 
muscles  which  move  the  hinder  region  of  the  body.  In 
addition  to  these  the  body  presents  various  processes 
which  are.  perhaps  some  of  them  unrepresented  in  other 
Rotifers.  In  the  median  dorsal  lino  immediately  below 
the  trochal  disk  there  is  a  short  conical  process  presenting 
a  pair  of  muscles  which  render  it  capable  of  shght  move- 
ment. From  a  recess  at  the  extremity  of  this  process 
spring  a  group  of  long  serose  hairs  the  bases  of  which  are 
connected  with  a  filament  probably  nervous  in  nature. 
This  doubtless  represents  a  structure  found  in  many 
Rotifers,  and  variously  known  as  the  "  calcar,"  "  siphon, 
" tentaculum,"  or  "antenna."  This  calcar  is  double  in 
Tubicolaria  and  Melicerta.  It  is  very  well  developed  in 
the  genera  Rotifer,  Philodina,  and  others,  and  is,  when  so 
developed,  slightly  retractile.  It  appears  to  be  repre- 
sented in  many  forms  by  a  pit  or  depression  set  with  ha'rs. 
The  calcar  has  been  considered  both  as  an  intromittent 
organ  and  a  respiratory  tube  for  the  admission  of  water. 
It  is  now,  however,  universally  considered  to  be  sensory 
in  nature.     Various  forms  present  processes  in  other  parte 


Fio.  i,—Peda]um  mira.  A,  LatenU  surface  view  of  an  adnlt  female  ;  a,  modlak 
ventral  appendage;  J,  median  d"rsal  appendage:  c,  inferior  ventro- laterml 
appendage  :  d,  aupeidor  dorao-Iatcrnl  appendage  ;  /,  dorwil  wjnec-organ  (calcar)  ; 
ff,  "chin;"  J.  ccplialotroch.  I(,  lalcrai  view,  siinwing  the  \iscera:  oe,  eye- 
spots;  n,  nepliridia;  e,  ciliated  processes,  prohahly  serving  for  altachnieDt; 
other  letters  as  above.  C,  ventral  view  :  x',  ccphalolroch;  x,  brancljlotroch; 
other  letters  as  above.  D,  ventral  view,  showing  the  musculature  (r/.  text). 
E,  dorsal  view  of  a  male:  o,  lateralj  appendages;  fr,  dorsal  appendage.  F, 
lateral  view  of  a  male.  G,  enlarged  view  o(  the  s^n-c  organ  merited/.  H, 
enlarged  view  of  the  median  ventral  appendage.    (All  after  Hudson.) 

of  the  body  which  have  doubtless  a  similaj  function,  e.^., 
Microcodon  (fig.  1,  D,  s)  with  its  pair  of  lateral  organs. 
Pedalion  presents  a  pair  of  ciliated  processes  in  the 
posterior  region  of  tho  body  (fig.  3,  B,  o,  and  D,  e),  which 
it  can  apparently  use  as  a  means  of  attachment ;  Dr 
Hudson  states  that  he  has  seen  it  anchored  by  these  and 
swimming  round  and  round  in  a  circle.     They  possibly  re- 


ROTIFERA 


present  the  flaps  found  on  the  tail  of  other  forms.  Pedalioii 
olsuhos  a  small  ciliated  muscular  process  (fig.  3,  a,  g)  placed 
immediately  below  the  mouth,  and  termed  a  "  chin,"  which 
appears  to  be  merely  a  greater  development  of  a  sort  of 
lower  lip  which  occurs  in  many  Kotifers. 

Muscular  System. — All  the  Jlotifcra  present  a  muscular  system 
which  is  generally  very  well  developed.  Ti-ansvcrse  striation  occun 
among  tho  fibres  to  a  varying  extent,  being  well  marked  in  cases 
whero  tho  muscle  is  much  used.  Tho  muscles  which  move  the 
"body  as  a  whole  are  arranged  as  circular  and  longitudinal  seriea, 
but  they  are  arranged  in  special  groups  and  do  not  form  a  com- 

filote  layer  of  tlio  body-wall  as  in  tlie  various  worms.  Some  of  the 
ongitudiual  muscles  aro  specially  developed  in  connexion  with  the 
tail  or  pedicle.  Other  muscles  are  developed  in  connexion  with 
special  systems  of  organs, — the  trochal  disks,  the  jaw  apparatus, 
and  tho  reproductive  system.  The  muscles  in  connexion  with  the 
trochal  disk  servo  to  protrude  or  withdraw  it,  and  to  move  it  about, 
when  extruded,  in  various  directions.  The  protrusion  is  probably, 
however,  generally  effected  by  the  elasticity  of  the  integument 
coming  into  play  during  the  relaxation  of  the  retractor  muscles,  and 
by  a  general  contraction  of  the  body  wall.  The  tentaculiferous 
apparatus  of  Pobjzoa  and  Gcphyrca  is  protruded  in  the  same  manner. 
Trochal  Disk. — This  structure  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of 
the  class.  It  is  homologous  with  the  ciliated  bands  of  the  larvfe 
of  Echinoderms,  Chcetopods,  Molluscs,  &c.,  and  with  the  tenta- 
califcrous  apparatus  ©f  Folyzoa  and  Gcphyrca,  and  has  been  termed 
in  common  with  these  a  ^' velum."  This  velum  presents  itself  in 
various  stages  of  complexity.  It  is  found  as  a  single  circum-oral 
ring  {pilidmm),  as  a  single  pne-oral  ring  (Chcetopod  larva),  or  as 
%  single  prce-orai  ring  coexisting  with  one  or  more  post-oral  rings 
(Chcetopod  larvre,  Holothurian  larvie).  ^  "We  may  here  assume  that 
the  ancestral  condition  was  a  single  circum-oral  ring  associated 
with  a  terminal  mouth  and  the  absence  of  an  anus,  and  that  the  exist- 
uco  of  other  rings  posterior  to  this  is  an  expression  of  metamevic 
segmentation,  i.e.,  a  repetition  of  similar  parts.  With  the  develop- 
ment  of  a  prostou^late  condition  a  certain  change  necessarily  takes 
nlocb  in  the  position  of  this  band:  a  portion  of  it  comes  to  lie 
longitudiaaUy;  but  it  may  still  remain  a  single  band,  as  in  tlio 
lai-va  of  many  Echiuoderms.  How  have  the  other  above-mentioned 
conditions  of  tho  volum  come  about?  How  has  the  prce-oral  band 
been  developed  ?  Two  views  have  been  held  with  regard  to  this 
question.  According  to  tho  one  view,  the  fact  whether  the  single 
band  is  a  pra;-oral  or  a  post-oml  one  depends  upon  the  position  in 
which  the  anus  is  about  to  develop.  If  the  anus  develops  in  such 
a  position  that  mouth  and  anus  lie  on  one  and  the'  same  side  of  the 
band,  the  latter  becomes  pra-oral  ;  if,  however,  the  anus  develops 
so  that  the  mouth  and  anus  lie  upon  opposite  sides  of  tho  band, 
tlie  band  becomes  post-oraL  If  wo  hold  this  view  we  must  consider 
any  second  band,  whether  prae-  or  post-oral,  to  arise  as  a  new 
dtwfilopment.  The  other  view  premises  that  the  anus  always  forms 
so  as  to  leave  the  primitive  ring  or  "architroch"  post-oral,  i.e., 
between  mouth  and  anus.  Concurrently  with  the  developmtnt  of 
a  prostomium  this  architroch  somewhat  changes  its  position  and 
the  two  lateral  portions  come  to  lie  longitudinally  ;  these  may  be 
supposed  to  have  met  in  tho  median  dorsal  line  and  to  have 
coalesced  so  as  to  leave  two  rings — the  one  prse-oral  (a  "cephalo- 
troch"),  the  other  post- oral  (a  "  branchiotroch");  this  latter  may 
atrophy,  leaving  the  single  prce-oral  ring,  or  it  may  become  further 
developed  and  thrown  into  more  or  less  elaborate  folds.  The  exist- 
ing condition  of  the  ti'ochal  dislc  or  velum  in  the  Rotifcra  seems  to 
.the  wi'iter  of  this  article  to  bear  out  the  latter  view  as  to  the  way 
in  which  modifications  of  the  velum  may  have  come  about. 

In  its  simplest  condition  it  forms  a  single  circum-oral  ring,  as  in 
Microcodon  (fig.  1,  d).  The  structures  at  the  sides  of  the  mouth  . 
in  this  form  are  stated  to  be  bristles,  and  have  therefore  nothing 
to  do  with  the  velum  ffig.  4,  a,  p).  This  simple  ring  may  become 
thrown  into  folds,  so  forming  a  series  of  processes  standing  up 
around  the  mouth;  this  is  tho  condition  in  Stcphunoccros  (fi^.  4,  e,;j). 
There  are,  however,  but  few  forms  presenting  this  simple  condi- 
tion ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  tho  evidence  for  the  -assump- 
tion here  made,  that  this  is  a  persistent  architroch  and  not  a  brau-  ' 
chiotroch  persisting  where  a  cephalotroch  has  vanished,  is  not  at 
present  conclusive.  This  band,  may,  while  remaining  sin:;le  and 
perfectly  continuous,  become  prolonged  around  a  lobe  overhanging 
tho  mouth — a  prostomium.  This  condition  occurs  in  Philodi-na 
(fig.  4,  E,  F,  p)\  the  two  sides  of  the  post-oral  ring  do  not  meet 
dorsally,  but  are  carried  up  and  are  continuous  with  the  row  of 
cilia  lining  the  "whreb."  There  is  thus  one  continuous  ciliated 
band,' a  portion  of  which  runs  up  in  front  of  the  mouth.  This 
conditign  corresponds  to  that  of  the  Auricularian  larva.  The  fold- 
ing of  the  band  has  become  already  somewhat  complicated  ;  a 
hypothetical  intermediate  condition  is  sho\vn  in  fig.  4,  c,  d.  The 
next  stage  in  the  advancing  complexity  is  that  the  prostomial  por- 
tion of  the  band  ''''5.  4,  G,  ii,  p)  becomes  separated  as  a  distinct 
rins.  a  cephalotrocu ;  we  find  such  a  stage  in  Lacimdaria  (fig.  4, 


o,  Ji),  where  both  cephalotroch  and  brancliiotroch  remain  fairl> 
Mmple  in  shape.  In  Mcliu}-ia  (fig.  4,  i,  j)  both  cephalotroch  an-'' 
branchi»troch  aro  thrown  into  folds.  Lastly,  we  find  that  In  aucl 
forms  as  £rachionu«  the  cephalotroch  becomes  first  convoluted  ani_' 


'&M 


Fig.  4. — Diagrams  of  tUc  Trochal  Disk,  A.  Mlcrocodoi..  B,  Slepfianoeeros ;  the 
moutli  lies  in  the  centie  nf  a  fjroup  of  tentacles.  C,  hypothetical  intcrmediiW 
form  between  Microcodcni  and  PhUodina,  showing  the  development  of  a  pro- 
stomial  portion  of  tlio  vcUim.  D,  dorsal  view  of  the  same.  E,  PhUodina.  F, 
dorsal  view  of  the  same.  G,  Lacinularia;  the  dotted  line  i-cprescnts  tiic  por- 
tion of  the  vclura  which  has  iiocome  separated  as  a  special  ring— a  cephalotroch. 
H,  dorsal  viow  of  tlio  same.  I,  Melicerta  ;  the  dotted  iino  represents  tlic 
cephalotroch;  both  tliia  and  tlic  branchiotroch  have  become  thrown  into  folds. 
J,  dorsal  view  of  tlio  same.  K,' Braehionus  ;  there  U  a  large  prce-oral  lubo 
with  threo  ciliated  regions,  ehown  by  tlie  dotted  lines  c,  f,  a  discOntiiiuou-" 
cephalotroch.     L,  dorsal  view  of  the  aame. 

ra,  mouth ;  p,  p',  velum  ;  p,  architroch  ;  p',  portion  of  the  architroch  whielt 
becomes  caiTied  foi-wnrd  to  line  the  prostomlal  region,  but  does  not  become 
separated  ;  c,  cephalotroch.    (Original.) 

then  discontinuous  (fig,  4,'k,  l,  c),  and  further  it  may  oecome  so 
reduced  as  to  be  represented  only  by  a  few  isolated  tufts,  as  in 
Asplanchna  (fig.  1,  i,  0:  and  a/);  in  such  a  form  as  Liiidia  (fig.  6,  c) 
the  branchiotroch  has  vam^icd  and  the  cephalotroch  has  become 
reduced  to  the  two  small  patches  at  the  sides  of  the  head. 

The  trochal  apparatus  serves  the  Rotifcra  as  a  locomotive  organ 
and  to  bring  the  food  particles  to  tho  mouth  ;  the  cUia  work  so  as 
to  produce  currents  towards  the  mouth. 

Digestive  Systc7n. — This  consists  of  the  fbllowuu;  regions': — (1) 
the  oral  cavity ;  (2)  the  pharynx ;  (3)  the  oesophagus  ;  (4)  the 
stomach  ;  (5)  the  intestine,  which  terminates  in  ar>  anus.  The 
anus  is  absent  in  one  group. 

The  pharynx  contains  the  mastax  with  its  teeth  ;  these  aro 
calcareous  structures,  and  are  known  as  the  trophi.  In  a  tvnical 
mastax  (8,  9)  {Bra- 
€hio}tus,  fig.  5,  a) 
there  aro  a  median 
anvil  or  i?icits  and 
two  Lammer-liko 
portions,  mallei. 
The  incus  consists 
of  two  rami  (e) 
resting  upon  a  cen- 
tral fulcrum  (/)  ; 
each  malleus  con- 
sists of  a  handle  or 
TTianubriiim  (c)  and 
a  head  or  uncus 
(d),     which     often 

firescnts  a  comb- 
ike  structure.  Fig. 
5    shows    some    of  _      _ 

tho  most  important  p^^  -^.-Trophi  of  vanous  forms:  A.  Bra.hionus;  u 
modincationswlucn  Bio'ena  forcipaia  ;  C.  Asptanchna  ;  D,  PhVodina.  } 
tho  apparatus  may  fulcrum,  and  e,f.  rami,  foiTninglhc  Incus;  c,  manubrium 
ecchibit.  The  parts  ^"''  ''>  >""^'JS'  foi-mlng  the  malleus.  (After  Iluilson.) 
may  become  very  slender,'  as  in  Diglaia  forcij^ata  (fig.  5,  b)  ;  the 
mallei  may  bo  absent,  as  in  Asplanchna  (fig.  5,  c),  the  rami  l>eing 
highly  developed  into  curved  forcejjs  and  movable  one  on  the  other  ; 
or,  the  manubria  being  absent  and  the  fulcrum  nidimentary,  tht 
rami  may  become  massive  and  subquadmtic,  as  in  Philodina  (fi*:. 
5,  d).  All  the  true  Rotifers  possess  a  mastax.  Ehrenberg's  groiii 
of  the  Agomphia  consisted  of  a  heterogeneous  collection  of  forms. 
—IchthydiuM  and  C'fiaiowius  twiDS  QasiroCrichi,  and  CyphonaxUd 


K  O    1    i  ii'   i^.   K  A 


^  Polyzoan  larva,  while  EnteropUn  is  probably  a  nialo  Rotifer,  and, 
like  the  other  males,  in  a  reduced  condition.  There  ia  no  reason  for 
considering  this  mastnx  as  the  homologue  of  cither  the  gastric  mill  of 
Crustaceans  on  the  one  hand  or  the  teeth  in  the  Chretopods'  pharynx 
on  tho  other ;  it  is  merely  homoplastic  with  these  structures,  but  has 
attained  a  specialized  degree  of  development.  Both  the  pharynx 
and  the  oesophagus  which  follows  it  are  lined  with  chitin.  The 
oesophagus  varies  in  length  and  in  some  genera  is  absent  {Fhilo- 
dinada),  the  stomach  foUowijig  immediately  upon  the  pharjTix. 
The  stomach  is  generally  large  ;  its  wall  consists  of  a  layer  of  very 
large  ciliated  cells,  which  often  contain  fat  globules  and  yellowish- 
green  ,or  brown  particles^  and  outside  these  a  connective  tissue 
membrane ;  miiscular  fibrilla)  have  also  been  describ-ji  Very 
constantly  a  pair  of  glands  open  into  the  stomach,  and  probablj 
represent  the  hepato-pancrcatic  glands  of  other  Invertebrates. 

Following  upon  the  stomach  there  is  a  longer  or  shorter  intestine, 
which  ends  in  the  cloaca.  The  intestine  is  liced  by  ciliated  cells. 
In  forms  living  in  an  urceolus  the  intestine  turns  round  and  rans 
forward,  the  cloaca  being  placed  so  as  to  debouch  over  the  margin 
of  the  urceolus.  The  cloaca  is  often  very  large  ;  the  nephridia  and 
oviducts  may  open  into  it,  and  the  eggs  lodge  there  on  their  way 
outwards  ;  they  are  .thrO^vn  out,  as  are  the  fiecal  masses,  by  an 
eversion  of  the  cloaca.  Asplanchna,  Kotomin/ita  sieholdii,  and  cer- 
tain species  of  AscomorpTui  are  said  to  be  devoid  of  intestine  or- 
anus,  excrementitious  matter  being  ejected  through  the  mouth  (11). 

Nephridia. — Tho  ccelom  contains  a  fluid  in  which  very  minute 
corpuscles  have  been  detected.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  true  vascular 
system.  Tho  nephridia  (fig.  2,  B,  n)  present  a  very  interesting 
stage  of  development.  They  consist  of  a  pair  of  tubules  with  an 
intracellular  lumen  running  up  the  sides  of  the  body,  at  times 
merely  sinuous,  at  others  considerably  convoluted.  From  these 
iwe  given  off  at  irregular  intervals  short  lateral  branches,  each  of 
which  terminates  in  a  flame-cell  precisely  similar  in  structure  to 
the  flame-cells  found  in  Planarians,  Trematodes,  and  Cestodes  ; 
here  as  there  the  question  whether  they  arc  open  to  the  ccelom  or 
not  must  remain  at  present  undecided.  At  the  base  these  tubes 
open  either  into  a  permanent  bladder  which  communicates  with  the 
cloaca  or'  into  a  structure  presenting  apparently  no  advance  in  its 
development  upon  the  contractile  vacuole  of  a  ciliate  Infusorian. 

Nervmi^  Si/stcm  aiid  ^ciisc-Ofgrnis. — Various  structures  have  been 
^oken  of  as  nervous  which  are  now  ax^lcnowledged*  to  have  been 
erroneously  so  described  (18).  There  is  a  supra-cesophageal  gang- 
libn  which  often  attains  considerable  dimensions,  and  presents  a 
lebed  appearance  (fig.  2,  A  and  b,  g).  Connected  with  this  are  the 
oye-spots,  which  are  seldom  absent.  \Vhcre  these  are  most  highly 
developed  a  lens-like  structure  is  present,  produced  by  a  thicken- 
ing of  the  cuticle.  In  the  genus  liotifer  and  other  forms  these  ai'e 
placed  upon  the  protrusible  'portion  of  the  head,  and  so  appear  to 
nave  different  positions  at  diuerent  moments.  The  number  of  eye- 
spots  varies  from  one  to  twelve  or  more.  They  are  usually  red,  red- 
dish-brown, violot,  or  black  in  colour.  Other  structures  are  found 
which  doubtless  act  as  sense-organs.  The  calcar  above-mentioned 
generally  bears  at  its  extremity  stiff  hairs  which  have  been  demon- 
strated to  be  in  connexion  with  a  nerve  fibril.  On  the  ventral  sur- 
face of  the  body  just  below  the  mouth  a  somewhat  similar  structure 
is  often  developed — the  chin.  ■  There  are  besides  at  times  special 
organs,  like  tho  two  lateral  organs  in  Microcodon  (fig.  1,  D,  s),  which 
no  doubt  in  common  with  tho  calcar  and  chin  have  a  tactile  function. 

lieprodudivc  Organs  and  Development. — The  Jlolifcra  were 
fcrmcrly  considered  to  be  hermaphrodite,  but,  while  the  ovary  was 
always  clear  and  distinct,  thero  was  always  some  difficulty  about 
tho  testis,  and  various  structures  were  put  forward  as  representing 
that  organ.  One  by  one,  however,  small  organisms  have  been  dis- 
covered and  described  as  th«  males  of  certain  species  of  Rotifers, 
until  at  the  present  time  degenerated  males  are  Kndwn  to  occur  in 
all  the  families  except  that  of  tho  Philodiiuulm.  The  male  Rotifers 
arc  provided  with  a  single  circlet  of  cilia  (a  peritroch),  a  nerve 
ganglion,- eye-spots,  muscles,  and  nephridial  tubules  all  in  a  some- 
what reduced  condition,  but  there  is  usually  no  trace  of  mouth  or 
stomach,  the  main  portion  of  the  body  being  occupied  by  the  testi- 
cular sac.  There  is  an  aperture  corresponding  with  the  cloaca  of  the 
female,  where  tho  testis  opens  into  the  base  of  an  eversiblo  penis. 
Tho  males  of  Floseularia  are  shown  in  fig.  1.  The  malcof  I'edalicm 
nira  possesses  rudimentary  appendages.  The  ovary  is  usually  a 
larjje  gland  lying  Ixjside  the  stomach  connected  with  a  .short  oviduct 
which  opens  into  tho  cloaca.  The  ova  often  present  a  reddish  hue 
{PhitodiTia  roseola,  JJrachiontts  rube/is),  due  doubtless,  like  the  red 
colour  of  many  Crustacean  ova,  to  the  presence  of  tetronerythriu. 

Up  to  the  present  onr  embryological  knowledge  of  the  group  is 
very  incomplete.  Many  Rotifers  are  known  to  lay  winter  and 
summer  eggs  of  different  character.  Tho  winter  eggs  are  provided 
with  a  thick  shell  and  probably  require  fertilization.  Two  or  three 
of  them  are  often  carried  about  attached  to  tho  parent  {Braehionus, 
Ifolovwuila),  but  they  are  usually  laid  and  fall  into  the  mud,  there 
to  remain  till  tho  following  spring.  Xhc  summer  eggs  are  of  two 
kinds,  tho  so-called  male  and  female  ova,  both  of  which  arc  ^'tated 
to   develop  parthenogcnotically.     They  may  bo  carried   about  in 


large  numbers  in  tho  cloaca  or  oviduct  or  attached  to  the  body  oi 
tho  parent.  The  female  ova  give  rise  to  female  and  the  male  ova 
to  male  individuals.  Male  individuals  are  only  formed  in  the 
autumn  in  time  to  fertilize  the  winter  ova. 

Habitat  and  Mode  of  Life. — The  Hutifera  are  distri- 
buted all  over  the  earth's  surface,  inhabiting  both  fresh 
and  salt  -water.  The  greater  number  of  species  inhabit 
fresh  -water,  occurring  in  pools,  ditches,  and  streams.  A 
few  species  wUl  appear  in  countless  numbers  in  infusions 
of  leaves,  ifec,  but  their  appearance  is  generally  delayed 
until  the  putrefaction  is  nearly  over.  Species  of  Jiatifer 
and  Philodina  appear  in  this  way.  A  few  marine  forms 
only  have  been  described — Brachionus  miilleri,  B.  liepta- 
tonus,  Syiichxta  baltica,  and  others. 

A  few  forms  are  parasitic.  Albertia  lives  in  the  intestine 
of  the  earthworm ;  a  form  has  been  described  as  occurring 
in  the  body-cavity  of  Synapta ;  a  small  form  was  also 
observed  to  constantly  occur  in  the  velar  and  radial  canals 
of  the  freshwater  jelly-fish,  Limnocodiuvi.  Notommata 
parasitica  leads  a  parasitic  existence  within  the  hollow 
spheres  of  Volvox  globator,  sufficient  oxygen  being  given 
off  by  the  Volvox  for  its  respiration. 

Many  Rotifers  exhibit  an  extraordinary  power  of  resist- 
ing drought.  Various  observers  have  dried  certain  species 
upon  the  slide,  kept  them  dry  for  a  certain  length  of  time, 
and  then  watched  them  come  to  life  very  shortly  after  the 
addition  of  a  drop  of  water.  ■  The  animal  draws  itself  to- 
gether, so  that  the  cuticle  completely  protects  all  the  softer 
parts  and  prevents  the  animal  itself  from  being  thoroughly 
dried.  This  process  is  not  without  parallel  in  higher 
groups  ;  e.g.,  many  land  snails  will  draw  themselves  far  into 
the  shell,  and  secrete  a  complete  operculum,  and  can  remain 
in  this  condition  for  an  almost  indefinite  amount  of  time. 
The  eggs  are  also  able  to  withstand  drying,  and  are  pro- 
bably blown  about  from  place  to  place.  The  Rotifera  can 
bear  great  variations  of  temperature  without  injury. 

Since  their  removal  from  among  the  Protozoa  various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  associate  the  Itotifera  with 
one  or  other  large  phylum  of  the  animal  kingdom 
Huxley,  insisting  upon  the  importance  of  the  tnichal  disk, 
put  forward  the  view  that  they  were  "permanent  Echino 
derm  larva;,"  and  formed  the  connecting  link  between 
the  Memertida:  and  the  Nematoid  worms.  Ray  Lankestcr 
proposed  to  associate  them  with  the  Chxtopoda  and 
Arthropoda  in  .a  group  Appauliculaia,  the  peculiarities  in 
the  structure  of  Pedalion  forming  tho  chief  reason  for 
such  a  classification.  There  is,  however,  no  proof  that  wo 
thus  express  any  genetic  relationship.  TTie  well-developed 
coelom,  absence  of  metameric  segmentation,  persistence  of 
tlie  trochal  disk  in  varying  stages  of  development,  and  the 
structure  of  tho  nephridia  are  all  characters  which  point  to 
the  Rotifera  as  very  near  representatives  of  tho  common 
ancestors  of  at  any  rate  tho  MoUusca,  Arthrojxxla,  and 
Ckmtopoda.  But  the  high  development  of  the  niastax, 
the  specialized  character  of  the  lorica  in  many  forms,  the 
movable  spines  of  Polyarthra,  tho  limbs  ci  Ped<iiion,.a.ni 
the  lateral  appendages  of  Asplatu-ktia,  the  existence  of  a 
diminutive  male,  the  formation  of  two  varieties  of  ova,  all 
point  to  a  specialization  in  the  direction  of  one  or  other  of 
tho  above  mentioned  groups.  Such  specialization  is  at 
most  a  slight  one,  and  does  not  justify  tlie  c'ofinito  a.ssocia- 
tionof  the  Rotifera  in  a  single  phylum  with  .xnyof  them. 

Classification. — The  following  classification  has  been 
recently  put  forward  by  Dr  C.  T.  Hudsop  (19) 

CLA.SS  ROTIFERA. 
Order  I.— Ehizota. 
Fixed  forms  j  foot  attached,  transversely  wrinkled,  non-rctractftc 
truncate. 

Fam.  1.  FLOacuLARrAD.«.     J<loscidaria,  Stiphanoceroa. 
Fain.  2.   Mkliceutad-e.      Mcliccrta,    Cephttloaipkon,    MegaUh 
Irochu,  Limnias,  j^cisles,  Laciniilaria,  ConochihiS. 


8 


R  O  T  — R  O  T 


Oulei  II.— Bdelloida. 
Forms  which   swim    and   creep   liico   a  leech  ;   foot   retractile, 
jointed,  telescopic,  termination  furcate. 

Fam.  3.   PuiLODCCAUiE.     rhilodina.  Rotifer,  Callidina. 

Order  III.— Ploima, 
Forms  which  swim  only. 

Grade  A.   Illokicata, 
Fam.  4.   Htdatina'd^:.     Hydatina,  Ehinops. 
Fam.   6.  Stnciu:tad.e.     Synchmta,  Pohjarthra. 
Fam.  6.  NoTOMMATADiE.     Notommata,  Diglaui,  Furcularia, 

Scaridium^  Flcuivtrocha,  DisUmiila. 
Fam.  7.  TniARTHKAD*.      Triarthra. 
Fam.  8.  Asplancunadje.     Asplanchna. 

Grade.  B.   Lokicata. 
Fam.   9.    Bkachionidj;.     Brachiomis,  Notcxis,  Anurssa,  Sac- 

ciihis. 
Fam.  10.  PxEEODiNiVDa.     Ftcrodina,  Pompholyx. 
Fam.   11.   EucHLANiD*.     Eiichlanis,  Salpina,  Diplax,  Mono- 

styla,  Colurics,  Monura,  Metopodia^  Stephanops,  Monoccrca, 

Mastigoccrca,  Dinocharis. 

Order  IV. — Scirtopoda. 
Forms  which  swim  with  their  ciliai-y  -vvreath,  and  skip  by  ttieans 
of  hollow  limbs  with  internal  locomotor  muscles. 
Fam.   12.   Pedalionid^.     Pedalion. 
The  above  list  includes  only  the  principal  genera.     There  are, 
however,  a  number  of  forms  which  could  not  be  placed  in  any  of 
the  above  families. 

Abereant  Forms. 
Trodio^phxra  £eqitak>riaUs  (fig.  6,  c),  found  by  Semper  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  closely  resembles  a  nionotrochal  polychietous 


FiQ.  6.— Various  aberrant  forma.  A,  Balatro  talvus  (after  Claparbde) :  a,  mastax. 
B,  S<:ison  nebaHm  (after  Claus) :  m.  mouth  ;  vd,  position  of  the  aperture  of  the 
vaa  deferens.  C,  Lindia  toru!osa  :  a,  ciliated  processes  at  the  sides  of  tlic  head 
representing  ccplinlotroch  ;  or,  eye-spots.  D,  E,  and  F,  Apulns  leiiti/ormis 
(after  MeczniIio»v).  D,  adult  female  with  ewpanded  proboscis  :  m.  position  of 
the  mouth  ;  s,  lateral  sense-orpanB.  E.  ycung  free-swimnting  fetnale.  F,  adult 
roalo.  G.  Trocfiosphxra  st;<iualoria!is  (after  Sempel')  :  m,  mouth ;  ff,  ganglion  ; 
a,  anus;  fc,  velum;  or,  eye-spot;  c,  muscles. 

larva  wliile  possessing  undoubtedly  Rotiferal  characters.  Mecznikow 
has  described  a  remarkable  form,  Apsilm  Icnti/ormis  (fig.  6,  D,  E, 
and  f),  the  adult  female  of  which  is  entirely  devoid  of  cilia  but 
possesses  a  sort  of  retractile  hood  ;  the  young  female  and  the  males 
are  not  thus  modified.  Claparede  discovered  fi.xed  to  the  bodies  of 
small  Oli^'ochtctes  a  curious  uon-ciliated  form,  Balatro  mlvus  (fig. 
6,  a),  wliich  has  a  worm-like  very  contractile  body  and  a  well- 
devcloped  mastax.  As  mentioned  above,  the  ciliation  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum  in  the  curious  worm-like  form  Lindia  (fig.  6,  c).  Seiso  i 
nebaliie  (fig.  6,  E),  living  on  the  surface  of  Nclalix,  which  was 
described  originally  by  Grube,  is  the  ^ame  form  as  the  Saccahddla 
nclalim,  which  was  supposed  by  Van  Beneden  and  Hesse  to  be  a 
leech.  It  has  been  shown  by  Claus  to  be  merely  an  aberrant  Rotifer. 
Of  the  curious  aquatic  forms  Icl/njdium,  Chxlonotns,  TurbancUa, 
Dasyditis,  CcpluiUdixtvi,  Chxiura,  and  Hemidasys,  which  llccznikow 
and  Claparitie  included  under  the  name  Gastrotricha,  no  further 
account  can  be  given  here.  They  are  possibly  allied  to  the  Jxotifcra, 
but  are  devoid  of  mastax  and  trochal  disk. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  mor«  Important  memoirs.  Ac,  on  the  Roti/era. 
(l)Leeuwenhoek,  Phil.  Trans.,  1701-1704.  (2)  Ehrenberg,  Die  hi/usionslhierche^ 
(lis  voilkomnieiig  0 rganism^ii ,  1838.  (3)  M.  F.  Dujardin.  Hist.  Nat.  des  Zoophytes : 
fnftisoires,  1S41.  (4)  W.  C.  Williamson,  ''On  Atelieerta  nngens,"  Quart,  Jour. 
Mier,  Set.,  1S53.  (5)  Ph.  U.  Gosse,  "On  ilelicerta  rinoetis;-  Quart.  Jour,  ilicr. 
Sei.,  1853.  (6)  T.  H.  IlUsley,  "  On  Lacinularia  eocialis,"  Tram.  Mier.  Soc,  1853. 
7)*Fr.  Leydig,  "  Ueber  den  Ban  und  die  systematlsche  Stcllung  der  Kiderthiere," 
ZeU./.  IT.  &o(,  vi.,  1854.  (8)  Ph.  H.  Gossc,  Phil.  Trans.,  185C.  (9)  F.  Cohn,  Ztit. 
I  V.  Zoah,  vii.,  Lxi.  and  xil.  (10)  Ph.  H.  Gosse,  Phil.  Trans..  1858.  (11)  Pritcbard, 
infusoria,  1S61.  (12,  13.  14)  C.  T.  Hudson,  "On  Pedalion^"  Quart.  Jour.  Alter. 
Sel.,  1872.  and  itonlhly  Jfif>-.  Jour..  IS"!  and  1872.  (15)  E.  Ray  L;inkcster,  "On 
Pe la'Son"  dart.  Jour,  ilier.  S;i..  187?.    (16)  Ul.  Uecznikow,  '■  On  Jpsilus  lenli- 


formls,"  Zeit.  /.  tr.  Zool.,  1872.  (17)  C.  Semper.  "  On  Troe/iospfiiera,"  Zeit.  /.  w. 
Zocl.,  xxil.  1872.  (18)  K.  Eclisteln,  "Die  Rotatoiien  der  Umgcgend  vonGicsscn,  " 
Zeit./.  w.  Zool.,  1883.  (19)  C.  T.  Hudson,  "  On  an  Attempt  to  reclassify  Rollfera," 
Quart.  Jour.  Sficr.  Sci.,  1684.  (A.  G.  U  I 

ROTROU,  Jean  de  (1609-1650),  the  greatest  tragic 
poet  of  France  before  Corneille,  was  born  on  August  21, 
1609  at  Dreux  in  Normandy,  and  died  of  the  plague  at 
the  same  place  on  the  28th  June  1650.  His  family  was 
of  small  means  but  of  not  inconsiderable  station,  and 
seems  to  have  had  a  kind  of  hereditary  connexion  with 
the  magistracy  of  the  town  of  Dreux.  He  himself  was 
"  lieutenant  particulier  et  civil,  "  a  post  not  easy  to  trans- 
late, but  apparently  possessing  some  affinity  to  a  Scotch 
shetiffship  substitute.  Rotrou,  however,  went  very  early 
to  Paris,  and,  though  three  years  younger  than  Corneille, 
with  whom  he  was  intimately  acquainted,  began  play- writing 
before  him.  With  few  exceptions  the  only  events  recorded 
of  his  life  are  the  successive  appearances  of  his  plays  and 
his  enrolment  in  the  band  of  five  poets  who  had  the  not 
very  honourable  or  congenial  duty  of  turning  Richelieu's 
dramatic  idet;i  into  shape.  Rotrou's  own  first  piece, 
L'J/ypocondriaque,  appeared  when  he  was  only  seventeen. 
His  second,  La  Bague  de  I'Ouhli,  an  adaptation  in  part 
from  Lope  de  Vega,  was  much  better,'  much  more  sugges- 
tive, and  much  more  characteristic.  It  is  the  first  of 
several  plays  in  which  Rotrou,  following  or  striking  out 
for  himself  a  way  which  did  not  lead  to  much  for  the  time 
but  which  was  again  entered  at  the  Romantic  revival, 
endeavoured  to  naturalize  in  France  the  romantic  comedy 
which  had  flourished  in  Spain  and  England  instead  of  the 
classical  tragedy  of  Seneca  and  the  classical  comedy  of 
Terence.  Corneille,  as  is  known  to  readers  of  his  early 
work,  had  considerable  leanings  in  the  same  direction, 
and  yielded  but  slowly  and  unwillingly  to  the  pressure  of 
critical  opinion  and  the  public  taste.  Rotrou's  brilliant 
but  hasty  and  unequal  work  showed  throughout  marks  ol' 
a  stronger  adhesion  to  the  Spanish  (it  is  needless  to  say 
that  neither  writer  is  likely  to  have  known  the  English) 
model.  Cleagenor  et  Doristee,  Diane^  Les  Occasions  Per- 
dues,  L'Ueureuse  Constance,  pieces  which  succeeded  ea<di 
other  very  rapidly,  were  all  in  the  Spanish  style.  Then 
the  author  changed  his  school,  and,  in  1632,  imitated  very 
closely  the  Ilensechmi  of  Plautus  and  the  Hercules  (Etaeus 
of  Seneca.  A  crowd  of  comedies  and  tragicomedies 
followed,  and  by  the  time  he  was  twenty-eight  (when 
documents  e.xist  showing  the  sale  of  two  batches  of  them 
to  the  bookseller  Quinet  for  the  sum  of  220  livres  tonr- 
nois)  Rotrou  had  written  nearly  a  score  of  plays.  He 
was  married  in  1640,  and  had  three  children,  a  son  and 
two  daughters  (none  of  whom,  however,  continued  the 
name),  and  it  seems  that  he  went  to  live  at  Dreux.  Pre- 
viously, vague  and  anecdotic  tradition  describes  him  ai 
having-  led  rather  a  wild  life  in  Paris,  and  especially  as 
having  been  much  addicted  to  gambling.  Among  his 
pieces  written  before  his  marriage  were  a  translation  of 
the  Amphitri/on  under  the  title  of  Les  Deux  Sosies,  which 
was  not  useless  to  Molifere,  Antijotie,  which  was  not  useless 
to  Rticine,  and  Laure  Persecutce  (in  the  opposite  style  to 
these  classical  pieces),  which  has  much  merit.  These  were 
followed  by  others  until,  in  16-16  and  16-17,  Rotrou  pro- 
duced his  three  masterpieces,  Saint  Genest,  a  stocy  of 
Christian  martjTdom  containing  some  amusing  by-play, 
one  noble  speech,  and  a  good  deal  of  dignified  action ; 
Don  Bertrand  de  Cabrere,  a  comedy  of  merit ;  and  Fcw- 
cestas,  which  is  considered  in  France  his  masterpiece,  and 
which  in  a  manner  kept  the  stage  till  our  own  times.  The 
siibject  (in  which  a  father,  being  constrained  to  choose 
between  his  duty  as  king  and  his  parental  affection, 
pardons  his  son  for  a  murder  ho  has  committed,  but 
immediately  abdicates  as  feeling  himself  unworthy  to 
reign)  was  taken  from  Francisco  de  Rojas ;  the  execution, 


K  O  T  — R  O  T 


though  unequal,  is  in  parU  very  fine.  Rotrou's  death 
and  its  circumstances  are  known  to  many  who  never  read 
a  line  of  his  plays.  He  was  in  Paris  when  the  plague 
broke  out  at  Dreux ;  tile  mayor  fled,  and  all  was  con- 
fusion. Eotrou,  reversing  the  conduct  of  Montaigne  in 
somewhat  similar  circumstances,  at  once  went  to  his  post, 
caught  the  disease,  and  died  in  a  few  hour^ 

Rotrou's  great  fertility  (he  has  left  thirty-five  collected 
plays  besides  others  lost,  strayed,  or  uncollected),  and 
perhaps  the  uncertainty  of  dramatic  plan  shoWn  by  his 
hesitation  almost  to  the  last  between  the  classical  and 
the  romantic  style,  have  injured  his  work  He  has  no 
thoroughly  good  play,  hardly  one  thoroughly  good  act. 
But  his  situations  are  often  pathetic  and  noble,  and  as  a 
tragic  poet  properly  so  called  he  is  at  his  best  almost  the 
equal  of  Corneille  and  perhaps  the  superior  of  Eacirie. 
His  single  lines  and  single  phrases  have  a  brUliancy  and 
force  not  to  be  found  in  French  drama  between  Corneille 
and  Hugo. 

A  complete  edition  of  Eotroa  was  edited  in  five  volumes  by 
VioUet  le  Duo  in  1820.  In  1882  M.  de  Eonchaud  published  a 
handsome  edition  of  six  playa — Suint  Gencst,  Fenceslas,Don  Bertrand 
dc  Cabrire,  ArUigom,  Hercule  Mourant,  and  Coaroas, — the  latter 
Rotrou's  last  play  and  a. remarkable  one.  Venccslas  and  Saint 
Gencst  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  Ctu/s-d' (zuvrc  Tragique^  of  the 
Collection  Didot 

ROTTERDAM,  a  city  of  the  NetUerlands  in  the  pro- 
vince of  South  Holland,  situated  in  51°  55'  19"  N.  lat. 
and  4°  29'  7"  E.  bng.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kieuwe 
Maas  at  the  point  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Eotte,  a  small 


Plan  of  Rotterdam. 


I.  Groote  Uukt  tsd  Statoe  of  Eraimus.  I     3.  Post  OfUce. 

a.  Boarae.  |     4.  Boymons  >:a!cum. 

stream  rising  near  Moerkapells.  By  rail  it  is  14J  miles 
south-east  of  The  Hague  and  44i  south  of  Amsterdam. 
As  defined  by  its  17th-century  fortifications  the  town  was 
an  isosceles  triangle  with  a  base  of  IJ  miles  along  the 
river,  but  in  modern  times  it  Las  spread  out  in  all  direc- 
tions beyond  the  limits  of  its  own  commune  (which  was 
increased  in  1869  by  the  island  of  Fijcnoord  and  part  of 


the  south  bank  of  the  river)  into  those  of  Delfshaven, 
Kralingen,  and  Hillegersberg.  A  huge  dyke  on  which 
stands  Hoog  Straat  or  High  Street  divides  the  triangular 
portion  into  nearly  equal  parts — the  inner  and  the  outer 
town ;  and  the  latter  is  cut  up  into  a  series  of  peninsulas 
and  islands  by  the  admirable  system  of  harbours  to  which 
Rotterdarm  owes  so  much  of  its  prosperity.  The  central 
part  of  the  river  frontage  is  lined  by  a  broad  quay  called  the 
Boompjes  from  the  trees  with  which  it  is  planted.  From 
the  apex  of  the  triangle  the  town  is  bisected  by  a  great 
railway  viaduct  (erected  about  1870,  and  mainly  con- 
structed of  iron),  which  is  continued  across  the  river  to 
Fijenoord  and  the  south  bank  by  a  bridge  on  a  similarly 
grand  scale,  the- line  being  the  Great  Southern  EaUway 
which  connects  Belgium  and  Holland  and  crosses  the 
Hollandsch  Diep  by  the  Moerdijk  bridge.     ParaUi;!  with 


Q      of  t/)C*.-3.'5  0^i^  \.^o    ^\  Ma* 


^"■-  --""■•  ',1V-.  -o    W        "     .- 


-CiL^., . 


i->"'^'>*  --^s 


s^ 


m 


Environs  of  Rotterdam, 
the  railway  bnage  the  municipality,  in  1873,  built  a  road- 
bridge,  and  apart  from  their  ordinary  function  these  con- 
structions have  proved  a  sufficient  barrier  to  prevent  the 
ice-blocks  of  the  upper  part  of  the  river  from  descending 
so  as  to  interfere  with  the  seaward  navigation.  Tram- 
ways, introduced  in  1880,  are  being  gradually  extended 
to  various  suburbs.  A\Tiile  some  nine  or  ten  Protestant 
sects,  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  Old  Eoman  Catholics, 
and  the  Jews  are  all  represented  in  Eotterdam,  none  of 
the  ecclesiastical  buildings  are  of  primary  architectural 
interest.  The  Groote  Kerk  or  Laurenskerk  is  a  Gothic 
brick  structure  of  the  fifteenth  century  with  a  tcver  297 
feet  high ;  it  has  a  fine  rood  screen  and  an  excellent 
organ,  and  contains  the  monuments' of  Lambert  Hendriks- 
zoon,  Egbert  Meeuweszoon  Kort«naar,  Vi'itte  Corneliszoon 
de  Witt,  Johan  van  Brakel,  Johan  van  Liefdi,  and  other 
Dutch  naval  heroes.  Among  the  more  conspicuous  secular 
buildings  are  the  Boymans  Museum,  the  town-house 
(restored  in  1823-1827),  the  exchange  (1723),  the  Delft 
Gate  (1766),  the  court-house,  the  post  and  telegraph  office 
(1875),  the  com  exchange,  the  seamen's  home  (1855),  the 
hospital  (1846),  and  the  theatres.  The  Boymans  Museum 
is  mainly  a  picture  gallery,  which  became  the  property  of 
the  town  in  1847.  When  the  building,  originally  erected 
in  1662-63  as  the  assembly  house  of  Schieland,  was 
burned  down  in  1864,  most  of  the  pictures  perished,  but 
the  museum  was  restored  by  1867,  and  the  collection, 
steadily  recruited,  is  again  rich  in  the  works  of  Dutch 
artists.  The  ground  floor  also  contains  the  city  archives 
and  the  city  library.  The  maritime  museum,  established 
in  1874  by  the  Yacht  Club,  is  a  remarkable  collection  of 
chip  models,  and  the  Society  of  Experimental  Philosophy 
has  a  considerable  collection  of  instruments,  books,  and 
specimens.  At  the  north-west  comer  of  the  town  an  area 
of  several  .icres  is  occupied  by  the  zoological  garden,  which 
dates  from  1857.     Besides  the  Erasmus  Gymnasium  the 

XXI.  —  2 


10 


R  0  U  —  K  0  U 


edncational  institutions  comprise  ^n  academy  of  art  and 
leclinical  science,  a  naval  school,  an  industrial  school,  a 
(leaf  and  'dumb  asylum,  &c.     In  the    Groote  Markt  (to 
'.he  south  of  the  Hoog  Straat)  stands  the  bronze  statue  of 
&asmus  (Gerrit  Gerrits),  erected  by  his  fellow-citizens  in 
1662  ;  and  his  birth-house,  now  a  tavern  in  Wijde  Kerk- 
straat,    is    distinguished    by   a   Latin    inscription.      The 
statue  by  Grefs  of  Gijsbert  Karel  van  Hogendorp  (1762- 
1834),  a  great  Dutch  statesman,  gives  his  name  to  the 
Hogendorpsplein,    formerly     Boymansplein,    behind    the 
museum;  in  the  "Park,"  which  extends  west  along  the 
bank  of  the  Maas,  is  a  marble  statue  by  Strack(5e  of  Hen- 
drik  ToUens,  the  Dutch    poet ;   and    the  Nieuwmarkt  is 
adorned  with  a  fountain  in  memory  of  the  jubilee  (1863) 
of  the  restoration  of  Dutch  independence  (1813).     Exten- 
sive works  for  supplying  the  town  with  filtered  water  were 
constructed   between   1870   and   1875,    the  water  in  the 
river   and   canals   being   rendered   unwholesome    by   the 
sewerage,  the  treatment  of  which  naturally  presents  great 
difficulties  in  a  city  lying  in   great  part  below  high-water 
level.     The  most   important   industrial    establishment   is 
that  of  the  Netherlands  Steamboat  Company,  who  are  ship- 
owners, shipbuilders,  and  engineers;  there  are  also  exten- 
sive sugar-refineries  and  a  great  variety  of  smaller  factories 
t-3T  the  production  of  lead,  iron,  and  copper  wares,  white 
lead,  Tarnishes,   tobacco   and   cigars,    beer   and   vinegar, 
chocolate  and  confectionery,  ic.     Rotterdam  is,  however, 
not  so  much  a  manufacturing  as  a  commercial  city,  and 
its  commercial  progress  has  been  very  striking  since  the 
middle    of   the   century.      White    in    18-16    it    had   only 
321,764  tons  out  of   the  total  of   1,024,705  tons  which 
ihen  represented  the  export  trade  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
188,3  it  had  1,940,026  tons  out  of  a  total  of  3,953,009 
tons.     'In  1850  it  had  only  27-9  per  cent,  of  the  outgoing 
vessels,    and  35-77  per  cent,  of   the  tonnage  ;   by  1870 
it  had  35-60  per  cent,  of  the  vessels  and  50-37  of    the 
tonnage,    and   by  1883  43-75    per   cent,    of    the  vessels, 
and  49-08  of  the  tonnage.     Rotterdam  has  thus  become 
what   Amsterdam   formerly   was — the   principal   port    in 
the  country.     'For  steamers  -it  is  now,  since  the  opening 
of  the  new  waterway  through  the  Hoek  van  Holland  in 
1872,  only  two  hours  distant  from  the  sea,  and  the  channel 
is  deep  enough    for  vessels  drawing  22    feet  of   water.^ 
From  4471  vessels  with  a  register  tonnage  of  1,688,700 
tons  in  1873,  the  shipping  clearing  from  the  Netherlands 
by  the  new  waterway  had  increased  by   1884    to    8177 
vessels  with  register  tonnage  of    '1,382,100    tons.       Up- 
wards of  18,000  emigrants  left  Europe  by  Rotterdam  in 
1881.     Besides  its  maritime  trade  Rotterdam  commands 
a  most  extensive  river   traffic,   not  only  with   the    towns 
of  the  Netherland.s,  but  with  those  of  Belgium  and  Ger- 
many.    With  Germany  alone  its  Rhine  traffic  amounted 
in  1883  to  1,706,587  tons,  against  2,021,644  for  all  the 
other  ports  of   the  Netherlands.      On  January  1,   1885, 
Rotterdam  owned  43  sailing  \essels  and   50  steam-ships 
with  a  united  aggregate  burden  of  99,018  tons.     Owing 

'  Previously  the  only  direct  VEy  to  the  sea  was  by  the  Brielle 
(Brill)  Channel,  where  in  1856  the  fairway  had  gradually  diminished 
in  depth  to  5  feet  at  low  water  and  11  or  12  feet  at  high  water.  In 
1866  the  ■(\-ork3  for  tlie  new  waterway  were  commenced,  and*  by 
Norember  1863  the  can.rl  from  the  Scheur  (or  northern  arm  of  the 
Maas)  across  the  Hoek  had  been  dug.  The  seaward  piers  were  com- 
pleted to  the  originally  proposed  length  of  (together)  2800  metres, 
but  in  1874  they  were  prolonged  to  a  total  of  4300  metres,  thus 
JHtting  out  into  the  sea  for  more  than  a  mile.  Contrary  to  expecta- 
tions the  scour  was  not  strong  tt-.ough  to  widen  the  fairway;  and 
works  for  this  purpose  were  commenced  in  1877,  and  at  a  later  period 
the  width  of  900  metres  between  the  piers  was  reduced  to  700  metres 
by  constructing  an  inner  pier  north  of  the  south  pier.  The  whole 
work  has  cost  upwards  of  23,000,000  guilders  (£1,750,000)— 15^ 
millions  expended  up  to  1879,  and  7J  between  ISSl  and  1884.  With 
the  exc/*!>tion  of  a  contribution  of  not  more  than  3,000,000  from  the 
•ity  of  Rotterdam,  the  entire  sum  has  been  paid  bv  the  state. 


to  the  great  increase  of  navigation  and  commerce  the: 
berthing  accommodation  of  the  port  frequently  pro-ves  too 
small,  though  by  the  -works  at  Fijenoord  the  length  of  the 
quays  has  of  late  years  been  extended  by  about  8000 
metres.  This  island,  two-thirds  of  which  -was  purchased 
by  the  town  in  1591  and  the  remaining  third  in  1G58, 
was  dyked  in  1795,  and  became  the  seat  of  a  building 
■which  has  been  in  succession  a  pest-house,  a  military 
hospital,  a  naval  college,  and  a  private  industrial  school. 
The  Netherlands  Steamboat  Company  established  its  work- 
shops there  in  1825  ;  and  in  1873  the  Rotterdam  Trading 
Company  began  to  construct  the  harbours  and  warehouses 
which  have  been  purchased  by  the  city.  The  population 
of  the  commune  of  Rotterdam,  which  did  not  much  exceed 
20,000  in  1632,  was  53,212  in  1796,  72,294  in  1830, 
88,812  in  1850,  105,858  in  1860,  132,054  in  1876,  and 
148,102  in  1879-80.  In  1870  the  city  contained 
U'1,256  inhabitants,  the  suburbs  3341,  and  the  ships 
2478,  and  in  1884  the  total,  exclusive  of  the  shipping, 
was  169,477. 

Rotterdam  probably  owes  its  origin  to  the  caetles  of  Wena  and 
Bulgersteiu,  of  which  the  former  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Hoek 
party  in  1426.  In  1299  Count  John  I.  granted  the  "good  people 
of  Rotterdam '^  the  same  rights  as  the  burghers  of  Beverwijk,  and 
freedom  from  toll  in  all  his  lands.  In  1597  a  sixth  extension  of  tho 
town's  area  took  place,  and  a  seventh  followed  in  1609.  Francis 
of  Brederode  seized  the  place  in  1488,  hut  had  to  surrender  it  to  the 
emperor  Maximilian  in  1489.  The  Spaniards  were  in  possession 
from  April  9th  to  July  31st  1572,  having  gained  entrance  partly  by 
treachery  and  partly  by  force  (see  Motley,  Dutch  Hrpuhlk,  ii. ).  It 
was  at  a  meeting  of  the  states  held  at  Rotterdam  in  June  1574 
that  the  relief  of  Leyden  w-as  determined  on,  though  it  was  not 
till  1580  that  the  town  obtained  a  vote  in  the  assembly. 

ROUBAIX,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  the 
second  in  population  in  the  department  of  Nord,  lies  to  the 
north-east  of  Lille  on  the  Ghent  Railway  and  on  the 
canal  connecting  the  low-er  Deule  with  Scheldt  by  the 
JIarq  and  Espierre.  Several  tramway  lines  traverse  the 
town  and  connect  it  with  yarious  manufacturing  centres  in 
the  neighbourhood.  The  population  of  Roubaix,  which  in 
1881  w-as  79,700  (the  commune  91,757),  is  almost  entirely 
manufacturing,  and  the  trading  firms  of  the  to-wn  gave 
employment  besides  to  an  equally  large  number  of  hands 
in  the  vicinity.  The  w-eaving  establishments  number  300 
(250  for  woollen  or  woollen  and  cotton  goods),  the  leading 
products  being  fancy  and  figured  stuffs  for  waistcoats, 
trousers,  overcoats,  and  dresses,  velvet,  barege,  Orleans, 
furniture  coverings,  and  the  like.  The  yearly  production 
is  estimated  at  £6,000,000,  but  the  annual  turnover  ex- 
ceeds £8,000,000,  if  all  the  industries  of  the  place  are 
taken  into  account.  These  include  70  wool-spinning  mills, 
12  cotton  mills,  silk-works,  wool-combing  establishments, 
carpet  manufactories,  dye-houses,  soap-works,  machine- 
works,  and  foundries.  Roubaix  possesses  several  interest- 
ing churches,  a  library  and  art,  museum,  a  most  interesting 
museum  of  local  industries,  communal  schools  of  art  and 
music,  an  industrial  school  for  w-eaving,  founded  in  1857, 
a  chamber  of  commerce  dating  from  1871,  a  chamber  of 
arts  and  n.:aiufactures,  a  board  of  prud'hbmmes,  and  an 
agricultural  and  "horticultural  society. 

Tlie  prosperity  of  Roubaix  has  its  origin  in  the  first  fabtory 
'franchise,  granted  in  1469  by  Cl'.arles  the  Bold  to  Peter  of  Rou- 
baix, a  descendant  of  the  royal  house  of  Britanny  ;  but  the  great 
development  of  the  manufacturing  industries  of  the  town  and  the 
growth  of  its  population  date  from  the  French  Revolution.  The 
population,  which  in  1804  w.as  only  8700,  had  risen  in  1861  to 
40,274,  in  1S66  to  65,091,  and  in  1876  to  83,000. 

ROUBILIAC,  Loms  Francois  (1695-1762),  an  able 
French  sculptor.  Born  at  Lyons  in  1695,  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Balthasar  of  Dresden  and  of  N.  Coustou.  About 
the  year  1720  he  settled  in  London,  and  soon  became  the 
most  popular  sculptor  of  the  time  in  England,  quite  super- 
seding the  cstablii^hed  bucccs.-  of  the  Flemii!i  Bysbraeck. 


R  O  Ij  — R  0  u 


11 


He  died  on  January  11,1762,  and  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  St  Martin-in-the-Fields.  Eoubiliac  was  very  largely 
employed  for  portrait  statues  and  busts,  and  especially  for 
sepulchral  monuments  in  Westminster  Abbey  and  else- 
where. His  chief  works  in  the  abbey  are  the  monuments 
of  Handel,  Admiral  Warren,  Marshal  Wade,  Mrs  Night- 
ingale, and  the  duke  of  Argyll,  the  last  of  these  being  the 
first  work  which  established  Boubiliac's  fame  as  a  sculptor. 
The  statues  of  George  I.,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  the  duke 
of  Somerset  at  Cambridge,,  and  of  George  II.  in  Golden 
Square,  London,  were  also  his  work,  as  well  as  many  other 
important  pieces  of  portrait  sculpture.  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  possesses  a  series  of  busts  of  distinguished 
members  of  the  college  by  him. 

Eoubiliac  possessed  much  skill  in  portraiture,  and  was 
technically  a  real  master  of  his  art,  but  unhappily  he  lived 
at  a  time  when  it  had  reached  a  very  low  ebb.  His 
figures  are  uneasy,  devoid  of  dignity  and  sculpturesque 
breadth,  and  his  draperies  are  treated  in  a  manner  more 
suited  to  painting  than  sculpture.  His  excessive  striving 
after  dramatic  effect  takes  away  from  that  repose  of  atti- 
tude which  is  so  necessary  for  a  portrait  in  marble.  His 
most  celebrated  work,  the  Nightingale  monument,  in  the 
north  transept  of  Westminster  Abbey,  a  marvel  of 
technical  skill,  is  only  saved  from  being  ludicrous  by  its 
ghastly  hideousness.  On  this  the  dying  wife  is  represented 
as  sinking  in  the  arms  of  her  husband,  who  in  vain  strives 
to  ward  off  a  dart  which  Death  is  aiming  at  her.  The 
lower  part  of  the  monument,  on  which  the  two  portrait 
figures  stand,  is  shaped  like  a  tomb,  out  of  the  opening 
door  of  which  Death,  as  a  half-veiled  skeleton,  is  bursting 
forth.  Wonderful  patience  and  anatomical  realism  are 
lavished  on  the  marble  bones  of  this  hideous  figure,  and 
the  whole  of  the  grim  conception  is  carried  out  with  much 
skill,  but  in  the  worst  possible  taste.  The  statue  of 
Handel  in  the  south  transept  is  well  modelled,  but  the 
attitude  is  affected  and  the  face  void  of  any  real  expres- 
sion. It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  degraded  taste  of  the  age 
that  these  painful  works  when  first  set  up  were  enthusi- 
astically admired. 

ROUGHER,  Jean  Antoine  (1745-1794),  a  French 
poet,  to  whom  a  melancholy  fate  and  some  descriptive 
verse  equal  to  anything  written  during  at  least  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  by  any  of  his  countrymen  except 
Andre  Chdnier,  gave  some  reputation,  was  born  on 
February  17,  1745  at  Montpellier,  and  perished  by  the 
guillotine  at  Paris  on  July  25,  1794.  He  wrote  an 
epithalamium  on  Louis  XVi.  and  Marie  Antoinette,  gained 
the  favour  of  Turgot,  and  obtained  a  salt-tax  collector- 
ship.  His  main  poem  was  entitled  Les  Mois ;  it  appeared 
in  1779,  was  praised  in  MS.,  damiled  in  print,  and  restored 
to  a  just  appreciation  by  the  students  of  literature  of  the 
present  century.  It  has  the  drawbacks  of  merely  didactic- 
descriptive  poetry  on  the  great  scale,  but  much  grace 
and  spirit  in  parts.  Roucher  was  by  no  means  anti- 
revolutionary,  but  ill-luck  and  perhaps  his  unpopular  em- 
ployment made  him  a  victim  of  the  Revolution.  Ho  lay 
in  prison  for  nearly  a  year  before  his  death,  and  wefat  to 
it  on  the  same  tumbril  with  Chunier.  The  malicious  wit 
of  Rivarol's  mot  on  the  ill-success  of  Les  Mois,  "C'est  le 
plus  beau  naufrage  du  sitcle,"  is  not  intelligible  unless  it 
13  said  that  one  of  the  most  elaborate  passages  describes  a 
shipwreck. 

ROUEN,  a  city  of  Franco,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Normandy,  and  now  the  administrative  centre  of  the 
department  of  Seine  Inferieurc,  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric and  a  court  of  appeal,  and  the  headquarters  of 
the  third  corps  d'armiic,  sland.s  on  a  level  site  on  the 
ri-ht  bank  of  the  Seine  in  49°  26'  N.  kit.  and  1"  6'  E. 
long,  at  the  point  where  it  ia  joined  by  the  Aubette  and 


the  small  Rivifere  de  Robec ;  it  has  also  crept  some  dis- 
tance up  the  hills  which  enclose  the  valley  on  the  right, 
and  has  an  extension  on  the  plain  on  the  left  bank.  The 
faubourgs  by  which  it  is  surrounded  are,  reckoning  from 
the  east,  Martainville  (on  the  left  bank  of  the  Robec),  St 
Hilaire,  Beauvoisine,  Bouvreuil,  arid  Cauchoise ;  auJ  the 
portion  which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine  is  Iciown 
as  the  Faubourg  St  Sever.  Between  the  old  town  and 
the  faubourgs  runs  a  line  of  boulevards.  Communication 
between  the  two  banks  of  the  river  is  maintained  by  ferry- 
boats and  by  two  bridges ;  the  upper  bridge,  a  stone  struc- 
ture, is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Lacroix  island  and 
decorated  by  a  statue  of  Corneille ;  the  lower  is  an  iron 
suspension  bridge  which  opens  in  the  middle  to  let  masted 
vessels  pass.  The  railway  from  Havre  to  Paris  crosses 
the  Seine  a  little  above  Rouen,  and  having  passed  by  a 
tunnel  under  the  higher  quarters  of  the  city  reaches  a 
station  on  the  north  at  a  distance  of  87  m'les  from  Paris 
and  55  from  Havre.  Another  station  at  Martainville  is  the 
terminus  of  the  line  from  Rouen  to  Amiens ;  and  at  St 
Sever  are  those  of  the  lines  to  Paris  and  to  Orleans  by 
Elbeuf.  Since  about  1860  wide  streets  have  been  driven 
through  the  old  town,  and  tramway  lines  now  traverse  the 
whole  city  and  its  environs.  Rouen,  which  is  78  miles 
from  the  sea,  stands  fourth  in  the  list  of  French  ports, 
coming  next  to  Marseilles,  Havre,  and  Bordeaux.  Em- 
bankments constructed  along  the  lower  Seine  have  forced 
the  river  to  deepen  its  own.  channel,  and  the  land  thus 
reclaimed  has  more  than  repaid  the  expenses  incurred.  The 
port  is  now  accessible  to  vessels  drawing  21  feet  of  water, 
and  by  means  of  easy  dredgings  this  will  be  increased  to  from 
25  feet  to  28  according  to  the  tide.  The  expansion  of  the 
traffic  as  the  improvements  have  advanced  is  shown  by  the 
following  returns:  whereas  in  1850  the  number  of  vessels 
entered  and  cleared  was  6220,  with  an  aggregate  burdew 
of  570,314  tons,  the  corresponding  figures  were  4511  and 
748,076  in  1S7C,  and  5189  and  1,438,055  in  1880.  What 
is  now  wanted  is  a'n  increased  amount  of  quay  accom- 
modation, the  old  line  of  quays  scarcely  exceeding  1  mile 
in  length.  The  building  of  new  quays  and  rcpairing-docks 
for  large  vessels  is  in  active  progress ;  the  port  is  being- 
dredged  and  deepened;  and  schemes  are  under  considera- 
tion for  a  slip,  a  petroleum  dock,  and  corn  elevators.^ 
Rouen  has  regular  steamboat  communication  with  Bor- 
deaux, Spain,  Algeria,  London,  Hull,  Goole,  Plymouth, 
Bristol,  and  Canada.  A  sunken  chain  allows  boats  to  be 
towed  up  to  Paris  and  beyond. 

The  population  of  the  six  cantons  of  Rouen  in  1881 
was  105,906,  but  if  the  suburbs  are  included  the  figure 
may  be  stated  at  about  150,000. 

The  imports  landed  at  Rouen  include  cottons,  wheat, 
maize,  and  petroleum  from  America  ;  coal  and  iron  from 
England;  marble,  oils,  wines,  and  dried  fruits  from  Italy; 
wines,  wools,  ores,  and  metals  from  Spain  ;  grain  and 
woof  from  the  Black  Sea;  grape.-*  from  the  Levant;  rice 
from  India  ;  coffee  from  the  French  colonics ;  oil  seeds, 
timber,  dyewoods,  foreign  textile  fabrics,  Dutch  cheese, 
itc.  The  articles  of  export  comprise  grain,  table  fruits, 
oil-seeds  and  oilcake,  sugar,  olive  oil,  palm  oil,  timber, 
hemp,  linen,  and  wool,  marble,  granite,  hewn  stone, 
plaster  and  building  materials,  sulphur,  coal,  pig-iron, 
steel,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  salt,  dyestuffs  and  other  chemical 
products,  wines,  brandy,  ciders,  earthenware  and  glass- 
ware, machinery,  packing-paper,  ic. 

Cotton  Biiinning  and  weaving  nru  carried  on  in  tho  town,  and 
oapccially  tic  manufacture  of  roiumuries  (cotton  fabrics  woven  with 
dyed  yarn).  In  this  connexion  the  dcpaitnicnt  of  Seine  Infeiieure 
gives  employment  to  200,000  workmen,  most  of  them  iu  Tiouen  and 

'  See  Do  Cocnc,  Ctngris  de  I'AssoeiutiM  Fran^aisc  pmr  I'avance- 
mail  dcs  sciences,  l.ouer..  1883. 


12 


ROUE  N 


itc  neighbourhood,  and  makes  nse  of  30, 000  tons  of  cotton  anntiany. 
In  1876  thcro  were  in  the  Rouen  district  1,099,2G1  spindles 
engaged  in  cotton-spinning,  and  9251  power-looms.  Hand-loom 
weaving  is  prosecuted  (mainly  in  the  country  districts)  by  13,000 
workmen.  In  the  roucnncrie  departmeni  190  ma nufa"o hirers  were 
engaged,  producing  annually  to  the  value  of  £2,400,000.  In  the 
manufacture  of  printed  cotton  and  woollen  goods  22  establishments 
and  5000  workmen  are  employed.  The  annual  production  of 
printed  calico  amounts  to  1,000,000  piece3,  each  105  metres  (about 
115  yards)  long  ;  22  establishments  with  700  workmen  are  devoted 
to  the  dyeing  of  eotton  cloth,  and  32  establishments  with  1200 
workmen  to  the  dyeing  of  eotton  thread,  the  industry  being  specially 
favoured  by  the  quality  of  the  water  of  Kouen.  There  are  also  3 
aoap  works,  7  chemical  works,  manufacturing  soda,  vitriol,  and 
dye^tuffs,  and  10  iron  foundries.  Engineering  works  manufacture 
cteam-engineg,  opinning-machines,  and  weaving-looms,  agricultural 
inachines,  sewing-machines,  fee,  which  are  sold  throughout  France 
and  exported  to  other  countries  to  a  total  value  of  £360,000. 
There  is  an  establishment  at  Deville  for  refining  copper  and  manu- 
facturing copper  pipes.  Other  works  at  Rouen  are  distilleries,  oil 
mills,  bleacheries  and  cloth-dressing  establishments,  tanneries,  and 
ehip-building  yards.  The  town  is  also  famous  for  its  confectionery, 
especially  siicres  ds  pomme.  Among  the  public  institutions  are 
extenirive  roorhbusei  (1800  beds  in  the  hospice  general),  several 
theatres,  ETpublio library  (118,000  volumes  and  2500  MSS.),  a  theo- 
logical faculty,  a  preparatory 
Bcaool  of  medicine  arid  phar- 
iricy,  a  preparatory  school 
fir  higher  instruction  in 
science  and  literature,  and 
schools  of  agriculture,  botriny, 
and  forestry,  painting  and 
drawing  schools,  &c.  Besidea 
the  Grand  Oours,  which  runs 
along  the  bank  of  the  Seine 
above  the  town  and  is  lined 
with  m^ignificent  elms,  the 
public  promenades  comprise 
the  Cours  Boieldien,  with  the 
composer's  statue,  the  Solfer- 
ino  garden  in  the  heart  of  tho 
town,  and  the  botanical  gar- 
dens at  St  Sever.     (G.  ME.) 

Histury. — Ratuma  or  Ratu- 
macos,  the  original  name  of 
Rouen,  waa  modified  by  the 
Romans  into  Rotomagus,  and 
hy  the  "writers  of  mediaeval 
Latin  into  Rodomum,  of  which 
the  present  name  is  a  corrup- 
tion. Under  C^sar  and  the 
early  emperors  the  town  was 
the  capital  of  the  Veliocas- 
sians,  U  people  of  secondary 
rank,  and^^it  did  not  attain  to 
any  eminence  till  it  was  made 
the  centre  of  Lugdiinensis 
Secunda  at  the  closg  of  the 
3d  century,  and  .a  little 
lai^r  the  see  of  an  arch- 
bishop. Rouen  was  largely 
indebted  to  its  first  bishops — 
from  St  Mello,.  the  apostle  of  J>3  region,  who  flourished  about 
260,  to  St  Remigius,  who  died  in  772.  Ten  or  twelve  of 
those  prelates  have  the  title  of  saints  ;  they  built  in  their  city 
many  churches,  and  their  tombs  became  in  turn  the  origin  of  new 
aanctuarics,  so  that  Rouen  was  already,  at  that  early  period,  what 
it  has  remained  to  the  present  time,  and  in  spite  of  its  political 
character — a  religious  city  lull  of  ecclesiastical  monuments.  From 
this  period  there  has  hf.n  preserved'  the  precious  crypt  of  St 
Gervais,  which  contains  the  tomb  of  the  second  bishop  of  Rouen, 
St  Avitian.  Under  Louis  "  le  Debonnairo "  and  his  successors 
Normans  several  times  sacked  the  city,  hut  the  conversion  of 
RoHo  in  912  raarle  Rouen  the  capital  of  Normandj',  and  raised 
it  to  a  greater  degree  of  prosperity  than  ever.  The  first  Norman 
kings  of  EngJamd  rather  neglected  Rouen  in  favour  first  of  Caen 
and  afterwards  of  Poitiers,  Le  Mans,  or  Anger?  ;  but  the  monas- 
teries, the  local  trade  and  manufactures,  and  the  communal 
organization,  which  the  people  of  Rouen  had  exacted  from  their 
sovereigns  in  1145,  maintained  a  most  flourishing  state  of  affairs, 
indicated  by  the  rebuilding  of  several  sumptuous  churches,  and 
notably  of  tho  great  abbey  which  had  been  erected  in  the  5th 
century  by  St  Victrix,  and  afterwards  took  the  name  of  St  Ouen 
from  the  bishop  whose  tomb  it  contained.  Of  this  restora- 
tion^ there  remains  in  the  present  building  a  small  apse  of  two 
ctrriea,  the  only  Norman  fragment  of  any  importance  preserved  by 
C  •■  ancient  capital  "f  ''^ormandv.     The  union  of  tliia  province  to 


Fjance  by  PhiHh  Aivf^astna  in  1504  did  no  dlnags  to  tho  prosperity 
of  Rouen,  althoii^'li  zta  inhabitants  eubmitted  to  cheir  new  master 
only  after  a  siege  of  necaly  three  months.  To  this  peiiod  bclqng, 
if  not  the  commencement,  at  lease  the  rapid  erection  of  the  most 
important  building  in  tl.o-  town,  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Damo, 
whose  vast  pile,  erected  between  1200  and  1220  by  an  architect 
called  Ingelram  or  Enguerrand,  underwent  so  many  alteration?, 
restorations!  ffnd  extensions  that  it  took  Its  final  form  oiily  in 
the  16th  century.  It  is  in  plan  a  Latin  cross  427  feet  in  length, 
with  aisles  completely  surrounding  it  an(J  giving  acceaa  to  the 
three  great  chapels  of  the  choir.  The  west  fajade  and  those  of  the 
transept  are  of  extreme  richness^  ■  Each  was  aumiountfcd  by  two 
towers,  of  which  only  one — the  Butter  Tower  (Tour  de  Beurre) — 
was  completed.  The  western  facade,  frequently  enlarged,  embel- 
lished, or  restored  from  its  first  construction  to  the  present  time,  haa 
two  charmingside  doorwayaof  the  close  of  the  12th  century,  a  great 
central  doorway,  a  rose  window,  and  countless  arcades  and  Gothic 
pinnacles  and  turi'eta  of  the  close  of  the  15th  and  tho  beginning  of  ■ 
the  IGth  centuiy.  The  width  of  tho  front  is  increased  by  tho  pro- 
jection of  tho  two  towera  :  that  on  tho  left  hand,  tho  Tour  Saint- 
.  Remain,  was  commenced  about  1200,  and  raised  to  a  greater  height 
in  1-165-1477  ;  that  on  tho  right  hand,  the  Ciicr,  has  a  height  of  ^60 
feet,  and  takes  its  name  nf  Butter  Tower  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
erected  between  1485  and  1507  by  means  of  tho  moneys  paid  by 
tho  faithful  for  permission  io  cat  butter  in  Lent.     On  the  north 


Plan  of  Rouen. 

Ei3e  of  the  cathedral  are  various  accessory  buildings  dating  from 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Booksellers*  Portal,  corresponding  to  the 
Portail  de  la  Calende  in  the  south  transept.'  Both  portals  arc 
adorned  with  statues,  and  both,  as  well  as  tho  towers  which  flank 
them,  date  from  the  reigns  of  St  Louis  and  Philip  the  Fair.  Above 
the  transept  rises  the  central  tower,  v/hich  was  rebuilt  in  tho 
15th  and  16th  centuries,  and  had  before  its  destruction  by,  fire  in 
1822  a  height  of  430  feet.  The  iron  spire  added  in  1S76,  though 
unfortunately  much  too  slender,  hcs  raised  it  to  a  height  of  485 
feet,  and  tbu3  made  it  the  highest  erection  in  Europe  after  the 
spires  of  Cologne'  cathedral.  While  more  harmonious  in  its  style 
than  the  exterior,  the  interior  of  Notre  Damo  de  Rouen  presents 
nothing  peculiar  in  its  architecture,  ■with  the  exception  of  thr-  false 
gallery  along  the  nave  with  passages  running  round  tho  piJiars; 
but  the  artistic  curiosities  are  numerous  and  varied.  In  tlio  choir 
may  be  noted  a  fine  series  of  ]3th-centufy  stained-glass  windows, 
carved  stalls  of  the  15th  century,  the  tombs  of  th.e  English  kings 
Henry  II,  and  Richard  I.,  that  of  Bishop  Maurille,  who  built  the 
larger  part  of  tho  present  structure,  an  elegant  Goihic  staircase, 
and  various  tombs  of  archbishops  and  nobles. 

Philip  Augustus  built  a  castle  at  Rouen,  but  it  was  rather  a 
fortress  than  a  palace,  and  the  kings  of  Franco  never  treated  it  as  a 
residence ;  a  round  keep  called  Jean  of  Arc's  Tower  still  stands.  On 
the  other  hand,  nothing  r^nir-ina  of  tho  castle  erected  by  Henry  V. 
of  England  when  he  took  possesijicn  cf  Koncu  in  1418  'after  a  san- 


ROT]  —R  O  U 


13 


Buinary  eiege  ;  ho  proposed  making  it  one  of  his  Continental  resi- 
dences, but  it  was  never  completed.  It  was  in  Philip  Angnstus's 
castle  that  Joan  of  Arc  was  imprisoned  and  tried,  and  one  of  the 
public  squares  was  the  place  where  she  was  burned  alive  in  1431. 
From  that  year  began  a  series  of  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  French 
to  recapture  the  town.  Kicardville  in  1432  and  Xaintrailles  in  1436 
{ailed  in  spite  of  the  secret  connivance  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1449 
a  stronger  and  better-planned  expedition  was  successful,  and  Somer- 
set, the  English  commander,  was  obliged,  in  order  to  secure  an 
honourable  capitulation,  to  surrender  the  principal  fortified  places 
in  Normandy.  The  English  rule,  though  badly  supported  by  the 
citizens,  had  not  been  without  its  influence  on  the  prosperity  of 
Bouen.  It  was  then  that  the  present  church  of  St  Ouen  was  con- 
tinued and  almost  completed  ;  the  foundation  was  laid  in  1311, 
but  the  choir  alone  had  been  constructed  in  the  14th  century.  In 
spite  of  the  juxtaposition  of  the  second  and  third  or  "radiant"  and 
'flamboyant "  styles  of  Gothic,  the  building  taken  altogether  pre- 
sents in  its  general  lines  the  most  perfect  unity — a  unity  which  even 
the  modem  addition  of  a  fa9ade  with  two  bell  towers  has  failed  to 
mar,  though  no  regard  was  had  to  the  originalplans.  St  Ouen  is 
the  largest  church  erected  in  France  during  the  War  of  th^  Hundred 
Years  ;  in  length  {450  feet)  it  exceeds  the  cathedral:  The  central 
tower,  not  unlike  the  Bntter  Towet,  with  which  it  is  contemporary, 
is  265  feet  high  ;  the  two  new  towers  with  their  spires  are  -some- 
what lower.  .  Apart  from  its  enormous  dimensions  and  the  richness 
of  its  southern  portal,  St  Ouen  has  nothing  that  need  long  de- 
tain the  visitor  ;  its  style  is  cold  and  formal ;  the  interior,  bare 
and  stripped  of  its  ancient  stained  glass,  was  fiirther  despoiled  in 
1562  and  in  1791  of  its  artistic  treasures  and  of  almost  all  its  old 
church-furniture.  The  organ  dates  from  1630,  and  the  rather 
handsome  roodscreen  from  the  18th  century.  The  close  of  the  15th 
century  and  the  first  half  of  the  16th — the  reigns  of  Charles 
VIII.,  Louis  XII.,  Francis  I.,  and  Henry  II.,  and  the  episcopates 
of  Cardinal  EstoutteviUe  (1453-1483),  Cardinal  Georges  d'Amboise 
(1494-1510),  and  his  nephew  of  the  same  name  (1511-50) — rendered 
Bouen  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  the  metropolis  of  art  and  taste 
in  France  ;  and  it  was  one  of  the  first  towns  where  the  splendours 
of  the  Renaissance  burst  forth.  At  this  time  the  church  of  St 
Maclou  was  erected,  a  building  that  can  hardly  be  brought  into 
comparison  with  the  cathedral  and  St  Ouen,  but  is  justly  cele- 
brated for  the  value  and  variety  of  its  artistic  treasures,  such  as 
the  carved  work  of  the  principal  doors,  partly  executed  by  Jean 
Goujon,  the  beautiful  stained  glass,  and  an  organ-loft  reached  by 
an  open-work  staircase.  The  spire,  285  feet  .high,  is  a  structure 
of  the  present  century.  Beside  the  church  is  the  old  parish 
cemetery,  called  the  Aitro  of  Saint  Maclou,  surrounded  by  charming 
Bfiuaissance  galleries  and  famous  for  its  dan^  macabre  formed  by  a 
series  of  sculptured  groups.  Other  churches  of  the  same  period — St 
Godard,  St  Patrice,  St  Vincent — are  no  less  interesting  from  the  pro- 
fusion of  their  architectural  details  than  from  their  magnificent  16th- 
sentury  stained-glass  windows.  There  cr*  two  glass  windows  in  St 
Godard,  and  a  regular  collection  in  St  Patrice  ;  but  tlie  latter,  though 
the  most  famous,  are  in  the  eyes  of  connoisseurs  of  less  worth  than 
the  stained  glass  in  St  Vincent,  due  to  two  incomparable  artists  of 
Beanvais,  Engrand  and  Jean  Le  Prince, — the  two  principal  subjects 
treated  by  them  being  the  Gifts  of  Mercy  and  the  Glorification  of 
the  Virgin.  St  Godard  contains,  besides,  old  frescos  worthy  of 
note.  The  church  of  St  Laurent,  no  longer  used  for  worship,  and 
the  tower  of  St  Andre  are  both  cf  16th-century  origin.  At  the  same 
period  the  cathedral  received  great  embellishments,  the  central  fleche 
was  erected,  and  the  portals  were  decorated  with  new  sculptures. 
Georges  d'AJnboise,  the  virtuous  minister  of  Louis  XII.,  chose  the 
chapel  of  the  Virgin  for  his  place  of  burial ;  he  caused  his  mausoleum, 
constructed  after  the  plans  of  the  architect  Roland  le  Eoux,  to  be 
composed  entirely  of  marble,  as  well  as  his  statue,  which  he  ordered 
from  Jean  Goujon.  Georges  d'Amboise  the  second  was,  according 
to  his  desire,  interred  in  his  nncle's  tomb,  but  his  statue  is  of  much 
less  value.  Near  this  tomb  are  two  others  erected  for  the  lords  of 
Brezd  ;  both  are  very  remarkable  ;  the  oldest  belongs  to  ths  Gothic 
style  ;  the  other,  the  tomb  of  Diana  of  Poitiers's  husband,  is  a 
Keuaissance  structure  of  th»  time  of  Henry  II.,  but,  contracv  to 
what  was  long  believed,  contains  nothing  from  the  hand  of  Jean 
Goujon.  Under  Louis  XII.  the  archbishops  of  Bouen  also  rebuilt 
their  palace  at  the  side  of  the  cathedral ;  but  in  spite  of  the  rich- 
ness of  its  architecture  this  lordly  mansion  cannot  compete  with 
the  "palace  of  justice"  begun  in  the  same  year,  1499,  when  the 
exchequer  of  Normandy,  which  had  been  established  at  Rouen  in 
1302,  was  erected  into  a  parltmcnt.  though  the  title  was  not  adopted 
till  1515.  This  sumptuous  building  is  in  the  Gothic  style;  but 
the  E6tel  de  Bourgtheroulde,  which  dates  from  the  time  of  Francis 
I.,  is  undisguiscdly  of  the  Renaissance,  and  is  justly  celebrated 
for  its  bas-reliefs,  the  subjects  of  which  are  bon-owed  from  two 
quite  different  orders  of  things — the  allegories  from  Petrarch's 
Triumphs,  and  the  interview  of  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold' 
between  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  Many  other-secular  Renais- 
sance buildings  in  Rouen  bear  witness  to  the  groat  commcrc;.il 
prosperity  of  its  citiz'-ns  and  to  their  keen  annreciation  of  the 


arts  : — numerous  private  houses  in  stone  and  especially  in  wood  ; 
the  gate  of  the  great  clock  ;  and  a  unique  structure,  the  "  fierte " 
of  St  Komain,  a  sort  of  pulpit  from  which  every  year  a  person 
condemned  to  death  raised  before  the  people  the  shrine  or  fierte 
{/crctnin)  cf  St  Bomain,  and  then  received  pardon  and  liberty. 

This  splendour  of  the  arts  began  to  decline  during  the  wars  of 
religion  ;  in  1562  the  towij  was  sacked  by  the  Protestants,  which 
did  not  prevent  the  League  from  obtaining  so  firm  a  footing  there 
that  Henry  IV.,  after  having  vainly  besieged  it,  did  not  obtain 
entrance  till  long  after  his  abjuration.  To  the  18th  century  belong 
the  exchange  and  the  claustral  buildings  of  the  abbi  y  of  St  Ouen, 
transformed  into  an  hStel  de  ville.  Much  more  important  works 
have  been  executed  in  recent  times,  but  in  great  part  at  the  expense 
of  the  historic  and  picturesque  features  of  the  town.  On  the  jther 
hand,  handsome  structures  of  various  kinds  he  'e  been  erected  in 
the  interests  of  public  utility  or  embeUishment — churches  civil 
and  military  establishments,  fountains,  statues,  kc. ;  and  m:  ly  old 
buildings  have  been  carefully  restored  or  completed.  Rouen  more- 
over, has  recently  been  provided  with  museums  of  antiqui.^es,  of 
fine  arts,  of  ceramic  art,  of  natural  history,  and  of  industry, — the 
first  two  being  very  important.  Daring  tie  Franco-Serman  'War 
the  city  was  occupied  by  the  Invaders  from  5th  December  1370  to 
22d  July  1871,  and  had  to  submit  to  heavy  requisitions.  Among 
the  famous  men  bom  at  Rouen  are  tho  brothers  Coraeillo,  Fon- 
tenelle,  the  journalists  Armand  Carrel  and  De  Villcmessant,  the 
composer  Boieldieu,  the  painters  Jouvenet,  Restout,  and  Gt-ricault, 
the  architect  Blondel,  Dulong  the  physicist,  and  La  Salle  the 
American  explorer.  (A.  S.-P.) 

EOUGE.  This  name  is  applied  to  various  colouring 
substances  of  a  brilliant  carmine  tint,  especially  when  used 
as  cosmetics.  The  least  harmful  of  these  preparations  are 
such  as  have  for  their  basis  carthamine,  obtained  from  the 
safflower  [Carthamus  tinctorius).  The  Chinese  prepare  a 
rouge,  said  to  be  from  safflower,  vrhich,  spread  on  the  cards 
on  which  it  is  sold,  has  a  brilliant  metallic  green  lustre,  but 
when  moistened  and  applied  to  the  skin  assumes  a  delicate 
carmine  tint.  Jeweller's  rouge  for  polishing  gold  and  silver 
plate  is  a  fine  red  oxide  of  iron  prepared  by  calcination 
from  sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol). 

EOUGET  DE  LISLE,  Claude  Joseph  (1760-1836), 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  of  those  authors  whom  a 
single  short  piece  of  worlj  has  made  famous,  was  born  on 
10th  ilay  1760,  at  Lons-le-Sauniar.  He  entered  the 
army  as  an  engineer  and  attained  the  rank  of  captain. 
He  wrote  complimentary  verses  pretty  early,  and  appears 
to  have  been  a  good  musician.  The  song  which  has  immor- 
talized him,  the  Marseillaise,  was  composed  at  Strasburg, 
where  Rpuget  de  Lisle  was  quartered  in  April  1792,  and 
he  is  said  to  have  composed  both  the  words  and  the  music 
in  a  fit  of  patriotic  excitement  after  a  public  dinner.  The 
piece  was  at  first  called  Chant  de  I'armee  du  Ehin,  and  only 
received  its  name  of  Marseillaise  from  its  adoption  by  the 
Provengal  volunteers  whom  Barbaroux  introduced  into 
Paris,  and  who  were  prominent  in  the  storming  of  the 
Tuileries.  The  author  himself  was  unfavourably  affected 
by  that  very  event.  Hm  was  a  moderate  republican,  and 
was  cashiered  and  thrown  into  prison;  but  the  counter- 
revolution set  him  at  liberty.  Little  is  recorded  of 'his 
later  years,  and  he  received  no  pension  or  other  mark  of 
favour  till  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe.  He  died  at 
ChoLsy  on  the  26th  June  1836. 

The  Marseillaise  (of  which  as  usually  given  six-sevenths  only 
are  Rouget's)  is  so  well  known  that  no  elaborate  criticism  of  it  is 
necessary.  The  extraordinarily  stirring  character  of  the  air  and 
its  ingenious  adaptation  to  the  words  serve  to  disguise  the  alternate 
poverty  and  bombast  of  the  words  themselves.  As  poetry  the 
sixth  stanza  alone  has  much  merit.  Rou^et  do  Lisle  wrote  a  few 
other  songs  of  the  same  kind,  and  set  a  good  many  of  others'  writing 
to  music.  He  also  produced  a  play  or  two  and  some  translations. 
But  his  chief  literary  monument  is  a  slender  and  rather  rare  little 
volume  entitled  Essais  en  Vers  ci  en  Prose  (Paris,  1796).  This 
contains  tho  Marseillaise,  a  prose  tale  of  the  sentimental  kind 
called  Adelaide  et  Monville,  and  a  collection  of  occasional  poems 
of  various  styles  and  dates,  from  which  the  author's  poetic  faculty 
can  be  fairly  judged.  It  is  humble  enough.  Rouget  was  a  mere 
follower  of  standard  models,  imitating  by  tupns  J.  B.  Bousseau, 
La  Fontaine,  and  Voltaire,  and  exaggerating  the  trtificial  language 
of  his  time.     In  Tom.  cl  Lucy,  which  turns  on  s  romantic  etory  of 


14 


R  0  U  — R  0  U 


tibe  English  army  in  America,  he  has  contrived  without  in  the 
least  knowing  it  to  mako  a  pathetic  subject  supremely  ludicrous. 
But  he  seems  to  have  been  a  very  well  meaning  and  harmless 
person,  and  he  had  one  moment  of  remarkable  inspiration. 

ROULEES,  or  Rousselaere,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in 
the  pravince  of  West  Flanders,  on  the  Mandelbeke,  a 
tributary  of  the  Lys,  22i  miles  south  of  Ostend  oU  the 
railway  to  Courtrai.  From  time  immemorial  it  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  great  weaving  industry,  which  now  produces 
both  cotton,  union,  and  linen  goods ;  and  it  also  manufac- 
tures in  various  other  departments.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  town-house,  the  college,  and  the  church  of  St 
Michel  with  iis  conspicuous  Gothic  tower.  The  popula- 
tion was  16,345  in  1874,  and  17,219  in  1884. 

Roulers  is  mentioned  in  822  as  Roslar  and  in  S47  as  RoUaro, 
tBaldwiu  Till.,  count  of  Flanders,  died  in  a  house  in  the  principal 
Isquare  of  the  town  in  1120  oti  his  return  from  the  battle  of  Angers. 
■In  1794  Roulers  was  the  scene  of  a  conflict  between- the  Austrians 
and  the  French. 

ROUM  (Riii)  is  the  name  by  which  the  Arabs  call  the 
Romans,  i.e.,  all  subjects  of  the  Roman  power.  Bil&d  al- 
JftHm,  "the  lands  of  the  Romans,"  accordingly  means  the 
Roman  empire.  The  parts  of  the  old  empire  conquered  by 
the  Arabs  were  regarded  as  having  ceased  to  be  Roman, 
but  the  Western  Christian  lands  v/ere  still  called  lands  of 
the  Riim,  without  reference  to  the  fact  that  they  had  in 
great  part  ceased  to  pay  any  allegiance  to  the  "  king  of 
the  Rum,"  i.e.,  the  Byzantine  emperor.  When  Ibn  Jobair 
takes  a  passage  in  a  Genoese  vessel  he  speaks  of  the  crew 
as  Romans;  and  in  Spain  a  "  Riimiya  "  meant  a  "  Christian 
slave-girL"  Sometimes  all  Europe  is  included  in  the  lands 
of  the  Riim ;  at  other  times  the  northern  nations  are 
excluded  ;  sometimes  again  the  word  means  the  Byzantine 
empire ;.  and,  finally,  the  kingdom  founded  by  the  Seljiiks, 
in  lands  won  by  them  from  Byzantium,  is  the  kingdom  of 
the  Selj\iks  of  Rilm,  so  that  Riim  comes  to  take  the 
restricted  sense  of  Asia  Minor^  So  Abulfeda  uses  the 
term.  Roumella  and  Roumania  in  like  manner  mean  no 
more  than  the  "Roman  country"  in  a  special  limitation. 
Plate  I.  ROUMANIA,  a  kingdom  in  the  south-east  of  Europe 
between  the  Carpathians,  the  Pruth,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the 
Danube.  The  Pruth  and  the  Kilia  mouth  of  the  Danube 
now  form  the  frontier  with  Russia.  West  of  Silistria  the 
Danube  is  the  boundary  between  Roumania  and  Bulgaria, 
while  to  the  east  of  that  point  the  boundary  is  formed  by 
fjU  irregular  line  passing  east  by  south  to  the  coast  about 
ten  miles  to  the  south  of  Mangalia.  The  territory  thus 
shut  off  between  the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea  is  known 
as  the  DoBEUDJA  (q.v.),  and  differs  in  its  physical  features 
and  products  from  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
•^iven  to  Roumania  at  the  close  of  the  last  Russo-Turkish 
«Var  as  a  con)pensation  tor  the  territory  of  Bessarabia,  east 
of  the  Pruth,  which  was  then  restored  to  Russia.  The 
area  of  the  kingdom  is  estimated  at  about  49,250  square 
joiles,  which  is  rather  less  than  that  of  England  without 
Wales.  The  greatest  length  of  the  kingdom  is  from  east 
io  west  near  the  parallel  of  45°,  along  which  the  length  is 
ibont  350  miles.  The  line  stretching  from  north-west  to 
;outh-east  between  the  extreme  points  of  the  kingdom  is 
ibout  fifteen  miles  shorter. 

The  crescent-shaped  portion  of  the  kingdom  lying 
between  the  Danube  and  Pruth  and  the  Carpathians  is 
tolerably  uniform  in  its  physical  features.  The  southern 
mrt  of  the  area  is  a  plain  -  continuous  with  that  Of 
southern  Russia.  Towards  the  interior  the  surface  rises 
gradually  but  slowly  until  we  come  to  the  spurs  of  the 
Carpathians.  The  Roumanian  frontier  on  this  side  runs 
for  the  most  part  along  the  very  crest  of  the"  mountains, 
which  have  peaks  rising  to  from  6000  to  8000  feet  and 
upwards.  The  lowest  part  of  this  plain  is  that  which 
stretches  :ilongtlie  iclt  l.aiik   uitlie  ll.iiiiibi.  and  this     alsii 


is  the  dreariest  and  least  productive.  Large  tracts  of  it 
are  marshy  and  subject  to  inundation,  and  even  beyond 
the  marshy  districts  the  aspect  of  the  country  remains 
extremely  uninviting.  Agriculture  is  neglected ;  ccarse 
■grasses  occupy  large  areas ;  and  the  most  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  landscape  is  probably  a  rude  well,  such  as 
is  seen  in  the  pusstas  of  Hungary  and  some  parts  of 
southern  Russia,  where  the  general  aspect  of  the  country 
is  so  like  what  we  find  here.  Farther  inland,  however, 
the  appearance  of  the  surface  improves :  agriculture 
becomes  more  -geneeal,  trees  (willows,  alders,  and  poplars) 
more  abundant ;  on  the  still  higher  ground  nearer  the 
Carpathians  the  outward  signs  of  comfort  and  prosperity 
become  more  and  more  apparent ;  the  vine  clothes  the 
hill  slopes ;  plums,  peaches,  and  southern  fruits  are  grown 
in  profusion ;  large  forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  elm  reach 
to  the  hill  tops,  and  various  minerals  form  an  important 
addition  to  the  present  and  prospective  resources  of  the 
country.  At  elevations  too  high  for  the  foliage  trees  just 
mentioned  these  are  succeeded  by  pines  and  firs,  birches 
and  larches,  which  crown  the  mcrun tains  to  a  height  of 
5000  or  6000  feet.  Extensive  as  the  plains  of  Roumania 
are,  40  per  cent,  of  the  entire  surface  is  more  than  a 
thousand  feet  above  sea-level,  while  the  greater  part  of  the 
northern  (or  Moldavian)  half  of  the  crescent  varies  from 
300  to  1000  feet,  almost  all  the  rest  of  Moldavia  being 
still  more  elevated. 

The  superficial  geology  of  Ronmapia,  so  far  as  it  is  Geologj 
known,  is  extremely  simple,  at  least  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube.  Quaternary  deposits  are  spread  over  all  the 
plains.  ■  Among  these  the  most  important  is  the  yellow 
loess,  which  covers  such  large  areas  in  Hungary  also,  and 
which  in  Roumania  attains  in  places  a  depth  of  1 50  to  300 
feet.  In  certain  parts  the  black  soil  of  southern  Russia 
extends  into  Roumania,  and  is  important  on  account  of 
its  richness,  though  its  depth  is  nowhere  above  3  feet. 
Advancing  inland  one  meets  next  with  Miocene  and 
Eocene  deposits,  until,  in  ascending  the  slopes  of  the 
Carpathians,  Secondary,  Primary,  and  crystalline  rocks  are 
seen  to  crop  out  in  succession.  The  desolate  plateau 
of  the  Dobrudja  contrasts  with  the  region  on  the  left 
of  the  Danube  in  its  geology  as  in  other  respects. 
Its  basis  consists  of  crystalline  rocks,  but  these  are 
covered  with  sedimentary  formations  of  various  ages. 
On  the  north  this  plateau,  which  is  billy  and  even 
mountainous,  sinks  down  rather  abruptly  to  the  delta  of 
the  Danube,  a  congeries  of-  alluvial  marshes  occupied 
chiefly  by  aquatic  and  marsh-loving  birds. 

Of  the  rivers  of  Roumania  by  far  the  most  important 
is  the  Danube,  which  is  navigable  for  large  vessels 
throughout  its  Roumanian  reach,  the  first  ob.=traction  to 
navigation,  the  celebrated  Iron  Gates,  occurring  just  wher'- 
it  enters  Roumanian  territory.  The  breadth  of  ih'^  river 
is  of  some  consequence  in  view  of  the  fact  that  ii,  h  r. 
frontier  stream,  and  the  marshes  on  the  left  bank  have  at 
least  this  advantage  that  they  enable  it  to  serve  aU  the 
more  effectually  as  a  natural  boundary.  The  plain  on 
the  left  are  traversed  by  numerous  winding  tributaries  of 
the  Danube,  but  of  these  the  only  one  of  importance  as  a 
means  of  communication  is  the  Pruth,  which  is  navigable 
for  small  grain-carrying  vessels.  The  others — the  Sereth, 
Jalomitza,  Dambovitza,  Olta — are  sluggish  streams,  oftsn 
half-dry,  but  yet  at  certain  seasons  subject  to  inundptions, 
which  unfortunately  occur  at  a  time  when  the  crops  are 
so  far  advanced- as  to  be  liable  to  be  much  damaged. 
In  consequence  of  this  the  Government  has  bestowed  much 
pains  on  the  regulation  of  these  streams,  and  the  works 
for  this  purpose  are  rendered  further  serviceable  by  the 
fact  that  the  Roumanian  rivers  can  be  turned  to  account 
for  irricration. 


ROUMANIA 


15 


The  climate  of  Eoumania  ia  one  of  extremes  as  regards 
Temperature.  Winter,  and  summer  are  almost  equally 
trying.  In  tlie  former  season  the  thermometer  may  sink  to 
— 15°  Fahr.,  while  in  the  latter  it  may  rise  to  from  90°  to 
25°.  The  mean  temperature  of  spring  at  Bucharest  is  53°, 
-sumrer  72J°,  autumn  65°,  winter  27J°.  Spring,  how- 
ever, scarcely  exists  except  in  nama,  the  interval  between 
tho  cold  winter  and  hot  summer  being  very  short.  The 
autumn-  on  the  other  hand,  is  long  and  is  the  most  genial 
season  of  the  year.  '  It  lasts  to  the  end  of  November. 
Being  continuooa  with  the  Russian  plain,  Koumania  is 
exposed  to  the  bitterly  cold  wind  from  the  north-east  by 
which  southern  Eussia"  ia  also  scourged.  In  Eoumania 
this  wind,  known  as  crivets,  blows  on  an  average  155  days 
in  the  year,  while  a  west  or  south-west  wind,  called  the 
austru,  equally  disagreeable  for  its  scorching  heat,  blows  on 
an  average  126  days.  The  rainfall  is  not  excessive.  The 
number  of  rainy  days  in  the  year  is  about  74,  or  only  about 
two-fifths  of  the  number  round  London.  The  summer 
months  are  those  in  which  the  rains  are  most  abundant. 
Snow  is  nnfrequent  (12  days  in  the  year).  As  regards 
salubrity  the  low-lying  plains  near  tho  Danube  are  the 
worst  part  of  the  kingdom.  Marsh  fever  is  there  prevalent, 
and  the  tendency  to  puffer  from  disease  is  increased  by 
the  miserable  character  of  the  dwellings  occupied  by  the 
peasantry  of  that  district.  The  houses  are  mere  pits  dug 
out  in  the  ground  and  covered  over  with  sloping  roofs 
formed  of  branches  and  twigs. 

-gn-  Three-fourtlis  of  the  population  aro  dependent  upon  agriculture, 

"dtiire.  The  plains  covered  by  loess  and  black  soil  are  admirably  adapted 
for  the  growth  of  cereals,  and  of  these  the  most  important  are 
maize,  wneat,  and  barley.  The  methods  of  cultivation  are  to  a 
large  extent  primitive  and  imperfect,  but  great  improvements  are 
taking  place  through  the  application  of  foreign  capital  to  the 
development  of  the  native  resources.  Improved  agricultural  im- 
plements ot  all  kinds  have  been  introduced  of  late  years  in  great 
numbers.  The  old  plough,  which  has  a  share  resembling  a  lance 
head,  which  enters  the  ground  horizontally  and  thus  merely 
»:ratch-es  the  surface,  is  being  rapidly  superseded  by  ploughs  of 
English  and  Austrian  manufacture.  These  improvements,  which 
have  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  alteration  in  tho  status  of  tho 
Kourcanian  peasantry  brought  about  by  the  law  of  1864,  and  like- 
wise by  the  introduction  of  railways,  have  resulted  in  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  amount  of  the  production  of  cereals.  Eoumania  is 
one  of  the  principal  grain-exporting  countries  in  Europe,  ^nd  the 
increase  in  the  production  just  alluded  to  is  sufficiently  well  indi- 
cated by  the  iigures  given  below  relative  to  the  exports  of  grain  to 
tho  United  Kingdom.  The  great  variations  in  these  figures,  though 
obviously  due  in  part  to  political  causes,  likewise  serve  to  illustrate 
the  chief  drawback  under  which  Roumanian  agriculture  labours — 
namely,  tho  liability  to  drought. 

Besides  forming  a  valuable  article  of  export  maize  furnishes  the 
chief  food  of  the  people.  The  great  body  of  Roumanians  seldom 
eat  meat  except  on  feast  days,  and  the  favourite  food  is  a  dish 
called  rrminalirra,  made  by  boiling  maize-meal  and  flavouring  it 
with  a  little  salt.  It  thus  resembles  the  hominy  of  the  Americans. 
In  addition  to  cereals  many  kinds  of  vegetables,  including  garlic, 
melons,  and  cucumbers,  aro  grown.  Hemp  and  colza  are  also 
important  products,  and  tobacco  furnished  a  considerable  article  of 
export  until  it  was  made  a  monopoly  of  the  state  in  1872.  As 
already  mentioned,  wine  and  numerous  fruits  aro  produced  on  the 
foot-hills  of  tho  Carpathians,  but  owing  to  neglect  the  product.8  are 
greatly  inferior  to  what  they  ought  to  he.  J^othing,  it  is  ^aid,  but 
cara  in  the  cultivation  of  the  vino  and  the  preparation  and  pre- 
servation of  tlic  wine  is  necessary  to  make  Roumania  a  wine- 
growing country  of  tho  first  rank.  As  it  is,  vines  are  estimated  to 
cover  only  about  250,000  acres,  or  about  ijj  of  tho  entire  surface. 
From  plums  the  Roumanians  extract  a  strong  spirit  known  as 
Uuita,  and  it  is  chiefly  for  this  that  the  plum-tree  is  cultivated. 

The  rearing  of  domestic  animals  is  likewise  an  important 
industry,  but  it  haa  not  advanced  so  much  of  late  years  as  tho 
growth  of  cereals.  Tho  exports  of  cattle  aro  almost  stationary. 
0,T^n  are  of  much  more  importance  than  horses,  being  chiefly  used 
in  neld  labours.  Buffaloca  also  are  reared  fw  the  purpose,  and  aro 
much  valued  for  their  strength.  Sheep  and  cattle  rearing  forms 
tho  chief  occupation  of  the  sparse  ponulition  of  the  Dobnidjn. 

About  onc-^ixth  of  the  total  surface  of  Roumania  is  estimated  to 
be  covered  with  forests  producing  valuable  timber  trees.  Oaks, 
firs,  and  beeches  are  said  to  be  met  with  having  a  diametfr  of  mnru 
than  8  feet  at  tho  height  of  33  feet  above  tho  gtound.    'Iho  warm 


summers  a^d  cold  vnnters  are  favourable  to  tlia  Quality  of  tho 
wood,  which  is  hard  and  lasting.  Cafortunately  there  is  a  goTd 
deal  of  recklesanesa  in  the  way  in  which  the  forests  aro  utilized, 
and  they  are  said  to  be  fast  disappearing ;  but  it  is  to.  be  hopeci 
that  the  influence  of  tho  College  of  Agriculture  and  Sylviculture  at 
Ferestreu,  2  miles  from  Bucharest,  will  help  to  put  a  check  upon 
this  improvidence,  as  it  is  without  doubt  contributing  greatly  to 
the  promotion  of  Roumanian  agriculture. 

Tne  mineral  wealth  on  the  Roumanian  side  of  the  Carpathians 
is  considerable,  but  at  present  there  are  only  three  minerals  that 
have  any  gieat  industrial  importance.  These  are  rock-salt 
petroleum,  and  lignite.  The  salt  mines  are  a  state  monopoly,  and 
two  of  them,  at  Ocna-Maio  and  Telega,  are  partly  v/orkcd  iby 
convicts.  The  depth  Com  which  the  salt  is  extracted  nowhere 
exceeds  300  fcot.  The  average  quantity  of  salt  sold  annually  is 
about  62,000  tons.  Lignite  is  important  inasmuch  as  it  i:j  used 
along  with  wood  on  tho  railways,  as  well  as  in  brick  and  lime 
kilns.  Coal  is  also  found,  in  some  places  even  at  the  surface,  bnt, 
though  one  or  two  mines  have  been  opened,  the  total  production  b 
insignificant.  Ozocerite,  or  fossil  was,  is  frequently  found  in 
association  with  lignite,  but  is  used  only  in  small  quantity  by 
the  peasantry.  Among  other  minerals  are  anthracite.'iron,  gold, 
copper,  lead,  sulphur,  cobalt,  and  arsenic  ;  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  some  of  these  at  least  might  be  made  economically  valuable  if 
the  resources  of  the  country  were,  adequately  developed. 

So   far  the  manufacturing  industries  of  Eoumania  are  Kardly ''dm- 
worthy  of  mention.     There  are  petroleum  refineries,   ono  or  t'.'^o  f.-icttires 
sugar  refineries,'  numerous  steam-mills  for  grinding  flour,  besidts 
large   numbers   of  floating  maize-mills  on   tho  Danube  ;  but  ia 
addition  to  these  there  are  only  a  few  manufactories  at  Galatz. 

From  the  account  just  given  of  the  products  of  Roumania  '^T.-^la 
follows  that  the  exports  -of  the  kingdom  consist  chiefly  of  law 
produce,  and  above  all'  of  cereals,  while  the  imports  are  maiiily 
composed  of  manufactured  articles.  The  countries  with  which  t!ie 
trade  is  chiefly  carried  on  are  Austria  (with  about  40  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  trade  in  1883),  Great  Britain  (about  30  per  cent.), 
France  (about  1\^  per  cent),  Germany  (about  8  per  cent.),  Turl  ey, 
and  Russia.  The  foreign  commerce  of  Roumania  is  centred  iu 
Galatz,  which  is  situated  at  the  bend  of  the  Danube  where  the  river 
once  more  turns  eastward  on  reaching  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Dobrudja  plateau.  From  this  centre  there  is  one  line  of  ic  1- 
way  leading  into  Russia,  while  others  pass  through  the  interior  <if 
Roumania  and  connect  with  the  Austrian  lines  in  the  north  t;:d 
south  of  Hungary.  The  first  Roumanian  railway  was  that  fr-ia 
Giurgcvo  to  Bucharest,  opened  in  1869.  In  1884  there  were  abc-it 
1000  miles  of  railway  in  the  kingdom.  The  internal  trade  of 
Roumania  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  It  is 
greatly  hampered  by  the  .existence  of  the  octroi  in  all  the  large 
towns,  almost  all  the  necessaries  of  life  as  well  as  luxuries  ijcing 
taxed  when  introduced  within  the  municipal  boundaries. 

Sea  SatnnelBon,  Roumania,  Past  ami  Present  (London,  1882);  Ozanne,  TTtree 
Fears  in  Roumania  (London,  1878);  Kanltz,  Donau-Bulgarien  und  dcr  Balkan 
(1876);  and  B.  Roeaier.  Romanisthe  S'.udlen,  IT..  G.  C.J 

Statistics. 
The  approximate  proportion  of  cultivated  ana  uncultivated  land 
in  Eoumania  is  given  in  pogones  (=-li  acres)  as  follows  : — 

Cereals,  gardens,  vines ,. 4,945, i03 

Pasture  and  hay 7,093,910 

Forests 4,029,947 

Uncultivated 7,574,335 

Th^  annual  yield  of  cereals  of  all  kinds  is  roughly  eiitimafed  at 
16,000,000  quarters.  The  number  of  homed  cattle  in  the  country' 
is  about  3,000,000. 

In  1883  the  following  were  the  values  of  the  principal  articles 
of  import  and  export : — 


oduci 


|Teiille« 

Metal3 

Skins,  leather 

Wood  and  mnnii- 

facturea 

Exotic  products.. 


Imports. 


£ 
4,706.063 
2.926,676 
1,749,674 

764.754 
71.'!,000 


Exports. 


C 

248,604 
73.196 
257,136 

323.372 
24,080 


Imports 

and 


Mtnerala.  pottesr. 

Oila,  fat,  &c 

Cereals. 

Animals 

Fruits,  vegctaWcs. 


Impona 


465,610 
371,337 
281,377 
169,420 


Exporll.  I 


il 
i;',760 

6,993 

i,  902, 280 

4I„-.,C92 

i;:.csi 


Tho  total  imports  of  British  homo  produce,  mostly  cotton  goods, 
&c.,  and  iron,  into  Roumania  in  1883  amounted  to  £1,344,019,  and 
the  total  ctports,  mostly  barley  and  maize,  of  Kxjumauia  to  Great 
Britain  to  £3,516,442. 

There  were  in  1884  about  1000  miles  of  railway* complete  in 
tho  kingdom,  and  3000  miles  of  telegraph  lines. 

The  estimated  population  of  the  country  ia  5,376,000,  including 
about  400,000  Jews  and  200,000  Gipsies.  About  four  and  a  h.ilf 
millions  of  the  population  belong  to  the  Eoumaninn  branch  of  the 
Orthodtx  Greek  Church,  and  there  aro  H4,0U0  Koman  Catholics 
and  13,800  Protcstaiita. 


ROUMANIA 


16 

An  oaScial  analysis  of  the  occupaHons  of  the  people  gives  the 
following  results  (the  figures  representing  heads  of  families)  :— 

Agriculturists 684,163 

Artisans  and  labourers....  S„',?i 

Traders W 

Officials 22.811 

Professors  and  teachers •; 'aai. 

Medical  and  legal  professions  and  druggists..         yya 

Artists,  musicians,  and  publicista nai-o 

Priests,  monks,. and  nuns ,„A^i 

Various ^^'^'^^^ 

Total 973,941 

Of  the  larger  cities   Bucharest   (Bucurest)   numbered   in  1876 

221,805  inhabitants,  Jassy  90,125,  and  Galat2  80  763. 

EcbiM.         In  18bJ  there  were  2742  primary  schools  with  124,130  pupils, 

uT^      8  normal  schools  with  830  pnpils,  and  64  high  schools  with  7993 

pupils,  besides  the  two  universities  of  Bucharest  and  Jassy,  con- 

Uininc  97  professors  and  readers  and  705  students.     It  is  es-timated 

that  a°bout   1000   young  men  receive  their  university  education 

abroad,  mostly  at  Paris.     There  is  also  a  ladies  college,  called  the 

Asvle  Hpltoe  from  its  founder  in  its  present  form,  the  Princess 

Helena  Cuza,  and  accommodating  230  girls,  many  of  whom  are 

Learned  orphans.     Amongst  learned  institutions  the  Roumanian  Academy 

.asti'u-    claims  the  first  place,  and  excellent  contributions  on  subjects  of 

tions        national  and  scientific  interest  will  be  found  amongst  its  proceed- 

in<»s  (Analde  Acadcmiei  Romane,  1878  S}.).     The  academy  building 

at°Bucharest  contains  the  national  library  of  over  30,000  volumes 

and   a  fine  archffiological  museum  containmg  many  Old   Dacian 

antiquities.  >  -it  lonn 

Anoy  The  peace  strength  of  the  permanent   army  consists  of  1200 

officers  and  18,532  men,  with  180  guns.  •  Besides  this,  there  are 

the  territorial  army,  consisting  of  120,000  men  and  84  guns  ;  the 

m'ilitia,  consisting  of  thirty-two  regiments  of  infantry ;  and  finally 

the  Icve!  en  ■masse.     Every  Roumanian,  from  his  twentyfii^t  to  his 

forty-sixth  year,  is  obliged  to  serve  his  time  in  one  of  the  above 

categories.     The  total  of  the  Roumsnian  forces,  exclusive  of  the 

levic  en  masse,  amounts  to  about  150,000  men  and  288  guns. 


Mediseval  ajid  Modern  History  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia. 
Roiimania  is  the  name  officiiUy  adopted  by  the  united  kingdom 
that  comprises  the  former  principalities  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia. 
In  its  native  form  it  appears  simply  as  "Romania,"  representing 
the  claim  to  Roman  descent  put  forward  by  its  inhabitants.     These 
call  themselves  "  Romani "  or  "  Rumeni,  "'  but  by  their  neighbours, 
Slavonic,  Greek,  Magyar,  and  German,  they  are  universally  known 
by  one  or  ether  form  of  the  lyord  "Vlach."     As,  however,  this 
Vlach  or  Rouman  rice  occupies  a  far  wider  area  than  that  included 
in  the  present  Roumanian  kingdom, 'it  may  be  convenient  to  post- 
pone the  vexed  questions  connected  with   its  origin,  migrations, 
and   distribution  for  more  general  treatment  under  the  heading 
Vlachs,  and  to  confine  ourselves  on  this  occasion  to  Roumania 
proper— the  country  between  the  Carpathians,  the  Lower  Danube, 
and  the   Black  Sea.     It  may  be  sufficient  here  to  observe  that, 
according  to   the  concurrent  accounts  from  various  sources,  the 
great  plains  of  the  later  Walachian  and  Moldavian  principalities 
were  first  occupied  by  an  immigrant  Rouman  population  coming 
from  the  Carpathian  lands  and  the  present  Transylvania  in  the 
early   Middle   Ages.     According   to  the  Russian  Nestor^  and  the 
earliest  Hungarian  chroniclers,  the  Carpathian   region,  including 
tracts  of  eastern  Hungary,  were  occupied  by  a  Rouman  ("  Rqpian  ") 
population  at  the  time  of  the  Magyar  invasion  in  the  9th  century. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  meagre  annals  of  the  plains  that  lie  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Lower  Danube  are  exclusively  occupied  tiU  at 
least  the   11th  century  with  Slovenes,  Petcheneg-s,  Cumans,  and 
Bulgarians.     Whatever  title  the  Carpathian  Roumans  may  have 
to  be  considered  the  descendants  in  situ  of  the  Romanized  pro- 
vincials of  Trajan's  Dacia,  it  seems  fairly  ascertained   that  the 
present  extension  of  this  easternmost  branch  of  the  Latin  peophs 
over  the  Walachian  and  Moldavian  plains  is  due  to  a  colonizing 
movement  from  the  Alpine  regions  to  the  west,  effected  for  the 
most  part  in  the  12th  and  succeeding  centuries. 

IFalachia. — For  the  early  history  of  the  Walachian  (Valachian, 
or  Wallachia-n)  principality  the  native  sources  are  late  and  untrust- 
worthy. These  sources  really  reduce  themselves  to  a  single  chron- 
icle, a  part  of  which  appears  to  have  been  drawn  up  in  the  16th 
centnry  in  Bulgaro-Slovene,  and  of  which  two  Rouman  translations 
have  seen  the  light.  This  "History  of  the  Rouman  land  since 
the  arrival  of  the  Roumans  "  {Isloria  tierei  Bomancsci  de  cthidu  au 
descalicata  Eomanii)  gives  a  precise  account  of  the  founding  of  the 
Walachian  state  by  Radnl  Negru,  voivode  of  the  Roumans  of 
Fogaras  in  Transylvania,  who  in  1290  descended  with  a  numerous 
people  into  the  Transalpine  plain  and  established  his.  capital  first 
at  Cimpulungii  and  tlien  at  Argish.  Radul  dies  in  1314  and  is 
succeeded  by  a  scries  of  voivojes  whose  names  and  dates  are  duly 
<nven ;    but  this  cariy  chapter   of  Walachian  history    has   been 


rudely  handled  by  Roesler  in  nis  essay  on  the  oldest  history  of  the 
Walachian  voivodeship  (Romanische  Sludien,  p.  261  Si.).  The  so- 
called  "  Chronicle  of  Hurul "  is  a  modern  forgery,  and  our  only  real 
authorities  for  the  beginnings  of  Roumanian  history  are  Hungarian, 
Polish,  and  Byzantine.  ,        „  ■         ,  j  j  -r. 

In  1330  the  voivode  Alexander  Bazarad  or  Bas.saraba  succeeded  hun- 
in   inflicting  a  crushing  defeat  on  his  suzerain  King  Charles  of  garian 
Hungary,  and  for  fourteen  years  Wallachia  enjoyed  complete  inde-  supre- 
pendence      Louis  the  Great  succeeded  for  a  whUe  in  restoring  the  macy. 
Hungarian  supremacy,  but  in  1367  the  voivode  Vlad  or  Vladislav 
Inflicted  another  severe  defeat  on  the  Hungarians,  and  succeeded 
for  a  time  in  ousting  the  Magyar  ban  of  Severin  and  thus  incor- 
porating Little  Walachia,  the  country  west  of   the  Aluta,  in  his 
dominions.     Subsequently,  in  order  to  retain  a  hold  on  the  loyalty 
of  the  Walachian  voivode,  the  king  of  Hungary  invested  him^  with 
the  title  of  duke  of  Fogaras  and  Omlas,  Rouman  districts  situate 
in  Transylvania,  and  this  investitiire  seems  to  have  left  its  impress 
on  the  traditional  account  of  Radul  Negru.  . 

Under  the  voivode  Mircea  (1383-1419),  whose  prowess  is  still 
C(Jlebrated  in  the  national  folk-songs,  Walachia  played  for  ft  whilq 
a  more  ambitious  part.  This  prince,  during  the  earUer  part  of  his 
rei-'n  sought  a  couuterpoise  to  Hungarian  influence  -..  the  close 
alirance  wTth  King  Vladislav  Jagietto  of  Poland.  He  ad.'cd  to  hu 
other  titles  that  of  "  count  of  Severin,  despot  of  the  Doorodja,  and 
lord  of  SUistria,"  and  both  Widin  and  Sistov  appear  in  his  pos- 
session. A  Walachian  contingent,  apparentiy  Mircea  s,  aided  the 
Servian  Kniaz  Lazar  on  the  fatal  field  of  Kosovo  ;  later  he  was  led 
by  the  force  of  circumstances  to  ally  iimisclf  vwth  his  formei 
enemy  Sidsmund  of  Hungary  a.gainst  Bajazet,  and  m  1396  shared 
with  him  the  disaster  of  Nikopolis.  Bajsz^^t  subsequently  mvaded 
and  laid  waste  a  large  part  of  VVal.-.chia,  but  the  voivode  succeeded 
in  inflicting  considerable  loss  on  the  retiring  Turks,  and  the  capture 
of  Eaiazet  by  Timur  in  1402  gave  tha  country  a  reprieve.  In  the 
internecine  struggle  that  followed  a.nougst  the  sons  of  Bajazet 
Mircea  espoused  the  cause  of  itusa  ;  but,  though  he  thus  obtained 
for  a  while  consiierable  influence  in  the  Turkish  councils,  ♦'!'» 
policy  eventually  drew  on  him  the  vengeance  of  Sultan  Mahomet  1., 
wlio  succeeded  in  reducing  him  to  a  tributary  position. 

During  the  succeeding  peiiod  the  Walachian  princes  appear 
alternately  as  the  allies  of  Hungary  or  the  creatures  of  ihe  rurk. 
In  the  later  battle  of  Kosovo  cf  1448,  between  Hunyadi  and  Sultan 
Murad,  the  Walachian  contingent  treacherously  surrendered  to  the 
Turks  but  this  did  not  lander  the  victorious  sultan  from  massacrmg 
the  prisoners  and  adding  to  the  hibute  a  yearly  contribution  _ot 
3000  javelins  and  4000  shields.  In  1453  Constantinople  feU  ;  in 
1454  Hunyadi  died;  and  two  years  later  the  s"lt.a»  '°^^,Jf<^  ,„  ,  ,.  „ 
Walachia  to  set  up  Vlad  IV.,  the  son  of  a  former  voivode.  The  \nad  thf 
father  of  this  Vlad  had  himself  been  notorious  for  his  ferocity,  impaler. 
but  his  son,  during  his  Turkish  sojourn,  had  improved^^on  his 
father's  example.  He  was  known  in  AValachia  as  Diacul,  or  the 
Devil,  and  has  left  a  name  in  history  as  Vlad  the  Impaler.  ine 
stories  of  his  ferocious  savagery  exceed  belief.  He  is  said  to  have 
feasted  amongst  his  impaled  victims.  When  the  sultan  Mahomet, 
infuriated  at  the  impalement  of  his  envoy,  the  pasha  of  W  idin,  who 
had  been  charged  ivith  Vl.ad's  deposition,  invaded  A\  alachia  in 
person  with  an  immense  host,  he  is  said  to  have  found  at  one  spot 
a  forest  of  pales  on  which  were  the  bodies  of  men,  women,  and 
children.  The  voivode  Radul,  who  was  now  substitiited  lor 
this  monster  by  Turkish  influence,  was  constrained  to  pay  a  hribute 

of  12,000  ducats.  .  .    „  •     . .        •-,,...» 

The  shifting  policy  of  the  Walachian  princes  at  this  time  is  state  of 
weU   described   in   a  letter  of  the   Hungarian  king  Matthias  to  Walachia 
Casimir  of  Poland.     "  The  voivodes,"  he  writes,     of  Walachia  and  «rc 
Moldavia  fawn  alternately  upon  the  Turks,  the  Tatars   the  Poles,  1500. 
and  the  Hungarians,  that  among  so  many  mastera  their  pertidy 
may  remiin  unpunished."     The  prevalent  laxity  of  marriage,  the 
frequency  of  divorce,  and  the  fact  that  illegitimate  children  could 
succeed  as  well  as  those  born  in  lavful  wedlock,  by  multiplying 
the  candidates  for  the   voivodeship  and  preventing  any  reg-ular 
system  of  succession,  conb-ibuted  much  to  the  mternal  confusion  of 
the  country.     The  elections,  though  often  contiroUcd  by  the  Divan, 
were  stUl  constitutionally  in  the  hands  of  tlie  bo.ars,  who  were 
spUt  up  into  various  factions,  each  with  its  own  pretender  to  the 
throne:     The  princes   foUowed   ono  anuther  m  rapid  succession, 
and  a  large  proportion  met  with  violent  enas.     A  large  part  ol 
the  population  leS  a  pastoral  life,  and  at  the  time  of  \  erantius  s  visit 
to  Walachia  in  the  ^rly  part  of  the  16th  century  the  towns  and 
viUages  were  built  of  wood  and  wattie  and  daub.     Ti^govist  alone, 
at  this  time  the  capital  of  the  country,  w.as  a  considerable  town, 
with  two  stone  castles.     Nagul  Bassaraba,  who  succeeded  in  1512, 
was  a  great  builder  of  monasteries,  and,  besides  erecting  a  monastic 
church  at  Argish,  which  he  coated  with  white  marble,  and  a  new 
cathedral  at  Tirgovist,  adorned  Moimt  Athos  with  his  pious  works 
He   transferred  the   direct  allegiance   of    the  \\  alachian  Church 
to   Constantinople.      On  NaguVs  death,    however,    in   1521,    the 
brief  period   of  comparative   prosperity   which   his  architecturaJ 
worlu  attest  was  tragicaUy.  interrupted,  and  it  seemed  for  a  time 


TO L.  XX J 


Page  lU. 


1  &  SEEYIA. 


PLATE  I 


ROU  MANIA 


17 


thit  'Walachia  was  uoomod  to  sink  into  a  Turkish  pashalic.  The 
Turkish  commander  Mahmoud  Bey  became  treacherously  possessed 
of  Nagul's  young  sou  and  successor,  and,  sending  him  a  prisoner  to 
Stamboul,  proceeded  to  nominate  Turkish  governors  in  the  towns 
and  villages  ot  Walachia.  The  Walaohiana  resisted  desperately, 
elected  Kadul,  a  kinsman  ot  Nagul,  voivode,  and  succeeded  with 
Hungarian  help  in  defeating  Mahmoud  Bey  at  Grumatz  in  1522. 
The  conflict  was  prolonged  with  varying  fortunes,  but  in  1524  the 
dogged  opposition  of  the  Walachians  finally  triumphed  in  the 
sultan's  recognition  of  Radul. 

But,  though  Walachia  thus  escaped  conversion  into  a  Turkish 
pashalic,  the  battle  of  Jlohacs  in  1526  decided  the  long  pre- 
ponderance  of  Turkish  control.  The  unfortunate  province  served 
as  a  transit  route  for  Turkish  expeditions  against  Hungary 
and  Transylvania,  and  was  exhausted  by  continual  requisitions. 
Turkish  settlers  were  gradually  making  good  their  footing  on 
Walachian  soil,  and  mosques  were  rising  in  the  towns  and  villages. 
The  voivode  Alexander,  who  succeeded  in  1591,  and  who  like  his 
predecessors  had  bought  his  post  of  the  Divan,  carried  the  oppres- 
sion still  further  by  introducing  against  the  capitulations  a  janizary 
guard,  and  farming  out  his  possessions  to  his  Turkish  supporters. 
Itcanwhile  the  Turkish  governors  on  the  Bulgarian  bank  never 
ceased  to  ravage  the  country,  and  again  it  seemed  as  if  Walachia 
must  share  the  fate  of  the  Balkan  states  and  succumb  to  the  direct 
government  of  the  Ottoman.  In  the  depth  of  the  national  distress 
the  choice  of  the  people  fell  on  Michael,  the  son  of  Petrushko,  ban 
of  Krajova,  the  first  dignitary  of  the  realm,  who  had  fled  to 
Transylvania  to  escape  Alexander's  machinations.  Supported  at 
Constantinople  by  two  at  that  time  influential  personages,  Sigmund 
BatUori  and  the  English  ambassador,  Edward  Barton,  and  aided  by 
a  loan  of  200,000  florins,  Michael  succeeded  in  procuring' from  the 
Divan  the  deposition  of  his  enemy  and  his  own  nomination. 

The  genius  of  Jlichael  "  the  Brave  "  (1593-1601)  secured  Walachia 
for  a  time  a  place  in  nniversal  history.  The  moment  for  action 
was  favourable.  The  emperor  Kudolph  H.  had  gained  some 
successes  over  the  Turks,  and  Sigmund  Bathori,  prince  of 
Transylvania,  had  been  driven  by  Turkish  extortions  to  throw  off' 
the  allegiance  to  the  sultan.  But  the  first  obstacle  to  be  dealt 
with  was  the  presence  of  the  enemy  within  the  walls,  and  Michael 
had  recourse  to  the  same  desperate  expedient  as  the  Montenegrins 
at  a  later  date.  By  previous  concert  with  the  Moldavian  voivode 
Aaron,  on  November  13,  1594,  the  Turkish  guards  and  settlers  in 
the  two  principalities  were  massacred  at  a  given  signal.  Michael 
followed  up  these  "Walachian  'Vespers"  by  an  actual  invasion  of 
Turkish  territory,  and,  aided  by  Sigmund  Bathori,  succeeded  in 
carrying  by  assault  Rustchuk,  Silistria,  and  other  places  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  lower  Danube.  A  simultaneous  invasion  of 
Walachia  by  a  large  Turkish  and  Crim-Tatar  host  was  successfully 
defeated  ;  the  Tatar  khan  withdrew  with  the  loss  of  his  bravest 
followers,  and,  iu  the  great  victory  of  Mantin  on  the  Danube 
(1595),  the  Turkish  army  was  annihilated,  and  its  leader  Alustafa 
slain.  The  sultan  now  sent  Sinan  Pasha  "the  Renegade"  to  invade 
Walachia  with  100,000  men.  Michael  withdrew  to  the  mountains 
before  this  overwhelming  force,  but,  being  joined  by  Bathori  with 
a  Transylvanian  contingent,  the  voivode  resumed  the  offensive, 
stormed  Bucharest,  where  Sinan  had  entrenched  a  Turkish  detach- 
ment, and,  pursuing  the  main  body  of  his  forces  to  the  Danube, 
overtook  the  rearguard  and  cut  it  to  pieces,  capturing  enormous 
booty.  Sinan  Pasha  returned  to  Constantinople  to  die,  it  is  said, 
of  vexation,  and  in  1597  the  sultan,  weary  of  a  disastrous  contest, 
sent  Michael  a  red  flag  in  token  of  reconciliation,  reinvested  him 
for  life  in  an  oflice  of  which  he  had  been  unable  to  deprive  him, 
and  granted  the  succession  to  his  son. 
".t  In  1599,  on  the  definitive  abdication  of  Sigmund  Bathori  in 
•  Transylvania,  Michael,  in  league  with  the  imperialist  forces  under 
. ..  General  Basta,  and  in  connivance  with  the  Saxon  burghers,  attacked 
and  defeated  his  successor  -Vndreas  Bathori  near  Hermannstadt, 
and,  seizing  himself  the  reins  of  government,  secured  his  proclama- 
tion as  prince  of  Transylvania,  'fhe  emperor  consented  to  appoint 
him  his  "  loaim  tcnens  per  Transylvaniam,"  and  the  stiltan  ratified 
his  election.  As  prince  of  Transylvania  he  summoned  dicta  in 
1599  and  1600,  and,  having  cxpclloil  tl  ■'  ■  oivode  of  Moldavia, 
United  under  his  sceptre  three  princiiia'.;;;-  .  The  partiality  that 
he  showed  for  the  Rouman  and  Szekler  j:.uls  of  tlic  population 
alienated,  however,  the  Transylvanian  Saxons,  who  preferred  the 
direct  government  of  the  emperor.  The  imperial  commissioner 
General  Basta  lent  his  support  to  the  disaffected  party,  and 
Michael  was  driven  out  of  'fransylvania  by  a  successful  revolt, 
•while  a  Polish  army  under  Zamoyski  invaded  Walachia  from  the 
Moldavian  side.  Michael's  coolness  and  resource,  however,  never 
for  a  moment  deserted  him.  He  resolved  to  throw  himself  on 
the  emperor,  rode  to  Prague,  won  over  Rudolph  by  his  singular 
address,  and,  richly  supplied  with  funds,  reappeared  in  Transylvania 
as  imperial  governor.  In  conjunction  with  Basta  he  dcfc.Ttcd  the 
«Uj)enor  Transylvanian  forces  at  GorosI6,  expelling  Sigmund 
Bathori,  who  had  again  aspired  to  the  crown,  and  taking  one 
hundred  and  fifty  flags  and  forty-five  cannon.  But  at  the  moment 
-ii— a 


of  his  returning  prosperitv  Basta.  who  had  quarrelled  with  hiro 
about  the  supreme  command  of  the  imperial  forces,  procured  l.is 
murder  (August  19,  1601).  Thus  perished  Michael  the  Brave  m 
the  forty-third  year  of  his  age,  after  performing  in  the  course  <  f 
his  short  reign  achievements  which,  considering  the  small  resourc-:?- 
at  his  disposal,  must  place  his  name  beside  those  cf  Hunyadi  and 
Sobieski  in  the  annals  of  eastern  Europe.  Not  only  did  he  succceu 
in  rolling  back  for  a  time  the  tide  of  Turkish  conquest,  but  for 
the  first  and  last  time  in  modern  history  lie  united  what  once  had 
been  Trajan's  Dacia,  in  its  widest  extent,  and  wuh  it  the  whole 
Kouman  race  north  of  the  Danube,  under  a  single  sceptre. 

Michael's  wife  Florika  and  his  son  Petrushko  were  carried  off  Turki  i 
into   Tatar  captivity,  and  Serban.  of  the  Bassaraba  family,  was  domiua- 
raised  to  the  voivodeship  of  Walachia  by  imperialist  influences.  tioi» 
On  his  deposition  by  the  Porte  in  1610,  there  followed  a  succession 
of  princes  who,  though  still  for  the  most  part  of  Kouman  origin, 
bought  their  appointment  at  Stamboul.     Walachian  contingents 
were  continually  employed  by  the  Turks  in  their  Polish  wars,  and 
the  settlement  of  Greeks  in  an  official  or  mercantile  capacity  in 
the  principality  provoked  grave  discontent,  which  on  one  occasiou 
took  the  form  of  a  massacre.     The  reign  of  the  voivode  Matthias  Matthias 
Bassaraba,  who  succeeded  in  1633,  was  an  interval  of  cflmparative  Bassa- 
prosperity,  and  its  length,  twenty-one  years,  forms  itself  a  paneg\TJc.  raba. 
He  defended  himself  successfully  against  his  powerful  rival  Yasiije 
Lupul.  the  voivode  of  Moldavia,  and  his  Tatar  and  Cossack  allies, 
and  found  a  golden  key  to  Turkish  tolerance.     He  appet.rs  as  a 
lawgiver,  translating  the  Basilica  of  Jo.  Comnenus,  and  founded 
many  churches  and  monasteries.     His  last  days  were  embittered 
however,  by  an  outbreak  of  military  anarchy.     On  his  d.;ath  th 
Turkish  yoke  again  weighed  heavier  on  Walachia.     The  old  capita. 
Tirgovist  was  considered  by  the  Divan  to  be  too  near  the  Transyl- 
vanian frontier,  and  tlie  voivodes  were  accordingly  compelled  to 
transfer  their  residence  to  Bucharest.     The  mechanical  skill  of  the 
Walachians  was  found  useful  by  the  Turks,  who  employed  them  as 
carpenters  and   pontonniers  ;  aud  during  the  siege  of  Vienna  by 
Kara  Mustafa  iu  1683  the  Walachian  contingent,  which,  under  the 
voivode  Serban  Cantacuzene,  had  been  forced  to  co-operate  with  Serbai; 
the  Turks,  was  entrusted  with  the  construction  of  the  two  bridges  Canta- 
over   the   Danube  above   and  below  Viciina.     The  AV'alachian  as  cuze" 
well  as  the  Moldavian  prince,  who  had  been  also  forced  to  bring 
his  contingent,  maintained  a  secret  intelligence  with  the  besieged, 
an  intelligeiLce  continued  by  the  voivode  Serban  after  his  return 
to  Walachia.     The  emperor  granted  hira  a  diploma  creating  him 
count  of  the  empire  and  recognizing  his  descent  from  the  imperia' 
.  house  of  Cantacuzene,  Serban  meanwhile  collecting  his  forces  for 
an  open   breach   with   the   Porte.     His   prudence,  however,  per- 
.  petuallv  postponed  the  occasion,  and  Walachia  enjoyed  peace  to  his 
death  in  1688.     This  peaceful  state  of  the  country  gave  the  voivode 
leisure  to  promote  its  internal  culture,  and  in  the  year  of  his  death 
he  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  first  part  of  a  Walachian  Bible 
issue  from  the  first  printing-press  of  the  country,  which  he  had 
established  at  Bucharest.     He  had  also  caused  to  be  compiled  a 
historv  of  AValachia,  'and  had  called  to  the  country  many  teachers 
of  the'Greek  language,  whose  business  it  was  to  instruct  the  sons  ot 
the  boiars  in  ''grammar,  rhetoric,  and  jihilosophy  " 

Immediately  on  Serban's  death  the  boiars,  to  prevent  the  Porte  Cons'-aa- 
from  handing'over  the  office  to  tlie  Greek  adventurer  who  bid  the  tine 
highest,  proceeded' to  elect  his  sister's  son  Constantine  Branco^.'an.  isran- 
The  Turkish  capidji  pasha,  then  in  Bucharest,  was  persuaded  to  put  coven 
tlie   caftan   on  his  head  in  token   of  Turkish  approval,    and  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  was  also  present,  and  the  arch- 
bishop of  Walachia,  Theodosius,  consecrated  him  together  at  the 
high  altar  of  the  cathedral,  where  he  took  the  coronation     ath  lo 
devote  his  whole  strength  to  the  good  of  his  country  and  received 
the  boiars'  oath  of  submission.      Brancovan,  it  is  true,  found  it 
expedient  to  devote  his  predecessor's  treasure   to   purchasing  the 
confirmation  of  his  title  from  the  Divan,  but  the  account  of  his 
coronation   ceremony   remains   an    interesting    landmark    iu    the 
constitutional  history  of   the  counti-y.     In   his   foreign   relations 
with  the  Hapsburg  power  ho  displayed  the  same  caution  as  the 
voivode  Serban.-     In  spite  of  the  victories  of  the  margrave  of  Baden 
at  Pojarevatz,  Nish,  a'nd  Widiu  in  1689,  it  was  only  by  an  exercise  of 
force  that  the  imperial  troops  secured  winter  quarters  in  Walachia, 
and,  though  after  the  battle  of  Pultava  in  1709  Brancovan  con- 
cluded a  secret  treaty  with  Czar  Peter,  he  avoided  giving  open  effect 
to  it.     The  tranquillity  which  ho  thus  obtained  was  employed  by 
Brancovan  as  by  his  predecessor  in  furthering  the  internal  well- 
being  of  the  country,  with  what  success  is  best  apparent  from  the 
description  of  Walachia  left  by  the  Florentine  Del  Chiaro,  who  Dei 
visited   the  country  in   1709   and  spent  seven   years   there.     He  Chiaro's 
describes  the  stoncless  Walachian  jdain,  with  its  rich  pastures,  its  .lescrip- 
crops  of  maize  and  millet,  and  woods  so   symmetrically  planted  tion  of 
and  carefully  kept  by  I'.rancovan's  orders  that  hiding  in  them  was  Walachia. 
out  of  the  question.     Butter  and  honey  were  exported  to  supply 
the  Grand  Siguor's  kitchen  at  Stamboul ;  wax  and  cattle  to  Venice  ; 
and  the  red  and  white  wine  of  Walachia,  notably  that  of  Pitesti, 
to  Trinsvlvania      The  Walachian  horses  were  in  demand  amongst 

XXI.  —  3        - 


18 


ROUMANIA 


the  Turks  and  Poles.     Near  Ribnik  and  elsewhere  were  salt-mines 
"hieh  supplied  aU  the  wants  of  the  Transdanubum  provinces  ;  there 
were  eo^erable  copper  mines  at  Maidan  •  and  iron  was  worked 
Zr  Ti^ovist.     The'cipsy  community  was  bound  to  brmg  fifteen  , 
pounds  weilh   of  gold  from  the  washings  of  the  Argish.     The  boiars 
were  maTy  of  them  wealthy,  but  the  common  people  were  so  ground 
down  wUh  taxation  that  ''^of  their  aneien^  Roman  valour  only  the 
„are  remained."     To  avoid  the  "'-^'^  °  ,  f  "^J^^  ^^rv^ce 
Tintl  emi.'rated  to  Transylvania  and  even  to  the  nirkisl;  provinces. 
The  princfpal  Walachian  city  was  Bucharest  (Bucurest).  containing 
anopuatwn  of  about  50,000;  but,  except  for  two  large  "hans     or 
meXnts-  halk  buUt  b^  Brancovan  and  his  predecessor,  and  the 
Xnt  v-lrccted  palace,  which  had  a  marble  staircase  and  a  fine 
^rden  the  houses  were  of  wood.     The  other  principal  towns  were 
fl?»ov  St  the  old  capital,  Cernotz,  Fokshaiii,  supplied  by  Brancovan 
with  an  aqueduct,  Ploiesti,  Ghierghit^a,  Rusi  J' Vede,  and  Krajova 
The  capitTof  the  banat  of  that  name,  where  a  fine  hax,  had  also  been 
built  ^  At  Cimpulungu  was  a  great  annual  fair.     The  'J«^^  f  «'" 
m^n  was  thoroucMily  Turkish  except  for  their  lambskin  caps,  that  of 
Z  women  half-Greek  half-Turkish.    The  houses  were  scrupulously 
clean  and  strewn  with  sweet  herbs.     Del  Chlaro  notices  the  great 
imiSttve  capacity  of  the  race,  both  artistic  and  mechanioal,     A 
Wake  ™an  in  Venice  h.ad  copied  several  of  rhe  pictures  there  with 
ereat   skUl-  the  copper-plates  and  wood  engravings  for  the  new 
Iress   were 'executed  by  ■"'tive  hands.  ■  The  Walachians  im.taed 
every  kind  of  Turkish  and  European  manufacture  ;  and,  though  the 
b,il?s  imported   finer  glass   from  Venice   and   Bohemia,  a  glass 
manufactory  had  been  established  near  Tirgovist  which  produced 
rSer  quaUiy  than  the  Polish.     From  the  Bucharest  press  besides 
I  var    ty^of  ecclesiastical  books,  there  were  issued  -  the  Komi  an 
tongue  a  translation  of  a  French  work  entitled     ««  ";^^™^  °f 
the  Orientals"  and  "The  Romance  of  Alexander  the  Great.       In 
1700  Seovan  had  a  map  of  the  country  made  and  a  copper- 
nlate  ent^aving  of  it  executed  at  Padea.  ,,^  ,,      -at.,," 

M\  of     '^  The Tospertty  of  Walachia,  however,  under  its  "Golden  Bfey, 
Bran        as  Branrv?n  w/s  known  at  Stamboul,  only  >"<;--^<l,  ^^^ J^-^'^f 
.Z,r,       exactions      In  1701  the  tribute  was  increased  to  80,  jOO  purses  ol 
exactions,     in  i/  ^^.^^^^  ^^^  summoned  in  person    o 

Adrianoplo    and  again   must   resort   to   extraordinary   means     o 

mo  Ufv  the'D^van.     Shortly  after,  the  Walachians  were  cal  ed  on  to 

rpply  masons, -carpenters,  arid  other  workmen  for  the  fortification 

of  Bender   and,  though  these  and  other  demands  were  punctuay 

met  and  ihe   increased  tribute  regularly  paid,  the, sultan   finally 

rSolved  on  the  removal  of  his  too  prosperoiis  vassal.     Brancovan 

was  accused  of  secret  correspondence  with  the  emperor,  the  czar, 

he  kin"  o?  Poland,  and  the  Venetian  republic,  of  betraying  the 

Porte's  s°ecrets,  of  preferring  Tirgovist  to  Buchares  as  a  residence,  of 

acouiring    ands  and  palacet  in  Transylvania   of  keeping  agents  at 

v7n"ce  fnd  Vienna,  in  both  of  which  cities  he  had  invested  la  ge 

sums  -ml  of  striking  gold  coins  with  his  effigy,  one  of  which,  with 

trie."end  cc.rsTANT°iNVS  bassaraba  de bkancovan  p.  g  voevopa 

ETPi5™cErs  vALACHis  TRANS.iLPiNa,  and  having  On  the  reverse 

rte    r^n"  d  shi-ld  of  W.alachia  containing  a  -ven  holding  a  cross 

n  its  beak  between  a  moon  and  a  star,  is  engraved  by  Del  Chiaro 

Th  y  w!  e  of  2;  3,  and  10  ducats  weight.    A  eap.dji  P^sha  amved 

at  Bucharest  on  April  4,  17H,  and  proclaimed  Brancovan  "mazil 

frdeposfd      He  was  conducted  to  Constantinople  and  beheaded, 

Wthe?  with  his  four  sons.     A  scion  of  the  rival  Cantacu^ciuan 

Sv  was  elected  by  the  pasha's  orders,  and  he,  a^ter  exhausting 

■  th?prircipality  for  the  benefit  of  the  Divan,  was  in  turn  deposed 

fhe  ""FromThS^P^riod'omvards  the  Porte  introduced  a  neW  system  with 

t"  re4rd  to  its  Walachian  vassals.    The  line  of  national  Prmces  ceases 

^l  The  office  of  voivode  or  hospodar  was  sold  to  the  highest  bidder  at 

""  ■  S tlboul   to  bo  farmed  outVrom  a  purely  mercenary  jjoint  of  view. 

r^g^c  S to^bou  ,  10  bo  I           ^^^^^^^  ^^^  1^^^^^^^  .^  ^^p.^  succession  were 

princes  thus  imposed  on  the  country  ""%S™,";"y  "™  "A'se^iS 
ience  and  culture.  Nicholas  MavroCordato,  tho  hist  ol  the  series, 
las  himself  the  author  of  a  Greek  work  on  duties,  and  main- 
toined  a"  h  court  Demeter  Prokopios  of  Moschopolis,  wl-o  -rote  a 
l^Wewof  Greek  literature  during  the  17th  "■^'i ';^S'"ning  of  the  18  h 
Snturics  Constantine  llayrocprdato  was  the  author  of  really 
lfber"Teforms  He  introduced  an  "nrbarium"  for  the  rj;'^^'"^. 
iSg  leTays  of  -  angaria,"  or  forced  labour  for  the  landlord,  to 
t^etfty-tour,  and  in  1747  decreed  the  abohtion  of  serfdom.     But 


the  new  system  could  not  but  be  productive  of  grinding  oppression, 
and  the  swarms  of  "hungry  Greeklings "  who  accompanied  the 
Fanariote  rulers  from  Sumboul  made  their  rule  doubly  hatefuL 
Numbers  of  the  peasantry  emigrated,  and  the  population  rapidly 
diminished.  In  1745  the  number  of  tax-paying  famdics,  .which  a 
few  years  before  had  amounted  to  147,000,  had  sunk  to  70,000 
Yet  the  taxes  were  continually  on  the  increase,  and  the  hospodar 
Scailatn  Ghika  (1758-61),  though  he  tried  to  win  some  popularity 
by  the  removal  of  Turkish  settkrs  and  the  abolition  of  the 
"vakarit,"ortax  on  cattle  and  horses,  "'>'^\«^^P^™l'"'/i'„^'^^^^^^ 
to  the  peasantry,  raised  the  total  amount  of  ta.xation  to  25,000  000 
lion-dollars.  The  Turks  meantime  maintained  their  iron  grip  on 
the  eountry  by  holding  on  the  Walachian  bank  of  the  Danube  the 
fortresses  of  Giurgevo,  Tnrnul,  and  Orsova,  with  the  surrounding 

'^' Bnt°\'he  tide  of  Ottoman  dominion  was  ebbing  fast.  Already,  by 
the  peace  of  Passarovitz  (Pojarevatz)  in  1718,  the  l^^'^-t  f  K^™ 
had  been  ceded  to  the  emperor,  though  by  the  peace  of  Be  grade 
n  1739  it  was  recovered  by  the  Porte  for  its  Walachian  yassaL  In 
1769  the  Russian  general  RomanzoEf  occupied  the  principality,  the 
b  shops  and  clergy  took  aa  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  f.""Prf  ^  C»*erme^ 
and  a  deputation  of  boiars  followed.  The  liberties  of  the  country 
were  gnar'lnteed,  taxation  reformed,  and  in  1772  the  negotiations  at 
Fokslmni  between  Russia  and  the  Porte  broke  down  because  the 
czarina's  representatives  insisted  on  the  sultan's  recognition  of 
?he  i^dependenee  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia  under  an  European 
the  inaepenaence  Kutshuk  Kaimardji,  concluded  m  Treaty  or 

fr/i^Russia  e'on  ntS  t'o  hand  back  the  priniipalities  to  the  Ku^huk. 
sultan  but  hv  Art.  xvi.  several  stipulations  were  made  hi  favour  Kaim 
of  the  Walachians  and  Moldavians.  The  people  of.  the  pnnci  ardj, 
palities  were  to  enjoy  all  the  privileges  that  they  had  possessed 
■^  !5l.  M.bnmet  IV  •  thev  were  to  be  freed  from  tribute  for  two 
;  at  as^'r  coip;ns*aS\or  the  ruinous  effects  of  the  last  w^a.; 
thev  were  to  pay  a  moderate  tribute;  the  agents  of  Walachia  and 
SrvTa  at  Constantinople  were  to  enjoy  the  rights  of  "a  ions  and 
the  Russian  minister  at  the  Porte  should  on  occasion  wach  over  the 
interests  of  the  principalities.  The  stipulations  of  t.ie  treat.,  ot 
Kutshuk  Kaimardji,  though  deficient  in  precision  (the  Walachmns 
for  instance  had  no  authentic  record  of  the  privileges  enjoyed  lender 
Sahomet  IV.),  formed  the  basis  of  the  future  iberties  m  both  pnn- 
cpaUtie'-  and,  as  from  this  period  onwards  Walachian  history  is 
cosey  connected  with  that  of  Moldavia,  it  may  be  convenient 
before  contrnuing  this  review  to  turn  to  the  earlier  history  of  the 

Laszkovk^h  It  hfn  fact  to  the  period  immediately  succeeding  this 
event  that  the  first  establishment  of  an  indepepdent  K°™an  state 
?n  Moldavia  is  referred  by  the  concurrent  testimony  ot  Moldavian,  ^^ 

^=d?n.'  t^  tSfnitrSional  account  as  first  given  b^  tho  ' 

r  v.-  1  -nrnrrnsh  fir<it  arrived  on  the  banksoi  theMoiaa,isaenvi,a 
tLt'taTofttMolSn  national  arms,  and  irom  his  favounto 
hound  who  perished  in  the  waters  the  name  of  the  "vei  Irom 
the  Hungarian  and  Russian  sources,  wdncli  are  somewhat  more 
p  ci^e  tife  'late  of  Ihe  arrival  of  l^ragosh,  who  otherwise  appear 
L  Bogdan,  in  Moldavia  appears  to  J'*^", ''f  °  "J^-.  ^?f„i':;j  "^ 
partuie  from  Marmaros  was  carried  out  in  defiance  of.  his  Hung.r,-n 

'"in  fv  a-^rcement  m-Wed  at  between  King  Louis  of  Hungary  and  P.'vsl 
,    In  the  agrccmeni  -"-y^^"  ,,         :°  ij^te  of  Moldavia  was  ciam-.s  of 

the  question  of  s"^"\"»^''  P ;5,„rH7jd''H„^„arian  forces  were  to 

tine  of  Poland  at  Kamenicc  or  Suyatin.  t  »i,„  T„rlra. 

In  1456  the  voivode  Peter,  alarmed  at  the  progress  o£  tho  Turke. 


R  O  U  M  A  N  I  A 


19 


S+«phen 

thp 

Great. 


VIoiJavia 


butary 
tho 
urks. 


The 

impost , 
Jacob 
BastUcu: 


who  were  now  dnminr.:it  in  Servia  and  "Wailachia,  offered  Sultan 
Mahomet  a  yearly  tribute  of  2000  ducats.  On  his  deposition,  how- 
ever, in  1458  by  Stephen,  known  as  "the  Great,"  Jloldavia  became 
a  power  formidable  alike  to  Turk,  Pole,  and  Hungarian.  Through- 
out the  long  reign  of  this  voivode,  which  lasted  forty-six  years,  Irom 
1458  to  1504,  his  courage  and  resources  never  failed  him.  In  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  he  appears,  in  agreement  with  the  Turkish 
saltan  and  the  king  of  Poland,  turning  out  the  Hungarian  vassal, 
the  ferocious  Vlad,  from  tho  Walachian  throne,  and  annexing  the 
coast  cities  of  Kilia  and  Cetatea  Alba  or  Bielogorod,  the  Turkish 
Akierraan.  In  the  autumn  of  1474  the  sultan  Mahomet  entered 
Moldavia  at  the  head  of  an  army  estimated  by  the  Polish  historian 
Dlugoss  at  120,000  men.  Voivode  Stephen  withdrew  into  the 
interior  at  the  approach  of  this  overwhelming  host,  but  on  January 
17,  1475,  turned  at  bay  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Rakovietz  and  gained 
a  complete  victory  over  the  Turks.  Four  pashas  were  among  the 
slain  ;  over  a  hundred  banners  fell  into  the  Moldavian  hands  ;  and 
only  a  few  survivors  succeeded  in  reaching  the  Danube.  In  1476 
Mahomet  again  entered  Moldavia,  thirsting  for  vengeance,  hut, 
though  successful  in  the  open  field,  the  Turks  were  sorely  harassed 
by  Stephen's  giierilla  onslaughts,  and,  being  thinned  by  pestilence, 
were  again  constrained  to  retire.  In  1484  the  same  tactics  proved 
successful  against  an  invasion  of  Bajazet.  Three  years  later  a  Polish 
invasion  of  Moldavia  under  John  Albert  with  80,000  men  ended  in 
disaster,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  voivode  Steplien,  aided  by  a 
Turkish  and  Tatar  contingent,  laid  waste  the  Polish  territories  to 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Vistula,  and  succeeded  in  annexing  for  a 
time  the  Polish  province  of  Pokutia  that  lay  between  the  Car- 
pathians and  the  Dniester. 

Exclusive  of  this  temporary  acquisition,  the  Moldavian  territory 
at  this  period  extended  from  the  river  Milcov,  which  formed  the 
boundary  of  Walachia,  to  the  Dniester.  It  included  the  Carpathian 
region  of  the  Bukovina,  literally  "  the  beech  wood,''  where  lay  Sereth 
and  Suciava,  the  earliest  residences  of  the  voivodes,  the  maritime 
district  of  Budzak  (the  later  Bessarabia),  with.  Kilia  and  Bielogorod, 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Danube  from  Galatz  to  the  Sulina 
mouth.  The  government,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  was  practically 
the  same  as  that  described  in  the  case  of  "Walachia,  the  officials 
bearing  for  the  most  part  Slavonic  titles  derived  from  the  practice 
of  the  Bulgaro-Vlachian  czardom.  The  church  was  Orthodox 
Oriental,  and  depended  from  the  patriarch  of  Ohrida.  In  official 
documents  the  language  used  was  the  old  Slovene,  the  style  of  a 
Moldavian  ruler  being  Natchalnih  i  Voievoda  Moldovlasi,  prince 
and  duke  (=  Germ.  "Flirst"  and  "Herzog*')  of  the  Moldovlachs. 
Tho  election  of  the  voivodes,  though  in  the  hands  of  the  boiars, 
was  strictly  regulated  by  hereditary  principles,  and  Cantcmir  de- 
scribei  the  extinction  of  tho  house  of  Dragosh  in  the  16th  century 
as  one  of  the  unsettling  causes  that  most  contributed  to  the  ruin 
of  the  country.  Tho  Moldavian  army  was  reckoned  40,000  strong, 
and  the  cavalry  arm  was  especially  formidable.  Vetantius  of 
Sebenico,  an  eye-witness  of  the  state  of  Moldavia  at  the  beginning 
of  the  16th  century,  mentions  three  towns  of  the  interior  provided 
with  stone  walls — Suciava,  Chotim,  and  Njamtz  ;  the  people  were 
barbarous,  but  more  warlike  than  the  Walachians  and  more  tena- 
cious of  their  national  costume,  punishing"  with  death  any  who 
adopted  the  Turkish. 

In  1504  Stephen  tho  Great  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Bogdan  *' the  One-eyed."  At  feud  with  Poland  about  Pokutia, 
despairing  of  efhcacious  support  from  hard-pressed  Hungary,  the 
new  voivode  saw  no  hope  of  safety  except  in  a  dependent  alliance 
with  the  advancing  Ottoman  Power,  which  already  hemmed 
Moldavia  in  on  the  Walachian  and  Crimean  sides.  In  1513  ho 
agreed  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  to  Sultan  Selimin  return  for  the 
sultan's  guarantee  to  preserve  tho  national  constitution  and  religion 
of  Moldavia,  to  which  country  the  Turks  now  gave  the  name  of 
Kara  Bogdan,  from  their  first  vassal.  The  terms  of  Moldavian  sub- 
mission were  further  regulated  by  a  firman  signed  by  Sultan 
Suleiman  at  Buda  in  1529  by  which  the  yearly  present  or  "back- 
i^hish,"  03  tho  tribute  was  euphoniously  called,  was  fixed  at  4000 
ducats,  40  horses,  and  25  falcons,  and  the  voivode  was  bound  at 
need  to  supply  the  Turkish  army  with  a  contingent  of  a  thousand 
men.  The  Turks  pursued  much  the  same  policy  as  in  Walachia. 
The  tribute  was  gradually  increa.st'd.  A  hold  was  obtained  on  tho 
country  by  the  occupation  of  various  strongholds  on  Mohlavian  soil 
with  the  surrounding  territory,— in  1538  Cetatea  Alba  (Akicrman), 
;n  1592  Bender,  in  1702  Chotim  (Khotin).  Already  by  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century-the  yoke  was  so  heavy  that  the  voivode  Elias 
(1546-1551)  became  Mohammedan  to  avoid  the  sultan's  anger. 

At  this  period  occurs  a  curious  interlude  in  Moldavian  history. 
In  1561  tho  adventurer  and  impostor  Jacob  Basilicus  succeeded 
with  Hungarian  help  in  turning  out  tho  voivodo  Alexander  and 
.  seizing  on  the  reins  of  government.  A  Greek  by  birth,  adopted 
son  of  Jacob  Heraklides,  despot  of  Paros,  Samos,  and  other  j^Lgcan 
i9laud>-,  acquainted  with  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  and  master 
of  moat  European  languages,  appearing  alternately  as  a  student  of 
astronomy  at  Wittenberg,  whither  he  had  been  invited  by  Count 
JWauiii'jM,  aa  a  correspondent  of  Melanchthon    and  ai  a  wTiter  uf 


historical  woi  ks  which  he  dedicated  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  Basilicus, 
finding  tliat  his  ^Egean  sovereignty  in  jiartibusv^a.^  of  little  practical 
value  beyond  the  crowning  of  poet  laureates,  fixed  his  roving  ambi- 
tion on  a  more  substantial  dominion.  He  published  an  astounding 
pedigree,  in  which,  starting  from  "Hercules  Triptolemus"  he 
wound  his  way  through  the  royal  Servian  line  to  the  kinship  of 
Moldavian  voivodes,  and,  having  won  the  emperor  Ferdinand  and 
Albert  Lasky  to  his  financial  and  military  support,  succeeded, 
though  at  the  head  of  only  1600  cavalry,  in  routing  by  a  bold  da&li 
the.  vastly  superior  forces  of  the  voivode,  and  even  in  purchasing 
the  Turkish  confirmation  of  his  usurjied  title.  He  assumed  the 
style  of  Bao-iAeyi  MoXSa^'as,  and  eluded  the  Turkish  stipulation 
that  he  should  dismiss  his  foreign  guards.  In  Moldavia  he 
appeared  as  a  moral  reformer,  endeavouring  to  put  down  the  preva- 
lent vices  of  bigamy  and  divorce.  He  erected  a  school,  placed  it 
under  a  German  master,  and  collected  children  from  every  part  of 
the  country  to  be  maintained  and  educated  at  his  expense.  He 
also  busied  himself  with  the  collection  of  a  library.  But  his  taxes 
— a  ducat  for  each  family — were  considered  heavy;  his  orthodoxy 
was  suspected,  his  foreign  counsellors  detested.  In  1563  the 
people  rose,  massacred  the  Hungarian  guards,  the  foreign  settlers, 
and  finally  Jacob  himself. 

The  expelled  voivode  Alexander  was  now  restored  by  the  Porte, 
the  schools  were  destroyed,  and  the  country  relapsed  into  its 
normal  state  of  barbarism.  His  successor  Ivonia  was  provoked 
by  the  Porte's  demand  for  120,000  ducats  as  tribute  instead  of 
60,000  as  heretofore  to  rise  against  tho  oppressor,  but  after  gaining 
three  victories  he  was  finally  defeated  and  slain  (1574),  and  the 
country  was  left  more  than  ever  at  the  mercy  of  the  Ottoman. 
Voivodes  were  now  created  and  deposed  in  rapid  succession  by  tho 
Divan,  hut  the  victories  of  Michael  the  Brave  in  Walachia  infused 
a  more  independent  spirit  into  the  Moldavians.  The  Moldavian 
dominion  was  now  disputed  by  the  Transylvanians  and  Poles,  and 
in  1600  Michael  succeeded  in  annexing  it  to  his  "Great  Dacian  " 
realm.  On  Michael's  murder  the  Poles  under  Zamoyski  again 
asserted  their  supremacy,  but  in  1618  the  Porte  once  more  recovered 
its  dominion  and  set  up  successively  tr\vo  -creatures  of  its  own  as 
voivodes — Gratiani,  an  Italian  who  had  been  court  jeweller,  and  a 
Greek  custom-house  official,  Alexander. 

As  in  Walachia  at  a  somewhat  later  date  the  Fanariote  regime 
seemed  now  thoroughly  established  in  Moldavia,  and  it  became  the 
rule  that  every  three  years  the  voivode  should  procure  his  confirma- 
tion by  a  large  backshish,  and  every  year  by  a  smaller  one.  'I'he 
prince  Vasilje  Lupul,  however,  an  Albanian,  who  succeeded  in 
1634,  showed  great  abilities,  and  for  twenty  years  succeeded  in 
maintaining  his  position  on  the  Molddvian  throne.  He  introduced 
several  internal  reforms,  codified  the  written  and  unwritten  laws 
of  the  countr}',  established  a  printing  press,  Greek  monastic  schools, 
and  also  a  Latin  school.  He  brought  the  Moldavian -Church  into 
more  direct  relation  with  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  also 
showed  considerable  favour  to  the  Latins,  allowing  thorn  fo  erect 
churches  at  Suciava,  Jassy,  and  Galatz. 

During  the  wars  between  Sobieski  and  the  Turks  Moldavia  found 
itself  between  hammer  and  anvil,  and  sulTercd  frightfully  moreover 
from  Tatar  devastations.  The  voivodo  Duka  was  forced  liko  his 
Walachian  contemporary  to  supply  a  contingent  for  the  siege  of 
Vienna  in  1683.  After  Sobieski's  death  in  1696,  the  hopes  of 
Moldavia  turned  to  the  advancing  Muscovite  power.  In  1711  the 
voivode  Demetriu  Cantemir,  rendered  desperate  by  the  Turkish 
exactions,  concluded  an  agreement  with  the  czar  Peter  by  which 
Moldavia  was  to  become  a  protected  and  vassal  state  of  Kussia,  with 
the  enjoyment  of  its  traditional  liberties,  the  voivodcship  tj  bo 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Cantemir.  On  the  approach  of  the 
Russian  army  the  prince  issued  a  proclamation  containing  the  terms 
of  the  Russian  protectorate  and  calling  on  tho  boiars  and  people  to 
aid  their  Orthodox  deliverers.  But  the  iron  had  entered  into  tho 
people's  soul.  The  long  Turkish  terrorism  had  done  its  work,  and 
at  the  approach  of  a  Turkish  and  Tatar  host  tlie  greater  part  of  the 
Moldavians  deserted  their  voivode.  The  Russian  campaign  wa-i 
unsuccessful,  and  all  that  Czar  Pet'tr  could  oflor  Cantcmir  and  tlie 
boiars  who  had  stood  by  him  wns  an  asylum  on  Russian  .soil. 

In  his  Russian  exile  Cantemir  coniposcd  in  a  fair  Latin  .style 
his  Dcscriptio  Moldavix^  tho  counter[jart  so  far  as  Moldavia  is 
concerned  to  Del  Chiaro's  contemporary  description  of  Walachia. 
Tho  capital  of  the  country  was  now  Jass)',  to  which  city  Stephen  the 
Great  had  transferred  his  court  from  Suciava,  the  earlier  reside:. ee 
of  tho  voivodes.  It  had  at  this  time  forty  churches — some  uf  ^tor-e, 
some  of  wood.  Fifty  years  before  it  had  contained  12,000  houE.^s,- 
but  Tatar  devastations  had  reduced  it  to  a  third  of  its  former 
6i;^e.  The  most  important  commercial  emporium  was  the  Danubian 
jiort  of  Galatz,  ^vhi(;h  was  frequcjited  by  vessels  from  the  whole  of 
the  Levant  from  Trebizond  to  Barbary.'  The  cargoes  which  they 
hero  took  in  consisted  of  Moldavian  timber  (oak,  deal,  nnd  cornel), 
grain,  butter,  honey  and  wax,  salt,  and  nitre  ;  Kilia  at  tho  north 
mouth  of  the  Danube  was  also  frequented  by  trading  vessels, 
including- Venetian  and  Kagusan.  Moldavian  wine  was  expori^Q 
to  Poland-  Russia.  Transylvania,  -ind  Hungary  ;  that  of  Cotnar  waj 


Tho 

Fanariote 

regime. 


Demetriu 
Cantemir. 


Cante- 
mir'8 
descrip- 
tion of 
Moldavia. 


JO 


ROU  MANIA 


Offieera 
of  state, 


n  Catitemir's  opinion  superior  to  Tokay.     The  excellence  of  the 
tlol  Javiaii  horbgs  is  attested  by  a  Turkish  proverb ;  and  annual 
Irovcs   of  as  many  as  40,000  Jloldavian   oxen   were  sent  across 
Poland  to  Dantzic.     Moldavia  proper  was  divided  into  the  upper 
:ountry  or  Terra  de  sus,  and  the  lower  country,  or  T'erra  dcjosu. 
Bessarabia  had  been  detached  from  the  rest  of  the  principality  and 
placed  under  the  direct  control  of  the  seraskier.'    It  was  divided  into 
four  provinces  :— that  of  Budzak,  inhabited  by  the  Nosai  Tatars  ; 
that  of  Akierman  or  Cetatea  Alba,  the  Greek  Monkastron,  a  strouriy 
fortified  place  ;  and   those   of  Ismaila   and  Kilia.     Th.e  vcivodes 
owed  their  nomination  entirely  to  the  Porte,  and  the  great  officers 
of  the  realm  were  appohited  at  their  discretion.     These  were  the 
Great  Logothete  {March  Lmo/ciu)  or  chancellor  ;  the  governor  of 
Lower  Moldavia — Vorr.iciuu  dc  t'erra  da  jom.;   the  governor  of 
Upper   Moldavia — Vortiiculti   de   t'erra  de  sus;   the,  Halmayi  or 
commander  in   chief  ;  the  high  chamberlain— ..1/a«/«  Postclnieu  ; 
the  great  Spathar,  or  swordbcarer ;  the  great  cupbearer— jlfa-/-<??« 
Pahariiicv, ;  and  the  treasurer,  or  Vislicmicu,  who  tc^ether  formed 
the  prince's  council  and  were  known  aa' Boiari  de  Svat,u.     Below 
these  were  a  number  of  subordinate  officers  who  acted  -as  their 
assessors  and  were  known  as  boiars  of  the  Divan  (Boiari  de  Divanu). 
The  high  court  of  justice  was  formed  by  the  prince,  metropolitan, 
and  boiars:  iheBoiaridc  SvatuAedieA  on  the  verdict ;  the  metro- 
politan declared  the  law ;  and  the  prince  pronounced  sentence.    The 
boiars  were  able  to  try  minor  cases  in  their  own  re.sidenees,  but 
subject-  to  the  right  cf  appeal  to  the  prince's  tribunal.     Of  the 
character  of  the  Moldavian  people  Cantemir  docs  not  give  a  very 
fuvoiirable  account.     Their  best  points  were  their  hospitality  and, 
in  Lower  Moldavia,  their  valour.     They  fared  little  for  letters  and 
were   generally  indolent,  and   their  prejudice  against  mercantile 
pursuits  left  "the   commerce   of    the   country    in    the    hands    of 
Armenians,  Jews,  Greeks,  aid  Turks.     The  pure-blood    Kouman 
population,  noble  and  plebeian,  inhabited  tho  cities  and  towns  or 
larfcr  villages  ;  the  peasantry  wore  mostly  of  Little  Russian  and 
Hn'ngarian   race   and"  were  in  a  servile  condition.     There   was  a 
Vonsuierable  Gipsy  population,  almost  every  boiar  having  several 
Zingar  families  in  his  possession  ;  the-.;  were  mostly  smiths. 
Continua-      From  this  period  onv/ards  the  character  of  the  Ottoman  domina- 
tion of      ticn  in  Moldavia  is  in  every  respect  analogous  to  that  of  Walachia. 
Finaricte  The  cfBce  of  voivode  or  hospodar  was  farmed  out  by  the  Porte  to 
rc-ima.      a  succession  of  wealthy  Greeks  from  the  Fanar  quarter  of  Con- 
stantinople.     All   formality  of  election   by   the  boiars   was   now 
dispensed  with,  and  the  princes  received  their  caftan  of  office  at 
Constantinople,  where  they  were  consecrated  by  the  Greek  patriarch. 
The  system  favoured  Turkish  extortion  in  two  ways  :  the  presence 
of  the  voivode's  family  connexions  at  Stamboul  gave  the  Porte  so 
many  hostages  for  his  obedience  ;  on  the  ether  hand  the  princes 
themselves  could  not  rely  on  any  support  due  to  family  influence 
in  Moldavia  itself.     They  were  "thus  mere  pi'.ppets  of  the  Divan, 
and  could  be  deposed  and  shifted  with  the  same  facility  as  so  many 
pashas— an  object  of  Turkish  policy,  as  each  change  was  a  pretext 
for  a  new  levy  of  "  backshish."     The  chief  families  that  shared 
the  office  during  this  period  were  those  of  Mavrocordato,  Ghika, 
Callimaohi,    Ypsilanti,   and   Murusi.      Although    from   the    very 
conditions  of  their  creation  they  regarded  the  country  as  a  iield 
for  exploitations,  they  were    themselves  often  men  of  education 
and  ability,  and  unquestionably  made  some  pr.aiseworthy  attempts 
to  promote   the   geneial  culture  and  wellbeing  of  their  subjects. 
In  this  respect,  even  the  Fananote  regime  was  preferable  to  m^ere 
pasha   rule,  while   it  had  the   further  consequence  of  preserving 
intact  the  national  form  of  administration  and  the  historic  offices 
of   Moldavia.       Gregory   Ghika    (1774-1777),  who   himself  spoke 
French  and  Italian,  founded  a  school  or  "  gymnasium  "  at  Ja-ssy, 
where  Greek,  Latin,  and  theology  were  taught  in  a  fashion.     He 
encouraged  the  settlement  of  German  protcstant  colonists  in  the 
country,  some  of  whom  set  np  as  watchmakers  in  Jassy,  where  they 
■were  further  allowed  to  build  an  evangelical  church.     Carra,  a  Swiss 
who  had  been  tutor  to  Prince  Ghika's  children,  and.who  published 
in  17S1  an  account  of  the  actual  state  of  the  principalities,  speaks 
of  some  of  the  boiars  as  possessing  a  taste  for  French  literature  and 
even  for  the  works  of  Voltaire,  a  tendency  actively  combated  by 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

The  Russo-Turkish  War,  which  ended  in  the  peace  of  Kutshuk 
Kaimardji,  was  fatal  to  the  integrity  of  Moldavian  territory.  The 
house  of  Austria,  which'had  already  annexed  Galicia  in  1772,  pro- 
fited by  the  situation  to  arrange  wi'th  both  contending  parties  for 
the  peaceful  cession  of  the  Bukovina  to  the  Hapsliurg  monarchy. 
This  richly-wooded  Moldavian  province,  containing  Suciava,  the 
earliest  seat  of  the  voivodes,  and  Cernautii  or  Cz.ernoyitz,  was  in 
1774  occupied  by  Hapsburg  troops  with  Russian  connivance,  and 
in  1777  Baron  Tliugut  procured  its  formal  cession  from  the  sultan. 
The  Bukovina  is  still  an  Austrian  province. 

IValachian  and'Moldnvim  History  from  the  Treaty  of  Kittshuk 
Kaiiiuirdji  in  1774  to  the  Establishment  of  the  Eauma-.'.ian  Kingdom. 
-The  treaty  of  Kutshuk  Kaimardji  was  hardly  concluded  when 
it  was  violated  by  the  Porte,  which  refused  to  recognize  the  right 
of  the   Wainchian  boiars  to  elect   their  voivode,  and  nominated 


Ce.^sioa 
or  Buko- 
vina, 


Bussian 
protec- 


Alexander  Ypsilanti,  a  creature  of  its  own.  In  1777  Constantino 
Murusi  was  made  voivode  of  Molda-via  in  the  same  high-handed 
fashion.  The  Divan  seemed  intent  on  restoring  the  old  system  of 
government  in  its  entirety,  but  in  1783  the  Russian  representative 
extracted  from  the  sultan  a  hattisherif  defining  more  precisely  the 
liberties  of  the  principalities  and  iixing  the  amount  of  the  annual 

tribute for  "Walachia  6l9  purses  exclusive  of  the  bairam  and  other 

presents  amounting  to  130,000  piasters,  and  for  Moldavia  135  purses 
and  further  gifts  to  the  extent  of  115,000  piasters.  By  the  peace  ct 
Jassy  in  1792  the  Dniester  was  recognized  as  the  'Russian  lrontic;-,_ 
and  the  privileges  of  the  principalitiesasspecified  in  the  hattishei  f 
confirmed.  In  defiance  of  treaties,  however,  the  Porto  continu.  1 
to  change  the  hospodars  almost  yearly  and  to  exact  extraordinary 
installation  presents.  The  revolt  of  Pasvan  Oglu  in  Bulgaria  w.-.i 
the  cause  of  great  injury  to  Walaehia.  The  rebels  ravaged  Littl  J 
Walachia  in  1801-2,  and  their  ravages  -(vere  succeeded  by  those  o£ 
the  Turkish  troops,  who  now  swarmed  over  the  country.  Exaction 
followed  exaction,  and  in  1802  Russia  resolved  to  assert  her  treatj 
rights  in  favour  of  the  oppressed  inhabitants  of  the  principalities. 
On  the  accession  of  Constantine  Ypsilanti  the  Porte  was  constrained 
to  issue  a  new  hattisherif  by  which  every  prince  was  to  hold  his 
otiice  for  at  least  seven  years,  unless  the  Porte  satisfied  the  Russian 
minister  that  there  were  gcod  and  sufficient  grounds  for  his  deposi- 
tion. All  irregular  contri'outions  were  to  cease,  and  all  citizens, 
with  the  exception  of  the  boiars  and  clergj',  were  to  pay  their  share 
of  the  tribute.  The  Turkish  troops  then  employed  in  the  princi- 
palities were  to  be  paid  off,  and  one  year's  tribute  remitted  for  the 
purpose.  The  boiars  were  to  be  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of 
schools,  hospitals,  and  roads  ;  they  and  the  prince  together  for  the 
militia.  The  number  of  Turkish  merchants  resident  in  the  country 
was  limited.  Finally,  the  hospodars  were  to  be  amenable  to  repre- 
sentations m.ade  to  them  by  the  Russian  envoy  at  Constantinople, 
to  whora  was  entrusted  the  task  of  watching  over  the  Walachian 
and  Moldavian  liberties.  TJiis,  it  will  be  seen,  was  a  veiled  Russian 
protectorate.  .      m    i  •  i. 

In  1804  the  Serbs  under  Karageorgc  rose  against  tno  Turkish 
dominion,  and  were  secretly  aided  by  the  Walachian  voivode 
Ypsilanri.  The  Porte,  instigated  by  Napoleon's  ambassador 
Sebastiani,  resolved  on  Ypsilanti's  deposition,  but  the  hospodar 
succeeded  in  escaning  to  St  Petersburg.  In  the  war  that  now  ensued 
between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  the  former  were  for  a  time 
successful,  and  even  demanded  that  the  Russian  territory  .should 
extend  to  the  Danube.  In  1803  the  Russians,  then  in  occupation 
of  the  principalities,  formed  a  governing  committee  consisfing^of 
the  metropcli'aa,  another  bishop,  and' four  or  five  boiars  nnder 
the  presidency  of  General  Kusnikoff.  The  seat  of  the  president 
was  at  Jassy,  and  General  Engelhartwas  appointed  as  vice-president 
at  Bucharest.  By  the- peace  of  Bucharest  however,  in  1812,  the 
principalities  were  restored  to  the  sultan  under  the  former  condi- 
tioES,  with  the  exception  of  Bessarabia,  which  ivas  ceded  to  the 
czar. '  The  Pruth  thus  became  the  Russian  boundary.  ^  _     ^^ 

Ti'e  urowing  solidarity  between  the  two  Kouman  principaKtics     F'.txi 
received  a  striking  illustration  in  1816,  when  the  Walachian  and  ist  ' 
Moldavian  hospodars  published  together  a  code  applicable  to  both  mere-      i 
countries,  and  which  had  been  elaborated  by  a  joint  commission.  at..t.      \ 
The  Greek  movement  was  now  beginning,  aud  in  1521  Alexand.~.r 
Ypsilanti  entered  Moldavia  at  the  head  of  the  Hetshsts,  and  pre- 
vailed on  the  hospodar  Michael  Sutzu  to  aid  him  in  invading  the 
Ottoman  dominions.    To  secure  Walachian  help,  Y'psilanti  advanced 
on  Bucharest,  but  the  prince,  Theodore  Vladimirescu,  who  repre- 
sented  the   national   Rouman  reaction    against  the    Fanariotes, 
repulsed  liis  overtures  with  the  remark  "that  his  business  was  not 
to  march  against  the  Turks,  but  to  clear  the  country  of  FaUariotos." 
Vladimirescu   was  slain    by   a   Greek    revolutionary   agent,_  but 
Ypsilanti's  legion  -was  totafly  routed  by  the  Turks  at  Dragashani, 
and  the  result  of  his  enternrise  was  a  Turkish  occupation  of  the 
principalities.     In  1822  the"  Turkish  troops,  who  had  committed 
oTcat  excesses,  were  withdrawn  on  the  combined  representations  of 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Great  Britain.      The  countiy,  io^"^",  was 
again  ravaged  by  the  retiring  troops,  quarters  of  Jassy  and  Bucharest 
burnt,  and  the  complete  evacuation  delayed  till  1824,  when  the 
British  Government  again  remonstrated  with  the  Porte.     By  liio 
convention  of  Akierman  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  in 
1826  the  privilces  of  the  principalities  were  once  more  conurmed, 
and  they  were  again  ratified  in  1829,  under  Russian  guarantee,  by 
the  peace  of  Adrianople.    By  this  peace  all  the  towns  on  the  left  bank  rc'.c-  oi 
of  the  Danube  were  restored  to  the  principalities,  and  the  Porte  Aflrun- 
undertook  to  refrain  from  fortifving  any  position  on  the  Walachian  opje 
side  of  the  river.    The  principafities  were  to  enjoy  commercial  free-  i»/»- 
dom,  and  the  right  of  establishing  a  quarantine  cordon  olong  the 
Danube  or  elsewhere.    The  internal  constitution  of  the  countries  was 
to  be  regulated  by  an  "Organic  Law,  "which  was  drawn  up  by  assem- 
blies of  bishops  and  boiars  at  Jassy  and  Bucharest,  aetina  however, 
under  Russian  control.    The  Organic  Law  thus  elaborated  was  by  no 
means  of  a  liberal  character,  and  amongst  other  abuses  mamtained 
the  feudal  privileges  of  the  boiars;     It  was  ratified  by  the  Porte  in 
1834.  and  the  Russian  army  of  occupation  thereupon  -withdrew. 


R  O  U  — R  O  U 


21 


Move- 
ment of 


Russian 
and 

Austrian 
occupa- 
tion, 
1353-54. 

Treat?  cl" 

Paris, 

1856. 


Jnion  of 
the  two 
princi- 
palities 
pro- 
claimed. 

Attempt 
to  dis- 
nnite 
ther* 


It  faii. 


Friace 
Cqztl 


Chirlcs 

of 

Uoban- 

zollern. 

New 

constl- 

tatioD. 


The  rcvolationary  movement  of  184S  extended  from  theRoumans 
of  Hungary  and  Tran'^ylvania  to  their  kinsmen  of  the  Transalpine 
regie  as.  la  iloldavia  the  agitation  was  mostly  confined  to  the 
boi.,.rs,  and  the  hospodar  Jlichael  Sturdza  succeeded  in  arresting 
vhe  ringleaders.  In  Walachia,  however,  the  outbreak  took  a  more 
violent  iorm.  The  people  assembled  at  Bucharest,  and  demanded 
e,  constitution.  The  prince  Bibescu,  after  setting  his  signature  to 
the  constitution  submitted  to  him,  fled  to  Transylvania,  and  a 
provisional  government  was  formed.  The  Turks,  however,  urged 
thereto  by  Russian  diplomacy,  crossed  the  Danube,  and  a  joint 
Uusso-Turkish  dictatorship  restored  the  "  Organic  Law."  By  the 
Balta-Limau  convention  ot  1849  the  two  Governments  agreed  to  the 
r^ppointment  of  Barbu  Stirbeia  as  prince  of  Walachia,  and  Gregoriu 
Ghika  for  Moldavia. 

On  the  entry  of  the  Russian  troops  into  the  principalities  in 
1853,  the  hospodars  fled  to  Vienna,  leaving  the  government  in 
the  hands  of  their  ministers.  During  the  Danubian  campaign  that 
now  ensued  great  suffering  was  inflicted  on  the  inhabitants,  but 
in  1854  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  induced  the  Russians  to  withdraw. 
Austrian  troops  occupied  the  principalities,  and  the  hospodars 
returned  to  their  posts. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1856  the  principalities  with  their  exist- 
ing privileges  were  placed  under  the  collective  guarantee  of  the 
contracting  powers,  while  remaining  under  the  suzerainty  of  the 
Porte, — the  Porte  on  its  part  engaging  to  respect  the  complete  in- 
dependence of  their  internal  administration.  A  strip  of  southern 
Bessarabia  was  restored  to  Sloldavia,  so  as  to  push  back  the  Russian 
frontier  from  the  Danube  mouth.  The  existing  laws  and  statutes 
of  both  principalities  were  to  be  revised  by  a  European  commission 
sitting  at  Bucharest,  and  their  work  was  to  be  assisted  by-a  Divan 
or  national  council  which  the  Porte  was  to  convoke  ad  hoc  in  each 
of  tho  two  provinces,  and  in  which  all  classes  of  Walcchian  and 
Moldavian  society  were  to  be  represented.  The  European  com- 
mission, in  arriving  at  its  conclusions,  vas  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  opinion  expressed  by  the  representative  councils  ;  tho 
Powers  were  to  come  to  terms  with  the  Porte  as  to  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  commission  ;  and  the  final  result  was  to  be  embodied 
in  a  hattisherif  of  the  sultan,  which  was  to  lay  down  the  definitive 
organisation  of  the  two  principalities.  In  1857  the  commission 
arrived,  and  the  representative  councils  oi  the  two  peoples  were  con- 
voked. On  their  meeting  in  September  they  at  onco  proceeded  to 
vote  with  unanimity  the  union  of  the  two  principalities  into  a 
single  state  under  the  name  of  Romania  (Ronmania),  to  be  governed 
by  a  foreign  prince  elected  from  one  of  the  reigning  dynasties  of 
Kurope,  and  having  a  single  representative  assembly.  The  Powers 
decided  to  undo  the  work  of  national  union.  By  the  convention 
concluded  by  the  European  congress  at  Paris  in  1858,  it  was 
decided  that  the  principalities  should  continue  as  heretofore  to  be 
govcrnad  each  by  its  own  prince.  WaVachia  and  Moldavia  were  to 
have  separate  assemblies,  but  a  central  commission  was  to  be 
established  at  Fokshani  for  the  preparation  of  laws  of  common 
interest,  which  were  afterwards  to  be  submitted  to  the  respective 
assemblies.  In  accordance  with  this  convention  tho  deputies  of 
Moldavia  and  Walachia  met  in  separate  assemblies  at  Bucharest  and 
Jassy,  but  the  choice  of  both  fell  unanimously  on  Prince  Alexander 
John  Cuza,  thus  ensuring  the  personal  union  of  the  two  principali- 
ties ^January  1859).  A  new  conference  was  now  summoned  to 
Paris  to  discuss  the  affairs  of  the  principalities,  and  the  election  of 
Prince  Cuza  finally  ratified  by  tho  Powers  and  the  Porte.  The  two 
assemblies  and  the  central  com:nission  were  j)reserved  till  18G2, 
when  a  single  assembly  met  at  Bucharest  and  a  single  ministry  was 
formed  for  the  two  countries.  The  central  commission  was  at  the 
Bamo  time  abolished,  and  a  council  of  state  charged  with  preparing 
bills  substituted  for  it.  In  May  1864,  owin^  to  diflicnlties  between 
tho  Government  and  the  general  assembly,  the  latter  was  dissolved, 
and  a  statute  was  submitted  to  universal  suffrage  giving  greater 
authority  to  tho  prince,  and  creating  two  chambers  (of  senators 
and  of  deputies).  The  franchise  was  now  extended  to  all  citizens, 
a  cumulative  voting  power  being  reserved,  however,  for  property, 
and  the  peasantry  were  emancipated  from  forced  labour. 

In  1865  a  conflict  broke  out  between  tho  Government  and  the 
people  in  Bucharefit,  and  in  February  1866  Prince  Cuza,  whose 
personal  vices  had  rendered  him.detestable,  was  forced  to  abdicate. 
Tbo  chambers  chose  first  as  his  successor  tho  count  of  Flanders, 
but  on  his  declining  tho  oflicc  proceeded  to  elect  Prince  Charles 
of  Hohenzollem-Sigmfiringcn,  who  was  proclaimed  hospodar  or 
Domnu  of  Roumania  April  29,  1866.  A  new  constitution  was  at 
tho  same  time  introduced.  Its  provisions  secure  the  universal 
sufTrago  of  tax-paying  citizens,  ministerial  responsibility,  trial 
hy  jury,  freedom  of  meeting  and  petition,  of  speech  and  of  the 
press  (except  as  regards  breaches  ot^  the  criminal  code),  gratuitous 
and  compulsory  primary  education,  and  the  right  of  asylum  for 
rohtical  exdcs.  Legislative  power  is  shared  between  the  nrince 
and  chambers,  but  bills  relating  to  the  budget  and  army' must 
originate  with  tho  chamber  of  deputies.     There  are  two  chambers— 

J  senate  and  tho  chamber  of  deputies.  Both  houses  are  elective, 
and  the  election  is  carried  out  by  means  of  electoral  colleges  classified 


according  to  property  and  professional  qualifications.  For  the 
house  of  deputies  each  constituency  is  divided  in  this  way  into  four 
colleges,  each  of  which  elects  a  member.  The  two  highest  of  these 
colleges  also  elect  the  senators,  each  senator  being  elected  for  a 
term  of  eight  years.  The  senate  also  includes  ex  officio  certj,in 
high  ofiicials  and  ecclesiastics,  and  members  for  the  universiries. 
The  senate  consists  at  present  of  120  members,  the  chamber  of 
deputies  of  178.  The  sovereign  has  a  right  of  veto  reserved  to  him 
on  all  measures.  The  judicial  system  is  based  on  the  Code  Napoleon, 
with  some  modifications. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Turkisf..  war  in  1877  Roumania  Koumani 
found  herself  once  more  between  hammer  and  anvil.     Yielding  to  in  Russo 
force  majeure  WiQ  Government  of  Prince  Charles  consented  to  the  Turkish 
passage  of  Russian  troops  across  Roumanian  territor}"",  on  the  under-  War. 
standing  that  the  scene  of  hostilities  was  as  far  as  possible  to  be 
removed  outside  the  limits  of  the  principality.     The  Porte,  how- 
ever,   refusing    to    recognize    that    Roumania    had    acted    under 
constraint,  proclaimed  the  Roumanians  rebels,  and  the  prince's 
Government  accordingly  resolved  to  offer  actiVe  assistance  to  the 
Russians.     A  Roumanian   division  of  32,000  m?n  under   General  Pou- 
Cernat,  took   part   in   tho   siege  of  Plevna,  and   the   Roumanian  i-;anian 
soldiers  distinguished  themselves  in  the  opinion  of  the  most  com-  ."  ats  at 
petent  judges  alike  for  their  heroism  and  endurance.     The  successful  I'ievca. 
assault  by  the  Roumanian  troops  on  the  "indomitable  redoubfe"  of 
Grivitza  formed  in  fact  the  turning  point  of  the  siege  and  of  the  war. 
In  the  peace  of  St  Stefano,  however,  Russia  insisted  on  the  iptroces- 
sion  of  the  strip  of  Bessarabia  that  had  been  restored  to  >.Ioldavia 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  giving  Roumania  *'  in  exchange  "  the  islands 
of  the  Danubian  delta,  and  the  Dobrudja,  which  had  been  ceded  by 
the  sultan.     This  territorial  veadjustment  was  ratified  by  the  tve^'ty  V  ::iin 
of  Berlin  (1878).     The  high  contracting  powers  at  the  &amo  time  l;t?aty. 
consented  by  Art.  xliii.  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  prin- 
cipality subject  to  tlie  provision  (Art.  xJiv.)  that  all  the  inhabitants 
should    enjdy   complcta   religious   freedom,  a   clause   inserted  on 
account  of  tho  Jewish  persecutions  that  had  previously  taken  plaoe, 
and  that  joreigners  in  the  country  should  bu  treated  on  a  footing 
of  perfect  equality.    All  Danubian  fortresses  were  to  be  razed,  and  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  European  commission  to  regulate  the  Danubian 
navigation,  on  which  Roumania  now  acquired  the  right  of  repre- 
sentation, was  extended  from  thc'mouth  to  the  Iron  Gates.     The 
coping-stone  to  Roumanian  independence  wae  set  by  the  proclama-  Prince 
tion  on  March  20,  1331,  of  Prince  Charles  as  king  of  Roumania,  Charlea 
and  on  May  22  of  the  same  year  his  coronation  took  place  wit)i  tho  crowned 
European  sanction.     Tiie  crown  placed  on  King  Carol's  head  was  kiiig. 
made  from  the  captured  cannon  of  the  Plevna  redoubts. 

Authorities. — A3  the  questions  rcearding  the  first  appearance  of  the  Roamans 
north  of  the  Daniibo  aye  res'jrved  for  the  article  Vl.vchs.  it  n  .iy  be  pufflcient 
here  to  refer  tho  reader  to  ilic  worl.-a  of  Rocsler.  c^perialiy  Homanisrhe  Studicn; 
S.  Jung,  Arifdvge  der  Romanen,  and  Hoemci-  'und  liomamu  ;  Lntl.  Vi>^,  Alstam- 
mting  der •  Rumanen ;  A.  D.  Xenopol,  Les  nonmains  au  Moucn  Age.  For  the 
histoiT'  of  the  piincipalitiea  down  to  the  end  of  tlie  last  centiu-y  J.  C.  Ence.'s 
woik5,  Die  Geschicfile  der  Wafaehei  and  Cc&rhiihte  der  ilotdau,  ere  still  tho 
most  trustworthy  authoHtiea.  J.  A.  Vaillant,  La  liomainie:  Nistoire,  .tangve,  &c., 
and  A.  T.  Lauriimu,  htoria  Jlomnnilofti,  <tc.,  niny  be  consulted  for  the  later  his- 
tory, but  a  really  critical  history  of  the  prlncipaliiica  has  yet  to  be  written.  The 
materials  for  It  are,  however,  being  rapidly  am ass^ed— thanks  to  tho  publica- 
tions of  tire  Koumimian  Academy  and  the  ducmueats  collected  by  native 
scholars;  c/.  especial. y  Hurnniz;ikl,  lioeumeute  priritvre  la  Isioria  Romanitor, 
and  Hftideu,  PuOlicationi  isturi'.u-filologice,  dtc.  Fur  a  useful  account  of  tho 
present  state  cf  Roumania.  see  Jiinies  yamuclson,  ^oumaim  Past  and  Present' 
1832.  For  views  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia,  as  they  existed  from  tlie  15th  century 
onwards,  reference  has  already  bt-en  made  to  the  works  of  Vei"antius  and  Del 
Cliimo,  and  Cantcmir's  DescripUo  HolJaviiE.  (A.  J.  E.) 

EOUMANIAN  LITERATURE.     See  Vlacus. 

ROUMELIA.  The  name  of  Roumili,  "  t,he  land  of  lie 
Romans,"  was  applied  from  the  10th  century  downwards 
to  all  that  portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  westwards 
from  tho  Klack  Sea  which  was  subject  to  Turkey.  Jlore 
precisely  it  was  the  country  bounded  N.  by  Bulgaria,  W. 
by  Albania,  and  S.  by  tho  Morca,  or  in  other  words  the 
ancient  provinces,  including  Constantinople  and  Salonica, 
of  Thrace,  Thessaly,  and  Macedonia.  The  name  was  ulti- 
mately applied  more  esjiecially  to  an  cyalet  or  province 
composed  of  Central  Albania  ancl  Vt'eslern  Macedonia, 
having  Monastir  for  its  chief  town  arid  including  Kcsrie 
(Castoiia),  Deri  (Ochrida),  and  Scodra  (Scutari) ;  and  at 
length  it  dis.tppeared  altogether  in  the  administrative 
alterations  efiectod  between  1870  and  1875.  Eastern 
Roumelia  was  constituted  an  autonomous  province  of  the 
Turkish  empire  by  tho  Berlin  treaty  of  1878,  to  bo 
governed  by  a  Christian  governor-general  appointed  by  the 
sultan  for  a  term  of  five  years.  In  1879,  in  obedience 
to  an  international  commission,  it  was  divided  into  six 
departments  and  twenty-eight  cantons,  the  departments 
being   Philippopolis   (187,095),  Tatarbazarjik   (117,063), 


2? 


R  O  U  —  R  O  U 


Hasskoi  (134,268),  Eski-Zagra  (158,905)  Kazaiilik,  Slivno 
or  Sliven  (130,13G),  and  Burgas  (88,04G).  On  tlic  N. 
and  N.W.  East  Eounielia  was  bounded  by  Bulgaria,  the 
frontier  running  along  the  line  of  the  Balkans  though  not 
keeping  to  the  watei-shed  ;  on  the  S.W.  and  S.  lay  the 
vilayets  of  Salonika  and  Adrianople,  the  borderlands  form- 
ing part  of  the  I'lliodope  or  Despoto  mountain  system. 
.The  direct  distance  between  the  northniost  and  southmost 
point  on  the  Black  Sea  is  only  40  miles,  but  the  actual 
coast-line  is  lengthened  by  the  ramifications  of  the  Bay  of 
Burgas,  which  is  the  only  part  of  the  Black  Sea  affording 
several  good  anchorages.  The  great  bulk  of  the  country 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Maritza  and  its  tributary  the 
Tunja  (confluence  at  Adrianople,  to  the  south  of  Eoumelia), 
though  a  certain  part  drains  north-eastwards  by  several 
small  streams.  The  whole  area  is  estimated  at  14,858 
square  miles,  and  the  population  in  1880  was  815,513,  of 
whom  573,231  were  Bulgarians,  170,759  Turks,  42,520 
Greeks,  19,524  Gipsies,  4177  Jews,  and  130G  Armenians. 
This  preponderance  of  Bulgarians  led  iu  September  1885  to 
the  Phllippopolis  revolution,  wliich  resulted  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Bulgaria  declaring  East  Koumelia  part  and  parcel 
of  United  Bulgaria  ;  and  the  United  Bulgarians  have  since 
been  successful  in  a  war  with  the  Servians,  who  invaded 
their  territory. 

ROUND  TOWERS.  A  peculiar  class  of  round  tower 
exists  scattered  throughout  Ireland  ;  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  e.xamples  once  existed;  most  of  these  are 
ruined,  but  eighteen  or  twenty  are  almost  jierfect.  These 
towers  were  built  either  near  or  adjoining  a  church  ;  they 
are  of  various  dates  from  perhaps  the  8th  to  the  ISth 
century ;  though  varying  in  size  and  detail,  they  have 
many  characteristics  which  are  common  to  all.  They  are 
built  with  walls  slightly  battering  inwards,  so  that  the 
tower  tapers  towards  the  top.  The  lower  part  is  formed 
of  .solid  masonry,  the  one  doorway  being  raised  from  6  to 
20  feet  above  the  ground,  and  so  only  accessible  by  means 
of  a  ladder.  The  towers  within  are  divided  into  several 
stories  by  two  or  more  floors,  usually  of  wood,  but  in 
some  cases,  as  at  Keneith,  of  stone  slightly  arched.  The 
access  from  floor  to  floor  was  by  ladders,  no  stone  staircase 
being  provided.  The  windows,  which  ^re  always  high  upi, 
are  single  lights,  mostly  arched  or  with  a  flat  stone  lintel. 
In  some  of  the  oldest  towers  they  have  triangular  tops, 
formed  by  two  stones  leaning  together,  like  the  windows 
at  Deerhurst  and  other  pre-Norman  buildings  in  England. 
One  peculiarity  of  the  door  and  window  openings  in  the 
Irish  round  towers  is  that  the  jambs  are  frequently  set 
sloping,  so  that  the  opening  grows  narrower  towards  the 
top,  as  in  the  temples  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  later 
examples  of  these  towers,  dating  from  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries  are  often  decorated  with  chevron,  billet,  and  other 
Norman  enrichments  round  the  jambs  and  arches.  The 
roof  is  of  stone,  usually  conical  in  shape,  and  some  of  the 
later  towers  are  crowned  by  a  circle  of  battlements.  The 
height  of  the  round  towers  varies  from  about  CO  feet  to 
132;  that  at  Kilcullen  was  the  highest.  The  masonry 
differs  according  to  its  date, — the  oldest  examples  being 
built  of  almost  uncut  rubble  work,  and  the  later  ones  of 
neatly-jointed  ashlar- 
Much  has  been  written  as  to  the  use  of  these  towers, 
and  the  most  conflicting  theories  as  to  their  origin  have 
been  propounded.  It  is,  however,  fairly  certain  that  they 
were  constructed  by  Christian  builders,  both  from  t-lie  fact 
that  they  always  are  or  once  were  near  to  a  church,  and 
also  because  crosses  and  other  Christian  emblems  frequently 
occur  among  tho  sculptured  decorations  of  their  doors  and 
windows.  The  original  purpose  of  these  towers  was  pro- 
bably for  places  of  refuge,  for  which  the  solid  base  and  the 
door  high  above  the  ground  seem  specially  adapted.     They 


may  also  have  been  watch-towers,  and  in  later  times  often 
contained  bells.  Their  circular  form  was  probably  for  tiio 
sake  of  strength,  angles  which  could  be  atvacked  by  a 
battering  ram  being  tVius  avoided,  and  also  because  no 
quoins  or  dressed  stones  were  needed,  except  for  the  open- 
ings— an  important  point  at  a  time  when  tools  for  working 
stone  were  scarce  and  imperfect.  Both  these  reasons  may 
also  account  for  the  Norman  round  towers  which  are  so 
common  at  the  west  end  of  churches  in  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
and  Essex,  though  these  have  little  resemblance  to  those  of 
Ireland  except  in  the  use  of  a  circular  plan.  One  example 
exactly  like  those  of  Ireland  still  exists  in  the  Isle  of  Man, 
within  the  precincts  of  Peel  Castle  adjacent  to  the  cathedral 
of  St  German  ;  it  was  probably  the  work  of  Irish  builders. 
There  are  also  three  in  Scotland,  viz.  at  Egilshay  in  Ork- 
ney, and  at  Abernethy  and  Brechin. 

Round  towers  wider  and  lower  in  proportion  than  those 
of  Ireland  appear  to  have  been  built  by  many  prehistoric 
races  at  different  parts  of  Europe.  Many  examples  exist 
in  Scotland,  and  in  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia. 
The  towers  of  this  class  in  Scotland  are  called  "  brochs  "  ; 
they  average  about  50  feet  high  and  30  feet  in  internal 
diameter.  Their  walls,  which  are  usually  about  15  feet 
thick  at  the  bottom,  are  built  hollow,  of  rubble  masonry 
with  series  of  passages  one  over  the  other  running  aU 
round  the  tower.  As  in  the  Irish  toAvers,  the  entrance  is 
placed  at  some  distance  from  the  ground ;  and  the  whole 
structure  is  designed  as  a  stronghold.  The  brochs  appear 
to  have  been  the  work  of  a  pre-Christian  Celtic  race. 
Many  objects  in  bronze  and  iron  and  fragments  of  hand- 
made pottery  have  been  found  in  and  near  these  towers, 
all  bearing  witness  of  a  very  early  date.  See  Anderson, 
Scotland  in  Pagan  Times,  1883,  and  Scotland  in  Early 
C/iristian  Times,  ISSl.  During  the  6th  century  church 
towers  at  and  near  Ravenna  were  usually  built  round  in 
plan,  and  not  unlike  those  of  Ireland  in  their  proportions. 
The  finest  existing  example  is  that  which  stands  by  the 
church  of  S.  ApoUinare  in  Classe,  the  old  port  of  the  city 
of  Ravenna  (see  Basilica,  vol.  iii.  p.  415,  fig.  5).  It  is  of 
brick,  divided  into  nine  stories,  with  single-light  windows 
below,  three-light  windows  in  the  upper  stories,  and  two- 
lights  in  the  intermediate  ones.  The  most  magnificent 
example  of  a  round  tower  is  the  well-known  leaning  tower 
of  Pisa,  begun  in  the  year  1174.  It  is  richly  decorated 
with  tiers  of  open  marble  arcades,  supported  on  free 
columns.  The  circular  plan  was  much  used  by  Moslem 
races  for  their  minarets.  The  finest  of  these  is  the  13th- 
century  minar  of  Kootub  at  Old  Delhi,  built  of  limestone 
with  bands  of  marble.  It  is  richly  fluted  on  plan,  and 
when  complete  was  at  least  250  feet  high. 

The  best  account  ol  the  Irisli  round  towers  is  that  given  by  Peti'ie, 
in  his  Ecclesiastical  Jrchitccturc  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1845).  See  also 
Keane,  Towers  and  Temples  of  Am:iait  Ireland  (Dublin,  1850) ;  Brash, 
EcelcsiasLical  Architectvre  of  Irelmid  {YinhWn,  1875);  and  Stokes, 
£arh/  Architecture  in  Ireland  (Dublin,  1S7S).  (J.  H.  M.) 

ROUNDEL.     See  Roxdeau. 

ROUS,  or  Rouse,  Francis  (1579-1659),  known  by 
his  translation  of  the  Psalms ;  see  vol.  xii.  p.  590.  His 
works  appeared  at  London  in  1657. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jacques  (1630-1693),  painter,  a  member 
of  a  Huguenot  family,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1630.  He 
was  remarkable  as  a  piainter  of  decorative  landscapes  and 
classic  ruins,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  Caualctto,  but 
without  his  delicacy  of  touch  ;  he  appears  also  to  have 
been  influenced  by  Nicolas  Poussin.  While  quite  young 
Rousseau  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  fascinated  by  the 
noble  picturesqueness  of  the  ancient  ruins,  and  spent  some 
years  in  painting  them,  together  with  the  surrounding 
landscapes.  He  thus  formed  his  style,  which  was  highly 
artificial  and  conventionally  decorative.  His .  colouring 
for  the  most  part  is  unpjeasing,  parf ly  owing  to  hu  violent 


KUUSSEAU 


23 


ireatmeni  of  skiea  v/ith  crude  blues  and  orange,  and  his 
chiaroscuro  usually  is  much  exaggerated.  On  his  return 
to  Paris  he  soon  became  distinguished  as  a  painter,  and 
was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  decorate  the  walls  of  his 
palaces  at  St  Germain  and  Marly.  He  was  soon  admitted 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  but 
on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Kantes  he  was  obliged 
to  take  refuge  in  HoUand,  and  his  name  was  struck  off 
the  Academy  rolL  From  Holland  he  was  invited  to  Eng- 
land by  the  duke  of  Montague,  who  employed  him, 
together  with  other  French  painters,  to  paint  the  walls  of 
his  palace,  Montague  House.^  Kousseau  was  also  employed 
to  paint  architectural  subjects  and  landscapes  in  the  palace 
of  Hampton  Court,  where  many  of  his  decorative  panels 
stUl  exist.  He  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  London, 
where  he  died  in  1693. 

Besides  being  a  painter  in  oil  and  fresco  Rousseau  was  an  etcher 
of  some  ability  ;  many  etchings  by  his  hand  from  the  works  of  the 
Caracci  and  Irom  Ms  own  designs  still  exist ;  they  are  vigorous, 
though  too  coarse  ia  execution. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Eaptiste  (1670-1741},  a  poet  of 
some  merit  and  a  wit  of  considerable  'dexterity,  was  born 
at  Paris  on  the  10th  April  1670;  he  died  at  Brussels 
on  the  17th  March  1741.  The  son  of  a  shoemaker,  he  is 
said  to  have  been  ashamed  of  his  parentage  and  relations 
when  he  acquired  a  certain  popularity,  but  the  abundance 
of  literary  quarrels  in  which  he  spent  his  life,  and  the 
malicious  inventiveness  of  his  chief  enemy,  Voltaire,  make 
any  such  stories  of  smaU  account.  He  was  certainly  well 
educated  and  early  gained  favour  with  Boileau,  who  did 
not  regard  many  people  favourably ;  but  authentic  intelli- 
gence as  to  his  youth  is  very  scarce.  He  does  not  seem  to 
have  attempted  literature  very  young,  and  when  he  began 
he  began  with  the  theatre,  for  which  at  no  part  of  his  life 
does  he  seem  to  have  had  any  aptitude.  A  one-act 
comedy,  Le  Cafe,  failed  in  1694,  and  he  was  not  much 
happier  with  a  more  ambitious  play,  Les  Flatleuis,  or 
with  the  opera  of  Venus  and  Adonis.  He  would  not  take 
these  warnings,  and  tried  in  1700  another  comedy,  Le 
Capricieux,  which  had  the  same  fate.  By  this  time  he 
had  already  (it  is  not  quite  clear  how)  obtained  influential 
patrons,  such  as  Breteuil  and  Tallard,  had  gone  with 
Tallard  as  an  attache  to  London,  and,  in  days  when  litera- 
ture still  led  to  high  position,  seemed  likely  to  achieve 
success.  To  tell  the  whole  story  of  his  misfortunes  would 
take  far  more  space  than  can  be  spared  him  here.  They 
began  with  what  may  be  called  a  club  squabble  at  a 
certain  Caf(5  Laurent,  which  was  much  frequented  by 
literary  men,  and  where  Rousseau  indulged  in  lampoons 
on  his  companions.  A  shower  of  libellous  and  sometimes 
obscene  verses  was  written  by  or  attributed  to  him,  and 
at  last  he  was  practically  turned  out  of  the  cafe.  At  the 
.■same  time  his  poems,  as  yet  only  singly  printed  or  in 
manuscript,  acquired  him  a  great  reputation,  and  not 
unjustly,  for  Rousseau  is  certainly  the  best  French,  writer 
of  serious  lyrics  between  Racine  and  Chenier.  He  had  in 
1701  been  made  a  member  cf  the  Acadi^mio  des  Inscrij)- 
tions ;  ho  had  been  offered,  though  he  had  not  accepted, 
profitable  places  in  the  revenue  department ;  he  had 
become  a  favourite  of  the  libertine  but  not  uninfluential 
coterie  of  the  Temple;  and  in  1710  he  presented  himself 
as  a  candidate  for  the  Academic  Francaise.  Then  began 
the  second  chapter  (the  fir.st  had  lasted  ten  years)  of  a 
history  of  the  animosities  of  authors  which  is  almost  the 
strangest  though  not  the  most  imjiortant  on  record.  A 
copy  of  verses,  more  offensive  than  ever,  was  handed  to  the 
original  object  of  Rousseau's  jealousy,  and,  getting  wind, 
occasioned  the  bastinadoing  of  the  reputed  author  by  a 
certain  La  Faye  or  La  Faille,  a  soldier  who  was  reflected 

'  Montague  House  stood  on  the  site  of  the  British  Museum. 


on.  Legal  proceedings  of  various  kinds  followed,  and 
Rousseau  either  had  or  thought  ho  had  ground  for  ascrib- 
ing the  lampoon  to  Joseph  Saurin.  More  law  ensued, 
and  the  end  of  it  was  that  in  1712  Rousseau,  not  appear- 
ing, was  condemned  jaar  contumace  to  perpetual  exile.  He 
actually  suffered  it,  remaining  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
foreign  countries  except  for  a  short  time  in  1738,  when  he 
returned  clandestinely  to  Paris  to  try  for  a  recall.  It 
should  be  said  that  he  might  have  had  this  if  he  had  not 
steadfastly  protested  his  innocence  and  refused  to  accept  a 
mere  pardon.  No  one  has  ever  completely  cleared  up  the 
story,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that,  except  as  exhibiting 
very  strikingly  the  strange  idiosyncrasies  of  the  15th 
century  in  France,  and  as  having  affected  the  fortunes  of 
a  man  of  letters  of  some  eminence,  it  is  not  worth  much 
attention. 

Rousseau's  good  and  ill  luck  did  not  tease  with  his 
exile.  First  Prince  Eugene  and  then  other  persons  of  dis- 
tinction took  him  under  their  protection,  and  he  printed 
at  Soleure  the  first  edition  of  his  poetical  works.  But  by 
fault  or  misfortune  he  still  continued  to  quarrel.  Voltaire 
and  he  met  at  Brussels  in  1722,  and,  though  Voltaire  had 
hitherto  pretended  or  felt  a  gri-at  admiration  for  him, 
something  happened  which  turned  this  admiration  into 
hatred.  Voltaire's  Le  Pour  ct  Le  Contre  is  said  to  have 
shocked  Rousseau,  who  expressed  his  sentiments  freely. 
At  any  rate  the  latter  had  thenceforward  no  fiercer  enemy 
than  Voltali'c.  Rousseau.,  however,  was  not  much  affected 
by  Voltaire's  enmity,  and  pursued  for  nearly  twenty  years 
a  life  of  literary  work,  of  courtiership,  and  of  rather 
obscure  speculation  and  business.  Although  he  never 
made  his  fortune,  it  does  not  seem  that  he  was  ever  in 
want.  When  he  died  his  death  had  the  singular  result  of 
eliciting  from  a  poetaster,  Lefranc  de  Pompignan,  an  ode 
of  real  excellence  and  perhaps  better  than  anything  of 
Rousseau's  own  work.  That  work,  however,  has  high 
merits,  and  is  divided,  roughly  speaking,  into  two  strangely 
contrasted  divisions.  One  consists  of  formal  and  partly- 
sacred  odes  and  canlahsr  of  the  stiffest  character,  the  other 
of  brief  epigrams,  sometimes  licentious  aud  always  or 
almost  always  ill-natured.  In  the  latter  class  of  work 
Rousseau  is  only  inferior  to  his  friend  Piron.  In  the 
former  he  stands  almost  alone.  The  frigidity  of  conven- 
tional diction  and  the  disuse  of  all  really  lyrical  rhythm 
which  characterize  his  period  do  not  prevent  his  odes  and 
cantates  from  showing  true  poetical  faculty,  grievously 
cramped  no  doubt,  but  still  existing. 

Besides  the  Soleure  edition  mentioned  abovi.,  Rousseau  published 
(visiting  England  for  the  purpose)  another  issue  of  his  work  at 
London  in  1723.  The  chief  edition  since  is  that  of  Aniar  in  1820. 
M.  A.  de  Latour  has  published  (Paris,  Gamier,  1869}  a  useful 
though  not  complete  edition,  with  notes  of  merit  and  a  biogi-aphical 
introduction  which  would  have  been  better  if  the  facts  had  been 
more  punctually  and  precisely  stated. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques  (1712-1778),  was  born  at 
Geneva  on  the  28th  June  1712.  His  family  had  estab- 
lished themselves  ii  that  city  at  the  time  of  the  religious 
wars,  but  they  were  of  pure  French  origin.  Rousseau's 
father  Isaac  was  a  watchmaker ;  his  mother,  Suzanne 
Bernard,  was  the  daughter  of  a  minister;  she  died  in 
childbirth,  and  Rousseau,  who  was  the  second  son,  was 
brought  up  in  a  very  haphazard  fa.-jhion,  his  father  being 
a  dissipated,  violent-tempered,  aud  foolish  person.  He, 
however,  taught  him  to  read  early,  aud  seems  to  have  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  flighty  senlimentalism  in  morals  and 
politics  which  Rousseau  afterwards  illu.strated  with  his 
genius.  When  the  boy  was  ten  years  old  his  father  got 
entangled  in  a  disgraceful  brawl  and  fled  from  Geneva, 
apparently  without  troubling  himself  about  Jean  Jacques. 
The  father  and  son  had  little  more  to  do  with  each  other 
and  rarely  met.     Rousseau  was.  however,  taken  charge  of 


24 


ROUSSEAU 


by  his  mother's  relations  and  was  in  the  first  place  com- 
nutted  by  them  to  the  tutorship  of  a  M.  Lambercier, 
pastor  at  Bosscy.  Of  these  times  as  of  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  there  are  ample  details  in  the  Confessions,  but 
it  may  be  as  well  to  remark  at  once  that  this  famous  book, 
however  charming  a?  literature,  is  to  be  used  as  docu- 
mentary evidence  only  with  great  reserve.  In  1724:  lie 
was  removed  from  this  school  and  taken  into  the  house  of 
his  uncle  Bernard,  by  whom  he  was  shortly  afterwards 
ai)i>renticed  to  a  notary.  His  master,  however,  found  or 
tliouglit  him  quite  incapable  and  sent  him  back.  After  a 
short  time  (April  2'',  1725)  he  was  apprenticed  afresh, 
this  time  to  an  engraver.  He  did  not  dislike  the  work, 
but  was  or  thought  hiiuselt  cruelly  treated  by  his  master. 
At  last  in  1728,  when  he  was  si.xteen,  he  ran  away,  the 
truancy  being  by  his  own  account  unintentional  in  the 
first  instance,  and  due  to  the  fact  of  the  city  gates  being 
shut  earlier  than  usual.  Tlien  began  a  very  extraordinary 
series  of  wandering:-  and  adventures,  for  much  of  which 
there  is  no  authority  luit  his  own.  He  first  fell  in  with 
some  proselytizers  of  the  Homau  faith 'at  Confignon  in 
Savoy,  and  by  them  he  was  sent  to  Madame  de  Warens 
at  Annecy,  a  young  and  pretty  widow  wl^  was  herself  a 
convert.  Her  influence,  however,  which  was  to  be  so 
great,  was  not  immediately  exercised,  and  he  was,  so  to 
speak,  passed  on  to  Turin,  where  there  was  ati  institution 
specially  devoted  to  the  reception  of  neophytes.  His 
experiences  here  were  (according  to  his  own  account,  it 
must  always  be  understood)  sufficiently  unsatisfactory, 
but  he  abjured  duly  and  was  rewarded  by  being  presented 
with  twenty  francs  and  sent  about  his  business.  He 
wandered  about  in  Turin  for  some  time,  and  at  last  estab- 
lished himself  as  footman  to  a  Madame  de  Vereellis. 
Here  occurred  the  famous  incident  of  the  theft  of  a  ribbon, 
of  which  he  accused  a  fellow  servant — a  girl  too.  But, 
though  he  kept  his  place  by  this  piece  of  cowardice, 
Madame  de  VerceUis  died  not  long  afterwards  and  ho  was 
turned  off.  He  found,  however,  another  place  with  the 
Comte  de  Couvon,  but  lost  this  also  through  coxcombry. 
Then  he  resolved  to  return  to  Madame  de  Warens  at 
Annecy.  The  chronology  of  all  these. events  is  somewhat 
'obscure,  but  they  .seem  to  have  occupied  about  three 
■years." 

Even  then  Rousseau  did  not  settle  at  once  in  the 
anomalous  but  to  him  charming  position  of  domestic  lover 
to  this  lady,  who,  nominally  a  converted  Protestant,  was 
in  reality,  as  many  women  of  her  time  were,  a  kind  of 
deist,  with  a  theory  of  noble  sentiment  and  a  practice 
of  libertinism  tempered  by  good  nature.  It  used  to  be 
held  that  in  her  conjugal  relations  she  was  even  more 
sinned  against  than  sinning.  But  recent  investigations 
seem  to  show  that  it.  de  Yuarrens  (which  is  said  to  be  the 
correct  spelling  of  the  name)  was  a  very  unfortunate  hus- 
band, and  was  deserted  and  robbed  by  his  wife.  However, 
she  welcomed  Rousseau  kindly,  thought  it  necessary  to 
complete  his  education,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  semin- 
arists of  St  Lazare  to  be  improved  in  classics,  and  also  to 
a  music  master.  In  one  of  his  incojnprehensible  freaks  he 
set  off  for  Lyons,  and,  after  abandoning  his  companion  in  an 
epileptic  fit,  returned  to  Annecy  to  find  Madame  de  Warens 
gone  no  one  knew  whither.  Then  for  some  months  he 
relapsed  into  the  life  of  vagabondage,  varied  by  improbable 
adventures,  which  (according  to  his  own  statement)  he 
so  often  pursued.  Hardly  knowing  anything  of  music,  he 
attempted  to  give  lessons  and  a  concert  at  Lausanne ; 
and  he  actually  taught  at  Neucliiitel.  Then  he  became 
or  says  he  became  secretary  to  a  Greek  archimandrite  who 
was  travelling  in  Switzerland  to  collect  subscriptions  for 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  ;  then  he  went  to 
Paris,  and.  with  recommeudations  from  the  French  ambas- 


sador at  Soleure,  saw  something  of  good  society  ;  then  he 
returned  on  foot  through  Lyons  to  Savoy,  hearing  that 
Madame  de  Warens  was  at  Chambery.  This  was  in  1732, 
and  Rousseau,  who  for  a  time  had  unimportant  employ- 
ments in  the  service  of  the  Sardinian  crown,  was  shortly 
installed  by  Madame  de,  Warens,  whom  he  still  called 
ilaman,  as  ainani  en  litre  in  her  singular  household, 
wherein  she  diverted  herself  with  him,  with  music,  and 
with  chemistry.  In  1736  Madame  de  Warens,  partly  for 
Rousseau's  health,  took  a  country  house,  Les  Charmettes, 
a  short  distance  from  Chambery.  Here  in  summer,  and 
in  the  tjswn  during  winter,  Rousseau  led  a  delightful  life, 
which  he  has  delightfully  described.  In  a  desultory  way 
he  did  a  good  deal  of  reading,  but  in  1738  his  health 
again  became  bad,  and  he  was  recommended  to  go  to 
Montpellier.  By  his  own  account  this  journey  to  Montpel- 
lier  was  in  reality  a  roi/nije  a  Ci/lliere  in  company  with  a 
certain  Madame  de  Larnage.  This  being  so,  he  could 
hardly  complain  when  on  returning  he  found  that  his 
official  position  in  JIadame  de  Warens's  household  .had 
been  taken  by  a  "person  named  Vintzenried.  He  was, 
however,  less  likely  than  most  men  to  endure  the  position 
of  second  in  command,  and  in  1740  he  became  tutor  at 
Lyons  to  the  children  of  M.  de  Mably,  not  the  well-known 
writer  of  that  name,  but  his  and  Cond'llac's  elder  brother. 
But  Rousseau  did  not  like  teaching  and  was  a  bad  teacher, 
and  after  a  visit  to  Les  Charmettes,  finding  that  his  place 
there  was  finally  occupied,  he  once  more  went  to  Paris  in 
1741.  He  was  not  without  recommendations.  But  a 
new  system  of  musical  notation  which  he  thought  he  had 
discovered  was  unfavourably  received  by  the  Acad^mie  des 
Sciences,  where  it  was  read  in  August  1742,  and  he  was 
unable  to  obtain  pupils.  Madame  Dupin,  however,  to 
whose  house  he  had  obtainedUhe  entry,  procured  him  the 
honourable  if  not  very  lucrative  post  of  secretary  to  M.  de 
i\lontaigu,  ambassador  at  Venice.  With  him  he  stayed  for 
about  eighteen  months,  and  has  as  usual  infinite  complaints 
to  make  of  his  employer  and  some  strange  stories  to  tell. 
At  length  he  threw  up  his  situation  and  returned  to  Paris 
(1745): 

L'p  to  this  time — that  is  to  say,  till  his  thirty-third  year^ 
Rousseau's  life,  though  continuously  described  by  himself, 
was  of  the  kind  called  subterranean,  and  the  account  of  it 
must  be  taken  with  considerable  allowances.  There  are, 
to  say  the  least,  grave  improbabilities  in  it;  there  are  some 
chronological  difficulties  ;  and  in  one  or  two  instances  his 
accounts  have  been  tiatly  denied  by  persons  more  or  less 
entitled  to  be  heard.  He  had  written  nothing,  and  if  he 
was  known  at  all  it  was  as  an  eccentric  vagabond.  From 
this  time,  however,  he  is  more  or  less  in  view;  and,  though 
at  least  two  events  of  his  life — his  quarrel  with  Diderot 
and  his  death — are.  and  are  likely  long  to  be  subjects  of 
dispute,  its  general  history  car»  be  checked  and  followed 
with  .reasonable  confidence.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he 
renewed  his  relations  with  the  Dupin  family  and  with  the 
literary  group  of  Diderot,  to  which  he  had  aheady  been 
introduced  by  M.  de  JIably's  letters.  He  had  an  opera, 
Les  Muses  Ga'lantes,  privatelj;,repre»ented  ;  he  copied  music 
for  money,  and  received  from  Jlaoame  Dupin  and  her  son- 
in-law  M.  de  Francueil  a  small  but  regular'  salary  as 
secretary.  He  lived  at  the  Hotel  St  Quentin  for  a  time, 
and  once  more  arranged  for  himself  an  equivocal  domestic 
establishment.  His  mistress,  whom  towards  the  close  of 
his  life  he  married  after  a  fashion,  was  Therese  le  Vasseur, 
a  servant  at  the  inn.  She  had  littls  beauty,  no  education 
or  understanding,  and  few  charms  of  any  kind  that  his 
friends  coidd  discover,  besides  which  she  had  a  detestable 
motlier,  who  was  the  bane  of  Rousseau's  life.  But  ha 
made  himself  at  any  rate  for  a  time  quite  hapjiy  with  her, 
and    (according   to   Rousseau's  account,  the   accuracy  of 


ROUSSEAU 


25 


which  has  been  questioned)  five  children  were  born  to  thevi, 
who  were  all  consigned  to  the  foundling  hospital  This  dis- 
regard of  responsibility  was  partly  punished  by  the  use  his 
critics  made  of  it  when  he  became  celebrated  as  a  writer 
on  education  and  a  preacher  of  the  domestic  affections. 
Diderot,  with  whom  he  became  more  and  more  familiar, 
admitted  him  as  a  contributor  to  the  Eiicyclopedie.  He 
formed  new  musical  projects,  and  he  was  introduced  by 
degrees  to  many  people  of  rank  and  inflioiice,  among 
whom  his  warmest  patroir  for  a  time  was  Madame 
d'fipinay.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1749  that  Rousseau 
made  his  mark.  The  academy  of  Dijon  offered  a  prize  for 
an  essay  on  the  effect  of  the  progress  of  civilization  on 
morals.  Rousseau  took  up  the  subject,  developed  his 
famous  paradox  of  the  superiority  of  the  savage  state,  won 
the  prize,  and,  publishing  his  essay  next  year,  became 
famous.  The  anecdotage  as  to  the  origin  of  this  famous 
essay  is  voluminous.  It  is  agreed  that  the  idea  was 
suggested  when  Rousseau  went  to  pay  a  visit  to  Diderot, 
who  was  in  prison  at  Vincennes  for  his  Letire  sur  les 
Aveugles.  Rousseau  says  he  thought  of  the  paradox  on  his 
way  down ;  Morellet  and  others  say  that  he  thought  of 
treating  the  subject  in  the  ordinary  fashion  and  wjs 
laughed  at  by  Diderot,  who  showed  him  the  advantages  of 
the  lei?  obvious  treatment.  Diderot  himself,  who  in  such 
matter.';  is  almost  absolutely  trustworthy,  does  not  claim 
the  suggestion,  but  uses  words  which  imply  that  it  was  at 
least  partly  his.  It  is  very  like  him.  The  essay,  however, 
took  the  artificial  and  crotchety  society  of  the  day  by 
storm.  Francueil  gave  Rousseau  a  valuable  post  as  cashier 
in  the  receiver  general's  office.  But  he  resigned  it  either 
from  conscientiousness,  or  crotchet,  or  nervou.^ness  at 
resjionsibility,  or  indolence,  or  more  probably  from  a 
mixture  of  all  four.  He  went  back  to  his  music  copying, 
but  the  salons  of  the  day  were  determined  to  have  his 
society,  and  for  a  time  they  had  it.  In  17C2  he  brought 
out  at  Fontainebleau  an  operetta,  the  Z't'f  in  </«  FeWa^re,  which 
was  very  successful.  He  received  a  hundred  louis  for  it, 
and  he  was  ordered  to  come  to  court  next  day.  This 
meant  the  certainty  of  a  pension.  But  Rousseau's  shyness 
or  his  perversity  (as  before,  probably  both)  made  him 
disobey  the  command.  His  comedy  Karcisse,  written  long 
before,  was  also  acted,  but  unsuccessfully.  In  the  same 
year,  however,  a  letter  Sur  la  Musique  Fran<;aise  again 
had  a  great  vogue.'     Finally,  for  this  was  an  important 

*  Rousseau's  influence  ou  French  music  was  greater  than  might  have 
been  expected  from  his  ver>'  imperfect  education ;  in  truth,  he  was  a 
musician  by  natural  instinct  only,  but  his  feeling  for  art  was  very 
strong,  auil,  though  capricious,  based  upon  true  perceptions  of  the 
good  and  beautiful.  The  system  of  notation  (by  figures)  concerning 
which  he  read  a  paper  before  the  Academie  des  Sciences,  August  22, 
17i2,  was  ingenious,  but  practically  worse  than  useless,  and  failed 
to  attract  attention,  though  the  paper  was  published  in  1743  under  the 
title  of  Dissertalicm  sur  In  mi^ique  modeme,  lu  the  famous  *'guerre 
dcs  bulfons,"  he  took  the  part  of  the  "buffonists,"  60  named  in  conse- 
quence of  their  attachment  to  the  Italian  "  opera  buiTa,"  as  opposed  to 
the  true  French  opera ;  and,  in  his  Ltltre  sur  la  tnusique  Fran<;aise, 
published  in  1753,  he  indulged  in  a  violent  tirade  against  French 
music,  which  he  declared  to  be  so  contemptible  as  to  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion "that  the  Frenci.  neither  have,  nor  ever  will  have,  any  music 
of  their  own,  or  at  le^st  that,  if  they  ever  do  have  auy,  it  will  be  so 
much  the  worse  for  them."  This  silly  libel  so  enraged  the  performers 
at  the  Opera  that  they  hanged  and  burned  its  author  in  efiigy. 
Rousseau  revenged  himself  by  printing  his  clever  satire  entitled 
Letire  d'un  symphoni^te  dc  V AcadcmU  Jioyale  de  Muskiuc  it  ses  cania- 
railcs  de  Vorchcstre.  His  Leitrc  d  il.  Burney  is  of  a  very  different 
type,  and  does  full  justice  to  the  genius  of  Gluck.  His  articles  on 
music  iu  the  Encydopidic  de.al  very  superficially  with,  the  subject ; 
and  bis  Diclioiinaire  de  Miisiquc  (Geneva,  17C7),  though  admirably 
%v»-ittcii,  in  not  trustworthy,  either  as  a  record  of  facts  or  as  a  col- 
lection of  critical  essays.  In  all  these  works  the  imperfection  of 
his  musical  education  is  painfully  apparent,  and  his  compositions 
btiray  an  equal  lack  of  knowledge,  though  his  refined  taste  is  as 
clearly  disf I'.yc-l  t'.:ere  as  in  his  litcr:.ry  pov.-er  in  the  LfUers  and  Dic- 
Uunari/.      liis  tirA  opera,  La  .Vusts  GalanUs,  privately  prepared  at 


year  with  him,  the  Dijon  academy,  which  had  founded  Lis 
fame,  announced  the  subject  of  "The  Origin  of  In- 
equality," on  which  he  wrote  a  discourse  which  was  un- 
successful, but  at  least  equal  to  the  former  iu  merit. 
During  a  visit  to  Geneva  in  1754  Rousseau  saw  his  old 
friend  and  love  Madame  de  Warens  (now  reduced  in  cir- 
cumstances and  having  lost  all  her  charms),  while  after 
abjuring  his  abjuration  of  Protestantism  he  was  enabled 
to  take  up  his  freedom  as  citizen  of  Geneva,  to  which  his 
birth  entitled  him  and  of  which  he  was  proud.  Some  time 
afterwards,  returning  to  Paris,  he  accepted  a  cottage  near 
Montmorency  (the  celebrated  Hermitage)  which  Madame 
d'Epinay  had  fitted  up  for  him,  and  established  him- 
self there  in  April  1756.  He  spent  little  more  than  a 
year  there,  but  it  was  a  very  important  year.  Here 
he  wrote  La  XouveUe  Heldise ;  here  he  indulged  in  the 
passion  which  that  novel  partly  represents,  his  love  for 
Madame  d'Houdetot,  sister-in-law  of  Madame  d'lipiuay,  a 
lady  still  young  and  extremely  amiable  but  very  plain, 
who  had  a  husband  and  a  lover  (St  Lambert),  and  whom 
Rousseau's  burning  devotion  seems  to  have  partly  pleased 
and  partly  annoyed.  Here  too  arose  the  incomprehensible 
triangular  quarrel  between  Diderot,  Rousseau,  and  Grimm 
which  ended  Rousseau's  sojourn  at  the  Hermitage.  It  is 
impossible  to  discuss  this  at  length  here.  The  supposition 
least  favourable  to  Rousseau  is  that  it  was  due  to  one  of 
his  numerous  fits  of  half-insane  petulance  and  indignation 
at  the  obligations  which  he  was  nevertheless  always  ready 
to  incur.  That  most  favourable  to  him  is  that  he  was 
expected  to  lend  himself  in  a  more  or  less  complaisant 
manner  to  as.sist  and  cover  Madame  d"Epinay's  adulterous 
affection  for  Grimm.  It  need  only  be  said  that  !Madame 
d'fipinay's  morals  and  Rousseau's  temper  are  equally 
indefensible  by  anyone  who  knows  anything  about  either, 
but  that  the  evidence  as  to  the  exact  influence  of  both 
on  this  particular  tra'Jsaction  is  hopelessly  inconclusive. 
Diderot  seems  to  have  been  guilty  of  nothing  but  thought- 
lessness (if  of  that)  in  lending  himself  to  a  scheme  of  the 
Le  Vasseurs,  mother  and  daughter,  for  getting  Rousseau 
out  of  the  solitude  of  the  Hermitage.  At  any  rate  Rous- 
seau quitted  the  Hermitage  in  the  winter,  and  established 
himself  at  Montlcuis  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Hitherto  Rousseau's  behaviour  had  frequently  made  him 
enemies,  but  his  WTitings  had  for  the  niost  part  niaile  him 
friends.  The  quarrel  with  Madame  d'Epinay,  ^vith  Diderot, 
and  through  them  with  the  philosophe  p^arty  reversed  this. 
In  1758  appeared  his  Ltilre  h  d'Ahuxhat  conire  Its  Spectacl'^, 
WTitten  in  the  winter  of  the  previous  year  at  Montlouis. 
This  was  at  once  an  attack  on  Voltaire,  who  was  giving 
theatrical  representations  at  Les  Dc-lices,  on  D'Alembert, 
who  had  condemned  the  prejudice  against  the  stage  in 
the  Encydopedk,  and  on  one  of  the  favourite  amuse- 
ments of  the  society  of  the  day.  Diderot  personally 
would  have  been  forgiving  enough.  But  Voltaire's  strong 
point  was  not  forgiveness,  and,  though  Rousseau  no 
doubt  exaggerated  the  efforts  of  his  "enemies,"  he 
was   certainly   henceforward   as   obnoxious  to  the  philo- 

tho  house  of  La  Popeliniere,  attracted  vt; y  little  attention  ;  but  Le 
Dcvin  du  Village,  given  at  Fontainebleau  in  1752,  and  at  the 
Acad^mift  in  1753,  achieved  a  great  and  well-deserved  success. 
Though  very  unequal,  and  exceedingly  simple  both  in  style  and  con- 
striction, it  cont;;ius  some  charming  melodies,  and  is  wn-itten  through- 
out in  the  most  refmed  taste.  Hii  Pyjmalim  (1775)  is  a  melodrama 
without  singing.  Some  posthumous  fragments  of  another  opein, 
Daplmis  et  Chloi,  were  printed  in  1780  ;  and  in  1781  appeared  /.« 
■Consolalions  del  Jtisires  de  ma  Vie,  a  collection  of  about  nne  hundred 
songs  and  other  fugitive  pieces  of  veiy  unequal  merit.  The  popul.ir 
air  known  as  Housscau's  Dream  is  not  contained  in  this  collection, 
and  c,«.nnot  be  traced  b.ack  farther  than  J.  B.  Cramer's  celcbi-atc  1 
"Variations."  JI.  C'astil-Blaze  has  accused  Rousseau  of  citcnsi.e 
plagiarisms  <or  worst)  in  Le  Devin  dj.  Village  and  PygimiUon,  but 
apparently  without  suiQcient  cause.  (W.  S.  K.) 

XXI.  —  i. 


26 


ROUSSEAU 


sophe  coterie  as  to  the  orthodox  party.  He  still,  how- 
ever, had  no  lack  of  patrons — he  never  had — though 
his  unsurpassable  perversity  made  him  quarrel  with 
all  in  turn.  The  amiable  duke  and  duchess  of  Luxem- 
bourg, who  were  his  neighbours  at  Montlouis,  made 
his  acquaintance,  or  rather  forced  theirs  upon  him,  and 
he  was  eagerly  industrious  in  his  literary  work — indeed 
most  of  his  best  books  were  produced  during  his  stay  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Montmorency.  A  letter  to  Voltaire 
on  his  poem  about  the  Lisbon  earthquake  embittered  the 
dislike  between  the  two,  being  surreptitiously  published. 
La  NouveUe  Helo'ise  appeared  in  the  same  year  (1760), 
and  it  was  immensely  popular.  In  1662  appeared  the 
Conlrat  Social  at  Amsterdam,  and  £mile,  which  was  pub- 
lished both  in  the  Low  Countries  and  at  Paris.  For  the 
latter  the  author  received  6000  livres,  for  the  Contrat 
1000. 

Julie,  ou  La  Nonvdle  Heldisc,  is  a  novel  .vritten  in  letters 
describing  the  loves  of  a  man  of  low  position  and  a  girl  of 
rank,  her  subsequeni  marriage  to  a  respectable  freethinker 
of  her  own  station,  the  mental  agonies  of  her  lover,  and 
the  partial  appeasing  of  the  distresses  of  the  lovers  by  the 
influence  of  noble  sentiment  and  the  good  offices  of  a 
philanthropic  EngUshman.  It  is  too  long,  the  sentiment 
is  overstrained,  and  severe  moralists  have  accused  it  of  a 
certain  complaisance  in  dealing  with  amatory  errors  ;  but  it 
is  full  of  pathos  and  knowledge  of  the  human  heart.  The 
Contrat  Social,  as  its  title  implies,  endeavours  to  base  all 
government  on  the  consent,  direct  or  implied,  of  the 
governed,  and  indulges  in  much  ingenious  argument  to 
get  rid  of  the  practical  inconveniences  of  such  a  suggestion. 
Emile,  the  second  title  of  which  is  De  I' Education,  is 
much  more  of  a  treatise  than  of  a  novel,  though  a  certain 
amount  of  narrative  interest  is  kept  up  throughout. 

Eoasseau's  reputation  was  now  hjgher  than  ever,  but  the 
term  of  the  comparative  prosperity  v/hich  he  had  enjoyed 
for  nearly  ten  years  was  at  hand.  The  Contrcd  Social 
was  obviously  auli^monarchic ;  the  NouveUe  Helo'ise  was 
said  to  be  immoral ;  the  sentimental  deism  of  the  "  Profes- 
sion du  vicaire  Savoyard  "  in  Emile  irritated  equally  the 
philosophe  party  and  the  church.  On  June  11,  1662, 
Emile  was  condemned  by  the  parlernent  of  Paris,  and 
two  days  previously  Jladame  de  Luxembourg  and  the 
Prince  de  Conti  gave  the  author  information  that  he 
would  be  arrested  if  he  did  not  fly.  They  also  furnished 
him  with  means  of  flight,  and  he  made  for  Yverdun  in 
the  territory  of  Bern,  whence  he  transferred  himself  to 
Metiers  in  Neuchatel,  which  then  belonged  to  Prussia. 
Frederick  II.  was  not  indisposed  to  protect  the  persecuted 
when  it  cost  him  nothing  and  might  bring  him  fame,  and 
in  Marshal  Keith,  the  governor  of  Neuchatel,  Rousseau 
found  a  true  and  firm  friend.  He  was,  however,  unable 
to  be  quiet  or  to  practise  any  of  those  more  or  less  pious 
frauds  which  were  customary  at  the  time  with  the  unor- 
thodo.-:.  The  archbishop  of  Paris  had  published  a  pastoral 
against  him,  and  Rousseau  did  not  let  the  year  pass 
without  a  Leltre  d,  M.  de  Beaumont.  The  council  of 
Geneva  had  joined  in  the  condemnation  of  Emile,  and 
Rousseau  first  solemnly  renounced  his  citizenship,  and  then, 
in  the  Leltrcs  de  la  Moniagne  (1763),  attacked  the  council 
and  the  Genevan  constitution  unsparingly.  All  this 
excited  public  opinion  against  him,  and  gradually  he  grew 
unpopular  in  his  own  neighbourhood.  This  unpopularity 
is  said  on  very  uncertain  authority  to  have  culminated  in 
a  nocturnal  attack  on  his  hou;.e,  which  reminds  the  reader 
remarkably  of  an  incident  in  the  life  of  the  greatest  French 
man  of  letters  of  the  present  century.  At  any  rate  he 
thought  he  was  menaced  if  he  was  not,  and  migrated  to  the 
lie  St  Pierre  in  the  Lake  of  Bienne,  where  he  once  more  for 
&  short,  and  the  last,  time  enjoyed  that  idyllic  existence 


which  he  loved.  But  the  Bernese  Government  ordered  him 
to  quit  its  territory.  He  was  for  some  time  uncertain  where 
to  go,  and  thought  of  Corsica  (to  join  Paoli)  and  Berlin. 
But  finally  David  Hume  offered  him,  late  in  1765,  an 
asylum  in  England,  and  he  accepted.  He  passed  through 
Paris,  where  his  presence  was  tolerated  for  a  time,  and 
landed  in  England  on  January  13,  1766.  Th&6se  travelled 
separately,  and  was  entrusted  to  the  charge  of  James 
Bcsweil,  who  had  already  made  Rousseau's  acquaintance. 
Here  he  had  once  more  a  chance  of  settling  peaceably. 
Severe  English  moralists  like  Johnson  thought  but  ill  of 
him,  but  the  public  generally  was  not  unwilling  to  testify 
against  French  intolerance,  and  regarded  his  sentimental- 
ism  with  favour.  He  was  lionized  in  London  to  his 
heart's  content  and  discontent,  for  it  may  truly  be  said 
of  Rousseau  that  he  was  equally  indignant  at  neglect  and 
intolerant  of  attention.  When,  after  not  a  few  displays 
of  his  strange  humour,  he  professed  himself  tired  of  the 
capital,  Hume  procured  him  a  country  abode  in  the  house 
of  Mr  Davenport  at  Wootton  in  Derbyshire.  Here, 
though  the  place  was  bleak  and  lonely,  he  might  have 
been  happy  enough,  and  he  actually  employed  himself  in 
writing  the  greater  part  of  his  Confessions.  But  his 
habit  of  self-tormenting  and  tormenting  others  never  left 
him.  His  own  caprices  interposed  some  delay  in  the  con- 
ferring of  a  pension  which  George  III.  was  induced  to 
grant  him,  and  he  took  this  as  a  crime  of  Hume's.  The 
publication  of  a  spiteful  letter  (really  by  Horace  Walpole, 
one  of  whose  worst  deeds  it  was)  in  the  name  of  the  king 
of  Prussia  made  Rousseau  believe  that  plots  of  the  most 
terrible  kind  were  on  foot  against  him.  Finally  he 
quarrelled  with  Hume  because  the  latter  would  not 
acknowledge  all  his  own  friends  and  Rousseau's  supposed 
enemies  of  the  philosophe  circle  to  be  rascals.  He  re- 
mained, however,  at  Wootton  during  the  year  and  through 
the  winter.  In  May  1767  he  fled  to  France,  addressing 
letters  to  the  lord  chancellor  and  to  General  Conway, 
which  can  only  be  described  as  the  letters  of  a  lunatic. 
He  was  received  in  France  by  the  Jlarquis  de  Mirabeau 
(father  of  the  great  Mirabeau),  of  whom  he  soon  had 
enough,  then  by  the  Prince  de  Conti  at  Trye.  From  this 
place  he  again  fled  and  wandered  about  for  some  time  in 
a  wretched  fashion,  still  writing  the  Confessions,  constantly 
receiving  generous  help,  and  always  quarielling  with,  or  at 
least  suspecting,  the  helpers.  In  the  summer  of  1770  he 
returned  to  Paris,  resumed  music  copying,  and  was  on  the 
whole  happier  than  he  had  been  since  he  had  to  leave 
Montlouis.  He  had  by  this  time  married  Th^rese  le 
Vassfiur,  or  had  at  least  gone  through  some  form  of  marriage 
with  her. 

Many  of  the  best-known  stories  of  Rousseau's  life  date 
from  this  last  time,  when  he  was  tolerably  accessible  to 
visitors,  though  clearly  half-insane.  He  finished  his  Con- 
fessions, wrote  his  Dialogues  (the  interest  of  which  is  not 
quite  equal  to  the  promise  of  their  curious  sub-title 
Rousseau  juge  de  Jean  Jacques),  and  began  his  Eeveries  du 
Promeneur  Solitaire,  intended  as  a  sequel  and  complement 
to  the  Confessions,  and  one  of  the  best  of  all  his  books. 
It  should  be  said  that  besides  these,  which  complete  the 
list  of  his  principal  v/orks,  he  has  left  a  very  large  number 
of  minor  works  and  a  considerable  correspondence.  During 
this  time  he  lived  in  the  Rue  Platiere,  which  is  now 
named  after  him.  ■  But  his  suspicions  of  secret  enemies 
grew  stronger  rather  than  weaker,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
1778  he  was  glad  to  accept  the  offer  of  M.  de  Girardin,  a 
rich  financier,  and  occupy  a  cottage  at  Ermenonville.  The 
country  was  beautiful ;  but  his  old  terrors  revived,  and  his 
woes  were  complicated  by  the  alleged  inclination  of  Tht^rese 
for  one  of  M.  de  Girardin's  stable  boys.  On  July  2d  he 
died  in  a  manner  which   has  been  much  discussed,  sus- 


ROUSSEAU 


27 


picioos  of  suicide  having  at  tlie  time  and  since  been  fre- 
quent. On  the  whole  the  theory  of  a  natural  death  due  to 
a  fit  of  apoplexy  and  perhaps  to  injuries  inflicted  accident- 
ally during  that  fit  seems  most  probable.,  He  had  always 
suffered  from  internal  and  constitutional  ailments  not 
unlikely  to  bring  about  such  an  end. 

Rousseau'3  character,  the  history  of  his  repntatioD,  and  the 
intrinsic  value  of  his  literary  work  are  all  subjects  of  much 
interest.  There  is  little- doubt  that  for  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years 
of  his  lite,  if  not  from  the  timff  of  his  quarrel  with  Diderot  and 
Ifadame  d'^fipinay,  he  was  not  wholly  sane — the  combined  influence 
of  late  and  unexpected  literary  fame  and  of  constant  solitude  and' 
discomfort  acting  upon  his  excitable  temperament  so  as  to  overthrow 
the  balance,  never  very  stable,  of  his  fine  and  acute,  but  unrobust 
intellect.  He  was  by  no  means  the  only  man  of  letters  of  his  time 
who  had  to  submit  to  something  like  persecution.  Froron  on  the 
orthodox  side  had  his  share  of  it,  as  well  as  Voltaire,  Helvetius, 
Diderot,  and  Montesf^uieu  on  that  of  the  innovators.  But 
Kousseau  had  uot,  like  Montesquieu,  a  position  which  guaranteed 
him  from  serious  danger ;  he  was  not  wealthy  like  Helvetius ;  he  had 
not  the  wonderful  suppleness  and  trickiness  which  even  without 
bis  wealth  would  probably  have  defended  Voltaire  himself;  and  he 
lacked  entirely  the  "bottom"  of  Freron  and  Diderot.  ^Vhen  he 
was  molested  he  could  only  shriek  at  his  enemies  and  suspect  his 
friends,  and,  being  more  given  than  any  man  whom  history  mentions 
to  this  latter  weakness,  he  suffered  intensely  from  it.  His  moral 
character  was  undoubtedly  weak  in  other  ways  than  this,  but  it  is 
fair  to  remember  that  but  for  his  astounding  Ooi'/cssioris  the  more 
disgusting  parts  of  it  would  not  have  been  known,  and  that  these 
Confessions  were  written,  if  not  under  hallucination,  at  any  rate  in 
circumstances  entitling  the  self-condemned  criminal  to  the  benefit 
of,  very  considerable  doubt.  If  Rousseau  had  held  his  tongue,  ho 
might  have  stood  lower  as  a  man  of  letters  ;  he  would  pretty 
certainly  have  stood  higher  as  a  man.  He  was,  moreover,  really 
sinned  against,  it  still  more  sinning.  The  conduot  of  Grimm  to 
him  was  certainly  very  bad  ;  and,  though  Walpole  was  not  his 
personal  friend,  a  worse  action  than  his  famous  letter,  considering 
the  well-known  idiosyncrasy  of  the  subject,  would  be  dillicult  to 
find.  It  was  his  own  fault  that  he  saddled  himself  with  the  L-j 
Vasseurs,  but  their  conduct  was  probably  if  not  certainly  ungrateful 
in  the  extreme.  Only  excuses  can  be  made  for  him ;  but  the  excuses 
for  a  man  born,  as  Hume  after  the  quarrel  said  of  him,  "without 
a  skin"  are  numerous  and  strong. 

.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  his  peculiar  reputation  would  increase 
rather  than  diminish  after  his  death ;  and  it  did  so.  During  his 
life  his  personal  peculiarities  and  the  fact  that  his  opinions  were 
nearly  as  obnoxious  to  the  one  party  as  to  the  other  worked  against 
him,  but  it  was  not  so  after  his  death.  The  men  of  the  Revolution 
regarded  him  with  something  like  idolatry,  and  his  literary  merits 
conciliated  many  who  were  very  far  from  idolizing  him  as  a 
revolutionist.  His  style  was  taken  up  by  Bernardin  de  Saint 
Pierre  .and  by  Chateaubriand.  It  was  employed  for  pui-poses  quite 
different  from  those  to  which  he  had  himself  applied  it,  and  the 
reaction  triumphed  by  the  very  arms  which  had  been  most  powerful 
in  the  hands  of  the  Revolution.  Byron's  fervid  panegyric  en- 
listed on  his  side  all  who  admired  Byron — that  is  to  say,  the 
majority  of  the  younger  men  and  women  of  Europe  between  1820 
and  1850 — and  thus  different  sides  of  his  tradition  were  continued 
for  a  full  century  after  the  publication  of  his  chief  books.  His 
religious  unorthodoxy  was  condoned  because  he  never  scoffed  ;  his 
political  heresies,  after  their  first  effect  was  over,  seemed  harmless 
from  the  viry  want  of  logic  and  practical  spirit  in  them,  while  part 
at  least  of  his  literary  secret  was  the  common  property  of  almost 
everyone  who  attempted  literature.  At  the  present  day  persons  as 
different  as  M.  Kenan  and  Jlr  Ruskin  are  children  of  Rousseau. 

It  is  therefore  important  to  characterize  this  influence  which  was 
and  is  so  powerful,  and  there  are  throe  points  of  view — those  of 
religion,  politics,  and  literature— which  it  is  necessary  to  take  in 
doing  this.  In  religion  Rousseau  was  undoubtedly  what  he  has 
been  called  above — a  sentimental  deist ;  but  no  one  who  reads  him 
with  tho  smallest  attention  ca.a  fail  to  see  that  scntimentalism  was 
the  essence,  deism  the  accident  of  his  creed.  In  his  time  ortho- 
doty  at  once  generous  and  intelligent  hardly  existed  in  France. 
There  were  ignorant  persons  who  were  sincerely  orthodox ;  there  were 
intelligent  persons  who  pretended  to  be  so.  But  between  the  time 
of  Massillon  and  D'Agucsseau  and  the  time  of  Lamennais  and  Joseph 
de  Jl-istre  the  class  of  men  of  whom  in  Kn^Iand  Berkeley,  Butler, 
and  Johnson  were  representatives  simply  did  not  exist  in  France. 
Little  inclined  by  nature  to  any  but  tho  emotional  side  of  religion, 
ond  utterly  undisciplined  in  any  other  by  education,  course  of  life, 
or  the  general  tendency  of  public  opinion,  Rousseau  naturally  took 
refuge  in  the  nebulous  kind  of  nalur.il  religion  which  v.-.ns  at  once 
fashionablo  and  convenient.  If  his  practice  fell  very  far  short  even 
of  his  own  very  arbitrary  standard  of  morality  as  much  m.ay  bo  said 
of-persons  far  more  dogmatically  orthodox. 


In  politics,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  doubt  that  Eouaseau 
was  a  sincere  and,  as  far  as  in  hira  lay,  a  convinced  republican.  He 
had  no  great  tincture  of  learning,  he  was  by  no  means  a  profound 

logician,  and  .he  was  impulsive  and  emotional  in  the  extreme 

characteristics  which  in  political  matters  undoubtedly  predisnose 
the  subject  to  the  preference  of  equality  above  all  political 
requisites.  He  saw  that  under  the  French  monarchy  the  actual 
result  was  the  greatest  misery  of  the  greatest  number,  and  he  did 
not  look  much  further.  The  Cont rat  .Social  is  for  the  political 
student  one  of  the  most  curious  and  interesting  books  existing. 
Historically  it  is  null ;  logically  it  is  full  of  gaping  flaws ;  practically 
its  manipulations  of  the  volonU  de  tons  and  the  volonU  ginerale 
are  clearly  insuflicieat  to  obviate  anarchy.  But  its  mixture  of  real 
eloquence  and  apparent  cogency  is  exactly  such  as  always  carries  a 
muitilude  with  it,  if  only  for  a  time,  lloreover,  in  some  minor 
branches  of  politics  and  economics  Rousseau  was  a  real  reformer. 
Visionary  as  his  educational  schemes  (chiefly  promulgated  in 
£mitc)  are  in  parts,  they  are  admirable  in  others,  and  hLs  protest 
against  mothers  refusing  to  nurse  their  children  hit  a  blot  in 
French  life  which  is  not  removed  yet,  and  has  alB-ays  been  a  source 
of  weakness  to  the  nation. 

But  it  is  as  a  literary  man  pure  and  simple — that  is  to  say,  as  an 
exponent  rather  than  as  an  originator  of  ideas— that  Rousseau  is 
most  noteworthy,  and  that  he  has  exercised  most  influence.  The 
first  thing  noticeable  about  him  is  that  he  defies  all  customaiy  and 
mechanical  classification.  He  is  not  a  dramatist — his  work  as  such 
is  insigniiicant— nor  a  novelist,  for;  though  his  two  chief  works 
except  the  Confessions  are  called  novels,  J^niilc  is  one  only  in  name, 
a.ni  La  Nouvellc  Seloise  is  as  a  story  diffuse,  prosy,  and  awkward  to 
a  degree.  He  was  perfectly  without  command  of  poetic  form,  and 
he  could  only  be  called  a  philosopher  in  an  age  when  tho  term  was 
used  with  such  meaningless  laxity  as  was  customary  in  the  18th 
century.  If  he  must  be  classed,  he  w-as  before  all  things  a  describer 
— a  describer  of  the  passions  of  the  human  heart  and  of  the  beauties 
of  nature.  In  the  first  part  of  his  vocation  the  novelists  of  his  own 
youth,  such  as  Marivaux,  Richardson,  and  Prevost,  may  be  said"  to 
have  shown  him  the  way,  though  he  improved  greatly  upon  tltem ; 
in  the  second  he  was  almost  a  creator.  In  combining  the  two  and 
expressing  the  effect  of  nature  on  the  feelings  and  of  the  feelings 
on  the  aspect  of  nature  he  was  absolutely  without  a  forerunner  or 
a  model.  And,  as  literature  since  his  time  has  been  chiefly 
differentiated  from  literature  before  it  by  the  colour  and  tone 
resulting  from  this  combination,  Rousseau  may  be  said  to  hold,  as 
an  influence,  a  place  almost  unrivalled  in  literary  history.  The 
defects  of  all  sentimental  writing — occasional  tiiviality  and  exag- 
geration of  trivial  things,  diffuseness,  overstrained  emotion,  false 
sentiment,  disregard  of  the  intellectual  and  the  practical — are  of 
course  noticeable  in  him,  but  they  are  excused  and  palliated  by 
his  wonderful  feeling,  and  by  what  may  be  called  the  passionate 
sincerity  even  of  his  insincere  passages.  Some  cavils  have  been 
made  against  his  French,  but  none  of  much  weight  or  importance. 
And  in  such  passages  as  the  famous  "  Voilji  de  la  perrenche"  of 
the  Confessions,  as  the  description  of  the  isle  of  St  Pierre  in  the 
Miveries,  as  some  of  the  letters  in  the  NuuvcUe  EUoise  and  others, 
he  has_  achieved  the  greatest  success  possible — that  of  absolute 
perfection  in  doing  what  he  intended  to  do.  The  reader,  as  it  has 
been  said,  may  think  he  might  have  done  something  else  with 
advantage,  but  he  can  hardly  think  that  he  could  have  done  this 
thing  better.  _ 

The  dates  of  most  of  Rousseau's  worka  published  during  his  lifetime  have  been 
given  above.  The  Con/fssions  and  Reveries,  which,  read  in  pt  Ivjite,  had  piven  mach 
umbrage  to  persons  concenied,  and  which  the  author  did  not  intend  to  be 
pubiislied  until  the  end  of  the  ccntun-,  appeared  at  Geneva  in  1782.  In  the  samo 
year  and  the  following  appeared  a  compieto  edition  in  fcity.scvca  smaii  volumes. 
Thero  have  been  many  since,  the  raosf  iinpoi-tant  of  tiiem  being  that  of  Musset- 
Pathay  (Paris,  182.').  Some  unpubiishcd  worka,  chiefly  letters,  were  added  by 
Bos.scha  (Paris,  I!i5!l)  and  StrcckcioCn  Mouitou  (Paris,  IStJI).  The  most  con- 
venient edition  is  pel  haps  tliat  of  Didiit  in  4  vols,  large  8vo,  but  a  handsome  and 
well-edited  collection  is  still  sornethlnt'  of  a  desideratum.  Wciks  en  Rous'jeau 
are  innumevnble.  The  eiiief  aie— in  Fienchthatof  Saint  JIarc  Cir/rdm  (1S71), 
In  Knf^lish  the  excellent  book  of  Jlr  .lohn  Morley.  (tf.  SA.) 

KOUSSEAU,  TniioDOKE  (1812-1867),  a  distinguished 
landscape  painter,  was  born  at  Paris,  and  studied  in  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  after  which  he  spent  some  time  in 
travelling  and  making  studios  of  landscape  and  sky  effects. 
He  first  exhibited  at  the  Salon  in  1834,  obtained  gold 
medals  in  1819  and  1854,  and  iu  1852  received  the 
Legion  of  Honour.  His  paintings  became  very  popular  in 
Franco,  and  Eousseau  grow  to  bo  the  acknowledged 
founder  of  the  modern  realistic  school  of  landscape.  He 
was  largely  influenced  in  style  by  Constable  and  Turner, 
tho  former  of  whom  was  perhaps  more  thoroughly  appreci- 
ated in  France  than  in  England.  The  influence  of  Turner 
is  clearly  seen  in  some  of  Kousseau's  pictures,  ivith  striking 
effects  of  cloud  or  storm, — as,  for  example,  in  Lis  Effet 
de   Soleil   and  Arris   la   Pluie  (1852),   in   tho   Matinee 


28 


li  O  U 


Orageuse  (1857),  the  Coucher  de  Soleil  (186C),  and 
one  of  his  last  works,  the  Soleil  par  un  Temps  Orage.ux, 
which  appeared  in  the  exhibition  of  1867.  Rousseau's 
study  of  Constable  is  more  especially  apparent  in  some  of 
his  fine  forest  scenes  near  Fontainebleau,  and  in  some 
magnificently  painted  views  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire  and 
other  French  rivers.  His  execution  was  of  extraordinary 
brilliance,  and  he  was  a  thorough  master  of  atmospheric 
effect  and  glowing  sunset  colours.  Though  in  some  re- 
spects a  realistic  painter,  he  treated  nature  in  a  strongly 
dramatic  way  and  showed  great  imaginative  power.  His 
style  is  broad  and  d^ishing,  with  rapid  and  at  times  appa- 
rently careless  handling.  His  fame  has  increased  rather 
tlian  diminished  since  his  death  in  1867;  and  one  of  his 
paintings  has  recently  received  the  high  distinction  of  being 
transferred  from  the  Luxembourg  Palace  to  the  Louvre,  an 
honour  which  is  but  rarely  conferred.  It  is  not,  however, 
one  of  the  best  specimens  of  his  work.  Most  of  Thiiodore 
Rousseau's  pictures  are  in  private  collections  in  Paris  and 
elsewhere  in  France. 

ROUSSILLOJT,  a  province  of  France,  wliich  now  forms 
the  greater  part  of  the  department  of  Pyrenees 
Op.rENT,u,ES  (i-v.).  It  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Pyrenees,  on  the  west  by  the  county  of  Foix,-  on  the  north 
by  Languedoc,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Mediterranean.  The 
province  derived  ii:s  name  from  a  small  bourg  near 
Perpignan,  the  capital,  called  Ruscino  (Rosceliona,  Castel 
Rossello),  where  the  Gallic  chieftains  met  to  consider 
Hannibal's  request  for  a  conference.  The  district  formed 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  from 
121  B.C.  to  462  A.D.,  when  it  was  ceded  with  the  rest  of 
Septimania  to  Theodoric  II.,  king  of  the  Visigoths.  His 
successor,  Amalaric,  on  his  defeat  by  C'lovis  in  531  retired 
to  Sfiain,  leaving  a  governor  in  Septimania.  In  719  the 
Saracens  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  Septimania  was  held 
by  them  until  their  defeat  by  Pippin  in  756.  On  the 
invasion  of  Spain  by  Charlemagne  in  778  he  found  the 
borderlands  wasted  by  the  Saracenic  wars,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants hiding  among  the  mountains.  He  accordingly  made 
grants  of  land  to  Visigothic  refugees  from  Spain,  and 
founded  several  monasteries,  round  which  the  people 
gathered  for  protection.  In  792  the  Saracens  again 
invaded  France,  but  were  repulsed  by  Louis,  king  of 
Aquitaine,  whose  rule  extended  over  all  Catalonia  as  far 
as  Barcelona.  The  different  portions  of  his  kingdom  in 
time  grew  into  allodial  fiefs,  and  in  893  Suniaire  II. 
became  the  first  hereditary  count  of  Roussillon.  But  his 
rule  only  extended  over  the  eastern  part  of  what  became 
the  later  province.  The  western  part,  qr  Cerdagne,  was 
ruled  in  900  by  Miron  as  first  count,  and  one  of  his 
grandsons,  Bernard,  was  the  first  hereditary  count  of  the 
middle  portion,  or  Eesalu.  In  1111  Raymond-Berenger 
III.,  count  of  Barcelona,  inherited  the  fief  of  Be.salu,  to 
■which  was  added  iu  1117  that  of  Cerdagne;  and  in  1172 
his  grandson,  Alphonso  II.,  king  of  Aragon,  united  Rous- 
sillon to  his  other  states  on  the  death  of  the  last  count, 
Gerard  II.  The  counts  of  RoussUlon,  Cerdagne,  and 
Besalu  were  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  indulge  in  any 
wars  of  ambition.  Their  energies  had  been  accordingly 
devoted  to  furthering  the  welfare  of  their  people,  who 
enjoyed  both  peace  and  prosperity  under  their  rule. 
Under  the  Aragonese  monarchs  the  progress  of  the  united 
province  still  continued,  and  ColUoure,  the  port  of 
Perpignan,  became  a  centre  of  ^Mediterranean  trade.  But 
the  country  was  in  time  destined  to  pay  the  penalty  of  its 
position  on  the  frontiers  of  France  and  Spain  in  the  long 
struggle  for  ascendency  between  the.se  two  powers.  James 
I.  of  Ara"on  had  wrested  the  Balearic  Isles  from  the 
Moors  and  left  them  with  Roussillon  to  his  son  James 
(1270),  with  the  title  of  king  of  Majorca.     The  consequent 


-  ti  O  V 

disputes  of  this  monarch  with  his  brother  Pedro  III.  of 
Aragou  were  not  lost  sight  of  by  Philip  III.  of  France  in 
his  quarrel  with  the  latter  about  the  crown  of  the  Two 
Sicihes.  Philip  espoused  James's  cause  and  led  his  army 
into  Spain,  but  retreating  died  at  Perpignan  in  1285. 
James  then  became  reconciled  to  his  brother,  and  in  1311 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sancho,  who  founded  the 
cathedral  of  Perpignan  shortly  before  his  death  iu  1324. 
His  successor  James  11.  refused  to  do  homage  to  Philip 
Yl.  of  France  for  the  seigniory  of  Montpellier,  and  appUed 
to  Pedro  IV.  of  Aragon  for  aid.  Pedro  not  only  refused 
it,  but  on  various  pretexts  declared  war  against  him,  and 
seized  Majorca  and  Rou-ssillon  in  1344.  The  province  was 
now  again  united  to  Aragon,  and  enjoyed  peace  until 
1462.  In  this  year  the  disputes  between  John  II.  and 
his  son  about  the  crown  of  Navarre  gave  Louis  XL  of 
France  an  excuse  to  support  Jo'nn  against  his  subjects, 
who  had  risen  in  revolt.  Louis  at  the  fitting  time  turned 
traitor,  and  the  province  having  been  pawned  to  him  for 
300,000  crowns  was  occupied  by  the  French  troops  until 
1493,  when  Charles  VIII.  restored  it  to  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  During  the  war  between  France  and  Spain 
(1490-98)  the  people  suffered  equally  from  the  Spanish 
garrisons  and  the  French  invaders.  But  dislike  of  the 
Spaniards  was  soon  effaced  in  the  pride  of  sharing  in  the 
glory  of  Charles  V.,  and  in  1542,  when  Perpignan  was 
besieged  by  the  dauphin,  the  Roussillonnais  remained  true 
to  their  allegiance.  Afterwards  the  decay  of  Spain  w-as 
France's  opportunity,  and,  on  the  revolt  of  the  Catalans 
against  the  Castilians  in  1641,  Louis  XIII.  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  former,  and  by  the  treaty  of  1659  secured 
Roussillon  to  the  French  crown. 

ROVEREDO  (ill  German  sometimes  Eofreit),  one  of 
the  chief  industrial  cities  in  South  Tyrol,  and,  after  Trent, 
the  chief  seat  of  the  Tyrolese  silk  industry,  is  situated  on 
the  left.brnk  of  the  Adige  (Etsch),  in  the  fertile  Val 
Lagarin.a,  35  miles  north  of  Verona  and  100  miles  south 
of  Innsbruck.  Though  -  there  are  several  open  places 
■within  the  town,  the  streets,  except  in  the  newer  quarters, 
are  narrow,  crooked,  and  uneven.  Of  the  two  parish 
churches,  S.  Marco  dates  from  the  15th  century  and 
Sta  Maria  del  Carmine  from  1678.  The  only  other 
interesting  building  is  the  quaint  old  castle  known  as 
Castell  Junk.  As  an  active  trading  to^vn  and  administra- 
tive centre  Roveredo  is  well  equipped  with  commercial, 
judicial,  educational,  and  benevolent  institutions.  Though 
the  district  between  Trent  and  Verona  yields  about 
120,000  Bj  of  silk  annually,  the  silk  i-ndustry  of  Roveredo, 
introduced  in  the  16th  century,  has  declined  during  the 
last  fifty  years.  The  establishments  in  which  the  cocoons 
are  unwound  (Jilande)  are  distinct  from  those  in  whicli 
the  silk  is  spun  {filatoje).  The  silk  is  not  woven  at 
Roveredo.  Paper  and  leather  are  the  other  chief  manu- 
factures of  the  place  ;  and  a  brisk  trade  in  southern  fruits 
and  red  wine  is  carried  on.     The  population  is  8864. 

The  oiigin  of  Roveredo  is  jiroliably  to  'be  traced  to  the  founding 
of  .the  c.istic  by  William  of  Castelbarco-Lizzaiia  about  1300.  La'icr 
it  pa'^sed  to  the  emperor  Frederick  of  the  Empty  Pockets,  v;V,o 
sold  it  to  Venice  in  1413.  The  treaty  of  C.imbray  transferred  it 
from  Venice  to  the  emperor  Slaximiliau  in  1510,  since  ivhich  time 
it  has  shared  the  fate  of  soutliern  Tyrol,  finally  passing  ^.o 
Austria  in  1814.  In  September  1709  the  French  under  Massena 
won  a  victory  over  the  Anstrians  near  Roveredo.  Near  tha 
neighbouring  village  of  St  Marco  are  the  ti^aces  of  a  destructive 
landslip  in  SS3,  described  in  the  Inferno  (sii.  4-9)  by  Dante,  who 
spent  part  of  his  exile  in  1302  in  a  castle  near  Lizzana. 

RO\T!GXO,  a  city  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Istria, 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic, 
about  12  miles  south  of  Parenzo,  and  10  miles  by  rail  from 
Canfanaro,  a  junction  on  the  railway  between  Divazza 
(Trieste)  and  Pola.  It  has  two  harbours,  with  ship- 
building yards  ;  and  it  carries  on  several  industries  and  a 


R  O  V  —  R  O  W 


29 


good  export  trade,  especially  in  onve-oil  ana  a  cement 
manufactured  in  the  little  island  of  Sant'  Andrea.  The 
population  was  956  i  in  18G9  and  9522  in  18S0. 

i_3Cording  to  tradition  Rovigno  was  originally  built  on  an 
island,  Cissa  by  name,  whicli  disappeared  daring  the  earthquakes 
about  737.  In  the  6th  century,  as  the  local  legend  has  it,  the  body 
of  St  Euphemia  of  Chalccdon  vas  miraculously  conveyed  to  tbg 
island  ;  and  at  a  later  d.ite  it  was  transported  to  the  summit  of  the 
promontory,  Monte  di  Sant'  Eufemia,  whither  it  was  restored  by 
the  Venetians  in  1410  after  being  in  the  possession  of  the  Genoese 
from  1380.  The  diocese  of  Eovigno  was  merged  in  1008  in  the 
bishopric  of  Parenzo  ;  but  its  church  continued  to  have  the  title 
of  cathedral.  Eovigno  passed  definitively  into  the  hands  of  the 
Venetians  in  1330,  and  it  remained  true  to  the  republic  till  the 
treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (1797). 

EOVTGO,  a  city  of  Italy,  the  chief  town  of  a  province, 
and  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  Adria,  lies  between  the  Po 
and  the  Adige,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Adigetto,  a  navig- 
able branch  of  the  Adige.  By  rail  it  is  27  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Padua.  The  architecture  bears  the  stamp 
both  of  Venetian  aad  Ferrarese  influence.  The  cathedral 
church  of  Santo  Stefano  (1696)  is  of  less  interest  than 
La  Madonna  del  Soccorso,  an  octagon  (with  a  fine  campa- 
nile), begtin  in  1504.  The  town-liall  contains  a  library  of 
80,000  volumes  belonging  to  the  Accademia  de'  Concordi, 
founded  in  1580,  and  a  picture  gallery  enriched  with  the 
spoils  of  the  monasteries.  Wool,  silk,  linen,  and  leather 
are  among  the  local  manufactures.  The  population  of  the 
citjy  proper  was  7452  in  1871  and  7272  in  1851  ;  the 
comm.une  in  1831  Lad  11,460  inhabitant';. 

Rovigo  (Neo-Latia  Uhodigiuin)  appears  to  be  mentioned  as 
Rudigo  in  838.  It  was  selected  as  his  residct.ce  by  the  bisho|i  of 
Adria  on  the  desti-uction  of  his  city  by  the  Huns.  From  the  lltli 
to  the  lith  centurj'  the  Este  family  t,--s  usually  in  authority  ;  but 
the  Venetians  who  obtained  the  town  and  castle  in  pledge  bc-tveen 
1390  and  1400  took  the  place  by  siege  in  14S2,  and,  though  the 
Este  more  than  once  recovered  it,  the  Venetians,  returning  in  1514, 
retained  possesnon  till  the  French  Revolution.  In  1806  the  city 
was  made  a  duchy  in  favour  c?  Ccner?.!  Salary.  The  Austrians 
in  1815  created  it  a  royal  city. 

ROVIGO;  Ddke  of.     S.e  &.7k:v.y. 

ROWE,  NipnoLAS  (1674-1718),  the  descendaj:.  of  a 
family  long  resident  at  Lamerton  in  Devon,  was  bora  iX 
Little  Barfoi'd  in  Bedfordshire,  June  30,  lo74.  The  house 
in  which  he  v.'aa  born  i.s  close  to  the  Gi'eat  North  Road, 
and  a  small  stcue  to  his  memory  has  been  erected  in  the 
centre  of  the  garden.  Eis  father,  John  Rowe,  took  to 
the  law  as  his  profe.ssion,  and  at  his  death  in  1692  (by 
which  time  he  had  attained  to  the  dignity  of'  being  a 
Serjeant  at  law)  had  amassed  sufficient  property  to  leave 
to  his  son  an  income  of  £300  a  year.  Nicholas  Rowe 
passed  some  time  in  a  private  school  at  Highgate,  and 
then  proceeded  to  Westminster  School,  at  that  time  under 
the  charge  of  the  celebrated  ma.ster  Dr  Busby.  In  IGSS 
he  became  a  king's  .scholar  in  this  foundation,  but  three 
years  later  he  was  called  awp.y  from  school  and  entered  as 
a  student  at  the  Middle  Temple.  The  study  of  the  law 
had  little  attraction  for  a  young  n;::\  of  good  person  and 
lively  manners,  and  at  his  father's  death  in  the  following 
year  ho  devoted  himself  to  .society  and  to  literature,  llis 
t-.-it  ^\d.y,The  Ambilimis  Slejimol/ier,  was  produced  when 
he  was  twenty-five  yeara  old.  It  wa-s  followed  by 
Tamerlane,  a  patriotic  composition  in  which  the  virtues  of 
William  III.  were  lauded  unde.-  the  disguise  of  Tamerlane 
and  the  vices  of  the  prench  king,  Louis  XIV.,  wers 
denounced  in  the  person  of  Bajazet.  The  popularity  of 
this  production  soon  declined,  but  for  many  years  it  was 
acted  once  every  year,- on  the  anniversary  of  the  lauding 
at-Torbay  of  the  Dutch  prince.  His  next  play.  The  Fair 
Penitent,  long  retained  the  favoUi'allo  reception  which 
marked  its  first  appearance,  ond  was  pronounced  by  the 
great  critic  of  the  18th  century  one  of  the  most  pleasing 
tragedies  which. had. ever,  been  written.     Through  its  sac- 


cess  the  name  of  the  principal  male  character  Lothario 
became  identified  in  popular  language  as  the  embodiment 
of  the  manners  and  habits  of  a  fashionable  rake.^-  After 
the  production  of  two  more  tragedies,  Ulysses  and  The 
Eoyal  Coni'ert,i  of  slight  account  Ut  the  time  and  long 
since  forgotten,  Rowe  tried  his  hand  on  a  comedy,  T/ie 
Biter.  Much  to  the  author's  surprise  his  attempt  in  this 
new  direction  proved  a  failure,  but  Rowe  recognized  the 
justice  of  the  verdict  of  the  audience  sufficiently  to  abstain 
from  risking  a  second  disappointment.  His  two  last 
dramatic  works  were  entitled  June  Shore  and  Lndy  Jane 
Grey,  and  the  former  of  them,  from  the  popularity  of  its 
subject  and  the  elegance  of  its  language,  kept  its  position 
on  the  stage  longer  than  any  other  of  his  works. 

Rowe  excelled  most  of  his  contemporaries  in  the 
knowledge  of  languages.  He  was  acquainted  more  or  less 
thoroughly  with  Greek,  Latin,  French,  Italian,  and 
Spanish.  The  latter  tongue  he  is  said  to  have  acquired 
on  the  recommendation  of  Harley  and  with  the  expecta- 
tion that  he  wotild  afterwards  be  rewarded  by  some  high 
ofiice.  'When,  however,  he  reported  his  nev/  acquisition 
to  the  new  minister  he  was  met-with  the  dry  remark  from 
Harley — i'  How  I  envy  you  the  pleasure  of  reading  Don 
Quixote  in  the  original ! "  Notwithstanding  this  dis- 
appointment, Rowe  enjoyed 'many  lucraiiva  posts  during 
his  short  life.  Vi'hen  the  d'ike  of  Queensberry  was 
principal  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland  (1708-10),  Rowe 
acted  as  his  under-secretary.  On  the  accession  of  George 
I.  he  was  made  a  surveyor  of  customs,  and  on  the  death  of 
Tate  he  became  poet  laureate.  He  was  also  appointed 
clerk  of  the  council  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  the  list 
of  preferments  was  closed  by  his  nomination  by  Lord- 
Chancellor  Parker  (5th  May  1718)  as  secretary  of  presenta- 
tions in  Chancery.  He  died  6  th  December  1718,  and  was 
buried  in  the  south  cross  of  V.^estminstor  Abbey.  By 
his  first  wife,  a  daughter  of  Mr  Parsons,  one  of  the  auditors 
01  the  revenue,  he  left  a  son  John ;  and  by  his  second  wife, 
Anne,  the  daughter  of  Joseph  Bevenish  of  a  Dorsetshire 
family,  he  had  an  only  daughter,  Charlotte,  born  in  1718, 
who  married  Henry  Fane,  a  younger  brotiier  of  Thomas, 
eighth  earl  of  Westmoreland  The  burials  of  mother  and 
daughter  are  recorded  in  Colonel  Chester's  Ecgisters  of 
Westminster  A  hhey. 

Rowe's  tragedies  were  uiuiVed  by  pas.^-'onate  tecling  set  off  by  a 
graceful  diction,  and  wore  well  aJ.-.:)ce.l  for  st.^ge  effect.  Tf  The 
Fair  PenitcM  and  Jans  Shore,  havo  been  expelled  from  tho  st.igc, 
their  historic  reputation  and  their  stylo  will  repay  perusrd. 

Among  Rowe's  other  literary  eiToits  r.iay  b? mcnfioned  an  edition 
of  the  works  of  Shakespeare  (170C),  for  wl-.ijh  ho  received  from 
Lintot  the  bookscIKT  the  sum  of  £30,  10^.,  a  rate  of  p.iy  not  out  of 
proportion  to  the  labour  which  v.-as  bostoivc;!  upon  the  task.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  had  also  fmiehcl  a  translation  of  Lucan's 
PharsaUa,  a  work  th?n  n.acli  praised  and  not  yet  superseded  by 
any  competitor.  Rowe's  nunor  poems  we:e  bcrea..h  t!ie  level  of 
his  age.  An  edition  of  his  works- was  published  ic  1720  tintler  tlic 
care  of  Jfr  (afterwards  V.ishrp)  Nowton.  llis  translation  of  Lucan 
was  edited  by  Dr  ^^■eI\,•ood. 

ROWING  is  the  act  of  driving  forward  or  propelling  a 
boat  along  the  surface  of  the  water  by  rr.eans  of  oars.  It 
is  remarkable  how  scanty,  until  quite  recent  tinics,  are  the 
records  of  this  art,  which  at  certain  epochs  has  played  no 
insignificant  part  in  the  v/orld's  hi.=;tory.  ft  was  the  oar 
that  brought  Phix'nician  letters  and  civilization  to  Greece ; 
it  was  the  oar  that  propelled  the  Ifellenic  fleet  to  Troy ;  it 
was  the  oar  that  saved  Europe  from  Per.sian  despotism ;  it 
was  the  skilful  use  of  the  oar  by  free  citizens  which  was 
the  glory  of  Athens  in  her  prime.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  so  little  is  known  of  the  details  connected  with  it,  or 
of  the  dispo.sal  of  the  rowers  on  board  the  splendid  fleet 
which  started  in  its  pride  for  Sicily,  when  1 7,000  oars  at 
a  given  signal  smote  the  brine,  and  100  long  ships  raced 
as  far  as  /Egina.     The  vessels  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 


30 


R  0  W  I  H  G 


Romans — the  biremes,  quadriremcs,  qiiinquiremcs,  and 
hexiremes — owed  their  pace  to  the  exertions  of  men  who 
plied  the  oar  rather  tlian  to  the  sails  with  which  they  were 
fitted,  and  which  were  only  used  when  the  wind  was 
favourable.  Professor  Gardner  has  shown  that  boat  racing 
was  not  uncommon  among  the  Greeks ;  ^  and  that  it  was 
practised  among  the  Romans  Virgil  testifies  in  the  well- 
known  passage  in  the  fifth  book  of  the  JEnad.  And  the 
'^''enetian  galleys  which  were  subsequently  used  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  in  mediaeval  times  were  only 
a  modified  form  of  the  older  kind  of  craft.  These  were 
for  the  most  part  manned  by  slaves  and  criminals,  and 
were  in  constant  employment  in  most  Euroroan  countries. 

Rowing  was  understood  by  the  ancient  Britons,  as  they 
trusted  themselves  to  the  mercy  of  the  waves  in  coracles 
composed  of  wicker-work  covered  with  leather,  similar  no 
doubt  in  many  respects  to  those  now  used  in  Wales ;  but 
these  frail  vessels  were  propelled  by  paddles  and  not  by 
oars.  The  Saxons  seem  to  have  been  expert  in  the 
managenjent  of  the  oar,  as  well  as  the  Danes  and  Norwe- 
gians, as  it  is  recorded  that  the  highest  nobles  in  the  land 
devoted  themselves  to  it.  Alfred  the  Great  introduced 
long  galleys  from  the  Mediterranean,  which  were  propelled 
by  forty  or  sixty  oars  on  each  side,  and  for  some  time 
these  vessels  were  used  for  war  purposes.  It  is  stated  by- 
William  of  Malmesbury  that  Edgar  the  Peaceable  was 
rowed  in  state  on  the  river  Dee  from  his  palace,  in  the 
city  of  West  Chester,  to  the  church  of  St  John  and  back 
again,  by  eight  tributary  kings,  himself  acting  as 
coxswain. 

Boat  quintain,  or  tilting  at  one  another  on  the  water, 
was  first  brought  into  England  by  the  Normans  as  aa 
amusement  for  the  spring  and  summer  season,  and  prob- 
ably much  of  the  success  of  the'  champions  depended 
upon  the  skill  of  those  who  managed  the  boats.  Before 
the  beginning  of  the  12th  century  the  rivers  were 
commonly  used  for  conveying  passengers  and  merchandise 
on  board  barges  and  boats,  and  until  the  introduction  of 
coaches  they  were  almost  the  only  means  of  transit  for 
royalty,  and  for  the  nobility  and  gentry  who  had  mansions 
and  watergates  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames.  It  iSj  how- 
ever, impossible  to  trace  the  first  employment  of  bargemen, 
wherrymen,  or  watermen,  but  they  seem  to  have  been  well 
established  by  that  time,  and  were  engaged  in  ferrying  and 
other  waterside  duties.  During  the  long  frosts  of  the  early 
part  of  the  13th  century,  frequent  mention  is  made  in  the 
chronicles  of  the  distress  among  the  watermen,  from  which 
we  may  assume  that  their  numbers  were  large.  They  were 
employed  in  conveying  the  nobles  and  their  retinues  to 
Runnymede,  where  they  met  King  John  and  where  Magna 
Charta  was  signed.  Towards  the  close  of  this  century  the 
watermen  of  Greenwich  were  frequently  fined  for  over- 
charging at  the  "established  .ferries,  and  about  the  same 
time  some  of  the  city  companies  established  barges  for 
water  processions.  Vfe  learn  from  Fabian  and  Middleton 
that  in  14.54  "Sir  John  Norman,  then  lord  mayor  of 
London,  built  a  noble  barge  at  his  own  expense,  and  was 
roU'ed  by  watermen  with  silver  oars,  attended  by  such  of 
the  city  companies  as  possessed  barges,  in  a  splendid 
manner,"  and  further  "  that  he  made  the  barge  he  sat  in 
burn  on  the  water";  but  there  is  no  explanation  of  this 
statement.  Sir  John  Norman  was  highly  commended  for 
this  action  by  the  members  of  the  craft,  as  no  doubt  it 
helped  to  popularize  the  fashion  then  coming  into  vogue  of 
Ijeing  rowed  on  the  Thames  by  the  watermen  who  plied 
for  liire  in  their  wherries.  The  lord  mayors  procession 
by  water  to  Westminster,  which  figures  on  the  front  page 
tf  the  Illustrated  London  Neics,  was  made  annually  until 
the.  year  1856,  when  it  was  discontinued.  The  lord 
^  Journal  of  Hellenic  Stiidien,  16S1. 


mayoi'o  state  barge  was  a  magnificent  species  of  shallop 
rowed  by  watermen  ;  and  the  city  companies  had  for  the 
most  part  barges  of  their  own,  all  rowed  double-banked 
with  oars  in  the  fore  half,  the  after  part  consisting  of  a 
cabin  something  like  that  of  a  gondola.  The  watermen 
became  by  degrees  so  large  and  numerous  a  body  that  in 
the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (1514)  an 
Act  was  passed  making  regulations  for  them.  This  Act 
has  from  time  to  time  been  amended  by  various  statutes, 
and  the  last  was  passed  in  1858.  Much  time  seems  to 
have  been  spent  in  pleasuring  on  the  water  in  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries,  and  no  doubt  competitions  among 
the  watermen  were  not  uncommon,  though  there  is  no 
record  of  them.  The  principal  occupation  of  watermen, 
who  were  obliged  to  serve  an  apprenticeship,  used  to  be 
ferrying  and  rowing  fares  on  the  Thames,  but  in  process 
of  time  the  introdiiction  of  bridges  and  steamers  drove 
them  from  this  employment,  and  the  majority  of  them 
now  work  as  bargemen,  lightermen,  and  steamboat  hand.i 
having  still  to  serve  an  apprenticeship.  For  many  j-ea  rs 
matches  for  money  stakes  were  frequent  (1831  to  1880), 
but  the  old  race  of  watermen,  of  which  Phelps,  the  senior 
ICelley,  Campbell,  Coombes,  Newell,  the  MacKinneys, 
Messenger,  Pocock,  and  Henry  Kelley  were  prominent 
members,  has  almost  died  out,  and  some  of  the  best  English 
scullers  during  the  last  fifteen  years  have  been  landsmen. 

Apart  from  the  reference  already  made  to  the  ancienis, 
we  do  not  End  any  records  of  boat-racing  before  the 
establishment  in  England  of  the  coat  and  badge,  insti- 
tuted by  the  celebrated  comedian  Thomas  Doggett  in 
1715,  in  honour  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  to  commemo- 
rate the  anniversary  of  "King  George  I.'s  happy  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain."  The  prize  was  a  red  coat 
with  a  large  silver  badge  on  the  arm,  bearing  the  white 
horse  of  Hanover,  and  the  race  had  to  be  rowed  on  the  1st 
of  August  annually  on  the  Thames,  by  six  young  watermen 
who  were  not  to  have  exceeded  the  time  of  their  apprentice- 
ship by  twelve  months.  Although  the  first  contest  took 
place  in  the  year  above  mentioned,  the  names  of  the 
winners  have  only  been  preserved  since  1791.  The  face 
continues  at  the  present  day,  but  under  slight  modifica- 
tions. The  first  regatta  appears  to  have  occurred  about 
sixty  years  later,  for  we  learn  from<he  Annual  Register  of 
the  year  1775  that  an  entertainm.ent  called  by  that  nanie 
(Ita!.,  reffata),  introduced  from  Venice  into  England,  was 
exhibited  on  the  Thames  off  Ranelagh  Gardens,  and  n 
lengthy  account  of  it  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  work.  The 
lord  mayor's  and  sevei-al  of  the  city  companies'  pleasure 
barges  were  conspicuous,'  and,  although  we  leam  very  little 
indeed  of  the  competing  wager  boats,  it  seems  clear  they 
were  rowed  by  watermen.  We  find  from  Strutt's  Sports 
and  Pastimes  (first  published  in  1801)  that  the  proprietor  of 
Vauxhall  Gardens  had  for  some  years  given  a  new  wherry 
to  be  rowed  for  by  waternien,  two  in  a  boat,  which  is 
perhaps  the  first  pair-oared  race  on  record.  Similar  prizes 
were  also  given  by  Astley,  the  celebrated  liorseman  and 
circus  proprietor  of  the  Westminster  Bridg^Road,  about  th« 
same  period  ;  but  thus  far  rowing  was  apparently  viewed 
as  a  laborious  exercise,  and  the  rowers  were  paid.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  however,  rowing  as- 
sociations were  formed,  and  the  "  Star,"  "  Arrow,"  "  Shark," 
and  "  SircA "  Clubs  had  races  amongst  themselifes,  gene- 
rally over  lii-ng  courses  and  in  heavy  six-oared  boats.  The 
Star  and  Arrow  Clubs  ceased  to  exist  in  the  early  years 
of  thi?  century,  and  were  merged  in  the  newly  formed 
Leande.-  Club.  The  date  of  its  establishment  cannot  be 
fixed  ex  ctly,  but  it  was  probably  about  1818  or  1819. 
It  ranked  high,  because  the  majority  of  its  members  had 
frequently  distinguished  themselves  in  matches  with  the 
oar  and  sculls.     They  were  the  first  to  patronize  and  lend 


ROWING 


}1 


a  helping  Land  to  young  watermen  whosho'.ved  promise  of 

aq^tTc   fame,   and   they   Ukewise  instituted  a  coat  and 

badge  for  scullers. 

The  first  record  of  publicschool  racing  ^vhich  can  now-fae  seen 
U  S^  Wat  r  Ledger  of  Westminster  School;  wh.ch  comments  mU.^^ 

vear  1813  with  a  list  of  the  crew  of  the  I'^-^^l^'^.fh^llnAin 
^^Hiucd  for  some  time  .to  be  the  "^  ^  ^oa^^f  the  '>p°l  and  ,n 
1816  b-t  the  Temple  s.x.oar,n  a  i^cencm  Johnsou^s^  ^^^^  ^^ 

oar.  The  earliest  record  ot  a  race  at  ^™"  "^  ;„  i  ai  7  .  Vint  the  nro- 
Vowed  against  the  wate,.m^n  and  hea^^^^^ 

W:st^nstoSlXu    r^^ 

)L  tMe  but  the  match  was  stopped  by  the  authonnes  ;  and  it  was 

^ot  until  1329  that  the  first  contest  between  the  two  schools  was 

Hri-i^o^ris^ssi-p^ts^ 

ch  et  opponlut  These  two  clubs  were  constantly  rowing  race  bu 
thev  were  not  very  particular  about  the  oarsmen  m  the  bcjts,  a;,  t  e 
Kose  crew  i?1824  was  composed  of  t--  nie-b^-  °f  «^^^^ 
college,  a  Worcester  man  -VthTb"n'uJiv4sUy  E^at'clnb 
rt^ablXTrn\"339'\t  CamM4;o"eight...d 'roaring  w^^^ 
Z  in  tsHon  so  soon  as  at  Oxford,  the  f,-t  eigh  Cbelongin,  0  S^ 
John's  Colbge),  not  having  been  l=;'J°.'='^<=<'.;:"^'^„,\^5iA'-^?aVformcT 

tigut-oarea  ra-^  •>  „  .     ^g^s  the  first  Oxford  and 

^rbi^d^rU^^e'rs  ^  boarrlce  ^JS  proposed  and  fixed  for  June 
Vn   I809   on  the  Thames,  from  Hambledon  Lock  to  Henley  Budge. 

rutney  at  nail  iioou,  .cullers'  race  for  the  professional 

changed  since  then  T^aJ'Us  "0  ved  f  rem  Westminster  to 
&;°:f  Lth'^Se^rTsSl,  Charles  Campbell  of  West- 
min^tJr  defeatii."  Joh  1  Williams  of  Waterloo  Bridge.  During 
Zne^ei'ht  yc°a.-s  rowing  increased  in  favour  among  amateurs, 
an  1,  as   t  had  fkken  its  pro^ier  place  among  the  "■•'t;»^   P-/'"!    .■ 

^^d'tho  want  cf  a  central  spot  for  a  i^^^'."^^.",^, '""'^  ;^;\\' J^3'hou  <i 

nn  Thames  was  chosen,  and  it  was  decided  that  a  ugatu  snouiu 

brheldTerrfn  1839,  ind  the  Grand  challenge  cup  for  ugh    oars 

wa,   established.     This  has  been   an  annual   fixtiue   ever  s.ace, 

«Ses  bei  K  fiiv  n  for  four  oars,  pair  oars,  and  scuUers,  as  well  as 

FoTci.'ht  oarf    In  1843  the  Royal  Thames  Re-atta  was  stilted  at 

Putnev  and  it  gave  a  gold  challenge  cup  for  eight  oars  and  a  s,lv  r 

chanence  cup  for  four  oars,  to  be  rowed  by  amateurs.     la   18« 

Oxd^nl'beat  Cambridge  at  this  regatta,  --^^n      lu:J^'S till 

committee  added  a  champion  pnze  for  watermen.     About  ,1  is  time 

rSd  Thames  Club  was  established,  and  they  caiTied  olf  the  gold 

challenU  cup  by  winning  it  for  three  years  in  succession    y« 

184G  tofsiS      In  1852  tht  Argonauts  Glut  first  appcaredat  Henley 

md  woi    the  Visitors'  cup,  and  in  18D3  the  Royal  Chester  Rowing 

Clubw    e'suocessfulin  thrstewards'  cup  for  four  cars,  and  won    h 

r.rind  Challenge  cup  for  e  glit  oars  the  next  year.     In  186b  tnc 

Sou  Rowing  Club  was  established,  but  those  members  of  it  who 

r^wed  at  Henley  were  obliged  to  enter  under  the  name  ol  the 

Wonauts  cTubf  as,  not  ha  °ing  been  in  existence  a  year,  its  cresv 

Snot  compete  under  its  name.     The  "of  yj^i,  >?-.;|'['  '^Z 

carried  off  the  Grand  Challenge  cup  from  Oxford  Univeistya„d 

were  successful  in  the  Stewards'  cup  as  well.     Many  moie  clubs, 

nchi  the  Kingston,  Radlev,  West  llondon,  Twic.en  mm,  Thames, 

Mouhey   and  fther  metropolitan  and  nrovincial  clubs  were  subsc- 

nuentlv  established,  and  have  met  with  varied  success 

^  Bo^  -'The  boats  of  the  present  day  dilTer  very  much  from  tho  e 

forSy  used,  and  the  heivy  lumbering  9""  j''-^,  ^  "J^,  ',  I 

known  to  our  forefathers  have  been  ^^P"^^^^,^^^^  ,''S  '  who "V 
tion.-skiffs,  gigs,  and  racing  outriggers.  The  old  Thames  w  .^01  y 
wUh  its  long  projecting  bow  is  now  seldom  seen,  and  a  rooniv  skiff, 
often  used  wilh  i  sail^vhen  the  wind  is  favourable,  has  taUn  .  s 
p  ace.  The  gig  is  an  open  boat  with  several  strakes  having  the  ro  ■ 
kcks  or  pi"cet  of  wooS  between  which  the  oar  works,  fixodupon  the 


gunwale,  which  is  level  all  round.     The  skilT  is  wider  and  Ion  or 
than  the  gig  and  of  greater  depth,  and   rising  higher  fore  and  aft, 
with  rowlocks  placed  on  a  curved  and  elevated  gunwale,  has  greatei 
dairying  poweJand  rows  lighter  than  the  gig.     The  wherry  nses 
Sfih  at  the  bows  with  a  long  nose  pointed  upwards  and  a  very  low 
stern   being  consequently  unsuited  for  rough  water.  .  Jlie  modern 
fac^n^  boat  differs  much  from  the  foregoing,  as  its  w-idth  has  been 
dTci°?sed  so  as  to  offer  as  little  resistance  to  the  wa  er  as  possible, 
wdleTti^  propelled  by  oars  working  between  rowlocks  fixed  on 
TOoiectinc  iron  rods  aud  cross  pieces  which  arc  made  fast  to  the 
Ker  ^The^e  rods  aud  cross  pieces  are  rigged  out  from  the  side 
of    he  boats,  and  hence  the   term  outnggers.     These  boa  s  a  e 
constmeted  fir  single  scullers, tor  pairs,  for  fours,  for  c'ght^aid 
occasionally  tor  twdve  oars.     The  outrigger  was  first  brought  to 
TprfpS  bv  the  late  Henry  Clasper  of  Hewcastle-on-Tyne,  who  is 
i:  ntuy\letVt?havebfenit3\nventor;  butt^^^^^^^^ 
which  w-cre  only  rude  pieces  of  wood  fasteued  on  the  boat  s  siaes, 
we":^.scd  !n  18^8,  ani  were  fixed  'o  a  boat  at  Ouseburn-on-Tyn^, 
The  first  iron  outriggers  were  affixed  to  a  boat  in  18JU  at  i^enis 
Ho  e  on  Tyne.       n°18«  Clasper,  who  bad  been  improving  upon 
hese  inventions,  made  his  first  boat  of  the  1;'"^  f  ,^„  ^™"4^*  47j 
to  London  ;  but  her  outriggers  were  only  8  inches  '"  l^S;"'  ;'*{ 
she  was  built  of  several  strakes,  with  a  small  keel.     In  Process     t 
ime  teels  were  dispensed  with,  the  -'"f-s  v.ere  leng  henc.l 

and  the  skin  of  the  boat  is  now  '=°"P<'=''='i  of  t  w^?eTto  t  the 
redir  rilaued  very  thin  and  bent  by  means  of  hat  water  to  t....e  li.e 
form  of  the  titers  of  the  boat.  It  is  fastened  by  copper  nails  .0 
curved  timbers  of  ash,  one  extremity  of  which  is  fixed  nto  the 
kee  son  while  the  other  is  made  tst  to  long  pieces  of  d£?l;^3'  ;™ 
from  end  to  end  ot  the  boat  and  are  called  mwales.  The  timbers 
nSe  middle  are  thicker  than  the  rest,  so  a.s  to  ^f  PP^f^^^^'^, 
oiUr'gei-s  which  are  fastened  to  them,  and  tne  tliwart,  ^\^i^  ^^ 
wider  than  t  used  to  be  in  order  to  carry  tho  slia.ng  seat  wh  en 
wovks  backward  and  forward  with  tlie  oaism,in,  is  screwed  to  te 
nwales  This  seat  moves  to  and  fro  on  rollers  maae  of  steel,  w  ood 
n,  hra=s   and  travels  over  a  distance  varying  fro.,i  12  to  6  mchea 

seats  and  the  club  also  had  them  fitted  to  their  eight,  winch  easay 
carried  off  the  Grand  Challenge  cnp  at  Henley  a  few  days  after- 
cairied  <>"  »«  V"°  °        ^   adopted  by  tho  crews  rowing 

Ttt  Unhe    ity  boa    r    a.     The  Ameri'cans  have  also  the  credit 

o  a   to'make  one  movement,  and  the   egs  V^'^^f^"^^^  ^ 
^tretcher,a,,d_the.,a.,dlefiiianypunahom^^^ 


0  laudle  Iinaiiy  puueu  nuu^v  ...^  ,.,._...■.- 
irmsrthe  elbows  being  allowed\o  pass  tlie  sides imul  t|-  ;-    ^J 
the  oar  iust  touches  the  lower  extremity  of  the  breast.      |"?  """f  °' 
le  oarlhus  appears  to  be  forced  through  tbc  J-t^r  b  t  -n  real    y 
this  is  very  ^f'S'^tb"  tl-  e-e   as  the  .at^    w^^^^^^ 

the  flat  blade  of  the  ^^  1^"^^ '"jVl  ^  H  of  the  handle 

^f ^r '^rCd  t';'n::c;^tt:^';i n'gU  of  the  bUde  previous 

*°wLnt;irfcl°l':mb:*  «.-e  P«pil  should  lay  his  oar  on  tho 
wnen  FeP"J'  '  J    1     (J  i^a  shoreside  oar,  and  step  into 


3'i 


K  O  W  — E  O   W 


proceed  to  settle   himself  fi.-  .ly  upon   his  thwart,  sitting   quite 
square  and  upright  but  not  too  near  the  edge  of  it,  because  if  so 
the  chances  are  that  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  will  not  be  straight, 
and  if  hia  seat  is  not  firm  he  cannot  aid  in  balancing  the  boat.     He 
should  sit  about  three  quarters  of  the  thwart  aft  in  an  ordinary  racing 
boat,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  edge,  and  ho  must  be 
exactly  opposite  the  handle  of  his  oar.     His  feet  must  be  planted 
firmly  against  the  stretcher  and  immediately  opposite  his  l)cdy  and 
oar, — the  heel  as  well  as  the  ball  of  the  foot  pressing  against  the 
stretcher,  and  the  two  heels  close  together  with  the  toes  ■n-ide  apart, 
so  as  to  keep  the  knees  open  and  separate.     Of  course  if  the  pupil 
sits  fair  and  square,  and  immediately  opposite  the  handle  of  his 
oar,  he  will  be  at  one  side  and  not  in  the  centre  of  the  boat.     The 
stretcher,  it  may  be  added,  should  be  as  short  as  possible  con- 
veniently for  clearing  the  knees  and  for  exercising  complete  control 
over  the  oar.     The  body  should  be  upright,  not  bent  forward  and 
sunk  down  upon  the  trunk  ;  the  shoulders  should  be  thrown  back, 
the  chest  out,  and  the  elbows  down  close  alongside  the  flanks. 
The  oar  should  be  held  firmiy,  but  :^-ithal  lightly,  in  both  hands, 
not  clutched  and  cramped  as  in  a  vice — theoutsii:-  band  close  to  the 
end  of  the  handle,  v.-ith  the  fingers  above  and  the  thumb  underneath 
it,  and  the  inside  hand,  or  that  nearest  the  body  of  the  oar,  from 
an  inch  and  a  half  to  2  inches  away  from  its  fellow,  but  grasping 
the  oar  more  convexly  than  tlie  latter,  the  thumb  being  kept  under- 
neath.    The  forearms  should  be  below  the  level  of  the  handle,  and 
the  wiTsts  dropped  and  relaxed,  the  oar  lyitig  fiat  and  feathered 
upon  the  suiface  of  the  water.     The  diverse  positions  of  the  two 
hands  and  wrists  enable  the  oar  to  be  wielded  with  greater  facility 
than  if  they  were  alike,  and  allow  both  arms  to  be  stretched  out 
perfectly  straight,  a  crooked  arm  befng  perhaps  rhe  least  pardonable 
fault  in  rowing.     In  taking  the  stroke  the  body  should  be  inclined 
forwards  with  the  backbone  straight,  the  stomach  well  out  and 
do^vn  between  the  legs,  the  chest  forward  and  elevated  as  much,  as 
possible.      The  kjaecs  must  bo  pressed  slightly  outwards;  and  the 
shoulders  should  come  moderately  forward,  but  perfectly  level,  and 
at  an  equal  height.     The  arms  should  play  freely  in  the  shoulder 
joints,  and  should  be  perfectly  straight  from  the  shoulders  to  the 
wrists  ;    the  action  of  the  hips  also  shoidd  be  free.     The  inside 
wrist,  however,  must  be  somewhat  raised,  and  the  outside  one  be 
bent  slightly  round,  in  order  that  the  knuckles  inay  be  paral'el  to 
the  oar,  and  the  oar  itself  be  firmly  grasped  with  both  hands,  not 
with  the  tip:*,  of  the  fingers  but  with  the  whole  of  the  fingers  well 
round  it,  and  each  one  feeling  the  handle  distinctly ;  the  knuckles 
of  the  thumbs  should  be  about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  2  inches  apart. 
In  reaching  forjai  d  the  hands  should  be  shot  out  sti-aight  from  the 
body  without  the  least  pause,  and  as  soon  as  the  oar  has  passed  the 
knees  the  wrists  should  be  raised  to  briug  the  blade  at  right  angles 
to  the  water  preparatory  to  dipping  it,  and  when  thef  aims  are  at  their 
extreme  limit,  which  will  be  just  over  the  stretcher,  the  oar  should 
be  struck  down  firmly  and  deci.-.ively  into  the  water  until  covered 
up  to  the  shoulder,  and  the  weight  of  the  body  be  thrown  entirely 
upon  it,  by  which  tl:e  beginnii.g  of  the  stroke  is  caught,  and  the 
sti'oke  itself  pulled  through ;  in  a  word,  the  pupil  should,  as  it  were, 
knit  himself  up,  and  then  spiing  back  like  a  bow  when  the  string 
is  loosened,  bringing  thv"*  mxiscles  of  his  back  and  legs  into  play. 
The  stroke  should  be  finished  with  the  r-.vvaa  and  shoulders,  the 
elbows  being  kept  close  lo  the  side?,  and  the  shoulders  dowir  and 
back,  the  head  still  up,  and  the  chest  out,  and  the  oar  itself  bo 
brought  sti-aight  home  to  the  chest,  the  knuckles  touching  the 
body  about  an  inch  or  less  below  the  bottom  of  the  breast  bone 
where  the  ribs  branch  off ;  when  there  the  hands  should  be  dropped 
down  and  then  turned  over,  and  shot  out  again  close  along  the  legs, 
the  body  follovidng  at  once.     Care  should  iike^-ise  be  taken  not  to 
lessen  the  force  applied  to  the  oar  as  the  stroke  draws  to  a  conclu- 
sion, but  to  put  the  whole  strength  of  the  arms  and  shoulders  into 
the  finish  of  the  stroke,  where  it  will  naturally  diminish  quite  fast 
enough,  as  the  oar  forms  an  obtuse  angle  with  that  portion  of  the  boat 
before  the  rowlock.    To  effect  a  quick  recovery  the  back  must  be  kept 
straight,  tho  knees  must  not  be  dropped  too  low,  and  the  muscles  of 
the  body,  especially  of  the- stomach,  must  bo  used  to  enable  the  pupil 
to  get  forward  for  tho  next  stroke.     At  the  same  time,  no  matter 
how  minute  and  j  recise  written  iustructiona  may  be,  they  can  never 
impart  the  knowledge  that  can  he  picked  up  by  watching  the  actions 
of  an  c.ci'omplished  oarsman  for  the  space  of  five  minutes  ;  hence 
the  iuperative  necessity  of  a  practical  exponent  of  the  principles  of 
the  art  in  contradistinction  to  a  merely  theoretical  "  coach." 

The  foregoing  are  the  essentials  of  rowing,  and  have  been  given  at 
some  length  and  in  detail  as  the  motions  are  necessarily  very  com- 
plicated. The  operations  are  much  the  same  whether  a  person 
be  rowing  on  a  fixed  or  sliding  scat,  but  a  novice  should  be  taught 
to  row  on  a  fixed  seat,  and  ho  will  afterwards  be  easily  able  to 
acquire  the  art  of  sliding,  which  may  soon  be  done  from  following 
the  accompanying  directions.  The  oarsman,  in  getting  forward, 
should  extend  his  arms  to  their  full  length,  and  with  the  assistance 
of  the  straps  on  the  stretcher,  simultaneously  drp.w  himself  :.3  close 
LP  to  the  latter  as  he  can,  his  knees  being  slightly  and  synimci;ri- 
ci-ly  opened,  and  the  body  reached  forward  as  much  as  possible,  the 


back  being  kept  quite  straight.  On  catching  hold  of  the  water, 
the  knees  must  be  gradually  straightened  and  the  body  thrown 
back,  the  two  actions  going  on  simultaneously,  so  that  the  legs  are 
straight  out  by  the  time  the  sti'oke  is  finished  and  not  before,  the 
body  and  shoulders  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  being  thrown  well 
back.  The  body  is  then  recovered  to  the  upright  position  from  the 
hips,  the  hands  thrown  forward,  and  by  tho  time  tliey  are  just  past 
the  knees  the  body  is  being  drawn  forward,  snd  the  knees  bent. 
The  motion  then  begins  the  same  as  before.  (E.  D.  B.) 

Boat-La-'ing  in  America. — This  pastime  can  be  traced-back  to 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  The  earliest  important 
aftair  was  in  ISll, — a  sectional  match,  Kew  York  City  against  all 
Long  Island,  four-oared  barges,  with  coxswains,  from  Harsimus, 
New  Jersey,  to  the  flag-staff  on  the  Battery.  New  York  won  easily, 
and  su::h  was  the  popular  enthusiasm  over  the  race  that  its  boat, 
the  "  Knickerbocker,  was  suspended  in  a  public  museum,  where  it 
remained  for  fifty-four  years,  a  constant  recipient  of  public  admira- 
tion niLtil  destroyed  by  fire  in  July  18C5.  Since  this  historic  con- 
test nc  year  has  been  -without  boat  races.  At  that  time  the  words 
amateur  and  proft-sional  were  unknown  on  tho  water  ;  the  Castle 
Gariif  n  Amateur  Boat  Club  Association — America's  first  avowedly 
amr^ixur  club — was  founded  in  1834. 

There  had  been  infonnal  clubs  and  desultory  racing  at  Yale 
College  r.3  early  as  1833,  but  the  first  regular  organization  was 
in  March  1S13.  Harvard  followed  iu  September  1844,  and  Yale 
and  Harvard  first  met  on  the  water  at  Lake  "Winnepiseogee,  New 
Hamps'iiire,  August  3,  1852  ;  since  1873  they  have  met  annually  at 
New  London,  Conn.  In  1SC5  Harvnrd,  Yale,  Trinity,  and  Brown 
formed  the  Uniou  College  Regatta  Association,  which  lasted  three 
years.  The  Kacing  Association  of  American  Colleges,  which  at 
one  time  included  sixteen  colleges,  died  in  1876.  In  1SS3  Bowdoiu, 
Columbia,  Cornell,  Princeton,  Rutgc.s,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  iVesleyan  formed  the  Intercollegiate  Racing  Association,  whicii 
still  flourishes  and  gives  annual  regattas. 

The  contiol  of  amateur  racing  in  America  belongs  to  the  National 
Association  of  Amateur  Oarsmen,  founded  in  1873,  whose  member- 
ship includes  all  the  better  class  of  amateur  boat  clubs.  Its 
management  is  vested  in  an  Executive  Committee  of  nine  members, 
three  of  whom  are  elected  at  each  annual  meeting  of  the  association. 
The  rulings  of  this  committee  are  subject  to  review,  approval,  or 
reversal,  at  each  annual  meeting  of  the  full  association.  This 
association  gives  an  annual  open  amateur  regatta,  similar  to  the 
Royal  Henley  Regatta  in  being  the  chief  aquatic  event  of  the  year, 
but  umike  it  in  not  being  rowed  always  on  the  same  course,  but 
moving  about  from  year  to  year — having,  since  1S73,  been  rowed 
at  Philadelphia,  Newark,  Troy,  and  "Watkins  (N.Y.),  Detroit, 
'W'ashington,  and  Boston.  There  are  in  the  United  States  eleven 
regularly  organized  amateur-  rowing  associations,  formed  by  tho 
union  of  amateur  rowing  clubs  and  giving  each  year  one  or  mora 
regattas.  Theso  associations  are  the  National  Association  of 
Amateur  Oarsmen,  the  North-"Western  Amateur  Rowing  Association, 
the  Mississippi  Yall-?y  Amateur  Rowing  Association,  the  Passaic 
River  Amateur  Rowing  Association,  the  Intercollegiate  Rowing 
AssociaMon,  the  Harlem  Regatta  Association,  the  Louisiana  State 
Amateur  Roviiag  Association,  the  Vii'giuia  State  Rowing  Associa- 
tion, the  Schuylkill  Navy,  the  Upper  Hudson  Navy,  and  the  Kill 
Ton  Kull  Regatta  Association.  At  English  regattas  it  is  usual  to 
sta't  three  boats  in  a  heat,  sometimes  four,  five  being  the  utmost 
limit,  whereas  at  Saratoga,  in  the  great  regattas  of  1874  and  1875, 
there  were  started  abreast,  in  four  separate  races,  eleven  siuglea 
(twice),  thirteen  coxswainless  fourc,  and  thirteen  coxswainless  sixes. 

The  primary  division  of  American  racing  craft  is  into  (a)  lap- 
streaks  or  clinkers,  built  of  wood  in  narrow  streaks  with  overlapping 
edges  at  each  joint,  and  (o)  smooth  bottoms,  made  of  wood  or  paper, 
and  having  a  fair  surface,  without  projecting  joint  or  seam.  Lap- 
streak  boats  are,  hov.-ever,  now  rarely  used  save  in  barge  races. 
Then  follows  the  subi-livision  into  barges,  which  are  open  inrigged 
boats,  gigs,  which  are  open  outrigged  boats,  and  shells,  which  are 
covered  outrigged  boats.  These  three  classes  of  boats  are  further 
subdivided,  in  accordance  with  the  means  of  propulsion,  into  single, 
double,  and  quadruple  sculling  boats,  and  pair-,  four-,  sis:-,  and  eight- 
oared  boats.  In  America  the  double-scull  is  more  frequent  than 
the  pair,  and  the  six-oar  much  more  common  than  the  eight-oar. 

The  sliding  seat  is  now  being  gradually  superseded  by  vai'ions 
styles  of  rolling  seats,  in  which  the  actual  scat  travels  backward 
and  forward  on  friclionless  wheels  ^^r  balls.  Tho  best  of  these  de- 
vices run  more  easily,  are  clearier,  and  less  liable  to  accident  thin 
the  ordinary  sliding  seat.  English  oarsmen  use  the  sliding  seat  as 
a  means  of  making  theii"  old  accustomed  stroke  longer  and  more 
powerful.  American  oarsmen  hold  that  wliat  is  needed  by  an  oars- 
man is  not  the  addition  of  the  long  slide  to  the  old-f;ishioned  long 
swing,  but  the  almost  total  substitution  of  slide  for  swing,  the 
transfer  of  the  labour  from  back  to  legs — in  fact,  a  totally  new  stylo. 
P.OWLANDSOK,  Thoiias  (1756-1S27),  caricaturist, 
-.>as  bora  iu  Old  Jewry,  London,  in  July  1756,  the  son  of  a 
,  tradesman  cr  city  merchant.    It  is  remrded  that  "he  could 


R  O  W  — R  O  X 


33 


make  sketches  before  lie  learned  to  write,"  and  that  he 
covered  his  lesson-books  with  caricatures  of  his  masters 
and  fellow-pupils.  On  leaving  school  he  became  a  student 
in  the  Royal  Academy.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  resided 
and  studied  for  a  time  in  Paris,  and  he  afterwards  made 
frequent  tours  on  the  Continent,  enriching  his  portfolios 
with  numerous  jottings  of  life  and  character.  In' 1775 
he  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  a  draiving  of  Delilah 
visiting  Samson  in  Prison,  and  in  the  following  years 
he  was  represented  by  various  portraits  and  landscapes. 
Possessed  of  much  facility  of  execution  and  a  ready  com- 
mand of  the  figure,  he  was  spoken  of  as  a  promising 
student;  and  had  he  continued  his  early  application  he 
would  have  made  his  mark  as  a  painter.  But  he  was  the 
victim  of  a  disastrous  piece  of  good  fortune.  By  the  death 
of  his  aunt,  a  French  lady,  he  fell  heir  to  a  sum  of 
£7000,  and  presently  he  plunged  into  the  dissipations  of 
the  town.  Gambling  became  a  passion  with  him,  and 
he  has  been  known  to  sit  at  the  gaming-table  for  thirty- 
six  hours  at  a  stretch.  In  time  poverty  overtook  him ; 
and  the  friendship  and  example  of  Gillray  and  Bunbury 
seem  "to  have  suggested  that  his  early  aptitude  for  carica- 
ture might  furnish  a  ready  means  of  filling  an  empty  purse. 
His  drawing  of  Vauxhall,  shown  in  the  Royal  Academy 
exhibition  of  1784,  had  been  engraved  by  Pollard,  and  the 
print  was  a  success.  Rowlandson  was  largely  employed 
by  Rudolph  Ackermann,  the  art  publisher,  who  in  1809- 
1811  issued  in  his  Poetical  Magazine  "The  Schoolmaster's 
Tour" — a  series  of  plates  with  illustrative  verses  by  Dr 
William  Coombe,  They  were  the  most  popular  of  the 
artist's  works.  Again  engraved  by  Rowlandson  himself  in 
IS12,  and  issued  under  the  title  of  the  Tour  of  Di  (syntax 
in  Search  of  the  Picturesque,  they  .had  attained  a  fifth 
edition  by  1813,  and  were  followed  in  1820  byDr  Syntax 
in  Search  of  Consolation,  and  in  1821  by  the  Third  Tour  of 
Dr  Syntax,  in  Search  of  a  Wife.  The  same  collaboration 
of  designer,  author,  and  publisher  appeared  in  the  English 
Dance  of  Death,  issued  in  1814-16,  one  of  the  most 
admirable  of  Rowlandson's  series,  and  in  the  Dance  of  Life, 
1822.  Rowlandson  also  illustrated  Smollett,  Goldsmith, 
arid  Sterne,  and  his  designs  will  be  found  in  The  Spirit 
of  the  Public  Journals  (1825),  The  English  Spy  (1825),  and 
The  Humourist  (1831).  He  died  in  London,  after  a  pro- 
longed illness,  on  the  22d  April  1827. 

Rowlandson's  designs  were  usually  executed  in  outline  with  the 
reed-pen,  and  delicately  washed  with  colour.  They  were  then 
etched  by  the  artist  on  the  copper,  and  afterwards  aqua-tinted — 
usually  by  a  professional  engraver,  the  impressions  being  finally 
coloured  by  hand.  'As  a  designer  he  was  characterized  by  the 
Qtraost  facility  and  ease  of  draughtsmanship.  He  poured  forth  his 
designs  in  ill-considered  profusion,  and  the  quality  of  his  art 
suffered  from  this  haste  and  over-production.  He  was  a  true  if 
not  a  very  refined  humorist,  dealing  less  frequently  than  his  fierce 
contemporary  Gillray  with  politics,  but  commonly  touching,  in  a 
rather  gentle  spirit,  the  various  aspects  and  incidents  of  social  life. 
His  most  artistic  work  is  to  be  found  among  the  more  careful 
drawings  of  his  earlier  period ,;  but  even  among  the  gross  forms  and 
exaggerated  caricature  of  his  later  time  we  find,  here  and  there,  in 
the  graceful  lines  of  a  figure  or  the  sweet  features  of  some  maiden's 
face,  Bufficieat  hints  that  this  master  of  the  humorous  might  have 
attained  to  the  beautiful  had  he  so  willed. 

.See  J.  Grego,  RoalaruUon  the  Caricalurisi,  a  Selecliort  from  AU  Wcrki,  4c. 
(1  vol«.,  1880). 

ROWLEY,  William,  actor  and  dramatist,  collaborated 
with  several  of  the  celebrated  dramatists  of  the  Elizabethan 
period — Dekker,  Middleton,  Hey  wood,  Fletcher,  Webster, 
Massinger,  and  Ford.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life 
except  that  he  was  an  actor  in  various  companies,  and 
married  in  1637.  There  wa»  another  Rowley,  an  actor  and 
playright  in  the  same  generation,  Samuel,  and  probably  a 
third,  Ralph.  Four  plays  by  W.  Rowley  are  extant, — A 
Woman  never  Vfxt  (printed  1632),  A  Match  at  Midnight 
(1633),  All 's  Lost  by  Lutt  (1633),  and  A  Shoemaker  a 
■IV— 0 


Gentleman  (1638).  From  these  an  opinion  may  be  formed 
of  his  individual  style.  Effectiveness  of  situation  and  in- 
genuity of  plot  are  more  marked  in  them  than  any  specia? 
literary  faculty,  from  which  we  may  conjecture  why  he  was 
in  such  request  as  an  associate  in  play-making.  There  are 
significant  quotations  from  two  of  his  plays  in  Lamb's 
Specimens.  It  is  recorded  by  Langbaine  that  he  "  was 
beloved  of  those  great  men  Shakespeare,  Fletcher,  and 
Jonson  " ;  and  the  tradition  of  his  personal  amiability  is 
supported  by  the  fact  of  his  partnerships  with  so  many 
different  writers. 

ROWLEY  REGIS,  an  urban  sanitary  district  of  Staf- 
fordshire, is  situated  on  the  Birmingham  Canal,  and  on  the 
Stourbridge  branch  of  the  Great  Western  Jlaihvay,  6  miles 
west  of  Birmingham.  The  original  village  surrounds  the 
parish  church,  dating  from  the  1 3th  century,  but  rebuilt  ia 
184D  with  the  exception  of  the  tower,  which  was  also  rebuilt 
in  ISoS.  The  village  is  situated  in  a  rich  coal  and  iron- 
stone district,  and  round  it  numerous  hamlets  have  grown 
up  within  recent  years.  Lately  the  parish  has  been  erected 
into  an  urban  sanitary  district,  governed  by  a  local  board 
of  fifteen  members.  Besides  collieries,  iron  works,  and  ex- 
tensive quarries  for  "  Rowley  rag  "  (a  basaltic  intrusion), 
there  a»e  potteries,  rivet,  chain,  and  anchor  works,  breweries, 
and  agricultural  implement  works,  the  district  being  one  of 
the  most  important  manufacturing  centres  of  Staffordshire. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  3670 
acres)  in  1871  was  23,534  and  in  1881  it  was  27,385. 

ROXANA,  or  Roxane,  daughter  of  the  Bactrian  Oxy- 
artes  and  wife  of  Alexander  the  Great  (see  Alexaitdee, 
vol.  i.  p.  484,  and  Macedonian  Empire,  yol.  xv.  p.  142). 

ROXBURGH,  a  border  county  of  Scotland,  occupying 
the  greater  part  of  the  border  line  with  England,  is  bounded 
E.  and  S.E.  by  Northumbe'rland,  S.E.  by  Cumberland, 
S.W.  by  Dumfriesshire,  W.  by  Selkirkshire,  N.W.  by 
Midlothian,  and  N.E.  by  Berwickshire.  It  lies  between 
55°  fr'  30"  and  55°  42'  30"  N.  lat.,  and  between  2°  10'  and 
3°  T  W.  long.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
43  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  30  miles.  The 
area  is  428,464  acres,  or  about  670  square  miles. 

Surface  and  Geology. — The  greater  part  of  Roxburgh  ia 
included  in  Teviotdale.  The  v.-hole  course  of  the  Teviot, 
40  miles  in  length,  is  included  within  the  county.  It  rises 
in  the  ranges  of  greywacke  hiUs  which  separate  the  county 
from  Dumfriesshire  and  Selkirk,  and  runs  north-eastwards, 
following  the  deposition  of  the  greywacke  rocks  to  the 
Tweed  at  Kelso,  and  dividing  the  county  into  two  unequal 
parts.-  On  the  north  a  high  range  of  land  runs  parallel 
with  its  banks  and  slopes  to  its  margin.  Soutt-west  be- 
tween Dumfries  and  Cumberland  the  greywacke  formation 
constitutes  an  almost  continuous  succession  of  eminences, 
through  which  the  Liddel  finds  its  way  southwards.  The 
highest  summits  of  the  greywacke  ranges  exceed  1800  feet. 
Although  occasionally  rocky  and  rugged,  the  hills  are  for 
the  most  part  rounded  in  outline  and  clothed  with  grass  to 
their  summits.  This  Silurian  formation  occupies  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  western  half  of  the  county,  but  along  with 
the  greywacke  rocks  is  associated  clay  slate  of  a  bluish 
colour,  glimmering  with  minute  scales  of  mica  and  fre- 
quently traversed  by  veins  of  calcareous  spar.  The  forma- 
tion is  succeeded  to  the  eastward  by  an  extensive  deposit 
of  Old  Red  Sandstone,  forming  an  irregular  quadrangular 
area  towards  the  centre  of  the  county,  emitting  two  irregu- 
lar projections  from  its  southern  extremity,  and  interrupted 
towards  the  north  by  an  intrusion  of  trap  rocks.  Owing 
to  the  sandstone  formation  the  transverse  valleys  formed 
by  various  affluents  of  the  Teviot  present  features  of  great 
interest.  The  action  of  the  water  has  scooped  deep 
channels  in  the  rock,  and  thus  formed  picturesque  narrow 
defiles,  of   which  the   high  sandstone   scaurs   are  a  pro- 

XXL  —  t 


34 


K  O  X  — R  O  Y 


minent  characteristic,  their  dark  red  cofour  blending  finely 
with  the  bright  green  woods  and  sparkling  streams.  The 
best  example  of  this  species  of  scenery  is  on  the  Jed  near 
Jedburgh.  From  the  left  the  Teviot  receives  the  Eorth- 
wick  aud  the  Ale,  both  rising  in  Selkirkshire,  and  from  the 
right  the  Allan,  the  Slitrig,  the  Rule,  the  Jed,  the  Oxnam, 
and  the  Kale,  which  rise  in  the  high  grounds  towards  the 
English  border.  As  the  Teviot  approaches  Hawick  the 
county  becomes  more  cultivated,  although  frequent  irrup- 
tions of  igneous  rocks  in  the  shape  of  isolated  hills  lend  to 
it  picturesqueness  and  variety.  Towards  the  Tweed,  where 
the  lower  division  of  the  coal  formation  prevails,  it  expands 
into  a  fine  champaign  country,  richly  cultivated  and  finely 
wooded.  The  Tweed,  which  enters  the  county  about  two 
miles  north  of  Selkirk,  crosses  its  northern  corner,  east- 
wards by  Abbotsford,  Melrose,  and  Kelso  to  Coldstream. 
Its  tributaries  within  tlie  county  are,  besides  the  Teviot, 
the  Gala,  the  Leader,  and  the  Eden.  One  of  the  principal 
features  of  the  Tweed  district  is  the  beautiful  group  of  the 
Eildon  Hills  near  Melrose,  consisting  of  felspathic  porphyry, 
the  highest  of  the  three  i>eaks  reaching  13S5  feet.  The  ex- 
tensive range  of  the  Cheviots  running  along  the  Korthum- 
berland  border  is  of  similar  formation.  Within  Roxburgh- 
shire they  reach  a  height  of  over  2400  feet.  The  lochs  are 
comparatively  few,  the  principal  being  Yetholm  or  Primside 
Loch,  and  Hoselaw  in  Linton  parish. 

The  principal  minerals  are  calcareous  spar  and  quartz. 
The  spar  is  frequently  of  a  red  or  rose  character  indicating 
the  presence  of  hematite.  In  the  greywacke  strata  fossils 
are  very  rare,  but  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  fossil  fiahes 
of  the  genus  Pterichthi/s  and  Holoptychuis  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  a  great  variety  of  plant  impressions  have  been 
found,  especially  fucoids,  but  also  vegetables  of  a  higher 
origin,  inducing  distinct  petrifactions  of  Catamites. 

C'livinte  an('.  AfjricitUurc. — The  mean  annual  temperature  ap- 
proximatos  to  that  of  Scotland  generally,  but  it  is  much  warmer 
in  the  low  and  arable  portions,  where  also  the  rainfall  is  much  less 
than  in  tlie  hiily  remons.  The  soil  varies  much  in  different  dis- 
tricts, being  chiefly  loam  in  the  low  and  level  tracts  along  the  banks 
of  the  river,  where  it  is  also  very  fertile.  In  other  parts  a  mixture 
of  clay  and  gravel  prevails,  'but  tliere  is  also  a  considerable  extent 
of  mossy  land.  The  hilly  district  is  everywhere  covered  by  a  thick 
green  pasturage  admirably  suited,  for  sheep.  Both  in  the  pastoral 
and  in  the  arable  districts  agriculture  is  in  a  very  advanced  con- 
tlition.  The  chief  attention  is  devoted  to  cattle  and  sheep 
rearintr. 

Of  the  total  area  of  428,464  acres,  184,196  were  in  crops  iu  1885, 
48,506*  being  under  corn  crops,  28,385  green  crops,  59,937  clover, 
47,053  permanent  pasture,  and  310  fallow.  Of  the  area  under  corn 
crops,  32,624  acres,  or  fully  two-thirds,  were  occupied  by  oats,  and 
13,355  acres  by  barley.  Turnips  and  swedes  were  the  principal 
green  crops,  occupying  25,143  acres,  while  potatoes  occupied  only 
2118.  The  total  number  of  horses  was  4420,  of  which  3697  were 
used  solely  for  purposes  of  agriculture  ;  of  cattle  17,831,  of  which 
5154  were  cows  and  heifers  in  milk  or  in  calf ;  of  sheep  502,721  ;aud 
of  pigs  4783.  The  valuc-d  rental  in  1674  was  £314,633  Scots,,or 
£26,219  sterling,  while  that  in  1883-84' was  £420,403  includiiW 
railways.  According  to  the  jiarliamentary  return  of  lands  and 
lieritages,  the  total  number  of  owners  was  2455,  of  whom  1880 
possessed  less  that  oi^e  acre.  The  duke  of  Biiccleuch  possessed 
104,461  acres,  or  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  whole  ;  the  duke  of  Rox- 
burghe,  50,459;  the  countess  of  Home.  25,380;  marquis  of  Lothian, 
19,740  ;  and  Sir  "William  F.  Elliot  of  Stobs,  16,475. 

Mamtfacturcs. — Though  essentially  an  agricultural  county, 
Roxburghshire  possesses  woollen  manufactures  of  some  importance, 
including  tweeds,  blankets,  shawls,  and  hosiery,  the  principal  scats 
being  Hawick,  Jedburgh,  and  Kelso. 

Railways.  — 'Y\\e  county  is  intersected  by  one  of  the  lines  of  rail- 
way from  Edinburgh  to  London  (the  "VVaverlcy"  route),  which 
passes  Melrose  and  Hawick.  At  Riccarton  a  branch  passes  south- 
eastwards  to  Newcastle.  The  northern  district  is  crossed  by  the 
border  railway  from  St  Boswells  to  Kelso,  Coldstream,  and  Berwick, 
a  branch  passiu^south  from  near  Kelso  to  Jedburgh. 

Po/JiiZartou.— -Between  1831  and  1881  the  population  increased 
fi-om  43,663  to  53,442  (25.436  males,  28,006  females),  but  from 
1861  to  1871  there  was  a  decrease  from  54,119  to  49,407.  The 
town  population  numbered  24,273  in  1881,  the  village  6627,  and 
the  rural  22,542.  Jedburgh  (population  2432)  is  a  royal  burgh  ; 
it  is  also  a  police  and  parliamentary  burgh,  as  is  likewise  Hawick 


(16,184) ;  Kelso  (4687)  is  a  police  burgh.  The  fnost  important 
villages  are  Melrose  (1550),  Newcastleton  (924),  and  Yetholm  (746). 
History  and  Antiquities. — Among  the  more  important  relics  (if 
the  early  inhabitants  of  the  county  are  the  so-called  Druidical  ro- 
niains  at  TinnishiU  between  the  parishes  of  Castleton  and  Canonbio, 
at  Ninestaifcriggnear  Hermitage  Castle,  and  at  Plenderleath  between 
the  Oxnam  and  the  Kale.  Of  old  forts  there  are  two  of  great  size  on 
the  summits  of  Caerby  and  TinnishiU  in  Liddesdale,  and  a  number 
of  smaller  ones  in  ditferent  parts  of  the  county.  On  the  north- 
west of  the  Eildon  Hills  are  two  fossa  or  ramparts  foiining  a 
circuit  of  move  than  a  mile.  On  Caldshiels  Hill  there  was  another 
British  fovt,  and  between  them  a  ditch  with  rampart  of  earth  defend- 
ing the  country  from  the  east.  The  famous  Catrail,  "partition  of 
tlie  fence,"  the  most  important  of  the  British  remains  in  the  king- 
dom, extended  a  distance  of  45  miles  from  near  Galashiels  in  Sel- 
kirkshire through  Roxburgh  to  Peel  Fell  on  the  border.  The  Roman 
"Watling  Street  touched  on  Roxburgh  at  Broomhartlaw,  whence  pass- 
ing along  the  mountains  now  forming  the  boundary  of  the  county 
for  a  mile  and  a  half,  until  it  entered  Scotland  at  Blackball,  it 
turned  northward  by  Bonjedward,  Mount  Teviot,  ^^cwton,  Eildon. 
and  Newstead  to  Channelkirk  in  the  Lammermuirs.  On  its  line 
there  were  important  stations  at  Chewgrcen  in  the  Cheviots  {1  Ad 
Fines),  Bonjedward  {Gadanica),  and  Eildon  Hill  (?  Trimontium). 
Another  Roman  road  called  the  ilaidenway  from  Maiden  Castle 
in  AVestmoreland  entered  Roxburgh  at  Dcadwater,  and  under  the 
name  of  the  AVheelcauseway  traversed  the  north-east  corner  of 
Liddesdale  into  Teviotdale.  From  Watling  Street  a  branch  called 
the  Devil's  Causeway  passed  to  the  Tweed.  After  forming  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Northumberland  for  several  centuries,  Roxburgh  was 
relinquished  along  with  Lothian  to  the  Scottish  king  about  1020 
(see  LoTHiAX,  vol.  xv.  p.  10).  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
into  a  shire  in  tho  reign  of  David  I.,  its  ancient  county  town  of 
Roxburgh  forming,  along  with  Edinburgh,  Berwick,  and  Stirling, 
the  court  of  the  four  burghs  of  Scotland,  whose  laws  were  collected  by 
that  king.  Roxburgh  Castle,  between  the  Tweed  and  Teviot  near 
Kelso,  was  a  royal  residence  of  the  Saxon  kings  of  Northumbria 
and  afterwards  of  the  Scottish  monarchs.  It  was  frequently  taken 
by  the  Englisli,  and  James  II.  was  killed  there  by  the  bursting 
of  a  cannon.  After  this  it  remained  in  ruins  till  it  was  repaired 
by  Protector  Somerset,  shortly  after  vhich  it  was  demolished. 
Hermitage,  in  Liddesdale,  the  scene  of  Leyden's  ballad  of  Lord 
Soulis,  was  probably  built  by  Nicholas  de  Sules  in  the  beginning 
of  the  13th  century.  On  the  forfeiture  of  the  Soulis  family  in  1320, 
it  was  granted  by  Robert  the  Bruce  to  Sir  John  Graham  of  Aber- 
corn,  and  passed  by  the  marriage  of  his  heiress  Mary  to  her 
huslttud  AVilliam  Douglas,^  knight  of  Liddesdale,  who  starved  Sir 
Alexander  Ramsay  of  Dalhousie  to  death  in  it  in  1342  in  revenge 
for  Ramsay's  appointment  as  sherilf  of  Roxburgh  by  David  II. 
In  1492  Archibald  Douglas,  fifth  earl  of  Angus,  exchanged  the 
Hermitage  for  Bothwell  Castle,  on  the  Clyde,  with  Patrick  Hep- 
burn, first  earl  of  Bothwell  ;  and  it  was  there  that  his  descendant, 
the  fourth  earl,  was  visited  in  1566  by  Mary  queen  of  Scots.  The 
principal  of  the  other  old  castles  are  Branxholni  on  the  Teviot,  long 
the  residence  of  the  Buccleuchs  and  the  scene  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel ;  Cessford,  on  a  ridge  inclining  towards  the 
Kf^le,  formerly  of  great  strength,  besieged  in  1520  by  Surrey,  to  whom 
it  surrendered;  and  Ferniehirst,  the  mansion  of  the  K'?rs,  on  the  Jed, 
occupying  the  site  of  a  baronial  fortress  erected  in  1410,  and  the 
scene  of  many  a  fray.  The  district  was  for  a  long  time  the  scene  of 
continual  border  conflicts,  the  leaders  in  which  were  the  Armstrongs 
and  other  chiefs  occupying  the  foitresses  or  peels,  chiefly  in 
Liddesdale,  as  at  Gilknockie,  Castleton,  Whitehaugh,  Copshaw, 
Syde,  Mangerton,  Goranberry,  Hartsgarth,  and  Newcastleton. 
Among  many  fine  modern  mansions  mention  may  be  made  of 
Flooi-3  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Roxburghe  ;  Jlinto  House, 
the  seat  of  the  carl  of  Minto  ;  and  Abbotsford,  built  by  Sir  "Walter 
Scott.  Few  counties  can  bonst  of  such  important  ecclesiastical 
remains  as  those  of  the  abbeys  of  Melrose,  Jedburgh,  and  Kelso. 
There  are  several  ancient  crosses  in  the  county,  the  principal  being 
those  at  Ancrum,  Bowden,  Maxton,  and  Melrose.  Among  numer- 
ous emineut  men  connected  with  Roxburgh  mention  may  be  made 
of  Samuel  Rutherfurd  the  theologian,  James  Thomson,  author  of  The 
Season?,  John  Leyden  the  poet,  and  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot  of  Minto. 

See  Jeffrey,  History  of  Roxburghikire,  4  vols.,  1857-64;  ArmstronE's  Jiistot;/ 
0/  Lidiesdale,  18M.  (T.  F.  H.) 

UOXBURY,  formerly  a  city  of  Norfolk  county,'  Massa- 
chusetts, U.S.,  now  incorporated  in  Boston  [q-v.). 

KOY,  Rammohun  (I772-I833).  KAjA  Rdmmohun  Eoy 
(or  Riy),  the  founder  of  the  BrAhma  Samaj  or  Theistic 
Church  of  India,  was  born  at  KAdhdnagar,  Bengal,  in  May 
1772,  of  an  ancient  and  honourable  Brahman  family. 
His  father  gave  him  a  good  education  ;  he  learnt  Persian 
at  home,  Arabic  at  Patna  (where  he  studied  Euclid,  Aris- 
totle, and  the  Koran),  and  Sanskrit  at  Benares.  Although 
a  devout  idolater  ia  boyhood,  he  early  began  to  doubt  and 


R  O  Y  — R  O  Y 


35 


speculate,  and  at  fifteen  left  home  to  study  Buddhism  in 
Tibet,  where  his  criticisms  on  the  Lama-worship  gave  much 
offence.  After  some  years'  travel  he  returned,  but,  his  anti- 
idolatrous  sentiments  obliging  him  to  leave  home,'he  lived 
at  Benares  until  his  father's  death  in  1803.  After  this, 
he  spent  about  ten  years  in  the  East  India  Company's 
service,  latterly  as  dewAn  or  head  officer  in  the  collection 
of  revenues. 

During  this  period  he  first  began  to  assemble  his  friends 
together  for  evening   discussions   on   the   absurdities   of 
idolatry,   and  he   also   issued   his   first   work,    Tukfat-al 
ilmoakhiddin  ("  A  Gift  to  Monotheists  ").     This  treatise 
was  in  Persian,  with  an  Arabic  preface,  and  was  a  bold 
protest  against  superstition   and  priestcraft.     These  pro- 
ceedings brought  on  him  much  hostility,  and  even  perse- 
cution, and  in   1814  he  retired  to  Calcutta  for  greater 
safety.     Here  he  soon  established  a  little  Friendly  Society 
{Atmiya  Sabkd),  which   met  weekly  to  read    the  Hindu 
Scriptures  and  to  chant  monotheistic  hymns.     In  1816  he 
translated    the   Veddnta   into   Bengali   and    Hindustani, 
following  this  by  a  series  of  translations  from  the  Upani- 
shads  into  Bengali,  Hindustani,  and  English,  with  intro- 
ductions and  comments  of  his  own.     These  works'  he  pub- 
lished at  his  own  expense  and  disseminated  widely  among 
his   countrymen.     His  writings  excited  mu-h  opposition 
and   gave  rise   to   numerous  controversies,  in   which  his 
ability,  tact,  and  learning  rendered  him  fully  a  match  for 
his  antagonists.     But  the  deadliest  blow  which  he  inflicted 
upon  Hindu  superstition  was  his  effective  agitation  against 
the  rite  of  suttee,  the  burning  of  living  widows  on  the 
funeral  piles  of  their  deceased  husbands.     In  1811  he  had 
been  a   horrified   witness  of   this   sacrifice   in   his   elder 
brother's   family,  and  had  vowed  never  to  rest  until  he 
had  uprooted  the  custom.     He   exposed  the  hollow  pre- 
tences of   its  advocates  in  elaborate  pamphlets,   both   in 
Bengali   and   English,  and  pressed  the   matter   in  every 
possible  way,  till  at  last  the  tide  of  public  feeling  turned, 
and  on  December  4  1829,  Lord  William  Bentinck  issued 
a  regulation  abolishing   suttee  throughout   all  the   terri- 
tories subject  to  Fort  William.     Edmmohun  was  an  active 
politician  and  philanthropist.     He  built  scboolhouses  and 
established  schools  in  which  useful  knowledge  was  gratu- 
itously taught  through  the  medium  both  of  the  English  and 
the  native  languages.     He  wrote  a  suggestive  Bengali  gram- 
mar, of  which  he  published  one  version  in  English  (1826) 
and  one  in  Bengali  (1833).     He  wrote  valuable  pamphlets 
on    Hindu    law,    and  made   strenuous   exertions   for   the 
freedom  of  the  native  press;  he  also  established  (1822)  and 
mainly  conducted    two   native   newspapers,    the   Samhdd 
•Kanmudi  in  Bengali,  and  (if  rigiit'-7  identified)  the  Mirdt- 
al-Akhbdr  in  Persian,  and  made  them  the  means  of  diffusing 
much  useful  political  information.     Becoming  interested  in 
Christianity,  he  learned  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  order  to  read 
the  Bible  in  the  original  languages;  and  in  1820  he  issued 
a  selection  from  the  four  Gospels  entitled  Tke  Prfcepts  of 
Jesus,    the    Guide    to    Peace    and   Happiness.       This    was 
attacked  by  the  Baptist  missionaries  of  Serampur,  and  a 
long   controversy  ensued,  in   which   ho    published    three 
remarkable  Appeals  to  the  Christian  Public  in.  Defence  of 
the  "  Precepts  of  Jesus."     He  also  wrote  other  theological 
tracts    (sometimes   under   assumed    names)    in    which  he 
attacked   both  Hindu   and   Christian   orthodoxy   with   a 
strong   hand.     But  his  personal   relations  with  orthodox 
Christians  were  never  unfriendly,  and  he  rendered  valuable 
assistance  to  Dr  Duff  in  the  latter'a  educational  schemes. 
He  also  warmly  befriended  a  Unitarian  Christian  Mission 
which   was   started   in  Calcutta    (1824)    by  Mr  William 
Adam,  formerly  a  Baptist  missionary,  who,  in  attempting 
to  convert  Riimmohun  to  Trinitarianism,  had  himself  been 
converted  to  the  opposite  view.     This  Unitarian  Mission, 


though  not  a  theological  success,  attracted  considerable 
sympathy  among  the  Hindu  monotheists,  whose  Atraiya 
SabhA  had  then  become  extinct.  At  last  Edmmohui?  felt 
able  to  re-embody  his  cherished  ideal,  and  on  August  20 
1828,  he  opened  the  first  "Bn-lhrnya  A.ssociation"  (Brakmk 
Subhd)  at  a  hired  house.  A  suitable  church  building  was 
then  erected  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  trustees,  with  a 
small  endowment  and  a  remarkable  trust-deed  by  which 
the  building  was  set  apart  "for  the  worship  and  adoration 
of  the  Eternal,  Unsearchable,  "and  Immutable  Being  who 
is  the  Author  and  Preserver  of  the  universe."  The  new 
church  was  formally  opened  on  the  11th  MAgh  (January  23) 
1830,  from  which  day  the  BrAhma  SamAj  dates  its 
existence.  Having  now  succeeded  in  his  chief  projects, 
EAmmohun  resolved  to  visit  England,  and  the  king  of 
Delhi  appointed  him  his  envoy  thither  on  special  business, 
and  gave  him  the  title  of  rdjA.  He  arrived  in  England  on 
AprU  8,  1831,  and  was  received  with  universal  cordiality 
and  respect.  He  watched  .with  special  anxiety  the  parlia- 
mentary discussions  ou  the  renewal  of  the  East  India 
Company's  charter,  and  gave  much  valuable  evidence  before 
the  Board  of  Control  on  the  condition  of  India.  This  he 
republished  with  additional  suggestions  {Exposition  of  the 
Practical  Operation  of  the  Judicial  and  Revenue  Systems  of 
India),  and  also  reissued  his  important  Essay  on  the  Right 
of  Hindus  over  Ancestral  Property  (1832).  He  visited 
France,  and  wished  to  visit  America,  but  died  unexpectedly 
of  brain  fever  at  Bristol,  September  27,  1833. 

His  Bengali  and  Sanskrit  works  were  lately  reissued  iu  one 
volume,  by  Rajnardin  Bose  and  A.  C.  Yedantaba^sh  (Calcutta, 
1880),  and  liis  English  works  will  shortly  be  published  in  two 
volumes  by  Eshanchandra  Bose.  Nagendranath  Chattopadbiya's 
Bengali  memoir  of  him  (1881)  is  the  fullest  yet  published. 

ROY,  William  (c.  1726-1790),  a  famous  geodesist,  was 
employed  in  some  of  the  great  national  trigonometrical 
measurements  which  were  made  during  last  century.  In 
1 746,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  when  an  assistant  in  the  office 
of  Colonel  Watson,  deputy  quartermaster-general  in  North 
Britain,  he  began  the  survey  of  the  mainland  of  Scotland, 
the  results  of  which  were  embodied  in  what  is  known  as 
the  "duke  of  Cumberland's  map."  In  1756  he  obtained 
a  lieutenancy  in  the  51st  regiment,  and  proceeded  with  it 
to  Germany,  where  his  talents  as  a  military  draughtsman 
brought  him  to  notice,  and  procured  him  rapid  promotion. 
He  ultimately  reached  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  1784, 
while  de(«ty  quartermaster-general  at  the  Horse  Guards, 
his  services  were  called  into  request  for  conducting  the 
observations  for  determining  the  relative  positions  of  the 
French  and  English  royal  observatories.  His  measure- 
ment of  a  base  line  for  that  purpose  on  Hounslow  Heath 
in  1784,  which  was  destined  to  be  the  germ  of  all  subse- 
quent surveys  of  the  United  Kingdom,  gained  him  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Owing  to  unfore- 
seen delays,  the  triangulation  for  connecting  the  meridians 
of  the  two  observatories  was  not  carried  out  until  1787. 
He  had  completed  his  undertaking,  and  was  finishing  an 
account  of  it  for  the  Phil.  Trans,  when  he  died  in  1790. 

Besides  several  papers  in  Phil.  Trans.,  Roy  was  author  of  tlie 
work  entitled  Military  Antiquities  of  the  kpmans  in  North  Britain, 
published  in  1793. 

ROYAL  HOUSEHOLD.  In  all  the  medieval  mon- 
archies of  western  Europe  the  general  system  of  govern- 
ment sprang  from,  and  centred  jr.,  the  royal  household. 
The  sovereign's  domestics  were  his  officers  of  state,  and  the 
leading  dignitaries  of  the  palace  were  the  principal  admin- 
istrators of  the  kingdom.  The  royal  household  itself  had, 
in  its  turn,  grown  out  of  an  earlier  and  more  primitive 
institution.  It  took  its  ri.se  in  the  comitatus  described  by 
Tacitus,  the  chosen  band  of  comites  or  comjjanions  who, 
when  the  Roman  historian  wrote,  constituted  the  personal 
following,   in  peace  as   well  as  in  war,   of   the  'Teutonic 


36 


ROYAL      HOUSEHOLD 


viiriceps  or  cbieftain.  In  England  before  the  Conquest 
the  comitatus  had  developed  or  degenerated  into  the 
thegnhood,  and  among  the  most  eminent  and  powerful  of 
the  king's  thegns,  were  his  dishthegn,  his  bowerthcgn,  and 
his  horsethcgn  or  staller.  In  Normandy  at  the  time  of 
the  Conquest  a  similar  arrangement,  imitated  from  the 
French  court,  had  long  been  established,  and  the  Norman 
dukes,  like  their  overlords  the  kings  of  France,  had  their 
Beneschal  or  steward,  their  chamberlain,  and  their  con- 
stable. After  the  Conquest  the  ducal  household  of 
Normandy  was  reproduced  in  the  royal  household  of 
England  ;  and  since,  in  obedience  to  the  spirit  of  feudalism, 
the  great  offices  of  the  first  had  been  made  hereditary,  the 
great  offices  of  the  second  were  made  hereditary  also,  and 
were  thenceforth  held  by  the  grantees  and  their  descend- 
ants as  grand-serjeanties  of  the  crown.  The  consequence 
;was  that  they  passed  out  of  immediate  relation  to  the 
practical  conduct  of  affairs  either  in  both  state  and  court 
or  in  the  one  or  the  other  of  them.  The  steward  and 
chamberlain  of  England  were  superseded  in  their  political 
functions  by  the  justiciar  and  treasurer  of  England,  and 
in  their  domestic  functions  by  the  steward  and  chamber- 
lain of  the  household.  The  marshal  of  England  took  the 
place  of  the  constable  of  England  in  the  royal  palace,  and 
was  associated  with  him  in  the  command  of  the  royal 
armies.  In  due  course,  however,  the  marshalship  as  well 
as  the  constableship  became  hereditary,  and,  although  the 
constable  and  marshal  of  England  retained  their  military 
authority  until  a  comparatively  late  period,  the  duties 
they  had  successively  performed  about  the  palace  had 
been  long  before  transferred  to  the  master  of  the  horse. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  holders  of  the  original 
great  offices  of  state  and  the  household  ceased  to  attend 
the  court  except  on  occasions  of  extraordinary  ceremony, 
and  their  representatives  either  by  inheritance  or  by  special 
appointment  have  ever  since  continued  to  appear  at  corona- 
tion's and  .some  other  public  solemnities,  such  as  the  open- 
ing of  the  parliament  or  trials  by  the  House  of  Lords.^ 

The  materials  available  for  a  history  of  the  royal  house- 
hold are  somewhat  scanty  and  obscure.  The  earliest 
record  relating  to  it  is  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  and  is 
contained  in  the  Black  Book  of  the  Exchequer.  It  enumer- 
ates the  various  inmates  of  the  king's  palace  and  the 
daily  allowances  made  to  them  at  the  period  at  which 
it  was  compiled.  Hence  it  affords  valuable  evidence  of 
the  antiquity  and  relative  importance  of  the  cyurt  offices 
to  which  it  refers,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  silent  as  to 
the  functions  and  formal  subordination  of  the  persons  who 
filled  them.-  In  addition  to  this  record  we  have  a  series 
of  far  later,  but  for  the  most  part  equally  meagre,  docu- 
ments bearing  more  or  less  directly  on  the  constitution  of 
the  royal  household,  and  extending,  with  long  intervals, 
from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  to  the  reign  of  William  and 
Mary.^    Among  them,  howevei-,  are  what  are  known  as  the 

•  The  great  olTlcci's  of  state  ami  the  lioiiseholil  whom  we  li,ive 
particul.iriy  meiifioiiod  do  not  of  course  e.xlianst  tlic  cit.alogue  of 
tlieni.  We  have  uamcd  those  only  wlioso  representatives  are  still 
dignitaries  of  tlie  court  and  functionaries  of  the  pal.ace.  If  the 
reader  consults  H.-illani  (Middle  A^cs,  vol.  i.  p.  181  sj.),  Fj-eeman 
(AWman  Conquest,  vol  i.  p.  91  sj.,  and  vol.  v.  p.  426  sq.),  ami 
Stubbs  (Const.  Hist. ,  vol.  i.  p.  343,  sq. ),  he  will  be  aljle  himself  to  fill 
in  the  details  of  the  ontline  wo  have  given  above. 
I  °  The  record  in  question  is  entitled  Consliliitio  Domus- Regis  de 
'■Prociimtionibus,  and  i;  printed  by  Hearne  (Liber  Xiger  Scaccarii,  vol. 
1.  p.  3il  sq.).  It  is  an.alysed  by  Stubbs  (Const.  Hist.,  vol.  i.  note  2. 
p.  345). 

'  A  Collectiml  of  Ordinances  and  Regulations  for  the  Government  of 
the  Roi/al  Household,  made  in  Diners  Reigns  from  King  Edicard  III.  to 
King  William  and  Queen  Mary,  printed  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
Loudon,  1790.  See  also  Pegge's  Curialia,  published  partly  before 
and  partly  after  this  volume;  and  C.irlisle's  Gentlemen  of  the  Priry 
Chamber,  published  in  1829.  Pegge  and  Carlisle,  hcvever,  deal  with 
•moll  aud  iiisigniHcant  peitions  of  the  royal  establiahmenL 


Black  Book  of  the  Household  and  the  Stahttes  of  Eltham, 
compiled  the  first  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  and  the  second 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  from  which  a  good  deal  of 
detailed  information  may  be  gathered  concerning  the 
arrangements  of  the  court  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 
The  Statutes  of  Eltham  were  meant  for  the  practical  guid- 
ance merely  of  those  who  were  responsible  for  the  good 
order  and  the  sufficient  supply  of  tlie  sovereign's  hou.sehold 
at  the  time  they  were  issued.  But  the  Black  Book  of  the 
Household,  besides  being  a  sort  of  treatise  on  princely  mag- 
nificence generally,  professes  to  be  based  on  the  regulations 
established  for  the  governance  of  the  court  by  Edward  III., 
who,  it  affirms,  was  "  the  first  setter  of  certeynties  among 
his  domesticall  meyne,  upon  a  grounded  rule  "  and  whose 
palace  it  describes  as  "  the  house  of  very  policie  and  flowre 
of  England ; "  and  it  may  therefore  possibly,  and  even 
probably,  take  us  back  to  a  period  much  more  remote  than 
that  at  which  it  was  actually  put  together.*  Various  orders, 
returns,  and  accounts  of  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth,  James  I., 
Charles  I.,  Charles  II.,  and  "William  and  Mary  throw  con- 
siderable light  on  the  organization  of  jiarticular  sections 
of  the  royal  household  in  times  nearer  to  our  own.^ 
Jloreover,  there  were  several  parliamentary  inquiries  into 
the  expenses  of  the  royal  household  in  connexion  with  the 
settlement  or  reform  of  the  civil  list  during  the  reigns  of 
George  III.,  George  IV.,  and  William  IV. »  But  they  add 
little  or  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  what 
was  then  its  historical  as,  distinguished  from  its  contem- 
porary aspects.  So  much,  indeed,  is  this  the  case  that,  on 
the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria,  Chamberlayne's  Present 
State  of  England,  which  contains  a  catalogue  of  the  officials 
at  the  court  of  Queen  Anne,  was  described  by  Lord 
Jfelboirrne  the  prime  minister  as  the  "  only  authority " 
which  the  advisers  of  the  crown  could  find  for  their 
assistance  in  determining  the  appropriate  constitution  and 
dimensions  of  the  domestic  establishment  of  a  queen 
regnant.'' 

In  its-  main  outlines  _  tne  existing  organization  of  the 
royal  household  is  essentially  the  sauje  as  it  was  under 
the  Tudors  or  the  Plantagenets.  It  is  now,  as  it  was  then, 
divided  into  three  principal  departments,  at  the  head  of 
which  are  severally  the  lord  steward,  the  lord  chamber- 
lain, and  the  master  of  the  horse,  and  the  respective  pro  i 
vinces  of  which  may  be  generally  described  as  "below 
stairs,"  "above  stairs,"  and  "out  of  doors."  But  at 
present,  the  sovereign  being  a  queen,  the  royal  household 
is  in  some  other  respects  rather  differently  arranged  from 
what  it  would  be  if  there  were  a  king  and  a  queen  consort. 
"When  there  is  a  king   and   a  queen  consort   there  is  a 

*  Liber  Niger  Domus  Regis  Edward  2V.  and  OiKlinanecs  for  the 
Household  made  at  Eltham  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  King  Henry 
VIII.,  A.D.  15:?G,  are  the  titles  of  these  two  documents.  Tlie  earlier 
documents  pri)»ted  in  the  same  collection  are  Household  of  Kijig 
Edward  III.  in  Peace  and  M'arfrom  the  eighteenth  to  the  iwenty-frst 
year  of  his  reign  ;  Ordinances  of  the  Household  of  King  Henry  IV. 
in  the  thirty-third  year  of  his  reign,  A.D.  1^5,  and  Articles  ordained 
by  King  Henry  VII.  for  the  Regulation  of  his  Household,  A.D.  140.^. 

^  The  Booh  of  the  Household  of  Queen  Elizabeth  as  it  ^cas  ordained 
in  the  forty-third  year  of  her  Reign  delivered  to  our  Sovereign  Lord 
King  James,  ti-c. ,  is  simply  a  list  of  officers'  names  and  allowances.  ■  It 
seems  to  have  been  drawn  up  under  the  curious  circumstances  referred 
to  in  Arehwologia  (vol.  xii.  pp.  80-85).  For  the  rest  of  these  docu- 
ments see  Ordinances  and  Regulations,  tC-c.,  pp.  299,  340,  347,  352, 
368,  ami  380. 

^  Burke's  celebrated  Act  "fur  enabling  His  Majesty  to  discharge  the 
debt  contracted  upon  the  civil  list,  and  for  preventing  the  same  from 
being  in  arrear  for  the  future,  &c.,"  22  Geo.  III.  c.  82,  was  passed 
in  1782.  But  it  was  foreshadowed  in  his  great  speech  on  "Economical 
Reform "  delivered  two  years  before.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
cun'ent  century  select  committees  of  the  House  of  Commons  have 
reported  on  the  civil  list  and  royal  household  in  1803,  1804,  1815, 
and  1831. 

'  Torreus's  Memoirs  of  Witliamf  second  Viscount  MeHjourne^  vol. 
ii.  Vi  303. 


ROYAL       HOUSEHOLD 


37 


separate  establishment  "  above  stairs  "  and  "  out  of  doors  " 
for  the  queen  cousort.  She  Jaas  a  lord  chamberlain's 
department  and  a  department  of  the  master  of  the  horse 
of  her  own,  and  all  the  ladies  of  the  court  from  the 
mistress  of  the  robes  to  the  maids  of  honour  are  in  her 
service.  At  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Queen 
Victoria  the'  two  establishments  were  combined,  ai)d  on 
the  whole  considerably  reduced.  Hence  the  royal  house- 
hold, although  it  is  of  course  much  larger  than  that  of  a 
queen  consort  would  be,  is  also  appreciably  smaller  than 
that  of  a  king  and  queen  consort  together  has  been  since 
the  reigning  family  came  to  the  throne.^ 

I.  Department  of  the  Lord  Stcioard  of  the  Kotischold. — The  hall; 
the  kitchen,  ewry,  and  pantry  ;  Uie  wine,  beer,  and  coal  cellars  ; 
and  the  almonry  are  in  the  lord  steward's  department.  The 
lord  steward  lathe  first  dignitary  of  the  court,  and  presides  at  the 
Board  of  Green  Cloth,  wlierc  all  the  accounts  of  tlie  household  are 
examined  and  passed. '^  He  is  always,  a  member  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  day,  a  peer,  and  a  privy  councillor.  ]Ie  receives  his 
appointment  frorn  the,  sovereign  in  person,  and  bears  a  white  staff 
as  the  emblem  and  WArcant  of  his  authority.^  In  his  department 
the  treasurer  and  comptroller  of  the  household  are  the  oflicers 
next  iln  rank  to  him.  _  They  also  sit  at  the  Board  of  Green  Cloth, 
carry  white  staves,  and  belong  to  the  ministry.  Tbey  aie  always 
peers  or  the  sons  of  peers,  and  privy  councillors.  But  the  duties 
■which  IB  theory  belong  to  the  lord  steward,  treasurer,  and  comp- 
troller of  the  housejiold  arc  in  practice  performed  by  the  master 
of  the  household,  who  is  a  permanent  officer  and  resides  in  the 
palace.  It  is  he  who  really  investigates  frlie  accounts  and  main- 
tains discijiline  among  the  ordinary  servants  of  the  royal  establish- 
ment. He  is  a  white-staff  officer  and  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Green  Cloth  but  not  of  the  ministry,  and  among  other  things 
he  presides  at  the  daily  dinners  of  the  suite  in  waiting  on  the 
sovereign.*  In  the  lord  steward's  department  arc  the  secretary 
and  three  clerks  of  the'  Board  of  Green  Cloth  ;  the  coroner  and 
paymaster  of  the  household  ;  ami  the  officers  of  the  almonry, 
namely,  the  hereditary  graml  almoner/  the  lord  high  almoner,  the 
sub-almoner,  the  groom  of  th&  almonry,  and  tlie  secretary  to  the 
lord  hi^  almoner.^ 

II.  Department ^of  tht  Lord  Chamberlain  of  the  Botisehold. — The 
hedchamber,  privy  chamber,  and  presence  chamber,  the  wardrobe, 
the  housekeeper's  room,  and  the  guardroom,  the  metropolitan 
theatres,  and  the  chapels  royal  are  in  the  lord  chamberlain's  depart- 
ment. The  lord  chamberlain  is  the  second  dignitary  of  the  court, 
andis  always  a  member  of  the  Government  of  the  day,  a  peer,  and  a 
privy  councillor.  He  carries  a  white  staff,  ami  wears  a  golden  or 
jewelled  key,  typical  of  the  key  of  the  palace,  which  is  supposed  to 
be  in  his  charge,  as  the  ensigns  of  his  office.  He  is  responsible  for 
jthe  necessary  arrangements  connected  with  state  ceremonies,  such 
as  coronations  and  royal  marriages,  christenings,  and  funerals.  All 
invitations-to  court  are  sent  out  in  his  name  by  command  of  tho 
sovereign,  and  at  drawing  rooms  and  levees  he  stands  ne;itt  to  tlie 
sovereign  and  announces  the  persons  who  arc  approaching  'the 
throne.  It  is  also  part  of  his  duty  to  conduct  the  sovereign  to  and 
from  his  or  her  carriage.'  The  vice-chamberlain  of  the  household 
'is  the  lord  chamberlain's  assistant  and  de]mty.  He  also  is  one  of 
the  ministry,  a  wliite-staff  officer,  and  the  hearer  of  a  key;  and  he  is 
always  a  peer  or  the  son  of  a  peer  as  well  as  a  privy  councillor. 

*  Ilannard,  J'-  rJ.  Debates,  vol.  xxxlx.  pp.  H&  sq..  1342  sq. 

*  In  tlic  Staiuies  of  Ellham  tie  is  called  "the  lord  prcat  master,"  but  in  the 
Jlousehoiti  Hook  of  Qucca  i-:iiznl>eth  "the  lord  stewuid,"  as  before  and  sincct  In 
81  Hen.  VIII.  c.  10,  "for  placing  of  the  lords,"  he  is  described  03  "the  grand 
muster  or  lord  ateward  of  the  king's  most  honourablo  houstlitiM."  Tiic  wliole 
business  of  purveyance  and  pre-emption  was  anciently  managed  hv  the  Board 
of  Green  Cloth.  See  undci-  heading  "The  eountlng  house  of"  the  king's 
household,  Domm  Compotm  Ilospilit  licyis."  In  Cm?;.  JnslilJiles,  iv.  cap.  19.  It 
Is  dcsifjnaled  *'  the  court  of  the  virgn  or  green  cloth"  In  22  Geo.  III.  c.  82,  §  5. 

*  In  the  old  time  thu  lord  xtcwnrd  had  ihreo  coui  ts  besides  the  board  of  green 
cloth  under  him.  namely,  tho  lord  stewanl'a  court,  the  court  of  the  Marshabcy, 
i>nd  tho  palace  court  {Coke,  Inst.,  Iv.  cap^  20  and  21  ;  liecvcs.  Jlixt.  of  ihe 
Itta  of  Kngfanil,  vo\.  II.  pp.  1. "39  and  207;  Stephen,  C'ommmtarifs  on  the  Law  cf 
England,  vol.  Iv.  p.  2'.".'),  The  lord  steward  or  his  deputies  fonnerly  ndmlnlster.d 
tho  oaths  to  tho  momlicra  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  f  rcfjuont  Inconveniences 
wore  tho  consequence  (sea  Hntsell.  Prccflcnts  of  ProcrcditiQi  in  the  Ilouf-e  of 
Commons,  London,  1818,  vol.  II.  pp.  %\-'M).  In  c^-itain  cases  now  ".ihe  lords 
with  white  staves"  are  tho  proper  pLTsons  to  bear  comraunlcutlons  between 
the  sovereign  and  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

*  In  tho  case  of  tho  master  of  the  hmiachold  wc  see  history  repcatinK  Itself. 
Ho  Es  not  named  In  tho  lllack  Book  of  Edward  IV.  or  in  the  Stalutri  of  Henry 
VIII,.  and  Is  entered  as  "master  of  the  household  and  clerk  of  llic  gieen  cloth  " 
In  tho  I/ous(h«l'l  Book  ot  Queen  Elizabrth.  Uut  pnicUcatly  ho  has  superseded  tho 
lord  steward  of  the  household,  as  the  lord  steward  of  the  household  at  one  timd 
inpcrscded  the  lord  hlsh  ateword  of  England. 

*  Tho  morqucsa  of  Extatr. 

"  In  the  lord  steward's  department  tho  offices  of  cofferer  of  the  household, 
treasurer  or  tho  chamber,  paymaster  of  pensions,  and  six  clerks  of  the  Doard  of 
Green  tlotli  were  obollshcd  by  22  Oco.  III.  c   62. 

Jf  I'lm''"w*''"'??^"''*^,^(.  '^**  household  at  one  time  discharccd  some  Import- 
•nt  polltlca  f,-nr  lon^  which  arc  described  by  Sir  Honls  Nicolas  {Proccediva,  of 
tru  friry  Counril,  vol.  vl.,  Prefflcc,  p.  xxlll). 


AVhen  there  is  a  king  tlie  eroom  of  tho  stole  comes  next  to  the 
vice-chamoerlain  in  rank  and  authority.  At  present,  however,  the 
mistress  of  the  robes  iu  some  measuio  occupies  the  position  of  the 
groom  of  the  stole. ^  She  is  the  only  lady  of  the  court  who  comes 
into  office  and  goes  out  with  the  admini-stration,  and  the  duties 
she  performs  are  merely  occasionnl  and  formal.  She  is  always 
a  duchess,  and  attends  the  queen  at  all  state  ceremonies  and  enter- 
tainmcnts,  but  is  never  in  permanent  residence  at  the  palace.^  On 
the  contrary  the  ladies  of  the  bedchamber  share  tho  function  of 
])crsonal  attendance  on  the  sovereign  thron^^liout  tiie  year.  Of 
these  there  are  eight,  always  peercs.scs,  and  each  is-^n  waiting  for 
about  a  fortnight  or  tlirec  weeks  at  a  time.  But  the  women  of  the 
bedchamber,  of  whom  tlicre  are  also  ciglit,  appear  ouly  at  court 
ceremonies  and  entertainments  according  to  a  roster  annually 
issued  under  Hie  authority  of  the  lord  chamberlain.  They  are 
usually  the  daughters  of  peers  or  the  wives  of  tlie  sons  of  peers,  and 
in  the  old  time,  like  tlie  mistress  of  the  robes  and  the  ladies  of  the 
bedchamber,  habitually  assisted  the  queen  at  her  daily  toilette. 
But  this  has  long  ceased  to  be  done  by  any  of  them.  The  maids 
of  honour,  whose  situations  arc  by  no  means  sinecures,  are  like- 
wise eight  in  number  and  have  the  same  terms  of  waiting  as  the 
ladies  of  the  bedchamber.  They  are  commonly  if  not  always  the 
<laughtersorgranildaughtersofpecrs,and  when  thcyhavc  no  superior 
title  and  jircccdcncc  by  birth  are  called  "honourable"  and  placed 
next  after  the  daughters  of  barons.  The  queen  as  a  special  mark  of 
her  favour  nominates  "e.xtra"  ladies  and  women  of  the  bed-chamber 
and  maids  of  honour.  But  their  position  is  altogether  honorary 
and  involves  no  charge  on  the  civil  list.  There  are  eight  lords 
and  eight  grooms,  who  are  properly  described  as  "of  the  bed- 
chamber" or  "in  waiting,"  according  as  the  reigning  sovereign  is 
a  king  or  a  queen,  and  wliose  terms  of  attendance  arc  of  similar 
duration  to  those  of  the  ladies  of  .the  bedchamber  and  the  maids 
of  honour.  Occasionally  "extra"  lords  and  grooms  in  waiting 
arc  nominated  by  the  queen,  who,  however,  arc  unpaid  and  have 
BO  regular  duties.  The  master,  assistant  master,  and  murshal  of 
the  ceremonies  are  the  ofhccrs  whose  special  function  it  is  to 
enforce  the  observance  of  the  etiquette  of  the  court.  The  reception 
of  foreign  potentates  and  ambassadors  is  under  their  particular 
care,  and  they  assist  in  tho  ordering  of  all  entertaipmcnts  and 
festivities  at  tho  palace.^''  The  gentleman  usher  of  the  black 
rod — the  black  rod  which  he  carries  being  tlio  ensign  of  his 
office— is  the  principal  usher  ojT  the  court  and  kingdom.  He  is 
one  of  the  original  functionaries  of  the  order  of  the  Garter,  and 
ig  iu  constant  attendance  on  the  House  of  Lords,  from  whom, 
eitlier  personally  or  by  his  deputy  the  yeoman  usher  of  the  blaclc 
rod,  it  is  part  of  his  duty  to  carry  messages  and  summonses  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  genllemen  ushers  of  tlie  privy  chamber 
and  the  gentlemen  ushers  daily  waiters,  of  whom  there  are  foil)'  each, 
and  the  gentlemen  ushers  quarterly  waiters  and  the  sergeants-at- 
arms,  of  whom  there  are  eight  each.. are  in  waiting  only  at  drawing 
room»  and  levees  and  state  balls  and  concerts.  But  of  the 
sovereign's  sergeants-at-arms  there  are  two  others  to  whom  special 
duties  are  assigned,  the  one  attending  the  speaker  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  the  other  attending  the  lord  chancellor  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  carrying  their  maces  and  executing  their  orders."  Tlio 
yeomen  of  the  guard  date  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIL,  and  the 
gcntlemen-at-arins  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIH.  The  captain  of 
each  corps  is  always  a  member  of  the  ministry  and  a  peer.  Besides 
the  captains,  the  former,  now  called  the  queen's  bodyguard,  consists 
of  a  lieutenant,  ensign,^  clerk  of  the  cheque  and  adjutant,  four 
cxons,  and  a  bundled  yeomen;  and  the  latter,  once  called*  the 
gentlemen  pensioners,  consists  of  a  lieutenant,  standard-bearer, 
clerk  of  the  cheque  and  adjutant,  a  sub-officer,  and  forty  gentlemen. 
The  comptroller  and  examiner  of  accounts,  the  licenser  of  plays, 
the  dean  and  subdcan  of  the  chapel  royal,  the  clerk  of  the  closet, 
the  groom  of  the  robes,  the  pages  of  tho  backstairs,  of  the  chamber, 
and  of  the  presence,  the  poet  laureate,  tho  royal  physicians  and 
surgeons,  chaplains,  painters  and  sculptors,  librarians  and  musicians, 
&c.,  are  all  under  the  superintendence  of  tho  lord  chamberlain  of 
the  houscliold.^^ 

ni.  Department  of  the  Master  of  the  Jforsc.—The  etoblea  and 
coachhouses,  the  stud,  mews,  and  kennels,  are  in  the  master  of 
the  horse's   department.      The  master  of  the  horse  is  the  third 

"  In  the  iclgn  of  Queen  Anne,  Sarnh  duchess  of  Marlliorouph  ft-om  1704.  and 
Elizabeth  duchess  of  Somci&ct  fir.m  1710,  held  tho  combined  offlcca  of  mistress 
of  the  robes  and'croom  of  the  stole. 

»  Since  tho  prcat  "bedchamber  question"  rf  1W3  the  settled  practice  hna 
been  for  all  tho  ladies  of  the  court  txcept  the  mistress  of  the  robes  to  receive  a^d 
continue  In  their  appointments  Independently  of  tho  political  connexions  of 
their  husbands,  fathers,  and  brothers  (rcc  Mr  Gladstone's  Oleaningi  of  Past  I'ears^ 
vol.  1.  p,  40  ;  and  Ton-cns'e  Afemniri  of  Lord  Meltouttv.  vol.  II.  p.  S04), 

10  The  oRlcc  of  master  of  the  ceremonies  was  created  by  James  I.  The  master 
of  the  ceremonies  wears  a  medal  attached  to  a  Rold  chain  round  his  neck,  on  one 
Bide  being  an  emblem  of  poaco  with  the  mntto  "  Beall  puclflcl,"  and  on  the 
other  an  emblem  of  wnr  with  the  motto  "  Dleu  et  mon  droit". (ace  Fimtti 
Philoxemis  by  Sir  John  Finett.  mn»ter  of  tlio  ceremonies  to  James  I.  and 
Charles  I,.  Ifi56;  and  U'ImhcH>  CuriofUict  cf  Literature,  lOtli  cd.,  p.  242  tq.), 

l>  See  May,  ParUftmrntary  Practice,  pp.  23C.  244. 

'^  Tho  offices  of  muster  of  the  fmaX  wardrobe  and  master  of  Ihe  Jewel  house  Id 
the  lord  chamberlain's  department  wero  abolished  by  22  Geo.  HI.  c.  b'i. 


38 


R  O  Y  — R  O  Y 


dignltiry  of  tlio  court,  and  is  always  a  member  of  tlic  Govern- 
menl  jf  tlie  day,  a  peer,  and  a  privy  councillor.  All  matters 
connected  with  the  horses  and  hounds  of  the  sovereign  are  within 
his  jurisdiction.  The  master  of  the  buckhounds,  who  is  also  one 
of  the  ministry,  ranks  next  to  him,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  attend  the 
royal  hunt  and  to  head  the  procession  of  royal  equipages  on  the 
racecourse  at  Ascot,  where  he  presents  himself  on  horseback  in  a 
green  and  gold  uniform  wearing  the  couples  of  a  hound  as  the 
badge  of  his  office.  The  hereditary  grand  falconer'  is  also  sub- 
ordinated to  tl'.e  master  of  the  horse.  But  the  practical  manage- 
ment of  the  rcvii  stables  and  stud  in  r_.;.  devolves  on  the  chief  or 
crown  equerry,'formerly  called  the  gentleman  of  tho  horse,  who  is 
never  in  personal  attendance  on  the  sovereign,  and  whose  appoint- 
ment is  permanent.  Tho  clerk  marshal  has  the  supervision  of  the 
nccounU  of  the  department  before  they  are  subraitted  to  the  Board 
of  Green  Cloth,  and  is  in  waiting  on  the  sovereign  on  state  occasions 
only.  Exclusive  of  the  oown  equerry  there  are  seven  regular 
equerries,  besides  e.'stra  and  honorary  equerries,  one  of  whom  is 
always  in  attendance  on  the  sovereign  and  rides  at  the  side  of 
tho  royal  carriage.  They  are  always  officers  of  the  army,  and  ca,-h 
of  them  is  "on  duty"  for  about  the  same  time  as  the  lords  and 
grooms  in  waiting.  There  are  also  three  pages  of  honour  in  the 
master  of  the  horse's  department,  who  must  not  be  confounded 
with  tho  pages  of  various  kinds  who  are  in  the  department  of  the 
Jord  cliambcrlain.  They  are  youths  aged  from  twelve  to  sixteen, 
eelected  by  the  sovereign  in  person,  to  attend  on  her  .at  state 
ceremonies,  when  two  of  them  airayed  in  an  antique  costume  assist 
the  groom  of  the  robes  in  carrying  the  royal  train. 
•  It  remains  to  be  said  that  to  tho  three  ancient  departments  of 
the  royal  household  which  we  have  already  noticed  two  others  have 
been  added  in  comparatively  recent  times.  The  departments  of  the 
private  secretary  and  the  keeper  of  the  privy  purse  to  the  sovereign, 
which  are  for  the  present  combined,  assumed  their  existing  shape 
no  longer  ago  than  the  earlier  part  of  the  current  century.  Very 
great  doubts  were  at  one  time  entertained  as  to  whether  such  an 
office  as  that  of  private  secretary  to  the  sovereign  could  constitu- 
tionally exist.  As  now  organized  these  branches  of  the  rojal 
liousehold  consist  of  the  private  secretary  and  keeper  of  the  privy 
purse,  two  assistant  private  secretaries  and  keepers  of  the  privy 
purse,  and  a  secretary  and  two  clerks  of  the  privy  purse.  By 
the  statute  which  settled  the  civil  list  at  the  beginning  of  the 
current  reign  (1  &  2  Vict.  c.  2)  the  privy  purse  was  fixed  at 
£60,000  a  year,  and  the  salaries,  allowances,  and  other  expenses 
of  the  royal  household  were  fixed  by  the  same  statute  at  £303,760 
a  year.  (F.  DK.) 

ROYAL  SOCIETY,  The,  or,  more  fully,  The  Royal 
Society  of  London  for  Improving  Natural  Knowledge,  is 
an  association  of  men  interested  in  the  advancement  of 
mathematical  and  physical  science.  It  is  the  oldest  scien- 
tific society  in  Great  Britain,  and  one  of  the  oldest  in 
Europe. 

The  Royal  Society  is  usually  considered  to  have  been 
founded  in  the  year  16C0,  but  a  nucleus  had  in  fact  been 
in  existence  for  some  years  before  that  date.  Wallis 
informs  us  that  as  early  as  the  year  1645  weekly  meetings 
'were  held  of  "  divers  worthy  persons,  inquisitive  into 
natural  philosophy,  and  other  parts  of  human  learning, 
and  particularly  of  what  hath  been  called  the  Neia  Philo- 
sophy or  Eipeiimental  Philosophy,"  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  this  gathering  of  philosophers  is  identical  with 
the  "  Invisible  College  "  of  which  Boyle  speaks  in  sundry 
letters  written  in  1C40  and  1647.  These  weekly  meet- 
ings, according  to  Wallis,  were  first  suggested  by  Theodore 
Haak,  "a  German  of  the  Palatinate  then  resident  in 
London,"  and  they  were  held  sometimes  in  Dr  Goddard's 
lodgings  in  Wood  Street,  sometimes  at  the  Bull-Head 
Tavern  in  Cheapside,  but  more  often  at  Gresham  College. 

On  Kovember  28,  1660,  the  first  journal  book  of  the 
society  was  opened  with  a  "  memorandum,"  from  which  the 
following  is  an  extract : — "  Memorandum  that  Novemb. 
28.  1660,  These  persons  following,  accm-ding  to  the  usuall 
custom  of  most  of  them,  mett  together  at  Gresham  CoUedge 
to  heare  Mr  Wren's  lecture,  viz.,  TheiLord  Erouncker,  Mr 
Boyle,  Mr  Bruce,' Sir  Robert  Moray,  Sir  Paul  Xeile,  Dr 
Wilkins,  Dr  Goddard,  Dr  Petty,  Mr  Ball,  Mr  Rooke,  Mr 
;Wren,  Mr  Hill.  And  after  the  lecture  was  ended,  they 
did,  according  to  the  usuall  manner  withdrawe  for  mutual! 

'  The  duke  of  St  Albans. 


converse.  Where  amongst  other  matters  that  were  dis- 
coursed of,  something  was  offered  about  a  designe  of 
founding  a  CoUedge  for  the  promoting  of  Physico-Mathe- 
maticall  Experimentall  Learning."  It  was  agreed  at  this 
meeting  that  the  company  should  continue  to  assemble  on 
Wednesdays  at  3  o'clock;  an  admission  fee  of  ten  shillings 
with  a  subscription  of  one  shilling  a  week  was  instituted; 
Dr  AVilkins  was  appointed  chairman ;  and  a  list  of  forty-one 
persons  judged  likely  and  fit  to  join  the  design  was  drawn 
up.  On  the  followingWednesday  Sir  Robert  Moray  brought 
word  that  the  king  (Charles  II.)  approved  the  design  of 
the  meetings ;  a  form  of  obligation  was  framed,  and  was 
signed  by  all  tho  persons  enumerated  in  the  memorandum 
of  November  28,  and  bv  seventy-three  others.  On 
December  12  afiother  meeting  was  held  at  which  fifty-fivo 
was  fixed  as  the  number  of  the  society, — persons  of  the 
degree  of  baron,  fellows  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  and 
public  professors  of  mathematics,  physic,  and  natural 
philosophy  of  bol  h  universities  being  supernumeraries. 

Gresham  College  was  now  appointed  to  be  the  regular 
meeting-place  of  the  society. ,  Sir  Robert  Moray  was  chosen 
president  (March  6,  1661),  and  continued  in  that  office 
until  the  incorporation  of  the  society,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lord  Brouncker.  In  October  1661  the  king 
offered  to  be  entered  one  of  the  society,  and  next  year  the 
society  was  incorporated  under  the  name  of  "  The  Royal 
Society,"  the  charter  of  incorporation  passing  the  great 
seal  on  the  15th  July  1662,  to  be  modified,  however,  by 
a  second  charter  in  the  following  year.  The  council  of 
the  Royal  Society  met  for  the  first  time  on  May  13,  1663, 
when  resolutions  were  passed  that  debate  concerning  those 
to  be  admitted  should  be  secret,  and  that  fellows  should 
pay  Is.  a  week  to  defray  expenses. 

At  this  early  stage  of  the  society's  history  one  main 
part  of  their  labours  was  the  "correspondence"  which 
was  actively  maintained  with  Continental  philosophers, 
and  it  was  from  this  that  the  Philosophical  Tratisaclions 
(a  publication  now  of  world-wide  celebrity)  took  its  rise. 
At  first  the  Transaction  was  entirely  the  work  of  the 
secretary,  except  that  it  was  ordered  (March  1,  1664-5) 
"  that  the  tract  be  licensed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society, 
being  first  reviewed  by  some  of  the  members  of  the  same." 
The  first  number,  consisting  of  sixteen  quarto  pages, 
appeared  on  Monday  6th  March  1664-5.  In  1750  four 
hundred  and  ninety-six  numbers  or  forty-six  volumes  had 
been  published  by  the  secretariesT  After  this  date  the 
work  was  issued  under  the  superintendence  of  a  committee, 
and  the  division  into  numbers  disappeared.  At  present 
(1SS5)  one  hundred  and  seventv-five  volumes  have  been 
completed. 

Another  matter  to  which  the  society  turned  their  atten- 
tion was  the  formation  of  a  museum,  the  nucleus  being 
"the  collection  of  rarities  formerly  belonging  to  Mr 
Hubbard,"  which,  by  a  resolution  of  council  passed 
February  21,  1666,  was  purchased  for  the  sum  of  £100. 
This  museum,  at  one  time  the  most  famous  in  London, 
was  presented  to  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  in 
1781,  upon  the  removal  of  the  society  to  Somerset  House. 
After  the  Great  Fire  of  London  in  September  1666  the 
apartments  of  the  Royal  Society  in  Gresham  College  were 
required  for  the  use  of  the  city  authorities,  and  the  society 
were  therefore  invited  by  Henry  Howard  of  Norfolk  to 
meet  in  Arundel  House.  At  the  same  time  he  presented 
them  with  the  library  purchased  by  his  grandfather 
Thomas,  earl  of  Arundel,  and  thus  the  foundation  was 
laid  of  the  magnificent  collection  of  scientific  works,  pro- 
bably not  far  short  of  45,000  volumes,  which  the  society 
at  the  present  time  possesses.  Of  the  Arundel  MSS.  the 
bulk  was  sold  to  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  in 
1830  for  the  sum  of  £3559,  the  proceeds  being  devoted 


KOYAL       SOCIETY 


39 


to  the  purchase  of  scientific  books.  These  MSS.  are  still 
kept  in  the  museum  as  a  separate  collection. 
I  Under  date  December  21,  1671,  the  journal-book  records 
that  "the  lord  bishop  of  Sarum  proposed  for  candidate 
Mr  Isaac  Newton,  professor  of  the  mathematicks  at  Cam- 
bridge." Newton  w^is  elected  a  fellow  January  11, 
1671-2,  and  in  1703  he  was  appointed  president,  a  post 
which  he  held  till  his  death  in  1727.  During- his  pre- 
sidency the  society  moved  to  Crane  Court,  their  first 
meeting  iu  the  new  quarters  being  held  November  8, 
1710.  In  the  same  year  they  were  appointed  visitors  and 
directors  of  the  Koyal  Observatory  at  Greenwich,  a  func- 
tion which'  they  continued  to  perform  until  the  accession 
of  William  IV.,  when  by  the  new  warrant  then  issued 
the  president  and  six  of  the  fellows  of  the  Royal  Astrono- 
mical Society  were  added  to  the  list  of  visitors. 

In  1780,  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  the 
Hoyal  Society  removed  from  Crane  Court  to  the  apart- 
ments assigned  to  them  by  the  Government  in  the  new 
Somerset  House,  where  they  remained  until  they  removed 
to  Burlington  House  in  1857.  The  policy  of  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  waj  to  render  the  fellowship  more  difficult  of 
attainment  than  it  had  been,  and  the  measures  which 
he  took  for  this  purpose,  combined  with  other  circum- 
stances, led  to  the  rise  of  a  faction  headed  by  Dr  Horsley. 
Throughout  the  years  1783  and  1784  feeling  ran  exceed- 
ingly high,  but  in  tlie  end  the  president  was  supported  by 
the  majority  of  the  society.  An  account  of  the  contro- 
versy will  be  found  in  a  tract  entitled  An  Atdkentic  Narra- 
tive of  ihs  Dissensions  and  Debates  in  the  Royal  Socieiy. 
In  connexion  wich  this  policy  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  may 
be  mentioned  a  further  step  in  the  same  direction  taken 
in  the  year  1847,  when  the  number  of  candidates  recom- 
mended for  election  by  the  council  was  limited  to  fifteen, 
and  the  olectioa  was  made  annual.  '  Concurrently,  how- 
ever, with  this  gradual  narrowing  of  the  Royal  Society's 
boundaries  was  the  successive  establishment  of  other 
scientific  bodies.  The  founding  of  the  Linneau  Society 
in  1788  under  the  auspices  of  several  fellows  of  the 
Royal  Society  was  the  first  instance  of  the  establishment 
of  a  distinct  scientific  association  under  royal  charter. 
The  Geological  Society  followed  in  1807,  and  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society  in  1820.  The  Chemical,  the  Royal 
Geographical,  and  the  Entomological  are  the  remaining 
chartered  scientific  societies  existing  in  London  at  the 
oresent  time.  The  Royal. Society  continues,  however,  to 
D.old  the  foremost  place  among  the  scientific  bodies  of 
England,  not  only  from  the  number  of  eminent  men  in- 
cluded in  its  fellowship,  but  also  from  its  close  official  con- 
nexion with  the  Government. 

The  following  will  serve  as  some  indication  of  the  variety  and 
Importance  of  the  scientific  matters  upon  which  they  have  been 
consulted  by  or  have  memoriali;!ed  the  Government  during  the 
last  seventy  years: — 1816,  standard  measures  of  length;  1817, 
expedition  in  search  of  North-^Ve3t  Passage  ;  1822,  use  of  coal-tar 
in  vessels  of  war  ;  best  manner  of  measuring  tonnage  of  ships  ; 
189.'^,  corrosion  of  copper  sheathing  by  sea-water  ;  Babbage's  cal- 
culating-machine; lightning-conductors  for  vessels  of  war  ;  1825, 
supervision  of  gas-works  ;  1826,  Parry's  Nortli  Polar  expedition  ; 
1332,  tidal  observations  ;  1835,  instruments  and  tables  for  testing 
tSie  strength  of  spirits ;  1839,  Antarctic  expedition  ;  magnetic 
observatories  in  the  colonics  ;  1845,  Fi-anklin's  Arctic  expedition ; 
1849-55,  Government  grant  for  scientific  research  ;  1862,  the  great 
Melbourne  telescope  ;  1865,  pendulum  observations  in  India  ;  1866, 
reorganization  of  tlie  meteorologieal  department ;  1868,  deep  sea 
research;  1872,  "Challenger"  expedition;  1874,  Arctic  expedi- 
tion ;  1875,  eclipse  expedition ;  1876,  Vivisection  Bill ;  1877, 
transit  of  Venus  expedition  ;  1879,  prevention  of  accidents  in 
mines;  1881,  pendulum  observations;  1882,  transit  of  Venus; 
cruise  of  the  "Triton"  in  Faroe  Channel ;  1883,  borings  in  delta  of 
Nile  ;  1884,  Bureau  des  Poids  et  Mesures  ;  ])rimc  meridian  confer- 
ence, Jtc.  One  of  the  most  important  duties  whicli  the  Koyal 
Society  performs  oa  behalf  o£  the  Government  is  the  administra- 
tion of  the  annual  grant  of  £4000  for  the  prombtion  of  scientific 
te~arch.      This   grant   originated   in   a   proposal   by  Lord  Jolin 


EusseH  in  1849  that  at  the  close  of  the  year  the  president  and 
council  should  point  out  to  the  fii'st  lord  of  the  treasury  a  limited 
number  of  persons  to  whom  the  grant  of  a  reward  or  cf  a  sum  to 
defray  the  cost  of  experiments  might  be  of  esrsential  service.  This 
grant  of  £1000  afterwards  became  annua],  and  was  continued  until 
1876.  in  that  year  an  additional  sum  of  £4000  for  similar  pur- 
poses was  granted,  and  the  two  funds  of  £1000  and  £4000  were 
administered  concurrently  until  1881,  in  which  year  the  two  were 
combined  iu  a  single  annual  grant  of  £4000  under  new  regulations. 
One  of  the  most  useful  of  the  society's  undertakings  of  late  years 
is  the  great  catalogue  of  scientific  papers, — an  index,  in  eight  quarto 
volumes,  under  authors'  names,  of  all  the  memoirs  of  importance 
in  the  chief  English  and  foreign  scientific  serials  from  the  year 
1800  to  the  year  1873.  The  work  was  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tion and  at  the  expense  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  printed  by 
H.  M.  Stationery  Oflice. 

A  statement  of  the  trust  funds  administered  by  the  Royc# 
Society  will  be  found  in  their  published  Proceedinfjs  under  datt 
Kovcmber  30th  of  each  year,  and  the  origin  and  history  of  these 
funds  will  be  found  in  Weld's  History  of  the  Eoi/al  Socictt/,  and  in 
the  late  William  Spottiswoode's  "Anniversary  Address  for  1874" 
{Froc.  Roy.  Soc.,  sxiii.  p.  49).  The  income  of  the  society  ia 
derived  from  the  annual  contributions  and  composition  fees  of  the 
fellows,  from  rents,  and  from  interest  on  various  investments.  The 
balance-sheet  and  an  account  of  the  estates  and  property  are  pub- 
lished in  the  Proceedings  at  each  anniversary.  Four  medals  (a 
Copley,  two  Royal,  and  a  Davy)  are  awarded  by  the  society  every 
year,  and  the  Kumford  medal  in  alternate  years.  The  first  of  these 
originated  in  a  bequest  by  Sir  Godfrey  Copley  (1709),  and  is  awarded 
"  to  the  living  author  of  such  philosophical  research,  either  pub- 
lished or  communicated  to  the  society,  as  may  appear  to  the  council 
to  be  deserving  of  that  honour" ;  the  author  may  be  an  Englishman 
or  a  foreigner.  The  Rumford  medal  originated  in  a  gift  from  Count 
Rumford  in  1796  of  £1000  3  per  cent,  consols,  for  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  heat  or  light  made  during  the  preceding 
two  years.  The  Royal  medals  were  instituted  by  George  IV.,  and' 
are  awarded  annually  for  the  two  most  important  contributions  to 
science  published  in  the  liritish  dominions  not  more  than  ten  years 
nor  less  than  one  year  from  the  date  of  the  award.  The  Davy 
medal  was  founded  by  the  will  of  Dr  John  Davy,  F.  R.S.,  the 
brothsr  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  and  is  given  annually  for  the  most 
important  discovery  in  chemistry  made  in  Europe  or  Anglo-America. 
An  enumeration  of  the  awards  of  each  of  the  medals  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  the  list  of  fellows  which  is  published  annually  by  tho 
society. 

Under  tlie  existing  statutes  of  Hie  Royal  Society  every  candidate 
for  election  must  be  recommended  by  a  certificate  in  writing  signed 
by  six  or  more  fellows,  of  whom  three  at  least  must  sign  trom 
personal  knowledge.  From  the  candidates  so  recommended  the 
council  annually  select  fifteen  by  ballot,  and  on  the  first  Thursday 
in  June  the  names  so  selected  are  submitted  to  the  society  in  the 
form  of  a  printed  balloting-sheet  with  space  left  for  erasure  and 
substitution  of  names.  Princes  of  the  blood  may,  however,  be 
proposed  at  any  ordinary  meeting  and  put  to  the  vote  on  the  same 
day,  and  any  member  of  H.  M.  privy  council  may  be  balloted  for 
on  the  third  ordinary  meeting  from  the  day  upon  which  his 
certificate  is  read.  Foreign  members,  not  exceeding  fifty,  may  bo 
selected  by  the  council  from  among  men  of  the  greatest  scientific 
eminence,  and  proposed  to  the  society  for  election.  Every  member 
of  the  privileged  class  is  liable  to  an  admission  fee  of  £10  and  an 
annual  payment  of  £4  ;  other  fellows  pay  £3  per  annum.  The 
composition  for  annual  payments  is  £60. 

The  anniversary  meeting  for  the  election  of  the  council  end 
officers  is  held  on  St  Andrew's  Day.  Tho  council  for  the  ensuing 
year,  out  of  which  are  chosen  the  president,  treasurer,  princip.il 
secretaries,  and  foreign  secretary,  must  consist  of  eleven  members 
of  the  existing  council  and  ten  fellows  who  are  not  members  of 
the  existing  council.  Those  are  nominated  by  the  president  and 
council  previously  to  the  anniversary  meeting.  The  session  of 
the  society  is  from  November  to  June  ;  the  ordinary  meetings  aro 
held  every  Thursday  during  tho  session,  at  4.30  P.M.  ^  The 
selection  for  publication  from  the  papei^  read  before  the  society  is 
made  by  the  "Committee  of  Papers,"  which  consists  of  the 
members  of  tho  council  for  the  time  being  aided  by  referees.  The 
papers  so  selected  are  published  either  in  tho  Philosophical 
Transactions  (4to)  or  tho  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  (8vo), 
and  one  copy  of  each  of  these  publications  is  presented  gratis  to 
every  fellow  of  the  society  and  to  the  chief  scientific  societies 
throughout  the  world. 

The  making  and  repealing  of  laws  is  vested  in  the  council,  and' 
in  eveiy  case  the  question  must  be  put  to  the  vote  on  two  several 
days  of  their  aeeting. 

The  text  of  the  charters  of  the  Royal  Society  is  given  In  the  appendix  to  WcM's 
/listory  of  the  Royal  Socifti/,  and  In  tho  same  work  will  be  found  llsia  of  the  pre- 
BltlentB,  treasurers,  sceretarics,  and.  osslstont-sccretarles  from  the  foundation  to 
the  year  184j.  Appendix  IV'.  to  Thomson's  History  of  the  Royal  Society  (1812) 
Rives  a  ehronolopieal  list  of  all  tho  fellows  down  to  tlie  year  1812  with  dates  of 
blrtb,  election,  admission,  and  death,  and  aq  alphabetical  Index  to  tho  6amn» 


40 


R  O  Y  —  K  O  Y 


other  histories  are  Bishop  Sprat'a  (1667),  which  consists  largely  of  a  defence 
of  the  society  apalnst  the  attacks  of  a  prioi-i  philosophers,  and  Dr  Bircli's  (175G), 
which  treats  mainly  of  the  society's  scientific  work.  (H.  R.*) 

ROYAN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Charente  Inferieure,  ia  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Gironde,  where  it  joins  the  ocean  ;  a  branch  line  of  5i 
miles  connects  it  with  Saujon,  on  the  Seudre  Railway, 
■which  joins  the  Bordeaux-Nantes  line  at  Pons.  Royan, 
which  in  1881  had  a  population  of  only  4573  (5445  as  a 
commune),  is  one  of  the  most  frequented  bathing  resorts 
on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  visitors  numbering  about 
80,000  annually.  Royan  owes  this  popularity  to  its 
charming  neighbourhood,  pleasantly  watered  by  brooks 
and  shaded  by  fine  trees  down  to  the  steep  rocky  shore. 
The  coast  is  divided  into  a  number  of  smaU  bays  or 
"conches,"  forming  so  many  distinct  beaches  :  to  the  east 
of  the  town  is  the  "  Grande  Conche  " ;  to  the  south  the 
"Conche  de  Foncillon,"  separated  from  the  first-named 
by  a  quay  which  forms  a  fine  terraced  esplanade  ;  beyond 
the  fort  of  Royan,  which  protects  the  entrance  of  the  river, 
follow  in  succession  the  conches  "  du  Chay"  and  "  de  Grand 
Robinson,"  and  the  most  fashionable  of  all,  that  of 
Pontaillac.  In  the  Avenue  de  Pontaillac  stand  a  large 
new  casino,  a  theatre,  and  a  hydropathic  establishment. 
Royan  also  has  a  race-course  and  a  museum  of  natural 
history. 

Roy.^n,  whoso  inhabitants  were  Protestants,  had  to  sustain  in 
1622  an  eight  days'  siege  by  the  troops  of  Louis  XIII.  As  late  as 
the  end  of  last  century  it  was  but  a  "  iioui'g  "  of  about  one  thousand 
inhabitants,  ncticeable  only  for  its  UTiory,  where  Brant6me  wrote 
a  portion  of  hit!  CJironidcs.  Tho  prospeiity  of  the  place  dates  from 
the  Restoration,  tvhen  steamboat  communication  was  established 
with  Bordeaux.  The  question  of  making  of  Royan  the  seaport 
for  Bordeaux  has  often  been  raootod,  but  as  yet  tho  harbour  is  still 
a  merely  tidal  one  and  is  dry  at  low  water.  Tho  sardine,  here 
known  by  the  :iame  of  royan,  is  cau^^it  by  the  local  fishermen. 

UOYER-COLLARD,PiEP.EE  P.vrjL  (1763-1845),French 
statesman  and  philosopher,  was  born  on  the  21st  June 
1763  at  Sompuis  near  Vitry-le-Francais.  At  an  early  age 
he  became  a  member  of  the  bar,  and  pleaded  several 
times  in  the  old  parlement  of  Paris.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Revolution  he  took  the  popular  side,  and  was  elected 
to  a  seat  in  the  municipal  council  of  Paris.  He  was 
sscr:tary  to  this  body  from  1790  to  1792,  but  separated 
himself  from  the  later  excesses  of  the  Revolution.  During 
the  Reign  of  Terror  he  lived  in  retirement  at  Sompuis, 
and  after  vainly  endeavouring  in  1797,  as  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred,  to  bring  about  the  restoi-ation  of 
the  monarchy,  he  retired  altogether  from  public  life  till 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  in  1814.  During  the  interval  he 
devoted  himself  mainly  to  philosophical  studies.  Animated 
by  a  profound  distrust  of  the  negative  sensationali.sm  and 
materialism  which  had  characterized  the  French  philo- 
sophy of  the  18th  century,  he  found  a  master  whom  he 
could  follow  in  Thomas  Reid.  The  study  of  Reid's 
Inquiry,  which  he  picked  up  on  a  book-stall,  first  gave  a 
definite  form  and  direction  to  his  thinking.  Royer-CoUard 
may  be  said  to  have  introduced  Reid  to  France,  and  the 
works  of  the  Scottish  philosopher  were  translated  not  long 
afterwards  by  his  pupil  Jouffroy.  In  1810  Royer-CoUard 
became  professor  of  philosophy,  and  taught  with  success  in 
Paris,  till  the  Restoration  recalled  him  to  political  life. 
In  1815  he  was  elected  to  represent  his  native  department 
of  the  Marne  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  ;  he  was  also 
made  councillor  of  state  and  appointed  president  of  the 
commission  of  public  instruction.  A  royalist  of  moderate 
views,  he  helped  to  restrain  the  extreme  members  of  his 
own  party,  opposing  alike  the  reactionary  laws  against  tho 
press  and  the  proposal  to  give  the  clergy  control  of  public 
instruction.  In  1827  he  was  so  popular  as  to  be  elected 
in  seven  departments,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  became  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy ;  in  the  following  year  he 


was  made  president  of  the  chamber.  In  this  capacity  he 
had  the  unpleasant  duty  of  presenting  to  Charles  X.  the 
address  in  which  the  majority  of  the  chamber  refused 
their  further  support  to  the  Government  (March  1830). 
Royer-CoUard  retained  his  position  as  deputy  under  the 
new  regime  of  Louis  Philippe,  but  no  longer  took  a  pro- 
minent part  in  public  affairs.  In  1842  he  withdrew  com- 
pletely from  active  life  and  spent  most  of  his  remaining 
time  at  his  country  seat  of  Ch^teauvieux  near  Sainte- 
Aignan.     He  died  there  on  the  2d  September  1845. 

As- a  philosopher,  Royer-CoUard  is  not  distinguished  either  by 
originality  or  profundity  ;  but  he  possesses  a  certain  importance 
as  having  transplanted  to  Franco  the  philosophy  of  common  sense. 
He  has  himself  left  no  philosophical  writings  except  some  frag- 
ments which  appear  in  JouITroy's  edition  of  Reid  ;  but  by  his 
example  and  teaching  he  founded 'the  school  which  has  been 
variously  named  the  Scoto-French,  the  eclectic,  the  spiritualistic, 
or  the  psychological,  ilaino  de  Biran,  Cousin  to  some  extent, 
and  Joulfroy  in  a  closer  way,  as  well  as  Janet  and  othei-s  at  the 
present  day,  are  tho  chief  representatives  of  the  school.  The  name 
"Spiritualisme,"  which  is  perhaps  the  commonest  designation, 
expresses  the  tenacity  with  which,  in  opposition  to  tho  dominant 
sensationalistic  materialism  of  France,  it  upholds  the  doctrine  of  a 
spiritual  Ego  as  a  fact  of  consciousness.  The  title  psychological, 
however,  would  be  preferred  by  the  philosophers  themselves  aa 
describing  their  metliod,  and  the  basis  on  which  they  claim  to 
have  erected  their  philosophy.  Philosophy  tends  for  them,  as  for 
Reid  and  Stewart,  to  become  a  classilication  of  isolated  facts  o' 
consciousness. 

Several  biographies  of  Royer-Collard  have  been  published.  Earante,  Vie 
poUCique  de  M.  Royer-CoUaril,  tes  discours,  et  scs  ecrits,  1861,  is  the  flillest. 
Others  are  by  Philippe  and  Lacorabe.  In  addition  may  be  mentioned  M^moiret 
sur  Roycr-CoUai-d,  by  his  nephew  Genty  de  Bussy. 

ROYLE,  John  Forbes  (1800-1858),  a.  distinguishea 
botanist  and  teacher  of  materia  medica.  His  reputation 
is  especially  founded  upon  the  results  of  personal  investi- 
gations in  the  Himalaya  Mountains  and  in  other  parts  of 
Hindustan.  He  was  born  in  Cawnpore  in  1800.  His 
medical  education  was  obtained  in  London,  and  on  its 
completion  he  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  was  sent  to  India  in  1822  in  tho  grade  of 
assistant  surgeon.  In  this  service  he  devoted  himself  to 
studying  in  the  field  the'  botany  and  geology  of  the  regions 
within  his  reach,  and  made  large  collections  among  the 
Himalaya  Mountains.  Ho  also  made  special  investiga- 
tions of  the  medical  properties  of  the  plants  of  Hindustan 
and  of  the  history  of  their  uses  among  the  native  races. 
The  results  of  these  investigations  appeared  in  1837  in 
the  form  of  a  valuable  work  On,  the  Ayitiquity  of  Hindoo 
J/edicine.  For  nearly  ten  years  he  held  the  post  of  super- 
intendent of  the  East  India  Company's  botanic  garden  in 
the  Himalayas  at  Saharanpur.  He  returned  to  London 
on  furlou'gh  in  1831,  and  in  1^37  he  was  appointed  to  the 
professorship  of  materia  medica  in  King's  College,  London, 
a  position  which  he  held  till  1856.  From  1838  onwards  he 
conducted  a  special  departiuent  of  correspondence,  relating 
to  vcj^etable  products,  at  the  East  India  House,  and  at  the 
tin.  jI  his  death  he  had  just  completed  there  the  forma- 
tion and  arrangement  of  an  extensive  and  valuable  museum 
of  technical  products  from  the  East  Indies.  In  1851  he 
superintended  the  Indian  department  of  the  Great  Ex- 
hibition. Hf)  died  at  Acton  near  London  on  2d  January 
1858. 

The  work  on  which  his  reputation  chiefly  rests  is  the  Illustrations 
of  the  Botany  and  other  branches  of  Natural  History  of  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  and  of  the  Flora  of  Cashmere,  in  2  vols.  4to,  begun  in 
1839.  It  contains  much  information  on  the  natural  products  of 
India,  especi.illy  on  such  as  are  nseful  in  the  arts  or  as  drugs.  In 
addition  to  this  work,  liowever,  he  wrote  several  others  of  repute, 
viz.,  An  Essay  on  the  Productive  Resources  of  India  (1840),  A  Manual 
of  Materia  Medica  (1845),  An  Essay  on  the  C'uUivalion  of  Cotton 
(1867),  and  on  The  Cordage  Plants  and  Vegetable  Fibres  of  India, 
(1856).  Ho  also  published  a  number  of  papers,  between  1832  and 
1855,  upon  subjects  akin  to  those  of  his  largisr  works,  in  scientific 
journals,  for  the  most  part  published  in  India.  Among  these  papers 
are  includcrl  three  on  geological  subjects.  A  list  of  the  whole  will 
be  found  in  the  Royal  Hocietfs  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers. 


E  S  H  —  R  U  B 


41 


RSHEFf .     See  Rzheff. 

RUBBER.     See  India-Rubber. 

RUBENS,  Peter  Paul  (1577-1640),  the  most  eminent 
representative  of  Flemish  art,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  of  any  school,  was  born  very  probably  at  Siegen, 
in  Westphalia,  on  the  29th  of  June  1577.  Till  some 
thirty  years  ago  Cologne  might  still  claim  the  honour  of 
having  been  the  master's  birthplace ;  the  Rhenish  city  is 
mentioned  by  Rubens  himself,  in  one  of  his  letters,  as 
closely  connected  with  his  childhood,  and  through  his 
father's  epitaph  we  learn  that  for  more  than  nineteen 
years  Cologne  was  the  family's  place  of  refuge  amid  the 
disturbances  prevailing  in  the  Low  Countries.  This, 
however,  has  been  proved  to  be  but  part  of  the  truth,  and, 
if  Rubens's  parents  certainly  during  several  years  did  live 
at  Cologne,  they  also  resided  elsewhere,  and  that  for 
reasons  so  strong  that  both  wife  and  husband  might  well 
desire  to  see  them  for  ever  buried  in  secrecy. 

Although  of  humble  descent, — his  father  was  a  druggist, 
— John  Rubens  was  a  man  of  learning.  He  had  studied 
law  at  home  and  abroad,  and  became  councillor  and  alder- 
man in  his  native  town  (1562).  A  Catholic  by  birth,  it  was 
not  long  before  he  became,  like  many  of  his  countrymen,  a 
zealous  upholder  of  the  Reformation,  and  we  even  find  him 
spoken  of  by  a  contemporary  as  "  le  plus  docte  Calviniste 
qui  fust  pour  lors  au  Bas  Pays."  After  the  plundering  of 
the  Antwerp  churches  in  1566,  the  magistrates  were  called 
upon  for  a  justification.  While  openly  they  declared 
themselves  devoted  sons  of  the  church,  a  list  of  the 
followers  of  the  Reformed  creed,  headed  by  the  name  of 
Anthony  Van  Stralen,  the  burgomaster,  got  into  the  hands 
of  the  duke  of  Alva.  This  was  a  sentence  of  death  for  the 
magistrates,  and  John  Rubens  lost  no  time  in  quitting 
Spanish  soil,  ultimately  settling  at  Cologne  (October 
1568),  with  his  wife  and  four  children. 

In  his  new  residence  he  became  legal  adviser  to  Anne 
of  Saxony,  the  second  wife  of  the  prince  of  Orange, 
William  the  Silent.  Before  long  it  was  discovered  that 
their  relations  were  not  purely  of  a  business  kind.  Thrown 
into  the  dungeons  of  Dillenburg,  Rubens  lingered  there  for 
many  months,  his  wife,  Jlaria  Pjpelinc.ic,  never  relaxing 
her  endeavours  to  get  the  undutiful  husband  restored  to 
freedom.  Two  years  elapsed  before  the  prisoner  was 
released,  and  then  only  to  be  confined  to  the  small  town 
of  Siegen.  Here  he  lived  with  his  family,  from  1573  to 
1578,  and  here  most  probably  Maria  Pypelincx  gave  birth 
to  Philij),  afterwards  town-clerk  of  Antwerp,  and  Peter 
Paul.  A  year  after  (May  1578)  the  Antwerp  lawyer  got 
leave  to  return  to  Cologne,  where  he  died  on  the  18th  of 
March  1587,  after  having,  it  is  said,  returned  to  Catho- 
licism. As  there  are  at  Siegen  no  records  going  back  to 
the  16th  century,  the  facts  relating  to  the  birth  of  Peter 
Paul  Rubens  must,  of  course,  remain  conjectural,  but  his 
mother  certainly  was  at  Siegen  a  few  days  before  his  birth, 
for  we  find  her  there,  petitioning  in  favour  of  John  Rubens, 
on  June  14,  1577. 

Rubens  went  to  Antwerp  with  his  mother  when  he  was 
scarcely  ten  years  of  age,  and  made  good  progress  in  his 
classical  studies,  which  he  had  begun  with  the  Jesuits  at 
Cologne.  An  excellent  Latin  scholar,  ho  was  also  j>ro- 
ficient  in  French,  Italian,  English,  German,  and  Dutch. 
Part  of  his  boyhood  he  spent  as  a  page  in  the  household  of 
the  countess  of  Lalaing,  in  Brussels ;  but,  tradition  adds, 
and  we  may  well  believe,  the  youth's  disposition  was  such 
a?  to  induce  his  mother  to  allow  him  to  follow  his  proper 
vocation,  choosing  as  his  master  Tobias  Verhaecht,  who 
wos  in  some  way  connected  with  the  family.  Kot  the 
slichtest  trace  o£  this  fir?t  niristcr's  influence  can  bo  detected 
.u  Kubens's  works.  Not  so  with  Adam  Van  Noort,  to 
whom  the  young  man  was  next  apprenticed.     Van  Noort, 


whose  aspect  of  energy  is  well  known  through  Van  Dyck's 
beautiful  etching,  was  the  highly  esteemed  niasterof  num- 
erous painters,— among  them  Van  Balen,  Sebastian  Vrancx, 
and  Jordaens,  later  his  son-in-law.  His  pictures  are  almost 
exclusively  to  be  found  in  Antwerp  churches. 

Rubens  remained  with  Van  Noort  for  the  usual  period 
of  four  years,  thereafter  studying  under  Otto  Voenius  or 
Van  Veen,  a  gentleman  by  birth,  a  most  distinguished 
Latin  scholar,  and  a  painter  of  very  high  repute.  He  was 
a  native  of  Leyden,  and  only  recently  settled  in  Antwerp, 
but  the  town  gave  him  numerous  commissions  of  import- 
ance. Though  Rubens  never  adopted  his  style  of  painting, 
the  tastes  of  master  and  pupil  had  much  in  common,  and 
some  pictures  by  Otto  Voenius  can  be  pointed  out  as  having 
inspired  Rubens  at  a  more  advanced  period.  For  example, 
the  Magdalene  anointing  Christ's  Feet,  painted  for  the 
cathedral  at  Malaga,  and  now  at  the  Hermitage  in  St 
Petersburg,  closely  resembles  in  composition  the  very  im- 
portant work  of  Otto  Vcenius  in  the  church  at  Bergues  near 
Dunkirk. 

In  1598,  Adam  Van  Noort  acting  as  dean  of  the  Antr 
werp  guild  of  painters,  Rubens  was  officially  recognized  as 
"  master," — that  is,  was  allowed  to  work  independently 
and  receive  pupils.  We  have  no  means  of  forming  an 
idea  of  his  style  at  this  early  period,  two  years  before  his 
journey  to  Italy,  but  even  the  somewhat  later  works  found 
at  Genoa,  Mantua,  and  Rome  dilTer  considerably  from 
what  may  be  termed  the  Rubenesque. 

From  1600  to  the  latter  part  of  1608  Rubens  belonged 
to  the  household  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  duke  of  Mantua. 
Few  princes  in  Italy  surpassed  the  Gonzagas  in  splendour. 
For  them  Mantegna,  Giulio  Romano,  Titian,  and  Prima- 
ticcio  had  produced  some  of  their  most'  admired  works, 
and  their  now  deserted  palaces  still  bear  traces  of  the 
richest  decoration.  To  the  Mantuan  collection  the  Pitti 
palace,  the  Louvre,  and  the  royal  galleries  of  England  owe 
some  of  their  noblest  specimens  of  Italian  art.  How 
Rubens  came  to  be  engaged  at  Mantua  has  not  been 
explained.  The  duke,  it  is  known,  spent  some  time  at 
Venice  in  July  1600,  and  is  supposed  there  to  have  met  his 
future  painter,  but  it  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  another 
Fleming,  Francis  Pourbus  the  younger,  was  at  the  time 
employed  by  him  in  taking  the  likeness  of  the  prettiest 
women  of  the  day ;  and  Rubens,  much  against  his  will.' 
was  also,  at  first,  it  seems,  intrusted  with  a  similar  task. 
The  influence  of  the  master's  stay  at  Mantua  was  ol 
extreme  importance,  and  cannot  be  too  constantly  kept  in 
view  in  the  study  of  his  later  works. 

Sent  to  Rome  in  1601,  to  take  copies  from  Raphael  foi 
his  master,  he  was  also  commissioned  to  paint  several 
pictures  for  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  by  the  archduke 
Albert  of  Austria,  sovereign  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands, 
and  once,  when  he  was  a  cardinal,  the  titular  of  that  see. 
A  copy  of  Mercury  and  Psyche  after  Raphael  is  preser>"~'' 
in  the  museum  at  Pesth.  The  religious  ]>aintings — the 
Invention  of  the  Cross,  the  Crowning  with  ITiorns,  and 
the  Crucifixion — are  to  be  found  in  th»  '■osnital  at  Grassa 
in  Provence. 

At  the  beginning  of  1C03  "The  Fleming,"  as  he  was 
termed  at  Mantua,  was  sent  to  Spain  with  a  variety  of 
])resents  for  Philip  III.  and  his  minister  the  duke  of 
Lerma,  and  thus  had  opportunity  to' spend  a  whole  yeai 
at  JIadrid  and  become  acquainted  with  .some  of  Titian's 
mastcrijieccs.  Two  of  his  own  works,  known  to  belong  ti> 
the  .same  period,  are  in  the  Madrid  Gallery,  Horaclitus 
and  Democritus.  Of  Rubens's  abilities  so  fax  back  as 
1604  we  get  a  more  comiilate  idea  from  an  immense' 
picture  now  in  the  Antwerp  Gallery,  the  Baptism  of  Our 
Lord,  originally  painted  for  the  Jesuits  at  Mantua.  Hero 
it  may  be  seen  to  what  degree  Italian  surroundings  had 

XXL  —  fi 


42 


B  U  B  E  :^  S 


influenced  fiie  painter  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga.  Vigorous  to 
the  extreme  in  d:3igr.  he'  reminds  us  of  Michelangelo  as 
much  as  any  of  the  degenerate  masters  of  the  Roman 
school,  while  ir.  decorative  skill  he  seems  to  be  descended 
from  Titian  and  in  colouring  from  Giulio  Romano. 
Equally  with  this  picture  the  Transfiguration,  now  in 
the  museum  at  Nancy,  and  the  portraits  of  Vincenzo  and 
his  consort,  kneeling  before  the  Trinity,  in  the  library  at 
Mantua,  claim  a  large  share  of  attention,  apart  from  the 
interest  awakened  by  the  name  of  their  author. 

Two  years  later  we  meet  a  very  large  altarpiece  of  the 
Circumcision  at  St  Ambrogio  at  Genoa,  the  Virgin  in  a 
glory  of  Angels,  and  two  groups  of  Saints,  painted  on  the 
wall,  at  both  sides  of  the  high  altar  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  in  Valicella,  in  Rome.  Undoubtedly  these 
works  give  an  impression  of  grandeur  and  effectiveness, 
but,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  finest  productions  of 
the  Italian  school,  they  rank  higher  as  documentary  evi- 
dence than  in  intrinsic  value,  and  remind  us  of  a  saying 
of  Baglione,  who  was  acquainted  with  Rubens  in  Italy, 
"  Apprese  egli  buon  gusto,  e  diede  in  una  maniera  buona 
Italiana." 

While  employed  at  Rome  in  1608,  Rubens  received 
most  alarming  news  as  to  the  state  of  his  mother's  health. 
The  duke  of  Gonzaga  was  then  absent  from  Italy,  but  the 
dutiful  .son,  without  awaiting  his  return,  at  once  set  out 
for  the  Netherlands,  though  with  the  full  intention  of 
shortly  resuming  his  post  at  court,  as  we  gather  from  a 
letter  to  Annibale  Chieppio,  the  Mantuan  minister. 
When  he  arrived  in  Antwerp,  Maria  Pypelinc.x  was  no 
more.  However  strong  his  wish  might  now  be  to  return 
to  Italy,  his  purpose  was  overruled  by  the  exjiress  desire 
of  his  sovereign.?,  Albert  and  Isabella,  to  see  him  take  up 
a  permanent  residence  in  the  Belgian  provinces.  Scarcely 
a  year  before,  the  archduke  had  unsuccessfully  attempted 
to  free  the  painter  from  his  engagement  at  Mantua,  and 
he  could  not  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  now 
pre-sented  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  wishes.  On  August  .3, 
1609,  Rubens  was  named  painter  in  ordinary  to  their  High- 
nesses, with  a  salary  of  500  livres,  and  "  the  rights,  honours, 
privileges,  exemptions,"  ic,  belonging  to  persons  of  the 
royal  household,  not  to  speak  of  the  gift  of  a  gold  chain. 
Not  least  in  importance  for  the  painter  was  his  complete 
exemption  from  all  the  regulations  of  the  guild  of  St 
Luke,  entitling  him  to  engage  any  scholars  or  fellow- 
workers,  without  being  obliged  to  have  them  enrolled, — a 
favour,  it  must  be  added,  which  has  been  the  source  of 
considerable  trouble  to  the  historians  of  Flemish  art. 

Although  so  recently  returned  to  his  native  land, 
Rubens  seems  to  have  been,  with  one  accord,  accepted  by 
his  countrymen  as  the  head  of  their  school,  and  the 
municipality  was  foremost  in  giving  him  the  means  of 
proving  his  acquirements.  The  first  in  date  among  the 
numerous  repetitions  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi  is  a 
picture  in  the  Madrid  Gallery,  measuring  12  feet  by  17, 
and  containing  no  fewer  than  eight-and-twenty  life  size 
figures,  many  in  gorgeous  attire,  warriors  in  steel  armour, 
horsemen,  slaves,  camels,  ic.  This  picture,  painted  in 
Antwerp,  at  the  town's  expense  in  1609,  had  scarcely  re- 
mained three  years  in  the  town-hall  when  it  went  to  Spain 
as  a  present  to  Don  Rodrigo  Calderon,  count  of  Oliva. 
The  painter  has  represented  himself  among  the  horsemen, 
bareheaded,  and  wearing  his  gold  chain.  Cumberland 
speaks  of  this  picture  as  the  standard  work  of  its  author, 
ind  certainly  it  was  well  calculated  to  bring  Rubens  to 
the  front  rank  in  his  profession.  From  a  letter  written  in 
May  1611  we  know  that  more  tlian  a  hundred  young  men 
■were  desirous  to  become  his  pupils,  and  that  many  had, 
"  lor  several  years,"  been  waiting  with  other  masters,  until 
te  could  ?dmit  them  to  liis  studio.     It  was  thus  from  the 


beginning  regarded  as  a  great  favour  to  be  admitted  a 
pupil  of  Rubens. 

Apart  from  the  success  of  his  works,  another  powerful 
motive  had  helped  to  detain  the  master  in  Antwerp, — his 
marriage  with  Isaliella  Brant  (October  1609).  Many 
pictures  have  made  us  familiar  with  the  graceful  young 
woman  who  was  for  seventeen  years  to  share  the  master's 
destinies.  We  meet  her  at  The  Hague,  St  Petersburg, 
Florence,  at  Grosvenor  House,  but  more  especially  at 
Munich,  where  Rubens  and  his  wife  .are  depicted  at  full 
length  on  the  same  canvass.  "  His  wife  is  very  hand- 
some," observes  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "and  has  an  agree- 
able countenance  ; "  but  the  picture,  he  adds,  "  is  rather 
hard  in  manner."  This,  it  must  be  noted,  is  the  case 
with  all  those  pictures  known  to  have  immediately 
followed  Rubens'a  return,  when  he  was  still  dependent 
on  the  assistance  of  paiateis  trained  by  others  than  him- 
self. Even  In  the  Raising  of  the  Cross,  now  in  the 
Antwerp  cathedral,  and  painted  for  the  church  of  St 
Walburg  in  1610,  the  dryness  in  outline  is  very  striking. 

According  to  the  taste  still  at  that  time  prevailing,  the 
picture  is  tripartite,  but  the  wings  only  serve  to  develop 
the  central  composition,  and  add  to  the  general  effect. 
In  Witdoeck's  beautiful  engraving  the  partitions  even 
disappear.  Thus,  from  the  first,  we  see  Rubens  quite 
determined  upon  having  his  own  way,  and  it  is  recorded 
that,  when  he  painted  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  St 
Christopher,  the  subject  chosen  by  the  Arquebusiers,  was 
altered  so  as  to  bring  the  artistic  expressions  into  better 
a-:cordance  with  his  views.  Although  the  subject  was 
frequently  repeated  by  the  great  painter,  this  first  Descent 
from  the  Cross  has  not  ceased  to  be  looked  upon  as  his 
masterpiece.  Begun  in  1611,  the  celebrated  work  was 
placed  in  ICll,  and  certainly  no  more  striking  evidence 
could  be  given  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  author's  abili- 
ties.    Rubens  received  2100  fiorins  for  this  picture. ' 

Although  it  is  chance  that  has  brought  the  Raising  of 
the  Cro^s  and  the  Descent  from  the  .Cross  into  their 
present  close  juxtaposition,  it  is  not  improbable  that  their 
uniformity  in  size  may  have  been  designed.  In  many 
respects,  Italian  influence  remains  conspicuous  in  the 
Descent.  Rubens  had  seen  Ricciarelli's  fresco  at  the 
Trinita  de'  Monti,  and  was  also  acquainted  with  the 
grandiose  picture  of  Baroccio  in  the  cathedral  of  Perugia, 
and  no  one  conversant  with  these  works  can  mistake  their 
influence.  But  in  Rubens  strength  of  personality  could 
not  be  overpowered  by  reminiscence;  and  in  type,  as  well 
as  in  colouring,  the  Descent  from  the  Cross  may  be  termed 
thoroughly  Flemish  and  Rubenesque.  As  Waagen  justly 
observes:  "the  boldness  of  the  composition,  the  energy  in 
the  characters,  the  striking  attitudes,  and  the  effects  of  the 
grouping,  together  with  the  glowing  vigorous  colouring, 
belong  to  his  later  style,  whereas  a  few  of  the  heads,  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  Virgin,  display  the  careful  execution 
of  his  earlier  period.  The  interior  of  the  wings,  on  which 
are  painted  the  Visitation  and  the  Presentation  in  the 
Temple,  exhibit,  on  the  other  hand,  a  greater  resemblance 
to  the  conjugal  picture  already  alluded  to,  owing  to  a 
certaiuo  repose  in  action,  a  more  elevated  expression  of 
delicacy  and  feeling  in-  the  characters,  and  ajess  glo.wing 
though  still  admirable  colouring." 

Legend,  in  some  way,  connects  Van  Dyck  with  tha 
Descent  from  the  Cross,  and  ascribes  to  the  great  portrait 
painter  an  arm  and  shoulder  of  Mary  Magdalene,  wliich 
had  been  damaged  by  a  pupil's  carelessness.  Plain  truth 
here,  once  more,  seems  to  contradict  romance.  Van  Dyck 
was  a  pupil  of  Van  Balen's  in  1609,  and  most  probably 
remained  with  him  several  years  before  coming  to  Rubens. 

If  Sir  Dudley  Carleton  could  speak  of  Antwerp  in  1616 
as  "  Magna,  civitas,  magna  solitudo,"  there  was^  no  ;^ace 


RUBENS 


43 


nevertheless  which  could  give  a  wider  scope  to  artistic 
enterprise.  Spain  and  the  United  Provinces  were  for  a 
time  at  peace ;  almost  all  the  churches  had  been  stripped 
of  their  adornments ;  monastic  orders  were  powerful  and 
richly  endowed,  guilds  and  corporations  eager  to  show  the 
fervour  of  their  Catholic  faith,  now  that  the  "monster  of 
heresy  "  seemed  for  ever  quelled.  Here  were  opportunities 
without  number  for  painters  as  well  as  sculptors  and 
architects.  Gothic  churches  began  to  be  decorated  accord- 
ing to  the  new  fashion  adopted  in  Italy.  Altars  magnified 
to  monuments,  sometimes  reaching  the  full  height  of  the 
vaulted  roof,  displayed,  between  their  twisted  columns, 
pictures  of  a  size  hitherto  unknown.  No  master  seemed 
better  fitted  to  be  associated  with  this  k,ind  of  painting 
than  Rubens,  whose  works  we  have  already  met  with  in 
churches  newly  erected  at  Rome,  Genoa,  and  Mantua,  by 
the  Jesuits,  in  the  gOrgeous  style  which  bears  their  name, 
and  which  Rubens  commends  in  the  preface  to  his  Palmizi 
di  Genova  (Antwerp,  1622).  The  temple  erected  by  the 
reverend  fathers  in  Antwerp  was  almost  entirely  the 
painter's  work,  and  if  he  did  not,  as  we  often  find  asserted, 
design  the  front,  he  certainly  was  the  inspirer  of  the  whole 
building,  which,  after  all,  was  but  a  reminiscence  of  the 
churches  in  Genoa.  And  the  temple  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Antwerp  remained  for  a  century  the  only  example  of  its 
kind  in  Belgium.  Hitherto  no  Fleming  had  undertaken 
to  paint  ceilings  with  foreshortened  figures,  and  blend  the 
religious  with  the  decorative  art  after  the  style  of  those 
buildings  which  are  met  with  in  Italy,  and  owe  their  decora- 
tions to  masters  like  Titian,  Veronese,  and  Tintoretto.  No 
less  tlian  forty  ceilings  were  composed  by  Rubens,  and 
painted  under  his  direction  in  the  space  of  two  years. 
All  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1718.  Sketches  in  water- 
colour  were  taken  some  time  before  the  disaster  by  De 
Wit,  and  from  these  were  made  the  etchings  by  Punt  which 
alone  enable  us  to  form  a  judgment  of  the  grandiose  under- 
taking. In  the- Madrid  Gallery  we  find  a  general  view  of 
the  church  in  all  its  splendour.  The  present  church  of 
St  Charles  in  Antwerp  is,  externally,  with  some  alteration, 
the  building  here  alluded  to. 

Rubens  delighted  in  undertakings  of  the  vastest  kind. 
"The  large  size  of  a  picture,"  he  writes  to  W.  Trumbull  in 
1621,  "gives  us  painters  more  courage  to  represent  our 
ideas  with  the  utmost  freedom  and  semblance  of  reality. 
.  .  .'  .  I  confess  myself  to  be,  by  a  natural  instinct, 
better  fitted  to  e.\ecute  works  of  the  largest  size."  The 
correctness  of  this  appreciation  he  was  very  soon  called 
uiKm  to  demonstrate  most  strikingly  by  a  series  of  twenty- 
^our  pictures,  illustrating  the  life  of  Mary  de'  Medici, 
queen-mother  of  France.  The  gallery  at  the  Luxembourg 
Palace,  which  these  paintings  once  adorned,  has  long  since 
disappeared,  and  the  complete  work  is  now  exhibited  in 
the  Louvre.  Prawings,  it  seems,  had  been  usked  from 
Quentin  Varin,  the  French  master  who  incited  Poussin  to 
become  a  painter,  but  Rubens  was  ultimately  preferred. 
This  preference  may  in  some  degree  be  ascribed  to  his 
former  connexion  with  the  court  at  Mantua,  Mary  de' 
Medici  and  the  duchess  of  Gonzaga  being  sisters.  The 
story  of  Mary  de'  Medici  may  bo  regarded  as  a  poem  in 
painting,  and  no  person  conversant  with  the  literature  of 
the  time  can  fail  to  recognize  that  strange  mixture  of  the 
sacred  and  the  mythological  in  which  the  most  admired 
authors  of  the  17th  century,  beginning  with  Malherbe, 
delight.  Absolutely  speaking,  Mrs  Jameson  may  be  right 
in  criticizing  Rubens'a  "coarse  allegories,  historical  impro- 
prieties, «tc.";  bu'.  i  man  belongs  to  his  time,  and  uses  its 
language  in  order  to  make  himself  understood.  From  the 
cradle  to  the  day  of  her  reconciliation  with  Louis  XIIL, 
wo  follow  Mary  de'  Medici  after  the  manner  in  which  it 
Vas  customary  io  those  days  to  consider  personages  of 


superior  rank.  The  Fates  for  her  have  spun  the  silken  and 
golden  thread  ;  Juno  watches  over  her  birth  and  intrusts 
her  to  the  town  of  Florence;  Minerva,  the  Graces,  and 
Apollo  take  charge  of  her  education ;  Love  exhibits  her 
image  to  the  king,  and  Neptune  conveys  her  across  the  seas; 
Justice,  Health,  and  Plenty  endow  her  son  ;  Prudence  and 
Generosity  are  at  her  sides  during  the  regency;  and,  when 
she  resigns  the  helm  of  the  state  to  the  prince.  Justice, 
Strength,  Religion,  and  Fidelity  hold  the  oars.  The 
sketches  of  all  these  paintings — now  in  the  Munich 
Gallery — were  painted  in  Antwerp,  a  numerous  staff  of 
distinguished  collaborators  being  intrusted  with  the  final 
execution.  But  the  master  himself  spent  much  time  in 
Paris,  retouching  the  whole  work,  which  was  completed 
within  less  than  four  years.  On  May  13,  1625,  Rubcna 
writes  from  Paris  to  his  friend  Peiresc  that  both  the  queeu 
and  her  son  are  highly  satisfied  with  his  paintings,  and 
that  Louis  XIII.  came  on  purpose  to  the  Luxembourg, 
"  where  he  never  has  set  foot  since  the  palace  was  begun 
sixteen  or  eighteen  years  ago."  We  also  gather  from  this 
letter  that  the  picture  representing  the  Felicity  of  the 
Regency  was  painted  to  replace  another,  the  Departure  of 
the  Queen,  which  had  caused  some  offence.  "  If  I  had 
been  let  alone,"  he  says,  "  the  other  subjects  would  have 
been  better  accepted  by  -the  court,  and  without  scandal  or 
murmur."  "  And  I  fear,"  he  adds,  "  far  greater  difficulties 
will  be  found  with  the  subjects  of  the  next  gallery." 
Richelieu  gave  himself  some  trouble  to  get  this  part  of  the 
work,  intended  to  represent  the  life  of  Henry  IV.,  bestowed 
upon  Cavalier  d'Arpina,  but  did  not  succeed  in  his  endea- 
vours. The  queen's  exile,  however,  prevented  the  under- 
taking from  going  beyond  a  few  sketches,  and  two  or  three 
panels,  one  of  which,  the  Triumph  of  Henry  IV.,  now  in 
the  Palazzo  Pitti,  is  one  of  the  noblest  works  of  Rubens 
or  of  any  master.  Most  undoubtedly  the  painter  here 
calls  to  his  aid  his  vivid  recollections  of  the  Triumph  ot 
Ca;sar  by  Mantegna,  now  at  Hampton  Court,  but  in  his 
day  adorning  the  palace  at  Mantua ;  of  this  he  made  a 
copy,  inscribed  No.  315  in  the  catalogue  of  his  effects 
sold  in  1640,  and  now  in  the  National  Gallery. 

On  the  11th  of  May  1625  Rubens  was  present  at  the 
nuptials  of  Henrietta  Maria  at  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  when 
the  scaffolding  on  which  he  stood  gave  way,  and  he  tells 
us  he  was  just  able  to  catch  an  adjoining  tribune. 

No  painter  in  Europe  could  now  pretend  to  equal 
Rubens  either  in  talent  or  in  renown.  Month  after 
month  productions  of  amazing  size  left  the  Antwerp  studio; 
and  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  master's  pictures  mag- 
nificent engravings  by  Vorsterman,  Pontius,  and  others 
had  conveyed  singularly  striking  interpretations.  "  What- 
ever work  of  hLs  I  may  require,"  writes  Moretus,  the  cele- 
brated Antwerp  printer,  "  I  have  to  ask  him  six  months 
before,  so  as  that  he  may  think  of  it  at  leisure,  and  do  the 
work  on  Sundays  or  holidays  ;  no  week  days  of  his  could 
I  pretend  to  get  under  a  hundred  florins." 

Of  the  numerous  creations  of  his  pencil,  none,  perhaps, 
will  more  thoroughly  disclose  to  us  his  comprehension  of 
religious  decorative  art  than  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin 
at  the  high  altar  of  the  Antwerp  cathedral,  finished  in 
1625.  It  is,  of  twenty  repetitions  of  tliis  subject,  the  only 
example  still  preserved  at  the  place  it  was  intended  by  the 
painter  to  occupy.  In  spirit  we  are  hero  reminded  of 
Titian's  Assunta  in  the  cathedral  at  Verona,  but  Rubcns's 
proves  perhaps  a  higher  conception  of  the  subject.  The 
work  is  seen  a  considerablo  way  off,  and  every  outline  is 
bathed  in  light,  so  that  the  Virgin  is  elevated  to  dazzling 
glory  with  a  power  of  ascension,  scarcely,  if  ever,  attained 
by  any  master. 

Able  to  rely  so  greatly  on  his  power  as  a  colourist, 
Rubens  is  not  a  mere  decorator.     He  penetrates  into  the 


44 


K   I J    I;  iil  IN    » 


spirit  of  his  subjects  more  deeply  than,  at  first  sir;lit,  seems 
consistent -with- his  prodigious  facility  ill  execution.  The 
Massacre  6f  the  Innocents,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  is  a 
,  composition  that  can  leave  no  person  unmoved, — mothers 
defending  their  children  with  nails  and  teeth.  If  Mrs 
Jameson  terms  this  picture  atrocious,  it  ought  to  be  recol- 
lected how  atrocious  is  the  subject.  When  St  Francis 
attempts  to  shelter  the  universe  from  the  Saviour's  wrath 
(Brussels  Gallery),  Rubens,  drawing  his  inspiration  from 
a  passage  of  St  Germain,  "  Ostendit  mater  filio  pectus  et 
ubera,"  recalls  to  our  memory  that  most  dramatic  passage 
of  the  Iliail  when  Hecuba,  from  the  walls  of  Troy, 
entreats  her  son  Hector  to  spare  his  life.  The  subject  is 
inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  says  Waagen, 
evidently  forgetting  that  to  Catholic  eyes  nothing  could 
be  more  impressive  than  the  Virgin's  intervention  at  this 
supreme  moment,  when  Christ,  like  another  Jupiter, 
brandishes  his  thunderbolt  against  mankind.  Rubens 
was  a  man  of  his  time  ;  his  studies  of  Italian  art  in  no 
way  led  him  back  to  the  Quattrocentisti  nor  the  Raffae- 
lesehi ;  their  power  was  at  an  end.  The  influence  of 
Michelangelo,  'Titian,  Tintoretto,  more  especially  Baroccio, 
Polydoro,  and  even  Parmigiano,  is  no  less  visible  with 
him  than  with  those  masters  who,  like  Spranger,  Chr. 
Schwartz,  and  Goltzius,  stood  high  in  public  estimation 
immediately  before  his  advent. 

In  the  midst  of  the  rarest  activity  as  a  painter,  Rubens 
■was  now  called  upon  to  give  proofs  of  a  very  different 
kind  of  ability.  The  truce  concluded  between  Spain  pnd 
the  Netherlands  in  1C09  ended  in  1621  ;  archduke  Albert 
died  the  same  year.  His  widow  sincerely  wished  to 
prolong  the  arrangement,  still  hoping  to  see  the  United 
Provinces  return  to  the  Spanish  dominion,  and  in  her 
eyes  Rubens  was  the  fittest  person  to  bring  about  this 
conclusion.  The  painter's  comings  and  goings,  however, 
did  not  remain  unheeded,  for  the  French  ambassador 
■writes  from  Brussels  in  1624, — "Rubens  is  here  to  take 
the  likeness  of  tho  prince  of  Poland,  by  order  of  the 
infanta.  I  am  persuaded  he  wiU  succeed  better  in  this 
than  in  his  negotiations  for  the  truce."  But,  if  Rubens 
■was  to  fail  in  his  efforts  to  bring  about  an  arrangement 
with  the  Ketherlands,  other  events  ena'oled  him  tp  render 
great  service  to  the  state. 

Rubens  and  Buckingham  met  in  Paris  iu  1625;  a  corre- 
spondence of  some  importance  had  been  going  on  between 
the  painter  and  the  Brussels  court,  and  before  long  it  ■was 
proposed  that  he  should  endeavour  to  bring  about  a  final 
arrangement  between  the  crowns  of  England  and  Spain. 
The  infanta  willingly  consented,  and  King  Philip,  who 
much  objected  to  the  interference  of  an  artist,  gave  way 
on  hearing,  through  his  aunt,  that  the  negotiator  on  the 
English  side,  B.  Gerbier — a  Fleming  by  birth — was  like- 
•R'ise  a  painter.  Rubens  and  Gerbier  very  soon  met  in 
Holland.  "Rubens  is  come  hitherto  Holland,  where  he 
now  is,  and  Gerbier  in  his  company,  walking  from  town 
to  town,  upon  their  pretence  of  pictures,"  writes  Sir 
Dudley  Carleton  to  Lord  Conway  in  July  1627,  "which 
may  serve  him  for  a  few  days  if  he  dispatch  and  be  gone  ; 
but  yf  he  entertayne  tymo  here  long,  he  will  infallibly 
be  layd  hold  of,  or  sent  with  disgrace  out  of  the  country 
....  This  I  have  made  known  to  Rubens  least  he 
should  meet  with  a  skorne  what  may  in  some  sort  reflect 
upon  others."  Matters,  however,  went  on  very  well,  and 
Rubens  volunteered  to  go  to  Spain  and  lay  before  the 
council  the  result  of  his  negotiations  (1628).  Nine 
months  were  thus  spent  at  Madrid;  they  rank  among  the 
most  important  in  Rubens's  career.  He  had  brought  with 
him  eight  pictures  of  various  sizes  and  subjects  as  presents 
from  the  infanta,  and  he  was  also  commissioned  to  take 
several    portraits    of    the   king   and    royal   family.      An 


equestrian  picture  of  Philip  IV.,  destroyed  by  fire  in  last' 
century,  became  the  subject  of  a  poem  by  Lope  de  Vega, 
and  tho  description  enables  us  to  identify  the  composition 
with  that  of  a  painting  now  in  the  Palazzo  Pitti,  ascribed 
to  Velazquez. 

Through  a  letter  to  Peiresc  we  hear  of  the  familiar 
intercourse  kept  up  between  the  painter  and  the  king. 
Philip  delighted  to  see  Rubens  at  work  in  the  studio  pro- 
pared  for  him  in  the  palace,  where  he  not  only  left  many 
original  pictures,  but  copied  for  his  own  pleasure  and  pro- 
fit the  best  of  Titian's.  No  less  than  forty  works  were 
thus  produced,  and,  says  the  author  of  the  Annals  of  t/ie 
Artists  of  Spain,  "  the  unwearied  activity  of  his  -well-stored 
mind  is  exemplified  by  the  fact  that  amid  .his  many 
occupations  he  was  seeking  in  the  libraries  materials  for 
an  edition  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  on  which  his  friend  Gaspard 
Gevaerts  was  then  engaged."  An  artistic  event  "f  "orne 
importance  connected  with  the  sojourn  in  Spain  'is 'the 
meeting  of  Rubens  and  Velazquez,  to  the  delight,  and  we 
venture  to  add,  advantage  of  both. 

Great  as  was  the -king's  admiration  of  Rubens  as  a 
painter,  it  seems  to  have  been  scarcely  above  the  value 
attached  to  his  political  servic.s.  Far  from  looking  upon 
Rubens  as  a  man  of  inferior  calling,  unworthy  to  meddle 
with  matters  of  state,  he  now  commissioned  the  painter 
to  go  to  London  as  bearer  of  his  views  to  Charles  I. 
Giving  up  his  long  cherished  hope  of  revisiting  Italy  on 
his  return  from  Spain,  Rubens,  honoured  with  the  title  of 
secretary  of  the  king's  privy  council  in  the  Netherlands, 
started  at  once  on  his  new  mission.  Although  he  stopped 
but  four  days  in  Antwerp,  he  arrived  in  London  just  as 
peace  had  been  concluded  ivith  France.  In  this  conjunc- 
ture of  affairs,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  eminent 
position  of  Rubens  as  a  painter  greatly  contributed  to  his 
ultimate  success  as  an  envoy.  Keceived  by  Charles  with 
genuine  pleasure,  he  very  soon  was  able  to  ingratiate 
himself  so  far  as  to  induce  the  king  to  pledge  his  royal 
word  to  take  part  in  no  undertakings  against  Spain  so 
long  as  the  negotiations  remained  unconcluded,  and  all  the 
subsequent  endeavours  of  France,  Venice,  and  the  States 
found  him  immovable  in  this  resolution.  Although  the 
privy  council  in  Madrid,  an  well  they  might,  passed 
several  voteS  of  thanks  to  Rubens,  the  tardiness  of  the 
Spani.sh  court  in  sending  a  regular  ambassador  involved 
the  unfortunate  painter  in  distressing  anxieties,  and  the 
tone  of  his  dispatches  is  very  bitter.  But  he  speaks  with 
the  greatest  admiration  of  England  and  the  English, 
regretting  that  he  should  only  have  come  to  know  the 
country  so  late.  His  popularity  must  have  been  very 
great,  for  on  September  23,  1629,  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of  master 
of  _arts,  and  on  February  21,  1630,  he  was  knighted,  the 
king  presenting  him  with  the  sword  used  at  the  ceremony, 
which  is  still  preserved  by  the  descendants  of  the  artist. 

When  the  council  at  Madrid  had  to  d€liberato*as  to 
recognition  of  the  title  conferred  upon  Rubens  in  England, 
they  remembered  that  Titian  had  been  made  a  knight  by 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  the  matter  was  settled  without 
difliculty;  but,  the  piainter's  name  having  been  mentioned 
as  a  possible  envoy  to  the  British  court,  Ohvares  objected 
that  it  was  quite  out  of  the  question  to  make  an  ambas- 
sador of  one  who  li%>ed  by  the  work  of  his  hands. 

Although,  it  seems,  less  actively  employed  as  an  artist 
in  England  than  in  Spain,  Rubens,  besides  his  sketches  fof 
the  decoration  of  the  Banqueting  House  at  Whitehall, 
painted  the  admirable  picture  of  the  Blessings  of  Peace, 
now  in  the  National  Gallery.  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt,  with  Smith,  that  "  His  Majesty  sat  to  him  io'  his 
portrait,  yet  it  is  not  a  little  remarkab'p  that  no  no^'ra 
occurs  in  any  of  the  royal  catalogues,  or  the  writers  of  the 


RUBERS 


45 


pericJ,  of  tte  existence  of  such  "a  pcrtrait."  _  While  in 
England,  Rubens  very  narrowly  escaped  drowning  while 
icing  to  Greenwich  in  a  boat  The  fact  is  reported  by 
Lord  Dorchester  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Isaac  Wake  (Saiusbury, 
:xvi.).  At  the  be^ianing  of  March  the  painter's  mission 
same  to  a  clos: 

Kubens  was  pow  Sfty-t!iree  years  of  age ;  he  had  been 
four  years  a  widower,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year 
(December  1630)  he  entered  into  a  second  marriage  with 
the  beautiful  girl  of  sixteen,  named  Helena  Fourment, 
with  whom  his  pictures  have  made  th?  world  so  well  ac- 
quainted. More  than  twenty  portraits  of  her  are  described 
by  Smith,  and  she  also  figures  in  peihaps  twice  as  many 
of  the  master's  creations.  Whether  Rubens  was  more 
powerfully  led  in  the  choice  of  his  second  wife  by  her  per- 
sonal beauty  or  by  the  strength  of  a  certain  resemblance 
to  his  feminine  ideal  is  questionable.  Anyhow,  she  was 
an  admirable  model,  and  none  of  her  husband's  works  (nay 
be  more  justly  termed  masterpieces  than  those  in  which 
she  is  represented  (ifuaich,  St  Petersburg,  Blenheim, 
tiiechtenstein,  the  Louvre,  Ac). 

Although  the  long  months  of  absence  could  not  be 
termed  blanks  in  Rubens's  artistic  career,  his  return  was 
followed  by  an  almost  in-iedible  activity.  Inspired  more 
than  ever  by  the  glorious  works  of  Titian,  he  now  pro- 
duced some  of  his  best  creations.  Brightness  in  colouring, 
breadth  of  touch  and  pictorial  conception,  are  specially 
striking  in  those  works  we  know  to  have  been  painted  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  lifetime.  Could  anything  give  a 
higher  degree  of  Rubens's  genius  than,  for  example,  the 
Feast  of  Venus,  the  portrait  of  Helena  Fourment  ready  to 
enter  the  bath,  or  the  St  Ildefonso.  This  last  picture — -^ 
now,  as  well  as  the  two  others  just  alluded  to,  in  the  Vienna 
Gallery — was  painted  for  the  church  of  the  convent  of  St 
Jacques,  in  Brussels.  On  the  ■Wings  are  represented  the 
archdukes  in  royal  attire,  under  the  protection  of  their 
patron  saints.  The  presence  of  these  figures  has  led  to 
some  mistake  regarding  the  date  of  the  production,  but  it 
has  been  proved  beyond  doubt,  through  a  document  pub- 
lished by  Mr  Castan  (1884),  that  the  St  Ildefonso  belongs 
to  the  series  of  works  executed  after  the  journeys  to 
Spain  and  England.  Archduke  Albert  had  been  dead  ten 
^ears.     The  picture  was  engraved  by  Witdoeck  in  1638. 

Isabella  died  in  1633,  and  we  know  that  to  the  end 
Rubens  remained  in  high  favour  with  her,  alike  as  an 
artist  and  as  a  political  agent.  The  painter  was  even  one 
of  the  gentlemen  she  deputed  to  meet  Mary  de'  Medici  at 
the  frontier  in  1631,  after  her  escape  from  France. 

Spain  and  the  Netherlands  v/ent  to  war  again,  the  king 
never  ceasing  to  look  upon  the  Dutch  as  rebels.  The  sub- 
ject need  not  be  dwelt  upon  ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  m'uch 
useless  trouble  and  su.spicion  came  upon  the  great  artist. 
As  to  the  real  nature  of  his  communings  wth  Frederick 
Henry  of  Orange,  whom  he  is  known  to  have  interviewed, 
nothing  as  yet  has  been  discovered. 

Ferdinand  of  Austria,  the  cardinal-infant  of  Spain,  was 
called  to  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  on  the  death 
of  his  aunt.  He  was  the  king's  younger  brother,  and 
arrived  at  Antwerp  in  May  1635.  The  streets  had  been 
decorated  with  triumphal  arches  and  "  spectacula,"  arranged 
Sj  Rubens,  and  certiiinly  never  equalled  by  any  other 
works  of  the  kind.'  Several  of  the  paintings  detached 
from  the  arches  were  offered  as  presents  to  the  new 
governor-general,  a  scarcely  known  fact,  which  accounts 
for  the  presence  of  many  of  these  works  in  public  galleries 

*  Many  sketches  of  the  arched  are  still  preserved  in  the  nuisenms 
In  Antwerp,  St  Pettrsburg,  Cambridge,  Windsor,  &c.  All  the 
compositions  were  etched  under  the  direction  of  Rubens  by  his  pupil 
J.  Van  Thulden  and  published  under  the  title  of  Pompa  introiius 
honori  tertniiiimi  Principit  Ferdinandi  Auatriaci  S.  R.  E.  card,  a 
S,  P.  Q.  Anlvcrp.  dccreia  tt  ordinata.   - 


(Vienna,  Dresden,  Brussels,  Ac).  Rubens  was  at  ths  time 
laid  up  with  gout,  but  Prince  Ferdinand  was  desirous  of 
expressing  his  satisfaction,  and  called  upon  the  painter, 
remaining  a  long  time  at  his  house.  Rubens  and  Ferdinand 
had  met  at  Madrid,  and  only  a  short  time  elapsed  before 
the  painter  was  confirmed  in  his  official  standing, — a  matter 
of  small  importance,  if  we  consider  that  the  last  years  of 
his  life  were  almost  exclusively  employed  in  working 
much  more  for  the  king  than  for  his  brother.  About  a 
hundred  and  twenty  paintings  of  considerable  size  left 
Antwerp  for  Madrid  in  1637,  1638,  and  1639  ;  they  were 
intended  to  decorate  the  pavilion  erected  at  the  Pardo, 
and  known  under  the  name  of  Torre  de  la  Parada. 
Another  series  had  been  begun,  when  Ferdinand  wrote  to 
Madrid  that  the  painter  was  no  more,  and  Jordaens  would 
finish  the  work.  Rubens  breathed  his  last  on  the  30th  of 
May  1640. 

^Nlore  fortunate  than  many  artists,  Rubens  left  the  world  in 
the  midst  of  his  glory.  Not  tlie  remotest  trace  of  approaching  old 
age,  not  the  slighest  failing  of  mind  or  skill,  can  be  detected-  even 
in  his  latest  works,  such  as  the  JlartjTdom  of  St  Peter  at  Cologne, 
the  Martyrdom  of  St  Thomas  at  Prague,  6r  the  Judgment  of  Paris 
at  Madrid,  where  hie  young  wife  appears  for  the  last  time.  "  She 
is  the  handsomest  person  in  Antwerp,"  writes  Ferdinand  to  his 
brother,  in  announcing  the  completion  of  what  he  terms, "the 
best  painting  Rubens  has  done." 

If  Rubens  was  something  of  a  diplomatist,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  alike  iu  body  as  in  mind  ha  is  portrayed  in  his  own  works  with 
the  utmost  straightforwardnesg.  His  productions  are  what  they 
are,  as  if  they  could  not  have  been  otherwise,  and  the  fact  is  that, 
in  reply  to  any  observations  he, may  happen  to  receive,  we  con- 
stantly find  him  asserting  the  necessities  of  his  subjects,  thus 
confirming  a  remark  made  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  that  his  subjects 
always  seem  to  suit  his  style. 

Rubens  is  so  well  known  that  it  hardly  seems  necessary  to  dwell 
upon  his  outward  appearance.  From  his  own  letters  and  those 
in  which  he  is  referred  to  we  become  acquainted  with  a  man  of 
vast  erudition,  great  good  sense,  dignity,  and  kindness,  none  more 
worthy  of  being  called  a  gentleman  ;  and  Sir  Dudley  Carleton,  we 
know,  termed  him  not  only  tbe_  prince  of  painters  but  of  gentle- 
men. 

Those  with  whom  he  dealt  in  questions  of  learning  proclaim 
his  artistic  excellence  to  be  second  only  to  his  other  qualifications, 
and  even  such  critics  as  Winckelmann,  who  are  least  likely  to 
sympathize  with  his  style,  -do  homage  to  his  superior  genius. 
"  Rubens,"  he  writes  to  Count  Cobenzl,  "  is  the  glory  of  art,  of  his 
school,  of  his  country,  and  of  all  coming  centuries;  the  fertility  of 
his  imagination  cannot  be  overrated  ;  he  is  correct  in  his  design, 
magnificent  in  his  drapery ;  and  he  must  be  looked  upon  as  the 
great  model  for  chiaroscuro,  although  in  this  branch  he  may  bo 
termed  fanciful,  but  he  has  not  sacrificed  to  the  goddesses  o^ 
beauty  {Horw)  and  the  Graces." 

Rubens,  indeed,  although  his  type  of  feminine  beauty  is  generally 
most  pleasing,  has  little  of  |the  Italian  grace  and  refinement,  but 
then  he  was  a  Fleming  througjiout,  notwithstanding  his  frequent 
recollections  of  those  Italian  masters  whom  he  most  admired,  and 
who  themselves  have  little,  if  anything,  ill  common  with  Raphael. 
But  it -must  be  borne  in  mind  how  completely  his  predecessors  were 
frozen  into  stiffness  through  Italianization,  and  how  necessary  it  was 
to  bring  back  the  Flemish  school  to  life  and  nature.  Critics  have 
spoken  of  Rubens's  historical  improprieties.  Of  course  nobody  could 
suppose  that  his  classical  learning  did  not  go  far  enough  to  know 
that  the  heroines  of  the  Old  Testament  or  of  Roman  history  were 
not  dressed  out  as  ladies  of  his  time ;  but  in  this  resjiect  he  only 
follows  the  example  of  Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  and  many  others.  In 
no  other  school  do  we  find  these  animated  hunts  of  li»ns,  tigers,  and 
even  the  hippopotamus  and  the  crocodile,  which  may  be  reckoned 
among  the  finest  specimens  of  art,  and  here  again  ore  life  and 
nature  displayed  with  the  utmost  power.  "  His  horses  are  perfect 
in  their  kind,"  says  Reynolds  ;  his  dogs  are  of  the  strong  Flemish 
breed,  and  his  landscapes  the  most  charming  pictures  of  Braban- 
tine  scenery,  in  the  midst  of  which  lay  his  seat  of  Stcen.  As  a 
portrait  painter,  although  less  refined  than  Van  Dyck,  he  shows 
that  eminent  master  the  way,  and  his  pure  fancy  subjects,  as  the 
Garden  of  Love  (Madrid  and  Dresden)  and  the  Village  Feast 
(Louvre),  have  never  been  equalled.  As  Mrs  Jameson  so  justly 
remarks, "  Rubens  is  the  most  popular  because  the  most  intelligible 
of  painters." 

For  nearly  one  hundred  years  the  Flemish  school  may  be  said  to 
have  been  but  a  reflexion, of  the  Rubenesque  principles.     AlthouBh 
Jordaens  and  Erasmus  Qucllin  lived  till  1678,  the  school  might  be 
termed  a  body  without  soul. 
sSomo  etchings  have  been  ascribed  to  Kubens,  but  except  a  bead 


46 


R  U  B  — R  U  B 


of  Seneca,  the  only  copy  of  whioh  is  in  the  Print  Room  at  the 
British  Museum,  and  a  "beautiful  figure  of  St  Catherine,  we  can 
admit  none  of  the  other  plates,  said  to  proceed  from  Kubens,  as 
authentic.  Rubens  nevertheless  exercised  an  immense  influence 
on  the  art  of  engraving.  Under  his  direct  guidance  Soutman, 
Vorsterman,  I'ontius,  Witdoeck,  the  two  Bolswerts,  Peter  de  Jode, 
N.  Lauwers,  and  many  others  of  less  note  loft  an  immense  number 
of  beautiful  plates,  reproducing  the  most  celebrated  of  his  paint- 
ings. To  give  an  idea  of  wliat  his  influence  was  capable  of  accom- 
plishing, pictorially  speaking,  it  might  be  sufficient  to  notice  the 
transformation  undergone  by  the  Antwerp  school  of  engraving 
under  Rubens;  even  the  modern  school  of  engraving,  in  more  than 
one  respect,  is  a  continuation  of  the  style  first  practised  in 
Antwerp.  His  in?.Uence  is  scarcely  less  apparent  in  sculpture, 
-and  the  celebrated  Luke  Fayd'herbe  was  his  pupil. 

Neither  in  name  nor  in  fact  did  the  Flemish  school  ever  find  a 
second  Rubens.  None  of  his  four  sons  became  a  painter,  nor  did 
any  of  his  three  daughters  marry  an  artist.  According  to  Rubens's 
will,  his  drawings  were  to  belong  to  that  one  of  his  sons  who  might 
become  a  painter,  or  in  the  event  of  one  of  his  daughters  marrying 
a  celebrated  artist  they  were  to  be  her  portion.  The  valuable 
collection  was  dispersed  only  in  1659,  and  of  the  pictures  sold  in 
1640  thirty-two  became  the  property  of  the  king  of  Spain.  The 
Madrid  Gallery  alone  possesses  a  hundred  of  his  works.  Four  years 
after  her  husband's  deatli  Helena  Fourment  married  J.  B.  Van 
Brouckhoven  de  Bergheyck,  knight  of  St  James,  member  of  the 
privy  council,  ic.  She  died  in  1673.  In  1746  the  male  line  of 
Rubens's  descendants  was  completely  extinct.  In  the  female  lino 
more  than  a  hundred  families  of  name  in  Europe  trace  their  descent 
from  him. 

The  paintings  of  Rubens  are  found  in  all  the  principal  galleries 
in  Europe  :  Antwerp  and  Brussels,  Madrid,  Paris,  Lille,  Dresden, 
Berlin,  Munich,  Vienna,  St  Tetersburg,  London,  Florence,  Milan, 
Turin  exhibit  several  hundreds  of  his  works.  J.  Smith's  Catalogue 
gives  descriptions  of  more  than  thirteen  hundred  compositions. 

Lileraliire.—A.  van  Hassclt,  llisloire  dp  P.  P.  Ruins,  Brussels,  1840;  E. 
Gachet.  Lettrei  intdiles  de  P.  P.  Itiibms,  Drusscls,  1840;  "W.  Noel  Sainsbury, 
Original  unpublislied  Papers  iHtislralive  0/  llie  Life  of  Sir  Peter  Paul  Rubens, 
London,  1S59  ;  C.  Ruelens,  Pierre  Paul  Rubens,  Doeumenls  et  Lcllres,  Brussels, 
1S77  ;  Armand  Bardlet  "Rubens  en  Ttalie  et  en  Espagne,"  in  the  Gazelle  des 
Beaux  Arts,  vols.  sjll.  to  xxiv.,  Paris,  1867-68;  A.  MIchlels.  Rubens  el  I'Seote 
(T .inters.  Pails,  1877;  Cruzada  ViUmmW,  Rubens  diplomatieo  espanol,  Madtid, 
1874  ;  Gacliard.  Histoire  poltligue  el  diplomatique  di  P.  P.  Rubens,  Bmssela, 
1877;  P.  .Gcnard,  P.  P.  Riibeus,  Aanleckeningen  over  den  Grooten  ^feesler, 
Antwerp,  1877  ;  (.Max  Rooses,  Tilres  et  Portraits  grates  d'lipres  P.  P.  Rubens, 
pour  Vimprimerie  plantinienne,  Antw.,  1877;  J.  Smith,  Catalogue  Raisonni*  of 
the  Works  of  the  most  eminent  Dutch  and  t'leniish  Painters,  part  ii.,  London.  1830; 
Waagen,  Peter  Paul  Rnbeus  (translated  from  the  German  by  R.  Noel,  edited  by 
Mis  Jameson,  London.  1840)  ;  H.  Hyninns,  Histoire  de  la  grnture  dqns  I'Eeole  de 
Rubens,  Brussels.  1870;  C.  G.  Voorhelni  Schneevoogt,  Cattflogue  des  Estampes 
ffravees  d'aprH  Rubens,  Heailcm,  1873.  (H.  H.) 

EUBIDIUM.     See  Potassium  Metals. 

E.UBRUQUIS,  the  name  which  has  most  commonly 
been  given  to  William  of  Rubruk,  a  Franciscan  friar  and 
the  author  of  a  remarkable  narrative  of  Asiatic  travel  in 
the  13th  century.  Ifothing  is  known  of  him  save  what 
can  be  gathered  from  his  own  narrative,  with  the  exception 
of  a  word  from  the  pen  of  Roger  Bacon,  his  contemporary 
and  brother  Franciscan,  indicating  personal  acquaintance. 
The  name  of  Rubruquis  has  adhered  to  him,  owing  to  this 
form  ("  AVillielmus  de  Rubruquis")  being  found  in  the 
imperfect  copy  of  the  Latin  original  printed  by  Hakluyt 
in  his  collection,  and  followed  in  his  English  translation, 
as  well  as  in  the  completer  issue  of  the  English  by 
Purchas.  Writers,  again,  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries 
have  called  the  traveller  Risbroucke  and  Rysbrok-ius,  for 
which  there  is  no  authority, — an  error  founded  on 
the  too  hasty  identification  of  his  name  of  origin  with 
Ruysbroeck  in  Brabant  (a  few  miles  south  of  Brussels). 
This  error  was  probably  promoted  by  the  fame  of  John 
of  Ruysbroeck  or  Rysbroeck  (1294-1381),  a  Belgian 
iu}-stic  theologian,  whose  treatises  have  been  reprinted 
as  late  as  1848  (see  vol.  xvii.  p.  133).  Our  traveller 
is  styled  "  Guillaume  de  Rysbroeck"  and  "Ruysbroek" 
in  the  Biographie  UniversdU  and  in  the  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generate.  It  is  only  within  the  last  twenty  years  that 
attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  Eubrouck 
is  the  name  of  a  village  and  commune  in  what  was 
formerly  called  French  Flanders,  belonging  to  the  canton  of 
Cassel  in  the  department  du  Nord,  and  lying  some  8i  miles 
north-east  of  St  Omcr.  In  the  library  of  the  latter  city 
many  medieval   documents   e.\ist   referring   expressly  to 


Rubrouck,  and  to  persona  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuiiea 
styled  as  "do  Rubrouck. "^  It  may  be  fairly  a.ssumcd  that 
Friar  William  came  from  this  place;  indeed,  if  attention 
had  been  paid  to  the  title  of  the  MS.  belonging  to  Lord 
Lumley,  which  was  published  by  Hakluyt  {Itinerarium 
fratris  Willielmi  de  Rubruquis  de  Ordine  fratrum  Minorum, 
Galli,  Anno  Gratim  1253,  ad  paries  Orienlales),  there  need 
have  been  no  question  as  to  the  traveller's  quasi-French 
nationality;  2  but  this  (erroneously)  has  always  been  treated 
as  if  it  were  an  arbitrary  glo.ss  of  Hakluyt's  own. 

Friar  William  went  to  Tartary  under  orders  from  Louis 
IX.  (St  Louis).  That  king,  at  an  earlier  date,  viz., 
December  1248,  when  in  Cyprus,  had  been  vi.sited  by 
certain  persons  representing  themselves  to  be  envoys  from 
a  great  Tartar  chief  Elchigaday  (Ilchikadai),  who  com- 
manded thfe  Mongol  hosts  in  Armenia  and  Persia.  The 
king  then  despatched  a  return  mission  consisting  of  Friar 
Andrew  of  Lonjumel  and  other  ecclesiastics,  who  carried 
presents  and  letters  for  both  Ilchikadai  and  the  Great 
Khan.  They  reached  the  court  of  the  latter  in  the  winter 
of  1249-50,  when  there  was  in  fact  no  actual  khan  on  the 
throne ;  but  in  any  case  they  returned,  along  with  Tartar 
envoys,  bearing  a  letter  to  Louis,  which  was  couched  in 
terms  so  arrogant  and  offensive  that  the  king  repented 
sorely  of  having  sent  such  a  mission  {li  rois  se  repenti  fort 
quant  ily  envoia,  Joinville,  §  492).  These  returned  envoys 
reached  the  king  when  he  was  at  Ca;sarea,  therefore  be- 
tween March  1251  and  May  1252.  It  was,  however,  not 
very  long  after  that  the  zealous  king,  hearing  that  a  great 
Tartar  prince  called  Sartak  was  a  baptized  Christian,  felt 
strongly  movetJ  to  open  communication  with  him,  and  for 
this  purpose  deputed  Friar  William  of  Rubruk  wijh  com- 
panions. But  it  is  evident  that  the  former  rebuff  had 
made  the  king  chary  as  to  giving  these  emissaries  the 
character  of  his  royal  envoys,  and  Friar  William  on  every 
occasion,  beginning  with  a  sermon  delivered  in  St  Sophia's 
(on  Palm  Sunday,  i.e.,  April  13,  1253),  formally  disclaimed 
that  character,  alleging  ttat,  though  he  was  the  bearer  of 
the  king's  letters  and  presents,  he  went  simply  in  fulfilment 
of  his'  duty  as  a  Franciscan  and  preacher  of  the  gospel. 

Various  histories  of  St  Louis,  and  other  documents 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  give  particulars  of  the 
.despatch  of  the  mission  of  Friar  Andrew  from  Cyprus,  but 
none  mention  that  of  Friar  William ;  and  the  first  dates 
given  by  the  latter  are  those  of  his  sermon  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  of  his  embarkation  from  Sinope  (May  7,  1253). 
He  must  therefore  have  received  his  commission  at  Acre, 
where  the  king  was  residing  from  May  125^2  to  June  29, 
1253;  but  he  had  travelled  by  way  of  Constantinople,  as 
has  just  been  indicated,  and  there  received  letters  to  some 
of  the  Tartar  chiefs  from  the  emperor,  who  was  at  this  time 
Baldwin  de  Courtenay,  the  last  of-the  Latin  dynasty. 

The  narrative  of  the  Journey  is  everywhere  full  of  life  and 
interest,  birt  we  cannot  follow  its  details.  The  vast  conquests  of 
Jenghiz  Khan  Vere  still  in  nominal  dependence  on  his  successors, 
at  this  time  represented  by  Mangu  Khan,  reigning  on  the  Mongo- 
lian steppes,  but  practically  those  conquests  were  splitting  up  into 
several  great  monarchies.  Of  these  the  Ulus  of  Juji,  the  eldest 
son  of  jengliiz,  formed  the  most  westerly,  and  its  ruler  was  Batd 
Khan,  established  on  the  Volga.  Sartak  is  known  in  the  history 
of  the  Mongols  as  Batu's  eldest  son,  and  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor, thotigh  he  died  immediately  after  his  father  (1255).  The 
story  of  Sartak's  profession  of  Christianity  may  have  had  soma 
kind  of  foundation  ;  it  was  currently  believed  among  the  Asiatic 

'  A  detailed  notice  of  such  documents  was  published  by  M.  Edm. 
CoUi.-Bm.iker  of  Lille.  See  remarks  by  M.  D'Avezac  in  Bull,  de  la 
Soc.  lie  Oeog.,  2d  vol.  for  1868,  pp.  569-570. 

^  The  country  of  Flanders  was  at  this  time  a  fief  of  the  French 
crown  (see  Natalis  de  Wailly,  Notes  on  Joinville,  p.  576):  William's 
mother-tongue  may  probably  have  been  Fleraislj.  But  this  cannot  be 
proved  by  his  representation  to  Manga  Khan  (p.  361)  that  certain 
Tcutonici  who  had  been  carried  away  as  slaves  by  a  Tartar  chief  were 
noslrac  linguae,  as  Dr  Franz  Schmidt  inclines  to  think. 


E  U  B  — R  U  B 


47 


Christians,  and  it  is  alleged  by  Armenian  writers  that  he  had  been 
L.ought  up  and  baptized  among  the  Russians. 

Rubiuk  and  his  party  landed  at  Soldaia,  or  Sudik,  on  the 
Crimean  coast,  a  port  which  was  then  the  chief  seat  of  the  com- 
munication between  the  Mediterranean  states  and  what  is  now 
southern  Russia.  Equipped  with  horses  and  carts  for  the  steppe, 
they  travelled  successively  to  the  courts  of  Sartak  and  of  Batu, 
I'espcctively  on  the  hither  and  further  banks  of  the  Volga,  bandied 
from  one  to  the  other,  and  then  referred  to  the  Great  Khan  him- 
self, an  order  involving  the  enormous  journey  to  Mongolia*  The 
actual  travelling  of  the  party  from  the  Crimea  to  the  khan's  court 
near  Karakorum  cannot  have  been,  on  a  luugh  calculation,  less 
than  5000  miles,  and  the  return  journey  to  Ayas  in  Cilicia  would 
be  longer  by  500  to  700  miles.  The  chief  dates  to  be  gathered  from 
the  narrative  are  as  follows  :— embark  on  the  Eu.xine,  May  7,  1253  ; 
reach  Soldaia,  21  ;  set  out  thence,  June  1  ;  reach  camp  of  Sartak, 
July  31  ;  begin  journey  from  camp  of  Batil  eastward  across  steppe, 
September  16  ;  turn  south-east,  November  1  ;  reach  Talas  river, 
8;  leave  CaQac^  (south  of  Lake  Balkash),  30;  reach  camp  of 
Great  Khan,  December  27  ;  leave  camp  of  Great  Khan  on  or 
about  July  10,  1254  j  reach  camp  of  Batu  -again,  September  16  ; 
leave  Sartak's  camp,  November  1  ;  at  the  Iron  Gate  (Derbend) 
13  ;  Christmas  spent  at  Nakhshivan  (under  Ararat)  ;  reach  An- 
tioch  (from  Ayas,  via  Cyprus),  June  29,  1255  ;  reach  Tripoli, 
August  15. 

The  camp  of  Batu  was  reached  near  the  northernmost  point  of 
his  summer  marches,  therefore  about  Ukek  near  Saratoff  (see 
Marco  Polo,  Prol.,  chap.  iii.  note  i).  Before  the  camp  was  left 
they  had  marched  nith  it  five  weeks  down  the  Volga.  The  point 
of  departure  would  lie  on  that  river  somewhere  between  48°  and  50° 
N.  lat.  The  route  taken  lay  eastward  by  a  lino  running  north  of 
the  Caspian  and  Aral  basins  ;  then  from  about  70°  E.  long;  south 
(with  some  easting)  to  the  basin  of  tlio  Talas  river ;  thence  across 
the  passes  of  the  Kirghiz  Ala-tau  and  south  of  the  Balka»h  Lake 
to  the  Ala-kul  and  the  Baratula  Lake  (Ebi-nilr).  From  this  the 
travellers  struck  north  across  the  Barluk,  or"  the  Orkochuk 
Mountains,  and  thence,  passing  south  of  the  modern  Kobdo,  to 
the  valley  of  tlio  Jabkan  river,  whence  they  emerged  on  the  plain 
of  Mongolia,  comin;,'  upon  tlio  Great  Klian's  camp  at  a  .spot  ten 
days'  journey  from  Karakorum  and  bearing  in  the  main  south  from 
that  place,  with  the  Khangai  Mountains  ".etween. 

This  route  is  of  course  not  thus  defined  in  the  narrative,  but  is 
a  laborious  deduction  from  the  facts  stated  therein.  The  key  to 
th»  whole  is  the  description  given  of  that  central  portion  inter- 
vening between  the  basin  of  the  Talas  and  the  Lake  Ala-kul, 
which  enables  the  topography  of  tliat  region,  including  the  passage 
of  the  Hi,  the  plain  south  of  the  Balkash,  and  the  Ala-V"'  itself. 
to  be  identified  past  question. - 

The  return  journey,  being  made  in  summer,  after  retraversing 
the  Jabkan  valley,'  lay  much  farther  to  the  north,  and  passed 
north  'of  the  Balkash,  with  a  tolerably  straight  course  probably, 
to  the  mouths  of  the  Volga.  Thence  the  party  travelled  south  by 
Derbend,  and  so  byShamakhi  to  the  Araxes,  Nakhshivan,  Erzingan, 
Sivas,  and  Iconium,  to  the  coast  of  Cilicia,  and  eventually  to  the 
port  of  Ayas,  where  they  embarked  for  Cyprus  and  Syiia.  St 
Louis  had  returned  to  France  a  year  before. 

We  have  alluded  to  Roger  Bacon's  mention  of  Friar  William  of 
Rubruk.  Indeed,  in  the  geographical  section  of  the  Opus  Majus 
(c.  1262)  ho  cites  the  traveller  repeatedly  and  copiously,  describing 
him  as  "frater  Wilhelmus  qucra  dominus  k-s.  Frauc'iae  inisit  ad 
Tartaros,  Anno  Domini  1253  ....  qui  perlustravit  regiones 
orientis  et  aquilonis  et  loca  in  medio  his  annexa,  et  scripsit  haec 
praedicta  illustri  regi ;  quem  librum  diligcnter  vidi  et  cum  ejus 
auctore  contuli  "  [Opus  Majus,  ed.  Jebb,  1733,  pp.  190-191).  Add 
to  this  William's  own  incidental  particular  as  to  his  being  (like 
his  precursor.  Friar  Jolm  of  Pian  Carpine,  see  vol.  v.  p.  132)  a 
very  heavy  man  {pondcrosus'mldc),  and  we  know  no  more  of  his 
pei-sonality  except  the  abundant  indications  of  character  afforded 
by  the  story  itself  Tlicso  paint  for  us  an  honest,  pious,  stout- 
hearted, acute,  and  most  intelligent  observer,  keen  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge,  tlie  author  in  fact  of  one  of  the  best  narratives 
of  travel  in  existence.  His  langu.age  indeed  is  Latin  of  the  most 
un-Cicerouian  quality,— dog-l-atin  «e  fear  it  must  bo  called  ;  but, 
call  It  what  we  may,  it  is  in  his  hands  a  pithy  and  transparent 
medium  of  expression.     In  spite  of  all- the  difficulties  of  communi- 

'  Cnllac,  where  Rubruk  haUcd  twelve  d»)!.  Is  imdouHiillv  the  Kavalik  of  the 
nijtnrlnnj  of  Iho  Slont-oli,  ttio  position  of  wlilcli  Is  Romcwhat  Intlc'nnltc  Tlio 
narrative  of  Itubrufc  iiliow.  that  It  must  have  bcci  ncnr  ilio  modern  Kopal. 
T„,H.^1  1  io.,^",',*"'  ?,"''i'"  "'■''  '■Att/.^r,  pp.  ccxl.-ccxlr..  and  Schuyler', 
m.hrnw. ;,  :  !.:?  ^-  J^'  ^"^"y^"  P<"">"  <""  Hio  imo  Idenlincatlon  of 
liubruk  ,  rlT.r  with  Iho  111,  Instead  of  tl,=  Cliii,  which  Is  a  much  smaller  s.ream  : 
.nd  other  .racndmcjiU  bavo  bcon  derived  from  Dr  F.  M.  Schmidt  (seo  below). 

•So  Iho  present  writer  Interprets  what  Kubruk  says  :-•■  Our  Bulng  was  In 
riil  .'■;  "w  '  ■"  •"?,""•■'•  ""l  '1""'  I'y  •  "^y  lylnfi  very  much  failhcr  north, 

c^lLl^r-     r  ,  f  °  "' """"  ■"•>"■  '■"'""-■>' '"  eolng  and  comlnc  we  followed  i 


cation,  and  of  the  badness  of  his  lurgemannus  or  dragoman,*  he 
gathered  a  mass  of  particulars,  wonderfully  true  or  near  the  truth, 
not  only  as  to  Asiatic  nature,  geography,  ethnography,  aud 
manners,  hut  as  to  religion  and  language.  Of  his  geography  a 
good  example  occurs  in  his  account  of  the  Caspian  (e.igerly  caught 
up  by  Roger  Bacon),  which  is  perfectly  accurate,  except  that  ho 
places  the  hill  country  occupied  by  the  "Muliihids,  or  Assassins,  on 
the  eastern  instead  of  the  southern  shore.  He  explicitly  corrects 
the  allegation  of  Isidore  that  it  is  a  gulf  of  the  ocean  :  "non  est 

verum  quod  dicit  Ysidorus nusquam  cnim  tangit  occanum, 

sed  undique  circumdatur  terra  "  (2G5).'  Of  his  interest  and  acumen 
in  matters  of  language  we  may  cite  examples.  The  language  of 
the -Pascatir  (or  Bashkirds)  and  of  the  Hungarians  is  the  san°c,  as 
he  had  learned  from  Dominicans  who  had  been  among  them  (274).' 
The  language  of  the  Ruthenians,  Poles,  Bohemians,  and  Slavonians 
is  one,  aud  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  V/andals,  or  AVends  (275). 
In  the  town  of  Equius  (immediately  beyond  the  Hi,  perhaps 
Aspara) '  the  people  were  Jlohammcdans  speaking  Persian,  though 
so  far  remote  from  Persia  (281).  The  Yugurs  (or  Uigurs)  of  the 
country  about  Cailac  (see  note  above)  had  foiincda  language  and 
character  of  their  own,  and  in  that  language  and  character  the 
Nestorians  of  that  tract  used  to  perform  their  oflice  and  write  their 
books  (281-2).  The  Yugurs  are  those  among  whom  are  found  the 
fountain  and  root  of  the  Turkish  and  Comanian  tongue  (289). 
Their  character  has  been  adopted  by  the  Moghals.  In  using  it 
they  begin  writing  from  the  top  and  write  downwards,  whilst  Tine 
follows  line  from  left  to  right  (28fl).  Tho  Nestorians  say  their 
s.irvice,  and  have  their  holy  books,  in  Syriac,  but  know  notning  of 
the  langu.age,  justas  some  of  our  monks  sing  the  mass  without 
knowing  Latin  (293).  The  Tibet  people  write  as  we  do,  and 
their  letters  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  ours.  The  Tangut 
people  write  from  right  to  left  like  the  Arabs,  and  their  lines 
advance  upwards  (329).  The  current  money  of  Cathay  is  of  cotton 
paper,  a  palm  in  length  and  breadth,  and  ou  this  they  print  lines 
like  those  of  Jlangu  Khan's  seal: — *^ i})ij)rijjiu7it  lineas  sicut  est 
sigillum  Mangu  " — a  remarkable  expression.  They  write  with  a 
painter's  pencil  and  combine  in  one  character  several  letters,  form- 
ing one  expression  : — "faciunt  in  una  figura  plures  literas  compre- 
hendeutes  unam  dictionem," — a  still  more  remarkable  utterance, 
showing  an  apiiroximate  appreheusion  of  the  nature  of  Chinese 
writing  (329). 

Yet  this  sagacious  and  honest  observer  is  denounced  as  an 
ignorant  and  untruthful  blunderer  by  Isaac  Jacob  Schmidt  (a  man 
no  doubt  of  useful  learning,  of  a  kind  rare  in  his  day,  but  narrow 
and  wrong-headed,  and  iu  natural  acumen  and  candour  far  inferior 
to  the  13th-ceutury  friar  whom  he  maligns),  simply  because  tho 
evidence  of  the  latter  as  to  the  Turkish  dialect  of  the  Uigurs 
traversed  a  pet  heresy,  long  since  exploded,  which  Schmidt  enter- 
tained, viz.,  that  the  Uigurs  were  by  race  and  language  Tibetau.8 

The  narrative  of  Hubriik,  after  Eoger  Bacon's  copious  cse  of  It.  seems  to  have 
dropped  out  of  sight.  It  has  no  place  in  the  famous  collections  of  Ihe  14th 
century,  nor  in  Ulo  earlier  ,Sp£cidum  J/isloriafe  of  Vincent  of  Beauvnis,  which 
elves  80  many  othei  s  of  the  lartai  ian  ecclesiastical  Itincraiics.  It  first  appeared 
Imperfectly  in  Hakhiyt  (1600),  as  we  have  mentioned.  But  it  was  not  till  1839 
that  any  proper  edition  of  the  te.tt  was  published.  In  that  year  Ihe  Recueil  de 
Voyages  of  the  Paris  Geographical  Society,  vol.  Iv.,  contained  a  thorough  edition 
of  the  Latin  text,  and  a  collation  of  the  few  existing  MSS.,  put  forth  by  M. 
D'Avezac,  v\ith  the  assistance  of  two  yoilOK  scholars,  since  of  high  distinction, 
viz.,  Francisqtjc-Mlchel  and  Thomas  Wriglit.  liut  there  Is  no  commentary,  BLich 
as  M.  D'Avezac  attached,  in  his  own  incomparable  fashion,  to  the  edition  of  Friar 
John  of  Pian  Cai-pine  In  the  same  volume  ;  nor  has  there  ever  been  any  properly 
annotated  edition  of  a  traveller  so  worthy  of  honour.  liichlhofen  in  his  C/iina, 
i.  602-£04,  has  bilcfly  but  justly  noticed  the  narrative  of  Uubinlt.  A  French 
version  with  some  notes.  Issued  at  Paris  In  1877,  in  tlie  Bibliothe<jUe  Orientale 
Elzeviriejine,  if  named  at  all,  can-only  be  mentioned  as  benciith  contempt.  The 
task  Is  one  which  the  present  writer  has  long  contemplated,  but  now  with  but 
alcnder  hope  of  nccomplisliment.  (Since  this  vaa  In  type  the  writer  has  leceivcd 
from  Dr.  Fianz  Max  Schmidt  an  admirable  monngiopll  by  him,  Ueber  Rubruk's 
Jieise  (Berlin,  p.  93),  extracted  from  vol.  xx.  of  the  Zuehr.  <leo<j.  Soc.  Jlrt-l.,  and 
has  greatly  profited  by  It  in  the  revision  of  the  aniele  in  proof.)  (II.  y.) 

RUBY.  This  name  is  applied  by  lapidaries  and  jewellers 
to  two  distinct  minerals,  which  may  be  distinguished  as 
the  true  or  Oriental  ruby  and  the  sjiinel  ruby.  The 
former  is  a  red  variety  of  corundum  or  native  alumina,  of 


*  "Ego  eniin  perccpl  posrca,  (luando  Inccpl  aliquantulum  intciligere  Idloma, 
quod  quanilo  dicebam  unuin  ipse  totuin  aliud  dicehat.  secundum  quod  ei 
occnrri-hat.  Turn,  videos  periculum  loquendl  per  Ipsum,  elcgi  magia  taceic"' 
(218-249).  ■( 

5  Tlic  page  references  in  tho  text  arc  to  D'Avczac's  ediflon  of  the  Latin  (tec 
below).  .    ,, 

c  The  Doshklnls  now  speak  a  Tmkish  dialect;  but  they  aVe  of  Finnish  race, 
and  It  Is  quite  posvihle  that  they  then  spoke  a  language  akin  to  Magyar.  .There 
Is  no  doubt  that  the  Mujfculnian  historians  of  that  age  Identified  the  HungarhMls 
and  the  Basiiklrds  (f.?.,  see  extracts  from  Juvaild  and  Ilashlduddln  In  App.  to 
D'Ollsson'a  Jtiil.  dm  Mongols^  il.  6-^0-fi-i3).  The  Boshkirils  are  also  constantly 
coupled  with  tho  Aft"V  by  Abnlghflzl.  Sec  Fr.  tr.  hv  Dcsmalsons,  pp.  10,  140,i 
180,  183.  ~ 

7  Asp  =  i;>juus.  'i^spaia  Is'oftet*  :r.«nlionetf  tyy-.ne  I.t^tjuaris  01  Tlmnr  and  his* 
successors  ;  Its  exact  place  ta  uncertain,  but  It  lay  somewhcro  on  the  lU  frontier. 
Dr  F.  Sehmldt  thinks  this  Identification  Impossible  ;  hut  ono  of  his  reasons — 
viz.,  that  tquius  was  only  one  day  from  Cailac— appears  to  be  a  misapprehension 
of  the  text. 

'  Sco  rortfhunye/t  im   Gebicte d<f  Vulkcr  ilUlci-AiicM,  St, 

Petersburg;,  1b:'4,  pp.  CO-l'S. 


48 


RUBY 


great  rarity  and  value,  while  tlie  latter  is  au  aluminatc  of 
magnesium,  inferior  to  the  true  ruby  in  hardness  and 
much  less  esteemed  as  a  gem  stone.  With  ancient  writers 
the  confusion  was  even  greater,  for  they  appear  to  have 
classed  together  under  a  common  name,  such  as  the  car- 
huncutus  of  Pliny  or  the  avdpa^  of  Greek  writers,  not  only 
our  two  kinds  of  ruby  but  also  garnets  and  other  inferior 
stones  of  a  brilliant  fiery  colour.  By  modern  mineral- 
ogists it  has  come  to  be  understood  that  when  the  word 
ruby  is  used  without  any  qualifying  prefix  the  true  or 
Oriental  stone  is  invariably  indicated. 

The  Oriental  ruby,  like  all  other  varieties  of  corundum, 
crystallizes  in  the  rhombohedral  system;  but,  as  it  usually 
occurs  as  small  pebbles  or  rounded  fragments,  the  crystal- 
line form  can  rarely  be  traced.  Its  colour  varies  from 
deep  cochineal  to  pale  rose  red,  in  some  cases  inclining  to 
purple,  the  most  valued  tint  being  that  known  to  experts 
as  pigeon's  blood  colour.  On  exposure  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture the  ruby  becomes  green,  but  regains  its  original  colour 
on  cooling — a  behaviour  which  is  consistent  with  the  sup- 
position that  the  stone  owes  its  colour  to  the  presence  of 
oxide  of  chromium,  and  indeed  in  artificial  rubies  the 
required  tint  is  always  obtained  by  the  use  of  some  com- 
pound of  chromium.  iMien  a  ruby  of  the  most  esteemed 
colour  is  properly  viewed  through  a  dichroiscope,  the 
colour  is  resolved  into  a  carmine  and  an  aurora  red,  or  red 
inclining  to  orange.  By  tliis  test  the  true  ruby  may  be 
distinguished  from  spinel  and  garnet,  since  these  minerals 
crystallize  in  the  cubic  system  and  therefore  are  not  di- 
chroic.  Another  mode  of  distinction  is  suggested  by  the 
high  density  of  corundum  :  the  specific  gravity  of  the  true 
ruby  reaches  or  even  rises  slightly  above  4,  and  thus 
greatly  exceeds  that  of  either  spinel  or  garnet.  But 
perhaps  the  simplest  test  is  afforded  by  its  great  hard- 
ness (H  =  9) :  the  sharp  edge  of  a  corundum  crystal  will 
readily  scratch  either  a  spinel  or  a  garnet,  but  has  no 
effect  on  a  ruby.  The  true  ruby  has  a  very  high  index 
■>i  refraction  (/x=l-78),  and  to  this  character  is  due 
the  remarkable  lustre  of  the  polished  stone.  j\Ir  Crookes 
has  shown  that  thq  ruby  is  brilliantly  phosphorescent 
when  subjected  to  radiant  discharge  in  a  properly  ex- 
hausted vessel,  and  curiously  enough  the  red  light  emitted 
is  equally  vivid  whatever  be  the  colour  of  the  corundum 
under  e.\periment.  The  microscopic  structure  of  the 
ruby  has  been  studied  by  Mr  Sorby,  who  finds  that  the 
stone  contains  fluid  cavities  and  numerous  crystallized 
enclosures  of  other  minerals  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  x\n.,  1869, 
p.  291). 

The  Oriental  niby  is  a  mineral  of  very  limited  distribution,  its 
principal  localities  being  confined  to  the  kingdom  of  Bunnah.  The 
Kost  important  ruby  mines  are  situated  at  Kyat  Pyen,  about  70 
miles  to  the  north-east  of  JIandalay  ;  there  are  also  mines  at 
Mookop,  a  little  farther  north,  and  others  iu  the  Sagyiu  Hills, 
within  16  miles  of  HanJalay.  In  all  these  localities^the  rubies 
occur  in  association  witli  sapphires  and  other  precious  stones, 
forming  a  gem-bearing  gravel  which  is  dug  up  and  washed  ia  very 
primitive  fashion,  liy  f.ir  the  larger  number  of  the  rubies  are  of 
small  size,  and  the  larger  stones  are  generally  flawed.  AU  rubies 
exceeding  a  certain  weiglit  were  the  property  of  the  king  of  Burmah. 
The  mines  were  jealously  watched,  and  it  was  difficult  for  Europeans 
lo  obtain  access  to  them  ;  but  some  of  the  Ava  workings  were 
visited  and  described  many  years  ago  by  Pere  Giuseppe  d^ilmato, 
and  more  recently  those  near  Mandalay  have  been  described  by  Jlr 
Bredmeyer,  who  was  officially  connected  with  them  (Ball).  It  is 
stated  in  the  older  works  on  mineralogy  that  rubies  occur  in  the 
Capelan  Mountains,— the  Kyat  Pyen  locality.  In  peninsular  India 
there  are  but  few  localities  tliat  yield  rubies,  but  they  have  been 
reported  from  the  corundum  mines  of  the  Salem  district  in  Madras 
and  from  Mysore.  In  Ceylon  they  occur  with  sapphires,  but  are 
rarer  than  those  gems,  and  the  Ceylon  rubies  are  not  usually  of 
good  colour.  Rubies  have  been  brought  from  Gandamak,  in 
Afghanistan,  but  most  of  the  stones  reputed  to  be  Afghan  rubies 
are  merely  spinels, — as  also  are  many  of  the  Burmese  rubies. 

In  1871  some  remarkable  deposits  of  corundum  were  discovered 
by  CoL  C.  "W.  Jenks   in  Macon   co.,    North  Carolina.      Rubies, 


sapphires,  and  large  pebbles  of  coarse  corundum  were  found  in  the 
bed  of  a  river  near  a  large  mass  of  serpentine  which  afterwards 
became  known  as  Corundum  Hill,  and  these  pebbles  were 
eventually  traced  to  certain  veins  in  the  serpentine.  The  corundum, 
occurred  crystallized  in  situ,  but  was  rarely  of  such  a  colour  as 
would  entitle  it  to  be  called  ruby.  Mr  G.  ^.  Kunz,  who  has 
lately  written  an  article  on  American  precious  stones,  states  that 
rubies  and  sapphires  have  also  been  found  at  Vernon,  New  Jersey  ; 
near  Helena,  Montana  ;  at  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico  ;  in  southern 
Colorado  ;  and  in  Arizona. 

Australia  has  occasionally  yielded  true  rubies,  but  mostly  of 
small  size  and  inferior  quality.  In  Vicfaria  they  have  been  found 
in  the  drifts  pf  the  Beechworth  gold  fields  and  at  the  Berwick  tin 
mine,  Wallace's  Creek  ;  while  in  New  South  Wales  they  occur  at 
Mudgee,  in  the  Cudgegong  and  some  of  its  tributaries,  and  at 
Tumberumba,  co.  Wynyard.  A  magenta-coloured  turbid  ruby 
from  Victoria  is  known  under  the  name  of  "  barklyite." 

The  "star  ruby"  is  a  rather  cloudy  variety  from  Ceylon,  exhibit- 
ing when  cut  cji  cahochon  a  luminous  star  of  six  rays,  reflected 
from  the  convex  surface  of  the  stone. 

The  largest  ruby  known  in  Europe  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  size  of 
a  small  hen's  egg^  which  was  presented  by  Gustavus  III.  of 
Sweden  to  the  empress  of  Russia  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  St 
Petersburg.  Rubies  of  larger  size  have  been  described  by 
Tavernier  and  other  Oriental  travelleis,  but  it  is  probable  that  in 
many  cases  spinels  have  been  mistaken  for  true  rubies.  There 
seems  no  doubt  that  the  great  historic  luby  set  in  the  Maltese 
cross  in  front  of  the  imperial  state  crown  of  England  is  a  spinel. 
This  stone  was  given  to  Edward  the  Black  Prince  by  Pedro  the 
Cruel,  king  of  Castile,  on  the  victory  of  Najera  in  1367,  and  it  was 
afterwards  worn  by  Henry  V.  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt,  when  it 
narrowly  escaped  destruction. 

The  spinel  ruby  has  been  described  in  the  article  Mineralogy 
(vol.  xvi.  p.  3S6,  sp.  93).  The  spinels  used  for  jewellery  are  mostly 
obtained  in  Burmah,  where  they  occur  as  octahedral  crystals  or  as 
water-worn  pebbles  in  association  with  the  true  ruby,  for  which 
they  are  often  mistaken.  They  are  also  found  in  the  gem-bearing 
gravels  of  Ceylon,  Victoria,  and  New  South  Wales,  The  delicate 
rose-pink  variety  known  as  balas  ruby  was  worked  for  centuries  in 
Badakhshan,  but  the  operations  appear  to  have  been  suspended  of 
late  years.  The  mines  are  situated  on  the  river  Shighnan,  a 
tributary  of  the  Oxus.  It  is  commonly  said  that  the  name 
"balas  "  or  *'  balash "  is  a  corruption  of  Badakhshan,  while  others 
derive  it  from  Balkh. 

The  Oriental  ruby  has  always  been  esteemed  of  far  higher  value 
than  any  other  precious  stone.  A  ruby  of  perfect  colour,  weighing 
five  carats,  is  worth  at  the  present  day  ten  times  as  much  as  a 
diamond  of  equal  weight  (Streeter).  As  the  weight  of  the  stone 
increases,  its  value  rapidly  rises,  so  that  rubies  of  exceptional  size 
command  enormous  prices.  There  is  consequently  much  tempta- 
tion to  replace  the  true  stone  by  spinel  or  garnet  or  even  paste. 
By  means  of  oxide  of  chromium  an  excellent  imitation  of  the  colour 
of  the  ruby  is  obtained  ;  and,  though  the  ordinary  "strass,"  or  fine 
lead-glass,  is  very  soft,  and  therefore  soon  loses  its  lustre,  it  is  yet 
possible  to  produce  a  paste  consisting  of  silicate  of  alumina  which 
is  almost  as  hard  as  rock  crystal. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  chemist  has  frequently  suc- 
ceeded in  causing  alumina  to  assume  artificially  many  of  the 
physical  characteristics  of  the  native  ruby.  As  far  back  as  1837 
M.  Gaudin  reproduced  the  ruby  on  a  small  scale  by  exposing 
ammonia-alum  to  the  heat  of  the  oxyhydrogcn  blowpipe,  whereby 
he  obtained  fused  alumina  which  was  readily  coloured  by  the 
addition  of  oxide  of  chromium.  A  di3"erent  method  was  followed 
by  Ebelmen.  He  dissolved  alumina  in  boric  acid  at  a  high 
temperature,  and  on  the  cooling  of  the  mass  obtained  the  alumina 
in  a  crystallized  form  ;  while  if  chroniate  of  ammonium  was 
present  the  crystals  became  veritable  ruby.  MM.  Sainte-Claiie 
DeviUe  and  Caron  heated  a  mixture  of  fluoride  of  aluminium, 
fluoride  of  chromium,  and  boric  acid,  and  thus  obtained  a  fluoride 
of  boron,  which,  being  volatile,  readily  escaped,  and  left  a  solid 
residue  of  alumina  coloured  by  the  chrome.  These,  however,  were 
only  laboratoiy  experiments,  and  it  was  reserved  for  MM.  Fr^my 
and  Feil,  in  1878,  to  reproduce  the  ruby  and  sapphire  on  a  scale  sug- 
gestive of  some  commercial  importance.  By  heating  a  mixture  of 
artificial  alumina  and  red  lead  in  a  fireclay  crucible,  they  obtained  a 
vitreous  silicate  of  lead  (the  silica  being  derived  from  the  crucible) 
aud  crystallized  alumina,  while  the  addition  of  bichromate  of  potas- 
sium caused  this  alumina  to  assume  the  coveted  tint  of  the  ruby. 

For  a  general  dcsciiptioa  of  the  ruby  sea  E.  Jnnnettaz,  Diamant  et  Piervet 
Precieuses  (1881);  Klupc.  Handbuch  der  Edelstciniunde  (1860);  Schrauf, 
Edfliteinkunde  (1369);  Church,  Precious  Stones  (1883);  Streeter.  Precious 
S:ones  and  Gems\4th  ed.,  1834).  For  Indian  localltiCB  see  he.\V a  Economic  Geology, 
being  vol.  lii.  of  the  Manual  of  the  Geology  of  India  (1881);  for  Australian 
localities,  Liversidge's  Minerals  of  JVeui  South  Wales  (2d  ed,,  1882);  for  United 
Stales  rubies,  Quart.  Jour.  Gcol.  SoC.  Lond,,  vt.l.  xxx.  1874,  p.  303.  and 
American  Jour.  Sciaue,  ser.  iii.  vol.  iv.  1872,  pp.  109,  175,  and  Kunz'a  article  in 
Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  by  A.  Wmiams,  jun.  (1883).  For  tlie 
history  of  the  stone  consult  King's  Natural  His:,  of  Precious  Stones  (1865),  and 
for  aniflcial  nibics,  Ccmpies  Jiatdut^  vol.  Ixxiv.  1877,  p.  10S3.       (F.  W.  KV) 


R  U  C  — i?   (J  D 


49 


RUCKERT,     Friedeich     (1788-1866),    an    eitinent 
fisrman  poet,  was  born  at  Schweinfurt  on  the  16th  May 
1788.     He  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native 
place  and  at  the  universities  of  Wiirzburg  and  Heidelberg, 
where  he  studied  law  and  philology..     Having  taken  his 
degree,  he  went  to  the  university  of  Jena  as  a  "  privat- 
docent "  ;  but  this  position  he  soon  abandoned.     For  some 
time  he   worked   in  connexion  with    the  Morgenhlaii  at 
Stuttgart.     Nearly  the  whole  of  the  year  1818  he  spent 
in  Rome,  where,  he  devoted  himself  to  study,  especially  to 
the  study  of  the  popular  poetry  of  Italy  ;  and  afterwards 
he  lived  for  several  years  at  Coburg.     He  was  appointed 
a  professor  of   Oriental    languages   at   the   university  of 
Erlangen  in  1826,  and  in  1841  he  was  called  to  a  similar 
position  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  also  made  a  privy  councillor. 
In  1849  he  resigned  his  professorship  at  Berlin,  and  went 
to  live  on  his  estate  near  Coburg.     He  died  on  the  31st 
January  1866.     When  Ruckert  began  his  literary  career, 
Germany  was  engaged  in  her  life-and-death  struggle  with 
Napoleon ;  and   in   his    first    volume,   Deutsche    Gedichte, 
published  in  1814  under  the  name  of  Freimund  Raimar, 
he  gave  vigorous  expression  to  the  prevailing  sentiment  of 
his  countrymen.  In  18 1 6  appeared  .^n^o/fo)j,  eine  potiUsche 
Komodie  in  drei  Stiicken,  and  in  1817  the  Kranz  der  Zeit. 
He  issued  a  collection  of  poems,  Oestliche  Rosen,  in' 1822  ; 
and  in  1834-38  his  Gesammelte  Gedichte  were  published  in 
six  volumes,  a  selection  from  which  has  passed  through 
many  editions.     Ruckert,  who  was  master  of  thirty  lan- 
guages, made  his  mark  chiefly  as  a  translator  of  Oriental 
poetry,  and  as  a  writer  of  poems  conceived  in  the  spirit  of 
Oriental  masters.     Much  attention  was  attracted  by  Die 
Venvandlungen  des  Abu  Seid,  a   translation   of   Hariri's 
Mahamen   (1826),   Nal  uiid  Damajanti,   an   Indian   tale 
(1828),   Amrilkais,  der  Dichter  und  Konig  (1843),  and 
Hamasa,  oiler  die  alteslen  arabischen    Volkslieder  (1846). 
^raong  his  original  poems  dealing  with  Oriental  subjects 
ire  Morgenlandische  Sagen  und  Geschichten  (1837),  Erbau- 
lickes  vnd  Beschauliches  avs  dem  Moygenland  (1836-38), 
Rosterr>,    und    Suhrab,    eine    Ueldengeschichte   (4838),    and 
Brahmaniscke  Erzahlungen  (1839).     The  most  elaborate 
r-i  his  works  is  Die  Weisheit  des  Brahmanen,  published  in 
ax  volumes  in  1836-39.     In  1843-4.5  he  issued  several 
dramas,  all  of  which  are  greatly  inferior  to  the  work  to 
"vhich  he  owes  his  distinctive  place  in  German  literature. 
At  the  time  of  the  Danish  war  in    1864  he  wrote  Ein 
Dntzeml  Kanipf-Lieier  fur  Schleswig-Hohlein,  which,  al- 
though published  anonymously,  produced  a  considerable 
impression.     After  his  death  many  poetical  translations 
and   original  poems  were   found   among  his  papers,  and 
oeveral   collections    of    them    were   published.      Riickert 
lacked  the  simple  and  natural  feeling  which  is  charactjr- 
istic  of  all  flie  greatest  lyrical  poets  of  Germany.     But 
he  had   a  certain  splendour  of  imagination  which   mf.de 
Oriental  poetry  congenial  to  hirn^  and  he  has  seldom  been 
surpassed  in  his  power  of  giving  rhythmic  expression  to 
ideas   on   the  conduct  of    life.     As  a  master  of  poetical 
style  he  ranks  with  German  ^Titers  of  the  highest  class. 
There  are  hardly  any  lyrical  forms  which  are  not 'represented 
among  his  works,  and  in  all  of  them,  the  simplest  and  the 
most  complex,  he  wrote  with  equal  case  and  grace 

A  complete  edition  of  Kuckcrt's  jweticil  works  appenred  in 
Frankfort  in  1868-69.  See  KortJage,  Riickert  und  seiiie  Wci-kc 
(1867)  ;  Beyer,  Fricdrich  Ruckert,  ein  hiographischcn  Denk'mal 
(1868) ;  Neue  MittJicilnngcn  iiher  Riickert  (1873) ;  and  Nachgclasscne 
Ot'lichie  Rtickerts  und  neur,  Bcitrdge  zu  dessert  Leben  U7id  SchrifUn 
(187 () ;  IJotberger,  Riickert- Studien  (1878) 

RtlDAGl  (d.  954).  Hakfm  Mohammed  Farfd-cddln 
AbdalUh,  the  first  great  genius  of  modern  Persia,  was 
born  in  Riidag,  a  village  in  Transoxiana,  about  870-900, 
— totally  blind,  as  most  of  his  biographers  assert,  although 
the  fioe  (Ustinctioa  of  colours  and  the  minute  description  I 
:^1— 4 


of  the  various  tints  and  shades  of  flowers  in  his  poems 
flatly  contradict  the  customary  legend  of  the  "  blind  min- 
strel."    In  his  eighth  year  he  knew  the  whole  KorAn  by 
heart  and  had  begun  to  write  verses.     He  had  besides  a 
wonderful  voice  which  enraptured  aU  hearers,  and  he  played 
in  a  masterly  way  on  the  lute.     The  fame  of  these  accom- 
plishments at  last  reached  the  ear  of  the  Sdmdnid  Nasr  II. 
bin  Ahmad,  the  ruler  of  KhorAsdn  and  Transoxiana  (913- 
942),  who  drew  the  poet  to  his  court  and  distinguished 
him  by  his  personal   favour.     Rildagl  became  his  daily 
cdmpanion,  rose  to  the  highest  honours,  and  grew  rich  in 
worldly  wealth.     He  received  so  many  costly  presents  that 
he  could  allow  himself  the  extravagance  of  keeping  two 
hundred  pages,  and  that  four  hundred  camels  were  neces- 
sary to  carry  all  his  property.     In  spite  of  various  pre- 
decessors he   well  deserves  the  title  of  "  father  of  Persian 
literature,"  since  he  was  the  first  who  impressed  upon  every 
form  of  epic,  lyric,  and  didactic  poetry  its  peculiar  stamp 
and  its  individual  character.     He  is  also  said  to  have  been 
the  founder  of  the  "  dlwAn,"  that  is,  the  typical  form  of 
the  complete  collection  of  a  poet's  lyrical  compositions  in 
a  more  or  less  alphabetical  order  which  prevails  to  the 
present  day  among  all  Mohammedan  writers.     His  poems 
filled,  according  to  all  statements,  one  hundred  volumes  and 
consisted  of  one  million  three  hundred  thousand  verses ; 
but  of  this  there  remain  only  fifty-two  kasldas,  ghazals, 
and  rubtVls ;    of  his  epic  masterpieces  we  have  nothing 
beyond  a  few  stray  lines  found  here  and  there  as  illus- 
trations of  ancient  Persian  words  and  phrases  in  native 
dictionaries.      But  the  most  serious  loss   is  that   of   his 
translation  of  Ibn   Mukaffa's  Arabic   version  of  the  old 
Indian  fable   book  Kalilah  and  Dimnah,   which  he  put 
into  Persian  verse  at  the  request  of  his  royal  patron,  and 
for  which  he   received  the   handsome  reward   of  40,000 
dirhems.     In  his  kasidas,  which  are  all  devoted  to  the 
praise  of   his  sovereign  and    friend,   Riidagi  has  left  us 
unequalled  models  of  a  refined  and  delicite  taste,  very 
different  from  the  often  bombastic  compositions  of  later 
Persian  encomiasts,  and  these  alone  would  entitle  him  to 
a  foremost  rank  among  the  poets  of  his  cC'Untry ;  but  his 
renown  is  considerably  enhanced  by    his   odes   and   epi- 
grams.    Those  of   a   didactic  tendency  expre.s3  in   well- 
measured  lines  a  sort  of  Epicurean   philosophy — in  the 
loftiest  sense  of  the  word — on   human   I'fe  and   human 
happiness;  more  charming  still  are  the  purely  lyrical  pieces, 
sweet  and  fascinating  songs,  which  glorify  the  two  everlast- 
ing delights  of  glowing  hearts  and  cheerful  minds — love 
and  wine.     Riidagf  survived  his  royal   friend,   and  died 
long  after  the  splendid  days  of  Nasr'a  patronage,  the  time 
of  wealth  and  luxury,  had  passed  away — poor  and  forgotten 
by  the  world,  as  one  of  his  poems,   a   beautiful   elegy, 
seems  to  indicate — in  954 

A  complete  edition  of  all  the  extant  poema  of  Rudagi,  in  Persian 
text  and  metrical  German  translation,  together  with  a  biof^rarhi- 
cal  acconnt,  based  on  forty-six  Persian  MSS.,  ia  found  iu  Dr  Etne's 
"  Rudagi  der  Sanianidendichter  "  {Giittingcr  Nachrichtcn^  1873,  pp. 
663-742). 

RUDD,  or  Red-Eye  {ueuciscws  erythrophthalmus),  a  fish 
of  the  family  of  Carps,  generally  spread  over  Europe, 
north  and  south  of  the  Alps,  also  found  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  extremely  common  in  suitable  localities,  viz.,  still  and 
deep  waters  with  muddy  bottom.  AVhen  adult,  it  is 
readily  recognized  by  its  deep,  short  body,  golden-coppery 
tint  of  the  whole  surface,  red  eyes,  and  scarlet  lower  fins ; 
the  young  are  often  confounded  with  those  of  the  roach, 
but  the  pharyngeal  teeth  of  the  rudd  stand  in  a  double 
row,  and  not  in  a  single  one,  as  in  the  roach ;  also  the 
first  dorsal  rays  are  inserted  distinctly  behind  the  vertical 
line  from  the  root  of  the  ventral  fin.  The  anal  rays  are 
from  thirteen  to  fifteen  in  number,  and  the  scales  in  the 
lateral  line  from  thirtv  nine  t'l  fortvtwo.     The  fudd  is  a 

XXI.  -    7 


50 


K  U  D  —  H  U  D 


(iiio  fisb,  but  little  esteemed  for  food,  and  verj  rarely  ex. 
coeds  a  length  of  12  inches  or  a  weight  of  2  lb.     It  feeds 
on  small  freshwater  animals  and  soft  vegetabte  matter,  and 
siiawns  in  April  or  May.     It  readily  crosses  witli  the  white',, 
bream,  more  rarely  with  the  roach  and  bleak. 

RUDDIMAX,  Thomas  (1674-175S),  an  eminent  Scot- 
tish scholar,  was  born  in  October  1G74,  at  liaggal,  in  the 
|,ari.sh  of  Boyndie,  Banfishire,  whore  his  fatlier  was  a 
farmer.  He  studied  Latin  eagerly  at  the  school  of  his 
native  iiarish, .and  when  sixteen  started  off  to  walk  to 
Aberdeen,  there  to  compote  for  a  college  bursary.  On  the 
way  he  was  attacked  by  Gipsies,  robbed  of  a  guinea,  which 
was  all  he  had,  and  otherwi.se  very  cruelly  treated  ;  but  he 
persevered  in  his  journey,  reached  Aberdeen,  and  competed 
fur  anil  won  the  bursary.  He  then  entered  the  university, 
and  four  years  afterwards — on  21st  June  1694 — received 
the  degree  of  il.A.  For  some  time  he  acted  as  school-  I 
ma.stcv  at  Laurencekirk  in  Kincardine.  There  he  chanced  | 
to  make  the  acquaintance  of  Dr  Pitcairnc,  of  Edinburgh,  ' 
who  persuaded  him  to  remove  to  the  Scottish  capital, 
where  ho  obtained  the  post  of  assistant  in  the  Advocates' 
Library.  As  his  salary  was  only  £8,  6s.  8d.  per  annum, 
he  was  forced  to  undertake  additional  employment.  He 
engaged  in  miscellaneous  literary  work,  took  pupils,  and 
for  some  time  acted  as  an  auctioneer.  His  chief  writings 
at  this  period  were  editions  of  Wilson's  De  Anhnx  Tran- 
fuillitnte  Dialogus  (1707),  and  the  Cnntici  Solomonis  Para- 
phrnsis  Poeiica  (1709';  of  Arthur  Johnstone  (oh.  1641), 
editor  of  the  DclicLx  Poelarum  Scoloi-um.  I 

In  1714  he  published  Rudiments  of  the  Latin  I'onyue,  : 
which  is  even  yet  his  best  known  work.  This  was  intended 
to  be  an  easy  introduction  to  Latin  grammar,  and  was  so 
auccessful  that  it  at  once  superseded  all  ethers.  Under 
various  forms  it  has  been  in  use,  down  to  our  own  day,  in 
the  schools  of  Scotland.  In  1715  he  edited,  with  notes 
and  annotations,  the  works  of  George  Buchanan  in  two 
volumes  folio.  As  Ruddiman  was  a  Jacobite,  the  liberal 
views  of  Buchanan  seemed  to  him  to  call  for  frequent 
censure.  That  censure  is  often  rather  implied  than  openly 
expressed  ;  but  it  excited  much  opposition.  A  society  of 
scholars  was  formed  in  Edinburgh  to  "  vindicate  that  in- 
comparably learned  and  pious  author  from  the  calumnies 
of  Mr  Thomas  Ruddiman"  by  publishing  a  correct  edition 
of  his  works.  This  they  never  did  ;  but  a  number  of  ob- 
scure writers  from  this  time  attacked  Ruddiman  with  great 
vehemence.  He  replied  ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  year 
before  his  death  that  he  said  his  "last  word  "  in  the  con- 
troversy. 

His  worldly  aSairs,  meanwhile,  grew  more  and  more 
prosperous.  He  founded  (1715)  a  successful  printing 
busine.ss,  and  after  some  time  was  appointed  printer  to  the 
university.  He  acquired  the  Caledonian  Mercnrt/  in  1729, 
and  in  1730  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Advocates' 
Library,  which  post,  owing  to  failing  health,  he  resigned 
in, 1752.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  19th  January  1758,  and 
was  interred  in  Grey  friars  churchyard,  where  io  1806  a 
tablet  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

Besides  the  works  nicntiouwl,  tlie  following  writings  of  Riutdiiiian 
dcsci-ve  notice  :— an  edition  of  Gavin  Douglas's  ^-Encid  of  A'irgd 
(1710);  the  editing  and  coiiiplction  of  Anderson's  Sdcctus  Dqilo- 
matitiii  ct  Kumismatum  Scotim  Thtsaurus  (1739)  ;  Catalorjue  of  lite 
Admcalcs'  Library  (1733-42);  an  edition  of  Livy,  famed  for  its 
"immaculate  purity,"  in  4  vols.  (1751).  Ruddiman  was  for  many 
years  the  representative  scholar  of  Scotland.  "Writing  in  17C6,  Dr 
fohnson,  after  reproving  Boswcll  for  some  bad  Latin,  sigiiiQcautly 
idds — "Ruddiman  is  dead."  When  Boswell  ]noposcd  to  write 
(luddiman's  life,  "I  should  take  pleasure  iu  helping  you  to  do 
lionour  to  him,"  said  Johnson. 

See  Chalmers's  Li/e  ->/  Ruddiman  (1701) ;  Scoti  Uaoatine,  January  7.  I7i; ; 
Boswcll's  f.tfe  o/Jo/inson 

RUDE,  PitAN90is(  1784-1 855), a  FreneliBcidptor  of  great 
aatural  talent  and  force  of  character,  "but  of  an  Ignorance 


as  to  all  that  did  not  immediately  concern  his  art  which 
can  best  be  described  as  out  of  date.  He  was  born  at 
Dijon,  4th  January  1784,  and  came  therefore  in  his  youth 
under  the  influence  of  the  democratic  and  Napoleonic 
ideals  in  their  full  force.  Till  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
worked  at  his  father's  trade  as  a  stovemaker,  amusing 
himself  with  modelling  in  his  free  hours  only ;  but  in 
1809  he  went  up  to  Paris  from  the  Dijon  school  of  art, 
and  became  a  pupil  of  Castellier,  obtaining  the  Great  Prize 
in  1812.  After  the  second  restoration  of  the  Bourbons 
he  retired  to  Brussels,  where  he  got  some  work  under  the 
architect  Van  der  Straeten,  who  employed  him  to  execute 
nine  bas  reliefs  in  the  palace  of  Tervueren,  which  he  was 
then  engaged  in  building.  At  Brussels  Rude  married 
Sophie  Fremiet,  the  daughter  of  a  Bonapartist  compatriot, 
to  whom  he  had  many  obligations,  but,  obtaining  with 
difficulty  work  so  ill-paid  that  it  but  just  enabled  him  to 
live,  he  gladly  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  of 
return  to  Pari.s,  where  in  1827  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  for 
St  Gervais  and  a  Mercury  Fastening  his  Sandals  obtained 
much  attention.  His  great  success  dates,  however,  from 
1833,  when  he  received  the  cro.ss  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
for  h^s  statue  of  a  Neapolitan  Fisher  Boy  playing  with  a 
Tortoise,  which  also  procured  for  him  the  important  com- 
mission for  all  the  ornament  and  one  bas  relief  of  the  Arc 
de  I'Etoile.  This  relief,  a  •  work  full  of  energy  and  fire, 
immortalizes  the  name  of  Rude.  Amongst  other  produc- 
tions, we  may  mention  the  statue  of  Monge,  1848,  Jeanne 
d'Arc  (in  garden  of  Luxembourg),  1852,  a  Calvary  in 
bronze  for  the  high  altar  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul,  1855,  as 
well  as  Hebe  and  the  Eagle  of  Jupiter,  Love  Triumphant, 
and  Christ  on  the  Cross,  all  of  which  appeared  at  the  Salon 
of  1857  after  his  death.  He  had  worked  all  his  life  long 
with  the  most  extraordinary  energy  and  given  himself  no 
rest  in  spite  of  the  signs  of  failing  health,  and  at  last,  on 
the  3d  November  1855,  he  died  suddenly  with  scarcely 
time  to  cry  out.  One  of  his  noblest  works,  and  easily 
accessible,  is  the  tomb  of  Cavaignac,  on  which  ho  placed 
beside  his  own  the  name  of  his  favourite  pupil  Chrlstophe. 
Although  executed  in  1840,  this  ^yas  not  erected  at  Mont- 
martre  till  the  year  after  Rude's  own  death.  His  Louis 
XIII.,  a  life  size  statue,  cast  in  silver,  is  to  be  seen  at  the 
Due  de  Luynes's  chateau  at  Dampierre.  Cato  of  L''tica 
stands  in  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  and  his  Baptism  »f 
Christ  decorates  a  chapel  of  the  Madeleine. 

RUDE  STONE  MO^NUMENTS.  The  raising  of  com- 
memorative monuments  of  such  an  enduring  material  as 
stone  is  a  practice  that  may  be  traced  in  all  countries 
to  the  remotest  times.  The  highly  sculptured  statues, 
obelisks,  and  other  monumental  erections  of  modern  civi- 
lization are  but  the  lineal  representatives  of  the  unhewn 
monoliths,  dolmens,  cromlechs,  itc.,  of  prehistoric  times. 
Judging  from  the  large  number  of  the  latter  that  have 
still  survived  the  destructive  agencies  (notabiy  those  of 
man  himself)  to  which  they  have  been  exposed  during  so 
many  ages,  it  would  seem  that  the  ideas  which  led  to  their 
erection  had  as  great  a  hold  on  humanity  in  its  earlier 
.stages  of  developmetit  as  at  the  present  time.  In  giving 
some  idea  of  these  rude  monuments  in  Britain  and  else- 
where, it  -will  be  convenient  to  classify  them  as  follows 
(see  vol.  ii.  p.  383,  figs.  1-4).  (1)  Isolated  pillars  or  mono- 
liths of  unhewn  stones  raised  on  end  are  called  Men/iirs 
(maen,  a  stone,  and  ^iV,  long).  (2)  When  these  monoliths 
are  arranged  in  lines  they  become  Alirjnmenls.  (3)  But 
if  their  linear  arrangement  is  such  as  to  form  an  enclosure 
{e7u-ci}>(e),  whether  circular,  oval,  or  irregular,  the  group  is 
designated  by  the  name  of  Cromlech  (see  Cro.mlech).  (4) 
Instead  of  the  monoliths  remaining  separate,  they  arc 
sometimes  placed  together  and  covered  over  by  one  or 
more  capstones  so  as  to  form  a  rude  chamber  ;  in  this  case 


RUDE     STONE     MONUMENTS 


51 


the  monument  is  called  a  Dolmen  {dmd,  a  table,  and  ynaen, 
a  stone).  This  raegalithic  chamber  is  sometimes  partially 
or  wholly  imbedded  in  a  mound  of  earth  or  stones  so  as  to 
f^rm  a  tumulus  or  cairn.  As,  however,  there  are  many 
tumuli  and  cairns  which  do  not  contain  megalithic  cham- 
bers, we  have  only  partially  to  deal  with  them  under  the 
category  of  rude  stone  monuments 

Menhirs. — Rude  monoliths  fixed  on  end  (see  vol.  ii,  p.  3S3, 
fig.  1)  have  been  used  in  all  ages  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  coramem- 
■orative  and  religious.  Stone  pillars  were  also  used  ceremonially 
on  the  accession  of  kings  and  chiefs.  In  Scotland,  when  stones 
were  thus  used,  they  were  called  Tanist  Stones,  the  most  celebrated 
■of  which  was  the  Lia  Fail,  formerly  at  Scone  (now  at  "Westminster 
Abbey),  on  which  the  kings  of  Scotland  used  to  be  crowned.  We 
read  also  of  Hare  or  Hoer  Stones,  Cambus  or  Camus  Stones,  Cat 
{cathy  battle)  Stones,  "  Witch  Stanes,  "  '*  Druid  Stanes,"  &c.  The 
Hawk's  Stano,  or  Saxum  Falconis,  at  St  Madoes,  Perthshire,  was 
erected  in  memory  of  the  defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Luncarty,  and  a 
monolith  now  standing  on  the  field  of  Flodden  is  said  to  mark  the 
placf*  where  King  James  fell.  When  menhirs  were  grouped  together 
their  number  was  often  significant,  e.g.,  twelve  (Josh,  iv.  5)  or 
seven  (Herod.,  iii.  8).  Some  standing  stones  are  found  to  have 
been  artificially  perforated,  and  these  superstition  has  invested  with 
some  curious  functions.  As  examples  of  this  class  may  be 
mentioned  the  famous  Stone  of  Odin,  near  the  circle  of  Steunis, 
the  Clach-Charra,  or  Stone  of  Vengeance,  at.  Onich  near  Balachu- 
lish  in  Argyllshire,  and  Men-en-tol  in  Cornwall.  Two  rude  mono- 
litl.s  ia  Scotland  bear  inscriptions, — the  famous  Newton  Stone  in 
the  district  of  Garioch,  and  the  Cat  Stane  near  Edinburgh.  Many 
ethers  have  cup-marks  and  spirals  or  concentric  circles.  In  Ireland, 
V/ales,  and  the  north  of  Scotland,  they  are  occasionally  found  with 
ogam  inscriptions,  and  in  the  north-east  of  Scotland  (Pictland) 
with  symbolical  figures,  which  were  subsequently  continued  on  the 
beautifully  sculptured  stones  of  early  Cnristian  date  which  are 
peculiar  to  that  locality. 

Menhirs  are  found  in  all  megalithic  countries.  In  the  British 
Isles  tliey  are  very  abundant,  more  especially  in  the  less  cultivated 
districts.  In  France  over  1600  isolated  examples  have  been 
recorded,  of  which'  about  the  half,  and  by  far  the  most  remarkable, 
are  within  the  five  departments  which  constitute  Brittany.  In  the 
rest  of  France  they  are  generally  small,  and  not  to  be  compared  in 
grandeur  to  those  of  Brittany.  At  Locmariaquer  (Morbihan)  is 
the  largest  menhir  in  the  world.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  rude  but 
amootli-sided  obelisk,  and  lies  on  the  ground  broken  into  four 
jjortions,  the  aggregate  length  of  which  amounts  to  20  '50  metres 
(about  67  feet).  It  was  made  of  granite,  foreign  to  the  neighbour- 
iiood,  and  its  weight,  according  to  the  most  recent  calculations, 
amounted  to  347,531  kilogranjmes  or  342  tons  {VHomme,  1885, 
p.  193).  The  next  largest  menhir  is  at  Pk'sidy  (C6tes-du-Nord), 
measuring  about  37  feet  in  height  Then  follows  a  list  of  sixty- 
seven  gradually  diminishing  to  16  feet  in  height,  of  which  the  first 
ten  (all  above  26  feet)  are  in  Brittany.  As  regards  form,  these 
mcnhii-3  vary  greatly.  Some  are  cylindrical,  as  the  well-known 
"pierro  du  champ  Dolent"  at  Dol  (height  30  feet),  and  that  of 
Cadiou  in  Fiuistere  (23  feet) ;  while  that  of  Penmarch  (26  feet) 
takes  the  shape  of  a  partially  expanded  fan.  On  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  into  France  its  adherents  appear  to  have  made  use 
of  these  menhirs  at  an  early  period  ;  many  of  them  at  present 
support  a  cross,  and  some  a  Madonpa.  The  scattered  positions 
of  some  monoliths'  and  the  no  less  singular  grouping  of  others  show 
tliat,  although  they  were  sometimes  used  as  landmarks,  this  was 
only  a  secondary  function.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  monolilh 
overtopping  a  tumulus,  thus  simulating  the  Bauta  (grave  or  battle) 
•Uones  of  Scandinavia.  In  Enfrland,  monoliths  are  often  associated 
with  the  stone  circles,  as  the  King's  Stone  at  Stanton  Drew,  Long 
Meg  at  Little  Salkeld,  tlie  Ring  Stone  at  Avebury,  &c.  One  of 
the  finest  British  monoliths  stands  in  the  churchyard  of  Rudston, 
Yorkshire.  Examples  of  a  large  size  are  met  with  in  Algeria, 
Morocco,  India,  Central  Asia,  &c. 

Alignments. — The  most  celebrated  monuments  of  this  class  arc 
in  the  vicinity  of  Carnac  in  Brittany.  They  are  situated  in  groups 
at  Mcncc,  Kermario,  Kcrlescant,  Erdevcn,  and  St  Barbe — all 
within  a  few  miles  of  each  other,  and  in  the  centre  of  a  district 
containing  the  most  remarkable  megalithic  remains  in  the  world. 
The  first  three  groups  are  supposed  by  some  archax)logist3  to  bo, 
merely  portions  of  one  original  and  continuous  series  of  alignments, 
which  extended  nearly  2  miles  in  length  in  a  uniform  direction 
from  south-west  to  north-east.  Commencing  at  the  village  of 
Mi'iiec,  the  menhirs  are  arranged  in  eleven  rows.  At  first  they 
Htand  from  10  to  13  feet  above  the  ground,  hut,  as  wo  advance, 
they  become  gradually  Rtnallcr  till  they  attain  only  3  or  4  ft-et, 
when  they  cease  altogether.  After  a  vacant  space  of  about  350 
yards  we  come  to  the  Kermario  group,  which  contains  only  ^cn 
lines,  but  they  are  nearly  of  the  s^mo  magnitude  as  at  thu  boijin- 
i.::jg  of  the  former gi-oup.     After  a  still  greater  interval  the  menhirs 


again  appear,  but  this  time  in  thirteen  rows,  at  the  village  of 
Kcrlescant  la  1831  M.  Felix  Gaillard,  Plouharnel,  made  a  plat 
of  the  alignments  at  Erdeven,  which  shows  that,  out  of  a  total  o] 
1120  menhirs  which  oridnally  constituted  the  group,  290  are  still 
standing,  740  fallen,  and  90  removed.  The  menhirs  hero  may  be 
traced  for  nearly  a  mile,  but  their  linear  arrangement  is  not  so 
distinct,  nor  are  the  stones  so  large  as  those  at  Carnac.  About 
fifty  alignments  are  known  in  France.  At  Penmarch  there  is'cne 
containing  over  two  hundred  menhirs  arranged  in  four  rows. 
Others,  however,  are  formed  of  only  a  single  row  of  stones,  as  at 
Kerdouadec,  Leure,  and  Camaret.  The  first  is  4S0  m.  in  length, 
and  terminates  at  its  southern  extremity  in  a  kind  of  croLs 
gammee.  At  Leure  three  short  lines  meet  at  right  angles.  The 
third  13  situated  on  the  rising  ground  between  the  town  of  Camaret 
and  the  point  of  Toulinguet.  It  consists  of  a  base  line,  some  600 
yards  long,  with  forty-one  stones  (others  have  apparently  been 
removed),  and  two  perpendicular  lines  as  short  o^ets.  Close  to 
it  are  a  dolmen  and  a  prostrate  menhir.  These  monoliths  are  all 
of  coarse  quartz  and  of  small  size,  only  one,  at  Leur^,  reaching  a 
height  of  9  feet.  Alignments  are  also  found  in  other  countries. 
In  the  Pyrenees  they  are  generally  in  single  file, — mostly  straight, 
but  sometimes  reptiliform.  One  at  Peyrelade  (BilU&re)  runs  in  a 
straight  Une  from  north  to  south  for  nearly.  300  yards,  and  contains 
ninety-three  stones,  some  of  which  are  of  great  sl^.  At  St  Columb 
in  Cornwall,  there  is  one  called  the  Nine  Maidens,  which  is  formed 
of  eight  quartz  stones,  extending  in  a  perfectly  straight  line  for  262 
feet.  In  Britain  they  are  more  frequently  arranged  in  double  file, 
or  in  avenues,  leading  to  or  from  other  megalithic  monuments, 
such  as  still  exist,  or  formerly  existed,  at  the  circles  of  Avobury, 
Stonehenge,  Shap,  Callernish,  &c.  The  only  example  in  England 
comparable  to  the  great  alignments  of  Carnac  is  in  the  Vale  of  the 
White  Horse  in  Berkshire.  Here  the  stones,  numbering  about 
eight  hundred,  are  grouped  in  three  divisions,  and  extend  over  an 
irregular  parallelogram  which  measures  from  500  to  600  yards  in 
length  and  from  250  to  300  yards  in  breadth.  Sir  Henry  Dryden 
describes  groups  of  a  similar  character  in  Caithness,  as  at  Garry- 
Whin,  Camster,  Yarhouse,  and  the  "many  stones"  at  Clyth. 
Alignments  in  single  and  multiple  rows  have  also  been  observed  in 
Shetland,  India,  Algeria,  &c. 

Cromlechs. — Enclosures  {cnccinU^  formed  of  rude  monoliths, 
placed  at  intervals  of  a  few  yards,  have  generally  a  circular  or 
oval  shape.  Rectangular  forms  are,  however,  not  unknown, 
examples  of  which  may  be  seen  at  Curcunuo  (Morbihan),  near 
the  celebrated  dolmen  of  that  name,  and  at  Saint  Just  (llle-et- 
Vilaine).  The  former  measures  37  by  27  yards,  and  is  now  com- 
posed of  twenty-two  menhirs,  all  of  which  are  standing  (some 
fallen  ones  having  been  recently  restored  by  the  Government). 
About  a  dozen  menhirs  would  appear  to  be  wanting.  A  donkey- 
shoe-shaped  enclosiu-e  has  been  described  by  Sir  Henry  Dryden,  in 
the  parish  of  Lathcron,  Caithness.  It  is  226  feet  long  and  110  feet 
wide  in  the  middle,  and  the  two  extremities  are  85  feet  apai-t. 
Stone  circles  are  frequently  arranged  concentrically,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  circle  at  Kenmore,  near  Aberfeldy,  Perthshire,  as  well 
as  in  many  other  Scotch,  Irish,  and  Scandinavian  examples. 
More  rarely  one  large  circle  surrounds  secondary  groups,  without 
having  a  common  centre,  as  was  the  case  at  Avebury,  where  the 
outer  circle,  1200  feet  in  diameter,  included  two  others,  cfich  of 
which  contained  an  inner  concentric  circle.  At  Boscawen,  in 
Cornwall,  there  is  a  group  of  circles  confusedly  attached,  and,  as 
it  were,  partially  overlapping  each  other.  Circles  may  also  bo 
connected  by  an  alignment  or  avenue,  as  at  Stanton  Drew,  Dart- 
moor, &c.  Cromlechs  are  often  associated  with  other  megalithic 
monuments  ;  thus  at  the  head  of  the  great  Carnac  alignments  are 
the  remains  of  a  largo  circle  which  can  be  readily  traced,  notwith- 
standing that  some  houses  are  constructed  within  its  area.  In  the 
British  Isles  and  the  north  of  Europe  cromlechs  frequently 
surround  the  dolmens,  tumuli,  or  cairns.  A  few  examples  of  a 
dolmen  surrounded  by  one  or  more  concentric  circles  have  aUo 
been  recorded  by  M.  Cartailhac,  in  the  department  of  Avoyron  in 
France.  Outside  the  cromlech  there  is  also  frequently  to  be 
found  a  circular  ditch  or  vallum,  as  at  Avebury,  Stonohengf, 
Arbor  Low,  Brogar,  ho..  The  most  remarkable  megalithic  monu- 
ment of  this  class  now  extant  is  Stonelu-ngo,  which  differs,  how- 
ever, from  its  cong(!uer3  in  having  the  stones  of  its  outer  circlu 
and  outer  oval  partially  hewn  and  attached  by  transverse  lintels. 
Tiie  largest  cromlech  in  France  stands  ©n  the  Ile-aux-JVloine.s 
(Morbihan),  in  the  village  of  Korgonan.  About  half  of  it  is 
destroyed  by  the  encroachment  of  the  houses.  The  remaining 
semi-circumfcrcnce  (.slightly  elliptica])  contains  thirty-six  menhirs 
from  6  to  10  feet  high,  and  its  diameter  is  about  100  metres  (328 
feet).  Only  a  few  of  the  British  cromlechs  exceed  these  dimen- 
sions, among  which  may  bo  mentioned  Avebury  (1260  by  1170 
feet),  Stonehenge  (outer  circle  300  feet,  inner  106  feet).  Stanton 
Drew  (360  feet),  Brogar  (345  feet),  Long  Meg  and  her  Daughters 
(330  feet).  One  near  Dumfries,  called  the  Twelve  Apostloa,  also 
closely  approaches  the  100-metro  size  ;  but,  generally  spcakin;;, 
the  Scotch  and  Irish  examples  arc  of  smaller  proportions,  raruly 


52 


RUDE     STONE     IMONUMENTS 


exceeding  100  feet  in  diameter.  That  most  of  the  smaller  circles 
have  been  used  as  sopukhres  has  been  repeatedly  proved  by  actual 
excavations,  which  showed  that  interments  had  taken  place 
within  their  area.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  believe  that  this 
could  have  been  the  main  object  of  the  larger  ones.  At  May- 
borough,  near  Penrith,  there  is  a  circle  entirely  composed  of  an 
immense  aggregation  of  small  stones  in  the  form  of  a  gigantic  ring 
enclosing  a  flat  area,  about  300  feet  in  diameter.  Near  the  centre 
there  is  a  fine  monolith,  one  of  several  known  to  have  formerly 
stood  there.  Of  the  same  type  is  the  Giant's  Ring  near  Belfast, 
only  the  ring  in  this  instance  is  made  of  earth,  and  it  is  consider- 
ably larger  in  diameter  (580  feet)  ;  the  central  object  is  a  fine 
dolmen.  It  is  more  probable  that  such  enclosures  were  used,  like 
many  of  our  modern  churches,  for  the  double  purpose  of  burying 
the  dead  and  addressing  the  living. 

Vohncns. — In  its  simplest  form  a  dolmen  consists  of  three,  four, 
or  five  stone  supports,  covered  over  with  one  selected  megalith 
called  a  capstone  or  table.  A  well-known  example  of  this  kind 
in  England  is  Kit's  Cotty  House,  between  Rochester  and  Maidstone, 
which  is  formed  of  three  large  supports,  with  a  capstone  measuring 
11  by  8  feet.  From  this  simple  form  there  is  an  endless  variety  of 
upward  gradations  till  we  reach  the  so-called  Gaint  Graves  and 
Grottes  aux  Fees,  which  are  constructed  of  numerous  supports  and 
several  capstones.  A  dolmen  {allee  couverte)  situated  in  a  plant- 
ation at  the  outskirts  of  the  town  of  Saumur  is  composed  of  four 
flat  supports  on  ea-^h  side,  with  one  at  the  end,  and  four  capstones. 
The  largest  capstone  measures  7*5  metres  in  length,  7  in  breadth, 
fand  1  in  thickness.  The  chamber  is  18  metres  long,  6"5  broad, 
and  3  high.  Another  near  Esse,  called  "la  "Roche  aux  Fees,"  is 
equally  long,  and  is  constructed  of  thirty  supports,  with  eight 
capstones,  including  the  vestibule.  Dolmens  of  this  kind  are 
extremely  rare  in  the  British  Isles,  the  only  one  approaching  thein 
being  Calliagh  Birra's  House  in  Ireland.  These  (generally  known 
as  allees  couvertes)  and  many  other  examples  of  the  simple  dolmen 
show  no  evidejice  of  having  been  covered  over  with  a  mound.  'When 
there  was  a  mound  it  necessitated,  in  the  larger  ones,  an  entrance 
passage,  which  was  constructed,  like  the  chamber,  of  a  series  of 
side  stones  or  supports  and  capstones.  Some  archaeologists  maintain 
that  all  dolmens  were  formerly  covered  with  a  cairn  or  tumulus, 
— a  theory  which  undoubtedly  derives  some  favour  from  the 
condition  of  many  examples  still  extant,  especially  in  France, 
where  all  stages  of  degradation  are  seen,  from  a  partial  to  a  com- 
plete state  of  denudation.  The  allees  couvertes  of  France,  Ger- 
many, and  the  Channel  Islands  had  their  entrance  at  the  end  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Hunnebedden  of  Holland  had  both  ends 
closed  and  the  entrance  was  on  the  side  facing  the  sun.  The 
covered  dolmens  are  extremely  variable  in  shape, — circular,  oval, 
qaadrangular,  or  irregular.  The  entrance  gallery  may  be  attached 
to  the  end,  as  in  the  Grotte  de  Gavr'inis,  or  to  the  side,  as  in  the 
Gaint's  Grave  (Jettestuer)  at  Oem  near  Roskilde.  In  other 
instances  there  is  no  distinct  chamber,  Out  a  long  passage  gradually 
widening  from  the  entrance  ;  aud  this  may  be  bent  at  an  angle,  as 
in  the  dolmen  du  Rocher{Morbihan).  Again,  there  may  be  several 
chambers  cummunicating  with  one  entrance,  or  two  or  three 
separate  chambers  having  separate  entrances,  and  all  imbedded  in 
the  same  tumulus.  An  excellent  example  of  this  kind  is  the 
partially  destroyed  tumulus  of  Rondosec,  near  Plouharnal  railway 
station,  which  contains  three  separate  dolmens.  That  such  varia- 
tions are  not  due  to  altered  customs,  in  consequence  of  wideness  of 
geographical  range,  is  shown  by  M.  de  Mortillet,  who  gives  plans 
of  no  less  than  sixteen  differently  shaped  dolmens  [Mitsee  prehis- 
toriquc,  pi.  53),  all  within  a  confined  district  in  Morbihan. 

No  dolmens  exist  in  eastern  Europe  beyond  Saxony.  They 
reappear,  however,  in  the  Crimea  and  Circassia,  whence  they  have 
been  traced  through  Central  Asia  to  India,  where  they  are  widely 
distributed.  Similar  megalithic  structures  have  also  been  recog- 
nized and  described  by  travellers  in  Palestine,  Arabia,  Persia, 
Australia,  the  Penrhyn  Islands,  Mad'.gascar,  Peru,  &c.  The 
irregular  manner  in  which  dolmens  are  distributed  along  the 
western  parts  of  Europe  has  led  io  the  theory  that  all  these 
megalithic  structures  were  erected  by  a  special  people,  but  as  to 
the  when,  whence,  and  whither  of  this  singular  race  there  is  no 
knowledge  whatever.  Though  the  European  dolmens  have  a 
strong  family  likeness,  however  widely  apart,  they  present  some 
characteristic  differences  in  the  various  countries  in  which  they  are 
found.  In  Scandinavia  they  ave  confined  to  the  Danish  lands  and 
ft  few  provinces  in  the  south  of  Sweden.  Here  the  exposed  dolmens 
are  often  on  artificial  mounds,  and  surrounded  by  cromlechs  which 
are  either  circular  (runddysser)  or  oval  {langdysscr).  In  Sweden 
the  sepulture  it  galerie  is  very  rarely  entirely  covered  up  as  in  the 
giant  graves  of  Denmark. 

Planover,  Oldenburg,  and  Mecklenburg  are  very  rich  in  the 
remains  of  these  monuments.  At  Rieatedt,  near  Uelzen  in  Hanover, 
there  ia,  on  the  summit  of  a  tumulus,  a  very  singular  dolmen  of 
oblong  form,  which  measures  about  40  feet  long  and  over  6 
feet  in  breadth.  Another  at  Naschcndorf,  near  Wismar,  consists 
of   a    mound    surrounded   by    a    large    circle   of    stones    and     a 


covered  chamber  ou  its  summit.  Remains  of  a  megalithi 
structure  at  Rudcnbeck,  in  Mecklenbui'g,  though  now  imperfeci 
show  that  originally  it  was  constructed  like  an  alleo  couverte 
It  had  four  supports  on  each  side,  two  at  one  end  (the  othc 
end  forming  the  entrance),  and  two  large  capstones.  The  lengt" 
had  been  about  20  feet,  breadth  7i  feet,  and  height  from  th 
floor  to  tho  under-aurface  of  roof  about  3  feet.  According  t 
Bonstetten,  no  less  than  two  hundred  of  these  monuments  ar 
found  distributed  over  the  three  provinces  of  Liineburg,  Osnabriick 
and  Stade  ;  and  the  most  gigantic  examples  in  Germany  arc  in  th^ 
duchy  of  Oldenburg. 

In  Holland,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  they  are  confined  tc 
the  province  of  Drenthe,  where  bet^veen  fifty  and  sixty  still  exist. 
Here  they  get  the  name  of  Hunnebedden  (Huns' beds).  The  Borgei 
Hunnebed,  tho  largest  of  this  group,  is  70  feet  long  and  14  feet 
wide.  In  its  original  condition  it  contained  forty-five  stones,  ten 
of  which  were  capstones.  They  are  all  now  denuded,  but  some 
show  evidence  of  having  been  surrounded  with  a  mound  containing 
an  entrance  passage.  Only  one  dolmen  has  been  recorded  ill 
Belgimu  ;  but  in  France  their  number  amounts  to  3110.  They  are 
irregularly  distributed  over  sevejity-eight  departments,  six  hundred 
and  eighteen  being  in  Brittany.  In  the  centre  of  t'  e  country 
they  are  also  numerous,  no  less  than  four  hundred  and  tlurty-five 
being  recorded  in  Aveyron,  but  they  are  of  much  smaller  proportions 
than  in  the  former  locality.  From  the  Pyrenee3  the  dolmens  are 
sparsely  traced  along  the  north  coast  of  Spain  and  through  Portugal 
to  Andalusia,  where  they  occur  in  considerable  numbers.  Croc-iig 
into  Africa  they  are  found  in  large  groups  in  Morocco,  Algeria,  and 
Tunis.  General  Faidherbe  writes  of  having  examined  five  or  six 
thousand  at  the  cemeteries  of  Bou  Merzoug,  Wady  Berda,  Tebcssa, 
Gastul,  &C.1  In  the  Channel  Islands  every  species  of  megr.l'L'.-ic; 
monument  is  met  with.  At  Slout  Cochon,  near  St  Helicr,  there 
was  lately  discovered  in  a  mound  of  blown  sand  an  allee  couverte, 
and  close  to  it  a  stone  circle  surrounding  a  dolmen.'  In  the 
British  Isles  they  are  met  with  in  many  localities,  particularly  in 
the  west  of  England,  Anglesey,  the  Isle  of  Man,  Ireland,  and  Coot- 
land.  In  the  country  last  named,  however,  they  are  net  the  most 
striking  feature  among  its  rude  stone  monuments — the  stone  circles 
and  cisted  cairns  having  largely  superseded  them. 

In  the  absence  of  historical  knowledge  all  these  megalithic 
structures  were  formerly  regarded  as  of  Celtic  origin.  By  some 
they  were  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  by  the  Druids,  tho 
so-called  priests  of  the  Celts  ;  and  hence  they  were  often  deseiibed, 
especially  since  the  time  of  Aubrey  and  Stnkely,  under  the  name  of 
Celtic  or  Dniidical  monuments.  But  this  theory  is  disproved  by 
tho  fact  that  the  ethnographical  range  of  the  Celtic  races  docs  not 
correspond  witlj  the  geographical  distribution  of  these  rude  stone 
monuments.  Thus,  for  example,  in  Europe,  not  to  speak  of  thtr 
localization  in  non-Celtic  countries,  tho  megaliths  occupy  ah  elon- 
gated stretch  of  territoi^  on  its  western  seaboard  extending  from 
PoTnerania  to  North  Africa.  This  area  crosses  at  right  angles  the 
lands  supposed  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  Celtic  or  Aryan 
races  on  their  westward  waves  of  migration.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  from  investigations  of  the  contents  of  dolmens  that  their 
primary  object  was  sepulchral,  and  that  the  megalithic  chambers, 
with  entrance  passages,  were  used  as  family  vaults.  Against  the 
theory  that  any  of  them  were  ever  used  as  altars  there  is  priiuc 
facie  evidence  in  the  care  taken  to  have  the  smoothest  and  flattest 
surface  of  tho  stones  composing  the  chamber  always  turned 
inwards.  Moreover,  cup  marks,  and  other  primitive  marking.*? 
when  found  on  the  capstones  or  supports,  are  almost  invariably 
on  their  inside,  as,  for  example,  at  the  dolmens  of  Keriaval,  Kercado, 
Dol  au  Merchant,  Gavr'inis  (Morbihan),  and  the  great  tumulus  at 
New  Grange  (Ireland),  ^m  its  position  in  the  centre  of  a  large 
circular  enclosure  no  dolitrin  could  be  more  suggestive  of  public 
sacrifices  than  that  within  the  Giant's  Ring  near  Belfast  ;  yet 
nothing  could  be  more  inappropriate  for  such  a  purposo  than  its 
capstone,  which  is  in  fact  a  largo  granite  boulder  presenting  on 
its  upper  side  an  unusually  rounded  surface. 

No  chronological  sequence  can  be  detected  in  the  evolution  of 
the  rude  stone  monuments,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the 
primitive  cist  which  gave  origin  to  the  alleetf  couvertes,  giant 
graves,  &c.,  and  these  again  to  the  tumuli  with  microlithic  built 
chambers.  Much  less  can  their  appearance  in  different  countries 
bo  said  to  indicate  contemporaneity.  The  dolmens  of  Africa^  are 
often  found  to  contain  objects  ppculiar  to  the  Iron  Age,  and  it  is 
said  that  in  some  parts  of  India  the  people  are  still  in  tho  habit  of 
erecting  dolmens  and  other  megalithic  monuments.  Scandinavian 
archiBo  legists  assign  their  dolmens  exclusively  to 'the  S-tone  Age. 
It  would  therefore  appear  as  if  a  subsequent  stage  of  degradation 
occurred,  when  a  tamer  style  of  interment  ensued,  and  the  Bronze 
Age  barrows  replaced  the  dolmens,  and  these  again  gave  way  to  the 
Iron  Age  burials — the  ship-barrows  and  large  tumuli  of  the  vikings, 
as  manifested  in  the  three  tumuli  of  Thor,  Odin,  and  Frcya  at 


1    Compte  Rendu  du  Congret  hternaiionnl  d' An:h.  et  a  .:<ch.,  lirw^ellts,  p.  408, 
'  S'Jci'la  Jeriraiie,  9*  BuJlelin,  1884, 


R  U  D  —  R  U  D 


63 


Camla  Upsala,  mid   the   Gokstad  mound  on  tlic   Sandefiord,  the 
scene  of  the  recent  discovery  of  the  viking  ship. 

Literature. — Fergusson.  Rude  Stone.  Monuments;  Compte  Rendu  du  Conyre's 
Jntemalional  (TAnthropologie  el  d' A rcheologie  Prehistoriquet ;  by  G.  de  Mortillet, 
Let  ttudes  Ptehistoriquei;  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Times;  Inventaire  des  Mono- 
menu  M^afithiguet  de  Prance  \  Bonstetten,  Estai  sur  Its  Dolm^iis  ;  Proceeding*, 
Ac,  of  the  various  antiquarian  societies.  (It.  MUj 

RUDOLPH  I.  (1218-1291),  German  king,  eldest  son  of 
Albert  IV.,  count  of  Hapsburg,  was  born  on  the  1st  ilay 
1218;  By  marriage  and  in  other  ways  he  greatly  ex- 
tended his  hereditary  dominions,  so  that  when  he  became 
king  he  was  lord  not  only  of  Hapsburg  but  of  the  counties 
of  Kyburg  and  I-enzburg  and  of  the  landgraviate  of  Alsace. 
At  different  times  he  carried  on  war  with  the  bishop  of 
Strasburg,  the  abbot  of  St  Gall,  and  the  city  of  Basel. 
He  was  engaged  in  his  second  struggle  with  Basel  in  1273 
■Rhen  Frederick,  burgrave  of  Nuremberg,  brought  the  in- 
telligence that  he  had  been  elected  to  the  German  crown. 
Basel  at  once  submitted,  and  Rudolph  went  to  Ais-la- 
Chapelle,  where  he  was  cro'wnedon  the  28th  October  1273. 
The  princes  had  become  so  independent  during  tho  Great 
Interregnum  that  they  would  have  preferred  to  have  no 
supreme  ruler ;  but  Pope  Gregory  X.  had  thrsatened  that 
if  they  did  not  elect  a  king  he  would  himself  appoint  one. 
The  pope  now  cordially  supported  Rudolph,  who  proved 
to  be  much  more  energetic  than  the  electors  had  antici- 
pated. Having  secured  the  friendship  of  the  palsgrave 
Louis  and  Duke  Albert  of  Saxony  by  allowing  them  to 
marry  his  daughters,  he  advanced  against  Ottocar,  king 
of  Bohemia,  and  Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria,  both  of  whom 
had  refused  to  do  him  homage.  Henry  was  soon  won 
over  to  the  new  king's  side,  and  then  Ottocar  had  to  sue 
for  peace.  His  request  was  granted  only  on  condition 
that  he  should  cede  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and 
Carniola.  By  and  by  Ottocar  again  rebelled,  and  was 
slain  in  1278  in  a  battle  fought  on  the  JIarchfield. 
Rudolph  gave  Bohemia  and  Moravia  to  Wenceslaus, 
Ottocar's  son ;  but  Austria,  StjTia,  and  Carniola  he 
granted  to  his  own  sons,  Albert  and  Rudolph.  Carinthia 
was  given  to  Meinhard,  count  of  Tyrol,  who  agreed  that 
if  His  descendants  in  the  male  line  died  out  the  land  should 
pass  to  Rudolph's  family.  Rudolph  compelled  Otho, 
count  of  I'pper  Burgundy,  and  other  nobles,  who  tried 
to  make  themselves  independent  of  the  German  crown,  to 
acknowledge  his  supremacy  ;  and  he  recovered  certain  fiefs 
in  what  is  now  Switzerland,  which  had  been  seized  by  the 
count  of  Savoy.  He  also  restored  peace  in  Bohemia,  and 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  young  king,  Wences- 
laus. He  often  visited  troubled  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
settling  local  disputes,  and  destroying  the  towers  of  robber 
barons.  On  tho  whole,  his  rule  was  a  beneficent  one, 
but  he  did  not  succeed  in  re-establishing  the  authority  of 
the  crown,  nor  did  be  .see  how  great  an  element  of  strength 
he  might  have  found  in  an  alliance  with  the  cities.  "The 
electors  he  was  forced  to  confirm  in  the  possession  of 
important  rights,  which  were  maintained  under  his  suc- 
cessors. His  reign  is  memorable  chiefly  because  he  was 
the  founder  of  t-he  greatness  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 
In  1281  his  first  wife  died,  and  in  1284  ho  married 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Hugo  IV.,  duke  of  Burgundy. 
He  died  at  Germershcim  on  the  15th  July  1291. 

Sco  Lorcnz,  Dcutxhc  Gcsddchte  im  13  und  1.}  Jahrh.  (1867)  ; 
Hubef,  Ritdolf  tor  schi/^r  Thronhcsteifjung  (in  ilie  Alnwnach  Act 
kaiKrlichen  Atadeniic,  1S73) ;  Hirn,  Rudolf  wn  Ilibsburg  (1874). 
RUDOLPH  IL  (1552-1612),  Holy  Roman  emperor, 
was  the  sor.  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  II.,  and  was  born 
on  the  18th  July  1552.  In  1572  he  obtained  the  crown 
of  Hungary,  in  1575  that  of  Bohemia,  with  the  title  "  King 
of  the  Romans  ";  and  in  1570,  after  his  father's  death, 
he  became  emperor.  Ho  was  of  an  indolent  and  melan- 
choly disposition,  and  preferred  tho  study  of  astrology 
and  alchemy  to  the  responsibilities  of  government.     Ho 


'  surreudered  himself  absolutely  to  the  control  of  the  Jesuits, 
under  whose  influence  he  had  been  brought  up  at  the 
gloomy  court  of  Spain ;  and  in  his  hereditary  lands  they 
laboured  assiduously  to  destroy  Protestantism.  The 
Protestants  were  deprived  of  the  right  of  public  worship 
in  Vienna  and  other  towns ;  their  schools  were  closed, 
and  many  of  their  preachers  banished.  Almost  all  public 
ofllces,  too,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  Roman  Catholics. 
In  the  lands  which  Rudolph  ruled,  not  by  hereditary 
right,  but  as  emperor,  his  advisers  could  exercise  less 
authority ;  but  there  also  they  did  what  they  could  to 
foster  the  Catholic  reaction.  In  1607  Maximilian,  duke 
of  Bavaria,  was  allowed  to  seize  the  imperial  city  Donau- 
worth,  the  Protestant  inhabitants  of  which  had  quarrelled 
with  the  abbot.  This  and  other  high-handed  proceedings 
alarmed  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  and  in  1608,  under 
the  leadership  of  Frederick  TV.,  elector  of  the  Palatinate, 
they  formed  a  confederation  called  the  Union  for  the  pro- 
tection of  their  interests.  The  Catholic  princes,  ^ided 
by  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  responded  by  forming 
the  League.  Ci-sil  war  seemed  inevitable,  but  it  was 
postponed  by  the  murder  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  who 
had  promised  to  support  the  Union,  and  by  the  death  of 
the  elector  Frederick  IV.  Meanwhile,  the  greatest  con- 
fusion prevailed  in  Hungary,  due  in  part  to  religious 
oppression,  in  part  to  a  war  with  the  Turks.  In  1604 
the  Hungarians  rebelled,  and  peace  w-as  not  restored 
until  1600,  when  Matthias,  the  emperor's  brother,  with 
the  sanction  of  his  younger  brothers,  who  acknowledged 
him  as  head  of  the  family,  came  to  terms  both  with  the 
Hungarians  and  with  the  sultan.  Matthias  allied  him- 
self with  the  Protestants,  and  compelled  Rudolph  to  give 
up  to  him  Hungary,  Jloravia,  and  the  greater  part  of 
Austria.  The  emperor  then  tried  to  strengthen  his 
position  by  granting  to  the  nobles,  knights,  and  towns  of 
Bohemia  perfect  religious  freedom,  with  the  right  to  build 
Protestant  churches  and  schools  on  their  own  and  on  the 
royal  lands.  Even  after  they  had  obtained  the  letter  of 
majesty  in  which  these  concessions  were  embodied,  the 
Bohemians  did  not  trust  Rudolph;  and,  when  at  his 
request  the  archduke  Leopold  appeared  in  their  country 
with  an  army,  they  invited  Matthias  to  come  to  their  aid. 
Matthias  went,  and  the  emperor  had  no  alternative  but  to 
resign  to  him  in  1611  the  remainder  of  his  hereditary 
territories.  Rudolph  died  on  the  20th  January  1612. 
.  See  Kiirz,  Gcschkhtc  Ocslcrrcuhs  vr.tcr  Kaiser  Rudolf  (1821) ; 
Gindely,  Rudolf  II.  und  seine  Zcit  (1803-65). 

RUDOLSTADT,  capital  of  the  German  principality  of 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  and  chief  residence  of  the  prince, 
is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  tho  Saale,  18  miles  due 
south  of  Weimar,  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  districts 
of  Thuringia.  The  picturesque  little  town  is  a  favourite 
summer  watering-place,  with  pine  baths,  as  well  as  a  fre- 
quented tourist  resort.  Besides  containing  the  Govern- 
ment buildings  of  the  little  principality,  Rudolstadt  is 
fairly  well  provided  with  schools  and  other  institutions, 
including  a  library  of  60,000  volumes.  ,  The  residence 
of  tho  prince  is  in  the  Heidecksburg,  a  palace  on  an 
eminence  200  feet  above  the  Saale,  rebuilt  after  f,  fire  in 
1735,  and  containing  various  show  apartments.  The 
Ludwigsburg,  another  palace  within  the  town  built  in 
1742,  accommodates  the  natural  history  collections  be- 
longing to  the  prince.  Tho  principal  church  dates  from 
tho  end  of  the  15th  century.  In  the  Anger,  a  tree-shaded 
public  park  between  the  town  and  the  river,  is  the  theatre. 
Various  memorials  in  and  near  tho  town  commemorate  the 
visits  of  Schiller  to  tho  neighbourhood  in  1787  and  1788. 
The  industries  of  tho  district  include  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain  and  of  dyestuffs,  wool-spinning,  and  bell-found- 
ing.    The  population  (410()  in  1817)  was  8747  in  1880. 


54 


K  LI  E  — R  U  F 


The  name  of  Rudolstadt  occurs  iii  an  inventory  of  tho  possossions 
of  tho  abbsy  of  HcrsfuKl  in  tlio  year  800.  After  passing 
through  tlie  possession  of  tho  Gorman  emperor  and  of  tho  rulers  of 
Orlamiindo  and  Weimar,  it  eamo  into  tho  hands  of  the  dulces  of 
Scliwarzburg  in  1355.  Its  town  riglits  were  confirmed  in  140-1 ;  and 
since  1699  it  has  been  the  residence  of  tlie  ruling  house. 

RUEDA,  LoPK  DE.     See  Drama,  vol.  vii.  p.  420. 

RUFF,  a  bird  so  called  from  the  very  beautiful  and 
remarkable  frill  of  elongated  feathers  that,  just  before  the 
breeding-season,  grow  thickly  round  the  neck  of  the  male, 
who  is  considerably  larger  than  the  female,  known  as  the 
Reeve.  In  many  respects  this  species,  the  Tringa 
pugnax  of  Linnajus  and  the  Machetes  pugnax  of  the 
majority  of  modern  ornithologists,  is  one  of  the  most 
singular  in  existence,  and  yet  its  singularities  have  been 
very  ill  appreciated  by  zoological  writers  in  general.' 
These  singularities   would   require   almost   a   volume  to 


^-|%€^  n\\/^- 


Ruff. 
describe  properly.  The  best  account  of  them  is  unques- 
tionably that  given  in  1813  by  Montagu  {Suppl.  Orn. 
Dictionary),  who  seems  to  have  been  particularly  struck  by 
the  e.ictraordinary  peculiarities  of  the  species,  and,  to 
investigate  them,  expressly  visited  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire, 
possibly  excited  thereto  by  the  example  of  Pennant,  whose 
information,  personally  collected  there  in  1769,  was  of  a 
kind  to  provoke  further  inquiry,  wbile  Daniel  (Sural 
Sports,  iii.  p.  234)  had  added  some  other  particulars,  and 
subsequently  Graves  in  1816  repeated  in  the  same  district 
the  experience  of  his  predecessors.  Since  that  time  the 
great  changes  produced  by  the  drainage  of  the  fen-country 
have  banished  this  species  from  nearly  the  whole  of  it,  so 
that  Lubbock  (Obs.  Fauna  of  Norfolk,  pp.  68-73)  and  Mr 
Stevenson  (Birds  of  Norfolk,  ii.  pp.  261 — 271)  can  alone 
be  cited  as   modern  witnesses  of   its  habits  in  England, 

'  Mr  Danvin,  though  frequently  citing  {Descent  of  Man  and  Sexual 
Selection,  I  pp.  270,  306  ;  ii.  pp.  41,  42,  4S,  81,  84,  100,  111)  the 
Ruff  as  a  witness  in  various  capacities,  most  unfortunately  seems 
never  to  have  had  its  pecuUanties  presented  to  him  in  such  a  form 
that  he  could  fully  perceive  their  bearings.  However,  the  significance 
of  the  lesson  that  the  Rvlff  may  teach  was  hardly  conceivable  before 
he  beg.an  to  write  ;  but  the  fact  is  not  the  less  to  be  regretted  that 
he  never  elucidated  its  importance,  not  only  in  regard  to  "  Sexual 
Selection,"  but  more  especially  with  respect  to  "Polymorphism.* 
He  appears  not  to  have  consulted  Montagu's  original  account  of  this 
bird,  and  seems  to  have  known  it  only  by  the  excerpt  given  by 
Macgillivray,  in  which  were  not  included  the  important  passages  on 
tbe  extreme  diversity  of  plumago  exhibited  by  the  males — that  author 
passing  over  this  wonderfid  peculiarity  iu  a  paragraph  of  less  than  a 
score  of  lines. 


■while  the  trade  of  netting  or  snaring  Ruffs,  and  fattening 
them  for  the  table  has  for  many  years  practically  ceased. 

The  cock-bird,  when  out  of  his  nuptial  attire,  or,  to  use 
the  fenman's  expression,  when  he  has  not  "  his  show  on," 
and  the  hen  at  all  seasons,  offer  no  very  remarkable 
deviation  from  ordinary  Sandpipers,  and  outwardly-  there 
is  nothing,  except  the  unequal  size  of  the  two  sexes,  to 
rouse  suspicion  of  any  abnormal  peculiarity.  But  when 
spring  comes  all  is  changed.  In  a  surprisingly  short  time 
the  feathers  clothing  the  face  of  the  male  are  shed,  and 
their  place  is  taken  by  papilla:  or  small  caruncles  of  bright 
yellow  or  pale  pink.  From  each  side  of  his  head  sproutg 
a  tuft  of  stiii  curled  feathers,  giving  tho  appearance  of 
long  ears,  while  the  feathers  of  the  throat  change  colour, 
and  beneath  and  around  it  sprouts  the  frill  or  rutf  already 
mentioned  as  giving  the  bird  his  name.  The  feathers 
which  form  this  remarkable  adornment,  quite  unique 
among  birds,  are,  like  those  of  the  "ear-tufts,"  stiff  and 
incurved  at  the  end,  but  much  longer — measuring  more 
than  two  inches.  They  are  closely  arrayed,  capable  ol 
depression  or  elevation,  and  form  a  shield  to  the  front  of 
the  breast  impenetrable  by  the  bill  of  a  rival.'  More 
extraordinary  than  this,  from  one  point  of  view,  is  the 
great  variety  of  coloration  that  obtains  in  these  temporary 
outgrowths.  It  has  often  been  said  that  no  one  ever  saw 
two  Buffs  alike.  That  is  perhaps  an  over-statement ;  but, 
considering  the  really  few  colours  that  the  birds  exhibit, 
the  variation  is  something  marvellous,  so  that  fifty 
examples  or  more  may  be  compared  without  finding  a 
very  close  resemblance  between  any  two  of  them,  while 
the  individual  variation  is  increased  by  the  "ear-tufts," 
which  generally  differ  in  colour  from  the  frill,  and  thua 
produce  a  combination  of  diversity.  The  colours  range 
from  deep  black  to  pure  white,  imssing  through  chestnut 
or  bay,  and  many  tints  of  brown  or  ashy-grey,  while 
often  the  feathers  are  more  or  less  closely  barred  with  some 
darker  shade,  and  the  black  is  very  frequently  glossed  with 
violet,  blue,  or  green — or,  in  addition,  spangled  with  white, 
grey,  or  gold-colour.  The  white,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not 
rarely  freckled,  streaked,  or  barred  with  grey,  rufous- 
brown,  or  black.  In  some  examples  tho  barring  is  most 
regularly  concentric,  in  others  more  or  less  broken-np  or 
undulating,  and  the  latter  may  be  said  of  the  streaks.  It 
was  ascertained  by  !Montagu,  and  has  since  been  confirmed 
by  the  still  wider  experience  and  if  possible  more  carefully 
conducted  observation  of  Mr  Bartlett,  that  every  Buff  in 
each  successive  year  assumes  tufts  and  frill  exactly  the  same 
in  colour  and  markings  as  those  he  wore  in  the  preceding 
season  ;  and  thus,  polymorphic  as  is  the  male  as  a  species, 
as  an  individual  he  is  unchangeable  in  his  wedding-garment 
— a  lesson  that  might  possibly  be  applied  to  many  othei 
birds.     The  white  frill  is  said  to  be  the  rarest. 

That  all  this  wonderful  "  show  "  is  the  consequence  of 
the  polygamous  habit  of  the  Ruff  can  scarcely  be  doubted. 
No  other  species  of  Limicolino  bird  has,  so  far  as  is  ktiown, 
any  tendency  to  it.  Indeed,  in  many  species  of  L'nncolsf, 
as  the  Dotterel,  the  Godwits  (vol.  x.  p.  720),  Phalaropes, 
and  perhaps  some  others,  the  female  is  larger  b..d  more 
brightly  coloured  than  the  male,  who  in  such  cases  seems- 
to  take  upon  him-^ielf  some  at  least  of  the  domestic  duties. 
Both  Montagu  and  Graves,  to  say  nothing  of  othet  writers, 
state  that  the  Buffs,  in  England,  were  fat  more  numerous 
than  the  Beeves,  and  their  testimony  can  hardly  be  doubted; 
though  in  Germany  Naumann  (Vbg    Deulfrhlnnit s,  vii.  p. 

*  Internally  there  is  a  great  difference  in  tho  forrj  of  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  sternum,  as  long  ago  remarked  by  Nitzsch. 

*  This  "ruff"  has  been  compared  tc  that  of  Elizabethan  or 
Jacobean  costume,  but  it  is  essentiaUy  different,  since  that  was  open 
in  front  and  widest  and  most  i)rojectiiig  behind,  whereas  the  bird's 
decorative  ap]iari  1  is  iiiout  developed  iu  front  and  at  the  sides  and 
scarcely  exists  behind. 


R  U  F  —  R  U  G 


55 


544)  considers  that  this  is  only  the  casi;  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  season,  and  that  later  the  females  greariy  out- 
number the  males.  It  remains  to  say  that  the  moral 
characteristics  of  the  Ruff  exceed  even  anything  that 
mi''ht  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  already  stated. 
]5y°no  one  have  they  been  more  happily  described  than  by 
VVolley,  in  a  communication  to  Hewitson  (Eggs  of  Brit. 
Birds,  3d  ed.,  p.  346),  as  follows:  — 

"  The  RulT,  like  other  fine  gentlemen,  takes  much  more  trouble 
with  his  couitsliip  than  with  his  duties  as  a  husband.  Whilst  tlie 
\lci.\\^  are  sitting  on  their  eggs,  scattered  about  the  swainps,  he 
is  to  be  seen  far  away  flitting  about  iu  flocks,  and  on  the  ground 
dauciug  and  sparring  with  his  companions.  Before  they  are  cou- 
fincd  To  their  nesti,  it  is  wonderful  with  what  devotion  the 
females  are  attended  by  their  gay  followers,  who  seem  to  be  each 
trying  to  be  more  attentive  than  the  rest.  Nothing  can  be  more 
cviircssive  of  humility  anil  anient  love  than  s»me  of  the  actions  of 
the  Hulf.  He  throws  himself  prostrate  ou  the  ground,  with  every 
feather  on  his  body  standing  up  and  quivering  ;  but  he  seems  as 
if  he  were  afr.iid  of  coming  too  near  his  mistress.  If  she  Hies  olf, 
he  starts  up  in  an  iustant  to  arrive  before  her  at  the  next  place  of 
ali"litin",  and  all  his  actions  are  full  of  life  and  spirit.  But  none 
of  his  spirit  is  expended  in  care  for  his  family.  He  never  comes  to 
Bcc  after  ail  enemy.  In  the  [Lapland]  niai^hes,  a  Reeve  now  and 
then  flies  near  with  a  scarcely  audible  ka-ka-kuk  ;  but  ^c  seems  a 
dull  bird,  and  makes  no  noisy  attack  on  an  invader." 

Want  of  space  forbids  a  fuller  account  of  this  extremely 
interesting  species.  Its  breeding-grounds  extend  from 
Great  Britain'  across  northern  Europe  and  Asia  ;  but  the 
birds  become  less  numerous  towards  the  east.  They 
winter  in  India,  reaching  even  Ceylon,  and  Africa  as  far 
as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Kuff  also  occasionally 
visits  Iceland,  and  there  are  several  well-authenticated 
records  of  its  occurrence  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
United  States,  while  an  example  is  stated  (Ihis,  1S75,  [i. 
332)  to  have  been  received  from  the  northern  part  of 
South  America.  (a.  n.) 

I'lL'FINUS,  Tyransius  (Turranius,  ToRAxrrs),  the 
well-known  contemporary  of  Jerome,  was  born  at  or  near 
A«iuileia  about  the  year  315.  In  early  life  he  studied 
rhetoric,  and  while  still  comparatively  young  he  entered 
tflfc  cloister  as  a  catechumen,  receiving  baptism  about  370. 
About  the  same  time  a  casoal  visit  of  Jerome  to  Aquileia 
led  to  the  formation  of  a  close  and  intimate  friendship 
between  the  two  students,  and  .shortly  after  Jerome's 
dejiarture  for  the  East  Kufinv  also  was  drawn  thither  (in 
372  or  373)  by  his  interest  in  i.s  theology  and  monasticism. 
lie  firnt  settled  in  Egypt,  hearing  the  lectures  of  Didymus, 
the  Orlgenistic  teacher  at  Alexandria,  and  also  cultivating 
friendly  relations  with  Macarius  and  other  a.scetics  in  the 
dosert.  In  Egy|it,  if  not  even  before  leaving  Italy,  he  had 
become  intimately  acquainted  with  Melania,  a  wealthy  and 
devout  Iioman  matron,  who  since  the  death  of  her  husband 
had  devoted  all  her  means  to  religious  and  charitable 
works  ;  and  when  she  removed  to  Palestine,  taking  .vith 
lier  a  number  of  clergy  and  monks  on  whom  the  penccu- 
tions  of  Valen.s  had  borr^  heavily,  Rufinus  ultim.itcly 
(ibout  37S)  followed  her.  ■  While  his  patroness  lived  iu  a 
convent  of  her  own  in  Jeru.-^alem,  Rutinus,  in  close  co- 
operation with  her  and  at  lier  expense,  gathered  together  a 
number  of  monks  in  a  monastery  on  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
•levoting  hininelf  at  the  same  time  with  much  ardour  to 
tlic  .study  of  Greek  theology.  When  Jerome  came  to  reside 
at  ricthlebem  m  3sG  the  friendship  forniedat  Aqiiile.a  was 
renewed.  Another  of  the  intimates  of  Rufinus  was  Jq^n, 
lii^hop  of  Jerusalem,  and  formerly  a  Xitrian  monk,  by 
whom  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  390.  In  391, 
in  consDiuencc  of  tlie  attack  u|ion  the  doctrines  of  Ougcn 
made  by  Kpiplianiu->  of  Salamis  during  a  \init  to 
Jern-alcni,  a  fierce  i|uarrel  broke  out,  which  f:un'l  '.lufini;-. 
and  .If;ro^iic_ranL'rd  on  dilfcrcnt  sides;  ami.  thouirh  tlnec 

'   III  Eii-i.iiiti  uf  Idle  \'-.ir>  it  It.'n  b-^cii  known  \n  breed  only  in  cue 
liKalily,Jlic  Lioiu  or  tlliutiuu  vl  »liu.U  i:  ut'Oi  Ucsja'jle  u  publish. 


years  afterwards  a  formal  reconciliation  was  brought  about 
lietween  Jerome  and  John  through  the  intervention  of 
third  parties,  the  breach  between  Jerome  and  Rulinus  re- 
mained unhealed. 

In  the  autumu  of  397  Rufinus  embarked  for  Rome, 
where,  finding  that  the  theological  controversies  of  the  East 
were  exciting  much  interest  and  curiosity,  he  published  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  Apology  of  Pamphilns  for  Origen, 
and  also  (398-399)  a  somewhat  free  rendering  of  the 
Tvepl  6.px"iv  of  that  author  himself.  In  the  preface  to  the 
latter  work  he  had  referred  to  Jerome  as  an  admirer  of 
Origen,  and  as  having  already  translated  some  of  his  works  ; 
this  allusion  proved  very  annoying  to  the  subject  of  it, 
who  was  now  exceedingly  sensitive  as  to  his  reputation 
for  orthodoxy,  and  the  consequence  was  a  bitter  pamphlet 
war,  very  wonderful  to  the  modern  onlooker,  who  finds  it 
difficult  to  see  anything  discreditable  in  the  accusation 
against  a  Biblical  scholar  that  he  had  once  thought  well  of 
Origen,  or  in  tho  countercharge  against  a  translator  that 
he  had  avowedly  exercised  editorial  functions  as  well. 
Some  time  during  the  pontificate  of  Anastasius  (398-402) 
Rufinus  was  summoned  from  Aquileia  to  Rome  to  vindicate 
his  orthodoxy,  but  he  excused  himself  from  personal 
ittendance  in  a  written  Apologia  profiJe  sua  ;  the  pope  in 
his  repl;i;  expressly  condemned  Origen,  but  leniently  left 
the  question  of  Rufinus's  orthodo.xy  to  his  own  conscience. 
In  40S  we  find  Rufinus  at  the  monastery  of  Piuetum  (in 
the  Campagna  ?) ;  thence  he  was  driven  by  the  arrival  of 
Alaric  to  Sicily,  being  accompanied  by  Melania  in  his 
flight.  In  Sicily  he  was  engaged  in  translating  the 
Homilies  of  Origen  when  he  died  in  410. 

The  original  works  of  Rufinus  are— (1)  De  AdulUntione 
Librvrniii  Oric/cuis — an  appendix  to  liis  translation  of  th:  A/tolorjtf 
of  Pamphilns,  and  intended  to  show  tliat  many  of  the  features  in 
Oiigeu's  teaching  which  were  tlieu  held  to  be  objc:tioiiable  arise 
from  interpolations  and  falsifications  of  the  :^euj.ne  text  ;  (2) 
Dc  Bcnc(lictionih}is  XII  Fatruurhttruiii  Ltlri  U, — an  expositio-^ 
of  Gen.  xlix. ;  (3)  ApoLxjia  s.  Jnacthni-nnt  in  'lici-oti/iiium  Libn 
1I\  (4)  Apolo<jia  pro  Fiih  Sua  ad  yl.'ulasiiiiii  ru'iliJiLCiu  :  (5) 
llisloria  Erciintica — consisting  of  the  livrs  of  ihirty-thrcc  monks 
of  the  Kitrian  desert ;  (6)  £j/:osilto  injinhdi.  The  Mhtoris 
Ecclcsiasticx  Libri  XI  ol  Rufinus  consist  partly  of  a  free  translation 
of  Eusebius  (10  books  in  9)  and  jiartly  of  a  coutiiiuatiou  (bks. 
X.  and  xi. )  down  to  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Great.  Vhc  other 
translations  of  Kniiniis  are — (1)  the  Instihtia  Mvntnhjrmn  end  .some 
of  the  Hviiiitns  or  B  isil  ;  (2)  tlie  Ajjoluiju  of  Pampliilus,  icfeiied  to 
above  ;  (3)  Oiig.  i-  »  Priuripia  ;  (Jj  Oiigeii'a  /;<.  •//KsiCen. -Kings, 
also  Cant,  and  Kom  ) ;  (5)  O/./iauln  of  Gi.gc;-  cf  Xa/inuzus  ,  (61 
the  Sciiaitix  of  Sixtus,  an  unknown  Omk  pl.ilosoi>iit.i  ;  (7)  the 
.Scnicutix  of  Evagrius  ;  (8)  the  CUmcntinc  Etcvjititioitz  (the  only 
foim  ill  which  that  work  is  now  extant) ;  i.C;  the  Canon  Pusdiuhs 
of  Aiiatolius  Alexandiinus. 

Vall.ir^i's  unconu'lcteil  ctntiv.il  of  rfaflnus  (lol.  1.,  fol..  Veronit,  ]T4-i)  coTiloliu 
the  De  HeJifiicliOiiibus,  the  Apoloyies,  the  ETposUio  SbvhoH,  the  Jl"i-'tia 
£iaic't:na,  ami  ihc  two  original  oooks  of  tlie  Ifiit.  Ccd.  s-jc  aiiO  Mltjiic.  /"rlt/i-/ 
(vol.Vxxi.  of  ilie  L.itln  sciies).  For  ttie  liaiisla:loi!s,  see  tlio  v^jlons  etltiloiis  of 
Origen,  Euscbius,  .tc. 

RUGBY,    a   market-town   of   Warwickshire,   is   finely 
situated  on  a  table-laud  rising  from  the  southern  bank  o; 
the   Avon,   at   the  junction  of  several  railway  lines,  and 
near    the    Grand   Junction    Canal,     30  miles    E.S.E.    of 
'  Birmingham,  and  20  S.S.W.  of  Leicester.     It  is  a  well- 
built  town,  with  a  large  number  of  modern  hou.ses  erected 
.  for  private  residences.     It  occupies  ..  gravel  site,  is  well 
1  drained,    and  lias   a  good  supply  of  water.     Jt  owes  its 
j  importance  to  the  grammar  school,  built  and  endowed  by 
!  Laurence  Sheriff,  a  merchant  grocer  and  servant  to  Queen 
;  Elizabeih,  and  a  native  of    the    neighbouring   village  of 
Brow  f.Mivi.T.    The  eu>lowinent  c.^nsiited  of  the  parsonajp.  of 
i  Brown.sovcr,  Sheriffs  man.sion  hou^o  ir   RiigUy,  and  one 
I  third  (6  acres)  of  his  estate  in  Middlesex,  ne.ii   the  Foi;nd- 
li'ig  Ho-,;.itr.!,  Lor.don,  wh;cli,  being  let  on  IviildLijij' leases. 
I  gradually  '.ncreased    to   aliout    .t.!i.0OO  a   yenr.     The.  full 
I  cnJowni' nt  <ras  cVained  ii<  Kjj^    (The-  s>ho3<  c77|;iUtt... 
I  iJpjd  oj'posit-:  th<'  i>ari"-b  ':Lu-cl),  and  «'•'•  romoned  to  iw 


56 


R  U  G  — R  U  G 


present  site  on  tne  south  side  of  the  town  between  1740 
and  1750.  In  1809  it  was  rebuilt  from  designs  by  Hake- 
wiU;  the  chapel,  dedicated  to  St  Lawrence,  was  added  in 
1820.  At  the  tercentenary  of  the  school  in  1867  subscrip- 
tions were  set  on  foot  for  founding  scholarships,  building 
additional  schoolrooms,  rebuilding  or  enlarging  the  chapel, 
and  other  objects.  The  chapel  was  rebuilt  and  recon- 
secrated in  1872.  A  swimming  bath  was  erected  in  1876; 
the  Temple  observatory,  containing  a  fine  equatorial  refrac- 
tor by  Alvan  Clark,  was  built  in  1877,  and  the  Temple  read- 
ing room  with  the  art  museum  in  1878.  The  workshops 
underneath  the  gymnasium  were  opened  in  1880,  and  a  new 
big  school  and  class  rooms  were  erdcted  in  1885.  There 
are  three  major  and  four  minor  exhibitions  for  students  to 
any  university  in  the  United  Kingdom.  From  about  70 
in  1777  the  numbers  attending  the  school  have  increased 
to  over  400.  A  great  impulse  was  given  to  the  progress 
of  the  school  during  the  headmastership  of  Dr  Arnold, 
1827-1842.  The  best  known  of  Arnold's  successors  are 
Tait,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Temple, 
the  present  bishop  of  London.  The  parish  church  of 
St  Andrew's  is,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower  and  the 
north  arcade  in  the  nave,  entirely  modern,  having  been 
built  from  designs  by  Mr  Butterfield  at  a  cost  of  £22,000, 
and  reconsecrated  in  1879.  The  daughter  church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  a  handsome  building  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott, 
in  close  proximity  to  St  Andrew's,  was  erected  in  1853. 
St  Marie's  Catholic  Church  is  in  the  Early  English 
style.  A  town-hall  was  erected  in  1858,  at  a  cost  of 
i67000.  There  are  a  number  of  charities,  including 
Laurence  Sheriff's  almshouses  (founded  1567),  Elborow's 
almshouses  (1707),  Miss  Butlin's  almshouses  (1851),  and  the 
hospital  of  St  Cross,  opened  in  1884,  at  a  cost  of  £20,0*00. 
A  public  recreation  ground  was  provided  by  the  local 
government  board  in  1877.  The  town  has  an  import- 
ant cattle  market.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary 
district  (area  1617  acres)  in  1871  was  8385,  and  in  1881 
it  was  9891. 

Rugby  was  origiually  a  hamlet  of  the  adjoining  parish  of  Clifton- 
on-Dunsmore,  and  is  separately  treated  of  as  such  in  Domesday 
Book.  Ernaldus  de  Bosco  (Ernald  de  Bois),  lord  of  the  manor  of 
Clifton,  seems  to  have  erected  the  first  chapel  in  Rugby,  in  the 
reign  of  Stephen,  about  1140.  It  was  afterwards  granted  by  him, 
with  certain  lands,  to  endow  the  abbey  of  St  Mary,  Leicester, 
which  grant  was  confirmed  by  his  successors  and  by  royal  charter 
of  Henry  II.  In  the  second  year  of  King  John  (1200)  a  suit  took 
place  between  Henry  de  Rokeby,  lord  of  the  manor  of  Rugby,  and 
Paul,  abbot  of  St  Mary,  Leicester,  which  resulted  in  the  former 
obtaining  possession  of  the  advowson  of  Rugby,  on  condition  of 
homage  and  service  to  the  abbot  of  Leicester.  By  virtue  of  this 
agreement  the  chapel  was  converted  into  a  parish  church,  and  the 
vicarage  into  a  rectory,  tn.  1350  Ralph,  Lord  Stafford,  became 
possessed  of  the  manor  and  advowson  of  Rugby,  and  considerably 
enlarf^d  the  parish  church.  Subsequent  alterations,  notably  in 
1814  and  1831,  left  little  of  this  structure  remaining  except  the 
tower  and  north  arcade  in  the  uavo.  The  advowson  of  Rugby  is 
now  the  property  of  the  earl  of  Craven  ;  and  the  late  rector  was 
widely  known  and  honoured  as  "the  poet  pastor,"  John  Moultrie. 

RUGE,  Arnold  (1803-1880),  German  philosophical 
and  political  writer,  was  born  at  Bergen,  in  the  island  of 
Eugen,  on  the  13th  September  1803.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  Jena,  and  Heidelberg,  and  became  an  enthusiastic 
adherent  of  the  party  which  sought  to  create  a  free  and 
united  Germany.  For  his  zeal  in  this  cause  he  had  to 
spend  five  .years  in  the  fortress  of  Kolberg,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  classical  writers,  especially 
Plato  and  the  Greek  poets.  On  his  release  in  1830,  he 
published  Schill  nnd  die  Seinen,  a  tragedy,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  (Edipus  in  Colonus.  Ruge  settled  in  Halle,  where 
in  1838,  in  association  with  his  friend  Echtermayer,  he 
founded  the  Hallesche  JahrbUcJier  fiir  deulsche  Kunst  und 
Wissenschaft .  In  this  periodical,  which  soon  took  a  very 
high  place,  he  discussed  all  the  great  questions  which 
.vere  then  agitating  the   best  minds  in  Europe,   dealing 


with  them  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Hegelian  philo- 
sophy, interpreted  in  the  most  liberal  sense.  The  Jahr- 
hiichcr  was  detested  by  the  orthodox  party  in  Prussia ;  but, 
as  it  was  published  in  Leipsic,  the  editors  fancied  that  it 
was  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Prussian  Government.  In 
1840,  however,  soon  after  the  accession  of  King  Frederick 
William  IV.,  they  were  ordered,  on  account  of  the  name 
of  the  periodical,  to  have  it  printed  in  Halle,  subject  to  the 
censorship  there.  Thereupon  Ruge  went  to  Dresden,  and 
the  Jahi-bUcher  (with  which  Echtermayer  was  no  longer 
connected)  continued  to  appear  in  Leipsic,  but  with  the 
title  Deutsche  Jahrbiicher,  and  without  the  names  of  the 
editors.  It  now  became,  more  liberal  than  ever,  and  in 
1843  was  suppressed  by  the  Saxon  Government.  In  Paris 
Ruge  tried  to  act  with  Karl  Marx  as  co-editor  of  the 
Deutsch-Framosische  Jahrbiicher,  but  the  two  friends  soon 
parted,  Ruge  having  little  sympathy  with  Marx's  social;  ,t 
theories.  Ruge  next  associated  himself  with  a  publishing 
firm  in  Ziirich,  and  when  it  was  put  down'  he  attempted 
to  establish  a  firm  of  his  own  in  Leipsic,  but  his  scheme 
was  thwarted  by  the  Saxon  Government.  In  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  of  1848  Ruge  played  a  prominent  part. 
He  organized  the  Extreme  Left  in  the  Frankfort  parlia- 
ment; and  for  some  time  he  lived  in  Berlin  as  the  editor 
of  the  Reform,  in  which  he  advocated  the  opinions  of  the 
Left  in  the  Prussian  National  Assembly.  The  career  ol 
the  Reform  being  cut  short  by  the  Prussian  Government, 
Ruge  soon  afterwards  visited  Paris,  hoping  to  establish, 
through  his  friend  Ledru-Rollin,  some  relations  between 
German  and  French  republicans;  but  in  1849  both 
Ledru-Rollin  and  Euge  had  to  take  refuge  in  London. 
Here,  in  company  with  Mazzini  and  other  advanced  poli- 
ticians, they  formed  a  "  European  Democratic  Committee." 
From  this  committee  Ruge  soon  withdrew,  and  in  1850 
he  went  to  Brighton,  where  he  supported  himself  by 
working  both  as  a  teacher  in  schools  and  as  a  writer. 
He  took  a  passionate  interest  in  the  events  of  1866 
and  1870,  and  as  a  publicist  vigorously  supported  the 
cause  of  Prussia  against  Austria,  and  that  of  Germany 
against  France.  In  his  last  years  he  received  from  the 
German  Government  a  pension  of  3000  marks.  He  died 
on  the  31st  December  1880. 

Ruge  was  a  man  of  generous  sympathies  and  an  able  writer,  but 
he  did  not  produce  any  work  of  enduring  importance.  In  1846—18 
his  OcsammcUe  Schriftcn  were  published  in  ten  volumes.  After  this 
time  he  wrote,  among  other  books,  Un&er  System,  Rcvolutions- 
novdlen,  Die  Logc  des  Humanisnius,  and  Ati^  friihercr  Zait  (his 
memoirs).  He  also  wrote  many  poems,  and  several  dramas  and 
romances,  and  translated  into  German  various  English  works,  in- 
cluding the  Letters  of  Junius  and  Buckle's  History  of  Civilimtion. 

RUGEN,  the  largest  island  belonging  to  Germany,  is 
situated  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  immediately  opposite  the  town 
of  Stralsund,  H  miles  off  the  north-west  coast  of 
Pomerania  in  Prussia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
narrow  Strelsasund.  Its  shape  is  exceedingly  irregular, 
and  its  coast-line  is  broken  by  very  numerous  bays  and 
peninsulas,  sometimes  of  considerable  size.  The  general 
name  is  applied  by  the  natives  only  to  the  roughly  trian- 
gular main  trunk  of  the  island,  while  the  larger  peninsulas, 
the  landward  extremities  of  which  taper  to  very  narrow 
necks  of  land,  are  considered  to  be  as  distinct  from  Riigen 
as  the  various  adjacent  smaller  islands  which  are  also 
statistically  included  under  the  name.  The  chief  penin- 
sulas are  those  of  Jasmund  and  Wittow  on  the  north,  apd 
Monchgut,  at  one  time  the  property  of  the  monastery  of 
Eldena,  on  the  south-east;  and  the  chief  neighbouring 
islands  are  Unmanz  and  Hiddensoe,  both  off  the  north- 
west coast.  The  greatest  length  of  Riigen  from  north  to 
south  is  32  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth  is  25i  miles;  and 
its  area  is  377  square  miles.  The  surface  gradually  rises 
towards   the   west   to  Rugard    (335  feet),    the    "eye   of 


R  U  H  — R  U  H 


57 


Riigen,"  near  Bergen,  but  the  highest  point  is  the  Hertha- 
burg  (505  feet)  in  Jasmund.  Erratic  blocks  are  scattered 
throughout  the  island,  and  the  roads  are  made  with 
granite.  Though  much  of  Riigen  is  flat  and  sandy,  the 
fine  beech-woods  which  cover  great  part  of  it  and  the 
northeru  coast  scenery  combine  with  the  convenient  sea- 
bathing offered  by  the  various  villages  round  the  coast  to 
attract  large  numbers  of  visitors  annually.  The  most 
beautiful  and  attractive  part  of  the  island  is  the  peninsula 
>f  Jasmund,  which  terminates  to  the  north  in  the  Stuben- 
kammer  (from  two  Slavonic  words  meaning  "  rock  steps"),  a 
sheer  chalk  cliff  by  the  sea,  the  summit  of  which,  known 
as  the  Konigsstuhl,  is  420  feet  above  sea-level.  The  east 
of  Jasmund  is  clothed  with  an  extensive  beech-wood  called 
the  Stubbenitz,  in  which  lies  the  Burg  or  Hertha  Lake. 
Connected  with  Jasmund  only  by  the  narrow  isthmus  of 
Schabe  to  the  west  is  the  peninsula  of  Wittow,  the  most 
fertile  part  of  the  island.  At  its  north-west  extremity 
rises  the  height  of  Arcona,  with  a  lighthouse. 

The  official  capital  of  the  Island  is  Bergen  (3662 
inhabitants),  connected  since  1883  with  Stralsund  by  a 
railway  and  ferry.  The  other  chief  places  are  Garz 
(2014),  Sagard  (1447),  Gingst  (1285),  and  Putbus 
(1752).  The  last  is  the  old  capital  of  a  barony  of  the 
princes  of  Putbus.  Sassnitz,  Gohren,  and  Putbus  are 
among  the  favourite  bathing  resorts.  Schoritz  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  patriot  and  poet,  Arndt  (1769-1860). 
Ecclesiastically,  RUgen  is  divided  into  27  parishes,  in  which 
the.  pastoral  succession  is  said  to  be  almost  hereditary. 
The  inhabitants  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  main- 
land by  peculiarities  of  dialect,  costume,  and  habits ;  and 
even  the  various  peninsulas  differ  from  each  other  in  these 
particulars.  The  peninsula  of  Monchgut  has  besf  preserved 
its  peculiarities  ;  but  there  too  primitive  simplicity  is  yield- 
ing to  the  influence  of  the  annual  stream  of  summer 
visitors.  The  inhabitants  rear  some  cattle,  and  Riigen  has 
long  been  famous  for  its  geese ;  but  the  only  really  con- 
siderable industry  is  fishing,— the  herring-fishery  being 
especially  important.  Riigen,  with  the  neighbouring 
islands,  forms  a  governmental  department,  with  a  popula- 
tion (1880)  of  46,115. 

The  original  Germanic  inhabitants  of  Riigon  weio  dispossessed  by 
Slavs  ;  and  there  are  still  various  relics  of  the  long  reign  of  pag.inism 
that  ensued.  In  the  Stubbenitz  and  elsewhere  Huns'  or  giants' 
graves  (sec  p.  52,  supra)  are  common ;  and  near  the  Hertha  Lake 
arc  the  niins  of  an  ancient  edifice  which  some  have  sought  (tliough 
perhaps  erroneously)  to  identify  with  the  shrine  of  the  heathen 
iicity  Hertha  or  Nertlius,  referred  to  by  Tacitus.  On  Arcona  in 
Wittow  are  the  jemains  of  an  ancient  fortress,  enclosing  a  temple 
of  the  fonr-hcaded  god  Svantevit,  .which  was  destroyed  in  1168  by 
tlio  Danish  king  AValdemur  I.,  when  lie  made  himself  master  of 
the  island.  From  tliat  date  until  1325  Kligen  was  ruled  by  a  suc- 
cession of  natLvc-  princes,  at  first  "under  Danish  supremacy ;  and, 
after  being  for  a  century  and  a  half  the  possession  of  a  brancfi  of 
the  niling  family  in  Pomcrania,  it  was  finally  united  with  that 
province  in  1478,  and  passed  with  it  into  the  possession  of  Sweden 
in  1648.  With  the  rest  of  Western  Vomerania  Riigen  has  belonged 
to  Prussia  since  1815. 

RUHNKEN,  David  (1723-1798),  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  scholars  of  the  Netherlands,  was  of  German 
origin,  having  been  born  in  Pomerania  in  1723.  His 
parents  had  him  educated  for  the  church,  but  after  a 
residence  of  two  years  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  "ho 
determined  to  live  tlie  life  of  a  scholar.  His  biographer 
(Wyttenbach)  somewhat  quaintly  exhorts  all  studfous 
youths  who  feel  the  inner  .call  as  Ruhnkcn  did  to  show 
the  same  boldness  in  crossing  the  wishes  of  their  parents. 
At  Wittenberg,  Rulmken  lived  in  close  intimacy  with  the 
two  most  distinguished  professors,  Hitter  and  Berger,  wlio 
lired  his  passion  for  things  ancient,  and'  guided  his  studies. 
To  them  he  owed  a  thorough  grounding  in  ancient  history 
and  Roman  antiquities  and  literature;  and  from  them  he 
learned  what  distinguished  him  among  the  scholars  of  liis 


time,  a  pure  'and  at  the  same  time  a  vivid  Latin  style. 
At  Wittenberg,  too,  Ruhnken  derived  valuable  mental 
training  from  study  in  mathematics  and  Roman  law. 
Probably  nothing  would  have  severed  him  from  his  sur- 
roundings there  but  a  desire  which  daily  grew  upon  him 
to  explore  the  inmost  recesses  of  Greek  literature.  Neither 
at  Wittenberg  nor  at  any  other  German  university  was 
Greek  in  that  age  seriously  studied.  It  was  taught  iu  the 
main  to  students  in  jdivinity  for  the  sake  of  the  Greek 
Testament  and  the  early  fathers  of  the  church, — taught  as  a 
necessary  appendage  to  Hebrew  andSyriac,  and  generally 
by  the  same  professors.  F.  A.  Wolf  is  the  real  creator  of 
Greek  scholarship  in  modern  Germany,  and  Porson's  gibe 
that  "the  Germans  in  Greek  are  sadly  to  seek"  was 
barbed  with  truth.  It  is  significant  of  the  state  of 
Hellenic  studies  iu  Germany  in  1743  that  their  leading 
exponents  were  Gesner  and  Ernesti.  Ruhnken  was  well 
advised  by  his  friends  at  Wittenberg  to  seek  the  university 
of  Leyden,  where,  stimulated  by  the  influence  of  Bentley, 
the  great  scholar  Tiberius  Hemsterhuis  had  founded  the 
only  real  school  of  Greek  learning  which  had  existed  on 
the  Continent  since  the  days  of  Joseph  Scaliger  and  Isaac 
Casaubon. 

Perhaps  no  two  men  of  letters  ever  lived  in  closer 
friendship  than  Hemsterhuis  and  Ruhnken  during  the 
twenty-three  years  which  passed  from  Ruhnken's  arrival 
in  the  Netherlands  in  1743  to  the  death  of  Hemsterhuis 
in  1766»  A  few  years  made  it  clear  that  Ruhnken  and 
Valckenaer  were  the  two  pupils  of  the  great  master  on 
whom  his  inheritance  inust  devolve.  As  his  reputation 
spread,  many  efforts  were  made  to  attract  Ruhnken  back 
to  Germany,  but  the  air  of  freedom  which  he  drew  in  the 
Netherlands  was  more  to  him  than  all ,  the  flesh-pots  his 
native  land  could  offer.  Indeed,  after  settling  in  Leyden, 
he  only  left  the  country  once,  when  he  spent  a  year  in 
Paris,  ransacking  the  public  libraries  (1755).  ^Eor  work 
achieved,  this  year  of  Ruhnken  may  compare  even  with 
the  famous  year  which  Ritschl  spent  in  Italy.  In  1757 
Ruhnken  was  appointed  lecturer  in  Greek,  to  assist 
Hemsterhuis,  and  in  1761  he  succeeded  Oudendorp,  with 
the  title  of  "ordinary  professor  of  history  and  eloquence," 
but  practically  as  Latin  professor.  This  promotion  drew 
on  him  the  enmity  of  soipe  native  Netherlanders,  who 
deemed  themselves  (not  without  some  show  of  reason)  to 
possess  stronger  claims  for  a  chair  of  Latin.  The  only 
defence  made  by  Ruhnken  was  to  publish  works  on  Latin 
literature  which  eclipsed  and  silenced  his  rivals.  In  1766 
Valckenaer  succeeded  Hemsterhuis  in  the  Greek  chair. 
The  intimacy  between  the  two  colleagues  was  only  broken 
by  Valckenaer's  death  in  1785,  and  stood  without  strain 
the  test  of  common  candidature  for  the  office  (an  import- 
ant one  at  Leyden)  of  university  librarian,  in  which 
Ruhnken  was  successful.  Ruhnken's  later  years  were 
clouded  by  severe  domestic  m^sfortune,  and  by  the  poli- 
tical commotions  which,  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  England  in  1780,  troubled  the  Netherlands  without 
ceasing,  and  threatened  to  extinguish  the  university  of 
Leyden.     The  .year  of  Ruhnken's  death  wa.s  1798: 

Personally,  he  was  as  far  as  possible  removed  from 
being  a  recluse  or  a  pedant.  Ho  had  a  well-knit  and 
even  hand.somo  frame,  attractive  manneiT  (though  some- 
times tinged  with  irony),  and  a  nature  simple  and  healthy, 
and  open  to  impressions  from  all  sides.  Fond  of  society, 
he  cared  little  to  what  rank  his  associates  belonged,  if 
they  were  genuine  men  in  whom  ho  might  find  something 
to  learn.  His  biographer  even  says  of  him  in  his  early 
days  that  he  knew  how  to  sacrifice  to  the  Sirens' without 
proving  traitor  to  the  Muses.  Life  in  the  open  air  had  a 
great  attraction  for  him  ;  he  was  fond  of  sport,  and  would 
sometimes  devote  to  it  two  or  three  days  in  the  week.     la 

XXI.   —  8 


58 


R  U  H  —  R  U   M 


his  bearing  towards  other  scholars  Ruhnken  was  generous 
a.nd  dignified,  distributing  literary  aid  with  a  i  free  hand, 
aud  meeting  onslaughts  for  the  most  part  with  a  smile.  It 
would  be  diflicult  to  point  out  in  the  history  of  scholarship 
the  name  of  another  man  who  so  thoroughly  possessed  the 
sawir  vivre. 

In  the  records  of  learning  Ruhnken  occupies  an  im- 
portant position.  He  forms  a  principal  link  in  the  chain 
which  connects  Bentley  with  the  modern  scholarship  of 
the  Continent.  The  spirit  and  the  aims  of  Hemsterhuis, 
the  great  reviver  of  Continental  learning,  were  committed 
to  his  trust,  and  were  faithfully  maintained.  He  greatly 
widened  the  circle  of  those  who  valued  taste  and  precision 
in  classical  scholarship.  He  powerfully  aided  the  eman- 
cipation of  Greek  studies  from  theology ;  nor  must  it  be 
forgotten  that  he  first  in  modern  times  dared  to  think  of 
rescuing  Plato  from  the  hands  of  the  professed  philo- 
sophers— men  presumptuous  enough  to  interpret  the 
ancient  sage  with  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  language 
in  which  he  wrote. 

Ruhnken^s  principal  works  are  editions  of  (1)  Tim*us's  Lexicon  of 
Pl'ifonic  JVords,  (2)  Thalelasus  and  other  Greek  commentators 
on  Rom.m  law,  (3)  P.utilius  Lupus  and  other  grammarians,  (4) 
Velleius  Paterculus,  (5)  the  works  of  Muretus.  He  also  occupied 
himself  much  with  tiie  history  of  Greek  literature,  particularly  the 
oratorical  literature,  with  the  Homeric  hymns,  the  scholia  on  Plato, 
and  the  Greek  and  Roman  grammatians  and  rhetoricians.  A  dis- 
covery famous  in  its  time  was  tliat  in  the  te.xt  of  the  work  of 
Apsines  on  rhetoric  a  Inrj^e  piece  of  a  work  by  Longinus  was 
emhedilcd.  Recent  views  of  the  writings  attributed  to  Longinus 
have  lessened  the  interest  of  this  discovery  without  lessening  its 
merit.  The  biography  of  Ruhnken  was  written  by  his  great  pupil 
Wytteabach,  soon  after  his  death.  (J.  S.  R. ) 

RUHRORT,  a  busy  trading  town  in  Prussia,  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Ruhr  and  Rhine,  in  the  midst  of  a 
prodtietive  coal  district,  15  miles  north  of  Diisseldorf. 
Ruhrort  has  the  largest  river  harbour  in  Germany,  with 
very  extensive  quays  ;  and  most  of  the  li  million  tons  of 
coal  which  are  annually  exported  from  the  neighbourhood 
are  despatched  in  the  fleet  of  steam-tugs  and  barges  which 
belong  to  the  port.  About  one  half  of  the  coal  goes  to 
Holland,  and  the  rest  to  towms  on  the  upper  Rhine. 
Grain  and  timber  are  also  exported.  In  1881  11,282 
craft,  carrying  1,791,213  tons,  left  the  harbour.  The 
goods  traffic  between  Ruhrort  and  Homberg  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Rhine  is  carried  on  by  large  steam 
ferry  boats,  in  which  the  railway  waggons  are  placed  with 
the  help  of  towers,  128  feet  high,  on  each  side  of  the  river. 
The  industries  of  the  town  include  active  shipbuilding, 
iron  and  tin  working,  and  the  making  of  cordage  and 
machinery.  The  inhabitants  numbered  1443  in  1816,  and 
9130  in  1880.  Ruhrort  formerly^Jjelonged  to  Cleves : 
it  received  town  rights  in  1587.        _^ 

RULHIERE,  or  RuLHifeRES,  Claude  Cakloman  de 
(1735-1791),  poet  and  historian,  was, born  at  Bondy  in 
1735,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1791.  He  was  for  a  time 
a  soldier,  and  served  under  Richelieu  in  Germany.  But  at 
twenty-five  he  accompanied  Breteuil  to  St  Petersburg  as 
secretary  of  legation.  Here  he  actually  saw  the  revolu- 
tion which  seated  Catherine  II.  on  the  throne,  and  thus 
obtained  the  facts  of  his  best-known  and  best  work,  the 
short  sketch  called  Anecdotes  sur  la  Revohdion  de  Jiussie 
'ta  176ii.  It  was  not  published  till  after  the  empress's 
death.'  The  later  years  of  Rulhifcre's  life  were  spent  either 
in  Paris,  where  he  held  an  appointment  in  the  foreign 
office  and  went  much  into  society,  or  else  in  travelling 
over  Germany  and  Poland.  The  distracted  affairs  of  this 
latter  country  gave  him  the  subject  of  his  longest  work, 
Hislotre  cfe  I'Anarchie  de  Pologne  (1807),  which  was  never 
finished,  and  which  the  patriotism  of  its  latest  editor,  M. 
Ostrowski,  has  rather  unjustifiably  rebaptized  Revolutions 
de  Poloijne.  .  Rulhi^re  was  made  p".  Acp.demitian  in  1787. 


Besides  the  historical  works  mentioned,  he  wrote  one  on 
the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1788). 

Rulhiere  as  an  historian  has  much  merit  of  style  and  arrangement, 
and  the  short  sketch  of  the  Russian  revolution  is  justly  ranked 
among  the  masterpieces  of  th->  kind  in  French.  Of  the  larger 
Poland  Carlyle,  as  justly,  complains  that  its  allowance  of  fact  is 
too  small  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  The  author  was  also  a  fertile 
writer  of  vers  de  socUti,  short  satires,  epigrams,  &c.,  which  show 
much  point  and  polish,  and  he  had  a  con^derable  reputation  among 
the  witty  andill-natured  group  also  containing  Chamfort,  Rivarol, 
Champcenetz,  ht.  On  the  other  hand  he  has  the  credit  of  being 
long  and  disinterestedly  assiduous  in  caring  for  J.  J.  Rousseau  in 
his  morose  old  age,  until  Rousseau  as  usual  quarrelled  with  him. 

Rulhifere'8  woiks  were  published  by  Angxiis  iir  1819  (Paris.  6  vols.  8vo).  The 
Jiussian  Revolution  may  be  found  In  tire  Che/s-dtettvre  Ilislonqties  of  tiic  Collec- 
tion Didot,  and  the  Poland,  with  title  altered  as  above,  in  the  same  Collection. 

RUM  is  a  spirituous  liquor,  prepared  from  molasses, 
skimmings  of  the  boiling  house,  and  other  saccharine  bye- 
products,  and  the  refuse  juice  of  the  cane-sugar  manufac- 
ture. Its  distillation,  which  is  a  simple  process,  may  be 
conducted  in  connexion  with  any  cane-sugf-  establish- 
ment, but  the  rum  which  comes  to  the  American  and 
European  markets  is  chiefly  the  produce  of  the  West 
India  Islands  and  Guiana.  The  ordinary  method  of 
working  in  the  West  Indies  is  the  following.  A  wash  is 
prepared  consisting  of  sugar  skimmings  4  parts,  lees  of 
still  or  dunder  5  parts,  and  molasses  1  part,  the  quantity 
prepared  being  equal  to  the  capacity  of  the  still  in  use. 
Dunder  consists  of  the  residue  of  the  still  from  previous 
distillations,  and  it  takes  the  place  of  a  ferment,  besides 
which  the  acetic  acid  it  contains,  derived  from  the  fer- 
menting wash  of  previous  operations,  has  a  favourable 
influence  on  the  progress  of  attenuation.  The  vrash  pre- 
pared as  above  is  placed  in  the  fermenting  vat,  where, 
according  to  weather  and  other  conditions,  the  fermenta- 
tion proceeds  more  or  less  briskly;  but  usually  a  week  or 
ten  days  is  the  period  required  for  attenuation,  during 
which  time  the  scum  formed  is  removed  from  the  surface 
of  the  vat  twice  daily.  'When  sufficiently  attenuated,  the 
wash  is  run  into  the  still,  which  is  generally  of  a  simple 
construction,  and  distilled  off,  the  first  product  being 
"low  wines,"  which  on  redistillation  come  over  as  "high 
wiues "  or  strong  rum.  When  a  Pontefex  still  is  used, 
which  contains  two  intermediate  "  retorts"  between  the 
still  and  the  worm,  a  strong  spirit  is  obtained  at  the  first 
distillation.  The  charge  of  wash  yields  from  10  to  12 
per  cent,  of  rum,  of  an  average  strength  of  25°  over 
proof.  Pure  distilled  rum  is  an  entirely  colourless  liquid, 
but  as  imported  and  sold  it  generally  has  a  deep  brown 
colour  imparted  by  caramel  or  by  storage  in  sherry  casks. 
It  has  a  peculiar  aroma,  derived  principally  from  the  pre- 
sence of  a  minute  proportion  of  butyric  ether.  Rum  varies 
very  considerably  in  quality,  the  finest  being  known  as 
Jamaica  rum,  whether  it  is  the  product  of  that  island  or 
not.  An  inferior  quality  of  rum  is  known  among  the 
French  as  tajia  ;  and  the  lowest  quality,  into  the  wash  for 
which  debris  of  sugar  cane  enters,  is  called  negro  rum,  and 
is  mostly  consumed  by  the  coloured  workers  in  the  sugar 
houses  and  distilleries.  The  planters  sometimes  put  rinds 
and  slices  of  pine-apple  into  the  barrels  in  which  rum  is 
matured,  to  improve  and  add  to  its  flavour,  and  occasion- 
ally anise  and  other  flavouring  ingredients  are  also  used. 
The  spirit  prepared  from  molasses  of  beet-sugar  factories 
cannot  be  classed  with  rum.  The  product  has  a  highly 
disagreeable  odour  and.  taste,  and  it  can  only  he  rendered 
fit  for  consumption  by  repeated  distillation  and  concentra- 
tion to  a  high  degree  of  strength,  whereby  *he  spirit  is 
rendered  "silent,"  or  has  only  a  faint  rum  flavour.  In 
this  condition  it  is  used  for  mixing  with  strongly  flavoured 
rum,  and  for  the  preparation  of  a  fictitious  rum,  the 
flavour  of  which  is  due  to  "rum  essence," — a  mixture  of 
artificial  ether,  birch  bark  oil,  and  other  sub-stances.  Cane- 
sugar  molasses  enters  largely  into  the  materials  from  whir' 


R  U  M  — R  U  M 


i59 


Arkack  (q.v.),  the  spirit  of  Java  and  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, is  prepared,  but  its  flavour  depends  more  on  palm- 
tree  toddy,  which  also  is  a  constituent  of  the  w^sh.  The 
imports  of  rum  into  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  home 
consumption  have  been  decreasing  for  a  number  of  years.^ 

RUMFORD,  CousT.    .  See  Thompson,  Sir  Benjamin. 

RCmI.  Mohammed  b.  Mohammed  b.  Husain  albalkhi, 
better  known  as  MauldnA  JalAl-uddto  Eumf,  the  greatest 
Sdfic  poet  of  Persia,-  was  born  on  the  30th  of  September 
1207  (604  A.H.  6th  of  Rabi"  I.)  at  Balkh",  in  Khorasan, 
wiiere  his  family  had  resided  from  time  immemorial,  rich 
in  property  and  public  renown.  ■  He  claimed  descent  from 
the  caliph  Abilbekr,  and  frorn  the  Khwirism  shAh  Sultiin 
"AU-uddin  b.  Tukush  (1199-1220),  whose  only  daughter, 
Malika-i-Jahdn,  had-  been  married  to  Jal^l-uddin's  grand- 
fzther.  Her  son,  Mohammed,  commonly  called  Bahi- 
uddln  Walad,  was  a  famous  doctor  of  Balkh,  who,  to  escape 
the  jealousy  with  which  the  sultan  viewed  his  influence, 
emigrated  to  Asia  Minor  in  1212.  Young  JaJal-uddin 
was  only  five  years  old  at  that  time,  but  the  signs  of  his 
future  greatness  in  spiritual  matters  began  already  to  mani- 
fest themselves  in  precocious  knowledge  and  in  ecstasies 
and  visions.  After  residing  for  some  time  at  Malatiyah 
and  afterwards  at  ErzinjAn  in  Armenia,  Bahd-uddln  was 
called  to  Lirindah  in  Asia  Minor,  as  principal  of  the  local 
college,  and  there  young  JaUl-uddln,  who  had  meanwhile 

frown  under  the  careful  tuition  of  his  father  in  -n-isdom  and 
oliness,  attained  his  maturity,  and  married  in  1226  Jauhar 
Khdtdn,  the  daughter  of  L414  Sharaf-uddfn  of  Samarkand. 
Finally,  Bahi-uddin  was  invited  to  Iconium  by  'AlA-uddin 
Kaikubdd  (1219-1236),  the  sultin  of  Asia  Minor,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  called' in  the  East,  Rilm, — whence  JaUl-uddln's 
surname  (tahhallus)  Eumf. 

After  Bahd-uddln's  death  in  1231,  Jalal-uddin  went>to 
Aleppo  and  Damascus  for  a  short  time  to  study,  but,  as 
the  mei-e  positive  sciences  in  which  he  had  been  particu- 
larly trained  failed  io  satisfy  him,  on  his  return  to  Iconium, 
iivhere  he  became  by  and  by  professor  of  four  separate 
colleges,  he  took  for  bine  years  as  his  spiritual  guide 
Sayyid  BurhAn-uddin  Husainl  of  Tirmidh,  one  of  his 
father's  disciples,  and  later  on  the  wandering  Silfl  Shams- 
nddln  of  Tabriz,  who  arrived  in  Iconium  on  the  29th  of 
November  1244,  and  soon  acquired  the  most  powerful 
influence  over  JalAl-uddln,  who  even  adopted  his  name 
as  takhallus  in  his  ghazals  or  mystic  odes.  Sharas- 
uddin's  rather  aggressive  character,  however,  roused  the 
indignation  of  the  people  of  Iconium  against  liim,  and 
during  a  riot  in  which  JalAl-uddin'3  eldest  son,  'AU-uddln, 
-was.  killed,  he  was  arrested  and  probably  executed ;  at 
least  he  was  no  more  seen.  This  fate  of  his  teacher  and 
friend,  j;pgether  with  the  untimely  death  of  his  son,  throw 
Jalil-uddln  into  deep  melancholy,  and  in  remembrance  of 
these  victims  of  popular  wrath  ho  founded  the  order  of 
the  Maulawl  or  (in  Turkish  pronunciation)  Mewlewi  der- 
•vishes,  famous  for  their  piety  as  well  as  for  their  peculiar 
garb  of  mourning,  their  music  and  their  mystic  dance 
(sarnA),  -which  is  the  outward  represenCation  of  the  circling 
movement  of  the  spheres,  and  the  inward  symbol  of  the 
circling  movement  of  the  soul  caused  by  the  vibrations  of 


^  Rum  Shrub  is  a  kin*!  of  liqueur,  or  cold  punch,  the  basis  of  which  is 
rum,  lemon  juice,  and  sugar.  It  is  prepared  "by  adding  to  34  gallons 
of  proof  rum  2  cz.  of  the  essential  oil  of  orange  and  an  equal  quantity 
of  essential  oil  of  lemon  ilissolved  in  one  quart  of  spirit,  and  300  lb  of 
refined  sugar  dissolved  in  20  gallons  of  water.  Tlris  combination  is 
thoroughly  mixed  togetner,  after  which  there  is  added  sufficient  orange 
juic9  or  solution  of  tartaric  acid  to  produce  a.  slight  pleasant  acidity. 
After  agitating  the  mixture  again  for  some  time,  20  gallons  of  water 
are  added,  bringing  the  quantity  up  to  100  gallons,  ..nd  the  agitation  of 
the  whole  is  continued  for  half  an  hour.  In  abo"t  a  fortnight's  time 
■'ihe  shrub  should  be  bi-illiant  and  ready  for  bottling.  Other  liavourinc 
ingredients  are  occasionally  added,  and  the  corupound'mr^  be  va^ed 
according  to  taste. 


a  Stiffs  fervent  love  to  God.  The  establishment  of  tTiis 
order,  which  still  possesses  numerous  cloisters  throughout 
the  Turkish  empire,  and  the  leadership  of  which  has  been 
kept  in  JaUl-uddin's  family  in  Iconium  uninterruptedly  for 
the  last  sLk  hundred  years,  gave  a  new  stimulus  both  to 
the  zeal  and  energy  and  the  poetical  inspiration  of  the 
great  shaikh.  .Most  of  his  matchless  odes,  in  which  he 
soars  on  the  wings  of  a  genuine  enthusiasm,  high  over 
earth  and  heaven  up  to  the  throne  of  Almighty  God,  were 
composed  in  honour  of  the  Maulawf  dervishes,  and  even  his 
opus  magnnm,  the  Mathnawi  or,  as  it  is  usually  called.  The 
Spiritual  Mathnawi  (mathnawi-i-ma"nawl),  a  production  of 
the  highest  poetical  and  religious  intuition  in  sis  books  or 
daftars,  with  30,000  to  40,000  double-rhymed  verses,  can 
be.  traced  in  the  same  source.  The  idea  of  this  immense 
collection  of  ethical  and  moral  precepts,  interwoven  with 
numerous  anecdotes  and  comments  on  verses  of  the  KorAn 
and  sayings  of  the  Prophet,  which  the  Eastern  world  reveres 
as  the  greatest  devotional  work,  the  study  of  which  .secures 
eternal  bliss,  was  first  suggested  to  the  poet  by  his  favourite 
disciple  Hasan,  better  known  as  HusAra-uddin,  who  became 
in  1258  JalAl-uddln's  chief  assistant.  He  had  frequently 
observed  that  the  members  of  the  Maulawi  fraternity  read 
with  great  delight  the  mystic  mathnawis  of  SanA'f  and 
Farld-uddln  'AttAr,  and  induced  his  master  to  compose  a 
similar  poem  on  a  larger  scale.  JalAl-uddfn  readily  fell  in 
with  this  suggestion  aud  dictated  to  him,  with  a  short 
interruption,  the  v/hole  -work  during  the  remaining  years 
ofjiis  life.  Soon  after  the  completion  of  this  masterpiece 
JalAl-uddin  died  on  the  17th  of  December  1273  (672  a.h. 
5th  of  JumAdA  II.),  worshipped  as  a  saint  by  high  and  low. 
His  first-  successor  in  the  rectorship  of  the  Maulatvf 
fraternity  was  HusAm-uddfn  himself,  after  who.se  death  in 
1284  JalAl-uddin's  younger  and  only  surviving  son.  Shaikh 
BahAudd-in  Ahmed,  commonly  called  SultAn  Walad,  and 
favourably  known  as  author  of  the  mystical  rnathna-wf, 
Rabdbndma,  or  the  Book  cf  the  Guitar  (died  1312),  was 
duly  installed  as  grand-master  of  the  order. 

Jalal-uddi'n's  life  is  fully  described  in  Shams-uddin  Ahmed 
M\i\Li's  Mandkih-uV drifin  {written  between  718  and  754  A,H.),  the 
most  important  portions  of  which  have  been  translated  by  J.  W. 
Kedhouse  in  the  preface  to  his  English  metrical  version  of  The 
Mesneii,  Book  the  Pi'^st  (Lofidon,  18S1  ;  Triibuer's  Oriental  scries). 
Complete  editions  have  been  printed  in  Bombay,  Lucknow, 
.Tabriz,  Constantinopif,  and  in  Bulak  (with  a  Turkish  transla- 
tion, 1268  A.H.)j  at  t)ie  end  of  which  a  seventh  daftar  is  added, 
the  genuineness  of  which  is  refuted  by  a  remark  of  Jalal-uddin 
himself  in  one  of  the  liodleian  copies  of  the  poem,  Ouseley,  294 
(f.  328a  sq.).  The  revised  edition  by 'Abd-ullatif  (made  between 
1024  and  1032  A.H.)(i3  still  unpublished,  but  the  »ame  author's 
commentary  on  the  Mathnawi,  Latd'ij'Ulmanawi,  and  his  glossaiy, 
Lald'if-allurjhdt,  have  been  lithographed  in  Cawnpor- (1876)  and 
Lucknow  (1877)  respective!}',  the  latter  under  the  title  Farhang- 
i-mathnavl.  For  the  other  numerous  cominentariea  and  for  further 
biographical  and  literary  parliculars  of  Jalal-uddin  see  Kicu's  Cat. 
of  the  Persian  MSS.  of  the  Brit.  Miis.,  vol.  ii.  p.  6S4  sq. ;  A. 
Sprenger's  Oudh  Cat.,  p.  489  ;  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  yotieca  of  Persian 
Poets,  p.  112  sq.;  and  H.  Ethe,  in Morijcnldndisehe Stud ien,  Lcipsic, 
1870,  p.  95  sq.  Select  poems  from  JaUl-uddin's  diwan  (often 
styled  DitDdn-i-Shams-i- Tabriz)  have  been  translated  in  German 
verse  by  V.  von  Rosenzweig,  Vienna,  1838.  (U.  E.^ 

RUMINANTS.     See  Mammalia,  vol.  xv.  p.  431. 

RUMKER,  Carl  Ludwio  Chki.stian  .(1788-1862), 
German  astronomer,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg  on  May  28, 
1788.  He  served  in  the  British  navy  for  some  years  until 
1817  ;  in  1821  he  went  to  New  South  Wales  as  astronomer 
at  the  observatory  built  at  Parran-iatta  by  Sir  Thomas 
Brisbane  (see  Observatory,  voL  xviL  p.  71G).  He  re- 
turned to  Europe  in  1831,  and  took  charge  of  the  schcol 
of  navigation  at.  Hamburg  and  the  observatory  attached 
to  it.  His  principal  ^v1^rk  is  a  Catalogue  of  12,000  fi.xed 
stars  from  meridian  observations  made  at  Hamburg', 
published  in  1843.  In  1857  he  reliK.-d  and  wont  lu  resiile 
in  Lis'oon,  where  he  died  on  December  21,  1802. 


60 


B  U  N  — R  U  N 


RUNCIMAN,  Alexan-der  (173G-1785),  historical 
painter,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1736.  He  studied  at 
the  Fonlis's  Academy,  Glasgow,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty 
proceeded  to  Rome  where  he  spent  five  years.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  he  became  acquainted  with  Fuseli,  a  kindred 
spirit,  between  whose  productions  and  those  of  Runciman 
there  is  a  marked  similarity.  The  painter's  earliest  efforts 
had  been  in  landscape;  "other  artists,"  it  was  said  of 
him,  "talked  meat  and  drink,  but  he  talked  landscape." 
He  soon,  however,  turned  to  historical  and  imaginative 
subjects,  exhibiting  his  Nausicaa  at  Play  with  her 
Maidens  in  1767  at  the  Free  Society  of  British  Artists, 
Edinburgh.  On  his  return  from  Italy,  after  a  brief 
residence  in  London,  where  in  1772  he  exhibited  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  he  settled  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  appointed 
master  of  the  Trustees'  Academy.  He  was  patronized  by 
Sir  James  Clerk,  whose  hall  at  Penicuik  House  he  decorated 
with  a  series  of  subjects  from  Ossian.  He  also  executed 
various  religious  paintings  and  an  altarpiece  in  the 
Cowgate  Episcopal  Church,  Edinburgh,  and  easel  pictures 
of  Cymon  and  Iphigenia,  Sigismunda  Weeping  over. the 
Heart  of  Tancred,  and  Agrippina  Landing  with  the  Ashes 
of  Germanicus.  He  died. in  Edinburgh  on.  October  4, 
1785.  His  works,  while  they  show  high  intention  and 
considerable  imagination,  are  frequently  defective  in  form 
and  extravagant  in  gesture. 

RUNCIMAN,  JcaN  (1744-1766),  historical  painter,  a 
younger  brother  of  the  above,  accompanied  him  to  Rome, 
and  died  at  Naples  in  1766.  He  was  an  artist  of  great 
promise.  His  Flight  into  Egypt,  in  the  National  Gallery 
of  Scotland,  is  remarkable  for  the  precision  of  its  execution 
and  the  mellow  richness  of  its  colouring. 

RUNCORN,  a  market-town  and  seaport  of  Cheshire,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  Mersey  and 
near  the  terminus  in  that  river  of  the  Bridgewater,  the 
Mersey  and  Irwell,  and  the  Trent  and  Jlersey  Canals,  15 
miles  S.E.  of  Liverpool  and  15  N.E.  of  Chester.  The 
Mersey,  which  here  contracts  to  400  yards  at  high  water, 
is  crossed  by  a  wrought-iron  railway  bridge  1500  feet  in 
length.  The  modern  prosperity  of  the  town  dates  from 
the  completion  in  1773  of  the  Bridgewater  Canal,  which 
here  descends  into  the  Mersey  by  a  succession  of  locks. 
The  town  was  made  an  independent  landing  port  in  1847, 
and  within  recent  years  large  additions  have  been  made 
to  the  docks  and  warehouses.  The  town  possesses  ship- 
building yards,  iron  foundries,  rope  works,  tanneries,  and 
soap  and  alkali  works.  The  population  of  the  urban  sani- 
tary district  (area  1490  acres)  in  1871  was  12,443,  and  in 
1881  it  was  15,126. 

Owing  to  the  llersey  being  here  fonlable  pt  low  water,  tlie  place 
Wiis  in  early  times  of  considerable  military  importance.  On  a  rock 
which  formerly  jutted  some  distance  farther  into  the  Jfersey 
Ethelfleda  erected  a  castle  in  916,  but  of  the  building  there  are 
now  no  remains.  She  is  also  said  to  have  founded  a  town,  but 
probably  it  soon  afterwards  fell  into  decay,  as  it  is  not  noticed  in 
Domesday.     The  ferry  is  noticed  in  a  charter  in  the  12th  century. 

RUJTE.  See  Alphabet,  vol.  i.  pp.  607,  612,  and 
Scandinavian  Languages. 

RUNEBERG,  Johan  Ltjdwig  (1804-1877),  Swedish 
poet,  was  born  at  Jakobstad,  in  Finland,  on  the  5th  of 
February  1804.  Brought  up  by  an  uncle  at  L'^leaborg,  he 
entered  the  university  of  Abo  in  the  autumn  term  of  1822, 
and  in  1826  began  to  contribute  verses  to  the  local  news- 
papers. In  the  spring  of  1827  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  philosophy,  and  shared  in  the  calamity  which,  in 
Septembar  of  thrsame  year,  destroyed  the  city  and  uni- 
versity of  Abo  with  fire.  Runeberg  accepted  a  tutorship 
at  Saarijarvi,  in  the  interior  of  Finland,  where  he  remained 
for  three  years,  studying  hard  and  writing  actively.  The 
university  had  been  removed  after  the  great  fire  to  Hel-' 
singfois,  and  in  1830  the  young  poet  returned  thither,  as 


amanuensis  to  the  council  of  the  university.  In  the  same 
year  he  published  his  first  volume  of  Dikii-r  (Poems),  and  a 
collection  of  Servian  folksongs  translated  into  Swedish. 
In  1831  his  Verse  romance  Grafoen  i  I'errho  (The  Grave 
in  Perrho)  received  the  small  gold  medal  of  the  Swedish 
Academy,  and  the  poet  married  the  daughter  of  Dr  Teng- 
strom,  archbishop  of  Finland.  For  a  tractate  on  the  Medea 
of  Euripides  he  was  in  the  same  year  appointed  university 
lecturer  on- Roman  literature.  In  1832  he  leaped  at  one 
bound  to  the  foremost  place  among  Swedish  poets  with 
his  beautiful  little  epic  Elgskyttame  (The  Elk-Hunters)  ; 
and  in  1833  he  published  a  second  collection  of  lyrical 
poems.  His  comedy  Friaren  fran  Landet  (The  Country 
Lover)  was  not  a  success  in  1834.  He  returned  to  more 
characteristic  fields  in  1836,  when  he  published  the 
charming  idyl  in  hexameters  called  Sanna.  In  1837 
Runeberg  accepted  the  chair  of  Latin  at  Borg2.  College, 
and  resided  in  that  little  town  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 

From  Borgi  he  continued  to  pour  forth  volumes  of 
verse,  and  he  was  now  recognized  in  his  remote  Finland 
retirement  as  second  only  to  Tegner  among  the  poets  of 
Sweden.  In  1841  he  published  Jfadescfida,  a  romance  of 
Russian  life,  and  Julqudllen  (Christmas  Eve),  an  idyl. 
The  third  volume  of  his  lyrical  pieces  bears  the  date  1843, 
and  the  noble  cycle  of  unrhymed  verse  romances  called 
Kung  Fjalar  was  published  in  1844.  Finally,  in  1848, 
he  achieved  a  great  popular  success  by  his  splendid  series 
of  poems  about  the  war  of  independence  in  1808,  a  series, 
which  bears  the  name  of  Fanrik  StMs  Sagner  (Ensign 
Steel's  Stories) ;  a  second  series  of  ftese  appeared  in 
1860.  From  1847  to  1850  the  poet  was  rector  of  Borgd 
College,  a  post  which  he  laid  down  to  take  the  only 
journey  out  of  Finland  which  he  ever  accomplished,  a  visit 
to  Sweden  in  1851.  His  later  writings  may  be  briefly 
mAtioned.  In  1853  he  collected  his  prose  essays  into  a 
volume  entitled  Smarre  Beratteher.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  made  president  of  a  committee  for  the  preparation  of 
a  national  Psalter,  which  issued,  in  1857,  a  Psalra-Book 
largely  eontributed  by  Runeberg  for  public  use.  He  once 
more  attempted  comedy  in  his  Kan  </  (Can't)  in  1862,' 
and  tragedy,  with  infinitely  more  success,  in  his  stately 
Kungarne  pa  Salamis  (The  Kings  at  Salamis)  in  1863. 
He  collected  his  Writings  in  six  volumes  in  1873-74. 
Runeberg  died  at  Borg;i  on  the  6th  of  May  1877. 

The  poems  of  Runebers;  show  the  influence  of  the  Greeks  and  c.f 
Goethe  upon  his  mind  ;  but  he  possesses  a  great  originality.  In 
aT>  ige  of  conventionality  he  was  boldly  realistic,  yet  never  to  the 
sacrmce  of  artistic  beauty.  Less  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe 
than  Tegner,  he  yet  is  now  generally  considered  to  excel  him  as  a 
poet,  and  to  mark  the  highest  attainment  hitherto  reached  by 
imaginative  literature  in  Sweden. 

The  life  of  Johan  Ludvie  Runeberg  has  not  yet  been  written  in  detail,  although 
It  is  Mid  to  be  in  prvpamiion.  The  fullest  account  of  his  life  and  works  is  that 
which  forms  the  introduction  to  the  Samlade  Skrifta-  of  1S73.  It  was  written 
by  Prof.  Nyblom.  A  minute  criticism  of  Rnneberg's  principal  poems;  with 
translations,  occupies  pp.  9S-133  of  Gosse's  Studies  in  tlie  Literature  0/ Northern 
Europe,  1879.  A  selection  of  his  lyrical  pieces  was  published  in  an  Englisti 
translation  by  Messrs  Magntisson  and  Palraer  in  1878. 

RUNNING.  In  this  mode  of  progression  the  step  is 
lighter  and  gait  more  rapid  than  in  walking,  from  which 
it  differs  in  consisting  of  a  succession  of  springs  from  toe 
to  toe,  instead  of  a  series  of  steps  from  toe  to  heel.  As 
an  athletic  exercise,  it  has  been  in  vogue  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  the  simple  foot  race,  Spo/ios,  run  straight  frcm 
starting  point  to  goal,  was  a  game  of  the  Greek  pent- 
athlon. It  was  diversified  with  the  SiauXoSpij|Hos,  in  which 
a  distance  mark  was  rounded  and  the  starting  and  winning 
points  were  the  same,  and  also  by  the  hpifxo';  oirXirui', 
which  might  be  compared  to  the  modern  heavy  marching 
order  race.  In  ancient  Italy  running  was  practised  ia 
circus  exhibitions,  as  described  by  Virgil  (J^n.  v.  286  sq.). 
In  modern  times  it  has  been  developed  almos't  into  a  science 
by  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  in  Great  Britain  and  North 
America,  till  the  distances  recently  covered  appear  almost 


R  U  P  — R  U  P 


til 


fabulous  compared  with  the  pertormances  up  to  the  end 
of  the  first  half  of  the  century.  In  all  kinds  of  run- 
ning the  entire  weight  of  the  body  is  thrown  on  the  toes, 
from  which  light  strides  are  taken  with  all  possible  free- 
dom of  action  from  the  hips.  At  starting  the  feet  are 
placed  about  a  foot  apart,  the  body  being  inclined  slightly 
forward,  with  the  weight  of  it  on  the  right  or  hindermost 
foot.  A  bent  double  position  with  the  feet  wide  apart  is 
on  no  account  advisable.  The  start  cannot  be  made  too 
quickly  on  the  signal  being  given.  Two  or  three  short  steps 
are  taken  to  get  fairly  into  stride,  after  which  the  runner 
Lhould  look  straight  before  him,  set  his  eyes  steadfastly  on 
the  goal,  and  run  towards  it  at  his  longest  and  quickest 
stride,  care  being  taken  not  to  swerve  or  get  out  of  stride. 

Running  is  usually  thus  classified; — (1)  sprinting  includes  all 
distances  up  to  400  yards  ;  (2)  medium  distances  range  from  one 
quarter  to  three  quarters  of  a  mile  ;  (3)  long  distances  are  those 
«f  one  mile  and  upwards.  The  first-named  is  the  most  popular, 
and  is  much  practised  in  the  north  of  England,  especially  at 
Sheffield,  which  may  be  termed  the  home  of  sprint  running.  It  is 
less  f.itiguing  than  long  distances  and  requires  less  arduous  training, 
while  strength  to  a  certain  extent  replaces  wind.  A  great  point  in 
sprinting  is  to  obtain  a  good  start,  for  which  purpose  incessant 
practice  is  required.  A  first-class  sprinter  when  at  lull  speed  will 
clear  from  8  to  d  feet  in  each  stride,  and  his  toes  leave  the  ground 
with  inconceivable  rapidity.  When  in  good  condition  he  will  run 
100  yards  at  top  speed  in  one  breath,  and  probably  150  yards  with- 
out drawing  a  second  one.  The  quickest  authenticated  times  in 
which  short  distances  have  been  run  on  perfectly  level  ground 
are  as  follows  ;^120  yards,  11 J  sec. ;  150  yards,  15  sec. ;  200  yards, 
19J  sec;  300  yards,  30  sec;  and  400  yards,  43|  sec. 

Of  medium  distances  the  quarter  mile  race  is  by  far  the  most 
difBcult  to  run,  as  a  combination  of  speed  and  endurance  is  requi- 
site. In  fact  a  runner  should  be  able  to  sprint  the  whole  way.  Six 
hundred  yards  and. half  a  mile  are  the  other  chief  distances  in  this 
class  of  running.  The  stride  is  slower  than  in  sprinting,  and  a 
man  cannot  maintain  the  same  speed  throughout  as  is  possible  up 
to  300  yards.  The  best  authenticated  times  are — quarter  mile, 
4Si  sec. ;  600  yards,  1  min.  llf  sec.  ;  half  mile,  1  min.  53J  sec; 
1000  yards,  2  min.  13  sec  ;  three  quarter  mile,  3  min.  7  sec, 

Li^ht  wiry  men  are  best  fitted  for  long-distance  running,  whore 
staninia  and  wind  are  more  useful  than  speed.  The  strides  must 
b'^  long  and  light.  After  some  miles  a  ruuuer  is  unable  to  keep 
the  weight  of  the  body  on  his  toes  any  longer  owing  to  fatigue, 
puts  his  heels  down,  and  runs  flat-footed.  The  times  accomplished 
of  late  years  by  long-distance  runners  are  most  remarkable.  Those 
for  the  chief  distances  are  as  follows  : — 1  mile,  4  min.  16^  sec.  ; 
2  miles,  9  min.  11^  sec.  ;  3  miles,  14  min.  36  sec  ;  4  miles,  19 
min.  36  sec  ;  5  miles,  24  min.  40  see.  ;  10  miles,  61  min.  6|  sec. ; 
20  miles,  1  h.  56  min.  38  sec;  30  miles,  3  h.  15  min.  9  sec; 
40  miles,  4  h.  34  min.  27  sec.  ;  50  miles,  C  h.  8  min.  ;  100  miles, 
13  h.  26  min.  30  sec  ;  200  miles,  35  h.  9  min.  IS  sec  ;  300  miles, 
5S  h.  17  min.  6  sec.  ;  400  miles,  85  h.  52  min.;  500  miles,  109  h. 
lSmin.206cc;  600  miles,  137  h.  25  min.  10  sec  ;  610  miles,  140  h. 
34  min.  10  sec. 

Nearly  all  running  contests  now  take  place  on  prepared  cinder 
paths,  which  from  their  springiness  assist  speed  considerably.  A 
runner's  dress  should  be  as  light  as  possible,  and  consist  merely  of 
a  thin  jersey,  a  pair  of  drawers  covering  the  waist  and  loins  and 
extending  downwards  to  the  top  of  the  knee  caps,  and  heelless  run- 
ning shoes  with  a  few  shout  spikes  in  the  soles  just  under  the  tread 
'of^Iio  foot.  The  spikes  are  longer  for  sprinting.  Chamois  leather 
Bocks  for  the  toes  and  ball  of  the  foot  may  be  added,  since  tlicy 
diminish  concussion  as  each  foot  reaches  the  ground.  Since  tlie 
introduction  of  Athletic  Spouts  (see  vol.  iii.  p.  12)  into  England 
and  America  commenced  in  1860  the  popularity  of  amateur  run- 
ning races  has  vastly  increased.  These  contests  are  governed  by 
the  rules  of  the  Amateur  Athletic  Association.  At  Sheniold  a 
qode  of  rules  has  been  drawn  up  for  the  regulation  of  the  more 
important  professional  handicaps. 

RUPERT  (Hrodbert),  St,  a  kinsman  of  the  Merovingian 
house,  and  bishop  of  Worms,  was  invited  (096)  to  Regens- 
burg  (Ratisbon)  by  Theodo  of  Bavaria,  but  finally-settled 
in  Salzburg,  the  bishopric  of  which  v.-as  his  foundation. 
He  is  regarded  as  the  apostle  of  the  Bavarians,  not  that 
the  land  was  up  to  that  time  altogether  heathen,  but 
because  of  his  services  in  the  promotion  and  consolidation 
of  its  Christianity. 

The  Gi:sia  Sancli  Hrodberti  Confcssoiis  have  been  printed  in  the 
Archiv/iir  OaUrreich.  OcscMchtc,  1882,  from  a  10th-century  MS. 


RUPERT  (1619-1682),  prince  of  Bavaria,  the  third 
son  of  Frederick  V.,  elector  palatine  and  king  of  Bohemia, 
and  of  Elizabeth,  sister  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  was  born 
at  Prague  on  December  18,  1619.  In  1630  he  was  placed 
at  the  university  of  Leyden,  where  he  showed  particular 
readiness  in  languages  and  in  military  discipline.  In  1633 
he  was  with  the  prince  of  Orange  at  the  siege  of  Rhyn- 
berg,  and  served  against  the  Spaniards  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  prince's  life-guard.  In  December  1635  he  was  at  the 
English  court,  and  was  named  as  leader  of  the  proposed 
expedition  to  Madagascar.  In  1636'  he  visited  Oxford, 
when  he  was  made  master  of  arts.  Returning  to  The 
Hague  in  1638,  he  made  the  first  display  of  his  reckless 
bravery  at  the  siege  of  Breda,  and  shortly  afterv^'ards  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Austrians  in  the  battle  before 
Lemgo.  For  three  years  he  was  confined  at  Linz,  where 
he  withstood  the  endeavours  made  to  induce  him  to 
change  his  religion  and  to  take  service  with  the  emperor. 
Upon  his  release  in  1642  he  returned  to  The  Hague,  and 
from  thence  went  to  Dover,  but,  the  Civil  War  not  having 
yet  begun,  he  returned  immediately  to  Holland.  Charles 
now  named  Rupert  general  of  the  horse,  and  he  joined 
the  king  at  Leicester  in  August  1642,  being  present  at 
the  raising  of  the  standard  at  Nottingham.  He  was  also 
made  a  knight  of  the  Garter.  It  is  particularly  to  be 
noticed  that  he  brought  with  him  several  military  invfen- 
tions,  and,  especially,  introduced  the  "  German  discipline  " 
in  his  cavalry  operations.  He  at  once  displayed  the  most 
astonishing  activity,  fought  his  first  action  with  success  at 
Worcester  in  September,  and  was  at  Edgehill  on  October 
23.  At  Aylesbury  and  Windsor,  on  the  march  to 
London,  he  received  severe  checks,  but  after  desperate 
fighting  took  Brentford.  In  1643  he  captured  Ciren- 
cester, but  failed  before  Gloucester,  and  in  February 
issued  his  declaration  denying  the  various  charges  of 
inhumanity  which  had  been  brought  against  him.  At  the 
end  of  March  he  set  out  from  Oxford  to  join  the  queen  at 
York,  took  Birmingham,  and,  after  a  desperate  resistance, 
Lichfield,  but  was  there  suddenly  recalled  to  the  court  at 
Oxford  to  mest  Essex's  expected  attack.  Chalgrove  fight, 
at  which  during  one  of  his  incessant  raids  he  met  Hampden, 
was  fought  on  June  18.  On  July  11  he  joined  the  queen 
at  Stratford-on-Avon,  and  escorted  her  to  the  king  at 
Edgehill.  He  then  began  the  siege  of  Bristol,  which  he 
took  on  July  26,'  and  he  took  part  in  the  futile  attempt 
on  Gloucester,  where  he  failed  to  repulse  Essex's  relieving 
force!  In  the  skirmish  previous  to  the  first  battle  of 
Newbury  he  checked  the  enemy's  advance,'  and  in  the 
battle  itself  displayed  desperate  courage,  following  up  the 
day's  work  by  a  night  attack  on  the  retiring  army.  In 
the  beginning  of  1644  he  was  rewarded  by  being  made 
carl  of  Holderness,  duke  of  Cumberland,  ard  president 
of  Wales.  In  February  he  was  at  Shrewsbury,  from 
whence  he  administered  the  affairs  of  Wales ;  in  March 
he  went  to  relievo  Newark,  and  was  back  at  Shrewsbury 
by  the  end  of  the  month.  He  then  marched  north, 
relieving  Lathom  and  taking  Bolton,  and  finally  relieving 
York  in  July.  At  Marston  Moor  he  charged  and  routed 
the  Scots,  but  was  in  turn  coraiiletely  beaten  by  Crom- 
well's Ironsides.  Ho  escaped  to  York,  and  thence  to 
Richmond,  and  finally  by  great  skill  reached  Shrew.sbury 
on  July  20.  On  November  21  ho  was  repulsed  at  Abing- 
don, and  on  23d  he  entered  Oxford  with  Chcrlos.  lie  had 
meanwhile  biien  made  generalissimo  of  the  armies  and 
master  of  the  horse.  Against  him,  however,  was  a  large 
party  of  courtiers,  with  Digby  at  their  head.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  queen,  too,  was  uniformly  oxerted  against 
him.  In  May  1645  he  took  Newark  by  storm.  His 
advice  to  march  northwards  was  overruled,  and  on  June 
14  the  experiences   of  Marston    Moor   were   repeated  at 


G2 


II  U  P  —  E  U  S 


Nascby.  Rupert  fled  to  Bristol,  whence  he  counselled  the 
king  to  come  to  terms  with  the  parliament.  In  his  con- 
duct of  the  defence  of  the  town,  this  "  boldest  attaqucr  in 
the  world  for  personal  courage "  showed  how  much  he 
"  wanted  the  patience  and  seasoned  head  to  consult  and 
advise  for  defence  "  (Pepys).  His  surrender  of  the  town 
after  only  a  three  weeks'  siege,  thougli  he  had  promised 
Charles  to  keep  it  four  months,  caused  his  disgrace  with 
the  king,  who  revoked  all  his  commissions  by  an  order 
dated  September  14,  and  in  a  cold  letter  ordered  him  to 
seek  his  subsistence  beyond  seas,  for  which  purpose  a  pass 
was  sent  him.  Rupert,  however,  broke  through  the  enemy, 
reached  the  king  at  Oxford,  and  was  there  reconciled  to 
him.  He  challenged  an  investigation  of  his  conduct,  and 
was  triumphantly  acquitted  by  the  council  of  war.  He 
appears,  too,  to  have  remonstrated  personally,with  Charles 
in  terms  of  indecent  violence.  He  then  applied  to  the 
parliament  for  a  pas^.  This,  however,  was  offered  only  on 
unacceptable  conditions.  On  June  24  Rupert  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Fairfax  at  Oxford,  and  on  July  5,  at  the 
demand  of  the  parliament,  sailed  from  Dover  for  France. 
He  was  immediately  made  a  marshal  in  the  French, 
service,  witS  the  command  of  the  English  there.  He 
received  a  wound  in  the  head  at  Armentiferes  during  1647. 
The  greater  part  of  the  English  fleet  having  adhered  to 
Charles,  and  having  sailed  to  Holland,  Rupert  went  with 
the  priuce  of  Wales  to  The  Hague,  where  the  charge  of  it 
was  put  into  his  hand.  He  immediately  set  out  in 
January  1649  upon  an  expedition  of  organized  piracy. 
In  Fe.bruary,  after  passing  without  molestation  through 
the  Parliamentary  ships,  he  was  at  Kinsale,  of  which  he 
took  the  fort.  He  relieved  John  Grenville  at  the  Scilly 
Isles,  and  practically  crippled  the  English  trade. 
Attacked  by  Blake,  he  sailed  to  Portugal,  and  was  received 
with  kindness  by  the  king ;  Blako,  however,  blockaded 
him  in  the  Tagus,  and  demanded  his  surrender.  Rupert 
broke  through  the  blockade  and  sailed  to  ihe  Mediter- 
ranean, landing  at  Barbary,  and  refitting  at  Toulon ;  thence 
he  proceeded  to  Madeira,  the  Canaries  (in  1652),  the 
Azores,  Cape  de  Verd,  and  the  West  Indies,  sweeping  the 
ocean  between  the  latter  places  for  a  considerable  time. 
Finding  it  impossible,  however,  to  escape  the  indefatigable 
pursuit  of  Blake,  he  returned  to  France  in  1653.  He  was 
now  invited  to  Paris  byXouis  XIV.,  who  made  him  master 
of  I  the  horse;  he  had  also  an  offer  from  the  emperor  to 
command  his  forces.  He  travelled  for  some  while,  and 
was  again  in  Paris  in  1655.  His  movements,  however,  at 
this  time  are  very  uncertain,  but  ho  appears  to  have 
devoted  his  enforced  leisure  to  engraving,  chemistry,  the 
perfection  of  gunpowder,  and  other  arts,  especially  those 
of  military  science.  Whether  he  was  the  actual  discoverer 
of  mezzotinto  engraving,  in  which  he  was  skilful,  is  un- 
certain, but  this  seems  probable. 

At  the  end  of  September  1660  Rupert  returned  to 
England;  he  was  abroad  during  1661,  was  .{jlaced  on  the 
privy  council  in  April  1662,  and  in  October  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  for  Tangiers ;  in  December  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  August  1664  he  was 
appointed  to  command  the  Guinea  fleet  against  the  Dutch, 
and  set  sail  in  October.  On  June  5,  1665,  he  gained 
with  Monk  a  great  victory  over-  the  Dutch,  and  on  his 
return  had  his  portrait  painted  by  Lely  along  with  the 
other  admirals  present  at  the  battle.  He  again  put  to 
sea  in  May  1666,  to  hinder  the  junction  of  the  Dutch  and 
French,  and  returned  in  the  beginning  of  June  after  a 
heavy  defeat,  his  ship  having  stuck  on  the  Galloper  Sands 
during  the  fight.  He  was  obliged  to  justify  himself 
before  the  council.  In  January  1667  he  was  very  ill,  but 
recovered  after  the  operation  of  trepanning.  At  this  time 
h»-is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  best  tennis  players  in  the 


nation.  On  October  22,  1667,  he  received  with  Monk 
the  thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  his  exertions 
against  the  Dutch  at  Chatham,  and  he  was  again  at 
sea  in  April  1668.  He  was  always  staunch  in  his  Pro- 
testant principles,  and  was  carefully  kept  in  ignorance  of 
Charles's  Catholic  plot  in  1670.  In  J^ugust  of  that  year 
he  was  constable  of  Windsor,  and  busied  himself  with  the 
fitting  up  of  the  Round  Tower,  a  turret  of  which  he 
converted  into  a  workshop.  He  shared  in  the  prevail- 
ing immorality  of  the  time,  his  favourite  mistress  being 
the  celebrated  actress,  Mrs  Hughes.  In  1673  he  was 
appointed  lord  high  admiral,  and  fought  two  battles  with 
the  Dutch  Fleet  on  May  28  and  August  11,  but  could  do 
little  through  the  backwardness  of  the  French  in  coming 
to  his  assistance.  This  appears  to  have  so  annoyed  him 
that  he  henceforward  eagerly  helped  the  anti-French  party. 
He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and 
governor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  Till  his  death, 
on  November  29,  1682,  he  lived  in  complete  retirement  at 
Windsor.  (o.  a.) 

RUPERT'S  LAND.  See  Hudson's  Bay  Company  and 
North- West  Territory. 

RUPTURE.     See  Hernia. 

RUSH.  Under  the  name  of  rush  or  rushes,  the  stalks 
or  fistular  stem-like  leaves  of  several  plants  have  minor 
industrial  applications.  The  common  rushes  (Species  of 
Juncns)  are  used  in  many  parts  of  the  world  |or  chair- 
bottoms,  mats,  and  basket  work,  and  the  pith  they 
contain  serves  as  wicks  in  open  oil-lamps  and  for  tallow- 
candles, — whence  rushlight.  The  bulrush,  Tt/pka  dephan- 
tina,  is  used  in  Sindh  for  mats  and  baskets.  Under  the 
name  of  rushes,  species  of  Scirpus  and  other  Cyperaceee  are 
used  for  chair-bottoms,  mats,  and  thatch.  The  elegant 
rush  mats  of  Madras  are  made  from  Papyrus  panr/orei. 
The  sweet  rush,  yielding  essential  oil,  is  Andropogon 
Schoenanthvs,  known  also  as  lemon  grass.  Large  quantities 
of  the  "horse  tail,"  EqtiiseUiM  hiemale,  are  used  under  the 
name  of  the  Dutch  or  scouring  rush,  for  Bcouring  metal 
and  other  hard  surfaces  on  account  of  the  large  proportion 
of  silica  the  plant  contains. 

RUSH,  Benjamin  (1745-1813),  the  Sydenham  cf 
America,  was  born  near  Bristol  (12  miles  from  Phila- 
delphia), on  a  homestead  founded  by  his  grandfather, 
who  had  followed  Penh  from  England  in  1683,  being  of 
the  Quaker  persuasion,  and  a  gunsmith  by  trade.  After 
a  careful  education  at  school  and  college,  and  an  appren- 
ticeship of  sii  years  with  a  doctor  in  Philadelphia,  Rush 
M'ent  for  two  years  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  attached 
himself  chiefly  to  Cullen.  He  took  his  M.D.  degree 
there  in  1768,  speat  a  year  more  in  the  hospitals  of 
London  and  Paris,  and  began  practice  in  Philadelphia  at 
the  age  of  twenty-four,  undertaking  at  the  same  time 
the  chemistry  class  at  the  new  medical  ichool.  He  at- 
once  became  a  leading  spirit  in  the  politjcal  and  social 
movements  of  the  day.  He  was  a  friend  of  Franklin's, 
a  member  of  Congress  for  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1776,  and  one  of  those  who  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  the  same  year.  He  had  already  written  on 
the  'Test  Laws;  "  Sermons  to  the  Rich,"  and  on  Negro 
Slavery,  having  taken  up  the  last-named  subject  at  the 
instance  of  Anthony  Benezet,  whose  Historical  Accomit  of 
Guinea  was-  the  inspiration  of  Clarkson's  celebrated  college 
essay  twelve  years  after.  In  1774  he  started  along  with 
James  Pemberton  the  first  anti-slavery  society  in  America, 
and  was  its  secretary  for  many  years.  -  When  the  political 
crisis  ended  in  1787  with  the  convention  for  drawing  up 
a  federal  constitution,  of  which  he  was  a  member,  he 
retired  from  public  life,  and  gave  himself  up  wholly  to 
medical  practice.  In  1789  he  exchanged  his  chemistry 
'lectureship  for  that  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  physic ; 


R  U  S  — R  U  S 


63 


and  when  tlie  medical  college,  whicli  he  had  helped  to 
fcjnd,  was  absorbed  by  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1791'  he  became  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine 
and  of  clinical  practice,  succeeding  in  1805  to  the  chair  of 
the  theory  and  practice  of  physic.  He  was  the  central 
figure  in  the  medical  world  of  Philadelphia,  as  CuUen  was 
at  Edinburgh  and  Boerhaave  at  Leyden.  Much  of  his 
influence  and  success  was  due  to  his  method  and  regularity 
of  life  on  the  Franklin  model.  During  the  thirty  years 
that  he  attended  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  as  physician, 
he  is  said  to  have  never  missed  his  daily  visit  and  never  to 
have  been  mor:  than  ten  minutes  late.  ■  Notwithstanding 
a  weak  chest,  which  troubled  him  the  greater  part  of  his 
life,  he  got  through  an  enormous  amount  of  work,  literary 
and  other ;  he  was  a  systematic  early  riser,  and  his  leisure 
at  the  end  of  the  day  was  spent  in  reading  poetry,  history, 
the  moral  sciences,  and  the  like,  with  his  pen  always  in  his 
hand.  TTis  temperament  was  of  the  gentle  sort,  and  his 
conversation  and  correspondence  abounding  in  ideas.  It 
is  stated  by  his  friend  Dr  Hosack  of  New  York,  that  Rush 
was  successively  a  Quaker,  an  Anabaptist,  a  Presbyterian, 
and  an  Anglican.  He  gained  great  credit  when  the 
yellow  fever  devastated  Philadelphia,  in  1793,  by  his 
assiduity  in  visiting  the  sick  (as  many  as  one  hundred  and 
twenty  in  a  day),  and  by  his  bold  and  apparently  success- 
ful treatment  of  the  disease  by  bloodletting.  When  he 
began  to  prosper  in  practice,  he  gave  a  seventh  part  of 
his  income  in  charity.  He  died  in  1813,  after  a  five  days' 
illness  from  typhus  fever.  Nine  out  of  a  family  of  thirteen 
children  survived  him,  all  prosperously  settled. 

Enah's  writings  cover  an  immense  range  of  subjects,  including 
langiiage,  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek,  the  moral  faculty, 
eapital  punishment,  medicine  among  the  American  Indians, 
maple  sugar,  the  blackness  of  the  negro,  the  cause  of  animal  life, 
tobacco  smoking,  spirit  drinking,  as  well  as  a  long  list  of  more 
strictly  profeKsional  topics.  His  last  work  was  an  elaborate  treatise 
on  the  Diseases  of  the  Mind  (1812).  He  is  best  known  now  by  the 
five  volumes  of  Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations,  which  he 
brought  out  at  intervals  from  1789  to  1798  (two  later  editions 
revised  by  the  author).  Epidemiology,  and  yellow  fever  in  parti- 
cular, was  the  subject  on  which  he  wrote  to  most  pur|)Ose.  His 
treatment  of  yellow  fever  by  bloodletting  helped  more  than  any- 
thing else  to  make  him  famous,  although  the  practice  would  now 
be  condemned.  His  views  as  to  the  origin  and  diffusion  of  yellow 
fever  h.ive  a  more  permanent  interest  He  stoutly  maintained,  as 
against  the  doctrine  of  importation  from  the  West  Indies,  that  the 
yellow  fever  of  Philadelphia  was  generated  on  the  spot  by  noxious 
exhalations,  although  he  does  not  appear  to  have  suspected  that 
there  was  something  special  or  specific  in  the  filthy  conditions  of 
soil  or  harbour  mud  which  g.ivo  rise  to  tlie  miasmata.  For  a 
number  of  years  he  expressed  the  opinion  that  yellow  fever  might 
become  catching  from  person  to  person,  under  ccrUnin  aggravated 
circumstances  ;  but  in  the  end  lie  professed  the  doctrine  of  absolute 
uon-contagiousness.  Ho  became  well  known  in  Europe  as  an 
authority  on  the  epidemics  of  fever,  and  was  elected  an  honorary 
member  of  several  foreign  societies. 

See  eulogy  by  Itnuck  (ifitaj/i.  I.,  New  York.  1824),  wllh  blopnpMcal  dot.illi 
taken  fro  n  a  letter  of  Rush  to  Pie^Ment  Jottn  Adams ;  also  references  In  the 
works  of  Thacker,  Gross,  anj  Bowdltcli  on  the.  history  of  medicine  In  Aiiierl,  a 
Ills  pait  In  the  yellow  fever  controver.lcs  Is  Indicated  by  La  Rocho  (IV/nie 
Frrrr  n  PhiladtlpMa  from  1C90  lo  ISSi.  2  voU.,  Phllndclphia.  ISOi)  and  by 
Dsn.-reft  (f.itni/  <m  Ihe  Ytlloic  Fever.  London.  Isil,.  His  scrriccs  as-Jn  iboM. 
i.oni.t  pioneer  are  recorded  In  Clarkson'a  HUlory  c/Ihe  AboUllon  at  Iht  Afriean 
Slav*  Trade . 

RUSHWORTH,  John  (c.  1C07-1690),  the  compiler  of 
the  Histcyrical  Collections  commonly  described  by  his  name, 
was  bom  in  Northumberland  about  the  year  1607.  After 
a  period  of  study  at  Oxford,  but  not,  it  appears,  as  a 
member  of  the  university,  he  came  to  London,  was  entered 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  in  due  course  called  to  the  bar. 
As  early  as  1G30  he  seems  to  have  commenced  attendance 
at  the  courts,  especially  the  Star  Chamber  and  the 
Exchequer  Chamber,  not  for  the  purpose  of  practising  his 
proft  ssion,  but  in  order  that  he  might  observe  and  record 
the  a  ore  remarkable  of  their  proceedings.  On  the  meeting 
of  the  Long  Parliament  in  1610  he  was  appointed  assi.stant 
derk  to  the  House  of  Commons,  and  was  in  the  habit  of 


making  short-hand  notes  of  the  speeches  be  heard  de- 
livered in  debate.  He  himself  states  that  it  was  from 
his  report  that  the  words  used  by  Charles  I.  during  his 
memorable  attempt  to  seize  the  "five  members"  were  printed 
for  public  distribution  under  the  king's  orders.  Being  an 
expert  horseman,  it  seems  that  Rushvrorth  was  frequently 
employed  by  the  House  as  their  messenger  as  well  as  in 
the  capacity  of  clerk.  When  the  king  left  London,  at'd 
while  the  earl  of  Essex  was  general,  he  was  often  the 
bearer  of  communications  from  the  parliament  to  one  or  the 
other  of  them.  In  1645  Sir  Thomas  Fairfa.x,  to  whom  he 
was  distantly  related,  and  who  was  then  in  command  of 
the  Parliamentary  forces,  made  him  his  secretary,  and  he 
remained  with  the  army  almost  continuously  until  1650."| 
In  1649  he  was  at  0.\ford,  and  the  degree  of  master  of 
arts  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  university.  In  1652  he 
was  nominated  one  of  the  commissioBers  for  the  reform  of 
the  common  law,-and  in  1658  he  was  elected  member  for 
B.erwick  in  the  parliament  of  the  commonwealth.  Almost 
immediately  before  the  Restoration  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  his  Historical  Collections,  v/hich  had  b^en  sub- 
mitted in  manuscript  to  Oliver  Cromwell,  with  a  very 
laudatory  dedication  to  Richard  Cromweii,  I'aen  Lord 
Protector.  But  the  turn  of  events  induced  him  to  with- 
draw this  dedication,  and  he  subsequently  enderivoured 
without  success  to  conciliate  Charles  II.  by  presenting  him 
with  some  of  the  registers  of  the  privy  council  whicj  had 
come  into  his  possession.  In  the  convention  of  1660, 
which  recalled  the  king,  he  sat  again  as  member  for 
Berwick.  Ip  1677  he  was  made  secretary  to  Sir  Odando 
Bridgeman,  then  lord  keeper;  and  he  was  returned  for 
Berwick  a  third  and  a  fourth  time  to  the  parliaments  of 
1679  and  1689.  Soon  after  this  he  appears  to  have  fallen 
into  straitened  circumstances.  In  1684  he  was  arrested 
for  debt,  and  cast  into  the  King's  Bench  prison,  where  he 
died,  after  linrering  for  some  time  in  a  condition  of  mental 
innrniiiy,  the  resu't  of  excessive  drinking,  in  1690. 

Rushworth's  Eistovi;r.l  Collrctirms  of  Private  Passages  of  State, 
IVeighty  Matters  in  taw,  and  Kemarkahle  Proceedings  in  Parlia- 
ment was  reprinted  in  eight  folio  volumes  in  1721.  The  eighth 
volume  of  this  edition  is  an  account  of  the  trial  of  tha  eai-l  of 
Strafford,  the  other  seven  volumes  being  concenied  with  tl-.e 
miscellaneous  transactions  of  the  period  from  1618  to  1S4S.  On:y 
the  first  three  volumes  and  the  trial  of  Strafford  were  originally 
published  in  Rushwrrrlh's  lifetime  ;  but  the  manuscript  of  ths 
other  volumes  was  left  l>y  him  ready  for  tlie  press.  The  extreme 
value  of  the^work  is  wellknown  to  all  inquirers  into  the  history  of 
the  Civil  War,  and  much  of  the  information  it  contains  is  to  be 
found  nowhere  else.  Its  impartiality,  however,  can  liardiy  bo 
seriously  maintained,  and  hence  it  is  necessary  to  consult  it  with 
some  caution. 

RUSSELL,   John    Russell,    Earl    (1792-1878),   a 
statesman  who  for  nearly  half  a  century  faithfully  repre- 
sented the  traditions  of  Whig  politics,  was  the  third  son  ef 
John,  sixth  duke  of  Bedford,  and  was  born  in  Hertford 
Street,  Mayfair,  London,  18th  August  1792,  one  of  the 
most  terrible  months  in  the  annals  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion.    AVhilst  still  a  child  he  was  sent  to  a  private  school 
at  Sunbury,  and  for  a  short  time  he  was  at  Westminster 
School.  Long  and  severe  illness  led  to  hislieing  placed,  with 
many  other  young  men  sprung  from  Whig  parents,  with 
a  private  tutor  at  Woodnesborough  in  Keni.     .v..^...... 

in  the  footsteps  of  Lord  Henry  Petty,  Brougham,  and 
Horner,  he  went  to  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  then  the 
academic  centre  of  Liberali.'sm,  and  dwelt  in  the  house  of 
Prof.  Playfair,  whom  he  afterwards  described  as  "  one  of 
the  best  and  noblest,  the  most  upright,  tho  most  bene- 
volent, and  the  most  liberal  of  all  philosophers."  On 
leaving  the  university,  he  determined  upon  taking  a  foreign 
tour,  and,  as  the  greater  part  of  Europe  was  overrun  by 
French  troops,  he  landed  at  f.isbon  with  the  intention  of 
exploring  the  countries  of  Portugal  and  Suain.     Lord  John 


64 


RUSSELL 


Bussell  had  previously  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
continuance  of  the  war  with  France  was  necessary  for  the 
restoration  of  the  peace  of  Europe,  and  his  convictions 
were  deepened  by  the  experience  of  travel.  On  the  Ith 
May  1813,  ere  he  was  of  age,  he  was  returned  for  the 
ducal  borough  of  Tavistock,  and  in  this  he  resembled  Lord 
Chesterfield  and  other  aristocratic  legislators,  who  were 
entrusted  with  the  duty  of  lawmaking  before  they  had 
arrived  at  years  of  discretion.  After  the  battle  of  "Water- 
loo the  Whig  representatives  in  parliament  concentrated 
their  efforts  in  promoting  financial  reform,  and  in  resisting 
those  arbitrary  settlements  of  the  Continental  countries 
which  found  favour  in  the  eyes  of  Metternich  and  Castle- 
reagh.  In  foreign  politics  Lord  John  Russell's  oratorical 
talents  were  especially  shown  in  his  struggles  to  prevent 
the  union  of  Norway  and  Sweden.  In  domestic  questions 
he  cast  in  his  lot  with  those  who  opposed  the  repressive 
measures  of  1817,  and  protested  that  the  causes  of  the 
discontent  at  home  should  be  removed  by  remedial  legisla- 
tion. Wien  failure  attended  all  his  efforts  he  resigned  his 
seat  for  Tavistock,  and  meditated  permanent  withdrawal 
from  public  life,  but  was  dissuaded  from  this  step  by  the 
arguments  of  his  friends,  and  especially  by  a  poetic  appeal 
from  Tom  Moore.  In  the  parliament  of  1818-20  he 
again  represented  the  family  borough  in  Devon,  and  in  May 
1819  began  his  long  advocacy  of  parliamentary  reform  by 
moving  for  an  inquiry  into  the  corruption  which  prevailed 
in  the  Cornish  constituency  of  Grampound.  During  the 
first  parliament  (1820-26)  of  George  IV.  the  county  of 
Huntingdon  accepted  Lord  John  Russell's  services  as  its 
representative,  and  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  secure  in 
1821  the  disfranchisement  of  Grampound,  but  his  satis- 
faction at  this  triumph  was  diminished  by  the  fact  that 
the  seats  were  not  transferred  to  the  constituency  which 
he  desired.  This  was  the  sole  parliamentary  victory 
whiph  the  advocates  of  a  reform  of  the  representa- 
tion obtained  before  1832,  but  they  found  cause  for 
congratulation  in  other  triumphs.  Lord  John  Russell  paid 
the  penalty  for  his  advocacy  of  Catholic  emancipation  with 
the  loss  in  1826  of  his  seat  for  Huntingdon  county,  but  he 
found  a  shelter  in  the  Irish  borough  of  Bandon  Bridge. 
He  led  the  attack  against  the  Test  Acts  by  carrying  in 
February  1828  with  a  majority  of  forty-four  a  motion  for 
a  committee  to  inquire  into  their  operations,  and  after 
this  decisive  victory  they  were  repealed.  He  warmly 
supported  the  Wellington  ministry  when  it  realized  that 
the  king's  government  could  only  be  carried  on  by  the 
passing  of  a  Catholic  Relief  Act.  For  the  greater  part  of 
the  short-lived  parliament  of  1830-31  he  served  his  old 
constituency  of  Tavistock,  having  been  beaten  in  a  contest 
for  Bedford  county  at  the  general  election  by  one  vote  ; 
and,  when  Lord  Grey's  Reform  ministry  was  formed,  Lord 
John  Russell  accepted  the  ofiice  of  paymaster-general, 
though,  strange  to  say,  he  was  not  admitted  into  the  sacred 
precincts  of  the  cabinet.  This  exclusion  from  the  official 
hierarchy  was  rendered  the  more  remarkable  by  the 
circumstance  that  he  .was  selected  (1st  March  1831)  to 
explain  the  provisions  of  the  Reform  Bill,  to  which  the 
cabinet  had  given  its  formal  sanction.  The  MTiig  ministry 
were  soon  met  by  defeat,  but  an  appeal  to  the  country 
increased  the  number  of  their  adherents,  and  Lord  John 
Russell  himself  had  the  satisfaction  of  being  chosen  by  the 
freeholders  of  Devon  as  their  member.  After  many  a 
period  of  doubt  and  defeat,  "  the  bill,  the  whole  bill,  and 
nothing  but  the  bill  "  passed  into  law,  and  Lord  John  stood 
forth  in  the  mind  of  the  people  as  its  champion.  Although 
it  was  not  till  some  years  later  that  he  became  the  leader 
of  the  Liberal  party,  the  height  of  his  fame  was  attained 
in  1832.  After  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  he  sat  for 
the  southf-'"-^  division  of  Devon,  and  continued  to  retain 


the  place  of  paymaster-general  in  the  ministriea  of  Lord 
Grey  and  Lord  Melbourne.  The  former  of  these  cabinets 
was  broken  up  by  the  withdrawal  of  Mr  Stanley,  after- 
wards Lord  Derby,  on  the  proposal  for  reforming  the  Irish 
Church,  when  he  emphasized  Lord  John  Russell's  part  in 
the  movements  by  the  saying  "  Johnny  's  upset  the  coach ;" 
the  latter  was  abruptly,  if  not  rudely,  dismissed  by  William 
IV.  when  the  death  of  Lord  Spencer  promoted  the  leader 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  Lord  Althsrp,  to  the  peerage, 
and  Lord  John  Russell  was  proposed  as  the  spokesman  of 
the  ministry  in  the  Commons.  At  the  general  election 
which  ensued  the  Tories  received  a  considerable  accession 
'of  strength,  but  not  sufficient  to  ensure  their  continuance 
in  oflice,  and  the  adoption  by  the  House  of  Commons  of 
the  proposition  of  the  Whig  leader,  that  the  surplus  funds 
of  the  Irish  Church  should  be  applied  to  general  education, 
necessitated  the  resignation  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  ministry. 
In  Lord  Melbourne's  new  administration  Lord  John 
Russell  became  home  secretary  and  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  but  on  his  seeking  a  renewal  of  confidence  from 
the  electors  of  South  Devon,  he  was  defeated  and  driven 
to  Stroud.  Although  the  course  of  the  "Whig  ministry 
was  not  attended  by  uniform  prosperity,  it  succeeded  in 
passing  a  Municipal  Reform  Bill,  and  in  carrying  a  settle- 
ment of  the  tithe  question  in  England  and  Ireland.  At 
the  close  of  its  career  the  troubles  in  Canada  threatened  a 
severance  of  that  dependency  from  the  home  country, 
whereupon  Lord  John  Russell,  with  a  courage  which  never 
deserted  him,  took  charge  of  the  department,  at  that  time 
a  dual  department,  of  war  and  the  colonies.  In  May 
1839,  on  an  adverse  motion  concerning  the  administration 
of  Jamaica,  the  ministry  was  left  with  a  majority  of  five 
only,  and  promptly  resigned  the  seals  of  office.  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  attempt  to  form  a  ministry  was,  however,  frustrated 
by  the  refusal  of  the  queen  to  dismiss  the  ladies  of  the 
bedchamber,  and  the  Whigs  resufned  their  places.  Their 
prospects  brightened  when  Sir  John  Yarde  Buller's  motion 
of  "no  confidence"  was  defeated  by  twenty-one,  but  the 
glimpse  of  sunlight  soon  faded,  and  a  similar  vote  was 
some  months  later  carried  by  a  majority  of  one,  whereupon 
the  Whig  leader  announced  a  dissolution  of  parliament 
(1841).  At  the  polling  booth  his  friends  were  smitten  hip 
and  thigh  ;  the  return  of  Lord  John  Russell  for  the  City  of 
London  was  almost  their  soUtary  triumph.  On  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  resignation  (1846)  the  task  of  forming  an  administra- 
tion was  entrusted  to  Lord  John  Russell,  and  he  remained 
at  the  head  of  affairs  from  1846  to  1852,  but  his  tenure  of 
office  was  not  marked  by  any  great  legislative  enactments. 
His  celebrated  Durham  letter  on  the  threatened  assump- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  titles  by  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops 
weakened  the  attachment  of  the  "Peelites"  and  ahenated 
his  Irish  supporters.  The  impotence  of  their  opponents, 
rather  than  the  strength  of  their  friends,  kept  the  AMiig 
ministry  in  power,  and,  although  beaten  by  a  majority  of 
nearly  two  to  one  on  ilr  Locke  King's  County  Franchise 
Bill  in  February  1851,  it  could  not  divest  itself  of  office. 
Lord  Palmerston's  unauthorized  recognition  of  the  French 
coup  d'etat  was  followed  by  his  dismissal,  but  he  hac'. 
his  revenge  in  the  ejectment  of  his  old  colleagues  a  few 
months  later.  During  Lord  Aberdeen's  administration 
Lord  John  Russell  led  the  Lower  House,  at  first  as  foreign 
secretary,  then  -n-ithout  portfolio,  and  lastly  as  presi- 
dent of  the  counciL  In  1854  he  brought  in  a  Refornr. 
Bill,  but  in  consequence  of  the  war  wth  Russia  the  bill 
was  allowed,  much  to  its  author's  mortification,  to  drop. 
His  popularity  was  diminished  by  this  failure,  and  although 
he  resigned  in  January  1855,  on  Mr  Roebuck's  Crimea 
motion,  he  did  not  regain  his  old  position  in  the  count'y. 
At  the  Vienna  conference  (1855)  Lord  John  Russell  was 
Epgland's  representative^^and  immediately  on  his  return 


RUSSELL 


65 


ha  became  secretary  of  tlie  colonies ;  but  the  errors  in 
Lis  negotiations  at  the  Austrian  capital  followed  hiia  and 
forced  him  to  retire.  For  some  years  after  this  he  was  the 
"  jtormy  petrel  "  of  politics.  He  was  the  chief  instrument 
in  defeating  Lord  Palmerston  in  1857.  He  led  the  attack 
ca  the  Tory  Reform  Bill  of  1859.  A  reconciliation  was 
then  cfiected  between  the  rival  VvTiig  leaders,  and  Lord 
John  Russell  consented  to  become  foreign  secretary  in 
Lord  Palmerston's  ministry,  and  to  accept  an  earldom. 
Daring  the  American  War  Earl  Russell's  sympathies  with 
the  North  restrained  his  country  from  embarking  in  the 
contest,  but  he  was  not  equally  successful  in  his  desire  to 
prevent  the  spoliation  of  Denmark.  On  Lord  Palmerston's 
death  (October  1865)  Earl  Russell  was  .once,  more  sum- 
moned to  form  a  cabinet,  but  the  defeat  of  his  ministry 
in  the  following  June  on  the  Reform  Bill  which  they  had 
introduced  was  followed  by  his  retirement  from  public 
life.  His  leisure  hours  were  spent  after  this  event  in  the 
preparation  of  numberless  letters  and  speeches,  and  in  the 
composition  of  his  Jiecoltections  and  Suggestions,  but  every- 
thing he  wrote  was  marked  by  the  belief  that  all  philo- 
sophy, political  or  social,  was  summed  up  in  the  Whig  creed 
of  fifty  years  previously.  Earl  Russell  died  at  Pembroke 
Lodge,  Richmond  Park,  28th  May  1878. 

For  more  than  half  a  century  Earl  Russell  lived  in  the  excitement 
of  political  life.  He  participated  in  the  troubles  of  Whiggism  before 
1832,  and  shared  in  its  triumph  after  that  event.  He  expounded 
the  principles  of  the  first  Reform  Bill  and  lived  to  see  a  second 
C'lrried  into  law  by"the  Conservative  ministry  of  Lord  Derby.  Un- 
limited confidence  in  his  own  resources  exposed  him  to  many  jests 
from  both  friend  and  foe,  but  he  rightly  estimated  his  powers,  and 
they  carried  him  to  the  highest  places  in  tlie  state.  His  tragedies 
and  his  essays  are  forgotten,  but  his  works  on  Fox  are  anTong  the 
chief  authorities  on  Whig  politics.  Earl  Resell  was  twice  married, 
— firet,  in  1835,  to  Adelaide,  daughter  of  Mr  Thomas  Lister,  and 
widow  of  Thomas,  second  Lord  Ribblesdale,  and  secondly,  in  1841, 
to  Lady  Frances  Ann  Maria,  daughter  of  the  second  earl  of  Minto. 
By  tho  former  he  had  two  daughters,  by  the  latter  three  sons  and 
one  daughter.  His  eldest  son.  Lord  Amberley,  predeceased  him 
dth  January  1876.  (W.  P.  C.) 

RUSSELL,  William  Russell,  Lord  (1639-1683),  the 
third  son  of  Lord  Russell,  afterwards  fifth  earl  and  still 
later  first  duke  of  Bedford,  and  Lady  Anne  Carr,  daughter 
of  the  infamous  countess  of  Somerset,  was  born  September 
29,  1639.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  youth,  except 
that  about  leS'l  he  was  sent  to  Cambridge  with  his  elder 
brother  Francis.  On  leaving  the  university,  the  two 
brothers  travelled  abroad,  visiting  Lyons  and  Geneva,  and 
residing  for  some  while  at  Augsburg.  His  account  of  his 
impres-sions  is  spirited  and  interesting.  He  was  at  Paris 
in  1658,  but  had  returned  to  Woburn  in  December  1659. 
At  the  Restoration  he  was  elected  for  the  family  borough 
of  Tavistock.  For  a  long  while  he  appears  to  have  taken 
no  part  in  public  affairs,  but  rather  to  have  indulged  in 
the  follies  of  court  life  and  intrigue  ;  for  both  in  16G3  and 
1G64  he  was  engaged  in  duels,  in  the  latter  of  which  he 
was  wounded.  In  1669  he  married  the  second  daughter 
of  the  carl  of  Southampton,  tho  widow  of  Lord  Vaughan, 
thus  becoming  connected  with  Shaftesbury,  who  had  mar- 
ried Southampton's  niece.  With  his  wife  Russell  always 
Jived  on  terms  of  the  greatest  affection  and  confidence. 

It  was  not  Until  the  formation  of  the  "country  party," 
in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  Cabal  and  Charles's 
French-Catholic  jilots,  that  Russell  began  to  take  an  active 
part  in  affairs.  He  then  joined  Cavendish,  Birch,  Hamp- 
den, Powell,  Lyttleton,  and  others  in  vehement  antagonism 
to  the  court.  With  a  passionate  hatred  and  distrust  of 
the  Catholics,  and  an  intense  love  of  political  liberty,  he 
united  the  desire  for  ease  to  Protestant  Dissenters.  His 
first  speech  appears  to  have  been  on  January  22,  1673,  in 
which  he  inveighed  against  the  stop  of  the  exchequer,  the 
attack  on  the  Smyrna  fleet,  the  corruption  of  courtiers  with 
French  money,  and  "the  ill  ministers  about  the  king." 
21—6 


He  also  supported  the  proceedings  against  the  duke  of 
Buckingham.  In  1675  he  moved  an  address  to  the  king 
for  the  removal  of  Danby  from  the  royal  councils,  and  for 
his  impeachment.  On  February  15,  1677,  in  the  debate 
on  the  fifteen  months'  prorogation,  he  moved  the  dissolu- 
tion of  parliament;  and  in  March  1678  he  seconded  the 
address  praying  the  king  to  declare  war  against  France. 
The  enmity  of  the  country  party  against  Danby  and 
James,  and  their  desire  for  a  dissolution  and  the  disbanding 
of  the  army,  were  greater  than  their  enmity  to  Louis.  Tho 
French  king  therefore  found  it  easy  to  form  a  temporary 
alliance  with  Russell,  HoUis,  and  the  opposition  leaders,  by 
which  they  engaged  to  cripple  the  king's  power  of  hurting 
France,  and  to  compel  him  to  seek  Louis's  friendship, — 
that  friendship,  however,  to  be  given  only  on  the  condition 
that  they  in  their  turn  should  have  Louis's  support  for  their 
cherished  objects.  Russell  in  particular  entered  into  close 
communication  with  Rouvigny,  who  came  over  with  money 
for  distribution  among  members  of  parliament.  By  the  tes- 
timony ofBarillon,  however,  it  is  clear  that  Russell  hi:nself 
utterly  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  intended  corruption. 

By  the  wild  alarms  which  culminated  in  the  Popish 
Terror  Russell  appears  to  have  been  aflected  more  com- 
pletely than  his  otherwise  sober  character  would  have  led 
people  to  expect.  He  threw  himself  into  the  party  which 
looked  to  Monmouth  as  the  representative  of  Protestant 
interests,  a  grave  political  blunder,  though  he  afterwards 
was  in  confidential  communication  with  Orange.  On 
November  4,  1678,  he  moved  an  address  to  the_king  to  re- 
move the  duke  of  York  from  his  person  and  councils.  At- 
the  dissolution  of  the  pensionary  parliament,  he  was,  in 
the  new  elections,  returned  for  Bedfordshire.  Danby  was  at 
once  overthrown,  and  in  April  1679  Russell  was  one  of  the 
new  privy  council  formed  by  Charles  on  the  advice  of 
Temple.  Only  six  days  after  this  we  find  him  moving  for 
a  committee  to  draw  up  a  bill  to  secure  religion  and  pro- 
perty in  case  of  a  Popish  successor.  He  does  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  have  taken  part  in  the  exclusion  debates  at 
this  time.  In  June,  on  the  occasion  ot  the  Covenanters' 
rising  in  Scotland,  he  attacked  Lauderdale  personally  io 
full  council.  ' 

In  January  1680  Russell,'along  wit'i  Cavendish,  Capell, 
Powell,  Essex,  and  Lyttleton,  tenderei  his  resignation  to 
the  king,  which  was  received  by  Charles  "with  all  my 
heart."  On  June  16  he  accompanied  Shaftesbury,  when 
the  latter  indicted  James  at  Westminster  as  a  Popish  re 
cusaiit ;  and  on  October  26  he  took  the  extreme  step  of 
moving  "  how  to  suppress  Popery,  and  prevent  a  Popish 
successor";  while  on  November  2,  now  at  the  height  ot  his 
influence,  he  went  still  further  by  seconding  tho  motion 
for  exclusion  in  its  mo.'st  emphatic  shape,  and  on  the  19th 
carried  the  bill  to  the  House  of  Lords  for  their  concurrence. 
The  limitation  scheme  he  opposed,  on  the  ground  that 
monarchy  under  the  conditions  expressed  in  it  would-  be 
an  absurdity.  The  statement,  made  by  Echard  alone,  that 
he  joined  in  opposing  the  indulgence  shown  to  Lord  Straf- 
ford by  Charles  in  dispensing  with  the  more  horrible  parts 
of  the  sentence  of  death — an  indulgence  afterwards  shown 
to  Russell  him.self — is  entirely  unworthy  of  credence.  On 
December  18  he  moved  to  refu.se  supplies  until  the  kihg 
passed  the  Exclusion  Bill.  The  Prince  of  Orange  having 
come  over  at  this  time,  there  was  a  tendency  on  the  part 
of  the  opposition  leaders  to  accept  his  endeavours  to  secure 
a  compromise  on  the  exclusion  question.  Russell,  however, 
refused  to  give  way  a  hair's  breadth. 

On  March  26,  IGSl,  in  tho  parliament  held  at  Oxiord, 
Russell  again  seconded  the  Exclusion  Bill.  Upon  the 
dissolution  he  retired  into  privacy  at  his  country  seat  of 
Stratton  in  Hamiishire.  It  was,  however,  no  doubt  at  his 
wish  that  his  chaplain  wrote  the  Life  of  JnPan  the  Apos- 

■VYI     _    9 


GQ 


E  U  S  S  E  L  L 


(ate,  in  reply  to  Dr  Hickes'a  sermons,  in  which  the  lawful- 
ness of  resistance  in  extreme  cases  was  defended.  In  the 
vrild  schemes  of  Shaftesbury  after  the  election  of  Tory 
sheriffs  for  London  in  1C82  he  had  no  share  ;  upon  the  viola- 
tion of  the  charters,  however,  in  1G83,  he  began  seriously  to 
consider  as  to  the  best  means  of  resisting  the  Government, 
end  on  one  occasion  attended  a  meeting  at  which  treason, 
or  what  might  be  construed  as  treason,  was  talked.  Mon- 
mouth, Essex,  Hampden,  Sidney,  and  Howard  of  Escrick 
were  the  principal  of  those  who  met  to  consult.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Bye  Plot,  of  which  neither  he,  Essex, 
nor  Sidney  had  the  slightest  knowledge,  he  was  accused  by 
informers  of  promising  his  assistance  to  raise  an  insurrection 
and  compass  the  death  of  the  king.  Refusing  to  attempt 
to  escape,  he  was  brought  before  the  council,  when  his 
attendance  at  the  meeting  referred  to  was  charged  against 
him.  He  was  sent  on  June  26,  1683,  to  the  Tower,  and, 
looking  upon  himself  as  a  dying  man,  betook  himself 
wholly  to  preparation  for  death.  Monmouth  offered  to 
appear  to  take  his  trial,  if  thereby  he  could  help  Russell, 
and  Essex  refused  to  abscond  for  fear  of  injuring  his 
friend's  chance  of  escape.  Before  a  committee  of  the 
council  Russell,  on  June  26,  acknowledged  his  presence  at 
the  meeting,  but  denied  all  knowledge  of  the  proposed 
insurrection.  Ha  reserved  his  defence,  however,  until  his 
trial.  He  would  probably  have  saved  his  life  but  for  the 
perjury  of  Lord  Howard.  The  suicide  of  Essex,  the  news  of 
which  was  brought  into  court  during  the  trial,  was  quoted 
as  additional  evidence  against  him,  as  pointing  to  the  cer- 
tainty of  Esse.x's  guilt.  On  July  19  he  was  tried  at  the 
Old  Bailey,  his  wife  assisting  him  in  his  defence.  Evidence 
was  given  by  an  informer  that,  while  at  Shaftesbury's 
hiding-place  in  Wapping,  Russell  had  joined  in  the  pro- 
posal to  seize  the  king's  guard,  a  charge  indignantly  denied 
by  him  in  his  farewell  paper,  and  thai  he  was  one  of  a 
committee  of  six  app(jinted  to  prepare  t^le  scheme  for  an 
insurrection.  Howard,  too,  expressly  declared  that  Russell 
had  urged  the  entering  into  communications  with  Argyll 
in  Scotland.  Howard's  perjury  is  clear  from  other  wit- 
nesses, but  the  evidence  was  accepted.  Russell  spoke  with 
spirit  and  dignity  in  his  own  defence,  and,  in  especial, 
vehemently  denied  that  ho  had  ever  been  party  to  a  design 
so  wicked  and  so  foolish  as  those  of  the  murder  of  the  king 
and  of  rebellion.  It  will  bo  observed  that  the  legality  of 
the  trial,  in  so  far  as  the  jurors  were  not  properly  quali- 
fied and  the  law  of  treason  was  shamefully  strained,  was 
derded  in  the  Act  of  1  William  and  Mary  which  annulled 
the  attainder.  Hallam  maintains  that  the  only  overt  act 
of  treason  proved  against  Russell  was  his  concurrence  in 
the  project  of  a  rising  at  Taunton,  which  he  denied,  and 
which,  Ramsay  being  the  only  witness,  was  not  sufficient 
to  warrant  a  conviction. 

Russell  was  sentenced  to  die.  Many  attempts  were 
made  to  save  his  life.  The  old  earl  of  Bedford  offered 
X50,000  or  £100,000,  and  Monmouth,  Legge,  Lady 
Ranelagh,  and  Rochester  added  their  interces.sions.  Russell 
himself,  in  petitions  to  Charles  and- James,  offered  to  live 
abroad  if  his  life  were  spared,  and  never  again  to  meddle 
in  the  affairs  of  England.  He  refused,  however,  to  yield 
to  the  influence  of  Burnet  and  Tillotson,  who  endeavoured 
to  make  him  grant  the  unlawfulness  of  resistance,  although 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  compliance  in  this  would 
have  saved  his  life.  He  drew  up,  with  Burnet's  assist- 
ance, a  paper  containing  his  apology,  and  he  wrote  to  the 
king  a  letter,  to  be  delivered  after  his  death,  in  which  he 
asked  Charles's  pardon  for  any  wrong  he  had  done  him.  A 
suggestion  of  escape  from  Lord  Cavendish  he  refused.  He 
behavsa  with  his  usual  quiet  cheerfulness-during  his  stay  in 
the  Tower,  spending  his  last  day  on  earth  as  he  had  intended 
to  spend  the  following  Sunday  if  he  had  reached  it.     He 


received  the  sacrament  from  Tillotson,  and  burneb  twlc"? 
preached  to  him.  Having  supped  with  his  wife,  the  parting 
from  whom  was  his  only  great  trial,  he  slept  peacefully, 
and  spent  the  last  morning  in  devotion  with  '^urnet.  He 
went  to  the  place  of  execution  in  Lincoln's  In  Fields  with 
perfect  calmness,  which  was  preserved  to  the  last.  He 
died  on  July  21,  1683,  in  the  forty-fourth  year  of  his  age. 
A  true  and  moderate  sumrainff  up  of  his  character  will  be  found 
in  liis  Li/e,  by  Lord  Johu  Russell.  (0.  A. ) 

RUSSELL,  John  Scott  (1808-1882),  was  born  in 
1808  near  Glasgow,  a  "son  of  the  manse,"  and  was  at  first 
destined  for  the  ministry.  But  this  intention  on  his  father's 
part  was  changed  in  consequence  of  the  boy's  early  lean- 
ings towards  practical  science.  He  attended  in  succession 
the  universities  of  St  Andrews,  Edinburgh,  and  Glasgow, — 
taking  his  degree  in  the  last-named  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 
After  spending  a  couple  of  years  in  workshops,  he  settled 
in  Edinburgh  as  a  lecturer  on  science,  and  soon  collected 
large  classes.  In  1832-33  he  was  engaged  to  give  the 
natural  philosophy  course  at  the  university,  the  chair 
having  become  vacant  by  the  death  of  Leslie.  In  the 
following  year  he  began  that  remarkable  series  of- obser- 
vations on  waves  whose  results,  besides  being  of  very 
great,  sciep_tific  importance,  were  the  chief  determining 
factor  of  his  subsequent  practical  career.  Having  been 
consulted  as  to  the  possibility  of  applying  steam-naviga- 
tion to  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Canal,  he  replied 
that  the  question  could  not  be  answered  without  experi- 
ments, and  that  he  was  willing  to  undertake  such  if  a 
portion  of  the  canal  were  placed  at  his  disposal.  The 
results  of  this  inquiry  are  to  be  found  in  the  Transaction-^ 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinhuryk  (vol.  xiv.),  and  in  the 
British  Association  Reports  (seventh  meeting).  We  need 
not  say  more  than  that  the  existence  of  the  lo-ng  zmve,  or 
ii'ave  of  translation,  as  well  as  many  of  its  most  important 
features,  were  here  first  recognized,  and  (to  give  one  very 
simple  idea  of  the  value  of  the  investigation)  that  it  was 
clearly  pointed  out  lehy  there  is  a  special  rate,  depending 
on  the  depth  of  the  water,  at  which  a  canal-boat  can  be 
towed  at  the  least  expenditure  of  effort  by  the  horse.  The 
elementary  mathematical  theory  of  the  long  wave  is  very 
simple,  and  was  soon  supplied  by  commentators  on  Scott 
Russell's  work ;  a  more  complete  investigation  has  been 
since  given  by  Stokes;  and  the  subject  may  be  considered 
as  certainly  devoid  of  any  special  mystery.  Russell  held 
an  opposite  opinion,  and  it  led  him  to  many  extraordinaiy 
and  groundless  speculations,  some  of  which  have  been  pu'j- 
lished  in  a  posthumous  volume,  I'he  Wave  of  Translatii.;^ 
(1885).  His  observations  led  him  to  propose  and  experi- 
ment on  a  new  system  of  shaping  vessels,  which  is  known 
as  the  zvave  system.  This  culminated  in  the  building  of  the 
enormous  and  unique  "Great  Eastern,"  of  which  it  has 
been  recently  remarked  by  a  competent  authority  that  "  it 
is  probable  that,  if  a  new  '  Great  Eastern '  were  now  to 
be  built,  the  system  of  construction  employed  by  Mr  Scott 
Russell  would  be  followfed  exactly." 

Though  his  fame  will  rest  chiefly  on  the  two  great 
steps  we  have  just  mentioned,  Scott  Russell's  activity 
and  ingenuity  displayed  themselves  in  many  other  fields,- — 
steam-coaches  for  roads,  improvements  in  boilers  and  in 
marine  engines,  the  immense  iron  dome  of  the  Vienna  exhi- 
bition, cellular  double  bottoms  for  iron  ships,  Ac.  Along 
with  Mr  Stafford  Northcote  (now  Lord  Iddesleigh),  he  was 
joint  secretary  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  ;  and  he 
was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  Institution  of  Naval 
Architects,  from  the  twenty-third  volume  of  whose  Trans- 
actions we  have  extracted  much  of  what  is  stated  above. 
Russell  contributed  the.  articles  Steam,  Steam-Engink, 
Steam  Navigation,  <fec.,  to  the  7th  edition  of  the  Ency- 
clopxdia  Britannica.     He  died  at  Ventnor.  June  8,  1882. 


67 


RUSSIA 


Part  I. — Geiteeal  Suevey  of  the  Russian  Eitpiee. 
■plate  II.  fTIHE  Russian  empire  is  a  very  extensive  territory  in 
I  eastern  Europe  and  northern  Asia,  with  an  area 
exceeding  8,500,000  square  miles,  or  one-sixth  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  globe  (one  twenty-third  of  its  whole  super- 
ficies). It  is,  however,  but  thinly  peopled  on  the  average,  - 
including  only  one-fourteenth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  It  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  cold  and,  tem- 
perate zones.  In  Nova  Zembla  (Novaya  Zemlya)  and  the 
Taimyr  peninsula,  it  projects  within  the  Arctic  Circle  as 
far  as  77°  2'  and  77°  40'  N.  lat. ;  while  its  southern  ex- 
tremities reach  38°  50'  in  Armenia,  about  35°  on  the  Afghan 
frorvt"er,  and  42°  30'  on  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific.  To  the 
west  i*-  advances  as  far  as  20°  40'  E.  long,  in  Lapland, 
18°  32'  in  Poland,  and  29°  42'  on  the  Black  Sea ;  and  its 
eastern  limit — East  Cape  in  the  Behring  Strait — extends 
to  191°  E.  longitude. 
ISoond-  The  Arctic  Ocean — comprising  the  White,  Barents,  and 

"■'^'-  Kara  Seas — and  the  northern  Pacific,  that  is,  the  Sea's  of 
Behring,  Okhotsk,  and  Japan,  bound  it  ia  the  north  and 
oast.  The  Baltic,  with  its  two  deep  indentations,  the  Gulfs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  limits  it  on  the  north-west ;  and 
two  sinuous  lines  of  frontier  separate  it  respectively  from 
Sweden  and  Norway  on  the  north-west  add  from  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Roumania  on  the  west.  The  southern  frontier 
is  still  unsettled,  and  has  never  remained  unaltered  for  so 
many  as  twenty  consecutive  years.  Quite  recently  it  l;a3 
been  pushed  southwards,  on  both  the  western  and  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  parts  of  Koumania  and 
Asia  Minor  having  been  annexed  in  1878.  In  Asia, 
beyond  the  Caspian,  the  southern  boundary  of  the  empire 
remains  vague ;  the  advance  into  the  Turcoman  Steppes 
and  Afghan  Turkestan  and  on  the  Pamir  plateau  is  still 
in  progress.  Bokhara  and  Khiva,  though  represented  as 
vassal  khanates,  are  in  reality  mere  dependencies  of  Russia. 
An  approximately  settled  frontier-line  begins  only  farther 
east,  where  the  Russian  and  the  Chinese  empires  meet  on 
the  borders  of  Eastern  Turkestan,  Mongolia,  and  Manchuria. 
But  even  there,  the  province  of  Kuldja  has  recently  been 
occupied  by  Russia,  and  again  restored  to  China  :  while  in 
pastern  Mongolia,  the  great  overland  route  from'  Ciakhta 
to  Peking,  via  Urga,  is  in  fact  in  the  hands  of  Ru.ssia,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  predict  how  far  Russian  influence  may 
extend  should  circumstances  lead  it  to  seek  a  footing  on 
"'e  thinly -peopled  plateaus  of  Central  Asia. 
bl»iid3.  Russia  has  no  oceanic  possessions,  and  has  abandoned 

those  she  owned  in  last  century ;  her  islands  are  mere 
appendages  of  the  mainland  to  which  they  belong.  Such 
are  the  Aland  archipelago,  Hochland,  Tii'ttcrs,  Dago,  and 
()sel  in  the  Baltic  Sea;  Nova  Zembla,  with. Kolguefi  and 
Vaigatch,  in  the  Barents  Sea  ;  the  Sotovctsky  Islands  in  the 
White  Sea ;  the  New  Siberian  archipelago,  and  the  small 
group  of  the  Medvyezhii  Islands  off  the  Siberian  coast;  the 
Commander  Islands  off  Kamchatka ;  the  Shantar  Islands 
and  Saghalin  in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  The  Aleutian  archi- 
pelago was  sold  to  the  United  States  in  1 867,  together  with 
Alaska,  and  in  1874  the  Kurile  Islands  were  ceded  to  Japan, 
lyuling  A  vast  variety  of  physical  features  is  obviously  to  be 
physicsl  expected  in  a  territory  like  this,  which  comprises  on  the 
one  side  the  cotton  and  silk  regions  of  Turkestan  and 
Transcaucasia,  and  on  the  other  the  moss  and  lichen-clothed 
Arctic  tundroi  and  the  Verkhoyansk  Siberian  pole  of  cold 
— the  dry  Transca-spian  deserts  and  the  regions  watered  by 
the  monsoons  on  the  coasts  of  the  Sea  of  Japan.  Still,  if 
the  border  regions,  that  is,  two  narrow  belts  in  the  north 


and  south,  be  left  out  of  account,  a  striking  uniformity  of 
physical  feature  prevails.  High  plateaus,  like  those  uj 
Pamir  (the  "  Roof  of  the  World")  or  of  Armenia,  and 
high  mountain  chains  like  the  snow-clad  suminits  of  the 
Caucasus,  the  Alay,  the  Thian-Shan,  the  Sayan,  are  me' 
with  only  on  the  outskirts  of  the  empire. 

Viewed  broadly  by  the  physical  geographer,  it  appe::;rs  P'.ats;  :; 
as  occupying  the  territories  to  the  north-west  of  that  great  I'^U  o; 
plateau-belt  of  the  old  continent — the  backbone  of  Asia    ^'* 
— which  spreads  with  decreasing  height  and  width  from  the 
high  tableland  of  Tibet  and  Pamir  to  the  lower  plateDus  of 
Mongolia,  and  thence  north-eastwards  through  the  Vitim 
region  to  the  furthest  extremity  of  Asia.    It  may  be  said  to 
consist  of  the  immense  plains  and  flat  lands  vv-hich  extend 
between  the  plateau-belt  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  including 
also  the  series  of  parallel  chains  and  hillj'  spurs  which  sk  irt 
the  plateau-belt  on  the  north-west.     It  extends  over  the 
plateau  itself,  and  crosses  it,  beyond  Lake  Baikal  only. 

This  belt — the  oldest  geological  continent  of  Asia- 
being  unfit  for  agriculture  and  for  the  most  part  unsuited 
for  permanent  settlement,  while  the  oceanic  slopes  of  it 
have  from  the  dawn  of  history  been  occupied  by  a  dense 
population,  has  long  prevented  Slavonian  colonization  from 
reaching  the  Pacific.  Russians  happened  to  cross  it  in  the 
17th  century,  only  in  its  narrowest  and  most  northerly 
part,  thus  reaching  the  Pacific  on  the  foggy  and  frozen 
coasts  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk ;  and  two  centuries  elapsed 
ere,  after  colonizing  the  depressions  of  the  plateau  around 
Lake  Baikal,  the  Russians  crossed  the  plateau  in  a  more 
genial  zone  and  descended  to  the  Pacific  by  the  Amur, 
rapidly  spreading  farther  south,  up  the  nearly  uninhabited 
Usuri,  to  what  is  now  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great.  In 
the  south-western  higher  portions  of  the  plateau-belt  (ae 
empire  has  only  recently  planted  its  foot  on  the  Pamir  ;  as 
we  write,  it  is  endeavouring  to  get  command  of  the  lower 
passages  which  give  an  easy  access  to  the  Afghan  portion 
of  the  plateau ;  while  already,  within  the  present  century, 
it  has  established  itself  firmly  on  the  plateaus  of  Armeni.'. 

A  broad  belt  of  hilly  tracts — in  every  respect  alpine  iu  The 
character,  and  displaying  the  same  variety  of  climate  arc  ■^P^'- 
organic  life  as  alpine  tracts  usually  do — skirts  the  plateau  "  " 
belt  throughout  its  length  on  the  north  and  north-west, 
forming  an  intermediate  region  between  the  plateaus  and 
the  plains.  The  Caucasus,  the  Elburz,  the  Kopet-dagh, 
and  Paropamisus,  the  intricate  and  imperfectly  known  net- 
work of  mountains  west  of  the  Pamir,  the  Thian-Shan  and 
Ala-tau  mounfflin  regions,  and  farther  north-east  the  Altai* 
the  still  unnamed  complex  of  Minusinsk  mountains,  the 
intricate  mountain-chains  of  Sayan,  with  those  of  th? 
Olekma,  Vitim,  and  Aldan,  all  of  which  arc  ranged  e> 
eihdon — the  former  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  thf 
others  from  south-west  to  north-east — all  of  these  belonj 
to  one  immense  alpine  belt  bordering  that  of  the  plateau;- 
These  have  long  been  known  to  Russian  colonists,  wh'., 
seeking  to  escape  religious  prosecutions  and  exactions  b; 
the  state,  early  penetrated  into  and  rapidly  pushed  theii 
sn^U  settlements  up  the  better  valleys  of  these  tracts,  anc 
continued  to  spread  everywhere  as  long  as  they  found  nc 
obstacles  in  the  shape  of  a  former  population  or  in  unfavour 
able  climatic  conditions. 

As  for  the  flat-lands  which  extend  from  the  Alpine  hill-  The 
foots  to  the  shores  of  the  /Vrctic  Ocean,  and  assume  the  flat-b-.ida 
character  either   of   dry  deserts  in  the  Aral  Caspian  de- 
pression,   or   of    low   table-lands   in  central  Russia   and 
eastern  Siberia,  of  lake-regions  in  north-west   Russia  and 
Finland,  or  of  marshy  prairies  in  western  Siberia,  and  of 


G8 


R  TJ   S  S  1  A 


Lrui'ULA'i'jiJ  oi« 


t'.indras  in  the  far  north, — their  monotonous  surfaces  are 
diversified  by  only  a  few,  and  theso  for  most  part  Iot;, 
Lilly  tracts.  Recently  emerged  from  the  Post-Pliocene 
rea,  or  cleared  of  their  ice-sheet  coverings,  they  preserve 
the  very  same  features  over  immense  stretches ;  and  the 
few  portions  that  rise  above  the  general  elevation  have 
more  the  character  of  broad  and  gentle  swellings  than 
of  mountain-chains.  Of  this  class  are  the  swampy  plateaus 
of  the  Kola  peninsula,  gently  sloping  southwards  to 
the  lake-regions  of  Finland  and  north-west  Russia;  the 
Valdai  table-lands,  where  all  the  great  rivers  of  Fvussia 
take  their  rise ;  _the  broad  and  gently-sloping  meridional 
belt  of  the  Ural  Mountains;  and  lastly,  the  Taimyr, 
Tunguska,  and  Verkhoyansk  ridges  in  Siberia,  which  do 
not  reach  the  snow-line,  notwithstanding  their  sub-Arctic 
position.  As  to  the  picturesque  Bureya  mountains  on  the 
Amur,  the  forest-clothed  Sikhota-alin  on  the  Pacific,  and 
the  volcanic  chains  of  Kamchatka,  they  belong  to  quite 
another  orographica!  world;  they  are  the  border-ridges  of 
the  terraces  by  which  the  great  plateau-belt  descends  to 
the  depths  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
'Q'  It  is   owing  to  these  leading  orographical.  features — 

divined  by  Carl  Ritter,  but  only  within  the  present  day 
revealed  by  geographical  research — that  so  many  of  the 
great  rivers  of  the  old  coniinent  aro  comprised  within  the 
limits  of  the  Russian  empire.  Taking  rise  on  the  plateau- 
belt,  or  in  its  Alpine  outskirts,  they  flowVfirst,  like  the 
upper  Rhone  and  Rhine,  along  high  longitudinal  valleys 
forrjerly  filled  up  with  great  lakes;  next  they  find  their 
■way  through  the  rocky  walls ;  and  finally  they  enter  the 
lowlands,  where  they  become  navigable,  and,  describing 
great  curves  to  avoid  here  and  there  the  minor  plateaus 
and  hiUy  tracts,  they  bring  into  water-communication 
■with  one  another  places  thous.-.nds  of  miles  apart.  The 
double  river-systems  of  the  Volga  and  Kama,  the  Obi  and 
Irtish,  the  Angara  and  Yenisei,  the  Lena  and  Vitim  on 
the  Arctic  slope,  the  Amur  and  Sungari  on  the  Pacific 
slope,  ar3  instances.  They  we(e  the  true  channels  of 
Russian  colonization. 

A  broad  depression, — the  Aral-Caspian  desert — has 
arisen  where  the  plateau-belt  _Jias  reached  its  greatest 
height  and  suddenly  charges  its  direction  from  a  north- 
-western into  a  corth-easiern  one;  this  desert  is  now  filled 
only  to  a  small  extent  by  the  salt  waters  of  the  Caspian, 
Aral,  and  Balkash  inland  seas ;  but  it  bears  unmistakable 
traces  of  having  been  during  Post-Pliocene  times  an  im- 
mense inland  basin.  There  the  Volga,  the  Ural,  the  Sir 
Daria,  and  the  Oxus  discharge  their  waters  without  reaching 
the  ocean,  but  continue  to  bring  life  to  the  rapidly  drying 
Transcasi:y1an  Steopes.  or  connect  by  their  river  network,  as 
the  Volga  does,  the  most  remote  parts  of  European  Russia. 
The  ex-  The  above-described  features  of  the  physical  geography 

tension  of  gf  the  empire  explain  the  relative  uniformity  of  this  wide 
tion."'^*'  t^"''°''yi  '1  conjunction  with  the  variety  of  physical 
fpatures  on  its  outskirts.  They  explain  also  the  rapidity 
of  the  expansion  of  Slavonic  colonization  over  these  thinly 
peopled  regions;  and  thev  qlso  thmw  liglit  upon  the 
internal  cohesion  of  the  empire,  which  cannot  fail  to  strike 
the  traveller  as  he  crosses  this  immense  territory;  and  finds 
everywhere  the  same  dominating  race,  the  same  features 
of  life.  In  fact,  in  their  advance  from  the  basins  of  the 
Volkhoff  and  Dnieper  to  the  foot  of  the  Altai  and  Sayan 
Mcuntalus,  that  is,  along  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  earth's 
circumterence,  the  Russian  colonizers  could  always  find  the 
same  physical  conditions,  the  same  forests  and  prairies  as 
they  had  left  at  home,  the  same  facilities  for  agriculture, 
only  modified  somewhat  by  minor  topographical  features. 
New  conditions  of  climate  and  soil,  and  consequently  new 
cultures  and  civilizations,  the  Russians  met  ■with,  in  their 
.  zpansioa  towards  the  south  and  east,  only  bpyond  the 


Caucasus,  in  the  Aral-Caspian  region,  and  in  the  basin  ot 
the  Usuri  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Favoured  by  these  con- 
ditions, the  Rr.ssian.s  not  only  conquered  northern  Asia — » 
they  colonized  it. 

The  total  population  of  the  Russian  empire  ■was  stated  Poj/u.. 
at  102,000,000  by  estimates  made  in  1878-82;  but  it  ia''«n. 
multiplying  rapidly,  and,  as  the   surplus  of   births  over 
deaths  reaches  nearly  1,250,000  every  year,  it  must  n~w 
be  somewhat  more  than  106  millions. 

Within  the  empire  a  very  great  diversity  of  nationalities 
is  comprised,  due  to  the  amalgamation  or  absorption  by 
the  Slavonian  race  of  a  variety  of  Ural-Altaic  stems,  of 
Turco-Tartars,  Turco-Mongolians,  and  various  Caucasian 
stems.  Statistics  as  to  their  relative  strength  are  still 
very  imperfect,  and  their  ethnical  relations  have  not  as  yet 
been  completely  determined ;  but,  considered  broadly,  they 
may  be  classified  as  follows : — 

A.  The  Letto-Slavonians  comprise  (a)  the  Lithuanians 
and  Letts  on  the  lower  Nieraen  and  Diina,  and  (6)  the 
Slavonians,  that  is,  the  Poles -on  the  Vistula  and  Niemen 
and  the  Russians — Great,  Little,  and  White — whose 
proper  abodes  are  in  European  Russia,  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Gulf  of  Finland  to  the  middle  Volga. 
Spreading  from  this  region  towards  the  north-east,  east, 
and  south-east,  they^iave  colonized  north-east  Russia,  the 
Ural  region,  Caucasus,  Siberia,  and  large  parts  of  the 
Kirghiz  Steppe, — the  leading  feature  of  their  col6nization 
having  always  b^on  penetration  in  compact  masses  among 
the  original  inhabitants.  Thus,  on  northern  Caucasus 
the  Russians  (chiefly  Little  Russians)  alrea,dy  constitute  a 
compact  rural  population  of  nearly  1,500,000,  that  is, 
about  a  quarter  ot  the  total  population  of  Caucasia.  Id 
Western  Siberia  the  Great  Russians  already  number 
more  than  2,300,000  agriculturists.  Constituting  four- 
fifths  of  the  entire  population ;  in  Eastern  Siberia  they 
number  more  than  1,000,000,  that  is,  probably  mors  than 
the  original  inhabitants ;  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppe  has  also 
begun  rapidly  to  be  colonized  within  the  last  twenty  years. 
It  is  only  in  the  more  densely  peopled  Turkestan,  and  in 
the  recently  annexed  Transcaspian  region,  that  Russian 
settlers  continue  to  bear  but  a  small  proportion  to  the 
natives  (who  are  more  than  4,600,000  strong).  The 
Slavonians  altogether  number  more  than  75,000,000,  of 
which  number  5,600,000  are  Poles. 

Swedes  (310,000),  Germans  (1,240,000),  Roumanians, 
Serbs,  kc,  may  number  altogether  about  2,500,000. 

B.  A  great  variety  of  populations  belonging  to  the 
Caucasian  race,  but  not  yet  well  classified,  some  of  which 
are  considered  to  be  remainders  of  formerly  larger  nation- 
alities pushed  aside  into. the  mountain  tracts  during  their 
migrations,  are  met  with  on  Caucasus.  Such  are  the 
Georgians,  Ossetes,  Lesghians,  who  fall  little  short  of 
2,500,000,  and  the  Armenians,  about  1,000,000. 

C.  The  Iranian  branch  is  represented  by  some  130,000 
Persians  and  Kurds  in  Caucasia  and  Transcaucasia,  and  by 
Tajiks  in  Turkestan,  mixed  with  Turco-Tartar  Sarts.  The 
uomad  Tsigans,  or  Gipsies,  numbering  nearly  12,000,  may 
be  -mentioned  under  this  head. 

D.  The  Semitic  branch  consists  of  upwards  of  3,000.000 
Jewo  ill  Polund,  in  west  and  south-west  Russia,  and  on 
Caucasus  and  in  the  towns  of  Central  Asia,  and  of  a  fevr 
thousand  Karaite  Jews. 

E.  The  Ural-Altaic  branch  comprises  two  great  sub- 
divisions— the  Fiiinish  and  the  Turco-Tartarian  stems, 
mixed  to  some  extent  with  Mongolians.  The  former  (see 
below)  occupy,  broadly  speaking,  a  wide  stretch  of  territory 
to  the  north  of  the  Slavonians,  from  the  Baltic  to  the 
Yenisei,  and  include  the  Baltic  Finns,  the  Northern  Finns, 
the  Volga  Finns,  and  the  Ugrians.  The  Russians  have 
already  spread  imnoP"   the  last  two   in  compact  luusse^ 


EnSSIAN  EMrlRE.] 


E  U  S  S  T  A 


69 


and,  while  some  stems,  like  the  Ostiaks,  are  rapidly 
disappearing,  others,  like  the  Mordvinians,  Permians,  &c., 
are  losing  their  national  character,  and  becoming  assimi- 
lated to  the  Russians.  The  West  Finns  alone  have  fully 
ma'ntained  their  national  features,  and  happen  to  have 
constituted  a  nationality  developing  into  a  separate  state. 
The  Turco-Tartars  (nearly  10,000,000)  comprise  the 
Tartars,  the  Bashkirs,  the  Kirghizfis,  the  Uzbegs,  and  the 
Turcomans  of  the  Aral-Caspian  region,  the  Yakuts  on 
the  Lena,  and  a  variety  of  smaller  stems  in  East  Russia 
and  Caucasia.  They  occupy  another  broad  belt  which 
extends  from  the  Aral-Caspian  depression  to  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  Arctic  coast. 

F.  The  Mongol-Manch'lrian  siems  of  the  Tunguses,  and 
the  Golds,  and  the  Manchus  proper,  come  next,  occupying 
the  eastern  parts  of  the  mountain-belt  and  the  plateau 
itself  in  Siberia,  the  Tunguses  also  projecting  north-west- 
wards, so  as  to  separate  the  Yakuts  from  their  southern 
Turkish  brethren.  Small  stems  of  the  same  family  also 
pass  a  nomad  existence  in  the  basin  of  the  Amur.  They 
are  rapidly  diminishing  in  number,  and  can  hardly  be 
estimated  at  more  than  50,000. 

G.  The  Mongolian  branch  is  represented  by  nearly  half  a 
million  of  Kalmucks  on  the  Altai  outskirts  of  the  great 
plateau  and  around  the  Caspian,  and  by  nearly  250,000 
Buriats  in  and  around  the  Baikal  depression. 

H.  A  variety  of  stems,  not  yet  well  classified,  are  met 
with  on  the  Pacific  coasts.  Such  are  the  Tchuktchies,  the 
Kamchadales,  the  Koryaks  in  the  north-east,  the  Ghilyaks 
on  the  Amur,  and  the  Ainos  in  Saghalin. 

Statistics  of  the  relative  strength  of  different  nationalities 
in  the  Russian,  empire,  which,  however,  must  be  con- 
sidered only  as  rough  estimates,  are  given  (in  millions)  in 
the  following  table  (I.)  : — 


oi 

8 

= 

§ 

p. 

o 
3 

•6 
9 
1 

J 
c 
a 

E 

3 

5 

i.1  . 

m 
m 

1 

•3 

63-316 
1*020 
0118 

0-790 
4-550 

0017 

1-530 

0-6407 

13-380 

69673 

6-5;o 

0-118 

Poles 

Other  Slavonians... 
Letts 

1-254 
1-380 

0  370 

... 

1-254 

1-750 

0-1)17 
0-780 
0910 

0460 

0-293 
j-O-OOI 

:: 

0-003 

0310 
1-243 
0-911 

Other  Europeans.... 
Persians  and  Kurds. 

0050 
0-015 

0-130 
0-905 

0130 
0-955 

0-015 

Tslftans  and  other 

2-450 

2-450 

2-20S 

0-913 

7 

0U07 

3-123 

Finns,  Kareliana 

Esthonlans,  Lives... 
Other  Weat  Finns... 

Lappa,  Samoyedes.. 

Volga   Finns    and 

0-316 
0-90S 
0101 

1-750 

2-0C6 
0-903 
0-101 

0-014 

0025 

0-039 

1-731 

0-047 

1-778 

1  .-.10 
0-906 
0-194 
0002 

l'-020 

•'- 

1-620 

)  4  298? 

0  lot) 
0'200 

)  9-750? 

Bfjhklra 

Yakata 

Other  Turco-TarUr* 

0118 

0-300? 

0020 
0-250 

0-V38 
0  250 

Tanjfuaes  and  other 
Mongol-Mancha-* 

0050 

OfliO 

Tchaktchles,    Kor- 

yaka,  Kamchadalea 

Total 

0-012 

0012 
102-869 

77-878 

7-083 

2061 

C-535 

5-2387 

4094 

The  area  and  population  of  the  various  divisions  of  th? 
Russian  empire  are  given  in  the  following  table  : — 


Table  II. — Area  and  Population  of  the  Russian  Ei 


mpire.' 


l.Europer.n  Russia 

Archangel 

Astrakhan 

Bessarabia., 

Cnurland 

Don  Cossacks 

Ekaterinoslajf.,.. 

Esthonia 

Grodno , 

Kaluga 

Kazan 

Kharkoff 

Kherson 

Kieff , 

KosUoma 

Kovno 

Kursk , 

Livonia 

.Minsk 

Moghilcff 

Moscow 

Nijni-N'ovgorod... 

Novgorod 

Oionetz 

Orel 

Orenburg 

Penza. 

Perm 

Podolia 

Poitava 

Pskoft 

Ryazan..- 

St  Petci-sburg.._. 

Samara _.. 

SaratoEf 

Simbirsk 

Smolensk 

TamboH 

Taurida. 

Tchernlgoff 

Tola 

Tver 

Ufa 

Vllna. 

Vitebsk 

Vladimir 

Volhynla 

Vologda 

Voronezh...; 

Vyatka 

Yaroslavl 

Sea  of  Azoff. 


Area, 
Square 
MUes. 


331,505 
91.3-2; 
17,619 
10,535 
61,886 
26,148 
7,818 
14,931 
11,942 
24,601 
21,011 
27,523 
19,091 
32,702 
15,692 
17,937 
18,158 
35, -293 
18,551 
12,859 
19,797 
47,236 
57,439 
18,042 
73,816 
14,99; 

128,210 
16,224 
19,265 
17,069 
16,255 
20,760 
68,321 
32,624 
19,110 
21,638 
25,710 
24,539 
20,233 
11,954 
25,225 
47,112 
16,421 
17,440 
18,8M 
27,743 

155,498, 
25,443 
69,11; 
18,751 
14,478 


Popnla- 
tioi 


Total,       Russian 
provinces,  1882, 1,902,09; 

2.  Poland. 

Kallsz 

Klelce 

Lomza 

Lublin , 

Piotrktfw , 

Pfock , 

Radom 

Sledlce 

Suwalill 

Warsaw 


Total,  Poland 

3.  Finland. 
Abo-Bjdrneborg. 

Kuoplo    

Nyland 

St  Michel 

Tavastehus 

Uleaborg 

Wasa 

Wlborg 


Total,  Finland... 


Total,  EiiropeaD 
Russia „., 


4,392 
3,897 
4,667 
6,499 
4,729 
4,200 
4,769 
6,535 
4,646 
6,623 


49,157 

9,335 
16,499 
4,586 
8,819 
8,334 
63,971 
16,627 
16,084 


144,255 


315,367 

790,33; 
1,419,762 

642,570 
1,474,133 
1,697,061 

379,875 
1,226.946 
1,140,337 
1.955,590 
2,160,263 
1,865,164 
2,507,231 
1,278,856 
1,444,614 
2,314,300 
1,173,951 
1569,342 
1,146,470 
2,137,179 
1.427,893 
1,127,831, 

327,323^ 
1.892,932 
1,196,133 
1,382,732 
2,639,874 
2,276,518 
2,473,958 

894,712 
1,713,681 
1,622,768 
2,224.093 
2,113,077 
1,471,164 
1,191,172 
2^490,313 

964,329 
1.970,094 
1,340,866 
1.617,fi85 
1,771,989 
1,204,746 
1,170,987 
1,352,140 
2,062,270 
1,161,551 
2,433,657 
2,740,956 
1,082,782 


774,759 
643,629 
659,316 
6«2,616 
865,777 
6.-18,141 
644,827 
630,238 
603,174 
940,998 


7,083,476 

344,649 
256,420 
262,806 
167,310 
221,360 
207,782 
358,480 
301,975 


4.  StJssiainAsia. 

Kuball^ 

Stavropol 

Terek  2..*. 


N-orthem      Can- 
cania 


Bakn_ , 

Daghcstan*. 

Elizabethpol 

Erivan 

Kaia= 

Kutais* 

TclieiT.omorak^.., 

Tiflls 

ZjkatalyS 


Transcaucasia. 
Caucasus,  1882 -S3 


Akhal-Tckke'., 
KrasnovodskS,., 
Manghislilak^.., 

Merv* 

TedjeRS 

lol-otan 

Scrakhs 

Caspian  Sea 


Tl-anscaspian 
region,*  about.. 


Akmollnsk'.. 
Semlpalatinsk 
Turgal,  with  Lake 

Aral' 

Uralsk' 

Kirghiz  Steppes. 

Amn-daria' 

Ferganah' 

Semiryetchensli' 

Slr-daila* '.... 

Zerofshan' 

Turkestan 

CentralAsia  .about 

Tobolsk 

Tomsk 

Western  Siberia. 

Irkutsk. 

Transbaikalia  3... 

Yakutsk' , 

Y'cnlaeisk 

Eastern  Siberia.. 

Amur' ... 

Madtlmc,  or  t'li- 
raorskaya^ 

Amur  region 

Total,  Siberia 


Area, 
Square 
Miles. 


86,497 
26,631 
23,548 


1,640 
40,790 
80,200* 

about 
■  97,000 


1,107,922 
637,893 
615,060  I 


15,516 

669  99L 

17,048 

525,271 

11,469 

638,316 

10,705 

683,957 

7,175 

162,979 

14,005 

863.195 

2,824 

26.983 

15,578 

726,'i85 

1,009 

75,000 

210,564 
188,299 

>02,192 
14_l,474 


742,529 


39,976 
28,045 
166,297 
166,003 
19,605 


408,986 


631,982 
329,039 


173,659 
730,022 


2,060,782 


87,023,778 


6,548,600 


T"tal,        Asiatic 
ussift,  about.. 


uran.l  total, 
Russian  empire, 
about 8,644,100 


39,200 
1.5,7C0 
34,500 
(90,006 
1  5,006 
)  10,00(1 
(12,000 


463,347 
633,38,5 


826,706 
625,332 


1,853,770 


222,200 
808,000 
685.945 
1,109.642 
351,89) 


3,177,664 


1,283,163 
1,134,748 

2,417,916 

398,87J 
497,760 
243,443 
421,010 


l,«6i,0S6 


40,633 
74,000 


102,869,620 


1  The  figures  are  taken,  for  the  areas,  from  Streibltzky's  Superficies  de  f  Europe, 
and,  for  the  population,  from  the  Sbomit  Stedoniy  0  Evropetsloi  Rostii  for  1882, 
the  Itvestia  of  the  Caucasus  Geographical  Society,  the  Russkiy  Katendar,  <tc.  Th-j 
areas  have  been  reduced,  taking  the  8(|URrc  kilometre  as  equal  to  0-3861167 
English  sqtiare  mile. 

'  Obtascs,  or  provinces. 

■  Okrugs,  or  otdyets  (territories)  tinder  ndlitary  goTenunent,  the  remainder 
being  governments  {gubemii)  under  civil  goverliors. 

*  Including  Batum  and  Sukhum. 

*  According  to  General  Meyer,  in  liteilia  of  the  Russian  Geogr.  Society,  188a, 
4.  The  areas  for  the  first  three  dlstHcis  arc  given  according  to  M.  Seldlkz  in 
Russisf-he  Revue,  1885,  4;  for  the  remainder,  according  to  General  Meyer.  The 
oasis  of  Hcrv  proper  extends  to  about  2100  square  miles.  The  populations  are 
Riven  without  the  Russian  military.  M.  Seidlitr  estimates  them  as  follows  : — 
Akhal  Tckke,  42.000;  Krasnovod.-k,  16,300;  Manghlshlak,  .14..500;  Mi)|-T, 
160,000;  Tcdjel.  7500;  total.  260,000.  Tlic  total  pop-jtltio?.,  deluding  mlUtary, 
la  estimated  by  mliiiAry  authorities  at  214,000. 


^0 


RUSSIA 


[administration  op 


Subdi- 
visioDS 
of  the 
erapire. 


Cities. 


Govern- 
ment. 


Of  the  areas  given  in  the  table,  the  following  (298,636  square 
miles)  are  occupied  by  internal  waters  (larger  lakes  and  estuaries) : — 

European  Russia 25,S01  aquare  miles, 

Poland 141  „ 

Finland 13,471  „ 

Caucasus , 1,G23  „ 

Sibcrft. 1S,8C4  „ 

Turkesun 4.5U  „ 

Kirghiz  -Steppes 14,888  „ 

Tran3c.%^nian  rc(non„ ^ 455  ,, 

Sea  of  Azoff,  Caspian  Sea.  Laiie  Aral 213,874  (, 

The  islanils  included  in  the  above  statement  have  the  following 
<;rca3  (total  91,182  square  miles) : — 

In  tlic  Wiitc  -Sea 101  squaic  miles. 

,,       Barents  Sea 38,540  „ 

,,      Baltic  Sea  (Russian) 1,579  „ 

„  ,,        (Finnish) 2,000  „ 

„      Black  Sea 21  „ 

„      Sea  of  Azoff 41  „ 

„      Caspian  Sea 551  „ 

,,      Siberian  Arctic  Ocean IC,4!)fl  „ 

,,      Pacific 31,7C3  „ 

The  Russian  empire  falls  into  two  great  subdivisions, 
tlie  European  and  tlie  Asiatic,  the  latter  of  which, 
representing  an  aggregate  of  nearly  6,500,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  only  16  million  inhabitants, 
may  be  considered  as  held  by  colonies.  The  European 
dominions  comprise  European  Russia,  Finland,  ■which  is 
in  fact  a  separate  nationality  treated  to  some  e.xtent  as  an 
allied  state,  and  Poland,  whose  very  name  has  been  erased 
from  official  documents,  but  which  nevertheless  continues 
10  pursue  its  own  development.  The  Asiatic  r'ominions 
comprise  the  following  great  subdivisions : — Caucasia 
(^r.!'.),  under  a  separate  governor-general;  the  Transcaspian 
region,  which  is  under  the  governor-general  of  Caucasus  ; 
the  Kirghiz  Steppes ;  Turkestan  (r/.v.),  under  separate 
governors-general;  Western  Siberia  anti  Eastern  Siberia  (see 
Siberia)  ;  and  the  Amur  region,  which  last  comprises  also 
the  Pacific  coast  region  and  Kamchatka  (see  Kamchatka 
and  Makitime  Province).  The  administrative  sub- 
divisions, with  their  populations,  as  estimated  for  1882  for 
European  Russia,  Poland,  and  Caucasus,  1881  for  Finland, 
and  1878-82  for  the  remainder  (no  regular  census  having 
'been  taken  since  1858),  are  shown  above  in  Table  II. 

The  empire  contains  only  twelve  cities  with  a  population 
exceeding  100,000:— St  Petersburg,  929,090  (1881);  Mos- 
cow, 753,409  (1884) ;  Warsaw,  4OG,2G0  (1882) ;  Odessa, 
217,000(1882);  Riga,  169,330  (1881);  Kharkoff,  150,000 
(1883);  Kazaii,  140,730  (1883);  Kishineff,  130,000; 
Kieff,  127,250  (1874);  Eodz,  113,146,  in  Poland  (1884); 
Saratoff,  112,428  (1882);  Tiflis,  104,020  (1883);  and 
Tashkend,  100,000.  According  to  the  most  recent  returns 
Vilna,  Orel,  Rostoff,  Astrakhan,  iJikolaicff,  DUnaburg,Tula, 
Samara,  Taganrog,  Kherson,  Nijni-Novgorod,  Rerditcheff, 
Bob-uisk,  Zhitomir,  Minsk,  Vitsbsk,  Elisabetgrad,  Reval, 
au'  \^oronezh  had  from  94,000  to  50,000  inhabitants,  while 
6"  cowns  more  in  European  Russia,  Finland,  and  Poland, 
and  20  in  the  Asiatic  dominions,  had  from  50,000  to  20,000 
inhabitants.  The  number  of  towns  above  10,000  is  con- 
siderable, but  they  are  mostly  mere  administrative  centres ; 
many  villages  have  greater  importance. 

■  Only  9,263,000  (or  9  per  cent.)  of  the  aggregate  popu- 
lation of  Russia  inhabit  towns,  the  number  of  which  is 
601  in  the  50  Russian  governments.  The  great  number 
of  the  Russian  towns  are  mere  villages ;  their  inhabitants 
depend  on  agriculture,  and  tlie  houses  are  mostly  built  of 
wood,  only  127,000  out  of  about  787,000  houses  in 
towns  being  built  of  stone.  Of  the  68,000,000  who  in 
1882  formed  the  rural  population  of  European  Russia 
the  greater  part  were  settled  in  555,278  villages,  almost 
entirely  built  of  wood  ;  nearly  one-seventieth  of  the  houses 
are  destroyed  by  fire  yearly  (164,400  out  of  10,649,060 
in  1882). 

Russia  is  an  absolute  and  strongly  centralized  monarchy. 
The  primary  unit  of  state  organization  is  the  village  com- 
munity, or  mil-.    A  number  of  such  communities  are  united 


into  volosts,  whose  peasant  inhabitants  elect  an  elder  (volost- 
nnt/  siarshina)  and  a  peasants'  tribunal  (volostnoy  snd). 
Placed,  however,  under  the  uncontrolled  rule  of  a  state 
official — t]is  mirovoi/ jiosrednik — and  of  the  police,  the  elder 
of  the  volost  and  his  clerk  have  become  mere  organs  of 
the  local  police  and  tax-gatherers,  while  the  tribunal  of  the 
volost  is  at  the  mercy  both  of  influential  land-proprietors 
and  of  the  wealthier  peasants  or  merchants.  The  system 
.•;f  local  self-government  is  continued  in  the  elective  district 
and  provincial  assemblies — the  zemslvo — on  the  one  hand, 
and  on  the  other  in  the  elective  justices  of  the  peace  (jKiVo- 
vot/  stidia),  whose  periodical  gatherings  {mirovoy  syczd)  are 
courts  of  appeal  against  the  decisions  of  the  individual 
justices.  But  neither  of  these  institutions — and  least  of  all 
the  zemstvo — is  capable  of  acquiring  the  necessary  inde- 
pendence. The  zemstvos--one  for  each  district,  and  an- 
other for  the  province — consist  of  a  representative  assembly 
{temsJcoye  sohraniye)  and  an  executive  (:ems/,aya  vprnva) 
nominated  by  the  former.  The  sobraniye  consists  of  three 
classes  of  delegates : — the  landed  proprietors  (all  nobles 
possessing  more  than  590  aci:s,  and  delegates  from  the 
remainder,  along  with  delegates  from  the  clergy  in  their 
capacity  of  landed  proprietors) ;  representatives  of  the  mer- 
chants, artisans,  and  urban  population  ;  and  representatives 
of  the  peasants,  indirectly  elected, — matters  being  usually 
so  adjusted  that  this  class  is  less  numerous  than  the  aggre- 
gate of  the  other  two.  In  theory  the  zemstvos  have  largo 
powers  in  rcfation  to  the  incidence  of  taxation,  as  well  as 
in  matters  afiecting  education,  public  health,  roads,  A-c. 
But  in, reality  they  are  for  the  most  part  compelled  to 
limit  themselves  to  the  adjustment  of  the  state  taxation, 
which  is  so  high  that  new  taxes  for  education,  sanitary 
purposes,  and  so  on,  must  necessarily  be  very  limited. 
Jlorcover,  the  decisions  of  the  zcinstvos  are  jealously  con- 
trolled by  the  representative  of  the  central  Government, — 
the  governor, — and  prom|)tly  annulled  whenever  they 
manifest  a  different  spicit  from  that  prevailing  for  the  time 
at  the  cc  -t.  Disobedience  is  punished  by  dissolution, 
sometimes  by  administrative  exile.  These  circumstances 
have  helped  to  eliminate  from  the  zemstvos  the  better 
elements  which  at  first  entered  into  their  composition.  Tlie 
greater  number  of  them  are  inspired  now  with  the  same 
red-tapeism  as  the  ministerial  chancelleries,  or  are  refuges 
for  proprietors  in  search  of  a  salary.  Still,  in  several 
provinces  a  good  deal  of  most  useful  work  has  been  done, 
especially  educational,  by  those  zemstvos  in  which  the 
peasants  are  in  a  majority  or  the  projirictors  are  inspired 
with  a  more  liberal  spirit ;  wOile  so-veral  other  zemstvos 
have  recently  made  extensive  and  most  valuable  inciuirics 
into  the  condition  of  agriculture,  industry,  i-c. 

Since  1870  the  municipalities  have  had  institutions 
like  those  of  the  zemstvos.  All  owners  of  houses,  and 
tax-paying  merchants,  arti.sans,  and  workmen,  are  enrolled 
on  lists  in  a  descending  order  according  to  their  as.scssed 
wealth.  The  total  valuation  is  then  divided  into  three 
equal  parts,  each  of  which  elects  an  eepial  number  of  reiirc- 
sentatives  to  the  duntd.  The  executive  is  in  tho  hands  of 
an  elective  mayor  and  an  vpnivn  which  consists  of  several 
mombcrs  elected  by  tho  damn.  Roth  arc,  in  fact,  function- 
aries .under  the  governor,  and  the  municipal  institutions 
have  no  real  independent  lifc.^ 

Tho  organs  of  the  central  government  in  the  provinces 
are  the  iiryadniks  (a  kind  of  'jardcschnm]>l}(res)  in  the 
villages,  the  stanovuys  and  ispravnih  (chiefs  of  tho  police) 
in  the  districts,  and  the  governors  (a  kind  of  Xapoleonic 
prefect)  in  each  government — all  invested,  tho  uryadniks 


I  Sec'  Golovatclioff.  T'^n  Yean  o/  /ti'/orms  in  Rnssid ;  The  Finaiteet  of  the 
Zcm«rfos  (ofticial  publication);  Dityi.tin,  M'luicipal  Self-Garvmntait  in  Rntiia,, 
2  vols.;  and  very  numerous  and  valuable  papers  in  tlic  reviews  I'l/miuii  Ecropn, 
Otetc^esCcen^t/ya  Zapisii,  liusskat/a  ilyslt  ^c. 


EUSBIAN   EMPIKE.J 


RUSSIA 


71 


included,  with  powers  which  are  the  more  extensive  as  they 
are  totally  undefined.  There  is  also  in  each  government 
a  special  gendarmerie  under  the  "chief  of  gendarmes," 
who  usually  is  also  the  head  of  the  "  third  section  "  of  the 
Imperial  Chancery.  The  name  of  the  third  section  has 
been  recently  abolished,  but  the  institution  still  continues. 
It  has.  charge  of  the  secret  police  of  the  state,  and  has 
most  varied  functions,  such  as  the  arrest  of  supposed 
political  offenders,  their  exile  to  Siberia,  the  delivery  of 
separation  papers  to  spouses  desiring  divorce,  and  so  on. 
Several  goveroments  are  placed  under  special  governors- 
general,  whom  the  recent  law  on  the  "  state  of  siege " 
invests  with  almost  dictatorial  powers. 

The  higher  administration  is  represented  by  the  emperor, 
who  unites  the  supreme  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial 
powers,  and  is  surrounded  by  four  distinct  councils — the 
committee  of  ministers,  the  council  of  the  empire,  the 
senate,  and  the  Holy  Synod.  The  ministers,  who  are  con- 
sidered as  e.xecuting  the  will  of  the  czar,  and  are  nominated 
by  him,  are  invested  with  very  extensive  powers ;  their 
circulars  for  the  interpretation  of  laws  have  greater  weight 
than  the  laws  themselves.  The  council  of  the  empire, 
which  consisted  in  1884  of  64  members,  nominated  by  the 
emperor,  besides  the  ministers  and  several  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  is  a-  consultative  body  for  matters  of  legis- 
lation. The  senate,  also  nominated  by  the  emperor,  has 
two  distinct  functions.  Seven  "departments"  of  it  are 
administrative;  they  promulgate  the  laws,  examine  the  acts 
of  governors,  adjudicate  in  tLeir  conflicts  with  zemstvos, 
and,  in  theory,  can  make  remonstrances  to  the  emperor, — 
in  fact  they  merely  register  and  promulgate  laws.  Two 
other  "departments"  are  courts  of  cassation.  A  special 
department,  reinforced  by  representatives  of  nobility,  pro- 
nounces judgment  in  political  cases.  The  Holy  Synod, 
consisting  of  metropolitans  and  bishops  who  sit  there  in 
turn,  has  the  superintendence  of  religious  affairs. 

Justice.  Tl;o  judicial  system  introduceil  iu  1861  was  conceived  in  a 
very  liberal  spirit,  which,  unfortunately,  has  not  been  main- 
tained. Thus  a  "preliminary  instruction,"  made  by  the  "third 
section "  in  political  cases,  or  by  the  police,  has  been  subse- 
quently intrtv.luced.  Tlie  "judges  of  instruction,"  irremovable  by 
law,  iiave  not  yet  been  nomiiiatcJ,  their  lunctions  being  discharged 
by  substitutes  entirely  dependent  upou  the  ministry.  Elective 
justices  of  the  peace  decide  in  all  cases  involving  less  than  500 
roubles,  or  less  than  six  months'  imprisonment.  Their  decision? 
can  be  brought  by  appeal  before  the  district  gathering  of  the  jus- 
tices of  tho  peace,  &nd  thence  before  the  senate.  All  criminal 
cases  involving  severer  pen'alties  are  tried  by  juries,  whose  verdicts 
can  be  set  aside  only  by  a  court  of  cassation,  but  arc  not  respected 
in  cases  havfng  a  so-called  "political"  aspect.  Political  olfences 
arc  tried  by  tribunals  com])osed  ad  hoc.  Civil  cases  in  which  more 
than  500  roubles  are  involved  are  tried  by  courts  of  justice,  with 
appeal  to  chambers  of  justice. 
Crime.  in  1879  in  European  Kussia, — oxclusfvo  of  six  Lithuanian  and 

White  Russian  governments, — 42,530  pei-sons  were  tried  before  tho 
courts,  and  59,600  before  the  justices  of  the  peace,  tho  convictions 
being  respectively  27,397  and  30,742.  The  aggregate  nun>ber  of 
condemnations  pronounced  in  1882  w.as  46,018  iu  European  liussiii, 
that  is,_5'9  condemned  in  each  10,000;  only  4830  of  them  were 
women.'  On  , January  1,  1882,  93,108  persons  were  in  jail ;  530,307 
incn  and  60,073  women  (the  latter  with  30,709  children)  were 
imprisoned  during  the  year,  while  625,280  prisoners  were  liberated 
•r  exiled,  and  on  January  1,  1383,  tho  number  of  prisoners  in 
jail  (excluding  those  of  Saghalin  and  Caucasus)  was  97,337.  Moro 
than  20,000  arc  annually  transported  to  Siberia. 
^»dminis-  The  empire  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  govern- 
trative  r'cnts  {giclieriuya)  or  territories  (oblast),  of  which  there  are  50  in 
Hivisioc*.  European  Russia  and  10  in  Poland.  Each  government,  or  teiiitory, 
is  divided  into  eight  to  fifteen  districts  (u]/c:d).  The  Asiatic 
d'jminiong  are  divided  into  one  lieutenancy  (nami/estintchcslvo)^ 
that  of  Caucasia,  and  four  general  governments — Turkestan, 
Slopnoyc  (Kirghiz  Steppes),  East  Siberia,  and  Amur.  They  com- 
prise tliirty-threo  governments  and  territories,  besides  a  few  dis- 
tricta  {ckruj,  oUlycl)  in  Transcaucasia  and  the  Transcaspian 
region,  regarded  almost  as  separate  governments.  In  Siberia  tho 
Kovornors  and  governors-general  are  o.ssisted  by  councils  which 
have  a  cci.ultativo  voice.  Tho  Baltic  provinces  have  some 
peculiar  imtitutions.    I'inlaiid  is  a  sciiaratc  state,  having  its  own 


finances,  army,  and  representative  institutions,  with  limited  rights, 
but  its  ministers  of  war  and  the  exterior  are  those  of  the  empire, 
and  its  institutions  arc  not  always  respected  by  tlie  emperor. 

The  emperor  is  not  the  head  of  the  church,  all  decisions  in  theo-  Tlie 
logical  matters  having  to  be  given  by  the  Synod.  His  influence  chuirl', 
however,  is  very  great,  as  the  nomination  of  the  bishops  rests  with 
him.  In  1882  there  were  in  Kussia  40,569  Orthodox  churches 
and  about  14,000  chapels,  with  37,318  priests,  7009  deacons,  and 
45,395  singers.  There  were  also  6752  monks  and  3957  asjiirants, 
4945  nuns  and  13,803  female  .aspirants.  The  church  budget  was 
18,974,887  roubles  iu  1884.  The  monasteries  and  churches  are 
possessed  of  great  wealth,  including  2950  square  miles  of  land  (a 
territory  greater  than  that  of  Oldenburg),  an  invested  capital  of 
22,634,000  roubles,  an  annual  subsidy' of  408,000  roubles  from 
Government,  and  a  very  great  number  of  inns,  shops,  printing 
establishments,  burial  grounds,  &c,,  with  whole  towns  covering  an 
aggregate  area  of  lOi  square  miles.  Their  total  annual  revenue  is 
estimated  at  9,000,000  roubles. 

Much  still  remains  to  be  done  for  the  diffusion  of  the  fii-st  Kdu 
elements  of  a  sound  education  throughout  the  empire  ;  unhappily  ticn. 
the  endeavours  of  private  persons  in  this  field  and  of  the  zemstvos 
are  for  political  reasons  discouraged  by  the  Government.  There 
are  seveu  universities — Dorpat,  Kazan,  Kharkofl',  Kieff",  Moscow, 
Odessa,  and  St  Petersburg — to  which  may  be  added  those  of 
AVarsaw  and  Helsingfors.  In  1883  the  seven  Russian  universities 
had  G05  professors  and  10,528  students,  and  there  were  81  pro- 
fessors and  1228  students  at  Warsaw.  The  standard  of  leaching 
on  the  whole  is  high,  and  may  be  comi>ai'ed  to  that  of  the  German 
universities.  The  students  are  hardworking,  and  generally  very 
intelligent.  Mostly  sons  of  poor  parents,  they  live  in  extreme 
poverty,  suppoitting  themselves  chiefly  by  translating  and  by  tutorial 
work.  Severe  measures  have  been  taken  iu  1885  iu  regard  to  tho 
uuiversitics.  Explicit  regulations  for  the  interpretation  of  science 
have  been  issued,  and  restrictions  laid  upon  the  teaching  of  philo- 
sophy and  natural  science  generally  ;  comparative  legislation  has 
been  excluded  from  the  programmes  ;  teaching  in  Russian  (instead 
of  German)  has  been  ordered  at  Dorpat.  The  students  are  placed 
under  rigorous  regulations  in  regard  to  their  life  outside  the  uni- 
versity. About  950  students  in  theological  academics  and  2500 
iu  higher  technical  schools  nuist  be  added  to  the  above. 

The  state  of  secondary  education  still  leaves  very  much  to  be 
desired.  There  were  in  1883  180  gymnasiums  and  progymuasiums 
for  boys  in  European  Kussia,  and  24  in  the  Asiatic  dominions,  and 
27'  and  10  respectively  for  girls  ;  there  were  also  73  "  real " 
schools  in  European  Kussia  and  8  in  the  Asiatic  dominions,  aud  48 
normal  schools  in  Russia  and  10  in  the  Asiatic  dominions.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  14,800  pupils  in  53  theological  seminaries', 
and  about  3000  in  various  secondary  schools.  The  steady  tendency 
of  Russian  society  towards  increasing  the  number  of  secondary 
schools,  where  instruction  would  be  based  on  the  study  of  th 
natural  sciences,  is  checked  by  Government  in  fa\'our  of  the 
classical  gymnasiums.  The  aggregate  number  of  schools  for  second- 
ary instruction  in  European  Kussia  in  1882  was  456  for  boys  and 
384  for  girls,  with  107,930  male  and  79,625  female  scholars.  Of 
these,  355  schools  (45,303  boys  and  3109  girls)  give  professional 
education. 

For  primary  instruction  there  were  in  1882  in  European  Russia 
proper  28,329  schools,  with  1,177,504  male  aud  362,471  femalo 
pupils.  Of  the  6,231,160  roubles  cxpemled  on  priuuiry  schools 
only  747,772  roubles  were  contributed  by  Government,  the 
reniaiiider  being  supplied  by  the  zemstvos  (2,512,113  roubles),  by 
municipalities,  or  by  private  persons.  Sunday  schools  aud  public 
lectures  arc  virtually  prohibited. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  the  intellectual  movement  iu  Russia 
is  its  tendency  to  extend  to  women  tho  means  of  receiving  higher 
instruction.  The  gymnasiums  for  girls  are  both  numerous  and 
good.  Ii>- addition  to  these,  notwithstanding  Governnieut  opposi- 
tion, a  sciics  of  higher  schools,  where  careful  instruction  in  natural 
and  social  sciences  is  given,  have  been  opened  in  the  chief  cities 
under  tho  name  of  "  l'cd.agogical  Courses."  At  St  Petei-sburg  a 
women's  medical  academy,  the  c-xaminatious  of  which  wero  even 
more  searching  than  those  of  tho  ordinary  aondemy  (especially  as 
regards  diseases  of  women  and  chihlivn),  was  opened,  but  after 
about  Olio  hundred  women  had  received  tho  degree  of  M.IX,  it  has 
beeir  suppressed  by  Government.  In  several  univeisity  towns 
there  are  also  free  teaching  establishments  for  women,  supported 
by  subscription,  with  programmes  and  examinations  equal  to  those 
of  tho  universities.  In  1882  the  students  numbered  914  at  St 
Petersburg,  about  500  at  Jloscow,  and  3S9  at  K.azan. 

The  natural  sciences  arc  much  cultivated  in  Russia,  "specially  Scie-ilifie 
during  tho  last  twenty  years.  Ilesides  tho  Academy  of  Science,  the  societies. 
Moscow  Society  of  Naturalists,  the  Mineralogic.al  Society,  tho 
Geographical  Society,  with  its  Caucasian  and  Sil)eiian  branches,  the 
arelueologiciil  societies  and  tho  scientific  societies  of  the  Haltic  pro- 
vinces, all  of  which  are  of  old  and  recognized  standing,  tlieio  liavo 
lately  sprung  up  asdics  of  now  societies  in  connexion  with  each 
university,  aud  their  scriala  arc  vcarly  growiug  in  iuiportauce,  as 


72 


RUSSIA 


[eukopean  EUSaiA. 


aUo  aro  those  of  the  recently  founded  Moscow  Society  of  Friends  of 
Natural  Science,  tlie  Chemico-Eiiyaical  Society,  and  various  medical, 
educational,  and  other  societies.  The  work  achieved  by  Russian 
savants,  especially  in  biology,  physiology,  and  chemistry,  and  in 
the  sciences  descriptive  of  the  vast  territory  of  Russia,  are  well 
known  to  Europe. 

Flnauco,  The  finances  of  the  empire  are  ia  a  most  unsatisfactory  condition. 
Although  the  revenue  has  doubled  since  1850,  and  had  reached 
697,980,983  roubles  (i;69,798,098)Mn  1883,  the  expenditure,  which 
was  estimated  at  721,337,844  roubles  the  same  year,  is  always  in 
excess  of  the  income.  The  national  debt  is  rapidly  augmented  both 
by  loans  and  by  issues  of  paper  money  so  dejjreciated  as  to  be  worth 
only  about  60  to  63  per  cent,  of  its  nominal  value.  On  January  1, 
1884,  no  less  than  1,085,000,000  paper  roubles  were  in  circulation  ; 
and  tho  national  debt,  the  paper-money  included,  reached  about 
£578,000,000,  inclusive  of  the  railway  debt.  The  great  defect  of 
Russian  finance  is  that  its  direct  taxes  are  chiefly  paid  by  the 
peasantry  (91  per  cent,  of  tho  whole),  and  the  revenue  is  chiefly  based 
on  excise  duties  (direct  taxes,  136,105,320roubles  ;  excise  duties  on 
spirits,  250,291,330  ;  duties  on  tobacco  and  sugar,  28,509,500  ; 
import  duties,  101,053,000).  Of  the  yearly  revenue  no  less  than 
436,000,000  roubles  are  spent  in  interest  and  sinking  fund  on  the 
debt,  and  for  war  purposes.* 

The  zemstvos,  which  have  an  aggregate  yearly  income  of  about 
thirty  million  roubles,  have  also  a  yearly  deficit  of  from  three  to 
five  mijlion  roubles.  The  municipalities  had  in  1882  an  income  of 
only  40,076,748  roubles,  there  being  only  nine  cities  which  had  a 
budget  of  more  than  500,000  roubles,  and  five  above  one  million. 

Arsy.  The  Russian   army  has   been   completely  reorganized  since  the 

Crimean  War,  and  compulsory  military  service  was  introduced  in 
1874.  In  1884  the  strength  of  the  army  on  a  peace  footing  was 
532,764  men  serving  witli  the  colours,  68,786  reserve  troops, 
55,599  Cossacks  and  irregulars,  72,626  local,  depot,  and  instruction 
troops,  27,468  officers,  129,736  horses,  and  1344  guns.  On  a  war 
footing  there  were  986,000  in  the  active  army,  563,373  in  the 
reserve,  148, 057. Cossacks  and  irregulars,  173,450  local,  depot,  and 
instruction  troops,  41,551  oflicers,  366,354  horses,  and  3778  guns; 
that  is,  about  1,300,000  men  in  field,  to  which  number  1,000,000 
untrained  militia  could  be  added  in  case  of  need.  These  high 
figures,  ought,  however,  to  be  much  reduced  on  account  of  the 
deficiencies  of  mobilization. 

The  irregular  troops  consist  of  ten  voiskos — Don,  Kuban,  Terek, 
Astrakhan,  Orenburg,  Ural,  West  Siberia,  Semiryetchensk,  Trans- 
baikalia, and  Amur.  All  the  men  of  tliese  voiskos  between  sixteen 
and  forty-one  years  of  age  are  bound  to  be  ready  for  service  in  turn 
in  time  of  peace,  and  to  equip,  themselves  at  their  own  expense, 
train  and  artillery  being  provided  by  Government,  In  their  twofold 
capacity  as  peasant  settlers  and  a  mflitary  force,  these  men  have 
contributed  much  to  the  conquest  of  Asia. 

Since  1878  compulsory  military  service  has  been  introduced  in 
Finland.  The  Finnish  troops  (nine  battalions  of  4833  riflemen) 
rpust  be  employed,  as  a  rule,  for  the  defence  of  their  own  country. 

Nftvy.  Notwithstanding  large  recent  outlays,  the  Russian  navy  is  by  no 

means  adapted  to  tlie  exigencies  of  modern  warfare  ;  much  stress  is 
therefore  laid  on  the  good  organization  of  the  torpedo  flotilla.  The 
navy  consists  of  358  vessels,  of  196,575  tons,  carrying  24,500  men 
and  671  guns.  Only  40  of  these  are  armoured  ships,  the  remainder 
being  unarmoured  frigates,  corvettes,  and  cruisers,  or  torpedo  boats 
*  (119),  while  a  great  number  are  mere  transports  and  small  craft. 

For-  The  extensive  froutlt^r  is  defended  by  many  fortresses,  chiefly  on 

trasre?.  the  west.  Poland  t-o  the  west  of  the  Vistula  remains  quite  unpro- 
tected, fortifications  being  only  now  in  course  of  construction  in  the 
south-west ;  but  the  Vistula  is  defended  by  the  first-class  fortresses 
ol  Modlin  (Novogeorgievsk),  Warsaw,  and  Ivangorod,  with  Brest- 
Lilovsk  iu  the  rear.  For  protecting  this  line  in  rear  new  fortifica- 
tions aro  being  erected.  The  space 'bel. ween  Poland  and  the  Diina 
ia  protected  only  by  the  citadel  of  Vilna  and  the  marshes  of  the 
Pripet.  The  second  line  of  fortresses  has  been  erected  on  the  Diina 
and  Dnieper, — Riga,  Ddnaburg,  Vitebsk,  Bobruisk,  and  Kietf. 
The  south-western  frontier  is  under  the  protection  of  the  advanced 
ft'orks  of  Bendery  and  Akerman,  while  the  Black  Sea  coast  is 
defended  by  Kinbnrn  and  Otchakoff  at  the  entrances  of  the  Dnieper 
and  the  Bug,  Sebastopol  in  the  Crimea,  batteries  at  Odessa  and 
Nik.laieS",  and  a  scries  of  minor  fortifications.  Formidable  defen- 
sive works  have  been  erected  on  the  Baltic  at  Dunamiinde,  Reval, 
Narva,  Cronstadt,  Wiborg,  Frederikshamn,  Rohtensalm,  Sveaborg, 
Hangbudd,  and  in  the  Aland  Islands.  A  great  number  of  minor 
forts  are  scattered  throughout  Caucasia,  Transcaucasia,  and 
Turkestan  ;  but  th^- Pacific  coast  has  only  earth-works  at  Vladi- 
vostok and  Nikolaievsk. 

I  Unless  metallic  or  sliver  roobles  are  expressly  mentioned,  the  rouble  is  to  be 
token  throughout  the  present  article  aa  the  paper  rouble,  the  recent  s^rage  value 
of  which  has  been  29  eterling.  The  metallic  rouble  (2.77-71  Rrains  o^ure  silver) 
is  equivalent  to  33l)46  pence  BterllnR ;  but  the  paper  rouble  has  gradually 
declined  from  94-6  per  cent  of  ita  nominal  value  ln-1861-65  to  60  per  cent,  in 
18R2  (see  below^,  p.  SB). 

'^  5&«rai4  Svcdetuv   c.u  Kurc'oean  Russia;    Crzeskl,  State  Debts  Qj  Ruuia, 


Pari  II.— European  Russia— Geography. 

The  administrative  boundaries  of  European  Russia,  apart  from  Bouad 
Finland  and  Poland,  broadly  coincide  on  tho  whole  with  tho  ories. 
natural  limits  of  the  East-European  plains,  where  they  suddenly 
take,  eastward  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  a  great  extension  towards  tho 
north.  In  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  tho 
i:ilands  of  Nova  Zembla,  KoIguelT,  and  Vaigatch  also  belong  to  it, 
but  the  Kara  Sea  is  reckoned  to  Siberia.  To  the  east  it  has  tho 
Asiatic  dominions  of  the  empire,  Siberia  and  tho  Kirghiz  Steppe, 
from  both  of  whicb  it  is  separated  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  the 
Ural  river,  and  the  Caspian — the  administrative  boundary,  how- 
ever, partly  extending  into  Asia  on  the  Siberian  slope  of  the  Urals. 
To  the  south  it  has  the  Black  Sea  and  Caucasia,  being--separated 
from  the  latter  by  the  double  valley  of  the  two  Manytches — a 
channel  which  in  Post-Pliocene  times  connected  the  Sea  ofAzoff 
witV  the  Caspian,  The  westc-rn  boundary  is  purely  conventional: 
it  crosses  first  the  peninsula  of  Kola  from  the  Varanger  Fiord  to 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  making  an  arbitrary 
deflexion  towards  the  west ;  thence  it  runs  to  the  Kurische  Hatf 
in  the  southern  Baltic,  and  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Dansbe, 
taking  a  great  circular  sweep  to  the  west  to  embrace  Poland,  and 
separating  Russia  from  Prussia,  Austrian  Galicie,  and  Roum:inia. 

Of  this  immense  frontier  line  less  than  one-half  is  bordered  by 
seas — nearly  all  of  them  inland  seas.  For  it  is  a  special  feature  of 
Russia— a  feature  which  has  impressed  a  special  character  on  its 
history-*that  she  has  no  free  outlet  to  tho  high  seas  except  on  the 
ice-bound  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Even  the  "White  Sea  is 
merely  a  raraitied  gulf  of  that  ocean.  Another  warmer  gulf  of 
the  Arctic  Obean — the  Varanger  Fiord — separated  from  Rus:.ia  by 
tho  uninliabitable  plateaus  of  the  peninsula  of  Kola,  has  been 
abandoned  to  Norway.  The  de>ep  indentations  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  and  Finland  wash  the  shores  of  Finnish  territory,  and  it 
is  only  at  the  very  head  of  the  latter  gulf  that  the  Russians  happen 
to  have  taken  a  firm  foothold  by  erecting  their  capital  on  the 
marshes  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva-  The  Gulf  of  Riga  and  tho 
south-eastern  Baltic  belong  also  to  territory  ^vhich  is  not  inhabited 
by  Slavonians,  but  by  Finnish  stems,  and  by  Germans.  It  is  only 
very  recently^  within  the  last  hundred  years,  that  the  Russiaua 
definitively  took  possession  of  the  northern  shores  of  tho  Black  Sea 
and  the  Sea  of  Azofi".  The  eastern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  belongs 
properly  to  Transcaucasia,  a  great  chain  of  mountains  separating 
it  from  Russia.  But  even  this  sea  is  an  inland  one,  the  only  outlet 
of  which,  the  Bosphorus,  is  in  foreign  hands,  while  the  Caspian  is 
but  an  immense  shallow  lake,  bordered  mostly  by  desert.5,  ^nd 
possessing  more  iniportauc.e  as  a  link  between  Russia  and  her 
colonies  than  as  a  channel  for  intercourse  with  other  countries. 

The  great  territory  occupied  by  European  Russia — 1600  miles  ic  Configt 
length  from  north  to  south,  and  nearly  as  much  from  west  to  es:*:  ration. 
— is  on  the  whole  a  broad  elevated  plain,  ranging  between  500  and 
900  feet  above  sea-level,  deeply  cut  into  by  river-valleys,  ant' 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  broad  hilly  swellings  or  mountains  : — the 
lake  plateaus  of  Finland  and  the  Maanselka  heights  in  the  north- 
west; the  Baltv.  coast-ridge  and  spurs  of  the  Carpathians  in  the 
west,  with  a  broad  depression  between  the  two,  occupied  by  Poland ; 
the  Crimean  and  Caucasian  mountains  in  the  south  ;  and  the  broad 
but'moderately  high  swelling  of  the  Ural  Mountains  in  the  oast. 

From  a  centi'al  plateau  which  comprises  Tver,  iloscow,  Smolensk, 
and  Kursk,  and  projects  eastwards  towards  Samara,  attaining  an 
average  height  of  800  to  900  "feet  above  the  sea,  the  surface  rontly 
slopes  in  all  directions  to  a  level  of  from  300  togilO  feet.  Then  it 
agaiu  gently  rises  as  it  approaches  the  hilly  tracts  enclosing  the 
great  plain.  This  central  swelling  may  be  considered  a  continua- 
tion towards  the  east-north-east  of  the  great  line  of  upheavals  of 
western  Europe  ;  the  heights  d  Finland  would  then  appear  as 
continuations  of  the  Scanian  plateaus,  and  the  northern  niountains 
of  Finland  aa  continuations  of  the  Kjolen,  while  the  other  great 
lino  of  upheaval  of  the  old  continent,  which  runs  noilh-wcat  and 
south-east,  would  be  represented  in  Russia  by  the  Caucasus  in  the 
south  and  the  Timan  ridge  of  the  Petchora  basin  in  the  north. 

The  hilly  aspects  of  several  parts  of  the  central  plateau  are  not 
due  to  foldings  of  the  strata,  which  for  tho  most  part  appear  to  bo 
horizontal,  but  chiefly  to  tho  excavating  action  of  rivers,  whose 
valleys  are  deeply  dug  out  in  the  plateau,  especially  on  its 
borders.  The  round  flattened  summits  of  tho  Valdai  plateriu  do 
not  rise  above  1100  feet,  and  they  present  the  appearance  of  , 
taountains  only  in  consequence  of  the  depth  of  the  valleys — ths 
levels  of  the  rivers  which  flow  towards  the  depression  ^i  Lake 
Peipus  being  only  from  200  to  250  feet  above  the  sea.  The  ca:i,e  ia 
similar  with  the  plateaus  of  Livonia,  "  Wendish  Switzerland," 
and  Kovno,  which  do  not  exceed  3000  feet  at  their  highest  points; 
so  also  with  tho  eastern  spurs  of  tho  Baltic  coast-ridge  between 
Grpdno  and  Minsk.  The  same  elevation  is  reached  by  a  very  ti*? 
flat  summits  of  the  plateau  about  Kursk,  and  farther  east  on  the 
Volga  about  Kamyshin,  where  the  valleys  aro  excavated  ir.  th© 
plateau  to  a  depth  of  from  800  to  900  feet,  giving  v^uite  a  hilly 
a&nect  to  the  country.     It  is  only  in  the  south-weat,  where  spurs 


RIVEKS.] 


RUSSIA 


73 


of  the  Carpathians  cuter  Volhynia,  Podolia,  and  Bcbsirabia,  thi* 
riil^es  reacliiiig  1100  feet  are  met  with,  intersected  by  deep  ravines. 
The  depressions  on  the  borders  of  tlic  central  plateau  tUvis  ac- 
Huiro  a  greater  importance  than  the  small  differences  in  its  height. 
Sucli  ij  the  broad  depression  of  tlic  middle  Volga  and  lower  Kam.i, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  faint  BwelUng  of  the  Uvaly,  which  is 
the  watersncd  between  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Volga  basin. 
Anotlier  broad  depression,  from  250  to  500  feet  above  the  sea,  still 
(filled  by  Lakes  Peipus,  Ladoga,  Onega,  Bieto-ozcro,  tatche,  Vozhe, 
and  many  thousands  of  smaller  ones,  bordcra  the  central  plateau  ou 
the  north,  and  follows  the  same  east-north-cast  direction.  Only  a 
few  low  swellings  penetrate  into  it  from  the  north-west,  about  Lake 
Onega,  and  reach  900  feet,  while  in  the  north-east  it  is  enclosed  by 
the  liigh  Timanskiy  ridge  (1000  feet).  A  third  depression  of  a  similar 
character,  occupied  by  the  Pripet  and  the  middle  Dnieper,  extends  to 
the  west  of  the  central  plateau  of  Russia,  aud  penetrates  into  Poland. 
The  immense  lacustrine  basin  is  now  broken  up  into  numberless 
ponds,  lakes,  aud  extensive  marshes  (see  JIin.sk).  It  is  bounded  on 
the  south  by  the  broad  plateaus  spreading  east  of  the  C-irpathians. 
South  of  50°  N.  lat.  the  central  plateau  gently  slopes  towards  the 
south,  and  wo  find  there  a  fourth  depression  spreading  west  and  east 
through  Poltava  and  Kliarkoff,  but  still  reaching  in  its  higher  parts 
S00to700  feet.  It  is  separated  from  the  Black  Sea  by  a  gentle 
swelling  which  may  be  traced  from  Kremenetz  to  the  lower  Don, 
and  perhaps  farther  south-easf.  This  low  swelling  includes  the 
Douetz  coal-measures  aud  the  middle  granitic  ridges  which  cjnse  the 
rapids  of  the  Dnieper.  Finally  a  fifth  immense  depression,  whfch 
ilcsceuds  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  extends  for  more  than  200 
n-.iles  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian,  comprising  the  lower  Volga  and 
the  Ural  and  Emba  rivers,  aud  establishing  a  link  between  Russia 
and  the  Aral-Caspian  regioir.  The  depression  is  continued  farther 
north  by  plains  below  300  feet  which  join  the  depression  of  the 
middle  Volga,  aud  extend  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Oka. 

The  Ural  Mo\mtains  present  the  aspect  of  a  broad  swelling  whose 
strata  no  longer  exhibit  the  horizontality  wo  Bee  in  Russia,  and 
moreover  are  deeply  cut  into  by  rivers.  It  fs  connected  in  the 
west  with  broad  plateaus  joining  those  of  ceptral  Russia,  but  its 
orographical  relations  to  other  upheavals  must  be  more  closely 
studied  before  they  can  be  definitely  pronounced  ou. 

The  rhomboidal  peninsula  of  the  Crimea,  connected  by  only  a 
narrow  isthmus  with  the  coutinent,  is  occupied  by  a  dry  plateau 
gently  sloping  north  and  east,  and  bordered  in  the  south-east  by 
the  "i'aita  Jlountaius,  the  summits  of  which  range  between  4000 
and  5113  feet  (see  CniMEi  and  Taueida). 
fvf'ers.  Owing  to  the  orographical  structure  of  the  tast-Luropean  plains, 
which  has  just  been  described,  the  river-system  has  attained  a  very 
high  development.  Taking  their  origin  from  a  series  of  gi-eat 
lacustrine  basins  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  plateaus  and 
ilill'ering  slightly  in  elevation,  the  Russian  livers  describe  im- 
mense curves  before  reaching  the  sea,  and  flow  with  a  very  gentle 
gradient,  receiving  imnierous  large  tributari^,  which  collect  their 
waters  from  vast  areas.  Thus  the  Volga,  the  Dnieper,  aud  the 
Don  attain  respectively  a  length  of  2110,  1330,  aud  1125  miles, 
and  their  basins  cover  645,000,  244,600,  ant',  atrut  115,000  square 
miles  respectively.  Moreover  the  cliief  rivers  of  J^ussia — the  Volga, 
the  Diina,  the  Dnieper,  and  even  the  Lovat  and  the  Oka — take 
their  rise  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  central  plateau,  so  close 
to  one  another  that  they  may  be  said  to  radiate  from  the  sanie 
marshes.  The  sources  of  the  Don  are  ramified  among  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  Oka,  while  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Kama  join 
those  of  the  Dwina  and  Petchora.  In  consequence  of  this,  the 
rivers  of  Russia  have  been  from  remote  antiquity  the  true  channels 
of  trade  and  migration,  aud  have  contributed  much  more  to  the 
elaboration  of  the  national  unity  than  any  political  institutions. 
Boats  could  be  conveyed  over  flat  aud  easy  portages,  from  one  river- 
basin  to  another,  and  these  portages  were  subsequently  transformed 
with  a  relatively  small  amount  of  labour  into  navigable  canals,  and 
even  at  the  present  day  these  canals  have  more  importance  for  the 
*  traffic  of  the  country  than  most  railways.  By  their  means  the  plains 
,of  the  central  plateau — the  very  heart  of  Russia,  whose  natural 
outlet  was  the  Caspian — were  brought  into  water-communication 
with  the  Baltic,  and  the  A'olga  basin  connected  with  the  Gull  of 
I  Finland.  The  White  Sea  has  also  been  brought  into  connexion 
'*:th  the  central  Volga  basin,  while  the  sister-river  of  the  Volga 
— the  kama — became  th,;  maiu  artery  of  communication  with 
Siberia. 

'  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that,  though  ranking  before  the 
rivers  of  western  Europe  in  respect  of  length,  the  rivers  of  Russia  are 
far  behind  as  regards  the  amount  of  water  discharged.  They  freeze 
in  winter  and  dry  un  in  summer,  and  most  of  them  are  navigable  only 
during  the  spring-Aoods  ;  even  the  great  Volga  becomes  so  shallow 
during  the  hot  season  that  only  light  boats  can  pass  its  shoals. 

Russia  h,-.-  a  very  large  number  of  lakes.     The  aggregate  area  of 
the  lar^-cst  cues  is  stated  at  25,800  square  miles. 

The  folic  .ving^is  a  descriptive  list  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Euro- 
pean Russia. 
A.  Arciic  Ocean Bariii.—[1)  The  Petchora  (1025  miles)  rises  in  the 


northern  orals,  am  enters  the  ocean  r.y  a  larf-c  estuary  at  the  Gulf 
of  Petchora.  Its  basin,  thiidy  peopled  and  available  only  for  cattle- 
breeding  and  for  huuting,  is  quite  isolated  from  Russia  by  the 
Timau  ridge.  The  river  is  navigable  for  770  miles  ;  grain  aud 
1  variety  of  goods  conveyed  from  the  upper  Kama  are  floated 
down,  while  furs,  lisli,  and  other  products  of  the  sea  are  shipped 
up  the  river  to  be  transported  to  Tchcrdyn  on  the  Kama.  (2)  The 
Kara  (139  miles)  enters  the  Kara  Sea.  (3)  The  Mczen  (510  miles) 
enters  the  Bay  of  Jlczeu  ;  it  is  navigable  for  450  miles,  and  it 
the  channel  of  a  considerable, export  of  timber.  (4)  The  noithern 
Dwina,  or  Dviua  (950  miles),  with  a  basin  of  about  150,000'squaro 
miles,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  great  rivers,  the  Vug  (270 
miles)  and  the  Sukhona  (330  milej).  The  Sukhoiia  has  its  oiigiu 
in  Lake  Kubenskoye,  in  north-west  Vologda,  aiul  flows  rapidly 
southwards  and  eastwards,  having  a  great  number  of  rapids.  It  is 
navigable  throughout  its  length,  and,  as  Lake  Kubenskoye  comnm- 
uicates  by  the  Alexander  of  Wurteniberg  Canal  with  Lake  Bietoye, 
it  is  connected  with  the  Caspian  aud  Baltic.  The  Vytchcgda  (US5 
miles),  which  flows  west-south-west  to  join  the  Sukhona,  through 
a  woody  region,  thinly  peopled,  is  navigable  for  500  miles  and  in 
its  upper  portion  is  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  upper  Kama. 
The  Dwiua  flows  with  a  very  slight  gradient  through  a  broad  valley, 
receiving  many  tributaries,  and  reaches  the  White  Sea  at  Arch- 
angel by  a  number  of  branches.  Notwithstanding  serious  obstacles 
ollered  by  shallows,  corn,  fish,  salt,  and  timber  arc  largely  shipjied 
to  and  from  Archangel.  (5)  The  Onega  (245  miles)  rises  in  Lake 
Latche  iu  the  south  of  Otonetz,  aud  flows  into  Ouega  Bay  ;  it  has 
rapids  ;  timber  is  floated  down  in  spring,  aud  fishing  and  some 
navigation  are  carried  on  in  the  lower  portion. 

B.  Baltk  Basin.— (6)  The  Neva  (46  miles)  flows  from  Lake 
tadoga  into  the  Gulf  of  Finland  (see  St  PEiEKSBUno).  (7)  The 
Volkhoff  (135  miles),  discharging  into  Lake  Ladoga  (see  Ladoga), 
and  forming  part  of  the  Vyshnevolotsk  system  of  canals,  is  an 
important  channel  for  navigation  ;  it  flows  from  Lake  llmeu  (367 
square  miles),  which  receives  the  Jlsta  (250  miles),  connected  with 
the  Volga,  the  torat  (310  miles),  and  many  smaller  tributaries. 
(8)  The  Svir  (135  miles),  also  discharging  into  Lake  Ladoga,  flows 
from  Lake  Onega  (4925  square  miles),  and,  being  part  of  the 
Mariinsk  canal  system,  is  of  great  importance  for  navigation  (see 
Volga).  (9)  The  Narova  (46  miles)  flows  out  of  Lake  Peipus  into 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  at  Narva  ;  it  has  remarkable  rapids,  notwith- 
standing which  an  active  navigation  is  carried  on  by  means  of  its 
waters.  Lake  Peipus,  or  Tchudskoye  (136  square  miles),  receives 
— (10)  the  Velikaya  (210  miles),  a  channel  of  traftic  with  southern 
Russia  from  a  remote  antiquity,  but  now  navigable  only  in  its  lower 
portion,  and  (11)  the  Embach  (83  miles),  uavigated  by  steamers  to 
Dorpat.  (12)  The  Duna,  or  West  Dwina  (577  miles),  with  a  basin 
area  of  about  75,000  square  miles,  rises  in  the  Ostashkoff  district 
of  Tver,  and  falls  into  the  sea  below  Riga,  after  haviug  described  a 
great  curve  to  the  south.  It  is  shallow  above  the  rapids  of  Jacob- 
stadt,  but  navigation  is  carried  ou  as  far  as  Vitebsk, —corn,  timber 
for  shipbuilding,  potash,  flax,  kc,  i)eing  the  principal  shipments  of 
its  navigable  tributaries  (the  Obsha,  UUa,  and  Kasplya)  ;  the  Ulla 
is  connected  by  the  Berezina  canals  with  the  Dnieiier.  (13)  The 
Niemen  (lleniel),  with  a  course  of  470  miles  in  Russia,  rises  in  the 
north  of  llinsk,  leaves  Russia  at  Yurburg,  and  enters  the  Knrischc 
Mas' ;  rafts  are  floated  upon  it  almost  from  its  sources,  and  steamers 
ply  as  far  as  to  Kovno  ;  the  export  of  corn  and  timber  to  Prussia, 
and  import  of  lish,  groceiy,  and  manufactured  wjro  are  consider- 
able ;  it  is  connected  by  the  Oginski  C'aual  with  the  Dnieper.  The 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Viliya  and  the  Shara.  For  (14)jthe 
Vistula,  with  the  Bug  and  Narew,  see  Pola.vd. 

C.  BlacL-  Sea  BasiiU — (15)  The  Pruth  (505  miles)  rises  in 
Austrian  Bukovina,  and  separates  Russia  from  Roumania  ;  it 
enters  (16)  the  Danube,  which  flows  along  the  Russian  frontier  for 
100  miles  below  Rcni,  touching  it  with  its  Kilia branch.  (17)  The 
Dniester  (530  miles  within  Russia  and  about  330  miles  in  Austria) 
rises  in  Galicia.  Light  boats  and  lafts  arc  floated  at  all  points, 
aiul  steamers  ply  on  its  lower  jiortiou  ;  its  estuary  has  important 
fisheries.  (18)  The  Dnieper  (1330  miles),  with  a  basin  of  about 
245, 000  square  miles,  with  tributaries,  waters  thirteen  governments, 
of  which  the  aggregate  population  numbers  about  15,000,00^.  It 
also  originates  in  the  north-western  parts  of  the  central  plateau, 
iu  the  same  marshy  lakes  which  give  rise  to  the  Volga  and 
Duna.  It  flows  .west,  south,  southeast,  ami  south-west,  aud 
enters  a  bay  in  the  north-Westcm  jiart  of  the  Black  Sea.  In  the 
middle  navigable  part  of  its  course,  from  Dorogobuzh  to  Ekatc- 
rinoshff,  it  is  an  active  channel  for  traftic.  It  receives  several 
large  tributaries  :— on  the  right,  the  Berezina  (265  miles),  con- 
nected with  the  Dima,  and  the  Pripet  (400'milcs),  both  mo?t 
irajjortant  for  navigation, — as  well  as  several  smaller  tributaries  ou 
which  rafts  are  floated  ;  ou  the  left  the  Sozli  (330  miles),  the 
Desna  (590  miles),  one  of  the  most  important  rivers  of  Russia, 
navigatcil  b-  steamers  as  far  as  Bryansk,  tlx;  Suta  (252  miles), 
tho  Psiot  (415  miles),  and  the  Voi-skta  (268  miles).  Below 
Ekaterinoslaff  the  Dnieper  flows  for  46  miles  through  a  series  of 
thirteen   rapids.     At   Kherson   it  enters  its  long  (40  miles)  but 

XXI.  —   10 


74 


liU  S  S  I  A 


[oEOLoay. 


shallow  estuary,  which  receives  the  West  Bug  (450  miles)  uid  the 
Ingut  (220  miles).  The  traffic  of  the  Dnieper  and  its  tributaries 
reached  in  1882  an  aggregate  of  12  "9  million  cwta.  shipped  and 
6*7  discharged,  the  principal  items  being  corn,  salt,  and  timber. 
(19)  The  Don  (1125  miles),  with  a  basin  of  about  120,000  square 
miles,  and  navigable  for  880  miles,  rises  in  south-eastern  Tula 
ind  enters  the  Sea  of  Azoff  at  Rostoif  by  thirty  mouths,  after 
describing  a  great  curve  to  the  east  at  Tsaritsyn,  approaching  the 
Volga,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway  (40  miles).  -Its 
navigation  is  of  great  importance  (5*4  million  cwts.  shipped,  and 
5*1  discharged),  especially  for  goods  brought  from  the  Volga,  and 
its  hsheries  are  extensive.  The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Sosna 
(175  miles)  and  North  Donetz  (615  mile^)  on  the  right,  and  the 
Voronezh  (305  miles),  Khoper  (5o5  miles),  MedvjxJitsa  (410  miles), 
and  Manytch  (295  miles),  oa  the  left.  .(20)  The  Ylya  (192  miles), 
(21)  the  Kuban  (510  miles),  and  (22)  the  Rion  belong  to  Caucasia. 

D.  The  Caspian  £asin.^(2Z)  Tho  Volga,  tho  chief  river  of 
Russia,  has  a  length  of  2110  miles,  and  its  basin,  about  648,000 
square-  miles  iu  area,  contai:»s  a  population  of  more  than  40,000,000. 
It  is  connected  with  the  Baltic  by  three  systems  of  canals  (see 
Volga).  (24)  The  Great  and  the  Little  Uzei^  no  longer  reach 
tho  Caspian  but  lose  themselves  in  the  Babinskoye  Lakes.  (25) 
The  Ural  (1475  miles),  in  its  lower  part,  constitutes  the  frontier 
between  European  Russia  and  tho  Kirghiz  Steppe  ;  it  receives  the 
Sakmara  on  the  right  and  tlie  Ilek  on  the  left.  (26)  The  East 
Manytch  (175  mile;?)  is  on  the  Caucasian  boundary.  (27)  The 
Kum^a  (405  miles),  (28)  the  Terek  (360  miles),  and  (29)  the  Kura 
(about  650  miles),  with  the  Arax  (about  650  miles),  which  receives 
the  waters  of  Lake  Goktcha,  belong  to  Caucasia.^ 
;}eringy.  Almost  every  geological  formation,  from  the  oldest  up  to  the 
most  recent,  is  met  with  iu  Russia  ;  but,  as  they  are  almost 
horizontal,  they  for  the  most  part  cover  one  another  over  immense 
spaces,  so  that  the  lower  ones  appear  only  at  the  bottom  of  the 
deeper  valleys,  and  the  oldest  are  seen  only  on  the  borders  of  the 
great  Russian  plain. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Paleozoic  period  only  a  very  few  portions 
of  what  is  now  Russia — Finland,  namely,  and  parts  of  Olonetz  — 
rose  above  the  surface  of  the  sea  ;  but,  as  the  result  of  a  gradual 
upheaval  continued  through  Palceozoic  times,  itiis  supposed  that 
at  the  end  of  this  epoch  Russia  was  a  continent  not  greatly  differ- 
ing from  the  present  one.  In  Mesozoic  times  the  sea  began  again 
to  invade  it,  but,  while  in  the  preceding  period  tho  oscillations 
resolved  themselves  into  a  gradual  upheaval  extending  from  west 
to  east,  in  Mesozoic  times  the  upheaval  went  on  from  north-west 
to  south-east.  The  Mesozoic  sea,  however,  did  not  extend  beyond 
•vliat  is  now  central  Russia,  and  did  not  cover  tho  "Devonian 
plateau"  of  western  Russia,  which  remained  a  continent  from  the 
Carboniferous  epoch.  A  gradual  rising  of  the  continent  followed, 
and  was  continued  through  Neozoic  times,  with  perhaps  a  limited 
subsidence  in  the  Post-Glacial  period,  when  the  actual  seas  extended 
then-  narrow  gulfs  up  the.valleys  now  occupied  by  the  great  rivers. 
During  tlie  first  part  of  the  Glacial  period,  Russia  seems  to  have 
been  covered  by  an  immense  ice-sheet,  which  extended  also  over 
central  Germany,  and  of  which  the  eastern  limits  cannot  yet  be 
determined. 

The  Archiean  gneisses  have  a  broad  extension  in  Finland, 
northern  Russia,  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  the  Caucasus ;  they  fuim 
also  the  back-bone  of  the  ridge  which  extends  from  the  (Carpathians 
through  aoutheru  Russia.  '^  They  consist  for  the  most  part  of  red 
and  grey  gneisses  and  granulites,  with  subordinate  layers  of  granite 
and  granitite.  The  Finland  rappa-kivi,  the  Serdobol  gneiss,  and 
the  Pargas  and  Rnstiala  marble  (with  the  so-called  Eozoon  cane.' 
dense)  yield  good  building  stone  ;  while  iron,  copper,  and  zinc-ore 
are  common  in  Finland  and  in  the  Urals.  Rocks  regarded  as 
representing  the  Huroniau  system  appear  also  in  Finland,  in  north- 
western Russia,  as  a  narrow  strip  on  tho  Urals,  and  in  the  Dnieper 
vidge.  ■  They  consist  of  a  series  of  unfossiliierons  crystalline  slates. 
The  Cambrian  is  represented  by  blue  clays,  ungulite  sandstones, 
and  bituminous  slates  in  Esthonia  and  St  Petersburg. 

The  Silurian  system  is  widely  developed,  and  it  is  most  probable 
that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Archaan  continents  of  Finland  and 
the  Urals,  the  Silurian  sea  covered  the  whole  of  Russia.  Being  con- 
cealed by  more  recent  deposits,  Silurian  rocks  appear  on  the  surface 

1  Bibliography. — The  lengrthsof  theriveisof  European  Rossla  as  ascertained 
by  accurate  njeaaurements  are  given  by  Tillo,  In  Iziestia  of  Geo^.  Soc.,  1833. 
See  also  Stuckcnberg,  Hydr.  des  R.  Reichi  ;  Semenoff,  Oeogr.  Statist.  Dictionary 
{the  most  reliable  source  for  all  tho  geography  of  Russia).  Strelbitzky,  Super- 
jficies  dc  r Europe;  H.  Wagner,  "Stndlen  im  Geb.  d.  Arwil-statistlk,"  in  ttie  SCat. 
Monatiichrift,  viil.;  official. .Srod  Maierialoff,  with  regard  to  Rasalan  rivera, 
187G;  Statistical  Sbornik  of  the  Mln.  of  Communications,  vol.  7..  (freezing  of 
Russian  rivers,  and  navigation).  Besides  the  military'  statistical  desciiptlons  of 
scpaiato  governments,  a  great  variety  of  monographa  dealing  with  separate 
rivers  and  basina  are  alao  available;  e.g.,  Sldoroff,  The  Petchora  Region,  and 
North  Rt.siia;  Helmersen,  Olonetzer  Bergrecier;  Turbin,  The  Dnieper;  Praso- 
Icnko,  "  The  Dniester,"  In  Engin.  Joum.,  1831;  JDanilevaky,  "Kiiba5,"lii  Man. 
Ge^gr.  Soc,  j.;  Baer,  Caspische  Studien;  Ragozln,  Volga  ;  Peretyatkovitch,  Volga; 
Mlkhailoff,  Kama;  &c.  An  oro-hydrograpliical  map  of  Russia  In  four  aheets 
■was  publislic^  in  1878 ;  re-;  also  Tillo,  Orogr.  Map  of  Russia  ;  the  ordinance  maps 
of  Russia;  aad  Tillo,  **  Mngnetical  Maps  of  Russia,"  in  Izv.  of  Geogr.  Soc,  1884 
ud  i.:sfi. 


only  iu  north-western  Russia  (Esthonia,  Livonia,  St  Petersburg, 
and  on  the  Volkhofi"),  where  all  European  subdivisions  of  the 
system  have  been  found,  in  the  Timan  ridge,  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Urals,  in  the  Pai-kho  rid^e,  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  In  Poland  it  is  met  with  in  the  Kielce  mountains,  and  in 
Podolia  in  the  deeper  ravines. 

The  Devonian  dolomites,  limestones,  and  red  sandstones  cover 
immense  tracks  and  appear  on  the  surface  over  a  much  wider  arca. 
From  Esthonia  these  rocks  extend  north-east  to  Lake  Onega,  and 
south-east  to  filoghileff;^  they  form  the  central  plateau,  as  also  the 
slopes  of  the  Urals  and  the  Petchora  region.  In  north-western  and 
middle  Russia  they  contain  a  special  fauna,  and  it  appears  that  the 
Lower  Devonian  series  of  western  Europe,  represented  in  Poland 
and  in  the-  Urals,  is  missing  in  north-western  and  central  Russia, 
where  only  tho  Middle  and  Upper  Devonian  divisions  are  found. 

Carboniferous  deposits  cover  nearly  all  eastern  Russia,  their 
west  boundary  being  a  line  drawn  from  Archangel  to  tho  upper 
Dnieper,  thence  to  the  upper  Don,  and  south  to  the  mouth  of  the 
last-named  river,  with  a  long  narrow  gulf  extending  west  to 
encircle  the  plateau  of  the  Donetz.  They  are  visible,  however, 
only  on  the  western  borders  of  this  region,  being  covered  towards 
the  east  by  thick  Peimian  and  Triassic  strata.  Russia  has  thiee 
large  coal-bearing  regions — the  Moscow  basin,  the  Donetz  region, 
and  the  Urals,  In  the  Valdai  plateau  there  are  only  a  few  beds  of 
mediocre  coal.  In  the  Moscow  basin,  which  was  a  broad  gulf  of  the 
Carboniferous  sea,  coal  appears  as  isolated  inconstant  seams  amidst 
littoral  deposits,  the  formation  of  which  was  favoured  by  frequer.t 
minor  subsidences  of  tlie  sea-coast.  The  Donetz  coal-msasures, 
containing  abundant  remains  of  a  rich  laud-flora,  cover  nearly 
16,000  square  miles,  and  comprise  a  valuable  stock  of  excellent 
anthracite  and  coal,  together  with  iron-mines.  Several  smaller 
coal-tields  on  tho  slopes  of  tho  Urals  and  on  the  Timan  ridge  may 
be  added. to  tho  above.  The  Polish  coal-fields  belong  to  another 
Carboniferous  area  df  deposit,  which  extended  over  Silesia. 

The  Permian  limestones  and  marls  occupy  a  strip  in  eastern 
Russia  of  much  less  extent  than  that  assigned  to  them  on  geological 
maps  a  few  years  ago.  The  variep;ated  marls  of  eastern  Russia, 
rich  in  salt-springs,  but  very  poor  in  fossils,  are  now  held  by  most 
Russian  geologists  to  be  Triassic.  Indisputably  Triassic  deposits 
have  been  found  only  in  the  two  Bogdo  mountains  in  the  Kirghiz 
Steppe  [Campilcr- ^'chichi en)  and  in  south-western  Poland. 

During  the  Jui'assic  period  the  sea  began  again  to  invade  Russia 
from  south-east  and  north-west.  The  limits  of  the  Russian  Jurassic 
system  may  be  represented  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  double  valley 
of  tho  Sukhona  and  Vytchegda  to  that  of  the  upper  Volga,  and 
thence  to  KietT,  with  a  wide  gulf  peneti-ating  towards  the  north- 
west. "Within  this  space  three  depressions,  all  running  south-west 
to  north-east,  are  filled  up  with  Upper  Jurassic  deposits.  They 
are  much  denuded  in  tho  higher  parts  of  this  region,  and  appear 
but  as  isolated  islands  in  central  Russia.  In  the  south-east  all 
the  older  subdivisions  are  represented,  the  deposits  having  the 
characters  of  a  deep-sea  depoiit  in  the  Aral-Caspian  region  and  ou 
the  Caucasus. 

The  Cretaceous  deposits — sands,  loose  sandstones,  marls,  and 
white  chalk — cover  the  region  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  tho 
Niemen  to  the  upper  Oka  and  Don,  and.  thenco  north-east  to 
Simbirsk,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dnieper  and  Don  ridge,  the 
Yalta  Mountains,  and  the  upper  Caucasus.  They  are  rich  in  gi'ind- 
ing  stone,  and  especially  in  secondary  layers  of  phosphorites. 

The  Tertiary  formations  occupy  large  areas  in  southeni  Russia. 
The  Eocene  covers  wide  tracts  from  Lithuania  to  Tsaritsyn,  and  ia 
represented  in  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus  by  thick  deposits  belong- 
ing to  the  same  ocean,  which  left  it5  deposits  on  the  Alps  and  the 
Himalayas.  Oligocene,  quite  similar  to  that  of  North  Germany, 
and  containing  brown  coal  and  amber,  has  been  met  with  only  in 
Poland,  Courland,  and  Lithuania.  The  Miocene  (Sariaatian 
stage)  occupies  extensive  tracts  in  southern  Russia,  south  t)f  a 
line  drawn  through  Lublin  to  Ekaterinoslaff  and  Saratoflf.  Not 
only  the  higher  chains  of  Caucasus  and  Yaila,  but  also  tho  Donetz 
ridge,  rose  above  the  level  of  tho  Miocene  sea,  which  was  very 
shallow  to  tho  north  of  this  last  rid^e,  while  farther  south  it  was 
connected  both  with  the  Vienna  basin  and  with  the  Aral-Caspi?n. 
The  Pliocene  appears  only  in  the  coast  region  of  the  Llack  ai.d 
Azoff  Seas,  but  it  is  widely  developed  in  the  Aral-Caspian'  region, 
where,  however,  the  Ust-Urt  and  tne  Obshchiy  Syrt  rose  above  the 
seal 

The  thick  Quaternary,  or  Post-Fliocene,  Oeposits  which  cover 
nearly  all  Russia  were  for  a  long  time  a  puzzle  to  geologists.  They 
consist  of  a  boulder  clay  in  the  north  and  of  loess  in  the  south. 
The  former  presents^  an  intimate  mixture  of  boulders  brought  from 
Finland  and  Olonetz*  (with  an  addition  of  local  boulders)  with  small 
gravel,  coarse  sand,  and  the  finest  glacial  mud, — the  whole  bearing 
no  trace  of  ever  having  been  washed  up  and  sorted  by  water  in 
motion,  except  in  subordinate  layers  of  glacial  sand  and  gra'^tl; 
the  size  of  the  boulders  decreases  on  the  whole  from  north  to  south, 
and  the  boulder  clay,  especially  in  northern  and  central  Russia, 
often  takeb  the  shape  of    ridges  pa^-^^lel  to  the  direction  c.*"  the 


•aOIL    AND    CLIMATE  1 

motioM  of  tlie  i.ouldor-s,  fts  southern  limits,  roughly  correspond- 
fng  with  those  established  by  Mnrcliison,  hut  not  yet  settledin  the 
south-east  and  cast,  arc,  according;  to  M.  Nikitin,  the  following  : — 
from  tke  southern  frontier  of  Poland  to  Ovrutch,  Uniafi,  Kremcn- 
tchug,  PoHava.  and  Razdoniaya  {50^  N.  latitude),  with  a  cuivo 
northwards  to  Kozelsk  (?)  ;  thence  due  north  to  Vetluga  (58^  north 
latitude),-  ea^t  to  Glazova  in  Vyatka,  and  from  this  place  towards  the 
north  oul  west  along  the  watershed  of  the  Volga  and  Petchova  (?). 
South  of  the  50th  parallel  appears  the  loess,  with  all  its  usual 
characters  (land  fossils,  want  of  stratification,  &c.),  showing  a  re- 
markable uiiiformity  of  composition  over  very  large  surfaces;  it 
covers  both  watersheds  and  valleys,  but  chiefly  the  former.^  Such 
being  the  characters  of  tho  Quaternary  deposits  in  Russia,  the 
majority  of  Russian  geologists  now  adopt  the  opinion  that  Russia 
was  covered,  as  far  as  the  above  limits,  with  an  immense  ice-sheet 
which  crept  over  central  Russia  and  central  Germany  from  Scaudi- 
navia  and  north  Russia.  Another  ice-covering  was  probably  ad- 
vancing at  the  same  time  from  the  north-east,  that  is,  from  the 
northern  part  of  the  Urals,  but  the  question  as  to  the  glaciation 
of  the  Urals  still  remains  open.  As  to  the  loess,  the  view  is  more 
and  more  gaining  ground  which  considers  it  as  a  steppe-deposit 
due  to  the  drifting  of  fine  sand  and  dust  during  a  dry  episode  in  the 
Pleistocene  period. 

The  deposits  of  the  Post-Glacial  period  are  represented  through- 
out  Russia,  Poland,  and  Finland,  as  also  throughout  Siberia  and 
central  Asia,  by  very  thick  lacustrine  deposits,  which  show  that, 
after  the  melting  of  the  ice-she?t,  the  country  was  covered  with 
immense  Jakes,  connected  by  broad  channels  (the  fja,rden  of  the 
Swedes),  which  later  on  gave  rise  to  the  actual  rivers.  On  tlie 
outskirts  of  the  lacustrine  region,  closely  resembling  the  area  of 
the  actual  continent,  traces  of  marine  deposits,  not  higher  than  200 
or  perhaps  even  150  feet  above  present  sea-level,  are  found  alike 
on  the  Arctic  Sea  and  on  the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea  coasts.  A  deep 
gulf  of  the  Arctic  Sea  advanced  up  the  valley  of  the  Dwina  ;  and 
the  Caspian,  connected  by  the  JIanytch  with  the  Black  Sea,  and 
by  the  Uzboy  valley  with  Lake  Aral,  penetrated  north  up  the  Volga 
^'alley,  as  far  as  its  Samara  bend.  Unmistakable  traces  show  that, 
ivhile  during  tho  Glacial  period  Russia  liad  an  arctic  flora  and 
fe'ina,  the  climate  of  the  Lacustrine  period  was  more  genial  than 
it  is  now,  and  a  dense  human  population  at  that  time  peopled  the 
shores  of  the  numberless  lakes. 

The  Lacustrine  period  has  not  yet  reached  its  close  in  Russia. 
Finland  and  tlie  north-west  hilly  plateaus  are  still  in  the  same 
geological  phase,  and  are  dotted  with  numberless  lakes  and  ponds, 
while  tlie  rivei-s  continue  to  dig  out  their  yet  undetermined  chan- 
nels. But  tlie  great  lakes  which  covered  tlie  country  during  the 
Lacustrine  period  have  disappeared,  leaving  behind  them  immense 
marshes  like  those  of  tho  Pripet  and  in  the  north-east.  The 
disappearance  of  what  still  remains  of  them  is  accelerated  not  only 
by  tne  general  decrease  of  moisture,  but  also  by  the  gradual  up- 
heaval of  northern  Russia,  which  is  going  on  from  Esthonia  and 
Finland  to  the  Kola  peninsula  and  Nova  Zembla,  at  an  average  rate 
of  about  two  feet  per  century.  This  upheaval, -^^-the  consequences  of 
which  have  been  felt  even  within  the  historic  fieriod,  by  the  drain- 
age of  the  formerly  im[iracticable  marshes  of  Novgorod  and  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland, — together  with  the  destruction  of 
forests,  whicli  must  bo  considered,  however,  as  a  quite  secondary 
and  subordinate  cause,  contributes  towards  a  decrease  of  precipi- 
tation over  Russia  and  towards  increased  shallowaess  of  her  rivers. 
At  the  same  time,  as  the  gradients  of  tho  rivers  are  gradually  in- 
creasing  on  account  of  the  upheaval  of  the  continent,  tho  rivers 
dig  their  channels  deeper  and  deeper.  Consequently  central  and 
especially  southern  Russia  witness  tlio  formation  of  numerous 
miniature  caiions,  or  ovraghi  (deep  ravines),  uni  buumiita  of  which 
rapidly  advance  and  ramify  in  the  loose  surface  deposits.  As  for 
•the  southern  steppefi,  their  desiccation,  the  consequence  of  the 
above  causes,  is  m  rapia  progress.^ 
;^o*6  The   soil  of  Russia  depends    chiefly  on  the  distribution  of  tho 

boulder-clay  4nd  loess  coverings  described  above,  on  the  progress 
made  by  the  rivers  in  the  excavation  of  their  valleys,  and  on  the 
moistness  of  climate.  Va.st  areas  in  Russia  are  quite  unfit  for 
cultivation,  27  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate  surface  of  European 
Roasia  (apart  from  Poland  and  Finland)  being  occupied  by  lakes, 
marshes,  sands,  kc,  38  per  cent,  by  forests,  14  per  cent,  by 
prairies,  and  only  21  per  cent,  being  under  culture.  The  distri- 
Dution  of  all  these  is,  however,  very  unequal,  and  ♦hofive  follow- 
ing subdivisions  may  be  established: — (1)  the  tundras;  (2)  the 
forest  region  ;  (3)  the  middle  region,  comprising  tho  surface  avail- 
able for  agriculture  and  j)artly  covered  with  forests  ;  (4)  the  black- 
earth  {tchemoziom)  region;  and  (5)  tho  Steppes.  Of  these  the 
black-earth  region, — about  150,000,000  acres,— which  reaches  fro— 
the  Carpathians  to  the  Urals,  extending  to  the  PinsK  marshes  and 

»  Bibtio^aphir.—Afemoirt,  Iivrttta^anA  Geological  Maps  of  the  Committee  for 
the  Geological  Survey  of  RumU;  Mtmoir*  and  Sbomiks  of  the  Mincraloglcal 
Society,  of  thn  Academy  of  Sclonco,  and  of  the  Societies  of  Naturalists  at  tlm 
(jnlvcr»ltl':3;  AUniny  Joumat;  Murchhon'a  Oiolofjy  of  Ruttia;  Ilclmcracn's  and 
Mllk-r's  f!folo']ieal  Mapi  nf  Ruisln  and  tin-  frali;  Ind^tranttrff  In  Appendix  rf> 
I.a3>laa  translation  of  Keclua'i  OtQgr.  L'liia..  and  Muuuul  oj  Geology  (llussiunj. 


RUSSIA 


iO 


the  upper  Oka  in  the  north,  is  the  most  important.  It  is  covered 
with  a  thick  sheet  of  black  earth,  a  kind  of  loess,  mixed  v.ith  5 
to  15  per  cent,  of  humus,  due  to  tho  decomposition  of  an  la'rba- 
ceous  vegetation,  which  developed  richly  during  the  Lacustrine 
period  on  a  continent  relatively  dry  even  at  that  epoch.  Ou  the 
three-fields  system  corn  has  been  grown  upon  it  for  tifty  to  seventy 
consecutive  years  without  manure.  Isolated  black-earth  islinds, 
less  fertile  of  course,  occur  also  in  Courland  aud  Kovno,  in  the 
Oka,  "Volga,  and  Kama  depression,  on  tho  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and 
in  a  few  patches  in  the  north.  Towards  tho  Black  Sea  coast  its 
thickness  diminishes,  and  it  disappears  in  the  valleys.  In  tho 
extensive  region  covered  with  boulder-clay  the  black  earth  appears 
only  in  isolated  places,  and  the  soil  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a 
sandy  clay,  containing  a  much  smaller  admixture  of  humus.  There 
culture  is  possible  only  witl^  the  aid  of  a  considerable  quantity  of 
manure.  Draina^'o  finding  no  outlet  through  the  tiiick  clay  cover- 
ing, the  soil  of  the  forest  region  is  often  covered  ivith  extensive 
marshes,  and  the  forests  themselves  are  often  mere  *^hirkets  spread- 
ing over  marshy  ground  ;  large  tracts  covered  with  sand  appear  iu 
the  west,  and  the  admixture  of  bouldei-s  with  the  clay  in  the 
north-west  renders  agriculture  increasingly  diificult.  On  the 
Arctic  coast  the  forests  disappear,  giving  place  to  ttie  tundras. 
Finally,  in  the  south-east,  towards  the  Caspian,  ou  the  slopes  of 
the  southern  Urals  and  tho  Obshchiy  Syrt,  as  also  in  the  inteiiorof 
the  Crimea,  and  in  several  parts  of  Bessarabia,  th  ;re  are  largo  tracts 
of  real  desert,  covered  with  coarse  sand  and  devoid  of  vegetation.^ 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Russia  extends  from  north  to 
south  through  26  degrees  of  latitude,  the  climate  of  its  different  CUmate- 
portions,  ajmrt  from  the  Crimea  and  the  Caucasus,  presents  a 
striking  uniformity.  The  aerial  currents — cyclones,  anti-cyclones, 
and  dry  south-east  winds— extend  over  wido  surfaces  and  cross 
tho  flat  plains  freely.  Everywhere  we  find  a  cold  winter  and  a 
hot  summer,  both  varying  in  their  duration,  but  differing  rela- 
tively little  in  the  extremes  of  temperature  recorded.  From  Table 
III,  (page  76)  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  no  place  in  rLUs.'iia, 
Archangel  and  Astrakhan  included,  where  the  thennometei  does 
not  rise  in  summer  nearly  to  8G"  Fahr.  and  descend  in  winter  to 
-13°  and  -  22°.  It  is  only  on  tlie  Black  Sea  coast  that  we  find 
the  absolute  range  of  temperature  reduced  to  108°,  while  in  the 
remainder  of  Russia  it  reaches  126"  to  144*,  the  oscillaHons  being 
between  -  22"  to  -  31°,  occasionally  -  54°,  and  86°  to  104°,  occasion- 
ally, 109°.  Everywhere  the  rainfall  is  small  :  if  Fiuland  and  Poland 
on  the  one  hand  and  Caucasus  with  the  Caspian  depression  on  tho 
other  be  excluded,  the  average  yearly  rainfall  varies  between  the 
limits  of  16  and  28  inches.  Everywhere,  too,  wo  find  that  tho 
maximum  rainfall  does  not  take  place  in  winter  (as  in  Wi-stern 
Europe)  but  in  summer,  and  that  the  months  of  advanced  spring 
are  warmer  than  the  corresponding  months  of  autumn.  ] 

I  Though  thus  exhibiting  all  the  distinctive  features  of  a  con* 
tinental  climate,  Russia  is  not  altogether  exempt  from  the  moder* 
atiiig  influence  of  the  ocean.  The  Atlantic  cyclones  also  reach 
the  Russian  plains,  mitigating  to  some  extent  the  cold  of  the 
winter,  and  in  summer  bringing  with  them  their  moist  winds  and 
thunderstorms  ;  their  influence  is  chiefly  felt  in  Wi^stern  Russia, 
but  extends  also  towards  and  beyond  the  Urals.  They  thus  check 
the  extension  and  limit  the  duration  of  the  cold  anticyclones. 

Throughout  Russia  the  winter  is  of  long  continuance.  The 
last  days  of  frost  are  experienced  for  the  most  part  in  April,  but 
also  in  May  to  the  north  of  55°.  The  spring  is  excepiioually 
beautiful  in  central  Russia  ;  late  as  it  usually  :s,  it  sets  in  v.ith 
vigour,  and  vegetation  develops  with  a  rapidiJj-  which  gives  to 
this  season  in  Russia  a  special  charm,  unknowni  in  warmer 
climates;  tho  rapid  melting  of  snow  at  the  same  time  raises  the 
rivirs,  and  renders  a' great  many  minor  streanis  navigable  for  a 
few  weeks.  But  a  return  of  cold  weather,  Injurious  to  vegetation, 
is  observed  througliout  central  and  eastern  Russia  between  May  18 
and  24,  so  that  \i  is  only  in  June  that  warm  weather  sets  ia 
definitely,  reachfng  its  maximum  in  the  first  lalf  of  .Tuly  (or  of 
August  on  tho  Black  Sea  coast).  Tho  sumnur  is  much  warmer 
than  might  be  supposed  ;  in  south-eastern  Russia  it  is  much 
warmer  than  in  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  France,  and  really 
liot  weather  is  experienced  everywhere.  It  does  not,  howcvi""-, 
prevail  for  long,  and  in  tho  first  half  of  September  tho  first  fro.ia 
begin  to  bo  exfwrienccd  on  the  middle  Urals  ,  they  reach  western 
and  southern  Russia  in  the  first  days  of  Octcbcr,  and  are  felt  on 
the  Caucasus  about  the  middle  of  November.  Tho  tempcroturo 
descends  so  rapidly  that  a  month  later,  about  October  10  on 
tho  middlo  Ural.-j  and  November  15  throughout  Russia,  tho 
thermometer  ceases  to  rise  above  tho  freezi)ig-poiut.  The  rivers 
rapidly  freeze  ;  towards  November  20  all  the  streams  of  tho  Whito 
Snii  basin  are  covered  with  ice,  and  so  remain  for  an  average  of 
167  d3y«  '-  those  of  tho  Baltic,  Black  Sea.  -..iiu  Caspian  basiua 
freeze  late.,  b"*  about  Dccembe.r  20  n^'i'rlv  alhthe  rivTs  of  the 


2  BibUQgraphy.~)t.\\];*TC<:\\i,-Qco.-Iiotanlcal  Rt»fairhe»  on  the  TdtcrnoHomi 
DokiitciiJiLff,  A'u.iKfuji  TVA/rjjof lom,  1830  ;  Id.,  I'/>jii.  C'hcm.  liesecirches  ;  jM'--frTf(ilt 
for  Sta'Utict  of  Russia.  i^uhVfhcil  liy  tlic  Minister  <  t  no;nr.Ins,  v.,  1W7  'A'r  ,11 
telUIi'jC,   'Tctlcrn'.zSom  a:ul  its  riituic/*  In  Mrm.  Mvtros  £oc.  o/  Ayr..  1877. 


76 


R   U    S  H  i  A 


[flora. 


country  are  highways  for  sledges.  The  Volga  remains  frozen  for 
a  period  varying  between  150  days  in  the  north  and  90  days  at 
Astrakhan,  the  Don  for  100  to  110  days,  and  the  Di  leper  for  83  to 
122  days.  On  the  Diina  ic«  prevents  navigation  for  125  days,  and 
even  the  Vistula  at  Warsaw  remains  fsozen  for  77  days.  The 
lowest  temperatures  are  experienced  in  January,  in  which  month 
the  average  is  as  low  as  20°  to  5°  Fahr.  throughout  Russia  ;  in  the 
west  only  does  it  rise  above  22°.  On  the  whole,  February  and 
March  continue  to  be  cold,  and  thejr  average  temperatures  rise 
RDove  zero  only  on  the  Black  Sea  coast.  Even  at  Kielf  and  Lugah 
♦he  average  ofMarch  is  below  30°,  while  in  central  Kussia  it  is  25° 
to  22",  and  as  low  as  20°  and  16°  at  Samara  and  Orenburg. 

Isotherms. — All  Russia  is  comprised  between  the  isotherms  of  32° 
and  54°.  On  the  whole,  they  are  more  remote  from  one  another 
th.in  even  on  the  plains  of  North  America,  thoscrof  46°  to  32°  being 
distributed  over  20  degrees  of  latitude.  They  arc,  on  the  whole, 
inclined  towards  the  south  in  eastern  Russia  ;  thus  the  isotherm  of 
39°  runs  from  St  Petersburg  to  Orenburg,  and  that  of  35°  from 
Tornel  to  Uralsk.  The  inflexion  is  still  greater  for  the  winter 
isotherms.  Closely  following  one  another,  they  run  almost  north 
and  south  ;  thus  Odessa  and  Konigsber^  are  situated  on  the  same 
winter  isotherm  of  28°  ;  so  also  St  Petersburg,  Orel,  and  the_ 
mouth  of  the  Ural  liver  (about  20°)  ;  ^lezen  and  Ufa  (9°).  The 
summer  isotherms  cross  the-above  nearly  at  right  angles,  so  that 
Kieff  and  Ufa,  War.saw  and  Tobolsk,  Riga  and  the  upper  Kama 
liave  the  same  average  summer  temperatures  of  61°.  62^°,  and  61°. 


Winds,  Moisture-  liainfall. — The  investigation  of  the  cyclones 
and  anticyclones  in  Russia  cannot  as  yet -be  regarded  as  completed. 
It  appears,  however,  that  in  January  the  cyclones  mostly  crcu:. 
north-west  Russia  (north  of  55°  and  west  of  40°  E.  long.),  foUowing 
directions  which  vary  between  north-east  and  south-east.  In  July 
they  are  displaced  towards  the  north,  and  cross  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
while  another  series  of  cyclones  crosses  middle  Russia,  between  50* 
and  55°  N.  lat.  The  laws  of  the  anticyclones  are  not  yet  estab- 
lished. The  winds  closely  depend  on  the  routes  followed  by  both. 
Generally,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  alike  in  January  and  in 
July  west  and  south-west  winds  prevail  in  western  Russia,  while 
eastern  ones  are  most  common  in  south-eastern  Kussia ;  northsrn 
winds  are  most  common  on  the  Black  Sea  coast.  The  strength  of 
the  wind  is  greater,  on  the  whole,  than  in  the  continental  parts  of 
western  Europe,  and  it  attain.s  its  maximum  in  winter.  TerriDIr 
gales  blow  irom  October  to  ilarch,  especially  or  the  southern 
st^jpes  and  on  the  tundras.  Gales  with  snow  {bura.,s,  inyatels), 
lasting  from  two  to  three  days,  or  northerly  gales  without  snow, 
are  especially  dangerous-  to  man  and  beast.  The  average  relative 
moisture  reaches  SO  to  85  per  cent,  in  the  north,  and  only  70  to  81 
per  cent,  in  southern  and  eastern  Russia.  In  the  steppes  it  is  only 
60  per  cent,  during  summer,  and  still  less  (57)  at  Astrakhan.  The 
average  amount  of  cloud  reaches  73  to  75  per  cent,  on  the  White 
Sea  and  in  Lithuania,  68  to  64  in  central  Kussia,  and  only  59  to  53 
in  the  south  and  south-east.  The  amount  of  rainfall  is  shown  in 
the  subjoined  table  (III.): — ' 


~1 


Archailgel 

Petrozavodsk  . 
Helsingfors — 
St  Petersburg. 
Bogoslovsk  — 

Dorpat 

Kostroma 

Skaterinburg., 

Kazaii  

iloscow 

Vilna 

'\Varsaw 

Orenburg 

Kursk 

Kieff 

Tsaritsyn 

Lugan  

Odessa 

Astrakhan 

Sebastopol 

Poti 

Tillis 


North 
LaLltudc. 


64  34 

61  47 
60  10 
59  57 
69  45 

56  22 

57  46 
56  49 

65  47 
55  45 
54  41 

62  14 
51  46 
51  44 

50  ar 

48  42 
48  27 
46  29 
46  21 
44  37 
42  9 
41  42 


HelBht 
above 
Sea  In 
Feel. 


30 

•  160 

40 

20 

•630? 

220 

360 

890 

260 

520 

390 

360 

360 

690 

590 

100 

200 

270 

-70 

1.30 

0 

1440 


Average  Tempcmtui  -*9. 


Ycaj-.    January.    July. 


32-7 
36-4 
39  0 
38-4 
29-4 
39-5 
37-3 
32-8 
37-2 
39-0 
43 -S 
44-9 
37-9 
41-0 
44-2 
44-4 
45-6 
49-0 
49-0 
53-7 
58-4 
54-5 


7-6 
11-8 
19-5 
15-0 
-3-8 
17-6 
9-4 
2-2 
7  0 
12-1 
221 
23-8 
4-7 
13-7 
21  0 
13-4 
17-0 
24-8 
19-2 
35 '2 
39-0 
33-0 


60-6 
62-1 
61-5 
64-0 
62-5 
63-1 
66-3 
63-5 
67-3 
66-0 
65-6 
66-4 
70  9 
67-2 
66-3 


74-6 

73-0 

72-3 

77-9 

73-8 

73-3 

75  7 

Ave 

rage 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

-33 

84 

-24 

86 

-17 

80 

-20 

83 

-47 

87 

-14 

85 

-27 

88 

.33 

87 

-25 

89 

-22 

88 

slO 

85 

-'  2 

86 

-28 

96 

-19 

91 

-13 

89' 

-18 

95 

-    3 

89 

-14 

97 

-no 

93 

4-25 

93 

-t-io 

96 

Full 
Range  of 

Ther- 
mometer. 


Fii-st 

Fiosta. 


147 
135 
112 
135 
150 
124 
140 
142 
129 
144 
110 
123 
147 
139 
122 

146 

108 
135 
105 
88 
100 


26  Sept. 


15  Oct. 

20  Sept. 

7  Oct.-- 

21  Oct. 
1  Oct. 
7  Oct. 

17  Oct. 

18  Oct. 


19  Oct. 

11  Oct. 

10  Nov. 
27  Oct. 

12  Jan. 
18  Nov. 


Last 
Fro3t3. 


20  May 


8  May 

14  May 

3  May 

14  May 
27  April 

26  April 

27  April 
7  April 


17  April 

11  April 
31  Mar. 
5  April 

1  Mar. 
15  Mar. 


Number  of  Days 
per  Year. 


Blight.    Cloudy. 


23 


35 
43 
40 

40 

35 
23 
40 


64 
67 
09 


199 


148 

94 

145 

iss 

1-12 
175 

154 


132 

124 
112 
114 


Averape  Ralnrnll 
in  Inches. 


Year      November 
to  Mai-ch. 


16-2 

19-6 
18-3 
15-8 
24-9 
19-4 
14  1 
ISO 
23  0 

23'8 
17-1 
19-9 
20 '1 

l'4'-3 
15-6 
5-7 
15-4 
6V9 
19-3 


4  3 

7-3 
5-3 
31 
7-3 
B-2 
1-6 
5-4 
7-3 

ei 

5-8 
5-6 
6-0 

4-3 
5-4 
1-5 
7-2 
23-4 
4-3 


t'ara,  Tlie   flora  of  Russia,    which    represents   an    intermediate   link 

between  those  of  Germany  and  Siberia,  is  strikingly  uniform  over 
a  very  large  area.  Thqugh  not  poor  at  any  given  place,  it  appears 
so  if  the  space  occupied  by  Russia  be  taken  into  aecount,  only 
3300  species  of  phanerogams  and  ferns  being  known.  Four  great 
rejrions  may  be  distinguished  :— the  Arctic,  the  Forest,  the  Steppe, 
and  the  Circum-MeditciTanean. 

The  Arelic  Region  comprises  the  tundras  of  the  Arctic  littoral 
beyond  the  northern  limit  of  forests,  which  last  closely  follows  the 
coast-line,  with  bends  towards  thi  north  in  the  river  valleys  (70° 
N.  lat.  in  Finland,  on  the  Arctic  Circle  about  Archangel,  68°  N. 
lat.  on  the  Urals,  71°  on  West  Siberia).  The  shortness  of  flie 
summer,  the  deficiency  of  drainage,  and  the  thickness  of  the  layer 
of  soil  which  is  frozen  through  in  winter  are  the  elements  «-hich  go 
to  the  making  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  tundras.  Their 
flora  is  far  nearer  those  of  northern  Siberia  and  North  America 
than  that  of  central  Europe.  Mosses  and  lichens  cover  them,  as 
also  tluj  birch,  the  dwarf  willow,  and  a  variety  of  shrubs  ;  but 
where  the  soil  is  drier,  and  humus  has  been  able  to  accumulate,  a 
variety  of  herbaceous  flowering  plants,  some  of  w-hich  are  familiar 
also  in  western  Europe,  make  their  appearance.  Only  from  275 
to  280  phanerogams  are  found  within  this  region. 

The  Forest  Region  of  the  Russian  botanists  occupies  the  greater 
part  of -the  country,  from  the  Arctic  tUndras  to  the  Steppes,  and 
it  maintains  over  this  immense  surface  A  remarkable  uniformity 
of  charactpr.  M.  Beketofl'  subdivides  it  iutp  two  portions — the 
forest  region  proper,  and  the  "Ante-Steppe"*  (pr«;'s.>/j?V).  The 
nurtherc  limit  of  the  Ante-Stcnpe  would  be  represerted  by  a  line 
irawn  from  the  South  Pruth  through  Zhitomir,  Kursk.  TambntT, 
ind  Stavropol-on-Volga.  to   the  sources   of  the  Ural.     But    the 


forest  region  proper  itself  presents  certain  variety  of  aspect  in 
its  northern  and  southern  parts,  and  must  in  turn  be  again  sub- 
divided into  two  parts — the  coniferous  region  and  that  of  the  oak 
forests, — these  being  separated  by  a  line  drawn  through  Pskoff, 
Kostroma,  Kazaii,  and  Ufa.  Of  course-  t?he  oak  occurs  farther 
north  than  this,  and  conifer  forests  extend  farther  south,  advancing 
even  to  the  border-region  of  the  Steppes  ;  but  this  line  must  strll 
be-  considered  as  important.  To  the  north  of  it  we  have  dense 
forests,  covering  very  large  areas,  and  interntpted  oftcner  bj 
marshes  than  by  meadows  or  cultivated  fields.  Vast  and  impene 
trable  forests,  unpassable  marshes  and  thickets,  frequent  lakes 
swampy  meadows,  with  cleared  and  dry  spaces  here  and  there  occu 
pied  by  villages,  are  the  leading  features  of  the  region.  Fishing 
and  hunting  are  tlio  important  sources  of  livelihood.  Tho 
characteristics  of  what^may  be  described  as  the  oak  region,  which 
comprises  all  central  Russia,  are  totally  difl'ere'nt.  The  surface  is 
undulatory ;  marshy  meadow  lands  no  longer  exist  on  the  flat 
watersheds,  and  only  a  few  shelter  themselves  in  the.much  deeper 
and  broader  river  valleys.  Forests  are  still  numerous  where  not 
destroyed  by  man,  but  their  character  has  changed.  Conifers  are 
rare,, and  the  Scotch  pine,  which  covers  tho  sandy  .plains,  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  Abies  ;  birch,  oak,  and  other  deciduous  trees 

I  Bitjiiographii. — J/*mojr3  of  the  Central  Physical  Observatory;  Repertoritim 
fiir  A/eteorologif  and  MeleoroJogiral  Sbornik,  published  by  the  same  body  ;  Ves- 
selovsky,  C/imatc  o/ /fiwjta  (Russian) ;  Wild,  TempirattirrVerhaUnisie  tfe*  Rvis. 
R.,  IS&l ;  Woyclkoff,  The  Climates  of  the  Globe,  1884  (Russ.\  con'aining  the  best 
peneial  information  about  the'climate  of  Russia;  Klossovsky.  Thundentormt  ip 
R'i^sia,  1SS5  (Rusa,);  i/evioirx  and  J:reslia  of  the  Geofrraphicai  Society;  many 
papcis  in  the  Memoirs  and  Bulletin  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  in  the  Trudy 
of  the  Scientific  Societies  at  the  Universities,  in  the  Moscow  Bullctifi,  Ac.'; 
WoycikofT  and  Leist  in  Appendi,\  to  Russian  tianslation  of  £lisc  Reclus'r.  Geogr. 
t'nir.;  >Voyv  r.:nfr,  Ui  Russkttj  Kalenda>  and  lu  J/cm.  Russ.  Geogr.Soe.,  183|5 


FAUN  A.  J 

compose  the  forests,  tlie  soil  of  which  is  dry,  and  the  extension 
of  which  is  interrupted  hy  green  prairies.  -* "Viewed  from  a  rising 
ground,  the  landscape  presents  a  pleasing  variety  of  corn-field  and 
forest,  while  the  horizon  is  broken  by  the  bell-towers  of  numerous 
villages  along  tl>:  banks  of  the  streams. 

Viewed  as  a  whole,  the  flora  of  the  forest  region  must  be  regarded 
as  European-Siberian  ;  and,  though  certain  species  disappear  towards 
the  east,  while  new  ones  make  their  appearance,  it  maintains,  on 
the  whole,  the  same  characters  throughout  from  Poland  to  Kam- 
chatka. Thus  the  beech  {Fagics  sylvatica),  a  characteristic  tree 
of  western  Europe,  is  unable  to  face  the  continental  climate  of 
Russia,  and  does  not  penetrate  beyond  Poland  and  the  south- 
western provinces,  reappearing  again  in  the  Crimea.  The  silver  fir 
(pichia)  does  not  extend  over  Russia,  and  the  oak  does  not  cross  the 
Urals.  On  the  other  hand,  several  Asiatic  species  {Siberian  pine, 
llarch,  cedar)  grow  freely  in  the  north-east,  while  several  shrubs 
laud  herbaceous  plants,  originally  from  the  Asiatic  steppes,  Jiave 
S^iread  into  the  south-east.  But  all  these  do  not  greatly  alter  the 
;'^3neral  characters  of  the  vegetation.  The  coniferous  forests  of 
:2&  north  contain,  besides  conifers,  the  birch  (Betula  alba,  B.  pub- 
'.  -cens^  B.  fruiicosa^  and  B.  vcTTUCosa,  which  extend  from  *he 
.'etchora  to  the  Caucasus),  the  jispen,  two  species  of  alder,  the 
i^ountain-ash  {Sorbus  aucuparia),  the  wild  cherry-tree,  and  three 
:-^£cie3  of  willow.  South  of  62*- 64°  north  latitude,  appears  the 
-ics-trce,  which  multiplies  rapidly  and,  notwithstanding  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  is  being  exterminated,  constitutes  entire 
Torssts  in  the  east  (central  Volga,  Ufa).  Farther  south  the  ash 
(Ft'ixinUs  excelsior)  and  the  oak  make  their  appearance,  the  latter 
ig^hi^'rcus  pgrfi/?icu?gto)  reaching  in  isolated  groups  and  trees  as  far  as 
^§t  Petersburg  and  South. Finland  {Q.  Bobnr  appears  oijly  in  the 
wCUth-west).  The  hornbeam  is  prevalent  in  the  Ukraine,  and  the 
ii£T)le  begins  to  appear  in  the  south  part  of  the  coniferous  region. 
Za'xhe  forest  region  no  fewer  than  772  flowering  species  are  found, 
ex  which  668  dicotyledons  occur  in  the  Archangel  government  (only 
i36  to  the  east  of  the  White  Sea,  which  is  a  botanical  limit  for  many 
species).  In  central  Russia  the  species  become  still  more  numerous, 
and,  though  tjie  local  floras  cannot  yet  be  considered  complete,  they 
number  from  850'to  1050  species  in  the  separate  governments,  and 
about  1600  in  the  best  colored  parts  of  the  south-west.  Corn  is 
cultivated  throughout  this  region.  Its  northern  limits — which  are 
sare  to  advance  still  farther  as  the  population  increases — almost 
reach  the  Arctic  coast  at  the  Varanger  Fiord  ;  farther  east  they 
hardly  extend  to  the  north  of  Archangel,  and  the  limit  is  still 
lower  towards  the  Urals.  The  northern  frontier  of  rye  closely  corre- 
sponds to  that  of  barley.  Wheat  is  cultivated  in  South  Finland, 
bat  in  western  Russia  it  hardly  passes  58"  N.  lat.  Its  true  domains 
are  the  oak  region  and  the  Steppes.  Fruit-trees  are  cultivated  as 
far  as  62*  N.  in  Finland,  and  as  far  as  58*  in  the  east.  Apricots 
and  walnuts  flourish  at  Warsaw,  but  in  Russia  they  do  not  extend 
beyond  50".  Apples,  pears,  and  cherries  are  grown  throughout  the 
oak  region. 

The  Region  of  tlie  Steppes,  which  covers  all  southern  Russia,  may 
be  subdivided  into  two  zones — an  intermediate  xone  and  that  of 
the  Steppes  proper.  Tlie  Ante-Steppe  of  the  preceding  region  and 
the  intermediate  zone  of  the  .Steppes  include  those  tracts  where 
the  West-European  climato  struggles  with  the  Asiatic,  and  where 
a  struggle  is  being  carried  on  between  the  forest  and  the  Steppe. 
It  is  comprised  between  the  summer  isotherms  of  59°  and  63",  being 
bounded  on  the  south  by  a  lino  which  runs  through  EkaterinoslatT 
and  Lugaft.  South  of  this  line  begin  the  Steppes  proper,  which 
extend  to  the  sea  and  penetrate  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Caucasus. 

The  Steppes  proper  are  very  fertile  elevated  plains,  slightly 
undulated,  and  intersected  by  numerous  ravines  which  are  dry  in 
summer.  The  undulations  are  scarcely  apparent  to  the  eye  as  it 
takes  in  a  wide  prospect  under  a  blazing  sun  and  with  a  deep-blue 
sky  overhead.  Not  a  tree  is  to  be  seen,  the  few  woods  and 
thickets  being  hidden  iu  the  depressions  and  deep  valleys  of  the 
rivers.  On  the  thick  sheet  of  black  earth  by  which  the  Steppe  is 
covered  a  luxuriant  vegetation  develops  in  spring  ;  after  the  old 
^aaa  has  been  burned  a  bright  green  covers  immense  stretches, 
out  this  rapidly  disappears  under  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  and 
'he  hot  easterly  winds.  The  colouring  of  the  Steppe  changes  as 
^'"  by  magic,  and  only  the  silvery  jdumes  of  the  koi^yl  {Stipa 
tijfcnnaM)  wave  under  the  wind,  giving  the  Steppe  the  aspect  of  a 
Jright  yellow  sea.  For  days  together  the  traveller  sees  no  other 
vegetation  ;  even  this,  however,  disappears  as  he  nears  the  regions 
recently  left  dry  from  the  Caspian,  wnere  salted  clays  covered  with 
d  few  Salsotacete,  or  mere  sanas,  take  the  place  of  the  black-earth. 
Hiro  begins  the  Aral«Caspian_de8ert.  The  Steppe,  however,  is  not 
r.o  devoid  of  trees  as  at  firat,  eight  appears.  Innumerable  clusters 
ofTTild  cherries  (Prumis  Chammcerasus),  wild  apricots  {Amygdalus 
:w:rt«),  (chilizknik  {Caragaru^  frutejcens),  and  other  deep-rooted 
rr.rcb-  ^row  in  the  depressions  of  the  surface  and  on  the  slopes  of 
the  ravineB,  giving  the  Steppe  that  charm  which  manifests  itself  in 
t!»  popular  poetry.  Unfortunately  the  spread  of  cultivation  is  fatal 
to  these  oases  {they  are  ofwn  called  "  islands  "  by  the  inhabitants) ; 
tho  a::;  and  the  plough  ruthlessly  destroy  thero. 


E  U  S  S  I  A 


t  i 


The  vegetation  of  the  poimy  and  zaimischas  in  the  marshy 
bottoms  of  the  ravines,  and  iu  the  valleys  of  streams  and  rivers,  is 
totally  diff'erent.  The  moist  soil  gives  free  development  to  thickets 
of'various  willows  {Salicbux),  bordered  with  dense  walls  of  worm- 
wood and  needle-bearing  Composita,  and  interspersed  with  rid;  but 
not  extensive  prairies  harbouring  a  great  variety  of  herbnceons 
plants  ;  while  in  the  deltas  of  the  Black  Sea  rivers  impeuetrable 
masses  of  rush  (ArvJido  Phrag^tes)  shelter  a  forest  fauna.  But 
cultivation  rapidly  changes  the  physiognomy  of  the  Steppe.  The 
prairies  are  superseded  by  wheat-fields,  and  flocks  of  sheep  destroy 
the  true  steppe-grass  [Stipa  pennaia),  which  retires  farther  east. 

A  great  many  species  unknown  in  the  forest  region  make  their- 
appearance  in  the  Steppes.  The  Scotch  pine  still  covers  sandy 
spaces,  and  maple  {Acer  tatarica  and  A.  canipcsCre),  the  hombcDm, 
and  the  white  and  black  poplar  become  quite  common.  The  number 
of  species  of  herbaceous  plants  rapidly  increases,  while  beyond  the 
Volga  a  variety  of  Asiatic  species  join  the  West-European  flora. 

Tho  Circum- Mediterranean  Region  is  represented  by  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  on  the  south  coast  of  the  Crimea,  where  a  climate 
similar  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  has  permitted  the 
development  of  a  flora  closely  resembling  that  of  the  valley  of  the 
Arno.  Of  course,  human  cultivation  has  not  yet  acclimatized 
there  the  same  variety  of  plants  as  that  imported  into  Italy  since 
the  Romans.  It  has  even  destroyed  tho  rich  forests  which  sixty 
years  ago  made  deer-hunting  possible  at  Khersones.  The  olive 
and  the  chestnut  are  rare ;  but  the  beach  reappears,  and  the 
Pimcs  Pinaster  recalls  the  Italian  pines.  At  a  few  points,  such  as 
che  Nikitsky  garden  and  Alupka,  where  plants  have  been  accli- 
matized by  human  agency,  the  Californian  WcUingtonia,  the 
Lebanon  cedar,  mmy  evergreen  trees,  the  laurel,  the  cypress,  and 
even  the  Anatolian  palm  [Chamwrops  excelsa)  flourish.  The 
grass  veg^^tation  is  very  rich,  and,  according  to  lists  still  incom- 
plete, no  fewer  than  1654  flowering  plants  are  known.  On  the 
whole,  the  Crimean  flora  has  little  in  common  with  that  of  the 
Caucasus,  where  only  244  Crimean  species  have  as  yet  been  found.  ^ 

The  fauna  of  European  Russia  does  not  very  materially  difi"er  ^auna, 
from  that  of  western  Europe.  In  the  forests  not  njany  animals 
which  have  disappeared  from  westeni  Europe  have  held  their 
ground  ;  while  in  the  Urals  only  a  few — now  Siberian,  but  formerly 
also  European — are  met  with.  On  the  whole,  Russia  belongs  to 
the  same  zoo-geographical  region  as  central  Europe  and  northern 
Asia,  the  same  fauna  extending  in  Siberia  as  far  as  the  Yenisei 
and  Lena.  In  south-eastern  Russia,  however,  towards  the  Caspian, 
we  find  a  notable  admixture  of  Asiatic  species,  the  deserts  of  that 
part  of  Russia  belonging  in  reality  rather  to  the  Aral-Caspian 
depression  than  to  Europe. 

For  the  zoo-geographer  only  three  separate  sub-regions  appear 
on  the  East-European  plains — the  tundras,  including  tho  Arctic 
islands,  the  forest  region,  especially  tho  coniferous  part  of  it,  and 
ihe  Ante-Steppe  and  Steppes  of  the  black-earth  region.  The  Ural 
mounts-ins  might  be  distinguished  as  a  fourth  sub-region,  wbiie 
the  south  coast  of  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus,  as  well  as  the  Caspian 
deserts,  have  their  own  individuality. 

As  for  the  adjoining,  seas,  the  fauna  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  off  the 
Norwegian  coast  corrcspo.:d3,  in  its  western  parts  Sit  least,  to  t^iat 
of  the  North  Atlantic  Gulf  Stream.  The  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  the  east  of  Svyatoi  Nos  belong  to  a  separate  zoological 
region  Connected  with,  and  hardly  separable  from,  that  part  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean^which  expends  along  the  Siberinjt  cop.st  as  far  as  to 
about  the  Lena,  The  Black'Sea,  of  which  the  fauna  was  formerly 
little  known  but  now  appears^to  be  very  rich,  belongs,  to  the  Medi- 
teiTanean  region,  slightly  mo'dified,  while  the  Caspign  partakes  of 
the  characteristic  fauna  inhabiting  the  lakes  and  seas  of  the  Aral- 
Caspian  depression. 

In  the  region  of  the  tundras  life  has  to  contend  .vitli  such  un- 
favourable conditions  that  it  cannot  be  abundant.  Still,  the  rein- 
deer frequents  it  for  its  lichens,  and  on  the  drier  slopes  of  tho 
moraine  deposits  four  species  of  lemming,  hnntied  by  the  Canis 
lagopus,  find  quarters.  Two  species  of  the  whifx^  partridge  (Lagopits 
albus,  L.  alpimtfi),  the  lark,  one  Plectrophnnes,  two  or  three  Bpccics 
of  Sylvia,  one  Pkylloscopus,  and  the  Molacilla  mi  st  be  added. 
Numberless  aquatic  birds,  however,  visit  it  for  bretdii  g  purposes. 
Ducks,  divers,  geese,  gulls,  will  the  Russian  species  of  snipes  and 
sandpipers  {Liinicula,  Tringa),  &c.,  cover  the  marshes  of  the 
tundras,  or  the  crags  of  the  Lapland  coast. 

The  forest  region,  and  especially  its  coniferous  portion,  though  it 
has  lost  some  of  its  representatives  within  histor.c  times,  is  still 
rich.  The  reindeer,  rapidly  disappearing,  is  now  met  with  only  in 
Olonetr  and  Vologda  ;  the  Cervus  pygargxts  fa  fcmid  everywhere, 
and  reaches  Novgorod.    The  weaacl,  the  fox,  and  the  hare  are  exceed- 

'  BilUographjf.—'BtV.ttolt,  App«n(I!x  to  RiiwtRn  translatl)!!  of  Gilcsebach  and 
Rechis't  G^o^.  Univ.;  Ledebour, /"'ora  Ro$iiea;  Traotvttter,  RotHa  Aretfcie 
pJantm,  1880;  Id.,  Flora  Rouiem  Fontet;  for  flora  of  tb»  tundiBR,  Beketoff'a 
"Flora  of  Archangel."  \n  Mem.  Soc.  A'arurat  St  Peteraburs  unlvereity.  xv.,  1^4; 
Kegel,  Flora  Rosiica,  1894  ;  florao  of  aeparato  govonimciit?^  In  several  acienUflo 
periodical!  ;  Brown,  Fortitry  in  tfia  UMn^  DiUricta  of  tht  Urali,  1888;  Rtport* 
by  CommUalonera  of  Wooui  and  Foreati  In  Ruaala,  ISW :  Forcitry  Alm^iiao 
(Lyffnoi  Kafeiidar)  for  1886. 


78 


RUSSIA 


[fauxa. 


in^ly  conunon,  ns  also  tlii"'  wolf  ami  the  bear  ia  the  north  ;  Imt 
the  glutton  {Ottfo  borcatis),  the  lynx,  and  even  the  elk  {Calces) 
arc  rapidly  disappciriug.  The  wild  boar  is  confined  to  the  basin 
of  the  Diina,  and  the  Bhon  curo}Ka  to  the  Biclovyezha  forests. 
'Hie  sable  has  (iiiite  disappeared,  being  found  only  on  the  Urals  ; 
the  beaver  is  found  at  a  few  places  in  Jlinsk,  and  the  otter 
is  very  rare.  On  the  other  hand,  the  hnro  {roussnk)^  and  also  the 
grey  partridge  {Perdix  cincrea),  the  hedgehog,  the  quail,  the  lark, 
the  rouk  (Tnjpanocorax  ffiigi/cgn),  and  the  stork  find  their  way 
into  the  conitoroua  region  as  the  forests  are  cleared  (Bogdanoff). 
The  avif.uina  of  this  region  is  very  rirh;  it  includes  all  the  forest 
and  garden  birds  which  are  known  in  western  Europe,  as  well  as 
a  very  great  variety  of  aquatic  birds.  A  list,  still  incomplete,  of 
the  birdi  of  St  Petersburg  shows  251  species.  Hunting  and  shoot- 
ing give  oecnpatiou  to  a  great  number  of  persons.  The  reptiles 
are  lev.-.  As  tor  fishes,  all  those  of  western  Europe,  except  the 
carp,  are  met  w^th  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  in  immense  quantities, 
the  characteristic  feature  of  the  region  being  its  wealth  in  Corcgoni 
and  in  SaLaonidie  generally. 

In  the  Ante-Steppe  the  forest  species  proper,  such  as  Ptcroniys 
volors  and  Taiaias  striatus,  disappear,  but  the  common  squirrel 
{Sciiirus  vulgaris),  the  weasel,  and  the  bear  are  still  met  with 
ii:  the  forests.  The  hare  is  increasing  rapidly,  as  well  as  the  fox. 
The  avifauna,  of  course,  becomes  poorer  ;  nevertheless  the  woods 
of  the  Steppe,  and  still  more  the  forests  of  the  Ante-Steppe, 
give  refuge  to  many  birds,  even  to  the  hazel-hen  {Tctrao  bonasia), 
the  woodcock,  and  the  black  grouse  {Tctrao  tcfrh;  T.  vrogallus). 
The  fauna  of  the  thickets  at  the  bottom  of  the  river  valleys  is 
tiecidedly  rich,  and  includes  aquatic  birds.  The  destruction  of 
thp  forests  and  the  advance  of  wheat  into  the  prairies  arc  rapidly 
impoverishing  the  Steppe  fauna.  The  various  species  of  rapacious 
animals  are  disappearing,  together  with  the  colonies  of  marmots  ; 
the  insectivores  are  also  becoming  scarce  in  consequence  of  the 
destruction  of  insects,  while  vermin,  such  as  the  suslik  {Spcrvw- 
pkilus,  see  JIarmot),  become  a  real  plague,  as  also  the  destructive 
insects  which  have  been  a  scourge  to  agriculture  during  recent 
years.^  The  absence  of  Coregoni  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
lish-fauna  of  the  Steppes;  the  carp,  on  the  contrary,  reappeai-s, 
and  the  rivers  are  rich  in  sturgeous  {Acipcnscridcs).  On  the  Volga 
bcdow  Kijiii  Novgorod  the  sturgeon  {Acipcnscr  ruthcnus),  and 
others  of  the  same  family,  as  also  a  very  great  variety  of  ganoids 
and  Tclccski,  appear  in  such  quantities  "that  they  give  occupation 
to  nearly  100,000  tieople.  The  igpuths  of  the  Caspian  rivers  are 
especially  celebrated  for  their  wealth  of  fish.- 
Ethno-  PreKistoric  anthropology  is  a  science  of  very  recent  gi-owth  in 
graphy.  Russia;  and,  notwithstanding  the  energy  displayed  within  that 
field  during  the  last  twi^nty  years,  the  task  of  reconstructing  the 
early  history  of  man  on  the  plains  of  eastern  Europe  is  daily  becom- 
ing more  complicated  as  new  data  are  brought  to  light.  Remains 
of  Pah^olithic  man,  contemporary  with  the  lar^c  Quaternary 
mammals,  are  few  in  Russia;  they  are  known  only  in  Poland, 
Pottava,  and  Voronezh,  and  perhaps  also  on  the  Oka.  Those  of  the 
later  portions  of  the  Lacustrine  period,  on  the  contrary,  are  so 
tiumerous  that  scarcely  one  old  lacustrine  b.i^in  in  the  regions  of  the 
Oka,  the  Kama,  the  Dnieper,  not  to  speak  of  the  lake-region  itself, 
and  even  the  AVhitc  Sea  coasts,  can  be  mentioned  where  remains 
of  Neolithic  man  have  not  been  discovered,  showing  an  unexpected 
variety  of  minor  anthropological  features,  even  at  that  remote 
period.  The  Russian  plains  nave  been,  however,  the  scene  of  so 
many  migi-ations  of  various  races  of  mankind,  the  dwelling-places 
of  prehistoric  man  and  the  routes  followed  during  his  migi\ations 
were  so  clearly  indicated  by  natural  conditions,  and  so  often  re- 
occupied,  or  again  covered  by  new  waves  of  colonization  and  migra- 
tion, that  at  many  places  a  series  of  deposits  belonging  to  widely 
distant  epochs  are  found  superposed.  Settlements  belonging  to  the 
Stone  age,  and  manufactories  of  stone  implements,  burial  grounds 
{kostishchas)  of  the  Bronze  epoch,  earthen  forts  {gorodis/tchas),  and 

»  The  Tear  ISA4  uilh  regard  to  Agriculture^  St  Petcraburg,  18So,  gives  nearly 
complete  lists  of  thera. 

2  bibi iogi  aphy.—TixGTe  being  no  general  recent  Tvoik  published  on  the  fauna 
of  Rnssia,  beyond  a  valuable  sketch  (for  the  coneial  reader)  by  M,  Bogdanoff  in 
the  Appendix  to  the  Russian  translation  of  Rec'.us'a  Ceogr,  Vntr.,  v.,  the  classical 
work  of  PjUds,  Zoographin  Roao-Asialica^  and  the  works  dealing  with  diHerent 
departments  of  the  fauna  la  different  parts  of  Russia,  must  be  readied  to.  These 
Include  the  follo\vinff; — Syevertsoff,  for  the  birds  of  south-eastern  Russia;  Bog- 
danoEf,  Birds  and  Mam  ma  fs  of  the  Black'  Earth  Region  of  the  Volga  Basin  ;  Kare- 
lin for  the  southern  Urals;  Kessler  for  fishes;  Stiauch.  Die  Schlangen  des  Russ.  R., 
for  reptiles  generally;  Rodoszkowski  and  the  publications  of  the  Entomological 
Society  geneiaily  for  insects;  Czemlavsky  for  the  marine  fauna  of  the  Black  Sea; 
Kc?t.ler  for  that  of  Lakes  Onega  and  tadoga;  Grimm  for  the  Caspian;  and  the 
publications  of  the  scientific  societies  for  a  very  great  number  of  monopraplia 
dealing  with  departments  of  the  fauna  of  sepaialc  governments,  seas,  and  lakes. 
The  fauna  of  the  Baltic  provinces  ia  described  in  full  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
scientific  bodies  of  these  provinces,  illddendorffs  Stbinsche  Reise,  vol.  iv.. 
ZqoIooV-  though  dealine  more  especially  i*ith  Siberia,  is  an  Invaluable  source  of 
Information  for  the  Russian  fauna  generally.  Vega-erpeditionens  VeteinkapHga 
Jaktlageher  may  be  consulted  for  the  mammals  of  the  tundra  region  and  marine 
fauna.  For  more  detailed  bibUogrnphical  Information  see  Aper^u  des  travaur 
goo-gcogrnphiqiies,  published  at  St  Petersburg  in  coime,"ilon  with  the  Exhibition  of 
IS78;  and  the  index  Uln:n(el  Rm^lot  Literatury  for  natural  science,  mathema- 
tics, and  me<ilcine.  published  since  \^'2  ty  the  Society  of  the  Kleff  university. 


grave  mounds  ykurgan^) — of  tMcIi  last  four  different  types  arc 
known,  the  earliest  belonging  to  the  Bronze  period — are  superposed 
upon  and  obliterate  one  anotlier,  so  that  a  long  series  of  researches, 
is  necessary  in  ordoi'that  sound  generalizations  may  be  reached. 

Two  different  races — a  brachyccphalic  and  a  dolichocephalic— can 
be  distinguished  among  the  remains  of  the  earlier  Stone  period 
(Lacustrine  period)  as  having  inhabited  the  plains  of  eastern  Euroi>c. 
But  they  are  separated  by  so  many  genei-ations  from  the  earliest 
historic  times  that  sure  conclusions  regarding  them  are  impossible; 
at  all  events,  as  yet  Russian  a  re  hseo  legists  are  not  agreed  as  to 
whether  the  ancestors  of  the  Slavonians  were  Sannatiaus  only  or 
Scythians  also  (Samokvasoff,  Lemi^re),  whose  skulls  have  nothing 
in  common  with  those  of  the  SlongoliAn  race.  The  earliest  points 
that  can,  comparatively  speaking,  be  regarded  as  settled  must  thus 
be  taken  from  the  1st  ceiTtury,  when  the  Northern  Finns  migrated 
from  the  North  Dwina  region  towards  the  west,  and  the  Sarmatians 
were  compelled  to  leave  tbo  region  of  the  Don,  and  to  cross  the 
Russian,  steppes  from  cast  to  west,  under  the  pressure  of  the  Aorzes 
(the  Mordvinian  Erzya  ?)  and  Siraks,  wfio  in  their  turn  were  soon 
followed  by  the  Huns  and  the  Ugur-Turkish  stem  of  Avars. 

It  appears  certain,  moreover,  that  in  the  7th  century  southern 
Russia  was  occupied  by  the  empire  of  the  Khazars  (j.u.),  who 
drove  the  Bulgarians,  descendants  of  the  Huns,  from  the  Don,  one 
section  of  them  migrating  up  the  Volga  to  found  there  the  Bul- 
garian empire,  and_  the  remainder  migrating  towards  the  Danube. 
This  migration  compelled  the  Northern  Finns  to  advance  farther 
west,  and  a  mixture  of  Tavasts  and  Karclians  penetrated  to  the 
south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland. 

Finally,  it  is  certain  that  as  early  as  the  8th  century,  and 
probably  still  earlier,  a  stream  of  Slavonian  colonization,  advancing 
eastward  from  the  Danube,  was  thrown  on  the  plains  of  south- 
western Russia.  It  is  also  most  probable  that  another  similar 
stream — the  northern,  coming  from  the  Elbe,  through,  the  basin  of 
the  Vistula — ought  to  bo  distinguished.  In  the  9th  century  the 
Slavonians  already  occupied  the  Upper  Vistula,  the  southern  part 
of  the  lake  region,  and  the  central  plateau  in  its  western  parts. 
They  had  Lithuanians  to  the  west ;  various  Finnish  stems,  mi.ved 
towards  the  south-east  with  Turkisli  stems  (the  present  Bashkirs)  ; 
the  Bulgars,  whose  origin  still  remains  doubtful,  on  the  middle 
Volga  and  Kama  ;  and  to  the  south-east  the  Turkish-SIongolinn 
world  of  the  Petchenegs,  Potovtsi,  Uzes,  &c.  ;  while  in  the  sonti., 
along  the  Black  Sea,  extended  the  empire  of  the  Khazars,  who  kept 
under  their  rule  several  Slavonian  stems,  and  perhaps  also  some  of 
Finnish  origin.  In  the  9tli  century  also  the  Ugrians  are  supposed 
to  have  left  their  Ural  abodes  and  to  liave  crossed  south-eastern  and 
southern  Russia  on  their  way  to  the  basin  of  the  Danube. 

If  these  numerous  migrations  on  the  plains  of  Russia  be  taken 
into  account,  and  if  we  add  to  them  the  Mongolian  invasion,  t:ie 
migration  of  South  Slavonians  towards  the  Oka,  the  Norch 
Slavonian  colonization  extending  north-east  towards  the  Urals  and 
thence  to  Siberia,  tlie  slow  advance  of  Slavonians  into  Fiuuidi 
territory  on  the  Volga,  and  at  a  later  period  their  advance  into  tiio 
prairies  on  the  Black  Sea,  driving  back  the  Turkish  stems  which 
occupied  tliem, — if  we  consider  the  manifold  mUtual  influences  af 
these  three  races  on  one  another,  we  shall  be  able  to  form  a  fai;it 
idea  of  the  present  population  of  European  Russia. 

If  the  Slavonians  be  subdivided  into  three  branches — the  weste:-n 
(Poles,  Czechs,  and  Wends\  the  southern  (Serbs,  Bulgarians,  Crca- 
tians,  &c.),  and  the  eastern  (Great,  Little,  and  White  Russians), 
it  will  be  seen  that,  with  the  exception  of  some  3,000,000 
Ukrainians  or  Little  Russians,  in  East  Galicia  and  In  Poland,  and 
a  few  on  the  south  slope  of  the  Carpathians,  the  whole  of  the 
East  Slavonians  occupy,  as  a  compact  body,  western,  central,  and 
southern  Russia. 

Like  other  races  o£  mankind,  the  Russian  race  is  not  a  pure  one. 
The  Russians  have  taken  in  and  assimilated  in  the  course  of  their 
history  a  variety  of  Finnish  and  Turco-Finnish  elements.  Still, 
'  craniological  researches  show  that,  notwithstanding  this  fact,  the 
Slavonian  type  has  maintained  itself  with  remarkable  persistency — 
Slavonian  skulls  ten  and  thirteen  centuries  old  exhibiting  the  same 
anthropological  features  as  are  seen  in  those  of  our  own  day.  This 
may  be  explained  by  a  variety  of  causes,  of  which  the  chief  is  the 
maintenance  by  the  Slavonians  down  to  a  very  late  period  of  gentile 
organization  and  gentile  marriages,  a  fact  vouched  for,  not  only  in 
the  pages  of  Nestor,  but  still  more  by  deep  traces  still  visible  in  the 
face  of  society,  the  gens  later  on  passing  into  the  village  community, 
and  the  colonization  being  carried  on  by  great  compact  bodies. 
This  has  all  along  maintained  the  same  characters.  The  Russians 
do  not  emigrate  as  isolated  individuab  ;  they  migrate  in  whole 
villages.  The  overwhelming  numbers  of  the  Slavonians,  and  the 
very  great  differences  in  ethnical  type,  belief,  mythology,  between 
the  Aryans  and  Turanians,  may  have  contributed  in  the  same 
direction,  and  throughout  the  written  history  of  the  Slavonians  we 
see  that,  while  a  Russian  man,  far  away  from  hia  homo  among 
Siberians,  readily  manies  a  native,  the  Russian  woman  seldom  does 
the  like.  All  these  causes,  and  especially  the  first-mentioned,  have 
enabled  the  Slavonians  to  maintaia   their  cthnic&l  features   id  a 


RUSSIA 


ETHNOGKAPHY.j 

relatively  high  degree  of  liurity,  so  -ns  to  assimilate  foreign  dements 
and  make  them  reinforce  or  improve  the  ethnical  type,  without 
giving  rise  to  half-breed  races.  Tlie  maintenance  of  tho  very  same 
North-Russian  tj'pe  from  Novgorod  to  the  Pacific,  -Rith  but  minor 
difTerentiations.  on  the  .  outskirti — and  this  notwithstanding  the 
great  variety  of  races  with  which  the  Russians  came  in  contact-— 
cannot  but  strike  the  observer.  But  a  closer  observation  of  what  is 
^oiug  on  even  now  on  the  recently  colonized  confines  of  the  empire 
—where  whole  villages  live,  and  will  continue  to  live,  without 
mixing  with  natives,  but  very  slowly  bringing  them  over  to  the 
•Russian  manner  of  life,  and  then  very  slowly  taking  in  a  few  female 
elements  from  them— gives  the  key  to  this  prominent  feature  of 
Russian  life,  which  is  a  colonization  on  an  immense  scale,  and  ■ 
assimilation  of  foreignei-s,  without  in  tuni  losing  the  primary 
ethnical  features. 

Not  so  with  the  national  customs.  There  are  features — tne 
wooden  house,  the  oven,  the  bath — which  the  Russian  never 
abandons  though  lost  amidst  alien  populations.  But  when  settled 
among  these  the  Russian— the  North-Russian — readily  adapts  him- 
self to  many  other  differences.  He  speaks  Finnish  with  Finns, 
Mongolian  with  Burials,  Ostiak  with  Ostiaks  ;  he  shows  remarkable 
facility  in  adapting  his  agricultural  practices  to  new  conditions, 
without,  however,  abandoning  the  village  community  ;  he  becomes 
hiu.'ter,  cattle-breeder,  or  fisherman,  and  carries  on  these  occu])a- 
tions  according  to  local  usage  ;  he  modifies  his  dress  and  adapts  his 
religious  beliefs  to  the  locality  he  inhabits.  In  consequence  of  all 
this,  the  Russian  peasant  (not,  be  it  noted,  the  trader)  must  be 
recognized  as  the  best  colonizer  among  the  Aryans  ;  he  lives  on  the 
best  terms  with  Ostiaks,  Tartars,  Buriats,  and  even  with  Red 
Indians  when  lost  in  the  prairies  of  the  American  Far-AVest. 
SuV  Three    different   branches,    which  may   become   three  separate 

divisions  nationalities,  can  be  distinguished  among  the  Russians  since  the 
of  Rns-  ;lawn  of  their  history  : — the  Great  Russians,  the  Little  Russians 
sians.  ^M^lorusses  or  Ukrainians),  and  the  White  Russians  (the  Bielo- 
nisscs).  These  coiTespond  to  tlie  two  currents  of  immigration 
raer:tioned  above,  tho  northern  and  southern,  with  perhaps  an  inter- 
mediate one,  the  proper  place  of  the  White  Russians  not  having 
■^-S  yet  been  exactly  determined.  The  primary  distinctions  between 
Ihcso  branches  have  been  increased  during  the  last  nine  centuries 
by  their  contact  with  different  nationalities, — the  Great  Russians 
taking  in  Finnish  elements,  the  Little  Russians  undergoing  an 
admixture  of  Turkish  blood,  and  the  White  Russians  submitting  to 
Lithuanian  influence.  Moreover,  notwithstanding  the  unity  of  lan- 
guage, it  is  easy  to  detect  among  the  Great  Russians  themselves  two 
toparate  branches,  differing  from  one  another  by  slight  divergences 
of  language  and  type  and  deep  diversities  of  national  character, — 
the  Central  Russians  and  the  Novgorodians  ;  the  latter  extend 
throughout  northern  Russia  into  Siberia.  They  correspond,  perhaps, 
to  .'subdivisions  mentioned  by  Nestor.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  more- 
over, that  many  minor  anthropological  features* can  be  distinguished 
both  among  the  Great  and  Little  Russians,  depending  probably  on 
the  assimilation  of  various  minor  subdivisions  of  the  Ural-Altaians. 
The  Great  Russians  number  about '12,000,000,  and  occupy  in  one 
block  the  space  enclosed  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  White  Sea  to 
the  sources  of  the  western  Diina,  the  Dnci])er,  and  the  Donetz, 
and  thence,  through  the  mouth  of  the  Sura,  by  the  Vettuga,  to 
Wczeri.  To  the  east  of  this  boundary  they  are  mixed  witli  Turco- 
Finns,  but  in  the  Ural  Mountains  they  reappear  in  a  compact  body^ 
and  eztend  thence  through  southern  Siberia  and  along  the  coui'ses 
of  the  Lena  and  Amur.  Great  Russian  nonconformists  arc  dissemi- 
nated among  Little  Russians  in  Tchernigoff  and  Moghileff,  and 
they  reappear  in  greater  masses  in  NoTorossia,  as  also  in  northern 
Caucasia. 

The  Little  Riissians,  who  number  about  17,000,000,  occupy  the 
Steppes  of  southern  Russia,  the  south-westera  slopes  of  the  central 
plateau  and  those  of  the  Carpatliian  and  Lublin  mountains,  and  tl\e 
Carpathian  plateau.  The  Sitcli  of  the  Zaporog  Cossacks  colonized 
the  Steppes  farther  east,  towards  the  Don,  where  they  met  with  a 
large    population  of   Great  Russian   runaways,   constituting  the 

rroscnt  Don  Cossacks..  The  Zaporog  Cos-sacks,  sent  by  Catherine 
I.  to  colonize  the  east  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  constituted  there 
the  Black  Sea  and  later  the  K^^bail  Cossacks  (part  of  whom,  the 
Nekrasovtsy,  migrated  to  Turkey).  They  have  also  peo>)1ed  largo 
part*  of  Stavropol  and  northern  Caucasia. 

The  White  Russians,  mixed  to  some  extent  with  Great  and  Little 
Russians,  Poles,  and  Lithuanians,  now  occupy  the  upper  parts  of  the 
western  slopo  of  the  central  plateau.  They  number  about  4,300,000. 
The  Finnish  stems,  which  in  prehistoric  times  extended  from  tho 
Obi  all  over  northern  Russia,  even  then  were  subdivided  into 
Ugrians,  Pcrmians,  Bulgarians,  and  Finns  proper,  who  drove  back 
the  previous  Lapp  population  from  what  is  now  Finland,  and  about 
tho  /th  century  penetrated  to  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  in 
the  region  of  the  Lives  and  Kurs,  where  they  mixed  to  some  extent 
^i*h  Lithuanians  and  Lett 

At  nrosent  the  stems  of  Finnish  origin  are  represented  in  Russia 
bv  th.;  following;— (a)  the  Western  Finns;  the  Tavasts  in  central 
Fin'.aBd;  the  Kviiacs.  in  north-western  Finland;   tho  Karelians 


79 


in  the  cast,  who  also  occupy  tho  lake-regions  of  Olonetz  and 
Archangel,  and  have  settlements  in  separate  villages  in  Novgoicd 
and  Tver  ;  the  Izhora  and  Vod,  which  are  local  names  for  the 
Finns  on  the  Neva  and  the  south-eastern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  ;  the  Esthes  in  Esthonia  and  northern  portion  of  Livonia; 
the  Lives  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga ;  and  the  Kors,  mixed  with  the  Letts ; 
(6)  the  Northern  Finns,  or  Lapps,  in  uortheni  Finland  and  on 
the  Kola  peninsula,  and  the  Samoyedes  in  Archangel  ;  (c)  the 
Volga  Finns,  or  rather  the  old  Bulgarian  branch,  to  which  belong 
the  MoRDViNiANs  {q.v.)  and  perhaps  the  Tcberemisses  in  Kazan, 
Kostroma,  and  Vyatka,  who  are  also  classified  by  some  authors 
with  the  following  ;  {d)  the  Pcrmians,  or  Cis-Uralian  Fiuns,  in- 
cluding the  Votiaks  on  the  east  of  Vyatka,  the  Pei-mians  in  Perm, 
tiie  Zyrians  in  Vologda,  Archangel,  Vyatka,  and  Perm,  and  the 
Tcberemisses  ;  (c)  the  Ugrians,  or  Trans-Uralian  Finns,  including 
the  Voguls  on  both  slopes  of  the  Urals,  the  Ostiaks  in  Tobolsk 
and  partly  in  Tomsk,  and  the  Madjares,  or  Ugrians. 

The  Turco-Tartars  in  European  Russia  number  about  3,600,000. 
The  following  are  their  chief  subdivisions.  (l)The  Tartars,  of  v.  bom 
three,  different  stems  must  be  distinguished  : — («)  the  Kazan  Tartars 
on  both  banks  of  the  Volga,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Oka,  and  on 
the  lower  Kama,  penetrating  also  farther  south  in  Ryazan,  Tamboff, 
Samara,  Simbirsk,  and  Penza  ;  (6)  the  Tartai^s  of  Astrakhan  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Volga ;  and  (c)  those  of  the  Crimea,  a  great  many  of 
whom  have  recently  emigrated  to  Turkey.  There  are,  besides,  a 
certain  number  of  Tartars  from  the  south-east  in  Minsk,  Grodno, 
and  Vilna.  (2)  The  Bashkirs,  who  inhabit  the  slopes  of  tlie  southern 
Urals,  that  is,  the  Steppes  of  Ufa  and  Orenburg,  cxtciuling  also  into 
Perm  and  Samara.  (3)  The  Tchuvashes,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Volga,  iu  Kazan  and  Simbirsk.  (4)  The  Mescheriaks,  a  tribe  of 
Finnish  origin  which  formerly  inhabited  the  basin  of  the  Oka,  and, 
driven  thence  during  the  15th  century  by  the  Russian  colonizers, 
immigrated  into  Ufa  and  Perm,  where  they  now  live  among  Bash- 
kirs, having  adopted  their  religion  and  customs.  (5)  The  Teptei-s, 
also  of  Finnish  origin,  settled  among  Tartars  and  Bashkirs,  together 
with  the  Mescheriaks,  also  in  Samara  and  Vyatka.  They  have 
adopted  the  religion  and  customs  of  tlie  Bashkirs,  from  whom  they 
can  hardly  be  distinguished.  The  Bashkirs,  Mescheriaks,  and 
Tepters  have  rendered  able  service  to  the  Russian  Government 
iigainst  tho  Kirghizes,  and  until  1863  they  constituted  a  separate 
Bashkir  and  Jlescheriak  Cossacks  army,  employed  for  service  in 
the  Kirghiz  Steppe.  (6)  The  Kirghizes,  whose  true  abodes  were  in 
Asia,  in  the  Ishini  and  Kirghiz  Steppe  ;  but  one  section  of  iheni 
crossed  th(;  Urals  and  occupied  the  Steppes  between  the  Urals  and 
tho  Volga.  Only  the  Horde  of  Bukeelf  inhabits  European  Russia, 
north-east  of  Astrakhan,  the  remainder  belonging  to  Turkestan 
and  Siberia. 

The  Mongolian  race  is  represented  in.  Russia  by  the  Lamaite 
Kalmuks,  who  inhabit  the  Steppes  of  Astrakhan  between  the 
Volga,  the  Don,  and  the  Kuma.  Th«y  immigrated  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Volga  from  Dzungaria,  in  the  17th  century, 
driving  out  the  Tartars  and  Nogais,  and*  after  many  wars  with 
the  Don  Cossacks,  followed  by  treaties  of  mutual  assistance  for 
military  excursions,  one  part  of  them  was  taken  in  by  the  Don 
Cossacks,  so  -  that  even  now  there  are  among  these  Cossacks 
several  Kalmuk  sotnias  or  squadrons.  They  live  for  the  most 
part  in  tents,  supporting  themselves  by  cattle-breeding,  "and 
partly  by  agriculture. 

The  Similic  roce  is  represented  in  Russia  by  upwards  of  3,000,000 
Jews  and  3000  Karaites.  The  Jews  first  entered  Poland  from  Ger- 
many during  the  crusades,  and  soon  spread  through  Lithuania,, 
Courland,  the  Ukraine,  and,  in  the  18th  century,  Bessarabia.  The 
rapidity  with  which  they  peopled  certain  towns  and  whole  pro- 
vinces was  really  prodigious.  Thus,  from  having  been  but  a  few 
dozens  at  Odessa  some  eighty  years  since,  they  make  now  one-third 
of  its  population  (73,400,  out  of  207,000).  Tho  law  of  Russia 
prohibits  them  from  entering  Great  Russia,  only  the  wealthiest  and 
most  educated  enjoying  this  privilege  ;  nevertliclcss  lliey  are  met 
witli  everywhere,  even  on  the  Urals.  Their  chief  abodes,  however, 
continue  to  be  Poland,  the  western  provinces  of  Lithuania,  White 
and  Little  Russia,  and  Bessarabia.  In  Russi.in  Poland  they  are  in 
the  proportion  of  1  to  7  inh.abitants.  In  Kovno,  Vilna,  Moghileff, 
Grodno,  Volhynia,  Podolia,  and  probably  also  in  Bessarabia  and 
Kherson,  they  constitute,  on  the  average,  10  to  16  per  cent  of  tho 
population,  while  in  separate  districts  the  i)ioponion  reaches  30 
to  30  per  cent.  (50-5  in  Tchaussy).  Organized  as  they  are  into  a 
kind  of  community  for  mutual  protection  and  mutual  help  (the 
Kabal),  they  soon  become  m.isters  of  tho  trade  wherever  they 
jienetrate.  In  the  villages  they  are  mostly  innkeepers,  interme- 
diaries in  trade,  and  pawnbrokers.  In  many  towns  most  of  the 
skilled  labourers  and  a  great  many  of  tho  unskilled  (for  instance, 
the  grain-porters  at  Odessa  and  elsewhere)  arc  Jews.  In  the  16 
western  provinces  of  Russia  they  numbered  2,843,400  in  1883,  and 
about  432,000  in  five  Polish  provinces.  Less  than  600,000  of  them 
inhabit  villages,  the  remaimfer  being  concentrated  in  towns. 

The  Karaites  differ  entirely  from  tho  Jews  both  iu  worship  ani 
in  mode  of  life.     They,  too,  are  inclined  to  trade,  but  also  success- 


HO 


R  U  b  S  1  A 


[eihnoukaPHi. 


treo- 

.UOribu- 
tiQa  of 
fiices. 


rnllv  cany  on  agriculture.  Those  inhabiting  the  C'iinic;i  siicak 
T.irtar,  ami  tlic  few  who  arc  settled  in  western  Russia  sucak  Polisii. 
Tlu-y  are  on  good  terms  with  the  Russians. 

Ot  'West  Europeaus,  only  tlie  Germans  attain  consulcrable  num- 
bers (u|)\vavds  of  a  million)  in  Europeaj'  Ivussia.  In  the  Baltic 
jirovinces  they  constitute  the  ennobled  landlord  class,  and  that 
uf  tradesmen  and  artisans  in  towns.  Consideniblo  numbers  of 
riernians,  also  tradesmen  and  artisans,  were  scattered  througliout 
many  of  the  larger  towns  of  Russia  as  early  as  the  16tli  century, 
aud  to  a  much  gleatcr  citent  in  the  18th  century,  German  artisans 
'.aving  been  invited  by  the  Government  to  settle  in  Russia,  and 
their  numbers  having  steadily  increased  since.  Fiiiall}-,  numbers 
T  Germans  were  iiivited  in  1702  to  settle  in  southern  Russia,  as 
eiiarate  agricultuial  colonies,  which  gradually  uxlended  in  the  Don 
region  ami  in  northern  Caucasia.  I'rotceted  as  they  were  by  the 
l-ight  of  self-government,  cxemiited  from  military  service,  and 
judowed  with  eonsiderublc  allotments  of  good  land,  these  colonies 
irc  much  wealthier  than  the  neighbouring  Russian  peasants,  from 
vhom  they  have  adopted  the  slowly  niodilicd  vill.ago  community. 
I'hey  are  chielly  Lutherans,  but  many  of  them  belong  to  other  reli- 
.iious  sects, — Anab.i'ptists,  Jloravians,  Mennonites  (about  40,000). 
In  certain  districts  (Akkerman,  Odessa,  Bcrdiansk,  Kamyshin, 
Novouicirik)  tliey  constitijto  from  10  to  40  ])er  cent,  of  the  total 
iiopulatiou.  The"  Swedes,  who  number  about  300,000  in  Finland, 
liardly  leach  12,000  in  European  Russia,  mostly  in  the  Baltic  pro- 
vinces. 

The  Roumanians  (lloldavians)  number  not  less  than  SOO.OOO, 
and  arc  still  increasing.  They  inhabit  the  governments  of  Bess- 
arabia, Podolia,  Kherson,  and  Ekatcrinoslall'.  Ilk  Besi>arabia  they 
constitute  from  one-fourth  to  thrco-fouiths  of  the  population  of 
certain  districts.  On  the  whole,  the  Kovorossian  goveuunclits 
( Ucbsarabia,  Kherson,  EkaterinoslatT,  and  Taiuida)  exhibit  the 
greatest  variety  of  population.  Little  and  Great  Rus-sians,  Rouma- 
nians, Bul'Mrians,  Serbs,  Germans,  Greeks,  Frenchmen,  Poles, 
Tartars,  and  Jews  are  mixed  together  and  scattered  about  in  small 
colonies,  especially  in  Bessarabia.  Of  coui-se,  the  Greeks  inh.abit 
chiefly  the  towns,  where  they  carry  on  trade,  as  also  do  the  Ar- 
nicuians,  scattered  through  the  towns  of  southern  Russia,  and 
appearing  in  larger  uumbera  only  in  tlie  district  of  Kostofl'  (10  per 
cent,  of  population). 

However  great  the  variety  ot  nationalities  inhabiting  European 
Russia,  its  ctlmological  composition  is  nmch  sim]der  than  might  at 
lii>,t  sight  be  supposed.  The  Russians — Great,  Little,  and  WTiite 
— largely  prevail  over  all  others,  both  numerically  ami  as  respects 
the  territories  they  occupy  in  compact  bodies.  Central  Russia  is 
almost  purely  Great  Russian,  and  represents  a  compact  body  of 
more  than  30,000,000  inhabitants  with  but  1  to  5  per  cent,  of 
atlmixture  of  other  nationalities.  The  governments  on  the  Dnieper 
(lueff,  Volhynia,  TcheriiigotT,  Podolia,  and  Pottava),  as  also  the 
adjoining  districts  of  Kharkoft',  yorone:;h,  Kursk,  and  Don,  arc 
Little-Russian,  or  Ukratiiian,  with  but  a  slight  admixture  of  White 
sind  Great  Russians,  and  some  12  per  cent,  of  Jews.  The  Poles 
there  number  only  3  to*6  per  cent,  of  the  population — chiefly  land- 
boMci-s— and  are  hated  by  the  Ukrainians. 

Moghileff,  Vitebskj  and  Jlinsk  are  White  Russian,  the  Poles  con- 
stituting only  3  per  cent,  of  the  population  (16  in  Minsk).  In  other 
liielorussiau  provinces,  the  White  Russians  are  mixed  either  with 
Lithuanians  (Vilna),  or  Ukrainians  (Grodno),  or  Great  Russians 
(Smolensk),  and,  their  relations  to  Polish  landlords  are  no  better 
than  in  the  Ukraine.  The  Lithuanians  prevail  in  .Kovno,  where 
tiiey  are  80  per  cent,  of  the  population,  the  remainder  being  chiefly 
Jews  (10  per  cent.),  Poles  (3  per  cent.).  Great  Russians  (3  percent.), 
Germans,  &c. 

In  the  Baltic  provinces  (Esthouia,  Livonia,  and  Courlaud)  the 
prevailing  population  is  Esthonian,  Curonian,  or  Lettish,  the 
Germans  (landlords,  or  tradesmen  and  artisans  in  towns)  being 
respectively  only  3 '5,  G'S,  and  7  0  per  cent,  of  the  population.  In 
the  three  ]irovinces,  Riga  included,  they  hardly  reach  120,000  out 
of  1,800,000  inhabitants.  The  relations  of  the  Esthes  and  Letts 
to  their  landlords  are  anything  but  friendly. 

The  northern  governments  of  St  Petersburg  (apart  from  the 
capital),  Olonetz,  and  Archangel  contain  an  admixture  of  12  to  28 
percent,  of  Karelians,  Samoyedes,  and  Zyrians,  the  remainder  being 
Great  Russians.  In  the  east  and  south-east  provinces  of  the 
Volga  (Nijni,..Simbirsk,  Samara,  Penza,  and  Saratoft")  the  Great 
Russians  again  jirevail  (83  to  65  per  cent. ),  the  remainder  being 
chiefly  Mordvinians,  rapidly  Russifying,  as  also  Tartars,  Tchuvashes, 
and  Bashkirs,  Germans  in  Samara  and  Saratoft,  and  Little  Russians 
in  the  last-named.  Only  in  Kazajl  and  Astrakhan  do  the  Great 
Russians  number  less  than  one  half  of  the  aggregate  population 
(42-43  per  cent.).  In  the  Ural  provinces  of  Perm  and  Vyatka 
Great  Russians  are  again  in  the  majority  (92  and  81  per  cent.),  the 
remainder  being  a  variety  of  Finno-Tartars.  It  is  only  in  the 
southeiTi  Ural  governments  (Uralsk,  Orenburg,  Ufa)  "hat  the  ad- 
mixture of  a  variety  of  Turco-Tartars— of  Kirghizes  in  Uralsk  (23 
percent.),  Bashkirs  in  Orenburg  and  Ufa  (22  and  23  percent.), 
'L 1  less  important  stems — becomes    considerable,    reducing   the 


number  of  Great  Russians  respectively  to   72,  67,  and  32  per  cent, 
of  the  aggregate  population  of  these  three  provinces. 

Of  the  Turco-Tartars  of  eastern  Russia,  the  Bashkirs  often  revolt-jd 
against  Russian  rule,  and  the  traffic  in  Bashkir  lands,  recently 
carried  on  by  the  Orenburg  administration,  certainly  does  not  tend 
to  reconcile  them.  The  Tcheremisses  have  often  joined  th.^ 
Bashkirs  in  their  revolts,  but  are  rajtidly  losing  their  nationality. 
As  regards  tlic  other  Turco-  and  Finno-Tartars,  the  Mordvinians 
really  have  been  assimilated  to  the  Russians  ;  the  Moslem  Tartars 
of  Kazan  lived  .tUl  recently  on  excellent  terms  with  their  Russian 
neighbours  and  would  have  continued  to  do  so  had  no  attemut^ 
been  made  to  interfere  with  their  land-laws. 

In  western  Russia,  while  an  antipathy  exists  between  Ulcrainiany 
and  Poles,  the  Russian  Government,  by  its  harassing  interference  in 
religious,  educational,  and  economical  inattei's,  has  become  antag 
onistic,  not  only  to  the  Poles,  but  also  to  the  Ukrainians ;  printiirg 
in  Ukrainian  is  prohibited,  and  "  Russification"  is  being  carried  on 
among  Ukrainians  by  the  same  means  as  those  employed  in  Pol.ind. 
The  same  is  true  with  the  Esthes  and  Letts,  whom  the  Govern- 
ment, wdiilc  countenancing  them  to  some  extent  in  their  antipathy 
to  the  German  aristocracy,  has  Irot  yet  found  means  to  conciliate. 

The  relative  strength  of  the  dtirerent  ethnical  elements  of  which  Their 
the  population  of  European  Russia  and  Poland  is  composed  may  relative 
be  seen  from  the  following   hgures  (Table  IV.).      They  must  be '.treigtlK 
regarded,  however,  as  rough  estimates  only.     They  were  originally 
computed  by  JL  Ritticli  for  an  aggregate  population  of  69,788,240. 
and  in  the  following  table  they  have  merely  been  increased  in  nro- 
portion  to  the  actual  population  of  84,495,000. 

T.\BLE  IV. 

Gre.it  Russians  .: 41,9i)4,000 

Little  Russians 17,241,000 

White  Russians 4,330,000 


Russians 63,565,000 

Poles 5,750,000 

Bulgarians 110,000 

Czechs 9,500 

Serbs  ....". 9,500 


Total  Slavonians 

Lithuanians 987,000 

Zhmuds 771,000 

Letts ■     ....  1,243,000 


Lctto-Litliuanians - . . 

Greeks ' 84,000 

Rouniauiaus,  and  French '(about  2000)..  ..        795,000 


Gr.eco-Komans 

Germans  and  English .-    1,165,000 

Swedes : 12,000 


Saxons 

Armenians  and  Georgians. 
Tsigaus 


Tot.d  Aryans 


69,444,000 


3,001,OJO 


879,000 


1,177,000 
43,000 
16,000 

74,560,000 


Jews. 3,120,000 

Karaites. 3,000 


Total  Semites 

...;..       235,000 

3,123.000 

891,000 

2,000 

175,000 

Baltic  Finns  , 

7,500 

1,303,000 

......           6,500 

• 

Northern  Finns 

14,000 

Moidvs 960,000 

Tcheremisses 311,000 

Votiaks 292,000 


Volga  Finns 

Zyrians 10^,000 

Permians fO.OOO 

Voguls -    ■  -.00« 


Ugrians 

Total  Ural- Altaians . 


1,563,000 


1,84,000 
3,064,000 


VITAL   STATISTICS.] 

Ta^le  IV.  -Continued. 

Tchuvashes 697.000 

Tartars 1,600,000 

Baahkira..., 903,000 

Mescheriaka .-. 167,000 

Tenters....; 159,000 

Kirghizes 197,000 

Variou'. , 6.000 

Tiirco-Tartars 

Kalmucks. 

Total  Turanians 

Gr.ind  Total 


RUSSIA 


81 


3,629,000 
119,000 

3,748,000 

84.495,000' 


Tart  III.  Enr.orE.ix  Eussu— Statistics.' 
Russia  is  on  tlie  whole  a  thinly-peopled  country,  the  ayei-age 
popnlation  being  but  42  to  the  scjuare  mile.  The  density  of 
population  varies,  however,  very  much  in  European  Russia — from 
one  inhabitant  per  square  mile  in  the  government  of  Ar:hangcl  to 
102  in  that  of  Moscow  (exclusive  of  the  capital)  and  138  in 
Podolia.  Two-thirds  of  the  whole  population  are  concentrated 
open  less  than  one-third  of  the  whole  surface,  ihe  most  thickly- 
peopled  parts  form  a  strip  of  territory  which  extends  from 
Galicia  through  Kieff  to  Moscow,  and  comprises  partly  the  most 
fertile  governments  of  Russia  and  partly  the  manufacturing  ones  ; 
next  come  a  strip  of  fertile  country  to  the  south  of  the  above  and 
the  manufacturing  provinces  of  the  upper  Volga.  The  black-earth 
region  has  an  average  of  90  inhabitants  per  square  mile  :  the 
central  manufacturing  region,  85  ;  the  western  provinces,  79  ;  the 
black-earth  and  clay  region,  3C  ;  the  black-earth  Steppes,  33  ;  the 
hilly  tracts  of  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus,  31  ;  the  forest-region 
proper,  26  ;  the  Steppes,  9  ;  tlie  far  north,  less  tlian  2. 

The  rate  at  which  tho  popnlation  is  incr'asing  throughout  the 
er-pire  is  very  considerable.  It  varies,  however,  very  much  in 
diflerent  parts,  and  even  in  European  Russia,  being  almost  twice 
as  high  in  the  fertile  tracts  of  the  south  as  it  is  in  the  north  (I'S 
to  1*0).  The  rapid  increase  is  chiefly  due  to  early  marjiages,  the 
peasants  for  the  most  part  marrying  their  sons  at  eiglitecn  and  their 
daughters  at  sixteen.  The  resulting  high  birth-r.ite  compensates 
for  the  gi'eat  mortality,  and  the  Russian  population  is  increasing 
more  quickly  than  the  Polish,  Lithuanian,  Finnish,  or  Tartar.  In 
lESO  the  m.iniagcs,  birth',  and  deaths  were  returned  as  follows 
(Table  V.) :— 


Marriages. 

Blrthi. 

Deaths. 

Excess  of  Birtha 
over  Deaths. 

European  Russia.. 
Pfiland  

725,427 
62,771 
14,283 
32,952 

3,678,071 

294,021 

74,469 

1S0.802 

2,684,828 

189,514 

53,777 

131,793 

993,243 

104,507 

20,692 

49,009 

Finland  (1881)..... 

Total 

635,433 

4,227,363 

3,059,912 

1,167,451 

These  fi.gures  agree  pretty  scarly  with  these  for  a  scries  of 
years  (1871-78),  which  gave  an  annual  surplus  of  845,000  for 
European  Russia  alone.  In  18S2,  throughout  the  empii'e — leaving 
out  of  account  Caucasus  and  Turgai — the  births  numbered 
4,403,555  and  the  deaths  3,464,404,  for  an  estimated  population 
of  95,565,100.  Bat  the  birth-rate  and  deatli-rate  were  very 
different  in  Russia  proper  and  in  the  Asiatic  dominions;  in  the 
former  they  reached  respectively  4 '83  and  ^'77,  and  in  the  latter 
only  375  and  2*84-  Tbp  low  birtb-ratn  in  Asia  counterbnlanccs 
the  low  mortality.  So  also  within  Russia  proper  :  in  the  central 
provinces  the  high  mortality  (35  per  tliousand)  is  compensated  by 
a  higli  birth-rate  (49>,  while  in  the  western  provinces,  where  the 
mortality  is  relatively  small  (27),  tho  number  of  births  is  also  the 
lowest  (37). 

On  the  whole,  the  mortality  in  Russia  is  greater  than  anywhere 
else  in  Europe.     The  lowest  figures  are  found  in  Courland  (20), 

'  Diblioyraphtj.—RitWch.  Ethnographical  Map  of  Ruisia,  and  Ethno^i'.  Com- 
pcttli'-.n  {Hfmtitnol  Scslac)  of  Ruisia  ;  Vcnukoff.  OutUii-ts  of  Ruxsia  (Rilss.); 
H'  ^ '  0/  tht  Erpedltion  to  the  Wesiern  Prorincet ;  iffm.  of  the  Gto^r.  Socifl^ 
t!-:  raphs);  M'f"-  of  the  Uotcoin  See.  of  Friendi  of  Sat.  Scicttee  (Attthro- 
J  '  i;  I'aull,  77ie  Peopfei  of  Russian  Sarody  Roiii,  popular  cJition  by  M. 
Ili'O.  For  prehistoric  flnthropoloiry,  ace  Count  Uv.iroff,  Archrotcyy.  I.:  Itios- 
'.r«nlsc.T,  Prehitlorie  ilan  on  Late  Ladoga;  Bndilovitcli.  /'riniilipe  Sfarontuni, 
4h73;  A.  Bojitlanolfa  C.xlcn5lvc;ind  most  valuable  rccarrlica  ill  i/f  "i.  o/ >l/oifnw 
Soe,  of  Fiieni't  of  Xa!.  Si.;  the  researches  of  Polvakoff  and  itinny  others  In 
varlODS  scientific  periodicals  (St  PctcrsburE.  K.rzan  universities);  and  Reportl  of 
the  Arcfi.'O'.  ConQreitet.  for  subsequent  pcrloils,  sec  numerous  r..npcra  in  ife- 
meirt  of  Archxol.  Soc.,  Uem.  Ae.  of  Seieneei,  ic..  anrl  liic  worlis  of  Ilussiar.  Ms'o- 
rtans.  Mczhoff'a  Bibliogr.  Indexes,  published  yearly  by  the  Russian  Gcocraphlcal 
Socieiy,  contain  Cimplctc  Infnmiation  .ibout  works  and  papers  published. 

a  For  all  statistics  for  Eiiropenn  Itussla,  sec  "  Recuell  of  Information"  for 
Eurr|can  Rns^i.i  In  1^2  (Slnnnk  Sifdenti/),  published  In  iftsl  by  the  Central 
Statistical  Committee,  and  tho  ptiblicatloaa  mcDtloned  below  under  dllTcrcnt 
heads.  21—6 


tho  Baltic  provinces  (22),  and  Poland  (30).  Within  Russia  itself 
tho  rate  varies  between  29  and  49  (30  to  38  in  towns).  In  1882 
the  cverago  mortality  in  the  13"  c^nt^.al  governments  reached  the 
exceptional  figure  of  62,  so  that  there  was  a  decrease  of  1-7  per 
cent,  in  the  aggregate  populalion.  The  mortality  is  highest 
among  children,  only  one-half  of  tb.oso  born  reaching  their"  seventh, 
year.  From  military  registers  it  appears  that  of  1000  males  bom 
only  4S0  to  490  reach  their  twenty-first  year,  and  of  these  only 
375  are  able-bodied  ;  of  the  remainder,  who  are  unfit  for  military 
service,  50  per  cent,  suffer  from  chronic  diseases.  Misery,  insani- 
tary dw  'lings,  and  want  of  food  account  for  this  high  ruortality, 
which  Lsiarther  increased  by  the  w-mt  cf  mcjical  help,  there  being 
in  Russia  with  Poland  only  15,348  males  and  66  female  surgeons, 
7679  assistants,  and  one  bed  in  hospital  for  every  1270  inhabitants. 
The  hospitals  are,  however  so  unequally  distributed,  that  in  63 
governments  having  an  aggregate  country  population  of  about 
76,000,000  there  were  only  1557  hospitals  with  8273  beds,  and  an 
average  of  two  surgeons  to  100,000  inhabitants. 

The  rate  of  emigration  from  the  Russian  empire  is  not  high.     In  Eraigra- 
1871-80  the  average  number  was  250,700  yearly,  and  the  immigi-a-  tion. 
tion  2-45,500.     But  within  the  empire  itself  migration  to  South 
Ural,  Siljeria,  and  Caucasus  goes  on  extensively  ;  figures,  however, 
even  approximate,  are  wanting.     During  the  ten  years  1872-81  no 
less  than  406,180  Germans  and  235,G00"Austrians  immigrated  in* 
Russia,  chiefly  to  Poland  and  the  south-western  provinces. 

A  very  great  diversity  of  religions,  including  (besides  nume-.="a3  F.eligioii 
varieties  of  Christianity)  Mcha— .nicdanism.  Shamanism,  and 
Buddhism,  are  found  in  European  Russia,  corresponding  for  the 
most  part  with  tho  separate  ethnological  subdivisions.  All 
Russians,  with  the  exception  of  a  number  of  "White  Russians  who 
belong  to  the  Union,  profess  the  Greek  Orthodox  faith  or  one  or 
other  of  the  numberless  varieties  of  nonconformity.  The  Poles 
and  most  of  the  Lithuanians  are  Roman  Catliolics.  The  Esthea 
and  all  other  "Western  Finns,  the  Germans,  and  the  Swedes 
are  Protestant.  The  Tartars,  the  Bashkirs,  and  Kirghizes  are 
Mohammedans ;  but  -the  last-named  have  to  a  great  extent 
maintained  along  with  Mohammedanism  their  old  Shamanism. 
The  same  holds  good  of  the  Meschcriaks,  both  Moslem  and 
Cliristian.  The  ilorJvinians  are  nearly  all  Greek  Orthodox,  as 
also  are  the  Votiaks,  Voguls,  Tcheremisses,  and  Tchuvashes,  but 
their  religions  are,  in  reality,  very  interesting  modifications  of 
Shamanism,  under  the  influence  of  some  Christian  and  Moslem 
beliefs.  The  Voguls,  though  baptized,  are  in  fact  fetichists,  as 
much  as  the  unconverted  Samoyedes."  Finally,  the  Kalmucks  ara 
Buddhist  Lamaites.  < 

All  these  religions  are  met  with  in  close  proximity  to  op-^ 
another,  and  their  places  of  worship  often  stand  side  by  side  in  tl._ 
same  town  or  village  without  giving  rise  to  religious  disturbances^ 
The  rcceiit  outbreaks  against  the  Jews  were  directed,  not  against 
the  Talmudist  creed,  but  against  the  trading  and  exploiting 
community  of  the  "Kahah"  In  his  relations  witli  Jloslems, 
Buddhists,  and  even  fetichists,  the  Russian  peasant  looks  rather  to 
conduct  than  to  creed,  the  latter  being  in  his  view  simply  a  matter 
of  nationality.  Indeed,  towaids  paganism,  at  least,  he  is  perhaps 
even  more  tlian  tolerant,  preferring  on  the  whole  to  keep  on  good 
terms  with  pagan  divinities,  and  m  dirticult  circumstances— 
especi  dly  on  travel  and  in  hunting— not  failing  to  present  to  th  m 
his  ofl'ering.  Any  idea  of  prosclytism  is  quite  foreign  to  fha 
ordinary  Russian  mind,  and  tho  outbursts  of  proselytizing  zeal 
occasionally  manifested  by  the  clergy  are  really  due  to  the  desire 
for  "Russiiication,"  and  traceable  to  the  influence  of  the  higher 
clergy  and  of  the  Govexnment. 

The  various  creeds  of  European  Russia  were  estimated  in  1879 
as  follows  :— Greek  Orthodox  and  Raskolniks,  63,835,000  (about 
12,000,000  being  Raskolniks);  United  Greeks  and'Armenio- 
Grciorians,  55,000  ;  Roman  Catholics,  8,300,000  ;  Protestants, 
2,950,000  ;  Jews,  3,000,000  ;  Moslems,  2,600,000  ;  Pagans,  26,0C0. 
lu  1881  the  number  of  Greek  Orthodox  throughout  tho  enipiio. 
excluding  two  foreign  bishoprics,  was  estimated  at  61,941,000.  _ 

■  Nonconformity  (Kaskot)  is  a  most  important  featurt  ■"■<■  R"«»'an  Vo-^oon- 
popular  life,  and  its  influence  and  prevalence  have  rapidly  grown  fonniita 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years. 

Whei'i,  ioivards  tho  beginning  of  tho  17th  century,  the  MuSCo.s 
principality  fell  under  the  rule  of  the  JIoscow  ioiurs  (one  of  whom, 
GodunofT,  leached  tho  throne),  tlu-y  took  advantage  of  the  power 
thus  acquired  to  increase  their  wealth  by  a  scriesof  measures  aiTcct- 
ing  land-holding  and  trade  ;  they  sanctioned  and  enforced  by  law 
tho  serfdom  which  h.ad  already  from  economical  causes  found  its 
way  into  Russian  life.  Tho  great  outbreak  of  1608-12  weakened 
their  power  in  favour  of  that  of  the  czar,  but  without  breaking  it ; 
and  throughout  tlio  reigns  of  Jlichael  and  Alexis  the  ukazcs  were 
issucil  in  the  name  of  "  tho  czar  and  boiars."  Serfdom  was  rein- 
forced by  a  series  of  laws,  and  the  whole  of  tho  17th  century  is  char- 
acterized by  a  rapid  at.,i.ii/.;hiti„n  of  wealth  in  the  hands  of  boiars, 
by  the  development  of  luxury,  imported  from  Poland,  and  by  the 
strutrijlc  of  a  niimber  of  families  to  acquire  the  political  powi;r 
already  enjoyed  by  their  Polish  neighbours.     Tho  same  tendency 

XXI    —  II 


82 


RUSSIA 


LNONCONFOEMISTS. 


pervaded  the  church,  which  waa  also  accused  by  the  people  of  having 
lutrodxiced  "Polish  luxury,"  "Polishcreed,"  and  the  tendencies 
towards  supremacy  of  the  Polish  clergy.  The  patriarch  Nikou  was 
a  perfect  representative  of  theso  tendejicies.  Opposition  resulted, 
and  the  revision  of  tlie  s;icred  books,  ■which  was  undertaken  by 
Nikon,  gave  the  opposition  acute  character.  The  Haskoi  {lit. 
*' splitting"  or  "schiism  ")  made  its  appearance,  and  gathered  under 
Us  "banner,  not  only  those  who  accused  Nikon  of  "Polish"  and 
•'  Latin  "  tendencies,  but  also  all  those  wlio  were  for  the  old  customs, 
for  federative  and  communist  principltis  of  social  organization, 
and  who  revolted  against  serfdom,  centralization,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  municipal  life.  A  serios  of  insurrections  broke  out  under 
the  banner  of  the  "  eight-cads  "  cross  of  the  Raskohviks.  Barbarous 
persecutions  by  Alexis,  PeteV  I.,  and  their  followers  did  not  kill  out 
an  opposition  wliich  inspired  with  fanatical  enthusiasm  the  best 
elements  among  the  Great  Russians,  and  induced  its  sujiporters  to 
submit  to  tho  hre  by  thousands  at  a  time,  while  others  rather  than 
submit  went  to  colonize  the  forests  of  the  Arctic  littoral,  or  betook 
themselves  to  Siberia.  Profound  modifications  have  taken  place 
in  Russian  nonconformity  since  its  first  appearance.  It  would  be 
impossible  to  enumerate  them  all  here,  but  the  following  ])oints 
of  primary  importance  must  bo  mentioned.  (1)  The  mere  protest 
against  Nikon's  "innovations"  (lioi's/ies^t'a^)  led,  in  the  course  of 
two  centuries,  to  a  mere  servile  adherence  to  the  letter  of  the  ver- 
nacular Scriptures — even  to  obvious  errors  of  earlier  translators — 
and  tu  interminable  discussions  about  minor  points  of  ritual  and 
about  unintelligible  words.  (2)  Another  current  which  now  per- 
vades the  whole  of  Russian  nonconformity  is  that  proceeding  from 
rationalist  sects  which  had  already  spread  in  north-west  Russia  in 
the  IGth  century,  and  even  in  the  14th.  These  have  given  rise  to 
several  sects  which  deny  the  divinity  of  Clirist  or  expbiin  away 
various  dogmas  and  prescriptions  of  orthodoxy.  (3)  Protestantism, 
with  its  more  or  less  rationalistic  tendencies,  has  made  itself  in- 
creasingly felt,  especially  during  the  present  century  and  iu  southern 
Russia.  (4)  Hostile  critics  of  the  Government,  and  especially  of 
the  autocracy,  with  its  army  of  officials  and  its  system  of  con- 
scriptions, passports,  and  various  restrictions  on  religious  liberty, 
are  found  more  or  less  in  all  the  nonconforming  bodies,  which  see 
in  these  manifestations  of  authority  the  appearance  of  the  Anti- 
■christ.  Several  of  them  refuse  accordingly  to  have  any  dealings 
whatever  with  the  official  world.  (.^)  Another  tendency  pervading 
the  wliole  of  Russian  nonconformity  is  that  which  seeks,  a  return 
to  what  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  old  communist  principles  of 
Christianity  in  its  earlier  days.  All  new  sects  start  with  applying 
these  principles  to  practical  life  ;  but  in  the  course  of  their  develop- 
.ment  tl\ey  modify  them  more  or  less,  though  always  maintaining 
the  princi|>le  at  least  of  mutual  help.  (6)  Finally,  all  sects  deal  more 
or  less  with  thu  question  of  marriage  and  the  position  of  woman. 
A  few  of  them  solve  it  by  encouraging, — at  least  during  their 
"love-feasts," — absolutely  free  rehtions  between  all  "brethren  and 
sisters,"  ^vhile  others  only  admifc  the  dissolubility  of  marriage  or 
prohibit  it  altogether.  On  the  whole,  leaving  i\\f  extremer  views 
out  of  account,  the  position  of  woman  is  undoubtedly  higher  among 
the  dissenters  than  among  the  Orthodox. 

,  These  various  currents,  combining  with  and  counteracting  one 
another  in  the  most  complicated  ways,  have  played  and  continue  to 
play  a  most  important  part  in  Russian  history.  The  mutual  assist- 
ance ^found  in  dissenting  sects  has  preserved  many  millions  of 
peasants  from  falling  into  abject  misery,  the  nonconformists  enjoy- 
ing, as  a  rule,  a  greater  degree  of  prosperity  than  their  Orthodox 
neiglibours.  The  leading  feature  of  Russian  history,  the  spread  of 
the  Great  Russians  over  the  immense  territory  they  now  occupy, 
cannot  be  rightly  understood  without  taking  into  account  the 
colonization  of  the  most  inaccessible  wildernesses  by  Raskolniks, 
ind  tho  organization  of  this  by  their  communities,  who  send  dele- 
gates for  the  choice  of  land  and  sometimes  clear  it  in  common  by  the 
united  labours  of  all  the  young  men  and  cattle  of  the  community. 
On  the  other  "hand,  the  nonconforming  sects,  while  helping  to 
preserve  several  advantageous  features  of  Russian  life,  have  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  maintaining,  especially  among  the  "  Staroobr- 
yadtsy,"  the  old  system  of  the  Moscovito  family,  subject  to  tho 
despotic  yoke  of  its  chief,  and  hennetically.  sealed  against  instruc- 
tion. ' 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  since  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs 
nonconformity  has  again  made  a  sudden  advance,  the  more  radical 
sects  preponderating  over  the  scholastic  ones,  and  the  influence 
of  Protestantism  being  increasingly  felt.  Nonconformity,  which 
formerly  had  no  hold  upon  Little  Russia  (though  it  had  penetrated 
among  Protestant  Esthonians  and  Letts,  and  even  among  Sloslem 
Tartars),  has  suddenly  begun  to  make  progress  there  in  the  shape  of 
the  "Stunda,"  a  mixture  of  Protestant  and  rationalistic  teaching, 
with  t-:udeucies  towards  a  social  but  rarely  socialistic  reforma- 
tion. 

The  Russian  dissenting  sects  may  be  subdivided  into  (1)  t)»a 
"Popovtay"  (who  have  priests),  (2)  the  "  Bezpopovtsy  "  (who  have 
none),  and  (3)  numerous  spiritualist  sects,  'Dukhovnyic  Khris- 
-tiane."    The  Popovtsy  (5  to  Q  millions)  are  again  subdivided  into 


two  classes,  — thoso  who  recognize  the  Austrian  hierarchy,  and  those 
who  have  only  Orthodox  "runaway  priests"  ("  Byeglopopovtsy  "). 
The  laiter  have  recently  received  unexpected  help  in  the  accessioa 
of  throe  Orthodox  priests  of  great  learuin<j  and  energy.  Moreover, 
there  are  among  the  Popovtsy  about  a  million  of  "  Edinovyertsy,", 
v/hohave  received  Orthodox  priests  on  the  conditiouof  their  Keeping 
to  the  unrevised  books.     They  are  patronized  by  Government. 

The  Bcznopovtsy  embody  tiireo  large  sects — the  Pomory,  Fedp- 
seevtsy,  ancl  Filipovtsy — and  a  variety  of  minor  ones.  They  recog- 
nize no  priests,  and  repudiate  the  Orthodox  ritual  and  the  sacra- 
meuts.  They  avoid  all  contact  with  the  Btate,  and  do  not  allow 
prayer  for  the  czar,  who  is  regarded  as  tho  Antichrist.  They  may 
number  about  5,000,000  in  west,  north,  and  north-east  Russia,  and 
represent,  ou  the  whole,  an  intellectually  developed  and  wealthy 
population.  Of  the  very  numerous  smaller  sects  of  Bezpopovtsy, 
the  "Stranniki"  (Errants)  are  worthy  of  notice.  They  prefer  to 
lead  the  life  of  hunted  outcasts  rather  than  hold  any  relation,  with 
the  state. 

The  spiritualists,  very  numerous  in  central  and  southern  Russia, 
are  subdivided  into  a  great  variety  of  schools.  Tho  "Khlysty,"  who 
have  their  "lovG-feasts,"  their  "Virgins,"  sometimes  llagcllation, 
and  so  on,  represent  a  numerous  and  strong  organization  in  central 
Russia.  The  "  likoptsy"  ("  Men  of  God,"  '*  Castrati")  occur  every- 
where, even  among  the  Finns,  but  chiefly  in  Orel- and  Kursk,  and 
in  towns  as  money-brokers.  The  "Dukhobortsy  "  communities 
(warriors  of  the  Spirit),  chielly  found  in  the  south-east,  are  renowned 
as  colonizers.  They  are  spreading  rapidly  in  Caucasia  and  Siberia. 
Tho  "Molokany"  (a  kind  of  Baptists),  numbering  perhaps  about 
one  million,  are  spread  also  in  the  south-east,  and  are  excellent 
gardeners  and  tradesmen.  Both  are  quite  open,  to  instruction,  and 
have  come  under  the  influence  of  Protestantism,  like  the  "Stunda" 
in  Little  Russia  and  Bessarabia.  The  "■Sabbathers"and  the  "  Ska- 
kuny"  (a  kind  of  Shakers)  are  also  worthy  of  notice  ;  while  a  great 
variety  of  new  sects,  such  as  the  "Nemolyaki"  (''who  do  not 
pray"),  the  "  Vozdykhatcli"  ("who  sigh"),  the  "Neplatclshchiki" 
("who  do  not  pay  taxes"),  tho  "Ne-Nashl"  (the  "  Not-om-s"),  aiid 
so  on,  spring  up  every  year. 

Tho  aggregate  number  of  Raskolniks  is  officially  stated  at  nearly 
one  million,  but  this  is  quite  misleading.  Tho  minit,try  of  interior 
estimated  them  at  9,000,000  in  1850  and  9,500,000  in  1859.  lu 
reality  the  number  is  still  liigher.  In  Perm  alone  they  were  recently 
computed  at  a  million,  and  there  would  be  no  exaggcratum  in  esti- 
mating them  at  a  total  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  millions.^ 

The  old  subilivisions  of  the  population  into  orders  i>ossessed  of  Class 
unequal  rights  is  still  maintained.  The  great  niass  of  the  people,  divisions. 
81*6  per  cent.,  belong  to  the  peasant  order,  the  others  being — 
nobility,  1'3  per  cent'.;  clergy,  0"9  ;  the  "meschane"  or  burghers 
and  merchants,  9"3  ;  military,  C'l  ;  foreigners,  0'2;  unclassilied, 
0"5.  Thus 'more  than  63  millions  of  the  Russians  are  peasants. 
Half  of  them  were  formerly  serfs  (10,447,149  males  in  1858), — 
the  remainder  being  "state  peasants"  (9,194,891  males  in  1858,  ■ 

exclusive  of  the  Archangel  goverrment)  and  "domain  peasants" 
{842,740  males  the  same  year). 

The  serfdom  which  had  sprung  up  in  Russia  in  the  IGth  century, 
and  became  consecrated  by  law  in  1609,  taking,  however,  nearly 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  to  attain  its  full  growth  and  assume 
the  forms  under  which  it  appeared  in  the  present  century,  was 
abolished  by  law  in  1861.  This  law  liberated  the  scifs  from  a 
yoke  which  was  really  terrible,  even  under  the  best  landlords,  and 
from  this  point  of  view  it  was  obviously  an  immense  benefit,  tho 
results  of  which  are  apparent  now.  But  it  was  far  from  securing 
corresponding  economic  results.  Al'^ng  with  the  eiu'ichmcnt  of 
tho  few,  a  general  impoverishment  of  the  great  mass  followed,  and 
took  proportions  so  alarming  as  to  arouse  jmblic  attention  and  to 
result  in  a  great  number  of  serious  investigations  conducted  by 
the  state,  the  provincial  assemblies,  scientific  societies,  and  private 
statisticians.  The  general  results  of  these  inquiries  may  bo 
summed  up  in  the  subjoined  statement. 

The  former  "dvorovyie,"  attached  to  the  personal  service  ol 
their  masters,  were  merely  set  free  ;  and  they  entirely  went  to 
reinforce  the  town  proletariat.  The  peasants  proper  received  their 
houses  and  orchards,  and  also  allotments  of  arable  land.  Thcso 
allotments  were  given  over  to  the  rural  commune  {niir),  which  was 
made  responsible,  as  a  whole,  for  the  payment  of  taxes  for  the  allot- 
ments. The  size  of  the  allotments  was  determined  by  a  maximum 
and  by  a  minimum,  which  last,  however,  could  be  still  further 
reduced  if  the  amount  of  land  remaining  in  the  landlord's  hauds 
was  less  than  one  half  of  what  was  allotted  to  the  peasants.  For 
these  allotments  the  peasants  had  to  pay,  as  before,  either  by  per- 
sonal labour  (twenty  to  forty  men's  days  and  fifteen  to  thirty 
women's  days  per  year),  or  by  a  fixed  rent  ("  obrok  "),  which  varied 
from  8  to  12  roubles  per  allotment.  As  long  as  these  relations 
subsisted,  the  peasants  were  considered  as  "  temporarily  obliged" 
{vrcmcmu)  obyazannyic).     On  January  1,  1382,  they  still  numbered 

*  Seo  Schnpoff  nn  yT  r^i^a  Rdikol;  Sbo-.-vik  of  State  Regulations  agnintl  the 
'Haikohi'.ki  ;  and  vtiy  many  papers  pilntcrt  in  reviews,  ctiielly  In  Otttch.  Zapisii. 
iDijeto,  Vyeiinik  E-vivjii,  o:c.,  by  Schapuff,  Yiizolf,  Prugavin,  Rozoff,  *■<;. 


CLASS    DIVISIONS.] 


K  U   S  IS  I  A 


83 


1  422  012  males  ;  but  this  category  is  now  disappearing  in  conse- 
quence of  a  Kcent  law  (December  28,  1881). 

The  allotments  could  be  redeemed  by  the  peasants  with  the 
help  of  the  crown,  and  then  the  peasants  were  freed  from  all  obliga- 
tions to  the  landlord.  The  crown  paid  the  landlord  in  obligations 
representing  the  capitalized  "  obrok,"  and  the  peasants  had  to  pay 
the  crown,  for  forty-nine  years,  6  per  cent  interest  on  this  capital, 
that  is,  9  to  12  roubles  per  allotment.  If  the  redemption  was 
made  without  the  consent  of  the  peasants — on  a  mere  demand  of 
the  landlord,  or  in-consequence  of 'his  being  in  arrear  for  the  pay- 
ment of  his  debts  to  the  nobility  hypothec  bank— the  value  of 
the  redemption  was  reduced  by  one-fifth.  The  redemption  was 
not  calculated  on  the  value  of  the  allotments,  'but  was  considered 
aa  a  compensation  for  the  k)s3  of  the  compulsory  labour  of  the 
serfs;  so  that  throughout -R  issia,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  pro- 
vinoes  in  the  south-east,  it  was — and  still  remains  notwithstanding 
a  very  great  increase  of  the  value  of  land — much  higher  than  the 
market  value  of  the  allotment.  Moreover,  taking  advantage  of 
Ihc  maximum  law,  many  proprietois  cut  away  large  parts  of  the 
allotments  the  peasants  possessed  under  serfdom,  and  precisely 
the  parts  the  peasants  were  most  in  need  of,  namely,  pasture 
lands  around  their  houses,  and  forests.  On  the  whole,  the 
tendency  was  to  give  the  allotments  so  as  to  deprive  the  peasants 
of  gi-a2ing  land  and  thus  to  compel  them  to  rent  pasture  lands 
from  the  landlord  at  any  price. 

The  present  condition  of  the  peasants — according  to  official  docu- 
ments— appears  to  be  as  follows.  In  the  twelve  central  governments 
the  peasants,  on  the  average,  have  their  own  rye-bread  for  only 
200  days  per  year, — often  for  only  180  and  100  days.  One  quarter 
of  them  have  received  allotments  of  only  2 '9  acres  per  male,  and 
one  half  less  than  8'5  to  11"4  acres, — the  normal  size  of  the 
allotment  necessary  to  the  subsistence  of  a  family  under  the  three- 
fields  system  being  estimated  at  28  to  42  acres.  Land  must  be 
thus  rented  from  the  landlords  atfabulous  prices.  Cattle-breeding 
is  diminishing  to  an  alarming  degree.  The  average  redemption  is 
8'56  roubles  (about  l/s.)  for  such  allotments,  and  the  smaller  the 
allotment  the  heavier  the  pa}-ment,  its  first  "  dessiatina'*  (2*86 
acres)  costing  twice  as  much  as  the  second,  and  four  times  as  much 
OS  the  third.  In  all  these  governments,  the  state  commission 
testifies,  there  are  whole  districts  where  one-third  of  the  peasants 
have  received  allotments  of  only  2  9  to  5  8  acres.  The  aggregate 
value  of  the  redemption  and  land-taxes  often  reaches  from  185 
to  275  per  cent,  of  the  normal  rental  value  of  the  allotments,  not 
to  speak  of  taxes  for  recruiting  purposes,  the  church,  roads,  local 
administratvon,  and  so  on,  chiefly  levied  from-  peasants.  The 
arrears  increase  every  year  ;  one-iilth  of  the  inhabitants  have  left 
their  houses  ;  cattle  are  disappearing.  Every  year  more  than  half 
the  adult  males  (in  some  districts  three-fourths  of  the  men  and 
one-third  of  the  women)  leave  their  homes  and  wander  throughout 
Russia  in  search  of  labour.  The  state  peasants  are  only  a  little 
better  off. 

Such  is  the  state  of  aflairs  in  central  Russia,  and  it  would  be  use- 
less to  multiply  figures,  repeating  nearly  the  same  details.  In  the 
eight  governments  of  the  black-earth  region  the  state  of  matters  is 
hardly  better.  Many  peasants  took  the  "gratuitous  allotments," 
whose  amount  was  about  one-eighth  of  the  normal  ones. 

The  average  allotment  in  Kherson  is  now  only  0'90  acre,  and 
for  allotments  from  2'9  to  5'8  acres  they  pay  from  5  to  10  roubles 
of  redemption  tax.  The  state  peasants  arc  better  off,  but  still 
they  are  emigrating  in  masses.  It  is  only  in  the  Steppe  govern- 
ments that  the  situation  is  more  hopeful.  In  Little  Russia,  where 
the  allotments  were  personal  (the  mir  existing  only  among  state 
peasants),  the  state  of  afTairs  does  not  differ  for  the  better  on 
account  of  the  high  reflemption  taxes.  In  the  western  provinces, 
whfrc  the  land  was  valued  cheaper  and  the  allotments  somewhat 
increased  after  the  Polish  insurrection,  the  general  situation  might 
be  better  were  it  not  for  the  former  misery  of  peasants.  Finally, 
in  the  Baltic  provinces  nearly  all  the  land  belongs  to  German 
landlords,  who  either  carry  on  agriculture  themselves,  with  hired 
labourers,  or  reut  their  land  as  small  farms.  Only  ont-fourth  of 
the  peasants  are  farmers,  the  remainder  being  mere  labourers,  who 
are  emigrating  in  great  numbers. 

The  situation  of  the  former  serf-proprietors  is  also  unsatisfactory. 
Accustomed  to  the  use  of  compulsory  labour,  they  have  failed  to 
accommodate  themselves  to  the  new  conditions.  The  700,000,000 
roubles  of  redemption  money  received  from  the  crown  down  to  1877 
by  71,000  landed  proprietors  in  Russia  have  been  spent  without 
accomplishing  any  agricultural  improvement.  TIio  forests  have 
bren  K>ld,  and  oniy  those  landlords  are  prospering  who  exact  rack- 
rp"t»i  for  the  land  without  which  the  peasants  could  not  live  upon 
their  allotments, 

^ti  showing  a  better  aspect  of  the  situation  it  must  be  added 
that  in  eighty-five  districts  of  Russia  the  peasants  have  bought 
5,34ft.00t»  acres  of  land  since  1861.  But  these  arc  mostly  villagc- 
trnrl'-re  and  grain-lenders  (kulaks).  A  real  exception  can  be  made 
•nly  for  Tver,  where  53,474  householders  united  in  communities 
,vo  hnncht  533,240  ocrea  of  land.     There  has  been  an  Jnc/-easo  of 


wealth  among  the  few,  but  along  with  this  a  general  impoverish- 
ment of  the  mass  of  the  people.  *^ 

The  ancient  Scandinavians  described  Russia  as  Gardariki,— the  The 
country  of  towns, — and   until  now  Great  Russia  has  maintained  village 
this  character.     The  dwellings  of  the  peasantry  are  not  scattered  commui* 
over  the  face  of  the  country,  but  aggregated  in  villages,  where  they  ity. 
are  built  in  a  street  or  streets.     Thia  grouping  in  villages  has  its 
origin  in  the  bonds  which  unite  the  peasants  in  the  village  com- 
niunity — the  mir,  or  the  obskchina. 

"^'hen  Haxthausen  first  described  the  Great  Russian  mir,  it  was 
considered  a  peculiarity  of  the  Slavonian  race, — a  view  which  is 
DO  longer  tenable.  Themir^is  the  Great  Russian  equivalent  for 
the  German,  Dutch,  and  Swiss  "  mark  "  or  "  allmcnd,  the  English 
"township,"  the  French  "commune,"  the  Polish  "gmina,"  the 
South  Slavonian  **zadruga,"  the  Finnish  "pittaya,"  &.c. ;  and  it 
very  nearly  approaches,  though  differing  from  them  in  some  essen- 
tial features,  the  forms  of  possession  of  land  prevailing  among  the 
Moslem  Turco- Tartars,  while  the  same  principle  is  found  even 
amoflg  the  Mongol  Buriat  shepherds  and  the  Tungus  hunters. 

The  following  are  the  leading  features  of  the  organization  of  the 
mir  among  the  Great  Russians. 

The  whole  of  the -land  occupied  by  a  village— whoever  be  the 
landlord  recognized  by  law — the  state,  a  private  person,  or  a 
juridical  unity,  such  as  the  voisko  of  the  Cossacks — is  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  village  community  as  a  whole,  the  separate 
members  of  the  community  having  only  the  right  of  temporary 
possession  of  such  part  of  the  common  property  as  will  be  allowed 
to  them  by  the  mir  in  proportion  to  their  working  power.  To 
this  right  corresponds  the  obligation  of  bearfng  an  adequate  part 
of  the  charges  which  may  fall  upon  the  community.  If  aay 
produce  results  from  the  common  work  of  the  community,  each 
member  has  a  right  to  an  equal  part  of  it. 

According  to  these  general  principles,  the  arable  land  is  divided 
into  as  many  lots  as  there  are  working  units  in  the  community, 
and  each  family  receives  as  many  lots  as  it  has  working  units.  The 
unit  is  usually  one  male  adult ;  but,  when  the  working  power  of 
a  large  family  is  increased  by  its  containing  a  number  of  adult 
women,  or  boys  approaching  adult  age,  this  circumstance  is  taken 
into  account,  as  well  as  the  diminution  from  any  cause  of  working 
power  in  other  households. 

For  dividing  the  arable  land  into  lots,  the  whole  is  parted  first 
into  three  "fields,"  according  to  the  three-field  rotation  of  crops. 
As  each  field,  however,  contains  land  of;  various  qualities,  it  is  in 
its  turn  subdivided  into,  say,  three  parts— of  good,  average,  and 
poor  quality  ;  and  each  of  these  parts  is  subdi*'ided  into  as  many 
lots  as  there  are  working  units.  Each  household  receives  its  lots 
in  each  of  the  subdivisions  of  tho  "field,"  a  carefully  minute 
equalization  as  to  the  minor  differences  between  the  lots  being 
aimed  at ;  and  the  partition  is  nearly  always  made  so  as  to  permit 
each  householder  to  reach  his  allotment  without  passing  through 
that  of  another. 

To  facilitate  this  division,  the  community  divides,  first,  into 
smaller  groups  (t'l/^,  zhcrchyevka^  a  "ten,"  an  "eight,"  &c.),  each  of 
which  is  composed,  by  frke  selection,  of  a  number  of  houpeholdera 
— the  community  only  taking  care  that  *nch  shall  not  be  composed 
of  rich,  of  poor,  or  of  "turbulents"  exclusively.  The  division  of 
the  land  is  first  made  among  such  groups,  and  the  subdivision  goes 
on  within  these.  The  division  into  groups  facilitates  also  the  dis- 
tribution of  such  work  as  the  community  may  have  to  accomplish  — 
aa  when  a  bridge  or  a  ditch  has  to  be  repaired,  or  a  meadow  mowed 
— and  the  work  cannot  be  done  by  the  community  as  a  whole. 

As  sickness,  death,  removal,  and  other  incidents  bring  about 
changes  in  the  distribution  of  working  power  among  the  different 
households,  or  when  the  number  of  working  units  in  the  com- 
munity has  increased  or  decreased,  a  reuistribution  of  land 
{pcrcdyel)  follows.  "Whether  the  land  be  a  burden  (the  taxes 
exceeding  its  rental  value)  or  a  beuefit,  its  division  is  equalized; 
the  households  whose  working  power  has  iucreafxd  receive  ad- 
ditional lots,  and  vice  versa.  The  peredycl  may  be  "partial"  or 
"general."  In  most  cases  a  mero  equalization  of  lots  among 
several  families  will  serve,  and  a  general  redistribution  is  resorted 
to  only  when  greater  inequalities  have  arisen.  On  tho  whole, 
these  redistributions  are  rare,  and  the  prccariousness  of  land- 
holding  which  has  been  sup]>osed  to  be  a  consequence  of  the  mir 
proves  to  have  been  exaggerated.     More  detailed  inquiries  have 

'  Sec  Tanson's  Researehts  on  Allotmmtt  and  Payments  (2d  od.,  1881)  and  Com- 
parative Sialislics  of  ftwuia^vol.  II.);  ^(aiistU*  of  Lantied  Properly,  published 
by  Ccniral  SUitisIlcal  Commiitcc  ;  works  nf  i!)t:  Committee  on  Taxation,  and.thosa 
of  the  Committee  of  Inquiry  Into  Tctty  Trades  {\2  vol-i.);  Uepcrtt  of  the  Com' 
minion  on  Aynculture;  Cotlrrdon  of  M^iirrials  oi  Shu  Vill'ine  Community  (vol.  1.); 
CoUccHon  of  Materia! t  on  Laji<Vio!ding,  end  .Siatt-fieat  lieirriptions  of  Seporaie 
Gover.-imcnt!!,  published  by  ftcvcrftl  irmitvos  (Moscow, Tver, Nijnl,  Tula,  Ryazan, 
Tjinl>off,  Prtliava,  SaroiolT.  Ac);  iCoMtlm.  The  Peasant  Quettion;  Vasiltchl- 
koff,  Land  Property  and  Agriculture  (2  voir),  and  Vilia'jfLife  and  Agriculture; 
Ivatiiikofr.  The  Fait  of  Serf dvv\  in  liustia;  ShafilikofT,  "  Peasantry  In  tlie  Ba'iic 
Provlnccx,"  In  l:\ntkaya  Hysl,  1S83,  Hi.  and  Ix.;  V.  V.,  Agrie.  Sketches  ofFutsi-j; 
GolovRtchoff,  Capital  ami  Pes-ant  Farming  \  EnBe'hordt'B  Lettert  from  lh« 
Country:  m:my  elaborate  papi-i-s  In  l-cvlcwa  fall  llussian);  and  Appendix  to 
RunUn  tninsliition  of  Rcclua's  Oeogr.  Univ. 


84 


RUSSIA 


[village   COJIIIUKITIES. 


shown  tliat  no  redistribution  is  made  witliont  urgent  necessity. 
Thus,  to  quote  but  one  instance,  in  4442  village  communities  of 
Moscow,  the  average  number  of  redistributions  has  been  2'1  in 
twenty  years  (1858-76),  and  in  more  than  two-thirds  of  tliesc 
communities  the  redistribution  took  place,  only  once.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  regular  rotation  of  ill  households  over  all  lots,  in 
order  to  equalize  the  remaining  minor  inequalities,  is  very  often 
practised  in  the  black-earth  region,  wliere  no  manure  is  needed   ^ 

Besides  the  arable  mark,  there  is  usually  a  fyjOTi(or  "common") 
for  grazing,  to  which  all  householders  send  their  cattle,  whatever 
the  number  they  possess.  The  meadows  are  either  divided  on  the 
above  principles,  or  mowed  .in  common,  and  the  hay  divided 
according  to  the  number  of  lots.  The  forests,  when  consisting  of 
email  wood  in  suiiicient  quantity,  are  laid  under  no  regulations  ; 
wllcn  this  is  scarce,  every  trunk  is  counted,  and  valued  according 
to  its  age,  number  of  branches,  kc,  and  the  whole  is  divided  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  lots. 

The  houses  and  the  orchards  behind  them  belong  also,  in  prin- 
ciple, to  the  community  ;  but  no  peredyel  is  made,  except  after  a 
fire  or  when  the  necessity  arises  of  building  the  houses  at  greater 
distances  apart.  The  orchards  usually  remain  for  years  in  the 
same  hands,"  with  but  slow  equalizations  of  the  lots  in  width. 

All  decisions  in  the  village  community  are'^given  by  the  mir, 
that  is,  by  the  general  assembly  of  all  householders,  — women  being 
admitted  on  an  equal  footing  with  men,  when  w  idows,  or  when  their 
male  guardians  are  absent.  For  the  decisions  unanimity  is  neces- 
sary ;  and,  though  in  some  difficult  cases  of  a  genoal  peiedyel  the 
discussions  may  last  for  two  or  three  days,  no  decision  is  reached 
nntil  the  minority  has  declared  its  agreement  with  the  majority. 

Each  commune  elects  an  elder  [slarosla)  ;  he  is  the  executive, 
but  has  no  authority  apart  from  that  of  the  mir  whose  decisions 
he  carries  out.  All  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Government  to 
make  him  a  functionary  have  failed. 

Opinion  as  to  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  village 
community  being  much  divided  in  Russi-i,  it  has  been  within  the 
last  twenty  years  the  subject  of  extensive  inquiry,  both  private 
and  official,  aiid  cf  an  ever-growing  hterature  and  polemic.  The 
supporters  of  the  mir  are  found  chiefly  among  thoi*  '"iio  have  made 
more  or  less  extensive  inquiries  into  its  actual  organization  and  con 
sequences,  while  their  opponents  draw  their  arguments  principally 
from  theoretical  considerations  of  political  economy.  The  main 
reproach  that  it  checks  individual  development  and  is  a  source  of 
Jmmobility  has  been  shaken  of  late  by  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
institution,  which  has  brilught  to  light  its  remarkable  plasticity  and 
power  of  adaptation  to  new  circumstances.  The  free  settlers  in 
Siberiahavevoluntarilyintroduced  the  same  organization.  In  north 
and  north-cast  Russia,  where  arable  land  is  scattered  in  small  patches 
among  forests,  communities  of  several  villages,  or  "  volost  '  com- 
munities, liave  arisen  ;  and  in  the  "  voisko  "  of  the  Ural  Cossacks  we 
find  community  of  the  whole  territory  as  regards  both  land  and  fish- 
eries and  work  in  common.  Nay,  the  Gernian'colonists  of  southern 
Kussia,  who  set  out  with  the  principle  of  personal  property,  have  sub- 
sequently introduced  that  of  the  vill.ige  community,  adaptetl  to  their 
special  needs  (Clauss).  In  some  localities,  where  there  was  no  great 
scarciiy  of  land  and  the  authorities  did  not  interfere,  joint  cultiva- 
tion of  a  common  area  for  filling  the  storehouses  has  recently  been 
devclojied  {in  Teuza  974  communes  have  introduced  this  system  and 
cultivate  an  aggregate  of  26,910  acres).  The  renting  of  land  in 
common,  or  even  purcliase  of  land  by  weal^y  communes,  has  become 
quite  usual,  as  also  the  purchase  in  common  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments. 

Since  the  emancip.ation  of  the  serfs,  however,  the  mir  has  been 
undergoing  profound  modifications.  The  differences  of  wealth 
which  ensued, — the  impoverishment  of  the  mass,  the  rapid  increase 
of  the  niral  proletariat,  and  the  enrichment  of  a  few  "kulaks" 
and  "miroyedes"  ("  mir-eaters "), — are  certainly  operating  un- 
favourably for  the  mir.  The  miroyedes  steadily  strive  to  break  up 
the  organization  of  the  commune *as  an  obstacle  to  the  extension 
of  their  power  over  the  moderately  well-to-do  peasants  ;  while  the 
proletariat  cares  little  about  the  mir.  Fears  on  the  one  side  and 
hopes  on  the  other  have  been  thus  entertained  as  to  the  likelihood 
of  the  mir  resisting  these  disintegrating  influences,  favoured,  more- 
over, by  those  landowners  and  manufacturers  who  foresee  in  the 
creation  of  a  rural  proletariat  the  certainty  of  cheap  labour.  But 
the  village  community  does  not  appear  as  yet  to  have  lost  the  power 
of  a.'.aptation  which  it  has  exhibited  throughout  its  history.  If, 
inde~d,  the  iispoverishment  of  the  peasants  continues  to  go  on,  and 
legislation  also  interferes  with  the  mir,  it  must  of  course  disap- 
pear, but  not  without  a  corresponding  disturbance  in  Russian  life.^ 
;ii  els."      The  co-operative  spirit  ofdhe  Great  Russians  shows  itself  further 

I  See  CoUirtijn  of  Mtiteyin's  on  ViUiige  Commiinifics,  published  by  the  Geogra- 
phical and  Economical  Sociellcs,  vol.  i.  (containing  a  complete  bibliogiaphy  up  to 
ISSO).  Of  moie  recent  woiks  tlie  following  aic  worthy  of  notice  :—l- itcliitsky, 
Collection  0/  Materials  /or  file  distort/  o/  the  Village  Commutttty  in  the  i'krniue, 
Kieff,  ISSr;  Efimenko,  Researches  info  Pcpvlar  Life,  ISSt;  tl.Tiltnwov,  On  the 
Origin  of  the  C^ins:  Possession.  1SS4  ;  S.imoiiv.i5o(f.  Iltstory  of  Russian  Lair.  ISS-J; 
Kcnsslcr, i:ur  Geschiehtc  und Knt ib  tics  bduerlichtr.  dcineiude-Brsitzes  in  Russla.id, 
7  vol!.,  7S5I;  rT-l  pnpci3  in  puVlic.ttions  of  Ceographici]  Societj-, 


ill  another  sphere'in  the  artels,  which  have  also  been  a  prominent 
feature  of  Russian  life  since  the  dawn  of  history.  The  artel  very 
much  resembles  the  co-operative  society  of  western  Europe,  with  this 
difference  that  it  makes  its  appearance  without  any  impulse  from 
theory,  simply  as  a  natural  form  of  popular  life.  When  workmen 
from  any  province  come,  for  instance,  to  St  Petersburg  to  engage 
in  the  textile  industries,  or  to  work  as  carpenters,  masons,  &c., 
they  immediately  unite  in  groups  of  from  ten  to  fifty  persons, 
settle  in  a  house  together,  keep  a  common  table,  and  pay  each  his 
part  of  the  expense  to  the  elected  elder  of  the  artel.  All  Russia  is 
covered  with  such  artels, — in  the  cities,  in  the  forests,  on  the  banks 
of  rivers,  on  journeys,  and  even  in  the  prisons. 

The  industrial  artel  is  almost  as  frequent  as  the  preceding,  in  all 
those  trades  w  hich  admit  of  it.  A  social  history  of  the  most  funda- 
mental state  of  Russian  society  would  Ije  a  history  of  their  hunting, 
fishing,  shipping,  trading;  building,  exploring  artels.  Artels  of  one 
or  two  hundred  carpenters,  bricklayers,  &e.,  are  common  wherever 
new  buildings  have  to  be  erected,  or  railways  or  bridges  made ;  the 
contractors  always  prefer  to  deal  with  an  artel,  rather  than  wit) 
separate  workmen.  The  same  principles  are  often  put  into  practic. 
in  the  domestic  trades.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  the  wages  dividetl 
by  the  artels  are  higher  than  those  earned  by  isolated  workmen. 

Finally,  a  great  number  of  ai  tels  on  the  stock  exchange,  in  the 
seaports,  in  the  great  cities  {commissionaires},  during  the  great 
fairs,  and  on  railways  have  grown  up  of  late,  and  have  acquired 
the  confidence  of  tradespeople  to  such  an  extent  that  considerable 
sums  of  money  and  complicated  banking  operations  are  frequently 
handed  over  to  an  artelshik  (member  of  an  artel)  without  any 
receipt,  his  number  or  his  name  being  accepted  as  sufficient 
guarantee.  These  artels  are  recruited  only  on  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  the  candidates  for  membership,  and  security  reaching 
£80  to  £100  is  exacted  in  the  exchange  artels.  These  last  have  a 
tendency  to  become  mere  joint-stock  companies  employing  salaried 
servants.  Co-operative  societies  have  lately  been  organized  by 
several  zemstvos.  They  have  achieved  good  results,  but  do  not 
exhibit,  on  the  whole,  the  same  unity  of  organization  as  those  whigh 
have  arisen  in  a  natural  way  among  peasants  and  artisans.^ 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  population  of  Russia  is  agriculture.  .*^gr:. 
Only  in  a  few  parts  of  Moscow,  Vladimir,  and  Nijni  has  it  been  culture 
abandoned  for  manufacturing  pursuits.  Cattle-breeding  is  the 
leading  industry  in  the  Steppe  legion,  the  timber-trade  in  the 
north-east,  and  fishing  on  the  White,  and  Caspian  Seas.  Of  the 
total  surface  of  Russia,  1,237.360,000  acres  (eScluding  Finland), 
1,018,737,000  acres  are  registered,  and  it  appears  that  399  per 
cent,  of  these  belongs  to  the  crown,  19  to  the  domains  {add), 
31'2.to  peasants,  24 '7  to  landed  proprietors  or  to  jirivate  com- 
panies, and  2  "3  to  the  towns  and  monasteries.  Of  the  acres 
ref^istered  only  592,6.^0,000  can  be  considered  as  "good,"  that  is, 
capable  of  paying  the  land  tax  ;  and  of  these  248,630,000  arres 
were  under  croiis  in  1854.^  The  crops  of  1SS3  were  those  of  ail 
avera'-e  year,  that  is,  2  9  to  1  in  central  Russia,  and  4  to  1  in 
south" Russia,  and  were  estimated  as  follows  (seed  corn  being  left 
out  of  account)  :— Rye,  49,185,000  quarters;  wheat,  21,605,000; 
oats,  50,403,000  ;  barley,  13,476,000  |  other  grains,  18,808,000. 
Those  of  1884  (a  very  good  year)  reached  an  average  of  IS  per 
cent  liigher,  except  oats.  The  crojis  are,  however,  very  unequally 
distributed.  In  an  average  year  there  are  8  governments  which 
are  some  6,930,000  quarters  short  of  their  requirements,  35  which 
have  an  excess  of  33,770,000  quarters,  and  17  which  have  neither 
excess  nor  deficiency.  The  export  of  corn  from  Russia  is  steadily 
increasing,  having  risen  from  6,660,000  quarters  in  1856-60  to  an 
average  of  23,700,000  quarters  in  1S76-S3  and  26,623,700  quarters 
in  is'84.  This  increase  does  not  prove,  however,  an  excess  of 
corn,  for  even  when  one-third  of  Russia  was  famine-stricken,  during 
the  last  years  of  scarcity,  the  export  trade  did  not  decline  ;  even 
Samara  e'xported  during  the  last  famine  there,  the  peasapts  being 
compelled  to  sell  their  corn  in  autumn  to  pa'y  their  taxes.  Scarcity 
is  quite  usual,  the  food  supply  of  some  ten  provinces  being 
exhausted  every  year  by  the  end  of  the  spring.  Orach,  and  even 
bark,  are  then  mixed  with  flour  for  making  bread. 

Flax,  both  for  varn  and  seed,  is  extensively  grown  in  the  north- 
west and  west,  and  the  annual  production  is  estimated  at  6, 400,000 
cwts.  of  fibre  and  2,900,000  quarters  of  linseed.  Hemp  is  largely 
cultivated  in  the  central  governments,  tlie  yeariy  production  Wing 

' 2~Scc~]siieff  on  .Artels  in  /liissia.  an.l  In  Appendix  to  Russian  tii.nslufion  nt 
rcclus;  KnlalcliolT,  The  Artels  of  Old  and  Kete  Russia;  Rccneil  of  Materials  on 
Artels  (2  vols.):  Sclicrbina,  South  Russian  Artels;  NemirofT,  Stool:  tLzchange 
Artels  (.ill  Russian). 

3  The  division  of  the  registered  land  is  as  follows,  the  figures  l>cing  percentages 
of  the  whole ; —  


Arabic 
Land. 


Fol-ests. 


I  Head 
Past 


adows, 
sturc. 


Unproductive. 


Peasants*  holdings.. 
Private  holdinus...  . 
Crown  and  domain-. 


101 
Gr-3 


-r 


H-D 

;,2-4 


K  U    S   S  1    A 


Lira 
stock. 


INDUSTRIES.] 

1  800,000  cwts.  of  fibre  and  1,800,000  quartera  of  seed.  The 
eirort  of  both  (which  along  with  otlicr  oil-bearing  plants  reached 
the  value  of  136,816,000  roubles  in  18S2)  holds  the  second  place 
in  th5  foreign  trade  of  Russia. 

The  culture  of  t!ib  beet  is  increasi.'j-,  -nd  in  18S1  785,700  ar-res 
wore  under  this  root,  chicHy  in  L'.tt'.o  Russia  and  tlio  neighbouring 
governments  ;  63,000,000  cwts.  cf  !  rctroot  were  worliod  uj.,  yic.d- 
ing  5,119,000  cwts.  of  sugar,  whl'.e  fifty-five  refineries  (twenty-si.^ 
of'tlieni  in  Poland;  showed  a  production  valued  at  118,888,630 
roubles  in  1SS2.  Tobacco  is  caltiv.itcd  cvcrywlicrc,  but  good  qua- 
lities are  obtained  onlv  in  tlie  south.  In  1S7C-S0  an  average  nrca 
of  101,600  r.ctcs  w,a3  under  this  steadily  iucrr.asing  culture,  and  the 
crop  of  1884  Yielded  80,400,000  cwts.  The  vine,  whicli  miglit  be 
grown  much  'f.irlhcr  north  than  at  present,  is  cultivated  only  on 
Jlouut  Caucasus,  iu  Bessarabia,  in  the  Crimea,  and  on  the  lower 
Don  for  wine,  and  in  Ekaterinosb ff,  Podolia,  and  Astrakhan  for 
-.aiiius.  The  yearly  produce  is  10-3  million  gallons  in  Russia,  100 
in  tho  Caucasus,  and  24  in  Transcauc.isi.a. 

Market  gardening  is  extensively  carried  on  in  Yaroslavl  for  a 
variety  of  vegetables  for  exportation,  in  JIoscow  and  Ryazifl  for 
hops,  and  in  the  south  for  sunflowers,  poppies,  melons,  &c. 
Gardening  is  also  widely  spread  in  Little  Russia  and  in  the  more 
fertile  central  governments.  JIadder  and  indigo  are  cultivated  on 
Caucasus,  and  the  silk-worm  in  Taurida,  Kherson,  and  Caucasia. 
Bee-keoping  is  widely  spread. 

The  breeding  of  live  stock  is  largely  carried  on  in  the  east  and 
south,  but  the  breeds  are  usually  inferior.  Good  breeds  of  cattle  are 
met  with  only  in  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  excellent  breeds  of  horses 
on  the  Don,  in  TambofT,  and  in  Voronezh.  Since  the  emancijiation, 
the  peasants  have  been  compelled  to  reduce  tlie  number  of  their 
cattle,  so  that  the  increase  in  this  department  docs  not  correspond 
to  the  increase  of  population,  as  is  shown  by  the  fjllcwing  figures: — 


85 


Cattle. 
Sheep 
Swino, 


20,902,000 

3T^27,000 

8 ,8Sfi  000 


If  52. 


23,845,100 

47,50H,y70 

9,207. C70 


A  more  thorough  registration  of  horses  for  militnry  ]»ur}iObLa 
gives  a  return  of  21,203,900  horses  in  Russia  and  Poland,  that  is, 
255  lioraea  per  1000  inhabitants — a  prop'^rtion  which  i«  elsewhere 
approached  only  iu  the  United  States.  They  are  l.(pt  iu  Largest 
numbcs  in  tlie  three  Steppe  goveinmenta  and  on  the  Urals  (550 
and  384  per  1000  inhabit.tnts),  'fthilc  the  smallest  proportion  occurs 
iu  tho  manufacturing  region  (155  per  1000  inhabitnuts).  90  per 
ceut.  of  the  total  number  of  horses  belong  to  peasants  ;  Ih'^so  are 
mostly  of  a  very  poor  description.  Infectious  diseasing  make  great 
ravages  every  year.  In  1882  no  less  than  121,500  cattle  and 
14,110  horses  perished  from  tliat  cause.  ^ 
Pi^hiD".  Fishing  is  a  most  important  sourco  of  income  for  whole  com- 
munities in  Russia.  Ko  less  than  2000  to  3000  inhabitants  of 
Archangel  &tg  engaged  ih  fishing  on  the  Norwegian  coast  and  in 
the  Wliite  Sea,  the  aggregate  yicdd  of  this  industry  being  estimated 
at  200,000  cwts. ,  including  150  million  herrings.  Tiiesc  fisheries 
arc,  however,  declining.  Fishing  in  the  Ualtic  is  not  of  much 
importance.  In  the  -'stuaries  of  tho  DnR^pcr,  Dniester,  and  Hug 
it  gives  occupation  to  about  4000  men,  and  may  bo  valued  at  Icsa 
than  1,000,000  roubles.  The  fisheries  in  tho  Sea  of  AzolY,  which 
occupy  about  15,000  men,  are  much  more  important,  as  are  iiho 
those  of  the  lower  Don,  v.hich  last  alone  aie  valued  at  over 
1^^000,000  roubles  a  year.  Tho  chief  fisheries  of  Russia  are,  Iiow- 
ever,  on  the  Caspian  and  in  its  feeders  :  those  of  the  Volga  cover 
no  less  than  6000  square  miles,  and  those  of  the  Ural  extend  for 
over  100  miles  on  the  sea-coast  and  400  miles  up  the  river.  The 
lowest  estimates  give  no  less  than  4  milliui  cwts.,  valued  nC  15 
million  roubles,  of  fish  taken  every  year  in  the  Caspian  and  its 
affluents.  The  fisheries  on  the  lakes  of  the  lak^  region  are  also 
worthy  of  notice. 
Bantings  Hunting  is  an  important  source  of  income  in  north  and  north- 
ea.<;t  Russia,  no  less  than  400,000  squirrels  and  800,000  grouse,  to 
mention  no  other  game,  being  killed  in  different  governments,  while 
Bca-hunting  is  still  productive  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.- 
Mining  Notwithstanding  tho  wealth  of  the  country  in  minerals  and 
ftnd  metals  of  all  kinds,  and  the  endeavours  made  i)y  Government  to 

related     encourage  mining,  including  the  imposition  of  protective   tarifts 
Indus-      even   figaiust    Finland  (in  18S5),   this  and  tho  related  industries 
tries.        are  still  at  a  low  stage  of  development.     The  remoteness  of  the 
mining  from  the  industrial  centres,  the  want  of  technical  in.'^tnie- 
tion  and  also  of  capital,  and  the  existence  of  a  variety  of  vexatious 

»  Sec  The  rear  l&St  u-llh  regard  to  AgrUuIture,  published  liv  tlic  Ministry  of 
IntcHor  (so  alio  prcrcding  years);  tlio  publiiaiioiia  of  tlio  Minister  of  I'lniincc- 
-\  an*om  Comj>fratice  htatiitici  ^  Tuttia.  ISfiO;  App.;ndlx  to  Uiis-ian  translation 
of  Rcchij;  and  Suvorla's  tiuxtUrf  Ka/mrlar. 

»  EiL'tograf  ft;.— lUvr  ani^  DAnl\a\-%k\y,  Fitfirrjf  lUifarehet  in  Ru^si^t  piiUWicd 
br  MinlMcr  tJ  lJomalii?i,  9  vols.;  Vcnlamlnoff,  Fi'T-Mij  in  /Itisfia.  I.s;r,;  .Stdoi-otf 
/fcrtfiem  Ravir.  ntid  O'r.trifiufioiis  to  Ifie  A'^oir.Vffjc  of  Iiortfu"-n  f'.-j-ic  J'S'- 
QrUnm,  The  X/y>,a  of  ihc  Arc]  Catpian  Cj^KdUtiin.  •     ■     -      . 


rr^ulatic".-!  ni2.y  be  given  as  tho  chief  regions  for  tbis  state  of 
matters.  Tlio  imports  of  foreign  metals  in  the  rough  and  of  coal 
are  steadily  increasing,  while  tho  exports,  never  otherwise  tban 
insignificant,  show  no  advance.  The  chief  mining  districts  of 
Russia  are  the  Ural  Mountains  arid  Olonetz  for  all  kinds  of  metals  ; 
the  Moscow  .,nd  Donetz  basins  for  coal  and  iron  ;  Poland  and 
Finland ;  Caucasus  ;  and  tho  Altai,  the  Ncrtchinsk,  and  the 
Amur  mmui tains. 

Gold  is  obtained  from  gold-washings  in  Siberia  (63,194  lb  in 
1882),  the  Urals  (16,S50  lb),  Central  Asia  (325  lb  iu  ISSl^,  and 
Finland  (42  lb)  ;  silver  in  Siberia  (16,128  lb),  and  partly  on  Cau- 
casus (1232  lb),  the  quantity  steadily  decreasing;  platinum  in  the 
Urals  (3600  to  4600  lb  every  3"-c.ir).  Lead  is  extracted  along  with, 
silver  (19,41'6  cwts.  in  1881  ;  357,260  cwt^.  imported) ;  zinc  only  in 
Poland  (89, 650  cwts. ;  half  as  much  is  imported);  tin  in  Finland  (194 
cwts. ;  40,000  cwts.  imported).  Copper  is  worked  in  several  govern- 
ments of  the  Ural  region,  in  Kazan,  Vyatka,  Caucasus,  Siberia,  and 
Finland,  but  the  industry  is  a  languishing  one,  and  the  crown  mines 
show  a  deficit  (05,000  cwt5.  ;  double  this  amount  is  imported). 
Iron-ores  are  found  at  mnny  places.  E.vcellent  mines  are  worked 
on  the  Urals ;  and  iron  mines'occur  also  in  large  numbers  throughout 
the  Moscow  and  Donetz  basins,  as  also  in  the  western  provinces,  no* 
to  speak  of  tliose  of  the  Asiatic  dominions,  of  Poland,  and  of  Fin- 
land (bog-iron).  In  ISSl  the  annual  production  of  pig-iron  (whicli 
covered  only  two-thirds  of  the  consumption)  was  stated  as  follows, 
(in  thousands  of  cwts.)  :— Urals,  6153;  central  Russia,  1092; 
Olonetz,  42  ;  south  and  south-west  Russia,  501  ;  Poland,  951,; 
Finland,  413  ;  Siberia,  85.  The  iron  and  steel  throughout  the 
empire  amounted  to  10,720,000  cwts.  in  1882.  European  Russia 
fllone  produced  i«  1882  31,520  cwts.  of  copper,  7,703,000  cwts.  of 
pig-j-on,  4,981,300  cwts.  of  iron,  and  3,799,600  cwts.  of  steel.      ::  ' 

The  production  of  coal  is  rapiiily  increasing  and  in  1882  reached 
46,270,000  cwts.,  three  fourtlis  being  produced  by  the  Donetz 
basin,  and  one-fifth  by  that  of  Moscow.  Poland,  moreover,  yielded 
27,950,000  cwts.  of  coal  in  1882,  and  the  Asiatic  dominions  about 
800,000  cwts.  Nearly  34,000,000  cwts.  are  imported  annually. 
Tho  extraction  of  naphtha  on  the  Aj^sheron  peninsula  of  the  Caspian 
has  been  greatly  stimulated  of. late,  reaching  about  20,000,000  cwts. 
in  1883  (4,600,000  cwts.  of  kerosene,  1,000,000  cwts.  of  lubricating 
oils,  and  300,000  cwts.  of  asphalt). 

Russia  and  Siberia  are  very  rich  in  rock  salt,  salt  springs,  and 
salt  lakes  (16,360,000  cwts.  extracted  ;  3,740,000  imported).  Excel- 
lent  graphite  is  found  iu  the  deserts  of  the  Sayan  Mountains  and 
Turukhansk.  Sulphur  is  obtained  in  Caucasia,  Kazaft,  and  Poland 
(2000  to  5000  cwts.  extracted  ;  70,O00  tc  170,000  cwts.  imported). 
The  mining  aJid  related  industries  occupy  altogether  about  an 
a.ggregate  motive  force  (steam  and  water)  of  73.500  horse-power 
and  505,000  hands.^ 

Since  the   time  of  Peter  I.   the  Rjissian  Government  has  been  Manufac-' 
unceasing  in  its  efforts  for  the  creation  and  development  of  home  tares 
manufactures.      Important  monopolies  in  last  century,  and  heavy  and  petty 
protective,   or  rather  prohibitive,  import  duties,   as  well  as  lar';e  indi\striea 
money    bounties,    in    the  present,    have    contributed    towards  tlie 
accumulation  of  immense  private  fortunes,  but  manufactures  have 
developed  but  slowly,      A  great  upward  movement  has,  however, 
been  observable  since  1863.      About  that  time  a  thorough  reform 
of  tlie  machinery  in  use  was  effected,  whereby  the  number  of  hands 
employed    was   reduced,    but    the    yearly    proiluetion    doubled    or 
trebled.      In  some  branches  the  production  sudrJenly  rose  at  a  yt>t 
higher  rate  (cottons  from  12  million  roubles  in  1865  to  209  million 
iu    1882).     The   following   figures   for    Eurojiean  Russia,  without 
Poland  and  Finland,  will  give  some  idea  of  tliis  progress  : — 


Number  of 
Establishments, 

Woikmcn 
Employed. 

Ycnily  rrodiictlon 
In  Roubles. 

Production  per 
Worltmnn, 

1351 
1861 
1870 
1882 

9,256 
14,060 
18,892 
50,905 

450,506 
559,533 
463,093 
954,971 

157,372,000 

200,560,000 

452,660,000 

1,126,033,000 

317 

528 

D77 

1,187 

These  figures  lose,  bowevcr,  some  of  their  significance  if  the  corro- 
«ponding  iatu  ^-f  progress  in  manufacturing  productivity  in  western 
Europe  he  tskcn  into  account,  liesidcs,  -since  the  great  improve- 
nieutsof  1861-70  the  industrial  progrcs?  of  Russia  has  been  but  slow. 
'I'lio  manufactories  of  rails  and  railway  j)lant,  ami  even  tho  Ural  iron- 
works, arci  in  a  precarious  condition.  The  textile  industries,  though 
undoubtedly  tliey  have  made  great  ailvances,  are  subject  to  great 
fluctuations  in  connexion  with  those  of  the  home  crops,  and  aro  thus 
in  an  abnormal  state.  The  artisans  labour  for  twelve,  fourteen,  and 
ronu'times  cixteen  hours  a  day,  and  their  condition,  as  revealed  by 
recent  inquiries,  is  verv  unsatisfactory.  Many  causes  contribute  to 
this, — the  want  of  technical  instruction,  the  want  of  capital,  and 

3  Seo  tho  yo.irly  r-croiint-t  In  Mining  Journal ;  Pobronlzskly,  Mining  in  the 
Russian  Exhibition  ol  lfiS3  (ilftnllc<l  nccoimt) ;  publlcntlonn  of  th**  Minister  o< 
Mnnnra  ;  Kiippcn'.^  "  Mlnln;;  In'hi-tliv  cf  Uusiln  "  l.i  Minii^  Journal,  IboO.  and 
Jiceitui  Ocog.  Hoc.,  1330;  Marvifi'a  I'etroleum  JnJmtry  c/ JiutUa,  1896. 


8G 


RUSSIA 


[tKA-DE, 


Icland 
trade. 


above  all  the  Trant  of  mnrkeis.  "Russfa  lias  not,  and  c?-  mot  hare, 
such  foreign  markets  as  the  rountrics  which  first  attained  an  mdas- 
trial  development.  Her  colofiies  are  deserts,  and  iu  the  liome 
markets  the  manufacturer  only  finds  SD  millions  of  poverty-stricken 
people,  whose  wants  are  nearly  all  supplied  by  their-petty  domestic 
ind'-.^tries. 

These,  that  is,  the  domestic  industries  which  are  carried  on  by 
the  peasants  in  conjunction  with  tlieir  agricultural  pujsuits  during 
the  long  days  of  idleness  imposed  by  the  climate  and  by  the  re- 
duced allotments  of  land,  continue,  not  only  to  hold  their  ground 
side  by  side  with  the  large  manufactures,  but  to  develop  and  to 
compete  with  these  by  the  cheapness  of  their  products.  Extensive 
inquiries  are  now  being  made  into  these  domestic  industries- (A:z/5^ar- 
noyie  proizvodstvo).  855,000  persons  engaged  in  them  along  with 
agriculture  {kitstaTi)  have  already  been  registered,  and  an  unexpected 
variety  of  industries,  and  a  still  more  unexpected  technical  develop- 
ment in  several  of  them,  have  been  disclosed  by  these  researches. 
The  yearly  production  of  the  855,000  kustari  who  have  been  regis- 
tered reaches  218,444,000  roubles;  while  the  total  number  of 
peasants  engaged  in  the  industries,  mostly  in  Great  Russia  and 
northern  Caucasia,  is  estimated  at  a  minimum  of  7, 500,000  persons, 
with  a  yearly  production  of  at  least  1,800,000,000  roubles,  or  more 
than  double  the  aggregate  production  of  the  manufactures  proper. 

Of  course  the  machinery  they  use  is  very  primitive,  and  the  wages 
fc  a  day  of  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  exceedingly  low.  But  the 
industries  are  capable  of  being  impnoved,  and  it  has  been  brought 
out  that  "Paris'  silk  hats  and  "Vienna"  house  furniture  sold  by 
substantial  foreign  firms  at  Moscow  are  really  manufactured  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  capital  by  peasants  who  still  continue  to  till 
their  fields.  All  these  industries  suffer  very  much  from  want  of 
credit,  and  the  producers  become  tho  prey  of  intermediaries.  But 
their  continued  existence  and  their  progress  under  most  unfavour- 
able conditions  show  that  they  meet  a  real  want,  which  is  itself  the 
consequence  of  the  peculiar  conditions  under  which  Russia,  the  last 
to  come  into  the  international  market,  has  to  develop. 

In  those  very  governments  where  two-thirds  of  the  textile  manu- 
factories of  Russia  are  concentrated  domestic  weaving  (for  the 
m-rket,  not  for  domestic  use)  employs  about  200,000  hands,  whose 
yearly  production  is  valued  at  45,000,000  roubles.  In  Stavropol  on 
Caucasus  it  has  so  rapidly  developed  that  42,400  looms  are  now  at 
work,  with  a  yearly  production  of  2,007,700  rojibles.  But  no  ade- 
quate idea  could  be  given  of  the  petty  industries  of  Russia  without 
entering  into  greater  detail  than  the  scope  of  the  present  article  per- 
mits. Suffice  it  to  say  that  there  is  no  branch  ot  the  industries  in 
textiles,  leather,  woodwork,  or  metal  work,  provided  it  needs  no 
heavj^  .achinery,  which  is  not  successfully  carried  oi;i  in  tlie 
villages.  ■  Kearly  all  the  requirements  of  nine-tenths  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Russia  are  met  in  this  way. 

The  aggregate  production  of  industries  within  the  empire,  in- 
clusive of  mining,  was  stated  in  1882  as  follows  : — European  Russia, 
1,126,033,000  roubles  J  Polaad,  147,309,000;  Finland,  15,130,000. 
The  chief  manufactures  in  European  Russia  (apart  from  Poland  and 
Finland),  and  their  yearly  production  in  1 SS2  in  millions  of  roubles, 
were  as  follows  :— cotton  yarn  and  cottons,  208  6;  other  textile 
irdustries,  103 '5  ;  metal  wares  and  machinery,  107 '9  ;  chemic-als, 
6'G  ;  candles,  soap,  glue,  leather,  and  other  animal  products,  61*4  ; 
distillery  products,  156-0  ;  other  liquors,  39'0  ;  sugar,  140'9  ;  fiour, 
74 '0.  The  remainder  are  of  minor  importance.  It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  these  figures  are  much  below  those  given  for  1879, 
when  the  aggregate  production  of  Russian  manufactures  was  com- 
puted at  1,102,949,000  roubles,  without  the  mining  and  related 
industries,  the  distillery  products,  and  the  flour. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  manufactures  in  Russia  is  very 
unequal.  The  governments  of  Moscow  and  St  Petersburg,  with  a 
yearly  production  of  173  and  134  million  roubles  respectively,  repre- 
sent together  two-fifths  of  the  aggregate  production  of  Russia.  If 
we  add  Vladimir  (91,766,000  roubles),  Kictf  (73,300,000),  Perm 
(50,500,000),  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Kharkoff,  and  Kherson  (from  30  to 
35  millions  each),  we  have  all  the  principal  manufacturing  centres. 
Iq  fact,  Moscow,  with  portions  of  the  neighbouring 'governments, 
contains  half  the  Russian  manufactures  exempted  from  excise  duties, 
while  the  south-west  governments  of  Kietf,  Podolia,  and  Kherson 
contain  two-thirds  of  those  not  so  exempted.^     ' 

The  main  wealth  of  Russia  consisting  in  raw  produce,  the  trade 
of  the  country  turns  chiefly  on  the  purchase  of  this  for  export,  and  ■ 
the  sale  of  manufactured  and  imported  goods  in  exchange.     This 

1  See  Orloffs  Index  of  Rusuan  Manufacture!'.  IStil;  Xxmny^izeiTi  Developmeni 
of  Industry  in  Russia,  and  Industrial  Atlas  of  Russia  ;  Materials  for  Statistics  o 
Steam- Engiruf'^j^>\\<i\\edi  by  Central  Statistical  Committee,  1S82;  Historical  ajid 
StaCistical  Sti  .ti  cf  Russian  Industri;,  toI.  ii,,  1SS3  ;  Annuaire.of  the  Ministry  of 
Finance;  Russische  Revue,  published  monthly  at  St  Petersburg  by  Roettpcr.  On 
the  petty  trades,  see  Memoirs  of  the  Committee  for  Investigation  of  Petty  Trades, 
Tols.  !.  tr>  xli..  1S79-84;  Recueit  of  Statistical  Information  for  Moscow  Govern- 
ment, publir.htil  by  the  Zemstvo,  vols.  vi.  and  vil.;  IsaefTs  Trades  of  Moscow, 
BTcral  p.iperfl  in  reviews;  and  an  appendix  to  the  Russian  translntion  of  Recluss 
G--ographie  Vniverselle-.  Resume  of  Materials  on  Russian  Petty  Trades,  l$7 4  {a\l 
Kassian) ;  also  TImn,  Rus^land^  Geictrbe.  For  tlie  position  of  worUmen  in  manu- 
factories see  the  extensive  inquiries  of  the  Moscovr  Zcmstvo  In  its  Recueil,  and 
the  reports  of  tlie  leccntly  nominated  inspector3  of  manufactures,  especially 
laniui.  Sketch<$  and  Rsiearches,  2  yds.,  JftS4. 


trafBc  is  in  the  hands  of  a  great  number  of  middlemen,  —in  t«e  weat 
Jews,  and  elsewhere  Russians, — to  whom  the  peasants  are  for  the 
most  part  in  debt,  as  they  purchase  in  advance  on  security  of  sub- 
sequent payments  in  corn,  tar,  wooden  wares,  &c.  A  good  deal  of 
the  internal  trade  is  earned  on  by  travelling  merchants  {ofeni). 

The  fairs  are  very  numerous  ;  the -minor  ones  numbered  6500  in 
1S73,  and  showed  sales  amounting  to  an  aggregate  of  305  millioa 
roubles.  Those  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  with  a  return  of  400  million 
roubles,  of  Irbit  and  Kharkofi"  (above  100  million  roubles  each),  of 
Koniny,  Krestovskoye  in  Perm,  and  Menzelinsk  in  Ufa  (55  to  12 
mittion  roubles),  have  considerable  importance  both  for  trade  and 
for  home  manufactures.  The  total  value  of  the  internal  trade,  which 
is  in  the  hands  of  681,116  licensed  dealers,  is  roughly  estimated  at 
more  than  seven  milliards  of  roubles. 

The  development  of  the  external  trade  of  Russia  is  seen  from  the 
following  figures  (millions  of  roubles): — ■ 


I8C1-C5. 

,1806-70.1  IS7I-75 

:87G-80. 

1P81. 

1882. 

Exports. 

Articles  of  food 

Raw  and  half-manu- 
factured produce. 
Manufactured  wares 
Cattle 

66-1 

102-8 
12  7 

116-9 

130 -i 
15-6 

200-1 
.164-6 

326-? 

4 
11-0 

261-9 

219-5 
13-2 
11-8 

350-6 

232-2 
15-8 
19-1 

Total     

181-6 
158-4 

262-7 
214-4 

3?4-9 
319-2 

534-6 
342-3 

506-4 
336-8 

617-7 
370-6 

„     in  metallic 
roubles  ^ 

Imports. 

Articles  of  food 

Raw  and  half-manu- 
factured produce . 
Manufactured  wares 

Total    

60  4 

66-4 
36-1 

68-5 

116-9 
96-4 

109-3 

203-4 
132-2 

122  0 

259-7 
139-2 

125-7 

278-5 
113-6 

148-2 

284  7 
1351 

162-9 
142-5 

281-8 
229-3 

449-9 
390-3 

520-9 
359-4 

517-8 
344-3 

568-0 
340-8 

„     iu  metallic 
roubles... 

The  chief  article  of  export  tb  grain — wheat,  oats,  and  rye — 
(24,870,000  quarters,  321,042,000  roubles  in  1SS2),  to  which  the 
increase  of  exports  is  mainly  due.  This  increase,  however,  does  not 
correspond  to  an  increase  of  crops,  only  10  per  cent,  of  which  were 
exported  in  1S70  and  about  20  per  cent,  in  18S2.  Next  to  grain, 
come  flax,  hemp,  linseed,  and  hempseed  (129,370,000  roubk'3  in. 
1882)  ;  oil-yielding  grains  (441,000  quarters)  ;  wool,  tallow,  hides, 
bristles,  anil  bone  (31,120,000  roubles).  If  we  add  to  these  timber 
(35,044,000  roubles)  and  furs  (4,147,000  roubles),  95  percent,  of  aU 
Russian  exports  are  accounted  for,  the  remainder  consisting  of 
linen,  ropes,  and  some  woollen  stuffs  and  metallic  wares  (7,172,000 
roubles  to  western  Europe,  2,888.000  to  Finland,  and  5,763,000  to 
Asia). 

The  chief  imports  from  Europe  were  in  1SS2  as  follows: — Tea 
(48,091,000  roubles),  liquors  (16.1^4,000  roubles),  salt,  fish,  rice, 
fruits,  and  colonial  wares  (38,446,000  roubles),  various  raw  tex- 
tile wares  (127,986,000  roubles— cotton  72,417,000),  raw  metal* 
(32,630,000  roubles),  chemicals  (57,894,000  roubles),  and  stuffa 
(22,428,000  roubles).  The  imports  from  Asia— chiefly  tea— in  the 
same  year  reached  32, 853,000  roubles.  The  chief  imports  were  from 
Germany  (214,000,000  roubles)  and  Great  Britain  (124,700,000), 
the  chief  exports  to  Great  Britain  (210,000,000^,  Germany 
(178,000.000),  and  France  (54,00OjQ)O).  Even  m  her  trade  with 
Finland  Russia  imports  more  than  she  exports, — the  chief  imports 
being  paper,  cotton,  iron,  f  nd  butter  ;  prohibitory  tariffs  were  im- 
poseil  on  Finnish  wares  in  1885. 

During  1882  the  ports  of  the  empire  were  visited  by  13,63C 
foreign  ships  (5,337,000  tons),  of  which  number  1436  were  to 
Asiatic  ports  (391,200  tons).  Of  the  above  total  only  2489  vessels 
(628,000  tons)  were  under  the  Russian  fl£.g  (mostly  Finnish),  while 
the  British  alone  showed  a  tonnage  of  2,258,000  and  the  German 
639,000.  The  coasting  trade  was  represented  by  35,063  vessels 
(6,040,000  tons)  entering  the  ports,  chiefly  those  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  mercantile  marine  of  Russia  in  1882  numbered  6383  vesscU 
(727,000  tons),  including  604  steamers  ;  of  the  total  n'limber  1593 
(254,000  tons)  were  Finnish.  The  chief  ports  are  St  Petersburg, 
Odessa,  Riga,  Taganrog,  Libau,  and  Reval  Baku  hbs  recently 
acquir^  some  importance  in  consequence  of  the  naphtha  trade. ^ 

The  rivers  of  the  empire,  mostly  connected  by  canals,  play  a  very  p^mi  must 
important  part   in  the   inland   traffic.      The    aggregate    length   of  oitiwa. 
navigable  waters  reaches   21,510  miles  (453  miles  of  canals),   and 
12,600  miles  more  are  available  for  floating  rafts.      In  18S2  51,407 
boats,  with    cargoes   amounting  to    153,250,000  cwts.,  Talued   a*: 
186,480,000  roubles,  left  the  ports  on  Russian  rivers  and  canaU 

»  See  note  1,  p.  72. 

3  See  Obior  of  the  Foreign  Trade  cf  Russia  In  18S?,  published  by  ilna  MiofSie: 
of  Finance,  and  tbc  same  ior  trcJc  'vitli  F.uropc  in  JSS3  and  1334. 


VOL.  XXI. 


l^age  8  7 


SIA 


PLATE  m 


HISTORY.] 


R  TI  S  IS  I  A 


87 


Cora,  firewooil,  and  timber  constitute  two-tliii-ds  of  the  "whole 
cargoes  carried.  Within  Russia  proper,  from  5740  to  7400  boats, 
larger  and  smaller,  worth  from  four  to  seven  millions  of  roubles, 
have  been  built  ann«allj  during  tliB  last  five  years  ("415  boats, 
valued  at  6,758,000  roubles,  in  1SS2, — 18  of  them  "jeing  steamers) ; 
most  of  them  aie  light  flat-bo'.tnmed  structuras,  which  are  broken 
up  as  soon  as.  they  have  reached  their  destination.  The  number  of 
steamers  plying  on  inland  waters,  chiefly  on  the  Volga,  was  esti- 
mated in  1879  at  1056  (80,890  hoi-so-power). 

Twenty-five  years  ago  Kassin  had  only  99."  miles  of  railways  ;  on 
January  1,  1883,  the  totals  were  13,428  miles  for  Russia  and 
Caucasia,  883  for  Poland,  734  for  Finland,  and  141  for  the 
Transcaspian  region,  and  two  years  kt<-.r  they  had  reached  an  aggre- 
gate  length  of  16,165  miles.  The  railways  chiefly  connect  the 
Baltic  ports  with  the  granaries  jf  Kussia  in  the  south-east,  and  the 
western  frontier  with  Moscow,  whence  six  trunk  lines  radiate  in  all 
directions.  Several  military  lines  run  along  the  western  frontier, 
while  two  trunk  lines,  starting  frOm  St  Petersburg,  foUowthe  two 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Of  the  projected  Siberian  railway 
one  main  line  (444  miles),  connecting  Perm  and  Eerezniki  on  the 
Kama  with  Ekaterinburg  aud  the  chief  iron-works  of  the  Urals,  has 
been  constructed.-  It  has  been  extended  east  to  Kamyshkofl',  and  is 
to  bo  continued  to  Tiumcn,  100  miles  farther  east,  whence  steamers 
ply  to  Tomsk. 

Only  733  miltj  of  the  railways  of  Eussia  belong  to  the  state, 
but  most  of  them  have  been  constructed  under  Government  guar- 
antees, involving  payment  of  from  11  to  21  million  roubles  yeaily. 
On  the  other  hand  the  yearly  increasing  debt  of  the  railways  to  the 
state  amounted  to  781,883,800  roubles  in  1883.  Of  the  aggregate 
value  of  the  Russian  railways,  estimated  at  2210  million  roubles,  no 
less  than  1971  million  roubles  were  held  by  Government  in  shares 
and  bonds.  The  cpst  of  construction  has  been  altogether  out  of 
proportion  to  what  it  ought  to  be;  for,  whereas  the  average  rate 
per  verst  (0*663  mile)  in  Finland  was  only  20,000  silver  roubles,  in 
Russia  it  readied  60,000,  75,000,  90,000,  and  even  100,000  roubles. 
In  1382  21,322  versts  (14,136  miles)  represented  an  expenditure 
of  2,210,047,632  roubles,  aud  their  net  revenue  was  only  3*18  per 
cent,  on  the  capital  invested  (4982  roubles  per  English  mile  in 
1882).  In  1884  34,674,853  mssengers,  2,287,955  military,  and 
834,500,000  cwts.  of  merchandise  were  conveyed  by  5808  locomo- 
tives and  120,940  carriages  and  waggons.  Fully  one-half  of  the 
merchandise  carried  consisted  of  corn  (24  per  cent.),  coal  (13  per 
cent.),  firewood  (12  per  cent.),  and  timber  (8  per  cent.).^ 
P^slc  For  the  conveyance  of  correspondence  and  travellers  along  ordi- 

a  I  tele-  nary  routes  the  state  maintains  an  extensive  organization  of  post- 
gr  .phs.  norses  between  all  towns  of  the  empire,  that  is,  over  an  aggregate 
length  of  110,170  miles.  In  1882  4355  stations,  with  a  staff  of 
15,560  men  and  446,460  horses,  were  kept  up  for  that  purpose.  In 
1883  242,193,470  letters,  newspapers  (93,520,000),  registered 
letters,  and  parcels  were  carried,  of*  which  29,808,100  belonged  to 
international  coirespondence.  The  telegraph  system  had  in  the 
same  year  an  aggregatelengthof  65,394  miles,  with  2,957  telegraph- 
offices,  and  10,2*2*2,139  telegrams  were  transmitted.'       (P.  A.  K. ) 

Paet  TV.  RtJss!.\N  History. 

nitoiT.  The  Russians,  properly  so  called,  belong  to  the  Slavonic 
race,  itself  a  division  of  the  great  Aryan  family.  It  can- 
not be  denied  that  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of 
Russia  large  Finnish  elements  have  become  mixed  tvith 
the  Slavs,  and  Mongolian  in  the  south,  but  this  is  far 
from  justifying  the  prejudiced  attempts  of  Duchinski  and 
others  to  challenge  the  right  of  the  Russians  to  bo 
called  an  Aryan  people.  The  derivation  of  the  words  Russia, 
Russians  (Rous,  Hossin,  lioisiaiie),  has  been  much  disputed. 
The  old-fashioned  view  was  to  identify  them  v/ith  the 
Ji/wxolani,  who  are  now  generally  believed  to  have  been  a 
Medish  tribe.  The  later  and  probably  correct  one  is  to 
derive  the  name  from  the  Finnish  Ruotsi  applied  to  the 
Swedes,  and  considered  by  Professor  Thomscn  of  Copen- 
hagen to  bo  itself  a  corruption  of  the  Swedish  word 
totiumenn,    rowers  or  seafarers.     They  are  Scandinavian 

See  the  Slaiiatical  Sbornik  a/  the  Ministry  of  Reads  and  Coinnw 
nicalions,  vols,  viii,,  ix.,  and  x.  (roads,  canals,  railways,  and  traflic 
thereon,  v.'ith  maps  and  graphic  representation  of  traffic);  Golovatcliolf, 
"Russian  Railways,"  in  Bezobrazoff's  Sbornik  Oosudarsttennykh 
Znanitj,  vols,  if.,  v.,  vii.,  viii.;  Rybakoff  and  Bielod,  Our  H'avs  of 
Communication^  1884  ;  Tchuproff,  Tovarnyie  Shindy,  &c  (tra^le  iu 
com),  1884. 

2  See  Postal  Slcii^ua  /or  1883  (St   Pctcrsbuj-g,  1885),  aud  the 
Rvsskiy  KjiUndar, 


vikings  with  whom  we  first  become  acquainted  in  northern 
Russia,  and  who  in  a  way- founded  the  empire,  although 
from  Arabian  and  Jewish  writers  we  have  dim  records  of 
a  Slavonic  race  inhabiting  the  basin  of  the  Dnieper  about 
the  close  of  the  9th  century.     In  recent  times  Ilovaiski 
and  GodeonoU  have  again  attacked  the  view  of  the  Swedish 
origin  of  the  invaders.     They  see  in  them  only  Slavs,  but 
they  are  not  considered  to  have  shaken  the  theory  which 
derives  the  name  from  Ruotsi.     As  the  story  goes,  three  Rurik 
brothers,  Rurik,  Siueus,  and  Truvor,  were  invited  to  Russia  ™d  his 
from  the  north  and  settled  at  Novgorod  in  SC2.     Nestor  '"'°t'"'™- 
calls  them  Varangians,  a  name  in  which  most  people  are 
willing  to  see  Norsemen.     For  a  long  time  the  Russians 
and  Scandinavians  are  con.sidered,  as  we  shall  find,  to  be 
separate  races,  but  s.t  length  they  are  fused,  as  tlie  Saxons  * 
and  Normans  in  England  under. Henry  I.      Concerning 
the  origin  of  the  town  of  Novgorod,  which  bears  a  purely 
Slavonic  name,  nothing  is  known ;  it*  has  been  supposed 
that   at  first   a  Finnish   settlement   existed   on    its   site. 
According  to  the  legend  the  three  brothers  were  invited 
over   by  a  leading  citizen   named  GostomisL     There  'is, 
however,  no  mention  of  such  a  person  in  the  Caronklc  of 
Nestor.     There  is  another  story  that  Rurik  was  tha  son 
of   the  Swedish   king,  Ludbrat,  a   person   met   with   in 
Scandinavian  legend,  and  his  queen  Umila,  the  daughter 
of  Gostomlsl,  and  was  born  at  Upsala  in  830.     Whatever 
the  variants  of  the  legend  may  be,  we  seem  to  learn  one 
thing, — that  a  aucce.ssful   Scandinavian  invasion  occurred 
in  the  north  of  Russia.     The  three  brothers  finally  settled 
in    the    country, — Rurik    at    Ladoga,    where   the   river 
Volkhoff  flows  into  the  lake,-  Sineus  at  Bielo-ozero,  and 
Truvor   at  Izborsk   on   Lake   Peipus.     On  the  death  of 
his   two  brothers  without  heirs,  we  are  told  that  Rurilc 
annexed  their  dominions  to  his  own,  and  took  the  title  of 
veliki    hiia:,   or  grand-prince.       These  three  brothers  are 
said  to  have  brought  two  other  adventurers  with  them, 
Askold  and  Dir,  *who,  having  had  a  quarrel  with  Rurik, 
set  out  with  sonio  companions    to  Constantinople  to  try 
their  fortune.     On  their  way  they  saw  Kieff,  situated  on  a 
rich  and  grassy  jjlain,  in  the  occupation  of  the  Khazar.?.    Of 
this  city  they  made  themselves  masters,  and  permanently 
established    themselves  on    the    Dnieper.     The   origin  of 
Kiefl  itself  is  involved  in  mystery.     It  is  first  mentioned 
about  the  9th  century.  Constantino  Pcrphyrogenitus  speaks 
of    TO    Kaarpov    to   KiooySa  to    tVoi'o/iafo'/ieio;'    2a/i/3aTas. 
This  last  word  has  given  much  labour  to  scholars  ;  some  are 
disposed  to  see  in  it  the  Norse  sandhaldi,  the  bank  of  sand. 
It  is  at  Kieff  that,  according  to  the  legend,  St  Andrew 
preached  the  gospel    to  tlie  Russians.     From   this   place 
Askold  and  Dir  sallied  forth  two  years  afterwards,  with 
an  armament  of  two  hundred  vessels,  sailed  up  the  Bos- 
phorus,  and  plundered  the  capital  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 
The  Greek  writers   give   851  as  the  date    of  this  enter- 
prise, thus   making  it   precede   the  arrival  of   Rurik  by 
eleven  years.     The  emperor  at  the  time  of  tlicir  invasion 
was  Michael  III. 

Having  greatly  extended  His  dominions  by  snbduaig  !lie  I^>  ini 
surrounding  Slavonic  tribes,  Rurik  died  at  an  advanced  O^-V 
age  in  879,  leaving  the  regency  of  the  principality  and  the 
guardianship  of  his  son  Igor  to  the  renowned  Olcg.'  This 
chief  subdued  Smolensk,  a" city  of  the  Krivitchi,  in  882. 
Allured  by  its  wealth  and  advantageous  situation,  Olcij 
now  resolved  to  attempt  Kieff,  which  was  held  by  Askohl 
and  Dir.  The  story  goes  that  ho  took  young  Igor  with 
him,  and  disguised  himself  and  his  companions  as  Slavonic 
merchants.  The  unsuspecting  Askold  and  Dir  were  invited 
to  a  conference  and  slain  on  the  spot.  Thus  was  Kieff 
added  to  the  dominions  of  Igor,  who  was  recognized  as  the 

*  Both    these   names  are  Scandinavian,   tho  original  forms  being 
Ingvar  and  Ilclyi 


8« 


RUSSIA 


[msTOEY. 


lord  of  the  town.'  In  903  Oleg  chose  a  wife  for  Igor, 
named  Olga,-  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Pskoff,  tije  origin 
of  which  place,  now  mentioned  for  the  first  time,  is  unknown. 
"Wa  are  told  that  it  was  a  city  of  importance  before  the 
arrival  of  Kurik.  The  derivation  of  the  name  is  disputed, 
some  deriving  it  from  a  Finnish,  others  from  a  Slavonic  root. 
Oleg  next  resolved  to  make  an  attack  upon  Byzantium, 
and  his  preparations  were  great  both  by  sea  and  land. 
Leo-the  Philosopher,  then  emperor,  was  ill  able  to  resist 
these  barbarians.  He  attempted  to  block  the  passage  of 
the  Bosphorus,  but  Oleg  dragged  his  ships  across  the  land 
and  arrived  before  the  gates  of  Constantinople.  The 
Greeks  begged  for  peace  and  offered  tribute.  Oleg  is  said 
to  have  hung  his  shield  in  derision  on  the  gates  of  tlio 
'city.  We  may  believe  this  witliout  going  so  far  as  to  give 
credence  to  Stryikowski,,  the  Polish  wrifer,  who  says  it  was 
to  be  seen  there  in  his  time  (IGth  century).  The  atrocities 
committed  by  Oleg  and  his  followers  are  described  by 
Karamzin,  the  Russian  historian  ;  they  are  just  such  as 
the"  other  Norsemen  of  their  race  were  committing  at 
the  same  time  in  northern  and  western  Europe.  The 
Byzantines  paid  a  large  sum  of  money  that  their  city 
might  be  e.xeinptixl  from  injury,  and  soon  after  Oleg  sent 
ambassadors^  to  the  emperor  to  arrange  the  terms.  The 
treaty  was  ratified  by  oatlis :  the  Byzantines  swore  by  the 
Gospels,  and  the  Russians  by  their  gods  Perun  and  Volos. 
In  911  Oleg  made  another  treaty  with  the  Byzantines,  the 
terms  of  which,  as  of  the  preceding  one,  are  preserved  in 
Xestor.  The  authenticity  of  these  two  treaties  has  been 
called  in  question  by  some  writers,  but  Miklosich  truly 
observes  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  at  the  time 
A'estor  wrote  to  forge  the  Scandinavian  na.nes.  Soon 
after  this  Oleg  died  ;  he  had  exercised  supreme  power  till 
the  time  of  his  death  to  the  exclusion  .of  Igor,  and  seems 
to  have  been  regarded  by  the  people  as  a,  wizard.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  killed  l)y  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  which  had 
loiled  itself  in  the  skull  of  his  horse,  as  he  was  gazing  at 
the  animal's  unburied  bones.  The  story  is  in  reality  a 
Scandinavian  saga,  as  has  been  shown  by  Bielowski  and 
Rafn.  It  is  also  found  in  other  countries.  In  the  reigu 
of  Igor  the  Petchenegs  first  make  their  appearance  in 
Russian  history.  .In  911  he  undertook  an  expedition 
against  Constantinople  and  entered  the  Bosphorus  after 
devastating  the  provinces  of  Pontus,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Bithynia.  Nestor  has  not  concealed  the  atrocities  com- 
mitted by  the  Russians  on  this  occasion  ;  he  tells  us  of  the 
churches  and  monasteries  which  they  burned,  and  of  their 
cruelty  to  the  captives.  They  were,  however,  attacked  by 
the  Byzantine  fleet,  and  overpowered  by  the  aid  of  Greek 
fire  ;  many  were  drowned,  and  many  of  those  w-ho  swam  to 
land  wc»e  slaughtered  by  the  infuriated  peasants ;  only 
one  of  their  number  escaped.  Thirsting  to  avenge  his 
loss,  Igor  fitted  out  another  expedition  in  the  spring  of 
the  following  year.  The  Greeks  were  unwilling  to  run 
■a  risk  again ;  they  renewed  the  treaty  which  had  been 
signed  with  Oleg,  and  were  only  too  glad  to  purchase 
■deliverance  from  their  adversaries.  The  Russian  at  first 
demanded  too  much,  but  was  finally  persuaded  by  his  more 
prudent  attendants :  "  If  Ciesar  speaks  thus,"  said  they, 
"  what  more  do  we  want  than  to  have  gold  and  silver 
and  silks  without  fighting  1  Vfho  knows  v'.iich  will 
survive,  we  or  they  ?  Who  has  over  been  able  to  conclude 
a  treaty  with  the  sea  1  We  do  not  go  on  the  dry  land, 
but  on  the  waves  of  the  sea  ;  death  is  common  to  all." 

*  Tliis  story  i3  considered  by  the  historian  Bestuzliuff  Riumin  to 
be  a  mere  legend  invented  to  eiplrvin  the  connexion  b'.tweeu  Novgorod 
and  KietT. 

^  Here  again  we  have  a  Norse  name.  Olga  is  equivalent  to  Hclga, 
"which  in  its  older  form  i';  Holga. 

'  It  has  been  observed  that  the  ii..;:iC3  of  the  ambassadors  in  tlii" 

jatyare  purely  Scandinavian. 


A  treaty  of  peace  wci  accordingly  concluded,  which  is 
given  at  full  length  by  Nestor ;  of  the  fifty  names  att;g.'^hed 
to  it  we  find  three  were  Slavordc  and  the  rest  Norse.  The 
two  races  are  beginning  to  be  fused.  From  this  expedi- 
tion Igor  returned  triumphant.  -He  was,  however,  unfor- 
tunate in  a  subsequent  attack  on  the  Drevlians,  a  Slavonic 
tribe  whose  territory  i«  now  partly  occupied  by  the 
government  of  TchernigofiT.  The  Drevlians  had  long 
suffered  from  his  exactions.  They  resolved  to  encounter 
him  under  the  command  of  their  prince  Male ;  for  they 
saw,  as  a  chronicler  says,  that  it  was  necessary  to  kill  the 
wolf,  or  the  whole  -flock  would  become  his  prey.  They 
accordingly  laid  an  ambuscade  near  their  town  Korosten, 
now  called  Iskorost,  in  the  government  of  Volhynia,  and 
slew  him  and  fj  his  company.  According  to  Leo  the 
Deacon,  he  was  tied  to  two  trees  bent  together,  and  when 
they  were  let  go  the  unhappy  chief  was  torn  to  pieces. 

Igor  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sviatoslaff,  the  first  Regena 
Russian  prince  with  a  Slavonic  name.  Olga,  hovrever,  °^  "^'s' 
the  spirited  wife  of  Igor,  was  no%v  regent,  owing  to  her 
son's  minority.  .  Fearful  was  the  punishment  she  inflicted 
upon  the  Drevlians  for  the  death  of  her  husband,  and  the 
story  lacks  no  drainatic  interest  as  it  has  been  handed 
down  by  the  old  chronicler.  Some  of  the  Drevlians  were 
buried  alive  in  pits  which  she  had  cau.sed  to  be  dug  for 
the  purjiose  previously;  some  were  burned  alive ;  and  others 
murdered  at  a  irima,  or  funeral  feast,  which  she  had 
appointed  to  be  hejd  in  her  husband's  honoui'.  The  town 
Iskorost  was  afterw-ards  set  on  fire  by  tying  lighted 
matches  to  the  tails  of  sparrows  and  pigeons,  and  letting 
them  fly  jon  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  Here  we  certainly 
have  a  piece  of  a  hilina,  as  the  old  Ruwiau  legendary 
poems  are  called.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  Layamon  give 
the  same  account  of  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Cirencester 
by  Gurmund  at  the  head  of  the  Saxons,  and  something 
similar  is  also  told  about  Harold  Hardrada  in  Sicily. 
Finally,  at  the  close-of  her  life,  Olga  became  a  Christian. 
She  herself  visited  the  capital  of  the  Greek  empire,  and 
was  instructed  in  the  mysteries  of  her  new  faith  by  the 
patriarch.  There  she  was  baptized  by  him  in  955,  and  the 
emperor  Constantino  Porphyrogenitus  became  her  god- 
father. She  did  not,  however,  succeed  in  persuading  her 
son  Sviatoslaff  to  embrace  the  same  faith,  although  he  Svinto- 
toOk  no  measures  to  impede  its  progress  among  hissub-alaff. 
jects.  This  son  was  as  celebrated  a  warrior  as  Oleg ;  his 
victories  were  chiefly  over  the  Petchenegs  previously  men- 
tioned, a  people  of  Jlongol  origin  inhabiting  the  basin  of 
the  Don.  He  began,  however,  the  fatal  custom  of  brcafe- 
ing  up  Russia  into  apanages,  which  he  distributed  among 
his  sons.  The  effects  of  this  injudicious  policy,  subse- 
quently pursued  by  other  grand  princes,  were  soon  felt. 
Thus  was  paved  the  way  for  the  invasion  of  Russia  by  the 
Mongols,  who  held  it  for  two  hundred  years,  and  com- 
municated that  semi-Asiatic  character  to  the  dress  and 
customs  of  the  country  which  the  ubizes  of  Peter  the 
Great  could  hardly  eradicate,  and  which  perhaps  have 
not  entirely  disappeared  even  in  our  own  times.  In  his 
division  of  the  country,  Sviatoslaff  gave  Kieff  to  his  son 
Yaropolk ;  to  another  son,  Oleg,  the  conquered  land  of  the 
Drevlians ;  to  anotlier,  Vladimir,  he  assigned  Novgorod. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  interest  the  reader  in  the  petty 
wars  of  these  princes.  After  having  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Petchenegs,  Sviatoslaff  set  out  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Bulgarians,  a  Ugro-Finnish  tribe, 
dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  the  remains  of  whose 
ancient  capital  can  still  be  seen.  He  made  himself  master 
of  their  country,-  but  his  victorious  career  was  cut  short  at 
the  cataracts  of  the  Dnieper,  where  he  and  his  soldiers 
were  slain  by  the  Petchenegs.  According  to  the  barbarous 
cu.slom  cf  the  times,  their  orince  Kurya  made  his  skull 


903-1174.] 


R  E   S  8  1  A 


89 


Ttadl^ir.  into  a  drinking-cup.  Vladimir,  the  eon  of  Sviatoslafi,  was 
for  some  time  a  monster  of  cruelty  and  debauchery.  He 
killed  hia  brother  Yaropoik,  and  seized  his  dominions  ;  and, 
Yaropolk  having  some  time  before  murd.';red  his  brother 
Oleg,  Vladimir  now  became  sole  ruler.  To  his  hereditary 
dominions  he  added  Galicia  or  Bed  Russia,  and  subjugated 
some  Lithuanian  and  Livonian  tribes.  Suddenly  he  seems 
to  have  been  troubled  with  religious  difficulties.  Accord- 
ing to  the  chronicler,  ht  sent  ambassac'ors  to  bring  him 
reports  of  the  diflerent  religions — Catholic,  Jewish,  Mus- 
sulman, and  Greek.  The  last  of  these  beliefs  seemed  the 
most  satisfactory.  Vladimir  marched  south,  took  the  city 
of  Chersonesus  in  the  Crimea,  which  at  that  time  belonged 
to  the  Byzantine  emperors,  and  then  sent  to  demand  the 
hand  of  the  daughter  of  that  potentate.  After  some 
deliberation  his  request  was  granted  on  condition  that  he 
was  baptized.  Accordingly  he  went  to  Constantinople  in 
988,  and  was  admitted  into  the  church,  and  at  the  same 
■time  received  the  hand  of  Anne,  the  Byzpntine  princess, 
although  he  seems  to  have  alrea'dy  had  a  great  number  of 
wives.  On  his  return  to  Kieff,  he  caused  the  image  of 
Perun,  the  Slavonic  god  of  thunder,  which  had  been 
erected  on  an  eminence,  to  be  cast  into  the  river,  after 
having  been  belaboured  by  the  cudgels  of  hia  soldiers. 
After  this  Vladimir  issued  a  proclamation  ordering  all  the 
inhabitants  to  proceed  on  the  following  day  to  the  banks 
of  the  river  to  receive  baptism.  This  extraordinary  com- 
mand met  with  universal  obedience,  and  Russia  was 
Christianized.     As  Vladimir  introduced  Christianity  into 

yarosUff.  Russia,  so  YaroslaS  his  son  was  the  first  legislator.  He 
was  prince  of  Novgorod,  and  died  in  1054.  Vladimir  on 
his  death  divided  his  dominions  among  his  sons ; — to 
Yaroslaff,  Novgorod ;  to  Iziaslaff,  Polotsk ;  to  Boris,  Eostoff  ; 
to  Gleb,  Murom;  to  Sviatoslaff,  the  Drevlians ;  and  a  few 
other  provinces  to  others  of  his  sons.  Kieff,  his  capital, 
•was  seized  by  hia  nephew  Sviatopolk,  who  murdered  Boris 
and  Gleb,  now  canonized  among  the  martyrs  of  the 
Russian  Church.  Yaroslaii  at  length  drove  Sviatopolk 
from  Kiefl,  and  was  temporarily  restored  by  the  Poles,  but 
only  to  be  driven  out  again,  and  he  ended  his  life  as  an 
exile.  Yaroslafi  was  successful  against  the  Petchenegs,  but 
failed  in  an  attack  on  Constantinople.  His  great  claim  to 
be  remembered  lies  in  his  publishing  the  first  recension  of 
the  Jiusshaic.  Pravda,  the  earliest  Russian  code,  which 
■was  handed  down  in  the  chronicles  of  Novgorod. 

Period  We   now  leave  the  earliest  period  of  Russian  history, 

-■f  the  yiiHi  its  romantic  stories  and  embedded  sagas,  telling  us 
^^^  ■  of  heroic  men,  for  the  second  division  of  our  subject.  The 
death  of  Yaroslaff  was  followed  by  the  dreariest  portion 
of  the  Russian  annals — the  period  of  the  apanages  (udicli), 
lasting  from  1054  to  1238.  The  country  was  now  broken 
up  into  petty  principalities,  and  we  shall  understand  its 
cor.Jition  more  clearly  if  we  remember  that  the  chief 
divisions  of  Russia  from  the  11th  century  to  the  13th 
were  as  follows'  : — 

(1)  The  principality  of  Smolensk,  fonnerly  of  great  importance, 
as  .ncluding  in  its  territories  the  sources  of  three  of  the  great 
Russian  rivers — the  Volga,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  DUna. 

(2)  The  principality  of  Russia,  in  the  early  and  restricted  sense, 
the  original  ekment  of  the  country.  The  first  form  of  the  name  is 
Rous.  The  word  appears  to  have  been  a  collective  appellation  of 
the  people  ;  it  was  under  the  influence  of  the  Byzantine  writers 
that  in  the  17th  century  the  form  Rossia  sprang  up,  which  in  time 
spread  over  the  whole  land.  We  must  not  forget,  however,  that 
to  the  majority  of  Englishmen,  till  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, ita  name  wasMuscovy.  Itasituation  on  the*  Dnieper  was  vtv 
sdvantageoua ;  and  the  soil  was  fertile,  the  bUck-caith  region  beii 
at  the  present  time  the  great  wheat-growing  district  of  Kussia. 
liesidos,  the  Byzantine  tenitory  was  not  far  off.  On  the  princi- 
palitY  of  Kicir  depended  that  of  Percia^lavl ;  and  Vishgorod,  Biel- 
gorod,  and  Tortchcsk  were  made  apanages  for  princes  of  the  same 
aynaaty. 

'  Se«  Rambaud,  HUtoire  di  la  Jiusiie,  p.  76. 

21— «* 


(3)  On  the  afliueats  of  the  right  bcnk  of  the  Dnieper,  cspeeially 
the  Sozha,  the  Dcsra.  and  the  Seim,  etretohcd  the  principalitiej 
of  TchevnigofT  with  Starodub  and  Luboch,  and  Xovgorod  Severski 
with  Putivl,  Kursk,  and  Briansk. 

(■!)  The  double  principality  of  Ryazan  and  iXurom. 

(o)  The  principality  of  Suzdal. 

(6)  TIio  republics  of  Novgorod  and  Pskoff,  and  the  danghter-city 
of  the  latter,  Vyatka. 

Idaslaff,  the  son  of  Yaroslaff,  seems  to  have  had  a 
troubled  reign  of  twenty-four  years,  constantly  disturbed 
by  civil  wars.  On  his  death  in  1078,  although  he  had 
two  sons,  he  left  the  principality  of  KieS  to  his  brother 
Vsevolod,  apparently  on  a  principle  common  among  the 
Slavs  to  bequeath  the  crown  to  the  oldest  male  of  the 
family ;  but,  on  the  death  of  Vsevolod,  Sviatopolk,  the 
son  of  Iziaslaff,  succeeded  in  1093.  At  his  death 
Vladimir  Monomakh  came  to  the  tlirone,  and  ruled  from 
1113  to  1125.  He  was  the  son  of  Vsevolod,  and  was  called 
after  his  maternal  grandfather,  the  Byzantine  emperor 
Constantino  Jlonomachus.  The  reign  of  this  prince  was 
a  very  prosperous  one.  He  left  a  curious  treatise 
called  "  Instruction  "  {Pouchenie),  addressed  to  his  sons,  in 
which  we  get  a  picture  of  the  simple  life  in  Russia  at  that 
period  (see  below,  p.  103).  He  also  founded  on  the  river 
Kliazma  a  town  which  bears  his  name.  There  were  con- 
tinual quarrels  among  his  descendants,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  go  into  these  minutely  here.  Georre  Dolgoruki,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Vladimir  Monomakh,  gained  possession  of  Kielf 
in  1157,  but  the  city  soon  began  to  pale  before  the  growing 
power  of  Suzdal,  and  ceased  to  be  the  capital.  He  died 
the  same  year,  just  while  a  league  was  being  formed  to 
drive  him  out  of  it.  The  confederates  entered  the  city, 
and  their  chief  made  himself  prince.  In  1169  Andrew 
Bogolioubski,  son  of  George  Dolgoruki,  formed  a  coali- 
tion against  Mstislaff,  who  was  reigning  in  Kieff,  and  a 
large  army  was  sent  against  the  city.  It  was  taken  and 
pillaged ;  and  the  sacred  pictures,  sacerdotal  ornaments, 
and  even  bells  were  carried  off.  It  is  on  this  occasion 
that  the  head  of  St  Clement,  the  Slavonic  apostle,  which 
is  known  to  have  been  preserved  at  Kieff,  was  lost. 

After  the  fall  of  this  city  Russia  ceased  for  some  time 
to  have  any  political  centre.  During  the  fifty-four  )'ears 
previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  Mongols,  our  chief  interest 
is  drawn  to  Suzdal  and  Galicia,  and  the  republics  of 
Novgorod  and  Pskoff.  George  Dolgoruki  had  founded 
the  principality  of  Suzdal ;  his  great  anxiety,  however, 
was  to  make  himself  master  of  Kieff.  The  chief  aim  of 
his  son  Andrew  Bogoliubski  was  to  extend  his  authority 
in  another  direction,  and  to  cause  it  to  be  recognized  at 
Novgorod  the  Great,  where  he  had  established  his  nephew 
as  a  kind  of  lieutenant.  He  attacked  the  city  in  1170, 
but  was  completely  repulsed  from  its  walls,  a  panic 
having  seized  his  army.  The  Novgorodians  put  to  death 
many  of  their  prisoners,  and  sold  others  as  slaves,  so  that, 
to  quote  the  words  of  their  chronicler,  "six  Suzdalians 
could  be  bought  for  a  grivna,"  an  old  piece  of  money.  In 
1173  Andrew  was  also  defeated  by  Mstislaff  the  Brave  at 
Smolensk,  and  in  1174  he  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
nobles.  T!ie  reign  of  Andrew  was  in  all  respects  an  im- 
portant one.  From  his  refusing  to  divide  his  doniinicua 
among  his  brothers  and  nephews,  it  is  plain  that  he  saw  the 
evil  effect  of  the  system  of  apanages  and  could  conceive  the 
idea  of  a  united  slate.  Ho  was  a  man  of  iron  will,  and  an 
astute  diplomatist  rather  than  a  great  soldier.  He  thus 
had  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  Ivans,  and  anticipated 
their  policy.  He  may  be  said  with  truth  to  have  been 
the  last  of  the  conspicuous  rulers  of  Russia  before  the 
jfongol  invasions.  As  yet  wo  have  had  but  few  worthy 
of  the  attention  of  the  historian.  They  are  Rurik,  the 
foui-der  of  the  empire,  Oleg  the  warrior,  and  Olga  the 
first  Christian  sovereign.     To  these  succeed  the  warUke 

XXI.  —  i» 


do 


ii   LT  S  S  i  A 


[uiSTOKY; 


SviatoslaJ,  slain  by  the  Petchenegs ;  Vladimir,  v.'ho  caused 
■•he  country  to  be  Cliristianlzed  ;  and  Yaroslaff  his  son, 
ihe  legislator.  During  tha  second  period,  in  which  we 
find  Russia  weakened  and  divided  into  apanages,  we 
liavo  only  two  notswortliy  princfs  iiniocg  a  score  of 
unimportant  persons, — Vladimir  iionomalch  and  Andrew. 

The  death  of  Andrew,  whose  murderers  were  not 
brought  to  justice,  was  followed  by  many  petty  wars. 
The  only  event,  however,  of  any  importance  for  a  con- 
siderable time  is  the  battle  of  Lipetsk  (near  Pereiaslavl 
Zaliessl-i)  in  1215,  in  which  George,  son  of  Vsevolod, 
brother  of  Andrew,  was  defeated  by  the  combined  troops 
of  Novgorod,  Pskoff,  and  Smolensk.  In  1220  we  hear  of 
Nijr.i-Novgorod  being  founded.  A  prince  of  consider- 
able importance  was  Roman  of  Volhynia,  to  whom  the 
inhabitants  of  Galicia  offered  the  government  of  their 
principality,  but  he  was  superseded  by  another  Vladimir, 
and  did  not  got  the  crown  till  after  a  great  deal  of 
hard  fighting.  He  is  said  by  Kadlubek,  the  Polish 
historian,  to  have  acted  with  ferocious  cruelty.  In  1205 
he  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Poles.  In  122-t  we 
have  the  first  invasion  of  Russia  by  the  Mongols.  Daniel  of 
Galicia  was  one  of  the  last  of  the  Russian  princes  to  make 
his  submission  to  Batu  (1238).  He  died  in  1264.  In 
the  11th  century  the  principality  of  Galicia  was  lost  in 
the  Polish  republic,  having  been  annexed  to  Lithuania.  It 
joined  the  fortunes  of  that  state  in  its  union  with  Poland 
at  the  time  of  the  marriage  of  Jagietto  with  Jadwiga. 
The  We  now  come   to  the  third  division  of  our  subject — 

Mongol  p^iijjia  under  the  yoke  of  the  ^Mongols,  viz.,  from  1 238  to 
t^Icy'  il'J--  This  is  indeed  a  dreary  period,  in  which  the 
political  and  material  development  of  the  country  was 
delayed  by  its  complete  enslavement.  The  first  occasion 
on  which  the  Russians  came  into  contact  with  thsir 
Mongolian  invaders  was  in  1224,  when,  in  company 
with  their  allies,  the  Polovtzes,  they  suffered  a  complete 
defeat  on  the  banks  of  the  Kalka,  near  where  it  flows 
into  the  sea  of  Azoff,  and  adjoining  the  site  of  the 
present  town  of  Mariupol.  On  this  occasion,  however, 
the  Mongols  only  marched  a  little  way  up  the  river 
Dnieper,  and  retired  after  devastating  the  country.  In 
1238  they  reappeared,  and  after  destroying  Bolgari,  the 
capital  of  the  Finnish  Bulgarians  on  the  Volga,  advanced 
against  Ryazan,  which  was  plundered  and  burned,  with 
adjoining  cities.  They  then  defeated  the  army  of  Suzdal, 
at  Kolomna,  on  the  Oka  ;  after  which  they  burned  Moscow, 
Suzdal,  Yarosl.ivl,  and  other  important  towns.  The  grand- 
duke  Yuri  of  Suzdal  had  encamped  on  the  river  Sit,  almost 
on  the  frontiers  of  the  territory  of  Novgorod.  He  was 
there  defeated  and  was  decapitated  on  the  field  of  battle, 
while  his  nephew  Vasilko  had  his  throat  cut  for  refusing 
to  serve  Batu.  After  taking  Tver  and  advancing  wdthin 
fifty  leagues  of  Novgorod,  the  Mongols  turned  south  and 
occupied  the  two  following  years  (1239-1240)  in  ravaging 
southern  Russia.  They  then  burned  Pereiaslavl  and 
Tchernigoff,  and  Mangu,  the  grandson  of  Jenghiz  Khan, 
directed  bis  march  against  Kiefi.  The  noise  of  the  great 
host  proceeding  to  the  capture  of  the  fated  city  is  graphic- 
ally described  by  the  chronicler.  The  city  was  taken  and 
given  up  to  pillage,  not  even  the  graves  being  respected. 
Volhynia  and  Galicia  followed  the  fate  of  the  other  prin- 
cipalities, and  all  Russia  was  now  under  the  yoke  of  the 
Mongols,  except  the  territory  of  Novgorod. 

The  subsequent  movements  of  these  barbarians  in 
Hungary  and  Moravia  cannot  be  described  here.  It  will 
suffice  to  say  that  soon  afterwards  Batu  turned  eastwards. 
Ho  next  founded  on  the  Volga  the  city  of  Sarai  (the 
Palace),  which  became  the  capital  of  the  powerful  ifon- 
gc'.ian  empire,  the  Golden  Horde.  Here  also  congrcj-ated 
the  remains  of  the  Petchenegs,  the  Polovtzes,  and  other 


tribes,  aud  to  these  barbarians  Russia  was  for  a  long  tin,e 
tributary.       In    1272    the    Mongolian   hordes    embraced 
Islam.     Yaroslafl',  who  entered  into  his  teriitory  of  Suzdal 
after  the  death  of  his  brother  Yuri,  found  his  hereditary 
domains  completely  devastated.     Ho  had  commenced  re- 
building the  ruined  town,   when  he  was  summoned    by 
Batu  to  do  him  homage  in  his  new  capital  of  Sarai.     This, 
howevsr,  was  not  considered' sufficient,  and  the  poor  prince 
w;as  obliged  to    betake  himself  to  the  court  of  the  great 
khan,  which  was  at  the  further  end  of  Asia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Amur.     His  title  was  confirmed,  but  on  his 
return  he  died  of  the  fatigues  of  the  journey.     He  was 
succeeded   in    Suzdal  by  his  son  Andrew   (1246-1252). 
His  other  son  Alexander  reigned  at  Novgorod  the  Great, 
and   gained  the  surname  of  Nevi;ki  from  his  celebrated 
victory  over  the  Swedes  in  1240.     He  and  Dmitri  Donskoi 
are  the  only  great  figures  of  this  period  of  national  abase- 
ment.    Alexander  Nevski  has  become  consecrated  in  the 
memories  of  the  people,  and  is  now  one  of  the  leading 
Russian  saints.     In-  spite,  however,  of  his  services  to  the 
people  of  Novgorod,  he  afterwards  quarrelled  with  them 
and  retired  to  Pereiaslavl  Zaliesski.     But  the  citizens  were 
soon  glad  to'  betake  themselves  to  his  help.     On    being 
invaded  by  the  German  Sword-bearing  Knights,  who  had 
established  themselves  in  Livonia  in  the  year  1201,  and 
an  army  of  Finns,  Alexander  was  summoned,  like  another 
Camillus,  and  defeated  the  enemy  on  Lake  Peipus  in  what 
was  called  the  "Battle  of  the  Ice"  in  1242.     He  entered 
Novgorod  in  triumph  with  his  prisoners.     In  spite  of  all 
this  brilliant  success,  Alexander  was  unable  to  resist  the 
power   of  the  Golden  Horde,  and   was  obliged  to  go  to 
Sarai  to  do  homage  to  the  khan.     He  was  accompanied 
by    his   brother   Andrew.       The    pereraony   was    always 
attended  by  many  degrading  acts  of  submission  on  the 
part  of  the  tributary  prince.     In  1260  the  Novgorodians, 
who  had  so  long  preserved  the  liberty  of  their  republic 
uninjured,    consented    to    submit   to  the    khan  and   pay 
tribute ;  Alexander  'died  before  reaching  Vladimir  on  his 
return  from  one  of  these  humiliating  journeys.     A  great 
part   of   western   Russia   was   now   consolidated   by   the 
Lithuanian  princes  into  a  state,  the  capital  of  which  was 
Vilna  and  the  language  AVhite  Russian.     To  this  many  of 
the  western   provinces  of  Russia  gravitated,  and  by  the 
marriage  of  the  Polish  heiress  Jadwiga  with  Jagielto  of 
Lithuania  these  provinces  went  to  Poland  and  were  not 
reannexed  to  Russia  till  a  much  later  period.     The  eastern 
portion  of  Russia  grouped  itself  round  Moscow,  which  is 
first  heard  of  in  the  chronicles  in  1147.    AVe  find  four  con- 
siderable eastern  states — Ryazan,  Suzdal,  Tver,  and  Moscow. 
For  a  century  after  its  foundation  we  hear  nothing  of  this 
city,  the  name  of  which  is  certainly  Finnish.     We  are  told 
that  it  was  burned  by  the  Mongols  in  1237,  and  that  a 
brother  of  Alexander  Nevski  was  killed  there  in  1248,  in 
a  battle  against  the  Lithuanians.     We  have  seen  that  the 
political  centre   of  the  country  has  constantly  changed. 
From  Novgorod  it  went  to  Kieff,  from  Kieff  to  Vladimir, 
the  capital  of  Suzdal,  and  from  Vladimir  to  JIoscow ;  we 
shall  soon  find  that  owing  to  the  vigorous  policy  of  its 
rulers  this  principality  became  the  nucleus  of  the  great 
Russian  empire,  and  gathered  round  it  the  adjacent  states. 
Its  true  founder  was  Daniel,  a  son  of  Alexander  Nevski, 
who  added    to  it   the  cities  of  Pereiaslavl  Zaliesski  and 
Kolomna.     At  his  death  in   1303  he  was  the  first  to  be 
buried  in  the  church  of  St  Michael  the  Archangel,  where 
all  the  Russian  sovereigns  were  laid  till  the  days  of  Peter 
the  Great.     Since  that  time,  with  the  exception  of  Peter 
II.,  they  have  been  interred  in  the  church  of  the  Petro- 
pavlovski  fortress  at  St  Petersburg.     Daniel  was  followed 
on  the  throne  by  his  sons  Yuri  and  Ivan  in  succession.    Yuri 
D.'.nilovich  (1303-1320)  took  pcssessioa  of  Mozhaisk.  The 


1174-1510.] 


RUSSIA 


91 


reign  of  Ivan  Kalita,  or  tlie  Purse  (132S-1340),  stUI 
further  stijngthened  the  n^w  principality.  Tver  was 
added,  and  the  pre-eminence  of  Moscow  was  assured  by 
the  metropolitan  cviming  to  reside  there.  After  Kalita 
came  in  succession  his  two  sons,  Simeon  the  Proud  (1340- 
1353)  and  Iran  II.  (1353-1359).  Simeon  first  took  the 
title  of  grand-duke  of  all  the  Russias.  He  died  of  the 
Black  Death,  which  was  then  devastating  Europe.  In 
spite  of  the  efforts  of  these  princes  to  maintain  the 
supremacy  of  Moscow,  on  their  death  the  hegemony  of  the 
Russian  states  went  again  for  a  time  to  Suzdal.  It  was 
Dmitri,  surnamed  Donskoi,  the  son  of  Ivan  II.,  who  won 
the  battle  of  Kulikovo  (lit.  "the  field  of  woodcocks") 
over  Mamai,  the  Mongolian  chief,  in  1380.  In  spite  of 
this,  however,  Toktamish  their  general  invaded  Russia, 
burned  Moscow  to  the  ground;  and  put  to  death  a  great 
number  of  the  inhabitants.  To  Dmitri  succeeded  his  son 
Vasilii  or  Basil  (1389-1425),  who  was  prince  both  of 
Moscow  and  Vladimir.  He  in  turn  was  followed  by  Vasilii 
the  Blind  (1425-U62). 

We  begin  to  touch  firmer,  ground  when  we  approach  the 
reign  of  Ivan  III.,  the  son  of  Vasilii,  who  may  be  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  the  autocracy.  We  may  take,  there- 
fore, as  our  fourth  division  the  period  from  14G2  to  1G13, 
which  will  include  the  consolidation  of  the  empire  under 
the  vigorous  rule  of  Ivan  III.,  Basil  V.,  and  Ivan  IV., 
the  usurpation  of  Boris  Godunoff,  the  reign  of  the  false 
Demetrius,  and  the  troubles  following  upon  it  till  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Romanoff  in  the  person  of  Michael 
iTii  .11.  in  the  year  1613.  Ivan  IIL  reigned  forty-three  ytar.i, 
and  had  as  much  influence  in  the  consolidation  of  Ru.ssia 
as  Louis  XI.  had  in  that  of  France.  It  was  the  great 
age  when  throughout  Europe  absolute  monarchies  were 
neing  created  on  the  ruins  of  feudalism.  On  his  accession 
Ivan  found  himself  surrounded  by  powerful  neighbours — to 
lie  east  the  great  principality  of  Lithuania,  to  the  south 
the  Mongols ;  Ryazan  and  Tver  had  not  been  annexed  to 
the  territory  of  Muscovy ;  Novgorod  and  Pskofi  were  still 
republics.  It  was  against  Novgorod,  a  wealthy  city  and 
a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  that  his  efforts 
wer3  first  directed.  In  consequence  of  its  situation,  and 
by  its  paying  the  tribute  demanded,  it  had  escaped  from 
the  rr.vages  which  other  parts  of  Russia  had  under- 
gone. Taking  advantage  of  the  factions  which  harassed 
this  city,  he  succeeded  in  creating  a  party  subservient  to 
his  own  interests,  and  as  early  as  1470  had  got  the  con- 
trol of  the  government  of  the  city,  which  a  rival  faction 
was  anxious  to  transfer  to  the  Poles.  In  1478  the 
republic  of  Novgorod  ceased  to  exist ;  the  chief  opponents 
of  Ivan  were  transported  to  Moscow,  and  their  goods 
confiscated.  The  veche,  as  the  public  assembly  was  catted, 
was  terminated  for  ever,  and  the  bell  which  h.ad  summoned 
the  mutinous  citizens  carried  off  triumphantly  to  Moscow. 
In  1495  the  tyrant  was  so  foolish  as  to  confiscate  tire 
goods  of  many  of  the  German  merchants  who  traded  at 
Novgorod.  In  consequence  of  this  nearly  all  the  foreigners 
left  the  city,  and  its  prosperity  rapidly  declined.  It  is 
now  a  decayed  provincial  town,  interesting  only  to  the 
antiquary.  In  1489  Vyatka,  a  daughter  city  of  Pskoff, 
was  annexed  and  lost  thereby  its  republican  constitution. 
In  14G4  by  giving  the  hand  of  his  sister  to  the  prince  of 
Ryazan  Ivan  made  sure  of  the  [xoximale  annexation  of 
that  apanage.  He  seized  Tver  and  joined  it  to  his 
(lominions,  when  the  grand-prince  Michael  had  allied  him- 
self with  Lithuania.  The  system  of  apanages  in  Ru.ssia 
had  now  to  come  to  an  end.  But  Ivan,  who  had  married 
the  niece  of  the  Byzantine  emperor,  and  assumed  as  his 
cognizance  the  two-headed  eagle,  was  also  to  come  into  col- 
r.sim  v/ith  the  hereditary  enemies  of  Ru.ssia,  the  M"-  "o! ;. 
The  great  power  of  the  Golden  Horde  had  been  broV;en  ui/, 


on  its  ruins  had  arisen  the  empires  of  Kazan  and  of  Sarai 
or  Astrakhan,  the  horde  of  the  Nogais,  and  the  khanate  of 
the  Crimea.  In  1478,  when  Ahmed,  the  khan  of  the  Great 
Horde,  whose  capital  was  Sarai,  sent  his  ambassadors  with 
his  portrait,  to  which  the  Russian  was  to  do  homage,  Ivan 
trampled  it  under  foot,  and  put  to  death  all  the  envoys, 
except  one,  who  was  deputed  to  take  back  the  news  to  the 
khan.  The  reply  of  Ahmed  to  this  outrage  was  a  declara- 
tion of  war ;  and  the  two  armies  met  ou  the  banks  of  the 
Oka.  Ivan,  who,  like  Louis  XL,  was  much  more  of  a  dip- 
lomatist than  a  soldier,  according  to  the  accounts  of  the 
chroniclers,  was  in  great  terror,  and  could  not  be  induced  to 
fight  by  the  persuasions  of  his  soldiers  or  the  benedictions 
of  his  ecclesiastics.  He  had  already,  after  the  armies  had 
been  for  some  time  encamped  opposite  to  each  other,  given 
the  signal  of  retreat,  when,  in  consequence  of  a  sudden 
panic  the  Mongols  also  retreated,  and  the  armies  fled  from 
each  other  in  mutual  fear.  This  invasion,  which  occurred 
in  the  year  1480,  was  the  last  great  inroad  of  the  Asiatic 
enemies  of  Russia,  but  we  shall  find  some  even  later 
than  the  days  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  in  whose  time  Moscow 
was  burned  by  these  barbarians.  Meanwhile  Ivan  went 
on  in  his  career  of  annexation.  In  1472  he  conquered 
Permia,  in  1489  Vyatka.  Ten  years  afterwards  he  had 
extended  his  authority  as  far  north  as  the  Petchora.  His 
good  fortune  seemed  ever  on  the  increase  ;  by  a  war  with 
Alexander,  king  of  Poland,  he  gained  an  accession  of 
territory  to  the  west  as  far  as  the  river  Desna.  Upon 
peace  being  concluded,  Alexander  married  Helen,  the 
daughter  of  Ivan,  but  that  monarch,  on  pretence  that  no 
regard  had  been  paid  to  his  daughter's  religious  scruples, 
declared  war  against  his  new  son-inlaw.  The  Polish 
monarch  could  not  rely  upon  the  fidelity  of  many  of  his 
vassals,  as  we  find  so  often  the  case  in  Polish  history,  and 
suffered  a  complete  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Vedrosha. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  1501  the  Russians  were  routed  at 
tlie  battle  of  the  Siritza,  near  Isborsk,  by  the  grand-master 
of  the  Teutonic  order,  Hermann  von  P))ttenberg.  The 
order  had  been  established  in  Lithuania  as  early  as  1225  ; 
the  Sword-bearers  amalgamated  witli  them  in  1237. 

In  1472  Ivan  had  married  a  Byzantine  princess,  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Thomas,  brother  of  the  emperor  Constantine 
Paljeologus.  This  Thomas  had  fled  to  Rome  after  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  in  1453.  In  consequence  of  this  mar- 
riage, a  great  many  Greeks  came  to  Moscow,  bringing 
Byzantine  culture,  such  as  it  was,  to  Russia,  and  among 
o'.her  things  a  quanti'y  of  valuable  manuscript.'!,  which 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  synodal  library.  Italians  also 
made  their  appearance  in  Russia,  among  others  the  cele- 
brated Aristotle  Fioraventi  of  Bologna,  the  architect  of 
so  many  buildings  at  Moscow.  Ivan  not  only  welcomed 
foreigners  in  his  dominions,  but  entered  into  relations  with 
many  European  powers,  among  others  tho  Germans,  tho 
Venetians,  and  the  Pope.  His  reign  is  reriarkablo,  not  only 
for*  the  consolidation  of  the  Russian  autocracy,  but  also 
for  legislation.  In  1497  he  issued  his  oWcirrt^,  or  Book' 
of  Laws,  the  second  Russian  code  after  tho  Iiusskai<i 
I'ravda  of  Yaroslaff.  Comparison  of  the  two  codes  will' 
show  hov/  much  had  been  done  by  the  Mongols  to  lower 
tho  Russian  character.  It  is  in  the  rei;,m  of  Ivan  that  we 
first  hear  of  the  use  of  the  knout:  an  archimandrite  and 
some  noblemen  were  publicly  knoutod  "^or  being  concerned 
in  forginj;  a  will  At  his  death  I\an  bequeathed  hia  BasiL, 
throne  to  his  second  son  Vasilii  or  Basil,  passing  over  his 
grandson,  the  child  of  his  eldest  son  Ivan,  wlio  had  pre- 
decea.sed  him  ;  he  was  evidently  unwdling  to  commit  his 
growing  empire  to  the  perils  of  a  minority.  Vasilii  Ivan- 
ovich  (1505-1533)  fully  carried  out  the  programme  of  his 
father.  He  destroyed  the  independence  of  Pskoff  in  10 10, 
put  an  end  to  the  vecltt:  or  popular  assembly,  and  carried 


92 


RUSSIA 


[niSTOKY. 


off  tha  bell  which  summoned  the  citizens.  Thus  fell  the 
last  of  tho  Slavonic  republics.  Kjazan  was  next  added 
to  the  Muscovite  territory.  The  prince,  being  accu.sed  of 
having  contracted  an  alliance  with  the  khan  of  the  Crimea, 
fled  to  Lithuania,  where  he  diei^  in  obscurity.  Nov- 
gorod Soverski  was  annexed  soon  after,  and  by  a  war  with 
Sigismund  I.  Basil  got  back  Smolensk.  He  was  doomed, 
however,  to  suffer  from  an  invasion  of  the  Mongols  of  the 
Crimea,  and  is  said  to  have  signed  a  humiliating  treaty  to 
save  his  capital,  whereby  he  acknowledged  himself  the 
tributary  of  the  khan. 

Meanwhile  at  home  Basil  exercised  absolute  authority; 
Russia  now  exhibited  the  spectacle  of  an  Asiatic  despotism. 
He  entered  into  negotiations  with  many  foreign  princes. 
Hcrberstein,  the  German  ambassador,  who  has  left  us  such 
an  interesting  account  of  the  Bussia  of  this  time,  has  told 
us  of  the  great  splendour  of  his  court.  We  now  come  to 
fTan  IV.  the  reign  of  the  terrible  Iv.'m,  who  has  left  his  name 
ftha  WTitten  in  blood  upon  the  annals  of  Russia,  and  ruled  for 
Temble)  j|,g  1^,.,^  ^^^.:^^^  pf  fifty-one  years  (1533-1584).  It  was  a 
fortunate  thing  for  the  aggrandizement  of  the  empire 
that,  instead  of  having  a  succession  of  weak  sovereigns, 
n'ho  only  ruled  a  short  time,  it  had  three  such  vigorous 
potentates  as  Ivan  III.,  Basil,  and  Ivan  IV.,  -'Aose  united 
reigns  extended  over  a  hundred  and  twenty-two  years. 
The  grand-duke  Basil  a*,  his  death  left  two  sons,  Ivan  and 
Yuri,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  second  wife  Helen 
Glinskn.  She  had  come  into  Ru.ssia  from  Lithuania,  her 
family  having  been  proscribed  by  the  Polish  king  Alexander 
on  the  accusation  of  having  plotted  against  his  life.  The 
grand-duchess  ruled  with  great  ability,  but  died  in  1538, 
having  been,  as  is  supposed,  poisoned.  The  two  young 
princes  then  became  the  victims  of  the  intrigues  of  the 
chief  families,  especially  those  of  Shuiski  and  Belski. 
Ivan  early  gave  proof  of  a  vigorous  understanding,  whereas 
his  younger  brother  Yuri  appears  to  have  been  half-witted. 
In  1543,  when  only  in  his  thirteenth  year,  Ivan  determined 
to  emancipate  himself  from  the  galling  yoke  of  the  boiars, 
and  by  a  kind  of  cotip  d'etat  threw  off  their  tutelage,  and 
caused  Shuiski  to  be  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs.  After  this, 
for  some  time,  he  was  under  the  influence  c"  his  maternal 
relations.  In  January  1547  Ivan  was  crowned  by  the 
metropolitan  Macarius,  and  took  the  title  of  czar,  or  tsar, 
a  Slavonic  form  of  the  Latin  Cajsar.  He  soon  afterwards 
celebrated  his  marriage  with  Anastasia  Romanova.  The 
same  year  a  great  conflagration  took  place  at  Moscow. 
The  mob  affected  to  believe  that  this  had  been  caused  by 
the  Glinskis,  who  were  very  unpopular,  and  massacred  a 
member  of  that  family 

After  this  time  Ivan  seems  to  have  committed  himself 
very  much  to  the  guidance  of  the  priest  Silvester  and 
Alexis  Adasheff.  This  was  the  happiest  portion  of  his 
reign,  for  he  was  also  greatly  under  the  influence  of  his 
amiable  wife.  To  this  period  also  belongs  a  recension 
of  the  Sudebnih  of  his  grandfather  Ivan  III.  (1550), 
and  the  Stor/laf,  or  Book  of  the  Hundred  Chapters,  by 
which  the  affairs  of  the  church  were  regulated  (1551). 
In  the  following  year  Ivan  became  master  of  Kazan,  and 
two  years  later  of  Astrakhan.  The  power  of  the  Mongols 
was  no  "i  almost  broken.  Triumphant  in  the  south  and 
the  east,  he  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  north,  being 
anxious  to  open  up  a  means  of  communication  with  the 
west.  He  anticipated  the  plans  which  Peter  the  Great 
was  destined  to  carry  out  long  afterwards.  He  was  thus 
brought  into  collision  with  the  Swedes  and  th'^  Teutonic 
Knights.  'ttTieu  Ivan  sent  a  German  named  Schlitt  to 
procure  the  assistance  of  some  foreign  artisans,  they  were 
stopped  by  the  Germans  and  prevented  from  entering 
Russian  territory.  In  consequence  of  this,  w-ar  afterwards 
broke   out   between   Ivan  and  the   Order.     In   1558  the 


Russian  army  invaded  Livonia,  and  took  several  towns, 
whereupon  the  Order  made  an  alliance  with  Sigismund 
Augustus  of  Poland.  Put,  while  Russia  was  busy  with 
this  war,  a  great  change  was  taking  place  in  the  home 
policy  of  Ivan.  He  threw  off  the  influence  of  Silvester 
and  Adasheff,  who  were  both  banished.  From  this  time 
may  be  said  to  date  the  commencement  of  the  atrocities  of 
this  czar  which  have  earned  him  the  epithet  constantly 
added  to  his  name.  He  was  especially  moved  by  the 
treason  of  Prince  Andrew  Kurbski,  who,  having  lost  a 
battle  with  the  Poles,  was  too  much  afraid  of  the  wrath  of 
his  imperial  master  to  venture  again  into  his  clutches. 
He  accordingly  fled  to  the  king  of  Poland,  by  whom  he 
was  well  received,  and  from  his  safe  retreat  he  commenced 
an  angry  correspondence  with  the  czar,  reproaching  bim 
with  his  cruelties  (see  below,  p.  104).  The  answer  of 
Ivan  has  been  preserved.  In  it  he  dwells  upon  the  degrad- 
ing subjection  in  which  he  had  been  kept  by  his  early 
advisers,  and  attempts  to  justify  his  cruelties  by  saying 
that  tbey  were  only  his  slaves  whom  he  had  killed,  over 
whom  God  had  given  him  power  of  life  and  death. 

In  December  1564  Ivan  retired  with  a  few  personal 
friends  to  his  retreat  at  Alexandrovskoe,  near  Moscow, 
where  he  passed  his  time  pretty  much  as  Louis  XI.  did  at 
Plessy-Ies-Tours,  for  he  resembled  the  French  monarch 
both  In  his  cruelty  and  his  superstition.  The  boiars, 
afraid  that  the  monarch  was  about  to  quit  thera  for  ever, 
went  in  crowds  to  Alexandrovskoe  to  supplicate  him  to 
return  to  Moscow.  This  he  finally  consented  to  do,  and 
on  his  return  established  his  bodyguard  of  oprichniks, 
who  were  the  cliief  agents  of  his  cruelty.  In  the  year  in 
which  he  retired  to  Alexandrovskoe  we  have  the  establish- 
ment of  a  printing-press  at  Moscow.  Ivan  now  commenced 
a  long  series  of  cruelties.  To  this  period  belong  the  deposi- 
tion and  perhaps  murder  of  Philip,  the  archbishop  of  Mos- 
cow ;  the  execution  of  Alexandra,  the  widow  of  his  brother 
Yuri ;  the  atrocities  committed  at  Novgorod,  which  seems 
to  have  fallen  under  the  tyrant's  vengeance  for  having 
meditated  opening  its  gates  to  the  king  of  Poland  ;  and, 
lastly,  the  terrible  butcheries  on  the  Red  Square  (ICrasnaia 
rioskhad). 

It  WL3  in  the  reign  of  Ivan  that  the  English  first  hod 
dealings  with  Russia.  In  1553,  while  Ed-vard  VI.  was 
on  the  throne,  three  ships  were  sent  out  under  Willoughby 
and  Chancellor  to  look  for  a  north-east  passage  to  China 
and  India.  Willoughby  and  the  crews  of  two  of  the  ships 
were  frozen  to  death,  but  Chancellor  arrived  safely  in  the 
White  Sea,  and  thence  proceeded  to  the  court  of  Ivan,  by 
whom  he  was  favourably  received.  The  English  secured 
great  trading  privileges  from  Ivan,  and  established  fac- 
tories in  the  country.  In  one  of  his  mad  sallies,  Ivan 
actually  wrote  to  Queen  Elizabeth  (1570)  asking  for  a 
safe  retreat  in  her  dominions  if  he  should  be  driven  out 
by  his  own  subjects. 

Ivan  was  continually  waging  war  in  the  Baltic  territory 
with  the  Teutonic  Knights,  in  which,  although  on  the 
whole  unsuccessful,  he  committed  great  cruelties.  But  in 
1571  he  was  obliged  to  suffer  another  invasion  of  the 
Mongols  of  the  Crimea,  who,  to  quote  the  quaint  language 
of  an  English  resident,  burned  "the  Mosco  every  stick" 
(Hakluyt's  Yoyaijirs,  i.  402).  On  the  death  of  Sigismund 
Augustus  of  Poland  in  1572,  when  the  crown  of  that 
country  had  become  elective,  the  family  of  the  Jagiettos 
being  now  extinct,  Ivan  declared  himself  one  of  the  com- 
petitors. The  successful  candidate  was  the  French  prince 
Henry  of  Valois,  but  he  soon  fled  from  his  new  kingdom, 
and,  on  the  throne  again  becoming  vacant,  the  redoubtable 
Stephen  Batory  was  chosen,  who  proved  a  formidable  foe 
to  the  tyrant  now  growing  old.  In  consequence  of  the 
successes  of  Stephen,  Ivan  was  obliged  to  abandon  all  his 


1533-1698,] 


RUSSIA 


93 


conquests  in  Livonia ;  and  the  attempt  to  open  up  a 
J  assage  for  Kassia  into  the  Baltic  failed  till  carried  out  bv 
the  efforts  of  Peter  the  Great. 

One  of  the  chief  events  of  this  reign  was  the  conquest 
of  Siberia  by  a  Cossack  named  Yermak,  who  had  formerly 
been  a  robber,  but  was  pardoned  by  the  czar  on  laying  his 
conquests  at  the  imperial  feet.  Among  many  points  in  which 
Ivan  resembled  Henry  VIII.  was  the  number  of  his  wives. 
On  the  death  of  the  seventh,  he  was  anjdous  to  procure 
an  eighth  from  the  court  of  his  friend  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon  was 
offered  to  the  inspection  of  the  Russian  ambassador, 
Feodor  Pisemski,  at  her  own  desire  and  the  queen's. 
She  was  presented  to  him  in  the  gardens  of  York  House. 
1  i.e  ambassador  prostrated  himself  before  her,  and  pro- 
lessed  to  be  dazzled  by  her  beauty.  Bcrfore,  however,  the 
negotiations  for  the  marriage  were  concluded,  the  young 
lady,  of  whom  a  very  favourable  account  had  been  trans- 
mitted to  the  court  of  Moscow,  became  alarmed.  Rumours 
had  reached  her  about  the  former  wives  of  the  czar  and 
his  habits.  She  therefore  declined  the  brilliant  prospect 
of  an  alliance  associated  with  so  maay  dangers.  Full 
details  of  the  adventures  of  the  Englishmen  who  resided  at 
Ivan's  court  will  be  found  in  Hakluyt's  Yoyages.  In  1567 
Anthony  Jenkinson  was  commissioned  by  the  fizar  to 
convey  a  special  message  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  "  that  the 
Queen's  Majestie  and  he  might  be  to  all  their  enemyes 
joyned  as  one,  and  that  England  and  Russland  might  be 
in  all  manners  as  one."  In  fact  Ivan  wanted  the  assistance 
of  the  English  in  his  wars  against  the  Swedes  and  the 
Poles  ;  he  could  appreciate  the  superiority  of  their  weapons 
and  military  tactics ;  but  Elizabeth  only  cared  to  secure  a 
monopoly  of  trade,  which  the  English  for  a  long  time 
enjoyed,  and,  according  to  the  historian  Ustrialoff,  the 
Russians  were  but  little  benefited  by  it. 

The  declining  days  of  Ivan  were  embitterea  by  tne  death 
of  his  eldest  son,  whom  ho  had  stricken  in  a  fit  of  passion 
with  his  iron  staff.  When  the  paroxysm  of  his  anger  was 
oi'er,  his  grief  was  boundless.  Full  of  remorse  and 
continually  afraid  of  conspiracies  which  might  be  concocted 
by  his  subjects,  and  harassed  by  superstitious  dread,  in 
which  he  betook  himself  to  the  divination  of  witches,'  he 
c::j)ired  in  the  year  1584. 
Feodor,  Ivan  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  surviving  son  Feodor 
(Theodore),  at  that  time  twenty-seven  years  of  age.  He 
was  feeble  both  in  mind  and  body,  and  very  superstitious. 
Fletcher  calls  him  "very  simple,  and  almost  a  natural," 
and  Solomon  Henning,  author  of  a  Chronicle  of  Livonia, 
says  that  ho  was  so  weak-minded  that  he  could  find  no 
greater  amusement  than  tolling  the  church  bells  before 
service.  In  consequence,  the  chief  power  in  the  empire 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Boris  OodunoS,^  the  brother-in-law 
of  Feodor,  a  man  of  boundless  ambition  and  great 
capacity.  His  inordinate  lust  of  rule  he  concealed  under 
the  guise  of  piety ;  his  commanding  presence  extorted 
respect  wherever  he  went.  Between  him  and  the  throne 
were  only  the  sickly  Feodor  and  his  brother  Dmitri, 
still  a  child,  who  had  been  previously  removed  to  the 
town  of  Uglich  ill  the  government  of  Yaroslavl  For  a 
while  Boris  had  nourished  the  idea  of  proclaiming  Dmitri 
illegitimate,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  the  son  of  Ivan'a 
seventh  wife,  a  marriage  forbidden  by  the  canons  of  the 
church.  Finally,  as  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe, 
he  caused  the  child  to  be  assassinated  at  UglicK  on  the 
15ih  of  May  1591.  The  circumstances  of  the  death  of  the 
young  prince  are  involved  in  mystery  ;  so  much,  however, 
is  certain.    Dmitri  was  playing  in  a  court-yard;  his  gover- 

»  Horacy's  Diary,  edited  for  tho  Hnkliiyt  Society,  1S5C,  p.  199 
'  »!e  WM  of  Mon£ul  ile;>ceut, — liu  ancestor  being  a  ceruin  Mur2.' 
Tchet. 


no33  Vasilissa  Volokhova,  his  nurse,  and  a  servant-maid 
were  in    attendance.     Vrhether    from  accident  or  design 
they  all  for  a  time  lost  sight  of  him.     According  to  their 
testimony  while  under  examination,  the  young  prince  had  a 
knife  in  his  hand  when  last  seen ;  he  amused  himself  with 
sticking  it  into  the  ground  and  cutting  pieces  of  wood. 
Suddenly  the  nurse,  on  looking  round,  saw  him  prostrate 
and    covered  with    blood.     He  died  almost    immediately 
from  a  large  wound  iu  his  throat.     The  account  of  how 
the  news  was  brought  to  Moscow  is  described  in  a  highly 
dramatic    manner    by  Horsey.'     We  have  no  direct  evi 
deuce  of  the  complicity  of  Godunoff  in  this  murder ;  but 
there  seems  littlo  doubt  of  it.     A  secret  inquiry  was  con- 
ducted ;  the  body,   however,  was  not  examined,  and  the 
commissioners  reported  that  Dmitri  had  died  of  a  wound 
accidentally  inflicted  by  himself  in  a  fit  of  epilepsy.     On 
account  of    the   riot  which    had .  taken    place  at  Uglich, 
Boris   proceeded   to    punish    the    town.     More   than  two 
hundred  of  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  death  and  mar.y 
sent  to  Siberia.     The  church  bell  of  Uglich  was  banished 
with  them  and  placed  in  the  cajutal  of  Siberia;  it  was  not 
brought  back  till  the  earlier  part  of  the  present  century. 
The   remains  of   Dmitri,   who  was  afterwards  canonized, 
were  deposited  in  the  cathedral  of  St  Michael,  the  burial- 
place  of  the  czars.     Soon  afterwards  a  great  fire  broke  ont 
in  Moscow,  and  Boris  caused  many  streets  to  be  rebuilt  at 
his  own  expense,  distributed  aid,  and  exempted  the  sufferers 
from  taxes  ;  but  still  the  people  murmured  secretly;  they 
felt  that  the  stain  of  blood  was  upon  him,  and  ungratefully 
accused  him  of  having  caused  the  city  to  be  set  on  firo. 
In  the  same  year  (1591)  the  khan  of  the  Crimea  made  one 
of  his  periodical  raids  against  Moscow;     Ho  set  out  from 
Pcrekop,  and  marched  in  a  straight  line,  everywhere  plun- 
dering and  devastating.     In  these  circumstances,  Feodor 
displayed  nothing   but  imbecility.     Ho  merely  remarked 
that  the  saints  who  protected  Russia  would  fight  for  her, 
and  again  betook  himself  to  his  favourite  amusement  of 
beU-ringing.     Boris,  however,  showed  vigour.     In  a  few 
days  he  caused  Moscow  to  be  surrounded  with  jialisades, 
redoubts,  and  artillery.     The  Mongols  were  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter;  but,  although  Boris  saved  his  country,  he 
could  not  secure  the  goodwill  of  the  people.     Indeed,  they 
accused  him  of  having  invited  the  Mongols  that  the  general 
danger    might  make  them    forget   the    death  of   DmitrL 
The  czarina,   Irene,   wife  of   Feodor  and  sister  of   Boris, 
about  this  time  gave  birth  to  a  female  child,  which  lived 
but  a  few  days,  and  Boris  was  of  course  accused  of  having 
poisoned  it.     In  reality  the  princess  .suffered  from  continual 
ill-health,    and    on    one    occasion    we    find   Elizabeth    r-f 
England  sending  her  a   physician.     Boris,  however,  still 
persevered  in  his  energetic  measures  for  etiengthening  the 
empire.     Smolensk  was  fortified,  Archang!-1  built;  and  a 
strong  cordon  was  drawn  round  the  territories  occupied  by 
the  Mongols.    The  Swedes  were  driven  into  Narva,  and  dip 
lomatic  relations  were  opened  with  the  European  powens. 
About   this  timo  the  imbecile  Feodor  died,   and  with 
him  became  extinct  the  dynasty  of  Scandinavian  Rurik. 
This   event  occurred  in    1598,  and  Boris  was  elected  to  Borii 
succeed  him.     Godunoff,  however,  who  ;'elt  sure  of   the 
crown,  at  first  affected  to  be  unwilling  to  receive  it.     Ho 
retired  to  a  monastery  and  was  followed  by  the  people, 
supplicating  him  to  be  their  emperor.     He  kept  Russia  in 
this  state  of  suspense  for  six  weeks,  and  tncn  relented.     As 
soon  as  ho  ascended  the  throne,  the  traces  of  his  vigorous 
hand  could  be  found  everywhere.     One  of  his  first  plan.s 
was  the  abridgment  of  the  power  o£  the  nobility,  which 
had  been  begun  by  Ivan  111.   and  continued   by  Ivan  IV. 
By  this  a  benefit  was  conferred  upon  Ri.ssia;  but  Boris  also 
served  his  own  ambition.     He  was  particularly  severe  to 


3  Dmi/,  cd.  Bond,  u,  2}4 


94 


RUSSIA 


[hI3T0BY. 


all  members  ot  the  Romanoff  family,  because  they  were 
allied  to  the  house  of  Rurik,  and  troubled  hia  dreams  of 
sovereignty.  The  head  of  this  house  was  compelled  to 
become  a  monk  ;  his  son,  however,  was  destined  to  ascend 
the  throne.  A  famine  broke  out  in  IGOl,  which  Boris  was 
unsparing  in  his  efforts  to  allay.  In  the  midst  of  all  this 
suffering  a  rumour  spread  that  Dmitri,  the  youngest  sou 
of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  was  not  dead. 

One  day  in  the  year  1G03  Prince  Adam  Wisniowiecki, 
of  Rragin  in  Lithuania,  happening  to  be  very  angry  with 
a  servant,  struck  him  and  used  an  insulting  epithet.  The 
young  man,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  said,  "If  you  knew 
who  I  am,  you  would  not  treat  me  so  nor  call  me  by 
that  name."  "Who  then  are  you,  and  whence  do  you 
come?"  replied  the  astonished  prince.  "I  am  the  prince 
Dmitri,  son  of  Ivan  Vasilievich."  He  then  recounted  a 
well-concocted  tale  of  his  miraculous  escape  from  the 
assassin  whom  Boris  had  employed.  This  was  his  physi- 
cian, who  feigned  compliance  with  the  usurper's  designs, 
but  only  to  frustrate  them.  On  the  night  appointed  for 
the  murder,  the  man,  whose  name  w.is  Simon,  put  the 
son  of  a  serf  into  his  young  master's  bed  (who  was 
accordingly  killed),  and  immediately  fled  with  Dmitri  from 
Uglich.  He  was  then  committed  to  the  care  of  a  loyal 
gentleman,  who  thought  it  better  for  the  sake  of  protection 
that  he  should  enter  a  monastery.  This  gentleman  and 
the  physician  were  dead,  but  in  confirmation  of  his  story 
the  false  Dmitri  exhibited  a  seal,  bearing  the  arms  and 
name  of  the  prince,  and  a  golden  cross  set  with  jewels, 
n-hich  ho  said  was  the  baptismal  gift  of  his  godfather. 
Prince  Ivan  Mstislavski.  Wisniowiecki  believed  his  tale. 
There  were  also  other  supposed  signs.^  The  Polish  nobles 
thronged  around  the  young  man,  whose  manners,  as  we 
ead  in  the  case  of  Perkin  Warbeck,  seemed  to  bear  out 
-is  pretensions.  Meanwhile  Dniitri  remained  ip  Poland, 
;njoying  all  the  lavish  attentions  of  the  Polish  nobility, 
lioris  was  soon  made  acquainted  with  his  ap[)earanc6  on 
the  scene,  and  oSered  the  brothers  Wisniowiecki  money 
iud  lands  if  they  would  surrender  the  impostor  to  him. 
Without,  however,  replying  to  these  overtures,  they  removed 
him  into  the  interior  of  Poland,  and  ho  was  received  with 
royal  honours  by  George  Mniszek,  the  palatine  of 
Sandomir.  Here  he  is  said  to  have  entered  into  a  secret 
iinderstanding  with  the  Jesuits  to  bring  over  Russia  to  the 
Latin  faith,  en  condition  of  being  supported  by  the  papal 
nuncio.-  The  pretender  privately  abjured  the  Greek  faith, 
and  signed  a  contract  of  marriage  with  Marina,  the  youngcs'; 
dxughter  of  Mniszek,  by  which  he  settled  upon  her  the 
towns  of  Novgorod  and  PskofJ',  and  engaged  to  pay  her 
father  a  million  of  florin^  as  soon  as  he  had  ascended  the 
throne.  Afterwards  he  executed  another  treaty  ceding 
Smolensk   and  tlie  surrounding  territory  to   Mniszek    and 

*  The  present  writer  doubts  the  genuineness  of  this  clairarmt ; 
ai.iny  authors,  however,  some  of  tliera  contemporaries,  were  con- 
vihceil  that  he  was  tlie  reai  son  of  Ivan,  and  among  these  tlie  first 
pl.ace  must  be  assigned  to  the  French  mercenary  captain  Mavgeret, 
■whose  iiilimate  relations  witli  tlie  man  point  liim  out  as  a  vahiablc 
autliority.  Tliis  clever  adventurer  liad  entered  the  Russian  service 
in  tlio  time  of  Boris  Godnnoff,  and  was  a  witness  of  the  wliole 
fitruggie.  At  tirst  lie  led  the  troojis  of  the  latter  against  Dniitri,  but 
v;hen  the  pretender  had  establislied  his  authority  he  accepted  a 
post  in  his  Si^rvice.  He  has  given  us  an  interesting  portrait  of 
Dniitri,  of  whom  he  spe.aks  very  f.avour.ibly,  in  his  work  on  Russia 
TMbiished  at  P.aris  in  1G69. 

'  According  to  some  authors,  the  wdiolo  plot  had  been  concocted  by 
the  Jesuits  lor  this  purpose.  For  the  contrary  view,  however,  see 
Jiome  el  Demetrius  d\tprh  des  documents  nouvcaux  avec  pieces 
justifieattves  el/ncsimiiC,  by  Pcie  Pierling,  S.  J.,  Paiis,  1878.  Gerard 
Miiiler  tells  us  that  the  pretender  "conversed  in  Latin  and  I'olish  with 
fluency  ; "  if  this  had  been  the  case  his  knowledge  of  the  former  would 
he  easily  explained  by  hrs  Jesuitical  training.  JIargeret,  however, 
denies  it  alt'igetiier.  "11  est  trcs  cert.i1n  on'il  ne  jiarloit  nullcment 
Tjatin,  j'en  puis  temoigucr,  moins  le  svavoit-il  lire  ct  ecrire  "  (p.  163). 


the  king  of  Poland.  These  proceedings  were  not  likely  to 
reeomniand  him  to  hia  Russian  subjects.  For  the  present 
they  were  concealed,  and  Dmitri  publicly  professed  the 
Greek  ritual.  Soon  after  this  Sigismund  of  Poland  saluted 
him  as  czar  of  Moscow,  and  assigned  aim  a  pension  of 
40,000  florins.  All  this  time  Boris  affected  to  regard  the 
pretender  with  contempt,  and  issued  a  manifesto  setting 
forth  that  his  real  name  was  Grishka  (or  Gregory) 
Otrepietf,  a  renegade  monk.  Whether  this  individual  was 
■really  the  man  who  personated  Dmitri,  the  sou  of  Ivan, 
cannot  be  known  for  certain;  but  it  seems  very  probable. 
Karamzin  has  adopted  this  view.  Boris  soon  issued  a 
proclamation  against  him,  calling  him  an  apostate  monk, 
who  wished  to  introduce  the  Latin  heresy  into  Russia,  and 
to  build  Romish  churches  in  the  Orthodox'  land.  Dmitri 
entered  that  country  on  the  3ist  of  October  1604,  and 
marched  on  Moravsk  in  Tchernigoff.  He  met  with  uninter- 
rupted success,  large  numbers  joining  his  e^iiedi'ion,  and 
the  authorities  of  the  chief  towns  on  his  route  offering  him 
bread  and  salt  till  ha  came  to  Novgorod  Severski  on  the 
23d  of  November.  This  well-fortified  place  was  defended 
by  Basmanoff,  a  veteran  captain,  with  five  hundred  streltzL 
On  the  arrival  of  the  pretender  he  was  summoned  to 
capitulate,  but,  standing  on  the  ramparts  with  a  lighted 
match,  he  replied  ;  "  The  grand-prince  and  czar  is  at  Mos- 
cow ;  as  for  your  Dmitri  he  is  a  robber,  who  shall  be  im- 
paled, along  with  his  accomplices."  After  three  months 
the  invaders  abandoned  the  siege,  but  they  had  the  good 
fortune  soon  afterwards  to  seize  a  large  sum  of  money  which 
Boris  was  .sending  to  some  of  the  towns.  Shortly  after 
this  the  important  fortresses  of  Putivl,  Sievsk,  and 
Voronezh  surrendered  to  Dmitri.  Boris  was  too  ill  to  go 
in  person  against  the  impostor ;  he,  however,  raised  an 
army  of  fifty  thousand  men.  A  great  battle  took  place 
near  Novgorod,  and  the  supporters  of  the  czar  would  have 
suffered  a  most  ignominious  defeat  had  it  not  been  for 
Basmanoff.  This  captain  was  recalled  to  Moscow  and 
.loaded  with  honours  by  Boris,  who,  from  motives  not  very 
evident,  unless  he  had  begun  to  have  suspicions  of  his 
fidelity,  detained  him  in  the  city,  and  committed  the  care 
of  the  new  army  which  he  had  formed  to  Shuiski,  who 
was  probably  only  half-hearted  in  his  cause.  A  great 
battle  took  place  on  the  2d  of  January  1605,  on. the 
plain  of  Dobrinichi,  not  far  from  Orel ;  here  Dmitri 
was  defeated,  chiefly  through  the  bravery  of  the  foreign 
legion.  He  would  have  been  captured  had  it  not  been 
for  the  fidelity  of  his  Cossack  infantry — for  at  this  time 
the  Cossacks  were  subject  to  Poland — who  were  killed 
to  a  man,  and  probably  not  a  fugitive  would  have 
reached  Sievsk  had  not  Shuiski  acted  with  duplicity. 
Meanwhile,  the  pretender  rode  as  fast  as  his  horse  would 
carry  him  to  Putivl,  a  strong  town  on  the  frontier,  from 
which  he  could  easily  beat  a  retreat  into  Poland.  The 
followers  of  Boris  remained  at  Dobrinichi,  putting  to  death 
their  prisoners.  The  conduct  of  Shuiski  showed  with  what 
apathy  he  viewed  the  cause  of  his  master;  he  soon  drew 
ofi  his  troops  into  winter  quarters,  alleging  that  nothing 
more  could  be  done  that  season,  and  also  wasted  time 
before  Kromi,  an  insignificant  place.  'Meanwhile  Dniitri 
corrupted  some  of  the  chief  generals  of  Boris.  An  attempt 
to  poison  him  soon  afterwards  failed,  and  the  pretender 
sent  a  message  to  Boris,  recommending  him  to  descend 
from  the  throne  which  he  had  usurped.  But  the  days  of 
the  latter  were  numbered.  On  the  13th  of  April  1605  he 
presided  as  usual  at  the  council-board,  and  received  some 
distinguished  foreigners.  A  grand  banquet  was  given,  but 
suddenly  after  dinner  he  was  seized  v/iih  illness;  lilood 
burst  from  his  nose,  ears,  and  mouth,  and  in  the  brief 
period  before  his  death,  according  to  the  Russian  cujtoin, 
the  dress  of  a"  monk  was  thrust  upon  him,  and  ho  was 


1601-1619.] 


RUSSIA 


consecrated  under  the  name  of  Bogolep  ("acceptable  to 
God  ").  He  expired  in  the  fifty-third  year  of  his  age^  after 
a  reij^  of  six  years.  ViTiether  be  committed  sr.icide  or 
■was  poisoned  cannot  now  be  ascertained  ;  his  death  could 
hardly  have  been  natural  Boris  was  a  man  of  great 
energy  ot  character,  with  views  singularly  in  advance  of  his 
age.  In  some  respects  he  anticipated  the  plans  of  Peter 
the  Great ;  thus  he  caused  several  young  Russians  to  be  sent 
abroad  to  be  educated,  some  of  whom  came  to  England. 
By  a  ukaze,  however,  binding  the  peasant  to  the  soil,  he 
began  the  system  which  reduced  him  by  degrees  to  a  con- 
dition of  abject  serfdom. 
Feodor  Boris  had  left  a  sufficient  number  of  partisans  at  Moscow 
"•  to  proclaim  his  son  Feodor,  a  youth  of  sixteen,  and  all 

classes  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him.  Shuiskl  and 
Mstislavski  returned  to  Moscow  to  assist  the  young  czar 
in  the  government.  Basmanofi  was  sent  to  take  the 
CGiamand  of  the  army,  but,  probably  feeling  the  cause  of 
i'codor  to  be  desperate,  on  the  7th  cf  !May  he  proclaimed 
D.TiitrL  He  was  now  ordered  to  march  on  the  capital. 
Foodor,  however,  and  his  adherents  still  held  the  Kremlin 
with  a  large  gairison.  Accordingly  it  was  resolved  to 
make  an  attempt  on  Krasnoe  Selo,  a  large  town  near 
Moscow,  where  many  wealthy  merchants  resided.  This 
was  easily  taken,  whereupon  many  of  its  citizens  marched 
to  Moscow,  and  convoking  the  people  called  upon  them  to 
D.-nilH  c.;knowledge  Dmitri  as  their  sovereign.  Feodor  and  his 
ackii->.v-  mother  were  murdered,  and  buried  in  a  cemetery  out- 
side  the  city  walls,  whither  also  the  remains  of  Boris 
were  carried,  for  they  were  not  allowed  sepulture  among 
the  tombs  of  the  czars.  Petreius,  the  Swedish  envo}-, 
Vi-ho  has  left  us  an  int-eresting  account  of  these  times,  tells 
us  that  the  rumour  was  circulated  that  these  unhappy 
people  had  poisoned  themselves,  but  he  himself  saw  their 
bodies,  and  the  marks  on  their  necks  of  the  cords  with 
which  they  had  been  strangled.  According  to  some 
authorities,  Xenia,  the  daughter  of  Boris,  described  as 
beautiful  by  the  old  Russian  chronicler  Kubasoff,  was 
forced  to  retire  into  a  convent,  but  Petreius  declares  that 
she  was  compelled  to  become  the  mistress  of  the  conqueror. 
The  usurper  now  hearing  that  every  obstacle  was  removed, 
marched  upon  the  capital,  which  he  entered  on  June  20, 
1605.  We  have  not  space  to  detail  the  splendours  of  his 
retinue,  nor  the  ceremonies  and  feastings  which  attended 
his  arrival.  He  acted  at  first  with  prudence  and  concilia- 
tion towards  his  new  subjects,  and  even  promised  to  pay 
thi  debts  of  his  father  Ivan.  He  received  his  mother 
■with  transports  of  joy ;  she  professed  to  identify  him, 
although  she  afterwards  denied  that  he  was  her  son. 
She  ■was  probably,  however,  glad  enougli  to  get  out  of 
the  convent  into  ■which  she  had  been  thrust  by  Boris. 
But  Dmitri  soon  gave  offence  on  account  of  his  neglect 
cf  Russian  etiquette  and  superstitious  observances.  It 
■was  plain  that  he  held  the  Greek  Ortliodox  religion  very 
cheap,  and  his  subjects  could  see  that  he  had  a  propensity 
for  the  Latin  heresy.  In  the  following  year  Marina 
Mniszek,  his  bride,  made  her  appearance  in  Moscow,  and 
the  marriage  took  place  on  the  18th  of  May.  It  was 
follov.-cd  by  continued  banquets.  But  a  rebellion  broke 
out  on  the  29th,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Vasilii 
Shuiski,  whom  Dmitri  had  spared  "■when  about  to  be 
executed.  The  czar,  hearing  a  noise  in  the  night,  and 
finding  himself  surrounded  by  enemies,  opened  a  window 
30  feet  from  the  ground,  leapt  down,  and  broke  his  leg. 
He  was  soon  afterwards  found  and  killed.  BasmanofT  was 
slain  ■while  attempting  to  defend  his  master.  The  corpse 
of  the  impostor  was  afterwards  burned.  Marina  was  not 
killed,  although  there  was  a  great  massacre  of  the  Poles 
in  every  quarter  of  Moscow;  she  and  the  ladies  of  her 
Builo  were  kci:'.  -o  prisoners.    Thus  ended  this  remarkable 


episode  of  Russian  history.  The  ■nhoio  period  has  been 
aptly  termed  by  the  national  historians  "  the  Period  of 
Troubles  "  (Smutnoye  Tremya). 

Tho    boiars,    on    being    convoked    after    the    murder  ^adl 
of   Dmitri,   elected   Vasilii   Ivanovich    Shuiski   for   their  SluiskL 
sovereign,  but  he  found  himsolf  in  every  way  disadvan- 
tagcously  situated,  v.-ithout  an  army  and  without  money. 
He  ■was,  moreover,  troubled  by  an  announcement  which 
gained  credence  among  the  people  that  Dmitri  was  not 
really  dead.     To  put  an  end  to  these  rumours,  Shuiski, 
entirely  changing  his   policy,  and  contradicting   his  pre- 
vious assertions,  sent  to  Uglicb  for  the  body  of  the  un- 
fortunate prince,  and  caused  him  to  be  canonized.     Two 
subsequent    impostors,    who   gave   themselves  out  to   be 
Dmitri,    were    taken   and    executed.     To   complete     tho 
misfortunes  of    Russia,  the  country  was  invaded  by  tho 
Poles   in    1C09,    who    laid   siege    to   Smolensk.     Shuiski 
suffered  defeat  at  Klushino  (a  village  situated  to  the  -we^t 
of  Moscow);  was   taken   prisoner,  and    was   set    free,    to 
become  a  monk,— a  favourite  way  of  treating  troublesome 
persons  in  Russia.     He  v.'as  afterwards  delivered  over  to 
Sigismund,  who  kept  him   in   prison  during  the  rest   of 
his  life.     The  crown  was  finally  offered  to  Ladislaus,  the  Tjulis- 
Eon   of   Sigismund,    who   in   reality   for   two   years   was  '*"'• 
sovereign  of  Russia,  and  caused  money  to  be  coined  in 
his  name  at  Moscow.     Everything  seemed  to  portend  the 
ruin  of  the  country,  when  it  was  saved  by  the  bravery  of 
Minin,    the  butcher  of   Xijni-Novgorod,   who  roused  the 
citizens  to  arms  by  his  patriotic  rppeal,  and  was  joined  by 
Prince  Pozharski.     The  latter  tcok  the  command  of  tha 
army  ;  the  administrative  department  v.as  handed  over  to- 
the  former.     The  brave  prince  succeeded  in  driving  the- 
Poles  from  Russia.     In  1G12  the  boiars  resolved  to  elect 
a  new  czar,  but  they  did  not  actually  meet  till.  1613,  and 
many  debates  ensued.     The  sufferings  of  the  country  had 
been    great ;  a  considerable  part  of  the  city  of  Moscow 
(with  the  CTCeption  of  the  Kremlin  and  the  churches  budt 
of  stone)  was  laid  in  ashes.     The  treasury  was  plundered, 
and   its  contents  sent   to  Poland.     Among  other    things 
Olearius,  the  traveller  of  the  17th  century,  quaintly  adds, 
"  the  Russians  lost  the  horn  of  a  unicorn  of  great  value, 
set  with  precious  stones,"  which  was  also  carried  off  to 
Poland  ;   and  he  tells  us  that  even  up  to  his  time   the 
Muscovites  bitterly  regretted  that  they  had  been  robbed 
of   it.     Princes    Jlstislavski   and    Pozharski    refused   the 
crown,  and  finally  the  name  of  Michael  Romanoff,  a  youth  W  '^t-^ 
of  sixteen,    was  put  forward   as  a    candidate,  cliiefly  on  ^'  *** ''' 
account   of    the   virtues    of    his   father    Philarete.       The 
Romanoffs  ■were   connected  on   the  female  side  with  the 
house   of    Rurik,  Anastasia   Romanova   having  been    tho 
first  wife  of  Ivan  the  Terrible.     Before  being  allowed  to 
ascend  the  throne,  the  youthful  sovereign,   according  to 
some   authors,    took   a    constitutional  oath.     The   condi- 
tion  of    the    country  all    this    time   was    most   critical ; 
large   portions   of    its    territory    were   in    the    hands   of 
the    Swedes    and    Poles,    and    the    villages  were    plun-- 
dered  b}'  wandering  bands  of   Cossacks.     Ladislaus  the 
son  of   Sigismund    had    not   yet   renounced   the  title   of 
czar;  in  1617  he  appeared  with  an  invading  army  under 
the  walls  of  Moscow,  but  was  repulsed,  and  on  December  1, 
1618,  consented  to  abandon  his  claims,  and  conclude  an 
armistice  for  fourteen  years.     In   1617  a  treaty  had  been 
made  at  Stolbovo,  a  town  near  Lake  Ladoga,  by  whicii 
the    Russians   had   been    compelled   to   give    up   a  large 
portion  of  their  territory  to  tho  Swedes.     Philarete,  the 
father  of  Michael,  who  had  been  for  some  time  imprisoned 
at   Warsaw,    was   now    allov.ed   to    return;    he   ent^r^d 
Moscow  in  1619,  and  was  elected  patriarch,  an  office  ■which 
had  been  vacant  since  the  death  of  Hermogenes.     Michael 
associated  Lis  father  with  himself  in  his  power ;  all  ukazes 


96 


RUSSIA 


[history. 


were  published  ia  their  joint  names ;  the  patriarch  held  a 
separate  court,  and  always  sat  at  the  right  hand  of  the  sove- 
reign. The  patriarchate  was  suppressed  in  1721  by  peter 
;he  Great,  who  had  formed  the  idea  of  making  himself  head 
of  the  church  from  what  he  saw  in  England  and  other 
Protestant  countries.  The  reign  of  Michael  was  not  very 
eventful ;  he  employed  it  wisely  in  ameliorating  the  condi- 
tion of  the  country,  which  had  recently  suffered  so  much, 
and  in  improving  the  condition  of  his  army.  Foreigners 
began  to  visit  the  country  ia  great  numbers,  and  Kussia 
was  gradually  opening  itself  to  Western  civilization. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  induced  the  czar  to  sign  a 
treaty  offensive  and  defensive,  and  a  Swedish  ambassador 
appeared  at  the  Russian  court.  The  sufferings  which  hud 
been  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  Poles  made  the  Russians 
eager  to  join  an  alliance  which  was  directed  against  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  In  1G29  a  French  ambassador 
appeared  at  JIoscow.  Dutch  and  German  artisans  were 
taken  into  the  Russian  service  to  assist  in  the  iron- 
foundries,  with  special  view  to  the  manufacture  of  cannon. 
The  country  swarmed  with  Eugli.sh  merchants  who  had 
obtained  valuable  privileges.  Scottish  adventurers  were  to 
be  met  with  in  the  Russian  army  in  great  numbers.  Wo 
find  them  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  to 
judge  from  Horsey's  Diary.  The  false  Demetrius,  like 
Louis  XL,  had  a  Scottish  guard.  In  Russian  documents 
■we  find  the  names  of  Carmichaels,  Hamiltons  (frequently 
in  fhe  corrupted  Russified  form  of  Khomutofi'),  Bruces, 
Gordons,  and  Dalziels.  From  Scottish  settlers  in  Russia 
sprang  the  celebrated  poet  Lermontoff,  the  first  two 
syllables  of  whose  name  fully  show  his  Caledonian  origin. 
'Alctis.  The  following  are  the  leading  events  of  the  reign  of 
AJe.xis,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
father  ^[ichael  in  1645.  (1)  First  comes  his  codification 
of  the  Russian  laws  (called  Utozhenie),  which  was  based  on 
the  preceding  codes  of  Ivans  III.  and  IV.  By  the  order  of 
the  czar,  a  commission  of  ecclesiastical  and  lay  members 
■was  appointed  to  examine  the  existing  laws,  and  make  any 
necessary  additions,  or  to  adapt  to  present  needs  any  which 
had  become  obsolete.  The  work  was  chiefly  carried  on  by 
Princes  Odoievski  and  Volkonski,  with  the  assistance  of  two 
secretaries.  They  were  engaged  over  it  two  months  and 
a  half,  and  the  original  codo  is  still  preserved  in  the 
Oruzhennaia  Palata  at  Moscow.  Ustrialotf  boasts  that, 
by  recognizing  the  equality  of  all  men  ia  the  eyes  of  the 
lav/,  it  anticipated  a  principle  which  was  not  generally 
acknowledged  in  ■R'estern  Europe  till  the  18th  century. 
This  doctrine,  however,  may  be  considered  as  only  a 
natural  consequence  of  autocracy.  We  are  told  that 
Alexis  allowed  access  to  all  petitioners,  and  at  his  favourite 
village  of  Kolomenskoe,  opposite  his  bed-room  window, 
was  placed  a  tin  box  ;  as  soon  as  the  czar  rose  and  appeared 
at  the  ■window  the  suppliants  came  forward  with  their 
complaints,  and,  making  ac  obeisance,  jjlaced  them  in 
the  box,  which  was  afterwards  taken  to  him.  (2)  The 
■second  great  event  of  his  reign  was  the  incorporation  of 
the  Ukraine  and  country  of  the  Cossacks  with  Russia. 
For  a  description  of  the  causes  of  this  war,  see  Poland. 
(3)  By  the  treaty  of  Andruszowo  the  Russians  gained 
Smolensk,  Tchernigoff,  and  finally  Kieff,  the  Dnieper 
being  the  now  boundary,  and  thus  the  towns  which  had 
been  taken  by  the  Lithuanians  and  annexed  to  Poland 
by  the  treaty  of  Lublin  (15G9)  became  Russian  again. 
The  only  other  events  of  the  reign  of  Alexis  of  any 
importance  are  the  great  riot  at  ^Mosco^n',  on  account  of 
the  depreciation  of  the  coinage  in  16  IS,  and  the  rebellion 
of  Stenka  Razin,  a  Cossack.  The  riot  is  fully  described 
in  the  interesting  letter  of  an  eyewitness  ■which  is  pre- 
served in  the  Ashmolean  Collection  at  Oxford.  Razin 
devastated  the  country  round  the  Volga,  r^nd  continued  his 


depredations  for  turee  years.  Alexis,  however,  captured 
him,  and  pardoned  him  on  condition  of  his  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance.  He  soon,  however,  broke  out  into  rebellion 
again,  and  proclaimed  himself  the  enemy  of  the  nobles,  and 
the  restorer  of  the  liberty  of  the  people.  By  various  arti- 
fices he  succeeded  in  alluring  two  hundred  thousand  men 
to  his  standard.  Astrakhan  was  surrendered  to  him,  and 
he  ruled  from  Nijni-Novgorod  to  Kazan.  He  was, 
however,  like  Pugatcheff  in  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  a 
vulgar  robber  and  nothing  more.  His  atrocities  disgusted 
the  more  respectable  of  his  adherents ;  his  forces  were 
gradually  dispersed,  and  in  1671  he  was  taken  to  Moscow 
and  executed.  The  czar  Alexis  died  in  1676  in  his  forty- 
eighth  year.  One  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  reign 
■n-as  Ordin-Nastch-okin,  who  negotiated  the  peace  of 
Andruszowo.  Alexis  was  a  man  of  broad  views,  and  mo.de 
many  efforts  to  raise  Russia  to  the  level  of  a  European 
power,  by  sending  competent  men  as  ambassadors  to 
foreign  parts,  and  developing  the  trade  of  the  country. 
In  these  respects  he  resembled  Boris  Godunoff.  Altogether 
his  reign  was  one  of  distinct  progress  for  Russia. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Feodor,  by  his  first  Fe(y!->f 
wife  Maria  Miloslavskaia.  Feodor  (1676-1 6S2)  was  a''' 
prince  of  weak  health,  and  his  reign  was  uneventful.  A 
notable  occurrence  was  the  destruction  of  the  rozriadnie 
liiigi,  or  books  of  pedigrees.  According  to  the  miestni- 
chestvo  no  man  could  take  any  office  which  ■Ras  inferior  to 
any  which  his  ancestors  had  held,  or  could  be  subordinate 
to  any  man  who,  reckoned  fewer  ancestois  than  himself. 
Feodor,  however,  finding  to  what  interminable  quarrels 
these  pedigrees  gave  rise,  both  at  court  and  in  the  camp, 
hit  upon  a  bold  plan,  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  his 
minister  Vasilii  Golitzin.  He  caused  uU  the  families  to 
deliver  their  pedigrees  into  court  that  they  might  be 
e.xamined,  under  pretext  of  ridding  them  of  any  errors 
which  niight  have  crept  in.  The  nobles  were  convoked  ; 
and  the  czar,  assisted  by  the  clergy,  caused  their  books  to 
be  burned  before  their  eyes. 

On  the  death  of  Feodor,  there  seemed  every  probability 
that  the  empire  would  fall  into  a  complete  state  of  anarchy. 
The  czar  Alexis  had  been  twice  married :  his  first  wife 
Maria  Miloslavskaia  bore  him  two  sons,  Feodor  and  Ivan, 
and  several  daughters ;  his  second,  Natalia  Karishkina, 
was  the  mother  of  Peter  and  a  daughter  Natalia.  The 
court  was  rent  by  the  rival  factions  of  the  Miloslavskis  and 
the  Narishkins.  Ivan  was  even  more  infirm  than  Feodor 
and  the  Narishkins  strove  to  brmg  it  aboui  that  he  should 
be  set  aside  and  Peter  should  be  elected.  Sophia,  however,  Sophia 
the  daughter  of  Alexis  by  his  first  wife,  was  a  woman  of 
singular  energy  of  character,  the  more  remarkable  on 
account  of  the  little  attention  paid  to  the  education  of 
women  in  Russia  and  the  cloistered  and  spiritless  lives 
they  were  compelled  to  lead.  According  to  some  accounts 
she  was  a  woman  altogether  wanting  in  personal  at- 
tractions. Perry,  however,  the  engineer  employed  by 
Peter  the  Great,  speaks  of  her  as  good-looking.  But  the 
position  of  the  women  of  the  imperial  family  was  even 
worse  than  that  of  the  generality ;  they  were  not  allowed 
to  marry  subjects,  and  in  consequence  the  majority  of 
them  led  a  life  of  enforced  celibacy.  Sophia  was  the 
favourite  daughter  of  her  father,  and  was  assiduous  in  her 
attentions  to  him  during  his  last  illness.  One  of  her 
brothers  bei-iig  an  imbecile  and  the  other  a  child,  she  hoped 
to  wielil  the  srpptre.  She  fomented  a  revolt  of  the  streltzi, 
and,  instigated  by  her  harangues,  they  murdered  some  of 
the  family  and  partisans  of  the  Narish'iins.  Not  content 
with  slaying  one  of  the  czarina's  brothers  at  the  beginning 
of  the  rebellion,  they  afterwards  dragged  another  from  his 
hiding-place  and  cut  him  to  pieces. 

The  result  of  all  these  disturbance^  was  that  Ivan  and 


IS19-1722.] 


R'TJ  S  S  I  A 


97 


Iim  and  Peter  were  declared  joint-sovereigns,  and  Sophia  was  to  be 
P**«-  regent  during  their  minority.  She  appointed  Vasilii 
Golitzin  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  tlie  foroest  Ho 
inarched  against  the  Jtongob  of  the  Crimea,  but  owing 
to  the"  length  of  the  jouiaey  and  Budcrings  of  the  troops 
was  able  to  effect  but  little.  la  1GS9  Peter  married 
Eudokia  Lopukhina;  but  the  union  was  by  no  means 
a  happy  one.  Two  sons  were  born  to  Peter,  Alexander 
and  Alexis;  the  first  lived  six  months  only,  the  latter 
survived  to  make  a  uad  figure  in  Eussian  history.  Next 
we  have  another  revolt  of  the  streltzi,  said  to  have  been 
instigated  by  Sophia  and  Golitzin.  'It  is  even  alleged 
that  tie  object  of  this  conspiracy  was  to  put  Peter  to 
death.  His  cause,  however,  prevailed,  and  the  rebels  were 
punished  with  great  severity.  Golitzin's  life  was  spared, 
but  all  his  property  was  taken  from  him.  Sophia  was  now 
perjianently  incarcerated  in  a  convent  under  the  name  of 
Si:;3anna,  where  she  remained  till  her  death  fifteen  years 
afterwards,  at  the  age  of  forty-six.  Thus  from  1G89  dates 
Pjtsrthe  the  cctual  rule  of  Peter.  His  brother  Ivan,  infirm  both  in 
Greit.  body  and  mind,  had  but  little  share  in  the  government ; 
his  faculties  both  of  sight  and  speech  are  said  to  have 
been  very  imperfect.  He  took  a  wife,  howevcr,_and  had 
three  daughters,  concerning  one  of  whom,  at  least,  we  have 
much  more  to  hear.  Ivan  led  a  retired  life,  and  died  in 
16'J6  at  the  ago  of  thirty. 

^Vant  of  spaco  compels  us  to  deal  here  only  with  the 
leading  facts  of  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725) ; 
for  more  minute  details  the  reader  must  consult  the  special 
article  (vol.  xviii.  p.  COS).  The  great  object  of  the  new 
czar  was  to  give  Piussia  ports  in  some  other  direction  than 
the  White  Sea,  constantly  blocked  with  ice.  He  had 
already  trained  an  army  which  was  officered  by  foreigners 
in  his  pay.  The  Turks  were  the  first  objects  of  his  attack. 
At  fir.st  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  attempt  to  get  possession 
of  Azoff  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don, — partly  on  accpunt  of  the 
treason  of  the  Dutch  engineer  Jansen,  who,  in  consequence 
of  some  slight  put  upon  him,  went  over  to  the  enemy.  In 
169G,  however,  he  took  the  fort  and  soon  afterwards  made 
his  triumphant  entry  into  Moscow.  In  the  following  year 
Peter,  accompanied  by  Lefort  and  Generals  Golovin  and 
Vosnitzin,  set  out  on  his  travels.  For  some  time  he  worked 
at  the  docks  of  Saardam  in  Holland,  and  then  he  went 
to  England,  where  he  remained  tiirce  months.  The  story 
of  his  stay  at  Deptford  is  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion here.  He  left  England,  taking  with  him  a  great 
number  of  ingenious  men,  who  were  appointed  to  teach  the 
arts  to  the  barbarous  Russians.  He  was  getting  ready  to  go 
to  Venice  when  he  heard  of  the  great  revolt  of  the  streltzi. 
Before  his  arrival  their  insurrection  had  been  quelled  by 
Gordon  and  others,  ar.d  many  of  them  lay  in  priiion  await- 
ing the  sentences  to  b.i  given  by  Peter.  When  1  e  reached 
Mo-icov/,  a  series  of  terrible  executions  took  place,  which 
have  been  described  with  only  too  much  accuracy  by  some 
eyewitnesses,  the  chief  being  Korb,  the  secretary  of  the 
German  emba.s.sy.  In  1700  broke  out  the  revolt  of  the 
Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  in  1709  that  of  Mazcppa,  the 
hetman  of  the  Little-llussian  Cossacks,  who  eagerly  joined 
Char.cs  XII.  in  his  struggle  v/ith  Peter.  As  early  a.-i  1700 
the  Russian  czar  had  carried  on  war  with  this  last  of  the 
vikings,  as  he  had  been  called.  In  that  ycxr  Charles 
defeated  Peter  at  the  battle  of  Narva,  but  the  latter, 
although  humbled,  was  not  disheartened.  He  gathered  all 
his  strength  for  another  encpunter.  In  the  following  year 
Sheremetrefl  defeated  the  Swedish  general  Schlippenbach  in 
Livonia,  and  again  in  1702.  The  great  object  of  Peter 
was  to  gain  possession  of  the  Xeva ;  this  he  attained,  but 
the  Russian  arma  were  dii'^r.iced  by  many  cruelties  and 
robberies  in  tho  unfortunate  Baltic  provinces,  wliich  had 
already  suffered  eo  xuch  in  tho  w:.r3  of  Ivan  tho  Terrible. 


Charles  XII.  nov,-  abandoned  his  attacks  on  the  Polish 
king  and  invaded  Russia.  "  I  will  treat  with  the  czar  at 
Moscow,"  he  said.  Peter  replied,  "  Jly  brother  Charles 
wishes  to  play  the  part  of  Alexander,  but  he  will  not  find 
me  Dariiis."  At  Lesna  the  Swedish  general  Ldwenhaupt 
fought  a  desperate  battle  with  the  Russians,  in  which, 
although  nominally  victorious,  his  losses  were  terrible. 
On  June  15  (n.s.)  was  fought  the  battle  of  Poltavr,  which 
resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  Charles.  >:Ie  had 
brought  it  on  by  his  recklessness,  and,  it  may  bo  added, 
complete  ignorance  of  his  duties  as  a  general. 

With  the  fall  of  Mazeppa  and  the  coalition  of  the  Little 
Russians  in  aid  of  Charles  fell  also  the  independence  ol 
the  Cossacks  aud  their  sech  or  republic.  They  now  became 
entirely  dependent  upon  the'  Muscovite  czar.  The 
hotmanship,  which  had  long  been  a  mere  empty  title,  lasted 
till  tho  year  1789.  In  1712  Peter  married  Martha 
Skavronska,  a  Livonian  or  Lithuanian  peasant  who  had 
been  taken  prisoner  at  the  siege  of  Marienburg  in  1702. 
But  little  is  known  of  her  previous  history ;  she  received 
the  name  of  Catherine  on  being  baptized  as  a  member  of 
the  Greek  Church.  Peter  had  previously  divorced  his 
wife  Eudokia,  who  was  distasteful  to  him  on  account  of 
her  sympathies  with  the  conservative  party  in  Russia.  Ha 
now  set  about  his  great  plan  of  civilizing  the  country  on 
the  model  of  the  nations  of  the  West.  In  this  he  was 
assisted  by  many  foreigners  in  his  pay.  He  abolished  the 
pa*  \archate,  probably  from  dislike  of  its  great  power, 
based  nobility  entirely  upon  service  either  civil  or  military, 
and  divided  the  merchants  into  guilds,  but  left  serfdom  still 
existing  in  Russia,  or  perhaps  we  may  say  with  truth  even 
augmented  it,  by  doing  away  with  tho  privileges  which  the 
odnodsortd  and  polovnilci  had  and  confounding  all  in  a 
common  category  of  serfdom.  His  attempt  to  introduce 
primogeniture  into  Russia  did  not  succeed.  He  put  an 
end  to  the  Oriental  seclusion  of  women  and  the  Oriental 
dress  of  men  ;  for  the  beard  and  long  caftan  were  sub- 
stituted the  cleanly-shaved  face  and  the  dress  in  vogue 
in  the  West.  He  abolished  also  the  praveJte  or  public 
flagellation  of  defaulting  debtors.  The  army  was  com- 
pletely remodelled  on  the  European  system.  During 
the  exile  of  Charles  XII.  at  Bender  Peter  drove  Stanis- 
laus Leszczynski  out  of  Poland,  and  Augustus  II.  re- 
entered Warsaw.  Peter  conquered  Esthonia  and  Livonia. 
He  was  not  able  to  annex  Courland,  which  was  a 
feudatory  of  Poland,  but  he  negotiated  a  marriage  between 
tho  duke  aud  his  niece  Anna,  daughter  of  tho  late  czar 
Ivan,  who  was  afterv.'ards  empress.  A  foolish  expedition 
undertaken  against  Turkey  was  not  successful.  Peter 
found  himself  but  ill-supported  by  tho  inhabitants  through 
whose  territory  he  marclied,  and  was  compelled  to  sign  the 
treaty  of  the  Pruth  in  1711,  whereby  he  gave  back  .•\zoff, 
one  of  his  most  valuable  conquests,  to  the  Turks.  The 
story  of  his  having  been  rescued  by  tho  dexterity  of 
Catherine  seems  to  lack  confirmation  ;  under  any  circum- 
stances, he  shortly  afterwards  acknowledged  her  as  his 
wife.  In  May  1713  Peter  gained  .some  fresh  victories 
over  the  Swedes.  In  1717  he  made  another  European 
tour,  visiting,  among  other  places,  Paris.  On  this  occasion 
he  was  accompanied  by  his  wife ;  concerning  both  strange 
stories  were  told,  but  [jerhaps  we  must  be  cautious  how  we 
receive  too  credulously,  as  Carlyle  has  done,  the  malicious 
gossip  of  the  margravine  of  Baireuth.  In  1721,  by  the 
treaty  of  Nystad  with  Sweden,  Peter  was  left  master  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  and  part  of  Finland.  He  had 
begun  building  St  Petcrsourg,  "tho  window  by  which 
Russia  looks"  at  Europe,  as  early  as  1703. 

In  1722  we  find  Peter  descending  the  Volga  from 
Nijni  to  .\strakhan,  and  gaining  some  important  points  on 
that  river.     Previous  to  this  had  occurred  the  sad  death 

XXL  —  IX 


98 


K  U  S  S  1  A 


[history. 


of  bia  son  Alexis,  in  which  it  must  bu  said  with  sorrow 
Peter  seemed  lost  to  all  the  feelings  of  a  fatbar  Alexia 
had  undoubtedly  given  Lira  great  cause  for  ^slikt  by 
identifying  himself  in  every  way'  nuh  the  retrogressive 
party.  The  unfortunate  young  man  probably  died  under 
the  infliction  of  torture.  In  1721  Peter  promulgated  the 
celebrated  ukaze  (afterwards  abrogated  by  Paul)  hat 
the  sovereign  had  the  right  of  naming  his  successor.  On 
January  28,  1725,  the  grtat  reformer  was  dead  An 
attempt  to  estimate- his  character  has  been  made  in  the 
separate  article  assigned  to  him. 

On  the  death  of  Peter  the  country  was  divided  into  two 
factions.  The  old  reactionary  party,  the  Golitzins,  Dolgo- 
rukis,  and  others,  were  eager  to  proclaim  Peter  the  son  of 
Alexis,  but  those  who  had  identified  themselves  with  the 
reforms  of  the  late  sovereign  were  anxious  that  Catherine 
his  widow,  who  had  been  crowned  empress,  should  succeed. 
Menshikofi,  the  favourite  of  the  late  czar,  who  is, said  when 
a  boy  to  have  sold  cakes  in  the  streets  of  JIoscow,  became 
all-powerful  at  this  period,  and  the  reforms  of  Peter  '•on- 
tinued  to  be  carried  out.  Catheune  died  in  1727  the 
appears  to  have  been  an  indolent,  good-natured  woman, 
with  but  little  capacity  for  government,  and  accordingly, 
throughout  her   short  reign,    was  entirely  controlled   by 

Hter  n.  others.  She  designated  as  her  successor  Peter  the  son  of 
Alexis,  and,  in  default  of  Peter  and  his  issue,  Anna,  who 
had  ms'''-i'>d  the  duke  of  Holstein,  and  Elizabeth,  her 
daughters.  The  regency  was  exercised  by  a  council  consist- 
ing of  the  two  daughters,  the  duke  of  Holstein,  Menshikoff, 
and  seven  or  eight  of  the  chief  dignitaries  of  the  empire. 
Menshikoff  was  still  all-important ;  he  had  obtained  from 
Catherine  her  consent  to  a  marriage  between  his  daughter 
^nd  the  youthful  czar.  But  his  authority  was -gradually 
undermined  by  the  Dolgorukis.  The  favourite  of  Peter 
t.he  Great  was  first  banished  to  his  estates,  and  afterwards 
to  Berezoff  in  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  1729.  The  Dol- 
gorukis were  now  in  the  ascendency,  and  the  czar  was 
betrothed  to  ITatalia,  one  of  that  family.  He  showed 
every  inclination  to  undo  his  grandfather's  work,  and  the 
court  was  removed  to  Moscow.  Soon  afterwards,  how- 
ever, in  January  1730,  the  young  prince  died  of  small- 
pox. His  last  words  as  ho  lay  on  his  death-bed  were, 
"  Get  ready  the  sledge ;  I  want  to  go  to  my  sister," — 
alluding  to  the  Princess  Natalia,  the  other  child  of  Alexis, 
who  had  died  three  years  previously.  .  The  only  foreign 
event  of  importance  in  this  reign  was  the  attempt  of 
Maurice  of  Saxony  to  get  possession  of  Courland,  by 
marrying  the  duchess  Anna  Ihsn  a  widow.  She  con- 
.  sented  -to  the  union,  and  fhe  states  of  the  province 
elected  him,  but  Menshikoff  sent  ,a  body  of  troops  who 
forced  him  to  quit  it.  On  the  death  of  Peter  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  various  claimants  of  the  throne  were  put  for- 
ward. The  great  czar  had  left  two  daughters,  Elizabeth, 
and  Anna,  duchess  of  Holstein,  who  had  a  son,  afterwards 
Peter  III.  Two  daughters  were  also  surviving  of  his 
eldest  brother  Ivan,  Anna,  the  duchess  of  Courland,  and 
Catherine,  duchess  of  Mecklenburg.  Alexis  Dolgoruki 
even  had  an  idea  of  claiming  the  crown  for  K's  daughter, 
because  she  had  been  betrothed  to  the  young  emperor. 
This  proposal,  however,  was  treated  with  derision,  and  the 

lnniL  High  Secret  Council  resolved  to  call  to  the  throne  Anna 
of  Courland,  thinking  that,  as  she  was  so  much  mors  rem'^te 
by  birth  than  the  daughters  of  Peter,  she  would  more 
willingly  submit  to  their  terms.  In  fact,  they  had  pre- 
pared for  her  signature  something  like  the  pacta  convcnta 
of  Poland.  The  following  were  the  terms  : — (1)  the  High 
Council  was  always  to  be  composed  of  eight  members,  to 
be  renewed  by  co-option,  and  the  czarina  mus;  consult  it 
on  state  affairs  ;  (2)  without  its  consent  she  could  neither 
make  'jeace  nor  declare  war,  could  not  impose  any  tax. 


alienate  any  crov.-n  lands,  or  appoint  to  any  office  above, 
that  of  a  colonel ;  (3)  she  could  not  causa  to  ha  condemned 
or  executed  any  member  of  the  nobility,  nor  confiscate  the 
goods  ff  an^  noble  before  ho  had  a  regular  trial ;  (i)  she 
could  not  marry  nor  choose  a  successor  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  council.  In  case  she  broke  any  of  these  stipii. 
lations  sne  was  ^o  forfeit  the  crown  (see  Kambaud,  p.  425). 
Anna  assented  to  these  terms  and  made  her  entry  into 
Moscow,  which  was  now  to  be  the  capital.  But  the  em- 
press was  soon  informed  how  universally  unpopular  these 
pacta  conventa  were,  which  in  reality  put  Russia  into  the 
hands  of  a  few  powerful  families,  chiefly  the  Dolgorukis  and 
Golitzins.  She  accordingly  convened  her  supporters,  and 
publicly  tore  the  document  to  pieces,  and  thus  ended  the 
last  attempt  to  give  Russia  a  constitution.  The  irew 
empress  was  a  cold,  repulsive  woman.,  whose  temper  ha<J 
been  soured  by  indignities  endured  in  her  youth  ;  slit 
took  vengeance  upon  her  opponents,  and  threw  herseU. 
almost  entirely  into  the  hands  of  German  advisers,  cspe* 
cially  Eiren,  a  Courlander  of  low  origin.  This  is  the  perioc 
called  by  the  Russians  the  Bironovstchina.  The  country 
was  now  thoroughly  exploited  by  the  Germans ;  some  ol 
tlie  ieadingc  Russians  were  executed,  and  others  banished 
to  Siberia  Among  the  former  was  the  able  minister 
Volinski  'beheaded  with  two  others  in  1740.  He  had 
fallen  under  the  wrath  of  the  implacable  Biren  One  of 
the  most  important  enactments  of  this  reign  was  the 
abolition  of  the  right  of  primogeniture  introduced  by 
Peter  the  Great,  which  had  never  been  popular  in  the 
country  -On  the  crown  of  Poland  falling  vacant  in  1733, 
an  attempt  was  again  made  to  place  Stanislaus  Leszczj-nski 
on  the  throne,  but  it  failed  through  the  opposition  oi 
Russia,  and  Stanislaus  escaped  with  difficulty  from  Dantzic. 
Upon  this  followed  a  war  with  Turkey,  v.hich  lasted  four 
years  (1735-1736),  in  conjunction  with  Austria  This, 
was  not  very  successful,  but  the  Russian  generals  gained 
possession  of  a  few  towns,  and  were  indignant  when  the 
Austrians  signed  the  treaty  of  Belgrade  with  the  Turks 
(1739),  and  the  campaign  came  to  an  end.  In  17-10  the 
empress  Anna  died ;  she  had  reigned  exactly  ten  years. 
She  left  the  crown  to  Ivan,  the  son  of  her  niece  Anna, 
daughter  of  her  sister  Catherine,  duchess  of  Mecklenburg. 
During  the  minority  of  this  child  Biren  was  to  be  regent. 
By  a  revolution  de  palais,  however,  the  German  adventurer 
was  hurled  from  power  and  sent  to  Pelim  in  Siberia. 
But  matters  did  not  rest  here ;  taking  advantage  uf  the 
general  unpopularity  of  the  German  faction,  the  partisans 
of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Peter  the '  Great  were 
resolved  to  work  their  overthrow,  and  place  uer  upon  the 
throne.  They  consisted  of  Alexander  and  Peter  Shuvaloff, 
Michael  Vorontzoff,  Razuraovski,  Schwarz,  and  a  French 
surgeon  named  Lestocq.  Elizabeth  ingratiated  herself 
into  the  favour  of  the  soldiers,  by  whom  the  name  of  Peter 
the  Great  was  still  so  much  cherished.  Anna  Leopold- 
ovna,  as  she  was  called,  her  husband  Anthony  Ulrich, 
the  infant  emperor,  Munich,  Ostermann,  and  the  -whole 
German  faction  were  arrested  in  the  night,  and  Elizabeth  Eli-j'uetS 
ascended  the  throne.  Ivan  VI.  was  imprisoned  in  the 
fortress  of  Schliisselburg ;  Anna,  with  her  husband  and 
children,  was  banished  to  Kholmogori  near  Archangel, 
where  she  died  in  1746.  Ostermann  was  banished  to  Bere- 
zoff, and  Munich  to  Pelim  ;  they  had  both  been  previously 
sentenced  to  death.  Biren  and  uis  family  were  now 
recalled  and  allowed  to  live  at  Yaroslavl.  Elizabeth 
Petrovna-(1741-1762)  inaugurated  the  return  of  Russian 
influence  in  opposition  to  the  Germans,  from  whom  the 
'country  had  suffered  so  much  during  the  reijm  o*  Anna. 
Tue  people  were  weary  of  them,  ytji,  they  were,  as'we  shall 
see,  to  have  one  German  emperoi  .-more  On  ascending 
the  throne  she  summoned  to  her  court  the  sjn  of  her  sister 


1721-1775.] 


R   U  IS  S  I  A 


99 


Anna  and   the  duke  of  Holstein,  who  took  tne  name  of 
Peter  Feodorovich  on  assuming  the  Greek  religion,  and 
wa3  declared  heir  to  the  throne.     In  1744  lie  married  the 
Princess  Sophia  or  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who  by  her  baptism  in 
the  Orthodox  Church  became  Catherine.     Thus  the  line  of 
descent  was  secured  to  the  direct  hem  of  Peter  the  Great. 
In    1743,  the   armies  of  Elizabeth  having  gained   some 
victories  over  the  Swedes,  the  treaty  of  Abo  was  signed,  by 
which  Russia  acquired  the  southern  part  of  Finland,  as  far 
as  the  river  KiumeiL     The  nest  event  of  importance  is 
the  war  between  Russia  and  Frederick  the  Great  (1756- 
1762).    In  1757  Apraksin  crossed  the  frontier  with  85,000 
Russians,  occupied  Eastern  Prussia,  and  defeated  Lewald 
at  Gross-Jiigersdorf ;  but,  instead  of  taking  advantage  of 
the  victory,  he  soon  afterwards  retired  behind  the  Niemen, 
having  been  tampered  with  by  the  grand-duchess  Catherine 
and  the  chancellor  Bestuzheff-Riumin.     In  1758  Fermor, 
the  Russian  general,  was  completely  defeated  by  Frederick 
at  Zorndorf,  but  he  was  allowed  to  retreat  without  molesta- 
tion.    In  1759  Saltikoff  beat  the  Prussians  at  Paltzig,  and 
in  the  same  year  Frederick  was  obliged  to  submit  to  a 
greater  defeat  at  Kiinersdorf,'where  he  lost  eight  thousand 
men  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  cannon.     It  was 
on  the  loss  of  this  battle  that  he  meditated  committing 
suicide.     In   1760   the   Russians    entered   Berlin,    where 
they  committed  great  havoc  and  destruction.      "We  have 
to  do,"  said  Frederick,  "  with  barbarians,  who  are  digging 
the  grave  of  humanity."     In  the  following  year  they  took 
Pomerania.     The  cause  of  Frederick  seemed  on  the  verge 
of  ruin ;  he  was  saved  by  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  Decem- 
ber 1701.     The  empress  was  an  idle,  superstitious  woman 
of  lax  morals,  who  was  greatly  under  the  influence  of 
favourites.     Since  the  reign  of  Peter  I.  no  successor  had 
appeared  worthy  of  him.     Still  Russia  made  more  progress 
under  Elizabeth  than  it  had  made  under  Anna.     In  1755 
the  university  of  Moscow,  the  oldest  in  the  country,  was 
founded  through  the  influence  of  Ivan  Shuvalofi.     Litera- 
ture made  great  advances,  as  will  be  seen  below. 
Peter  III.      Elizabeth  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew  Peter,  son  of 
her  sister  Anna  and  Charles  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp.     He  was  suspected  of  G3rman  leanings,  but  his 
first  measures  made  him  very  popular.     In  February  17G2 
he  published  an  ukaze  by  which  the  nobility  were  freed 
from  the  necessity  of  entering  upon  any  state  employment, 
and  he  abolished  the  secret  chancery.     On  the  other  hand 
he  acted  in  some  matters  injudiciously,  and  offended  the 
prejudices  of   the  Russians,  as  the   false   Demetrius  had 
done  a  century  and  a  half  previously.     He  ridiculed  some 
of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Orthodo.x  Church,  and  showed  a 
fondness  for  the  Lutheran.     He  introduced  many  German 
tactics  into  the  army,  and  evinced  a  great  preference  for 
his    German  corps  of  Holsteiners.      His    personal    habits 
were  very  coarse  :  he  was  constantly  seen  drunk.    Moreover 
he  sent  out  of  the  country  many  of  the  talented  Frenchmen 
who  had  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  been  helping  Russia 
to  get  rid  of  her  barbarism.     Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  who 
was  at  his  lowest  depths  after  the  battle  of  Kiinersdorf, 
now  saw  to  his  delight  a  complete  change  in  the  Russian 
policy.      Peter   was    an    ardent    admirer  of  the    Prussian 
sovereign  ;  in  order  to  ensure  peace,  Frederick  would  have 
ceded  Eastern  Prussia ;  but  Peter  dreamed  of  nothing  of 
the  kind ;  he  restored  all  the  Russian  conquests  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  him,  offensive  and  defensive.     He  lived 
very  unhappily  with  his  wife  Catherine,  and  meditated 
divorcing  her  and  imj  risoning  her  for  the  rest  of  her  life 
in  a  convent.     The  condition  in  which  she  passed  her  time 
may  bo  seen  from  her  memoirs,  first  published  by  Ilcrzen, 
the  authenticity  of  which  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  to 
doubt.     She,  however,  quietly   waited   her   time,  and   a 
conspiracy  was  concocted  in"  which  she  was  assisted  by  the 


Orloffs,  Potemkin,  the  princess  Dashkoff,  and  others  (,see 
Peter  III.).  Leaving  her  residence  at  Peterhof,  Catherine 
boldly  put  herself  at  the  head  of  twenty  thousan;!  men. 
The  miserable  emperor  abdicated  without  a  strugf:'s,  and 
was  soon  afterwards  secretly  assassinated  at  Ropcha,  near  St 
Petersburg.  Many  of  the  details  of  this  catastrophe  are 
given  in  the  interesting  memoirs  of  the  Princess  Dc  jhlioff, 
which  were  published  by  an  English  lady,  Mrs  W.  Brad- 
ford, in  1840,  having  been  taken  down  from  her  dictr.tion. 
Thus  had  a  German  woman,  by  adroitly  flattering  the  Catherinft 
prejudices  of  the  Russians,  succeeded  in  making  herself  H- 
head  of  this  vast  empire.  Two  years  afterwards  Ivan  VI., 
who  is  said  to  have  become  an  idiot  from  his  long  confine- 
ment at  Schliisselburg,  was  murdered  by  his  guards  on 
account  of  the  attempt  of  a  certain  Lieutenant  Mirovich  to 
set  him  free.  Whether  Mirovich  was  incited  to  this  adven- 
ture by  secret  promises  of  the  Government,  so  that  there 
might  be  an  excuse  for  the  murder  of  Ivan,  has  never  been 
clearly  shown.  He  expiated  his  crime  by  public  execution, 
and  is  said  to  have  expected  a  reprieve  till  the  last  moment. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  was  now  over,  and  the  next  great 
European  complications  were  to  be  concerned  with  the 
partition  of  Poland,  throughout  the  struggles  of  whicli 
country  the  Russians  were  constantly  interfering;  but  for 
a  fuller  discussion  of  this  subject  the  reader  must  be 
referred  to  the  article  Poland.  In  17C7  Turkey,  urged 
on  by  France,  declared  war  against  Russia ;  the  object  was 
to  aid  the  Poles  by  creating  a  diversion,  >The  Russian 
general  Golitzin  attacked  the  grand  vizier,  took  the  town 
of  Khotin  (1769),  and  in  the  following  year  Rumantzoff 
defeated  the  khan  of  the  Crimea,  the  Turkish  feudatory 
and  ally,  and  in  1770  won  the  great  victory  of  Kagul. 
In  1771  Dolgoruki  overran  the  Crimea,  and  Alexis  Orloff 
defeated  the  Turks  in  a  naval  engagement  at  Chesme,  on 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor. .  In  their  naval  expeditions  thi 
Russians  were  at  this  time  greatly  assisted  by  the  number 
of  Englishmen  in  their  service.  In  1774  was  signed  the 
peace  of  Kutchuk-Kainardji,  whereby  the  sultan  acknow^ 
ledged  the  independence  of  the  Mongols  of  the  Crimea. 
The  Russians  thus  detached  this  province  from  the  sultan's 
dominions,  and  after  exercising  a  kind  of  protectorate  over 
it  added  it  to  their  own.  He  also  ceded  Azoff  on  the  Don, 
Kinburu  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper,  and  all  the  fortified 
places  of  the  Crimea.  The  Greeks,  who  had  been  induced 
to  rise,  were  abandoned  to  the  vengeance  of  the  Turks. 

In  1771  the  plague  broke  out  at  JIoscow,  and  many  of 
the  inhabitants  perished.  The  archbishop  Ambrose  was 
massacred  in  a  popular  tumult,  while  endeavouring  to 
carry  out  some  measures  which  were  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  the  public  health.  Soon  afterwards 
occurred  the  rebellion  of  Pugatcheff,  a  Cossack  of  the  Don, 
who  declared  himself  to  be  the  emperor  Peter  III.  The 
czar,  he  alleged,  had  escaped  from  the  hands  of  his  would- 
be  murderers,  and  would  soon  regain  his  throne.  A  large 
band  of  disaffected  peasants  and  llaskolniks  gathered  round 
liim,  and  he  was  joined  by  many  of  the  Mongol  races,  who 
were  inimical  to  the  Russian  rule.  At  first  the  generals 
sent  against  him  were  defeated.  The  rebel's-  path  was 
everywhere  marked  with  bloodshed  and  pillage  ;  he  even 
got  possession  of  several  town.s,  including  Kazan.  Had  he 
been  something  more  than  a  vulgar  as.sassin  he  might  have 
made  Catherine  tremble  on  her  throne,  but  his  cruelties 
estranged  his  more  moderate  followers.  He  was  after- 
wards beaten  by  Bibikoff  and  others,  and  finally  surrendered 
by  his  accomplices  to  Suwaroff.  He  was  taken  to  Moscow 
in  an  iron  cage  and  there  publicly  executed  in  1775, 
together  with  four  of  his  principal  followers?.  In  the  same 
year  the  empress  put  an  end  to  the  republic,  as  ft  was 
called,  of  the  Z.aporogian  Cossacks.  A  great  codificatior 
of  the  laws  took  place  ucdcr  Catherine,  which   may  be 


100 


R  U  S  b  1  A 


[history. 


styled  tlio  sixth  great  period  of  Russian  legislation.  Tlie 
serfs,  liowevur,  were  not  benefited  by  these  changes.  In 
1767  an  ukaze  forbade  them  to  bring  any  complaints 
against  their  masters.  The  latter  had  the  power  of  send- 
ing their  serfs  to  Siberia  as  a  punishment,  or  handing 
them  over  to  be  enlisted  in  the  army.  The  public  sale  of 
serfs  was  not  put  an  end  to  till  the  reign  of  Alexander  I. 
The  country  was  now  divided  into  governments  for  the 
better  administration  of  justice,  each  government  being 
subdivided  into  uiezdi  or  districts.  Catherine  also  took 
away  from  the  monasteries  their  lands  and  serfs,  and 
allotted  them  payments  according  to  their  importance  from 
the  state  revenues.  The  plans  of  Peter  I.  were  thus  fully 
carried  out,  and  the  church  became  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  state.  '  In  1783  the  Crimea  was  annexed  to 
Kussia.  A  second  war  with  Turkey  broke  out  in  1787; 
the  Ottoman  power  bad  many  grounds  of  complaint,  but 
its  suspicions  were  particularly  arou.sed  by  the  tour  of 
Catherine  through  the  southern  provinces  of  Russia  and 
her  interviev,3  with  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  Turkey 
declared  war  that  same  year ;  and,  to  increase  the  em- 
barrassed position  of  the  empress,  Sweden  did  the  same, 
requiring  from  Russia  the  cession  of  the  southern  part  of 
Finland  which  had  been  taken  from  her.  But  King 
Gustavus  III.,  in  spite  of  some  petty  successes,  was  unable 
to  carry  on  the  war,  and  soon  signed  the  peace  of  Verela 
on  the  footing  of  stains  quo  ante  bellum.  The  empress  met 
with  equal  good  fortune  in  the  south  ;  Potemkin  took 
OtchakotI  and  SuwarofE  Khotin.  In  1789  the  latter  gene- 
ral won  the  battles  of  Fokshani  and  Rimnik  ;  and  in  1790 
after  a  sanguinary  engagement  he  took  Ismail.  By  the 
treaty  pf  Jassy  in  1792  Catherine  kept  possession  of  Otch- 
akoff,  and  the  shore  between  the  Bug  and  Dniester. 
She  was  next  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  Poland,  which 
have  been  described  under  that  heading.  In  consequence  of 
the  demands  of  the  confederates  of  Targovica,' — men  who 
were  prepared  to  ruin  their  country  for  their  own  private 
ends, — eighty  thousand  Russians  and  twenty  thousand 
Cossacks  entered  the  Ukraine  to  undo  the  work  of  the 
confederates  of  Bar.  In  1794  Suwaroff  stormed  Warsaw, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  massacred.  In  the  following 
year  Stanislaus  Poniatowski  laid  down  his  crown,  the  third 
division  of  Poland  took  place,  and  the  independence  of 
that  country  was  at  an  end.  In  spite  of  h»r  correspond- 
ence and  aft'e,".ted  sympathies  with  Voltaire,  Diderot,  and 
many  of  the  advanced  French  thinkers,  Catherine  showed 
great  opposition  to  the  principles  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  the  policy  of  the  latter  part  of  her  reign  was 
reactionary.  She  died  suddenly  on  November  17,  1796. 
Her  characta  has  been  amply  discussed  by  foreign  writers. 
It  may  suffice  to  ray  here  that,  whatever  her  private  vices 
may  have  been,  she  was  unquestionably  a  woman  of  great 
genius,  and  the  only  sovereign  worthy  of  Russia  who  had 
appeared  since  the  days  of  Peter  the  Great.  Hence  the 
veneration  with  which  her  memory  is  regarded  by  the 
Ru::sians  to  this  day. 

Faul,  who  had  lived  in  retirement  during  the  life  of  his 
mother,  was  an  object  of  aversion  to  her.  We  are  told  that 
she  had  prepared  a  will  by  which  he  would  be  disinherited, 
and  the  succession  conferred  upon  his  son  Ale.xandcr,  but 
his  friend  Kurakin  got  hild  of  it  immediately  upon  the 
death  of  the  empress  and  destroyed  it.  The  events  of  the 
reign  of  P.^UL  (q-v.)  can  be  only  briefly  discussed  here. 
He  concluded  an  alliance  with  Turkey,  and  entered  into 
a  coalition  against  the  French  republic,  which  he  regarded 
with  horror.  Suwaroff  took  the  command  of  the  united 
Hussion  and  Austrian  troops  at  Verona.  In  1799  he 
defeated  the  French  general  Moreau  on  the  banks  of  the 
Adda,  and  r-iade  a  triumphant  entry  into  Milan.  After 
this  be  won  another  '"'ctory  over  Macdonald  on  the  Trebbia, 


and  later  the  same  year  that  of  Novi  over  Joubert.  He  then 
crossed  the  Alps  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  French  out 
of  Switzerland,  but  he  was  everywhere  hampered  by  the 
Austrians,  and,  after  fighting  his  way  over  the  Alps  and 
suffering  great  losses,  he  reached  his  winter  quarters  between 
the  Iller  and  the  Lech,  and  soon  afterwards  he  was  recalled 
in  disgrace.  Paul  now  completely  changed  his  tactics.  Ac- 
cusing England  and  Austria  of  having  acted  treacherously 
towards  him,  he  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  Bonaparte, 
who  had  won  him  over  by  skilful  diplomacy,  and,  among 
other  pieces  of  flattery,  sent  back  the  Russian  prisoners 
newly  clothed  and  armed.  Paul  then  meditated  joining  him 
in  a  plan  for  conquering  India ;  but  in  the  night  between 
the  23d.  and  21th  of  March  1801  he  was  assassinated.  The 
chief  agents  in  this  catastrophe  were  Plato  Zuboff,  Benning- 
sen,  and  Pahlen.  The  rule  of  Paul  had  become  intolerable, 
and  he  was  fast  bringing  on  a  national  bankruptcy. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Alexander  I.  AlesanJ-;! 
(1801-1825).  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  emperor  I 
v/as  to  make  peace  with  England  and' France.  He,  how- 
ever, soon  changed  his  policy,  and  in  1805  joined  the  third 
coalition  against  France,  to  which  Austria  and  England 
were  parties.  Events  which  belong  to  general  European 
history,  and  are  well  known,  need  only  be  described  briefly 
here.  On  December  2d  of  that  year  took  place  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  in  which  the  Russians  lost  21,000  men,  133 
guns,  and  30  flags.  They  accused  their  Austrian  allies 
of  treachery.  The  war  was  soon  ended  by  the  treaty  of 
Pressburg.  We  now  come  to  the  fourth  coalition  against 
France  (1806-7).  In  1807  Napoleon  engaged  the  Russian 
general  Benningsen  at  Eylau.  The  battle  was  protracted 
and  sanguinary,  but  not  decisive ;  both  parties  abandoned 
the  field  and  retired  into  winter  quartern.  A  defeat  at 
Friedland  in  the  same  year  was  followed  by  the  peace  of 
Tilsit.  By  this  treaty  the  Prussian  king,  Frederick  William 
III.,  lost  half  his  dominions.  Nearly  all  his  Polish  posses- 
sions were  to  go  to  the  king  of  Saxony  under  the  name  of 
the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw.  By  a  secret  treaty,  it  seemed 
as  if  Alexander  and  Napoleon  almost  aspired  to  divide  the 
world,  or  at  least  Europe,  between  them.  The  terms,  how- 
ever, were  received  by  a  large  party  in  Russia  with  di:.gust. 
The  next  important  event  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  was 
the  conquest  of  Finland.  By  the  treaty  of  Frederikshamn, 
September  17,  1809,  Sweden  surrendered  Finland,  with  the 
whole  of  East  Bothnia,  and  a  part-of  West  Bothnia  lying 
eastward  of  the  river  Tornei  The  Finns  were  allowed  a 
kind  of  autonomy,  which  they  have  preserved  to  this  day. 
The  annexation  of  Georgia  to  Russia  was  consolidated  at 
the  beginning  of  this  reign,  having  been  long  in  prepara- 
tion. It  led  to  a  war  with  P^^ia,  which  resulted  in  the 
incorporation  of  the  province  of  Shirvan  with  the  Russian 
empire  in  1806. 

In  1809  commenced  the  fifth  coalition  against  Napoleon. 
Alexander,  who  was  obliged  by  treaty  to  furnish  assistance 
to  the  French  emperor,  did  all  that  he  could  to  prevent 
the  war.  A  quarrel  with  Turkey  led  to  its  invasion  by  a 
Russian  army  under  Michelsen.  This  war  was  terminated 
by  a  congTess  held  at  Bucharest  in  1812.  Russia  gave  up 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  which  she  had  occupied,  but  kept 
Bessarabia,  with  the  fortresses  of  Kliotin  and  Bender. 
Gradually  an  estrangement  took  place  between  Alexander 
and  Napoleon,  not  only  on  account  of  the  creation  of  the 
grand-duchy  of  Warsaw,  but  because  Russia  was  suffering 
greatly  from  the  Continental  blockade.,  to  which  Alexander 
had  been  forced  to  give  his  adhesion.  This  led  to  the 
great  invasion  of  Prussia  by  Napoleon  in  1812.' 

^  T]ii3  has  been  fully  tles^cribed  in  the  p.iges  of  Eugene  Labaume  and 
Sir  Robert  Wilson.  In  tha  r'jcent  volumes  of  the  excellent  review, 
liiLssH  Arfrhlv,  editett  by  M.  Baitenieff,  will  be  found  some  most  in- 
teresting details  based  ur»ou  Eussi.^n  faiHilv  papers  and  tiudition^ 


1767-1831.] 


RUSSIA 


101 


On  May  9,  1812,  Napoleon  left  Paris  for  Dresden, 
&od  the  Russian  and  Freffch  ambassadors  received  their 
passports.  The  grand  army  comprised  678,000  aicn, 
356,000  of  them  being  French,;  and,  to  oppose  them,  the 
Russians  assembled  372,000  nien.  Napoleon  crossed  the 
Niemen  and  advanced  by  forced  marches  to  Smolensk. 
Here  he  defeated  the  Russians,  and  again  at  the  terrible 
battle  of^Borodino,  and  then  entered  Moscow,  which  had 
been  abandoned  by  most  of  the  inhabitants ;  soon  after- 
wards a  fire  broke  out  (probably  caused  by  the  order  of 
Rostopchin  the  governor),  which  raged  six  days  and 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the  city.  Notwithstanding 
this  disaster,  Napoleon  lingered  five  weeks  among  the 
ruins,  endeavouring  to  negotiate  a  peace,  which  he  seemed 
to  think  Alexander  )vould  be  sure  to  grant ;  but  he  had 
mistaken  the  spirit  bf  the  emperor  and  his  people.  On 
the  18th  of  October  Napoleon  reluctantly  commenced  ).is 
backward  march.  The  weather  was  unusually  severe,  and 
the  country  all  round  had  been  devastated  by  the  French 
on  their  march.  With  their  ranks  continually  thinned  by 
cold,  hunger,  and  the  skirmishes  of  the  Cossacks  who  hung 
upon  their  rear,  the  French  reached  the  Beresina,  which 
they  crossed  near  Studianka  on  the  2Cth-29th  of  November 
with  great  loss.  The  struggle  on  the  banks  of  this  river 
forms  one  of  the  most  terrible  pictures  in  history.  At 
Smorgoni,  between  Vilna  and  Minsk,  Napoleon  left  the 
army  and  hurried  to  Paris.  Finally  the  wreck  of  the 
grande  armee  under  Ney  crossed  the  Niemen.  Not  more 
than  eighty  thousand  of  the  whole  army  are  said  to  have 
returned. 

Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia  now  issued  a  mani- 
festo, and  concluded  an  alliance  with  Russia  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Prussian  monarchy.  In  1813  took 
place  the  battle  of  Dresden,  and  the  so-called  Battle  of 
the  Nations  at  Leipsic  on  October  16  and  the  two  fol- 
lo%ving  days.  In  1814  the  Russians  invaded  France 
with  the  allies,  and  lost  many  men  in  the  assault  upon 
Paris.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo.'  and  the  conveyance 
of  Napoleon  to  the  island  of  St  Helena,  it  fell  to  the 
Russian  forces  to  occupy  Champagne  and  Lorraine.  In 
the  same  year  Poland  was  re-established  in  a  mutilated 
form,  with  a  constitution  which  Alexander,  who  was 
crowned  king,  swore  to  observe.  In  1825  the  emperor 
died  suddenly  at  Taganrog  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  while 
visiting  the  southern  provinces  of  his  empire.  He  had 
added  to  the  Russian  dominions  Finland,  Poland, 
Bessarabia,  and  that  part  of  the  Caucasus  which  includes 
Daghestan,  Shirvan,  Mingrelia,  and  Imoretia.  Much  was 
done  in  this  reign  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  serfs. 
The  Raskolniks  were  better  treated  ;  many  efforts  were 
made  to  improve  public  education,  and  the  universities  of 
Kazan,  Kharkoft,  and  St  Petersburg  were  founded.  One 
of  the  chief  agents  of  these  reforms  was  the  minister 
Spcranski,  who  for  some  time  enjoyed  the  faVour  of  the 
emperor,  but  he  attacked  so  many  interests  by  his  measures 
that  a  coalition  was  formed  against  him.  He  was 
denounced  as  a  traitor,  and  his  enemies  succeeded  in 
getting  him  removed  and  sent  as  governor  -to  Nijni- 
Novgorod.  In  1819,  when  the  storm  raised  against  him 
had  somewhat  abated,  he  was  appointed  to  the  important 
post  of  governor  of  Siberia.  'In  1821  he  returned  to  St 
Petersburg,  but  he  n^iver  regained  his  former  power.  To 
the  mild  influence  of  Speranski  succeeded  that  of  Shishkoff, 
Novosiltzefr,  and  Araicheeff.  The  last  of  these  men  made 
himself  universally  detested  in  Russia.  He  rose  to  great 
influence  in  the  time  Df  Paul,  and  managed  to  continue  in 
favour  under  his  son.  Besides  many  other  pernicious 
measures,  it  was  to  him  that  Russia  owed  the  military 
colonies  which  were  so  unpopular  and  led  to  serious  riots. 
The  censorship  of  th6  press   became    much  stricter,  and 


many  professors  cf  liberal  tendencier.  were  dismissed  from 
their  chairs  in  the  universities.  The  country  was  noTr 
filled  with  secret  societies,  and  the  emperor  became  gloomy 
and  suspicious.  In  this  condition  of  mind  he  died,  a  man 
thoroughly  disenchanted  and  weary  of  life.  He  has  been 
judged  harshly  by  some  authors  •  readers  will  remember 
that  Napoleon  said  of  him  that  he  was  false  as  a  Byzantine 
Greek.  To  us  he  appears  as  a  Well-intentioned  man, 
utterly  unable  to  cope  with  the  discordant  elements  around 
him.     He  had  discovered  that  his  life  was  a  failure. 

The  heir  to  the  throne  according  to  the  principles  of 
succession  recognized  in  Russia  was  Constantine,  the  second 
son  of  the  emperor  Paul,  sipce  Alexander  left  no  children. 
But  he  had  of  his  own  free  will  secretly  renounced  his 
claim  in  1822,  having  espoused  a  Roman  Catholic,  the 
Polish  princess  Julia  Grudzinska.  In  consequence  of  this 
change  in  the  devolution  of  the  sovereign's  authprity,  the 
conspiracy  of  the  Dekabrists'  broke  out  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  their  object  being  to  take  advantage  of  the  confusion 
caused  by  the  alteration  of  the  succession  to  get  consti- 
tutional government  in  Russia  Their  efforts  failed,  but 
the  rebellion  was  not  put  down  without  great  bloodshed. 
Five  of  the  conspirators  were  executed,  and  a  great  many 
sent  to  Siberia.  Some  of  the  men  implrcated  were  among 
the  most  remarkable  of  their  time  in  Russia,  but  the 
whole  country  had  been  long  honeycombed  with  secret 
societies,  and  many  of  the  Russian  officers  had  Learue/' 
liberal  ideas  while  engaged  in  the  campaign  aga>"st  JN^apo- 
leon,  So  ignorant,  however,  were  the  common  people  of 
the  most  ordinary  political  terms  that  when  told  to  shout 
for  Constantine  and  the  constitution  (constilutna)  they 
naively  asked  if  the  latter  was  Constantine's  wife.  The 
new  emperor,  Nicholas,  the  next  brother  in  succession,  Nididis 
showed  throughout  his  reign  reactionary  tendencies ;  all 
liberalism  was  sternly  repressed.  In  1830  appeared  the 
Complete  Collection  of  the  Laws  of  the  liussian  Empire, 
which  Nicholas  had  caused  to  be  co<lified.  He  partly 
restored  the  right  of  primogeniture  which  had  been  taken 
away  by  the  empress  Anna  as  contrary  to  Russian  usage.?, 
allowing  a  father  to  make  his  eldest  son  his  sole  heir.  In 
spite  of  the  increased  severity  of  the  censorship  of  the 
press,  literature  made  great  progress  in  his  reign.  From 
1826  to  1828  Nicholas  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Persia, 
in  which  the  Russians  were  completely  victorious,  having 
beaten  theenemyat  ElizabeJpol,  and  again  under Paskewitch 
at  Javan  Bulak.  The  war  was  terminated  by  the  peace 
of  Turkmantchai  (February  22,  1828),  by  which  Persia 
ceded  to  Russia  the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Nakhitchevan. 
and  paid  twenty  millions  of  roubles  as  an  indemnity.  The 
next  foreign  enemy  was  Turkey.  Nicholas  had  sympa- 
thized with  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for  independence, 
in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  Alexander ;  he  had  also  a 
part  to  play  as  protector  of  the  Orthodox  Christians,  who 
formed  a  large  number  of  the  sultan's  subjects.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  sanguinary  war  which  the  Turks  v/cre 
carrying  on  against  the  Greeks  and  the  utter  collapse  of 
the  latter,  England,  France,  and  Russia  signed  the  treaty 
of  London  in  1827,  by  which  they  forced  them.selves  upon 
the  belligerents  as  mediators.  From  this  union  resulted 
the  battle  of  Navarino  (October  20,  1827),  in  which  the 
Turkish  fleet  was  annihilated  by  that  of  the  allir.i. 
Nicholas  now  pursued  the  war  with  Turkey  on  his  own 
account ;  in  Asia  Paskewitch  defeated  two  Turkish  armies, 
and  conquered  Erzeroum,  and  in  Europe  Diebitsch  defeated 
the  grand  vizier.  The  Ru.ssians  crossed  the  Balkans  and 
advanced  to  Adrianoplc,  where  a  treaty  wa.s  signed  in  1829 
very  disadvantageous  to  Turkey. 

In  1831  broke  out  the  Polish  insurrection,  of  whi<"u  a 


died. 


Literally,  Ibe  men  of  December,  the  month  in  which  Alexaudcr 


102 


RUSSIA 


[HiSiOny. 


descriptioa  has  already  been  given  (see  Poland,  vol.  xix. 
p.  298).  Paskewitch  took  Warsaw  in  1831.  The  cholera 
which  was  then  raging  had  already  carried  off  DiebitPch 
and  the  grand-duke  Constaiitinc.  Poland  was  now  entirely 
at  the  mercy  of  Nicholas.  The  constitution  which  had 
been  granted  by  Alexander  was  annulled ;  there  were  to 
be  no  more  diets  ;  and  for  the  ancient  palatinates,  familiar 
to  the  historical  student,  were  substituted  the  governments 
of  Warsaw,  Radom,  Lublin,  Plock,  and  Jlodlin.  The 
university  of  Vilna,  rendered  celebrated  by  Jlickiewicz 
and  Lelewcl,  was  suppressed.  By  another  treaty  with 
Turkey,  that  of  Unkiar-Skelessi  (1833),  Russia  acquired 
additional  rights  to  meddle  with  the  internal  politics  of 
that  country.  Soon  after  the  revolution  of  1848,  the 
em^'eror  Nicholas,  who  became  even  more  reactionary  in 
consequence  of  the  disturbed  state  of  Europe,  answered 
the  appeal  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph,  and  sent  an 
army  under  Paskewitch  to  suppress  the  Hungarian  revolt. 
After  the  capitulation  of  Gorget  in  1849,  the  war  was  at 
an  end,  and  the  JIagyars  cruelly  expiated  their  attempts 
to  procure  constitutional  government.  In  1853  broke  out 
the  Crimean  War.  The  emperor  was  anxious  to  distribute 
the  possessions  of  the  "sick  man,"  but  found  enemies  instead 
of  allies  in  England  and  France.  The  chief  events  of  this 
memorable  struggle  were  the  battles  of  the  Alma,  Balaklava, 
Inkermann,  and  Tchernaya,  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol; 
this  had  been  skilfully  fortified  by  Todleben,  who  appears  to 
have  been  the  only  man  of  genius  who  came  to  the  front  on 
either  side  during  the  war.  In  1855  the  Russians  destroyed 
the  southern  side  of  the  city,  and  retreated  to  the  northern. 
In  the  same  year,  on  March  14th,  died  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  after  a  short  illness.  Finding  all  his  plans 
frustrated  he  had  grown  weary  of  life,  and  rashly  exposed 
himself  to  the  severe  temperature  of  the  northern  spring, 
vleiander  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander  II.  (1855-1881), 
i-l  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven.     One  of  the  first  objects  of  the 

nev,'  czar  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  war,  and  the  treaty  of 
Paris  was  signed  in  1856,  by  which  Russia  consented  to 
keep  no  vessels  of  war  in  the  Black  Sea,  and  to  give  up 
her  protectorate  of  the  Eastern  Christians ;  the  former, 
it  must  be  added,  she  h  is  recently  recovered.  A  portion 
of  Russian  Bessarabia  was  also  cut  jsS  and  added  to 
the  Danubian  principalities,  which  were  shortly  to  be 
united  under  the  name  of  Roumania.  This  was  afterwards 
given  back  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin.  Sebastopol 
also  has  been  rebuilt,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  see  what 
the  practical  results  of  the  Crimean  War  were,  in  spite 
of  the  vast  bloodshed  and  expenditure  of  treasure  which 
attended  it.  The  next  important  measure  was  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  serfs  in  1861.  This  great  reform  had  long 
been  meditated  by  Nicholas,  but  he  was  unable  to  ac- 
complish it,  and  left  it  to  be  carried  out  by  his  son.  The 
landlords,  on  receiving  an  indemnity,  now  released  the 
serfs  from  their  seigniorial  rights,  and  the  village  commune 
became  the  actual  property  of  the  serf.  This  great 
revolution  was  not,  however,  carried  out  without  great 
difficulty.  The  Polish  insurrection  of  18G3  has  already 
been  described,  as  well  as  its  fatal  effects  upon  that  part  of 
Poland  which  had  been  incorporated  with  Russia.  On  the 
other  hand  Finland  has  seen  her  privileges  confirmed. 

Among  important  foreign  events  of  this  reign  must  be 
mentioned  the  capture  of  Schamyl  in  1859  by  Prince 
Bariatinski,  and  the  pacification  of  the  Caucasus  ;  many  of 
the  Circassians,  unable  to  endure  the  peaceful  life  of 
cultivators  of  the  soil  under  the  new  regime,  migrated  to 
Turkey,  where  they  have  formed  one  of  the  most  turbulent 
elements  of  the  population.  Turkestan  also  has  been 
gradually  subjugated.  In  1865  the  city  of  Tashkend  was 
taken,  and  in  1867  A!c;;u,r.dcr  II.  .created  the  government 
of  Turkestan,     in  1858  Gfiieral  lluraviefi  signed  a  treaty 


with  the  Chinese,  by  which  Russia  acquired  all  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Amur.  A  new  port  has  been  created  in 
Eastern  Asia  (Vladivostok),  which  promises  to  be  a  great 
centre  of  trade.  In  1877  Russia  came  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Slavonic  Christians  against  the  Turks.  After  the 
terrible  siege  of  Plevna,  nothing  stood  between  them 
and  the  gates  of  Constantinople.  In  1878  the  treaty  of 
San  Stefano  was  signed,  by  which  Roumania  became 
independent,  Servia  was  enlarged,  and  a  free  Bulgaria, 
but  under  Turkish  suzerainty,  was  created.  But  these 
arrangements  were  subsequently  modified  by  the  treaty  of 
Berlin.  Russia  got  back  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  which 
she  had  lost,  and  advanced  her  Caucasian  frontier.  The 
new  province  of  Bulgaria  was  cut  into  two,  the  southern 
portion  being  entitled  Eastern  Rouraelia,  with  a  Christian 
governor,  to  be  appointed  by  the  Porte,  and  self-govern- 
ment. Austria  acquired  a  protectorate  over  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina.  The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Alexander 
II.  was  a  period  of  great  internal  commotion,  on  account 
of  the  spread  of  Nihilism,  and  the  attempts  upon  the 
emperor's  life,  which  unfortunately  were  at  last  successful. 
In  the  cities  in  which  his  despotic  father  had  walked  about 
fearless,  without  a  single  attendant,  the  mild  and  amiable 
Alexander  was  in  daily  peril  of  his  life.  On  April  IC, 
18GG,  Karakozofi  shot  at  the  emperor  at  St  Petersburg; 
in  the  following  year  another  attempt  was  made  by  a  Pole, 
Berezowski,  while  Alexander  was  at  Paris  on  a  visit  to 
Na-poleon  III.;  on  April  14,  1879,  Solovioff  shot  at  him. 
The  same  year  saw  the  attempt  to  blow  up  the  Winter  Palace 
and  to  wreck  the  train  by  which  the  czar  was  travelling 
from  Moscow  to  St  Petersburg.  A  similar  conspiracy  in 
1881  (Jlarch  13)  was  successful.  Five  of  the  conspirators, 
including  a  woman,  Sophia  Perovskaia,  were  publicly 
executed.  Thus  terminated  the  reign  of  Alexander  II., 
which  had  lasted  nearly  twenty -six  years.  He  died  leaving 
Russia  exhausted  by  foreign  wars  and  honeycombed  by 
plots.  His  wife  and  eldest  son  Nicholas  had  predeceased 
him,  the  latter  at  Nice.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  second  Aloxan 
son  Alexander,  born  in  1845,  whose  reign  has  been  char-  H'- 
acterized  by  conspiracies  and  constant  deportations  of 
suspected  persons.  It  was  long  before  he  ventured  to 
be  crowned  in  his  ancient  capital  of  Moscow  (1883), 
and  the  chief  event  since  then  has  been  the  disturbed 
relations  with  England,  wliich  for  a  time  threatened 
war.  (v/.  B.  M.) 

Part  V. — Russian  Literature. 
To  get  a  clear  idea  of  Russian  literature,  it  will  be  most 
convenient  for  us  to  divide  it  into  oral  and  written.  The 
first  of  these  sections  includes  the  interesting  bilint,  or  Bilini. 
"  tales  of  old  time,"  as  the  word  may  be  translated,  which 
have  come  down  to  us  in  great  numbers,  as  they  have  been 
sung  by  wandering  minstrels  all  over  the  country.  The 
scholars  who  during  the  last  forty  years  have  given  their 
attention  to  these  compositions  have  made  the  following 
division  of  them  into  cycles: — (1)  that  of  the  older 
heroes;  (2)  that  of  Vladimir,  prince  of  Kiefl ;  (3)  that 
of  Novgorod ;  (4)  that  of  Moscow  ;  (5)  that  of  the  Cos- 
sacks ;  (6)  that  of  Peter  the  Great;  (7)  the  modern 
period.  These  poems,  if  they  may  be  so  styled,  are  not  in 
rhyme ;  the  ear  is  satisfied  with  a  certain  cadence  which 
is  observed  throughout.  For  a  long  time  they  were 
neglected,  and  the  collection  of  them  only  began  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century.  The  style  of 
Russian  literature  which  prevailed  from  the  time  of 
Lomonosofi  was  wholly  based  upon  the  French  or  pseudo- 
classical  school.  It  was,  therefore,  hardly  likely  that  these 
peasant  songs  would  attract  attention.  But  when  the 
gospel  of  romanticism  v.-as  preached  and  the  History  of 
Karamizn  appeared,  which  presented  to  the  Kussisns  a 


LITEEATUEE.J 


R  U  ti  S  i  A 


103 


past  of  which  thoy  nad  known  but  little,  described  in 
poetical  and  ornate  phraseology,  a  new  impulse  was  given 
to  the  collection  of  all  tha  rsmains  of  popular  literature. 
In  1804  appeared  a  volume  based  upon  those  which  had 
been  gathered  together  by  Cyril  or  Kirsha  Daniloff,  a  Cos- 
sack, at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  They  were 
received  with  much  enthusiasm,  and  a  second  edition  was 
published  in  1818.  In  the  following  year  there  appeared 
at  Leipsic  a  translation  of  many  of  these  pieces  into  Ger- 
man, in  consequence  of  which  they  became  known  much 
more  widely.  This  little  book  of  160  pages  is  important  in 
many  ways,  and  not  the  least  so  because  the  originals  of 
some  of  the  bilini  translated  in  it  are  now  lost.  Since 
that  time  large  collections  of  these  poems  have  been 
published,  edited  by  KIbnikoff,  Hilferding,  Sreznevski, 
Avenarius,  and  others. 

These  curious  productions  have  all  the  characteristics  of 
popular  poetry  in  the  endless  repetitions  of  certain  con- 
ventional phrases — the  "  green  wine,"  "  the  bright  Bun  " 
(applied  to  a  hero),  "  the  damp  earth,"  and  others.  The 
heroes  of  the  first  cycle  are  monstrous  beings,  and  seem  to 
be  merely  impersonifications  of  the  powers  of  nature ; 
such  are  Volga  Vseslavich,  Mikula  Selianinovich,  and  Svia- 
togor.  They  are  called  the  hogat'iri  starshie.  Sometimes 
we  have  the  giants  of  the  mountain,  as  Sviatogor,  and 
the  serpent  Gorinich,  the  root  of  part  of  both  names  being 
gora  (mountain).  The  serpent  Gorinich  lives  in  caves, 
and  has  the  care  of  the  precious  metals.  Sometimes  animal 
natures  are  mixed  up  with  them,  as  zmei-hogailr,  who 
unites  the  qualities  of  the  serpent  and  the  giant,  and  bears 
the  name  of  Tugarin  Zmiovich.  There  is  the  Pagan  Idol 
{IdoHstche  Poganskoe),  a  great  glutton,  and  Nightingale 
the  Eobber  (Solovei  Razhoinik),  who  terrifies  travellers  and 
lives  in  a  oest  built  upon  six  oaks. 

In  the  second  cycle  the  legends  group  themselves  round 
the  celebrated  prince  Vladimir  of  Kicff,  in  whose  time  the 
Christian  religion  was  introduced  into  Russia,  as  previously 
mentioned.  The  chief  hero  is  llya  Murometz,  who 
performs  prodigies  of  valour,  and  is  of  gigantic  stature  and 
superhuman  strength.  The  cycle  of  Novgorod  deals  with 
the  stories  of  Vasilii  Euslaevich  and  Sadko,  the  rich 
merchant.  The  great  commercial  prosperity  of  Novgorod 
has  been  already  described.  The  fourth  cycle  deals  with 
the  autocracy ;  already  Moscow  has  become  the  cajiital  of 
the  future  empire.  We  are  told  of  the  taking  of  Kazan, 
of  the  conquest  of  Siberia  by  Yermak,  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 
and  his  confidant  Maliuta  Skuvlatovich.  It  is  observable 
that  in  the  popular  tradition  Ivan,  in  spite  of  his  cruelties, 
is  not  spoken  of  with  any  hatred.  As  early  as  1019  some  of 
these  bilini  were  committed  to  writing  by  Richaid  James, 
an  Oxford  graduate  who  was  in  Russia  about  that  time  as 
chaplain  of  the  embassy.  The  most  patlietic  of  these  is 
that  relating  to  the  unfortunate  Xenia,  the  daughter  of 
Boris  Godunoff.  .  Yermak,  the  conqueror  of  Sibsria,  forms 
the  subject  of  a  very  spirited  lay,  and  there  is  unotlier  on 
the  death  of  Ivan  the  Terrible.  Considering  t'le  relation 
in  which  she  stood  to  the  Russians,  we  cannot  wonder  that 
Marina,  the  wife  of  the  false  Demetrius,  appears  as  a 
magician.  Many  spirited  poems  are  consecrated  to  the 
achievements  of  St^nka  Razia,  the  bold  robber  of  the 
Volga,  who  was  a  long  time  a  popular  hero.  Tho  cycle  of 
Peter  the  Great  is  a  very  interesting  one.  We  have  .songs 
in  abundance  on  the  various  achievements  of  the  wonderful 
czar,  as  the  taking  of  Azoff  in  1G9G.  There  is  also  a  poem 
on  the  execution  of  the  streltzi,  and  another  on  tho  death  of 
Peter.  In  the  more  modern  period  there  are  many  sontjs 
on  Napoleon.  Tho  Cossack  songs,  written  in  the  Littlo 
Russian  language,  dwell  upon  the  glories  of  tho  scch,  tho 
sufferings  of  the  people  from  the  invasions  of  tho  Turks 
and  Mongol.!,  tho  exploits  of  the  Uaidamaks  and  lastly  tho 


fall  of  the  CossacK  republic.  Besides  these,  the  Russians 
can  boast  of  large  collections  of  religious  poems,  many  of 
them  containing  very  curious  legends.  In  them  we  have 
a  complete  store  of  the  beliefs  of  tho  Middle  Ages.  A  rich 
field  may  be  found  here  for  the  study  of '  comparative 
mythology  and  folk-lore.  !Many  of  them  are  of  considerable 
antiquity,  and  some  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  tho 
Midrash.  Some  of  the  more  important  of  these  have  beon 
collected  by  Beszonoff.  Besides  tho  bilini  or  legendary 
poems,  the  Russians  have  large  collections  of  ska:ki  or 
folk-tales,  which  have  been  gathered  together  by  Sakharoff, 
Afanasieff,  and  others.  They  also  are  full  of  valuable 
materials  for  the  study  of  comparative  mythology. 

Leaving  the  popular  and  oral  literature,  we  come  to  Earliest) 
what  has  been  committed  to  writing.  The  earliest  written 
specimen  of  Russian,  properly  so-called,  must  be  considered  "'^'■'t"" 
the  Cstromir  Codex,  written  by  tho  diak  Gregory  at 
the  order  of  Ostromir,  the  posadnik  or  governor  of 
Novgorod.  This  is  a  Russian  recension  of  the  Slcvonio 
Gospels,  of  the  date  1056-57.  Of  the  year  1073  we  have 
tho  Izhornik  or  "Miscellany"  of  Sviatoslaff.  It  was 
written  by  John  the  diak  or  deacon  for  that  prince,  and  is 
a  kind  of  Russian  encyclopaedia,  drawn  from  Greek  sources. 
The  date  is  1076.  The  style  is  praised  by  BuoKxefi  as 
clear  and  simple.  The  next  monument  of  the  language  is 
the  Discourse  concerning  the  Old  and  Nevj  Testament  by 
Ilarion..  metropolitan  of  Kieff.  In  this  work  there  is  a 
pane  -C  on  Prince  Vladimir  of  Kieff,  the  hero  of  so  muca 
of  the  Xiussian  popular  poetry.  Other  writers  are  Theodo- 
sius,  a  monk  of  the  Peslcherski  cloister,  who  wrote  ^n  tho 
Latin  faith  and  some  Pouchenia  or  "  Instructions,  and 
Luke  Zhidiata,  bishop  of  Novgorod,  who  has  left  us  a 
curious  Discom-se  to  the  Brethren.  From  the  writings  of 
Theodosius  we  see  that  many  pagan  habits  were  still  in 
vogue  among  the  people.  He  finds  fault  with  them  for 
allowing  those  to  continue,  and  also  for  their  drunkenness ; 
nor  do  the  monks  escape  his  censures.  Zhidiata  writes  in 
a  more  vernacular  style  than  many  of  hij  contemporaries ; 
he  eschews  the  declamatory  tone  of  .hs  Byzantine  authors. 

With  the  so-called  Chronicle  of  Nestor  ((j.v.)  begins  theAacalUf* 
long  series  of  the  Russian  annalists.  There  is  a  regular  """* 
catena  of  these  chronicles,  extending  with  only  two  breaks 
to  the  time  of  Alexis  Mikhailovich,  the  lather  of  Peter  the 
Great.  Besides  the  work  attributed  to  Nestor,  we  have 
chronicles  of  Novgorod,  Kictf,  Volhynia,  and  many  others. 
Every  town  of  any  importance  could  boast  of  its  annalists, 
Pskoff  and  Suzdal  among  others.  In  sonio  rcr.pccts  these 
compilations,  the  productions  of  monks  in  their  cloisters, 
remind  us  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  dry  details 
alternating  with  here  and  there  a  picturesque  incident; 
but  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  has  nothing  of  the  saga 
about  it,  and  many  of  thcsj  annals  abound  with  the 
quaintest  stories.  There  are  also  works  of  early  travellers, 
as  the  igumen  Daniel,  who  visited  tho  Holy  Land  at  the 
end  of  the  11th  and  beginning  of  the  12th  century.  A 
laler  traveller  was  Athanasius  Nikitin,  a  merchant  of  Tver, 
who  visited  India  in  1470.  He  has  left  a  record  of  his 
adventures,  which  has  been  translated  into  English  iuu 
published  for  tho  Hakluyt  Society.  Later  also  is  tht> 
account  written  by  the  two  merchants,  Korobeinikoff  ano 
Grekotf.  They  were  sent  with  a  sum  of  money  to  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  to  entreat  the  monks  to  pray  without 
cca.sing  for  the  soul  of  the  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  whom 
his  father  had  killed.  A  curious  monument  of  old  Slavonic 
times  is  the  Potichcnie  ("Instruction")  written  by  Vladimir, 
Monomakh  for  the'  benefit  of  his  sons.-  This  composition 
is  generally  found  inserted  in  the  Chronicle  of  Nestor ;  it' 
gives  a  quaint  picture  of  the  daily  life  of  a  Slavonic  prince. 

In  the  12th  century  we  have  the  sermons  of  Cyril,  tho  Religious 
bishop  of  Turcff,  which  are  attempts  to  imitate  in  .'lussian  Uteratura 


104 


R  U  fc>  S  I  A 


ILITERATUBK. 


Jho  florid  Byzantine  style.  He  is  very  foud  of  allegorical 
representations ;  thus,  in  his  sermon  oa  Holy  Week, 
Christianity  is  represented  under  the  form  of  sprinf.', 
Paganism  and  Judaism  under  that  of  winter,  and  evil 
thoughts  are  spoken  of  as  boisterous  winds.  An  attempt 
to  carry  this  symbolism  Ihrough  other  portions  of  his 
writings  leads  him  to  many  fantastic  conceits  which  are 
far  from  being  in  good  taste.  And  here  may  be  mentioned 
the  many  Uvl-s  of  the  saints  and  the  Fathers  to  be  found  in 
early  Russian  literature.  Some  of  these  have  been  edited 
by  Count  Beaborodko  in  his  Pnmrln'ki  Stanmioi  Russkoi 
Lileniturt  ("Memorials  of  Ancient  Russian  Literature"). 
The  Story  We  no(V  come  to  the  story  of  the  expedition  of  Prince 
of  Igor.  Igor,  which  is  a  kind  of  bilina  in  prose,  and  narrates  the 
Expedition  of  Igor,  prince  of  Novgorod-Severski,  against 
the  Polovtzes.  The  manu.script  was  at  one  time  preserved 
in  a  monastery  at  Yaroslavl,  but  was  burnt  in  the  great 
fire  at  Moscow  in  the  year  1812.  Luckily  the  story  had 
been  edited  (after  a  fashion)  by  Count  Musin-Pushkin, 
and  r.  transcript  was  also  found  among  the  papers  of  the 
empress  Catherine.  The  authenticity  of  this  production 
has  been  disputed  by  some  m-odern  scholars,  but  without 
solid  ground.s.  The  original  was  seen  by  several  men  of 
letters  in  Russia,  Karamzin  among  the  number.  There  is 
a  mixture  of  Christian  and  heathen  allusions,  but  there  are 
parallels  to  this  style  of  writing  in  such  a  piieco  as  the 
"  Discourse  of  a  Lover  of  Christ  and  Advocate  of  the  True 
Faith,"  from  which  an  extract  has  been  given  by  Bu.slaeff 
in  his  Chreitomathy.  Unlike  most  of  the  productions  of 
this  period,  which  are  tedious,  and  interesting  only  to  the 
philologist  and  antiquary,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  poetical 
spirit  in  the  story  of  Igor,  and  the  metaphors  are  fre- 
quently very  vigorous.  Mention  is  made  in  it  of  another 
bard  nan"ied  Boyan,  but  none  of  his  inspirations  have  coirie 
down  to  us.  A  strange  legend  is  that  of  the  czar  Solomon 
and  Kitovras,  but  the  story  occurs  in  the  popular  literatures 
of  many  countries.  Some  similar  productions  among  the 
Russians  are  merely  adaptations  of  old  Bulgarian  tales, 
especially  the  so-called  apocryphal  writings.  The  Zadon- 
slrkina  is  a  sort  of  pr.?se-poem  much  in  the  style  of  the 
"  Story  of  Igor,"  and  the  resemblance  of  the  latter  to  this 
piece  and  to  m.any  other  of  the  skazania  included  in  or 
attached  to  the  Russian  chronicle,  fui-nishes  an  additional 
proof  of  its  genuineness.  The  account  of  the  battle  of  the 
"  Field  of  Woodcocks,"  which  was  gained  by  Dmitri 
Donskoi  over  the  Mongols  in  1380,  has  come  down  in  three 
important  versions.  The  first  bears  the  title  "  Story  of 
the  Fight  of  the  Prince  Dmitri  Ivanovich  with  Mamai";  it 
is  rather  meagre  in  details  but  full  of  expressions  showing 
the  p-.triotism  of  the  writer.  The  second  version  is  more 
complete  in  its  historical  details,  but  still  is  not  without 
anachronisms.  The  third  is  altogether  poeticaL  The 
Poviest  0  Dralatle  ("  Stor)  of  Drakula  ")  is  a  collection  of 
anecdotes  relating  to  a  cruel  prince  of  Moldavia,  who  lived 
at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century.  Several  of  the  bar- 
barities described  in  it  have  also  been  assigned  to  Ivan  the 
Terrible. 
Codes  of  The  early  Russian  laws  present  many  features  of 
"'s.  interest,  such  as  the  Russkaia  Pravda  of  Yaroslaff,  which 
is  preserved  in  the  chronicle  of  Novgorod  ;  the  date  is 
between  1018  and  1054.  Large  additions  were  made  to 
it  by  subsequent  princes.  It  has  many  points  in  common 
with  tho  Scandinavian  code.s,  e.g.,  trial  by  wager  of  battle, 
the  wergild,  and  the  circuits  of  the  judges.  The  laws 
show  Russia  at  that  time  to  have  been  in  civilization 
quite  on  a  level  with  the  rest  of  Europe.  But  the  evil 
influence  of  the  Mongols  was  soon  to  make  itself  felt. 
Tho  next  important  code  is  the  Sudebtv.k  of  Ivan  IIL, 
tho  date  of  which  is  1497  ;  this  was  followed  by  that  of 
Ivan  IV.,  of  tho  year  1550,  in  which  we  have  a  republi- 


Othcr 
pii|.ular 


cation  by  the  cz-'  r  of  his  grandfather's  laws,  with  additions. 
In  the  time  of  this  emperor  also  was  issued  the  Stoglav 
(1551),  a  body  of  ecclesiastical  regulations.  Mention  n  ust 
also  I'o  made  of  the  i'lo:kenie  or  "  Ordinance"  of  the  czar 
Alexis.  This  abounds  with  enactments  of  sanguinary 
punishment :  women  are  buried  alive  for  murdering  their 
husbands ;  torture  is  recognized  as  a  means  of  procuring 
evidence ;  and  the  knout  and  mutilation  are  mentioned  on 
almost  every  page.  Some  of  the  penalties  arowhimsical: 
for  instance,  the  man  who  u.scs  tobacco  is  to  have  his  nose 
cut  off  ;  this,  however,  was  to  be  altered  by  Peter  the  Great, 
who  himself  practised  the  habit  and  encouraced  it  in 
others. 

In  1553  a  printing  press  was  established  at  Moscow,  Intioiiiic. 
and  in  1564  the  first  book  was  printed,  an  "Apostol,"  as  lio"  o' 
it  is  called,  /,(•.,  a  book  containing  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  P™*"* 
and  the  Epistles.  The  printers  were  Ivan  Feodoroff  and 
Peter  Mstislavetz ;  a  monument  was  erected  a  year  or  two 
ago  to  the  memory  of  the  former.  As  early  as. 1548  Ivan 
had  invited  printers  to  Russia,  but  they  were  detained  on 
their  journey.  Feodoroff  and  his  companions  were  soon, 
however,  compelled  to  leave  Russia,  and  found  a  protector 
in  Sigismund  III.  The  cause  of  their  failure  apjiears  to 
have  been  the  enmity  which  they  had  stirred  u]i  among 
the  copyists  of  books,  who  felt  that  their  means  of  gaining 
a  livelihood  were  lessened.  They  succeeded  accordingly 
in  drawing  over  to  their  side  the  more  fanatical  priests, 
who  thought  it  degrading  that  the  sacred  books  should  be 
multiplied  by  such  an  art,  just  as  at  the  present  day  the 
Arabs  refuse  to  allow  the  Koran  to  be  printed.  The  first 
Slavonic  Bible  was  printed  at  Ostrog  in  Volhynia  in  15.^1. 
Another  pres.%  however,  was  soon  established  at  Moscow : 
up  to  IGOO  sixteen  books  had  been  issued  there.'  • 

A  curious  work  of  the  time  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  is  th^  Tirrr  :' 
Domoslroi,  or  "  Book  of  Household  Management,"  which  is  Ivan  tin 
said  to  have  been  written  by  the  mcnk  Sylvester,  although 
this  statement  has  been  disputed.  This  priest  was  at  one 
time  very  influential  with  Ivan,  but  ultimately  offended 
him  and  was  banished  to  the  So.ovetzkoi  monastery  on 
the  White  Sea.  The  wort  was  originally  intended  by 
Sylvester  for  his  son  Anthemius  f.nd  his  daughter-in-law 
Pelagia,  but  it  soon  became  very  popular  and  in  general 
use.  We  have  a  faithful  picture  of  the  Russia  of  the 
time,  with  all  its  barbarisms  and  Ignorance.  We  see  the 
unbounded  authority  of  the  husband  in  his  own  house- 
hold: he  may  inflict  personal  chastisement  upon  his  wife; 
and  her  chief  duty  lies  in  ministering  to  his  wants.  The 
Mongols  had  introduced  into  Russia  tho  Oriental  seclusion 
of  women ;  those  of  the  older  time  knew  nothing  of  these 
restrictions.  Sylvester,  or  whoever  wrote  the  book,  was  a 
complete  conservative,  as  indeed  the  clergy  of  Russia 
aimost  universally  were.'  To  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Ter- 
riblo  must  also  be  assigned  the  Chdii-Minei  or  "  Book 
of  Monthly  Readings,"  containing  extracts  from  the  Greek 
fathers,  arranged  for  every  day  of  the  week.  Tho  work 
was  compiled  by  the  metropolitan  Macariu.'t,  and  was 
the  labour  of  twelve  years.  An  impiortant  writer  of 
the  same  period  was  Prince  Andrew  Kurbski,  de- 
scended from  the  sovereigns  of  Yaroslavl,  who  was  born 
about  15'2S.  In  his  early  d.ays  Kurbski  saw  a  great 
deal  of  service,  having  fought  at  Kazan  and  in  Livonia, 
But  ho  quarrelled  with  Ivan,  who  had  begun  to  perse- 
cute the  followers  of  Sylvester  and  Adashtff,  and  fled 
to   Lithuania  in    1563,   where  he  was  well   received   by 

^  In  a  curious  letter  of  the  date  of  1608.  and  now  among  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  Bodleian,  Bishop  Eurnet  writes  thus  of  a  priest  who 
accompanied  Peter  the  Great  to  England  !  "The  czar's  priest  is  come 
over,  who  is  a  truly  holy  man,  and  nioro  learned  than  I  should  have 
imagined,  but  thinks  it  a  gre.it  piece  of  religion  to  be  no  wiser  than 
his  f.ithers,  and  therefore  cannot  bear  the  thought  of  imagining  that 
anything  am^uic  them  can  want  amendment.'' 


TerriUe. 


ITTEitATUKE.] 


RUSSIA 


105 


Sigismund  Augustus.  From  Lis  retreat  he  commenced  a 
correspondence  with  Ivan,  in  which  he  reproached  him  for 
his  many  cruelties.  Ivan  in  liis  answer  declared  that  ho 
was  quite  justified  in  taking  the  lives  of  his  slaves,  if  he 
thought  it  right  to  do  so.  WTiile  living  in  Lithuania, 
Kurbski  appeared  as  the  defender  of  the  Greek  faith, 
which  was  being  undermined  by  the  Jesuits.  He  died  in 
exile  in  1583.  Kurbski  was  a  fluent  writer,  but  Bestu- 
zheff  Riumin  thinks  that  his  hatred  of  Ivan  led  him  to 
exaggerate,  and  he  regrets  that  Karamzin  should  have 
followed  him  so  closely.  Besides  the  answers  of  Ivan  to 
Kurbski,  there  is  his  letter  to  Cosmas,  and  the  brother- 
hood of  the  Cyrillian  monastery  on  the  White  Lake  (Bielo 
Ozero),  in  which  he  reproaches  them' for  the  self-indulgent 
lives  they  are  leading.  Other  works  of  the  16th  century 
are  the  Stepennaya  Kniga,  or  "Book  of  Degrees  "  ("  or  Pedi- 
grees"), in  which  historical  events  are  grouped  under  the 
reigns  of  the  grand-dukes,  whose  pedigrees  are  also  given  ; 
and  the  Life  of  the  Czar  Feodor  Ivanovich  (1584-1598), 
written  by  the  patriarch  Job.  To  the  beginning  of  the 
'7*  17th  century  belongs  the  Chronograph  of  Sergius  Kubasoff 

iaioTj.  of  Tobolsk.  His  work  extends  from  the  creation  of  the 
world  to  the  accession  of  Michael  Romanoff,  and  contains 
interesting  accounts  of  such  of  the  members  of  the  Russian 
royal  family  as  Kubasoff  had  himself  seen.  Something 
of  the  same  kind  must  have  been  the  journal  of  Prince 
^stislavski,  which  he  showed  the  English  ambassador 
Jerome  Horsey,  but  which  is  now  lost.^ 

To  the  time  of  the  first- Romanoffs  belongs  the  story  of 
the  siege  of  Azoff,  a  prose  poem,  which  tells  u.s,  in  an 
inSaled  style,  how  in  1637  a  body  of  Cossacks  trium- 
phantly repelled  the  attacks  of  the  Turks.  They  had 
seized  this  town,  which  they  were  an.xious  to  hand  over  to 
the  czar  Michael,  but  circumstances  were  not  ripe  for  it. 
There  is  also  an  account  of  the  siege  of  the  Troitza 
monastery  by  the  Poles  during  the  "Smutnoye  Vremya,"  or 
Pericd  of  Troubles,  as  it  is  called, — that  which  deals  with 
the  adventures  of  the  false  Demetrius  and  the  Polish 
invasion  which  followed.  But  all  those  are  surpassed  by 
Koto-  the  work  on  Russia  of  Gregory  KarpofE  Kotoshikhin.  He 
•kikliir,  sehved  in  the  ambassador's  office  (posolski  prikaz),  and 
when  called  upon  to  give  information  against  his  col- 
leagues fled  to  Poland  about  166-1.  Thence  he  passed  into 
Sweden  and  wrote  his  account  of  Russia  at  the  request  of 
Count  Delagardie,  the  chancellor  of  that  country.  He 
•  was  executed  about  16G9  for  slaying  in  a  quarrel  the 
master  of  the  house  in  which  he  lived.  The  manuscript 
was  found  by  Prof.  Solovieff'  (not  the  eminent  historian 
lately  deceased)  at  Upsala  and  printed  in  18-10.  Anew 
edition  has  recently  appeared,  and  Prof.  Crote  has  col- 
lected some  fresh  facts  about  the  author's  life,  but  wc 
have  no  space  hero  for  a  minute  examination  of  tbem. 
The  picture  which  Kotoshikhin  draws  of  hi.s  native  country 
ia  a  sad  one :  ignorance,  cruelty,  and  superstition  are 
Been  everywhere  rampant.  His  work  is  of  great  import- 
ance, since  it  is  from  hia  description,  r.nd  tile  facts  we 
gather  from  the  Domoslroi,  that  v.e  can  reconstruct  the 
Old  Russia  of  the  time  before  Peter  the  Great,  as  in  our 
days  the  valuable  labours  of  M.  Zablelm  have  done  in 
his  work  on  Russian  domestic  life.  Perhaps,  as  an  exile 
from  his  country,  Kotoshikhin  has  allowed  himself  to  -write 
too  bitterly.  A  curious  work  is  tlio  Uriadnih  Sukol- 
nia'iia  I'uti  ("' Directions  for  Falconry"),  which  was  written 
(or  the  use  of  the  emperor  Alexis,  who,  like  many  Uussians 

*  Horsey  says  ;  "  I  read  in  their  cronickells  written  and  kept  in 
•ecn-at  by  a  great  priem  prince  of  that  country  named  Knez  Ivan 
FeHorowich  Mistisloskoie,  who,  owt  of  his  love  and  favour,  imparted 
nnto  me  manysecrcats  observed  in  the  memory  and  procis  of  his  tyiile, 
which  was  fowerscoro  years,  of  the  state,  nitur,  and  Eovcriimont  of 
that  comonwpclth,"— Bond,  Tbusia  at  the  Close  uj'tlu:  SiztanthCentury 
(ilaklu^tbuciety),  1856 


of  old  time,  was  much  addicted  to  Jhis  pastime.  The  Serb, 
Yuri  Krizhanic?!,  who  v,rotc  in  Ruc^ian,  v/ds  the  first  Pan-  Krizha- 
slavist,  anticipating  KoUar  by  one  htmdred  and  fifty  years  nich. 
or  more.  He  wrote  a  critical  Servian  gratimar  (with 
comparison  of  the  Russian,  Polish,  Croatian,  and  \\Tiito 
Russian),  -which  was  edited  from  the  manuscripts  by 
BodianskI  in  1848.  For  his  time  he  had  a  very  good 
insight  into  Slavonic  philology.  His  Panslavism,  how- 
ever, sometimes  took  a  form  by  no  means  practical.  He 
went  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  a  common  Slavonic 
language  might  be  made  for  all  the  peoples  of  tliat  raqj;, — 
an  impossible  project  which  has  been  the  dream  of  many 
enthusiasts.  From  some  unexplained  cause  he  was  ban- 
ished to  Siberia,  and  finished  his  grammar  at  Tobolsk. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  the  Russian  empire,  which 
was  edited  by  Beszonoff  in  1860.  In  it  he  shows  him- 
self a  v.'idely-read  man,  and  with  very  extensive  Western 
culture.  The  picture  drawn,  as  in  the  corresponding 
production  of  Kotoshikhin,  is  "a  very  gloomy  one.  The 
great  remedy  suggested  by  the  Serb  is  education.  To 
this  period  belongs  the  life  of  the  patriarch  Nikon  by 
Shusherln.  The  struggles  of  Nikon  -with  the  czar,  and 
his  emendations  of  the  sa'-red  books,  v/hich  led  to  a 
great  schism  in  Russia,  are  well  known.  They  have  boon 
made  familiar  to  Englishmen  by  the  eloquent  pp.ges  of 
Dean  Stanley.^  At  Moscow  may  be  seen  the  -  portrait 
of  this  celebrated  divine  and  bl."^  tomb;  his  robes,  which 
have  been  preserved,  show  him  .o  have  been  a  man  of  7 
feet  in  stature.  The  mistakes  which  had  crept  into  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  from  tlie  blunders  of  genera- 
tions of  copyists,  were  frequently  of  a  ludicrous  character; 
still,  a  large  number  of  the  people  preferred  retaining  them, 
and  from  this  revision  may  bo  dated  the  rise  of  the 
Raskolnlks  (Dissenters)  or  Staro-obriadtzi  (those  who 
adhere  to  the  old  ritual).  With  the  name  of  Simeon  Folotzii 
Polotzki  (1628-1680)  the  old  period  of  Russian  literature 
may  be  closed.  He  was  tutor  to  the  czar  Feodor,  son  of 
Alexis,  and  may  be  said  in  a  way  to  have  helped  to 
introduce  the  culture  of  the  West  into  Russia,  as  he  was 
educated  at  Kief!,  then  a  portion  of  Polish  territory. 
Polotzki  came  to  Moscow  about  1664.  lie  wrote  religious 
works  {Vienetz  Vurl,  "The  Garland  of  Faith,")  r.nd 
composed  poems  and  religious  dramas  (The  Prodigal  Son, 
Nehuchadyiezzar,  itc).  Ho  has  left  us  some  droll  verses  on 
the  czar's  new  palace  of  Kolomenskoe,  which  are  very 
curious  doggerel.  The  artificial  lions  that  roared,  moved 
their  eyes,  and  walked  especially  delighted  him.  Alexis 
had  probably  ordered  something  to  be  constructed  reicm- 
bling  the  machinery  we  find  mentioned  in  the  Byzantlno 
writers.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  ground  for  the 
assertion  (often  met  with  even  in  Russian  writers)  that 
Sophia,  the  sister  of  Peter  the  Great,  was  acquainted  with 
French,  and  translated  .some  of  the  playa  of  Mollere. 

And  now  all  things  were  to  be  changed  as  if  by  an  The 
enchanter's  wand.  Ru.ssia  was  to  leave  her  martyrologies  niod.'m 
and  historical  stories  and  fragmentary  chronicles,  and  to  P^"°-  • 
adopt  the  forms  of  literature  in  use  in  the  West.  One  of 
the  chief  helpers  of  Peter  the  Great  in  the  education  of 
the  people  was  Feofano  (Theophanes)  Procopovich,  -who 
advocated  the  cause  of  science,  and  attacked  unsparingly 
the  superstitions  then  prevalent ;  the  cause  of  conservatism 
was  defended  by  Stephen  Yavorski.  The  Roch  of  Faith 
of  the  latter  was  written  to  refute  the  Lutherans  and 
Calvini:it3.  Another  remarkable  writer  of  the  times  of 
Peter  the  Great  was  PososhkofI,  who  produced  a  valuable 
work  ou  Poverty  ami  Jiiehex,  a  kind  of  treatise  on  poUtical 
economy.  Antiokh  Kantemir  (1708-1744),  son  of  a 
former  hospcdar  of  Moldavia,  wrote  some  clever  satires 
still   read  ;  the^    are    imitated    from    Boileau.      He   also 


*  fixtures  w*  the  j:,ui,uni  church. 
XiL 


'4 


106 


RUSSIA 


[liteeaiuue. 


Lomono- 
«off. 


[•litis- 
tcbeS. 


Trcilia- 
kovski. 


fiuin.aro 
koS. 


Kniazh- 
nin. 


Khera. 
skoff. 


Bogdan- 
ovich. 


Ehem- 
diitzer. 


^in. 


translated  parts  cf  Horace.  Besides  nia  satires,  he  pub- 
lisbed  veioions  of  Fontenelle's  Plaralite  des  Mondes  and 
the  histories  of  Justin  and  Cornelius  Nepos.  He  was  for 
some  time  Russian  ambassador  at  the  courts  of  London 
and  Paris.  Bui  moro  celebrated  than  these  men  was 
Michael  Lomonosoff  (q.v.).  He  was  an  indefatigable 
writer  of  verse  and  prose,  and  has  left  odes,  tragedies, 
didactic  poetry,  essays,  and  fragments  of  epics  ;  without 
being  a  man  of  great  genius  he  did  much  to  advance 
the  education  of  his  country.  He  also  made  many  valu- 
able contributions  to  science.  Basil  Tatistchcff  (1G8G- 
1750),  a  stale3m.,n  of  eminence,  was  the  author  of  a  Rus- 
sian history  which,  although  written  in  a  confused  style 
and  hardly  superior  to  a  chronicle,  is  interesting  as 
the  first  attempt  in  that  field,  which  was  afterwards  so 
successfully  cultivated  by  Karamzin,  Solovieff,  and  Kostc>- 
maroff.  His  work  was  not  given  to  the  world  till  after 
his  death.  There  had  been  a  slight  sketch  published 
before  by  KhilkofT,  entitled  the  Marroio  of  Russian  History. 
Ba.iil  Trediakovski  (1?'03-17G9)  was  but  a  poor  poetaster, 
in  spite  of  his  many  productions.  He  was  born  at 
Astrakhan,  and  we  are  told  that  Peter,  passing  through 
that  city  at  the  time  of  his  Persian  expedition,  had 
Trediakovski  pointed  out  to  him  as  one  of  the  most 
promising  boys  of  the  school  there.  'Whereupon,  having 
questioned  him,  the  czar  said,  with  truly  prophetic  insight, 
"A  busy  worker,  but  master  of  nothing."  His  Telemakhida, 
a  poem  in  which  he  versified  the  Tili-niaque  of  F^nelon, 
drew  upon  him  the  derision  of  the  wits  of  the  time.  He 
had  freriuently  to  endure '  the  rough  horse-play  of  the 
courtiers,  for  the  position  of  a  literary  man  at  that  time  in 
Russia  was  not  altogether  a  cheerful  one. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
Ru-ssian  literature  made  great  progress,  the  French 
furnishing  models.  Alexander  Sumarokoff  (1718-1777) 
wrote  prose  and  verse  in  abundance — comedies,  tragedies, 
idyls,  satires,  and  epigrams.  He  is,  perhaps,  best  entitled 
to  remembrance  for  his  plays,  which  are  rhymed,  and  in 
the  French  style.  It  took  the  Russians  some  time  to  find 
out  that  their  language  was  capable  of  the  unrhymed 
iambic  line,  which  is  the  most  suitable  for  tragedy.  His 
Dmitri  Samozvanetz  ("Demetrius  the  Pretender")  is 
certainly  not  without  merit.  Some  of  the  pieces  of 
Kniazhnin  had  great  s-uccess  in  their  time,  such  as  The  Chat- 
terbox; The  Originals,  and  especially  The  Fatal  Carriage. 
He  is  now,  however,  almost  forgotten.  In  17CG  the  first 
theatre  was  opened  at  St  Petersburg,  the  director  being 
Sumarokoff.  Up  to  this  time  the  Russians  had  acted 
only  religious  plaj's,  such  as  those  writtsn  by  Simeon 
Polotzki.  The  reign  of  Catherine  II.  (17G2~9G)  saw  the 
rise  of  a  whole  generation  of  court  poets, .many  of  whom 
were  at  best  but  poor  writers.  Everything  in  Russia  was 
to  be  forced  like  plants  in  a  hot-house  ;  she  was  to  have 
Homers,  Pindars,  Horaces,  and  Virgils.  Michael  Kheraskoff 
(1733-1807)  wrote  besides  other  poems  two  enormous 
epics — the  Rossiada,  in  twelve  books,  and  Vladimir  in 
eighteen ;  they  are  now  but  little  read.  Although  they 
are  tedious  poems  on  the  whole,  yet  we  occasionally  find 
spirited  passages.  Eogdanovich  (1743-1803)  wrote  a 
pretty  lyric  piece,  Dushenka,  based  upon  La  Fontaine, 
and  telling  the  old  story  of  the  loves  of  Cupid  and  Psyche. 
Perhaps  the  elegance  of  the  versification  is  the  best  thing 
to  be  found  iu  it.  With  Ivan  Khemnitzer  begins  the 
long  list  of  fabulists  ;  this  half-Oriental  form  of  literature, 
80  common  in  countries  ruled  absolutely,  has-been  very 
popular  in  Russia.  Khemnitzer  (174-1-178-1),  whose  name 
Beems  to  imply  a  German  origiii,  began  by  translating 
the  fables  of  Gellert,  but  a[;eriv.;rds  produced  original 
specimens  of  this  kind  cf  literature.  A  writer  of  real 
national  comedy  appeared  in  Denis  von  Visin,  probably  of  i 


German  extraction,  but  .born  at  Moscow  (1745-1792). 
His  best  production  is  Ncdorosl  ("Ihe  Minor"),  in  which 
he  satirize;  the  coarse  features  of  Russian  society,  the  ill- 
treatment  of  the  serfs,  and  other  matters.  The  colouring 
of  the  piece  is  'ruly  national  He  has  also  left  some  very 
good  letters  describing  his  travels.  He  saw  France  on  the 
eve  of  the  great  Revolution,  and  has  well  described  what 
he  did  see.  Russian  as  he  was,  and  accusiomed  lo 
serfdom,  ho  was  yet  astonished  at  the. wretched  condi- 
tion of  tho  French  peasants.  The  great  poet  of  the  age 
of  Catherine,  tha  laureate  of  her  glories,  was  Gabriel  Da- 
Dcrzhavin  (1743-181G).  He  essayed  many  styles  of  ^'aa'-'in, , 
composition,  and  was  a  great  master  of  his  native  language. 
Many  of  his  lyric  pieces  are  full  of  fire.  No  one  can  deny 
the  poet  a  vigorous  imagination  and  a  great  power  of 
expressing  his  ideas.  There  is  something  grandiose  and 
organ-like  in  his  high-sounding  verses ;  unfortunately  he 
occasionally  degenerates  into  bombast.  His  versification 
is  perfect ;  and  he  had  the  courage,  rare  at  the  time,  to 
write  satirically  of  many  persons  of  high  rank.  His  Od( 
to  God  is  the  best  known  of  his  poems  in  Western  countries. 
We  can  see  from  some  of  his  pieces  that  he  w'as  a  student 
of  Edward  Young,  the  author  of  the  Night  Thoughts. 
Tawdry  rhetoric,  containing,  however,  occasionally  fine  and 
original  thoughts,  rendered  this  writer  popular  throughout 
Europe.  Other  celebrated  poems  of  Derzhavin  are  the 
Odes  on  the  Death  of  Prince  Mestcherski,  The  Noblenian, 
The  Taking  of  Ismail,  and  The  Taking  of  Warsaw'. 

An  unfortunate  author  of  the  days  of  Catherine  was  Radis- 
Alexander  Radistcheff,  who,  having,  in  a  small  work,  A  tohefl. 
Journey  to  Moscow,  spoken  too  severely  of  the  miserable 
condition  of  the  serfs,  was  punished  by  banishment  to 
Siberia,  from  which  he  was  afterwards  allowed  to  return, 
but  not  till  his  health  had  been  permanently  injured  by 
his  sufferings.  An  equally  ead  fate  befell  the  spirited 
writer  Novikoff,  who,  after  having  worked  hard  as  a  NovikoB  ■ 
journalist,  and  done  much  for  education  in  Russia,  fell 
under  the  suspicion  of  the  Government,  and  was 
imprisoned  by  Catherine.  On  her  death  ho  was  released 
by  her  successor.  The  short  reign  of  Paul  was  not  favour 
able  to  literary  production  ;  the  censorship  of  the  press 
was  extremely  severe,  and  many  foreign  books  were 
excluded  from  Russia.  Authors  and  lovers  of  literature 
were  liable  to  get  into  tro'uble,  as  we  see  by  the  experiences 
of  the  poet  Kotzebue  and  pastor  Seidler. 

But   a  better  state  of  things  came  witlj  the  reign  of 
Alexander,  one  of  the  glories  of  whose  days  was  Nicholas  KaraJni, 
Kaeahzin  (q.v.).     His  chief  work  is  his  History  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  but  he  appeared  in  the  fourfold  aspect  of 
historian,   novelist,  essayist,    and  poet.     Nor  need  we  do 
more  than  mention    the    celebrated  Archbishop  Platon  Platon. 
{q.v-).     Ivan  Dmitrietf  (17G0-1837)  wrote  some  pleasing  Dmitri 
lyrics  and  epistles,   but   without  much  force.     He  is  like 
some  feeble  British  poets  towards  the  close  of  last  cen- 
tury, in  whom  the  elegance  of  the  diction  will  not  atone 
for    the   feebleness   of  the   ideas.     He  appears  from  his 
translations  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  the  English 
poets.      Ozeroff  wrote  a  great  many  tragedies,  which  are  Ozerofi. 
but  little  read  now.     They  are  in  rhyming  alexandrines. 
His   form    belongs  to    the   false   classical   school,    but   he 
occasionally  handled  native  subjects  with  success,  as  in 
his   Dmitri  Dojishoi    and    Yaropolk  and  Oleg      In   Ivan  Kriioff 
Kriloff  (17CS-1S44)  the  Russians  found  iheir  most  genial 
fabulist.      His   pieces    abound   with   vigorous   pictures    of 
Russian  national  life,  and  many  of  his  lines  are  standard 
quotations  with  the  Russians,  just  as  Hudihras  is  with  our- 
selves.    Long  before    his  death    Kriloff  had   become   tho 
most  popular  man  in  Russia.     He  resembled  La  Fontaine 
not  only  in  the  style  of  his  verse  but  in  his  manner  of  life. 
He  was  the  same  careless,  unpractical  sort  of  person,  and 


LITEKATUr.E.] 


E  U  S  S  I  A 


107 


Zhui- 
ovski. 


Goeilicb. 


Bati- 
ushkoflF, 


PttshkiD. 


Griboie- 
.ioff. 


Rozlofr. 


L«r. 

IDCDtofT. 


showed  tlxc  ciuie  simplicity  of  character.  As  Derzbavin 
was  the  poet  of  the  age  of  Catherine,  so  Zhukovski  (1783- 
1852)  may  be  said  to  have  been  that  of  the  age  of 
Alexander.  He  is  more  remarkable,  however,  as  a  trans- 
lator than  as  an  original  poet.  AVith  him  Romanticism 
began  in  Russia.  The  pseudo-classical  school,  led  by  the 
French,  was  now  dead  throughout  Europe.  In  1802  he 
published  his  version  of  Gray's  Elegy,  which  at  once 
became  a  highly  popular  poem  in  Russia.  Zhukovski 
translated  many  pieces  from  the  German  (Goethe,  Schiller, 
Uhland)  and- English  (Byron,  Moore,  Southey).  One  of 
his  original  productions,  "  The  Poet  in  the  Camp  of  the 
Russian  Warriors,"  was  on  the  lips  of  every  one  at  the 
time  of  the  war  of  the  fatherland  {Oteckeslveiwiaia  Voina) 
in  1812.  He  attempted  to  familiarize  the  Russians  with 
all  the  most  striking  specimens  of  foreign  poetical  litera- 
ture. He  produced  versions  of  the  episode  of  Nala  and 
Damayanti  from  the  Mahabharaia,  of  Rustara  and  Zohrab 
from  the  Shak-Xamah,  and  of  a  part  of  the  Odi/sset/.  In 
the  case  of  these  three  masterpieces,  however,  he  was 
obliged  to  work  from  literal  translations  (mostly  German), 
as  he  was  unacquainted  with  the  original  languages.  The 
Jtiad  was  translated  during  this  period  by  Gnedich,  who 
was  familiar  with  Greek.  He  has  produced  a  faithful  and 
spirited  version,  and  has  naturalized  the  hexameter  in  the 
Russian  language  with  much  skill.  Constantine  Batiushkoff 
(1787-1855)  was  the  author  of  many  elegant  poems,  and 
at  the  outset  of  his  career  promised  much,  but  sank  into 
imbecility,  and  lived  in  this  condition  to  an  advanced  age. 
Merzliakoff  and  Tziganoff  deserve  a  passing  notice  as  the 
writers  of  songs  some  of  which  still  keep  their  popularity. 
As  the  poet  of  the  age  of  Catherine  was  Derzhavin,  and 
of  that  of  Alexander  Zhukovski,  so  the  next  reign,  that 
of  Nicholas,  was  to  have  its  representative  poet,  by  the 
common  consent  of  his  critics  the  greatest  whom  Russia 
had  yet  seen.  During  his  short  life  (1799-1837)  Alex- 
ander Pushkin  produced  many  celebrated  poems,  which 
will  be  found  enumerated  in  the  article  devoted  to  him 
(see  Poushkin).  It  may  suffice  to  say  here  that  he  tried 
almost  all  styles  of  composition — the  drama,  lyric  poetry, 
the  novel,  and  many  others.  In  Alexander  Griboiedoff 
(1794-1829)  the  Russians  saw  the  writer  of  one  of  their 
most  clever  comedies  (Gore  ot  Uma),  which  may  perhaps 
be  translated  "  The  Misfortune  of  being  too  Clever  "  (lit. 
"Grief  out  of  Wit ").  The  fate  of  Griboiedoff -was  sad; 
he  was  murdered  in  g.  riot  at  Teheran,  where  he  was 
residing  as  Russian  minister  at  the  court  of  Persia.  The 
poet  is  said  to  have  had  a  presentiment  of  his  fate  and  to 
have  been  unwilling  to  go.  Pushkin,  while  travelling  in 
the  Caucasus,  in  the  track  of  the  army  of  Paskewitch,  met 
the  body  of  his  friend,  which  was  being  carried  to  Tiflis 
for  burial.  The  satirical  powers  of  Griboiedoff  <ome  out 
in  every  line  of  his  play;  he  was  unquestionably  a  man  of 
genius.  A  few  words  may  be  allowed  to  Ivan  KozlofI 
(1774-1838),  the  author  hi  some  pretty  original  lyrics, 
and  some  translations  from  the  English,  among  others 
Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night.  He  became  a  criiiple 
and  blind,  and  his  misfortunes  elicited  some  cheering  and 
sympathetic  lines  from  Pushkin,  which  will  always  be  read 
with  .pleasure. 

Since  the  death  of  Pushkin,  the  most  eminent  Russian 
poet  is  Lcrmontofi  (1814-41);  his  life  terminated,  like 
that  of  his  predecessor,  in  a  duel.  He  has  left  us  many 
exquisite  lyrics,  mostly  written  in  a  morbid  and  melan- 
choly spirit.  In  quite  a  different  vein  is  his  clever  imita- 
tion of  a  Russian  bilina,  "Song  about  the  Czar  Ivan 
Vasilievich,  the  Young  Oprichnik,  and  the  Bold  Mer- 
chant Kalashnikoff."  The  poet  was  of  Scotch  extrac- 
tion (I.earmont),  the  termination  being  added  to  Russify 
his  name.     In  one  of   his  pieces  he   has  alluded   to  hij 


Caledonian  ancestors.  His  chief  poems  are  "The  Demon," 
"The  No\-ice"  ("Mtziri,"  a  Georgian  word),  and  "Hadji 
Abrek."  He  also  wrote  a  novel,  A  Hero  of  our  Time. 
He  has  faithfully  reproduced  in  his  poems  the  wild 
and  varied  scenery  of  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia ;  from 
them  he  has  drawn  his  inspiration--- feeling,  no  doubt, 
that  the  flat  grey  landscapes  of  northern  Russia  offered 
no  attractions  to  the  poet.  A  genuine  bard  of  the  Kiltzoff. 
people,  and  one  of  their  most  truly  national  authors,  was 
Koltzoff  (1S09-1S42),  the  son  of  a  tallow  merchant  of 
Voronezh.  He  has  left  us  a  few  exquisite  lyrics,  which  are 
to  be  found  in  all  the  collections  of  Russian  poetry.  He 
died  of  consumption  after  a  protracted  illness.  Another 
poet  who  much  resembled  Koltzoff  was  Nikitin,  born  Nikltia 
in  the  same  town,  Voronezh.  His  life  was  spent  in 
poverty ;  his  father  was  an  incurable  drunkard,  and 
brought  his  family  to  the  greatest  distress.  Nikitin,  to 
support  his  relations,  was  obliged  to  keep  an  inn  ;  this  he 
was  afterwards  enabled  to  change  for  the  more  congenial 
occupation  of  a  bookseller.  He  died  in  1861.  The 
novel  in  Russia  has  had  its  cultivators  in  Zagoskin  and 
Lazhechnikoif,  who  imitated  Sir  Walter  Scott.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  romances  of  Zagoskin  was  Yuri  MUo-  Zagoskin. 
slavsl-i,  a  tale  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Poles  from  Russia 
in  1612.  The  book  may  even  yet  be  read  with  interest; 
it  gives  a  very  spirited  picture  of  the  times  ;  unfortunately, 
as  is  but  too  often  the  case  with  the  writings  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott  himself,  a  gloss  is  put  upon  theiarbarity 
of  the  manners  of  the  period,  and  the  persons  of  the  novel 
have  sentiments  and  modes  of  expressing  them  which 
could  only  have  existed  about  two  centuries  afterwards. 
There  is  also  too  much  of  the'  sentimentalisra  which  was 
prevalent  at  the  time  when  the  author  wrote.  Among 
the  better  known  productions  of  Lazhechnikoff  are  The 
Heretic  and  Tkj^  Palace  of  Ice.  A  iia.shy  but  now 
forgotten  writer  of  novels  was  Bulgarin,  author  of  Ivan 
VUhigin,  a  work  which  once  enjoyed  considerable  popular- 
ity. The  first  Russian  novelist  of  great  and  original  talent  Gogol, 
was  Nicholas  Gogol  (1809-1852).  In  his  Dead  Sov.h  he 
satirized  all  classes  of  society,  some  of  the  portraits  being 
wonderfully  vivid ;  take,  for  example,  that  of  Pliush- 
kin,  the  miser.  Being  a  native  of  Little  Russia,  he  is 
very  fond  of  introducing  descriptions  of  its  scenery  and 
the  habits  of  the  people,  especially  in  such  stories  as  the 
Old-fashioned  Household,  or  in  the  more  powerful  Taras 
Bulha.  This  last  is  a  highly-wrought  story,  giving  us  a 
picture  of  the  savage  warfare  carried  on  between  the 
Cossacks  and  Poles.  Taras  is  brave,  but  jierhaps  too  much 
of  a  barbarian  to  be  made  interesting  to  Western  readers. 
Ho  reminds  us  of  some  of  the  heroes  of  the  Cossack  poet 
Shevchenko.  Gogol  was  also  the  author  of  a  good  comedy. 
The  Reviser,  wherein  the  petty  pilferings  of  Russian  muni- 
cipal authorities  are  satirized.  In  his  Memoirs  of  a  Mad- 
man and  Portrait,  he  shows  a  weird  anl  fantastic  power 
which  proves  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  strong  imagina- 
tion. The  same  may  be  said  of  ?Vi;  Cloal;  and  the 
curious 'tale  Vii  ("The  Demon"),  where  he  gives  us  a 
picture  of  Kiefi  in  the  old  days.  '  He  has  very  dexterously 
interwoven  his  tales  with  the  tradition-i  and  superstitions 
of  Little  Russia.  The  fate  of  Gogol  wf.s  .sad;  he  sank  into 
religious  melancholy,  and  ultimately  into  imbecility.  He 
made  great  efforts  to  destroy  all  his  writing.?,  and  indeed 
burnt  most  of  the  second  part  of  hi:i  Dead  Souls ;  only 
fragments  have  been  preserved.  Ili.'i  Confessions  of  an 
A  ttthor  is  the  production  of  a  mind  verging  on  insanity. 
He  died  in  1S52,  aged  forty  two.  Since  his  time  the 
novel  has  been  very  much  cultivated  in  Russia,  the  school 
culminating  in  Ivan  Turpcnieff,  but  it  is  the  school  of 
Thackeray  and  Dickens,  not  that  of  Balzac  and  George 
Sand.     The  Rusiiano  ocom  to  affect  espsci&llv  the  roi>.liiitic 


108 


RUSSIA 


[LITERATUr.E. 


Herzcn. 


Tur^en- 
ieff. 


Be!ia3ki. 


His- 

toriaDS. 

Polevoi. 


novels  of  England.  Among  the  most  conspicuous  of  these 
writers  was  the  celebrated  Alexander  Herzen,  author  of 
a  striking  romance,  Kto  Vinovcit  f  ("Who  is  to  LlamoJ"), 
which  he  published  under  the  assumed  name  of  Iskandsr. 
The  public  career  of  Herzen  is  well  known.  The  freedom 
of  his  opinions  soon  embroiled  hira  with  the  authorities. 
He  was  exiled  to  Perm,  and,  seizing  the  first  opportunity 
■which  offered  itself  of  passing  the  Russian  frontiers,  he 
Siient  the  remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  in  France  and 
England,  and  died  at  Geneva  in  18C9.  Kis  celebrated 
journal  Kolohol  ("The  Boll")  had  a  great  circulation.  A 
novelist  of  repute  was  Goncharoff,  his  two  chief  works 
being  A  Common-place  Story  and  Ohlomojf.  Grijorovich 
has  written  The  Fis/iennan  and  The  Emif/riuits.  I'lsemski, 
another  novelist  of  the  realistic  type,  is  the  author  of  The 
Man  of  St  Petershuyg  and  Lieshi  ("  The  Wood  Demons"). 
Other  novelists  of  celebrity  are  Saltikoff,  who  writes  under 
the  name  of  Stchedrin,  and  whose  Provincial' Sketches  pub- 
lished a  few  years  ago  made  a  great  sensa.tiou  and  have 
been  followed  by  Letters  to  3ft/  Aunt  and  other  works; 
Dostoievski  (d.  1881),  author  of  Poor  People,  Letters  from 
the  House  of  the  Dead  (describing  his  impressions  of  Siberia, 
whither  he  was  banished  in  consequence  of  a  political 
offi-nce),  a  powerful  writer  ;  and  Ostrovski.  We  may  also 
add  Eyeshetnikoff,  who  takes  his  characters  from  the 
hvimbler  classes  ;  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-nine. 
Ail  theso  are  disciples  of  the  school  of  Dickens  and 
Thackeray.  Count  A.  Tolstoi,  also  celebrated  as  a  dra- 
matist, has  written  an  historical  novel  entitled  Prince  Sere- 
liianni.  Count  L.  Tolstoi  is  author  of  a  work  of  fiction 
describing  the  war  of  1812,  which  has  gained  great  cele- 
brity in  Russia,  Voina  i  Mir  ("War  and  Peace").  Novelists 
of  the  French  school  are  Krestovski,  Stebnitzld,  and  Bobo- 
rikin.  During  1885  a  new  WTiter  of  merit,  Kozolenko, 
sppeared,  who  describes  Siberian  life. 

■';i  September  i,  1883,  died  Ivan  Turgenieff,  aged 
six  v-four,  the  most  eminent  Russian  novelist,  and  perhaps 
the  only  Russian  man  of  letters  universally  known.  His 
celebrity  dates  from  his  Memoirs  of  a  Sportsman,  iu  which 
he  appears  as  the  advocate  of  the  Russian  michik  or  pea- 
sa!!t._  He  had  witnessed  in  his  youth  many  sad  scenes  at 
his  own  home,  where  his  mother,  a  wealthy  lady  of  the 
old  school,  treated  her  serfs  with  great  cruelty.  The  poet 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  procure  their  emancipation.  This 
work  was  followed  by  a  long  array  of  tales,  too  well  known 
to  need  recapitulation  here,  which  have  gained  their  author 
a  European  reputation,  such  as  Dvorianskoe  Gne^Jo  ("A 
Ktjt  of  Gentle  People  "),  one  of  the  most  pathetic  tales 
in  any  language,  Nov  ("Virgin  Soil"),  and  others;  nor 
can  the  minor  tales  of  Turgenieff  be  forgotten,  especially 
Mumu,  a  story  based  upon  real  life,  for  the  dumb  door- 
keeper was  a  serf  of  his  mother's,  and  experienced  her  ill- 
treatment.  His  last  two  works  w^ero  Poetry  in  Prose  and 
Clc.ra  Milich. 

In  Belinski  the  Russians  produced  their  best  critic. 
For  thirteen  years  (1834-18i7)  he  was  the  Aristarchus 
of  r.ussian  literature  and  exercised  a  healthy  influence. 
In  Lis  latter  days  he  addressed  a  withering  epistle  to 
Gogol  on  the  newly-adopted  reactionary  views  of  the 
latter. 

Since  the  time  of  Karamzin  the  study  of  Russian 
history  has  made  great  strides.  He  was  followed  by 
Nicholas  Polevoi,  who  wrote  what  he  called  the  History  of 
the  Pnssian  People,  but  his  work  was  not  received  with 
much  favour  and  has  now  fallen  into  oblivion.  Polevoi 
w-as  a  self-educated  man,  tl;e  son  of  a  Siberian  merchant ; 
besides  editing  a  weil-know-n  Russian  journal  The 
Telegraph,  he  was  also  the  author  of  many  plays,  among 
others  a  translation  of  Hiimlet.  Since  his  time,  however, 
th9  English    dramatist   has    been    produced   in   a    more 


perfect  dress  by  Kroneberg,  Druzhinin,  and  otuers.  In 
the  year  1879  died  Sergius  Solovieff,  whose  History  o/SolovisE 
Russia  had  reached  its  twenty-eighth  volume,  and 
fragments  of  the  twenty-ninth  were  published  after  his 
death.  This  stupendous  labour  lacks  something  of  the 
critical  faculty,  and  perhaps  may  be  described  rather  as  a 
quarry  of  materials  for  future  historians  of  Russia  than  an 
actual  history.  During  1885  the  Russians  have  had  to 
mourn  the  loss  of  Kostomaroff,  the  writer  of  many  valuable  Kosto- 
monographs  on  the  history  of  their  country,  of  which  those  """"f- 
on  Bogdan  Khmelnitzki  and  the  False  Demetrius  deserve 
special  mention.  From  1847  to  1854  Kostomaroff,  who 
had  become  obnoxious  to  the  Russian  Government,  wrote 
nothing,  having  been  banished  to  Saratoff,  and  forbidden  to 
teach  or  publish.  But  after  this  time  his  literary  activity 
begins  again,  and,  besides  separate  works,  the  leading 
Russian  reviews,  such  as  Old  and  New  Russia,  The  His- 
torical Messenger,  and  The  Messenger  of  Europe,  contain 
many  contributions  from,  his  pen  of  the  highest  value. 
In  1885  also  died  Constantine  Ravelin,  the  author  of 
many  valuable  works  on  Russian  law,  and  Kalatcheff,  who 
published  a  classical  edition  of  the  old  Russian  codes. 
Ilovaiski  and  Gedeonofi  have  attempted  to  upset 'the 
general  belief  that  the  founders  of  the  Russian  empire  wer? 
Scandinavians.  Their  opinions  have  been  alluded  to  above 
(p.  87).  A  good  history  of  Russia  was  published  by 
Ustrialoff  (1855),  but  his  most  celebrated  work  was  his 
I'zarstvovanie  Petra  Velikago  ("  Reign  of  Peter  the  Great") ; 
in  this  many  important  documents  first  saw  the  light,  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  death  of  the  unfortunate  Alexis 
were  made  clear.  Russian  writers  of  history  have  not 
generally  occupied  themselves  with  any  other  subject  than 
that  of  their  own  country,  but  an  exception  may  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  Granovski,  such  as  Abbe  Suger  (1849) 
and  Four  Historical  Portraits  (1850).  So  also  Kudriav- 
tzoff,  who  died  in  1850,  wrote  on  "The  Fortunes  of  Italy, 
from  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West  till  its 
Reconstruction  by  Charlemagne."  He  also  wrote  on  "The 
Roman  Women  as  described  by  Tacitus."  We  may  add 
Kareyeff,  now  professor  at  Warsaw,  who  has  written  on 
the  condition  of  the  French  peasantry  before  the  Revolu- 
tion. Other  writers  on  Russian  history  have  been  Pogo- 
dine,  v/ho  compiled  a  History  of  Russia  till  the  invasion  of 
the  Mongols,  1871,  and  especially  Zabielin,  who  has  written 
a  History  of  Russian  Life  from  the  most  Remote  Times 
(1876),  and  the  Private  Lives  of  the  Czarinas  and  Ciars 
(1869  and  1872).  Leshkoff  has  written  a.  History  of  Rus- 
sian Law  to  the  ISth  Century,  and  Tchitcherin  a  History  of 
Provincial  Institutions  in  Russia  in  the  17th  Century  (1856). 
To  these  must  be  added  the  v/ork  of  Zagoskin,  History  of 
Law  in  the  State  of  Muscovy  (Kazan,^  1877).  Prof.  Michael 
Kovalevski,  of  the  university  of  Moscow,  is  now  publish, 
ing  an  excellent  work  on  Communal  Land  Tenure,  iu  which 
he  investigates  the  remains  of  this  custom  throughout 
the  world.  Of  the  valuable  history  of  Russia  by  Prof. 
Bestuzheff-Riumin  (1872)  one  volume  only  has  appeared; 
the  introductory  chapters  giving  an  account  of  the  sources 
and  authorities  of  Russian  history  are  of  the  highest  value. 
It  is  the  most  critical  history  of  Russia  which  has  yet 
appeared.  In  1885  Dubrovin  published  an  excellent  his- 
tory of  the  revolt  of  Pugatcheff.  The  valuable  work  by 
Messrs  Pipin  and  Spasovich,  History  of  Slavonic  Litera- 
tures, is  the  most  complete  account  of  the  subject,  and 
has  been  made  more  generally  accessible  to  ^Vestern  stu- 
dents by  the  German  translation  of  Pech.  Tlie  History  of 
Slavonic  Literature  by  Schafarik,  published  in  1826,  has 
long  been  antiquated.  Previous  to  this,  a  history  of 
Russian  literature  by  Paul  Polevoi  had  appeared,  which  has 
gone  through  two  editions.  It  is  modelled  upon  Cham- 
bers's Cyctopjidia  of  English  Literature.     The  account  of 


UVEKATUKE.J 


K  U  S  S  I  A 


108 


the  Polish  rebellion  of  1863  by  Berg,  published  in  1873, 
which  gavejciany  etartling  and  picturesque  episodes 'of 
this  celebrated  struggle,  has  now  been  withdrawn  from 
circulation.  It  appeared  originally  in  tho  pages  of  the 
Russian  magazine,  Stariiia. 
Recent  Since  the  death  of  Lermontoff  the  chief  Russian  poet 
poets.  ^\q  has  appeared  is  Nicholas  Nekrasoff,  who  died  in  1877. 
He  has  left  six  volumes  of  poetry,  which  in  many  respects 
remind  us  of  the  writings  of  Crabbe ;  the  poet  dwells 
mainly  upon  the  melancholy  features  of  Russian  Life.  He 
is  of  that  realistic  school  in  which  Russian  authors  so  much 
resemble  English.  Another  writer  of  poetry,  deserving 
metktion  is  Ogarieff,  for  a  long  time  the  companion  in 
exile  of  Herzen  in  England ;  many  of  his  compositions 
appeared  in  the  Polar  Star  of  the  latter,  a  medley  of 
prose  and  verse,  which  contains  some  very  important 
pjpers,  including  the  interesting  autobiographical  sketches 
of  Herzen,  entitled  Blloe  i  Dumt  ("The  Past  and  my 
Thoughts").  Maikoff  at  one  time  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity as  a  poet ;  he  is  a  kind  of  link  between  the  present 
generation  and  that  of  Pushkin,  of  whose  elegance  of 
versification  he  is  somewhat  of  an  imitator.  Another  poet 
of  a  past  generation  was  Prince  Viazemski,  whose  works 
are  now  being  collected.  Graceful  lyrics  have  also  been 
written  by  Mei,  Fet  (whose  name  would  apparently  prove 
Dutch  extraction,  Veth),  Stcherbina,  and,  going  a  little 
farther  back,  Yazikotf,  the  friend  of  Pushkin,  and  Khomi- 
ak'.-ff,  celebrated  for  his  Slavophile  propensities.  To  these 
may  be  added  Mdlle  Zhadoyskaia,  who  died  a  short  time 
ago,  Benediktoff,  Podolinski,  and  Tiutcheff.  It  will  be 
seen  that  in  Russia  (as  in  England)  lyrical  poetry  is  almost 
the  only  form  now  cultivated.  It  is  becoming  more  and 
more  coloured  with  imitations  of  the  bilini  and  reproduc- 
tions of  the  old  Russian  past,  which  is  perhaps  getting 
treated  somewhat  fantastically,  as  was  the  old  Irish  life  in 
the  Irish  melodies  of  Moore.  Occasionally  Polonski  con- 
tributes one  of  his  exquisite  lyrics  to  the  Yieslnik  Yevropt 
("  European  Messenger "). 
Philo-  Excellent  works  on  subjects  connected   with    Slavonic 

logisu.  philology  have  been  published  by  Vostokoff,  who  edited  tho 
Ostromir  Codex,  mentioned  above  (p.  103),  and  Sreznevski 
and  Bodianski,  who  put  forth  an  edition  of  the  celebrated 
codes  used  at  Rheims  for  the"  coronation  of  the  French 
kings.  Since  their  deaths  their  work  has  been  carried 
on  by  .Prof.  Grote  {Philological  Investigations,  also  many 
critical  editions  of  Russian  classics).  Budilovich,  now  a 
professor  at  Warsaw,  Potebnya  of  Kharkoff,  and  Baudoin 
de  Courtenay,  v.-ho,  among  other  services  to  philology,  has 
described  the.  Slavonic  dialect  spoken  by  the  Resanians,  a 
tribe  living  in  Italy,  in  two  villages  of  the  Julian  Alps. 
The  songs  (bilirri)  of  the  Russians  have  been  collected  by 
Zakrevski,  RibnikofI,  Hilferding,  Earsoff,  and  others,  and 
their  na,tional  tales  by  SaKUarod,  Alanasieit',  and  Krlen- 
vein.  Kotliarovski,  Tereshenko,  and  others  have  treated  of 
their  customs  and  superstitions,  but  it  is  to  bo  regretted 
that  no  one  as  yet  has  made  a  complete  study  of  the 
vexed  question  of  Slavonic  mythology.  At  the  present 
time  Stanislaus  Mikutzki,  professor;  at  the  university  of 
Warsaw,  is  publishing  his  Materials  for  a  Dictionary  of 
the  Roots  of  the  Russian  and  all  Slavonic  Dialects,  but, 
unfortunately,  it  represents  a  somewhat  obsolete  school  of 
philology.  The  Early  Russian  Te.xt  Society  continues  its 
useful  labours,  and  has  edited  many  interesting  monu- 
ments of  the  olde;-  Slavonic  literature.  Quite  recently 
two  valuable  codices  have  b'^en  printed  in  Russia,  /^ogra- 
phus  and  Marianus,  interesting  versions  of  the  Go.spcls  in 
Palaioslavonic.  They  were  edited  by  the  learned  Croat 
Jagid,  who  DOW  occupies  tho  chair  of  Sreznevski  in  St 
PeUrsburg.  An  excellent  Tolhovi  Slovar  Vclikoruss/cago 
Vazl'^a  ("Explanatory  Dictionary  o£  tks  Gi'cat  liussiaa 


Language"),  by  Dahl,  has  gone  into  a  second  edition. 
Alexander  Hilferding  published  some  valuable  works 
on  ethnology  and  philology,  among  others  on  the  Polabes, 
an  extinct  Slavonic  tribe  who  once  dwelt  on  the  banks  of 
the  Elbe.  Although  they  have  produced  some  good  Sla- 
vonic scholars,  the  Russians  have  not  exhibited  niai.y 
works  in  the  field  of  classical  or  other  branches  of  philo 
logy.  Exception, ho'vevpr,  must  be  made  in  favour  of  the 
studies  of  Tchubinoff  in  Georgian,  Minayeff  in  the  Indian, 
and  Tzvetayeff  in  the  old  languages  of  Italy. 

In  moral  and  mental  philosophy  the  Russians  have  pro- 
duced but  few  authors.  We  meet  with  some  good  mathe- 
maticians, Ostrogradski  among  others,  and  in  natural 
science  the  publications  of  the  Society  for  Natural  History 
at  Moscow  have  attracted  considerable  attention. 

Since  the  Boris  Godunoff  of  Pushkin,  which  was  the  Rccen' 
first  attempt  in  Russia  to  produce  a  play  on  the  Shake-  d"i"'i- 
spearian  model,  many  others  have  .-ippeared  in  the  same 
style.  A  fine  trilogy  was  compose^',  by  Count  A.  Tolstoi 
on  the  three  subjects.  The  Death  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 
(186G),  The  Czar  Feodor  (1868),  and  The  C:ar  Boris 
(1869).  Other  plays  of  merit  have  been  written  by 
Ostrovski  and  Potiekhin. 

Many  excellent  literary  journals  and  magazines  make  Vcials. 
their  appearance  in  the  country ;  among  these  may 
especially  be  mentioned  the  time-honoured  Viestnik  Yevropi 
("Messenger  of  Europe"),  v.hich  coiitaiii»  some  of  the 
most  brilliant  writing  produced  in  the  Russian  empire. 
The  Istoricheski  Viestnik  ("Historical  Messenger")  is  full 
of  curious  matter,  and  does  not  confine  itself  merely  to 
Russian  subjects.  It  is  edited  by  M.  Shubinski,  the 
author  of  some  pleasant  sketches  on  the  manners  of 
Russia  in  the  old  time.  On  the  contrary  Starina  (the 
"Antiquary,"  if  we  may  so  freely  translate  the  original 
name)  is  entirely  Russian,  and  is  a  valuable  repertory  of 
documents  concerning  tho  history  of  the  country,  and 
memoirs,  especially  relating  to  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century.  The  highly  interesting  magazine  Drevnala  i 
Xovaia  Sossia  did  not  protract  its  existence  bej'ond  si.x 
years,  having  come  to  an  end  in  1881.  Many  of  the  best 
Russian  writers  contributed  to  it;  it  contains  much  valuable 
material  for  the  student  of  history.  The  Rtisskii  Arkhiv 
is  edited  by  M.  Bartenieff,  and  has  long  been  celebrated ; 
some  of  tho  most  important  notes  on  Russian  history 
of  the  18th  and  19th  century  have  appeared  in  this 
journal.  During  the  last  few  years  extensive  excava- 
tions have  been  made  in  many  parts  of  Kussla,  and  much 
has  been  done  to  throw  light  upon  the  prehistoric  period 
of  the  country.  A  large  "  kurgan,"  called  Chcma  Mogila, 
or  the  Black  Grave,  was  opened  by  Samokvasoft  in  the 
government  of  Tchernigoffand  described  in  the  pages  of  Old 
and  Ne»  £vssia.  E.Kplorations  have  been  carried  on  on 
tho  site  of  Bolgari,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Ugrian 
Bolgars  on  the  Volga.  One  of  the  most  active  workers  in 
this  field  was  the  late  Count  Uvaroff  (d.  1881),  who  pub- 
lished a  valuable  monograph  on  the  Stoje  Age  in  Russia, 
and  many  other  important  works. 

A    few  words  must   be   (said  on    tlie  litcrtturo  of  tho   Russia-  The  Litf'r 
dialects,   tlio  Little  and  White  Russian.     Iho  Littlo  Russian  is  .'?iio5ia.-. 
rich  in  skazki  (talcs)  and  songs.     Peculiar  tj  tliem  is  the  duma,  diaieci, 
a  narrative  poem  wliich*  corresponds  in  ninnv  particulars  witli  tlii.  or  Malo- 
Russiari  bilina.     Since  tlie  commencement  of  tho  present  ccnLnry,  .*Cjs:aa. 
when  curiosity  was  first  aroused  on  the  subject  of  national  poetry, 
the   Little   Russian   duml    have    been   repi;atedly   edited,   as   by 
Maksimoviclx   Mctlinski  and   others.     An   elaborate   edition    (far 
surpassing  tho  earlier   ones)    was    commciiced    by   Dragomanoif 
and  Antonovieli,  but  as  yet  only  one  volu'ue  and  a  portion  of  a 
second   have   made   their  appearance.     Just  as  the  Ijilini  of  the 
Great  Russians,  so  also  these  dumi  of  the  Littlo  Russians  admit 
of  classification,  and  they  liave  been  divided  by  their  latest  ediiors 
as  follows: — (1)  tho  songs  of  tho  druzlura,  treating  of  tho  early 
princes  and  tlieir  followers  ;  (2)  the  Cossack  period  (Kozaclicslvo), 
in  which  tho  Cossacks  ore  found  in  continual  warfare  with  tha 


110 


R  U  S  — R  U  T 


Polish  paiis  and  tlie  attempta  of  the  Jesuits  to  introtlucc  tho 
Roman  Catholic  religion  ;  (3)  the  poriod  of  tho  Haidamaks,  who 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  national  party,  and  prolonged  the 
struggle.  The  gradual  break  up  of  the  military  republic  of  tli£so 
sturdy  freebooters  has  already  been  described. 

The  foundatiou  of  the  Little  Russian  literature  (written,  as 
opposed  to  (he  oral)  -xas  laid  by  Ivan  KotUarcvski  (1769-1S3S), 
whose  travesty  of  part  of  the  yEncid  enjoys  great  popularity  among 
some  of  his  countrymen.  Others,  however,  object  to  it  as  tending 
to  biing  tlie  language  or  dialect  into  ridicule.  A  truly  national 
Shev-  poet  appeariil  in  Taras  Shevchcnko,  born  at  the  village  of  Kirilovka 
ihenko,  *.in  the  givornmcut  of  Kietf,  iu  tho  condition  of  a  serf.  The  strange 
adventures  of  hia  early  life  lie  lias  told  us  in  his  autobiography. 
He  did  not  get  his  freedom  till  some  time  after  lie  had  reached 
manhood,  when  he  was  purchased  from  his  master  by  the  gener- 
ous efforts  of  tho  poet  Zhukovski  and  others.  Besides  poetry, 
he  occupied  himself  with  painting  with  considerable  success.  He 
nnfortunately  became  obnoxious  to  the  Government,  and  was 
punished  with  exile  to  Siberia  from  1S47  to  1857.  He  did  not 
long  survive  his  return,  dying  in  18C1,  aged  forty-six.  No  one 
has  described  with  greater  vigour  tlian  Sbevcheuko  the  old  days  of 
tho  Ukraine.  In  his  youth  he  li&tened  to  the  village  traditions 
iianded  down  by  the  priests,  and  he  lias  faithfully  ri^produccd 
th"ia.  The  old  times  of  Nalivaiko,  Doroshenko,  and  otiiers  live 
over  again.  Li!;e  Gogol  ho  is  too  fond  of  describing  scenes  of 
bloodshed.  In  the  powerful  poem  entitled  Hoidaiuak  wo  have  a 
graphic  picture  of  the  horrors  enacted  by  Gonta  and  liis  followers 
at  Uman.  The  sketches  are  almost  too  realistic.  Like  Burns 
with  the  old  Scottish  songs,  so  Shevchenko  has  reproduced 
admirably  tho  spirit  of  the  lays  of  the  Ukraine.  All  those  familiar 
witli  his  works  will  remember  the  charming  little  lyrics  with  which 
they  are  interspersed.  Tho  funeral  of  the  poet  was  a  vast  public 
procession  ;  a  great  cairn,  surmounted  with  a  cross,  was  laiscd 
over  his  remains,  where  he  lies  buried  near  Kanioff  on  the  banks 
of  tho  Dnieper.     His  grave  has  been  styled  the  "Mecca  of  the 


South  Russian  Revolutionists."  He  is  the  great  national  poet  of 
the  Southern  Russians.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  with 
interesting  biographical  notices — one  contributed  by  tho  novelist 
Turgcniefi' — appeared  at  Prague  in  187G.  Besides  the  nationsl 
songs,  excellent  collections  of  the  South  Russian  folk-tales  havo 
appeared,  edited  by  Dragomanoff,  Rudchcnko,  and  others.  Many  of 
these  are  still  recited  by  the  "  tchumaki"  or  wandering  pedlars.  A 
valuable  work  is  the  Zapiski  o  yu-hnoi  Rossii  ("Papers  on  Southern 
Russia"),  published  at  St  Petersburg  in  1857  byPanteleimon  KuUsh. 
After  he  got  into  trouble  (with  RostomarofT  and  Shevchenko)  foF 
his  political  views,  the  late  works  of  this  author  show  him  tc 
have  undi?rgnnc  a  complete  change.  Other  writers  using  the  Little 
Russian  language  are  Marko-Vovchok  (that  is,  Madame  Eugenia 
Markovich),  and  Yuri  Fedkovich,  who  employs  a  dialect  of  Buko- 
vina.  FcdUovich,  like  Shevchenko,  sprang  from  a  peasant  family, 
and  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  Austrian  army  against  the  French, 
during  the  Italian  campaign.  Naturally  wo  find  his  poems  filled 
with  descriptions  of  life  in  the  camp.  Like  the  Croat  Preradovid, 
he  began  writing  poetry  in  tho  German  languacje,  till  he  was  turned 
into  more  natural  paths  by  some  patriotic  friends.  A  collection 
of  songs  of  Bukoviua  was  published  at  KiefT  in  1875  by  Lona- 
chcvski.  At  the  present  time  Eugene  Zolcchowski  continues  hia 
valuable  Dictionary  of  Little  Itassian^  of  which  about  one  half  has 
appeared.  This  promises  to  be  a  very  useful  book,  for  up  to  the 
present  time  students  liave  been  obliged  to  rest  satisfied  with 
the  scanty  publications  of  Levchenko,  PiskunolT,  and  Verchratzki. 
There  is  a  good  grammar  by  Osadtza,  a  pupil  of  Miklosich. 

In  tho  White  Russian  dialect  are  to  be  found  only  a  few  songs,  '^Hiite 
with  the  exception    of  portions  of  the  Scriptures  and  some  legal  Rujsian 
documents.     A  valuable  dictionary  was  published  a  short  time  ago  dialect. 
by  Nosovich,  but  this  is  one  of  the  most  neglected  of  the  Russian 
dialects,  as  the  part  in  which  it  is  spoken  is  one  nf  the  dreariest 
of  the  empire.     Collections    of  White    Russian  songs  have   been. 
published  by  Shein  and  others.      For  details  regarding  this  and  the 
other  Russian  dialects  see  Slavs,  (\V.  R,  M.) 


INDEX. 


100. 


Administration,  70 
Ahmed  Khan,  r)l. 
AlexiimlPi-  I.,  100. 
Alexander  III.,  IOi>. 
Alexiindpr  Ncvakl,  90. 
Ale.xls.  'J6. 

Andrew  Bogoliubski,  89, 
.\nimal3,  77. 
Anna,  93. 
Arakchecf,  101. 
Archfcologv,  109. 
Area,  07,  72. 
Army,  72. 
Uriels,  84. 

Austerlitz,  batHc  of, 
Dasii,  ^U 
Basil  Shai<!l:t,  95 
BarluahkcfT,  107. 
Uclinski,  Wi. 
miini,  103,  107,  109 
Hi  I  en,  9S. 
Births,  81. 
Bogdanovich,  IOC. 
Bogoliiibski,  SO. 
Boiais,  81,  92,  95. 
Borin,  95. 

Borodino,  battio  of,  101. 
Boundaries,  r.7.  72. 
Ca'.licrino  I.,  93. 
Ca-hririne  II..  99. 
C:;.".i!csXII.,  97. 
Cl-.otii-5Iinel,  104. 
r^iunicles,  103. 
Clmrch.  71,  81. 
Ci;k-s,  70. 
C1.-1.3  divisions,  82. 
Climate,  7^. 
Communication,  86 
Cossacks,  79. 


Crime,  71. 

Crimea  annexed,  100 
Crimean  War    lu2. 
Cvril,  103. 
Daniloff.  103. 
Debt,  72. 
Derzhavin,  IOC, 
Omitil.  93,  94. 
Dmitrieff,  IOC. 
Dolgoiukis,  9S, 
Domostrol,  104. 
Drnkula.  «toi-v  of,  104. 
Drama,  lOG,  109. 
Duml.  IC'i. 
EduG-iflrm,  71. 
F.Iizabolh,  93. 
tmigralion,  SI. 
tngland,  war  with,  10'2. 
L;rhnogi.\j)hT,  7?. 
Europ«m  IluasiA,  73. 
Fauna,  77. 
Fedkovich,  \\0. 
Feodor  I.,  93. 
Feodor  H.,  95. 
Feodor  III.»  9§, 
Kcrmof,  99." 
Field       of        n'oodcocks, 

battle  of,  yl,  104. 
Finance,  72i 
Finland  nnncrcd,  100 
Finns,  79. 
Flora,  7G. 
Forests,  7G. 
Fortresses,  72. 
France,    Mars    with,    100, 

102. 
Fredrrtck  the  Great.  99. 
Geography.  67,  72. 
GeGlogy,  74. 


Gcorpia  annexed,  100. 
Gnedich.  107. 
Godunoff.  93. 
Gogol.  107. 
Golden  Horde,  90. 
GoliLzin,  97. 
Government,  70. 
Governments  (provinces), 

69,  71. 
Great  Itus'.lans,  79. 
Grlboledoff,  107. 
Ilerzen,  lOS. 
Historians,  103. 
Historv,  87 ■•102. 
Ic<^  battle  of  the,  90. 
Ipor,  story  of,  104. 
Industries,  S4-8G. 
Isltiids,  C7. 
Ivan  Iir..  91. 
Ivnn    IV.  (tho    Tonible), 

92. 
Jews,  79. 
Knntemir,  105. 
Karaites,  79. 
Karamzln,  lOfi. 
Khemnitzer,  lOfi. 
Khcraskoff.  100. 
Kniailinln.  106. 
Knout.  91. 
Kolt/off,  107. 
Ko5tom«roff,  10=1. 
Kotoshikhln,  105. 
Kozloff.  107. 
Kriloff,  IOC. 
Krizh-mich,  105. 
Kubasoff.  105. 
Kudriavtzoff,  lOS, 
Kiineiwloif.  battle  of,  99. 
Kurbskl,  104. 


Ladlslnus,  95. 
Language,  PO. 
Law  codes,  J^    104. 
Lermontoff,  107. 
Lipetsk,  battle  of.  90. 
Literature,  102-110. 
Little  Russians,  79. 
Lomonosoff,  lOG. 
Maikoff,  109. 
Hiuiufaeturcs,  85. 
Mazeppa,  97, 
Mccarius,  104. 
-Mfteovology,  7C. 
.Michael,  95. 
Mongolian  raee,  79. 
Jlongol  supremacy,  90. 
Mortality,  81. 
Napoleon's  Invasion,  100. 
Nalional  debt.  72. 
Xavarino.  battle  of,  101. 
Navy.  72.- 
Xekrasoff,  109. 
Nestor,  103. 
Xlcholag,  101. 
Kiliilism.  102. 
Nikitin  (poet).  107. 
Xikitin  (traveller),  103. 
Niknn,  82,  105. 
Nonconformists,  81- 
Novels.  107. 

Novgorod  republic,  89,91. 
Novikoff,  lOG. 
Ozeroff,  IOC 
Paul,  100. 

Persia,  war  with.  101. 
Peter  I.  {the  Greit),  97. 
Peter  II..  9S.. 
Peter  III.,  99. 
PhUoloEy,  109. 


Physical  features,  67,  72. 
IMaton,  106, 
Plevna,  sicfie  of,  102. 
Poetry,  recent,  109, 
ri-li^nd.   partition  of,   99; 

insuricction  in,  lol. 
Polevoi,  103. 
Polotzki,  105. 
Poltava,  battle  of,  97. 
Population,  GS.  81. 
PosoNhkotf,  105. 
Postal  service,  S7. 
Pilnting,  introduction  of, 

104. 
Procopovich,  105. 
Provinces,  CO, 
Pskoff  republic.  89,  91. 
Pugatchefl",  99. 
Pushkift,  107. 
Races.  68,  78. 
Kadistcheff,  lOG. 
Railways,  87. 
Raskoluiks,  81. 
Razin,  9G. 
UeliRion,  71.  Si, 
Revenue,  72* 
Rivers,  73-    ' 
Ri^manoffp.  9i"». 
Romanticism,  107. 
Roumanian  race,  SG, 
Russian  race,  73,  79. 
St    Petersburg     founded, 

97. 
Saltikoff,  99. 
Schools,  71. 
Scientific  societies,  71. 
Sects.  SI.  82.       ) 
Serfdom,  82,  100. 
Shevchenko,  110. 


Shulskis,  ^2,  95.  , 

Sibeiia,  acquisition  of,  93, ' 

Slavonians,  73. 

Soil,  75. 

Solovicff.  108. 

Sophia,  regent,  9C. 

SperanskI,  101. 

Statistics,  G9,  81. 

Steppes,  77. 

SumarokofP,  lOG. 

Suwaroff.  100. 

Suzdal  principality.  89. 

Sweden,  contlict  with,  97 

Svlvester.  104. 

Tales.  104. 

Tartars,  79. 

Taristchcff,  106. 

Teutonic  knights,  92. 

Tolstoi,  lOS. 

Towns,  70. 

Trade,  SG. 

Trcdi.ikovski,  lOG. 

Tundras,  75. 

Turco-lailars,  79. 

Turgcnleff,  108. 

Turkey,  wai-^wirh.  97-102. 

Ulozhcuie,  or.,  104. 

Ustrialoff,  103. 

VasHii,  91. 

Vl,.zcmski,  109. 

Village  communities,  83,- 
I  Vistn,  106.     ■ 
I  Vital  statistics,  81. 

White  Russians,  79. 

Yavorski,  105. 

^adonstciiina,  104. 

Zagoskin,  107. 

Zhukovski,  107. 

2orndorf ,  battle  of,  99. 


EUSTCHUK  (EusduK),  a  city  of  Bulgaria,  Turkey  in 
Europe,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite 
Giurgevo,  at  the  point  where  the  river  receives  the  waters 
of  the  Lorn,  a  fine  stream  from  tho  northern  slopes  of  the 
Balkans.  Since  1867  it  has  been  connected  by  rail  (139 
mile-s)  with  Varna.  The  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the 
Pvu-ssian  bombardment  from  Giurgevo  in  1S77,  and  the 
military  works  have  since  been  dismantled  in  terms  of  the 
treaty  of  Berlin.  Its  position  on  the  river  frontier  of 
Turkey  long  made  it  a  place  of  strategic  importance. 
In  1S71  the  population  was  about  23,000  (10,800  Turks, 
7700  Bulgarians,  1000  Jews,  SOO  Armenians,  500  Gipsies, 


800  Wallachians  and  Serbs,  400  Western  Europeans),  ani 
in  1S31  it  was  returned  as  26,163. 

In  the  time  of  the  Romatis  Rustchuk  was  one  of  the  fortified 
points  along  the  line  of  the  Danube.  In  the  Tabula  Pcutingcriana 
it  appears  as  Prisca,  in  the  Antoninc  Itinerary  as  Scrantaprista,  in 
the  Kotitia  as  SeragiiiUprista,  and'  in  Ptolemy  £us  Priste  Polls. 
Destroyed  hy  the  barbarian  invasion,  the  town  recovered  its 
importance  only  in  comparatively  modern  times.  I  j  1810  it  -was 
captured  hy  the  Russians,  and  on  his  departure  next  year  Kutusoff 
destroyed  the  fortifications.  In  1823-29  and  again  in  1853-54  it 
pl;v.-ed  a  part  in  the  Ru&sn-Turkish  War,  and  in  1877,  as  already 
mentioned,  it  was  ncfirly  destroyed. 

RUTH.  Book  of.  The  story  of  Ruth,  the  Moabitess, 
groat-grandmother  of  David,  one  of  the   Old  Testament 


K  U  T  H 


ii 


Hagiogranlia,  is  usually  reckoned  as  the  second  of  the  five 
McgiUoth  or  Festal  Rolls.  This  position  corresponds  to 
the  Jewish  practice  of  reading  the  book  at  the  Feast  of 
Pentecost;  Spanish  MSS.,  however,  place  Euth  at  the 
head  of  the  Megilloth  (see  CAi«TiCLEs) ;  and  the  Tilmud, 
in  a  well-known  passage  of  Baba  Bathra,  gives  it  the 
first  place  among  ail  the  Hagicgrapha.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  the  English  version 
make  Kuth  follow  Judges.  It  has  sometimes  been  held 
that  this  was  its  original  place  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  also, 
or  rather  that  Euth  was  originally  reckoned  as  an  appen- 
dix to  Judges,  since  it  is  only  by  doing  this,  and  also  by 
reckoning  Lamentations  to  Jeremiah,  that  all  the  books  of 
the  Hebrew  canon  can  be  reduced  to  twenty-two,  the 
number  assigned  by  Josephus  and  other  ancient  authori- 
ties. But  it  has  been  shown  in  the  article  Lamentations 
{q.v.)  that  the  argument  for  the  superior  antiquity  of  this 
way  of  reckoning  breaks  down  on  closer  examination,  and, 
while  it  was  very  natural  that  a  later  rearrangement 
should  transfer  Euth  from  the  Hagiographa  to  the  histor- 
ical books,  and  place  it  between  Judges  and  Samuel,  no 
motive  can  be  suggested  for  the  opposite  change.  That 
the  book  of  Euth  did  not  originally  form  part  of  the  series 
of  Propheta  priores  (Judges-Kings)  is  further  probable 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  quite  untouched  by  the  process  of 
"  prophetic  "  or  "  Deuteronomistic  "  editing,  which  gave 
that  series  its  present  shape  at  a  time  soon  after  the  fall 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  ;  the  narrative  has  no  affinity 
with  the  point  of  view  which  looks  on  the  whole  history 
of  Israel  as  a  series  of  examples  of  divine  justice  and 
mercy  in  the  successive  rebellions  and  repentances  of  the 
people  of  God.^  But  if  the  book  had  been  known  nt  the 
time  when  the  history  from  Judges  to  Kings  was  edited, 
it  could 'hardly  have  been  excluded  from  the  collection; 
the  ancestry  of  David  w^as  of  greater  interest  than  that  of 
Saul,  which  is  given  in  1  Sam.  ix.  1,  wliereas  the  old 
history  names  no  ancestor  of  David  beyond  his  fathw 
Jesse.  In  truth  the  book  of  Enth  does  not  offer  itself  as 
a  document  written  soon  after  the  period  to  which  it 
refers ;  it  presents  itself  as  dealing  with  times  far  back 
(Ruth  i.  1),  and  takes  obvious  delight  in  depicting  details 
of  antique  life  and  obsolete  usages ;  it  views  the  rude 
and  stormy  period  before  the  institution  of  the  kingship 
through  the  softening  atmosphere  of  time,  which  imparts 
to  the  scene  a  gentle  sweetness  very  different  from  the 
harsher  colours  of  the  old  narratives  of  the  book  of 
Judges.  In  the  language,  too,  there  is  a  good  deal  that 
makes  for  and  nothing  that  makes  against  a  date  sub- 
sequent to  the  captivity,  and  the  very  designatiou  of  a 
period  of  Hebrew  history  as  "the  days  of  the  judges"  is 
b.osed  on  the  Deuteronomi'stic  additions  to  the  book  of 
Judges  (iL  IG  sq.)  and  does  not  occur  till  the  period  of 
the  exile.  An  inferior  limit  for  the  date  of  the  book 
cannot  be  assigned  with  precision.  It  has  been  argued 
that,  as  the  author  seems  to  take  no  offence  at  the  marriage 
of  Israelites  with  Moabite  women,  ho  must  have  lived 
before  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Ezra  \k.  ;  Neh. 
xiii.) ;  but- the  same  argument  would  prove  that  the  book 
of  Esther  was  written  before  Ezra,  and  indeed  "  a  disposi- 
tion to  derive  prominent  Jewish  families  from  proselytes 
prevailed  to  a  much  later  date,"  and  finds  expression  in 
the  Talmud  (see  Wellhausen  BIcek,  p.  205).  The  lan- 
guage of  Ruth,  however,  though  post-classical,  does  not 
seem  to  place  it  among  the  very  latest  Old  Testament 
books,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  story  is  told  is  as 
ramote  from  the  legal  pragmatism  of  Chronicles  as  from 
the  prophetic  pragmatism  of  the  editor  of  the  older 
histories.      The   tone   of   simple   piety  end  graciousness 

^  The   religious   pragni.-itisin    lic'.;.;;^  ia   Ilia  origiual  i"    in  part 
aoppUeii  by  tho  Targuni  (L  6,  6). 


■which  runs  through  the  narrative,  uneticumbered  by  the 
pedantry  of  Jewi.-h  legality,  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
book  was  written  before  all  the  living  impulses  of  Jewish 
literature  were  choked  by  the  growing  influence  of  the 
doctors  of  the  law.  In  this  respect  it  holds  in  Hebrew- 
prose  writing  a  position  analogous  to  that  of  the  older 
Cliohma  in  Hebrew  poetry.  But  the  triumph  of  the  scribes 
in  literature  as  well  as  in  law  wsas  net  accomplished  till 
long  after  the  time  of  Ezra. 

Wellhausen  in  Bleek,  4th  edition,  p.  204:  sj.,  finds  the 
clearest  indication  of  the  date  of  Euth  in  the  appended 
genealogy.  Ruth  iv.  lS-22;  compare  his  remarks  in 
Prol.  Gesch.  Israels,  p.  227  (Eng.  tr.,  pp.  217  sq.).  Salma 
(Salmon),  father  of  Boaz,  is  a  tribe  foreign  to  old  Judah, 
which  was  not  "father"  of  Bethlehem  till  after  the  exile, 
and  the  names  of  Salma's  ancestors  are  also  open  to  criti- 
cism. But  this  genealogy  is  also  found  in  Chronicles, 
and  is  quite  in  the  manner  of  other  genealogies  in  the 
same  book.  That  it  was  borrowed  from  Chronicles  and 
added  to  Ruth  by  a  later  hand  seems  certain,  for  the 
author  of  Ruth  clearly  recognizes  that  Obed  was  legally 
the  son  of  Mahlon,  not  of  Boaz  (iv.  5,  10),  so  that  from 
his  standpoint  the  appended  genealogy  is  all  wrong. 

The  design  of  the  book  of  Ruth  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed and  often  in  too  narrow  a  spirit ;  for  the  author  is 
an  artist  who  takes  manifest  delight  in  the  touching  and 
graceful  details  of  his  picture,  and  is  not  simply  guided 
by  a  design  to  impart  historical  information  about  David's 
ancestors,  or  enforce  some  particular  lesson.  Now  the 
interest  of  the  story,  as  a  work  of  art,  culminates  in  the 
marriage  of  Boaz  and  Ruth,  not  in  the  fact  that  their  son 
was  David's  ancestor,  which,  if  the  book  originally  ended 
with  iv.  17,  is  only  mentioned  in  a  cursory  way  at  the 
close  of  the  story.  Had  the  author's  main  design  been  to 
illustrate  the  history  of  the  house  of  David,  as  many 
critics  think,  or  to  make  the  point  that  the  noblest  stock 
in  Israel  v/as  sprung  from  an  alien  mother  (Wellhausen), 
this  design  would  certainly  have  been  brought  into  more 
prominence.  The  marriage  acquires  an  additional  interest 
when  we  know  that  Ruth  n-as  David's  great-grandmother, 
but  the  main  interest  is  independent  of  that,  and  lies  in 
the  happy  issue  of  Ruth  and  Naomi  from  their  troubles 
through  the  loyal  performance  of  the  kinsman's  part  by 
Boaz.  Doubtless  the  writer  meant  his  story  to  be  an 
example  to  his  own  age,  as  well  as  an  interesting  sketch 
of  the  past;  but  this  is  effected  simply  by  describing  the 
exemplary  conduct  of  Naomi,  Ruth,  Boaz,  and  even  Boaz's 
harvesters.  All  these  act  as  simple,  kindly,  God-fearing 
people  ought  to  act  in  Israel. 

There  is  one  antique  custom  v/liich  tlie  writer  follows  with 
peculiar  interest  and  describes  with  aii-hceological  detail  as  a  thing 
whicli  had  evidently  gone  out  of  u^e  in  his  own  day.  By  old 
Hebrew  law,  as  by  the  old  law  of  Arabia,  a  wife  who  had  been 
brought  into  her  husband's  house  by  contract  and  payment  of  a 
price  to  her  father  was  not  set  free  by  tho  death  of  her  husband 
to  marry  again  at  will.  The  right  to  her  hand  lay  with  the 
nearest  heir  of  the  dead.  Originally  we  must  suppose,  among  the 
Hebrews  as  among  the  Arabs,  this  law  was  all  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  widow,  whose  hand  was  simply  part  of  the  dead  man's 
estate  ;  but,  while  this  remained  so  in  Arabia  to  the  time  of 
Jlohammcd,  among  tho  Hebrews  the  law  early  took  i|uite  an 
opposite  turn  ;  tho  widow  of  a  man  who  died  childless  was  held 
to  have  a  right  to  have  a  son  begotten  on  her  by  the  next 
kinsman,  and  this  son  w-as  regarded  as  tho  sou  of  the  dea<l  and 
succeeded  to  his  inheritance  so  that  his  name  might  not  bo  cV 
off  from  Israel.  The  duty  of  raising  up  a  son  to  the  dead  lay  upon 
his  brother,  and  in  Deut.  xjv.  0  is  restricted  to  tho  case  when 
brothers  live  togctlicr.  In  old  times,  as  appears  from  Gen.  xxxviiL , 
this  was  not  so,  and  the  law  as  put  in  the  book  of  Ruth  appears 
to  be  tint  the  nearest  kinsman  of  the  dead  in  general  had  a 
right  to  "redeem  for  himself"  the  dead  man's  estate,  hut  at  tho 
same  time  was  bound  to  marry  tho  widow.  The  son  of  this 
marriage  was  reckoned  as  the  dead  man's  son  and  succeeded  to 
his  property,  so  that  tho  "redeemer"  had  only  a  temporary 
usufruct  in  it.     Naomi  was  too  old  to  be  married  in  this  way,  but 


112 


it 


U  T  — II  U  T 


ahe  had  certain  rights  over  her  hushaiul's  estate  which  the  next 
kinsman  had  to  buy  up  before  ho  could  enter  on  tho^ -property. 
And  tliis  he  was  willing  to  do,  but  ho  was  not  willing  also  to 
marry  Ruth  and  beget  on  her  a  son  who  would  take  the  name  and 
estate  of  the  dead  and  leave  him  out  of  pocket.  He  therefore 
withdraws  and  Lo,iz  comes  in  in  his  place.  That  this  is  the  sense 
of  the  transaction  is  clear  ;  there  is,  however,  a  little  obscurity  in 
iv.  5,  where  one  letter  seems  to  have  fallen  out  and  we  must  read 
on  nivnx  DJl,  and  translate  "  What  duy  thou  buyest  the  field 
from  Naomi  thou  must  also  buy  Ruth,"  kc.     Comp.  vv.  9,  10. 

Among  otdor  conimentiiiea  sprcini  mention  mny  be  made  of  J.  B.  Caipzov, 
Collegium  rabbniico-hibhutm  in  lU'ell^ra  Ruth,  Lei^LlL',  1703.  In  recent 
limes  Kutli  has  usually  been  tikca  up  by  commeutaiors  along  witli  JuD^;^a 
(,.r.).  (W.  R.  S.) 

RUTHENIANS.     See  Slavs.     For  Rutbenian  (Little 
Russian)  literature,  see  Russia. 

RUTHENIUM.     See  Platinu.w. 

RUTHERFURD,  or  Rutherford,  Samuel  (1600- 
1661),  Scottish  divine,  was  born  about  1600  at  the  village 
of  Nisbet  in  Roxburghshire.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
received  his  early  education  at  Jedburgh,  and  he  entered 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  1617.  He  graduated  M.A. 
in  1621,  and  two  years  afterwards  was  elected  professor 
of  humanity.  On  account  of  some  alleged  indiscretion 
or  irregularity  connected  with  his  marriage  in  1625,  he 
resigned  his  professorship  iu  that  year,  but,  after  study- 
ing theology,  he  was  in  1627  appointed  minister  of  An- 
woth,  Kirkcudbrightshire,  where  he  displayed  remarkable 
diligence  and  zeal,  alike  as  preacher,  pastor,  and  student,  and 
Boon  took  a  leading  place  among  the  clergy  of  Galloway. 
In  1636  his  first  book,  entitled  Exercitationes  de  Gratia 
— an  elaborate  treatise  against  Arminianism — appeared  at 
Amsterdam,  and  attracted  some  attention  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  on  the  Continent.  Combined  with  his  strict 
and  non-conforming  presbyterianism,  the  severe  Calvinism 
set  forth  in  this  work  led  to  a  prosecution  by  the  nesv 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  Sydserff,  in  the  High  Commission 
Court,  first  at  Wigtown  and  afterwards  at  Edinburgh,  with 
the  result  that  Rutherfurd  was  deposed  from  his  pastoral 
office,  and  sentenced  to  confinement  in  Aberdeen  during 
the  king's  pleasure.  His  banishment  lasted  from  September 
1636  to  February  1638,  and  was  chiefly  remarkable  for 
the  epistolary  activity  ho  displayed,  the  greater  number  of 
hia  published  Letters  belonging  to  this  period  of  his  life. 
Ho  was  present  at  the  signing  of  the  Covenant  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1638,  and  afterwards  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Glasgow  Assembly  the  same  year,  which  restored  him  to 
his  parish.  In  1639  he  was  appointed- jirofessor  of  divin- 
ity in  St  Mary's  College,  St  Andrews,  and  shortly  after- 
wards became  colleague  to  Robert  Blair  in  the  church  of 
St  Andrew.?.  Ho  was  sent  up  to  London  in  1643  as  one 
of  the  eight  commissioners  from  Scotland  to  the  West- 
minster Assembly.  Arriving  along  with  Baillie  in  Novem- 
ber, and  remaining  at  his  post  over  three  years,  ho  did  great 
service  to  the  cause  of  his  party.  In  1642  he  had  pub- 
lished his  Pencenble  and  Temperate  Plea  for  Paul's  Preshy. 
terie  in  Scotland,  and  the  sequel  to  it  in  1644  on  The  Due 
Right  of  Presbyteries  provoked  Jlilton's  contemptuous 
reference  to  "mere  A.  S.  and  Rutherfurd"  in  his  sonnet- 
O'l  the  Nero  Forcers  of  Conscience  tinder  the  Long  Parliament. 
In  1644  also  appeared  Rutherfurd's  Zfj;  Pex,  a  Dispute  for 
the  Just  Prerogative  of  King  and  Peojjle,  which  gives  him  a 
recognized  place  among  the  early  -nriters  on  constitutional 
law;  it  -K'as  followed  by  I'jie  Divine  Right  of  Church 
Government  (1646),  and  Free  Disputation  against  Pretended 
Liberty  of  Conscience  (1649).  Among  his  other  works  are 
the  Tryal  and  Triumph  of  Faith  (1645),  Christ  Dying 
and  Drau'ing  Sinners  to  Himself  {lQi7),  and  Surrey  of  the 
Spiritual  Antichrist  (1648).  In  1647  he  returned  to 
St  Andrews  to  become  principal  of  the  New  College  there, 
and  in  1648  and  1651  he  declined  successive  invitations  to 
theological  chairs  at  Harderwijk  and  Utrecht.  His  last 
days  Wire  assailed  by  the  persecution  which  followed  the 


Restoration  iu  1660.  His  Lex  Rex  was  ordered  to  be 
burned  at  the  cross  pf  Edinburgh,  and.  also  at  the  gate  of 
the  college.  He  was  deprived  of  all  his  oflF.ces,  and  on 
a  charge  of  high  treason  was  cited  to  appear  before  the 
ensuing  parliament.  His  health,  however,  now  utterly 
broke  down,  and  knowing  that  he  had  not  long  to  live  he 
drew  up,  on  26th  Fe'oruary  1661,  a  Testimony,  which  was 
posthumously  published.  Ho  died  on  the  20th  of  the 
following  March. 

The  fame  of  Rutherfurd  now  rests  principall}^  upon  his  remark- 
able Letters,  on  which  Wodrow  thus  comments: — "He  se<;m3  to 
have  outdone  even  himself  as  well  as  everybody  else  in  his  admir- 
able and  every  way  singular  letters,  which,  though  jested  upon  by 
profane  wits  because  of  some  familiar  expressions,  yet  will  be  owned 
of  all  who  have  any  relish  of  piety  to  contain  such  sublime  flights  of 
devotion  and  to  be  fraughted  with  such  massy  thoughts  as  loudly 
speak  a  soul  united  to  Jesus  Christ  in  the  closest  embraces,  and  must 
needs  at  once  ravish  and  edify  every  serious  reader."  In  addition 
to  the  other  works  already  mentioned,  Rutherfurd  published  in  166  i 
a  treatise  Dc  Living  Provide7itia,  against  Moliiiism,  Socinianism. 
and  Arminianism,  of  which  Richanl  Baxter,  not  without  justic, 
remarked  that  "  as  the  Letters  were  the  Ix-st  piece  so  this  was  the 
worst  he  had  ever  read." 

The  Leltrrs.  to  the  number  of  2IS,  were  first  published  anonymously  b7  M'Ward, 
an  nmflnuensis,  at  Kiittei  dam,  In  IC64.  They  have  bci  n  frequenUy  reprinted,  tlis 
best  edition  (305  letters)  being  that  by  Rev.  A.  A.  llonar,  1843,  wilh  a  Gkclch  cf 
his  lite.    See  also  a  slioit  Li/e  by  Rev.  Dr  Andrew  Tlioinson,  18S4. 

RUTHERGLEN,  an  ancient  royal  burgh  of  Lanan:- 
shire,  Scotland,  is  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Clyde, 
2  miles  south-east  of  Glasgow.  It  consists  chiefly  of  onn 
long  wide  irregular  street,  with  narrow  streets,  wyuds,  and 
alleys  branching  from  it  at  intervals.  The  parish  church 
is  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  a  little  distance 
from  the  tower  of  the  old  church  where  the  treaty  wai 
made  in  1297  with  Edward  I.,  by  which  Sir  John  Mon- 
teith  agreed  with  the  English  to  betray  the  Scottish  hero 
Wallace.  The  most  important  public  building  is  the  town- 
hall,  a  handsome  structure  with  a  largo  square  tower.  In 
the  vicinity  there  are  extensive  collieries  and  ironworks, 
and  the  town  possesses  chemical  works,  a  paper  mill,  a 
pottery,  and  a  shipbuilding  yard.  The  corporation  consists 
of  a  provost,  two  bailies,  a  dean  of  guild,  a  treasurer,  and 
fifteen  councillors.  The  population  of  the  royal  burgh  in 
1871  was  9239,  and  in  1881  it  was  11,473. 

Ruthorgleu  was  erected  into  a  royal  burgh  by  King  David  in 
1126.  At  this  time  it  included  a  portion  of  Glasgow,  but  in  1225 
the  boundaries  were  rectified  so  as  to  e.tclude  the  whole  of  that 
city.  In  early  times  it  had  a  castle,  w-hich  was  taken  by  Bruce 
from  tho  English  in  1313.  It  was  kept  in  good  repair  till  after  the 
battle  of  Langsido  it  was  burnt  by  order  of  the  regent  Murray. 
After  this  the  town  for  a  time  gradually  decayed,  the  trade  being 
absorbed  by  Glasgow.  Rutherglen  is  included  in  the  Kilmamocl' 
district  of  parliamentary  burghs 

RUTILIUS  CLAUDIUS  NAMATIANUS  is  known  to 
us  as  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  in  elegiac  metre,  describ- 
ing a  coast  voyage  from  Rome  to  Gaul  in  416  a.d.  The 
literary  excellence  of  the  work  and  the  flashes  of  light 
which  it  throws  across  a  momentous  but  dark  epoch  of 
history  combine  to  give  it  exceptional  importance  among 
the  relics  of  late  Roman  literature.  The  poem  was  in  two 
books ;  the  exordium  of  the  first  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  second  have  been  lost.  ^Y^lat  remains  consists  of  about 
700  lines. 

The  poet's  voyage  took  place  in  the  late  autumn  of  416 
(i.  135  sq.),  and  the  Verses  as  we  have  them  -were  evi- 
dently, written  at  or  very  near  the  time.  The  author  is 
a  native  of  southern  Gaul,  and  belonged,  like  Sidonius, 
to  one  of  the  great  governing  families  oi  the  Gaulish  pro- 
vinces. His  father,  whom  ho  calls  Lachanius,  had  held 
high  offices  in  Italy  and  at  the  imperial  court,  had  beeij 
governor  of  Etruria  and  Umbria'(fo?!sK/an's  Tusciae)  pro- 
bably in  389,  when  a  Claudius  is  named  in  the  Theodosian' 
Code  (2,  4,  5)  as  having  hold  the  ofiice,  then  imperial 
treasurer  (co»!f«  sacrarum  largitionum),  imperial  recorder 
(quaestor),  and  goveriior  of  the  capital  itself  (pratjectus 


R  U  T  — R  U  T 


a  13 


^■rbis).  ButiIius~T)oasts  his  "^careet  to  have  been  no  less 
("btingnished  than  his  father's,  and  particularly  indicates 
that  he  had  been  secretary  of  state  {magister  officiomm) 
and  governor  of  the  capital  (i.  157,.427,  467,  561).  It  ij> 
probable  that  a  certain  Namatius  named  in  the  Theodosian 
Code  (6,  27,  15)  as  magister  oficiorum  of  the  year  412  is 
no  other  than  our  poet'.  The  true  literary  man  is  apt  to 
be  inordinately  proud  of  political  distinction,  and  Rutilius 
celebrates  his  own  praises  ia  a  style  worthy  of  Cicero  or 
Pliny.  At  all  events,  he  had  lived  long  in  the  great  world 
of  the  Western  empire,  and  knew,  much  of  the  inner  history 
of  his  time.  After  reaching  manhood,  he  had  passed 
through  the  tempestuous  period  that  stretches  between  the 
death  of  Theodosius  (395)  and  the  fall  of  the  usurper 
Attains,  which  occurred  near  the  date  when  our  poem  was 
written.  He  had  witnessed  the  chequered  career  of  Stilicho 
as  actual,  though  not  titular,  emperor  of  the  West ;  he  had 
seen  the  hosts  of  Eadagaisus  rolled  back  from  Italy,  only 
to  sweep  over  the  helpless  provinces  of  Gaul  and  Spain, 
the  defeats  and  triumphs  of  Alaric,  the  three  sieges  and 
final  sack  of  Rome,  followed  by  the  marvellous  recovery  of 
the  city,  Heraclian's  vast  armament  dissipated  by  a  breath, 
and  the  fall  of  seven  pretenders  to  the  Western  diadem.- 
Undoubtedly  the  sympathies  of  Rutilius  were  with  those 
who  during  this  period  dissented  from,  and,  when  they 
could,  opposed,  the  general  tendencies  of  the  imperial  policy. 
We  know  from  himself  that  he  was  the  intimate  of  dis- 
tinguished men  who  belonged  to  the  circle  of  the  great 
orator  Symmachus, — men  who  had  scouted  Stilicho's  com- 
pact with'  the  Goths,  and  h^  led  the  Roman  senate  to 
support  the  pretenders  Eugenius  and  Attains  .in  the 
vain  hope  of  reinstating  the  gods  whom  Julian  had  failed 
to  save. 

■\VTiiIe  making  but  few  direct  assertions  about  historical 
characters  or  events,  the  poem,  by  its  very  texture  and  spirit  and 
assumptions,  forces  on  us  important  conclusions  concerning  tbe 
politics  and  religion  of  the  time,  which  are  not  brought  home  to 
us  witb  the  same  directness  by  any  other  authority.  The  attitude 
of  the  writer  towards  paganism  is  remarkable.  The  whole  poem 
is  intensely  pagan,  and  is  penetrated  by  the  feeling  that  the  world 
of  literature  and  culture  is  and  must  remain  pagan,  that  outside 
pa^nism  lies  a  realm  of  barbarism.  The  poet  wears  an  air  of 
exalted  superiority  over  the  religious  innovators  of  his  day,  and 
entertains  a  buoyant  confidence  that  the  future  of  the  ancient  gods 
of  Rome  will  not  belie  their  glorious  past."  Invective  and  apology 
he  scorns  alike,  nor  troubles  himself  to  show,  with  Claudian,  even 
a  suppressed  grief  at  the  indignities  put  upon  the  old  religion  by 
the  new.  As  a  statesman,  he  is  at  pains  to  avoid  offending  those 
politic  Christian  senators  over  whom  pride  in  their  country  had  at 
least  as  great  power  as  attachment  to  their  new  religion.  Only 
once  or  twice  does  Kutilius  speak  directly  of  Christianity,  and 
then  only  to  attack  the  monks,  whom  the  temporal  authorities 
had  hardly  as  yet  recognized,  and  whom,  indeed,  only  a  short 
time  before,  a  Christian  emperor  had  forced  by  thousands  into 
the  ranks  of  his  army.  Judaism  Rutilius  could  assail  without 
wounding  either  pagans  or  Christians,  but  he  intimates,  not 
obscurely,  that  he  hates  it  chiefly  as  the  evil  root  whence  the 
rank  plant  of  Christianity  had  sprung.'  . 

We  read  in  Gibbon  that  "Honorius  excluded  all  persons  who 
were  adverse  to  tlie  catl.olic  church  from  holding' any  office  in  the 
state,"  that  he  '*  obstinately  rejected  the  service  of  all  those  who 
dissented  from  his  religion,"  and  that  "the  law  was  applied  in 
the  ntmost  latitude  and  rigorously  executed."  Far  different  is 
the  picture  of  political  life  impressed  upon  us  by  Rutilius.  His 
voice  is  assuredly  not  that  of  a  partisan  of  a  discredited  and  over- 
borne faction.  We  see-by  the  aid  of  his  poem  a  senate  at  Rome 
composed  of  past  office-lioldcrs,  the  majority  of  whom  were 
certainly  pagan  still.  We  discern  a  Christian  section  who^io 
Christianity  was  political  rather  than  religious,  who  were  Romans 
first  and  Christians  afterwards,  whom  a  new  breeze  in  politics 
might  easily  have  wafted  back  to  the  old  religion.  Between  these 
two  sections  the.  broad  old  Roman  toleration  reigns.  Some 
ecclesiastical  historians  have  fondly  imagined  that  after  the  sack 
of  Rome  the  bishop  Innocent  returned  to  a  position  of  practical 
predominance.  No  one  who  fairly  reads  Rutilius  can  cherish 
this  idea.  The  air  of  the  capital,  perhaps  even  of  Italy,  was 
•till  charged  with  paganism.  The  court  was  far  in  advance  of 
the  people,  and  the  persecuting  laws  were  in  large  part  incapable 
of  execution.    .^ . 


Perhaps  the  most  interesting  lines  in  the  whole  poem  are~lhose 
in  which  Rutilius  assails  the  memory  of  "dire  Stilicho,"  as  hn 
names  him.  StUicho,  "fearing  to  suffer  all  that  had  caused 
Iiiniscir  to  be  feared,"  annihilated  those  defences  of  Alps  and 
Apennines  which  the  provident  gods  had  interposed  between  the 
barbarians  and  the  Eternal  City,  and  planted  the  cruel  Goths,  his 
"skin-clad"  minions,  in  tbe  very  sanctuary  of  the  empire.  His 
wile  was  wickeder  than  the  wile  oi  the  Trojan  horse,  than  the  wile 
ot  Althaja  or  of  Scylla.  May  Nero  rest  from  alljh'e  torments  of 
the  damned,  that  they  may  seize  on  Stilicho,  for  Kero  smote  his 
own  mother,  but  Stilicho,  the  mother  of  the  world  ! 

We  shall  not  err  in  supposing  that  wo  have  here  (what  we  find 
nowhere  else)  an  authentic  expression  of  the  feeling  entertained  by 
a  majority  of  the  Roman  senate  concerning  SUJicho.  He  had  but 
imitated  the  policy  of  Theodosius  with  regard  to  the  barbarians; 
but  even  that  gi"eat  emperor  had  met  with  passive  opposition  from 
the  old  Roman  families.  The  relations,  however,  between  Alario 
and  Stilicho  had  been  closer  and  more  mysterious  than  those 
between  Alaric  and  Theodosius,  and  men  who  had-  seen  Stilicho 
surrounded  by  his  bodyguard  of  Goths  not  unnaturally  looked 
on  the  Goths  who  assailed  Rome  as  Stilicho's  avengers.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  Rutilius  speaks  of  the  crime  of  Stilidio  in  terms 
far  different  fr9m  those  used  by  Orosius  and  the  historians  of  the 
lower  empire.  'They  believed  that  Stilicho  was  plotting  to  make 
his  son  emperor,  and  that  he  called  in  the  Goths  in  order  to  climb 
higher.  Rutilius  holds  that  he  used  the  barbarians  merely  to  save 
himself  from  ifiopending  ruin.  The  Christian  historians  assert 
that  Stilicho  designed  to  restore  paganism.  To  Rutilius  he  is 
the  most  uncompromising  foe  of  paganism.  His  crowning  sin 
(recorded  by  our  poet  alone)  was  the  destruction  of  the  SibylUna 
books — a  sin  worthy  of  one  who  had  decked  his  wife  in  the  spoils 
of  Victory,  the  goddess  who  had  for  cmturies  presided  over  the 
deliberations  of  the  senate.  This  crime  of  Stilicho  alone  is 
sufficient  in  the  eyes  of  Rutilius  to  account  for  the  disasters  that 
afterwards  befell  the  city,  just  as  Jlerobaudes,  a  generation  or  two 
later,  traced  the  miseries  of  his  own  day  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
ancient  rites  of  Vesta.  f 

With  regai-d  to  the  form  of  the  poem,  Rutilius  handles  the 
elegiac  couplet  with  great  metrical  purity  and  freedom,  and 
betrays  many  signs  of  long  study  in  tho  elegiac  poetry  of  the 
Augustan  era.  The-Latin  is  unusually  clean  for  the  times,  and  ia 
generally  fairly  classical  both  in  vocabulary  and  construction.  The 
taste  of  Rutilius  too  is  comparatively  pure.  If  he  lacks  the  genius 
of  Claudian,  he  also  lacks  his  overloaded  gaudiness  and  his  large 
cxaggsration,  and  the  directness  of  Rutilius  shines  by  comparison 
with  the  laboured  complexity  of  Ausoniiis.  it  is  common  to  call 
Claudian  the  last  of  the  Roman  poets.  That  title  might  fairly  ba 
claimed  for  Rutilius,  unless  it  be  reserved  for  ilerobaudes.  At 
any  rate  in  passing  from  Rutilius  to  Sidonius  no  reader  can  fail  to 
feel  that  he  has  left  the  region  of  Latin  poetry  for  the  region  of 
Latin  verse. 

Of  the  rhany  interesting  details  of  the  poem  we  can  only  mention 
a  few.  At  the  outset  we  have  an  almost  dithyrambic  address  to 
the  goddess  Koma,  whose  glory  has  ever  shone  the  biigliter  for 
disaster,  and  who  will  rise  once  more  in  her  might  and  confound 
her  barbarian  foes.  The  poet  shows  as  deep  a  consciousness  as  any 
modern  historian  that  the  grandest  achievement  of  Rome  was  the 
spread  of  law'.  Next  we  get  incidental  but  not  unimportant 
references  to  the  destruction  of  roads  and  property  wrought  by  the 
Goths,  to  the  state  of  the  havens  at  the  mouths  of  the  Tiber  and 
the  general  decay  of  nearly  all  the  old  commercial  ports  on  the  coast. 
Most  of  these  were  as  desolate  then  as  now.  Rutilius  even  exaggerates 
the  desolation  of  the  once  important  city  of  Cosa  iu  Etruria, 
whose  walls  have  scarcely  changed  from  that  day  to  ours.  The 
port  that  served  Pisae,  almost  alone  of  all  those  visited  by  Rutilius,. 
seems  to  have  retained  its  prosperity,  and  to  have  foreshadowed  thtf 
suhscquent  greatness  of  that  city.  At  one  point  on  the  coast  tho 
vinagers  everywhere  were  "soothing  their  wearied  hearts  with  holy 
merriment,"  and  were  celebrating  the  festival  of  Osiris. 

All  ejiatlng  MSS.  of  nutilfua  arc  Inter  than  1491.  and  arc  copies  from  a  lost 
copy  of  arr  ancient  MS.  once  at  Ilie  monustci-y  of  BoLio,  wliicti  disuppeai  cd  about 
ITOO.  The  fdilio  priacfpt  ]s  tliat  by  J.  11.  PiUB  (Hoiocna,  1520),  and  tlie  princi- 
pal editions  aincc  have  been  tliuse  by  Dai-th  (IGL'3),  P.  liunnan(lT31,  in  his  edition 
of  tile  minor  Latin  poct^),  Wcrnsdorf  (1778,  part  of  a  similar  collection),  Zumpt 
(if*Jf>),  and  the  critical  edition  by  Lueian  .Miilier  (Teubncr,  Lclpsic,  1870J,  Miilier 
writes  tho  poet's  name  as  Claudius  Ilulilius  N-imatlanus,  ins  '•-aA  of  tha  usual 
rtiuitius  C:j',adiii3  Xamatianus;  but  If  tlie  idcntidtntion  of  the  poet's  fntlier  with 
the  Claudius  mentioned  in  tho  Theodosian  Code  bo  correct,  Miilier  Is  pri.i-r.bly 
wionj^.  Rutilius  receives  moic  or  ies-s  allcntlon  from  all  writers  on  the  history 
or  literature  of  the  times,  but  a  lucid  chapter  in  DeUKnot,  llinloire  de  la  Deitruc- 
tion  du  Pa^anisme  fit  Occid'^it  (IS-IS),  may  be  especially  mentioned.  It  should  be 
noted  that  In  uiing  the  passaco  cooccrninc  Stiiiclio  tvc  have  ventured  to  read  tho 
line  at  II,  4-5  thus— //iocac  dadit  deteriore  rfo/o;,  tiic  chniiKc  /r--m  the  .MSS, 
veaiUng /tlatac  dadis  liUriore  (fofo  (presciTCd  In  all  editions)  sccins  deninnui-d 
by  liic  cont«xt,  as  well  as  by  the  sense,.  (J,  S,  R.) 

RUTLAND,  the  smallest  county  in  England,  is  bounded  See 
N.  and  X,E,  by  Lincolnshire,  S.E,  by  Northamptonshire,  vol,  ift 
and  W.  by  Leicestershire.     Its  shape  is  extremely  irregular. 
The  greatest  length  from  north-east  to  south-west  is  about 

XXL  —  I? 


114 


R  U  T  —  R  U  Y 


20  miles,  and  tue  greatest  brcadtli  from  east  to  west  about 
16  miles.  The  area  is'  94,889  acres,  or  about  148  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  pleasantly  undulating,  ridges  of  high 
ground  running  east  and  west,  separated  by  rich  and  Iuku- 
riant  valleys,  generally  about  half  a  mile  in  breadth.  The 
principal  valley  is  that  of  Catmoss  to  the  south  of  Oakham, 
having  to  the  north  of  it  a  tract  of  table-land  commanding 
an  extensive' prospect  into  Leicestershire. 

The  Welland,  which  is  navigable  to  Stamford,  flows 
north-east,  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  boundary  of 
the  county  with  Northamptonshire.  The  Gwash  or  Wash, 
■which  rises  in  Leicestershire,  flows  eastwards  through  the 
centre  of  the  county,  and  just  beyond  its  borders,  enters 
the  Welland  in  Lincolnshire.  The  Chater,  also  rising  in 
Leicestershire  and  flowing  eastwards  enters  the  Welland 
about  two  miles  from  Stamford.  The  Eye  flows  south- 
eastwards  along  the  borders  of  Leicestershire.  The  county 
belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  Jurassic  formation,  consist- 
ing of  Liassic  and  Oolitic  strata — the  harder  strata,  chiefly 
limestone  containing  iron,  forming  the  hills  and  escarp- 
ments, and  the  clay-beds  the  slopes  of  the  valleys.  The 
oldest  rocks  are  those  belonging  to  the  Lower  Lias  in  the 
north-west.  The  bottom  of  the  vale  of  Catmoss  is  formed 
of  marlstone  rock  belonging  to  the  Middle  Lias,  and  its 
sides  are  composed  of  long  slopes  of  Upper  Lias  clay.  The 
Upper  Lias  also  covers  a  large  area  in  the  west  of  the 
county.  The  lowest  series  of  the  Oolitic  formation  is  the 
Northampton  sands  bordering  Northamptonshire.  The 
Lincolnshire  Oolitic  limestone  prevails  in  the  east  of  the 
county  north  of  Stamford.  It  is  largely  quarried  for 
building  purposes,  the  quarry  at  Ketton  being  famous 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  tlie  county.  The  Great  Oolite 
prevails  towards  the  south-east.  Formerly  tbe  iron  was 
largely  dug  and  smelted  by  means  of  the  wood  in  the 
extensive  forests,  and  the  industry  is  again  reviving. 

Agriculture. — In  the  cistern  and  south-eastern  districts  the  soil 
Is  light  and  shallow.  In  the  other  districts  it  consists  chiefly  of 
a  tenacious  but  fertile  loam,  and  in  the  fcrlile  vale  of  Catmoss 
the  soil  is  either  clay  or  loam,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two.  The 
prevailing  redness,  which  colours  even  the  streams,  is  owing  to 
the  ferruginous  limestone  carried  down  from  the  slopes  of  the  hills. 
The  name  of  the  countv  is  by  some  authorities  derive'-l  from  this 
characteristic  of  the  soil,  but  the  explanation  is  doubtful  The 
eastern  portions  of  the  county  are  chiciiy  imder  tillage  and  the 
western  in  grass.  Out  of  91,8S9  acres  no  fewer  than  86,477  acres 
in  1SS5  were  under  cultivation,  corn  crops  occupying  22,S2'o  acres, 
green  crops  7520  acres,  rotation  grasses  6553  acres,  and  permanent 
[lasture  47,816  acres.  Over  3000  acres  were  under  woodland. 
The  principal  corn  crop  is  barley,  which  occupied  9484  acres,  but 
■wheat  and  oats  are  also  largely  grown.  Turnips  and  swedes  occupy 
about  five-sixths  of  the  area  under  green  crops.  The  rearing  of 
sheep  and  cattle  occupies  the  chief  attention  of  the  farmer.  Large 
quantities  of  cheese  ai-e  manufactured  and  sold  as  Stilton.  Cattle, 
principally  shorthorns,  numbered  19,310,  of  which  3054  were  cows 
and  heifers  in  milk  and  in  calf.  Sheep — Leicesters  and  South 
Downs— numbered  80,881,  horses  S062,  pigs  3054,  and  poultry 
27,376.  According  to  the  parliamentary  return  of  1873  the  number 
of  proprietors  was  1425,  of  whom  861  pos.=:csscd  loss  than  one  acre. 
The  largest  proprietors  were  the  earl  of  Gainsborough  15,076, 
Ixird  Aveland  13,634,  marquis  of  Exeter  10,713,  and  George  H. 
Finch  9182. 

Mailways. — Tire  main  line  of  the  Great  Northern  intersects  the 
north-eastern  corner  of  the  county,  and  branches  of  that  system,  of 
the  London  and  North-Western,  and  of  the  Midland  connect  it 
«-ith  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Administralioii  and  Population. — Rutland  comprises  five  hun- 
dreds and  contains  fifty -seven  civil  parishes,  and  part  of  the  parish 
of  Stoke-Dry,  which  extends  into  Lcicastershire.  Formerly  repre- 
sented by  two  members  of  parliament,  since  1885  it  returns  one 
only.  There  is  no  municipal  or  jiarliamentary  borough.  The 
county  has  one  court  of  quarter  sessions,  hut  is  not  subdivided  for 
petty  sessional  purposes.  Ecclesiastically  it  is  entirely  in  the 
diocese  of  Peterborough.  The  population  was  21,801  in  1861, 
2-2,073  in  1871,  and  21,434  in  1881.  The  average  number  of  per- 
sons to  an  aero  in  1881  was  0  23,  and  of  acres  to  a  person  4'43. 

History  and  Antiquities.— In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the 
district  now  included  in  Rutlandshire  was  probably  inhabited  by 
the  Corilani,  and  was  included  in   Flavia  Cssarienjiia.     Ermyo 


Street  traversed  it  in  the  north-east,  and  there  was  an  important' 
station  at  Great  Casterton.  As  a  shire  it  is  later  than  Donir^sdsy, 
when  a  portion  of  it  was  included  in  Korthamptonshhe  hut  the 
greater  part  in  Nottingham.  It  is  referred  to  as  com.  Eoteland 
in  the  fifth  year  of  King  Johu,  in  the  document  assigning  a  dowry 
to  Queen  Isabella,  but  for  ^  long  time  previous  to  this  the  name 
Roteland  was  applied  to  Oakham  and  the  country  round  it. 
Edward,  eldest  son  of  Edmund  of  Langley,  fifth  son  of  Edward  III., 
was ''created  earl  of  Rutland,  but  the  title  became  extinct  in  the 
royal  bouse  when  Edward  earl  of  Rutland  was  stabbed  to  death  at 
the  battle  of  Clifford.  In  1525  the  title  was  revived  in  the  person 
of  Lord  Ros,  and  the  tenth  earl  was  created  duke  in  1703.  At 
the  battle  of  Stamford  in  1470  the  Lancastrians  ^suffered  defeat. 
The  only  old  castle  of  which  there  are  important  remains  is 
Oakham,  dating  from  the  time  of  Henry  II,,  and  remarfiable  for 
its  Norman  halL 

RUTL.4ND,  a  township' and  village  of  the  United  States, 
capital  of  Rutland  county,  Vermont,  117  miles  north-north- 
west of  Boston.  It  is  an  important  railway  junction, 
being  the  terminus  of  several  minor  lines  and  the  seat  of 
machine-shops  and  engine-houses ;  but  its  name  is  e^veu 
better  known  through  its  quarries  of  white  marble.  The 
population  of  the  township  was  12,149  and  that  of  the 
village  7502  in  1880. 

Chartered  by  New  Hampshire  in  1761  and  again  chartered  as 
Socialborough  in  1772  by  New  York,  Rutland  became  in  1775 
a  fortified  post  on  the  great  northern  military  road,  and  in  1781 
was  ma,de  the  chief  to\vn  of  Rutland  county.  Between  1784  and 
1804  it  wa3  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  State. 

RUYSBROECK,  or  Ruysbeoek,  John,  mystic,  v^a 
born  at  Ruysbroek,  near  Brussels,  about  1293,  and  died  as 
first  prior  of  the  convent  of  Groenendael,  near  Waterloo,  in 
13S1.     See  Mysticism,  vol.  xvii.  p.  133. 

RUYSCH,  FitEDERiK  (1638-1731),  anatomist,  ■sraa 
born  at  The  Hague  in  1638,  and  died  at  Amsterdam  on 
February  22,  17-31.     See  A>-.\tomy,  vol.  i.  p.  812. 

RUYSDAEL,  or  Ruisdaal,  Jacob  (c.  1625-1682), 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  Cutch  landscapists,  was  bom 
at  Haarlem  about  1625.  The  accounts  of  his  life  are 
very  conflicting,  and  recent  criticism  and  research  have 
discredited  much  that  ■n-as  previously  received  as  fact 
regarding  his  career.  He  appears  to  have  studied  under 
his  father  Izaac  Ruysdael,  a  landscape-painter,  though 
other  authorities  make  him  the  pupil  of  Berghem  and  of 
Albert  van  Everdingen.  The  earliest  date  that  appears 
on  his  paintings  and  etchings  is  1645.  Three  years  later 
he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  guild  of  St  Luke  in 
Haarlem;  in  1659  he  obtained  the  freedom  of  the  city  of 
Amsterdam,  and  ■n'e  know  that  he  was  resident  there  in 
16GS,  for  in  that  year  his  name  appears  as  a  witness  to 
the  marriage  of  Hobbema.  During  his  lifetime  his  works 
were  little  appreciated,  and  he  seems  to  have  suffered  from 
poverty.  In  1681  the  sect  of  the  Jfennonites,  with  whom 
he  was  connected,  petitioned  the  council  of  Haarlem  for 
his  admission  into  the  almshouse  of  the  town,  and  there 
the  artist  died  on  the  14th  of  March  1682. 

The  works  of  Ruysdael  may  bo  studied  in  the  Louvre  and  fha 
National  Gallery,  London,  and  in  the  collections  at  The  Hague, 
Amsterdam,  Berlin,  and  Dresden.  His  favourite  subjects  ar« 
simple  woodland  scones,  similar  to  those  of  Everdingcu  and 
Hobbema,  or  views  of  picturesque  mills  and  cottages,  or  of  ruined 
towers  and  temples,  sot  upon  broken  ground,  beside  streams  or 
waterfalls.  He  is  especially  noted  as  a  jaintcr  of  trees,  and  his 
rendering  of  foli.igo,  particularly  of  oak  Icafng",  is  characterized 
by  the  greatest  spirit  and  precision.  His  views  of  distant  cities, 
such  as  that  of  Haarlem  in  the  possession  of  the  marquis  of  Bute, 
and  that  of  Katwijk  in  the  Glasgow  Corporation  Galleries,  clearly 
indicate  tlie  influence  of  Rembrandt.  He  frequently  paints  coast- 
scenes,  and  sea-pieces  with  lu'caking  waves  and  stormy  skies  filled 
with  wind-driven  clouds,  but  it  is  in  his  rendering  of  lonely 
forest  glades  that  \vc  find  him  at  his  best.  The  subjects  of  certain 
of  his  mountain  scenes,  with  bold  rocks,  waterfalls,  and  fir-trees,' 
seem  to  1ki  taken  from  Norw.ay,  and  have  led  to  tlie  supposition' 
that  he  had  travelled  in  that  country.-  "Wo  have,  however,  no 
record  of  such  a  journey,  and  the  works  in  question  are  probably 
merely  adaptations  from  the  landscapes  of  Van  Everdingen,  whose 
manner  he  copied  at  one  period.     Only  a  single  architectural  sub-. 


H  U  Y  —  R  Y  A 


115 


ject  from  his  brush  19  known — an  admirable  interior  of  the  New 
Church,  Amsterdam,  in  the  possession  of  the  marquis  of  Bute.  Tlic 
prevailing  hue  of  his  landscapes  is  a  full  rich  green,  which,  how- 
ever, has  darkened  tt'ith  time,  while  a  clear  grev  tone  is  character- 
istic of  his  sea-pieces. 

The  art  of  Ruysdael,  while  it  shows  little  of  toe  scientific  know- 
ledge of  later  landscapists,  is  sensitive  and  poetic  in  sentiment,  and 
direct  and  skilful  in  technique.  Figures  are  sparingly  introduced 
into  his  compositions,  and  such  as  occur  are  believed  to  be  from  the 
pencils  of  Adrian  Vandevelde,  Philip  Wouwerman,  and  Jan  Lingel- 
bach.  In  his  love  of  landscape  for  itself,  in  his  delight  in  the  quiet 
and  solitude  of  nature,  the  painter  is  thoroughly  modern  in  feeling. 

Ruysdael  etched  a  few  plates,  which  were  reproduced  by  Amand 
Purand  in  1S78,  with  text  by  M.  Georges  Duplessis.  The 
"  Champ  deBIu"  and  the  "Voyageurs"  are  characterized  by  M. 
Duplessis  as  "estanipes  de  haute  valcur  qui  peuvcnt  etre  regardees 
comme  les  specimens  Ics  plus  signilicatifs  de  I'art  du  paysagiste 
dans  les  I'ays-Bas." 

RUYSSELEDE,  or  itciissELfeDE,  a  market-town  of 
Beli'ium  in  the  province  of  West  Flanders,  15  miles  south- 
east of  Bruges.  It  is  best  known  as  the  seat  of  a  great 
reformatory  for  boys,  founded  by  the  Government  in  1849. 
The  population  was  6663  in  1874,  and  6670  in  1881. 

RUYTER,  Michael  Adki.vn  de  (1607-16J6),  a  dis- 
tinguished Dutch  naval  officer,  was  born  at  Flushing,  24th 
March  1607.  He  began  his  seafaring  life  at  the  age  of 
eleven  as  a  cabin  boy,  and  in  1636  was  entrusted  by  the 
merchants  of  Flushing  with  the  command  of  a  cruiser 
against  the  French  pirates.  In  1640  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  States,  and,  being  appointed  rear-admiral  of 
a  fleet  fitted  out  to  assist  Portugal  against  Spain,  specially 
distinguished  himself  at  Cape  St  Vincent,  3d  November 
1641.  In  the  following  year  he  left  the  service  of  the 
States,  and,  until  the  outbreak  of  war  with  England  in 
1652,  held  command  of  a  merchant  vessel.  In  1653  a 
squadron  of  seventy  vessels  was  despatched  against  the 
English,  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Tromp.  Iluyter, 
who  accompanied  the  admiral  in  this  expedition,  seconded 
him  with  great  skill  and  bravery  in  the  three  battles 
which  were  fought  with  the  English.  He  was  afterwards 
stationed  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  he  captured  several 
Turkish  vessels.  In  1659  he  received  a  commission  to 
join  the  king  of  Denmark  in  his  war  with  the  Swedes. 
As  a  reward  of  his  services,  the  king  of  Denmark  ennobled 
him  and  gave  him  a  pension.  In  1661  he  grounded  a 
vessel  belonging  to  Tunis,  released  forty  Christian  slaves, 
snade  a  treaty  with  the  Tunisians,  and  reduced  the 
Algerine  corsairs  to  submission.  From  his  achievements  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  he  was  recalled  in  1665  to  take 
command  of  a  large  fie-jt  which  had  been  organized  against 
England,  and  in  May  of  the  following  year,  after  a  long 
contest  off  the  North  Foreland,  he  compelled  the  Engli.sh  to 
take  refuge  in  the  Thames.  On  June  7,  1672,  he  fought 
a  drawn  battle  with  the  combined  fleets  of  England  and 
France,  in  Southwold  or  Sole  Bay,  -and  after  the  fight 
be  convoyed  safely  home  a  fleet  of  merchantmen.  His 
valour  was  displayed  to  equal  advantage  in  several  engage- 
ments with  the  French  and  English  in  the  following  year. 
In  1676  he  was  despatched  to  the  assistance  of  Spain 
against  France  in,  the  Mediterranean,  and,  receiving  a 
mortal  wound  in  the  battle  on  the  21st  April  off 
Messina,  died  on  the  29th. at  Syracuse.  A  patent  by  the 
king  of  Spain,  investing  him  with  the  dignity  of  duke, 
did  not  reach  the  fleet  till  after  his  death.  His  body- 
was  carried  to  Amsterdam,  where  a  magnificent  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  was  erected  by  command  of  the 
states-general. 

See  Life,  of  Kuytor  by  Brandt,  Amsterdam,  1CS7,  and  by  Klopp, 
2 J  ed.,  Hanover,  1858. 

KYAZAJJ,  a  government  of  Central  Russia,  is  bounded 
by  Moscow  and  Tula  on  the  W.,  by  Vladimir  on  the  N., 
and  by  Tamboff  on  the  E.  and  S.,  with  an  area  of  16,255 
square  miles,   and  a  population   of   1,713,581   in   1882. 


Ryazan  is  an  intermediate  link  between  the  central  Great 
Russian  governments  and  the  Steppe  governments  of  the 
south-east, — the  wide  and  deep  valley  of  the  Oka,  by  which 
it  is  traversed  from  west  to  east,  with  a  broad  curve  to  the 
south,  being  the  natural  boundary  between  the  two.  On 
the  left  of  the  Oka  the  surface  often  consists  of  sands, 
marshes,  and  forests ;  while  on  the  right  the  fertile  black- 
earth  prairies  begin,  occupying  especially  the  southern 
part  of  the  government  (the  districts  of  Ranenburg, 
Sapojok,  and  Dankoff).  The  whole  of  Ryazan  is  a  plateau 
about  700  feet  above  the  sea,  but  deeply  out  by  the  river 
valleys  and  numerous  ravines.  The  geological  formations 
represented  are.  the  Devonian,  the  Carboniferous,  the 
Jurassic,  and  the  Quaternary.  The  Devonian  appears  in 
the  deeper  valleys  in  the  south,  i,nd  belongs  to  the  well- 
known  "  Malevka-Muraevnya  horizon,"  now  considered  as 
equivalent  to  the  Cypridina  serrato-striata  Upper 
Devonian  deposits  of  the  Eifel.  The  Carboniferous 
deposits  are  widely  spread,  and  appear  at  the  surface  in 
the  bottoms  of  the  ravines  and  valleys.  They  contain 
strata  of  excellent  coal  between  plastic  blue  clays,  which 
are  worksd  at  several  places.  Upper  Carboniferous  lime- 
stones, as  also  satidstones,  the  age  of  which  has  not  yet 
been  determined,  but  which  seem  to  be  Lower  Jurassic; 
cover  the  Carboniferous  Clays.  The  Upper  Jurassic  de- 
posits are  wideiy  spread,  but  they  have  been  much  destroyed 
and  now  appear  as  separate  insular  tracts.  They  belong 
to  the  Oxford  and  Callovian  horizons,  the  former  contain- 
ing corals,  which  are  very  rare  on  the  whole  in  the 
Russian  Jurassic  deposits.  The  Quaternary  deposits  are 
represented  by  the  Glacial  boulder  clay  and  more  recent 
alluvial  deposits,  which  occupy  wide  areas  in  the  valley  of 
the  Oka.  Iron-ores,  limestone,  grindstone  grits,  potters' 
clays,  and  thick  beds  of  peat  are  worked,  besides  coal. 
The  northern  parts  of  Ryazan  belong  to  the  forest  regions 
of  Russia,  and,  notwithstanding  the  wholesale  destruction 
of  forests  in  that  part  of  the  country,  these  (chiefly  Coni- 
ferous) still  cover  one-third  of  the  surface  in  several  dis- 
tricts. In  the  south,  where  the  proximity  of  the  Steppes  is 
felt,  they  ,are  much  less  extensive,  the  prevailing  species 
being  oak,  birch,  and  other  deciduous  trees.  They  cover 
an  aggregate  area  of  more  than  2  million  acres. 

The  Oka  is  the  chief  river ;  it  is  navigable  throughout, 
and  receives  the  navigable  Pronya,  Pra,  and  Tsna,  besides 
a  great  many  smaller  streams  utilized  for  floating  timber. 
Steamers  ply  on  the  Oka  to  Kasimoff  arid  Nijni  Novgorod. 
The  Don  and  the  Lyesnoi  Voronezh  belong  to  Ryazan  in 
their  upper  courses  only.  On  the  whole,  the  south  dis- 
tricts are  not  well  watered.  Small  lakes  are  numerous 
in  the  broad  depression  of  the  Oka  and  elsewhere,  while 
extensive  marshes  cover  the  north-east  districts ;  a  few 
attempts  at  draining  several  of  these  on  the  banks  of  the 
Oka  have  resulted  in  the  reclamation  of  excellent  pa.sture 
lands.  The  climate  is  a  little  warmer  than  at  Moscow,  the 
average  temperature  at  Ryazan  being  41°. 

The  territory  of  Ryazan  was  occupied  in  the  9th 
century  by  Finnish  stems  (Mordvinians,  Mcrs,  Muroms, 
and  Mcschers),  which  for  the  most  jiart  have  cither  given 
way  before  or  disappeared  amongst  the  .Slavonian  colonizers. 
The  jiopiilation  is  now  Great  Russian  throughout,  and 
contains  only  a  trifling  admixture  of  some  6000  Tartars, 
1500  Poles,  and  500  Jews  in  towns.  Some  Tartars 
immigrated  into  the  Kasimoff  region  in  the  15th  century, 
and  are  noted  for  their  honesty  of  character  as  well  as  for 
their  agricultural  prosperity.  The  pooplo  of  the  Pra  river 
are  described  as  Mescheriaks,  but  their  manners  and 
customs  do  not  differ  from  those  of  the  Russians. 

The  chief  occupation  in  Ryazan  isogriculturc.  Outof  10,100,000 
acres  only  838,000  are  unfit  for  tillage.  5,482,000  acres  ar« 
under  crops,  and  the  annual  produce  is  estimated  at  about  4,2^3,000 


116 


R  Y  A  — R  Y  0 


quarters  of  com  and  972,000  quarters  of  potatoes.  The  area  under 
cultivation  and  the  crops  themselves  are  increasing,  as  also  is  the 
export- of  com.  But  even  here,  in  one  of  the  wealthiest  govern- 
ments of  Russia,  the  situation  of  the  peasants  is  far  from  satis- 
factory. Cattle-breeding  is  rapidly  falling  off  on  'account  of  want 
of  pasture  lands,  but  hay,  whicif  is  abundant,  especially  on  the  rich 
meadow  lands  of  the  Oka,  is  exported.  Fn  1882  there  were 
283^00  horses,  262,200  cattle,  and  839,600  sheep,  the  figures 
having  been  446,000,  297,000,  and  847,000  respectively  in  1858. 
lu  the  northern  part  of  the  government  various  industries  are 
carried  on,  such  as  boatbuilding,  the  preparation  of  pitch  and  tar, 
the  manufacture  of  wooden  vessels,  sledges,  &c.  Various  other 
petty  trades,  such  as  weaving,  lace-making,  and  boot-making,  are. 
combined  with  agriculture.  Manufactures  also  have  lately  begun 
to  make  progress,  and  in  1882  their  aggregate  production  reached 
13,000,000  roubles  (cotton  and  flax-spinning  mills,  glass-works 
and  metal-ware  works,  and  distilleries,  the  last-named  producing 
to  the  value  of  1,850,000  roubles).  Trade,  especially  in  com  and 
other  agricultural  produce  and  in  merchandise  manufactured  in 
the  villages,  is  very  active.  The  railway  from  Ryazan  to  Moscow 
is  one  of  the  most  important  in  Russia,  from  the  amount  of  goods 
carried  from  the  south-east  Steppe  governments.  The  Oka  is 
another  artery  of  traffic,  the  aggregate  amount  shipped  to  or 
sent  from  its  ports  within  Ryazan  reaching  3,634,000  cwts.  in 
1880.  The  government  "is  divided  into  twelve  districts,  the  chief 
towns  of  which,  with  their  populations  in  1883,  ar^  subjoined: 
Byazaa  (30,325  inhabitants),  Dankoff,  (2475),  Egorievsk  (6055), 
Ka-simoff  (15,260),  Mikhailoff  (2720),  Pronsk  (1740),  Ranenburg 
(4500),tJlyazh3k  (4265),  Sapojok  (2670),  Skopin  (10,260),  Spassk 
(4320),  and  Zaraisk  (5870).  Ranenburg,  Skopin,  and  Zaraisk  are 
important  markets  for  corn  and  hemp.  Several  villages,  such  as 
Muraevnya,  Dyedinovo  (6600)  and  Lovtsy  (loading  places  on  the 
Oka),  and  Ukolovo  (market  for  corn),  have  more  commerce  and 
industry  than  the  distiict  towns.  Large  villages  are  numerous, 
about  sixty  having  each  from  2500  to  7000  inhabitants. 

The  Slavonians  began  to  colonize  the  region  of  Ryazafi  as  early 
as  the  9th  century,  penetrating  thither  both  from  the  north-west 
(Great  Russians)  and  from  the  Dnieper  (Little  Russians).  As  early 
as  the  10th  century  the  principality  of  Murom  and  RyazaS  is 
mentioned  in  the  chronicles.  During  the  following  centuries 
this  principality  increased  both  in  extent  and  in  wealth  and 
included  parts  of  what  are  now  the  governments  of  Kaluga  and 
Moscow.  Owing  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  its  Russian  popula- 
tion rapidly  increased,  while  the  Finnish  stems  which  formerly 
inhabited  it  migrated  fartlier  east,  or  became  merged  among  the 
Slavonians.  A  dozen  towns,  all  fortified  and  commercial,  are 
mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  principality  towards  the  end  of  the 
12th  century.  The  Mongolian  invasion  stopped  all  this  develop- 
ment. The  horsemen  of  Batu  burned  and  destroyed  several  towns 
in  1237,  and  killed  many  people,  .desolating  the  country.  The 
principality,  however,  still  continued  to  exist ;  its  great  princes 
strongly  opposed  the  aUnexati'on  plans  of  Moscow,  making  alliance 
with  the  Mongols  and  with  Lithuania,  but  they  succumbed,  and, 
the  last  of  them,  Ivan,  having  been  imprisoned  in.  Moscow,  his 
principality  was  definitively  annexed  in  1517. 

RYAZAN,  capital  of  the  above  government,  lies  119 
miles  to  the  south-east  of  Moscow,  on.  the  elevated  right 
bank  of  the  Trubej,-  a  mile  above'  its.  junction  with  the 
Oki.  A  ■s'ide  piairie  dotted  with  large  villages,  being  the 
bottom  of  a  former  lake,  spreads  out  from  the  base  of  the 
crag  on  which  Ryazan  stands,  and  has  the  aspect  of  an 
immense  lake  when  it  is  inundated  in  the  spring.  Except 
one  or  two  streets,  the  town  is  badly  built,  chiefly  of  wood, 
and  ill-paved.  It  has  often  .suffered  from  fire,  and  has  few 
remains  of  former  days.  The  large  church  of  Uspensk 
dates  from  1770.  -Those  of  Arkhangelsk  and  Kjesto- 
vozdvijensk  have  preserved,  however,  their  old  archi- 
tecture, though  obliterated  to  some  extent  by  subsequent 
repairs,  as  alao  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  formerly  the 
"terem"  of  the  great  princes.  The  industries  are  un- 
developed, and  the  trade  has  less  importance  than  might 
be  expected  from  the  position  of  the  town  in  so  rich  a  region. 
It  is,  however,  an  important  railway  centre,  no  less  than 
15,000,000  cwts.,  chiefly  of  corn,  being  brought  from  the 
south-east  and  sent  on  ti  Mascow,  while" neafly  3,390,000 
cwts.  of  various  manufactured  and  grocery  wares  are  con- 
veyed in  the  opposite  direction..  'The  loading  place  on  the 
Oka  also  has  some  importance. .  The  population,  30,325 
in  1883,  is  increasing  but  slowly. 

The  capital  of  Ryaza5  principality  was  Pvazan — now  Old  Ryazaii, 
a  village  close  to  Spassk,  also  oa  the  Oki.     !t  is  mentioned  in 


annals  as  early  .as  1097,  but  continued  to  be'the  chief  town  of  the 
principality  only  until  the  14th  century.  In  the  11th  century 
one  of  the  Kieff  princes — probably  "Varoslaff  Svyatoslavitch  in 
1095 — founded,  on  the  banks  of  a  small  lake,  a  fort  which  received 
the  name  of  Pereyaslaff-Ryazanskiy.  In  1294  (or  in  1335)  the 
bishop  of  Murom,  compelled  to  leave  his  own  town  and  probably 
following  the  usual  policy  of  that  epoch, — that  of  selecting  a  new 
town  with  no  muriitipal  traditions,  as  the  nucleus  of  a  new  state, 
— settled  in  Pereyaslaff-Ryaza'nskiy,  and  thus  gave  new  importance 
to  this  formerly  insignificant  settlement.  The  great  princes  of 
Ry.oz'an  followed  his  example  and  by-and-by  completely  abandoned 
tho  old  republican  town  of  Ryazan,  transferring  also  its  name  to 
Pereyaslaff-Ryazanskiy.  In  1300  a  congress  of  Russian  princes 
was  held'  there,  and  in  the  following  year  the  town  was  taken  byt 
the  Moscow  prince.  It  continued,  however,  to  be  the  residence 
of  the  Ryazafi  princes  until  1517.  In  1365  and  1377  it  was 
plundered  and  burned  by  Tartars,  but  in  the'  two  following 
centuries  (in  1460,  1513,  1521,  and  1564)  it  was  strong  enongh 
to  repel  them.  KartheQ  walls  with  towers  were  erected  after 
1301  -f  and  in  the  17th  century  a  "kreml"  still  stood  on  the  high 
crag  above  the  Trubej.  Ryazaii  became  chief  town  of  the  Ryazafi 
lieutenancy  in  1778. 

RYBINSK,  or  BtiiBiNSK,  thongh  but  a  district  town  of 
the  government  of  Yaroslavl,  with  a  permanent  popvdation 
(1883)  of  only  18,900,  is,  as.  being  virtually  the  port,  of 
St  Petersburg  on  the  Volga,  one  of  the  mosf;  important 
towns  of  the  northern  part  of  Central  Russia.  It  lies  54 
n\iles  toJ;he  noTth-'west  of  Yaroslavl,  and  is  connected  by 
rail  (186  miles)  with  Bologoye,  on  the  line  between  St 
Petersburg  and  Moscow.  It  derives  its  importance  from 
its  situation  on  the  Volga,-  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Sheksna, — one  of  those  tributaries  which,  flowing  from 
the  north-west,  have  since  the  dawn  of  Russian  history 
connected  the  Volga  with  the  regions  around  Lake 
Ladoga.  Russians  settled  there  as  early  as  the  l2th 
century,  or  perhaps,  earlier  ^  subsequently  it  seems  to 
have  become' a  mere  fishing  station  under  Moscow,  ■vrith 
perhaps  some  shipbuilding.  It  became  a  considerable 
■  centre  for  traSic  when  the  Vyshnevolotsk,  Tikhvinsk,  and 
Mariinsk  canal  systems,  connecting  St  Petersburg  With 
the  Volga,  were  opened.  Tlie  cargoes  of  the  larger  boats 
from  the  lower  Volga,  consisting  mainly  of  corn  and  flour, 
as  also  of  salt,  spirits,  potash,  and  tallow,  are  here  trans- 
ferred to  smaller  boats  capable  of  accomplishing  the 
n&vigation  to  St  Pstersburg,  and  twe  versa.  The  amount 
of  goods  thus  transhipped  is  estimated  at  16,000,000 
cwts.,  worth  32,800,000  roubles.  Since  the  opening  of 
the  line  to  Bologoye,  a  large  proportion  of  this  merchandise 
is  sent  to  St  Petersburg  by  rail  (9,293,000  cwts.  in  1880). 
The  total  number  of  boats  visiting  RybinsK  annually  is 
estimated  at  5000  to  7000,  their  aggregate  cargoes 
amounting  to  nearly  20,000,000  cwts.  (about  40,000,000 
roubles).  L^pwards  of  100,000  labourers  (male'andlemale) 
assemble  at  Rybinsk  during  the  navigation,  and  the  num- 
ber of  vessels  is  so  great  a.s  to  cover  the  Volga  and  the 
Sheksna  like  a  bridge.  Besides  the  business  of  tranship- 
ment, Rybinsk  has  an  active  trade  in  corn,  hemp,  ic,  from 
the  neighbouring  districts.  The  town  is  but  poorly  built, 
and  its  sanitary  condition  leaves  very  much  to  be  desired, 
especially  in  summer. 

RYCAUT,  or  Ricact,  Sib  Paul  (d.  1700),  traveller 
and  diplomatist,  was  the  tenth  son  of  Sir  Peter  Ricaut,  a 
Royalist  who  on  account  of  his  support  of  King  Charles 
had  to  pay  a  composition  of  ^1500.  The  50n"was  admitted 
a  scholar  of  Trinity  College,  Capibridge,  in  1647,  and  took 
his  B.A.  degree  in  1650.  After  travelling  in  Europe  and 
in  various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  he  in  1661  accom- 
panied as  secretary  the  earl  of  Winchelsea,  ambassador 
extraordinary  to  Turkey.  During  a  residence  there  -of 
eight  years  he  wrote  The  Present  State  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  in  three  boohs ;  containing  .  the  Maxims  of  the 
Turkish  Politie,  their  Religion  and  Military  Discipline 
(1670;  4th  ed.,  1686;  Fr.  transl.  by  Briot,  167a;  and 
another  with  notes  by  Bespier,  1677).  ,  In  1663  he  pub- 


R  YD  — R  1  E' 


117 


lished  at  Constantinople  The  Capitulalion,  Articles  of 
Peace,  ({-c,  concluded  between  the  King  of  England  and  the 
Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Subsequently  he  was  for 
eleven  years  consul  at  Smyrna,  and  at  the  command  of 
Charles  II.  wrote  The  Prenent  State  of  the  Greek  and 
■Armenian  Churches,  Anno  Christi  1G7S,  which  on  his 
return  to  England  he  presented  to  the  king  and  published 
in  1679.  In  16S5  Lord  Clarendon,  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  made  him  principal  secretary  for  the  provinces  of 
Leinster  and  Connaught.  He  at  the  same  time  received 
from  James  II.  the  honour  of  knighthood,  was  made  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  of  Ireland,  aiid  named  judge 
of  the  high  court  of  admiralty,  which  office  he  retained 
till  1G88.  From  1690  to  1700  he  was  employed  by  King 
William  as  English  resident  at  the  Hansc  towns,  and 
shortly  after  his  return  to  England,  worn  out  with  age  and 
infirmities,  he  died  on  the  IGth  December  1700. 

Rvcant  was  a  follow  of  the  Royal  Society,  anJ  wrote  an  article 
on  Sablo  Slice  which  was  publislicd  in  their  Tramacliojis.  In 
addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned  lie  was  the  author  of 
4  Contiuuntion  of  Knolhs  I/i^tonj  of  tJu  Turks  from  lC-3  to  1677 
(ICSO),  and/ro))l  1G70  to  1C90  (1700)  ;  A  Translation  of  Platixa's 
Lives  of  the  Popes,  with  a  Coiitimmtion  from  1471  to  the  Present 
Time  (16S5) ;  The  Critic/:,  from  the  Spanish  of  Qracian  (16S6)  ; 
find  the  fioyal  Commentaries  of  Pern,  from  the  Spanish  of 
Carcilasso  (lOSS). 

RYDE,  a  municipal  borough  and  watering  place  of  the 
[sle  of  Wight,  is  finely  situated  on  a  sloping  eminence 
above  the  Solent,  5  miles  south  by  west  of  Portsmouth, 
and  7  (12  by  rail)  from  West  Cowcs.  It  occupies  the  site 
of  a  village  called  La  Rye  or  La  Riche,  which  was  destroyed 
by  the  French  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IL  About  the  close 
of  the  ISth  century  it  was  a  small  fishing  hamlet,  but 
when  the  beauty  of  its  site  attracted  attention  it  rapidly 
grew  into  favour  as  a -watering-place.  The  streets  are 
wide,  regular,  and  wellpaved,  and  there  are  a  large  number 
of  fine  villas  en  the  slopes  of  the  hill.  It  is  connected 
by  rail  with  the  principal  other  towns  in  the  island,  and 
there  is  also  steamboat  communication  with  Portsmouth, 
Southampton,  Southsea,  Portsea,  and  Stoke's  Bay.  The 
pier,  built  originally  in  .1812,  but  since  then .  greatly  ex- 
tended, forms  a  delightful  promenade  half  a  mile  in  length. 
The  principal  buildings  are  All  Saints  church,  erected  in 
1870  from  the  designs  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and  other 
churches,  the  market-house  and  town  hall,  the  Royal  Vic- 
toria Yacht  club-house,  the  theatre,  and  the  Royal  Isle  of 
Wight  Infirmary.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  18G8, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eighteen 
councillors.  The  popidation  of  the  municiiial  borough  (area 
792  acres)  in  1871  was  11,2G0  and  in  18S1  it  was'l  1,4G1. 
.  RYE.  As  in- the  case  of  other  cereals,  it  is  doubtful  if 
rye  {Seade  cereale)  exists  at  the  present  time  in  a  truly 
wild  state.  The  best  evidence  on  this  point  goes  to 
show  that  the  plant  is  a  native  of  the  regions  between 
the  lilack  and  Caspian  Seas.  It  is  also  recorded  from 
Afghanistan  and  Ti'.rke.'^tan  ;  but  botanists  are  very  chary 
about  admitting  the  validity  of  the  evidence  hitherto 
adduced.  Aitchison,  the  latest  in'vestigator  of  the  flora  of 
'Afghanistan,  mentions  it  as> growing  in  wheat-fields,  where 
it  is  considered  as  a  weed,  not  being  intentionally  sown.  In 
some  fields  "  it  almost  eradicates  the  wheat  crop."  Rut 
this  merely  shows  that  the  conditions  are  more  favourable 
to  the  growth  of  rye  than  to  that  of  wheat.  In  spite  of 
the  uncertainty  as  to  the  precise  origin  of  the  cultivated 
plant,  its  cultivation  does  nota])pear  to  have  been  practised 
at  a  very  early  date,  relatively  speaking.  Alphonsc  de 
Candolle,  who  has  collected  the  evidence  on  this  point, 
draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  no  traces  of  this  cereal 
have  hitherto  been  found  in  Egyptian  monuments_or  in 
tb*  earlier  Swiss  dwellings,  though  sccdi  have  been  found 
in   association    with    weapons   of    the    Bronze    period  .at 


Olmiitz.  The  absence  of  any  special  name  for  it  in  the 
Semitic,  Chinese,  and  Sanskrit  languages  is  also  adduced 
as  an  indication  of  its  comparatively  recent  culture.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  general  occurrence  of  the  name  in  the 
more  modern  languages  of  northern  Europe,  under  various 
modifications,  points  to  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  then, 
as  now,  in  those  regions.  The  origin  of  the  Latin  name 
secale,  which  exists  in  a  modified  form  among  the  Banquea 
and  Bretons,  is  not  explained.  The  circumstances  that  the 
cultivation  of  rye  is  relatively  not  of  great  antiquity  and 
that  it  is  confined  to  a  relatively  restricted  area  must  be 
taken  int^o  account,  in  connexion  with  the  fact  that  the 
variations  of  this  cereal  are  much  fewer  than  are  noted  in 
the  ease  of  other  plants  of  like  character. 

The  fai;t  stated  by  Miiller  that  the  anthers  and  stigmas 
of  the  flowers  come  to  maturity  at  the  same  time  would 
tend  to  "  close  fertilization  "  and  a  consequent  constancy  of 
"characters"  in  the  offspring,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  varieties  of  this  grass  are  not  numerous.  Rye  is  a 
tall-growing  annual  grass,  with  fibrous,  roots,  flat,  narrow; 
ribbon-like  blui.sh-green  leaves,  and  erect  or  decurved 
cylindrical  slender  spikes  like  those.of  barley.  The  spike 
lets  contain  two  or  three  flowers,  of  which  the  uppermost 
is  usually  imperfect.  The  outer  glumes  are  acute  glabrouaf 
the  flowering  glumes  lance-shaped,  with  a  comb-like  keel 
at  the  back,  and  tlie  outer  or  lower  one  prolonged  at  the 
apex  into  a  very  long  bristly  awn.  Within  these  are  three 
stamens  surrounding  a  compressed  ovary,  with  two  feathery 
stigmas.  When  ripe,  the  grain  is  of  an  elongated  oval 
form,  with  a  few  hairs  at  the  summit. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  Great  Britain  rye  is  chiefly  or 
solely  cultivated  as  a  forage-plant  for  cattle  and  horses, 
being  usually  sown  in  autumn  for  spring  use,  after  the 
crop  of  roots,  turnips,  &c.,  is  exhausted,  and  before  the 
clover  and  lucerne  are  ready.  For  forage  purposes  it  is 
best  to  cut  early,  before -the  leaves  and  haulms  have  been 
exhausted  of  their  supplies  to  benefit  the  grain.  In  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  more  especially  in  Scan- 
dinavia, Russia,  and  parts  of  northern  Germany,  rye  is  the 
principal  cereal ;  and  in  nutritive  value,  as  measured  by  the 
amount  of  gluten  it  contains,  it  stands  next  to  wheat,  a 
fact  which  furnishes  the  explanation  of  its  culture  in 
northern  latitudes  ill-suited  for  the  growth  of  wheat.  Rye 
bread  or  black-bread  is  in  general  use  in  northern  Europe 
but  finds  little  favour  with  tho.se  unaccustomed  to  its  nse, 
owing  to  its  sour  taste,  the  sugar  it  contains  rapidlj 
passing  into  the  acetous  fermentation. 

When  the  ovaries  of  the  plant  become  affected  with  a' 
]ieculiar  fungus  (Cordyceps),  they  become  blackened  and 
distorted,  constituting  EkgoT  (epv.). 

RYE,  a  municipal  town  and  seaport  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  county  of  Sussex,  63  miles  south-south- 
cast  of  London,  is  built  upon  a  rocky  eminence  which  two 
or  three  centuries  ago  was  washed  on  all  sides  by  the 
influx  of  the  tide,  but  now,  in  consequence  of  the  gradual 
recession  of  the  sea,  lies  two  miles  inland.  It .  is  sur- 
rounded by  rich  marsh  land  through  wtiich  flows  the  rive» 
Bother,  uniting  at  the  south-cast  foot  of  the  rock  with 
two  rivulets  to  form  a  small  serpentine  estuary.  Rye 
harbour,  the  mouth  of  which  is  connected  with  the  town 
by  means  of  a  branch  line  of  railway.  In  bygone  years, 
when  the  adjacent  marshes  were  flooded  with  tidal  water, 
the  efllux  was  so  iiowcrfiil  as  to  effectually  maintain  safe 
and  free  entrance  into  Bye  harbour;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  a  frigate  of  .00  guns  could  enter  and  ride  at 
anchor.  Now  the  harbour  suffers  seriously  from  th( 
shifting  sand  and  shingle,  and  considerable  sums  of  monej 
have  been  expended  by  the  harbour  commissioners  witl 
the  view  of  overcoming  these  impediments,  with  \mi 
partial   success.     The   trade  is   rhicfly  in   coal,   timber,' 


118 


R  \   E  —  U  Y  M 


tind  bark,  and  shipbuilding  is  carried  ori  as  well  as  fish- 
ing. There  is  a  large  market  everj'  alternate  Wednesday, 
and  considerable  business  in  cattle,  sheep,  corn,  wool,  and 
hops  is  transacted.  Rye  is  a  quaint,  compactly-built  town 
perched  upon  the  rock  to  which  for  centaries  it  was 
restricted,  but  in  the  course  of  the  last  half-century  it  has 
gradually  extended  itself  over  the  ntrthern  slopes  beyond 
the  town  wall  ■  It  is  excellently  drained,  abundantly 
supplied  witb'^clear  spring  water,  and  very  healthy. 
The  church,  said  to  be  the  largest  parish  church  in  Eng- 
land, is  of  very  mixed  architecture,  chiefly  Transitional, 
Norman,  a-iid  Early  English  ;  tlie  nave  and  high  chancel 
were  judiciously  restored  in  1S82,  according  to  designs  by 
the  late  !Mr  G.  E.  Street.  Of  the  old  fortifications  there 
itill  remain  portions  of  the  town  wall,  much  hidden  by 
newer  buildings,  a  string  quadrangular  tower  built  by 
William  of  Y[>res,  earl  of  Kent,  and  lord  warden  in  the  time 
of  Stephen,  and  now  forming  part  of  the  police  station, 
and  a  handsome  gate  with  a  round  tower  on  each  side, 
known  as  the  Sandgate,  at  the  entrance  into  Rye  from  the 
London  road.  Eye  ceased  in  1885  to  be  a  parliamentary 
borough,  but  gives  its  name  to  the  eastern  division  of  the 
county.     The  population  in  1881  was  4224. 

Of  tlic  early  history  of  R)  e  little  is  known.  In  tijc  meiiia:T.-il 
French  cln-oiiiclcd  it  is  always  mentioned  as  "La  Rie.'^  Having 
bfen  conferred  niK>n  the  abbey  of  Fecanip  by  Edward  the  Confessor, 
it  was  taken  back  by  King  Henry  III.  into  his  own  hands,  "for 
the  better  defence  of  his  realm,"  and  rccei\  ed  from  that  sovereign 
the  full  rights  and  privileges  of  a  Cini|ne  Port  under  the  title  of 
"Ancient  I'own."  In  consequence  of  the  frequent  incursions  of 
the  French,  by  whom  it  was  sacked  ami  burnt  three  times  in  the 
14th  century,  it  was  fortified  by  order  of  Edward  111.  on  the  land- 
ward side,  the  stec[>  prccipitonssidcs  of  the  rock  alfordiiig  ample 
protection  towards  the  .sea.  In  addition  to  the  na\al  services 
lendcred  by  Rye  as  a  Cinque  Port  under  the  Phintagenet  and 
Tudor  sovereigns,  it  was  a  princijval  port  of  coninninication  witli 
France  in  times  of  peace, — for  which  reason  successive  bamls  of 
Huguenots  lied  thither  between  iritj'2  and  IGS.^,  many  pf  wliom 
settled  at  Rye  and  have  left  representatives  now  living. 

RYEZHITZ.\,  a  town  of  European  Russia  at  the  head 
of  a  district  in  the  Vitebsk  government,  in  5G°  30'  N.  lat. 
and  27°  21'  E.  long.,  198  miles  north-west  from  Vitebsk 
on  the  railway  between  St  Petersburg  and  Warsaw,  near 
the  Ryezbitza,  which  falls  into  Lake  Luban.  Its  popu- 
lation increased  from  730G  (2902  Jens)  in  18G7  to 
about  9000  in  1881  ;  but  its  importance  is  mainly  histori- 
cal.    The  cathedral  is  a  modern  building  (1846). 

Ryczhitza,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  the  Livonian  chronicles,  Rozitcn, 
was  founded  in  1285  by  Wilhelm  von  Ilarburg  to  keep  in  subjec- 
tion the  LUhuanians  and  Letts.  The  castle  was  continually  tlie 
object  of  hostile  attacks.  In  1559  the  Livonian  order,  exhausted 
by  the  war  with  Russia,  gave  it  iu  pawn  to  Poland,  and,  tliough 
it  was  captured  by  the  Russians  in  15C7  and  1577,  and  had  its 
fortifications  dismantled  by  the  Swedes  during  the  war  of  le.Oe- 
1660,  it  continued  Polish  till  1772,  when  White  Russia  was  uniteil 
»vith  the  Russian  empire.  In  early  times  Ryezbitza  was  a  large 
and  beautiful  town. 

RYLAXD,  WILHA.M  Wy:^xE  (1788-1783),  engraver, 
v;as  born  in  London  in  July  1738,  the  son  of  an  engraver 
and  copper  plate  printer.  He  studied  under  Ravenet,  and 
in  Paris  under  Boucher  and  J.  P.  Ic  Bas.  After  spending 
five  yfors  on  the  Continent  he  returned  to  England,  and 
having  engraved  portraits  of  Goorge  IIL  and  Lord  Bute 
after  Ramsay  (a  commission  declined  by  Strange),  and  a 
portrait  of  Queen  Charlotte  and  the  Princess  Royal  after 
Francis  Cotes,  R.A.,  he  was  appointed  engraver  to  the 
king.  In  1766  he  became  a  member  of  the  Incorporated 
feuciety  of  Artists,  and  he  exhibited  with  them  and  in  the 
Royal  Academy.  In  his  later  life  Ryland  abandoned  line- 
engraving,  and  introduced  "chalk-engraving,"  in  which 
the  line  is  composed  of  stippled  dots,  a  method  by  means 
of  which  he  attained  great  excellence,  and  in  which  he 
transcribed  Mortimer's  King  John  Signing  Magna  Charta, 
sod  copied  the  drawings  of  the  old  masters  r.nd  the  works 


of  Angelica  Kauffman.  lie  traded  largely  in  prints,  hui 
in  consequence  of  his  extravagant  habits  his  affairs  becam^ 
involved  ;  he  was  convicted  of  forging  bills  upon  the  East 
India  Company,  and,  after  attempting  to  commit  suicide, 
was  executed  at  Tyburn  on  the  29th  of  August  1783.  J\ 
short  menioi"- of  Ryland  Was  publi.-hed  the  year  after  his 
death. 

RYMER,  TnoMA.s  (1641-1713),  historiographer  royal, 
was  the  younger  soi)  lOi  Ralph  Rymer,  lord  of  the  manor 
of  Brafferton  in  Yorkshire,  described  by  Clarendon  af, 
"  possessed  of  a  good  estate  "  and  executed  for  his  share  iu 
the  "  Presbyterian  rising"  of  16G3.  Thomas  was  probably 
born  at  Yaffortli  Hall  early  in  1641,  and  was  educated  at 
a  private  school  kept  by  Thomas  Smelt,  a  noted  Royalist, 
with  whom  Rymer  was  "a  great  favourite,"  and  "well 
known  for  his  great  critical  skill  in  human  learniug^ 
especially  in  poetry  and  history."' 

He  was  admitted  as  pensionarius  minor  at  Sidney 
Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  on  April  29,  1C58,  but  left 
the  university  without  taking  a  degree.  On  May  2,  IGGG, 
he  became  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  on  June  16,  1673.  His  first  appearance  in  print  was 
as  translator  of  Cicero's  Prince  (1668),  from  the  Latin 
treatise  (1608)  drawn  up  fo"r  Prince  Henry.  He  also 
translated  Rapin's  Rejiedions  on  Aristotle's  Treatise  oj 
Poesie  (1674),  ind  followed  the  principles  there  set  forth 
in  a  tragedy  in  verse,  licensed  September  13,  1677,  called 
Edgar,  or  the  Engtisli  Monarch,  which  was  not,  howevex. 
very  successful.  The  printed  editions  of  1678,  1G91,  and 
1693  belong  to  the  same  issue,  with  new  title-pages. 
Rymer's  views  on  the  drama  were  again  given,  to  the 
world  in  the  shape  of  a  printed  letter  to  Fleetwood  Shep- 
heard,  the  friend  of  Prior,  under  the  title  of  The  Tragedies 
of  the  Last  Age  Considered  (1678).  To  Ovid's  Epistles 
Translated  by  Several  Hands  (1G80),  with  preface  by  Dry- 
den,  "Penelope  to  Ulysses"  was  contributed  by  Rymer, 
who  was  also  one  of  the  "hands"  who  Englished  the 
Plutarcli  of  1683-86.  The  life  of  Nicias  fell  to  his  share. 
He  furnished  a  preface  to  Whitelocke's  Memorials  of  Eng- 
lish A  fairs  (1682),  and  wrote  in  1681  A  Genfral  Draught 
and  Prospect  of  the  Government  of  Europe,  reprinted  in 
1G89  and  1714  as  Of  the  Antiquity,  Power,  and  Decay  of 
Parliaments,  where,  ignorant  of  his  future  dignity,  the 
critic  had  the  misfortune  to  observe,  "You  are  not  to 
expect  truth  from  an  historiographer  royal."  He  con- 
tributed three  pieces  to  the  collection  of  Poems  to  the 
Memory  of  Edmund  Waller  (16S8),  afterwards  reprinted 
in  Dryden's  Miscellany  Poems,  and  is  said  to  have  written 
the  Latin  inscription  on  Waller's  monument  in  Beaconsfield 
churchyard.  He  produced  a  congratulatory  poem  upon  the 
arrival  of  Queen  JIary  i^  1689.  His  next  piece  of  author- 
ship was  to  translate  the  sixth  elegy  of  the  third  book 
of  Ovid's  Tristia  for  Dryden's  Miscellany  Poems  (1692„ 
p.  148).  On  the  death  of  Thomas  Shad  well  in  1692 
Rymer  received  the  appointment  of  historiographer  royal.' 
at  a  yearly  salary  of  £200.  Immediately  afterward, 
appeared  his  Short  View  of  Tragedy  (1693),  criticizing 
Shakespeare  and  Ben  Jonson,  which  produced  The  Impartial 
Critick  (1G93)  of  Dennis,  the  epigram  of  Dryden.'-  and  the 
judgment  of  Macaulay  that  Rymer  was  "the  worst  critic 
that  ever  lived."  Within  eight  months  of  his  official 
appointment  Rymer  was  directed  (August  26,  1 693)  to  carrj 

'  See  Hickes,  Memoirs  of  John  Kettlewetl,  1718,  pp.  10-14,, 
-  "The  eonnpUon  of  a  poet  is  the  generation  of  a  critic  "  (Z)c3t 
of  the  Third  Miscellany,  in  Works,  1S21,  xii.  p.  49),  which  is  muclv 
more  pointed  than  Beaconsfield's  reference  to  critics  as  "  men  who 
have  failed  in  literature  and  art"  (Lolhair,  chap,  xxxv.)  or  Balzac's 
sly  hit  at  Merimee  in  similar  terms.  The  poet's  remarks  on  the 
Tragedies  of  the  Last  Age  have  been  reprinted  in  his  Works,  1S21,  sv: 
pp.  3S3-9G.  and  in  Johnson's  Life  of  Lrydcn.  See  also  DrydetlM 
Works,  i.  3?7,  vi.  251,  xi.  CO,  xiii.  20. 


R  Z  H  — R  Z  H 


119 


oot  that  great  national  undertaking  with  which  his  name 
will  always  be  honourably  connected,  and  of  which  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  Lords  Somers  and  Halifax  were 
the  original  promoters.  The  Codex 'Juris  Gentium,  Diplo- 
maticus  of  Leibnitz  was  taken  by  the  editor  as  the  model 
of  the  Faedera.  The  plan  was  to  publish  all  records  of 
alliances  and  other  transactions  in  which  England  was 
concerned  with  foreign  powers  from  1101  to  the  time  of 
publication,  limiting  the  collection  to  original  documents 
in  the  royal  archives  and  the  great  national  libraries. 
Unfortunately,  this  was  not  uniformly  carried  out,  and 
the  work  contains  some  extracts  from  printed  chronicles. 
From  1694  he  corresponded  with  Leibnitz,  by  whom  Ita 
was  greatly  influenced  with  respect  to  the  plan  and  forma- 
tion of  the  Fcedera.  While  collecting  materials,  Kymer 
unwisely  engraved  a  spurious  charter  of  King  Malcolm, 
acknowledging  that  Scotland  was  held  in  homage  from 
Edward  the  Confessor.  When  this  came  to  be  known, 
the  Scottish  antiquaries  were  extremely  indignant.  G. 
Redpath  published  a  MS.  on  the  independence  of  the 
Scottish  crown,  by  Sir  T.  Craig,  entitled  Scotland's  Sover- 
eignty Asserted  (1695),  and  the  subject  was  referred  to  by 
Bishop  Nicolson  in  his  Scottish  Historical  Library  (1702). 
This  led  Rymer  to  address  three  Letters  to  the  Bishop  of 
Carlisle  (1702),  explaining  Ms  action,  and  discussing  other 
■Antiquarian  matters.  The  first  and  second  letters  are 
usually  found  together ;  the  third  is  extremely  rare.  Rymer 
had  now  been  for  some  years  working  with  great  industry, 
but  was  constantly  obliged  to  petition  the  crown  for  money 
to  carry  on  the  undertaking.  Up  to  August  1698  he 
had  expended  il253,  and  had  only  received  £500  on 
account. 

At  last,  on  November  20,  1704,  was  issued  the  first 
folio  volume  of  the  Fcedera,  Conveniiones,  Litters,  et  cvjuscun- 
que  generis  A  eta  Publica  inter  reges  A  nglix  et  alios  quosvis 
imp'ratores,  reges,  dr.,  ah  a.d.  1101  ad  nostra  usque 
tempora  habita  aui  tractata.  The  publication  proceeded 
with  great  rapidity,  and  fifteen  volumes  were  brought  out 
by  Rymer  in  nine  years.  Two  hundred  jnd  fifty  copies 
were  printed ;  but,  as  nearly  all  of  them  were  presented  to 
persons  of  distinction,  the  work  soon  became  so  scarce 
that  it  was  priced  by  booksellers  at  one  hundred  guineas. 
A  hundred  and  twenty  sheets  of  the  fifteenth  volume  and 
the  copy  for  th^  remainder  were  burnt  at  a  fire  at  William 
Bowyer's,  the  printer,  on  January  30,  1712-13.  Rymer 
died  .shortly  after  the  appearance  of  this  volume,  but  he 
had  prepared  materials  for  carrying  the  work  down  to  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  These  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  Robert  Sanderson,  his  assistant.  For  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  Rymer  derived  his  chief  subsistence  from 
a  mortgage  assigned  to  him  by  his  father.  His  miscel- 
laneous literary  work  could  not  have  been  very  profitable. 
At  one  time  he  was  reduced  to  offer  his  MSS.  for  a  new 
edition  for  sale  to  the  earl  of  O.xford.  About  1703  kJs 
affairs  became  more  settled,  and  he  afterwards  regularly 
recpived  his  salary  as  historiographer,  besides  an  addi- 
tional X200  a  year  as  editor  of  the  Fccdcra.  Twenty- 
fiVo  copies  of  each  volume  were  also  allotted  to  him.  He 
died  at  Arundel  Street,  Strand,  December  14,  1713,  and 
iwas  buried  in  the  church  of  St  Clement  Danes.  His  will 
was  dated  July  10,  1713.  Tonson  issued  an  edition  of 
Rochester's  Worls  (1714),  with  a  short  preface  bj-  the 
late  historiographer.  Another  posthumous  publication 
was  in  a  miscellaneous  collection  called  Ctaious  Amuse- 
vunt",  by  M.  E.  (1714),  which  included  "some  transla- 
tions from  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  poets,  by  T. 
Rymer."  Some  of  his  poetical  pieces  were  also  inserted 
in  J.  Nichols's  Select  Collection  (1780-86,  8  vols.). 

Two  mcro  volumes  of  the  Fadcra  were  issued  by  S.-in(lerson  in 
1715  and  1717,  and  thclasl  threo  volumes  (xviii.,  xix.,  .ind  xx. )  by 


the  same  edito.,  out  upon  a  slightly  different  plan,  in  1726-35. 
The  latter  volumes  were  published  by  Tonson,  all  the  former  by 
Churchill.  Under  Rymer  it  was  carried  dowu  to  1586,  and  con- 
tinned  by  Sanderson  to  165i.  The  rarity  and  importance  of  the 
work  induced  Tonson  to  obtain  a  licence  for  a  second  edition,  and 
George  Holmes,  deputy  keeper  of  the  Tower  records,  was  appointed 
editor.  The  .new  edition  appeared  between  1727  and  1735.  The 
last  three  volumes  are  the  same  in  both  issues.  There  are  some 
correetions,  enumerated  in  a  volume,  Tlic  Emcadatioiis  in  the  neio 
edition  of  Mr  Jiymcrs  Fceilcra,  printed  by  Tonson  in  1730,  but  in 
other  respects  the  second  is  inferior  to  the  first  edition.  A  tliird 
edition,  embodying  Holmes's  collaticn,  was  commenced  at  The  Hague 
in  1737  and  finished  in  1745.  It  is  in  smaller  type  than  the  others, 
and  is  compressed  witliin  ten  folio  volumes.  "The  arrangement  is 
rather  more  convenient ;  there  is  some  additional  matter;  the  index 
is  better  ;  and  on  the  whole  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  either  of  the 
previous  editions.  When  tlie  volumes  of  the  Fecdcra  first  appeared 
tliey  were  analysed  -by  Leclero  and  Rapin  in  the  Bibliothiqite 
Choisie  and  BibliotMque  Ancicnnc  it  Modcrne.  Rapin's  articles 
were  collected  together,  and  appended,  under  the  title  of  Ahregi 
historiqtic  dcs  actcs puhliqtics  de  V Anglctcrre,  to  the  Hague  edition. 
A  translation,  called  Acta,  Itcgia,  was  published  by  Stephen 
AVhatlcy,  1726-7,  4  vols.  8vo,  reprinted  both  in  8vo  and  folio, 
the  latter  edition  containing  an  analysis  of  the  cancelled  sheets, 
relating  to  the  journals  of  tlie  first  Parliament  of  Charles  I.,  of  the 
18th  volume  of  the  Fisdcra. 

In  1808  the  Record  Commissioners  appointed  Dr  Adam  Clarke. to 
prepare  a  new  and  improved  edition  of  the  Fcedera.  Six  parts, 
large  folio,  edited  by  Clarke,  Caley,  and  Holiirooke,  were  pub- 
lished between  1M6  and  1830.  Considerable  additions  were  made, 
but  the  editing  was  performed  in  so  unsatisfactory  a  manner  thai 
the  publication  was  suspended  in  the  middle  of  printing  a  seventh 
part.  The  latter  portion,  bringing  the  worlc  down  to  1383,  was 
ultimately  issued  in  1S69. 

The  wide  learning  and  untiring  labours  of  Rymer  have  received 
the  warmest  praise  from  historians.  Sir  T.  D.  Hardy  styles  the 
Fcedera  "  a  work  of  which  this  nation  has  every  reason  to  be  proud, 
for  with  all  its  blemishes — and  what  work  is  faultless  ? — it  has 
no  rival  in  its  class"  {Syllabus,  vol.  ii. ,  xxxvi. ),  and  Mr  J.  B. 
Jluliinger  calls  it  '*  a  collection  of  the  highest  value  and  authority  " 
(Gardiner  and  MuUinger's  Introduction  to  English  History,  p.  224). 

The  best  account  of  Rymer  Is  to  be  found  In  the  prefaces  fo  Sir  T.  D.  nardy's 
Siinabm.  18C9-86,  3  vols.  Bvo.  There  is  an  unpubllslied  life  by  Dcs  Mnizeani 
(Uitt.  Mns.  Add.  ^IS.  N'o.  4223),  and  a  few  memoranda  in  bhhop  Kennel's 
collections  (Lansd.  MS.  No.  9S7),  In  Caultield's  PortraiCs,  <S;c.,  1810.  i.  .w,  may 
be  seen  an  engraving  of  liymer,  with  n  descri]<tion  of  n  satrical  print.  Rymer's 
two  critical  M-oiks  on  tlie  drama  are  discusstd  by  bU"  T.  N.  Talfourd  in  tho 
liclrofpectice  Review.  1S20,  vol.  !.  p.  1-15,  J 

Sir  T,  D.  nardy's  Stjtlabus  gives  in  Eiislish  a  condensed  notice  of  eacb  instm- 
mcnt  in  tlie  seveial  editions  of  the  Fa-dcra,  ananpcd  in  chri.noloEical  order.  The 
third  volume  contains  a  complete  index  of  names  and  plac  :a,  with  a  catalogue  of 
the  volumes  of  tranjicripts  collected  for  the  Recoid  edition  of  Ihc  F/xdera.  In 
1SC9  the  Record  Odice  printed,  for  private  distribution,  Appendices  A  to  E  "  to  a 
report  on  the  Fitdera  intended  to  have  been  submitted  by  <;.  I'urion  Cooper  to  the 
Late  Commissioners  of  Public  Records,"  3  vols.  8vo  (iiicliidinc  accounts  of  HSS. 
in  foreign  archives  relating  to  Great  Riitain,  with  facsi  niles).  In  the  British 
Museum  is  preserved  (Add.  MS,  '24,6^9)  a  folio  volume  of  reports  and  papel-3 
rcl.itliic  to  the  Record  edition,  Rymer  left  extensive  materials  for  a  new  edition 
of  the  Fa'dtra,  bound  in  ^9  vols,  folio,  and  embracing  the  period  from  1115  to 
lc?a.  This  was  the  collection  orTored  to  the  tail  of  Oxford,  It  was  purchased 
by  Ihc  Trcasuiy  for  £215  and  is  now  in  tho  Biitish  Sluieum  (Add.  JiSS.  Nos. 
4573  to  4fi30,  and  18,911),  A  catalogue  and  index  may  be  consulted  in  the  17tll 
volume  of  Tonson's  edition  of  the  Fii:dnn.  The  Public  Record  Offlce  possesses 
a  MS.  volume,  compiled  by  Robert  Lemon  at«ut  ISOO,  containing  instrumenta 
in  tile  Patent  Rolls  omitted  by  Rymer.  In  the  same  place  may  be  seen  a  voiumu 
of  reports,  oiders,  ie,,  on  the  Fcedera,  1803-11,  (H.  R.  T.), 

RZHEFF,  EsHEFF,  Ejev,  or  Rzhoff,  a  town  of  European 
Russia  at  the  head  of  a  district  in  the  Tver  government, 
in  50°  16'  N.  lat,  and  34°  21'  E.  long.,  89  miles  south- 
west of  Tver,  occupies  the  bluffs  on  both  banks  of  the 
Volga  (here  350  feet  wide)  near  the  confluence  of  the  river 
Bazuza.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a  branch  line  from  the  St 
Petersburg  and  Moscow  Railway,  has  a  population  of 
18,569  (1880;  19,600  in  1800),  carries  on  a  variety  of 
manufactures — hemp-spinning,  malting,  brewing,  ship- 
building, A-c. — and  is  the  centre  of  a  great  transit  trade 
between  the  provinces  of  tho  lower  Volga,  Orel,  Kaluga, 
and  Smolensk,  and  the  ports  of  St  Petersburg  and  Riga. 

Rzhcff  was  already  in  existence  in  the  I2th  century,  when  it 
belonged  to  the  principality  of  Smolensk  and  stood  on  tlie  highway 
between  Novgorod  and  Kielf.  Under  the  rulers  of  Novgorod  it 
become  from  1225  a  subordinate  principality,  and  in  tlio  15th 
century  tho  two  portions  of  tho  town  were  helti  by  two  independent 
princes,  whoso  names  are  still  preserved  in  the  ile^ignations  Knyaz 
Vedorovskii  and  Knya^  Dimitrieyskii,  given  respectively  to  tho 
left  and  the  right  bank  of  the  "Volga.  In  1368  Rzhoff  was  captured 
by  Vladimir  Andrccvitch,  and  in  1375  it  stood  a  three  weeks'  seige 
and  had  its  suburb  burned  by  the  samo  prince.  It  ^va3  made  ^  ■ 
district  town  iu  1775. 


120 


S 


S  represents  the  liard  open  (or  fricative)  sound  produced 
by  bringing  the  blade  of  the  tongue  close  to  the 
front  palate,  immediately  behind  the  gums,  or  rather,  this 
is  the  normal  position  for  S,  as  slight  varieties  can  be 
produced  by  bringing  the  tongue  farther  back.  By  the 
"blade"  is  meant  the  pointed  end  of  the  tongue,  not  the 
mere  point,  which  at  the  same  part  of  the  palate  produces 
R.  This  position  differs  little  from  that  for  TH,  into 
which  S  passes  in  a  lisping  pronunciation ;  a  larger  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  tongue  is  brought  near  to  the  palate 
for  TH  than  for  S.  Tlio  sj'mbol  which  represents  the  soft 
open  sound  corresponding  to  S  is  Z,  though  in  practice  S 
often  stands  for  both. 

The  history  of  our  symbol  S  is  easy  up  to  a  certain 
point.  It  is  the  rounded  form  of  ^,  rounded  at  a  very 
early  period  for  convenience  of  writing,  for  the  change 
is  apparent  in  the  old  Italian  al|)habet  of  Ca;re,  and  still 
more  on  the  recently  discovered  vase  of  Fornicllo  ;  and 
even  in  the  scribbling  of  the  Greeks  at  Abu  Simbel — the 
oldest,  or  nearly  the  oldest,  bit  of  Greek  epigraphy — per- 
fectly rounded  forms  stand  side  by  side  with  the  angular 
ones.  The  common  Giick  form  —  was  obtained  by  adding 
a  fourth  stroke,  and  gra-Jually  making  the  top  and  bottom 
ones  horizontal.  When,  however,  we  wish  to  identify  the 
Greek  symbol  of  three  strokes  with  its  Ph<Enician  coitnter- 
part,  the  difficulty  begins.  The  Phcenicians  had  four 
symbols  for  sibilants,  known  in  Hebrew  as  Zayin,  Samekh, 
5ade,  and  Shin  ;  the  last  of  these  at  a  very  eafiy  date 
reiiresented  two  sounds,  the  English  .'/i,  and  anothersound 
wliicli  resembled  that  of  Samekh  and  ultimately  became 
indistinguishable  from  it,  both  being  pronounced  as  the 
English  s.  "The  Greeks  did  not  want  all  these  symbols, 
consequeni  !y  in  different  parts  of  Greece  one  or  other — 
not  the  same — Phoenician  symbol  fell  into  disuse.  One 
of  these,  M  or  E/,  called  San,  though  lost  in  Ionic,  apj'ears 
in  old  Doric  inscriptions,  as  those  of  Thera,  Melos,  and 
Crete,  Argos,  Corinth,  and  Corcyra  ;  but  the  later  Doric 
form  is  the  usual  Sigma  ;  probably  San  was  too  like^the 
nasal  }l  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  form  Zeta  represents 
Zayin,  and  that  Xi  represents  Samekh  Moreover,  Zeta 
and  Zayin  stand  seventli  in  the  Greek  and  fhccnician 
alphabets  respectively,  and  Xi  and  Samekh  each  fifteenth. 
Again,  the  form  of  San  with  three  strokes  corresponds 
fairly  with  Bade,  and  Sigma  is  moderately  like  Shin  ;  but 
here  the  evidence  of  position  comes  in  again  to  strengthen 
a  somewhat  weak  case,  for  in  the  old  Italian  alphabets 
San  has  the  place  of  Sade,  the  simiilcr  form  occurring  in 
the  C;cre  alphabet,  the  fuller  in  that  of  the  Formello  vase  ; 
in  both  Sigma  (rounded  in  form)  has  the  place  of  Shin. 
These  identifications  would  be  certain  if  the  names  cor- 
responded as  well  as  the  forms  ;  but  they  clearly  do  not : 
Zeta  and  Sade  (not  Zayin)  seem  to  liold  together  in  sound, 
and  Sigma  (as  has  often  been  suggested)  looks  like  a  "  popu- 
lar etymology "  for  Samekh.  But  the  oljjection  from 
difference  of  names  is  not  fatal.  All  names  which  are 
thought  of  habitually  in  rows  or  sets  tend  to  be  modified 
under  the  influence  of  analogy  ;  and  analogy  has  certainly 
been  at  work  here,  for  Xi,  which  is  a  i>urely  Greek  name, 
is,  like  Psi,  and  like  Chi  and  Phi,  due  to  the  older  Pi. 
Similarly  Eta  and  Theta  have  probably  made  Zeta' ;  but 
it  must  be  allowed  that  the  metamorphosis  of  Sade  is 
more  intelligible  (as  a  matter  of  sound-change)  than  that 
of  Zaj-irL  Probably  we  must  have  recourse  to  a  different 
principle  to  e.tplain  at  least  som.e  j'^rt  of  our  difliculty. 
We  may  suppose  that  in  some  part  of  Greece  ihe  sounds 


detioted  originally  by  gade  and  Zayin  becarns  indis- 
tinguishable ;  there  would  then  e.xist  for  a  time  one  sound 
but  two  names.  It  would  be  a  matter  of  little  moment 
which  name  .should  survive ;  thus  Sade  (or  Zeta)  might 
supersede  Zayin,  or  one  name  might  survive  in  one 
district — as  San  in  the  Doric,  but  Sigma  in  the  rest  of 
Greece.  This  suggestion  is  made  by  Dr  Taylor  (T/ie 
'Alphabet,  ii.  100).  The  history  of  the  sounds,  as  well  as 
of  the  form."!,  of  the  Greek  sibilants  is  difiicidt.  Probably 
Signna  was  generally  hard — our  «  in  sir/n.  But  Zeta  did 
not  originally  denote  the  corresponding  s :  rather  it  was 
(/.-;  some  say  dj,  as  in  "John,"  but  this  is  not  likely.  Xi 
was  probably  a  strong  sibilant  with  a  weak  guttural,  as  X 
Was  in  Latin.  If  the  sound  2  existed  in  Greek,  as  is  prob- 
able, it  was  denoted  by  Sigma.  In  Italy,  also,  we  must 
infer  that  the  soft  sibilant  was  heard  too  little  to  need  a 
special  symbol,  because  2,  which  exists  in  the  old  alphabets 
of  Cicre  and  Formello,  was  lost  early  enough  to  leave  a, 
place  f&T  the  newly-made  Italian  symbol  G.  When  Z  was^ 
restored,  it  was  placed  at  the  tnd  of  the  alphabet  and  doubt- 
less with  the  valiie  of  Gred;  7,  ia  tlie  Greek  words  in  which, 
alone  it  was  used.  One  Latin  s — probably  : — became  the| 
trilled  r  between  two  vowels, — e.17.,  in  "Papirius"  for 
"Papisius,"  "arboris'  for  "arbosis." 

In  English  the  symbol  s  alone  existed  till  2  was  intro- 
duced from  France  with  words  of  French  origin,  as  "zeal," 
"zone."  An  attempt  was  made  to  employ  it  at  the  end  of 
plural  nouns,  where  the  sound  is  regularly  heard  except 
when  the  last  sound  of  the  noun  is  hard,  e.g.,  "bedz" 
(beds),  but  "hops";  but  this  was  not  maintained,  nor 
8ven  consistently  done,  for  the  symbol  was  used  even  wlien 
the  sound  must  have  been  s.  We  regularly  write  s  for 
both  sounds, — c.^., 'in  "lose"  and  "loose,"  "curs"  and 
"curse,"  "hers"  and  "hearse."  ^Mien  there  is  a  distinc- 
tion in  spelling  the  s  commonly  has  the  value  of  .r, — e.g., 
"  vies ''  and  "  vice,"  "  pays  "  and  "  pace,"  "  his  "  and  "  hiss." 
S  has  the  .sound  of  sk  in  "sure,"'-" sugar,"  and  some. other 
words;  this  is  due  to  tlie  palatal  sound  heard  before  the  «. 
S/i,  in  spite  of  its  spelling,  is  a  single  sound,  the  position 
of  wliich  differs  from  that  for  s  only  in  a  slight  retraction 
of  the  point  of  the  tongue ;  it  is  commonly  found  in 
English  words  which  originally  had  si; — c.//.,  "shall,"  O.E. 
sreal ;  "  shabby,"  a  doublet  of  "  scabby  "  ;  "  fish,"  O.E.  fisk: 
The  sound  is  the  sanre  as  that  of  French  ch  in  "chateau," 
"chef,"  "sechcr,"  where  it  is  due  to  assibilation  of  original  k} 

SAADI.     -See  Sa'bT 

§AADIA,  or  S.iAin.iS  (Heb.  Se'mli/nh,  Arab.  SaUV), 
n^as  the  most  accomplished,  learned,  and  noble  gaon  (head 
of  the  academy)  of  Sura  (see  R.vis).  Mar  Bab  Se'adyah 
b.  Yoseph-  was  born  in  the  Fayyum,  Upper  Egypt,  in  803 
and  died  at  Sura  in  9-12.  Of  his  teachers  only  the  Jew 
Abii  Kethir  is  positively  known  by  name,''  but  he  must 
have  had  at  least  three  more  teachers  of  considerable 
learning,  one  p  Karaite,*  one  a  Mohammedan,  and  one  a 
Christian,  as  his  acquaintance  with  the  literature  of  these 
four  religious  bodies  testifies.      His  pre-eminence  over  hia 

'  He  signs  himself  ^VJD  flcrostically  iu  his  Azhxiroth  [Kohe^,  j.p. 
52,  63  ;  see  uote  4  on  uoxt  p.nge) 

-  Mas'tidi,  a  coiitenipor.ary,  calls  the  father  Ya'alvob  ;  but  see  Furst,* 
LUcr'Umblatt  d.  Orients,  vL  col.  140. 

»  Mas'uJi  (De  Sacy,  Clnesl.  A,:,  2il  ci,  i.  350,  351). 

*  Tlie  late  learned  aiid  ingenious  Rabbi  S.  L.  R.T]>oi)ort  rolled  hereg 
as  in  many  otlier  places,  the  stone  of  Sisyphus  (''  Toledoth  Kabbenu 
Se'.adyah  Gaon,"  in  Dikkiirc  Uaillim,  Vienna,  1823,  note  31).  Per- 
haps;, after  all,  the  Karaites  may  be  right  m  aasertiug  that  Salmon  b. 
Yeruhaouiis  Kali  Sc'adyah's  tiKCuet 


S  A  A  D  I  A 


121 


oontemporaries  is  indicated  in  the  fact  that  he  was  the 
only  gaon  who  had  not  been  educated  and  then  advanced 
by  degrees  in  the  academy,  to  the  highest  dignity  of  which 
he  was  called  from  a  far-off  country,  but  best  appears 
in  the  excellence  of  his  many  works,  which  extend  over 
most  branches  of  learning  known  in  his  time.  And  his 
learning  was  exceeded  by  his  manifold  virtues.  His  love 
of  truth  and  justice  was  made  more  conspicuous  by  the 
darkness  of  the  corruption  amid  which  he  lived.  When 
the  resh  galutha  ("prince  of  the  captivity,"  the  highest 
dignitary  of  the  Jews  in  Babylonia,  and  to  some  extent  of 
those  of  the  whole  world)  attempted  to  wrest  judgment  in 
a  certain  case,  and  first  asked,  then  requested,  and  finally 
demanded  the  signature '  of  the  gaon  of  Siira  in  a  threaten- 
ing manner,  Se'adyah  refused  it,  fearless  of  consequences. 
David  b.  Zakkai,  the  resh  gfdutha,  deposed  him  and 
chose  another  gaon  in  his  stead.  A  reconciliation  took 
place  some  years  afterwards,  and  Se'adyah  was  reinstated 
in  his  old  dignity.  And,  although  his  health  had  been 
fatally  undermined  by  the  behaviour  of  the  resh  galuthu 
and  his  son,  Se'adyah,  when  his  former  opponent  died, 
was  indefatigable  in  his  en'deavours  to  have  this, very  son 
of  his  once  mortal  enemy  placed  on  the  throne  of  his 
fathers.  But  the  new  prince  of  the  captivity  enjoyed  his 
dignity  for  little  more  than  half  a  year.  He  left  behind 
him  a  boy,  twelve  years  of  age,  whom  Se'adyah  took  into 
his  own  house  and  treated  in  every  respect  as  his  own 
child.  This  learning  and  these  virtues  endeared  Se'adyah 
not  merely  to  his  contemporaries  but  also  to  the  best 
men  of  succeeding  ages.  Behayye  b.  Yoseph  (the  author 
of  the  Hoboth  Halkbaboth),  Rashi,  Se'adyah  (the  author 
of  the  commentary  on  Daniel  in  the  Rabbinic  Bible),  David 
Kimhi,  Behayye  b.  Asher  (the  author  of  Kad  Hahkemah), 
all  appeal  to  him  as  an  authority  not  to  be  questioned. 
Even  Ibn  'Ezra  defers  more  to  him  than  to  any  other 
authority.  To  this  day  Jewish  and  Christian  scholars  alike 
express  for  him  the  highest  jidmiration. 

1*116  numerous  works  which  are  ascribed  to  him  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  four  classes. 

I.  Genuine  and  still  extant  Works. — (1)  Arabic  translations  of, 
and  ill  part  commentaries-  on,  books  of  the  Bible  :  (a)  the  Penta- 
teuch (printed  in  Hebrew  charactei-s,  Constantinople,  1546,  fol., 
and  in  Arabic  characters  in  the  Paris  and  London  polyglotts) ;  (61 
Isaiah  (printed  in  Arabic  charactei-s  from  Hebrew  lettei-s  of  tlic 
Bodleian  MS.  Uri  15G,"  by  Paulus,  Jena,  1790-91,  8vo) ;  (c)  Psalms 
(Ewald,  Ucber  die  arabisch  gcschriebencn  iVerkc  jiidischcr  Sprttch- 
gelehrten,  Stuttgart,  1844,  8vo) ;  (d)  Proverbs  (Bodleian  MS.  Uri 
15) ;  («)  Job  (Uri  45)  ;  (/)  Canticles  (Mcrx,  Die  Snmljanisehe  Uclcr- 
setzuiuj  dcs  Hohcn  Liedcs  im  ArdbiscJw,  Heiilclbcrg,  1882,  8vo). 
(2)  Hebrew  Lcxicogi'apliy  :  Seventy  (90  or  91)  aira^  Xeybfiet-a  to  be 
found  in  the  Bible,  published  from  the  Bodl.  JIS.  Hunt.  573,  by 
Dukes  {2.  K.  M.,  v.  6)  and  by  Benjacob  [Dcbarim  Altikim,  i., 
Leipsic,  1844).  (3)  Talmudic  Literature  ;  (a)  Decisions  (incorpo- 
rated in  'Ittur,  Venice,  liIOS,  fol.  ;  and  in  the  book  of  jiesponsa, 
Sha'are  Sedek,  Salonica,  1792,  4to) ;  (6)  On  the  laws  of  inheritance 
C'Bodl.  sis.  Hunt.  630).  (4)  Liturgy,  both  in  proso  and  poetry  : 
♦o)  Sidditr  (Bodleian  US.  Uri  261)  ;*  (6)  Arabischcr  Hidmsch  (!) 

t  ^  To  make  the  leg.il  decisions  of  the  rCsh  gTiluth.a  more  respected, 
the  signatures  of  the  gconim  of  Siir;"i  and  ■Pumbadithii  were  desirable. 
A  specimen  of  a  legal  decision  by  David  h.  Zakkai  signed  on  the 
authority  of  Rab  Se'.adyah  Gaon  is  to  be  found  in  Frankel-Griitz, 
Monittischriftf  xxxi.  pp.  167-170!       .  -"; 

, '  If  -wo  may  argue  from  the  known  lo  me  unknown,  Se'adyah's 
translations,  whether  they  were  called  tufsW  or  shark,  contained 
more  than  a  mere  translation.  From  Ibn 'Ezra's  preface  to  his  com- 
nienlaryon  the  Pentateuch  and  from  the  Arabic  comm.  on  the  Psalms 
published  in  excerpt  by  Ewald  we  see  that  Rab  Se'.adyah  was  in  the 
habit  of  explaining  in  addition  to  translating.  Comp.ire  also  llnnk, 
"Notice  sur  S.Tadia."  in  C.ahen,  La.  Bible  (Isaie),  Paris,  1833,  8vo,  j). 
77,  note  1.  "  — ,  . 

'  In  the  copyist's  subscription  to  this  MS.  the  actiial  reading  is  not 
ntt^aJ,•  (Rapoport),  but  mxay  ;  this  should  be  fllNny,  as  JIunk 
prints  it  (•■  Notice,"  p.  108).     'Hie  Bodleian  JIBS,  arc  referred  to  in 

ihis  article  from  personal  inspection.         ^  

The  original    codex  on  brownish  paper,  in  square  characters  of 
Ikoylo-,\ian  handwriting  (14th  cent.),  is  defective  at  bef;inuinir  and 
eniv   The  supplement  at  the  bcgimiing,  containing  also  later  matter, 
21 — 7* 


Hi  den  Zchn  Ocbotcn,  in  Hebrew  lettei-s  {W5.  Jellinck  of  Vienna 
with  Hebrew  and  German  translation  by  W.  Eiseustadter,  Vienna' 
1S68,  8vo).  (5)  Religious  Philosophy:  (n)  Commentary  on  tho 
Sephcr  Yesirah,  MS.  Uri  370  (0pp.  Add.,  4to,  89),  contains  the  ear- 
lier p.art  of  a  Heb.  trans,  in  a  modern  hand  ;  ((/)  Kitdb  al-Amdndt 
wa'l-rtiqdddl  (Landauer,  Leyden,  1880,  Svo),  translated  into  HcbrevJ 
by  Yehudah  Ibn  Tibbon  (editio  princcps,  Constantinoiilo,  1662,  4lo), 
and  by  R.  Berekhyah  Haniiakdan,  author  of  the  Uiskcle  Sliii'alim 
(printed  only  in  part ;  see  Dukes,  Scilrarfi;  pp.  20,  22)  •  nine 
chapters  have  been  translated  into  German  (Furst,  Lcipsic,  1845, 
12uio),  and  parts  into  English  [Two  I'rcatiscs,  by  P.  AUi.'c,  London' 
1707,  8vo).  ' 

n.  iTorks  11010  lost,  but  the  existence  of  ivhich  is  testified  to  by 
contemporary  and  later  anthers.— (\)  An  Arabic  translation  of,  and 
in  part  commentary  on,  most,  if  not  all,  tho  other  books  of  the 
Bible. °  (2)  Lexical  Treatises :  Book  of  Interpretations  (Scpher 
Pithronim,  or  Collection  (Igrjcron).'  (3)  Grammatical  Treatises  :  (a) 
Elegancy  of  the  Hebrew  Tongue— (a)  Treatise  on  the  Changes,  (;3) 
Treatise  on  tho  Combinations,  (7)  Treatise  on  Dugcsh  and  Jtapheh, 
(5)  Treatise  on  the  Letters  Jf,  n,  H,  N ' ;  (i)  Treatise  on  Punctuation ' ; 
(c)  Treatise  on  Eight  Reading';— it  is  not  impossible  that  the  iii-st 
four  constituted  one  work  and  tho  last  two  another  work  (4) 
Talmudic  Literature  :  (a)  Translation  of  the  Miiknah  "' ;  (i)  Meth- 
odology of  the  (Babylonian)  Talmud  "  ;  (c)  Treatise  on  Bills  '- ;  (d) 
Treatise  on  Deposits";  (c)  Treatise  on  Oatlis";  (/)  Treatise  on 
Prohibited  Degrees"';  (y)  Treatise  on  Imjmra  el  I'ura,  including 
Hilckhoth  Niddah  ■' ; — it  is  very  possible  that  those  marked  c  to 
/  constituted  one  book,  just  as  the  treatise  marked  g  constituted  one 
book.  (5)  Calcndaric  Literature  :  Sephcr  Ha'ibbar  (Treatise  on 
Intercalation).  ^^  (6)  Apologetics  :  Treatise  on  Investigations.'^  (7) 
Polemics  :  {a)  against  Kai-aism— (a) '  Anan,"  (/3)  Ibn  Sakkawivyah.^' 
(7)  Ibn  Zitta  (or  Ziitta)'-';  (b)  against  the  Rabbaiiite  Hi'vvi  al- 
Balkhi^  ;  (c)  against  the  Karaite  Ben  Asher  (tlrc  completer  of  tho 
Massoreth  ;  see  L.-B.  d.  Or'.,  x.  6S4).  (8)  The  nature  of  the  Sephcr 
Harjijalui  cited  by  Rabad  II.  and  Ab.  b.  Hiyya  in  his  Scpher  Ha'ibbur 
is  not  clear. 

III.  IVorks  ascribed  to  Se'adyah  the  authorship  of  which  is  not 
sufficiently  proven. — (I)  The  commentary  on  Canticles  edited  by 
Yishak  Ibn  'Akrish  (Constantinople,  1577,  4to),  and  that  published 
by  L.  Margaliyyoth  at  Frankfort-on-Oder,  1777^.  (2)  The  well- 
known  piece  of  didactic  poetry  which  gives  account  of  all  the  letters 
of  the  Bible,  how  many  times  they  occur,  &c.  {editio  princcps, 
Venice,  1538,  at  the  end  of  Elias  Levita's  Massoreth  Hamviass.).  ^ 

IV.  JVorks  ascribed  to  Se'adyah  by  m  istake.  — (1 )  The  Commentary 
on  Daniel  commonly  found  in  the  Rabbinic  Bibles  belongs  to  an- 
other Rab  Se'adyah,  who  lived  at  least  two  hundred  years  later, 
and  was  a  native  either  of  France  or  the  south  of  Germany.  (2) 
The  Commentary  on  the  Sephcr  Yesirah,  printed  with  the  text  and 
three  other  commentaries  at  Mantua  in  1562,  4to.  (3)  The  Book 
on  Lots  {Sephcr  Uayyoraloth),  often  printed  separately  and  in  con- 
junction with  similar  works.  (4)  £icn  Happilosophiiu  {Lapis  Philo- 
sojihorum),  ascribed  to  him  by  R.  MosUch  Butrial  (Mantua  edition 
of  the  Scpher  Ycsirnh  as  above).  (S.  M.  S. -S. ) 


is  in  S.  Arabian  handwriting.  The  well-known  "Ten  reasons  for 
Sounding-  the  Trumpet  on  the  Day  of  I\Iemorial  "  are  not  found  in  tins 
Siddur  (against  Rapojiort,  vt  itipea,  note  21).  The  tliree  jmetical 
pieces  published  as  five  by  Rosenberg  {Kobcs,  ii.,  Berlin,  1856)  form 
an  integral  part  of  the  Siddur,  but  bear  on  the  surface  marks  of  having 
been  taken  from  a  second-hand,  if  not  a  third-hand,  copy,  as  the  editor 
adnuts  with  reg.ird  to  the  "second  petition."  The  "Two  Petitions" 
must  have  served  Ibn  Gebirol  (AviCEBitON)  as  a  model  for  the  latter 

or  liturgical  part  of  his  mD7D  1713,  just  as  he  and  others  after  him 
silently  utilized  Se'adyah's  philcsophy. 

»  See  Jfuboth  HuUcbuhoth  (preface)  and  Silbuh  (Travels)  of  R.  Petn- 
ahyah  of  Ratisbon  (London,  1861,  Svo,  \\  22). 

I  L.n.  d.  Orients,  x.  coll.  616,  541,  684. 

'  Ibid.,  coll.  516,  518.  «  See  Rashi  on  Psalm  xlv.  10. 

'  L.-B.  d.  Or.,  X.  518.  '"  Sibbub  (as  in  note  5  above). 

"  See  Sliem  Haggedolim  (Vilna,  1852,  8^o),  ii.  leaf  16a.  col.  2. 

'2  See  Slui'arc  Scdek  {ut  supra),  leaf  17b. 

"  See  R.  Menahcm  b.  Shelonioh  lebeth  Meir  (commonly  calitfl 
Jleiri)  on  Aboth  (Vienna,  1854,  8vo,  Introduction,  p.  17). 

"  See  Rapoport,  I.e.,  note  20. 

"  See  Pinsker,  Likkute  Kudmoniyyolh  (Vienna,  18C0.  p.  174,  nolo 
1,  in  Xispahim).       "         '        "  See  Rapoport,  I.e.,  note  19 

'"  See  L.-B.  d.  Or.,  xii.  coll.  101,  102.    .( 

"  See  Sion  (Frankfort-ou-Main,  1842-43.  Svo),  ii.  p.  1.37. 

'»  See  Pliiskcr  {ut  siipni),  \\  103.  '"  Sion  (as  before). 

-'  Ou  this  comincnt.itor  see  Ibn  'Ezra  on  Exodus  xxi.  24.  From 
this  passage  we  learn  tliat  Se'ady.ih  and  lien  Zitta  were  contemporaries. 
«nd  even  had  oral  controversie'*  with  one  another. 

--  See  Ualikhoth  Kedan,  Amsterdam,  1846,  p.  71  Hivvi  al-Ralkid 
had  raised  strong  objections  against  tho  truth  of  Scripture  in  his  Two 
'lundral  Questions,  or  Objections  to  the  Bible. 

"-'  Tlie  editions  "Prr.;;",  1782  (Steinschncider),  and  Nowydwor,  173.'' 
(Zeduer),  ar.-:  probably  the  samo  as  that  of  Frankfort  with  dilferent  titles. 


122 


S  A  A  — S  A  A 


SAALFELD,  a  busy  little  town  of  Gennany.iii  the  eastern 
horn  of  the  crescent-shaped  duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  is 
picturesquely  situated  ou  the  left  bank  of  the  Saale  (here 
spanned  by  a  bridge),  24  miles  south  of  Weimar  and  77' 
miles  south-west  of  Leipsic.  One  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  in  Thuringia,  Saalfeld  was  the  capital  of  the  now 
extinct  duchy  of  Saxe-Saalfcld,  and  contains  some  interest- 
ing old  buildings.  Among  these  are  the  former  residential 
palace,  built  in  1679  on  the  site  of  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery of  St  Peter,  destroyed  during  the  Peasants'  War ;  the 
Gothic  cliurch  of  St  John,  dating  from  the  13th  century; 
the  quaiut  town-house,  built  in  1533-37  ;  and  the  Kitzer- 
stein,  a  shooting-lodge  said  to  have  been  originally  erected 
by  the  emperor  Henry  I.,  though  the  present  building  is 
not  older  than  the  16th  century.  But  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  mHc  of  the  past  in  Saalfeld  is  the  striking  ruin 
of  the  Sorbenburg  or  Hoher  Schwarm,  a  strong  castle  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Charlemagne  to  protect  his  borders 
from  the  Slavonic  hordes.  Its  destruction  took  place  in 
1290,  under  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg.  Saalfeld  is  situated 
in  one  of  the  busiest  parts  of  Meiningen,  and  carries  on  a 
number  of  brisk  industries,  including  the  manufacture  of 
sewing-machines,  colours,  wax-cloth  and  wire-cloth,  brewing, 
and  iron-founding.  It  has  an  active  trade  in  iron,  slate, 
wood,  and  wooden  goods,  and  there  are  ochre  and  iron 
mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  population  in  1880  was 
7458. 

Springing  up  under  the  wing  of  the  Sorbenburg,  Saalfeld  early 
became  an  imperial  demesne,  and  received  various  benefits  at  the 
hands  of  successive  emperors.  After  a  somewhat  chequered  career, 
the  town  became  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Saaifeld,  founded 
in  1680  by  the  youngest  son  of  the  duke  of  Gotha  ;  but  in  1735, 
when  the  succession  to  the  duchy  of  Coburg  was  assigned  to  tlie 
dukes  of  Saalfeld,  their  residence  was  removed  to  Coburg.  In 
1826  the  united  duchies  merged  by  inheritance  in  the  duchy  of 
Saxe-ileiningen. 

SAARBRUCKEN,  an  important  industrial  and  com- 
mercial town  in  Prussia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saar,  a 
navigable  tributary  of  the  Moselle,  is  situated  49  miles  east 
]of  Metz,  at  the  south  end  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  coal- 
fields in  Eiu'ope,  to  which  it  has  given  its  name.  With  the 
town  of  St  Johann,  immediately  opposite  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  here  spanned  by  two  bridges,  Saarbriicken 
forms  in  reality  a  single  community,  with  a  united  popu- 
lation of  nearly  22,000.  St  Johann,  though  now  the  larger, 
is  the  more  recent  town,  being  in  fact  the  creation  of  the 
important  railways  whose  junction  is  fixed  there.  Saar- 
briicken itself  is  not  directly  on  any  main  line.  The 
industries  of  St  Johann-Saarbriicken  include  wool-spinning, 
brewing,  and  the  manufacture  of  tobacco,  chemicals,  tin, 
and  stoneware.  The  trade  is  chiefly  connected  with  the 
produce  of  the  neighbouring  coal-mines  and  that  of  the 
numerous  important  iron  and  glass  works  of  the  district. 
The  Saarbriicken  coal-field  extends  over  70  square  miles ; 
and  its  annual  output  is  about  6  million  tons.  Of  this 
total  the  Prussian  state  mines  yield  about  5,200,000  tons, 
Prussian  private  mines  100,000  tons,  the  mines  in  Lorraine 
500,000  tons,  and  mines  in  Rhenish  Bavaria  200,000 
tons.  In  1880  the  population  of  Saarbriicken  alone  was 
9514,  and  of  St  Johann  12,346. 

Till  1233  Saarbriicken  was  in  the  possession  of  the  old  counts  of 
Ardennes  ;  from  1381  till  1793  it  was  the  residence  of  the  princes 
of  Nassau-Saarbriickeu  ;  from  1793  till  1815  it  was  in  the  possession 
of  the  French  ;  and  since  1815  it  has  been  Prussian.  St  Johann 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  as  an  outwork  to  Saarbriicken  in 
1046,  and  to  have  received  town-rights  iu  1321.  In  the  Franco- 
Prussian. War  of  1870-71  Saarbrucken  was  seized  by  the  French  on 
2d  August  1870,  but  the  first  German  victory,  on  the  heights  of 
Spicheren,  3  miles  to  the  south,  relieved  it  four  days  later. 
•      SAARDAM.     See  Zaandam. 

SAARGEMUND  (Fr.  Sarreguemines),  an  industrial 
tovra  and  railway  jtmction  of  Germany,  in  the  imperial 
province  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  is  situated  at  the  coniluence 


of  the  Blies  and  the  Saar,  40  miles  east  of  Metz.  It  carries 
on  considerable  manufactures  of  silk,  plush,  porcelain,  and 
earthenware,  and  is  a  chief  dep6t  for  the  papier-mach6 
boxes  (mostly  snuff-boxes)  which  are  made  in  great  quan- 
tity in  the  neighbourhood.  To  the  south  lies  the  district 
lunatic  asylum  of  Steinbacherhof.  The  town,  which  is 
garrisoned  by  four  squadrons  of  cavalry,  in  1880  had  a 
population  of  9573,  chiefly  Roman  Catholics. 

SAAVEDRA,  Angel  de,  Duke  op  Rivas  (1791-1865), 
Spanish  poet  and  politician,  was  born  at  Cordova  in  1791, 
and  fought  with  bravery  in  the  Spanish  War  of  Independ- 
ence. From  1813  to  1820  he  lived  in  retirement  in  An- 
dalucia,  but  in  the  latter  year  he  sided  actively  with  the 
revolutionary  party,  and  in  consequence  had  to  go  into 
exile  in  1823.  He  lived  successively  in  England,  Malta, 
and  France  until  1834,  when  ho  received  permission  to 
return  to  Spain,  shortly  afterwards  succeeding  his  brother 
as  duke  of  Rivas.  In  1836  he  became  minister  of  the 
interior  under  Isturiz,  and  along  with  his  chief  had  again 
to  leave  the  country.  Having  returned  with  Maria  Chris- 
tina in  1844,  he  again  held  a  portfolio  for  a  short  time  in 
1854 ;  and  during  the  last  two  decades  of  his  life  he  was 
ambassador  at  Naples,  Paris,  and  Florence  for  consider- 
able periods.     He  died  in  1865 

In  1813  he  published  Ensayos  porticos,  and  between  that  date 
and  his  first  exile  several  tragedies  of  his  composition  (^Aliaiar^ 
1814  ;  El  Duque  d'Aqvitania,  1814  ;  Lanuza,  1822)  were  put  upon 
the  stage.  Tanto  vaUs  quanta  ticnes,  a  comedy,  appeared  in  1834, 
Don  Alvnro,  a  tragedy,  in  1835,  and  two  other  dramatic  composi- 
tions in  1842.  Saavedra  was  also  the  author  of  El  Moro  Exposito, 
a  narrative  poem  in  ballad  metre  (two  volumes),  and  Florinda,  an 
epic  romance. 

SAAVEDRxV,    Miguel    de    Cervantes.      See    Cek- 

VANTES. 

SAAVEDRA  FAXARDO,  Diego  db  (1584-1648), 
diplomatist  and  man  of  letters,  was  born  of  a  noble  family 
at  Algezares  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Murcia  in  1584. 
Having  been  educated  for  the  church  at  Salamanca,  and 
admitted  to  the  priesthood,  he  accompanied  Cardinal 
Borgia,  the  Spanish  ambassador,  to  Rome  in  the  capacity 
of  secretary.  Ultimately  he  rose  to  high  rank  in  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  was  Spanish  plenipotentiary  at  Ratisbon 
in  1636  and  at  Mtinster  in  1645.  He  was  nominated  to 
the  supreme  council  of  the  Indies  in  1646,  but  not  long 
afterwards  retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  1648. 

In  1640  he  published  a  treatise  entitled  Emprcsas  politicas,  6  idea 
(Ir  un,  principe  politico  cristiano  rcprcscittado  en  cifji  emprcsas,  a 
hundred  short  essays,  in  which  he  discusses  the  education  of  a 
prince,  his  relation  and  duties  to  those  around  him,  and  so  forth, 
'  primarily  intended  for  and  dedicated  to  the  son  of  Philip  IV.  It 
is  sententious  iu  style  and  characterized  by  the  curious  learning  of 
the  time,  and  is  still  read  and  admired  iu  Spain.  It  passed  through 
a  number  of  editions  and  was  translated  into  several  languages,  the 
English  version  being  by  Astry  (2  vols.,  8vo,  London,  1700).  An 
unfinished  historical  work  entitled  Corona  Gotica,  CastcUana,  y 
Austriaea  politicamente  ilustrada,  appeared  in  1646.  Another 
work  by  Saavedra,  only  second  in  popularity  to  the  Empress,  his 
Eepublica  Literaria,  was  published  posthumously  in  1670  ;  it  dis- 
cusses in  a  somewhat  mocking  tone  some  of  the  leading  characters 
in  the  ancient  and  modern  world  of  letters.  Collected  editions  of 
his  woiks  appeared  at  Antwerp  in  1677-78,  and  again  at  Madrid  in 
1789-90  ;  see  also  voL  xxv.-of  the  Bibl.  de  Aut.  Esp.  (1853). 

SAAZ  (Bohemian  Zatcc),  a  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial town  in  the  north  of  Bohemia,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Eger,  42  miles  north-west  of  Prague. 
The  suspension  bridge,  210  feet  long,  whicli  here  spans 
the  river  was  constructed*  in  1826  and  is  one  of  the  oldest 
of  the  kind  in  Bohemia.  Saaz,  which  claims  to  have  ex- 
isted as  early  as  the  8th  century,  contains  a  number  of 
ancient  churches,  of  which  one  is  said  to  date  from  1206, 
and  five  others  from  before  the  close  of  the  14th  century. 
The  town-house  was  built  in  1559.  A  technical  school 
was  added  in  1878  to  the  already  fairly  numerous  eduoa,- 
tional  institutions.  Nails,  leather, '  beetroot -sugar,  and 
pasteboard  are  among .  the  chief   manufactures  of   Saa^ 


S  A  B  —  S  A  B 


123 


Vrriith,'  towevef,  •  owes  its  main  importance  to  oeing  tne 
;entre  of  the  extensive  hop-trade  of  the  neighbourhood. 
The  hops  of  Saaz  are  said  to  have  been  renowned  for  the 
Jast  five  hundred  years ;  and  nearly  800  tons  are  annually 
raised  in  the  district  to  which  the  town  gives  its  name. 
The  population  of  Saaz  was  12,425  in  1880. 

SAB^A.     See  Yemen. 

SABAH,  or  British  North  Borneo,  is  all  that  portion 
of  the  Lsland  of  Borneo  (q.v.)  which  was  formally  recog- 
nized by  the  charter  of  incorporation  granted  in  Novem- 
ber ISSl  as  the  territory  of  the  British  North  Borneo 
Company.  It  has  a  coast-line  of  over  600  miles,  and  its 
'^rea,  still  to  a  great  extent  unexplored,'  is  estimated  at 
,30,000  square  miles.  Leaving  out  of  account  the  deep 
indentations  of  the  coast-line,  it  may  be  said  to  form  a 
j)entagon,  of  which  three  sides,  the  north-west,  north-east, 
and  south-east,  are  washed  by  the  sea,  while  the  remaining 
two  sides  are  purely  conventional  lines  drawn  from  Gura 
Peak  (3°  50'  N.  lat,,  11G°  10'  E.  long.),  the  one  almost  due 
east  to  the  Sibuco  river,  the  other  north-north-west  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Sipitong  on  Brunei  Bay.  The  latter  separates 
the  Company's  territory  from  the  independent  sultanate 
of  Brunei ;  the  former  is  the  frontier  towards  the  Dutch 
possessions. 

The  great  central  feature  of  Sabah  is  the  magnificent 
mountain  of  Kinabalu  (compare  Borneo)  or  Nabalu,  built 
up  of  porphyritic  granite  and  igneous  rocks  to  a  height 
of  13,698  feet,  and  dominating  the  whole  northern  part 
of  the  island,  with  all  its  profusion  of  lesser  mountains 
and  hills.  Kinabalu,  which  has  the  appearance  of  two 
mountains,  unites  towards  the  east  by  a  low  ridge  with 
"Nonohan  t'  agaioh  (the  great  Nonohan)  and  the  terminal 
cone  Tumboyonkon  (Tamboyukon)."  These  two  summits 
are  respectively  8000  and  7000  feet  high,  and  there  are 
others  of  considerable  elevation  in  the  same  neighbour- 
hood. At  some  1.0  or  20  miles  to  the  north  rises  Mount 
Madalon  (5000  feet),  separated  from  Kinabalu.  and  the 
other  igneous  and  metamorphic  hills  by  a  wide  valley,  and 
consisting  of  those  aqueous  rocks,  limestones,  sandstones, 
and  clays  which  appear  to  occupy  the  whole  country  to 
the  north.  Westward  from  Kinabalu  are  hills  between 
1000  and  2000  feet  in  height,  and  about  40  or  50  miles 
south-east  is  an  important  group  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Labuk  valley  known  as  the  Mentapok  Mountains  (3000- 
8000  feet).  The  whole  surface  of  the  country  is  channelled 
by  countless  streams  whose  precipitous  ravines,  boulder- 
strewn  rapid.s,  and  enormous  beds  of  rolled  pebbles  bespeak 
the  denuding  energy  of  tropical  rains.  The  coasts  are 
generally  low  and  fiat,  and  to  a  great  extent  lined  with 
casuarina  trees,  with  here  and  there  a  stretch  of  mangrove, 
a  low  sandstone  or  limestone  cliff,  or  a  patch  of  that  great 
forest  which  in  the  interior  still  covers  so  large  a  portion 
of  the  territory.  In  the  low  grounds  along  ilie  coast  and 
also  inland  among  the  hills  are  vast  swamjis  and  watery 
plains,  which  in  the  rainy  .season,  when  the  rivers  rise  20 
or  30  feet  above  their  usual  level,  are  traiisformed  into 
lakes.  On  the  west  side  of  Sabah  the  principal  rivers 
are  the  Padas  and  the  Klias,  debouching  opposite  Labuan, 
but  quite  unexplored  in  their  upper  courses  ,  the  Papar 
(Pappar  or  Pappal),  which  passes  the  village  of  that  name 
and  enters  the  sea  at  Papar  Point ;  the  Tanipassuk,  one 
of  the  first  to  be  explored  (see  St  Johns  Life  wi  t/ie 
Forests  of  tlie  Far  East)  and  remarkable  for  the  waterfall 
of  I'andassan  or  Tampas.suk  (1500  Icet  high,  and  thus  one 
of  the  highest  in  the  world),  formed  by  its  headwater 
ithe  Kalupis.     The  Sekvvati,  a  comparatively  small  river 


But  the  officcrB  of  tlie  company  are  very  active  in  exploration. 
■C  B.  von  Donop,  F.  Witti  (killed  1882),  VV.  B.  Pryer,  Frank  Ilatton 
(killed  18S3),  and  Henrx  Walker  am  or  h,ave  becnamong  the  more 


farther  north,  is  well  known  for  its  oil-.springs.  At  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  island  the  deep  inlet  of  !Marudn 
Bay  receives  the  waters  of  the  Marudu  or  Maludu  river, 
which  rises  on  the  west  side  of  Mount  Madalon.  On  the 
east  coast  are  the  Sugut,  which  has  its  headwaters  in  the 
hills  to  the  east  of  Kinabalu,  and  forms  its  delta  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Torongohok  or  Purpura  Island ;  the 
Labuk,  debouching  in  Labuk  Bay,  and  having  its  sources 
in  the  highlands  about  70  miles  inland  ;  the  Kinabatangan, 
with  a  longer  course  than  any  yet  mentioned,  rising  prob- 
ably between  116°  and  117°  E.  long,,  and  forming  at  its 
mouth  a  very  extensive  delta  to  the  south  of  Saudakan 
Harbour ;  and  finally  the  Segama,  the  scene  of  Frank 
Hattou's  death  (1883).  Fartlier  south,  and  inland  from 
Darvel  Bay  and  Sibuco  (or  St  Lucia)  Bay,  there  are  no 
doubt  other  rivers  of  equal,  it  may  be  superior,  import 
ance ;  such,  to  judge  by  its  delta,  is  the  Kalabakong. 
debouching  opposite  Sebattik  Island.  Most  of  the  rivers 
mentioned  are  navigable  for  steam  launches  of  lighj 
draught,  but  their  value  is  frequently  impaire<l  by  a  bar 
near  the  mouth.  Several  of  the  natural  harbours  of  North 
Borneo,  on  the  other  hand,  are  at  once  accessible,  safe„ 
and  commodious.  Sandakan  Harbour,  on  the  north-east 
coast  (5°  40'  N.  lat.  and  118°.  10'  E.  long.),  runs  inland 
some  17  miles,  with  a  very  irregular  outline  broken  by 
the  mouths  of  numerous  creeks  and  streams.  The  mouth, 
only  21  miles  across,  is  split  into  two  channels  by  the  little 
island  of  Balhalla.  The  depth  in  the  main  entrance 
varies  from  10  to  17  fathoms,  and  vessels  drawing  20 
feet  can  advance  half-way  up  the  bay.  Just  within  the 
mouth,  on  the  north  side,  lies  Elopura  (see  below).  At 
Silam,  on  Darvel  Bay,  farther  .south,  there  is  good  anchor- 
age. Kudat  (discovered  by  Commander  Johnstone,  of 
H.M.S.  "Egeria,"  in  1881)  is  a  small  but  valuable  harbour 
in  Marudu  Bay  running  inland  for  2  or  3  miles,  but 
rapidly  shoaling  after  the  first  mile  to  1  and  2  fathoms. 
It  alTords  anchorage  for  vessels  of  any  draught,  but  the 
frontage  available  for  wharves  is  limited  to  some  1500 
feet.  In  Gaya  Bay,  on  the  west  coast,  any  number  of 
ves.sels  may  lie  in  safety  during  either  monsoon,  the  depths 
varying  ffom  6  to  16  and  17  fathoms. 

Tlie  climate  of  North  Borneo  is  of  coiiise  tropical,  with  a  very 
equable  tc rnperature.  The  lowest  mininnira  of  the  thermometer 
recorded  in  1SS3  at  Sandakan  was  68° "5  in  December.  The  greatest 
interval  without  rain  was  eight  days  in  March.  The  r.iinfall  was 
34}  inches  (157  in  1880)  at  Sandakan,  129  at  Papar,  and  120  at 
Kndat.     In  the  interior  it  must  often  be  much  above  th.'se  figures. 

That  North  Borneo  should  prove  rich  in  mincmls  was  supposed 
probable  from  the  character  of  somo  other  parts  of  the  i^lami  ;  but 
liitherto  investifjations  have  not  in  this  matter  proved  very  suc- 
cessful. Coal  or  lignite  exists,  but  most  frequently  in  thin  scants 
and  insignificant  pockets  ;  the  petroleum  springs  canno:  come  into 
any  true  competition  with  those  worked  elsewhere  ;  gold  has  been 
iliscovercil  (1885)  in  the  .Segama  river  and  may  piove  a  stimulus  to 
immigration  ;  iron-ores  ai>pear  both  abundant  an<l  at  times  produc- 
tive ;  and  there  are  indications  of  the  existence  of  copjiei,  antimony, 
tin,  and  zinc  ores.  As  yet  the  wealth  of  the  country  lies  in  its 
limber  and  jungle  products  (camphor  and  gutta-percha  in  great 
quantities),  and  in  its  edible  nuts,  guano,  sago,  sugar,  to'>acco,  colTce, 
pepper,  and  ganibier.  Tobacco  is  most  successfnlly  g -ow;!  by  tho 
natives  in  the  inland  districts  of  Mansalut,  Kan«las.sang,  K-iporin- 
gan,  Oana-dana,  Tomborongo,  Karnaban,  Penusak,  '1  long-TuIiao, 
&<:,  -and  its  cultivation  has  been  taken  up  by  several  foreign  com- 
paiites.  The  birds'-nest  caves  of  Gomanton  (Oorman  .on)  near  the 
village  of  Malapo  on  the  Kinabatangan  yield  the  Covcrnmont  a 
revenue  of  from  $6000  to  $7000  ;  and  other  caves  of  tho  same  kind 
arc  still  unworked.  As  the  natives  (t)usiins,  Tagaas- 1 iajaus,  Id.oan, 
&c.)  are  .scattered,  mostly  in  small  villages,  through<mt  tho  unex- 
plored as  well  as  the  explored  district*,  their  number  can  only  bo 
guessed,  but  it  is  usually  stated  at  160,000.  Sinco  the  formation 
of  tho  company  there  has  been  a  steady  imniigratio.i,  especially  of 
Chinese  from  Singapore.  At  Elopura.  tho  capital  of  tho  territciry 
and  of  its  East  Co;i.st  residency,  the  innabitants  in  1883  numbered 
3770  (1500  being  Chinese  and  1085  Sulus).  Hong-Kong  and  Siuga- 
po'c  steamers  now  call  regularly  at  Sandakan,  Gaya,  and  Kudat. 
In  1885  the  territory  was  divided  into  Alcock  jirovinco  (in  tho 
.north),    Keppel    province   ^along  the  west  coast  as  ftir  north  aa 


124 


S  A'  B  — S 


B 


Kiraania  Bay),  the  East  Coast  resicloncy  (to  tlie  si  uth  -cast  of 
Alcock  and  Kcppel  provinces),  aud  Dent  province  (to  tLe  south-west 
of  the  East  Coast  residency  with  tlic  coast  from  Limauis  Bay  to 
Brunei  Bay). 

In  1865  an  American  company  started  by  Blr  Torrey  obtained 
from  the  sultan  of  Brunei  certain  concessions  of  territory  in  Nortli 
Borneo  ;  but  tliis  enterprise  proved  a  financial  failure  and  the 
settlement  formed  on  the  Kimanis  river  broke  up.  The  rights  of 
the  American  company  Avere  bought  up  by  the  Austrian  Baron  von 
Overbeck  and  the  English  merchant  Mr  Alfred  Dent,  who  further 
obtained  from  the  sultan  of  Brunei  and  the  sultan  of  Sulu  a  series 
of  charters  conferring  on  them  the  sovereign  authority  in  North 
Borneo  under  the  titles  of  niaharajali  of  Sabah,  rajah  of  Gaya  aud 
Sandakan  and  Data  Bandahara.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
Spain,  which  claimed  that  the  sultan  of  Sulu  being  a  Spanisli  vassal 
could  not  dispose  of  his  territory  without  her  consent,  the  English 
company  organized  by  Mr  Deut  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  charter 
of  incorpoi-ation  under  Act  of  Parliament,  1st  November  1881,  "a-s 
the  "Biitish  North  Borneo  Company,"  with  right  to  acquire  other 
interests  in,  over,  or  affecting  the  territories  or  property  comprised 
in  the  several  grants. 

The  text  of  tho  cliarter  will  he  found  In  tlie  London  Ca::ette,  8th  November 
1831  and  in  the  appendix  to  Mr  Joseph  Hatton'a  New  Ceylon  (ISSl);  sec  also 
Frank  Hatton,  A'orf/t  Borneo,  1SS5;  the  Century  M'agtizhie,  ISSO  ;  the  Eilinbnrjjh 
Stevicti;  1SS2  ;  and  the  Emjlish  Illnslralcd  Magazine,  1SS5. 

I"  SABAS,  or  Sabbas,  St  (Syr.  Mar  Sahhd),  one  of  the 
early  leaders  of  monasticism  in  Palestine,  was  a  native 
of  Cappadocia,  born  about  439.  While  still  a  child  lie 
accompanied  his  parents  to  Alexandria,  whence  in  his 
eighteenth  year,  having  made  choice  of  the  ascetic  life,  he 
removed  to  Palestine,  settling  at  the  desolate  spot  now 
occupied  by  the  convent  called  by  his  name,  about  two 
Lours  from  the  north-west  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  As  his 
reputation  for  holiness  increased  he  was  joined  by  others, 
who  ultimately  constituted  a  "  laura  "  under  tho  rule  of 
St  Basil.  He  took  some  part  in  the  doctrinal  controversies 
of  the  day,  being  a  zealous  defender  of  the  decrees  of 
Chalcedon.  He  died  about  532  and  is  commemorated 
on  5th  December.  Another  saint  of  this  name,  surnanied 
"  the  Goth,"  suffered  martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  Athanaric, 
the  Visigothic  king,  in  the  reign  of  Valentinian  ;  be  is 
commemorated  on  15th  (or  18th)  April.  See  also  Hoff- 
mann, Syr.  Aden  Peisischer  Mdrti/rer  (1880),  Nos.  iv.  and 
xiL,  for  lives  of  two  martyrs  named  Sabhft. 

SABBATH  {r\iiU),  the  day  of  sacred  rest  which  among  the 
Hebrews  followed  si.x  days  of  labour  and  closed  tho  week. 

1.  Obsermnce  of  the  Sahhath. — The  later  Jewish  Sab- 
bath, observed  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Scribes, 
was  a  very  peculiar  institution,  and  formed  one  of  the 
most  marked  distinctions  between  the  Hebrews  and  other 
nations,  as  appears  in  a  striking  way  from  the  fact  that 
on  this  account  alone  the  Romans  found  themselves  com- 
pelled to  exempt  tho  Jews  from  all  military  service.  The 
rules  of  the  Scribes  enumerated  thirty-nine  main  kinds  of 
work  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath,  and  each  of  these  prohibi- 
tions gave  rise  to  new  subtilties.  Jesiis's  disciples,  for 
example,  who  plucked  ears  of  corn  in  passing  through  a 
field  on  the  holy  day,  had,  according  to  Kabbinical  casuis- 
try, violated  the  third  of  the  thirty-nine  rules,  which  for- 
bade harvesting ;  and  in  healing  Iho  sick  Jesus  Himscff 
broke  the  rule  that  a  sick  man  should  not  receive  medical 
aid  on  the  Sabbath  unless  his  life  was  in  danger.  In  fact, 
as  our  Lord  puts  it,  the  E,abbinical  theory  seemed  to  be 
that  the  Sabbath  was  not  made  for  man  but  man  tor  the 
Sabbath,  the  observance  of  which  was  so  much  an  end  in 
itself  that  the  rules  prescribed  for  it  did  not  require  to  be 
justified  by  appeal  to  any  larger  iirinciple  of  religion  or 
humanity.  The  precepts  of  the  law  were  valuable  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Scribes  because  they  W'cre  the  seal  of  Jewish 
particularism,  the  barrier  erected  between  the  world  at 
large  and  the  exclusive  community  of  Jehovah's  grace. 
For  this  purpose  the  most  arbitrary  precepts  were  the 
most  effective,  and  none  were  more  so  than  the  complicated 
rides  of  Sabbath  observance.  The  ideal  of  the  Sabbath 
■which  all  these  rules  aimed  at  realizing  was  absolute  rest 


from  everything  lliat  could  be  called  work  ;  and  even  the 
exercise  of  those  offices  of  humanity  which  die  strictest 
Christian  Sabbatarians  regard  as  a  service  to  God,  and 
therefore  as  specially  appropriate  to  His  day,  was  looked 
on  as  work.  To  save  life  was  allowed,  but  only  because 
danger  to  life  "  superseded  the  Sabbath."  In  like  manner 
the  special  ritual  at  the  temple  prescribed  for  the  Sabbath 
by  the  Pentateuchal  law  was  not  regarded  as  any  part 
of  the  hallowing  of  the  sacred  day  ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
rule  was  that,  in  this  regard,  "Sabbath  was  not  kept  in! 
the  sanctuary."  Strictly  speaking,  therefore,  the  Sabbath' 
was  neither  a  day  of  relief  to  toiling  humanity  nor  a  day 
appointed  for  public  worship  ;  the  positive  duties  of  its 
observance  were  to  wear  one's  best  clothes,  eat,  drink,  and 
be  glad  (justified  from  Isa.  Iviii.  13).  A  more  directly 
religious  element,  it  is  true,  was  introduced  by  the  prac- 
tice of  attending  the  synagogue  service ;  but  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  this  service  was  primarily  regarded  not 
as  an  act  of  worship  but  as  a  meeting  for  instruction  in 
the  law.  So  far,  therefore,  as  the  Sabbath  existed  for  any 
end  outside  itself  it  was  an  institution  to  help  every  Jew 
to  learn  the  law,  and  from  this  point  of  view  it  is  regarded 
by  Philo  and  Josephus,  who  are  accustomed  to  seek  a 
philosophical  justification  for  the  peculiar  institutions  of 
their  religion.  But  this  certainly  was  not  the  leading 
point  of  view  with  the  mass  of  the  Eabbins  ;^  and  at  any 
rate  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  synagogue  is  a  post-exilic 
institution,  and  therefore  that  the  Sabbath  in  old  Israel 
must  either  have  been  entirely  different  from  the  Sabbath 
of  the  Scribes,  or  else  must  have  been  a  mere  day  of  idle- 
ness and  feasting,  not  accompanied  by  any  properly  reli- 
gious observances  or  having  any  properly  religious  mean- 
ing. The  second  of  these  alternatives  may  be  dismissed 
as  quite  inconceivable,  for,  though  many  of  the  religious 
ideas  of  the  old  Hebrews  were  crude,  their  institutions 
were  never  arbitrary  and  meaningless,  and  when  they  spoke 
of  consecrating  the  Sabbath  they  must  have  had  in  view 
some  religious  exercise  of  an  intelligible  kind  by  which 
they  paid  worship  to  Jehovah. 

Indeed,  that  the  old  Hebrew  Sabbath  was  quite  differ- 
ent from  the  Rabbinical  Sabbath  is  demonstrated  in  the 
trenchant  criticism  which  Jesus  directed  against  the  latter 
(Matt.  xii.  1-14  ;  Mark  ii.  27).  T-he  general  position  which 
He  takes  up,  that  "  the  Sabbath  is  made  for  man  and  not 
man  for  the  Sabbath,"  is  only  a  special  application  of  the 
wider  principle  that  the  law  is  not  an  end  in  itself  but  a 
help  towards  the  realization  in  life  of  the  great  ideal  of 
love  to  God  and  man,  which  is  the  sum  of  all  true  religion. 
But  Jesus  further  maintains  that  this  view  of  the  law  as  a 
wliole,  and  the  interpretation  of  the  Sabbath  law  which  it 
involves,  can  be  historically  justified  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. And  in  this  connexion  He  introduces  two  of  the 
main  methods  to  which  historical  criticism  of  the  Old 
Testament  has  recurred  in  modern  times  :  He  ajipeals  to 
the  oldest  history  rather  than  to  the  Pentateuchal  code  as 
proving  that  the  later  conception  of  tlie  law  was  unknown 
in  ancient  times  (Matt.  xii.  3,  4),  and  to  the  exceptions  to 
the  Sabbath  law  which  the  Scribes  themselves  allowed  in 
the  interests  of  worship  (ver.  5)  or  humanity  (ver.  11),  as 
showing  that  the  Sabbath  must  originally  have  been  de- 
voted to  purposes  of  worship  and  luimanity,  and  was  not 
always  the  purposeless  arbitrary  thing  which  the  schoolmen 
made  it  to  be.  Modern  criticism  of  the  hi.story  of  Sabbath 
observance  among  the  Hebrews  has  done  nothing  more 
than  follow  out  these  arguments  in  detail,  and  show  that 
the  result  is  in  agreement  with  what  is  known  as  to  the 
dates  of  the  several  component  parts  of  tlie  Pentateuch. 

'  See  the  Mishnali,  tr.  "Shabballi,"  .and  B.  of  Jubilees,  eh.  1.  ;  and 
coniiMre  Schurer,  Gcsch.  d.  jdd.  yoltei,  ii.  357,  3"C,  393  sij.,  whett. 
the  Kabbinical  Sabb.atb  is  well  explained  and  illuslrateil  iu  detail.^ 


iS  A  B  B  A  T  H 


125 


Ci  the  legal  passages  that  speak  of  the  Sabbath  all  those 
which  show  affinity  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Scribes — 
regarding  the  Sabbath  as  an  arbitrary  sign  between 
Jehovah  and  Israel,  entering  into  details  as  to  particular 
acts  that  are  forbidden,  and  enforcing  the  observance  by 
severe  penalties,  so  that  it  no  longer  iias  any  religious 
value,  but  appears  as  a  mere  legal  constraint — are  post-exilic 
(Exod.  xvi  23-30,  xxxi.  12-17,  sxxv.  1-3;  Num.  xv.  32-36); 
while  the  older  laws  only  demand  such  cessation  from  daily 
toil,  and  especially  from  agricultural  labour,  as  among  all 
ancient  peoples  naturally  accompanied  a  day  set  apart  as  a 
religious  festival,  and  in  particular  lay  weight  on  the  fact 
that  the  Sabbath  is  a  humane  institution,  a  holiday  for  the 
labouring  classes  (Exod.  xxiii.  12  ;  Deut.  v.  13-15).  As  it 
stands  in  these  ancient  laws,  the  Sabbath  is  not  at  all  the 
unique  thing  which  it  was  made  to  be  by  the  Scribes. 
"The  Greeks  and  the  barbarians,"  says  Strabo  (x.  3,  9), 
"  have  this  in  common,  that  they  accompany  their  sacred 
rites  by  a  festal  remission  of  labour."  So  it  was  in  old 
Israel :  the  Sabbath  was  one  of  the  stated  religious  feasts, 
like  the  new  moon  and  the  three  great  agricultural  sacri- 
ficial celebrations  (Hosea  ii.  1 1);  the  new  moons  and  the  Sab- 
baths alike  called  men  to  the  sanctuary  to  do  sacrifice  (Tsa. 
i.  14);  the  remission  of  ordinary  business  belonged  to  both 
alike  (Amos  viii.  5),  and  for  precisely  the  same  reason. 
Hosea  even  takes  it  for  granted  that  in  captivity  the  Sab- 
bath will  be  suspended,  like  all  the  other  feasts,  because  in 
his  day  a  feast  implied  a  sanctuary. 

This  conception  of  the  Sabbath,  however,  necessarily 
underwent  an  important'  modification  in  the  7  th  century 
B.C.,  when  the  local  sanctuaries  were  abolished,  and  those 
sacrificial  rites  and  feasts  which  in  Hosea's  time  formed 
the  essence  of  every  act  of  religion  were  limited  to  the 
central  altar,  which  most  men  could  visit  only  at  rare 
intervals.  From  this  time  forward  the  new  moons,  which 
till  then  had  been  at  least  as  important  as  the  Sabbath 
and  were  celebrated  by  sacrificial  feasts  as  occasions  of 
religious  gladness,  fall  into  insignificance,  except  in  the 
conservative  temple  ritual  The  Sabbath  did  not  share 
the  same  fate,  but  with  the  (abolition  of  local  sacrifices  it 
became  for  most  Israelites  an  institution  of  humanity 
divorced  from  ritual.  So  it  appears  in  the  Deuteronomic 
decalogue,  and  presumably  also  in  Jer.  xvii.  19  sg.  In  this 
form  the  institution  was  able  to  survive  the  fall  of  the  state 
and  the  temple,  and  the  seventh  day's  rest  was  clung  to  in 
exile  as  one  of  the  few  outward  ordinances  by  whith  the 
Israelite  could  still  show  his  fidelity  to  Jehovah  and  mark 
his  separation  from  the  heatlicn.  Hence  we  understand 
the  importance  attached  to  it  in  the  exilic  literature  (Isa. 
Ivi.  2  SI/.,  Iviii.  13),  and  the  character  of  a  sign  between 
Jehovah  and  Israel  ascribed  to  it  in  the  post- exilic  law. 
This  attachment  to  the  Sabbath,  beautiful  and  toucliing 
50  long  as  it  was  a  spontaneous  expression  of  continual 
devotion  to  Jehovah,  acquired  a  less  pleasing  character 
when,  after  the  exile,  it  came  to  be  enforced  by  the  civil 
arm  (Xch.  xiii.),  and  when  the  later  law  even  declared 
Sabbath -breaking  a  capital  offence.  But  it  is  just  to 
remember  that  without  the  stern  discipline  of  the  law  the 
community  of  the  second  temple  could  hardly  have  escaped 
dissolution,  and  that  Judaism  alone  preserved  for  Chris- 
tianity the  hard-won  achievements  of  tlio  prophets. 

The  Sabbath  exercised  a  twofold  influence  on  the  early 
Christian  church.  On  the  one  hand,  the  weekly  celebration 
of  the  resurrection  on  the  Lord's  day  could  not  have  arisen 
except  in  a  circle  that  already  knew  the  week  as  a  sacred 
division  of  time ;  and,  moreover,  the  manner  in  which  the 
Lord's  day  was  observed  was  directly  influenced  by  the 
synagogue  service.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians continued  to  keep  the  Sabbath,  like  other  ])oint3  of 
the  old  law.     Eusebius  {Jf.E.,  iil  27)  romarka  that  the 


Ebionites  observed  both  the  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  day ; 
and  this  practice  obtained  to  some  extent  in  much  widi» 
circles,  for  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  recommend  that 
the  Sabbath  shaU  be  kept  as  a  memorial  feast  of  the  crea- 
tion as  well  as  the  Lord's  day  as  a  memorial  of  the  resur- 
rection. The  festal  character  of  the  Sabbath  was  long 
recognized  in  a  modified  form  in  the  Eastern  Church  by  a 
prohibition  of  fasting  on  that  day,  which  was  also  a  point 
in  the  Je\vish  Sabbath  law  (comp.  Judith  viii.  6). 

On  the  other  hand,  Paul  had  quite  distinctly  laid  down 
from  the  first  days  of  Gentile  Christianity  that  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  was  not  binding  on  Christians  (Rom.  xiv.  5  sq. ; 
Gal  iv.  10;  Col  il  16),  and  controversy  with  Judaizera 
led  in  process  of  time  to  direct  condemnation  of  those  who 
still  kept  the  Jewish  day  (e.g.,  Co.  of  Laodicea,  363  A.D.). 
Nay,  in  the  Roman  Church  a  practice  of  fasting  on  Satur- 
day as  well  as  on  Friday  was  current  before  the  time  of 
TertuUian.  The  steps  by  which  the  practi^'s  of  resting 
from  labour  on  the  Lord's  day  instead  of  on  '•  he  Sabbath 
was  established  in  Christendom  and  received  civil  as  well 
as  ecclesiastical  sanction  will  be  spoken  of  in  Sttnbat;  it  is 
enough  to  observe  here  that  this  practice  is  naturally  and 
even  necessarily  connected  with  the  religious  observance 
of  the  Lord's  day  as  a  day  of  worship  and  religious  glad- 
ness, and  is  in  full  accordance  with  the  principles  laid 
down  by  Jesus  in  His  criticism  of  the  Sabbath  of  the 
Scribes.  But  of  course  the  complete  observance  of  Sunday 
rest  was  not  generally  possible  to  the  early  Christians 
before  Christendom  obtained  civil  recognition.  For  the 
theological  discussions  whether  and  in  what  sense  the 
fourth  commandment  is  binding  on  Christians,  see  Deca- 
logue, vol  vil  p.  17. 

2.  Origin  of  the  Sabbath. — As  the  Sabbath  was  origin- 
ally a  religious  feast,  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
Sabbath  resolves  itself  into  an  inquiry  why  and  in  what 
circle  a  festal  cycle  of  seven  days  was  first  established. 
In  Gen.  il  1-3  and  in  Exod.  xx.  11  the  Sabbath  is  declared 
to  be  a  memorial  of  the  completion  of  the  work  of  creation 
in  six  days.  But  it  appears  certain  that  the  decalogue  as 
it  lay  before  the  Deuteronomist  did  not  contain  any  allusion 
to  the  creation  (see  Decalogue,  vol.  vii.  p.  16),  and  it  is 
generally  believed  that  this  reference  was  added  by  the 
same  post-exilic  hand  that  wrote  Gen.  i.  1-ii.  4a.  The 
older  account  of  the  creation  in  Gen.  ii.  4b  ,w/.  does  not 
recognize  the  hexaemeron,  and  it  is  even  doubtful  whether 
the  original  sketch  of  Gen  i.  distributed  cieation  over  six 
days.  The  connexion,  therefore,  between  the  seven  days' 
week  and  the  work  of  creation  is  now  generally  recognized 
as  secondary.  Th6  w^eek  and  the  Sabbath  wi;re  already 
known  to  the  writer  of  Gen.  l,  and  he  used,  them  to  give 
the  framework'  for  his  picture  of  the  creation,  which  in  the 
nature  of  things  could  not  be  literal  and  required  some 
framework.  At  the  same  time,  there  was  a  peculiar  ap- 
propriateness in  associating  the  Sabbath  with  Jie  doctrine 
that  Jehovah  is  the  Creator  of  all  things  ;  for  we  see  from 
Lsa.  xl.-lxvi.  that  this  doctrine  was  a  mainstay  of  Jewish 
faith  in  those  very  days  of  exile  which  gave  "-he  Sabbath 
a  new  importance  for  the  faithful. 

But,  if  the  week  as  a  religious  cycle  is  older  than  the 
idea  of  the  week  of  creation,  we  cannot  hope  to  find  more 
'  than  probable  evidence  of  the  origin  of  the  Sabbath. 
At  the  time  of  tho  exile  the  Sabbath  was  already  an 
institution  peculiarly  Jewish,  otherwise  it  could  not  have 
served  as  a  mark  of  distinction  from  heathenism.  This, 
however,  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  in  its  origin  it 
was  specifically  Hebrew,  but  only  that  it  had  acquired 
distinguishing  features  of  a  marked  kind.  What  is  cer- 
tain is  that  the  origin  of  the  Sabbath  nmst  be  sought 
within  a  circle  that  u-sed  the  week  as  a  division  of  time. 
Here  again  wo  must  distingiiish  between  the  week  aa 


126 


SABBAT  H 


eucH  aiitl  the  astrological  wccV,  i.e ,  tlie  week  in  ivhicli 
the  seven  days  asi  named  each  after  the  planet  which  is 
Held  to  preside  over  its  first  hour.  If  the  day  is  divided 
into  twenty-four  hours  and  the  planets  preside  in  turn 
over  each  hour  of  the  week  in  the  order  of  their  periodic 
times  (Saturn,  Jupiter,  JNIars,  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury, 
Moon),  we  get  the  order  of  days  of  the  week  with  which 
we  are  familiar.  For,  if  the  Sun  presides  over  the  first 
hour  of  Sunday,  and  therefore  also  over  the  eighth,  the 
fifteenth,  and  the  twenty-second,  Venus  will  have  the 
twenty -third  hour.  Mercury  the  twenty- fourth,  and  the 
Moon, 'as  th£  third  in  order  from  the  sun,  will  preside 
over  the  first  hour  of  Monday.  Mars,  again,  as  third 
from  the  Moon,  will  preside  over  Tuesday  (Dies  Martis, 
Mardi),  and  so  forth.'  This  astrological  week  became 
■very  current  in  the  Roman  empire,  but  was  still  a  novelty 
in  the  time  of  Dio  Cassius  (xx.xvii.  18).  This  writer 
believed  that  it  came  from  Egypt ;  but  the  old  Egyptians 
had  a  week  of  ten,  not  of  seven  days,  and  the  original 
home  of  astrology  and  of  the  division  of  the  day  into 
jtwenty-four  hours  is  Chaldaja.  It  is  plain,  however, 
^hat  there  is  a  long  step  between  the  astrological  assigna- 
tion of  each  hour  of  the  week  to  a  planet  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  week  as  an  ordinary  division  of  time  by 
people  at  large.  Astrology  is  in  its  nature  an  occult 
science,  and  there  is  not  the  slightest  trace  of  a  day  of 
twenty-four  hours  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  who  had 
the  week  and  the.  Sabbath  long  before  they  had  any 
acquaintance  witli  the  planetary  science  of  the  Babylonian 
priests.  Sloreover,  it  is  quite  clear  from  extant  remains 
of  Assyrian  calendars  that  our  astrological  week  did  not 
prevail  in  civil  life  even  among  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians :  they  did  not  dedicate  each  day  in  turn  to  its 
astrological  planet.  These  facts  make  it  safe  to  reject 
one  often -repeated  explanation  of  the  Sabbath,  viz.,  that 
it  was  in  its  origin  what  it  is  in  the  astrological  week,  the 
day  sacred  to  Saturn,  and  that  its  observance  is  to  be 
derived  from  an  ancient  Hebrew  worship  of  that  jdanet. 
In  truth  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  worship  of  Saturn 
among  the  oldest  Hebrews ;  Amos  v.  2G,  where  Chiun 
(Kaiwan)  is  taken  by  many  to  mean  Saturn,  is  of  uncer- 
tain interpretation,  and,  when  the  tenses  are  rightly 
rendered,  refers  not  to  idolatry  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  but  to  the  time  of  the  prophet. 

The  week,  however,  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  in  a  form  that  has  nothing  to  do  with  astrology  or 
the  seven  i>lanets,  and  with  such  a  distribution  as  to  make 
it  pretty  certain  that  it  had  no  artificial  origin,  but 
suggested  itself  independently,  and  for  natural  reasons, 
to  different  races.  In  fact  the  four  quarters  of  the  moon 
supply  an  obvious  division  of  the  month  ;  and,  wherever 
new  moon  and  full  moon  are  religious  occasions,  we  get 
in  the  most  natural  way  a  sacred  cycle  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen  days,  of  whi(?h  the  week  of  seven  or  eight  days 
(determined  by  half  moon)  is  the  half.. '/Thus  the  old 
Hindus  chose  the  new  and  tlie  full  moon  as  days  of 
sacrifice  ;  the  eve  of  the  sacrifice  was  called  vpavasalha, 
and  in  Buddhism  the  same  word  {uj>dsatha)  has  come  to 
denote  a  Sabbath  observed  on  the  full  moon,  on  the  day 
when  there  is  no  moon,  and  on  tlie  two  days  which  are 
eighth  from  the  full  and  the  new  moon  respectively,  with 
fasting  and  other  religious  exercises.^ 

From  this  point  of  view  it  is  most  significant  that  in  the 
older  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  the  new  moon  and 
the  Sabbatli  are  almost  invariably  mentioned  together. 
The  month  is  beyond  question  an  old  sacred  division  of 
time  common  to  all  the  Semites  ;  even  the  Arabs,  who  re- 
ceived  the  week  at  quite  a  late  period  from  the  Syrians 

•  Childer.'!,  Pali  hid.,  \\  535,  Kern,  Utidiihismus  (Gtr.  tr.),  \>.  8; 
Uahivmjga,  li.  1,  1  (Eng.  tr.,  i.  239,  291). 


(Btrflni,  Chronology,  Eng.  tr.,  p.  58),  greeted  the  new 
moon  with  religious  acclamations.  And  this  must  have 
been  an  old  Semitic  usage,  for  the  word  which  properly 
means  "to  greet  the  new  moon"  (aluilla)  is,  as  Lagarda 
[Orientalia,  ii.  19)  has  shown,  etymologically  connected 
with  the  Hebrew  words  used  of  any  festal  joy.  Among 
the  Hebrews,  or  rather  perhaps  among  the  Canaanites, 
whose  speech  they  borrowed,  the  joy  at  the  new  moon  be- 
came the  type  of  religious  festivity  in  general.  Nor  are 
other  traces  wanting  of  the  connexion  of  sacrificial  occa- 
sions— i.e.,  religious  feasts — with  the  phases  of  the  moon 
among  the  Semites.  The  Harranians  had  four  sacrificial 
days  in  every  month,  and  of  these  two  at  least  were  deter- 
mined by  the  conjunction  and  opposition  of  the  moon.^ 

That  full  moon  as  well  as  new  moon  had  a  religious 
significance  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  seems  to  follow 
from  the  fact  that,  when  the  great  agricultural  feasts  were 
fixed  to  set  days,  the  full  moon  was  chosen.  In  older 
times  these  feast-days  appear  to  have  been  Sabbaths  (Lev.' 
x.\iii.  11  ;  comp.  Passover,  vol.  xviiL  p.  344). 

A  week  determined  by  the  phases  of  the  moon  has  an 
average  length  of  29J-=--4  =  7|  days,  i.e.,  three  weeks  out 
of  eight  wotlld  have  eight  days.  But  there  seems  to  bo  in 
1  Sam.  XX.  27,  compared  with  vv.  18,  24,  an  indication  that 
in  old  times  the  feast  of  the  new  moon  lasted  two  days — a 
very  natural  institution,  since  it  appears  that  the  feast  was 
fixed  in  advance,  while  the  Hebrews  of  Saul's  time  cannot 
have  been  good  enough  astronomers  to  know  beforehand  on 
which  of  two  successive  days  the  new  moon  would  actually 
be  observed.'  In  that  case  a  week  of  seven  working  days 
would  occur  only  once  in  two  months.  ^Ve  cannot  tell 
when  the  Sabbath  became  dissociated  from  the  month ; 
but  the  change  seems  to  have  been  made  before  the  Book 
of  the  Covenant,  which  already  regards  the  Sabbath  simply 
as  an  institution  of  humanity  and  ignores  the  new  moon, 
^n  both  points  it  is  followed  by  Deuteronomy. 

The  Bnlijlouimi  and  Ass^iriaii  Sabbath. — Tlie  \\o\\\  "Sabbath" 
(sabattiiv),  with  the  expranation  "ilay  of  rust  of  tlie  heart,"  i3 
claimed  as  Ass3-iiali  on  the  basis  of  a  textual  eim-iKbitioii  made  by 
F.  Delitzsch  in  II.  Rawl.,  32,  16.  The  value  of  this  ibolated  a-ul 
uncertain  testimony  cannot  be  placed  very  high,  and  it  seems  to 
prove  too  mucli,  for  it  is  ])ractically  certain  that  the  I!abyloiii;in3 
at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  exile  cannot  ha\  e  hail  a  Sabbath  exactly 
corres[X)iiJing  in  conception  to  what  the  Hebrew  Sabbath  had  be- 
come under  very  sjiccial  historical  eii-cninstaliccs.  "What  we  do 
know  from  a  calendar  of  the  intercalary  month  Klul  II.  is  that 
in  that  iiioiiril  the  7tli,  Ittli,  19tli,  21st,  and  2Sth  days  had  a  pecu- 
liar character,  and  that  certain  acts  werf  forbidden  on  them  to  tlio 
king  and  others.  There  is  the  giealcst  uncertainty  as  to  the  details 
(comjiare  the  very  divergent  renderings  in  Jiccords  of  the  Past,  viL, 
160  sq.  ;  Sehrader,  K.A.T.,  2d  ed.,  ]>.  19;  Lotz,  Qii.  dc  historid 
Snbbati,  39s^. };  but  these  d.iys,  vliich  are  taken  to  be  Assyrian 
Sabbaths,  are  ccitaiiily  not  "days  of  rest  of  the  heart,"  and  to  all 
appearance  are  unlucky  days,  and  exjiressly  designated  as  such.* 
If,  therefore,  they  are  "  .As.syiiail  Sabbaths"  at  all,  they  are  exactly 
opposite  in  char.icter  to  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,  which  Hosea  describes 
as  a  day  of  gladness,  and  which  never  ceased  to  be  a  day  of  feasting' 
and  good  cheer. 

Ettjtiwlo'ju  of  thr.  word  ^* Sabbath." — The  grammatical  inflexions  of 
the  word  "  Sabbath  "  show  that  it  is  a  feiniiiine  form,  jiroperly  s/i^6* 
bat-t  ior  shabbdt-t,  from  riDC"  II.  The  root  has  nothing  to  do  with 
resting  in  the  sense  of  enjo\ilig  repose;  in  transitive  forms  and 
applications  it  means  to  "sever,"  to  "put  an  end  lo, "  and  intran- 
sitively it  means  to  "desist, "'to  "come  to  an  end."  The  gram- 
matical form  of  shabbath  suggests  a  tiaubitive  sense,  "the  divider,'" 
and  apparently  indicates  the  Sabbath  as  dividing  the  mouth.  It 
may  mean  the  day  which  jmts  a  stop  to  the  week's  woik,  but  tliia 
is  less  likely.     It  certainly  cannot  be  translated  "  the  day  of  rest.'*" 

Sabbatical  year. — The  Jews  under  the  sccontl  temple  observed 
every  seventh  year  as  a  Sabbath  according  to  the  (post-exilie)  law 
of  Lev.  XXV.  1-7.     It  w.is  a  vear  in  which  all  atiricultuie  was  re- 


2  Tlie  others— according  to  the  Fihnsl,  319,  11— are  the  17tli  and 
the  2Sth.  .   .»,. 

^  It  appears  from  Judith  viii.  6  that  even  in  later  times  there  were 
two  ilays  at  the  new  moon  on  which  it  was  imjiroiier  to  f.xst. 

*  Lotz  sa>s  they  are  lucky  days;  but  the  expres.sion  which  he  render* 
" di'JS  ftnisti/s"  is  applied  to  every  day  in  the  calendar.  The  rest  of 
his  book  does  not  rise  above  this  example  of  acumen. 


S  A  B  — S  A  B 


127 


mitteJ,  in  which  the  fields  lay  nnsown,  t>iB  vines  grow  nnprnncd, 
snd  even  the  natural  produce  was  not  gathered  in.  That  this  Uvt 
was  not  observed  before  the  captivity  we  learn  from  Lev.  ixvi.  3-1 
sg. ;  indeed  so  long  as  the  Hebrews  were  an  agricultural  people  with 
little  trade,  in  a  iand  often  ravaged  by  severe  famines,  such  a  lav/ 
could  not  have  been  observed.  Kven  in  later  times  it  was  occasion- 
ally productive  of  great  distress  (1  Mac.  vt  49,  53  ;  Jos.,  Anii.,  siv.  | 
16,  2).  In  the  older  legislation,  however,  we  already  meet  with  a 
seven  years'  period  ia  more  than  one  connexion.  The  release  of  a 
Hebrew  servant  after  six  years'  labour  (Exod.  xxL  2  sq. ;  Deut  xy. 
12  sq.)  has  only  a.remota  analogy  to  the  Sabbatical  year.  But  in 
Exod.  xxiiL  10,  11  it  is  prescribed  that  the  crop  of  every  seventh 
year  (apparently  the  self-sown  crop)  shall  be  left  for  the  poor,  and 
after  ihem  for  the  beasts.  The  ditTerence  between  this  and  the 
later  law  is  that  the  seventh  year  is  not  called  a  Sabbath,  and  that 
there  is  no  indication  that  all  land  was  to  lie  fallow  on  the  same 
year.  In  this  form  a  law  prescribing  one  year's  fallow  in  seven 
may  have  been  anciently  observed.  It  is  extended  in  ver.  11  to  the 
vineyard  and  the  olive  oil,  but  here  the  culture  necessary  to  keep 
the  vines  and  olive  trees  in  order  is  not  forbidden  ;  the  precept 
is  ouly  that  the  produce  is  to  be  left  to  the  poor.  In  Deuteronomy 
this  law  is  not  repeated,  but  a  fixed  seven  years'  peiiod  is  ordained 
for  the  benefit  of  poor  debtors,  apparently  in  the  sense  that  in  the 
seventh  year  no  interest  is  to  be  exacted  by  the  creditor  from  a 
Hebrew,  or  that  no  proceedings  are  to  be  taken  against  the  debtor 
ill  that  year  (DeuL  iv.  I  dj.).  (W.  R.  S.) 

SABELLIUS.  Even  after  the  elimination  of  Gnosti- 
cism the  church  remained  without  iny  uniform  Christology ; 
the  Trinitarians  and  the  Unitarians  continued  to  confront 
each  other,  the  latter  at  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century 
still  forming  the  large  majority.  These  in  turn  split  into 
two  principal  groups — the  Adoptianists  and  the  .ilodalista 
— the  former  holding  Christ  to  be  the  man  chosen  of  Grod, 
on  whom  the  Holy  Spirit  rested  in  a  quite  unique  sense, 
and  who  after  toil  and  suffering,  through  His  oneness  of 
will  with  God,  became  divine,  the  latter  maintaining  Christ 
to  be  a  manifestation  of  God  Himself.  Both  groups  had 
their  scientific  theologians  who  sought  to  vindicate  their 
eharacteristic  doctrines,  the  Adoptfenist  divines  holding 
by  the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  and  the  Modalists  by  that 
of  the  Stoics ;  while  the  'Trinitarians  (Tertullian,  Hippo- 
lytus,  Origen,  Novatian),  on  the  other  hand,  appealed  to 
Plato. 

In  Rome  Modallsm  was  the  doctrine  which  prevailed 
from  Victor  to  Calixtus  (c  19'0-220).  The  bishops  just 
named  protected  within  the  city  the  schools  of  Epigonus 
and  Cleomenes,  where  it  was  taught  that  the  Son  is 
identical  with  the  Father.  But  the  presbvter  Hippolytus 
was  successful  in  convincing  the  leaders  of  that  church 
that  the  Modalistic  doctrine  taken  in  its  strictness  was 
contrary  to  Scripture.  Bishop  Calixtus  saw  himself  under 
the  necessity  of  abandoning  his  friends  and  setting  up  a 
mediating  formula  designed  to  harmonize  the  Trinitarian 
and  the  Modalistic  positions.  But,  while  excommunicating 
the  strict  Unitarians  (Monarchians),  ho  also  took  the  same 
course  with  Hippolytus  and  his  followers,  declaring  their 
teaching  to  be  ditheism.  The  mediation  formula,  how- 
ever, proposed  by  Calixtu.s  became  the  bridge  by  which, 
in  the  course  of  the  decades  immediately  following,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  made  its  way  into  the  Homan 
Church.  In  the  year  2.50,  when  the  Roman  presbyter 
Novatian  wrote  his  book  Ve  Trinitate,  the  doctrine  of 
Hippolytus,  once  discredited  as  ditheism,  hatl  already 
become  official  there.  At  the  same  time  Rome  and  most 
of  the  other  churches  of  the  West  still  retained  a  certain 
leaning  towards  Modalistic  monarchianism.  This  appears, 
on  the  one  hand,  in  the  use  of  expressions  having  a 
Modalistic  ring  about  them— see  especially  the  poems  of 
Commodian,  written  about  the  time  of  Valerian— and,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  the  rejection  of  the  doctrine  that  the 
Son  is  subordinate  to  the  Father  and  is  a  creature  (wit- 
ness the  controversy  between  Dionysius  of  Alexandria 
and  Dionysius  of  Rome),  as  well  as  in  the  readiness  of  the 
West  to  accept  the  formula  of  Athanasins,  that  the  Father 
Md  the  Sen  are  one  and  the  same  in  su*^"'ance  (o/wowrtot). 


The  strict  Modalists,  whom  Calixtus  had  excommuni-; 
cated  along  with  their  most  zealous  opponent  Hippolytus,' 
were  led  by  Sabellius,  who  was  perhaps  a  Libyan  by  birth.' 
His  party  continued  to  subsist  in  Rome  for  a  considerable 
time  afterwards,'  and  withstood  Calixtus  as  an  unscrupu- 
lous apostate.  In  the  West,  however,  the  influence  of 
Sabellius  seems  never  to  have  been  important ;  in  the 
East,  on  the  other  hand,  after  the  middle  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury his  doctrine  found  much  acceptance,  first  in  the 
Pentapolis  and  afterwards  in  other  provinces.-  It  was 
violently  controverted  by  the  bishops,  notably  by  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria,  and  the  development  in  the  East  of  the 
philosophical  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  after  Origen  (from  260 
to  320)  was  very  powerfully  influenced  by  the  oppositioa 
to  Sabellianism.  Thus,  for  e.xample,  at  the  great  synod 
held  in  Antioch  in  2G8  the  word  o/iooiVios  was  rejected, 
as  seeming  to  favour  Unitarianism.  The  Sabellian  doc- 
trine itself,  however,  during  the  decades  above  mentioned 
underwent  many  changes  in  the  East  and  received  a  philo- 
sophical dress.  In  the  4  th  century  this  and  the  allied 
doctrine  of  Marcellus  of  Ancyra  were  frequently  con- 
founded, so  that  it  is  exceedingly  difiicult  to  arrive  at  a 
clear  account  of  it  in  its  genuine  form.  Sabellianism,  in 
fact,  became  a  collective  name  for  all  those  Unitarian 
doctrines  in  which  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  was 
acknowledged.  The  teaching  of  Sabellius  himself  was 
indubitably  very  closely  allied  to  the  older  Modalism 
("Patripassianism")  of  Noetus  and  Praxeas,  but  was 
distinguished  from  it  by  its  more  careful  theological 
elaboration  and  by  the  account  it  took  of  the  Holy  Spirit.' 
His  central  proposition  was  to  the  effect  that  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit  are  the  same  person,  three  names  thus 
being  attached  to  one  and  the  same  being.  What  weighed 
most  with  Sabellius  was  the  monotheistic  interest.  The 
One  Being  was  also  named  by  him  uioTraxiiip, — an  expression 
purposely  chosen  to  obviate  ambiguity.  To  explain  how 
one  and  the  same  being  could  have  various  forms  o£ 
manifestation,  he  pointed  to  the  tripartite  nature  of  man. 
(body,  soul,  spirit),  and  to  the  sun,  which  manifests  itself 
as  a  heavenly  body,  as  a  source  of  light,  and  also  as  a 
source  of  warmth.  He  further  maintained  that  God  is 
not  at  one  and  the  same  time  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  active  in  three  consecutive 
energies, — first  in  the  pro.'^opon  of  the  Father  as  Creator, 
then  in  the  prosopon  of  the  Son  as  Redeemer,  and  lastly 
in  the  prosopon  of  the  Spirit  as  the  Giver  of  Life.  It  is 
by  this  doctrine  of  the  succession  of  the  prosopa  tliat 
Sabellius  is  essentially  distinguislied  from  the  older 
Modalists.  In  particular  it  is  significant,  in  conjunction 
with  the  reference  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  that  Sabellius  re- 
gards the  Father  also  as  merely  a  form  of  manifestation 
of  the  one  God, — in  other  words,  has  formally  put  Him 
in  a  position  of  complete  equality  with  the  other  Persons,. 
This  \iew  prepares  the  way  for  Augustine's  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  Sabellius  him.self  appears  to  liave  made  use 
of  Stoical  fori  .  .'.as  [■^r^arvviadai,  a-va-TiXX-ctrOui),  but  he 
chiefly  relied  up  -.  '.cripture,  especially  such  passages  as 
Deut.  vi  4,  Exod.  ..-.<.  3,  Isa.  xliv.  fl,  .John  x.  38.  Of 
his  later  hi.story  nothing  is  known ;  his  followers  died  out 
in  the  course  ol  the  4th  century. 

The  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  Sabellianism  arc  Hippolytus 
(Phdoa  ,  bk.  ix.),  Epiplianius  (//«r.,  Ixii,),  and  Dionjs.  Alex. 
[/•'pp.)  ]  ;ils(»  variou:*  ])a^s.igc3  in  Alhanasius  and  tiie  otlit-r  fathers 
of  tliG  4th  century.  Fur  modern  tli-scussions  of  tlie  subject  seo 
Schlcieniiacher(r/i«?.  Zisclir.,  1822,  hft,  3),  Lango  {Ztschr.  f.  hist. 
Thcol.,  1832,  ii.  2),  n.illinger  (J/ippoli/l  u.  KMisl,  1853),  Zahn 
{Marcctl  v.  Ancyra.,  1867).  and  Harnack  (s.t'.- "Jlonarchianismus," 
in  Hcrzog-Plitt,  Encylt.  f.  Prol.  Throl ,  x.  199  sq.).        (A.  HA.) 

*  In  the  18lh  century  there  w-is  diacuverpcl  in  one  of  tlie  catacombs 
of  Konic  an  inscription  containing  the  words  "«ju'  et  Flliu.s  dicoris  ct 
Patvr  iuvfiiiris."     Thi.s  can  only  have  come  from  a  Sabellian. 

'  Whether  SabeUius  himsell  ever  visited  the  East  is  uukuowni 


128 


y  A  B  — s  A  a 


•5ABIANS.  In  three  passages  of  tho  Koran  Jlohammed 
xnentions  between  the  Jews  and  the  Christians  a  sect  whom 
he  calls  Sabians  (Sdbi'iina).  He  distinguishes  them  from 
the  Magians  and  polytheists  (xxii.  17),  and  ajjpeara  to  say 
that  they  believed  in  God  and  in  the  day  of  resurrection 
md  judgment.  It  has  commonly  been  supposed  that  the 
sect  referred  to  is  the  Mand.eans  (q.v.) ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  they  were  some  obscure  half-Christian  body 
fElkcsaites  ?),  which  had  representatives  in  Ai-abia  itself 
(see  JIoiTAMMEDANiSM,  vol.  xvi.  p.  547).  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Aramaic  V3V,  with  a  softening  of  y  to  N, 
such  as  took  place  in  certain  dialects  of  that  speech,  and 
iiieans  "Baptists."  The  older  Mohammedan  theologians 
were  agreed  that  the  Sabians  possessed  a  written  revela- 
tion, and  were  entitled  accordingly  to  enjoy  a  toleration 
not  granted  to  mere  heathen,  and  it  appears  that  the  Man- 
heans  got  the  benefit  of  this,  whether  they  were  the  sect 
Mohammed  had  in  view  or  not.  But  under  Al-JIamun 
(830)  a  body  that  had  certainly  no  claim  to  be  deemed 
other  than  polytheists  began  to  shield  themselves  under 
the  same  name,  viz.,  the  Harranians,  or  remnant  of  the 
old  heathen  of  Mesopotamia.  Star-worship  had  a  chief 
place  in  the  religion  of  the  Harranians,  as  it  had  had  in 
the  older  Babylonian  and  Syrian  faiths,  but  they  had 
partly  disguised  their  polytheism  in  a  fantastic  philosophy, 
so  that  they  were  able  on  occasion  to  pose  as  people  of 
enlightened  beliefs.  Accounts  of  these  false  Sabians 
reached  the  West  through  Jlaimonides,  and  then  through 
Arabic  sources,  long  before  it  was  understood  that,  in  this 
ipplicatlon,  the  name  was  only  a  disguise.  Hence  the 
greatest  confusion  prevailed  in  all  European  accounts  of 
them  till  Chwolsohn  published  in  1856  his  Ssabier  und 
Ssahisnms,  in  which  the  authorities  for  the  history  and 
belief  of  the  Harranians  in  the  Middle  Ages  are  collected 
and  discussed.  Sec  also  Dozy  and  Do  Goeje  in  the  Acies 
of  the  sixth  Oriental  congress,  ii.  1,  185  sq.,  Leyden,  1885. 
It  is  quite  inappropriate  to  call  star-worshippers  in  general 
Sabians  or  Zabians  or  to  speak  of  a  distinct  Sabian  religion, 
&s  older  writers  do.  The  religion  of  the  Harranians  is 
simply  a  modernized  form  of  the  old  Syrian  polytheism. 

SABICU  WOOD  is  the  produce  of  a  large  leguminous 
tree,  Lysiloma  Saliai,  a  native  of  Cuba,  where  alone  it 
appears  to  be  found.  The  wood  has  a  rich  mahogany 
colour  ;  it  is  exceedingly  heavy,  hard,  and  durable,  and 
therefore  most  valuable  for  shipbuilding.  Sabicu,  on 
account  of  its  durability,  was  selected  for  the  stairs  of  the 
Great  Exhibition  (London)  of  1851,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  enormous  traffic  which  passed  over  them,  tho  wood  at 
the  end  was  found  to  be  little  affected  by  wear. 
•  SABINE,  Sir  Edw.ard  (1788-1883),  astronomer,  was 
born  in  Dublin  on  14th  October  1788,  a  scion  of  a  family 
;aid  to  be  of  Italian  origin.  He  Tvas  educated  at  Wool- 
wich and  obtained  a  commission  in  tha  Royaf.  Artillery  at 
the  age  of  fifteen.  He  attained  the  rank  of  iltajor-general 
in  1859.  His  only  experience  of  actual  warfetie  seems  to 
have  been  at  the  siege  of  Fort  Erie  in  1814  ,  but  few  men 
have  seen  more  than  he  of  active  and  sometimes  perilous 
service.  In  early  life  he  devoted  himself  to  astronomy  and 
physical  geography,  and  in  consequence  he  was  appointed 
astronomer  to  various  expeditions,  among  others  that  of 
Sir  J.  Ross  (1818)  in  search  of  the  North-West  Passage,  and 
that  of  Sir  E.  Parry  soon  afterwards.  Later,  he  spent  long 
periods  on  the  inter-tropical  coasts  of  Africa  and  America, 
and  again  among  the  snows  of  Spitzbergen.  Sir  Edward 
Sabine  died  at  East  Sheen,  Surrey,  on  26th  May  1883. 

Of  Sabine's  scientific  work  two  tiranclies  in  particular  dcscrvo 
lery  high  credit— his  determination  of  pendulum  data  for  tho 
investigation  of  the  figure  of  the  earth  and  h^s  extensive  researches 
connected  witli  terrestrial  magnetism.  His  pendulum  observations 
were  the  first  to  show  tho  altogether  unexpected  amount  of  accuracy 
Hainablo  in  a  matter  which,  under  the  most  favourable  conditions, 


is  one  of  gi'cat  delicacy,  but  which  had  to  be  pursued  by  him  Tili3?. 
circumstances  often  of  peculiar  difficulty.  The  establishment  ot  a. 
system  of 'magnetic  observatories  in  various  parts  of  British  torr'tory 
all  over  the  globe  u.is  accomplislied  mainly  on  his  rcpicicntations  ; 
and  to  the  direction  of  these  observatories  and  to  tiw  redi.ctioa 
and  discussion  of  the  observations  a  great  part  of  his  life  was 
devoted.  His  published  papers,  as  shown  by  the  Royal  Societv's 
Catii/O'jiir,  amounted  in  1872  to  101.  "While  the  majority  bear  on 
one  or  other  of  the  subjects  just  mentioned,  others  deal  with  such 
widely  dilTerent  topics  as  the  birds  of  Greenland,  ocean  tempera- 
tures, the  Gulf  Stream,  barometric  mrasni;ement  of  heiglits,  arcs  of 
meridian,  glacier  transport  of  rocks,  tlie  volcanoes  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  and  various  ]x.ints  of  meteorology.  Sabine  occupied  for  ten 
years  (1301-71)  the  prcside-it's  chair  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was 
made  K.C.B.  in  1869  Though  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  bee» 
a  man  of  striking  originality,  his  unflagging  devotion  to  his  work- 
deservedly  won  him  an  bono  irable  position  among  tiie  foremost 
^cientilic  men  of  the  preaent  century. 

iABINES.  The  Sabines  (Sabini)  were  a  people  of  Cen- 
tral Italy,  who  played  an  important  part  in  the  early  history 
of  Rome.  According  to  all  old  writers  they  were  one  of  th« 
most  ancient  nations  of  Italy,  and  the  parent  stock  frota 
which  many  of  the  other  tribes  that  occupied  the  central 
and  southern  regions  of  the  peninsula  derived  their  orif^n. 
Of  their  own  origin  and  affinities  \Ve  know  very  little. 
Strabo  calls  them  a  very  a^ncient  race  and  "  autochthonous," 
which  may  be  taken  as  signifying  that  there  was  no  authen- 
tic tradition  of  their  immigration,  or  of  the  quarter  from 
whence  they  came.  The  story  of  their  Laconian  descent 
may  be  safely  rejected  as  one  of  those  fictions  by  which  a 
certain  class  of  the  later  Greek  writers  sought  to  derive 
every  people  in  Italy  from  a  Greek  origin.  But  the  evi- 
dence concerning  their  language,  scanty  as  it  is,  is  sufficient 
to  prove  that  they  were  a  cognate  race  with  the  neighbour- 
ing Umbrians  and  Oscans,  as  well  as,  more  remotely,  with 
the  Latins.  Cato,  the  best  authority  among  the  Romas 
writers  with  respect  to  the  different  races  of  Italy,  affirmed 
that  the  Sabines  originally  occupied  the  country  about 
Amiternum,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Aternus,  at  the 
foot  of  the  loftiest  group  of  the  Apennines.  From  thence 
they  gradually  extended  themselves  into  the  fertile  valleys 
about  Reate,  where  wo  find  them  established  in  historical 
times,  and  occupied  the  tract  from  thence  to  the  Tiber 
and  the  Anio.  But  even  in  its  widest  extension  the  regioa 
held  by  the  Sabines  was  of  small  dimensions,  and  for  the 
most  part  of  a  rugged  and  moimtainous  character.  Henc« 
it  was  natural  that  they  should  seek  a  place  for  their  super- 
fluous population  by  repeated  emigrations  into  the  neigh- 
bouring districts,  and  the  general  tradition  among  Romaa 
writers  ascribed  the  origin  of  several  of  the  more  powerful 
and  populous  nations  of  the  peninsula  to  such  emigrations. 
This  result  was  especially  promoted  by  a  custom  which, 
though  not  unknown  to  the  other  nations  of  Italy,  appears 
to  have  been  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  Sabines — that 
of  a  Ver  Sacrum,  or  "sacred  spring,"  when  everything  bom 
in  that  year  was  consecrated  to  some  local  divinity,  most 
frequently  to  Mamers  or  Mars.  All  the  cattle  were  duly 
sacrificed,  while  the  young  men  were  allowed  to  grow  up 
to  manhood,  and  then  sent  forth  in  a  body  to  seek  for 
themselves  new  abodes  beyond  the  limits  ot  their  native 
land.  To  such  colonies  is  ascribed  the  foundation  of  the' 
Picentes  or  people  of  Picenum,  the  Samnites,  and  the 
Hirpini.  Of  these  the  last-mentioned  derived  their  name 
from  hirpus,  tho  Sabine  name  for  a  wolf,  an  animal  of  that 
description  being  supposed  to  have  been  divinely  sent  as 
the  leader  of  the  colony,  as  a  woodpecker  (jiicus),  also 
sacred  to  Mars,  became  that  of  the  Piccni.  The  Peligni 
also,  as  we  learn  from  Ovid,  himself  a  native  of  the  dis- 
trict, claimed  a  Sabine  origin,  and  the  same  Was  probably 
the  case  with  the  smallej  kindred  tribes  of  the  Marsi, 
Marrucini,  and  Vestini.  The  Samnites,  again,  in  their  turn 
sent  forth  the  Frentani  and  the  Lucanians,  who  extended 
their  dominion  throughout  the  mountainous  regions  of 


S  A  B  — S  A  B 


129 


Southern  Italy  and  carried  their  arms  from  the  Adriatic 
to  the  Sicilian  Straits. 

Meanwhile  the  Sabines  themselves  were  confined  within 
comparatively  narrow  limits,  and  their  extension  towards 
the  south  was  checked  by  the  growing^power  of  the  Latins. 
Here  their  power  appears  to  have  attained  its  highest  point 
about  the  tin>3  of  the  foundation  of  Kome,  and  the  legend- 
ary history,  familiar  to  every  schoolboy,  of  the  contests 
between  Romulus  and  Tatius,  the  divided  sovereignty  at 
one  time  established  between  them,  and  the  peaceful  reign 
<Md  legislation  of  the  Sabine  king  Numa  may  be  taken 
as  representing  the  historical  fact  that  the  population  of 
Rome  really  contained  an  important  Sabine  element,  and 
that  Sabine  influences  were  largely  intermixed  with  those 
of  Latin  origin,  both  in  the  civil  institutions  and  still 
more  in  the  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  rising 
republic.  Beyond  this  it  is  impossible  to  pronounce  with 
certainty  as  to  the  real  value  and  significance  of  the  tradi- 
tions preserved  to  us  in  the  poetical  legends  transmitted 
in  the  garb  of  history ;  and  it  is  impossible  in  an  article 
like  •  the  present  to  give  even  an  outline  of  the  various 
theories  that  have  been  devised  by  modern  writers  to'  put 
an  historical  interpretation  upon  the  records  thus  preserved 
to  us.  It  is  clear,  hov.-ever,  that  the  power  of  the  Sabines 
was  by  no  means  broken,  even  by  the  establishment  of  the 
more  powerful  monarchy  at  Rome  under  the  Tarquins,  and 
for  a  period  of  more  than  fifty  years  after  the  fall  of  the 
monarchy  we  find  the  Romans  engaged  in  almo»t  perpetual 
hostilities  against  the  Sabines  on  the  one  side  and  the 
.^quians  and  Volscians  on  the  other.  At  length  in  the 
year  449  B.C.  the  Sabines  were  defeated  by  the  consul 
M.  Horatius,  in  an  action  which  appears  to  have  been  of 
80  decisive  a  character  that  we  do  not  find  them  again 
appearing  in  arms  against  the  Romans  for  a  period  of  more 
than  160  years.  Their  quiescence  is  the  more  singular  as 
during  this  interval  the  republic  was  engaged  in  the  long 
series  of  the  Samnite  Wars,  in  which  their  adversaries  were 
the  direct  descendants  of  the  Sabines,  and  had  therefore 
every  claim  on  their  support.  Still  more  unaccountable 
is  it  that,  after  looking  on  with  apparent  neutrality  for  so 
long,  we  find  the  Sabines  in  the  year  290  B.C.  once  more 
in  arms  against  Rome,  and  that  at  a  period  when  the 
Third  Samnite  War  had  for  a  time  crushed  all  the  hopes 
of  their  natural  allies.  The  result  was,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  that  they  found  themselves  wholly  unequal  to 
contend  single-handed  against  the  power  of  Rome,  and  the 
consul  il'.  Curius  Dentatus  reduced  them  to  submission  in 
a  single  campaign.  Tliey  were  severely  punished  for  this 
defection ;  and  henceforth  their  national  existence  was  at 
an  end.  Those  who  survived  the  slaughter  of  the  wir 
were  admitted  to  the  position  of  Roman  citizens,  though 
at  first  without  the  right  of  suffrage,  but  twenty  years 
after  this  also  was  granted  them,  and  they  were  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  incorporated  in  the  Roman  state. 
Thus  separated  from  all  the  tribes  of  kindred  origin,  they 
never  again  appear  in  history,  and,  like  the  Campanians 
and  Latins,  were  content  to  swelj  the  ranks  of  the  Roman 
legioi.s  even  in  the  fierce  struggle  of  the  Social  Wav  (91- 
88  B.C.).  Under  the  arrangements  of  the  Roman  empire 
their  very  name  was  lost  as  a  territorial  designation,  but 
it  always  continued  in  popular  use,  and  was  revived  in  the 
lliddle  Ages  as  that  of  an  ecclesiastical  province.  Even 
at  the  present  day  every  peasant  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rome  will  point  to  La  Sabina  as  the  familiar  appellation 
of  the  lofty  mountain  tract  to  the  north  of  the  city. 

The  limits  of  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Sabines  do 
not  appear  to  have  varied  much  from  a  very  early  period 
till  the  days  of  Strabo.  That  geographer  describes  them 
as  extending  as  far  south  as  Eretum  near  the  Tiber,  on 
the  road  to  Rome,  and  a  few  miles  only  from  Cures,  the 


■  reputed  birthplace  of  Tatius  and  Xuma,  but  which  iu  his 
time  had  become  a  mere  village.  The  principal  town  of 
the  Sabines  was  Reate  (still  caUed  Rieti),  in  the  midst  of 
the  beautiful  and  fertile  vaUey  of  the  Velino,  and  from 
thence  they  occupied  the  upper  valley  of  that  river  to  its 
sources  in  the  Monte  della  SibiUa  and  the  rugged  mountain 
valleys  which  connected  it  with  that  of  the  Atemus 
Here  was  foimd  Amiternum,  the  original  cp.pital  of  the 
tribe,  near  the  modem  Aquila,  and  between  that  and 
Reate  lay  Interocrea  (Antrodoco),  in  a  pass  that  has  always 
formed  one  of  the  leading  lines  of  communication  through 
the  central  Apennines.  In  the  extreme  north  was  Nursia 
(Norcia),  noted  for  the  coldness  of  its  climate,  and  cele- 
brated in  ecclesiastical  history  as  the  birthplace  of  St  Eeue-| 
diet.  These  were  the  only  towns  of  any  imixjrtance  in 
the  territory  of  the  Sabines ;  but  they  lived  for  the  most 
part  scattered  in  villages  about  the  mountains,  a  circum- 
stance absurdly  alleged  by  some  Roman  writers  as  a  proof 
of  their  Laconian  origin.  It  was  doubtless  owing  to  this 
habit,  as  well  as  to  the  rugged  mountainous  character  of 
the  country  in  which  they  dwelt,  that  the  Sabines  owed 
the  primitive  simplicity  of  their  manners  and  the  frugal 
and  severe  character  which  distinguished  them  even  in 
the  days  of  Augustus.  All  readers  of  Horace  must  be 
familiar  with  his  frequent  allusions  to  the  moral  piiity 
and  frugal  manners  of  the  people  that  surrounded  his 
Sabine  villa,  which  was  situated  on  the  reverse  of  Mount 
Lucretilis,  only  about  1 5  miles  from  the  rich  and  luxurious 
Tibiu-  (Tivoli).  The  small  town  of  Varia  (Vicovaro),  in 
its  immediate  neighbourhood,  seems  to  have  marked  the 
frontier  on  this  side. 

No  remains  of  the  Sabine  language  are  extant  in  the 
form  of  inscriptions,  but  coins  struck  during  the  Social 
War  with  the  inscription  "  Safinim  "  show  that  the  native 
appellation  was  the  same  as  that  in  use  among  the  Latins. 
The  form  "Sabellus"  is  frequently  found  in  Latin  writers 
as  an  ethnic  adjective  equivalent  to  Sabine ;  but  the  practice 
adopted  by  modem  writers,  of  employing  t'ie  term  "Sabel- 
lian  "  to  designate  all  the  tribes  of  Sabine  origin,  including 
Samnites,  Lucanians,  <tc.,  was  first  introduced  by  Xiebuhr, 
and  is  not  supported  by  any  ancient  authority,     (e.  h.  b.) 

SABLE  {Mustela  zihellina).  See  Mabtex,  vol  sv.  p. 
577,  and  Fus,  vol.  ix.  p.  838. 

S.4BLES  D'OLOXXE,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  the 
chef-lieu  of  an  arrondissement  of  the  department  of  La 
Vendee,  is  situated  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  in  46°  30'  Jf. 
lat.,  300  miles  south-west  of  Paris  by  the  railway  for  Tours 
and  La-Roche-sur-Yon.  The  town  stands  between  the  sea 
on  the  south  and  the  port  on  the  north,  while  on  the  west 
it  is  separated  by  a  channel  from  the  suburb  of  La  Chaume, 
built  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  dunes  65  feet  higli,  which 
terminates  southwards  in  the  rocky  peninsida  of  L'Aiguillo 
(the  Needle),  defended  by  Fort  St  Nicholas.  To  the  north 
of  Sables  extend  salt-marshes  and  oyster- parks,  stocked 
from  Auray  or  Cape  Breton,  and  yielding  6,000,000  to 
8,000,000  oysters  per  annum.  The  port  of  Sables,  consisting 
of  a  tidal  basin  and  a  wet-<lock,  is  accessible  only  to  vessels 
of  from  3.50  to  400  tons,  and  is  dangerous  when  the  winds 
are  from  the  south-west.  The  entrance  is  shown  by  six 
lights  ;  a  seventh  lighthouse,  that  of  tha  Barges,  a  mile  out 
at  sea  to  the  west,  has  a  height  of  80  feet  and  is  visible 
for  17  to  18  nautical  miles.  In  1SS2  145  vessels  (62,073 
tons)  entered  and  146  vessels  (61,037  tons)  cleared.  The 
staple  articles  of  trade  are  grain,  wine,  cattle,  timber,  salt, 
tar,  fish,  building  stone,  manures ;  400  boats  are  engaged 
in  the  sardine  fishery.  The  beautiful  smoothly  sloping 
beach,  a  mile  in  length,  is  much  frequented  by  bathers. 
It  is  lined  by  an  embankment  which  serves  as  a  promenade 
and  drive,  and  is  bordered  by  hotels,  villas,  and  cafes.  The 
ixipulation  in  1881  was  9769,  that  of  the  commune  10,420J 

XXL  —  17 


130 


S  A  C  — S  A  C 


Founded  by  Basque  or  Spanish  sailors,  Sables  was  the  first  place 
in  Poitou  invaded  by  the  Ncrinans  in  817.  Louis  XI.,  who  went 
there  in  1472,  gi'antcd  the  inliabitants  various  privileges,  improved 
the  harbour,  and  fortified  tlio  rntr-iuce.  Captured  and  recaptured 
during  the  Wars  of  Religion,  tlio  town  afterwards  became  a  nursery 
of  hardy  sailors  and  privateers,  who  harassed  the  Spaniards  and 
afterwards  the  Entjiish.  In  16D6  Sables  was  bombarded  by  tlie 
combined  fleets  of  "England  and  Holland.  Hurricanes  have  more 
than  once  caused  giievous  damage  to  toivn  and  harbor. 
SACCATOO.     See  Sokota. 

SACCHETTl,  Franco  {c.  1335-.;.  1400),  Itanan  novel- 
ist, was  the  son  of  Benci  di  Uguccione,  sumamed  "Buono," 
of  the  noble  and  ancient  Florentine  family  of  the  Sacchetti 
(comp.  Dante,  Par.,  c.  xvi.),  and  was  born  at  Florence  abost 
the  year  1335.  While  still  a  young  man  he  achieved  repute 
as  a  poet,  and  he  appears  to  have  travelled  on  affairs  of 
more  or  less  importance  as  far  as  to  Genoa,  Milan,  and  "  Is- 
chiavonia."  When  a  sentence  of  banishment  was  passed 
upon  the  rest  of  the  house  of  Sacchetti  by  the  Florentine 
authorities  in  1380  it  appears  that  Franco  was  expressly 
exempted,  "per  esser  tanto  uomo  buono,"  and  in  1383 
he  was  one  of  the  "eight,"  discharging  the  office  of 
"prior"  for  the  months  of  March  and  April.  In  1385  he 
was  chosen  ambassador  to  Genoa,  but  preferred  to  go  as 
podesti  to  Bibbiena  in  Casentino.  In  1392  he  was  podesta 
of  San  Miniato,  and  in  1396  he  held  a  similar  office  at 
Faenza.  In  1398  he  received  from  his  fellow-citizens  the 
post  of  captain  of  their  then  province  of  Romagna,  having 
his  residence  at  Portico.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known;  most  probably  it  occurred  about  1400,  though 
some  writers  place  it  as  late  as  1410. 

Sacchetti  left  a  considerable  number  of  s^nctli,  canzoni,  lallate, 
inadrigali,  kc,  which  have  never  been  printed,  but  which  are  still 
extant  in  at  least  one  MS.  in  the  Laurentian  library  of  Florence. 
His  Kordlc  were  first  printed  in  1724,  from  the  MS.  in  the  same 
collection,  which,  however,  is  far  from  complete.  They  were  ori- 
ginally 300  in  number,  but  only  258  in  whole  or  in  part  now  sur- 
vive. They  are  written  in  pije  and  elegant  Tuscan,  and,  based  as 
they  are  for  the  most  part  on  real  incidents  in  the  public  and 
domestic  life  of  Florence,  they  are  valuable  for  the  light  they  throw 
on  the  manners  of  that  age,  and. occasionally  also  for  the  biograph- 
ical facts  preserved  iu  them.  But  in  no  other  respect  do  they  come 
up  to  the  corresponding  compositions  of  his  friend  Boccaccio.  Some 
of  them,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  are  very  coarse— a  feature  not  com- 
pensated for  by  the  moralizings  almost  invariably  appended— and 
many  more  are  dull  and  pointless,  leaving  the  unpression,  as  Sis- 
mondi  has  remarked,  that  in  that  century  of  artistic  advance  the 
art  of  conversation  had  remained  far  behind  the  others. 

SACCHI,  Andrea  (c  1600-1601),  a  leading  painter  of 
the  later  Roman  school,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1600,  or 
perhaps  as  early  as  1598.  His  father,  Benedetto,  a  painter 
of  undistinguished  position,  gave  him  his  earliest  instruc- 
tion in  the  art ;  Andrea  then  passed  into  the  studio  of 
Albani,  of  whom  he  was  the  last  and  the  most  eminent 
pupil,  and  under  Albani  he  made  his  reputation  early. 
The  painter  of  Sacchi's  predilection  was  Raphael;  he 
was  the  jealous  opponent  of  Pietro  da  Cortona,  and  more 
especially  of  Bernini.  In  process  of  time  he  became  one  of 
the  most  learned  designers  and  one  of  the  soundest  colour- 
ists  of  the  Roman  school  He  went  to  Venice  and  to  Lom- 
bardy  to  study  Venetian  colour  and  the  style  of  Correggio  ; 
but  he  found  the  last-named  master  unadaptable  for  his  own 
proper  methods  in  art,  and  he  returned  to  Rome.  Sacchi 
was  strong  in  artistic  theory,  and  in  practice  slow  and  fasti- 
dious; it  was  his  axiom  that  the  merit  of  a  painter  consists 
in  producing,  not  many  middling  pictiu-es,  but  a  few  and 
perfect  ones.  His  works  have  dignity,  repose,  elevated 
yet  natural  forms,  severe  but  not  the  less  pleasing  colour, 
a  learned  treatment  of  architecture  and  perspective;  he 
is  thus  a  painter  of  the  correct  and  laudable  academic 
order,  admired  by  connoisseurs  rather  than  by  ambitious 
students  or  the  large  public.  His  principal  painting, 
often  spoken  of  as  the  fourth  best  easel-picture  in  Rome— 
in  the  Vatican  Gallery— is  St  Romuald  relating  his  Vision 
to  Five  Monks  of  his  Order.    The  pictorial  crux  of  dealing 


with  these  figure.?,  who  are  all  in  the  white  garb  of  their 
order,  has  often  been  remarked  upon ;  and  as  often  the 
ingenuity  and  judgment  of  Sacchi  have  been  praised  in 
varying  the  tints  of  these  habits  according  to  the  light  and 
shade  cast  by  a  neighbouring  tree.  The  Vatican  Gallery 
contains  also  an  early  painting  of  the  master, — the  Miracle 
of  St  Gregorj',  executed  in  1624 ;  a  mosaic  of  it  was  made 
io  1771  and  placed  in  St  Peter's.  Other  leading  examples 
are  the  Death  of  St  Anna,  in  S.  Carlo  ai  Catinari ;  St 
Andrew,  in  the  Quirinal ;  St  Joseph,  at  Capo  alle  Case ; 
also,  in  fresco,  a  ceiling  in  the  Palazzo  Barberini — Divine 
Wisdom — reckoned  superior  in  expression  and  selection  to 
the  rival  work  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  There  are  likewise 
altar-pieces  in  Perugia,  Foligno,  and  Caraerino.  Sacchi, 
who  worked  almost  always  in  Rome,  left  few  pictures 
visible  in  private  galleries :  one,  of  St  Bruno,  is  in  Gros- 
venor  House.  He  had  a  flourishing  school :  Nicholas 
Poussin  and  Carlo  Maratta  were  his  most  eminent  scholars ; 
Luigi  Garzi  and  Francesco  Lauri  were  others,  and  Sacchi's 
own  son  Giuseppe,  who  died  young,  after  giving  very  Jiigh 
hopes.  This  must  have  been  an  iUegitimate  son,  for  Andrea 
died  unmarried.  This  event  took  place  in  Rome  in  1661. 
SACCHINI,  An-tomo  Maria  Gaspare  (1734-1786), 
musical  composer,  of  the  Italian  school, was  born  at  Pozzuoli, 
23d  July  1734,  and  educated  under  Durante  at  the  Conser- 
vatorio  di  San  Onofrio  at  Naples.  His  first  serious  opera 
was  produced  at  Rome  in  1762,  and  was  followed  by  many 
others,  nearly  all  of  which  were  successful.  In  1769  he 
removed  to  Venice;  and  in  1772  he  visited  London, 
where,  notwithstanding  a  cruel  cabal  formed  against  him, 
he  achieved  a  brilliant  success,  especially  in  his  four  new 
operas,  Tamerlano,  Liicio  Vera,  Kitetti  e  Ferseo,  and  Jl 
Gran  Cid.  Ten  years  later  he  met  with  an  equally  enthu- 
siastic reception  in  Paris,  where  his  Rinaldo  was  ]iroduced 
under  the  immediate  patronage  of  Queen  JIarie  Antoinette, 
to  whom  he  had  been  recommended  by  the  emperor 
Joseph  II.  But  neither  in  England  nor  in  France  did 
his  reputation  continue  to  the  end  of  his  visit.  He  seems 
to  have  been  everywhere  the  victim  of  bitter  jealousy. 
Even  Marie  Antoinette  was  not  able  to  support  his  cause 
in  the  face  of  the  general  outcry  against  the  favour 
shown  to  foreigners ;  and  by  her  command,  most  unwill- 
ingly given,  his  last  opera  and  undoubted  masterpiece, 
(EdijieU  Colone,  was  set  aside  in  1786  to  make  room  for 
Lemoine's  Phedre, — a  circumstance  which  so  preyed  upou 
his  mind  that  he  died  of  chagrin,  7th  October  17S6. 

Sacchini's  style  was  rather  graceful  than  elevated,  and  be  was 
deficient  both  in  creative  power  and  Originality.  But  the  dramatic 
truth  of  his  operas,  more  especially  the  later  ones,  is  above  all  praise, 
and  ho  uovcr  fails  to  write  with  the  care  and  finish  of  a  thorough 
and  accomplished  musician.  CEdijie  was  extremely  successful  after 
his  death,  and  has  since  been  performed  at  the  Academio  nearly 
000  times.  The  last  performance  of  which  any  record  has  reached 
us  took  place  in  1844. 

SACHEVERELL,  He.vry  (1674-1724),  an  Engliiih 
church  and  state  politician  of  extreme  views,  was  born  in 
1074,  the  son  of  Joshua  Sacheverell,  rector  of  St  Peter's, 
Marlborough,  who  at  his  death  left  a  large  family  in 
poverty.  Henry  Sacheverell  matriculated  at  Magdali.'n 
College,  Oxford,  2Sth  August  1CS9,  and  was  demy  of  his 
college  from  1689  to  1701  and  fellow  from  1701  to  1713. 
Addison,  another  AYiltshire  lad,  entered  at  the  same  college 
two  years  earlier,  but  was  also  elected  a  demy  in  16S9  ; 
he  inscribed  to  Sacheverell  in  1694  his  account  of  the 
greatest  English  poets.  Sacheverell  took  his  degree  of 
B.A.  in  1693,  and  became  M.A.  in  1690  and  D.D.  in 
1708.  His  first  preferment  was  the  small  vicarage  of 
Cannock  in  Staffordshire ;  but  he  leapt  into  notice  when 
holding  a  preachership  at  St  Saviour's,  Southwark.  His 
famous  sermons  on  the  church  in  danger  from  the  neglect 
of   the   Whig  ministry  to  keep  ^uard  over   its   interests 


S  A  C  — S  A  C 


131 


ffmre  preached,  the  one  at  Derby,  14th  August,  the  otner 
it  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  5th  November  1709.  They  were 
immediately  reprinted,  the  latter  being  dedicated  to  the 
lord  mayor  and  the  former  to  the  author's  kinsman,  George 
Sacheverell,  high  sheriff  of  Derby  for  the  year ;  and,  as 
the  passions  of  the  whole  British  population  were  at  this 
period  keenly  exercised  between  the  rival  factions  of  Whig 
and  Tory,  the  vehement  invectives  of  this  furious  divine  on 
behalf  of  an  ecclesiastical  institution  which  supplied  the 
bulk  of  the  adherents  of  the  Tories  made  him  their  idol. 
The  Whig  ministry,  then  slowly  but  surely  losing  the  sui> 
port  of  the  country,  were  divided  in  opinion  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  prosecuting  this  zealous  parson.  Somers  was 
again.st  such  a  measure  ;  but  Godolphin,  who  was  believed 
to  be  personally  alluded  to  in  one  of  these  harangues  under 
the  nickname  of  "Volpone,"  urged  the  necessity  of  a 
prosecution,  and  gained  the  day.  The  trial  lasted  from 
27th  February  to  23d  March  1710,  and  the  verdict  was 
that  Sacheverell  should  be  suspended  for  three  years  and 
that  the  two  sermons  should  be  burnt  at  the  Royal  Ex- 
change. This  was  the  decree  of  the  state,  and  it  had  the 
effect  of  making  him  a  martyr  in  the  eyes  of  the  populace 
and  of  bringing  about  the  downfall  of  the  ministry.  Im- 
mediately on  the  expiration  of  his  sentence  (13th  April 
jl713)  he  was  instituted  to  the  valuable  rectory  of  St 
^Andrew's,  Holborn,  by  the  new  Tory  ministry,  who  despised 
the  author  of  the  sermons,  although  they  dreaded  his  in- 
fluence over  the  mob.  He  died  at  the  Grove,  Highgate, 
on  5th  June  1724. 

Ample  information  about  his  life  and  triil  ^11  be  found  in 
Heame's  Diaries,  Bloxam's  Register  of  Magdalen,  iii.  98-110,  and 
Hill  Burton's  Queen  Anne,  vol.  ii.  Mr  JIailan  of  the  gp(JleijB 
i/iBrary  has  compiled  a  Sacheverell  bibliograpliy. 

SACHS,  Hans  (1494-1576),  the  most  emineSt  (5ertian 
poet  of  the   16th  century,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  on 
5th  November  1494.     His  father  was  a  shoemaker,  and 
Hans  was  trained  to  the  same  calling.     Before  beginning 
his  apprenticeship,  however,  he  was  educated  at  the  Latin 
school  of  Nuremberg.     Having  finished  his  "Lehrjahre" 
as  a  shoemaker,  he  began  his  "Wanderjahre"  in  1511,  and 
worked  at  hb  craft  in  many  towns,  including  Ratisbon, 
Passau,  Salzburg  Leipsic,  Liibeck,  and  Osnabriick.      In 
1516  he  returned  to  Nuremberg,  where  he  remained  during 
the  rest  of  his  life,  working  steadily  at  his  business,  and 
devoting  his  leisure  time  to  literature.      He  married  in 
1519,  and  after  his  wife's  death  he  married  again  in  1561. 
He  died  on  19th  January  1576. 
Sachs  was  mucli  respecte.l  by  his  fellow-citizens,  and  acqnired 
eat  fame  as  a  poet.     Early  in  life  ho  received  instiuction  in  the 
rinciples  and  rules  of  the  "  Jtcistermsang, "  and  at  Jlunich  in  1513 
10  completed  his  study  of  "the  charming  art"     Afterwards  he 
wrote  many  poems  in  the  formal  manner  of  tlie  "  Sleistersinger, " 
but  to  these  efforts  he  attiibuted  so  little  importance  that  he  did 
not  include  them  in  his  own  collection  of  hia  works.'-  Among  his 
best  writings  are  liis  hymns,  in  which  he  gave  expression  to  the 
highest  spintual  aspirations  of  the  age  of  the  Rcfomiation.     He 
was  one  of  the  most  ardent  .adherants  of  Lutlier,  and  in  1523  wrote 
in  his  honour  tlio  poem  beginning,  "  Die  wittenbcigiscli  Nachtigall, 
Die  man  jotz  horct  libeiall."     This  poem  attracted  much  attention 
and  wa;i  of  great  service  to  Luther.      Sachs  also  wrote  in  verso 
many  fables,    parables,    tales,    and   dialogues.       Of  his   dramatic 
poems,  the  most  remavljable  are  his  Shrove  Tuesday  Plays,  in  each 
of  which  ho  offers  a  lively  representation  of  an  aetion  n-ithout  any 
attempt  at  exact  portraiture  or  at  a  profound  appreciation  of  motives. 
\\  orks  of  this  kind  were  popular  before  Sachs's  time,  but  ha  gave 
them  fresh  vitality  by  his  humour  and  fancy.     Sachs  had  extra- 
ordinary  fertility  uf  imagination,  and  none  of  his  German  contem- 
poraries approached  him  in  his  mastery  of  the  forms  of  literary 
expression  jyhich  were  then  known.    He  wrote  thousands  of  poems, 
and  m  his  lifetime  a  large  number  of  them  were  printed,  in  three 
volumes  ;  after  his  death  two  additional  volumes  appeared  ;  and  in 
recent  times  niany  volumes  of  his  works  in  manuscript  have  been 
discovered.     From  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  when 
Oerman  wnten.  of  verse  became  as  a  rule  mere  imitators  of  foreign 
models   Sachs  was  almost  forgotten,  until  interest  in  Ids  work  was 
.revived  by  Ooethc  ;  and  many  selections  from.  Lis  writings  have 


grea 


I 


since  been  published.  A  complete  edition,  prepared  by  A.  von 
Keller,  has  been  issued  by  the  Literary  Society  of  Stuttgart.  A 
biography  of  Sachs  by  JI.  Solomon  Ranisch  was  published  in  1765, 
and  there  are  later  biographies  by  J.  L.  Hoffmann  (1847),  Weller 
(1868),  and  Liitzelberger  (1874). 

SACKING  AND  SACK  MANUFACTURE:  Sacking 
is  a  stout  close-woven  fabric,  properly  of  flax,  but  now  very 
largely  made  of  jute.  The  chief  centres  of  the  manufacttu'e 
are  Dundee  and  Fo»far  in  Scotland.  Sacks,  however,  are 
made  of  many  qualities  and  from  different  fibres,  according 
to  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  devoted.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  flour  sacks,  those  particularly  of  American 
origin,  are  made  of  stout  cotton.  Numerous  attempts 
have  been  made  to  manufacture  seamless  sacks ;  but  none 
have  met  with  success.  The  invention  of  a  sewing-machine 
for  the  "  overhead  "  seaming  of  sacks  has  been  successfully 
solved  in  the  machine  of  Laing  and  other  inventors.  ' 

SACO,  a  city  of  the  United  Stages,  in  York  county,' 
Maine,  on  the  left  or  north  bank  of  the  Saco  river, 
opposite  Biddeford,  9  miles  from  the  sea  and  100  from 
Boston  by  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad,  The  water- 
power  furnished  by  the  river,  which  here  falls  55  feet,  is 
utilized  by  various  cotton-factories,  machine-shops,  lumber- 
mills,  (tc.  Originally  included  in  Biddeford,  but  sepa- 
rately incorporated  in  1762  as  Pepperellborough,  Saco  re- 
ceived its  present  name  in  1805  and  was  made  a  city  in 
1867.    The  population  was  5755  in  1870  and  6389  in  1880. 

SACRAMENT.     The  Latin  word  sacramentum,  mean- 
ing "an  oath,"  is  most  commonly  used  by  classical  writers 
to  denote  the  military  oath  of  allegiance  ;  for  its  technical 
application  in  legal  phraseology  see  Ron  an  Law,  vol.  xx. 
p.  682.     In  the  earliest  ecclesiastical  Latin  traces  of  the' 
old  military  meaning  are  still   present ;  thus  Tertullian 
(Ad  Mart.,  3)  writes,  "  We  were  called  to  the  warfare  of 
the  living  God  in  our  very  response  to  the  sacramental 
words  [in  baptism] " ;  but  the  main  import  of  the  word 
has  entirely  changed,  it  being  used  simply  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  Greek  /iiKrTriptov.     Thus  even  in  the  Vulgate 
we  still  have  the  "sacrament  of  godliness"  (1   Tim.  iii. 
16),  "of  the  seven  stars"  (Rev.  i.  20),  "of  the  woman  and 
the  beast "  (Rev.  xvii.  7) ;  but  in  earlier  Latin  versions 
the  word  also  occurred  in  numerous  other  places  where 
"  mysterium  "  is  now  found  {e.(/.,  Rom.  xvi.  25  ;  1  Cor.  xiii.' 
2).     In  addition  to  its  general  sense  the  word  fiva-rripiov 
not  unnat^irally  soon  came  to  have  for  Christians  a  more 
special  meaning  as  denoting  those  external  rites  of  their 
religion,  solemn,  instructive,  and  more  or  less  secret,  which 
had  most  analogy  with  the  JIvsteeies  (q.v.)  of  paganism.' 
No  attempt,  however,  was  at  first  made  to  enumerate  or 
to  define  these.     Tertullian  speaks  of  the  gacrament  of 
baptism  and  the  Eucharist,  Cyprian  of  "either  sacrament," 
meaning  baptism  and  confirmation,  and  many  other.s,  fol-. 
lowing  Eph.   v.   22   (see  Vulgate),  of  the  sacrament  of 
marriage,  but  all  with  the  utmost  vagueness.     Augu.^tine's 
definition  of  the  word  was  little  more  exjilicit,  but  for  cen- 
turies it  was  all  the  Western  Church  had,  and  for  even  a 
longer  period  it  continued  to  be  a  sufficiently  adequate 
expressidn  of  the  Oriental  view  also.     According  to  him  a 
sacrament  is  "the  visible  form  of  invisible  grace,"  or  "a 
sign  of  a  sacred  thing."     The  sacraments  he  principally 
has  in  view  are  those  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  .Supper, 
but  with  so  wide  a  definition  there  was  nothing  to  prevent 
him  from  using  the  word  (as  he  freely  does)  in  many  other 
applications.     The  old  Sacramentaries  or  liturgical  book.s, 
which  can  in  some  ca.ses  be  carried  back  as  far  as  to  the 
8th  century,  in  like  manner  contain  prayers  and  benedic- 
tions, not  only  for  the  administration  of  the  Euchari-st  and 
of  baptism,  but  also  for  a  variety  of  other  rites,  such  as 
the  blessing  of  holy  water  and  the  dedication  of  churches. 
In  the  Di  lacrameniia  Christianm  Jidei  of  Hugh  of  St. 


132 


S  A  C  — S  A  0 


Victor  (d.  1141),  no  fewer  than  thirty  sacraments  are 
enumerated,  divided  into  three  classes,  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  occupyin_g  a  first  place.  What  proTod  to 
be  an  important  new  departure  was  taken  by  Peter 
Lombard  (d.  11 G4),  in  the  -Ith  book  of  his  Sentences,  which 
treats  "  of-  sacraments  and  sacramental  signs."  There 
for  the  first  time  are  enumerated  the  seven  sacraments 
(baptism,  confirmation,  the  Eucharist,  penance,  extreme 
uilction,  order,  matrimony),  which  were  afterwards  formally 
recognized  by  the  Church  of  Rome  at  the  councils  of 
Florence  (1439)  and  of  Trent ;  and  there  also  for  the  first 
time  it  was  expressly  recognized  that  not  all  signs  of 
sacred  things  can  be  regarded  as  sacraments,  but  only 
those  which  are  the  form  of  invisible  grace  in  such  a  sense 
as  to  represent  it  and  bring  it  about  ("  ut  ipsius  imaginem 
gerat  et  causa  existat  ").  This  "  difierentia  "  of  the  sacra- 
ment, properly  so  called,  became  the  basis  of  all  subse- 
quent scholastic  discussion  and  authoritative  decree  in  the 
"Western  church,  and  even,  though  of  course  indirectly,  in 
the  Eastern  also.  The  main  points  in  the  Tridentine 
doctrine  are  these  :  the  sacraments  have  the  power  of  con- 
ferring grace  ex  opere  operato  on  the  recipients  who  do  not 
resist  it  ("non  ponentibus  obicem");  for  their  validity, 
however,  there  must  be  in  the  minister  the  intention  of 
doing  that  which  the  church  does.  Though  all  are  in  a 
sense  necessary,  they  are  not  so  with  equal  directness  for 
each  individual,  nor  are  they  alike  in  dignity.  The  two 
principal  sacraments  are  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 
All  were  instituted  by  Christ.  Three  of  them  (baptism, 
confirmation,  order)  impart  an  indelible  "character,"  and 
therefore  cannot  be  repeated.  For  the  teaching  of  the 
Greek  Church  compare  vol.  xi.  pp.  1.58,  159.  The  churches 
of  the  Keformation,  while  retaining  the  current  doctrine 
that  sacraments  were  "  eft'ectual  signs  of  grace  and  God's 
good  will  "  "  ordained  by  Christ,"  reduced  their  number  to 
two,  the  remaining  five  being  excluded  partly  because 
direct  evidence  of  their  institution  by  Christ  was  wanting, 
and  partly  because  "  they  have  not  any  visible  sign  or 
ceremony  ordained  of  God."  For  further  details  on  the 
individual  sacraments  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  separate 
articles  (Baptism,  EucH.iRiST,  ic). 

SACRAMENTO,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  California  and  the  county  seat  of  Sacramento  county, 
135  miles  by  rail  north-east  of  San  Francisco  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Sacramento  river,  which  at  this  point  receives 
the  American  river  and  becomes  navigable  for  large  steam- 
boats. The  site  is  only  15  feet  above  low  water  of  the 
river,  or  30  above  sea-level,  and  as  the  river  sometimes 
rises  20  feet  the  city  was  originally  subject  to  destructive 
floods.  Those  of  1S50,  1852,  and  1853,  however,  led  to 
the  raising  of  the  level  of  the  principal  streets  and  build- 
ings in  the  business  quarter  by  5  feet,  and  to  the  construc- 
tion of  strong  levees  or  embankments,  from  4  to  20  feet 
high  for  2  miles  along  the  Sacramento  and  3  along  the 
American  river.  Fiui;her  measures  of  the  same  kind  were 
adopted  after  the  disaster  of  1S61,  which  almost  rendered 
the  city  bankrupt ;  and  the  level  of  the  principal^  districts 
is  now  8  feet  above  the  river.  The  shops  and  stores  in 
the  city  are  mostly  of  brick,  but  the  dwelling-houses  gener- 
ally only  of  wood.  The  State  capitol,  commenced  in  1861 
and  completed  at  a  cost  of  82,500,000,  is  one  of  the  finest 
buildings  of  its  kind  in  the  States ;  it  stands  in  the  heart 
of  the  city  in  the  midst  of  a  park  of  50  acres.  The  other 
public  buildings — the  State  printing-office  and  armoury, 
the  agricultural  hall,  the  Oddfellows'  hall,  the  hospital, 
the  grammar-school,  itc. — are  comparatively  ujiimportant. 
Besides  the  State  library  (36,000  volumes)  there  are  two 
other  public  libraries  in  the  city.  The  number  of  industrial 
establishments  has  recently  been  rapidly  increasing  ;  they 
comprise  the  extensive  workshops  of  the  Central  Pacific 


Railroad,  a  woollen-mill,  carriage-factories,  plough-factories, 
marble-works,  breweries,  potteries,  glue-works,  &c.  The 
population  was  6820  in  1850,  13,785  in  1860,  16,283 
in  1870  (6202  foreigners,  1370  Chinese),  and  21.420  in 
1880  (7048  foreigners,  1781  Chinese). 

In  1841  Jolin  Augustus  Sutter  (b.  1803),  a  Swiss  military  ofEcer, 
obtained  a  giant  of  laud  at  the  junction  of  the  Sacramento  and 
American  ri\'€rs,  and  made  a  settlement  which  he  called  New  Hel- 
vetia. The  discovery  of  gold  on  his  property  in  1843  changed  the 
whole  histoiy  of  California.  Sutter's  Fort,  as  the  spot  was  popu- 
larly called,  became  the  site  of  a  mining  to^\-n,  which  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  State  in  1854,  and  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1863. 
The  name  of  Sacramento  was  first  applied  to  the  place  in  the  adver- 
tisement for  tJie  sale  of  ground-lots  iu  1848. 

SACRIFICE.  The  Latin  word  samficium,  from  which 
we  have  the  English  "  sacrifice,"  properly  means  an  action 
within  the  sphere  of  things  sacred  to  the  gods,  so  that 
"sacrificial"  and  "hierurgic"  are  synonymous,  and,  strictly 
speaking,  cover  the  whole  field  of  sacred  ritual.  By  the 
Romans,  as  by  all  ancient  or  primitive  nations,  the  gods 
were  habitually  approached  with  gifts,  and  the  presentation 
of  the  gift,  being  the  central  feature  in  every  ordinary  act 
of  worshi)).  is  regarded  as  the  sacrifice  proper.  In  all  parts 
of  the  world,  moreover,  for  reasons  which  will  appear  by 
and  by,  the  stated  gifts  by  which  the  gods  are  honoured 
in  private  worship  or  public  feasts  are  drawn  from  the 
stores  on  which  human  life  is  supported, — fruits,  grain, 
wine,  oil,  the  flesh  of  animals,  and  the  like.  All  gifts  of 
this  kind,  which  are  not  merely  presented  to  the  god  but 
consumed  in  his  service,  fall  under  the  notion  of  sacrifice, 
while  permanent  votive  offerings  of  treasure,  lands,  temples, 
images,  or  the  like,  not  forming  part  of  any  stated-ritual, 
are  excluded.  But  again,  where  we  find  a  practice  of 
sacrificing  honorific  gifts  to  the  gods,  we  usually  find  also 
certain  other  sacrifices  which  resemble  those  already  char- 
acterized inasmuch  as  something  is  given  up  by  the  woi- 
shippers  to  be  consumed  in  sacred  ceremony,  but  differ  from 
them  inasmuch  as  the  sacrifice — usually  a  living  victim — 
is  not  regarded  as  a  tribute  of  honour  to  the  god,  but  has 
a  special  atoning  or  mystic  significance.  The  most  familiar 
case  of  this  second  species  of  sacrifice  is  that  which  the 
Romans  distinguished  from  the  hoslia  hororaiia  by  the 
name  of  hoslia  piacularis.  In  the  foriper  case  the  deity 
accepts  a  gift ;  in  the  latter  he  demands  a  life.  The  formes 
kind  of  sacrifice  is  oflered  by  the  worshipper  on  the  basis 
of  an  established  relation  of  friendly  dependence  on  his 
divine  lord ;  the  latter  is  directed  to  appease  the  divine 
anger,  or  to  conciliate  the  favour  of  a  deity  on  whom  the 
worshipper  has  no  right  to  count.  The  precise  scope  of 
sacrifices  not  merely  honorific  will  appear  more  clearly  in 
the  sequel ;  for'  the  history  of  religion  this  second  kind  of 
sacrifice  has  a  very  peculiar  importance,  as  may  be  judged 
from  the  fact  that  the  ordinary  metaphorical  use  of  "  sacri- 
fice "  in  English  answers  not  to  the  notion  of  a  "  gift "  but 
to  that  of  "  reluctant  surrender."  * 

Honorific  Sacrifices  naturally  hold  the  chief  place  in  all 
natural  (as  opposed  to  positive)  religions  that  have  reached 
the  stage  in  which  orthodox  ritual  is  differentiated  from 
sorcery  (comp.  Priest,  voL  xix.  p.  724),  and  in  which  the 
relations  between  the  gods  and  their  worshippers  are  cor>- 
ceived  as  being  of  a  fixed  and  habitually  friendly  character, 
so  that  the  acts  by  which  a  continuance  of  divine  favour 
can  be  secured  are  known  by  well-established  tradition 
and  regi\larly  practised  with  full  confidence  in  their  eflicacy. 
Religions  of  this  t}-pe  unite  the  god  to  a  definite  circle  of 

^  Apart  from  this  metapliorical  use  the  word  "  sacrifice  "  in  English 
is  ofteu  taken  as  s>-nonym0'ls  with  "victim,"  bloodless  oblations  being 
called  r.ather  by  the  vague  word  "  offeriug."  This  usage  correspondB 
to  the  practice  of  the  Authorised  Version,  which  commonly  readera 
nn^tDl  riDT,  i.e.,  *'  victim  and  cereal  oblation,"  by  the  words  "  sacrifice 
and  otfering,"  and  uses  the  verb  "  to  sacriiice  "  for  the  Hebrew  HS?, 
"  to  slaushter  a  victim." 


SA.CRIFICE 


133 


worshippers  forming  a  natural  unity,  so  tuat  every  man's 
birth  or  political  and  social  status  determines  at  once  what 
god  he  is  called  upon  to  worship  and  may  confidently  look 
to  for  help.  Religions  of  this  sort,  therefore,  are  mainly 
tribal  or  national,  and  the  deity  is  regarded  as  a  king,  or, 
if  there  are  several  gods  worshipped  by  the  same  circle, 
ithey  are  lords  and  ladies  and  are  naturally  to  be  honoured 
in  the  same  way  as  earthly  grandees.  Thus  among  the 
Hebrews,  whose  early  institutions  afford  a  tj^pical  example 
of  a  national  religion,  the  fundamental  rule  is  that  no  one 
ifl  to  appear  before  Jehovah  empty-handed  (Exod.  xxiii. 
15),  just  as  it  would  be  indecent  (and  in  the  East  is  still 
indecent)  to  approach  a  king  or  great  man  without  some 
present,  however  trifling.  In  like  manner  Homer  teaches 
that  gods  and  kings  alike  are  persuaded  by  gifts.  A 
special  request  will  naturally  be  accompanied  by  a  special 
gift  proportioned  to  the  occasion  or  by  a  vow  to  be  fulfilled 
.when  the  prayer  is  heard ;  but  apart  from  this  the  general 
goodwill  whether  of  god  or  king  falls  to  be  acknowledged 
and  secured  by  offerings  renewed  from  time  to  time  by 
.way  of  tribute  or  homage.  Thus  in  Hebrew  the  word 
minlia  means  alike  "  gift,"  "  tribute,"  and  "  sacrificial  obla- 
,tion,"  especially  an  oblation  of  agricultural  produce.  For 
in  a  simple  agricultural  society  payments  in  kind,  whether 
to  a  divine  or  to  a  human  lord,  would  naturally  consist  for 
the  most  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  soil ;  and  with  this  it 
agrees  that  not  only  in  Canaan  but  among  the  Greeks 
there  is  evidence  that  cereal  oblations  had  a  great  place 
in  early  ritual,  though  they  afterwards  became  second  in 
importance  to  animal  sacrifices,  which  yielded  a  more 
luxurious  sacrificial  banquet,  and  also,  as  we  shall  see, 
derived  a  peculiar  significance  from  the  shedding  of  the 
ivictim's  blood.  In  almost  all  nations  we  find  that  the 
chief  sacrificial  feasts  are  associated  with  the  harvest  and 
the  vintage,  or,  where  pastoral  life  predominates,  are  re- 
gulated by  the  time  at  which  the  flocks  bear  their  young 
(comp.  Passo\'Ee)  ;  at  these  seasons  tribute  of  firstfruits 
and  firsthngs  is  paid  to  the  gods  of  the  good  things  which 
they  themselves  have  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  their  land. 
This  conception  of  sacrifice  may  go  with  very  varioils  views 
of  the  nature  of  the  gods  and  of  religion.  It  may  go  with 
the  idea  that  the  god  has  need  of  the  worshipper  and  his 
gifts  just  as  the  worshipper  has  need  of  the  god  and  his 
help,  and  thus  with  a  matter-of-fact  business-like  people 
like  the  Romans  religion  may  become  very  much  a  sort  of 
bargain  struck  with  the  gods.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  quite  possible  that  sacrifices  may  continue  to  be  oflfered 
by  men  who  have  ceased  to  believe  that  the  deity  has  any 
need  of  what  man  can  give,  simply  because  such  gifts  are 
in  ordinary  life  the  natural  expression  of  respect  and 
homage  and  no  fitter  and  more  expressive  way  of  giving 
utterance  to  the  same  feelings  towards  the  gods  has  been 
devised.  Thus  the  Hebrews  continued  to  o9"er  sacrifices 
to  Jehovah  long  after  they  knew  that  "  if  He  were  hungry 
He  would  not  tell  man,  for  the  world  was  His  and  the 
fulness  thereof."  But  when  this  standpoint  is  reached 
sacrifice  becomes  a  merely  conventional  way  of  expressing 
religious  feeling ;  the  ritual  becomes  a  simple  affair  of 
tradition,  which  may,  as  in  the  Levitical  legislation,  be 
based  on  an  express  divine  command ;  and  those  who  are 
not  content  with  the  authority  of  tradition  as  a  suSicient 
proof  that  the  gods  love  to  be  honoured  in  this  way  take 
refuge  in  some  allegorical  explanation  of  the  ceremonial. 
In  general,  however,  we  find  an  extraordinary  persistence 
of  the  notion  that  sacrifices  do  in  some  way  afford  a  phy- 
sical satisfaction  to  the  deity.  If  they  do  not  feed  him,  he 
is  at  least  gratified  by  their  odour.  Neither  the  Greek 
philosophers  nor  the  Jewish  rabbins  ever  quite  got  rid  of 
this  idea. 

But  in  fact  the  notion  that  the  more  ethereal  elements 


of  the  sacrince  rise  to  heaven,  the  seat  of  the  gods,  in  the 
savoury  smoke  that  ascends  from  the  sacrificial  flame  can 
in  certain  instances  be  shown  to  be  connected  vrith  a  later 
development  of  sacrifice.  Among  the  Semites,  for  ex- 
ample, sacrifices  were  not  originally  burned.  The  god 
was  not  seated  aloft,  but  was  present  at  the  place  of  sacri- 
fice, inhabiting  a  sacred  stone  (a  baetylium,  beth-el,  or 
"  house  of  god  "),  which  answered  at  once  to  the  later  idol 
and  the  later  altar.  That  the  god  was  thought  by  the 
heathen  Semites  to  inhabit  the  sacred  stone,  or  in  other 
cases  a  sacred  tree,  is  expressly  recorded  of  several  Arabian 
sanctuaries,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  was  the 
general  view  wherever  there  was  a  masseba  (sacred  cippus) 
or  an  ashera  (sacred  pole  or  tree).  And  in  these  cases  the 
gift  of  the  worshipper  was  not,  in  the  more  primitive  cults, 
consumed  by  fire,  but  the  sacred  stone  was  daubed  with  oil 
or  blood,  libations  of  milk,  of  blood,  or  of  wine  were  poured 
forth  beside  it,  cereal  gifts  were  presented  by  being  simply 
laid  on  the  sacred  ground,  and  slaughtered  victims  were 
left  there  to  be  devoured  by  wild  beasts  (Sprenger,  Leh. 
Moh.,  iii.  457),  or  even  a  human  sacrifice  was  offered  by 
burying  the  victim  under  the  cippus.  Sacrifices  of  this 
tj-pe  are  found  not  only  throughout  the  Semitic  field  but 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  they  belong  to  the  same  category 
with  the  Hebrew  showbread  and  the  Roman  ledisternia. 
In  later  times  the  food  spread  on  the  tables  of  the  god  is 
eaten  by  his  ministers,  the  priests,  to  whom  he  is  supposed 
to  make  over  the  enjoyment  of  the  banquet ;  but  this  is 
a  refinement  on  the  original  usage.  In  older  times  the 
gods  themselves  were  held  to  partake  of  these  gifts  of  food, 
just  as  the  venerable  dead  were  fed  by  the  meat  and  drink 
placed  or  poured  out  upon  their  tombs.  In  the  religions  of 
savages  both  gods  and  the  dead  have  very  material  needs, 
among  which  the  need  of  nourishment  has  the  first  place ; 
and  just  as  we  learn  from  the  story  of  Periander  and 
Melissa  (Herod.,  v.  92)  that  among  the  Greeks  of  the  7th 
century  B.C.  it  was  a  new  idea  that  the  dead  could  make 
no  use  of  the  gifts  buried  with  them  unless  they  were 
etherealized  by  fire,  so  also  the  fact  that  among  the  Greeks, 
especially  in  old  times,  sacrifices  to  water«gods  were  simply 
flung  into  the  river  or  the  sea,  and  sacrifices  to  underground 
gods  were  buried,  indicates  that  it  is  a  secondary  idea 
that  the  gods  were  too  ethereal  to  enjoy  a  sacrifice  through 
any  other  sense  than  that  of  smell.  Even  the  highest 
antique  religions  show  by  unmistakable  signs  that  in  their 
origin  sacrifices  were  literally  "  the  food  of  the  gods."  In 
Israel  the  conception  against  which  the  author  of  Psalm  I. 
protests  so  strongly  was  never  eliminated  from  the  ancient 
technical  language  of  the  priestly  ritual,  in  which  the  sacri- 
fices are  called  D'n7X  UrO,  "  food  of  the  deity  "  (Lev.  xxi. 
8,  17,  21) ;  and  among  the  Greeks  we  find  not  only  such 
general  expressions  as  that  the  gods  "  feast  on  hecatombs  " 
(//.,  ix.  531)  but  even  that  particular  gods  bear  special 
surnames,  such  as  "the  goat-eater,"  the  "ram-eater," 
"  Dionysus  the  eater  of  raw  (huraan^  flesh "  (alyo(f>ayoi, 

A  sacrifice,  therefore,  is  primarily  a  meal  offered  to  the 
deity.  In  some  of  the  cases  already  noticed,  and  in  the 
case  of  holocausts  cr  whole  burnt-ofl'erings,  the  sacrificial 
gift  is  entirely  made  over  to  the  god ;  but  ordinarily  the 
sacrifice  is  a  feast  of  which  gods  and  worshippers  partake 
together.  If  all  sacrifices  are  not  convivial  entertainments, 
at  least  the  tendency  is  to  give  to  all  feasts,  nay  to  all  meals, 
a  sacrificial  character  by  inviting  the  gods  to  partake  of 
them  (Athcnajus,  v.  19).  Thus  the  Roman  family  never 
rose  from  supper  till  a  portion  of  the  food  had  been  hid 
on  the  burning  hearth  as  an  offering  to  the  Lares  (Serv., 
Ad  jEri.,  i.  730;  Ovid,  Fast.,  ii.  633);  and  a  similar  practice 
was  probably  followed  in  early  Greece.^     At  all  events 

'  'See  the  diacussioa  in  BiichhoU,  Uomcr.  Rcalien,  II.  ii.  213  s^. 


134 


SACTilFICE 


the  slaughter  of  an  animal  (which  gave  the  meal  a  more ' 
luxurious  and  festal  character,  animal  food  being  not  in 
daily  use  with  the  mass  of  the  agricultural  populations  of 
the  Mediterranean  lands)  iseems  to  have  been  always 
sacrificial  in  early  Greece,  and  even  in  later  times  St  Paul 
assumes  that  the  flesh  sold  .in  the  shambles  would  often 
consist  of  tlSuiXodvra.  Among  the  Semites  sacrifice  and 
slaughter  for  food  are  still  more  clearly  identified ;  the 
Hebrews  use  the  same  word  for  both,  and  the  Arabian 
invocation  of  the  name  of  Allah  over  every  beast  killed 
for  food  is  but  the  relic  of  a  sacrificial  formula.  The 
part  of  the  gods  in  such  sacrificial  meals  was  often  very 
small,  the  blood  alone  (Arabia),  or  the  fat  and  the  thighs 
(//.,  i.  460),  or  small  parts  of  each  joint  (Od.,  xiv.  427), 
or  the  blood,  the  fat,  and  the  kidneys  (Lev.  iii.).  When 
the  sacrifice  was  oflered  by  a  priest,  he  also  naturally 
received  a  portion,  which,  properly  speaking,  belonged  to 
the  deity  and  was  surrendered  by  him  to  his  minister,  as 
is  brought  out  in  the  Hebrew  ritual  by  the  ceremonial  act 
of  waving  it  towards  the  altar  (Lev.  vii.  29  -q.).  The 
thigh,  which  in  Homeric  sacrifice  is  burned  on  the  altar, 
belongs  in  the  Levitical  ritual  to  the  priest,  who  was 
naturally  the  first  to  profit  by  the  growth  of  a  conviction 
that  the  deity  himself  did  not  require  to  be  fed  by  man's 
food. 

The  conception  of  the  sacrifice  as  a  banquet  in  which 
gods  and  men  share  together  may  be  traced  also  in  the 
accessories  of  sacred  ritual.  !Music,  song,  garlands,  the 
sweet  odour  of  incense,  accompany  sacrifice  because  they 
are  suitable  to  an  occasion  of  mirth  and  luxurious  enjoy- 
ment. Wine,  too,  "  which  cheereth  gods  and  men  "  (Judges 
is.  13),  was  seldom  lacking  in  the  vine-growing  countries ; 
but  the  most  notable  case  where  the  sacrificial  feast  has 
the  use  of  an  intoxicant  (or  narcotic)  as  its  chief  feature 
is  the  ancient  soma  sacrifice  of  the  old  Aryans,  where  the 
gods  are  honoured  by  bowls  of  the  precious  draught  which 
heals  the  sick,  inspires  the  poet,  and  makes  the  poor 
believe  that  he  is  rich. 

The  sacrificial  meal,  with  the  general  features  that  have 
been  descriljed,  may  be  regarded  as  common  to  all  the  so- 
called  nature-religions  of  the  civilized  races  of  antiquity, 
— religions  which  had  a  jjredominantly  joyous  character, 
and  in  which  the  relations  of  man  to  the  gods  were  not 
troubled  by  any  haljitual  and  oppressive  sense  of  human 
guilt,  because  the  divine  standard  of  man's  duty  corre- 
sponded broadly  with  the  accepted  standard  of  civil  con- 
duct, and  therefore,  though  the  god  might  be  angry  with 
his  people  for  a  time,  or  even  irreconcilably  wroth  with 
individuals,  the  idea  was  hardly  conceivable  that  he  could 
)se  permanently  alienated  from  the  whole  circle  of  his 
worshippers, — that  is,  from  all  who  participated  in  a  certain 
local  (tribal  or  national)  cult.  But  when  this  type  of 
religion  began  to  break  down  the  sacrificial  ritual  under- 
went corresponding  modifications.  Thus  we  find  a  decline 
of  faith  in  the  old  gods  accompanied,  not  only  by  a  grow- 
ing neglect  of  the  temples  and  their  service,  but  also  by  a 
disposition  to  attenuate  the  gifts  that  were  still  offered, 
or  to  take  every  opportunity  to  cheat  the  gods  out  of 
part  of  their  due, — a  disposition  of  which  Arabia  before 
ilohammed  affords  a  classical  example.  But,  again,  the 
decline  of  faith  itself  was  not  a  mere  product  of  indiffer- 
ence, but  was  partly  due  to  a  feeling  that  the  traditional 
ritual  involved  too  material  a  conception  of  the  gods,  and 
this  cause,  too,  tended  to  produce  modifications  in  sacri- 
ficial service.  The  Persians,  lor  example  (Herod.,  i.  132  ; 
Strabo,  xv.  p.  732),  consecrated  their  sacrifices  with 
liturgical  prayers,  but  gave  no  part  of  the  victim  to  the 
deity,  who  "  desired  nothing  but  the  life  (or  soul)  of  the 
victim."  This,  indeed,  is  the  Roman  formula  of  piacular 
as  distinct  from  honorific  offerings  (JIacrob.,  iii.   5,   1), 


and  might  be  taKen  as  implying  that  the  Persians  had 
ceased  to  look  on  sacrifices  as  gifts  of  homage  ,  but  such 
an  explanation  can  hardly  be  extended  to  the  parallel  case 
of  the  Arab  sacrifices,  in  which  the  share  of  the  deity  was 
the  blood  of  the  victim,  which  according  to  antique  belief 
contained  the  life.  For  among  the  Arabs  blood  was  a 
recognized  article  of  food,  and  the  polemic  of  Pa.  1.  13  is 
expressly  directed  against  the  idea  that  the  deity  "  drmks 
the  blood  of  goats."  And  the  details  given  in  Strabo 
make  it  tolerably  clear  that  Persian  sacrifice  is  simply  an 
example  of  the  way  in  which  the  material  gift  offered  to 
the  deity  is  first  attenuated  and  then  allegorized  away  as 
the  conception  of  the  godhead  becomes  less  crassly  mate- 
rial. But  on  the  other  hand  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
under  certain  conditions  the  notion  of  piacular  sacrifice 
shows  much  greater  vitality  than  that  of  sacrificial  gifts 
of  homage.  \Vhen  a  national  religion  is  not  left  to  slow 
decay,  but  shares  the  catastrophe  of  the  nation  itself,  aa 
was  the  ease  with  the  religions  of  the  small  western  Asiatic 
states  in  the  period  of  Assyrian  conquest,  the  old  joyous 
confidence  in  the  gods  gives  way  to  a  sombre  sense  of 
divine  wrath,  and  the  acts  by  which  this  wrath  can  be 
conjured  become  much  more  important  than  the  ordinary 
traditional  gifts  of  homage.  To  this  point  we  must  return 
by  and  by. 

It  appears,  then,  that  in  tne  oiQ  national  nature-religions 
the  ordinary  exercises  of  worship  take  the  form  of  meals 
offered  to  the  gods,  and  usually  of  banquets  at  which  gods 
and  worshijjpers  sit  down  together,  so  that  the  natural 
bond  of  unity  between  the  deity  and  his  subjects  or 
children  is  cemented  by  the  bond  of  "  bread  and  salt " — 
salt  is  a  standing  feature  in  the  sacrifices  of  many  races 
(comp.  Lev.  ii.  13) — to  which  ancient  and  unsophisticated 
peoples  attach  so  much  importance.  That  the  god  is 
habitually  willing  to  partake  of  the  banquet  offered  to 
him  is  taken  for  granted  '  but,  if  anything  has  occurred  to 
alienate  his  favour,  he  will  show  it  by  his  conduct  at  the 
feast,  by  certain  signs  known  to  experts,  that  indicate  his 
refusal  of  the  offered  gift.  Hence  the  custom  of  inspect- 
ing the  ejrta  of  the  victim,  watching  the  behavioiu"  of  the 
sacrificial  flame,  or  otherwise  seeking  an  omen  which 
proves  that  the  sacrifice  is  accepted,  and  so  that  the  deity 
may  be  expected  to  favour  the  requests  with  which  the 
gift  is  associated.' 

In  the  religions  which  we  have  been  characterizing  all 
the  ordinary  functions  of  worship  are  summed  up  in  these 
sacrificial  meals  ;  the  stated  and  normal  intercourse  between 
gods  and  men  has  no  other  form.  God  and  worshippers 
make  up  together  a  society  of  commensals,  and  every  other 
point  in  their  reciprocal  relations  is  included  in  what  this 
involves.  Kow,  with  this  we  must  take  the  no  less  certain 
fact  that  throughout  the  sphere  of  the  purely  sacrificial 
religions  the  circle  of  common  worship  is  also  the  circle 
of  social  duty  and  reciprocal  moral  obligations.  And  thus 
the  origin  of  sacrificial  worship  must  be  sought  in  a  stage 
of  society  when  the  circle  of  commensals  and  the  circle 
ot  persons  united  to  each  other  by  sacred  social  bonds 
were  identical.  But  all  social  bonds  are  cei-tainly  de- 
veloped out  of  the  bond  of  kindred,  and  it  will  be 
generally  admitted  that  all  national  religions  are  develop- 
ments or  combinations  of  the  worship  of  particular  kins. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  world-wide  prevalence 
of  sacrificial  worship  points  to  a  time  when  the  kindred 
group  and  the  group  of  commensals  were  identical,  and 
when,  conversely,  people  of  different  kins  did  not  eat  and 
drink  together. 

At  first  sight  it  might  appear  that  this  amounts  to  the 

'  Hence  in  Roman  ritual  there  is  no  inspection  of  the  exta  where 
the  sacrilice  is  piacular,  and  fio  does  not  involve  a  meal  offered  to  th« 
deity. 


SACRIFICE 


135 


proposition  that  all  religious  and  civil  societies  of  antiquity 
have  the  family  as  their  type,  and  that  the  type  of  sacri- 
fice is  such  a  family  meal  as  is  found  among  the  Romans. 
And  this  view  would  seem  to  be  favoured  by  the  frequent 
occurrence  among  ancient  peoples  of  the  conception  that 
the  deity  is  the  father  (progenitor  and  lord)  of  his 
worshippers,  who  in  turn  owe  filial  obedience  to  him  and 
brotherly  duty  to  one  another.  But  in  the  present  stage 
of  research  into  the  history  of  early  society  it  is  by  no 
means  legitimate  to  assume  that  the  family,  with  a  father 
at  its  head,  is  the  original  type  of  the  circle  of  com- 
mensals. It  is  impossible  to  sej^arate  the  idea  of  com- 
mensality  from  the  fact  so  constantly  observed  in  primitive 
nations,  that  each  kindred  has  certain  rules  about  for- 
bidden  food  which  mark  it  off  from  all  other  kindreds. 
And  in  a  very  large  proportion  of  cases  kindred  obliga- 
tions, religion,  and  laws  of  forbidden  food  combine  to 
divide  a  child  from  his  father's  and  unite  him  to  his 
mother's  kin",  aa  that  father  and  sons  are  not  commensals. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  family  meals  are  by  nc  means  so 
universal  an  institution  as  might  be  imagined  a  priori. 
At  Sparta,  for  example,  men  took  their  regular  meals  not 
with  their  wives  and  children  but  in  syssitia  or  phcidiiia  ; 
and  a  similar  organization  of  nations  in  groups  of  com- 
mensals which  are  not  family  groups  is  found  in  other 
places  (Crete,  Carthage,  <tc.).  The  marked  and  funda- 
mental similarity  between  sacrificial  worships  in  all  parts 
of  the  globe  makes  it  very  difficult  to  doubt  that  they  are 
all  to  be  traced  back  to  one  tjqie  of  society,  common  to 
primitive  man  as  a  whole.  But  the  nearest  approximation 
to  a  primitive  type  of  society  yet  known  is  that  based  not 
on  the  family  but  on  the  system  of  totem  stocks ;  and  as 
this  system  not  only  fulfils  all  the  conditions  for  the 
formation  of  a  sacrificial  worship,  but  presents  the  con- 
ception of  the  god  and  his  worshippers  as  a  circle  of 
'commensals  in  its  simplest  and  most  intelligible  form,  it 
seems  reasonable  to  look  td  it  for  additional  light  on  the 
whole  subject.  In  totemism  and  in  no  other  system  laws 
of  forbidden  food  have  a  direct  religious  interpretation  and 
form  the  principal  criterion  by  which  the  members  of  one 
stock  and  religion  are  marked  o3'  from  all  their  neigh- 
bours. For  the  totem  is  usually  an  animal  (less  often  a 
plant) ;  the  kindred  is  of  the  stock  of  its  totem ;  and  to 
kill  or  eat  the  sacred  animal  is  an  impiety  of  the  same 
kind  with  that  of  killing  and  eating  a  tribesman.  To 
eat  the  totem  of  a  strange  stock,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
legitimate,  and  for  one  totem  group  to  feast  on  the  carcase 
of  a  hostile  totem  is  to  express  their  social  and  religious 
particularism  in  the  most  effective  and  laudable  way,  to 
honour  their  own  totem  and  to  cast  scorn  on  that  of  the 
enemy.  The  importance  attached  to  the  religious  feast  of 
those  who  have  the  same  laws  about  food,  and  are  there- 
fore habitual  commensals,  is  more  intelligible  on  this  system 
than  on  any  other. 

Though  the  subject  has  not  been  completely  worked  out, 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  evidence,  both  from  social  and  from 
religious  phenomena,  that  the  civilized  nations  of  antiquity 
once  passed  through  the  totem  stage  (see  Family  and 
Mytholooy)  ;  it  is  at  least  not  doubtful  that  even  in  the 
historical  period  sacred  animals  and  laws  of  forbidden  food 
based  on  the  sacredness  of  animals,  in  a  way  quite  analo- 
gous to  what  is  found  iii  totemism,  were  known  among  all 
these  nations.  Among  the  Egyptians  the  whole  organiza- 
tion of  the  local  populations  ran  on  totem  line.s,  the  different 
Villages  or  districts  being  kept  permanently  ajiart  by  the 
fact  that  each  had  its  own  sacred  animal  or  herb,  and  that 
one  group  worshipped  what  another  ate.  And  the  sacri- 
ficial feast  on  the  carcase  of  a  hostile  totem  persisted  down 
to  a  late  date,  as  we  know  from  Plutarch  (Is.  el  Osir.,  p. 
:3S0 ;  comp.  Alex.  Polyh.,  ap.  Eus.,  Pricj).  Ev.,  L\.  p.  432 ; 


Diod.  Sic.,  I.  89).  Among  the  Semites  there  are  many 
relics  of  totem  religion ;  and,  as  regards  the  Greeks,  so 
acute  an  observer  as  Herodotus  could  hardly  have  imagined 
that  a  great  part  of  Hellenic  religion  was  borrowed  from 
Eg}-pt  if  the  visible  features  of  the  popular  worship  in 
the  two  coiintries  had  really  belonged  to  entirely  different 
tj-pes.  To  suppose  that  the  numerous  associations  between 
particular  deities  and  corresponding  sacred  animals  which 
are  found  in  Greece  and  other  advanced  countries  are 
merely  .symbolical  is  a  most  unscientific  assumption ;  especi- 
ally as  the  symbolic  interpretation  could  not  fail  to  be 
introduced  as  a  harmonizing  expedient  where,  through  the 
fusion  of  older  deities  under  a  common  name  (in  connexion 
with  the  political  union  of  kindreds),  one  god  came  to  have 
several  sacred  animals.  But  originally  even  in  Greece 
each  kjn  had  its  own  god  or  in  later  language  its  hero; 
so  in  Attica  the  Crioeis  have  their  hero  Crius  (Ram),  the 
Butada;  have  Butas  (Bullman),  the  jEgida^  have  iEgeus 
(Goat),  and  the  Cynidaj  Cynus  (Dog).  Such  heroes  are 
real  totem  ancestors ;  Lycus,  for  example,  had  his  statue  in 
wolf  form  at  the  Lyceum.  The  feuds  of  clans  are  repre- 
sented as  contests  between  rival  totems :  Lycus  the  wolf 
flees  the  country  before  jEgeus  the  goat,  and  at  Argos, 
where  the  wolf-god  (Apollo  Lycius)  was  introduced  by 
Dana  us,  the  struggle  by  which  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Danaids  was  established  was  set  forth  in  legend  and 
picture  as  following  on  the  victory  of  a  wolf  (representing 
Danaus)  over  a  bull  (representing  the  older  sovereignty  of 
Gelanor) ;  see  Pans.,  ii.  19,  3  sq.  That  Apollo's  sacrifices 
were  bulls  and  rams  is  therefore  natural  enough ;  at  the 
sanctuary  of  the  wolf-Apollo  at  Sicyon  indeed  legend  pre- 
served the  memory  of  a  time  when  flesh  was  actually  set 
forth  for  the  wolves,  as  totem-worshippers  habitually  set 
forth  food  for  their  sacred  animals,— though  by  a  touch  of 
the  later  rationalism  which  changed  the  wolf-god  into 
ApoLlo  the  wolf-slayer  (Lycoctonus)  the  flesh  was  said  to 
have  been  poisoned  by  Apollo's  direction  in  a  way  that 
even  theological  experts  did  not  understand  (Paus.,  ii.  9,  7). 
Such  clear  traces  of  the  oldest  form  of  sacrifice  are  neces- 
sarily rare,  but  the  general  facts  that  certain  animals 
might  not  be  sacrificed  to  certain  gods,  while  on  the  other 
hand  each  deity  demanded  jiarticular  vi?tims,  which  the 
ancients  themselves  explained  in  certain  cases  to  be  hostile 
animals,  find  their  natural  explanation  in  such  a  stage  of 
religion  as  has  just  been  characterized.  The  details  are 
diflicult  to  follow  out,  partly  because  most  worships  of 
which  we  know  much  were  syncretistic,  partly  because  the 
animals  which  the  gods  loved  and  protected  were  in  later 
times  often  confu.sed  with  the  victims  they  desired,  and 
partly  because  piacular  and  mystical  sacrifices  were  on 
principle  (as  we  shall  see  by  and  by)  chosen  from  the  class 
of  victims  that  might  not  be  used  for  the  feasts  of  the  gods. 
A  single  example,  therefore,  must  here  suffice  to  close  this 
part  of  the  subject.  At  Athens  the  goat  might  not  be 
offered  to  the  Athena  on  the  Acropolis.  Now  according 
to  legend  Athena's  worshij)  was  made  Panathenaic  by  the 
yEgidai  or  goat  clan,  and  Athena  herself  was  represented  clad 
in  the  agis  or  goat-skin,  an  attribute  which  denotes  that 
she  too  was  of  the  goat  kin  or  rather  had  been  taken  into 
that  kin  when  her  worship  was  introduced  among  them.' 

Generally  speaking,  then,  the  original  principle  on  which 
a  .sacrificial  meal  is  chosen  is  that  men  may  not  eat  what 
cannot  be  offered  to  their  god  (generalized  in  later  syn- 
cretism to  the  rule  tliat  men  may  not  eat  things  that  can  ba 
offered  to  no  god;  Julian,  Orat.,  v.  p.  176  C.) ;  and  that, 


^  The  religious  me-miug  of  weariug  tbe  .'skiu  of  an  animal  is  identi- 
fication with  the  animal.  Examples  ^ill  appear  below  ;  compare  .also 
the  wore-wolf  superstitions  (vol.  .nv.  p.  90),  whore  the  same  symbolism 
occurs.  So  too  Pausaui.is  (x.  31,  10)  describes  a  representation  of  the 
bear-heroiuo  Callisto  recliuiuj  on  a  bear-skin  couch. 


136 


SACRIFICE 


conversely,  acceptable  offerings  are  the  things  which  are 
eaten  by  predilection  by  that  divine  animal  which  in  later 
times  became  the  sacred  symbol  of  the  anthropomorphic 
god,  or  else  victims  are  to  be  chosen  which  are  sacred 
among  a  hostile  tribe.  The  two  principles  may  often  co- 
incide. Fierce  mountain  tribes  who  live  mainly  by  harry- 
ing their  neighbours  in  the  plain  will  be  wolves,  lions, 
bears,  while  their  enemies  will  naturally  worship  bulls, 
sheep,  goats,  Uke  the  Troglodytes  on  the  Red  Sea,  who 
"  gave  the  name  of  parent  to  no  human  being  but  to  the 
buU  and  the  Cow,  the  ram  and  the  ewe,  because  from  them 
they  had  their  daOy  nourishment "  (Strabo,  xvi.  4) ;  and 
thus  in  cases  like  that  of  Arges  the  ultimate  shape  of  the 
ritual  may  throw  important  light  on  the  character  of  the 
early  population.  When  by  conquest  or  otherwise  two 
such  originally  hostile  nations  are  fused  the  opposing 
animal  symbols  will  ultimately  be  found  in  friendly  asso- 
ciation :  e.g.,  Artemis  (in  her  various  forms)  is  associated 
both  with  camivora  and  with  stags  or  domestic  animals. 
The  former  is  the  original  conception,  as  her  sacrifices 
show.  She  is  therefore,  like  the  wolf-Apollo,  originally  the 
deity  of  a  wild  hunting  tribe,  or  rather  various  carnivorous 
deities  of  such  tribes  have  coalesced  in  her. 

H'uman  Sacrifices. — From  these  observations  the  tran- 
sition is  easy  to  those  human  sacrifices  which  are  not 
piacular.  It  is  perfectly  clear  in  many  cases  that  such 
sacrifices  are  associated  with  cannibalism,  a  practice  which 
always  means  eating  the  flesh  of  men  of  alien  and  hostile 
kin.  The  human  wolves  would  no  more  eat  a  brother  than 
they  would  eat  a  wolf ;  but  to  eat  an  enemy  is  another 
matter.  Naturally  enough  traces  of  cannibalism  persist 
in  religion  after  they  have  disappeared  from  ordinary  life, 
and  especially  in  the  religion  of  carnivorous  gods.i  Thus 
it  may  be  conjectured  that  the  human  Sacrifices  offered 
to  the  wolf -Zeus  (LycEeus)  in  Arcadia  were  originally  can- 
nibal feasts  of  a  wolf  tribe.  The  first  participants  in  the 
rite  were  according  to  later  legend  changed  into  wolves 
(Lycaon  and  his  sons) ;  and  in  later  times,  as  appears  by 
comparing  Plato  {Rep.,  viii.  15)  with  Pausanias  (viii.  2),  at 
least  one  fragment  of  the  human  flesh  was  placed  among 
the  sacrificial  portions  derived  from  other  victims,  and  the 
man  who  ate  it  was  believed  to  become  a  were-wolf.  All 
human  sacrifices  where  the  victim  is  a  captive  or  other 
foreigner  may  be  presumed  to  be  derived  from  cannibal 
feasts  ;  but  a  quite  different  explanation  is  required  for  the 
cases,  which  are  by  far  more  numerous  among  people  no 
longer  mere  savages,  in  which  a  father  sacrifices  his  child 
or  a  tribe  its  fellow-tribesman.  This  case  belongs  to  the 
head  of  piacular  sacrifices. 

Piacular  Sacrifices. — Among  all  primitive  peoples  there 
are  certain  offences  against  piety  (especially  bloodshed 
within  the  kin)  which  are  regarded  as  properly  inexpiable ; 
the  offender  must  die  or  become  an  outlaw.  Where  the 
god  of  the  kin  appears  as  vindicator  of  this  law  he  demands 
the  life  of  the  culprit ;  if  the  kinsmen  refuse  this  they 
share  the  guilt.  Thus  the  execution  of  a  criminal  assumes 
the  character  of  a  religious  action.  If  now  it  appears  in 
any  way  that  the  god  is  offended  and  refuses  to  help  his 
people,  it  is  concluded  that  a  crime  has  been  committed 
and  not  expiated.  This  neglect  must  be  repaired,  and,  if 
the  true  culprit  cannot  be  found  or  cannot  be  spared,  the 
worshippers  as  a  whole  bear  the  guilt  until  they  or  the 
guUty  man  himself  find  a  substitute.  The  idea  of  substitu- 
tion is  widespread  through  all  early  religions,  and  is  found 
in  honorific  as  well  as  in  piacular  rites ;  the  Romans,  for 
example,  substituted  models  in  wax  or  dough  for  victims 

^  In  the  Konian  empire  human  sacrifice  was  practised  at  not  a  few 
shrines  down  to  the  time  of  Hadrian  ;  for  examples  the  reader  may 
refer  to  Porphjr)-,  Dc  Ahstid.,  ii.  27,  54  sq.,  and  to  Clem.  Ales., 
Coh.  ad  Oentes,  p.  27. 


that  could  not  be  procured  according  to  the  ritual,  or  else 
feigned  that  a  sheep  was  a  stag  {cervaria  ovis)  and  the 
like.  In  all  such  cases  the  idea  is  that  the  substitute 
.shall  imitate  as  closely  as  is  possible  or  convenient  the 
victim  whose  place  it  supplies ;  and  so  in  piacular  ceremonies 
the  god  may  indeed  accept  one  life  for  another,  or  certain 
select  lives  to  atone  for  the  guUt  of  a  whole  community, 
but  these  lives  ought  to  be  of  the  guilty  kin,  just  as  in 
blood-revenge  the  death  of  any  kinsman  of  the  manslayer 
satisfies  justice.  Hence  such  rites  as  the  Semitic  sacrifices 
of  children  by  their  fathers  (see  Moloch),  the  sacrifice 
of  Ipihigeneia  and  similar  cases  among  the  Greeks,  or  the 
offering  up  of  boys  to  the  goddess  Mania  at  Rome  pra 
familiarium  sospitate  (ilacrob.,  L  7,  34).  In  the  oldest 
Semitic  cases  it  is  only  under  extreme  manifestations  of 
divine  wrath  that  such  offerings  are  made  (comp.  Porph., 
De  Abst.,  ii.  56),  and  so  it  was  probably  among  other  races 
also ;  but  under  the  pressure  of  long-continued  calamity, 
or  other  circmustances  which  made  men  doubtful  of  the 
steady  favour  of  the  gods,  piacular  offerings  might  easily 
become  more  frequent  and  ultimately  assume  a  stated 
character,  and  be  made  at  regular  intervals  by  way  of 
precaution  ■wathout  waiting  for  an  actual  outbreak  of 
divide  anger.  Thus  the  Carthaginians,  as  Theophrastus 
relates,  annually  sprinkled  their  altars  with  "  a  tribesman's 
blood"  (Porph.,  De  Abst.,  ii.  28).  But  ia  advanced- 
societies  the  tendency  is  to  modify  the  horrors  of  the 
ritual  either  by  accepting  an  effusion  of  blood  without 
actually  slaying  the  victim,  e.g.,  in  the  flagellation  of  the 
Spartan  lads  at  the  altar  of  Artemis  Orthia  (Paus.,  iii.  16,  7  ; 
comp.  Eurip.,  Ipk.  Taur.,  1470  sq. ;  1  Kings  xviii.  28),  or 
by  a  further  extension  of  the  doctrine  of  substitution  ;  the 
Romans,  for  example,  substituted  puppets  for  the  human 
sacrifices  to  Mania,  and  cast  rush  dolls  into  the  Tiber  at 
the  yearly  atoning  sacrifice  on  the  Sublician  bridge.  Mora 
usually,  however,  the  life  of  an  animal  is  accepted  by  the 
god  in  place  of  a  human  life.  This  explanation  of  the 
origin  of  piacular  animal  sacrifices  has  often  been  disputed, 
mainly  on  dogmatic  grounds  and  in  connexion  with  the 
Hebrew  sin-offerings ;  but  it  is  quite  clearly  brought  out 
wherever  we  have  an  ancient  account  of  the  origin  of  .such 
a  rite  {e.g.,  for  the  Hebrews,  Gen.  xxii.  13  ;  the  Phoenicians, 
Porph.,  De  Abst.,  iv.  15;  the  Greeks  and  many  others, 
ibid.,  ii.  5i  sq. ;  the  Romans,  Ovid,  Fasti,  vi.  162).  Among 
the  Egj'ptians  the  victim  was  marked  with  a  seal  bearing 
the  image  of  a  man  bound,  and  kneeling  with  a  sword  at 
his  throat  (Pint.,  Is.  et  Os.,  chap,  xxxi.)  And  often  we 
find  a  ceremonial  laying  of  the  sin  to  be  expiated  on  the. 
head  of  the  victim  (Herod.,  ii.  39 ;  Lev.  iv.  4  compared 
with  xiv.  21). 

In  such  piacular  rites  the  god  demands  only  the  life  of 
the  victim,  which  is  sometimes  indicated  by  a  special  ritual 
with  the  blood  (as  among  the  Hebrews  the  blood  of  the 
sin-offering  was  applied  to  the  horns  of  the  altar,  or  to  the 
mercy-seat  within  the  vail),  and  there  is  no  sacrificial  meal. 
Thus  among  the  Greeks  the  carcase  of  the  victim  was 
buried  or  cast  into  the  sea,  and  among  the  Hebrews  the 
most  important  sin-offerings  were  burnt  not  on  the  altar 
but  outside  the  camp  (city),  as  was  also  the  case  with  the 
children  sacrificed  to  "  Moloch."  Sometimes,  however, 
the  sacrifice  is  a  holocaust  on  the  altar  (2  Kings  iii.  27), 
or  the  flesh  is  consumed  by  the  priests.  The  latter  was 
the  case  with  certain  Roman  piacula,  and  with  those 
Hebrew  sin-offerings  in  which  the  blood  was  not  brought 
within  the  vail  (Lev.  vi.  25  sq.).  Here  the  sacrificial  flesh 
is  seemingly  a  gift  accepted  by  the  deity  and  assigned  by 
hun  to  the  priests,  so  that  the  distinction  between  a 
honorific  and  a  piacular  sacrifice  is  partly  obliterated. 
But  this  is  not  hard  to  understand ;  for  just  as  a  b.'ood- 
rito  takes  the  place  of  blood-revenge  io  human  justice,  so  an. 


SACRIFICE 


137 


offence  against  the  gods  may  in  certain  cases  be  redeemed 
by  a  fine  {e.g.,  Herod.,  ii.  65)  or  a  sacrificial  gift.  This 
seems  to  be  the  original  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  asham 
(trespass-offering),  which  was  a  kind  of  atonement  made 
partly  in  money  (Lev.  v.  15  sq.),  but  accompanied  (at 
least  in  later  times)  by  a  sacrifice  which  differed  from  the 
sin-offering,  inasmuch  as  the  ritual  did  not  involve  any 
exceptional  use  of  the  blood.  The  ordinary  sin-offerings 
in  which  the  priests  ate  the  flesh  may  be  a  compound  of 
the  dshdm  and  the  properly  piacular  substitution  of  life 
for  life.  The  two  kinds  of  atonement  are  mixed  up  also 
in  Micah  vi.  6  sq.,  and  ultimately  all  bloody  sacrifices, 
especially  the  whole  burnt-offering  (which  in  early  times 
■was  very  rare  but  is  prominent  in  the  ritual  of  the  second 
temple),  are  held  to  have  an  atoning  efiicacy  (Lev.  i.  4, 
ivii.  11).  There  is,  however,  another  and  mystical  sense 
sometimes  associated  with  the  eating  of  sin-ofl'erings,  as  we 
shall  see  presently. 

The  most  curious  developments  of  piacular  sacrifice 
take  place  in  the  worship  of  deities  of  totem  type.  Here 
the  natural  substitute  for  the  death  of  a  criminal  of  the 
tribe  is  an  animal  of  the  kind  with  which  the  worshippers 
and  their  god  alike  count  kindred ;  an  animal,  that  is, 
which  must  not  be  offered  in  a  sacrificial  feast,  and  which 
indeed.it  is  impious  to  kill.  Thus  Hecate  was  invoked  as 
a  dog  (Porph.,  De  Abst.,  iii.  17),  and  dogs  were  her.  pia- 
cular sacrifices  (Plut.,  Qu.  Rom.,  iii.).  And  in  like  manner 
in  Egypt  the  piacular  sacrifice  of  the  cow -goddess  Isis- 
Hathor  was  a  bull,  and  the  sacrifice  was  accompanied  by 
lamentations  as  at  the  funeral  of  a  kinsman  (Herod.,  ii. 
39,  40).  This  lamentation  at  a  piacular  sacrifice  is  met 
■with  in  other  cases,  e.g.,  at  the  Argean  festival  at  Rome 
(Marquardt,  Rom.  Staatsveno.,  iii.  192),  and  is  parallel  to 
the  marks  of  indignation  which  in  various  atoning  rituals 
it  is  proper  to  display  towards  the  priest  who  performs 
the  sacrifice.  At  Tenedos,  for  example,  the  priest  was 
attacked  with  stones  who  sacrificed  to  Bacchus  a  bull-calf, 
the  aflinity  of  which  with  man  was  indicated  by  the 
mother-cow  being  treated  like  a  woman  in  childbed  and 
the  victim  itself  wearing  the  cothurnus.  As  the  cothurnus 
was  proper  to  Bacchus,  who  also  was  often  addressed  in 
-(Vorship  and  represented  in  images  as  a  bull,  the  victim 
here  is  of  the  same  race  with  the  god  {i£\.,  H.N.,  xii.  34  ; 
Plut.,  Qu.  Gr.,  XXXV.)  as  well  as  with  the  worshippers. 
In  such  rites  a  double  meaning  was  suggested  :  the  vietim 
was  an  animal  kindred  to  the  sacrificers,  so  that  his  death 
wa^  strictly  speaking  a  murder,  for  which,  in  the  Attic 
Diipolia,  the  sacrificial  axe  cast  away  by  the  priest  was 
tried  and  condemned  (Pans.,  i.  24,  4),  but  it  was  also  a 
sacred  animal  sliaring  the  nature  of  the  god,  who  thus  in 
a  sense  died  for  his  people.  The  last  point  comes  out 
clearly  in  the  annual  sacrifice  at  Thebes,  where  a  ram  was 
slain  and  tlie  ram-god  Amen  clothed  in  his  skin.  The 
worshipper,s  then  bewailed  the  ram  and  buried  him  in  a 
sacred  coffin  (Herod.,  ii.  42).  Thus  the  piacular  sacrifice 
in  such  cases  is  merged  in  the  class  of  offerings  which 
may  be  called  sacramental  or  mystical. 

Mystical  or  Sacramental  Sacrifices.— ThM  tne  mysteries 
of  races  like  the  Greeks  and  Egj'ptians  are  sprung  from 
the  same  circle  of  ideas  with  the  totem  mysteries  of  savage 
tribes  has  been  suggested  in  Mythology,  vol.  xvii.  p.  151, 
with  which  the  reader  may  compare  Mr  Lang's  book  on 
Custom  and  Myth  ;  and  examples  of  sacramental  .sacrifices 
have  been  adduced  in  the  same  article  (p.  150)  and  in 
Me.\ico,  vol.  xvi.  p.  212.  In  Mexico  the  worshippers  ate 
sacramentally  paste  idols  of  the  god,  or  slew  and  feasted 
on  a  human  victim  who  was  feigned  to  be  a  representative 
of  the  deity.  The  Mexican  gods  are  unquestionably  de- 
veloped out  of  totems,  and  these  sacraments  are  on.  one 
una  with  the  totcju  mysteries  of  the  ruder  Indian  tribes 


in  vi-hich  once  a  year  the  sacred  animal  is  eaten,  oody  and 
blood.  Now  according  to  Julian  {Orat.,  v.  p.  175)  the 
mystical  Sacrifices  of  the  cities  of  the  Koman  empire  were 
in  like  manner  offered  once  or  twice  a  year  and  consisted 
of  such  victims  as  the  dog  of  Hecate,  which  might  not  be 
ordinarily  eaten  or  used  to  furnish  forth  the  tables  of  the 
gods.  The  general  agreement  with  the  American  mysteries 
is  therefore  complete,  and  in  many  cases  the  resemblance 
extends  to  details  which  leave  no  doubt  of  the  totem  origin 
of  the  ritual.  The  mystic  sacrifices  seem  always  to  have 
had  an  atoning  efficacy ;  their  special  feature  is  that  the 
victim  is  not  simply  slain  and  burned  or  cast  away  but 
that  the  worshippers  partake  of  the  body  and  blood  of  the 
sacred  animal,  and  that  so  his  life  passes  as  it  were  into 
their  lives  and  knits  them  to  the  deity  in  living  commu- 
nion. Thus  in  the  orgiastic  cult  of  the  bull-Bacchus  the 
worshippers  tore  the  bull  to  pieces  and  devoured  the  raw 
flesh.  These  orgies  are  connected  on  the  one  hand  with 
older  practices,  in  which  the  victim  was  human  (Orpheus 
legend,  Dionysus  'fiyni;o-T)Js),  and  on  the  other  hand  with  the 
myth  of  the  murder  of  the  god  by  his  kinsmen  the  Titans, 
who  made  a  meal  of  his  flesh  (Clem.  Al.,  Coh.  ad  Gentes, 
p.  12).  Similar  legends  of  fratricide  occur  in  connexion 
with  other  orgies  (the  Corybantes  ;  see  Clement,  ut  supra) ; 
and  all  these  various  elements  can  only  be  reduced  to  unity 
by  referring  their  origin  to  those  totem  habits  of  thought 
in  which  the  god  has  not  yet  been  differentiated  from  the 
plurality  of  sacred  animals  and  the  tribesmen  are  of  one 
kin  with  their  totem,  so  that,  the  sacrifice  of  a  fellow- 
tribesman  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  totem  animal  are  equally 
fratricides,  and  the  death  of  the  animal  is  the  death  of  the 
mysterious  protector  of  the  totem  kin.  In  the  Diipolia  at 
Athens  we  have  seen  that  the  slaughter  of  the  sacred  bull 
was  viewed  as  a  murder,  but  "  the  dead  was  raised  again 
in  the  same  sacrifice,"  as  the  mystic  text  had  it :  the  skin 
was  sewed  up  and  stuffed  and  all  tasted  the  sacrificial 
flesh,  so  that  the  life  of  the  victim  was  renewed  in  the 
lives  of  those  who  ate  of  it '  (Theophr.,  in  Porph.,  De 
Abst.,  ii.  29  sq.). 

Mystic  sacrifices  of  this  sacramental  type  prevailed  also 
among  the  heathen  Semites,  and  are  aliuded  to  in  Isa.  Ixv. 
4  sq.,  Ixvi.  3,  17  ;  Zech.  ix.  7  ;  Lev.  xix.  26,  etc.,"  from 
which  passages  we  gather  that  the  victim  was  eaten  vni'h 
the  blood.  This  feature  reappears  elsewhere,  as  in  the  pip 
cular  swine-offerings  of  the  Fratres  Arvales  at  Rome,  a. 
possesses  a  special  significance  inasmuch  as  common  bloo. 
means  in  antiquity  a  share  in  common  life.  In  the  Ola 
Testament  the  heathen  mysteries  seem  to  appear  as  cere- 
monies of  initiation  by  which  a  man  was  introduced  into 
a  new  worship,  i.e.,  primarily  made  of  one  blood  with  a 
new  religious  kinship,  and  they  therefore  come  into  promi- 
nence just  at  the  time  when  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  political 
convulsions  had  shaken  men's  faith  in  their  old  gods  and 
led  them  to  seek  on  all  sides  for  new  and  stronger  pro- 
tectors. The  Greek  mysteries  too  create  a  close  bond 
between  the  mystic,  and  the  chief  ethical  significance  of 
the  Eleusinia  was  that  they  were  open  to  all  Hellenes  and 
so  represented  a  brotherhood  wider  than  the  political  limits 
of  individual  .states.  But  originally  the  initiation  must 
have  been  introduction  into  a  particular  social  community; 
Theophrastus's  legend  of  the  origin  of  the  Diipolia  is  ex- 
pressly connected  with  the  adoption  of  the  house  of  Sopa- 
trus  into  the  position  of  Athenian  citizens.  From  this 
point  of  view  the  sacramental  rites  of  mystical  sacrifice 
are  a  form  of  blood-covenant,  and  serve  the  same  purpose 

^  In  the  s.^me  way  the  Isscdoiies  hoiioiu-ed  their  p.ireuts  hy  eating 
tlieir  (le.id  bodies  (UeroJ.,  iv.  26).  Tlic  life  wa**  not  allowed  to  go 
out  of  the  f.imily. 

-  Kor  details  see  W.  R.  Smith,  Jthis'tij)  caul  Maryiu^je  in  F.'irltj 
Ambia,  p.  30'J. 

XXL  —  I 


138 


SACKIFICE 


as  the  mixing  of  blood  or  tasting  of  each  other's  blood  by 
which  in  ancient  times  two  men  or  two  clans  created  a 
sacred  covenant  bond.  In  all  the  forms  of  blood-covenant, 
whether  a  sacrifice  is  ofl'ered  or  the  veins  of  the  parties 
opened  and  their  own  blood  used,  the  idea  is  the  same  : 
the  bond  created  is  a  bond  of  kindred,  because  one  blood 
is  now  in  the  veins  of  all  who  have  shared  the  ceremony. 
The  details  in  which  this  kind  of  symbolism  may  be 
carried  out  are  of  course  very  various,  but  where  there  is 
a  covenant  sacrifice  we  iisually  find  that  the  parties  eat 
and  drink  together  (Gen.  xxxi.  5-i),  and  that  the  sacrificial 
blood,  if  not  actually  tasted,  is  at  least  touched  by  both 
parties  (Xen.,  Anah.,  ii.  2,  9),  or  sprinkled  on  both  and  on 
the  altar  or  image  of  the  deity  who  presides  over  the  con- 
tract (Esod.,  xxiv.  6,  7).'  A  peculiar  form  which  meets 
us  in  various  places  is  to  cut  the  animal  in  twain  and 
make  those  who  swear  pass  between  the  parts  (Gen.  xiii. 
9  sq.;  Jer.  xxxiv.  18  sq.;  Plut.,  Qu.  Horn.,  iii.,  Ac).  This 
is  generally  taken  as  a  formula  of  imprecation,  as  if  the 
parties  prayed  that  he  who  proved  unfaithful  might  be 
similarly  cut  in  twain  ;  but,  as  the  case  cited  from  Plutarcn 
shows  that  the  victim  chosen  was  a  mystic  one,  it  is  more 
likely  that  the  original  sense  was  that  the  worshijjpers 
l^were  taken  within  the  mystic  life. 

Even  the  highest  forms  of  sacrificial  worship  present 
much  that  is  repulsive  to  modern  ideas,  and  in  particular 
it  requires  an  effort  to  reconcile  our  imagination  to  the 
bloody  ritual  which  is  prominent  in  almost  every  religion 
which  has  a  strong  sense  of  sin.  But  we  must  not  forget 
that  from  the  beginning  this  ritual  expressed,  however 
crudely,  certain  ideas  which  lie  at  the  very  root  of  true 
religion,  the  fellowship  of  the  worshippers  with  one  another 
in  their  fellowship  with  the  deity,  and  the  consecration  of 
the  bonds  of  kinship  as  the  type  of  all  right  ethical  relation 
between  man  and  man.  And  the  piacular  forms,  though 
these  were  particularly  liable  to  distortions  disgraceful  to 
man  and  dishonouring  to  the  godhead,  yet  contained  from 
the  first  germs  of  eternal  truths,  not  only  expressing  the 
idea  of  divine  justice,  but  mingling  it  with  a  feeling  of 
divine  and  human  pity.  The  dreadful  sacrifice  is  per- 
formed not  with  savage  joy  but  with  awful  sorrow,  and 
in  the  mystic  sacrifices  the  deity  himself  suffers  with  and 
for  the  sins  of  his  people  and  lives  again  in  their  new 
;fc.  (w.  K.  s.) 

The  Idea  of  Sacrifice  in  the  Christian  Church. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  idea  of  sacrifice  occupied 
an  important  place  in  early  Christianity.  It  had  been  a 
fundamental  element  of  both  Jewish  and  Gentile  religions, 
and  Christianity  tended  rather  to  absorb  and  modify  such 
elements  than  to  abolish  them.  To  a  great  extent  the 
idea  had  been  modified  already.  Among  the  Jews  the 
preaching  of  tlie  prophets  had  been  a  constant  protest 
against  the  grosser  forms  of  sacrifice,  and  there  are  indica- 
tions that  when  Christianity  arose  bloody  sacrifices  were 
already  beginning  to  fall  into  disuse  ;  a  saying  which  was 
attributed  by  the  Ebionites  to  ovu'  Lord  repeats  this  protest 
in  a  strong  form,  "  I  have  come  to  abolish  the  sacrifices ; 
and  if  ye  do  not  cease  from  sacrificing  the  wrath  of  God 
will  not  cease  from  you"  (Epiph.,  xxx.  16).  Among  the 
Greeks  the  philosophers  had  come  to  use  both  argument 
and  ridicule  against  the  idea  that  the  offering  of  material 
things  could  be  needed  by  or  acceptable  to  the  Maker  of 
them  all.  Among  both  Jews  and  Greeks  the  earlier  forms 
of  the  idea  had  been  rationalized  into  the  belief  that  the 
most  appropriate  ofl'ering  to  God  is  that  of  a  pm-e  and 
penitent  heart,  and  among  them  both  was  the  idea  that 

^  In  Greek  ritual  the  identity  of  the  covenant  sacrifice  with  niystico- 
liacular  rites  is  clearly  brought  out  by  the  animals  chosen  and  by  other 
'"-'iires  in  the  ritual.     See  Schoemann,  Gr.  Alt.,  p.  246  sq. 


tue  vocal  expression  of  contrition  in  prayer  or  of  gratitude 
in  praise  is  also  acceptable.  The  best  instances  of  these 
ideas  in  the  Old  Testament  are  in  Psalms  1.  and  li.,  and  in 
Greek  literature  the  striking  words  which  Porphyry  quotes 
from  an  earlier  writer,  "  We  ought,  then,  having  been  imited 
and  made  like  to  God,  to  offer  oiu'  own  conduct  as  a  holy 
sacrifice  to  Him,  the  same  being  also  a  hjnnn  and  our  sal- 
vation in  passionless  excellence  of  soul "  (Euseb.,  Dem. 
Ev.,  3).  The  ideas  are  also  found.both  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  in  early  Christian  literature  :  "  Let  us  offer  up 
a  sacrifice  of  praise  to  God  continually,  that  is,  the  fruit 
of  lips  which  make  confession  to  His  name  "  (Heb.  xiii. 
15);  "That  prayers  and  thank.sgivings,  made  by  worthy 
persons,  are  the  only  perfect  and  acceptable  sacrifices  I 
also  admit"  (Just.  Mart.,  Trypho,  c.  117);  "We  honour 
God  in  prayer,  and  offer  this  as  the  best  and  holiest  sacrifice 
with  righteousness  to  the  righteous  Word  "  (Clem.  Alex.,' 
Strom.,  vii.  6). 

But  among  the  Jews  two  other  forms  of  the  idea  ex-' 
pressed  themselves  in  usages  which  have  been  perpetuated 
in  Christianity,  and  one  of  which  has  had  a  singular  im- 
portance for  the  Christian  world.  The  one  form,  which 
probably  arose  from  the  conception  of  Jehovah  as  in  an 
especial-  sense  the  protector  of  the  poor,  was  that  gifts  to 
God  may  properly  be  bestowed  on  the  needy,  and  that 
consequently  alms  have  the  virtue  of  a  sacrifice.  Biblical 
instances  of  this  idea  are — "  He  who  doeth  alms  is  offering 
a  sacrifice  of  praise  "  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  2) ;  "  To  do  good  and 
to  communicate  forget  not,  for  with  such  sacrifices  God  is 
well  pleased"  (Heb.  xiii.  16) ;  so  the  offerings  sent  by  the 
Philippians  to  Paul  when  a  prisoner  at  Piome  are  "an 
odour  of  a  sweet  smell,  a  sacrifice  acceptable,  well  pleasing 
to  God"  (PhU.  iv.  18).  The  other  form,  which  was  prob- 
ably a  relic  of  the  conception  of  Jehovah  as  the  author 
of  natural  fertility,  was  that  part  of  the  fruits  of  "the  earth 
should  be  oftered  to  God  in  acknowledgment  of  His  bounty, 
and  that  what  was  so  oSered  was  especially  blessed  and 
brought  a  blessing  upon  both  those  who  offered  it  and 
those  who  afterwards  partook  of  it.  The  persistence  of 
this  form  of  the  idea  of  sacrifice  constitutes  so  marked 
a  feature  of  the  history  of  Christianity  as  to  require  a 
detailed  account  of  it. 

In  the  first  instance  it  is  probable  that  among  Christians, 
as  _among  Jews,  every  meal,  and  especially  every  social 
meal,  was  regarded  as  being  in  some  sense  a  thank-offering. 
Thanksgiving,  blessing,  and  offering  were  co-ordinate  terms. 
Hence  the  Tabnudic  rule,  "A  man  shall  not  taste  anything 
before  blessing  it "  (Tosephta  Berachoth,  c.  4),  and  hence 
St  Paul's  words,  "  He  that  eateth,  eateth  unto  the  Lord, 
for  he  giveth  God  thanks  "  (Kom.  xiv.  6  ;  comp.  1  Tim.  iv. 
4).  But  the  most  important  ofl'ering  was  the  solemn  obla- 
tion in  the  assembly  on  the  Lord's  day.  A  precedent  for 
making  such  oblations  elsewhere  than  in  the  temple  had 
been  afforded  by  the  Essenes,  who  had  endeavoured  in 
that  way  to  avoid  the  contact  with  unclean  persons  and 
things  which  a  resort  to  the  temple  might  have  involved 
(Jos.,  Antiq.,  xviii.  1,  5),  and  a  justification  for  it  was 
found  in  the  prophecy  of  Malachi,  "  In  every  place  incense 
is  offered  unto  My  name  and  a  pure  ofl'ering ;  for  Jly  name 
is  great  among  the  Gentiles,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts " 
(Mai.  i.  11,  repeatedly  quoted  in  early  Christian  \\TitingS; 
e.e;.,  Teachinq  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  c.  14 ;  Just.  Mart., 
Trypho,  c.  28,  41,  116;  Iren»us,  iv.  17,  5). 

The  points  in  relation  to  this  ofl'ering  which  are  clearly 
demonstrable  from  the  Christian  writers  of  the  first  two 
centuries,  but  which  subsequent  theories  have  tended  to 
confuse,  are  these.  (1)  It  was  regarded  as  a  true  offering 
or  sacrifice ;  for  in  the  Teaching  of  the  Tuelce  Apostles,  in 
Justin  Martyr,  and  in  Iren^us  it  is  designated  by  each 
of  the  terms  which  are  used  to  designate  sacrifices  in  the 


S^ACRiriCE 


139 


Old  Testament.  (2)  It  was  primarily  an  o£Feriug  of  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  to  the  Creator ;  t'his  is  clear  from  both 
Justin  MartjT  and  Irenseus,  the  latter  of  whom  not  only 
explicitly  states  that  such  oblations  are  continued  among 
Christians  but  also  meets  the  current  objection  to  them 
by  arguing  that  they  are  offered  to  God  not  as  though  He 
needed  anything  but  to  show  the  gratitude  of  the  offerer 
(Iren.,  iv.  17,  18).  (3)  It  was  offered  as  a  thanksgiving 
partly  for  creation  and  preservation  and  partly  for  re- 
demption :  the  latter  is  the  special  purpose  mentioned 
(e.g.)  in  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles ;  the  former  is 
that  upon  which  Irenseus  chiefly  dwells ;  both  are  men- 
tioned together  in  Justin  MartjT  {Trypho,  c.  41).  (4) 
Those  who  offered  it  were  required  to  be  not  only  baptized 
Christians  but  also  "in  love  and  charity  one  with  another  "; 
there  is  an  indication  of  this  latter  requirement  in  the  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount  (Matt.  v.  23,  24,  where  the  word  trans- 
lated "  gift "  is  the  usual  LXX.  word  for  a  sacrificial  offer- 
ing, and  is  so  used  elsewhere  in  the  same  Gospel,  viz.. 
Matt.  viii.  4,  jcxiii.  19),  and  still  more  explicitly  in  the 
Teaching,  c.  14,  "Let  not  any  one  who  has  a  dispute  with 
his  fellow  come  together  with  you  (i.e.,  on  the  Lord's  day) 
until  they  have  been  reconciled,  that  your  sacrifice  be  not 
defiled."  This  brotherly  unity  was  symbolized  by  the  kiss 
of  peace.  (5)  It  was  offered  in  the  assembly  by  the  hands 
of  the  president ;  this  is  stated  by  Justin  Martyr  (Apot.,  i. 
65,  67),  and  implied  by  Clement  of  Rome  (Sp.,  L  44,  4). 

Combined  with  this  sacrifice  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
to  the  Creator  in  memory  of  creation  and  redemption,  and 
probably  always  immediately  following  it,  was  the  sacred 
meal  at  which  part  of  the  offerings  was  eaten.  Such  a 
sacred  meal  had  always,  or  almost  always,  formed  part  of 
the  rites  of  sacrifice.  There  was  the  idea  that  what  had 
been  solemnly  offered  to  God  was  especially  hallowed  by 
flim,  and  that  the  partaking  of  it  united  the  partakers  in 
a  special  bond  both  to  Him  and  to  one  another.  In  the 
case  of  the  bread  and  wine  of  the  Christian  sacrifice,  it 
was  believed  that,  after  having  been  offered  and  blessed, 
they  became  to  those  who  partook  of  them  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ.  This  "  communion  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,"  which  in  early  writings  is  clearly  distinguished 
from  the  thank-offering  which  preceded  it,  and  which  fur- 
nished the  materials  for  it,  gradually  came  to  supersede 
the  thank-offfering  in  importance,  and  to  exercise  a  reflex 
influence  upon  it.  In  the  time  of  Cyprian,  though  not 
before,  we  begin  to  find  the  idea  that  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  were  not  merely  partaken  of  by  the  worshippers 
but  also  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  that  the  Eucharist  was 
not  so  much  a  thank-offering  for  creation  and  redemption 
as  a  repetition  or  a  showing  forth  anew  of  the  self-sacrifice 
of  Christ.  This  idea  is  repeated  in  Ambrose  and  Augus- 
tine, and  has  since  been  a  dominant  idea  of  both  Eastern 
and  Western  Christendom.  But,  though  dominant,  it  has 
not  been  universal ;  nor  did  it  become  dominant  until 
several  centuries  after  its  first  promulgation.  The  history 
of  it  has  yet  to  be  wTitten.  For,  in  spite  of  the  important 
controversies  to  which  it  has  given  birth,  no  one  has  been 
at  the  pains  to  distinguish  between  (i.)  the  theories  which 
have  been  from  time  to  time  put  forth  by  eminent  WTiters, 
and  which,  though  they  have  in  some  cases  ultimately  won 
a  general  acceptance,  liave  for  a  long  period  remained  as 
merely  individual  opinions,  and  (ii.)  the  current  beliefs  of 
the  great  body  of  Christians  which  are  expressed  in  recog- 
nized formularies.  A  catena  of  opinions  may  be  produced 
in  favour  of  almost  any  theory ;  but  formularies  express 
the  collective  or  average  belief  of  any  given  period,  and 
changes  in  them  are  a  sure  indication  that  there  has  been 
a  general  change  in  ideas. 

It  is  clear  from  the  evidence  of  the  early  Western  litur- 
gies that,  for  at  least  six  centuries,  the  pr  rutive  conception 


of  {he  nature  of  the  Cnristian  sacrifice  remained.  There 
is  a  clear  distinction  between  the  sacrifice  and  the  com- 
munion which  followed  it,  and  tliat  which  is  offered  con- 
sists of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  and  not  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ.  Other  ideas  no  doubt  attached  themselves 
to  the  primitive  conception,  of  which  there  is  no  certain 
evidence  in  primitive  times,  e.g.,  the  idea  of  the  propitiatory 
character  of  the  offering, '  but  these  ideas  rather  confirm 
than  disprove  the  persistence  of  those  primitive  conceptions 
themselves. 

All  Eastern  liturgies,  in  their  present  form,  are  of  later 
date  than  the  surviving  fragments  of  the  earlier  Western 
liturgies,  and  cannot  form  the  basis  of  so  sure  an  induction ; 
but  they  entirely  confirm  the  conclusions  to  which  the 
Western  liturgies  lead.  The  main  points  in  which  the 
pre-mediaival  formularies  of  both  the  Ea.'.tern  and  the 
Western  Churches  agree  in  relation  to  the  Christian  sacri- 
fice are  the  following.  (1)  It  was  an  offering  of  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  to  the  Creator,  in  the  belief  that  a 
special  blessing  would  descend  upon  the  offerers,  and 
sometimes  also  in  the  belief  that  God  would  be  propitiated 
by  the  offerings.  The  bread  and  wine  are  designated  by 
all  the  names  by  which  sacrifices  are  designated  (sacrijicia, 
hostile,  libamina,  and  at  least  once  sacrifiman  plarationis), 
and  the  act  of  offering  them  by  the  ordinary  term  for 
offering  a  sacrifice  (immolaiio).  (2)  The  offering  of  bread 
and  wine  was  originally  brought  to  the  altar  by  the  person 
who  offered  it,  and  placed  by  him  in  the  hands  of  the 
presiding  officer.  In  cour.i*  of  time  there  were  two  im- 
portant changes  in  this  respect :  (a)  the  offerings  of  bread 
and  wine  were  commuted  for  money,  with  which  bread 
and  wine  were  purchased  by  the  church -officers ;  (h)  the 
offerings  were  sometimes  handed  to  the  deacons  and  by 
them  taken  to  the  bishop  at  the  altar,  and  sometimes,  as 
at  Rome,  the  bishop  and  deacons  went  round  the  church 
to  collect  them.'  (3)  In  offering  the  bread  and  wine  the 
offerer  offered,  as  in  the  ancient  sacrifices,  primarily  for 
himself,  but  inasmuch  as  the  offering  was  regarded  as 
having  a  general  propitiatory  value  he  mentioned  also  the 
names  of  others  in  whom  he  was  interested,  and  especially 
the  departed,  that  they  might  rest  in  peace.  Hence,  after 
all  the  offerings  had  been  collected,  and  before  they  were 
solemnly  offered  to  God,  it  became  a  custom  to  recite  the 
names  both  of  the  offerers  and  of  those  for  wlioni  they 
offered,  the  names  being  arranged  in  two  lists,  which  were 
known  as  diptychs.  Almost  all  the  old  rituals  have 
prayers  to  be  said  "before  the  names,"  "after  the  names." 
It  was  a  further  and  perhaps  much  later  development  of 
the  same  idea  that  the  good  works  of  those  who  had  pre- 
viously enjoyed  the  favour  of  God  were  in\oked  to  give 
additional  weight  to  the  prayer  of  the  oflerer.  In  the 
later  series  of  Western  rituals,  beginning  with  that  which 
is  known  as  the  Leonine  Sacramentary,  tliis  practice  is 
almost  universal.  (4)  The  placing  of  the  bread  and  wine 
upon  the  altar  was  followed  by  the  kiss  jf  jieace.  (5) 
Then  followed  the  actual  offering  of  the  gifts  to  God 
{immolatio  missse).  It  was  an  act  of  adoration  or  thanks- 
giving, much  longer  in  Eastern  than  in  ^V'estcrn  rituaLs, 
but  in  both  classes  of  rituals  beginning  with  the  form 
"Lift  up  your  hearts,"  and  ending  with  the  Ter  Sanctus 
or  Trisagion.-  The  early  MSS.  of  AVestern  rituals  indi- 
cate the  importance  which  was  attached  tc  this  part  of  the 
liturgy  by  the  fact  of  its  being  written  in  a  much  more 
ornate  way  than  the  other  parts,  e.g.,  in  gold  uncial  letters 


*  Of  this  proceeding  an  elaborate  account  exijts  in  the  very  inter- 
esting document  printed  by  Mabillon  in  his  Muscnm  italicum  as  "  Ordo 
Romanus  I.";  the  small  jihiala  of  wine  which  were  brought  were  emptied 
into  a  large  bowl,  and  the  loaves  of  bread  were  follcctcd  in  a  bag. 

^  The  elements  of  tho  form  are  preser\'cd  exactly  in  the  liturgy  of 
the  Church  of  England. 


140 


S  A  C  — S  A  C 


upon  a  purple  ground,  as  distinguished  from  the  vermilion 
cursive  letters  of  the  rest  of  the  MS.  With  this  the 
sacrifice  proper  was  concluded.  (6)  But,  since  the  divine 
injunction  had  been  "  Do  this  in  remembrance  of  Me,"  the 
sacrifice  was  immediately  followed  by  a  commemoration  of 
the  passion  of  Christ,  and  that  again  by  an  invocation  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  (ejiiclesis)  that  He  would  make  the  bread 
and  wine  to  become  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Of 
this  invocation,  which  is  constant  ia  all  Eastern  rituals, 
there  are  few,  though  sufficient,  surviving  traces  in 
Western  rituals.^  Then  after  a  prayer  for  sanctification, 
or  for  worthy  reception-,  followed  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
after  the  Lord's  Prayer  the  communion. 

In  the  course  of  the  Sth  and  9th  centuries,  by  the  opera- 
tion of  causes  which  have  not  yet  been  fully  investigated, 
the  theory  which  is  first  found  in  CyjJrian  became  the 
dominant  belief  of  Western  Christendom.  The  central 
point  of  the  sacrificial  idea  was  shifted  from  the.  offering 
of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  to  the  offering  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ.  The  change  is  marked  in  the  rituals  by 
the  duplication  of  the  liturgical  forms.  The  prayers  of  in- 
tercession and  oblation,  which  in  earlier  times  are  found 
only  in  connexion  with  the  former  offering,  are  repeated 
in  the  course  of  the  same  service  in  cormexion  with  the 
latter.  The  designations  arid  aaithe^ts  which  are  in  earlier 
times  applied  to  the  fruits  of  the  earth  are  applied  to  the 
body  and  blood.  From  that  time  until  the  Reformation 
the  Christian  sacrifice  was  all  but  universally  regarded  as 
the  offering  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  The  in- 
numerable theories  which  were  framed  as  to  the  precise 
nature  of  the  offering  and  as  to  the  precise  change  in  the 
elements  all  implied  that  conception  of  it.  It  still  remains 
as  the  accepted  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Home.  For, 
although  the  council  of  Trent  recognized  fully  the  dis- 
|tinction  which  has  been  mentioned  above  between  the 
Eucharist  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  and  treated  of 
them  in  separate  sessions  (the  former  in  Session  xiii.,  the 
latter  in  Session  xxii.),  it  continued  the  mediaeval  theory 
of  the  nature  of  the  latter.  The  reaction  against  the 
mediieval  theory  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  took  the 
form  of  a  return  to  what  had  no  doubt  been  an  early  belief, 
— the  idea  that  the  Christian  .sacrifice  consists  in  the  offer- 
ing of  a  pure  heart  and  of  vocal  thanksgiving.  Luther  at 
one  period  (in  his  treatise  Z>e  Captivitate  Bahylonica)  main- 
tained, though  not  on  historical  grounds,  that  the  offering  of 
the  oblations  of  the  people  was  the  real  origin  of  the  con- 
ception of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass ;  but  he  directed  all 
the  force  of  his  vehement  polemic  against  the  idea  that 
any  other  sacrifice  could  be  efficacious  besides  the  sacrifice 
of  Christ.  In  the  majority  of  Protestant  communities  the 
idea  of  a  sacrifice  has  almost  lapsed.  That  which  among 
Catholics  is  most  commonly  regarded  in  its  aspect  as  an 
oflTering  and  spoken  of  as  the  "  mass  "  is  usually  regarded 
in  its  aspect  as'a  participation  in  the  symbols  of  Christ's 
death  and  spoken  of  as  the  "communion."  But  it  may 
be  inferred  from  the  considerable  progress  of  the  Anglo- 
Catholic  revival  in  most  English-speaking  countries  that 
the  idea  of  sacrifice  has  not  yet  ceased  to  be  an  important 
element  in  the  general  conception  of  religion,      (e.  h.\.) 

SACRILEGE.  The  robbery  of  churches  was  in  Roman 
law  punishable  with  death.  There  are  early  instances  of 
[persons  having  suffered  death  for  this  ofi'ence  in  Scotland. 
In  England  at  common  law  benefit  of  clergy  was  denied 
to  robbers  of  churches.  The  tendency  of  the  later  law 
has  been  to  put  the  offence  of  sacrilege  in  the  same  position 
as  if  the  offence  had  not  been  committed  in  a  sacred  build- 

'  ^  It  is  found,  e.g.,  in  the  Bfccoutl  of  Mone's  m.lsses  from  the  Reichenau 
palimpsest,  and  in  Mabillon's  Missale  Gclhicuui,  No.  12  ;  it  is  ex- 
j)ressly  mentioned  by  Isidore  of  Seville  as  the  sixth .  element  in  the 
ilncharistic  service,  be  OJic.  Ecdes.,  i.  15^ 


ing.  Thus  breaking  into  a  place  of  worship  at  night,  says 
Lord  Coke,  is  burglary,  for  the  church  is  the  mansion- 
house  of  Almighty  God.  The  Larceny  Act  of  1861  punishes 
the  breaking  into  or  out  of  a  place  of  divine  worship  in 
the  same  way  as  burglary,  and  the  theft  of  things  sacred 
in  the  same  way  as  larceny.  The  breaking  or  defacing  of 
an  altar,  crucifi.x,  or  cross  m  any  church,  chapel,  or  church- 
yard is  an  offence  punishable  with  three  months'  imprison- 
ment on  conviction  before  two  justices,  the  imprisonment 
to  be  continued  unless  the  offender  enter  into  surety  for 
good  behaviour  at  quarter  sessions  (1  Mary,  sess.  2,  c.  3). 

SACRO  BOSCO,  Johannes  de,  or  John  Holywood, 
astronomical  author,  died  1244  (or  1256)  as  professor  ol 
mathematics  at  the  university  of  Paris.  Nothing  else  is 
kno^^■Tl  about  his  life.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  spherical 
astronomy,  Trnctatus  de  Sphei-a  Mundi,  first  printed  at 
Ferrara  in  1472,  and  reprinted,  generally  with  copious 
notes  and  commentaries,  about  sixty  times  until  the  end 
of  the  17th  century.  About  the  year  1232  he  wrote  De 
aniii  ralione  seu  ut  vacatur  vu!go  romputus  ecclesiasttcus, 
in  which  ho  jioints  out  the  increasing  error  of  the  Julian 
calendar,  and  suggests  a  remedy  which  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  actually  used  under  Gregory  XIII.  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years  later. 

SACY,  Antoine  Isaac,  Baron  Silvestke^  de  (1758-. 
1838),  the  greatest  of  French  Orientalists  and  the  founder 
of  the  modern  school  of  Arabic  scholarship,  was  the  second 
son  of  a  Parisian  notary,  and  was  bom  at  Paris  on  21st 
September  1758.  From  the  age  of  seven  years,  when  he 
lost  his  father,  he  was  educated  in  more  than  monastic 
seclusion  in  the  house  of  his  pious  and  tender  mother. 
Designed  for  the  civil  service,  he  studied  jurisprudence, 
and  in  1781  got  a  place  as  counsellor  in  the  coiir  des 
vionnnies,  in  which  he  continued  till,  in  1791,  he  was 
advanced  to  be  a  commissary-general  in  the  same  depart- 
ment. De  Sacy  had  a  natural  twin,  for  business  and  liked 
variety  of  work,  while  he  seems  to  have  had  little  or  no 
need  of  absolute  repose.  He  had  successively  acquired  all 
the  Semitic  languages  while  he  was  following  the  usual 
course  of  school  and  professional  training,  and  while  he 
was  engaged  in  the  civil  service  he  found  time  to  make 
himself  a  great  name  as  an  Orientalist  by  a  series  of  pub- 
lications which,  beginning  with  those  Biblical  subjects  to 
which  his  education  and  sympathies  naturally  directed  his 
first  Serhitic  studies,  gradually  extended  in  range,  and 
already  displayed  the  comprehensive  scholar  who  had 
chosen  the  whole  Semitic  and  Iranian  East  for  his  domain.' 
The  works  of  these  early  years  do  not  show  the  full 
maturity  of  his  powers;  his  chief  triumph  was  an  effect-' 
ive  commencement  of  the  decipherment  of  the  Pahlavl 
inscriptions  of  the  Sasanian  kings  (1787-91).  It  was  the 
French  Revolution  which  gained  De  Sacy  wholly  for  letters. 
As  a  good  Catholic  and  a  staunch  royalist  he  felt  con- 
strained in  1792  to  retire  from  the  public  service,  and 
lived  in  close  seclusion  in  a  cottage  near  Paris  till  in  1795 
he  was  called  to  be  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  newly  founded 
school  of  living  Eastern  languages.  The  years  of  retire- 
ment had  not  been  fruitless ;  they  were  in  part  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  religion  of  the  Druses,  which  continued 
to  occupy  him  throughout  life  and  was  the  subject  of  his 
last  and  unfinished  work,  the  Expose  de  la  Eeligioa  des 
Druzes  (2  vols.,  1838).     Nevertheless,  when  called  to  be  a 


-  His  father's  name  was  Silvestre,  the  addition  De  Sacy  he  took  as  a 
younger  sou  after  a  fashion  then  common  witli  the  Parisian  bourgeoisie. 

^  A  commuuication  to  Eichhom  on  the  Paris  MS.  of  the  Syro-t 
He-xaplar  version  of  IV.  Kings  formed  the  basis  of  a  paper  in  the 
latter's  Jiejiertorimn,  vol.  vii.  (1780).  Tliis  T^-as  De  Sacy's  literary, 
debut.  It  \v.a3  followed  by  text  and  translation  of  the  letters  of  the 
Samaritans  to  Jos.  Scaliger  {ibid.,  vo).  xi'ii.,  1783)  and  by  a  series  of. 
essays  on  Arabian  and  Persian  history  iu  the  Mecueit  of  the  Academy^ 
of  Inscriptions  aii'i  iu  the  ^'oticcj  et  Extraits, 


S  A  C  Y 


141 


teacher,  he  felt  that  he  had  himself  much  to  learn.  Since 
the  death  of  Reiske  Arabic  learning  had  been  in  a  back- 
ward state,  the  standard  of  philological  knowledge  was 
low,  and  the  books  for  students  extremely  defective.  Dq 
Sacy  set  himself  with  characteristic  thoroughness  to  com- 
plete his  own  knowledge  and  supply  the  lacking  helps  to 
others,  and  he  accomplished  this  task  on  such  a  Scale,  with 
such  width  of  rang«,  precision  of  thought,  and  scrupulous 
attention  to  details,  that  he  became  the  founder  of  a  whoUy 
new  school  and  the  father  of  aU  subsequent  Arabists. 
His  great  text-books,  the  Grammaire  Arabe  (2  vols.,  1st 
ed.  1810,  2d  ed.  1831-)  and  the  Chresiomathie  (3  vols., 
1st  ed.  1806,  2ded.  1826-31),  together  with  its  supplement, 
the  Anthologie  Grammaiicale  (1829),  are  works  that  can 
never  become  obsolete ;  the  luminous  exposition  of  the 
grammar  and  the  happy  choice  of  the  pieces  in  the  chres- 
tomathy — all  inedita — with  the  admirable  notes,  drawn 
from  an  enormous  reading  in  MS.  sources,  make  them 
altogether  different  from  ordinary  text-books.  .  The  whole 
powers  of  a  great  teacher,  the  whole  wealth  of  knowledge 
of  an  unrivalled  scholar,  are  spent  with  absolute  single- 
ness of  purpose  for  the  benefit  of  the  learner,  and  the 
result  is  that  the  books  are  equally  delightful  and  instruc- 
tive to  the  student  and  to  the  advanced  scholar.  A  com- 
parison of  the  first  and  second  editions  shows  how  much 
toil  and  research  it  cost  the  author  to  raise  his  own  scholar- 
ship to  the  level  which,  thanks  to  his  work,  has  become 
the  starting-place  for  all  subsequent  ascents  of  the  Arabian 
Parnassus. 

De  Sacy's  place  as  a  teacher  was  threatened  at  the  outset 
by  his  conscientious  refusal  to  take  an  oath  of  hatred  to 
royalty.  He  tendered  his  resignation  both  as  professor 
and  as  member  of  the  Institute ;  but  he  was  allowed  to 
continue  to  teach,  and  rejoined  the  In.stitute  on  its  re- 
organization in  1803.  In  1805  he  made  the  only  con- 
siderable journey  of  his  life,  being  sent  to  Genoa  on  a  vain 
search  for  Arabic  documents  supposed  to  Lie  in  the  archives 
of  that  city.  In  1806  he  added  the  duties  of  Persian  pro- 
fessor to  his  old  chair,  and  from  this  time  onwards — a.s,  in 
spite  of  his  royalist  opinions,  he  was  ready  to  do  public 
service  under  any  stable  government  —  his  Life,  divided 
between  his  teaching,  his  literary  work,  and  a  variety  of 
public  duties,  was  one  of  increasLng  honour  and  success, 
broken  only  by  a  brief  period  of  retreat  during  the  Hundred 
Days.  He  found  time  for  everything  :  while  his  pen  was 
ever  at  work  on  subjects  of  abstruse  research,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  active  leaders  in  all  the  business  which  the 
French  system  throws  on  the  savdns  of  the  capital,  especi- 
ally as  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
(from  1832);  in  1808  he  entered  the  corps  Ugislatif ;  and 
in  1832,  when  quite  an  old  man,  he  became  a  peer  of 
France  and  was  regular  in  the  duties  of  the  chamber.^  In 
1815  he  became  rector  of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  after 
the  second  restoration  he  was  active  on  the  commission  of 
public  instruction.  ,  Of  the  Socicle  Asiatitiue  he  was  one 
of  the  founders,  and  when  he  was  in.spector  of  Oriental  types 
at  the  royal  printing  press  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  read 
a  proof  of  every  book  printed  in  Arabic  and  Persian. 
With  this  he  maintained  a  vast  correspondence  and  was 
accessible  not  only  to  every  one  who  sought  his  advice 
on  matters  of  learning  and  business  but  to  all  the  poor  of 
his  quarter,  who  came  to  him  as  a  member  of  the  hurcait 
of  charity.  Yet  he  was  neither  monk  nor  hermit:  ho 
enjoyed  society  and  was  happy  in  forty-eicht  years  of 
married  life  and  in  the  care  of  a  large  family.  Though 
small  and  to  appearance  of  delicate  frame,  L^o  Sacy  enjoyed 
unbroken  health  and  worked  on  without  sign  of  failing 
powers  till  two  days  before  his  death  (21st  February  1838)" 
when  he  suddenly  M\  down  in  the  street  and  never  rallied 
'  The  title  of  baron  ho  received  from  .Napoleon  iuTslSi 


De  Sacy  wrote  so  much  that  a  list  even  of  his  larger  essays,  mostly 
communicated  to  the  Academy  or  in  the  Notices  et  Extraits,  is  im- 
possible in  this  place,  while  his  lesser  papers  and  reviews  in  the 
AUtJ^Lib.  f.  biblische  LitU'ratur,  the  Mines  dc  I'Oricnt,  the  Maaasiti 
UiUiJ/clop^dique,  the  Journal  des  Sc  vanfs  (of  which  he  was  an  editor), 
and  the  Jtntrnal  Asiatiqiie  are  almost  innumerable.  Amonc  the 
works  which  he  designed  mainly  for  students  may  be  classed  his 
edition  of  Hariri  (W22,  2d  edition  by  Reinaud,  1847,  1855),  with  a 
selected  Arabic  commentary,  and  of  the  Alfiija  (1833),  and  his 
Calila  et  Bimna  (lSlti),^the  Arabic  version  of  that  famous  collec- 
tion of  Buddliist  animal  tales  which  has  been  in  various  forms  one 
of  the  most  popular  books  of  the  world.  De  Sacy's  enquiry  into 
the  wonderful  history  of  these  tales  forms  one  of  his  best  services  to 
letters  and  a  good  example^  of  the  way  in  which  he  always  made 
his  work  for  the  benefit  of  learners  go  hand  In  hand  with  profound 
research.  Of  his  continued  interest  in  Biblical  subjects  he  gave 
evidence  in  his  memoir  on  the  Samaritan  Arabic  version  of  the 
Pentateuch  {M^m,  Acad,  dcs  Inscr.,  vol.  xlix.),  and  in  the  Arabic 
and  Syriac  New  Testaments  edited  for  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  ;  among  works  important  for  Eastern  history,  besides 
that  on  the  Druses  already  named,  may  bo  cited  his  version  of 
Abd-Allatif,  Relation  Arabe  sur,  I'^gypte,  and  his  essays  on  the 
History  of  the  Latv  of  Property  in  Egypt  since  the  Arab  conquest 
(1805-18).  And,  in  conclusion,  it  must  not  ho  forgotten  that  his 
oral  teaching  was  not  less  influential  than  his  writings,  and  that, 
except  Ewald,  almost  all  Arabists  of  chief  note  in  the  drst  half  of 
this  century,  in  Germany  as  well  as  in  Fiance,  were  his  personal 
pupils.  Of  the  brilliant  series  of  teachers  who  went  out  from  his 
lecture -room  one  or  two  veterans  still  survive,  and  Profes.'^or 
Fleischer's  elaborate  notes  and  corrections  to  the  GramTiinirc  Arabe 
(Kleinere  Schriftcn,  vol.  i. ,  1885)  may  be  regarded  as  the  latest 
tribute  to  the  memory  of  the  great  master  by  a  disciple  who  is  now 
the  patriarch  of  living  Arabists.  (W.  K.  S. ) 

SACY,  Isaac  Louis  Le  M.Utre  de  (1613-1684),  a  figure 
of  some  prominence  in  the  literary  annals  of  Port  Royal 
{q.v.),  and  after  the  death  of  St  Cyran  (1643)  and  Singliu 
(1664)  the  leading  confes.sor  and  "director"  of  the  Jan- 
scnists  in  France,  was  born  in  Paris  on  29th  March  1613. 
He  was  closely  connected  -with  the  Arnauld  family,  his  true 
surname  being  Le  Maitre  and  that  of  Saci  or  Sacy  which 
he  afterwards  assumed  a  mere  anagram  of  Isaac  his 
Christian  name.  He  studied  philosophy  and  belles  lettres 
at  the  College  dc  Calvi-Sorbonne,  and  afterwards,  under 
the  influence  of  St  Cyran  (see  Duvekgier  de  Hauhanne), 
his  spiritual  director,  joined  his  eldest  brother  Antoine 
Le  Maitre  at  Port  Royal  des  Champs.  Here  he  threw 
himself  heartily  into  the  life  of  the  place,  devoting  himself 
specially  to  teaching  and  the  preparation  of  school-hooks, 
his  chief  productions  in  this  class  being  expurgated  edi- 
tions of  Martial  and  Terence  and  a  translation  of  Pha-drus. 
In  1650  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  and  in  1654 
he  entered  the  field  of  theological  controversy  with  a 
brochure  entitled  Enlmnimtres  de  V Almanack  des  Jesuiies 
intitule  la  Dcroutc  et  la  Con/usioli  des  Janseiiistei,  of  which 
it  is  enough  to  say  that,  if  the  Jesuit  attack  was  in  e;;e- 
crable  taste,  neither  was  the  reply  in  keeping  with  the 
finer  ethical  tone  of  Port  Royal.  From  1661,  after  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Petites  licoles,  he  lived  mors  or  lc^;  in 
concealment  in  Paris  until  May  1666,  when  he  ivas  thrown 
into  the  Bastille,  where  he  remained  till  Novcnibcr  1668. 
During  his  imprisonment  he  occupied  himself  with  the 
completion  of  a  new  version  of  the  New  Testan.ent,  known 
as  the  Nouve.ati  Testament  de  Mons  (1667),  and  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  largely  devoted  to  a  siinilar  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament,  based  chiclly  on  (he  Vulgate, 
with  i'claircissements.  These  began  to  appear  in  1672 
,and  werq  continued  down  to  the  end  of  the  niir.or  prophets. 
As  Do  Sacy  knew  nothing  of  Hebrew,  this  ver.sion  is  of 
no  value  as  a  contribution  to  .scholarship,  and  in  style  it 
is  more  artificial  and  laboured  than  those  which  had  pre- 
ceded it.  From  1668  till  his  death  on  4th  .fanuary  1684 
he  lived  partly  in  Paris,  partly  at  Port  Roya'.  des  Champs, 
and  partly  at  Pomponnc,  the  seat  of  his  cousin,  the 
marquis  de  Pomponnc.  He  was  buried  at  l^rt  Royal  des 
Champs. 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  published,  under. 


142 


S  A  D  — S  A  D 


the  pscudonjin  of  the  "  Sienr  de  Beuil,"  a  French  transhition  of  the 
Dc  Jmitalionc  Christi  (1662).  He  also  translated  Chiysostom's 
Hor.'.ilics  on  Matthew.  See  Sainte-Beuve,  Port  Royal,  bk.  ii.  chaps, 
ir,  18  (ed.  187S). 

SADDLERY  emoraces  tho  industries  connected  with 
tha  harnessing  and  controlling  of  all  beasts  of  draught  and 
burden.  The  materials  used  in  harnessing  the  various 
creatures  so  employed  and  the  modifications  of  harness 
necessary  to  suit  their  structure,  temperament,  and  duties 
are,  of  course,  exceedingly  varied.  In  a  restricted  sense 
saddlery  is  principally  a  leather  trade,  and  has  to  do  with 
the  harnessing  of  the  horse.  The  craft  has  been  recognized 
and  established  in  England  as  a  separate  trade  since  the 
1 3th  centiu-y,  when  the  London  Saddlers'  Company  received 
its  charter  of  incorporation  from  Edward  I.  There  is  evi- 
dence also  of  its  early  prosperity  at  Birmingham,  where 
it  grew  to  an  importance  which  it  still  retains,  the  princi- 
pal seat  of  the  saddlery  trade  being  now  at  Walsall  near 
Birmingham,  which  is  practically  a  saddlers'  town.  The 
trade  divides  itself  into  two  branches,  brcwn  saddlery  and 
black  saddlery.  The  former  is  concerned  with  saddle- 
making  and  the  cutting  and  sewing  of  bridles,  reins,  and 
all  other  uncoloured  leather- work.  The  saddle  is  the 
most  important  article  on  the  brown  saddler's  list.  It 
consists  of  the  tree  or  skeleton,  on  which  the  leather  is 
stretched,  the  seat,  the  skirts,  and  the  flaps.  The  tree  is 
commonly  made  of  beech  strengthened  with  iron  plates. 
The  whole  leather- work  ought  to  be  of  pig-skin,  but  often 
the  seat  alone  is  of  that  material,  the  other  parts  being 
imitation,  cleverly  grained  by  means  of  electro-deposit 
copper  casts  from  the  surface  of.  real  pig-skin.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  saddles,  such  as  racing,  military,  hunting, 
and  ladies'  saddles,  itc.  A  racing  saddle  may  weigh  not 
more  than  two  or  three  pounds,  while  a  cavalry  saddle 
will  be  four  times  heavier.  The  saddle-maker  has  to  con- 
sider the  ease  and  comfort  of  both  horse  and  rider.  The 
saddle  must  fit  closely  and  evenly  to  the  curvature  of  the 
horse's  back  without  tendency  to  shift,  and  it  ought  to 
offer  as  far  as  possible  a  soft  and  elastic  seat  for  the  rider. 
The  black  saddler  is  coucerued  with  the  harness  of  carriage, 
cart,  and  di-aught  hor.5es  generally.  The  skill  of  the 
tradesman  in  this  department  is  displayed  in  designing 
and  arranging  harness  most  favourable  for  the  proper  dis- 
tribution of  the  load,  and  for  bringing  into  use  the  muscles 
of  the  animal  without  chafing  or  fraying  the  skin.  Much  of 
the  usefulness  and  comfort  of  a  horse  depends  on  the  accu- 
rate and  proper  fit  of  its  harness.  The  collar  and  traces  and 
the  saddle  are  the  important  features  of  draught  harness, 
the  former  being  the  pieces  through  which  the  draught  is 
effected,  while  dead  weight  is  borne  through  the  saddle. 
The  portions  of  saddlery  by  which  the  horseman  controls 
and  guides  the  horse  are  the  bridle  and  bit  and  the  reins. 
Into  the  many  devices  connected  with  these  and  other 
parts  of  harness  for  curbing  horses,  for  breaking  them  of 
evil  habits,  and  for  adding  to  the  security  of  the  equestrian 
and  carriage  traveller,  we  cannot  here  enter  (compare 
Horsemanship,  vol.  sii.  p.  19S).  Saddler's  ironmongery 
forms  an  important  feature  of  the  trade.  It  embraces  the 
making  of  buckles,  chains,  cart -gearing,  stirrups,  spurs, 
bits,  hames,  ic.  The  ornamental  metal-work  of  carriage- 
harness  is  either  electro-plated  in  silver  or  of  solid  polished 
brass. 

SADDUCEES  (D<i5nv,  i.e.,  Zadokites),  the  party  of  the 
priestly  aristocracy  under  the  later  Hasmonsans.  The 
Sadducees  were  essentially  a  political  party  opposed  to  the 
Pharisees  or  party  of  the  Scribes,  and  their  position  and 
history  have  therefore  already  been  discussed  in  Isr.vel, 
vol.  xiii.  p.  424  sq.  The  common  view  that  Sadducaeism 
was  essentially  a  philosophico-religious  school  is  due  partly 
tcLjToseDhus  but  mainly  to  later  Je\^Tsh  tradition  wtich 


never  could  realize  the  difference  between  a  nation  and  a 
sect,  and  fancied  that  the  whole  history  of  Israel  was 
made  up  of  such  scholastic  controversies  as  engrossed  the 
attention  of  later  times.  The  theological  tenets  of  the 
Sadducees  as  they  appear  in  the  New  Testament  and  in 
Josephus  had  a  purely  political  basis.  They  detested  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  and  the  fatalism  of  the  Phari- 
sees because  t'nese  opinions  were  used  by  their  adversaries 
to  thwart  their  political  aims.  The  aristocracy  suffered 
a  great  loss  of  position  through  the  subjection  of  Judasa 
to  a  foreign  power ;  but  it  was  useless  to  urge  political 
schemes  of  emancipation  on  those  who  believed  with  ths 
Pharisees  that  Israel's  task  was  to  endure  in  patience  till 
Jehovah  redeemed  the  nation,  and  the  resurrection  rewarded 
those  who  had  lived  and  died  in  licndage.  In  matters  of 
ritual  the  Sadducees  were  naturally  conservative,  and  their 
opposition  to  the  unnTittan  traditions,  from  which  thej 
appealed  to  Scripture,  is  simply  one  phase  of  their  opposi- 
tion to  Pharisaic  innovations ;  for  the  traditions  were  the 
invention  of  the  Pharisees  and  the  written  law  represented 
old  practice.  A\Tien  the  Sadducees  had  lost  all  political 
importance  their  opposition  to  Pharisaism  necessarily  be- 
came more  and  more  an  affair  of  the  schools  rather  than  of 
practical  life,  but  the  Sadducees  of  the  schools  are  only  the 
last  survival  of  what  had  once  been  a  great  political  party. 

SA  DE  MIRANDA,  Francisco  de  (1495-1558),  Portu- 
guese poet,  was  born  of  noble  family  on  27th  October  1495, 
at  Cotmbra,  where  also  he  received  his  education.  He  after- 
wards travelled  in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  held  for  some  time 
a  post  at  the  court  of  John  III.  of  Portugal.  He  died  on 
his  own  property  at  Tapada  near  Ponte  do  Lima  on  15th 
March  1558.  Besides  eight  eclogues  (six  in  Spanish  and 
two  in  Portuguese),  he  wrote  two  comedies  in  Portuguese, 
— Os  Estrangeiros  and  Os  Vilhalpajidos.  See  Portugal 
(Literature),  vol.  xix.  p.  556,  and  Spain  (Literature). 

SA'Df,  generally  called  Muslih-uddin",  but  more  cor- 
rectly MnsH.4.RRiF-U"DDiN  B.  JInsLin-UDDfN,  the  greatest 
didactic  poet  and  the  most  popular  writer  of  Persia,  was 
born  about  1184  (580  a.h.)  in  Shlriz,  where  his  father, 
'AbdaUah,  a  man  of  practical  religion  and  good  common 
sense,  who  impressed  upon  his  sou  from  early  childhood 
the  great  maxims  of  doing  good  and  fearing  nobody,  was 
in  the  service  of  the  Turkoman  race  of  the  Salgharides  or 
AtAbegs  of  Fdi-s.  The  fifth  ruler  of  this  dynasty,  Sa'd  b. 
Zengf,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1195  (591  a.h.),  con- 
ceived a  great  affection  for  young  Jlusharrif-uddin.and 
enabled  him,  after  the  premature  death  of  his  father,  to 
pursue  his  studies  in  the  famous  medreseh  of  Baghddd, 
the  Nizamij'yah,  where  he  remained  about  thirty  years 
(1196-1224).  Strict  college  discipline  and  severe  theo- 
logical studies  repressed  for  a  long  time  the  inborn  cheer- 
fulness and  joviality  of  his  nature ;  but  his  poetical  genius, 
which  rapidly  developed,  kept  aUve  in  him,  amid  all  the 
privations  of  an  austere  life,  the  elasticity  of  youth,  and 
some  of  his  "early  odes,"  in  which  he  praises  the  pleasures 
of  life  and  the  sweetness  of  love,  were  no  doubt  composed 
during  his  stay  in  BaghdAd.  At  any  rate  his  literary  fame 
had  already  spread  about  1210  (606  a.h.)  as  far  as  K4sh- 
gar  in  Turkistdn,  which  the  young  poet  (who  in  honour 
of  his  patron  had  assumed  the  name  of  Sa'dl)  visited  in 
his  twenty-sixth  or  twenty-seventh  year.  After  mastering 
all  the  dogmatic  disciplines  of  the  Islamitic  faith  he  turned 
his  attention  fir^t  to  jn-actical  philosophy,  and  later  on  to 
the  more  ideal  tenets  of  Sufic  pantheism,  under  the  spirit- 
ual guidance  of  the  famous  sheikh  Shihab-uddin  'L'mar 
Suhrawardl  (died  1234;  632  a.h.).  Between  1220  and 
1225  he  paid  a  visit  to  a  friend  in  Ispahan,  went  from 
there  to  Damascus,  and  returned  to  Ispahin  just  at  the 
time  of  the  inroads  of  the  Mongols,  when  the  Atibeg  Sa'd 
had  been    deposed   by  the  victorious  ruler  of   Kirm4n, 


S  A  D  —  S  A  D 


143 


GhiyAth-iiddln  (1223).  Sadly  grieved  by  the  misfort-ina 
of  his  generous  patron  and  disgusted  with  the  miserable 
state  to  which  Persia  had  been  reduced,  Sa'di  started  in 
122i  or  1225  on  his  way  to  India,  thus  entering  on  the 
second  period  of  his  life — that  of  his  wanderings  (1225- 
1255).  He  proceeded  via  Balkh,  Ghazni,  and  the  Punjab 
to  Gujrit,  03  the  western  coast  of  which  he  visited  the 
famous  shrine  of  Siwa  in  Pattan-Sumaniit,  and  met  with 
a  remarkable  adventure.  Having  seen  the  statue  of  the 
god  lifting  up  its  hands  to  heaven  every  morning  at  sun- 
rise, he  discovered  that  a  priest,  hidden  behind  the  image, 
wrought  the  mu-acle  by  means  of  a  cord ;  but,  Ijging 
caught  in  the  very  act  of  watching  the-  performance,  he 
had  no  alternative  but  to  hurl  his  pursuer  into  a  deep 
well  and  to  escape  at  full  speed, — not,  however,  until  he 
had  smashed  the  detested  statue.  After  a  prolonged  stay 
in  Delhi,  where  he  acquired  the  knowledge  of  Hindustani 
which  he  afterwards  turned  to  account  in  several  of  his 
poems — -just  as  a  number  of  excellent  Arabic  ka'-idas  bear 
witness  to  his  fluency  in  that  idiom  which  he  had  learnt 
in  Baghdiid — he  .sailed  for  Yemen.  In  San'A,  the  capital 
of  Yemen,  the  loss  of  a  beloved  child  (when  he  had 
married  is  not  known)  threw  him  into  deep  melancholy, 
from  which  only  a  new  adventurous  expedition  into  Abys- 
sinia on  the  opposite  African  shore  and  a  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  and  Medina  could  again  rouse  him.  Thence  he 
directed  his  steps  towards  Syria  and  lived  as  a  renowned 
sheikh  for  a  considerable  time  in  Damascus,  which  he  had 
once  already  visited.  There  and  in  Baalbec  he  added  to 
his  literary  renown  that  of  a  first-rate  pulpit  orator. 
Specimens  of  his  spiritual  addresses  are  preserved  in 
the  five  homilies  (on  the  fugitiveness  of  human  life,  on 
faith  and  fear  of  God,  on  love  towards  God,  on  rest  in 
God,  and  on  the  search  for  God)  which  usually  form  the 
second  risAlah  or  prose  treatise  in  Sa'dl's  complete  works. 
At  last  weary  of  Damascus  he  withdrew  into  the  de.sert 
near  Jerusalem  and  led  a  solitary  wandering  life,  till  one 
day  h".  was  taken  captive  by  a  troop  of  Frankish  soldiers, 
brought  to  Tripoli,  and  condemned  to  forced  labour  in  the 
trenches  of  the  fortress.  After  enduring  countless  hard- 
ships, be  was  eventually  rescued  by  a  rich  friend  in  Aleppo, 
who  paid  his  ransom,  and  moreover  gave  him  his  daughter 
in  marriage.  But  Sa'df,  unable  to  live  with  his  quarrel- 
some Avife,  set  out  on  new  travels,  first  to  North  Africa 
and  then  through  the  length  and  breadth  of  Asia  Minor 
and  the  adjoining  countries.  Not  until  he  had  parsed  his 
seventieth  year  did  he  return  to  ShfrAz  (about  1255 ;  653 
A.H.).  Finding  the  place  of  his  birth  tranquil  and  pros- 
perous under  the  wise  rule  of  Abi'ibakr  b.  Sa'd,  the  son 
of  his  old  patron  (1226-1260;  623-G58  a.ii.),  the  aged 
poet  took  up  his  permanent  abode,  intciTupted  only  by 
repeated  pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  in  a  little  hermitage  out- 
side the  town,  in  the -midst  of  a  charming  garden,  and 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  Sutic  contemplation 
and  poetical  composition.  Sa'dl  died  at  Shiriz  in  1292 
(691  a.h.)  according  to  HamdallAh  Mustaufi  (who  wrote 
only  forty  years  later),  or  in  December  1291  (690  a.h.), 
at  the  age  of  110  lunar  year.n. 

The  experience  of  the  worlil  g.iined  during  his  travels,  his  intimate 
acriuaintaiicc  with  the  various  countries  he  had  visited,  his  insight 
into  human  character,  its  grandeur  and  its  littleness,  whicli  a  thirty 
years'  intercourse  with  men  of  all  ranks  and  of  many  nationalities 
had  fully  matured,  together  with  an  inborn  loftiness  of  thought 
and  the  purest  moral  standard,  made  it  ca>.y  for  Sa'di  to  compose 
in  the  short  space  of  three  years  his  two  masterpieces,  which  have 
immortalized  his  name,  the  Bnstd.i  or  '; Fruit-garden"  (1257)  and 
the  GiiUstdu  or  "  Rose-garden  "  (125S),  both  dedicated  to  the  reign- 
ing Atabcg  Abiibakr.  The  former,  also  called  Sadludma,  is  a  kind 
of  didactic  cjiopcc  in  ten  chapters  and  double-rhymed  verses,  which 
passes  in  review  the  highest  philosophical  and  religious  questions, 
not  seldom  in  the  very  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  abounds  with 
sound  ethical  maxims  and  matchless  gems  of  transcendental  specu- 
lation.    The  latter  is  a  prose  work  of  a  similar  tendency  in  eight 


chaptcre,  interspersed  with  numerous  verses  and  illustrated,  like 
the  BustdUj  by  a  rich  store  of  clever  tales  and  charming  anecdotes  ; 
it  discuises  more  or  less  the  samo  topics  as  the  larger  work,  but  has 
acquired  a  much  greater  popularity  in  both  the  East  and  the  West, 
owing  to  its  ea:ier  and  more  varied  style,  its  attractive  lessons  oi" 
practical  wisdom,  and  its  numero-as  bon-mots.  But  Sa'di's  Diwin, 
or  collection  of  lyrical  poetry,  far  surpasses  the  Bustiln  and  Gulistin, 
at  any  rate  in  quantity,  whether  in  quality  also  is  a  matter  oi 
taste.  Other  minor  vorks  are  the  Arabic  kasidas^  the  first  of  which 
laments  lao  destruction  of  the  Arabian  caliphate  by  the  Mongols 
in  125S  (656  A.H.) ;  the  Persian  hasidas,  partly  panegyrical,  partly 
didactical ;  the  inardthi,  or  elegies,  beginning  with  one  on  the  death 
of  Abubakr  and  ending  with  one  on  the  defeat  and  demise  of  the 
last  cakph,  Musta'sim  ;  the  miilaramddff  or  poems  with  alternate 
Persian  and  Arabic  verses,  of  a  leather  artificial  character  ;  the 
tarj{dl,  or  refrain-poems  ;  the  gha:uils,  or  odes  ;  the  sdhibiyyah 
and  mulcatta'tH^  or  moral  aphorisms  and  epigrams  ;  the  nibaiyydt, 
or  quatrains  ;  and  the  mvfraddt,  or  distichs.  Sa'di's  lyrical  poems 
possess  neither  the  easy  grace  and  melodious  charm  of  Hafiz'a 
songs  nor  the  overpowering  grandeur  of  Jclal-uddin  Riimi's  divioe 
hymns,  but  they  are  nevertheless  full  of  deep  pathos  and  show  such 
a  fearless  love  of  truth  as  is  seldom  met  with  in  Eastern  poetry. 
Even  his  panegyrics,  althoug'n  addressed  in  turn  to  almost  all  the 
rulers  who  in  those  days  of  continually  changing  dyn.osfies  presided 
over  the  fate  of  Persia,  are  free  from  that  cringing  servility  so  com- 
mon in  the  effusions  of  Oriental  encsmiasts, 

Tlie  first  who  collected  and  an-ansed  his  works  was  'All  b.  Ahmad  b. 
BisutiJu  032G-13i!l :  72G-734  A.H.).  The  most  exact  information  about  Sa'dfa 
life  and  works  is  found  in  the  introduction  to  Dr  W.  Bacher's  Sa^di's  Aphoris- 
I'icn  uiid  SinngcdichUi,  Strasburg,  1S79  (a  complete  metrical  translation  of  the 
epigrainmatic  poems),  and  in  the  same  author's  "S.Vdi  Studien,"  in  Z.D.M.G., 
XXX.  pp.  81-100.  Sa'di's  Kutllyyat  or  complete  works  have  been  edited  by 
Harin^'ton,  Calcutta,  1701-G5  (with  au  English  translation  of  some  of  the  prose 
treatises  and  of  Daulat  Shah's  notice  on  the  poet,  of  which  a  German  TCrsion 
is  foimd  in  Graf's  ^lcs^ngarlcil,  Leipsic,  1S4C,  p.  220  sq.) ;  forthe  numerous  litho- 
praph£d  editions,  see  Rieu's  Fers.  Cut.  of  the  Lril.  Mus.,  ii.  p.  .'j96.  The  Bustdn 
has  been  printed  in  Calcutta  (ISIO  and  182S),  as  well  as  in  Lahore,  Cawnpore, 
Tabriz,  Sec.  :  a  critical  edition  with  Persian  commentary  was  published  by  K. 
H.  Graf  at  Vienna  in  3S50  (German  metrical  translations  by  the  same,  Jens, 
IS50,  and  by  Schlechta-Wssehrd,  Vienna,  1S52 ;  English  translation  by  W. 
Clarke,  London,  1S79  ;  French  translation  by  Barbierde  Meynard,  Paris,  ISSO). 
The  best  editions  of  the  GicUstuit,  are  by  A.  Sprenger  (C'alcutt.i,  ISSl)  and  by 
Platts  (London,  1S74)  ;  the  best  translations  into  English  by  Eastwick  (185'2) 
and  by  Platts  (1873) ;  into  French  by  Defreinery  (1S5S) ;  into  German  by  Graf 
(1846);  see  also  S.  Ko^Ttson's  Persian  Foetni /or  Eitgtiih  Rttuhrs,  1883,  pp.  245- 
366.  Select  kasidas,  ghazals,  elegies,  quatrains,  and  distichs  have  been  edited, 
with  a  Gennan  metrical  translation,  by  Graf,  in  the  Z.D.M.G.,  ix.  p.  fi2  sy.,  xii. 
p.  82  s-j.,  xiii.  p.  445  iq.,  XV.  p.  541  s//.,  and  xviii.  p.  670  sq.  On  the  Suflc 
character  of  S.a'di  in  contrast  to  Hafii  and  Jelal-uddiii  Runii,  comp.  Etlie,  "  Der 
bf"  fisiuus  und  seine  drei  Hauptvertreter,"  in  Mot-^enh^iidtsche  Studien,  Leipsie, 
1870,  pp.  95-124.  (H.  E.) 

SADLER,  Sir  Ralph  (1507-15S7),  English  statesman, 
was  the  son  of  Henry  Sadler,  steward  to  the  proprietor 
of  the  manor  of  Gillney,  near  Great  Hadham,  Hertford- 
shire, and  was  born  at  Hackney  in  Middlese.x  in  1507. 
While  a  mere  child  he  obtained  a  .situation  in  the  family 
of  Thomas  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex.  Through  him  he  was 
introduced  to  Henry  YIIL,  Viho  conferred  on  him  various 
appointments  and  employed  him  in  connexion  with  the 
dissolution  of  the  inonaGteries,  in  the  rich  spoils  of  which 
he  was  a  large  sharer.  So  much  was  the  king  impresrjed  by 
Sadler's  ability  and  address  that  he  made  choice  of  him  for 
his  subsequent  important  negotiations  with  Scotland.  In 
1537  ho  was  seni;  thither  to  strengthen  the  English  interest ; 
in  1539-10  he  was  commissioned  to  persuade  the  Scottish 
king  James  V.  to  cast  off  the  supremacy  of  the  pope ;  in 
15-il  he  went  back  to  enforce  the  same  counsel;  and  in 

1542  he  was  appointed  to  settle  the  proposed  match  be- 
tween Edward  prince  of  Yv'alcs  and  Mary  the  infant  queen 
of  Scots.  Although  not  successful  in  any  of  these  missions, 
he  continu.:;d  to  retain  the  full  confidence  of  the  king,  who, 
in  recognition  of  his  zealous  services,  conferred  on  him  in 

1543  the  honour  of  knighthood.  On  Henry's  death  in 
1 547  Sadler's  name  was  found  in  the  royal  will  as  one  of  the 
councillors  to  the  sixteen  nobles  who  were  entrusted  with 
the  guardianship  of  the  young  king.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  treasurer  to  the  army  sent  against  Scotland, 
and  for  his  great  services  in  rallying  the  repulsed  cavalry 
he  was  created  a  knight-banneret  on  the  battlefield  of 
Pinkie.  During  the  reign  of  Mary  he  lived  in  retirement 
on  his  estate  rear  Hackney  ;  but  on  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth in  1558  he  came  once  more  into  a  sphere  of  active 
employment.  He  immediately  became  a  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  the  county  of  Hertford  and  a  privy  coimcillor. 


144 


S  A  D  — S  A  F 


Not  long  afterwards  his  strong  Protestant  sympathies  and 
his  acquaintance  with  Scottisii  affairs  recommended .  him 
as  a  fit  person  to  be  employed  by  Elizabeth  in  her  intrigues 
with  the  Scottish  lords  of  the  congregation  against  Queen 
Mary.  In  15S4  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  Mary  queen 
of  Scots  in  the  castle  of  Tutbury  ;  but  on  account  of  "  age 
and  infirmity  "  he  was  permitted  to  resign  liis  charge  some 
time  before  the  death  of  the  queen.  His  last  service  was 
to  repair  to  Scotland  to  pacify  the  king's  indignation  on 
account  of  Mary's  death.  He  died  after  his  return  home  at 
Standon  in  Hertfordshire,  30th  March  15S7. 

The  Letters  and  Nvijotiations  of  Sir  Ralph  Sadler  were  published 
at  Edinburgh  in  1720,  and  a  more  complete  collection  under  the 
title  Slate  FapcTS  and  Letters  of  Sir  Utilph  Sadler,  with  a  life  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  1809.  The  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Times  of 
Sir  Jialph  Sadleir,  bij  his  Descendant  Major  F.  Sadleir  Stoney, 
appeared  in  1877. 

SADOLvETO,  Jacopo  (1477-1547),  Italian  humanist  and 
churchman,  was  born  at  Modena  in  1477,  and,  being  the 
son  of  a  noted  jurist,  was  designed  for  the  same  profession. 
He  gave  himself,  therefore,  to  humanistic  studies  and 
acquired  reputation  as  a  Latin  poet,  his  best-known  piece 
being  one  on  the  group  of  Laocoon.  Passing  to  Rome,  he 
obtained  the  patronage  of  Cardinal  Carafa  and  adopted  the 
ecclesiastical  career.  Leo  X.  chose  him  as  his  secretary 
along  with  Peter  Bembo,  and  in  1517  made  him  bishop  of 
Carpentras.  Sadoleto  had  a  remarkable  talent  for  affairs 
and  approved  himself  a  faithful  servant  of  the  papacy  in 
many  difficult  negotiations  under  successive  popes,  especi- 
ally as  a  peacemaker ;  but  he  was  no  bigoted  advocate  of 
])apal  authority,  and  the  great  aim  of  his  life  was  to  win 
back  the  Protestants  by  peaceful  persuasion — he  would 
never  countenance  persecution — and  by  putting  Catholic 
doctrine  in  a  conciliatory  form.  Indeed  his  chief  work,  a 
Cotnmentary  on  Jiomans,  though  meant  as  a  prophylactic 
against  the  new  doctrines,  gave  great  offence  at  Rome 
and  Paris.  Sadoleto  was  a  diligent  and  devoted  bishop 
and  always  left  his  diocese  with  reluctance  even  after  he 
was  made  cardinal  (1536).  His  piety  and  tolerant  spirit, 
combined  with  his  reputation  for  scholarship  and  eloquence 
and  his  diplomatic  abilities,  give  him  a  somewhat  unique 
place  among  the  churchmen  of  his  time.  He  died  in  1547. 
His  collected  works  appeared  at  Mainz  in  1607,  and  in- 
clude, besides  his  theologico-irenical  pieces,  a  collection  of 
Episl/es,  a  treatise  on  education  (first  published  in  1533), 
and  the  PhsJrus,  a  defence  of  philosophy,  wiitten  in  1538. 

SiEMUND.  See  Edda,  vol.  vii.  p.  650,  and  Iceland, 
vol.  xii.  p.  624. 

SAFES.  A  safe  is  any  repository  in  which  valuable 
property  is  guarded  against  risk  of  loss  by  fire  or  from  the 
attacks  of  thieves.  The  protection  of  valuable  documents 
and  possessions  was  only  imperfectly  effected  in  the  charter- 
rooms  of  old  mansions  and  in  the  iron-bound  oaken  chests 
and  iron  coffers  of  the  Middle  Ages  ;  but  these  in  their  day 
represented  tlie  strong  rooms  and  safes  of  modern  times. 
The  vast  increase  in  realized  wealth  and  the  complication 
of  financial  and  banking  operations  necessitate  in  our  days 
the  greatest  attention  to  the  safeguarding  of  securities 
and  propert}'.  The  ingenuity  of  inventors  has,  within 
practicable  limits,  effected  much  in  safe-making ;  but  the 
cunning  of  thieves  has  increased  in  proportion  to  the 
obstacles  to  be  overcome  and  to  the  value  of  the' booty  at 
which  they  aim.  No  safe  can  be  held  to  be  invulnerable ; 
for,  whatever  human  ingenuity  can  put  together  and  close, 
the  same  ingenuity  can  tear  down  and  open.  An  impreg- 
nable safe  would  indeed  be  a  source  of  greater  danger  than 
of  security  to  its  owner,  for,  were  the  key  or  other  means 
of  access  lost  or  rendered  unworkable,  the  contents  of  the 
safe  would  of  necessity  be  irrecoverable.  The  efficiency  of 
a  safe,  therefore,  does  not  depend  on  absolute  inipregna- 
ibility,  but  on  the  nature  of  the  obstacles  it  presents  tQ^ 


successful  attacK,  ana  to  tllS 'generally  uniavourable  con- 
ditions under  which  such  attacks  are  made.  It  is  common 
to  make  safes  both  thief-  and  fire-resisting,  and  the  condi^ 
tions  neces.sary  for  the  one  object  to  a  certain  extent  con- 
duce to  the  attainment  of  both ;  but  for  many  purposes 
security  from  the  one  danger  alone  is  requisite. 

The  devices  for  bafliing  thieves  are  numerous.  Th^ 
safe  must  in  the  first  place  be  made  heavy  and  unwieldyj 
or  otherwise  it  must  be  so  fixed  that  it  can  only  be  carried' 
away  with  the  utmost  difficulty.  . .  Next,  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  obtaining  illegitimate  access  must  be  presented.' 
To  prevent  fracturing  a  tough  metal  must  be  used  in  the 
construction,  and  to  resist  pienetration  by  drilling  metal  of 
great  hardness  must  be  interposed.  These  conditions  are 
commonly  met  by  making  the  outer  casing  of  the  safe  of 
boiler  plate,  backed  by  a  lining  of  hard  steel,  over  which 
is  an  inner  lining  of  thin  boiler  plate,  the  three  layers 
being  securely  bolted  together  by  screws  from  within.  By 
some  makers  a  layer  of  hard  metal  is  poured,  in  a  fluid 
state,  between  the  outer  and  inner  casing ;  others  case- 
harden  one  surface  ;  and  there  are  numerous  additional  de- 
vices for  securing  the  combination  of  hardness  and  tough- 
ness. To  prevent  wrenching  of  joints,  the  two  sides  with 
top  and  bottom  of  the  outer  shell  are  sornetimes  made  out 
of  a  single  plate  welded  at  the  joint,  and  tha  back  and 
front  are  then  attached  to  that  shell  by  angle  irons  screwed 
from  within.  The  frame  upon  which  the  door  hangs  and 
into  which  the  bolts  shoot  is  made  of  great  strength,  with 
special  precautions  to  prevent  the  wrenching  off  of  the 
door  by  means  of  crowbars  or  wedges.  In  an  ordinary 
safe  the  massive  bolts,  three  or  more  in  number,  shoot  only 
at  the  front,  and  fixed  dogs  or  sham  bolts  fit  into  slots  at 
the  back  or  hinged  side.  This  arrangement  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  door  closed  independent  of  hinges,  which  are 
merely  the  pivot  on  which  the  door  turns.  In  all  Chubh'a 
safes  bolts  shoot  both  to  front  and  back ;  and  in  the 
higher  quality  of  that  and  of  every  other  good  maker 
bolts  shoot  on  every  side, — front,  back,  top,  and  bottom.' 
Ordinarily  the  bolts  shoot  straight  into  the  slot  as  in  aa 
ordinary  lock  ;  but,  to  defy  wrenching,  additional  grip  is 
secured  by  Chatwood,  who  makes  a  bolt  with  a  clutch  or 
projection,  which  falls  into  a  recess  in  the  slot  and  thus 
holds  against  any  direct  wrench.  In  Chubb's  finer  safes 
the  bolts  shoot  diagonally  all  round,  so  that  in  each  face 
of  tie  door  they  go  in  two  different  directions.  Safe  bolts, 
are  shot  not  by  the  key,  as  in  an  ordinary  lock,  but  by  the 
door  handle,  and  the  key  simply  secures  them  in  their 
position.  By  this  arrangement,  patented  by  Mr  Charles 
Chubb  in  1835,  a  series  of  tho  most  ponderous  bolts  can 
be  secured  in  locked  position  by  a  small  key  which  can  be 
carried  in  the  vest  pocket.  The  lock  of  a- safe  must  be  a 
careful  piece  of  mechanism,  not  subject  to  derangement, 
unpickable,  and  gunpowder-proof.  The  portion  of  the 
door  on  which  it  is  fastened  is  generally  provided  •n-ith 
extra  precautions  against  drilling.  A  safe  being  well 
made  and  securely  locked  remains  vulnerable  through  the 
medium  of  the  key,  which  may  be  surreptitiously  obtained 
either  for  direct  use  or  to  form  a  mould  by  which  false 
keys  can  be  cut.  On  this  account,  keyless  locks  and  time 
locks  are  coming  into  great  favour  in  America.  In  keyless 
permutation  locks,  such  as  those  of  Hall,  Sargent,  Yale, 
and  Dalton,  the  bolts  can  be  withdrawn  only  after  an 
indicator  has  been  successively  .set  against  a  combination 
of  numbers  arranged  before  the  closing  of  the  door  ;  and 
in  the  time  lock  of  these  inventors  the  safe  can  only  be 
opened  at  any  hour  to  which  the  time  controller  is  set 
before  closing.  Electrical  arrangements  have  also  been 
attached  to  safes  by  which  signals  are  conveyed  to  anjJ 
spot  when  a  sate  so  guarded  is  unlawfully  interfered  with. 
-It  is _ much  easier  to  render  a  safe  tire-proof  than  io 


S  A  F  — S  A  F 


145. 


guard  it  again5t  burglary.  It  requires  nothing  more  than 
a  calculation  of  the  intensity  and  duration  of  any  fire  to 
■n-hich  it  is  likely  to  be  exposed,  and  the  prevision  of  a 
sufficient  lining  of  fire-resisting  material.  What  is  princi- 
pally used  is  a  mLxture  of  some  absorbent  medium — siirh 
as  sawdust,  powdered  gypsum  or  cement,  or  infusorial 
earth — with  ground  alum.  Asbestos,  silicate  cotton,  mica, 
and  other  non-conductors  are  also  used;  and  by  some 
makers  sealed  tubes  of  alkaline  salts  are  distributed 
through  the  absorbent  material.  These  burst  when  exposed 
to  high  heat  and  their  contents  saturate  the  surrounding 
substance.  A  carefully  packed  shell  of  not  leas  than  3i 
inches  of  the  fire-resisting  medium  should  line  the  interior 
of  eveiy  fire-proof  safe ;  but  in  many  cheap  safes  a  quantity 
of  brick  dust  is  the  only  fire-resisting  medium. 

Where  an  ordinary  safe  provides  insufficient  accommoda- 
tion the  strong  room  takes  its  place.  Such  an  apartment, 
being  generally  in  the  basement  of  a  Building,  presents 
no  special  difficulties  to  make  it  proof  against  fire  and 
thieves.  Thickness  of  walls,  built  by  preference  of  hard 
brick  laid  in  cement,  and  liberal  use  of  cement  within  the 
walls,  as  well  as  at  the  floor  and  over  the  arched  /oof, 
give  strength  against  both  fire  and  burglars.  The  interior 
of  a  strong  room  is  generally  lined  with  boiler-plate,  and, 
in  addition  to  the  massive  steel  and  iron  door,  it  has  an 
inner  wrought-iron  grill-door,  which  secures  the  vault 
during  business  hours  and  permits  the  ventilation  of  the 
apartment.  Within  such  a  strong  room  extra  strong 
chambers  or  separate  safes  may  be  placed,  and  in  this  way 
precautions  may  be  indefinitely  multiplied. 

The  most  complete  examples  of  safe  and  strong-room  arrange- 
ments are  afTorded  by  the  public  safes  or  safe-deposits  erected  in 
most  of  the  great  cities  of  America  and  in  London.  The  premises 
of  the  Nation.ll  S.ife  Deposit  Company  in  London  consist  of  a  large 
isolated  building  in  Queen  Victoria  Street.  The  building,  which 
is  lire-proof,  covers  and  suiTounds  the  great  safe  vault  or  citadel, 
which  is  sunk  in  tlie  ground  to  a  depth  of  45  feet  The  vault 
itself,  founded  on  a  bed  of  concrete  20  feet  in  thickness,  has  walls, 
3  feet  thick,  of  hard  blue  brick  laid  in  cement,  with  an  external 
lining  of  nre-brick,  and  is  lined  internally  with  cast-iron  plates 
44  inches  thick  chilled  on  one  side,  the  plates  having  embedded  in 
them  a  network  of  strong  interlaced  wrought-iron  bars.  The  vault 
is  divided  into  four  tiers  or  stories  with  eight  separate  compart- 
ments in  each,  which,  after  business  hours,  are  closed  with  doors 
raised  and  lowered  by  hydraulic  power.  These  doors,  which  each 
wei"h  four  tons,  are  built  up,  12  inches  thick,  of  combinations  of 
hard  and  tougli  metal  to  resist  fracture  and  drilling,  and  when  they 
are  raised  for  business  purposes  the  entrance  to  each  compartment 
is  protected  by  a  massive  wrought-iron  grilL  \Vithin  the  thirty- 
two  compartments  there  is  space  for  about  20,000  safes  of  various 
sizes,  whicli  are  let  to  owners  of  valuables,  each  renter  having  the 
sole  control  of  the  safe  hired  by  him.  Additional  security  is 
obt^iined  by  the  patrol  of  armed  watchmen,  and  generally  it  may 
be  said  that  in  the  institution  precautions  have  been  carried  almost 
to  the  pitch  of  perfection,  if  indeed  they  hivo  aoc  been  pushed  to 
needless  excess.  {J.  PA. ) 

S.\FETY  LAMP.     See  Coal,  vol.  vi.  p.  72  s? 

fJ.^FFARID.S,  a  Persian  dynasty  of  the  9th  century. 
See  MOHAM-MEDAXISM,  Tol.  xvi.  p.  586. 

SAl'FI  (Asafi),  a  seaport  of  Morocco,  with  6000  inlia- 
bitants,  some  commerce,  and  a  famous  shrine,  the  House 
of  the  Seven  Sleepers,  frequented  by  Moslem  and  Jemsh 
pilyri-ns.     See  vol.  xvi.  p.  831. 

S.VFFLOWER,  or  Bastard  Saffron  (Carthamus  tinc- 
lorius),  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Compo$itx  ;  its  flowers 
form  the  basis  of  the  safilower  dye  of  commerce.  The  plant 
is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  is  cultivated  in  Egj-pt 
and  to  some  extent  in  southern  Europe.  To  obtain  the 
dyeing  principle — carthamine — the  flowers  are  first  wa.shed 
to  free  them  from  a  soluble  yellow  colouring  matter  they 
contain  ;  they  are  then  dried  and  powdered,  and  digested 
in  an  alkaline  solution  in  which  pieces  of  clean  white 
cotton  are  immersed.  The  alkaline  solution  having  been 
neutr.ilized  with  weak  acetic  acid,  the  cotton  is  removed 
and  washed  ia   another   alkaline   soluticu.      'When   this 

«1 o 


second  solution  is  neutralized  with  acid,  carthamine  in  s? 
pure  condition  is  precipitated.  Dried  carthamine  has  a' 
rich  metallic  green  colour  ;  it  forms  a  brilliant  but  fugitive' 
scarlet  dye  for  .silk,  but  is  principally  used  for  preparing 
toilet  rouge.  In  1884  there  were  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  1794  tons  of  safilower,  valued  at  £7109,  almost 
the  whole  of  which  came  from  the  East  Indies. 

SAFFRON  (Arab,  za'fardn)  is  ma'iafactured  from  the 
dried  stigmas  and  part  of  the  style  of  the  saffron  crocus,  a 
cultivated  form  of  Crocus  saiivus,  L.,  the  precise  origin 
of  which  is  unknown ;  for,  though  some  of  the  wild  forms 
(var.  T/iomasii,  Carlwrightian-us)  are  also  emploj'ed  for  the 
manufactuie  of  saffron,  they  differ  in  character  from  the 
cultivated  tj'pe  and  are  somewhat  restricted  in  geographical 
range,  while  the  cultivated  form  extends  with  little  or  no 
change  through  nearly  ninety  degrees  of  longitude  (Spain 
to  Kashmir)  and  twenty-five  degrees  of  latitude  (England, 
to  Persia).  It  is  invariably  sterile,  unless  artificially 
fertilized  with  the  pollen  of  some  of  the  wild  varieties. 
The  purple  flower,  which  blooms  late  in  autumn,  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  common  spring  crocus,  and  the 
stigmas,  which  are  protruded  from  the  perianth,  are  of  a 
characteristic  orange-red  colour.  The  Egyptians,  though 
acquainted  with  the  bastard  .safilower  (see  preceding  article), 
do  not  seem  to  have  possessed  saffron ;  but  it  is  named  in 
Canticles  iv.  14  among  other  sweet-smelling  herbs.  It  is' 
also  repeatedly  mentioned  (xpo'Kos)  by  Homer,  Hippocrates, 
and  other  Greek  writers;  and  the  word  "crocodile"  was 
long  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  k/dokos  and 
^f iA({s,  whence  we  have  such  stories  as  that  "  the  croco- 
dile's  tears  are  never  true  save  when  he  is  forced  where 
saffron  groweth "  (Fuller's  Worthies).  It  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  Persia  and  Kashmir,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  China  by  the  ^Mongol  invasion.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  Chinese  materia  medica  {Pun  tsaoit, 
1552-78).  The  chief  seat  of  cultivation  ii  early  times, 
however,  was  the  town  of  Corycus  (modern  Korghoz)  in 
Cilicia,  and  from  this  central  point  of  distribution  it  may 
not  improbably  have  spread  east  and  west.  ■  Aecording  to 
Hehn,  the  town  derived  its  name  from  the  crocus ;  Rey- 
mond,  on  the  other  hand,  with  more  probability,  holds 
that  the  name  of  the  drug  arose  from  that  of  the  town. 
It  was  cultivated  by  the  Arabs  in  Spain  about  961,  and 
is  mentioned  in  an  English  leech-book  of  th;  10th  century, 
but  seems  to  have  disappeared  from  western  Europe  till 
reintroduced  by  the  crusaders.  According  to  Hakluyt,  it 
was  brought  into  England  from  Tripoli  by  a  pilgrim,  who 
hid  a  sfolen  corm  in  the  hollow  of  his  staft".  It  was  especi- 
ally cultivated  near  Hinton  in  Cambridgeshire  and  in 
Essex  at  Saffron  Waldeii  (i.e.,  Saffron  Woods,  not  Saffron 
Walled-in,  as  the  canting  crest  of  the  town  would  imply), 
its  cultivators  being  called  "crokers."  This  industry, 
though  very  important  in  the  15th  century,  when  English 
saffron  commanded  the  higliest  ]n'ices  on  the  Continent- 
appears  to  have  died  out  about  1768. 

Saffron  was  u^ed  as  an  ingredient  in  many  of  the  com- 
plicated medicines  of  early  times.  According  to  Gerard 
"  the  moderate  use  of  it  is  good  for  the  head  and  maketli 
the  sences  more  quicke  and  livelj'.  It  shaketh  off  heavie 
and  drowsy  sleep  and  maketh  a  man  mei-y."  It  appears 
to  be  really  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic,  though  its 
powers  are  slight.  It  is  scarcely  ever  employed  by  modern 
pharmacists  unless  for  the  mere  coloration  of  other  tinc- 
tures, or  at  most  as  a  cordial  adjunct  to  other  medicines. 
That  it  was  very  largely  used  in  cookery  is  evidenced  by 
many  writers;  thus  'La.urcnlyBTgiai  (Apparahts Planlnnim, 
1632)  makes  the  largo  assertion  "In  re  familiari  vix  ullus 
est  telluris  habitatns  angulus  ubi  non  sit  croci  quotidiana 
usurpatio  aspersi  vel  incocti  cibis."  The  Chinese  used 
also  to  employ  it  largely,  and  the  Persians  and  Spaniards 

VVr    in 


146 


S  A  F  — S  A  G 


still  mix  it  witp  the^r  rife.  A-i  a  perfume  it  was  strewn 
in  Greek  halli,  :ourt3,  and  theatres,  and  in  the  Roman 
baths.  The  .streets  of  Rome  were  sprinkled  with  saffron 
whea  Nero  made  his  entry  into  the  city 

ft  was,  ho-vever,  mainly  used  as  a  dye.  It  was  a  royal 
colour  in  early  Greek  times,  though  afterwards  perhaps 
from  its  abundant  use  in  the  baths,  and  as  a  scented  salve, 
it  was  especially  appropriated  by  the  hetairte.  In  ancient 
Ireland  a  king's  mantle  was  dyed  with  saffron,  and  even 
down  to  the  17  th  century  the  "  lein-croich,"  or  saffron-dyed 
shirt,  was  v.-orn  by  persons  of  rank  in  the  Hebrides.  In 
mediieval  illumination  it  furnished,  as  a  glaze  upon  bur- 
nished tinfoil,  a  cheap  and  effective  substitute  for  gold. 
The  sacred  spot  on  the  forehead  of  a  Hindu  pundit  is  also 
partly  composed  of  it.  Its  main  use  in  England  was  to 
colour  pastry  and  confectionery, — hence  "  I  must  have 
saffron  to  colour  the  Warden  pies  "  ( W{7iter's  Tale,  act  iv. 
sc.  i.), — and  it  is  still  often  added  to  butter  and  cheese. 
One  grain  of  saffron  rubbed  to  powder  with  sugar  and  a 
little  wster  imparts  a  distinctly  yellow  tint  to  ten  gallons 
Df  water.  This  colouring  power  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  polychlorite,  a  substance  whose  chemical  formula  appears 
to  be  C^jHjijOjg,  and  which  may  be  obtained  by  treating 
saffron  with  ether,  and  afterwards  exhausting  with  water. 
Under  acids  it  yields  the  following  reaction — 

C,sH„oO,5  +  H,0  =  2(C,5H„05)  +  C,„H,,0  +  CsHi.Oe. 
Polychlorite.  Crocin.       Essential  oil.     Sugar. 

Croqin,  according  to  Watts,  Diet,  of  Chem.,  has  a  composi- 
tion of  CggHjoOis  or  C5gH4,03|,.  This  crocin  is  a  red 
colouring  matter,  and  it  is  surmised  that  the  red  colour  of 
the  stigmas 'is  due  to  this  reaction  taking  place  in  nature. 

At  present  saffron  is  cliiefly  cultivated  in  Spain,  France,  Sicily, 
on  the  lot\'er  spurs  of  the  Apennines,  and  in  Persia  and  Kashmir. 
Tho  ground  has  to  be  thoroughly  cleared  of  stones,  manured,  and 
trenched,  and  the  corms  are  planted  in  ridges.  The  flowers  are 
gathered  at  the  end  of  October,  in  the  early  morning,  just  when 
they  are  beginning  to  open  after  the  night.  The  stigmas  and  a 
Dart  of  the  style  are  carefully  picked  out,  and  the  wet  saffron  is  then 
scattered  on  sheets  of  paper  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  inches  ;  over  this  a 
cloth  is  laid,  and  next  a  board  with  a  heavy  weight.  A  strong  heat 
is  applied  for  about  two  hours  so  as  to  make  the  saffron  "sweat," 
and  a  gentler  temperature  for  a  further  period  of  twenty-four  hours, 
the  cake  being  turned  every  hour  so  that  every  part  is  thoroughly 
dried.  It  is  calculated  that  the  stigmas  of  about  4300  flowers 
are  required  to  give  an  ounce  of  saffron  ;  but  the  experiments  of 
Chappellier  indicate  a  possibility  of  greatly  increasing  the  yield  by 
the  cultivation -of  moustrous  forms. 

•  The  drug  has  naturally  always  been  liable  to  great  adulteration 
in  spite  of  penalties,  the  severity  of  which  suggests  the  surviving 
tradition  of  its  sacred  character.  Thus  in  Nuremberg  a  regular 
saftVon  inspection  was  held,  and  in  the  15th  century  we  read  of 
men  being  burned  in  the  market-place  along  with  their  adulterated 
saffron,  while  oh  another  occasion  three  persons  convicted  of  the 
same  crime  were  buried  alive.  Grease  and  butter  are  still  very 
frequently  mixed  with  the  cake  and  shreds  of  beef  dipped  in  saffron 
water  a;e  also  used.  Good  saffron  is  distinguished  by  its  deep 
orange-red  colour  ;  if  it  is  liglit  yellow  or  blackish,  it  is  bad  or  too 
old.  It  should  also  have  a  peculiar  and  rather  powerful  odour,  and 
a  bitter  pungent  taste.  If  oily  it  is  probably  adulterated  with  butter 
or  grease. 

Sec  Flilckiger  and  Hatibury,  Pharmacographia,  and  Maw,  Monograph  of  the 
genus  Crocus,  Qpoa  which  the  precefllng  account  ia  essentially  based ;  also 
Pereira,  ifateria  Mcdica,  and  the  pharmacoiKEias. 

1-  SAFFRON  WALDEN,  a  market-town  and  municipal 
borough  of  Essex,  England,  is  finely  situated  near  the  Cam 
in  a  valley  surrounded  by  hills,  on  a  branch  of  the  Great 
Eastern  Railway,  44  miles  north-north-east  of  London  and 
14  south  of  Cambridge.  It  has  a  somewhat  ancient  ap- 
pearance and  possesses  good  streets  and  a  spacious  market- 
place. Of  the  old  castle,  dating  probably  from  before  the 
Conquest,  the  keep  and  a  few  other  portions  still  remain. 
The  church  of  St  Mary  the  Virgin,  a  beautiful  specimen  of 
the  Perpendicular  style,  dating  from  the  reign  of  Henry 
VII.,  but  frequently  repaired  and  restored,  contains  the 
tomb  of  Lord  Audley,  chancellor  to  Henry  VIII.  There 
is  an  Edward  VI.  grammar-school,  for  which  new  buildings 
iava  recently  been  erected.     Amongst  the  modern  public 


buildings  are  the  corn  exchange  (1848)  and  the  new  town- 
hall  (1879).  The  town  possesses  a  museum,  a  literary 
institute,  and  a  horticultural  society.  The  benevolent 
institutions  include  the  hospital  and  the  Edward  VI.  alms- 
houses. In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  fine  mansion  of 
Audley  End,  built  by  Thomas,  first  earl  of  Suffolk,  in 
1603  on  the  ruins  of  the  abbey,  converted  in  1190  from  a 
Benedictine  priory  founded  by  Geoffrey  de  MandeviUe  in 
1136.  The  town  is  an  important  centre  of  agricultural 
industry  and  has  large  corn,  cattle,  and  sheep  markets. 
Brewing  and  malting  are  carried  on.  The  population  of 
the  municipal  borough  (area,  7416  acres)  in  1871  was 
5718,  and  in  1881  it  was  60G0. 

The  original  name  of  the  town  was  'Wealdenberg,  and  when  it 
received  a  grant  of  a  market  in  the  time  of  Geoffrey  de  Mandeville 
it  was  called  Cheping  Walden.  The  substitution  of  the  prefix 
Saffron  is  accounted  for  by  the  former  "ulture  of  Saffkon  (q.v.) 
in  the  neighbourhood.  The  town  has  existed  for  more  than  500 
years  as  a  guild,  and  the  government  is  now  vested  in  a  mayor,  four 
aldermen,  and  twelve  councillors. 

SAGAN,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Prussian  Silesia," 
situated  on  the  Bober,  a  tributary  of  the  Oder,  lies  60 
miles  south-south-east  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  102 
miles  south-east  of  Berlin.  It  contains  the  handsome 
palace  of  the  dukes  of  Sagan,  several  interesting  churches, 
a  Roman  Catholic  gymnasium,  and  a  large  Gothic  hospital, 
named  after  its  founder,  the  duchess  Dorothea  (1793-1862). 
The  leading  industry  of  the  town  is  cloth-weaving,  with 
wool  and  flax  spinning ;  it  has  also  some  trade  in  wool 
and  grain.     The  population  in  1880  was  11,373. 

The  mediate  principality  of  Sagan,  formed  in  1397  out  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  duchy  of  Glogau,  has  several  times  changed  hands  by 
purchase  as  well  as  by  inheritance.  One  of  its  most  famous  pos- 
sessors was  Wallenstein,  who  held  it  for  seven  years  before  his  death 
in  1634.  Bought  by  Prince  Lobkowitz  in  1646,  the  principality 
remained  in  his  family  until  17S6,  when  it  was  sold  to  Peter,  duke 
of  Courland,  whose  descendant,  the  duke  of  Talleyrand-Perigord 
and  A^alen9ay  in  France,  now  owns  it.  The  area  of  the  principaUty 
is  about  467  square  miles,  and  its  population  is  about  65,000. 

SAGAR,.  or  Saugor,  a  British  district  of  India,  situated 
in  the  extreme  north-west  of  the  Central  Provinces,  and 
comprised  between  23°  4'  and  24°  27'  N.  lat.,  and  between 
78°  6'  and  79°  12'  E.  long.,  with  a  total  area  of  4005 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Lilitpur 
district  of  the  North-Western  Provinces  and  the  native 
states  of  Bijawar,  Pann.i,  and  Charkhiiri ;  on  the  E.  by 
Pann4  and  Damoh  district ;  on  the  S.  by  Narsinhpur  dis- 
trict and  the  native  state  of  Bhopal ;  and  on  the  W.  also 
by  Bhopal.  SAgar  district  is  an  extensive,  elevated,  and 
in  parts  tolerably  level  plain,  broken  in  places  by  low 
hills  of  the  Vindhyan  sandstone.  It  is  traversed  by 
numerous  streams,  chief  of  which  are  the  Sunar,  Beds, 
Dhupan,  and  Bina,  all  flowing  in  a  northerly  direction 
towards  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  In  the  southern  and 
central  parts  the  soil  is  black,  formed  by  decaying  trap ; 
to  the  north  and  east  it  is  a  reddish-brown  alluvium. 
Iron  ore  of  excellent  quality  is  found  and  worked  at  Hira- 
pur,  a  small  village  in  the  extreme  north-east.  The  dis- 
trict cou'ains  several  densely  wooded  tracts,  the  largest  of 
which  io  the  Ramna  teak  forest  preserve  in  the  north. 
Roads  are  the  only  means  of  communication ;  of  these  the 
toUd  length  is  134  miles,  50  being  returned  as  first  class. 
The  climate  is  moderate ;  the  average  temperature  is  75°, 
and  the  average  rainfall  is  about  46  inches. 

By  the  census  of  ISSI  the  population  numbered  564,950  (294,795 
males  and  270,165  females).  Hindus  numbered  498,071,  Moham- 
medans 25,396,  Buddhists  and  Jains  16,432,  Christians  1034,  and 
aboriginals  19,144.  The  only  town  except  the  capital  (see  below) 
with  a  population  exceeding  10,000  is  Garhakota,  which  contains 
11,414  inhabitants.  Of  the  total  area  only  1396  square  miles  aiie 
cultivated,  and  of  the  portion  l>-ing  waste  1220  are  returned  |S 
cultivable.  "Wheat  forms  the  principal  crop,  which  is  produced  m 
large  quantities  all  over  the  district ;  other  products  are  food 
grains,  rice,  oil-seeds,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane.  Cattle  and  buffaloes 
are  bred  to  a  large  extent  both  for  draught  and  carriage,  and  also 


S  A  G  — S  A  G 


147 


lor  dairy  purposes,  especially  for  the  manufacture  of  ghee.  The 
revenue  of  Sagar  district  in  1883-84  amounted  to  £68,376,  of  which 
the  land-tax  contributed  £44,429. 

By  a  treaty  concluded  «-ith  Baji  Rao  in  1818,  the  greater  part  of 
the  present  district  was  made  over  to  the  British.  During  the 
mutiny  of  1857  the  whole  district  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
rebels,  excepting  the  town  and  fort,  in  which  the  Europeans  were 
shut  up  for  eight  months,  till  relieved  early  in  the  following  year 
by  Sir  Hugh  Kose.  The  rebels  were  totally  defeated  and  order  was 
again  restored  by  March  1858.  Sagar  was  formed  Into  a  separate 
district  of  the  Central  Provinces  in  1861. 

S.\GAR,  principal  town  and  headquarters  of  the  above 
district,  situated  in  23°  50'  N.  lat.  and  78°  49'  E.  long., 
is  well  built  with  wide  streets  and  stands  on  the  borders 
of  a  small  but  beautiful  lake,  and  has  military  canton- 
ments. Sigar  is  the  entrepot  of  the  salt  trade  ■with 
RAjputdna,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade  with  Mirzipur 
district  in  the  North- Western  Provinces,  importing  sugar 
and  other  grocery,  besides  English  cloth.  The  population 
of  the  to-n  in, 1881  was  '14.416  (males  22,556,  females 
21,830). 

SAGE,  Le.     See  Le  Sage. 

SAGHALIN',  or  Sakhaun,  is  the  name  improperly 
given  to  a  large  elongated  island  in  ih/j  North  Pacific, 
lying  between  45°  57'  and  54°  24'  N.  lat.  and  141°  30'  and 
144°  50'  E.  long.,  off  the  coast  of  Russian  Manchuria.  Its 
proper  name  is  Karaftu,  or  Karafuio.  It  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  the  narrow  and  shallow  Strait  of 
Tartary,  which  often  freezes  in  -winter  in  j*s  narrower 
part,  and  from  Yezo  (Japan)  by  the  Strait  of  La  P6rouse. 
This  island  (670  miles  long,  20  to'  150  broad,  with  an 
area  of  24,560  square  miles),  about  equal  in  size  to  Belgium 
and  Holland  together,  must  be  considered  as  a  continua- 
tion of  the  mountains  bordering  the  Manchurian  littoral. 
Its  orography  is  still  imperfectly  known.  The  present 
maps  represent  it  as  formed  of  two  parallel  ridges,  running 
north  and  south  and  reaching  from  2000  to  4000  or  5000 
feet  (Mounts  Bermget  and  Ktous-pal)  high,  with  two  or 
more  wide  depressions,  not  exceeding  600  feet  above  the 
sea.  Ths  general  configuration  of  the  littoral  and  the 
island,  however,  renders  it  more  probable  that  there  are 
three  chains  running  south-west  to  north-east,  forming 
continuations  of  those  of  the  mainland.  The  geological 
structure  of  the  island  is  also  imperfectly  known.  A  few 
crystalline  rocks  are  found  at  several  capes ;  Cretaceous 
limestones  containing  a  rich  and  specific  fauna  of  gigantic 
ammonites  occur  at  Dui ;  and  Tertiary  conglomerates, 
sandstones,  marls,  and  clays,  folded  by  subsequent  up- 
heavals, are  widely  spread.  The  clays,  which  contain 
layers  of  good  coal  and  a  rich  fossil  vegetation,  show  that 
during  the  Miocene  period  Saghalin  was  part  of  a  continent 
which  comprised  both  north  Asia,  Alaska,  and  Japan,  and 
enjoyed  a  much  warmer  climate  than  now.  The  Pliocene 
deposits  contain  a  mollusc  fauna  more  arctic  than  the 
present,  and  probably  indicating  that  the  connexion  be- 
tween the  Pacific  and  Arctic  Oceans  was  broader  than 
now.  Only  two  rivers,  the  Tym  and  the  Poronai,  are  worthy 
of  mention.  The  former,  250  miles  long,  and  navigable 
by  rafts  and  light  boats  for  50  m.iles  from  its  mouth, 
Slows  north  and  north-east  with  numerous  (about  100) 
rapids  and  shallows!,  in  a  wild  valley  suitable  only  for 
fishing  or  hunting  settlements,  and  enters  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  at  the  Bay  of  Nyi.  The  Poronai  flows  north  and 
then  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Patience,  a  wide  bay  on  the 
south -cast  coast.  Three  other  small  streams  enter  the 
wide  semicircular  Gulf  of  Aniva  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  island. 

Owing  to  the  cooling  influence  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
the  climate  is  very  cold.  At  Dui  the  average  yearly  tem- 
perature is  only  33°0  Fahr.  (January,  3°-4  ;  July,  61°0), 
35°  0  at  Kusunai,  and  37°-6  at  Aniva  (January,  9°-5 ; 
July,  60°-2).     A  deuso  covering  of  clouds  for  the  most 


part  shuts  out  the  rays  of  the  sun ;  while  the  cold  current 
issuing  from  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  aided  by  north-east 
winds,  in  summer  brings  immense  ice-floes  to  the  east 
coast.  The  whole  of  the  island  is  covered  with  dense 
forests  (mostly  coniferous).  The  Ayan  fir  {Abies  ayanensis), 
the  Saghalin  pichta,  and  the  Daurian  larch  are  the  chief 
trees ;  and  the  upper  parts  of  the  mountains  have  the 
Siberian  rampant  cedar  {Cembra  pumila)  and  the  Curilian 
bamboo  {Arundinaria  hurihnse),  4  feet  high  and  half  an 
inch  thick.  Birch,  both  European  and  Kamchatkan  {B. 
alba  and  B.  Ermani),  elder,  poplar,  elm, wild  cherry  {Prunus 
padiis),  Taxtis  baccata,  and  several  willows  are  mixed  with 
the  Conifers ;  while  farther  south  the  maple,  the  ash,  and 
the  oak,  as  also  the  Japanese  .Pa)ia.r  ridnifoJhmi  and  the 
Amur  cork  {Philodendron  amurense),  make  their  appear- 
ance. The  number  of  phanerogamous  species  known 
reaches  590  and  may  reach  700,  of  which  only  20  are 
peculiar  to  Saghalin,  the  remainder  belonging  to  the  Amur 
and  partly  io  the  Japanese  flora.  The  fauna  of  Saghalin 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Amur  region,  and  in  fact 
the  Siberian.  Bears,  foxes,  and  sables  are  still  numerous, 
as  also  the  reindeer  in  the  north  and  the  antelope ;  and 
tigers  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  south.  The  avi- 
fauna is  the  common  Siberian ;  and  the  rivers  are  ex 
ceedingly  rich  in  fish,  especially  species  of  salmon  {Onco- 
rhynchus),  which  make  their  way  up  the  rivers  in  vast 
numbers  to  spawn.  The  lower  marine  fauna,  explored  by 
Schrenck,  is  also  rich,  while  numerous  whales,  not  in  high 
esteem  with  whalers,  are  met  with  on  the  sea-coast.  Otarias, 
seals,  and  dolphins  are  a  source  of  profit. 

Saghalin  has  been  inhabited  since  at  least  the  Neolithic  Stone 
Age.  Flint  implements,  exactly  like  those  of  Siberia  and-  Russia, 
have  been  found  at  Dui  and  Kusunai  in  great  numbers,  as  well  as 
polished  hatchets  (of  trap,  diorite,  and  argillaceous  schists) — also 
like  the  European  ones — primitive  pottery  with  decorations  like 
those  of  Olonetz,  and  stone  weights  for  nets.  Afterwanls  came  a 
population  to  whom  bronze  was  known  ;  they  have  left  their  traces 
in  earthen  walls  and  kitchen-middens  (in  the  Bay  of  Aniva).  Tlic 
present  inhabitants  consist  of  some  2000  Gilyaks,  2500  Ainos,  DOO 
Oroks,  as  many  Japanese,  and  about  6000  Russians.  The  Gilyaks, 
who  do  not  dilfer  from  those  of  the  Amur,  inhabit  the  northern  part 
of  the  island.  They  support  themselves  by  fisliing  and  p.irtly  by 
hunting,  but  suffer  from  competition  with  the  Japanese,  who  take 
possession  of  the  best  fishing-grounds.  The  Oroks,  of  Tungus  origin, 
resemble  the  Orotchons  of  the  Amur  ;  they  live  by  hnutmg.  The 
Ainos,  who  are  still  the  subject  of  so  much  discussion  among  ethno- 
logists, are  the  aborigines  of  the  island  ;  they  are  closely  akin  to  the 
Curilians,  and,  like  these,  dilfer  from  all  other  Mongolian  races  by 
their  luxuriance  of  hair  and  beard.  They  now  inliabit  only  the 
south  part  of  the  island,  and  have  been  brought  into  a  condition  of 
slavery  by  the  Japanese,  by  whom  they  have  been  driven  out  of 
Yezo  andNippon,  in  both  of  which  they  were  the  aborigines.  The 
Japanese  have  several  colonies  on  Saghalin  and  force  the  Ainos  to 
iish  and  to  collect  seaweed  for  exportation.  Tliey  send  their  ships 
to  the  south  part  of  the  island  and  have  colonies  tliere,  and  also 
on  the  cast  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tym.  The  Russians  began 
to  settle  permanently  on  Saghalin  in  1857  ;  and,  though  next  year 
posts  were  established  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  it  still 
continued  to  belong  to  Japan,  which  dehnitcly  ceded  it  to  Russia 
in  1875.  A  scheme  having  been  lately  formed  for  colonizing  the 
island  with  convicts,  several  thousands  have  been  transported 
thither,  especially  to  Dui  (Alcxandrovsk),  where  they  are  employed 
in  coal-mining  (annual  output  from  3000  to  30,000  cwts.),  or  mako 
somo  attempt  at  agriculture  ;  they  are  either  kept  in  the  Alcx- 
androvsk prison,  or  permitted  to  build  houses  and  to  settle  with 
their  families.  These  efforts  towards  colonization,  however,  en- 
counter great  difficulties  from  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  cultivablo 
patches  occurring  here  and  there  in  the  marshy  valley  of  the  Duika 
river,  on  the  upper  course  of  tlie  Tym,  and  in  the  bays  of  Patience 
and  Aniva.  The  only  crops  that  thrive  are  various  kinds  of  kitchen 
produce.  The  Russian  settlements  are  at  Dui  on  the  west  coast, 
Malo-Tymovsk  and  Rykovsk  on  the  upper  Tym,  Korsakoff  and 
Muravieff  on  the  Bay  of  Aniva.  • 

,ffistor!/.— Saghalin,  which  was  under  Chinese  dominion  until  the 
present  century,  became  known  to  Europeans  from  the  travels  of 
Martin  Gerrits  in  the  17th  century,  and  still  better  from  thoso  of 
Li  Perouse  (1787)  and  Krusenstcrn  (1805),  who  described  large 
parts  of  its  coasts.  Both,  however,  regarded  it  as  a  mere  appondngc 
oC  the  continent,  and  were  unaware  of  the  existence  of  the  Strait  of 


148 


S  A  G  — S  A  G 


Tartary,  whicli  was  discovered  a  few  years  later  by  a  Japanese, 
Mamia  Rinso,  whose  discovery  is  embodied  in  Siebold's  Xippon. 
The  Russian  navigator  Nevelskoi,  in  1849,  definitively  established 
the  existence  and  navigability  of  this  strait ;  since  that  time  the 
Russian  expeditions  of  Boshnyak  (1851)  and  Rimskiy- Korsakoff 
(1853)  Continued  the  explorations,  and  in  the  latter  year  a  Russian 
post  was  temporarily  established  at  Aniva  Bay.  L.  Schrenck  in 
1855-56,  and  iMM.  Schmidt,  Glehn,  Brylkin,  and  Shebunin  in 
1860,  evplored  the  geology,  fauna,  flora,  and  ethnology  of  the  island  ; 
M.  Lopatin  in  1S67  explored,  on  foot,  the  east  coast  ;  MSI.  Dobrot- 
vorsky  published  (1869  and  onwards)  interesting  data  as  to  the 
inhabitants,  and  M.  Polyakoff  was  entrusted  in  1881-82  with  a 
detailed  exploration,  and  returned  with  rich  ethnological  and  zoo- 
logical collections,  witli  regard  to  which  only  preliminary  reports 
have  as  yet  been  published.  (P.  A.  K.) 

SAGINAW,  a  city  of  tho  United  States,  capital  of 
Saginaw  county,  Michigan,  lies  on  an  elevated  plateau 
about  30  feet  above  the  water  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Saginaw  river,  which  falls  into  Saginaw  Bay  on  Lake 
Huron,  about  18  miles  lower  down.  It  is  a  railway  junc- 
tion of.  some  importance,  100  miles  north-west  of  Detroit, 
is  connected  with  East  iSaginaw  by  a  street  railway,  and 
can  be  reached  by  the  largest  vessels  that  ply  on  the  lake. 
The  upper  branches  of  the  river  are  also  available  for  boat 
traffic  throughout  a  considerable  district.  Saw-mills, 
planing- mills,  and  salt-works  are  the  principal  industrial 
establishments.  The  piopulation  was  7460  in  1870  and 
10,525  in  ISSO.  The  city  charter  dates  from  1859,  the 
first  settlement  from  1822. 

SAGITTA.  The  name  "  Sagitta  "  was  given  by  Martin 
Slabber  in  1775  to  a  small  marine  worm  which  is  now 
known  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  group,  the  Chxtognatha 
(Leuckart).  The  group  comprises  two  genera  {Sar/itta 
and  Spadella)  and  a  considerable  number  of  species ;  they 
2re  small  transparent  pelagic  animals,  varying  in  length 
from  a  few  lines  up  to  two  inches,  and  are  universally  dis- 
tributed. The  body  (see  fig.)  is  elongated  and  furnished 
with  a  tail  and  lateral  fins,  which  are  prolongations  of  the 
chitinous  cuticle ;  the  head  is  provided  with  a  great  number 
of  variously  shaped  chitinous  set*.  The  body  is  divided 
by  transverse  septa  into  three  distinct  segments :  the  first 
septum  is  placed  just  behind  the  head  {st),  the  second  {st) 
about  the  middle  of  the  body,  separating  the  ovaries  and 
testes.  The  body-cavity  is  likewise  separated  into  right 
md  left  halves  by  a  continuous  vertical  mesentery,  which 
suspends  the  guL  The  alimentary  canal  is  a  simple 
straight  tube  of  uniform  structure  passing  from  the  mouth 
to  the  anus,  which  is  placed  ventrally  and  at  the  second 
transverse  septum  ;  the  alimentary  tube  is  ciliated  and  is 
unprovided  with  glands  of  any  kind.  The  body-wall  is 
composed  of  (1)  an  outer  layer  of  epidermis,  which  secretes 
the  chitinous,  cuticle  already  referred  to, — the  thickness  of 
the  epidermis  varj'ing  from  five  or  sLx  cells  in  the  region  of 
the  head  to  a  single  layer  of  cells  in  the  "fins";  (2)  a  deli- 
cate structureless  supporting  lamella ;  (3)  a  layer  of  longi- 
tudinal muscles.  These  last  have  a  Peculiar  arrangement 
and  structure  :  they  are  disposed  i..  lour  bands,  two  dorsal 
and  two  ventral,  the  action  of  which  is  evidently  favour- 
able to  producing  the  onward  movements  of  the  creature. 
The  muscular  fibres,  which  are  transversely  striated,  are 
arranged  in  a  series  of  lamellae  whose  direction  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  body.  Projec- 
tions inward  of  the  supporting  lamella  bear  on  either  side 
a  single  row  of  muscular  fibres ;  a  similar  muscular  struc- 
ture occurs  in  the  Kemo.toidea  and  in  many  OU'j'ichxia. 
In  the  anterior  region  of  the  body  the  muscular  layer  is 
differentiated  into  special  muscles  for  the  movement  of  the 
set£e.  (4)  The  body-cavity  is  lined  by  a  delicate  peritoneal 
epithelium  closely  applied  to  the  muscular  layer  of  the 
body-wall  and  to  the  gut.  The  nervous  system  consists 
of  a  cerebral  ganglion  and  a  large  ventral  ganglion — the 
two  united  by  commissures  which  pass  round  the  gut ; 
both  ganglia  are  embedded  in  the  epidermis.     This  primi- 


N^ 


..si 


five  condition  of  the  nervous  system  is  retained  in  other 
lowly  organized  worms  (e.g.,  Poly- 
gordius).  The  ventral  ganglion  is 
connected  with  an  intra -epidermic 
nervous  plexus  which  surrounds  the 
whole  body.  Eyes  are  present,  be- 
sides a  number  of  tactile  cells  upon 
the  outer  surface  of  the  body  j  an- 
teriorly is  a  ring-shaped  structui'e 
(r)  which  is  supposed  to  be  olfac- 
tory in  function.  The  generative 
organs  consist  of  ovaries  and  testes, 
which  are  united*  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual ;  the  ovaries  (<■),  placed  an- 
terior to  the  testes,  are  furnished 
with  oviducts,  which  appear  to  ter- 
minate in  a  ceecal  extremity.  The 
testes  {ho)  are  placed  behind  the 
second  septum ;  they  are  each  fur- 
nished with  a  vas  deferens  opening 
on  to  the  exterior  and  into  the 
body-cavity  by  a  ciliated  funnel. 
For  embryology,  see  Balfour,  Com- 
parative Embryology,  vol.  i.  p.  303. 

In  spite  of  the  detailed  knowledge 
which  we  now  possess  of  the  structure 
and  development  of  the  CJtaetognatha,  the 
systematic  position  of  the  group  remains 
a  matter  of  the  greatest  uncertainty.  That 
they  are  an  archaic  group  is  shown  by 
their  hermaphroditism,  by  tho  primitive 
condition  of  the  nervous  system,  and  by 
the  i>crsistence  of  the  vertical  mesentery 
among  other  charactei^ ;  in  all  these 
points  and  in  otiiers  they  agree  with  such 
primitive  Annelida  as  Protodrilus  an  i 
Pohjrprdiua.  On  the  other  hand,  their 
similarity  to  the  Xcmcdoidca  has  been 
dwelt  upon  ;  the  disposition  of  the  muscles 
is  the  same  in  both  gi-onps,  and  the  Got- 
diaccic  have  the  gut  suspended  by  a  doi-sal 
and  ventral  mesenteiy  in  tlie  same  fasliiou 
as  has  been  described  above  iu  Sagitta  ; 
the  Chstog)iatha  differ,  however,  from  the  a;  wptadividingbcKly-cavity 
Ncmatoidca  iu  the  important  fact  of  tlieit  tmiisversely  ;  |7',  cerebi-nl 
segmentation.  On  the  whole,  it  appears 
that  the  Chectiyjiiatha  are  best  regarded  as 
a  special  phylum  equivalent  to  such  gi-oups 
as  Annelida,  Plat i/hchninthcs,  Ncmatoidca , 
but  having  no  special  relation  to  any  one 
of  them. 

SAGO  is  a  food-starch  prepared 
from  a  deposit  in  the  trunk  of  several 
palms,  the  principal  source  being 
the  sago  jialni,  Metroxylon  HOnphii 
(.Mart.),  and  J/,  lave  (Mart.).  These 
palms  are  natives  of  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  the  sago  forests  being  esijeci'ally  extensive  in 
the  island  of  Ceram.  The  trees  flourish  only  in  low  marshy 
situations,  seldom  attaining  a  height  of  thirty  feet,  with  a 
thick-set  trunk.  They  attain  maturity  as  starctl-yielding 
plants  at  the  age  of  about  fifteen  years,  when  the  stem  is 
gorged  -n-ith  an  enormous  mass  of  spongy  medullary  matter, 
around  which  is  an  outer  rind  consisting  of  a  hard  dense 
woody  wall  about  two  inches  thick.  When  the  fruit  is 
allowed  to  form  and  ripen,  the  whole  of  this  starchy  core 
disappears,  leaving  the  stem  a  mere  hollow  shell ;  and  the 
tree  immediately  after  ripening  its  fruit  dies.  When  ripe 
the  palms  are  cut  down,  the  stems  divided  into  sections 
and  split  up,  and  the  starchy  pith  extracted  and  grated  to 
a  powder.  The  powder  is  then  kneaded  with  water  over 
a  strainer,  t'lrough  which  the  starch  passes,  leaving  the 
woody  fibre  behind.  The  starch  settles  in  the  bottom  of 
a  trough,  in  which  it  is  f.oated,  and  after  one  Qr  two 
washings  is  fit  for  use  by  the  natives  for  their  cakes  and 


Sjjadclla  cepkaloptci-a 
(Busch). 


ganglia  ;  nl,  coniniissni-e 
UDltiDg  this  with  veoli-l 
cangllOD  (not  showu  In 
BS-)  :  «',  lien-e  uniting 
cerebral  ganglia  with  sumll 
ganglia  on  head;  nr,  ol- 
factory nerve  ;  d,  aliment- 
ary cnnal ;  r,  olfactory 
oigau  ;  Ic,  tentacle;  (,  tac- 
tile liair3  springing  from  ■ 
surface  of  bo,Iy  ;  e,  ovary  ; 
d,  ovidnct ;  ho.  testes  ;  sj, 
vas  ilefei  ens  ;  /2,  /3,  lateral 
Qnd  caud.vl  flns;96.  eeniinnl 
]>onch.  Tlie  eyes  are  indi- 
cated as  black  dots  beliiuil 
tjie  cerebral  ganglia. 


S  A  G  — S  A  H 


149 


soups.  That  intended  for  exportation  is  mixed  into  a 
paste  with  water  and  rubbed  through  sieves  into  small 
grains,  from  the  size  of  a  coriander  seed  and  larger,  whence 
it  is  known  according  to  size  as  pearl  sago,  bullet  sago, 
(fee.  A  large  proportion  of  the  sago  imported  into  Europe 
comes  from  Borneo,  and  the  increasing  demand  has  led 
to  a  large  extension  of  sago-palm  planting  along  the  marshv 
'iver  banks  of  Sarawak. 

Various  palms,  in  addition  to  the  two  above  named,  yield  sago, 
but  of  an  inferior  quality.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  tlie 
Gomuti  palm  {Arenga  mccharifera),  the  Kittul  palm  (C'ari/ota  rirens), 
the  cabbage  palm  (Corypha  timbraculi/cra),hesid(!sCorypha  Gchanga, 
Raphtaflabelliformis,  Phcenix  farinifera,  and  Melroxylon  Jilare — all 
Ea^t  Indian  palms — and  Maxtritia  fexuosa  and  Guilicbna  spcciosa, 
two  South-American  species.  The  imports  of  sago  into  the  United 
Kingdom  for  1884  amounted  to  346,188  cwt,  valued  at-£195,680, 
the  whole  of  which,  excepting  less  than  800  tons,  is  entered  as  coming 
from  the  Straits  Settlements. 

SAGUNTUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Hispania  Tarraco- 
nensis,  was  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pallantias 
(PaUncia).  It  was  the  centre  of  a  fertile  district  and  was 
a  rich  trading  place  in  early  times,  but  owes  its  celebrity 
to  the  desperate  resistance  it  made  to  Hannibal  (see  voL 
xi.  p.  4-il).  The  Romans  restored  the  city  and  made  it  a 
colony ;  later  writers  speak  of  its  figs,  which  were  esteemed 
at  Rome,  and  of  its  earthenware,  which  enjoyed  a  certain 
reputation.  The  most  important  remains  are  those  of  the 
theatte 

The  modern  Sagunto  or  Jlurviedro  (ii'-iri  veleres),  18 
miles  by  rail  from  Valencia  on  the  line  to  Tarragona,  is 
now  about  3  miles  from  the  sea ;  the  population  within 
the  municipal  boundaries  was  6287  in  1877. 

S.\HARA  is  the  great  desert  region  which  stretches 
across  the  continent  of  Africa  eastwards  from  the  Atlantic 
for  a  considerable  distance  on  both  sides  of  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,  and  is  generally  distinguished  by  aridity  of  soil, 
absence  of  running  water,  dryness  of  atmosphere,  and 
comparative  scarcity  of  vegetable  and  animal  life.  The 
physical  limits  of  this  region  are  in  some  directions  marked 
with  great  precision,  as  in  part  of  Morocco  and  Algeria, 
where  the  southern  edge  of  the  Atlas  range  looks  out  on 
what  has  almost  the  appearance  of  a  boundless  sea,  and 
forms,  as  it  were,  a  bold  coast-line,  whose  sheltered  bays 
and  commanding  promontories  are  occupied  by  a  series  of 
towns  and  villages — Tizgi,  Figig,  Laghouat,  Ac.  In  other 
directions  the  boundaries  are  vague,  conventional,  and  dis- 
puted. This  is  especially  the  cse  towards  the  south, 
where  the  desert  sometimes  conr.es  to  a  close  as  suddenly 
as  if  it  had  been  cut  off  with  a  knife,  but  at  other  times 
merges  gradually  and  irregularly  into  the  well-watered  and 
fertile  lands  of  the  Sudan  (Soudan).  While  towards  the 
east  the  valley  of  the  Nile  at  first  sight  seems  to  aflTord 
a  natural  frontier,  the  characteristics  of  what  is  usually 
called  the  Nubian  or  Arabian  desert  are  so  identical  in 
most  respects  with  those  of  the  Sahara  proper  that  some 
authorities  extend  this  designation  over  the  whole  country_ 
to  tlie  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  depert,  indeed,  does 
not  end  with  Africa,  but  is  prolonged  eastwards  through 
Arabia  towards  the  desert  of  Sind.  As  the  Nubian  region 
has  been  described  under  the  heading  Nubia  (vol.  xvii.  p. 
610),  attention  will  in  the  present  article  be  confined  to 
the  desert  country  west  of  the  Nile  valley.  Even  as 
thus  defined  the  Saliara  is  estimated  to  have  an  area  of 
3,565,565  square  miles,  or  nearly  as  much  as  all  Europe 
minus  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  Iceland  ;  but,  while 
Europe  supports  a  jxipulation  of  327,000,000,  the  Sahara 
probably  does  not  contain  more  than  2,300,000,— a  figure, 
hovyevcr,  which  is  sufficiently  startling  to  those  who  think 
of  it  as  an  uninhabitable  expanse  of  sand.  The  sea-like 
aspect  of  certain  portions  of  the  Sahara  has  given  rise  to 
much  popular  misconception,  and  has  even  affected  the 
ideas  and  phrascolop)'  of  scientific  writers.      Instead  of 


being  a  boundless  plain  broken  only  by  wave-lihe  mounds 
of  sand  hardly  more  stable  and  little  less  dangerous  than 
the  waves  of  ocean,  the  Sahara  is  a  region  of  the  most 
varied  surface  and  irregular  relief,  ranging  in  altitude  from 
100  feet  below  to  some  5000  or  6000  or  even  it  may  be 
8000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and,  besides  sand-dunes  and 
oases,  containing  rocky  plateaus,  vast  tracts  of  loose  stones 
and  pebbles,  ranges  of  hills  of  the  most  dissimilar  types, 
and  valleys  through  which  abundant  watercourses  must 
once  have  flowed. 

The  culminating  points  of  the  Sahara  are  probably  the 
summits  of  the  Ahaggar  (Hoggar),  a  great  mountain 
plateau,  not  inferior  to  the  Alps  in  the  area  which  it 
covers,  crossing  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  about  5°  and  6°  E. 
long.,  almost  midway  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  valley 
bf  the  Nile.  In  its  central  mass  rise  with  red  steep  cliffs 
two  peaks,  Watellen  and  Hikena,  which  Duveyrier  believes 
to  be  volcanic  like  those  of  Auvergne.  The  height  of 
this  country  has  not  been  ascertained  by  direct  European 
observation,  but  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
according  to  the  Tuareg  the  snow  lies  for  three  months 
of  the  year,  from  December  to  March.  To  the  north- 
west, and  separated  from  the  Atakor-'n-Ahaggar  by  a 
wide  plain,  rises  the  JIuydir  plateau,  lying  nearly  east 
and  west  for  a  distance  of  about  200  miles.  Its  north- 
eastern extremity  is  extended  towards  Timassinin  by  the 
Irawen  Mountains,  which  in  their  turn  are  separated  by 
a  narrow  valley  from  the  Tasili  plateau  (strictly  Tasili  of 
the  Asjer  or  Asgar).  This  great  plateau  stretches  south- 
east for  300  miles  parallel  with  the  Atakor-'n-Ahaggar 
(from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Amadghor  and  Adamar 
plains),  and  then  the  hne  of  elevation  is  continued  by  low 
ridges  to  the  Tummo  or  War  Mountains,  and  so  onwards 
to  the  highland  country  of  Tibesti  or  Tu,  whose  highest 
point,  Tusidde,  is  7880  feet  above  the  sea-level,  while  its 
south-eastern  eminences  gradually  die  away  in  the  direction 
of  Wadai  and  Darfor  (Darfur).  About  midway  between 
Tibesti  and  the  Niger  rises  the  isolated  mountain  mass  of 
Air  or  Asben,  in  which  Dr  Erwin  von  Bary  ■  discovered 
the  distinct  volcanic  crater  of  Teginjir  with  a  vast  lava-bed 
down  its  eastern  side.  By  some  this  country  is  assigned 
to  the  Sudan,  as  it  lies  within  the  limit  of  the  tropical 
rains  ;  but  the  districts  farther  south  have  all  the  character- 
istics of  the  desert.  The  low  but  extensive  plateau  of 
Adghagh  lies  between  Air  and  the  Niger.  Away  to  the 
north-east,  in  the  country  of  Fezzan  (■?.)'.),  are  the  dark 
mountains  of  Jebel  es-S6da,  which  are  continued  south-east 
towards  Kufra  by  the  similar  range  of  the  Haruj  ;  and  iu 
the  extreme  south-west  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
Atlantic  is  the  hilly  country  of  Adrar  (Aderer). 

Nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  Saliara  consists  in  the  main 
of  undulating  surfaces  of  rock  (distinguished  as  hammada), 
vast  tracts  of  water-worn  pebbles  (serir),  and  jegions  of 
sandy  dunes  (variously  called  maghter,  erg  or  areg,  igidi 
and  in  the  east  rhart),  which,  according  to  JI.  Pomel, 
occupy  about  one-ninth  or  one-tenth  of  the  total  area. 
The  following  is  the  general  distribution  of  the  dunes. 
From  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  south  of  Cape  Blanco  a 
broad  belt  extends  north-ea.st  for  a  distance  of  about  1300 
miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  50  to  300  miles.  This 
is  usually  called  the  Igidi  or  Gidi,  from  the  Berber  word 
for  dunes.  Eastward  it  is  continued  to  the  south  of 
Algeria  and  Tunis  by  the  Western  Erg  and  the  Eastern 
Erg,  separated  by  a  narrow  belt  at  Golea.  To  the  south 
of  the  Eastern  Erg  (which  extends  as  far  north  as  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Lesser  Syrtis)  the  continuity  of  the 
sandy  tract  is  comi>letely  broken  by  the  Hammada  al- 
Homra  (or  Red  Rock  Plateau),  but  to  the  south  of  this 
region  lie  the  dunes  of  Edeyen,  which,  with  slight  inter- 
»  ZcUxhrift /iir  Erdkunde,  1 8GC. 


150 


SAHARA 


ruptions,  extend  to  Murzuk  (Morzulj).     To  the  south  of 
tie  hammada  of  Murzuk  the  dunes  of  lilurzuk  stretch 
away  south-east.     Looked  at  in  its  entirety,  this  series  of 
tracts  may  be  called  the  northern  zone ;  it  forms  a  kind 
of  bow,  with  its  extremities  respectively  at  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Libyan  Desert  and  its  apex  in  the  south  of  Tunis. 
In  the  south  are  the  Juf.i  covering  a  vast  area  to  the 
south-east  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  Igidi,  another  area 
between  the  Adghagh  plateau  and  the  Tasili  wan  Ahaggar, 
and  a  third  between  Air  and  Tibesti.     Away  to  the  east 
in  the  Libyan  Desert  is  a  vast  region  of  dunes  of  unascer- 
tained Umits.     It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the_  sands 
do  not  entirely  cover  the  areas  assigned  to  them  in  the 
ordinary  maps,  which  are  of  too  small  a  scale  to  show  the 
interchange  of  different  kinds  of  surface.     In  the  Eastern 
Erf  especially  the  dunes  lie  in  long  Unes  in  a  north-north- 
west and  south-south-east  direction,  presenting  a  gradual 
slope   to  windward  and  an  abrupt  descent  to   leeward. 
There  they  are  generally  about  60  or  70  feet  high,  but  in 
other  parts  of  the  Sahara  they  are  said  to  attain  a  height 
of  upwards  of  300  feet.    The  true  dune  sand  is  remarkable 
for  the  uniformity  of  its  composition  and  the  geometjicaj 
regularity  of  its  grains,  which  measure  less  than  -03937 
inch.=      While   individually  these  appear    crystalline    or 
reddish  yellow  (from  the  presence  of  iron),  they  have  in 
the  mass  a  rich  golden  hue.     According  to  U.  Tissandier's 
examination,  animal  organisms,  such  as  the  microscopic 
sliells  of  Rhizopodn,  so  abundant  in  sea-sand,  are  strik- 
ingly absent.     Under  the  influence  of  the  wind  the  surface 
of°the  dunes  is  subject  to  continual  change,  but  in  the 
mass    they  have   attained   such   a   state  of   comparative 
equilibrium  that   their   topographic  distribution  may  be 
considered  as  permanent,  and  some  of  them,  such  as  Gern 
(Peak)  al-Shuf  and  Gern  Abd-al-Kader,  to  the  south  of 
Golea,   have   names  of   their  own.     The   popular  stories 
about  caravans  and  armies  being  engulfed  in  the  moving 
sands  are  quits  apocryphal,  but  there  is  abundant  evidence 
against  the  theory  of  JL  Vatonne  as  to  the  dunes  having 
been  formed  in  situ.     To  understand  their  origin  it  is 
necessary  to  glance  at  the  general  geology  of  the  Sahara, 
which,  however,  in  this  aspect,  is  only  known  in  detail  to 
the  south  of  Ali,'eria  and  along  the  routes  of  the  Rohlfs  e.x- 
pedition  (1873-74,  Dr  Zittel)  and  that  of  Dr  Lenz  (1880). 
I    Granite,  wbicli,  along  with  gneiss  and  mica  schists,  seems  to  be 
the  prevailing  lock  in  the  highlands  of  Air  (^  on  Bary),  "imes  to 
the  surface  move  o.-  less  sporadically  in  the  neiglibouihood  of  Al- 
E<'lab  and  in  the  Adrar  districts  in  the  south-west.     Oueiss  and 
nuca   schists   are   probably  the   main   materials  of  the    Ahaggar 
plateau.     Volcanic  rocks  (basalt,  &c.)  form  the  mountain  masses 
of  Jebel  es-Soda  and  the  Haruj  -,  in  Air  they  break  through  the 
granite  and  other  rocks  in  a  very  erratic  fashion.    Slates  and  quartz- 
ite  (possibly  Silurian,  accorJing  to  Lenz),  which  play  so  great  a 
part  in  Senegambia,  appear  to  the  north  of  the  Senegal,  along  tlie 
edge  of  the  desert,  and  crop  out  again  in  Adrar,  on  the  eastern 
borders  of  tlie  Juf,  and  to  the  cast  of  Wady  Sus.     Au  immense 
tract  from  Adrar  north-east  to  the  borders  of  Algeria  seems  to  bo 
occupied  by  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  formations,  the  character- 
istic fossils  of  which  frequently  show  on  the  surface  ;   farther  east 
these  rocks  are  covered  by  Cretaceous  and  Quaternary  deposits, 
though  they  again  appear  in  the  Muydir  and  Tasili  plateaus  (JU 
Roclw's  report').     The  development  of  the  Cretaceous  system  is 
altogether  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Saharau  geology,  its 
extreme  limits  being  the  coasts  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  area  occupied  by  it  in  the  Algerian  Sahara  alone  being  equal 
to  the  whole  of  France.     In  the  Algerian  Sahara  the  Cretaceous 
rocka  are  covered  by  no  later  sediments,  with  the  exception  ot 
certain  Quaternary  deposits,  but  in  the  Libyan  Desert  Tertiary 
deposits  are  abundant,  though,  according  to  Zittel,  there  is  no 
sharp  distinction  between  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary,  the  one  secm- 


1  This  name,  meaning  the  "depression,"  has  long  been  in  use,  but 
apfiears  to  be  a  misnomer  ;  the  lowest  point  in  Lenz's  route,  which, 
however,  only  crossed  the  east  end  ot  the  Juf,  was  400  feet  above 

'^''see  Kolland,  in  E^'ll.  tk  la  Soc.  giol.  de  France,  1881,  and  Revue 
Scieiilifi'2ue,  1881. 

'  Cmrjit.es  Hcmlus.  Acad,  cles  Science:,. 


in"  (certain  pah-eological  characteristics  apart)  to  pass  gradually 
into  the  other.  Eocene  limestones,  rich  In  nummulites  and  oper- 
culines,  stretch  south  and  east  from  the  oasis  of  Snva  and  are  we  1 
seen  in  the  cliffs  enclosing  the  depressed  oasal  areas  which  sink 
down  to  the  Cretaceous  rocks.  To  the  south  of  Farafreh  extends 
a  vast  tract  of  Nubian  sandstone. 

In  all  parts  of  the  Sahara  there  is  evidence  of  denudation  earned 
out  on  a  scale  of  unusual  magnitude.     The  present  surface  of  the 
des-rt  has  been  exposed  to  the  protracted  wear  and  tear  ol  the 
elements      But  to  determine,  the  exact  method  by  which  the  ele- 
ments have  done  their  work  has  hitherto  proved  beyond  the  power 
of  science.     The  superficial  observer  is  at  once  tempted  to  accept 
the  theory  of  submarine  denudation  :  the  Sahara  is  still  the      dried, 
bed  of  a  sea  "  in  even  such  text-boolis  as  Professor  Huxley  i  Physio- 
qraphii  and  Stanford's  Compendium  of  Gco<]rapliy.   The  sand-dunes, 
the  salt  efflorescence  and  deposits,  and  the  local  occurrence  of  certain 
modern  marine  molluscs  all  go  to  help  the  hj-pothcsis  of  a  diluvial 
sea      But  a  more  extensive  acquaintance  with  Saharan  character- 
istics shows  that  such  a  sea  for  the  Sahara  as  a  whole  is  impossible 
The  denudation  must  probably  be  explained  as  due  to  the  combined 
action  of  fresh  wateV  and  atmospheric  agencies.     Even  at  present 
the  Sahara  is  not  =o  destitute  as  has  been  supposed  of  fresh  water. 
Thou'di  rain  is  one  of  the  rarest  phenomena  of  the  lowlands,  the 
mouinains  on  its  northern  borders  and  the  central  highlands  are 
both  rer-ions  of  precipitation,  and  discharge  their  surplus  waters  ^ 
into  the°hollows.     A  glance  at  a  good  physical  map  of  the  Sahara 
shows  in  fact  the  skeleton  of  a  regular  river-system      irom    lie 
north  side  of  the  Atakor-'n-Ahaggar,  for  instance,  begins  A\  cuy 
Ichar-har   which,  running  northwards  between  the  Tasili  plateau 
a?id  the  Ira  wen  Jlouutains,  appears  to  lose  itself  m  the  sands  ot 
the  Eastern   Erg,   but   can   be    distinctly  traced   northwards   for 
hundreds  of  miles.      I?s  bed  contains  rolled  fragments  of  lava  and 
freshwater  shells  (Cyrcra  and  PlanorUs).    In  a  line  almost  parallel 
to   AVady  Idiarghar  Wady   Mya  dcsends   from   the   plateau   of 
Tademayt,  and  shows  the  importance  of  its  ancient  current  by  deep 
erosion  of  the  Cretaceous  rocks,  in  which  a  large  number  of  left- 
hand  tiibutarics  have  also  left  their  mark.     Away  m  the  far  east 
of  the  Libyan  Desert  Dr  Zittel  discovered  stalactite  caves  m  the 
limestone      The  question  arises,  What  has  become  ot  the  abundant 
water-supply  which  filled  the  wadies  and  hollowed  out  the  caves  ? 
Recent  discoveries  in  the  Algerian  Sahara  suggest  that  part  of  the 
water  circulation  has  become  subterranean.     The  streams  from  tlie 
Atlas  which  seem  to  be  absorbed  ill  the  sands  of  the  desert  evidenUy 
find  a  series  of  underground  reservoirs  or  basins  capable  of  being 
tappedby  artesian  wells  over  very  extensive  areas.     As  01ymP'°- 
doius  (quoted  by  Fhotius)  mentions  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Sahara  used  to  make  excavations  from  100  to  120  feet  deep,  out  of 
which  iets  of  pure  water  rose  in  columns,  it  is  clear  that  this  state 
of  mattei-s  is  (historically)  of  ancient  date.     Since  18d6  the  French 
engineers  have  carried  on  a  series  of  borings  which  haye.re_sulted 
in  the  fertilizing  of  extensive  tracts;  between  1850  and  16/9  155 
wells  were  bored  in  the  province  of  ConsUntine  alone.      In  A\  ady 
Rir'  'which   runs    for   80   miles   towards  the   south-west   of  the 
Shott  Melrir  (comp.   infra),  the  water-bearing  stratum  is  among 
nermeable  sands,    which  are  colored  to  a  depth  of  200  feet  by 
impermeable  marls,  by  which  the  water  is  kept  under  pressure. 
The  wells,  varying  much  in  Uieir  discharge  and      head,     give  a 
total  of  3-5  cubic  metres  per  second  at  an  average  temperature  of 
25''-l  Fahr      A  similar  artesian  zone  exists  between  ^egussa  and 
•Warcla      Connexions  probably  exist  with  subterranean  water-sup- 
plies iu  the  mountains  to  the  north.     That  in  some  way  the  water 
in  the  artesian  reservoirs  is  kept  aerated  is  shown  by  the  existence 
below  ground  of  fishes,  crabs,  aU  freshwater  mo  luscs,  all  of. which 
vere  elected  by  the  well  called  Jlezer  in  M  ady  Rir .     Hitherto 
those  subterranean  basins  have  been  verified  only  in  a  comparatively 
limited  area  (the  whole  expanse  of  the  Sahara  being  considered) ; 
■but  the  same  i.henomeua  are  probably  repeated  to  some  extent  in 
other  rocions.*     The  oases  are  of  course  proofs  of  the  presence  of 
a  steady  supply  ot  underground  moisture,  for  vegetation  under  the 
Saharan  climate  is  exceptionally  thirsty.  j   ,i,„f  ,i„ 

Evervthin''  considered,  it  may  therefore  be  assumed  that  the 
desert  formerly  possessed  a  surface  circulation  of  water  capable  of 
aiding  in  the  processes  of  disintegration,  removal,  and  deposit.om 
Since  the  water  disappeared  other  agencies  have  been  at  ^  °>^-  T^e 
surface  of  the  rocks,  heated  by  the  sun  and  suddenly  chilled  by 
ran  d  raSat  on  over  night,  gets  fractured  and  crumbled  ;  elsewhere 
he  clfffs  have  been  smed^and  the  sand  thus  formed  is  at  once 
turned  by  the  wind  into  an  active  instrurnent  of  abrasion.  In  many 
,d"es  it  has  planed  the  flat  rocks  of  the  hammada  as  srnonth  as 
e  Elsewhere  it  has  scored  the  vertical  faces  of  the  cl.rfs  wi  h 
curious  im^tetons  of  glacial  striation,  and  helped  to  undercut  the 
'pXr  or  tabie-like  eirfnences  which  under  '•",--; ;/|';[;^- 
"  witnesses  "  are  among  the  most  familiar  products  of  Saharan 
erosion!    The  softer  quartz  rocks  of  the  Quaternaiy  and  Cretaceous 


.  See  RoUand,  "  Le  regime  des  eaux  artesiennes  de  rOued  Rir  et  du 
Bns  S.iliar.a."  in  Comp.  Rend.,  Acad,  des  &• ,  Sep.    i»«. .. 


S  A  H  — S  A  H 


151 


series  (and  according  to  Zittel  especially  the  Nubian  sandstone)  have 
•been  made  to  yield  the  sand  which,  drifted  and  sifted  by  the  winds, 
has  taken  on  the  form  of  danes.  The  slightest  breeze  is  enough 
to  make  the  surface  '^smofee"  with  dust  ;  and  "at  times  the  weird 
singing  of  the  sands,  waxing  louder  and  louder,  tells  the  scientific 
traveller  that  the  motion  is  not  confined  to  the  superficial  p^aticlcs.' 
ilow  important  a  part  the  winds  may  play  in  th-e  redistribution  of 
the  lighter  particles  is  probably  shown  by  the  clouds  of  red  dust 
vvhich  were  noticed  by  Ediisi  as  frequently  obscuring  the  Atlantic 
sky  between  Cape  Verd  and  the  American  coast,  and  which  have 
recently  been  referred  by  Dr  Gustav  Hellemann  to  the  African 
Sahara,  whence  Professor  Tacchini  also  derives  the  similar  clouds 
of  dust  observed  in  many  parts  of  Italy  (corap.  Tchihatchef). 

But  even  such,  a  river-system  as  that  supposed  combined  with  all 
conceivable  atmospheric  agencies  would  only  account  for  the  minor 
phenomena  of  erosion.  Dr  Zittel  in  dealing  with  the  Libyan  Desert- 
hnds  it  necessary  to  assume  violent  freshwater  floods  proceeding 
from  the  south,  though,  as  he  confesses,  this  only  shifts  the  diffi- 
culty a  stage  fm-ther  back,  as  it  involves  an  enormous  .change  of 
climate,  lo  render  such  a  change  of  climate  a  probable  hypothesis 
varuus  recent  speculations  combine  ;  and  Dr  Theobald  Fischer  and 
Dr  Oscar  Fraas  agree  in  believing  that  the  desiccation  has  markedly 
increased  in  historic  times.  Evidence  derived  from  ancient  monu- 
ments combined  with  the  statements  of  Herodotus  and  Pliny  are 
held  to  prove  that  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  crocodile 
existed  in  North  African  regions  where  the  environ  rneut  is  now 
utterly  alien,  and  on  the  other  hand  that  the  camel  is  a  late  iutio- 
duction.  Humboldt  sought  to  attribute  the  desiccation  of  the  desert 
region  of  Asia  and  Africa  to  the  effects  of  the  north-east  trade- wind  ; 
but  Dr  Lenz,  who  points  out  that  in  North  Africa  the  wind  seldoui 
blows  from  the  north-east  but  generally  from  the  north  or  north- 
west- (the  latter  of  course  from  the  Atlantic,  in  the  westeni  parts, 
but  farther  east  from  the  European  regions  of  precipitation),  argues 
that  oneof  tho  principal  causes  has  been  the  destruction  of  the  forests 
on  the  highlands.  The  dry  winds  from  the  Sahara  are  known  in 
Europe  as  the  Scirocco  and  the  Fuhn  or  Fon. 

Botanically  the  Sahara  is  the  meeting-ground  of  representatives 
of  the  "Mediterranean"  and  the  "Tropical"  floras  which  have  man- 
aged to  accommodate  themr,elves  to  the  peculiar  climatic  conditions. 
The  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  floral  areas,  almost  coin- 
ciding in  the  west  with  the  Tronic  of  Cancer  and  in  the  east  dipping 
south  towards  the  meridian  of  Lake  Tchad,  assigns  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  the  area  to  "Slediterranean"  influences.^  Uniformity, 
in  spite  of  differeuces  of  altitude  and  soil,  is  a  general  characteristic 
of  tne  vegetation,  which  out&ide  of  the  oases  consists  mainly  of 
plants  with  a  tufty  dry  stiff  habit  of  gi-owth.  The  oases  are  the 
special  home  of  llie  date-palm,  of  which  there  are  about  4,000,000 
in  the  Algerian  oases  alone.  In  comx>any  with  this  tree,  without 
which  life  in  the  Saliara  would  be  practically  impossible,  are  grown 
apples,  peaches,  oranges,  citrons,  figs,  grapes,  pom egia nates,  &c. 
During  tlie  months  from  December  to  JIarch  wheat,  barley,  and 
other  northern  grain  crops  are  succossfuUy  cultivated  and  in  the 
hotter  season  nee,  dukhn,  durra,  and  other  tropical  products. 
Altogether  tho  oasal  flora  has  considerable  variety  ;  thirty-nine 
species  are  known  from  the  Kufra  group,  forty-eight  from  the 
Aujila  group. 

Zoologically  the  Sahara  is  also  a  debatable  territoi*y,  partly 
Mediterranean,  partly  Tropical.  Apart  from  the  domestic  animals 
{camels,  asses,  kc,  and  very  noticeably  a  black  breed  of  rattle  in 
Adrar),  the  list  of  fifteen  mammals  comprises  the  jerboa,  the  fcnnek 
or  fox,  the  jackal,  the  sand  rat  {Psamtnomys  obcsics),  the  hare,  the 
wild  ass,  and  three  species  of  antelope.  In  liorku,  Air,  kc. ,  baboons, 
liysenas,  and  mountain  sheep  are  not  uncommon.  "Without  count- 
ing migratory  visitants,  about  eighty  species  of  birds  have  been 
registered  —  tho  ostrich,  the  Ccrthilauda  dcserii  or  d-,'sert-lark 
(wliich  often  surprises  the  traveller  with  its  song),  Embcraa 
Sahara,  three  species  of  Dromoltxc,  kc.  Tortoises,  lizanh,  cliama;- 
leons,  geckos,  skinks,  kc,  of  fifteen  different  species  wen:  collected 
by  the  single  Rohifs  expedition  of  1873-74  ;  the  serpent:!  comprise 
the  horned  viper,  Psaowwphis  stbilans,  Ccelopeltis  laccrtina,  the 
python,  and  several  other  species.  The  edible  frog  a'so  occurs. 
t'if]>rinodoi',  dispar,  a  fish  not  unlike  Cyprinodon  calaritanus,  is 
found  in  all  the  brackish  watci"s  of  north  Sahara  and  swarms  in  the 
lake  of  the  Siwa  oasis.  The  brine-shrimp  has  been  described  in 
the  article  Fezzan. 

The  nrcsent  population  of  the  Sahara  consists  almost  exclusively 
of  Arabs,  Berbers,  and  Negro  tribes.  The  Berbers  (Tuareg  or 
Tuarik,  kc.)  occupy  the  west  central  region  almost  exclusively, 
appear  sporadically  in  the  western,  and  stretch  northwards  into 
Morocco  and  Algeria  ;  the  Negro  tribes  form  a  compact  block  in 
the  cast  central  region  northwards  and  north-castwarus  from  Lake 


>  See  Lenz's  chapter  on  this  phenomenon. 

'  Conip.  Derrc'eagaix,  "  Lc  sud  de  la  province  d'Oran,"  in  Lull  de  la 
Sic.  df  G^ofjT.^  PariH,  1873. 

'  Conip.  Drude,  Florcnrciche  der  Erdc,  1884;  and  Cossou,  Com- 
pfyidiutti  Flarm  AtlaiiUcaj  1861,  &c. 


Tchad  ;  and  the  Arabs  are  in  possession  of  all  the  rest  of  the  counrry. 
Politically  the  Sahara  belongs  partly  to  Morocco  (Tafilct,  kc.) 
partly  to  Algeria  and  Tunis  (and  thus  to  France),  and  partly  to  the 
Turkish  empire  (Tripolis,  Egypt,  kc).  France  especially  has  been 
steadily  pushing  south  witn  the  purpose  of  forming  a  junction 
ultimately  with  her  colony  on  the  Senegal.  The  spirit  of  independ- 
ence among  the  Mohammedan  populations  has  been  crystallized 
and  stimulated  by  the  remarkable  confraternity  of  Sidi  Mohammed 
ben  'All  es-Senusi,  founded  about  1837,  and  now  possessing  about 
120  convents  or  zawiga  (mostly  in  the  Saharan  region),  with  its 
head>iuarters  at  Jerabub.*  With  this  organization  the  French  have 
already  come  into  conflict  in  their  southward  progi'css.  To  estab- 
lish their  influence  they  propose  the  construction  of  a  ti^aus-Saharan 
railway  and  the  opening  up  of  the  region  to  the  south  of  Algeria 
and  Tunis  by  the  construction  of  an  inland  sea.  According  to 
M.  Roudaire,  the  author  and  protagonist  of  this  scheme,  which  is 
femiliarly  but  deceptively  styled  the  "flooding  of  the  Sahara,"^ 
it  is  t)ossible  by  proper  engineering  works  to  create  an  inland  sea 
to  the  south  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  with  an  average  depth  of  78  feet 
and  an  area  of  3100  square  miles,  or  about  fourteen  times  tlie  size 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  A  Government  commission  decided  that 
the  excavation  of  tho  necessary  canal  would  not  be  difficult,  and 
that,  in  spite  '•''  silting-up  processes,  the  work  would  at  least  last 
1000  to  15*^  years.  M.  de  Lesseps,  M.  Roudaire's  principal  sup- 
porter .sited  the  district  in  1883  and  reported  that  the  canal 
W""  \^  cost  five  years'  labour  and  150,000,000  francs.  The  £clieme, 
.>nich  has  met  with  persistent  hostility  on  tho  part  of  M.  Cosson 
and  others,  is  based  on  tho  following  facts.  The  Gulf  of  Gabes 
is  separated  by  a  ridge  13  miles  across  and  150  feet  high  from  Shott 
al-Fejej,  a  depression  which  extends  south-west  into  the  Shott 
Jerid,  which  in  its  turn  is  separated  from  the  Shott  Rharsa  only 
by  a  still  narrower  ridge.  Shott  Rharsa  is  succeeded  westwards 
by  a  series  of  smaller  depressions  and  beyond  them  lies  the  Shott 
Melrir,  whose  north-west  end  is  not  far  from  the  town  of  Biskra. 
"Wliat  we  know  about  such  inland  seas  as  the  Caspian  and  the  Ai'al 
seems  to  cast  serious  doubt  on  the  probability  of  any  increase  of 
the  rainfall  in  the  Sahara  by  the  fonuatton  of  Roudaii'e's  sea. 

The  commerce  of  the  Sahara  is  not  inoonsidfraUe.  Among  th^ 
more  important  trade  routes  are — ^1)  from  Morocco  to  Cairo  "by 
Insalah  and  Ghadaraes,  which  is  followed  by  the  pilgrims  of 
Western  Africa  bound  for  Mecca  ;  (2)  from  Kuka  to  Murzuk  an<l 
Tripolis ;  (3)  from  the  Sudan  to  Tripolis  by  Air  and  Ghat ;  (4)  from 
Tim,buktu  to  Insalah,  Gliadames,  and  Tripolis  ;  (5)  from  Timbuktu 
to  Insalah  and  thence  to  Algeria  and  Tunis  ;  (0)  from  Timbuktu 
to  Morocco.  The  two  great  products  are  dates  and  salt.  Full 
details  of  the  date  trade  will  be  found  in  Fischer's  Die  Dattelpahiic, 
1831.  The  principal  sources  of  salt  are  tho  rock-salt  deposits  of 
the  Juf  (especially  Taudeni),  the  lakes  of  Kufra,  and  the  rock-salt 
and  brine  of  Kav-ar  (Bilma). 

Sefi,  besides  the  works  already  quoted,  Vatonne,  iVisiioji  de  Glindames,  1S63; 
Duveyrier,  Les  Touarcgs  du  Nord,  1SG4 ;  Ville,  Erphr.  g^ologiqiie  du  Mzah,  £c., 
1867:  Pomel,  U  Sahara,  1S72 ;  Rohifs,  Quer  durch  Afrika  (lS7i),  Drei  Monate 
ii.i  libysckea.  Wiistc  (1S75),  and  Kufra  (18S1)  ;  LaiKej  u,  Le  pays  de  Sirka-Oiiargla, 
1S79  ■  Nachtigal,  Sdhard  und  SudCin,  2  vols.,  1S79  ;  Rolland,  "  Le  Cretace  du 
Sahara  Septentrional "  (with  geological  map  of  the  Central  Sahara),  in  Bull,  de 
la  Soc.  GeoL  de  FTuiice,  ISSI ;  Roudaire,  ]in)i]X>rt  snr  la  di-ntiire  r-r;w(i.  des  Chotts, 
ISSl  (and  other  reports  hy  the  same  autlior);  Tchihatchef,  "The  Deserts  of 
Africa  and  Asia,"  in  British  Association  Ii(}:orts  (iouLhainjiton,  18S2)  t  Derr^- 
cagaix,  "Explor.  du  Sahara:  Les  deux  missions  du  Lieut.-Colonel  Flatters," 
in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  de  Gcogi:,  1S82  ;  Lenz,  Timluktv  :  Jtcise  durch  Marokko,  tCc, 
ISS4  ;  aiid  Reclus,  Nouv.  Geoffrajihie  Univ.,  xi.,  ISSO,  which  contains  an  admir- 
able rcsmtiL  (H.  A.  W.) 

SAHArANPITR,  or  Sehakunpoor,  a  British  district  of 
India,  in  the  Meerut  division  of  the  lieutenant-governor- 
ship of  the  North-AVestern  Provinces.  It  lies  between 
29°  35'  and  30"  21'  N.  lat.,  and  between  77'  9'  and  78'  15' 
E.  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  SiwAlik  Hills, 
separating  it  from  the  district  of  Dehra  Dun,  on  tho  S.  by 
the  district  of  MuzafTaruagar,  on  the  E.  by  tho  Ganges, 
and  on  the  W.  by  the  Jumna.  Sahdranpur  forms  tho  most 
northerly  portion  of  the  Doi'ib,  or  alluvial  tableland,  which 
stretches  between  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna: 
The  Siwalik  Hills  rise  precipitously  on  its  northern  fron-^ 
tier  ;  at  their  base  stretches  a  wild  submontane  tract,  wuh 
much  forest  and  jungle.  Cultivation  generally  in  this 
part  is  backward,  the  surface  of  the  country  being  broken 
by  wild  and  magnificent  ravines.  South  of  this  tract, 
tlanked  on  the  east  and  west  by  broad  alluvial  plains,  lies 
the  DoAb,  with  fertile  soil  and  good  natural  water-supply. 
This  portion  of  the  country  is  divided  into  parallel  tracts 


*  See  list  in  DuvejTier's  paper,  Bidl.  de  la  Soc.  de  Giogr.^  1884. 

'  In  this  connexion  it  is  enough  to  mention  ^Ir  Mackenzie's  sohome 
for  flooding  the  Western  Sahara;  eeo  Floodinfj  Sahara,  1S77,  and 
Eavenstein    "The  Western  Sahara,"  in  Geog.  Mug.^  1876. 


152 


S  A  H  — S  A  I 


by  numerous  streams  from  the  Siwiliks,  while  the  Eastern 
Jumna  and  the  Ganges  Canals,  which  traverse  the  district 
from  north  to  south  and  issue  from  its  north-west  and 
north-east  corners,  cover  the  district  with  a  network  of 
irrigation  channels.  The  onl}'  large  rivers  are  the  Ganges, 
which  enters  SahAranpur  ISO  miles  from  its  source,  by 
a  well -marked  gorge  formed  in  the  rock  at  Hardwdr ; 
and  the  Jumna,  which  debouches  into  the  plain  about 
123  miles  from  its  source,  at  a  place  called  KhAra. 
The  district  has  abundant  means  of  communication  :  the 
Sind,  Punjab,  and  Delhi  Railway  traverses  it  for  a  dis- 
tance of  42  miles,  with  stations  at  Deoband,  Sahf.ranpur, 
and  SarsAwa  ;  and  it  has  numerous  roads,  botli  metalled 
and  unmetalled.  The  climate  of  SahAranpur  is  that  of 
the  North-Western  Provinces  in  general ;  at  one  season  it 
is  tropical,  at  another  partially  Europeaii.  Its  average 
annual  rainfall  is  about  37  inches.  Wild  animals  are 
plentiful,  including  the  tiger,  leopard,  wild  cat,  lynx, 
hy^na,  and  wolf. 

By  the  census  of  ISSl  the  population  of  Saharanpur  numbered 
079,644  (530,427  males  and  449,117  females).  By  religion  there 
were  653,272  Hindus,  317,535  Mohammedans,  and  1793  Christians. 
Five  towns  had  populations  exceeding  10,000  each,  namely,  SahAr- 
ANTUR  (ij.v.),  HardH-.ir  Union  (28,106),  Deoband  (22,116),  Rurki 
(12,818),  and  Gangoh  (12,089).  Riirki  (Roorkee)  is  a  town  of  con- 
siderable importance,  situated  in  29°  52'  25'  N.  lat.  and  77°  55'  40" 
E.  long.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Ganges  Canal  workshops 
and  iron-foundry,  with  the  Thomasou  Civil  Engineering  College, 
for  the  instruction  of  natives  and  others  in  practical  engineering; 
it  contains  also  an  excellent  meteorological  observatory.  Hard- 
wdr  municipality,  which  lies  39  miles  north-east  of  Saharanpur 
town,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  is  the  most  frequented  of 
all  Hindu  places  of  pilgi'image,  and  is  largely  used  for  the  bathing 
festivals.  Every  twelfth  year,  when  Jupiter  is  in  Aquarius,  a  great 
fair  or  kunibh-mcla  is  held,  which  attracts  an  immense  number  of 
people  ;  as  many  as  3,000,000  attended  in  1882. 

Of  a  total  area  of  2221  square  miles  1256  are  cultivated  and 
331  are  cultivable  waste.  Cereals  form  the  principal  products. 
The  chief  spring  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  jnilses,  and  oil-seeds,  and 
the  staples  of  the  rain  crops  are  rice,  joar,  bajra,  and  vegetables ;  the 
cultivation  of  cotton  and  indigo  is  also  carried  on,  the  latter  in  much 
greater  quantities  since  the  introduction  of  canal  irrigation  has 
rendered  its  out-turn  less  precarious  than  formerly.  The  commer- 
cial importance  of  the  district  depends  mostly  on  its  raw  materials. 
It  manufactures  broad-cloth,  jewellery,  and  sweetmeats;  among  the 
articles  produced  at  the  Rurki  workshops  are  steam-engines,  pumps, 
printing  presses,  lathes,  and  mathematical  instruments.  The  gross 
revenue  of  Saharanpur  in  1883-84  amounted  to  £172,960,  of  winch 
the  land-tax  contributed  £118,067. 

During  the  later  yeai-s  of  the  llogul  empire  Saharanpur  was 
the  scene  of  much  strife  and  suffering  on  account  of  the  perpetual 
raids  of  the  Sikhs,  but  in  1785  the  district  under  Ghulam  Kadir 
enjoyed  comparative  tranquillity.  On  his  death  the  country  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  IMahrattas,  but  it  was  for  a  time  occupied  by 
the  adventurer  George  Thomas,  until  lus  death  in  1802.  It  was 
afterwards  overrun  by  Sikhs  and  Mahrattns,  leniaiiiing  practically 
in  the  hands  of  the  former  until  their  defeat  at  Charaon,  Nov- 
ember 1801,  when  it  passfd  under  British  rule.  Several  disturb- 
ances subsequeTitly  took  place  among  the  native  chiefs  ;  but  from 
1324  to  1857  nothing  occurred  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  district. 
The  mutiny  in  this  part  was  soon  quelled. 

SAHARANPUR,  principal  town  and  administrative 
headquarters  of  the  above  district,  is  situated  in  29°  58' 
15"  N.  lat.  and  77°  35'  15"  E.  long.,  on  a  small  stream 
(the  Damaula  Nac'.i)  in  an  open  level  country.  Its  height 
above  the  sea  is  over  900  feet.  The  town  possesses  a  fine 
botanic  garden,  where  early  experiments  were  made  in  tea 
and  cinchona  culture.  Amongst  its  buildings  are  an  old 
Rohilla  fort,  used  as  a  court-house,  and  a  handsome  JIo- 
hammedan  mosque.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in 
grain,  sugar,  molasses,  and  country  cloth.  The  population 
in  1881  was  59,194  (31,506  males  and  27,688  females). 

SAIDA.     See  Sidon. 

SAIGA.     See  Antelope,  vol.  ii.  p.  102. 

SAIGON,  the' capital  of  French  Cochin  China,  occupies 
an  area  of  1000  acres,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Saigon 
river  or  Fion-nai  (one  of  the  streams  that  inosculate  with 
;the  dfltaic  branches  of  the  Me-kong),  about  60  miles  from 


the  China  Sea.  In  1884  it  was  connected  by  rail  with 
Mytho,  37  miles  south-west  on  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
Jle-kong,  with  which  it  had  obtained  direct  water-commnnL 
cation  in  1877  by  the  opening  of  the  Canal  de  Cho-gon. 
The  present  city  has 
been  practically  erected 
since  1861,  and  its  fine 
streets,  boulevards, 
squares,  and  public 
buildings  make  it  one 
of  the  moiit  attractive 
towns  in  the  East,  ss 
it  was  well  planned 
and  the  plan  not  un- 
worthily carried  out. 
The  town  possesses  a 
governor's  palace  or  cit- 
adel (cost  12,000,000 
francs)  with  a  grand 
facade,  a  cathedral  (1877 


Fig.  1.  —  Map  of  Saigon  District. 

cost  2,500,000  francs),  a  palace 
of  justice  (1882),  a  chamber  of  commerce,  a  large  military 
hospital,  municipal  gardens,  and  botanical  gardens  -ndth 
collections  of  wild  beasts.  Among  the  educational  insti- 
tutiona  are  the  College  Chasseloup-Laubat  and  the  Col- 
lege d'Adran,  the  latter  in  memory  of  Bishop  Piqueaux 
de  Behaigne,  whose  tomb  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town. 
There  is  a  large  arsenal  -n-ith  upwards  of  100  European 
employes  and  a  special  establishment  for  the  artillery 
with  machine-shops  and  foundries.  A  floating-dock  was 
constructed  in  1868;  a  much  larger  one  (cost  3,400,000 
francs)  sank  in  1880-82  at  its  first  trial  and  became  a 
wreck.  The  population  of  Saigon  in  1881  was  13,348. 
The  Europeans,  exclusive  of  the  troops,  numbered  onlyi 
965  (913  French).  The  Chinese  element  was  the 
strongest,  and  next  came  the  Anamite.  The  muni-' 
cipality  consists  of  fifteen  members,  of  whom  four  are 
Anamites,  the  rest,  including  the  mayor,  being  French.' 
As  a  commercial  centre  Saigon  is  one  of  the  principal 
towns  in  the  colony,  but  most  of  the  trade  is  really  done  at 
Cholon,  4  miles  off  on  the  Arroyo  Chinois  and  Rach-lo-gom, 
but  connected  with  Saigon  by  a  steam  tramway.  Though 
it  has  its  own  local  government  and  officials,  Cholon  is 
practically  part  of  the  capital.  Chinese  emigrants  from 
Bien-hoa  were  its  founders  in  1778,  and  the  Chinese  still 
form  half  of  its  population  and  almost  niono[iolize  its 
trade.  In  1881  it  had  39,923  ii 
habitants  (83  Europeans).  Wide 
streets  have  been  ojjened  up  through 
its  original  complexity  of  lanes  and 
substantial  quays  constructed  foi 
miles  along  the  Arroyo.  A  fine  gramte- 
paved  market  stands  in  the  heart  of 
the  town.  Rice  ii  the  great  staple 
of  the  Saigon-Cholon  trade,  finding 
purchasers  mainly  at  Hong-Kong, 
Java,  and  the  Philippines.  Other 
articles  are  black  pepper,  gamboge, 
and  cocoa-nut  oil.  In  1883  8,648,243 
piculs    of     rice,     worth     more     than  °' 

£2,000,000,  were  exported.  In  1884,  leaving  out  the 
Jlessageries  Maritimes,  503  vessels  (568,077  tons),  of  which 
239  (253,871  tons)  were  British,  cleared  from  Saigon. 
Fig  2  shows  the  relative  positions  of  Saigon  and  Singapore. 

S.Tigou  was  the  native  ca]>ital  of  Lower  Cochin  China  and  the 
residence  of  the  governor  of  the  southern  provinces.  In  1836  it 
was  fortified  for  tlic  emperor  Gia  Long  by  Colonel  Ollivier.  The 
French  luuler  Admiral  Rigault  de  Genouilly  captured  it  in  1853. 
and  it  was  part  of  the  territory  ceded  in  1861.  The  iniportauc*  of 
the  old  town  may  be  judged  by  the  vast  mounds  of  brick  and  stone 
which  still  crowd  the  ancient  necropolis  on  one  of  tlie  two  roads 
betweeu'Saigon  and  Choloti. 


SAIL 


153 


SML,  SAILCLOTH,  SAILMAKING.  A  sail  is  a 
sheet  of  canvas  (or  other  material  of  the  requisite  flexi- 
bility and  strength)  by  the  action  of  the  v>-ind  on  which, 
when  spread  out  or  extended,  a  vessel  is  moved  through 
the  water.  Sails  are  supported  and  extended  by  means 
of  masts,  yards,  gaiFs,  booms,  bowsprit — all  technically 
termed  "  spars  " — and  stays  or  slanting  ropes.  In  the  first 
experiments  for  impelling  vessels  by  sails  the  least  com- 
plicated form,  that  of  a  single  square  saU  erected  on  a 
single  mast,  was  no  doubt  adopted.  To  the  quadrangular 
the  triangular  sail  would  soon  be  added ;  and  single  sails 
of  both  these  forms  are  known  to  have  been  used  at  very 
early  periods.  Subsequently  the  trapeziform  and  trape- 
zoidal sails  also  came  into  use.  As  vessels  increased  in 
size,  thereby  requiring  a  greater  surface  of  canvas  to  impel 
them,  it  became  necessary  to  use  not  only  more  sails  but 
also  an  increased  number  of  masts  ;  and  the  number  and 
disposition  of  the  several  kinds  of  sails  could  be  almost 
indefinitely  varied  according  to  the  ideas  of  navigators,  the 
services  required  of  the  vessels,  the  places  in  which  they 
were  employed,  and  the  size  of  the  crews.  Thus  a  great 
variety  of  rig  naturally  arose.  Leaving  out  of  account  the 
many  nondescript  styles  adopted  in  the  case  of  boats  and 
small  cro,!^,  all  modern  vessels  may,  for  general  purposes, 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  one  or  other  of  the  following 
categories — cutter,  schooner,  three-masted  schooner,  brig- 
antine,  brig,  barquetine,  barque,  or  f  uU  square-rigged  ship ; 
but  the  cardinal  distinction  is  that  by  which  they  are 
classified  as  square-rigged  or  fore-and-aft-rigged  (compare 
SeaM-O'shiP  and  Ship).  These  expressions  can  be  easily 
explained  by  reference  to  any  three-masted  ship.  The 
ma5t  nearest,  the  bow  or  head  is  known  as  the  fore-mast, 
th3  next  abaft  or  nearest  the  middle  of  the  ship  as  the 
main-mast,  and  the  third  or  that  nearest  the.  stern  as  the 
mizzen-mast.  Each  mast  consists  of  several  sections,  that 
attached  to  the  hull  being  called  the  lower  or  standing- 
mast,  the  next  above  that  the  top-mast,  the  next  the  top- 
gallant-mast, above  which  may  rise  a  pole  or  royal-mast. 
On  each  of  these  masts,  and  at  right  angles  with  it,  is  a 
yard  denominated  "square,"  which  is  hung  (slung)  by  the 
riiddle  and  balanced.  These  yards  are  named  according 
t3  their  situation,  those  placed  on  the  fore  and  main 
standing-masts  being  called  respectively  the  fore  and  main 
lower-yards,  that  on  the  mizzen  the  cross-jack-j'ard ;  the 
yards  on  the  top-masts  are  called  the  top-sail-yards,  those 
on  the  top-gallant-masts  the  top-gallant-yards,  and  those 
on  the  royal -masts  the  royal -yards.  To  each  of  these 
yci'ds  a  sail  is  lent  or  attached,  taking  its  name  from  the 
yard ;  thus  the  principal  sail  upon  the  fore-lower-yard  is 
called  the  fore-course  or  fore-sail ;  the  next  above,  upon 
the  fore-topsail-yard,  is  the  fore-top-sail ;  above  which, 
upon  the  fore-top-gallant-yard,  is  the  fore-top-gallant-sail ; 
and  above  all,  upon  the  fore-royal-yard,  is  the  fore-ro}'al. 
In  like»manner  on  the  mp'n-mast  we  have  the  main-cour.se 
or  main-sail,  main-top-sail,  main-top-gallant-sail,  and  the 
main-royal.  Similar  appellations  are  given  to  those  on 
the  mizzen-mast ;  in  large  merchant-ships,  by  means  of  a 
-'!:y  sail-pole,  a  sail  termed  "sky-.scraper"  is  sometimes  set 
above  the  royals,  but  not  so  frequently  as  formerly.  Such 
square  sails  can  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
of  the  keel  of  the  ship,  a  position  given  to  them  when 
going  before  the  wind  ;  the  same  sails  can  also,  r,y  means 
of  brace.s,  be  placed  obliquely  to  the  keel  wth  a  -side  wind, 
commonly  termed  by  .seamen  "on  a  wind"  or  "by  the 
wind."  In  addition  to  these  there  are  sails  between  the 
masts,  set  either  on  gaf&  (unbalanced)  or  on  stays,  also 
others  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  ship,  extended  prin- 
cipally by  means  of  the  bowsprit,  which,  in  addition  to 
supporting  the  fore-mast  by  a  stay,  also  supports  the  jib 
and  flying-jib-booms  for  extending  the  sails  still  farther 

21—8* 


forwards;  the  means  for  extending  the. after-sail  are  the 
driver  or  spanker-boom  and  the  gaff.  Sails  extended  or 
set  on  gaffs  and  on  stays  are  called  "fore-and-aft,'  and 
are  generally  or  approximately  in  a  vertical  plane  passing 
through  the  keel ;  but  a  certain  degree  of  obliquity  can 
be  given  them  by  easing  off  the  sheet  or  aft  lower  corner 
of  the  sail.  A  ship  fitted  as  above  described  would  be 
termed  "square-rigged,"  the  square  sails  predominating 
both  in  importance  and  in  number.  A  square-rigged  line- 
of-battle  ship  would  be  supplied  with  the  following  de- 
scriptions of  sails  ^ : — 


Fore-atid-Ajt. 
I  Flying-jib 
Jib. 

Second  jib. 
Fore-galf-sail. 

,,    try-sail  (storm-sail). 
Jlain-j^.itr-s.iii. 

,,      tiy-sail  (storm-sail). 
Mizzen- try-sail  (storm-sail). 
Spanker. 

Stay-sail-fore  (storm-sail). 
,  ,,         top. 


Square, 
Fore-course  or  fore-sail. 
,,     top-sail. 
,,    ^op-gallant-sail. 
, ,    royal. 
Jlain-coiuse  or  main-sail. 
,,     top-sail. 
,,     top-"allant-saiL 
, ,     royal. 
Mizzen-top-sail. 

,,       top-gallant-sail. 
, ,       royal. 
Studding-sail-fore. 
, ,  , ,       top. 

,,  ..        top-gallant. 

I,        sall.main-top-gallant. 
In  the  fore-and-aft>rig  the  principal  sails  are  of  course 
fore-and-aft ;  a  outter  (vessel  with  one  mast)  when  fully 
equipped  carries  the  following  : — 

Fore-a-'Ul-A/t.  '  Square. 

Jib-fop-sail.  Sr^iiare-sail  (set  flying). 

Jib.' 
Fore-sail. 
Boom-main-sail. 
Gaff-top-sail. 

The  several  sides  of  a  sail  have  separate  names  applied 
to  them,  the  upper  part  or  side  being  known  as  the  "  head," 
the  lowet  patit  as  the  "  foot  "  ;  the  sides  in  general  are  called 
"  leeches,"  but  the  weather  or  side  edge  where  the  wind 
enters  the  sail,  of  any  but  a  square-sail,  is  called  the  "luff," 
and  the  other  edge  the  "  after-leech."  The  two  top  corners 
are  "earings,"  but  the  top  corner  of  a  jib,  kc.  (triangular, 
one  corner  only),  is  the  "  head  " ;  the  two  bottom  corners 
are  in  general  "  clews  " ;  and  the  weather  clew  of  a  fore- 
and-aft-sail  or  of  a  course  while  set  is  the  "  tack." 

The  relative  importance  of  particular  sails  in  tlie  working 
of  a  ship  varies  according  to  conditions  of  weather,  and  is 
a  matter  for  the  judgment  of  the  officer  in  command.  The 
following  table,  however,  shows  approximately  what  sails 
are  commonly  set  "  by  the  wind,"  presuming  that  the  effect 
on  the  ship  in  relation  to  her  stability  is  .safe  : — 


Winds  as  commonly 
distiiis'iisljcd. 


S.iils  commonly  set  "l>y  tlie  wind.' 


Light  airs i 

Light  winds ' 

Light  breezes  ..,! 
Moderate  breezes  1 
Fresh  breezes 

Strong  breezes  . 


Jloderate  gales . 
Fresh  gales    .... 


Strong  gales  . 
Heavy  gales  . 
Storms. 


S  Courses,   top-s.iils,  top -gallant -sails,  royals^, 
spanker,  jib,  flying-jib,  and  all  liglit  sails. 

Royals  and  flying-jib  taken  in,  in  a  sea  ^vay, 
to  t^vo  reefs  in  the  top-sails. 

Single-reefed  top-sails,  and  top-gallant-s.TiIs, 
in  much  sea,  two  reefs  in  the  top-sails  to 
taking  in  top-gallaut-sails. 

Double. reefed  top-sails  to  treble -reefed  top^ 
sails,  reefed  spanker,  and  jil).' 

Close-reefed  top-sails,  reefed  courses,  to  tak. 
ing  in  spanker,  jib,  foic  and  mizzen  top- 
sail. 

Reefed  courses,  close-reefed  mam-top-»j;Tl," 
fore-stay-sail,  mizzen-try-sail.  *■;  toiiing  in 
the  main-sail. 

Close-reefed  main -top -sail,  stonn  stay-sails, 
to  storm  stay-sails  or  close-reefed  main-top- 
sail only. 


*  Some  ships  (merchant-liners)  have  two  jibs,  tuner  aud  outer,  and 

XXI._^   SQ- 


154 


BAIL 


To  the  casual  observer  sails  -n-lien  spi-ead  and  in  "'use 
appear  merely  as  so  many  large  pieces  of  cloth  ;  but  some 
oi  them  are  of  very  considerable  size :  it  is  not  at  3II  un- 
usual in  full  square-rigged  ships  for  a  main-ccarse  or 
main-sail  to  contain  1000  yards  of  canvas  (2i  inches 
wide),  and  a  main-top-sail  nearly  as  much, — ^the  single  suit 
for  such  a  vessel  comprising  upwards  of  10,000  yards. 
Courses  and  top -sails  are  made  reducible  ;  in  the  British 
na'vj'  they  are  reduced  by  means  of  reefs  (two  in  courses, 
four  in  top-saik),  each  fitted  with  spilling,  slab,  and  reef 
Sines  and  becket,  and  toggles  on  the  yard  (reef-points 
throughout  being  now  obsolete).  In  the  merchant  service 
double  top-sails — upper  and  lower — are  much  in  use  on 
account  of  handiness  in  reducing  sail  ;  there  is  also  "  patent 
reefing  gear,"  such  as  Cunningham's,  which  allows  reefing 
to  be  done  as  much  as  possible  from  deck.  The  dimensions 
of  masts  and  yards,  quantity  of  canvas  or  area  of  sail, 
centre  of  gravity  of  each  sail  (from  which  the  moment  of 
sail  is  obtained  and  compared  with  the  moment  of  stability), 
centre  of  effort  of  the  sails,  and  other  important  calcula- 
tions necessary  in  relation  to  the  body  of  the  vessel  are 
made  by  constructors  and  naval  architects. 

Sailcloth  is  obtainable  from  any  description  of  fibrous 
material  capable  of  being  woven  into  cloth,  having  sufficient 
compactness  and  closeness  of  texture,  and  possessing  the 
requisite  strength  for  sustaining  the  heavy  pressure  which 
sails  often  have  to  bear  in  severe  weather.  Several  de- 
scriptions of  fibre  might  be  enumerated  which  would  to  a 
certain  extent  serve  for  sailcloth  but  for  the  absence  of 
quality  of  endurance  or  resistance ;  hemp  has  been  and  is 
now  occasionally  used,  as  also  a  mixture  of  cotton  and 
linen  yarn,  or  cotton  only, — especially  in  America ;  but 
in  the  United  Kingdom  Fl.\x  (q.v.)  is  the  usual  staple 
material,  since,  when  well  manufactured,  it  possesses  the 
qualities  of  flexibility  and  lightness,  and,  what  is  still  more 
important,  the  element  of  strength  in  a  veiy  large  degree. 

The  folloivirg  points  may  be  regardej  as  of  primary  importance 
for  securing  sailcloth  or  canvas  of  a  superior  quality  and  durability. 
AVhatever  flax  is  used,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  "warp" 
and  "  weft "  of  the  canvas  be  spun  wholly  from  ihe  "  longs,"  be  free 
fiom  blacks  and  any  mixture  of  short  fla.v,  well  dressed  or  heckled, 
and  that  the  yarn  be  well  and  evenly  spun  and  properly  t^\isted. 
Both  warp  and  weft  yarn  should  be  twice  boiled  with  the  best 
American  pot  and  pearl  ashes,  and  cavefull)'  and  thoroughly  washed 
and  cleansed.  Ko  acid  chloride  of  lime  or  other  preparation  of 
chlorine,  nor  any  deleterious  substance,  should  be  used  in  any  stage 
of  the  process,  otherwise  the  integrity  of  the  fibre  will  most  prob- 
ably be  interfered  with  ;  the  only  advantage  got  is  that  the  cloth 
looks  much  whiter,  which  for  yachts  and  pleasure-boats  is  perhaps 
desirable,  but  for  naval  and  mercantile  uses  is  not  at  all  necessary. 
The  yarns  are  first  boiled  a  sufficient  length  of  time  in  a  solution 
of  the  best  American  potash,  in  fixed  proportions  of  ashes,  green 
vavn,  and  water,  then  mill-washed  (beating  process),  and  subse- 
quently carefully  washed  in  a  considerable  stream  of  clear  running 
water,  and  wrung.  They  are  again  boiled  for  a  sufticieut  length 
of  time  in  a  solution  of  American  pearl  ashes,  in  due  proportions 
of  ashes,  green  yarn,  and  water,  then  carefuliy  rinsed,  or  washed 
in  a  clear  stream  of  water,  carefully  dried,  and  frequently  shaken 
in  the  coui-se  of  drying,  so  that  the  "fibres  of  the  fl^x  may  be  equally 
stretclied.  These  repeated  boilings,  &c. ,  have  the  effect  of  cleans- 
ing, bleaching,  softening,  and  removing  all  vegetable  impurities 
which  may  bo  hanging  about ;  no  starch,  tallow,  paste,  or  weaver's 
di-essing  of  any  description  should  be  used,  otherwise  the  fabric 
will  tend  to  mildew  if  allowed  to  remain  damp  for  any  time.  Sail- 
cloth is  made  in  bolts,  mostly  24  inches  wide,  but  also  18  inches 
wide,  and  for  yachting  purposes  frequently  still  less  wide,  upon 
the  ground  that  the  nairoiver  tlie  cloth  the  flatter  and  better  will 
the  sail  stand  to  its  work.  It  is  generally  made  of  eight  different 
qualities  in  respect  of  thickness,  numbereil  1  to  8  accordingly  ;  thp 
heavier  numbers — ?Tos.  1,  2,  and  3 — are  used  for  storm  and  othei- 
Bails  that  have  to  do  heavy  work,  the  remaining  numbers  for  the 
lighter  descriptions  of  sail.  The  weight  of  each  bolt  of  canvas  24 
inches  wide,  from  Nos.  1  to  6  inclusive  for  39  yards  in  length  and 

their  top-sails  aI*o  in  two  jiarts,  upper  and  lo\\er  or  cap-top-sails,  an_ 
Ein'angement  which  makes  it  easier  to  reduce  or  shorten  sail ;  they  also 
liave  a  mizzen  coarse  (Toss-jack),  and  carry  several  light  stay-sails  bo 
A£  to  catch  every  breath  of  wniiii. 


for  Kos.  7  and"8  for  40  yards  in  lei;gth,  is  about  as  follows,  viz., 
No.  1,  46  tb  ;  Ko.  2,  43  ;  No.  3,  40  ;  No.  4,  36 ;  No.  6,  33  ;  No. 
6,  30  ;  No.  7,  27  ;  No.  8,  25  lb.  The  weight  of  each  bolt  of  narrower 
canvas  is  in  proportion.  The  warp  (or  lengthwise)  should  consist 
of  the  following  proportions  of  clean  unstarched  yarn,  viz. :— 


Ko.  1  not  less  than 

26  lb.. 

...Ifii 

score  reed... 

..ceo  double  tlire.lds 

2            „ 

24  „.. 

...10 

..COO 

, 

3 

...lOJ 
...17 

..C60 

21  „.: 

..6S0 
..GSO 

5 

10,,.. 

...17 

'* 

6             .. 

IS  „.. 

...17 

..OSO 

_, 

7             „ 

15,,.. 

...20 

..SOOsin 

Sle  threads. 

s 

14,,.. 

:..20 

„       •  .^ . 

..800 

,, 

As  a  rule  about  40  yards  in  length  may  be  considered  as  tho 
average  content  of  eacli  bolt.  Particular  attention  should  bs  paid 
to  the  weaving,  that  the  texture  be  struck  sufficiently  close,  and 
the  selvages  be  evenly  and  well  manufactured  ;  what  is  termed  a 
slack  selvage  (that  is,  one  selvage  longer  than  the  other)  is  not 
only  awkward  for  the  sailmaker  but  unsatisfactory  both  in  wear 
and  appearance,  the  slack  side  showing  itself  puckered.  Sailcloth 
made  upon  these  conditions  is  very  likely  to  be  a  good  article  ; 
tests,  however,  can  be  applied,  generally  to  strips  1  inch  wide 
from  Nos.  1  to  6  inclusive,  and  Ih  inch  wide  from  Nos.  7  and  8. 
"Weft  and  warp  (24  inches  in  length)  in  each  case  are  placed  in  a 
small  testing  machine,  which  has  a  dial  plate  with  a  spring  under- 
neath ;  vices  are  attached  to  grip  the  strips,  one  vice  to  the  spring, 
the  other  in  connexion  with  a  long  screw  ■with  a  handle  ;  by  turning 
this  handle  the  vices  are  drawn  asunder  untU  the  strip  breaks,  and 
the  bands  on  the  dial-plate  indicate  the  strain  in  pounds.  The 
following  is'a  fair  test  of  strength  for  the  various  nu'bci's  of  good 
sailcloth  i — 


JTeJt.  War]). 

No.  1 4S0tb 340  tt» 

2 4G0  320 

3 440  300 

4 ...400  2S0 


h'eft.  Warp. 

Xo.  5 370  0) 200  lb 

6 350  250 

7 390  330 

S 3S0  310 


It  is  not  at  all  unusual,  however,  to  find  some  sailcloth  stand  a 
strain  considerably  in  excess  of  this.  Freedom  from  blacks,  twist 
and  spun  of  the  yarn,  stiffening,  calendering,  &c.,  can  be  discovered 
by  observation  and  a  maguifjdng  glass,  escessi\'e  dressing  by  a  little 
tincture  of  iodine. 

Saihnaling  is  a  very  old  branch  of  industry  in  connexion 
with  the  navy  and  commerce,  and  it  still  continues  to  be 
important  notwithstanding  the  enormous  extent  to  which 
eteam  is  now  employed  in  navigation. 

The  operations  of  the  sailmaker  may  be  stated  as  follows.  The 
dimensions  of  mast  and  yards  and  sail  plan  being  supplied,  the 
master  sailmaker  is  enabled  to  determine  the  dimensions  of  each 
sail — after  due  allowance  for  stretching — in  terms  of  cloths  and 
depth  in  yards — if  a  square  sail,  the  number  of  cloths  in  the  head, 
number  in  the  foot,  and  the  depth  in  yards  ;  if  a  fore-and-aft  sail 
(tiiaugular),  the  number  of  cloths  in  the  foot,  and  the  depth  in 
yards  of  the  luff  or  stay  and  of  leech  or  after-leech  ;  if  a  fore-and- 
aft  sail  (trapezium  form),  the  number  of  cloths  in  the  head,  number 
in  foot,  and  the  deptli  of  mast  or.  luff  and  of  after-leech.  These 
particulars  obtained,  there  is  got  out  what  is  technically  tenned  a 
"casting,"  which  simply  means  the  shape,  length,  &c.,  of  each  in- 
dividual clotl  in  the  sail.  These  figures  are  given  to  the  cutter, 
who  proceeds  to  cut  out  the  sail  cloth  by  cloth  in  consecutive  order, 
numbering  them  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.  ;  the  series  of  cloths  thus  cut  out 
arc  handed  over  to  the  workman,  who  joins  them  together  by  care- 
fully made  double  flat  seams,  sewn  with  twine  specially  i^ropared 
for  the  purpose,  with  about  120  stitches  in  a  yard.  In  th**  heavy 
sails  the  seam  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width  anu  in  the 
British  na\y  stuck  or  stitched  in  the  middle  of  the  seam  to  give 
additional  strength  ;  the  seams  in  the  ligliter  sails  are  about  an 
•  inch  wide.  The  whole  of  the  cloths  are  then  brought  together, 
and  spread  out,  and  the  tabling  (or  hemming,  so  to  speak)  is  turned 
in  and  finished  off  with  about  72  stitches  to  a  yard.  Strengthen- 
ing pieces  or  "linings"  are  afFxed  where  considered  necessary,  in 
courses  and  top-sails  such  pieces  as  reef-bands,  middle-bands,  foot- 
bands,  leech-linings,  bunt-line  cloths  ;  in  top-sails  (only)  h  top- 
lining  or  brim  ;  in  other  and  lighter  sails  such  pieces  as  mastdiniim 
clew  and  head,  tack,  and  corner  pieces  ;  holes,  such  as  head,  reet; 
stay  (lufO,  mast,  cringle,  bunt-line,  &c.,  are  also  made  where  re- 
quired, a  grommet  of  line  of  suitable  size  being  worked  in  them  to 
prevent  their  being  cut  through.  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
secure  the  edges  of  the  sail, — an  important  operation,  as  much 
depends  upon  this  whether  the  sail  will  stand  well  and  do  its 
work  efficiently.  Bolt-rope,  a  comparatively  soft  laid  rope  made 
from  the  finer  hemp  yarn  (Italian)  is  used  for  this  purpose  ;  in  the 
British  navy  it  ranges  from  1  inch  (increasing  in  size  by  quarter 
inches)  up  to  S  inches  inclusive,  the  size  selected  for  each  i^rt  of 
a  sail  being  deterrainecl  by  the  amount  of  strain  it  will  have  to 
bear  ;  it  is  then  neatly  sewn  on  with  roping  twine  specially  pre- 
pared, the  needle  and  twine  passing  between  and  clear  of  every 
two  strands  of  the  rope  in  roping.  AVhere  slack  sail  has  to  bo 
taken  in.  it  is  the  practice  to  leave  it  to  the  judgment  of  tlie  stit- 


S  A  1  — S  A  1 


155 


maker ;  but  Tvhere  possible  it  is  better  to  set  up  tbe  rope  by  means 
of  a  tackle  to  a  strain  approximate  to  what  it  will  have  to  btar 
wlieix  in  use,  and  wliilst  on  the  stretch  marl<  it  oir  in  y.iuls.  ns  also 
tile  edge  of  the  sail  in  yards,  so  that  by  bringing  tbe  niaikb  to- 
rjether  in  roping  the 'sail  will  stand  flat.  In  the  Untish  navy  tlie 
largest  size  of  rope  sewn  on  to  a  sail  is  6  inches  ;  sizes  ;ibove  this 
are  used  for  foot  and  clew  ropes  of  top-sails  and  courses,  being  fiist 
wormed,  parcelled  (that  is,  wound  round  with  strips  of  worn  canvas), 
taiTed,  and  served  over  with  spun  yarn  ;  the  foot  of  tlie  sail  is  then 
secured  to  it  by  being  marled  in.  Wlierc  two  sizes  of  bolt-rope  used 
in  ropiu»  a  sail  have  to  be  connected,  it  is^  effected  by  a  tapered 
splice.  Ci'ingles  {similar  to  the  handle  of  a  niauiid)  forme<I  by  a 
strand  of  bolt-rope,  mostly  having  a  galvanized  nou  thimble  in 
them  as  a  protection,  arc  then  stuck  where  necessary,  as  at  the 
coruei-s,  sides  or  leeches,  mast  or  luff ;  tliey  are  required  either 
for  making  stationary  or  hauling  "  taut "  by  tackle  or  otherwise 
certain  parts  of  the  sail  when  in  use.  Fore-and-aft  sails,  such  as 
spankers,  gaff-sails,  and  storm  try-sails,  are  reduced  in  size  by  reef- 
points  made  of  stout  line  (4  to  20  lb),  crow-footed  in  tlie  middle,  a 
hole  being  pierced  througli  e/ery  seam  ;  one-half  of  tlie  point  is 
passed  througli  and  the  ciowfoot  sewn  firmly  to  the  sail;  tlie 
number  of  reefs  depends  upon  tlie  size  of  the  sail,  and  the  reefs  are 
placed  parallel  to  the  foot.  The  sails — now  finished  in  respect  of 
making — have  to  be  fitted,  that  is,  sucli  ropes  have  to  be  attached 
to  each  of  them  .is  are  necessary  for  proper  use  ;  such  ropes  may 
be  sninmanly  stated  as  follows  : — licartl-earings,  lobands,  reef-ear- 
iiig.s,  reef-lines,  siiiUing  and  slab  lines,  reef-tackle  peiidairt,  reef- 
points,  bow-line  bridles,  bunt-line  toggles,  bunt-bccket,  leech-line 
strops  and  toggles,  toggles  in  clews,  siieet  ropes,  down-haul,  lacings, 
head  and  stay,  tack-rope  (gatf  top-sail  J,  tack  lashing,  bending  strops, 
matting,  and  gaskets. 

The  tools  and  appliances  of  a  sailmaker  are  not  very  numerous  : — 
a  bench  about  7  feet  long  and  15  inches  liigii,  upon  which  he  sits  to 
perforin  tile  greater  ])art  of  his  work  ;  palms  for  seaming  and  roping 
to  fit  tile  hand,  made  of  hide  lined  witli  leatlier,  a  plate  properly 
tempered  being  fi.'ced  in  it  having  chambers  to  catch  tiie  head  of 
the  needle,  thus  acting  as  a  thimble  in  forcing  it  througli  the 
several  parts  of  canvas  iii  seaming,  and  between  the  strands  and 
through  the  canv,as  in  roping  ;  needles  of  vaiious  sizes,  that  for 
seaming  being  the  smallest  ;  and  fids,  splicing,  serving,  and  stretch- 
ing knife,  rubber,  sail-hook,  bobbin  for  twine,  and  sundry  small 
articles.  (E.  JE.) 

S.\INFOIX  {OnobiyMs  satii-d)  is  a  low-growing  per- 
ennial plant  with  a  woody  root-stock,  whence  jjrooeed  the 
stems,  which  are  covered  with  fine  liairs  and  bear  numerous 
long  pinnate  leaves,  the  segments  of  which  are  elliptic. 
The  flowers  are  borne  in  close  pyramidal  or  cylindrical 
clusters  on  the  end  of  long  stalks.  Each  flo\\er  is  about 
lialf  an  inch  iu  length  witli  lanceolate  calyx-teeth  shorter 
than  the  corolla,  which  latter  Ls  papilionaceous,  pink,  with 
darker  stripes  of  the  same  colour.  The  indehiscent  pods 
or  legumes  are  flattened  from  side  to  sid«,  wrinkled,  some- 
what sickle-shaped  arid  crested,  and  contain  only  a  single 
seed..  "  In  Great  Britain  the  plant  is  a  native  of  the 
calcareous  districts  of  the  southern  counties,  but  elsewhere 
it  is  considered  as  an  escape  from  cultivation.  It  is 
native  throughout  the  whole  of  central  Europe  and  Siberia; 
jut  it  does  not  seem -to  have  been  cultivated  in  Great 
Britain  till  1651,  when  it  was  introduced  from  France  or 
French  Flanders,  its  French  name  being  retained.  It  is 
grown  as  a  forage  plant,  being  especially  well  adapted  for 
dry  limestone  soils.  It  has  about  the-  same  nutritive  value 
as  lucerne,  and  is  esteemed  for  milch  cattle  and  for  sheep 
in  winter.  Sinclair  speaks  in  high  terms  of  its  value  for 
:his  latter  purpose. 

S.\INT.  The  New  Testament  writers  have  much  to  say 
about  the  relations  of  the  "saints"  (as- members  of  the 
various  churches  are  u.sually  called)  with  their  living  con- 
temporaries, but  are  comparatively  reticent  on  their  duties 
and  privileges  with  regard  to  their  departed  brethren. 
Long  before  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  however,  certain 
very  definite  practices  in  the  way  of  commemoration  and 
invocation  had  sprtuig  up,  which  ultimately  found  doc- 
trinal expression  in  the  authoritative  documents  alike  of 
the  Eastern  and  of  the  Western  Church.  (1)  Commemo- 
»«rton.— Under  Fuxef.ai,  Eites,  Maxm,  ic,  allusion  has 
already  been  jnade  to  the  ancient  custom  of  visiting  the 
tombs  of  (Icc-iased  relatives  at  certain  periods  and  there 


offering  various  gitts.  With  certain  modifications,  tliij 
practice  was  retained  by  the  early  Christians;  they  cele- 
brated the  Eucharist  at  or  near  the  grave,  laid  oblations 
on  the  altar  in  the  uame  of  the  departed,  and  in  the  pre- 
comuiuuion  prayer  made  supplication  for  the  peace  of  tlie.r 
souls.  Thus  among  the  usages  "  originated  by  tradition, 
strengthened  by  custom,  observed  by  faitli,"  Tertidlian  (/)<■ 
Cor.  Mil.,  3;  comp.  De  Exit.  Cast.,  11)  mentions  "the 
offerings  we  make  for  the  dead  as  often  as  the  anniversary 
comes  round"  (comp.  S.vcrifice,  p.  139).  If  such  com- 
memoration was  usual  in  domestic  circles,  it  -n-as  little  likely 
to  be  omitted  by  Christian  congregations  in  the  case  of 
those  who  had  "spoken  to  them  the  word  of  God,"  least 
of  all  when  the  bishop  ha<l  also  been,  as  was  so  often  the 
case,  a  martyr.  In  the  very  instructive  document  of  the 
•2d  century,  preserved  by  Eusebius  (//.  E.,  iv.  15),  in 
which  the  martyrdom  of  PoLYC.iRP  (q.v.)  is  described,  we 
are  told  that  the  followers  of  the  martyr,  having  taken  up 
the  bones,  deposited  them  "where  it  was  proper  that  they 
should  be."  "There  also,  as  far  as  we  can,  the  Lord  will 
grant  us  to  assemble  and  celebrate  the  natal  day  of  his 
martyrdom  in  joy  and  gladness."  Cyprian  {Ep.,  36)  ex- 
horts that  the  days  of  death  of  those  who  have  died  in 
prison  should  be  carefully  noted  for  the  purpose  of  celebrat- 
ing their  memory  annually  ;  and  all  the  earliest  e.xtant 
liturgies  contain  commemorations  of  the  departed  The 
names  to  be  commemorated  were  v.-ritten  u,;  th'j  Jiptychs 
(see  Diptych).  (2)  Invocation. — It  is  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand how  a  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  the  prayci-s  of  departed 
saints — especially  of  martyrs — should  at  an  early  date  have 
taken  a  practical  form.  Martyrs  were  believed  to  pass  into 
the  immediate  presence  of  God,  and  the  supposed  nature 
of  their  claims  there  is  not  dimly  indicated  in  the  docu- 
ment already  referred  to,  which  once  and  again  speaks  of 
Pol3-carp  as  "a  noble  victim  selected  from  the  flock,"  "a 
rich  and  acceptable  sacrifice  to  God."  The  readers  oi 
Cyprian  are  familiar  with  the  use  made  of  the  intercession 
of  living  "  martyrs  "  by  the  lapsed  to  secure  their  recon- 
ciliation with  the  church  ;  but  positive  evidence  of  the  inter- 
cession of  the  dead  being  invoked  for  obtaining  favour  with 
God  is  not  forthcoming  so  soon.  Perhaps,  indeed,  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem  (c.  350)  is  the  earliest  author  to  make  express 
allusion  to  the  practice  {Cat.  Jfyst.,  v.  9):  "  we  commemo- 
rate .  .  .  patriarchs,  prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  .  .  .  that 
God  at  their  prayers  and  intercessions  (rr/)co-/3eiai?)  would 
receive  our  supjjlications."  In  the  liturgies,  however,  the 
oblation  still  continued  to  be  offered  "  for  all  martyrs  and 
confessors"  as  well  as  for  others,  and  .\ugustine  -was  the 
first  to  declare  (In  Joann.,  Tract.  84)  that  "at.  the  table 
of  the  Lord  we  do  not  commemorate  martyrs  in  the  same 
way  that  we  do  others  who  rest  in  peace  so  as  to  pray  for 
them,  but  rather  that  they  mav  pray  for  us  that  we  may 
follow  in  their  footsteps." 

For  the  subsequent  development  of  Catholic  pr.ictice  see  tlie 
various  church  histories;  compare  also  C.\noni7,atiox,  LrrANV, 
1:elics,  Image  Wokship,  kc.  Previous  to  the  ^icfuriuation  ecclesi- 
astical legislation  maiuly  sought  to  check  '  ne  popular  tendency' 
towards  something  like  polytheism.  The  Tridcntiae  doctrine  is 
"  that  the  saints  who  reign  along  with  Cliiist  are  t)\  be  lionoured 
and  invoked,  that  they  offer  prayers  for  us,  an<l  that  (heir  relic-s  are 
to  be  venerated."  All  the  cluirchcs  of  the  Reforination,  on  the 
otlier  hand,  while  in  one  form  or  another  commemorating  '"all  tlr- 
servants  departed  this  life  in  thy  faith  and  fear,"  prictically  conr  . 
in  the  teaching  of  the  Church  of  England  (Art.  xxii.),  tlint  "the 
Romish  doctrine  concerning  .  .  .  invocation  of  sa.nts"  is  "a  fond 
thing,  vainly  invented,  and  grounded  upon  no  wairaiity  of  Scripture, 
but  rather  repugnant  to  tlic  word  of  God." 

ST  ALBANS,  a  city,  municipal  borough,  and  iiTarket 
town  of  Hertfordshire,  England,  is  finely  situated  on  an 
eminence  above  the  river  Ver,  on  the  main  line  of  the  Mid- 
land Railway  and  on  branches  of  the  London  and  North- 
Western  and  the  Great  Northern  lines,  about   24  miles 


156 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


north-west  of  London  and  5  miles  west  from  Hatfield. 
The  abbey  or  cathedral  church,  in  some  respectsone  of 
the  most  remarkable  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  England, 
is  described  below.  St  ^Michael's  church  to  the  west  of 
the  town,  within  the  site  of  the  ancient  Vei-ulamium,  was 
originally  constructed  in  the  10th  century  partly  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  town.  Considerable  portions  of  the  Norman 
buildinf  remain;  the  church  contains  the  tomb  of  Lord 
Chancellor  Bacon.  St  Stephen's  church,  dating  from  the 
same  period,  contains  some  good  examples  of  Norman 
architecture.  St  Peter's  church  has  been  in  great  part 
rebuilt,  but  th;  nave  of  Early  Peq^endicular  remains. 
The  (restored)  clock-house  in  the  market-place  was  built 
by  one  of  the  abbots  iu  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL  There  is 
an  Edward  VI.  grammar-school.  The  principal  modern 
buildings  are  the  corn  exchange,  the  court-house,  the 
prison,  "the  public  baths,  and  the  public  library.  There 
are  a  number  of  charities  and  benevolent  institutions,  in- 
cluding the  hospital  and  dispensary,  and  the  almshouses 
founded  in  1734  by  Sarah  duchess-of  Marlborough.  Ti.c 
principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  strCLV.-- 
plaiting.  There  are  also  breweries  and  ironfounclries. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area,  997  acres, 
extended  in  1S79)  in  ISSl  was  10,931;  the  population  of 
the  same  area  in  1S71  was  estimated  at  8239. 

Kot  only  is  the  tatliedral  "a  text-Look  of  mediceval  architec- 
ture from  its  beginning  to  its  ending,"  but  it  "  is  still  in  style, 
material,  and  feeling  that  one  among  our  great  churches  which  most 
tlioroughly  carries  us  back  to  Old  English  and  even  to  earlier 
days  "  (Freeman).  Shortly  after  the  execution  of  Britain's  proto- 
niart}T,  St  Alban,  probably  in  303,  a  church  was  built  on  the  spot. 
In  793  Offa  of  Mercia,  who  professed  to  have  discovered  the  relics 
of  the  martyr,  founded  in  his  honour  a  monastery  for  Benedictines, 
which  became  one  of  the  richest  and  most  important  houses  of  that 
order  iu  the  kingdom.  The  abbots  Ealdred  and  Ealmer  at  the 
close  of  the  10th  century  bei,Mn  to  break  up  the  ruins  of  the  old 
Roman  city  of  Verulamium  lur  materials  to  construct  a  new  abbey 
church  ;  but  on  account  of  the  unsettled  character  of  the  times  its 
erection  was  delayed  till  the  time  of  "William  the  Conqueror,  when 
Paul  of  Caen,  a  relative  of  Archbishop  Lanfranc,  was  in  1077 
appointed  abbot.  Canterbuiy  as  built  by  Lanfranc  was  almost  a 
reproduction  of  St  Stefihen's,  Caen  ;  but  Paul,  while  adopting  the 
same  model  for  St  Albans,  built  it  on  an  immensely  larger  scale. 
The  church  was  consecrated  in  1115,  but  had  been  finished  some 
years  before.  Of  the  original  Norman  church  the  principal  portions 
now  remaining  are  the  eastern  ba)i§  of  the  nave,  the  tower,  and  the 
transqits,  but  the  main  outlines  of  the  building  are  still  those 
planned  by  Paul.  It  is  thus  one  of  the  most  iniportant  specimens 
of  Norman  architectui-e  in  England,  with  the  special  characteristic 
that,  owing  to  the  xtse  of  the  flat  broad  Roman  tile,  the  Norman 
portions  are  peculiarly  bare  and  stern.  The  western  towers  were 
pulled  down  in  the  13th  century.  About  1155  Robert  de  Gorham 
repaired  and  beautified  the  early  shrine  and  rebuilt  the  chapter- 
house and  i>art  of  the  cloister ;  but  nothing  of  his  work  now  re- 
mains except  part  of  a  very  beautiful  doorway  lately  discovered. 
Abbot  John  de  Cella  (1195-1214)  pulled  down  the  west  front  and 
portions  of  the  north  and  south  aisles.  He  began  the  erection  of 
the  west  front  in  a  new  and  enriched  form,  and  his  work  was  con- 
tinued by  his  successor  'William  de  Trumpyngtone  (1214-35)  in  a 
plainer  maimer.  In  1257  the  eastern  portiou  was  pulled  down, 
and  between  the  middle  of  the  13th  and  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
century  a  sanctuary,  ante-chapel,  and  lady  chapel  were  added,  all 
remarkably  fine  specimens  of  the  architecture  of  the  period.  In 
1323  two  great  columns  on  the  south  side  suddenly  fell,  which 
necessitated  the  rebuilding  of  five  bays  of  the  south  aisle  and  the 
Konnan  cloisters.  Various  incongruous  additions  were  nrade 
during  the  Perpendicular  period,  and  much  damage  was  also  done 
diiiing  the  dissolution  of  the  abbeys  to  the  finer  work  in  the  in- 
terior. The  building  within  recent  3-ears  has  undergone  extensive 
renovation,  first  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and 
latterly  to  a  much  greater  extent  under  Sir  Edmund  Beckett.  Its 
extreme  length  outside  is  550  feet,  whiclr  is  exceeded  by  ^Vincheste^ 
by  6  feet.  I'lic  nave  (284  feet)  is  the  longest  Gothic  nave  in  the 
world  and  exceeds  that  of  Winchester  by  about  20  feet.  The  length 
of  the  transepts  is  175  feet  inside.  The  monastic  buildings  have 
ill  disappeared  w  ith  the  exception  of  the  great  gateway. 

To  the  south-west  of  the  present  city  of  St  Albans  stood  the 
ancient  I'cnilamiiim,  one  of  the  oldest  townis  in  Britain,  on  A\'at- 
ling  Street.  It  was  the  chief  station  of  Cassivellaunus  at  the  time 
of  Cagsar's  invasion,  and  under  the  Romans  became  a  vutnicipuim. 
The  ancient  towu  which  grew  up  around  St  Albans  chu.ch  was 


completely  destroyed  by  the  Saxons  between  500  and  560.  During 
'\\'at  Tyler's  insurrection  the  monaster}*  was  besieged  by  the  towns- 
people, many  of  whom  were  executed  in  consequence.  At  St  Albans 
the  Lancastrians  were  defeated  on  21st  May  1455,  their  leader,  the 
duke  of  Somerset,  being  killed,  and  Henry  VI.  taken  prisoner ;  ther^ 
too  Queen  Margaret  defeated  the  eirl  of  Warwick  on  17th  February 
146L  During  the  civil  wars  the  towu  was  garrisoned  for  the 
Parliament.  On  a  printing  press,  one  of  the  earliest  in  the  king- 
dom, set  np  in  the  abbey  the  first  English  translation  of  the  Bible 
was  printed.  A  charter  of  incorpoi-ation  was  granted  to  the  towu 
by  Edward  VI.  It  returned  two  members  to  parliament  until 
1852,  when  it  was  disfianchised.  It  became  a  bishop's  see  iu  1877. 
Nicholas  Breakspear,  the  only  English  pope  (Adrian  I\.),  was 
born  near  St  Albans,  and  was  elected  its  abbot  in  1137. 

See  Matthew  Paris,  Historia  Major;  H,  T.  Riley,  ChyonicU of  thf  ifova^Unj  of 
St  Atbans,  11  vols.,  1SG3-73  ;  Nicholson,  Hislorif  of  St  Albans  ;  Buckler,  Koi-maii 
Church  of  St  Aiba^is ',  Xeale,  Abbey  Church-of  St  Albans,  1S79  ;  Sir  E.  Btdcett, 
St  Albans  Calhcdiiil  and  Us  Beslorat-ioii,  1S3^.  * 

ST  ALBANS,  a  township  and  \illage  of  the  LTnited 
States,  the  capital  of  Franklin  county,  Vermont,  at  the 
junction  of  several  divisions  of  the  CentraK Vermont 
Railroad.  The  village  lies  on  an  elevated  plaiu  about  3 
miles  east  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  has  its  principal 
buildings  arranged  round  a  public  park.  Besides  being 
the  seat  of  the  extensive  workshops  oi  the  railroad  com- 
i:>any,  'St  Albans  is  the  great  cheese  and  butter  market  of 
the  eastern  States.  In  the  neighbourhood,  which  is  cele- 
brated for  the  beauty  of  its  .=cenery,  are  quarries  of  calico 
stone  and  variegated  marble.  The  population  of  the  town- 
ship was  ISU  in  1850,  3037  in  1860,  7014  in  1-570,  and 
7193  in  1880.  Being  only  14  miles  distant  from  the 
Canadian  frontier,  the  village  has  more  than  once  been 
the  scene  of  political  disturbances.  In  18G6  a  band  of 
1200  Fenians,  on  their  return  from  a  fruitless  invasion  of 
Canada,  were  disarmed  there  by  the  United  States  troops. 

ST  AMAND-LES-EAUX,  a  toMii  of  France^  in  the 
department  of  Nord,  at  the  junction  of  the  Elnbn  with 
the  Scarpe  (a  left-hand  tributaiy  of  the  Scheldt),  7i  miles 
by  rail  north-west  of  Valenciennes  and  22  south-east 
of  Lille.  It  has  numerous  industrial  establishments,  but 
is  better  known  from  the  mineral  waters  in  the  vicinity. 
Though  from  Roman  coins  found  in  the  mud  it  is  evi- 
dent that  these  must  have  been  frequented  during  the 
Roman  period,  it  is  only  two  centuries  since  they  began 
to  be  again  turned  to  account.  There  are  four  distinct 
springs ;  the  water  (75°  Fahr.)  contains  sulphates  of  lime 
and  sulphur,  and  deposits  white  gelatinous  threads  with- 
out smell  or  taste.  The  black  mud,  which  constantly 
gives  out  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  is  composed  of  three 
strata — (1)  a  clayey  peat,  (2)  clay,  and  (3)  a  composition 
of  silica,  carbonate  of  lime,  o.xide  of  iron,  and  aluminium. 
Numerous  small  sulphurous  springs  ooze  through  the  lowest 
stratum  and,  soaking  those  aboi  e,  form  a  slough  in  which 
patients  suffering  from  rheumatism.,  gout,  and  certain 
affections  of  liver  and  skin  remain  for  hours  at  a  time. 
The  population  in  1881  was  7881  (commune,  11,184). 

St  Amand  owes  its  name  to  St  Amand,  bishop  of  Tongres,  who 
founded  a  monastery  here  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert,  The  abbey 
was  laid  \\aste  by  the  Normans  in  SS2  and  by  the  count  of  Hainault 
in  1340.  The  town  was  captured  by  JIary  of  Burgundy  in  1447, 
by  the  count  of  Ligne,  Charles  V.'s  lieutenant,  in  1521,  and  finally 
in  1667  by  the  French.  The  abbey  has  been  destroyed,  with  tiie 
exception  of  the  gateway  flanked  by  two  octagonal  pavilions,  now 
occupied  by  municipal  offices  ;  and  of  the  abbey  church  there  re- 
mains only  the  17th-century  facade. 

SAINT-AMANT,  Marc  Antoint:  Ger.4.ed,  SrEtjp.  de 
(1594-1661),  the  most  eminent  of  a  curious  l-acchanalian 
school  of  poets  in  France  during  the  17th  century,  was 
born  at  Rouen  in  the  year  1591.  Very  little  is  known  of 
his  family  except  that  it  was  of  some  position  at  Rouen, 
and  the  mysterious  description  which  all  hh.  French  bio- 
graphers give  of  his  father — that  he  was  a  sailor  "  qui 
commanda  pendant  22  ans  un  escadre  de  la  reine  Eliza- 
beth"— does  not  greatly  assist  an  English  imagination. 
It  appears  that  Saint-Amant  himself  haunted  taverns  aod 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


157 


other  resorts  of  gay  society  a  good  deal  during  his  youth 
and  manhood,  that  he  attached  himself  at  different  times 
to  different  great  noblemen — Retz  (the  duke,  not  the  car- 
dinal), Crequi,  Harcourt,  .&c. — that  he  saw  some  military 
service,  and  sojourned  at  different  times  in  Italy,  in  England 
(a  sojourn  which  provoked  from  him  a  violent  poetical 
attack  on  the  country,  only  printed  within  the  last  thirty 
years),  in  Poland  (where  he  held  a  court  appointment  for 
two  years),  and  elsewhere.  But  details  on  all  these  points 
are  both  few  and  vague.  Saint-Amant's  later  years  were 
spent  in  France;  and  he  died  at  Paris  in  ICGl. 

Saiiit-Amant  has  left  a  not  inconsiderable  boJy  of  poetry  as 
various  in  style  as  Heriick's,  and  e.'ihibiting  a  decided  poetical 
faculty,  hardly  at  all  assisted  by  education.  Of  one  class  of  his 
poetry  the  chief  monument  is  the  jVoise  Sauvi,  published  in  1653. 
The  author  calls  this  by  the  odd  title  of  "  idylle  heroique  "  ;  but 
it  is  to  ail  intents  and  purposes  an  epic  of  the  school  of  Tasso.  It 
is  not  by  any  means  without  merit,  and  the  alexandrine  couplet  is 
managed  in  it  with  much  vigour  and  ease.  The  second  rad  larger 
part  of  Saint-Amant's  works  consists  of  short  miscellaneous  pocrns 
on  a  great  vaiiety  of  subjects.  The  best  of  these  are  Bacchanalian, 
the  oft-quoted  La  Dcbauche  bein?  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
convivial  poems  of  its  kind.  All  through  his  work  flashes  of 
strength  and  true  poetical  imagination  occur  ;  but  he  v/as  rarely 
happy  in  his  choice  of  subjects,  and  his  execution  is  constantly 
marred  by  want  of  polish  and  form. 
■  The  standard  edition  of  Saint-Amant,  with  life,  notes,  &c.,  is  tliat  in  the 
*' Bibliotheque  EUevirienne  "  by  M.  C.  L.  Livct  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1SS5). 

ST  ANBE,EWS,  a  city,  royal  burgh,  university  to^™, 
and  seaport  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Fife,  is  situated 
on  a  bay  of  the  German  Ocean  and  on  a  branch  of  the 
North  British  Railway,  9  miles  east  of  Cupar  and  1 1 
south-south-east  of  Dundee.  It  occupies  a  platform  of 
sandstone  rock  about  50  feet  in  height,  running  east  and 
■west  and  presenting  to  the  sea  a  precipitous  wall,  which 
has  been  much  encroached  on  by  its  action  within  recent 
vears.  The  principal  streets  (North  Street,  Market  Street, 
and  South  Street)  diverge  from  the  cathedral  and  run  east 
ai;d  west,  and  Queen  Street  runs  south  from  the  centre  of 
.South  Street.      Many   new   houses   and  villas  have  been 


Plan  of  St  Andrews. 

recently  erected  towards  the  south,  north,  and  west.  The 
prosperity  of  the  city  depends  primarily  on  its  educational 
institutions,  especially  the  university  The  golf  links, 
which  are  considered  the  best  in  Scotland,  and  sea-bathing' 
attract  many  residents  and  vi.sitors.  In  the  16th  century 
St  Andrews  woa  one  of  the  iiK-st  important  ports  north 
of  the  Forth,  and  is  said  to  have  numbered  14,000  inha- 
bitants ;  but  it  fell  into  decay  after  the  Civil  War,  and, 
although  it  has  much  increased  in  the  present  century,  its 
trade  has  not  revived  to  any  extent.  The  harljour,  pro- 
tected by  a  pier  C30  feet  in  length,  affords  entrance  to 
vessels  of  100  tons  burden.  The  principal  imports  are 
wood  and  coals  and  the  principal  exports  agricultural  pro- 


duce. The  herring  and  deep-sea  fishing  is  carried  on 
by  about  170  fishermen.  The  evidences  of  antiquity  in 
the  dwelling-houses  are  comparatively  few.  The  city  was 
never  surrounded  by  walls,  but  had  several  gates,  of  which 
that  called  the  West  Port  still  remains.  The  most  pro- 
minent ,uins  are  those  of  the  cathedral  and  the  castle  (see 
below).  Among  the  modern  public  buildings  are  the  town- 
hall  (185S)  in  the  Scottish  baronial  style,  the  golf  club- 
house, the  Gibson  and  fever  hospitals,  and  the  recreation 
hall  (1884).  The  population  of  St  Andrews  in  1801  was 
only  3263,  but  by  1881  it  had  nearly  doubled,  being  6406. 
The  parliamentary  burgh  in  1881  numbered  6458. 

The  cathedral  originated  partly  in  the  priory  of  Canons  Regulat 
founded  to  the  south-east  of  the  town  by  Bishop  Robert  (1123-1159). 
Marline,  who  wrote  in  the  end  of  tlie  17th  century,  states  that  in 
his  time  some  of  the  buildings  were  entire  and  that  considerable 
remains  of  others  existed,  but  nearly  all  traces  have  now  disappeared, 
\\ii\\  the  exception  of  portions  of  the  abbey  wall  and  the  archways, 
now,  known  as  the  "  Pends,"  forming  the  main  entrance  from  the 
city.  The  wall  is  about  three-tjuartcrs  of  a  mile  long  and  bears 
turrets  at  intervals.  The  cathedral  was  founded  by  Bishop  Arnold 
(1159-1162),  to  supply  more  ample  accommodation  for  the  canons 
and  for  the  celebration  of  the  worship  of  the  see  than  was  afforded 
by  the  church  of  St  Regulus.  Of  this  older  building  in  the  Roman- 
esque style,  probably  dating  from  the  10th  century,  there  remain 
the  square  tower,  103  feet  in  height,  and  the  choir,  of  very  diminu- 
tive proportions.  On  a  plan  of  the  town  c.  1530  a  chancel  appears 
beyond,  and  on  seals  affixed  to  the  city  and  college  charters  there 
are  representations  of  other  buildings  attached.  The  cathedral  which 
I  succeeded  the  church  of  St  Regulus  is  represented  in  full  outline 
in  the  plan  of  the  town  of  1530.  It  was  constructed  in  the  form 
of  a  Latin  cross,  the  total  length  of  t!;e  building  inside  the  walls 
being  355  feet,  the  length  of  the  nave  200,  of  the  choir  and  lateral 
aisles  C'2,  and  of  the  lady  chapel  at  the  eastern  extremity  50.  The 
widtli  at  the  transepts  was  166  feet  and  of  the  nave  and  choir  62. 
According  to  Fordun  the  building  was  founded  in  1159  ;  but  before 
it  was  finished  the  &ee  witnessed  the  succession  of  eleven 'bishops, 
the  consecration  taking  place  in  the  time  of  Bishop  Lamberton 
(r29V-1328)  in  1318,  when  the  ceremony  was  witnessed  by  Robert 
the  Bruce.  AVhen  entire  it  had,  besides  a  central  to\^  er,  six  turrets, 
of  which  two  at  the  eastern  and  one  of  the  two  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity rising  to  a  height  of  100  feet  still  remain.  The  building 
was  partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1378,  and  the  ii»toration  and  further 
embellishment  were  completed  in  1440.  It  was  stripped  of  its  altars 
and  images  in  1559  by  tlie  magistrates  and  inhabitants  of  the  city. 
It  is  believed  that  about  the  end  of  the  16th  century  the  central 
tower  gave  way,  carrying  with  it  the  north  wall.  Since  then  large 
portions  of  the  ruins  have  been  taken  away  for  building  purposes, 
and  nothing  was  done  to  preserve  them  till  1826.  The  principal 
portioTis  now  remaining,  partly  Norman  and  partly  Early  English, 
are  the  eastern  and  western  gables,  the  greater  part  of  the  southern 
wall  of  the  nave,  and  the  western  wall  of  the  south  transept. 

Closely  connected  with  the  fortunes  of  the  cathedral  are  those  of 
the  castle,  the  picturesque  ruins  of  which  are  situated  about  250 
yards  north-west  of  the  cathedral,  on  a  rocky  promontory  njw 
much  worn  away  by  the  sea.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected 
by  Bishop  Roger  about  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  as  an 
episcopal  residence,  and  was  strongly  fortified.  It  was  frequently 
taken  by  the  English,  and  after  it-irad  been  captured  by  the  Scot- 
tish regent  in  1336-37  was  destroyed  lest  it  should  fall  into  t"  cir 
hands.  Towards  the  close  of  the  century  it  wasiobuilt  by  Bishop 
Trail  in  the  form  of  a  massive  fortification  with  a  moat  on  the 
south  and  west  sides.  James  I.  spent  some  of  his  early  years 
within  it  under  the  care  of  Bishop  Wardlaw,  and  it  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  birthplaco  of  J.ames  III.  From  a  window  in  the 
castle  Cardinal  David  Beaton  witnessed  the  burning  of  Wishart  in 
front  of  the  gate,  and  shortly  afterwards  ho  was  murdered  within 
it  in  his  bedroom  by  a  party  of  Reformers.  The  castle  was  taken 
from  the  conspirators  by  the  French,  among  the  prisoners  captured 
being  John  Knox.  Some  years  afterwards  it  was  repaired  by  Arch- 
bishop Hamilton,  but  in  a  less  m.i-ssive  and  substantial  form.  It 
had  in  1656  fallen  into  such  disrepair  that  the  town  council  ordered 
its  "sleatts  and  timmer,  redd  and  lumps"  to  bo  devoted  to  the 
repair  of  the  pier  at  the  harbour.  The  principal  remains  are  a  por- 
tion of  the  south  wall  enclosing  a  square  tower,  the  bottle  dungeon 
below  the  north-WSst  tower,  the  kitchen  tovicr,  and  a  curious  sub- 
terranean  passage. 

The  town  church,  foi-mcrly  the  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  was 
originally  founded  in  1112  by  liishop  Turgot.  The  early  building 
was  a  beautiful  Norman  structure,  but  at  tho  close  of  the  18  th 
century  tho  whole,  with  the  eicei>tion  of  little  else  than  the  square 
tower  and  spire,  was  re-orccted  in  a  plain  and  ungainly  style. 
Within  tho  church  Knox  preached  tho  sermon  which  led  to  tho 
stripping  of  the  cathedral  and  tho  destruction  of  the  monastic 


158 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


buiklings.  It  "contains  nn  claboraf«  monument  to  Archbishop 
Sharp.  '  Near  tlic  soutli-west  of  tho  town  is  the  ruined  northern 
transept  of  tlio  cl>apcl  of  tlie  Dominican  monastery  founded  by 
Bisliop  Wishart  in  1274  ;  but  all  traces  of  the  Obscrvantine  mon- 
astery founded  about  1-150  by  Bishop  Kennedy  have  disappeared, 
except  tho  well.  T)io  church  of  St  -Mary  on  the  rock  erected  by 
the  Culdees  is  supposed  to  have  stood  on  the  Lady's  Craig  now 
covered  by  the  sea  ;  and  the  foundations  of  another,  also  dedicated 
to  the  Virgin,  to  tho  west  of  the  harbour  were  discovered  iu  1860, 
giving  tho  full  outline  of  the  ground-plan  of  the  huilding. 

The  university  was  possibly  a  development  of  the  "schools" 
which  were  iu  existence  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  12th 
century,  and  were  endowed  by  certain  "rents  and  kuno"  payable 
to  them  from  lands  in  tho  neighbourhood.  Its  immediate  origin 
was  due  to  a  society  formed  iu  1410  by  Lawrence  of  Lindores, 
abbot  of  Scone,  Ricli.Trd  Cornwall,  archdeacon  of  Lothian,  William 
Stephen,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Dunblane,  and  a  few  otheis,  for 
tho  instruction  of  all  who  chose  to  attend  their  lectures.  A  charter 
was  granted  in  1411  by  Bishop  Wardlaw,  who  attracted  the  most 
learned  men  in  Scotland  as  professors,  and  bulls  were  obtained 
from  the  pope  in  1413  confirming  the  charter  and  constituting  it  a 
sfudiiim  gcncrah  or  university.  The  lectures  were  delivered  in 
various  parts  of  the  town  until  1430,  when  a  building  called  the 
"pedagogy"  to  the  Faculty  of  Arts  was  glantcd  by  the  founder 
Of  the  university.  St  Salvator's  College  was  founded  and  richly 
endowed  by  Bishop  Kennedy  in  1456  ;  twelve  years  later  it  was 
granted  the  power  to  confer  degrees  in  theology  and  philosophy,  and 
by  the  end  of  the  century  was  regarded  as  a  constituent  part  of  the 
university.  In  1512  the  university  received  a  further  addition  by 
the  fouuilatiou  of  St  Leonard's  College  by  Prior  John  Hepburn 
and  Archbishop  Alexander  Stuart  on  the  site  of  buildings  which 
at  one  time  were  used  as  a  hospital  for  pilgrims.  In  the  same  year 
Archbishop  Stuart  nominally  changed  the  original  "  pedagogy  " 
into  a  college  aud  annexed  to  it  the  parish  church  of  St  Micliael  of 
Tarvet  ;  but  its  .actual  erection  into  a  college  did  not  take  place 
until  1537.  By  a  bull  obtained  from  Baul  HI.  it  was  dedicated 
to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  of  the  Assumption.  The  outline  of 
the  ancient  structure  is  preserved,  bnt  the  general  character  of-  the 
buildings  has  been  mucli  altered  by  various  restorations.  They 
form  two  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  the  library  and  principal's  residence 
being  on  the  north  and  the  lecture-rooms  and  old  dining-hall  on 
the  west.  The  university  library,  which  now  includes  the  older 
college  libraries,  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
rebuilt  in  1764,  aud  improved  in  IS'29.  'The  lower  hall  in  the  older 
part  of  the  building  has  been  used  as  a  provincial  meeting-place 
I'or  the  Scottish  parlinmcnt.  When  the  constitution  of  the  colleges 
nas  remodelled  in  1579  St  JIary's  was  set  apart  to  theology  ;  alid 
in  1747  the  colleges  of  St  Salvator  and  St  Leonard  were  formed 
Into  the  United  College.  The  buildings  of  St  Leonard's  are  now 
occupied  as  a  high  class  school  for  girls.  The  college  chapel  is  in 
ruins.  The  United  College  occupies  the  site  of  St  Salvator's  Col- 
lege, but  the  old  buildings  have  been  removed,  with  the  exception 
of^the  college  cha]iel,  now  used  as  the  university  chapel  and  the 
parish  church  of  St  Leonard's,  a  fine  Gothic  structure  containing 
an  elaborate  tomb  of  Bishop  Kennedy  ;  the  eutrauce  gateway  with 
the  square  clock  tower  rising  to  a  height  of  152  feet;  and  the 
janitor's  house,  with  some  class-rooms  above.  The  modern  build- 
ing, in  the  Elizabethan  style,  forming  two  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  was 
erected  between  the  years  1S27  and  1S47.  The  JIadras  College  was 
founded  and  endowed  by  Dr  Andrew  Bell.  It  is  attended  by  about 
700  pupils.  There  are  also  several  large  boarding  and  day  schools. 
St  Andrews  (see  Scotland)  is  said  to  have  been  made  a  bishopric 
in  tlie  9th  centun-,  and  when  iu  903  the  Pictish  and  Scottish 
Churches  were  united  the  primacy  was  transferred  to  it  from  Dun- 
kehl.  its  bishops  being  henceforth  known  as  bishops  of  Alban. 
Turgot,  who  was  appointed  in  1109,  was  tlio  first  bishop  who  really 
filled  the  see.  It  became  an  archbishop[ic  during  the  primacy  of 
Patrick  Graham  (1466-78).  This  ceased  in  16S8.  It  was  created  a 
royal  buigh  by  David  I.  in  1124.  The  St  Andrews  district  of 
burghs  returns  one  member  to  the  House  of  Commons, 

Mflrtlne,  Histonj  pnd  Antiqililirs  of  S/  nuh'3  Oiapel  St  Ani^relcs,  1737  ;  Giier- 
v^n,  Dclinmnons  of  St  /l»f/ren-p,  1S07,  3il  ed.  ]S3S;  Heliitnai  DU-l  Andrenr,  1797  ; 
Liher  CnrtaniM  Saiicti  Aii<fie/f,  B.inn.itj-ne  Club,  1S41 ;  Skene,  "  Ecclesiastical 
Setrltfiiieiits  iu  Scotland,"  In  Pi-tv^.  Soc.  Aiitii.  Scot.,  1802-63;  llisfarUs  of  St 
Auilrews  hy  Lyou  (lS43)aud  Robots  (1840)  ;  Skene,  Cdtlc  Scotland.     (T.  F.  H.) 

ST  ASAPH,,  a  city  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
Xortli  'Wales,  in  the  county  of  Flint,  is  situated  on  an 
eminence  in  the  Vale  of  Clwyd,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Chvyd  and  Ehvy,  about  6  miles  south-south-east  of  Ehyl 
and  6  north-north-west  of  Denbigh.  It  is  «omewhat  irre- 
giilarly  built  and  has  an  anticjue  appearance.  On  the 
brow  of  the  hill  is  an  encampment,  Brun-y-  Wylva,  supposed 
to  have  been  occupied  by  the  Roman  forces  under  Suetonius 
PauBnus.  Actording  to  tradition  the  catliedral  occupies 
the  site  of  a  church  and  monastery  founded  by  St  Kenti- 


gern  about  560,  when  he  fled  from  Strathclyde.  It  was 
originally  called  Llan-Ehvy,  the  church  on  the  Ehvy.  It 
is  uncertain  whether  the  first  bishop  was  Kentigern  or 
Asaph,  to  whom  Kentigern  committed  the  charge  of  the 
church  and  monastery  when  he  returned  to  Scotland.  The 
ancient  wooden  structure  was  burnt  down  by  the  English 
in  1245;  and  again  in  1278  the  same  fate  befell  the 
building.  A  third  edifice  was  in  great  part  destroyed 
during  the  wars  of  Owen  Glendower  in  1402.  The 
greater  part  of  the  present  building  was  constructed  by 
Bishop  Piedman  about  1480  ;  the  choir  and  chancel  under- 
went restoration  from  the  designs  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott  in 
1867-68,  and  the  nave  in  1875,  when  a  new  roof  was 
added.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  cathedrals  in  Britain, 
its  total  length  being  182  feet,  while  the  breadth  across 
the  transepts  is  108  feet.  It  is  a  plain  cruciform  structure, 
chiefly  Decorated,  but  with  some  Early  English  portions, 
with  an  embattled  tower,  97  feet  in  height,  rising  from 
the  intersection  of  the  nave  and  the  transept.  In  the  south 
transept, there  is  a  library  of  nearly  2000  volumes,  includ- 
ing some  rare  and  valuable  books.  The  bishop's  palace  is  a 
comparatively  modern  structure.  The  town  has  a  grammar- 
school  (1882),  county  court  offices,  the  union  workhouse, 
and  almshouses.  The  population  of  the  borough  (area, 
1155  acres)  in  1881  was  1901  and  of  the  parish  3177. 

ST  AUGUSTINE,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
St  John's  county,  Florida,  has  the  distinction  of  being  the 
oldest  city  in  the  States  built  by  European-s,  and  has  re- 
cently become  a  popular  winter  watering-place.  By  rail 
it  is  36  miles  south-east  from  Jacksonville.  It  stands  on  a 
narrow  sandy  peninsula,  not  more  than  1 2  feet  above  the  sea, 
formed  by  the  Matanzas  and  San  Sebastian  rivers,  and  is 
separated  from  the  ocean  by  the  northern  end  of  Anastasia 
Island.  The  streets  are  very  narrow,  the  principal  thorough- 
fares being  only  12  or  15  feet  wide,  and  the  balcopies  of 
the  old  houses  often  project  so  as  almost  to  meet  overhead. 
Along  the  sea-front  for  nearly  a  mile  extends  a  granite- 
coped  sea-wall  (1837-43),  which  forms  a  fipe  promenade. 
At  its  northern  end  stands  the  old  fort  of  San  Marco  (now 
Fort  JIarion),  a  well-preserved  specimen  of  Sjianish  military 
architecture  (finished  1756),  with  moat  and  outworks, 
walls  21  feet  high,  bastions  at  the  corners,  heavy  casemates, 
dungeons,  and  subterranean  passages.  It  is  in  the  form 
of  a  trapezium,  and  covers  about  4  acres.  Like  most  o£ 
the  Spanish  buildings,  it  is  constructed  of  coquina,  a  curious 
shelly  conglomerate  from'  Anastasia  Island,  which  was 
easily  quarried,  but  grew  very  hard  on  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere.  The  same  material  was  used  for  paving  the 
streets,  which  were  thus  kept  extremely  clean  and  firm. 
At  the  southern  end  of  the  sea-wall  is  the  old  Franciscan 
monastery,  now  used  as  United  States  barracks.  Of  the 
Spanish  wall  which  ran  across  the  peninsula  and  defended 
the  city  on  the  north  side  there  only  remains  the  so-called 
city  gate.  In  the  centre  of  St  Augustine  is  the  Plaza  de 
la  Constitucion,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  monument 
in  the  middle,  erected  in  1812  in  memory  of  the  Liberal 
Spanish  Constitution.  On  this  square  stand  the  cathedral 
(1793),  with  a  Moorish  belfry,  the  old  governor's  palace, 
now  used  as  a  post-oflice  and  public  library,  and  an  Episco- 
pal church  in  modern  Gothic.  Other  buildings  of  note  in 
the  town  are  the  convent  of  St  Mary  and  the  convent  of 
the  sisters  of  St  Joseph.  Modern  villas  and  hotels  have 
recently  been  erected  in  various  parts.  Palmetto  straw 
goods  are  largely  manufactured  in  St  Augustine,  the 
palmetto  being  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
surrounding  landscape,  to  which  orange  and  lemon  trees 
also  contribute.  The  climate  is  remarkably  equable,  the 
mean  temperature  for  winter  being  58°,  and  for  the  other 
seasons  68°,  80°,  and  71°  respectively.  Frosts  seldom 
occur,  though  that  of   1835  killed  many  of  the  orange- 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


159^ 


trees."  In  1880  the  total  population  of  tlie  city  was 
2293,  but  ia  winter  northern  visitors  swell  the  number  to 
7000  or  8000. 

Menendez  de  Aviles  arrived  off  tlie  coast  of  Florida  on  28th  August 
(St  Augustine's  day)  1565,  and  accordingly  he  gave  tl>e  name  of  that 
saint  to  the  city  which  lie  shortly  afterwards  founded.  His  first  act 
was  to  attack  the  French  settlement  on  St  John's  river,  and  two 
years  later  the  French  retaliated  on  St  Augustine  (see  Florida, 
vol.  ix.  340,  and  Ribadlt).  Inl5S6  Drake  attacked  and  plundered 
the  town,  and  throughout  the  ITth  century  it  frequently  sutfored 
from  the  raids  of  Indians,  pirates,  and  the  English  settlers  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  Occupied  by  the  British  from  1763  to  1783, 
it  ultimately  passed  to  the  United  States  m  1821.,  During  the 
Civil  War  it  changed  hands  three  times. 

ST  BARTHOLOMEW,  or  St  BABTHiLEMY,  a  French 
island  of  the  vrest  Indies,  in  the  archipelago  of  the  Antilles, 
is  situated  in  17°  55'  35"  N.  lat.  and  63"  60'  15"  W.  long., 
108  miles  north-north-west  of  Guadaloupe,  of  which,  poli- 
tically, it  is  a  dependency.  In  form  it  is  very  irregular 
and  the  surface  is  mountainous.  The  soil,  in  spite  of  a 
scarcity  of  moisture,  is  not  unfertile ;  and  in  some  of  the 
valleys  the  growing  of  vegetables  is  au  important  industry. 
Bananas,  cassia,  tamarinds,  and  sassafras  are  exiiorted. 
In  modern  times  zinc  and  lead  ores  have  been  found  in  the 
island,  but  they  are  not  worked.  Rocks  and  shallows 
make  St  Bartholomew  difficult  of  access,  and  its  port  (Le 
Car^nage),  though  safe  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
is  capable  of  receiving  only  the  larger  class  of  coasting 
vessels.  The  chief  town  is  Gustavia,  near  the  port.  The 
population  was  2942  in  1883. 

St  Bartholomew,  occupied  by  the  French  in  1648,  was  ceded  to 
Sweden  in  1784  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  Prance  by  the  treaty  signed 
at  Paris,  August  1877,  with  the  full  approval  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  had  remained  French  in  language  and  manners.  Universal 
suffrage  was  intrmluced  in  1830  and  slavery  abolished  in  1S48. 

ST  BRIEUC,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Cotes  du  Nord,  295  miles  west  of  Paris  by  the 
railway  from  Brest,  at  the  junction  of  a  branch  to  Vannes 
by  Pontivy.  It  stands  290  feet  above  the  sea,  between  1 
and  2  miles  from  the  English  Channel,  where  L^gu6,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Gouet,  serves  as  its  seaport.  About 
600  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  27,600  tons,  enter  or 
clear  per  annum ;  the  local  shipo'ivners  take  part  especi- 
ally in  the  Newfoundland  and  Iceland  fisheries.  St  Brieuc 
is  an  old  town  with  a  considerable  number  of  curious 
houses.  The  principal  articles  of  trade  are  grain,  flax, 
hemp,  vegetables,  honey,  cider,  butter,  and  eggs,  which  are 
despatched  to  England,  and  fish  and  game,  which  are  sent 
in  considerable  quantities  to  Paris.  At  the  fairs  in  bygone 
days  the  Breton  women  sold  their  hair  for  trilling  sums. 
Nurseries  of  some  size  exist  at  St  Brieuc,  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  quarries  of  blue  granite,  giving  employment 
to  300  workmen.  St  Brieuc  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in 
the  province  of  Rennes,  and  has  a  cathedral  dating  from 
the  13th  century,  but  partially  rebuilt  in  the  18th,  and 
extensively  restored  recently.  The  tombs  of  the  bishops, 
the  modern  but  delicately  carved  organ-loft,  the  tapestries, 
and  the  stained-gla-ss  windows  deserve  mention.  The  old 
monastery  of  the  Capuchins  is  occupied  by  the  civil  hos- 
pital. The  monastery  of  the  Cordeliers  contains  the  lyc^e, 
a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  and  a  museum  of  arch;eology 
and  natural  history,  and  the  convent  of  the  Ursulinea  has 
been  turned  into  barracks.  The  episcopal  palace,  the  pre- 
fecture, and  the  to\vn-hou3e  were  formerly  private  mansions, 
a  class  of  old  buildings  which  is  steadily  being  reduced  in 
number  by  the  opening  of  new  streets.  A  colossal  image 
of  the  Virgin  looks  down  upon  the  town,  and  the  Dugucs- 
c'in  boulevard,  on  the  site  of  the  ramparts,  has  a  statue 
of  that  hero.  The  population  in  1881  was  14,869  ,(com- 
mune  17,833). 

St  Brieuc  owes  its  origin  and  its  name  to  the  missionarj-  St 
Briocus,  who  came  from  Wales  in  the  5th  century,  and  whose  tomb 
afterwards  attracted  crowds  of  pilgrims.    The  place  was  defended  in 


1375  by  Olivier  de  Cllsson  against  the  duke  of  Britiany,  and  again 
attacked  by  the  same  Clisson  in  1394,  the  cathedral  sullering  greatly 
in  both  sieges.  In  1592  the  town  was  pillaged  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1601  ravaged  by  the  plague,  and  in  1628  surrounded  by  walls, 
of  which  no  traces  remain.  Betn-een  1602  and  1703  the  states  of 
Brittany  several  times  met  at  St  Brieuc,  and  during  ihe  Reigu 
of  Terror  Chouans  and  Blues  carried  on  a  ruthless  tontlict  with 
each  other. 

ST  CATHARINES,  a  city  and  port  of  entrj  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  and  the  capital  of  Lincoln  county.  i,i 
situated  12  miles  north-west  of  Niagara  Falls  and  ST) 
south  of  Toronto  (by  water),  on  the  Welland  Canal  and 
the  Grand  Trunlr-«nd  Welland  branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  artesian  mineral  wells, 
and  contains  a  convent  and  a  marine  hospital.  The  manu- 
facture of  flour  has  long  been  a  staple  industry,  and  the 
abundast  water-power  is  alsd  utilized  in  cotton -mills, 
machine-shops,  agricultural  implement  works,  ic.  In- 
corporated as  a  town  in  1845,  St  Catharines-  had  in  1861 
a  population  of  G284,  in  1871  of  7864,  and  in  1881  of 
9631.     A  city  charter  was  granted  in  1875.  ( 

ST  CHAMOND,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Loire,  7h  miles  east-north-east  of  St 
Etienne,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Janon  with  the  Gier  (an 
affluent  of  the  Rhone),  and  on  the  railway  from  St  fitienne 
to  Lyons.  Besides  working  a  considerable  number  of 
coal-mines,  St  Chamond  employs  twelve  mills  in  the  silk 
manufacture,  and  from  12,0OO  to  15,000  looms  (mostly 
driven  by  hydraulic  machinery)  in  lace-making,  and  has  a 
variety  of  other  manufactures.  The  population  was  14,149 
in  1881. 

St  Chamond,  founded  in  the  7tli  century  by  St  Enneniond  or 
Chamond,  archbishop  of  Lyons,  became  tlie  chief  town  of  the 
Jarret,  a  little  principality  formed  by  the  valley  of  the  Gier.  Silk- 
milling  was  introduced  in  the  town  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury by  Gayotri,  a  native  of  Bologna,  and  perfected  towards  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  by  Richard  Chambovet.  Remains  are  found 
at  St  Chamond  of  a  Roman  aqueduct,  which  conveyed  the  watei-s 
of  the  Janon  along  the  valley  of  the  Gier  to  Lyons. 

ST  CHARLES,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the"  county, 
seat  of  St  Charles  county,  Missouri,  is  situated  on  the 
left  or  north  bank  of  the  Missouri  20  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  23  from  St  Louis  by  the  St  Louis  and 
Omaha  line  of  the  Wabash,  St  Louis,  and  Pacific  Railway, 
which  cros.ses  the  river  by  a  great  iron  bridge  6535  feet 
long,  erected  in  1871  at  a  cost  of  81,750,000.  Besides 
one  of  the  largest  car-factories  in  the  United  States,  the 
industrial  establishments  of  St  Charles  comprise  tobacco- 
factories,  flour-mills,  hominy-mills,  creameries,  woollen- 
factories,  and  breweries.  St  Charles  College  (Methodist 
Episcopal),  chartered  in  1838,  the  Lindenwood  Female 
College  (Presbyterian),  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  public  library  are  the  principal 
institutions.  In  1850  the  inhabitants  numbered  only 
1498;  by  1870  they««-ere  5,570,  and  in  1880  .^^014  (in 
the  tomiship  8417). 

A  Spanish  post  was  established  nt  St  Charles  in  176C. 
town  it  dates  from  1S09  and  as  a  city  from  1849.     Tlic  firat  State 
legislature  of  Missouri  met  in  the  town  in  1821  and.  St  Charles 
continued  to  be  tlie  State  capital  till  1826. 

ST  CHRISTOPHER,  or  St  Kitts,  one  of  the  Leeward 
Islands,  West  Indies,  situated  in  17°  18'  N.  lat.  and  62° 
48'  W.  long.  Its  length  is  23  miles,  its  greatest  breadth 
5  miles,  and  the  total  area  68  square  miles.  Mountains 
traverse  the  central -part  from  .south-east  to  north-west, 
the  greatest  height,  Jlount  Misery,  being  about  4100  feet 
above  sea-level.  On  the  seaboard  is  Basseterre,  the  capital, 
the  outlet  of  a  fertile  plain,  which  contains  the  cultivated 
land.  The  thermometer  ranges  from  7S°  to  84°  Fahr. 
St  Christopher  is  united  with  Nevis  (j.f.)  as  one  colony, 
with  one  executive  and  one  legislative  council  (official  and 
nominated)  for  the  united  ijrusideiicy.''  In  1 883  the  revenue 
and  expenditure  were  X34,000  and  £33,000  respectively. 


IGO 


S  A  I  — S  A  1 


and  the  public  debt  waa  £2500.  The  tonnage  entering 
and  clearing  wa3  307,000,  and  the  imports  and  exports 
were  valued  at  £190,000  and  £240,000  respectively  per 
annum.  The  sugar  exports  amounted  to  1 0,000  tons.  The 
population  of  the  island  was  about  30,000. 

ST  CLAIR,  a  borough  of  the  United  State.?,  in  Schuyl- 
kill county,  Pennsylvania,  3  miles  east  of  PottsvLlle  on  the 
Reading  and  Philadelphia  Railroad.  It  mainly  depends 
on  its  coal-mines.  The  population  was  5726  in  1870  and 
4149  in  1880. 

ST  CLOUD,  a  village  ol  France,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine,  7  miles  west  from  the  centre  of  Paris  and  9?j 
by  the  railroad  from  Paris  to  Versailles,  forming  part  of 
the  canton  of  Sevres  and  of  the  arrondissement  of  Ver- 
sailles (Seine-et-Oise).  Picturesquely  built  on  a  hill-slope, 
it  overlooks  the  river,  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  and  Paris ; 
and,  lying  amid  the  foliage  of  its  magnificent  park  and 
numerous  \  .la  gardens,  it  is  one  of  the  favourite  resorts 
of  the  Parisians.  The  palace  of  St  Cloud,  which  had  been 
a  summer  residence  for  Napoleon  I.,  Louis  XVIIL,  Charles 
X.,  Louis  Philippe,  and  Napoleon  III.,  was  burned  by 
the  Prussians  in  1870  along  with  part  of  the  village.  In 
spite  of  the  damage  inflicted  on  the  parlc  at  tb.e  same 
period,  magnificent  avenues  still  make  it  one  of  the  finest 
rural  haunts  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris.  It  occupies 
a  varied  tract  of  960  acres,  and  abounds  in  picturesque 
Tiews.  Every  year  in  September  ,a  great  fair,  lasting 
three  weeks,  is  held  in  the  park ;  and  within  its  precincts 
.are  rdtuated  the  new  national  Sevres  porcelain  manufac- 
ture and  the  Breteuil  pavilion,  the  seat  of  the  interna- 
tional metre  commission.  St  Cloud  possesses  a  church, 
■erected  about  1865,  in  the  style  of  the  12th  century,  with 
an  elegant  stone  .spire;  and  here  too  has  been  established 
the  upper  normal  school  (science  and  letters)  for  the 
training  of  teachers  (male)  for  the  provincial  normal 
schools  of  primary  instruction.  The  population  in  1881 
was  4081,  and  4126  in  the  commune. 

ClodoaUl  or  Cloud,  grandson  of  Clovis,  adopted  the  monastic  life 
and  left  his  name  to  the  spot  wliere  his  tomb  was  discovered  after 
the  lapse  of  1200  years,  in  a  crypt  near  the  present  cliiirch.  He 
had  granted  the  domain  to  the  church  of  Pans,  which  possessed  it 
as  a  lief  till  the  18th  century.  At  St  Cloud  Henrjf  III.  and  the 
king  of  Navarre  (Heniy  IV.)  established  their  camp  during  the 
League  for  the  siege  of  Paris  ;  and  there  the  former  was  assassinated 
by  Jacr|ue3  Clement.  The  castle  was  at  that  time  only  a  plain 
country  house  belonging  to  Pierre  de  Gondi,  archbishop  of  Paris., 
Louis  XIV.  bought  it  for  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who 
was  the  originator  of  the  palace  which  perished  in  1S70.  Peter  the 
Great  of  Russia  was  received  there  in  1717  by  the  regent,  whose 
grandson  sold  the  palace  to  llarie  Antoinette.  It  was  in  the 
orangery  at  St  Cloud  that  Bonaparte  executed  the  coup  d'etat  of 
18th  Bruinaire  ;  and  after  he  became  emperor  the  palace  was  his 
favourite  residence,  and  there  he  celebrated  his  marriage  with  JIarie 
Louise.  In  1815  it  was  the  scene  of  the  signing  of  the  capitulation 
of  Paris  ;  and  in  1830  from  St  Cloud  Charles  X.  issued  tlie  orders 
which  brought  about  his  fall.  Napoleon  III.  was  there  when  he 
received  the  senatusconsult  which  restored  the  empire  in  his  favour 
(1st  December  1852).  Seized  by  the  Pi-ussians  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  investment  of  Paris  in  1870,  St  Cloud  was  sacked 
during  the  siege 

ST  CROIX,  or  Sainte  Croix,  one  of  the  Danish  West 
India  Islands,  is  situated  between  17°  and  18°  N.  lat., 
about  40  miles  south-south-east  of  St  Thomas.  Twenty- 
three  miles  long,  and  with  a  maximum  width  of  6  miles, 
it  has  an  area  estimated  at  51,168  acres.  Blue  Mountain, 
the  highest  peak  (1100  feet),  lies  in  the  range  of  hills 
running  parallel  with  the  coast  in  the  western  half  of  the 
island.  The  narrower  eastern  end  is  also  hilly.  In  the 
centre  and  towards  the  west  the  surface  is  undulating, 
and  towards  the  south  flat  with  brackish  lagoons.  With 
tlie  exception  of  about  4000  acres,  the  soil  is  everywhere 
productive ;  but  only  about  one-third  of  the  area  is  de- 
voted to  sugar-growing  and  one-sixth  to  pasture-land,  the 
greater  part  of  the  remainder  being  either  worthless  brush- 


wood (the  haunt  of  small  deer)  or  scanty  timber.    Besides 

little  Negro  hamlets  there  are  two  garrison  towns — Chris- 
tiansted  (or  popularly  Bassin)  on  the  north  coast,  with  a 
small  harbour  15  to  16  feet  deep  at  the  entrance,  and 
Frederiksted  (popularly  West  End)  on  the  west  coast, 
with  an  open  roadstead.  The  population  of  the  island 
was  23,194  in  1860,  22,760  in  1870,  and  18,430  in  1880.- 
This  decrease  is  due  to  the -comparative  failure  of  the 
sugar-crops.  Destruction  of  the  forests  (or  some  unsus- 
pected cause)  has  brought  diminished  •rainfall  (from  20  to 
34  inches  per  annum);  and  the  belt  of  abandoned  cane- 
ground  has  been  steadily  increasing.  To  help  in  checking 
this  decay  tlie  Government  constructed  (1876)  a  great 
central  factory,  to  which  the  jiuce  is  conveyed  from  the 
plantations  by  a  system  of  pipes.  Apart  from  the  official 
element  (mostly  Danish),  the  white  inhabitants  of  St  Croix 
are  almost  wholly  British  either  by  birth  or  descent. 

St  C'roi.v  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage. ^^  In 
1C51  France  entrusted  it  to  the  Knights  of  JIalta,  and  in  1733  it 
was  purchased  by  Denmark  for  750,000  livres  (167,000  rixdollars). 
Slavery  was  abolished  in  1848,  and  coolies  began  to  be  employed 
in  1863. 

ST  CYR,' Maeshai  (1764-1830).  See  Gouvion  »St 
Cra. 

ST  CiTl-L'ECOLE,  a  village  of  France  (Seine-et-Oise), 
2J-  miles  west  of  Versailles  at  the  end  of  the  old  park 
of  Louis  XIV.  It  had  only  2712  inhabitants  in  1881, 
and  its  importance  is  solely  due  to  the  famous  military 
school  now  established  in  the  convent  which  Madame  de 
Maintenon  founded  for  the  education  of  noble  young  ladies 
in  indigent  circumstances.  It  was  here  that  Racine's  Esther 
and  Athalie  were  first  acted,  having  been  written  expressly 
for  the  pupils.  !Madame  de  Maintenon's  tomb  is  still 
preserved  in  the  chapel.  The  convent  was  suppressed  at 
the  Revolution,  and  the  gardens  are  now  partly  trans- 
formed into  parade-grounds.  Two  advanced  forts  of  the 
new  enceinte  round  Paris  are  situated  at  St  Cyr. 

ST  D.WID'S,  a  village  of  Pembrokeshire,  South  Waies, 
and  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Alan,  16  miles  north-west  of  Haverfordwest,  the  nearest 
railway  station,  and  IJ-  miles  east  from  the  most  westerly 
point  of  Wales.  By  some  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  Roman 
Menapia.  It  consists  of  straggling  and  somewhat  mean 
houses,  occupying  the  crest  of  the  hill  above  the  cathedral. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  St  David,  the  jjatron  saint  of 
Wales.  The  see,  which  includes  nearly  the  whole  of  South 
Wales,  was  founded  at  least  not  later  than  the  7th  century. 
Till  the  middle  of  the  12th  century  the  bishoi^s  had 
archiepiscopal  powers.  The  existing  cathedral  was  begun 
in  1180.  Its  tower  fell  in  1220,  crashing  through  the 
choir  and  transepts ;  when  it  was  rebuilt  the  old  western 
arch  was  retained.  About  the  time  the  choir  and  tran- 
septs were  repaired  St  Thomas's  chapel  was  added.  In 
1248  an  earthcjuake  caused  the  walls  of  the  nave  to  bulge. 
The  chapels  east  of  the  presbytery  were  begun  about  this 
period,  and  the  lady  chapel  between  1296  and  1328. 
The  aisles  of  the  nave  and  of  the  presbytery  were  raised 
by  Bishop  Gower  (1328-1347),  who  set  up  the  beautiful 
stone  rood  screen.  The  great  window  in  the  south  tran- 
sep't  in  the  Perpendicular  style  was  erected  in  1384,  and 
the  roofs  renewed  in  the  Late  Perpendicular  between  1461 
and  1522.  The  west  front  was  rebuilt  by  Nash  about 
the  end  of  the  18th  century,  and  in  1862  extensive 
restoration.s,  including  the  rebuilding  of  the  two  western 
piers  of  the  tower  and  of  the  west  front,  were  begun 
under  the  direction  of  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  The  cathedral 
contains  the  tomb  of  Edmund  Tudor,  father  of  Henry 
VII.,  and  the  shrine  of  St  David.  The  total  internal 
length  of  the  building  is  298  feet,  the  breadth  of  the  navo 
(with  aisles)  70  feet,  and  the  breadth  of  the  transepts  27 
feet  3  inches.     Parts'  of  the  rich  interior  decoration  of  tho 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


161 


nave  are  partictdarly  worthy  of  notice.  To  the  north  of 
the  cathedral  are  the  picturesque  ruins  of  the  chapel  of 
St  Mary's  College,  founded  in  1377.  'On  the  other  side 
of  the  Alan  are  the  remains  of  the  bishop's  palace,  a 
masterpiece  of  Bishop  Glower,  particularly  noteworthy  for 
the  beautiful  arcade  and  parapet  running  round  the  whole 
building.  It  was  partly  unroofed  by  Bishop  Barlow  in 
1536.  In  the  centre  of  the  village  stands  the  ancient 
cross,  28  feet  high,  the  steps  of  which  were  restored  by 
Bbhop  Thirlwall  in  1873.  The  place  is  without  municipal 
government,  its  mayor  being  the  officer  of  the  bishop's 
manorial  court.  The  population  of  the  parish  in  1881 
was  2053. 

ST  DENIS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Seine,  4J  miles  north  of  Paris  by  the  Northern  Railway, 
which  there  divides  into  two  branches  leading  respectively 
to  Pontoise  and  Creil,  is  now  a  great  manufacturing  centre 
for  machinery,  boats,  railway  carriages,  chemical  products, 
printed  goods,  candles,  beer,  leather,  and  flour.  Many  of 
the  works  are  supplied  with  water  from  the  Crould  and 
the  Bouillon,  which  there  fall  into  the  Seine ;  and  a  canal 
extends  from  the  Seine  to  La  Villette,  the  great  inner 
barbour  of  Paris.  In  1881  the  population  was  43,M7. 
The  name  and  fame  of  the  town  are  derived  from  the 
abbey  founded  by  Dagobert  on  the  spot  where  St  Denis, 
the  apostle  of  Paris,  was  interred  (see  below).  The  west 
front  was  built  between  1137  and  1140.  The  right-hand 
tower  is  almost  pure  Romanesque ;  that  on  the  left  was 
Gothic,  and  its  spire  was  carried  to  a  height  of  280  feet, 
but  it  was  struck  by  lightning  in  1837  and  its  reconstrac- 
tion  effected  in  so  clumsy  a  manner  that  it  had  to  be 
taken  down  till  it  was  on  a  level  with  the  roof  of  the 
nave.  The  rose  window,  now  occupied  by  a  clock  face, 
dates  from  the  13th  century.  Under  one  of  the  three 
rows  of  arches  above  the  main  entrance  runs  an  inscrip- 
tion recording  the  erection  of  the  church  by  Suger  with 
abbatial  funds  and  its  consecration  in  1140.  The  porch 
formed  by  the  first  three  bays  of  the  church  contains  some 
remains  of  the  basilica  of  Pippin  the  Short.  The  nave 
proper  (235  feet  long  and  57  wide)  has  seven  bays,  and 
dates,  as  well  as  most  of  the  choir  and  transepts,  from  the 
reign  of  St  Louis.  The  gallery  of  the  triforium  is  of  open 
work  and  is  filled  in  with  glass.  The  secondary  apse  (rond- 
point)  and  its  semicircular  chapels  (consecrated  on  11th 
June  1144)  are  considered  as  the  first  perfected  attempt 
at  Gothic.  The  transepts  have  fine  13th-century  facjades, 
each  with  two  unfinished  towers ;  if  the  plan  had  been 
fully  carried  out  there  would  have  been  six  towers  besides 
a  central  fliche  in  lead.  In  the  chapels  of  the  nave  are 
the  tombs  of  Louis  XII.  and  Anne  of  Brittany  (1591) ;  of 
Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de'  Medici,  a  masterpiece  by 
Germain  Pilon ;  of  Louis  of  Orleans  and  Valentine  of 
Milan,  from  the  old  church  of  the  Celestines  at  Paris ;  of 
Francis  I.  and  Claude  of  France,  one  of  the  most  splendid 
tombs  of  the  RenaLssauCe,  executed  under  the  direction  of 
Philibert  Delorme ;  and  that  of  Dagobert,  which,  though 
considerably  dilapidated,  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  curious 
of  mcdiaival  (13th-century)  works  of  art.  In  the  apse 
some  stained  glass  of  the  time  of  Suger  still  remains. 
The  crj-pt  dates  partly  from  Charlemagne  and  partly  from 
Suger.  In  the  centre  fe  the  vault  where  the  coffin  of  the 
dead  king  used  to  lie  until,  to  make  room  for  that  of  his 
successor,  it  was  removed  to  its  final  resting-place.  It  is 
at  present  occupied  by  the  colHn  of  Louis  XVIII.,  the  last 
sovereign  whose  body  was  borne  to  St  Denis  and  the  only 
one  whose  ashes  have  been  respected.  Besides  some  fine 
statues,  the  crypt  contains  the  Bourbon  vault,  in  which 
were  deposited  the  remains  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie 
Antoinette,  or  at  least  whatever  of  them  was  recoverable 
from  the  cemetery  of  La  Madeleine,  where  the  Chapello 


Expiatoire  now  stands.  The  treasury  of  St  Denis  has  been 
despoiled  of  its  richest  possessions,  including  the  books 
now  in  the  National  Library ;  but  it  still  contains  crosses, 
altar-pieces,  and  reliquaries,  notably  those  of  St  Denis 
and  -his  two  companions,  Rusticus  and  Eleutherius,  the 
three  patrons  of  the  basilica.  The  chapter  of  St  Denis  is 
usually  composed  of  emeritus  bishops  with  the  title  of 
canons ;  but  the  institution  is  about  to  be  abolished 
(1886).  St  Denis  possesses  a  fine  to\vn-hou3e  and  a  poor- 
house  (300  beds).  Its  three  forts  formed  'part  of  the 
Parisian  enceinte  in  1870-71,  and  from  23d  to  26th  January 
1871  the  place  was  bombarded  by  the  Prussians,  who  did 
considerable  damage  to  the  basilica. 

St  Denis,  the  ancient  CatuUjacum,  was  a  town  of  no  pretensions 
till  the  founding  of  its  abbey.  The  process  of  rebuilding  begun 
in  the  12th  century  by  Abbu  Suger  w?.3  completed  under  Philip 
the  Bold.  In  the  meantime  St  Louli  caused  mausoleums  to  bo 
prootod  with  figures  of  the  princes  already  buried  in  the  abbey  ; 
and  from  his  time  onwards  to  Henry  II.  every  monarch  in  suc- 
cession had  his  monument.  Louis  XIV.  reduced  the  abbey  to  tho 
rank  of  a  priory  ;  and  at  the  Revolution  it  was  suppressed,  the 
tombs  being  violated  and  tho  church  sacked  (1793).  Two  years 
later  all  the  remains  and  fragments  that  could  be  recovered  weref 
collected  in  the  museum  of  the  Petits  Augustines  at  Paris  ;  but  the 
bronze  tombs  had  been  melted  down,  the  stained -glass  windows 
shattered,  and  large  numbers  of  interesting  objects  stolen  or  lost. 
Napoleon  established  in  the  monastery  a  school  for  datishters  of 
the  members  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  which  has  continued  to 
flourish.  Louis  XVIII.  caused  all  the  articles  belonging  to  St 
Denis  to  be  brought  back  from  the  museums  to  their  original  site, 
and  added  numerous  other  monuments  from  the  suppressed  abbeys. 
But  it  was  not  till  after  1848  that,  tmder  the  inttdligent  direction 
of  Viollet  le  Due,  tho  damage  inflicted  by  revolutionist  and  imskil- 
ful  restorer  was  repaired  and  the  basilica  recovered  its  original 
appearance.  Charles  the  Bold  instituted  the  famous  fair  of  Landit, 
Tvhieh  was  transferred  from  tho  neighbouring  plain  to  St  Denis 
itself  in  1552,  and  i§  still  held  in  the  town.  Sheep  and  parchment 
were  formerly  the  staples.  The  abbe/  was  pillaged  by  Charles  the 
Bad,  king  of  Navarre,  in  1358,  by  the  Burgundians  and  Flemings 
in  1411,  and  by  tho  English  in  1430.  A  sanguinary  battle,  m 
which  tho  Catholic  leader  Constable  Anno  do  Montmorency  found 
victory  and  death,  was  fought  between  Huguenots  and  Catholics  in 
the  neighbourhood  on  10th  November  1567. 

ST  DENIS,  the  capital  of  Reunion  (q.v.). 

ST  Difi,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  and  a  bishop's  see  in  the  department  of  Vosges,  is 
situated  op  the  right  bank  of  the  IMeurthe,  1030  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  the  railway  from  Liui^ville  (32  miles  north- 
west) to  fipinal  (38  miles  south-west).  One  portion  of  the 
town  was  rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1757  in  the  regular  and 
monumental  style  of  Nancy ;  the  other  has  a  somewhat 
mean  appearance.  Several  Alsatian  manufacturers  having 
emigrated  to  St  Di6  on  the  annexation  of  their  country 
to  Germany,  the  town  has  made  great  progress  since 
1871,  and  now  possesses  weaving  factories,  bleacberies, 
hosiery  factories,  engineering  work.s,  a  tilo  work,  and  an 
extensive  brewery.  The  cathedral  has  a  Romanesque  nave 
(10th  century)  and  a  Gothic  choir;  the  portal,  in  red 
sandstone,  dates  from  the  18th  century.  A  fine  cloister, 
recently  restored  and  containing  a  beautifully  executed 
stone  pulpit,  leads  to  the  Petite  ^glise  or  Notre  Dame,  a 
well-preserved  specimen  of  early  Romanesque.  Other 
points  of  interest  are  tho  library,  the  museum,  belonging 
to  the  Soci^t6  Philomathiquo  Vosgicnne,  tho  large  schools, 
and  the  public  fountains.  The  town  commands  an  exten- 
sive view  of  the  Vosges  and  is  a  convenient  centre  for  ex- 
cursions.. The  population  in  1881  was  12,677  (15,312  in 
the  commune). 

St  Di^  (Deodalum,  Tluodata,  S.  Dcodati  Fmmm)  grew  up  round 
a  monastery  founded  in  the  6th  century  bv  St  Deodatus  of  Nevers, 
who  gave  up  his  episcopal  functions  in  order  to  retire  to  this  place. 
In  the  10th  century  tho  community  became  a  chapter  of  canons  ; 
and  among  those  who  subsequently  held  tho  rank  of  provost  or 
des*  were  Giovanni  de'  Medici  (afterwards  Pope  Leo  X.)  and  several 
princes  of  tho  house  of  Lorraine.  Among  the  extensive  privileges 
enjoyed  by  them  v.ss  that  of  coining  money.  Though  they  co- 
operated in-  building  the  town  walls,  tho  canons  and  the  dukea  nf 

XXL— 2! 


162 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


Lorraine  soon  became  rival  competitors  for  the  authority  over  St 
Die.  The  institution  of  a  town  council  in  1628,  and  the  establish- 
ment under  King  Stanislaus  of  a  bishopric  which  appropriated 
part  of  their  spiritual  jurisdiction,  contributed  greatly  to  diminish 
the  iniluence  of  the  canons  ;  and  with  the  Revolution  they  were 
completely  swept  away.  During  the  17th  century  the  town  was 
repeatedly  sacked  by  the  Burgundians  under  Charles  the  Bold,  by 
the  French,  and  by  tjie  Swedes.  It  was  also  partially  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1065,  1155,  1654,  and  1757.  St  Die  was  the  seat  of  a 
very  early  printing  press. 

SAIKTE-EEUVE,  Chakles  Ausustin  (1804-1869), 
the  most  notaV^le  critic  of  our  time,  was  bom  at  Boiilogne- 
Eur-Mer  on  2od  December  1804.  He  Tvas  a  posthumous 
child, — his  father,  a  native  of  Picardy,  and  controller  of 
town-dues  at  Boulogne,  having  married  in  this  same  year, 
at  the  age  of  fifty-two,  and  died  before  the  birth  of  his  son. 
The  father  was  a  man  of  Literary  tastes,  and  used  to  read, 
like  his  son,  pencil  in  hand  ;  his  copy  of  the  Elzevir  edition 
of  Virgil,  covered  with  his  notes,  was  in  his  son's  possession, 
and  is  mentioned  by  him  in  one  of  his  poems.  Sainte- 
Beuve's  mother  was  half  English, — her  father,  a  mariner  of 
Boulogne,  having  married  an  Englishwoman.  The  little 
Charles  Augustin  was  brought  up  by  his  mother,  who 
never  remarried,  and  an  aunt,  his  father's  sister,  who 
lived  ■n-ith'  her.  They  were  poor,  but  the  boy,  having 
learnt  all  he  covUd  at  his  first  school  at  Boulogne,  per- 
suaded his  mother  to  send  him,  when  he  was  near  the  age 
of  fourteen,  to  finish  his  education  at  Paris.  He  boarded 
with  a  M.  Landry,  and  had  for  a  fellow-boarder  and  inti- 
mate friend  Charles  Neate,  aftenvards  fellow  of  Oriel 
College  and  member  of  parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford. 
From  M.  Landry's  boarding-house  he  attended  the  classes, 
first  of  the  College  Charlemagne,  and  then  of  the  College 
Bourbon,  winning  the  head  prize  for  history,  at  the  first, 
and  for  Latin  verse  at  the  second.  In  1823  he  began  to 
study  medicine,  and  continued  the  study  with  dDigence 
and  interest  for  nearly  four  years,  attending  lectures  on 
anatomy  and  physiology  and  walking  the  hospitals.  '  But 
meanwhile  a  Liberal  newspaper,  the  Globe,  was  founded  in 
1827  by  il.  Dubrfis,  one  of  Sainte-Beuve's  old  teachers  at 
the  College  Charlemagne.  "  M.  Dubois  called  to  his  aid 
his  former  pupil,  who,  now  quitting  the  study  of  medicine, 
contributed  historical  and  literary  articles  to  the  Globe, 
among  them  two,  which  attracted  the  notice  of  Goethe,  on 
Victor  Hugo's  Odes  and  Ballads.  These  articles  led  to  a 
friendship  with  Victor  Hugo  and  to  Sainte-Beuve's  con- 
nexion with  the  romantic  school  of  poets,  a  school  never 
entirely  suited  to  his  nature.  .  In  the  Globe  appeared 
also  his  interesting  articles  on  the  French  poetry  of  the 
16th  century,  which  in  1828  were  collected  and  published 
in  a  volume,  and  followed  by  a  second  volume  contain- 
ing selections  from  Ronsard.  In  1829  he  made  his  first 
venture  as  a  poet  with  the  Vie,  Poesies,  et  Pensees  de  Joseph 
Delorme.  His  own  name  did  not  appear ;  but  Joseph 
Delorme,  that  "  Werther  in  the  shape  of  Jacobin  and 
medical  student,"  as  Guizot  called  him,  was  the  Sainte- 
Beuve  of  those  days  himself.  About  the  same  time  was 
founded  the  Eeime  de  Paris,  and  Sainte-Beuve  contributed 
the  opening  article,  with  Boileau  for  its  subject.  In  1830 
came  his  second  volume  of  poems,  the  Consolations,  a 
work  on  which  Sainte-Beuve  looked  back  in  later  life 
with  a  special  affection.  To  himself  it  marked  and  ex- 
pressed, he  said,  that  epoch  of  his  life  to  which  he  could 
with  most  pleasure  return,  and  at  which  he  could  like  best 
that  others  should  see  him.  But  the  critic  in  him  grew 
to  prevail  more  and  more  and  pushed  out  the  poet.  In 
1331  the  Pevue  des  Deux  Mondes  was  founded  in  rivalry 
with  the  Peime  de  Paris,  and  from  the  first  Sainte-Beuve 
was  one  of  the  most  active  and  important  contributors. 
Ho  brought  out  his  novel  of  Volupte  in  1834,  his  third 
and  last  volume  of  poetry,  the  Pensees  d'Aouf,  in  1837. 


He  himself  thought  that  the  activity  which  he  had  15  the 
meanwhile  exercised  as  a  critic,  and  the  offence  which  in 
some  quarters  his  criticism  had  given,  were  the  cause,  of 
the  less  favourable  reception  which  this  volume  received. 
He  had  long  meditated  a  book  on  Port  Royal.  At  the 
end  of  1837  he  quitted  France,  accepting  an  invitation 
from  the  academy  of  Lausanne,  where  in  a  series  of  lectures 
his  work  on  Port  Royal  came  into  its  first  form  of  being. 
In  the  summer  of  the  next  year  he  returned  to  Paris  to 
revise  and  give  the  final  shape  to  his  work,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  completed  for  twenty  years.  In  1840  M. 
Cousin,  then  minister  of  public  instruction,  appointed  him 
one  of  the  keepers  of  the  llazarin  Library,  an  appointment 
which  gave  him  rooms  at  the  library,  and,  with  the  money 
earned  by  his  pen,  made  him  for  the  first  time  in  his  life 
easy  in  his  circumstances,  so  that,  as  he  afterwards  used 
to  say,  he  had  to  buy  rare  books  in  order  to  spend  his  in- 
come. A  more  important  consequence  of  his  easier  cir- 
cumstances was  that  he  could  study  freely  and  largely. 
He  returned  to  Greek,  of  which  a  French  schoolboy  brings 
from  his  l)/cee  no  great  store.  With  a  Greek  teacher,  M. 
Pantasides,  he  jead  and  re-read  the  poets  in  the  original, 
and  thus  acquired,  not,,  perhaps,  a  philological  scholar's 
knowledge  of  them,  but  a  genuine  and  invaluable  acquaint- 
ance°lvith  them  as  literature.  His  activity  in  the  Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes  continued,  and  articles  on  Homer,  Theo- 
critus, ApoUonius  of  Rhodes,  and  Meleager  were  fruits  of 
his  new  Greek  studies.  He  wrote  also  a  very  good  article 
in  1844  on  the  Italian  poet  Leopardi ;  but  in  general  his 
subjects  were  taken  from  the  great  literature  which  he  knew 
best,  that  of  his  own  country, — its  literature  both  in  the 
past  and  in  the  contemporary  present.  Seven  volumes  of 
"Portraits,"  contributed  to  the  Pevue  de  Pm-is  and  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  exhibit  his  work  in  the  years  from 
1832  to  1848,  a  work  constantly  increasing  in  range  and 
value.  In  1844  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
as  successor  to  Casimir  Delavigne,  and  was  received  there 
at  the  beginning  of  1845  by  Victor  Hugo. 

From  this  settled  and  prosperous  condition -.the  revolu- 
tion of  February  1848  dislodged  him.  In  March  of  that 
year  was  published  an  account  of  secret-service  Inoney 
distributed  in  the  late  reign,  and  Sainte-Beuve  was  put 
down  as  having  received  the  sura  of  one  hundred  francs. 
Th^  smallnes?  of  the  sum  would  hardly  seem  to  suggest  cor- 
ruption ;  It  appears  probable  that  the  money  was  given  to 
cure  a  smoky  chimney  in  his  room  at  the  Mazarin  Library, 
and  was  wrongly  entered  as  secret-service  money.  But 
Sainte-Beuve,  who  piqued  himself  on  his  independence  and 
on  a  punctilious  delicacy  in  money  matters,  was  indignant 
at  the  entry,  and  thought  the  proceedings  of  the  minister 
of  public  instruction  and  his  officials,  when  he  demanded  to 
have  the  matter  sifted,  tardy  and  equivocal.  He  resigned 
his  post  at  the  Mazarin  and  accepted  an  offer  from  the 
Belgian  Government  of  a  chair  of  French  literatiu'e  in  the 
university  of  Liege.  There  he  gave  the  series  of  lectures 
on  Chateaubriand  and  his  contemporaries  which  was  after- 
wards (in  1861 )  published  in  two  volumes.  He  hked  Liege, 
and  the  Belgians  would  have  been  glad  to  keep  him; 
but  the  attraction  of  Paris  carried  him  back  there  in  the 
autumn  of  1849.  Louis  Napoleon  was  then  president. 
Disturbance  was  ceasing ;  a  time  of  settled  government, 
which  lasted  twenty  years  and  corresponds  with  the  second 
stage  of  Sainte-Beuve's  literary  activity,  was  beginning. 
■Dr  V^ron,'the  editor  of  the  Constitufionnel,  proposed  to 
him  that  he  should  supply  that  newspaper  with  a  literary 
article  for  every  Jlonday;  and  thus  the  Causerics  du 
Lundi  were  started.  They  at  once  succeeded,  and  "gave 
the  signal,"  as  Sainte-Beuve  himself  says  with  truth,  "  for 
the  return  of  letters."  Sainte-Beuve  now  lived  in  the  small 
house  in  the  Rue  Mont-Pf!rnass»  (No.  11)  which  he.occji- 


SAINTE-BEUVE 


163 


fled  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  where  in  1850  his 
mother,  from  whom  he  seems  to  have  inherited  his  good 
sense,  tact,  and  finesse,  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-six.     For 
three  years  he  continued  WTiting  every  Monday  for  the 
Constitutionnel  ■   then  he    oassed,  with  a  similar  engage- 
ment,  to   the  MopJteur.     It   1857   his   Monday  articles 
began  to  be  published  in  volumes,  and  by  1SC2  formed  a 
collection  in  fifteen  volumes;  they  afverwards  were  resumed 
under  the  title  of  Nouvtanx  Lundis,  which  now  make  a 
collection  of  thirteen  volumes  more.     In  1854  M.  Fortoul 
nominated  him  to  the  chair  of  Latin  poetry  at  the  College 
of  France.     His  first  lecture  there  was  received  with  inter- 
ruptions and   marks  of  disapprobation  by  many  of  the 
students,  displeased  at  his  adherence  to  the  empire ;  at  a 
second  Lecture  the   interraption   was    renewed.      Sainte- 
Beuve  had  no  taste  for  public  speaking  and  lecturing ; 
his  frontis  moUities,  he  said,  unfitted  him  for  it.     He  was 
r.ot  going  to  carry  on  a  war  with  a  party  of  turbulent 
students ;   he  proposed  to  resign,  and  when  the  minister 
^s  ould  not  accept  his  resignation  of  his  professorship  he 
resigned  its  emoluments.    The  £tude  sur  Yirgile,  a  volume 
published  in  1857,  contains  what  he  had  meant  to  be  his 
first  course  of  lectures.     He  was  still  a  titular  official  of 
public  instruction ;  and  in  1858  his  services  were  called 
for  by  M.  Rouland,  then  minister  of  public  instruction,  as 
a  lecturer  (ma'iire  de  conferences)  on  French  literature  at 
the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure.     This  work  he  discharged 
with  assiduity  and  success  for  four  years.     In  1859  he 
was  made  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  having 
twice  previously  to  1848  refused  the  cross.     Diuing  the 
years  of  his  official  engagement  his  Monday  contributions  to 
the  Moniteur  had  no  longer  been  continuous  ;  but  in  18G2 
an  arrangement  was  proposed  by  which  he  was  to  return 
to  the  C onstitxitionnel  and  again  supply  an  article  there 
every  Monday.     He  consented,  at  the  age  of  fifty-seven, 
to  try  this  last  pull,  as  he  called  it,  this  "dernier  coup  de 
collier";  he  resigned  his  office  at  the  Ecole  Normale  and 
began  the  series  of  his  Nouveaux  Lundis.     They  show  no 
falling    off  in  vigour  and   resource   from   the  Cmiseries. 
But  the  strain  upon  him  of  his  weekly  labour  was  great. 
"  I  am  not  a  monsieur  nor  a  gentleman,"  he  writes  in  1864, 
"but  a  Workman  by  the  piece  and  by  the  hour."'    "I 
look  upon  myself  as  a  player  forced  to  go  on  acting  at  an 
age  when  he  ought  to  retire,  and  who  can  see  no  term  to 
his  engagement."     He  had  reason  to  hope  for  relief.     Ex- 
cept himself,  the  foremost  literary  men  in  France  had  stood 
aloof  from  the  empire'  and  treated  it  with  a  hostility  more 
or  less  bitter.     He  had  not  been  hostile   to  it :  he  had 
accepted  it  with   satisfaction,   and  had  bestowed  on  its 
official  journal,  the  Moniteur,  the  lustre  of  his  literature. 
The  prince  Napoleon  and  the  princess  Mathilde  were  his 
warm  friends.     A  senatorship  was  mentioned ;  its  income 
of  £1600  a  year  would  give  him  opulence  and  freedom. 
But  its  coming  was  delayed,  and  the  strain  upon  him  con- 
tinued for  some  time  longer.     When  at  last  in  April  1865 
he  wa-s  made  senator,  his  health  was  already  seriously  com- 
promised.    The  disease  of  which  ho  died,  but  of  which 
the  doctors  did  not  ascertain  the  presence  until  his  body 
was  opened  after  his  death — the  stone — began  to  distress 
and  di-sable  him.     He  could  seldom  attend  the  meetings 
of  the  'senate ;   the  part  he  took  there,  however,  on  two 
famous  occasions,  when  the  ,nomination  of  M.  Renan  to 
the  College  of  France  came  under  di.scu.ssion  in  1867  and 
the  law  on  the  press  in  the  year  following,  provoked  the 
indignation   of    the   great   majority  in   that  conservative 
assembly.     It  delighted,  however,  all  who  "  belonged,"  to 
u.se  his  own  phrase,'  "  to  the  diocese  of  free  thought ";  and 
be  gave  further  pleasure  in  this  diocese  by  leaving  at  the 
beginning   of   1869  the  Moniteur,   injudiciously  managed 
by  the  Government  and  M.  Rouhcr,  and  contributing  to  a 


Liberal  journal,  the  Temps.  His  literary  activity  suffered 
little  abatement,  but  the  attacks  of  his  malady,-  though 
borne  with  courage  and  cheerfulness,  became  more  and 
more  severe.  Pain  made  him  at  last  unable  to  sit  to 
write ;  he  could  only  stand  or  lie.  He  died  in  his  house 
in  the  Rue  Mont  Parnasse  on  the  13th  of  October  1869. 
He  had  inherited  an  income  of  four  thousand  francs  a  year 
from  his  mother,  and  he  left  it  sLx  thousand  ;  to  the  extent 
of  eighty  pounds  a  year  and  no  further  had  literature' aiid 
the  senatorship  enriched  him.  Byliis  will  he  left  directions 
that  his  funeral  was  to  be  without  religious  rites,  quite 
simple,  and  \vith  no  speeches  at  the  grave  except  a  few 
words  of  thanks  from  one  of  his  secretaries  to  those  present. 
There  was  a  great  concourse ;  the  Paris  students,  who  Lad 
formerly  interrupted  iiim,  came  now  to  do  honour  tfl  him 
as  a  Liberal  and  a  champion  of  free  thought — a  senator 
they  could  not  but  admit — undeniably,  alas,  a  senator, 
but  oh,  si  j>eu  /  Yet  his  own  account  of  himself  ia  the 
best  and  truest, — an  account  which  lays  no  stress  en  his 
Liberalism,  no  stress  on  his  championship  of  free  thought, 
but  says  simply:  "Devoted  to  my  profession  as  critic,  I 
have  tried  to  be  more  and  more  a  good,  and,  if  possible, 
an  able  worknian." 

The  work  of  Sainte-Beuve  divides  itself  into  three 
portions — his  poetry,  his  criticism  before  1848,  and  his 
criticism  after  that  year.  His  novel  of  Volupte  may 
properly  go  with  his  poetry. 

We  have  seen  his  tender  feeling  for  his  poetry,  and  he 
always  maintained  that,  when  the  "  integrating  molecule," 
the  foundation  of  him  as  a  man  of  letters,,  was  reached, 
it  would  be  found  to  have  a  poetic  character.  And  yet 
he  declares,  too,  that  it  is  never  without  a  sort  of  surprise 
and  confusion  that  he  sees  his  verses  detached  from  their 
context  and  quoted  in  public  and  in  open  day.  They  do 
not  seem  made  for  it,  he  says.  This  admirable  critic 
knew,  indeed,  what  a  Frenchman  may  be  pardoned  for 
not  willingly  perceiving,  and  what  even  some  Englishmen 
try  to  imagine  that  they  do  not  perceive,  the  radical  in- 
adequacy of  French  poetry.  For  us  it  is  extremely 
interesting  to  hear  Sainte-Beuve  on  this  point,  since  it  is 
to  English  poetry  that  he  resorts  in  order  to  find  his 
term  of  comparison,  and  to  award  the  praise  which  to 
French  poetry  he  refuses.  "  Since  you  are  fond  of  the 
poets,"  he  writes  to  a  friend,  "  I  .should  like  to  see  you 
read  and  look  for  poets  in  another  language,  in  English 
for  instance.  There  you  will  find  the  most  rich,  the  most 
dulcet,  and  the-  most  new  poetical  literature.  Our  French 
poets  are  too  soon  read ;  they  are  too  slight,  too  mixed, 
too  corrupted  for  the  most  part,  too  poor  in  ideas  even 
when  they  have  the  talent  for  strophe  anB  line,  to  hold 
and  occupy  for  long  a  serious  mind."  And  again:  "If 
you  knew  English  you  would  have  treasures  to  draw 
upon.  They  have  a  poetical  literature  far  superior  to 
ours,  and,  above  all,  sounder,  more  full.  Wordsworth  is 
not  translated  ;  these  things  are  not  to  be  translated  ;  you 
must  go  to  the  fountain-head  for  them.  Let  me  give  you 
this  advice  :  learn  English  " 

But,  even  as  French  poetry,  Sainte-Beuve's  poetry  had 
faults  of  its  own.  Critics  who  found  much  in  ft  to  praise 
yet  pronounced  it  a  poetry  "narrow,  punj-,  and  stifled," 
and  its  style  "slowly  dragging  and  laborious."  Here 
we  touch  on  a  want  which  must  no  doubt  be  recognized 
in-  him,  which  he  recognized  in  himself,  and  whereby  he 
is  separated  from  the  spirits  who  succeed  in  uttering 
their  most  highly  inspired  note  and  in  giving  thei'r  full 
measure, — some  want  of  fiame,  of  breath,  of  i)inion. 
Perhaps  we  may  look  fot  the  cause  in  a  confession  of  his 
own  :  "  I  have  my  weaknesses  ;  they  are  those  which  gave 
to  King  Solomon  his  disgust  with  everything  and  his 
satiety  with  life.     I  may  have  regretted  sometimes  that 


164 


SAI^'TE-BEUVE 


I  was  thus  extinguishing  my  fire,  bui  j.  did  not  ever 
pervert  my  heart."  It  is  enough  for  us  to  take  his  con- 
fession that  he  extinguished  or  impaired  his  fire. 

Yet  his  poetry  is  characterized  by  merits  which  make 
it  readable  still  and  readable  by  foreigners.  So  far  as  it 
exhibits  the  endeavour  of  the  romantic  school  in  France 
to  enlarge  the  vocabulary  of  poetry  and  to  give  greater 
freedom  and  variety  to  the  alexandrine,  it  has  interest 
chiefly  for  readers  of  his  o^\ti  nation.  But  it  exhibits 
i.iore  than  this.  It  exhibits  already  the  genuine  Sainte- 
Eeuve,  the  author  who,  as  M.  Duvergier  de  Hauranne 
£?.id  in  the  Glole  at  the  time,  "  sent  i,  sa  maniere  et  ^crit 
comme  il  sent,"  the  man  who,  even  in  the  forms  of  an 
artificial  poetry,  remains  always  "  un  penseur  et  un  homme 
d'esprit."  That  his  Joseph  Delorme  was  not  the  Werther 
of  romance,  but  a  Werther  in  the  shape  of  Jacobin  and 
medical  student,  the  only  Werther  whom  Sainte-Beuve  by 
his  own  practical  experience  really  knew,  was  a  novelty  in 
French  poetical  literature,  but  was  entirely  characteristic 
of  Sainte-Beuve.  All  his  poetry  has  this  stamp  of  direct 
dealing  with  common  things,  of  plain  unpretending  reality 
End  sincerity ;  and  this  stamp  at  that  time  made  it,  as 
B^ranger  said,  "a  kind  of  poetry  absolutely  new  in  France." 
It  found,  therefore,  with  all  its  shortcomings,  friends  in 
men  so  diverse  as  Beranger,  Lamartine,  Jouflfroy,  Beyle. 
^Yhoeve^  is  interested  in  Sainte-Beuve  should  turn  to  if, 
and  will  be  glad  that-  he  has  done  so. 

It  has  been  the  fashion  to  disparage  the  criticism  of  the 
Critiques  et  PoHraits  Liiteraires,  the  criticism  anterior  to 
1S48,  and  to  sacrifice  it,  in  fact,  to  the  criticism  posterior 
to  that  date.  Sainte-Beuve  has  himself  indicated  what 
considetations  ought  to  be  present  with  us  in  reading  the 
Critiques  et  Portraits,  with  what  reserves  we  should  read 
them.  They  are  to  be  considered,  he  says,  "  rather  as  a  de- 
pendency of  the  elegiac  and  romanesque  part  of  my  work 
than  as  express  criticisms."  "  The  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes," 
he  adds,  which  published  them,  was  young  in  those  days, 
"  mixed  a  good  deal  of  its  wishes  and  its  hopes  with  its 
criticism,  sought  to  explain  and  to  stimulate  rather  than 
to  judge.  The  portraits  there  of  contemporary  poets  and 
romance-writers  can  in  general  be  considered,  whether  as 
respects  the  painter  or  'as  respects  the  mcxlels,  as  youth- 
ful portraits  only;  juvenis  juvcnem  pin.rit."  They  have 
the  copiousness  and  enthusiasm  of  youth ;  they  have  also 
its  exuberance.  He  judged  in  later  life  Chateaubriand, 
Lamartine,  Victor  Hugo,  more  coolly,  judged  them  differ- 
ently. But  the  Critiques  et  Portraits  contain  a  number 
of  articles  on  personages,  other  than  contemporary  French 
poets  and  romance-wTiters,  which  have  much  of  the  sound- 
ness of  his  later  work,  and,  in  addition,  an  abundance  and 
fervour  of  their  own  which  are  not  without  their  attraction. 
Many  of  these  are  delightful  reading.  The  articles  on  the 
Greek  poets  and  on  Leopardi  have  been  already  mentioned. 
Those  on  Boileau,  Moliere,  Daunou,  and  Fauriel,  on  Madame 
de  la  Fayette  and  Mademoiselle  Aisse,  may  be  taken  as 
samples  of  a  whole  group  which  will  be  found  to  support 
perfectly  the  test  of  reading,  even  after  we  have  accustomed 
ourselves  to  the  later  work  of  the  master.  Nay,  his  sober- 
ness and  tact  show  themselves  even  in  this  earlier  stage  of 
his  criticism,  and  even  in  treating  the  objects  of  his  too 
fervid  youthful  enthusiasm.  A  special  object  of  this 
was  Victor  Hugoj  and  in  the  first  article  on  him  in  the 
Portraits  Contetnporains  we  have  certainly  plenty  of  en- 
thusiasm, plenty  of  exuberance.  We  have  the.  epithets 
"adorable,"  "sublime,"  " supreme," given  to  Victor  Hugo's 
poetry;  we  are  told  of  "the  majesty  of  its  high  and 
sombre  philosophy."  AU  this  is  in  the  vein  of  Mr  George 
Gilfillan.  But  the  article  next  following  this,  and  written 
only  four  -years  later,  in  1835,  is  the  article  of  a  critic, 
and  takes  the  points  of  objection,  seizes  the  v.-eak  side  of 


Victor  Hugo's  poetry,  how  much  it  has  of  what  is  "  creux," 
"sonore,"  "artificiel,"  "voulu,"  "th^itral,"  "violent,"  as 
distinctly  as  the  author  of  the  Catiseries  could  seize  it. 
"  The  I'rank,  energetic  and  subtle,  who  has  mastered  to 
perfection  the  technical  and  rhetorical  resources  of  the 
Latiu  literature  of  the  decadence,"  is  a  description  never 
to  be  forgotten  of  Victor  Hugo  as  a  poet^and  Sainte-Beuve 
launches  it  in  this  article,  -written  when  he  was  but  thirty 
years  old,  and  still  a  painter  of  "portraits  de  jeunesse" 
only. 

He  had  thus  been  steadily  working  ana  growing ;  never- 
theless, 18-18  is  an  epoch  which  di-vides  two  critics  in  him 
of  very  unequal  value.  'When,  after  that  year  of  revolution 
and  his  stage  of  seclusion  and  labour  at  Li^ge,  he  came 
back  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  18-19  and  commenced  in  the 
Constitutionnel  the  Causer ies  dtt  Lundi,  he  was  astonish- 
ingly matured.  Something  of  fervour,  enthusiasm,  poetry, 
he  may  have  lost,  but  he  had  become  a  perfect  critic — a 
critic  of  measure,  not  exuberant ;  of  the  centre,  not  pro- 
vincial ;  of  keen  industry  and  curiosity,  with  "  Truth  "  (the 
word  engraved  in  English  on  his  seal)  for  his  motto;  more- 
over, with  gay  and  amiable  temper,  his  manner  as.  good  as 
his  matter, — the  "critique  so-ariant,"  as,  in  Charles  Mon- 
selet's  dedication  to  him,  he  is  called. 

Merely  to  sayihat  he  was  all  this  is  less  convincing  than 
to  show,  if  pcisible,  by  words  of  his  own,  in  what  fashion 
he  was  all  this.  The  root  of  everything  in  hh  criticism 
is  his  single-hearted  devotion  to  truth,  '\\hat  he  called 
"  fictions  "  in  literature,  in  politics,  in  religion,  were  not 
allo-ned  to  influence  him.  Some  one  had  talked  of  his 
being  tenacious  of  a  certain  set  of  literary  opinions.  "  I 
hold  very  little,"  he  answers,  "  to  literary  opinions  ;  literary 
opinions  occupy  very  little  place  in  my  life  and  in  my 
tlioughts.  .  What  does  occupy  me  seriously  is  life  itself 
and  the  object  of  it."  "I  am  accustomed  incessantly  to 
call  my  ju<:lgmehts  in  question  anew,  and  to  re-cast  my 
opinions  the  moment  I  suspect  them  to  be  without 
validity."  "  What  I  have  wished  "  (in  Port  Eoyal)  "  is  to 
say  not  a  word  more  than  I  thought,  to  stop  even  a  Uttla 
short  of  what  I  believed  in  certain  cases,  in  order  that  my 
words  might  acquire  more  weight  as  historical  testimony."- 
To  all  exaggeration  and  untruth,  from  whatever  side  it 
proceeded,  he  had  an  antipathy.  "  I  tu:-n  my  back  upon 
the  Michelets  and  Quinets,  but  I  cannot  hold  out  my  hand 
to  the  Veuillots."  ^Vhen  he  was  writing  for  the  Moniteur 
he  -was  asked  by  the  manager  of  the  paper  to  review  a 
book  by  an  important  personage,  a  contributor ;  his  answer 
is  a  lesson  for  critics  and  paints  him  evac  tly.  "  I  should 
like  to  say  yes,  but  I  have  an  insurmountable  difliculty  r.s 
to  this  author ;  he  appears  to  me  to  compromise  whatever 
he  touches ;  he  is  violettt,  and  has  not  the  trr.dition  of  the 
things  he  talks  about.  Thus  his  article  on  Condcrcet, 
which  the  Moniteur  inserted,  is  odious  and  false ;  one  may 
be  severe  upon  Comlorcet,  but  not  in  that  tone  or  in  thf.t 
note.  The  man  has  no  insight — a  defect  w-hich  does  not 
prevent  him  from  having  a  pen  with  which  at  a  given 
moment  he  can  flourish  marvellously.  But,  of  himself,  ha 
is  a  gladiator  and  a  desperado.  I  must  tell  you,  my  dear 
sir,  that  to  have  once  named  him  with  compliment  in  some 
article  of  mine  or  other  is  one  of  my  self-reproaches  as  a 
man  of  letters.  Let  me  say  that  he  has  not  attacked  me 
in  any  way ;  it  is  a  case  of  natural  repulsion." 

But  Sainte-Beuve  could  not  have  been  the  great  critic 
he  was  had  he  not  had,  at  the  service  of  this  his  love  of 
truth  and  measure,  the  conscientious  industry  of  a  Bene- 
dictine. "  I  never  have  a  holiday.  On  ^londay  towards 
noon  I  lift  up  my  head,  and  breathe  for  about  an  hour ; 
after  that  the  wickst  shuts  again  and  I  am  in  my  prison 
cell  for  seven  days."  The  Causeries  were  at  this  price. 
They  came  once  a  week,  and  to  wrifte  one  of  them  as  ho. 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I. 


165 


wrote  it  was  indeed  a  week's  work.  The  "  irresponsible 
indolent  reviewer  "  should  read  his  notes  to  his  friend  and 
provider  with  books,  M.  Paul  Cheron  of  the  National 
Library.  Here  is  a  note  dated  the  2d  of  Januaiy  1853  : 
"  Good-day  and  a  happy  New  Year.  To-day  I  set  to  work 
on  Grimm.  A  little  dry;  but  after  St  Francois  de  Sales" 
(his  Monday  article  just  finished)  "one  requires  a  little 
relief  from  roses.  I  have  of  Grimm  the  edition  of  his 
Correspondence  by  M.  Taschereau.  I  have  also  the  Memoirs 
of  Madame  d'Epinay,  where  there  are  many  letters  of  his. 
But  it  is  possible  that  there  may  be  notices  of  him  men- 
tioned in  the  bibliographical  book  of-that  German  whose 
name  I  have  forgotten.  I  should  like,  too,  to  have  the  first 
editions  of  hi»  Correspondence  ;  they  came  out  in  successive 
parts."  Thus  he  prepared  himself,  not  for  a  grand  review 
article  once  a  quarter,  but  for  a  newspaper  review  once  a 
week. 

His  adhesion  to  the  empire  caused  him  to  be  habitually 
represented  by  the  Orleanists  and  the  Republicans  as 
without  character  and  patriotism,  and  to  be  charged  with 
baseness  and  corruption.  The  Orleanists  had,  in  a  great 
degree,  possession  of  the  higher  press  in  France  and  of 
English  opinion, — of  Liberal  English  opinion  more  especi- 
ally. And  with  English  Liberals  his  indifference  to  parlia- 
mentary government  was  indeed  a  grievous  fault  in  him  ; 
"you  Whigs,"  as  Croker  happily  says,  "are  like  quack 
doctors,  who  have  but  one  specific  for  all  constituticas." 
To  him  either  the  doctrine  of  English  Liberals,  or  the 
doctrine  of  Republicanism,  applied  absolutely,  was  what 
he  called  a  "fiction,"  one  of  those  fictions  which  "always 
end  by  obscuring  the  truth."  Not  even  on  iL  de  Tocque- 
ville's  authority  would  he  consent  to  feceive  "les  hypotheses 
dites  les  plus  honorables," — "  the  suppositions  which  pass 
for  the  most  respectable."  All  suppositions  he  demanded 
to  sift,  to  see  them  at  work,  to  know  the  place  and  time 
and  men  to  which  they  were  to  be  applied.  For  the 
France  before  his  eyes  in  18i9  he  thought  that  something 
j" solid  and  stable" — nn  mur,  "a  wall,"  as  he  said — was 
requisite,  and  that  the  government  of  Louis  Napoleon  sup- 
plied this  waU.  But  no  one  judged  the  empire  more  inde- 
pendently than  he  did,  no  one  saw  and  enounced  its  faults 
more  clearly ;  he  described  himself  as  being,  in  his  own 
single  person,  "  the  gauche  of  the  empire,"  and  the  descrip- 
tion was  just. 

To  these  merits  of-  mental  independence,  industry, 
measure,  lucidity,  his  criticism  adds  the  merit  of  happy 
temper  and  disposition.  Goethe  long  ago  noticed  that, 
whereas  Germans  reviewed  one  another  as  enemies  whom 
they  hated,  the  critics  of  the  Globe  reviewed  one  another 
'as  gentlemen.  This  arose  from  the  higher  social  develop- 
ment of  France  and  from  the  closer  relations  of  literature 
with  life  there.  But  Sainte-Beuve  has  more,  as  a  critic, 
than  the  external  politeness  which  once  at  any  rate  dis- 
tinguished his  countrymen  :  he  has  a  personal  charm  of 
manner  due  to  a  sweet  and  humane  temper.  He  com- 
plained of  un peu  de  durete,  "a  certain  dosu  of  hardness," 
in  the  new  generation  of  writers.  The  personality  of  an 
author  had  a  peculiar  importance  for  him  ;  the  poetical 
side  of  his  subjects,  however  latent  it  might  be,  always 
attracted  him  and  he  always  sought  to  extricate  it.  This 
was  because  he  had  in  himself  the  moderate,  gracious,- 
amiably  human  instincts  of  the  true  poetic  nature.  "Let 
me  beg  of  you,"  he  says  in  thanking  a  reviewer  who  praised 
him,  "  to  alter  one  or  two  expressions  at  any  rate.  I  can- 
not bear  to  have  it  said  that  I  am  the  first  in  anything 
whatever,  as  a  writer  least  of  all ;  it  is  not  a  thing  v.hich 
•?aO  be  admitted,  and  these  ways  of  classing  people  give 
Qffence."  Literary  man  and  loyal  to  the  French  Academy 
as  he  was,  he  can  yet  write  to  an  old  friend  after  his 
election  :  "  All  these  academies,  between  you  and  me,  are 


pieces  of  childishness ;  at  any  rate  the  French  Acaderny 
is.  Our  least  quarter  of  an  hour  of  solitary  reverie  or  oi 
serious  talk,  yours  and  mine,  in  our  youth,  was  better  em- 
ployed ;  but,  as  one  gets  old,  one  falls  back  into  the  power 
of  these  nothings ;  only  it  is  well  to  know  that  nothings 
they  are." 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  get  a  sense  of  the  value  and 
extent  of  the  work  done  in  the  lajt  twfenty  years  of  his 
life  by  the  critic  thus  excellently  endowed  is  to  take  a 
single  volume  of  the  Cause7-ies  dti  Lundi,  to  look  through 
its  list  of  subjects,  and  to  remember  that  with  the  quali- 
ties above  mentioned  all  these  subjects  are  treated.  Any 
volume  will  serve ;  let  us  take  the  fourth.  This  volume 
consists  of  articles  on  twenty-four  subjects.  Twenty  of 
these  are  the  following  : — Mirabeau  and  Sophie,  Montaigne, 
Mirabeau  and  Comte  de  la  Marck,  Mademoiselle  de  Scud^ry, 
Andrd  Ch^nier  as  politician,  Saint-fivremond  and  Ninon, 
Joseph  de  Maistre,  Madame  de  Lambert,  Madame  Necker, 
the  Abb^  Maury,  the  Due  de  Lauzun  of  Louis  XVL's  reign, 
Marie  Antoinette,  BufTon,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  De 
Eonald,  Amyot,  JIallet  du  Pan,  Marmontel,  Chamfort, 
Ruhli^re.  Almost  every  personage  is  French,  it  is  true ; 
Sainte-Beuve  had  a  ma-xim  that  the  critic  should  prefer 
subjects  which  he  possesses  familiarly.  But  we  should  re- 
cognize more  fully  than  we  do  the  immense  importance 
and  interest  of  French  literature.  Certain  prodaciions  of 
this,  literature  Mr  Saintsbury  may  misjudge  and  over- 
praise ;  but  he  is  entirely  right  in  insisting  on  its  immense 
importance.  More  than  any  modern  literature  it  has  been 
in  the  most  intimate  correspondence  with  the  social  life 
and  development  of  the  nation  producing  it.  Now  it  so 
happens  that  the  great  place  of  F-ance  in  the  world  is 
very  much  due  to  her  eminent  gift  for  social  life  and 
development;  and  this  gift  French' literature  has  accom- 
panied, fashioned,  perfected,  and  continues  to  reflect.  This 
gives  a  special  interest  to  French  literature,  and  an  interest 
independent  even  of  the  excellence  of  individual  French 
ivriters,  high  as  that  often  is.  And  nowhere  shall  we  find 
such  interest  more  completely  and  charmingly  brought  out 
than  in  the  Caiiseries  du  Lundi  and  the  A'o«cea«,i-  Lundis 
of  the  consummate  critic  of  whom  we  have  been  speaking. 
As  a  guide  to  bring  us  to  a  knowledge  of  the  French 
genius  and  literature  he  is  unrivalled, — perfect,  so  far  as 
a  poor  mortal  critic  can  be  perfect,  in  knowledge  of  his 
subject,  in  judgment,  in  tact,  and  tone.  -  Certain  spirits 
are  of  an  excellence  almost  ideal  in  certain  lines  ;  the 
human  race  might  willingly  adopt  them  as  its  spokesmen, 
recognizing  that  on  these  lines  their  style  and  utterance 
may  stand  as  those,  not  of  bounded  individuals,  but  of  the 
human  race.  So  Homer  speaks  for  the  human  race,  and 
with  an  excellence  v.hich  is  ideal,  in  epic  narration ; 
Plato  in  the  treatment  at  once  beautiful  and  profound 
of  philosophical  questions ;  Shakespeare  in  the  present- 
ation of  human  character ;  Voltaire  in  light  verse  and 
ironical  discussion.  A  list  of  perfect  ones,  indeed,  each 
in  his  own  line !  and  we  may  almost  venture  to  add 
to  their  number,  in  his  line  of  literary  criticism,  Sainte- 
Beuve.  (m.  a.) 

SAINTE-CLAIRE  DEVILLE,  Stienne  !1f.nri  (1818- 
1881),  French  chtraist,  was  born  on  11th  March  1818  in 
the  island  of  St  Thomas,  West  Indies,  where  his  father  was 
French  consul.  He  was  educated  in  Paris  along  with  his 
elder  brother  Charles  at  the  College  RoUin.  In  1844, 
having  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  and  doctor  of 
science,  he  was  appointed  dean  of  the  new  faculty  of  sci(^ce 
at  Besan9on  by  Thenard.  In  1851  he  succeeded  Ealard 
in  the  Ecole  Normalo  and  in  .the  Sorbonno.  He  died  at 
Boulogne-Eur-Seine  on  1st  July  1881. 

Saintc-Ckiro  Dcviilc  besan  his  experimental  work  in  1841  with 
investigations  on  oil  of  turpentine  and  balsam  of  tolu.  in  the  course 


166 


S  T  E 


CLAIRE      D  E  V  I  L  L  E 


of  which  he  clisccrcred  the  hydro-carbon  toluene.  But  he  soon 
abandoned  organic  chemistry,  and  his  most  important  work  was  in 
inorganic  and  thermal  chemistry.  In  1850  he  discovered  anhy- 
drous nitric  acid,  a  substance  interesting  not  only  in  itself  but  as 
the  first  obtained  of  an  important  group,  the  so-called  "anhy- 
drides "  of  the  monobasic  acids.  In  1855  he  succeeded  in  obtaining 
aluminium  in  mass.  This  metal,  of  which  clay  is  the  hydriated 
silicate,  is  of  course  one  of  the  most  abundant  of  metals,  but  was 
not  obtained  in  the  metallic  state  untU  Wohler  in  1827  decomposed 
its  chloride  by  means  of  potassium.  The  aluminium  thus  prepared 
was  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  and,  although  the  isolation  of 
the  metal  was  of  great  theoretical  importance,  there  did  not  seem 
much  prospect  of  a  practical  application  of  the  discovery.  In  1845 
Wohler  returned  to  the  subject  and  by  using  large  quantities  of 
material  obtained  small  globules  of  an  obviously  metallic  character. 
Deville,  who  knew  only  Wohler's  paper  of  1827,  set  to  work  to 
prepare  aluminium,  not  for  the  sake  of  the  metal  itself,  but  with 
the  view  of  procuring  by  the  action  of  aluminium  on  chloride  of 
aluminium  a  lower  chloride  from  which  a  series  of  new  compounds 
corresponding  to  the  ferrous  salts  might  be  obtained.  He  did  not 
^^l:ceed  in  -tMs,  but  he  did  succeed  in  producing  globules  of  alumi- 
ui.m  of  considerable  size.  This  led  him  to  perfect  the  process,  and 
u'imately  he  devised  a  method  by  which  aluminiimi  could  be  pre- 
^ured  on  a  large  scale.  The  first  use  to  which  he  put  the  metal 
was  to  make  a  medal  with  the  name  of  ATohler  and  the  date  1827. 
In  connexion  with  the  preparation  of  aluminium  may  be  mentioned 
Deville's  investigations,  partly  with  Wohler,  into  the  allotropic 
forms  of  silicon  and  boron. 

Along  with  Debray,  Deville  studied  the  platinum  metals  ;  their 
object  was  outhe  one  hand  to  prepare  the  six  metals  in  a  state  of 
purity  and  on  the  other  to  obtam  a  suitable  metal  for  the  standard 
metre.  In  the  course  of  these  investigations  large  quantities  of 
platinum  and  of  the  alloys  of  platinum  and  iridium  were  fused  and 
cast,'-  and  the  methods  used  for  obtaining  the  necessary  high 
temperatures  were  applied  to  the  fusion  of  other  refractory  metals, 
such  as  cobalt,  nickel,  chromium,  and  manganese. 

Al6ng  with  Troost,  Deville  devised  a  method  for  determining 
the  density  of  vapours  at  very  high  temperatures  and  applied,  it 
to  the  cases  of  sulphur,  selenium,  tellurium,  zinc,  cadmium,  and 
many  other  substances  boilihg  at  temperatures  up  to  1400''  C.  llie 
interesting  and  important  results  have  been  already  described  (see 
Chemistry  and  JIolecitle).  Deville  made  a  large  number  of 
ingenious  experiments  on  the  artificial  production  of  mineraK 
Among  thes6  mn.y  be  specially  mentioned  the  formation  of  apatite 
and  isomorphous  minerals  and  of  crystallized  oxides.  Deville  and 
Caron  found  that  when  the  vapoUi-  of  a  metallic  flUoride  acts  on 
fused  boracic  acid  the  fluorine  and  the  oxygen  change  places,  a 
metallic  oxide  remains  in  crj'stals,  while  the  gaseous  fluoride  of 
boron  escapes.  In  this  way  they  prepared  corundum  (crystallized 
oxide  of  aluminium)  and  sapphire,  ruby  and  emerald  ;  coloured 
forms  of  corundum  were  obtained  by  mixing  small  quaJitities  of 
fluoride  of  chromium  with  the  fluoride  of  aluminium.  Another 
method  discovered  by  Deville  for  the  preparation  of  crj'Stallized 
oxides  is  of  great  interest.  "When  an  amorphous  oxide— such  as 
amorphous  ferric  oxide — is  heated  to  redness  and  exposed  to  a  slow 
current  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas,  it  gradually  changes  into  a  crystal- 
line oxide  of  the  same  composition.  In  this  way  Deville  obtkined 
hsematite,  tinstone,  periclase,  and  other  crystalline  oxides.  This 
conversion  of  an  amorphous  into  a  crystalline  substance  without 
change  of  composition,  by  the  action  of  a  gas  (in  this  case  hydro- 
chloric acid)  which  itseli  undergoes  no  change,  is  one  of  those 
mysterious  processes  which  used  to  be  referred  to  a  "catalytic 
force"  or  called  "actions  by  contact";  like  many  such  actions, 
this  has  been  shown  by  Deville  to  belong  to  the  same  class  of 
phenomena  as  dissociation. 

This  leads  us  to  Deyille's  greatest  contribution  to  general 
chemistry.  Many  chemical  actions  have  been  long  kno^vn  which 
take  place  either  in  the  one  or  the  other  sense  according  to  certain 
conditions.  For  instance,  if  a  tube  containing  metallic  iron  is  heated 
to  redness  and  &team  passed  through  it,  water  is  decomposed,  black 
oxide  of  iron  is  formed,  and  hydrogen  escapes.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  tube  is  filled  \vith  black  oxide  of  iron  and  hydiogen  passed 
through,  the  oxide  is  reduced  and  water  is  formed.  Both  of  these 
opposite  changes  occur  at  the  very  same  temperature.  Again,  a. 
solution  of  sulph-hydrate  of  potassium  is  completely  decomposed 
by  passing  a  current  of  carbomc  acid  ^s  through  it  for  a  sufficient 
time,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  being  given  oQ"  and  bicarbonate  re- 
maining in  solution.  But  exactly  the  opposite  happens  if  we  begin 
\rlth  bicarbonate  and  pass  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  through  it : 
carbonic  acid  gas  escapes  and  the  solution  ultimately  contains 
nothing  but  sulph-hydrate.  An  imperfect,  unsatisfactory  ex- 
planation of  some  of  the  phenomena  of  which,  these  are  examples 
was  given  by  Berthollet ;  it  remained  for  Deville  to  give  a  general 
theory  and   show  their  relation  to  such  physical  phenoriena  as 


1  Tbe  laecre  commission  lUsed  a  quarter  of  a  ton  of  the  alloy  at  a  single 
operation. 


evaporation  and  condensation.  This  ho  did  by  his  experimental 
work  on  **  Dissociaiion"  and  his  theoretical  discussion  of  the  facts 
in  papers  published  in  the  Comptes  liendus.  He  gave  a  very  com- 
plete and  clear  account  of  the  whole  subject  in  a  lecture  delivered 
before  the  Chemical  Society  of  Paris  in  1866. 

As  illustrations  we  shall  take  a  few  cases  as  different  from  one 
another  as  possible. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  carbonate  of  lime — limestone — 
when  heated  is  decomposed  into  quicklime  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  that  this  decomposition  takes  place  the  more  quickly  the  more 
thoroughly  the  carbonic  acid  produced  is  removed.  Sir  James  Hall 
showed  that,  if  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  heated  in  a  closed  vessel 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  it  can 
be  fused,  only  a  small  part  undergoing  decomposition.  Deville 
examined  this  relation  quantitatively  and  showed  that,  if  in  a  closed 
vessel  we  have  quicklime,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
the  pressure  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  depends  on  the  temperature 
only,  and  is  quite  independent  of  the  quantity  of  the  quicklime  or 
of  the  carbonate  of  lime,  as  long  as  there  is  some,  however  little, 
of  both,  and  is  also  quite  uninfluenced  by  the  presence  of  other 
gases.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  case  exactly  resembles  that  of  the 
evaporation  of  water.  In  a  closed  vessel  containing  liquid  water 
and?  water-vapour  the  pressure  of  the  wcUer-vajxmr  depends  on  the 
temperature  only  and  is  independent  of  the  quantity  of  liquid  water, 
as  long  as  there  is  any,  and  is  not  influenced  by  the  presence  of 
other  gases.  In  both  cases,  if  we  disturb  the  equilibrium  and  then 
leaVe  things  to  themselves  the  equilibrium  is  restored.  K  in  the 
first  case  we  diminish  the  pressure  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  some 
carbonate  of  lime  decomposes,  }ielding  carbonic  acid  gas  until  the 
pressure  is  raised  to  what  it  was ;  if  we  increase  the  pressure^  some 
of  the  carbonic  acid  combines  with  quicklime  until  the  pressure  ia 
reduced  to  what  it  was  before.  In  the  second  case,  if  we  diminish 
the  pressure,  some  of  the  liquid  water  evaporates  ;  if  we  increase  it, 
some  of  the  water-vapour  condenses,  and  so  the  pressure  is  restored. 
Rise  of  temperature  causes  in  the  one  case  evaporation  of  water,  in 
the  other  decomposition  of  carbonate  of  lime, — in  both  increase  o£ 
pressure.  Lowering  of  temperature  causes  in  the  one  case  condensa- 
tion of  water-vapour,  in  the  other  combination  of  quicklime  and 
carbonic  acid  gas, — in  both  diminution  of  pressure. 

As  a  second  instance  we  may  take  the  dissociation  of  water.  Just 
as  water-vapour-  condenses  into  liquid  water-  under  certain  condi- 
tions, but  always  with  the  evolution  of  heat  (latent  heat  of  vapour), 
so  the  mixture  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  proper  proportion  to 
form  water  combines,  under  certain  conditions,  to  form  water-vaponr, 
but  always  with  the  evolution  of  heat  (he<it  of  combination).  In 
both  cas:s  we  have  change  of  state  but  no  change  of  composition, 
and  in  both  we  have  evolution  of  heat.  In  the  first  case  we  can 
reverse  the  process :  heat  the  liquid  water,  heat  becomes  latent, 
liquid  water  changes  into  water-vapour.  Ther:;  is  a  certain  definite 
pressure  of  water- vapout  corresponding  to  the  temperature  raise 
the  temperature,  more  water  evaporates,  the  pressure  of  Water- 
vapour  increases.  It  occurred  to  Deville,  to  whom  both  clianges 
were  equally  physical,  that  in  the  second  case  the  process  should 
be  reversible  also, — that  on  heating  tbe  water-vapour  it  ought  to 
decompose  into  oxygen  and  hydrogen,^  heat  disappeaiing  here  also, 
and  that,  as  there  is  a  definite  pressure  of  water-vapour  correspond- 
ing to  the  temperature  (often  called  the  tension  of  water -vapour),  so 
there  should  be  a  definite  ratio  of  the  pressure  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  to  that  of  water-vapour  (the  tension  of  dissociation).  Deville 
showed  in  the  most  conclusive  manner  that  this  is  the  case  and 
devised  ingenious  arrangements  for  proving  the  actual  occurrence 
of  dissociation. 

Another  case  very  fully  investigated  by  Deville  is  that  already 
mentioned, — viz.,  the  action  of  water-vapour  on  iron,  and  of 
hydrogen  on  oxide  of  iron.  He  showed  that,  for  a  fixed  temper- 
ature, water-vapour  and  hydrogen  are  in  equilibrium  in  presence  of 
iron  and  oxide  of  iron  when  the  pressures  of  the  two  gases,  hydrogen 
and  water-vaponr,  are  in  a  certain  ratio  quite  independent  of  the 
quantity  of  the  iron  or  of  the  oxide  of  iron,  as  long  as  there  is  some 
of  each.  If  the  ratio  is  changed,  say  by  increasing  the  pressure  of 
the  water-vapour,  chemical  laction  takes  place :  water  is  decomposed, 
oxide  of  iron  is  formed,  and  hydrogen  set  free.  Again,  if  the  pressure 
of  the  water-vapour  is  diminished,  part  of  the  hydrogen  acts  on  oxide 
of  iron,  reducing  it  and  forming  water.  In  both  cases  the  ratio  of 
pressures  is  restored.  This  gives  an  easy  explanation  of  the  appa- 
rently anomalous  results  mentioned  above.  "When  a  current  of 
hydrogen  is  passed  over  oxide  of  iron  the  water- vapour  produced 
is  swept  away  as  fast  as  it  is  farmed  ;  the  ratio  of  the  pressure  of 
hydrogen  to  that  of  water-vapour  is  therefore  always  greater  than 
that  required  for  equilibrium  and  reduction  of  iron,  and^  formation 
of  water  goes  on  continuously  until  all  the  oxide  of  iron  is  rednced. 
In  the  same  way,  a  current  of  water- vapour  carries  away  the  hydrogen 
as  fast  as  it  is  produced ;  the  ratio  of  the  pressure  of  hydrogen  to 
that  of  water- vapour  is  always  less  than  that  required  for  equili- 
brium, and  the  oxidation  of  iron  and  production  of  hydrogen  goes 
on  unJil  no  metallic  iron  remains.  Exactly  the  same  explanation 
applies  to  :;he  action  of  carbonic  acid  gas  on  solution  of  snlph- 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I 


1G7 


hydratfe  of  potassinm,  and  of  salpliuretted  hydrogen  on  solutfon  of 
bicarbonate  of  potasaiym.  Ec^niiibrium  results  -wheu  the  pressures 
of  the  gases  are  in  a  certain  ratio  ;  if  the  equilibrium  is  disturbed 
chemical  action  takes  place  in  the  direction  which  tends  to  restore 
the  equilibrium  by  reproducing  the  ratio  of  pressures. 

The  apparatus  dcTised  by  Devillo  for  detectiug  and  measuring 
dissociation  illustrates  his  remarkable  ingenuity.  \Ve  shall  instance 
only  one  example  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  observing  dissociation  depends  on 
it3  reversible  character.  A  compound  may  indeed  decompose  when 
raised  to  a  high  temperature  ;  but,  if,  as  we  cool  it  again,  reunidn 
•occurs,  it  is  not  easy  to  prove  that  any  chemical  change  took  place. 
One  of  the  "ways  in  which  Deville  got  over  this  difficulty  was  by  the 
nse  of  his  "hot  and  cold  tube."  Inside  a  porcelain  tube  he  placed 
a  metal  tubeof  smaller  diameter,  so  that  their  axes  coincided,  leaving 
an,  annular  space  between  them.  This  annular  space  was  closed  at 
both  euds,  but,  by  means  of  side  tubes  near  the  ends,  could  be 
filled  with  any  gas,  or  a  current  of  ga^  could  be  passed  through  it. 
The  porcelain  tube  was  raised  to  a  high  temperature  by  being  placed 
in  a  furnace,  while  the  internal  metal  tube  was  kept  cold  by  running 
water  through  it.  By  -this  means  he  proved  the  dissociation  of 
carbonic  acid  gas,  carbonic  oxide,  and  sulphurous  acid  gas, — the 
carbon  or  sulphur  being,  deposited  on  the  outer  wall  of  the  cold 
internal  tube,  and  thus  kept  at  a  temperature  "belog  that  at  which 
recombination  could  take  place. 

Deville's  observations  on  dissociation  and  his  generalizations  from 
them  have  a  very  direct  bearing  on  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  and 
it  is  a  fact  of  interest  in  the  history  of  science  that  Deville  did  not 
recognize  the  validity  of  that  theory.  Our  estimate  of  the  inge- 
nuity, skill,  and  patience  shown  in  his  experimental  work;  and  of 
the  genius  and  sound  judgment  which  directed  his  theoretical 
conclusions,  is  perhaps  raised  when  we  recollect  that  he  was  neither 
led  in  the  first  nor  biassed  in  the  second  by  ideas  derived  from 
the  kinetic  theory,  and  his  hostile  or  at  least  neutral  attitude 
towards  it  gives  perhaps  greater  value  to  the  evidence  that  his  work 
has  contributed  to  its  soundness. 

Deville's  works  were  published  in  the  Annates  de  Chimie  et  de  Pht/siqnc  and 
in  the  Comptes  ReiutuB.  He  further  published  a  volume,  entitled  De  I'Alumi- 
ni'im;  ses  FroprUtes,  &c.,  Paris,  1SJ9,  and  the  lecture  On  Dissociation  already 
referred  to.  (A.  C.  B.) 

STE  MAEIE-AUX-JI-IXES.     See  M.\rkikch. 

SAINTES,  a  town  of  Fcance,  the  chef-lieu  of  an  arron- 
diasement  in  the  department  of  Charente-Inferieure,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Charente,  88  feet  above  the  sea  and 
45  miles  south-east  of  La  Koohelle  by  the  railway  from 
Kantes  to  Bordeaux.  It  occupies  a  delightful  position 
and  is  of  interest  for  its  Roman  remains.  Of  these  the 
best  preserved  is  the  triumphal  arch  of  Germanicus, 
although  it  has  been  removed  and  rebuilt  stone  bj"  stone. 
The  amphitheatre  is  larger  than  those  of  Ximes,  Bordeaux, 
and  Pompeii,  and  in  area  ('89  of  an  acre)  is  surpassed  only 
by  the  Colosseum.  The  external  ellipse  was  43G  feet  long 
and  354  broad.  Rubble  embedded  in  cement  is  the  material 
of  the  building,  which  dates  probably  from  the  close  of  the 
1st  or  the  beginning  of  the  2d  century.  Measures  have 
been  taken  to  keep  the  ruins,  now  made  picturesque  byc_ 
iieea,  from  further  injury  or  decay.  The  capitol  was 
destroyed  after  the  capture  of  the  town  from  the  English 
by  Charles  of  Alenjon,  brother  of  Philip  of  Valois,  in  1330. 
An  ancient  hypogaeum  is  still  preserved,  as  well  as  numer- 
ous traces  of  the  channels  by  which  water  was  conveyed 
to  private  houses.  The  antiquarian  museum  contains  7000 
medals  and  numerous  sculptured  pieces.  Saintes  vas  a 
bishop's  SCO  till  1790;  the  cathedral  of  St  Peter,  rebuilt 
at  the  close  of  the  12th  century,  was  almost  destroyed  by 
the  Huguenots  in  1568.  As  rebuilt  between  1582  and 
1585  the  interior  of  the  church  has  an  unattractive  appear- 
anc3.  The  tower  is  236  feet  high.  The  church  of  St 
Eutropius  (which  was  founded  in  the  close  of  the  Gth 
century,  rebuilt  in  the  11th,  and  had  its  nave  destroyed  in 
the  Wars  of  Religion)  stands  above  a  very  interesting  well- 
lighted  crypt,  the  largest  in  France  after  that  of  C'hartres, 
adorned  with  richly  sculptured  capitals  and  containing  the 
tomb  of  St  Eutropius  (-Uh  or  5th  century).  Notre  Dame, 
a  splendid  example  of  the  architecture  of  the  11th  and 
12th  centuries,  with  a  noble  round  clock-tower,  is  unfortu- 
nately occupied  by  the  military  authorities,  who  have 
divided  and  mutilated  the  interior.    The  town,  which  was 


at  one  tune  at  the  head  of  the  departnicnt,  is  siiil  the  seat 
of  the  court:;  of  assize  and  has  a  court-house.  Other  puUic 
buildings  are  a  town-house  (Renaissance),  a  hospital,  and 
a  library.  Small  vessels  ascend  the  river  as  far  as  Saintes, 
which  has  an  advantageous  situation  bet«»'een  Angouleme 
and  Cognac  higher  up  and  Taillebourg  and  Rochefort 
farther  down,  and  is  the  seat  of  iron  andy  copper  foundries, 
factories  for  agricultural  instruments,  cooperages,  and  skin- 
dressing  establishments.  The  population  in  1881  was 
13,3-il  (15,763  in  the  commune). 

Saintes  (llediolanum  or  Mediolanium),  the  capital  of  theSantones, 
was  a  flourishing  town  before  Cajsar's  conquest  of  Gaul.  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  by  St  Eutropius,  its  first  bishop,  in  the 
middle  of  the  3d  century.  Charlemagne  rebuilt  its  cathedral.  The 
Normans  burned  the  town  in  845  and  854.  Richard  Cosur  de  Lion 
fortified  himself  within  its  walls  against  his  father  Henry  II.,  who 
captured  it  after  a  destructive  siege.  It  was  not  till  the  reign  of 
Charles  T.  that  Saintes  was  permanently  recovered  from  the  English. 
The  Protestants  did  great  damage  during  the  "Wars  of  Religion. 

ST  fiTIENNE,  an  industrial  and  manufacturing  town 
of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  department  of  Loire,  312  miles 
south -south -east  of  Paris  and  36  miles  south -south -west 
of  Lyons  by  rail,  with  a  branch  line  to  Le  Puy.  The 
coal-field  of  St  Etienne  is  the  richest  in  France  after  that 
of  Valenciennes  and  Pas  de  Calais,  giving  employment  to 
12,000  miners  and  5000  workmen  at  the  pitheads.  There 
are  64  concessions  worked  by  28  companies,  extending  over 
an  area  20  miles  long  by  -6  in  width ;  the  mineral  is  of 
two  kinds, — smelting  coal  (said  to  be  the  best  in  France) 
and  gas  coal ;  the  yearly  output  is  between  3,000,000  anil 
4,000,000  tons,  but  with  a  tendency  to  decrease.  In  the 
metallurgic  establishments  of  the  arroudissement,  which 
extend  all  the  way  along  the  railway  from  Firminy  to 
Rive-de-Gier,  5540  workmen  are  employed,  and  in  1882 
61,127  tons  of  cast  metal,  58,445  tons  of  iron,'  10,8i5 
tons  of  sheet-iron,  and  131,563  tons  of  steel  of  all 
kinds  were  manu- 


factured. The  last- 
named  industry, 
carried  on  acctird- 
ing  to  the  Besse- 
mer and  Martin 
processes,  yields 
nearly  a  third  of 
the  whole  French 
productionofsteel. 
Jlilitary  and  naval 
material,  railway 
plant^  and  articles 
of  general  mer- 
chandise are  all 
made  at  St  Etienne, 
and  its  name  is 
especially  associ- 
ated with  large 
castings,  bomb- 
proof plates,  ship-  ^ 
armour,  masts,  and 
pieces  of  machin- 
ery. The  national 
gun-factory,  under  "1-™  °f  St  Etienne. 

tnd  direction  of  artillery  officers  and  employing  4300 
workmen,  is  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  rifles  and  revolvers  for  the  army.  A  certain 
number  of  gun-makers  not  engaged  in  the  factory  ttirn 
out  from  80,000  to  90,000  firearms  (hunting-pieCes, 
revolvers,  i-c.)  per  annum.  Hardware  is  manufactured 
by  60  firms,  employing  7000  workmen  (who  are  not,  how- 
ever, exclusively  occupied  with  this  department) ;  leading 
articles  are  locks  (known  as  Forez  locks),  common  cutlery, 
files,  nails,  bolts,  anvils,  vices.  _  Hemp  cables  for  mines, 


168 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


hats,  pottery,  and  lime  are  among  the  miscellaneous  manu- 
factiired  products  of  tne  -own,  which  is  besides  a  grsat 
centre  of  the  ribbon  trade,  v.ith  a  testing-house  {condition) 
for  examining  the  silk.  From  500  to  COO  tons  of'  silk, 
valued  at  £1,200,000  to  £1,400,000,  are  used  per  annum, 
and  the  manufactured  articles  reach  a  value  ranging  from 
£2,800,000  to  £3,200,000.  The  ribbons,  hcos,  trimmings 
(in  cilk,  "cotton,  and  india-rubber)  produced  in  the  arron- 
dissement  of  St  litienne  are  valued  at  £4,000,000,  and 
form  four-filths  of  the  total  French  production.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  factories  where  machinery  Ls  employed, 
the  whole  manufacf^iro  is  carried  on  by  persons  with  small 
means.  About  5000  looms  (Jacquard.'s  permitting  thirty- 
six  piecesto  be  woven  at  once)  and  40,000  v.'orkmen  are 
employed.  Besides  the  old  abbey  church  of  Valbenoite 
(outside  of  the  ton-n)  with  its  nave  dating  from  the 
13th  century,  the  public  buildings  comprise  a  Protestant 
church,  a  synagogue,  a  town-house  (finished  under  the 
second  empire  and  decorated  with  statues  of  the  ribjjon 
trade  and  metallurgy),  a  school  of  mine.=:  (1816),  with  a 
mincralogical  and  geological  collection,  and  a  "  palace  of 
the  arts,"  with  a  museum  and  Ubrary  rich  in  old  MSS. 
and  collections  in  connexion  with  artillery  and  natural 
history.  Near  Valbenoite  in  the  wooded  gorge  of  the 
Furens  is  the  reservoir  of  Gouffre  d'Enfer,  formed  by  a 
dam  (1861-1866)  328  feet  long,  131  high,  and  131  wide 
at  the  base,  and  C8,pable  of  storing  about  70,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  water.  The  population  of  the  town  was  28,000  in 
1764;  by  1876  it  was  126,019,  but  it  had  decreased  to 
114,962  (123,813  in  the  commune)  in  1881. 

At  the  close  of  the  ]2th  century  St  Etienne  was  only  a  parish  of 
the  Pcys  de  Gier  belonging  to  the  abbey  of  Valbenoite.  By  the 
middle  of  the  14th  centurj'  the  coal  trade  had  reached  a  certain 
development,  imd  by  the  close  of  the  century  the  town  was  sur- 
round:':! Tvith  walls  and  had  consuls.  A  hundred  years  later  it 
had  three  growing  suburbs.  The  Wars  of  Religion  stimulated  the 
manufactxure  o-'  arms,  and  about  the  same  period  the  ribbon  trade 
sprang  into  existence.  It  was  not  till  the  18th  century,  however, 
that  the  town  entered  on  its  era  of  prosperity.  The  royal  manu- 
factory of  arms  was  established  in  1761.  In  1789  they  were  pro- 
ducing at  the  rate  of  12,000  niuske-58  per  annum ;  between  September 
1794  and  May  1796  they  dcJivered  170,858  ;  and  100,000  was  the 
annual  average  throughout  the  whole  period  of  the  empire.  The 
lirst  railways  opened  in  France  were  the  line  between  St  ^tieune 
and  Andrezieu  on  the  Loire  in  182S  and  that  between  St  Etienne 
and  Lyons  in  1831.  In  1856  St  Etienne  became  the  administrative 
centre  of  the  department  instead  of  Montbrison.  Among  the  local 
celebrities  are  Francis  Gamier,  who  conquered  Tongking  i^  1873, 
and  several  engravers  who  have  given  eminence  to  the  bt  Etienne 
school  of  engraving. 

ST  EUSTATIUS,  or  St  Eustache,  one  of  the  Dutch 
West  India  Islands,  a  dependency  of  Curasao,  lying  north- 
west of  St  Kitts  in  17°  50'  N.  lat.  and  62°  40'  W.  long., 
consists  of  two  volcanic  cones  and  an  intervening  valley, 
and  contains  the  small  town  of  Orangetown  and  two  forts. 
The  population,  which  from  7600  in  1786  had  decreased 
to  1741  (about  1000  Negroes),  was  again  2247  in  1882. 
Between  300  and  400  vessels  visit  the  island  annually. 
Yams  and  sweet  potatoes  are  exported  (5187  and  3010 
tons  in  1882).  The  Dutch  occupied  St  Eustatius  in  1635, 
and, .  after  frequent  French  and  English  irruptions,  were 
confirmed  in  their  possession  of  it  in  1814. 

SAINT -SVKEMOND,  Chaeles  de  Makguetel  de 
Saint-Denis,  Seigneue  de  (1613-1703),  was  born  at  Saint- 
Denis-le-Guast  near  Coutances,  the  seat  of  his  family  in 
Normandy,  on  1st  April  1613.  He  was  a  younger  son, 
but  took  his  designation  from  one  of. the  smaller  estates 
of.  the  family  and  appears  to  have  had  a  sufficient  portion. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits  at  the  College  de  Clermont, 
Paris,  then  a  student  at  Caen.  For  a  time  he  followed  th£ 
law  at  the  College  d'Harcourt.  He  soon,  however,  took 
to  arms  and  in  1629  went  with  Bassompierre  .to  Italy. 
He  served  through  great  part  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
chiefly  in  Germany,  and,  meeting  Gassendi  at  Paris,  became 


strongly  imbued  with  his  doctrines.  He  was  present  at 
Rocroy,  at  Nordlingen,  and  at  Lens.  For  a  time  he  was 
attached  to  Cond^,  but  is  said  to  have  offended  him  by 
somo  satirical  speech  or  speeches.  Duiiiig  the  Fronde, 
Saint-£vTemond,  unlike  mo.st  of  his  contemporaries,  never 
changciV  aides,  but  was  a  steady  royalist.  The  duke  of 
Candalu  uS  whom  he  hp.s  left  a  very  severe  portrait)  gave 
him  -some  a^ppointments  in  Guienne,  and  Saint-fivremond 
is  said  to  have  saved  50,000  li-.Tes  in  less  than  three  years. 
He  was  one  of  the  numerous  victims  of  the  fate  of  Fouquet. 
His  letter  to  Criqui  on  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Colbert's  agents  at  the 
eeizura  of  the  superintendent's  papers,  seems  a  very  in- 
adequate cause  for  exile,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that 
there  was  nnore  behind ;  but  nothing  is  kno\vn  certainly. 
Saint-fivremond  went  to  Holland  and  England,  where  he 
was  received  with  open  arms  by  Charles  II.,  and  was  pen- 
sioned. He  found  himself  very  much  at  home  in  England, 
and  though  after  James  II.'s  flight  to  France  Saint- 
livremond  was  invited  to  return  he  declined.  Hortense 
Mancini,  the  most  attractive  of  Mazarin's  strangely  attrac- 
tive group  of  nieces,  came  to  England  and  set  up  a  salon 
for  love-making,  gambling,  and  wioty  conversation,  and 
here  Saint-fivremond  was  for  many  years  at  home.  He 
died  on  Michaelmas  Day  1703,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  where  his  monument  stUl  is  L"  Poet's 
Corner  close  to  that  of  Pric 

Saint-Evremond  is  perhap.:  the  most  remarkable  instance  of  the 
cu'.ious  17th-century  fancy  for  circulating  literary  work  in  mana- 
acript  or  clandestinely.  He  never  himseh"  authorized  the  printing 
of  any  of  his  works  during  his  long  lifetime,  though  Barbin  in  1668 
published  an  unauthorized  collection.  But  he  empowered  Des 
Maizeaux  to  publish  his  works  after  his  death,  and  they  duly 
api'cared,  the  earUest  form  and  datci  being  3  vols.  4to,  1705.  They 
were  often  reprinted  in  various  forms  during  the  first  half  of  the  18tb 
century.  Saint-Evremond,  however,  had  made  his  mark  and  estab- 
Uslicd  h'5  influence  long  before  the  earhest  of  these  books  appeared^ 
He  vas  in  older  man  than  Pascal,  a  very  much  older  man  than 
Anthony  Hamilton,  and  he  probably  preceded  the  first,  as  ho 
certainly  long  preceded  the  second,  in  tho  employment  for  hterary 
purposes  of  a  singularly  Jight,  polished,  aud  gi-^ceful  irony,  which 
taught  a  gi'cat  deal  to  Voltaire,  but  which  Voltaire  was  never  able 
to  imitate  with  quite  the  air  of  good  company  which  distinguishes 
his  teacher.  The  masterpiece  of  Saint  -  Evremond's  style  in  this 
respect  is  tho  so-called  Cor^vcraaium  dv.  Marshal  d' Mocquincourt 
avec  Ic  Fire  Canaye  (tho  latter  a  Jesuit  and  Saint -Evremond's 
master  at  school),  which  his  been  frequcn'Jy  classed  with  the 
LcitTcs  Provaiciale3,  but  which  with  less  of  moral  purpose  and  of 
cutting  reproof  even  excels  those  famous  compositions  in  dramatic 
power  and  in  subtle  good-humoured  irony.  The  remainder  of 
Saint-Evremond's  works  are  desultory  in  the  extreme.  Some  ela- 
borate letters  contain  the  exposition  of  an  Epicurean  philosophy 
of  life  which  had  a  very  great  influence  on  the  polite  society  of  his 
day.  Others,  and  the  most  important  of  all,  exhibit  the  writer  as 
a  Hterary  critic  of  singular  discrimination  and  taste.  His  com- 
parisons of  Comeille  and  Racine,  his  remarks  on  English  drama 
(chiefly  that  of  Ben  Jonson),  his  sketches  of  criticism  on  Roman 
character  and  literature,  all  show  a  remarkable  union  of  acute  and 
ord*?rly  generalization  with  freedom  from  the  merely  academic  spirit 
which  had  in  his  time  already  begun  to  beset  France.  Altogether, 
Saint-Evremond  may  be  said  wich  greater  right  to  deserve  the 
phrase  which  used  to  be  apphed  to  Sir  William  Temple.  He  is 
the  first  master  of  the  genteel  style  in  French  literature,  and  the 
lively  poignancy  of  his  irony  prevents  this  gentility  from  ever 
becoming  insipid.  His  influence  indeed  was  kardly  less  in  his 
adopted  than  in  his  native  country,  and  it  may  be  traced  in  tha 
Queen  Anne  essayists  to  a  not  much  less  degree  than  in  Hamilton 
and  Voltaire. 

Samt.E\Teniond's  complete  works  have  not  recently  been  reprinted,  but 
there  are  selections  by  Hippeau,  Giraud,  and  otbera. 

ST  GALL,  in  area  the  sixth  (789  squai-e  miles;,  in 
actual  population  the  fourth  (210,491),  and  in  relative 
density  of  population  the  tenth  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  was 
fonned  in  1803  out  of  the  two  independent  communities 
of  the  "town"  and  the  "abbey"  (including  Toggenburg), 
Eapperswyl,  Uznach,  Gaster,  Sarg.ans,  Gams,  Rheinthal, 
Sax  (with  Forsteck),  which  belonged  to  Zurich,  and  Wer- 
denberg,  which  belonged  to  Glarus.    It  encloses  the  canton  ' 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I 


169 


of  Appenzell,  extending  between  the  Lake  of  Constance 
and  the  Lake  of  Zurich  on  the  west,  and  being  bounded 
by  the  Rhine  on  the  east,  while  in  the  south-west  lies  the 
vailey  occupied  by  the  Wallenstatt  Lake  and  the  Linth 
Canal  The  Rhine  separates  St  Gall  from  Tyrol,  and  the 
rest  of  its  frontier  is  conterminous  in  succession  with 
Orisons,  Glarus,  Schwyz,  Zurich,  and  Thurgau.  In  alti- 
tude the  canton  ranges  from  1306  feet  above  the  sea  (the 
height  of  the  Lake  of  Constance)  to  10,660  feet  in  the 
Ringelspitz  of  the  Sardona  group.  The  arable  area  is  not 
Sufficient  to  supply  the  local  demand  for  grain ;  but  the 
stock-breeding  and  especially  the  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, to  which  a  large  part  of  the  population  ia  devoted, 
make  up  for  any  agricultural  deficiency.  Rorschach  and 
Rapperswyl  are  lake  ports ;  Wyl,  Lichtensteig,  Altstatten, 
and  Uznach  markets  of  some  importance  for  local  pro- 
ducts. L'onstone  is  worked  in  the  Gonzen  district,  and 
there  are  quarries  at  Rorschach  and  Bolligen,  Mels  and 
Degersheim.  Ragatz,  the  well-known  watering-place,  is 
supplied  with  mineral  water  from  Pfaffers.  The  people  of 
St  Gall  are  three-fifths  Roman  Catholic  and  two-fifths 
Protestant  (126,164  and  83,441  in  1880),  but,  in  spite  of 
this  and  considerable  diversities  of  culture  and  character 
from  district  to  district,  a  fair  degree  of  harmony  has  ulti- 
mately been  secured  even  in  the  treatment  of  educational 
questions.  The  constitution  dates  from  1861  and  was 
partially  revised  in  1875.  After  being  abolished  for  many 
years,  the  death-penalty  was  re-enacted  in  1882.  Besides 
the  city  of  St  Gall  there  were  in  the  canton  in  1880  three 
communes  with  upwards  of  5000  inhabitants  each, — Tablat 
(8092),  Wattwyl  (a  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  5283), 
and  Straubenzell  (5026). 

ST  GAXL  (German  Sankt  Gallen),  capital  of  the  above 
canton,  occupies  along  with  its  suburbs  St  Fiden,  Neudorf, 
and  Langgasse  (to  the  east),  and  Lachen  and  Vonwil  (to 
the  west),  aji  area  4  miles  long  by  1  broad  in  the  high- 
land valley  of  the  Steinach,  which  descends  north-east 
to  the  Lake  of  Constance.  On  a  pQlar  in  the  market- 
place are  the  following  details : — Lat.  47°  25'  36"  N. ;  long. 
7°  2'  27"  E.  from  Paris  (9°  22'  41"  Green.);  height  above 
the  sea,  2196'6  feet;  mean  annual  temperature,  45-6;  an- 
nual rainfaU,  50  inches  ;  air-distance  from  Zurich  39  miles, 
from  Geneva  174.  The  only  town — not  village — in  Europe 
which  has  a  higher  position  than  St  Gall  is  Madrid.  The 
chief  building  in  St  Gall  is  the  abbey,  of  which  (as  it 
was  originally  arranged)  a  ground  plan  and  description 
are  given  in  vol.  i.  pp.  12,  13.  The  abbey  church,  since 
1846  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  was  entirely  rebuilt 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  in  the  rococo  style. 
Partly  from  the  desire  to  include  within  the  choir  the 
tombs  of  the  two  founders  and  partly  from  the  hostility 
which  long  e.xisted  between  town  and  tonsure,  both  the 
towers  (217  feet)  are  placed  at  the  east  end  and  the  main 
entrance  is  in  the  north  side.  The  whole  church  has  a 
length  of  400  feet  (with  the  sacristy  454  feet),  and  a 
breadth  in  the  nave  of  95  feet,  a  disproportion  which  is 
considerably  disguised  by  the  arrangement  of  the  interior. 
Among  the  internal  decorations  are  two  colossal  statues 
of  St  Desiderius  and  St  Mauritius,  the  original  patrons 
of  the  church,  whose  relics  were  brought  from  Scotland. 
Other  buildings  of  importance  are  the  (Protestant)  chiu'ch 
of  St  Lawrence,  partially  rebuilt  (1851-53)  according  to 
plans  by  the  Swiss  poet  Johann  G.  Miiller,  the  Government 
office.?  on  the  east  side  of  the  abbey-court  (where  Scholl's 
famous  relief  of  the  cantons  of  St  Gall  and  Appenzell  Ls  to 
be  seen),  the  town-house,  the  offices  of  the  Mercantile 
Directorium  (a  17th-century  institution  to  which  the  town 
owes  much  of  its  commercial  prosperity),  the  great  cantonal 
achool — comprising  a  gymnasium,  a  technical  scliool  (pre- 
paratory to  the  polytechnicum  at  Zurich),  and  a  mercantile 


school — the  cantonal  reformatory  of  St  Jacob,  the  hospitals, 
and  the  infantry  and  cavalry  barracks.  In  the  town  park, 
part  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  botanic  gardens,  stands 
the  public  miiseum,  cootaLning  natural  history  collections, 
the  industrial  collections  and  industrial  dfewing- school  of 
the  Mercantile  Directorium,  the  picture  gallery  of  the  Art 
Society,  and  the  antiquarian  collections  of  the  Historical 
Society.  The  museum  of  the  East  Svriss  Geographical 
Commercial  Society  ia  located  in  the  cantonal  school. 
Besides  the  abbey  library,  famous  for  its  ancient  MSS. 
(original  of  the  Niehdungenlied,  &c.),  there  is  a  town 
library  (Bibliotheca  Vadiana),  founded  by  the  reformer 
Joachim  de  Watt  or  Vadianus.  Li  spite  of  its  position 
and  climate,  St  GaU  is  the  seat  of  extensive  industries  and 
trades.  About  45,000  persons  in  the  surrounding  cantons 
are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  embroidered  goods, 
mainly  muslins,  for  the  St  Gall  capitalists,  who  also  em- 
ploy some  6000  or  7000  women  in  chain-stitch  and  hand 
embroidery.  In  1872  6384  machines  were  at  work  in  this 
department  in  the  town  and  vicinity,  and  in  1882  14,883. 
The  value  of  textile  fabrics  and  embroidered  goods  annu- 
ally exported  from  St  Gall  is  £3,600,000  to  £4,000,000. 
All  round  the  town  the  meadows  are  used  as  bleaching- 
gronnds  for  the  webs.  In  1870  the  population  was  16,675, 
in  1880  21,438. 

The  abbey  of  St  Gall  was  named  after  its  founder,  a  follower  of 
St  Columba,  who  along  with  Columban  left  Ireland  on  the  destruc- 
tion of  Bangor  and  finally  settled  down  in  the  midst  of  the  great 
forest  which  then  stretched  from  the  Lake  of  Constance  to  the 
Santis  Mountains,  for  the  purpose  of  converting  the  Alemanns.  On 
his  death  on  16th  October  625  this  apostle  of  Celtic  Christianity 
was  buried  in  his  oratory,  and  in  the  9th  century  the  spot  thus  con- 
secrated became  the  site  of  the  monastic  buildings  erected  by  Abbots 
Gozbert  and  Grimoald.  The  foundation  was  already  a  wealthy 
one,  and  it  soon  became  a  great  centre  of  literary  and  artistic  culture, 
attracting  numerous  pupils  and  receiving  the  homage  of  dukes  and 
emperors.  In  the  10th  century  the  abbey  and  its  cluster  of  houses 
were  surrounded  with  a  wall,  which  in  954  had  to  d.'fend  the  settle- 
ment against  an  attack  by  a  band  of  Saracens.  In  the  reign  of 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  the  town  obtained  a  recognUion  of  its  com- 
munal independence  from  Abbot  Ulrich  and  from  the  emperor  him- 
self a  variety  of  important  privileges.  An  allian:e  defensive  and 
offensive  was  formed  in  1312  with  Zurich,  Constince,  and  Schatf- 
hausen  ;  and,  although  the  prosperity  of  the  town  received  a  severe 
cheok  by  a  great  conflagration  in  1314,  the  vigour  with  which  the 
burghers  prosecuted  the  newly  introduced  linen  manufacture  soon 
made  it  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  of  Swi  ;zerland.  About 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century  the  burghers  began  to  shai-o  in  the 
government  of  the  town  ;  and  in  1457  they  bouglit  up  all  the 
claims  of  the  abbots  to  territorial  jurisdiction.  In  1454  St  GaU 
joined  the  confederation  of  the  Swiss  towns,  Zurich,  ^c.  Abbot 
Ulrich  YIII.  determined  to  remove  the  abbey  to  Rorschach  ;  but 
the  inhabitants  of  St  Gall,  Appenzell,  &c.,  combined  to  destroy  his 
new  buildings,  and,  though  St  Gall  was  besieged  by  the  abbot's 
supporters  and  had  to  pay  gi-ievous  damages  (1490),  the  treaty  which 
it  signed  bound  the  abbots  never  to  attempt  to  remove  the  relics 
of  the  founder.  The  abbey,  which  had  purchased  the  countship  of 
Toggenburg,  passed  at  the  Reformation  mto  the  hands  of  the  town 
(1529),  but  it  was  restored  to  the  abbots  in  1530  ;  and,  when  in 
1712  in  the  "Toggenburg  War  "  Zurich  and  Bern  devastated  the 
abbey  and  ita  possessions,  the  townsfolk  remained  neuti-al.  Tlie 
final  dissolution  of  the  abbey  occurred  in  1798.  Under  the  French, 
St  Gall  was  the  chief  town  of  the  canton  of  Santis. 

SAINT-GERMAIN,  Comte  de  (d.  1780),  a  celebrated 
adventurer  of  the  18th  century  who  by  the  a-ssortion  of  his 
discovery  of  some  extraordinary  secrets  of  nature  exerci8e<J 
considerable  influence  at  several  European  courts.  Of  his 
parentage  and  place  of  birth  nothing  is  definitely  known ; 
the  common  version  is  that  he  was  a  Portuguese  Jew.  It 
was  also  commonly  stated  that  he  obtained  his  money 
from  discharging  the  functions  of  spy  to  one  of  the  Euro- 
pean courts.  He  knew  nearly  all  the  European  languages, 
spoke  good  German  and  English,  excellent  Italian,  FrencK 
(with  a  Piedmonteso  accent),  and  Portuguese  and  ^X)nn''h 
with  perfect  purity.  Grimm  affirms  him  to  have  been  the 
man  of  the  best  parts  he  had  ever  known.  His  knowledge 
of  history  was  comorohonsive  and  minute,  and  his  acc.vu- 

\'VT     —     77. 


170 


.S  A  I  —  S  A  I. 


plisliinents  as  a  chemist,  on  which  he  based  his  reputation, 
wtre  undbubtedly  real  and  considerable.  The  most  re- 
markable of  his  professed  discoveries  was  of  a  liquid  which 
could  prolong  life,  and  by  which  he  asserted  he  had  lived 
2000  years.  At  the  court  of  Louis  XV.,  where  he  ap- 
peared about  17-iS,  he  exercised  for  a  time  extraordinary 
influence,  but,  having  interfered  in  the  dispute  between  the 
houses  of  Austria  and  France,  he  was  compelled  in  June 
17C0,  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  duke  of  Choiseul, 
to  remove  to  England.  He  appears  to  have  resided  in 
London  for  one  or  two  years,  but  was  at  St  Petersburg  in 
1762,  and  is  asserted  to  have  played  an  important  part  in 
connexion  with  the  conspiracy  against  the  emperor  Peter 
III.  in  July  of  that  year.  He  then  went  to  Germany,  where, 
according  to  the  Mi-moires  mdhentiques  of  Cagliostro,  he  was 
the  founder  of  freemasonry,  and  initiated  Cagliostro  into 
that  rite.  After  frequenting  several  of  the  German  courts 
he  finally  took  up  his  residence  iu  Schleswig-Holstein,  where 
he  and  the  landgrave  Charles  of  Hesse  pursued  together 
the  study  of  the  "  secret "  sciences.     He  died  at  Schleswig 

in  1780. 

Saint  -  Germaiu  figures  prominently  iu  the  correspondence  of 
Grintm  and  of  Voltaire.  See  also  Oettinger,  Graf  Saint-Germain, 
1546;  Btilau,  Gchcimc  Gcschichtcn  nnd  rdthselhafte  Mciischcn,  vol. 
i  cap.  xiii. 

ST  GERMAIN-EN-LAYE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine -et-Oise,  8  miles  north  of  Versaillea 
and  13  west  of  Paris  by  rail.  Built  on  a  hill  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  nearly  200  feet  above  the  river,  and  on 
the  edge  of  a  forest  10,000  to  11,000  acres  in  extent,  St 
Germain  has  a  healthy  and  bracing  air,  which  makes  it  a 
favourite  place  of  summer  residence  with  the  Parisians.  It 
had  15,5i5  inhabitants  in  1881  (15,790  in  the  commune). 
The  terrace  of  St  Germain,  constructed  by  Lenotre  in 
1672,  is  7900  feet  long  and  100  feet  wide,  is  planted  with 
lime  trees  upwards  of  a  hundred  years  old,  and  afibrds  an 
extensive  view  over  the  valley  of  the  Seine  as  far  as  Paris 
and  the  surrounding  hills;  hence  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest 
promenades  in  Europe.  .  It  was  also  after  Lenotre's  plans 
that  the  "parterre"  promenade  was  laid  out  between. the 
castle  and  the  forest  and  the  "  English  garden  "  (by  which 
it  is  approached).  The  history  of  St  Germain  centres  in  the 
castle,  now  occupied  by  a  museum  of  national  antiquities. 
A  monastery  in  honour  of  St  Germain,  bishop  of  Paris,  was  built 
in  the  forest  of  Laye  Ijy  King  Robert.  Louis  VI.  erected  a  castle 
close  by.  Burned  by  the  Enrfish,  rebuilt  by  Louis  IX.,  and  again 
by  Charles  V.,  this  castle  did  not  reach  its  full  developmcut  till 
the  time  of  Francis  I.,  who  may  be  almost  regarded  as  the  real 
founder  of  the  building.  A  new  castle  was  erected  by  Henry  II.  ; 
but  it  was  demolished  by  the  count  of  Artois,  and  there  remains 
only  the  so-called  Heniy  IV.  pavilion,  now  used  as  an  hotel,  and 
known  as  the  place  where  Thiers  died,  3d  September  1877.  Tlie 
old  castle,  on  the  contrary,  is  being  completely  restored  to  the 
state  iu  which  it  was  under  Fr.anci3  I.  The  chapel,  dating  from 
1240,  is  older  than  the  Saiute  Chapelle  at  Paris,  and  is  worthy  of 
note  for  its  rose  and  other  windows.  The  museum,  which  will 
occupy  forty  rooms,  contains  a  chronological  series  of  artistic  and 
industrial  products  from  the  earliest  prehistoric  times.  In  tlie 
church  of  St  Germain  is  a  mausoleum  erected  by  Queen  Victoria 
to  the  memory  of  James  II.  of  England,  who  found  in  the  old 
castle  (now  demolished)  an  asylum  after  the  Revolution  of  16S8. 
In  one  of  the  public  squares  is  a  statue  of  Thiers.  The  town  is 
the  seat  of  one  of  tlie  cavalry  garrisons  which  surround  Paris. 
At  no  great  distance  in  the  forest  is  the  Convent  des  Loges,  a 
branch  of  the  educational  establishment  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
pt  Denis).  The  fete  des  Loges  is  one  of  the  most  popular  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris.  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX.,  .and  Jf-rgaret 
of  Navarre -were  born  at  St  Germain,  as  well  as  Louis  XIV.,  wlio  is 
said  to  have  removed  from  this  place  to  Versailles  to  get  away  from 
the  sight  of  the  clock-tower  of  St  Denis,  the  church  where  he  was 
to  be  buried. 

ST  HELENA,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  in  15°  55'  26" 
S.  lat.  and  5°  42'  30"  W.  long.  (Ladder  Hill  Observa- 
tory), lies  1110  miles  from  Africa,  ISOO  from  America, 
700  south-east  of  the  island  of  Ascension  (the  nearest 
land),  and  1000  from  Great  Britain,  of  which  it  has  been 


a  dependency  since  1651.  The  are£,  is  about  45  square 
miles,  the  extreme  length  from  south-west  to  north-east 
being  10^  miles  and  the  extreme  breadth  &\.  The  island 
is  a  very  ancient  volcano,  greatly  changed  by  oceanic 
abrasion  and  atmo.spheric  denudation.  The  northern  rim 
of  the  great  crater  still  forms  the  principal  ridge,  with  the 
culminating  summits  of  Diana's  Peak  (2704  feet)  and  High 
Peak  (2635);  the  southern  rim  has  been  altogether  washed 
away,  though  its  debris  apparently  keeps  the  sea  shallow 
(from  20  to  50  fathoms)  for  some  2 'miles  south-east  of 
Sandy  Bay,  which  hypothetically  forms  the  centre  of  the 
ring.  From  the  crater  wall  outwards  water-cut  gorges 
stretch  in  all  directions,  widening  as  they  approaoh  the 
sea  into  valleys,  some  of  which  are  1000  feet  deep,  and 
measure  one-eighth  of  a  mile  across  at  bottom  and  three- 
eighths  across  the  top  (Melliss).  Along  the  enclosing  hill- 
sides caves  have  been  formed  by  the  washing  out  of  the 


*.»3yi.<     .'OJ^  luichf 


Profll«  ei"  l6l£^d  (la  e*co  fitici  tt  T^c-jit  iiLVmt  10  miles  HS^P. 


Map  of  St  Helena. 


softer  rocks.  High  Hill  (2823  feet)  and  High  Knoll  (1903) 
are  lateral  cones.  Many  dykes  and  masses  of  basaltic  rock 
seem  to  have  been  injected  "subsequently  to  the  last  vol- 
canic eruptions  from  the  central  crater."  Among  the  more 
remarkable  instances  are  the  Ass's  Ears  and  Lot's  Wife, 
picturesque  pinnacles  standing  out  on  the  south-east  part 
of  the  crater  ridge,  and  the  Chimney  on  the  coast  to  the 
south  of  Sandy  Bay.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Man  and 
Horse  (south-west  corner  of  the  island),  throughout  aa 
area  of  about  40  acres,  scarcely  50  square  yards  exist  not 
crossed  by  a  dyke.  On  the  leeward  side  of  St  Helena  the 
sea-face  is  generally  formed  by  cliffs  from  600  to  1000 
feet  high,  and  on  the  windward  side  these  heights  often 
increase  to  full  2000  feet,  as  at  Holdfast  Tom,  Stone  Top, 
and  Old  Joan  Point.  Limited  deposits  of  calcareous  sand- 
stones and  stalagmitic  limestones  occur  at  certain  points, 
as  on'  Sugar-Loaf  Hill ;  they  probably  consist  of  particles 
of  shells  blown  by  the  wind  from  some  primeval  beach, 
long  since  destroyed. 

As  regards  its  vegetation,  St  Helena  is  divided  iuto  three  zones, 
—(1)  the  coast  zone,  extending  inland  for  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a 
half,  formerly  clothed  with  a  luxmiaut  vegetation,  but  now  "  dry, 
barren,  soilless,  lichen-coated,  and  rocky,"  with  little  save  prickly 
pears,  wire  grass,  and  ilesanhryanihcmum ;  (2)  the  middle  zone  (400- 
1800  feet),  e.itending  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  inland,  not  so 
rocky,  with  shallower  valleys  and  glassier  slopes, — the  English  broom 
and  gorse,  brambles,  willows,  poplars,  Scotch  pines,  &c.,  being  the 
prevailing  forms  ;  and  (3)  the  central  zone,  about  3  miles  long 
and  2  wide,  the  last  refuge  for  the  most  part  of  that  marvellous 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I 


171 


flora  which  has  heen  for  generations  tht  admiration  and  sorrow  of 
the  botanist.  According  to  Mr  "W,  B.  Helmsley  (who  has  sum- 
marized til  that  is  known  on  the  matter  in  his  report  on  the 
botany  of  the  Atlantic  Islands),^  the  cei-taiuly  indigenous  species 
of  plants  are  65,  ±he  probably  indigenous  24,  and  the  doubtfully 
indigenous  5  ;  total  94.  Of  the  38  flowering  plants  20  are  shrubs 
or  small  trees.  With  the  exception  of  Scirpi^  nodosiis,  all  the  38 
are  peculiar  to  the  island  ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  12  of  the  27 
vascular  cryptogams  (a  remarkable  proportion).  Since  the  flora 
began  to  bo  -studied,  two  species — Melhania  mdanoxylojt.  and 
Acatypha  rubra — ai'e  known  to  havB  become  extinct ;  and  at  least 
two  others  have  probably  shared  the  sania  fate — Helioiropiiim 
pennifoKum  and  ScTuazeria  cbliteraia.  Meiha'nia  inclanoxylon,  or 
"  native  ebony,"  once  abounded  in  parts  of  the  island  now  barren  ; 
but  the  local  legislation  decided  that  goats  were  of  more  value 
than  ebony.  Its  beautiful  congener  MeVmnia  eryihroxylon  {"red- 
wood ")  was  stiU  tolerably  plentiful  in  1810,  but  is  now  reduced 
to  a  few  specimens.  Very  rare,  too,  has  become  Felargoniuni 
colyUdonis,  called  "Old  Father  Live-for-ever,"  from  its  retaining 
vitality  for  months  without  soil  or  water.  Coimnidendron-rohustmn 
("gumwood"),  a  tree  about  20  feet  high,  once  the  most  abundant 
in  the  island,  was  represented  in  1863  by  about  1300  or  1400 
examples  ;  and  Conimm^ndro-n  rugosuni  ("scrubwood")  is  confined 
to  somewhat  limited  regions.  Both  these  plants  are  characterized 
by  a  daisy-  or  aster-like  blossom,  which  looks  very  strange  on  a 
tree.  In  general  the  affinities  of  the  indigenous  flora  of  St  Helena 
were  described  by  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  as  African,  but  Mr  Bentham 
points  out  that  the  important  element  of  the  Compositm  shows,  at 
least  in  its  older  forms,  a  connexion  rather  with  South  America. 
The  exotic  flora  introduced  from  all  parts  of  the  world  gives  the 
island  almost  the  aspect  of  a  botanic  garden.  Tlie  oak,  thoroughly 
naturalized,  grows  alongside  of  the  bamboo  and  banana.  As  con- 
tributing largely  to  the  general  physiognomy  of  the  vegetation 
must  be  mentioaed^the  common  English  gorse  ;  Ruhus  pinnatits, 
probably  introduced  from  Africa  about  1775  ;  Bypochxris  nulicata, 
which  above  1500  feet  forms  the  dandelion  of  the  country  ;  the 
■beautiful  but  aggressive  Biuldleia  '/nadagascaru-ttsls  ;  Physalis peru- 
viana ;  the  common  castor-oil  plant ;  and  the  pride  of  India.  The 
peepul  is  the  principal  shade  ti'ee  in  Jamestown,  and  in  Jamestown 
valley  the  date-palm  grows  freely.  Orange  and  lemon  trees,  once 
common,  are  now  scarce.  The  attempt  (1869-71)  to  introduce' 
cinchona  cultivation  failed.  Potatoes  are  probably  the  staple  pro- 
duction of  the  St  Helena  farmers,  and  as  many  as  three  crops  per 
annum  are  sometimes  obtained. 

The  fauna  of  St  Helena  is  only  second  in  interest  to  its  flora. 
Besides  domestic  animals  the  only  land  mammals  are  rabbits, 
rats,  and  mice,  the  rats  being  especially  abundant  and  building 
their^  nests  in  the  highest  trees.  Probably  the  only  endemic  land 
bird  is  the  wire  bird,  ^gialiiis  scrnctx  hdenx  ;  the  averdevat,  Java 
sparrow,  cardinal,  ground -dove,  partridge  (possibly  the  Indian 
chiiJcar),  pheasant,  and  guinea-fowl  are  all  common.  The  pea-fowl, 
at  one  time  not  uncommon  in  a  wild  state,  is  long  since  extermi- 
nated. Though  fresh  water  abounds  in  the  island  in  the  form  of 
springs,  rivulets,  and  stz'eams,  there  are  no  freshwater  fish,  beetles, 
or  shells.  Of  sixty-five  species  of  sea-fish  caught  ofi'  the  island  seven- 
teen are  peculiar  to  St  Helena  ;  economically  the  more  important 
kinds  are  gurnard,  eel,  cod,  mackerel,  tunny,  bullseye,  cavalley, 
flounder,  hog-fish,  mullet,  and  skulpin.  Mr  AVollaston,  in  CoUoptera 
Sanctx  Helcnx,  1877,  shows  that  out  of  a  total  list  of  203  species 
of  beetles  129  are  probably  aboriginal  and  128  peculiar  to  the  islaud, 
— an  individuality  perhaps  unequalled  in  the  world.  More  than 
two-thirds  are  weevils  and  a  vast  ifaajority  wood-borers,  a  fact  which 
bears  out  the  tradition  of  forests  having  once  covered  the  island. 
The  Slemt/>tera  and  the  land -shells  also  show  a  strong  residuum 
of  peculiar  genera  and  species.  A  South -American  white  ant 
{Tcrma  tenuis,  Hagen.),  introduced  from  a  slave-ship  in  1810, 
soon  became  a  real  plague  at  Jamestown,  wliero  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  public  library  feil  a  prey  to  its  voratiiy.  ■  The  honey- 
bee, which  throve  for  some  time  after  its  introduction,  again  died 
out     (Comp.  Wallace,  Mand  Life. ) 

The  population  of  St  Helena  was  6444  in  1871  and  5059  (2617 
males,  2442  females)  in  1881  ;  it  consists  of  Government  olficials, 
of  o'ld-established  residents  ( "  yamstalks  ")  of  somewhat  composite 
origin,  European  and  Asiatic,  and  of  the  descendants  of  Negroes 
landed  from  the  West  African  slave-ships  subsequent  to  1840.  The 
only  town — Jamestown  (3000  inhabitants) — lies  in  a  deep  valley 
on  the  north-west  coast,  and  there  is  a  village  in  the  neighbouring 
Rupert's  Valley.  Ladder.  Hill,  the  seat  of  the  garrison,  is  so  called 
from  the  almost  precipitous  ladder-like  wooden  stair  by  which  its 
height  of  600  feet  can  be  scaled.  Longwood,  where  Napoleon  died 
ir  1821,  is  a  farmhouse  in  an  elevated  plain  (2000  feet  high),  about 
31  railcs  inlknd  from  Jamestown. 

St  Helena  was  discovcrtd  by  the  Portuguese  navigator  Joao 
da  Nora  on  the  21st  of  May  1501.  The  island  received  its  first 
known  inhabitant  ir.  1513  in  the  person  of  Fernandez  Lopez,  a 

'  Voyage  of  E.  K.^.  Chalienjcr,  Botany,  vol  L 


Portuguese  of  good  family,  who  preferred  being  marooned  to  re- 
turning to  Europe  after  the  barbarous  mutilation  to  which  he  had 
b:en  subjected  for  some  misdemeanour.  Cavendish  (1588),  Kendall 
(1591),  and  Lancaster  (1593)  were  the  earliest  English  visitors. 
The  Dutch,  who  had  for  some  time  been  in  possession  of  the  isl.ind, 

-withdrew  in  1651,  but  on  two  occasions  (1GG5  ant>  1673)  managed 
to  expel  the  forces  of  the  English  East  India  Company,  which  had 
at  once  seized  the  abandoned  prize.  The  company,  having  procuret- 
a  second  charter  of  possession  on  16th  December  1673,  remained 
the  governing  authority  till  22d  April  1S34,  when  St  Helena  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  British  crown.  In  1832  it  had  purchased 
the  freedom  of  the  slaves  (614)  for  £28,062.  As  a  port  of  call  the 
island  continued  to  prosper  till  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
which,  by  altering  the  route  to  the  East  Indies,  deprived  the  people 
of  their  means  of  subsistence.  The  revenue  has  decreased  from 
£13,931  in  1874  to  £10,421  in  1884,  the  expenditure  from  £14,621 
to  £10,806,.  the  value  of  imports  from  £53,874  to  £41,316,  and  ol 
exports  from  £4006  to  £1436.  Halley  the  asUouomer  in  1676  left 
his  name  to  Halley's  Mount ;  and  Masielyne  and  Waddington 

-visited  the  islaud  in  1761. 

Sec  Seale,  Gecgjiay  of  Saint  Selena  (folio  plates),  1834;  Brooke,  Historii  o) 
Saint  Bclena,  1808  and  1824;  Beatson,  Tracts,  &c.,  1816;  Darwin,  Geological 
Ohscri'atiems  on  Vohanlc  Islands,  1S4-1 ;  Jlellisa,  Sait^  Bchna,  1875. 

ST  HELEN'S,  a  market-town  and  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  south-west  Lancashire,  England,  is 
■situated  on  a  branch  of  the  London  and  North- Western 
Railway,  21  miles  west  by  south  of  Manchester  and  10 
east-north-east  of  Liverpool.  It  is  the  principal  seat  in 
England  for  the  manufacture  of  crown,  plate,  and  sheet 
glass,  and  has  extensive  copper  smelting  and  refining 
■p'orks,  as  well  as  chemical  works,  iron  and  bra.?s  foundries, 
and  potteries.  There  are  collieries  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  town,  which  is  entirely  of  modern  origin,  obtained  a 
charter  of  incorporation  iil  1868.  A  town-hall  v.as  erected 
in  1873,  and  there  are 'also  a  public  library  and  various 
institutes  for  affording  instruction  and  amusement  to  the 
working-class  population.  Extensive  drainage  works  have 
been  carried  out  under  a  local  Act.  The  corporation  are 
the  owners  of  the  waterworks  and  gasworks.  Enfranchised 
in  1885,  St  Helen's  returns  one  member  to  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  population  of  the  borough  (area,  6586 
acre.s)  in  1871  was  45,13^1,  and  in  1881  it  was  57,403. 

ST  HELIER.     See  Jersey,  vol.  xiii.  p.  635. 

SAINT-HILAIRE.     See  GEOFfT.OY  S.u-nt-Hilaike. 

SAINT-HILAIRE,  Auguste  de  (1799-1853),  French 
botanist  and  traveller,  was  born  at  Orleans  on  4th  October 
1799.  He  began  to  publish  memoirs  on  botanical  subjects 
at  an  early  age.  In  1816-22  and  in  1830  he  travelled  in 
South  America,  especially  in  south  and  central  Brazil,  and 
the  results  of  his  personal  study  of  the  rich  flora  of  the 
regions  through  which  he  passed  appeared  in  several  books 
and  numerous  articles  in  scientific  journals.  These  works 
are  most  valuable  from  the  copious  information  they  afford 
not  only  about  the  plants  and  other  natural  products  but 
also  about  the  native  races  he  encountered.  Those  by  which 
he  is  best  known  are  the  Flora  Brasilia  Meridmnalis  (3 
,vo!3.  folio,  with  192  coloured  plaies,  1825-32),  published 
in  conjunction  with  A.  de  Jussieu  and  CambessWe,  Uisioire 
des  ptanies  les  plus  reynarquables  du  Breiil  et  de  Paraguay 
(1  vol.  4to,  30  plates,  1824),  Plardes  mtielles  des  Brhiliens 
(1  vol.  4to,  70  plates,  1827-28),  a!.so  in  conjunction  with 
De  Jussieu  and  Cambessfede,  Voyage  dans  U  district  des 
Diamants  et  sur.  le  littoral  du  Brisil  (2  vols.  8vo,  1833). 
His  numerous  articles  in  journals  deal  largely  with  the  plants 
of  Brazil  and  the  general  characters  of  its  vegetation ;  but 
Saint-Hilaire  also  aided  much  in  e.stablishing  the  natural 
system  of  classification'  on  the  firm  basis  of  etructuial 
characters  in  the  flowers  and  fruits;  and  that  he  recognized 
the  importance  of  the  study  of  anomalies  in  this  view  is 
shown  in  more  than  one  of  his  writings.  His  Zcfon^  de 
Botaniqut,  comprenant  principalemeni  la  Morphologie  Vege- 
tale,  published  in  1840,  is  a  very  comprehensive  and  clear 
exposition  of  botanical  morphology  up  to  1840  and  of  its 
application  to  systematic  botany.  He  di«d  at  Orleanfl  on 
30th  September  1853. 


172 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


ST  IVES,  a  seaport  and  borough  of  west  Corn-vvall, 
England,  is  situated  at  the  west  entrance  of  the  beautiful 
St  Ives  Bay  on  thq  Bristol  Channel,  7  miles  north  of 
Penzance.  The  older  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular, 
but  on  the  slopes  above  there  are  modern  terraces  vrith 
good  houses.  The  town  takes  its  name  from  St  Hya  or 
la,  an  Irish  virgin  who  is  said  to  have  arrived  in  the  bay 
in  the  5th  century.  The  parish  church  of  St  Andrew  is 
in  the  Early  Perpendicular  style  of  the  15th  century.  In 
the  churchyard  is  an  ancient  cross  recently  restored.  A 
town-hall  was  erected  in  1832.  The  town  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  pilchard  fishery.  The  port  has  suffered 
greatly,  from  the  accumulation  of  sand.  A  stone  pier  was 
built  by  Smeaton  in  1767  ;  a  breakwater  was  commenced 
in  1816  but  abandoned;  and  a  wooden  pier,  which  was 
commenced  in  1865,  is  still  unfinished.  Formerly  the 
town  was  called  Pendenis  or  Pendunes.  Its  charter  of 
incorporation,  granted  by  Charles  I.  in  1639,  was  forfeited 
in  1685,  but  was  renewed  by  James  II.  in  1686.  From 
the  reign  of  John  until  18^2  it  sent  two  members  to  par- 
liament, and  one  from  1832  until  1885,  when  it  was 
nivirged  in  the  St  Ives  division  of  the  county.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  municipal  borough  (area,  1890  acres)  in  1871 
was  6965,  and  in  1881  it  was  6445. 

ST  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  a  suburb  of  Montreal,  Canada, 
under  a  separate  municipality.  It  lies  north-north-east  of 
Mount  Royal  Park  and  is  hardly  a  mile  from  the  centre 
of  the  city.     The  population  in  1881  was  5874. 

ST  JEAN  D'ACRE.     See  Acre. 

ST  JEAJf  D'AXGELY,  a  town  of  Francs,  the  chef-lieu 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Charente-Infi?- 
rieure,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Boutonne  (a  right-hand 
r-.ffluent  of  the  Charente)  and  on  the  railway  from  Taille- 
bourg  (12  miles  south-west)  to  Xiort  (30  miles  north). 
The  town,  which  is  badly  planned  and  built,  contains  the 
remains  of  a  Benedictine  abbey,  destroyed  in  1568;  the 
existing  church  corresponds  to  but  a  part  of  the  large  old 
abbey  church  erected  in  the  13th  century.  The  harbour 
admits  vessels  Of  30  to  40  tons  burden,  and  wine  and 
brandy  are  e.xported.  The  population  was  6538  in  1881 
(7279  in  the  commune). 

St  Jean  owes  its  origin  to  a  castle  of  the  "th  century,  Ti-hich  the 
tlukes  of  Aquitaine  used  as  a  lodge  for  boar-lmnting  in  the  neigh- 
bouring forest  of  Angeri  Pippin,  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire, 
turned  it  into  a  monastery,  where  he  deposited  the  head  of  John 
Baptist.  This  relic  attracted  hosts  of  pilgrims  ;  a  town  grew  up, 
took  the  name  St  Jean  d'Angeri,  aftenvards  d'Angely,  was  fortified 
in  1131,  and  in  1204  received  from  Philip  Augiistus  a  communal 
charter.  The  possession  of  the  place  was  disputed  between  French 
and  English  in  the  Hundred  Years'  AA'ar,  and  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants  at  a  later  date.  Louis  XIIL  took  it  from  the  Protestants 
in  1629  and  deprived  it  of  its  fortitications,  its  privileges,  and  its 
veiy  name,  which  he  wished  to  change  into  Bourg-Louia, 

ST  JOHN,  capital  of  St  John  county  and  the  largest 
city  of  the  province  of  New  Brunswick,  is  strikingly 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in 
45'  14'  6"N.  lat.  and  66°  3'  30"  W.  long  (see  vol.  xvii.,  plate 
IV.).  It  stands  on  an  elevated  rocky  peninsula  which 
projects  into  the  harbour  for  a  considerable  distance.  The 
latter,  which  is  protected  by  batteries  and  never  freezes,  is 
well  equipped  with  wharves  and  docks,  and  is  capable  of 
accommodating  ships  of  the  largest  size.  Its  entrance  is 
guarded  by  Partridge  Island,  lying  2  miles  south  of  the 
city,  and  containing  the  quarantine  hospital  and  light- 
house. About  1 J  miles  north  of  the  lighthouse  is  situated 
the  Beacon,  and  below  the  town  east  of  the  channel  is  the 
breakwater,  2250  feet  long.  The  St  John  river  enters  the 
harbour  through  a  rocky  and  shaiply  defined  gorge,  100 
yards  ■n-ide  and  about  400  long,  having  a  total  fall  of 
a'^out  17  feet,  which  is  passable  to  ships  for  forty-five 
minutes  during  each  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide.  The  river 
^a=^  alternately  an   inward   and   an  outward   fall   twice 


every  twenty-four  hours,  the  high-water  tide  level  imme- 
diately  below  the  gorge  being  6  to  8  feet  higher  than  the 
average  level  above  the  gorge.  The  rivgr  is  here  spanned 
by  a  stanch  suspension  bridge  640  feet  lo;ig  and  100  feet 
aijove  low-water  level,  and  a  cantilever  railway  bridge, 
2260  feet  long,  with  a  river  span  of  825  feet,  was  opened 


Plan  of  St  John,  New  Brunswick. 

in  1885.  The  city,  approached  from  the  sea,  presents  a 
bold  and  picturesque  appearance,  and,  next  to  Quebec, 
possesses  more  natural  beauty  than  any  other  town  in 
Canada.  There  are  three  large  public  squares,  and  the 
streets  (lighted  with  gas  and  the  electric  light)  are  regularly 
laid  out.  The  water  supply  is  derived  from  Little  river,  5 
miles  distant,  and  brought  to  the  city  by  three  separate 
mains  with  an  aggregate  Qapacity  estimated  at  10,000,000 
gallons  daily;  the  present  daily  consumption  (including  that 
of  the  city  of  Portland)  is  5,000,000  gallons.  The  works, 
which  are  ow-ned  by  the  city,  cost  $992,326.  .  The  water 
supply  of  St  John  (West)  is  derived  from  Spruce  Lake. 
St  John  (East)  has  also  an  admirable  sewerage  system. 

On  the  20th  of  June  1877  two-fifths  of  St  John  (about 
200  pcres)  were  destroyed  by  a  fire,  which  in  nine  hours 
burned  over  §27,000,000  worth  of  property.  The  city 
was  quickly  rebuilt,  and  on  a  much  grander  scale,  many 
brick  and  stone  edifices  taking  the  place  of  the  old  land- 
marks, which  were  principally  comjKised  of  wood.  The 
chief  buildings  are — the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  Trinity, 
St  Andrew's,  the  Stone,  St  David's,  the  Centenary,  Ger- 
main Street  Baptist,  and  Leinster  Street  Baptist  churches, 
the  custom-house,  jxist-office,  city-hall,  savings  bank, 
"Wiggins's  Orphan  Asylum,  Victoria  skating-rink,  lunatic 
asylum,  Victoria  and  JIadras  schools,  the  Masonic  and 
Oddfellows'  halls,  the  young  men's  Christian  association 
building,  the  general  public,  the  epidemic,  and  the  marine 
hospitals,  the  court-house,  jail,  police  office,  and  mechanics' 
institute  (with  a  reading-room,  library,  and  museum). 
There  are  thirty-three  places  of  worship  (Church  of  England 
6,  Roman  Catholic  3,  Presbyterian  7,  Wesleyan  Methodist 
5,  Baptist  6,  Congregationalist  1,  Methodist  Episcopal  1, 
Christian  Brethren  1,  Disciples  of  Christ  2,  and  Christ- 
adeljAians  1)  ;  the  educational  institutions  consist  of  a 
grammar-school,  a  Madras  school.  Baptist  seminary,  and 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


173 


several  public  and  private  schools  and  academies.  St  John 
has  also  a  free  public  library,  numerous  religious,  charitable, 
scientific,  and  literary  societies,  and  three  daily  newspapers. 
Carleton,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  connected 
with  the  east  side  by  ferry,  is  included  within  the  corpora- 
tion limits,  and  is  represented  in  the  common  council.  The 
population  in  1871  was  28,805,  in  1881  it  was  26,127 
(males  12,263,  females  13,864),  the  decrease  being  caused 
by  the  great  fire  of  1877,  when  many  persons  left  the  city. 

St  John  is  the  cntrepdt  of  a  large  exteut  of  country,  rich  in 
minerals,  agricultural  produce,  and  timber.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
extensive  business  connexion,  and  possesses  iirst-class  means  of 
communication  both  by  steamships  and  sailing  vessels  and  by  rail- 
ways. Of  late  years  its  maritime  and  manufacturing  interests  have 
been  greatly  extended.  The  chief  articles  of  manufacture  are  iron- 
castings,  steam  engines  and  locomotives,  railway  cars,  coaches  and 
''nrriages,  machinery,  edge-tools,  nails  and  tacks,  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  furniture,  wooden  ware,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  soap  and 
candles,  agricultural  implements,  lumber,  sugar-boxes,  paper,  boats, 
ails,  &c.  The  fisheries  afford  employment  to  about  1000  men, 
ind  shad,  salmon,  holibut,  cod.  herrings,  alewives,  sturgeons,  and 
haddock  comprise  the  chief  varieties  taken.  The  exports  (84,310,576 
in  >8S1)  consist  of  fish,  lumber,  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  manu- 
factured articles,  &a.  ;  the  imports  ($4,621,691  in  1SS4)  are  tobaccos, 
sugar  and  molasses,  spirits  and  malt  liquors,  dried  fmits,  coffee, 
tea,  silks,  velvets,  &c.  The  following  figures  represent  the  move- 
ment of  the  coasting  trade  in  1884  : — vessels  arrived  1364,  tonnage 
117,566,  men  7340  ;  vessels  departed  1941,  tonnage  105,050,  men 
68r5.  The  number  of  entrances  from  foreign  ports  was  1904  (486,471 
tons),  of  clearances  1961  (617,415  tons).  The  vessels  on  the  re- 
gistry books  (3l3t  December  1884)  numbered  077,  with  a  tonnage 
of  251,136  ;  53  vessels  were  built  in  that  year  with  a  tonnage  of 
18,989.  The  taxable  property  in  1885  was— real  estate  $9,122,000, 
personal  §9,153.300,  income  $2,833,900,  total  $21,109,200.  The 
corporation  affari-s  are  managed  by  a  mayor,  elected  by  the  people 
annually,  and  a  city  council  of  eighteen  members.  St  John  city 
and  county  return  three  members  to  the  House  of  Commons  of 
Canada,  and  six  membei-s  to  the  House  of  Assembly  of  New 
Brunswick.  The  climate,  though  healthy,  is  changeable,  the 
pleasantest  season  being  the  autumn.  The  highest  temperature 
observed  since  1860  was  87°  Fahr. ,  and  the  lowest -22°  Falir. ,  the 
mean  temperature  for  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter  respect- 
ively being  36°-9,  68°,  4.')°,  and  20°'6.  The  number  of  schools  is  81, 
with  4171  pupils  (average  daily  attendance  2722).  Besides  the 
libraries  belonging  to  the  city  and  the  mechanics'  institute,  there 
are  large  collections  of  books  open  to  members  of  the  young  men's 
Christian  association  and  the  Church  of  England  institute.  Navi- 
gation on  St  John  river  opens  ou  15th  April  and  closes  on  26th 
November. 

De  Monts  visited  St  John  in  1604,  but  it  was  not  until  1635  that 
a  regular  settlement  of  the  place  was  made,  when  Charles  de  la 
Tour  founded  a  colony,  which  existed  under  French  rule,  with 
varj'iug  fortunes,  until  1758,  when  it  finally  passed  under  British 
control.  In  1764  the  first  Scottish  settlers  arrived  iii  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  in  1783  the  Loyalists  landed  at  St  John  and  established 
the  city.  It  was  called  "PnTr  Town,  in  honour  of  Governor  Parr, 
until  1785,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  Conway  (Carleton) 
under  royal  charter,  as  the  city  of  St  John. 

ST  JOHN,  Charij:s  Wiu^iam  Geoege  (1809-1856), 
naturalist  and  sport.sman,  was  the  eon  of  General  the  Hon. 
Frederick  St  iohn,  second  son  of  Frederick,  second  viscount 
BolLngbroke,  and  was  born  3d  December  1809.  He  was 
educated  at  Midhurst  School,  Sussex,  and  about  1828 
obtained  a  clerkshij)  in  the  treasury,  but,  after  joining 
some  friends  in  various  expeditions  to  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  he  found  his  duties  so  irksome  that  he  resigned 
in  1834.  The  same  year  he  married  a  lady  with  some 
fortune,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  gratify  his  taste  for 
the  life  of  a  sportsman  and  naturalist.  Ho  ultimately 
settled  in  the  "  Laigh  "  of  Moray,  "  within  easy  distance 
of  mountain  sport,  in  the  midst  of  the  game  and  wild 
animals  of  a  low  country,  and  with  the  coast  indented  by 
bays  of  the  sea,  and  studded  with  freshwater  lakes,  the 
haunt  pf  all  the  common  wild  fowl  and  many  of  the  rarer 
sorts."  In  1853  a  paralytic  seizure  permanently  deprived 
him  of  the  vise  of  his  limbs,  and  for  the  benefit  of  his 
health  ho  removed  to-  the  south  of  England.  Ho  died  at 
Wooston  near  Southampton  on  22d  July  1856. 

Ho  wrote  s<n-eral  books  on  sport,  which  record  the  results  of 
accurate  observations  on  the  habits  and  peculiarities  of  th»  birds 


and  wild  animals  of  the  Highlands.  They  are  written  in  a  pleasant 
and  gi-apliic  style,  and  illustrated  with  engravings,  many  of  them 
from  pen-and-ink  sketches  of  his  own,  iu  which  the  ti'aits  and 
features  of  the  auimals  are  depicted,  though  in  rough  outline,  yet 
with  almost  the  vividness  of  life.  His  works  are  Wild  Spo7-t3  and 
Natural  History  of  the  Highlands  (1846,  2d  ed.  1848,  3d  ed.  1861); 
Tour  in  Sutherland  (1849,  2d  ed.,  with  recollections  \y  Captain  H. 
St  John,  1S84) ;  A'uif-s  of  Natvral  History  and  Sj>nrt  iu  Morayshire, 
with  Memoir  by  C.  Innes  (1863,  2d  ed.  1884). 

SAlJsT-JOilX,  Henry.     See  Bolingbeoke. 

ST  JOriM,  James  Augustus  (1S01-1S75),  traveller 
and  author,  was  born  in  Carmarthenshire,  Wales,  on  24th 
September  1801.  After  attending  a  village  gmmmar-school 
he  received  private  instruction  from  a  clergyman  in  the 
classics,  and  also  acquired  proficiency  in  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  Arabic,  and  Persian.  At  the  age  of  seventeen 
he  went  to  London,  where  he  obtained  a  connexion  with 
a  Plymouth  newspaper,  and,  along  with  James  Silk  Buck- 
ingham, became  editor  of  the  Oriental  Hera!d.  In  1827, 
along  with  D.  L.  Kichardson,  he  founded  rhe  London 
Weekly  Jievieio,  which  was  subsequently  purchased  by 
Colburn  and  transformed  into  the  Court  Journal.  About 
1829  he  left  London  for  Normandy,  and  in  1830  published 
an  account  of  his  experiences  there  under  the  title  Journal 
of  a  Besidence  in  Normandy  (2  vols.).  After  spending 
some  time  in  Paris  ana  Switzerland  he  set  out  for  Nubia 
and  Egypt,  visiting  the  second  cataract  in  a  small  vessel. 
He  made  important  discoveries  in  regard  to  volcanic 
agencies  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  and  found  traces  of 
volcanic  agency  in  the  Libyan  Desert.  He  also  explored 
the  antiquities  connected  with  the  religion  of  ancient 
Egypt.  The  results  of  his  journey  were  published  under 
the  titles  Egypt  and  Mohammed  Alt,  or  Travels  m  the 
Valley  of  the  Nile  (2  vols.,  1834),  Egypt  and  Nubia, 
(1844),  and  Isis,  an  Egyptian  Pilgriinage  (2  vols.,  1853). 
He  died  on  22d  September  1875. 

St  John  was  also  the  author  of  Lii'cs  of  Celebrated  Travellers 
(1830),  AiMtomy  of  Society  (\iZ\),  History,  Manners,  %nd  Custoins 
of  the  Hindus  (1831),  Margaret  Ravenscroft,  or  Second  Love  (3  vols., 
iS35),  The  Hellenes,  or  Manners  and  Customs  of  Ancient  Greece 
(1842),  Sir  Cosmo  Digby,  a  novel  (1844),  Vieu-s  in  Borneo  (1847), 
There  and  Back  Again  'in  Search  of  Beauty  (1853),  The  Nemesis  of 
Power  (1854),  Philosophy  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  (1864),  The  Preach- 
ing of  Christ  (1855),  The  Xing  and  the  Veil,  a  novel  (1856),  Life 
of  Loui3  Napoleon  (1857),  History  of  the  Four  Conquests  q/' England 
('1862),  Weighed  in  the  Balance,  a  novel  (1864),  and  Life  if  Sir 
Walter  FMleigh  (1868).  H«  also  edited,  with  notes,  various  English 
classics. 

Of  his  four  sons,  all  of  some  literary  distinction — Percy  Boling- 
broke,  Bayle,  Spenser,  and  Horace  Roscoe — the  second,  Bayle  St 
John  (1822-1869),  predeceased  him.  Ho  was  educated  privately, 
and  began  contributing  to  the  periodicals  when  only  -.hirteen.  At 
the  age  of  twenty  he  wrote  a  series  of  pai"»ers  for  Froscr  under  the 
title  "  De  Re  Vehiculari."  To  the  same  mag.azine  he  contributed 
a  series  of  essays  on  Montaigne,  and,  after  continuing  his  studies 
on  the  same  subject  for  some  time,  he  published  in  1357  Montaigne 
the  Essayist,  a  Biography,  in  4  volumes.  In  1846  he  f  assed  through 
France  and  Italy  on  hi's  way  to  Egj-pt,  where,  during  a  residcuce 
of  two  years,  ho  wrote  The  Libyan  Desert  (1849).  On  his  return 
he  settled  for  some  time  in  Paris  and  published  Iwo  Years  in  a 
Levantine  Family  (1850)  and  Views  in  the  Oasis  of  Siirnh  (1850). 
After  a  second  visit  to  the  East  he  published  Villag:  Life  in  Egypt 
(1352).  From  this  time  ho  continued  until  twelv«  months  of  his 
death  to  reside  in  France,  and  as  the  result  of  his  residence  there 
published  Purple  Tints  of  Paris :  Characters  and  Manners  in  the 
New  Empire  (1854),  The  Louvre,  or  Biography  of  a  Museum  (1855), 
and  i\\e  Snhalmne  Kingdom,  or  Expcnences  and  Studies  in  Savoy 
(1856).  He  wlis  also  the  author  of  Travels  of  an  Arab  Merchant 
in  the  Soudan  (1854),  Maretimo,  a  Story  of  Adver.ture  (1856),  and 
Memoirs  of  the  Dulcc  of  Saint-Simon  in  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
(4  vols.,  1357). 

SAINT  JOHN  OF  JEBUSALEM,  Kwights  op  the 
Order  of  (,^co  KNioiiTnooo).  In  the  yexr  1023  certain 
merchants  of  Amalfi  obtained  permission  from  the  caliph 
of  Egypt  to  establish  a  hospital  iu  Jcrusal';ra  for  the  use  of 
"  poor  and  sick  Latin  pilgrims."  The  hospice  prospered  far 
beyond  the  hopes  of  its  founders,  and  grateful  travellers 
spread  its  fame  throughout  Europe  and  sent  offerings  to 


174 


ST      JOHN.     KNIGHTS      OF 


its  funds,  while  otliers  voluntarily  remained  behind  to 
assist  actively  in  its  pious  purposes.  With  its  increased 
utility  organization  became  necessary,  and  in  tliis  organiza- 
tion is  to  be  found  the  origin  of  the  Order  of  Saint  John. 
When  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  C4odfrey  de  BouiUon  (see 
CiiUSADEs),  his  wounded  soldiers  were  tended  by  Peter 
Gerard,  rector  of  the  Amalfi  hospital  of  St  John,  and  the 
more  wealthy  of  the  crusaders  eagerly  followed  the  example 
of  their  leader  in  endowing  so  useful  and  so  practical  an 
institution,  ilany  of  the  ChrLstian  warriors  sought  per- 
mission to  join  the  ranks  of  the  fraternity.  At  the  pro- 
posal of  Gerard  a  rcgidarly  constituted  religious  body  was 
formed ;  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  invested  every  approved 
candidate  with  a  black  robe  bearing  en  the  breast  an  eight- 
pointed  white  cross  and  received  in  return  a  vow  of  poverty, 
obedience,  and  chastity.  In  1 1 1 3  Pope  Paschal  11.  formally 
sanctioned  the  establishment  of  the  order  by  a  bull.  Five 
years  later  Gerard  was  succeeded  by  Raymond  du  Puy,  and 
under  his  auspices  the  monastic  knights  took  a  fresh  oath 
to  become  militant  defenders  of  the  cause  of  the  Cross. 
During  the  first  century  of  its  existence  the  fraternity  thus 
acquired  a  religious,  republican,  military,  and  aristocratic 
character.  The  rules  introduced  by  Raymond  du  Puy 
became  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  regulations  ;  the  lead- 
ing members  of  the  hospital  or  master's  assistants  were 
formed  into  an  all-powerful  council,  which  divided  the 
order  into  knights  of  justice,  chaplains,  and  serving 
brethren.  There  was  also  an  afliliation  of  religious  ladies 
(dewtes)  and  of  donats  or  honorary  members.  The  income 
of  the  body  corporate  was  derived  from  landed  property 
in  all  parts  of  Europe.  To  facilitate  the  collection  of 
rents,  comraanderies  (first  called  preceptories)  were  formed. 
These  gradually  acquired  the  character  of  branch  establish- 
ments where  candidates  were  received  and  the  same  obser- 
vances practised  as  in  the  parent  convent.  Raymond  du 
Puy  twice  repulsed  the  advancing  Turks ;  and  Hugh  de 
Payens,  fired  by  the  successes  of  the  Hospitallers,  founded 
the  sister  order  of  the  Temple.  In  1160  Raymond  du  Puy 
died.  The  rule  of  his  immediate  successors  was  unevent- 
ful ;  Gilbert  d'Ascali  greatly  weakened  the  influence  of 
the  order  by  joining  (1168)  in  an  ill-fated  expedition  to 
Egypt.  Roger  Desmoulins,  the  eighth  master,  was  killed 
fighting  against  Saladin  before  Jerusalem,  while  his  suc- 
cessor, Garnier  de  Napoli,  died  of  the  wounds  he  received 
in  the  decisive  battle  of  Tiberias,  which  led  to  the  surrender 
of  Jerusalem  to  the  Moslems  in  1187.  The  seat  of  the 
order  was  now  transferred  to  Margat,  a  toivn  which  still 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Christians,  and  it  bec-omes 
difncult  to  trace  the  frequent  changes  of  the  mastership. 
The  dangerous  enmity  which  arose  between  the  Hos2:iitallers 
and  the  Templars  necessitated  the  energetic  intervention 
of  the  pope.  In  1216  Andrew,  king  of  Hungary,  was 
received  into  the  order.  The  brief  occupations  of  Jeru- 
salem by  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  (1228)  and  by  Richard 
of  Cornwall  (1231)  had  little  ai^preciable  effect  on  the 
waning  fortunes  of  the  Hospitallers.  A  savage  horde  from 
the  borders  of  the  Caspian  advanced  against  the  Christians, 
and  in  the  final  struggle  with  the  Chorasmians  the  masters 
of  both  orders^united  before  ,  the  common  enemy — fell 
with  nearly  the  whole  of  their  followers  (12-14).  William 
de  Chateauneuf,  elected  to  the  mastership  by  the  few  sur- 
vivors, repaired  to  Acre  only  to  take  part  in  the  fruitless 
crusade  of  Louis  of  France.  The  truce  between  the  rival 
orders  was  doomed  to  be  of  short  duration.  In  1259  their 
armies  met  in  a  general  engagement,  and  victory  rested 
with  the  Hospitallers.  _A  brief  period  of  success  in  1281 
was  powerless  to  avert  the  fall  of  !Margat,  and  in  1289 
AcTe  alone  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians.  John 
de  Villiers,  a  man  of  singular  ability,  became  at  this  criti- 
cal junctur.B  master  of  the  order.     An  overwhelming  force 


was  sent  from  Egypt  to  besiege  Acre,  which  only  fell  after 
a  desperate  resistance.  Under  cover  of  the  arrows  of  their 
archers  the  knights  sailed  for  Cyprus  (1291).  Repeated 
acts  of  prowess  by  sea  still  served  to  remind  the  Moslem 
corsairs  of  the  survival  of  their  implacable  foes.  De 
Villiers  died  three  yeacs  later  and  was  succeeded  by  Odon 
de  Pins,  who  tried  ineffectually  to  restore  the  purely  con- 
ventual character  of  the  order.  William  de  Villaret 
(elected  in  1300)  shared  the  dangers  of  an  expedition  to 
Palestine  and  prepared  for  the  conquest  of  Rhodes,  which 
was  effected  in  1310  by  his  brother  and  successor.  The 
revenues  of  the  Hospitallers  were  now  augmented  from 
the  confiscated  estates  of  their  old  rivals  the  Templars. 
Fulk  de  Villaret  was  attacked  at  Rhodes  by  Osnian,  ruler 
of  Bithynia,  but  with  the  assistance  of  Amadeus  of  Savoy 
he  defeated  the  invaders.  A  serious  difference  which  arose 
between  De  Villaret  and  his  subordinate  knights  enabled 
Pope  John  XXII.  to  appoint  his  nominee  John  de  Villa- 
nova  (1319).  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  order  was 
divided  into  the  seven  lanyues  of  France,  Provence,  Au- 
vergne,  Italy,  Germany,  England,  and  Aragon.  In  1346 
De  Gozon  became  grand-master.  His  administration  and 
that  of  his  immediate  successors  are  only  remarkable  for 
a  perpetual  struggle  for  supiremacy  with  the-  papal  court. 
In  1365  Raymond  Beranger  captured  Alexandria  iu  con- 
cert with  the  king  of  Cyprus,  but  the  victors  contented 
themselves  with  burning  the  city.  Philibert  de  Kaillac 
had  no  sooner  been  elected  grand-master  than  he  was  sum- 
moned to  join  the  European  crusade  against  the  sultan 
Bajazet,  and  took  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Nicopolis. 
The  Greek  emperor  unfortunately  invoked  the  aid  of  Timur, 
who  overthrew  Bajazet,  but  followed  up  his  success  by  an 
attack  on  Smyrna,  the  defence  of  which  had  been  entrusted 
to  the  knights.  Smyrna  was  taken  and  its  brave  garrison 
put  to  the  sword.  In  1440  and  1444  De  Lastic  defeated 
two  expeditions  sent  against  him  from  Egypt.  Nine  years 
later  Constantinople  fell  at  last  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.  It  was  evident  to  the  knights  that  an  attack  on 
their  sanctuary  would  follow  the  triumph  of  Islam,  but  it 
was  not  till  1480  that  the  long-dreaded  descent  on  Rhodes 
took  place.  Fortunately  for  the  order,  Peter  d'Aubussou 
was  grand-master,  and  the  .skilfully  planned  attack  of  the 
three  renegades  was  valorously  repulsed.  The  heroic 
D'Aubussou  recovered  from  his  wounds,  restored  the 
shattered  fortifications,  and  survived  till  1503.  Nearly 
twenty  years"  passed  away  before  the  sultan  Solyman  de- 
termined to  crush  the  knights,  who  had  just  elected  L'Isle 
d'Adam  as  their  chief.  After  a  glorious  resistance,  D'Adam 
capitulated  and  withdrew  with  all  the  honours  of  war  to 
Candia  (Crete).  Charles  V.,  when  the  news  of  the  disaster 
reached  him,  exclaimed,  "  Nothing  in  the  world  has  been 
so  well  lost  as  Rhodes,"  and  five  years  later  (1530),  with 
the  approval  of  the  pope,  ceded  the  island  of  JIalta  and 
the  fortress  of  Tripoli  in  Africa  to  the  homeless  knights. 
Peter  Dupont  succeeded  D'Adam  iu  1534,  and  in  the 
following  year  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  emperor's 
famous  expedition  against  Tunis.  The  position  in  Tripoli 
was  from  the  first  precarious,  and  it  was  surrendered  to 
the  corsair  Dragut  iu  1551.  In  1557  John  La  Valette 
was  chosen  grand-master.  The  construction  of  fresh  forti- 
fications was  hastened  and  every  precaution  taken  against 
a  surprise.  On  the  18th  May  1565  the  Turkish  fleet 
under  the  redoubtable  Dragut  appeared  in  sight  and  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  sieges  in  history  began.  It  was 
finally  raised  on  the  8th  September  after  the  death  of 
Dragut  and  25,000  of  his  followers.  The  city  of  Valetta 
afterwards  rose  on  the  scene  of  this  desperate  struggle. 
La  Valette  died  in  156S,  and  no  events  of  importance 
mark  the  grand-masterships  of  De  Monte  (1568),  De  la 
Cassiere  (1572),  and  Verdala  (1581).     During  their  terms 


1 


S  A  I  — S  A  T 


175 


jf  office  the  cathedral,  the  auber^es,  the  hospital,  and 
many  remarkable  edifices  were  built.  Another  city  gradu- 
ally arose  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  grand  harbour,  and 
the  once  barren  island  became  almost  imperceptibly  the 
site  of  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  and  most  flourishing 
commercial  communities  in  the  Mediterranean.  Verdala 
■was  succeeded  by  Martin  Oarces  (1595),  but  it  was  reserved 
for  Alof  de  Vignacourt  to  revive  for  a  time  the  military 
reputation  of  the  order.  VasconceUos,  De  Paula,  and 
Lascaris  were  all  aged  men  when,  one  after  another,  they 
were  caUed  to  the  supreme  power,  and  their  election  (with 
a  view  to  secure  frequent  vacancies)  contributed  to  weaken 
the  vitality  of  the  fraternity.  Lascaris  Lived  till  the  age 
of  ninety-seven,  built  the  fortifications  of  Floriana,  en- 
dowed Valetta  with  a  public  library,  and  resisted  the  grow- 
ing encroachments  of  the  Jesuits.  Martin  de  Eedin  and 
Eaphael  Cottoner  ruled  each  for  three  years.  Nicholas 
Cottoner  was  elected  in  1663,  and  the  knights  of  St  John 
once  again  distinguished  themselves  in  the  siege  of  Candia. 
The  losses  which  the  order  sustained  in  the  repulse  of  the 
aDies  before  Negropont  (1689)  was  the  indirect  cause  of 
the  death  of  Caraffa,  who  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  de 
Yignacourt  (1690),  Raymond  PereUos  (1697),  Zondodari 
^720),  De  Vilhena  (1722),  Despuig  (173G),  and  Pinto 
(1741).  Emmanuel  Pinto  was  a  man  of  no  mean  ability 
and  of  considerable  force  of  character.  He  steadily  resisted 
all  papal  encroachments  on  his  authority,  expelled  the 
Jesuits  from  Malta,  and  declined  to  hold  a  chapter-general. 
After  the  brief  rule  of  Francis  Ximines,  Emmanuel  de 
Eohan  became  grand-master  (1775).  He  assembled  a 
chapter-general,  erected  the  Anglo-Bavarian  !an<yue,  and 
sent  his  galleys  to  relieve  the  sufferers  from  the  great  earth- 
quake in  Sicily.  The  order  never  perhaps  seemed  to  all 
outward  appearances  more  prosperous  than  when  the  storm 
of  the  French  Revolution  broke  suddenly  upon  it.  In  1792 
the  Directory  decreed  the  abolition  of  the  order  in  France 
and  the  forfeiture  of  its  possessions.  Five  years  afterwards 
De  Eohan  died.  He  had  taken  no  pains  to  conceal  his 
sympathy  for  the  losing  cause  in  France  and  his  court  had 
become  an  asylum  and  home  for  many  French  refugees. 
His  successor  Ferdinand  Hompesch  was  perhaps  the  weakest 
man  ever  elected  to  fill  a  responsible  position  in  critical 
times.  On  the  12th  April  1798  the  French  Government 
resolved  on  the  forcible  seizure  of  Malta.  Warnings  were 
sent  to  the  grand-master  in  vain.  Within  two  months 
from  that  date  the  island  was  in  the  hands  of  Bonaparte, 
and  Hompesch  was  permitted  to  retire  to  Trieste  with 
some  of  the  most  cherished  relics  of  the  order. 

Subsequent  to  the  departure  of  Hompesch  a  number  of  the  knights 
who  had  taken  refuge  at  St  Petersburg  elected  the  emperor  Paul 
■jrand-raaster.  Not«-ithstanding  the  patent  illegality  of  the  pro- 
ceeding the  proffered  honour  was  eagerly  accepted  and  duly  an- 
nounced to  all  the  courts  of  Europe  (October  1798).  Hompesch  was 
induced  to  resign  in  the  following  year.  On  the  death  of  Paul  an 
arrangement  was  arrived  at  which  vested  the  actual  nomination  in 
the  jjopc.  From  1805  to  1879  only  lieutenants  of  the  order  were 
appointed,  who  resided  first  at  Catania,  then  at  Ferrara,  and  finally 
it  Rome.  In  1879  Leo  XIII.  made  Giovanni  Battista  Ceschi  grand- 
master, and  ho  actually  rules  over  portions  of  the  Italian  and  German 
UtnjiKs  and  some  other  scattered  gioups  of  vhe  ancient  fraternity. 
•  Two  other  associations  also  trace  their  origin  from  the  same  parent 
stock — the  Brandenburg  branch  and  the  English  langue.  The 
former  can  claim  an  unbroken  existence  since  its  establishment  in 
1160.  In  1853  the  king  of  Prussia  (in  whom  the  right  of  nomina- 
tion had  been  vested  since  1812)  restored  the  original  bailiwick  of 
Brandenburg  and  the  assembled  commanders  elected  Prince  Charles 
of  Prussia  Bcrrn  Mcislcr,  who  notified  his  election  to  the  lieutenant 
of  the  grand-master  at  Rome.  The  "  Johanniter  "  did  good  service 
in  tho  German  campaigns  of  1866  and  1870.  As  regards  the  English 
langue,  1  Elizabeth  c.  24  annexed  to  tho  crown  all  the  property  of 
tho  order  in  England.  After  the  restoration  of  tho  Bourbons  tho 
French  knights  met  once  more  in  chapter-general  and  elected  a 
permanent  capitular  commission,  which  was  officially  recognized 
by  both  Louis  XYIII.  and  the  pop<*  After  certain  negotiations, 
the  three  French  lanjtics,  acting  in  accord  with  those  of  Aragon 


and  Castile,  agreed  to  the  resuscitation  of  tho  dormant  langiu  of 
England  (1S27-1831),  and  Sir  Robert  Peat  was  appointed  lord  prior, 
taking  the  customary  oath  de  Jidcli  adniinistratione  in  the  Court 
of  King's  Bench.  During  the  past  half  century  the  good  work  done 
by  the  inodei"n  knights — now  (18S6)  once  more  located  in  St  John's 
Gate,  Clerkenwell — can  honourably  compare  with  th&^memorabie 
deeds  of  their  predecessors.  The  estabUshment  of  the  hospice  at 
Jerusalem  is  due  to  the  energy  and  zeal  of  Sir  Edmund  Lechmere, 
who  has  been  mainly  instrumental  in  collecting  at  St  John's  Gate ' 
the  unrivalled  historical  Uteratura  of  which  the  order  can  boast. 

There  are  few  subjects  of  study  which  present  so  rich  and  so  varied  materials 
as  the  annals  of  the  knights  of  S^  Joiin.  Tlie  archives  still  preserved  in  Malta 
are  almost  unique  in  their  value  and  completeness,  and  each  grand-master 
patroni2ed  and  encouraged  the  industrious  historiographers  who  sought  to 
perpetuate  the  fame  of  tAie  order  to  which  they  belonged.  The  work  of  Giacomo 
Bosio  is  an  elaborate  and  generally  trustworthy  rceoid  of  events  from  the  time 
of  Gerard  do^"n  to  the  year  1571.  Bartolomeo  del  Pozzo  treats  with  equal  care 
tne  period  between  1571  and  1636.  Editions  of  these  volumes  were  published 
in  Rome,  Naples,  Verona,  and  Venice.  The  Abbe  Vertot  concludes  his  elaborate 
history  with  the  year  1726.  His  book  enjoyed  a  considerable  popularity,  was 
published  in  English  with  the  original  plates  in  172S,  but  can  hardly  claim  the 
confidence  to  which  Bosio  and  Del  Pozzo  are  both  entitled.  From  the  16th 
centm-y  down  to  the  appearance  of  the  famous  Cod  tec  of  De  Rohan  (17S2)  we 
have  a  series  of  publications  on  the  subject  of  the  statutes  of  the  order.  A 
fresh  compilation  seems  generally  to  have  follo^Ycd  each  assembly  of  the  chapter- 
general.  Before  the  time  of  De  Rohan  the  best-known  edition  was  that  of 
Borgofante  (1676).  but  Bosio  produced  a  translation  from  the  Latin  in  15S9  when 
residing  at  Ilome  as  agent  of  the  grand-master,  and  another  was  printed  at  the 
press  of  the  order  in  Malta  in  171S.  The  Manorie  da"  Gran  Maestri  by  Bodoni 
(Parma,  17S0)  may  also  be  consulted  with  advantage.  For  information  con- 
cerning the  archeology  of  the  order  and  the  antiquities  of  Malta  itself  reference 
should  be  made  to  Abela  and  Ciantar's  Malta  Illustra!a,  dedicated  to  Em. 
Pinto  in  1772  ;  to  Raphael  Caroana's  CoUerione  di  moniinunti  e  lapidi  sepolcrali 
di  milili  GeroSDUmi'.aiii  ncUe  chiaa  di  San  Giovanni  (M.alta,  lS3S"-40) ;  to  De  Bois- 
gelin's  Malta  (3  vols.) :  and  to  les  Monumens  des  Grands  Maitrcs,  by  Villeneuve- 
Bargemont  (Paris,  1S29).  The  last-named  WTiter  has,  however,  drawn  largely 
on  his  o~n  imagination  for  the  earli-^r  part  of  the  information  lie  professes  to 
give-  In  English  the  most  noteworthy  treatises  concerning  the  knights  are 
John  TaafTe's  History  of  Uie  Order  of  Malta  (London,  1S52,  4  vols.)  and  General 
Porter's  History  of  the  Knights  of  Malta  of  the  Order  of  St  John  of  Jerusalerm. 
(London,  1SS3).  The  Rev.  W,  R.  Bedford  has  recently  published  a  A-aluable 
account  of  the  great  hospital  at  Valetta.  A  useful  guide  to  the  contents  ot 
the  Malta  Record  Office  is  to  be  found  in  M.  Dela\'ille  Le  RouLx's  Archives 
de  i'Ordrc  de  St  Jean  de  Jerusalem.  (Paris,  1SS3).  (A.  M.  B.) 

ST  JOHX'S,  the  capital  of  Newfoundland,  is  situated 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  island,  60  miles  north  of  Cape 
ilace,  in  47°  33'  33"  N.  lat.  and  52°  45'  10"  W.  long,  (see 
vol.  xvii.,  plate  Y.).  It  is  lO"  52'  east  of  Halifa.^,  and 
stands  on  what  is  nearly  the  most  eastern  point  of  America, 
— Cape  Spear,  5  miles  south  of  St.  John's,  alone  projecting 
a  little  farther  towards  the  Old  World.  It  is  1000  miles 
nearer  than  New  York  to  England,  and  but  1640  from  the 
coast  of  Ireland.  The  approach  to  the  harbour  of  St  John's 
presents  one  of  the  most  picturesque  .'lews  along  the  coast 
of  America.  In  a  lofty  iron-bound  coast  a  narrow  open- 
ing occurs  in  the  rocky  wall,  guarded  on  one  side  by 
Signal  Hill  (520  feet)  and  on  the  other  by  South  Side 
HiU  (620  feet),  with  Fort  Amherst  lighthouse  on  a  rocky 
promontory  at  its  base.  The  entrance  of  the  Narrows  is 
about  1400  feet  in  width,  and  at  the  narrowest  point, 
between  Pancake  and  Chain  Eocks,  the  channel  is  not 
more  than  600  feet  wide.  The  Narrows  are  half  a  mile  in 
length,  and  at  their  termination  the  harbour  trends  suddenly 
to  the  west,  thus  completely  shutting  out  the  swell  from 
the  ocean.  Vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage  can  enter  at  all 
periods  of  the  tide.  The  harbour  is  a  mile  in  length  and 
nearly  half  a  mile  in  width.  At  its  head  is  a  dry  dock, 
recently  completed  at  a  cost  of  $5.50,000 ;  it  is  600  feet 
in  length,  83  in  breadth,  and  26  in  depth,  capable  of 
admitting  the  largest  steamers  afloat.  The  city  is  built 
on  sloping  ground  on  the  northern  side  of  tho  harbour, 
on  the  southern  side  of  which  tho  hills  ri.se  so  abruptly 
fro.m  the  water  that  there  is  only  room  for  a  range  of 
warehouses  and  oil- factories.  Three  principal  streets, 
winding  and  irregular,  follow  tho  sinuosities  of  the  harbour 
and  of  one  another  the  whole  length  of  the  city,  and  the^ 
are  intersected  by  a  number  of  cross-streets.  Water  Street, 
the  principal  business  locality,  presents  a  very  substantial, 
though  not  handsome,  appearance,  tho  houses  being  of 
stone  or  brick.  Shops,  stores,  and  counting-houses  occupy 
the  ground  floor,  while  many  of  the  merchants  and  shop- 
keepers live  in  the  upper  stories.  Fish-stores,  warehouses, 
and  wharves  project  from  behind  on  the  side  nest  the 
harbour.     The  city,   three-fourths  of  which  are   still  of 


176 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


wood,  is  rapidly  extending  in  several  directions,  and  in 
recent  yeafs  many  dwelling-houses  of  an  improv<.Ll  descrip- 
tion have  been  erected.  There  is  an  abundant  supply  of 
excellent  wafer,  brought  in  pipes  from  a  lake  5  miles  off. 
Epidemics  are  rare,  and  the  city  is  very  healthy.  Of  the 
public  buildings  the  most  important  are  Government  House, 
a  substantial  and  spacious  building  erected  in  1828  by  the 
Imperial  Government;  the  colonial  building  (1847),  con- 
taining the  chambers  of  the  legislature  and  Government 
offices;  the  athenseum  (1877),  containing  a  public  hall, 
library,  reading-room,  savings  bank,  museum,  &c.  The 
foundation  of  a  new  post-office  was  laid  in  the  same  yeaj. 
The  churches  are — the  Church  of  England  and  Eoman 
Catholic  cathedrals,  St  Thomas's  and  St  Mary's  (Church 
of  England),  St  Patrick's,  three  Methodist  churches,  St 
Andrew's  Presbyterian  ch'ir-"h,  and  the  Congregational 
church.  The  manufacture  oi  sea!  and  cod  oOs  hsa  long 
been  carried  on  upon  an  extensive  scale.  Of  late  years 
other  manufactures  have  been  introduced,  and  have  made 
considerable  progress.  There  are  thrse  iron-foundries, 
two  large  machine-shops,  two  boot  and  shoe  factories, 
a  nail  -  factory,  three,  furniture-factories,  two  tobacco- 
factories,  soap-works,  two  tanneries,  and  a  large  and 
well-equipped-factory  for  the  manufacture  of  cables,  ropes, 
twines,  nets,  seines,  &c.  The  export  trade  in  fish  of 
various  kinds,  fish  oils,  seal  oil,  and  seal  skins  is  very 
large  /  the  greater  part  of  all  the  imports  into  Newfound- 
ian4  also  arrives  at  St  John's.  The  city  is  not  yet  (1886) 
incorporated,  the  Colonial  Board  of  Works  having  charge 
of  all  civil  affairs.  The  population,  which  in  1780  was 
1605,  had  in  1801  increased  to  3420,  in  1812  to  7075, 
in  1835  to-15,000,  and  in  1874  to- 23,890,  and  in  1884 
it  was  28,610  (Eomaii  Catholics,  17,693;  Episcopalians, 
5741;  Methodists,  3715;  Presbyterians,  973;  Congrega- 
tionalists,  465;  other  denominations,  2.3).  The  census 
last  mentioned  also  shows  the  population  of  the  whole 
island  and  Labrador  to  be  137,589,  being  an  increase  of 
36,209  since  1874,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  22  per  cent. 
in  ten  years.  The  population  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
Labrador,  which  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Newiound- 
land,  was  4211, — 1347  being  Eskimo. 

^T  JOHNSBURY,  a  township -of  the  United  States, 
capital  of  Caledonia  county,  Vermont,  on  the  Passumpsic 
river  (a  tributary  of  the  river '  Connecticut),  about  50 
miles  south  of  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  on  the  railway 
between  Boston  (205  miles)  and  Montreal.  St  Johnsbury 
is  the  seat  of  perhaps  the  largest  scale-factory  in  the  world, 
which  employs  about  1000  hands  and  works  up  6000  tons 
of  iron  per  annum.  The  township  contains  an  athenffium, 
public- library  (12,000  vols.),  and  art  gallery.  The  popu- 
lation has  increased  from  2758  in  1850  tp  4665  in  1870 
and  5800  in  1880.  The  three  villages  are  distinguished 
as  St  Johnsbury  (3360  in  1880),  St  Johnsbury  Centre, 
and  St  Johnsbiu-y  East.  Founded  in  1786,  the  township 
received  its  name  in  honour  of  St  John  de  Crfcvecceur, 
French  consul  at  New  York,  and  a  benefactor  of  Vermont. 

ST  JOSEPH,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Buchanan  county,  Missouri,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Missouri,  260  miles  west  by  north  of  St  Louis.  It  is  an 
important  railway  junction,  possessing  since  1873  a 
great  road  and  raU  way  bridge  over  -the  river  constructed 
of  iron ;  in  the  extent  of  its  wholesale  businc;^  it  ranks 
as  the  third  city  in  the  State ;  and  among  its  manufac- 
turing establishments  are  flour-mills,  starch-works,  boot  and 
shoe  factories,  pork-packing  establishments,  wnggoa-iac- 
tories,  a  distillery,  &o.  Besides  a  city-hall  and  market^house, 
it  contains  a  court-house  (1875),  an  opera-house,  a  State 
lunatic  asylum  (1874),  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  ex- 
position association,  a  Reman  Catholic  cathedral,  tnd  five 
public  libraries-    The  population  was  8932  in  1860,  19,565 


(1512  coloured)  in  1870,  a.id  32,43}  (3227  coloured)  Jn 
18S0. 

Founded  in  1843  by  Joseph  KobWoux,  a  French  Koman  Catholic, 
who  had  settled  lu  the  district  some  years  previously  as  a  trider, 
St  Joseph  in  1846  '.vas  raada  the  county  teat,  and  before  1S57, 
when  it  received  its  first  city  charter,  became  well  known  as  the 
great  point  of  departure  for  emigrants  bound  for  California  and 
the  West.  During  the  Civil  War,  when  it  was  fortified  by  the 
Federals,  its  natural  development  wcs  considerably  -becked,  but 
this  revived  as  soon  as  the  struggle  was  ov&r. 

SAINT-JUST,  ANTonra  (1767-1794),  French  revolu- 
tionary leader,  was  born  at'Dscize  in  the  Nivemais  on  25th 
August  1767.  He  was  educated  at  Soissons,  and  showed 
his  character  at  school  as  ringleader  of  a  plot  to  set 
the  school  buildings  on  fire.  Sain  U Just  was  caught  red- 
handed  in  the  act  of  incendiarism,  and,  refusing  to  exhibit 
any  tokens  of  submission,  was  ignominiously  expelled. 
His  education,  however,  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
neglected ;  and  the  reports  and  speeches  of  his  short  and 
stormy  political  career  exhibit  not  a  little  scholarship, 
and  in  particular  considerable  acquaintance  with  ancient 
history.  Intoxicated  with  republican  ideas,  Saint-Just 
threw  himself  with  enthusiasm  into  the  political  troubles  of 
his  time,  had  himself  appointed  an  officer  in  the  National 
Guard,  and  by  fraud — he  being  yet  under  age — admitted 
as  a  member  of  the  electoral  assembly  of^  his  district. 
Ambitious  of  fame,  he  in  lVo9  published  twenty  cantos  of 
licentious  verses  under  the  title  of  Organt,  and  this  work 
was  afterwards  reissued  under  the  title  of  My  Pastimes  ; 
or  The  New  Organt.  From  that  year  onwards,  however, 
the  open  turbulence  of  his  youth  gave  place  to'  a  rigor- 
ously stoical  demeanour,  which,  united  to  a  policy  tyran- 
nical, uncompromisingly  thorough,  and  pitifessly  severe, 
became  the  marked  and  startling  characteristic  of  his  life. 
He  now  entered  into  correspondence  with  Robespierre, 
who  thenceforward  became  his  hero  and  ideal.  Robes- 
pierre invited  him  to  Paris,  felt  flattered  by  his  worship, 
saw  that  he  suited  his  purpose,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
two  became  hand  and  glove.  Thus  supported,  Saint- 
Just  became  deputy  of  the  department  of  Aisne  to  the 
national  convention,  where  he  made  his  first  speech — 
gloomy,  fanatical,  remorseless  in  tone — on  1 9th  November 
1792.  He  had  but  twenty  months  to  live;  but  into  these 
he  seemed  to  crowd  the  life  of  twenty  years.  In  tho 
convention,  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  and  among  the  popu- 
lace his  relations  with  Robespierre  became  known,  and 
be  was  dubbed  the  "  St  John  of  the  Messiah  of  the 
People."  Hardly  a  week  passed  without  the  attention  of 
France  being  arrested  by  his  attitude  or  his  utterances. 
Both  were  anxiously  watched,  as  .the  unfailing  indication 
of  the  trend  of  Robespierre's  designs.  His' appointment 
as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  now 
placed  him  at  the  very  height  and  centre  of  the  political 
fever-heat.  In  the  name  of  this  committee  he  was 
charged  with  the  drawing  up  of  reports  to  the  convention 
upon  the  absorbing  themes  of  the  overthrow  of  the  party 
of  the  Gironde,  thereafter,  when  even  the  "  Mountain " 
seemed  to  have  fallen  in  pieces,  ol  tlie  H^bertists,  and 
finally,  as  the  tragic  sequel  to  the  rupture  between  Robes- 
pierre and  Danton,  of  that  denunciation  of  the  latter 
which  conf  igned  him  and  his  followers  to  the  guillotine. 
■What  wer  i  then  called  reports  w^e  far  less  statements  of 
fact  than  appeals  to  the  passions ;  in  Saint-Just's  hands 
they  furnished  the  occasion  for  a  display  of  fanatical  dar- 
ing, of  gloomy  eloquence,  and  of  undoubted  genius ;  and 
— wit),  the  shadow  of  Robespierre  b  hind  them — they 
served  their  turn.  Once  a  flash  of  cruel  humotu:  lijjhted 
up  1  's  angry  retorts,  and  it  became  memorable,  l-'es- 
mouliii,  in  jest  and  mockery,  said  of  Saint- Just—  tho 
youth  \.  'th  the  beautiful  cast  of  countenance  and  the  long 
fair  locks-  — "  He  carries  his  head  like  a  Holy  Sacram-.iit." 


VOL.  XXI. 


ST.   LA^ 


Page  1  7  7 


ENCE 


PLATE  jy. 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


177 


'And  I,"  savagely  replied  Saint-Just,  "will  make  him 
carry  his  like  a  Saint-Denis."  The  threat  was  not  vain  : 
Desmoulins  accompanied  Danton  to  the  scaffold.  The 
same  ferocious  inflexibility  animated  Saint-Just  with  refer- 
ence to  the  external  policy  of  France.  He  proposed  that 
the  national  .convention  should  itself,  through  its  com- 
mittees, direct  all  military  movements.  This  was  agreed 
to,  and  Saint-Just  was  despatched  to  Strasburg,  in  com- 
pany with  Lebas,  to  superintend  operations.  It  was  sus- 
pected that  the  enemy  without  was  being  aided  by  treason 
within.  Saint-Just's  remedy  was  direct  and  terrible  :  he 
followed  his  experience  in  Paris,  "  organized  the  Terror," 
and  soon  the  heads  of  all  suspects  were  falling  under  the 
guillotine.  The  conspiracy  was  defeated,  and  the  armies  of 
the  Khine  and  the  Moselle  having  been  inspirited  by  suc- 
cess— Saint-Just  himself  taking  a  fearless  part  in  the  actual 
fighting — and  having  effected  a  junction,  the  frontier  was 
delivered.  Later,  with  the  army  of  the  North,  he  wrought 
similar  magical  changes  in  the  aspect  of  affairs.  Before 
the  generals  he  placed  the  terrible  dilemma  of  victory  over 
the  enemies  of  France  or  trial  by  the  dreaded  revolution- 
ary tribunal ;  and  before  the  eyes  of  the  army  itself  he 
organized  a  force  which  was  specially  charged  with  the 
slaughter  of  those  who  should  seek  refuge  from  the  enemy 
by  flight.  Success  again  crowned  his  terrible  efforts,  and 
Belgium  was  gained  for  France.  Meanwhile  affairs  in 
Paris  looked  gloomier  than  ever,  and  Robespierre  recalled 
Saint-Juit  to  the  capital.  As  the  storm  was  gathering 
Saint-Just  gave  it  direction  by  mooting  the  dictatorship 
of  his  master  as  the  only  remedy  for  the  convulsions  of 
society.  At  last,  at  the  famous  sitting  of  the  9th  Ther- 
midor,  he  ventured  to  present  as  the  report  of  the  com- 
mittees of  general  security  and  public  safety  a  document 
expressing  his  own  views,  a  sight  of  which,  liowever,  had 
been  refused  to  the  other  members  of  committee  on  the 
previous  evening.  Then  the  storm  broke.  He  was  vehe- 
mentlj  interrupted,  and  the  sitting  ended  with  an  order  for 
Robespierre's  arrest  (see  Eobespieeee).  On  the  follow- 
ing day,  2Sth  July  1794,  twenty-two  men,  nearly  all  young, 
were  guillotined.  Robespierre  was  one,  aged  thirty-six ; 
Saint-Just  another,  aged  twenty-six. 

In  1800  there  was  published  at  Strasburg  a  work  from  the  pen 
of  Saint-Just  entitled  Fragments  on  Jlcpiiblican  Iiistituiions,  It  is  a 
crude  mixture  of  his  opinions  on  social  and  political  topics. 

ST  KILDA,  the  largest  islet  of  a  small  group  of  the 
Outer  Hebrides,  Scotland,  40  miles  west  of  North  Uist,  in 
57°  48'  35"  N.  lat.  and  8°  35'  30"  W.  long.  It  measures 
3  miles  from  east  to  -west  and  2  from  north  to  south,  and 
has  an  area  of  3000  to  4000  acres.  Except  at  the  landing- 
place  on  the  south-east,  the  cliffs  rise  sheer  out  of  deep 
water,  and  on  the  north-east  side  the  highest  eminence 
in  the  island,  Conagher  or  Conna-Ghair,  forms  a  gigantic 
precipice,  1220  feet  high  from  sea  to  summit.  According 
to  Professor  Judd,  St  Kilda  is  probably  the  core  of  a 
Tertiary  volcano ;  but,  besides  volcanic  rocks,  it  is  said  to 
contain  hills  of  sandstone  in  which  the  stratification  is 
very  distinct.^  While  the  general  relief  is  peculiarly  bold 
and  picturesque,  a  certain  softness  of  scenery  is  produced 
by  the  richness  of  the  verdure.  The  Inhabitants  are  an 
industrious  Gaelic-.speaking  community  (110  in  1851,  and 
77  in  1881).  They  cultivate  about  40  acres  of  land 
(potatoes,  oats,  barley),  keep  about  1000  .sheep  and  50 
West  Highland  cows,  and  catch  puffins  and  other  sea-fowL 
Coarse  tweeds  and  blanketing  are  manufactured  for  home 
use.  Tje  houses  are  collected  in  a  little  village  at  the 
head  of  the  East  Bay,  which  contains  a  Free  church,  a 
manse,  and  the  factor's  house.  The  island  is  practically 
inaccessible  for  eight  months  of  the  year. 

'  No  trained  geologist  gecms  to  have  visited  the  island  subsequent 
to  Maccullocb,    21 0 


St  Kilda,  or,  as  it  was  originally  called,  Hirt  (Hirth,  Hyrtli.i), 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  possession  of  tlic  JIacleods  for  400  or 
even  600  years.  In  1779  ii  clianged  liands  along  with  Harris, ^nd 
again  in  ISOi  and  in  1871  (to  JIaclcod  of  Maclcod).  Tho  feudal 
superior  is  Lord  Dunmore,  who  receives  one  shilling  oi  feu-duty. 
From  173i  to  17J2  Lady  Grange  was  confined  on  St  Kilda  by  com- 
mand of  her  liigli-haiided  husband  (see  Proceed.  Soc.  Scot.  Atdiq.y  x. 
and  xi.).  David  JIallet  makes  the  island  the  scene  of  his  Amijidor 
and  Theodore,  or  the  Hcmnit.  Sec  works  on  St  Kilda  by  Rev.  i{. 
Macanlay  (1764),  L.  MacLcan  (1838),  J.  Saud^  (lb;u  aud  1877), 
and  George  Seton  (1878). 

ST  KILDA,  a  watering-place  in  Victoria,  Australia,  on 
the  east  shore  of  Hobson's  Bay,  3|  miles  south  of  Mel- 
bourne, -with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway.  The 
borough  had  an  area  of  18S6  acres  and  a  population  of 
11,G62  in  ISSl.  The  sea-beach  is  bordered  by  an  esplau- 
ade ;  there  is  a  large  public  park ;  and  portions  of  the  sea 
have  been  fenced-in  to  protect  bathers  from  sharks.  A 
town-hall,  an  assembly  hall,  a  library,  and  the  large  Episco- 
pal church  of  All  Saints  are  among  the  public  buildings. 

ST  KITTS.     See  Sx  Christopher. 

SAINT-LAMBERT,  Jean  Francois  de  (171G-1803), 
French  poet,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1716,  and  died  at 
Paris  in  1803.  During  great  part  of  his  long  life  he  held 
various  employments  at  the  court  of  Stanislaus  of  Poland, 
when  that  prince. was  established  in  Lorraine.  He  also 
served  in  the  French  army,  and  then  betook  himself  to 
literature,  producing  among  other  things  a  volume  of  de- 
scriptive verse,  Les  Saisons  (wildly  overpraised  at  the  time, 
and  now  never  read),  many  articles  for  the  Encyclopcdie, 
and  some  miscellaneous  works  in  verse  and  prose.  Saiat- 
Lambert's  chief  fame,  however,  comes  from  the  strange 
fate  which  made  him  the  successful  rival  in  love  of  the 
two  most  famous  men  of  letters  in  Prance,  not  to  say  in 
Europe,  during  the  18th  century.  Thj  infatuation  of  the 
marquise  du  Chatelet  for  him  and  its  fatal  termination  are 
known  to  all  readers  of  the  life  of  Voltaire.  His  subse- 
quent courtship  of  Madame  d'Houdetot,  Rousseau's  Sophie, 
though  hardly  less  disastrous  to  his  rival,  was  less  dis- 
astrous to  the  lady,  and  continued  for  the  whole  lives  of 
himself  and  his  mistress.  They  survived  till  the  present 
century  as  a  kind  of  irregular- Baucis  and  Philemon,  illus- 
trating the  manners  of  the  vanished  rcr/ime,  which  had 
been  not  unjustly  celebrated,  and  vindicating  its  constancy 
from  a  very  general  opinion. 

ST  LAWRENCE.     The  river  St  Lawrence  =  in  North  Plate 
America,  taken  in  connexion  with  the  great  lakes,  offers  to  '•'■'■ 
trading  vessels  the  most  magnificent   system   of   inland 
navigation  in  the  world.     Its  total  length  from  the  source  Length. 
of  the  St  Louis  river,  which  discharges  into  Fond  du  Lac 
at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  to  Capo  Gaspo  is  2100  miles. 
The  river  St  Louis  springs  from  the  same  spacious  plateau 
in  Minnesota  that  gives  birth  to  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Red  River  of  the  North.     The  intermediate  distances  be- 
tween the  source  of  the  St  Lawrence  and  its  mouths  are 
shown  in  Table  I.     According  to  the  most  recent  surveys 
the  approximate  area  of  the  basin  of  the  St  Lawrence  is 
510,000  square  miles,  of  which  322,500  belong  to  Canada 
and  187,440  to  the  United  States. 

Lake  Superior,  the  most  westerly  of  the  lakes,  is  the  I.ake 
largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world.  lu  addition  to  Sunrior. 
the  river  Nipigon,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
source  of  the  upper  St  Lawrence,  and  the  St  Louis  and 
Pigeon  rivers,  which  constitute  the  international  boundary, 
it  receives  its  waters  from  200  rivers,  draining  an  aggregate 
of  85,000  square  miles,^  including  its  own  area  of  32,000. 


'  The  name  given  by  Jacques  Carticr,  who  ascendad  the  river  in 
1535  as  far  as  MontreaL 

'  The  magnitudes  and  altitudes  of  tho  great  lakes  are  derived  from 
tho  Report  of  the  Canadian  Canal  Commission,  February  1871  ;  the 
engine. ring  data  relating  to  canals  bavo  been  mainly  obtained  from 
other  annual  reports  published  by  the  Canadian  Government  and  from 
the  annaal  reports  of  the  chief  of  Engineers,  United  States  army. 

XXL  —  21 


178 


ST      LAWRENCE 


Table  I. — Distances  of  Sections  of  St  Laiarence. 


Statute 

Local 
Name. 

Sections  of  Navi- 
gation. 

Miles. 

From 

To 

-4 

3=^ 

c  "3 

r^s 

" 

s^s 

Source  of  St 
Loul3  river 

Fond  da  Lac 

3t  Louis  river    

152 

152 

Fond  da  Lac 

Polnta       aux 
Plna 

Lake  Superior     

390 

542 

Saulte  St 

Polnte      aDX 

St  Joseph's  L 

3t  Mary's  river  

65 

697 

Mary 

Fins 

St  Joseph's  T. 

Samia    

Lake  Huron    

270 

867 

St  Mary 

Samia 

Anierherst- 

St  Claire  and  Detroit 

76 

94S 

riTw 

burg 

river 

Niagara 

Amerherst- 

burg 
Port  Colbome 

Port  Colbome 
Port  Dalhousie 

Lake  Erie 

232 
27' 

II' 
1202 

Welland  Canal    

nver 

PortDalhonafe 

Kingston 

Lake  Ontario 

170 

1372 

Kingston.... 

Prescott    

Head  of  canal  section 

59 

1431 

Prescott  

Montreal 

St     Lawrence     Canal 
section 

119 

1550 

Montreal..   . 

Three  Rivera 

Head    of    ocean    navi- 

86 

1636 

St  Law- 

gation    to    head    of 

rence 

tidal  How 

Three  Rivera 

Qaebeo 

Head  of  tidal  flow  to 
Quebec 

74 

1710 

Quebec      

Cape  Chat     . . 

206 

1976 

Cape  Chat    .. 

Cape  Gaspd  . . 

Month    of    river    St 
Lawrence 

124 

2100 

Cape  Gasp^  . . 

BcUelslel    .. 

Mouth  of  the  Gulf  of 

436 

2536 

St  Lawrence 

Its  length  13  390  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  160,  and  ita 
mean  breadth  80.  Its  mean  depth  is  900  feet  and  its  altitude 
above  the  sea-level  600  feet.  Its  coast  is  generally  rock- 
bound.  Numerous  islands  are  scattered  about  the  north 
side  of  the  lake,  many  rising  precipitously  to  great  heights 
from  deep  water, — some  presenting  castellated  walls  of 
basalt  and  others  rising  in  granite  peaks  to  various  eleva- 
tions up  to  1303  feet  above  the  lake.  The  Laurentian 
and  Huronian  rocks  to  the  north  along  the  shore  abound  in 
silver,  copper,  ar.d  iron  ores.  The  United  States  side  is 
generally  lower  md  more  sandy  than  the  opposite  shore, 
and  is  also  especially  rich  in  deposits  of  native  copper  and 
beds  of  red  hsematito  iron  ores.  Both  these  minerals  are 
ixtensively  worked.  Unfossiliferous  terraces  occur  abun- 
dantly on  the  margin  of  the  lake  ;  at  one  point  no  fewer 
than  seven  occur  at  intervals  up  to  a  height  of  33  feet 
above  the  present  level  of  the  water.  Lake  Superior  is 
subject  to  severe  storms  and  the  effect  of  the  waves  upon 
the  sandstone  of  the  "  picture  rocks  "  of  Grand  Island  pre- 
sents innumerable  fantastic  and  very  remarkable  forms. 
The  lake  never  freezes,  but  cannot  be  navigated  in  winter 
on  account  of  the  shore  ice.  At  the  west  end  of  the  lake, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St  Louis,  is  situated  the  city  of  Duluth, 
a  place  of  considerable  importance  as  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway,  and  of  the  St  Paul  and 
Duluth  Railway,  which  runs  to  St  Paul  on  the  Mississippi, 
155  miles  south  of  Duluth.^ 

St  Mary's  river,  55  miles  long,  is  the  only  outlet  from 
Lake  Superior,  and  its  course  to  Lake  Huron  is  but  a 
succession  of  expansions  into  lakes  and  contractions  into 
rivers.  St  Mary's  rapids,  which  in  a  distance  of  half  a 
mile  absorb  18  feet  out  of  the  total  fall  of  22  feet  between 
the  two  lakes,  are  avoided  by  a  ship  canal,  constructed 
in  1855. 

As  originally  bailt,  the  canal  was  1  mile  long,  had  a  width  of  100 
feet  at  the  water  line  and  a  depth  of  12  feet  The  locks  were  two 
in  number,  combined,  each  350  feet  in  length,  70  in  width,  with_ 
a  lift  of  9  feet.  At  the  time  the  canal  was  made  these  dimensions 
were  sufficient  to  pass  any  vessel  on  the  lakes  fully  laden,  but  by 
1870  it  became  necessary  to  provide  for  more  rapid  lockage  and 
for  the  passage  of  larger  vessels.     Accordingly  the  old  canal  was 


'  The  distance  from  Belle  Isle  to  Liverpool  ia  2234  statute  or  1942 
geographical  miles. 

*  Lake  Nipigon  is  situated  50  miles  to  the  north  of  Lak«  Superior, 
intfo  which  it  drains  by  the  river  Nipigon  ;  it  is  still  very  little  known 
except  from  the  report  of  Professor  Bell  of  the  Geological  Survey.     It 


widened  and  deepened,  and  a  new  lock  constructed,  515  feet  long 
and  80  wide, — the  width  of  the  gates  being  60  feet,  the  lift.of  the 
lock  18,  and  the  depth  of  water  on  the  mitre  sills  17.  There  ia 
now  everywhere  a  navigable  depth  of  16  feet  from  Lake  Superior 
through  St  Mary's  Falls  Canal  and  St  Mary's  river  to  Lake  Huron. 
In  1883  the  registered  tonnage  passing  the  canal  was  2,042,295 
tons, — the  annual  increase  of  tonnage  during  the  previous  fifteen 
years  having  averaged  107,313  tons.  The  United  States  Govern 
ment  engineers  have  already  presented  a  project  for  still  further 
improvements,  namely,  to  replace  the  old  locks  by  one  only  with 
a  length  of  700  feet  and  a  widtli  of  70,  and  with  a  depth  of  21  feet 
on  the  sUL 

Lake  Huron  is  270  miles  long  and  105  broad  and  has  Lake 
an  area  of  23,000  square  miles  (the  area  of  its  basin,  H"-'"' 
including  the  lake,  being  74,000),  a  mea  depth  variously 
stated  at  from  700  to  1000  feet,  and  an  altitude  above  the 
sea  of  574  feet.  Georgian  Bay  on  the  north-east  lies 
entirely  within  the  region  of  Canada,  whilst  Thunder  Bay 
and  Saginaw  Bay  on  the  west  and  south-west  are  in  the 
State  of  Michigan.  The  north  and  north-east  shores  of 
Lake  Huron  are  mostly  composed  of  sandstones  and  lime- 
stones, and  where  metamorphic  rocks  are  found  the  surface 
is  broken  and  hilly,  rising  to  elevations  of  600  feet  or  more 
above  the  lake,  unlike  in  thLs  respect  the  southern  shores 
skirting  the  peninsulas  of  Michigan  and  south-western 
Ontario,  which  are  comparatively  flat  and  of  great  fertility. 
As  in  Lake  Superior,  regular  terraces  corresponding  to 
former  water-levels  of  the  lake  run  for  miles  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Huron  »t  heights  of  120,  150,  and  200  feet ; 
and  deposits  of  fire  sand  and  clay  containing  freshwater 
shells  rise  to  a  height  ft  40  feet  or  more  above  the  present 
level  of  the  water.  At  several  places  these  deposits  extend 
to  a  distance  of  20  miles  infB,»d.  The  chief  tributaries  of 
the  lake  on  the  Canadian  side  are  the  French  river  from 
Lake  Nipissing,  the  Severn  from  Lake  Simcoe,  the  Muskoka, 
and  the  Nottawasaga,  all  emptying  into  Georgian  Bay 
and  on  the  United  States  side  the  Thunder  Bay  river,  the 
Au-Sable,  and  the  Saginaw. 

Lake  Michigan  is  entirely  in  the  territory  of  the  United  J.^ilo- 
States.  It  has  a  maximum  breadth  of  84  miles  and  its  M"^^'" 
length  is  345  miles  from  the  north-west  corner  of  .Indiana  S'^'^ 
and  the  north  part  of  Illinois  to  Mackinaw,  where  it  com- 
municates with  Lake  Huron  by  a  strait  4  miles  wide  at 
its  narrowest  part.  Its  depth  is  variously  stated  at  from 
700  to  1800  feet.  Its  altitude  above  sea-level  is  578  feet. 
Its  basin  is  70,040  square  miles  in  area,  of  which  the  lake 
occupies  22,400.  Five  of  its  tributaries  are  from  135  to 
245  miles  in  length.  The  country  round  Lake  Michigan 
is  for  the  most  part  low  aud  sandy.  The  rocks  are  lime- 
stones and  sandstones  of  the  Sub-carboniferous  groups, 
lying  in  horizontal  strata  and  never  rising  into  bold  cliffs. 
Along  the  south  shore  are  Post-tertiary  beds  of  clay  and 
sand  lying  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake,  the  waters 
of  which  probably  at  one  time  foimd  their  way  by  the 
valleys  of  the  Illinois  and  the  Mississippi  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

Chicago  (population,  503,185  in  1880)  is  situated  at  the  r^uth- 
west  angle  of  the  lake.  In  the  receipt  and  Shipment  of  grain  and 
pork  it  is  the  largest  market  in  the  world.  In  1883  12,015  vessels  ' 
with  a  tonnage  of  3, 980,837  tons  cleared  from  the  harbour.  Com- 
paring the  decades  of  1854-73  and  1874-83  the  total  export  in 
quarters  of  wheat  and  corn  from  Chicago  was  as  follows  : — 


1SC4-73 

1874-83 


Lake. 

...43,884,196 
...66,205,175 

110,149,371 


6,328,337 
27,342,140 


33,670,477 


60.212,533 
93,607,315 


In  1883  the  export  of  grain  by  the  lakes  amonnted  to  6,850,722 
quarters  (of  which  68'1  per  cent,  were  shipped  direct  to  Buffalo  and 
only  6-3  per  cent,  to  Kingston  and  Montreal)  as  against  3,1*6,000 
sent  by  raiL     The  first  appropriation  for  the  harbour  of  Chicago, 

is  313  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior,  and  in  some  parts  is  up- 
wards of  500  feet  in  depth.  The  lake  is  thickly  studded  with  islands  ; 
its  shores  are  undulating  and  sometimes  hilly  ;  an  I  owing  to  ihS  niUDjr- 
ous  indentations  its  cn!\st-line  measures  580  siilea- 


ST      LAWRENCE 


179 


luade  in  1883,  was  expended  in  cutting  a  straight  outlet  from  ^he 
Chicago  river  into  the  lake.  The  available  depth  was  only  2  feet, 
but  since  then  the  harbour  accommodation  has  been  extended,  by 
means  of  piers,  dredging,  and  a  breakwater,  to  accommodate  vessels 
of  14  feet  draught. 

The  Barbour  works  at  Chicago,  as  well  as  at  other  lake  and  river 
ports,  are  constructed  simply  of  cribs  or  boxes,  composed  of  logs  12 
by  1!  inches,  filled  with  stone,  and  joined  to  each  other,  after  they 
have  finally  settled  down,  by  a  continuous  timber  superstructure 
raised  a  few  feet  above  tfre  level  of  the  water.  On  this  plan  break- 
waters, piers  at  the  moUths  of  rivers,  and  wharves^  have  been  built 
within  the  last  sixty  years  at  the  most  important  points  along  the 
shores  of  the  St  Lav.^ence  lakes,  as  well  as  at  most  of  the  river 
harbours  communicating  with  the  Atlantic  ;  and  ex]^rience  has 
proved  that  no  cheaper  and  better  system  could  have  been  devised 
for  such  localities. 

The  St  Lawrence  leaves  Lake  Huron  by  the  St  Clair 
-  river  at  Sarnia,  and  after  a  course  of  33  miles  enters 
ikka  St  Clair,  25  miles  long,  and  terminating  at  the 
head  of  the  Detroit  river,  near  the  city  of  Detroit  in 
Michigan.  Eighteen  miles  farther  on  the  St  Lawrence, 
with  a  descent  of  11  feet,  enters  Lake  Erie.  The  naviga- 
tion through  the  St  Clair  river  is  easy  throughout,  but  in 
Lake  St  Clair  there  are  extensive  sandbanks  covered  with 
a  depth  of  water  varying  from  6  to  10  feet.  Previous  to 
1853  much  inconvenience  was  experienced  in  navigating 
the  lake  o\ving  to  its  insufficient  depth ;  but  at  the  end 
of  that  year  the  Governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  dredged  a  canal  through  the  bed  of  the  lake, 
■which  is  of  soft  material,  to  a  minimum  depth  of  12  feet, 
with  a  width  of  300  feet.  This  channel  has  since  been 
deepened  to  16  feet  over  a  width  of  200  feet,  and  works 
are  now  in  progress  to  deepen  the  rocky  shoal  called  the 
"Lime-Kiln  Crossing"  in  the  Detroit  river  to  18  feet,  to 
enable  vessels  drawing  15  feet  to  pass  with  safety  from 
lake  to  lake  in  stormy  weather. 

The  peculiar  features  of  Lake  Erie  are  its  shallowness 
and  the  clayey  nature  of  its  shores,  which  are  generally 
low.  •  The  south  shore  is  bordered  by  an  elevated  plateau, 
through  which  the  rivers,  which  are  without  importance 
M  regards  Lake  Erie,  have  cut  deep  channels.  The  mean 
depth  of  the  lake  is  only  90  feet  and  its  maximum  depth 
204.  Owing  to  its  shallowness  it  is  easily  disturbed  by  the 
wind,  and  is  therefore  the  most  dangerous  to  navigate  of 
all  the  great  lakes,  Its  length  is  250  miles  and  its 
greatest  breadth  60.  The  area  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Erie  is 
39,680  square  miles,  including  10,000  square  miles,  the  area 
of  the  laie.  Its  waters  are  564  feet  above  the  sea  and 
330  above  Lake  Ontario.  The  extreme  difference  observed 
in  the  level  of  the  lake  between  18l9  and  1838  was  5  feet 
2  inches,  but  the  average  annual  rise  and  fall  (taken  on 
a  mean  of  twelve  years)  is  only  1  foot  IJ-  inches.  The 
ipean  annual  rainfall  is  34  inches.  The  navigation  of 
Lake  Erie  usually  opens  about  the  middle  of  April  and 
closes  early  in  December.  Besides  the  Erie  and  the 
WeUand  Canals,  the  lake  has  two  other  great  canal  systems 
on  its  south  shore, — the  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal,  from  Cleve- 
land to  Portsmouth,  and  the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  from 
Toledo  to  Cincinnati 

Buffalo  (pr;,alation,  171,500  in  1883)  is  situated  at  the  north- 
cast  angle  of  Lake  Erie,  and  is  therefore  much  exposed  to  the 
violence  of  south-west  winds,  in  which  direction  the  lake  has  a 
"fetch"  of  200  miles.  fVhiui  more  than  ordinary  care  has  been 
taken  to  provide  safe  harbour  accommodation  for  the  large  itccts  of 
wsacls  constantly  arriving  at  Buffalo  from  the  upper  lakes.  The 
Buffalo  river,  which  has  been  made  navigable  for  more  than  »  mile, 
fc  protected  at  its  mouth  by  a  breakwater,  4000  feet  long,  .built  at 
abont  half  a  mile  from  the  shore.  The  harbour  thus  formed  allows 
of  the  entrance  of  vessels  of  17  feet  draught  as  against  13  in  1863. 
Not  only  is  the  port  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Erie  Canal  and 
within  an  hour's  sail  of  the  Wclland  Canal,  but  it  is  the  western 
torminus  of  the  New  York  Central,  Erie,  and  several  other  railways. 
The  possession  of  these  exceptional  advantages  has  constituted 
Buffalo  the  great  commercial  centre  of  the  inland  seas  of  North 
America.  For  the  six  years  ending  1883  the  yearly  average  ship- 
menta  of  wheat  and  com  received  by  lake  at  Buffalo,  by  the  Erie 


Canal,  and  by  rail  from  elevators  was  5,555,000  quaiters  by  canal 
and  2,320,000  by  rail,  or  70'2O  and  29'SO  per  cent,  respectively. 
There  are  38  elevators  in  the  city,  comprising  storage,  transfer, 
and  floating  elevators,  with  a  combined  storage  capacity  of  1,1'25,000 
quarters  and  a  daily  transfer  capacity  of  333,000  quarters.  .During 
the  ten  years  ending  1883  the  annual  av.erage  number  of  lake 
F«s5els  arriving  and  departing  from  Buffalo  Creek  numbered  7438, 
t^e  aggregate  tonnage  was  4,165,098  tons,  and  the  average  size  of 
craft  560  tons. 

In  1883  the  enrolled  tonnage  of  the  United  States 
vessels  for  the  northern  lakes,  and  the  enrolled  registered 
tonnage  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels  in  the  province  of 
Ontario,  including  tugs  and  barges  on  the  Ottawa  river 
and  barges  at  Kingston,  were  as  follows  (Table  II.)  :^ 


United  States. 

Canada.             i 

No. 

AggregaU) 
Tonnage.  . 

No. 

■Ap^egflte 
Tonnage. 

BaQing  vesaelfl 

1373 
1149 

310,.|54 
304,649 

462 
852 

44.000 
64,00U 

2022 

616,103 

604 

108,000 

Freight  propellers  are  now  rapidly  doing  away  with 
sailing  vessels,  or  C8,using  them  to  be  converted  into  bai-ges 
or  consorts.  The  rapid  increase  in  their  tonnage  capacity 
has  been  remarkable.  In  1841  there  was  only  1  freight 
propeller  with  a  tonnage  of  128  tons;  in  1850  there  were 
50  with  an  average  of  215  tons,  in  1860  there  were  197 
with  an  average-  of  340  tons,  and  in  1880  there  were  202 
with  an  average  of  689  tons. 

The  Erie  Canal  connects  Lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson  river  at  Jh-ie 
Troy  and  Albany  and  with  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego.  The  move-  Canal 
ment  of  freight  of  all  kinds  by  the  canal  was  3,602,535  tons  in 
1873,  and  3,587,102  in  1883,  and  the  average  annual  movement 
from  1874  to  1883  was  3,447,464  tons.  This  canal  was  constructed 
in  1825  by  the  State  of  New  York,  for  the  passage  of  vessels  of  60 
tons  ;  but  hy  the  yea*  1862  it  was  sufficiently  enlarged  to  allow  of 
the  passage  of  vessels  of  240  tons.  The  dimensions  and  capacity 
of  the  canal  and  its  two  principal  feeders  are  given  in  Table  IIL  : — 


IxKiaUty. 

Size  of  Canal. 

No.  &  Size  of  Locks. 

ll 
«3 

II 
25 

•s  . 

1^ 

i  i 

Bnff&lo  to  Albany 

Oswetfo  to  Syracuse  . . 
Lake  Champliin  to  Al- 
bany 

Albany  to  New  York 
by  the  Hudson  river 

361 
38 
68 

Feet. 
60 

Feet. 
66 
66 
36 

Feet 
7 
7 
6 

72 
18  ■ 
20 

Feet. 
110 

no 

100 

Feet. 
18 
IS- 
IS 

Feel. 
055 
1.56 
180 

466 
14,'> 

The  cost  of  construction,  maintenance,  and  management  of  the  455 
miles  of  canal  up  to  30th  September  1873  amounted  to  £17,460,000. 
A  project  has  for  gome  time  been  under  serious  consideration  for 
the  enlargement  of  one  tier  of  the  present  locks  and  the  deepening 
of  the  canal  so  that  between  Buffalo  and  Albany  there  woiAd  no- 
where bo  a  less  depth  than  8.  feet.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  work 
is  about  £1,600,000. 

The  Welland  Canal  flanks  the  Niagara  river  and  is  27  miles  ic 
length  from  Port  Colbome  on  Lake  Erie  to  Port  Dalhousie  on  Lake 
Ontario.  It  was  opened  in  1633  for  the  uavi^tiun  of  small  vessels 
and  was  first  enlarj^ed  in  1844.  Vessels,  however,  continued  to 
increase  in  size  until  in  1860  there  were  341  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  143,918  tons  which  were  unable  to  pass  through  the 
enlarged  canal.  In  1870  the  number  that  could  not  pass  had 
increased,  to  384,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  194,685- tons ;  in 
1880  to  460,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  287,342  tons;  and  is 
1883  (notwithstanding  the  copiplction  of  tho  second  enlargement 
in  1882)  to  857,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  398,808  tons.  ■  The 
cost  of  the  canal  including  its  maintenance  up  to  80th  Juno  1883  was 
§20,859,605.  Its  dimensions  are  now  as  follows  : — number  of  lift 
locks,  25  ;  dimensions,  270  by  45  feet ;  total  rise  of  lockage,  826} 
feet ;  depth  of  water  on  sills,  12  feet.  The  movement  of  freight  of 
all  kinds  by  tho  canal  was  1,330,629  tons  in  1873  and  827,196  in 
1883,  and  the  average  annual  movement  for  tho  decade  ending  1883 
was  986,441  tons.  Thislierious  falling  off  in  traffic  is  partly  dnb 
to  the  numerous  competitors  by  lake  and  rail  which  have  sprung  up 
during  the  last  ten  years  for  tho  transpoi-tation  of  products  to  the 
east,  but  principally  to  tho  deepening  ef  the  channels  and  harbours 
of  the  upper  lakes,  a  w  o.k  that  has  encouraged  the  construction  of 


180 


ST      LAWRENCE 


a  clas3  of  vessels  that  cannot  make  use  of  the  Welland  Canal  even 
jafter  its  last  enrargerncut.  In  order  to  meet  this  strong  competition 
the  Government  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  was  called  upon  still 
further  to  deepen  the  canal  so  as  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  largest 
ojdsting  lake  vessels  without  lightering;  and  in  1SS6  contracts 
were  concluded  for  deepening  it  to  14  feet. 
River  The  Niagara  river  fiowa  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontariv^ 

^::,-ara.  in  a  northerly  direction.  Its  width  between  Bufialo  and 
Fort  Erie  (the  site  of  the  international  iron-trussed  rail- 
way bridge  ;  see  sketch  map  of  Niagara  river  in  vol.  xvii. 
■  p.  472)  is  1900  feet  and  its  greatest  depth  48.  At  this 
point  the  normal  current  is  5J  miles  an  hour, — the  ex- 
treme variation  in  the  level  of  the  river  when  uninflu- 
enced by  the  vrind  being  only  2  feet.  During  south-west 
gales,  however,  the- water  occasionally  rises  as  much  as  4 
feet  in  a  few  hours,  and  at  such  times  the  current  attains 
a  maximum  velocity  of  12  miles  an  hour.  Two  miles 
below  the  bridge  the  river  is  divided  into  two  arms  by 
Grand  Island,  at  the  foot  of  which  they  reunite  and  spread 
over  a  width  of  2  or  3  miles.  The  rivei:  then  becomes 
studded  with  islands,  until  about  16  miles  from  Lake 
Erie,  after  a  total  fall  of  20  feet,  it  narrows  again  and 
begins  to  descend  with  great  velocity.  This  is  the  com- 
mencement of  the  rapids,  which  continue  for  about  a  mile 
with  a  total  descent  of  52  feet.  The  rapids  terminate  in 
the  great  cataract  of  Nistgara,  the  fall  oi  which  on  the 
American  side  is  1G4  feet  and  on  the  Canadian  side  150 
tfoot.  The  falls  are  divided  by  Goat  Island,  which  rises 
40  feet  above  the  water  and  extends  to  the  very  verge  of 
the  precipice,  where  the  total  mdth  of  the  river,  including 
the  island,  is  4750  feet.  The  Horse-Shoe  Fall  on  the 
Canadian  shore  is  2000  feet  long,  and  the  depth  of  water 
on  the  crest  of  the  fall  is  about  20  feet.  The  American 
fall  is  only  one-half  that  length,  and  discharges  less  than 
one-fourth  the  volume  of  the  Horse-Shoe  Fall.  United, 
they  discharge  nearly  400,000  cubic  feet  per  second  or 
41,000,000  tons  per  hour.  The  upper  layer  of  the  escarp- 
ment down  which  this  enormous  mass  of  water  leaps  con- 
sists of  hard  limestone  about  90  feet  thick,  beneath  which 
lie  soft  shales  of  equal  thickness,  which  are  continually 
being  undermined  by  the  action  of  the  spray,  driven 
violently  by  gusts  of  wind  against  the  base  of  the  preci- 
j  ice.  In  consequence  of  this  action  and  that  of  the  frost, 
)  ortions  of  the  incumbent  rock  overhang  40  feet,  and 
often,  when  unsupported,  tumble  down,  so  that  the  falls 
do  not  remain  absolutely  stationary  in  the  s?"ie  spot. 
Sir  C.  hy-^ll  in  1842  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
cataract  was  receding  at  an  average  rate  of  1  foot  annually, 
"  in  which  case  it  would  have  required  35,000  years  for 
the  retreat  of  the  falls  from  the  escarpment  at  Queens- 
tOAvn  to  their  present  site."  From  the  foot  of  the  falls  to 
Qucenstown,  a  distance  of  about  7  miles,  the  river  descends 
104  feet  through  a  gorge  from  200  to  300  feet  deep  and 
from  600  to  1200  feet  wide.  Midway  in  this  deep  defile 
the  turbulent  waters  strike  against  the  cliff  on  the  Canadian 
side  with  great  violence,  and,  being  thus  deflected  from 
west  to  north,  give  rise  to  the  dangerous  eddy  called  the 
"Whirlpool."  The  escarpments  end  abruptly  at  Queens- 
town,  where  the  waters  suddenly  expand  to  a  great  width, 
and  finally,  7  miles  farther  on,  tranquilly  flow  into  Lake 
Ontario. 

About  one-third  of  a  mile  below  the  cataract  a  carriage- 
road  suspension  bridge  (built  in  1869  by  Mr  Samuel 
Keefer)  spans  the  river  with  a  single  opening  of  1190 
feet,  at  a  height  of  1 90  feet  above  the  water ;  and  2 
miles  lower  down  Roebling's  celebrated  railway  and  road 
suspension  bridge  (completed  in  1855)  crosses  the  river  at 
a  height  of  245  feet  above  the  water  with  a  single  span 
of  800  feet.  ^  In  November  1883  a  double -track  railway 
three-span  iron  and  steel  cantilever  bridge,  situated  about 
••''()  yards  abovp  B"pKling's  bridge,  was  completed  for  the 


New  York  Central  and  Michigan  Cetftral  Railways.  The 
total  length  of  the  bridge  is  910  feet  and  that  of  the 
centre  span  470  feet.  The  height  from  the  water  to  the 
level  of  the  rails  is  239  feet. 

Lake  Ontario  is  the  easternmost  and  smallest  of  the  Lake 
great  lakes  of  the  St  Lawrence  system.  Its  basin  drains  Ontario. 
29,760  square  miles,  including  tho  lake  surface  of  6700 
square  miles.  The  length  of  the  lake  is  190  miles,  its 
greatest  width  52  miles,  its  mean  depth  412  feet,  and  its 
elevation  above  the  sea  234  feet.  It  never  freezes  except 
near  the  shore.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Trent  on  the 
north  shore  and  the  Genesee  and  the  Oswego  on  the  south 
shore,  and  its  chief  ports,  Toronto,  the  capital  of  Ontario, 
32  miles  north  of  Port  Dalhousie,  at  the  foot  of  the  Welland 
Canal ;  Oswego,  at  the  south-east  angle  of  the  lake ;  and| 
Kingston,  at  its  north-east  extremity,  52  miles  north  o£ 
Oswego. 

Trent  river  navigatio^l  is  a  terra  applied  to  a  series  of  reachea 
which  do  not,  however,  form  a  connected  system  of  navigation,  and 
which, in  their  present  condition  are  efficient  only  for  local  use. 
The  series  is  composed  of  a  chain  of  lakes  and  rivers  extending  from 
Trenton,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Trent  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  north 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  to  Lake  Huron.  The  new  works  (which 
will  have  locks  134  feet  by  33  feet  with  a  depth  of  5  feet  on  sill} 
w-ill  give  communication  between  Lakefield,  9^  miles  from  Peter- 
boro,  and  Balsam  Lake,  the  headwaters  of  the  system,  opening  up 
a  total  of  about  150  miles  of  direct  and  lateral  navigation. 

The  port  of  Oswego  has  been  in  direct  communication  with  tha 
Hudson  river  since  1822,  by  means  of  a  canal  of  small  capacity  aa 
far  as  Syracuse,  and  thence  by  the  Erie  Caual  to  Troy  and  Albany. 
It  is  now  proposed  by  the  United  States  Government  to  enlarge 
this  route  under  the  name  of  the  Oneida  Ship  Canal,  so  that  vessels 
arriving  from  tho  Welland  Caual  with  cargoes  of  50,000  bushels  o€ 
wheat  may  be  able  to  tranship  them  at  Oswego  into  steam  barges 
holding  25,000  bushels',  or  into  barges  to  be  towed  with  a  capacity 
of  23,000  bi'shels.  The  length  of  the  proposed  route  by  the  Oneida 
Lake  and  Durhamville  is  200  miles,  with  a  lockage  of  609  feet ; 
and  its  estimated  cost,  including  20  ascending  and  47  dccc-ending 
locks  (each  170  by  28  by  8*  feet),  is  $25,213,857.  The  Government 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  has  also  under  consideration  the  follow- 
ing projects  to  connect  the  St  Lawrence  with  Lake  Huron:  —  (1^ 
the  Ottawa  and  Georgian  Bay  Canal,  from  Montreal,  by  the  Ottawa 
and  Lake  Nipissing,  to  Trench  river  ;  (2)  the  Toronto  and  Georgian 
Bay  Canal,  by  way  of  Lake  Simcoe  ;  (3)  the  Hur- Ontario  Canal, 
from  Hamilton  to  Lake  Huron,  near  Port  Franks. 

Kingston,  being  the  port  of  transhipment  for  Montreal  Ki-nii 
of  three-fourths  of  the  grain  that  arrives  from  the  upper  '<>  *' 
lakes,  b  a  place  of  some  commercial  importance.  Formerly 
lake  vessels  were  sent  from  Chicago  to  Montreal  through 
the  St  La^vrence  canals  without  breaking  bulk.  But  it 
was  afterwards  found  cheaper  to  transfer  grain  at  Kingstc>n, 
and  to  send  it  down  the  St  Lr.wrence  in  barges,  the  cost 
of  such  transfer  being  only  half  a  cent  per  bushel.  Kings- 
ton is  also  at  the  south  terminus  of  the  Eideau  CciiaJ 
which  connects  it  with  the  city  of  Ottawa. 

Tills  canal,  126  miles  long,  has  33  locks  ascending  292  feet  and 
14  descending  165,  and  admits  vessels  130  by  30  feet  drawing  4|j 
feet  of  water.  It  was  constructed  in  1826-32  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment at  a  cost  of  about  $4,000,000,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  tho  defence 
of  the  province,  but  since  tlie  opening  of  the  St  Lawrence  canals 
it  has  become  of  comparatively  little  importance  as  a  means  of 
transport, — the  dis^nce  from  Montreal  to  Kington  being  68  miles 
longer  by  the  Rideau  and  Ottawa  Canals  than  by  the  St  Lawrence. 

Almost  immediately  after  leaving  Kingston  that  part  of 
the  St  Lawrence  commences  which  is  called  the  Lake  of 
a  Thousand  Islands.  In  reality  they  number  1692,  and 
extend  for  40  miles  below  Lake  Ontario.  At  this  point 
the  Laurentian  ■  rocks  break  through  the  Silurian,  and 
reach  across  the  St  Lawrence,  in  this  belt  of  islands,  to 
unite  with  the  Laurentian  Adirondack  region  in  the  State 
of  New  York.  Near  Prescott,  a  town  on  the  Canadian 
side  about  60  miles  below  Kingston,  begins  the  chain  of 
the  St  Lawrence  canals  proper,  which  were  constructed  to 
overcome  a  total  rise  of  206J  feet, — the  number  of  locks 
being  27  and  the  total  length  of  the  six  canals  43i  miles. 

The  canals  are  called,  in  the  order  of  their  de-scent,  the  "Galops," 
"Rapid  Plat,"  and  "  Farran's  Point,"  with  an  aggregate  length  of 


ST    Lawrence 


181 


■\2j^  miles  (tbe  three  forming  with  their  intervening  15  miles  of 
liver  navigation  what  is  called  the  "Williamsborg  Canals),  the 
•'Cornwall,"  11^  miles  long,  the  "  Beauliaruois,"  connecting  Lakes 
6t  Louis  and  St  Francis,  U^  miles  long,  and  the  "  Lachme,"  8^ 
miles  long  The  locks  of  the  first  frve  canals,  constructed  in 
a845-48.  are  200  feet  in  length,  with  a  depth  of  from  7  to  10  feet 
on  their  sills  at  cxceptionaTly  low  water;  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  "Galops"  and  "Cornwall,"  which  are  55  feet  wide,  their 
width  is  45  feet.  The  Laclune  Canal  was  begun  in  1821  and  com- 
pleted in  1824  for  the  navigation  of  vessels  drawing  ih  feet,  but 
it  was  not  until  1843-48  that  it  was  widened  and  deiepened  to  the 
Simensions  of  the  upper  canals.  It  has  lately  been  still  further 
Enlarged,  and  is  already  provided  with  locks  270  by  40  feet,  with 
^n  available  depth  of  14  feet  The  canal  was  closed  on  1st  December 
1882  and  opened  on  1st  May  1SS3, — the  navigation  having  been 
interrupted  as  usual  by  the  ice  for  a  period  of  five  months.  The 
cost  to  the  nrovincial  and  Dominion  Government  of  the  six  canals, 
■icluding  their  maintenance  to  30th  June  1883,  was  $14,454,608. 
The  five  upper  canals  are  now  being  enlarged  to  the  dimensions  of 
the  improved  Lachine  Canal. 

Near  Cornwall,  on  the  left  bank,  50  miles  below  Preo- 
eott,  the  intersection  of  the  parallel  of  45°  determines  the 
point  where  the  St  Lawrence  and  its  lakes  (Lake  Michigan 
'  excepted),  having  been  an  international  boundary  from 
the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  become  exclusively  Canadian. 
Immediately  below  Cornwall  the  river  flows  through  Lake 
St  Francis,  which  has  a  length  of  aiiout  30  miles  and  a 
width  varying  from  2  to  5  miles.  In  the  long  reach  of 
the  river  below  the  lake  it  has  been  calculated  by  the 
Canadian  canal  commissioners  that  the  mean  volume  of 
water  discharged  is  510,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Ten 
mills  below  the  foot  of  Lake  St  Francis,  near  the  head  of 
the  is;and  of  Montreal,  the  river  flows  into  Lake  St 
Louis,  which  receives  the  main  body  of  the  Ottawa  river, 
a  small  fraction  of  whose  waters  is  delivered  into  the  St 
Lawrence  at  the  foot  of  the  island  35  miles  lower  down 
the  stream, 
t  A.W.I  The  Ottawa  "river,  which  is  600  miles  long,  drains 
'  '"'•  60,000  square  miles,  and  contributes  a  volume  of  90,000 
eulj'c  feet  pgr  second  to  the  St  Lawrence,  of  Which  it  is 
the  largest  tributary.  Between  Lake  St  Louis  and  the 
city  of  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion,  and  perhaps 
tlie  largest  market  for  lumber  in  the  world,  the  St  Anne's 
lock  (23J  miles  from  Montreal),  Carillon  Canal,  Chute-k- 
Blondeau  Canal,  and  the  Grenville  Canal  (63i  miles  from 
Montreal)  have  been  constructed,  and  are  now  enlarged 
to  200  by  45  feet,  with  a  depth  of  9  feet  on  their  sills, 
6zcept  the  Chute-i-Blondcau  Canal,  whose  single  lock 
|ias  still  its  original  dimensions  of  130  by  32  feet  with 
only  6  feet  on  "its  sill.  The  total  lockage  between  the 
iLachine  Canal  and  Kingston  by  the  Rideau  Canal  (the 
entrance  to  which  is  IIW  miles  from  Montreal)  is  509 
feot  (345  rise,  164  fall)  a!i(.*"the  number  of  locks  is  55. 
On  the  upper  Ottawa — the  Culbute  Canal  and  L'Islet 
iJipids— there  are  two  locks  200  feet  long,  45  wide,  and  6 
deep,  with  a  lift  of  18  to  20  feet.  The  cost  of  the  Ottawa 
eanals,  including  the  Rideau  Canal,  to  30th  June  1883 
was  §9,126,125. 

After  leaving  Lake  St  Louis  the  St  lyawrence  dashes 
wildly  down  the  Lachine  rapids,  a  descent  of  42  feet  in 
2  miles,  and  8  miles  farther  on,  after  passing  beneath  the 
25  spans  of  the  Victoria  Tubular  Railway  Bridge,  which 
Monl-  ,.  has  a  length  of  9144  feet,  reaches  the  quays  of  Montreal, 
«»!•         198  miles  below  King.ston.     In  the  beginning  of  the  pre- 
sent conturj-  vessels  of  over  300  tons  burden  were  unable 
to  reach  the  city,  but  by  deepening  Lake  St  Peter  and  the 
thoals  in  the  St  Lawrence  between  Quebec  and  Montreal 
the  latter  has  been  made  accessible  to  vessels  of  4000 
tons  burden  and  drawing  25  feet  of  water.     Work  is  being 
iileadily  continued  and  will  not  cease  until  a  depth  of  27i 
tot  is  attained,  so  as  to  enable  the  largest  vessels  afloat 
lo  reach  the  long  stretch  of  new  deep-water  quays.     In 
J  883  the  tonnage  of  the  6G0  sea-going  vessels  which  visited 


the  port  was  664,263  tous,'of  which  605,805  belonged  to 
264  steamships,  so  that  only  9  per  cent,  of  the  freight 
arriving  from  sea  was  carried  in  sailing  vessels.  The  St 
Lawrence  has  an  average  width  of  IJ  miles  for  46  miles 
from  Montreal  down  to  Sorel  on  the  right  bant,  at  which 
point'  it  is  joined  by  the  Richelieu  river,  a  tributary  that 
drains  9000  square  miles. 

The  Richelieu  river  is  made  navigable  frorD  its  mouth  to  Lake 
Champlaiu,  a  distance  of  81  miles  to  the  United  States  boundary, 
by  a  dam  and  lock  at  St  Ours,  half  a  mile  long  (14  miles  above 
Sorel),  and  a  canal  of  12  miles  in  length  32  miles  farther  up  the 
river,  known  as  the  Chambly  Canal.  These  give  a  navigable  depth 
of  7  feet,  allowing  vessels  114  feet  long,  23  broad,  and  drawing  6J 
feet  of  water,  to  pass  through  the  canal  from  end  to  end.  The  cost 
of  the  works  to  30th  June  1867  was  S756,249.  The  total  length 
of  navigation  be. ween  Montreal  and  New  York  by  the  Richelieu 
Canal,  Lake  Champlain,  the  Champlain  and  Erie  Canal,  Albany, 
and  the  Hudson  river  is  456  miles.  The  Richelieu  Canal,  which 
already  carries  a  freight  of  350,000  tons  annually,  is  to  be  enlarged, 
aud  a  canal  is  to  be  constructed  from  Lake  St  Louis  at  Chaugli- 
nawaga,  above  Lachine,  to  St  Johns  on  the  Richelieu  river,  in  con 
uexion  with  the  Chambly  Canal,  to  connect  the  St  Lawrence  with 
Lake  Champlain  by  a  new  channel,  which  it  is  proposed  should 
have  the  same  dimensions  as  the  improved  Welland  Canal.  The 
cost  of  the  proposed  Chaughiiawaga  Canal,  which  would  have  a 
length  of  32  miles  and  a  lockage  of  only  29  feet,  is  estimated  at 
$5,600,000. 

Immediately  below  Sorel  the  river  flows  into  Lake  St 
Peter,  20  miles  in  length  by  9  in  width,  through  which 
prior  to  1851  no  vessel  drawing  more  than  11  feet  coiold- 
pass.  Since  then  a  cutting  300  feet  wide  has  been  -dredged 
to  a  depth  of  25  feet.  At  Three  Rivers,  86  miles  below 
Montreal,  the  St  Lawrence  first  meets  the  tide  and  receives 
from  the  north  the  waters  from  the  St  Maurice,  which  drains 
about  16,000  square  miles.  Nearing  Quebec,  the  river, 
which  maintains  an  average  width  of  l.V  miles  from  Lake 
St  Peter,  narrows  into  a  ividth  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
at  Cape  Diamond,  on  the  left-bank,  160  miles  below  Mont 
real.  The  depth  here  is  128  feet  and  the  rise  of  spring 
tides  18  feet. 

The  lower  town  of  Quebec,  which  has  extensive  harbour 
accomrnodation,  is  built  on  reclaimed  land  around  the  base 
of  the  cape, 'one  of  its  sides  being  washed  by  the  river  St 
Charles,  which  here  flows  into  the  St  Lawrence.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  St  Charles  the  Princess  Louise  embankment, 
4000  feet  long  by  300  wide,  encloses  a  tidal  area  of  20 
acres,  having  24  feet  of  depth  at  low- water.  Connected 
with  it  is  a  wet  dock,  which  is  to  have  a  permanent  depth 
of  27  feet  with  an  area  of  40  acres.  On  the  opposite 
side,  at  Pointe  Levis,  tho  Lome  graving-dock  is  nearly 
completed.  Its  dimensions  are  500  feet  in  length,  100 
in  width,  and  25|  feet  depth  of  water  on  its  sill.  During 
the  year  ending  June  1884  the  departures  for  sea  of 
vessels  from  Quebec  were  698,  with  an  aggregate  burthen 
of  686,790  tons. 

The  Canadian  Government  have  sanctioned  the  proposal  to  con- 
struct a  railway  bridge  across  tho  St  Lawrence  within  a  few  miles 
of  Quebec,  at  a  point  where  the  river  narrows  to  a  width  of  2400 
feet  at  high  water.  The  area  of  the  waterway  at  high  water  u 
200,000  square  feet  and  at  low  water  160,000.  For  a  width  of 
about  1400  feet  in  tho  centre  of  the  ch,anncl  the  water  shelvej 
rapidly  from  either  shore  into  deep' water,  until  it  attains  a  maxi- 
mum depth  of  nearly  200  feet.  Tho  proposed  bridge,  as  designed 
by  Messrs  Brunloes,"Light,  &  Claxton  Fidlcr,  will  consist  of  thrc- 
principal  spans,  entirely  of  steel,  resting  on  ma.sonry  piers  founded 
on  the  rock.  The  central  span  will  have  a  clear  width  of  1442  foot, 
the  underside  of  the  superstructure  beinglSO  feet  above  high  water. 
Seven  miles  below  Quebec  the  St  Lawrence  is  4  miles 
wide  and  divides  into  two  channels  at  the  head  of  the 
Island  of  Orleans,  nearly  opposite  which,  on  the  nortH 
shore,  are  the  celebrated  falls  of  Jfontmorency,  with  » 
perpendicular  descent  of  240  feet  and  a  width  of  50  feet. 
At  the  foot  of  tlio-island,  which  is  22  miles  long,  the  rive/t 
expands  lo  a  \\-idth  .of  11  miles.  This  width  increases  tt 
16  miles  90  miles  farther  on,  at  the  mouth  of  the  ri"-ei 
Saguenav  which  drains  an  area  of  23,716  .sav.arc  mile 


r::t;he)'.ca 
river  a:!^. 
oauaL 


bore!  To 
Quebec. 


182 


S  A  1 


ibout  2bu  wilca  btflow  Quebec,  between  Pointe  des  Monts 
on  the  north  and  Cape  Chat  on  the  south,  the  St  Lawrence 
has  a  width  of  30  miles,  and,  aa  this  expanse  is  doubled 
30  mil63  farther  seaward.  Cape  Chat  has  been  considered 
by  many  geographers  as  the  southeca  extremity  of  an 
imaginary  line  of  demarcation  between  the  St  Lawrence 
river  and  the -gulf  of  the  same  name.  It  may,  however, 
be  assumed,  with  more  propriety  perhaps,  taking  the  con- 
figuration of  the  gulf  into  special  account,  that  Cape 
Gasp^,  about  400  nriles  below  Quebec  and  430  miles  from 
the  Atlantic  at  the  eas£  end  of  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle, 
is  the  true  mouth  of  the  St  Lawrence  river. 

It  has  been  calculated  by  Darby,  the  American  hydro- 
grapher,  that  the  mean  discharge  from  the  St  Lawrence 
river  and  gulf,  from  an  area  rather  largely  estimated  at 
565,000  square  mUes,  must-be  upwards  of  1,000,000  cubio 
feet  per  second,  taking  into  account  the  me?,n  discharge  at 
Niagara;  which  is  389,000  cubic  feet  per  second  from  a 
drainage  area  of  237,000  square  miles,  and  bearing  in  mind 
the  well-ascertained '  fact  that  the  tributaries  of  the  lower 
St  Lawrence,  coming  from  mountainous  woody  regions 
where  snow  falls  from  4  to  8  feet  in  depth,  deliver  more 
water  per  square  mile  than  its  upper  tributaries. 

The  great  prosperity  and  growth  of  Canada  are  owiiig 
no  doubt  t6  its  unrivalled  system  of  intercommunication 
by  canal  and  river  with  the  vast  territories  through 
which  the  St  Lawrence  finds  its  way  from  the  far-o£f 
regions  of  the  Minnesota  to  the  seai>oard.  This  great 
auxiliary  of  the  railways  (by  means  of  which  trade  is  now 
carried  on  at  all  seasons)  must  therefore  be  prominently 
taken  into  account  in  considering  the  transport  routes  of 
the  future,  their  chief  use  being,  as  far  as  the  conveyance 
of  traffic  over  long  distances  is  concerned,  to  augment,  in 
the  shape  of  feeders,  the  trade  of  the  river,  as  long  as  it 
keeps  open,  and  when  it  closes  to  continue  the  circulation 
of  commerce  by  sledges  until  the  ice  breaks  up  and  restores 
tiie  river  to  its  former  activity.  By  the  published  statistics 
of  the  harbour  commissioners  of  Montreal  it  appears  that 
during  the  ten  years  1870-79  the  opening  of  tie  navigation 
at  Montreal  varied  between.  30th  March  and  1st  May,  and 
the  close  of  the  navigation  between  26th  November  and 
2d  January,  and  that,  whilst  the  first  arrival  from  sea 
varied  from  20th  April  to'  11th  May,  the  last  departure 
to  sea  only  varied  from  21st  November  to  29  th  November, 
during  the  ten  years.  (a  a.  H.) 

According  to  th«  chief  geo^grapher  of  the  TJnited  States  Geological 
Survey,  the  following  were  the  principal  data  for  the  St  Lawrence 
hies  in  1886.  Area  of  basin  of  St  Lawrence  457,000  square  miles, 
of  which  330,000  belong  to  Canada  and  127,000  to  the  United 
States.  Lake  Superior — area  3i,200  square  miles,  length  412  miles, 
maximum  breadth  167  miles,  maximum  depth  1008  feet,  altitude 
above  sea-level  602  feet.  Lake  Huron — area  21,000  square  miles, 
■263'mile3  long,  101  broad,  maximum  depth  702  feet,  altitude  681 
feet  Lake  Michigcm~&Ka.  22,450  square  miles,  maximum  breadth 
84  miles,  length  345  miles,  maximum  depth  870  feet,  altitude  581 
feet  iMke  St  Clair— I'd  miles  long.  LnJce  Erie—mea  9960  square 
miles,  length  250  miles,  maximum  breadth  60  miles,  maximam 
depth  210  feet,  height  above  sea-level  573  feet  and  Hbove  Lake 
Ontario  326  feet.  Lake  Ontario — area  7240  square  miles,  length 
190  miles,  breadth  54  miles,  maximum  depth  735  feel,  elevation 
247  feet.  In  1885  the  onroUed  vessels  on  the  St  Lawrence  lakes 
belonging  to  the  United  States  numbered  2497  (steam  1175,  sailing 
1322)  with  an  aggregate  burthen  of  648,988  tons  (steam  835,859  tons, 
sailing  313,129  tons). 

ST  LEONARDS  is  the  name  given  to  the  western  and 
more  modem  part  of  .Hasting3  (^-v.),  a  watering-place  on 
the  coast  of  Sussex,  England.  St  Leonards  proper,  whifch 
formed  only  a  small  part  of  the  district  now  included 
under  that  name,  was  at  one  time  a^  separate  toSvnship. 
The  population  of  St  Leonards  in  1881  was  7165. 

ST  LEONARDS,  Edward  BcaTEusHAW  Sugden,  Lord 
(1781-1875),  lord  ohajicellor  of  England,  was  the  soh  of  a 
hai  dresser  in  Duke  Street,  Westminster,  and  was  bom  in 


-  8  A  I 

February  1781.  After  practising  for  some  years  as  a  con- 
veyancer, he  was  called  tr>  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1 807, 
having  already  published  his  well-known  treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Vendors  and  Purchasers.  In  1822  he  was  made 
king's  counsel  and  chosen  a  bencher  of  Lincoln's  Inn. 
He  was  returned  at  different  times  for  various  boroughs 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  made  himself  pro- 
minent by  his  opposition  to  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 
He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1829,  was  named 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1834,  and  again  filled  the 
same  office  from  1841  to  1846.  Under  Lord  Derby's  first 
adiniaistration  in  1852  he  became  lord  chancellor  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  St  Leonards.  In  this  posi- 
tion he  devoted  himself  with  energy  aod  vigour  to  the 
reform  of  the  !aw ;  Lord  Derby  on  his  return  to  power  in 
1858  again  offered  him  the  same  office,  which  from  con- 
siderations of  health  he  declinad.  He  continued,  however, 
to  take  an  active  interest  especially  in  the  legal  matters 
that  came  before  the  House  of  Lords,  and  bestowed  hiu 
particular  attention  on  the  reform  of  the  law  of  property 
He  died  at  Boyle  Farm,  Thames  Ditton,  29th  January  1875. 
Lord  St  Leonards  was  the-  author  of  various  important  legal 
publications,  many  of  -which  have  passed  through  several  editions. 
Besides  the  treatise  on  purchasers  already  mentioned,  they  include 
Powers^  Cases  decided  by  the  House  6f  Lords,  Gilbert  on .  Uses,  iVci* 
Real  Property  Laws,  and  Handybook  of  Properly  Law. 

ST'  l6,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  department 
of  Manche,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vire,  195  nailes  west 
by  north  of  Paris  by  the  railway  which  here  breaks  ■aj 
into  two  branches  for  Coutances  ^nd  Vire  re.spectively. 
The  old  town  stands  on  a  rocky  hill  (110  feet  high)  com- 
manding the  river ;  the  modem  town  spreads  out  below. 
Notre  Dame  is  a  Gothic  building  of  the  Hth  century, 
with  portal  and-  two  towers  of  the  15th.  In  the  town- 
house  is  the  Torigny  marble,  commemorating  the  assem- 
blies held  in  Gaul  under  the  Romans  tod  now  serving  as 
a  pedestal  for  the  bust  of  Leverrier  the  astronomer,  wh» 
was  born  at  St  L6.  The  museum  has  some  good  pictures, 
and  in  the  abbey  of  St  Croix  there  are  windows  of  the 
14th  century.  The  Champs  da  Mars  is  a  fine  tree-planted 
place.  Horse -Breeding,  cloth  and  calico  weaving,  wool- 
spinning,  currying  and  tanning,  are  the  local  industries. 
The  population  in  1881  was  9889  (10,121  in  the  commune), 
,  St  Ld;  founded  in  the  Gallo-Roman  period,  was  originally  called 
Briovira  (bridge  on  the  Vire),  and  afterwards  St  l^tienne,  tlie  present 
name  being  from  one  of  its  bishops  (Lo,  Laudua),  who  lived  in  the 
6th  century.  By  the  time  of  Charlemagne  the  town  was  already 
surrounded  with  walls  and  contained  the  abbey,  which  was  sacked 
by  the  Normans. .  In  1141  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Geoffrey  Flanta- 
genet.  But  in  1203  the  castle  opened  its  gates  to  Philip  Augustus 
and,  weaving  being  introduced,  St  L8  soon  became  a  flourishing 
industrial  centre.  In  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  Edward  III, 
of  England  captured  the  town  and  according  to  Froissart'  obtained 
immense  booty.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  English  in  1417,  but 
the  victory  of  Fomiigny  (1450)  restored  it  permanently  to  France. 
•The  hearty  welcome  it  gave' to  the  Reformation  brought  upon  St 
L6  new  disasters  and  new  sieges.  The  revocation  of  the  -Edict  ol 
Nantes  led  to  the  emigi-ation  of  a  part  of  the  inhabitants.  In  180(J 
the  town  was  made  the  centre  of  the  department,  but  by,  Napoleon't 
orders  it  was  deprived  of  its  fortifications. 

ST  LOUIS,  the  capital  of  Senegambia  or  Senegal' 
West  Africa,  and  known  to  the  natives  as  far  as  Timbuktu 
as  N'dar,  is  built  on  an  island  10  searmiles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Ser^e^al  river,  near  the  right  bank,  which 
is  there  a  narrow  strip  of  sand — ^^the  Langue  de  Barbarie — 
occupied  by  the  villages  of  N'dar  Toute  and  Guet  N'dar. 
Two  bridges  on  piles  connect  the  town  with  the  -villages ; 
and  the  Pont  Faidherbe,  2132  feet  long  and  constructed 
in  1863,  affords  commtmication  -with  Bouetville,  a  suburb 
and  the  terminus  of  the  railway,  on  the  left  bank.  The 
houses  of  the  European  portion  of  St  Louis  have  for  the 
most  part  flat  roofs,  balconies,  and  terraces.  Besides  the 
governor's  residence  the  most  prominent  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,   the  great  mosque,   the  court-house,   and  the 


ST      LOUIS 


183 


VDjioua  barracks  and  offices  connected  with  the  army. 
The  town  also  contains  the  Senegal  bank  (1855),  a  Govern- 
ment printing-office  (1855),  a  chamber  of  commerce  (1869), 
a  public  library,  and  an  agricultural  society  (1874).  The 
round  beehive  huts  of  Guet  N'dar  are  mainly  inhabited 
by  native  fishermen.  N'dar  Toute  consists  of  villas  with 
gardens,  and  is  frequented  as  a  summer  watering-place. 
There  is  a  pleasant  public  garden  in  the  town,  and  the 
neighbourhood  is  rendered  attractive  by  alleys  of  date- 
palms.  As  there  are  no  natural  wells  on  the  island,  and 
the  artesian  well  at  the  north  side  of  the  town  gives  only 
brackish  water,  St  Louis  used  to  be  dependent  on  rain- 
tanks  and  the  river  (and  except  during  the  rainy  season 
the  water  in  the  lower  part  of  the  river  is  salt) ;  but  in 
1879  1,600,000  francs  were  appropriated  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  reservoir  at  a  height  of  300  feet  above  the  sea, 
7 1  miles  from  the  town.  The  mouth  of  the  Senegal  being 
closed  by  a  bar  of  sand  with  extremely  shifting  entrances 
for  small  vessels,  the  steamships  of  the  great  European 
lines  do  not  come  up  to  St  Louis,  and  passengers,  in  order 
to  meet  them,  are  obliged  to  proceed  by  rail  to  Dakar,  on 
the  other  side  of  Cape  Verd.  Ordinary  vessels  have  often 
to  wait  outside  or  inside  the  bar  for  days  or  weeks  and 
partial  unloading  is  often  necessary.  It  is  proposed  to 
construct  a  pier  opposite  Guet  N'dar.  The  population 
of  St  Louis  was  15,980  in  1876  and  18,924  in  1883. 
Though  founded  in  1662,  the  town  did  not  receive  a 
municipal  government  till  August  1872.     See  Senegal. 

ST  LOUIS,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  chief  city  of 
the  State  of  MLssouri,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  20  miles  below  its  confluence  with  the 
Missouri  river  and  200  miles  above  the  influx  of  the  Ohio, 
in  38'  38'  3"-6  N.  lat.  and  90°  12'  17"  W.  long.  It  is 
distant  by  rivfer  about  1200  miles  from  Nev/  Orleans,  and 
729  from  St  Paul  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  occupies  a  position  near  the  centre  of  the  great 
basin  through  which  the  mingled  flood  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  and  their  extensive  system  of  tributaries  is 
carried  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  site  embraces  a  series  of 
undulations  extending  westwards  with  a  general  direction 
nearly  parallel  to  the  river,  which  at  this  point  makes  a 
wide  curve  to  the  east.  The  extreme  length  in  a  straight 
line  is  17  miles,  the  greatest  width  6 '60  miles,  the  length 
of  river  front  19"15  miles,  and  the  area  (including  con- 
siderable territory  at  present  suburban  in  character)  62J 
square  miles.  'The  elevation  of  the  city  directrix  above 
the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  428  feet,  that  of  the 
highest  point  of  ground  in  the  city  above  the  directrix  is 
203  feet ;  the  extreme  high-water  mark  above  the  directrix 
is  7  feet  7  inches,  and  the  extreme  low-water  mark  below 
the  same  is  33  feet  9J  inches.  The  elevated  site  of  the 
city  prevents  any  serious  interruption  of  business  by  high 
water,  even  in  seasons.of  unusual  floods. 

The  plan  of  the  city  is  rectilinear,  the  ground  being  laid 
out  in  blocks  about  300  feet  square,  with  the  general  direc- 
tion of  street  lines  north-south  and  east-west.  The  wharf 
or  river  front  is  known  as  the  IiCvee  or  Front  Street,  the 
next  street  west  is  Main  Street,  and  the  next  Second,  and 
thence  the  streets  going  north-south  arc,  with  few  excep- 
tions, in  numerical  order  (Third,  Fourth,  <kc.).  Fifth  Street 
has  recently  been  named  Broadway.  The  east-west  streets 
bear  regular  names  (Chestnut,  Pine,  Washington,  Franklin, 
and  the  like).  Market  Street  is  regarded  as  the  middle  of 
the  city,  and  the  numbering  on  the  intersecting  streets 
commences  at  that  line,  north  and  south  respectively.  One 
hundred  house  numbers  are  allotted  to  each  block,  and 
the  blocks  follow  in  numerical  order.  The  total  length  of 
paved  streets  in  St  Louis  is  316  miles,  of  unpaved  streets 
and  roads  427,  total  743  miles.  In  the  central  streets, 
subject  to  heavy  traffic,  the  pavement  is  of  granite  blocks  ; 


wood,   asphalt,  and  limestone  blocks  and  Telford  pave- 
ments are  also  used.     There  are  nearly  300  miles  of  mao; 


Fia.  1.— PUu  of  St  Louis  (Central  Part). 


J.  Fonr  Courts. 

2.  City  Hall. 

8.  Exposition  BaildlDg. 

4.  Custom  House. 

6.  Washington  University. 

6,  Court  Houfle. 


7.  Union  DepSt. 

8.  First  Presbyterian  Church. 

9.  Tpmple  of  the  Gates  of  Truth. 

10.  St  Peter  and  Paul  Church. 

11.  I.inddl  Hotel, 

12.  Southern  Hotel. 


adamized  streets,  including  the  roadways  in  the  new  limits. 
The  length  of  paved  alleys- is  about  66  miles.  The  city  has 
an  extensive  sewer  system  (total  length  223  miles),  and, 
owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  residence  and  business  dis- 
tricts above  the  river,  the  drainage  is  admirable.  The 
largest  sewer,  Mill  Creek  (20  feet  wide  and  15  feet  high), 
runs  through  the  middle  of  the  city,  from  west  to  east, 
following  the  course  of  a  stream  that  existed  in  earlier 
days.  The  water-supply  is  derived  from  the  Mississippi ;  the 
water  is  pumped  into  settling  basins  at  BissoU's  Point,  and 
thence  into  the  distributing  pipes,  the  surplus  flowing  to 
the  storage  reservoir  on  Compton  Hill,  which  has  a  capacity 
of  60,000,000  gallons.  The  length  of  water-pipe  is  nearly 
250  miles ;  the  capacity  of  the  low-service  engines  which 
pump  the  water  into  the  settling  basins  is  56,000,000 
gallons  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  that  of  the  high-service 
engines  which  supply  the  distributing  system  70,000,000 
gallons.  The  average  daily  consumption  in  twenty-four 
hours  is  nearly  28,000,000  gallons.  The  works,  which  are 
owned  by  the  city,  cost  over  $6,000,000.    Among  the  more 


184 


8  T      LOUIS 


important  public  buildings  are  the  new  custom-house  and 
post-office,  erected  at  a  cost  of  over  $5,000,000  ;  the  mer- 
chants' exchange,  which  contains  a  grand  hall  221  feet  10 
inches  in  length  by  62  feet  10  inches  in  width  and  GO  feet  in 
height ;  the  court-house,  where  the  civil  courts  hold  their 
sessions  ;  the  four  courts  and  jail,  ia  which  building  aie  the 
headquarters  of  the 'police  department  and  the  chambers 
of  the  criminal  courts  ;  the  cotton  exchange  ;  the  new  ex- 
position and  music-hall  building  on  Olive  Street,  erected 
by  public  subscription ;  and  the  Crow  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts.  The  present  city-hall  is  a  large  but  hardly  orna- 
mental edifice.  The  mercantile  library,  on  Fifth  and 
Locust  Streets,  contains  nearly  65,000  volumes  and  also  a 
valuable  art  collection.  The  public  school  library  in  the 
polytechnic  building  has  about  55,000  volumes.  There 
are  six  handsome  theatres  and  various  other  smaller  places 
of  amusement.  The  public  school  system  of  St  Louis 
includes  the  kindergarten  (for  which  St  Louis  hvs  become 
somewhat  celebrated),  the  grammar-schools  (including  eight 
grades,  of  a  year  each),  and  a  high .  school,  besides  the 
normal  school  and  a  school  for  deaf  mutes.  The  public 
schools  naturally  absorb  much  the  largest  number  of  pupUs ; 
but  the  parochial  schools  and  the  private  schools  gathered 
about  the  Washington  university  are  also  much  frequented. 
The  number  of  pupils  in  1 883-84  was  in  the  normal  'school 
■64,  high  school  783,  grammar-schools  52,280,  total  in  day 
schools  53,127  ;  total  in  day  and  evening  schools  56,366. 
The  total  number  of  public  school  buildings  is  104,  and 
the  value  of  property  used  for  school  purposes  §3,229,148; 
all  the  school  edifices  are  substantial  and  convenient,  and 
many  architecturally  attractii-e.  The  receipts  of  the  public 
school  system  for  1884  were  §941,332,  and  the  total  ex- 
penditure $934,609,  the  amount  paid  to  teachers  being 
§632,873.  Of  parochial  schools  there  are  about  75.  The 
Washington  and  St  Louis  universities  are  old  and  well- 
established  institutions.  There  are  also  the  Mary  Institute 
and  the  manual  training  school,  both  connected  with  Wash- 
ington university,  the  college  of  the  Christian  Brothers, 
convent  seminaries,  and  numerous  medical  colleges.  In 
addition  there  are  art  schools,  singing  and  gymnastic 
societies,  -and  other  similar  organizations  and  establish- 
ments. There  are  published  in  St  Louis  four  daily  news- 
papers in  English  and  four  in  German,  ajid  also  a  nvunber 
of  weakly  publications. 

There  are  16  Baptist  churches,  8  Congregational, 
13  Episcopal,  25  German  Evangelical  and  Lutheran,  6 
Hebrew  congregations,  18  Methodist  Episcopal,  8  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  (South),  25  Presbyterian,  45  Roman 
Catholic,  and  3  Unitarian. '  Many  of  vhe  buildings  are  of 
imposing  proportions,  built  of  stone,  massive  in  character, 
and  ■with  lofty  spires.  The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  buUt 
in  1830,  is  the  oldest  church  now  in  use.  On  the  high 
ground  in  the  central-western  portion  of  the  city  (Stoddard's 
Addition)  wiU  be  found  most  of  the  costly  church  build- 
ings, whilst  in  the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the 
city  there  are  very  few  indeed. 

The  parks  and  squares  of  St  Louis  number  19,  covering 
nearly  2100  acres.  Tower  Grove  Park,  in  the  soiith-western 
suburbs,  containing  about  266  acres,  was  presented  by  Mr 
Henry  Shaw.  The  smaller  parks  are  situated  to  the  east 
of  Grand  Avenue,  and  the  driving  parks  in  the  suburbs, 
■ — O'Falloa  Park  (158  acres)  at  the  northern  extremity 
.-•t  the  city.  Forest  Park  (1372  acres)  west  of  the  central 
!  ortion.  Tower  Grove  in  the  south-west,  and  Carondelet 
1 80  acres)  in  the  south.  In  the  inmiediate  vicinity  of 
Tower  Grove  Park  are  the  Missouri  Botanical  Gardens, 
istablished  by  Mr  Henry  Shaw,  and  containing  the  most 
extensive  botanical  collection  in  the  United  States.  In 
addition  to  the  parks,  the  Fair  Grounds  in  the  north-west 
should  be  mentioned,  where  the  annual  fair  is  held,  and 


where  there  is  a  permanent  zoological  department.  An 
amphitheatre,  capable  of  seating  between  20,000  and 
30,000  spectators,  and  a  race-course  with  a  most  elabo- 
rate grand  stand,  are  among  the  other  features.  There 
are  various  beer-gardens  in  the  city,  largely  frequented  as 
pleasure-resorts.  There  are  about  120  miles  of  street  rail- 
ways in  operation. 

■The  following  table  shows  the  population  of  St  Louis 
at  different  periods  : — 


1799 92S 

1810 1,400 

1820 4,928 

1830...' 5,862 

1840 16,469 

185? 74,439 


1856    125,200 

1866    ;.. 204,327 

1870  (United  States 

census)    310,864 

1880  ■ 350.518 


The  figures  of  the  United  States  census  are  strictly  con- 
fined to  maiiitlpal  limits,  and  do  Hot  include  the  residents 
of  East  St  Louis  and  of  various  suburban  localities,  pro- 
perly a  part  of  the  city  population.  In  1880  the  popula- 
tion (179,520  males,  170,998  females)  was  divided  as 
follows  :— native,  245,505  ;  foreign-born,  105,013.  Of 
the  latter  36,309  came  from  Great  Britain  (28,536  Irish) 
and  54,901  from  Germany.  The  death-rate  per  thousand 
in  1882  was  19'6,  in  1883  it  was  20'4,  and  in  1885 
(poputdt'lon  being  estimated  at  400,000)  it  was  19 '7. 

The  police  force,  including  detectives  and  employes,  numbers 
about  500  men.  The  fire  brigade  numbers  250  men,  with  22  engine- 
houses.  The  city  has  three  public  hospitals,  au  asylum  for  the 
insane,  a  poorhouse,  a  workhouse  for  the  confinement  and  employ- 
ment of  prisoners  charged  with  petty  otTences,  and  a  house  of 
refuM  which  is  a  reformatory  institution  for  juvenile  offenders  and 
for  the  education  of  children  tlirown  upon  the  care  of  the  city  by 
abandonment  or  otherwise.  The  number  of  asylums,  hospitals,  and 
other  institutions  supported  by  private  charity  is  very  large.    . 

Govcrnvunt  and  Finance. — St  Louis  is  not  include.^,  in  any  county 
of  tlie  State,  but  exists  as  a  separate  municipality.  It  was  formerly 
embraced  in  St  Louis  county,  and  was  within  the  jurisdiction  and 
taxing  powei  of  a  city  and  county  government  The  State  con- 
stitution was  revised  in  1875  and  t^'O  yedrs  later  the  separation  of 
the  city  and  the  county  government  was  erT?cted,  the  former  being 
reorganized  under  the  present  charter.  The  city  levies  and  collects 
municipal  and  State  revenues  within  its  limits,  and  manages  its 
own 'aflaii's,^  free  from  all  outside  control,  except  that  of  the  legis- 
lature of  the  State.  The  voters  of  the  city  have  the  right  to  amend 
the  charter  at  intervals  of  two  years  at  a  general  or  special  election, 
• — provided  the  proposed  amendments  have  been  duly  sanctioned 
and  submitted  to 
the  people  by  the 
municipal  assem- 
bly. The  legisla- 
tive power  of  the 
city  is  in  the 
hands  ofacouncil 
and  a  house  of 
delegates,  styled 
collectively  the 
municipal  assem- 
bly. The  council 
is  composed  of 
thirteen  mem- 
bers, elected  for 
four '  years  by 
the  voters  of  the 
city  generally, 
and  the  house  of 
delegates  1.  con- 
sists of  one  mem- 
ber from  each  of 
the  twenty-eight 
wards,  elected  for 
two  yeais.  The 
following  officers 
are  elected  for 
a  term  of  four 
years  ;  —  mayor, 
comptroller,  au- 
ditor, treasurer, 
registrar,  col- 
lector,    recorder 


Fla.  2. — St  Louis  and  environs. 


of  deeds,  inspector  of  weights  and  measures,  sheriff,  coroner,  marshal, 
public  administrator,  president  of  the  board  of  assessors,  and  pre- 


ST     LOUIS 


185 


Bident  of  the  board  of  public  improvementa.  The  elective  officers, 
including  the  members  of  the  board  of  public  improvements,  are 
nominated  by  the  mayor  and  approved  by  the  council,  and  the 
appointments  are  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  of  the 
mayor's  term,  so  as  to  remove  the  distribution  of  municipal  patron- 
age from  the  influences  of  a  general  city  election.  The  power  of 
the  mayor  aud  council  touching  appointments  to  office  and  removals 
is  subject  to  certain  reciprocal  checks. 

The  bonded  debt  of  St  Louis  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  13th 
April  1885,  was  §22,016,000.  This  debt  is  reduced  each  year  by 
the  operation  of  the  sinking  fonil.  The  city  has  no  floating  debt. 
The  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  13th  April  1885,  deducting 
proceeds  of  revenue  bonds  and  special  deposits,  were  §5,659,086,  or 
with  balance  in  treasury  at  opening  of  year  $6,514,877.  The  total 
expenditure  was  35,681,557.  The  city  tax  rate  for  the  year  1SS4 
was  $175  on  the  §100.  During  the  last  few  years  the  rate  of  in- 
terest on  the  bonded  debt  has  been  reduced  from  6  and  7  per  cent 
to  5  per  cent.,  and  more  recently  to  4  per  cent.  Most  of  the  out- 
Btanaing  bonds  are  held  in  England  and  Germany.  All  appropria- 
tions are  rigidly  limited  to  the  available  means,  and  the  increase 
of  the  bonded  debt  is  forbidden  by  law.  In  1860  the  taxable 
valuation  was  $69,846,845,  in  1870  it  was  $147,969,660,  in  1880 
$160,493,000, "■and  in  1885  $207,910,350 

Commerce. — Subjoined  are  a  few  of  the  more  important  facts  ana 
figures  respecting  the  commerce  of  St  Louis.  In  1884  there  were 
6,440,787  tons  of  freight  received  by  rail  and  520,350  by  river, 
making  a  total  of  6,961,137  tons.  In  the  same  year  there  were 
shipped  by  rail  3,611,419  tons  and  by  river  514,910  tons  (total 
4,126,329).  The  total  receipts  of  grain  for  1834,  including  wheat 
reduced  to  flour,  were  52,776,832  bushels,  as  against  51,983,494 
bushels  in  the  previous  year.  During  1884  the  amount  of  flour 
manufactured  was  1,960,737  barrels,  and  the  amount  that  changed 
hands  4,757,079  barrels;  302,534  bales  of  cotton,  19,426  hogsheads 
of  tobacco,  and  118,484,220  ft  of  sugar  were  received;  and  193, 875,479 
lb  of  pork  in  various  forms  were  shipped.  There  are  thirteen  tobacco 
manufactories,  with  a  production  in  1884  of  22,631,104  ft.  In  live 
stock,  lumber,  hides,  wool,  salt,  lead,  and  a  long  list  of  other  com- 
modities the  business  is  large  and  increasing.  Extensive  stock- 
yards are  established  iu  the  northern  part  of  the  city,  and  also  in 
East  St  Louis,  v/here  they  are  known  as  the  nati<Tnal  stock -yards, 
and  cover  a  space  of  over  600  acres.  In  1884  there  were  imported — 
cattle,  450,717  ;  sheep,  380,822  ;  pigs,  1,474,475  ;  horses  and  mules, 
41,870.  The  shipments  in  the  same  year  wer^ — cattle,  315,433  ; 
sheep,  248,545  ;  pigs,  678,874  ;  horses  and  mules,  39,544.  There 
are  twelve  grain  elevators,  with  a  total  capacity  for  bulk  grain  of 
10,950,000  Dushels  and  415,000  sacks.  The  coal  received  during 
the  year  amounted  to  52,349,600  bushels.  The  foreign  value  of 
imports  for  the  yea&  was  $2,586,876,  and  the  collections  at  the 
custom-house  were  $1,463,495. 

Among  the  more  important  manufactures  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  iron  and  steel,  glass,  flour,  sugar,  beer,  bagging,  prepared 
foods,  tobacco,  boots  and  shoes,  furniture,  planed  and  sawed  lumber, 
wire  and  wire-work,  carriages  and  waggons,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  hardware,  agricultural  implements,  &c.  Meat  pack- 
ing is  also  an  important  industry.  The  summary  of  manufactures 
in  the  Unftcd  States  census  of  1830  shows  2924  establishments, 
having  a  cajntal  of  $50,832,885  ;  amount  paid  in  wages  during  the 
year,  $17,743,532  ;  value  of  materials,  $75,379,867  ;  value  of  pro- 
ducts, $114,333,375.  These  figures  ought  probably  to  be  largely 
increased  now  (1886).  In  the  wholesale  grocery  trade  St  Louis  is 
ahrad  of  nearly  all  the  inland  cities  of  the  Union.  There  are  be- 
tween twenty  and  thirty  wholesale  houses,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
the  annual  sales  exceed  $30,000,000.  The  Belcher  sugar-refinery 
is  able  to  turn  out  1200  barrels  a  day.  The  capital  employed  in 
the  wholesale  and  retail  dry  goods  establisliments  is  estimated  at 
between  $10,000,000  and  $12,000,000,  and  the  annual  amount  of 
business  at  $35,000,000  to  $40,000,000.  The  brewing  business  of 
St  Louis  has  had  an  astonishing  development,  and  its  product  is 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  employs  over  $3,000,000  of 
capital,  and  pays  out  in  wages  over  $2,000,000  per  annum.  The 
ale  and  beer  shipments  during  1884  numbered  1,834,545  packages. 
The  brick-making  industry  has  recently  become  important,  and  the 
hard  red  brick  for  building  and  the  fire  brick  produced  in  St  Louis 
are  among  the  best  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  In  1884 
there  were  eighteen  State  banks  and  six  national  banks  rcprescnt- 
ing^-capital  aud  surplus,  $14,742,123  ;  savings  and  time  deposits, 
$9,102,021  ;  current  deposits,  $29,000,691  ;  circulation,  $674,150  ; 
toUl,  $53,518,985.  The  clearings  for  1884  amount  to$785,202,177, 
and  the  balances  to  $125,260,945,  making  a  total  of  $910,463,122. 
Railways. — St  Louis  is  one  of  the  most  important  railroad 
centres  in  the  United  States  ;  the  nineteen  lines  which  run  trains 
into  the  Union  dcpdt  represent  nearly  20,000  miles  of  railway. 
The  Union  passenger  dcpflt,  contiguous  to  the  business  centre  of 
the  city,  is  connected  with  the  bridge  over  tlio  Mississipjii  by  a 
tunnel.  The  buildings  are  of  a  temporary  character,  and  arc  not 
adequate  to  the  enormous  business  transacted;  a  new  deput  of 
imposing  proportioi.a  is  now  in  contemplation.     Over  150  pasnin- 


ger  trains  arrive  and  depart  daily.  The  tunnel  already  referred  to 
commences  a  few  hundred  yarda  east  of  the  Union  deput.  It'has 
double  tracks  throughout  its  length,  which  is  about  1  mile,  and  ia 
supplied  with  electric  lights,  ventilating  shafts,  and  the  best  ap- 
pliances for  safety  and  convenience.  It  is  leased  by  t^  "Wabasn, 
St  Louis,,  and  Pacific  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad  Companies, 
which  are  also  the  lessees  of  the  bridge.  The  bridge  across  the 
Mississippi  river  at  St  Louis  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  struc- 
tures in  the  world  in  character  and  magnitude.  It  consists  of  three 
arches,  the  two  side  spans  being  502  feet  in  the  clear  ?nd  the 
centre  span  520  feet,  and  carries  a  roadway  for  ordinary  traffic  54 
feet  wide  and  below  this  two  lines  of  raiL  The  dimensions  of  the 
abutments  and  piers  are  as  follows  ;— 


Dimensions  at 
foundation. 

Dimensions  at 

top. 

Height 
from  foun- 
dation to 
top  of  M. 

Founda- 
tion below 

extrtmo 
low  water. 

Length. 

Thiclcness. 

Length. 

Thickness 

East  abutment 

East  pier 

West  pier    

West  abutment 

ft. 
S3 
S2 
S2 
94 

ft    in. 
VO    6 
60    0 
43    0 
62     Si 

ft.    in. 
64    Si 
63     0 

63  0 

64  3i 

ft.    In. 
47    0 
24    0 
24     0 
47     6 

ft',    in. 
192    9 
197    li 
172     U 
112     8J 

ft    In. 
93    3 
66    2 
61     21 
13    3| 

The  foundations  of  abutments  and  piers  rest  on  solid  rock.  The 
two  piers  and  the  east  abutment  were  sunk  by  means  of  pneumatic 
caissons.  The  greatest  depth  below  the  surface  at  which  work 
was  done  was  110  feet,  the  air-pressure  in  the  caisson  being  49  lb. 
Each  arch  consists  of  four  equal  ribs  ;  each  rib  is  composed  of  two 
circular  members,  12  feet  apart,  which  are  connected  by  a  single 
system  cf  diagonal  braces.  The  circular  members  consist  of  steel 
tubes,  which  are  12  feet  long  and  18  inches  in  diameter  ;  each  tube 
is  composed  of  6  steel  staves,  varying  in  thickness  between  1^  and 
2^  inches.  These  staves  are  held  together  by  a  steel  envelope, 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  The  tubes  are  joined  together  by  coup_- 
lings,  and  the  end  tubes  are  rigidly  connected  with  wrought-iron 
skewbacks,  which  are  fixed  to  the  masonry  by  lon^  bolts.  The 
arches  were  erected  without  using  any  false  work.  Work  on  the 
bridge  was  commenced  March  1868,  and  it  wasopened  for  traffic  on  4th 
July  1874.  The  total  cost  of  bridge  and  approaches  was  SC, 536, 730l 
The  traffic  across  the  bridge  is  rapidly  developing.  In  1876  the 
gross  earnings  were  $448,447  (loaded  waggons,  45,027  ;  railway 
passengers,  496,686);  in  1884  the  gross  earnings  were  $1,520,483 
(loaded  waggons,  172,730;  railway  passengers,  1,333,360);  a  total  of 
2,225,994  tons  was  carried  ;  and  the  total  number  of  cars  which, 
crossed  the  bridge  was  472,324. 

Histofy. — The  first  permanent  settlement  on  the  site  of  St  Louis 
was  made  in  February  1764.  and  was  in  the  nature  ^f  a  trading 
post,  established  by  Pierre  Laclede  Liguest.  Long  prior  to  this 
event  there  had  been  some  exploration  of  the  vast  regions  of  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  by  Marquette,  Joliet,  La  Salle, 
Hennepin,  and  others  ;  but,  although  a  few  widely  separated  mili- 
tary and  trading  posts  had  been  established,  there  was  no  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  character  and  resources  of  the  countiy.  Laclede's 
expedition  was  nearly  contemporaneous  with  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
1763,  by  which  the  title  of  France  to  the  regions  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  was  practically  extinguished,  Spain  becoming  o\vner  of 
all  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  England  of  all  territory 
east  of  that  river,  excepting  New  Orleans.  The  few  French  forts 
north  of  the  Ohio  were  nominally  surrendered  to  the  English,  in- 
cluding Vincennes,  Cahokia,  Kaskaskia,  and  Fort  de  Chartres  ;  but 
there  was  no  immediate  formal  assertion  of  English  control,  and 
French  sentiments  and  manners  and  customs  remained  undis- 
turbed. In  1771  St  Louis  was  formally  occupied  by  a  small  body 
of  Spanish  troops,  commanded  by  Don  Pedro  Picmas,  and  a  period 
of  somewhat  over  thirty  years  of  Spanish  rule  followed,  during 
which  few  local  events  of  noteworthy  character  occurred.  On  25th 
May  1780— the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi— the  |>ost,  or  village,  was 
attacked  by  Indians,  and  about  thirty  of  the  citizens  wore  killed  ; 
but  the  savages  were  beaten  off"  and  did  not  renew  the  attack.  In 
1800  Spain  ceded  back  to  France  all  her  territory  of  Louisiana,  and 
three  years  later — 30th  April  1803— Franco  ceded  to  the  United 
States  all  her  right,  title,  and  interest  in  the  territory  for  eighty 
million  francs.  At  this  time  St  Louis  and  the  adjacent  districts 
had  a  population  of  not  over  3000,  and  the  total  population  of 
Upper  Louisiana  was  between  8000  and  9000,  including  1300  Negroes. 
There  were  not  over  200  houses  in  the  embryo  city,  which  con- 
sisted mainly  of  two  streets  parallel  to  the  river.  For  fifty  or  sixty 
years  after  the  landing  of  Laclede  the  progress  of  the  town  wm 
necessarily  slow.  In  1810  the  population  was  less  than  1500,  an  i 
in  1830  it  had  not  reached  6000.  From  the  latter  date  progrc* 
became  steady  nnd  rapid,  and  the  real  growth  of  the  city  was  com- 
pressed within  half  a  century.  An  extensive  conflagration  occurred 
in  1849,  which  destroyed  mo-^^t  of  the  business  houses  on  the  I^evea 
and  Main  Street.  During  the  Civil  War  the  commercial  advance 
meut  of  St  Louis  was  seriously  retarded  ;  but  the  city  continued 
to  expand  in  population  owing  to  its.  advantageous  geographical 
position.  (D.  H.  M'A.) 

XXL    —    24, 


Ibb" 


S  A  I    -SAL 


ST  LUCIA,  a  "VVesl  India  island,  discovered  by  Colum- 
bu3  in  1502,  is  situated  in  13°  50'  N.  lat.  and  60°  58' 
W.  long,,  and  has  a  length  of  42  miles  and  a  maximum 
breadth  of  21.  Pigeon  Island,  formerly  an  important 
military  post,  lies  at  its  northern  extremity.  Originally 
inhabited  by  Caribs,  St  Lucia  was  settled  by  the  English 
in  1639,  and,  after  many  alternations  of  English  and 
French  possession,  surrendered  to  the  British  arms  in 
1794.  Sir  John  Moore  was  governor  till  1797.  St  Lucia 
was  subsequently  in  French  possession,  but  was  finally 
restored  to  Great  Britain  in  1803.  The  scenery  consists 
of  mountain,  valley,  and  forest ;  two  cone-shaped  rocks 
rise  out  of  the  sea  to  a  height  of  3000  feet,  and  near  them 
are  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  and  a  solfatara.  The 
island  is  considered  a  good  coaling  station  for  mail-steamers 
and  war-shii)3 ;  there  is  a  good  harbour  on  the  west  coast, 
below  Castries,  the  capital  (population,  5000).  The  total 
population  was  40,532  in  1883,  of  whom  1000  were 
white,  mostly  French.  St  Lucia  forms  part  of  the  genera! 
government  of  the  Windward  TslnnHs  (from  which  Barba- 
dos is  excluded) ;  it  has  a  legislative  council  composed  of 
officials  and  crown  nominees.  The  annual  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure were  £43,026  and  £36,652  respectively  in  1883, 
the  debt  (principally  for  Central  Sugar  Factory)  being 
£32,400.  The  tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared 
was  438,688  ;  the  total  imports  were  valued  at  £191,191 
and  the  exports  (sugar,  7600  tons;  cocoa,  307,120  &)  at 
£213,823.  The  Usine  or  Central  Factory  system  has 
been  established  with  Government  assistance. .       

ST  MALO,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  on  the  English 
Channel,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  estuary  of  the  Ranee,  is 
situated  in  48°  39'  N.  lat,,  51  miles  by  rail  north-north- 
west of  Rennes.  It  is  the  administrative  centre  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine  and  a 
first-class  garrison  town,  surrounded  by  ramparts  of  the 
13th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries,  which  are  strengthened 
with  great  towers  at  the  principal  gites.  The  granite 
island  on  which  St  Malo  stands  communicates  with  the 
mainland  only  on  the  north-east  by  a  causeway  known  as 
the  "  Sillon  "  (furrow),  650  feet  long,  and  at  one  time  only 
46  feet  broad,  though  now  three  times  that  breadth. 
This  causeway  forms  part  of  the  site  of  Rocabey,  an  in- 
dustrial suburb  more  extensive,  though  less  populous,  than 
the  town  itself.  In  the  sea  round  about  lie  other  granite 
rocks,  which  have  been  turned  to  account  in  the  defences 
of  the  coast ;  on  the  islet  of  the  Grand  Bey  is  the  tomb 
(1848)  of  Chateaubriand.  The  rocks  and  beach  in  the 
circuit  of  St  'Malo  are  continually  changing  their  appear- 
ance, owing  to  the  violence  of  the  tides.  Equinoctial 
spring-tides  sometimes  rise  50  feet  above  low-water  level, 
and  during  storms  the  se..  sometimes  washes  over  the 
ramparts.  The  harbour  of  St  Malo  lies  south  of  the  town 
in  the  creek  separating  it  from  the  neighbouring  town  of 
St  Servan.  It  has  a  wet  dock  with  from  20  to  25  feet 
of  water  (30  feet  in  spring-tides),  and  a  mile  of  quays. 
Additional  works  are  projected,  to  make  the  area  of  the 
dock  42  acres  and  the  length  of  quays  1 J  miles.  Among 
French  seaports  St  Malo  stands  twelfth  in  commercial 
impoi-tance,  but  first  in  the  number  of  seamen  on  its 
register.  The  annual  imports  and  exports  together  amount 
to  184,000  tons,  and  3000  tons  of  shipping  are  built 
yearly.  Besides  fitting  out  fishing-boats  for  Newfound- 
land, St  Malo  exports  grain,  colza-seed,  cider,  butter, 
tobacco,  and  various  kinds  of  provisions  to  the  Channel 
Islands,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  regular  steamboat 
service.  The  oasting  vessels  have  a  tonnage  of  about 
30,000.  Communication  between  St  Malo  and  St  Servan 
is  maintained  by  a  revolving  bridge.  St  JIalo  is  largely 
frequented  for  sea-bathing,  but  not  so  much  as  Dinard, 
np  the  opposite  side  of  the  Rauce.     Parame,  to  the  east  of 


S*  Malo,  has  recently  sprung  into  importance.  The  interiof 
of  St  Malo  presents  a  tortuous  maze  of  narrow  streets  and 
of  small  squares  lined  with  high  and  sometimes  quaint 
buildings.  The  old  house  in  which  Duguay-Trouiu  was 
born  deserves  to  be  noted.  Above  all  rises' the  stone  spire 
which  since  1859  terminates  the  central  tower  of  the 
cathedral.  The  castle,  which  defends  the  town  towards 
the  "Sillon,"  is  flanked  with  four  towers,  and  in  the 
centre  rises  the  great  keep,  an  older  and  loftier  structure, 
.hich  was  breached  in  1378  by  the  duke  of  Lancaster. 
St  Malo  has  statues  to  Chateaubriand  and  Duguay-Trouin. 
The  museum  contains  remains  of  the  ship  "La  Petite  Her- 
mine,"  in  which  Jacques  Cartier  sailed  for  the  discovery 
of  Canada ;  and  the  natural  history  museum  possesses  a 
remarkable  collection  of  from  6000  to  7000  European 
birds.  The  population  of  St  Malo  in  1881  was  10,891 
(commune,  11,212). 

In  the  6th  century  the  granite  island  on  which  St  Slalo  now 
stands  was  the  retreat  of  Abbot  Aaron,  who  gave  asylum  in  his 
monastery  to  Malo  (Maclovius  or  Malovius),  a  Cambrian  priest,  ^ho 
came  hither  to  escape  the  episcopal  dignity,  but  afterwards  became 
bishop  of  Aletli  (now  St  Servan)  ;  the  see  was  transferred  to  St 
Malo  only  in  the  12th  century.  Jealous  of  their  independence, 
the  inhabitants  of  St  Malo  played  off  against  each  other  the  dukes 
of  Brittany  and  the  kings  of  France,  who  alternately  sought  to 
bring  them  under  subjection.  During  the  trouble?  of  the  League 
tney  hoped  to  establish  a  republican  government  in  tneir  city,  and 
'^n  the  night  of  11th  March  1590  they  extcnninated  the  royal 
^'arrison  and  imprisoned  their  bishop  and  the  canons.  But  four 
yeai-3  later  they  surrendered  to  Henry  IV.  of  France,  During  the 
following  century  the  maritime  power  of  St  Malo  attained  some 
importance.  In  November  1693  the  English  vainly  bombarded  St 
Malo  for  four  consecutivB  days.  In  July  1695  they  renew.ed  the 
attempt,  but  were  equally  unsuccessful.  The  people  of  St  Malo 
had  in  the  course  of  a- single  war  captured  upwards  of  1500  vessels 
(several  of  them  laden  with  gold  and  other  treasure)  and  burned  a 
considerable  number  more.  Enriched  by  these  successes  and  by  the 
wealth  they  drew  from  Pern,  the  shipowners  Of  the  town  not  only 
supplied  the  king  with  the  means  necessary  for  the  famous  Rio  de 
Janeiro  expedition  conducted  by  Duguay-'Trouin  in  1711,  but  also 
lent  him  £1,200,000  for  carrying  on  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession. In  June  1758  the  Englisli  sent  a  third  expedition  against 
St  Malo  under  the  command  of  Marlborough,  and  inflicted  a  loss 
of  £480,000  in  the  harbour.  But  another  expedition  undertaken 
in  the  following  September  received  a  complete  check.  In  1778 
and  during  the  wars  of  the  empire  the  St  Malo  privateers  resumed 
their  activity.  In  1789  St  Servan  was  separated  from  St  Malo  and 
in  1790  St  Malo  lost  its  bishopric*  During  the  Reign  of  Terror 
the  town  was  the  scene  of  sanguinary  execution*.  Among  the 
celebrities  born  in  St  Malo  are  Jacques  Cartier,  Duguay-Trouin, 
Surcouf  and  Mahe  de  la  Bourdonnais — all  four  of  naval  fame — 
Maupeituis,  Chateaubriand,  the  Abbe  de  Lamennais,  and  Broussais. 

ST  MARTIN,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  (West  Indies), 
part  of  which  (20  square  miles)  belongs  to  France  and 
forms  a  dependency  of  Guadeloupe,  while  the  remainder 
(18  square  miles)  belongs  to  Holland  and  along  with  Saba, 
it'c,,  is  a  dependency  of  Curasao.  Situated  in  18°  N.  lat. 
and  63°  W.  long,,  it  ascends  to  a  height  of  1380  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  has  a  comparatively  small  cultivable  area. 
The  great  saltpans  of  the  Dutch  portion  produced  in  1882 
276,434  tons  of  salt,  and  there  are  similar  saltpans  in  the 
i'rench  portion.  Sugar  and  live-stock  (horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  and  pigs)  are  also  exported.  The  chief 
settlement  and  anchorage  in  the  French  portion  is  Marigot, 
in  the  Dutch  Philippsburg.  The  population  in  1882  was 
7083  (French  portion  3724,  Dutch  3359).  Occupied  by 
French  freebooters  in  1638  and  by  the  Spaniards  between 
1640  and  1648,  St  Martin  was  divided  betwe-n  the  French 
and  Dutch  in  this  latter  year. 

SAINT-MARTIN,  Louis  Claude  de  <1743-1803), 
known  as  "  le  philosophe  inconnu  "  from  the  fact  that  all 
his  works  were  published  under  that  name,  was  born  at 
Amboise  of  a  poor  but  noble  family,  on  the  18th  January 
1743.  By  his  father's  desire  he  tried  first  la-r  and  then 
the  army  as  a  profession.  \\Tiile  in  garrison  at  Bordeaux, 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Martinez  Pasqualis,  a  Portu- 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


187 


gaese  Jew,  who  taught  a  species  of  mysticism  drawn  from 
cabbalistic  oources,  and  endeavoured  to  found  thereon  a 
secres  cult  with  magical  or  theurgical  rites.  In  1771 
Saint-Martin  left  the  army  in  order  to  become  a  social 
preacher  of  mysticism.  His  conversational  powers  made 
him  welcome  in  the  most  aristocratic  and  polished  Parisian 
salons  ;  but  his  missionary  zeal  led  him  to  England,  Italy, 
and  Switzerland,  as  well  as  to  the  chief  towns  of  France. 
At  Strasburg  in  1788  he  met  Charlotte  de  Boecklin,  who 
initiated  him  in  the  writings  of  Jacob  Boehme,  and  at  the 
game  time  inspired  in  his  breast  a  semi-romantic  attach- 
ment. His  later  years  were  devoted  almost  entirely  to  the 
eomposition  of  his  chief  works  and  to  the  translation  of 
those  of  Boehme.  He  died  at  Aunay,  near  Paris,  on  the 
23d  October  1803. 

His  chief  works  dre—Lstlre  A  un  ami  mr  la  RHvlution  Fran^aise  ; 
£elair  sur  Vassociation  humainc ;  De  Vesprit  des  choscs  ;  MinisUre 
de  Vhomme-esprit.  Other  treatises  appeared  in  his  (Euvrcs  post- 
hunus  (1807).  Saint-Martin  regarded  the  French  Revolution  as  a 
sermon  in  action,  if  not  indeed  a  miniature  of  the  last  judgment ; 
its  result  .was  to  he  the  regeneration  of  society  by  a  destruction  of 
its  abuses.  His  ideal  society  was  "a  natural  and  spiritual  theo- 
cracy," in  which  God  would  raise  up  men  of  mark  and  endowment, 
who  would  regard  themselves  strictly  as  "divino  commissioners" 
to  guide  the  people  through  the  crises  of  their  history.  This 
mystical  dictatorship  was  to  rest  entirely  upon  persuasion.  In 
like  manner  all  ecclesiastical  organizatian  was  to  disappear,  giving 
place  to  a  purely  spiritual  Christianity,  the  doctrines  of  which 
•onstitute  a  species  of  theosophy.  Their  philosophical  basis  in 
Saint-Martin  is  the  assertion  of  a  faculty  superior  to  the  reason, 
which  he  calls  the  moral  sense,  and  from  which  we  derive  our 
knowledge  of  God.  In  man,  and  not  elsewhere,  is  to  be  found  ths 
key  to  the  divine  nature.  God  exists  3S  an  eternal  personality, 
and  the  creation  is  an  overflowing  of  the  divine  love,  which  was 
unable  to  contain  itself.  The  human  soul,  the  human  intellect  or 
fipirit,  the  spirit  of  the  universe,  and  the  elements  or  matter  are 
the  four  stages  of  this  divine  emanation,  man  being  the  immediate 
peflexion  of  God,  and  nature  in  turn  a  reflexion  of  man.  Man, 
however,  has  fallen  from  his  high  estate,  and  matter  is  one  of  the 
aonsequences  of  his  fall.  But  the  divine  love,  united  to  humanity 
in  Christ,  will  work  the  final  regeneration  or  restoration  of  all  things. 

Comp.  Gence,  Noiice  biographique  (1824) ;  Caro,  Essai  surla  vie  el  Irs  doctrines 
de  Saitit-MtirliH  (1852) ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Gauseries  de  Lundi,  vol.  x.  p.  190  ;  Matter, 
Sai^^t■^Tartin,  U  philosophy  inconnu  (1862) ;  Franck,  La  philosophic  viystiqy,e  eit 
fntJice  &  la  fin  du  dix-huiti^me  siieU  (1866X 

ST  MAUR-SUR-LOIRE,  foundbd  by  St  Maurus  (see 
Maurus),  was  the  first  Benedictine  monastery  in  Gaul. 
It  was  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire  about  15 
Bii!-33  below  Saumur.  About  the  middle  of  the  9th  century 
it  was  reduced  to  ruins  by  the  Normans  ;  shortly  before 
the  event  and  in  anticipation  of  it  the  relics  of  the  saint 
were  transferred  to  St  Maur-les-Foss^s  near  Paris.  St 
Maur-sur-Loire  was  afterwards  restored  and  fortified,  but 
the  only  extant  remains  consist  of  a  part  of  the  church 
and  a  few  shattered  columns. 

ST  MICHAEL'S.     See  Azores,  vol.  iii.  p.  17L 

ST  NAZAIRE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 

Loire  Inferieure,  and  a  port  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire 
near  its  mouth.  It  has  rapidly  grown  since  the  new  docks 
rendered  it  the  outport  or  detached  harbour  of  Nantes 
(j.t).),  from  which  it  is  distant  29  miles  west-north-west 
by  water  and  40  by  rail.  Begun  in  1845  and  0]iened  in 
1857,  the  first  basin  has  an  area  of  26  acres  and  1  mile  of 
quays ;  and  the  depth  varies  from  20  to  25  feet.  To  the 
north  of  the  first  basin  a  new  dock  (Pehhouet),  5G  acres 
in  extent  and  with  \\  miles  of  quay,  was  constructed  be- 
tween 1864  and  1881,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £1,000,000.  It 
communicates  with  the  older  basin  by  a  pas.sage  82  feet 
wide  and  673  long.  The  harbotir  can  admit  vessels  of  23 
feet  draught  at  every  tide,  the  depth  of  water  on  the  sill 
varying  from  26  to  30  feet  at  high  tide,  and  never  being 
less  than  13.  The  town  is  the  terminus  of  t!ie  General 
Tran-satlantic  Company,  whose  steamers  concct  France 
w:th  Mexico,  the  Antilles,  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  total  imports  and  exports  amount  to  about  1,600,000 
tons  annually,  valued  at  £24,000,000.     The  staple  articles 


imported  are  coals  from  Great  Britain  (500,000  tons), 
grain,  sugar,  cofiee,  rice,  timber  (from  the  North),  phos- 
phates, and  guano.  Pit-props,  salt,  and  preserved  foods 
are  exported.  The  town  being  of  recent  origin^  its  indus- 
tries are  only  in  process  of  development ;  but  it  already 
contains  shipbuilding  yards,  large  ironworks,  artificial  fuel 
factories,  sawmills,  a  flour-mill,  and  extensive  commercial 
warehouses.  There  are  no  edifices  of  historical  or  architect- 
ural note  with  the  exception  of  a  granite  dolmen,  IC  feet 
long  and  5  broad,  resting  horizontally  on  two  other  stones 
sunk  in  the  soil,  above  which  they  rise  6i  feet.  The 
population  was  16,314  in  ISSl  (19,fj26  in  the  commune). 

According  to  cei-tain  remains  discovered  on  excavating  the  docks, 
St  Nazaire  se«ms  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Corbilo,  placed 
by  Strabo  among  the  more  important  maritime  towns  of  Gaul,  and 
probably  founded  by  the  Phoenicians.  It  was  in  the  harbour  of 
Corbilo  that  Crassus  by  Ca?sar's  order  built  the  fleet  by  which,  in 
56  B.C.,  Brutus  routed  the  220  vessels  of  the  Venetian  insurgents. 
At  the  close  of  the  4th  century  the  site  of  Corbilo  was  occupied  by 
Saxons,  and,  their  conversion  to  Christianity  being  effected  one  or 
two  hundred  years  later  by  St  Felix  of  Nantes,  the  place  took  the 
name  of  St  Nazaire.  It  was  still  only  a  little  "  bourg  "  of  SOOO 
inhabitants  when  it  was  chosen  as  the  site  of  the  new  harbour  for 
Nantes,  because  the  ascent  of  the  Loire  was  becoming  more  and 
more  diificult.  In  1868  the  sub -prefecture  was  transferred  to  S: 
Nazaire  from  Savenay. 

ST  NICOLAS,  a  towp  of  Belgium,  in  the  district 
of  Dendermonde,  in  the  province. of  East  Flanders,  19J 
miles  from  Ghent  by  the  railway  to  Antwerp.  It  is  a 
well-built,  modem -looking  place,  with  a  very  spacious 
market-place,  famous  as  the  spot  where  Philip  the  Fail 
swore  in  1497  to  maintain  the  privileges  of  Waeslaud,  of 
which  St  Nicolas  was  the  capital.  From  a  comparatively 
small  village,  with  only  5000  inhabitants  in  1661,  it  has 
grown  into  a  large  manufacturing  centre,  with  wool  and 
cotton  mills,  needle-factories,  kc,  and  a  population  (in 
1876)  of  24,729.  The  more  conspicuous  buildings  are 
the  town-hall  and  two  of  the  churches. 

ST  OMER,  a  town  and  fortress  of  France,  chef-lieu  o 
the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  situated  on  the  Aa  (which 
flows  into  the  North  Sea),  177  miles  north  of  Paris  by  the 
railway  to  Arras,  Hazebrouck,  and  Calais,  at  the  junction 
of  a  line  to  Boulogne.  Before  the  modifications  made  in 
the  defensive  system  of  the  frontier  the  place  was  a  for^'jess 
of  the  first  class.  At  St  Omer  begins  the  canalized  portion 
of  the  Aa,  which  reaches  the  sea  at  Gravelines,  and  under 
its  walls  it  connects  with  the  Neuft'oss6,  which  ends  at.  the 
Lys.  There  are  two  harbours  outside  and  one  within  the 
city.  St  Omer  has  wide  streets  and  spacious  squares,  but 
little  stir  of  life.  The  old  cathedral  is  the  most  curious 
church  in  Artois;  it  belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  13tb, 
14th,  and  15th  centuries.  Of  its  four  portals  the  finest, 
dating  from  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  was  decorated 
with  statuettes,  unfortunately  mutilated  during  the  Revolu- 
tion. In  spite  of  the  spoliations  of  the  18th  century,  the 
contents  of  the  church  still  comprise  interesting  paintings, 
a  Virgin  in  wood  of  the  12th  century  (the  object  of  numer- 
ous pilgrimages,  and  solemnly  crowned  in  1875),  a  colossal 
statue  of  Christ  seated  between  the  Vi.-giu  and  St  John 
(13th  century,,  originally  belonging  to  the  cathedral  of 
Thdrouanno  and  presented  by  Charlco  V.),  fine  stained  glass 
and  mosaics,  interesting  tombstones,  the  cenotaph  of  St 
Omer,  and  numerous  ex-votos,  distinguished  by  their  an- 
tiquity, originality,  and  delicacy  of  workmanship.  The 
clearing  of  the  church  from  the  encroachments  of  other 
buildings  has  led  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  apsidal  chapel 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  the  j)urcst  Gothic  style.  Ot  St 
Berlin,  the  church  of  the  abbey  (built  between  1326  and 
1520  on  the  site  of  ;ircviou3  churches),  where  Childeric  HI. 
retired  to  end  his  days,  notliing  now  remains  but  some 
arches  and  a  tower,  190  feet  high,  which  serves  to  adorn 
the  public  gardens  (once  possessed  by  the  monks).    Several 


lyd 


S  A  1  — IS  A  i 


other  churches  .t  convent  chapels  are  of  interest,  but  it  is 
enougli  to  menl'.on  St  Sepulchre's  (14th  century)  for  the 
sake  01  its  beautiful  stone  spire  and  stained-glass  windows. 
A  fine  collection  of  records,  a  picture  gallery,  and  a  theatre 
4fo  all  accommodated  in  the  towu-hall,  built  of  the  materials 
of  the  abbey  of  St  Berlin.  Among  the  five  hospitals  the 
military  hospital  is  of  note  as  occupying  the  college  opened 
by  the  English  Jesuits  in  1592  and  known  as  the  place 
where  O'Connell  received  his  education.  The  old  episcopal 
palace  is  used  as  a  court-house.  Several  learned  societies 
uxist  in  the  town ;  the  public  library  conto.ins  20,000 
volumes  and  1000  MSS.  The  arsenal  is  an  extensive  series 
of  buildings.  Besides  30,000,000  to  40,000,000  tobacco- 
pipes  exported  to  America  and  the  colonies,  St  Omer 
manufactures  cloth,  hosiery,  and  tulle,  cambric,  and  musiin 
embroideries.  Its  trade  (and  it  is  the  seat  not  only  of  a 
tribunal  but  also  of  a  chamber  of  commerce)  is  mainly  m 
provisions  for  England,  the  products  of  the  local  industry, 
and  those  of  the  paper-mills,  fiour-miUs,  distilleries,  and 
sugar-factories  in  the  vicinity,  especially  along  the  banks  of 
the  Aa.  The  suburb  of  Haut  Pont  to  the  north  of  St 
Omer  is  inhabited  by  a  special  stock,  which  has  remained 
faithful  to  the  Flemish  tongue,  its  original  costume,  and 
its  peculiar  customs,  and  is  distinguished  by  honesty  and 
industry.  The  ground  which  these  people  cultivate  has 
been  reclaimed  from  the  marsh,  and  the  legres  (i.e.,  the 
square  blocks  of  land)  communicate  with  each  other  only 
by  boats  floated  on  the  ditches  and  canals  that  divide  them. 
At  the  end  <5f  the  marsh,  on  the  borders  of  the  forest  of 
Clainnarais,  are  the  ruins  of  the  abbey  founded  in  1140  by 
Thierri  dAlsace,  to  which  Thomas  a  Becket  betook  hi-nself 
in  1165.  To  the  south  of  St  Omer  on  a  hill  commanding 
the  Aa  lies  the  camp  of  Helfaut,  often  called  the  camp  of 
St  Omer.  On  15th 'June  1884  a  statue  was  erected  to 
Jacqueline  Robin,  a  heroine  who  in  the  time  of  Louis  Xr\''. 
saved  St  Omer  from  foreign  occupation.  The  population 
of  the  town  was  20,479  in  1881  (21,556  in  the  commune). 

Near  a  castle  named  Sithio,  Omer,  bishop  of  Th^rouannc,  erected 
i-hurches  and  tho  monks  of  Luxeuil  established  monasteries  in  the 
7th  century  ;  and  in  the  9th  century  the  vilKi^c  tuns  originated 
took  the  name  of  ita  founder  St  Omer.  The  Normans  laid  the 
place  waste  in  861  and  881,  but  ten  years  later  found  town  and 
monastery  surrounded  by  walls  and  safe  from  their  attack.  Situ- 
ated on  the  borders  of  tejritories  frequently  disputed  by  French, 
Flemish,  English,  and  Spaniards,  St  Omer  long  continued  subject 
to  siege  and  military  disaster.  In  1071  Philip  I.  put  all  to  sword 
and  ilame.  Burned  in  1136,  captured  in  1198  by  Richard  and 
Baldwin  IX.,  attacked  in  1211  by  Ferrand  of  Portugal,  in  1302 
and  1303  by  the  Flemish,  in  1337  and  1339  by  the  English,  and 
in  1477  by  Louis  XL.  St  Omer  at  last  fell  in  1*487  into  tho  hands 
of  Charles  VIII.  Two  years  later  it  was  recovered  by  the  arch- 
duke Maximilian  ;  and  Charles  V.  strengthened  its  ramparts  with 
bastions.  The  French.made  five  futile  attempts  against  it  betwe*^u 
1551  and  1596,  and  had  no  better  success  in  1638  (under  Richelieu) 
or  in  1647.  But  on  26th  April  1677,  after  seventeen  days'  siege, 
Louia  XIV.  forced  the  town  to  capitulate ;  and  the  peace  of 
Nimeguen  permanently  confirmed  the  conquest.  From  time  to 
time  the  people  of  St  Omer  (Audomarois)  still  celebrate  the  entrance 
into  the  town  of  William  Cliton,  couut  of  Flanders,  from  whom  in 
1127  they  obtained  a  communal  charter  granting  them  numerous 
privileges.     St  Omer  ce.'ised  to  be  a  bishopric  in  1790. 

SAINTONGE  [Santonia,  Santonensis  tractws),  an  dd 
province  of  France,  of  which  Satntes  (q.v.)  was  tho  capital, 
was  bounded  on  the  N.W.  by  AunLs,  on  the  N.E.  by 
Poitou,  on  the  E.  by  Angoumois,  on  the  S.  by  Guienne,  and 
on  the  W.  by  Guienne  and  the  Atlantic.  It  now  forms  a 
small  portion  of  the  department  of  Charente  and  the 
greater  part  of  that  of  Charente  Inferieure. 

ST  OUEN,  an  industrial  district  in  the  outskirts  of 
Paris,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  1  mile  above  St  Denis. ' 
It  had  17,718  inhabitants  in  1881.  The  docks  (6  acres  in 
a.'-ea),  where  the  boats  from  the  lower  Seine  discharge, 
arc  connected  by  rail  with  the  Northern  and  Eastern  lines 
at  Paris  and  with  the  circular  railway  near  Batignolles. 


TSie  importance  of  Si  Cuen  is  mainly  due  to  its  indusirial 
establishments, — foundries  and  forges,  steam-engine  fac- 
tories, dyeworks,  waxcloth  works,  potteries,  &c. ;  it  has  also 
the  steam-pumps  for  supplying  the  upper  quarters  of  Pari ) 
with  water  from  the  river,  a  racecourse,  and  a  fine  castle, 
occupying  the  site  of  the  building  in  which  Louis  XVHL 
signed  (2d  May  1814)  the  declaration  by  which  he  pro- 
mised a  charter  to  France. 

ST  PAUL,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  second  city  of 
Minnesota,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  capital  of  the  State  aad 
of  Ramsey  county,  is  situated  in  44°  52'  46"  N.  lat.  and 
93°  5'  W.  long.,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  2150  miles  from 
its  mouth,  10  below  the  falls  of  St  Anthony,  the.  natural 
head  of  navigation,  and  360  north-west  of  Chicago.  The 
grotmd  on  which  the  city  is  built  rises  from  the  river  in 
a  series  of  terraces,  the  ascent  being  in  many  places  pre- 
cipitous and  not  easHy  adapted  to  urban  uses.  The  citj 
is  mainly  confined  to  the  second  and  third  terraces,  but  ia 
gradually  spreading  over  the  elevated  plateau  beyond.  The 
difficulties  of  the  situation  have  much  increased  the  cost  of 
erecting  large  business  structures,  circumscribed  the  busi- 
ness quarter,  and  impeded  the  railway  companies  in  secur- 
ing convenient  and  adequate  facilities.  The  city  site  is 
underlaid  with  a  thick  stratum  of  bluish  limestone,  which 
comes  near  the  surface,  and  which,  while  it  renders  excava- 
tion expensive,  furnishes  unlimited  supplies  of  building 
material  of  a  fair  quality.  The  streets  of  the  older  portions 
are  uncomfortably  narrow,  but  the  newer  streets  are  better 


1.  state  Capi-.ol. 

2.  U.S.  Custora-Houseand 

Post-Office. 


Plan  of  St  Paul. 

13.  City-Halt 
4.  City  Market. 
5.  Opcra-House. 


6.  Chamber  of  Commerce- 

7.  Bice  Park. 

8.  Smith  Park. 


laid  out.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  State  capitol 
(built  in  1882),  the  United  States  custom-house  and  postr 
office,  the  city-hall,  and  the  city-market.  A  handsome  opera- 
house  and  a  chamber  of  commerce  building  are  conspicuous 
features.  In  1885  there  were  seventy-one  church  organiza- 
tions,— 9  Episcopal,  7  Presbyterian,  4  Congregational,  12 
Methodist,  12  Lutheran,  2  Jewish,  7  Baptist,  11  Roman 
Catholic,  1  Unitarian,  4  Evangelical,  1  Swedenborgian, 
and  1  Disciples  of  Christ.  Besides  the  charitable  institn- 
tions  .connected  with  the  church  organizations  there  are 
an  orphan  asylum,  a  home  for  the  friendless,  a  Swedish 
hospital,  a  women's  Christian  home,  and  a  Magdalen  home. 
Of  periodical  publications  there  were  issued  in  1885  5 
dailies,  17  weeklies,  and  7  monthlies.  The  city  has  (1886) 
eleven  banks,  of  which  sis  are  national  with  an  aggregate 
paid-up  capital  of  $5,200,000,  and  five  State  institutions 
with  a  paid-up  capital  of  §1,150,000.  St  Paul  is  an  im- 
portant railway  centre,  dividing  with  Minneapolis  the  ter- 
minal and  distributing  business  of  no  less  than  fifteen  Unes 
owned  by  six  different  corporations  and  having  an  aggre- 
gate length  of  15,818  miles.  The  navigation  of  tho  upper 
Mississippi  acts  as  a  check  upon  the  rates  charged  by  the 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


189 


ailway  companies.  The  traffic  at  the  port  of  St  Paul  in 
1884  was — tons  landed,  45,800;  tons  shipped,  13,300; 
passengers  camied,  34,625.  Two  lines  of  steamers  ply 
between  St  Paul  and  St'  Louis  and  intermediate  points. 
rhe  average  season  of  navigation  lasts  six  and  a  half 
months.  The  city  has  within  its  corporate  limits,  but  re- 
moved some  miles  from  the  city  proper,  two  colleges — 
Macalester  (Presbyterian)  and  Hamline  (Methodist) — both 
jnly  partially  endowed  or  supplied  with  buildings.  There 
ire  twenty-two  public  school  buildings,  built  at  an  aggre- 
gate cost  of  $663,000.  There  are  also  several  academies  and 
seminaries  under  private  or  denominational  management. 
The  public  park  system  of  St  Paul  is  as  yet  undeveloped, 
but  an  area  of  250  acres  has  been  secured  near  Lake  Como 
to  be  laid  out  as  pleasure-grounds.  Rice  Park  and  Smith 
Park  are  public  squares  in  the  central  portion  of  the  city, 
tastefully  adorned  with  walks  and  shrubbery.  Tie  popula- 
tion of  St  Paul,  according  to  the  United  States  census,  was 
840  in  1850,  10,600  in  1860,  20,300  in  1S70,  and  41,473 
io  1880  (males  22,483,  females  18,990).  According  to 
the  State  census,  it  was  111, 334  in  1885. 

_  St  Paul  is  a  comir^rcial  rather  than  a  manufacturing  city.  The 
Jobbing  trade  for  the  year  1884  reached  a  total  of  about  $65,000,000, 
an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  in  four  years.  In  the  same  year  manu- 
tctures  valued  at  $20,000,000  were  produced,  the  principal  items 
being  agricultural  implements,  boots  and  shoes,  machinery,  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  waggons  and  carriages.  There  is  a  large  flour- 
mill,  capable  of  producing  700  barrels  daily.  The  lack  of  water- 
jiower  and  the  high  cost  of  fuel  are  drawbacks  to  the  growth  of 
Manufactures,  The  main  thoroughfares  have  recently  been  paved, 
for  the  most  part  with  blocks  of  white  cedar,  and  stone  sidewalks 
are  rapidly  replacing  wooden  ones.  The  water-supply  is  obtained 
from  a  group  of  small  lakes  lying  north  of  the  city  limits,  and  the 
works  are  owned  and  managed  by  the  city.  The  drainage  is 
excellent.  For  governmental  purposes  the  city  consists  of  eight 
wards,  each  of  which  elects  three  members  of  council.  The  chief  of 
police  and  all  subordinate  members  of  the  force  are  appointed  by 
Ihfi  mayor,  who  is  elected  by  popular  vote  in  May  of  each  alternate 
year,  ^  The  aggregate  assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal  pro- 
perty in  St  Paul  was  $60,463,000  in  1884.  The  total  bonded  debt 
tf  the  city  on  31st  March  18S5  was  ofBoially  stated  at  $3,027,141. 

The  first  settlement  on  the  site  of  St  Paid  was  in  1838,  when  an 
■nimportant  trading-post  was  established  there  by  adventurers. 
In  1841  a  Jesuit  missionary  built  a  log  chapel  end  dedicated  it  to 
St  Paul  (whence  the  name  of  the  hamlet).  The  site  of  the  future 
tity  was  surveved  and  laid  out  in  1849-50.  About  this  time  (1851) 
the  Sioux  Indians  ceded  to  the  United  States  all  lands  held  by 
them  between  the  Mississippi  and  Big  Sioui  rivers.  Prior  to  this 
•ession  the  whito  population  in  the  then  Territory  of  Minnesota 
kad  not  reached  a  total  of  6000,  but  the  removal  of  the  aborigines 
was  promptly  followed  by  a  notable  influx  of  white  settlers.  With 
•  population  of  some  2800  in  1854  the  town  obtained  a  fully  organ- 
i«ed  city  government.  Upon  the  admission  of  Minnesota  to  the 
Union  in  1858  St  Paul  was  designated  as  the  capital.  The  city 
was  originally  confined  to  the  east  bank  of  the  river,  but  in  1874 
by  popular  vote  a  portion  of  Dakota  county  was  transferred  to 
Ramsey  county,  and  West  St  Paul  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Missis- 
•ippi,  then  containing  some  3000  inhabitants,  became  a  part  of  St 
Paul  proper.  In  1834  an  Act  of  the  State  legislature  extended  the 
pographical  boundaries  of  the  city  so  as  to  embrace  all  territory 
K  Ramsey  county  westward  to  the  line  of  Hennepin  county,  and 
virtually  to  the  corporate  limits  of  tho  "sister"  city  Minneapolis, 
W  miles  distant 

ST  PAUL,  a  remarkable  volcanic  island  which,  along 
with  the  island  of  Now  Amsterdam,  is  situated  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  about  midway  between  Africa  and  Australia, 
a  little  to  the  north  of  the  ordinary  route  of  the  steamers 
kom  Plymouth  (via  Cape  Town)  to  Adelaide.  Its  exact 
position  as  determined  by  the  Transit  of  Venus  Expedition 
ia  1874  is  38°  42'  50"  S.  Lat.  and  77°  32'  29"  E,  Long. 
Though  the  distance  between  the  two  islands  St  Paul  and 
Ifew  Amsterdam  is  only  50  miles,  they  belong  to  two 
separate  eruptive  areas  characterized  by  quite  different 
products ;  and  the  comparative  bareness  of  St  Paul  is  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  dense  vegetation  of  New  Amster- 
dam. St  Paul  is  1 J  miles  long  from  north-west  to  south- 
east and  its  coast-line  is  estimated  at  5  nautical  miles.  In 
abap©  it  is  almost  an  isosceles  triangle  with  a  circle  inscribed 


tangentially  to  the  north-east  side, — the  circle  (3940  feet  in 
diameter)  being  the  volcanic  crater  which  previous  to  1780 
formed  an  inland  lake,  but  which,  since  the  sea  broke  down 
its  eastern  barrier,  has  become  practically  a  land-locked  bay 
entered  by  a  narrow  but  gradually  widening  passage  not 
quite  6  feet  deep.  The  highest  ridge  of  the  island  is  not 
more  than  820  feet  above  the  sea.  On  the  south-west  side 
the  coasts  are  Inaccessible.  According  to  M.  V^lain,  the 
island  originally  rose  above  the  ocean  as  a  mass  of  rhyoUthic 
trachyte  similar  to  that  which  still  forms  the  Nine  Pin 
rock  to  the  north  of  the  entrance  to  the  crater.  Next 
followed  a  period  of  activity  in  which  basic  rocks  were 
produced  by  submarine  eruptions — lavas  and  scoriae  of 
anorthitic  character,  palagonitic  tuffs,  and  basaltic  ashes ; 
and  finally  from  the  crater,  which  must  have  been  a  vast 
lake  of  fire  like  those  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  poured 
forth  quiet  streams  of  basaltic  lavas.  The  island  has  been 
rapidly  cooling  down  in  historic  times.  Dr  GiUian  (Lord 
Macartney's  visit,  1793)  mentions  spots  still  too  warm  to 
iv^ilx  on  where  no  trace  of  heat  is  now  perceptible ;  and 
the  remarkable  zone  of  hot  subsoil  extending  westwards 
from  the  crater  has  lost  most  of  the  more  striking  char- 
acteristics recorded  by  Hochstetter  in  1857,  though  it  ia 
still  easily  distinguished  by  its  warmth-loving  vegetation, 
— Sphagnum  laeteolnm  and  Lycopodinm  cernuum. 

The  general  flora  of  the  island  is  exceedingly  meagre;  If  we 
leave  out  of  view  the  potato,  carrot,  parsley,  cabbage,  &c.,  intro- 
duced by  temporary  inhabitants,  the  list  comprises  Umbdli/ers, 

1  ;  ComposUiB,  2  ;  Plantuginacese,  2  ;  Cyperacesi,   2  ;  Gramijiacea, 

2  ;  Lycopodiacem,  1  ;  ferns,  2  ;  and  from  35  to  40  species  of  mosses 
and  lichens.  The  only  pl.ants  really  abundant  are  an  Isolepsu 
nodosa  {Cyperacem)  and  one  or  two  grasses.  None  of  the  trees 
(oak,  apple,  mnlberry,  pine,  &c, )  introduced  at  diff'erent  periods 
have  succeeded.  The  cabbage,  nuich  grows  pretty  freely  i-,  some 
parts,  shows  a  tendency  to  become  like  the  Jersey  variety.  The 
pigs  mentioned  by  Hochstetter  have  died  out  ;  but  goats,  cats, 
rats,  and  mice  continue  to  flourish, — <he  cats,  which  feed  mainly  on 
birds  and  fish,  living  in  apparent  amity  and  in  the  same  holes  with 
the  rats.  House-flies,  bluebottles,  slaters,  &c.,  literally  swarm. 
But  nothing  is  so  characteristic  of  St-Paul  as  the  multitude  of  its 
sea-fowl,— albatrosses,  petrels  of  many  kinds,  pufiins,  penguins,  &c. 
The  neighbouring  waters  teem  with  life,  and,  while  the  various 
genera  of  the  seal  family  are  no  longer  a  source  of  wealth,  a  number 
of  vessels  (50  to  SO  tons)  from  the  Mascarene  Islands  still  yearly 
carry  on  the  fisheries  off  the  coasts,  where  Cheilodaclylua  fascialus 
(in  shoals),  Latris  hccatcia  (cabot  or poisson  de.  fond),  and  Mendosoma 
elongatum  afford  a  rich  h.irvest.  Tho  stories  told  about  gigantic 
sea  creatures  were  curiously  confirmed  by  the  Venus  Expedition 
finding  on  the  shore  a  Cephalopod  (since  named  Mouchezis  sancti 
pauli)  which  measured  upwards  of  22  feet  from  the  end  of  its  body 
to  the  tip  of  its  longest  arm. 

The  island  now  known  as  New  Amsterdam  was  probably  that 
sighted  on  18th  March  1522  by  the  companions  of  JIagel'lan  as 
they  sailed  back  to  Europe  under  the  command  of  Sebastian  del 
Cano;  and  in  1617  the  Dutch  ship  "Zeewolf  flom  Texel  to 
Bantam  discovered  the  island  which,  instead  of  the  name  "Zccwolf" 
then  bestowed  on  it,  soon  after  began  to  be  called  on  the  charts  St 
Paul,  The  designation  "  New  Amsterdam  "  is  derived  from  tho 
vessel  in  which  Van  Diemen  sailed  between  the  islands  in  1633, 
The  first  navigator  to  set  foot  on  St  Paul  was  Willem  van  Vlaming 
in  1696,  Lord  Macartney  spent  a  day  exploring  it  in  1793,  his 
guide  being  a  marooned  Frenchman,  Captain  P^ron,  whose  narrative 
of  his  sojourn  from  1st  .September  1792  to  16th  December  1795  is 
a  document  of  great  value  {^itimoiTcs  du  Capitaine  Piron,  vol.  i., 
Paris,  1824).  In  1843  the  governor  of  Reunion  took  possession  of 
tho  islands  with  a  detachment  of  marines, — seal-catcliing  and  the 
fisheries  having  attracted  to  them  a  considerable  floating  popula- 
tion.  In  June  1871  the  British  frigate  "  Jlegmra"  was  wrecked  at 
the  mouth  of  the  crater  and  most  of  the  400  souls  on  board  had  to 
reside  on  the  island  for  upwards  of  three  months.  Landing  on 
23rd  September  1874,  a  French  Transit  of  Venus  expedition 
remained  on  St  Paul  till  8th  January  1875,  and  a  visit  of  much 
importance  was  paid  to  New  Amsterdam. 

S^-o  Vt-lain,  I>*:ripf(on  gi^.  de  la  prft'jH'Ut  d Aden,  deiMesAi  Vi  iUunion,  de  St 
Paul,  kc.  (ParN,  167S),  arid  his  pajjera  Id  Archives  de  In  toologU  txverimentalr. 
1S77,  and  in  Comptrj  Rendus,  Acad,  da  £c.,  1S75 ;  Sauvage  oa  tho  flstioa  ia  Arch. 
Zool.  Krp.,  1870-60. 

ST  PAUL  DE  LOANDA.     See  Loa.\t.a. 

ST  PAUL'S  PiOCKS,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
island  of  St  Paul  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  are  a  number  of  small 
islands  in  tho  Atlantic,  nearly  1'  north  of  tho  equator  and 


190 


»  A  i  —  S  A  1 


540  miles  from  South  America,  in  29°  15'  W.  long.  Their 
outline  is  irregular,  and  as  they  are  only  separated  by 
narrow  but  deep  chasms  they  have  the  appearance  of  being 
one  island.  The  whole  space  occupied  does  not  exceed  1400 
feet  in  length  by  about  half  as  much  in  breadth.  Besides 
sea-fowl — two  species  of  noddy  (Anous  slolidus  and  Anous 
melanogenys)  and  a  booby  or  gannet  {Sula  Uucogaster) — 
the  only  terrestrial  inhabitants  are  insects  aT>d  spiders. 
Fish  are  abundant,  seven  species  (one,  Holocenirtim  sancti 
pauli,  peculiar  to  the  locality)  being  collected  by  the 
"  Challenger  "  during  a  brief  stay.  Darwin  (On  Volcanic 
Islands,  p.  32)  decided  that  St  Paul's  Eocks  were  not 
of  volcanic  origin ;  more  modern  investigators — Renard, 
A,  Geikie,  and  Wadsworth — maintain  that  they  probably 
are  eruptive.  See  Keporls  of  the  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Chal- 
lenger :  Narrative  of  the  Cruise,  vol.  i. 

ST  PETER  PORT,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Guernsey 
(ij.v.) ;  its  population  was  16,658  in  1881. 

ST  PETERSBURG,  a  government  of  north-western 
Russia,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  stretching 
along  its  south-eastern  shore  and  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Ladoga.  It  is  bounded  by  Fiidand  and  Olonetz  on 
the  K.,  Novgorod  and  Pskoff  on  the  E.  and  S.,  Esthonia 
and  Livonia  on  the  W.,  and  has  an  area  of  20,750  square 
mUes.  It  is  hilly  only  on  its  Finland  border,  the  re- 
mainder being  flat  and  covered  with  marshy  forests,  with 
the  exception  of  a  plateau  of  about  350  feet  high  in  the 
south,  the  Daderhof  hilli  at  Krasnoye  Selo  reaching  550 
feet.  A  great  number  of  parallel  ridges  of  glacier  origin 
intersect  the  government  towards  Lake  Peipus  and  north- 
wards of  the  Neva.  Silurian  and  Devonian  rocks  appear 
In  the  south,  the  whole  covered  by  a  thick  glacial  deposit 
with  boulders  (bottom  moraine)  ^nd  by  thick  alluvial  de- 
posits in  the  valley  of  the  Ne\-a.  The  government  skirts 
,the  Gulf  of  Finland  for  130  miles.  The  bays  of  Cronstadt, 
Koporye,  Luga,  and  Narva  afford  good  anchorage,  but  the 
coast  is  for  the  most  part  lined  with  reefs  and  sandbanks ; 
to  the  east  of  Cronstadt  the  water  becomes  very  shallow 
(18  to  20  feet).  The  chief  river  is  the  Neva,  which 
receives  only  a  few  small  tributaries ;  the  Luga  and  the 
Narova  also  enter  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  The  feeders  of 
Lake  Ladoga — the  Volkhoff,  the  Syass,  and  the  Svir,  the 
last  two  forming  part  of  the  system  of  canals  connecting 
the  Neva  with  the  Volga — are  important  channels  of  com- 
merce, as  also  is  the  Narova  (see  Pskoff).  Marshes  and 
forests  cover  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  surface  (70  per 
cent,  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century). 

The  population  (apart  from  the  capital)  was  035,780  in  1882, 
82  7  per  cent,  being  Kussians,  lo'O  Finns,  0-5  Esthonians,  and  1'8  per 
cent.  German  colonists  v.-ho  have  immigrated  since  1765.  Twenty 
per  cent,  are  Protestants  ;  the  remainder  mostly  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church  ;  but  there  are  also  more  than  20,000  Nonconformists,  about 
6000  Catholics,  and  1500  Jews.  Agriculture  is  at  a  low  stage  and 
veiy  unproductive  ;  the  Germans,  however,  get  advantage  from  ic. 
The  Finns  rear  cattle  to  some  extent.  Jlanufactures  are  especially 
developed  in  the-districts  of  Tsarsknye  Selo  and  Yamburg, — cottons, 
silks,  paper,  ironware,  and  machinery  (at  Kolpino)  being  the  chief 
proLiUcts.  Several  large  manufacturing  establishments — especially 
nt  Cronstadt — are  maintained  by  the  statQ  for  military  purposes. 
The  government  is  subdi\-ided  into  eight  districts,  the  chief  towns 
of  which  are  St  Petersburg  (see  below),  Gdoff  (3150  inhabitants), 
Luga  (1650),  Novaya  Ladoga  (4100),  Peterhof  (7950),  Schlusselburg 
(10,400),  and  Yamburg  (3250).  Gatchina  (10,100),  Karva  (8610), 
Oranienbaura  (8600),  and  Pavlovsk  (3400)  have  no  districts.  Cron- 
stadt and  the  capital  form  separate  governorships.  Okhta,  Kolpino, 
Fulkovfl,  ancVKrasnoye  Selo,  though  without  municipal  institutions, 
are  worthy  of  mention. 

ST  PETERSBURG,  capital  of  the  Russian  empire,  is 
situated  in  a  thinly-peopled  region  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  in  59°  56'  N.  lat. 
and  30'  40'  E.  long.,  400  miles  from  Moscow,  696  from 
Warsaw,  1138  from  Odessa,  and  1338  from  Astrakhan. 
The  city  covers  an  area  of  21,195  acres,  of  whii-li  12,820 


belong  to  the  delta  proper  of  the  Neva  ;  1 330  acres  ire 
imder  water.  The  Neva,  which  leaves  Lake  Ladoga  at 
its  south-west  angle,  flows  in  a  wide  and  deep  stream  for 
36  miles  south-west  and  north-west,  describing  a  curve  to 
the  south.  Before  entering  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  it  takes 
for  2  J  miles  a  northerly  direction ;  then  it  suddenly  tuma 
and  flows  south-west  and  west,  forming  a  peninsula  on 
which  the  main  part  of  St  Petersburg  stands,  itself  sub- 
dividing into  several  branches.  It  discharges  a  body  of 
remarkably  pure  water  at  the  rate  of  1,750,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  by  a  channel  from  400  to  650  yards  in  width, 
and  so  deep  (maximum  depth,  59  feet)  that  large  vessels 
approach  its  banks.  The  chief  branch  is  the  Great  Neva, 
which  flows  south-west  mth  a  width  of  from  400  to  700 
yards  and  a  maximum  depth  of  49  feet  (discharge,  1,267,000 
cubic  feet  per  second).  The  other  branches  are  the  Little 
Neva,  which  along  with  the  Great  Neva  forms  Vasilyevskiy 


Fig.  1. — Environs  of  St  Petersburg. 

(Basil's)  Island,  and  the  Great  Nevka,  which  with  the 
Little  Neva  forms  Peterburgskiy  Island  and  sends  out 
three  other  branches,  the  Little  Nevka,  the  Middle  Nevka, 
and  the  narrow  Karpovka,  enclosing  the  islands  Elaghin, 
Krestovskiy,  Kamennyi,  and  Aptekarskiy  (Apothecaries 
Island).  Smaller  branches  of  the  Great  and  the  Little 
Nevas  form  the  islands  Petrovskiy,  Goloday,  and  numerous 
smaller  ones  ;  while  a  broader  navigable  channel  forms  the 
Gutueff  and  several  islands  of  less  size  in  the  south-west. 
Two  narrow  canalized  channels  or  rivers — the  Moika  and 
the  Fontanka — as  also  the  Catherine,  Ligovskiy,  and 
Obvodnjd  Canals  (the  last  with  basins  for  receiving  the 
surplus  of  water  during  inundations),  intersect  the  main- 
land. All  the  islands  of  alluvial  origin  ^re  very  low,  their 
highest  points  rising  only  10  or  11  feet  above  the  average 
level  of  the  water.  Their  areas  are  rapidly  increasing 
(572  acres  having  been  added  between  1718  and  1S64), 
and  the  wide-  banks  which  continue  them  towards  the  sea 
are  gradually  disappearing.  The  mainland  is  not  much 
higher  than  the  islands.  At  a  height  of  from  7  to  20  feet 
(seldom  so  much  aa  2y)  the  low  marsh  land  stretches  back 
to  the  hills  of  the  Forestry  I-istitute  (45'  to  70  feet)  on 
the  right  and  to  the  Pulkova  and  Tsarskoye  Selo  hills  oa 
the  left.  The  river  level  being  subject  to  wide  oscillations 
and  rising  several  feet  during  westerly  gales,  extensive 
portions  of  the  islands,  as  also  of  the  mainland,  are  flooded 
every  -winter ;  water  in  the  streets  of  Vasilyevskiy  Island 
is  a  common  occurrence.  In  1777,  when  the  Neva  rose 
10-7  feet,  and  in  1824,  when  it  rose  13'8  feet,  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  city  was  inundated.  But,  owing  to  the  con- 
struction of  canals  to  receive  a  large  amount  of  surplus 
water,  and  still  more  to  the  secular  rising  of  the  sea-coast, 
no  similar  occurrence  has  since  been  witnessed. 

Broad  sandbanks  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  leaving  but 
a  narrow  channel  7  to  20  feet  deep,  prevent  the  entiunee 
of  iaiger  ships  ;  their  cargoes  are  discharged  at  Croaatsdc 


ST      PETERSBURG 


191 


and  brought  to  St  Petersburg  in  smaller  vessels.  A  ship 
canal,  completed  in  1S85  at  a  cost  of  10,265,400  roubles 
(£1,026,500),  is  intended  to  make  the  capital  a  seaport. 
Beginning  at  Cronstadt,  it  terminates  at  GutuefF  Island  in 
a  harbour  capable  of  accommodating  fifty  sea-going  ships' 
at  a  time.  It  is  22  feet  deep,  17i  miles  in  length,  and 
from  70  to  120  yards  broad  at  the  bottom,  and  is  pro- 
tected by  huge  submarine  dams. 

Communication  between  the  banks  of  the  Neva  is  main- 
tained by  only  two  permanent  bridges, — the  Nicholas  and 
the  Alexander  or  Liteinyi,  the  latter  467  yards  long;  both 
are  fine  specimens  of  architecture.  Two  other  bridges — • 
the  Palace  and  the  Troitskiy  (720  yards) — across  the 
Great  Neva  coimect  the  left  bank  of  the  mainland  with 
VasUyevskiy  Island  and  the  fortress  of  St  Peter  and  St 
Paul ;  but,  being  built  on  boats,  they  are  removed  during 
the  autumn  and  spring,  and  intercourse  with  the  islands 
then  becomes  very  difficult.  Several  wooden  or  floating 
bridges  connect  the  islands,  while  a  number  of  stone 
bridges  span  the  smaller  channels;  their  aggregate  number 
is  ninety.  In  winter,  when  the  Neva  is  covered  with  ice 
2  to  3  feet  thick,  temporary  roadways  for  carriages  and 
pedestrians  are  made,  and  artificially  lighted.  Numerous 
boats  also  maintain  communication,  and  small  steamers 
ply  in  summer  between  the  more  distant  parts  of  the 
capital.  A  network  of  tramways  (about  80  miles)  inter- 
sects the  city  in  all  directions,  reaching  also  the  remoter 
islands  and  suburbs,  and  carrying  about  45,000,000  pass- 
engers yearly.  Omnibuses  and  public  sledges  maintain  the 
traffic  in  winter.  In  1882  hackney  carriages  numbered 
7930  in  summer  and  rose  to  14,780  in  winter,  when  thou- 
sands^f  peasants  come  in  from  the  neighbouring  villages 
with  their  small  Finnish  horses  and  plain  sledges. 

The  Neva  continues  frozen  for  an  average  of  147  days  in  the 
year  (25th  November  to  21st  April).  It  is  unnavigable,  however, 
for  some  time  longer  on  account  of  the  ice  from  Lake  Ladoga, 
which  is  sometimes  driven  by  easterly  winds  into  the  Neva  during 
several  days  at  the  end  of  April  or  in  the  beginning  of  May.  The 
climate  of  St  Petersburg  is  very  changeable  and  unhealthy.  Frosts 
are  made  much  more  trying  by  the  wind  which  accompanies  them  ; 
and  westerly  gales  in  winter  bring  with  them  oceanic  moisture  and 
warmih,  and  so  melt  the  snow  before  and  after  hard  frosts.  The 
suimiftr  is  hot,  but  short,  lasting  hardly  more  than  five  or  six 
weeka ;  a  hot  day,  however,  is  often  followed  by  cold  weather : 
changes  of  temperature  amounting  to  35°  Fahr.  within  twenty-four 
hours  are  nst  uncommon.  In  autumn  a  cold  dampness  continues 
for  several  weeks,  and  in  spring  cold'  and  wet  weather  altemates 
with  a  few  warm  days.  The  lollowing  figures  will  give  a  more 
complete  idea  of  the  climate  : — 

January.        July.        The  Year. 

Mean  temperature,  Fahr 15''4  M"-0  S8*-6 

Rainfall,  inchea   0-9  26  18S 

Amount  of  cloud,  percentage SO  63  67 

Prevailing  winds S.W.  W.  W. 

Number  of  rainy  days  12-5  127  150'fl 

Average  daily  range  of  temperature,  Fahr.  2* -2  10*'2  T'T 

Relative  humidity 89  74  81 

The  bulk  of  St  Petersburg  is  situated  on  the  mainland,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Neva,  including  the  best  and  busiest  streets,  the 
richest  shops,  the  great  bazaars  and  markets,  the  palnces,  cathedrals, 
and  theatres,  as  well  as  all  the  railway  stations,  e.vcept  that  of  the 
Finland  Railway.  From  the  Liteinyi  bridge  to  that  of  Nicholas 
I.  a  granite  embankment  runs  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Neva, 
bordered  by  palaces  and  large  private  houses.  About  midway, 
behind  a  r^nge  of  fine  houses,  stands  the  admiralty,  the  very  centre 
of  the  capital.  Formerly  a  wharf,  on  which  Peter  L  caused  his 
first  Baltic  ship  to  be  built  in  1706,  it  is  now  the  seat  of*  the 
ministry  of  manno  and  of  the  hydrographical  department,  the  new 
admiralty  standing  farther  down  the  JNeva  on  the  same  bank.  A 
broad  square,  now  partly  a  garden,  surrounds  the  admiralty  on  the 
west,  south,  and.  east  To  the  west,  opposite  the  senate,  stands 
the  fine  memorial  to  Peter  I.,  erected  in  1782,  and  now  backed  by 
the  cathedral  of  St  Isaac.  A  bronze  statue,  a  masterpiece  by 
Falconet,  represents  the  founder  "f  the  city  on  horseback,  at  full 
gallop,  ascending  a  rock  and  pointing  to  the  Neva  ;  the  pedestal 
13  a  huge  granite  monolith,  44  f%?t  long,  22  wide,  and  27  high, 
brought  from  Lakhta,a  -village  on  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
To  the  south  of  the  admiralty  are  several  buildings  of  the  ministry 
of  war  and  to  the  cast  the  Winter  Palace,  the  work  of  Piaatrelli 
;i  7C4),  a  fine  building  of  mixed  style ;  but  its  admirable  proportions 


hide  its  huge  dimensions.  It  communicates  by  a  gallery  with  the 
Hermitage  Fine  Arts  Galleiy.  A  broad  semicircular  square,  adorned 
by  the  Alexander  I.  column,  separates  the  palace  from  the  general 
staff  and  foieign  ministry  buildings  j  the  column,  'the  work  of 
Montferrant,  is  a  red  granite  monolith,  84  feet  high,  supported  by 
a  huge  pedestal.  Being  of  Finnish  rappa-hivi  (from  Piterlaks),  it 
disintegrates  rapidly,  and  has  hid  to  be  bound  with  massive  iron 
rings  concealed  by  painting.  The  range  of  palaces  and  private 
houses  facing  the  embankment  above  the  admiralty  is  interrupted 
by  the  large  macadamized  "  Field  of  XIars,"  formerly  a  ii'.arsh,  but 
transformed  at  incredible  expense  into  a  pavade-grounc,  and  the 
Lyetniy  Sad  (summer -gai-dcn)  of  Peter  I.  The  Neva  embankment 
is  continued  to  the  west  to  a  little  below  the  Nicholas  bridge  under 
the  name  of  "English  embankment,"  and  farther  down  bv  the 
new  admiralty  buildings. 

The  topography  of  St  Petersburg  is  very  simple.  Three  long 
streets,  the  main  arteries  of  the  capital,  radiate  from  the  admiralty, 
—the  Prospekt  Nevskiy  (Neva  Prospect),  the  Gorokhovaya  (Peas' 
Street),  and  the  Prospekt  Voznesenskiy  (Ascension  Prospect). 
Three  girdles  of  canals,  roughly  speaking  concentric,  ci-oss  these 
three  streets,  —  the  Jloika,  the  Catherine,  and  the  Fontanka  ;  to 
these  a  number  of  streets  run  parallel, — the  Great  and  the  Little 
Morskaya,  the  Kazanskaya,  the  Sadovaya  (Garden  Street),  and 
the  Liteinaya,  continued  west  by  Prospekts  Zagorodnyi  and  Rizh- 
skiy  (Riga).  The  Prospekt  Nevskiy  is  a  very  broad  strc«t  running 
straight  cast-south-east  for  3200  yards  from  the  admiralty  to  the 
Moscow  railway  station,  and  thence  1650  yards  farther,  bending 
a  little  to  the  south,  to  the  Smolnyi  convent,  again  reaching  the 
Neva  at  Kalashnikolf  harbour.  The  part  first  mentioned  owes  its 
picturesque  aspect  to  its  width,  its  rich  shops,  and  still  more  its 
animation.  But  the  houses  which  border  it  architecturally  leave 
very  much  to  be  desired.  And  neither  the  cathedral  of  the  Virgin 
of  Kazan  (an  ugly  imitation  on  a  small  scale  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome), 
nor  the  still  uglier  Gostinyi  Dvor  (a  two-storied  quadrilateral 
building  filled  with  second-rate  shops),  nor  the  Anitchkoff  Palace 
(which  looks  like  immense  barracks),  nor  even  the  Catholic  and 
Dutch  churches  do  anything  to  embellish  it.  About  midway 
between  the  public  library  and  the  Anitchkoff  Palace  an  elegant 
square  conceals  the  old-fashioned  Alexandra  theatre  ;  a  profusely 
adorned  memorial  to  Catherine  II.  does  not  beautify  it  much.  The 
Gorokhovaya  is  a  narrow  and  badly  paved  street  between  gloomy 
houses  occupied  mostly  by  artisans.  The  Voznesenskiy,  on  the 
contrary,  though  as  narrow  as  the  last,  has  better  houses.  In  its 
north  part  it  passes  into  a  series  of  large  squares  connected  with 
that  on  which  the  monument  of  Peter  I.  stands.  One  of  them  is 
occupied  by  the  cathedral  of  St  Isaac  (of  Dalmatia)  and  another  by 
the  memorial  to  Nicholas  I.,  the  gorgeousness  and  bad  taste  of 
which  strangely  contrast  with  the  simplicity  and  significance  of 
that  of  Peter  I.  The  general  aspect  of  the  cathedral  is  undoubtedly 
imposing  both  without  and  wi'hin  ;  its  red  gi-anite  colonnades  are 
not  devoid  of  a  certain  grandiose  character  ;  but  on  the  whole  this 
architectural  monument,  built  between  1818  and  1858  according  to 
a  plan  of  Montferrant,  under  the  personal  direction  of  Nicholas  I., 
does  not  correspond  either  with  its  costliness  (23,000,000  roubles) 
or  with  the  efforts  put  forth  in  its  decoration  by  the  best  llussian 
artists.  The  pictures  of  Brulofr,  Bruni,  am!  many  others  which 
cover  its  walls  are  deteriora'^'ng  rapidly  and  their  pkce  is  being 
taken  by  mosaics.  The  entire  building,  notwithstanding  its  vast 
foundations  and  pile-work,  is  subsiding  unequally  in  the  marshy 
ground,  and  the  walls  threaten  soon  to  give  way. 

The  eastern  extremity  of  Vasilyevskiy  Island  is  the  centre  of 
commercial  actirity  ;  the  stock  exchange  is  situated  there  as  well 
as  the  quays  and  storehouses.  The  remainder  of  the  island  is  occu- 
pied chiefly  by  scientific  and  educational  institutions,— the  academy 
of  science,  with  a  small  observatory  (where  some  astronoir.ical  ob- 
servations are  carried  on  \otwithstanding  the  tremors  of  t'i;e  earth), 
the  university,  the  philological  institute,  the  academy  of  the  first 
corps  of  cadets,  the  academy  of  arts,  the  marine  academy,  the  min- 
ing institute,  and  the  central  physical  obsen-atorj-,  all  facing  the 
Neva.  Peterburgskiy  Island  contains  the  fortress  of  St  Peter  and 
St  Paul,  opposite  the  Winter  Palace,  separated  by  a  channel  from 
its  "  kronverk, "  the  glacis  of  which  i.s  ■nsed  as  a  nark.  The  fortress 
is  now  merely  a  state  prison.  A  cathedral  which  stands  within  the 
fortress  is  the  burial-place  of  the  emperors  and  the  imperial  family. 
The  mint  is  also  situated  witUn  the  fortress.  The  remainder  of 
the  isknd  is  meanly  built,  and  is  the  refuge  of  the  poorer  officials 
[tchinomiks)  and  of  the  intellectual  proletariat  Its  northern  part, 
separated  from  the  main  island  by  a  narrow  channel,  bears  the 
name  of  Apothecaries'  Island,  and  ' )  occupied  by  a  botanical  garden 
of  great  scientific  value  and  several  fine  private  gardens  and  parks. 
Krestovskiy,  Elaghin,  and  Kamennj-i  Islands,  as  also  the  opposite 
right  bank  of  the  Great  Nevka  (SUraya  and  Novaya  Dcrevnya), 
are  occupied  by  public  gardens  and  parki  and  by  summer  houses 
{daUhis).  Owing  to  the  heat  and  dust  during  the  short  summc: 
the  middle-class  inhabitants  and  the  numerous  officials  and  clerks 
emigrate  to  the  datchis,  the  '-calthier  families  to  tl'.c  islands,  and 
the  poorer  to  Staraya  and  Novaya  Dcrevnya  Polustrovo.  Kushe- 


192 


ST     PETERSBURG 


leva,  and  as  far  as  tho  first  two  or  three  railway  stations  of  the 
pKncipal  railways,  especially  that  of  Finland.  The  mainland  on 
the  right  bauk  of  tho  Neva  above  its  delta  ia  known  aa  Vyborg- 
skaya  Storona  (Viborg  Side),  and  is  connected  with  the  main  city 
by  the  Liteinyi  bridge,  closely  adjoining  which  are  the  buildings 
of  the  military  academy  of  medicine  and  spacious  hospitals.  The 
small  streets  (many  of  them  unpaved),  with  numeroiw  wooden 
houses,  are  inhabited  by  students  and  workmea  ;  farther  north  are 
groat  textile  and  iron  factories.  Vast  orchards  and  the  yards  of 
the  artillery  laboratory  stretch  north-eastwards,  while  the  railway 
and  the  highroad  to  Finland,  running  north,  lead  to  the  park  of 
the  Forestry  Institute.     The  two  villages  of  Okhta,  on  the  right 


bank,  are  suburbs  ;  higher  up,  on  the  left  bank,  are  several  factories 
(Alcxandrov&k)  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  crown,  where 
playing-cards,  cottons,  glass,  china,  ironware,  and  so  on  are  made. 
The  true  boundary  of  St  Petersburg  on  the  south  is  the  Obvodnyi 
Canal  ;  but  wide  tracts  covered  with  orchards,  cemeteries,  and 
factories,  or  even  unoccupied  spaces,  are  included  in  the  city  in  that 
direction,  though  they  are  being  rapidly  covered  with  buildings. 

Of  the  21,195  acres  covered  by  St  Petersburg  1160  remain  un- 
occupied. The  gardens  and  parks,  public  andjirivate,  take  up  798 
acres,  to  which  must  be  added  Aptekarskiy,  Petrovskiy,  Elagliin, 
and  Krestovskiy  Islands,  which  are  almost  quite  covered  with  parks. 
Nearly  30  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  most  densely  populated 


Fia  2.— Plan  of  St  Petersburg. 


1.  Stock  ExcTiango. 

2.  Academy  of  Scieoces. 
8.'  University. 

4.  Academy    of    First   Corps  of 

Cadets. 

5.  Academy  of  Arta. 
(f.  Mining  Institute 


7.  Pliyglcal  Observatory. 

8.  Winter  Palace. 

9.  Statue  of  Peter  I. 

10.  Senate  and  Synod. 

11.  Cathedral  of  St  Isaac. 

12.  General  Staff  Buildings. 

13.  Hermitage  Galleiy  of  Art. 


H.  Cathedral  of  Virgin  of  Kft*«nr 

15.  Town-house. 

16.  Gostinyi  Dvor. 

17.  Public  Library. 

18.  Anitchkoff  Palace. 

19.  OrphanaRe. 

20.  General  Post-Offlco. 


21.  Military  Storerooms. 

22.  Theatres  (Great  and  Marllnski). 

23.  Moscow  Railway  Station- 

24.  MedicSl  Academy. 

25.  Hospital. 

26.  Courts  of  Justice. 

27.  House  of  Deteatioil. 


parts  arc  squares  and  streets,  the  aggregate  length  of  the  latter 
I  eing  233  miles.  More  than  half  of  them  are  lighted  by  gas,  the 
I  i^mainder  with  kerosene.  Except  in  a  few  principal  streets,  which 
nre  jiaved  with  wood  or  asphalt,  the  pavement  is  usually  of  granite 
boulders^  and  is  bad  and  very  difficult  to  keep  in  order.  Many 
streets  and  embankments  in  the  suburbs  are  unpaved.  Nearly  all 
tiio  more  populous  parts  have  water  led  into  the  houses  {4733 
houses  in  1883),  and  the"  same  begins  to  extend  also  to  the  right 
bank  of  the  Neva.  In  1883  7,091,500,000  gallons  of  water,  mostly 
from  the  Neva,  very  pure  on  the  whole,'  were  supplied  by  seven- 
teen steam-engines  to  the  left-bank  portion  of  the  city  (9423 
gallons  per  inhabitant).  The  number  of  houses  in  1831  was  22,229 
inhabited  and  16,983  uninhabited.  Of  the  former  18,816  belonged 
to  private  persons  and  3143  to  societies  or  the  crown.  The  houses 
aro  mostly  very  large:  of  the  private  houses  no  fewer  than  169 
had  from  400  to  2000  inhabitants  each  ;  the  contrary  holds  good 


1  Fur  .iiialyses,  aca  Jou7~n.  Buss,  Chemical  Soc._  vol  xv.  507. 


of  the  out-lying  parts,  where  2005  houses  had  fewjer  than  20  inha- 
bitants each. 

On  27th  December  1881  the  population  of  St  Petersburg  was 
861,303,  e;:clusive  of  the  suburbs,  and  929,100  including  them,  thus 
showing  an  increase  of  29  per  cent,  eince  1869.  The  census  of 
1881  having  been  made  with  great  accuracy,  the  following  interest- 
ing results  may  be  relied  upon.^  The  density  of  population  varies 
from  1  inhabitant  per  93  square  feet  to  1  per  17,346  square  feet 
(oa  Peterburgskiy  Island)  ;  the  average  is  1  per  1068  square  feet. 
Less  than  a  third  of  the  aggregate  population  (29' 3  per  cent.)  were 
born  in  the  capital,  the  remainder  coming  from  all  parts  of  Russia, 
or  being  foreigners.  The  males  are  to  the  females  in  the  proportion 
of  122  to  100  ;  at  the  same  time  the  married  men  and  women  con- 
stitute respectively  49  and  39  per  cent,  of  the  population,  the 
numbers  of  the  unmarried  or  widowed  being  respectively  48  and  3 
per  cent,  for  men,  and  56  and  5  for  women.     The  proportion  of 

a  See  SC  Petersburg  according  to  the  Census  of  ISSl,  aad  tie  SUUi^icoi  Yearbook 
of  St  Petersburg /or  ISSS,  St  Petersburg,  1884. 


ST      PETERSBURG 


193 


cliildreii  is  small     The  distribution  of  the  population  according  to 
age  is  as  follows: — 


Under  5  years , 

From  6  to  10  years  . 
„     11  to  15     „'     . 


>  per  cent 


From  16  to  20  years  ..12*2  per  cent. 

„    51  to  50     „      ..55-2   „       „ 
AboveSOyears 10-4  „      „ 

The  mortality  at  St  Petersburg  being  very  high  (34*2  in  1883, 
from  297  to  38-6  in  1868-82),  and  the  number  of  births  only  31-1 
per  1000,  the  deaths  are  in  excess  of  the  birthaby  2500  to  3000  in 
average  years  ;  in  1883  there  were  26,320  births  (1151  still-born) 
and  30,150  deaths.  It  must  not  be  inferred,  however,  from  these 
figures  that  the  population  of  St  Petersburg  would  die  out  if  not 
recruited  from  without  The  larger  number  of  the  workmen  who 
come  every  year  to  the  capital  leave  their  families  in  the  provinces, 
and  the  births  which  occur  do.  not  appear  among  the  births  of  the 
capital,  while  the  deaths  very  often  do.  The  chief  mortality  is  due 
to  chest  diseases,  which  prove  fatal  on  the  average  to  9000  persons 
annually ;  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs  also  prevail  largely ; 
European  and  perhaps  also  Asiatic  cholera  is  almost  endemic,  an 
average  of  3700  deaths  annually  being  due  to  this  cause.  Infectious 
diseases  such  as  typhus  (from  4230  to  5100  deaths  during  the  last 
few  years),  diphtheria,  and  scarlet  fever  (3500  deaths)  are  common. 
Owing  to  a  notable  increase  of  these  three  infectious  diseases  the 
mortality  figures  for  the  last  few  years  are  above  the  average.  Of 
28,212  deaths  nearly  two-filths  (12,369)  were  among  children  under 
five.  Another  critical  age  seems  to  be  that  between  21  and  25.  The 
number  of  marriages  in  1883  was  6183  (only  7*1  per  1000  inhabit- 
ants) ;  out  of  a  total  of  26,320  births  7977  (30  per  cent.)  were  illegiti- 
mate ;  and  no  fewer  than  31  per  cent,  of  all  children,  both  legitimate 
and  illegitimate,  bom  at  St  Petersburg  are  nursed  in  the  foundlings* 
home,  which  sends  most  of  them  to  be  brought  up  in  villages.  More 
than  100,000  persons  enter  the  public  hospitals  annually.^ 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  Russian  capital  is  the  very  high 
proportion  of  people  living  on  their  own  earnings  or  income  ("in- 
dependent"), as  compared  with  those  who  live  on  the  earnings  or 
income  of  some  one  else  ("dependent").  Whereas  at  Paris  and 
Berlin  only  34  and  50  per  cent,  respectively  belong  to  the  former 
category,  the  proportion  is  reversed  at  St  Petersburg :  only  33  per 
cent.,  282,678  persons  in  all,  have  not  their  o^vti  means  of  support 
(18  per  cent,  of  the  men  and  51  of  the  women).  The  proportion  of 
employers  to  employed,  as  also  the  extent  of  their  respective  families, 
are  as  follows  :— 


Trade. 

Various 
induii  tries. 

TotaL 

8,853 
20,857 
3,597 
4,163 
87,559 
11,997 
8,336 
4,470 

19,503 
38,153 
5,6S1 
7,491 
195,85a 
66,856 
2,S,954 
17,806 

23,366 
59,010 
9,173 
11,654 
233,409 
68,853 
37,290 
22,276 

Their  families    

Inrlependent  workei-s 

'      Their  families    

Only  a  few  industrial  establishments  employ  more  than  Uventy 
workmen,  the  average  being  less  than  ten  and  tbe  figure  seldom 
falling  below  five.  The  great  factories  are  beyond  the  limits  of  St 
Petersburg,  which  contains  a  busy  population  of  artisans  grouped 
in  small  workshops.  The  proportions  of  various  professions  to  the 
total  population  are  as  follows  : — workmen,  1  in  3  ;  servants,  1  in 
10;  scholars,  1  in  12;  soldiers,  1  in  25;  officials,  1  in  61  ; 
'*  rentiers,"  1  in  76  ;  female  teachers,  1  in  186  ;  male  teachers,  1  in 
291  ;  policemen,  1  in  203  ;  surgeons,  1  in  608  ;  advocates,  1  in  1261 ; 
apothecaries,  1  in  1538  ;  pawnbrokers,  1  in  1846  ;  savaTits  or  liU4- 
rateurs,  1  in  2121  ;  lawyers,  1  in  2700.  In  respect  of  classes,  407 
per  cent,  of  the  aggregate  population  belong  to  the  "peasants,** 
20 '0  are  mycshchane  (burgesses)  and  artisans,  12*3  are  "nobles," 
t"4  "merchants,"  and  3'1  foreigners.  The  various  religions  ar3 
represented  by  84'9  per  cent.  Orthodox  Greeks,  9*9  Protestants,  3'3 
Roman  Catholics,  and  1-9  various  (16,826  Jews).  On  the  wholo, 
the  Orthodox  population  are  not  great  frequenters  of  the  churches, 
which  are  far  less  numerous  than  in  Moscow. 

St  Petersburg  ii<  well  provided  with  scientific  and  educational 
institutions,  as  also  with  libraries  and  museums.  The  intellectual 
life  of  the  educated  classes  is  vigorous,  and,  although  86  per  c^nt. 
of  the  population  above  six  years  old  are  unable  to  read,  the  woik- 
men  must  be  counted  among  the  most  intelligent  classes  in  Russia. 
Notwithstanding  the  hardships  and  prosecutions  it  is  periodically 
subjected  to,  the  university  exercises  a  pronounced  influence  on  vhe 
life  of  St  Petersburg.  In  1882  it  had  eighty  professors  and  2165 
etudonts  (968  in  physics  and  mathematics,  776  In  law).  The  medi- 
cal faculty  forms  a  separate  academy,  under  military  jurisdiction, 
with  about  1500  students.  There  are,  moreover,  a  philological  insti- 
tute, a  tc;chnological  institute,- a  forestry  academy,  an 'engineering 
icadcmy,  two  theological  academies  (Greek  and  Roman  Catholic), 

I  Fall  morUlity  tables  according  to  the  separate  diseases  are  given  In  th« 
Uatislicai  Tftarbook.  Very  careful  rt'>rarches  into  the  sanitary  conditions  of 
the  city  are  Riven  In  the  now  suppr-^i^ed  Sbomik  Sudthnni  iiiditsiny  (Mag.  of 
U«d.  JarispnideDce)Bnd  Zcforopye  (Uealtb). 


an  academy  of  arts,  five  military  academies,  a  high  school  of  law 
and  a  lyceum.  Higher  instruction  for  women  is  represented  by  a 
medical  academy  (now  ordered  to  be  closed)-,  by  a  free  university 
with  914  students  in  1SS2,  the  standards  of  instruction  and  exami- 
nation in  both  being  equal  to  those  of  the  other  tin iversi tics,  and 
by  higher  pedagogical  courses.  For  secondary  education  there  are 
twelve  classical  gymnasia  for  boys  and  nine  for  girls,  with  four 
private  gymnasia  and  three  progjTnnasia,  eight  "real  schoob,"  five 
seminaries  for  teachers,  ten  mUitary  schools,  three  German  gym- 
nasia, and  five  other  schools.  For  primary  education  there  are  156 
municipality  schools  (7225  scholars  in  1833),  16  schoob  of  the 
zcmslw,  and  about  450  others  maintained  either  by  public  institu- 
tions or  by  private  persons  ;  19,i00  boys  and  girls  received  instruc- 
tion in  431  public  schools  in  18S4,  the  aggregate  cost  being  £21,765 ; 
about  70  insritutions  for  receiving  the  younger  children  of  the 
poorer  classes  and  several  private  "kindergartens"  must  be  added 
to  the  above.  The  scientific  institutions  are  numerous.  The 
academy  of  sciences,  opened  in  1726,  has  rendered  immense  ser^-ice 
in  the  exploration  of  Russia.^  The  oft-repeated  reproach  that  it 
keeps  its  doors  shut  to  Russian  5«yari;5,  while  .opening  them  too 
■widely  to  German  ones,  is  not  without  foundation  ;  but  the  ser\'ice3 
rendered  to  science  by  the  Germans  in  connexion.with  the  academy 
are  undoubtedly  very  great.  The  Pulkova  astronomical  observa- 
tory, the  chief  physical  (meteorological)  obseiTatory  (with  branches 
throughout  Russia  and  Siberia),  the  astronomical  observatory  at 
Vilna,  the  astronomical  and  magnetical  observatory  at  Peking,  and 
the  botanical  garden,^  all  attached  to  the  academy  of  sciences,  issue 
every  year  publications  of  the  highest  scientific  value.  The  Society 
of  Naturalists  and  the  Physical  and  Chemical  Society,  though  less 
than  twenty  years  old,  have  already  issued  most  valuable  publica- 
tions, which  are  not  sq  well  known  abroad  as  they  deserve  to  be". 
The  still  more  recently  founded  geological  committee  is  ably  push- 
ing forward  the  geological  survey  of  the  country ;  the  Mineralogical 
Society  was  founded  in  1817.  The  Geographical  Society,  with  four 
sections  (923  members)  and  branch  societies  for  "West  and  East 
Siberia,  Caucasus,  Orenburg,  the  north-western  and  south-western 
provinces  of  European  Russia,  all  liberally  aided  by  the  state,  is 
well  known  for  its  valuable  work,  as  is  also  the  Entomological 
Society.  There  are  four  medical  societies,  and  an  Archceological 
Society  (since  1846),  an  Historical  Society,  an  Economical  Society 
(120  years  old).  Gardening,  Forestry,  Techuical,  Navigation  Socie- 
ties, and  others,  as  also  several  scientific  committees  appointed  at 
the  ministries.  The  scientific  work  of  the  hydrograj)hical  depart- 
ment and  of  the  general  stafi"  is  well  kno-vvn.  On  tho  whole,  there 
is  access  to  all  these  societies,  as  well  as  to  their  museums  and 
libraries.  At  St  Petersburg  classical  music  always  finds  first-r^ito 
performers  and  attentive  hearers.  The  conservatory  of  music  gives 
a  superior  musical  instruction,  Tlie  Musical  Socic-tj'  is  also  worthy 
of  notice.  Art,  on  the  other  hand,  has  not  freed  itself  from  tliu 
old  scholastic  methods  at  the  academy.  Several  independent 
artistic  societies  seek  to  remedy  this  drawback,  ai;d  are  tne  true 
cradle  of  the  Russian  genre  painters. 

The  imperial  public  library,  open  free  for  347  days  in  the  year, 
though  far  belund  the  British  Museum  and  tbe  Bibliothequo 
Nationale  in  the  number  of  volumes,  nevertheless  contains  ricii 
collections  of  books  and  ]\IS.S.  Its  first  nucleus  was  the  library  of 
the  i^olish  republic  seized  in  1795  (262,640  volumes  and  21,574 
prints),  collected  mostly  by  Archbishop  Zalusski  of  Kieff.  •  It  has 
been  much  enriched  since  then  by  purchases  and  donations,  and 
now  (1886)  contains  more  than  1,000,000  volumes,  a  remarkable 
collection  of  50,000  "  Kossica"  (evei'ything  published  in  Russia),  and 
40,000  MSS.,  some  of  which  are  very  valuable  and  unique.  The 
library  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  also  open  every  day,  contains 
more  than  500,000  volumes,  13,000  MSS.,  rich  collections  of  works 
on  Oriental  languages,  and  valuable  collections  of  periodical  publica- 
tions from  scientific  societies  throughout  the  world.  The  library  of 
the  council  of  state  is  also  op^Ji  to  the  public  ;  while  several  libraries 
of  scientific  societies  and  departments  of  the  ministries,  very  rich 
in  their  special  branches,  are  easily  accessible.  Those  of  the  hydi'O- 
graphical  department,  the  academy  of  art,  the  musical  conserva- 
tory, the  university  (150,000  vols.),  are  especially  valuable  to  tho 
student.  Nearly  thirty  private  circulating  libraries,  which  have 
to  contend  with  many  resti'ictions,  supply  the  students  for  a  small 
fee  with  everything  printed  in  Russia,  if  not  prohibited  by  Govern- 
ment. The  museums  of  the  Russian  capital  have  a  marked  placo 
among  those  of  Europe.  That  of  the  academy  of  science,  with 
more  than  100,000  systematically  classified  natural  history  speci- 
mens ;  that  of  the  Mineralogical  Society,  giving  a  full  picture  of 
the  geology  of  Russia  ;  the  Asiatic  museum,  \\-ith  its  rich  collections 
of  AsiaticfllSS.  and  coins  ;  and  several  others  are  of  great  scientific 
value.  The  Hermitage  Art  Gallery  contains  a  first-rate  collection 
of  the  Flemish  school,  sonic  pictures  of  tho  Russian  school  (the  re- 
mainder being  at  the  academy  of  arts),  some  good  specimens  of  the 


2  Sukhomllnoff,  '*  History  of  tho  Academy  of  Sciences,"  In  ita  Memoir* 
(Russian),  vol.  xxvl.,  1S76,  and  tho  same  year  in  its  Memoires  in  German. 

»  Trautvettcr,  "  History  of  the  Botanical  Garden,"  in  Memoirs  of  the  sa-oe. 
1873,  VOL  ii. 


194 


S  T 


PETERSBURG 


Italian,  Spanish,  and  old  French  schools,  and  especially  invaluable 
treasures  of  Greek  and  Scj'thian  antiquities,  as  also  a  good  collection 
of  200,000  engravings.  The  old  Christian  and  old  Russian  arts  are 
well  represented  at  the  museum  of  the  academy  of  arts.  Besides 
these  there  are  many  other  museums — pedagogical,  medical,  engin- 
eering, agricultural,  forestry,  marine,  technical. 

The  press  is  represented  by  about  120  periodicals,  including  those 
of  the  scientific  societies  ;  the  right  of  publishing  political  papers 
is  a  monopoly  in  the  hands  of  the  very  few  editors  who  are  able 
to  procure  the  necessary  authorization.  The  publication  of  literary 
and  scientific  works,  alter  having  developed  rapidly  in  1859-69,  is 
now  gr'catly  on  the  decrease  owing  to  the  oppressive  measures  of 
the  censorship.  In  the  development  of  the  Russian  drama  St 
Petersburg  has  played  a  far  less  important  part  than  Moscow,  and 
the  stage  at  St  Petersburg  has  never  reached  the  same  standard  of 
excellence  as  that  of  the  older  capital  On  the  other  hand,  St 
Petersburg  is  the  cradle  of  Russian  opera  and  Russian  music.  There 
are  only  four  theatres  of  importance  at  St  Petersburg — all  im.perial 
— two  fo?  the  opera  and  ballet,  one  for  the  native  drama,  and  one 
for  the  French  and  German  drama. 

St  Petersburg  is  much  less  of  a  manufacturing  city  than  Moscow 
or  Berlin.  The  annual  production  of  all  the  manufactures  in  the 
government  of  St  Petersburg,  chiefly  concentrated  in  or  around 
the  capital,  was  in  1879  valued  at  £16,768,600  out  of  £110,294,900 
for  the  empire,  against  £19,600,000  in  the  government  of  Moscow. 
The  chief  manufactured  goods  are  cottons  (£3,073,000)  and  other 
textile  fabrics. (altogether  £3,762,500),  machinery  (£2,355,800),  rails 
(£1,342,300),  tobacco  and  spirits  (about  £1,200,000  each),  leather, 
---ugar,  stearine  candles,  copper  and  gum  wares  (from  £850,000  to 
£460,000  each),  and  a  variety  of  smaller  articles.  The  minor  trades 
are  greatly  developed.  No  exact  statistics  of  the  internal  trade  can 
he  given,  except  for  the  import  and  export  of  articles  of  food.  In 
1833  31,176,000  cwts.  of  grain  and  flour  were  imported  by  rail  or 
river,  of  which  18,680,450  were  re-exported  and  2,809,900  sent  to 
the  interior.  The  exports  in  1882  were  valued  at  £1,864,980  from 
St  Petersburg  and  at  £6,557,017  from  Cronstadt,  the  aggregate  thus 
being  £3,42  1,997,  in  which  articles  of  food,  chiefly  corn,  represented 
£4,214,312,  raw  and  half  raw  produce  £4,009,446,  and  manufactured 
wares  £197,.'i20.  The  value  of  the  imports  was— to  St  Petersburg 
£8,616,383  and  to  Cronstadt  £116,316.  Among  the  total  imports 
articles  of  food  were  valued  at  £1,941,393,  raw  and  half  raw  produce 
at  £4,009,090  (chiefly  cdal),  and  man-.' factured  wares  at  £1,082,698. 
Cronstadt  and  St  Petersburg  were  visited  in  the  came  year  by  2195 
ships  of  951,000  tons  (730  ships,  152,730  tons,  from  Great  Britain). 
The  coasti)!;;  trade  was  represented  by  702  vessels  (119,300  tons) 
entered.  The  commercial  fleet  numbered  only  43  steamers  (14,000 
tons)  and  49  sailing  vessels  (8200  tons). 

Six  railways  meet  at  St  Petersburg.  Two  run  westwards  along 
both  banks  of  the  Gulf  of  Fiuland  to  Hangbudd  and  to  Port 
Baltic  ;  two  short  lines  connect  Oranienhaum,  opposite  Cronstadt, 
and  Tsarskcye  Selo  (with  Pavlovsk)  with  the  capital ;  and  two 
great  trunk-lines  run  south-west  and  south-east  to  Warsaw  (with 
hrauches  to  Riga  and  Smolensk)  and  to  Moscow  (with  branches  to 
Novgorod  and  Rybinsk).  All  are  connected  in  the  capital,  except 
the  Finland  Railway,  which  has  its  station  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Neva.  Moreover,  the  Neva  is  the  great  channel  for  th»  trade 
of  St  Petersburg  with  the  rest  of  Russia,  by  means  of  the  Volga 
and  its  tributaries.  The  importance  of  the  traffic  may  best  be  seen 
from  the  following  figures,  showing  in  cwts.  the  amount  imported 
by  different  channels  : — 


Com  and  flour.        Firewocnl. 

All  kinds 
of  wares. 

ll.OiJI.OOO 
311,000 

15,5,'iS,0il0 
312,000 

20,591,000 
301 .000 

4s-:,ooo 

157,000 

60,331,000 
3,53':,000 

21,056,000 
2, 153,000 

BIoscow  Railway    

Warsaw  Railway    

Ko  less  than  1,162,230  pieces  together  with  7,337,000  cwts  of 
timber  were  supplied  in  the  same  year  via  the  Neva.  The  aggre- 
gate exports  by  rail  and  the  Neva  amounted  to  11,382,000  cwts. 

The  average  income  of  the  St  Petersburg  municipality  was 
£581,425  in  1830-82  {£577,856  iu  1SS4),— that  is,13-7s.  (6-84  roubles) 
per  inhabitant,  as  against  35"8s.  at  Berlin  and  98  •2s.  at  Paris.  The 
indirect  taxes  yield  but  Is.  per  inhabitant  (57s.  at  Paris).  The 
average  expenses  for  the  same  yeai-s  reached  £574,479  (£572,162  in 
1884),  distributed  as  follows  : — 20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  for  the 
police  (10  at  Paris  and  27'5  at  Berlin),  8  for  administration,  16 
for  paving,  7  for  lighting,  5  for  public  instruction,  2  6  for  charity, 
and  3  for  the  debt  ("^  at  Berlin  and  37  at  Paris).  The  municipal 
affairs  are  in  the  hands  of  a  municipality,  elected  by  three  categories 
of  electors  (see  Russia),  and  is  practically  a  department  of  the  chief 
of  the  police.  The  city  is  under  a  separate  governor-general,  whose 
authority,  like  that  of  the  chief  of  police,  is  all  the  more  unlimited 
since  it  has  not  been  accurately  defined  by  law. 

St  Petersburg  is  surrounded  by  several  fine  residences,  mostly  im- 
perial palaces  with  large  and  beautiful  park3.     Tsarskoye  Selo,  16 


miles  to  the  south-east,  and  Peterhof,  on  the  G-alf  of  Finland,  are 
summer  residences  of  the  emperor.  Puvlovsk  has  a  fine  palace  and 
parks,  open  to  the  public,  where  summer  concerts  attract  thousands 
of  people.  Oranienhaum  is  now  a  rather  neglected  place.  Pulkova, 
on  a  hill  5  miles  from  St  Petersburg,  is  well  known  for  its  obser- 
vatory;  whUc  .several  villages  north  of  the  capital,  such  as  Pargolovo, 
Murino,  &c.,  are  visited  in  summer  by  the  le.ss  wealthy  inhabitants. 

History.  • — Tlie  region  between  Lake  Ladoga  and  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  was  inhabited  iu  the  9Lh  century  by  Finns  and  some 
Slavonians.  Novgorod  and  Pskoff  made  efforts  to  retain  their 
dominion  over  this  region,  so  important  for  then-  trade,  and  in  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries  they  bu'lt  the  forts  of  Koporye  (in  the 
present  district  of  Peterhof),  Yam  (now  Yamburg),  and  Oryeshek 
(now  Schliisselburg)  at  the  point  where  the  Neva  issues  from 
Lake  Ladoga.  They  found,  however,  powerful  opponents  in  the 
Swedes,  who  erected  the  fort  of  Landskrona  at  the  junction  of  the 
Okhta  and  the  Nova,  and  in  the  Livonians,  who  had  their  fortress 
at  Narva.  Novgorod  and  Moscow  successively  were  able  by  con- 
tinuous fighting  to  maintain  their  sujireniacy  over  the  region  south 
of  the  Neva  throughout  the  16th  century;  but  early  in  the  17th 
century  Moscow  was  compelled  to  cede  it  to  Sweden,  wlrich  erected 
a  fortress  (Nyouschanz)  on  the  Neva  at  the  mouth  of  the  Okhta. 
In  1700  Peter  I.  began  his  wars  with  Sweden.  Oryeshek  was  taken 
in  1702,  and  next  year  Nyonschanz.  Two  months  later  (29th  June 
1703)  Peter  L  laid  the  foundations  of  a  cathedral  to  St  Peter  and 
St  Paul,  and  of  a  fort  which  received  his  own  name  (in  its  Dutch 
transcription,  **  Piterburgh").  Next  year  the  fort  of  Cronslott  was 
erected  on  the  island  of  Kotlin,  as  also  the  admiralty  on  the  Neva, 
opposite  the  fortress.  Tho  emperor  took  most  severe  and  almost 
barbarous  measures  for  increasing  his  newborn  city.  Thousands 
of  people  from  all  parts  of  Russia  were  removed  thither  and  died  in 
erecting  the  fortress  and  building  the  houses.  Great  numbers  of 
artisans  ryid  workmen  were  brought  to  St  Peten:b.urg  to  form  the 
Myeshchanskaya  villages,  which  raised  the  population  to  100,000 
inhabitants.  All  proprietors  of  more  than  "500  souls"  were 
ordered  to  build  a  house  at  St  Petersburg  and  to  stay  there  in  the 
\vinter.  The  construction  of  stone-houses  throughout  the  rest  of 
Russia  was  prohibited,  all  masons  having  to  be  sent  to  St  Peters- 
burg. After  Peter  L's  death  the  population  of  the  capital  rapidly 
decreased  ;  but  foreigners  continued  to  settle  there.  Under  Eliza- 
beth a  new  series  of  compulsory  measures  raised  the  population 
to  150,000,  which  figure  was  nearly  doubled  during  the  reign  of 
Catherine  IL  Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the 
population  has  steadily  increased  (364,000  in  1817,  468,600  ia 
1837,  491,000  in  1856,  and  66^000  in  1869).  The  chief  embellish- 
ments of  St  Petersburg  were  effected  during  the  reigns  of  Alexander 
I.  (1801-25)  and  Nicholas!.  (1825-55). 

When  Peter  L,  desirous  of  giving  a  "European"  capital  to  his 
empire,  laid  the  first  foundations  of  St  Petersburg  on  tho  marsliy 
islands  of  the  Neva,  in  land  not  fully  conquered  and  remote  from 
the  centres  of  Russian  life,"  it  is  hardly  possible  that  he  could  have 
foreseen  the  rapid  development  it  has  since  undergo-ne  :  it  has  now 
a  population  approaching  a  million  and  commands  more  than  one- 
sixth  of  the  foreign  trade  and  manufactures  of  Russia.  In  point 
of  fact,  there  is  no  capital  in  Europe  so  disadvantageously  situated 
i\'ith  regard  to  its  own  country  as  St  Petersburg.  Desolate  wilder- 
nesses begin  at  its  very  gates  and  extend  for  hundreds  of  aiiles 
to  the  north  and  east.  To  the  south  it  has  the  very  thinly  peopled 
regions  of  Pskoff  and  Novgorod, — the  marshy  and  woody  tracts  of 
the  Valdai  Heights.  For  400  miles  in  each  of  these  three  directions 
there  is  not  a  single  city  of  any  importance  ;  and  towards  the 
west,  on  both  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  are  foreign  peoples  who 
have  their  own  centre-s  of  gi-avitation  in  cities  on  or  nearer  to  the 
Baltic.  AVith  the  provinces  of  Russia  the  capital  is  connected 
only  by  canals  and  railways,  which  diave  to  traverse  vast  tracts  of 
inhospitable  country  before  reaching  them.  But  St  Petersburg 
possesses,  on  the  other  hand,  one  immense  advantage  in  its  site, 
which  has  proved  of  great  moment,  especially  in  the  present  cen- 
tury of  development  of  international  traffic.  Ruled  by  the  idea  of 
creating  a  new  Amsterdam — that  is,  a  meeting-place  for  traders  of  all 
nationalities — and  a  great  export  market  for  Russia,  Peter  I.  could 
have  selected  no  better  plac^.  St  Petersburg  has  been  for  nearly 
150  years  the  chief  place  of  export  for  raw  produce  from  the  most 
productive  parts  of  Russia.  The  great  central  plateau  which  forms 
the  upper  basins  of  all  the  chief  Russian  rivera  had  no  other  outlet 
to  the  sea  than  the  estuary  of  the  Neva,  The  natural  outlet  might 
indeed  have  been  the  Black  Sea;  but  the  rivers  to  the  southward 
are  either  interrupted  by  rapids  like  the  Dnieper,  or  are  shallow  like 
the  Don  ;  while  their  mouths  and  the  entire  coast-region  remained 
till  the  end  of  the  18th  century  in  the  hands  of  Turkey.  As  for  the 
Caspian,  it  faced  Asia,  and  not  Europe.  The  commercial  outlet  of 
the  central  plateau  was  thus  the  re\Trse  of  the  physical.  From 
the  earliest  yeai-s  of  Russian  history  trade  had  taken  this  northern 
direction.  Novgorod  owed  its  wealth  to  this  fact  ;  and  as  far  back 
as  the  12th  century  the  Russians  had  their  forts  on  Lake  Ladoga 
and  the  Neva.  In  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  they  already  e.v 
changed  their  wares  with  the  Dantzic  merchants  at  Nu  or  Nti, — 


S  A  I  — S  A  T 


195 


the  then  name  for  what  is  now  Vasilyevskiy  Island.  By  founding 
St  Petersburg  Peter  I.  only  restored  the  trade  to  its  old  but  dis- 
carded channels.  The  system  of  canals  for  connecting  the  upper 
Volga  and  the  Dnieper  with  the  great  lakes  of  the  north  completed 
the  work  ;  the  commercial  mouth  of  the  \6iga.  was  transferred  to 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  St  Petersburg  became  the  export  harbour 
for  more  than  half  Russia,  Foreigners  hastened  thither  to  take 
possession  of  the  growing  export  trade,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
Russians  ;  and  to  tliis  circumstance  the  Russian  capital  is  indebted 
for  its  cosmopolitan  character.  But  its  present  extensive  and  west- 
European  aspect  has  not  been  achieved,  nor  is  it  maintained,  without 
a  vast  expenditure  of  the  national  resources.  It  cost  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  human  lives  before  the  marshy  islands  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Neva  could  be  rendered  fit  to  receive  a  million  inhabitants 
and  be  brought  into  connexion  with  the  remainder  of  Russia  ;  and 
very  many  more  are  annually  sacrificed  for  the  maintenance  of  this 
capital  on  its  unhealthy  site,  under  the  60th  parallel,  hundreds  of- 
miles  distant  from  the  centres  of  Russian  life. 

The  development  of  the  railway  system  and  the  rapid  coloniza- 
tion of  southern  Russia  now  operate,  however,  adversely  to  St 
Petersburg.  Its  foreign  trade  is  not  actually  decreasing,  but  the 
very  rapid  growth  in  the  exports  of  Russia  within  the  tft'enty  years 
before  1SS6  was  entirely  to  the  benefit  of  other  ports  more  highly 
favoured  by  nature,  such  as  Riga  and  especially  Libau,  while  the 
rapid  increase  of  population  in  the  Black  Sea  region  is  tending  to 
shift  the  Russian  centre  of  gravity  :  new  centres  of  commercial, 
industrial,  and  intellectual  life  are  being  developed  at  Odessa  and 
RostofC  The  revival  of  Little  Russia  is  another  influence  operating 
in  the  same  direction 

Another  itftportant  factor  in  the  gTO\\i;h  of  the  mnuence  of  St 
Petersburg  on  Russian  life  was  the  coni^entration  of  all  politicaf 
power  in  the  hands  of  an  absolute  Government  and  in  the  narrow 
circles  surrounding  the  chief  of  the  state.  As  Yuriy  Dolgorukiy 
felt  the  necessity  of  creating  for  a  new  phase  of  national  history — 
that  of  a  centralized  state — a  new  capital,  Moscow,  free  from  the 
municipal  and  republican  traditions  of  the  old  Russian  towns,  so 
Peter  I.  f«lt  the  necessity  of  again  creating  a  fresh  capital  for  a 
tliird  phase  of  the  country's  progress,  —  a  capital  where  the  rising 
imperial  power  would  be  free  from  the  control  of  the  old  boyar 
families.  St  Petersburg  fully  answers  'o  this  need.  For  more  than 
a  century  and  a  half  it  was  the  real  centre  of  political  life  and  of 
political  thought,  impregnated  with  the  conception  of  a  powerful 
central  Government.  In  so  strongly  centralized  a  state  as  Russia 
was,  and  still  is,  and  for  the  phase  of  life  which  the  empire  has 
passed  through  during  the  last  two  centuries,  it  mattered  little 
whether  the  capital  was  some  hundred  miles  away  from  the  natural 
centres  of  life  and  without  the  support  of  a  dense  and  active  sur- 
rounding population.  Bureaucracy,  its  leading  feature,  was  simply 
reinforced  by  the  remoteness  of  the  capital.  But  these  circumstances 
are  at  present  undergoing  a  change.  Since  the  abolition  of  serfdom 
and  ui  consequence  of  the  impulse  given  to  Russian  thought  by 
this  reform,  the  provinces  are  coming  more  and  more  to  dispute 
the  right  of  St  Petersburg  to  guide  the  political  life  of  the  countiy. 
It  has  been  often  said  that  St  Petersburg  is  the  head  of  Russia  and 
Moscow  its  heart.  The  first  part  at  least  of  this  saying  is  true. 
In  the  dcvelopraent  of  thought  and  in  naturalizing  in  Russia  the 
results  of  west  European  reflection  St  Petersburg  has  played  through- 
out the  present  century  a  prominent  part.  Attracting  to  itself  from 
the  provinces  the  best  intellects  of  tlie  country,  it  has  powerfully 
contributed  towards  familiarizing  the  reading  public  with  the 
teachings  of  west  European  science  and  philosophy,  and  towards 
giving  to  Russian  literature  that  liberality  of  mind  and  freedom 
from  the  trammels  of  tradition  that  have  so  often  been  noticed  by 
west  Europeans.  St  Petersburg  has  no  traditions,  no  history  beyond 
that  of  the  palace  conspiracies,  and  nothing  in  its  past  can  attract 
the  writer  or  the  thinker.  But,  as  new  centres  of  intellectual 
movement  and  new  cunents  of  thought  develop  again  at  Moscow 
ancl  KicfT  or  arise  anew  at  Odessa  and  in  the  eastern  provinces, 
those  places  claim  the  ri^ht  to  their  own  sliare  in  the  further  de- 
velopment cff  intellectual  life  in  Russia  ;  and  it  would  not  bo  sur- 
prising if  the  administrative  and  intellectiual  centre  of  the  empire, 
after  its  migrations  successively  from  KiefT,  Novgorod,  and  Pskotf 
to  5I0SCOW,  and  thence  to  St  Petersburg,  were  again  to  follow  a  new 
movement  towards  the  south.  (P.  A,  K.) 

ST  PIL.lRE.     See  Rtu-viox,  vol.  xx.  p.  493. 

ST  PIERRE.     See  Martinique,  vol.  xv.  p.  586. 

SAINT-PIERRE,  Charles  Iri^nke  Ca.stei.,  Abb^  de 
(1658-1713),  a  French  writer  of  much  ingenuity  and  influ- 
ence, who  is  not  iinfrequehtly  confounded  with  the  authoV! 
of  Paul  et  Virffinie^  was  born  near  Barfleur  on  the  18th 
of  February  1658.  Hia  father  was  bailli  of  the  Cotentin, 
and  Saint-Pierre,  who  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  ai)pear3 
to  have  had  an  easy  entrance  to  the  best  literary  and 
political  society  of  the  ca»ital.     He  was  presented  to  the 


abbacy  of  Toms,  which  a  century  before  the  poet  Des- 
portes  had  held,  and  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1695. 
But  in  1718,  in  consequence  of  the  political  offence  given 
by  hia  Polysynodie^  he  suffered  the  very  rare  penalty  of 
expulsion  from  that  body.     He  died  at  Paris  in  1743. 

Saint-Pierre's  works  (collected  shortly  before  his  death  in  eighteen 
volumes  and  originally  published  chiefly  in  the  second  and  third 
decades  of  the  18th  century)  are  nlmost  entirely  occupied  with  an 
acute  and  inventive,  though  generally  visionary,  criticism  of  politics, 
law,  and  social  institutions.  They  had  a  great  influence  on  Rousseau, 
who  has  left  elaborate  examinations  of  some  of  them,  and  has  repro- 
duced not  a  few  of  their  ideas  in  his  own  work.  The  titles  are 
almost  sufficient  to  show  their  nature.  The  chief  are  Projci  dc  Paix 
PerpetucUe  (appositely  published  at  Utrecht  in  1713)  and  Pobj- 
synodic  (a  severe  stricture  on  the  Government  of  Louis  XIV.,  ■uith 
projects  for  the  administration  of  France  by  a  system  of  councils 
for  each  department  of  government),  together  with  a  crowd  of 
memorials  and  projects  for  stopping  duelling,  for  equalizing  taxa- 
tion, for  treating  mendicancy,  for  reforming  education  and  spelling, 
&c.  Unlike  the  later  reforming  abbes  of  the  philosophc  period, 
Saint- Pien'e  was  a  man  of  very  unworldly  character  and  quite 
destitute  of  the  Frondeur  spirit.  He  was  also  a  man  of  not  a  little 
intellectual  power,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  every  such  man  who  gives 
his  fancy  free  course  in  the  construction  of  political  Utopias,  not  a 
few  of  his  wishes  and  ideas  have  been  realized  in  course  of  time.  But 
it  is  difficult  to  give  him  much  credit  for  practical  grasp  of  politics. 

SAINT-PIERRE,  Jacques  Henri  Beenardin  de  (1737- 
1814),  French  man-of- letters,  was  born  at  Havre  on  19lh 
January  1737  and  was  educated  at  Caen.  After  a  fashion 
commoner  with  English  than  with  French  boys,  he  took 
an  early  fancy  to  the  sea,  and  his  uncle,  a  ship  captain, 
gave  him  the  opportunity  of  gratifying  it.  But  a  single 
voyage  to  Martinique  was  enough  for  him  and  he  went 
back  to  school.  He  next  wanted  to  be  a  missionary  ;  but 
his  parents,  who  had  probably  taken  the  measure  of  his 
enthusiasms  from  his  sea  experiences,  objected,  and  he 
became  an  engineer.  He  served  in  the  army,  but  was 
dismissed  for  insubordination,  and,  after  quarrelling  with 
his  family,  was  in  some  difficulty.  But  in  17G1  ho  obtained 
an  appointment  at  Malta,  which  also  he  did  not  hold  long. 
The  most  rolling  of  stones,  he  appears  at  St  Petersburg, 
at  Warsaw,  at  Dresden,  at  Berlin,  holding  brief  commis- 
sions as  an  engineer  and  rejoicing  in  romantic  adventures. 
But  he  came  back  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  thirty  even  poorer 
than  he  set  out.  He  then  passed  two  years  in  literary 
work,  supporting  himself  in  an  unknown  fashion,  and"  in 
1768  (for  he  seems  to  have  been  as  successful  in  obtaining 
appointments  as  in  losing  them)  he  set  out  for  the  Isle  of 
France  (Mauritius)  with  a  Government  commission  and 
remained  there  three  years,  returning  home  in  1771.  These 
wanderings  supplied  Bemardin  with  the  whole  of  what  may 
be  called  his  stock-in-trade,  for,  though  he  lived  more  than 
forty  J  ears  longer,  he  never  again  quitted  France.  He 
was  very  poor,  and  indeed  it  is  not  easy  to  discover  from 
his  biographers  what  he  hved  upon,  for,  though  he  was  an 
unwearied  solicitor  of  employments  and  *' gra:ifications,'* 
he  received  but  little,  and  his  touchy  and  sensitive  tempera- 
ment frequently  caused  him  to  quarrel  with  what  little  he 
did  receive.  On  his  return  from  Mauritius  hc>  was  intro- 
duced to  the  society  of  D'Alembert  and  his  iriends,  and 
continued  to  frequent  it.  But  he  took  no  grfiat  pleasure 
in  the  comjjany  of  any  literary  man  except  Rour.scau,  of 
whom  in  Jean  Jacques's  last  years  he  saw  much,  and  on 
whom  he  formed  both  his  own  character  and  ttill  more  his 
stylo  to  a  considerable  degi;ee.  His  first  woik  of  any  im- 
portance, the  Voyage  (i  I' lie  de  France^  appeared  in  1773 
and  gained  him  some  reputation.  It  is  the  soberest  and 
therefore  the  least  characteristic  of  his  books.  The  £tndes 
de  la  Nattire,  which  made  his  fame  and  assured  him  of 
literary  success,  did  not  appear  till  ten  ymrs  later,  his 
masterpiece  Paid  et  Virginie  not  till  1787,  and  his  other 
masterpiece  (which,  as  much  less  sentiment'd  and  shov/ing 
not  a  little  humour,  some  persons  may  be  allowed  to  prefer), 
the  C/tazwiiere  Indientie^  not  till  1790.    In  1  792  he  married 


196 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


a  very  young  girl,  F^licit^  Didotr  For  a  short  time  in 
J  792  ho  was  superintendent  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  and 
again  for  a  short  time  professor  of  morals  at  the  £cole 
Normals  in  1794.  Next  year  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute.  After  his  first  mfe's  death  he  married,  in  1 800, 
when  he  was  sixty-three,  another  young  girl,  D^sir^e  de 
Pelleport,  and  is  said  to  have  been  very  happy  with  her. 
He  still  continued  to  publish,  and  was  something  of  a 
favourite  with  Napoleon.  On  the  21st  of  January  1814 
he  died  at  firagny  near  Pontoise,  where  he  had  in  his  last 
years  chiefly  lived  and  where  he  had  a  house,  so  that  he 
cannot  have  been  ill  oflf. 

It  has  been  hinted  that  Bernardin  da  Saint-Pierre'a  personal 
cnaracter  was  not  entirely  amiable  ;  it  may  be  added  that  his 
literary  character  has  not  in  all  English  eyes  sufficed  to  atone  for  it. 
Englishmen,  and  not  Englishmen  only,  have  been  found  to  pro- 
nounce Paul  et  Virginie  gaudy  in  style  and  unhealthy,  not  to  say 
unwholesome,  in  tone.  Perhaps  Bernardin  is  not  fairly  to  be 
judged  by  this  famous  story,  in  which  tho  exuberant  sensibility  of 
the  time  finds  equally  exuberant  expression.  The  CJiaumiire  and 
some  passages  in  the  Jitudes  dc  la  Nature  proper  may  be  thought 
to  exhibit  the  real  merits  of  his  style  to  greater  advantage.  The 
historic  estimate  (the  sole  estimate  that  is  of  much  worth  in  com- 
parative  literary  criticism)  at  once  disengages  tho  question  from  its 
dithculties.  "Where  Beruardin  is  of  merit  and  imp&rtance  is  in  his 
breaking  away  from  the  dull  and  arid  vocabulary  and  phrase  which 
more  than  a  centuiy  of  classical  writing  had  brought  upon  France,  in 
his  genuine  and  vigorous  preference  of  the  beauties  of  nature  to  the 
mere  charms  of  drawing-room  society,  and  in  the  attempt  which 
he  made,  with  as  much  sincerity  as  could  fairly  be  expected  from  a 
man  of  his  day,  to  reproduce  tho  aspects  of  the  natural  world 
faithfully.  After  Kousseau,  and  even  more  than  Rousseau,  Ber- 
nardin was  in  French  literature  the  apostle  of  the  return  to  nature, 
and,  though  in  him  and  his  immediate  follower,  Chateaubriand, 
there  is  still  much  mannerism  and  unreality,  he  ghould  not  and 
will  not  lack  the  credit  due. 

Aim6  Martin,  disciple  of  Bernardin  and  the  second  lin&band  of  his  second 
wife,  published  a  complete  edition  of  his  works  in  18  volumes  (Paris,  1S18-20), 
afterwards  increased  by  additional  correspondence,  &c.  Paul  et  Virginie,  the 
Chauhiiire  Indienne,  &c.,  have  been  separately  reprinted  in  innumerable  forms, 

ST  PIEERE  AND  MIQUELON,  two  islands  10  miles 
off  the  south  coast  of  Newfoundland  (see  vol.  xvii.  pi.  V.), 
at  the  entrance  of  Fortune  Bay,  are,  with  five  lesser  islets, 
the  last  remnant  of  the  North  American  colonies  of 
France.  Both  are  rugged  masses  of  granite,  with  a  few 
small  streams  and  lakelets,  a  thin  covering  of  soil,  and 
scanty  vegetation.  Miquelon  (area,  45,5-12  acres)  confists 
of  Great  Miquelon  in  the  north  and  Little  Miquelon, 
Langlade,  or  Langley  in  the  south;  previous  to  1783  they 
were  separate  islands  divided  by  a  navigable  channel,  but 
they  have  since  become  connected  by  a  dangerous  sandbar. 
St  Pierre  (6420  acres)  has  a  good  harbour  and  roadstead, 
the  latter,  protected  by  lie  aus  Chiens,  affording  shelter, 
except  in  north-east  storms,  to  the  largest  vessels.  The 
small  but  -busy  town  of  St  Pierre  climbing  the  steep  hill 
above  the  harbour  is  mainly  built  of  wood ;  but  it  has  a 
cathedral  (of  wood),  an  English  chapel,  a  governor's  resi- 
dence, and  various  administrative  offices,  including  the 
American  terminus  of  the  French  Atlantic  cable.  Cod- 
fishing,  to  which  the  settlement  owes  its  prosperity,  was 
prosecuted  in  the  five  years  1878-82,  on  an  average,  by 
4560  fishermen  (mainly  from  Dunkirk  and  other  French 
ports),  and  produced  3876  tons  of  dried  and  157,754  tons 
of  undried  cod,  with  450  tons  of  cod-liver  oil.  The  total 
exports  and  imports  were  valued,  respectively,  at  9,218,278 , 
and  4,441,817  francs  in  1865,  and  17,164,153  and 
11,062,617  francs  in  1883.  The  foreign  trade  in  1883 
was  valued  at  10,218,473  francs.  The  population  of  the 
islands  was  5564  (town  of  St  Pierre  4365)  in  1883;  but 
the  number  is  often  above  10,000  in  the  fishing-season. 

St  PieiTO  and  Miquelon,  with  3000  inhabitants,  were  ceded  to 
England  along  with  Newfoundland  in  1713  ;  but  on  the  English 
conquest  of  Canada  they  were  assigned  to  France  as  a  fishery 
depot  Destroyed  by  the  English  in  1778,  restored  to  France  in 
1783,  again  depopulated  by  the  English  in  1793,  recovered  by 
France  in  1802  and  lost  in  1803,  the  islands  have  remained  ap 
undisputed  French  possession  since  1816. 


ST  PIERRE-LfeS-CALAIS,  a  suburb  of  Calais  {q.v.). 
with  a  population  of  30,786  in  1881. 

ST  POL  DE  Ll5:0N,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  arrond- 
issement  of  Morlaix  and  department  of  Finist^re,  not  far 
from  the  shores  of  the  English  Channel,  13|  miles  north- 
west of  Morlaix  by  the  railway  to  Koscoif.  This  quiet 
episcopal  city,  old  but  modernized,  is  mainly  of  interest 
on  account  of  its  cathedral  and  the  church  of  Notre  Dame, 
though  it  also  contains  an  episcopal  palace  (1712,50),  u 
seminary  (1691),  and  a  hospital  (1711).  The  cathedral, 
classed  as  an  historical  monimient,  beltings  largely  to  ths 
13th  century.  Besides  the  west  front,  with  its  portico 
and  its  two  towers  with  granite  spires  180  feet  high,  the 
principal  points  of  architectural  interest  are  the  traceried 
window  of  the  south  transept  (with  its  g'ass)  and  the  rect- 
angular apse,  and  in  the  interior  the  stalls  of  the  choir 
(16th  century)  and  the  fascicled  pillars  and  vault-arches 
of  the  nave.  On  the  right  of  the  high  altar  is  A  wooden 
shrine  containing  the  bell  of  St  Pol  de  L^on  (6  D)  10  oz. 
in  weight),  which  has  the  repute  of  curing  headache  and 
diseases  of 'the  ear,  and  at  the  side  of  the  main  entrance  is 
a  huge  baptismal  font,  popularly  regarded  as  the  stone 
coffin  of  Conan  Mi5riadec,  king  of  the  Bretons,  ^otre 
Dame  de  Creizker  has  a  15th-century  spire,  252  feet  high, 
which  crowns  the  central  tower.  The  north  porch  is  a 
fine  specimen  of  the  flamboyant  style.  The  population  of 
the  town  in  1881  was  3739  and  of  the  commune  6659.      • 

St  Pol  de  Leon,  or  Famim  Sancti  Pauli  Leonini,  was  formerly  a 
place  of  considerable  importance.  The  barony  of  Leon,  in  the 
possession  of  the  dukes  of  Rohan,  gave  them  the  right  of  presiding 
in  the  provincial  states  alternatively  with  the  duke  of  La  Tremoiville, 
baron  of  Vitre. 

ST  QUENTIN,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  the 
cb'f-lieu  of  an  arrondissement  and  in  population  (45,697 
in  1881)  the  largest  town  in  the  department  of  Aisne, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Somme,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Somme  Canal  with  the  St  Quentin  Canal  (which 
unites  the  Somme  Canal  with  the  Scheldt),  95i  miles  north- 
east of  Paris  by  the  railway  to  Brussels  and  Cologne,  %vith 
branch  lines  to  Guise  (on  the  Oise)  and  Ep6hy  on  the 
Flanders  and  Picardy  railv>-ay.  Built  on  a  slope,  with  a 
southern  exposure,  the  town  is  crowned  by  the  collegiate 
chorch  of  St  Quentin,  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  buildings 
of  the  north  of  France,  which  was  erected  between  1114 
and  1477,  and  has,  like  some  English  cathedrals,  the 
somewhat  rare  peculiarity  of  double  transepts.  The  length 
of  the  church  is  436  feet  and  the  height  of  the  nave  131. 
The  magnificent  clerestory  windows  are  supported  by  a 
very  elegant  triforium.  The  baptismal  chapel  contains  a 
fine  stone  retable.  The  choir  has  a  great  resemblance  to 
that  of  Rheims,  and,  like  the  chapels  of  the  apse,  has  bean 
decorated  with  polychromic  paintings.  Under  the  choir 
is  a  crypt  occupying  the  site  of  an  older  crypt  constructed 
in  the  9th  century,  of  which  only  the  three  vaults  with  the 
tombs  of  St  Quentin  and  his  feUow-martyrs  remain.  The 
town-house  of  St  Quentin  is  a  splendid  building  of  the 
15th  and  16th  centuries,  with  a  flamboyant  fagade,  adorned 
with  curious  sculptures.  Behind  the  central  gable  rises  a 
bell-tower  with  chimes.  The  council-room  is  a  fine  hall 
with  a  double  wooden  ceiling  and  a  huge  chimneypiece 
half  Gothic  half  Renaissance.  The  old  buildings  of  the 
Bernardines  of  Fervaques  now  provide  accommodation  for 
the  courts,  the  learned  societies,  the  school  of  design,  the 
museum,  and  the  library,  and  contain  a  largo  hall  foi* 
public  meetings.  St  Quentin  is  the  centre  of  au  indus- 
trial district  which  employs  130,000  workmen  in  800 
'factories,  and  manufactures  the  fortieth  part  of  the  cotton 
iniported  into  France,  producing  goods  to  the  value'  of 
about  £3,500,000,  mainlycalicoes,  percales  (glazed  cottons), 
cretonnes,  jaconas,  twills,  piques,  muslins,  cambrics,  gauzes, 
jyool-muslins,  Scotch  cashmeres,  and  merinos.     Other  in- 


S  A  I  — S  AI 


197 


dustries  are  the  making  of  embroideries  by  machinery  and 
by  hand,  turning  billiard-balls,  and  engine-building. 

St  Quentin,  the  Awjusta  Kcromam'.uorum  of  the  Romans,  stood 
at  the  meeting-place  of  five  roads  of  military  importance.  In  the 
3d  century  it  was  the  scene  of  the  martyrdom  of  Cains  Quintinus, 
who  had  come  as  a  preacher  of  Christianity,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Dagobert  the  martyr's  tomb  became  under  the  influence  of  St  Eloi 
a  place  of  pilgrimage.  After  it  had  been  thrice  ravaged  by  the 
Normans  the  town  was  surrounded  by  walls  in  8S3.  It  became 
under  Pippin,  grandson  of  Charlemagne,  one  of  the  principal  domains 
of  the  county  of  Vermandois,  and  in  1103  was  constituted  a  com- 
mune. In  il95  it  was  incorporated  with  the  royal  domain  and 
about  the  same  time  received  an  increase  of  its  privileges.  From 
1420  to  1471  St  Quentin  was  occupied  by  the  Burgundians.  Its 
capture  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  day  of  St  La^Tence,  1557,  was  the 
success  which  Philip  II.  of  Spain  commemorated  by  building  the 
Escorial.  Two  years  later  the  .town  was  restored  to  the  French,  and 
in  1550  it  was  assigned  as  the  dowry  of  Mary  Stuart.  The  forti- 
fications erected  under  Louis  XIV.  were  demolished  between  1810 
and  1820.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  "War  St  Qaentin  repulsed 
the  German  attacks  of  8th  October  1870  ;  and  on  19th  January 
1871  it  was  the  centre  of  the  great  battle  fought  by  General  Faid- 
herbe,  one  of  thj  last  episodes  of  the  campaign. 

ST  SEBASTIAN.     See  San  Sebastian. 

ST  SERVAN,  a  cantonal  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  on  the  right  bank 'of  the  Eance  to 
the  south  of  St  Malo,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  creek 
at  least  a  mile  wide  (see  St  Malo).  In  population  (10,691 
inhabitants  in  1881  ;  12,867  in  the  commune)  St  bervan 
is  slightly  the  smaller  town  of  the  two.  It  is  not  enclosed 
by  waUs,  and  with  its  new  houses,  straight  wide  streets, 
and  numerous  gardens  forms  quite  a  contrast  to  its  neigh- 
bour. In  summer  it  attracts  a  number  of  seaside  visitor.?. 
The  floating  dock  will  when  finished  have  an  area  of  27 
acres  and  one  mile  of  quays.  The  creek  on  which  it  opens 
is  dry  at  lew  water,  but  at  high  water  is  30  to  40  feet  deep. 
Another  port  on  the  Eance,  to  the  south-west  of  the  town 
at  the  foot  of  the  tower  of  Solidor,  is  used  by  the  local 
guard-ship.  This  tower,  erected  in  the  close  of  the  14th 
century  by  Duke  John  TV.  for  the  purpose  of  contesting 
the  claims  of  Josselin  de  Rohan,  bishop  of  St  Malo,  to  the 
temporal  sovereignty  of  the  town,  consists  of  three  distinct 
towers  formed  into  a  triangle  by  loop-holed  and  machico- 
lated  curtains.  At  the  north-west  point  of  St  Servan 
stands  the  "  city  fo?t "  and  near  by  are  the  ruins  of  the 
cathedral  of  St  Peter  of  AIeUi,'tho  seat  of  a  bishoiiric  from 
the  6th  to  the  12th  century.  The  church  is  modern 
(1742-1842). 

The  northern  quarter  of  St  Servan,  called  "  the  City,"  occupies 
the  site  of  the  city  of  Aleth,  which  at  the  close  of  the  Roman  empire 
supplanted  Corscul  as  the  capital  of  the  Curiosolites.  Aleth  was  a 
bulwark  of  Druidism  in  those  regions  and  was  not  Christianized 
till  the  6th  century,  when  St  Malo  became  its  first  bishop.  On  the 
removal  of  the  bishopric  to  St  Malo  Aleth  declined  ;  but  the 
houses  that  remained  standing  becamt  the  nucleus  of  a  new  com- 
munity, which  placed  itself  under  the  patronage  of  St  Servan, 
apostie  of  the  Orkneys.  In  1758  the  place  was  occupied  by  Marl- 
borough. It  was  not  till  1789  that  St  Servan  became  a  separate 
commune  from  St  Malo  with  a  municipality  and  police  of  its  own. 

SAINT-SIMON,  Claude  Henei,  Comte  de  (17C0- 
1825),  the  founder  of  French  socialism,  was  born  at  Paris 
on  17th  October  1760.  He  belonged  to  a  younger  branch 
of  the  family  of  the  celebrated  duke  of  that  name.  His 
education,  he  tells  us,  was  directed  by  D'iVlembert.  At 
the  age  of  nineteen  he  went  as  volunteer  to  assist  the 
American  colonies  in  their  revolt  against  Britain.  From 
his  youth  Saint-Simon  felt  the  promptings  of  an  eager 
ambition.  His  valet  had  orders  to  awake  him  every  morn- 
ing with  the  words,  "  Remember,  monsieur  le  comte,  that 
you  have  great  things  to  do  " ;  and  hi.-i  ancestor  Charle- 
magne appeared  to  him  in  a  dream  foretelling  a  remarkable 
future  for  him.  Among  his  early  schemes  was  one  to 
unite  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  by  a  canal,  and  another 
fo  construct  a  canal  from  Madrid  to  the  sea.  He  took  no 
part  of  any  importance  in  the  Revolution,  but  am:.<i;ed  a 
little  fortune  by  land  .speculation, — not  on  his  own  accoimt. 


however,  as  he  said,  but  to  facilitate  his  future  projects. 
Accordingly,  when  he  was  nearly  forty  years  oi  age  he. 
went  through  a  varied  course  of  study  and  experiment,  in 
order  to  enlarge  and  clarify  his  view  of  things..  One  of 
these  experiments  was  an  unhappy  marriage,  which,  after 
a  year's  duration,  was  dissolved  by  the  mutual  consent  of 
the  parties.  Another  result  of  his  experiments  was  that 
he  found  himself  completely  impoverished,  and  lived  in 
penury  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  The  lirst  of  his  numer- 
ous writings,  Lettres  dtm  Habitant  de  Geneve,  appeared  in 
1803 ;  but  his  early  writings  were  mostly  scientific  and 
political.  It  was  not  till  1817  that  he  began  in  a  treatise 
entitled  L'lvd-ustrie  to  propound  his  socialistic  views,  which 
he  further  developed  in  VOrganUateur  (1819),  Du  Sysleme 
Industriel  (1S21),  Catechisme  des  IiiduMiiels  (1823).  The 
last  and  most  important  expression  of  his  views  is  the 
Nouveaii  Christianisme  (1825).  For  many  years  before 
his  death  in  1825  (at  Paris  on  19th  May)  Saint-Simon  had 
been  reduced  to  the  greatest  straits.  He  was  obliged  to 
accept  a  laborious  post  for  a  salary  of  £40  a  year,  to  live 
on  the  generosity  of  a  former  valet,  and  finally  to  solicit 
a  small  pension  from  his  family.  In  1823  he  attempted- 
suicide  ia  despair.  It  was  not  till  very  late  in  his  career 
that  he  attached  to  himself  a  few  ardent  disciples. 

As  a  thinker  Saint-Simon  was  entirely  deficient  in 
system,  clearness,  and  consecutive  strength.  But  his 
great  innuence  on  modern  thought  is  undeniable,  both  as 
the  historic  founder  of  French  socialism  and  as  suggest- 
ing much  of  what  was  afterwards  elaborated  into  Comtism. 
Apart  from  the  details  of  his  socialistic  teaching,  which 
are  vague,  inconsistent;  and  unsystematic,  we 'find  that 
the  ideas  of  Saint -Simon  as  to  the  reconstruction  of 
.society  are  very  simple.  His  opinions  were  conditioned 
by  the  French  Revolution  and  by  the  feudal  and  military 
system  still  prevalent  in  France.  In  opposition  to  the 
destructive  liberalism  of  the  Revolution  he  insisted  on  the 
necessity  of  a  n-ew  and  positive  reorganization  of  society. 
So  far  was  he  from  advocating  fresh  social  revolt  that  he 
appealed  to  Louis  XVIII.  to  inaugurate  the  new  order  of 
things.  In  opposition,  however,  to  the  feudal  and  military 
system,  the  former  aspect  of  which  had  been  strengthened 
by  the  restoration,  he  advocated  an  arrangement'  by  which 
the  industrial  cliiefs  should  control  society.  In  place  of 
the  mediieval  chur.-ih  the  spiritual  direction  of  societj- 
should  fall  to  the  men  of  science.  'What  Saint-Simon 
desired,  therefore,  was  an  industrialist  state  directed  by 
modern  science.  In  short,  the  men  who  are  fitted  to 
organize  society  for  productive  labour  are  entitled  to  bear 
rule  in  it.  The  social  aim  is  to  produce  things  useful  to 
life ;  the  final  end  of  social  activity  is  "  the  exploitation 
of  the  globe  by  association."  The  contrast  between 
labour  and  capital  so  much  emphasized  by  later  socialism 
is  not  present  to  Saint-Simon,  but  it  is  assumed  that  the 
industrial  chief.s,  to  whom  the  control  of  production  is  to 
be  committed,  shall  rule  in  the  interest  of  society.  Later 
on  the  cause  of  the  poor  receives  greater  attention,  till  in 
his  greatest  work,  Tlie  Neiv  Christianittj,  it  becomes  the 
central  point  of  his  teaching  and  takes  the  form  of  a 
religion.  It  was  this  religious  development  of  his  teach- 
ing that  occasioned  his  final  quarrel  with  Comte.  Previous 
to  the  publication  of  the  Nozieeaii  Christianisme,  Saint- 
Simon  had  not  concerned  himself  with  theology.  Here 
he  starts  from  a  belief  in  God,  and  his  object  in  the 
treatise  is  to  reduce  Christianity  to  its  simi)lc  and  essential 
elements.  He  does  this  by  clearing  it  of  the  dogmas  and 
other  excrescences  and  defects  which  have  gathered  round 
both  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  forms  of  it,  which  he 
subjects  to  a  searching  and  ingenious  criticism.  "The 
new  Christian  organization  will  deduce  the  temporal  insti- 
tutions as  well  as  the  spiritual  from  the  principle  that  all 


198 


SAINT-SIMON 


men  should  act  towards  one  another  as  brethren."  Ex- 
pressing the  same  idea  in  modern  language,  Saint-Simon 
propounds  as  the  comprehensive  formula  of  the  new 
Christianity  this  precept — "The  whole  of  society  ought 
to  strive  towards  the  amelioration  of  the  moral  and 
physical  existence  of  the  poorest  class ;  society  ought  to 
organize  itself  in  the  way  best  adapted  for  attaining  this 
end."  This  principle  became  the  watchword  of  the  entire 
school  of  Saint-Simon ;  for  them  it  was  alike  the  essence 
of  religion  and  the  programme  of  social  reform. 

During  his  lifetime  the  views  of  Saint-Simon  had  very 
little  influence ;  and  he  left  only  a  very  few  devoted 
disciples,  who  continued  to  advocate  the  doctrines  of  their 
master,  whom  they  revered  as  a  prophet.  An  important 
departure  was  made  in  1828  by  Hazard,  who  gave  a 
".complete  exposition  of  the  Saint-Simonian  faith  "  in  a 
long  course  of  lectures  at  Paris  in  the  Rue  Taranne.  In 
1830  Bazard  and  Enfantin  were  acknowledged  as  the  heads 
of  the  school ;  and  the  fermentation  caused  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  July  of  the  same  year  brought  the  whole  movement 
prominently  before  the  attention  of  France.  Early  next 
year  the  school  obtained  possession  of  the  Globe  through 
Pierre  Leroux,  who  had  joined  the  school,  which  now 
numbered  some  of  the  ablest  and  most  promising  young 
men  of  France,  many  of  the  pupils  of  the  6cole  Poly- 
technique  having  caught  its  enthusiasm.  The  members 
formed  themselves  into  an  association  arranged  in  three 
grades,  and  constituting  a  society  or  family,  which  lived 
out  of  a  common  purse  in  the  Rue  Monsigny.  Before 
long,  however,  dissensions  began  to  arise  in  the  sect. 
Bazard,  a  man  of  kigical  and  more  solid  temperament, 
coidd  no  longer  work  in  harmony  vnth.  Enfantin,  who 
desired  to  establish  an  arrogant  and  fantastic  sacerdotalism 
with  lax  notions  as  to  marriage  and  the  relation  of  the 
sexes.  After  a  time  Bazard  seceded  and  many  of  the 
strongest  supporters  of  the  school  followed  his  example. 
A  series  of  extravagant  entertainments  given  by  the  society 
during  the  winter  of  1832  reduced  its  financial  resources 
and  greatly  discredited  it  in  character.  They  finally  re- 
moved to  ilenilmontant,  to  a  property- of  Enfantin,  where 
they  lived  in  a  communistic  .society,  distinguished  by  a 
peculiar  dress.  Shortly  after  the  chiefs  were  tried  and 
condemned  for  proceedings  prejudicial  to  the  social  order ; 
and  the  sect  was  entirely  broken  up  (1832).  Many  of  its 
members  became  famous  as  engineers,  economists,  and  men 
of  business.  The  idea  of  constructing  the  Suez  Canal,  as 
carried  out  by  Lesseps,  proceeded  from  the  school. 

In  the  school  of  Saint-Simon  we  fintl  a  gi-eat  advance  both  in  the 
breadth  and  firmness  with  which  tlie  vague  and  confused  views  of 
the  master  are  developed  ;  and  this  progress  is  dne  chiefly  to  Bazard. 
In  the  philosophy  of  history  they  recognize  epochs  of  two  kinds, 
the  critical  or  negative  and  the  organic  or  constructive.  The 
former,  in  wliich  philosopliy  is  the  dominating  force,  is  charac- 
terized by  war,  egotism,  and  anarchy ;  the  latter,  which  is  controlled 
by  religion,  is  marked  by  the  spirit  of  obedience,  demotion,  associa- 
tion. The  two  spii-its  of  antagonism  and  association  are  the  two 
great  social  principles,  and  on  the  degree  of  prevalence  of  the  two 
depends  the  character  of  an  epoch.  The  spirit  of  association,  how- 
ever, tends  more  and  more  to  prevail  over  its  opponent,  extending 
from  the  family  to  the  city,  from  the  city  to  the  nation,  and  from 
the  nation  to  the  federation.  This  principle  of  association  is  to  be 
the  keynote  of  the  social  development  of  the  future.  Hitherto  the 
law  of  humanity  has  been  the  "  exploitation  of  man  by  man  "  in  its 
three  stages,  slavery,  serfdom,  the  proletariat ;  in  the  future  the 
aim  must  be  "the  exploitation  of  the  globe  by  man  associated  to 
man."  Under  the  present  system  the  industrial  chief  still  exploits 
the  proletariat,  the  members  of  which,  though  nominally  free,  must 
accept  his  terms  under  pain  of  starvation.  This  state  of  things  is 
consolidated  by  the  law  of  inheritance,  whereby  the  instruments  of 
production,  which  are  private  property,  and  all  the  attendant  social 
advantages  .ire  transmitted  without  regard  to  personal  merit.  The 
social  disadvantages  being  also  transmitted,  miseiy  becomes  he;e- 
ditary.  The  only  renjcdy  for  this  is  the  abolition  of  the  law  of 
inheritance,  and  the  nnion  of  all  the  instruments  of  labour  in  a 
cocial  fund,  which  shall  be  explaltod  by  association.     Society  thus 


becomes  sole  proprietor,  intrusting  to  social  groups  and  social  func- 
tionaries-the  management  of  the  various  properties.  The  right  ol 
succession  is  transferred  from  the  family  to  the  state.  The  sclwoj 
of  Saint -Simon  insists  strongly  on  the  claims  of  merit;  they 
advocate  a  social  hierarchy  in  which  each  man  shall  be  placed 
according  to  his  capacity  and  rewarded  according  to  his  works. 
This  is,  indeed,  a  most  special  and  pronounced  feature  of  the  Saint- 
Simon  socialism,  whose  theory  of  government  is  a  kind  of  spiritual 
or  scientific  autocracy,  degenerating  into  the  fantastic  sacerdotalism 
of  Enfantin.  With  regard  to  the  family  and  the  relation  of  the 
sexes  the  school  of  Saint-Simon  advocated'  the  complete  emancipa- 
tion of  woman  and  her  entire  equality  with  man.  Th^  "social 
individual  "  is  man  ancl^'oman,  who  are  associated  in  the  exercise 
of  the  triple  function  of  religion,  the  state,  and  the  family.  la  its 
official  declarations  the  school  maintained  the  sanctity  of  the  Chiis- 
tian  law  of  mai-riage.  On  this  point  Knfantin  fell  into  a  pnuient 
and  fantastic  latitudinarianism,  which  made  the  school  a  scandal 
to  France,  but  mary  of  the  most  prominent  members  besides  Bazard 
refused  to  follow  him.  Connected  with  these  doctrines  was  their 
famous  theory  of  the  "rehabilitation  of  the  flesh,"  deduced  from 
the  philosophic  theory  of  the  school,  which  was  a  species  of  Pan- 
theism, though  they  repudiated  the  name.  On  this  theory  they 
rejected  the  dualism  so  much  emphasized  by  Catholic  Christianity 
in  its  penances  and  mortifications,  and  held  that  the  body  should 
be  restored  to  its  due  place  of  honour.  It  is  a  vague  principle  of 
which  the  ethical  character  depends  on  the  interpretation  ;  and  it 
was  variously  interpreted  in  the  school  of  Saint -Simon.  It  was 
certainly  immoral  as  held  by  Enfantin,  by  whom  it  was  developed 
into  a  kind. of  sensual  mysticism,  a  system  of  free  love  with  a  reli- 
gious sanction. 

An  excellent  edition  of  the  works  of  Saint-Simon  and  Enfantin  was  begun  by 
survivors  of  the  sect  in  Paris  (1S65),  and  now  numbers  forty  vols.  Bee  Re.vbaud, 
Etudes  sur  hs  m/oj-motcurs  vwderues  ("til  edition,  Paris,  1864);  J.inet,'5rtiH(- 
Simoii  et  Ic  Saint-Simoaisiiit  (Paris,  1S78)  ;  A.  J.  Booth,  Satnt-Sivton  and  .saint- 
5imo«is7fi  (I.ondon,  1S71X  (T.  K.) 

SAINT-SIMON,  Louis  de  RoimtAY  (or  RotJVEoy), 
Due  DE  (1675-1755),  was  born  at  Versailles  on  16th 
January  1075.  He  was  the  son  of  Claude  de  Saint-Simon, 
who  represented  a  family  which  had  been  established  for 
many  centuries  at  La  Fert6  Vidame,  between  Mortagne 
and  Dreux,  and  which  claimed  descent  from  Charlemagne. 
Claude  de  Saint-Simon  had  been  a  page  of  Louis  XIII., 
and,  gaining  the  king's  favour  as  a  sportsman,  had  received 
various  preferments  and  was  finally  created  due  et  jxiir. 
This  peerage  is  the  central  fact  in  Saint-Simon's  history, 
and  it  is  imi)0ssible  to  understand  him  without  under- 
standing it.  To  speak,  as  one  of  his  few  biographers  in 
English  has  spoken,  of  "a  young  duke  of  recent  creation," 
and  of  the  apparent  absurdity  of  such  a  young  duke  taking 
the  aristocratic  views  which  characterized  Saint -Simon 
through  life,  is  to  show  the  most  deplorable  ignorance  of 
the  facts.  The  French  peerage  vmder  the  old  rcjime  was 
a  very  pecrdiar  thing,  difficult  to  comprehend  at  all,  but 
quite  certain  to  be  miscomprehended  if  any  analogy  of  the 
English  peerage,  such  as  is  implied  in  the  observation  just 
quoted,  is  imported  into  the  consideration.  Ko  two  things 
could  be  more  different  in  France  than  ennobling  a  man 
and  making  him  a  peer.  No  one  was  made  a  peer  who 
was  not  ennobled,  but  men  of  the  noblest  blood  in  France 
and  representing  their  houses  might  not  be,  and  in  most 
cases  were  not,  peers.  Derived  at  least  traditionally  and 
imaginatively  from  the  doiue  pairs  of  Charlemagne,  the 
peers  were  supposed  to  rSJjresent  the  chosen  of  the  noblesse, 
and  gradually,  in  an  indefinite  and  constantly  disputed 
fashion,  became  associated  with  the  parlement  of  Paris 
as  a  quasi -legislative  (or  at  least  law -registering)  and 
directly  judicial  body.  But  the  peerage  was  further  com- 
plicated by  the  fact  that  not  persons  but  the  holders  of 
certain  fiefs  were  made  peers.  Strictly  speaking,  neither 
Saint-Simon  nor  any  one  else  in  the  same  case  was  made  a 
peer,  but  his  estate  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  duc/ie  2>aii-ie 
or  a  comte  paii-ie  as  the  case  might  be.  If  all  analogies 
were  not  deceptive,  the  nearest  idea  of  a  French  peerage  of 
the  old  kind  may  be  obtained  by  an  English  reader  if  he 
takes  the  dignity  of  a  Scotch  or  Irish  representative  peer, 
then  supposes  that  dignity  to  be  made  hereditary,  and 
then  limits  the  heritableness  of  it  not  merely  to  descet.t 


SAIN  T-S  I  M  O  N 


199 


but  to  the  tenure  in  direct  succession  of  certain  estates. 
It  must  of  course  be  understood  that  the  peers  were  not 
elected  but  nominated.  Still  they  were  in  a  way  a  stand- 
ing committee  representative  of  the  entire  body  of  nobles, 
and  it  was  Saint -Simon's  lifelong  ideal  and  at  times  his 
practical  effort  to  convert  them  into  a  sort  of  great  council 
of  the  nation.  These  remarks  are  almost  indispensable 
to  illustrate  his  Ufe,  to  which  we  may  now  return.  His 
mother,  Claude  de  Saint-Simon's  second  wife,  was  Charlotte 
de  I'Aubespine,  who  belonged  to  a  family  not  of  the 
oldest  nobility  but  which  had  been  distinguished  in  the 
public  service  ■  at  least  since  the  time  of  Francis  L  Her 
son  Louis  was  -well  educated,  to  a  great  extent  by  her- 
self, and  he  had  had  for  godfather  and  godmother  no 
less  persons  than  Louis  XLV.  and  the  queen.'  After  some 
tuition  by  the  Jesuits  (especially  by  Sanadon,  the  editor  of 
Horace),  he  betook  himself  in  1692,  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
to  the  career  of  arms,  entering  the  mousquetaires  t/ris. 
He  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Xamur,  and  next  year  his 
father  died.  He  still  continued  in  the  army  and  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Neerwinden.  But  it  was  at  this 
very  time  that  he  chose  to  begin  the  crusade  of  his  life  by 
instigating,  if  not  bringing,  an  action  on  the  part  of  the 
peers  of  France  against  Luxembourg,  his  victorious  general, 
on  a,  point  of  precedence.  He  fought,  however,  ancfther 
campaign  or  two  (not  under  Luxembourg),  and  in  1695 
married  Gabrielle  de  Durfort,  daughter  of  the  marechal 
de  Lorges,  under  whom  he  latterly  served.  He  seems  to 
have  regarded  her  with  a  respect  and  affection  not  very 
usual  between  husband  and  wife  at  the  time ;  and  she 
sometimes  succeeded  in  modifying  his  aristocratic  crotchets. 
But  as  he  did  not  receive  the  promotion  he  desired  he 
flung  up  his  commission  in  1702.  Louis,  who  was  already 
becoming  sensitive  on  the  point  of  militarj'  ill-success,  and 
who  was  not  likely  to  approve  Saint-Simon's  litigiousness 
on  points  of  privilege,  took  a  dislike  to  him,  and  it  was 
only  indirectly  and  by  means  of  establishing  interest  with 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans  that  he  was  able  to 
keep  something  of  a  footing  at  court.  He  was,  however, 
intensely  interested  in  all  the  transactions  of  Versailles, 
and  by  dint  of  a  most  heterogeneous  collection  of  instru- 
ments, ranging  from  dukes  to  servants,  he  managed  to 
obtain  the  extraordinary  secret  information  which  he  has 
handed  down  to  us  about  almost  every  event  and  every  per- 
sonage of  the  last  twenty  years  of  the  "grand  monarque." 
His  own  part  appears  to  have  been  entirely  subordinate. 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Rome  in  170D,  but  the 
appointment  was  cancelled  before  he  started.  At  last  he 
attached  himself  to  the  duke  of  Orleans  and,  though  this 
was  hardly  likely  to  conciliate  Louis's  good  will  to  him, 
it  gave  him  at  least  (what  was  of  the  first  importance  in 
that  intriguing  court)  the  status  of  belonging  to  a  definite 
party,  and  it  eventually  placed  him  in  the  position  of  tried 
friend  to  the  acting  chief  of  the  state.  He  was  able,  more- 
over, to  combine  attachment  to  the  duko  of  Burgundy  with 
that  to  the  duke  of  Orleans.  Both  attachments  were  no 
doubt  all  the  more  sincere  because  of  his  undying  hatred 
to  "  the  bastards,"  that  is  to  say,  the  illegitimate  sons  of 
Louis  XIV.  It  does  not  appear  that  this  hatred  was 
founded  on  moral  reasons  or  on  any  real  fear  that  these 
bastards  would  be  intruded  into  the  succession.  The  true 
cause  of  his  wrath  was  that  they  had  precedence  of  the  peers. 
The  death  of  Louis  seemed  to  give  Saint-Simon  a  chance 
of  realizing  his  hopes.  The  duke  of  Orleans  was  at  once 
acknowledged  regent  and  Saint -Simon  was  of  the  council 
of  regency,  but  no  steps  were  taken  to  carry  out  his 
favourite  vision  of  a  France  ruled  by  the  nobles  for  its 
good  (it  must  always  be  understood  that  Saint -Simon's 
ideal  was  in  no  respect  an  aristocratic  tyranny  except  of 
the  l»eneficent  kind),  and  he  had  little  real  influence  with 


the  regent.  He  was  mdeed  gratified  by  the  degradation  of 
"the  bastards,"  and  in  1721  he  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  Spain  to  arrange  for  the  marriage  (not  destined  to  take 
place)  of  Louis  XV.  and  the  infanta.  His  visit  was 
splendid;  he  received  the  grandeeship,  and,  though  he 
also  caught  the  smallpox,  he  was  quite  satisfied  with  the 
business.  After  his  return  he  had  little  to  do  with  public 
affairs.  His  own  account  of  the  cessation  of  his  intimacy 
with  Orleans  and  Dubois,  the  latter  of  whom  had  never 
been  his  friend,  is,  like  his  own  account  of  some  other 
events  of  his  life,  obscure  and  rather  suspicious.  But  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  he  was  practically  ousted  by  the 
favourite.  He  survived  for  more  than  thirty  years  ;  but 
little  is  known  of  his  life.  Hb  wife  d'ed  in  1743,  his 
eldest  son  a  little  later ;  he  had  other  family  troubles,  and 
he  was  loaded  with  debt.  'WTien  he  died,  at  Paris  on  2d 
March  1755,  he  had  almost  entirely  outlived  his  ovra 
generation  (among  whom  he  had  been  one  of  the  youngest) 
and  the  prosperity  of  his  house,  though  not  its  notoriety. 
This  last  was  in  strange  fashion  revived  by  a  distant  rela- 
tion born  five  years  after  his  own  death,  Claude  Henri, 
Comte  de  Saint-Simon,  the  subject  of  the  preceding  article. 

It  will  have  been  observed  that  the  actual  events  of  Saint-Simon's 
life,  long  as  it  was  and  higli  as  was  his  position,  are  neither  very 
numerous  nor  very  noteworthy.  If  nothing  more  had  been  known 
about  him  than  was  known  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  would 
certainly  not  have  deserved  mention  at  length  here.  Saint-Simon 
is,  however,  an  almost  unique  example  of  a  man  who  has  acquired 
great  literary  fame  entirely  by  posthumous  publications.  He  was 
an  indefatigable  writer,  and  not  merely  from  the  time  he  left  the 
army  but  much  earlier  he  began  to  set  down  in  black  and  white 
all  the  gossip  he  collected,  all  his  interminable  legal  disputes  of 
precedence,  and  a  vast  mass  of  vmclassified  and  almost  unclassifi- 
able  matter.  Most  of  his  manuscripts  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Government^  and  it  was  long  before  their  contents  were  pub- 
lished in  anything  like  fulness.  Extracts  and  abstracts,  however, 
leaked  out  and  parts  of  the  manuscript  were  sometimes  lent  tc 
privileged  persons,  so  that  some  notion  of  the  unique  value  of  Saint- 
Simon  got  abroad  within  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  his  death. 
Partly  in  the  form  of  notes  on  Dangeau's  Journal,  partly  in  that  ol 
original  and  independent  memoirs,  partly  in  scattered  and  multi- 
farious tracts  and  disquisitions,  he  had  committed  to  paper  an 
amount  of  matter  which  has  probably  never  been  exceeded  by  any 
one  except  a  professional  journalist,  if  indeed  the  parallel  will  hold 
even  there.  The  new  edition  now  publishing  of  the  Memoirs  with 
the  notes  on  Dangeau  is  estimated  to  contain  thirty  large  octavo 
volumes.  Besides  this,  JI.  Drumont,  M.  Faugere,  and  other  in- 
dependent workers  are  bringing  out  series  of  CEuvres  Iniditcs  of  a 
less  gossiping  and  more  technical  character  found  in  different  re- 
ceptacles of  the  public  archives.  But  the  mere  mass  of  these  pro- 
ductions is  their  least  noteworthy  feature,  or  rather  it  is  most 
remarkable  as  contrasting  with  their  character  and  style.  The 
voluminous  writer  is  usually  thought  of  as  least  likely  to  be 
characterized  by  an  original  and  sparkling  style.  Saint-Simon, 
though  careless  and  sometimes  even  ungrammatical,  ranks  among 
the  most  striking  memoir  writers  of  France,  the  country  richest 
in  memoirs  of  any  in  the  world.  His  pettiness,  his  abso!\ite 
injustice  to  his  private  enemies  and  to  those  who  espoused  public 
parties  with  which  he  did  not  agree,  the  bitterness  which  allows 
him  to  give  favourable  portraits  of  hardly  any  one,  his  omnivorous 
appetite  for  gossip,  his  lack  of  proportion  and  perspective,  are  all 
lost  sight  of  m  admiration  of  his  extraordinary  genius  for  historical 
narrative  and  character-drawing  of  a  certain  sort.  He  has  been 
compared  to  Tacitus,  and  for  once  the  comparison,  so  often  made 
aud  generally  so  ludicrously  out  of  place,  is  just.  In  the  mi  1st 
of  his  enormous  mass  of  writing  phrases  scarcely  inferior  to  the 
Roman's  occur  frequently,  and  here  and  there  passages  of  sustained 
description  equal  tor  intense  concentration  of  light  and  life  to  those 
of  Tacitus  or  of  any  other  historian.  As  may  bo  expected  from  tho 
vast  extent  of  his  work,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  unequal.  But 
he  is  at  the  same  time  not  a  writer  who  can  bo  "sampled"  easily, 
inasmuch  as  his  most  characteristic  phrases  sometimes  occur  in  the 
midst  of  long  stretches  of  quite  uninteresting  matter.  Hence  he 
has  been  even  since  his  discovery  more  praised  than  read,  and 
better  liked  by  critics  than  by  the  general  reader.  A  few  critical 
studies  of  him,  especially  those  of  Sainte-Beuve,  are  in  iact  the  basis 
of  much,  if  not  most,  that  has  been  written  about  him.  Yet  no 
one  is  so  little  to  be  taken  at  second-hand.  Even  his  most  famous 
passages,  such  as  the  account  of  the  death  of  the  dauphin  or  of 
the  bed  of  justice  where  his  enemy  the  duke  of  ilaiue  was  degraded, 
will  not  give  a  fair  idea  of  bis  talent    These  are  his  ealleiy  pieces, 


200 


S  A  I  —  S  x^  1 


his  great  "machines,"  as. French  art  slang  calls  them.  Much  more 
noteworthy  as  well  as  more  frequent  are  the  sudden  touches  which 
he  gives.  The  bishops  are  "cuistves  violets";  M.  de  Caumartin 
"  porte  sous  son  manteau  toute  la  fatuite  que  M.  de  ViUeroy  etale 
sur  son  bauJrier  ";  another  politician  has  a  "mine  de  chat  fache "; 
a  third  is  hit  off  as  "comptant  faire"  ("he  would  still  be  doing," 
though  Saint-Simon  certainly  did  not  know  that  phrase).  In  short, 
the  interest  of  the  Mcirwirs,  independent  of  the  large  addition  of 
positive  knowledge  which  they  make,  is  one  of  constant  surprise 
at  the  novel  and  adroit  use  of  word  and  phrase.  It  is  not  super- 
fluous to  inform  the  English  reader  that  some  of  Macaulay's  most 
brilliant  portraits  and  Sketches  of  incident  are  adapted  and  some- 
times almost  literally  translated  from  Saint-Simon. 

The  1st  edition  of  Saint-Simon  (some  scattered  pieces  may  have  been  printed 
t)efc:e)  appeared  in  178S.  It  v.'as  a  mero  selection  in  three  volumes  and  was 
much  cut  down  before  it  was  allowed  to  appear.  Nest  year  four  more  volumes 
made  their  appearance,  and  in  1791  a  new  edition,  still  further  increased.  The 
whole,  or  rather  not  the  whole,  was  printed  in  1829-30  and  reprinted  some  ten 
years  later.  The  real  creator  of  Saint-Simon,  as  lar  as  a  full  and  exact  test  is 
concerned,  was  M.  Ch6rue!,  whoso  edition  in  20  volumes  dates  frpm  1?56  and 
was  reissued  again  revised  in  1S72.  So  immense,  however,  is  the  mass  of  Saint- 
Simon's  MS3.  that  still  another  recension  has  been  found  necessary,  and  is  now 
being  published  by  H.  de  Boislisle  in  the  series  of  Graiids  Ecrivains,  but  with 
M.  Cheruel's  sanction  and  assistance.  Even  this,  as  above.noted,  will  not  ex. 
haust  available  Saint-Simoniana,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  will  be 
possible  for  many  years  to  place  a  complete  edition  on  the  shelves.  It  must, 
however,  be  admitted  that  the  matter  other  than  the  Memoirs  is  cf  altogether 
inlerior  interest  and  may  be  pretty  safely  neglected  by  any  one  but  professed 
antiquarian  and  historical  students.  For  criticism  on  Saint-Simon  there  is 
nothing  better  than  Sainte-Benve's  two  sketches  in  the  3d  and  15th  volumes  of 
the  Caxi^Tifs  du  Luiuti.  The  latter  was  written  to  accompany  M.  Ch^ruel's  Ist 
edition.  In  English  by  far  the  most  accurate  treatment  is  in  a  recent  Lothian 
pme  essay  bv  E.  Cannan  (Oxford  and  London,  ISSo).  (G.  SA.) 

ST  THOilAS,  one  of  the  Danisli  West  India  Islands, 
lies  36  miles  east  of  Porto  Rico  (Spanish)  and  40  north- 
north-west  of  St  Croix  (Danish),  with  its  principal  town 
(Charlotte  AmaUe)  in  18°  20'  27"  N.  lat.  and  64°  55'  40" 
W.  long.  It  is  13  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  3,  and  is  estimated  to  have  an  area  of 
33  square  miles.  The  highest  point,  West  Mountain,  is 
1586  feet  above  the  sea.  Previous  to  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  1848  the  island  was  covered  with  sugar  planta- 
tions and  cotted  with  substantial  mansions;  but  now  a 
few  vegetables,  a  little  fruit,  and  some  guinea  grass  are  all 
that  it  produces.  Greengroceries  are  imported  from  the 
United  Sta'ses,  poultry  and  eggs  from  the  neighbouring 
islands.  Nor  is  the  exceptional  position  which  St  Thomas 
has  hitherto  enjoyed  as  a  commercial  depot  any  longer 
secure;  the  value  of  the  imports  in  1880  was  less  than 
one-half  of  what  it  was  in  1870,  and  the  merchants  of 
Venezuela,  Porto  Rico,  Sau  Domingo,  .Hayti,  &c.,  who  used 
to  purchase  in  St  Thomas,  now  go  direct  to  the  markets 
of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  The  Royal  Mail  Com- 
pany, which  at  an  early  date  chose  the  island  as  the  princi- 
pal rendezvous  for  its  steam-packets  in  that  part  of  the 
world,  and  whose  example  was  followed  by  other  important 
lines,  removed  its  headquarters  to  Barbados  in  1885. 
The  harbour  lies  about  the  middle  of  the  south  coast  and 
is  nearly  landlocked  ;  its  depth  varies  from  36  to  18  feet. 
A  floating  dock,  250  feet  in  length,  was  completed  in  1875  ; 
there  is  in  addition  a  steam-slip  capable  of  taking  up  a 
vessel  of  1200  tons.  Along  the  north  side  of  the  harbour 
lies  Charlotte  Amalie,  popularly  known  as  St  Thomas,  the 
only  town  on  the  island.  In  1880  the  inhabitants  of  the 
island  numbered  14,389  (males  5757,  females  8632),  of 
whom  about  a  sixth  are  white,  of  various  nationalities ; 
the  rest  have  nearly  all  more  or  less  of  Negro  blood. 
English  has  gradually  become  almost  the  exclusive  lan- 
guage of  the  educated  classes,  and  is  used  in  the  schools 
and  churches  of  all  the  various  communities.  The  curious 
Creole  speech  of  the  Negroes,  which  contained  a  mixtiu-e 
of  broken  Dutch,  Danish,  English,  &c.,  though  it  was  re- 
duced to  writing  by  the  Moravian  missionaries  subsequent 
to  1770,  is  rapidly  dying  out.^  About  a  third  of  the  popu- 
lation are  Roman  Catholics,  arid  the  rest  mainly  Protestants 
of  the  Lutheran,  Dutch  Reformed,  Moravian,  and  English 
Episcopal  Churches.  The  Jewish  commvmity,  500  or  600 
strong,  has  a  synagogue.      There  are  in  the  town  two 

■  See  specimens  and  analysts  by  Dr  E.  Pontoppidan,  in  Ztschr.  f. 
EOtnd.,  Berlin,  1881. 


hospitals,  a  public  reading-room  and  library,  a  Government 
college  (1877),  a  Roman  Catholic  college  (St  Thomas),  a 
Moravian  school,  and  a  small  theatre.  A  quarantine  laza- 
retto is  maintained  on  Lighthouse  or  Muhlenfeldt  Point. 
The  general  health  of  the  town  is  good.  The  climate 
varies  Uttlo  all  the  year  round,  the  thermometer  seldom 
falling  below  70°  or  rising  above  90°.  In  the  "  hurricane  " 
months — August,  September,  and  October — south  winds, 
accompanied  by  sultry  heat,  rain,  and  thunder,  are  not  im- 
common ;  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year  the  wind  blows 
between  east  and  north.  Earthquakes  are  not  unfrequent, 
but  they  do  little  damage  in  comparison  with  cyclones, 
which  sometimes  sweep  over  the  island. 

St  Thomas  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493,  and  at  that 
time  was  inhabited  by  two  tribes,  the  Caribs  and  t>-Q  Arrowauks. 
In  1657  it  was  colonized  by  the  Dutch,  and  after  their  departure 
for  New  York  it  was  held  by  the  English  in  1667.  The  Danish 
West  India  and  Guinea  Jompany  took  possession  in  1671,  and 
some  eight  years  later  began  the  introduction  of  slave  labour.  It 
was  sncceeded  in  16S5  by  the  so-called  Brandenburgh  Company, 
the  principal  shareholders  of  which  wera  Dutch.  The  colony  was 
strengthened  by  French  refugees  from  St  Christopher's  after  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  The  neutrality  of  Denmark  led 
to  the  prizes  of  the  various  belligerents  being  brought  to  its  port  for 
sale.  In  1754  the  king  of  Denmai'k  took  the  management  of  the 
colony  into  his  own  hands,  ind  in  1764  he  threw. open  the  port  to 
vessels  of  all  nations.  The  neutrality  of  Denmark  again  favoured 
it  in  the  war  of  1792 ;  and  it  became  the  only  market  in  the  "West 
Indies  from  which  the  producb  of  the  colonies  could  be  conveyed 
to  the  north  of  Europe.  In  1801  the  island  was  held  by  the  British 
for  ten  mouths,  and  it  was  again  in  their  possession  from  the  latt«r 
part  of  1807  to  1S15.  At  that  time  the  harbour  was  three  or  four 
times  a  year  the  rendezvous  for  homeward-bound  English  ships, 
from  2C0  to  400,  as  the  case  might  be,  which  waited  there  for  their 
convoys.  The  South  American  War  of  Independence  led  a  number 
of  Spaniards  to  settle  at  St  Thomas.  A  great  but  temporary  stimulus 
was  given  to  its'  commerce  during  the  American  (JivU  War.  In 
1871  the  Danish  Government  removed  the  headqxiarters  of  their 
West  India  possessions  from  St  Croix  to  St  Thomas. 

ST  THOMAS  (Portuguese,  Sao  Thome),  a  volcanic  island 
in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  (West  Africa),  lies  immediately 
north  of  the  equator  and  in  6°  40'  E.  long.  From  the 
Gaboon,  the  nearest  point  of  jthe  mainland,  the  distance  is 
166  miles,  and  from  the  Cameroons  297.  The  extreme 
length  of  the  island  is  32  miles  and  the  breadth  from  west 
to  east  21 ;  the  area  is  estimated  at  355  square  mUes. 
From  the  coast  it  rises  pretty  uniformly  towards  the  lofty 
and  verdant  mountains,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  peak  of 
St  Thomas  towers  to  a  height  of  6000  feet.  At  least  a 
hundred  streams  great  and  small  rush  down  the  mountain- 
sides through  deep-cut  ravines,  many  of  them  forming 
beautiful  waterfalls,  such  as  those  of  Blu-blu,  &c.,  on  the 
Agua  Grande.  The  bi-seasonal  climate  of  the  tropics  ob- 
tains a  comparatively  normal  development  on  the  island, 
which,  however,  has  a  very  evil  repute  of  unhealthiness, 
probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  chief  iovnx  occupies  a 
peculiarly  malarial  site  on  the  coast.  The  first  object  of 
European  cultivation  in  St  Thomas  was  sugar,  and  to  this 
the  colony  owed  its  prosperity  in  the  1 6th  century ;  but 
now  it  is  quite  displaced  by  coffee  and  cocoa,  introduced 
in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  In,  187 9-80  the 
e.xport  of  coffee  was  3,778,580  Bb  and  of  cocoa  1,026,746 
Bj.  Vanilla  and  cinchona  bark  both  succeed  well,  the  latter 
between  1800  and  3300  feet  of  altitude.  Though  nearly 
the  whole  surface  of  the  island  is  fitted  for  cultivation,  only 
about  a  fifth  part  is  really  turned  to  accotmt.  Along  with 
Principe,  St  Thomas  forms  a  Portuguese  province,  to  which 
are  attached  the  little  island  of  Rolas  and  the  petty  fort  of 
Ajuda  on  the  Guinea  coast. 

The  town  of  St  Thomas,  the  capital  of  the  province,  is  situated  on 
the  north-east  coast  of  the  island,  and  the  neighbouring  districts 
form  the  only  weU-peopled  region.  In  1878  the  population  in  the 
island  was  18,266,  of  whom  1200  were  v.'hite;  The  great  bulk  con- 
sisted of  a  mi-vture  of  Negi-oes  from  various  parts  of  the  West 
Coast;  mainly  introduced  as  slaves,  and  now  all  using  a  Negro 
Portuguese — "lingua  de  S.  Thome."    On  the  south -wett  coast  aro. 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


201 


aboQt  1200  Angolares,  descendants  of  a  shipload  of  Angola  slaves 
i^recked  at  Sete  Pedras  in  1544,  who  still  retain  their  Bunda  speech 
and  peculiar  customs. 

St  Thomas  was  discovered  about  the  close  of  1470  by  the  Portu- 
guese navigators  Joao  de  Santarem  and  Pero  de  Escobar,  who  in 
the  beginning  of  the  following  year  discovered  Annobom  {"  Good 
Year  ").  They  found  St  Thomas  uninhabited.  The  first  attempts 
at  colonization  were  Joao  de  Paiva's  in  1485  ;  but  nothing  perma- 
nent was  accomplished  till  1493,  when  a  body  of  criminals  and  of 
young  Jews  torn  from  their  parents  to  be  baptized  were  sent  to  the 
island,  and  the  present  capital  was  founded  by  Alvaro  de  Carminha. 
Considerable  progress  had  been  nlado  by  the  16th  century  ;  but  in 
1567  the  settlement  was  attacked  by  the  French,  and  in  1574  the 
Angolares  began  those  raids  which  only  ended  with  their  subjuga- 
tion in  1693.  In  1595  there  was  a  slave  revolt ;  and  from  1641  to 
1644  the  Dutch,  who  had  plundered  the  capital  in  1600,  held  pos- 
session of  the  island.  The  French  did  great  damage  in  1709  ;  and 
in  the  course  of  the  century  internal  anarchy  reduced  St  Thomas 
tq  a  deplorable  state. 

6ee  Dr  GreefTs  papers  in  Petermann's  MUieUungen^  1834,  and  Globus,  1882, 
voL  xliL 

SAINT-VICTOR,  Paul  de  (1827-1883),  one  of  the 
.  chief  masters  of  a  very  ornate  style  in  recent  French  litera- 
ture, was  bom  at  Paris  in  1827  and  died  there  in  1883. 
He  was  of  noble  birth  and  inherited  the  title  of  count,  but 
rarely  used  it,  his  political  principles  being  democratic. 
Saint-Victor  began  as  a  dramatic  critic  on  the  Pays  in 
1851  and  subsequently  wrote  in  many  journals.  In  1870, 
during  the  last  days  of  the  second  empire,  he  was  made 
inspector-general  of  fine  arts.  Almost  all  Saint-Victor's 
work  consists  of  reprinted  articles,  the  best  known,  and  on 
the  whole  the  best,  being  the  collection  entitled  Hommes 
et  Dieux  (1867).  His  death  interrupted  the  publication 
of  an  elaborate  work,  partly  reprinted,  partly  developed 
from  formerly  printed  papers,  entitled  Les  Deux  Masques, 
in  which  the  author  intended  to  survey  the  whole  dramatic 
literature  of  ancient  and  modem  times.  Saint-Victor's 
actual  critical  faculty  was  considerable,  though  rather  one- 
sided ;  but  his  position  in  French  literature  is  likely  to 
be,  in  an  inferior  degree,  something  like  that  of  Mr  Ruskin 
in  English.  He  owed  a  good  deal  to  Th*ophile  Gautier, 
but  he  carried  ornateness  to  a  pitch  far  beyond  Gautier's, 
— a  pitch  which  may  sometimes  deserve  the  epithet 
"  barbaric." 

ST  VINCENT,  an  island  in  the  Wes,,  Indies,  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1498,  is  situated  in  13°  10'  N.  lat.  and 
60°  57'  W.  long.,  100  miles  to  the  west  of  Barbados;  it 
is  18  miles  in  length,  11  in  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of 
132  square  miles.  Volcanic  hills  cross  the  island  from 
north  to  south,  intersected  by  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys. 
In  the  north-west  is  the  Souffriere,  a  volcanic  mountain 
(3000  feet),  of  which  the  last  violent  eruption  was  in 
1812  ;  the  crater  is  3  miles  in  circumference  and  500  feet 
in  depth.  The  climate  is  humid  and  tolerably  healthy 
(average  rainfall  nearly  80  inches).  In  1627,  when  Charles 
I.  granted  St  Vincent  to  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  it  was  peopled 
by  Caribs;  in  1672  it  was  given  to  Lord  Willoughby,  and 
in  1722  was  granted,  along  with  other  islands,  to  the 
duke  of  Montagu  by  George  I.  After  hostilities  with  the 
French  and  Caribs,  it  passed  definitively  to  Great  Britain 
in  1783.  Immigrants  were  afterwards  irttroduced  and 
plantations  cultivated ;  the  chief  products  are  sugar,  rum, 
molasses,  and  arrowroot.  The  capital  is  Kingstown  (popu- 
lation, 5593),  the  total  population  of  the  island  being 
42,200,  including  2700  Europeans  and  30,000  Africans. 
The  island  was  formerly  under  the  general  government  of 
the  Windward  Islands,  Barbados  being  headquarters ;  but 
in  1885  Barbados  was  made  a  separate  government,  and 
Grenada,  St  Vincent,  Tobago,  and  St  Lucia  were  placed 
under  a  governor.  The  legislative  council  of  St  Vincent 
s  composed  of  official  members  and  others  nominated  by 
the  crown.  In  18S3  the  revenue  and  expenditure  were 
respectively  £34,509  and  X32,962,  the  debt  being  £2840. 
The  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  was  172,989,  the  imports 


and  exports  being  valued  at  £148,286  and  £166,752  re- 
spectively (su£;ar  exports,  9250  tons). 

ST  VINCENT,  Sir  John  Jervis,  Earl  (1734-18:3),  a 
distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  at  Meaford,  Stafford- 
shire, on  9th  January  1734.  His  father  was  counsel  and 
solicitor  to  the  admiralty  and  treasurer  of  Greenwich  hos- 
pital. Young  Jervis  was  destined  for  the  law,  but  early 
showed  such  a  strong  predilection  for  the  sea  that  he  ran 
away  from  school  in  order  to  become  a  sailor.  Accordingly 
in  1748  he  was  placed  on  board  the  "Gloucester"  under 
Commodore  Townsend.  Six  years  later  he  rose  to  be  lieu- 
tenant, and  in  1759  he  distinguished  himself  so  much  at 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Quebec  that  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  commander.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
made  a  post-captain.  He  commanded  the  "Foudroyant" 
in  July  1778,  when  the  memorable  rencontre  took  place  be- 
tween Admiral  Keppel  and  Count  d'OrvUliers,  and  bore  a 
very  distinguished  part  in  that  action.  In  1782,  while  in 
command  of  the  same  vessel,  he  captured  the  French  ship 
"  Pegase,"  of  74  guns  and  700  men,  off  Brest  Harbour,  and 
was  rewarded  for  his  exploit  by  being  made  Knight  Com- 
panion of  the  Bath.  In  1784  he  entered  parliament  as 
member  for  Launceston,  and  he  afterwards  sat  for  Yar- 
mouth. Conjointly  with  Sir  Charles  Grey,  Jervis  was 
apjpointed  to  command  an  expedition  sent  out  in  1793 
against  the  French  Caribbee  islands,  and,  though  the  rainy 
season  and  the  yellow  fever  prevented  the  full  success  of 
the  British,  they  were  able  to  obtain  possession  of  Mar- 
tinique and  St  Lucia,  and  to  hold  Guadaloupe  for  a  short 
time.  In  1795  Jervis  became  full  admiral  and  succeeded 
Lord  Hood  in  command  of  the  British  fleet  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, where  he  rendered  important  service  in  blockad- 
ing the  French  fleet  in  Toulon,  and  protecting  English  trade 
in  the  Levant.  On  14th  February  1797  he  won  his  luost 
celebrated  victory.  With  only  fifteen  ships  of  the  line, 
seven  frigates,  and  two  sloops  he  encountered  off  Cape  St 
Vincent  a  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-six  sail  of  the  line,  twelve 
frigates,  and  a  brig,  and  completely  defeated  it,  capturing 
four  of  the  enemy's  largest  ships.  For  this  great  triuipph, 
which  had  a  most  important  effect  on  the  prosecution  of 
the  war,  Jervis  was  created  a  peer  by  the  title  of  Earl 
St  Vincent.  He  still  further  distinguished  himself  some 
months  later  by  his  resolute  and  sagacious  conduct  in  re- 
pressing a  mutiny  in  his  fleet  when  off  Cadiz.  In  June 
1799  he  resigned  his  command  in  consequence  of  ill-health, 
but  was  shortly  afterwards  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Channel  fleet.  On  the  formation  of  the  Addington  ministry 
in  1801  he  was  made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in 
that  important  office,  which  he  held  for  three  years,  the 
great  capacity  for  business  with  which  he  was  endowed'  by 
nature  shone  forth  in  all  its  lustre.  By  means  of  the  cele- 
brated commission  of  naval  inquiry  he  was  enabled  to  ex- 
pose a  vast  extent  of  corruption  in  the  public  service  and  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  a  system  of  economical  administration. 
He  grappled  boldly  with  the  monstrous  and  deep-rooted 
abuses  brought  to  Ught,  and  by  his  vigour,  honesty,  and 
energy  succeeded  in  rectifying  them.  In  1806,  at  the  age 
of  seventy-two,  Lord  St  Vincent  was  again  called  upon  to 
take  the  command  of  the  Channel  fleet  and  to  head  an 
expedition  to  the  court  of  Portugal,  in  which  he  displayed 
great  talents  and  address.  Advanced  ago  and  impaired 
health  led  to  his  final  retirement  from  public  life  in  1807, 
but  he  survived  till  13th  March  1823,  when  he  died  in  his 
ninetieth  year. 

See  Brcnton,  Life  of  Earl  St  Vincent ;  Lord  Brougham,  States- 
men of  the  Times  of  Ocorqc  III. 

St  VITUS'S  DANCE,'  or  Chorea,  a  disorder  of  the 
1  This   name   was   originally  tmploycd   in  connexion  with   those 
remarkable  epidemic  outbursts  of  combined  mcnt-.l  and  physical  ex- 
citement which  fjF  a  time  prevailed  among  the  inhabitants  of  some 
parts  of  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages.     It  is  stated  that  si]frercr'  fiom 

XXI.  —  26 


202 


ST     VITUS'S      DAJNCE 


nervous  system  occurring  for  the  most  part  in  children, 
and  characterized  mainly  by  invoUintai-y  jerking  move- 
ments of  tho  muscles  throughout  almost  the  entire  body. 
It  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  functional  nervous  disorder  of 
■wide  exter  t,  tho  manifestations  of  which  appear  not 
merely  in  disturbance  affecting  the  motor  apparatus  but 
in  various  associated  irorbid  phenomena  of  cerebral  origin. 
Among  the  jiredisposing  causes  age  is  important,  chorea 
being  essentially  an  ailment  of  childhood  and  more  par- 
ticularly of  tho  period  in  which  the  second  dentition  is 
taking  place.  The  greater  number  of  the  cases  occiu' 
between  the  ages  of  nine  and  twelve.  It  is  not  often  seen 
in  very  ypung  children  nor  after  puberty ;  but  there  are 
many  exceptions  to  this  rule.  It  is  twice  as  frequent  with 
girls  as  with  boys.  Hereditary  predisposition  to  nervous 
troubles  is  apt  to  find  expression  in  this  malady  in  youth, 
more  especially  if  the  general  health  becomes  lowered.  Of 
exciting  causes  strong  emotions,  such  as  fright,  ill-usage 
or  hardship  of  any  kind,  insufficient  feeding,  overwork  or 
anxiety,  are  among  the  most  common ;  while,  again,  some 
distant  source  of  irritation,  such  as  teething  or  intestinal 
worms,  appears  capable  of  giving  rise  to  an  attack.  It  is 
an  occasional  but  rare  complication  of  pregnancy.  The 
connexion  of  chorea  with  rheumatism  is  now  universally 
recognized,  and  is  shown  not  merely  by  its  frequent  occur- 
rence before,  after,  or  during  the  course  of  attacks  of 
rheumatic  fever  in  young  persons,  but  even  independently 
of  this  by  the  liability  of  the  heart  to  suffer  in  a  similar 
way  in  the  two  diseases. 

The  symptoms  of  St  Vitus's  dance  are  in  some  instances 
developed  suddenly  as  the  result  of  fright,  but  much  more 
frequently  they  come  on  insidiously.  They  are  usually 
preceded  by  changes  in  the  temper  and  disposition,  the 
child  becoming  sad,  irritable,  and  emotional,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  general  health  is  somewhat  impaired.  The 
first  thing  indicative  of  the  disease  is  a  certain  awkward- 
ness or  fidgetiness  of  manner  together  with  restlessness, 
the  child  being  evidently  unable  to  continue  quiet,  but 
frequently  moving  the  Umbs  into  different  positions.  In 
walking,  too,  slight  dragging  of  one  limb  may  be  noticed. 
The  convulsive  muscular  movements  usually  first  show 
themselves  in  one  part,  such  as  an  arm  or  a  leg,' and  in 
some  instances  they  may  remain  localized  to  that  limited 
extent,  while  in  all  cases  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  dis- 
orderly symptoms  to  be  more  marked  on  one  side  than  on 
the  other.  When  fully  developed  the  phenomena  of  the 
disease  are  very  characteristic.  The  child  when  standing 
or  sitting  is  never  still,  but  is  constantly  changing  the 
position  of  the  body  or  limbs  in  consequence  of  the  sudden 
and  incoordinate  action  of  muscles  or  groups  of  them. 
The  shoulder  is  jerked  up,  the  head  and  trunk  twisted 
about,  the  limbs  crossed  suddenly  and  changed  again,  the 
fingers  keep  moving  restlessly,  while  the  face  is  distorted 
with  .grimaces,  frowning  and  smiling  irregularly.  These 
symptoms  are  aggravated  when  purposive  movements 
are  attempted  or  when  the  child  is  watched.  Speech  is 
affected  both  from  the  incoordinate  movements  of  the 
tongue  and  from  phonation  sometimes  taking  place  during 
;»,n  act  of  inspii'ation.  The  taking  of  food  becomes  a 
matter  of  difficulty,  since  much  of  it  is  lost  in  the  attempts 
to  convey  it  to  the  mouth,  while  swallowing  is  also  inter- 
fered with  owing  to  the  irregular  action  of  the  pharyngeal 
"iiiscles.  \Vhen  the  tongue  is  protruded  it  comes  out  in  a 
jerky  manner  and  is  immediately  withdrawn,  the  jaws  at 
the  same  time  closing  suddenly  and  sometimes  >vith  con- 
this  danciug  mania  were  wont  to  resort  to  the  chapeh  of  St  Vitus 
(more  than  one  in  Swabia),  the  saint  being  believed  to  possess  the  power 
c-  curing  "them.  The  transference  of  the  name  to  the  disease  now  under 
consideration  was  a  manifest  error,  but  so  closely  lias  the  association 
BOW  become  that  the  original  application  of  the  term  has  been  com- 
iv^otively  obscured. 


siderable  force.  In  locomotion  tho  muscles  of  the  limbs 
act  incoordinately  and  there  is  a  marked  alteration  of  the 
gait,  which  is  now  halting  and  now  leaping,  and  tho  child 
may  bo  tripped  by  one  limb  being  suddenly  jerked  in 
front  of  the  other.  In  short,  whether  at  rest  or  in  motion 
tho  whole  muscidar  system  is  seen  to  be  deranged  in  its 
operationsj  and  the  term  "  insanity  of  the  muscles "  not 
inaptly  expresses  the  condition,  for  they  no  longer  act  in 
harmony  or  with  purpose,  but  seem,  as  Trousseau  ex- 
presses it,  each  to  have  a  will  of  its  own  and  to  be  exercis- 
ing this  for  different  objects  at  one  time.  The  muscles  of 
organic  life  (involuntary  muscles)  appear  scarcely,  if  at 
all,  affected  in  this  disease,  as,  for  example,  the  heart,  the 
rhythmic  movements  of  which  are  not  as  a  rule  iiupairei! 
But  the  heart  may  suffer  in  other  ways,  especially  ivya 
inflammatory  conditions  similar  to  tho.se  which  attem! 
upon  rheumatism  and  which  frequently  lay  the  foundation 
of  permanent  heart-disease.  In  severe  cases  ef  St  Vitus's 
dance  the  child  comes  to  present  a  distressing  appearance 
from  the  constant  restlessness  and  disorderly  movement, 
and  the  physical  health  declines.  Usually,  however,  there 
is  a  remission  of  the  symptoms  during  sleep.  The  mental 
condition  of  the  patient  is  more  or  less  affected,  as  shown  in 
emotional  tendencies,  irritability,  and  a  somewhat  fatuous 
expression  and  bearing,  but  this  change  is  in  general  of 
transient  character  and  ceases  with  convalescence. 

This  disease  occasionally  assumes  a  very  acute  and 
aggravated  fonn,  in  which  the  disorderly  movements  are 
so  violent  as  to  render  the  patient  liable  to  be  injured  and 
to, necessitate  forcible  control  of  the  limbs  or  the  employ- 
ment of  anesthetics  to  produce  unconsciousness.  Such 
cases  are  of  very  grave  character,  if,  as  is  common,  they 
are  accompanied  with  sleeplessness,  and  they  may  prove 
rapidly  fatal  by  exhaustion.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases  of  St  Vitus's  dance,  however,  complete  recovery  is  to 
be  anticipated  sopner  or  later,  the  symptoms  usually  con- 
tinuing for  from  one  to  two  months,  or  even  sometimes 
nrach  longer. 

The  nature  of  this  disease  has  given  rise  to  much  dis- 
cussion and  there  still  remains  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  its  true  pathology.  The  fact  that  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  recover  would  seem  to  show  that  there 
could  have  been  no  profound  change  in  the  structural 
integrity  of  the  nerve-centres,  while  in  those  instances 
where  a  fatal  result  takes  place  post-mortem  examination 
reveals  no  constant  morbid  condition.  A  theory  supported 
by  high  authority  has  referred  the  cause  of  the  malady  to 
the  plugging  up  of  minute  blood-vessels  in  the  motor 
centres  of  the  brain  (a  condition  not  unlikely  to  occur  in 
rheumatic  inflammation  affecting  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  heart),  and  such  a  change  has  been  seen  in  a  few 
instances.  In  a  still  larger  number,  however,  no  appear- 
ances of  this  kind  have  been  observed,  but  sinlply  vascular 
changes  of  a  congestive  character  widely  diffused  through- 
sut  the  central  nervous  system,  accompanied  with  evidences 
of  slight  inflammatory  action.  Dr  Dickinson,  whose  views, 
founded  upon  carefully  conducted  investigations,  are  those 
most  widely  accepted,  concludes  as  follows  :  "  We  see  in 
chorea  a  widely  distributed  hyperannia  [i.e.,  congestion]  of 
the  nervous  centres,  not  due  to  any  mechanical  mischance, 
but  produced  mainly  by  causes  of  two  kinds, —  one  a 
morbid,  probably  a  humoral  influence,  which  may  affect 
the  nervous  centres  as  it  affects  other  organs  and  tissues  ; 
the  other,  irritation  in  some  mode  usuaHy  mental  but  some- 
times what  is  called  reflex,  which  especially  belongs  to  and 
disturbs  the  nervous  systen),  and  affects  persons  differently, 
according  to  the  inherent  mobility  of  their  nature." 

For  the  treatment  of  St  Vitus's  dance  the  remedies  pro- 
posed have, been  innumerable,- but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  of  them  have  much  control  over  the  disease,  which 


S  A  I  —  S  A  L 


203 


under  suitable  hygienic  conditions  tends  to  recover  Ol 
itself.  ■  These  conditions,  ^owever,  are  all-important,  and 
embrace  the  proper  feeding  of  the  child  with  nutritious 
light  diet,  the  absence  of  all  sources  of  excitement  and 
annoyance,  such  as  being  laughed  at  or  mocked  by  other 
children,  and  the  rectification  of  any  causes  of  irritation 
and  of  irregularities  in  the  general  health.  For  a  time, 
and  especially  if  the  symptoms  are  severe,  confinement  to 
the  house  or  even  to  bed  may  be  necessary,  but  as  soon  as 
possible  the  child  shoidd  be  talien  out  into  the  open  air 
and  gently  exercised  by  walking.  Of  medicinal  remedies 
the  most  serviceable  appear  to  be  zinc,  arsenic,  and  iron, 
especially  the  last  two,  which  act  as  tonics  to  the  system 
and  improve  tho  condition  of  the  blood.  They  should  be 
continued  during  the  whole  course  of  the  disease  and  con- 
valescence, if  they  do  not  disagree.  As  sedatives  in  cases 
of  sleeplessness,  bromide  of  potassium  and  chloral  are  of 
nse.  Many  other  agents,  such  as  conium,  belladonna, 
strychnia,  the  salts  of  silver,  <fcc.,  have  been  recommended, 
but  they  do  not  seem  to  possess  any  special  advantages. 
In  long-continued  cases  of  the  disease  much  benefit  will 
be  obtained  by  a  change  of  air  as  well  as  by  the  employ- 
ment of  moderate  gymnastic  exercises.  Beaiing  in  mind 
the  weakened  condition  of  the  muscles  as  the  result  of  the 
choreic  movements,  the  employment  of  friction  ahd  of 
electricity  is  also  likely  to  be  beneficial.  After  recovery 
the  general  health  of  the  child  should  for  a  long  time 
receive  attention,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  guard 
against  excitement,  excessive  study,  or  any  exhausting 
condition,  physical  or  mental,  from  the  fact  that  the 
disease  is  apt  to  recur  and  that  other  nervous -disorders 
still  more  serious  may  be  developed  from  it. 

In  the  rare  instances  of  the  acute  form  of  this  malady, 
where  the  convulsive  movements  are  unceasing  and  violent, 
the  only  measures  available  are  the  use  of  chloral  or 
chloroform  inhalation  to  produce  insensibility  and  muscular 
relaxation,  but  the  efi"ect  is  only  palliative  and  does  not 
prevent  tlie  fatal  result  which  in  most  such  cases  quickly 
supervenes.  (j.  O.  A.^ 

ST  UBES.     See  Setub.u-. 

SAIS.     See  Egypt,  vol.  vii.  p.  76S. 

SALADIN.     See  Egypt,  vol.  vii.  pp.  753-754. 

S.ILAJIANCA,  a  province  of  Spain,  which  until  1833 
formed  part  of  that  of  Leon,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Zamora  and  Valladolid,  on  the  E.  by  Avila,  on  the  S.  by 
Caceres,  and  on  the  W.  by  Portugal.  It  has  an  area  of 
4940  square  miles.  The  population  in  1877  was  285,500; 
but  by  the  year  1886  it  was  estimated  that  it  had  decreased 
to  about  270,000.  Salamanca  belongs  almost  entirely  to 
the  basin  of  the  Douro,  its  principal  rivers  being  the 
Tormes,  which  follows  the.  general  slope  of  the  province 
towards  the  north-west,  and  after  a  course  of  135  miles 
flows  into  the  Douro,  which  forms  part  of  the  north-west 
boundary ;  the  Yeltes  and  the  Agueda,  also  tributaries  of 
the  Douro ;  and  tho  Alagon,  an  affluent  of  tho  Tagus.  The 
northern  part  of  the  province  is  flat,  and  at  its  lowest 
point  (on  the  Douro)  is  -188  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
highest  point  (in  the  Sierra  de  Pena  de  Francia)  is  5692 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  rainfall  is  irregular ;  but  where 
it  is  plentiful  the  soil  is  productive  and  there  are  good 
harvests  of  wine,  oil,  hemp,  and  cereals  of  all  kinds.  The 
corn  harvest  is  always  good,  rain  or  no  rain.  The  principal 
wealth  of  the  province  consists  in  the  iorests  of  oak  anil 
chestnut,  which  cover  the  hills  in  its  southern  part.  Sheep 
and  cattle  tklso  find  good  pasturage  there  ;  and  wool  and 
merino  of  medium  quality  are  giown.  Gold  is  found  in 
the  streams,  and  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  coal,  and  rock 
crystal  in  the  hills,  but  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  trans- 
port and  other  can.ses  the  mines  are  only  partially  de- 
veloped.    Tho  manufactures  of  the  province  are  few  and 


mostly  of  a  low  class,  intended  for  home  consumption, 
such  as  frieze,  coarse  cloth,  hats,  and  pottery.  The  cloth 
manufactories  of  Bejar  turn  out  a  material  of  superior 
quality.  The  tanning  of  hides  is  carried  on  pretty  exten- 
sively, and  cork  and  flour  are  exported  Wa  Santander  and 
Barcelona.  The  province  is  traversed  by  a  railway  line  to 
Portugal,  passing  Medina  del  Campo  and  Ciudad  Ptodrigo  to 
Figueira  da  Foz.  Administratively  the  province  is  divided 
into  eight  partidos  judiciales,  and  it  has  388  ayuntamientos; 
of  these  last  only  two  besides  Salamanca,  the  capital,  have 
a  population  exceeding  5000,— Bejar  (11,099)  and  Ciudad 
Rodrigo  (6856).  It  is  represented  in  the  cortes  by  three 
senators  and  seven  deputies.  Apart  froiti  that  of  Leon 
the  province  has  little  history  till  the  Peninsular  War, 
when  the  battles  of  Ciudad  Kodrigo,  Fuentes  de  Ouoro, 
and  Salamanca  were  fought  on  its  soil. 

SALAJLiJS'CA  {Sahnanh>a,  Elmantica),  the  capital  of 
the  above  province,  lies  on  the  banks  of  the  Tormes,  172 
miles  north-west  of  Madrid  by  rail.  The  river  is  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  500  feet  in  length  built  on  twenty-six 
arches,  fifteen  of  which  are  of  Roman  origin,  while  the 
remainder  date  from  the  16th  century.  The  town  was  of 
importance  in  times  as  remote  as  222  B.C.,  when  it  was 
captured  by  Hannibal  from  the  Vettones;  and  it  after- 
wards became  under  the  Romans  the  ninth  station  on  the 
Via  Lata  from  Merida  to  Zaragoza.  It  passed  successively 
under  the  rule  of  the  Goths  and  the  Moors,  till  the  latter 
were  finally  driven  out  about  1055.  The  city  is  still  much 
the  same  in  outward  appearance  as  when  its  tortuous 
streets  were  thronged  with  students.  The  university  was 
naturally  the  chief  source  of  wealth  to  the  town,  the  popu- 
lation of  which  in  the  16  th  century  numbered  50,000. 
Its  decay  of  course  reacted  on  the  townsfolk,  but  it 
fortunately  also  arrested  the  process  of  modernization,  so 
that -the  city  retains  most  of  its  old  features  and  is.  now 
one  of  the  most  picturesque  in  Spain.  The  ravages  of 
war  alone  have  wrought  serious  damage,  for  the  French 
in  their  defensive  operations  at  the  siege  almost  destroyed 
the  western  quarter.  The  ruins  still  remain,  and  give  an 
air  of  desolation  which  is  not  borne  out  by  the  real  condi- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  however  poverty-stricken  they  may 
appear.  The  magnificent  Plaza  Mayor,  built  by  Andres 
Garcia  de  Quinones  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
and  capable  of  holding  20,000  people  to  witness  a  bull- 
fight, is  one  of  the  finest  squares  in  Europe.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  arcade  of  ninety  arches  on  Corinthian 
columns,  one  side  of  the  square  being  occupied  -by  the 
municipal  buildings.  The  decorations  of  the  facades  are 
in  the  Renaissance  style,  and  the  plaza  as  a  whole  is  a 
fine  sample  of  plateresque  architecture.  But  tho  old  and 
new  cathedrals  (see  below)  are  the  chief  objects  of  interest 
in  the  city. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  trade  of  Salamanca  was  not 
insignificant,  and  the  stamped  leather-work  produced  there 
is  still  sought  after.  Its  manufactures  are  now  of  little 
consequence,  and  consist  of  china,  cloth,  and  leather.  The 
transport  trade  of  the  town  is,  however,  of  more  import- 
ance, and  shows  signs  of  increasing.  But  any  great  revival 
can  only  take  place  when  communication  with  the  coast  is 
considerably  improved,  a  result  which  will  no  doubt  be 
promoted  by  the  recent  opening  of  the  line  to  the  coast  of 
Portugal.  The  popuktion  within  the  municipal  boundaries 
in  1877  was  18.007,  and  in  188G  was  estimated  at  about 
20,000. 

Tho  oU  cntliedral  Is  a  cntciform  buildinj;  of  th«  12th  century,' 
Ixfpun  liv  Ri?lio)>  Gcrniiimci,  tho  coui'ossov  of  the  Cid.  _  Its  stj'le  of 
ardiitccturo  h  tliat  Late  Komanesquo  whicli  prevailed  in  the  south 
of  France,  but  the  builder  showed  much  originality  in  tho  construc- 
tion of  tlie  dome,  which  covers  tho  crossing  of  the  navo  and  tran. 
septs.  The  inner  dome  is  made  to  sprini,  not  from  immediately 
above  tho  arches,  but  from  a  higher  stage  of  a  double  arcade  pierced 


204 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


with  windows.  The  thrust  of  the  vaulting  is  borne  by  four  massive 
pinnacles,  and  over  the  inner  dome  is  an  outer  pointed  one  covered 
vnth  tiles.  The  whole  forms  a  most  effective  and  graceful  group. 
On  the  vault  of  the  apse  is  a  fresco  of  Our  Lord  in  Judgment  by 
Nicolas  Florentine.  The  reredoa,  which  has  the  peculiarity  of 
fitting  the  curve  of  the  apse,  contains  fifty-five  panels  witli  paint- 
ings mostly  by  the  same  artist.  There  are  many  fine  monuments 
in  the  south  transept  and  cloister  chapels.  An  adjoining  building, 
the  Capilla  de  Talavera,  is  used  as  a  chapel  for  service  accordiug  to 
the  Mozarabic  rite,  which  is  celebrated  there  six  times  a  year.  On 
the  north  of  and  adjoining  the  old  church  stands  the  new  cathedral, 
built  from  designs  by  Juan  Gil  de  Ontanon.  Begun  in  1513  under 
Bishop  Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  but  not  finished  until  1734,  it  is  a 
notable  example  of  the  late  Gothic  and  Plateresque  styles.  Its 
length  is  340  feet  and  its  breadth  160  feet.  The  interior  is  fairly 
Gothic  in  character,  but  on  the  outside  the  Renaissance  spirit  shows 
itself  more  clearly,  and  is  fully  developed  in  the  dome.  Everywhere 
the  attempt  at  mere  novelty  or  richness  results  in  feebleness.  The 
main  arch  of  the  great  portal  consists  of  a  simple  trefoil,  but  the 
label  above  takes  an  ogee  line,  and  the  inner  arches  are  elliptical. 
Above  the  doors  are  bas-reliefs,  foliage,  &c.,  wMch  in  exuberance  of 
design  and  quality  of  workmanship  are  good  examples  of  the  latest 
efforts  of  Spanish  Gothic.  The  church  contains  paintings  by  Navar- 
rete,  Becerra,  and  Morales,  and  some  overrated  statues  by  Juan  de 
Juni.  The  treasury  is  very  rich,  and  amongst  other  articles  pos- 
sesses a  custodia  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  goldsmith's  work,  and  a 
bronze  crucifix,  of  undoubted  authenticity,  which  was  borne  before 
tli£  Cid  in  battle.-  The  tower  is  too  unsafe  to  allow  of  the  >;'ilig- 
ing  of  its  great  bell,  which  weighs  over  23  tons.  The  interest  of 
Salamanca  centred  in  its  university,  founded  by  Alfonso  IX.  about 
1200  and  for  four  centuries  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  European 
learning.  Of  the  university  buildings  the  facade  of  the  library 
(80,000  volumes,  exclusive  of  BISS.)  is  a  peculiarly  rich  example 
of  late  15th-century  Gothic.  The  cloisters  are  light  and  elegant ; 
the  g\"and  staircase  ascending  from  them  has  a  fine  balustrade  of 
foliage  and  figiu'es.  The  Colegio  de  Nobles  Irlandesss,  formerly 
Colegio  de  Santiago  Apostol,  was  built  in  1521  from  designs  by 
Ibarra.  The  viouble  arcaded  cloister  is  a  finepiece  of  work  of  the 
best  period  of  the  Renaissance.  The  Jesuit  College  is  an  immense 
and  ugly  Renaissance  budding  begun  in  1614  by  Juan  Gomez  de 
Mora,  The  Colegio  Viejo,  also  called  San  Bartolome,  was  rebuilt 
in  the  18th  century,  and  now  serves  as  the  governor's  palace.  The 
convent  of  Santo  Domingo,  sometimes  called  San  Estebau,  shows  a 
mixture  of  styles  from  the  13th  century  onwards.  The  church  is 
Gothic  with  a  plateresque  facade  of  great  lightness  and  delicacy. 
It  is  of  purer  design  than  that  of  the  cathedral ;  nevertheless  it 
shows  the  tendency  of  the  period.  The  reredos,  one  of  the  finest 
Renaissance  works  in  Spain,  contains  statues  by  Salvador  Carmona, 
and  a  curious  bronze  statuette  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  on  a  throne 
of  champleve  enamel  of  the  12th  century.  The  chapter -house, 
built  by  Juan  Moreno  in  1637,  and  the  staircase  and  sacristy  are 
good  examples  of,  later  work.  The  convent  of  the  Augustinas 
Recoietas,  begun  by  Fontana  in  1616,  is  in  better  taste  than  any 
other  Renaissance  building  in  the  city.  The  church  is  rich  m 
marble  fittings  and  contains  several  fine  pictures  of  the  Neapolitan 
school,  especially  the  Conception  by  Ribera  over  the  altar.  The 
convent  of  the  Sancti  Spiritu  has  a  good  door  by  Bemiguete.  There 
is  also  a  rather  effective  portal  to  the  convent  of  Las  Due&as.  The 
church  of  S.  Marcos  is  a  curious  circular  building  with  three  eastern 
apses ;  and  the  churches  of  S.  Martin  and  S,  Matteo  have  good 
early  doorways.  Many  of  the  private  houses  are  untouched  ex- 
amples of  the  domestic  architecture  of  the  prosperous  times  in 
which  they  were  built.  Such  are  the  Cs->a  de  las  Conchas,  the 
finest  example  of  its  period  in  Spain  ;  the  Casa  de  la  Sal,  with  a 
maguificcnt  courtyard  and  sculptured  gallery  ;  and  the  palaces  of 
Maldonado,  Monterey,  and  Espinosa.  (H.  B.  B. ) 

SALAMAJNDRA.  In  the  nomenclature  of  zoology  this 
name  designates  a  genus  of  animals  belonging  to  the  verte- 
brate class  Amphibia,  fbe  genus  was' first  defined  under 
this  name  by  Laurenti.^  It  will  be  seen  on  referring  to 
tha  taxononiic  synopsis  of  the  class  given  at  the  end  of 
the  article  Amphibia  that  the  genus  Salamandra  belongs 
to  the  first  tribe  Jiecodonta  of  the  fifth  division  Salaman- 
drida.  The  diagnosis  of  the  genus  is  as  follows : — no 
fronto-squamosal  arch  in  the  skull ;  tongue  large,  adherent 
below,  free  at  the  sides  and  slightly  so  behind  ;  toes  five  ; 
tail  cylindrical.  There  are  three  species,  distinguished  as 
follows : — (1)  S.  maculosa,  Laurenti,  tail  not  so  long  as 
rest  of  body,  colour  black  with  yellow  spots ;  (2)  S.  a(;-a, 
Laurenti,  tail  not  so  long  as  rest  of  body,  colour  uniform 
black ;  (3)  S.  catKasica,  Waga,  tail  longer  than  rest  of 

*  Si/noj)sU  repiiliir./i  einctidalaj  &c.,  Vienna,  17C8. 


body.  In  all  the  species  the  body  is  plump  and  rounded, 
and  there  is  no  dorsal  crest  or  fin ;  the  head  is  depressed, 
its  greatest  width  being  at  the  angle  of  the  jaws  ;  the  snout 
is  rounded.  The  vent  is  a  longitudinal  sUt,  the  borders 
of  which  in  the  male  are  slightly  swollen.  The  skin  is 
smooth  and  shining  ;  at  the  junction  of  the  head  and  neck 
is  a  pronounced  fold  of  skin  called  the  gular  fold.  The 
swollen  patches  of  skin  behind  the  tympana,  caused  by 
the  presence  of  large  cutaneous  glands,  and  known  as 
parotids,  are  well  developed  and  exhibit  the  openings  of 
the  glands  as  distinct  pores.  Similar  gland-openings  form 
a  series  along  either  side  of  the  body.  In  the  first  two 
species  there  is  also  a  longitudinal  series  of  warts  on  each 
side ;  these  are  wanting  in  <S'.  cattcasica.  Depressions  of 
the  skin  between  the  vertebrae  are  present,  and  are  known 
as  costal  grooves.  The  palatine  teeth-series  are  8-shaped, 
and  the  anterior  ends  of  the  two  series  do  not  meet.^  S. 
maculosa  is  the  largest  of  the  three  species,  attaining  a 
length  of  7  to  8^  inches.  S.  atra  is  about  4J  and  S. 
c'aucasica  about  6  inches  in  length. 

The  genus  is  confined  to  the  western  sub-region  of  the' 
palsearctio  region,  extending  over  almost  the  whole  of 
Europe,  especially  the  central  and  southern  parts,  and 
occurring  also  in  Algiers  and  Syria.  The  spotted  species 
is  the  commonest  and  most  widely  distributed,  being  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  Spain. 
The  genus  is  entirely  absent  from  the  British  Islands. 
The  black  salamander,  S.  atra,  is  confined  to  the  Alps  of 
Central  Europe,  and  there  only  occurs  between  the  limits 
of  2500  to  10,000  feet  of  altitude;  it  is  found  in  the 
mountaiiL  of  South  Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Austria.  ,S'.  caucasica  is  only  known  from  one  specimen, 
which  was  obtained  from  the  Caucasus  and  was  sent  to 
the  Paris  Museum  by  Dr  Waga.^ 

The  food  of  Salamandra  consists  of  worms  and  insects, 
and,  like  British  frogs  and  toads,  the  animals  can  only 
exist  in  damp  shady  localities.  .  As  in  all  Salamandrida, 
the  process  of  reproduction  is  commenced  by  a  true  copu- 
lation, which  takes-  place  in  spring  and  summer.  The 
seminal  fluid  is  passed  into  the  female  cloaca,  where  it  is 
received  into  a  tube-shaped  receptaculum  seminis.  The 
eggs  are  thus  fertilised  in  the  oviduct,  but  the  development 
takes  place  under  somewhat  diiierent  conditions  in  the  two 
species  S.  maculosa  and  S.  atra.  Both  species  are  vivipar- 
ous ;  in  the  former  thirty  to  forty  eggs  undergo  develop- 
ment in  tha  oviducts  at  one  time,  and  they  are  brought 
forth  and  deposited  in  stagnant  or  sluggishly-flowing  water 
when  they  have  reached  a  stage  similar  to  that  of  adult 
Pereimibranchiaia,  the  newly-born  larvae  having  long 
feather-like  external  gills  and  a  length  of  12  to  15  mm. 
(one-third  to  one-half  an  inch).  After  a  period  of  aquatic 
life,  the  larvae  pass  through  a  metamorphosis  :  the  limbs 
appear ;  the  gill  slits  close  up ;  and  the  young  animals, 
having  reached  the  adult  condition,  leave  the  water  for  a 
terrestrial  life.  In  S.  atra  only  the  two  lowest  eggs  which 
pass  into  the  oviducts,  one  in  the  duct  of  each  side,  under- 
go development.  The  rest  of  the  eggs  fuse  into  a  mass  of 
yolk  material  and  are  devoured  by  the  two  developing 
larvce.  In  this  way  the  larvae  are  provided  with  nutriment 
during  the  later  stages  of  development,  for  in  this  species 
they  are  retained  within  the  body  of  the  mother  until 
they  have  reached  the  air-breathing  condition  and  are  in 
all  respects  similar  to  the  parents.  This  peculiarity  in  the 
process  of  reproduction  bears  an  obvious  relation  to  the 
physical  conditions  of  the  habitat  of  S.  atra.  In  the 
elevated  regions  that  the  species  inhabits  stagnant  and 

-  For  a  flgure  of  S.  maculosa,  see  Latreille,  Hi^.  Nat.  des  Sal.  da 
France,  Paris,  1800,  pi.  L  ;  Daudin,  Hist.  Kat.  d.  Reptiles,  pL  xcvii.  f. 
1.     For  5.  atra,  see  Laur.,  op.  cit.,  pi.  i.  f.  2. 

5  See  \Sasa,  Bev.  Mag.  Zool.,  1876,  p.  326. 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


205 


sluggish  waters  are  wanting,  and  therefore  the  process  of 
reproduction  that  occurs  in  S.  maculosa  is  rendered  im- 
possible. The  black  Salamandra  has  become  adapted  to 
its  environment  (1)  by  the  slight  changes  in  colour  and 
structure  which  distinguish  it  from  the  spotted,  and  (2)  by 
a  modification  in  its  reproductive  processes,  which  elimi- 
nates the  aquatic  stage  of  existence  from  the  life-hLstory  of 
the  individual.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  stage  character- 
ized by  the  presence  of  pinnate  external  gills  is  exhibited 
by  the  larva  during  its  development  in  the  oviduct,  and 
the  gills  doubtless  there  perform  their  function.  Friiulein 
von  Chauvin  ^  made  the  experiment  of  taking  the  larvse  of 
S.  atra  from  the  pregnant  female  when  they  were  in  the 
branchiate  condition,  and  placing  them  in  water  to  see  if 
they  would  survive  and  pass  through  their  metamorphosis 
under  these  circumstances.  On  one  occasion  the  experi- 
ment was  perfectly  successful  in  the  case  of  one  specimen ; 
the  rest  of  the  larvae  died. 

Tlio  tailed  Amphibia  of  Europe  have  from  the  very  earliest  times 
down  to  the  present  day  been  almost  universally  known  iii  popular 
language  as  salamanders,  and  identified  in  the  popular  mind  with 
the  salamander  of  myth  and  fable. ^  Besides  tlie  species  of  Sala- 
mamlra  there  are,  according  to  Boulanger  (,Brit.  Mus.  Cat.,  1881), 
eighteen  other  species  of  Urodda  in  Europt,  of  which  fourteen 
belong  to  the  genus  Triton  (q.v.).  Chiogloasti  lusitanica,  Bocage, 
is  distinguished  by  having  a  tongue  supported  anteriorly  by  a  pro- 
tractile median  pedicle  and  free  everywhere  else,  and  by  having  its 
tail  cylindrical  at  the  base  but  compressed  at  the  end.  It  occurs  in 
Spain  and  Portugal.  Salamandriiui  pcrspicillata,  Tschudi,  occurs 
in  Italy ;  like  Chioglossa,  it  belongs  to  the  Mccodonia  and  is  distin- 
guished by  the  following  characters  : — tongue  large,  subtriangular, 
free  everywhere  except  on  anterior  median  line  ;  toes  four :  tail 
slightly  compressed ;  a  strong  bony  fronto-squamosal  arch.  Spclerpcs 
fxtscus,  Strauch,  occurs  in  Italy  and  in  France  in  the  Alpes  JIaritimes. 

SALAMIS,  in  modern  times  called  by  the  people 
KoXovpi  (a  ring-shaped  cake),  and  by  purists  SaAa/x/j,  is 
an  island  in  the  Satonic  Gulf,  off  the  coast  of  Attica, 
Greece.  It  is  said  to  have  been  called  in  ancient  times  by 
other  names, — Sciras,  which  associates  it  with  the  worship 
of  Athena  Sciras  ;  Cychreia,  which  connects  it  with  the 
Eleusinian  cultus  and  the  sacred  serpent  (Kv^peiSi/s  o<^is) 
of  Demeter  ;  and  Pityussa.  There  was  a  small  stream, 
Bocarus  or  Bocalia,  in  the  island.  The  city,  which  bore 
the  same  name  as  the  island,  was  originally  situated  on 
the  south  coast  opposite  .(Egina,  but  was  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  a  promontory  on  the  east  side  nearer  Athens. 
The   transference  corresponds  to  a  total   change   in  the 


*  See  Zeitschr.f.  loiss.  Zoologie,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  534,  and  C.  von  Siebold, 
lijV;.,  p.  536  ;  M,  v,  Chauvin,  ibid.,  vol.  xxiv. 

^  Aristotle  {B.  A.,  v.  19)  cites  the  salamander,  which  "when  it  walks 
through  fire  extinguishes  it,"  as  a  proof  that  some  animal  frames  are 
incombustible,  and  ^Elian  {Nat.  An.,  ii.  31-)  will  have  it  that  those 
who  work  with  forges  are  familiar  with  this  fact  and  when  their  bellows 
fiiil  to  quicken  the  flame  know  to  lobk  for  a  salamander  and  put  things 
right  by  killing  it.  According  to  this  fonn  of  the  fable  the  salamander, 
as  .£lian  expressly  says,  is  not  born  of  fire,  nor  does  it  live  therein. 
On  the  contrary,  according  to  Pliny  {H.  N.,  x.  67  sq.,  xxix.  4)  it  is  of 
a  cold  complexion  aud  emits  a  cold  venom  like  aconite,  but  so  virulent 
that  even  bread  baked  with  wood  of  a  tree  on  which  a  salamander  has 
crept  is  poisonous.  The  touch  of  its  saliva  even  on  the  foot,  says 
Pliny,  causes  the  hair  to  fall  out.  So  Dioscoridcs  speaks  of  salamander 
prepared  in  oil  as  a  depilatory  ;  comp.  Petronius,  c.  107,  and  Burman's 
notes,  and  for  late  survivals  in  Europe  of  the  belief  in  a  deadly  lizard, 
identified  with  the  salamander,  Bochart,  Hicrozoicon,  bk.  iv.  c.  1. 
That  the  salamander  extinguishes  fire  appears  also  in  the  Physioloous 
{q.v.),  and  so  became,  a  common  part  of  mediffiv.al  animal  lore;  but 
the  Arabic  Phyaiologus  (Land,  Anec.  Syr.,  iv.  166)  speaks  instead  of 
a  stone  that  quells  fire.  This  stone  is  asbestos,  the  salamander  of 
Marco  Polo  (L  215,  Yule),  of  whose  fibres  a  sort  of  incombustible  cloth 
was  made,  which  was  represented  in  the  East  as  m.ade  of  the  hair  of 
the  salamander  or  of  its  plumage  ;  for  the  Arabs  mixed  up  the  sala- 
mander fable  with  that  of  the  Phcenix  {q.v.)  and  were  not  sure  whether 
It  wa»  beast  or  bird.  In  later  story  the  salamander  is  represented 
as  bom  and  living  in  fire  and  so  the  name  is  used  by  cabbalistic 
modems  for  the  spirits  of  that  clement.  Salamander's  wool  or  hair 
OS  a  name  for  asbestos  occurs  in  Bacon  and  other  English  writers. 
Francis  L  chose  as  his  emblem  a  salamander  with  the  motto,  "  J'y  vis 
2t  ie  I'eteikis." 


political  relations  of  Salamis.  It  was  originally  connected, 
not  with  Attica,  but  with  .iEgina  and  with  Megara,  the 
competitors  of  Athens  in  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in 
the  Safonic  Gulf.  The  most  prominent  heroes  of  the 
island,  Telamon,  Ajax,  and  Teucer,  were  ^acidie  from 
.(Egina.  But  about  the  end  of  the  7th  century  B.C.  the 
war  between  Athen's  and  Megara  for  the  possession  of 
Salamis  was,  under  the  guidance  of  Solon,  determined  in 
favour  of  Athens.  A  line  of  the  Iliad  (ii.  558)  is  said  to 
have  been  interpolated  by  the  Athenians  in  support  of 
their  claim  to  the  island,  while  the  Megarian  version  of 
the  passage  was  quite  different.  The  priestess  of  Athena 
Polias  might  not  eat  Attic  cheese,  but  it  was  lawful  for 
her  to  eat  foreign  or  Salaminian  cheese.  Salamis,  having 
come  so  late  into  the  hands  of  the  Athenians,  retainecl, 
like  Eleusis,  more  local  independence  than  the  other  demes. 
The  island  remained  subject  to  Athens  in  later  history, 
except  during  the  period  318  to  232  b.c,  when  it  Tvas 
abandoned  to  the  Macedonian  rule.  The  name  of  Salamis 
is  famous  chiefly  on  account  of  the  great  sea-fight,  480  B.C., 
in  which  the  allied  Greeks  defeated  the  Persians  under 
Xerxes.  The  battle  took  place  beside  the  town  of  Salamis 
and  the  island  of  Psyttaleia,  at  the  south-eastern  end  of 
the  straits. 

A  city  on  the  east  coast  of  Cypru.".,  near  the  river 
Pedisus,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Salaminian 
Teucer,  son  of  Telamon,  was  also  called  Salamis. 

SAL  AMMONIAC.     See  Ammoniac,  vol.  i.  p.  741. 

SALDANHA,  Jolo  Carlos  Saldanha  de  Oliveera  e 
Daun  (1791-1876).    See  Portitgal,  vol.  xix.  pp.  553-564. 

SALE,  an  urban  sanitary  district  of  Cheshire,  England, 
on  the  Bridgewater  Canal  and  the  Mersey,  about  6  miles 
south  of  Manchester.  At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury the  greater  part  of  the  township  was  still  waste  and 
unenclosed.  It  owes  its  increase  in  population  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Manchester  and  contains  a  number  of 
handsome  villas  belonging  to  the  wealthier  classes.  The 
Moorsland  pleasure-grounds  in  the  neighbourhood  cover 
lOi  acres.  There  are  national  and  British  schools  and  a 
literary  institute.  Market  gardening  is  extensively  carried 
on.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  distiict  (area, 
2006  acres)  in  1871  was  5573,  and  in  1881  it  was  7915. 

SALE  is  one  of  the  forms  of  Contract  (q.v.).  The 
law  of  contract  is  accordingly  applicable  as  a  whole  to  the 
law  of  sale.'  But  the  importance  of  the  contract  of  sala 
demands  a  fuller  treatment.  The  law  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  of  the  United  States  is  based  upon  the 
Roman  law  in  its  later  stage,  as  modified  by  the  praetors 
and  by  legislation.  But  there  are  some  consideraljle  dif- 
ferences. In  Roman  law  sale  originally  meant  nothing 
more  than  barter ;  but  the  introduction  of  coined  money 
converted  the  contribution  of  one  of  the  contracting  parties 
into  price  {prelium),  as  distinguished  from  article  of  sale 
{mcrx)  contributed  by  the  other  (see  Roman  Law,  vol. 
XX.  pp.  700-701).  Sale  fell  under  the  head  of  consensual 
contracts,  i.e.,  those  in  which  the  caiisa  or  that  which 
made  the  contract  enforcible  was  consent.  In  all  con- 
tracts of  this  class  (except  mandatum)  consent  really  de- 
noted valuable  consideration.  The  law  in  the  case  of 
movables  and  immovables  was  as  far  as  might  bo  the 
same.  The  price,  must  be  definite.  Reduction  of,  the 
terms  to  writing  was  optional ;  if  a  writing  was  used, 
either  party  was  at  liberty  to  withdraw  before  the  com- 
pletion of  the  writing.  If  earnest  or  deposit  (arrha) — 
often  a  ring,  sometimes  a  part  of  the  price — was  given,  it 
was  by  the  legislation  of  Justinian  made  the  measure  of 
forfeit  on  rescission,  the  buyer  losing  what  he  had  given 
as  arrha,  thu  seller  restoring  double  its  value.  Tfie  seller 
did  not  warrant  title ;  his  contract  was  not  rem  dare,  to 
give  the  thing,  but  pricstare  emptori  rem  luihcre  licere,  to 


206 


SALE 


guarantee  the  buyer  possession ;  the  transfer  ■was  of  vaaia 
poss(ssio,  not  of  property.  The  buyer  wag  secured  by  a 
covenant  dupls  stipulatio  against  eviction  by  a  superior 
title,  limited  to  double  the  price  where  there  was  no  fraud 
by  the  seller.  There  was  a  warranty  of  quality  by  the 
sellen  He  was  bound  to  suffer  rescission  or  to  give  com- 
pensation at  the  option  of  the  buyer  if  the  thing  sold  had 
undisclosed  faults  which  hindered  the  free  possession  of  it. 
The  damages  to  which  he  was  liable  differed  according  as 
he  was  guilty  of  bad  faith  (dolus)  or  not.  If  guilty  he 
■was  liable  for  all  consequential  damage,  if  innocent  only 
for  the  diminution  in  the  value  of  the  thing  sold  by  reason 
of  its  unsoundness.  Thus,  if  a  seller  knowingly  sold  an 
infected  sheep  and  the  whole  flock  caught  the  disease  and 
died,  he  would  be  liable  for  the  value  of  the  flock;  if  he 
was  ignorant  of  the  defect,  he  would  be  liable  only  for  the 
difference  in  value  between  a  sound  and  an  unsound  sheep. 
Mere  overpraise  did  not  amount  to  dolus ;  nor  was  inade- 
quacy of  price  in  itself  a  ground  of  rescission.  When  the 
agreement  was  complete  it  was  the  duty  of  the  seller  to 
deliver  the  thing  sold  (rem  tradere).  In  case  of  a  sale  on 
credit,  the  delivery  must  be  made  at  the  time  appointed. 
Prior  to  delivery  the  seller  must  take  due  care  of  the  thing 
sold,  the  care  which  a  reasonably  prudent  householder 
(bonus  paterfamilias)  was  expected  to-  exercise.  Delivery 
did  not  pass  property  in  the  fuU  sense  of  the  word,  but 
rather  vacua  possessio  secured  by  duplss  stipulatio.  Risk 
of  loss  (pertcidmn  rei  venditx)  after  agreement  but  before 
delivery  fell  upon  the  buyer.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was 
entitled  to  any  advantage  accruing  to  the  thing  sold  be- 
tween those  dates.  It  was  the  duty  of  some  one  to  pay 
the  price ;  the  obligation  was  discharged  if  payment  were 
made  by  the  debtor  or  by  any  other  person,  whether 
authorized  or  not  by  the  debtor,  and  even  against  his  will. 
The  duties  of  buyer  and  seller  pight  be  varied  by  agree- 
ment, the  only  restriction  being  that  the  seller  could  not 
by  any  agreement  be  relieved  from  liability  for  dolus. 

Sale  in  English  law  may  be  defined  to  be  "  a  transfer  of 
the  absolute  or  general  property  in  a  thing  for  a  price  in 
money"  (Benjamin,  On  Sales,  p.  1).  The  words  "absolute 
or  general "  are  inserted  because  there  may  be  both  a 
general  and  a  special  property  in  certain  cases,  and  a 
transfer  of  the  special  property  would  not  be  a  sale.  The 
above  definition,  though  applied  in  the  work  cited  only  to 
sales  of  personalty,  seems  to  be  fully  applicable  to  sales  of 
any  kind  of  property.  The  rules  as  to  legality,  capacity 
of  parties,  assent,  and  fraud  depend  upon  the  law  of  Con- 
tract (i^.r.),  of  which  sale  is  a  particular  instance.  In- 
capacity is  either  absolute  or  relative,  the  latter  being  a 
bar  only  in  the  individual  case,  e.g.,  the  incapacity  of  a 
person  in  a  fiduciary  position  (see  Trust).  The  capacity 
of  parties  tends  to  become  more  extended  as  law  advances  ; 
thus  in  England  the  Koman  Catholic,  the  alien,  and  the 
married  woman  have  all  been  relieved  within  a  compara- 
tively recent  period  from  certain  disabilities  in  sale  and 
purchase  which  formerly  attached  to  them. 

In  England,  for  historical  reasons  (see  Real  Estate), 
there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  law  as  it  affects 
real  and  personal  estate.  The  main  principles  of  law  are 
perhaps  the  same,  but  the  sale  of  real  estate  is  a  matter  of 
greater  expense  and  intricacy  than  the  sale  of  personal 
estate,  and  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  legislation 
•napplicable  to  the  latter.  It  appears,  therefore,  better  to 
treat  the  two  kinds  of  sale  separately. 

Jieal  Estate. — At  common  law  it  was  not  necessary  that 
there  should  be  written  evidence  of  a  contract  of  sale. 
The  publicity  of  the  feoffment  obviated  the  necessity  of 
writing,  which  was  not  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  feoff- 
ment until  the  Statute  of  Frauds  (see  Feoffment).  The 
earliest  statute  making  a  ■nTitten  instrument  essential  to 


a  sale  appears  to  be  the  Statute  of  Enrolments  (27  Hen. 
Vm.  c.  16).  The  bargain  and  sale  operating  under  the 
Statute  of  Uses,  and  enrolled  under  the  Statute  of  Enrol- 
ments in  the  High  Court  of  Justice  or  ■with  the  custos 
rotulorum  of  the  county,  is  no  longer  in  use ;  a  bargain 
and  sale  at  common  law  is  a  mode  of  conveyance  some- 
times used  by  executors  exercising  a  power  of  sale.  Such 
a  bargain  and  sale  must  be  by  deed  since  8  and  9  Vict, 
c.  106,  but  need  not  bo  enrolled.  There  was  no  compre- 
hensive legislative  enactment  dealing  ■with  all  cases  of  sale 
of  real  estate  until  section  4  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds.  Since 
that  date  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  real  estate  must,  be  in 
writing  (see  Feaub,  where  the  provisions  of  the  Act  are 
set  out).  Sales  by  auction  are  ■within  the  statute,  the 
auctioneer  being  the  agent  of  both  parties  (see  AuctioS). 
In  an  ordinary  case  of  the  sale  of  real  estate  the  contract 
is  formally  dra^wn  up  on  the  basis  of  particulars  and  con- 
ditions of  sale,  which  ought  fairly  to  represent  the  actual 
state  of  the  property.  The  statute,  however,  is  satisfied 
by  informal  agreements,  such  as  letters,  if  they  contain 
the  means  of  detennining  the  property,  the  parties,  and 
the  price.  The  price  must  be  a  sum  of  money.  If  it  h 
another  estate,  the  contract  is  one  of  exchange ;  if  no  con- 
sideration passes,  it  is  a  gift.  The  price  may  be  left  to  be 
determined  by  a  third  person,  as  by  arbitration.  For  the 
way  in  which  pajrment  of  the  price  may  be  made,  see 
Patment.  The  formation  of  a  binding  contract  of  sale 
is  the  most  important  stage  in  the  transfer  of  real  estate. 
From  the  moment  at  which  the  parties  are  bound  by  the 
contract  the  sale  is  made ;  the  purchaser  has  the  equitable 
estate  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  contract  (see  Equity), 
the  vendor  holding  in  trust  for  him,  subject  to  the  pay- 
ment of  the  purchase  money,  for  which  the  vendor '  has 
a  lien.  The  price  becomes  personal  estate  of  the  vendor 
and  the  land  real  estate  of  the  purchaser.  The  latter  has 
the  right  to  accidental  benefits  and  the  burden  of  accidental 
losses  accruing  before  completion  of  the  purchase.  The 
rights  defined  by  the  contract  descend  to  the  representa- 
tives of  a  deceased  vendor  or  purchaser.  In  most  cases 
the  personal  representative  of  a  deceased  vendor  may 
convey  the  property  under  4-1  and  45  Vict.  c.  41,  s.  4. 
After  the  contract  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  vendor 
to  deliver  an  abstract  of  title,  to  satisfy  the  purchaser's 
reasonable  requisitions  as  to  any  question  arising  on  the 
title  of  the  purchaser,  and  to  pay  a  deposit,  usually  ten  per 
cent,  of  the  price  fixed,  within  a  certain  time,  the  remainder 
being  paid  on  completion, — that  is,  the  execution  of  the 
conveyance  and  payment  of  the  balance  of  the  price. 
He  also  prepares  the  conveyance,  which  since  8  and  9  Vict, 
c.  106  must  be  by  deed.  The  costs  of  execution  of  the 
conveyance  are  paid  by  the  vendor.  Any  of  these  duties 
may  be  varied  by  special  agreement.  The  sale  is  not  in 
ordinary  cases  avoided  because  the  purchaser  is  in  default 
in  payment  of  the  purchase  money  on  the  day  appointed. 
The  purchaser  does  not  forfeit  his  rights  if  he  be  ready 
to  complete  within  a  reasonable  time  after  the  day  fixed 
for  completion  and  to  pay  interest  on  the  sum  overdue. 
This  rule  is  an  old  doctrine  of  equity,  and  is  generally 
expressed  by  saying  that  time  is  not  of  the  essence  of  the 
contract.  As  a  general  rule,  any  real  estate  is  capable  of 
sale,  unless  it  is  altogether  ejrtra  commercium,  as  a  church  or 
public  building.  There  are,  however,  a  few  exceptions 
introduced  by  the  legislature,  such  as  estates  tail  not 
barred,  estates  which  by  Act  of  Parliament  are  inalienable 
(see  Real  Estate),  and  crown  lands,  of  which  all  grants  for 
more  than  thirty-one  years  are  in  genera!  void  by  1  Anne 
St.  1,  c.  7.     Sales  of  pretended  titles  to  land  are  void  by  32 

1  "■Vendor"  and  "purchaser"  are  the  woMs  always  used  to  denote 
the  parties  to  a  contract  of  sale  of  real  estate.  ■Where  the  sale  is  of 
personal  estate,  "  buyer  "  and  "  seller ''  may  be  used  as  well. 


SALE 


207 


Hen.  Vm  c.  9.  The  sale  of  land  to  be  held  in  mortmain 
would  be  void  as  contrary  to  the  policy  of  the  Mortmain  Acts 
(see  Chakities,  Corporation).  The  rights  and  liabilities 
of  vendors  and  purchasers  have  been  considerably  affected 
by  recent  legi«lation,  the  principal  Acts  dealing  with  the 
subject  being  the  Vendor  and  Purchaser  Act,  1874,  and  the 
Conveyancing  Act,  1881.  A  period  of  forty  years  has 
been  substituted  for  the  period  of  sixty  years  previously 
necessary  as  the  root  of  title, ^-that  is  to  say,  in  most  cases 
an  abstract  showing  title  for  forty  years  is  sufficient.  In 
an  abstract  of  title  to  leaseholds,  the  title  is  to  commence 
with  the  lease  or  underlease,  in  an  abstract  of  title  to 
enfranchised  lands,  under  a  contract  to  sell  the  freehold, 
with  the  deed  of  enfranchisement.  Recitals  twenty  years 
old  are  evidence,  except  so  far  as  they  can  be  proved  to 
be  inaccurate,  and  recitals  of  documents  dated  prior  to 
the  commencenlfent  of  the  abstract  are  to  be  taken  as 
correct,  and  their  production  is  not  to  be  required.  The 
expenses  of  evidence  required  in  support  of  the  abstract 
and  not  in  the  vendor's  possession  are  thrown  upon  the 
purchaser.  The  Conveyancing  Act,  1881,  further  protects 
the  purchaser  by  implying  in  a  conveyance  by  a  beneficial 
owner  on  sale  for  valuable  consideration  covenants  for 
right  to  convey,  quiet  enjoyment,  freedom  from  encum- 
brances, and  further  assurance.  In  a  conveyance  of  lease- 
holds a  covenant  for  the  validity  of  the  lease  is  implied. 
These  covenants  protect  the  purchaser  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  implied  warranty  in  the  sale  of  personalty. 
The  Act  also  gives  the  mortgagee,  .where  the  mortgage  is 
by  deed,  the  power  of  sale  generally  inserted  in  mortgage 
deeds  (see  Mortgage). 

The  remedies  of  the  vendor  are  an  action  for  the  price 
or  for  specific  performance  according  to  circumstances. 
There  is  also  a  remedy  by  mandamus  against  public  com- 
panies refusing  to  complete.  Specific  performance  is  a 
remedy  introduced  by  the  Court  of  Chancery  to  enforce 
contracts  for  the  sale  or  purchase  of  real  estate,  it  being 
considered  that  in  such  cases  the  common  law  action  for 
damages  was  an  insufficient  remedy.  Strictly,  it  is  only 
an  exercise  by  the  court  of  its  jurisdiction  over  trustees, 
the  vendor  being  after  the  contract,  as  has  been  said,  a 
trustee  for  the  purchaser.  By  the  Judicature  Act,  1873, 
actions  of  specific  performance  are  specially  assigned  to 
the  Chancery  Division.  A  county  court  has  jurisdiction 
where  the  purchase  money  does  not  exceed  .£500.  In 
spite  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  specific  performance  may  in 
some  cases  be  decreed  where  a  parol  contract  has  been 
followed  by  part  performance  and  where  the  position  of 
the  parties  has  been  materially  altered  on  the  faith  of  the 
contract.  Actions  for  the  price  or  for  specific  performance 
are  subject  to  the  purchaser's  right  to  compensation  for 
deficiency  of  quality  or  quantity  or  of  the  vendor's  interest 
in  the  property.  The  question  whether  in  a  particular 
case  the  puixhaser  is  entitled  to  rescind  the  contract  or 
only  to  compensation  is  often  a  very  difficult  one.  The 
remedies  of  the  purchaser  are  an  action  for  specific  perform- 
ance, for  rescission  of  the  contract  or  for  damages  (in  case 
of  fraud),  for  a  return  of  the  deposit,  or  for  expenses.  On 
the  principle  of  caveat  emptor,  the  sale  is  not  avoided  by 
mere  commendatory  statements,  statements  of  opinion,  or 
non-disclosure  of  patent  defects.  Non-disclosure  of  latent 
defects  or  material  misrepresontation  of  facts,  on  the  faith 
of  which  the  purchaser  entered  into  the  contract,  will  as 
a  rule  be  a  ground  for  rescission  or  for  damages,  and  this 
irrespective  of  fraud,  as  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  land  is  a 
contract  uberrima  fidti.  Where  the  sale  goes  off  or  the 
vendor  without  fraud  fails  lo  make  a  good  title,  the  pur- 
)iaser  can  only  recover  the  deposit,  if  any,  and  any  ex- 
penses to  which  he  may  have  been  put ;  he  cannot  recover 
damages  for  the  loss  of  hia  bargain.     Certain  frauds  by  a 


vendor  or  his  solicitor  or  agent  in  order  to  induce  the  pur- 
chaser to  accept  a  titie  render  the  offender  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour,  as  weU  as  liable  to  an  action  for  damages 
(22  and  23  Vict.  c.  35,  s.  24).  -By  the  Vendor  and  Pur- 
chaser Act,  1874,  either  a  vendor  or  a  purchaser  of  real 
or  leasehold  estate  in  England  may  obtain  on  a  siunmary 
application  the  decision  of  a  judge  of  the  Chancery  Division 
on  any  question  connected  with  the  contract,  not  being  a 
question  affecting  its  existence  or  validity.  (See  Sugden, 
Vendors  and  Purchasers ;  Dart,  Vendors  and  Purchasers  ; 
Fry,  Specific  Performance^ 

Personal  Estate. — At  common  law,  as  in  the  case  of 
real  estate,  writing  was  not  essential  to  the  validity  of  a 
contract  of  sale.      The  common  law  is  thus  stated  by 
Blackstone  :   "  A  contract  of  sale  implies  a  bargain,  or 
mutual  understanding  and  agreement  between  the  parties 
as  to  terms ;   and  the  law  as  to  the  transmutation  of 
property  under  such  contracts  may  be  stated  generally  as 
follows.     If  the  vendor  says  the  price  of  the  goods  is  £4 
and  the  vendee  says  he  will  give  £i,  the  bargain  is  struck ; 
and,  if  the  goods  be  thereon  delivered  or  tendered,  or  any 
part  of  the  price  be  paid  down  and  accepted  (if  it  be  but 
a  penny),  the  property  in  the  goods  is  thereupon  trans- 
muted and  vests  immediately  in  the  bargainee ;  so  that 
in  the  event  of  their  being  subsequently  damaged  or  de- 
stroyed he  and  not  the  vendor  must  stand  to  the  loss. 
This  supposes  (it  will  be  observed)  the  case  of  a  sale  for 
ready  money ;  but,  if  it  be  a  sale  of  goods  to  be  delivered 
forthwith,  but  to  be  paid   for  afterwards,  the  property 
passes  to  the  vendee  immediately  upon  the  striking  of  the 
bargain  without  either  delivery  on  the  one  hand  or  pay- 
ment on  the  other "  (Stephen,  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  bk. 
ii.  pt.  ii.  ch.  v.).     Earnest  may  have  been  originally  the 
same  as'  the  Eoman  arrha  ;   it  was  never,  however,  part 
payment,  as  arrha  might  have  been, — in  fact,  the  Statute  of 
Frauds  specially  distinguishes  it  from  part  payment.     The 
giving  of  earnest  has  now  fallen  into  disuse.     The  price 
need  not  be  fixed ;  if  not  fixed,  a  reasonable  price  will  be 
presumed.     Though  writing  was  in  no  case  necessary  at 
common  law,  it  has  become  so  under  the  provisions  of 
various  Acts  of  Parliament,  prominent  among  which  is  the 
Statute  of  Frauds,  ss.  4  and  17  (see  Coxteact,  Fraud). 
Section  17  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds  was  extended  to  execu- 
tory contracts  of  sale  by  Lord  Tenterden's  Act,  9  Geo.  IV.  c. 
14.     The  sale  of  horses  in  market  overt  must  be  entered  ii< 
a  book  kept  by  the  toll-keeper  (2  and  3  Ph.  and  M.  c.  7, 
31  Eliz.  c.  12).     The  sale  of  ships  must  by  the  Jlerchant 
Shipping  Act,  1854,  be  made  by  bill  of  sale  in  a  certain 
form.     Contracts  for  the  sale  of  shares  in  a  joint-stock 
banking  company  are  void  unless  the  contract  sets  forth 
in  writing  the  numbers  of  the  shares  on  the  register  of  the 
company  or  (where  the  shares  are  not  distinguished  by 
numbers)  the  names  of  the  registered  proprietors  (29  and 
30  Vict.  c.  29).     Bills  of  sale  of  goods  must  be  in  writing 
in  a  certain  form  and  registered  under  the  Bills  of  Sale 
Acts,  1878  and  1882.'     As  a  general  rule  the  property  in 
goodj  passes  by  the  contract  of  sale.   '  This  general  rule  is 
subject  to  the  following  important  exceptions :  (1)  where 
the  vendor  is  to  do  anything  to  the  goods  for  the  purpose 
of  putting  them  into  that  state  in  which  the  purchaser  is 
bound  to  accept  them,  the  property  does  not  pass  until' 
performance  of  the  necessary  acts ;  (2)  the  same  is  the 
case  where  the  goods  are  to  be  weighed,  tested,  or  measured ; 
(3)  where  the  purchaser  is  bound  to  do  anything  as  % 
condition  on  which  the  passing  of  the  property  depends, 
the  property  does  not  pass  until  the  condirion  is  fulfilled, 
even  though  the  goods  may  be  actually  in  the  possession 
of  the  buyer ;  (4)  where  an   executory  contract  for  the 
'  Bills  of  sale  have  been  included  hers  solely  on  accouiit  of  th'rij 
fiame  ;  they  are  ic  reality  mortgages. 


208 


SALE 


sale  of  goods  is  made,  the  property  does  rot  pass  until 
appropriation  of  specific  goods  by  the  vendor  in  completion 
of  the  contract ;  (5)  where  the  vendor  reserves  to  himself 
the  jus  disponendi  or  future  power  of  dealing  with  the 
goods,  as  by  making  a  bill  of  lading  deliverable  to  his 
order,  the  projierty  does  not  pass  until  the  Jus  disponendi 
is  exercised  in  favour  of  the  purchaser ;  (6)  where  there 
is  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  vendor  or  purchaser,  the  sale 
is  voidable,  not  void ;  it  may  be  alErmed  and  enforced  or 
rescinded.  In  sales  of  personalty,  unlike  sales  of  real 
estate,  time  is  usually  of  the  essence  of  the  contract.  A 
sale  of  goods  may  be  accompanied  by  an  express  warranty 
or  collateral  contract  as  to  the  ti.le  to  or  quality  of  the 
goods.  No  special  form  of  words  is  necessary  to  create  a 
warranty,  nor  need  it  be  in  writing.  An  impUed  warranty 
of  title — that  is,  an  affirmation  that  the  vendor  has  a  right 
to  sell — e.xists  certainly  in  executory  contracts  of  sale.  It 
most  probably  exists  in  executed  contracts,^  the  exceptions 
to  the  rule  having  in  recent  times  become  by  judicial 
decision  more  numerous  than  the  cases  falling  under  the 
old  rule,  that  there  was  no  such  warranty.  Warranty  of 
quality  exists  either  by  statute  or  at  common  law.  The 
Merchandise  Marks  Act,  1862,  implies  a  warranty  from 
the  existence  of  trade-marks  on  chattels  that  the  trade- 
mark is  genuine,  and  from  the  existence  of  any  statement 
respecting  number,  quantity,  weight,  place,  or  country 
that  such  statement  is  not  in  any  material  respect  false. 
The  rules  as  to  warranty  of  quality  at  com.mon  law  cannot 
be  better  stated  than  in  the  language  of  the  clear  and  full 
judgment  of  the  Court  of  Quean's  Bench  in  Jon&s  v.  Just 
(Lam  Reports,  3  Queen's  Bench,  197). 

"First,  Avhere  goods  ire  in.  esse  and  may  be  inspected  by  the 
buyer,  and  there  is  no  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  seller,  the  maxim 
caveat  emptor  applies,  even  though  tlie  defect  which  exists  in  them 
is  latent  and  not  discoverable  on  examination,  at  leas  where  the 
seller  is  neither  the  grower  nor  the  manufacturer.  The  buyer  in 
such  case  has  the  opportunity  of  exercising  his  judgment  upon  the 
matter,  and  if  the  result  of  the  inspection  be  unsatisfactory,  or  if 
he  distrusts  his  own  judgment,  he  may  if  he  chooses  require  a 
waiTanty.  In  such  a  case  it  is  not  an  implied  term  of  the  contract 
of  sale  that  the  goods  are  of  any  particular  quality  or  are  merchant- 
able. So  in  the  case  of  th'i  rale  in  a  market  of  meat  which  the 
,buyer  had  inspected,  but  w'.iich  was  in  fact  diseased  and  unfit  for 
food,  although  that  fact  wa-s  not  apparent  on  examination  and  the 
seller  was  not  aware  of  it,  it  was  held  that  there  was  no  implied 
warranty  that  it  was  fit  for  food,  and  that  the  maxim  caveat  emptor 
anplied.  Secondly,  where  there  is  a  sale  of  a  definite  existing 
chattel  specifically  described,  the  actual  condition  of  which  is 
c.npable  of  being  ascertained  by  either  party,  there  is  no  implied 
warranty.  Thiidly,  where  a  known  described  and  defined  article 
is  ordered  of  a  manufacturer,  although  it  is  stated  to  be  required 
by  the  purchaser  for  a  particular  purpose,  still  if  the  known  de- 
Scribed  and  defined  thing  he  actually  supplied  there  is  no  warranty 
that  it  shall  answer  for  the  particular  purpose  intended  by  the 
buyer.  Fourthly,  where  a  manufacturer  or  dealer  contracts  to 
supply  an  article  which  he  manufactures  or  produces,  or  in  which 
."le  deals,  to  be  applied  to  a  particular  purpose,  so  that  the  buyer 
necessarily  trusts  to  the  judgment  or  skill  of  the  manufacturer  or 
dealer,  there  is  in  that  case  an  implied  warranty  that  it  shall  be 
reasonably  fit  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  In 
such  a  case  the  buyer  trusts  to  the  manufacturer  or  dealer,  and 
relics  upon  his  judgment  and  not  npon  his  own.  Fifthly,  where 
£  manufacturer  undertakes  to  supply  goods  manufactured  by  him- 
self or  in  which  he  deals,  but  which  the  veudee  has  not  had  the 
opportunity  of  inspecting,  it  is  an  impUed  term  in  the  contract 
that  ho  shall  supply  a  merchantable  article.  And  this  doctrine 
has  been  held  to  apply  to  the  sale  of  an  existing  barge  by  the 
dealer  which  was  afloat  but  not  completely  rigged  and  furnished  ; 
there,  inasmuch  as  the  buyer  had  only  seen  it  when  built  and  not 
during  the  course  of  the  building,  he  was  considered  as  having  re- 
lied on  the  judgment  and  skill  of  the  builder  that  the  barge  was 
reasonably  fit  for  use." 

The  case  of  sale  by  sample  is  peculiar  to  personalty. 

*  All  executed  contract  passes  title,  an  executory  gives  a  right.  A 
purchase  for  ready  mouey  in  a  shop  is  an  executed  contract,  an  order 
for  a  certain  chattel  to  be  made  is  an  executory  contract.  The  con- 
sideration for  such  a  contract  is  the  express  or  implied  promise  to  pay 
for  the  chattel  ou  completioiu 


In  such  a  sale  the  Tender  warrants  the  quality  of  the  bulk 
to  be  equal  to  that  of  the  sample.  There  are  certain  kinds 
of  sale  which  are  governed  by  special  legislation,  chiefly 
on  grounds  of  pubUc  policy.  A  sale  contrary  to  the  pro- 
visions of  any  of  the  Acts  is  generally  void  in  the  same 
way  as  though  it  were  illegal  at  common  law,  on  the 
principle  of  the  maxim  Ex  turpi  causa  non  oritur  actio. 
The  sale  of  certain  public  offices  is  forbidden  by  5  and  6 
Edw.  VI.  c.  16,  49  Geo.  IH.  c.  126,  and  other  Acts 
dealing  with  special  offices.  A  sale  by  a  tradesman  in 
the  way  of  his  ordinary  business  upon  Sunday  is  illegal 
under  29  Car.  II.  c.  7.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  liquors  during  prohibited  hours,  whether 
on  Sundays  or  week  days  (31  and  38  Vict.  c.  49,  s.  6).  No 
action  can  be  brought  to  recover  any  debt  aUeged  to  be 
due  in  respect  of  the  sale  of  any  ale,  &c.,  consumed  on  the 
premises  where  sold  (SO  and  31  Vict.  c.  142).  The  sale 
of  game  in  the  close  season  or  by  an  unlicensed  person 
is  forbidden  by  1  and  ?  "Will.  IV.  c.  32.  The  sale  of 
spirits  to  a  person  apparently  under  the  age  of  sixteen 
is  made  penal  by  35  and  36  Vict.  c.  94,  s.  7.  These  cases 
are  only  given  as  examples ;  there  are  numerous  other 
enactments  dealing  with,  inter  alia,  sales  of  anchors  and 
chain  cables,  adulterated  food  and  drugs,  explosives,  and 
poisons.  Every  sale  by  weight  or  measure  must  be  accord- 
ing to  one  of  the  imperial  weights  or  measures  ascertained 
by  the  Wei.jhts  and  Measures  Act,  1878;  if  not  so  made, 
the  sale  is  void  (41  and  42  Vict.  c.  49,  s.  19). 

The  remedies  of  the  vendor  are  of  two  kinds,  judicial 
against  the  purchaser,  extra-judicial  against  the  goods. 
Judicial  remedies  are  either  by  action  for  non-acceptance 
where  the  property  has  not  passed  or  by  action  for  the 
price  where  it  has  passed.  The  extra-judicial  are  (1)  a 
hen  for  the  price,  so  that,  in  the  absence  of  agreement  to 
the  contrary  or  assent  to  a  sub-sale,  the  vendor  need  not 
deliver  the  goods  until  the  price  is  paid  ;  (2)  the  right  of 
stoppage  in  transitu.  This  right  is  universally  acknow- 
ledged by  the  commercial  law  of  civilized  nations.  It 
arises  on  the  insolvency  of  the  purchaser  before  the  goods 
have  reached  his  possession,  and  is  defeasible  only  by 
transfer,  whether  by  way  of  sale  or  pledge,  of  the  biU  of 
lading  or  other  document  of  title  to  a  bona  fide  indorsee 
for  value.  The  protection  afforded  at  common  law  to  the 
bfna  fide  transferee  has  been  extended  by"  the  Bills  of 
Lading  Act,  1855,  and  by  the  Factors  Act,  1877.  There 
is  no  general  right  of  resale  by  the  vendor  on  default  of 
the  purchaser.  The  remedies  of  the  buyer  are  an  action 
for  damages  for  non-delivery,  for  conversion,  for  breach 
of  warranty,  for  misrepresentation,  <tc.,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. He  has  also  a  remedy  analogous  to  specLBc 
performance  under  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment  Act, 
1856.  The  Act  gives  power  to  the  court  or  a  judge,  in  an 
action  for  breach  of  contract  to  deliver  specific  goods,  to 
order  execution  to  issue  for  the  delivery  of  the  goods  with- 
out giving  the  defendant  the  option  of  retaining  them 
upon  paying  the  damages  assessed.  The  buyer  has  further 
a  right  to  reject  goods  where  they  are  difTerent  in  kind 
or  quality  from  those  which  he  had  a  right  to  expect.  He 
is  entitled  to  keep  them  for  a  sufficient  time  to  give  them 
a  fair  trial.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  effect  of  mis- 
representation in  the  sale  of  real  and  personal  property  is 
not  the  same.  As  a  rule  innocent  misrepresentation  of 
facts  does  not  give  a  right  to  rescind  the  sale,  since  a 
representation  is,  like  an  express  warranty,  not  an  integral 
part  of  the  contract.  A  representation  may,  however,  if 
so  intended  by  the  parties,  become  a  condition  a  breach 
of  which  will  avoid  the  sale.  See  Story's,  Blackburn's,  and 
Benjamin's  treatises  on  the  sale  of  personal  property, 
especially  Benjamin's,  which  is  now  the  recognized  text- 
book on  the  subject. 


SALE 


It  may  be  useful  to  recapitulate  shortly  the  main  points 
of  diflerence  between  Eoman  and  English  law     They  have 
all  been  noticed  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  article      (1 ) 
Arrlux.  was  not  the  same  as  earnest.     (2)  Written  contracts 
TcT^?'  "^'^^'^y  in  Roman  law  under  any  circumstances. 
(6)  There  was  no  warranty  of  title  in  Eoman  law  ■  the 
transfer  was  of  vacua  possessio,  not  of  ownership ;  in  En'^- 
land  there  is  a  warranty  of  title  (unless  the  parties  other- 
wise mtend)  on  sales  of  personalty,  but  not  on  sales  of  real 
property,  though  the  covenants  for  title  pl-actically  amount 
to  a  waffauty.      (i)  There  was  a  warranty  of  quality 
extending  to  unoisdosed  defects  in  Roman  law  beyond 
anything  recognized  by  English  law.     (.3)  By  Roman  law 
the  property  did  not  pass  until  traditw  ■  even  then  it  was 
only  property  in  a  modified  sense;  it  was  rather  vacua 
pos5««5io  secured  hy  duplx  stipulatio;  by  English  law  the 
property  m  specific  ascertained  goods  vests  by  the  contract 
in  the  ouyer.     (6)  A  sale  by  a  person  who  was  not  the 
owner  was  not  good  in  I^man  law;  it  is  good  in  certain 
cases  m  Enghsh  law  (see  below). 

There  are  certain  kinds  of  sale  which  it  is  proposed  to  consider 
T^:^^ir  '"°"°'  "'  *'^  ""P*'"''^^  circ'um^LtesT^S 

l,.twZ"fr^  ^afc.-As  a  general  rule  sale  is  a  matter  of  contract 
between  the  parties,  and  no  one  can  be  forced  to  sell  agaTnsthis 
wia  But  in  this,  as  in  other  matters,  the  right  of  the  state  Cornel 
.n.     Under  the  po>vers  of  the  Lands  Claused  and  other Tct'lhe 

^^I'r'^S""  "^  "«'','  °f  ''°'''^"'  ''°"'^i°.  ^^y  force  an  o,.ner 
to  seU  for  th«  purpose  of  public  iraprovement^.-such  as  mUwIvs 
ne  power  of  compulsory  sale  is  less  common  where  the  'nterit; 

Act  186^  under,'"w?''=  ^°  «-'»>?■«  oocu,^  in  the  Pa  Wou 
Act,  lS6t,,  under  which  the  court  may  order  a  sale  instead  nf  , 

S-.r*|i'"'lf  ^T>.°^"■%P"«^^  intere^tetdiSent  '^  °'  ' 

JJtvrf  Tk  ?."•  "^  "'?  ^'"'"'^  ^^°<1  ^«^  1882  (see  Settle- 
land  Ln,         Conveyancing  Act,   3881,  prorides  for  freein^any 

irrt^fTsrtfm^rherth'rL^^^  The\°?  T -"^f  ^ 
order  for  sale  conclusive  in  fa^^'r  ^f^^  puJchLt -^'l^rst  ^^  ,! 
^0  of  ,1  '  ^'"'"''  °1 ""'  '"  »  ^'"^  l"?  "'"  <:o"rt  is  sX  tied  to 
one  of  the  conyeyancihg  counsel  of  the  Chancery  Divis  on  and  t!  e 
particulars  and  conditions  are  settled  in  judges'  chambeVsTh. 
sale  IS  generally  by  pubUc  auction,  the  auc^iofe^-  being  appoiiUed 
IJ^J^^%  ^^  "S»'»«™=  f<"-  the  conduct  of  lles'^'C  he 
court  w  11  be  found  in  the  Rules  of  the  Supreme  Court,  1883rOrd 


209 


the^authoHt^r/?.'^";  ^f^'  f ""  ^°'""  *"  ^  ^^^''  ""^t^g  "nder 
tnc  autuority  of  a  court  of  bankruptcy  to  sell  all  or  anv  mrt  r,t  ,h„ 

property  of  a  bankrupt  by  public  auction  or  private  con  r^ct  Simi 
lU^f'Jv"'  «"■'"''>■  "■=  S-^''^''  liankniptcy  Act,  1856     Jud^cTal' 

in  an  action  of  sett  in  Vo.i!^"^  T"  ^"'^  "^^  '"'  '^^"cised 
sale  is  the™  fe  bvl  l.J^  ,  ^  ""^'°''"  '"'^'"='>  °f  *  J"di«al 
writ  of  rf!rf  L-       '■'^5.°'^  '"'  execution  debtor's  goods  inder  a 

tn  h.  K,       ii-  .  '°^  ^'''  "■  ""'tiss  the  court  otherwise  orders 

oi^n  s  thtu»t;s'tf  rLp?eU'turt,l88f  'o^;:iri^ 

couVt^ora^     g':^f^Jatna'*atlt;fa'*r7^f"='""^ 

or  such  as  for  any  rea^„  f  ,^     ,      ,^  S"?'  "^  "  P«"shable  nature, 

the  rule  in  Dig.  I.  17  5i  "'kII",  !^""'  «.'"""'  ^'S^''"  '""' 
potestquamipSjhaber;.!'',^.!  P'"'  J""^  ""^  ">'"">  transferre 

lo  infoLaS  intho  ^itlc  To''«,i'"-''f  '^^'  '''^  P"^^'^^^  '"^j"' 
tions,  in  which  title  mavK»"'  T''"  "'"''  ""  ^^"^1  "<=''P- 
owne^  or  not  owners  at^aU  ^An"  ^^  ^T"".'  'T'"'  «^=  '*«'■'«' 
owner  is  a  sale  by  Ttenant  for  lif  ?'"f'l'  ""^  ""'"  ^-y  ^  '™it'=<i 
Settled  Land  Act  1882  UndJr  fh  "''"■  ^u"  P""''"  K*''^''  ''X  «''« 
persons  having  a  qualified  ri^ht  of"  T"  ^T"^  ""'"''^  f*"  ^'"  ^y 
stances,  such  °s  ,  sheriff  the  mLf  ^r"  "!!^".  P^rti™'"  circum- 


a  pawnee  in  default  of  payment  (see  Pirnri--.  0,1  u 
not  owners  at  all  must  a^a  a  rule,'  n  orfer  to  ^e  vtud  1!^^"' 
purchasers  ignorant  of  the  defect  ot  title  on  the  part  of'the  vendol' 
In  the  case  of  real_  estate  a  bona  fide  purchaser^fo-  vahLu  ™n" 
sideration  without -notice,  actual  or  implied,  of  aav  adfe"e  tTn" 
IS  protected.     This  is-on  the  principle  that  equUyasLts   het.r  i 

l^\Tl  P^''?'^  \  ^  ^"^°''  "<"  o^™^--  "^der^the  Fal^tors  Ac?s 
?n  ..  w  »>r  ""^  f  °'™  S""""^-  The  effect  o>  the  Factors  Act  s 
on  hif  bth  '  X^^:^---^^.  V  the  vendor  or  vendee  or  any  pe.tn 
on  his  behalf  while  he  is  m  possession  of  the  documents  of  title 

under  THEK?!'  ^'^  '^"  ''^  '"  '""^  ^'^  "'  ^'°1-  goods"  2^.°  found 
r>r;^'r/"'-^"''"'T'''^^  '^  ^  "g'"  °f  purchasing  some   particuhr 

which  the  same  were  originally  severed      Tn  tl,»  ^Tr.il   1  i.  ? 
emption  h  very  important  in  1^00^0^  V  wi[h  ,\  e  tmes.S 
law  (see  HOMESTE.AD).    In  international  law  the  ri^ht  fs  e wcislbb 

LTI      /•*''^'"^"°?  '^"''  "•"^""t  tl^"  consent  of  the  owner 
on'lht  utrrS''ifpo'"nTayir/a?e;t^^^ 

the  contract  of  sale  is°called  a  consensu^  contract  the  saTe  ?-  ^ 
TtFon'  -t"/eHverj-,  and  market  overt  Z'snoVatrdj'Vr' 
tection.  -ft  ntmg  is  essential  to  the  sale  of  heritable  nronertv  r.Z 
by  any  statute,  as  in  Engbnd,  but  bv  the  =rnci  t  umTten  law 
Hn  Jiittrventus  may,  however,  in  some  cases  I.l-»  ,,<,tt  ,  f 
in  England,  supply' the  plac^  of  wri  in^  '  The  ^^^d^r t'bro  I 
on  completion  to  supply  a  sufficient  progfess  of  tWes     'In  addition 


Scotknd       •'  Th.    .?'■.'  '°'"^'  important  changes  in  the  aw  of 

t^e^of  Scolltf  r^\l-fPSi:  .^d '^^L^^^^^^^^^^ 

V.  Wallace,  Law  Reports,  6  Afipeal  Cases  538?     L  !f  ?'      i    ''"■" 

after  sale  but  beforf  deliver/L^  noratSle  bj     fc.-^d Urof 

their  guaity  or  sufficiency,  but  the  goods,  with  all  faults  shdlb, 
at  the  nsk  of  the  purchaser,  unless  the  seller  sh.  I  have'riven  aa 

tic  Z  l„  J  •  ''''?.  ^™  '^''P'-essly  Bold  for  a  specified  and  m* 
ou   iuch'^^.7r%'°  r'"'^''  '^'^''  "''^  ^'=""^!>all  be  considered.  w?th. 

f^l;  J  f  "#\'  ""^  retention  corresponds  closely  to  the  ri-'ht  of 
hen  in  England;  but  rests  upon  the  simpler  ground  of  und'v "ted 
property  (see  Watson,  Law  Dift.,  s.  v.  "  Sale  ■•].     Crimina   lilbU  tv 

(sJe  Fp!ft;nr'"'  '"  '^  """'  '""■"  "  '~"^"''  t^in  EngbnJ 
»llf"J^i!  ^''fe^- -The  law  as  to  the  sale  of  real  estate  agrees  gener: 
o^^Rrci^KA? lov  ^I'l  ^'^  considerably  simpUfied  by°thesfs.." 
Fnfl^ni    ■    I         '^■'•'•,    ""■  covenant  of  warranty,  unknown  in 
England,  is  the  pnnc.p.al  covenant  for  title  in  the  United  Stato 

menT'^r'"'?  f  ""/"^' *"  "'0  E"?"^''  covenant  for  qu kt  enio?: 
ment  fhe  right  of  judicial  sale  ?f  buildings  under  a  me^hamVs 
hen  for  labour  and  materials  h  given  by  the  Jaw  of  mam^S^atcs 

vv 


210 


S  A  L—  SAL 


The  sale  of  public  lands  is  regulated  by  Act  of  Congress  {Rci'iscd 
Statutes,  2353-2379).  In  the  law  of  sale  of  pei-sonal  property 
American  law  is  also  based  upon  English  law.  The  principal  dif- 
ferences are  that  the  law  of  market  overt  (see  Theft)  is  not  recog- 
nized by  the  United  States,  and  that  an  unpaid  vendor  is  the  agent 
of  the  vendee  to  resell  on  non-payment,  and  is  entitled  to  recover 
the  difference  between  the  contract  price  and  the  price  of  resale. 
The  law  of  Louisiana  (Cicil  Code,  §  3194)  gives  the  unpaid  vendor 
a  still  greater  riglit  iu  his  preferential  claim  for  the  price  against 
the  creditors  of  the  purchaser,  if  the  property  still  remains  in  the 
latter's  possession.  Warranty  of  title  is  not  carried  as  far  as  in 
England.  United  States  decisions  draw  a  distinction  between  goods 
in  the  possession  and  goods  not  in  the  possession  of  the  vendor  at 
the  time  of  sale.  There  is  no  warranty  of  title  of  the  latter.  The 
Sta'.ute  of  Frauds  has  been  construed  in  some  respects  differently 
from  the  English  decisions.  The  differences  will  be  found  in  Mr 
Benjamin's  work.  As  to  unlawful  sales,  it  has  been  held  that  a 
sale  iu  a  State  where  the  sale  is  lawful  is  valid  in  a  State  where  it 
is  unlawful  by  statute,  even  though  the  goods  are  iu  the  latter 
State.  _      (J.  ■^;t) 

SALEIl£R  (in  _Mancas.?arese  HiMyara,  in  Buginese 
Sildja),  also  called  Tana-doimng  ("  Land  of  Shrimps  "),  is 
a  Dutch  island  separated  from  the  south  coast  of  Celebes 
(East  Indies)  by  a  strait  S  miles  wide,  which  in  the  west 
monsoon  is  tised  by  vessels  bound  for  the  Moluccas,  the 
Philippines,  and  China.  With  a  len„„h  of  46  miles  and 
general  breadth  of  9,  the  area  is  estimated  at  315  square 
miles.  Along  the  east  side  of  the  island  is  a  belt  of 
volcanic  rock ;  the  west  side  is  of  limestone  or  coralline 
formation.  The  highest  point  seems  to  be  Haru  on  the 
east  coast,  but  estimates  of  its  altitude  varjj  from  1000  to 
3000  feet.  There  are  no  navigable  rivers,  and  many  of 
the  streams  dry  up  in  the  west  monsoon.  Besides  most  of 
the  ordinary  tropical  fruits,  the  cultivated  plants  comprise 
Indian  corn,  barley,  potatoes,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  indigo, 
and  among  tlie  trees  are  cocoar.ut  and  areng  palms,  htnari, 
ebony,  and  teak  (the  last  considered  the  property  of  the 
Dutch  Goveinment).  Horses,  buffaloes,  goats,  and  sheep 
are  kept,  and  pigs  and  deer  exist  in  a  wild  state.  The 
population  o:  Saleij'er  and  dependencies,  mainly  a  mixed 
race  of  Mancassars,  Buginese,  and  natives  of  Luvu  and 
Buton,  was  in  1869  55,147,  and  in  1880  66,276.  They  use 
the  Jlancassar  language,  are  for  the  most  part  nominally 
Mahommedans  (though  many  heathen  customs  survive), 
and  support  themselves  by  agriculture,  fishing,  seafaring, 
trade,  the  preparation  of  salt  (on  the  south  coast),  and  the 
weaving  of  ..-lothing  materials.  Field  work  is  largely 
performed  by  a  servile  class.  '  Raw  and  prepared  cotton, 
tobacco,  trepang,  tortoise-shell,  cocoanuts  and  cocoanut 
oil,  and  salt  are  the  principal  articles  of  export. 

The  island  is  divided  into  nine  regencies.; — Tanette,  Bataramata 
(liatanguiata;  including  the  former  regency  of  Onto),  Buki,  Jlare- 
Mare,  Boueya — all  five  in  the  north — Bontobangung,  Balla-bulo, 
Layolo,  and  Barambarang — in  the  south.  Panggiliyang  or  Benteug 
on  the  west  coast,  often  called  also  Saleiyer,  is  the  capital  of  the 
island.  It  stands  in  6°  3'  3"  S.  lat.  and  120°  31'  48"  E.  long.,  and 
possesses  the  best  liarbour  on  the  whole  coast,  being  protected  by 
Pulo  Pasi  or  Hog  Island  (also  Sariwa  or  Pulo  Babi).  To  the 
Saleiyer  group  belong  a  variety  of  small  islands,  for  the  most  part 
uninhabited — Tana  jampeya  ("the  largest  of  all  with  a  good  anchor- 
age at  JIaringi  Bay).  Gowang,  Malimbu,  &c.  Previous  to  the  Dutch 
occupation  the  Saleiyers  were  subject  to  the  king  of  Ternate, 

SALEM,  a  British  district  of  India,  in  Madras  presi- 
dency, lying  between  11°  1'  and  12°  57'  N.  lat.  and  77°  32' 
and  79°  5'  E.  long.  It  embraces  an  area  of  7653  square 
miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Mysore  and  North 
Arcot,  on  the  S.  by  Coimbatore  and  Trichinopoly,  on  the  E. 
by  Trichinopoly  and  South  and  North  Arcot,  and  on  the  W. 
by  Coimbatore  and  Mysore.  Except  towards  the  south, 
the  district  is  very  hilly,  with  large  plains  lying  between 
the  several  ranges.  Salem  is  described  as  consisting  of 
three  distinct  tracts  of  country,  known  as  the  TAlaghdt, 
the  BaramahAl,  and  the  BdlSghAt.  The  TAlaghat  is  situated 
below  the  Eastern  Ghats  on  the  level  of  the  Carnatic  gener- 
ally ;  the  Biramahal  includes  the  whole  Salem  face  of  the 
Ghats  and  a  wide  tract  of  country  at  their  l^s.se  ;  and  the- 


B.ilAghat  is  situated  above  the  Ghats  on  the  tableland  of 
Mysore.  The  western  part  of  the  district  is  very  mcimtain- 
ous,  some  of  the  ranges  attaining  an  elevation  of  between 
5000  and  6000  feet.  Amongst  the  chief  ranges  are  the 
Shevaroys,  the  Kahdyans,  the  Melagiris,  the  Kollimalais, 
the  Pachamalais,  and  the  Yelagiris.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Cauvery  with  its  numerous  tributaries,  and  the  Pennar 
and  Palar ;  the  last,  however,  only  flows  through  a  few 
miles  of  the  Tirupatiir  tdlui,  situated  in  the  north-western 
corner  of  the  district.  The  forests  are  of  considerable  value 
and  their  area  is  roughly  estimated  at  2251  square  miles. 
The  geological  structure  of  the  district  is  mostly  gneissic, 
with  a  few  irruptive  rocks  in  the  form  of  trap  dykes  and 
granite  veins.  Magnetic  iron  ore  is  common  in  the  hill 
regions,  and  corundum  and  chromate  of  iron  are  also 
obtainable.  The  qualities  of  the  soil  differ  very  much  ;  in 
the  country  immediately  surrounding  the  town  of  Salem  a 
thin  layer  of  calcareous  and  red  loam  generally  prevails, 
through  which  quartz  rocks  appear  on  the  surface  in  many 
places.  The  climate,  owing  to  the  great  difference  of 
elevation,  varies  considerably ;  on  the  hills  it  is  cool  and 
bracing,  and  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  very  salubrious  ; 
the  average  rainfall  is  about  38  inches.  Salem  has  about 
1400  miles  of  road,  and  the  length  of  railway  line  within 
the  district  is  134  miles. 

In  ISSl  the  populatioii  was  1,599,695  (males  778,483,  females 
821,112)  ;  Hindus  numbered  1,531,855,  Mohammedans  51,092, 
and  Christians  16,567.  Besides  Salem  (see  below),  tlie  capital,  the 
district  contains  three  other  towns  with  a  population  exceeding 
10,000  each,  viz.,  Daringambadi  (15,426),  Tirupatiir  (14,278),  and 
Shendamangalam  (12,675).  Of  the  total  area  of  the  district  only 
1,233,190  acres  were  under  cultivation  in  1883-84  ;  but  of  these 
137,403  acres  were  twice  cropped.  TJie  staple  crops  are  rice  aucl 
ragi  ;  other  important  crops  are  pulses  and  seeds.  The  chief 
industry  is  weaving,  which  is  carried  on  in  almost  every  large  town 
and  village.  Carpets  of  gi'cat  be.anty  and  superior  workmanship  are 
made  in  the  Salem  jaiL  Good  iron  and  steel  are  made,  but  only 
on  a  small  scale.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  was 
£260,364,  the  laud-tax  contributing  £211,002  of  the  amount 
Though  Salem  has  no  connected  history,  there  are  few  parts  of 
Southeru  India  that  contain  more  spots  of  interest  for  English 
students.  As  at  present  composed  it  was  acquired  by  the  treaty 
of  peace  with  Tipu  Sultan  in  1792  and  the  partition  treaty  of 
Mysore  in  1799.  By  the  former  tlic  Talagh.it  and  Baraniahal  were 
ceded,  and  by  the  latter  the  Balaghat,  or  what  is  now  the  Osiir  tdluk. 

SALEJI,  chief  town  of  the  above  district,  situated  in 
ir  39'  10"  N.  lat.  and  78°  11'  47"  E.  long.,  is  a  busy 
trading  place,  with  a  considerable  weaving  industry.  It 
is  tolerably  well  built  and  is  prettily  situated  on  the  river 
Tirumanimuttar,  900  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a  long  valley 
enclosed  by  the  Shevaroy  hills,  which  are  6  miles  distant. 
The  population  of  the  town  in  1881  was  50,667  Cmales 
24,584,  females  26;0S3). 

SALEM,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  or  Essex 
county,  Massachusetts,  is  built  on  a  peninsula  between 
North  and  South  rivers,  in  42°  31'  18"  N  lat.  and  70°  53' 
53"  AV.  long.,  16  miles  north  by  east  of  Boston,  on  the 
eastern  division  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  and  the  early  part  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury Salem  was  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  foreign  commerce, 
especially  with  the  East  Indies;  but,  its  comparatively  shal 
low  harbour  failing  to  accommodate  the  larger  vessels  of 
modern  times,  it  has  been  supplanted  by  Boston  and  has  to 
content  itself  with  a  good  share  of  the  coasting  trade.  Its 
industrial  activity  has,  on  the  other  hand,  increased,  and 
it  now  possesses  steam  cotton-mills,  jute-factories,  extensive 
tanneries,  and  various  minor  manufactories.  The  main 
interest,  however,  of  Salem  consists  in  its  historical  and 
literary  associations  and  the  institutions  by  which  they 
are  represented.  Best  known  of  these  institutions  is  the 
Peabody  Academy,  founded  in  1867  with  funds  provided 
by  the  well-known  philanthropist.  The  academy  at  once 
jjurchased  and  reiitted  the  East  India  Marine  Hall,  origin- 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


211 


ally  built  in  1824:  by  the  East  India  Marine  Society  (1799), 
which  consisted  of  captains  and  supercargoes  who  had 
doubled  either  Cape  Horn  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ; 
and  the  building  now  contains  under  the  trusteeship  of 
the  academy  the  collections  of  the  old  East  India  IMuseum 
and  those  of  the  Essex  Institute,  illustrating  the  zoology, 
natural  history,  and  archiEology  of  the  county.  The  ethno- 
graphical collections,  such  as  that  dealing  with  Corea,  are 
especially  valuable.  The  American  Naturalist  has  been  the 
organ  of  the  academy  since  1867.  The  Peabody  Institute, 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the  academy,  is  in  the  village  of 
Peabody  (Danvers),  about  2  miles  distant  from  Salem  and 
about  midwaybetweeu  the-house  in  which  the  philanthropist 
was  born  and  the  grave,  in  Harmony  Grove  cemetery,  in 
which  he  was  buried.  Plummer  Hall,  a  fine  building  in 
Esse.x  Street,  erected  in  1856  out  of  funds  left  to  the 
Salem  Athenaeum  by  Miss  Plummer,  contains  the  libraries 
of  the  Athenaeum,  the  Essex  Institute  (founded  in  1848 
by  the  union  of  the  Essex  Historical  and  the  Essex  County 
Natural  History  Societies),  and  the  Essex  South  District 
Medical  Society,  making  an  aggregate  of  50,000  volumes. 
Behind  this  hall  is  the  frame  of  the  oldest  church  edifice 
in  New  England,  erected  in  1634  for  Roger  Williams. 
Other  buildings  of  note  in  Salem  are-^n  State  normal 
school,  the  city  hall,  the  court-houses,  the  custom-house, 
in  which  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  once  acted  as  surveyor  of 
the  port,  and  several  of  the  private  houses  (such  as  "  Dr 
Grimshawe's  house,"  the  dwelling  occupied  for  several 
years  by  Dr  Peabody,  Mrs  Hawthorne's  father)  which, 
while  not  exactly  prototypes,  have  lent  much  of  their 
verisimilitude  to  the  localities  of  Hawthorne's  fiction. 
The  novelist  was  born  at  21  Union  Street.  Salem  had 
24,117  inhabitants  in  1870,  and  27,563  in  1880. 

Naunikeag  (Eel  Land)  was  the  Indian  name  of  th.e  district  in 
which  Salem  stands,  and  is  still  used  familiarly  by  the  inhabitants. 
The  first  house  was  built  by  Roger  Conants  from  Cape  Ann  in  1626, 
and  two  years  later  a  settlement  was  formed  by  John  Endicott  and 
called  Salem,  "  from  the  peace  they  had  and  hoped  in  it."  In  1630 
Governor  John  AVintluop  introduced  a  large  body  of  colonists  from 
En^'Iand,  including  llie  brave  and  beautiful  Arabella  Johnson, 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  who  died  shortly  afterwards.  In 
1661  the  Quakers  were  persecuted  at  Salem,  and  in  1692  the  town 
was  thq  scene  of  Cotton  blather's  terrible  proceedings  against  witch- 
craft: nineteen  persons  were  hanged  on  Gallows  Hill  and  Giles  Cory 
was  pressed  to  death.  It  was  in  Salem  that  in  1774  the  house  of 
representatives  of  Massachusetts  resolved  themselves  into  a  sovereign 
political  power.  The  town  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1836.  Few 
cities  of  the  United  States  have  given  more  eminent  men  to  the 
world  Timothy  Pickering,  secretary  of  state  (17!)0-1S00),  General 
Israel  Putnam,  F.  T.  Ward  of  China  celebrity,  John  Kogers  ami 
W.  W.  Story  the  sculptors,  Bowditch  and  B.  Peirce  the  astro- 
nomers and  n)athcmaticians,  Jlaria  S.  Cummins  the  novelist,  AV. 
H.  Prescott  the  historian,  and  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

SALEM,  a  city  of  the  United  Spates,  the  county  seat  of 
Salem  county.  New  Jersey,  on  a  small  stream  of  the  same 
name,  by  which  it  has  steam  communication  with  Phil- 
adelphia (on  the  Delaware),  44  miles  distant  to  the  north- 
north-east  by  rail.  While  Salem  depends  mainly  on  the 
agricultural  prosperity  of  the  surrounding  district,  it  also 
contains  foundries  and  machine-shops,  fruit-canning  estab- 
lishments, glass-ware  factories,  oil-cloth  factories,  <tc.  The 
population  was  3052  in  1850,  4555  in  1870.  and  5056  in 
1880. 

A  colony  settled  on  the  site  of  Salem  in  1641  was  replaced  by  a 
Swedish  fort,  and  this  passed  through  the  Dutch  to  tlio  English. 
One  of  the  Quakers  who  in  16?3  bought  Lord  Berkeley's  half  of 
^cw  Jersey  gave  the  place  its  present  name  and  restored  the  settle- 
ment, which  in  1682  was  declared  a  port  of  entrj'.  In  1778  the 
towTi  was  plundered  by  Colonel  Manhood. 

SALEM,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital  of 
Or;gon,  in  Marion  county,  on  the  east  bank  of  Willamette 
ri.'er,  53  miles  south  of  Portland  by  the  Oregon  and 
California  Railroad.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  prairie  district, 
adorned  with  copses,  and  possesses  a  good  source  of  water- 
power  in  Mill  Creek.    The  capitol,  a  rather  imposing  edifice 


with  a  tower  180  feet  high,  erected  in  1875-76,  occupies  a 
fine  site  above  the  city ;  other  public  buildings  are  the 
Willamette  University  (Methodist),  which  grants  defrees 
in  medicine,  science,  and  general  literature,  the  opera-house, 
the  Roman  Catholic  school  for  girls,  the  State  penitentiary. 
and  State  schools  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind. 
Lumber,  woollen  goods,  flour,  leather,  brass  castings,  furni- 
ture, linseed  oil,  and  building  materials  are  the  chief  article.? 
of  manufacture  and  trade.  The  population  was  2538  in; 
1880.  Settled  in  1834,  incorporated  in  1853,  Salem  be- 
came the  State  capital  in  1860. 

SALEP  (Arab,  sahleb,  Gr.  o/j^'s),  a  drug  extensively  usee' 
in  the  East  as  a  nervine  restorative  and  fattener,  and  als' 
much  prescribed  in  paralytic  affections,  probably  owed  it; 
original  popularity  to  the  belief  in  the  so-called  "  doctrine 
of  signatures."  In  Europe  it  is  chiefly  used  as  a  demulcent 
drink,  but  is  also  supposed  to  possess  nutrient  properties  • 
it  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in  inflammatory  condi 
tions  of  the  mucous  membrane,  as  in  bronchitis,  diarrhcea 
cystitis,  and  other  urinary  disorders.  It  consists  of  the 
tuberous  roots  of  various  species  of  Orchis  and  Eidophia, 
which  are  decorticated,  washed,  heated  until  horny  in  ap- 
pearance, and  then  carefully  dried.  The  most  important 
constituent  of  salep  is  a  kind  of  mucilage  which  it  yields 
to  cold  water  to  the  extent  of  48  jjer  cent.  This  miK-ilase 
in  its  chemical  reactions  is  more  nearly  allied  to  cellulose 
than  to  gum,  since  when  dry  it  is  readily  soluble  in 
ammoniacal  solution  of  copper ;  when  boiled  with  nitric 
acid  it  yields  oxalic  but  not  mucic  acid.  Salep  also  con- 
tains sugar  and  albumen,  and  when  fresh  traces  of  a  volatile 
oil ;  dried  at  100°  C.  it  yields  2  per  cent,  of  ash,  chiefly  the 
phosphates  and  chlorides  of  potassium  and  calcium. 

Salep  was  formerly  imported  into  Europe  from  the  Levant;  but 
in  1760  the  French  chemist  Geoffroy  discovered  its  true  nature  and 
showed  how  it  might  be  prepared  "from  the  speciec  of  Orchis  indi- 
genous to  France.  That  used  in  Germany  is  obtained  from  plants 
growing  wild  in  the  Taunus  Mountains,  the  Westerwald,  the  Rhbn, 
the  Odenv.ald,  and  Franconia.  Grecian  salep  is  chiefly  collected 
in  Macedonia.  In  Asia  Minor  the  tubers  arc  collected  near  Jlelassa 
and  Mughla,  and  about  330  tons  arc  annually  exported  from 
Smyrna.  The  salep  of  the  Bombay  market,  which  is  imported 
principally  from  Persia,  Cabul,  and  northern  India,  occurs  in  three 
forms,  palmate,  large  ovoid,  and  small  ovoid  tubers  on  strings,  all 
more  or  less  horny  and  translucent.  Salep  is  also  produced  on  the 
Nilgiri  (Neilgherry)  Hills  and  in  Ceylon.  Besides  the  above-men- 
tioned forms,  elongated  cylindrical  tubers,  usually  in  pairs  and 
undccorticated,  aro  occasionally  met  with.  The  palmate  tuiiers  are 
the  most  highly  esteemed,  being  valued  at  ten  rupees  per  pound. 
This  variety  is  known  in  the  Bombay  market  as  Persian  salep.  .  It 
is  probably  derived  chiclly  from  0.  latifolia,  L.,  although  0.  macu- 
lata,  L.,  0.  saccifera,  Brongn. ,  and  0.  conopsca,  L.,  also  aflbrd  pal- 
mate tubers.  The  species  known  to  yield  ovate  salep  arc  0.  viascuJa, 
0.  Morio,  0.  pyramidalis,  0.  iislulata,  0.  miJitaris,  0,  coriophora, 
L.,  and  0.  lonrjicruris,  Link.  All  these  species  are  natives  of  the 
greater  part  of  central  and  southern  Europe,  Turkey,  the  Caucasus, 
and  Asia  Minor,  0.  latifolia  extending  to  western  India  and  Tibet 
and  0.  conopsca  to  the  Amur,  in  the  extreme  east  of  Asia.  Salep  is 
not  easily  reduced  to  powder,  being  both  hard  and  tough,  and  is 
therefore  usually  ground  between  millstones.  Tliis  difficulty  i-- 
said  to  be  lessened  if  t>ie  salep  is  first  soaked  in  cold  water  until  soft 
and  then  rajiidly  dried.  As  the  powder  does  not  mix  readily  with 
water,  the  authors  of  Pharmacngraphia  (2d  ed.  p.  656)  reconmiend 
that  it  should  be  first  mixed  with  IJ  parts  of  rectified  spirits  of 
wine  (brandy  or  other  strong  spirit  would  answer  equ&lly  well), 
40  parts  of  cold  water  being  then  added  i|uickly  and  the  mixture 
boiled.     In  these  proportions  salep  affords  a  thick  jelly. 

SALERNO,  a  city  of  Italy  and  the  chief  town  of  a  pro- 
vince  of  its  o^m  name  (formerly  Princijjato  Citeriore),  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  west  coast  34  miles  south-east  ot 
Naples,  and  presents  a  fine  appearance  with  the  ruins  of  its 
old  Norman  castle  on  an  eminence  905  feet  above  the  sea 
and  its  backgroimd  of  graceful  limestone  hills.  The  town; 
walls  were  destroyed  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen-" 
tury ;  the  seaward  jfortion  has  given  place  to  the  Corso 
Garibaldi,  the  principal  promenade.  Among  the  con- 
spicuous buildings  are  the  theatre,  the  prefecture,  and  the 


212 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


cathedral  of  St  JIatthew  (whose  bones  were  brought  from 
Pocstum  to  Salerno  in  904),  begun  in  1076  by  Robert  Guis- 
card  and  consecrated  in  1084  by  Gregory  VII.  In  front 
is  a  beautiful  quadrangular  court  (112  by  102  feet),  sur- 
rounded by  arcades  formed  of  twenty-eight  ancient  pillars 
mostly  of  granite  ;  and  the  middle  entrance  into  the  church 
•  closed  by  a  reuiarkable  bronze  door  of  11th  or  12th 
century  Byzantine  work.  The  nave  and  two  aisles  end  in 
apses.  Two  magnificent  marble  ambos,  the  larger  dating 
from  1175,  several  specimens  of  ancient  mosaic,  and  the 
tombs  of  Gregory  VII.  and  Queen  Margaret  of  Durazzo 
deserve  to  be  mentioned.  In  the  crjrpt  is  a  bronze  statue 
of  St  Matthew.  The  lofty  aqueduct,  one  of  w-hose  afches 
is  now  used  by  the  railway,  is  a  building  of  1320  ;  the 
present  water-supply  is  provided  by  a  canal  formed  in  1865. 
A  fine  port  constructed  by  Giovanni  da  Procida  in  1260 
was  destroyed  when  Naples  became  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, and  remained  blocked  with  sand  till  after  the  unifica- 
tion of  Italy.  A  series  of  works,  especially  those  decreed 
in  1880,  have  provided  an  inner  harbour  of  40  acres  (depth 
1 2  to  22  feet),  an  outer  harbour  (22  to  25  feet),  and  wharves 
to  the  extent  of  4468  feet.  In  1884  ISO  vessels  (29,078 
tons)  entered  and  173  (28,069)  cleared.  Silk  and  cotton 
spinning  are  the  principal  industries.  The  population  was 
19,905  in  1870  and  22,328  (commune,  31,245)  in  1881. 

AHoman  colony  was  founded  at  Salerno  (Salernum)  in  194  B.C.  to 
keep  the  rieentines  in  check,  hut  the  city  makes  no  figure  in  history 
till  after  the  Lombard  conquest.  Dismantled  by  order  of  Charle- 
magne, it  became  in  the  9th  century  the  capital  of  an  independent 
principality,  the  rival  -of  that  of  Beneveuto,  and  was  surrounded  by 
strong  fortifications.  The  Lombard  princes,  who  had  frequently 
defended  their  city  against  the  Saracens,  succumbed  before  Robert 
Guiscard,  Tvho  took  the  castle  after  an  eight  months'  siege  and  made 
Salerno  the  capital  of  his  new  territoiy.  The  removal  of  the  com-t 
to  Palermo  and  the  sack  of  the  city  by  the  emperor  Heiuy  VL  in 
1194  put  a  stop  to.its  development.  The  position  which  the  medical 
school  of  the  Civitas  Hippocratica  {as  it  called  itself  on  its  seals) 
held  in  medieval  times  has  been  described  under  Medicine,  vol. 
XT.  pp.  806-807.  Salerno  university,  founded  in  1150,  and  long 
one  of  the  great  seats  of  learning  in  Italy,  was  closed  in  1817. 

SALES,  Francois  de  (1567-1622),  see  vol.  ix.  p.  695. 

SALFORD.     See  Manchester,  vol.  xv.  p.  459  sq. 

SALICIN,  the  bitter  principle  of  willow  bark,  was  dis- 
covered by  Leroux  in  1831.  It  exists  in  most  species  of 
Salit  and  Ponidus,  and  has  been  obtained  to  the  extent 
of  3  or  4  per  cent,  from  the  bark  of  S.  helix  and  S. 
pentandra.  According  to  Herberger,  the  bark  of  the 
young  branches  affords  salicin  in  larger  proportion  than 
that  of  the  trimk  and  contains  less  of  the  other  ingredients 
which  interfere  with  its  extraction.  Salicin  is  prepared 
from  a  decoction  of  the  bark  by  first  precipitating  the 
tannin  by  milk  of  lime,  then  evaporating  the  filtrate  to  a 
soft  extract,  and  dissolving  out  the  salicin  by  alcohol. 
As  met  with  in  commerce  it  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
glossy  white  scales  or  needles.  It  is  neutral  to  test  paper, 
inodorous,  unaltered  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  has  a 
persistently  bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  about  30  parts 
of  alcohol  or  water  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  and  in 
0'7  of  boUing  water  or  in  2  parts  of  boiUng  alcohol,  and 
more  freely  in  alkaline  liquids.  It  is  also  soluble  in  acetic 
acid  without  alteration,  but  is  insoluble  in  chloroform 
and  benzol.  From  phloridzin  it  is  distinguished  by  its 
ammoniacal  solution  not  becoming  coloured  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  Cold  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  salicin,  forming 
a  bright  red  solution.  ,^VheIi  salicin  is  heated  with  sul- 
phiuic  acid  and  potassium  bichromate,  salicylic  aldehyde 
(C.HjO,)  is  formed,  which  possesses  the  odour  of  meadow- 
sweet flowers  {Spirwa  Ulmaria,  L.). 

Salicin  is  chiefly  used  in  medicine  as  an  antipyretic  in 
acute  rheumatism,  for  which  it  is  given  in  doses  of  5  to 
30  grains.  Its  action  is  less  powerful  than  that  of  Sali- 
cylic Acid  (q.v.),  and  its  depressing  effect  on  the  circulation 
Is  less  marked.     It  is  alsCgiven  for  headache  and  for  ague. 


Salicin  is  a  glucoside,  having  the  composition  CisHj^Oj,  and  is 
not  precipitated  by  the  alkaloidal  i-cagents.  It  has  been  prepared 
artificially  from  helicin,  synthesijed  from  sodium,  salicyl-aldehyde, 
and  aceto-chlorhydrosc,  being  the  first  glucoside  that  has  been  arti- 
ficially prepared  (Journ.  Chcm.  Soc,  lS8-(,  p.  439).  According  to 
BinZj  it  may  be  split  up  by  digestion  with  emulsin  or  saliva  into 
salicylic  alcohol  (saligenol,  C^HjO,)  and  glucose  ;  heating  it  gently 
with  dUute  sulphuric  acid  produces  a  similar  effect.  Salicylic 
alcohol  is  converted  by  oxidizing  agents  into  salicylic  acid.  This 
acid  is  formed  when  salicin  is  taken  internally,  since  salicin  is 
eliminated  from  the  system  partly  in  the  form  of  Salicylic  and 
salicyhuic  acids,  and  partly  as  saligenin. 

SALIC  LAW,  and  other  Barbarian  Laws.  The  (1) 
Lex  Salica  is  one  of  those  Teutonic  laws  of  the  early 
Middle  Ages  which  are  known-as  leges  barbarorum,  among 
which  we  also  reckon  the  (2)  Lex  Eipuariornm  or  Jiibnari- 
onim,  (3)  Ewa  (Lex)  Francorum  Chamavorum,  (4)  Lex 
Alamannorum,  (5)  Lex  Bajuvariorum,  (6)  Lex  Frisionum, 
(7)  Lex  Angliorum  et  Werinoriim,  h.e.,  2'huringorum,  (8) 
Lex  Saxonum,  (9)  Leges  Anglo-Saxonum,  (10)  Lex  'Bur- 
gundionum,  (10a)  Lex  Romana  Burgiindiomim,  (11)  Lex 
Wisigothormn,  (11a)  Breviarivm  Alarici,  (lib)  Edictvm 
Theodorici,  (12)  Leges  Langohardoi-nm,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  (13)  Leges  Walliss.  All  these  laws  may  in  general 
be  described  as  codes  of  procedure  and  of  rights,  which 
regulated  for  some  indefinite  period  the  internal  affairs  of 
the  several  Teutonic  tribes  whose  names  they  bear. 

(1)  The  SaBc  Law  originated  with  the  Salian  Franks, 
often  simply  called  Salians,  the  chief  tribe  of  that  con- 
glomeration of  Teutonic  peoples  known  as  Franks  (q.v.). 
The  latter  first  appear  in  history  about  240  (Vopisc,  Vit. 


Map  of  Salic  and  other  Barbarian  Countries. 

Aurel.,  c.  7),  after  which  date  we  ^nd  them  carrj'ing  on 
an  almost  uninterrupted  struggle  with  the  Roman  empire, 
tUl  486,  when  they  finally  established  a  kingdom  of  their 
own  in  provinces  which  had  previously  been  considered 
Roman.  The  Salian  Franks  first  appear  under  their  specific 
name  in  358,  when  they  had  penetrated  westwards  as  far 
as  Toxandria  (Texandr'ia,  no^  Tessenderloo,  in  Limburg, 
the  region  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  lower  Meuse), 
where  they  were  subdued  by  the  ernperor  Julian  (Ammian., 
xvii.  8).  As  regards  their  previous  history  nothing  is 
known  with  certainty,  though  it  seems  probable  that  the 
Franks  who  occupied  the  Batavian  island  c.  290,  and  were 
there  coriquered  in  292  by  Constantius  Chlorus  {Paneg. 
incerti  autk.,  c.  4),  and  thence  transplanted  into  Gaul, 
were  the  Salian  Franks.     We  find,   moreover,  such  un- 


SALIC      LAW 


213 


mistakable  evidence  of  a  connexion  between  the  Sigambri 
and  the  Salii '  that  the  latter  are  by  some  regarded  as  the 
descendants  of  the  Sigambri  whom  Tiberius  removed  in 
8  B.C.  from  their  home  on  the  rfght  bank  of  the  Ehine ; 
and  it  is  argued  that  he  did  not  transform  them  into  the 
Gugerni,  nor  place  them  on  the  Merwede,  a  stream  and 
locality  near  Dordrecht  and  Zwijndrecht,  but  transplanted 
them  into  the  region  now  called  the  Veluwe,  between  the 
Utrecht  Vecht  and  the  Eastern  Yssel,  where  the  Romans 
probably  made  of  them  what  the  Batavi  had  been  for 
years  past — their  allies — perhaps  on  the  same  condition  as 
the  latter,  who  merely  furnished  the  Romans  with  men 
and  arms.  This  accounts  for  the  Sigambrian  cohort  in 
the  Thracian  War  in  26  aJ).  Some  think,  however,  that 
the  Salians  were  a  separate  tribe  of  the  Franks  who  merely 
coalesced  with  the  Sigambri  (comp.  Watterich,  Die  Ger- 
manen  des  Rkeins;  Waitz,  Ver/ass.,  ii.  21).  In  431  the 
Frankish  (Salic)  king  Chlodio  (Chlojo,  Chlogio),  said  to 
have  been  a  son  (or  the  father)  of  Merovech,  the  founder 
of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  (Greg.  Tur.,  ii.  9),  took  Cam- 
brai  and  advanced  his  ,  dominion  as  far  as  the  Somme 
(Greg.,  t'i.  ;  Sid.  Apoll.,  v.  211  sq.),  though  still  acknow- 
ledging Roman  supremacy.  Chiklerich  reigned  from  457 
to  481,  and  resided  at  Tournai,  where  his  grave  was  dis- 
covered in  1653.  His  son  Clovis  (Chlovis,  Chlodovech) 
in  486  extended  his  empire  to  the  Seine  (Greg.  Tur.,  ii. 
43,  27).  For  an  account  of  him,  see  vol.  ix.  pp.  528,  529. 
We  have  very  few  means  of  ascertaining  when  the 
Salic  Law  -  was  compiled,  and  how  long  it  remained  in 
force.  Our  knowledge  of  the  code  is  derived — (i.)  from 
ten  texts,  preserved  in  a  comparatively  large  number  of 
manuscripts,  chiefly  written  in  the  8th  and  9th  centiiries ; 
(ii.)  from  allusions  to  a  Salic  Law  in  various  charters  and 
other  documents.  But  the  Latin  texts  do  not  contain  the 
original  Salic  Law.  This  is  clear  (a)  from  the  allusions 
we  find  in  them  to  a  "Lex  Saliea"  and  "Antiqua  Lex," 
which  can  hardly  be  anj-thing  but  references  to  another 
and  earlier  Lex  Saliea ;  (4)  from  a  certain  peculiarity  and 
awkwardness  in  the  construction  of  the  Latin,  which, 
though  it  is  so-called  Merovingian,  and  therefore  very 
corrupt,  would  have  been  different  if  the  texts  were  original 
compilations  ;  (c)  from  a  number  of  yords,  found  in  nearly 
every  paragraph  of  certain  groups  of  the  MSS.,  and  now 
kno%vn  as  "  Malberg  glosses,"  which  are  evidently  the  re- 
mains of  a  vernacular  Salic  Law,  and  appear  to  have  been 
retailed  in  the  Latin  versions,  in  some  cases  because  the 
translators  seemed  doubtful  as  to  whether  their  Latin  terms 
<X)rrectly  rendered  the  meaning  of  the  original,  in  other 
cases  because  these  words  had  "lecome  legal  terms,  and 
indicated  a  certain  fine.  We  do  not  know  whether  the 
original  Frankish  law-book  was  ever  reduced  to  writing,  or 
merely,  retained  in,  and  handed  down  to  posterity  from, 
the  memory  of  some  persons  charged  with  the  preservation 
of  the  law.  All  that  we  know  of  such  an  original  is  con- 
tained in  a  couple  of  prologues  (apparently  later  than  the 
texts  themselves)  found  in  certain  MSS.  of  the  existi  ig 

'  "Detonsns  Vachalim  [the  river  Waal]  bibat  Sicamber"  (S.d. 
ApoU.,  Carm.,  xiii.  31).  "  Ut  Saliu3  jam  rura  colal  flexosquo  Sicambri 
In  falccm  curvent  gladios "  (Claudian,  De  Laude  Siilic,  L  222). 
According  to  the  Oesta  Fran';.,  c.  1,  the  Franks  at  one  time  inhabited 
the  town  of  Sicambna.  The  earliest  Frankish  kings,  who  were 
undoubtedly  king»  of  the  Salian  Franks,  are  often  called  Sigambri, 
and  alwaj-s  with  the  object  of  honouring  them.  .St  Remigius,  when 
he  baptized  Clovis,  exhorted  him,  "  Mitis  depone  colla  Sicamber" 
(Greg.  Tur.,  ii.  31).  Venantius  Fortnnatus  (\i.  4)  says  to  Kiiig  Chari- 
hert,  "Cum  sis  progenitus  clara  de  gente  Sygamber."  For  further 
evidence,  comp.  Waitz,  Verfast. ,  ii.  22  so.  .  r- 

'  The  origin  of  the  name  Salicus,  Sajius,  is  uncertain.'  It  is  not 
iraprtbable  that  it  was  derived  from  the  river  Yssel,  called  in  the 
Middle  Ages  liloa,  Hisloa,  Isla,  Isela,  Isalia.  The  region  about 
Dcventcr,  in  the  east  of  Holland,  is  still  called  Salland,  though  it  is 
nowhere  expre««!y  said  that  the  Salians  ever  lived  there. 


Latin  versions.  One  of  them  states  that  four  men  "  in 
villis  quae  ultra  Renum  sunt  per  tres  mallos  (judicial  as- 
semblies) convenieutes,  omnes  causarum  origines  sollicite 
discutiendo  tracta.nte3,  judicium  decreverunt,"  which  must 
refer  to  a  period  before  358,  as  in  that  year  the  Salian 
Franks  had  already  crossed  the  Rhine  and  occupied  the 
Batavian  island  and  Tosandria.  Another  prologue  says 
that  the  Salic  Law  was  compiled  (diciare)  while  the  Franks 
were  still  heathens  (therefore  before  496),  and  afterwards 
emended  by  Clovis,  Childebert,  and  Chlotar.  Nor  can  it 
be  stated  with  certainty  when  the  Latin  translations  which 
we  now  possess  were  made,  but  it  must  have  been  after 
Clovis  had  extended  his  power  as  far  as  the  Loire  (486-507), 
as  in  chapter  47  the  boundaries  of  the  Frankish  empire 
are  stated  to  be  the  Carbonaria  Silva  (in  southern  Belgium 
between  Tournai  and  Li<5ge)  and  the  Loire.^ 

There  exist  five  Latin  recensions,  more  or  less  different, 
(i.)  The  earliest  of  the  code  (handed  down  in  foUr  ilSS. 
with  little  diftetence,  and  very  likely  compOed  shortly  after 
Clovis  extended  his  empire  to  the  Loire)  consists  of  sixty- 
five  chapters  (with  the  Malberg  glosses).  In  the  course 
of  the  6th  century  a  considerable  number  of  chapters 
appear  to  have  been  added  (under  the  title  of  "edicts" 
or  "  decrees  "),  some  of  which  are  ascribed  to  Clovis,  and 
the  remainder  to  his  successors  before  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury. One  of  them  (chap.  78)  may  with  some  certainty  be 
ascribed  to  HUperic  (c.  574).  Some  others  seem  to  have 
originated  with  Childebert  I.  and  Chlotar  I.  (whose  joint 
reign  lasted  from  511  to  558),  and  are  known  collectively 
as  "Pactus  Childeberti  et  Chlotharii."  From  internal  evi- 
dence we  may  infer  that  this  first  version  dates  from  a  time 
when  Christianity  had  not  yet  become  general  among  the 
Franks,  (ii.)  Two  MSS.  contain  a  second  recension,  having 
the  same  sixty-five  chapters  (with  the  Malberg  glosses)  as 
the  first,  but  with  numerous  interpolations  and  additions, 
which  point  to  a  later  period.  Especially  may  this  be  said 
of  the  paragraph  (in  chap.  13)  which  pronounces  fines  on 
marriages  between  near  relatives,  and  which  is  presumed 
to  have  been  embodied  in  the  Lex  Saliea  from  an  edict  of 
Childebert  II.  issued  in  596.  In  chapter  55  paragraphs 
six  and  seven  speak  of  a  "basilica,"  of  a  "basilica  sancti- 
ficata,"  and  of  a  "basilica  ubi  requiescunt  reliquiie,"  but 
it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  we  have  here  any  evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  though  a  later  recension  (the  fourth) 
altered  "basilica"  into  "ecclesia,"  the  "reliquiae"  intu 
"  reliquiae  sanctorum,"  and  thereby  gave  a  decidedly  Chris- 
tian aspect  to  the  clause,  (iii.)  A  third  recension  is  con- 
tained in  a  group  of  nine  ilSS.  (divided  into  two  classes), 
three  of  which  have  the  same  text  (with  the  Malberg 
glosses)  as  the  MoS.  of  the  first  and  second  recensions, 
divided,  however,  systematically  into  ninety-nine  chapters, 
whfle  the  other  six  MSS.  have  the  same  ninety-nine 
chapters,  with  very  little  diflTerence,  but  without  the  Mal- 
berg glo-sses.  This  text  seems  to  have  been  arranged  in 
Pippin's  or  Charlemagne's  reign  (c.  765-779).  The  clause 
on  marriages  between  near  relatives  mentioned  above  is 
not  found  in  this  recension.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find 
in  chapter  55  (  =  77)  fines  pronounced  on  the  murder  of  a 
presbyter  and  deacon  (no  bishop  yet  mentioned),  while  the 
six  MSS.  of  the  second  class  do  not  contain  chapter  99 
("De  Chrenecruda "),  but  merely  say  that  the  symbolism 
described  in  that  chapter  had  been  observed  in  heathen 
times,  and  was  to  be  no  longer  in  force,  (iv.)  The  fourth 
version  (handed  down  in  a  great  num'  of  MSS.,  and 
embodying  in  seventy  chapters  substantially  the  whole  of 
the  previous  versions)  is  usually  called  Lex  Saliea  Emerir 
data,  as  the  text  bears  traces  of  having  been  emended  (bj 
Charlemagne),  which  operation  seems  to  have  consisted  ir 


'  Some  explain  Ligerie  to  be  the  river  Leye,  a  branch  of  the  Scheldt 
in  which  case  the  compilatift  would  fall  between  c.  4S3  and  4S6 


214 


SALIC      LAW 


eliminating  the  Malberg  glasses  from  the  text,  correcting 
the  Latin,  omitting  a  certain  number  of  paragraphs,  and 
inserting  some  new  ones.  In  chapter  55  the  bishop  is 
mentioned  with  the  presbyter  and  the  deacon,  (v.)  Finally, 
we  have  a  fifth  te.\t,  which  seems  an  amalgamation  of  the 
previous  recensions,  more  especially  of  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth,  but  here  and  there  with  considerable  differences. 
It  was  published  in  1557,  at  Basel,  by  Bas.  Joh.  Herold 
(Onginum  ac  Gennanicarurii  Antiquitatum  Lihri) ;  but  no 
trace  of  the  Fulda  and  other  MSS.  which  the  editor  says 
that  he  used  has  hitherto  been  found. 

The  Saiic  code  consists  of  enactments  regarding  procedure  in 
lawsuits  (chaps.  1,  18,  26,  37,  46-53,  .16,  57,  60),  judicial  fines  and 
penalties  for  various  kinds  of  theft  and  kidnapping  (2-8,  10-12,  21- 
23,  27,  28,  33-35,  38- JO,  55,  61),  for  offences,  injuries,  &c.,  to  pei-- 
sons,  animals,  and  property  (9,  15-17,  19,  20,  24,  25,  29-32,  36, 
41-43,  64,  65) ;  it  regulates  the  "wergeld"  (a  word  found  only  in 
the  text  puuiislied  by  Heiold  ;  all  the  other  texts  have  leodis, 
fcK<iw  =  peopIe,  associate  of  the  people)  of  all  classes  of  persons  living 
under  the  Salic  Law  (41-43,  64,  63),  tlie  share  of  the  kindred  in 
the  composition  for  homicide  (58-62),  the  devolution  of  pro-?rty 
and  inheritance  (59),  migration  from  one  village  to  another  (45;,  ic. 

The  Salic  Law  speaks  of — (rt)  freeborn  pei'sous  {^in(ienuus  Frawus, 
Salicus  Francus),  \rith  a  wergeld  of  200  solidi,  which  was  tripled 
when  such  aperson  served  in  the  army,  and  the  latter  amount  again 
tripled  when  the  person  killed  was  an  officer  of  the  king  ;  (6)  serfs 
(leti  or7i<i),  who  enjoyed  pereonal  freedom  though  belonging  to 
some  master,  and  (c)  jntcri  regis  (probably  serfs  in  the  service  of 
the  king),  both  with  a  wergeld  of  100  solidi ;  (<^)  the  Roman  popu- 
lation, not  yet  placed  on  the  same  footing  with  the  Francus  {pos- 
scssores  with  a  wergeld  of  100  solidi ;  tribuiarii,  perhaps  =  co/o;ii, 
with  a  wergeld  of  62i  solidi) ;  (c)  slaves  [scrvi),  with  a  wergeld  of 
30  solidi  ;  and  a  variety  of  other  persons  belonging  to  one  or  other 
of  these  classes  (jw?fe-r  criniins,  class  a  ;  porcdrius,  fabcr  ferrariics, 
niirifcx,  kc,  class  c).  An  aristocracy  is  not  menrioned.  The 
people  lived  together  in  villages  (chap.  45)  ;  they  exercised  agri- 
culture and  reared  cattle  (2-5,  27,  &c. ) ;  they  hunted  and  fished 
(6,  33) ;  vineyards  and  gardens  were  known  to  them  (27,  6,  &c.)  ; 
and  gold  work  and  iron  work  are  mentioned  (10).  The  chief  of 
the  state  was  a  king  ;  his  officei's  included  the  (frafio,  who  was  chief 
of  a  pagns  (shire) ;  sacibaro,  chief  of  a  hundred  (both  with  a 
wergeld  of  600  solidi ;  the  latter  could  also  be  a  pucr  regis,  in 
which  case  he  had  a  wergeld  of  300  solidi) ;  thnnginiis  or  ccnten- 
£.riits,  chief  of  a  hundred,  but  probably  elected  by  the  people  from 
among  themselves,  as  his  wergeld  seems  to  have  been  the  ordinary 
one.  The  judicial  assembly  was  called  inalhis,  the  place  whei-e  it  as- 
sembled malloberg,  the  party  in  a  suit  gamallus,  the  councillor  of  the 
assembly  rachiiicburgus,  an  officer  who  had  to  advise  upon  the  sen- 
tence to  be  pronounced,  and  to  value  the  propel  ty  in  question. 

The  famous  clause  iu  the  Salic  Law  by  which,  it  is 
commonly  said,  women  are  precluded  from  succession  to 
the  throne,  and  which  alone  has  become  known  in  course 
of  time  as  the  Salic  Law,  is  the  fifth  paragraph  of  chapter 
59  (with  the  rubric  "  De  Alodis  "),  in  which  the  succession 
to  private  property  is  regulated.  The  chapter  opens  with 
four  (five)  paragraphs  in  which  it  is  enacted  that — (1)  if 
a  man  died  without  male  issue,  his  mother  (so  in  first 
recension;  the  second  to  fifth  have  "pater  aut  mater")  would 
succeed  to  the  inheritance  (in  hereditatem  succedat) ;  (2 
failing  her  (the  father  and  mother),  his  brother  (brothers^ 
or  sister  (sisters) ;  (3)  tailing  these,  the  sister  of  the  mother; 
(4)  when  there  was  no  sister  of  the  mother,  the  sisters 
I'sister)  of  the  father ;  and  (5),  faiUng  these,  the  nearest 
relative.    After  this  the  fifth  paragraph  reads  as  follows  : — 


First 
recension. 
De  tsrravero 
nulla  iu  muli- 
are  [portioaut] 
liereditas  non 
pertinebit,  sed 
ad  ^irileri  sex- 
am  qui  fiatres 
fuerint  tota 
terra  perti- 
neat. 


Second 
recension. 

De  t«rra 
vero  Salica 
in  muliere 
nulla  per- 
tinet  portio, 
sed  qui  fra- 
tres  fuerint. 
et  ad  virile 
sexu  tota 
terra  per- 
tineat. 


Tliird 
recension. 

De  terra 
voro  Salica 
nulla  in  mu- 
liere heredi- 
tatis  transeat 
porcio,  sed  ad 
Wrilis  sexus 
tota  terra  1 
proprietatis 
sua;  possede- 
aut. 


Fourth 
recension. 

De  terra 
vero  Salica 
nulla  portio 
hereditatis 
mulieri 
veniat  sed 
ad  \irilem 
sexum  tota 
terrae  here- 
ditas  per- 
veniat. 


Fifth 
recension. 

De  terra  vero 
Salica,  in  mnlie-- 
rera  nulla  portio 
hsreditatis  trans- 
it, sed  hoc  virilis 
sexus  acquirit, 
hoc  est,  nlii  in 
ipsa  hfereditato 
succedunt.  Sed 
ubi  inter  nepotes 
aut  pro  nepotes 
post  longum  tera- 
pus  de  alode  ter- 
ne  contentio  sua- 
citatur,  non  per 
stirpes  sed  per  ca- 
nitft  dividantur. 


^  lext  B  reada :  "  prox^iietaa  iier v«ui4(.'' 


It  seems  clear  that  the  first  four  paragraphs  of  the 
chapter,  which  admit  women  to  a  share  in  the  inheritance, 
refer  to  jmrate,  movable  property,  and  that,  by  the  fifth 
paragraph,  the  inheritance  of  land  was  exclusively  confined 
to  males.  We  know  that  this  exclusion  of  women  from 
landed  property  was  hardly  a  rule  anywhere  in  the 
Frankish  empire,  and  certainly  not  in  the  6th  century, 
but  it  obtained  more  or  less  afterwards,  especially  during 
the  feudal  period,  when  all  the  owners  of  landed  property 
(i.f.,  the  tenants  of  fiefs)  were  liable  to  military  service. 
We  do  not  know  when  this  exclusion  of  women  from 
landed  property  began  first  to  be  applied  and  extended  to 
an  exclusion  from  the  succession  of  thrones,  as  we  do  not 
read  of  such  a  notion  until  the  middle  of  the  14th  century 
during  the  controversy  between  Edward  III.  and  Philip 
of  Valois,  when  it  was  alleged  to  be  derived  from  the 
Salic  Law.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  word  Salica  is 
not  found  in  the  oldest  existing  recension,  but  appeai-s 
first  in  the  second  text,  which  some  would  ascribe  to  the 
end  of  the  6th  century.  Nor  is  the  word  found  in  the 
corresponding  paragraph  (56,4)  of  the  Lex  Eipuaria,  which 
was  based  on  the  Salic  Law.  This  addition  (retained  in 
all  the  other  recensions,  also  in  the  so-called  Lex  Euien- 
data)  was  no  doubt  made  for  some  purpose,  but  we  do  not 
know  whether  it  was  made  by  a  scribe,  nor  what  parti- 
cular notion  it  was  intended  to  convey,  nor  whether  it  was 
this  special  word  which  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  women 
being  precluded  from  the  succession  of  thrones. 

The  various  texts  of  the  Lex  Saliva,  arranged  in  parallel  columns, 
with  a  commentary  on  the .  Malberg  glosses,  were  published  in 
ISSO,  under  the  title  Lex  Salica :  the  Ten  Texts  irith  the  Glosses, 
ajid  the  Lex  Emcndata,  ed.  J.  H.  Hessels,  with  notes  on  the  Frankish 
words  in  the  Lex  Salica  by  H.  Kern,  4to,  London,  1880  ;  comp. 
also  Geo.  Waitz,  Das  altc  Itccht  der  salischcn  Franken,  8vo,  Kiel, 
1846  ;  Rud.  Sohm,  Die  frank.  ReichS'  und  Geriehts-  Vcrfassung,  8vo, 
Weimar,  1871  ;  Pardessus,  Loi  Salique,  4to,  Paris,  1843. 

Having  treated  of  the  Sahc  Law  somewhat  minutely, 
we  need  only  say  a  few  words  about  each  of  the  other 
leges  barbaronim^  as  they  all  present  somewhat  similar 
features,  and  hardly .  diS'er  except  in  the  time  of  their 
compilation,  the  amount  of  fines,  the  number  and  nature 
of  the  crimes,  the  number,  rank,  duties,  and  titles  of  the 
oificers,  <ic. 

(2)  The  Ripuarian  Lmo,  or  Law  of  the  Ripuariaa  Franks  {Lex 
Ripuaria  or  Riboaria,  L.  Ripuariomm  or  Ribiiariorum,  L,  Ripit- 
aricnsis  or  Ribuaricnsis),  or  inhabitants  of  the  river-banks,  was 
in  force  among  tlie  East  or  Rhenish  Franks  in  the  Provincia 
Ribuaiia,  also  called  Ducatus  or  Pagus  Ribuarius  (see  vol.  ix.  y. 
723),  of  which  Cologne  was  the  chief  town.  It  has  much  in 
common  with  the  Salic  Law  ;  in  fact,  chapteis  32-64  are,  with 'the 
exception  of  some  necessary  modifications  and  additions,  merely  a 
repetition  of  the  corresponding  chapters  of  the  Salic  Law,  and  even 
follow  the  same  airangement,  so  that  this  part  of  the  code  is  hardly 
anything  but  the  Salic  Law  revised  by  order  of  the  kings  of 
Austrasia.  Professor  Sohm  (whose  edition,  published  in  1883  in 
.Von.  Germ.  Bisl.,  Legg.,  vol.  v.  part  2,  is  based  on  nearly  forty 
JISS.,  written  between  the  &th  and  the  11th  century)  divides  the 
eighty-nine  chapters  of  this  code  into  four  distinct  portions,  ascrib- 
ing the  first  portion  (chaps.  1-31),  which  contains  enactments  not 
met  with  in  the  Salic  Law,  to  the  fii-st  part  of  the  6th  centuiT",  the 
second  (chaps.  32-64)  to  the  second  part  of  the  same  century  (c 
575),  the  third  (chaps.  65-79)  to  the  7th  century,  and  the  fourth 
(chaps.  8089)  to  the  beginning  of  the  3th  centuiT.  This  result 
practically  agrees  with  the  statements  found  in  a  prologue  in  certain 
JISS.  (which  contain  some  of  the  barb.'.rian  codes),  where  it  is  said 
that  the  "Leges  Franconim  (  =  Lex  Ripuariorum),  Alamannprum, 
et  Bajuvarioi-um  "  were  compiled  at  Chaions-sur-Iilanie  at  the  dicta- 
tion of  Thierry  I.  (511-534),  by  wise  men  learned  in  the  law  of  his 
kingdom,  and  that  the  codes  were  aftervs-ards  revised  and  amended 
by  Childebert  I.,  Chlotar  I.',  and  Dagobert.  Charlemagne  promul- 
gated some  additional  chapters  to  the  Ripuarian  Law  in  803  (Man. 
Germ.  Bist.,  Legg.,  i.  117).  We  may  here  observe  that  the  Salic 
and  Ripuarian  Laws  were  to  some  extent  introduced  into  England 
by  the  ICorman  Conquest,  as  appeai-s  from  the  Laws  of  Heniy  I., 
where  we  find  enactments  "secundum  Legem  Salicam  "  and  "  secun- 
dum Legem  Ripuariam  "  ;  comp.  Leg.  Hen,  i  oapp.  87,  §S  9i  lOi 
11  (word  for  word  =  L.  Sal.,  tit  48),  SS,  90  M  (  =  L.  Rip.,  70), 
and  83  §  6  ( =  L.  Sal.,  tit.  B6  9  4). 


SALIC      LAW 


215 


(3)  With  the  Ripuaiiau  Law  the  L^.x  Francoritm  Chmnavoriwi  is 
intimately  connected.  The  two  MSS.  in  which  it  is  preserved  call 
it  '*N"otitia  vel  commemoratio  de  ilia  ewa  (law)quro  so  ad  Amoreni 
habet."  Amor  is  tho  district  called  Hamarlant,  Hamalant,  Ham- 
Dielant,  Hamuland,  in  the  9th  century.  Tliia  name  was  derived 
from  the  Chamavi,  a  German  state  mentioned  by  Tacitus  {Ann., 
xiiu  55  ;  Germ.,  c.  33,  34),  which  afterwai-ds  constituted  a  part  of 
the  Frankish  empire.  In  the  9th  ceutuiy  Hamalant  was  a  part 
of  the  Pagua  Ribuariorum.  Tho  whole  code  consists  of  only  forty- 
eight  short  paragraphs,  which  are  apparently  nothing  but  state- 
ments made  in  answer  to  tho  "  missi  dominici  "  whom  Charlemagne 
despatched  to  the  various  nations  of  his  empire  to  inquire  iuto  their 
condition  and  to  codify  their  respective  laws.  It  may  therefore 
be  ascribed  to  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  (802  or  803). 
Professor  Sohm  has  published  it  as  an  appendix;  to  the  Lex  Ripuaria 
[Mo)i.  Germ.  J?i5i.,'^Le£g.,  vol.  v.  part  2,  p.  269). 

(4),  The  Lex  Alamannorum  was  (according  to  the  prologue  men- 
tioned above)  first  compiled  by  tho  East-Fiankish  kin^;  Thierry 
(511-534),  and  afterwards  improved  and  renewed  by  Childebert  I. 
(511-558),  Chlotar  L  (558),  and  Dagobert  I.  (622-638).  Although 
not  much  reliance  can  be  placed  on  this  statement,  the  researclies 
of  Professor  Jferkel,  who  edited  the  code  from  forty-eight  MSS. 
{Mon.  Garni.  Hist.,  Legg.,  vol.  iii. ),  show  that  some  kind  of  code 
called  Pactus  (of  which  he  published  three  fragments)  was  com- 
piled for  the  Alamanni  in  the  reign  of  Chlotai'  I.  (^7-561  \  Under 
Chlotar  II.  (613-622)  a  more  complete  code,  consisting  of  seventy- 
five  chapters,  was  compiled,  which  was  revised  under  Dagobert 
(628)  and  augmented  with  chapters  76-97  ;  it  was  again  altered 
and  augmented  under  tho  Alamannic  duke  Landfrid  (d.  730),  whose 
work  Merkel  calls  Lex  Alamannorxcvi  Lautfridaiiq,  and  finally  aug- 
mented in  the  Carolingia'u  period  (hence  called  Lex  Alamannorum 
Karolina  sivc  reforviaia),  perhaps  early  iu  the  9th  century.  The 
code  consists  of  97  (in  some  MSS.  98,  99,  105,  and  107)  chapters. 

(5)  The  Lex  Bajuvariorum,  or  Paclns  Bawaro^-icm,  had  the  same 
origin  as  the  Lex  Alamannorum,  if  we  accept  the  somewhat  un- 
reliable statement  of  the  prologue  spoken  of  above.  It  seems 
probable  that  some  kind  of  code  was  compiled  for  the  Bavarians 
QUiing  the  reigns  of  Clovis's  sons.  Those  paragraphs  which  treat 
of  ecclesiastical  atfaii-s  and  the  position  of  the  Bavarian  dukes  to- 
wards the-  Frankish  kings  (tit.  li.  chap.  xx.  §  3)  have  clearly  been 
inserted  in  Dagobert^  time,  if  not  later.  There  is  a  great  similarity 
between  certain  provisions  of  tho  Bavarian  and  the  Alamannic 
codes,  and  also  some  paragi-aphs  of  the  former  have  been  derived 
from  tho  earliest  recension  of  the  Lex  Wisigothorum.  Some  addi- 
tions were  made  by  Duke  Thassilo  IL  (763-775),  some  by  Charle- 
magne (803),  some  by  King  Louis  (c.  906),  and,  finally,  some  by 
Duke  Henry  H.  (end  of  10th  century).  The  emperor  Henry  III. 
Ls  alleged  to  have  granted  tho  law  of  the  Bavarians  to  the  Hunga- 
rians in  1044.  It  consists  of  twenty-one  chapters,  each  containing 
several  paragraphs.  Professor  Merkel  distinguishes  three  different 
recensions  ot  the  code  and  various  additions,  which  he  edited  in 
1863  from  thirty-five  MSS.  for  the  Mun.  Genu.  Mist.,  Legg.,  iii. 
t),  183  sq. 

(6)  I'^or  the  Lex  Frisioniim,  see  vol.  ix.  p.  789. 

(7)  TliQ  Lex  Angliomm  ct  VVcrinorum,hoccst,  Thitringorum,  coH' 
eists  of  seventeen  chapters.  Early  editions  of  this  code  contained 
some  legal  decisions  identical  witii  those  of  Judge  Wlomarus  in 
tho  appendix  to  tho  Lex  Fiisionum  (L.  Angl.  Jud.  Wlem.,  1,  2,  6, 
7  =  L.  Fris.,  22,  ^  54,  55,  86  ;  Addit.,  i.  18),  from  which  circum- 
stance it  was  infen-ed  that  tho  compilation,  or  at  least  the  revision, 
of  both  codes  took  place  at  one  and  tho  same  time  (802-803).  But 
Richtl'.ofen,  who  edited  the  work  in  Moji.  Germ.  Hist.  (Legg., 
v.  p.  103),  and  who  rejects  these  legal  decisions  of  Wlemarus  as  not 
belonging  to  this  code  at  all,  is  of  opinion  (p.  115)  that  the  code 
was  not  written  even  at  the  end  of  the  9th  centtTry.  Opinions  have 
differed  also  as  to  the  region  where  tho  law  originated.  Somo 
ascribe  it  to  the  Angli  and  Werini,  who  inhabited  the  Holstein  and 
Schleswig  regions  ;  others  attribute  it  to  Thuringia  inoper  ;  and 
iu  more  recent  times  it  has  been  ascribed  to  Thuringia  on  tho  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  (  =  South  Holland,  Brabant,  ic. ).  It  was  also 
argued  that  tho  code  must  have  originated  in  a  region  where  Frisian 
and  Frankish  elements  had  become  mixed,  both  in  language  and 
in  law,  and  where  tho  Frankish  jncponderatcd.  That  the  code 
originated  in  South  Holland  was  interred  from  its  agreement  iu 
8ome  rcsiwcts  with  tho  Lex  Chamavorum,  which  oiiginated  in  tho 
region  ot  the  lower  Rhino  and  tho  Yssd.  And  tho  law  may  have 
fomo  to  be  in  forco  among  tho  allied  tribes  on  tho  Elbe  in  northern 
Thuringia,  even  though  it  originated  in  South  Holland.  If  it 
originated  in  Thuringia,  it  must  have  been  transplanted  to  the 
Holstein  and  Schleawig  regions  ;  and  it  waa  used  by  tho  Danes, 
03  is  clear  from  Canute  bringing  it  over  to  Enc;land  when  he  con- 
(^uored  tho  country  in  1013.^  But  in  England  the  code  Xvaa 
simply  called  "  Lex  Werinorum,  h.e.,  Thnringorum,"  but  no  longer 
"Anglomm,"  as  tho  Dancn  called  the  whole  Anglo-Saxon  popula- 

»  Comp.  Qtnutl  CoiutU.  d«  Fortsta,  c  33,  •'  Eniendct  Becuiulmn  prctliun 
hominls  tn«<llocrla,  quM  secundum  Lcscni  T\*erluorum,  i.e.,  TliurlDgorum  (=L. 
lAngl.  and  Werin.,  1.  2]  w-t  SW  wUdorum." 


tion  which  they  had  conquered  "Angli,"  and  tho  law  which  they 
found  in  force  "L*ex  Anglorum  "  (Leg;^.  Edw.  Couf.,  c.  30).  Hence 
it  has  been  concluded  that  what  was  called  in  England  Lex  Danorum 
is  nothing  but  the  Lex  Worinorum.  "When  tho  Normans  coniiuerod 
England  in  1066  they  soon  recognized  that  this  Lex  Danorum  and 
the  Law  of  tho  Norwegians  (Lex  Noricorum  or  Norwegonsium),  wlio 
had  migrated  to  England  iu  earlier  times,  were  practically  one  anil 
tho  samo.  Hence  AVilliam  I.,  declaring  that  tho  population  which 
he  had  brought  over  with  him  from  Normandy  were  also  originally 
Norwegians,  resolved  to  abrogate  tho  Anglo-Saxon  laws  and  to  leave 
only  that  of  tho  Danes  in  forco  (Legg.  Edw.  Conf.,  c.  30), — a  plan 
which  only  tho  most  persevering  entreaties  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
barons  could  induce  him  to  abandon.  The  latest  edition  of  this 
code  (1875)  is  by  K.  F.  von  Richthofen,  who  is  decidedly  against 
the  South  Holland  origin  of  the  law. 

(8)  Tho  Lex  Saxonum  consists  of  nineteen  chapters  or  sixty-six 
articles  or  paragraphs,  and  appears  to  be  composed  of  three  essential 
parts,  the  oldest  of  which  (arts.  1-23)  seems  to  have  existed  before 
the  later  additions  known  as  tho  Capitularo  PaJerboniense  (d^; 
partibus  Saxoniffi)  of  785  (or  777)  and  the  Capitulare  Saxonicum 
of  797  (in  which  a  ''Lex  Saxounra  "  and  "Ewa  Saxounm  "  are 
referred  to  ;  comp.  chaps.  33  and  7,  8,  10)  ;  tho  second  part  (arts. 
24-60)  must  have  been  compiled  after  that  date;  and  the  third 
(arts.  61-66)  was  probably  added  in  798,  when  Charlemagne  had 
removed  a  part  of  tho  Saxon  nobility  as  hostages  from  their  own 
country  ;  while  the  whole  was  united  into  one  code  at  the  diet  of 
ALx-la-Chapelle  iu  802-803  (Merkel,  L^x  Saxonum,  Berlin,  1353). 
The  enactments  of  this  code  are  far  more  severe  than  those  of , any 
other  of  the  barbarian  laws,  and  it  often  inflicts  capital  punish- 
ment for  crimes  which  the  other  laws  punish  with  mere  pecuniary 
fines,  as,  for  instance,  theft  and  incendiarism.  This  rigour  Charle- 
magne softened  by  reserving  to  himself  the  right  of  asylum  and 
pardon,  but  it  was  expressly  retained  and  granted  anew  by  Conrad 
IL  (1024-1039).  The  code  was  edited  in  1875  by  Vou  Richthofen 
in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Legg.,  v.  p.  1  sq. 

(9)  The  Leges  Anglo-Saxoniim  are  fcr  a  great  part  written  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  as  such  may  be  reckoned  among  the  most  ancient 
monuments  of  the  Teutonic  language.  They  appeared  mostly  in 
the  form  of  constitutions  promulgated  by  the  various  kings  (some- 
what like  the  Frankish  capitularies),  with  the  co-operation  of  an 
assembly  of  leading  men  ("sapientes,"*  Bcda,  H.  E.,  ii.  5),  and  fi-e- 
nneutly  also  of  the  clergy  [concilium,  Rijnodns).  They  may  bo~ 
divided  into  two  classes, — secular  and  ecclesiastical  laws.  Some- 
times they  are  mere  judicial  sentences  {d6m)  or  treaties  of  peace 
{fri6).  The  earliest  laws  wo  have  are  those  of  jEthclbert,  king  of 
Kent  ((.*.  561)  ;  thea  follow  those  of  Hlodhaor  (c.  6/8)  and  EadT-ic 
(c.  '685),  Wihtraed  (c.  691),  Ino  (after  688),  .Elfred  (after  871) 
Eadward  (after  901),  iEthelstau  (after  924),  Eadmund  (after  941)' 
Edgar  (after  959),  ^thelrcd  IL  (after  978),  the  Danish  Canute 
(after  1017),  William  the  Conqueror  (after  1066).  Then  follow 
two  collections  of  laws,  the  so-called  "  Leges  Edwnrdi  Confessoris  " 
and  ''Leges  Henrici  I.,"  which,  drawing  from  tho  Anglo-Saxon 
Law,  represent  the  modifications  which  had  been  made  in  the 
earliest  -laws  during  tho  Norman  period,  and  tho  introduction  of 
new  elements  derived  from  the  Salic  and  Ripuarian  Laws.  Besides 
these  there  are  a  good  many  canons  and  other  ecclesiastical  ordi- 
nances enacted  under  the  archbishops  Theodore  and  Ec^bert  and 
King  Edgar,  &c.  ;  comp.  England,  vol.  viii.  pp.  285,  303.  There 
is  an  edition  of  these  laws  by  B.  Thorpe  [lol.,  London,  1840), 
another  by  Dr  Reiuh.  Sdimid  {Die  Gescize  dcr  Angel- Sachscn,  2fl 
ed.,  8vo,  Leipsic,  1858). 

(10)  The  compilation  of  the  Lex  Burgund ionic m  is  usually  as- 
cribed to  Gundobald  (d.  516),  whence  it  is  also  called  Lex  Giivdo- 
hada  (corrupted  Goynbata,  Fr.  Loi  Gombettc).  It  consists,  accordini^ 
to  its  first  prologue,  of  a  collection  of  constitutions  enacted  partly 
by  tho  earlier  kings  of  Burgundy,  iiartly  by  Gundobald,  and  revised 
by  a  general  Burgundiau  diet.  This  agrees  with  tho  statements 
contained  in  its  second  prologue,  which  itself  may  bo  reganled  as 
an  independent  constitution  or  edict  to  tho  conies  and  judges  re- 
garding tho  introduction  of  the  law.  In  the  rubric  whidi  it  bears 
in  the  MSS.  it  is  said  that  it  was  moraulgatcd  at  Lyons  on  29th 
March  in  tho  second  year  of  Gundobald  (some  MSS.  read  Sigis- 
mund).  As  the  year  of  Gundobald's  accession  is  supposed  to  bo 
465,  the  promulgation  must  have  taken  place  in  467,  or,  if  we 
assume  that  the  year  is  meant  in  which  Gundobald  became  solo 
king  of  Burgundy  (478),  the  dato  of  the  law  would  bo  480,  while  it 
would  be  517  if  wo  adopt  tho  reading  *'  Sigismund  "  of  somo  of  tho 
MSS.  But  as  the  law  in  its  present  state  contains  decrees  both 
of  Gundobald  and  of  Sigismund  we  can  only  regard  tho  wholo  as  a 
compilation  effected  by  tho  latter.  In  early  editions  the  law  was 
divided  into  eighty-nine  chapters,  with  two  additamenta,  tho  first 
of  which  (consisting  of  twenty  chapters)  was  ascribed  to  Sigismuiul, 
the  second  (of  thirteen  chapters)  to  his  brother  and  successor,  tho 
last  king  of  tho  Bnrgundians,  Godoniar.  But  Professor  Bluhme 
(who  nublished  the  law  in  1863,  in  Moii.  Genu.  Hist.,  Logg.,  iii.' 
497)  places  chap.  i.  (Do  causin  itineribus  et  aliis  eervitutibns)  and 
chap.  xix.  CDc  liberali  causal  of  tho  fii-st  additamentum  as  chaos. 


216 


SALIC      LAW 


vvii  ani  xUv.  m  "Papianus"  ;  chap  xi.  as  cliap.  cvi.  (extrava. 
Sntl  and  iU  remaining  chapter  as  chapteis  Uxxix  to  cv  .The 
f^condadditamentum  is  placed  as  chap.  cvn„  the  old  chap.  l^LxxiX, 
a^  chap  cviU.,  and  a  new  chapter  cix.  (a  decree  of  Sigismund  '  De 
SCti^"  of  510)  added.  It  Vas  Gundobald's  mteution  that  his 
S  should  decide  all  cases  between  Bmgundians  and  between  them 

with  eieater  leniency  and  to  make  them  equal  to  the  Burgundians 
withgieater  len       y  Gundobald's  political  relations 

with  llario  n  le  L«  Bi  rgun^^ionam  influencei  the  West-Gothic 
TeSktion  i  which  traces  a°e  found  in  the  L«  Wisigothorum  and 
hfinterp'retatio  to  Alaric's  Breviarium.  Charlemagne  promu  - 
rated  in  S13  a  Capitulare  Aquisgranum  {Man.,  Legg.,  1.  bU)  re- 
5'  din^tle  Le^  Burgundionum,  though  the  te..t  was  not  altered. 
Agoba?t,  bishop  of  Lyons,  complained  to  Louis  the  Pious  respecting 
feftain  abuses  caused  by  the  Burgiindian  Law  (Bouquet,  v.  3d6) 
but  no  remedy  was  effected.  On  the  other  hand,  tow^ards  the  end 
o  the  9th  century  the  law  had  gradually  fallen  into  disuse  hke  all 
the  other  barbaviin  laws,  though  it  is  said  that  the  emperor  Conrad 
II  reyived  and  confirmed  it.  See,  besides  Professor  Bluhme  s 
edition,   Hube,  Rist.  dc  la  formation  de  la  lot  Bourguignonne, 

''TlOatTutheseconapreiace  to  the  Lex  Bnrguudionum  (published 
in  50'')  the  Roman  subjects  of  the  Burgundian  king  were  promised 
a  codification  of  their  own  laws.  This  work  appears  to  haye  been 
piomptlv  e.«cnted  and  was  published  under  the  title  i«  Ror,iana 
Burmndionum,  perhaps  before  the  compilation  of  the  Breyiarium 
Alanci  (506)  This  collection  is  also  kno\™  as  Papianv^,  of  which 
name  (found  already  in  MSS.  of  the  9th  century)  no  satisfactory 
c'.planation  has  hitherto  been  offered,  some,  perhaps  wrongly,  sup- 
nosin.'  that  it  is  a  corruption  of  the  name  of  Papinianus,  the  Roman 
iurist°  It  vas  published  by  Professor  Bluhme  as  an  appendix  to 
the  Lex  Buigundiouum  (Hon.  Germ.  Sist,  hcgg    in.  p.  5'9)- 

(11)  As  rt"ards  the  ifx  Wisigothorum  (also  called  Forum  Judi- 
a,»i,  Judk,°n  Liber,  Forum  Judiciale,  &c.),  we  know  with  certainty 
from  Isidore  of  Seyille  {Eist.  Goth.  Bisp    504)  that  Eunc  (466.483) 
was  the  first  Gothic  king  who  gaye  written  laws  to  the  West  Goths. 
It  would  therefore  be  erroneous  to  ascribe  (with  JIariaua,  m3t.de 
Espana,  v.  li)  their  first  wTitten  laws  to  Eurics  son    Alanc  II., 
though  it  seems  probable  that  the  latter,  by  adding  his  own  laws 
to  those  of  his  father,  was  really  the  first,  author  of  a  ^\.  est-Gothic 
codification.     Isidore  refers  to  the  collection  of  laws  (as  it  had  been 
preseryed  up  to  the  end  of  the  5th  and  the  beginning  of    he  6th 
tentury)  as  the  Laws  of  Euric,  though  we  must  assume  that  the 
statutes  of  the  kind's  who  succeeJ-ed  Eunc  had  already  been  added 
0  his  collection.     Isidore  also  tells  us  {Hist.  Goth,  msp.,  606-624) 
that  Leoyigild  (d.    586)  reyised  Ernie's  Laws       As  Isidore  was 
bishon  of  Seyille  from  599  to  636,  and  may  therefore  be  said  to 
have  'been  a  contemporary  of  Leoyigild,  his  testimony  may  be 
accepted  as  conclusiye,  though  a  much  later  but  untrustworthy 
tr,adition  would  haye  it  that  the  reyision  was  executed  by  Leoyi- 
Eild's  son,  Keccared  I.  (the  first  Catholic  king  of  the  Goths),  who 
Sied  in  601,  whereby  the  whole  population  ot  Spain  was  «qualized 
iu. point  of  law.      According  to  Spanish  traditipns  of  the  12th 
century    the  West-Gothic  coUection  of  laws  was  again  reyised, 
^under  S'isenand,  by  the  fourth  council  of  Toledo  (633),  a  reyision 
on  which  Isidore  seems  to  haye  exercised  some  influence      It  is  un- 
t;ertain,  howeyer,  whether  the  code  was  then  systematically  arranged 
and  diyided  into  t\yelye  books,  as  we  now  haye  it,  or  whether  this 
was  done  under  Chindaswinth  (d.  652)  or  under  his  son  Recesmnth 
(d   67'')      The  seyeral  books  of  the  code  are  diyided  (in  imitation 
of' the" codes  of  Theodosius  and  Justinianus)  into  tituli,  and  those 
again  into  chapters  or  constitutions.     From  Leoyigild  down  to 
Snca  (d   701)  and  his  son  and  coregent  Witiza  (d.  c.  701,  the  last 
kin"  of  the  Goths  before  the  inyasion  of  the  Moors)  eyery  constitu- 
tion beai-s  the  name  of  the  king  who  promulgated  it,  while  those 
datin"  from  before  Leoyigild  haye  the  word  "antiqua     prefixed 
to  th?m  instead  of  the  name  of  a  king.     This  designation  is  said 
40  haye  been  commenced  by  Erwig  (6S0-6S7),  who  thereby  wished 
to  preyent  the  clergy  from  claiming  the  code  as  their  work.    Ol  the 
texts  which  existed  before  the  fourth  councU  of  Toledo  only  one 
small  fragment  has  come  down  to  us,  in  a  palimpsest  preseryed  in 
the  Paris  National  Libraiy  (No.  1278).     Some  regard  this  as  the 
remainder  of  the  supposed  recension  of  Reccared  I. ;  others  regard 
it  as  a  fragment  of  the  Laws  of  Euric,  though  it  could  m  no  case 
be  the  Laws  of  Euric  themselyes,  but  at  most  their  codification  by 
Alaric  II.     The  fragment  was  kno^yn  to  the  Benedictines  (Aoii!'. 
Trailc  &  Diplom.,  i.  483,  iii.  52,  152,  note  1),  and  was  published 
in  1847  by  Professor  Bluhme  (Z)w   Westgotli.  Antiaua  oder  d<M 
nesrl-Jmch  Beccarcd's  /.,  Halle).     The  text  is  undoubtedly  older 
than  those  enactments  which  we  find  designated  as   .  antiqua     so 
that  it  could  hardly  be  placed  later  than  the  commencement  of  the 


6th  century,  i.e.,  shortly  after  the  compilation  of  the  Breyiarium 
Alarici  (506).  Hcnco  the  text  caUed  "antiqua"  may  be  regarded 
as  a  modification  ot  that  of  the  Pans  palimpsest,  and  was  probably 
not  made  belore  the  end  of  the  6th  or  the  beginning  of  the  /th 
centun-  Roman  law,  which  is  so  conspicuous  in  the  later  text, 
may  already  be  ti-aced  in  that  of  the  palimpsest  (taken  from  the 
Breyiarium  Alarici),  and  also  in  the  "anriqua"  constitutions,  in 
which  we  find  even  traces  of  Justinian's  law.  The  Lex  \'i  isi- 
cothorum  (the  first  code  in  which  Roman  law  and  Teutonic  law  were 
systematically  combined)  was  no  doubt  regarded,  after  Leoyigild 
and  Reccared  I.,  as  a  code  for  the  Goths  as  well  as  for  the  Romans, 
without  abolishing  the  Breyiarium  among  the  Romans.  But  king 
Chindaswnnth  ordained  that  the  Lex  Wisigothorum  should  he  the 
sole  code  for  both  nations,  prohibiting  at  the  same  time  the  use  of 
the  Roman  law,  thereby  materially  promoting  the  amalgamation  ol 
the  two  nations.  It  remained  in  force  in  Spam  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  was  translated  into  Spanish  (Castihan)  under 
Ferdinand  III.  (1229-1234,  or  1241)  under  the  title  Fiiero  Juzgo, 
or  Fuero  de  Cordova. 


Editions  :  (1)  Fuero  Jndzgo  en  lAxiin  t  Castemno  "'^f  f  .f » '°/ ''^,^""'''?' 
V  precioscs  Codices  por  la  Real  Acadcmia  Espa,wl'i,  Madrid,  1615,  to!. ,  <2)  m 
rortugalix  Monumenta  Historiea,  vol.  i.,  Lisbon,  ISSo,  lol. 

(11a)  Here  also  we  may  mention  a  Lex  Bomana  compiled  for  the 
Roman  population,  just  as  in  Burgundy.  It  is  also  known  f.s  Liber 
Uqum,  Liber  Legum  Bomanornm,  and  as  Lex  Theodosii  or  Corpus 
Thcodosianum.  It  received  the  latter  name  because  the  Codex 
Thcodosianns  served  as  its  basis.  -It  includes  also  excerpts  from 
novellx  of  Theodosius,  Valentinian,  Jlarcian,  llajorian,  ScT.eriis, 
and  from. the  Iiislitutimics  of  Gains,  the  Sentmtimoi  Paulus  the 
Codices  Grcgoriamts  and  Bermogenianus,  &c.  In  a  MS.  of  the  lOtU 
century  it  is  called  Breviarium,  and  the  title  Brevmnum  Manci  or 
^Zari««««m  has  become  general  since  the  16th  century.  The  com- 
pilers of  the  Breviarium  are  not  known,  but  it  was  published  in 
the  twenty-second  year  of  Alaric  II.,  i.e.,  on  5th  February  606,  at 
Aire  (Atures)  in  Gascony.  It  was  also  used  m  other  western  pro- 
vinces of  the  Roman  empire,  and  was  imitated,  excerpted,  and 
altered  in  other  places.  One  recension,  probably  dating  from  the 
9th  century,  is  kno^yn  (from  the  place  where  the  MS.  was  found) 
as  the  Lex  Bomana  Utincnsis.  The  best  edition  13.  that  of  G. 
Haenel,  Lex  Bmvxna  Wisigothorum,  Berlin,  1847. 

(lib)  We  have  also  a  code  for  the  Eastern  Goths  compiled  by, 
command  of  Theodoric  after  506,  but  before  526,  and  knoNvn  a- 
Edictum  Thcodoriei.  It  consists  of  155  chapters  (with  a  few  addi- 
tions), which  are  in  reality  an  epitome  of  Roman  kiw._  It  was 
pubUshed  iu  1875,  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Legg.,  v.  p.  Ho  -sg.^ed. 
by  Professor  Bluhme.  ■  ,.  t       i.    j-    i       • 

(12)  Leqes  La7wobardorum,-Th(  first  trace  of  Lombardic  law  is 
an  edict  of  Rothar,  consisting  of  388  chapters   and  promulgated  at 
a  diet  held  at  Pavia  on  22d  November  643.     This  was  foUowed  by 
laws  of  Grimoald  (668),  nine  chapters;  Liutprand  (a_3-/3o),  six 
books  ;  Ra»his  (746),  nine  chapters  ;  Aistulphus  (c.  /oo),  fourteen 
chapters.      Additions  were  also  made   by  Charlemagne  and  his 
successors  down  to  Lothair  11.     In  the  manuscripts  the  texts  are 
arranged,  some  in  a  chronological,  some  in  a  systematical  order. 
The  latter  arrangement  is  already  found  in  a  MS.  of  the  9th  century. 
The  systematic  coUection,  which  was  used  chiefly  in  bologna  at 
lectures  and  for  quotations  and  was  known  as  Lombarda  {Liber 
Langohardx  s.  Lombards),  appears  to  have  been  made  m  the  11th 
century.     The  text  as  it  exists  at  present  is  very  corrupt,  as  a 
number  of  glosses  (some  of  great  antiquity)  and  lormula:,  added 
in  the  first  instance  by  those  who  had  to  use  the  code  to  explain 
certain  enactments  of  "the  law,  afterwards  found  their  way  into  the 
text      Towards  the  end  of  the  12th  and  down  to  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century  various  glosses  and  commentaries  on  the  Lom- 
bards m.ade  their  appearance.     The  first  commentaries  were  those 
of  Ariprand  and  of  Albertus  (second  half  of  12th  century)^    The 
later  commentators  (Carolus  de  Tocco,  c.  1200  ;  Andreas  of  Barulo 
Tim  ;  Blasius  de  Morcone  of  Uaples,  before  1338  ;  Bohenus  and 
Johannes  Nenna  of  Bari,  c.  1540)  refer  frequently  to  Roman  lau 
Of  the  Edictum  Rotharis  a  Greek  translation  was  made,  of  which 
only  fragments  have  been  preserved  (comp^  C.  E   ZachaTia  /'rj 
meMa  ^rsionis  Grme^  Legum  Rotharis,  Langob.   regis,  ex.  cod. 
Paris.  Grsc,  No.  1348,  Heidelberg,  183d). 
Editions :  (1)  C.  Baudus  a  Ve.nie£.icmre^-.I^n.o^^^^^^^^ 

reprinted  by  J.  F.  ^e,gebanr,  M""  <^>i;,ff 'i„^Ss  •  (3    Fr.  Bluhme,  Edi^-^ 
iv.  (1668),  bjr  Ftiedr.  Bluhme  «jd  JJ'r.  B°^™/„^' 'nerkel,  Ceschichte  d« 
ceterxqne  Langoiardiyrtm  leges,  Hanover,  iJiiu,  cumi;.  ^ 
LomlmrdenrecMs,  Berliu,  1S50.  ,      „     i      •    <■      -i       r 

the  latter  show  a  similar,  nay  almost  the  same,  idea  ot  law  as  tne 
former  and  apart  from  the  fact  that  Wales  became  Permanently 
connected  at  the  end  of  the  13th  century  with  a  Teutonic  people 
ZTn'lo.Saxons,  it  has  been  npticed  that  in  AVales  Roman  and 
GernTanic!  but  no  traces  of  a  specific  Welsh,  law  are  fo">id  ^  "S 
HowelDda  {i.e.,  the  Good),  who  died  in  948,  is  the  originator  o. 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


217 


the  "Welsh  code.^  In  the  preface  it  is  stated  that  Howel,  "seeing 
the  laws  and  customs  of  the  country  violated  with  impunity,  sum- 
moned the  archbishop  of  SEene^'ia,  other  bishops  ami  the  chief  of  the 
clergy,  the  nobles  of  AVales,  and  siz  persous  (four  lajTnen,and  two 
clerks)  from  each  comot,  to  meet  at  a  place  called  Y  Ty  Gwyn  ar 
Dav,  or  the  white  house  on  the  river  Tav,  repaired  thither  in  person, 
selected  from  the  whole  assembly  twelve  of  the  most  experienced 
persons,  added  to  their  number  a  clerk  or  doctor  of  laws,  named 
Bllgywryd,  and  to  these  thirteen  confided  the  task  of  exam.ining, 
retaining,  expounding,  and  abrogating.  Their  compilation  was, 
when  completed,  read  to  the  assembly,  and,  after  having  been  con- 
firmed, proclaimed.  Howel  .caused  three  copies  of  them  to  be 
written,  one  of  which  was  to  accompany  the  court  for  daily  use, 
another  was  deposited  in  the  court  at  Aberfraw,  and  a  thu'd  at 
Dinevwr.  The  bishops  denounced  sentence  of  excommunication 
against  all  transgressors,  and  soon  after  Howel  himself  went  to 
Rome  attended  by  the  archbishop  of  St  Da\'id's,  the  bishops  of 
Bangor  and  St  Asaph,  and  thirteen  other  personages.  The  laws 
were  recited  before  the  pope  and  confirmed  by  his  authority,  upou 
which  Howel  and  his  companions  returned  home."  All  this  could 
not  have  been  effected  before  Howel  had  subjected  "Wales  to  his 
own  rule,  therefore  not  before  9-iZ.  "We  have  three  different  recen- 
sions of  the  code,  one  for  Venedotia  or  North  Wales,  another  for 
Dimetia  or  South  "Wales,  a  third  for  Gwent  or  North-East  "Wales. 
We  do  not  know  how  far  these  recensions  were  uniform  in  the 
beginning  ;  but  a  variance  must  have  occuiTed  shortly  after,  for 
the  manuscripts  in  which  the  codes  are  presei*ved  differ  greatly 
from  each  other.  The  code  was  oi-iginally  compiled  in  "Welsh,  but 
we  have  no  older  MSS.  than  the  12th  century,  and  even  the 
earliest  ones  {especially  those  of  the  "Venedotia  recension)  contain 
many  interpolations.  The  Latin  translations  of  the  code  would 
seem  to  be  very  old,  though  even  here  we  have  no  earlier  MSS. 
(belonging  to  the  Dimetia  recension)  than  the  13th  century.  The 
Larin  text  is  much  shorter  than  the  Welsh,  but  we  do  not  know 
whether  this  abridgment  was  made  on  purpose,  or  whether  the 
translation  is  an  imitation  of  an  earlier  text.  The  texts  present 
only  a  few  traces  of  Roman  law,  vhich,  however,  are  evidently 
additions  of  a  later  period-  The  whole  body  of  "SVelsh  laws  was 
published  in  one  volume  by  An.  Owen  under  the  direction  of  the 
commissioners  on  the  public  recqrds  (fol.,  London,  1841). 

For  further  information  on  the  barbarian  codes,  see  Heinr.  Zoepfl,  Deutsche 
lUchtsgeschichU,  8vo,  Brunswick,  1860,  vol.  i.  p.  8  sq.,  whose  clear  and  able 
treatment  of  the  subject  has  been  taken  as  the  basts  of  paragraphs  4-13  above  ; 
corap.  also  Stobbe,  iSeschichU  dtr  deutschen  KecJitsquellen,  Svo,  Branswiok, 
186<N  (J.  H.  H.) 

SALICYLIC  ACID,  an  organic  acid  found  in  natare, 
in  the  free  state,  in  the  flowers  of  the  meadow-sweet 
(Spirxa  Ulmariaj  L.)  and,  combined  with  methylic  ether, 
in  the  leaves  of  the  wintergreen  {Gaultheria  procumhens^ 
L.)  and  Andromeda  Lesckenaidili^  in  the  bark  of  the 
sweet  birch  (Betula  lenta^  L.),  and  in  several  species  of 
Viola.  It  was  discovered  in  183S  by  Piria,  who  prepared 
it  artificially  by  the  decompo.sition  of  Salicin  ('/.?'.).  It  is 
remarkable  as  bfeing  the  first  organic  compound  occurring 
in  nature  which  has  been  i)repared  artificially  on  the  large 
scale  as  a  commercial  article.  Dviring  the  last  few  years 
it  has  been  extensively  used  in  medicine  as  a  remedy  for 
acute  rheumatism,  either  alone  or  in  the  form  of  its.  sodium 
salt.  Possessing  powerful  antiseptic  properties  and  being 
poisonous  only  in  large  doses  (the  medicinal  dose  being  from 
5  to  30  grains),  it  is  capable  of  manifold  uses  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures.  In  the  proportion  of  from  1  to  10  per  cent, 
it  prevents  the  development  of  bacteria  in  fluids  containing 
them,  and  if  added  to  the  extent  of  1  part  in  60  it  will 
destroy  their  life.  It  also  kills  Tonda,  and  prevents.the 
souring  of  beer  and  milk.  It  hinders  the  chemical  changes 
brought  about  by  the  action  of  vegetable  ferments  or 
enzymes  such  as  amygdalin  and  sinnigrin,  and  consequently 
can  prevent  the  formation  of  essential  oil  of  almonds  or 
of  oil  of  mustard,  d-c.  Plants  watered  with  its  solution 
speedily  die.  The  addition  of  a  little  of  the  acid  to  glue 
renders  it  more  tenacious ;  skins  to  be  used  for  making 
leather  do  not  undergo  decomposition  if  steeped  in  a  dilute 

'  There  is  no  historical  foundation  for  the  legendary  laws  of  a  prince 
Dyraal  (or  Dyvnwal)  Moel  Mud,  nor  for  the  Laws  of  Marsia,  which 
aro  said  to  belong  to  a  period  before  the  Roman  invasion,  even  so 
early  us  400  years  before  Christ.  An  English  translation  by  tho  side 
of  the  Welsh  t'jxt  of  the  »o-called  triads  of  Dyvnwal  Moel  JIud  is  given 
by  Owen,  The  Ancient  Laios  of  Waic3,  London,  18il,  p.  630. 

-1—10* 


solution;  butter  containing  a  small  quantity  of  it  may  be 
kept  sweet  for  months  even  in  the  hottest  weather.  It 
also  prevents  the  mouldiness  of  preserved  fruits  and  has 
been  found  useful  in  the  m!inufacture  of  vinegar.  Unless 
the  perfectly  pure  acid  be  employed  the  addition  of  salicylic 
acid  to  articles  of  food  must  be  considered  dangerous,  some 
persons  being  peculiarly  susceptible  to  its  action. 

Salicylic  acid  is  met  with  in  commerce  in  two  fonns,  "natural ' 
and  "  artificial."  The  former  occurs  as  handsome  prismatic  crystals 
resembling  those  of  strychnin,  but  considerably  larger,  usually 
about  half  an  inch  in  length  ;  the  latter  is  met  with  as  light  minute 
crystals  bearing  some  resemblance  to  sulphate  of  quinine,  but  smaller. 
The  natural  acid  is  prepared  by  decomposing  the  volatile  oil  of 
wintergreen  or  of  the  sweet  birch  by  a  strong  solution  of  potassium 
hydrate,  and  treating  the  resulting  potassium  salicylate  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  which  liberates  the  salicylic  acid.  The  artificial  acid 
is  prepared  according  to  Robbe's  patent  process  by  passing  carbonic 
anhydride  through  sodium  phenoxide  (carbolate)  heated  in  a  retort, 
with  certain  precautions  respecting  temperature  to  prevent  the  for- 
mation of  para- hydroxy  benzoic  acid.  It  is  subsequently  purified 
and  recrystallized.  An  improvement  has  recently  been  made  on 
this  process  by  substituting  sodium  phenol  for  sodium  phenoxide, 
the  whole  of  the  phenol  being  in  this  case  converted  into  salicylic - 
acid.  Formerly  this  acid  was  met  with  in  corauierce  contaminated 
with  phenol,  rosolic,  and  para-oxybenzoic  acids,  but  is  now  prepared 
in  a  perfectly  pure  condition.  The  presence  of  the  first-named 
impurity  may  be  detected  by  its  odour  and  by  the  melting-point 
being  lower  than  when  pure,  the  second  by  the  pink  tinge  it  com- 
municates to  the  acid,  and  the  third  by  its  comparative  insolubility 
in  boiling  chloroform,  by  the  greater  solubility  of  its  calcium  salt, 
and  by  its  giving  a  yellow  precipitate  'nith  ferric  chloride.  Sali- 
cylic acid  when  pure  should  be  fr6e  from  odour  and  should  dissolve 
completely  in  alcohol,  and  its  solution,  when  spontaneously  evapo- 
rated without  contact  with  air,  should  yield  crystals  having  colour- 
IcoS  points.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1-45  and  fuses  at  105"  C. 
(311  Fahr, );  above  that  temperature  it  is  converted  into  phenol 
and  carbonic  anhydride.  Its  chemical  formula  is  C^H^(OH)CO«H. 
It  is  soluble  in  760  parts  of  cold  water,  in  4  of  rectified  spirits  ol 
wine,  and  in  200  of  glycerin,  also  in  olive  and  castor  oils,  in  melted 
fats  and  vaseline.  Alkaline  salts  of  citric,  acetic,  and  phosphoric 
acids  render  it  more  soluble  in  water,  possibly  from  the  base  com- 
bining with  it.  An  aqueous  solution  of  salicylic  acid  give:  a  deep 
violet  colour  with  ferric  salts.  The  methyl,  ethyl,  and  amyl  ethers 
of  the  acid  are  used  in  perfumery,  and  the  calcium  salt  n  kept 
for  some  time  and  then  distilled  with  water  yields  a  liquid  whicli 
has  a  strong  odour  of  roses  (Dingier,  Pohjtcchn.  Jour,i..  ccxvii' 
p.  136). 

When  administered  internally  salicylic  acid  rapidly  lowers  the 
bodily  temperature  and  reduces  the  pulse  rate,  blood  pressure,  and 
rapidity  of  respiration,  causing  death  when  given  in  excessive  dosed 
by  paralysis  of  the  respiratory  organs.  It  is  excreted  in  the  uriuJ 
partly  as  salicylic  and  partly  as  salicyluric  acid,  comrauuicatin.j 
to  it  a  brown  colour  by  reflected  and  a  green  one  by  transmitteij 
light.  AVhen  taken  for  some  time  it  produces  deafuess,  giddines  -•, 
headache,  and  noises  in  the  ears,  like  quinine.  Taken  internahy  i.i 
medicinal  doses  it  possesses  the  same  properties  as  salicin  and 
sodium  salicylate  (see  below),  but  is  much  less  used  in  medioine. 
Applied  externally,  it  has  a  marked  action  on  thickened  epider-.ni?, 
and  is  hence  used  for  the  cure  of  corns  and  warts,  to  relieve  jiain 
and  destroy  fetor  in  ulcerated  cancer,  and  also  in  certain  sldn 
diseases  in  which  an  antiseptic  is  useful,  as  in  psoriasis,  eczema; 
intertrigo,  Iu})u^,  and  ring\vorm.  Taken  as  suutf  it  relieves  ha> 
fever. 

SalicylaU  of  sodium  (NaCyHjOs)  is  more  frequently  used  in  medi- 
cine than  salicylic  acid  because  less  irritating  to  the  mucous  mem- 
branes. It  is  prepared  by  neuti-alizing  a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate 
with  salicylic  acid.  It  occurs  in  commerce  as  small  white  crystalline 
pVites  with  a  slight  pearly  lustre,  having  a  sweetish  saline  tasto 
and  mildly  alkaline  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  1 -5  parts  of  water  and 
6  of  alcohol  at  15"  C.  (59"  Fahr.),  but  much  morn  so  in  boiling  water 
and  alcohol.  It  is  chiefly  employed  medicinally  as  a  remedy  for 
acute  rheumatism,  in  which  it  lowers  the  temjicrature  and  allays 
pain.  It  b  also  useful  in  headache  and  in  phlo^jmasia  alba ;  its 
cholagogic  action  and  its  power  of  rendering  tho  bile  more  fluid 
indicate  its  usefulness  in  tho  treatment  of  gall  stones.  It  has  been 
found  of  service  in  Meniere's  disease.  Alcohol  or  other  stimulants 
are  often  given  with  it  to  prevent  the  depressing  influence  on  the 
heart's  action  which  is  caused  by  large  doses.  Ammonia  is,  hov;  • 
ever,  unfit  for  this  purpose  (Martindale,  Extra  Pkarmacopceia^  3d 
ed.,  p.  57).  Like  salicylic  acid,  it  produces  when  given  in  full  dose? 
subjective  auditory  phenomena,  but  these  symptoms  are  relieved  by 
the  use  of  ergot  and  hydrobromic  acid.  In  a  few  persons  it  causes 
most  disagreeable  visions  whenever  tho  eyes  arc  shut,  and  in  others 
it  has  even  produced  delirium.  In  its  action  on  bacteria  it  is  about 
one-third  less  powerful  than  salicylic  acid. 


218 


S  A  L  — S  A  I 


SALIERI,  Ajrroino  (1750-1825),  dramatic  composer, 
■was  born  at  Legnano,  Itaiv,  August  19,  1750.  In  1760  he 
was  taken  to  Vienna  by  a  former  "  Kapellmeister  "  named 
Gassmann,  who  introduced  him  to  the  emperor  Joseph, 
and  fairly  prepared  the  Tvay  for  his  subsequent  success. 
His  first  opera,  Le  Donne  Lelterate,  was  produced  at  the 
Burg-Theater  in  1770.  On  Gassmann's  death  in  1774, 
he  received  the  appointment  of  Kapellmeister  and  com- 
poser to  the  court;  and  on  the  death  of  Bonno  in  1788 
he  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  "  Hofkapellmeister." 
He  held  his  offices  with  honour  for  fifty  years,  though  he 
made  frequent  visits  to  Italy  and  Paris,  and  composed 
for  many  important  European  theatres.  His  chef  d^ceuvre 
was  Tarare  (afterwards  called  Axjtr,  Re  (tOrmus),  'a 
work  which  was  preferred  by  the  public  of  Vienna  to 
Mozart's  Don  Giovanni,  though  it  is,  in  reality,  quite 
unworthy  of  comparison  with  that  marvellous  inspiration. 
It  was  first  produced  at  Vienna,  June  8,  1787,  and 
strangely  enough,  considering  the  poverty  of  its  style,  it 
was  revived  at  Leipsic  in  1816,  though  only  for  a  single 
representation.  His  last  'opera  was  Die  Neger,  produced 
in  1804.  After  this  he  devoted  himself  to  the  composi- 
tion of  church  music,  for  which  he  had  a  very  decided 
talent.  Salieri  lived  on  friendly  terms  with  Haydn,  but 
was  a  bitter  enemy  to  Mozart,  whose  death  he  was  sus- 
pected of  having  produced  by  poison  ;  but  no  particle  of 
evidence  was  ever  forthcoming  to  give  colour  to  the  odious 
accusation.  He  retired  from  office,  on  his  full  salary,  in 
1824,  and  died  at  Vienna  May  7,  1825.  None  of  Salieri's 
works  have  survived  the  change  of  fashion.  He  gave 
lessons  in  composition  both  to  Cherubini  and  Beethoven  ; 
the  latter  dedicated  to  him  his  Three  Sonatas  for  Piano- 
forte and  Violin,  Op.  12. 

SALH.     See  Mars 

SALISBURY,  or  New  Sakuji,  a  city  and  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough,  ths  county  town  of  Wiltshire,  Eng- 
land, is  situated  in  a  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the  Upper 
Avon,  the  Wily,  the  Bourne,  and  the  Nadder,  on  the  Great 
Western  and  South  Western  Railways,  80  miles  west-south- 
west of  London.  The  c'ty  at  the  beginning  was  regularly 
laid  out  by  Bishop  Poore  and  still  retains  substantially  its 
original  plan.  In  the  cjntre  is  the  market-place,  a  large 
and  handsome  square,  from  which  the  streets  branch  off 
at  right  angles,  forming  a  series  of  quadrangles  facing  a 
thoroughfare  on  each  side,  and  enclosing  in  the  interior  a 
space  for  courts  and  gardens.  The  streams  flowed  un- 
covered through  the  streets  till  the  visitation  of  cholera 
in  1849  led  to  their  being  arched  over.  The  cathedral 
of  St'  Mary  was  originally  founded  on  the  hill  fortress 
of  Old  Sarum  by  Bishop  Herman,  when  he  removed  the 
sea  from  Sherborne  Jjetween  1075  and  1078.  The  severe 
drought  in  1834  caused  the  old  foundations  to  be  dis- 
covered. Its  total  length  was  270  feet ;  the  nave  was  150 
feet  by  72,  the  transept  150  feet  by  70  ;  and  the  choir  was 
60  feet  in  length.  In  1218  Bishop  Poore  procured  a  papal 
bull  for  the  removal  of  the  cathedral  to  New  Sarum.  For 
this  various  reasons  have  been  given, — the  despotism  of  the 
governor,  the  exposure  to  high  winds  which  drowned  the 
voice  of  the  officiating  priest,  the  narrow  space  for  houses, 
and  the  difficulty  of  procuring  water.  Until  the  Reforma- 
tion service  still  continued  to  be  i)erformed  in  the  old 
church.  A  wooden  chapel  of  St  Mary  was  commenced  at 
New  Sarum  in  the  Easter-tide  of  1219,  and  the  founda- 
tions of  the  new  cathedral  were  laid  by  Bishop  Poore, 
28th  April  1220.  It  was  dedicated  at  Michaelmas  1258, 
the  whole  cost  hanng  amounted  to  40,000  marks,  or 
£26,666.  The  cloisters,  of  great  beauty,  and  the  late 
Early  English  chapter-house  were  added  by  Bishop  Walter 
de  la  Wyle  (1263-74).  The  tower  from  near  the  ridge  was 
built  in  the  Decorated  style  by  Bishop  Wyville  about  1331, 


and  the  spire  was  added  between  133o  and  1375.  It  ia 
the  highest  in  England  (404  feet),  and  is  remarkable  both 
for  its  beauty  of  proportion  and  the  impression  it  conveys 
of  lightness  and  slendemess.  The  chapel  built  by  Bishop 
Beauchamp  (1450-82),  that  built  by  Lord  Hungerford  in 
1476,  and  the  fine  campanile  were  all  ruthlessly  demolished 
by  the  architect  James  Wyatt,  1782-1791.  The  cathedra! 
as  a  whole  is  a  unique  specimen  of  Early  English,  having 
the  advantage  of  being  practically  completed  as  it  now 
stands  within  a  remarkably  short  period.  For  lightness, 
simplicity,  grace,  and  unity  of  design  it  is  not  surpassed 
in  England.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  or  double 
cross,  and  comprises  a  nave  of  ten  bays  with  aisles  and  a 
lofty  northern  porch  ;  two  transepts,  one  of  three  and  the 
other  of  two  bays,  while  both  have  eastern  aisles  for 
chapeb ;  a  choir  of  three  bays  with  aisles ;  a  presbjrtery 
of  three  bays  with  aisles ;  and  a  lady-chapel  of  two  bays. 
The  total  length  of  the  building  ia  449  feet,  the  length  of 
the  nave  being  229  feet  6  inches,  of  the  choir  151  feet, 
and  of  the  lady-chapel  68  feet  6  inches,  while  the  principt! 
tran.sept  has  a  length  of  203  feet  10  inches,  and  the 
eastern  transept  of  143  feet.  The  width  of  the  nave  i^ 
34  feet  4  inches,  and  of  the  principal  transept  50  feet  4 
inches.  The  library,  built  by  Bishop  Jewel  (1560-71), 
contains  abont  5000  volumes  and  several  MSS.  of  great 
interest.  In  the  close,  occupying  an  area  of  half  a  square 
mile,  and  possessing  a  finely-shaded  mall,  are  the  episcopal 
palace,  an  irregular  structure  begun  by  Bishop  Poore  but 
of  various  dates,  the  deanery  house,  and  other  buildings.' 
The  three  parish  churches  are  St  Martin's,  with  square 
tower  and  spire,  and  possessing  a  Norman  font  and 
portions  of  Early  English  in  the  choir ;  St  Thomas's  (of 
Canterbury),  founded  in  1240  as  a  chapel  to  the  cathedral, 
and  rebuilt  in  the  15th  century,  a  handsome  building  in  the 
Perpendicular  style ;  and  St  Edmund's,  founded  as  the 
collegiate  church  of  secular  canons  in  1268,  but  subse- 
quently rebuilt  in  the  Perpendicular  style  and  lately 
restored  at  a  cost  of- £6000.  The  residence  of  the  college 
of  secular  priests  is  now  occupied  by  the  modern 
ecclesiastical  college  of  St  Edmund's,  founded  in  1873. 
St  John's  chapel,  founded  by  Bishop  Bingham  (1228-46), 
is  now  occupied  by  a  dwelling-house.  There  is  a  beauti- 
ful chapel  attached  to  the  St  Nicholas  hospital,  founded 
in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  The  poultry  cross,  or 
high  cross,  an  open  hexagon  with  six  arches  and  a  central 
pillar,  was  erected  by  Lord  Montacute  before  1335.  In 
the  market-place  is  JIarochetti's  statue  to  Lord  Herbert 
of  Lea.  The  principal  secular  buildings  are  the  court- 
house, tlie  market-house,  the  Hamilton  Hall,  the  county 
jail,  and  the  theatre.  Among  the  specimens  of  ancient 
domestic  architecture  still  remaining  may  be  mentioned 
the  banqueting  hall  of  J.  Halle,  wool  merchant,  built  in 
1470,  and  Audley  House,  belonging  also  to  the  15th  cen- 
tury, and  repaired  in  ISSl  as  a  diocesan  church  house. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  educational  and  otlier  charities, 
including  the  bishop's  grammar  school,  Queen  Elizabeth's 
grammar  school,  Talman's  girb'  school,  the  St  Nicholas 
hospital,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  and  Trinity 
hospital,  fovmded  by  Agnes  Bottenham  in  1379.  At  one 
time  the  city  possessed  woollen  and  cutlery  manufactures, 
but  these  have  now  declined ;  and,  although  the  manufac- 
ture of  hardware  and  of  boots  and  shoes  is  still  carried  on,  it 
is  on  its  shops  for  the  supply  of  the  neighbouring  villages 
and  its  agricultural  trade  that  it  now  principally  depends. 
The  population  of  the  city  and  municipal  borough  (area  616 
acres)  in  1871  was  12,903,  and  that  of  the  parliamentary 
borough  (area  676  acres)  13,839  ;  in  1881  the  numbers 
were  14,792  and  15,680. 

Salisbiuy  and  its  neighbourhood  are  remarkably  rich  in  relics  of 
antiquit)'.     To  say  nothing  of  Old  Sarum  and  the  scanty  ruins  o' 


SAL- 

the  voyal  palacj  of  Clarendon,  Milford  Hill  and  Fishortcn  are  two 
of  t^e  richest  fields  in  the  country  for  palseoiithio  iiaplciflen  ts. 
In  the  Blackmore  Museum  Salisbury  possesses  cuo  of  tlic  iinest 
collections  ot  prehistoric  antiquities  in  England ;  its  splendid 
githering  of  objects  from  the  mounds  in  the  New  "World  is  pro- 
Ijably  unsurpassed.  T);e  fortress  of  Old  Saram  {Ssarobyrig,  i.e., 
Scar-borougA,  probably  "the  dry  city";  Sarisberio  in  Domesday) 
is  of  very  early  date,  and  was  undoubtedly  held  by  the  Belgse  before 
it  became  an  important  fortress  of  the  Romans  (SorUodimum).  It 
occupied  a  conical  mound  rising  abruptly  from  tte  valley,  and  its 
fossse  and  ramparts,  w-hich  still  remain,  are  about  a  mile  in  cii-cum- 
feren:e.  Various  Roman  roads  branched^  out  from  it  in  liifrcrent 
directions.  Near  it  Cyuric  won  a  great  victory  over  the  Britons  in 
552.  It  was  burned  and  sacked  by  Swend  in  1003.  .In  the  great 
plain  beneath  AViUiam  the  Conqueror  in  1070  review-ed  bis  army 
aflii-  liis  victories  ;  and  it  was  here  that  lio  took  the  oath  of  fealty 
from  all  English  landholders  on  the  completion  of  Domesday  in 
1055.  Old  Sarum  continued  to  have  the  privilege  of  returning 'two 
mcnibers  to  parliament  until  1832,  although  latterly  not  a  single 
ho'ise  remained  within  its  limits.  New  Sarnm  grew  up  round 
the  new  cathedral  founded  in  the  13th  century.  In  1227  it 
rcctived  from  Heni-y  III.  a  charter  conferring  on  it  the*  same 
frcsiom  and  liberties  as  Winchester.  The  duke  of  Buckingham 
Tas  c.-Jecnted  at  Salisbury  in  14S4.  During  the  CivilAVar  it  was 
neld  alternately  bj-  both  parties.  Salisbin-y  first  sent  members  to 
carhaajent  in  1295,  and  various  parliaments  have  been  held 
•here.  The  Redistribution  Act  of  1885  deprived  it  of  one  of  its 
two  representatives. 

See  Description  of  Salisbury  CathsdrrJ,  1719  and  1787;  Rawlin,  Salisbury, 
171S;  >[.  E.  Walcott,  MemoiHals  of  Salisbury,  1865 ;  W.  Henry  Jones.  Fasti  Ec- 
eUsit^  Sjrisberitrisis,  1879 ;  W.  Hem-y  Jones,  Diocesan  History  of  Salisbury,  1S80. 

SALISBURY,  EoEEKT,  Eakl  of.     See  Cecil. 
SALIVA,  SALIVARY  GLANDS.     See  Nutrition. 
SALLEE.     See  Kabat. 

SALLUST  ■  (86-34  B.C.).  SaUust  is  the  generally 
accepted  modern  form  of  the  name  of  the  Roman  his- 
torian Caius  Sallustius  Crispus.  80  B.C.  was  the  year 
of  hi3  birth,  and  the  old  Sabine  town  of  /vmiternnm  at 
the  foot  of  the  Apennines  was  his  birthplace.  He  came 
of  a  good  plebeian  family,  and  entered  public  life  at  a 
ccrnparatively  early  age,  obtaining  first  the  qu;estorship, 
and  then  being  e't»cted  tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C., 
that  year  of  political  turbulence  in  which  Clodius  was 
killed  by  Milo.  Sallust  was  opposed  to  Milo  and  to 
Pompey's  party  and  to  the  old  aristocracy  of  Rome. 
From  the  first  he  was  a  decided  partisan  of  Ciesar's,  and 
to  C:Ksai'  he  owed  such  political  advancement  as  he 
attained.  Unless  he  was  the  victim  of  violent  party 
misrepresentation,  he  seems  to  have  been  morally  worth- 
less. In  50  B.C.  the  censors  exercised  their  power  of 
removing  him  from  the  senate  on  the  ground  of  gross 
immorality.  A  few  years  afterwards,  however,  no 
doubt  through  Cffisar's  influence,  he  was  restored  to  his 
position,  and  in  46,  in  which  year  Ca;sar  was  for  the 
third  time  consul,  he  was  praetor,  and  was  with  Caesar 
in  his  African  campaign,  which  ended  in  the  decisive 
victory  of  Thapsus  over  the  remains  of  the  Ponipeian 
party  and  in  the  .suicide  of  Cato.  Sallust  remained 
for  a  time  in  Afrii»,  as  governor  of  the  province  of 
Numidia,  which,  it  would  seem,  Cajsar  gave  him  as  a 
reward  for  good  service.  It  was  said  that  he  enriched 
himself  at  the  expense  of  the  ■  j.rovincials,  but  the  charge, 
as  far  as  we  kifow,  was  never  substantiated,  though  it  was 
renderLd  highly  probable  by  the  fact  that  ho  returned  to 
Rome  the  following  year  a  very  rich  man,  able  to  purchase 
and  b.y  out  in  groat  splendour  those  famous  gardens  on 
the  Quirinal  known  as  the  "  horti  Sallustiani,"  which 
became  subsequently  an  imperial  residence.  Ho  now 
retired  from-  public  life  and  devoted  his  leisure  to  letters, 
for  which  he  had  always  had  a  taste,  and  certainly 
considerable  ability.  The  fruits  of  his  industry  have  come 
down  to  us  in  the  shape  of  a  history  of  the  famous 
Catiline  conspiracy,  of  an  account  of  the  war  with 
Jugurthfl,  and  of  some  fragments  of  a  larger  work — 
"  histories,"  as  the  Romans  called  them,  "  memoirs,"  as  we 
should  style  them.     His  his'ory  of  the  Cr.tihac  co.Tiuiracy 


-SAL  219 

■n-0.3  his  first  published  work ;  it  is  the  history"  of  the 
memorable  year  63,  when  Cicero  as  consul  baffled  and 
confounded  Catiline  by  making  all  men  believe  that  he 
was  ah  arch-conspirator  against  the  liberties  ot  his  country, 
who,  under  specious  pretexts  of  relieving  poverty  and 
distress,  was  really  aiming  at  raaldng  himself  a  tyrant  and 
a  despot.  Sallust  adopts  the  view  wliioh  was  no  doubt  the 
usually  accepted  one,  and  he  writes  accordingly  as  a 
political  partisan,  without  giving  u.5  a  ckar  in.iight  into  tha 
causes  and  circumstances  whicii  gave  Catiline  a  con'jiJ.er- 
able  following,  and  led  many  to  think  that  his  schemes 
were  more  respectable  than  those  of  a  me?  3  v\ild  revolu- 
tionist. He  does  not  explain  to  us  at  all  adequately  what 
Catiline's  plans  and  views  were,  but  simiily  paints  the  man 
as  the  deliberate  foe  of  all  lav,-,  ordar,  p,rid  inorajity. 
Catiline,  it  must  be  remembered,  bo.d  been  of  Siilla's  party, 
to  which  Sallust  was  opposed.  There  may  be  truth  in 
Momma;n's  suggestion  that  he  was  particularly  anxious  to 
clear  his  patron  Caisar  of  all  compl::;i;y  in  the  conspiracy. 
Anyhow,  the  subject  wo.s  quite  one  to  his  taste,  as  it  gave 
him  the  opportunity  of  showing  all'  his  rlietoric  at  the 
expense  of  the  old  Roman  aristocracy,  whose  degeneracy 
he  delighted  to  paint  in  the  blackest  colours.  His  history, 
again,  of  the  war  with  Jugurtha,  though  a  valuable  and 
interesting  monograph,  is  not  a  satisfactory  performan"e. 
We  may  assume  that  he  had  collected  materials  and  r  ut 
together  notes' for  it  during  his  governorship  of  Numidia. 
Here  too  we  find  him  dwelling  on  the  feebleness  of  the 
senate  and  of  the  aristocracy,  aud  dropping  too  often  into 
a  tiresome  moralizing  and  philosophizing  vein,  his  besetting 
weakness,  but  altogether  failing  us  in  those  really  im- 
portant details  of  geography  and  even  chronology  which 
we  natm'ally  look  for  in  the  historians  of  military  opera- 
tions and  campaigns.  In  all  this  Sallust  is  no  better  than 
Livy.  Of  his  Histories,  said  to  have  been  in  five  books, 
and  to  have  commenced  with  the  year  78  B.C.  (the  year  of 
Sulla's  death),  and  to  have  concluded  with  the  year  06,  we 
have  but  fragments,  which  are,  however,  enough  to  show 
the  political  partisan,  who  took  a  keen  pleasure  in  describ- 
ing' the  reaction  which  followed  on  the  dictator's  death 
against  his  policy  and  legislation.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
the  work  has  not  come  down  to  us  entire,  as  it  must  have 
thrown  much  light  on  a  very  eventful  period,  embracing 
the  war  against  Sertorius,  the  campaigns  of  Lucullus 
against  Mithradates  of  Pontus,  and  the  victories  of  the 
great  Pompey  in  the  East.  A  few  fragments  of  his  works 
were  published  for  the  first  time  from  a  manuscript  in  the 
Vatican  early  in  the  present  century.  We  have  also  two 
letters  {Duae  episiokte  de  Reptiblica  ordinanda)  addressed 
to  Cffisar,  letters  of  political  counsel  and  advice,  which 
have  been  commonly  attributed  to  Sallust,  but  as  to  the 
authenticity  of  which  we  must  suspend  our  judgment. 

The  verdict  of  antiquity  was  on  the  whole  favourable  to  Sallust 
as  an  historian  and  as  a  man  of  letters.  In  certain  quarters  he  was 
decried  ;  his  brevity  was  said  to  bo  obscurity,  and  his  fondnes.s  for 
old  words  aud  phrases,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have  imitated  his 
contemporary  Cato,  was  ridirulcd  as  an  altectation,  'I'acitv.s, 
however,  speaks  highly  of  hiui  {Ann.,  iii.  30) ;  and,  to  do  him 
justice,  wo  must  remember  that  he  stiaick  out  for  himself  almost  a 
new  line  in  literature,  as  up  to  his  time  nothing  of  much  value 
had  been  done  for  Roman  history,  and  his  predecessors  had  been 
little  better  than  chroniclers  and  annalists  of  the  "dry-as-dust" 
type..  Sallust  aimed  at  being  something  like  a  Roman  Thucydides, 
and,  thouqh  he  falls  far  short  of  the  great  Greek  historian,  and 
drifts  now  and  again  into  mere  rhetoric  and  pedantry,  wo  may 
at  least  congratulate  ourselves  on  the  possession  of  his  CuHIm  an.! 
Jugurtha,  and  wo  must  feel  that  fortune  has  been  unkind  .  : 
depriving  us  of  his  larger  work,  his  Histories. 

SALMASIUS,  Claudius  (1588-1653),  in  the  verr.a-i 
cular  Saumaise,  the  most  distingui.shed  classical  scholar, 
of  his  d.ay,  was  born  at .  Semur-en^Auxois  in  Burgundy,' 
April  15,  1588.  His  father,  a  counsellor  of  the  parle- 
menl  of  lilj.m,  gave  him  an  ccccllent  education,  and  sent 


220 


A  L  — S  A  L 


lum  at  the  age'ol  "sixteen  to'Paris,  wliere  his  promise 
Bxcited  the  especial  interest  of  Casaubon.  After  hardly 
overcoming  his  father's  opposition,  he  proceeded  in  1606 
to  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  nominally  to  be  initiated 
into  jurisprudence  under  Godefroy,  but  in  fact  entirely 
devoted  to  classical  studies.  The  atmosphere  of  the  place 
probably  had  its  influence  in  inducing  him  to  embrace 
Protestantism,  the  religion  of  his  mother ;  and  his  first 
publication  was  an  edition  of  a  work  by  Nilus  Cabasilas, 
archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  against  the  primacy  of  the 
pope,  with  a  similar  tract  by  Barlaam.  The  Latin  trans- 
lation of  these  works,  although  apparently  assigned  to 
Salmasius  on  the  title  page,  is  not  by  him.  In  1609  he 
edited  Florus,  with  notes  compiled  in  ten  days.  In  the 
following  year  he  returned  to  France,  and  nominally  pur- 
sued the  study  of  jurisprudence  to  qualify  himself  for  the 
succession  to  his  father's  post,  which  he  eventually  lost  on 
account  of  his  religion.  Nothing  important  proceeded  from 
his  pen  until  1620,  when  he  published  Casaubon's  notes  on 
the  Avffitstan  Histor!/,  with  copious  additions  of  his  own, 
equally  remarkable  for  learning  and  acumen.  In  1623  he 
married  Anna  Mercier,  a  Protestant  lady  of  a  distinguished 
family;  and  in  1629  he  produced  his  inagmim  opus  as  a 
critic,  his  commentary  on  Solinus's  Polyhistor,  or  r;.ther 
on  Pliny,  to  whom  Solinus  is  indebted  for  most  "of  his 
materials.  Greatly  as  this  work  may  have  been  overrated 
by  his  contemporaries,  it  is  still  a  monument  of  stupendous 
learning  and  conscientious  industry.  Salmasius  learned 
Arabic  to  qualify  himself  for  the  botanical  pjart  of  his  task, 
and  was  so  unwilling  to  go  to  press  without  having  con- 
sulted a  rare  treatise  by  Didymus  that  the  third  part  of  his 
commentary,  De  Herhis  et  Plantis,  did  not  appear  in  his 
lifetime.  He  was  now  ostensibly  as  well  as  actually 
devoted  to  philology,  and  foreign  universities  vied  with 
each  other  in  endeavouring  to  secure  his  services.  After 
declining  overLures  from  O.xford,  Padua,  and  Bologna,  he 
closed  in  1631  with  a  proposal  from  Leyden,  offering  an 
entirely  honorary  professorship,  with  a  stipend  of  two 
thousand  (afterwards  raised  to  three  thousand)  livres  a 
year,  merely  to  live  in  Holland  and  refute  the  Annals  of 
Baronius.  This  latter  stipulation  he  never  fulfilled. 
Shortly  after  his  removal  to  Holland,  he  composed,  at  the 
request  of  Prince  Frederick  of  Nassau,  his  treatise  on  the 
military  system  of  the  Romans,  which  was  not  published 
until  16&7.  Other  works  followed,  mostly  philological, 
but  including  a  denunciation  of  wigs  and  hair-powder,  and 
a  vindication  of  moderate  and  lawful  interest  for  money, 
■which  drew  down  upon  him  many  expostulation.?  from 
lawj'ers  and  theologians.  It  prevailed,  however,  with  the 
Dutch  Church  to  admit  money-lenders  to  the  sacrament. 
His  treatise  De  Primatu  Papm  (1645),  accompanying  a 
republication  of  the  tract  of  Nilus  Cabasilas,  excited  a  warm 
controversy  in  France,  but  the  Government  declined  to 
suppress  it.  Notwithstanding  his  Protestantism  and  the 
opposition  of  the  papal  nuncio,  he  had  already  been  made 
a  royal  counsellor  and  a  knight  of  St  Jlichael,  and  gl'eat 
oilers  had  been  made  to  induce  him  to  return,  which,  sus- 
pecting that  ho  was  to  be  charged  with  the  composition  of 
a  panegyric  on  Richelieu,  he  honourably  declined. 

In  November  1649  appeared  the  work  by  which 
Salmasius  is  best  remembered,  his  De/e?isio  Reijta  pro 
Carolo  I.  His  advice  had  already  been  sought  on  English 
and  Scotch  affairs,  and,  inclining  to  Presbyterianism  or  a 
modified  Episcopacy,  he  had  written  against  the  Independ- 
ents. It  does  not  appear  by  whose  influence  he  was 
induced  to  undertake  the  Defensio  Mer/ia,  but  Charles  II., 
low  as  his  exchequer  was,  defrayed  the  expense  of  printing, 
and  presented  the  author  with  £100.  The  first  edition 
was  anonymous,  but  the  author  was  universally  known. 
4  French  translation  which  speedily  appeared  under  the 


name  of  Le  Gros  was  the  work  of  Salmasius  himself.  This 
celebrated  work,  in  our  day  principally'  famous  for  the 
reply  it  provoked  from  Milton,  even  in  its  own  added  little 
to  the  reputation  of  the  author.  Salmasius  injured  his 
character  for  consistency  by  defending  absolute  monarchy, 
and  knew  too  little  of  English  history  and  poUtics  to  argue 
his  cause  with  effect.  He  deals  chiefly  in  generalities,  and 
most  inappropriate  illustrations  from  Biblical  and  classical 
history.  Not  caring  sufficiently  for  his  theme  to  rise  to 
the  heights  of  moral  indignation,  he  is  as  inferior  to  Milton 
in  earnestness  as  in  eloquence  and  the  power  of  invective. 
Milton  had,  no  doubt,  a  great  advantage  in  encountering 
a  personality,  at  whose  head  vituperation  could  be  launched, 
while  Salmasius  is  fighting  abstractions  and  indicting  a 
people.'  But  the  reply  to  Milton,  which  he  left  unfinished 
at  his  death,  and  which  was  pubUshed  by  his  son  in  1660, 
is  insipid  a.s  well  as  abusive.  Until  the  appearance  of 
Milton's  rejoinder  in  March  1651  the  effect  of  Salma.sius's 
work  was  no  doubt  considerable ;  and  it  probably  helped 
to  procure  him  the  flattering  invitation  from  Queen 
Christina  which  induced  him  to  visit  Sweden  in  1650. 
Christina  loaded  him  with  gifts  and  distinctions,  but  upon 
the  appearance  of  Milton's  book  was  unable  to  conceal  her 
conviction  that  he  had  been  worsted  by  his  antagonist. 
Milton,  addressing  Christina  herself,  ascribes  Salmasius's 
withdrawal  from  Sweden  in  1651  to  mortification  at  this 
affront,  but  this  appears  to  be  negatived  by  the  warmth  of 
Christina's  subsequent  letters  and  her  pressing  invitation 
to  return.  The  claims  of  the  university  of  Leyden  and 
dread  of  a  second  Swedish  winter  seem  fully  adequate 
motives.  Nor  is  there  any  foundation  for  the  belief  that 
Milton's  invectives  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place 
on  September  3,  1653,  from  an  injudicious  use  of  tlie  Spa 
waters.  He  was  at  the  time  engaged  upon  his  reply  to 
Milton ;  this  he  does  not  seem  to  have  reckoned  among 
the  MSS.  which,  feeling  that  he  had  expressed  himself  with 
undue  asperity,  he  directed  ^is^jfe:''to  burn  after  his 
decease.  He  left  several  sons,iDutlhis  posterity  did  not 
attain  the  third  generation.- 

KothinR,  to  modem  ijeas,  can 'seem  more  singular  tlmn  tlie 
literary  dictatorship  e,\ercised  by  a  mere  classical  scholar,  who 
shone  piiiicipally  a."!  a  commentator,  and  whose  independeut  works, 
though  highly  respectable,  evince  no  especial  powers  of  mind. 
Salmasius  was  far  enough  from  being  a  Grotius,  a  Leibnitz,  el- 
even a  Casaubon.  As  a  commentator  and  verbal  critic,  however, 
he  is  entitled  to  very  high  rank.  His  notes  on  the  Augustan 
History  and  Solinus  disphay  not  only  massive  eradition  but 
massive  good  sense  as  well  ;  his  perception  of  the  meaning  of  his 
autlior  is  commonly  very  acute,  and  his  corrections  of  the  text  are 
frequently  highly  felicitous.  His  manly  independence  was  shown 
in^  many  circumstances  of  his  life,  and  the  general  bias  of  his 
mind  w.is  liberal  and  sensible.  Ho  was  accused  of  sourness  and 
suUenuess  of  temper  ;  but  the  charge,  if  it  had  any  foundation,  < 
is  e.xtenuatedby  the  wretched  condition  of  his  "health.  His 
biographer  Clement  enumerates  seven  classes  of  disorders  which 
pursued  him  throughout  his  life,  and  which  render  his  industry 
and  productiveness  the  more  extraordinary.  Papillon  catalogues 
eighty  booiis  published  by  Salmasius  himself,  or  from  his  JISS.,  or 
to  wliich  he  contributed  notes  ;  eighteen  manuscripts  which  hs 
himself  saw  in  tlic  library  o "  M.  do  la  Mare  ;  forty-three  more 
mentioiied  by  otliers  ;  ninety-three  works  with  JIS.  notes  by 
Salmasius,  which  should  now  be  in  the  National  Library  of  France  ; 
and  fifty-nine  books  projected  or  contemplated. 

The  life  of  Salmasius  was  written  at  great  length  by  Philibert  de  la  Slare, 
counsellor  of  the  pailement  of  Dljou,  who  intteiited  his  MSS.  from  his  son. 
Papillon  says  that  this  biography  left  nolliing  to  desii-e,  but  it  has  the  capital 
fault  of  never  having  been  printed.  It  was,  however,  used  by  Papillon  himself, 
w-hose  account  of  Salmasius  in  his  BibUolTikqut:  det  Aulcurs  rft  Bourgogne  (Dijon, 
1745)  is  by  far  the  best  extant.  Tliere  Is  an  eloge  by  Cl<?ment  prefixed  to  his 
edition  of  Salmasius's  Lettet-i  (1C5C),  and  another  by  Morisot,  inserted  in  his  owu 
Letters.  Clement's  notice  contains  many  inteiestlng  facts,  but  it  is  marred  by 
an  extravagant  admiration  for  its  subject,  perhaps  excusable  if  he  really  believed 
that  his  hero  was  born  In  1.'>9C,  and  edited  Florus  at  thii-teen.  It  Is  remarkable, 
howevel',  tliat  Cl<5ment  passes  over  the  Defemio  Uemn  almost  without  notice, 
whether  from  feeling  that  It  was  unworthy  of  Salmasius,  or  because  discussion 
of  the  subject  was  discouraged  In  Holla  id  during  the  existence  of  the  English 
Commonwealth.  ^^    (R.  g,j     , 

SALMON.  It  will  be  convenient  to  con.sider  this  in- 
connexion  'n-ith  the  other  members  of  the  great  family  flf 
fishes  to  which  it  belongs.     See  SAL-MONiDiE, 


SALMONID^ 


221 


SALMONIDiE.  The  distinguishing  features  of  this 
family  of  fishes  are  described  in  technical  language  in  the 
article  Ichthyology  (toL  xii.  p.  693),  and  it  is  un- 
necessary to  repeat  the  definition.  The  most  conspicuous 
of  the  external  characteristics  is  the  presence  of  two  dorsal 
fins,  of  which  the  anterior  is  well  developed  and  supported 
by  the  usual  jointed  bones  known  as  fin-rays,  while  the 
posterior  is  thick  and  fieshy,  rounded  in  outline,  and  desti- 
tute of  rays.  The  posterior  fin  is  thus  a  rudimentary  organ, 
and  it  is  commonly  called  the  adipose  fin.  There  are  two 
other  families  of  fishes  which  resemble  the  Salmotiidse  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  dorsal  fins — the  Percopsidx  and 
Haplochitonidx;  but  the  former  consists  of  only  one  species, 
found  in  the  United  States,  and  the  latter  is  confined  to  the 
southern  hemisphere.  Amongst  British  fishes  a  Salmonoid 
can  be  always  recognized  by  its  dorsal  fins.^ 

The  SalmonidiB  retain  the  open  communication  of  the 
air-bladder  with  the  intestine,  and  the  original  posterior 
position  of  the  pelvic  fins, — features  which  characterize  the 
division  of  Teleostei  known  as  Physostomi.  In  the  great 
assemblage  of  bony  fishes  known  as  Physoclisti,  these 
features  are  lost  in  the  adult  condition.  It  is  known  that 
in  all  cases  the  air-bladder  develops  in  the  young  fish  as 
an  outgrowth  or  diverticulum  from  the  intestine;  and  it  is 
obvious  from  s,  survey  of  Vertebrates  in  general  that  the 
posterior  limbs  belong  originally  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  anus.  It  follows  therefore  that  in  these  features  the 
Sabnonidse,  and  all  the  Physostoini,  are  more  similar  to 
the.  early  ancestors  of  the  bony  fishes  than  are  those  species 
in  which  the  air-bladder  is  closed  and  the  pelvic  fins  have 
an  anterior  position. 

In  the  Salmonidm  the  characteristic  Teleostean  piseudo- 
branchia  is  present.  This  organ  is  the  diminished  remnant 
of  the  series  of  gill-lamellae  belonging  to  the  posterior  face 
of  the  hyoid  arch,  as  the  pseudobranchia  in  Elasmobranchs 
is  the  rudiment  of  the  series  of  gill-lamellK  belonging  to 
the  posterior  face  of  the  mandibular  arch.-  The  bones 
known  as  ma/ill;e  form  portion  of  the  boundary  of  the 
upper  jaw  in  Salinonidse ;  in  many  fishes  they  are  excluded 
from  the  jaw  margin  by  the  backward  prolongation  of  the 
premaxilla-.  There  are  no  scales  on  the  head  in  this 
family,  and  there  are  no  fleshy  filaments  or  "  barbels  "  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth  as  there  are  in  many  bony 
fishes — for  example,  the  Cod,  in  which  a  single  short  barbel 
is  attached  beneath  the  lower  jaw.  The  pyloric  append- 
ages, CKcal  diverticula  of  the  intestinal  tube  immediately 
behind  the  stomach,  are  nearly  always  present  in  consider- 
able numbers.  In  the  female  Salmon  the  oviduct,  the 
tube  connecting  the  ovary  with  the  exterior,  is  wanting; 
the  eggs  when  ripe  escape  from  the  surface  of  the  ovary 
into  the  abdominal  cavity  and  pass  thence  to  the  exterior 
through  a  pair  of  apertures  in  the  body  wall  situated  one 
on  each  side  of  the  anus ;  these  apertures  are  the 
abdominal  pores.  In  the  male  .salmon  there  is  a  duct  to 
the  testis,  and  the  semen  is  extruded  through  it  in  the 
usual  way.  Fertilization  takes  place  outside  the  body,  the 
spermatozoa  and  eggs  uniting  in  the  water. 

Distribution. — Salmonidx  are  found  both  in  the  sea  and 
in  fresh  water.  Most  of  the  marine  species  inhabit  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  ocean.  Many  of  the  freshwater  forms 
pass  a  portion  of  their  lives  in  the  littoral  parts  of  the  sea, 
ascending  rivers  when  adult  every  year  in  order  to  deposit 

'  It  is  Interesting  to  observe  tliat  a  peculiarity  of  the  dor»al  fins  is 
often  a  family  character  among  the  bony  tishcs.  Thus  the  species  of 
the  Cod  family  {Oadidm)  have  usually  three  separate  dorsal  fins  similar 
In  shape  and  size.  The  BUnniidaj  are  characterized  by  the  presence 
of  a  continuous  dor»al  fin  extending  almost  the  whole  length  of  the 
back.  The  Clupeidm  or  Herrings  all  have  a  single  triangular  dorsal 
fin  in  the  middle  of  the  back. 

'  This  at  least  is  the  view  till  rjccntly  accepted  by  most  morpho- 
legists  ;  its  correctness  is  questioned  by  Anton  Dohrn. 


their  spawn  ;  that  is  to  say,  many  species  are  anadromous. 
Some  are  confined  entirely  to  fresh  water.  The  Sahnonidx 
are,  with  the  exception  of  one  species  indigenous  to  New 
Zealand,  peculiar  to  the  temperate  and  arctic  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Fossils  belonging  to  the  family  are 
found  in  strata  of  Mesozoic  age.  Osinervs  occurs  in  the 
greensand  of  Ibbenbiiren,  and  the  schists  of  Glarus  and 
Licata.  Mallotus  villostts,  indistinguishable  from  the 
living  Capelin,  occurs  abundantly  in  clay  in  Greenland,  the 
geological  age  of  the  bed  being  unknown.  Osmeroides 
acrorfiiathus  and  Axdolepis  are  fossil  genera  occurring  in 
the  chalk  near  Lewes  in  Sussex,  and  were  probably  deep-sea 
Salmouoids.  The  introduction  of  certain  species  into  new 
areas  by  human  agency,  which  has  been  effected  recently, 
and  is  still  going  on,  will  be  described  in  another  section,  i 

Synopsis  of  Genera. 
Tlie  follo^\•ing  five  genera  include  British  species  : — 

1.  Salmo,  ArfeiU  (Salmon  and  Trout).  Scales  small.  Cleft  ot 
mouth  wide ;  maxilla  extending  backward  to  below  or  behind  the 
eye.  Dentition  well  developed  ;  conical  teeth  on  the  jaw  bones, 
on  the  vomer  and  palatines,  and  on  tbe  tongue  ;  none  on  the 
jiterygoid  bones.  Anal  fin  short,  with  fourteen  or  fewer  rays. 
Pyloric  appendages  numerous.  Ova  large.  Dark  transverse 
bands,  known  as  "parr  marks,"  present  on  the  sides  of  the  body 
in  the  young  stages  of  life. 

2.  Osmerus,  Cuv.  (Smelts).  Scales  of  moderate  size.  Cleft  of 
the  mouth  wide ;  maxilla  long,  extending  to  or  nearly  to  the  hind 
margin  of  the  orbit.  Dentition  well  developed ;  teeth  on  the 
maxilla  and  premaxilla  smaller  than  those  on  the  mandible ; 
transverse  series  of  teeth  on  the  vomer,  several  of  which  are  large 
and  fang-like  ;  a  series  of  conical  teeth  along  the  palatine  and 
pterygoid  bones  ;  strong  fang-like  teeth  on  the  front  of  the 
tongue,  several  longitudinal  series  of  smaller  ones  on  its  posterior 
part     Pyloric  appendages  short  and  few  in  number.     Ova  small. 

3.  Coregonus.  Scales  of  moderate  size.  Cleft  of  mouth  small; 
maxilla  rather  short,  not  extending  back  beyond  the  orbit.  Tcetli 
minute,  or  absent  altogether.  Anterior  dorsal  fiu  with  few  rays. 
Pyloric  appendages  numerous.     Ova  small. 

4.  Thymallua,  Cuv.  (Graylings).  Similar  to  Coregonus^  but 
having  a  long  anterior  dorsal  with  many.  rays.  Small  teeth  on 
jaws,  vomer,  and  palatine  bones.  "  - 

5.  Argentina,  Cuv.  Scales  rather  large.  Cleftof  mouth  small; 
maxilla  not  extending  to  below  the  orbit.  Teeth  wanting  on 
jaws;  minute  teeth  on  the  head  of  the  vomer  and  fore  part  of  the 
palatines ;  series  of  small  curved  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  tongue. 
Dorsal  fin  short,  in  advance  of  the  pelvic.  Pyloric  appendages  few 
or  in  moderate  numbers.  Ova  small.  The  most  conspicuous 
peculiarity  of  this  genus  is  the  flattening  of  the  sides  to  plane 
surfaces  bordered  by  keeled  ridges,  so  that  the  transverse  section  of 
the  fish  is  hexagonal. 

The  following  eleven  genera  include  no  British  species  : — 
G.  OncorhynchtiB,  Suckley  (Ann.  Lye.  Kat.  Hist.,  1661).     Simi- 
lar to  Salmo,  except  tliat  tlie  anal  fin  has  more  than  fourteen  rays.' 

7.  Brachymystax,  Giinthcr.  Intermediate  between  Salmo  and 
CorerjomLS. 

8.  Luciotrutta,  Giintlier.    Jligratory  tro\it  from  North  America. 

9.  Plecoglossus,  Schlegel.  Body  covered  with  verv  small  scales. 
Cleft  of  mouth  wide  ;  maxilla  long.  Dentition  feebfe  ;  jiremaxilla 
with  few  small  conical  teeth.  Ends  of  mandibles  separate  at  the 
chin,  the  mucous  membrane  between  them  forming  folds  antl 
pouches.     Tongue  very  small,  with  minute  teeth. 

10.  Eetropinna,  Gill.     Similar  to  Osmerus. 

11  and  12.  Hypomesus,  Gill,  and  Thaleichthys,  GirarJ,  arc 
allied  genera. 

13.  Mollotufl,  Cuv.  (Capelin).  Scales  minute,  somewhat  large! 
along  the  lateral  line  and  along  each  side  of  the  belly.  In  mature 
males  those  scales  Iiecome  elongate,  lanceolate  with  projecting  noints. 
Cleft  of  mouth  wide  ;  maxilla  very  thin,  lamclliform,  extcntlin^  to 
below  middle  of  eye.  Dentition  very  feeble  ;  teeth  in  single  series. 
Pyloric  ap])endages  very  short,  few.     Ova  small. 

14.  Salanx,  Cuv.  Body  elongate,  com|>russed,  naked,  or  with 
small,  exceedingly  fine  deciduous  scales.  Plead  elongate  and  much 
depressed,  terminating  in  a  long,  flat,  i>ninted  snout.  Cleft  of 
mouth  wide.  Jaws  and  palatine  bones  with  conical  teeth,  some  of 
those  on  premaxilla  and  mandibles  being  enlarged  ;  no  teeth  on 
vomer  ;  tongiic  witii  single  series  of  curved  teeth.  Anterior  dorsal 
fin  far  behind  ventral,  in  front  of  anal  ;  adipose  small.  Pseudo- 
branchi-ii  well  developed  ;  air-bladder  none.  Alimentary  canal 
quite  straight ;  pyloric  ajipendages  none.     Ova  small. 

'  This  is  the  generic  distinction  adopted  by  Dr  Gunther.  Cuckley's 
original  diagnosis  was  the  prolongation  of  both  jaws  in  the  males. 


222 


SALMONID^ 


15.  Microstoma,  Cuv.  Body  elongate,  cylindrical,  covered  with 
Urge  tbin  silvery  scalesf.  Cleft  of  mouth  very  small ;  premaxilla 
very  smnll_;  maxillte  very  short  and  broad.  Eye  very  large. 
Narrow  series  of  very  small  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  and  across 
the  head  of  tlie  vomer  ;  no  other  teeth.  Dorsal  fin  short,  inserted 
behind  the  ventrals,  but  before  the  anal ;  adipose  fin  present  in 
most  young  specimens,  frc((uently  absent  in  old  ones.  Pseudo- 
branchije  well  developed ;  air-bladder  large.  Pyloric  appendages 
absent  ;  mucous  membrane  of  stomach  with  numerous  large 
papilla;.     Tlic  genus  is  allied  to  Argentina. 

16.  Bathylagus,  a  genus  of  deep  sea  Salmonoids  discovered  by 
the  "Chalkngcr"  in  the  Atlantic  and  Antarctic  Oceans  at  depths 
of  1950  and  2040  fathoms. 

SpecieSi 

1.  Genus  Salmo.  The  difficulty  of  defining  and  distinguishing 
the  species  of  this  genus  is  considerable,  and  much  diversity  of 
opiuion  on  the  subject  exists  among  ichthyologists.  Many  of  the 
species  are  extremely  variable,  so  that  some  individuals  of  one 
resemble  the  more  aberrant  individuals  of  another  ;  the  species 
are  seldom  separated  by  conspicuous  differences.  The  individuals 
of  a  given  species  vary  considerably  with  age  and  sex,  and  also 
with  habitat  and  extern.il  conditions.  Many  of  the  species  are 
capable  of  breeding  together  and  producing  fertile'  offspring.  The 
characters  which  are  most  constant,  and  on  whose  differences  the 
distinction  of  species  chiefly  rests,  are  as  follows  : — (1)  the  form 
of  the  prajoperculum  (the  horizontal  breadth  of  this  bone  at  its 
lower  portion  is  always  small  in  the  young,  but  in  the  adult  it  is 
greater  in  some  species  than  in  ethers;  (2)  width  and  strength 
of  maxillary  in  adult);  (3)  size  of  teeth;  (4)  arrangement  and  per- 
manence of  vomerine  teeth;  (5)  form  of  caudal  tin;  (6)  pectoral 
fins  ;  (7)  size  of  scales  ;  <8)  number  of  vertebras  ;  (9)  number  of 
pyloric  appendages. 

In  all  the  species  of  Salmo  there  are  teeth  in  the  vomer.  In  the 
Salmons  proper  and  in  the  Trouts  there  are,  in  the  young,  teeth 
both  on  the  head  and  body  of  that  bone,  but  in  some  species  on  the 
body  only  ;  some  of  the  teeth  on  the  body  are  deciduous,  and  are  in 
most  of  the  species  shed  at  an  early  age.  In  the  Charrs  there  are 
teeth  on  t)Sc  head  of  the  vomer  but  none  on  the  body  of  the  bone 
at  any  period  of  life,  and  none  of  the  vomerine  teeth  are  deciduous. 
The  species  of  tnie  Trout  are  confined  to  fresh  water,  and  are  not 
migi'atory.  In  accordance  with  these  peculiarities  some  zoologists 
have  divided  the  genus  Salmo  into  three  subgenera, — Salmo  seusu 
restricto,  Fario,  and  Sahrliiuis.  But  modern  authorities  retain 
only  two  subdivisions, — the  subgenera  Salmo,  including  migratory 
Salmon  and  non-migratory  Trout,  and  Salvelimis,  the  fcharrs. 

A.  Subgenus  Salmo. — A  vast  number  of  species  ot  Salmo  have 
been  described  ;  in  tlie  Brit.  Mtis.  Cat.  Dr  Giinther  distinguishes 
fifty-two,  of  which  seven  are  confined  to  the  Britisli  Islands  and 
four  are  found  both  in  the  British  Islands  and  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Mr  Day  on  the  other  hand  considers  that  all  the  indi- 
genous Salmon  and  Trout  of  the  British  Islands  belong  to  two 
species,  Salmo  salar  and  Salmo  tnitla, — Salmo  Icvouiisis  and 
Salmo  fario  being  varieties  of  the  latter  ;  the  rest  of  the  described 
British  species  ho  considers  as  local  varieties  or  subvarieties  of 
these. 

(1)  Salmo  salar,  L.  (the  Salmon).  B.  11-12;  D.  14;  A.  11  ; 
P.  14;  V.  9;  L.  lat  120;  L.  transverse  ;^'--;;  Vert.  59-60;  Crec. 
pyl.  53-77.'  Attains  to  a  length  of  4  to  5  feet ;  female  mature  at  a 
length  of  about  15  inches.  Prieoperculum  with  a  distinct  lower 
limb  and  with  the  angle  rounded.  Head  of  vomer  subpentagonal, 
as  long  as  broad,  toothless  ;  the  body  of  the  bone  with  single  series 
of  small  teeth  which  are  gi'adually  lost  from  behind  forwards  so 
that  older  examples  only  have  from  one  to  four  left  Hind  part  of 
body  elongate  and  covered  with  relatively  large  scales.  Young 
with  about  eleven  dusky  transverse  bars  on  the  sides  ;  half-grown 
and  old  specimens  silvery,  with  small  black  spots  in  small  number  ; 
spawning  males  with  numerous  large  black  and  red  spots,  some  of 
the  red  spots  confluent  into  more  or  less  extensive  patches,  especi- 
ally on  the  belly.  An  anadromous  species,  inhabiting  temperate 
Europe  southwards  to  43°  N.  lat. ;  not  found  in  Mediterranean  : 
in  Asia  and  America  southwards  to  41°  N.  lat 

No  varieties  o{  Salmo  salar  are  recognized  in  Europe,  but  in 
North  America  there  occurs  one  Salmonoid  which  is  considered  by 
different  authorities  either  as  a  variety  or  a  sub-species,  viz.,  Salmo 
salar,  var.  scbago,  L.  lat.  115.  Body  and  dorsal  and  caudal  fins 
with  subquadrangular  or  subcircular  black  spots.  Is  non-migra- 
tory and  occurs  in  some  of  the  lakes  of  Maine  and  New  York  in 
the  United  States  ;  these  lakes  have  no  communication  with  the 
sea.  This  form  is  called  variously  the  Landlocked  Salmon  or  the 
Schoodic  Salmon. 

•  In  tho  formula  usually  preceding  the  diagnosis  or  description  of  a  species  of 
fish.  B  =  nuniber  of  branchlostegal  rays;  D  =  Tlumbcr  of  rays  in  dorsal  fin  ;  P  = 
ditto  In  pectoral  fin;  A  =  ditto  In  anal  fin;  V=^ditto  in  ventral  fin;  L.  lat.  = 
number  of  scales  along  the  lateral  Hue  ;  L.  transverse  =  nuniber  of  scales  In  the 
oblique  tiansvei-se  row  of  the  widest  part  of  the  body,  the  numbers  above  and 
below  the  line  in  the  fraction  being  those  of  the  scales  above  and  below  the 
lateral  line  respectively. 


The  true  Salmo  salar  on  the  American  shore  of  the  Atlantic 
is  sometimes  called  the  Penobscot  Salmon. 

(2)  Salmo  trntia,  Fleming;  Salmo  criox,  VnTneW  {Fishes  of  Firth 
of  Forth)  (Sea-Trout,  Salmon-Trout,  Bull-Trout).  B.  11  ;  D.  13  ; 
A.  11  ;  P.  1,5  ;  y.  9  ;  L.  lat  120  ;  L.  transverse  ||fi? ;  Vert  59- 
60 ;  Ckc.  pyh  49-61.  Attains  to  a  length  of  about  3  feet ; 
female  mature  at  a  length  of  10  to  12  inches.  Head  of  vomer 
triangular,  as  broad  as  long,  toothless,  body  of  the  bone  with  a 
longitudinal  ridge  armed  with  a  single  series  of  teeth,  which  are 
deciduous  ;  generally  only  the  two  or  three  anterior  ones  found 
in  examples  of  more  than  20  inches  in  length.  Silvery,  sometimes 
immaculate,  usually  with  more  or  less  numerous  X-shaped  spots; 
spots  on  the  head  and  dorsal  fin  round  and  readily  disappearing. 
Young  (parr)  with  nine  or  ten  dusky  cross  bars  ;  grilse  with  top  of 
dorsal  and  pectoral  and  with  hind  margin  of  caudal  black.  A 
minatory  s])ecies,  occurring  in  the  rivers  falling  into  the  Baltic 
and  German  Ocean  ;  numerous  in  Scotland,  less  frequent  in 
English  and  Irish  rivers. 

(3)  Salmo  cambricus,  Donov.  {Brit.  Fishes)  (the  Sewen  of  Couch, 
Salmon  Peal).  B.  10-11;  D.  14;  A.  11-12;  P.  16;  V.  9;  L.  lat 
120-125;  L.  transverse  jfij  ;  Vert  59 ;  Ca;c.  pyl.  39-47.  Attain- 
ing to  a  length  of  3  feet ;  female  matnre  at  a  length  of  fi-om  12  to  13 
inches.  Prteoperculum  with  a  distinct  lower  limb,  with  the  angle 
rounded  and  wiith  the  hind  margin  convex  or  undulated,  subvertical. 
Head  of  vomer  triangular,  broader  than  long,  toothless  in  adult 
examples,  armed  with  a  few  teeth  across  its  hinder  margin  in 
young  ones  ;  body  of  the  bone  with  a  sharp  longitudinal  ridge,  in 
the  sides  of  which  the  teeth  are  inserted,  forming  a  single  series, 
and  altgrnately  pointing  to  right  and  left.  In  pure-bred  specimens 
these  teeth  are  lost  in  the  grilse  state,  so  that  only  the  two  or  three 
anterior  remain  in  specimens  more  than  12  or  13  inches  long.  Fins 
of  moderate   length  ;  caudal   fin   forked   in    parr   stage,    slightly 

i  emarginate  in  grilse,  truncate  in  mature  specimens.  This  species 
loses  the  parr  marks  very  early,  when  only  5  to  6  inches  long  ;  it  is 
then  bright  silvery.  Greenish  on  the  back,  with  few  small  round 
black  spots  on  the  head  and  sides.  This  coloration  remains  nearly 
unaltered  during  tho  further  growth  of  the  fish,  but  the  spots 
become  more  irregular,  indistinctly  X-shaped.  An  anadromous 
species,  occurring  in  rivers  of  Norway,  Denmark,  "Wales,  and 
Irelanti.  Mr  Day  {Fishes  Sf  Great  Britain)  considers  this  form  a« 
merely  a  variety  of  Salmo  trntia. 

(4)  Salmo  fario,  L.  (Trout).  Dr  Giinther  distinguishes  two 
varieties  : — 

(a)  Sahno  fario  gaimardi;  Sahno  ffaimarili,  Cuv.  and  Val. ; 
Sabno  tntUa,  Gairaard  {Voy.  Isl.  and  Groeal.,  Atl.  Poiss.,  ph.  15, 
fig.  A).  D.  13-14  ;  A.  11-12  ;  P.  14  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat.  120  ;  L.  trans- 
verse ^;  Crec  pyl.  '33-4G ;  Vert.  59-60.  -Largest  specimen 
observed,  15  inches  ;  female  mature  at  a  length  of  7  or  8  inches. 
Head  of  vomer  tiiaugular,  small,  broader  than  long  ;  vomerine  teeth 
in  a  double  scries  sometimes  disposed  in  a  zigzag  line,  persistent 
throughout  life.  Sides  with  numerous  round  or  X-shaped  blnck 
sputa  ;  upper  surface  and  sides  of  the  head  and  the  dorsal,  adipose, 
and  caudal  fins  usually  with  crowded  round  black  spots  ;  dorsal, 
anal,  and  ventral  with  a  black  and  white  outer  edge.  Fountl  in 
Iceland,  North  Britain,  Ireland,  Scandinavia. 

{h)  Salmo  fario  ausonii ;'  Salmo  ausonii,  Cuv.  and  Val.  (the 
common  Kiver-Trout).  Formula  as  in  a,  but  Vert.  57-58.  Attains 
to  a  length  of  30  inches  ;  female  mature  at  a  length  of  8  inches. 
A  non-migratory  species,  inhabiting  numerous  fresh  waters  of 
Central  Europe,  Sweden,  and- England,  and  rivci^  of  the  Maritime 
Alps. 

The  following  forms  are  peculiar  to  the  British  Islands  : — 

(5)  Sahno  Icvenensis,  Walker  {JFcm.  Mem.,  i.  p.  641)  (Loch 
Leven  Tront).  D.  13;  A.  11;  P.  14;  V.  9;  L.  lat  118;  L.  trans- 
verse fl ;  Crec.  pyl.  68-80;  Vert  59.  JIaximum  length  21  inches. 
Teeth  moderately  strong  ;  the  head  of  the  vomer  triangular  with  a 
transverse  series  of  two  or  three  teeth  across  its  base  ;  the  teeth  of 
the  body  of  the  vomer  form  a  single  series  and  are  peisistent 
throughout  life.  Upper  jiarts  brownish  or  greenish  olive  ;  sides 
of  the  head  with  round  black  spots  ;  sides  of  the  body  with 
X-shaped,  sometimes  rounded,  brown  spots.  Dorsal  and  adijiose 
fins  with  numerous  small  brown  spots.  A  non-migratory  species, 
inhabiting  Loch  Leven  and  other  lakes  of  southern  Scotland  anil 
Bortherp  England.  This  sjiecies  is  considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a 
"ariety  of  -S*.  trvtta. 

(6)  S.  brachvpoma,  Giinther  ;  S.  cripx,  Parnell  (Fish.  Firth  of 
Forth).  D.  13;  A.  10-11;  P.  14  ;  .V.  9  TL.  lat.  118-128 ;  L.  trans- 
verse l^  ;  Ciec.  pyl.  45-47  .  Vert  59.  Pr.'eoiieiculum  with  scarcely 
a  trace  of  lower  limb.  Teeth  rather  strong  ;  those  of  the  vomer 
in  double  series,  but  in  zigzag  line.  Most  of  them  are  lost  in 
specimens  17  inches  long,  only  a  few  of  the  anterior  remaiiiing. 
Sides  of  the  body  with  X-shaped  or  ocellated  black  spots,  some  red 
spots  along  and  below  the  lateral  line  ;  dorsal  fin  with  round  black 
spots.  Dorsal,  anal,  and  ventral  fins  with  a  white  and  black  outer 
margin  in  young  examples.  A  migratory  species,  from  tlic  rivers 
Forth,  Tweed,  and  Ouse.  According  to  Mr  Day,  it  is  idcutit^al  with 
the  ■\Vhite  Salmon  of  Pennant  and  Salmo  albiis  of  Cnv.  and  Val., 


SALMONID^ 


223 


all  of  them  being  considered  by  Day  as  a  variety,  S.  albus,  of  Salmo 
truUa. 

(7)  S,  ^allivensis,  Gunther.  An  anadromoiis  species  from  Galway, 
distinguished  by  the  acutely  pointed  but  not  elongate  snout,  broad 
convex  head,  small  eye,  feeble  teeth,  feeble  mamillary  and  mandible, 
and  by  extremely  thin  and  short  pyloric  appendages,  which  are  not 
longer  than  one  inch  nor  thicker  than  a  pigeon's  quill.  According 
to  Day  a  variety  of  S.  fario. 

(8)  S.fcrox,  jard.  and  Selhy  (Edinb.  New  Philos.  Journal,  1835, 
rriii.).  A  non-migratory  species  inhabiting  the  large  lochs  of  the 
north  of  Scotland  and  several  lakes  of  the  north  of  England, 
Wales,  and  Ireland.  Praeoperculum  crescent-shaped,  the  hinder 
and  lower  margins  passing  into  each  other  without  forming  an 
angle.     According  to  Day  a  variety  of  S.  fario. 

(9)  S.  orcadensis,  Giinther,  from  Loch  Stennis  in  Orkney. 

(10)  S.  stomacMcus,  Gunther  (the  Gillaroo).  From  lakes  of 
Ireland.     Thick  stomach.     Feeds  on  shells  {Limnxus,  Anciflus). 

(11)  S.  nigripinnis,  Gunther.  Non-migratory  species  inhabiting 
mountain  pools  of  Wales,  also  Lough  Melvin,  Ireland. 

Day  mentions  also  the  following  varieties  of  S.  fario : — • 

S.  cornubiensis,  Walb. ,  Artedi ; 

Swaledale  trout,  from  Swaledale,  Yorkshire  ;  and 

Crassapuill  trout,  from  Loch  Crassapuill,  Sutherlandshire. 

Many  species  of  Salmo  exist  which  are  confined  to  limited  areas 
in  the  continent  of  Europe.  An  account  of  these  is  given  in  the 
Brii.  ifus.  Catalogue,  which  also  contains  references  to  the  litera- 
ture. One  of  these,  S.  macrostigma,  Dumeril,  is  a  non-migratory 
form  occurring  in  Algeria,  and  is  the  southernmost  species  of  the 
Old  World.  Three  non-migratory  species  exist  in  the  rivers 
belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Adriatic.  In  the  Alpine  lakes  of 
central  Europe  five  species  ai-e  known,  which  resemble  in  habits 
the  forms  found  in  British  lakes,  ascending  the  streams  which 
feed  the  lakes,  in  order  to  spawn.  Two  of  these  species  inliabit 
the  Lake  of  Constance,  one  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  Fario  argentcus, 
Ciiv.  and  Val.,  found  in  the  Atlantic  rivf^s  of  France,  is  con- 
sidered by  Dr  Giinther  a  distinct  species,  by  ilr  Day  as  a  synonym 
of  S.  iruita.  One  migratory  species  is  known  from  the  Eidfjord 
river  in  Norway  ;  two  land-locked  species  from  Lake  Wener  in 
Sweden. 

The  species  of  Salmo  belonging  to  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North 
America  have  been  described  by  Richards  in  Faun.  Bor.  Amcr., 
by  Suckley  m  Nat.  Hist.  JVashingion  Territory,  and  by  Girard  in 
Byoc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Philad.  Only  one  species  need  be  nientioned 
here,  and  that  on  account  of  the  importance  it  has  acquired  in 
•onnexion  with  the  work  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  : — 

Salmo  irideus.  Gibbons  {Prcc.  Cal.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc,  1855,  p.  36); 
Salar  iridea,  Girard  (Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Philad.,  1856,  p.  220 
and  U.  S.  Pac.  R.  R.  Explor.—Fish,  p.  321,  pi.  "3,  f.  5,  andjil.  74) 
(the  Californian,  Mountain,  or  Rainbow  Trout).  B.  10  ;  D.  14  ; 
\.  14  ;  L.  lat  140.  Caudal  deeply  emarginate.  Body  and  dorsal 
vnd  caudal  fins  with  numerous  small  black  spots.  A  non-migratory 
•pocies  in  rivers  of  Upper  California. 

For  the  same  reason  as  in  the  preceding  case,  the  following 
cpecies  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  North  American  continent  is 
introduced : — 

Salmo  namaycush,  Penn  (Arct.  Zool.,  ii.  p.  139),  Cuv.  and  Tal. 
;ixi.  p.  348)  (Lake  Trout).  B.  11-12  ;  D.  13-14  ;  A.  12  ;  V.  9  ;  L. 
iat.  220.  PriEopercnlum  very  .short,  \vithout  lower  limb  ;  head 
eery  large.  Teeth  strong  ;  those  on  the  vomer  persistent  through- 
lut  life,  and  in  single  series.  Inhabits  all  the  great  lakes  of  the 
Qorthern  part  of  North  America. 

B.   Subgenus  Salvelixus  : — 

Salmo  alpinus,  L.  (the  Charr,  Yarrell,  Brit.  Fishes,  3d  ed.). 
D.  13;  A.  12;  P.  13;  V.  10;  L.  lat.  195-200;  Vert.  59-62; 
Cac.  pyL  36-42.  Body  slightly  compressed  and  elongate.  Length 
of  head  equal  to  height  of  body  in  mature  specimens  and  two- 
ninths  or  one-fifth  of  total  length  ;  maxillary  extends  but  little 
beyond  the  orbit  in  the  fully  adult  fish.  Eye  one-half,  or  less 
than  one-half,  of  the  width  of  the  interorbital  space.  Teeth  of 
moderate  size.  Inhabits  lakes  of  Scandinavia,  Scotland  (Helier 
Lake,  Hoy  Island,  Orkneys ;  Sutherlandshire  ;  Loch  Roy,  Inver- 
ness-shirc),  and  probably  Iceland. 

S.  kitlinensis,  Giinther  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1865,  p.  699).  D.  14- 
16  ;  A.  13  ;  P.  13  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  Iat.  180  ;  Vert.  62  ;  dec.  pyL  44- 
52.  Head,  upper  parts,  and  fins  brownish  black  ;  lower  parts 
^vitb  an  orange-coloured  tinge  in  the  male ;  sides  with  very 
small,  light,  inconspicuous  spots.  Anterior  margins  of  the  lower 
fins  white  or  light-orangecoloured.  Loch  Killin,  Invcmesa-shire. 
Considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpinus. 

S.  millughbii,  Gunther  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1862,  p.  46,  pi.  6); 
Charr,  Willughby  (Hist.  Pise.,  p.  196),  Penn  (Brit.  Zool.),  and 
Yarrell  (Brit.  Fish.,  3d  ed.)  (the  Charr  of  Windermere).  D.  12- 
13  ;  A.  12  ;  P.  13-14  ;  V.  9-10  ;  L.  lat  165  ;  Vert;.  59-62  ;  Cxc. 
pyl.  32-44.  Sides  with  red  dots  ;  belly  red  ;  pectoral,  ventral, 
and  anal  'with  white  margins.  Lake  of  Windermere  ;  Loch  Bruiach 
(Scotland).     Considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpinus. 

S.  ptriaii,  Giinther  (Ann.  and  Hag.  Nat.  Hist.,  1885,  J).   75); 


Torgoch,  Willughby  (Hist.  Pise.)  and  Penn  (Brit.  Zool.)  (the 
Torgoch  or  Red  Charr).  D.  13  :  A.  12  ;  P.  12  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat.  170  ; 
Vert.  61  ;  Csec.  pyl.  36.  Sides  with  numerous  red  dots  ;  belly  red 
in  the  mature  fish ;  pectoral,  ventral,  and  anal  with  white 
margins.  Lakes  of  North  Wales  (Llanberris).  Considered  by  Mr 
Day  as  a  variety  of  ,S^.  alpimts. 

S.  grayi,  Gunther  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1862,  p.  51).  D.  13  ;  A.  12  ; 
P.  13-14  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat.  125  ;  Vert.  60  ;  Cac.  pyl.  87.  Sides 
with  scattered  light-orange-coloured  dot»;  belly  uniform  silvery 
whitish,  or  with  a  light-red  shade  ;  fins  blackisji.  Lough  llelvin, 
Ireland.     Considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpinus. 

S.  coin,  Giinther  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1863)  (Cole's  Charr,  Couch, 
Fish.  Brit.  Isles).  D.  14;  A.  12  ;  P.  13  ;  V.  9;  L.  lat.  160; 
Vert.  63  ;  Csc.  pyl.  42.  Bluish  black  .-ibove  ;  sides  silvery  with 
scattered  light-salmon-coloured  dots  ;  belly  reddish  ;  fins  black, 
the  anal  and  the  paired  fins  with  a  reddish  tinge,  the  anal  and 
ventrals  with  a  narrow  whitish  margin.  A  small  species  7  to  8 
inches  long  from  Loughs  Eske  and  Dan,  Ireland.  Considered  bv 
Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpinus. 

The  above  are  all  the  British  species. 

S.  miibla,  L.  (Syst.  Nat.),  Cuv.  and  Val.  D.  12  ;  A.  12-13  ;  P. 
14  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat.  200  ;  Vert.  65  ;  Ca;c.  pyl.  36.  Commonly  caUeJ 
in  French  Ombre  Chevalier.  Lower  parts  whitish  or  but  slighiiy 
tinged  with  red.  Lakes  of  Constance,  Neuchatol,  and  Geneva. 
Considered  by  Jtr  Day  as  identical  with  S.  alpinus.  Other  species 
have  been  described  from  lakes  in  Europe  and  Asia,  but  ate  imper- 
fectly known  ;  for  an  account  of  them  see  Gitnther's  Catalogue. 

The  following  American  species  of  Charr  is  one  of  those  cultivated 
by  the  American  Fish  Commission  : — 

S.  (Salvcliitus)  fontiiialis,  Mitch.  (Trans.  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc, 
New  York,  i  p.  435),  Cuf.  and  Val.  (xxi.  p.  266)  (Brook  Trout). 
B.  12;  D.  12;  A.  10;  L.  lat,  200;  Ca:c.  pyl.  34.  No  median  series 
of  teeth  along  the  liyoid  boue.  Praoperculum  short  in  longitudinal 
direction,  with  the  louer  limb  very  indistinct.  Rivers  and  lakes  of 
British  North  America,  and  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  United 
States.     Introduced  m  Britain. 

2.  Of  the  genus  OsmeruB  ouly  three  species  are  described  in  the 
Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ,  one  of  which  is  British  : — 

Osmcrus  epcrlanus,  Lacep.,  Linn,  (the  Smelt;  Fr. ,  ^pcrlan , 
Scotch,  Sparling  or  Spirlina).  B.  8  ;  D.  11  ;  A.  13-16  ;  P.  11  ;  V. 
8  ;  L.  lat.  60-6i  ;  L.  transverse  fV  ;  Ckc.  pyl.  2-6  ;  Vert.  60-62. 
Height  of  body  much  less  than  length  of  the  head,  which  is  a  quartet 
or  two-ninths  of  the  total  length  to  base  of  caudal  fin.  Snout  pro- 
duced. Vomerine  teeth  and  anterior  lingual  teeth  large,  fang-like  , 
posterior  mandibular  teeth  larger  than  the  anterior  ones,  which  form 
a  double  series,  the  inner  series  containing  stronger  testh  than  tht 
outer  one.  Back  transparent,  gi-eenish  ;  sides  silvery.  Adult  sizt 
10  or  12  inches.  Coasts  and  numerous  fresh  waters  of  northern  and 
central  Europe. 

OsTiurus  viridcscens,  Lesueur,  another  species  scarcely  distinct 
from  0.  eperlanus,  but  with  scales  a  little  smaller,  occumng  on  tho 
Atlantic  side  of  the  United  States. 

Osmerus  ilialeichthys,  Ayres,  occurs  abundantly  in  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco. 

3.  Of  Coregonns  forty-one  species  are  described  in  tho  Brit, 
ifus.  Cat.     Four  species  are  found  in  Britain  : — 

C.  o^yr^i/7ic7i!M,  Kroyer,  Linn.,  Cuv.  and  Val.  (x.xi.).  Called  the 
Houting  in  Holland.  B.  9  ;  D.  14  ;  A.  14-15  ;  L.  lat.  75-81  ;  L 
transverse  ^^i-^  ;  Vert.  58.  Snout  produced,  with  the  upper  jaw 
protruding  beyond  the  lower,  and  in  adult  specimens  produced 
into  a  fleshy  cone.  Length  of  the  lower  limb  of  operculum  Ij  to 
\\  times  that  of  the  upper.  Pectoral  as  long  as  th.e  head  withour 
snout.  Found  on  coasts  and  in  estuaries  of  Holland,  German j, 
Denmark,  and  Sweden.  Captured  recently  (three  specimens 
only)  in  Lincolnshire,  near  Chichester,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Medway. 

C.  clupcoides,  Lacepede  ;  C.  pmnantii,  Cuv.  and  Val.  (the  Gwy- 
niad  of  Lake  Bala,  Schelly  of  Ullswater,  Powan  of  Loch  Iximond; 
sometimes  called  the  Freshwater  Herring).  B.  9  ;  D.  14-15 ;  A.  13- 
16;  L.  lat.  73-90;  L.  transverse  tr ;  Cxc.  pyl.  120;  Vert  38/20. 
Snout  with  upper  jaw  not  produced.  Pectoral  larger  than  the  bead. 
Fins  black  or  nearly  so.     Lakes  of  Great  Britain. 

C  vandcsitis,  Richards  (Faun.  Bor.  Amer.);  C.  albula,  Cuv.  and 
Val.  (the  Vendace).  D.  11 ;  A.  13  ;  V.  11  ;  L.  lat  68-71;  L. 
transverse  iV ;  Vert.  56.  Castle  Loch,  Lochmaben  in  Dumfries. 
shire. 

C.pollan,  Thompson  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  1835),  Cuv.  and  VaL  (the 
Pollan).  D.  13-14  ;  A.  12-13  ;  V.  12  ;  L.  lat  80-86 ;  L.  transverse 
T»i ;  Vert.  60-61.  Two  jaws  of  same  length.  Teeth  if  present 
very  minute.  Bluish  along  the  back,  silvery  along  tho  sides  and 
beneath.  Usual  length  of  adults  10  to  11  inches,  maximum  13 
inches.  Ireland,  in  "Loughs  Ncagh,  Erne,  Derg,  Corrib,  and  the 
Shannon. 

Thirty-seven  species  of  Corcgonus  have  .  been  distinguished 
besides  these  four.  Some  are  migratory  ;  hut  the  greater  number 
are  inhabitants  of  large  lakes.  The  anadromous  species  arc  confined 
to  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  the  greater  number  belong  to  tho  coast  and 


224 


SALMONID^ 


rivers  of  Siberia.     Several  distinct  species  occur   in  the  lakes  of 
Siveden  )  a  few  are  found  in  the  lalics  of  Switzerland  and  centra    | 
Europe.     C.  hicmalis  is  peculiar  to  the  Lake  of  Constance.     Several  , 
species  inhabit  the  great  freshwater  lakes  connected  with  the  nv-er 
St  Lawi-ence  of  North.America,  »d  the  lakes  farther  to  the  north. 
One  of  these  is  cultivated  by  tlie  American  Fish  Commission  :— 

Cormnus  dupei/ormis,  Jlitchell,  Di^kay  (Xcto  York  Fauna, 
F-M),  Guv.  and  Val.,  Agassiz  {Lake  Superior)  (the  Shad 
Salmon,  Freshwater  Herring,  Whitefish).  D.  12  ;  A.  14  ;  L.  lat. 
"6-77  ;  L.  transverse  /j.  Tlie  snout  is  pointed,  and  there  is  an 
appendat-e  to  the  ventral  fin  which  is  half  as  long  as  the  fin  itself. 
Length  of  adult  U  to  13  inches.     Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

4.  Only  one  species  of  ThymaUuB  occurs  in  the  British  Islands  :— 
Thymallus  luhjaris,  Nilsson  ;  Tlujmallus  vcxilli/er,  Cut.  and 
Val.  (the  Grayling :  French,  L'Ombre  ;  Italian,  Tejnclo).  B. 
7-8  ■  D  20-23  ;  a!  13-16  ;  P.  16  ;  V.  10-11  ;  L.  lat.  75-85  ;  L. 
transverse  -1^  ;  C-ec.  pyl.  22;  Vert.  39/22.  Length  of  head  two- 
ninths  or  Vne-°fifth  of  total  length  to  base  of  caudal  ;  posterior 
dorsal  rays  somewhat  produced  in  adult.  Grows  to  15  inches  in 
length.  A  freshwater  fish,  common  in  many  of  the  rivers  of 
England  introduced  into  some  of  those  of  southern  Scotland ; 
absent  from  Ireland.  It  is  widely  distributed  in  central  and 
northern  Europe,  occurring  in  Lapland,  Sweden,  Lake  of  Constance, 
llie  Isar  and  the  Danube.     Adult  size  about  15  inches. 

Thymallus  xliani,  Cuv.  and  Val.  {SitiaWos,  ^1.,  xiv.  22),  occurs 
in  Lat'o  Maggiore.  One  species  has  been  described  from  Siberia, 
and  two  are  known  inhabiting  Lake  Jlichigan  and  the  waters  of 
British  North  America.  ,      o  ■     ir      /-<  i 

6.  Of  Argentina  four  species  are  described  in  the  Brit.  Mus.  Val., 
\:imt\y  :— Argentina  situs,  Nilsson,  occurring  off  the  north-west 
coast  of  Norway,  Argentina  sphyrxna,  L.,  from  the  Mediterranean, 
Argentina,  hebridica,  Nilsson,  found  on  the  co.asts  of  Norway  and 
Scotland,  and  Argentina  lioglossa,  Cuv.  and  Val.     According  to  Mr 
Diy,  two  of  these,  A.  sphyrmna  and  A.  hebrUiea  are  identical,  the 
species  ranging  " 
of  Scotland  to 
A.  hebridica, 'Silsso 
P.  13-U;  V. 
scales  with  minute  spines. 

6  The  species  of  Oncorhynchus  are  all  anadromous,  and  are  con- 
fined to  American  and  Asiatic  rivers  Sowing  into  the  Pacific. 
O  quimiat,  Richardson  =  0.  chouiehn,  occurs  in  the  river  Sacra- 
mento, and  is  cultivated  by  the  American  Fish  Commission. 
7,  8.  For  Brachymystax  and  Luoiotnitta,  see  p.  221  above.  _ 
s!  PlecoglosBus  comprises  small  aberrant  freshwater  species 
abundant  in  Japan  and  the  island  of  Formosa.  _ 

10  Retropinna  contains  but  one  species,  R.  richardsonn,  which 
is  known  as  the  New  Zealand  Smelt.  It  is  common  on  the  coasts 
of  New  Zealand,  ascending  estuaries.  Like  Osmerus  eperlanus,  it 
is  landlocked  in  fresh  water  in  some  localities. 

11  12  The  species  of  Hypomesiis  and  Thalelohthys  occur  on  the 
Pacific  coast  ot  North  America.  Thaleiclithys  pacificus,  Girard,  is 
caught  in  vast  numbers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vancouver  Island; 
it  is  extremely  fat,  and  is  used  as  a  torch  when  dried,  and  also  as 
food.     It  is  called  locally  the  Eulachan  or  Oulachan. 

13.  Of  Mallotus  only  one  species  is  described  by  Gunther  :— 
MaUolus  riltosus,  Cuv.  and  Val,   Mull,  (the  Capelin  ;   French, 

Capelan).     B.  8-10  ;  D.  13-14  ;  A.  21-23  ;  P.  18-20  ;,  V.  8  ;  Cffic. 
pyl.   6;  Vert.  68.       Brownish  on  the  back,  silveryon  thejsules. 
Operculum  silvery  with  minute  brown  dots. 
America  and  of  Kamchatka. 

14.  Of  the  genus  Salanx  two  species  are  Known  :—6«iana: 
chitunsis,  Gunther,  Osbeck,  which  is  common  on  th«  coast  of  C'»'"a 
and  called  "  Whi,tebait"  at  Macao,  and  Salanx  microdon,  Bleeker, 
from  the  rivers  of  Jeddo. 

15.  Microstoma.— J/.  Totimaatum,  itisso,  is  manne  and  occurs 
in  the  Jlediterranean  ;    it  is   not  anadromous.      It  is   the   only  ) 
species  of  the  genus  known,  unless  the  Microstonuts  grbnlandicus,   ■ 
described  by  Keinhardt,  from  the  Sea  of  Greenland,  really  belongs 
to  this  genus.  I 

16.  For  Bathylagus,  see  p.  222  above. 

Li/c  History  of  the  Salmon  and  Allied  Species. 
Up  to  a  period  not  many  years  past,  when  our  knowledge  of  the 
breeding  and  life  history  of  the  .sain  on  and  kindred  species  was 
based  entirely  on  desultory  observatioas  of  the  fish  m  their  natural 
conditions,  there  existed  a  great  deal  of  uncertainty  and  diversity 
of  opinion  on  the  subject.  Within  the  last  twenty  or  thirty 
years  the  extensive  practice  of  salmon-culture  has  removed  nearJy 
all  obscurity  from  the  phenomena,  and  the  history  of  Salmonoids 
is  now  more  accurately  known  than  that  of  most  other  hshes.     ^ 

The  salmon  proper,  Sahno  salar,  breeds  in  the  shallow  running 
waters  of  the  upper  streams  of  tlie  rivers  it  ascends.  The  lemale 
•i-.en  about  to  deposit  her  eggs,  scoops  out  a  trough  m  the  gravel 
of  the  bed  of  the  stream.  This  she  eflects  by  lying  on  ner  side  and 
ploughing  into  the  gravel  by  energetic  motions  of  her  body.    'She 


then  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  trough  ;  while  she  is  engaged  in  these 
operations  she  is  attended  by  a  male,  who  sheds  milt  over  the  eggs 
as  the  female  extrudes  them,  fertilization  being,  as  in  the  great 
majority  of  Tcleostei,  external.  The  parent  fish  then  fill  up  tlie 
troufh  and  hSap  up  the  gravel  over  the  eggs  until  these  are  covered 
to  a'Septh  of  some  feet.  I'he  gravel  hean  thus  formed  is  called  a 
"redd.  The  period  of  the  year  at  which  spawning  takes  place  in 
the  British  Isles,  and  in  similar  latitudes  of  the  northern  liemi- 
sphere,  varies  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  locality,  and  in  a  given 
locality  may  vary  in  difl'erent  years  ;  but,  with  rare  exceptions, 
spawning  is  confined  to  the  period  between  the  beginning  o' 
September  and  the  middle  of  January. 

The  eggs  of  Salmo  salar  are  spherical  and  non-adhesive  ;  they 
are  heavier  than  water,  and  are  moderately  tough  and  elastic.  The 
size  varies  slightly  with  the  age  of  the  parent  fish,  those  from  full- 
sized  females  being  slightly  larger  than  those  from  very  young  fish. 
According  to  rough  calculations  made  at  salmon-breedmg  establish- 
ments, there  are  25,000  eggs  to  a  gallon  ;  the  diameter  is  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch.  -It  is  usually  estimated  that  a  female  salmon 
produces  about  900  eggs  for  each  pound  of  her  own  weight  j  but 
this  average  is  often  exceeded. 

The  rinie  between  fertilization  and  hatching,  or  the  escape  of 
the  young  fish  from  the  egg-membrane,  varies  considerably  with 
the  temperature  to  which  the  eggs  are  exposed.  It  h.is  been  found 
that  at  a  constant  temperature  of  41°  F.  the  period  is  97  days; 
but  the  period  may  be  as  short  as  70  days  and  as  long  as  150  days 
without  injurj'  to  the  health  of  the  embryo.  It  follows  therefore 
that  in  the  natural  conditions  egjs  deposited  in  the  autumn  are 
hatched  in  the  eariy  spring.  The  newly  hatched  fish,  or  "  alevin, 
is  provided  with  a  very  large  yolk-sac,  and  by  the  absorption  of 
the  yolk  contained  in  this  the  young  creature  is  nourished  for 
some  time  ;  although  its  mouth  is  fu'ly  formed  and  open,  it  takes 
no  food  The  alevin  stage  lasts  for  about  six  weeks,  and  at  the 
end  of  it  the  young  fish  is  about  IJ  inches  long.^  During  the  next 
period  of  its  life  the  young  salmon  is  called  a  "parr. 


and  is  dis- 


Shores  of  Arctic  North  I  ledge  of  the 


The  great  majority  of  parr  remain  in  fresh  water  for  two  years 
after  hatching,  at  the  end  of  which  time  they  are  about  8  inches 
in  length.  The  second  spring  after  they  are  hatched  they  develop 
a  coating  of  bright  silvery  scales  which  completely  conceals  the 
parr  marks,  and  they  pass  into  a  stage  in  which  they  are  known 
as  "smolts."  The  smolt  is  similar  to  the  adult  salmon  in  all 
respects  except  size,  and  the  young  salmon,  as  soon  as  the  smolt 
sta"e  is  reached,  migrates  down  the  rivers  to  the  sea. 

The  above  tacts  have  been  established  within  recent  years  by 
accurate  observation  and  experiment.  Not  very  long  ago  it  was  a 
disputed  question  whether  the  parr  was  the  young  salmon  or  a 
distinct  species  of  fish.  That  the  former  view  was  correct  was  first 
experimentally  proved  by  Mr  John  Shaw,  gamekeeper  to  the  duke 
of  Buccleuch,  Drumlanrig,  Dumfriesshire,  who  m  1833  isolated 
several  parrs  in  a  pond,  and  found  that  in  April  1S34  they  changed 
into  smolts  ;  an  account  of  this  experiment  was  published  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  ot  Edinburgh.  The  question  is 
now  of  merely  historical  interest,  for  at  the  present  time  large  num- 
bers of  parr  are  hatched  at  various  fish-hatching  estab  ishmenU 
every  season.  By  observation  at  these  establishments,  the  know- 
ledge of  the  history  of  the  parr  and  the  migration  of  the  smolt 
which  had  been  g.ained  by  the  study  of  the  fish  in  their  natural 
conditions  has  been  rendered  more  accurate  and  complete.  It  has 
been  conclusively  ascertained  that  some  parr  become  snlolts  and 
migrate  to  the  sea  in  the  spring  following  that  m  which  they  were 
hatched,  while  the  great  majority  remain  in  the  parr  stage  until 
tlie  second  spring,  and  a  few  do  not  attain  to  the  smolt  condition 
intil  the  third  year.  The  male-parr  when  only  7  or  8  inches  in 
length  is  often  sexually  mature,  the  milt  being  capable  ot  fertilizing 
the  ova  of  an  adult  female  salmon.  ,,.,,- 

The  migiation  of  smolts  to  the  sea  takes  place  in  all  rivers  at 
about  the  same  time  ot  the  year,  viz.,  between  March  and  June. 
Sometimes  the  smolts  are  observed  descending  in  large  shoals. 
Formerly  angling  for  the  descending  smolts  was  a  recognized  sport, 
but  their  capture  is  now  illegal.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  most 
competent  authorities  that  the  smolts  increase  with  wonderful 
ranidity  in  size  and  weight  when  they  reach  the  sea,  and  then 
return  to  the  rivers  after  a  few  months,  during  the  same  year,  as 
"grilse,"  which  name  is  given  to  sexually  mature  salmon  up  to  a 
little  over  5  lb  in  weight.  It  is  surprising  that  a  smolt  weighing 
only  a  few  ounces  should  increase  to  3  or  4  or  even  6  ft  m  about 
three  months.  Nevertheless  it  has  been  proved  by  actual  experi- 
ment that  this  is  the  fact.  At  Stormontheld,  in  JI^  1855  1300 
smolts  were  marked  by  cutting  olf  the  adipose  fin,  and  22  of  these 
■  The  first  important  series  of  experiments  on  the  growth  and  life  history  of 
the  saimon  was  made  at  the  salmon-hatchery  of  Stormon^flejd  "f?,';  Pjrtl.JnJS62 


and  some  previous  /ears, 
field  Espti-imenlB,  1862. 


Tbe  results  are  detailed  in  a  work  entitled  Slormont- 


SALMONID^ 


225 


wevo  recaptured  tha  sonio  summer  as  grilse,  weighing  from  3  lb 
upwards.  It  miglit  bo  supposed  that  some  smolts  do  not  return 
as  grilse  till  the  summer  following  the  year  of  their  descent,  the 
time  of  their  stay  in  the  sea  being  variable,  as  is  the  period  spent 
by  parr  in  the  rivers.  But  all  the  evidence  is  against  this  supposi- 
tion ;  grilse  never  commence  ascending  till  late  in  summer ;  if  they 
had  been  more  than  a  year  in  the  sea,  some  would  probably  ascend 
early  in  the  season,  as  do  the  larger  salmon.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  iish  whicli  remained  in  the  sea  a  year 
after  descending  as  a  smolt  might  not  bo  recognized  as  a  grilse, 
having  reached  the  size  of  a  small  salmon. 

The  grilse,  after  spawning  in  autumn,  return  again  to  the  sea  in 
tliQ  winter  or  following  spring,  and  rejsceiid  the  rivers  as  mature 
spawning  salmon  in  the  following  year.  Both  salmon  and  grilse 
after  spawning  are  called  "kelts,"  The  following  recorded  experi- 
ment illustrates  the  growth  of  grilse  into  salmon  : — a  grilse-kelt  of 
2  lb  was  marked  on  March  31,  1858,  and  recaptured  on  August  2  of 
the  same  year  as  a  salmon  of  3  lb. 

The  ascent  of  rivers  by  adult  salmon  is  not  so  regular  as  that 
of  grilse,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  not  at  the  present 
time  complete.  Although  salmon  scarcely  ever  spawn  before  the 
month  of  September,  they  do  not  ascend  in  shoals  just  before  that 
season  ;  the  time  of  ascent  extends  throughout  the  spring  and 
summer.  A  salmon  newly  arrived  in  fresh  water  from  the  sea  is 
called  a  clean  salmon,  on  account  of  its  bright,  well-fed  appearance  ; 
during  their  stav  in  the  rivers  the  fish  lose  the  brilliancy  of  their 
scales  and  deteriorate  in  condition.  The  time  of  year  at  which 
CiT^n  salmon  ascend  from  the  sea  varies  greatly  in  dilTcrent  rivers  ; 
and  rivers  are,  in  relation  to  this  subject,  usually  denominated 
early  or  late.  The  Scottish  rivers  ilowing  into  the  German  Ocea^i 
and  Peutland  Firth  are  almost  all  early,  while  those  of  the  Atlantic 
slope  are  late.  The  Thurso  in  Caithness  and  the  Naver  in  Sutlicr- 
landshire  contain  fresh-iiin  salmon  in  December  and  January  ;  the 
same  is  the  case  with  the  Tay.  In  Yorkshire  salmon  commence 
their  ascent  in  July,  August,  or  September  if  the  season  is  wet, 
but  if  it  is  dry  their  migration  is  delayed  till  the  autumn  rains  set 
in.  In  all  rivers  more  salmon  ascend  immediately  after  a  spate  or 
flood  than  when  the  river  is  low,  and  more  with  the  flood  tide  than 
during  the  ebb. 

In  tlieir  ascent  salmon  are  able  to  pass  obstructions,  such  as  water- 
falls and  v.-cir3  of  considerable  height,  and  the  leaps  they  make  in 
surmounting  such  impediments  and  the  persistence  of  their  eflbrts 
are  very  remarkable.  In  a  great  many  rivers  anadromous  Salmon- 
oids  have  been  excluded  from  the  upper  reaches  by  artificial 
obstructions,  such  as  dams  and  weirs,  constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  utilizing  the  water  of  the  stream,  or  to  obtain  water  power, 
Oi  simply  to  facilitate  the  capture  of  the  fish.  Other  rivers  have 
been  rendered  xminhabitable  to  salmon  by  pollutions.  The  state 
of  the  Thames  within  the  boundaries  of  London  has  since  the 
beginning  cf  the  present  century  excluded  Salmonoids  entirely 
from  the  river;  but  every  season  salmon  and  grilse  are  taken  in  or 
near  be  Thames  estuary,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  water 
oould  again  be  rendered  moderately  clear,  and  if  fish-ways  were 
providccl  at  the  impassable  weirs,  the  upper  waters  of  the  Thames 
would  again  bo  frcciuented  by  salmon  and  migratory  trout. 

The  life  history  of  Salmo  truUa  and  S.  cambricus  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  Salmo  salar.  The  river  trout,  S.  fario,  makes  a  redd 
in  the  shallower  i>art3  of  streams  in  the  same  maunor  as  the  salmon, 
the  only  dilference  being  that  the  mound  of  gravel  forming  the  redd 
is  smaller,  the  egg  lymg  from  one  to  two  feet  below  the  surface. 
The  breeding  period  of  the  trout  varies  in  different  rivers,  within 
the  limits  of  September  and  Jlarch.^  The  number  of  eggs  pro- 
duced by  each  female  is  about  SOO  for  every  pound  of  the  parent's 
weight ;  about  40,000  of  the  eggs  make  a  gatlon,  so  that  tlicy  are 
considerably  smaller  than  those  of  S.  salar.  The  trout  of  Loch 
Lcvcn,  A'.  Uvau:nsi3,  ascend  the  streams  feeding  the  loch,  in  order 
to  spawn,  at  the  end  of  September  and  beginning  of  October.^  The 
habits  of  other  species  of  lake  trout  are  similar  to  those  of  S. 
Icvcncnsis. 

The  charrs  diflcr  from  lake  trout  in  the  fact  that  they  do  not 
ascend  stream?  in  order  to  spawn,  but  form  their  redds  in  the 
gravelly  shallows  of  the  lakes  they  inhabit.  Tito  spawning  period 
of  the  cliarr  of  the  Cumberland  lake  district  is  from  the  beginning 
of  November  to  the  beginning  of  December.  The  eggs  of  the 
cliarr  have  been  found  to  hatch  in  from  60  to  90  days,  the  gi-cat 
majority  in  70  days,  at  an  average  temperature  of  40"  F.  The 
American  species,  S,  fontiwilis,  breeds  at  about  the  same  tinje  as 
S.  fario;  its  eggs  are  only  half  the  size  of  those  of  the  latter. 

rho  smelt,  0.  cpcrlaniis,  is  a  gregarious  fish  and  exhibits 
regular  migrations  in  most  estuaries.  It  is  common  in  the  Solway, 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  the  rivers  of  Norfolk,  and  the  estuary  of 
the  Tliames.  In  most  places  where  it  is  found  it  remains  in  the 
fresh  and  brackish  water  from  August  until  May,  spawning  about 
the  month  of  April,  and  afterwards  descending  to  the  sea  for  tho 

I  Tlio  a*-craKo  period  between  runlllzodon  and  hirtcliinc,  Ai  ascciUinc-d  nt 
BCMlolomi.  la  nt  H'\—Salmo  /uric,  71  ila)« ;  S.  UtencmU,  72  ;  8.  tonlinalU, 
7»J  B.  tatar,  77.  .       .       /  . 


summer.  At  Alloa  on  the  Forth  smelts  arc  taken  in  large  numbers 
by  seino  nets  in  spring,  before  and  during  the  spawning  period. 
Tliere  is  a  regular  fisliery  for  them  at  the  same  season  on  tho  Solway 
Firth  and  in  Norfolk.  The  food  of  the  smelt  consists  chiefly  of 
young  fish,  especially  young  herrings,  and  crustaceans.  The  eggs 
are  small,  yellowish  in  colour,  and  adhesive,  not  adhering  by  the 
surface  merely  as  is  tlie  case  with  those  of  the  herring,  but  each 
egg  possessing  a  short  thread  the  end  of  which  becomes  attached 
to  planks,  stones,  or  other  solid  objects  in  the  water.  According 
to  Mr  Day  tho  eggs  are  deposited  near  the  high-water  mark  of 
spring-tides,  so  that  they  must  be  exposed  to  the  air  during  the 
ebb.  The  smelt  when  in  tho  sea  is  largely  eaten  by  the  picked 
dog-fish  (Acanthias  vulgaris).  The  species  is  absent  from  the 
southern  coast  of  England  and  from  Ireland,  the  smelt  ;-ecorded  as 
occurring  on  those  coasts  being  probably  tho  atherine  {Alhcriiia), 
often  called  the  sand-smelt.  0.  epcrlaniis  is  abundant  on  tho 
coast  of  Finland,  and  also  is  common  there  in  freshwater  lakes, 
in  which  it  remains  all  the  year  round.  It  is  also  common  on  tlie 
Atlantic  coast  of  France.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  smelt 
in  Britain  aud  on  other  coasts,  when  not  confined  to  fresh  water, 
is,  in  its  migration,- intermediate  between  anadromous  Salmonidm, 
which  ascend  to  near  tho  sources  of  rivers,  and  such  fish  as  the 
herring,  which  approach  tho  shore  to  spawn  but  do  not  usually 
enter  rivers.  The  smelt  as  a  rule  ascends  estuaries  only  as  far  as 
the  region  of  brackish  water. 

The  various  species  of  Corcgonus  resemble  tho  charr  in  their 
habits,  spawning  in  tlie  autumn  in  the  shallows  of  the  lakes  they 
inhabit  ;  their  ova  are  small,  and,  as  mentioned  in  PiscicULTirnf: 
(j.n. ),  are  non-adhesive  and  of  almost  the  same  specific  gravity  as 
fresh  water,  so  that  they  are  semi-buoyant. 

The  grayling,  Thymallus  vulgaris,  is  in  Brit.ain  c  .-lusively 
fluviatilo  ;  in  Scandinavia  it  is  found  .also  in  lakes,  it  is  met 
with  chiefly  in  clear  streams  with  sandy  gravels  or  loamy  beds. 
It  was  introduced  not  many  years  ago  into  the  Tweed  by  tho 
marquis  of  Lothian,  and  thrives  there.  It  is  absent  from  the 
Thames,  but  is  common  in  most  of  tho  rivers  of  England  and  Wales 
— e.g.,  the  rivers  of  Yorkshire,  the  Severn,  and  tho  AVye.  It  is 
absent  from  Ireland.  It  feeds  on  insects  and  their  lan-a:, 
crustaceans,  and  small  molluscs.  It  breeds  in  April  and  May, 
depositing  its  ova  on  the  surface  of  the  gravel  in  the  shallows,  not 
in  a  redd.  The  ova  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  trout,  and  vary 
in  colour  from  white  to  deep  orange,  and  they  hatch  from  the  twclftli 
to  the  fourteenth  day  after  extrusion.  The  fry  grow  to  4  or  5 
inches  in  length  by  August,  and  by  the  following  autumn  to  9  oi^ 
10  inches, 

Salmon  FisJury  Legislation. 

In  England  and  Wales  tho  common  law  is  that  every  person  has 
an  equal  right  to  fish  for  salmon  in  the  sea  and  in  navigable  tidaJ 
rivers,  while  the  proprietors  of  the  soil  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
which  are  not  navigable  have  the  exclusive  right  of  fishing  in 
them,  Tho  erection  of  stake-nets,  or  other  fixed  engines  for  tho 
capture  of  salmon  in  estuaiies  or  on  the  sea-coast  is  necessarily 
incompatible  with  tlie  maintenance  of  the  public  right  of  fishing, 
and  has  therefore  from  very  early  times  been  regarded  as  illegiti- 
mate. There  has  consequently  been  a  constant  conflict  between 
legislation  and  private  interest  over  this  point.  By  Magna  Cliarta 
all  fishing  weirs  were  abolished  except  on  the  sea-coast,  but  the 
object  of  this  seems  to  have  been  rather  tho  protection  of  the 
freedom  of  navigation  tlian  tho  advantage  of  the  salmon  fisher. js 
or  the  maintenance  of  a  public  right.  In  later  times  fixed  engines 
were  repeatedly  declared  illegrd  and  their  erection  prohibited  by 
statute.  Finally  in  ISol  they  were  definitively  abolished  in  all  cases 
except  where  legal  right  to  maintain  them  could  be  conclusively 
proved.  The  Salmon  Fishery  Act  of  1861,  of  which  the  prohibition 
just  referred  to  was  one  of  the  clauses,  was  based  upon  tho  report 
of  a  royal  commission  appointed  in  1860  to  inquire  into  the 
condition  of  t!io  salmon  lislicrics,  and  it  forms  the  basis  of  tho 
regulations  at  present  in  force,  all  previous  legislation  being  by  it 
expressly  abolished  and  superseded.  It  prohibited  the  capture  of 
unclean  and  unscasonablo  salmon,  made  a  uniform  close  season 
for  England  and  Wales,  ordained  a  weekly  close  season  of  forty- 
two  hours,  provided  for  the  erection  of  fish-passes  and  regulated 
tho  uso  of  fishing  weirs  on  non-navigablo  rivers,  vested  tho 
central  authority  of  the  salmon  fislierics  in  tho  Home  Ofiice,  and 
provided  for  tho  appointment  of  inspectors.  In  1863  an  Act  was 
passed  prohibiting  tho  exportation  of  salmon  during  the  close 
time.  In  1S65,  as  it  was  found  useless  to  legislate  without 
hiachinery  to  enforce  tho  la^v,  an  Act  was  ]>assca  to  constitute 
fishery  districts  ruider  tho  control  of  local  boards  of  conservators 
appointed  by  the  magistrates  in  quarter-sessions.  These  boards 
were  empowered  to  enforce  a  licence  duty  on  fishing  implements 
used  in  public  waters.  One  or  two  minor  salmon  fi.shery  Acta 
wero  passed  in  succeeding  years,  but  the  next  important  piece  of 
legislation  on  tho  subject  was  the  .-Vet  of  1873,  the  two  most  im- 
portant provisions  of  which  are  (1)  that  fishcrnicn  in  public  waters 
for  every  £60  of  licence  duty  which  tiioy  pay  elect  a  member  of  the 

XXI.  —  29 


?26 


S 


A  L  M  O  N  I  D  ^ 


,00.1  board  of  conservators  and  (2)  that  eacj  W  of  _consor^vatovs 
„,ay  mako  bye-laws  i"'J^'l"^l''''ZClnnnll  close  time  t6r 
fisheries  -w-uhin  its  owri  <Jf  "f^  *  V  f „,  „eta  commences  Aug. 
salmon  in  England  ^""l /^'"f  f„P  "f  7, 'J  „'  in  different  districts 
U-Sopt.  30  a.id  closes  Feb.  2-Apr  1  l./^^J^  '  t>  ■  g  j  30_NoT.  29 
within  the  limits  given ;  for  rods  the  close  timej^s  >^^^^^^ 
to  Fob.  1-May  1.     The  law  as  regards  close  time  tor  n^  b  ^^^^ 

was.  amended  in  1879.  The  "}«' ■°f,  "^  "^^  ^^f  ,>„  above  course 
English  and  Welsh  estuaries  is  in  »'3'™^^^°,h"re  by  boats  ;  a 
of  legislation  that  of  sweep-nets  ™"K^^  f'°"  r°",ts^  the 

liceiKO  duty  has  to  be  paid  i.r  eacK  -t  and  ^^t^^-^npointfd  by 
coast  are  very  rare.     An  mspccror  oi  i»». 
the  Homo  Office  reports  anmiaUy.  .c^venes  differ  in  some 

In  Scotland  the  laws  r'-g"l»t'"g  f  """^j^"'^  tCo  is  no  public 
importantpartieulars  from  those  of  England^     i^  ^  l.^^^_ 

ri^ht  of  salmon  fishing.-all  salmon  "^"^^gf-  /V  iji,„  to  the 
Estuaries,  or  the  narrow  or  '-'^--l^-^i^twl'^Vonly  can  b= 
crown  or  the  grantees  of  the -crown,  i  ,,^t3_tl,at  is,  stake-, 
used  in  rivers  and  in  -^f  "°»=^  ^''"V^^t  e"  ruaries  of  rivers  tind 
fly.,  and  bag.nets-may  be  used  outside  t^f  «^.™;^';ti„„  jy.e  Scbtch 
Z  the  shores  of  the  sea.  .  ^  'y""7;;/,<^3'  37fh7C°ed  Fisheries 
salmon  lishenes  ^r\t}'^/'='^,f.-^/r„i!r„  Act  of  1804.  But  some 
Acts  of  1857  and  1859  and  ""',.3°'^^^  ;*;??  °'  >  y^,,  legislation, 
other  Acts  are  still  in  force;  ''"f./"  ^Fre  is  an  annSal  close  time 
a  consolidation  Act  is  rnuch  need  d      There  is  an  .n  ^^^^^ 

of  163  days,  ^""Pt""  Tweed,  where  it  is  151,  ana  a  ;  ^  ^^ 

time  of  33  hours,  from  6  in  the  evening  ^}  fJ;Xrl^aVwg  after 
Mondav  morning.  There  is  an  extension  °f  t.mV°Yl^^on^struc- 
the  nets  are  off,  varying  from  6  ^^^^'^f  t°,^^'"°X  „!.eels;  a^  the 
tion  and  use  of  ^r.uves,  dams    m.U-kdes    wate  ^^^^^ 

meshes  of  nets  are  regulated ;  J"°,  ^™'^T ''j.t  boards.     In  188-2 

districts,  about  o'>s;tl";^'l  f/'"*  ,^"°;Sed  ^^'=11  ^^  the 
a   Fishery    Board   for   Scotland  was   const   uea,    '^        •      („,.  of 

general  superintendence  of  .^)\^"^^J'^;"^^-  htme  sLretary, 
||^^l^^:^iS^fS^l=-s^^«cotlandand  reported 

-^;;-::.^^:^e:^Sthe^H,;tor  ^n^^         ^^ 

navigable  rivers  "."d.  "f  "'1  '"^,^^1"; 'ati^ng  the  Irish  fisheries  is 
England.  The  principal  '''"^'V^^f  "„  "rvators,  elerbi,  «atcr 
that   of    1863.     There   are   boards  otconservar  ^.^__^ 

bailiirs,  and  licence  duties,  as  '"  England^    T'^  we  icty  ^^^^ 

is  «  hours.  The  ^^Z"}  ^^T  ^Z  l^o  periods  at- which  it  com- 
days,  but  the  .Inspect,  s  may  varyjjio  p^^  .^   ^^^,^ 

mences  ^o*  ""^^p^^Vnary  exclusive.  There  are  three  inspectors 
Kt  fisheSsf  :t  n/ako  annual  reports  to  the  lord  hcutenant 
of  Ireland 


„d  one  of  9  acre,  at  GoW=nhoj,whe  0  fish  a.e  reared  t__._^^  ,,,„<,p„ent  „n 
The  hatchin6-l)0.xc8  are  of  "«',>'■  ri„;jSrabout  a  million  gallona  of  spr  .,g 
glass  6f'"e»-  The  v'ater  Bupply  >'  ^.^^j",;^  [■  ,o„r  hours.  The  eggs  hatchcj  to 
water  tlowlng  through  the  ponds  e%eriUv£Mty.  ^„,,„„  ,„,^,.  and  tue 

greatest  nurabers  are  Ihbso  »'  '""^""^^i/n^vely  reared.  Tl.o  Amcr.can  brool. 
common  tront  tSahno  /■"•■O  «re  »l30  ^''^™-  [',„,,  ,„i,ii„„3  „t  ova  are  annual  y 
trout,  S.  /o,Ui»alu.  is  also  f"\'""''^;,'!°J^oi^~d  young  flsU  i»'ere  dlstr  buted  to 
treated  at  this  '■».>f  S,i„',"„^/Ji'  -SS,  and  two  eonsigunrents  of  trout  and  one 

ated  near  the  Solway  in  Kirkcudb  '«'"'>  '^;^;„7„  f„h  are  bred.  The  hatcmng- 
salmon  and  sea-lrout,grajMmc.  and  other  (.csn^^^  quantities  of  ova 

!;?e''Yul'pSra??SntSr%u;;os«  oT-sto'cKine  or  for  expenrnen.a  ,u   .ish 

'"^'.-IfstormotdnCd  ponds  ^^^^^Ji^^  ^^ol  t^h^Cand  "Ll^ 
Usheries.  They  are  ''Wf'^^'^^lj^^J^S.w 'experiments  above  re/erred  to 
about  2  acres  of  eroiind.  The  ^'"'■^'"""'"j'i.eciijn  of  Mr  Robert  Buist  The 
were  carried  out  at  tbese  P"^'''  ™.^'  /j''L''"he  DnPP""  Hatchery,  but  Is  stil 
cstablishn-.ent  .s  "^  almost  super  sedea  "^  „Xr.  a^c  In  the  open  a.F,  and 
used  to  some  extent  The  •'"'"-■'^'"K;''""'.^''"  "^  ^„^,,  .  a  larger  pereenioge  of 
tho  et'gs  are  placed  on  Eiavcl  at  <""  °"""'".  .'',,„,  .,,„  „aed  Two  of  the  ponds 
OSS  o«urs  wfth  this  sys.cnr  than  -*=",e"^f«e'^,p';,„"„„,ehe,7,  about  20  OOO 
atStormontneld.a,e  .  ockcd  w,  hparr  f,_^om^the^u_PP_^^_^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^„  ,„„. 

^aSlnnM^H"r"7d-fsS;ariealhen  t„o  years  old  ^^^^^.^^ 

The  Dupplin  Hatchery  was  instituted  'S  J^""  "{.jtutary   of  tho  Tay.    The 
Newmlll,   Pupplln  Castle    °"*l"'^„aie^'an'l™nlalns  about  spO.OOO  nva 


Mroduclion  of  Species  to  ffcw  Areas  hj  Human  Agency 
Within  the  past  few  years.  ^-^^J.^^^:^::;^ -^riCZC^il 

frd':  f/:?/::a;l'':nd  Co';LwM«fefe  been  succes^uHy 
fe;rvti:d';{m«;:  hatcheries  0  the  Anaerican  Fish  Commisstcin 
to  tho   Deutsche   Fischeroi.-Yerein  m  Berlin,  and  to   the  bocitte 

''^ticotmr  turof  Britain,  S.  fano.  ^as  introduced  with 
rnn^lete  success  into  Tasmania  nearly  twenty  years  ago  by 
Fr"nk  Buckland  a^d  is  now  abundant  in  the  Tasman.an  streams 
ift„Ll,  ,>  s  rmorted  to  be  much  less  valued  as  food  there  than  at 
although  it^  reported  to  be  m  j„„        t^d  to  the  rivers  in 

U™"o  New  ZealaTd!  where  tirey  also  thrive'and  breed  (see  Trans 
of  Otagf  nstitute,  1878).     In  1866  M'F--;"s  Day  introduced 

"'.'"  .       c  -1    1    K„i-  twr,  vears  later  the  establishment  ol  ttie 

tins  occasion  failed,  but  two  jears  jatei   vi.e.  ,„,.„mnlished  bv 

species  in  the  district  in  question  was  successfully  accomplished  by 
Mr  M'lvor,  who  imported  tho  fry  from  facotlanrt. 
Salmon  CtiUurc. 
For  the  artificial  culture  of  Salmonoids  the  reader  i^  'f  "J^  t» 
the  article  Pisciculture.  The  follow  ng  accotint  of  tbe  ^-ta°^ 
..nd  trout  hatcheries  iu  Scotland  is  abridged  from  a  P^F'^^^f '^ 
before  the  Scottish  Fisheries  Improvement  Association  1°  ^^'"- 
burgh,  26l,h  November  1834,  by  J.  Barker  Duncan,  the  honor.ary 
secretary  to  the  Association. 


river  Earn,  a  inoura,,  .-  , -•-.'„„  "_ 
uewraiu,  I'upi""'  ^"'"-•,  7j;,h  ,„T„ir  water,  and  conlalns  about  JOO.OUU  nva_ 
?hf  jrafc^^ro  i^trlstd^t'^dKd'tl.;  fry  .re\berated  in  tho  Tay  and 

Ansllng  Association,  situated  ,f  °^J^f  §20  TOO  eVgs  were  laid  down.  Thef.Tajre 
stream.  In  the  season  of  l^f'-"  ^X'  ""^j.^  weeks  afler  hatching.  Before  the 
turned  into  the  feeders  of  tire  '°f^  "'"^^'^.^'J'enf  times  stocked  with  f.7  from  the 
erection  of  this  hatchery  Loch  Leje"  ^"'f  fZtun-  on  the  produce  of  Loch  Leven 
Howktoun  Fishery     The  K™»' f 'f/i'glf  ^vc  °15,000  trout  we,-e  taker,  in    he 

icSnt",i^"d5s'^to^Srnr:n^m"rat\rk;i',°  had  been  n^de,  and  in  that 

year  the  total  catch  wf  »''°"""™„  ,  „,,  Halchci  y  was  opened  by  its  propvictor. 
In  May  I884theLi,ihlhgo«-  ?»  »"^'V^«  ,  "^  who  holds  a  lca.se  of  the  loch  for 
Mr  A.  g'  Anderson,  fi^h  merchant.  ^"^  ""^  f ,'^;,^.  °  intended  chiefly  to  stock  tire 
auKlinB  P»n>'>'"/'Xm,ainTng  about  600  000  ova.  Experiments  on  tho  cultlva- 
loch,  and  is  capable  of  containing  aomii.         „„  also  to  be  made  here. 

t.on  of  Sateo  talar.  var.  ,«'"?"• ';"™v';"marqiis  of    Adsa.  capable  of   hatching 

A  private  hatchery  belong  ng  to  the  "^"5"  '  s„|„,„,j  ova  are  obla.ned 

I   about  250,000  ova.  »»''""''^,' .    and  Minnook     and  Ihe  fiy  turned  aeain  Into 

from  the  rivers  Doon,  Stmchai    and  Jl.nno.^  s.  fontinali:.  and  Loch  Lcven 

^r^^s^r.^ZlX^^^S'i^^rL.....  on  the  Loch- 
bu^sute  ^--r  oVlt  tor^^'purp-e  0.^  Lcking  the  river,  and  lakes  on  the 
>='X'\^ie;decnna.cherywas^s..h«shedinAb^ 

Various  ProP''''"™'",?,^"'"?!™  for  the  purpose  of  stocking,  but  these  have, 
houses  on  the  rivers  of  ^l-^^^^''  ",'.», '."i^/a™  the  only  sataon-rearing  estab- 
Sshr^elits'or'any  imi;.v.ree1t°;.esen.  in  operation  in  Scotland. 


Salmon  Disease. 
D„ringthelastfVwye=.ssal™ninjtgreatmjn,ynvc.J^ 

observed  to  be  siilicr.ng  from  an  |V"^  "^^  "j^'^'^™  this  disease  in 
which  large  numbers  have  eliee .     SoJ^;  ^^  '^,^     ,^^„  ,,„  be  little 

its  epidemic  form  fq"''';;^"."^!^"  sporadic  affection  in  former 
doubt  thatitmusthaveocumd  asaspor  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^,^  ^^^. 

times,  but  It  seems  cu   t^   "tiici  n         i  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^ 

taiity  among  salmon  as  h^s  taUn  place  m  a  ^^^^^^^^ 

must  have  attracted  ^ttent  °n  't  "c^rred  ^  ^^^  .^^  ^^^^.^ 
observation  was  rare,  £'>^'^''f '"-^Xo  Solwav  Firth,  and  since 
the  Esk  and  the  Nith,  Ao^^^S  'f  °  *^,;°  of'^lmon  in  almost 
then.it  has  destroyed  very  la  g^  --bm^of^  „lceratio,is  of  the 
every  nve?  m  bntain.      1  lie  aiiea  ^      ^^^^ 

skin!  which  begin  at  one  or  ^'^YJ^^lj"'^  °^Z  fish.  The  diseased 
ultimately  extend  to  the  ^^.^o  0  Burface^o^  ti.e  ^^.^^  ^ 

parts  of  the  skm  are  found  «\en  exammea  to  j^jj^      „f 

fungoid  growth,  with  the  "jyj^l^r  ^^ff  'S^°  ugh  the  tissSe  of 
plaited  hyphs  which  extend  nto  and  amity  ^  =  ^^^ 
Iho  derma  and  epidermis  causing  *' «  "^^^'^^'^  ,"^{io„  and  bleeding 
fie'ial  tissues  decay  and  sl°"g^°«'X-nSinT parts.  It  is  certain 
are  produced  in  the  deeper  '•"'i^^"''"^",'^"^^^  S'  s  caused  by  the 
that  the  injury  to  the  skin  and  flesh  0^  t^e  salmon  ^^^^^^^^j 

fungus.  If  a  section  0  the  edge  of  an  ^^^f  ^^  P  .f^^^j,  „„,^al 
examined  microscopically,  the  "I'^^f-'f  "^1  ]iYph.-e  extend,  and 
and  healthy  beyond  «-  rcgi  n    o  wh    h    hejin  ^^  '^ 

the  growing    poin  3   "J,  tf''   'V'";^^^  It  is  evident  therefore 

betwcenanddistortingtheseun  n  ur  d   c  is      1  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^j^^ 

that  tlie  morbid  alteration  of  tl  e  ti^sies  ™'  ,„  erficial  part 

hyphce  and  does  not  precede  it.  ^^,^'^  "^''/"^Vijlni  bears  the 
oF^the  mycelium  ,^''7""S/-"^„  ?"*  of  .00  ptSlgia.  which 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


227 


that  stana  out  pGrpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  mycelium. 
Each  zoosporangium  contains  a  multitude  of  spherical  spores. 
Those  spores  are  of  the  kind  technically  called  zoospores,  each  on 
ita  escape  from  the  sporangium  moving  about  actively  by  means 
of  two  vibratile  cilia.  The  zoosporangium  emits  the  zoospores  by 
an  aperture  at  its  end,  and  when  it  has  emptied  itself  the  hypha 
begins  to  grow  again  at  the  base  of  the  fempty  membrane  and  sends 
up  through  the  cavity  of  the  old  zoosporangium  a  new  sprout 
which  becomes  a  second  spore  capsule.  This  feature  is  character- 
istic of  the  genus  Saprolcgnia,  belonging  to  the  Oospores, 
various  kinds  of  which  are  well  known  to  botanists  ;  they  usually 
occur  in  dead  insects  or  other  invertebrate  animals  in  water : 
the  dead  bodies  of  "the  common  house-fly  when  in  a  sufficiently 
moist  place  almost  invariably  produce  a  luxuriant  crop  of  Sapro- 
lcgnia. The  commonest  species  of  Saprolcgnia  is  S.  fcrax,  and  the 
salmon  fungus  has  usually  received  the  same  name,  as  though  it 
were  a  proved  fact  that  it  was  identical  with  that  species.  But  the 
species  of  a  Saprolcgnia  can  only  be  ascertained  from  the  characters  of 
its  oosporangia,  which  are  quite  different  from  the  zoosporangia  and 
are  produced  much  more  rarely,  and  whoso  contents,  the  oospores, 
are  fertilized  by  the  contents  of  simultaneously  produced  antheridia. 
Mr  Stirling  has  observed  the  oosporangia  of  salmon  fungus  (see  his 
papers  in  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed.,  1878  and  1879),  but  his  description  is 
not  sufficient  to  put  the  identification  of  the  species  beyond  a  doubt. 
From  Prof.  Huxley's  experiments  it  is  evident  that  the  salmon 
fungus  may  reproduce  for  very  many  generations  without  the 
appearance  of  oospores.  The  salmon  fungus  grows  with  great 
luxuriance  on  other  animal  substances.  In  a  diseased  salmon  the 
fungus  seems  to  ba  confined  to  the  skin  and  not  to  give  rise  to 
bacteria-like  bodies  in  the  internal  organs.  What  are  the  coudi^ 
lions  which  favour  the  infection  of  salmon  in  a  rivet*  is  a  question 
to  which  at  present  no  answer  can  be  given.  Until  it  is  known 
under  what  conditions  the  Saprolcgnia  exists  in  a  river  before 
infecting  the  salmon,  the  conditions  which  favour  or  prevent 
salmon  disease  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  fungus  may  have  its 
permanent  nidus  in  decaying  vegetable  substances,  but  at  present 
it  has  not  been  determined  whether  it  is  possible  to  cultivate  the 
salmon  Saprolcgnia  on  vegetable  matter  ;  or  the  disease  may  be 
propagated  sporadically  among  the  fish,  Salmonoids  and  otlicrs, 
which  are  permanent  residents  of  the  rivers  ;  or  its  abundance  may 
depend  on  the  amount  of  dead  animal  matter  that  is  available  for 
its  nutrition.  There  is  probably  always  some  Saprohxjnia.  in  every 
river  ;  the  secondary  conditions  which  determine  whether  or  not  the 
fungus  shall  multiply  on  the  anadromous  salmon  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  cause  an  epidemic  have  yet  to  be  ascertained. 

Literature. — Allicrfc  Gtinther,  Catalogue  of  Fishes  in  Brit.  Mus.,  London.  1S66, 
▼ol.  vL  ;  Id.,  Introduction  to  Study  of  Fishes,  Edinburgh,  1880 ;  Franci3 
Day,  Fishes  of  Great  Uritain  and  Ireland,  London  and  Edtnburfiii,  1880  to 
1884,  vol.  it.  Tbe  following  papers  of  the  Conferences  of  the  International 
Fisheries  Exhibition,  London,  1883,  also  contain  valunble  information; — "Fish 
Culture,"  by  Francis  Day;  "Salmon  Fisheries,"  by  Charles  S.  Folgcr;  "Culture 
of  Satmonidx,"  by  Sir  James  Maitland ;  "Salmon  and  Salmon  Fisheries,"  by 
David  Mllno  Home.  For  a  most  complete  and  valuable  memoir  on  the  salmon 
disease  sec  the  paper  by  Prof.  Huxley,  Quart.  Jour.  Mic.  Set.,  188:?.        (J.  T.  C.) 

(•  SALOME,  widow  of  Alexander  Jannseus,  and  queen  of 
Judiea  from  79  to  69  B.C.  (see  Israel,  vol  xiii.  p.  424). 
Another  Salome  is  the  daughter  of  Hcrodias  mentioned  in 
Malt.  xiv.  6.  Her  father  was  Herod,  son  of  Herod  the 
Great  and  Mariamme,  and  she  became  successively  wife 
of  her  father's  brother  the  tetrarch  Philip  (son  of  Herod 
the  Great  by  Cleopatra ;  see  Herod  Philip),  and  of 
Aristobulus. 

SALONICA,  or  Saloniki  (Ital.  Salonkco,  Turkish 
Selanik,  Slav.  Solun,  the  ancient  Thessalonica),  during  the 
Roman  empire  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Macedonia, 
and  still  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  European 
Turkey,  the  chief  town  of  an  extensive  vilayet  which 
includes  the  sanjaks  of  Salonica,  Serres,  Drama,  and 
Monastir,  and  has  an  aggregate  population  of  1,500,000. 
Salonica  lies  on  the  west  side  of  the  Chalcidic  peninsula,  at 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  (Sinus  Jliermaicus),  on  a 
fine  bay  whoso  southern  edge  is  formed  by  the  Calamerian 
heights,  while  its  northern  and  western  side  is  the  broad 
alluvial  plain  produced  by  the  discharge  of  the  Vardar  and 
the  Injc-Karasu,  the  principal  rivers  of  western  Macedonia. 
Built  partly  on  the  low  ground  along  the  edge  of  the  bay 
and  partly  on  the  hill  to  the  north  (a  compact  mass  of 
mica  schist),  the  city  with  its  white  houses  enclo.sed  by 
white  walls  runs  up  along  natural  ravines  to  the  cas  '«  of 
the  Seven  Towers  (Hoptapyrgion),  and  is  rendered  pict"-- 
estjue  by  numerous  domes  and  minarets  and  the  foliage 
pi  elms,  cypresses,  and  mulberry  trees.     The  hill  of  the 


Heptapyrgion  is  dominated  by  a  second  and  that  by  a  third 
eminence  towards  the  north.  The  commercial  quarter  of 
the  town,  lying  naturally  to  the  north-west,  towards  the 
great  valleys  by  which  the  inland  traffic  is  conveyed,  Ls 
now  pierced  by  broad  and.  straight  streets  paved  with  lava; 
and  the  quay  extends  from  the  north-west  of  the  city  for 
four-fifths  of  a  mile  to  the  Kaiili-Kule  (Tower  of  Blood),  or 
as  it  is  now  called  Ak-Kule  (White  Tower).  The  old  Yia 
Egnatia  traverses  the  city  from  what  is  now  the  Vardar 
Gate  to  the  Calamerian  Gate.  The  houses  are  for  the  most 
part  insignificant  wooden  erections  covered  with  lime  or 
mad.  Two  Roman  triumphal  arches  used  to  span  the  Via 
Egnatia.  The  arch  near  the  Vardar  Gate — a  massive  stone 
structure  probably  erected  after  the  time  of  Vespasian — 
was  destroyed  about  1867  to  furnish  material  for  repah-ing 
the  city  walls  ;  an  imperfect  inscription  from  it  is  now 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum.*  The  other  arch,  popu- 
larly called  the  arch  of  Constantine,  but  by  Leake  assigned 
to  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  consisted  of  three  archways 
built  of  brick  and  faced  with  marble.  It  is  now  in  ^  very 
dilapidated  state.^  A  third  example  of  Roman  architecture 
— the  remains  of  a  white  marble  portico  supposed  to  have 
formed  the  entrance  to  the  hippodrome — is  known  by  the 
Judaeo-Spanish  designation  of  Las  Incaiitadas,  from  the 
eight  Caryatides  in  the  upper  part  of  the  structure.'  The 
conspicuous  mosques  of  Salonica  have  nearly  all  an  early 
Christian  origin ;  the  remarkable  preservation  of  their 
mural  decorations  makes  them  very  important  for  the 
history  of  Byzantine  architecture.  The  principal  are  those 
dedicated  to  St  Sophia,  St  George,  and  St  Demetrius. 

St  Sophia  (Aya  Sofia),  formerly  the  cathedral,  and  probably 
erected  by  Justinian's  architect  Antheinius,  was  converted  into  a 
mosque  in  1589.  It  is  cased  with  .slabs  of  white  marble.  Tho 
whole  length  of  the  interior  is  110  feet.  The  nave,  forming  a  Greek 
cross,  is  surmounted  by  a  hemispherical  dome,  tho  600  s']uare  yards 
of  which  are  covered  with  a  rich  mosaic  representing  tho  Ascension. 
St  Demetrius,  which  is  probably  older  than  tho  time  of  Justinian, 
consists  of  a  long  nave  {divided  into  three  bays  by  massive  square 
piers)  and  two  side  aisles,  each  terminating  eastward  in  an  atrium 
the  full  height  of  the  nave,  in  a  style  not  known  to  occur  in  .any 
other  church.  The  colusms  of  the  aisles  are  half  the  height  of 
those  in  tho  nave.  Tho  internal  decoration  is  all  produced  by 
slabs  of  different-coloured  marbles.  St  George's,  conjccturally 
assigned  by  Messrs  Pullari  and  Texier  to  the  reign  of  Constantine, 
is  circular  in  plan,  measuring  intenially  80  feet  in  diameter.  Tho 
external  wall  is  18  feet  thick,  and  at  tho  angles  of  an  inscribed 
octagon  are  chapels  fonned  in  the  thickness  of  tho  wall,  and  roofed 
with  waggon-headed  vaults  visible  on  the  exterior  ;  the  eastern 
chapel,  however,  is  enlarged  and  developed  into  a  benia  and  apse 
projecting  beyond  tho  circle,  and  tho  western  and  southern  chapels 
constitute  tho  two  entrances  of  the  building.  The  dome,  72  yards 
in  circumference,  is  covered  throughout  its  cntiie  surface  of  800 
square  yards  with  what  is  the  largest  work  in  ancient  mosaic  that 
has  come  down  to  us,  representing  a  series  of  fourteen  saints 
standing  in  the  act  of  adoration  in  front  of  temples  and  colonnades. 
Tho  Eski  Juma,  or  Old  Mosque,  is  another  interesting  b.a.silicn, 
evidently  later  than  Constantino,  with  side  aisles  and  an  ap.so 
without  side  chapels.  The  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  and  that 
of  St  Elias  also  deserve  mention.  Of  tho  secular  buildings,  the 
Caravanserai,  usually  attributed  to  Amurath  II.,  probably  dates 
from  Byzantine  times. 

The  prosperity  of  Salonica  has  all  along  been  largely 'that  of 
a  commercial  city.  During  tho  Christian  centuries  before  the 
Mohammedan  conquest  the  patron  saint  of  the  city  was  also  the 
saint  of  a  great  market  or  fair  to  which  merchants  came  from  all 
parts  of  the  Jlcditerranean,  and  oven  from  countries  beyond  tho 
Alps.  At  tho  beginning  of  tho  present  century  a  large  ekport 
trade  was  carried  on  in  woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  white  and  red 
yarns,  grain,  wool,  tobacco,  yellow  berries,  silk  fabrics,  s])ongcs,  ic  ; 
and  sjlk  gauze  was  manufactured  in  tho  city.  Direct  liritish  trado 
with  Salonica  began'after  the  Greek  war  of  independence.  Woven 
fabrics  are  at  present  imported  from  England,  Austria,  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy;  sugar  mainly  from  Austria;  colfco  from 
South  America  (partly  direct) ;  petroleum  from  America  and 
Russia  ;  soap  from  Greece  and  Crete  ;  metal  goods  from  Kngland, 
Franco,  and  Austria;  and  coal  from  England.     Tho  exports  com- 

'  See  Trans.  Hoij.  Sor.  Lit.,  vol.  viii.,  new  series,  1878. 
*  See  Newton's  Travels,  d-c,  in  the  Levant,  vol.  i.  p.  122. 
'  See  Stuart's  Alliens,  vol.  iii.  pi.  45,  for  engraving. 


228 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


priae  cereala  (wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize,  rye),  tobacco,  wool. 
Cotton,  poppy  seed,  opium,  cocoons,  prunes,  and  timber.  In  1884 
the  industrial  establishments  were  steam  flour-mills,  a  cotton- 
spinning  factory  (employing  500  hands  and  sending  its  goods  to 
Constantinople,  Smyrna,  and  Boyrout),  a  distillery,  several  large 
soap-works,  a  nail  factory,  an  iron-bedstead  factory,  and  a  number 
of  brick  and  tile  works. 

In  Salouica  the  se  ^eral  nationalities  have  schools  of  their  own ;  the 
Greeks,  for  example,  have  a  normal  school,  a  gymnasium,  and 
nine  other  schools  (one  for  girls) ;  and  even  the  Bulgarians,  though 
their  members  are  comparatively  small,  have  two  normal  schools. 
The  Jewish  community  (about  60,000)  is  of  Spanish  origin,  and 
still  preserves  its  Jud.xo-Spanish  written  in  Hebrew  characters. 
Besides  their  own  schools  they  have  the  advantage  of  a  large  school 
supported  by  the  Jewish  Mission  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  (instituted  about  18G0).  The  total  population  of  Salonica 
■was  estimated  by  Tozer  about  1865  as  60,000.  It  has, since  in- 
creased probably  to  90,000  or  100,000.  The  railway  opened  to 
Kiuprili  (1361  miles)  in  1873  is  now  extended  75  miles  to 
Mitrovitza. 

History. — The  older  name  of  Thessalonica  was  Therma  (in  allu- 
sion to  the  hot-sprin'Ts  of  the  neighbourhood).  It  was  a  military 
aiid  commercial  station  on  a  main  line  of  communication  between 
Rome  and  the  East,  and  had  reached  its  zenith  before  the  seat  of 
empire  was  transferred  to  Constantinople.  It  became  a  Roman 
colonui  in  the  middle  of  the  8d  century,  and  in  the  later  defence  of 
the  ancient  civilization  against  the  barbarian  inroads  it  played  a 
considerable  part.  In  390  Thessalonica  was  the  scene  of  the  dreadful 
massacre  perpetrated  by  command  of  Theodosius.  Constantine  re- 
paired the  port,  and  probably  enriched  the  town  "with  some  of  its 
buildings.  During  the  iconoclastic  reigns  of  terror  it  stood  on  the 
defensive,  and  succeeded  in  saving  the  artistic  treasures  of  its 
churches :  in  the  9th  century  Joseph,  one  of  its  bishops,  died  in 
chains  for  his  defence  of  image-worship.  In  the  7th  century  the 
Slavonic  tribes  strove  to  capture  the  city,  but  in  vain  oven  when 
it  was  thrown  into  confusion  by  a  terrible  earthquake  which  lasted 
several  days.  It  wag  the  attempt  made  to  transfer  the  whole  Bul- 
garian trade  to  Thessalonica  that  in  the  close  of  the  9th  centuiy 
caused  the  invasion  of  the  empire  by  Simeon  of  Bulgaria.  In  904 
the  Saracens  from  the  Cyrenaica  took  the  place  by  storm  ;  the 
public  buildings  were  grievously  injured,  and  the  inliabitants  to 
the  number  of  22,000  were  carried  olf  and  sold  as  slaves  through- 
out the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1185  the  Kormans  of 
Sicily,  having  landed  at  Dyrrhachium  and  marched  across  country, 
took  Thessalonica  after  a  ten  days'  siege,  and  perpetrated  endless 
barbarities,  of  which  Eustathius,  then  bishop  of^ the  see,  has  left  us 
an  account.  In  1204  Baldwin,  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  con- 
ferred the  kingdom  of  Thessalonica  on  Boniface,  marquis  of  llont- 
ferrat ;  but  eighteen  years  later  Theodore,  despot  of  Epirus,  one  of 
the  natural  enemies  of  the  new  kingdom,  took  the  city  and  had 
himself  there  crowned  by  the  patriarch  of  Macedonian  Bulgaria. 
On  the  death  of  Demetrius  (who  had  been  supported  in  his  endea- 
vour to  recover  his  father's  throne  by  Pope  Honorius  IIJ.)  the 
empty  title  of  king  of  Salonica  was  adopted  by  several  claimants. 
In  1266  the  house  of  Burgundy  received  a  grant  of  the  titular 
kingdom  from  Baldwin  II.  when  he  was  titular  emperor,  and  it 
was  sold  by  Eudes  IV.  to  Philip  of  Tarentum,  titular  emperor  of 
E  Ljmania  in  1 320.  The  Venetiaus,  to  whom  the  city  was  transferred 
by  one  of  the  Palteologi,  were  in  power  when  Sultan  Amurath 
appeared,  and  on  the  1st  of  May  1430,  in  spite  of  the  desperate 
resistance  of  the  inhabitants,  took  the  city,  which  had  thrice  previ- 
ously been  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  iThe  body  of  St  Demetrius, 
the  patron  saint,  who  from  the  time  of  his  death  under  Maximi.''.n 
in  the  4th  century  had  exercised  a  marvellous  influence  on  the  popu- 
lar imagination,  was  hacked  to  pieces,  though  even  the  Moham- 
medans attributed  virtue  to  the  famous  oil  from  which  the  saint 
obtained  the  title  of  Myroblete.  In  1876  the  French  and  German 
consuls  at  Thessalonica  were  massacred  by  the  Turkish  populace. 

Besides  Tafel's  monograph,  Dissertatio  de  Thctsalonica  (Berlin,  1839),  see 
nolland's  Travels  (1815);  Griscbach.  RumelieTi  ttnd  Brussa,lS2^;  How  en' »^foun  I 
■Mhos,  Thessalv,  and  Spirits  (16.12);  Boeckll,  C.  I.  (?.,  Tol.  ii. ;  Texicr  and 
lunan,  Bijzanlim  Archiltdure  (16G4) ;  Tozer,  Highlands  of  Turte),  1869. 

SALOP.     See  Shkopshire. 

SALSETTE,  a  large  island  to  tlie  north  of  Bombay, 
with  an  area  of  241  square  miles.  It  lies  between  19°  2' 
30"  and  19°  18'  30"  N.  lat.  and  between  72°  51'  30"  and 
73°  3'  E.  long.  ;  it  is  connected  with  Bombay  Island  by 
bridge  and  causeway.  Salsette  is  a  beautiful,  picturesque, 
and  well-wooded  tract,  its  surface  being  well  diversified  by 
lulls  and  mountains,  some  of  considerable  elevation,  while 
it  is  rich  in  rice  fields.  In  various  parts  of  the  island  are 
romantic  views,  embellished  by  the  ruins  of  Portuguese 
churches,  convents,  and  villas;  its  cave  antiquities  still 
fcrm  a  subject  of  interest." 


At  the  census  of  1881  Salsette  had  a  population  of  108,149 
(males  58,540,  females  49,609);  Hindus  numbered  74,736  and 
Mohammedans  7,0.'56.  The  island  was  taken  from  tlie  Portugue^ 
by  the  Mahrattas  in  1739,  and  from  them  the  British  captured 
it  in  1774  ;  it  vux3  formally  annexed  to  the  East  India  Company's 
dominions  in  1782  by  the  treaty  of  Salbai. 

SALT.  Common  salt,  or  simply  salt,  is  the  name  given 
to  the  native  and  industrial  forms  of  sodium  chloride 
(NaCl).  The  consideration  of  this  important  substance 
naturally  falls  under  two  heads,  relating  respectively  to  sea 
salt  or  "bay"  salt  and  "rock"  salt  or  mineral  salt.  As 
actually  found,  however,  the  one  is  probably  derived  from 
the  other,  most  rock  salt  deposits  bearing  evidence  of  having 
been  formed  by  the  evaporation  of  lakes  or  seas  at  former 
(often  remote)  geological  periods.  This  is  seen  from  their 
stratified  iiat,ure,  with  their  interposed  beds  of  clay,  which 
could  only  have  been  deposited  from  solution.  The  crystals 
of  selenite  (hydrated  calcium  sulphate),  moreover,  v/hich 
they  contain  can  only  have  been  formed  in  water  and  can 
never  since  have  been  subjected  to  any  considerable  amount 
of  heat,  otherwise  their  water  of  crystallization  would  have 
been  driven  off..  The  beds  also  of  potassium  and  magnesium 
salts  found  at  Stassfurt  and  other  places,  interposed  be- 
tween or  overlying  the  rock  salt  deposits,  are  in  just  the 
position  in  which  one  would  naturally  expect  to  find  them 
if  deposited  from  salt  water.  Finally,  the  marine  shells 
often  occurring  abundantly  in  tbe  surrounding  rocks  of 
contemporary  periods  also  testify  to  the  former  existence 
of  large  neighbouring  masses  of  salt  water. 

Sea  Salt. — Assuminga  degree  of  concentration  such  that 
each  gallon  of  sea  water  contains  0'2547  lb.  of  salt,  and 
allowing  an  average  density  of  2'24  for  rock  salt,  it  has  been 
computed  that  the  entire  ocean  if  dried  up  would  yield  no 
less  than  4,419,360  cubic  miles  of  rock  salt,  or  about  four- 
teen and  a  half  times  the  bulk  of  the  entire  continent  of 
Europe  above  high-water  mark,  mountain  masses  and  all 
The  proportion  of  sodium  chloride  in  the  water  of  the  ocean, 
where  it  is  mixed  with  small  quantities  of  other  salts,  is 
on  the  average  about  33-3  per  1000  parts,  ranging  from 
29  per  1000  for  the  polar  seas  to  35'5  per  1000  or  more 
at  the  equator.  Enclosed  seas,  such  as  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Red  Sea,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Dead  Sea,  the  Caspian,  and 
others,  are  dependent  of  course  for  the  proportion  and  qual- 
ity of  their  saline  matter  on  local  circumstances.  Forch- 
hammer  found  the  following  quantities  of  solid  matter  in 
the  water  of  various  seas : — 

North  Sea 32-80  grammes  per  litre. 

Cattegat  and  Sound ,  15'12  ,, 

Baltic ; 4-81  „ 

Mediterranean 37*50  ,, 

Atlantic 3'4-30  ,, 

Black  Sea 16-89 

Caribbean  Sea 36-10  ,, 

Of  this  sodium  chloride  constitutes  about  four-fifthi. 
See  Sea  Wateb. 

At  one  time  almost  the  whole  of  the  salt  in  commerce 
was  produced  from  the  evaporation  of  sea  -water,  and  in- 
deed salt  so  made  still  forms  a  staple  commodity  in  many 
countries  possessing  a  seaboard,  especially  those  where  the 
climate  is  dry  and  the  summer  of  long  duration.  In 
Portugal  a  total  of  over  250,000  tons  is  annually  made  in 
the  salt  works  of  St  Ubes  (Setubal),  Alcacer  do  Sal,  Oporto, 
Aneyro,  and  Figueras.  Spain,  with  the  salt  works  of  the 
Bay  of  Cadiz,  the  Balearic  Islands,  &c.,  makes  300,000  tons. 
Italy  has  salt  works  in  Sicily,  Naples,  Tuscany,  and  Sar- 
dinia, producing  165,000  tons.  In  France,  between  the 
"marais  salants  du  midi"  and  those  on  the  Atlantic,  250,000 
to  300,000  tons  are  annually  produced,  besides  those  of 
Corsica.  The  "Salzgarten"  of  Austria  produce  collectively 
from  70,000  to  100,000  tons  annually  at  various  places  on 
the  Adriatic  (Sabioncello,  Trieste,  Pirano,  Capo  d'Istria, 
(tc.V     In  England  and  Scotland  the  industry  has  of  late 


SALT 


229 


years  greatly  fallen  o5  under  the  competition  of  the  rocK- 
salt  works  of  Cheshire,  but  some  small  manufactories  still 
exist,  at  North  Shields  and  elsewhere,  where  salt  is  made 
by  dissolving  rock-salt  in  sea  water,  and  evaporating  the 
solution  to  crystallization  by  artificial  heat. 

The  process  of  the  spontaneous  evaporation  of  sea  water  has 
been  verj'  carefully  studied  by  Usiglio  on  Mediterranean  water  at 
Cette.  The  density  at  first  was  1"02.  Primarily  but  a  slight 
deposit  is  formed  (none  until  the  concentration  arrives  at  specific 
gravity  1*0509),  this  deposit  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  calcic 
carbonate  and  ferric  oxide.  This  goes  on  till  a  density  of  1*1315 
is  attained,  when  hydi'ated  calcium  sulphate  begins  to  deposit,  and 
continues  till  specific  gravity  1*2646  is  reached.  At  a  density  of 
1*218  the  volume  of  the  sea  water  has  become  reduced  to  ^ll^ths 
of  what  it  was  at  first,  and  from  this  moment  the  deposit  becomes 
augmented  by  sodium  chloride,  which  goes  down  mixed  with  a 
little  magnesium  chloride  and  sulphate.  At  specific  gravity  1  •2461 
a  litfle  sodium  bromide  has  begun  also  to  deposit  At  specific 
gravity  1*311  the  volume  of  the  water  is  only  Tenths  of  what  it 
was  at  first,  and  it  is  thus  composed: — 

Magnesium  sulphate 11 '45  per  cent. 

Magnesium  chloride 19"53        ,, 

Sodium  chloride 15'98  '     ,, 

Sodium  bromide 2*04        ,, 

Potassium  chloride....: 3 '30        ,, 

Up  to  the  time  then  that  the  water  became  concentrated  to 
specific  gravity  1"21S  only  0"1dO  of  deposit  had  formed,  and  that 
chiefly  composed  of  lime  and  iron,  but  between  specific  gravity 
1*218  and  1"313  there  is  deposited  a  mixture  of — 

Calcium  sulphate 0*0283  per  cent. 

Magnesium  sulphate 0*0624        „ 

Magnesium  chloride ;.  00153        ,, 

So(Uum  chloride 27107        ,, 

Sodium  bromide !- 0*0222        ,, 


2*8339 
And  of  this  we  see  that  about  95  per  cent,  is  sodium  chloride. 
Up  to  this  point  the  separation  of  the  salts  has  taken  place  in  a 
£airly  regular  manner,  but  now  the  temperature  begins  to  exert  an 
influence,  and  some  of  the  salts  deposited  in  the  cold  of  the  night 
dissolve  again  partially  in  the  heat  of  the  day.  By  night  the 
liquor  gives  nearly  pure  magnesium  sulphate  ;  in  the  day  the  same, 
sulphate  mixed  with  sodium  and  potassium  chlorides  is  deposited. 
The  mother-liquor  now  falls  a  little  in  density  to  a  specific  gravity 
of  1*3082  to  1*2965,  and  yields  a  very  mixed  deposit  of  magnesium 
bromide  and  chloride,  potassium  chloride,  and  magnesium  sulphate, 
with  the  double  magnesium  and  potassium  sulphate,  corresponding 
to  the  kainite  of  Stassfurt.  There  is  also  deposited  a  double  mag- 
nesium and  potassium  chloride,  similar  to  the  carnallite  of  Stassfurt, 
and  finally  the  mother-liquor,  which  has  now  again  risen  to  specific 
gravity  1*3374,  contains  only  pure  magnesium  chloride. 

The  application  of  these  results  to  the  production  of  salt  from  sea 
water  is  obvious.  A  large  piece  of  land,  varj-ing  from  one  or  two 
to  several  acres,  barely  above  high-water  mark,  is  levelled,  and  if 
necessary  puddled  with  clay  so  as  to  prevent  the  water  from  perco- 
lating and  sinking  away.  In  tidal  seas  a  "jas"  (as  the  storage 
reservoir  is  called)  is  constructed  alongside,  similarly  rendered  im- 
pervious, in  which,  the  water  is  stored  and  allowed  to  settle  and 
concentrate  to  a  certain  extent.  In  non-tidal  seas  this  storage 
basin  is  not  required.  The  prepared  land  is  partitioned  off  into 
large  basins  {adcrrus  or  miianls)  and  others  (called  in  France  aires. 
teuilUts,  or  Uihles  salantcs)  which  get  smaller  and  more  shallow  in 
proportion  as  they  are  intended  to  receive  the  water  as  it  becomes 
more  and  more  concentrated,  just  sufficient  fall  being  allowed  from 
ono  set  of  basins  to  the  other  to  cause  the  water  to  flow  slowly 
through  them.  The  flow  is  often  assisted  by  pumping.  The  sex 
salt  thus  made  is  collected  into  small  heaps  on  the  paths-around 
the  basins  or  the  floors' of  the  basins  themselves,  and  here  it  under 
goes  a  first  partial  purification,  the  more  deliquescent  salts  (espe- 
cially the  magnesium  chloride)  being  allowed  to  drain  away.  From 
these  heaps  it  is  collected  into  larger  ones,  where  it  drains  further, 
and  becomes  more  purified.  Hero  it  is  protected  by  thatch  till 
required  for  sale. 

The  salt  is  collected  from  the  surface  by  means  of  a  sort  of 
wooden  scoop  or  scraper  which  the  workman  pushes  before  him, 
but  in  spite  of  every  precaution  some  of  the  soil  on  which  it  is  pro- 
duced is  inevitably  taken  up  with  it,  communicating  a  red  or  grey 
tint.  ^  Sea  salt  is  thence  known  in  many  of  the  French  markets  as 
$elgris,  and  frequently  contains  as  much  as  15  per  ceht.  of  impurity. 
Yet  such  is  the  ignorance  and  prejudice  of  many  people  that  they 
wili  buy  it  in  preference  to  the  purer  article  from  the  evaporation 
•f  rock-salt  bnne,  asserting  its  action  to  bo  milder  and  more  even. 
Even  if  this  were  true  they  forget  that  mud  ought  to  bo  cheaper 
than  salt  The  salt  made  on  the  coast  of  Brittany  possesses  the 
following  composition  : — 


Sodium  chloride 87*9)  percent 

Magnesium  chloride 1*58        ,, 

Magnesium  sulphate  0  "50         , , 

Calcium  sulphate 1*65         ,, 

Insoluble 0*80         „ 

Water...,. , 7*50         ,, 

Generally  speaking  this  salt  goes  into  commerce  just  as  it  is, 
but  in  some  cases  it  is  taken  first  to  the  refinery,  where  it  either  is 
simply  washed  and  then  stove-dried  before  being  sent  out  or  is  dis- 
solved in  fresh  water  and  then  boiled  down  and  crystallized  like 
white  salt  from  rock-salt  brine.  The  salt  of  the  "  salines  du  midj  " 
of  the  south-east  of  France  is  far  purer  than  the  above,  however, 
its  composition:  being  as  follows  : — 

Sodium  chloride :.. 95*11  per  cent. 

Magnesium  chloride 0"23         ,, 

Magnesium  sulphate.. 1*30         ,, 

Calcium  sulphate 0*91         ,, 

Insoluble 0*10         ,, 

Wafer 235 

This  is  perhaps  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  of  late  years,  by  way 
of  obviating  the  above-mentioned  cause  of  impurit}-,  a  species  of 
moss  has  been  introduced  there  with  some  success  from  Portugal 
and  forms  a  bed  on  which  the  salt  is  deposited.  The  mother- 
liquors  from  the  crystallization  of  the  common  salt  contain  still  a 
little  sodium  chloride  and  most  of  the  bromine  and  iodine  of  the 
sea  water,  all  the  potassium  salts,  much  magnesium  sulphate,  and 
a  large  quantity  of  magnerfum  chloride.  They  are  often  thrown 
away  as  useless,  but  lately,  in  the  south  of  France,  in  the  "salines 
du  midi,"  they  have  been  used  for  the  production  of  certain  chemi- 
cals by  a  system  of  ulterior  treatment  introduced  by  M.  Merle  and 
still  continued  by  his  successor  M.  Pechinet. 

As  soon  as  the  water  arrives  at  specific  gravity  1  ■2407  and  has 
deposited  most  of  its  salt,  it  is  drawn  off"  and  stored  in  large  tanks 
of  50,000  or  60,000  cubic  metres  capacity.  From  these  it  is 
withdrawn  in  successive  portions,  and  artificially  cooled  to  0'4° 
Fahr.  Under  these  circumstances,,  indeed  at  any  temperature 
below  26'  Fahr.,  a  double  decomposition  takes  place  between  the 
sodium  chloride  and  the  magnesium  sulphate — crystallized  sodium 
sulphata  being  thus  separated.  After  being  withdrawn  and  freed 
from  the  mother-liquor  by  a  hydro-extractor,  this  sulphate,  which 
contains  two  atoms  of  water,  is  then  rendered  anhydrous  by  heating 
in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  From  the  refrigerating  vessel  the  water 
now  passes  to  an  ordinary  evaporating  pan,  where  the  remaining 
salt  13 -precipitated  by  boiling,  collected,  and  purified  by  the  hydro- 
extractor.  Here  the  water  attains  a  specific  gravity  1*2680,  and, 
being  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  on  a  smooth  level  bed  of  cement 
or  concrete,,  deposits  on  cooling  all  its  potassium  as  the  double 
chloride  of  potassium  and  magnesium,  the  same  as  the  carnallite  of 
Stassfurt 

Fig.  1  represents  the  usual  form  of  an  Austrian  "Salzgarten"  at 
Capo  d'lstria.     It  is   a  parallelo^TLMi  of  2  t  -    "  ,  i  i      -.fcnt 


^r  "-^.IILJ'I    ■  :j 


1- 


v^ 


d         c 


-^Y- 


Fio.  1. — Plan  of  Austrian  Salzgartcu. 

surrounded  by  a  dyko  or  sea-wall  d.     The  sea  water  enters  by  the 

sluice  h,  and   passes  into  the  wide  fosse  c,  where,  clarifying  by 

settlement,  it  passes  by  the  openings  /  into  a  sextuple  scries  <.: 

•large  basins  divided  by  the  separations  d,  first  of  all  entering  th' 


230 


ki  A  L  T 


iflrgcst  OTiGs  g,  h,  i,  and  thon  passing:  by  the  canals  n  into  tho  other 
'jiisins  l;k;  1,1.  Tlic  flow  of  the  water  from  ono  set  of  basiu3  to  the 
6ther  is  regulated  by  tho  sluices  e,€yC.  As  it  passes  from  ono  set 
i)f  basins  to  another  it  becomes  moro  and  more  concentrated,  till  at 
laat  in  tho  basins  m,  m  the  salt  deposits.     The  mother-liquor  or 


"bittern"  is  then  run  off  into  p,  and  thence  into. the  sea.  In 
France  it  is  often  stored  as  already  stated  for  future  treatment. 
In  case  of  heavy  rain,  tlic  already  concentrated  water  ia  run  into 
tho  covered  cisterns  5,  s,  which  serve  to  hold  it  till  the  return  of 
fiuo  weather. 


Table  I.  •— Percentage  Analyses  of  Sea  Salts  from  Well-known  Localities. 


Locality ; 

St  Ubcs. 

St 
Martin. 

MaralB 

Salunts  do 

I'Ouest. 

Island  of 
01i5ron. 

Salines 
du  MldL 

Cadiz. 

S.  Felice 

Authoritv 

Henry. 

Bertliler. 

Karsten. 

Henry. 

EnquSte 
sur  les  Sets. 

Henry. 

EnquCto 
sur  lea  Sela. 

■Watts. 

SchrUtter  and  Pohl. 

Sodium  chloride.... 
Magnesium  chloride 
Magnesium  sulphate 

Sodium  sulphate 

C.iicium  sulphate,.. 

Water 

Insoluble  matters... 
Loss ,. 

96-00 

0-so 

0-45 
2-35 
6-90 

95-19 

i-69 

0-66 

2-45 
0-11 

89-19 

'6-20 

6-81 
0-20 
3-60 

95-85 
0-24 
0-35 

i'30 
2-10 
015 

92-46 
0-55 
0-66 

2-28 
3-10 
0-95 

96-50 
0-32 
0-25 

6-83 
1-95 
0-10 

95-95 
0-35 
0-60 

i-90 

i-20 

87-97 
1-58 
0-50 

i-65 

7-50 
0-80 

96-40 
0-20 
0-45 

1-95 

1-00 

95-11 

•      0-23 

1-30 

6-91 
2-35 
0-10 

92-11 

6-99 

6-33 
6-30 
0-27 

95-91 
0-46 
0-40 

6-49 
2-58 
0-16 

96-05 
»-60 
0-51. 

6-46 
2-42 
0-07 

Sock-Salt. — This  appears  to  occur  in  almost  every 
formation,  except  in  the  Primary  rocks,  strictly  so  called 
The  oldest  deposit  of  which  the  age  may  be  considered  to 
have  been  anything  like  precisely  determined  may  be  said 
to  be  the  great  salt  range  of  the  Punjab,  which  is  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  Permian ;  and  that  lately  discovered 
at  Middlesbrough  in  Yorkshire,  immediately  overlying  the 
magnesian  limestone,  may  be  probably  referred  to  the 
same  period.  In  the  northern  counties  of  England  there 
are  frequent  instances  of  brine  springs  rising  fiom  tho 
Carboniferous  and  contiguous  formations.  The  Cheshire 
and  Worcestershire  salt-beds  are  by  some  attributed  to  the 
Permian  ;  more  generally,  however,  they  are  referred  to  the 
Trias.  Those  of  West  New  York  and  Gboderich  (Canada) 
are  said  to  belong  to  the  Salina  period  of  the  Upper 
Silurian.  The  deposits  of  the  Vosges,  Salzburg,  and 
others  of  central  Germany  and  Austria  are  considered  to 
belong  to  the  Trias  ;  that  of  Bex  in  Switzerland  to  the 
Lias.  Those  of  Wieliczka  in  Poland,  Cardona  in  Spain, 
and  some  Algerian  formations  are  admitted  to  be  Creta- 
ceous. Those  of  Bayonne,  Dax,  and  Camarade,  in  the 
Pyrenees,  are  probably  Tertiary,  while  the  Dead  Sea,  Lake 
Elton  in  Astrakhan,  the  Bitter  Lakes  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  the  Kara  Boghaz  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  the 
Limans  of  Bessarabia  south  of  Odessa,  the  Runn  of  Cutch, 
and  certain  formations  of  the  Sea  of  Azofjf,  &c.,  are  instances 
of  salt  formations  now  in  actual  progress.  The  frequent 
association  of  bitumen  and  petroleum  with  rock -salt  and 
brine  is  one  of  the  most  noticeable  features  in  the  geology 
of  those  substances,  and  seems  to  point  to  some  unknoivn 
condition  of  the  formation  of  the  two  first  named.  The 
Dax  ialt  is  close  to  the  bitumen  deposits  of  Bastenis  and 
Gaujac.  Borings  made  at  Dax,  as  well  as  at  Salies  about 
20  miles  distant  (where  also  salt  e.^ists),  gave  vent  to  an 
efflux  of  inflammable  gas  which  continued  for  several 
weeks,  <- ;  d  the  water  of  several  springs  in  that  neighbour- 
hood is  tainted  with  petroleum.  Bitumen  and  petroleum 
occur  near  Volterra  in  Tuscany,  where  a  large  deposit  of 
salt  is  being  worked.  In  Walachia  tho  two  occur  in  tho 
same  formation.  In  the  United  States  of  America  and  in 
the  south  of  Eussia  petroleum  and  brine  are  found  in  many 
places  either  actually  associated  or  in  near  proximity ; 
petroleum  has  recently  been  discovered  not  far  from  tho 
salt  deposits  of  Hanover,  and  one  of  the  beds  of  rock-salt 
at  Nancy  is  strongly  coloured  by  bitumen,  while  almost 
all  rock-s,-ilt  has  a  more  or  less  perceptible  bituminous 
odour  when  struck  or  rubbed.  In  the  province  of  Sze- 
chueu,  China,  are  some  remarkable  salt  springs,  where  the 
brine  is  accompanied  by  such  an  efflux  of  inflammable  gas 
that  the  latter  serves  as  fuel  for  its  evaporation  ;  and 
otiiir  springs  accompanied  by  the  r.ame  phenomenon  exist 


in  tho  same  region.  In  fact,  instances  without  end  might 
be  cited  of  the  two  occurring  together,  and  it  would  appear 
that  petroleum  for  some  mysterious  reason  can  only  be 
formed  ia  presence  of  salt. 

The  chief  rock-salt  districts  of  Europe  may  be  classified 
as  follows  : — (1)  the  Carpathians;  (2)  Austrian  and  Bava- 
rian Alps  ;  (3)  West  Germany ;  (4)  Vosges  ;  (5)  Jura  ;  (6) 
Swiss  Alps ;  (7)  Pyrenees  and  the  Spanish  or  Celtiberian 
Mountains ;  (8)  the  British  salt  deposits  ;  (9)  isolated 
deposits  and  springs  in  Russia,  Turkey,  Italy,  &c. 

The  Carpathian  district  may  be  subdivided  into  the  Moldt^ 
AValachian,  Transylvanian,  Galician,  aud  Hungarian  sectiona. 
They  form  probably  the  richest  and  most  extensive  of  the 
European  salt  fields  and  by  them  alone  the  entire  continent  might 
be  supplied  for  ages.  Tho  Transylv.anian  and  AValachian  mines 
are  specially  numerous  and  rich.  Thousands  of  tons  of  salt,  in 
tlie  form  of  brine  from  the  springs  -which  are  common  throughout 
the  country,  are  allowed  to  run  to  waste,  no  important  factory 
existing  in  the  country  for  its  evaporation.  The  rock  is  in  fact 
in  itself  so  pure  that  simply  ground  it  meets  all  requirements  of 
public  consumption.  In  Galicia  the  principal  mines  and  tbos/' 
of  most  historical  interest  are  at  Wieliczka  and  Bochnia.  The 
former,  which  is  justly  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world,  is  situated 
9  miles  from  Cracow  and  has  been  worked  continuously  for  six 
hundred  years.  The  mass  of  salt  is  calculated  to  be  BOO  miles 
long,  20  miles  broad,  and  1200  feet  thick.  It  is  on  tho  north-west 
side  of  a  ridge  of  hills,  an  offset  of  the  Carpathians.  The  salt  is 
stoped  out  in  longitudinal  and  transverse  galleries,  and  large 
vaulted  chanibei-s,  supported  by  m.issi\'e  pillars.  Explosives  are 
not  used  in  this  or  any  of  the  other  mines  of  the  district.  The 
salt  is  sold  just  as  it  comes  from  the  mine,  or  else  finely  ground 
and  packed  in  casks  or  sacks.  The  mine  is  divided  into  four 
levels,  and  is  284  yards  deep  and  1  mile  1279  yards  long  by  830 
yards  wide.  All  the  grinding  and  packing  is  done  within  it. 
It  is  stated  that  the  collective  length  of  the  galleries  and  chambers 
is  no  less  than  30  English  miles  and  the  total  yield  65,067  tons 
per  annum.  These  mines  employ  from  eight  hundred  to  one 
thousand  persons,  many  of  whom  live  permanently  under  ground  ; 
the  lower  levels  contain  streets  and  houses  and  constitute  a 
complete  village.  Travellers  have  given  glowing  descriptions 
of  the  crystal  vaults,  sftarkling  aisles,  and  fairy  palaces  of  this 
mine.  The  salt  is  greyish,  and  somewliat  resembles  gi-anite  in 
appearance. 

In  the  well-known  district  of  the  Austrian  and  Bavarian  Alps 
the  mine  of  Salzburg  (Salzkammergut)  is  perhaps  tho  most 
familiar.  The  Austrian  portion  of  the  district  includes  the 
towns  of  Aussee,  Ischl,  Hallstadt,  and  Hallein,  and  the  Bavarian 
includes  Berch^esgaden,  Reichenhall,  Traunstein,  and  Rosenheim. 
In  the  last-natoed  salt  is  made  from  brine  conveyed  in  pipes  from 
Berchtesgaden,  passing,  by  Reichenhall,  16  miles  in  all,  with  a  total 
fall  of  1552  feet.  There  are  also  large  salt  works  at  HaU  near 
Innsbruck.  Here,  as  in  the  Carpathian  region,  most  of  tho  rock- 
salt  is  sold  merely  ground,  or  in  lumps,  and  tho  trade  is,  as  in 
other  parts  of  Austria-Hungary,  a  strict  Government  monopoly, 
producing  an  annual  revenue  of  two  and  a  quarter  to  two  and  a 
half  millions  sterling. 

The  German  mines  are  numerous  ;  they  extend  north  and  south 
from  Segeberg  in  Holstein  to  Sulz  on  the  Neckar,  and  east  and 
west  from  Kreuznach  to  Halle.  Brine  springs  and  small  workings 
lie  scattc-red  all  over  the  country.  But  two  formations  of  special 
importance  aro  Stassfurt  in  Saxony  and  the  Lhneburg  Heath  in 


SALT 


Hanover.  Fig.  2  represents  a  section  of  the  Stassfart  beds,  and 
will  give  an  idea  of  their  formation.  It  appears  less  than  most 
others  to  have  been  subjected  to  denudation  since  being  formed, 

^ and    consequently    better    than   many 

/^.^.>.^_>2^'--^    others  illustrates  the  formation  of  such 
■_/  deposits.     Overlying  the  salt  properly 


231 


Kio.  2.  — Section  of  Stassf urt  Salt-Beds. 
ride  and  with  it  other  deliquescent  chlorides. 


SO  called  (e)  is  a  thin  band  of  anhydrite, 
and  above  this 
ft,  c,  d,  beds  of 
variously  -  col- 
oured clay,  red 
and  gi'ey,  con- 
taining highly 
deliquescent 
d  salts,  forming 
three  distinct 
layers.  The 
lowest,  (^.called 
"  polyhalite, " 
contains  some 
sodium  chlo- 
.««  «..^i  ...i,.4  !(,  ubiii^i  ucin^i;t»v;cin,  i;uiuiiues.  Ncxt  to  thls  comcs 
<:,  the  _"  Ideserite  "  region,  about  30J  yards  thick— hero  are  chiefly 
potassium  and  magnesium  sulphates;  and  lastly  ive  have  h,  the 
nppcr  layer  or  "  carnallite "  region,  23  yards  thick,  containing 
almost  exclusively  the  double  potassium  and  magnesium  chlorides, 
together  with  other  deliquescent  salts,  nodules  of  boracite,  &c.  It 
has  been  computed  that  a  sea  depth  of  12^  miles  would  be  required 
for  the  production  of  such  a  series  as  this." 

The  Vosges,  which  is  a  very  important  district,  supplied  a  large 
part  of  the  east  of  France  with  salt,  till  lost  by  the  war  of  1870- 
1871,  since  which  time  Nancy  has  gained  considerably  in  import- 
ance.    Geologically  speaking,  Nancy  is  included  in  this  basin 

In  Switzerland  the  chief  salt  district  lies  on  the  rio-ht  bank  of 
the  Rhone,  near  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  principaf  centres  are 
ff,r  5°<^"^'  """i  B'^'t.  the  last  being  the  most  important. 
Ihe  Pyrenees  are  rich  on  both  sides  in  brine  springs  and  rock- 
salt  formations.  In  the  south-west  of  France  we  have  the  rock- 
gilt  of  Dax  and  ViUefranche,  and  the  brine  springs  of  Salies  and 
Briscous,  as  well  as  that  of  Camarade.  In  Spain  both  rock-salt 
and  brine  are  plentiful,  as  is  indicated  by  the  frequent  recurrence  of 
the  .yllable  Sal  in  the  names  of  triwns  (Salinas,  SaliniUas,  Poza 
ne  la  Sal,  tc. ). 

The  Celtibcrian  or  exclusively  Spanish  district  includes  various 
'?.?7^.  8f='«ercd  over  Spain-Salinas  de  Saelices  (Guadalajara), 
\  lUafafila  (Zamora),  Torreximeno,  Cazorla,  and  Hinojares  (Jain) 
to.;  but  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  deposit  of  salt  in  Spain  is 
that  of  Cardona  in  the  province  of  Barcelona,  45  miles  north-west 
ol  t.iat  city.  Here  is  a  veritable  mountain  composed  of  a  bed  of 
remarkably^pure  salt  142  to  164  yar4s  thick,  and  forming  two 
massM,  each  about  a  mile  in  circumference.  The  salt  is  as  usual 
stratified,  and  beara  very  strong  evidence  of  denudation.  It  is 
chiefly  pure  white,  but  in  parts  varies  from  light-blue  to  brick -red 
J(,  IS  extracted  by  an  opeu-air  working  Uke  stone  from  a  quarry 

1  here  are  some  bnne  and  rock-salt  deposits  whicli  can  hardly  bo 
dassified  as  belonging  to  any  particular  district.  Such  are-in 
France,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  the  brine  springs  of  Moutiers  and 
Castellane  ;  in  Italy,  Voltcrra ;  in  Sicily,  Nicosia  and  JIussomeli  • 
ir.  Croatia,  Szambor ;  in  Bosnia,  Tusia  ;  in  Russia,  Eachmutz  on 
the  Donetz,  Balachna  on  the  Volga,  Slaraya-Russa  near  Lake  llmen 
tupatoria  and  other  places  in  the  Crimea  ;  in  Prussia,  -Waltcra^ 
uoiff,  Spcrenberg,  ic.  .  , 

iiihI!?  1'''"/ ^t"•'"r'  °f  "»""f^t"«  '■"  England  are  at  Northwich, 
Middlewich  )V  insford,  and  Sandbach  in  Cheshire,  Weston-on- Trent 
MM^  I  r-  •^'°H'  !'T.''  ''"'*  Droitwich  in  Worcestershire,  and 
l!  ?jl^  ?"^''  "*  Yorkshire.'  Duncrue  near  Carrickfergiis  in 
W„r..i  ^  possesses  a  large  deposit  of  salt.  The  Cheshire  and 
Worcestershire  salt  deposits  arc  up  to  the  present  time  by  far  the 

AlthouThn-  ■  *'''•  °"\""'  f'P-^H'  ^""8  only  partially  worked. 
Although  bnne  springs  have  been  known  to  exfst  in  both  these 

there  1rVm"t-"""  *''"  ^°"?^"  pccupation,  and  salt  had  been  made 

about  •!0^,T°,i™r""°"?  •  "  "'^  "°*  ""  I«'°  t''»t  '"'^''•'s^lt 
about  30  yards  thick  was  discovered  at  Marbury  near  Northwich 
by  some  men  exploring  for  coal,  at  a  depth  of  34  yards  In  1779 
three  beds  of  rock-salt  were  discovered  at  Uwton,%cparated  fro  a 
one  another  by  byers  of  indurat,^  clay.  The  JUrston  rnine  the 
property  of  Me=^rs  Rigby  and  Fletcher  of  Northwich,  is  thl  W«t 
and  perhaps  the  oldest  (there  are  twenty-five  in  Englknd  altogefh^r 

farther^  and  Xr  Y'  ^-  '"  H"  '^  '"'"'"  ^''"'^''^  »"  ^'nkirig 
l^rther,  and,  after  traversing  a  layer  of  indurated  clay  intersected 
with  .maU  veins  of  salt  loj  yards%hick,  they  came  on  another  of 

Teutonic  words  H./llill8  J^irrtn^  V^  ^  "'°  ^'"'""  '""">  "'  ""=  non. 
Mdci,-.  !.lt-work3  oaurrlns  la  placc-mimc.  point  la  ihc  Mme  ^m}  to 


rock-salt.     This-tho  bed  whicli  has  continued  to  be  worked  ever 
s.nce-is  33  to  3/  yards  thick.    Beneath  it  are  others,  bat  they  aro 
thm  and  impure.    The  total  depth  of  the  mine  to  the  bottom  of  the 
lower  level  is  120  yards.     At  Winsford,  where  the  same  formation 
seems  to   recur,  it  is  159  yards  from  tho  surface.     The  Marston 
mine  covers  an  area  of  about  40  acres.     The  salt  is  first  reached 
at  35-40  yards  m   the  Northwich  district,  and  the  upper  layer 
IS  2D-50  yards  in  thickness  (JIarston  23-2C  yards) ;  it  has  above 
It    apparently   lying  in   the   recesses  of  its   surface,  a  layer  of 
saturated  bnne.     This  is  the  brine  which  is  raised  at  the  various 
pumping  stations  m  Northwich  and  elsewhere  around,  and  which 
serves   w-hen  evaporated  to   produce   white  salt.     The   beds  are 
reached  by  sinking  through  the  clays  and  variegated  marls  typical 
of  this  formation      The  salt  is  blasted  out  with^impowder.     The 
Middlesbrough   deposit  bids   fair  soon   to   become  of  Very  great 
importance.     It  was  discovered  hy  Messrs  Bolckow  and  Vau^han  in ' 
boring  for  water  in  1862  at  a  depth  of  400  yards,  but  was  not  utilized 
and  was  again  found  by  Messrs  Bell  Bros,  at  Port  Clarence  at  a 
depth  of  3^6  yards,  and  is^beiiig  now  worked  by  them,  the  he.it 
used  for  evaporation  being  the  waste  gases  of  theu-'  blast  furnaces 
i-ncouraged  by  their  success  the  Ifewcastle  Chemical  Company  have 
also  bored  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.     They  failed  at  first 
to  find  the  salt,  but  ultimately  succeeded  by  a  fresh  borinc      The 
extent  of  the   bed  is  not  yet  ascertained,  but  evidently °by   the 
failure  of  the  Newcastle  Chemical  Company  at  first  it  cannot  extend 
lar  to  the  north.     Its  thickness  has  been  proved  in  so  far  as  the 
spot  where  Messrs  Bell  Bros,  made  their  boring  is  concerned.     These 
gentlemen   have-  introduced    the    method    employed    at    Nancy 
of  raising  the  salt  in  the  form  of  brine  without  the  trouble  cr 
expense  ot ^sinking  a  shaft.     In  Cheshire  the  surface-wafer  tricklinc 
through   the  overlying  strata   dissolves  the  salt,  which  is  subset 
quent  y  pumped  as   brine,  but  here  the  great  depth  and  impe-- 
meability  of  the  strata  precludes  this,  so  another  method  has  been 
resorted  to.     A  bore  is  made  into  the  salt,  and  lined  with  tubinc 
in  the  usual  manner,  and  this  tube  where  it  traverses  the  salt  S 
pierced  with  holes.     ^Yithin  'this  is  hung  loosely  a  second  tube  of 
much  smaller  dimensions  so  as  to  leave  an  afinular  space  between 
the  two.     Through  this  space  the  fresh  surface  water  finds  its  way 
and  dissolving  the  salt  below  rises  in  the  inner  tube  as  brine   but 
only  to  such  a  level  that  the  two  columns  bear  to  one  another  the 
relation  of  ten  to  twelve,  this  being  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  respec- 
tive weignts  of  saturated  brine  and  fresh  water.    For  the  remaining 
distance  the  bnne  is  raised  by  a  pump.     At  first,  while  the  cavity 
If,^^r'  /?''•'  *f  T,,''  ^""'^  difficulty  in  getting  a  continuous 
supply  of  bnne  of  full  strength,  but  this  ceases  to  be  the  case  as 
the  solution  chamber  (as  it  is  caUed)  becomes  enlarged.     The  fresh 
water,   however,  as  it  descends  rises   to  the  surface  of  the  salt, 
tenrting  rather  to  dissolve  its  upper  layers  and  extend  superficially 
so  that  aftera  time  the  superincumbent  soil,  being  without  suppor"t' 
tails  m.     These  interior  landslips,  besides  choking  the  pipes  and 
breaking  the  communication,  often  produce  sinkings  at  the  surface 
such  as  occurred  some  time  ago  at  Dienzc  (Lonaine).     The  same 
inconvenience  is  beginning  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  environs  of 
Nancy,  and  a  similar  one  produces  on  a  larger  scale  the  sinking 
and  subsidences  at.Winsford  and  Northwich  so  much  complained 
of      The  deposits  of  salt  in  the  United  States  are  unimportant 
Ihe  country  possesses  no  really  considerable  salt  industry   but  is 
supplied  so  tar  as  interior  consumption  is  concerned  to  a  small 
extent   by   brine   springs      The   principal  supplies,  however,  are 
denved  from  England  and  the  shores  of  Spain  and  Portugal      The 
same  remark  applies  to  Canada.     South  America  possessfs  several 
salt  deposit  and  brine  springs,  but  als6  takes  all  its  supplies  from 
Lurone.    .Asiatic  Russia  is  very  abundantly  supplied  with  salt,  as 
Ukewise  13  China  ;   and  Persia  is  perhaps  one  of  the  countries 
most  abund.-intly  endowed  with  this  natural  and  useful  product 
lintisli  India  cannot  be  said  to  be  similariy  favoured.     In  the 
north.  It  js  true,  is  the  great  sajt  range  of  the  Punjab,  as  well  as 
the  Sambhur  Lake,  and  salt  is  obtained  from  sia-watcr  at  many 
places  along  its  extensive  seaboard  ;  but  India  is  not  well  supplied 
in  many  parts,  and  is  dependent  largely  for  this  article  on  tho 
Uieslure  salt  works.     In  laot  this  export  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant branches  of  tlicir  trade. 

Table  II.  (see  next  page)  is  from  Spon's  Encydopecdia  of  the  In- 
clitsirial  Arts,  kc.  Tho  clay  and  insoluble  matters  given  for  the 
btassfurt  salt  seem  to  be  somewhat  abnormally  large.  — 

Rock-salt  is  probably  the  ori.siu  of  more  than  half  the  salt  manu- 
lactured  in  the  world.  It  occurs  in  all  degices  of  purity,  from  that 
of  mere  salty  clay  to  that  of  the  most  transparent  crystals  In  the 
former  case  it  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  tho  brine  .at  a  density  even 
approaching  saturation,  and,  as  at  Jloutiers  in  Savoy  and  in  several 
of  tho  German  salt  works,  chambers  and  galleries  are  excavated 
within  the  saliferous  bed  to  increase  the  dissolving  surface  and 
water  let  down  fresh  is  pumped  up  as  brine.  Many  brine  sp'rines 
also  Dcoar  m  a  more  or  less  saturated  condition.  In  such  cases 
the  'rater  «  sometimes  caused  to  trickle  over  faggots  arranged 
under  Urge  open  sheds  called  graduation  houses  "  lOradirhuuser) 
whereby  a  more,  extensive  surface  of  evaporation  is  obtained,  and 


232. 


SALT 


Table  II. — Percentage  Composition  of  Pock- Salt  from  Wcll-kvoini  Localities. 


France. 

England 

'■ 

Localily 

Scliwablsch-Hali, 

WUitembcig. 

Bcrchtes- 
gadcn, 

Bavarl.i. 

Slasstim, 

near 

Jlagdc- 

burg. 

Chateau 

Sallns, 

Lorraine. 

^'ic,  Lorraine. 

Dax. 

Hall, 

■Wle. 
liczlia, 
Galicla. 

■Wlilto 
Sait  from 
RocliSalt, 
Cheshire, 

M.ustoil 
Mine, 
Nortli- 
wiclr. 

Fell  ling. 

Dbchof. 

Rainmels- 
berg. 

JIathicu 

do  Dom- 

basic. 

BertlUcr. 

Cordicr. 

.Maxivcll- 
Lyte, 

Disciiof. 

Biachof. 

Rlchard- 

EOn  and 
Watts. 

Craco 
Calvett 

Sodium  chloride 

Calcium  chloiuK:  

Magnesium  chloiido  .. 
Potassium  clilorido.... 

Calcium  sulpliato  

Magnesium  sulphate. 
Stagncsium  carbonate 

Calcium  carbonate 

Ferric  chloride 

99-97 
0  02 

0-01 

9S-31 

n-02 

trace 

o'li 

0-15 
0-16 

... 

oso 

99-85 
trace 
0-15 

94-57 
007 
0-80 

3-35 
0-22 

97-05 
6-45 

rso 

tr.ace 
...     , 
1-00 

99-30 
0-50 

0-20 

97-80 
0-30 

1-90 

97-45 

0-25 
2-30 

96-97 

6-51 

trace 

0-23 

6  01 
2;28 

99-43 
0-25 
0-12 

... 
0-20 

100-00 

98-30 
0-05 
1-65 

96  70 
0-68 

trace 

trace 
0-25 

1-74 

0'63  ' 

Clay      or      insoluble 

matters 

^Vater  or  loss 

the  brine  becomes  rapidly  concentrated.  Fig.  3  shows  one  of  these 
"Gradirhauser."  It  consists  of  a  long  shod,  the  floor  of  which  is  a 
shallow  cistern  kept  filled  with  the  brine  to  be  concentrated,  the 
bady  of  the  houiie  being  occupied  by  a  singlo  or  double  row  oi 


Fig.  3. — Gradirhaua. 

fagots  of  blackthorn  t,  and  above  these  a  trough  or  troughs  5,  into 
\v]jrch  the  brine  is  pumped;  escaping  from  these  into  the  channel 
*,  it  is  allowed  to  now  or  drip  slowly  over  the  faggots,  and  finds 
its  way  back  to  the  basin  beneath.  The  shed,  has  its  sides  open 
and  exposed  to  the  prevailing  winds,  and,  the  brine  being  tlais 
spread  over  a  large  surface,  there  is  much  scope  for  evaporation, 
and  it  becomes  rapid?y  concentrated.  Several  such  sheds  are  often 
built  in  series,  and  the  brine,  being  conveyed,  from  one  to  the  oth?r 
as  it  becomes  denser,  attains  at  last  a  specific  gi-avity  of  about  1*18, 
when  it  is  stored  in  large  cisterns  till  req^nired  for  evaporation. 
TJiis  is  done  iu  large  iron  pans  by  the  method  to  bo  hereafter  de- 
scribed when  speaking  of  rock-salt  brine.  The  use,  however,  of  tlie 
"graduation  houses"  is  dying  out,  except  in  particular  localities 
where  competition  from  sea  salt  or  purer  rock-salt  is  diflicult,  as 
both  their  construetiou  and  their  maintenance  are  expensive.  The 
purer  rock-salt  is  often  simply  ground  for  use,  as  we  have  seen 
to  be  the  casa  at  "Wieliczka  and  elsewhere,  but  it  is  more  frequently 
pumped  as  brine,  produced  either  by  artificial  solution  as  at 
Middlesborough  and  other  places,  or  by-  natural  means  as  in 
Cheshire  and  Worcestershire.  One  great  drawback  to  the  use  of 
even  the  purest  rock-salt  simply  ground  is  its  tendency  to  revert 
to  a  hard  imwieldy  mass,  when  kept  any  length  of  time  iu  sacks-. 
This  is  partly  but  not  wholly  obviated  by  packing  in  casks,  whicli, 
however,  are  dear  and  not  always  obtainable.  As  usually  made, 
white  salt  from  rock-salt  maybe  classified  into  two  groups: — (1) 
boiled:  known  as  fine,  table,  lump,  stoved  lump,  superfine,  basket, 
butter,  and  cheese  salt  (Fr.  sel  Jin-Ji-iii  scl  a  la  inimttc,  &c.);  (2) 
unboiled  :  common,  chemical,  fislicry,  Scotch  fishery,  extra  fishery, 
double  extra  fishery,  and  bay  salt  (Fr.  scl  dc  IS,  i24,  4'^,  60,  and 
72  hcurcs).  All  these  names  are  derived  from  the  size  and  appear- 
ance of  the  crystals,  their  uses,  and  the  modes  of  their  production. 
The  boiled  salts,  the  crystals  of  which  are  small,  are  formed  in  a 
medium  constantly  agitated  by  boiling.  Tho  fine  or  stoved  table 
salts  are  those  white  masses  with  which  we  are  all  familiar.     Basket 


salt  takes  its  name  from  tho  conical  baskcta  from  which  it  is 
allowed  to  drain  when  first  it  is  "drawn"  from  tho  pan.  Butter 
and  cheese  salts  are  not  stove-dried,  but  left  iu  their  more  or  less 
moist  condition,  as  being  thus  more  easily  applied  to  their  respec- 
tive uses.  Of  the  unboiled  salts  tlie  first  two,  corresponding  to  the 
Fr.  scl  dc  13  hcurcs  and  scl  dc  34  hcurcs,  show  by  their  English 
names  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied,  and  the  others,  tho 
applications  of  which  are  equally  shown  by  their  names,  merely 
depend  for  their  quality  on  tlie  length  of  time  which  elapses 
bctv/een  successive  drawings,"  and  the  temperature  of  the  evapora- 
tion. The  time  varies  for  the  unboiled  salts  fiom  twelve  houi-s  to 
three  or  four  weeks,  the  larger  crystals  being  allowed  a  longer  time 
to  form,  and  the  smaller  ones  being  fornied  more  quickly.  The 
temperature  varies  from  55°  to  180"  Fahr. 

Oue  striking  difference  between  the  manufacture  of  salt  frora 
rock-salt  brine  as  carried  on  iu  Britain  and  on  the  Continent  liea 
in  the  almost  exclusive  use  in  the  latter  case  of  closed  or  covered 
pans,  except  in  the  making  of  fine  salt,  whereas  in  Britain  open 
ones  are  employed.  AVith  open  pans  tho  vapour  is  free  to  difluse 
itself  into  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  and  the  evaporation  is 
perhaps  more  rapid.  When"  covered  pans  are  used,  the  loss  of  heat 
by  radiation  is  less,  and  the  salt  made  is  also  cleaner.  In  works 
published  in  France  and  Germany  the  statement  is  frequently 
BThle  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  sell  there  a  grain  of  salt 
manufactured  by  English  methods,  but  one  is  fairly  justified  iu 
doubting  this  assertion,  seeing  the  ease  with  which  the  public  are 
induced  to  purchase  the  scl  gris  of  the  marais  salants.  In  fact,  it 
is  customary  in  some  places  to  make  a  special  article,  which  is  sold 
in  competition  with  sea  salt,- by  mixing  with  the  purer  one  10  or 
12  per  cent,  of  mud  or  earth.  The  most  advantageous  mode  of 
evaporation  would  evidently  be  to  cause  the  heated  gases  from  tho 
furnace  to  pass  over  tho  sui-facs  of  the  liquid  itself.  No  wcariug- 
out  of  the  pans  need  thus  bo  feared,  no  lowering  of  the  conductive 
power  by  incrustation,  but  the  vapour  as  fast  as  formed  would 
dilfuse  itself  jnto  heated  air  in  rapid  motion,  this  air  bcingi  Ear 
from  its  point  of  saturation  and  greedy  of  moisture.  Tlie  iiTan,- 
however,  which  was  tried  in  Britain  by  Otto  Pohl  and  in  Germany 
by  Born  has  hitherto  been  a  failure,  the  salt  being  for  one  thing 
very  much  soiled  with  the  soot  and  other  products  of  combustion. 
Again,  this  mode  of  evporation  hardly  consorts  with  the  slow 
progress  and  perfect  stillness  required  for  the  production  of  the 
larger-grained  salts,  and  gives  only  fine  salt. 

Figs,  4  and  5  represent  a  French  pan,  while  fig.  6  is  t»  British 
pan,  only  differing  from  the  Continental  ones  in  not  being  covered 
in,  and  in  usually  having  three  or  four  fires  in  place  of  two  or 
three,  and  n  separate  chamber  beyond  the  pan  in  which  the  salt 
is  stoved,  heated  by  the  flues  conveying  tho  furnace  gases  to 
the  chimney  after  leaving  the  pan.  The  first  two  represent  a  pan 
of  G4  feet  long  by  21^  feet  wide  filled  with  brine,  ^:c.,  and  with 
circulating  flues  beneath  for  economy  of  heat.  This  pan,  a,  is  sup- 
ported all  round  its  lower  edges  on  a  wall  and  on  the  pillars  h,  b, 
and  heated  by  two  fires  c,  c.  The  flame  and  the  heated  gases  of 
each  firo  circulate  in  the  flues;),  p,  p,  in  which  are  holes  at  various 
convenient  points  for  cleaning  ;  thus  then  these  gases  are  made  to 
traverse  the  length  of  the  pan  three  times  before  arriving  at  tlie 
chimneys  n,  n  or  the  drying  floors  o,  o.  Tho  channels  c,  c 
beneath  the  flues  (fig.  5)  serve  to  warm  the  air  which  feeds  the  fires, 
and,  enterijjg  at  the  further  end  of  the  pan,' traverses  them  ami 
issues  warm  into  the  ash  \nt  g,  which  is  of  course  otherwise  closed 
by  the  door  h.  The  steam,  collecting  beneath  the  cover  m,  of 
which  the  upper  portion  i  is  attached  to  the  timbers  of  tho  roof. 


SALT 


233 


issues  by  tte  chimney  h,  wbile  below  a  series  of  shutters  aUo^w 
access  for  the  various  manipulations.  ' 

The  two  drying  floors  o,  o  are  each  heate''  by  three  flues  q,  y,  q, 


r^ 


the  latest  improvements,  as  used  in  France. 


,,  itli  all 


continuations  of  tliose  below  the  pan,  within  which  circulate  the 
heated  gases  on  their  way  to  the  main  chimney,  and  on  this  floor 
is  spread  the  salt  to  be  dried.  The  floor  of  a  pan  is  generally  at 
first  slightly  arched  towards  the  centre,  so  that  when  new  a  pan 


■Tlie  same  in  longitmUiial  section. 

is'rathcr  deeper  at  the  sides  than  in  the  middle,  but  they  soon 
flatten  out  and  warp  in  all  directions  on  being  fired.  This  warp- 
ing is  a  great  inconvenience,  opening  communications  between  the 
flues  and  in- 
terfering eadly 
with  the  ar- 
rangements of 
these  latter 
just  described, 
eomuchsothat 
some  makers 
prefer  simple 
iron  or  bnck 
8Ui)port3  placed 
here  and  tlierc, 
without  any  de- 
finite arrange-  : 
ment.  On  the 
Continent  the 
pan  is  often 
^suspended  by 
irdn  rods  from 
flio  beants  of 
the  roof.     The 


.r 


i^ 


Fio.  C- 


I : ,  1 1 ,  hurdles  into 
\^'llicli  the  salt  i^  drawn. 


warping  or  buckling,  the  scaling,  and  tlio  formation  of  "  cat,*,"  as 
tlio  workmen  call  the  sort  of  stalactites  of  salt  which  form  iu 
the  flues,  arising  from  leaks  in  the  pan,  are  perhcpb  amonu  the 
^■orflt  annoyances  of  th«  flal'makcr?       The  jians  ai'e  of  ordinary 


boiler  plates  riveted  together.  The  plates  vary  in  size,  but  usually 
are  2  feet  by  4  feet,  and  rather  smaller  over  the  fire.  The  grate, 
which  should  be  such  as  to  produce  a  moderate  and  diffused  heat, 
is  of  the  ordinary  kind,  and  the  firing  is  usually  douo  from  a  pit 
below  tho  end  of  the  pan.  In  England  they  use  "  slack"  sometimes 
called  "burgey";  abroad  they  use  all  kinds  of  fuel — wood,  coal, 
lignite,  and  turf ;  and  they  also  in  many  places  are  in  the  habit  of 
protecting  the  pan  from  the  more  intense  heat  immediately  over 
the  iire  c  by  a  guard  t  at  that  particular  part.  As  a  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  diffused  and  gentle  heat  without  smoke,  water  gas  will 
probably  come  to  ba  used  by  and  by.  On  the  Continent  the  flues 
are  often  2  or  2:^  i'yet  high,  and  in  Britain  they  are  usually  half 
that  height.  As,  however,  a  slov/  iind  regular  draught  is  to  be 
aimed  at,  on  the  principle  enunciated  by  Mr  Fredk.  Siemens,  tho 
Continental  plan  seems  tho  more  rational.  Space  does  not  hero 
admit  of  a  description  of  the  so-called  machine  pans — the  clay  pans 
of  the  Cheshire  Amalgamated  Salt  Company  or  Otto  Pohl's  system.* 

In  Britain  the  brine  is  so  pure  that,  keeping  a  small  stream  of 
it  running  into  the  pan  to  replace  the  losses  by  evaporation  and 
the  removal  of  the  salt,  it  is  only  necessai-y  occasionally  {not  often) 
to, reject  the  mother-liquor  wheu  at  last  it  becomes  too  impure 
with  magnesium  chloride  ;  but  in  some  of  the  works  on  the  Con- 
tinent, especially  those  of  North  Germany,  the  mother-liquor  not 
only  contains  more  of  this  impurity  but  becomes  quite  brown  from 
organic  matter  on  concentration,  and  totally  unfit  for  further 
service  after  yielding  but  two  or  three  crops  of  salt  crystals.  Some- 
times, to  get  rid  of  these  impurities,  the  brine  is  treated  in  a  largo 
tub  (bcssoir)  with  lime ;  on  settling  it  becomes  clear  and  colourless, 
but  the  dissolved  lime  forms  a  skin  on  its  surface  in  tho  pan, 
retards  the  evaporation,  and  impedes  the  crystallisation.  At 
times  sodium  sulphate  is  added  to  tho  brine,  producing  sodium 
chloride  and  magnesium  sulphate  by  double  decomposition  with 
tho  magnesium  chloride.  A  slight  degree  of  acidity  seems  more 
favourable  to  the  crystallization  of  salt  than  alkalinity  ;  thus  it 
is  a  practice  to  add  a  certain  amount  of  alum,  2  to  12  lb.  per  pan 
of  brine,  especially  when,  as  in  fishery  salt,  fine  crystals  are  required. 
Tho  salt  is  "drawn"  from  the  pan  and  placed  (in  the  case  of 
boiled  salts)  in  small  conical  baskets  hung  round  the  pan  to  drain, 
and  thence  moulded  iu  square  boxes,  and  afterwards  stove-dried, 
or  (in  case  of  unboiled  salts)  "drawn"  in  a  heap  on  to  the 
"  hurdles,"  on  which  it  drains,  and  thence  is  carried  to  the  store. 

In  most  Continental  countries  a  heavy  tax  is  laid  on  salt ;  and 
the  coarser  as  well  as  the  finer  crystals  are  therefore  often  dried  so 
as  not  to  pay  duty  on  more  water  than  can  be  helped. 

The  brine  nsed  in  the  salt  manufacture  in  England  is  very  nearly 
saturated,  containing  25  or  26  per  cent,  of  sodium  chloride,  tho 
utmost  water  can  take  up  being  27  per  cent. ;  and  it  ranges  from 
38  to  42  ounces  of  salt  per  gallon.  In  some  other  countries,  as  has 
been  explained,  the  brine  has  to  be  concentrated  before  use,  and 
every  ounce  per  gallon  by  which  the  brine  is  below  saturation 
indicates  a  difference  of  cost  in  the  production  from  it  of  salt  ol 
about  4^d.  to  4^d.  per  ton.  Subjoined  are  four  analyses  of  brine 
taken  from  Messrs  Richardson  and  Watts's  Chemistry  ajiplied  U 
the  Arts  aiid  Manufactures : — 


Constituents  in  100  Paris 
Brine. 

Cheshire. 

Worccsterabire. 

Marston. 

Whcclo*. 

Droitwich. 

Stolte. 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  potassium 

Bromide  of  sodium 

25^322 

•Oil 
trace 

tr«co 
•146 

•391 
•036 
•107 
traco 
trace 
trace 
traco 
traco 

26  015 

25  333 

•020 
trace 

•171 
trace 

•418 

■1C7 
trace 
trace 
(race 
trace 
trano 

2G^049 

22^452 

trace 
trace 

trace 
•390 

387 
•115 
•034 

trace 
trace 
trace 

traco 

23  37S   1 

25^492 

trace 
trace 

trace 
■    -594' 

•261 
•016 
•034 

traco 
trace 
trace 

traco 

26  397 

Iodide  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  magnesium  ... 
Sulphate  of  potash 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  soda 

Carbonate  of  magnesia.... 
Carbonate  of  manganese,. 

Piiusphatc  of  lime 

rho(ii>liato  of  ferric  oxide, 
Alumina 

Silica . ..    

The  prico  of  sail  at  u-.-  works  niiiv  be  oaiO  to  range  from  4s.  6d 
to  63.  per  ton.  thfi  ioimcr  being  less  than  the  cost  prico  as  givch 
before  the  British  parliamentary  comnussiou  in  1831.  It  is  there 
stated  to  be — brine,  6d.  ;  labmu;  lOd. ;  fuiI  3s.  ,  rent,  interest,  &c., 
Is. ;  total,  r)s.  4d.  Thiib  the  margin  for  ]>rorit  is  hut  small,  almost  the 
only  gain  Leing  said  lo  accnio  from  the  lightfrinc,  moat  of  t!ie  salt 
manufacturers  doing  tho  carriage  in  their  own  '' flats. " 


;.  rim    ,/tfu  Induititnt  Ar 

XXI. 


30 


234 


S  A  L— S  A  L 


Saltmaking  is  by  no  means  ah  unlioalthy  tiadc,  some  slight  sore- 
ness of  tlio  eyes  being  tlio  only  afl'cction  sometimes  complained  of ; 
iutlccil,  the  atmospliore  of  steam  saturated  with  salt  in  which 
the  workmen  live  scorns  specially  preservative  against  colds,' 
rheumatism,  neuralgia,  i.c.  It  is  said  that  wages  are  rather 
better  and  employment  more  regular  in  Worcestershire  than  in 
Cheshire. 

Tlie  parliamentary  commission  above  referred  to  was  appointed 
with  a  view  to  the  investigation  of  the  causes  of  the  disastrous 
subsidences  which  are  constantly  taking  place  in  all  the  salt 
districts,  and  the  provision  of  a  remedy.  It  led  to  no  legislative 
action  ;  bnt  the  evil  is  recognized  fs  a  grave  one.  At  Northwich 
and  Winsfovd  scarcely  a  house  or  a  chimney  stack  remains  straight. 
Houses  arc  keyed  up  with  "ehaps,"  "  face  plates,"  and  "bolts," 
and  only  kept  from  falling  by  leaning  on  one  another.  The  doors 
and  windows  huve  become  lozenge-shaped,  the  walls  bulged,  and 
the  floors  crooked.  Buildings  have  sunk,— some  of-  them  dis- 
aiipoaring  altogether.  Lakes  have  been  formed  where  there  was 
solid  .'round  before,  and  incalculable  damage  done  to  jiroperty  in 
nil  quarters.  At  the  same  time  it  is  dilHcult  to  see  how  this 
nrievance  can  be  remedied  without  inflicting  serious  injury,  almost 
ruin,  upon  the  salt  trade.  The  workings  in  Great  Britain  represent 
the  abstraction  of  rather  more  than  a  cubic  mile  of  rock  every  five 
years,  and  of  this  by  far  the  larger  part  is  in  Chcshiie. 

Manley  gives  the  following  statistics  of  the  production  of  salt  m 
ICngland  for  1881  : 

■Northwich 600,000  tons. 

Cheshu'C 


StafTordshiro. 
Worcestershire 


(1 

^  Winsford 1,000,000 

■  Uliddlowich 30,000 

(  Whcelock  and  Lawton 100,000 

.     Shirley  wick  and 'VVeston-on-Trent  4,000 

■  Droitwich ' 115,000 

Stoke  Prior 105,000 


Total 1,854,000     „ 

He  also  gives  the  following  details  of  the  salt  exported  for  ycais 
ending  Dec.  31,  1881  to  1883  inclusive,  quoted  from  the  archives 
of  the  Salt  Chamber  of  Commerce,  whence  the  importance  of  the 
salt  trade  in  England  may  be  judged  :- 


From  Lirci-pool : — 

To  United  States 

„  British  North  America 

„  West  Indies  and  South  Amerlra 

„  Africa t 

„  East  Indies 

,,  Australia 

„  Baltic  and  North  Europe 

,,  France  and  Mediterranean 

,,  Holland  and  Belgium 

Coaat^vise 


Total  fiom  Liverpool.. 

From  Runcorn 

,,    Western  Dock 


Grand  total 1,143,637 


1S81. 


I 


1S82. 


Tons. 

228,891 
80,784 
15,656 
25,181 

324,109 
23,873 

100,957 
1,187 
67,780 
41,653 


909,970 
148,123 
85,545 


Tons. 

223,602 
81,716 
23,953 
34,287 

274,666 
17,233 

116,509 
6,001 
67,334 
32,462 


876,962 
146,716 
68,147 


J383 


Tons. 

239,459 
99,352 
25,413 
36,896 

316,327 
10,860 

107.978 
2,803 
72,363 
46,753 


958,194 
141,021 
87,954 


(F.  M.  L.) 

Ancient  Historii  and  Religions  /Sj/mJotem. —Indispensable  as  the 
use  of  salt  appears  to  us,  it  must  have  been  quite  unattainable  to 
primitive  man  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Thus  the  Odyssey 
(xi.  122  sq.)  speaks  of  inlanders  (in  Epirus!)  who  do  not  know  the 
sea  and  use  no  salt  with  tlusir  food.  In  some  parts  of  America, 
and  even  of  India  (among  the  Todas),  salt  was  first  introduced  by 
Europeans  ;  and  there  are  stiU  parts  of  central  Africa  where  the 
use  of  it  is  a  luxury  confined  to  the  rich.  Indeed,  where  men  live 
mainly  on  milk  and  flesh,  consuming  the  latter  raw  or  roasted,  so 
that  its  salts  are  not  lost,  it  is  not  necessary  .to  add  sodium  chloride, 
ami  thus  we  understand  how  the  Numidiau  nomads  in  tlie  time  of 
Sallust  and  tlie  Bedouins  of  Hadramaut  at  the  present  day  never 
cat  salt  with  their  food.  On  the  other  hand,  cereal  or  vegetable 
diet  calls  for  a  supplenieut  of  salt,  and  so  does  boiled  meat.  The 
important  part  played  by  the  mineral  in  the  history  of  commerce 
and  religion  depends  on  this  fact ;  at  a  very  early  stage  of  progress 
salt  became  a  necessary  of  life  to  most  nations,  and  in  many  cases 
they  could  procure  it  only  from  abroad,  from  the  sea-coast,  or  from 
districts  like  that  of  Palmyra  where  salty  incrustations  are  founjl 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Sometimes  indeed  a  kind  of  salt  was 
got  from  the  ashes  of  saline  plants  (e.g.,  by  the  Umbrians, 
Aristotle,  Met.,  ii.  p.  459),  or  by  pouring  the  water  of  a  brackish 
stream  over  a  fire  of  (saline)  wood  and  collecting  the  ashes,  as  was 
done  in  ancient  Germany  (Tac,  Ann.,  xiii.  57),  in  Gaul,  ana  m 
Spain  (Plin.,  U.  N.,  xxxi.  7,  82  sq.);  but  these  were  imperfect 
surrogates.  Among  inland  peoples  a  salt  spring  was  regarded  as  a 
special  gift  of  the  gods.  The  Chaonians  in  Epirus  had  one  which 
flowed  into  a  stream  where  there  were  no  fish  ;  nhd  the  legend  was 
that  Heracles  had  allowed  their  forefathers  to  have  salt  instead  of 
fish  (Arist.,  ut  supra).     The  Germans  waged  war  for  saline  streams. 


and  believed  that  the  presence  of  salt  in  ITie  soil  invesieu  a  distnco 
with  peculiar  sanctity  and  made  it  a  place  where  prayers  were  mot) 
readily  heard  (Tac,  ut  sup.).  That  a  religious  significanco  wt.s 
attached  to  a  substance  so  highly  priced  and  which  was  often 
obtained  with  difficulty  is  no  more  than  natural.  And  it  must 
also  be  remembered  that  the  habitual  use  of  salt  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  advance  from  nomadic  to  agiictiUural  life,  i.e., 
with  precisely  that  step  in  civilization  which  had  most  influenc&  on 
the  cults  of  almost  all  ancient  nations.  The  gods  were  worshipped 
as  the  givers  of  the  kindly  fruits  of  the  earth,  and,  as  all  over  the 
world  '*  bread  and  salt  "  go  together  in  common  use  and  common 
phrase,  salt  was  habitually  associated  with  offerings,  at  least  with 
all  offerings  which  consisted  in  whole  or  in  part  of  cereal  elements. 
This  practice  is  found  aUke  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and 
among  the  Semitic  peoples  (Lev.  ii.  13);  Homer  calls  salt  "divine," 
and  Plato  names  it  "  a  substance  dear  to  the  gods  "  ( Tivi&iis,  p. 
60  ;  comp.  Plutarch,  Sympos.,  v.  10).  As  covenants  were  ordinarily 
made  over  a  sacrificial  me.al,  in  which  salt  was  a  necessary  element, 
the  expression  "a  covenant  of  s.alt"  (Numb,  xviii.  19)  is  easily 
understood  ;  it  is  probable,  however,  that  the  preservative  qualities- 
of  salt  were  held  to  make  it  a  peculiarly  fitting  symbol  of  on 
enduring  compact,  and  influenced  tlie  choice  of  tills  particular 
element  of  the  covenant  meal  as  that  which  was  regarded  a5  sealing 
an  obligation  to  fidelity.  Among  the  ancients,  as  among  Orientals 
down  to  the  present  day,  every  meal  that  included  salt  had  a  certain 
sacrecT  character  and  created  a  bond  of  piety  and  guest  friendship 
between  the  participants.  Hence  the  Greek  jdirase  fi^ay  Koi 
TpdireCav  ■napaliahnv,  the  Arab  phrase  "there  is  salt  between  us," 
the  expression  "to  eat  the  salt  of  the  palace"  (Esra  iv.  14,  Rev. 
Ver.),  the  modern  Persian  phrase  namak  hardm,  "untrue  to  salt." 
i.e.,  disloyal  or  ungrateful,  and  many  others. 

It  has  been  plausibly  conjectured  that  the  oldest  trade  routes 
were  created  for  traffic  in  salt ;  at  any  rate  salt  and  incense,  the 
chief  economic  and  religious  necessaries  of  the  ancient  world,  play 
a  great  part  in  all  that  we  know  of  the  ancient  highways  of 
commerce.  Thus  one  of  the  oldest  roads  in  Italy  is  the  Via  Salaria, 
by  which  the  produce  of  the  salt  pans  of  Ostia  was  carried  up  into 
the  Sabine  country.  Herodotus's  account  of  the  caravan  route 
uniting  the  salt-oases  of  the  Libyan  desert  (iv.  181  sq.)  makes  it 
plain  that  this  was  mainly  a  salt-road,  and  to  the  present  day  the 
caravan  trade  of  the  Sahara  is  largely  a  trade  in  salt.  The  salt  of 
Palmyra  was  an  important  element  in  the  vast  ti'ade  between  the 
Syrian  ports  and  the  Persian  Gulf  (see  Palmyra,  vol.  xviii.  p.  200), 
and  long  after  the  glory  of  the  great  merchant  city  was  past  "  the 
salt  of  Tadmor"  retained  its  reputation  (Mas'iidi,  viii.  £,8).  In 
like  manner  the  ancient  trade  between  the  jGgean  and  the  coasts 
of  southern  Russia  was  Largely  dependent  on  the  salt  pans  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Dnieper  and  on  the  salt  fish  brought  from  this 
district  (Herod.,  iv.  53;  Dio  Chrys.,  p.  437).  In  Phojnician 
commerce  salt  and  salt  fish— the  latter  a  valued  delicacy  in  the 
ancient  world — always  formed  an  important  item.  The  vast  salt 
mines  of  northern  India  were  worked  before  the  time  of  Alexander 
(Strabo,  v.  2,  6,  xv.  1,  30)  and  must  have  been  the  centre  of  a  wide- 
spread trade.  The  economic  importance  of  salt  is  further  indi- 
cated by  the  almost  universal  prevalence  in  ancient  and  medieval 
times,  and  indeed  in  most  countries  down  to  the  present  day,  of 
salt  taxes  or  of  Government  monopolies,  which  have  not  often  been 
directed,  as  they  were  in  ancient  Rome,  to  enable  every  one  to  pro- 
cure so  necessary  a  condiment  at  a  moderate  price.  In  Oriental 
systems  of  taxation  high  imposts  on  salt  are  never  lacking  and  are 
Dften  carried  out  in  a  very  oppressive  way,  one  result  of  this  being 
that  the  article  is  apt  to  reach  the  consumer  in  a  very  impure  state 
largely  mixed  with  earth.  "  The  salt  which  has  lost  its  savour  " 
(Mat.  V.  13)  is  simply  the  earthy  residuum  of  such  an  impure  salt 
after  the  sodium  chloride  has  been  washed  out. 

Cakes  of  salt  have  been  used  as  money  in  more  than  one  part  of 
the  world, — for  example,  in  Abyssinia  and  elsewhere  in  Africa,  and 
in  Tibet  and  adjoining  parts.  See  the  testimony  of  Marco  Polo 
(bk.  ii.  ch.  48)  and  Col.  Yule's  note  upon  analogous  customs 
elsewhere  and  on  the  use  of  salt  as  a  medium  of  exchange  in  the  Shan 
markets  down  to  our  own  time,  in  his  translation  of  Polo,  ii.  43  sq. 
In  the  same  work  interesting  details  are  given  as  to  the  Importance 
of  salt  in  the  financial  system  of  the  Mongol  emperors  (ii.  200 
sq.)  (W.KS.) 

SALTA,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  with  a  population  of  about  20,000 
(1881),  is  a  well-built  town  occupying  a  somewhat  in- 
salubrious situation,  3780  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Eio  de  la  Sillata  and  Rio  do  Arias,  head 
streams  of  the  Rio  Salado  (there  called  Eio  Pasaje  or 
Juramanto),  about  820  miles  north-west  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  town,  founded  by  Abreu  in  1582,  was  originally  known 
as  San  Clemente  de  Nueva  Castilla,  took  the  name  of  San 
Feline  de  Lerma  .when  Hernando  de  Lerma  removed  it  to 


»  A  L  — S  A  L 


235 


its  present  site,  and  began  to  be  called  Salta  in  the  17th 
century.     A  large  trade  is  carried  on  with  Bolivia. 

SAXiTCOATS,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  Ayr- 
shire, Scotland,  contiguous  to  Ardrossan,  and  19  miles 
north  of  Ayr.  It  possesses  a  good  sea-beach,  and  of  late 
years  has  become  a  favourite  watering-place.  The  town 
received  a  charter  as  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1528,  but 
afterwards  lost  its  privileges  and  fell  into  decay.  At  a 
veiy  early  period  marine  salt  was  manufactured,  and  salt- 
pans were  erected  by  Sir  Robert  Cunningham  in  1656, 
but  that  industry  has  now  ceased.  A  harbour  was  also 
constructed  and  for  a  considerable  time  there  was  a 
large  shipment  of  coal,  but  the  trade  has  now  passed  to 
Ardrossan.  The  population,  4624  in  1871,  in  1881  was 
5096. 

SALTILLO,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Coahuila  in 
Mexico,  65  miles  south-west  of  Monterey  by  the  Mexican 
National  Railway,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  overlooking  a 
fertile  valley.  It  has  well-paved  streets,  several  good 
public  buildings,  and  cotton  factories  and  other  industrial 
establishments.     The  population  is  about  17,000. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY  (originaUy  Great  Salt  Lake  City), 
a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital  of  Utah  Territory 
and  the  metropolis  of  Mormonism,  stands  nearly  in  41°  N. 
lat.  and  112°  W.  long.,  at  a  height  of  4250  feet  above  the 
sea,  on  the  brow  of  a  slight  decline  at  the  western  base  of 
the  Wahsatch  range,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jordan, 
a  stream  which  flows  from  Utah  Lake  into  Great  Salt 
Lake.i  By  the  Utah  Central  Railroad  the  city  is  36 
miles  south  of  Ogden 
Junction  on  the 
Union  and  Central 
Pacific  Railroad,  and 
it  is  the  terminus  of 
the  Southern  and 
Western  Utah  Rail- 
roads. The  city  is 
laid  out  chessboard 
fashion,  with  all  the 
streets  137  feet  wide 
and  all  the  blocks  40 
rods  square.  Shade 
and  fruit  trees  have  Environs  of  Salt  Lake  City. 

been  freely  planted,  and  on  each  side  of  every  north  and 
south  street  flows  a  stream  of  pure  water  in  an  open  channel. 
With  the  exception  of  some  modern  erections,  the  houses 
are  nearly  all  of  sun-dried  bricks.  The  largest  and  ugliest 
public  building  is  the  tabernacle,  with  its  huge  oval  wooden 
dome.  It  is  said  to  accommodate  8000  to  10,000  persons, 
and  has  the  second  largest  organ  in  America.  Within 
the  same  enclosure  as  the  tabernacle  are  the  endowment 
house,  where  the  initiation  ceremonies  of  Mormonism 
are  performed,  and  the  new  Mormon  temple  (1874-5) 
erected  at  a  cost  of  610,000,000.  Other  conspicuous 
buildings  are  the  city-hall,  used  as  the  Territorial  capitol, 
the  theatre.  Walker's  opera  house,  the  Salt  Lake  pavilion, 
the  museum,  the  Deseret  university,  several  hospitals, 
and  the 'city  prison.  The  population  was  5000  in  1850, 
8230  in  1860,  12,813  in  1870,  and  20,768  in  1880  (86 
coloured). 

When  Great  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded  in  July  1847  (cf. 
MOBMONISM,  vol.  xvi.  p.  827)  the  whole  region  lay  far  beyond  the 
advancing  wave  of  western  civilization.  Kut  the  city  did  not  long 
remain  the  isolated  oasis  in  the  desert  which  its  first  settlers  made 

'  This  lake,  about  10  miles  from  the  city,  the  principal  body  of 
water  m  the  Great  Fremont  basin,  is  70  miles  long  by  ih  miles  broad, 
has  an  area  of  1900  square  miles,  and  lies  4200  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  water  of  the  lake  contains  about  CJ  times  more  than  the  average 
colid  constituents  of  sea  water,  being  almost  as  heavily  impregnated 
(22-4  per  ceijt.)  aa  that  of  the  Dead  Sea  (24  5  per  cent.).  The  salt 
u  used  m  thd  city  without  BrtlQcial  rcllniiig 


it ;  and  it  now  has  a  considerable  non-Mormon  popalalidn  a 
United  States  garrison  at  Camp  Douglas  (between  2  and  a  miles 
distant),  and  United  States  judges. 

SALTPETRE,  or  Nitrate  of  Potash  (KNO3),  's  a- 
salt  obtained  as  a  commercial  product  in  three  difierent 
ways.  (1)  It  occurs  as  an  efflorescence  on  the  surface  or  in 
the  superficial  stratum  of  the  soil  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  but  specially  to  a  great  extent  in  the  Ganges 
valley  and  other  parts  of  India.  (2)  It  is  obtained  in  a 
semi-artificial  manner  in  nitraries  or  saltpetre  plantations. 
These  consist  of  heaps  of  decomposing  animal  matter 
mixed  with  lime  ashes,  road  scrapings,  and  other  rubbish 
covered  over  from  rain,  and  from  time  to  time  damped 
with  the  runnings  from  stables  and  other  urine.  Such 
heaps  develop  within  them  small  proportions  of  the  salt 
and  other  nitrates,  and  are,  in  effect,  artificial  imitations 
of  the  saltpetre-bearing  soil  of  India.  They  were  formerly 
very  common  in  Switzerland,  France,  Germany,  and 
Sweden.  (3)  A  large  quantity  of  saltpetre  is  now 
prepared  from  Chili  saltpetre,  the  nitrate  of  soda,  by 
double  decomposition  of  the  soda  salt  with  another 
salt  of  potash.  See  Nitrogen,  vol.  xvii.  p.  518, 
and  Gunpowder,  vol.  xi.  pp.  319,  323.  Saltpetre  is 
of  importance  in  numerous  industries,  among  the  most 
prominent  of  which  are  gunpowder  manufacture  and 
pyrotechny.  It  is  also  used  as  an  oxidizing  agent  in  glass- 
making  and  in  metallurgical  operations.  In  the  curing  of 
meat  it  is  extensively  employed  with  common  salt  and  sugar, 
and  it  also  occupies  an  important  place  in  pharmacy. 

In  the  year  18«4  337,708  cwt.  of  saltpetre  was  imiiorted  into 
the  United  Kingdom,  the  estimated  value  being  £306,113.  Of 
this  amount  200,065  cwt.  came  from  Bengal  and  British  Burmah 
alone,  and  78,545  cwt.  of  converted  saltpetre  came  from  Germany. 
During  each  of  the  two  years  1883  and  1884  the  imports  of  Chili 
saltpetre,  under  the  name  of  cubic  nitre,  exceeded  2,000,000  cwt., 
nearly  the  whole  supply  coming,  from  Bolivia  and  Peru. 

SALUS  (Safety),  a  goddess  worshipped  in  various  parts 
of  ancient  Italy.  At  Rome  a  temple  adorned  with 
paintings  by  Fabias  surnamed  the  Painter  (Pictor)  was 
dedicated  to  her  in  302  B.C. ;  and  public  prayers  were 
offered  to  her  on  behalf  of  the  Roman  people  and  the 
emperor.  In  180  b.c,  on  the  occasion  of  a  plague,  vows 
were  made  to  Apollo,  ^sculapius,  and  Salus.  Here  the' 
special  attribute  of  the  goddess  appears  to  be  "  health  "■; 
and  in  later  times  she  was  identified  with  the  Greek 
goddess  of  health,  Hygeia.  On  coins  of  TiBerius,  Nero, 
&c.,  she  is  represented  as  a  young  riiaiden  with  the  symbol 
of  Hygeia,  a  serpent  drinking  out  of  a  goblet. 

_  SALUTATIONS,  or  greetings,  are  customary  forms  of 
kindly  or  respectful  address,  especially  on  meeting  or 
parting  or  on  occasions  of  ceremonious  approach.  Ety- 
mologically  the  word  salutation  (Lat.  salutatio,  "  wishing 
health")  refers  to  words  spoken,  but  the  conventional 
gestures  are  even  more  purposeful,  and  both  should  be 
considered  togetljer.  The  principal  modes  of  .saluting, 
when  classified,  fall  into  a  few  groups,  with  well-defined 
meanings,  the  examination  of  which  explains  the  practice 
of  any  particular  tribe  or  nation. 

Forms  of  salutation  frequent  among  savages  and  bar- 
barians may  last  on  almost  unchanged  in  civilized  custom, 
or  may  be  found  in  modified  shapes,  while  in  other  cases 
they  may  have  disappeared  altogether  and  been  replaced 
by  new  greetings.  The  habit  of  affectionate  clasping  or 
embracing  is  seen  at  the  meetings  of  the  rude  Andamaners 
and  Australians,  or  v.'hero  the  Fuegians  in  friendly  salute 
hug  "like  the  grip  of  a  bear.'''  This  natural  gesture 
appears  in  old  Semitic  and  Aryan  custom  : —  "  Esau  ran  to 
meet  him  (Jacob)  and  embraced  him,  and  fell  on  his  neck, 
and  kissed  him,  and  they  wept "  (Gen.  xxxiii.  4)  ;  so,  when 
Ulysses  makes  himself    known,  Philootius  and  Eum.-cus 

'  W.  P.  Snow,  in  Trans.  Ethnol.  Sue,  n.  s.,  vol  i.  p.  2G3. 


236 


SALUTATIONS 


cast  their  arms  round  him  with  kisses  ou  the  head,  hands, 
and  shoulders  (Odj/ss.,  xxL  223)  :— 

K\a7ov  &p  afi(l>  *05u(T^i  Saiippovi  x^^P^  Pa\6vTef 
Sis  5'  aCrws  'OSv/Tivs  Kf<fta\a7  Kal  x^7pas  fKuaaev. 

The  embrace  continues  habitual  through  later  ages,  and, 
though  in  modern  times  a  good  deal  restricted,  it  still 
marks  the  meetings  of  near  kinsfolk  and  lovers.  But  the 
kiss,  associated  with  it  in  passages  like  those  just  cited, 
has  no  such  universality.  The  idea  of  the  kiss  being  an 
instinctive  gesture  is  negatived  by  its  being  unknown  over 
half  the  world,  where  the  prevailing  salute  is  that  by 
smelling  or  sniffing  (often  called  by  travellers  "  rubbing 
noses"),  which  belongs  to  Polynesians,  Malays,  Burmese 
and  other  Indo-Chinese,  Mongols,  &c.,  extending  thence 
eastward  to  the  Eskimo  and  westward  to  Lapland,  where 
Linnjeus  saw  relatives  saluting  by  putting  their  noses 
together.^  This  seems  the  only  appearance  of  the  habit  in 
Europe.  On  the  other  hand  the  kiss,  the  salute  by  tasting, 
appears  constantly  in  Semitic  and  Aryan  antiquity,  as  in 
the  above  cases  from  the  book  of  Genesis  and  the  Odyssei/, 
or  in  Herodotus's  description  of  the  Persians  of  his  time 
kissing  one  another — if  equals  on  the  mouth,  if  one  was 
somewhat  inferior  on  the  cheek  (Herod.,  i  134).  In  Greece 
in  the  classic  period  it  became  customary  to  kiss  the  hand, 
breast,  or  knee  of  a  superior.  In  Rome  the  kisses  cf  in- 
feriors became  a  burdensome  civility  (Ma'tial,  xii.  59): — 
"  Te  vicinia  tota,  te  pilosus 
Hircoso  premit  osculo  colonuc," 

The  early  Christians  made.it  the  sign  of  fellowship: 
"greet  all  the  brethren  with  an  holy  kiss"  (1  Thess.  v.  2"' 
cf.  Eom.  xvi.  16,  &c.);  and  this  may  even  now  be  seen 
among  Anabaptists,  who  make  an  effort  to  retain  primitive 
Christian  habit.  It  early  passed  into  more  ceremonial 
form  in  the  kiss  of  peace  giveu  to  the  newly  baptised  and 
in  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist-;  this  is  retained  by 
the  Oriental  Church.  After  a  time,  however,  its  indis- 
criminate use  between  the  sexes  gave  rise  to  scandals,  and 
it  was  restricted  by  ecclesiastical  regulations — men  being 
only  allowed  to  kiss  men,  and  women  women,  and  eventually 
in  the  Roman  Church  the  ceremonial  kiss  at  the  communion 
being  only  exchanged  bythe  ministers,  but  a  relic  or  cross 
called  an  osculatorium  or  pax  being  carried  to  the  people 
to  be  kissed.^  While  the  kiss  has  thus  been  adopted  as  a 
religious  rite,  its  original  social  use  has  continued.  Among 
men,  however,  it  has  become  less  effusive,  the  alteration 
being  marked  in  England  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
by  such  passages  as  the  advice  to  Sir  Wilfull  by  his  London- 
bred  brother  : — "  in  the  country,  where  great  lubberly 
brothers  slabber  and  kiss  one  another  when  they  meet ; 
.  .  .  'T  is  not  the  fashion  here."*  The  kiss  on  botb  checks 
between  parents  and  children  on  Continental  railway  plat- 
forms now  surprises  the  undemonstrative  Englishman,  who, 
when  servants  sometimes  kiss  his  hand  in  southern  Europe, 
is  even  piore  struck  bj-  fhis  relic  of  servile  ages.  Court  cere- 
monial 'keeps  up  the  kiss  on  the  cheek  between  sovereigns 
and  the  kissing  of  the  hand  by  subjects,  and  the  pope, 
like  a  Roman  emperor,  receives  the  kiss  on  his  foot.  A 
curious  trace  which  these  osculations  have  left  behind  is 
that  when  ceasing  to  be  performed  they  are  still  talked  of 
by  way  of  politeness  :  Austrians  sa;,',  "  kiiss  d'Hand  ! "  and 
Spaniards,  "  beso  a  Vd.  las  manos!"  "I  kiss  your  hands!" 

Strokings,  pattings,  and  other  caresses  have  been  turned 
to  use  as  salutations,  but  have  not  a  wide  enough  range  to 
make  them  important.  Weeping  for  joy,  often  occurring 
naturally  at  meetings,  is  sometimes  affected  as  a  salutation; 

*  J.  E.  Smith,  Linnxuss  Tour  in  Lajiland,  vol.  i.  p.  315. 
°  Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Clir,  CImrch,  bk.  xii.  c.  4,  rv.  c.  3. 
•*  The  Latter  term  has  supplied  the  Irish  hmguage  with  its  term  for 
a  kiss,  i-'i/,  Welsh  poc  ;  see  Rhys,  Jievtte  CcUique,  voL  vL  p.  43. 
■*  Cougreve's  »' ay  of  the  World,  Act  ill 


but  this  seems  to  be  different  from  the  highly  ceremonioua 
weeping  performed  by  several  rude  races  when,  meeting 
after  absence,  they  renew  the  lamentations  over  those 
friends  v,'ho  have  died  in  the  meantime.  The  typical  case 
is  that  of  the  Australians,  where  the  male  nearest  of  kin 
presses  his  breast  to  the  new  comer's,  and  the  nearest 
female  relative,  with  piteous,  lamentations,  embraces  his 
knees  with  one  hand,  while  with  the  other  she  scratches 
her  face  till  the  blood  drops.*  Obviously  this  is  no  joy- 
weeping,  but  mourning,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  New 
Zealand  tanffi,  which  is  performed  at  the,  reception  of  a 
distinguished  visitor,  whether  he  has  really  dead  friends  to 
mourn  or  not." 

Cowering  or  croucbing  is  a  natural  gesture  of  fear  or 
inability  to  resist  that  -belongs  to  the  brutes  as  well  as 
man  ;  its  extreme  form  is  lying  prostrate  face  to  ground.  In 
barbaric  society,  as  soon  as  distinctions  are  marked  between 
master  and  slave,  chief  and  commoner,  these  tokens  of 
submission  become  salutations.  The  sculptures  of  Egypt 
and  Assyria  show  the  lowly  prostrations  of  the  ancient 
East,  while  in  modern  Dahomey  or  Siam  subjects  crawl 
before  the  king,  and  even  Siberian  peasants  grovel  and 
kiss  the  dust  before  a  noble.  A  later  stage  is  to  suggest, 
but  not  actually  perform,  the  prostration,  as  the  Arab 
bends  his  hand  to  the  ground  and  puts  it  to  his  lips  or 
forehead,  or  the  Tongan  would  touch  the  sole  of  a  chief's 
foot,  thus  symbolically  placing  himself  under  his  feet. 
Kneeling  prevails  in  the  middle  stages  of  culture,  as  in  the 
ceremonial  of  China;  Hebrew  custom  sets  it  rather  apart  aa 
an  act  of  homage  to  a  deity  (1  Kings  six.  IS  ;  Isa.  xlv.  23); 
mediaeval  Europe  distinguishes  between  kneeling  in  worship 
OH  i.oth  kiiees  and  on  one  knee  only  in  homage,  aa  jn  the 
Soke  of  Curtasye  (15th  century)  : — 

"  Be  curtayse  to  god,  and  knele  doun 
On  bothe  knees  with  grete  deuocioun ; 
To  inoa^ou  shalle  knele  opon  pe  ton. 
pe  to))er  to  Py  self  po\i  haltle  alou," 

Bowing,  as  a  salute,  of  reverence,  appears  in  its  extreme 
in  Oriental  custom,  as  among  the  ancient  Israelites; 
"  bowed  himself  to  the  ground  seven  times  "  (Gen.  xxxiiL 
3).'  The  Chinese  according  to  the  degree  of  respect 
implied  bow  kneeling  or  standing.'  The  bowing  saluta- 
tion, varying  in  Europe  from  something  less  than  the 
Eastern  salaam  down  to  the  slightest  inclination  of  the 
head,  is  interesting  from  being  given  mutually,  the  two 
saluters  each  making  the  sign  of  submission  to  the  other, 
which  would  have  been  absurd  till  the  sign  passed  into 
mere  civility.  Uncovering  is  a  common  mode  of  saluta- 
tion, originally  a  sign  of  disarming  or  defencelessness  or 
destitution  in  the  presence  of  a  superior.  Polynesian  or 
African  chiefs  require  more  or  less  stripping,  such  as  the 
uncovering  to  the  waist  which  Captain  Cook  describes  in 
Tahiti.'  Taking  off  the  hat  by  men  has  for  ages  been  the 
accepted  mode  in  the  Western  world,  done  in  a  frequent, 
demonstrative  way  by  such  as  make  a  show  of  politeness, 
and  who  by  being  "  free  of  cappe  and  full  of  curtesye  "  pay 
cheaply  social  debts ;  but  modern  society  has  moderated 
this  bowing  and  scraping  (the  scrape  is  tlirowing  back  the 
right  leg  as  the  body  is  bent  forward),  as  well  as  the 
curtseys  (courtoisie)  of  women.  Eastern  nations  are  apt  to 
see  disrespect  in  baring  the  head,  but  insist  on  the  feet 
being  uncovered ;  the  importance  attached  to  entering 
barefoot  is  well  known  to  English  officials  in  India ; 
Bnrmah   was   agitated   for    years    by  "  the    great    shoe 

*  Grey,  Jo^trnals,  vol.  ii.  p.  255. 

^  A,  Taylor,  Xew  Zcaiandj  p.  221. 

'  Sea  the  Egyptian  bow  with  one  hand  to  the  knee;  'WilkiDson, 
Ave.  Eg. 

"  S.  Wells  Williams,  Middle  Kinr/dcm,  vol.  i.  p.  801. 

•  See  references  *"  'hese  customs  in  Tylor,  £arli/  Uistory  of  X'ur.- 
h'nd,  cli.  iii. 


J 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


237 


question,"  whether  Europeans  should  be  called  on  to 
conform  to  native  custom,  rather  than  their  own,  by  taking 
off  their  shoes  to  enter  the  royal  presence.^  Grasping 
hands  is  a  gesture  which  makes  its  appearance  in  antiquity 
as  a  legal  act  symbolic  of  the  parties  joining  in  compact, 
peace,  or  friendship ;  this  is  well  seen  in  marriage,  where 
the  hand  grasp  was  part  of  the  ancient  Hindu  ceremony, 
as  was  the  "dextrarum  junctio"  in  Rome,  which  passed 
on  into  the  Christian  rite.  In  the  classic  world  we  see  it 
passing  into  a  mere  salutation,  as  where  the  tiresome 
acquaintance  met  by  Horace  on  his  stroll  along  the  Via 
Sacra  seizes  his  hand  (Hor.,  Sat,  i.  9) : — 

"  Arreptaquo  maau,  'Quid  agis,  dulcissime  rerum  ?" 
Giving  the  right  hand  of  fellowship  (Gal.  ii.  9)  passed 
naturally  into  a  salutation  throughout  Christendom,  and 
spread,  probably  from  Byzantium,  over  the  Moslem  world. 
The  emphatic  form  of  the  original  gesture  in  "striking 
hands "  is  still  used  to  make  the  greeting  more  hearty. ' 
The  variety  called  in  English  "shaking  hands"  (Germ. 
Hdnde-schutteln)  only  appears  to  have  become  usual  in  the 
Middle  Ages.^  In  the  Moslem  legal  form  of  joining  hands, 
the  parties  press  their  thumbs  together.^  This  has  been 
adopted  as  a  salute  by  African  tribes.  But  it  has  been 
especially  English  traders  and  missionaries  who  of  late 
years  have  introduced  shaking  hands  far  and  wide  in  the 
world,  so  that  even  such  rude  peoples  as  Australians  and 
Hottentots,  Eskimo  and  Fuegians,  unite  in  practising  this 
modern  civilized  custom. 

As  to  words  of  salutation,  it  is  found  even  among  the 
lower  races  that  certain  ordinary  phrases  have  passed  into 
formal  greetings.  Thus  among  the  Tupis  of  Brazil,  after 
the  stranger's  silent  arrival  in  the  hut,  the  master,  who  for 
a  time  had  taken  no  notice  of  him,  would  say  "  Ere- 
iovhe  ?  "  that  is,  "  Art  thou  come ! "  to  which  the  proper 
reply  was,  "  Yes,  I  am  come  !  "  *  Many  formulas  express 
difference  of  rank  and  consequent  respect,  as  where  the 
Basuto  salute  their  chiefs  with  "  Tama  sevata ! "  i.e., 
"  Greeting,  wild  beast !  "  Congo  negroes  returning  from  a 
journey  salute  their  wives  with  an  affectionate  Of:owe  I  but 
they  meekly  kneeling  round  him  may  not  repeat  the  word, 
but  must  say  Kal  hi!^  Among  cultured  nations,  saluta^ 
tions  are  apt  to  be  expressions  of  peace  and  goodwill,  as 
in  the  Biblical  instances,  "  Is  it  well  with  thee?  "A2  Kings 
iv.  26);  "Peace  to  thee,  and  peace  to  thine  house,"  <fec. 
(1  Sam.  XXV.  6;  see  Ezra  iv.  17).  Such  formulas  run  on 
from  age  to  age,  and  the  latter  may  be  traced  on  to  the 
Moslem  greeting,  Saldm  'alaihum  f  "The  peace  be  on 
you,"  to  which  the  reply  is  Wa-'alaikum  as-saldm!  "And 
on  you  be  the  peace  {sc.  of  God)  l"^  This  is  an  example 
how  a  greeting  may  become  a  pass-word  among  fellow- 
believers,  for  it  is  usually  held  that  it  may  not  be  used  by 
or  to  an  infidel.  From  an  epigram  of  Meleager  (Anik., 
ed.  Jacobs,  vii.  119  ;  <:/.  Plautus,  Pcen.,  v.,  passim} v/e  learn 
that,  while  the  Syrian  salutation  was  Sheldm  ("Peace!"), 
the  Phoenicians  greeted  by  wishing  life  (<nN  llPI,  the  Nin, 
(fee,  of  Neo-Punic  gravestones).  The  cognate  Babylonian 
form,  "O  king,  live  for  ever!"  (Dan.  iii.  9),  represents  a 
aeries  of  phraseswhich  continue  still  in  the  Vivai  rex!  "Long 
live  the  king  !  "  The  Greeks  said  xaipe,  "  3e  joyful ! "  both 
at  meeting  and  parting;  the  Pythagorean  iyiaiVcif  and  the 
Platonic  el  vpa.TTd.i'  wish  health;  at  a  later  time  do-Ta^o//.o(, 
"  I  greet!"  came  into  fashion.  The  Romans  applied  Salve  / 
"Be  in  health!"  especially  to  meeting, and  Vale/  "Be  Well!" 
to  parting.  In  the  modern  civilized  world,  everywhere,  the 
'old  inquiry  after  health  appears,  the  "Hoi"  do  you  do?"  be- 
coming  so  formal  as  often  to  be  said  on  both  sides  without 

'  Shway  Yoc,  The  Human,  vol.  ii.  pp.  158,  205. 

'  Sco  Tylor  in  Macmittan's  ila^..  May  1S82,  p.  76. 

»  Lime,  Mod.  F.g.,  vol.  i.  p.  219.      »  Je.in  do  Lciy,  part  ii.  p.  204. 

'  Magyar,  /(«i«  in  Sud-Afrika.        '  cr.  vol.  xvi.  p.  553,  note  1. 


either  waiting  for  an  answer.  Hardly  less  wide  m  range 
is  the  set  of  phrases  "Good  day!"  ""Good  night !"  &c. 
varying  according  to  the  hour,  and  translating  Into  every 
language  of  Christendom.  Among  other  European  phrases 
some  correspond  to  our  "welcome!"  and  "farewell !"  while 
the  religious  elenlent  enters  into  another  class,  exemplified  by 
our  "Good-bye !"  ("God  be  with  you!"),  and  French  Adieu/ 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  shape  European  greetings  into 
expressions  of  orthodoxy,  or  even  tests  of  belief,  but  they 
have  had  no  great  success.  Examples  are  a  Protestant 
German  salutation  "  Lobe  Jesum  Clirislum  /"  answered  by 
" In  Emigkeit,  Amen/"  and  the  formula  which  in  Spain 
enforces  the  docti-ine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  "Ave 
Maria  purisima  /"  answered  by  "  Sin  pecado  concehida  /" 
On  the  whole,  though  the  half-meaningless  forms  of  salu- 
tation may  often  seem  ridiculous,  society  would  not  carry 
them  on  so  univers;.Uy  unless  it  found  them  useful.  In 
fact,  they  serve  the  substantial  purpose  of  keeping  up  social 
intercourse,  and  establishing  relations  between  the  parties 
in  an  interview,  of  which  their  tone  may  strike  the  key 
note.  Montaigne,  a  master  of  the  courtesy  of  an  age 
more  ceremonioua  than  ours,  truly  asserts  their  importance, 
"  C'est  au  demourant  une  tres  utile  science  que  la  science 
de  I'entregent."  (e.  b.  t.) 

^  SALUZZO,  or  Saluces,  a  city  of  Italy,  at  the  head  of  a 
circondario  in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  42^  miles  south  of 
Turin  (with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway  and  a  steam 
tramway),  is  situated  GOO  to  6.50  feet  above  the  sea,  just 
where  the  last  hills  of  the  Monte  Viso  die  away  into  the 
plain  between  the  Po  and  its  tributary  the  Vraita.  The 
upper  town  preserves  some  part  of  the  fortifications  which 
protected  it  when,  previous  to  the  plague  of  1630,  the 
city  had  upwards  of  30,000  inhabitants;  and  the  hill  is 
crowned  by  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle.  The  more  im- 
portant castle  of  the  marquises  (in  which  according  to  the 
legend  the  patient  Griselda  was  confined)  is  in  the  lower 
town  and  now  serves  as  a  penitentiary.  Besides  the 
cathedral  (Gothic,  1480-1511),  with  the  tombs  of  the  old 
marquises,  other  conspicuous  buildings  are  the  churches  of 
San  Giovanni  (formerly  San  Domenico)  and  San  Bernardo 
(the  former  the  finest  architectural  monument  of  the 
marquisate),  the  old  town-house  (1462),  the  new  town-house 
(formerly  belonging  to  the  Jesuits),  and  the  theatre  (1829). 
To  the  north  of  the  city  lies  the  abbey  of  Staffarda  (1130- 
1737).  The  population  of  the  city  was  10,145  (commune 
16,237)  in  1880. 

By  some  authorities  Sahizzo  is  identified  with  Augusta  Ta"ion- 
norum.  The  Une  of  its  marquises  began  (1142)  with' JIanfredf  sen 
of  Boniface,  marquis  of  Savoua,  and  continued  till  1518,  when  the 
death  of  Gabriel,  imprisoned  by  Henry  II.  of  France  in  the  castle 
of  Pinerolo,  allowed  city  and  tenitory  to  bo  seized  by  the  Trench. 
The  marquises  of  Saluzzo  being  great  opponents  of  the  house  of 
Savoy,  and  frequently  taking  part  in  the  struggles  between  Franco 
and  the  empire,  the  city  often  had  to  suffer  severely  from  tlio 
fortunes  of  war.  Henry  IV.  restored  the  marquisate  to  Charles 
Emm.inuel  I.  of  Savoy  at  the  peace  of  Lyons  in  ICOI.  Among  the 
celebrities  of  Saluzzo  are  Silvio  Pellieo  (whoso  statue,  1SC3,  gives 
name  to  tlic  Piazza  del  Statuto),  Bodoni  the  famous  printer,  and 
Casalis  the  historian  of  Sardinia.  The  history  of  tlio  marquisate 
was  written  by  Delfino  Muletti,  5  vols.,  1829-1833. 
SALVADOR.  See  San  Salvador. 
SALVAGE  is  "the  reward  which  is  earned  by  those 
who  have  voluntarily  saved  or  assisted  in  -saving  a  ship  or 
boat,  or  their  apparel,  or  any  part  thereof ;  or  the  lives  of 
persons  at  sea ;  or  a  ship's  cargo  or  any  part  thereof  from 
peril;  or  a  wreck  from  total  loss"  (Roscoe,  Admiralty 
Law  and  Practice,  p.  13).  The  word  salvage  ia  indiffer- 
ently used  to  denote  the  claim,  the  reward,  or  the  property 
saved.  Salvage  is  interesting  as  being  perhaps  the  one 
case  in  English  law  in  which  a  person  may  become  liable 
to  a  claim  upon  him  for  services  rendered  to  him  without 
his  request,  express  or  implied.  Salvage  may  be  either 
military  or  civil      Claims  for  military  salvage,  i.e.,  salvage 


238 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


CE  recapture  (for  which  see  Prize),  are  decided  by  a  prize 
court.  The  tribunal  for  determining  cases  of  civil  salvage, 
the  usual  kind,  is  a  court  having  admiralty  jurisdiction. 
In  England  or  Ireland  the  High  Court  of  Justice  (Admiralty 
Division),  in  Scotland  the  Court  of  Session,  have  cognizance 
of  salvage  claims  to  any  amount.  The  Merchant  Shipping 
Act,  1854,  confers  jurisdiction  on  justices  of  the  peace  to 
arbitrate  on  claims  not  exceeding  ^£200,  or  where  the  value 
of  the  property  saved  does  not  exceed  XI 000.  Certain 
county  courts  named  by  order  in  council  have  by  the  County 
Courts  Admiralty  Jurisdiction  Act,  1868,  jurisdiction  in 
flny  claim  in  which  the  value  of  the  property  saved  does 
not  exceed  £1000,  or  in  which  the  amount  claimed  does  not 
e-<.t»ed  £300.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  inferior  courts  is 
protected  by  provisions  depriving  the  suitor  in  the  High 
Court  of  his  costs  without  a  certificate  from  the  judge  in 
cases  where  the  claini  might  have  been  made  before  justices 
or  in  a  county  court.  In  addition  there  are  various  local 
tribunals  exercising  a  more  or  less  limited  jurisdiction  in  sal- 
vage claims.  Such  are  the  Commissioners  within  the  Cinque 
Ports,  the  Court  of  Passage  of  the  city  of  Liverpool,  and  the 
Royal  Courts  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  "besides  the  various 
Vice-Admiralty  Courts  throughout  the  British  empire. 

The  rules  which  guide  the  courts  in  the  award  of 
salvage  are  reducible  to  a  few  simple  principles,  depending 
partly  upon  the  general  maritime  law,  partly  upon  the 
.Merchant  Shipping  Acts,  1854  and  1862.  (1)  The 
salvage  services  must  have  been  rendered  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Admiralty  (?.«.).  (2)  There  must  be 
no  legal  duty  on  the  part  of  the  salvors  to  render  assist- 
ance. Therefore  there  must  be  very  meritorious  and 
exceptional  services  on  the  part  of  the  crew,  or  even  of  a 
pilot,  a  passenger,  or  the  crew  of  a  tug,  to  entitle-  any  of 
them  to  salvage.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  officers 
and  crew  of  a  queen's  ship,  coastguardsmen,  A'c,  who  are 
bound  by  their  position  to  assist.  (3)  The  property  must 
have  been  in  peril,  and  rescued  by  the  salvors.  (4)  The 
services  must  have  been  successful  Of  course  where  a 
request  for  help  bars  actually  been  made,  and  the  property 
perishes,  the  right  of  remuneration  nevertheless  survives, 
on  the' ordinary  principles  of  contract.  The  basis  of 
salvage  proper  is  service  independently  of  contract. 

If  these  conditions  be  satisfied,  salvage  claims  take 
priority  of  all  others  against  the  property  saved,  and  give 
the  salvors  a  maritime  lien  upon  such  property,  enforceable 
by  an  action  in  rem.  Salvage  of  life  from  a  British  ship 
or  a  foreign  ship  in  British  waters  ranks  before  salvage  of 
goods.  In  distributing  the  salvage  reward  the  court 
considers  (1)  the  extent  of  the  peril  of  the  property  saved, 
(2)  its  value,  (3)  the  nature  of  the  services.  This  is 
subject  to  any  contract,  not  inequitable,  made  between  the 
parties.  Seamen  cannot  abandon  their  right  to  salvage 
unless  they  specially  engage  themselves  on  a  ship  to  be 
employed  on  salvage  duty.  Salvage  of  life  is  rewarded  at 
a  higher  rate  than  salvage  of  property.  Misconduct  of 
salvors  may  operate  as  a  bar  to  their  claim.  Salvage 
reward  is  commonly  apportioned  between  the  officers  and 
crew;  of  the  salving  ship,  its  owners,  and  other  persons 
assisting.  The  amount  is  at  the  discretion  of  the  distri- 
buting authority.  It  seldom  exceeds  in  the  whole  one- 
haif  the  value  of  the  property  saved.  Apportionment  for 
salvage  services  rendered  within  the  United  Kingdom, 
where  the  sum  does  not  exceed  £200,  due  by  agreement 
or  the  order  of  justices,  may  be  made  by  the  receiver  of 
wreck  on  application  of  the  parties  liable  to  pay  it. 

Salvage  is  a  terra  also  applied  by  analogy  to  property  not  saved 
at  sea,  but  from  fire  on  land,  and  also  to  property  recovered  from 
•destruction  by  the  aid  of  voluntary  payments.  The  person  making 
the  last  advance  is  entitled  to  priority  in  the  nature  of  quasi- 
salvage,  as  the  continued  existence  of  the  property  at  all  may  be 
Ju9  to  him,  e.".-  the  case  of  a  payment  made  to  prevent  the 


forfeiture  of  a  policy  of  insurance.  Charges  in  favour  of  a  solicitor 
upon  property  recovered  or  preserved  by  his  means  have  been 
several  times  declared  by  the  courts  to  be  in  the  nature  of  salvage 
of  this  kind. 

The  law  of  the  United  States  is  in  general  agreement  with  that 
of  England.  The  court  of  admiralty  jurisdiction  is  the  district 
coui't.  The  area  in  which  salvage  services  may  be  rendered  is 
much  wider  than  in  England,  as  it  includes  the  great  freshwater 
navigable  rivers  and  lakes.  This  difference  arises  frym  the  greater 
importance  of  inland  navigation  in  the  United  States.  See 
Riparian  Laws. 

SALVIAN,  a  Christiaa  writer  of  the  5th  century,  was 
born  in  Gaul,  and  most  probably  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Treves  or  Cologne  {De  Gub.  Dei,  vL  8,  13).  His  birth 
has  been  conjecturally  assigned  to  the  period  from  390 
to  420.  He  was  probably  brought  up  as  a  Christian, 
though  of  this  there  is  no  absolute  proof.  Zschimmer 
considers  his  writings  to  show  that  he  had  made  a  special 
study  of  the  law ;  and  this  is  the  more  likely  as  he 
appears  to  have  been  of  noble  birth  and  could  describe  one. 
of  his  relations  as  being  "of  no  small  account  in  her  own 
district  and  not  obscure  in  family"  (Ep.  i.).  He  was 
already  a  Christian-  when  he  married  Palladia,  the 
daughter  of  heathen- parents,  Hypatius  and  Quieta,  whose 
displeasure  he  incurred  by  persuading  his  wife  to  retire 
with  him  to  a  distant  monastery,  which  is  almost  certainly 
to  be  identified  with  that  so  lately  founded  by  St  Honora- 
tus  at  Lerins.  For  seven  years  there  was  no  communica- 
tion between  the  two  branches  of  the  family,  till  at  last, 
when  Hypatius  had  become  a  Christian,  Salvian  wrote 
him  a  most  touching  letter  in  his  own  name,  his  wife's, 
and  that  of  his  little  daughter  Auspiciola,  begging  for  the 
renewal  of  the  old  affection  (Ep.  iv.).  This  whole  letter 
is  a  most  curious  illustration  of  Salvian's  reproach  against 
his  age  that  the  noblest  man  at  once  forfeited  all  esteem  if 
he  became  a  monk  (De  Gub.,  iv.  7;  cf.  viii.  4). 

It  was  presumably  at  Lerins  that  Salvian  made  the 
acquaintance  of  St  Honoratus  (ob.  429),  St  Hilary  of 
Aries  (ob.  449),  and  St  Eucher  of  Lyons  (ob.  449).  That 
he  was  a  friend  of  the  former  and  wrote  an  account  of 
his  life  -we  learn  from  St  Hilary  ( Vila  Hon.,  ap.  Migne, 
1.  1260).  To  St  Eucher's  two  sons,  Salonius  and  Veranus, 
he  acted  as  tutor  in  consort  with  St  Vincent  of  Lerins. 
As  he  succeeded  St  Honoratus  and  St  Hilary^in  this  office, 
this  date  cannot  well  be  later  than  the  year  426  or  427, 
when  the  former  was  called  to  Aries,  whither  he  seems  to 
have  summoned  Hilary  before  his  death  in  429  (Eucherii 
Tnstrtictio  ad  Salonmm,  ap.  Migne,  1.  773 ;  Salv.,  Ep. 
ii.).  Salvian  continued  his  friendly  intercourse  with  both 
father  and  sons  long  after  the  latter  had  left  his  care;  it 
was  to  Salonius  (then  a  bishop)  that  he  wrote  his  explana- 
tory letter  just  after  the  publication  of  his  treatise  Ad 
Ecclesiam ;  and  to  the  same  prelate  a  few  years  later  he 
dedicated  his  great  work,  the  De  Gubernaiione  Dei.  The 
above  facts,  as  will  be  seen,  render  it  almost  certain  that  he 
must  have  been  born  a  good  deal  before  420.  If  French 
scholars  are  right  in  assigning  Hilary's  Yita  Honorati  to 
430,  Salvian,  who  is  there  called  a  priest,  had  probably 
already  left  Lyons  for  Marseilles,  where  he  is  known  to  have 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  (Genu.,  ap.  Migne,  Iviii. 
1099).  It  was  probably  from  Marseilles  that  he  WTOte  his 
first  letter — presumably  to  Lerins — begging  the  community 
there  to  receive  his  kinsman,  the  son  of  a  widow  of  Cologne, 
who  had  been,  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  barbarian  in- 
vasions. It  seems  a  fair  inference  from  this  letter  that 
Salvian,  acting  up  to  the  precepts  of  his  own  treatise  Ad 
Ecclesiam,  had  divested  himself  of  all  his  property  in  favour 
of  that  society  and,  having  no  longer  any  possessions  of  hi.' 
own,  sent  his  relative  to  Lerins  for  assistance  (Ep.  i.,  with 
which  compare  Ad  Eccles,,  ii.  9,  10 ;  iii.  5).  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  Salvian  paid  a  visit  to  Carthage  ;  but  this 
is  a  mere  inference  based  on  the  minute  details  ha  gives  of 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


239 


the  State  of  this  city  just  before  its  fall  {De  Gub.,  vii.,  viii.). 
He  seems  to  liave  been  still  living  at  Marseilles  when  Gen- 
nadius  nTOte  under  the  papacy  of  Gelasius  (492-490). 

Of  Salvian's  writings  there  are  still  extant  two  treatises,  entitled 
respectively  Be  GuhcTiialione  Dei  and  Ad  Ucdesiam,  and  a  series 
of  nine  letters.  The  De  GnbcmationCy  Salvian's  greatest  work,  was 
published  after  the  capture  of  Litorius  at  Toulouse  (439),  to  which 
he  plainly  alludes  in  vil  10,  and  after  the  Vandal  conquest  of  Car- 
thage in  the  samp  year  {vl  12)^  but  before  Attila's  invasion  (450), 
as  Salvian  speaks  of  the  Huns,"  not  as  enemies  of  the  empire,  but 
as  serving  in  the  Roman  armies  (vii.  9).  The  Avords  "proximum 
bellum"  seem  to  denote  a  year  very  soon  after  439.  ..In  this  work 
Salvian  deals  with  the  same  pi-oblem  that  had  moved  the  eloquence. 
of  St  Augustine  and  Orosius.  Why  were  these  miseries  falling  on 
the  empire  ?  Could  it  be,  as  the  pagans  said,  because  the  age  had 
forsaken  its  old  gods  ?  or,  as  the  semi-pagan  creed  of  some  Chris- 
tiana taught,  that  God  did  not  constantly  overrule  the  world  ho 
had  created  (i.  1)?  With  the  former  Salvian  will  not  argue  (iii.  1). 
To  the  latter  he  replies  by  asserting  that,  "just  as  the  navigating 
steersman  never  looses  the  helm,  so  does  God  never  remove  his  care 
from  the  world."  Hence  the  title  of  the  treatise.  In  books  i.  and 
ii.  Salvian  sets  himself  to  prove  God's  constant  guidan'ce,  fii-st  by 
the  facts  of  Scripture  history,  and  secondly  by  the  enumeration  of 
special  texts  declaring  this  truth.  Having  thus  "  laid  the  founda- 
tions "  of  his  work,  he  declares  in  book  iii.  that  the  misery  of  the 
Roman  world  is  alt  due  to  the  neglect  of  God's  commandments  and 
the  terrible  sins  of  every  class  of  society.  It  is  not  merely  that  the 
slaves  are  thieves  and  runaways,  wine-bibbers  and  gluttons, — the 
rich  are  worse  (iv.  3).  It  is  their  harshness  and  greed  that  drive 
the  poor  to  join  the  Bagauda:  and  fly  for  shelter  to  the  barbarian 
invaders  (v.  5  and  6).  Everywhere  the  taxes  are  heaped  upon  the 
needy,  while  the  rich,  wlib  have  the  apportioning  of  the  impost, 
escape  comparatively  free  (v.  7).  'the  great  towns  are  wholly  given 
up  to  the  abominations  of  the  circus  and  the  theatre,  where  decency 
is  wholly  set  at  nought,  aud  Minerva,  Mars,  Neptune,  and  the  old 
gods  are  still  worshipped  (vi.  11  ;  cf.  vi.  2  and  viii.  2).  Treves  was 
almost  destroyed  by  the  barbarians  ;  yet  the  first  petition  of  its 
few  surviving  nobles  was  that  the  emperor  would  re-establish  the 
drcus  games  as  a  remedy  for  the  ruined  city  (vi.  15).  And  this 
was  the  prayer  of  Christians,  whose  baptismal  oath  pledged  them 
to  renounce  "the  devil  and  his  works  .  .  .  the  pomps  and  shows 
(spnctacula) "  of  this  wicked  world  (vi.  6).  Darker  still  were  the 
iniquities  of  Carthage,  surpassing  even  the  unconcealed  licentious- 
ness of  Gaul  aud  Spain  (iv.  6) ;  and  more  fearful  to  Salvian  than 
all  .Ise  wa.s  it  to  hear  men  swear  "by  Christ"  that  they  would 
commit  a  crime  (iv.  15).  It  would  be  the  atheist's  strongest 
argument  if  God  left  such  a  state  of  society  unpunished  (iv.  12), — 
especially  am.ong  Christians,  whose  sin,  since  they  alone  h.id  the 
Scriptures,  was  worse  than  that  of  barbarians,  even  it  equally 
wicked,  would  be  (v.  2).  But,  as  a  matter  cf  fact,  the  latter  hnd 
at  least  some  shining  virtues  mingled  with  their  vices,  whereas  tlie 
Romans  were  wholly  cornipt  (viL  15,  iv.  14).  With  this  iniquity 
of  the  Romans  Salvian  contrasts  the  chastity.of  the  Vandals,  the 
piety  of  the  Goths,  and  the  ruder  virtues  of  the  Franks,  the  Saxons, 
and  the  other  tribes  to  whom,  though  heretic  Ari.ins  or  unbelievers, 
God  is  giving  in  reward  the  inheritance  of  the  empire  (vii.  9,  11, 
21).  It  is  curious  that  Salvian  shows  no  such  hatred  of  the  hetero- 
dox barbarians  as  was  rife  in  Gaul  seventy  years  later. 

AdEcclcsiam  is  sufficiently  explained  by  its  common  title,  Contra 
Amritiam.  It  is  quoted  more  than  once  in  the  Dc  Oubcrnalione. 
Salvian  published  it  under  the  name  of  Tiniuthy,  and  explained  his 
motives  for  so  doing  in  a  letter  to  his  old  pupil.  Bishop  Salonius 
{E}'.  ix.).  This  work  is  chielly  remarkable  because  in  .some  places 
it  seems  to  recommend  parents  not  to  beqiioath  anything  to  their 
children,  on  the  plea  that  it  is  better  for  the  children  to  sulfer 
want  in  this  world  than  that  their  parents  should  bo  damned  in 
the  next  (iii.  4).  Salvian  is  very  clear  on  the  duty  of  absolute  self, 
denial  in  the  case  of  sacred  virgin.s,  priests,  and  monks  (ii.  8-10). 
.Several  works  mentioned  by  Ccnnadius,  notably  a  poem  "  in  moreni 
Graicorum"  on  the  six  days  of  creation  (hexacmcron),  and  certain 
homilies  composed  for  bishops,  are  now  lost  (Gcnn.,  67). 

ITlo  Ad  Eeclciiam  wa.?  flrst  printed  In  SIclinrd'a  Attlidottin  (Basel.  15!8)  • 
llio  Dc  Oiibrrralioni  by  Ciajslcnn  (Ba-i:I,  U30).  Ttio  two  appeared  In  one 
volume  at  Paris  In  l.-,?5,  Pithreu,  added  variaj  IcctlonM  and  llio  fnst  seven 
.lcllcrs(Pm-ls  1680);  Rlltciliu-sliii  made  varlou!.  conjcctiir.il  cmind.iUons  (AUorf 
11.11),  and  Ualuzo  many  more  based  on  MS.  aurliorlty  (I'ails,  lB6n-lcC9) 
Numrrous  oilier  odlllona  appeared  riom  tlio  ICtli  tniu  ISlti  ccntiuy,  all  of  Mlilcli 
-re  nmv  jupcrs.dcd  by  llic  cxecllcnt  o.ics  of  C.  Halm  (llerlln.  1S77)  and  F.  Pauly 
Vienna,   1833)      Tlio    two   oldest  MSS.  ot  llio   De  0,,her„nlK„<:  belong  lo  thi 


arc  ni 
( 


rpl.tlcs  there  Is  only  one  MS.  cjlant,  ot  ,vl,lcl,  one  part  la  now  at  Bern  (No.  219), 
J^;^r°.  i!^,  ,  ''/,?°n"'^l'--.>^'S  "•"'"  '■'""■'«■■'  'Ic  Fva„<r.  vol.  II.;  ZseMm 
Sfl.'fr  b",    ',"•  ?*'''■,  S'l^l""'  "O'l"  "'"  rep, tnted  after  Balu^e)  In 

n  6?/«LS  /  ,  '^'"rn'''2i?;  "1-  "i'-  '■■'"■  OlbUog.aphy  .eo  T.  G.  Sehocnenain'. 
?lnin;f-,  ?  Z  ,",'»  *  '■  "i  c"''-""".  ''"^'""'  ">  '"«  '^''I'l™'  of  Halm  and  Panly. 
oonnadms,  St  Hilary,  and  St  Kiielior  may  bo  consuUed  In  M.Bnc,  vols.  Ivlii. 

(T.  A.  A.) 


SALWIN  HILL  TRACTS,  a  district  in  the  Tenasserim 
division  of  British  Burmah,  exteudinc  from  the  northern 
portion  of  the  province  southwards  3o  Kaw-ka-rit  on  the 
Salwin  river,  and  occupying  the  whole  of  the  country 
between  that  river  on  the  east  and  the  Poung-loung 
mountains  on  the  west.  The  4istrict  contains  an  area  of 
about  4646  square  miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Kareng-ni  state,  on  the  east  by  Zeng-mai,  on  the  south 
by  Amherst  and  Shwe-gyeng  and  on  the  west  by  Shwe- 
gyeng  and  Toung-gnii.  From  the  annexation  of  Pegu 
until  1872  the  Hill  Tracts  formed  a  subdivision  of  the 
Shwe-gyeng  district,  but  in  that  year  it  was  constituted 
into  a  se[»rate  jurisdiction.  Nearly  the  whole  district  is 
a  mass  of  mountains  intersected  by  deep  ravines,  the  only 
level  land  of  any  considerable  extent  being  found  in  tha 
valley  of  the  Rwon-za-leng,  whilee.yery  part  of  the  country, 
is  covered  with  dense  forest. 

The  Hill  Tracts  are  drained  by  three  principal  rivere,  the  Salwin, 
Rwon-za-leng,  and  Bhi-leng,  fed  by  numerous  mountain  torrents 
which  rush  dowu  narrow  ravines.  The  Salwin  is  the  largest  river 
in  the  Tenasserim  division.  Its  source  has  never  been  exploied, 
but  it  appears  to  take  its  rise  far  north  in  the  Himalayas  or  in  tho 
mountains  which  form  their  extension  eastward.  After  traversing 
the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan  and  the  Shan  and  Karcng-ni 
states  to  the  soutj/,  it  enters  British  Burmah  at  its  extreme  north- 
eastern  corner,  ahd  for  some  distance  marks  the  c.^stern  limits  of 
the  province.  It  has  a  known  course  of  about  700  miles,  but  its 
breadth  seldom  exceeds  100  yards,  and  in  some  parts  the  bed  does' 
not  occupy  more  than  30  yards.  The  Salwin  is  gi'eatly  obstructed 
by  rapids,  and  is  not  navigable  by  large  craft  for  more  than  100 
miles  from  its  mouth.  The  Rwon-za-leng,  which  rises  in  the 
extreme  noith,  is  navigable  with  some  difficulty  in  the  dry  season 
as  far  as  Pa-pwon,  the  administrative  headquarters  ;  the  Bhi-leng 
is  not  navigable  within  the.  limits  of  tho  district  except  by  small 
boats  and  rafts.         < 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  district  only  21  square  miles  are  culti- 
vated; the  chief  crops  are  rice  .nud  betchnuts.  Tho  revcnuo  of 
Salwin  amounted  in  1883-84  to  only  £1964,  of  which  £940  were 
raised  from  tho  land-tax.  The  population  in  1881  was  returned  at 
30,009  (males  15,509,  females  14,600). 

SALZA,  Heemaun  von  (c.  1180-1239),  one  of  the  most' 
illustrious  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order,  was  a  .scion  of 
the  house  of  Langensalza  in  Thuringia,  where  he  was  born 
about  1180.  He  was  a  faithful  and  influential  councillor 
of  the  emperor  Frederick  XL,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  contemporary  affairs  of  the  German  empire.  The 
events  of  his  life  are  involved  in  the  history  of  the 
Teutonic  Order  {q.v.),  of  which  he  was  elected  master 
in  1210  or  1211. 

SALZBRUNN,  a  small  German  watering-place,  visited 
annually  by  about  4000  patients,  is  situated  in  Silesia,  30 
miles  to  the  south-west  of  Breslau.  Its  alkalo-saline 
springs,  which  are  especially  efficacious  in  pulmonary 
complaints,  were  known  as  early  as  1316,  but  afterwards 
fell  into  disuse  until  their  merits  were  once  more  dis- 
covered at  the  beginning  of  this  century.  Tho  resident 
population  in  1880  numbered  .5777. 

SALZBURG,  capital  of  the  present  Austrian  crownland 
and  formerly  of  the  archbishoiiric  of  the  same  name,  occu- 
pies a  position  of  singular  beauty  on  the  Salzach,  87  miles 
south-east  of  Jlunich,and  154  miles  west  by  south  of  Vienna. 
The  river,  flowing  north-west  from  the  glaciers  of  tho  Salz- 
burg Alps  to  the  Bavarian  plain,  passes  at  this  point  between 
two  isolated  hills,  the  Monchsbcrg  (1732  feet)  on  tho  left 
and  the  Capuzinerberg  (2132  feet)  on  the  right ;  in  the 
lovely  valley  so  formed,  and  stretching  into  the  plain 
beyond,  lies  Salzburg.  'The  picturesque  and  wooded  con- 
fining hills,  the  lofty  citadel  ,of  Hohen-Salzburg,  rising 
like  a  Greek  acropolis  above  the  towers  and  spires  of  the 
city  at  its  foot,  and  tho  magnificent  background  of  the 
Salzburg  Alps,  overhanging  the  broad  plain,  make  Salzburg 
the  most  beautifully  situated  town  in  Austria  or  Germany. 
The  older  and  main  part  of  the  city  lies  on  tho  left  bank  of 
tho  Salzach,  in  a  narrow  semicircular  plain  at  the  base  of  th; 


240 


SALZBURG 


Miinchsberg  ;  tho  newer  town  is  on  the  ri^lit '  bank  at  the 
foot  of  the  Capuzinorborg,  which  is  Ecparatecl  from  the  river 
by  tho  narrow  suburb  of  Stein.  At  tho  south  end  of  tlie 
.lid  town,  below  tho  Nonnberg,  or  soutli-cast  spur  of  the 
Mcinclisberg,  is  tlio  suburb  of  Nonnthal;  and  at  tho  north 
end  is  Miilln.  Tho  steep  sides  of  tho  Monchsberg  rise 
directly  from  amidst  tho  houses  of  the  town,  son;o  of 
which  havQ  cellars  and  rooms  hewn  out  of  tho  rock ;  and 
the  ancient  cemetery  of  St  Peter,  the  oldest  in  Salzburg,  is 
bounded  by  a  row  of  vaults  cut  in  the  side  of  the  hill. 
Tho  narrowest  part  of  tho  ridge,  which  has  a  length  of 
above  two  miles,  is  pierced  by  the  Ncu  Thor,  a  tunnel  436 
feet  long  and  23  feet  broad,  completed  in  17C7,  to  form  a 
convenient  pa.ssage  from  tho  town  to  tho  open  plain.  The 
south  end  of  tho  Miinchsberg  is  occupied  by  tho  imposing 
Hohen-Salzburg,  a  citadel  originally  founded  in  the  9th 
century,  though  the  present  buildings,  the  towers  of  which 
rise  400  feet*  above  tho  town,  date  chiefly  from  140G- 
1519.  Tho  streets  in  the  older  cpurters  are  narrow, 
crooked,  and  gloomy ;  but  the  newer  parts  of  the  city, 
especially  those  laid  out  since  the  removal  of  the  fortifica- 
tions about  18C1,  arc  handsome  and  spacious.     Owing  to 


Plan  of  Salzbnrg. 

the  frequent  fires  the  private  buildings  of  Salzburg  are 
comparatively  modern  ;  and  the  present  flat-roofed  houses, 
lavishly  adorned  with  marble,  are,  like  many  of  the 
public  buildings,  monuments  of  tho  gorgeous  taste  of  the 
prince  archbishops  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  The 
stylo  of  the  houses,  tho  numerous  open  squares,  and  the 
abundant  fountains  give  an  Italian  air  to  the  town. 
Both  sides  of  tho  river  are  bordered  by  line  promenades, 
planted  with  trees ;  and  a  public  park  has  been  laid  out 
to  the  north  of  the  new  town.  The  Salzach  is  spanned 
by  four  bridges,  including  a  railway  bridge. 

Siikburg  is  fuU-  of  objects  and  buildings  of  interest.  The 
cathedral,  one  of  tho  largest  and  most  perfect  specimens  of  tlie 
Renaissance  stylo  in  Germany,  was  built  in  1614-28  by  tlio  Italian 
architect  Santino  Solari,  in  imitation  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome.  On 
three  sides  it  is  bounded  by  tho  Dom-Platz,  tlie  Capitel-Platz,  and 
the  Residenz-Platz  ;  and  opening  on  tho  north-east  and  north-west 
of  the  last  arc  the  Mozart-Platz  and  the  JIarkt-PIatz.  In  the 
Mozart-Platz  is  a  statue  of  Mozart,  who  was  born  in  Salzburg  in 
17fj(;.  On  one  side  ot  the  Residenz-Platz  ia  the  palace,  an  irregular 
^though  im]iosing  building  in  the  Italian  style,  begun  in  1592  and 
finished  in  1725.  It  is  now  occupied  by  the  grand-duke  of  Tus- 
cany. Opposite  is  the  Ncu  Bau^,  begun  in  15S8,  inwhieh  are  the 
Government  offices  and  the  law  courts.  The  palace  of  the  present 
archbislioDs  is  ,in  the  Cauitel-Platz.     Across  tho  river,  with  its 


French  garden  adjoining  the  public  park,  is  tho  Mirabcll  palace, 
lormcrly  tho  summer  residence  of  the  prince  archbishops  Built 
in  1607,  and  restored  after  a  fire  in  187  8,  it  was  presented  to  the 
town  in  1867  by  tho  emperor  Francis  Joseph.  Tlie  building  close 
to  tho  Ncn  Thor,  now  tho  cavalry  barracks,  was  formedy  tho 
sumptuous  stables  of  the  archbishops,  built  ia  1607  to  accom- 
modate 130  horses.  Bcfido  it  is  an  .imiihithcatre,  partly  hewn 
out  ot  the  rook  of  the  Monchsberg  in  1C93,  known  .is  the  Summer 
Ruling  School.  Tho  Winter  Riding  School,  in  tlio  adj.acont  build- 
ing, has  its  ceiling  decorated  with  the  painting  of  a  tournament, 
dating  from  1690.  The  town-liouso  of  Salzburg  -.vas  built  in  1407 
and  restored  in  1675.  Other  interesting  secular  buildings  are  tho 
Chiemseehof,  founded  in  1305  and  rebuilt  in  1697,  formerly  tho 
palace  of  the  sufliagan  bisliop  of  Chiemscc,  and  now  tho  mecting- 
placo  of  the  Salzburg  diet ;  the  united  school-building,  erected  in 
1873  ;  St  John's  hospital ;  the  Carolino-Augusteum  museum  ;  and 
tlio  handsome  Cuiliaus,  erected  in  the  public  park  in  1868. 

Of  the  twenty-four  churches  tho  majority  are  interesting  from 
their  antir|uity,  their  architecture,  or  their  associations.  Next  to 
the  cathedral,  the  chief  is  perhaps  the  abbey  church  of  St  Peter,  a 
Romanesque  basilica  of  1127,  tastelessly  restored  in  1745.  It  con- 
tains monuments  to  St  Rupoi-t,  and  to  the  "Monk  of  Salzburg,"  a 
religious  poet  cf  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century.  St  Margaret's, 
in  tlie  midst  of  St  Peter's  churchyard,  built  in  1485,  and  restored 
in  1865,  IS  situated  near  the  cave  in  the  side  of  tho  Monchsberg, 
said  to  have  been  the  hermitage  of  St  Maximus,  who  was  martyred 
by  the  pagan  Hcruli  in  477.  The  Franciscan  church,  with  an 
elegant  tower  built  in  1866,  is  an  interesting  example  of  the  trans- 
ition style  of  the  13th  century,  with  later  baroquo  additions.  St 
Sebastian's,  on  the  riglit  bank,  built  in  1505-12  and  restored  in 
1812,  contains  tho  tomb  of  Paracelsus,  whose  house  stood  in  th« 
Platzl,  or  square  at  the  north  end  of  tho  chief  bridge.  The  oldest 
and  most  important  of  the  eight  couvents  (four  for  each  sex)  at 
Salzburg  is  tho  Benedictine  abbey  of  St  Peter,  founded  about  582 
by  St  Rupert  as  the  nucleus  of  the  city.  It  contains  a  library  ol 
40,000  volumes,  besides  MSS.  The  Cainichin  monastery,  dating 
from  1699,  gives  name  to  the.Capuzinerberg.  The  oldest  nunnery 
is  that  founded  on  the  Nonnberg  by  St  Rupert  in  585.  The  single 
Piotestaut  church  in  Salzburg  was  not  built  until  1865. 

A  theological  seminary  is  the  only  relic  now  left -of  tho  univer- 
sity of  Salzburg,  founded  in  1623  and  suppressed  in  1810.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  other  educational  institutions,  lay  and  clerical, 
h.ave  their  seat  in  tho  town.  The  public  library  contains  62,000 
volumes  and  a  collection  of  MSS.,  and  tho  museum  library  contains 
10,000  volumes.  The  number  of  benevolent  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions is  large.  Salzburg  carries  on  a  variety  of  small  manufac- 
tures, including  musical  instruments,  iron-wares,  marble  ornaments, 
cement,  artificial  wool,  &c.  '  Its  trade  has  become  more  important 
since  direct  railway  communication  has  been  opened  with  Munich 
and  Vienna.  A  large  number  of  tourists  visit  Salzburg  aunually ; 
and  its  baths  also  attract  many  visitors.  It  is  the  seat  of  important 
judicial  and  administrative  deiiartments,  and  also  of  an  archbishop, 
with  a  cathedral  chapter  and  a  consistory.  In  1880  the  population 
(including  the  suburbs)  was  20,336. 

Tho  origin  and  development  of  Salzburg  were  alike  ecclesiastical, 
and  its  history  ia  involved  with  that  of  the  archbishonric  to  which 
it  g.ave  its  name,  Tho  old  Roman  town  of  Juvavuni  was  laid  in 
ruins,  and  the  incipient  Christianity  of  the  district  overwhelmed, 
by  tho  pagan  Goths  and  Huns.  The  nucleus  ot  the  present  city 
was  tho  monastery  and  bishopric  founded  here  about  700  (some  say 
about  582)  by  St  Rupert  of  Worms,  who  had  been  invited  by  Duke 
Theodo  of  Bavaria  to  preach  Christianity  in  his  land.  The  modern 
name  of  the  town,  duo  like  several  others  in  the  district  to  the  . 
abundance  of  salt  found  there,  appears  before  tho  end  of  the  8th 
century.  When  Cltirlcmagne  took  possession  of  Bavaria  in  798  he 
made  Bishop  Arno  of  Salzburg  an  archbishop.  Thenceforward  the 
dignity  and  power  of  the  see  steadily  increased.  Before  the  end 
of  tho  lltli  century  Arno's  successors  had  been  named  primates  of 
Germany  and  perpetual  papal  legates  ;  in  the  course  of  time  they 
obtained  high  secular  honours  also ;  and  in  1278  Rudolph  of  Ha'ps"- 
burg  made  the  archbishops  imperial  princes.  The  able  and  ambi- 
tious lino  of  prince  archbishops,  chosen  from  the  noblest  families  of 
Germany,  eagerly  enlarged  their  possessions  by  purchase,  exchange, 
and  gift,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  come  into  warlike  collision  with 
the  rulers  of  Bavaria  and  Austria,  or  even  with  the  emperor  himself 
They  took  an  active  share  in  the  affairs  of  the  empire,  and  held  an 
inlluential  position  in  the  electoral  college.  As  a  constituent  of 
the  German  empire,  Salzburg  embraced  an  area  of  3700  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  250,000.  Tho  l.xst  independent 
archbishop  was  Hieronynuis,  count  of  Colleredo,  elected  in  1772 
who  ruled  with  energy  and  justice  but  without  popularity.  The 
see  was  secularized  by  the  peace  of  Lunevillo  in  1802. 

Tlie  strife  between  lord  and  people  had  always  been  keen  in 
Salzburg;  and  in  1511  /the  arclibishop,  Leonhard,  was  besieged  in 
Hohoii-Salzburg  by  tho  inhabitants.  The  Peasants'  War  also 
raged  within  the  see.  From  th.c  beginning  an  orihodox  stronghold 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  Salzburg  expelled  tho  Jews,  in  1498, 


S  A  L  — S  A  M 


241 


ind  energetically  opposed  the  Protestant  Reformation.  Under 
Wolfgang  Dietrich  many  Protestant  citizens  wer^  driven  from 
the  town  and  their  houses  demolished.  In  spite'  however,  of 
rigorous  persecution  the  new  faith  spread  in  secret,  especially 
among  the  landward  subjects  of  the  archbishop,  and  a  new 
and  more  searching  edict  of  expulsion  was  issued  by  Arcli- 
bishop  Von  Firmian  in  1727.  Tlio  Protestants  invoked  the  aid  of 
Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia,  who  procured  for  them  permission 
to  sell  their  eoods  and  to  emigrate  ;  and  in  1731  and  1732  Salzburg 
.parted  to  Prussia  with  about  30,000  industrious  and  peaceful 
citizens.     About  6000  of  these  came  from  the  capital. 

By  the  peace  of  LuneviUo  Salzburg  was  given  to  the  archduke  of 
Austria  and  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  in  exchange  for  Tuscany  ;  and 
it.i  new  owner  was  enrolled  among  the  electoral  princes.  In  tlie  re- 
distribution following  the  peace  of  Prcssburg  in  1805,  Salzburg  fell 
to  Austria.  Four  years  later  it  passed  to  Bavaria,  but  the  peace  of 
Paris  in  1814  restored  it  to  Austria,  to  which  it  has  since  belonged. 
Under  the  designation  of  a  duchy  the  territory  formed  the  depart- 
ment of  Silzach  in  Upper  Austria  until  18-19,  when  it  was  made  a 
separate  crown-land,  v/ith  the  four  departments  of  Salzburg,  Zell, 
Tamsweg,  and  St  Johann.  In  1.S61  the  management  of  its  affairs 
was  entrusted  to  a  local  diet,  consisting  of  the  governor,  the  arcli- 
bishop,  and  twenty-five  representatives.  The  area  of  the  duchy  is 
27C2  square  miles  and  tho  population  in  18S0  was  103,570,  almost 
cxcliisivcly  Roman  Catholic  and  of  German  stock.  (F.  MU. ) 

S.\LZKAMMERGUT,  a  district  in  the  south-west  angle 
of  Upper  Austria,  between  Salzburg  and  Styria,  famous 
for  its  fine  scenery,  forms  a  separata  •  imperial  domain 
about  250  square  miles  in  area,  and  with  a  population 
of  over  18,000.  The  beauty  of  its  lofty  mountains, 
sequestered  lakes,  and  green  valleys  has  made  It  one  of 
the  favourite  tourist  resorts  of  Europe,  and  has  gained 
for  it  the  title  of  tho  "Austrian  Switzerland";  but  it  owes 
its  name  (literally  "  salt-exchequer  property ")  and  its 
economic  importance  to  its  oztensivo  and  valuable  salt 
mines.  The  chief  lakes  are  the  Traunseo  or  Lake  of 
Gmundeu,  tho  Lake  of  Hallstatt,  the  Attorsee  or  Kam- 
mersee  (the  largest  lake  in  Austria),  the  Mondsee,  and  tho 
Sf  Wolfgang  Lake.  The  principal  mountains  are  the 
Dachstein  (9849  feet),  Thordtein  (9059  fcet^,  the  Todto 
Gebirgo  with  the  summits  of  Priel  (8238  feet)  and  others, 
and  the  Hollengebirge  (0.371  feet).  The  Sehafberg  (5840 
feet)  or  "Austrian  Eigi"  and  the  Traunstein  (5548  feet), 
isolated  peaks  among  the  lakes,  are  well-known  tourist 
points.  In  the  very  heart  of  the  salt-yielding  district  lies 
tho  fashionable  spa  of  Ischl ;  but  the  capital  of  the 
Salzkammergut  is  Gmunden,  situated  on  tho  Traunsee  at 
the  exit  of  the  Traun,  the  chief  river  of  the  district. 
Cattle-rearing  and  forestry  are  carried  on  to  a  certain 
extent  by  the  people,  but  between  0000  and  7000  of  them 
are  engaged  in  the  salt-mines  and  evaporating  works, 
which  yield  annually  about  60,000  tons  of  salt.  Tho  sale 
of  the  salt  is  an  Austrian  crown-monopoly.  The  most 
important  salt-works  are  at  Ischl,  Hallstatt,  Ebensee,  and 
Aussee.     See  Salt. 

SALZWEDEL,  an  ancient  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
lies  on  the  Jeetze,  a  tributary  of  tho  Elbe,  32  miks  to  tho 
north-west  of  Stendal.  It  is  an  industrial  place  of  some 
importance,  with  linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  manufactures, 
carries  on  a  brisk  river  trade  in  grain,  and  possesses  a  fine 
Gothic  church  of  the  13th  century.  But  its  chief  claim 
to  notice  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was  for  about  a  century 
(c.  1070-1170)  the  capital  of  the  Old  or  North  Mark 
(also  for  a  time  called  the  "  Mark  of  Soltwodel"),  the 
kernel  of  the  Prussian  state.  The  old  castle,  perhaps 
founded  by  Charlemagne,  was  purchased  in  1864  by  the 
king  of  Prussia,  anxious  to  preserve  this  interesting  relic. 
Salzwedcl  was  also  a  member  of  the  Ilanseatlc  League, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  tho  IGth  century  seems  to  have 
engrossed  great  part  of  the  inland  commerce  of  North 
Germany.     The  population  in  1880  was  8780. 

SAmInID  DYNASTY,  the  name  of  the  third  among 
those  native  dynasties  which  sprang  up  in  the  9th  and  10th 
centuries  in  the  eastern  portions  of  Persia,  and,  although 

2\—\[ 


nominally  provincial  governors  under  tho  suzerainty  of  the 
caliphs  of  Baghddd,  succeeded  in  a  very  short  time  i;i  cstalj- 
lishing  an  almost  independent  rule  over  the  vast  territories 
round  the  Gxus  and  Jaxartes.  The  Ma'mun,  Il.-lninal- 
rashid's  son,  to  whose  patronage  the  TAhirid  family  owed 
their  supremacy  in  KhordsAn  and  Transoxiana  (820-872, 
205-259  A.H.)  appointed  three  sonsof  SAmdn,  originally  a 
Tartar  chief  who  claimed  descent  from  tho  old  S/isdiiian 
kings,  governors  of  Herit  and  some  districts  beyond  the 
Oxus ;  and  these  soon  gained  such  an  ascendency  over  all 
rival  clanships  that  in  872,  when  the  TAhirids  were  over- 
thrown by  the  Saffirids  under  the  leadership  of.  Ya'kiili  b. 
Laith  (808-878),  they  were  strong  enough  to  retain  in 
their  family  the  governorship  of  Transoxiana,  with  the 
official  sanction  of  the  caliph  Mo'tamid  (870-892),  and  to 
establish  a  semi-royal  court  in  Bokh.ArA,  the  seat  of  the 
new  SAminid  government.  During  the  reign' of  Ya'kub's 
brother  "Amr  b.  Laith  (878-900)  I.siiia'il  b.  Ahmad,  SamAa's 
great-grandson  (892-907,  279-295  a.h.),  crossed  the  Oxiw 
with  a  povi-erful  army,  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Saff.-iridu, 
sent  'Amr  as  prisoner  to  EaghdAd,  and  gradually  extended 
his  rule  over  KhorAsAn,.KhwArizm,  JurjAn,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring countries.  His  successors,  all  renowned  by  the 
high  impulse  they  gave  both  to  the  jjatriotic  feelings  and 
the  national  poetry  of  modern  Persia  (see  Pkrsia,  vol.  xviii. 
p.  655  «?.),  were  Ahmad  b.  Isma'll  (907-913,  295-301 
a.h.)  ;  Nasr  II.  b.  Ahmad,  tho  patron  and  friend  of  the 
great  poet'Riidagf  (913-942,  301-331  a.h.);  Nuh  L  b. 
Nasr  (942-954,  331-343  A.n.);  *Abd  al-Malik  I.  b.  Niih 
(95'4-961,  343-350  A.n.);  Man.sur  L  b.  Nilh,  whose  vizier 
tiaramf  translated  Tabari's  universal  history  into  Persian 
(961-970,  350-366  a.h.);  Niih  IL  b.  Mansiir,  who.se 
court-poet  Daklljl  commenced  the  Sltdhndma  (976-997, 
306-387  A.n.);  Mansiir  IL  b.  Niih  (997-998,  387-389 
A.n.) ;  and  Abd  al-Ma'Uk  It.  b.  Niih  (999),  with  whom  the 
SiijiiAnid  dynasty  came  to  a  raiher  abrupt  end.  The 
rulers  of  this  powerful  house,  whose  silver  dirhems  had 
an  extensive  currency  during  the  10th  century  all  over 
the  northern  jiart  of  Asia,  and  v,^ore  brought,  through  Rus- 
sian caravan.sj  even  so  far  as  to  Ponierania,  Sweden,  and 
Norway,  where  SAmAnid  coins  have  lately  been  found  in 
great  number,  suffered  in  their  turn  the  fate  they  had  pre- 
pared for  their  predecessors ;  they  were  overthrown  by  a 
more  youthful  and  vigorous  race,  that  of  Sabuktagfn,  which 
founded  the  illustrious  Ghaznawid  dynasty  and  the  Mussul- 
man empire  of  India.  Under  'Abd  al-Malik  L  a  Turkish 
slave,  Alptagln,  bad  been  entrusted  with  the  government 
of  BokhArA,  but,  showing  himself  hostile  to  Abd  al-malik's 
successor  Man.sur  I.,  he  was  compelled  to  fly  and  to  take 
refuge  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Ghazna,  wliero  ho  soon 
established  a  .semi-independent  rule,  to  which,  after  his 
death  in  977  (307  A.n.),  his  son-in-law  Sabuktagfn,  like- 
wise a  former  Turki-sh  slave,  succeeded.  Nilh  IL,  in  order 
to  retain  at  least  a  nominal  sway  over  thos ,  Afghan 
territories,  confirmed  him  in  his  high  position  and  even 
invested -Sabuktagfn's  son  Mahmud  with  the  governorship 
of  KhorAsAn,  in  reward  for  the- powerful  help  they  had 
given  him  in  his  desperate  struggles  with  a  tonfederation 
of  disaffected  nobles  of  BokhArA  under  the  leadership  of 
FA'ik  and  tho  troops  of  the  Dailamites,  a  dynasty  that  hud 
arisen  on  the  shores  of  tho  Caspian  Sea  and  wrested 
already  from  the  hands  of  the  SAmAnids  all  their  western 
provinces.  Unfortunately,  Sabuktagfn  died  in  the  same 
year  as  Niih  II.  (997,  387  A.n.),' and  Jlahmud,  confronted 
with  an  internal  contest  against  his  own  brother  Isma'll, 
had  to  withdraw  his  attention  for  a  short  time  from  the 
affairs  in  KhorAsAn  and  Transoxiana.  This  interval 
sufficed  for  tho  old  rebel  leador  )''A'ik,  supported  by  a  strong 
Tartar  army  under  llekkhAn,  to  turn  Niih'a  successor 
Mansdr  II.  into  a  mere   puppet,  to  concentrate  all   the 

XXL  —  ^i 


i 


242 


S  A  M  —  S  A  M 


yowcr  in  Lis  own  hand,  and  to  induce  even  his  nominal 
master  to  reject  Mahmiid's  application  for  a  continuance 
xy[  his  governorship  in  KhorAsAn.  Alahmiid  refrained  for 
the  moment  from  vindicating  his  right ;  but,  as  soon  as, 
thropgh  court  intrigues,  Mansiir  U.  had  been  dethroned, 
he  took  possession  of  KhorAsan,  deposed  Jlansur's  suc- 
cessor *Abd  al-Malik  II.,  and  assumed  as  an  independent 
monarch  for  the  first  time  in  Asiatic  history  the  title  of 
**sTiitan,"  The  last  descendant  of  the  house  of  Simin, 
Prince  Muntasir,  a  bold  warrior  and  a  poet  of  no  mean 
talei:t,  carried  on  for  some  years  a  kind  of  guerilla  warfare 
against  both  Mahmild  and  Ilekkhdn,  who  had  occupied 
Transoxiana,  till  he  was  assassinated  in  1005  (395  a.b..), 
Transosiana  itself  was  annexed  to  the  Ghaznawid  realm 
sleven  years  later,  1016  (107  A.H.). 

3AMAR.     See  Philippine  Islands,  vol.  sviii.  p.  752. 

SAHARA,  a  government  of  south-eastern  Russia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Volga,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Kazan,  on  the  west  by  Simbii'sk  and  Saratoff,  on  the  east 
by  Ufa  and  Orenburg,  and  on  the  south  by  Astrakhan,  the 
Kirghiz  Steppes,  and  the  territory  of  the  Ural  Cossacks. 
The  area  is  58,320  square  miles,  and  the  population  in 
1882  was  2,224,093.  A  line  drawn  eastwards  from  the 
great  bend  of  the  Volga — the  Samarskaya  Luka — would 
divide  the  province  into  two  parts,  differing  in  orographical 
character.  In  the  north  flat  hills  and  plateaus,  deeply 
intersected  by  rivers,  cover  the  surface.  Some  of  these 
are  spurs  of  the  Urals ;  the  others  are  continuations  of  the 
fiat  sweUing  which  traverses  middle  Russia  from  the 
'Carpathians  to  the  Urals  and  compels  the  Volga  to  make 
its  characteristic  bend  before  entering  the  Aral-Caspian 
lowlands.  The  Samara  Hills,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Samara  ;  the  Kinel  Hills  ;  the  Falcon  (Sokolii)  Hills, 
to  the  north  of  the  Buzuluk;  the  Sok  Hills,  with  the  Tsareff 
Kurgan  at  the  junction  of  the  Sok  with  the  Volga ;  and 
the  Zheguleff  "  Mountains  "  on  the  Volga  opposite  Samara 
are  so  many  names  given  to  separate  elevations  or  parts 
of  plateaus  between  the  deep-cut  river  valleys.  In  their 
highest  paits  they  rise  about  1000  feet  above  the  sea, 
■whole  the  level  of  the  Volga  at  Samara  is  but  43  feet,  and 
ehs  broad  valleys  of  the  Volga  affluents  sink  to  a  cor- 
respondingly low  level.  South  of  the  Samarskaya  Luka 
the  country  assumes  the  characters  of  a  low  and  flat  steppe, 
recently  emerged  from  the  great  Post-Pliocene  Aral-Caspian 
basin.  Only  two  ranges  of  gentle  swellings,  spurs  of  the 
Obshchiy  SjTt,  enter  the  south-east  corner  of  the  province. 

Tlta  gcolo''y  of  Samara  is  not  yet  fully  known.  Carboniferous 
Simestones  (Upper?)  occupy  large  tracts  in  the  north-east  and  east 
Wlieu  approaching  the  Volga  the  zechstein  appears  in  "wide 
islands  surrounded  by  the  (probably  Triassic)  variegated  marls  and 
rsamls.  Some  Jurassic  deposits  are  mentioned  about  the  Samarsk- 
aya Luka.  Cretaceous  deposits,  which  cover  large  tracts  on  the 
light  bank  of  the  Volga,  appear  on  the  left  bank  only  in  the 
aoufh-east  of  Samara.  Older  Tertiary  deposits  appear  also  in  the 
Trery  south  of  Samara  ;  while  Pliocene  limestones  and  sandy  clays, 
■T7hicli  cover  the  Obshchiy  Syrt  and  Ust-Urt,  protrude  north  as  a 
marrow  atrip,  reaching  the  bend  of  the  Volga.  The  Glacial 
;;TCuMcr-clay  of  middle  Russia  does  not  extend  as  far  sonth-east  as 
*>?araara,  and  the  Post-Glacial  deposits,  not  yet  fully  investigated, 
;--ra  represented  by  loess,  black  earth,  and  lacustrine  formations. 
It  is  now  established  that  during  Post-Glacial  times-  the  Aral- 
C"3SY'ian  sea  extended  in  a  wide  gulf  occupying  the  broad  depression 
of  the  Volga  as  far  north  as  the  Samarskaya  Luka,  Caspian 
:smissel3  having  been  traced  as  far  as  Samara.  The  soil  is  on  the 
whole  very  fertile.  All  the  northern  part  of  the  government  is 
-covered  with  a  thick  sheet  of  black  earth  ;  this  becomes  thinner 
towards  the  south,  clays — mostly  fertile — appealing  from  beneath  ; 
salt  clays  appear  in  the  south-east. 

Samara  is  inadequately  watered,  especially  in  the  south.  The 
"Volga  Hows  for  550  miles  along  its  western  border.  Its  tributaries 
■the  Great  Tcheremshan  (220  miles),  the  Sok  (195  miles),  the 
Samara  (340  miles),  with  its  sub-tributaries,  and  the  smaller 
^tribataries  the.Motcha,  Elan-Irghiz  or  Tehama,  and  Little  Irghiz 
.lare  not  navigable,  partly  on  account  of  their  shallowness,  and 
partiy  because  of  water-mills.     When  the  water  is  high,  boats  can 


enter  some  of  them  to  a  distance  of  15  to  30  miles.  The  Great 
Irghiz  alone,  which  has  an  exceedingly  winding  course  of  335 
miles,  is  navigated  to  Kutchum,  and  rafts  are  floated  from 
Nikolaevsk.  The  banks  of  both  Karamans  are  densely  peopkd. 
The  Great  and  X-ittle  Uzeii  water  south-eastern  Samara  and  lose 
themselves  in  the  Kamysh  sands  before  reaching  the  Caspian.  A 
few  lakes  and  marshes  occur  in  the  river-valleys,  and  salt  marshes 
in  the  south-east. 

The  whole  of  the  region  is  rapidly  drying  up.  The  forests, 
which  are  disappearing,  are  extensive  only  in  the  north.  Altogether 
they  still  .cover  an  area  of  3,043,000  acres,  or  8  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  surface  ;  prairie  and  grazing  land  occupies  11,495,000  acres, 
and  only  4,193,000  acres  are  uncultivable. 

The  climate  is  one  of  extremeSj  especially  in  the  steppes,  where 
the  depressing  heat  and  drought  of  summer  are  followed  in  the 
winter  by  severe  frosts,  often  accompanied  by  snow-storms.  The 
average  temperature  at  Samara  (53°  11'  N.  lat.)  is  only  39°  "2 
(January,  9°-3  ;  July,  70"-4). 

The  population,  which  was  only  1,388,500  in  1853,  has  almost 
Qoubled  since  then,  mostly  in  consequence  of  immigration  ;  it 
reached  2,224,093  in  1882,  and  must  now  (18S6).be  about  2,250,000. 
Only  139,300  of  these  live  in  towns,  the  remainder  being  di  tri- 
buted  over  4,470  villages,  which  are  often  ver"  large,  no  fewer  than 
150  ranging  in  population  from  2000  to  6000.  The  Great  Russians, 
who  have  immigi-ated  in  compact  masses,  now  constitute  65  per 
cent,  of  the  population  ;  the  Little  Russians,  who  were  settled  by 
the  Government  about  the  salt  lakes,  number  about  30,000;  and 
the  White  Russians,  also  sent  to  Samara  from  West  Russia,  may 
number  about  15,000.  A  special  feature  of  Samara  is  its  popula- 
tion of  German  colo»iSts,  from  Wiirtembcrg,  Baden,  Switzerland, 
and  partly  also  from  Holland  and  th„  Palatinate,  wh(Ke  immigration 
dates  from  the  invitation  of  Catherine  II.  in  1762.  Protected  as 
they  were  by  free  and  extensive  grants  of  land,  by  exemption  from, 
military  service,  and  by  self-government,  they  have  developed  rich 
coloniesof  Catholics,  Protestants,  Unitarians,  Anabaptists,  iloravians, 
and  Mennonites,  most  of  which  have  adopted  the  Russian  village- 
community  system,  slowly  modified  by  the  existence  of  a  special 
capital  reserved  for  the  purchase  of  land  for  the  increasing  popnU; 
tion.^  They  now  constitute  40  per  cent,  of  tl^e  population  of  the 
district  of  Novo-Uzefi,  and  9  per  cent,  of  that  of  ih  ikolaevsk,  their 
aggregate  number  reaching  150,000.  The  Moksha  and  Erzya  Mord- 
vinians,  now  nearly  quite  Russified,  gathered  in  Samara  during  the 
reign  of  Peter  I.,  when  they  abandoned  in  great  numbers  the  left 
bank  of  the  Volga ;  they  constitute  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation. Some  70,000  Tchuvashes  and  1500  \otyaks  may  be  added 
to  the  above.  The  Turkish  stem  is  represented  by  some  100,000 
Tartars,  70,000  Bashkirs,  and  a  few  Kirghizes.  Some  baptized  Kal- 
mucks were  settled  in  1730  at  Stavropol ;  and  about  600  Adyghe 
Circassians,  settled  at  Novo-Uzen,  may  still  be  found  there.  All 
these  varied  elements,  living  in  close  jU;Xta,position,  nevertheless 
continue  to  maintain  their  own  ethuographical  features;  the  Mord- 
vinians  alone  have  lost  their  ethnological  individuality  and  rapidly 
undergo  a  modification  of  tj^e  as  they  adopt  the  life  of  Russian 
peasants.  As  regards  religion,  the  great  bulk  of  the  population ' 
are  Orthodox  Greeks  ;  the  Nonconformists,  who  still  retain  their 
numerous  and  widely  celebrated  communities  and  monasteries  on 
both  the  rivers  Uzeu,  number  several  hundred  thousands  (officially 
100,000);  next  come  Mohammedans,  12  per  cent.;  a  variety  of 
Protestant  sects,  5  per  cent. ;  Roman  Catholics,  about  2  per  cent. ; 
and,  lastly,  some  4000  pagans. 

The  chief  occupation  is  agriculture, — summer  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
millet,  oil-yielding  plants,  and  tobacco  being  the  principal  crops. 
Owing  to  its  great  fertility,  Samara  usually  has  a  surplus  of  grain 
for  export,  varying  from  IJ  to  4  million  quarters  (exclusive  of  oats) 
annually.  In  1SS3,  which  was  an  average  year  for  summer  wheat, 
but  under  the  average  for  winter  rye,  the  total  crops  were — wheat, 
3,219,600  quarters;  rye,  717,800;  oats,  1,800,000;  barley,  127,300; 
and  other  grains,  1,310,000.  Notwithstandifig  this  production, 
varying  from  5,000,000  to  9,000,000  quarters  of  grain  (exclusive 
of  oats)  for  a  population  of  only  2|  millions,  Samara  is  periodi- 
cally liable  to  famine  to  such  an  extent  that  men  die  by  tliousands 
of  hunger- typhus,  are  competed  to  send  (as  in  1S79)  to  adjoining 
provinces  to  purchase  orach  as  food,  or  are  forced  to  go  by  hundreds 
of  thousands  in  search  of  employment  on  the  Volga,  whUe  millions 
of  quarters  of  corn  are  nevertheless  exported.  The  population 
have  no  store  of  com,  or  reserve  capital  for  years  of  scarci^ 
(there  were  in  1SS2  only  245,100  quarters  of  corn  in  the  public 
granaries,  and  503,022  roubles  of  capital  foi'  that  purpose),  and 
some  210,000  males  have  in  all  only  845,000  acres  of  arable  and 
pasture  land.  But  even  this  soil,  although  all  taxed  as  arable,  is 
often  of  such  quality  that  only  50  to  55  per  cent,  of  it  is  under 
crops,  while  the  peasants  are  compelled  to  rent  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  million  acres  for  tillage  from  large  proprietors.  At 
present  8,549,000  acres,  or  about  one-quarter  of  the  total  area  of 

^  See  the  interesting  work  of  M.  Clauss  on  "Our  Colonies" 
(Russian). 


S  A  M  — S  A  M 


243 


Samara,  purchased  from  the  crown  or  from  the  Bashkirs  at  nomi- 
nal prices — ^very  often  a  few  copecks  per  acre — are  in  tlie  hands  of 
no  more  thaa  1704  persons.  The  aggregate  taxes  exacted  from 
the  peasants  amounting  to  5,782,870  roubles  (1879),  that  is  to  say, 
from  8  to  10  roubles  per  male,  they  are,  when  account  is  taken  of 
the  advances  received  during  scarcity,  reduced  to  absolute  destitu- 
tion whenever  the  crops  are  short,  so  as  to  be  compelled  to  sell 
their  last  horse  and  cow.  In  1880  the  arrears  reached  7,000,000 
roubles,  to  which  must  be  added  about  8, 000, 000  roubles  of  advances, 
and  in  1S82,  out  of  tho  1, 196, 646  roubles  proposed  to  be  levied  by  the 
zemstvos,  376,643  remained  in  arrears.  The  general  impoverish- 
ment may  be  judged  from  the  death-rate,  which  for  several  years 
has  ranged  from  46  to  48  per  thousand.  In  1879  61,488  families 
Trere  compelled  to  abandon  their  homes  and  disperse  throughout 
Bussia  in  search  of  employment ;  while  100,000  families  were  left 
wholly  destitute  of  cattle  in  1880.  Notwithstanding  an  increase 
ef  population  by  nearly  one-third  during  the  last  twenty  years  the 
nuiiibers  of  sheep  and  cattle  decreased  by  about  one-half  from  1863 
to_l882.  . 

I'he  manufactures  of  Samara  are  unimportant,  the  aggregate 
production  (chiefly  from  tanneries,  flour-mills,  tallow-melting 
houses,  and  distilleries)  in  1882  reaching  only  7,671,000  roubles 
(£767,100).  Petty  trades,  especially  the  weaving  of  woollen  cloth, 
are  making  progress  in  the  south.  Tho  culture  of  oil-yielding 
Tilants  is  developed  in  several  districts,  as  is  also  that  of  tobacco 
(10,690  acres,  yielding  101,980  cv,-ts.,  in'.18S4).  Trade  is  very 
active — com,  tallow,  potash,  salt,  and  some  woollen  cloth  being 
exported ;  tho  imports  of  raw  cotton  from  Central  Asia  by  the 
Orenburg  railway  to  be  forwarded  to  the  interior  of  Russia  are 
increasing.  The  aggregate  value  of  merchandise  shipped  on  the 
Volga  and  its  tributaries  within  the  government  rea-.hcd  27,025,000 
roubles  in  1882  ;  while  9,100,000  cwts.  of  merchandise  were  carried 
in  both  directions  on  the  Orenburg  railway.  The  chief  loading  places 
are  Samara,  Stavropol,  Balakova,  and  Pokrovsk  on  the  Volga,  Staro- 
Jiainsk  on  the  Maina,  and  Ekateriuinsk  on  the  Bczentchuk. 

The  government  is  divided  into  seven  districts,  the  chief  towns  of 
which,  with  population  as  estimated  in  1879,  are — Samara  (63,400 
inhabitants),  Bugulma  (13,000),  Bugurustan  (13,000),  Buzuhik 
<10,500),  Nikolaevsk  (9,900),  Novo-Uzefl  (9700),  and  Stavropol 
(4265).  Sergluevsk  (1000)  also  has  municipal  institutions  ;  its 
mineral  waters  are  becoming  more  and  more  frequented.  Pokrov- 
skaya  Sioboda  (20,000),  Ekaterinenstadt,  Gtushitza,  and  Alexan^ 
dro'J  Gay,  each  witli  more  than  5000  inhabitants,  the  loading  place 
of  Balakova  (2500),  and  several  others,  although  still  but  villages, 
have  more  importance  than  most  of  the  above  towns. 

Tho  territory  now  occupied  by  Samara  was  until  last  century  the 
abode  of  nomads.  The  Bulgarians  who  occupied  it  until  the  13th 
century  were  followed  by  Mongols  of  the  Golden  Horde.  Tho 
Hussians  penetrated  thus  far  in  the  16th  century,  after  the  defeat 
of  the  principalities  of  Kazah  and  Astrakhan.  To  secure  com- 
munication between  these  two  cities,  the  fort  of  Samara  was 
erected  in  1586,  as  well  as  SaratofF,  Tsaritsyn,  and  the  first  line  of 
Russian  forts,  which  extended  from  Byeiyi  Yar  to  tho  neighbour- 
hood of  llenzelinsk  near  the  Kama.  A  few  settlers  began  to 
gather  under  its  protection.  In  1670  it  was  taken  by  the  insur- 
gent leader  Stenka  Razin,  whoso  name  is  still  remembered  in 
the  province.  In  1732  tlio  lino  of  forts  was  removed  a  little 
farther  east,  so  as  to  include  Krasnyi  Yar  and  parts  of  what  is  now 
the  district  of  Bugurustan.  The  Ru.ssian  colonists  also  advanced 
eastwards  a.-j  tho  forts  were  pushed  forwards  and  increa,aed  in 
number.  The  southern  part  of  tho  territory,  however,  remained 
still  exposed  to  the  raids  of  tho  noma^i.  In  1762  Catherine  IV. 
invited  foreigners,  especially  Germans,  and  Konconformists  who 
had  left  Russia,  to  settle  within  tho  newly-annexed  territory. 
Emigrants  from  various  parts  of  Germany  responded  to  tlie  call, 
as  also  did  the  Raskolniks,  whoso  communities  on  tho  Irghiz  soon 
became  the  centre  of  a  formidable  insurrection  of  tho  peasantry 
which  broke  out  in  1775  under  Fugatchclf  and  was  supported' by 
tho  Kalmucks  and  tho  Bashkirs.  After  tho  insurrection,  in  1787, 
a  new  lino  of  forts  from  ITzeii  to  tho  Volga  and  tho  Urals  was 
erected  to  protect  the  southern  part  of  the  territory.  At  the  end 
of  the  18th  century  Samara  became  an  important  centre  for  trade. 
Ao  soon  as  tho  southern  part  of  tho  territory  became  quiet,  great 
numbers  of  Great  and  Little  Russians  began  to  settle  there — the 
latter  by  order  of  Government  for  tho  transport  of  salt  obtained 
in  tho  salt  lakes.  In  the  first  half  of  tho  present  century  the  region 
W.13  rapidly  colonized.  In  1847-50  tho  Government  introduced 
about  120  Polish  families;  in  1857-59  Jlennonites  from  Dantzic 
also  founded  settlements  ;  and  in  1859  a  few  Circassians  were 
brought  hither  by  Government;  while  an  influx  of  Great  Russian 
pcTsants  continued  and  still  goes  on.  Tho  territory  of  Samara 
remained  long  under  Kazan,  or  Astrakhan,  or  Simbirsk  and  Oren- 
burg.    Tho  separate  government  dates  from  1851.        (P.  A.  K.) 

SAMARA,  capital  of  tho  above  government,  is  situated 
on  the  slopes  of  tho  left  ban]-:  of  tho  ^V.-r^,  743  miles  to 
•Ibe  aouth-cast  of  Moscow,  at  tho  moutn  ;f  the  Samara 


and  opposite  the  hills  of  Zheguleff.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  to%vns  of  the  lower  Volga  for  its  trade,  and  its 
importance  cannot  fail  to  increase  as  the  railway  to  Central 
Asia  advances  eastwards.  Its  population  rose  from  31,500j 
in  1869  to  63,400  in  1879.  Samara  is  built  mostly  of 
wood,  and  large  spaces  remain  vacant  on  both  sides  of 
its  broad  unpaved  streets.  Its  few  public  buildings  are 
insignificant.  A  number  of  the  inhabitants  support  them- 
selves by  agriculture  and  gardening,  for  which  they  rent 
large  areas  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town.  The  remaindei 
are  engaged  at  the  harboiur,  one  of  the  most  important  or. 
the  Volga.  Three  fairs  are  held  annually,  with  aggregate 
returns  exceeding  2,000,000  roubles.  Samara  is  becoming 
more  and  more  a  resort  for  consumptives  on  account  of  its 
koumiss  establishments  (see  vol.  xvi.  pp.  305-G). 

SAMARANG.     See  Java,  vol.  xiii.  p.  COG. 

SAMARCAJSfD.     See  Samarkahd. 

SASIARIA  (Heb.  piDL",  Shdmerdn ;  LXX  Sa/iapcio, 
except  in  1  Kings  xvi.  24'),  the  capital  of  Northern  Israel 
from  the  time  of  Omri  to  the  fall  of  the  kingdom,  which 
was  consummated  in  the  long  siege  of  the  royal  city  by 
Shalmaneser  (2  Kings  xvii.  5)  and  its  capture  by  his 
successor  Sargon  (c.  721  B.C.).  The  choice  of  Samaria  as 
his  capital  by  the  warlike  and  energetic  prince  to  Vvhora 
the  kingdom  of  Ephraim  mainly  owed  lif  greatness  is  easily 
understood.  It  stands  in  the  very  centre  v^f  Palestine  and 
of  the  country  of  the  dominating  tribe  of  Joseph,  and,  built 
on  a  steep  and  almost  isolated  hill,  with  a  long  and 
spacious  plateau  for  its  summit,  was  naturally  a  position  of 
much  strength,  commanding  two  of  the  most  important 
roads — the  great  north  and  south  road  which  passes 
immediately  under  the  eastern  wall,  and  the  road  from 
Shechem  to  the  maritime  plain  which  runs  a  little  to  the 
west  of  Omri's  capital.  The  hill  of  Samaria  is  separated 
from  the  surrounding  mountains  (Amos  iii.  9)  by  a  rich 
and  well-watered  plain,  from  which  it  rises  in  successive 
terraces  of  fertile  soil  to  a  height  of  400  or  500  fee 
Only  on  the  east  a  narrow  saddle,  some  200  feet  beneath 
the  plateau,  runs  across  the  plain  towards  the  mountains ; 
it  is  at  this  point  that  the  traveller  coming  from  Shechem 
now  ascends  the  hill  to  the  village  of  Sebastiya  (now 
pronounced  Sebastiya),  which  occupies  jnly  the  extreme 
east  of  a  terrace  beneath  the  hill  top,  behind  the  crusading 
church  of  John  the  Baptist,  which  is  the  first  thing  that 
draws  the  eye  as  one  approaches  the  town.  The  hill-top, 
the  longer  axis  of  which  runs  westward  from  the  village, 
rises  1450  feet  above  the  sea,  and  commands  a  superb  view 
towards  the  Mediterranean,  the  mouKtaius  of  Shechem,  and 
Mount  Herraon.  The  situation  as  a  whole  is  far  moro 
beautiful  than  that  of  Jeru.<;alcni,  though  not  ,eo  grand 
and  wild.  The  line  of  the  ancient  walls  has  not  been 
determined,  the  chief  visible  ruins  being  of  the  time  of 
Herod;  but,  if  they  followed  tho  natural  lines  of  defence, 
the  city  may  have  been  almost  a  mile  in  length  from  east 
to  west. 

Tho  foundation  of  tho  new  capital  was  speedily  followed  by  tho 
wars  with  Damascus,  in  which  repeated  incfrec.tu.il  sieges  by  tho 
Syrians  proved  the  value  of  tho  stronghold ;  and  even  the 
Assyrians,  as  has  been  mentioned,  reduced  the  place  with  difiiculty. 
Burin"  part  of  the  struggle  with  Damascus  the  kings  of  Israel  often 
resided  at  Jezrcel,  which  was  nearer  the  seat  of  war;/ but  Omri'a 
city  never  lost  its  pre-eminence.  While  it  stood,  Samaria  and  not 
Jerusalem  was  tho  centre  of  Hebrew  life,  and  tho  prophets 
sometimes  speak  of  it  as  olso  tho  centre  of  corrupt  Jehovah- 
worship  and  idolatry  (IIos.  viii.   5,  Jlic.  L  5,  Isa.  x.   10).     Tho 

'  The  first  6  in  ShSmerCa  can  hardly  represent  tho  old  proniinciation. 
In  1  Kings  xvi.  24,  tho  tamo  of  tho  city  is  derived  from  that  of  Shemer. 
from  whom  Omri  bought  tho  site,  and  here  LXX.  seems  to  have  origin- 
ally had  'SafjLrpiiy  or  ^tfitpuv  (Cod.  Vat.  2a</iT7pa)i'),  aftcrwart!s 
corrccte<l  to  ^oftcpuv  (as  in  Ij.agarde's  edition  of  Lucian's  text)  fr  'tt- 
tho  Hebrew  tradition  (compare  Hold's  llcxapla  on  the  passr.i;e).j 
Tho  Assyri.^n  monuments  have  Samirina. 


244 


S  A  M  — S  A  M 


aahera  of  Samaria,  which  was  not  removed  by  the  house  of  Jehu,  is 
mentioned  in  2  Kings  xiiL  8  j  and  Hos.  viii.  5  seems  to  speak  of 
calf-idols  there,  unless  the  prophet  is  already  using  the  name  of 
Samaria  for  tho  kingdom  as  a  whole,  as  later  ^vriters  often  do. 
Ultimately,  in  the  Greek  period,  the  name  of  Samaria  or  Samaritis 
was  applied  to  tho  whole  tract  of  which  it  is  the  centre — the  region 
between  Judcea  and  Galilee,  the  country  of  the  Samaritans  ig.v.) ; 
and  the  New  Testament  uses  Samaria  in  this  sense,  Tho  city  of 
Samaria  was  HcUenizcd  by  Alexander,  who  settled  Macedonian 
colonists  in  it.  It  becamca  fortress  and  was  twice  taken  by  siege  in 
the  wars  of  the  Diadochi  (by  Ptolemy  I.  in  312  and  by  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  about  296).  Under  the  Ptolemies  Samaria  was  the  head 
of  a  separate  province,  and  it  continued  to  be  a  strong  city  till  John 
^lyrcanus  took  and  utterly  destroyed  it  after  a  year's  siege  (c.  110 
B.C.;  see  Jos,,  A7it.,  xiii.  10,  2  sq.).  Taken  from  the  Jews  by 
Pompey,  Samaria  was  one  of  tho  rained  cities  which  Gabinius 
ordered  to  be restored(Jos.,  .^nl,  siv.  5,  3);  then  given  by  Augustus 
to  Herod  the  Great,  it  was  refounded  by  him  oa  a  splendid  scale 
probably  in  27  B.C.,  tho  aTitumn  of  which  year,  according  to 
Schtirer's  calculations,  is  the  prob.-ible  epoch  of  the  new  city  of 
Sebaste,  as  it  was  nov-  called  in  honour  of  Augustus.  ."Many  remains 
of  Herod's  buildings,  described  by  Josephus  {Ant.^  xv.  8,  5  ;  B.  J., 
i.  21,  2),  still  remain ;  the  most  notable  belong  to  a  long  colonnade 
just  above  the  line  of  Herod's  wall  and  hose  of  the  great  temple 
of  Cffisar.  Tho  tombs  of  John  the  Baptist,  Elisha,  and  Obadiah 
were  visited  at  Samaria  in  the  time  of  Jerome  (see  Obadiah),  and 
that  of  St  John  must  have  been  shown'thera  still  earlier,  for  it  was 
violated  by  Julian.  The  old  crusading  church,  nov,*  a  mosque,  was 
built  over  the  tomb  of  the  Baptist,  who  is  reverenced  as  a  prophet 
by  the  Moslems.  A  view  and  plan  of  the  church,  with  details,  are 
given  in  the  Sifrvey  of  IF.  Pal.  {Memoirs^  vol.  ii.  p.  211  sq.),  where 
also  there  is  a  plan  of  the  city.  (W.  R.  S.) 

SAJMARITANS.  This  term,  which  primarily  means 
"iahabitants  of  Samaritis  or  the  region  of  Samaria,"  is 
specially  used,  as  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  Josephus, 
as  the  name  of  a  peculiar  religious  community  which  had 
its  headquarters  in  the  Samaritan  country,  and  is  still 
represented  by  a  few  families  (about  150  souls)  at  Nabulus, 
the  ancient  Shechem.  They  regard  themselves  as  Israelites, 
descendants  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  claim  to  possess  the 
orthodox  religion  of  Moses,  accepting  the  Pentateuch  and 
transmitting  it  in  a  te.xt  which  for  the  most  part  has  only 
microscopic  variations  from  the  Torah  of. the  Jews.  But 
they  regard  the  Jewish  temple  and  priesthood  as  schismati- 
cal,  and  declaro  that  the  true  sanctuary  of  God's  choice  is 
not  Zion  but  Mount  Gerizim;  overhanging  Shechem  (John 
^iv.  20) ;  here  they  had  a  temple  which  was  destroyed  by 
:Joha  Hyrcanus  about  128  B.C.  (Jos.,  Ant.,  xiii.  9,  1),  and 
on  the  top  of  the  mountain  they  still  celebrate  the  pass- 
ovet.  The  sanctity  of  this  site  they  prove  from  their 
Pentateuch,  reading  Gerizim  for  Ebal  in  Deut.  xxvii.  4. 
With  this  change  the  chapter  of  Deuteronomy .  can  be 
interpreted  with  a  little  straining  as  a  command  to  select 
Gerizim  as  the  legitimate  sanctuary  (comp.  ver.  7) ;  and 
accordingly  in  E.xod.  xs.  and  Deut.  v.  a  commandment 
taken  from  Deut.  xxvii.  is  inserted  at  the  close  of  the 
decalogue.  Thus  on  their  reckoning  the  tenth  command- 
ment is  the  direction  to  build  an  altar  and  do  sacrifice  on 
Gerizim, — from  which  of  course  it  follows  that  not  only  the 
temple  of  Zion  but  the  earlier  temple  of  Shiloh  and  the 
priesthood  of  Eii  were  schismatical.  Such  at  least  is  the 
express  statement  of  the  later  Samaritans;  the  older 
Samaritans,  as  they  had  no  sacred  books  except  the  Penta- 
teuch, probably  ignored  the  whole  history  between  Joshua 
and  the  captivity,  and  so  escaped  a  great  many  difficulties. 
The  contention  that  the  Pentateuch  is  a  law  given  by 
Moses  for  a  community  worshipping  on  Mount  Gerizim  is 
of  course  glaringly  unhistorical.  By  the  (unnamed)  sanc- 
tuary of  God's  choice  the  Deuteronomist  certainly  designed 
the  temple  of  Zion ;  and  the  priestly  law,  which  is  through- 
out based  on  the  practice  of  the  priests  of  Jerusalem  before 
the  captivity,  was  reduced  to  form  after  the  exile,  and  was 
first  published  by  Ezra  as  the  law  of  the  rebuilt  temple  of 
Zion.  ■  The  Samaritans  must  therefore  have  derived  their 
Pentateuch  from  the  Jews  after  Ezra's  reforms,  i.e.,  after 
444  B.C.     Before   that  time  -  Samaritanism   cannot   have 


existed  in  a  form  at  all  similar  to  that  which  we  know ; 
but  there  must  have  been  a  community  ready  to  accept  the 
Pentateuch.  In  point  of  fact  the  district  of  Mount 
Ephraim  was  not  entirely  stripped  of  its  old  Hebrew  popu- 
lation by  the  Assyrian  captivity,  and  the  \yorship  of  Jehovah 
went  on  at  the  old  shrines  of  Northern  Israel  side  by  side, 
or  even  interfused,  with  the  old  heathenish  rites  of  the  new 
settlers  whom  tho  Assyrians  brought  to  fill  up  the  lands 
desolated  by  war.  The  account  of  the  religious  condition 
of  the  country  given  in  2  Kings  xvii.  24  sq.  dwells  only  on 
the  partial  adoption  of  Jehovah-worship  by  tho  foreigners 
who  had  come  into  the  land,  but  by  no  means  implies  th^t 
the  foreigners  constituted  the  whole  population.  Josiah 
extended  his  reforms  beyond  the  limits  of  Judsea  proper  to 
Bethel  and  other  Samaritan  cities  (2  Kings  xxiii.  19),  and 
the  narrative  shows  that  at  that  date  things  were  going  on 
at  the  Northern  sanctuaries  much  as  they  hai  done  in  the 
time  of  Amos  and  Hosea.  To  a  considerable  extent  his 
efforts  to  make  Jerusalem  the  sanctuarj'  of  Samaria  as  well 
as  of  Judsea  must  have  been  successful,  for  in  Jer.  xli.  5 
we  find  fourscore  men  from  Shechem,  Shiloh,  and  Samaria 
making  a  pilgrimage  to  "the  house  of  Jehovah,"  after  the 
catastrophe  of  Zedekiah.  And  so  it  is  not  surprising  to 
find  that  the  people  of  this  district  came  to  Zerub- 
babel  and  Joshua  after  the  restoration,  claiming  to  bo 
of  the  same  religion  with  the  Jews  and  asking  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  them  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple.  Theit 
overtures  %vere  rejected  by  the  leaders  of  the  new  theocracy, 
who  could  not  but  fear  the  results  of  interfusion  with  so 
large  a  mass  of  men  of  mixed  blood  and  very  questionable 
orthodoxy;  and  so  the  Jehovah-wofshippers  of  Samaria 
were  thrown  into  the  ranks  of  "  the  adversaries  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin  "  (Ezra  iv.).  Nevertheless,  down  to  the  time 
of  Nehemiah,  the  breach  was  not  absolute ;  but  the  expul- 
sion from  Jerusalem  in  432  B.C.  of  a  man  of  high-priestly 
family  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Sanballat  made  it 
so;  and  it  is  more  than  probable,  as  has  been  explained  in 
Israel,  vol.  xiii.  p.  419,  that  this  priest  is  the  Manasseh 
of  Josephus,  who  earned  the  Pentateuch  to  Shechem,  and 
for  whom  the  temple  of  Gerizim  was  built.  For,  though 
the  story  in  Josephus  {A7ii.,  xi.  8)  is  falsely  dated  and 
mixed  with  fable,  it  agrees  with  Neh.  xiii.  in  too  many 
essential  points  to  be  wholly  rejected,  and  supplies  exactly 
what  is  wanted  to  explain  the  existence  in  Shechem  of  a 
community  bitterly  hostile'to  the  Jews,  and  yet  constituted 
in  obedience  to  Ezra's  Pentateuch. 

■WTien  we  consider  what  difficulties  were  met  with  in  tho 
introduction  of  Pentateuchal  orthodoxy  even  at  Jerusalem, 
the  foundation  of  a  community  of  the  Law  in  the  Samaritan 
country,  among  the  mixed  populations  whom  the  Judjean 
leaders  did  not  venture  to  receive  into  fellowship,  must 
appear  a  very  remarkable  exploit.  The  Samaritan  religion 
was  built  on  the  Pentateuch  alone ;  and  the  fact  that  they 
did  not  receive  even  those  prophetic  books  and  historical 
narratives  which  originated  in  Northern  Israel  (all  which 
have  been  preserved  to  us  only  by  the  Jews)  shows  that, 
before  they  received  the  Pentateuch,  their  Jehovah-worship 
was  a  mere  affair  of  traditional  practice,  uninspired  by 
prophetic  ideas  and  unsupported  by  wTitten  record  cf  the 
great  deeds  of  Jehovah  in  time  past.  It  can  ho.rdly  in  any 
respect  have  risen  above  the  level  of  the  popular  religion 
of  North  Israel  as  described  and  condemned  by  Hosea  and 
Amos.  In  Judosa  the  duty  of  conformity  to  the  Pentateuch 
was  enforced  by  appeal  to  the  prophets  and  to  the  history 
of  the  nation's  sins  and  chastisements,  and  the  acceptance 
of  a  vast  and  rigid  body  of  ordinances  was  more  easy 
because  they  came  as  the  consolidation  and  logical  develop- 
ment of  a  movement  that  had  been  in  progress  from  tho 
days  of  Isaiah.  Among  the  Samaritans,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  acceptance  of  the  Pentateuch  implied  a   tremendous 


SAMARITANS 


245 


breach  of  continuity.  They  must  Indeed  have  felt  that 
they  had  fallen  behind  the  Judasans  in  religious  matters, 
and  the  opportunity  of  putting  themselves  on  a  par  with 
thera  by  securing  a  copy  of  the  institutes  of  Moses  and  the 
services  of  a  Jndiean  priest  would  naturally  be  grasped  at. 
But  what  is  remarkable  is  that,  having  got  the  Fentateuch, 
they  followed  it  with  a  iidelity  as  loyal  and  exact  as  the  Jews 
themselves,  save  in  the  one  matter  of  the  change,  of  the 
sanctuary.  No  concessions  were  made  to  heathenism  or  to 
tl'.e  old  las  Jehovah-worship  ;  the  text  of  the  sacred  book 
wis  transmitted  with  as  much  conscientiousness  as  was 
practised  by  Jewish  scribes  in  the  first  centuries  after 
Ezra ;  ^  and  even  from  the  unwilling  witness  of  their 
enemies  the  Jews  we  can  gather  that  they  fulfilled  all 
righteousness  with  scrupulous  punctiliousness  so  far  as  the 
letter  of  the  written  law  was  concerned,  though  of  course 
they  did  not  share  in  the  later  developments  of  the  oral  law, 
and  so  were  heretics  in  the  eyes  of  the  Pharisees.^ 

That  it  was  possible  to  establish  such  a  community  on 
such  a  soil  is  a  remarkable  evidence  that  in  that  age  the 
tendency  to  a  leg4l  religion  was  favoured  by  general  causes, 
not  confined  to  Judsa  alone ;  it  must  be  remembered  that 
elaborate  hierocracies  sprang  up  after  the  fall  of  the  old 
nationalities  in  many  parts  of  western  Asia  (comp.  Pkiest, 
vol.  xix.  p.  729).  At  thesamo  time  it  must  be  remembered 
that,  as  Ezra  could  not  have  succeeded  without  Nehemiah, 
Manasseh  had  Sanballat's  civil  authority  to  back  him.  It 
is  probable,  too,  that  Josephus  is  right  in  assuming  that  he 
was  strengthened  by  a  considerable  secession  of  Judjeans, 
and  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  "  Samaritans "  ever 
embraced  anything  like  the  whole  population  of  the 
Samaritan  country.  Samaria  itself  was  Hellenized  in  the 
time  of  Alexander;  and  in  Ecclus.  1.  26  the  foolish  people 
that  dwell  at  Shechem  are  distinguished  from  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Samaritan  hill-country  in  general.^  The 
Samaritans,  like  the  Jews,  throve  and  multiplied  under  the 
discipline  of  the  law,  but  at  no  time  in  their  history  do  they 
appear  to  have  had  the  political  importance  that  would 
have  accrued  to  so  closely  knit  a  religious  body  if  it  had 
held  all  the  fertile  Samaritan  district. 

Jews  and  Samaritans  were  separated  by  bitter  jealousies 
and  open  feuds  (Jos.,  Aiit.,  xii.  4,  1),  but  their  internal 
development  and  external  history  ran  closely  parallel 
courses  till  the  Jewish  state  took  a  new  departure  under  the 

*  This  appears  especially  by  comparison  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
with  the  Septuagint.  It  is  not  of  course  to  be  wondered  at  that  the 
Judaian  text  is  on  the  whole  superior  to  the  Samaritan,  for  the 
Samaritans  had  no  opportunity  of  revising  their  text  by  Judrc.in 
copies.  The  Samaritan  character  is  an  independent  development  of 
the  old  Hebrew  writing  as  it  w:is  about  the  time  when  they  first  got 
the  Pentateuch.  This  in  itself  is  an  "jdicalion  that  from  the  first 
their  text  ran  a  separate  course,  and  th.ai,  there  was  no  opportunity  of 
checking  coiruptions  that  had  got  into  it  by  reference  to  dilTerent 
recensions.  In  Juda:a  also 'there  were  important  vpriations  between 
MSS.  down  to  the  time  of  the  Septuagint  and  even  later,  and  in  many 
cases  the  Sejitu-agint  readings  agree  with  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
showing  an  affinity  between  the  sources  of  tliese  two  texts.  But 
altimately  the  Jewish  scribes  were  able  to  constitute  or  rather  to- 
select  an  authoritative  text,  and  whether  by  good  luck  or  by  judgment 
the  toit  they  chose  was  on  the  whole  one  of  a  singularly  good  type. 
The  Samaritans  never  had  opportunity  to  do  anything  of  this  kind. 

*  Compare,  for  details  and  references,  Nutt,  Fragmnnls  of  a  Samaritan 
Targum,  p.  ZT  sq.,  42  sq. ,  and  Scliiircr,  ijesch.  dcs  Jiidischfn  Volkcs,  p. 
7  Josephus  {Anl.,  xi.  8,  7)  e,ays  they  received  Juda?an8  who  were 
occused  of  ritual  irregularities,  but,  as  he  adds  that  the  fugitives  pro- 
fessed that  tliey  were  falsely  accused,  it  is  plain  that  even  this  partisan 
writer  did  not  venture  to  represent  them  a.s  inditTcreiit  to  ritu.al 
orthodoxy.  No  doubt,  in  addition  to  the  legal  ordinances,  the 
Samaritan:!  retained  some  ancient  traditional  practices,  as  they 
certdnly  introduced  some  new  observances.  Tlieir  passover,  for 
example,  has  some  peculiar  features,  one  of  which,  viz.,  the  ipplication 
of  the  sacriflcial  blood  to  the  faces  of  the  children,  has  an  exact 
parallel  in  the  old  Arabic  'akika.  See  the  account  of  an  cye-v/itness 
(Prof.  Socin)  in  Badekcr's  Palestine. 

"  So  all  Greek  MSS.  The  old  Latin  substitutes  Mount  Edom  ;  the 
ISjriac  has  "Gbel,"  which  may  meap  EbjJ  or  the  Eilomito  cooatry. 


Maccabees.  The  religious  resemblance  between  the  two 
bodies  was  increased  by  the  adoption  of  the  institution  of 
the  synagogue,  and  from  the  synagogue  there  certainly  grew 
up  a  Samaritan  theology  and  an  exegetical  tradition.  The 
latter  is  embodied  iu  the  Samaritan  Targum  or  Aramaic 
version  of  the  Pentateuch,  v/hich  in  its  present  form  i,s, 
according  to  Noldeke's  investigations,  not  earlier  than  the 
fourth  Christian  century,'  but  in  general  agrees  with  the 
readings  of  Origen's  to  Sa/^ope-.Tixw.  For  the  dogmatic 
views  of  the  Samaritans  our  sources  are  all  late ;  they 
embrace  hymns  and  other  books  of  little  general  interest,' 
and  mainly  at  least  of  mediasval  origin.  Like  the  Jews, 
too,  the  Samaritans  liad  a  haggada;  indeed  the  Arabic  books 
they  still  posse.is  under  the  name  of  chronicles  are  almost 
entirely  haggadic  fable  with  very  little  admixture  of  true 
tradition.  The  recent  date  of  all  this  literature  seems  to 
show  that  the  eld  Samaritans  had  not  nearly  so  vigorous 
an  intellectual  life  as  the  Jews,  though  what  life  they  had 
moved  in  similar  lines ;  indeed,  having  no  sacred  book 
but  the  Pentateuch,  and  having  passed  through  no  such 
national  revival  as  that  of  the  Maccabees,  they  lacked  two 
of  the  most  potent  influences  that  shaped  the  development 
of  Judaism.  On  the  other  hand,  they  shared  with  the  Jews 
the  influence  of  a  third  great  intellectual  stimulus,  that  of 
Hellenism.  Samaritans  as  well  as  Jev.'s  were  carried  to 
Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagi ;  the  rivalry  of  the  two  sects  was 
continued  in  Alexandria  (Jos.,  Ant.,  xii.  1,  1),  and  Hellen- 
ized  Samaritans  wrote  histories  and  epic -poems  iu  Greek 
with  e.i£actly  the  .same  patriotic  mendacity  which  charac- 
terizes -Jewish  Hellenism.  Of  this,  the  oldest  surviving 
Samaritan  literature,  some  fragments  have  been  preserved 
in  the  remains  of  Alexander  Polyhistor.'' 

The  troubles  that  fell  on  the  Jews  for  their  fidelity  to 
the  law,  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  were  not  escaped 
by  the  Samaritans  (2  Mac.  v.  23,  vi.  2) ;  the  account  in 
Josephus  {AiU.,  xii.  5,  5)  which  makes  them  voluntarily 
exchange  their  religion  for  the  wonship  of  the  Grecian  Zeus 
is  certainly  a  malignant  falsehood.^ 

Under  the  Maccabees  their  relations  with  Judaea  becams 
very  bitter,  and  tliey  were  severely  chastised  by  Hyrcanus,' 
who  destroyed  their  temple.  Hostilities  between  the  two 
nations  recurred  from  time  to  time  ;  and  in  the-Kew  Testa- 
ment, in  Josephus,  and  in  Je\vi.sh  tradition  we  see  how 
deep-seated  was  their  mutual  abhorrence.''  But,  with  all 
this,  the  sects  were  too  nearly  alike  not  to  have  mucli  in 
common.  The  Roman  yoke  galled  both  in  the  .same  way  ; 
the  Samaritan  false  prophet  whose  movement  Pilate  put 
down  with  cruel  slaughter  (Jos.,  Ant.,  xviii.  4,  1),  and  pro- 
bably also  Simon  Magus  and  Dositheus  (Orig.,  C'ont. 
Ceh.,  i.  p.  44),  are  parallel  phenomena  to  the  false  Messiahs 
that  arose  among  the  Jews.  The  original  views  of  the 
Samaritans  were  like  those  of  the  Sadducecs,  and  tlicy  did 
not  believe  in  a  resurrection  or  a  Messiah ;  but  it  was 
impossible  for  their  faith  to  survive  under  the  cruel  pres- 
sure of  foreign  boudage  without  absorbing  something  from 
Jewish  cschatology.  And  so  too,  in  the  struggle  of  th/s 
Jews  with  Vespasian,  perhaps  also  in  that  with  Hadrian, 
the  Samaritan.-i  forgot  their  old  feud,  and  took  part  against 
the  Ptomans.  They  scx-in  also  to  have  shared  in  great 
measure  in  the  subsequent  dispersion,  for  in  later  times  wo 
hear  of  Samaritans  and  Samaritan  synagogues  not  only 
in  Egypt  but  in  Rome,  and  in  other  parts  of  tho  empire. 

*  See  especially  Fricdliindcr,  llcllaiistischc  Studien  (\S"5),  p.  62  sg. 
An  Egyptio-Sumaritan  fragment  has  also  been -suspected  by  Ewald 
to  be  imbciWed  in  tho  Sibyllina,  xi.  239-244. 

*  See  Appel,  Quxstionc3  dc  Rebus  cSamaritanontm,  1874,  p.  37  sq. 
'  Josephus  calls  them  Cuth.-cuns  (from  2  Kings  xvii.  30),  aiui  will 

not  admit  that  they  arc  of  Hebrew  blood  at  ail  ;  the  Kabbins  use  the 
same  name,  but  are  not  always  so  positive  in  calling  thera  pure  Gen- 
tiles. The  groundless  accusation  of  dove-worship  (which  makes  their 
religion  that  of  the  Syrian  Aphrodite)  arose  in'post-Mishnic  times. 


J46 


«  A  M  — fc;  A  M 


The  CJlii-istian  emperors  made  hard  edicts  against  them  as 
Troll  as  the  Jews,  and  at  length  excluded  tbem  from  the 
public  service.  Under  these  circumstances  they  naturally 
came  to  be  mainly  traders  and  merchants'  clerks ;  in  Con- 
stantinople "a  Samaritan"  meant  "a  banker's  clerk."  In 
their  old  homes  they  still  remained  numerous  enough  to 
make  a  serious  insurrection  under  Justinian  (529  A.D.). 
Its  suppression  was  followed  by  very  stern  decrees  against 
the  whole  sect,  and  Europe  heard  little  more  of  the 
Samaritans  till,  towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century, 
Western  scholars  took  an  interest  in  the  few  congregations 
that  stiU  remained  in  the  East,  at  Cairo  and  Damascus  as 
well  as  at  Ndbulus.  It  was  found  that  during  the  Middle 
Ages  they  had  formed  an  Arabic  literature  of  considerable 
size  but  of  little  intrinsic  worth,  and  had  continued  faith- 
fully to  preserve  their  scriptures.  Since  then  their  num- 
bers have  been  constantly  on  the  wane,  and  they  have 
almost  lost  their  old  learning,  which  was  never  very 
considerable. 

Samaritan  Literahtre.  — Of  this  a  full  account  is  given,  along 
with  a-sketch  of  Samaritan  history,  in  the  introduction  to  Nutt's 
Fragments  of  a  Samaritan  Targum  (1S74).  Tho  following  list 
confines  itself  to  what  has  been  printed,  (a)  The  i  Hebrew- 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  i.e.,  the  Hebre^v  text  in  Samaritan  recen- 
sion and  character,  was  first  printed  in  the  Paris  polyglott.  On 
the  nature  of  this  recension,  see  Gesenius,  Z>e  Pent.  Sam.  originc, 
kc.  (1815).  A  list  of  variations  from  the  Massoretic  text  is  given 
by  Petermann,  Ilchr.  Formcnlehrc  naeh  dcr  Aussprache  der 
Samaritancr  (1868).  (J)  Targum,  also  in  tho  Paris  and  London 
polyglotts,  but  m  very  corrupt  form.  A  critical  edition  of  the 
whole  is  still  lacking ;  tho  best  text  of  part  is  that  given  by  Nutt 
from  a  Bodleian  MS.  The  dialect,  apart  from  the  corruptions  of 
the  test,  differs  little  from  other  Palestinian  Aramaic,  (c)  Aramaic 
having  been  supplanted  in  Palestine  by  Ara'oic,  an  Arabic  version 
of  the  Pentateuch  w-as  made  by  Abfi  Sa'id  about  1100  A.D.  The 
first  three  books  have  been  edited  by  Kuenen  (1851-54).  On  this 
version,  see  especially  De  Sacy  in  M4m.  Acad.  Inscr.  ct  Bcllcs-Lcttrcs, 
vol.  xlix.  (rf)  The  so-called  Samaritan  book  of  Joshua  is  an 
Arabic  chronicle  going  down  to  Roman  times,  but  of  almost  no 
historical  use.  It  may  date  from  the  13th  century.  JuynboU 
edited  it  in  1843  from  a  Leyden  MS.;  tliere  are  otiier  MSS.  in  the 
British  Museum  and  in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  {e)  Another 
short  chronicle,  El-Tolidoth,  published  by  Neubauer  in  Jour.  As. 
(1669),  seems  to  have  used  the  Jewish  Boole  of  Jtihihes.  Both  [it) 
and  {c)  with  some  other  sources  were  used  by— (/)  The  Chronicle 
of  Abulfath,  written  in  1355,  and  continued  by  later  hands  ;  edited 
by  Yilmar  (Gotha,  1S65).  {g)  A  collection  of  hymns  was  published 
by  Gesenius  [Carinina  Samarilana,  1821).  Other  lituj'gical  pieces 
have  been  published  by  Heidenheim.  (A)  Specimens  of  Samaritan 
writings  on  Hebrew  grammar  were  published  by  Ndldeke  in  the 
QOltinger  Nachrichten{\%(,1). 

For  tho  S.-iniaritans  in  general,  see  Nutt,  op.  cit.\  Juynboll,  Comm.  in  Hist. 
Oevtis  Samar.,  Leyden,  184fi  ;  Appel,  Z/e  Rebus  Seimaritanorum  sub  imperio 
Romano  peraclis.  1)0  Sacy  publlslied  In  the  A'olices  et  Sxtraits,  xil.  (18-31),  all 
the  coi-respondence  of  the  Samaritans  with  European  scholars,  and  other  material 
about  the  modern  Samaritans.  For  the  modern  Samaritnna  see  also  Petermanil'a 
Reisen,  voL  1.  (1860),  For  Matrizi's  aceount  of  the  Samarit^ins,  see  De  Sacy, 
Chrest.  Ar.,  vol.  1.  Other  literature  in  Nutt  and  very  fully  in  Kautzsch's  article 
la  Herrog-Plitt.  vol.  xiii.  (W.  R.  S.) 

SAMAEKAND,  a  city  of  Central  Asia,  anciently  Mar- 
canda,  the  capital  of  Sogdiana,  then  the  residence  of  the 
S.1,m4nids,  and  subsequently  the  capital  of  Timur,  is  now 
chief  town  of  the  Zerafshan  district  of  the  Russian  domin- 
ions. It  lies  in  a  richly  cultivated  region,  1S5  miles  south- 
west of  Tashkend,  and  145  milfs  ea.st  of  Bokhara,  in  39°  39' 
N.  lat.  and  G7°  17'  E.  long.,  2150  feet  above  the  sea,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Zerafshan,  at  the  point  where  it  issues 
from  the  extreme  western  spurs  of  the  Tian-Shan  before 
entering  the  steppes  of  Bokhara.  The  Zerafshan  now 
flows  about  three  or  four  miles  to  the  north  of  the  city, 
supplying  its  extensive  gardens  with  water. 

Marcanda,  a  great  city,  whose  walls  had  a  compass  of 
90  stadia,  was  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great.  It  re- 
appears as  Samarkand  at  the  time  of  the  conquests  of  the 
Arabs,  when  it  was  finally  reduced  by  Kotaiba  ibn  Moslim 
in93  A.n.  (711-712  a.d.).  Under  the  SAmdnids  it  became 
a  brilliant  seat  of  Arabian  civilization.  Its  schools,  its 
savants,  \^ere  widely  renowned ;  it  was  so  populous  that, 
\7lic:i  besieged  by  Jenghiz  Khan  in  1219,  it  is  renorted  to 


nave  been  defijided  by  an  army  of  110,000  men.  De- 
stroyed and  pUlaged  by  the  great  conqueror,  its  population 
was  reduced  to  one-quarter  of  what  it  had  been,  but  it  still 
reckoned  25,000  families  within  its  walls.  The  great 
conqueror  Timur  made  it  his  residence,  and  the  inhab- 


3eaf>  tf'talje 


Plan  of  Samarkand-  1,  Governor's  house  ;  2,  Burying-place  of  Russian  soldiers 
v.-ho  fell  in  the  defence  of  1868;  3,  College  of  Ulue--beE;  4,  Collece  of  Shir-tlar; 
6,  College  of  Tilla-knri ;  6,  Gravo  of  Tiraul- ;  7,  Gruvo  of  Timur's  wives. 

itants  rose  to  150,000.  The  magnificent  buildings  of  the 
epoch  of  the  successors  of  Timur,  which  still  remain, 
testify  to  its  former  wealth.  But  new  invaders  again  re- 
duced it  to  ruin,  so  that  at  the  beginning  of  last  century  it 
is  reported  to  have  been  almost  without  inhabitants.  It 
fell  under  Chinese  dominion,  and  subsequently  under 
that  of  the  emir  of  Bokhara,  suffering  again  and  again 
from  wars  which  were  fought  for  it  and  around  it.  But 
no  follower  of  Islam  enters  it  without  feeling  that  he  is  on 
holy.ground,  although  the  venerated  mosques  and  beautiful 
colleges  of  Samarkand  are  falling  into  ruins,  its  high  influ- 
ence as  a  seat  of  learning  has  vanished,  and  its  very  soil  is 
profaned  by  infidels.  It  was  not  without  a  struggle  that 
the  Mohammedans  permitted  the  Russians  to  take  posses- 
sion of  their  holy  city ;  and,  while  other  cities  of  Central 
Asia  submitted  almost  without  striking  a  blow,  Samarkand 
revolted  in  1868,  the  Russian  garrison  shut  up  in  the 
citadel  being  rescued  only  by  the  timely  arrival  of  a  corps 
despatched  from  Tashkend. 

The  present  city,  which  is  but  a  wreck  of  its  former  self, 
is  quadrangular  in  shape  and  is  enclosed  by  a  Isw  wall  9 
miles  long.  The  citadel  rises  in  the  west,  and  to  the  west' 
ward  of  this  again  the  Russians  have  laid  out  their  new 
town,  with  broad  streets  and  boulevards  radifihng  from 
the  citadel,  while  a  pretty  public  garden,  carefully  irrigated, 
occupies  the  centre. 

The  central  part  of  Samarkand  is  the  Eighistan — a  square  limited 
by  the  three  inaxirasahs  (colleges)  of  Ulug-beg,  Sbir-dnr,  and  Tilla- 
kari ;  in  its  architectural  symmetry  and  beauty  this  is  rivijled 
only  by  some  of  the  squares  of  Italian  cities.  Though  diffaring 
in  detail,  tho'grcat  lines  of  the  three  colleges  are  the  same.  An 
immense  doorway  decorates  the  front  of  each  of  these  Ic^gc  quadri- 
lateral buildings.  A  high  and' deep-pointed  porcii,  whoso  summit 
almost  reaches  the  top  of  the  lofty  fa9ade,  is  flanked  on  each  sida 
by  a  broad  quadrilateral  pillar  of  the  same  heiglrt,  subdivided  into 
three  sections,  each  of  which  has  its  own  style  of  decoration.  Two 
fine  columns,  profusely  decorated,  in  turn  Hank  these  broad  pillars. 
On  each  side  of  the  higii  doorway  are  two  lower  archwrivs  connect- 
ing it  with  two  elegant  towers,  narrowing  towards  their  tops  and 
slightly  inclined.  The  whole  of  tho  facade  and  also  the  interior 
•courts  are  profusely  decorated  with  enamelled  bricks,  whose  colours 
— bine,  green,  pink,  or  golden,  but  chiefly  turquoise-blue — are 
wrought  into  the  most  fascinating  designs,  in  striking  harmony 
with  the  whole  and  with  each  part  of  the  building.  In  the  recess 
of  the  deep  doorway  is  tho  wide  door,  with  proportions  of  remark- 
able elegance,  and  above  it  are  the  bro.id  decorations  filling  up  the 
upper  part  of  the  arch.  Over  llie  interior  are  bulbed  or  melon-like 
doaic5,  perhaps  too  heavy  for  tho  facade.     The  cool  and  shady 


S  A  M  —  S  A  M 


24T 


conrta  are  surrounded  ty  three  stories  of  small  rooms,  each  having 
only  one  opening — the  door.  The  majestic  buildings  are  now 
merely  the  dwellings  of  mollahs,  who  lire  on  the  revenues  of  the 
Wakf  lands  at  Katty-kurgan. 

The  college  of  Shir-dar  (built  in  1601)  takes  its  name  from  the 
two  lions,  or  rather  tigera,  figured  on  the  top  of  its  doorway,  which 
is  richly  decorated  with  green,  blue,  red,  and  white  enamelled 
bricks.  It  is  the  most  spacious  of  the  three,  and  12S  mollahs 
inhabit  its  64  apartments.  Tlic  Tilla-kari  ("dressed  in  gold"), 
built  in  1618,  has  65  rooms.  But  the  most  renowned  of  the  three 
madrasahs  is  that  of  Ulug-ijeg,  built  in  1420  or  1434,  by  Timur, 
the  grandson  of  the  great  conqueror.  It  is  smaller  than  the  others, 
but  it  was  to  its  school  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  that  Samar- 
kand owed  its  wide  renown  in  the  15th  century. 

A  winding  street  running  north-east  fi'om  the  Righistan  leads  to 
a  much  larger  square  having  the  college  of  Bibi-khanym  on  the 
west,  the  graves  of  Tiraur's  wives  on  the  south,  and  a  clean  bazaar 
on  the  east.  The  college  was  erected  in  13S8  by  a  Chinese  wife  of 
Timur,  and  is  said  to  have  once  sheltered  as  many  as  a  thousand 
students.  It  covers  a  large  area,  and  has  three  mosques  connected 
by  a  quadrangular  building  containing  the  students'  rooms.  The 
archway  and  towers  of  its  facade  are  considered  by  Vambei-y  as  a 
model  for  such  buildings,  and  its  decorations  resist  the  destructive 
influences  alike  of  time  and  of  man.  One  of  its  mosques  still 
raises  its  high  bulbed  dome  above  the  outer  walls,  which  are  falling 
into  ruins,  and  now  give  accommodation  to  the  carts  and  the  bazaar 
of  traders  in  cotton.  The  lofty  ruins  of  the  grave  of  Timur's  wives 
are  really  grand. 

To  the  north,  outside  the  walls  of  Samarkand,  but  close  at  hand, 
is  the  Hazreti  Shah-Zindeh — the  summer-palace  of  Timur  ;  and 
near  this  is  the  grave  of  Shah-Zindeh,  or,  more  precisely,  Kotham 
ibn  al-' Abbas  ibn  'Abd  al-Mottalib,  a  famous  companion  of  the 
Propliet.  This  was  already  a  famous  shrine  in  the  14th  century  (Ibn 
Batuta,  iii.  52);  it  is  believed  that  the  saint  still  lives  in  the  mosque, 
and  will  one  day  rise  for  the  defence  of  his  religion.  Tlie  Hazreti 
Shah-Zindeh  covers  a  wide  area  on  a  terrace  reached  by  forty  marble 
steps.  A  series  of  galleries  and  rooms  lead  to  the  hall  containing  the 
relics  of  the  saint.    The  decoration  of  the  interior  halls  is  marvellous. 

Another  street  running  south-west  from  the  Righistan  leads 
to  the  Gur-Emir — the  grave  of  Timur.  This  consists  of  a  chapel 
crowned  with  an  elegant  dome,  enclosed  by  a  wall  and  fronted  by 
an  archway.  Time  and  earthquakes  have  greatly  injured  this  fine 
building ;  one  of  the  minarets  is  already  in  ruins.  The  interior 
consists  of  two  apartments  paved  with  white  marble,  the  walls 
being  covered  with  elegant  turquoise  arabesques  and  inscriptions 
in  gold.  The  chief  room  is  of  great  beauty,  and  its  decorations,  of 
a  bolder  style  than  the  others,  are  in  strict  harmony  with  the  im- 
pression it  is  designed  to  produce.  A  large  pyramidal  piece  of  jade 
broken  into  two  covers  the  grave  of  Timur,  which  has  by  its  side  that 
of  his  teacher,  Mir  Seid  Berke,  and  those  of  several  members  of  his 
family,  all  enclosed  by  a  marble  railing.  A  dark  and  narrow  flight 
of  steps  leads  down  to  the  crypt,  also  ornamented  with  arabesques, 
where  the  graves  are  placed  in  the  same  order  as  in  the  upper  hall. 

The  citadel  is  situated  on  the  west  of  the  city,  upon  a  hill  whose 
steep  slopes  render  it  one  of  the  strongest  in  Central  Asia.  Its 
walls,  3000  yards  in  circuit  and  about  10  feet  high,  enclose  a  space 
of  about  i  square  miles.  It  contained  the  palace  of  the  emir  of 
Bokhara,— a  vulgar  modem  building  now  transformed  into  a  hos- 
pital,— and  the  audience  hall  of  Timur, — a  long  narrow  court,  sur- 
rounded by  a  colonnade,  and  containing  the  Kmk-tash,  a  grey 
stone  10  feet  long,  i  feet  broad,  and  ih  feet  high,  reported  to  have 
teen  brought  from  Brussa.  On  it  Timur  used  to  take  his  scat, 
surrounded  by  his  numerous  vassals  ;  from  it  more  recently  the 
emirs  of  Bokhara  also  were  wont  to  dispense  their  terrible  justice. 

Ruins  of  former  buildings— heaps  of  plain  and  enamelled  bricks, 
among  which  Gncco-Bactrian  coins  have  been  found— cover  a  wide 
area  all  around  the  present  city,  and  especially  on  the  west  and 
north.  The  name  of  Aphrosiab  is  usually  given  to  these  ruins, 
which  extend  for  nearly  three  miles  to  the  westward  of  the  present 
Russian  town ;  thja  suburb  of  Samarkand  was  enclosed  by  a  wall, 
the  ruins  of  whioh  can  bo  traced  for  seven  or  eight  miles.  Five 
miles  to  the  southwest  of  Samarkand  is  the  college  Khodja  Akrar; 
its  flower  ornamentation  in  enamelled  brick  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  Samarkand.  Rye  is  now  grown  in  its  courts,  and  its 
artistic  ornamentation  is  going  to  ruin.  To  the  north-north-cast 
arc  the  Tchunan-ata  HilLs,  the  chief  of  which  has  on  its  summit 
the  grave  of  Daniar  I'olvan.  On  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Zcrafshan 
stands  the  village  of  Dchbid,  peopled  by  descendants  of  JIahkdum 
Aazam  (died  in  1512),  who  possess  a  beautiful  khanka  (monastery), 
with  pretty  avenues  of  trees  planted  by  Nczr  Divabeghi  in  1632. 
As  for  the  famous  Baghitchi-naran  (the  garden  of  plane  trees),  only 
the  nuns  of  its  nalace  now  mark  its  former  position  ;  the  trees  have 
•  disappeared.  Of  the  Grieco-Armenian  library  said  to  h.ive  been 
brought  to  Samarkand  by  Timur  no  traces  have  been  discovered, 
and  Vamb(Sry  regards  the  whole  legend  as  a  fable  invented  by 
Armeniana.  Every  trace  of  the  renowned  high  school  KaUnder- 
kbany  has  also  dikippeared. 


The  present  Moslem  city  is  an  intricate  labyrinth  of  narrow- 
winding  streets,  having  on  both  sides  clay  walls  concealing  dirty 
coiu-t-yards  and  miserable  houses.  The  population  was  estimated 
at  36,000  in  1879  ;  it  consists  of  Tajiks  (Iranians)  and  Sarts  ov 
Uzbegs.  The  Europeans  numbered  53S0.  Some  300  Jews  occapj- 
a  separate  quarter,  remarkable  for  its  filth.  Numbers  of  Araos. 
Persians,  Afghans,  Hindus,  Kiptchaks,  and  Tsigans  (Gipsies)  may 
be  met  with  in  the  streets.  The  chief  occup.-.tion  of  the  inhabitants 
is  gardening;  the  gardens  bej-ond  the  walls  are  extensive  and  very 
well  kept.  There  is  also  a  certain  amount  of  manufacturing  .in- 
dustry ;  the  workshops,  which  are  small,  arc  thus  euumerafcd  by 
M.  Kostenko  : — for  metallic  wares,  12 ;  for  tallow  and  soap,  34  : 
tanneries,  30;  potteries,  37;  for  various  tissues,  246.  Thoso  for 
dyeing  and  the  manufacture  of  harness^  ioots,  and  silver  and  goldf 
wares  are  also  numerous.  The  best  harness,  ornamented  with 
turquoises,  and  the  finer  products  of  the  goldsmith's  art,  are 
imported  from  Bokhara  or  Afghanistan.  The  products  of  local 
potteries  are  ver}-  fine. 

The  bazaars  of  Samarkand,  the  chief  of  which  is  in  the  centre  ol' 
the  town,  close  by  the  Righistan,  are  more  animated  and  kept  with 
much  greater  cleanliness  than  thosE  of  Tashkend  or  Xamangan. 
The  trade  carried  on  by  local  or  Bokhara  merchants  is  very  brisk, 
the  chief  items  being  cotton,  silk,  wheat  and  rice,  horses,  as.-.es. 
fruit.s,  and  cutlery.  Wheat,  rice,  and  silk  are  exported  chiefly  to 
Bokhara  ;  cotton  to  Russia,  via  Tashkend.  Silk-wares  and  excel- 
lent fruits  are  imported  from  Shahri-Syabs,  and  rock-salt  from, 
Hissar.  (p.  A.  K.) 

SAMBALPUR,  or  Sumbulpooe,  a  British  district  in  the 
chief-commissionership  of  the  Central  Provinces  of  India^ 
between  21°  2'  and  21°  57'  N.  lat.  and  between  83°  16' 
and  84°.  21'  E.  long.  Exclusive  of  attached  native  states 
by  which  it  is  surrounded,  >Sambalpur  contains  an  area 
of  4521  square  miles.  Including  the  native  states,  it  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Chutia  Nagpur,  on  the  east  and 
south  by  Cuttack  district,  Bengal,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Bilaspur  and  Kaipur  districts.  The  Jlahanadi,  which  is- 
the  only  important  river  in  the  district,  flows  through  it, 
dividing  it  into  unequal  parts.  The  greater  portion  of 
Sambalpnr  is  an  undulating  plain,  with  ranges  of  rugged 
hills  running  in  every  direction,  the  largest  of  which  is  the 
BarA  Pahdr,  a  mountain  chain  covering  an  area  of  350 
square  miles,  and  attaining  at  Dibrfgarh  a  height  of  2267" 
feet  above  the  plain.  The  Mahdnadi  affords  means  of 
water  communication  for  90  miles  ;  its  principal  tributaries 
in  Sambalpnr  are  the  lb,  Kelil,  and  Jhird.  To  the  west 
of  the  Mahinadi  the  district  is  well  cultivated.  The  soil 
of  the  district  is  generally  light  and  sandy.  It  is  occupied 
for  the  greater  part  by  crystalline  metamorphic  rocks  ;  but 
part  of  the  north-west  corner  is  composed  of  sandstonft- 
limestone,  and  shale.  Gold  dust  and  diamonds  have  beeir 
found  near  HirakhudA  or  Diamond  Island,  at  the  junction 
of  the  lb  and  JIahinadi.  The  climate  of  Sambalpar  is- 
considered  very  unhealthy  ;  its  average  temperature  i.s  79°,, 
and  its  average  annual  rainfall  is  58i  inches. 

The  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  population  of  693,409  (346,5485 
m.ales  and  346,950  females).  Hindus  numbered  632,747  and 
Mohammedans  2966.  The  only  town  in  the  district  with  a 
population  c.':coeding  5000  is  SAMiiALPtm,  the  administnitivc 
headquarters,  with  13,939  inhabitants,  situated  in  21"  27'  10" 
N.  lat.  .and  84°  1'  E.  long.,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  JIahanadi.  It 
has  much  improved  since  1864,  when  a  cart  could  only  with  gi-eat 
ditliculty  pass  through  tho  main  street.  Of  the  total  area  of  Iht: 
district  1125  square  miles  are  cultivated,  and  of  tlie  portion  lyiup 
waste  888  are  cultivable.  Rice  forms  the  staple  crop  ;  other  pro- 
ducts arc  food  grains,  oil-seeds,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane.  The  manu- 
factures are  few  and  of  no  great  value.  The  gross  revenue  in  1883— 
84  was  £-22,445,  of  which  the  land  contributed  £11,388. 

Sambalpnr  lapsed  to  the  British  in  1S49,  who  imTncJiatcfj.- 
adoptcd  a  system  of  exaction  and  confiscation  by  raising  the 
revenue  assessments  one-fourth  and  resuming  the  land  grants, 
religious  and  others.  Great  dissatisfaction  was  the  consequence^ 
and  the  Brahmans,  who  form  a  numerous  and  powerful  community-, 
made  an  appeal,  but  obtained  no  redress.  In  1854  a  second  land 
settlement  again  raised  the  assessments  everywhere  one-fourth. 
This  system  of  exaction  produced  its  natural  results.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  mutiny  in  1857  a  general  rising  of  the  chiefs  took 
place,  and  it  was  not  until  the  final  arrest  of  Surandra  Sa,  a  chief.' 
who  for  some  years  had  been  the  cause  of  great  disturbances,  in. 
1864  that  tranquillity  was  restored;  since  then  tho  district  has; 
enjoyed  profound  i>cr.co. 


248 


S  A  M  N  I  T  E  S 


SAIINITES,  a  people  of  ancient  Italy,  whose  name 
figures  conspicuously  in  tlie  early  history  of  Rome.  They 
occupied  an  extensive  tract  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula, 
which  derived  from  them  the  name  of  Samnium.  The 
territory  thus  designated  was  a  wholly  inland  district, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Marsi,  Peligni,  and  Fren- 
tani,  who  separated  them  from  the  Adriatic,  on  the  east 
by  Af)ulia,  on  the  south  by  Lucania,  and  on  the  west 
"by  Campania  and  Latium.  But  the  Samnites  were  from 
■.m  early  period  a  numerous  and  powerful  nation,  and 
foiTiied  rather  a  confederacy  of  tribes  than  a  single 
people.  Hence  the  name  is  sometimes  used  in  a  wider 
sometimes  in  a  more  limited  sense,- — the  Hirpini,  espe- 
cially, who  occupied  the  southernmost  portion  of  their 
territory,  being  sometimes  included  amongst  them,  some- 
times distinguished  from  them.  But  according  to  the 
usual  acceptation  of  the  term — excluding  the  Frentani, 
who,  though  unquestionably  of  Samnite  origin,  were  not 
usually  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Samnite  nation  — 
they  consisted  of  three  principal  tribes  : — the  Caraceni  in 
the  Perth,  the  Pentri,  who  may  be  termed  the  Samnites 
proper,  in  the  centre,  and  the  Hirpini  in  the  south. 
Almost  the  whole  of  Samnium,  as  thus  defined,  was  a 
rugged,  mountainous  country,  and,  though  the  Apennines 
do  not  in  this  part  of  their  range  attain  to  so  great  an 
elevation  as  farther  north,  they  form  irregular  masses  and 
groups,  filling  up  almost  the  whole  territory,  and  in  great 
part  covered  with  extensive  forests.  On  the  side  of 
Campania  alone  the  valley  of  the  Vulturnus  was  richer 
and  more  fertile,  and  opened  a  natural  access  from  the 
south  into  the  northern  regions  of  Samnium,  while  the 
Calor,  a  tributary  of  the  same  river,  which  flows  from  the 
east  past  Eenevento,  afforded  in  all  ages  a  similar  route 
into  the  u[  land  districts  of  the  Hirpini.  Between  the 
two,  occupying  the  centre  of  the  Pentrian  territory  and 
the  very  he?rt  of  Samnium,  was  the  great  mountain  mass 
now  known  os  the  Monte  Matese,  of  which  the  highest 
summit  attains  to  an  elevation  of  6600  feet,  and  which 
must  in  all  ages  have  been  a  region  presenting  peculiar 
difficulties  of  access. 

All  ancient  writers  agree  in  representing  the  Samnites 
as  a  people  of  Sabine  origin,  who  migrated  at  an  early 
period  to  the  region  of  which  we  find  them  in  the  occupa- 
tion when  they  first  appear  in  history.  The  period  of 
this  emigration  is  wholly  unknown,  but,  if  we  can  trust 
the  tradition  reported  by  Strabo,  that  it  was  the  result  of 
a  vow  to  send  forth  the  produce  of  a  "  sacred  spring  "  (see 
Sabines),  it  could  hardly  have  been  in  the  first  instance 
very  numerous,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  invaders  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  midst  of  an  Oscan  population, 
■with  whom  they  gradually  coalesced.  It  is  certain  that 
no  very  long  interval  elapsed  before  the  Samnites  in  their 
turn  found  themselves  exceeding  the  resources  of  their 
barren  and  rugged  territory,  and  extending  their  dominion 
over  the  more  fertile  and  accessible  regions  by  which  they 
were  surrounded.  The  first  of  these  movements  was  pro- 
bably that  by  which  they  occupied  the  land  of  the 
Frentani,  a  fertile  district  along  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic, 
between  the  northern  part  of  Samnium  and  the  sea.  The 
Hirpini  also  were  in  the  first  instance  almost  certainly  a 
later  offshoot  of  the  central  Samnite  people,  though  they 
continued  always  in  such  close  connexion  with  them  that 
they  were  generally  reckoned  as  forming  part  of  the 
Samnite  ccnfederacy,  and  almost  uniformly  took  part  with 
the  more  central  tribes  in  their  wars  against  Rome.  The 
Frentani,  on  the  contrary,  generally  either  stood  aloof  from 
the  contest  or  secured  their  own  safety  by  an  alliance 
■with  Rome. 

To  a  later  period  belong  the  emigrations  that  gave  rise 
to  the  two  powerful  nations  of  the  Lucaniana  and  C?.n- 


panians.  At  the  time  when  the  Greek  colo:-ies  ■were 
established  in  southern  Italy  the  native  tribes,  that  occu- 
pied the  regions  to  the  south  of  Samnium  were  the 
Qinotrians  and  other  Pelasgic  races,  and  it  was  not  till 
after  the  middle  of  the  5th  century  B.C.  that  the  pressure 
of  the  Lucanians  from  the  interior  began  to  make  itself 
felt  in  this  quarter.  From  this  time  they  gradually 
extended  their  power  throughout  the  whole  country  to  the 
Gulf  of  Tarentum  and  the  Sicilian  Straits.  It  was  pro- 
bably at  a  somewhat  earlier  period  (about  440  to  420 
B.C.)  that  they  effected  the  conquest  of  the  fertile  country 
to  tho  west,  intervening  between  the  mountain  regions  of 
Samnium  and  the  sea.  Here  they  found  an  Oscan  popula- 
tion, with  whom  they  seem  to  have  speedily  coalesced, 
and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  people  known  thenceforth  as 
Campanians,  or  "  inhabitants  of  the  plain.''  But  in  this 
case  also  the  new  nationality  thus  constituted  had  no 
political  connexion  with  the  parent  state,  and  retained  its 
independent  action  both  for  peace  and  war.  The  first 
mention  of  the  Samnites  themselves  in  Roman  history 
occurs  in  354,  when  they  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  rising  republic. 

But  it  was  not  long  before  the  course  of  events  brought 
the  two  rival  powers  into  collision.  The  Samnites,  who 
appear  to  have  been  still  actuated  by  aggressive  tenden- 
cies, had  attacked  the  Sidicini,  a  petty  tribe  to  the  north 
of  Campania,  and  the  latter,  feeling  unable  to  cope  with 
so  powerful  an  adversary,  invoked  the  assistance  of  the 
Campanians.  These,  however,  were  in  their  turn  attacked 
by  the  Samnites,  and  sustained  so  crushing  a  defeat,  under 
the  very  walls  of  Capua,  that  they  were  compelled  to 
implore  the  aid  of  Rome.  Their  request  was  granted, 
though  not  without  hesitation,  and  thus  began  (in 
343)  the  first  of  the  long  series  of  the  Samnite  Wars, 
which  ultimately  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Roman 
domination  over  the  whole  of  southern  Italy.  The  events 
of  these  wars,  which  are  related  in  all  histories  of  Rome, 
can  only  be  very  briefly  noticed  here.-  The  first  contest 
was  of  short  duration ;  and  after  two  campaigns  the 
Romans  were  willing  not  only  to  conclude  peace  with 
Samnium  but  to  renew  the  previously  existing  alliance,  to 
which  the  Samnites  continued  faithful  throughout  the 
great  struggle  which  ensued  between  the  Romans  and  the 
allied  Campanians  and  Latins.  The  Second  Samnite  liVar 
was  of  a  very  different  character.  Both  nations  felt  that 
it  was  a  struggle  for  supremacy,  and,  instead  of  being 
brought  to  a  close  within  three  years,  it  lasted  for  more 
than  twenty  years  (326-304),  and  ■was  marked  with 
considerable  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  among  which  tho 
celebrated  disaster  of  the  Caudine  Forks  (321)  stands 
most  conspic".ious.  Nor  was  the  struggle  confined  to  the 
two  leading  powers,  many  of  the  neighbouring  nations 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  one  side  or  the  other,  and  often 
with  fluctuating  faith,  in  accordance  with  the  varying 
fortunes  of  the  war.  The  result,  however,  was  on  th« 
whole  favourable  to  the  Roman  arms,  notwithstanding 
which  they  were  willing  to  conclude  peace  in  304,  on  coii.- 
dition  of  the  renewal  of  ■^he  previously  existing  alliancA. 
This  i.iterval  of  tranquillity  was  of  short  duration,  and 
little  more  than  five  years  elapsed  between  the  end  of  the 
Seccnd  Samnite  War  and  the  commencement  of  the  Third 
(298).  In  this  fresh  contest  they  received  a  formidable 
auxiliary  in  a  large  body  of  Gauls,  who  had  recently 
crossed  the  Alps,  and,  together  with  their  countrymen  the 
Senones,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Samnites  against  Rome. 
Their  combined  forces  were,  however,  defeated  in  the  great 
battle  of  Sentinum  (294),  and  after  several  successive  cam- 
paigns the  consul  !M'.  Curius  Dentatus  was  able  to  boast  of 
having  put  an  end  to  the  Samnite  ^yars  (290),  after  they 
had  lasted  more  than  ufty  years.     It  is  true  that  a  few 


SAM  — -S  A  M 


249 


years 'later  the  Samnites  again  appear  in  arms,  though 
rather  as  auxiliaries  than  principals,  and  the  name  of 
Foorth  Samnite  War  is  given  by  some  historians  to  the 
memorable  contest  which,  commenced  in  282  by  the  Lu- 
canians,  assumed  a  whoUy  different  aspect  when  Pyrrhus, 
king  of  Epirus,  appeared  in  Italy  as  their  auxiliary.  But 
the  power  of  the  Samnites  was  evidently  broken,  and  after 
the  final  defeat  of  Pyrrhus  they  appear  to  have  offered 
little  resistance.  Their  final  submission  was  made  in  272, 
and  according  to  the  usual.  Roman  policy  was  secured  by 
the  establishment  iu  their  territory  of  the  two  important 
colonies  of  jEsernia  and  Beneventum. 

During  the  Second  Punio  War,  Saninium  became  the  fiequent 
theatre  of  hostilities.  The  Hiruiui  were  among  tlie  first  ot"  the 
Italian  tribes  to  declare  in  favour  of  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of 
CannK  (216) ;  but  their  example  "vvas  not  followed  by  the  more 
powerful  tribe  of  the  Pentri,  and  when  Hannibal  was  finally 
driven  out  of  Central  Italy  the  Samnites  were  speedily  reduced  to 
submission.  From  this  time  we  hear  no  more  of  them  till  the 
^eat  outbreak  of  the  Italian  nations,  commonly  known  as  the 
Social  War  (90),  in  which  they  bore  a  prominent  part.  Two 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Italian  leaders,  C.  Papius 
Mntllns  and  C.  Pontius  Telesinus,  were  of  Samnite  birth,  and 
after  the  fall  of  Corfinium  the  Samnite  town  of  Bovianum  became 
the  temporary  capital  of  the  confederates.  Their  submission  had 
not  indeed  been  completed  when  the  civil  war  between-  ilarius 
and  Sulla  gave  a  fresh  character  to  the  contest.  The  Samnites 
warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  former,  and  it  was  the  defeat  of 
their  leader  C.  Pontius  Telesinus  at  the  CoUine  Gate  of  Rome  that 
secured  the  victory  of  Sulla  and  sealed  the  fate  of  the  Samnite. 
nation  (82).  Not  content  with  putting  all  his  Samnite  prisoners 
to  the  sword,  the  ruthless  conqueror  organised  a  systematic  devas- 
tation of  the  whole  country,  with  the  avowed  object  of  extirpating 
the  very  nan}e  ot  the  Samnites,  as  the  eternal  enemies  of  Rome. 
To  such  an  extent  was  this  cruel  purpose  cauicd  into  effect  that 
more  than  a  hundred  years  afterwards,  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  tlie 
■whole  country  is  described  as  befng  in  a  state  of  ittter  desolation, 
fiourishing  towns  being  reduced  to  mere  villages,  while  others  hi.d 
altogether  ceased  to  exist.  Nor  does  it  appear  probable  that  it 
ever  recovered  this  severe  blow  ;  and,  though  some  attempt  was 
inade_  to  revive  its  prosperity  by  the  establishment  of  Roman 
colonies  within  its  limits,  none  of  these  attained  to  any  importance. 
The  name  of  Samnium  was  indeed  retained  as  that  of  a  distinct 
province  throughout  the  greater  j)art  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  is 
still  found  in  Cassiodorus.  But  under  the  Lombard  rule  the 
whole  of  this  part  of  Italy  was  included  iu  the  duchy  of  Beuevento, 
which  continued  to  subsist  as  jn  independent  state  long  after  the 
fall  of  the  Lombard  kingdom  in  the  north  of  Italy.  During  the 
revolutions  of  the  Hiddlo  Ages  all  trace  of  the  name  is  lost  ;  and, 
though  it  was  revived  in  the  last  century  as  the  official  designation 
of  a  part  of  the  region  comprised  within  the  ancient  limits,  pre- 
viously known  as  the  Contado  di  Jfoliso,  this  was  a  mere  piece  of 
olficial  pedantry,  and  the  name  has  again  disappeared  from  the 
modern  maps  of  Italy.  -i*:  >  ■    ■ 

Very  few  towns  of  importance  existed  at  any  period  within  the 
limits  of  Saninium,  and  many  of  those  mentioned  in  history  had 
disappeared  in  the  continual  wars  with  which  the  country  was 
ravaged.  The  only  names  that  are  worthy  of  special  notice  are— 
Aufidena,  in  the  north,  the  capital  of  the  Caraceni,  the  ruins  of 
which  still  exist  a  few  miles  from  Ca,stcl  di  Sangro  ;  Bovianum 
(still  called  Bqjano),  the  ancic'ht  capital  of  the  Pentri,  in  the  heart 
of  Monte  Matese  ;  Sa'pinuni  (Sepino),  in  the  same  neiglibouAood  ; 
.ffisemia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Vulturnns,  still  known  as  Isemia ; 
Aquilonia  (Lacedogna),  in  the  land  of  the  Itirpini,  near  the  frontier 
of  Apulia  ;  and  Couipsa  (Conza),  on  the  borders  of  Lucania,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Aufidus.  Beneventum  alone  has  ict-iincd  its 
ancient  consideration  as  well  as  name,  an  advantage  which  it 
derives  from  its  position  on  the  Via  Appia,  commanding  tho 
entrance  to  tho  mount:un  district  of  the  Hirpini. 

The  language  of  the  Samnites,  like  that  of  their  parents  the 
Sabincs,  must  clearly  have  been  closely  related  to  that  of  tho 
Oscans,  and  the  two  nationalities  appear  to  have  amalgamated  so 
readily  that  before  tho  historical  period  there  was  probably  little 
difference  in  this  ics|^ot.  Several  of  the  most  important  of  the 
inscriptions  that  remain  to  us  have- been  found  witliin  tho  limits 
of  the  Samnite  terntoiy,  and  may  bo  considered  as  Sabcllo-Oscan 
in  their  choracter,  rather  than  purely  Oscan.  See  for  these  tho 
articles  Italy  and  Latin  Language.  'E.  H.  B.) 

SAMOA.'    See  Navigators'  Lslaxds. 

SAMOS,  one  of  tho  principal  and  most  fertile  i5f-tn6 
islands  in  the  i?i:gean  Sea  that  closely  adjoin  the  mainland 
of  Asm  Mmor,  frc-:ii  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  ot 
21—11* 


onty  about  a  mile  in  width.  It  is  about  27  miles  i™ 
length,  by  about  U  in  its  greatest  breadth,  and  is  occupied 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  by  a  raut'e  of 
mountains,  of  which  the  highest  summit,  near  its  western' 
extremity,  called  Mount  Kerkis,  attains  to  the  height  of 
4725  feet.  "This  range  is  in  fact  a  continuation  of  that  of 
Mount  Mycale  on  the  mainland,  of  which  the  promontory 
of  Ti-ogilium,  immediately  opposite  to  the  city  of  Samos, 
formed  the  extreme  point.  Various  mythical  legends  were 
current  to  account  for  the  original  settlement  of  tho  city  of 
Samos,  and  to  connect  its  founders  with  the  Greek  heroic 
genealogies ;  but  the  earliest  record  that  has  any  claim  to 
an  historical  character  is  that  of  the  ofTcuiJation  of  the 
island  by  a  colony  of  Ionian  settlers  under  a  leader  named 
Procles,  at  tho  time  of  tho  great  Ionian  emigration  to  Asia 
Minor  (about  1050  B.C.).  In  the  historical  period  Samos 
figures  as  a  purely  Ionic  city,  and  was  one  of  the  most  in- 
fluential members  of  the  Ionic  confederacy.  'In  the  five 
centuries  that  intervened  from  its  first  settlement  to  the 
reign  of  Polycrates,  Samos  had  rapidly  attained  to  a  great 
height  of  power  and  prosperity,  had  founded  colonies  at 
Perinthus  and  other  places  on  the  Propontis,  as  well  as  at 
Nagidus  and  Celenderis  in  Cilicia,  and  possessed  a  powerful 
navy,  including,  according  to  Thucydides  (i.  13),  the  first; 
triremes  that  ever  were  constructed.  It  was  a  Samian' 
named  Coteus  also  who  was  the  first  Greek  that  ventured 
to  penetrate  between  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  into  the  ocean 
beyond,  and  brouglit  baik  a  vast  amount  of  wealth  from! 
these  previously  unknown  regions  (Herod.,  iv.  1S2) 

Samos  was  doubtless  protected  by  its  insular  position 
from  conquest  by  the  Persian  general  Harpagus ;  nor  did 
it  follow  the  example  of  the  two  other  great  islaiids.of 
Chios  and  Lesbos  by  voluntary  submission  to  the  Persian 
monarch.  On  the  contrary,  it  not  only  preserved  its 
independence  for  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  yeara 
longer,  but  it  was  pregisely  in  this  interval  that  it  rose  to 
the  highest  pitch  of  power  and  prosperity  under  the 
enlightened  and  able,  though  tyrannical,  government  of 
the  despot  Polyctates  {q.v.).  Under  his  government 
Samos  became  "  the  fii'st  of  all  cities  Hellenic  or  barbaric," 
and  was  adorned  with  three  of  the  greatest  public  works 
that  had  ever  been  executed  by  Greeks — an  aqueduct 
tunnelled  through  a  mountain  for  a  length  of  7  stadia,  a 
mole  of  more  than  2  stadia  in  length  for  the  protection  of 
the  harbour,  and  a  temple  (that  of  Hera)  exceeding  all 
others  in  size.  Row  far  these  great  works  belong  to  the 
time  of  Polycrates  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty ; 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  were  enlarged  and  com- 
pleted, if  not  commenced,  under  his  government.  He  was 
also  the  first  to  lay  claim  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  yEgean 
Sea,  or  thalassocraty,  which  at  that  time  there  was  none  to 
dwpute  with  him. 

After  the  death  of  Polycrates^  (522  B.C.)  Samos  fell 
under  the  power  jof  his  brother  Syloson,  who  estabii.shcd 
himself  in  tho  sovereignty  with  the  support  of  a  Pcisian 
army,  but  this  revolution  wa.s  not  accomplished  without  a 
ma.ssacre  of  tho  citizens,  which  must  have  given  a  heavy 
blow  to  the  prosperity  of  tho  island.  Henceforth  it  con- 
tinued to  be  tributary  to  Per.sia  till  the  great  bittle  of 
Mycale  ('ISO),  which  not  only  freed  tho  Samians  from  tho 
Persian  yoke,  but  became  the  beginning  of  a  fresh  era  of 
great  prosperity,  during  which  they,  like  the  neighbouring 
Chians  and  Lesbians,  were  admitted  as  members  of  tl'T 
Athenian  confederacy,  on  free  and  equal  terms,  without 
payment  of  tribute.  An  abru[jt  termination  was,  however, 
put  to  this  state  of  things  in  439,  when,  tho  Samians 
having  given  offence  to  tho  Athenians,  their  city  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  Pericles,  who  compelled  them  to 
raze  their  fortifications,  to  give  up  tlreir  ships  of  war,  to 
f  m'uish  hostages,  and  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war.    From 


250 


S  A  M  —  S  A  M 


this  timo  therefore  Saiiios  becaniB  Z.  mere  dependency  of 
Athens,  and  continued  in  this  subordinate  condition 
throughout  the  Peloponnesian  War  ;  but  after  the  victory 
of  the  Spartans  at  yEgospotanii,  the  city  was  besieged  and 
taken  by  Lysander  (404),  and  as  usual  an  oligarchy  was 
set  up  under  Spartan  control.  Other  revolutions,  however, 
quiclily  followed.  The  victory  of  Conon  at  Cnidus  in  394 
restored  the  democracy,  but  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  shortly 
afterwards  (387)  placed  the  island  under  the  government 
of  a  Persian  satrap,  and  thus  exposed  it  to  the  attacks  of 
the  Athenians,  who  sent  an  e.xpedition  against  it  under 
Timotheus,  one  of  t'neir  ablest  generals,  who  after  a  siege 
of  eleven  months  reduced  the  whole  island  and  took  the 
capital  city.  A  large  part  of  the  inhabitants  were  expelled, 
.and  their  place  supplied  by  Athenian  emigrants  (366). 

From  this  time  wo  hear  but  little  of  Samos.  It  passed 
■without  resistance  under  the  yoke  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  retained  a  position  of  nominal  autonomy  under  his 
successors,  though  practically  dependent,  sometimes  on  the 
kings  of  Egypt,  sometimes  on  those  of  Syria.  After  the 
.lefeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great  at  the  battle  of  Magnesia 
(190),  it  passed  with  the  rest  of  Ionia  to  the  kings  of  Per- 
i^amum,  but,  having  in  an  evil  hour  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  pretender  Aristonicus,  it  was  deprived  of  its  freedom, 
and  was  united  with  the  Roman  province  of  Asia  (129). 
Henceforth  it  of  course  held  only  a  subordinate  position, 
but  it  seems  to  have  always  continued  to  be  a  flourishing 
.and  opulent  city.  We  find  it  selected  by  Antony  as  the 
headquarters  of  his  fleet,  and  the  place  where  he  spent  his 
last  winter  with  Cleopatra,  and  a  few  years  later  it  became 
the  winter  quarters  of  Augustus  (21-20),  who  in  return 
restored  its  nominal  freedom.  Its  autonomy,  however,  as 
in  many  other  cases  under  the  Roman  empire,  was  of  a 
very  fluctuating  and  uncertain  character,  and  after  70  a.d. 
:it  lapsed  into  the  ordinary  condition  of  a  Roman  provincial 
:towa.  Its  coins,  however,  attest  its  continued  importance 
during  more  than  two  centuries,  and  it  was  even  able  to 
contest  with  Smyrna  and  Ephesus  the  proud  title  of  the 
"  first  city  of  Ionia."  It  still  figures  prominently  in  the  de- 
:3crJptiou  of  the  Byzantine  empire  by  Constantino  Porphyro- 
jgenitua,  but  little  is  known  of  it  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

During  the  Greek  "War  of  Independence  Samo-s  bore  a  conspicu- 
oua  part,  and  it  was  in  the  strait  between  the  Island  and  ilount 
Mycale  tliat  Canaris  achieved  one  of  Iiis  most  celebrated  exploits 
^'by  setting  fire  to  and  blowing  up  a  Turkish  frigate,  in  tlie  presence 
■of  tile  army  that  liad  been  assembled  for  the  invasion  of  the  island, 
1  success  that  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  enterprise,  and  Samos 
Lheld  its  own  to  the  very  end  of  the  war.  On  the  conclnsion  of 
^pcace  the  island  was  indeed  again  lianded  over  to  the  Turks,  but 
:5ince  1835  has  held  an  exceptionally  advantageous  position,  being 
^iu  fact  self-governed,  though  tributary  to  the  Turkish  empire,  and 
.ruled  by  a  Greek  governor  nominated  by  the  Porte,  who  bears  the 
■title  of  "Prince  of  Samos,"  but  is  supported  and  controlled  by  a 
■Ureek  council  and  assembly.  The  prosperity  of  the  island  bears 
■witness  to  the  wisdom  of  this  arrangement.  It  now  contains  a  popu- 
'.Jation  of  above  40,000  inh.abitants,  and  its  trade  has  rapidly  in- 
r^easctk  Its  principal  articlo  of  export  is  its  wine,  vvliich  was 
.relcbiatcd  iu  ancient  times,  and  still  enjoys  a  high  reputation  in 
.Aio  Levai.t     It  exports  also  silk,  oil,  raisins,  and  other  dncd  fruits. 

The  ancient  capital,  which  bore  the  name  of  the  island,  was 
Vituatcd  on  the  south  coast,  directly  ojiposite  to  the  promontory 
o4jE  Sfycale,  the  town  itself  adj6ining  tiio  sea  and  having  a  large 
artificial  port,  the  remains  of  "'Which  arc  still  visible,  as  are  the 
;ancient  walls  that  surrounded  the  summit  of  a  hijl  which  rises 
.immediately  above  it,  and  now  bears  the  name  of  Astypalsa.  This 
^formed  the  acropolis  of  the  ancient  city,  which  in  its  flourishing 
;,'".imcs  occupied  a  wide  extent,  covering  the  slopes  of  Mount  Ampelus 
-lowu  to  the  shore.  From  thence  a  road  led  direct  to  the  far-famed 
temple  of  Hera  (Juno),  which  was  situated  close  to  the  shore,  where 
.its  site  is  still  marked  by  a  single  column,  but  even  that  bereft  of 
:ats  capital.  This  miserable  fragment,  which  has  given  to  the 
■neighbouring  headland  the  name  of  Capo  Colonna,  is  all  that 
remains  of  the  temple  that  was  extolled  by  Herodotus  as  the 
largest  he  had  ever  seen,  and  which  vied  in  splendour  as  well  as  in 
i;'^:lebrity  with  that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  But,  like  the  Ephesian 
_^.rtemis,  the  goddess  worshipped  at  Samos  was  really  a  very 
■  iLfferent  divinity  from  the  ouc  that  presided  over  Argos  and  other 


purely  Greek  cities,  and  was  nnquestionably  in  the  first  instance  a' 
native  Asiatic  deity,  who  was  identified,  on  what  grounds  wo  know 
not,  with  the  Hera  of  the  Olympic  mythology.  Her  image,  as  we 
learn  from  coins,  much  resembled  that  of  the  Ephesian  goddess, 
and  was  equally  remote  from  any  Greek  conception  of  the  beautiful 
and  stately  Hera.  Though  so  little  of  the  temple  remains,  the  plan 
of  it  has  been  ascertained,  and  its  dimensions  found  fully  to  verify 
the  assertion  of  Herodotus,  as  compared  with  all  other  Greek  tem- 
ples existing  in  -his  time,  though  it  was  afterwards  surpassed  by 
the  later  temple  at  Ephesus. 

The  modern  capital  of  the  island  was,  until  a  recent  period,  at  a 
place  called  Khora,  about  two  miles  from  the  sea,  and  the  same 
distance  from  the  site  of  tlie  ancient  city  ;  but  since  the  change  in 
the  political  condition  of  Samos  the  capital  has  been  transferred  to 
Vathy,  situated  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  the  north  coast,  which 
has  become  the  residence  of  the  prince  and  the  seat  of  government. 
Here  a  new  town  has  grown  up,  well  built  and  paved,  with  a  con- 
venient harbour,  and  already  numbers  a  population  of  6000. 

Samos  was  celebrated  iu  ancient  times  as  the  birth-place  of 
Pythagoras,  who,  however,  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  a 
distance  from  his  native  country.  His  name  and  figure  are  found 
on  coins  of  the  city  of  imperial  date.  It  was  also  conspicuous  in 
the  history  of  art,  having  produced  in  early  times  a  school  of 
sculptors,  commencing  with  Rhjccus  and  Theodorus,  who  are  said 
to  have  invented  the  art  of  casting  statues  in  bronze,  and  to  have 
introduced  many  other  technical  improvements.  The  architect 
Rh^cus  also,  who  built  the  temple  of  Hera,  was  a  native  of  tlie 
island.  At  a  later  period  Samos  was  noted  for  the  manufacture 
of  a  particular  kind  of  red  earthenware,  so  much  valued  by  the 
Romans  for  domestic  purposes  that  specimens  of  it  generally  occur 
wherever  there  are  rem.ains  of  Roman  settlements. 

All  the  particuiais  that  are  recorded  concerning  Samoa  in  ancient  times  are 
collected  by  Panoflia  (Res  Samiorum,  Berlin,  1S22).  A  full  description  of  tho 
island,  as  it  existed  in  his  time,  will  be  found  In  Tourncfoi  t  (  Voijaije  du  Levant, 
4to.  Palis,  1717),  and  more  recent  .accounts  in  the  woilvs  of  Uoss  (Rcisen  an/ den 
(Irieclascheti  Jtiseht,  vol.  ii.,  StuttRart.  1813)  and  Gudrin  {Patnios  ct  Samos,  I'aris, 
1856).  (E.  U.  B.) 

SAMOTHRACE  was  the  ancient  name  of  an  island  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  jEgean  Sea,  nearly  opposite  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus,  and  lying  north  of  Imbros  and 
north-east  of  Lemnos.  It  is  still  called  Samothraki,  and 
though  of  small  extent  is,  next  to  Mount  Athos,  by  far  the 
most  important  natural  feature  in  this  part  of  the  jEgean, 
from  its  great  elevation — the  group  of  mountains  which 
occupies  almost  the  whole  island  rising  to  the  height  of 
5240  feet.  The  highest  summit,  named  by  Pliny  Saoce, 
is  estimated  by  him  at  an  elevation  of  10  Roman  miles. 
Its  conspicuous  character  is  attested  by  a  well-known 
passage  in  the  Iliad  (xiii.  12),  where  the  poet  represents 
Poseidon  as  taking  post  on  this  lofty  summit  to  survey 
from  thence  the  plain  of  Troy  and  the  contest  between 
the  Greeks  and  the  Trojans.  This  mountainous  character 
and  the  absence  of  any  tolerable  harbour — Pliny,  in 
enumerating  the  islands  of  the  jEgean,  calls  it  "  importuos- 
issima  omnium" — prevented  it  from  ever  attaining  to 
any  political  importance,  but  it  enjoyed  great  celebrity 
from  its  conrlexion  with  the  worship  of  the  Cabim  (q.v.),  a 
mysterious  triad  of  divinities,  concerning  whom  very  little 
is  really  known,  but  who  apjxiar,  like  all  the  similar 
deities  venerated  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  to  have  been 
a  remnant  of  a  previously  existing  Pelausgic  mythology, 
wholly  distinct  from  that  of  the  Greeks.  Herodotus 
expresslj'  tells  us  that  the  "  orgies  "  which  were  celebrated 
at  Samothrace  were  derived  from  the  Pelasgians  (ii.  51). 
These  mysteries,  and  the  other  sacred  rites  connected  there- 
with, appear  to  have  attracted  a  large  number  of  visitors, 
and  thus  imparted  to  the  island  a  degree  of  im]3ortance 
which  it  would  not  otherwise  have  attained.  The  only 
occasion  on  which  its  name  is  mentioned  in  history  is 
during  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  (B.C.  480),  when  the  Samo- 
thracians  sent  a  contingent  to  the  Persian  fleet,  one  ship 
of  which  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Salamis 
(Herod.,  viii.  90).  But  the  island  appears  to  have  always 
enjoyed  the  advantage  of  autonomy,  probably  on  account 
of  its  sacred  character,  and  even  in  the  time  of  Pliny  it 
ranked  as  a  free  state.  Such  was  still  the  reputation  of  its 
mysteries  that  Germanicus  endeavoured  to  visit  the  island, 
but  v.-as  driven  off  by  ndverss  winds  (Tac,  Ann.,  iL  54). 


S  A  I^i  —  S  A  EI 


251 


,  Ko  modern  traveller  appears  to  have  TisitcJ  Samotlirace  till  tlio 
year  1868,  when  it  was  fully  explored  by  Conzc,  who  published  an 
account  of  it,  as  well  as  the  larger  neighbouring  islands,  in  ISGO. 
The  ancient  city,  of  which  the  ruins  are  called  Faleopoli,  was  situ- 
ated on  the  north  side  of  the  island  close  to  the  sea  ;  its  site  is 
clearly  marked,  and  considerable  remains  still  exist  of  the  ancient 
walls,  which  were  built  in  massive  Cyclopean  style,  but  no  vestiges 
are  found  of  temples  or  other  public  buildings.  The  modern  vil- 
lage is  on  the  hill  above.  Tho  island  is  at  the  present  day  very 
poor  and  thinly  peopled,  and  has  scarcely  any  trade  ;  but  a  con- 
siderable spongo  fisliery  is  carried  on  around  its  coasts  by  traders 
from  Smyrna  (Conze,  Jiciae  aufden  Inscln  dcs  ThraJcischcn  Mccrcs^ 
Hanover,  1860). 

The  similarity  of  rame  naturally  led  to  tho  supposition  that 
Samothrace  was  peopled  by  a  colony  from  Samoa  in  Ionia,  and 
this  is  stated  as  an  historical  fact  by  some  Greek  writers,  but  is 
rejected  by  Strabo,  who  conside-rs  that  in  both,  cases  the  name  was 
derived  from  the  physical  conformation  of  the  islands,  Samos  being 
an  old  word  for  any  lofty  height  {Strabo,  x.  2,  p.  457).  Tlie  same 
characteristic  is  found  in  Cephallenia,  which  was  also  called  Samos 
in,  the  time  of  Homer. 

SAMOYEDES,  a  Ural-Altaic  stock,  scattered  in  small 
groups  over  an  immense  area,  from  the  Altai  Mountains 
down  the  basins  of  the  Obi  and  Yenisei,  and  along  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Oceaa  from  the  mouth  of  the  latter 
river  to  tho  White  Sea.  They  may  be  subdivided  into  two 
main  groups.  (A)  Those  inhabiting  the  southern  parts 
of  the  governments  of  Tomsk  and  Yeniseisk  have  been  so 
much  under  Tartar  influence  as  to  be  with  difficulty 
separated  from  the  Tartars ;  their  sub-groups  are  the 
Kamasin  Tartars,  the  Kaibals,  the  Motors,  the  Beltirs, 
tj'o  Karagasses,  and  the  Samoyedes  of  the  middle  Obi. 
(B)  Those  inhabiting  the  subarctic  region  form  three 
separate  sub-groups :— («)  tlie  Yuraks  in  the  coast-region 
from  the  Yenisei  to  the  White  Sea ;  (6)  the  Tavghi 
Samoyedes,  between  the  Yenisei  and  the  Khatanga ;  (c) 
the  Ostiak  Samoyedes,  intermingled  with  Ostiaks,  to  the 
soith  of  tho  others,  in  the  forest  regions  of  Tobolsk  and 
Yeniseisk.  Their  whole  number  may  be  estimated  at  from 
5^0,000  to  25,000. 

The  proper  place  of  the  Samoyedes  among  the  Ural-Altaians  is 
very  dilncult  to  determine.  As  to  their  present  name,  signifying 
in  't^  present  Russian  spelling  "self -eaters,"  many  ingenious 
theories  have  been  advanced,  but  the  cun'ent  one,  proposed  by 
dchrcik,  ft'ho  derived  the  name  "Samo-yedes"  from  "Syroyadtsy," 
or  "rarw-oaters,"  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  Perhaps  the  etymology 
ought  ic  be  sought  in  quite  another  direction,  namely,  in  tho  like- 
ness to  Suomi.  The  names  assumed  by  the  Samoyedes  themselves 
aro  Ilazovo  and  Nyanyiiz.  The  Ostiaks  know  them  under  the 
names^of  Orghoy,  or  Workho,  both  of  which  recall  the  Ugrians  ; 
tlio  name  of  Hui  is  also  in  use  among  the  Ostiaks,  and  that  of 
Yaron  among  the  Zyrians. 

Tho  language  now  spoken  by  the  Samoyedes  is,  like  the  Finnish 
lan;juagcs,  agglutinative,  but  in  both  lexicon  and  grammar  it  differs 
BO  widely  from  thcRe  that  Prof.  Ahlqvist  does  not  regard  the  simi- 
larity as  greater  than,  for  instance,  that  between  Swedish  and 
Persian.  Much  remains  to  bo  done  for  the  study  of  Samoyedic, 
but  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  remote  cousin  of  tho  Ugrian. 
It  is  a  sonorous  speech,  pleasant  to  the  ear.  No  fewer  than  three 
Beparato  dialects  and  ado^^en  sub-dialects  are  known  in  it, 

Tlie  conclusions  dcduciblo  from  thnir  anthropological  features  — 
Apart  from  the  general  Sifficulty  of  arriving  at  safe  conclusions  on 
this  ground  alone,  on  acco'int  of  tho  variability  of  tho  ethnological 
typo  under  various  conditions  of  life — are  also  rather  indefinite. 
1  he  Samoyedes  are  recognized  as  having  the  face  more  flattenfd 
than  undoubtedly  Finnish  stocks  ;  tlieir  eyes  are  narrower,  their 
complexion  and. hair  darker.  Zuycff  describes  them  as  like  tho 
Tunguses,  with  flattened  nose,  thick  lips,  little  beard,  and  black, 
hard  hair.  At  first  sight  they  may  bo  mistaken  for  OstiakfS, — 
especially  on  the  Obi;  but  they  aro  undoubteilly  diflVrent.  Castren  . 
ccDsidors  them  as  a  mixture  of  Ugrians  with  Mongplians,  and  M. 
Zograf  as  brachycephalic  Mongolians.  Qiiatrefagiis  classes  them, 
tj^ether  with  tho  Voguls,  as  two  families  of  the  Ugrian  sub-branch, 
this  last,  together  witli  the  Sahmis  (Laponians),  forming  part  of 
tSe  U;rTian  or  Boreal  brancli  of  the  yellow  or  Mongolic  race. 

It  is  certain  that  formerly  the  Samoyedes  occupied  the  Altai 
Jlonnt-iiiis,  whence  they  were  driven  northwards  by  Turcn-Tartars 
—probably  at  the  time  of  the  rise  of  tho  empire  of  tho  Huns, 
that  h,  before  tho  present  ^ra.  Their  farther  and  later  migration 
towards  tho  north  may  bo  said  to  bo  going  on  still.  TIius,  the 
Kaibals  left  tho  Sayan  Jlountains  and  took  possession  of  the 
Abakan  Btcppe  (Mi^osinsk  re^icn),  abandoned  by  t' c  iiirghi? -^ 


in  the  earlier  years  of  last  century,  and  in  nor(]i.ca«{cvu  Russia 
the  Zyrians  are  still  driving  tho  Samoyedes  furthur  north,  towards 
the  Arctic  coast.  Since  tho  researches  of  Schiuuk  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  settled  that  in  historical  times  tln.^  Sanioyodcs  were 
inhabitants  of  the  so-called  Ugria  in  the  Northern  Urals,  while 
it  would  result  from  M.  Radloli's  extensive  researches  tliat  tlio 
numberless  graves  containing  remains  of  the  Bronze  Period  whinh 
are  scattered  throughout  "West  Siberia,  on  the  Altai,  and  on  tho 
Yenisei  in  tho  Minusinsk  region,  are  relics  of  a  nation  which  b.o 
considers  as  iJgro-Samoyedcs.  This  nation,  very  nuntcrous  at  that 
epoch, — which  preceded  tho  Iron-Period  civilization  of  the  Turco- 
Tartars, — were  pretty  well  acquainted  with  mining;  the  remains 
of  their  mines,  sometimes  50  feet  deep,  and  of  the  furnaces  whero 
they  melted  copper,  tin,  and  gold,  aa-o  very  iinmcrous  ;  their 
weapons  of  a  hard  bronze,  their  pots  (one  of  which  weighs  75  lb), 
and  their  melted  and  polished  bronze  and  golden  decorations 
testify  to  a  high  development  pf  artistic  feeling  and  industrial  skill, 
strangely  contrasting  with  tho  low  level  reached  by  their  earthen- 
ware. They  were  not  nomads,  but  husbandmen,  and  their  irriga- 
tion canals  aro  still  to  be  seen.  They  kept  horses  (though  in  small 
numbel-s),  sheep,  and  goats,  but  no  traces  of  their  roaring  horned 
cattle  have  yot  been  found.  The  Turkish  invasion  of  stjnthoru 
Siberia  by  the  Tukus,  Ivhagases,  and  Uigurs,  which  took  place  iu 
the  5th  century,  droyo  them  farther  north  and  probably  reduced 
most  of  them  to  slaveiy, — these  slaves  seeming  to.  have  taught 
mining  to  their  masters. 

At  present  they  aro  disappearing,  and  have  almost  entirely 
lost  their  earlier  oivilization.  M.  Polyakoffqiiito  rightly  observes 
that  the  Samoyed^es,  who  now  maintain  themselves  by  hunting  nnd 
fishing  on  the  lower  Obi,  partly  mixed  in  tho  south  with  Ostiaks, 
recAlI  the  condition  of  the  inhabitants  of  France  and  Germany  at 
the  epoch  of  the  reindeer.  Clothed  in  skins,  like  the  troglodytes 
of  the  Weser,  they  make  nso  of  tho  same  implements  in  bono  and 
stone,  eat  carnivorous  animals— the  wolf  included — and  cherish 
the  same  superstitions  (of  whicl],  those  regarding  the  teeth  of  tho 
bear. are  perhnps  the  most  characteristic)  as  were  current  among 
the  Stone-Period  inhabitants  of  wc&Lorn  Europe.  Their  heaps  of 
reindeer  horns  and  skulls — memorials  of  reii^dous  ceremonies — are 
exactly  similar  to  those  dafeing  from  the  similar  period  of  civiliza- 
tion in  northern  Germany.  .  Their  huts  often  resemble  tho  wcll- 
'i-.nown  stone  huts  of  the  Esquimaux  ;  their  graves  are  mere  bozos 
left  in  the  tundra.  The  religion  is  fetichi^m  mixed  with  Shamanism, 
the  shaman  {tadji-hei)  being  a  representative  of  tho  great  divinity, 
the  Num.  The  Yalmal  peninsula,  where  they  find  so  great  facilities 
for  hunting,  is  especially  venerated  by  the  Obi  Ostiak  Samoyedes, 
and  there  tliey  have  one  of  their  chief  idols,  Khcse.  They  aro  more 
independent  than  the  Ostiaks,  less  yielding  in  character,  although 
33  hospitable  as  their  neighboursL  Reduced  almost  to  slaveiy  by 
Russian  merchants,  and  brought  to  the  extreme  of  misery  by  the  use 
of  ardent  spirits,  they  aro  disappearing  rapidly,  small-pox  complet- 
ing the  work  of  destruction .  They  still  maintain  the  high  standard 
of  Iioncsty  mentioned  by  historical  documents;  and,  while  tho 
Russians  plunder  even  the  stores  of  their  shamans,  the  Samoyedca 
never  will  take  anything  left  in  the  tundra  or  about  tho  houses  by 
their  "civilized  "  neighbours.  The  Yurak  Samoyedes  are  courag- 
eous and  warlike  ;  they  offered  armed  resistance  to  the  Russian 
invaders,  and  it  is  only  since  the  beginning  of  the  century  that 
they  have  paid  trib.utc.  The  exact  numbcj  of  the  Ostiak  Samoyedea 
is  not  known  ;  the  Tavghi  Samoyedes  may  number  about  1000, 
and  tho  Yuraks,  mixed  with  the  former,  are  estimated  at  6000  in 
Obdorsk  (about  150  settled),  5000-  in  European  Russia  in  tho 
tundras  of  the  MezeFi,  and  about  350  in  Yeniseisk. 

Of  the  southern  Samoyedes,  who  aro  completely  Tartarizcd,  the 
Beltirs  (3070  in  1859)  live  by  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  in  tho 
Abakan  steppe.  They  profess  Christianity,  and  speak  a  language 
closely  resembling  that  of  the  f^agai  Tartars.  The  Kaibals,  or 
Koihnls,  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  tho  Minusinsk  Tartars, 
and  support  themselves  by  rearing  cattle.  Castn'n  considers  that 
three  of  their  stems  are  of  Ostiak  origin,  tho  remainder  bcin^ 
Samoyedic.  The  Kaniasins,  in  the  Kansk  district  of  Yeniseisk, 
are  either  herdsmen  or  agriculturists.  They  speak,  tho  Samoyedc 
language,  witji  an  admixture  of  Tartar  words,  and  some  of  theii 
stems  contain  a  large  Tartar  element.  Tho  very  interesting 
nomadic  tribe  of  Karagas.ses,  in  the  Sayan  Mountains,  is  quite  dis- 
apjicaring  ;  the  few  representatives  of  this  formerly  much  more 
numerous  stem  are  rapidly  losing  their  anthropological  feature.*;, 
their  Turkish  language,  and  their  distinctive  dress.  Tho  Motors 
aro  now  little  more  than  a  memory.  One  portion  of  tho  tribe  emi- 
grated to  China  and  was  there  exterminated  ;  the  remainder  livivo 
disappeared  among  tho  Tuba  Tartars  and  tho  Soyotes.  Tho 
Samoyedes  on  the  Obi  in  Tomsk  'may  number  about  7000  ;  they 
have  adopted  the  Russian  manner  of  life,  but  have  difficulty  in 
carrying  on  agriculture,  and  are  a  "poverty-stricken  population  with 
little  prospect  of  holding  their  own. 

SAMPIFRDARI^XA  (population  in  1881,  10,r.O:).  Sees 
Geno.\,  vol.  X,  i>.  157- 


252 


S  A  M  —  8  A  M 


SAMSON  (Hebrew,  Shimshon),  the  great  enemy  of  the 
Philistines,  is  reckoned  as  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel  in 
two  editorial  notes  which  belong  to  the  chronological 
scheme  of  the  book  of  Judges  (xv.  20,  xvi.  31) ;  but  his 
story  itself,  which  is  a  self-contained  narrative  by  a  single 
hand  (Jud.  xiii.  2-16,  31o),  represents  him  not  as  a  judge 
but  as  a  popular  hero  of  vast  strength  and  sarcastic 
humour,  who  has  indeed  been  consecrated  from  his  birth 
as  the  deliverer  of  Israel,  and  is  not  unaware  of  his  voca- 
tion, but  who  yet  is  inspired  by  no  serious  religious  or 
patriotic  purpose,  and  becomes  the  enemy  of  the  Philistines 
only  from  personal  motives  of  revenge,  the  one  passion 
which  is  stronger  in  him  than  the  love  of  women.  In  his 
life,  and  still  more  in  his  death,  he  inflicts  great  injury 
on  the  oppressors  of  Israel,  but  he  is  never  the  head  of 
a  national  uprising  against  them,  nor  do  the  Israelites 
receive  any  real  deliverance  at  his  hands.  The  story  of 
his  exploits  is  plainly  taken  from  the  mouths  of  the  people, 
and  one  is  tempted  to  conjecture  that  originally  his 
Nazarite  vow  was  conceived  simply  as  a  vow  of  revenge, 
which  is  the  meaning  it  would  have  in  an  Arab  story. 
Our  narrator,  however,  conceives  his  life  as  a  sort  of 
prelude  to  the  work  of  Saul  (xiii.  5),  and  brings  out  its 
religrous  and  national  significance  in  this  lespect  in  the 
opening  scene  (ch.  xiii.),  which  is  closely  parallel  to  the 
story  of  Gideon,  and  in  the  tragic  close  (ch.  xvi.) ;  while 
yet  the  character  of  Samson,  who  generally  is  quite  for- 
getful of  his  mission,  remains  much  as  it  had  been  shaped 
in  rude  popular  tale  in  a  circle  which,  like  Samson  him- 
self, was  but  dimly  conscious  of  the  national  and  religious 
vocation  of  Israel. 

The  name  of  Samson  (ShamsJtdn,  of  which  the  Masso- 
retic  Skims/ioH  is  a  more  modern  pronunciation,  and  later 
than  the  LXX.,  who  write  ^auii/av)  means  ".solar,"  but 
neither  tlie  name  nor  the  story  lends  any  solid  support  to 
Steinthal's  fantastic  idea  that  the  hero  is  a  solar  myth 
(compare  Wellhausen-BIeek,  p.  196).  He  is  a  member  of 
an  undoubtedly  historical  family  of  those  Danites  who  had 
their  standing  camp  near  Zorah,  not  far  from  the  Philistine 
border,  before  they  moved  north  and  seized  Laisli  (compare 
xiii.  25  with  xviii.  8,  11,  12).  The  family  of  Manoah  had 
an  hereditary  sepulchre  at  Zorah,  where  Samson  was  said 
to  lie  (xvi.  31),  and  their  name  continued  to  be  associated 
with  Zorah  even  after  the  exile,  when  it  appears  that  the 
Manahethites  of  Zorah  were  reckoned,  as  Calibbites.  The 
name  had  remained  though  the  race  changed  (1  Chron.  ii. 
52,  54).  One  of  Samson's  chief  exploits  is  associated  with 
a  rock  called  from  its  shape  "the  Ass's  Jawbone,"  from 
which  sprung  a  fountain  called  En-hakkore,  "  the  spring  of 
the  partridge,"  and  these  names  have  influenced  the  form 
in  which  the  exploit  is  told.  The  narrative  of  Samson's 
marriage  and  riddle  is  of  peculiar  interest  as  a  recdrd  of 
manners ;  specially  noteworthy  is  the  custom  of  the  wife 
remaining  with  her  parents  after  marriage  (c/.  Gen.  ii.  24). 

SAMUEL  ('jNiep,  Shomuel),'  a  seer  and  "judge"  of 
Israel  in  the  time  of  the  Philistine  oppression.  His  hi.story, 
as  told  in  the  first  book  of  Samuel  (compare  Psalm  xcix. 
5;  Ecclus.  xlvi.  13  sq.),  is  too  familiar  to  call  for  repetition 
here,  and  a  critical  estimate  of  his  place  in  Hebrew  history 
has  been  given  in  Israel,  vol.  xiii.  p.  403.  There  remain, 
however,  one  or  two  points  of  detail  which  may  be  noticed 
here.  His  birthplace  was  Raniah,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  the 
Hebrew  text  of  1  Sam.  i.  1,  Ha-Piamathaim  (Eamathem, 
1  Mace.  xi.  34 ;  Arimathasa,  Mat.  xxvii.  57) ;  the  identity 

*  This  is  one  of  an  obscure  class  of  proper  names  (7X1J2,  PXiyn, 
ic. ),  the  analogy  of  which  seems  to  exclude  the  idea  that  it  is  softened 
from  pNyiOt;',  "  heard  of  God."  It  seems  rather  to  mean  "name  of 
El,  i.e.,  "  manifestation  of  God's  power  or  will."  Compare  the  title 
5hem  B.-.jl,  "name  of  Bajil,"  given  to  AHarte  on  the  epitaph  of 
Eshmuna?"- 


of  the  two  names  is  supported  by  the  Septuagint,  which 
has  Arimathaim  for  Ramah  in  several  passages.  Ramah, 
which  appears  in  1  Kings  xv.  17  as  a  stronghold  on  the 
frontier  of  the  kingdoms  of  Ephraim  and  Judah,  is  probably, 
identical  with  the  modern  El-Uam,  about  5  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  on  a  hill  on  the  east  side  of  the  main  road  to 
Shechem  and  the  north.  Ramah  was  also  the  place  where 
Samuel  usually  resided  in  his  later  days,  and  from  which 
he  made  a  yearly  circuit  through  a  very  limited  district  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood,  "judging  Israel"  (1  Sam. 
vii.  16).  None  of  the  cities  which  ho  visited  is  more  than 
a  few  miles  from  Ramah.  Ramah,  according  to  1  Sam.  i.  1 
(where  the  text  is  to  be  corrected  by  the  Septuagint),  was 
a  town  in  the  district  of  Zuph,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim  (comp.  1  Sam.  ix.  5  and  1  Sam.  x.  2,  where  the 
grave  of  Rachel  lies  on  the  frontier  between  Ephraim  and 
Benjamin ;  a  different  localization  is  given  in  Gen.  xxxv. 
19,  20,  unless  the  identification  of  Bethlehem  and  Ephrath 
there  is  a  later  gloss). 

The  original  text  of  1  Sam.  i.  I  does  not  seem  to  say 
explicitly  that  Samuel's  father  was  an  Ephrathite  (i.e., 
of  the  tribo  of  Ephraim),  though  his  city  w^s  Ephrathite ; 
and  1  Chron.  vi.  28,  33  [vi.  13,  18]  makes  him  a  licvite, 
apparently  because  a  post-exile  family  of  singers  traced 
their  stock  from  him.  The  old  accounts  certainly  repre- 
sent Samuel  even  as  a  child  as  doing  priestly  service  at 
Shiloh,  girt  with  the  ephod  and  wearing  the  priestly  robe 
(me'il,  E.  V.  "coat,"  1  Sam.  ii.  18  sq.),  but  at  that  early^ 
date  priesthood  was  by  no  means  confined  to  Levites, 
and  the  story  certainly  implies  that  it  was  not  by  birth 
but  only  by  his  mother's  vow  that  he  was  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary.  On  Samuel's  relation  to  the 
propihets,  see  vol.  xix.  p.  815.  Compare  also  Samuei, 
Books  of. 

SAMUEL,  Books  of.  The  Hebrew  Book  of  Samuel, 
Jike  the  Hebrew  Book  of  Kings,  is  in  modern  Bibles 
divided  into  two  books,  after  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate, 
whose  four  books  of  "kingdoms"  answer  to  the  Hebrew 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings.  The  connexion  between  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  has  been  spoken  of  in  the 
article  Kings  (q.v.).  These  iwo  books,  together  with 
Judges,  are  made  up  of  a  series  of  extracts  and  ab-stracts 
from  various  sources  worked  over  from  time  to  time  by 
successive  editors,  and  freely  handled  by  copyists  down  to 
a  comparatively  late  date,  a%  the  variations  between  the 
Hebrew  text  and  the  Septuagint  show.  The  main  redac- 
tion of  Judges  and  Kings  has  plainly  been  made  under 
the  influence  of  the  ideas  of  the  book  of  Deuteronopiy, 
and  it  was  in  connexion  with  this  redaction  that  the 
history  from  the,  accession  of  Solomon  onwards  was 
marked  off  as  a  separate  book  (see  Kings).  In  Samuel 
the  Deuteronomistic  hand  is  much  less  promi.nent,  but  in 
1  Sam.  vii.  2-4,  and  in  the  speech  of  Samuel,  ch.  xii.,  its 
characteristic  pragmatism  is  clearly  recognizable ;  the 
nature  of  the  old  narrative  did  not  invite  frequent  inser- 
tions of  this  kind  throughout  the  story.  So,  too,  the 
chronological  system  which  runs  through  Judges  and 
Kings  is  not  completely  carried  out  in  Samuel,  though  its 
influence  can  be  traced  (1  Sam.  iv.  18,  vii.  2,  xiii.  1  sg., 
xxvii.  7,  2  Sam.  ii.  10  sq.,  v.  4  sq.).     In   1   Sani.  xiii.  1, 

in  the  note  "Saul  was, ^  years  old  when  he  became 

king  and  reigned  [two]  years  over  Israel "  (lacking  in 
LXX.),  one  of  the  niunbers  has  been  left  blank  and  the 
other  has  been  falsely  filled  up  by  a  mere  error  of  the 
text ;  the  similar  note  in  2  Sam.  ii.  10  seems  also  to  have 
been  filled  up  at  random ;  it  contradicts  and  disturbs  the 
context.  But,  though  the  book  of  Samuel  has  been  much 
less  systematically  edited  than  Kings,  unsystematic  addi- 
tions to  and  modifications  of  the  oldest  narratives  were 
made  from  time  to  time  on  a  very  consideiable  scale,  and 


to  tWsbook,  as  m  Judges,  we  not  seldom  find  two  accounts 

linlt  y'%'^^''^'Z^'"=^  ^^  only  differ  in  detail  but 
plainly  are  ef  very  different  date 

«.Jl^on,^°nf  ^^  '"''?'"  ""'"y  ^'  '^'^'"^'•^  '"to  tbr<^e  main 
sections  :-(l)  Samuel  and  Sanl,  1   Sam.  i.-xiv  ;  (2)  The 

rueandlangdomofDaM,  1  Sam.  xv.-2  Sam.  viii  /    (3 

Th'P^^onal  kutory  of  David's  court  at  Jerusalem  (mainly 

from  a  single  source,  which  also  includes  1  Kings  i    ii )   o 

Sam  «.-sx^     Finally,  the  appendi.^,  2  Sam.  ?xi"-xxiV 

must  have  been  added  after  the  book  of  Kings  had  been 

separated  from  the  context  to  which   1  Kings  I,  ii   oririn 

ally  belonged.     As  the  greater  part  of  the  book  of  Samuel 

T^Tf:"'V^'i^'''"^  °^  ^^^'d'  "•^'^''  tas  been  dis- 
eased at  ength  m  his  article,  and  with  that  of  Samuel 
and  Saul  the  chief  points  of  which  have  been  critically 
examined  in  the  article  Israei,  a  very  brief  resum/of  the 
contents  of  each  of  the  main  sections  must  here  suffice. 

itself  though  the  prophLyPoflL"re:cU'/:rihVro^r:r™ 
(ui.  11  sq.)  with  the  history  of  the  d4ster  of  EbeneT.r^./ tT 
capture  and  restoration  of  the  ark  (ivTvii  1  sSt  ?L  f  ? 
of  these  t«o  sections  does  not  seem  to  havlbe  ^^  orfj^^av  Written 

ih,^^'''  ™-' "■"•'. 't«  Deutcronomistic  introduction  (verses  2-41  an,l 

present  form  must  be  late,  though  hardly  post  e.  lie   ,^S      'M*^ 
necessary  introduction  to  the  later  and  l£r!,;i^^"  '^  "'<' 

b"\h elti^^r^o^tav^'rir;"' *'1' ''^^^shSamuoVis^.k^n 

with  chap,  ix  '  ^^  "^  '^^'■y  °*'™"'  "nd  agiees 

.=c°Lt\h\trSntti^rtSi^^^^^  -  "^-^  ^  twofold 

the  war  with  Agag  in  quite  a  d  (rerp„7li„),ri      >     ■       ™'   P'"'' 

tions,  represent  a  type  o.-?S,4oua  St  ai1''''y  *"V™'  '"^'^'• 
^hich  can   hardly^ie   older"  thaj  th^''^\'' *of"'^';,.:,^^ 
Prophet,  TO  .  xix   n   RJfil      Tt,„  ,„  ■  •■'^      ,  ^    tlisha   (comp. 
presuppos'cs  chaT/v.,"an'a  is^     n  ":  "  t'"4h'it;'V.r'-  '"'f' 
If  we  suppose  that  the  meaning  of  Simmrs  i!?,  f"""?™  ""'^ 

•t  the  timo.     The  older  iSv  rrninf     r     ■'^'."^^  "°'  undeistood 

r.Jeomparedwith  1  .««m.  xvii.  23.  «°r2.3)!         '  ""■  '"•  " 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


253 


of  detachek  anecdotPes,'fnd^;onJe«mS"h^^rer^fw'j<?'^'^  -? 
anecdotes  based  on  a  sinMe  incident      Tl,i    i=    f  divergent 

two  stories  of  David's  generosity  to  San  "(x"iv '".'^i.rfnd'^  I'',? 
more  dear  where  the  LXX.  omits  one  of  two  parallel  nnV./f  ',"" 
B^rii^ut  supra),  while  the  san.e  accost  miypha^s  be  .fe^lf 

thread  of  continuous  historj-a  history  of  Daiw^Ti.l,  1°"*^''' 
more  free  from  foreign  acc^-etions  at  the  poi^Iwhln  he  ou7aw 
and  rer„goo  .ncquires.  through  the  death  of  Lul,  a  portion  of  com 
mandu^  importance.  Saul's  defeat  and  death  (1  SamTxviiTT 
2,  XXX)  are  related  as  part  of  the  history  of  Dav  d    nhid, Tuns' on 

^ost  ad^m^fr" t'rL'at;  ^f  Inci^eliVhSor;  *'""^''™*  »■"=  ''  *»" 

toIl^:^^?^pi^:^s::^^n!H''^s^rj^^-pp:"'»« 

subject  to  xxiu.  8sy.;  -the  two  poems  chanx^^Vp   T       "^1°  '5 

to  the  Deuteronomistio  redaSLn-,W.en  L  -  ^'""'-f^'terioT 
of  the  appendix  was  incorpoS'd  witl'rour  tor™"'""""^  """^^ 

edri'^Verc,?n;'tJLJ"l^re^TboToT^r^'" """"»"  "^^  ^ 

for  all  douil,  tl,o  reader  mSst  refer  prM  '  t^",^-f 'r'  ''''■'r"^'™'  "'  '"e  text, 
of  the  book,  first  in  his  r^xl  ^rfl/rt/r^amiifiJ-f  h  "  '  "P^""--!  s'"<iles 
of  Bleck-s  £inU,tu„g,  1S7S  an?  flrr.^lvri,,.-i  /■'"'''" '° '">= '"""h  edition 
/Jmrf  (Ens.  Ir.,  1885)  Of'eo  Lr  ,,nL  „„  f,,-'^™'!'"'"""'  '"  "•"  ■^"■'»'7  »' 
EwaUs    GisMMeSi    tl/c"  o  t  rpo,l-,„?  ">=  f'^"  '"o  rclaUve  p.t,S  of 


(xv??/-trxUr-'.'4i/"5rrnire;''  «»•  ".^,'»<'-  '->o™,s 

of  approved  couL;  sml  nfL  il"  "'1^°""" '^■•'"''  '^  ^'^"''y  =>  ™an 
the  latter  ho  is  a^,  obscre  a„d  .^.^^  ;3  attracted  to  the  court;  in 
X".)  when  he  volmtm"  to  meet  r-  I  t''^\"'^  ,'''"' '"  '"  '^'"'P- 
the  contradiction  between  thrtwo,*^',  "  V'°  ,"<^'""'  «"' 
Septuagint  omits  xvi .  12-3,  ';°.^«°"»t!..'s  ab.o  ute,  but  the 
lessens  if  it  does  not  ontirlli'  55-xviu.    5,   which   greatly 

S«r,  jeaIousy\^?„r^^;t.7.Wi7  'tzO)1Tl{'  ''*'"  ^^  "' 
between  them,  with  David's  fliphtfVnl^o:'       .  .""=  °P="  ''"«•' 


^i:d^^£>,'^^-j-vr-tK-d^^^^^^ 

to  the  port  of  Hodaida  on  the  Red  Sea,  rises  1200  f°^ 
above  the  town,  the  eastern  (J.  Nokom)   s  some  300   ee 

'  wl^c^'l^i  TT'^'^  ^^  '^^  ™'°^  °f  '^^  fortress  B^Lm 
which  local  tradition  connects  with  the  name  of  sS 
son  of -Noah,  to  whom  the  foundation  of  the  city  is  attri' 
buted  by  Hamddnf,  Jadrat,  p.  55.  Under  Moul^  Noklm 
Hae^vTn  TsTO  f'  '^'»  «'^°-''^"  -'h  '"^^  citadel,  wS 
GhoJdin  i^  .^°"°^'"  '"'"^-  Tl^<=  '^°<^'^°t  fortress  of 
trhomddn    which  1.?    often  referred  to  by    poets     and  is 

aave  been  destroyed  by  the  caliph  'OthmAn  The  citv 
proper,  which  is  willed,  extends  from  the  citadel  on  the  ^, 
0^1  the  ZT  T  ^"'":f.P='.''-'^»,  °f  'he  imam  Jlotawakkil 
al-Ai:ab,   where  the  im.ims    had    their  pleasure  ffardens 

Lt  vlr.  ^'■^•^''f\  InNiebuhr's  time  (1763)  the  two 
ast  «ere  open  suburbs,  but  they  have  since  been  walled 

nnw  ^  ^!'  ^''"''^  "  =*  ''"y  "''^  '"«'"'  ""=  earliest  buildings 
now  standing  are  perhaps  those  which  date  from  1 
Turkish  occupation  1570-lG30)-some  mosques  parts  of 
he  fortifications,  the  aqueduct.  In  last  cemuV  utdfer 
the  independent  imAms  of  Yemen,  as  the  capita  of  the 
coffee  country  and  the  most  fertile  region  of  Arabia  it 
^•as,  with  Its  palaces  and  gardens,  its  mosqles,  caravans  rki 
and  good  private  houses,  by  much  the  fir\tViK  f  ^i ' 
peninsula.  The  Wahhdbl  movement  and  TTrkXtL: 
mterventiOD  m  the  affairs  of  Yemen  shook  the  pfwer  of 


254 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


the  imims  and.  diminished  the  prosperity  of  their  capital, 
but  Cruttenden  in  1836  still  estimated  the  population  at 
40,000,  or,  with  the  three  neighbouring  tow-ns  of  Rauda, 
Jirif,  and  Widy  Dahr,  at  not  less  than  70,000.  In  1870, 
when  the  ima:nato  had  been  extinct  for  twenty  years,  and 
the  town  was  governed  by  an  elected  sheikh  and  had  lost 
its  provinces,  Hal^vy  found  it  much  decayed,  with  many  of 
the  palaces  and  public  buildings  demolished  ov  used  as 
quarries,  but  still  presenting  a  comely  aspect,  with  good 
streets,  houses,  and  mosques.'  In  1872,  having  been  hard 
pressed  by  the  Bedouins  for  several  years,  Sanaa  opened 
its  gates  to  the  Turks,  who  were  then  engaged  in  the 
reconquest  of  Yemen.  In  the  following  year  Millingen 
estimated  the  population  at  only  20,000. 

The  climate  is  good,  though  the  extreme  dryness  of  the 
air  is  trying.  Rain  usually  falls  in  January  and  June, 
and  mora  copiously  in  the  end  of  July ;  the  markets  are 
well  supplied  with  grain  and  fruit ;  vineyards  were 
formerly  numerous,^  but  were  largely  given  up  after  an 
attack  of  vine  disease  Some  thirty  years  ago. 

Arabic  writers  give  many  discordant  and  fabnlons  traditions 
about  the  oldest  history  of  Sanaa  and  its  connexion  with  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Himyar.  But  most  agree  that  its  oldest  name 
iWas  Azal,  which  seems  to  he  tlie  same  word  with  Uz^I  in  Gen.  k. 
"27.  A  Himyarite  nation  of  Auzalites  occurs  in  a  Syriac  writer  of 
the  6th  century.'  The  better-informed  Arab  writers  knew  also  that 
the  later  name  is  due  to  the  Abyssinian  conquerors  of  Yemen, 
and  that  it  meant  in  their  language  "  fortified "  (Bakri,  p.  606  ; 
Noldeke,  Gesch.  d.  Pcrs.  u.  Arab.,  p.  1S7).  Sanaa  became  the 
capital  of  the  Abyssinian  Abraha  (c.  630  x.Ti.)  who  built  here  the 
famous  church  {Kalis),  of  whose  splendour  the  Arabs  give  exag- 
gerated picture?,  and  which  was  destroyed  two  centuries  later  by 
order  of  the  caliph  Mansiir  (Azraki,  p.  91). 

SANA'L  Abulmajd  Majdiid  b.  Adam,  commonly  Known 
as. the  hakhn  or  philosopher  Sani'i,  the  earliest  among  the 
great  Sdfic  poets  of  Persia,  was  a  native  of  Ghazna  or 
Ghaznin  (in  the  present  AfghAnistin),  and  flourished  in 
the  reigns  of  the  Ghaznawid  sultins  Ibrihfm  (1059- 
10S9,  451-492  a.h.),  his  son  Mas'M  (1099-1114),  and  his' 
'"grandson  BahrimshAh,  who,  after  some  years  of  desperate 
struggle  among  members  of  his  own  family,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1118  (512  a.h.)  and  died  after  a  long  and 
prosperous  reign  in  1152  (547  A.H.)'.  The  exact  dates. 
of  the  poet's  birth  and  death  are  uncertain,  Persian  autho- 
rities giving  the  most  conflicting  statements.  At  any 
rate,  ■  he  must  have  been  born  in  the  beginning  of  the 
second  half  of  the.  11th  century  and  have  died  between 
1131  and  115&  (525  and  545  A.H.).  Ha  gained  abeady 
at'an. early  age  the  reputation  of  a  very  learned  and  pious 
iman  and  of  an  accomplished  minstrel  Like  his  con- 
temporaries Mas'iid  b.  Sa'd  b.  Salmin  (died  1131),  Hasan 
of  Ghazna  (died  1179),  and  Uthm4n"Mukhtirf  (died  1149 
or  1159),  who  was  his  master  in  the  poetical  art,  he  com- 
posed chiefly  kasidas  in  honour  of  his  sovereign  and  the 
great  men  of  the  realm,  but  a  peculiar  incident  made  him 
for  ever  ab&ndon  the  highly  remunerative  although  often 
perilous  career  of  a  court-panegyrist,  and  turn  his 
poetical  -aspirations  to  higher  and  less  worldly  aims.  One 
day,  when  he  was  proceeding  to  the  royal  palace  to  pre- 
sent an  encomiastic  song  to  SultAn  IbrAhlra,  he  was  taunted 
by  a  half-mad  but  ^witty  jester,  who  proposed  a  toast  to 
the  poet's  blindness,  because  with  all  hir  learning  and 
piety  ha  had  as  yet  only  succeeded  in  flattering  kings  and 
princes,  who  were  mere  mortals  like  himself,  and  entirely 
misinterpreted  God's  motive  in  creating  him.  Sanrl'i 
was  so  struck  with  the  appropriateness  of  this  satirical 
remark  that  he  forthwith  gave  up  all  the  luxuries  of 
court-life,  retired  from  the  world,  and  devoted  himself 
after  the  due  performance  of  the  pilgrimage  exclusively 
to  devotional  exercises,  pious  meditations,  and  the  com- 
position of  Siific  poetry  in  praise  of  the  Godhead  and  the 
diviae  unity.     For  forty  years  he  led  a  life  of  retirement 


and  poverty,  and,  although  Sultin  Bahrimshdh  offered 
him  net  only  a  high  position  at  court,  but  also  his  own 
si.?ter  in  marriage,  he  remained  faithful  to  the  austere 
and  solitary  life  he  had  chosen.  But,  partly  to  show  his 
gratitude  to  the  king,  partly  to  leave  a  la.sting  monu- 
ment of  his  genius  behind  him,  that  might  act  as  a 
stimulus  to  all  di.scip'.es  of  the  pantheistic  creed,  he  began 
to  write  his  great  double-rhymed  poem  on  ethics  and 
religious  Hfe,  which  has  served  as  model  to  Farld-uddln 
'AttAr's  s^nd  Jal.-Vl-uddfn  Rtiml's  Sdfic  masterpieces,  the 
Hadikat-ulhaklkat,  or  "  Garden  of  Truth "  (also  called 
Alhitdb  alfakhri),  in  ten  cantos,  dealing  with  the  following 
topics : — unity  of  the  Godhead,  the  divine  word,  the 
excellence  of  the  prophet,  reason,  knowledge  and  faith, 
love,  the  soul,  worldly  occupation  and  inattention  to  higher 
duties,  stars  and  spheres  and  their  symbolic  lore,  friends 
and  foes,  separation  from  the  world,  &c.  One  of  SanA'i'a 
earliest  disciples,  who  wrote  a  preface  to  this  work,  'Alf 
al-Raffi,  alias  Muhammed  b.  'All  Rakkim,  assigns  to  its 
composition  the  date  1131  (525  a.h.),  which  in  a  consider- 
able number  of  copies  appears  as  1140  (535  a.h.),  and 
states  besides  that  the  poet  died  .immediately  after  the 
completion  of  his  task.  Now,  SanA'f  cannot  possibly 
have  died  in  1131,  as  another  of  his  mathnawfs,  the 
Tarih-i-tahMk,  or  "  Path  to  the  Verification  of  Truth,"  was 
comprised,  according  to  a  chronogram  in  its  last  verses,  in 
1134  (528  A.H.),  nor  even  in  1140,  if .  he  really  wrote, 
as  the  Atashkada  says,  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  Amir 
Mu'izzl ;  for  this  court-poet  of  SultAn  Sanjar  lived  till 
1147  or  1148  (542  A.H.).  It  seems,  therefore,  that  Takl 
Kishl,  the  most  accurate  among  Persian  biographers,  is 
right  after  all  in  fixing  SanA'i's  death  in  1150  (545  a.h.), 
the  more  so  as  'AH  al-RaffA  himself  distinctly  says  in  his 
preface  that  the  poet  breathed  his  last  on  the  11th  of 
Sha'bdn,  "which  was  a  Sunday,"  and  it  is  only  in  1150 
that  this  day  happened  to  be  the  first  of  the  week. 
SanA'l  left,  besides  the  Hadikah  and  the  Tariki-iahkik, 
several  other  Siific  mathnawls  of  similar  purport : — for 
instance,  the  Sair  utihdd  ild'lma'dd,  or  "  Man's  Journey 
towards  the  Other  World "  (also  called  KunHz-urruinu?:, 
"  The  Treasures  of  Mysteries  ") ;  the  'Iskkndma,  or  "  Book 
of  Love;"  the  'Aklndma,  or  "Book  of  Intellect;"  the 
Kdrndma,  or  "Record  of  Stirring  Deeds,"  lic;  and  an 
extensive  dfwAn  or  collection  of  lyrical  poetry.  His  tomb, 
called  the  "  Medea  "  of  Ghazna,  is  still  visited  by  numerous 
pilgrims. 

Sani'i'a  Hadikah  still  lacks  a  critical  edition,  for  which  'Abd- 
ullatif  al-'Abbasi's  commentary  (completed  1632  and  preserved  in  a 
somewhat  abridged  form  in  several  copies  of  the  India  Office 
Library)  would  form  an  excellent  basis.  See,  on  the  poet's  life  and 
works,  Ouseley,  Biofjr,  Notices,  pp.  184-1.87  :  Rieu's  and  Flugel'a 
Catalogues,  &c. 

SAN  ANTONIO,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  incor- 
porated in  1873,  the  county-seat  of  Bexar  "(Bejar)  county 
and  the  principal  centre  of  western  Texas,  is  situated  in 
the  fertile  plain  watered  by  the  head-streams  of  the  San 
Antonio  river,  which,  after  a  coui'se  of  200  miles,  falls  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  Espiritu  Santo  Bay.  It  is  an  im- 
portant junction  for  several  of  the  Texan  railways,  lying 
on  the  main  routes  from  the  States  to  Mexico,  153  miles 
north  of  the  frontier  at  Laredo.  San  Antcmio  proper,  or 
the  business  part  of  the  city,  lies  between  the  San  Antonio 
and  the  San  Pedro,  and  has  been  nearly  all  rebuilt  since 
1860.  Chihuahua  (formerly  San  Antonio  de  Valero),  west 
of  the  San  Pedro,  is  still  almost  exclusively  Mexican  ;  and 
Alamo,  on  somewhat  higher  ground  to  the  east  of  the  San 
Antonio,  is  largely  inhabited  by  Germans.  The  total  popu 
lation  of  'he  city  was  in  1870  12,256  (1957  coloured) 
and  'M,bb(i  (3036)  in  1880.  Newspapers  are  published 
in  English,  German,  and  Spanish.  Flour,  beer,  meat- 
extract,  ice,  candles,  and  soap  are  the  local  manufactures. 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


255^ 


On  the  site  of  Chihuahua  a  fort,  San  Fernando,  was  erected  hy 
the  Spaniards  in  1714,  and  four  years  later  the  mission  of  the 
Alamo  (poplar  tree)  was  established  in  its  vicinity.  Both  fort  and 
mission  were  afterwards  transferred  to  the  other  side  of  the  San 
Pedro, — the  fort  taking  the  name  of  the  mission,  which  was  thus 
destined  to  become  famous  in  the  Tesan  war,  when  in  1836  a 
garrison  attacked  by  a  superior  Mexican  force  perished  rather  than 
surrender.     German  immigration  began  about  1845. 

SANCHEZ.  Threo  persons  of  this  name  once  enjoyed 
considerable  literary  celebrity :— (1)  Feakcisco  Sanchez 
(Sanctius)  (1523-1601),  su'ccessively  professor  of  Greek 
and  of  rhetoric  at  Salamanca,  whose  Minerva,  first  printed 
at  that  town  in  1587,  was  long  the  standard  work  on 
Latin  grammar ;  (2)  Feancisoo  Sajjohez,  a  Portuguese 
physician  o£  Jewish  parentage,  professor  of  philosophy  and 
physic  at  Toulouse,  where  he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy  in 
1632,  whose  ingenious  but  sophistical  writings  (Quod  nihil 
scitut;  1581)  mark  the  high-water  of  reaction  against  the 
dogmatism  of  the  traditional  schools  of  his  time ;  (3) 
Thomas  Sauchez  of  Cordova  (1551-1610),  Jesuit  and 
casuist,  whose  treatise  De  Malrimonio  (Genoa,  1592)  is 
more  notorious  for  its  repulsive  features  than  celebrated 
for  its  real  learning  and  ability. 

SANCHO  I.  (115-1-1-211)  and  SANCHO  IL  (1208- 
1248),  kings  of  Portugal  from  1185  and  1223  respectively. 
See  PoKTUGAL,  vol.  xix.  p.  5-11-2. 

SANCHUNIATHON,  (that  is,  in^JDD,  "the  god  Sak- 
kun  hath  given  ")  is  the  name  of  the  pretended  author  of 
the  Phoenician  writings  said  to  have  been  used  by  Pejlo 
ByBlius  (q.v.).     See  also  Phcenicia,  vol.  xviiL  p.  802. 

SAN  CRISTOBAL  DE  LOS  LLANOS,  otherwise 
known  as  Chidad  Real,  chief  town  of  the  Mexican  .state 
of  Chiapas,  stands  in  a  fertile  valley  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  central  mountain  range  450  miles  east-south-east 
from  the  city  of  Mexico.  It  was  founded  in  1528  under 
the  name  of  Villa  Real,  and  received  its  present  name  in 
ISiO.  Its  inhabitants,  variously  estimated  as  numbering 
from  8000  to  12,000,  are  chiefly  employed  in  rearing 
cattle.  Coarse  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs,  and  also  common 
earthenware,  are  manufactured. 

SANCROFT,  William  (1616-1G93),  archbishop  of 
Canterburj',  was  born  at  Fressingfield  in  Suffolk  30th 
January  1G16,  and  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
in  July  1634.  He  became  M.A.  in  1641  and  fellow  in 
1642,  but  was  ejected  in  1649  for  refusing  to  accept  the 
"  Engagement."  He  then  remained  abroad  till  the  Resto- 
ration, after  which  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  university 
preachers,  and  in  1663  he  was  nominated  to  the  deanery  of 
York.  In  IG64  he  was  installed  dean  of  St  Paul's.  In  this 
situation  he  set  himself  with  unwearied  diligence  to  repair 
the  cathedral,  till  the  fire  of  London  in  1666  necessitated 
the  rebuilding  of  it,  towards  which  ho  gave  £1400.  He 
also  rebuilt  the  deanery,  and  improved  its  revenue.  In 
1668  he  was  admitted  archdeacon  of  Canterbury  upon  the 
king's  presentation,  but  ho  resigned  the  post  in  1670.  In 
1677,  being  now  prolocutor  of  the  Convocation,  ho  was 
unexpectedly  advanced  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury. 
He  attended  Cliarle.s  II.  upon  his  deathbed,  and  "  made 
to  him  a  very  weighty  exhortation,  in  which  ho  used  a 
good  degree  of  freedom."  He  wrote  with  his  own  hand 
the  petition  presented  in  1687  against  the  reading  of  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  which  was  signed  by  himself 
and  six  of  his  suffragans.  For  this  they  were  all  committed 
to  the  Tower,  but  after  a  trial  for  misdemeanour  they 
were  acquitted.  Upon  the  withdrawal  of  James  11.  he 
concurred  with  the  Lords  in  a  declaration  to  the  prince  of 
Orange  for  a  free  parliament,  and  duo  indulgence  to  the 
Protestant  dissenters.  But,  when  that  prince  and  his 
consort  were  declared  king  and  queen,  ho  refused  to 
l-^ke  the  oath  to  them,  and  was  accordingly  suspended  and 
deprived.    From  5th  August  1691  till  bis  death  on.  Novem- 


ber 24,  1693,  he  lived  a  very  retired  life  in  his  native  place- 
He  was  buried  in  the  churcliyard  of  Fressingfield,  whoi"<- 
there  is  a  Latin  epitaph  to  his  memory. 

He  published  Fur  Priedcstitioius  (1651),  ModDni  PMIics  (165i}., 
and  Three  Sermons  {1C04).  Nineteen  Familiar  Letters  to  Mr  North 
(afterwards  Sir  Henry  North)  nppearcd  in  1757.  He  is  characterized, 
by  Macaulay  as  "an  honest,  pious,  narrow-minded  man." 

SANCTUARY  is  the  Christian  representative  of  the: 
classical  Asylum  (q.v.),  and  was  no  doubt  suggested  in: 
the  first  instance  by  the  cities  of  refuge  of  the  Levilical 
law.  Originally  every  church  or  churchyard  was  a  sanctu- 
ary for  criminals.  In  England  about  thirty  churches,  from 
a  real  or  pretended  antiquity  of  the  privilege,  -acquired 
special  reputation  as  sanctuaries,  e.r/.,  Westminster  Abbey 
and  Beverley  Minster.  "The  precincts  of  the  Abbey," 
says  Dean  Stanley,  "  were  a  vast  cave  of  Adullam  for  all 
the  distressed  and  discontented  in  the  metropolis  who 
desired,  according  to  the  phrase  of  the  time,  to  take  West- 
minster." The  sanctuary  seats  at  Hexham  and  Beverley 
and  the  ranctuary  knocker  at  Durham  are  still  in  exist- 
ence. The  protection  afforded  by  a  sanctuary  at  commorj 
law  was  this:-  a  person  accused  of  felony  might  fly  for  the-. 
safeguard  of  his  life  to  sanctuary,  and  there  before  the  coro- 
ner, within  forty  days,  confess  the  felony  and  take  an  oath 
of  abjuration  entailing  perpetual  banishment  into  a  foreign. 
Christian  country.  The  sanctuary  being  the  privilege  of 
the  church,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  it  did  not  ex- 
tend to  the  crime  of  sacrilege,  nor  was  it  held  to  extend  to 
high  or  petit  treason.  The  law  of  abjuration  and  sanctuary 
was  regulated  by  numerous  and  intricate  statutes.  A  list 
of  them  will  be  found  in  Coke,  Institutes,  vol.  iii.  p.  115.- 
Finally  it  was  enacted  by  21  Jac.  I.  c.  28,  §  7,  that  no 
sanctuary  or  privilege  of  sanctuary  should  be  admitted  or 
allowed  in  any  case.  The  privilege  of  sanctuary  as  pro- 
tecting from  civil  process  extended  to  certain  places,  parts 
or  supposed  parts  of  royal  palaces,  such  as  White  Friars- 
or  Alsatia,  the  Savoy,  and  the  Mint.  The  privilege  of 
these  places  was  abolished  by  8  and  9  WilL  IIL  c.  27^ 
and  9  Geo.  I.  c.  28.  (See  Stephen,  Ilisf.  of  the  Crini. 
Law,  vol.  i.,  c.  xiii.). 

In  Scotland  religious  sanctuaries  were  nboUshcd  at  the  Reforma- 
tion. But  the  debtor  still  tinds  sanctuary  from  diligence  in 
Holyrood  House  and  its  precincts.  Tlie  sanctuary  docs  not  protect 
criminals,  or  even  all  debtors,  e.g.,  not  crown  debtors  or  fraudulent 
bankrupts;  and  a  mcdilatio  fityx  warrant  may  be  executed  within 
the  sanctuary.  After  twenty-four  hours'  residence  tlie  debtor  must 
enter  his  name  in  the  record  of  the  Abbey  Court  in  order  to  entitle 
him  to  further  protection.  Under  the  Act  16C(!,  c.  5,  insolvency 
concurring  with  retreat  to  the  sanctuary  constitutes  notour  bank- 
ruptcy (see  Bell,  Cumvientaries,  vol.  ii.  p.  461). 

SAND,  George.     See  Dhdevant. 

SANDALWOOD,  a  fragrant  wood  obtained  from  various 
trees  of  the  natural  order  Santalacex  and  from  the  genera 
Sanlaliim  and  Fusanus.  The  ]irincipal  commercial  source 
of  sandalwood  is  Sanialum  alhum,  L.,  a  native  of  India, 
but  it  is  also  yielded  by  »S'.  Freydnetiei.mi.vi,  (jaud.,  and  S. 
pyruleirinm,  A.  Gray,  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  S.  Ilomei.^ 
Seem.,  and  S.  anstro-cetledonicnm,  Vicll.,  in  New  Caledonia, 
and  .S'.  insulare,  Bert.,  in  Tahiti.  The  wood  of  S.  lati- 
fiAium,  Benth.,  and  also  that  of  Fusanus  spicatvs,  R.  Br.,, 
have  been  exported  from  soutli-west  Australia,  and  that  of 
EremophiUiMitrheUi,  of  the  natural  order  3/i/oporineec,  from 
Queensland,  but  these  have  little  odour  and  are  chieflj 
used  for  cabinet  work.  Sandalwood  is  also  said  to  bo  pro- 
duced in  Nossi-Bd,  and  has  been  imported  into  London: 
from  Zanzibar,  and  into  Germany  from  Venezuela,  but  of 
the  botanical  source  of  these  varieties  little  is  at  present 
known.  The  use  of  sandalwood  dates  as  far  back  at  leasl 
as  the  5th  century  B.C.,  for  the  wood  is  mentioned  undei 
its  Sanskrit  name  "  chandana"  in  the  Niruhta,  the  earliest 
extant  Vcdic  commentary.  It  is  still  extensively  used  in 
India  and  China,  wherever  Buddhism  prcvaila,  being  em- 


256 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


ployed  in  funeral  ritt  and  religious  ceremonieg ;  compara- 
tively poor  'people  often  spend  as  much  as  50  rupees  on 
sandalwood  for  a  single  cremation.  IJntil  the  middle  of 
(the  18th  century  India  was  the  only  source  of  eandal- 
|Wood.  The  discovery  of  a  sandalwood  in  the  islands  of  the 
'Pacific  led  to  a  considerable  trade  of  a  somewhat  piratical 
nature,  resulting  in  difficulties  with  the  natives,  often 
ending  in 'bloodshed,  the  celebrated  missionary  John 
Williams,  amongst  others,  having  fallen  a  victim,  to  an 
indiscriminate  retaliation  by  the  natives  on  ■white  men 
visiting  the  islands.  The  loss  of  lite  in  this  trade  was  at 
one  time  even  greater  than  in  that  of  whaling,  with  which 
it  raulced  as  one  of  the  most  adventurous  of  callings. 
About  the  year  1810  as  much  as  400,000  dollars  is  said 
to  have  been  received  annually  for  sandalwood  by  Kame- 
hameha,  king  of  Hawaii.  The  trees  consequently  have 
become  almost  extinct  in  all  the  well-known  islands,  except 
New  Caledonia,  where  the  wood  is  now  cultivated.  Sandal- 
wood of  inferior  quality  derived  from  Fusanvs  acmninatus 
was  exported  from  south-west  Australia  in  188-t  to  the 
extent  of  2620  tons,  valued  at  an  average  of  about  £8  per 
ton,  genuine  sandalwood  being  worth  in  China  from  £\'2 
to  £40  per  ton. 

In  India  sandalwood  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  boxes,  fans,  and  other  ornamental  articles  of  inlaid 
■work,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  medicine  as  a  domestic 
remedy  for  all  kinds  of  pains  and  aches.  The  oil  is 
largely  used  as  a  perfume,  few  native  ludian  attars  or 
essential  oils  being  free  from  admixture  ■with  it.  In  the 
form  of  powder  or  paste  the  wood  is  employed  in  the 
pigments  used  by  the  Brahnians  for  their  distinguishing 
caste-marks. 

During  the  last  few  years  oil  of  sandalwood  has  largely 
replaced  copaiba,  both  in  the  United  ICingdora  and  on 
the  Continent,  in  the  treatment  of  various  diseases  of  the 
mucous  membrane.  Three  varieties  are  distinguished  in 
trade — East-Indian,  Macassar,  and  West-Indian.  The  first- 
named  is  derived  from  S.  album,  the  second  i:>robably 
from  another  species  of  Santalum,  and  the  third  from  a 
wood  imported  from  Puerto  Cabello  in  Venezuela.  Bucida 
capitata,  a  Combretaccous  pUnt,  is  known  in  the  West 
Indies  as  sandalwood ;  but  the  odour  of  the  wood  as  well 
as  of  the  oil,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  true 
sandalwood,  has  more  resembianco  to  that  of  a  Myroxylon. 
Inferior  qualities  of  the  oil  are  said  to  be  adulterated  in 
Germany  with  the  oil  of  red  cedar  wood  [Jtmiperus 
virginiana). 

In  India  sandalwood  is  produced  in  tlie  dry  tracts  of  country  in 
Jlysnre  and  Coimbatore,  north  and  north-west  of  the  Nilgiii 
Hills,  also  farther  eastward  in  tli9  districts  of  Salem  and  North 
Arcot,  wlicre  the  troo  grows  from  the  sea-lovcl  up  "to  an  elevation  of 
3000  feet.  In  tl\6  first-named  district  the  wood  is  a  Government 
monopoly  and  can  ou'y  bo  felled  by  the  proper  olUcers,  thij 
privilege  having  been  retained  sinoo  1770,  when  it  was  conferred 
-  /  treaty  with  Hydor  AU  on  tlio  Kist  India  Company.  The 
Mysore  sandalwood  is  sliippcd  from  Alangalore  to  the  cstent  of 
about  700  tons  annually,  valued  at  £27,000.  In  tlio  Madras 
i'residcncy — although  there  is  now  no  mouojioly — sandalwood,  by 
the  careful  management  of  the  forest  department,  has  been  made  to 
yield  an  inci-casing  rovtnuo  to  the  Govornraent,  as  much  as  647^ 
tons  having  been  furnished  by  the  reserved  forests  in  1872-3.  Tlio 
tree  is  proiiagated  by  seeds,  wl  ich,  however,  must  bo  placed  where 
th"y  aio  intended  to  grow,  since  the  seedlings  will  not  bear  trans- 
I)lantation,  probably  on  account  of  deriving  their  nourishment 
parasitically  by  means  of  tuberous  swellings  attached  to  the  roots 
of  other  plants.  The  trees  arc  cut  down  when  between  eighteen 
and  twenty-five  years  old,  at  which  period  they  have  attained  their 
maturity,  the  trunks  being  then  about  one  foot  in  diameter.  The 
foiling  takes  place  at  the  end  of  tlie  ye^r,  and  the  trunk  is  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  ground  for  several  months,  during  which  time 
the  white  ants  eat  away  tlie  valuele-ss  sapwoo<l  but  leave  the 
fragrant  heartwood  untouched.  The  hcartwood  is  then  sawn  into 
liillets  about  2  or  2J  feet  long.  These  are  afterwaids  more  carefully 
trimmed  at  the  forest  depots,  and  left  to  dry  slowly  in  a  close 
trarehouso  for  some  weeks,  by  which  the  odoui'  is  improved  and 


the  tendency  of  the  wood  to  spUt  obviated.  An  annual  auction  of 
the  wood  takes  place,  at  which  merchants  from  all  parts  of  India 
congregat^.  The  largest  pieces  are  chiefly  e.xported  to  China,  th« 
small  pieces  to  Arabia;  and  those  of  medium  size  are  retained  for 
use  in  India.  China  imported  into  the  treaty  ports  66,237  picula 
(of  133^  lb)  of  sandalwood  in  1872.  As  much  as  700  tons  are  annu- 
ally imported  into  Bombay  from  the  Malabar  coast,  of  which  about 
460  tons  are  again  e.\  ported.  The  oil,  which  is  distilled  chiefly  at 
Mangalore  from  tlie  roots  and  chips,  is  also  imported  into  Bombay 
to  the  extent  of  12,000  lb  annually. 

Red  Sandalwood^  known  also  as  Red  Smidcrs  Wood,  is  the  pro- 
duct of  a  small  Leguminous  tree,  Ftcrocarpus  santaliniis,  native  of 
Southern  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  wood 
is  obtained  principally  from  Madras,  in  certain  parts  of  wliich 
province  it  is  regularly  cultivated,  coming  into  the  market  in 
the  form  of  irregular  billets  of  hcartwood,  3  or  4  feet  in  length.- 
A  fresh  surface  of  the  wood  has  a  rich  deep  red  colour,  which  on 
exposure,  however,  assumes  a  dark  brownish  tint.  Under  the 
influence  of  alkaline  solutions,  alcohol,  or  strong  acetic  acid,  red 
sandalwood  yields  np  to  16  per  cent,  of  a  resinoid  body,  santalin 
or  santalic  acid  CisHj^Oj  (?),  which  substance  is  the  tinctorial 
principle  of  the  wood.  Santalin  is  quite  insoluble  in  cold  waterj 
it  neutralizes  alkalies,  and  with  tlicm  forms  uncrystallizabie  salts. 
In  its  pure  condition  santalin  forms  minute  prismatic  crystals  of  a 
beautil'ul  ruby  colour.  The  wood  also  contains  small  proportions 
of  colourless  crystalline  principles — santal,  CgHfiOg,  andpterocar]>in, 
CjyHiflO^ — and  of  an  amorphous  body  having  the  formula  Cj^AjgOg. 
In  niedi.'eval  times  red  sandalwood  possessed  a  high  reputation  in 
medicine,  and  it  was  valued  as  a  colouring  ingredient  in  many 
dishes.  Now  it  is  a  little  used  as  a  colouring  agent  in  pharmacy, 
its  principal  application  being  in  wool-dyeing  and  calico-printing. 
Several  other  species  of  Ftcrocarpus,  notably  P.  indicus,  contain  the 
same  dyeing  principle  and  can  bo  used  as  substitutes  for  red  sandal- 
wood. Tile  barwood  and  camwood  of  the  Guinea  Coast  of  Africa, 
presumably  the  produce  of  one  tree,  Raphia  niiida  {Ptcrocarpm 
angoloisis  of  De  Candolle),  c^D'  I  santal  rouge  d'Afrique  by  the 
French,  are  also  in  all  respects  closely  allied  to  the  red  sandalwood 
of  Oriental  countries. 

See  Secmnnn,  Flora  ri/i(?ns(S, pp. 210-215;  Pficti-m.Jourv.anA  JVa/is^  18S&-S8; 
rhurmacographia,  2cl  ed-,  p.  599  ;  Pymock,  ilaleria  ilcilica  of  Vio^lern  India, 
p.  G17;  Jour.  Soc.  Arts,  1875,  p.  C41 ;  Scemnnn,  VotfOffe  of  Ifie" Ucrard,"  1S53, 
p.  83;  Seeinann,  Jour.  Botany,  1SG4.  p.  218;  Eiskine,  Islands  of  the  \V.  Pacific, 
IS.IS,  p.  143,  326,  390,  and  Appendix,  p.  478,  .ISO ;  Martin,  Natives  of  the  Tontja 
Islands,  1S17,  pp.  319-333;  birdwood,  Bombay  Products,  p.  'itiG;. Madras  Jurf 
Reports,  1857;  llawkcs.  Report  on  Oils  of  India,  p.  33. 

SANDARACH  is  a  resinous  body  obtained  from  the 
small  Coniferous  tree  Callitris  qnadrivalvis,  native  of  the 
north-west  regions  of  Africa,  and  especially  characteristic 
of  the  Atlas  Mountains.  The  resin,  which  is  procured  as 
a  natural  exudation  on  the  stems,  and  also  obtained  by 
making  incisions  in  the  bark  of  the  trees,  comes  into 
commerce  in  the  form  of  small  round  balls  or  elongated 
tears,  transparent,  and  having  a  delicate  yellow  tinge.  It 
is  a  little  harder  than  mastic,  for  which  it  is  sometimes 
substituted;  aud  does  not  soften  in  the  mouth  like  that 
resin  ;  but,  being  very  brittle,  it  breaks  with  a  clean  glassy 
fracture.  Sandarach  has  a  faintly  bitter  resinous  taste, 
and  a  pleasant  balsamic  odour.  It  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  three  distinct  resins,  the  first  readily  soluble  in  alcohol, 
constituting  67  per  cent,  of  the  mass,  while  the  second  dis-, 
solves  with  more  difficulty,  and  the  third  is  soluble  only  in 
hot  alcohol  Sandarach  is  imported  chiefly  from  Mogador,; 
and  is  an  important, ingredient  in  spirit  varnishes.  It  is 
also  used  as  incense,  and  by  the  Arabs  medicinally  as  a 
remedy  for  diarrhcea.  An  analogous  resin  is  procured  in 
China  from  Callitris  simnsis,  and  in  South  Australia, 
under  the  name  of  pine  gum,  from  C.  Rcissii. 

SANDBACH,  a  town  and  urban  sanitary  district  of 
Cheshire,  is  situated  on  the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canal,  on4 
on  the  London  and  North- Western  Railway,  at  the  junc- 
tion for  Northmch,  25  miles  east-south-east  of  Chester  and 
5  north-east  of  Crewe.  In  the  market-place  are  two 
ancient  obelisks,  dating,  according  to  some,  from  the  7th 
century.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  parish 
church  of  St  JIary,  in  the  Perpendicular  style,  with  e. 
tower  rebuilt  1847-9,  the  grammar  school,  the  public 
reading  rooms,  and  the  town-hall.  Anciently  the  town 
was  celebrated  for  its  ale.  ■  The  principal  industry  was 
formerly  silk  throwsting,  but  this  is  now  discontinued,  and 
the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  salt-works  and 


S  A  N  —  S  A  N 


257 


.•aliaii:Worl£a.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  2694  acres)  in  1871  was  5259,  and  in  1881  it  was 
5493. 

SAXD-BLAST.  The  erosive  influence  of  driven  sand 
13  turned  to  useful  account  for  several  industrial  purposes 
ty  means  of  an  apparatus  devised,  about  1870,  by  Mr  B. 
C  Tilghman  of  Philadelphia.  Tilghmau'3  sand-blast  con- 
sists of  a  contrivance  for  impelling,  with  graduated  degrees 
of  velocity,  a  jet  or  column  of  sand,  by  means  of  com- 
pressed air  or  steam,  against  the  object  or  surface  to  be 
acted  on.  The  apparatus  is  principally  adapted  for 
obscuring,  engraving,  and  ornamenting  glass,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  velocity  with  which  the  sand  is  impelled  it  may 
be  used  to  carve  deep  patterns  in  granite,  marble,  and 
other  hard  stones,  to  bite  into  steel,  ic,  and  even  to  cut 
avid  perforate  holes  through  these  and  other  most  refrac- 
tory materials.^  Sheets  of  glass  4  feet  wide  are  obscured 
at  the  rate  of  3  feet  per  minute,  with  a  blast  of  air  having 
a  pressure  of  1  Bb  per  inch.  With  the  aid  of  tough  elastic 
stencils,  patterns  and  letters  are  engraved  on  flashed 
glass,  globes  for  lamps  and  gaslights  are  ornamented, 
druggists'  bottles  are  lettered,  &c.'  Driven  with  moderate 
velocity  against  a  metal  surface,  the  sand  produces  by  its 
impact  a  fine  uniform  pitted  appearance  without  rem.oving 
the  metal;  and  in  this  way  it  is  used  for  "frosting" 
plated  goods.  A  strong  blast  is  largely  used  for  sharpen- 
ing files,  which,  as  they  leave  the,  cutter,  have  always  a 
Blight  backward  curve  or  "  burr "  on  their  cutting  edges 
-which  blunts  their  biting  efi'ect.  By  directing  a  blast  of 
very  fine  sand,  mixed  with  water  into  a  thin  mud,  with 
steam  pressure  of  70  B),  at  an  angle  against  the  back  of  the 
teeth,  this  burr  is  ground  off,  the  shape  "of  the  teeth  is 
improved,  and  the  file  is  rendered  very  keen.  While  the 
ose  of  steam  for  impelling  the  sand-blast  is  most  simple 
and  economical,  many  practical  difficulties  have  hitherto 
becu  found  in  the  way  of  its  employment,  and  conse- 
quently for  obtaining  high  pressure  of  air  costly  apparatus 
was  required,  thus  limiting  the  applications  of  the  agency. 
In  1884  Mr  Mathewson  patented  an  apparatus  in  which, 
by  an  ingenious  exhaust  arrangement,  the  impelling  steam 
is  swept  away,  leaving  only  cool,  dry  sand  to  strike  against 
the  object  acted _on;  and  the  success  of  this  device  has 
already  opened  up  a  wider  field  for,  the  employment  of 
the  sand-blast. 

jiS^iNDBY,  Paijl  (1725-1809),  founder 'of  the  English 
School  of  water-colour  painting,  •;  was  descended  from  a 
branch  of  the  Sandbys  .of  Babworth,  and  was  born  at 
Nottingham  in  1725.'  After •  commencing  his  artistic 
studies  in  London,  in  1746  he  was  appointed  by  the  duke  of 
Cumberland  draughtsman  to  the  survey  of  the  Highlands. 
In  1752  he'quitted- this  post,  and  retired  to  Windsor, 
where  he  occupied  himself  with  the  production  of  water- 
colour  drawings  of  scenery  and  picturesque  architecture, 
p,-hich  brought  him  under  the  notice  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
who  gave  him  his  patronage,  and  subsequently  commis- 
sioned him  to  bring  out  in  aquatinta  (a  method  of  engrav. 
ing  theu.  peculiar^  to  Sandby)  forty-eight  plates  drawn 
during  a  tour  in' Wales.  ■«  Sandby  displayed  considerable 
power  as  a  caricaturist  in  his  attempt  to  ridicule  the 
opposition  of  Hogarth  to  the  plan  for  creating  a  public 
academy  for  the  arts.  Ho .  was  chosen  a  foundation- 
tncmber  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1768,  and  the  same 
year  was  appointed  chief  drawing-master  to  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.*  He  held  this  situation 
till  1799,  and  during  that,  time  he  trained  many  artists 

'la  1875  in!Kription>  wcro  cufby' means  of  the  blast  on  150,00fi 
tombstones  of  Boldion  killoil  in  the  American  Civil  War.  C.ist-i/on 
letters  wcro  fa-itcncd  by  shellac  on  the  marble,  the  sand  was  drivivd  by 
■team  pressure  of  90  It),  and  tho  stone  was  cut,  in  four  tuiuut«s  to  a 
deptU  of  a  quarter  of  aa  inch,  IcavjDg  the  Ittttrs  in  ri-'i'-f.-'         '     , 


who  afterwards  gained  a  name  in  their  profession.  Sandby 
will  be  "best  remembered,  however,  by  his  water-colour 
paintings.  They  are  topographical  in  character,  and,  while 
they  want  the  richness  and  brilliancy  of  modern  water- 
colour,  he  nevertheless  impressed  upon  them  the  originality 
of  his  mind.  In  his  later  pieces,  in  particular,  decided 
progress  is  observable  in  richness  and  in  harmony  of 
tinting,  and  they  also  show  a  measure  of  poetic  feeling, 
due,  in  great  part,  to  the  influence  of  Cozens.  His 
etchings,  such  as  the  Cries  of  London,  and  the  illustrations 
to  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd,  and  his  plates,  such  as  those 
to  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered,  are  both  numerous  and 
carefully  executed.  He  died  in  London  on  the  9  th 
Xovember  1809. 

SANDEAU,  Leonard  Sylvain  Jules  (1811-1882),  a 
French  novelist  of  much  grace  and  not  a  little  power,  was 
born  at  Aubusson  (Creuse)  on  February  9,  1811.  He  made 
acquaintance  as  an  art  student  with  Madame  Dudevant 
(George  Sand),  who  had  just  taken  to  an  unrestrained 
literary  life  at  Paris.  The  intimacy  did  not  last  losg,  but 
it  jDroduced  Rose  et  Blanche  (1831),  a  novel  written  in 
common,  and  from  it  George  Sand  took  the  idea  of  the 
famous  nom  de  guerre  by  which  she  is  and  always  will  be 
known.  Sandeau's  subsequent  work  showed  that  he  could 
run  alone,  and  for  nearly  fifty  years  he  continued  to 
produce  uovels  and  to  collaborate  in  plays.  His  best 
works  are  Mariamia  (1839),  Le  Dodeur  Herleau  (1841), 
Catherine  (1845),  Mademoiselle  de  la  Seigliere  and  Made- 
leine (1848),  La  Chasse  au  Roman  (1849),  Sacs  et  Parche- 
mins  (1851),  La  Maison  de  Penarvan  (1858),  La  Roche 
anx  Mouettes  (1871).  The  famous  play  of  Le  Gendre  de 
if.  Poirier  is  only  one  of  several  which  he  wrote  with' 
fimile  Angler, — the  novelist  usually  contributing  the  story 
and  the  dramatist  the  theatrical  working  up.  Meanwhile 
Sandeau,  who  had  accepted  the  empire,  but  who  never 
took  any  active  part  in  politics,  had  been  made  conserva- 
teur  of  the  Mazarin  librfry  in  1853,  elected  to  the 
Academy  in  1858,  and  next  year  appointed  librarian  of  St 
Cloud.  At  the  suppression  of  this  latter  office,  after  the 
fall  of  the  empire,  he  was  pensioned.  He  died  on  the 
24th  of  April  18S2.  He  was  never  a  very  popular  novelist, 
judging  by  the  sale  of  his  works;  and  the  peculiar  quiet 
grace  of  his  style,  as  well  as  his  abstinence  from  sensational 
incident,  and  his  refusal  to  pander  to  the  French  taste  in' 
fictftioiis  morals,  may  be  thought  to  have  disqualified  him 
for  popularity.  But  his  literarj'  ability  has  always  been 
recognized  by  competent  judges.  His  skill  in  construc- 
tion was  very  great ;  his  character-drawing,  though  pure,  is 
eminently  free  from  feebleness  and  commonplace ;  and  of 
one  particular  situation — the  tragical  clashing  of  aristo-^ 
cratic  feeling  with  modern  tendencies — he  had  an  extra- 
ordinary mastery,  which  he  showed  without  any  mere 
fepetition,  but  in  many  different  studies. 
'     SANDEC.     See  Ned-Sa.ndec. 

SAND-EEL  or  Sa.\d-Lau>ce.  '  The  fishes  known 
under  these  names  form  a  small  isolated  group  (Ammo- 
dyiina),  distantly  related  to  the  cod-fishes.  Their  body  is 
of  an  elongate-cylindrical  shape,  with  the  head  terminat- 
ing in  a  long  conical  snout,  the  projecting  lower  jaw  form- 
ing the  pointed  end.  A  low  long  dorsal  fin,  in  which  no 
distinction  between  spines  and  rays  can  be  observed,' 
occupies  nearly  the  whole  length  of  tho  back,  and  a  long 
anal,  composed  of  similar  short  and  delicate  rays,  com- 
mences immediately  behind  tho  vent,  which  is  placed 
about  midway  between  the  head  and  caudal  fin.  Tho 
caudal  is  forked  and  the  pectorals  are  short.''  The  total 
absence  of  ventral  fins  indicates  the  burrowing  habits  of 
these  fishes.  Tho  scales,  when  present,  are  very  .small ; 
but  generally  the  development  of  scales  has  only  proceeded 
to  the  formation  of .  oblique   folds   of   the   integuments.' 

XXL  -  33 


S  A  N  —  S  A  N 


The  eyes  are  lateral  and  of  moderate  size ;  the  dentition  is 
quite  rudimentary. 

Sand-eels  are  small  littoral  marine  fishes,  only  one 
species  attaining  a  length  of  18  inches  {Ammodytes  lanceo- 
laCus).'^  They  live  in  shoals  at  various  depths  on  a  sandy 
bottom,  and  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  on  the  •slightest 
alarm.  They  are  able  to  do  this  with  the  greatest  ease 
and  rapidity  whilst  the  bottom  is  covered  with  water. 
Jlany  of  'those  which  live  close  inshore  are  left  by  the 
receding  tide  buried  in  the  sand,  and  are  then  frequently 
dw  out  from  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet.  Other  shoals  live 
in  deeper  water ;  when  they  are  surprised  by  fish  of  prey 
or  porpoises,  they  are  frequently  driven  to  the  surface  in 
snch  dense  masses  that  numbers  of  them-  can  be  scooped 
out  of  the  water  with  a  bucket  or  hand-net.  In  fact,  this 
used  to  be,  in  the  Channel  Islands,  the  common  practice 
of  the  fishermen  to  provide  themselves  with  bait.  Some 
species  descend  to  a  depth  of  100  fathoms  and  nio-.e; 
and  the  greater  sand-eel  is  not  rarely  taken  on  the 
mackerel  line  far  oat  at  sea  near  the  surface.  Sand-eels 
are  very  rapacious,  dastroying  a  great  quaptity  of  fry  and 
other  small  creatures,  such  as  the  lancelet  (Branchiosioma), 
which  lives  in  similar  localities.  They  are  excellent  eating, 
and  are  much  sought  after  for  bait. 

Sand-eels  arc  comnioa  in  all  suitable  localities  of  the  North 
Atlantic  ;  a.  species  scarcely  distinct  from  the  European  common 
sand-launce  occurs  on  the  Pacific  side  of  North  Amerita,  anotlier 
on  the  east  oast  of  South  Africa.  On  the  British  coasts  three 
species. are  fou  id  : — the  Greater  Sand-Eel  [Aminodytcs  Jmiccolntiis), 
distinguished  by  a  tooth-like  bicuspid  prominence  on  the  vomer  ; 
the  Common  f  and-Launce  {A.  tobianus),  from  five  to  seven  inches 
long,  with  unarmed  vomer,  even  dorsal  fin,  and  witli  the  integu- 
ments folded  ;  aud  the  Southern  Sand-Launce  {A.  sicuhts),  with 
unarmed  von^cr,  smooth  skin,  and  with  the  margins  of  the  dorsal 
and  anal  fins  undidate'd.  The  last  species  is  common  in  the 
Jlcditerraneau,  but  local  farther  northwards.  It  has  been  found 
near  the  Shedands  jt  depths  from  SO  to  100  fathoms,  and  is 
generally  disunguishcd  from  the  common  species  by  the  fishermen 
of  the  Channel  Islands,  who  have  a  tradition  that  it  apjicared 
suddenly  on  their  coasts  some  fifty  yc-irs  ago. 

SANDEJIAXIANS.  See  Glas,  vol.  x.  p.  637. 
SANDEPSON,  RoDEET  (15S7-1603),  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln, and  one  of  the  worthies  celebrated  by  Izaak  Walton, 
was  born  at  Rotherham,  Yorkshire,  in  1587.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town  and  at 
Lincoln  College,  0.xford,  took  orders  in  IGll,  and  was 
promoted  successively  to  several  benefices.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  Laud  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  royal 
chaplains  inl631,  and  as  a  preacher  was  a  great  favourite 
with  the  king.  In  1642  Charles  created  him  rrgius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Oxford,  with  a  canonry  of  Christ 
Church  anne.xed.  But  the  civil  war  prevented  him  until 
1646  from  entering  on  the  office;  and  in  1648  he  was 
ejected  by  the  visitors  whom  the  parliament  had  com- 
missioned. He  recovered  these  preferments  at  the  Restora- 
tion, and  was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln,  but 
lived  only  t\yo  years  to  enjoy  his  new  dignities,  dying  in 
his  seventy-si.xth  year  in  1C63.  His  most  celebrated  work 
is  his  Cases  of  Conscience,  deliberate  judgments  upon  points 
of  morality  submitted  to  him.  Some  of  these  cases,  notably 
that  of  Sabbath  observance,  and  that  of  signing  the  "  En- 
gagement" to  the  Commonwealth,  were  printed  surrepti- 
tiously during  his  lifetime,  though  drawn  up  in  answer 
to  private  spiritual  clients ;  and  a  collection,  gradually 
enlarged  in  successive  editions,  was  published  after  his 
death.  They  are  extremely  interesting  specimens  of 
English  casuistry,  distinguished  not  less  by  moral  irtegrity 
than  good  sense,  learning,  and  close,  comprehensive,  and 
subtle  reasoning.  His  practice  as  a  college  lecturer  iu 
logic  is  better  evidenced  by  these  "  cases "  tlian  by  his 
Cotnpendium  of  Lof/ic  published  in  1615.  A  complete 
edition  of  Sanderson's  works  was  edited  by  Dr  J'acobson  in 
1854  (Oxford  Press)^    To  this  the  reader  may  be  referred 


for  his  sermons  and  his  occasional  tracts  on  public  af(aL 
during  the  troubled  period  of  his  middle  life  and  old  age. 
SAND-GKOUSE,  the  name^  by  which  r^e  commonly 
known  the  members  of  a  small  but  remarkable  group  o£ 
birds  frequenting  sandy  tracts,  and  having  their  feet  mora 
or  less  clothed  with  feathers  after  the  fashion  of  Gkouse 
(vol.  xi.  p.  221),  to  which  they  were  originally  thought  to 
be  closely  allied,  and  the  species  first  described  were  by 
the  earlier  systematists  invariably  referred  to  the  genus 
Tetrao.  Their  separation  therefrom  is  due  to  Temminck, 
who  made  for  them  a  distinct  genus  which  he  called 
Pteroclcs,'-  and  his  view,  as  Lesson  tells  us  (Traite,  p.  515), 
was  subsequently  corroborated  by  De  Slainville;  while  in 
1831  Bonaparte  {Sae/gio,  p;  54)  recognized  the  group  as  a 
good  Family,  PediophUi  or  PterorJidie.  Further  investiga- 
tion of  the  osteology  and  pterylosis  of  the  Sand-Grouse 
revealed  still  greater  divergence  from  the  normal  Gallitix 
(to  which  the  true  Grouse  belong),  as  well  as  several 
curious  resemblances  to  the  Pigeons  ;  and  in  the  Zoological 
Society's  Proceedings  for  1868  (p.  303)  Prof.  Huxley  pro- 
posed to  regard  them,  under  the  name  of  Pteroclomorphx, 
as  forming  a  group  equivalent  to  the  Alectoromorphce 
and  Peristeromorphx,  for  reasons  already  briefly  stated 
(Ornithology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  46).*  The  PterocUdx  consist 
of  two  genera — Plcrodes,  with  about  fifteen  species,  and 
Syrrhaptes,  with  two.  Of  the  former,  two  species  inhabit 
.Europe,  P.  arena~^vs,  the  Sand-Grouse  proper,  and  that; 
which  is  usually  called  P.  alcJtata,  the  Pin-tailed  Sand- 
Grouse.  The  European  range  of  the  first  is  practically 
limited  to  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the  southern  parts  of 
Russia,  while  the  second  inhabits  also  the  south  of 
France,  where  it  is  generally  known  by  its  Catalan  name 
of  "  Ganga,"  or  locally  as  "  Grandcndo,"  or,  strange  to  say, 
"  Perdrix  d' Angletet-re."  Both  sfiecies  are  also  abundant 
in  Barbary,  and  have  been  believed  to  extend  eastwards 
through  Asia  to  India,  in  most  parts  of  which  country 
they  seem  to  be  only  winter-visitants ;  but  in  1880  Herr 
Bogdanow  pointed  out  to  the  Academy  of  St  Petersburg 
{Bulletin,  xxvii.  p.  164)  a  slight  difference  of  coloration 
between  eastern  and  western  examples  of  what  had  hith- 
erto passed  as  P.  alchata ;  and  the  difference,  it  found  to 
be  constant,  may  require  the  specific  recognition  of  each, 
while  analogy  would  suggest  that  a  similar  difference 
might  be  found  iri  examples  of  P.  etrenarius.  India,  more- 
over, posse.'ses  five  other  species  of  Pterocles,  of  which 
however  only  one,  P.  fasciatus,  is  peculiar  tc^  Asia,  while 
the  others  inhabit  Africa  as  well,  and  all  the  remaining 
species  belong  to  the  Ethiopian  region — one,  P.  personatvs, 
being  peculiar  to  Madagascar,  and  four  occurring  in  or  on 
the  borders  of  the  Cape  Colony. 

The  genus  Syrrhaptes,  though  in  general  appearance 
resembling  Pteroclcs,  has  a  conformation  of  foot  quite 
unique  among  birds,  the  three  anterior  toes  being  encased 
in  a  common  "  podotheca,"  which  is  clothed  to  the  claws 
with  hairy  feathers,  so  as  to  look  'much  like  a  fingerless 
glove.  The  hind  toe  is  wanting.  The  two  sjiecies  of  Syr- 
rhiijites  are  S.  tibetamis — the  largest  Sand-Grouse  known — 
inhabiting  the  country  whence  its  trivial  name  is  derived, 
and  S.  paradoxus,  ranging  from'  Northern  China  across 
Centra!   Asia  to  the  onfines  of   Europe,  which  it  occa- 

^  It  seems  to  have  been  fir^t  usoil  by  Latham  in  17S3  {Si/nojisis, 
iv.  p.  751)  as  the  direct  transl.jtioa  of  the  name  Tetrao  arenarius 
given  by  Pallas. 

-  He  sta;es  lliat  ho  published  this  name  in  1809  ;  but  hitherto  re- 
search has  failed  to  lind  it 'used  until  1815. 

2  Some  more  recent  writei-s,  recognizing  the  group  as  a  distinct 
Order,  liave  applied  to  it-the  name  '^ Pterochtcs,"  while  another  calls 
it  Ucteyoditx.  Tlie  former  of  these  words  is  based  on  a  grammatical 
misconccptifin,  whilo  the  use  of  the  latter  has  fbng  since  been  other- 
wise preoccui-ied  in  zoology.  If  there  be  need  to  se^  nsMc  Prof. 
Hu.xley's  term,  Bonaparte's  Pcdiophili  {as  above  mentioned)  may  be 
accented,  and  indeed  has  priority  of  all  othei-s. 


«  A  l^i  — « 


JSf 


259f 


BionaUy,  and  in  a  marvellous  manner,  invades,  as  has  been 
already  briefly  described  (B|kds,  vol.  iii.  p.  770).i  Thougli 
its  attempts  at  colonization  in  the  extreme  west  have 
failed,  it  would  seem  to  have  established  itself  of  late 
years  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Astrakhan  {Ibh,  1882,  p. 
220).  It  appears  to  be  the  "  Barguerlac  "  of  JNIarco  Polo 
(ed.  Yule,  i.  p.  2-39)  ;  and  the  "  Loung-Kio  "  or  "  Dragon's 
Foot,"  so  unscientifically  described  by  the  Abb6  Hue 
{Souvenirs  d'lin  Yoyarje  dans  la  Tartaric,  i.  p.  244),  can 
scarcely  be  anything  else  than  this  bird. 

Externally  all  Sand-Grouse  present  an  appearance  so  distinctive 
that  nobody  who  has  seen  one  of  thenx  can  be  in  doubt  as  to  any 
of  the  rest.  Their  plumage  assimilates  in  general  colour  to  that 
of  the  ground  they  frequent,  being  above  of  a  dull  oehreoua  hue, 
more  or  less  barred  or  mottled  by  darker  shades,  while  beneath  it 
is  frequently  varied  by  belts  of  deep  brown  intensifying  into  black. 
Lighter  tints  are,  however,  exhibited  by  some  species, — the  drab 
merging  into  a  pale  grey,  the  bufl'  briglitening  into  a  lively  orange, 
and  streaks  or  edgings  of  an  almost  pure  white  relieve  the  pre- 
vailing sandy  or  fawn-coloured  hues  tliat  especially  cTiaracterize 
the  group.  The  sexes  seem  always  to  differ  in  plumage,  that  of 
the  male  being  the  "brightest  and  most  diversified.  The  expression 
is  decidedly  Bove-like,  and  so  is  the  form  of  the  body,  the  long 
wings  contributing  also  to  that  elTect,  so  that  among  .\nglo-Indians 
these  birds  are  commonly  known  as  "Eock-Pigeons. "  The  long 
wings,  the  outermost  primary  of  which  in  Syrrhupte$  lias  its  shait 
produced  into  an  attenuated  filament,  are  in  all  the  species  worked 
by  exceedingly  powerful  muscles,  and  in  several  forms  the  middle 
rectricos  are  likewise  protracted  and  pointed,  so  as  to  give  to  their 
wearers  the  name  of  Pin-tailed  Sand-Grouse.'^  The  nest  is  a 
shallow  hole  in  the  sand.  Three  seems  to  bo  the  regular  coniple- 
ment  of  eggs  laid  in  each  nest,  but  there  are  writers  who  declare 
(most  likely  in  error)  that  the  full  number  in  some  sj^eciea  is  four. 
These  eggs  are  of  peculiar  shape,  being  almost  cylindrical  in  the 
middle  and  nearly  alike  at  each  end,  and  are  of  a  pale  earthy 
colour,  spotted,  blotched,  or  marbled  with  darker  shades,  the 
markings  being  of  two  kinds,  one  superficial  and  the  other  more 
deeply  seated  in  the  shell.  The  young  are  hatched  fully  clothed 
in  QCTwn  {P.  Z.  S.  1866,  pi.  ix.  fig.  2),  and  though  not  very  active 
■would  appear  to  be  capable  of  locomotion  soon  after  l>irth. 
Morphologically  generalized  as  the  Sand-Grouse  undoubtedly  are, 
no  one  :an  contest  the  extreme  specialization  of  many  of  their 
features,  and  thus  they  form  one  of  the  most  instructive  groups  of 
birds  with  whicli  ornithologists  are  acquainted.  The  remains  of 
an  extinct  species  of  Pterocles,  P.  sepuUns,  intermediate  apparently 
between  P.  alchata  and  P,  gutturalis,  have  been  recognized  in  the 
Miocene  caves  of  the  Allicr  by  Prof.  A.  Milne-Edwards  (Ois.  foss. 
de  la  France,  p.  294,  pi.  clxi.  figs.  1-9) ;  and,  in  addition  to  the 
other  authorities  on  this  very  interesting  group  of  birds  already 
cited,  reference  may  be  made  to  Mr  Elliot's  Studv"  of  the  Family 
{P.  Z.  S.,  1878,  pp.  233-264)  and  Dr  Gadow,  "  On'certain  points  in 
the  Anatomy  of  Pleroclea"  (op.  cit.,  1SS2,  pp.  312-332);      (A.  N.) 

SANDHURST,  a  city  of  Victoria,  Australia,  in  the 
county  of  Bendigo,  is  situated  in  3G°  46'  S.  lat.  and 
144°  17'  E.  long.,  at  a  height  of  758  feet  above  the  sea, 
on  Bendigo  Creek  (a  sub-tributary  of  the  Murray),  lOOf 
miles  north-north-west  of  Melbourne  by  the  railway  to 
Echuca.  Built  on  an  exhausted  part  of  old  gold  fields  of 
Bendigo  (1851),  and  long  better  known  by  that  name, 
Sandhurst,  which  became  a  municipality  in  1855,  a 
borough  in-  1863,  and  a  city  in  1871,  has  been  gradually 
working  itself  clear  of  the  irregularity  and  disorder 
characteristic  of  abandoned  mines  and  quartz-crushing 
enterprises.  Pall  Mall,  the  principal  street,  consists  of 
good  houses  of  two  and  three  stories ;  and,  besides  banks, 
insurance  offices,  hotels,  and  chmches  (many  of  which  are 

^  Some  slight  additions  to  and  corrections  of  that  account  may  hero 
be  given.  A  sixth  example  is  stated  {Jbis,  1871,  p.  223)  to  have  been 
killnd  in  Euroiie  in  1859,  namely,  at  Porpignan  in  Franco.  One  is 
believed  to  have  been  obtained  at  or  near  Archangel  (/Ji'j,  1873,  p.  66) ; 
hut  tlio  report  of  one  in  Sicily  proves  to  have  been  a  mistake,  and 
Rimini,  on  the  Adriatic,  remain.1  the  most  southern  Italian  locality 
rciched  In  1883.  Since  1872  a  ms.\e  obtained  near  Modena  in  May. 
1876  (/W*,  1881,  p.  206),  and  a  pair,  one  of  which  wai  shewn  to  the 
writer,  in  the  county  of  Kildaro  in  Ireland,  the  following  October 
{Zoologist,  1877,  p.  24),  are  all  that  are  known  to  have  occurred  in 
Western  Europe. 

'  ThcKO  were  separated  by  Bonaparte  (CompUt  Rmdut,  xlil.  p.  880) 
as  a  distinct  genus,  Pkroclunu,  which  later  autliors  have  justly  seen  no 
reaaon  to  adopt 


substantial  buildings),  there  are  in  Sandhurst  Govern- 
ment and  municipal  offices,  a  hospital,  a  benevolent 
asylum,  a  mechanics'  institute  and  school  of  mines,  a 
theatre,  and  several  halls.  Rosalind  Park,  opposite  Pall 
Mall,  the  Camp  Reserve,  and  the  Botanical  Gardens  are 
the  principal  pleasure  grounds.  A  good  supply  of  water 
has  been  secured  by  the  construction  of  five  large  reser- 
voirs capable  of  storing  in  the  aggregate  upwards  of 
622,600,000  gallons.  Besides  gold-mining,  which  in  the 
Sandhurst  district  employs  6800  miners,  the  local  indus- 
tries are  brewing,  iron-casting,  coach-building,  the  working 
of  bricks  and  tiles  and  earthenware,  and  tanning.  The 
population  of  the  city  (which  is  divided  into  throe  wards 
—Sutton,  Darling,  and  Barkly)  was  28,662  in  1881.  The 
value  of  rateable  property  is  £1,663,910. 

SAN  DIEGO,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  the  United 
States,  chief  town  of  San  Diego  county,  California,  15 
miles  north  of  the  Mexican  frontier.  It  has  a  land-locked 
harbour  5i  miles  long  and  next  to  San  Francisco  the  best 
on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  States,  is  the  selected  terminus 
of  the  Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad,  and  has  recently  beconw 
a  fashionable  winter  resort  owing  to  the  remarkable  steadi- 
ness of  its  winter  clircate  (mean  annual  temperature  62'). 
San  Diego  was  founded  by  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
in  1769.  In  1880  it  had  only'2637  inhabitants,  but  they 
have  since  increased  to  upwards  of  5000.  In  the  county  is 
a  lake  of  boiling  mud  half  a  mile  long  by  500  yards  wide. 

SAN  DOMINGO,  or  Santo  Domingo.     See  Hayti. 

SANDOMIR,  or  Sedomieez,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland, 
in  the  province  of  Radom,  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Poland,  being  mentioned  in  annals  as  early  as  1079  ;  from 
1139  to  1332  it  v/as  the  chief  town  of  the  principality. 
Under  Casimir  III.  it  received  extensive  privileges  and 
reached  a  high  degree  of  prosperity  and  strength.  In 
1429  it  was  the  seat  of  a  congress  for  the  establishment  o' 
peace  with  Lithuania,  and  in  1570  the  well-known  "Con- 
sensus Sandomiriensis "  was  held  there  for  uniting  the 
Lutherans,  Calvinists,  and  Moravian  Brethren.  Subse- 
quent wars,  and  especially  the  Swedish,  ruined  the  to-mi 
still  more  than  numerous  conflagrations,  and  in  the  second 
part  of  the  18th  century  it  had  only  2060  inhabitants.  It 
is  now  a  quite  unimportant  place,  but  retains  a  few  remark- 
able monuments  of  its  past.  The  beautiful  cathedral,  rising 
on  a  high  hill  above  the  Vistula,  and  facing  the  plains  of 
Galicia,  was  built  between  1120  and  1191  ;  it  was  rebuilt 
in  stone  in  1360,  and  is  thus  one  of  the  oldest  monuments 
of  old  Polish  architecture.  The  churches  of  St  Paul  and 
St  James  ar6  fine  relics  of  the  13th  century.  In  1881  the 
population  was  6265,  or,  including  the  suburbs,  14,710. 

SANDOWAY,  a  disrict  in  the  south,  of  the  Arakaif 
division  of  British  Burmah,  ceded  to  the  British  by  treaty 
in  1826,  embracing  an  area  of  3667  square  mile.s,  and 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Ma-i  river,  on  the  west  by  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  on  the  east  by  the  Arakan  Mountains,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  Khwa  river.  The  whole  face  of  tho 
country  is  mountainous,  the  Arakan  range  sending  out 
spurs  which  reach  down  to  tho  coast.  Some  of  tho  peaks 
in  the. north  attain  an  elevation  of  over  4000'  feet.  Not 
fnoro  than  one-eighteenth  part  of  the  surface  can  be  called 
plain ;  and,  except  there,  where  rice  cultivation  is  carried 
on,  and  on  tho  hill-.sides,  where  clearings  are  made  for 
toungya  or  nomadic  cultivation,  the  country  is  covered  with 
dense  forest.  There  ia  nothing  in  tho  district  that  can  be 
called  a  river,  the  streams  draining  it  being  but  mountain 
torrents  to  within  a  few  miles  of  tho  coast;  the  mouth  of 
tho  Khwa  forms  a  good  anchorage  for  vessels  of  from  9  to 
10  feet  draught.  So  far  as  is  known  of  tho  geology  of  the 
district,  the  rocks  in  tho  Yoma  range  and  its  spurs  are 
metamorphic,  and  compriso  clay,  slates,  ironstone,  and  in- 
durated sandstone  ;  towards  tho  south,  ironstone,  trap,  and 


260 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


rocks  of  basaltic  character  are  common  ;-  veins  of  steatite 
and  white  fibrous  quartz  are  also  found  in  the  dLstrict. 

Only  135  square  miles  of  the  total  area  are  cultivable,  and  of  these 
but  75  are  cultivated.  The  chief  crops  are  rice,  sesaraum,  tobacco, 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  dkani  palms,  and  yams.  The  revenue  in  1883-84 
■was  £13,978,  the  land  tax  realizing  £67-!9  of  that  .imouut  This 
mountainous  and  forest-clad  country,  with  such  a  small  cultivable 
area,  is  sparsely  inhabited,  the  population  as  returned  by  the  census 
of  1881  being  only  64.010  (males  32,706,  females  31,304);  of  this 
number  56,463  were  Buddhists.  There  are  no  towns  with  a  popula- 
tion exceeding  2000.  Sandoway,  the  chief  town  and  headquarters, 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in  18°  27'  35"  N.  lat.  and  94"  24'  36" 
E.  long.,  is  a  very  ancient  town,  and  is  said  to  have  been  at  one  time 
the  capital  of  a  kingdom,  or  more  probably  of  a  petty  chieftainship. 

SANDPIPER  (Germ.  Sandpfeifer),  according  to 
Willughby  in  1C76  the  name  given  by  Yorkshiremen-to 
the  bird  now  most  popularly  known  in  England  as  the 
"  Summer-Snipe,"— the  Tiinga  hypoleucos  of  Linnsus  and 
the  Totanus,  Actitis,  or  Tnngoides  hypoleucus  of  later 
"writers, — but  probably  even  in  Willughby's  time  of  much 
■wider  signification,  as  for  more  than  a  century  it  has 
certainly  been  applied  to  nearly  all  the  smaller  kinds  of 
the  group  termed  by  m«dern  ornithologists  Limicoloe 
which  are  not  Plovers  (vol.  six.  p.  227),  or  Snipes 
(q.v.),  but  may  be  said  to  be  intermediate  between  them. 
Placed  by  most  systematists  in  the  family  Scolopacidie,  the 
birds  commonly  called  Sandpipers  seem  to  form  three 
sections,  •which  have  been  often  regarded  as  Subfamilies — 
Totaninee,  Ti-ingina:,  and  Phalaropodinx,  the  last  indeed  in 
some  classifications  taking  the  higher  rank  of  a  Family — ■ 
Phala7'opodidx.  This  section  comprehends  three  species 
only,  known  as  Phalaropes  or  swimming  Sandpipers,  which 
are  at  once  distinguished  by  the  membranes  that  fringe 
their  toes,  in  two  of  the  species  forming  marginal  lobes,' 
and  by  the  character  of  their  lower  plumage,  which  is  as 
close  as  that  of  a  Duck,  and  is  obviously  connected  with 
their  natatory  habits.  The  distinctions  between  Tolaninx 
and  Tringiyix,  though  believed  to  be  real,  are  not  so 
easily  drawn,  and  space  is  wanting  here  to  describe  them 
minutely.  The  most  obvious  may  be  said  to  lie  in  the 
acute  or  blunt  form  of  the  tip  of  the  bill  (with  which  is 
associated  a  less  or  greater  development  of  the  sensitive 
nerves  running  almost  if  not  quite  to  its  extremity,  and 
therefore  greatly  influencing  the  mode  of  feeding)  and  in 
the  style  of  plumage — the  Tringinx,  with  blunt  and 
flexible  bills,  mostly  assuming  a  summer-dress  in  ■which 
some  tint  of  chestnut  or  reddish-brown  is  very  prevalent, 
while  the  Totanins;,  with  acute  and  stiffer  bills,  display  no 
such  lively  colours.  Furthermore,  the  Triiigiiim,  except 
■when  actually  breeding,  frequent  the  sea-shore  much  more 
than  do  ".he  Toianinx.-  To  the  latter  belong  the  GbeEN- 
SHANK  (voL  xi.  p.  173)  and  Redshank  (vol.  xx.  p.  317), 
as  well  as  the  Common  Sandpiper  of  English  books,  the 
"Summer-Snipe"  above-mentioned,  a  bird  hardly  exceed- 
ing a  Skylark  in  size,  and  of  very  general  distribution 
throughout  the  British  Islands,  but  chiefly  frequenting 
clear  streams,  especially  those  with  a  gravelly  or  rocky 
bottom,  and  most  generally  breeding  on  the  beds  of  sand 
or  shingle  on  their  banks.  It  usually  makes  its  appearance 
in  May,  and  from  thence  during  the  summer-months  may 
be  seen  in  pairs  skimming  gracefully  over  the  water  from 
one  bend  of  the  stream  to  another,  uttering  occasionally  a 

^  These  are  Pltalaropiis  fidicariiis  and  P.  (or  Lobipes)  hj/pcrboreiis, 
and  on  that  account  were  thought  by  some  of  the  older  -writers  to  be 
allied  to  the  Coots  (vol.  vi.  p.  341).  The  third  species  is'P.  (or 
Steganopus)  icilsoni.  All  are  natives  of  the  higher  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  the  last  is  especially  American,  though  perhaps  a 
Etr.'.ggler  to  Europe. 

^  There  are  unfortunately  no  English  words  adequate  to  express 
these  two  sections.  By  some  British  writers  the  Tringinx  have  been 
indicated  as  ''Stints,"  a  tenli  cognate  with  Stunt  and  wholly  inapplic- 
able to  many  of  them,  while  recent  American  WTiters  restrict  to  them 
the  name  of  "Sandpiper,"  and  call  the  Toianinm,  to  which  that  n^inie 
Is  especially  appropri.ite,  "  Willets. " 


shriU  bat  plaintive  whistle,  or  running  nimbly  along  the 
margin,  the  mouse-coloured  plumage  of  its  back  and  wings 
making  indeed  but  little  show,  though  the  pure  white  of 
its  lower  parts  often  renders  it  conspicuous.  The  nest,  in 
which  four  eggs  are  laid  with  their  pointed  ends  meeting 
in  its  centre  (as  is  usual  among  Limicoline  birds),  is  seldom 
far  from  the  water's  edge,  and  the  eggs,  as  "well  as  the 
newly-hatched  and  doi\'n-covered  young,  so  closely  resemble 
the  surrounding  pebbles  that  it  takes  a  sharp  eye  to 
discriminate  them.  Later  in  the  season  family-parties  may 
be  seen  about  the  larger  waters,  whence,  as  autumn 
advances,  they  depart  for  their  winter-quarters.  The 
Common  Sandpiper  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
Old  World.  In  summer  it  is  the  most  abundant  bird  of 
its  kind  in  the  extreme  north  of  Europe,  and  it  extends 
across  Asia  to  Japan.  In  winter  it  makes  its  ■way  to 
India,  Australia,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  America 
its  place  is  taken  by  a  closely  kindred  species,  which  is  said 
to  have  also  occurred  in  England — T.  micularius,  the 
"  Peetweet,"  or  Spotted  Sandpiper,  so  called  from  its  usual 
cry,  or  from  the  almost  circular  marks  which  spot  its  lower 
plumage.  In  habits  it  is  very  similar  to  its  congener  of 
the  Old  World,  and  in  winter  it  migrates  to  the  Antilles 
and  to  Central  and  South  America.  Of  other  Totaninse, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  that  to  which  the  inappro- 
priate name  of  Green  Sandpiper  has  been  assigned,  the 
Totanus  or  Helodromas  oc/iropus  of  ornithologists,  which 
most  curiously  differs  (so  far  as  is  known)  from  all  others 
of  the  group  both  in  its  osteology  ^  and  mode  of  nidifica- 
tion,  the  hen  laying  her  eggs  in  the  deserted  nests  of  other 
birds, — Jays,  Thrushes,  or  Pigeons,- — but  nearly  always 
at  some  height  (from  3  to  30  feet)  from  the  ground 
(Froc.  Zool  Society,  1863,  pp.  529-532).  This  species 
occurs  in  England  the  whole  year  round,  and  is  pre- 
sumed to  have  bred  here,  though  the  fact  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  proved,  and  our  knowledge  of  its  erratic 
habits  comes  from  naturalists  in  Pomerania  and  Sweden  ; 
yet  in  the  breedingjSeason,  even  in  England,  the  cock-bird 
has  been  seen  to  rise  high  in  air  and  perform  a  variety  of 
evolutions  on  the  wing,  all  the  while  piping  whaX,  without 
any  violence  of  language,  may  be  called  a  song.  This 
Sandpiper  is  characterized  by  its  dark  upper  plumage, 
which  contrasts  strongly  with  the  ■white  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  back  and  gives  the  bird  as  it  flies  away  from  its  dis- 
turber much  the  look  of  a  very  large  House-Martin.  The 
so-called  Wood-Sandpiper,  T.  glareola,  which,  though  much 
less  common,  is  known  to  have  bred  in  England,  has  a 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  species  last  mentioned, 
but  can  at  once  be  distinguished,  and  often  as  it  flies,  by 
the  feathers  of  the  axillary  plume  being  ■white  barred  with 
greyish-black,  while  in  the  Green  Sandpiper  they  are 
greyish-black  barred  with  white.  It  is  an  abundant  bird 
in  most  pirts  of  northern  Europe,  migrating  in  winter 
very  far  to  the  southward. 

Of  the  section  Tringinx  the  best  known  are  the  Knot 
(vol.  xiv.  p.  129)  and  the  Dunlin,  T.  alpina.  The  latter, 
often  also  called  Ox-bird,  Plover's-Page,  Purre,  and  Stint, — 
names  "ft-hich  it  shares  with  some  other  species, — not  only 
breeds  commonly  on  many  of  the  elevated  moors  of  Britain, 
but  in  autumn  resorts  in  countless  flocks  to  the  shores,  where 
indeed  a  few  may  be  seen  at  almost  any  time  of  year.  In 
seasonal  diversity  of  plumage  it  is  scarcely  excelled  by  any 
bird  of  its  kind,  being  in  winter  of  a  nearly  uniform  ash- 
grey  above  and  ■n'hite  beneath,  while  in  summer  the 
feathers  of  the  back  are  black,  with  deep  rust-coloured 
edges,  and  a  broad  black  belt  occupies  the  breast,  y.  The 

3  It  possesses  only  a  single  pair  of  posterior  "emargin.ations"  on  its 
sternum,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  RuFF  {supra,  p.  54).  Among 
the  Plovers  (vol.  xix.  p.  227)  and  Snipes  (q.v.)  othfr  similarly  ex- 
ceptional cases  may  be  found. 


SAN-SAN 


261 


T^unlin  varies  considerably  in  size,  and  to  some  extent 
according  to  locality,  examples  from  North  America  being 
almost  always  recognizable  from  their  greater  bulk,  while 
in  Europe,  besides  the  ordinary  form,  there  appears  to  be 
a  smaller  race  which  has  received  the  name  of  T.  sckinzi, 
but  no  other  difference  is  perceptible.  In  the  breeding- 
season,  while  performing  the  amatory  flights  in  which  like 
all  Sandpipers  he  indulges,  the  male  Dunlin  utters  a  most 
peculiar  and  far-sounding  whistle,  quite  impossible  to 
syllable,  and  somewhat  resembling  the  continued  rihgiiig 
of  a  high-toned  but  yet  musical  beli  Next  to  the, Dunlin 
and  Knot  the  commonest  British  Trinrjins:  are  the  Sander- 
ling,  Calidris  arenaria  (to  be  distinguished  from  every 
other  bird  of  the  group  by  wanting  a  hind  toe),  the  Purple 
Sandpiper,  T.  striata  or  maritima,  the  Curlew-Sandpiper, 
T.  subarquata,  and  the  Little  and  Temminck's  Stints,  T. 
minuta  and  T.  temmincld,  but  want  of  space  forbids  more 
than  the  record  of  their  names  ;  and  for  the  same  reason 
no  notice  can  here  be  taken  of  the  many  other  species, 
chiefly  American,^  belonging  to  this  group.  Two  other 
birds,  however,  must  be  mentioned.  These  are  the 
Broad-billed  Sandpiper,  T.  plafyrhyncha,  of  the  Old 
World,  which  seems  to  be  more  Snipe-like  than  any  that 
are  usually  kept  in  this  section,  and  the  marvellous 
Spoon-billed  Sandpiper,  Eurinorhynchw  pygmssus,  whose 
true  home  has  still  to  be  discovered,  acording  to  the 
experience  of  Baron  Nordonskjold  in  the  meniorable 
voyage  of  the  "  Vega."  (a.  n.) 

SANDROCOTTUS  (Chandragupta),-  founder  of  the 
Maurya  kingdom  in  India.  See  India,  vol.  xii.  p.  787,  and 
Peesia,  vol.  zviii.  p.  586. 

SANDUSKY,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  Erie  county,  Ohio,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  Sandusky  river, 
210  miles  by  rail  north-east  of  Cincinnati,  and  :'s  hand- 
somely built  of  limestone  from  the  subjacent  strata  on 
ground  rising  gradually  from  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  The 
court-house  and  the  high  school  are  both  of  considerable 
architectural  note.  Besides  being  the  centre  of  a  great 
vine-growing  district,  Sandu.sky  has  the  largest  freshwater 
fish  market  in  the  United  States,  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
fish-hatchery  (which  annually  puts  about  3,000,000  young 
whitefish  into  the  lake),  and  has  attained  a  reputation  for 
the  manufacture  of  such  wooden  articles  as  handles,  spokes, 
"  bent  work"  for  carriages,  carpenters'  tools,  &c.  The  city 
is- coextensive  with  Portland  township.  Its  po'^ulation  was 
13,000  in  1870  and  1.5,838  in  1880. 

SANDWICH,  an  English  borough,  market-town,  and 
Cinque  Port,  is  situated  in  the  east  of  Kent,  opposite  the 
Downs,  on  a  branch  of  the  South-Eastern  Railway,  and  on 
the  Stour,  2  miles  from  the  sea,  12  miles  east- of  Canter- 
bury, and  4  north-west  of  Deal.  The  streets  arc  narrow  and 
the  houses  irregularly  built.  The  old  line  of  the  walls  on 
the  land  side  is  marked  by  a  publirf  walk.  Tbe  Fishers' 
Gate  and  a  gateway  called  the  Barbican  are  iniDresting ; 
but  the  four  principal  gates  were  pulled  down  in  the  last 
century.  St  Clement's  church  has  a  fine  Norman  central 
tower,  and  St  Peter's,  said  to  date  from  the  reign  of  King 
John,  has  interesting  mediaeval  monuments.  The  grammar 
school  founded  by  Sir  Roger  Manwood  in  1504  is  now  in 
abeyance.  There  are  three  ancient  hospitals ;  St  Bar- 
tholomew's has  a  fine  Early  English  chapel  of  the  12tb. 

'  A  "Monograph  of  'he  Tringem  of  North  Anicric,i"by  Prof.  Coues 
was  published  in  the  J-roceedinjs  of  the  Pliilatlelpliia  Academy  for 
1861  (pp.  190-205),  but  is  of  course  new  out  ord.itt  Schlegel's 
list  of  "  Scolopacca  "  in  the  Mushim  dcs  Pays-Baa  is  the  best  general 
description  we  have,  but  that  is  only  a  few  years  later  (1864),  and 
requires  much  modification  to  bo  put  on  a  level  with  the  knowledge 
of  the  present  day.  The  very  rare  Trtnga  Uuce-pttra  of  tho  older 
•ystcniatists,  figured  by  Latham .  (Syno^jsij,  pi.  82),  the  typo  of  tho 
gonus  Prosohonia  of  Bonaparte,  seems  to  bo  really  a  Halline  form 
(CompU$  Itcndv),  xxxi.  p.  662  aud  xliii.  p.  fiDS). 


century.  Until  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  Sand- 
wich was  of  considerable  importance  as  a  port,  but  after 
the  filling  up  of  the  harbour  with  sand  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  16th  century  it  fell  into  decay.  The  principal 
industries  of  the  town  are  market-gardening,  tanning, 
wool-sorting,  and  brewing.  Coal,  timber,  and  iron  arc 
imported.  Sandwich  returned  two  members  to  parliament 
till  18S0,  and  was  merged  in  the  St  Augustine's  division 
of  the  county  in  1885.  The  parliamentary  borough,  which 
included  Deal  and  Walmer  (area  2084  acres),  had  in  1881 
a  population  of  15,655,  while  that  of  the  municipal 
borough  (area  706  acres)  was  2846. 

In  tho  Norman  survey  Sandwich  is  desciihcd  as  a  borough.  It 
rose  into  importance  on  tlio  decline  of  the  IWtus  IliUupcnsis^  its 
name  denoting  the  situation  on  the  sands.  The  Danes  frequently 
attacked  it  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries;  and  it  was  repeatedly 
plundered  by  the  French  in  tho  16th  century.  It  was  fortified  by 
Edward  VI.  Sandwich  was  incorporated  hy  Kdward  the  Confessor, 
and  received  its  last  charter  from  Cliarles  II. 

SANDWICH,  Edward   Montagct,  Earl   of   (1625- 
1672),  general  and  admiral,  was  the   son  of  Sir  Sidney 
Montagu,  youngest  brother  of  Edward  Lord  Montagu  of 
Bough  ton,    and   was  born  27th    July  1625.     In  August 
1643  he  raised  a  regiment  in  the  service  of  the  Parliament, 
with  which  he  specially  distinguished  himself  at  Marston 
Moor,    Naseby,    and    tho    siege   of   Bristol.     He    was   a 
member  of  the  "Little  Parliament"  (1653),  and  one  of 
the  committee  for  regulating  the  customs.     In  November 
he  was  elected  to  the  council  of  state.     In  the  first  Pro- 
tectorate   parliament   he   sat   for    Huntingdonshire.      In 
January  1656  he  succeeded  Penn  as  admiral,  and  he  was 
associated  with   Biake  in  his  expedition  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean in  the  same  year.     After  the  treaty  with  France 
again.'it  Spain  in  1657  he  held  command  of  the  fleet  sent 
to  prevent  the  relief  of  the  three  coast  towns — Gravelines, 
Mardike,  and  Dunkirk — besieged  by  the  French,  and  was 
successful   in    defeating  an  attempt  by  a   great  Spanish 
force  to  retake   Mardike.     After  the  death  of  Cromv/ell 
he  was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  the  North  Sea  to  enter  into 
negotiations  with    the   Northern    powers,  but,  communi- 
cations   having    been    opened    with    him   on    behalf    of 
Charles  IL,  he  returned  to  England  only  to  find  thit  the 
conspiracy  of   Sir   George  Booth  had  miscarried,  where- 
upon, after  a  lame  explanation,  he  was  dismis.sed  from  his 
command.     At  the   Restoration,  having  commanded   the 
fleet  which  conveyed  the  king  to  England,  he  was  made 
Knight  of  the  Garter,  and  soon  afterwards  elevated  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Montagu  of   St  Neots,  Viscount  Hin- 
chinbroke,  and  Earl  of  Sandwich.     During  tho  war  with 
the  Dutch  in  1604-65  he  commanded  the  Blue  squadron 
under  the  duke  of  York,  and  specially  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  great  battle  of  3d  Juno  1605.     After  his  return 
to   England  he  was   sent   to  negotiate  a  peace   between 
Spain  and  Portugal,  and  also  a  treaty  of  commerce  with 
Spain.     On  a  renewal  of  the  war  in   1672  he  again  com- 
mand- d  the  Blue  squadron  under  the  duke  of  York,  and 
during  tiie  fight  in  Southwold  Bay,  on  the  28th  May,  his 
ship,  the  Royal  James,  was  set  on  fire  by  the  Dutch,  when 
he  leaped  overboard  and   was  drowned.     His  body  was 
found  a  fortnight  afterwards,  and  was  interred  in  Henry 
VII. 's  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey. 

Lord  Sandwich's  translation  of  a  Spanisii  work  on  the  v<ri  cf 
Mdah  by  i^lvaro  Alonso  liarha  (16-tO)  ai.pcarrd  in  1074.  Several 
of  his  letters  during  the  Spanish  negotiations  have  been  published 
in  Arlington's  Letters,  anci  various  letters  lo  him  by  Cromwell  will 
be  found  in  Carlylo's  Cromwell.  Sec  also  Original  Letters  and 
Negotiations  of  Sir  Richard  Fanshave,  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  the 
.^arl  of  Sunderland,  ami  Sir  William  Oodolphin,  wherein  Diverse 
ii'attcrs  between  the  Three  Crowns  of  England,  Spain,  aiid  Portugal 
film,  leos  to  167S  are  set  in  a  clear  light. 

SANDWICH,  Joii.v  Montagu,  Fourth  Earl  op 
{Vi  18-1792),  w-"!  born  3d  November  1718,  and  sucoocded 


2(;-i 


S  xV  N  — S  A  N 


his  grandfather  in  the  earldom,  20th  October  IT^O  He 
Avas  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  entered  in  IT.'in.  After  a  voj-age  round  the  l\ledi- 
tcrranean,  he  returned  to  England  and  began  to  take  an 
a'^tive  interest  in  politics  as  a  supporter  of  Sir  Kobert 
Walpolo.  A  clear  and  lucid  rather  than'  a  brilliant 
debater,  his  style  of  address  always  won  the  attention  of 
his  audience,  and  his  accurate  knowledge  secured  their 
respect.  ^  The  high  opinion  the  Government  entertained 
of  his  judgment  and  his  diplomatic  abilities  was  evidenced 
by,  'his  appointment  in  174G  as  plenipotentiary  to  the 
congress  at  Breda,  which  was  continued  till  peace  was 
negotiated  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  17<18.  .  On  his  return  he 
became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  retaining  the  post 
until  June  ITST.  He  held  the  same  office  from  1703  to 
1765,  and  again  from  1771  till  the  dissolution  of  Lord 
North's  administration  in  1783.  Ho  died  30th  April 
1792.  His  Voyage  Bound  the  Mediterranean  was  pub- 
lished posthumously  in  1799,  accompanied  with  a  memoir. 

SANDWrCH  ISLANDS.     See  H.4.WAii.iN  Islands. 

SANDYS,  Geoege  (1577-1644),  famous  in  the  reigns 
of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  as  a  traveller  and  a  metrical 
translator.  He  was  born  in  1577,  the  youngest  son  of  an 
archbishop  of  York,  studied  at  St  ]\Iary  Hall,  Oxford,  and 
afterwards  probably  at  Corpus  Christi,  and  began  his  travels 
in  1610.  The  record  of  them  was  a  substantial  contribu- 
tion to  geography  and  ethnology,  ■written  in  a  style  always 
interesting  and  often  eloquent,  interspersed  with  versified 
scraps  of  quotations  from  classical  authors.  He  travelled 
from  Venice  to  Constantinople,  thence  to  Egypt,  thence 
by  way  of  j\Iount  Sinai  to  Palestine,  and  back  to  Venice 
by  way. of  Cyprus,  Sicily,  Naples,  and  Rome.  Later  on 
in  his  life  he  published  translations  of  Ovid's  Metamor- 
f'-oscs,  the  first  book  of  the  jEncid,  and  various  books  of 
i  ;ripture.  His  verae  was  praised  by  Dryden,  and  de- 
£.  rvedly  so,  for  it  has  vitality  as  well  as  a  clearly  marked 
1  'vthm.  He  died  in  1644.  Selections  from  his  poetry 
T.ere  published  by  the  Rev.  H.  J.  Todd  in  1839. 
,-1SAN  FERNANDO,  formerly  IsLA  de  Leon,  a  fortified 
city  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz,  near  the  head  of 
the  inner  bay,  and  9|  miles  by  rail  from  the  city  of  Cadiz 
{see  vol.  iv.  p.  627),  is  a  modern  town  with  straight  and 
level  streets,  two  churches,  two  hospitals,,  several  barracks, 
and  a  school  of  navigation,  with  an  observatory.  It  has 
considerable  trade  in  the  salt  produced  in  the  neighbouring 
"£alinas."  The  population  within  the  municipal  limits 
{which  include  the  "  poblacion"  of  San  Carlos  and  the  naval 
arsenal  of  La  Carraca)  was  returned  as  26,346  in  1877 

SAN  FRANCISCO,,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the 
Largest  commercial  city  of  California  and  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  is  situated  in  37° -47'  22"-55  N.  lat.  and  122°  25' 
40"'76  W.  long.,  on  the  end  of  a  peninsula  which  has  the 
Pa<»fic  Ocean  on  one  side  and  the  Bay  of  San  Francjsco  on 
the  other.  The  width  of  this  tongue  of  land  within  the 
city  limits  is  about  6  miles,  and  its  whole  length  about  26. 
The  original  site  of  San  Francisco  was  so  uninviting  that 
many  of  the  pioneers  doubted  if  a  place  of  much  imiiortance 
could  ever  spring  up  there.  The  hills  (Russian  Hill,  300 
feet ;  Telegraph  Hill,  294  feet ;  and  a  number  of  others, 
ranging  from  75  to  120  feet)  were  barren  rnd  precipitous, 
and  the  interspaces,  especially  on  the  westerly  side,  were 
made  up  largely  of  shifting  sand-dunes ;  on  the  east  side, 
however,  the  land  sloped  gently  towards  vhe  bay,  and  there 
was  the  further  advantage  of  a  small  cove  extending  inland 
nearly  to  the  present  line  of  Montgomery  Street.  This  cove 
lias  since  been  filled  up  and  built  over.  After  an  attempt 
to  found' the  commercial  metropolis  at  Benicia,  30  miler. 
north  on  the  Straits  of  Carquin?z,  it  was  evident  that  nr^ 
other  place  within  easy  distance  from  the  ocean  possess'/^jj 
so  many  advantages  for  the  site  of  a  city  as  this  barr.gjj 


pcnin.sula.  The  Bay  of  San  Francisco  is  reached  from  tlia 
ocean  through  the  Golden  Gate,  a  strait  about  5  miles 
long  and  averaging  1  mile  in  width,  with  a  (lepth  of  30 
feet  on  the  bar  at  the  entrance  and  from  GO  to  100  feet 
within.  The  bay,  which  extends  past  the  city  in  a  south- 
south-east  direction  for  about  40  miles,  is  about  seven 
miles  wide  in  front  of  the  city,  while  its  greatest  width  is 
12.  Connected  with  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  on  the 
north  by  a  strait  3  miles  wide  is  San  Pablo  Bay,  about  10 
miles  in  length  and  the  same  in  breadth,  having  at  its 
extreme  northerly  end  Mare  Island,  the  site  of  the  navy 
yard.  This  bay,  again,  is  connected  by  the  Straits  of 
Carquinez  with  Suisun  Bay,  8  miles  long  and  4  wide. 
The  total  length  of  these  bays  and  connecting  straits  is  65 
miles.  This  great  inland  water,  sheltered  and  for  the  most 
part  navigable  by  the  largest  craft,  receives  the  two  great 


Euvirons  of  Sail  Francisco, 
rivers  of  Cab.fornia,  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin. 
In  the  Bayy  of  gan  Francisco  are  Alcatraz  Island  (30  acres), 
strongly  fc,i-tified  ;  Angel  Island  (800  acres),  fortified;  and 
Yerba  Bi  lena,  or  Goat  Island  (about  300  acres). 

The  l^iresidio  or  fortified  settlement  of  San  Francisco 
was  fojunded  on  17th  September  1776,  and  the  mission 
(Saiy  Francisco  de  los  Dolores)  in  the  following  October. 
I'^  •'i830  the  population  'of -the  presidio  consisted  of  about 
fi'Zy  Spanish  soldiers  and  officers ;  these  added  to  the 
"fcmber  at  the  mission  made  an  aggregate' population  of 
■■/bout  200.  Beechy,  w^ho  visited  the  harbour  and  presidio 
'''i_n  1826,  has  left  the  following  description: — 

"  The  governor's  abode  was  in  a  coiner  of  the  presidio,  nnd  formed 
-one  end  of  a  row  of  which  tlio  other  was  occnpied  by  a  cliapel ;  the 
opposite  side  was  broken  down,  and  Utile  better  than  a  heap  of 
rubliisli  and  bones,  on  which  jacltals,  dogs,  and  vultures  were  con- 
stantly preying.  Tlie  qtlier  two  sides  of  the  quadrangle  contained 
stone  houses,  artificers'  shops,  and  the  jail,  all  built  in  the  humblest 
style  with  badly  burned  bricliS  and  roofedwith  tiles.  The  chapel  .ind 
the  Oovernnient  houso  were  distinguislicd  by  being  whitewashed. 


SAN      F...R,A  N  C  I  S  C  O 


263 


The  presidio  enclosure  was  a^out  300  yards  square. 
In  1834,  when  it  was  secularized  and  began  to  be  known 
by  the  secular  name  of  Verba  Buena,  the  mission  Dolores 
had  a  population  of  500.  In  the  summer  of  1846  an 
American  man-of-war  took  possession  of  the  place.  In  the 
early  part  of  1849  the  inhabitants  numbered  about  2000, 
and  the  embryo  city  had  already  come  to  be  known  by  its 
future  name  of  San  Francisco.  In  consequence  of  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  Caliifsoia  a  strong  drift  of  population 
set  in  towards  the  placer  mines;  and  pi  the  end  of  1849 
there  were  20,000  people  in  the  city.  The  first  legislature 
of  California  granted  a  charter  to  San  Francisco  on  1st  May 
1850.  Prior  to  that  date  the  government  of  the  pueblo 
had  been  administered  by  an  alcalde.  The  pueblo  grant 
originally  made  by  the  king  of  Spain  contained  four  square 
(Spanish)  leagues  of  land ;  this  grant  was  subsequently 
confirmed  to  San  Fran- 
cisco by  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress. The  jurisdiction 
of  the  municipality  ex- 
tends over  the  islands  in 
the  bay.  The  area  in- 
cluded in  the  limits  of  the 
city  exceeds  the  original 
four  square  leagues  con- 
siderably, including  what 
were  originally  denomi- 
nated "  swamp  and  over- 
flowed lands"  (see  Dwi- 
r.elle's  Colonial  History). 

In  the  first  stages  of 
its  history  the  buildings 
of  the  city  were  chiefly 
of  wood, — in  many  cases 
the  frames  and  coverings 
having  been  brought  from 
the  Atlantic  States  round 
Cape  Horn  in  sailing 
"Vessels.  Within  a  fev/ 
months  of  the  establish- 
mentof  municipal  govern- 
ment the  city  suffered 
severely  on  more  than 
one  occasion  from  fire. 
The  fire  of  4th  May  1850 
destroyed  property  to 
the  value  of  about 
$3,000,000;  another  in 
the  following  month  was 
still  more  destructive 
($4,000,000);  and  the 
damage  resulting  from  a 
third  in  September  was 
estimated   at   $500,000. 


west,  a  distance  of  3  miles  or  more."  The  more  important 
streets  are  paved  for  the  most  part  with  cobble  stones  and 
basalt  blocks  ;  but  asphalt  on  a  stone  or  concrete  founda- 
tion has  begira  to  be  used.  Among  the  public  buildings 
and  institutions  of  San  Francisco  are  the  mint,  appraisers' 
stores,  subtreasury,  custom-house,  merchants'  exchange, 
stock  exchange,  city-hall,  industrial  school,  house  of  correc- 
tion, almshouse.  Masonic  Temple,  new  Oddfellows'  building, 
safe  deposit,  and  seven  theatres  and  opera-houses.  The 
Palace  Hotel  cost  $3,250,000,  and  can  accommodate  1200 
guests.  The  city,  has  eleven  public  squares.  Its  greatest 
attrrxtion  is  the  Golden  Gate  Park  of  1050  'acfes,  3  miles 
long  and  half  a  mile  wide,  having  the  ocean  for  its  extreme 
westerly  boundary.  The  greater  part  of  this  area  was  for- 
merly a  shifting  sand-dune.  An  extensive  glass-house  in 
a  central  position  is  filled  with  the  rarest  tropical  and  semi- 


San  Francisco  (north -eastern  part). 


Tliese  occurrences  naturally  led  to  the  employment  of  more 
substantial  building  material  in  some  cases,  granite  being 
imported  from  China  for  some  buildings,,  and  iron  and 
brick  being  used  to  a  considerable  extent  on  oth9rs  ;  but 
to  this  day  nearly  all  the  privat.')  dwellings  of  the  city  are 
of  wood.  Since  1850,  however,  the  damage  from  fire  in 
the  portion  of  the  city  occupied  by  private  houses  has 
been  remarkably  small, — partly  because  of  the  use  of  red- 
wood in.stead  of  pine.  In  the  business  houses  erected 
recently  the  increase  of  solidity  and  costliness  has  been 
very  marked. 

'Throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the  ci,ty  the  streets 
are  laid  out  in  rectangular  form,  and  nowhere  with  any 
nference  to  the  natural  elevations.  The  most  important 
business  thoroughfare  is  Market  Street,  extending  from 
tne  water  front  at  the  ferry  landing;  to  tb;  hills  on  the 


tropical  plants  and  shrubs ;  a  large  part  of  the  area  is 
planted  with  forest  trees,  or  is  laid  down  in  grass ;  the 
walks  and  drives  are  well  planned  and  well  kept. 

San  Francisco  is  traversed  in  various  directions  by 
horse  railroads,  which  extend  from  the  water  front  to  the 
suburbs.  There  are  also  50  miles  of  wire  cable  roads, 
which  are  yearly  increasing.  These  cable  tramways 
extend  2  miles  on  Clay  Street,  overcoming  an  elevation 
of  120  feet.  The  cost  of  their  construction  and  equip- 
ment has  ranged  from  $100,000  to  81-25,000  per  mile. 
The  speed  is  usually  about  5  miles  an  hour.  San  Fran- 
cisco is  the  terminus  of  two  continental  railways,  viz.,  the 
Union  and  Central  Pacific  and  the  Southern  Pacific ; 
while  a  third,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  enters  the  city  over 
a  leased  line  from  Moliavo.  Two  narrow-cang'^  lines  and 
one  broad-^auge,  each  less  than  a  hundred  miles  long,  to 


264 


SAN      FRANCISCO 


important  points  in  the  State,  are  connected  with  the  city 
by  means  of  ferries. 

The  population  of  San  Francisco,  as  shown  by  the 
census  returns,  was  34,000  in  1850;  in  1860,  56,802; 
in  1870,  149,473;  and  in  18S0,  233,959  (132,608  males, 
10.1,351  females);  in  1885  it  was  estimated,  on  the  basis 
of  the  school  census,  at  275,000  (Chinese,  30,000).  At 
the  last  presidential  election  (1884)  the  total  vote  cast  in 
the  city  was  50,167,  the  total  foreign  vote  being  25,254; 
of  these  12,837  were  British  (10,206  of  them  Wsh)  and 
7052  Germans.  Of  the  90,468  children  in  the  city  under 
seventeen  reported  for  the  fiscal  year  1884-85,  50,973 
had  foreign-born  parents,  and  15,460  more  had  one  parent 
of  foreign  origin.  In  social  customs,  trade  usages,  amuse- 
ments, and  religious  observances,  the  large  foreign  popu- 
lation of  San  Francisco  contributes  materially  to  the 
formation  of  its  liberal  and  cosmopolitan  character. 

Administration,  ttc. — la  July  1856  the  city  and  county,  which 
until  then  had  maintained  separate  governments,  were  consolidated 
iu  one  organisation.  The  government  is  adn^inistered  by  a  mayor 
and  a  Ijoard  of  tv.'elve  supervisors,  with  the  usual  officers  common 
to  municipal  and  county  organizations.  There  isalso  a  superior 
court  having  twelve  departments,  with  one  judge  for  eacli,  a  police 
court,  and  justices'  courts.  The  supreme  court  of  the  State  holds 
a  number  of  terms  each  year  in  San  Francisco.  The  U.S.  district 
and  circuit  courts  also  hold  regular  terms  in  the  city.  There  is  a 
well-organi^ed  and  efficient  police  force  of  400  men.  On  1st  July 
18S4  the  fire  department  had  315  men.  The  city  is  supplied  with 
gas  by  two  companies;  Water  is  sujiplied  by  the  Spring  Valley 
Company,  principally  from  San  Mateo  county.  The  water  is 
brought  in  throe  lines  of  wrought-iron  pipe;  the  largest,  which 
connects  the  Crystal  Springs  reservoir  with  the  city,  is  44  inches 
in  diameter  and  23  miles  in  length.  The  daily  consumption  of 
water  is  about  18,000,000  gallons.  The  comiany  is  able  to  supply 
25,000,000  gallons  daily. 

Finance. — The  assessment  roll  of  personal  property  in  1885 
showed  a  value  of  $56,634,860,— that  of  real  estate  and  improve- 
ments beinc  returned  at  $171,433,126.  The  actual  value  is  not 
less  than  $350,000,000.  The  debt  of  the  municipality  is  3i  million 
dollars.  There  are  twelve  incorporated  commercial  or  dlsconnt 
banks,  with  an  aggregate  paid-up  capital  of  $21,047,965,  and  a, 
surplus  (1st  July  1885)  of  $3,945,647.  The  total  assets  are  set 
down  at  $50,894,972.  There  are  also  a  number  of  private  banks. 
There  are  eight  savings  banks,  all  but  one  of  these  having  -some 
paid-up  capital,  the  aggregate  of  which  is  $1,651,200.  These 
banks  on  the  1st  of  July  1885  held  deposits  to  the  amount  of 
$52,577,746  ;  they  had  also  a  surplus  beyond  the  paid-up  capital 
of  $2,067,209.  The  banks  having  a  subscribed  and  paid-up  capital 
pay  regular  dividends  on  the  entire  amount  of  nominal  capital  and 
about  ih  per  cent,  per  anniiai  to  depositors. 

Cojmncrce.—Tho  exports  by  water  for  the  fiscal  year  1884-85 
amounted  to  $37,170,800,  and  the  imports  to  $37,171,100  ;  the 
items  of  import  and  export  by  rail  bring  the  total  up  to  880,000,000. 
The  duties  collected  on  imports  were  $6,610,400.  The  treasure 
shipped  amounted  to  $17,540,000  ;  and  the  exports  of  quicksilver 
were  14,900  flasks,  valued  at  $438,800.  The  receipts  of  treasure 
from  all  productive  sources  west  of  the.llissouri,  including  Mexico, 
reached  a  total  of  $40,253,635,  and  the  coinage  at  the  miut  in  San 
Francisco  was  of  tho  value  of  $23,750,000,  with  an  addition  of 
$1,600,000  on  foreign  account  The  sailing  ships  entering  the 
port  numbered  619  (604,200  tons) ;  the  steamers  were  225.  Among 
the  imports  were— cod'ee,  19,605,800  lb  ;  sugar,  152,374,870  tt>° 
coal,  900,000  tons  ;  lumber,  297,234,000  feet  (92,764,000  feet  red- 
wood, 177,305,000  feet  pine,  the  remainder  miscellaneous).  The 
exports  of  wheat  were  1,001,900  tons,  valued  at  $26,791,500  ;  this 
Huantity  was  exported  in  366  ships,  the  freights  to  Europe  ranging 
from  26s.  to  4Ss.  6d.  per  ton.  British  iron  sailing  vessels  have  tho 
preference  for  wheat  exportation,  and  obtain  the  highest  rates.  A 
much  larger  class  of  vessels  is  employed  in  this  trade  than  formerly, 
the  cargoes  now  averaging  about  3C00  tons.  .There  are  rtgular 
steamship  linos  connecting  San  Francisco  with  Mexican,  Central 
American,  Australian,  Hawaiian,  Japanese,  and  Chinese  ports, 
and  with  the  chief  port  of  British  Columbia.  The  Pacifio  AVhaling 
Company  owns  five  or  six  ships,  principally  steamers,  employed  in 
the  Arctic  whale  fishery.  The  same  company  has  also  extensive 
works  for  refining  the  oil  in  San  Francisco.  Theje  is  one  stone 
dry  dock  admitting  vessels  of  6000  tons,  and  two  or  more  floating 
docks  which  can  Uke  on  vessels  from  500  to  800  tons  burthen.  A 
Eca-wall  is  in  process  of  construction  by  State  authority  round  the 
deep-water  front  to  prevent  the  shoaling  of  the  water  in  the  slips 
resulting  in  part  from  tho  gradual  washing  down  of  debris  from 
tho  hills  and  ateep  slopes  of  the  city. 

Mami/atiurcs.—Vot  many  yt^ars  manufactures  made  slow  pro- 


gress. The  city  was  remote  from  the  great  centres  of  popnlatioir, 
and  labour  was  very  costly.  But  these  disadvantj-ages  have  beer 
gradually  overcome.  In  1875  there  were  18,000  persons  employed 
in  manufacturing  establishments,  and  the  value  produced  wa? 
$40,000,000.  In  1885  38,919  persons  were  so  employed,  and  the 
estimated  value  for  tho  business  year  ending  1st  July  waf 
$86,417,200.  Subjoined  are  some  of  the  leading  manufactures, 
with  the  number  of  persons- employed  and  the  annual  value  oi 
their  production  :— bags,  300,  $1,600,000;  boots  and  shoes,  3500, 
$5,300,000;  cigar-boxes,  260,  $5,000,000;  wooden  boxes,  350, 
$1,000,000  ;  brass-foundries,  360,  $536,000  ;  breweries,  468,. 
$2,450,000  ;  cigars,  8000,  $4,850,000  ;  clothing,  1900,  $3,760,000  ; 
coffee  and  spices,  $900,000  ;  cordage  and  ropes,  160,  $600,000  ; 
crackers,  150,  $620,000  ;  dry  docks  (stone),  6,  $675,000  ;  flour,  175, 
$2,230,000;  foundries^  2000,  $5,500,000  ;  furs,  170,  $500,000,- 
furniture,  1000,  $2,000,000;  gas-works,  460,, $12,000,000 ;  harness, 
440,  $1,150,000;  jewellery,  166,  $600,000;  linseed  Oil,  55„ 
$500,000;  picklosand  fruits,  2000,  $1,700,000  ;  provision-packing,. 
250,  $1,900,000;  rolling-mills,  550,  $1,880,000  ;  sashes,  doors,  &c.„ 
1650,  $6,010,000 ;  ship-yards,  200,  $503,000  ;  shirts,  2550, 
$1,000,000  ;  soap,  190,  $716,100  ;  sugar-refineries,  360,  $8,700,000; 
tanneries,  335,  $1,700,000  ;  tinwares,  180,  $525,000  ;  wooUen- 
milla,  1600,  $1,900,000.  In  the  laundries,  it  may  be  added,  93} 
whites  and  1300  Chinese  were  employed. 

Churches  and  Cluiriiics. — There  are  70  Protestant  churches  in 
the  city,  representing  nearly  all  the  denominations  of  the  country^ 
Besides  these  there  are  19  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  a  numliei 
of  chapels  connected  with  the  various  hospitals  and  schools.  There 
are  7  synagogues  and  1  Greek  church  (Russian).  Including  the 
chapels,  the  total  number  of  places  of  worship  may  be  set  down  at 
100.  With  few  exceptions,  the  church  edifices  are  not  impoaiug- 
In  consequence  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  city  wood  has  been 
employed  in  a  majority  of  cases,  but  this  is  now  being  discarded 
for  stone.  The  asylums  and  benevolent  associations  are  numerous 
and  well-supported.  The  more  prominent  of  these  institutions  are 
tho  Protectant  Orphan  Asylum  (214  children),  Catholic  Orphau 
Asylum,  Pacific  Hebrew  Orphan  Asylum,  Magdalen  Asylum,  Old 
People's  Home,  Ladies'  Protection  and  Relief  Society,  Little  Sisters' 
InfantShelter,  Seamen's  Friends  Society,  San  Francisco  Benevolent 
Society,  Ladies'  United  Hebrew  Benevolent  Society,  San  Francisco 
Fruit  and  Flower  Missiou,  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
Pacific  Homujopathic  Dispensary,  Lying-in  Hospital.  Besides 
these  there  are  a  great  number  of' associations  which  care  for  their 
members,  and  in  some  instances  provide  tho  best  medical  attend- 
ance in  private  hospitals.  Nearly  all  classes  of  foreign  nativity 
have  established  benevolent  associations  ;  British,  French,  andt 
German  institutions  have  large  resources,  and  are  managed  with 
great  efficiency.  Nearly  all  the  secret  orders  (Masonic,  Oddfellows, 
^c. )  devoted  in  whole  or  in  part  to  works  of  benevolence  are 
strongly  represented. 

Public.  Schools. — The  first  public  school  was  established  in  April 
1849.  There"  are  now  sixty-one  free  schools,  with  43,265  jjupils 
and  an  average  daily  attendance  of'  32,183.  The  number  of 
children  in  the  city  between  the  ages  of  five  and  seventeen  years 
according  to  the  censii.s  report  of  18S0  was  69,000.  The  number 
of  teachers,  male  and  female,  employed  iu  the  public  school 
(^partmeut  was  734,  the  number  of  schoolhouscs  65,  and  tho 
expenditure  for  the  fiscal  year  $817,163.  The  public  schools  are 
graded,  the  highest  grades  being  two  high  schools  for  boys  ami 
girls  respectively.  Besides  the  day  schools  a  number  of  evening 
schools  are  provided.  There  are  upwards  of  25,000  children  who 
are  to  a  large  e-xtent  provided  mth  instruction  in  public  and  private 
schools  other  than  those  belonging  to  the  free-school  department. 
There  are  about  100  schools  in  the  city,  of  all  grades,  which  are 
supported  wholly  by  fees  and  voluntary  contributions.  Of  these 
the  Komait  Catholics  have  the  greatest  number,  the  latter  inclnd- 
ing  two  colleges  and  a  number  ot^  convent  schools.  The  Protestant 
denominations  also  have  a  number  of  classical  and  sccondarj' 
schools  of  great  excellence.  The  public-school  system  of  the  State 
culminates  in  the  university  of  California,  which  has  an  aggi-egate 
endowment  equal  to  about  $3,000,000.  .  The  institution  is  situated 
in  tho  beautiful  suburban  town  of  Berkeley,  on  the  opposite  sido 
of  tho  bay  (named  in  honour  of  Bishop  Berkeley).  Instruction  is 
furnished  free  to  all  pupils  who  comply  with  the  terms  of  admis- 
sion. There  are  also  a  number  of  professional  schools  in  the  city, 
chief  among  -vyliich  are  the  law,  medical,  and  dental  departments 
of  the  university,  the  Cooper  Medical  College,  Xhe  Hahnemann 
Medical  College,  the  San  Francisco  Theological  Seminary,  and  an 
art  school  with  an  average  attendance  of  about  75  students.  The 
late  James  Lick  left  a  bequest  of  $540,000  for  the  endowment  of  a 
School  of  Jleehauie  Arts,  and  among  other  bequests  a  large  one  for 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  in  the  early  period  of  tho  city. 
The  public-school  department  of  San  Francisco  is  under  tho 
immediate  supervision  of  a  superintendent  and  twelve  school 
directors,  one  fer  each  ward  of  the  city.  There  are  eighteen  public 
libraries,  including  the  free  libraiy  with  52,970  volumes.  Tha 
Mercantile  Library  Asiociation  has  52.000  volumcs-the  Mechanics" 


S  A  N  —  S  A   N 


•JG5 


Institute  33,000,  tlie  Oildfeliows'  Library  Association  39,000,  and  j 
l^e  Law  Library  23,355.     Thero.is  also  a  rich  and  extensive  State 
■mineralogical  collection.  (W.  C.  B. ) 

SANGALLO,  the  surname  of  a  Florentine  family, 
several  members  of  which  became  distinguished  in  the 
£ne  arts. 

I.  GitTLiANO  Di  Sang.^llo  (1443-1517)  was  a  dis- 
tinguished Florentine  architect,  sculptor,  tarsiatore,  and 
military  engineer.  His  father,  Francesco  di  Paolo  Giam- 
Ijerti,  was  also  an  able  architect,  much  employed  by  Cosimo 
de'  Jledici.  During  the  early  part  of  his  life  Giuliano 
worked  chiefly  for  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  for  whom  he 
built  a  fine  palace  at  Poggio-a-Cajano,  between  Florence 
and  Pistoia,  and  strengthened  the  fortifications  of  Flor- 
ence, Castellana,  and  other  places.  Lorenzo  al.so  employed 
liira  to  build  a  monastery  of  Austin  Friars  outside  the 
Florentine  gate  of  San  Gallo,  a  nobly  designed  structure, 
■which  was  destroyed  during  the  siege  of  Florence  in  1530. 
It  was  from  this  building  that  Giuliano  received  the 
name  of  Sangallo,  which  was  afterwards  used  by  so  many 
Italian  architects.  While  still  in  the  pay  of  Lorenzo, 
<TiuIiano  visited  Naples,  and  worked  there  for  the  king, 
who  highly  appreciated  his  services  and  sent  him  back  to 
Florence  with  many  handsome  presents  of  money,  plate, 
and  antique  sculpture,  the  last  of  which  Giuliano  presented 
to  bis  patron  Lorenzo,  who  was  an  enthusiastic  collector 
■of  works  of  classic  art.  After  Lorenzo's  death  in  1492, 
■Giuliano  visited  Loreto,  and  with  great  constructive  skill 
l)uilt  the  dome  of  the  church  of  the  Madonna,  in  spite  of 
rscrious  difficulties  arising  from  its  defective  piers,  which 
■were  already  built.  In  order  to  gain  strength  by  means 
•of  a  strong  cement,  Giuliano  built  his  dome  with  pozzolana 
trought  from  Rome.  Soon  after  this,  at  the  invitation  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  Giuliano  went  to  Eome,  and  designed 
the  fine  panelled  ceiling  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore.  He  was 
also  largely  employed  by  Julius  II.,  both,  for  fortification 
ivalls  round  the  castle  of  S.  Angolo,  and  also  to  build  a 
■jKilace  adjoining  the  church  of  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  of 
Avhich  Julius  had  been  titular  cardinal.  Giuliano  was 
much  disappointed  that  Bramante  was  preferred  to  him- 
self as  architect  for  the  new  basilica  of  St  Peter,  and  this 
led  to  his  returning  to  Florence,  where  he  was  warmly 
received  by  the  gonfaloniere  Pier  Soderini,  and  did  much 
;service  to  his  native  state  by  his  able  help  as  a  military 
engineer  and  builder  of  fortresses  diu'ing  the  war  between 
Florence  and  Pisa.  Soon  after  this  Giuliano  was  recalled 
to  Rome  by  Julius  II.,  who  had  much  need  for  his  military 
talents  both  in  Rome  itself  and  also  during  his  attack 
upon  Bologna.  For  about  eighteen  months  in  1514-1515 
Giuliano  acted  as  joint-architect  to  St  Peter's  together 
■with  Raphael,  but  owing  to  age  and  ill-health  he  resigned 
this  office  about  two  years  before  his  death  in  1517.  But 
little  remains  to  enable  one  to  judge  of  Giuliano's  talents 
in  the  ■■artistic  side  of  his  profession ;  the  greliter  part  of 
his  life  was  spent  on  military  works,  in  which  he  evidently 
showed  great  skill  and  practical  knowledge  of  constructio.i. 

IL  Antonio  di  Sangau-o  (1448!-15;U)  was  the 
younger  brother  of  Giuliano,  and  took  from  him  the  name 
■of  Sangallo.  To  a  great  extent  ho  worked  in  partnership 
with  his  brother,  but  he  also  executed  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent works.  As  a  military  engineer  ho  was  as  skil.'ul 
as  Giuliano,  and  carried  out  important  works  of  walling 
and  building  fortresses  at  Arezzo,  Montefiascone,  Florence, 
and  Rome.  His  finest  existing  work  as  an  architect  is 
the  church  of  S.  Eiagio  at  Montepulciano,  ia  plan  a 
Greek  cross  with  central  dome  and  two  tow(;rs,  much 
resembling,  on  a  small  scale,  Bramante's  design  for  St 
Peter's.  Ho  also  built  a  palace  in  the  same  c.ty,  various 
churches  and  palaces  at  Monte  Sansavino,  and  it  Florence 
.»   range   of    monastic  buildings   for    the    So/vite   monks. 


An.tonio  retired  early  from  the  practice  of  his  profession, 
and  spent  his  latter  years  .in  fanning. 

III.  Francesco  di  Sangallo  (1493-1570),  the  son  of 
Giuliano  di  Sangallo,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Sansovino, 
and  worked  chiefly  as  a  sculptor.  His  works  have  for  the 
most  part  but  little  merit, — the  finest  being  his  noble 
efligy  of  Bishop  Leonardo  Eonafcde,  which  lies  on  the 
pavement  of  the  church  of  tlie  Certosa,  near  Florence.  It 
Is  simply  treated,  with  many  traces  of  the  better  taste  of 
the  15th  century.  His  other  chief  existing  work  is  the 
group  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  and  St  Anne,  executed  in 
1526  for  the  altar  of  Or  San  Michele,  where  it  still  stands. 

IV.  Bastiano  di  S.\ngallo  (1481-1551),  Florentine 
sculptor  and  painter,  was  a  nephew  of  Giuliano  and 
Antonio.  He  is  usually  knoj-vn  as  Aristotile,  a  nickname 
he  received  from  his  air  of  sententious  gravity.  He  was 
at  first  a  pupil  of  Perugino,  but  afterwards  became  a 
follower  of  Michelangelo.  His  life  is  given  at  great 
length  by  Vasari,  in  spite  of  his  being  an  artist  of  very 
mediocre  powers. 

V.  Antonio  di  Sangallo,  the  younger  (1-1546),  another 
nephew  of  Giuliano,  went  while  very  young  to  Rome,  and 
became  a  pupil  of  Bramante,  of  whose  style  he  was  after- 
wards a  close  follower.  He  lived  and  worked  in  Rome 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  and  was  much  employed 
by  several  of  the  popes.  His  most  perfect  existing  work 
is  the  brick  and  travertine  church  of  S.  JIaria  di  Loreto, 
close  by  Trajan's  column,  a  building  remarkable  for  the 
great  beauty  of  its  proportions,  and  its  noble  effect  pro- 
duced with  much  simplicity.  The  lower  order  is  square  iu 
plan,  the  next  octagonal ;  and  the  whole  is  surmounted  by 
a  fine  dome  and  lofty  lantern.  The  lantern  is,  however,  a 
later  addition.  The  interior  is  very  impressive,  considering 
its  very  moderate  size.  Antonio  also  carried  out  the  lofty 
and  well-designed  church  of  S.  Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini, 
which  had  been  begun  by  Jacobo  Sansovino.  The  east  end 
of  this  church  rises  in  a  very  stately  way  out  of  the  bed  of 
the  Tiber,  near  the  bridge  of  S.  Angelo ;  the  west  cud  has 
been  ruined  by  the  addition  of  a  later  faijade,  but  the 
interior  is  a  noble  example  of  a  somewhat  dull  style.  Great 
skill  has  been  shown  in  successfully  building  this  large 
church,  partly  on  the  solid  ground  of  the  br.nk  and  partly 
on  the  shifting  sand  of  the  river  bed.  Antonio  also  built 
the  Cappella  Paolina  and  other  parts  of  the  Vatican,  together 
with  additions  to  the  walls  and  forts  of  the  Leonine  City. 
His  most  ornate  work  is  the  lower  part  of  the  cortile  of  tlio 
Farnese  palace,  afterwards  completed  by  ^Micheldngelo,  a 
very  rich  and  well-proportioned  specimen  of  the  then 
favourite  design,  a>series  of  arches  between  engaged  columns 
supporting  an  entablature,  an  arrangement  taken  from  tha 
outside  of  the  Colosseum.  A  palace  in  the  Via  Giulia 
built  for  himself  still  exists  under  the  name  of  the  Palazzo 
Sacchetti,  but  is  much  injured  by  alterations.  Antonio 
also  constructed  the  very  deep  and  ingenious  rock-cut  well 
at  Orvieto,  formed  with  a  double  spiral  staircase,  like  the 
well  of  Saladin  in  the  citadel  of  Cairo. 

For  other  architects  called  Sang.illo  who  lived  during  the  ICili 

century  see  Ravioli,  Xotixic  sui  lavori dci  jtovc  l)a  San 

Oallo,  Eome,  1860.  (.J.  H.'  M.) 

SAXGERIIAUSEN,  an  ancient  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  is  situated  on  the  Gonna,  near  the  south  base  of 
tho  Harz  Mountain.%  and  30  miles  to  the  west  of  Halle. 
In  1880  it  contained  2L3G  inhabitants,  chiefly  occupied  in 
tho  manufacture  of  licetroot  sugar,  machinery,  buttons, 
A-c,  in  agriculture,  and  in  the  coal  and  copper  mines  of  the 
neighbourhood.  Sangerhauscn  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
ill  Thuringia,  being  mentioned  in  a  document  of  the  10th 
century.  The  Romanesque  church  of  St  Ulrich  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Louis  tho  "Springer,"  margrave  of 
Thuringia,  in  1079. 

XXL  -  34 


266 


S  A  JN  —  !S  A  K 


SANHEDRIN.     See  Synedridm. 

SANITATION.     See  Hycjiene  and  Sewage. 

SAN  JOSE,  the  capital  of  Costa  Rica,  Central  America, 
stands  3900  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  beautiful  valley  sur- 
roundedby  mountains;  on  the  west  side  of  the  main  range 
about  15  miles  north-west  of  Cartago  (the  ancifent  capital), 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway  (1884).  iSince 
1870  the  cathedral  has  been  restored,  a  handsome  market- 
place with  offices  for  the  municipality  erected,  the  barracks 
rebuilt  and  fortified,  and  several  of  the  streets  macadam- 
ized. San  Jos6  is  the  seat  of  the  national  bank  (lounded 
in  1873)  and  of  a  university,  to  which  a  medical  .school 
and  a  museum  are  attached.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  from  20,000  to  25,000.  As  a  city  it  dates  from  the 
latter  half  of  the  18  th  century ;  it  became  the  capital  after 
the  destruction  of  Cartago  by  earthquake  in  1841 

SAN  JOSE,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Santa  Clara  county,  California,  lies  40  miles  ^outh-east  of 
San  Francisco  and  8  miles  from  the  southern  end  of  San 
Francisco  Bay,  in  the  heart  of  the  beautiful  Santa  Clara 
Valley.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  railways  from  the  two 
sides  of  the  bay  meet.  .  The  main  part  of  the  city  occupies 
a  gently  rising  plateau  between  the  Coyote  and  Guadalupe 
rivers.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  a  fine  court- 
house, a  theatre,  a  city-hall,  two  markets,  a  music-hall, 
the  State  normal  school,  the  Jlethodist  "  university  of  the 
Pacific,"  and  a  number  of  large  colleges  and  schools. 
Besides  three  public  parks  in  the  city  San  Jos^  possesses 
a  tract  of  400  acres  in  Penitencia  Canon,  7  miles  east, 
reserved  for  a  similar  purpose.  The  Lick  Observatory 
(founded  in  1884  on  the  t^op  of  Mount  Hamilton)  is  12 
miles  distant,  and  the  Almaden  cjuicksilver  mines  about 
14  miles.  The  population  of  the  city  was  9080  in  1870, 
and  12,567  (township  18,103)  in  1880. 

Founded  by  the  Spanish  missionaries  in  1777,  San  Jose  remained 
a  small  village  of  adobe  but3  till  the  annexation  of  the  country  to 
the  United  States.  The  first  sos.^ioc  of  the  legislature  of  California 
was  held  in  the  town  in  1849-50. 

SAN  JUAN  BAUTISTA.     See  Pokto  Rico. 

SAN  JUAN  DE  LA  FRONTERA,  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  is  situated  2310  feet 
above  the  sea  in  a  great  bend  of  the  Rio  de  San  Juan,  95 
miles  north  of  Mendoza  and  730  miles  from  Eiierios  Ayres, 
with  which  it  is  about  to  be  connected  by  rail  (1886).  "It 
is  mostly  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  has  a  cathedral,  several 
churches  and  schools,  two  banks,  and  a  botanical  garden, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  Chili  by  the  Patos 
and  Uspallata  passes.      Population  estimated  at  20,000 

assi). 

San  Juan  was  founaed  in  1561  by  Captain  Castillo  on  a  site  4 
miles  to  the  north,  which  had  to  be  abandoned  owin,?:i  to  inundations 
and  is  now  called  Pueblo  Viejo.  From  1776  to  1820  the  city  was 
in  the  government  of  Mendoza.  I  resident  Sarmiento  bestowed 
apecial  attention  ou  this  his  native  town  and  gave  his  name  to  its 
firincipal  school,  famous  throughout  the  republic  for  its  excellent 
equipment. 

SAN  JUAN  DEL  NORTE.     See  Geeytown. 

SAN  JUAN  (or  HARO)  ISLANDS,  an  archipelago 
(San  Juan,  Orcas,  Shaw,  Lopez,  Blakely,  Cypress,  &c.)  lying 
between  Vancouver  Island  and  the  mainland  of  North 
America,  which  were  for  many  years  the  subject  of  dispute 
between  the  British  and  the  United  States  Governments, 
and  were  finally  assigned  to  the  latter  country  by  the 
arbitration  of  the  em.peror  of  Germany  (21st  October 
1872).  Geographically  the  cluster  certainly  belongs  to  the 
mainland,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Bosario  Channel, 
generally  much  under  50  fathoms  in  depth,  whilp  Haro 
Strait,  separating  it  from  Vancouver  Island,  has  depths 
ranging  from  100  to  190  fathoms.  In  1873  the  islands, 
formerly  considered  part  of  Whatcom  county,  Washington 
Territory,  were  made  the  separate  county  of  San  Juan.  Of 
the  total  area  of  200  square  miles,  abr n*;  60  are  in  San 


Juac,  GO  in  Crcas,  and  ?0  in  Lopez.     The  population  was 
554  in  1870  and  948  in  1880. 

Sec  Papers  relating  to  the  Treaty  of  Washington,  vol.  v.,  1S72, 
and  tho  map  in  Petermann's  Mitthcilungcn,  1873. 

SANKT  jqilANN.     See  SaarbeUcken. 

S-INKT  POLTEN,  a  small  town,  and  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  in  Lower  Austria,  is  situated  on  the  TreLseu,  a 
tributary  of  the  Danube,  61  miles  west  of  Vienna  by  rail. 
It  contains  an  interesting  old  abbey  church,  founded  in 
1030  and  restored  ia  1266  and  again  at  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century.  There  are  several  religious  educational 
institutions  in  the  town,  and  a  military  academy  for 
engineers.  The  inhabitants,  10,015  in  number,  carry  on 
some  trade,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  wire,  paper, 
weapons,  ikc.  The  name  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Traisma  ad  S.  Hippolytum,  from  a  convent  that  formerly 
stood  here.  The  history  of  the  bishopric  has  been  .written 
in  two  volumes  by  Kerschbaumer  (Vienna,  1875-6). 

SAN  LUCAR  DE  BARRAMEDA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Cadiz,  and  27  miles  by  sea  from  that  city, 
in  a  bare,  sandy,  and  undulating  country,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Guadalquivir,  not  far  from  its  mouth.  It  stands 
partly  on  the  flat  bank  of  the  river  and  partly  on  the 
rising  ground  behind,  the  summit  of  which  is  crowned  by 
an  old  Moorish  castle.  There  is  an  old  parish  church 
dating  from  the  14th  century.  The  other  buildings  have 
no  special  interest,  and  the  ■  place  as  a  whole  is  dull  and 
lifeless,  having  lost  much  of  the  commercial  importance  it 
formerly  possessed.  It  is  now  chiefly  dependent  on  the 
trade  in  its  wines,  which  is  still  considerable.  Many  of 
the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  agriculture  and  fishing. 
The  population  within  the  municipal  boundaries  was 
21,918  in  1877. 

SAN  LUIS  POTOSI,  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the 
state  of  the  sani6  name,  is  situated  at  a  height  of  G200 
feet  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  great  plain  of  Anahuac,  in 
a  valle}'  running  north  and  south,  160  miles  north-west  of 
Queretaro.  It  is  a  great  centre  for  the  "  diligence  "  traffic, 
and  in  1885  was  connected  by  rail  with  Tampico,  a  pro- 
mising harbour  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  city  proper, 
which  has  a  rather  imposing  Oriental  'appearance,  is  laid 
out  with  great  regularity ;  the  streets  are  well-paved,  and 
the  houses,  usually  two  stories  in  height,  are  frequently 
fine  specimens  of  old  Spanish  architecture.  But  suburbs 
of  wretched  hovels  spread  over  a  considerable  area. 
Among  the  conspicuous  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the 
Government  house,  with  a  front  in  rose-coloured  stone,  the 
city-hall,  the  mint,  the  churches  of  El  Carmen,  San  Fran- 
cisco, &c.,  and  the  recently  erected  "  American "  hotel, 
which,  with  tramways,  telephones,  and  electric  light,  is  a 
symptom  of  the  Occidentalizing  that  is  rapidly  taking  place 
in  the  inland  cities  of  Me.xico.  The  Instituto  Cientifico  is 
a  kind  of  university  for  the  teaching  of  law,  medicine,  and 
the  exact  sciences.  Plaza  Hidalgo  takes  its  name  from 
the  statue  to  the  martyr  of  Jlexican  independence.  A 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  cattle,  hides,  and 
tallow.  The  population  is  stated  at  30,000.  or  with  the 
suburbs  60,000. 

Founded  in  1586,  San  Luis  Potosi  has  played  an  important  part 
lu  the  Mexican  civil  wars.  Irl  1863  it  was  the  seat  of  the  national 
government  under  Juarez,  and  after  being  occunied  by  Bazaino  was 
i-ecovered  by  Juarez  in  1867. 

SAN  MARINO,  the  smallest  independent  republic  in 
Europe,  has  an  area  of  33  square  miles  (Strelbitsky),  lies 
between  the  provinces  of  Forli  and  Pesaro-Urbino,  and 
consists  of  part  of  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Apennines. 
Monte  Titano,  the  central  and  culminating  summit,  has 
three  peaks  {11.  Guaita,  Cucco,  and  Gista),  the  three  Penne 
of  San  Marino — a  name  evidently  identical  with  the  Celtic 
Penn  or  Bcnn,  but  translated  by  the  canting  heraldry  of 
the  republic's' coat  of  arras  as  three  "  feathers."_  The  two 


S  A  N  —  S  A  i^ 


2G7 


streams  (Marecchia  and  Ausa)  which  pass  through  Itimmi 
to  the  sea  have  their  head-w-aters  partly  in  the  north  and 
.\*est  of  San  Marino,  while  its  south-eastern  valleys  are 
drained  by  the  sources  of  the  Marano.  Farming  and 
stock-raising  occupy  the  bulk  of  the  population  (total,  5700 
in  1850,  7S16  in  1874),  and  their  wines  and  oxen  are  both 
highly  prized.  The  city  of  San  Marino  (1600  inhabitants), 
formerly  reached  only  by  a  niuie-track  but  since  1875  by 
a  good  carriage-road,  is  a  quaint  little  place  with  steep 
and  narrow  streets  and  picturesque  but  gloomy  houses  of 
undressed  stone,  and  containing  five  churches,  a  council- 
hall,  an  audience  chamber,  a  law  court,  a  little  theatre,  a 
museum,  and  a  library.  In  the  centre  of  the  principal 
square  (Pianello)  stands  a  white  marble  statue  of  Liberty, 
presented  by  the  duchess  of  Acquaviva.  At  the  foot  of 
the  city-hill  lies  the  Eorgo  di  San  ]\Iarino  (the  commercial 
centre  of  the  republic);  and  other  municipal  vijlages  are 
Serravalle,  Faetano,  and  Montcgiardino,  each  with  remains 
of  its  castle  and  fortifications. 

The  republic  is  c;ovcrncJ  by  a  great  council  {Gcncralc-Consifjlio- 
Princi2)c)  of  60  members  (20  nobles,  20  burgesses,  20  rural  land- 
owners) named  for  life  by  the  council  itsc-lt".  From  this  body  is 
elected  the  Council  of  Twelve,  wliicli  with  the  assistance  of  a  legal 
adviser  decides  in  the  third  and  last  resort.  Two  captains-regent 
elected  every  six  uiontlis  (one  from  the  nobles,  one  from  the  other 
two  classes)  represent  the  state,  which  also  has  ita  home  secretary, 
its  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  its  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  an 
army  of  950  mci^  and  a  regular  budget.  By  treaty  with  Italy 
(1872)  San  Marino,  instead  of  maintaining  a  customs  line  of  its 
own,  receives  a  certain  proportion  of  the  Italian  customs  revenue, 
and,  agreeing  jjot  to  grow  tobacco,  is  allowed  to  purchase  foreign 
tobacco  duty  fi'ee.  To  avoid  any  difficulty  about  copyright  there 
is  no  }irinting  press  in  the  republic. 

San  Mariuo  derives  its  name  from  a  certain  Dalmatian  mason 
who,  along  with  a  comrade  immortalized  by  the  neighbouring  castle 
and  cathedral  of  San  Leo,  settled  in  this  region  in  the  3d  century. 
The  bones  of  JIarinus  are  said  to  have  been  removed  to  Pavia  by 
the  Lombard  king  Astolphus  and  restored  to  the  little  city  on 
Mount  Titanus  by  Pippin;  but  the  first  authentic  document  proving 
the  existence  of  the  community  dates  from  885.  Situated  as  a 
bulwark  between  the  hostile  houses  of  Montefeltro  and  Malatesta, 
San  JIarino  fortunately  attached  itself  to  the  stronger  party,  which 
in  the  15th  century  placed  its  representative  on  the  ducal  throne 
of  Urbino.  The  assistance  which  it  rendered  Duke  Federigo  and 
liis  all;cs,  the  king  of  Naples  and  the  pope,  against  Sigismondo 
Malatesta  was  rewarded  in  1463  with  the  castles  and  teiTitories 
of  Serravalle,  Fafetano,  and  Montcgiardino.  On  the  annexation  of 
Urbino  to  the  States  of  the  Church  (1631),  the  independence  of  San 
Marino  was  acknowledged;  and  the  unauthorized  assertion  of  papal 
jurisdiction  by  Alberoni  in  1739  was  disallowed  by  Clement  XII. 
on  February  5tli  1740.  In  1797  Napoleon  I.  decided  to  preserve 
this  "(Jchantillon  de  republique;"  andinl85i  it  was  protected  from 
the  designs  of  Pius  I\.  by  the  interference  of  Napoleon  HI.  At 
the  unification  of  Italy,  Cibrario,  a  citizen  in  the  service  of  the  house 
of  Savoy,  helped  to  secure  excellent  terms  for  San  Marino. 

■  Sec  Melclilorrc  Dclfico.  ifcmorie  tloriche  .  .  .  Ji  San  Marino  ;  Marino  Fatlnri, 
liicordi  tlorici  ....  18C9;  Count  Bruc,  5(  Martji,  Vavi-t.  IHIG  ;  Bent,  il  /"real: 
o/  Freedom,  1879  ;  Casail,  La  t-cpuLblica  Ji  San  i/ariiitx,  JJiltiii,  1S81. 

SAN  MARTIN  DE  JOSli:  (1778-1850),  Chilian  gene- 
ral, was  born  at  Yapeyil,  on  the  Uruguay  river,  February 
25,  1778.  In  his  eighth  or  ninth  year  he  accompanied  his 
own  family  to  Spain  for  his  education,  and  being  intended 
for  the  military  profession  W'as  admitted  into  the  college  of 
nobles  at  JIadrid.  He  saw  active  service  and  gained  dis- 
tinction in  the  war  of  independence,  and  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  when  in  1811  he  returned  to  La 
Plata.  Entering  the  service  of  the  insurgents  there  he  was 
entrusted  with  raising  a  troop  of  cavalry,  and  afterwards 
was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  acting  in 
Upper  Peru  against  the  forces  of  the  viceroy  of  Lima. 
After  re-establishing  his  health  at  Cordova  in  181  i,  he 
proceeded  in  1815  to  take  command  of  Cuyo,  where  ♦he 
organized  an  expedition  for  the  liberation  of  Chili  (see  vol. 
V.  p.  618).  Ho  crossed  the  mountains  early  in  1817,  and, 
after  gaining  a  brilliant  victory  at  Chacabuco  on  12th 
February,  was  pressed  by  the  people  of  Chili  to  take  the 
supreme  command,  and  gained  a  still  more  brilliant  victory 
4t  Alaypii,  5th  April  1818.     After  organizing  the  govern- 


ment of  Chili  he  sailed  with  the  squadron  under  Lord 
Cochrane  for  Peru,  21st  August  1820,  and,  capturing  Lima, 
drove  the  Spaniards  from  the  coi.st  and  assumed  the  title 
of  "Protector"  of  Peru  in  1821,  but  resigned  it  a  year 
afterwirds,  and,  sailing  secretly  for  Europe,  spent  the 
remaiiider  of  his  life  in  absolute  seclusion  near  Paris.  He 
died  at  Boulogne,  17th  August  1S50. 

See  Biographical  Sketch  of  General  San  Martin  attached  to 
Pcncvian  Pa7tiphlct,  hcin^  an  exposition  of  the  Administrative 
Labours  of  the  Peruvian  Government,  1823. 

SANMICHELE,Michele(1  484-1559),  oneof  the  ablest 
architects  of  his  time,  learnt  the  elements  of  his  profession 
from  his  father  Giovanni  and  his  uncle  Bartolommeo,  who 
both  practised  as  architects  at  Verona  with  much  success. 
Like  almost  all  the  enthusiastic  students  of  that  time 
he  went  at  an  early  age  to  Rome  to  study  classic  sculp- 
ture and  architecture.  His  great  talents  soon  became 
known,  and  he  designed  and  carried  out  a  very  large 
number  of  works  at  Verona,  Venice,  and  other  places. 
Among  his  earliest  are  the  duomo  of  Montefiascone  (an  . 
octagonal  building  surmounted  with  a  cupola),  the  chm'ch 
of  San  Domenico  at  Orvieto,  and  several  palaces  at  both 
places.  He  also  executed  a  fine  tomb  in  S.  Domenico.^ 
He  was  no  less  distinguished  as  a  military  architect,  and 
was  much  employed  by  the  signoria  of  Venice,  not  only 
at  home,  but  also  in  strengthening  the  fortifications  of 
Corfu,  Cyprus,  and  Candia.^  One  of  Sanmichele's  most 
graceful  designs  is  the  Cappella  de'  Peregrini  in  the  church 
of  S.  Bernardino  at  Verona-^square  outside  and  circular 
within,  of  the  Corinthian  order.^  He  built  a  great  number 
of  fine  palaces  at  Verona,  five  of  which  still  exist,  as  well 
as  the  graceful  Ponte  Nuovo.  His  last  work,  begun  ia 
1559,  was  the  round  church  of  the  Madonna  di  Campagna, 
a  mile  and  a  half  from  Verona  on  the  road  to  Venice. 
Like  most  other  distinguished  architects  of  his  time  he 
wrote  a  work  on  classic  architecture,  Li  Cinque  Ordini 
dell'  Architetttira,  printed  at  Verona  in  1735.  Sanmichele 
to  some  extent  followed  the  earlier  style  of  BruncUeschi; 
his  work  is  always  refined  and  his  detail  delicate.  His 
chief  pupil  was  his  nephew  Bernardino. 

See  Roiizani  and  Luciolli,  Fahhrichc  .  .  .  .  di  M.  SammichelCy 
"Venice,  1832  ;  and  Selva,  Elogio  di  Sanviichele,  Rome,  1814. 

SAN  MIGUEL  (S.  Saivadok),  or  St  Michael's.  See 
Azores,  vol.  iii.  p.  171. 

SANNAZARO,  Jacopo  (1458-1530;,  one  of- the  poets 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  was  born  in  1458  at  Naples 
of  a  noble  family,  said  to  have  been  of  Spanish  origin, 
which  had  its  seat  at  San  Nazaro  near  Pavia.  -His  father 
died  during  the  boyhood  of  Jacopo,  who  was  accordingly 
brought  up  in  a  very  plain  way  at  Nocera  Inferiore.  He 
afterwards  studied  at  Naples  under  Pontanus,  when, 
according  to  the  fashion  of  the  time,  he  assumed  the  name 
Actius  Syncerus,  by  which  he  is  occasionally  referred  to. 
After  the  death  of  his  mother  he  went  abroad, — driven, 
wo  are  told,  by  the  pangs  of  despised  love  for  a  certain 
Carmosina,  whom  ho  has  celebrated  in  his  verse  under 
various  names ;  but  'of  the  details  of  his  travels  nothing  is 
recorded.  On  his  return  he  speedily  achieved  fame  as  a 
poet  and  place  as  a  courtier,  receiving  from  Frederick  III. 
as  a  country  residence  the  Villa  Mergillina  near  Naples. 
When  his  patron  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  France 
in  1501  he  was  accompanied  b;^  Sannazaro,  who  did  not 
return  to  Italy  till  after  his  death  (1304).  The  later  years 
of  the  poet  seem  to  have  been  spent  at  Naples  without 
interruption  or  memorable  incident.  Ho  died  on  April  27, 
1530. 

The  Arcadia  of  Sannazaro,  begim  in  caily  life  and  published  in 
150J,  is  .a  somewhat  afTcctcd  and  insipid  Italian  pastoral,  in  wliich 

'  See  Delia  Valle,  Slfria  del  Dmmo  di  Orviclo,  Rome,  ITtll. 
-  Sec  B.irtcildi,  Sanmichele  al  ser.vi.vo  delta  repuljblica  Vcncta, 
'  See  Giuhari,  Cap.  de'  Peregrini,  Verona,  181G. 


268 


S  A  N  —  S  A  N 


See 
vcl  xi. 


in  nUernjito  prose  and  verso  the  scenes  and  occupations  of  pastoral 
life  arc  described.  His  now  seldom  read  Lutin  poem  Dc  T'artxt 
Virginis,  which  gained  for  him  the  name  of  the  *'  Christian  Virgil  " 
appeared  in  1526,  and  his  collected  Sonctii  c  Canzoni  in  li>30. 

SAN  REMO,  a  town  and  seaport  of  northern  Italy,  at 
tlio  head  of  a  circondario  in  the  province  of  Porto 
Maurizio  on  the  Western  Riviera,  16|  miles  by  rail  oast 
of  Mentone  and  84|  south-west  of  Genoa.  Climbing  tire 
slope  of  a  steep  hill,  it  looks  south  over  a  small  bay  of  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  and,  protected  towards  the  north  by  hills 
•ising  gradually  from  500  to  8000  feet,  has  the  reputaiion 
of  being  in  climate  one  of  the  most  favoured  places  on  the 
whole  coast.  The  narrow  stair-litS  streets  of. the  old 
town,  with  their  lofty  houses,  arched  gateways,  and  flying 
buttresses,  form  a  fine  contrast  to  the  modern  districts  of 
villas  and  hotels  which  have  sprung  up  since  about  18G0. 
Besides  the  Gothic  cathedral  of  San  Siro,  the  buildings 
of  most  interest  are  the  Madonna  della  Costa,  crowning 
the  highest  part  of  the  old  town,  the  town-house,  and 
the  hospital  for  cutaneous  diseases  founded  by  Charles 
Albert.  The  port,  formed  by  two  moles,  both  lengthened 
since  1880,  was  at  one  time  much  more  important,  its 
annual  movement  having  sunk  from  about  1000  in  1866 
to.  388  small  vessels  in  188-1.  The  population  of  the 
commune  (10,012  in  1861)  was  16,055  in  1881,-12,285 
'in  the  city  proper,  and  1717  in  the  suburbs  Poggio  and 
Verezzo. 

San  Remo,  identified  by  Girolamo  Rossi  {Storia  delta  CiUd) 
with  a  Greek  Leucothea  and  a  Roman  Matistra,  was  Christianized  by 
St  Ormisdas  and  his  pypil  St  Sirua.  Rehuilt  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Saraceng  from  Liguria,  it  took  the  name  of  San  Roinolo  from 
its  Gth-century  bishop  whose  death-day,  13th  October,  is  still  a  local 
fete.  In  what  \\ay  Romulus  was  supplanted  by  Remus  is  not 
clearly  ascertained.  In  1544  the  town  was  attacked  by  Barbarossa, 
and  in  1625  by  the  French  and  Savoyards.  The  Genoese,  against 
whose  encroachments  it  had  long  defended  its  independence,  sub- 
jugated it  in  1753  ;  and  in  1797  it  was  incorporated  in  the  district 
of  Palms  of  the  Liguriau  republic. 

SAN"  SALVADOR,  or  Salvador  {Eepiihlica  del  Sal- 
vador), the  smallest  but  most  densely  peopled  of  the 
republics  of  Central  America,  has  a  coast-line  of  160 
miles  along  the  Pacific  from  the  mouth  of  Rio  de  la  Paz 
to  that  of  the  Goascoran  in  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  and  is 
bounded  inland  by  Guatemala  on  the  west  and  Honduras 
on  the  north  and  east.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is 
140  miles,  and  its  average  breadth  about  60  miles.  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  7225  square  miles,  and  in  1SS3  it 
contained  613,273  inhabitants  (290,870  males,  322,403 
females).  With  the  exception  of  a  comparatively  narrow 
seaboard  of  low  alluvial  plains,  the  country  consists  mainly 
of  a  plateau  about  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  broken  by  a 
large  number  of  volcanic  cones,  geologically  of  more  recent 
origin  than  the  main  chain  of  the  Cordillera  which  lies 
farther  to  the  north.  The  principal  river  of  the  republic 
is  the  Rio  Lempa,  which,  rising  near  Esquipulas  in  Guate- 
mala and  crossing  a  corner  of  Honduras,  enters  Salvador 
north  of  CitalA.  After  receiving  from  the  right  the 
surplus  waters  of  the  Laguna  de  Cuija,  a  vast  lake 
belonging  partly  to  Guatemala  and  partly  to  Salvador,  it 
flows  for  nearly  a  degree  of  longitude  eastward  through  a 
magnificent  and  luxuriant  valley  between  the  plateau  and 
the  Cordillera,  and  then  turning  somewhat  abruptly  south 
skirts  the  base  of  the  volcano  of  Siguatepeque  and  reaches 
the  Pacific  in  88°  40'  W.  long.  Among  its  numerous 
tributaries  are  tlje  Rio  Santa  Ana,  rising  near  the  city  of 
that  name,  the  Asalguate,  which  passes  the  capital  San 
Salvador,  the  Sumpul,  which  forces  its  way  like  tlie 
Lempa  itself  athwart  the  mountains  from  Honduras,  and 
the  Torola,  draining  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Salvador 
and  part  of  Honduras.  The  Lempa  is  even  in  the  dry 
season  a  considerable  river  with  a  rapid  current,  and  for 
two-third.s  of  its  course  it  could  easily  bo  made  navigable 
for    stammers.     The    Rio  Ran   iiiigucl  utaias  tli3  country 


between  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  and  the  basin  of  the  Lempa. 
The  volcanic  mountains  do  not  form  a  chain  but  a  series  of 
clusters  : — the  Izalco  group  in  the  west — including  Izalco 
(formed  in  1770),  Marcelino,  Santa  Ana,  Naranjos,  Aguila, 
San  Juan  do  Dios,  Apaneca,  Tamajaso,  and  Lagunita ;  the 
San  Salvador  group,  about  30  miles  to  the  east ;  Cejute- 
peque  to  the  north-east  and  the  San  Vicente  group  to  the 
cast  of  the  great  volcanic  lake  of  Ilopango ;  the  Siguate- 
peque summits  to  the  north-east  of  San  Vicente ;  and  the 
great  south-eastern  or  San  Miguel  group — San  Miguel, 
Chinameca,  Bueuapa,  Usulatan,  Tecapa,  Taburete.  Caca- 
guateque  and  Sociedad  volcanoes  in  the  north-east  belong 
to  the  inland  Cordillera. 

The  volcanic  forces  in  Salvador  have  not  as  yet  spent  thems'jlves. 
Tlie  Izalco  vent  still  acts  as  a  safety  valve,  and  tlie  nei^libourhood 
of  the  capital  is  so  subject  to  tremblings  and  rockings  of  the 
earth  as  to  have  acquired  the  name  of  the  swinging  mat  or  ham- 
mock. The  city  itself  has  been  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1594, 
1668,  in  1719,  and  iu  1854.  San  Miguel  is  described  as  one  of  the 
most  treacherous  burning  nmuntains  in  America,  sometimes  several 
years  in  complete  repose  and  tlien  all  at  once  bursting  out  with 
terrific  fury  (Scherzer).  In  1879-1880  the  Lake  of  Ilopango  waa 
the  scene  of  a  remarkable  series  of  phenomena.  "With  a  length  of 
5\  miles  and  a  breadth  of  4},  it  forms  a  rough  parallelogram  witli 
deeply  indented  sides,  and  is  surrounded  in  all  directions  by  ateep 
mountains  except  at  the  points  where  the  villages  of  Asino  and 
Apulo  occupy  little  patches  of  level  ground.  Between  31st  Decem- 
ber 1879  and  11th  January  1830  the  bl;e  rose  four  feet  above  its 
lev?l.  The  Jiboa,  which  flows  out  at  the  south-east  corner,  became, 
instead  of  a  very  shallow  stream  20  feet  broad,  a  raging  torrent 
winch  soon  scooped  out  for  itself  in  the  volcanic  rocks  a  channel 
30  to  35  feet  deep.  A  rapid  subsidence  of  the  lake  was  thus  pro- 
duced, and  by  the  6th  ol"  March  the  level  was  34J  feet  below  its 
maximum.  Towards  the  centre  of  the  lake  a  volcanic  centre  about 
500  feet  in  diameter  rose  150  feet  above  the  water,  surrounded  by 
a  number  of  small  islands,  A  number  of  villages  were  ruined  by 
the  accompanying  earthquakes.  The  lake,  originally  stocked  by 
the  early  Spanish  settlers,  had  become  the  great  fish-pond  of  the 
republic.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  volcanic  forces,  the  fish  fled 
towards  the  sides,  and  on  tlio  receding  of  the  waters  their  dead 
bodies  were  left  behind  in  such  quantities  that  at  Asino  several 
hundred  men  were  employed  for  days  burying  them  to  avoid  a 
pestilence. 

It  is  less  to  these  natural  catastrophes  than  to  political 
instability  that  the  comparative  backwardness  of  Salvador  to 
develop  its  resources  of  soil  and  minerals  must  be  ascribed  ;  and 
considerable  progress  has  in  many  respects  been  made  since  the 
middle  of  the  centurv.  Cottce  is  now  the  principal  export  (to  the 
valueof$l,056,000  in  1873,53,416,104  in  1883).  Indigo,  for  along 
time  the  staple  of  the  country  and  exported  to  the  annual  value 
of  $20,000,000,  is  still  extensively  cultivated  {exjiorts  in  1883 
SI, 812,594).  As  this  indigo  is  generally  quoted  in  the  market  as 
Guatemalan,  so  another  valuable  product  of  Salvador  is  always 
designated  Balsam  of  Peru  (see  vol.  iii.  p.  293),  tluiugh  the  troo 
from  which  it  is  obtained  grows  naturally  nowhere  else  in  the 
world  except  in  a  limited  part  of  the  Salvadorian  seaboard  known 
as  the  Balsam  coast.  It  was  exported  in  18S3  to  the  value  of 
S53,612.  Other  productions  of  less  importance  are  tobacco, 
sai-saparilla,  india-rubber,  and  sugar.  The  silver  mines  have  been 
and  may  again  be  of  some  account  ;  and  coal  has  been  discovered 
inland.  On  the  whole  the  trade  of  the  country  has  greatly  in- 
creased :  the  imports  and  exports,  $1,306,378  and  §1,991,650 
rcsjicctively  in  1859,  were  82,401,463  and  $5,861,053  in  1883. 
At  the  time  of  Dr  Scherzer's  visit,  there  was  not  a  bridge  in  the 
country  ;  there  are  now  a  considerable  number  of  good  iron  bridges 
on  the  new  roads  between  the  principal  cities.  The  first  railway,  that 
from  Acajutla  to  Sonsonate  (15  miles)  was  opened  in  1882,  and  has 
since  been  continued  iu  the  direction  of  Santa  Ana,  the  chief 
commercial  town.  Telegraphic  communication  has  been  estab- 
■li':hcd  between  the  more  important  towns,  and  in  July  1882  the 
Central  and  North  American  Company  landed  its  cable  at  La 
Libertad.  Acajutla,  La  Libertad,  and  La  Union  or  San  Carlos 
de  la  "Union  (in  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca)  are  the  principal  harbours. 
Besides  the  capital  San  Salvador,  with  14, 059  iidiabitants,  there  were 
in  1878,  according  to  the  census,  68  places  in  the  republic  with 
over  2000  each— Santa  Ana  {29,90.S),  Nahuizalco  (9988),  S.nn 
Vicente  (9967),  San  Miguel  (9842),  Metapan  (9782),  Clialchuapa 
(8171),  Ahuachapan  (7930),  Nuevo  .Sau  Salvador  (7337),  fcc 
There  are  three  universities — San  Salvador,  Santa  Ana,  and  San 
J^Iiguel,  with  funds  partly  provided  by  a  quarter  of  the  customs, — 
a  girls'  college  at  Sauta  Ana,  and  a  fair  number  of  secondary 
and  primary  schools,  Salvador  received  this  name  from  Pedi-o 
Alcarcdo,  who,  when  he  conquered  it  for  Spain  in  1525-26,  fonnil 
it  n  rich  anil  populous  country.     Us  indepcuiiencc  of  the  Spanish 


S  A  N— S  A  N 


269 


crown  dates  from  1842  ;  in  1853  it  obtained  the  constitution  nndor 
which  (in  a  modified  form)  it  now  exists  as  z  sovereign  state. 
General  Barrios,  having  in  1858  obliged  the  president  Santin  del 
Castillo  to  abdicate,  secured  ^is  own  permanent  appointment  to  the 
ofHce  in  1860-;  but  in  1863-4  he  failed  in  his  endeavour  to  defend 
his  capital  against  the  Guatemalans,  and  when  he  returned  in  1864  to 
attack  Duefias,  the  Guatemalan  protege,  he  was  defeated  and  put  to 
death.  "'Pronureiamientos  "  have  since  been  the  too  general  pre- 
liminaries of  presidential  elections  ;  but  -there  has  been  no  serious 
war,  and  the  Enances  of  the  republic  have  usually  a  balance  on  the 
right  side. 

'See  Scherzer,"J'/-ape/s  in  Central  America  (1857);  sonnenstera,  Description 
del  estado  del  Salvador  (New  York,  1SJ9,  with  a  good  map  reprodaccd  In  beilin 
Zeilsch.  far  Ocograpfne,  1860)  ;  Dollfu3  and  Montscrrat,  Voy.  geologique  oan;  Ics 
r^vbliques  de  Ouat€ma!a  et  de  Salvador  (1868);  Blairet,  Le  Salvador  (1S72); 
Fnintzius'a  translation  of  De  Palaclo,  San  Salvador  and  Honduras  in  157G  (187;i); 
(Snsman,  Apuntamientos  sobrela  geogr.Jisica  de  la  rep.  del  Salvador,  18S3. 

SANSANDING,  or  Sansandig,  a  town  in  the  interior 
of  Western  Africa,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Niger,  in. 
13°  40'  N.  lat.-and  6°  25'  W.  long.,  and  included  in  the 
"empire"  of  Segu.  It  was  visited  by  Mungo  Parlt  in 
1796,  and  in  1865  by  Mage  and  Quintin,  who  witnessed 
the  stand  it  made  against  a'  siege  by  Ahmedu,  sultan  of 
Segu,  from  whom  it  had  revolted.  ^  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  30,000  to  40,000. 

SAN  SEBASTIAN,  a  seaport  of  Spain,  capital  of  tlie 
province  of  Guipuzcoa,  42  iailes  north-north-west  of 
Pamplona,  and  402  miles  by  rail  from  Madrid.  It 
occupies  a  narrow  isthmus,  terminated  lov.-ards  the  north 
by  a  lofty  conical  rock  called  UrguU  or  OrguUo,  and 
flanked  ^n  its  eastern  side  by  the  river  Urumea,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge,  and  on  the  other  by  a  bay  (La  Concha), 
which  forms  the  harbour.  The  summit  of  the  hill  is 
crowned  by  a  fort  (Castillo  de  la  Mota),  and  the  landward 
Bido  of  the  town  was  formerly  defended  by  solid  ramparts. 


The  houses  are  almost  all  modern,  built  uniformly  in 
straight  streets  and  regular  squares,  so  as  to  present  au 
appearance  quite  unlike  most  Spanish  towns.  There  are 
two  large  churches,  a  court-house,  a  theatre,  hospitals, 
barracks,  &c.  The  manufactures  of  the  place  are  insigni- 
ficant ;  and  the  harbour  is  small,  and  not  easily  accessible, 
though  well  protected  by  a  mole  and  small  island.  There 
is  a  considerable  trade  in  English  and  French  goods, — corn 
and  other  articles  being  exported.  During  summer  the 
town  is  much  frequented,  especially  by  the  wealthier 
inhabitants  of  Madrid,  for  sea-bathing,  and  .tent-like  huts 
are  set  up  for  the  purpose  on  the  shore  of  the  bay.  from 
its  position  and  strength  San  Sebastian  has  been  lofig  a 
place  of  much  importance,  and  has  sustained  several  sieges. 
The  most  memorable  of  these  was  in  August  1813,  when 
the  British,  under  Wellington,  took  it  by  storm.  The 
population  within  the  municipal  boundaries  was  21,355 
in  1877. 

SAN  SEVERO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  -of 
Foggia,  and  at  one  time  the  chief  town  of  the  Capitanata, 
lies  at  the  foot  of  the  spurs  of  Monte  Gargano,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  railway  to  Brindisi,  36  miles  south-east  of 
Termoli  and  17  north  of  Foggia.  .  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop 
(since  1580),  and  has  a  handsome  cathedral  and  some  re- 
mains of  its  old  fortifications.  In  1880  the  population 
was  19,756  (20,382  in  commune). 

San  Severe  dates  fi-om  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  laid  in  ruins  by 
Frederick  II.,  and  in  1053  was  the  scene  of  a  victory  by  liohert 
GuiscarJ  over  the  papal  troops  under  Leo  IX.  The  overlorjslap 
was  held  in  succession  by  the  Benedictines  of  Torre  Maggioro 
abbey,  the  Knights  Templars,  the  crown  of  Naples,  nnd  the  Sangro 
family  (commendatories  of  Torre  Jliiggiorc).  In  1627,  and  agaiu 
in  1828  snd  1851,  the  town  suffered  from  earthquakes. 


SANSKEIT   LANGUAGE   AND   LITEEATUEE 


PART  L— SANSKRIT  LANGUAGE. 


SANSKRIT  is  the  name  applied  by  Hindu  scholars  to 
the  ancient  literary  language  of  India.  The  word 
samshila  Ls  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  Icar,  "  to 
make "  (cognate  with  Latin  creo),  with  the  preposition 
tarn,  "  together  "  (cog.  a/m,  6/id?,  Eng.  "  same  "),  and  has 
probably  to  bo  taken  here  in  the  sense  of  "  completely 
formed"  or  "accurately  made,  polished," — some  noun 
meaning  "speech"  (esp.  bhuslui)  being  either  expressed 
or  understood  with  it.  The  term  was,  doubtless,  origin- 
ally adopted  by  native  grammarians  to  distinguish  the 
literary  language  of  the  educated  classes  from  the  uncul- 
tivated popular  dialects — the  forerunners  of  the  modern 
vernaculars  of  northern  India — which  liad,  from  an  early 
period,  developed  side  by  side  with  it,  and  which  were 
'called  (from  the  same  root  kar,  but  with  different  preposi- 
tions) PrAkrita^i.e.,  either  "derived"  or  "  natural,  common  " 
forms  of  speech.  But  this  designation  of  the  literary 
idiom,  being  evidently  intended  to  imply  a  language 
regulated  by  conventional  rules,  also  involves  a  distinction 
between  the  grammatically  fixed  language  of  Brahmanieal 
ilndia  and  an  earlier,  less  settled,  phase  of  the  same 
language  exhibited  in  the  Vedic  writings.  For  greater 
convenience  the  Vedic  language  is,  however,  usually 
included  in  the  term,  and  scholars  generally  distinguish 
between  the  Vedic  and  the  classical  Sanskrit.  •  The 
Sanskrit  language,  with  its  old  and  modern  descendants, 
represents  the  easternmost  branch  of  the  great  Indo- 
Germanic,  or  Aryan,  stock  of  speech.  Philological 
research  has  clearly  established  the  fact  that  the  Indo- 
Aryans  must  originally  have  immigrated  into  India  from 
the  north-west.  In  the  oldest  literary  documents  handed 
down  ty  them  their  gradual  advance  can  indeed  be  traced 


from  the  slopes  of  eastern  Kabulistan  dovfn'to'the  land  oV 
the  five  rivers  (Punjab),  and  thence  to  the  plains  of 
the  Yamun^  (Jumna)  and  Ganga  (Ganges).  Numerous 
special  coincidences,  both  of  language  and  mythology,  be- 
tween the  Vedic  Aryans  and  the  peoples  of  Iran  also  show , 
that  these  two  members  of  the  Indo-Germanic  family  must 
have  remained  in  close  connexion  for  some  considerable 
period  after  the  others  had  separated  from  them. 

The  origin  of  comparative  philology  ■  dates  from  the 
time  when  European  scholars  became  accurately  acquainted 
with  the  ancient  language  of  India.  '  Before  that  time 
classical  scholars  had  been  unable,  through  centuries  of 
learned  research,  to  determine  tho  true  relations  between' 
the  then  known  languages  of  our  stock.  ,  This  fact  alone 
shows  the  importance  of  Sanskrit  for  comparative  re- 
search. Though  its  value  in  this  rcs[)ect  has  perhaps  at 
times  been  overrated,  it  may  still  bo  considered  as  the 
eldest  daughter  of  the  old  mother-tongue.  '  Indeed,  so  far 
as  direct  documentary  evidence  goes,  it  may  rather  be 
said  to  be  the  only  surviving  daughter ;  for  none  of  tho 
other  si.-^  principal  members  of  the  family  have  left  any 
literary  monuments,  and  their  original  features  have  to  be 
reproduced,  as  best  they  can,  from  the  materials  supplied, 
by  their  own  daughter  languages:  such  is  the  case  as 
regards  tho  Iranic,  Hellenic,  Italic,  Celtic,  Teutonic,  and 
Lotto-Slavic  languages.  To  the  Sanskrit  the  antiquity 
and  extent  of  its  literary  documents,  the  transparency  of 
its  grammatical  structure,  the  comparatively  primitive 
state  of  its  accent  system,  and  the  thorough  grammatica 
treatment  it  has  early  received  at  the  hand  of  nitive 
scholars  must  ever  secure  the  foremost  place  in  the  com,- 
parative  study  cf  Indo-Germanic  speech. 


270 


S  xi  N  S  K  R  I  T 


.[langtjaqe. 


Alphabet      The  Sanskrit  alphabet  consists  of  the  following  sounns  :— 
(a)  Fourteen  vowels,  viz.:— 

Ten  simple  vowels  :  a  d,  i  i,  u  ■il,  r  f,  I  it) ;  and 
Four  diphthongs  :  S  di,  C  Cue. 
(6)  Thirty-chree  consonants,  viz. : — 
Five  scries  of  mutes  and  naacils  : 
guttural  :  k  kh  g  gk  n 
palatil  :  c  ck  j  jh  n 
lingual :  t  th  d  dk  n 
dental :  t  tk  d  dh  n 
labial :  p  ph  b  bJi  m  ; 
/our  semivowels  i  y  r  I  v  {w) ; 

Three  sibilants  :  palatal  i,  lingual  sh,  dental  s  ;  and 
A  soft  aspirate  :  A. 
(c)  Three  unoriginal  sounas,  viz, : — 

visarga  {h),  a  hard  aspirate,  standing  mostly  for  original 
5  or  r ;  and  two  nasal  sounds  of  less  close  contact  than 
the  mute-nasals,  viz.,  aniisv&ra  (m.)  and  anundsikc^  fmV 

Vowels.  As  regards  the  vowels,  a  prominent  feature  of  the  language  ^s  the 
prevalence  of  a-sounds,  these  being  about  twice  as  frequent  ks  all 
the  others,  including  diphthongs,  taken  together  (Whitney).  ] 

The  absence  of  the  short  vowels  ?  and  C  from  the  San^irit  alpha- 
bet, and  the  fact  that  Sanskrit  shows  the  a-vowel  ^here  other 
vowels  appear  in  other  languages, — e.g.^  bharantai)^  ^  <^f'poWa, 
fercnUm  ;  janas  =  ^eVos,  gcntts^ — were  formerly  cpnsidered  ns 
strong  evidence  in  favour  of  the  more  primitive  state  o^the 
Sanskrit  vowel  system  as  compared  with.  tlrat„..,of.,.ii*e-^ister 
languages.  Recent  research  has,  however,  shown  pretty  con- 
clusively from  certain  indications  in  the  Sanskrit  language  itself 
tliat  the  latter  must  at  one  time  have  possessed  the  same,  or  very 
nearly  the  same,  three  vowcUsounjis,  and  that  the  differentiation 
of  the  original  rt-sound  must,  therefore,  have  taken  place  before 
the  separation  of  the  languages. 

The  vowels  6  and  6,  'thougli  apparently  simple  sounds,  are  classed 
as  diphthongs,  being  contracted  from  original  ai  and  mi  respectively, 
and  liable  to  be  treated  as  such  in  the  phonetic  modifications  they 
have  to  undergo  befol'e  any  vowel  except  a. 
Conson*  As  regards  the  consonants,  two  of  the  five  series  of  mutes,  the 
AQts.  palatal  aiid  lingual  series,  are  of  secondary  (the  one  of  Indo-Iranian, 
the  other  of  purely  Indian)  growth. 

The  palatals  are,  as  a  rule,  derived  from  original  gutturals,  the 
modification  being  generally  due  to  the  influence  of  a  neighbouring 
palatal  sound 'i  or  y,  or  e  (d)  :  e.g.,  carati=-ha.t.  curnt ;  jdnu  = 
ySvv,  gcjui,  knee.  The  surd  aspirate  ch,  in  words  of  Indo-Germanic 
■  origin,  almost  invariably  goes  back  to  original  sk :,  e.g.,  chid- 
(chind-)  =  sci7ido,  o-x'f*^  »  chdyd  =  fTKid.' 

The  palatal  sibilant  k  (pronounced  sh)  likewise  originated  from  a 
guttural  mute  k,  but  one  of  somewhat  difTerent  phonetic  value  from 
that  represented  by  Sanskrit  k  or  c.  The  latter,  usually  designated 
by  k-  (or  q),  is  frequently  liable  to  labialization  (or  (Jentalization) 
in  Greek,,  probably  owing  to  an  original  pronunciatioa  kw  {qu): 
e.g.,  katara^irdrepos,  titer  ;  while  the  former  {k^)  shows  invariably 
K  in  Greek,  and  a  sibilant  in  the  Letto-Slavic  and  the  Indo-Iranian 
languages:  e.g.,  svan  {iun)  =  Kva>y  (kvv),  canis.  Germ,  hund -, 
dasan  =  h4Ka,  decern,  Gotli.  iaikun. 

The  non-original  nature  of  the  palatals  betrays  itself  even  in 
Sanskrit  by  their  inability  to  occur  at  the  end  of  a  word, — e.g., 
ace.  vdiynn.  =  Lat.  vocem,  but  nom.  vdk  =  vox, — and  by  otherwise 
frequently  reverting  to  the  guttural  state. 

The  Unguals  differ  in  pronunciation  from  the  dentals  in  their 
being  uttered  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  turned  up  to  the  dome  of 
the  palate,  while  in  the  utterance  of  the  dentals  it  is  pressed 
against  the  upper  teeth,  not  against  the  upper  gums  as  is  done  in 
the  English  dentals,  which  to  Hindus  sound  more  like  their  own 
linguals.  The  latter,  when  occurring  in  words  of  Arj'-an  origin, 
are,  as  a  rule,  modifications  of  original  dentals,  usually  accom- 
panied by  the  loss  of  an  r  or  other  adjuining  consonant ;  but  more 
commonly  they  occur  in  words  of  foreign,  probably  non-Aryan, 
origin.  Of  regular  occunence  in  th'c  language,  however,  is  the 
change  of  dental' n  into  lingual  n,  and  of  dental  s  into  lingual  sh, 
■when  preceded  in  the  same  word  by  certain  other  letters. 

Tlie  sonant  aspirate  h  is  likewise  non-original,  being  usually 
derived  from  original  sonant  aspirated  mutes,  especially  gh  t  e.g., 
Jia/nsa  =  ^^t/  (for  x'^^^)>  anscr.  Germ,  gans ;  aham=iywv,  ego, 
Goth.  ik. 
■P;ioTietic  The  contact  of  final  and  initial  letters  of  words  in  the  same  sen- 
.^hauges.  tence  is  often  attended  in  Sanskrit  with,  considerable  euphonic 
modifications  ;  and  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  how  far  the  prac- 
tice of  the  vernacular  language  may  have  corresponded  to  these 
phonetic  theories.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  a  good 
deal  in  this  respect  has  to  be  pTaced  to  the  account  of  grammatical 
reflcAion  ;  and  the  very  facilities  which  the  primitive  structure  of 
the  language  offered  for  grammatical  analysis  and  an  insight  into 
the  principles  of  internal  modification  may  have  given  the  first 
impulse  to  external  modifications  of  a  similar  kind. 

No»ie  of   the   cognate   languages  exhibits   in    so   transparent  a 


manner  as  the  Sanskrit  the  cardiual  jrinciplo  of  Indo-Germanic 
word -formation  by  the  addition  of  inile>  ional  endings — either  case- 
endings  or  personal  terminations  (themselves  probably  original 
roots) — to  stems  obtained,  mainly  by  means  of  suifixes,  from  mono- 
syllabic roots,  with  or  without  intenial  mo.difi cations. 

There  are  in  Sanskrit  declension  three  numb^-s  and  seven  cases,  Declen- 
not  counting  the  vocative,  viz.,  nominative,  accusative,  instru-  sion. 
mentaU  dative,  ablative,  genitive  and  locative.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  all  these  seven  cases  appear,  however,  only  in  the  singular  of 
a-stems  and  of  the  pronominal  declension.  Other  noun -stems  have 
only  one  case-form  for  the  ablative  and  genitive  singular.  ■  In  the 
plural,  the  ablative  everywiiere  shares  its  form  with  the  dativo 
(except  in  the  personal  pronoun,  where  it  has  the  same  ending  aa 
in  the  singular),  whilst  the  dual 'shows  only  three  dilferent  case- 
forms — one  for  the  nominative  and  accusative,  another-  for  the 
instrumental,  dative,  and  ablative,  and  a  third  for  the  genitive  and 
locative. 

The  declension  of  a-stems,  concsponding  to  the  first  and  second 
Latin  declensions,  is  of  especial  interest,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  its  being  predominant  from  the  eaijiest  time,  and  becoming  moro 
and  more  so  with  the  development  of  the  language,  but  because  it 
presents  the  greatest  number  of  alternative  forms,  which  supply  a 
kind  of  test  for  detennining  the  age  of  literary  productions,  a  test 
which  indeed  has  already  been  applied  to  some  extent  by  Professor 
Lanman,  in  his  excellent  Statistical  Account  of  ^'oim  Injicxxon  in 
the  Veda.     These  alternative  case-foiTns  are  : — 

(1)  Asas  and  ds  for  the  nominative  plural  niasc.  and  fem,:  e.g.^ 
asv4sas  and  asvds'=cqui  (equw).  The  forms  in  dsas, — explained  by  • 
Ropp  as  the  sign  of  the  plurnl  as  applied  twice,  and  by  Schleicher 
,as  the  sign  of  th'e  plural  as  added  to  the  nominative  singular, — ■ 
occur  to  those  in  ds  {i.e.,  the  ordinary  plural  sign  as' added  to  tho 
a-stem)  in  the  Piigveda  ^a  the  proportion  of  1  to  2,  and  in, the 
peculiar  parts  of  the  Atharvaveda  in  that  of  1  to  25^  whilst  the 
ending  ds  alone  remains  in  the  later  language, 

(2)  d  and  dni  for  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural  of  neuters  : 
as  yugd,yugdni=  (vyd,  Juga.  The  proportion  of  the  former  ending 
to  the  latter  in  the  Rik  is  11  to  7,  in  the  Atharvan  2  to  3,  whilst 
the  classical  Sanskrit  knows  only  the  second  form. 

(3)  Bkis  and  &is  for  the  instrumental  plural  masc.  and  neuter": 
e.g.,  devibhis,  dcvdis.  In  the  Rik  the  former  forms  are  to  the 
latter  in  the  proportion  of  5  to  6,  in  tlie  Atharvan  of  1  to  5,  while 
in  the  later  langua<'e  only  the  contracted. form  is  used.  The  samo 
contraction  is  found  in  other  languages  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
it  did  not  originate  independently  in  them. 

(4)  (2  and  <i«  for  the  nominative  and  accusative  dual  masc. :  e.g., 
ubhd,  nbhdu  =  Su^w.  lu  the  Rik  forms  in  d  outnumber  those  in  du 
more  than  eight  times  ;  whilst  in  the  Atharvan,  on  the  contrary, 
those  in  du  (the  only  ending  used  in  the  classical  language)  occur 
five  times  as  often  as  those  ru  d. 

(5)  d  and  cna  (end)  for  the  instrumental  singular  masc.  and  neut. : 
as  dd7id,  ddncna  =  dono.  The  ending  cna  is  the  one  invariably  used 
in  the  later  language.  It  is  likewise  the  usual  form  in  the  Veda; 
but  in  a  number  of  cases  it  shows  a  final  long  vowel  which,  though 
it  may  be  entirely  due  to  metrical  requirements,  is  more  probablya 
relic  of  the  normal  instrumental  ending  d,  preserved  for  prosodic 
reasons.  For  the  simple  ending  d,  as  compared  with  that  in  ena. 
Prof.  Lanman  makes  out  a  proportion  of  about  1  to  &  in  the 
Rigveda  (altogether  114  cases);  while  in  the  peculiar  parts  of  the 
Atharvan  he  finds  only  11  cases. 

(6)  dm  and  dndm  for  the  genitive  plural :  e.g.,  {asvd7n\  ai-vuiiA-ni 
=  lTnTtJitf,  equum  (equoncm).  The  form  with  inserted  nasal  (doubt- 
less for  andm,  as  in  Zend  aspajidm),  which  is  exclusively  used  in 
the  later  language,  is  also  the  pre^iling  one  in  the  Rik.  There 
are,  however,  a  few  genitives  of  a-stems  in  original  dm  (for  a-dm)^ 
which  also  appear  in  Zend,  Prof.  Lanman  enumerating  a  dozen 
instances,  some  of  which  are,  however,  doubtful,  while  others  are 
m^^rely  conjectural. 

The  Sanskrit  verb  system  resembles  that  of  the  Greek  in  variety  "Verb 
and  completeness,  "While  the  Greek  excels  in  nicety  and  definite-  system, 
ness  of  modal  distinction,  the  Sanskrit  surpasses  it  in  primitiveness 
and  transparency  of  formation.  In  this  part  of  the  grammatical 
system  there  is,  however,  an  even  greater  difference  than  in  the 
noun  inflexion  between  the  Vedic  and  the  classical  Sanskrit. 
While  the  former  shows,  upon  the  whole,  the  full  complement  of 
modal  forms  exhibited  by  the  Greek,  the  later  language  has  prac- 
tically discarded  the  subjunctive  mood.  The  Indo-Aryans  never 
succeeded  in  working  out  a  clear  formative  distinction  between  the 
subjunctive  and  indicative  moods ;  and,  their  syntactic  requirements 
becoming  more  and  more  limited,  they  at  last  contented  themselves, 
for  modal  expression,  with  a  present  optative  and  imperative,  in 
addition  to  the  indicative  tense-forms,  and  a  little-used  aorist 
optative  with  a  special  "precative"  or  "benedictive"  meaning 
attached  to  it. 

Anoiher  part  of  the  verb  in  which  the  later  language  differa 
widely  from  Vedic  usage  is  the  infinitive.  The  language  of  the  old 
hymns  shows  a  considerable  variety  of  case-forms  of  verbal  abstract 
nouns  with  the  function  of  inliuitives,  a  certain  number  of  whick 


LANGUAGE.] 


S  A  1>J   S  K  R  I  T 


271 


can  still  bo  traced  back  to  the  parent  language,  as,  for  instance, 
such  dative  forms  as  j4v-(isc  =  viv-eTe;  sdk-adhi/&i  =  ^x^'^^^^  >  ^^'' 
mane==56fievai ;  dd'-van6='5ovi'ai.  YuTther,  ji-she,  "to  conquer," 
for  Ji'Si,  apparently  an  aorist  infinitivo  with  the  dative  ending 
(parallel  to  the  radical  forms,  such  as  i/icdh-i^,  "  to  fight,"  dris'-6^  "  to 
see"),  thus  corresponding  to  the  Greek  aorist  infinitive  Kvaat  (bate/", 
also  Latin  da-re,  for  dase,  esse,  &c. ).  Tho  classical  Sanskrit,  on 
the  other  hand,  practically  uses  only  one  infinitive  form,  viz.,  the 
accusative  of  a  verbal  noun  in  he,  e.g.,  sihdittrn,  cium,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Latin  supinum  datum,  itum.  But,  as  in  Latin  another 
case,  tho  ablative  [datu],  of  the  same  abstract  noun  is  utilized  for 
a  similar  purpose,  so  the  Vedic  language  makes  two  other  cases  do 
duty  as  infiuitives,  viz.,  tho  dative  in  tave  {e.g.,  ddtavc,, End  tho 
anomalous  davai),  and  tho  gen.-abl.  i:i  tos  {datos).  A  prominent 
feature  of  the  later  Sanskrit  syntax  is  the  sc  ailed  gerund  or  inde- 
clinable participle  in  tvA,  apparently  the  instrumental  of  a  stem  in 
tva  (probably  a  derivative  from  that  in  in),  as  well  as  the  gerund  in 
ya  (or  tya  after  a  final  short  radical  vowel)  made  from  compound 
verbs.  Tho  old  language  knov/s  not  only  such  gerunds  iu  tvd, 
using  them,  however,  very  sparingly,  but  also  corresponding  dative 
forms  in  tvdya  {yuktvdya),  and  the  curious  contracted  forms  in  tvV 
(Jcritvty  "  to  do  ").  And,  besides  those  in  ya  and  tya,  it  frequently 
uses  forms  with  a  final  long  vowel,  as  hhid-yd,  i-tyd,  thus  show- 
ing the  former  to  bo  shortened  instrumentala  of  abstract  nouns 
in  /  and  ii. 

The  Sanskrit  verb,  like  the  Greek,  lias  two  voices,  active  and 
middle,  called,  after  their  primary  functions,  parasmdi-pada, 
"  word  for  another,"  and  d.tmanc-pada,  "  word  for  one's  self. "  While 
in  Greek  the  middle  forms  have  to  do  duty  also  for  the  passive  in 
all  tenses  except  the  aorist  and  future,  the  Sanskrit,  on  the  othtr 
hand,  has  developed  for  the  passive  a  special  present-stem  in  ya, 
the  other  tenses  being  supplied  by  the  coiTosponding  middle  fonns, 
with  the  exception  of  the  third  person  singular  aorist,  for  which  a 
special  form  in  i  ia  usually  assigned  to  the  passive. 

Tho  present-stem  system  is  by  far  the  most  important  part  of  the 
wholo  verb  system,  both  on  account  of  frequency  of  actual  occur- 
rence and  of  its  excellent  state  of  preservation.  It  is  with  regaid 
to  the  different  ways  of  present-stem  formation  that  the  entire  stock 
of  assumed  roots  has  been  grouped  by  the  native  grammarians  under 
ten  different  classes.  These  classes  again  naturally  fall  under  two 
divisions  or  "  conjugations,"  with  this  characteristic  dilTerence  tliat 
the  one  (the  second)  retains  the  same  stem  (ending  in  a)  through- 
out the  present  and  imperfect,  only  lengthening  the  final  vowel 
bcfo"re  terminations  beginning  with  v  or  ?7t  (not  final);  while  tho 
other  shows  two  different  forms  of  the  stem,  a  strong  and  a.  weak 
form,  according  as  the  accent  falls  on  the  stem-syllable  or  on  the 
personal  ending:  e.g.,  3  sing,  bhdra-ii,  (fidpet — 2  pi,  bkdra-tha, 
<prpcTe  ;  hut  ^-ti,  fTtri — i-tkd,  Ire  (for  it4)  ;  1  sing.  strii6-vii,  (Tr6p- 
^vfii — 1  pi.  strmt-mds  {<rr6pvvfifs). 

As  several  of  the  personal  endings  show  a  decided  similarity  to 
personal  or  demonstrative  pronouns,  it  is  highly  probable  that,  as 
might  indeed  be  a  jyriori  expected,  all  or  most  of  them  are  of 
pronominal  origin, — though,  owing  to  their  exposed  position  and 
consequent  decay,  their  original  form  and  identity  cannot  now  be 
determined  with  certainty.  The  active  singular  terminations,  with 
the  exception  of  tlio  second  person  of  the  imperative,  aro  unaccented 
and  of  comparatively  light  appearance  ;  while  those  of  tho  dual 
and  plural,  as  well  as  the  middle  terminations,  have  the  accent, 
being  apjxircntly  too  heavy  to  be  suppovted  by  the  stem-accent, 
cither  because,  as  Schleicher  supposed,  they  aro  composed  of  two 
different  pronominal  elements,  or  otherwise.  The  treatment  of 
the  personal  endings  ia  tho  first,  and  presumably  older,  conjuga- 
tion may  thus  be  said  somewhat  to  resemble  that  of  enclitics"  in 
Greek. 

In  the  imperfect,  the  present-stem  is  increased  by  the  augmejit, 
consisting  of  a  prefixed  d,  Ilcre,  as  in  the  other  t^iscs  in  which 
it  apjrcars,  it  has  invariably  tho  accent,  as  being  the  distinctive 
clement  (originally  probably  an  indepen(lent  donionsirativc  adverb 
"then")  for  the  expression  of  past  time.  This  shifting  of  the 
word-accent  seems  to  have  contributed  to  the  fnrthr-r  rr^duction  of 
tho  personal  endiug3,  and  thus  cau<;€d  the  fonnition  of  a  new,  or 
secondary,  set  of  terminations  which  came  to  he  appropriated  for 
secondary  tenses  and  moods  generally.  As  in  Giock  i)Octry,  the 
au^uicnt  ia  frequently  omitted  in  Sanskrit. 

The  rnood-sign  of  the  subjunctive  is  ".     '  '    '  '       'nmg  form 

of)  tho  tense-stem.     If  the  stem  end;  :_tttcr  be- 

comes  lengthened.      As  regard  the  ]-  -ns,   some 

persons  take  the  primary,  others  the  socwndary  i«,-i-i;iy,  wliilo  others 
Again  may  take  either  the  ono  or  tho  other.  The  first  singular 
active,  however,  takes  ni  instead  of  mi,  to  di^tiutnush  it  from  the 
indicative.  But  besides  these  forms,  fhov.iPLj  the  mood-sign  <i, 
tiie  flubjunctivo  (both  present  and  aorist)  mav  tilcc  another  form, 
without  any  distinctive  mwlal  fiign,  and  with  tli'c  sccondarv  cnding;i, 
bfing  t!iU3  identical  with  the  augmcntleas  form  of  tho  prcttntc. 

The  optative  invariably  takes  the  secondary  endings,  witli  so.no 
peculiar  variations.  In  the  active  of  tho  first  conjugation,  itT  mood- 
sign  is  yd,  afTixcd  to  tho  weak  form  of  tho  stem  :  e.g.,  root  aa  — 


s?/(im  =  Lat.  s^icm,  shn ;  while  in  tho  second  conjugation  and 
throughout  the  middle  it  is  i,  probably  a  contraction  of  yd  :  e.g., 
bkdrts  =  (ptpois. 

Besides  the  ordinary  perfect,  made  from  a  reduplicated  stem 
with  distinction  between  strong  (active  singular)  and  weak  formB, 
and  a  partly  peculiar  set  of  endings,  the  later  language  makes 
large  use  of  a  periphrastic  perfect,  consisting  of  the  accusative  of 
a  feminine  abstract  noun  iu  d  {-dm)  with  the  reduplicated  perfect 
forma  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  kar,  "to  do,"  or  as  (and  occasionally 
bhU),  "to  be."  Though  more  particularly  resorted  to  for  the 
derivative  forms  of  conjugation — viz.,  the  causative  (includiijcr  tho 
so-called  tenth  conjugational  class),  the  desiderativo,  intensive,  and 
denominative — this  perfect-form  is  also  commonly  used  with  roots 
beginning  with  prosodically  long  vowels,  as  well  as  with  a  few 
cfther  isolated  roots.  In  the  Rigveda  this  formation  is  quito 
unknown,  and  tho  Atharvan  offers  a  single  instance  of  it,  from  a 
causative  verb,  with  the  auxiliary  lar.  In  the  Vedic  prose,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  ia  rather  frequent,^  and  it  is  quito  common  in 
the  later  language. 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  participles,  active  and  middle,  of 
the  reduplicated  perfect, — e.g.,  jajan-vdn,  ^e-yof-tis  ;  lubudh-dnd, 
ireirva--ix4vQ, — there  is  a  secondary  participial  formation,  obtained 
by  affixing  the  possessive  sufiix  vat  {vant)  to  the  passive  past 
participle:  e.g.,  krita-vant,  lit.  "having  (that  which  is)  done."  A 
secondary  participle  of  this  kind  occurs  on'^e  in  the  Atharvaveda, 
and  it  is  occasionally  met  with  in  tho  Brahmanas.  In  the  later 
language,  however,  it  not  only  is  of  rather  frequent  occurrence, 
but  has  assumed  quite  a  now  fuuction,  viz. ,  that  of  a  finite  perfect- 
form  ;  thus  kritavdn,  kriiavantas,  without  any  auxiliary  verb, 
mean,  not  "having  done,     but  "he  has  done,"  "they  have  done." 

The  original  Indo-Germanic  future-stem  formation  in  sya,  with 
primary  eudings, — eg,,  dds7jati  =  Zda^i{[oy:  Stijcri), — is  the  ordinary 
tense-form  both  in  Vedic  and  classical  Sanskrit, — a  preterite  of  it, 
with  a  conditional  force  attached  to  it  {(Iddsyat),  being  also  common 
to  all  periods  of  the  language. 

Sido  by  side  with  this  future,  however,  an  analytic  tense-form 
makes  its  appearance  in  tho  Brahmanas,  obtaining  wider  currency 
in  the  later  language.  This  periphrastic  future  is  made  by  means 
of  the  nominative  singular  of  a  nomcn  agcntis  in  tar  {ddtar,  nom. 
ddtd  =  y.vit.  dator),  followed  by  the  corresponding  present  forms  of 
as,  "to  bo"  {ddtd-' smi,  as  it  were,  daiurzts  sum),  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  third  persons,  which  need  no  auxiliary,  but  take  the 
respective  nominative  of  the  noun. 

The  aorist  system  is  somewhat  complicated,  including  as  it  doeq 
augment-preterites  of  various  foiinations,  viz.,  a  radical  aorist, 
sometimes  with  reduplicated  stem, — e.g.,  dsthdm  —  t(m)v  ;  S7-%idhi 
^K\vQi;  ddndrot;  an  a-aorist  (or  thematic  aorist)  with  or 
mthout  reduplication, — e.g.,  dricas=c\nres  ;  dpaptahi,  cf.  tTie^rov; 
and  -several  different  foi-ms  of  a  sibilant-aorist.  In  the  older 
Vedic  language  the  radical  aorist  is  far  more  common  than  the 
rt-aorist,  v.'hich  becomes  more  frequently  used  later  on.  Of  the 
different  kinds  of  sibilant-aorists,  the  most  common  is  the  one 
which  makes  its  stem  by  the  addition  of  s  to  the  root,  cither  with 
or  without  a  connecting  vo'wel  i  in  different  roots:  e.g.,  root  ji — 
1  sing,  djduliam,  1  pi.  djdishma  ;  dkramisham,  dki'amiskma.  A 
limited  number  of  roots  take  a  double  aorist-sign  with  inserted 
connecting  vowel  [sish  for  sis), — e.g.,  dydsisham  (cf.  sc7ip-sis-ti) ; 
whilst  others — very  rarely  in  the  older  but  more  numerously  in  the 
later  language — make  their  aorist-stem  by  tho  addition  of  5«, — e.g., 
ddikshas=idei(as. 

A3  regards  the  sjTitactic  functions  of  tho  three  preterites, — tho 
imperfect,  perfect,  and  aorist, — tho  clas-stcal  writers  make  virtually 
no  distinction  between  them,  but  use  them  quite  indiscriminately. 
In  tho  older  language,  on  tho  other  hand,  tho  imperfect  is  chiefly 
used  as  a  narrative  tense,  while  tlie  other  two  generally  refer  to  a, 
past  action  whicii  is  now  complete, — the  aorist,  ho'wcvcr,  mora 
fVcq^uently  to  that  which  is  only  just  done  or  completed.  Tho 
periect,  owing  "(loubtless  to  its  reduplicative  form,  has  also  not 
infrequently  the  force  of  an  iterative,  or  intensive,  ju'csent. 

Tho  Sanskrit,  like  tho  Greek,  shows  at  all  times  a  considerable  Woi-d 
power  and  facilily  of  noun-composition.     But,   whilo  in  the  older  forpia 
language,  as  well  as  in  tho  earlier  literary  products  of  tho  classical  iion. 
period,  such  combinations  rarely  exceed  tho  limits  compatible  with 
the  general  eeonomy  of  inflexional  speech,  during  tho  later,  arti 
ficial  ])criod  of  the  language  they  gradually  become  moro  and  more 
e.^.cessive,  both  ia  hizo  and  frequency  of  usf,  till  at  last  they  absorb 
almost  tho  entire  range  of  syntactic  construction. 

One  of  tho  most  striking  fcnturcs  of  Sanskrit  word-formation  ia 
that  regtilar  interchange  of  light  and  strong  vowel-sounds,  usually 
designated  by  the  nativo  tcims  of  g'Om  (quality)  and  vriddhi 
(increase).  The  phonetic  process  imjilicd  in  theso  terms  consists 
in  the  raising,  under  certain  conditiona,  of  a  radical  or  thematic 
light  vowel  I,  «,  r,  I,  by  means  of  an  inserted  a-sound,  to  the 
diijhthongal  (guna)  sounds  di  (Saoskr.  &),  du  (Sanskr.  6),  and  tho 

I  It  nbo  slicv.-a  occasionally  oUicr  tsnioforou  than  tho  pcrfoct  of  tho  uma 
ncrlphrastic  fort.iatioo  with  f,ir,  ~~' 


272 


SANSKRIT 


[f- A  Slit' AG  K. 


cDrnbiuatiou  ar  and  al  respectively,  ami,  by  a  repetition  of  the  same 
process,  to  the  (vridahi)  sounds  dt,  du,  o'r,  and  dl  respectively. 
Thus  from  root  vid,  "  to  know,"  we  have  vt^da,  "  knowledge,"  and 
tlierefrom  vdidika  ;  from  vufi,  y6ga,  yducjika.  AVhile  the  inter- 
change of  the  former  kind,"due  mainly  to  accentual  causes,  was  uu- 
doubtcdly  a  common  feature  of  Indo-Germanic  speech,  the  latter, 
or  vriddUi-change,  which  chiefly  occurs  in  secondary  stems,  is  pro- 
bably a  later  development.  Jloreover,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  vriddhi-vowcls  are  really  due  to  what  the  term  implies,  viz.,  to 
a  process  of  "increment,"  or  vowel-raising.  The  same  was  univer- 
sally assumed  by  comparative  philologists  till  a  few  years  ago, 
as  regards  the  relation  between  the  guna-sounds  ai  {S)  and  au  {6) 
and  the  respective  simple  i-  and  ?f-sounds.  According  to  a  recent 
theory,  however,  which  has  already  received  a  considerable  amount 
of  acceptance,  we  are  henceforth  to  look  upon  the  heavier  vowels 
as  the  original,  and  upon  the  lighter  vowels  as  the  later  sounds, 
produced  through  the  absence  of  stress  and  pitch.  The  grounds 
on  which  this  theory  is  recommended  arc  those  of  logical  consist- 
ency. In  the  analogous  cases  of  interchange  between  r  and  ar, 
as  well  as  /  and  al,  most  scholars  have  indeed  been  wont  to  regard 
the  syllabic  r  and  I  as  weakened  from  original  ar  and  al,  while 
the  native  grammarians  represent  the  latter  as  produced  from  the 
former  by  increment.  Similarly  the  vei'b  as  Qs),  "to  be,"  loses  its 
vowel  wherever  the  radical  -syllable  is  unaccented:  e.g.j  dsHt  Lat. 
€sl~S7nds,  s{ji)mits  ;  opt.  si/dm,  Lat.  sierti  (sim).  For  other  analo- 
gous cases  of  vowel-change,  see  Philology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  783  sq. 
On  the  strength  of  these  analogous  cases  of  vowel-modiiioation  we 
are,  therefore,  to  accept  some  such  equation  as  this : — 

dsmii  5?nos«=5e/JKO/ioi :  €Sp{a)Kov ^ XdTro} :  \tTff7y 

=  Gmi  {c7/ii) :  iwds  {X^^v  for  l{J.iv) 

=  f}>€vya) :  <pxiy€7i/ 

=  d6hriii  (I  milk)  :  duhmds. 

Acquiescence  in  this  equation  would  seem  to  involve  at  least 
one  important  adniission,  viz.,  that  original  root-syllables  contained 
Bo  simple  i-  and  li-vowels,  except  as  the  second  element  of  the 
diphthongs  ai,  a\  oi ;  au,  cu,  ou.  "We  ought  no  longer  to  speak 
of  the  roots  vid,  "to  know,"  dik,  "to  show,  to  bid,"  dkngh,  "to 
ajilk,"  yug,  "to  join,"  but  of  vcid,  dcik,  dhaugli  or  d  he  ugh,  ycug, 
he.  Nay,  as  the  same  law  would  apply  with  equal  ibree  to  suffixal 
vowels,  the  suffix  nu  would  have  to  be  called  naic  or  ncu;  and, -in 
rxplaiiiing,  for  instance,  the  irregularly  formed  Zi'tKvvfxi,  Ze'>.KVvfj.^i', 
^76  might  sny  that,  by  the  afKxion  of  reu  to  the  root  SeiK,  the 
1  resent-stem  hiKv^v  was  obtained  {tiKv^vfit),  which,  as  the  stress 
1  as  shifted  forward,  became  1  plur.  ZiKw^ifo-ii), — the  subsequent 
Modifications  in  the  radical  and  formative  syllables  being  due  to 
\  le  effects  of  "analogy"  (c/.  G.  Me^'er,  GHccJi.  Gramvi.,  §  4S7). 
I  ?ow,  if  there  be  any  truth  in  the  "  agglutination  "  theory,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  radical  and  formative  elements  of  Indo-Germanic 
speech  were  at  one  timo  independent  words,  we  would  have  to  be 
prepared  for  a  pretty  liberal  p.llo'wance,  to  the  parent  language, 
of  diphthongal  monosyllables  such  as  dcik  neil,  while  simple  com- 
binations such  as  dik  mi  could  only  spring  up  after  separate 
syllable-words  had  become  united  by  the  force  of  a  common  accent. 
But,  whether  the  aggluUnationists  be  right  or  wrong,  a  theory  in- 
volving the  priority  of  the  diphthongal  over  the  simple  sounds 
can  hardly  be  said  to  bs  one  of  great  prima  facie  probability  ;  and 
one  may  well  ask  whether  the  requirements  of  logical  consistency 
might  not  be  satisfied  in  some  other,  less  improbable,  way. 

Now,  the  analogous  cases  wh>ich  have  called  forth  this  theory 
turn  upon  the  loss  of  a  radical  or  suffixal  a  {S),  occasioned  by  the 
shifting  of  the  word-accent  to  some  other  syllable  :  e.g.,  ace 
m-dtdrajn,  mstr.  mdira  ;  irfTOfxai,.  ^ttto^tjc  ;  tipKOfxat,  t5p{a)K0v  ; 
dsini,  sjnds.  Might  we  not  then  assume  that  at  an  early  stage  of 
noun  and  verb  inflexion,  through  the  giving  way,  under  certain 
conditions,  of  the  stem  a  {e),  the  habit  of  stem-gradation,  as  an 
element  cf  inflexion,  came  to  establish  itself  and  ultimately  to 
extend  its  sphere  over  stems  with  i-  and  «-vowels,  but  that,  on 
meeting  here  with  more  resistance^  than  in  the  a  (?)-vowel,  the 
stem-gpadation  then  took  the  shape  of  a  raising  of  the  simple 
vowel,  in  the  "strong"  cases  and  verb-forms,  by  that  same  a- 
'element  which  constituted  the  distinctive  element  of  those  cases  in 
the  other  variable  stems  1  In  this  way  the  above  equation  would 
still  hold  good,  and  the  corresponding  vowel-grades,  though  of 
:somewhat  different  genesis,  would  yet  be  strictly  analogous. 
,-;  The  accent  of  Sanskrit  words  is  marked  only  in  the  more  import- 
ant Vcdic  texts,  different  systems  of  notation  being  used  in  different 
works.  Our  knowledge  of  the  later  accentuation  of  words  is  entirely 
derived  from  the  statements  of  grammarians.  As  in  Greek,  there 
are  three  accents,  the  iiddUa  ("raised,*'  i.e.,  acute),  the  a?iudd[ki 
("not  raised,"  i.e.,  grave),  and  the  svariia  ("sounded,  modulated," 
i.e.,  circumflex).      'i'he  last  is  a  combination  of  the  two  others, 

1  We  miRlit  compare  the  diffeitnt  tiearment  in  Sanskrit  of  an  and  in  bases 
(mCrdhdni-murdhnd;  vdciini-vddind) ;  for,  thouch  the  latter  are  doubtless  of 
later  oiigln,  their  inflexion  mlRht  Imve  been  Inrlucnced  by  that  of  the  forrr.er. 
Also  a  comparison  of  aach  fonns  as  (deid)  deeiindm.  (a^f)  agnlndm,  and  {dhmu) 
dhenunam,  tells  in  favour  of  the  i-  and  u-vowcls,  as  regards  power  of  resistance, 
inasmuch  as  :t  doc;  not  requiie  the  accent  In  ci-der  to  remuJa  mtact. 


its  proper  use  being  confined  almost  entirely  to  a  vowel  preccomX 
by  a  semivLiWel  y  or  r,  representing  an  original  acuted  vow».l. 
Hindu  scholars,  however,  also  include  in  this  term  the  accent  of  a 
grave  syllable  preceded  by  an  acuted  syllable,  and  itself  followed 
by  a  grave. 

The  Sanskrit  and  Greek  accentuations  present  numerous  coin- 
cidences. Although  the  Greek  rule,  confining  the  accent  v.Ubin- 
the  last  three  syllables,  has  frequently  obliterated  the  original 
likeness,  the  old  features  may  often  be  traced  through-  the  Jat^r 
forms.  Thvis,  though  augmented  verb-fornis"in  Greek  cannoi; 
always  have  the  accent  on  the  augment  as  in  Sanskrit,  they  have 
it  invariably  a.-;  little  removed  from  it  as  the  accentual  restrictions 
will  allow:  e.g.,  dbharam,  itp^pov;  dhhardma,  i<p4pofjLtv ;  dbhanU 
mahi,  i(pep6/j.($a. 

The  most  striking  coincidence  in  noun  declension  iS;  the 
accentual  distinction  made  by  both  languages  between  the  "strong'* 
and  "  weak  "  cases  of  monosyllabic  nouns,  — the  only  difference  in 
this  respect  being  that  in  Sanskrit  the  accusative  plural,  as  a  rule^ 
has  the  accent  on  the  case-ending,  and  consequently  shows  the 
weak  foim  of  the  stem:  e.g.,  stciapad,  xo5;  padam,  irtJSa;  padds, 
ffo5(fs ;  padi,  ttoSi  ;  pddas,  -ndSss  ;  padds,  T65as-',  paddm,  rsoZav  j 
jmis-dj  TToal.  In  Sanskrit  a  few  other  classes  of  stems  (especially 
present  participles  in  cnt,  at),  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  are  apt-, 
to  yield  their  accent  to  heavy  vowel  (not  consonantal)  termina- 
tions ;  compare  the  analogous  accentuation  of  Sanskrit  and  Greet 
stems  in  idr  :  piidram,  varipa  \  pitrd,  TraTpos  ;  pildras,  sroTe'pts^ 
piirsku,    raTp()i)(ri. 

Tlie  vocative,  when  heading  a  senteHce  (or  verse-division)^  has 
invariably  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable;  otherwise  it  is  Dot 
accented. 

Finite  verb-forms  also,  as  a  rule,  lose  their  accent,  except  when- 
standing  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  or  verse-division  (a  vocative 
not»being  taken  into  account),  or  iu  dependent  (mostly  reJativeV 
clauses,  or  in  conjunction  with  certain  particles.  Of  two  or  mor? 
co-ordinate  verb-forms,  however,  only  the  fii'st  is  iinaccented. 

In  writing  Sanskrit  the  natives,  in  different  parts  of  India^ 
generally  employ  tne  particular  cljaracter  used  for  writing  their  owtt 
vernaculur.  The  character,  however,  most  widely  understood  and 
employed  by  Hindu  scholars,  and  used  invariably  in  Europeaa 
editions  of  Sanskrit  works  (unless,  printed  in  Koman  letters)  is  tbe> 
.so-called  Devandgart,  or  udgart  (*'town "-script)  of  the  gods. 

The  origin  of  the  Indian  alphabets  is  still  enveloped  in  donbt. 
The  oldest  hitherto  known  specimens  of  Indian  writing  arc  five- 
rock-inscriptions,  containiug  religious  edicts  in  Pali  (the  Prakrit- 
used  in  the  Buddhist  scriptures),  issued  by  fhe  emperor  A^oka 
(Piyadasi)  of  the  Maurya  dynasty,  in  253-251  E.C.,  and  scattered- 
over  the  area  of  northern  India  from  the  vicinity  of  Peshawar,  on 
the  north-west  frontier,  and  Girnar  in  Guzerat,  to  Jaugada  aa.!: 
Dhouli  in  Katak,  on  the  eastern  coast.  The  most  western  of  theses 
inscriptions — called,  from  villages  near  it,  the  Kapurdagarlii  of 
Shahbaz-garhi  inscription — is  executed  in  a  different  alphabet 
from  the  others.  It  reads  from  right  to  left,  and  is  usually  called 
the  Arian  Pali  alphabet,  it  being  also  used  on  the  coins  of  tha-. 
Greek  and  Indo-Scythian  princes  of  Ariana ;  while  the  ether,- 
which  reads  from  left  to  right,  is  called  the  Indian  Pali  alphabet- 
The  former,  which  is  manifestly  derived  from  a  Semitic  (probably" 
Aramsean)  source,  has  left  no  traces  onJhe  subsequent  development, 
of  Indian  writing.  The  Indo-Pali  alphabet,  on  the  other  "hand, 
from  which  the  modern  Indian  alphabets  are  derived,  is  of  uncertain 
origin.  The  similarity,  however,  which  several  of  its  letters- 
present  to  those  of  the  old  Phoenician  alphabet  (itself  probably 
derived  from  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics)  suggests  for  this  alphabet- 
also— or  at  least  for  the  germ  of  it—the  probability  of  a  Semitic 
origin,  though,  already  at  Asoka's  time,  the  Indians  had  worked 
it  up  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  and  wonderfully  adapted  it  t<r 
their  peculiar  scientific  ends.  As  to  the  probable  time  and  channel' 
of  its  intioduction,  no  satisfactory  theory  has  yet  been  proposed* 
Considering,  however,  the  high  state  of  pi  rfection  it  exhibits  ir* 
the  RIaurya  and  Andhra  inscriptions,,  as  well  as  the  wide  area  ovei 
which  these  arc  scattered,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  art, 
of  writing  must  have  been  known  to  and  practised  by  the  Indians 
for  various  purposes  long  before  the  time  of  Asoka.  The  fact  that 
no  reference  to  it  is  found  in  tlie  contemporary  literature  ha^ 
probably  to  bo  accounted  for  by  a  strong  r^ductance  on  the  pait  of 
the  Brahmans  to  commit  their  sacred  works  to  writing.  A  useful, 
ri^ume  of  the  various  theories  proposed  on  this  subject  will  be  found 
in  a  paper  contributed  by  Mr  R.  Oust  to  the  Journal  of  the  T^oyat 
Asiatic  Society,  new  scries,  vol.  xvi. 

The  invention  of  the  numeral  figures,  which  used  to  be  generally 
ascribed  to  the  Indians,  has  also  been  reradered  doubtful  by  mor« 
recent  research. 

An  excellent  S'^nskrife  grammar,  dealing  with  the  lanjrnage  historteally,  t^» 
been  pubJichcd  by  Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney.  Of  other  English  grammHrs.  dealing 
almost  exchisivKly  With  llie  classical  Sanskrit,  those  of  Profs.  Mas  Muller, 
Monier  Williams,  CT.d  F.  Kielhorn  arc  now  most  videly  used. 

The  be!>t  dicUo.inry  is  fhe  gieat  Sanskrit-Gc-iTian  Wdrterbueh,  published  at  Si 
Petersburg,  in  7  vols.,  by  Profs.  BUhtlingk  ena  Rotb.  Larcely  based  on  thl«. 
great  thcsaunis  j.r3  the  SansJait-English  dictionaries  by  Prof .  M.  WiUiaiQS ■and'' 
tlie  lare  Pror.  Tli.  Eciifcy. 


XITEEAIUEE.] 


SANSKRIT 


273 


PAET  II.— SANSKRIT  LITERATURE. 


The  history  of  Sanskrit  literature  labours  under  the 
Bame  disadvantage  as  the  political  history  of  ancient  India, 
from  the  total  want  of  anything  like  a  fixed  chronology. 
As  there  are  extremely  few  well-ascertained  political  facts 
until  comparatively  recent  times,  so  in  that  whole  vast 
range  of  literary  development  there  is  scarcely  a  work  of 
importance  the  date  of  which  scholars  have  succeeded  in 
fixing  with  absolute  certainty.  The  original  composition 
of  most  Sanskrit  works  can  indeed  be  confidently  assigned 
;to  certain  general  periods  of  literature,  but  as  to  many  of 
ithem,  and  these  among  the  most  important,  scholars  have 
but  too  much  reason  to  doubt  whether  they  have  come 
down  to  us  in  their  original  shape,  or  whether  they  have 
not  rather,  in  course  of  time,  undergone  alterations  and 
additions  so  serious  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  regard 
them  as  genuine  witnesses  of  any  one  phase  of  the 
development  of  the  Indian  mind.  Nor  can  we  expect 
many  important  chronological  data  from  the  new  materials 
which  will  doubtless  yet  bo  brought  to  light  in  India. 
Though  by  such  discoveries  a  few  isolated  spots  may 
indeed  be  lighted  up  here  and  there,  the  real  task  of 
clearing  away  the  mist  which  at  present  obscures  our  view, 
if  ever  it  can  be  cleared  away,  will  have  to  be  performed 
by  patient  research — by  a  more  minute  critical  examina- 
tion of  the  multitudinous  writings  which  have  been  handed 
down  from  the  remote  past.  In  the  following  sketch  it  is 
intended  to  take  a  rapid  view  of  the  more  important 
works  and  writers  in  the  several  departments  of  literature. 

In  accordance  with  the  two  great  phases  of  linguistic 
development  above  referred  to,  the  history  of  Sanskrit 
literature  readily  divides  itself  info  two  principal  periods, 
the  Vedic  and  the  classical.  It  should,  however,  be 
noted  that  these  periods  partly  overlap  each  other,  and 
that  some  of  the  later  Vedic  works  are  included  in  that 
period  on  account  of  the  subjects  with  which  they  deal, 
and  for  their  archaic  style,  rather  than  for  any  just  claim 
to  a  higher  antiquity  than  may  have  to  be  assigned  to  the 
oldest  works  of  the  classical  Sanskrit.  • 

I.  The  Vedic  Pekiod.^ 

The  term  veda — i.e.,  "  knowledge,"  (.sacred)  "  lore  " — 
embraces  a  body  of  writings  the  origin  of  which  is 
ascribed  to  divine  revelation  (sruti,  literally  "hearing"), 
and  which  forms  the  foundation  of  the  Brahmanical 
system  of  religious  belief.  This  sacred  canon  is  divided 
into  three  or  (according  to  a  later  scheme)  four  coordinate 
collections,  likewise  called  Veda:— (1)  the  Rig-veda,  or 
lore  of  praise  (or  hymnji) ;  (2)  the  Sdma-veda,  or  lore  of 
'tunes  (or  chants) ;  (3)  the  Yajur-veda,  or  lore  of  prayer ; 
and  (4)  the  Atkarva-veda,  or  lore  of  the  Alharvans. 
Samhitas.  Each  of  these  four  Vedas  consists  primarily  of  a  ix)llection 
isamhitd)  of  sacred,  mostly  poetical,  texts  of  a  devotional 
nature,  called  mantra.  This  entire  body  of  texts  (and 
particularly  the  first  three  collections)  is  also  frequently 
referred  to  as  the  trayi  vidyd,  or  threefold  wisdom,  of  hymn 
{rich-),  tune  or  chant  {s&ynan),  and  prayer  (yajas), — the 
fourth  Veda,  if  at  all  included,  being  in  that  case  classed 
together  with  the  Rik. 
Classes  of  The  Brahmanical  religion  finds  its  practical  expression 
priests,  chiefly  :in  sacrificial  performances.  The  Vedic  sacrifice 
requires  for  its  proper  performance  the  attendance  of  four 
officiating    priests,  each   of  whom   is  assisted  by  one   or 

'  J.  Muir'a  Ori<jinal  Sanskrit  Texts,  5  vols,,  2d  ed.,  forms  the  most 
complete  general  survey  of  the  resalta  of  Vedic  research. 

'  The  combinatioQ  eh,  used  (in  conformity  with  the  usual  English 
practice)  in  this  sketch  of  the  literature,  coiTesponds  to  the  simple  c 
in  the  scheme  of  the  alphabet,  p.  270. 
21—12 


more  (usually  three)  subordinate  priests,  viz.: — (1)  the 
Hotar  {i.e.,  either  "sacrificer,"  or  "invoker"),  whose  chief 
business  is  to  invoke  the  gods,  either  in  short  prayer.3 
pronounced  over  the  several  oblations,  or  in  liturgical 
recitations  {Castro),  made  up  of  various  hymns  and 
detached  verses;  (2)  the  TJdg&lar,  or  chorister,  who  has  to 
perform  chants  {stotra)  in  connexion  -rfith  the  hotar's 
recitations  ;  (3)  the  Adhvaryu,  or  offering  priest  par  excd- 
lence,  who  performs  all  the  material  duties  of  the  sacrifice, 
such  as  the  kindling  of  the  fires,  the  preparation  of  tho 
sacrificial  ground  and  the  offerings,  the  making  of  obla- 
tions, &c. ;  (-1)  the  Brahman,  or  chief  "  priest,"  who  has  to 
superintend  the  performance  and  to  rectify  any  mistakes 
that  may  be  committed.  Now,  the  first  three  of  these 
priests  stand  in  special  relation  to  three  of  the  Vedic 
Sainhit^  in  this  way,  that  the  Samhitas  of  the  Samaveda- 
and  Yajurveda  form  special  song  and  prayer  books, 
arranged  for  the  practical  use  of  the  udg.atar  and 
adhvaryu  respectively;  whilst  the  Rik-samhita,  though 
not  arranged  for  any  such  practical  purpose,  contains  the 
entire  body  of  sacred  lyrics  whence  the  hotar  draws  the 
material  for  his  recitations.  The  brahman,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  no  special  text-hook  assigned  to  him,  but  was 
expected  to  be  familiar  with  all  the  Samhitas  as  well  as 
with  the  practical  details  of  the  sacrificial  performance. 
In  point  of  fact,  however,  the  brahmans,  though  their 
attendance  at  Vedic  sacrifices  was  required,  can  .scarcely 
be  said  to  have  formed  a  separate  class  of  priests  :  their 
office  was  probably  one  which  might  be  held  by  any  priest 
of  the  three  other  classes  who  had  acquired  the  necessary 
qualification  by  additional  study  of  the  other  Samhitas 
and  manuals  of  ritual.  In  later  times,  when  the  votaries 
of  the  fourth  Veda  pressed  for  recognition  of  their  Sanihita 
as  part  of  the  sacred  canon,  the  brahman  priest  was 
claimed  by  them  as  specially  connected  with  the  Atharva- 
veda.  It  is  perhaps  for  this  reason  that  the  latter  is  also 
called  the  Brakmaveda, — though  this  designation  may  also, 
be  taken  to  mean  the  Veda  of  spells  or  secret  doctrines 
{brahman).  It  sometimes  happens  that  verses  not  found 
in  our  version  of  the  Rik-sainhita,  but  in  the  Atharva- 
veda-samhita,  are  used  by  the  hotar ;  but  such  texts,  if 
they  did  not  actually  form  part  of  !;ome  other  version  of 
the  Rik, — asSayana  in  the  introduction  to  his  copimentary 
on  the  Rik-sanihita  assures  us  that  they  did, — were  prob- 
ably inserted  in  the  liturgy  subsequent  to  the  recogni- 
tion of  thp  fourth  Veda. 

The  several  Samhitas  have  attached  to  them  certain  Bra 
theological  prose  works,  called  Brdhmana,  which,  though  "''" 
subordinate  in  authority  to  tho  Mantras  or  Samhitas,  are 
like  them  held  to  be  divinely  revealed  and  to  form  pajit  of 
the  canon.  The  chief  works  of  this  class  are  of  an  exegetic 
nature, — their  purport  being  to  supply  a  dogmatic  exposi- 
tion of  the  sacrificial  ceremonial  in  so  far  as  the  particular 
class  of  priests  for  whoso  enlightenment  the  Brahmana  is 
intended  is  concerned  in  it.  Notwithstanding  the  un- 
interesting character  of  no  small  part  of  their  contents,  tho 
Briihraanas  are  of  considerable  importance,  both  as  regards 
the  history  of  Indian  institutions  and  as  "  tho  oldest  body 
of  Indo-European  prose,  of  a  generally  free,  vigorous; 
simple  form,  affording  valuable  glimpses  backward  at  the 
primitive  condition  of  unfettered  Indo-European  talk " 
(^Vhitney). 

More  or  less  closely  connected  with  the  Brihmanas  (and 
in  a  few  exceptional  cases  with  Samhitas)  are  two  classci 
of  treatises,  called  Aranyahi  and  Upanishad.  The  Aran' 
yakas,  i.e.,  works  "  relating  to  tho  forest,"  being  intended 
to  bo  read  by  those  who  have  retired  from  the  world  and 

XXI  —  35 


274 


SANSKRIT 


[litebatube. 


recen- 
sions. 


lead  the  life  of  anchorites,  do  not  greatly  differ  in  char- 
acter and  style  from  the  Brihmanas,  but  like  them  are 
chiefly  ritualistic,  treating  of  special  ceremonies  not  dealt 
with,  or  dealt  with  only  imperfectly,  in  the  latter  works, 
to  which  they  thus  stand  in  the  relation  of  supplements. 
The  Upanishads,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  a  purely  specu- 
lative nature,  and  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  first 
attempts  at  a  systematic  treatment  of  metaphysical  ques- 
tions. The  number  of  Upanishads  hitherto  known  is  very' 
considerable  (about  170);  but,  though  they  nearly  all  pro- 
fess to  belong  to  the  Athjjvaveda,  they  have  to  be  assigned 
to  very  different  periods  of  Sanskrit  literature,- — some  of 
them  being  evidently  quite  modern  productions.  The 
oldest  treatises  of  this  kind  are  doubtless  those  which 
form  part  of  Vedic  Samhitas,  Brahmanas,  and  Aranyakas, 
though  not  a  few  others  which  have  no  such  special  con- 
nexion have  to  be  classed  with  the  later  products  of  the 
Vedic  age. 
Different  As  the  sacred  texts  were  not  committed  to  writing  till  a 
much  later  period,  but  were  handed  down  orally  in  the 
Brahmanical  schools,  it  was  inevitable  that  local  differences 
of  reading  should  spring  up,  which  in  course  of  time  gave 
rise  to  a  number  of  independent  versions,  more  or  less 
differing  from  one  another.  Such  different  text-recen- 
sions, called  ^dkhd  {i.e.,  branch),  were  at  one  time  very 
numerous,  but  ordy  a  limited  number  of  them  have  sur- 
vived. As  regards  the  Samhitas,  the  poetical  form  of  the 
hymns,  as  well  as  the  concise  style  of  the  sacrificial 
formulas,  would  render  these  texts  less  liable  to  change, 
and  the  discrepancies  of  different  versions  would  chiefly 
consist  in  various  readings  of  single  words  or  in  the 
different  arrangement  of  the  textual  matter.  The  diffuse 
ritualistic  discussions  and  loosely  connected  legendary 
illustrations  of  the  Brahmanas,  on  the  other  hand,  offered 
scoDe  for  very  considerable  modifications  in  the  traditional 
matter,  either  through  the  ordinary  processes  of  oral 
transmission  or  through  the  special  influence  of  indi- 
vidual teachers. 

An  original  Brahmana,  then,  may  be  characterized  as  a 
series  of  theoretic  discourses,  -composed  by  recognized 
authorities  on  ritualistic  matters,  such  as  might  be 
delivered  or  referred  to  in  connexion  with  practical 
instruction  in  the  sacrificial  art.  The  growing  intricacy 
of  the  ceremonial,  however,  could  not  fail,  in  course  of 
time,  to  create  a  demand  for  treatises  of<  a  more  practical 
ten.lency,  setting  forth,  in  concise  and  methodical  form, 
the  duties  of  the  several  priests  in  the  sacrificial  perform- 
ances. But,  besides  the  purely  ceremonial  matter,  the 
Brahmanas  also  contained  a  considerable  amount  of  matter 
bearing  on  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  Vedic  texts ; 
and,  indeed,  the  sacred,  obligation  incumbent  on  the 
Brahmans  of  handing  down  correctly  the  letter  and  sense 
of  those  texts  necessarily  involved  a  good  deal  of  serious 
grammatical  and  etymological  study  in  the  Brahmanical 
Eohools.  These  literary  pursuits  could  not  but  result  in 
the  accumulation  of  much  learned  material,  which  it  would 
become  more  and  more  desirable  to  throw  into  a  system- 
atic form,  serving  at  the  same  time  as  a  guide  for  future 
research..  These  practical  requirements  were  met  by  a 
class  of  treatises,  grouped  under  six  different  heads  or 
Vodan-  subjects,  called  Veddngas,  i.e.,  members,  or  limbs,  of  the 
gas.  (body  of  the)  Veda.  None  of  the  works,  however,  which 
have  come  down  to  us  under  this  designation  can  lay  any 
just  claim  to  being  considered  as  the  original  treatises, on 
their  several  subjects ;  but  they  evidently  represent  a 
more  or  less  advanced  stage  of  scientific  development. 
Though  a  few  of  them  are  composed  in  metrical  form — 
especially  in  the  ordinary  epic  couplet,  the  anushtubh 
sloka,  consisting  of  two  lines  of  sixteen  syllables,  or  of 
two  octosyllabic  padas.  each — the  majority  o*  them  belong 


to  a  Glass  of  writings  called  sUtra,  i.e.,  "string,"  consisting  Satras. 
as  they  do  of  strings  of  rules  in  the  shape  of  tersely 
expressed  aphorisms,  intended  to  be  committed  to  memory. 
The  Sutras  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  Vedic  and 
the  classical  periods  of  literature.  But,  although  these 
treatises,  so  far  as  they  deal  with  Vedic  subjects,  are 
included  by  the  native  authorities  among  the  Vedic  writ- 
ings, and  in  point  of  language  may,  generally  speaking, 
be  considered  as  the  latest  products  of  the  Vedic  age,  they 
have  no  share  in  the  sacred  title  of  ^niti  or  revelation. 
They  are  of  human,  not  of  divine,  origin.  And  yet,  as 
the  production  of  men  of  the  highest  standing,  and  pro- 
foundly versed  in  Vedic  lore,  the  SQtras  are  naturally 
regarded  as  works  of  great  authority,  second  only  to  that 
of  the  revealed  scriptures  themselves";  and  their  relation 
to  the  latter  is  expressed  in  the  generic  title  of  Smriti,  or 
Tradition,  usually  applied  to  them. 

The  six  branches  of  Vedic  science,  included  under  the 
term  Vedanga,  are  as  follows  : — 

(1)  Sikshd,  or  Phonetics.     The  privileged   position  of  Ptonetica 
representing  this  subject  is  assigned  to  a  small  treatise 
ascribed  to  the  great  grammarian  Panini,  viz.,  the  rdniniyd 
dikshd,  extant  in  two  different  (Rik  and  Yajus)  recensions. 

But  neither  this  treatise  nor  any  other  of  the  numerous 
^ikshas  which  have  recently  come  to  light  can  lay  claim  to 
any  very  high  age.  Scholars,  however,  usuallv  include 
under  this  head  certain  works,  called  PrdtisdJcht/a,  i.e., 
"belonging  to  a  certain  ddkhd  or  recension,"  which  deal 
minutely  with  the  phonetic  peculiarities  of  the  several 
Samhitas,  and  are  of  great  importance  for  the  textual 
criticism  of  the  Vedic  Samhitas. 

(2)  Chhandas,  or  Metre.     Tradition  makes  the  Chkan-  Metro. 
dah-sUtra  of  Pingala  the  starting-point  of  prosody.     The 
Vedic  metres,  however,  occupy  but  a  small  part  of  this 
treatise,  and   they   are   evidently  dealt   with   in  a  more 
original  manner  in  the  Nidana-sdtra  of  the  S^maveda,  and 

in  a  chapter  of  the  Rik-pratisakhya.  For  profane  prosody, 
on  the  other  hand,  Pingala's  treatise  is  rather  valuable,  no 
less  than  IGO  metres  being  described  by  him. 

(3)  Vj/dlcarana,  or  Grammar.     Panini's  famous  grammar  Grammai 
is  said  to  be  the  Vedanga;  but  it  marks  the  culminating 

point  of  grammatical  research  rather  than  the  beginning, 
and  besides  treats  chiefly  of  the  post- Vedic  language. 

(i)  Ninilia,  or  Etymology.  Yaska's  Nirukta  is  the  Ety- 
traditional  representative  of  this  subject,  and  this  important  ""'"gy. 
work  certainly  deals  entirely  with  Vedic  etymology  or  ex- 
planation. It  consists,  in  the  first  place,  of  strings  of  words 
in  three  chapters: — (1)  synonymous  words;  (2)  such  as  are 
purely  or  chiefly  Vedic ;  -and  (3)  names  of  deities.  These 
lists  are  followed  by  Taska's  commentary,  interspersed  with 
numerous  illustrations.  Yaska,  again,  quotes  several  pre- 
decessors in  the  same  branch  of  science  ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  original  works  on  this  subject  consisted  merely 
of  lists  of  words  similar  to  those  handed  down  by  him. 

(5)  JyotUha,  or  Astronomy.  Although  astronomical  Astro- 
calculations  are  frequently  referred  to  in  older  works  in  nomy. 
connexion  with  the  performance  of  sacrifices,  the  metrical 
treatise  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  two  different  recen- 
sions under  the  title  of  Jyotisha,  ascribed  to  one  Lagadha, 
or  Lagata,  seems  indeed  to  be  the  oldest  existing  systematic 
treatise  on  astronomical  subjects.  With  the  exception  of 
some  apparently  spurious  verses  of  one  of  the  recensions,  it 
betrays  no  sign  of  the  Greek  influence  which  shows  itself 
in  Hindu  astronomical  works  from  about  the  third  century 
of  our  era ;  and  its  date  may  therefore  be  set  down  as 
probably  not  later  than  the  early  centuries  after  Christ. 

(G)  kalpa,  or  Ceremonial.     Tradition  does  not  single  ' 
out  any  special  work  as  the  VedAnga  in  this  branch  of 
Vedic  science ;  but  the  sacrificial  practice  gave  rise  to  a 
large  number  of  systematic  stitra-manuala  for  the  several 


XTTEEATITEE.] 


S  A  N  S  K  R  I  T 


275 


classes  of  priests.  The  most  Important  of  these  works 
liave  come  down  to  us,  and  they  occupy  by  far  the 
most  prominent  place  among  the  literary  productions  of 
the  sfitra-period.  The  KaIpa;Slltras,  or  rules  of  ceremonial, 
are  of  two  kinds: — (1)  the  Srauta-sdtras^  which  are  based 
on  the  ^ruti,  and  teach  the  performance  of  the  great  sacri- 
fices, requiring  three  sacriiicial  fires;  and  (2)  the  Smaria- 
siUraSj  or  -rules  based  on  the  smriti  or  tradition.  The 
latter  class  again  includes  two  kinds  of  treatises! — (1)  the 
Gnh^a-suiras,  or  domestic  rules,  treating  of  ordinary 
family  rites,  such  as  marriage,  birth,  name-giving,  (fcc, 
connected  with  simple  offerings  in  the  domestic  fire ;  and 
(2)  the  Sdmaydckdrika-  (or  DharviOr)  siltras,  which  treat  of 
customs  and  temporal  duties,  and  are  supposed  to  have 
formed  the  chief  sources  of  the  later  law4)ooks.  Besides, 
the  ^rauta-sGtras  of  the  Yajurveda  have  usually  attached 
to  them  a  set  of  so-called  Sulva-silh-as,  i.e.,  "rules  of 
the  cord,"  which  treat  of  the  measurement  by  means  of 
cords,  and  the  construction,  of  different  kinds  of  altars 
required  for,  sacrifices.  These  treatises  (the  study  of 
which  has  been  successfully  taken  up  by  Prcf.  Thibaut  of 
Benares)  are  of  considerable  interest  as  supplying  import- 
ant information  regarding  the  earliest  geometrical  opera- 
tions in  India.  Along  with  the  Siltras  may  be  classed  a 
large  number  of  supplementary  treatises,  usually  called 
Parisishta  {■n-apaXtirofxcva),  on  various  subjects  connected 
with  the  sacred  texts  and  Vedic  religion  generally. 

After  this  brief  characterization  of  the  various  branches 
of  Vedic  literature,  we  proceed  to  take  a  rapid  survey  6i 
the  several  Vedic  collections. 

"Pi^n'blv  A,  Jiigveda.^ — The  lligvcda-samliitd,  has  come  down  to  us  in  the 
*auiii.<iA  recension  of  the  Sakala  school.  Jlention  is  made  of  several  other 
versions  ;  and  regarding  one  of  them,  that  of  the  Bashkalaa,  we 
liave  some  further  information,  according  to  which  it  seems,  how- 
ever, to  have  differed  but  little  from  the  Sakala  text^  The  lattnr 
consists  of  1028  hymns,  including  eleven  so-called  Fdtakhihjas, 
which  were  probably  introduced  into  the  collection  subsequently  to 
its  completion.  The  hymns  are  composed  in  a  great  variety  of 
metres,  and  consist,  on  an  average,  of  rather  more  than  10  verses 
each,  or  about  10,600  vei-ses  altogether.  This  body  of  sac;:ed  lyrics 
has  been  subdivided  by  ancient  authorities  in  a  twofold  way,  vi2., 
either  from  a  purely  artificial  point  of  view,  into  eight  ashtaJcas  of 
about  e(^ual  length,  or,  on  a  more  natural  principle,  based  on  the 
origin  ol  the  hymns,  and  invariably  adopted  by  European  scholars, 
into  ten  books,  or  mandalas,  of  unequal  leno;th.  Tradition  (not, 
however,  always  tiustworthy  in  this  respect)  has  handed  down  the 
names  of  the  reputed  authors,  or  rather  inspired  "  seers  "  {rishi),  of 
most  hymns.  These  indications  have  enabled  scholars  to  form  some 
idea  as  to  the  probable  way  in  which  the  Rik-samhila  originated, 
though  much  still  remains  to  be  cleared  up  by  future  research. 

In  the  first  place,  mandalas  ii.-vii.  are  evidently  arranged  on  a 
nniform  plan.  Each  of  them  is  ascribed  to  a.  different  family  of 
rishis,  whence  they  are  usually  called  the  six  '■family-books  : — 
ii.,  theGritsaraadas;  iii.,  the  Visvamitrasor  Kusikas;  iv.,  theVama- 
dcvyas;  v.,  the  Atris;  vi.,  the  Bharadvajas;  and  vii.,  the  Vaeishthas. 
Further,  each  of  tliese  books  begins  with  the  hymns  addressed  to 
Agni,  the  god  of  fire,  which  are  followed  by  those  to  Indra,  the 
Jupiter  Pluvius,  whereupon  follow  those  addressed  to  minor  deities— 
the  Vi^vo  De%-ah  ("  all-gods  "),  the  Maruts  (storm-gods),  &c.  Again, 
the  hymns  addressed  to  each  deity  are  arranged  (as  Prof.  Delbriick 
has  shown)  in  a  descending  order,  according  to  the  number  of  verses 
of  which  they  consist. 

The  first  mandnla,  the  longest  in  the  whole  SarnhitR,  contains 
191  hymns,  ascribed,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  isolated  ones, 
to  sixteen  poets  of  different  families.  Hero  again  the  hymns  of 
each  author  are  arranged  on  precisely  the  same  principle  as  the 


*  The  Rigvcda  has  been  edited,  together  with  the  commentary  of 
Siyana  (of  the  14th  century),  by  Max  Miiller,  6  vols.,  London, 
1849-74.  The  same  scholar  has  published  an  edition  of  the  hymns, 
both  in  the  connected  (samhim)  and  the  disjoined  (pada)  texts,  1873. 
An  Kilition  in  Roman  transliteration  was  published  by  Th.  Aufrccht, 
Berlin,  1861-3  (2d  ed.  1877).  Part  of  an  English  translation  (chiefly 
ba^cd  on  Siyana'a  interpretation)  was  brovight  out  by  the  late  Prof. 
H.  H.  Wilson  (vols,  i.-iii.,  1850-1857)  and  continued  by  Prof.  E.  B. 
Cowell  (vol.  iv.,  1866,  bringing  up  the  work  to  mandala  viii.  hymn 
20).  Wo  have  also  the  first  volume  of  a  translation,  with  a  running 
commentary,  by  M.  Miiller,  contaiping  the  hymns  to  the  Maruts  or 
>torm-gods.  Complete  German  translations  have  been  published  by 
a.  Grassmann  (1876-7)  and  *.  Ludwig  (1876X 


"  family-books."  The  eighth  and  ninth  hooks,  on  the  other  hand  i 
have  a  special  character  of  their  own.  To  the  Samaveda-samhit^* 
which,  as  we  shall  see,  consists  almost  entirely  of  verses  chosen  from 
the  Rik  for  chanting  purposes,  these  two  mandalas  have  contributed 
a  much  largei  proportion  of  verses  than  any  of  the  others.  Now 
the  hymns  of  the  eighth  book  are  ascribed  to  a  number  of  different 
rishis,  mostly  belonging  to  the  Kanva  family.  The  productions  of 
each  poet  are  usually,  though  not  always,  grouped  together,  but 
no  other  principle  of  arrangement  has  yet  been- discovered.  The 
chief  peculiarity  of  this  mandala,  however,  consists  in  its  metres. 
Many  of  the  hymns  are  composed  in  the  form  of  stanzas,  called 
pragdtha  (from  gd^  "to  sing"),  consisting  of  two  verses  in  the 
brihait  and  satolrihait  metres  ;  whence  this  book  is  usually  known 
under  the  designation  of  Pragathah.  The  other  metres  met  with 
in  thiif  book  are  likewise  such  as  were  evidently  considered 
peculiarly  adapted  for  singing,  viz.,  the  gdyatrt  [hovagd,  "to  sing") 
and  other  chiefly  octosyllabic  metres.  It  is  not  yet  clear  how  to 
account  for  these  peculiarities  ;  but  further  research  may  perhaps 
show  that  either  the  Kanvas  were  a  family  of  udgatars,  or  chanters, 
or  that,  before  the  establishment  of  a  common  system  of  worship 
for  the  Brahmanical  community,  they  were  accustomed  to  carry  on 
their  liturgical  service  exclusively  by  means  of  chants,  instead  of 
using  the  later  form  of  mixed  recitation  and  chant.  One  of  the 
rishis  of  this  family  is  called  Pragatha  Kanva  ;  -possibly  this  sur- 
name "  pragatha  "  may  be  an  old,  or  local,  synonym  of  ud^atar, 
or  perhaps  of  the  chief  chanter,  the  so-called  Prastotar,  or  pre- 
centor. The  ninth  mandala,  on  the  other  hand,  consists  entirely 
of  hymns  (114)  addressed  to  5'om«,  the  deified  juice  of  the  so-called 
*'  moon-plant "  {Sarcosteynma  viviiiiale,  or  Asdcpias  acida),  and 
ascribed  to  poets  of  different  families.  They  are  called  pavavxdnt, 
"  purificational,"  because  they  were  to  be  recited  by  the  hotar 
while  the  juice  expressed  from  the  soma  plants  was  clarifying. 
The  first  sixty  of  these  hymns  are  arranged  strictly  according  to 
their  length,  ranging  from  ten  down  to  four  verses-;  but  as  to  the 
remaining  hymns  no  such  principle  of  arrangement  is  observable, 
except  perhaps  in  smaller  groups  of  hymns.  One  might,  therefore, 
feel  inclined  to  look  upon  that  firat  section  as  the  body  of  soma 
hymns  set  apart,  at  the  time  of  the^rst  redaction  of  the  Samhita, 
for  the  special  purpose  of  being  used  a.^  pavamdnyah, — the  remain- 
ing hymns  having  been  added^  at  subsequent  redactions.  It 
would  not,  however,  by  any  means  follow  that  all,  or  even  any, 
of  the  latter  hymns  were  actually  later  productions,  as  they  might 

Ereviously  have  formed  part  of  the  family  collections,  or  might 
ave  been  overlooked  when  the  hymns  were  first  collected.  Other 
mandalas  (viz.,  i.,  viii.,  and  x. )  still  contain  four  entire  hj'mns 
addressed  to  Sofua,  consisting  together  of  58  verses,  of  which  only 
a  single  one  (x.  25,  1)  is  found  in  the  Samaveda-sarjihita,  as  also 
some  28  isolated  verses  to  Soma,  and  four  hymns  addressed  to 
Soma  in,  conjunction  with  some  other  deity,  wlijch  are  entirely 
unrepresented  in  that  collection. 

The  tenth  mandala  contains  the  same  number  of  hymns  (191)  as 
the  first,  which  it  nearly  equals  in  actual  length.  The  hymns  are 
ascribed  to  many  rishis,  of  various  families,  some  of  whom  appear 
already  in  the  preceding  mandalas.*  The  ,  traditional  record  «is, 
however,  less  to  be  depended  upon  as  regards  this  book,  many 
names  of  gods  and  fictitious  personages  appearing  in  the  list  of  its 
rishis.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  book  the  hymns  are  clearly 
arranged  according  to  the  number  of  v  rses,  in  decreasing  order, — ■ 
occasional  exceptions  to  this  nile  b'^lng  easily  adjusted  by  the 
removal  of  a  few  additional  verses.  ''  similar  arrangement  seems 
also  to  suggest  itself  in  otiier  portions  of  the  book.  This  mandala 
stands  somewhat  apart  from  the  preceding  books,  both  its  lan- 
guage and  the  general  character  of  many  of  its  hymns  betraying  a 
comparatively  modern  origin.  In  this  respect  it  stands  about  on  a 
level  with  the  Atharvaveda-samhita,  with  which  it  is  otherwise 
closely  connected.  Of  some  1350  Rik-verses  found  in  the  Atharvan, 
about  550,  or  rather  more  thun  40  per  cent.,  occur  in  the  tenth 
mandala.  In  the  latter  we  meet  with  the  same  tendencies  as  in 
the  Atharvan  to  metaphysical  speculation  and  abstract  conceptions 
of  the  deity  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  superstitious  practices  on  the 
other.  But,  although  in  its  general  appearance  the  tenth  mandala 
is  decidedly  more  modern  than  the  other  books,  it  contains  not  a 
few  hymns  which  are  little,  if  at  all,  inferior,  )3olh  in  respect  of  age 
and  poetic  quality,  to  the  generality  of  Vedic  hymns. 

It  has  become  the  custom,  after  Roth's  example,  to  call  the 
Rik-sar|ihitA  (as  well  as  the  Atharvan)  an  historical  collection,  as 
compared  with  the  Sanihitas  put  togcthtT  for  purely  ritualistic  pur- 
poses. And  indeed,  though  the  several  family  collections  which 
make  up  the  earlier  mandalas  may  originally  have  served  ritual 
ends,  as  the  hymnals  of  certain  clans  or  tribal  confederacies,  and 
although  the  SarphitA  itself,  in  its  oldest  form,  may  have  been 
intended  as  a  common  prayer-book,  so  to  speak,  for  tlio  wholo  of 
the  Brahmanical  community,  it  is  certain  that  in  the  stage  in 
which  it  Kas  been  finally  handed  down  it  includes  a  certain  portion 
of  hymn  material  (and  even  some  secular  poetry)  which  could  never 
have  bccei  used  for  purposey  of  religious  service.  It  may,  therefore, 
bo  assumed  that  the  Rik-sanihita  contains  all  of  the  nature  of  popu- 


?76 


SANSKRIT 


[litekatoke. 


lar  lyrics  that  was  accessible  to  tlie  collectors,  or  seemcil  to  them 
■B-orthy  of  being  preserved.  The  question  as  to  the  exact  period 
when  the  hymns  were  collected  cannot  he  answered  with  any 
approach  to  accuracy.  For  many  reasons,  however,  which  cannot 
be  detailed  here,  scholars  have  come  to  fix  on  the  year  1000  B.C.  as 
an  approximate  date  for  the  collection  of  the  Vcdic  hymns.  From 
that  time  every  means  that  human  ingenuity  could  suggest  was 
adopted  to  secure  the  sacred  texts  against  the  risks  connected  with 
oral  transmission.  But,  as  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that 
even  then  not  only  had  the  text  of  the  hymns  suffered  corruption, 
but  their  language  had  become  antiquated  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  was  only" partly  understood,  the  period  during  which  the  great 
mass  of  the  hymns  were  composed  must  have  lain  considerably 
further  back,  and  may  very  likely  have  extended  over  tlie  earlier 
half  of  the  second  millenary,  or  from  about  2000  to  1600  B.C. 

As  regards  the  people  wliich  raised  for  itself  this  imposing  monu- 
ment, the  hymns  exhibit  it  as  settled  in  the  regions  watered  by  the 
mighty  Sindhu  (Indus),  witli  its  eastern  and  western  tributaries. 
The  land  of  the  five  rivers  forms  tlie  central  home  of  the  Vedio 
people  ;  but,  while  its  advanced  guard  has  already  debouched  upon 
the  plains  of  the  upper  Ganga  and  Yamuna,  those  who  bring  up 
the  rear  are  still  found  loitering  far  behind  in  the  narrow  glens  of 
the  Kubha  (Cabul)  and  Gomati  (Gomal).  Scattered  over  this  tract 
of  land,  in  hamlets  and  villages,  the  Vedic  Aryas  are  leading 
chiefly  the  life  of  herdsmen  and  husbandmen.  The  numerous  clans 
and  tribes,  ruled  over  by  chiefs  and  kings,  have  still  constantly  to 
vindicate  their  right  to  the  land  but  lately  wrung  from  an  inferior 
race  of  darker  hue  ;  just  as  in  these  latter  days  their  kinsmen  m 
the  Far  West  are  ever  on  their  guard  against  the  fierce  attacks  of 
the  dispossessed  red-skin.  Not  unfrequently,  too,  the  light-coloured 
Aryas  raw  internecine  war  with  one  another, — as  when  the 
Bharatas,°with  allied  tribes  of  tlie  Paiijab,  goaded  on  by  the  royal 
saire  Visvamitra,  invade  the  country  of  the  Tiitsu  king  Sudas,  to 
be°defeated  in  the  "ten  kings'  battle,"  through  the  inspired  power 
of  the  priestly  singer  Vasislitha.  The  priestly  office  has  already 
become  one  of  high  social  importance  by  the  side  of  the  political 
rulers,  and  to  a  large  extent  an  hereditary  profession;  but  it  does 
not  yet  present  the  baneful  features  of  an  exclusive  caste.  The 
Aryan  housewife  shares  with  her  husband  the  daily  toil  and  joy,  the 
privilege  of  worshipping  the  national  gods,  and  even  the  triumphs 
of  soug-craft,  some  of  thefinest  hymns  being  attributed  to  female 

seera.  <•      t.     i 

The  religious  belief  of  the  people  consists  m  a  system  of  natural 
symbolism,  a  worship  of  the  elementary  forces  of  nature,  regarded 
as  beings  endowed  with  reason  and  power  superior  to  those  of  man. 
In  giving  utterance  to  this  simple  belief,  the  priestly  spokesman 
has,  however,  frequently  worked  into  it  his  own  speculative  and 
mystic  notions,  ludra,  the  stout-hearted  ruler  of  the  cloud-region, 
receives  by  far  the  largest  share  of  the  devout  attentions  of  the 
iVedic  singer. '  His  ever-renewed  battle  with  the  malicious  demons 
of  darlcness  and  drought,  for  the  recovery  of  the  heavenly  light  and 
the  rain-spending  cows  of  the  sky,  forms  an  inexhaustible  theme  of 
spirited  song.  Next  to  him,  in  the  affections  of  the  people,  stapds 
*Agni  (icnis),  the  god  of  fire,  invoked  as  the  genial  inmate  of  the 
lAryan  liousehold,  and  as  the  bearer  of  oblations,  and  mediator 
itetween  gods  and  men.  Indra  and  Agni  are  thus,  as  it  were,  the 
'divine  representatives  of  the  king  (or  chief)  and  the  priest  of  the 
feAryan  community  ;  and  if,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  Samhita,  the 
^Brahmanical  collectors  gave  precedence  to  Agni,  it  was  but  one  of 
many  avowals  of  their  own  hierarchical  pretensions.  Hence  also 
,the  hymns  to  Indra  are  mostly  followed,  in  the  family  collections, 
'by  those  addressed  to  the  Visve  Devah  (the  "all-gods")  or  to  the 
M'aruts  (Mavors,  Mars),  the  Tvarlike  storm-gods  and  faithful  com- 
panions of  Indra,  as  the  divine  impersonation  of  the  Aryan  free- 
men, the  vii  or  clan.  But,  while  Indra  and  Agni  are  undoubtedly 
the  favourite  figures  of  the  Vedic  pantheon,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  these  gods  had  but  lately  supplanted  another  group  of  deities 
who  play  a  less  prominent  part  in  the  hymns,  viz.,  Father  Heaven 
(Dyaus  Pilar,  Zeus  war-np,  Jupiter);  Varuna  (oSpavos),  the  all- 
embracing  firmament;  Jlitra  (Zend,  llithra),  the  genial  light  of 
day;  and  Savitar  (Saturnus)  or  Siirya  {rie\ias),  the  vivifying  sun. 
■j3Hlh-  Of  the  BrShmanas  that  were  handed  down  in  the  schools  of  the 

manisT!  Sakvridias  {i.e.,  "  possesse'd  of  many  verses"),  as  the  followers  of 
Rieveda  th«  Rlgveda  are  called,  two  have  come  down  to  us,  viz. ,  those  of 
'  the  Aitareyins  and  the  JJausliitakins.  The  Aitarcya-brdhmana^ 
and  the  Kaxtsh'Uaki-  (or  Sdnkhdyana-)  Irdhmaim  evidently  have  for 
their  groundwork  the  same  stock  of  traditional  exegetic  matter. 
They  differ,  however,  considerably  as  regards  both  the  arrange- 
ment of  this  matter  and  their  stylistic  handling  of  it,  with  the 
exception  of  the  numerous  legends  common  to  both,  in  which  the 
discrepancy  is  comparatively  slight.  There  is  also  a  certain 
amount  of  material  peculiar  to  each  of  them.  The  Kaushitaka  is, 
npon  the  whole,  far  more  concise  in  its  style  and  more  systematic 
in  its  arrangement— merits  which  would  lead  one  to  infer  that  it 


'  Edited,  with  an  Enallsh  trnnslallon,  by  M.  Haug,  3  vols.,  Bombay,  1863.  An 
edition  In  Roman  transliteration,  with  extracts  from  the  commentiry,  liu  been 
publuhed  by  Th.  Aufrecht,  Bonn,  1S79. 


is  probably  the  more  modem  work  of  the  two.  It  consists  of  thirty 
chapters  {adhydya)  ;  while  the  Aitareya  has  forty,  divided  into 
ei"ht  books  (or  "pentads,  panchakA,  of  five  chapters  each).  The 
list  ten  adhyayas  of  the  latter  work  are,  however,  clearly  a  later 
addition,— though  they  must  have  already  formed  part  of  it  at  the 
time  of  Fanini  (c.  400  B.C.  ?),  if,  as  seems  probable,  one  of  his 
grammatical  siltras,  regulating  the  formation  of  the  names  ol 
Biahmanas,  consisting  of  thirty  and  forty  adhyayas,  refers  to  these 
two  works.  In  this  last  portion  occurs  the  well-known  legend 
(also  found  in  the  Sinkhayana-sutra,  but  not  in  the  Kaushitakl- 
brahmana)  of  SunahscpS,  whom  his  father  Ajigarta  sells  and  offers 
to  slay  '  the  recit.il  of  which  formed  part  of  the  inauguration  of 
kin.'s  While  the  Aitareya  deals  almost  exclusively  with  the 
Sonia  sacrifice,  the  Kaushitaka,  in  its  first  six  chapters,  treats  of 
the  several  kinds  of  luiriryajfrn,  or  offerings  of  nee,  milk  ghee, 
&c.,  whereupon  follows  the  Soma  sacrifice  in  this  way,  that  chapters^ 
7-10  contain  the  practical  ceremonial  and  11-30  the  recitations 
{iastra)  of  the  hotar.  Sayana,  in  the  introduction  to  his  com- 
mentary on  the  work,  ascribes  the  Aitareya  to  the  sage  Mahidasa 
Aitareya  (son  of  Itara),  also  mentioned  elsewhere  as  a  philosopher  ; 
and  it  seems  likely  enough  that  this  person  arranged  the  Brahmana 
and  founded  the  school  of  the  Aitareyins.  Begardmg  the  author- 
ship of  the  sister  work  we  have  no  infornlRtion,  except  that  the 
opinion  of  the  sage  Kaushilaki  is  frequently  referred  to  m  it  as 
authoritative,  and  generally  in  opposition  to  the  Pamgya— the 
Brahmana,  it  would  seem,  of  a  rival  school,  the  Paingins.    ^ 

Each  of  these  two  Bralimanas  is  supplemented  by  a  forest- 
portion,"  or  Aranyaka.  The  Aitarajdranyaka^  is  not  a  nniform 
production.  It  consists  of  five  books  {dranyaka),  tb»ee  of  which, 
the  first  and  the  last  two,  are  of  a  liturgical  nature,  tffcating  of  the 
ceremony  called  maMvrala  or  great  vow.  The  secona  aud  third 
books,  on  the  other  hand,  are  purely  speculative,  and  are  also  styled 
t\\eBahvricha-hrdhman',-upanishnd.  Again,  the  last  four  cnapters 
of  the  second  book  are  usually  singled  out  as  thi  Aitareyopanishad,' 
ascribed,  like  its  Brahmana  (and  the  first  book),  to  Jlahida-sa 
Aitareya  ;  and  the  third  book  is  also  referred  to  as  the  SamJntd- 
iijianishad.  The  fourth  and  fifth  books  are  doubtless  of  later 
origin,  being  composed  in  sutra-torm.  Even  native  authorities 
exclude  them  from  the  sacred  canon,  and  ascribe  them  to  Asva. 
layana  and  Saunaka  respectively,  of  whom  more  further  on.  "As 
regards  the  'Kaushilaki-dranyaka,  our  JIS.  material  is  not  yet 
sufficient  to  enable  us  to  determine  its  exact  extent  and  arrange- 
ment. It  would,  however,  seem  that  there  are  two  ditierent 
recensions  of  this  treatise,  a  shorter  one,  consisting  of  nine,  and  a 
longer  one  of  fifteen,  adhyayas.  Four  of  these,  variously  placed 
at  the  beginning  or  end,  or  after  the  second  adhyaya,  constitute 
the  hit-hly  interesting  Kaushttaki-  {hrdhmana-)  iipanishad,"  of 
which  we  possess  two  different  recensions.  The  remaining  portions 
of  the  Aranyaka  seem  to  correspond,  to  so"ie  extent,  to  tlie  cere- 
monial sections  of  the  Aitareya-aranyaka. 

Of  Kalpa-sAtras,  or  manuals  of  sacrificial  ceremonial,  composed  Sfltras  oi 
for  the  use  of  the  hotar  priest,  two  different  sets  are  in  existence,  Bigveda 
the  AimUyana-  and  the  Sdnkhdyaim-s<Ura.  Each  of  these  works 
follows  one  of  the  two  Brahmanas  of  the  Rik  as  its  chief  authority, 
viz  the  Aitareya  and  Kaushitaka  respectively.  Both  consist  of  a 
Sraula-  and  a  OrihyasUra.  Asvaldyana  seems  to  have  lived  about 
the  same  time  as  Panini,— his  own  teacher,  Saunaka,  who  com- 
pleted the  Rik-pratisikhya,  being  probably  iutermediate  between 
the  great  grammarian  and  Yaska,  the  author  of  the  Nimkta. 
Saunaka  himself  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  Srauta-sfltra 
(which  was,  however,  more  of  the  nature  of  a  Brahmana)  and  to 
have  destroyed  it  on  seeing  his  pupil's  work.  A  Gnhya-sutra  is 
still  quoted  under  his  name  by  later  writers.  The  A4valayana 
Srauta-sutra=  consists  of  twelve,  Jhe  Grihya«  of  four,  adhyayas. 

Regarding  Sankhayana  still  ".-^ss  is  known  ;  but  he,  too,  was 
doubtless  a  comparatively  modern  .writer,  who.  Tike  Asvalayana, 
founded  a  new  school  of  ritualists.  Hence  the  KaushiUki-brahmana, 
adopted  (and  perhaps  improved)  by  him,  alsogoes  under  his  name, 
just  as  the  Aitareya  is  sometimes  called  Asvamyana-brahmana. 
The  Sinkh-iyana  Srauta-siitra  consists  of  eighteen  adhyayas  The 
last  two  chapters  of  the  work  are,  however,  a  later  addition, 
while  the  two  preceding  chapters,  on  the  contrary,  present  a  com- 
paratively archaic,  brahmana-like  appearance.  The  Grihya-sOira 
consists  of  six  chapters,  the  last  two  of  which  are  likewise  later 
appendages.     The  Sdmhavya  Grihya-sClra,  of  which  a  single  JMb. 

'  Edited,  with  Sayana's  commentary,  by  RajendraWla  Mitra,  In  ^>'lBiUiMo^ 
JruUca   1875-76.    The  first  three  books  have  been  translated  by  F.  Max  Miuier  in 

^"3  Emfe°d1'nf  t?<ls1a"i'k'by-Dr  Roer.  In  the  MU.  Ini.  The  last  ch.r.er'or  the 
second  book,  not  being  commented  upon  by  Sayona,  is  probab  y  a  later  addition. 

4  Te^t  commentary. and  translatlonpublished  by  E.  B.  Cowell,  in  tl^ei.W.  M- 
Also  a  translation  by  F.  Max  Miiller  in  Sacred  Boots  of  I  lit  £*>',  'ol.  '•„..„„, 

s  Both  works  have  been  published  with  the  commentary  ot  GSrsya  ^a^a^ana, 
by  native  scholars.  In  the  BM.  Ind.    Also  the  text  ot  tlie  Gnhya,  with  a  German 

'Tse'e'l"  Wet'r^'alysis,  M.  St.dUn.  II.  p.  2SS  «,.  This  work,  with  1« 
commentaries,  Is  only  accessible  in  manuscnpt,  ,,  ,  ^,.,j    „ii7V 

'  Edited,  with  a  German  translation,  by  H.  Oldcnberg  {Ind.  SIM.,  vol.  iv.* 
who  ilBO  gives  an  account  of  the  sambavya  Gflhyiu 


ilTERATUr.E.] 


SANSKRIT 


277 


s  at  present  known,  seems,  to  Tje  closely  connected  with  the 
■trecedin^  work.  Prof.  Biihler  also  refers  to  the  Kig^'eda  the 
f^dsisJUjia-dharina^detra,'^  composed  of  mixed  sutras  and  couplets. 

A  few  works  remain  to  be  noticed,  bearing  chiefly  on  the  textvial 
form  and  traditionary  records  of  the  Rik-samhita.  In  our  remarks 
on  the  Vedangas,  the  Pratiaakliyas  have  already  been  referred  to 
as  the  chief  repositories  of  i^iksha  or  Vedic  phonetics.  Among 
these  works  the  Jlik-prdtUdkhya-  occupies  the  first  place.  The 
ori^nal  composition  of  this  important  work  is  ascribed  to  the  same 
Sdkahja  from  whom  the  vulgate  recension  of  the  (Sakala)  Samhita 
takes  its  name.  He  is  also  said  to  be  the  author  of  the  existing 
Fada-pdtha  (i.e.,  tlie  text-form  in  which  each  word  is  given  uncon- 
nected with  those  that  precede  and  follow  it),^which  report  may 
well  be  credited,  since  the  pada-text  was  doubtless  prepared  with 
a  view  to  an  examination,  such  as  is  presented  in  the  Pratisakhya, 
of  the  phonetic  modifications  undergone  by  words  in  their  syntactic 
combination.  In  the  Pratisakhya  itself,  Sakalya's  father  (or 
Sakalya  the  elder)  is  also  several  times  referred  to  as  an  authority 
on  phonetics,  though  the  younger  Sakalya  is  evidently  regarded 
as  having  improved  on  his  father's  theories.  '  Thus  both  father 
and  son  probably  had  a  share  in  the  formulation  of  the  rules  of 
pronunciation  and  modification  of  Vedic  sounds.  The  completion 
or  final  arrangement  of  the  Rik-pratisakhya,_  in  its  present,  form,  is 
ascribed  to  Saunaka,  the  reputed  teacher  of  Asvalayana.  _  Saunaka, 
Jiowever,  is  merely  a  family  name  ("descendant  of  Sunaka"), 
which  is  given  even  to  the  rishi  Gritsamada,  to  whom  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  second  mandalaof  the  Rik  is  attributed.  How  long 
after  Sakalya  this  particular  Saunaka  lived  we  do  not  know ;  but 
some  generations  at  all  events  would  seem  to  lie  between  them, 
considering  that  in  the  meantime  the  Sakalas,  owing  doubtless  to 
minor  differences  on  phonetic  points  in  the  ^Sanihita  text,  had 
split  into  several  branches,  to  one  of  which,  the  Saisira  (or  Saisiriva) 
school,  Saunaka  belonged.  "While  Sakalya  is  referred  to  both  by 
Yaska  and  Panini,  neither  of  these  \vi-iters  mentions  Saunaka.  It 
seems  nevertheless  likely,  for  several  reasons,  that  Panini  was 
acquainted  with  Saunaka's  work,  though  the  point  has  by  no 
means  been  definitively  settled.  The  Rik-pratisukhya  is  composed 
in  mixed  slokas,,  or  couplets  of  various  metres,  a  form  of  composi- 
tion for  which  Saunaka  seems  to  have  had  a  special  predilection. 
Besides  the  Pratisakhya,  and  the  Grihya-sutra  mentioned  above, 
eight  other  works  arc  ascribed  to  Saunaka,  viz.,  the  Brihad- 
dcvatd,  an  account,  in  epic  slokas,  of  the  deities  of  the  hymns, 
which  supplies  much  valuable  mythological  information ;  the 
^ig-vidhdna,  a  treatise,  likewise  in  epic  metre,  on  the  magic  effects 
of  Vedic  hymns  and  verses  ;  the  Fdda-vidhdna,  a  similar  treatise, 
apparently  no  longer  in  existence  ;  and  five  different  indexes  or 
catalogues  {anukramanVj  of  the  rishis,  metres,  deities,  sections 
{anuvdka),  and  hymns  of  the  Rig\'cda.  It  is,  however,  doubtful 
whether  the  existing  version  of  the  Brihaddevata  is  the  original 
one  ;  and  the  Rig\'idhana  would  seem  to  be  much  more  modern 
than  Saunaka's  time.  As  regards  the  Anukramanis,  they  seem  all 
to  have  been  composed  in  mixed  ^lokas  ;  but,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Anuvakanukramani,  they  ace  only  known  from  quotations, 
having  been  superseded  by  the  Sarvdniikrama,  or  complete  index, 
of  Kdtydyana.  Both  these  indexes  have  been  commented  upon  by 
Shadgurusishya,  towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century  of  our  era. 
Sama-  B.  Suma-vcda. — TheteTm.sdma7i,  of  uncertain  derivation,  denotes 

veda-  a  solemn  tune  or  melody  to  be  sung  or  chanted  to  a  rick  or  verse, 
samhitd.  The  set  chants  (stotra)  of  the  Soma  sacrifice  are  as  a  rule  performed 
in  triplets,  either  actually  consisting  of  three  difTeient  versos,  or  of 
two  verses  which,  by  the  repetition  of  certain  parts,  are  made,  ns 
it  were,  to  form  three;  The  three  verses  are  usually  sung  to  the 
same  tune  ;  but  in  certain  cases  two  verses  sung  to  the  same  tnne 
had  a  difTerent  saman  enclosed  between  them.  One  and  the  same 
saman  or  tune  may  thus  be  sung  to  many  different  verses  ;  but,  ns 
in  teaching  and  practising  the  tunes  the  same  verse  was  invariably 
used  for  a  certain  tunc,  tlie  terra  "s;"mian,"  ns  well  as  the  special 
technical  names  of  samans,  arc  not  unfrequently  applied  to  the 
verses  themselves  with  which  they  were  most  conmionly  con- 
nected, just  as  one  would  quote  the  Beginning  of  the  text  of  an 
English  hymn,  when  the  tune  usually  sung  to  that  hymn  is 
meant.  The  Indian  chant  somewhat  resembles  the  Gregorian  or 
Plain  Chant.'  Each  sdman  is  divided  into  five  parts  or  phrases 
(prastdva  or  prelude,  kc),  the  first  four  of  which  are  distributed 
between  the  several  chanters,  while  the  finale  {nidhajia)  is  sung 
in  unison  by  all  of  them. 

In  accordance  with  the  distinction  between  ricli.  or  text  and 
sdman  or  tunc,  the  siman-hymnal  consists  of  two  parts,  viz.,  tlie 
Sdmavcda-sarnkitd,  or  collection  of  texts  (rich)  used  for  making  up 
saman-hymns,  and  tho  Gdna,  or  tune-books,  song-books.  The 
textual  matter  of  tho  Samhitk  consists  of  somewhat  under  IGOO 
■difierent  verses,  eclccted  from  the  Rik-sanihita,  with  the  exception 

1  TcBt  ■with  Kriihnapandita's  comnientarr,  pnbUshed  et  Bcnarca  :  tronslatlon 
ty  0.  r.iihlcr  In  S^cvd  Hooks,  vol.  xiv. 

2  Ldltcd,  with  A  Fitnch  tramlaiion.  by  A.  Hccrnicr.  in  t!ic  Journal  Atiatique, 
1666-8;  also,  wirh  &  German  Iranslation,  by  M.  Miillcr,  18C9. 

'  BameU,  Arsfui'zbrchmana,  p.  xU. 


of  some  seventy-five  verses,  some  of  which  have  been  taken  from 
Khila  hymns,  whilst  others  which  also  occur  in  the  Atharvan  or 
i'ajurveda,  as  well  as  such  not  otherwise  found,  may  perhaps  havo 
formed  part  of  some  other  recension  of  the  Rik.  The  Sdviaveda- 
samkitd*  is  divided  into  two  chief  parts,  the  purva-  (first)  and  the 
nttara-  (second)  drchika.  The  second  part  contains  the  texts  of 
the  siman-hymns,  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  actually 
required  for  the  stotras  or  chants  of  the  various  Soma  sacrifices. 
The  first  part,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  the  body  of  tune-verses, 
or  verses  used  for  practising  the  several  samans  or  tunes  upon, — the 
tunes  themselves  being  given  in  the  Grdma-gcya-gdyia  {i.e.,  songs 
to  be  sung  in  the  village),  the  tune-book  specially  belonging  to  the 
Piirvarchika.  Hence  the  latter  includes'all  the  first  verses  of  thoso 
triplets  of  the  second  part  which  had  special  tunes  peculiar  to 
Hhem,  besides  the  texts  of  detached  samans  occasionally  used 
outside  the  regular  ceremonial,  as  well  as  such  as  were  perhaps 
no  longer  required  but  had  been  so  used  at  one  time  or  other. 
The  verses  of  the  Piirvarchika  are  arranged  on  much  the  same  plan 
as  the  family-books  of  the  Rik-sarnhita,  viz.,  in  three  sections 
containing  the  verses  addressed  to  Agni,  Indra,  and  Soma  {pava- 
tndna)  respectively, — each  section  (consisting  of  one,  three,  and  oce 
adbyayas  respectively)  being  again  arranged  according  to  the 
metres.  Hence  this  part  is  also  called  Chh<i7idas-  (metre)  drchika. 
Over  and  above  this  natural  arrangement  of  the  two  Sjchikas,  there 
is  a  purely  formal  division  of  the  texts  into  six  and  nine 
prapathakas  respectively,  each  of  which,  in  the  first  part,  consists 
of  ten  decades  (dasat)  of  verses.  "We  have  two  recensions  of  the 
Samhita,  belonging  to  the  Ranayaniya  and  Kauthuma  schools,  and 
differing  but  slightly  from  each  other.  Besides  the  six  prapathakas 
(or  five  adhyayas)  of  the  Purvarchika,^some  schools  have  an  addi- 
tional "forest "  chapter,  called  the  Aranyaka-samhitd^  the  tunes 
of  which — along  with  others  apparently  intended  for  being  chanted 
by  anchorites — are  contained  in  the  Aranya-gdna.  Besides  the 
two  tune-books  belonging  to  the  Piirvarchika,  there  are  two 
others,  the  Chn-gdna  ("modification-songs") and  Uhya-gdna,  which 
follow  the  order  of  the  Uttararchika,  giving  the  several  saman. 
hymns  chanted  at  the  Soma  sacrifice,  with  the  modifications  tho 
tunes  undergo  when  applied  to  texts  other  than  those  for  which 
they  were  originally  composed.  The  Saman  hymnal,  as  it  has  come 
down  to  ns,  has  evidently  passed  through  a  long  course  of  develop- 
ment. The  practice  of  chanting  probably  goes  back  to  very  early 
times  ;  but  the  question  whether  any  of  the  tunes,  as  given  in  the 
Ganas,  and  which  of  them,  can  lay  claim  to  an  exceptionally  high 
antiquity  will  perhaps  never  receive  a  satisfactory  answer. 

The  title  of  Brdhmana  is  bestowed  by  the  Chhandogas,  or  Sama- 
foUowers  of  the  Samaveda,  on  a  considerable  number  of  treatises,  vtda- 
In  accordance  with  the  statements  of  some  later  writers,  their  brah- 
number  was  usually  fixed  at  eight;  but  within  the  last  few  years  manas^ 
one  new  Brahmana  has  been  recovered,  while  at  least  two  others 
which  are  found  quoted  may  yet  be  brought  to  light  in  India. 
Tho  majority  of  the  Samavi  da-brahmanas  present,  however,  none 
of  the  characteristic  features  of  other  works  of  that  class  ;  but 
they  are  rather  of  the  nature  of  sutras  and  kindred  treatises,  with 
which  they  probably  belong  to  the  same  period  of  literature. 
Moreover,  the  contents  of  these  works — as  might  indeed  be  expected 
from  the  nature  of  the  duties  of  the  priests  for  whom  they  were 
intended — are  of  an  extremely  arid  and  technical  character, 
though  they  all  are  doubtless  of  some  importance,  either  for  the 
textual  criticism  of  the  Samhita  or  on  account  of  the  legendary 
ond  other  information  they  supply.  These  works  are  as  follows  : 
— (1)  the  Tdndya-mahd-  (or  Praudha-)  brdhmana,^  or  "great" 
Brahmana, — usually  called  Panchavimsa-hrdhmaTia  from  its  "con- 
sisting of  twenty-five  "  adhyayas — which  treats  of  the  duties  of  the 
udgatars  generally,  and  especially  of  the  various  kinds  of  chants  ; 
(2)  the  Shadvimsa,  or  "  twentj'-sixth,"  being  a  supplement  to  tha 
preceding  work, — its  last  chapter,  which  also  bears  the  title  of 
Adbhuta-brdhmana,^  or  "book  of  marvels,"  is  rather  interesting, 
as  it  treats  of  all  manner  of  portents  and  evil  influences,  which  it 
teaches  how  to  avert  by  certain  rites  and  charms  ;  (3)  the  Sdmavi- 
dhdjiaj  analogous  to  the  Rigvidhana,  ^descanting  on  the  magic 
effects  of  the  various  .samans;  (4)  the  Arskci/a-brdhmana,  a  mere 
cntalogue  of  the  technical  names  of  the  samans  in  the  order  of  the 
Piirvarchika,  known  in  two  different  recensions  ;  (5)  the  Dcvatd- 
dhydya,  which  treats  of  the  deities  of  the  samans  ;  (6)  the  Chkdndo- 
gya-brdkynaim,  the  last  eight  adhyayas  (3-1  f*)  of  which  constitute 
the  important  Chhandogyopani^liad  ;^  (7)  the  Samhiiopanishad- 
brdhmana,  treating  of  various  subjects  connected  with  chants  ;  (8) 


*  Edited  and  translated  by  J.  Stcrcnson,  18-13  ;  a  critical  edition,  with  Germnn 
translation  and  Elossary,  was  published  by  Th.  Ilenfey,  18-18;  also  an  cditlnn,  with 
the  G^naa  and  biiyana'a  commentary,  by  Satyavrata  Samasraml,  in  the  Btbl.  Ind.^ 
In  5  volg. 

6  Edited  with  Sfiyana's  commentary,  by  Anandachendra  Vcdflntavflgisa,  in 
the  Bibt.  Jnd.,  1870-74.' 

«  A.  Weber,  "Omlna  ct  rortcnta,"  Alhandlungen  of  Berlin  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences.  1S5S. 

"  The  worUs  enumerated  under  3.  4,  5,  7,  8  have  been  edited  by  A.  Cumcll ; 
8  also  previously  by  A.  Wcbcr.  Jnd.  St.,  It. 

8  Edited  and  translated  by  Dr  IWcr,  Bill.  Ind.;  alao  troTislatcd  by  M.  MUllcr, 
Sacred  Book*  o/ihe  East,  I. 


•278^ 


SANSKRIT 


[literattjue^ 


'  tlie  T'ar^M-hrdhmana,  a  mere  list  of  tho  Samaveda  teacliers.     To 

these  works  has  to  be  added  the  Jaiminlya-  or  T-alavakdra- 
hrdhinajuiy  disL-overed  by  the  late  Dr  A.  Burnell,  but  as  yet  only 
known  by  a  few  extracts.  From  Prof.  "Whitney's  account  of 
it,^  the  wonk  stands  much  on  a  level  with  the  Braiimanas  of  the 
Rik  and  Ynjurveda.  A  portion  of  it  is  the  well-known  Kena- 
(or  Talavakdra-)  npanisfiad,  on  the  nature  of  Brahman,, as  the 
supreme  of  deities. 
Sama-  If  th^Samareda  has  thus  its  ample  share  of  Brahmana-literatnre, 

veda-  though  in  part  of  a  somewhat  questionable  character,  it  is  not 
sfitras.-  less  richly  supplied  with  siitra-treatiyes,  some  of  which  probably 
belong  to  the  oldest  works  of  that  class.  There  are  three  Srauta- 
fefltras,  which  attach  themselves  niore  or  less,  closely  to  the 
Panchavimsa-brahmana:— Ma4aka's  Arshcya-kdlpa,  which  gives  the 
beginnings  of  fihe  sdm'ans  in  their  sacrificial  order,  thus  supplement- 
ing the  Arshej-a-brahmana,  which  enumerates  their  technical 
names;  and  the  Srauta-sutras  of  Ldtxjdyana-  and  Drdhydyana^ 
of  the  Kauthuma  and  Ranayaniya  schools  respectively,  which 
differ  but  little  from  each  other,  and  form,  complete  manuals  of  the 
duties  of  the  udgatars.  Another  sutra,  of  an  exegetic  character, 
the  Amipada-sHtra,  likewise  follows  the  Pmchavinisa,  the  difficult 
passages  of  which  it  explains.  Besides  these,  there  are  a  con- 
siderable number  of  sfltras  ^nd  kindred  technical  treatises 
bearing  on  tlie  prosody  and  phonetics  of  the  sama-texts.  The 
more  important  of  them  are — the  Rihtantray  apparently  intended 
to  serve  as  a  Pratisakhya  of  the  Samavcda  ;  the  Niddna-ciltray^  a 
treatise  on  prosody  ;  the  Pushpa-  or  Fhulla-sUtra^  ascribed  either 
to  Gobhila  or  to  Vararuchi,  and  treating  of  the  phonetic  modi- 
fications of  tho  rich  in  the  samans  ;  and  the  Sdmatantra,  a  treatise 
on  chants,  of  a  very  technical  nature.  Further,  two  Grihya-siUras, 
belonging  to  the  Samaveda.  a*c  hitherto  known,  viz.,  the  Drdhyd- 
yana-grihya,  ascribed  to  Khiidira,  and  that  of  Gobhila'*  (who  is  also 
said  to  have  composed  a  ^rauta-sCitia),  with  a  supplement,  entitled 
Karmaprad^pa,  by  Kdtyayana.  To  the  Samaveda  seems  further 
to  belong  the  Guutavia-dharma§dstra,^  composed  in  si'ltras,  and 
apparently  the  oldest  existing  compendium  of'Hindu  law. 
Sainhitas  C.  yajur-vcda.~y\\is,,  the  sacrificial  Veda  of  the  Adhvaryu 
of  E'-Ack  priests,  divides  itself  into  an  older  and  a  youngei^  branch,  or;  as 
Yajur-  they  are  usually  called,  the  Black  {krislinn)  and  the  White  [hikla) 
«da.  Yftjurveda!  Tradition  ascribes  the  foundationof  the  Yajurveda  to 
thesa^e  Vaisampayana.  "Of  his  disciples  three  are  specially  named, 
viz.,  Katha,  Kalapin,  and  Yaska  Paingi,  the  last  of  whom  again 
is  stated  to  have  communicated  the  sacrificial  science  to  Tittiri. 
How  far  this  genealogy  of  teachers  may  be  authent»  cannot  now 
be  determined  ;  but  certain  it  is  that  in  accordance  therewith  we 
have  three  old  collections  of  Yaj.as-texts,  viz.,  the  Kdthaka,  the 
Kdldpetka  or  Maitrdyant  Sainhitd,^  and  the  TaUtiriyd'S'amhitd.'^ 
The  Kathaka  and  Kalapaka  are  frequently  mentioned  together  ; 
and  the  author  of  the  "  great  commentary  '■  on  Panini  once  remarks 
that  these  works  were  taught  in  every  village.  The  Kathas  and 
Kalapas  are  often  referred  to  under  the  collective  name  of  Charakas, 
which  apparently  means  "wayfarers"  or  "itinerant  scholars;  but 
according  to  a  la.ter  writer  (Hemachandra)  Charaka  is  no  other 
than  Vaisampayana  himself,  after  whom  his  followers  would  have 
been  thus  called.  From  the  Kathas  proper  two  schools  seem  early 
to  have  branched  off,  the  Prachya-  (eastern)  and  Kapishthala- 
Kathas,  the  text-recension  of  tUe  latter  of  whom  has  recently 
been  discovered  in  the  Kapishfhnla-kalha-samhild.  The  KaBpas 
also  soon  became  subdivided  into  numerous  different  schools. 
Thus  from  one  of  Kalapin's  immediate  disciples,  Haridru,  the 
Haridraviyas  took  their  origin,  whose  text-recension,-  the  Hdri- 
dravika,  is  quoted  together  with  the  Kathaka  as  early  as  in  Yaska's 
Nirukta  ;  but  we  do  not  know  whether  it  differed  much  from  the 
original  Kalapa  texts.  As  regards  the  Taittiriya-sarphita,  that 
collection,  too,  in  course  of  time  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  different 
schools,  the  text  handed  down  being  that  of  the  Apastambas; 
while  the  contents  of  another  recension,  that  of  the  Atreyas,  are 
known  from  their  Anukramant,  which  has  been  preserved. 

The  four  collections  of  old  Yajus  texts,  so  far  known  to  us,  while 
differing  more  or  less  considerably  in  arrnngement  and  verbal 
points,  have  the  main  mass  of  their  textual  matter  in  common. 
This  common  matter  consists  of  both  sacrificial  prayers  (yajus)  in 
verse  and  prose  and  exegetic  or  illustrative  prose  portions  (brah- 
ma'ha).  A  prominent  feature  of  the  old  Yajus  texts,  as  compared 
>v'ith  the  other  Vedas,  is  the  constant  intermixture  of  textual  and 
exegetic  portions.  The  Charakas  and  Taittiriyas  thus  do  not 
recognize  the  distinction  between  SamhitS,  and  Brahmana  in  the 
sense  of  two  separate  collections  of  texts,  but  they  have  only  a 
Sarphita,  or  collcrtion,  which  includes  likewise   the   exegetic    or 

1  Proceedings  0/  Am.  Or.  Soc,  May  1SS3. 

2  Edited  with  AcnIsvamin'B  commentary,  and  tho  v.  11.  of  tli  Pr.ihyayana- 
sfitra.  by  AnarnJlachandra  Vedantavilqisa,  Bib!.  Ind.,  1S72. 

3  Two  chapfcrs  ptiblished  by  A.  Wcbcr,  Jnd.  Si.,  viil. 

*  Edited  with  a  commentary,  bjt  Cliandiakanta  TarliflUnk.1ra.  liibh  Ind, 

•  Edited  by  A.  Stfnzler  ;  translated  by  G.  Eilliler,  Hacred  Books,  vol.  IL 

6  In  process  of  publicition  by  L.  v,  .Schi'oeder. 

7  PaitJy  publislied.  with  Siiynnit's  commcntniy,  by  E.  Ri'>cr,  E.  C.  Cowell,  &c., 
in  S-^A,  IrA. 


Br.^hmana  portions.  The  Taittiriyas  seem  at  last  ta  have  been 
impressed  with  their  wantof  a  separate  Brahmana  and  to  have  set 
about  supplying  the  deficiency  in  rather  an  awkward  fashion  : 
instead  of  separating  from  each  other  tho  textual  and  exegetic 
portions  of  their  Samhita,  they  merely  added  to  the  latter  a 
supplement  (in  three  books),  which  shows  the  same  mixed  con- 
dition, and  applied  to  it  the  title  ot  Taittirtya-hrdhmana.^  But, 
though  the  main  body  of  this  work  is  manifestly  of  a  supple- 
mentary nature,  a  portion  of  it  may  perhaps  bo  old,  and  may  once 
have  formed  part  of  the  Sarrihit&,  considering  that  the  latter  con- 
sists of  seven  ashtakas,  instead  of  eight,  .as  this  tei;m  requires, 
and  that  certain  essential  parts  of  the  ceremonial  handled  in  the 
Brahmana  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  Samhita.  Attached  to 
this  work  is  the  Taitiirhja-dranyaka ,~  jn  ten  books,  the  first  sis 
of  which  are  of  a  ritualistic  nature,  while  of  the  remaining  booka 
the  first  three  (7-9)  form  the  TaitUrhjopan'shad  (consisting  of 
three  parts,  viz.,  the  SiksliavalU  or  Samhitopanishad,  and  the 
AnandavalU  and  Bhriguvalli,  also  called  together  the  Varuni- 
upanishad),  and  the  last  book  forms  the  Narayaniya-  (or  Yajfiiki-) 
upanishad. 

Tho  Maitrdyant  Samhitd^  the  identity  of  which  with  the  original 
Kalapaka  has  been  proved  pretty  conclusively  by  Di'  L.  v. 
Schroder,  who  attributes  the  change  of  name  of  the  Kalapa 
Maitrayaniyas  to  Buddhist  influences,  consists  of  four  books, 
attached  to  which  is  the  Maitri-  (or  Maitrdyant)  vpanishad.^  The 
Kdlhaka,  on  the  other  hand,  consists  of  five  ])aj-ts,  the  last  two  of 
which,  however,  are  perhaps  later  additions,  containing  merely  tho 
prayers  of  the  hotar  priest,  and  those  used  at  the  horse-sacrifice. 
There  is,  moreover,  the  beautiful  Katha-  or  Kdthaka-upanisJiad^'^^ 
which  is  also  ascribed  to  the  Atharvav'eda,  and  in  which  Dr  P^ber 
would  detect  allusions  to  the  Sankhya  philosophy,  and  even  to 
Buddhist  doctrines. 

Tho  defective  arrangement  of  the  Yajus  texts  was  at  last 
remedied  by  a  dilfcrent  school  of  Adhvaryus,  the  V&jasanevins. 
Tho  reputed  originator  of  this  sehool  and  its  text-recension  is 
Yajnavalkya  Vajasaneya  (son  of  Vajasani).  The  result  of  the  re- 
arrangement of  the  texts  was  a  collection  of, sacrificial  mantra!:,*  the 
Vdjasaneyi-samhitd,  and  a  Brahulanl,  the  Satapatha.  On  account 
of  the  greater  lucidity  of  this  arrangement,  the  Vajasaneyips 
called  their  texts  the  White  (or  clear)  Yajurveda, — the  name  of 
Black  (or  obscure)  Yajus  being  for  opposite  reasons  applied  to  the 
Charaka  texts.  Both  the  Sarphita  and  Brahmana  of  the  VS-jasaneyins 
have  come  down  to  us  in  two  different  recensions,  viz.,  those  of  the 
Mddhyandina  and  Kdnva  schools  ;  and  we  find  besides  a  consider- 
able number  of  quotations  from  a  Vajasancyaka,  from  which  we 
cannot  doubt  that  there  must  have  been  at  least  one  other  recension 
of  the  Satapatba-bralimana.  ^  The  difference  between  the  two  extant 
recensions  is,  on  the  whole,  but  slight  as  regards  the  subject-matter; 
but  in  point  of  diction  it  is  quite  sufficient  to  make  a  comparison, 
especially  interesting  from  a  philological  point  of  view.  Which  of 
the  two  versions  may  be  the  more  original  cannot  as  yet  be 
determined  ;  but  the  phonetic"  and  grammatical  differences  will 
probably  have  to  bo  accounted  for  by  a  geographical  separa^tion  of 
the  two  schools  rather  than  by  a  difference  of  age.  In  several 
points  of  difference  the  KSnva  recension  agrees  with  the  practice  of 
the  Rik-samhita,  and  there  probably  was  some  connexion  between 
the  Yajus  school  of  Kanvas  and  the  famous  family  of  rishis  of  that 
name  to  which  the  eighth  mandala  of  the  Rik  is  attributed. 

The  Vdjasaneyi-samhitd'^^  consists  of  forty  adhyayas,  the  first 
eij^hteen  of  which  contain  the  formulas  of  the  ordinary  sacrifices. 
Tlie  last  fifteen  adhyayas  are  doubtless  a  later  addition, — as  may 
also  be  the  case  as  regards  the  preceding  seven  "chapters.  The  last 
adhyaya  is  commonly  known  under  the  title  of  Vajasaneyi-samhita- 
(or  Isavasya-)  upanishad.  ^^  Its  object  seems  to  be  to  point  out  the 
fi'uitlessness  of  mere  works,  and  to  insist  on  the  necessity  of  man's 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  supreme  spirit.  The  sacrificial  texts 
of  the  Adhvaryus  consist,  in  about  equal  parts,  of  verses  (rich)  and 
prose  formulas  (yajus).  The  majority  of  the  former  occur  like\vise 
in  the  Rik-sarniiitd,  from  which  they  were  doubtless  extracted. 
Not  unfrequently,  however,  they  show  considerable  discrepancies 
of  reading,  which  may  be  explained  partly  from  a  difference  of  recen- 
sion and  partly  as  the  result  of  tho  adaptation  of  these  verses  to 
their  special  sacrificial  purpose.  As  regards  the  prose  formulas, 
though  only  a  few  of  them  are  actually  referred  to  in  the  Kik.  it  is 
quite  possible  that  many  of  them  may  be  of  high  antiquity. 

The  ^atapatha-brdhmana,^^  or  Brahmana  of  a  hundred  paths, 
derives  its  name  from  the  fact  of  its  consisting  of  100  lectures 
(adhyaya),  which  are  divided  by  the  Madhyanuinaa  into  fourteen,  by 

8  Edited,  with  Silyana's  commentary,  by  Rajendralfila  Mitra,  Bibl,  Ind. 
»  Text  and  translation  pubhshed  by  E.  B.  Cowell,  Bibl.  Ind. 
•"  Text,  commentary,  and  translation  published  by  E.  RUer,  Bibl.  Ind. 

11  Edited,  in  the  MAdhy.indina  recension,  with  tho  commentary  o(  Mahldhara, 
and  the  v.  W.  of  the  Kdnva  text,  by  A.  Weber,  1849. 

12  Translation  by  E.  Roer,  Bibl.  Ind.;  by  F.  M.  Miiller,  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East,  i. 

■^  Edited  by  A.  Weber,  who  also  translated  the  first  chapter  Into  German.  In 
Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  a  translation,  by  J.  Egyeling,  is  bclag  published,— i 
vols.,  containing  the  flrat  four  boojts,  having  appeared. 


Samhita 
of  \\Tiite 
Yajur- 
vcUfL 


Brah- 
mana 
of  White 
Yajur- 
veda. 


IJTEBATTJEB.] 


S"A  N  S  K  n  I  T 


279 


the  Kinvas  into  seventeen  booka  (Tcanda).  The  first  nine  boots  of  the 
former,'  corresponding  to  the  first  eleven  of  the  Kanvas,  and  consist- 
ing of  sixty  adhyayas,  form  a  kind  of  running  commentary  on  the 
first  eighteen  books  of  the  Vaj.-Samhita;  and  it  has  beep  plausibly 
saggested  by  Prof.  Weber  that  this  portion  of  the  Brahmana  may 
he  referred  to  in  the  Mahabhashya  on  Pan.  iv.  2,  60,  where  a  Sata- 
patha  and  a  Shashti-patha  {i.e.,  "  consisting  of  60  paths")  are  men- 
tioned together  as  'objects  of  study,  and  that  consequently  it  may 
at  one  time  have  formed  an  independent  work.  This  view  is  also 
supported  by  the  circumstance  that  of  the  remaining  five  books 
(10-14)  of  the  Madhyandinas  the  third  is  called  the  middle  one 
(madhyama) ;  while  the  Kanvas  apply  the  same  epithet  to  the 
middlemost  of  the  five  books  (12-16)  preceding  their  last  one. 
This  last  book  would  thus  seem  to  be  treated  by  theni  as  a  second 
supplement,  and  not  without  reason,  as  it  is  of  the  Upanishad 
order,  and  bears  the  special,  title  oi  Brihad-  (great)  dranijaka.'- 
Except  in  books  C-10  (SI.),  which  treat  of  the  construction  of 
fire-altars,  and  recognize  tho  sage  Sandilya  as  their  chief  authority, 
Yajnavalkya's  opinion  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the  Satapatha  as 
authoritative.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  later  books,  part 
of  the  Erihad-iranyaka  being  even  called  Yajhavalkiya-kanda.  As 
regards  the  age  of  the  Satapatha,  the  probability  is  that  the  main 
body  of  the  work  is  considerably  older  than  the  time  of  PJriini,  but 
that  some  of  its  latter  parts  were  considered  by  Panini's  critic 
Katyayana  to  be  of  about  the  same  age  as,  or  not  much  older  than, 
PJninL  Even  those  portions  had  probably  been  long  in  existence 
before  they  obtained  recognition  as  part  of  the  canon  of  the  White 
Yajus. 

The  contemptuous  manner  in  which  the  doctrines  of  theCliaraka- 
adiivaryus  are  repeatedly  animadverted  upon  in  the  Satapatha 
betrays  not  a  little  of  the  odium  theologicuni  on  the  part  of  the 
divines  of  the  Vajasaneyins  towards  their  brethren  of  the  older 
schools.  Nor' was  their  animosity  confined  to  mere  literary  war- 
fare, but  they  seem  to  have  striven  by  every  means  to  gain 
ascendency  over  their  rivals.  The  consolidation  of  the  Brahmanical 
hierarchy  and  the  institution  of  a  common  system  of  ritual  worship, 
■which  called  forth  the  liturgical  Vedic  collections,  were  doubtless 
consummated  in  the  so-callcj  JIadhya-desa,  or  "middle  country," 
lying  between  the  Sarasvati  and  tho  confluence  of  the  Yamuna  and 
Ganga  ;  and  more  especially  in  its  western  part,  the  Kuru-kshetra, 
or  land  of  the  Kurus,  with  the  adjoining  territory  of  the  Panchalas, 
between  the  Yamuna  and.Ganga.  From  thence  t'ne  original  schools 
of  Vaidik  ritualism  gtadually  extended  their  sphere  over  the  adja- 
cent parts.  The  Charakas  seem  for  a  long  time  to  have  held  sway 
in  the  western  and  north-western  regions  ;  while  the  Taittiriyas 
in  course  of  time  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  south  of 
the  Narmadi  (Nerbudda),  where  their  ritual  has  remained  pre- 
eminently the  object  of  study  till  comparatively  recent  times.  The 
Vajasaneyins,  on  the  other  hand,  having  first  gained  a  footing  in 
the  lands  on  the  lower  Ganges,  chiefly,  it  would  seem,  through  the 
patronage  of  King  Janakaof  Videha,  thence  gradually  worked  their 
way  iTestwards,  and  eventually* succeeded  in  superseding  the  older 
schools  north  of  the  Vindhya,  with  the  exception  of  some  isolated 
places  where  even  now  families  of  Brahmaus  are  met  with  which 
profess  to  follow  the  old  Samhitis. 
S&tras  In  Kalpa-sitras  the  Black  Yajurveda  is  particularly  rich  ;  but, 

ofVajur-  owing  to  the  circumstances  just  indicated,  they  arc  almost  entirely 
teda.  confined  to  the  Taittiriya  schools.  The  only  Srauta-sdtra  of  a 
Charaka  school  which  has  hitherto  been  recovered  is  that  of  the 
llinavas,  a  subdivision  of  thellaitrayaniyas.  The  Udnava-iratUa- 
sUtra  *  seems  to  consist  of  eleven  books,  the  first  nine  of  which  treat 
of  the  sacrificial  ritual,  while  the  tenth  contains  the  flulva-s&tra  ; 
and  tho  eleventh  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  supplements  (jiari- 
sisTi^a).  The  Mdnava-grihya-sdtra  is  likewise  in  exists  nee  ;  but  so 
far  nothing  is  known,  save  one  or  two  quotations,  of  a  Mdnava- 
dharnia-sHtra,  the  discovery  of  which  ought  to  solve  some  important 
questions  regarding  the  development  of  Indian  law.  Of  sutra- 
works  belonging  to  the  Kafhas,  a  single  treatise,  the  Kdthaka- 
griht/a-sHtra,  is  known ;  while  Dr  Jolly  considers  the  Viihnu-srnriti,^ 
a  compendium  of  law,  composed  in  mixed  sdtras  and  slokas,  to 
be  notning  but  a  Vaishiiava  recast  of  tho  Kathaka-dhnnna-siitra, 
which  seems  no  longer  to  exist.  As  regards  the  Taittiri)'is,  the  Kal- 
pa-sutra  most  widely  accepted  among  them  was  that  of  Apaslaniba, 
to  whose  school,  as  we  have  seen,  was  also  due  our  existing  recen- 
sion of  tho  Taittiriya-sarphitd.  The  -  pastamba-kalpa-siUra  consists 
of  thirty  pro^juz  (questions);  the  first  twenty-five  of  those  consti- 
tute the  Srauta-sutra  «  ;  26  and  27  the  Grihya-siitra  ;  28  and  20  tho 
Dharma-siitra';  and  tho  last  the  Sulva-sdira.  Prof.  BUhlcr  has'tried 
to  fix  the  date  of  this  work  somewhere  between  tho  5th  and  3rd 

1  The  text,  with  Sankara's  commentary,  and  an  Englfsli  translation,  published 
by  E.  Eucr,  BlU.  Ind. 

2  Sec  P.  v.  Bradkc,  Z.  D.  if.  O.,  vol.  xxxvi.  A  MS.  of  a  poriion  of  the  ^rauta- 
atitra,  with  th©  commentary  of  the  famous  Jlimamslst  Kumarila,  baa  been  pholo- 
lithoin'aphcd  by  the  India  Ofllcc.  under  Goldstiickcr's  aupervlsion. 

*  Edited  and  trannlatcd  by  J.  Jolly. 

*  In  course  of  publira'.ion.  by  R.  Garbc,  In  Bibl.  Ind. 

*  G.  Bliblcr  baa  published  the  text  with  cxiracta  from  HanwlBttaVnmmcntary, 
ftlio  a  tronalatloQ  lo  Sacr<d  Dooki  tf  the  Eatt* 


centuries  B.C.;  but  it  can  hardly  yet  be  considered  as  definitely 
settled.  Considerably  more  ancient  than  this  work  are  the  Baiidhd- 
yayia-kalpa-siitTa,^  which  consists  of  tho  same  principal  divisions, 
and  the  Bhdradvdja-sHtra,  of  which,  however,  only  a  few  portions 
have  as  yet  been  discovered.  The  Eiranyakcsi-s{dra,  which  is 
more  modern  than  that  of  Ipastamba,  from  which  it  diiTers  but  little, 
is  likewise  fragmentary  ;  and  several  other  Kalpa-svttras,  especially 
that  of  Laugakshi,  are  found  (juoted.  The  recognized  compendium 
of  the  White  Yajus  ritual  is  the  Srauta-sUra  of  Katyayana,' 
in  twenty-six  adhyayas.  This  work  is  supplemented  by. a  largo 
number  of  secondary  treatises,  likewise  attributed  to  Katy'yana, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Charana-vy&'ha,^  a  statistical 
account  of  the  Vedic  schools,  which  unfortunately  has  come  down 
to  us  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  state  of  preservation.  A  manual  of 
domestic  rites,  closely  connected  with  Katyayana's  work,  is  the 
Kdl'aja-grihya.-sdtra,'  ascribed  to  Paraskata.  To  Katyayana  '.ve 
further  owe  the  ydjasancyi-prdtisdHiyn,'"  and  a  catalogue  (areuira- 
mani)  of  the  White  Yajus  texts.  As  regards  the  former  work,  it  is 
stiU  (loubtful  whether  (with  Weber)  we  have  to  consider  it  as  older 
than  Pinini,  or  whether  (with  Goldstucker  and  M.  Jliiller)  we  are 
to  identify  its  author  with  Pariiui's  critic.  The  ouly  existing 
Pratisakhya"  of  the  Black  Yajus'  belongs  to  the  Taittiriyas.  Its 
author  is  unknown,  and  it  confines  itself  entirely  to  the  Taittiriya- 
samhita,  to  the  exclusion  of  tho  Brahmana  and  Aranyaka. 

i).  Atharra-vcda. — The  Atharvap  was  the  latest  of  Vedie  col-  7.tharva-- 
lections  to  be  recognized  as  part  of  the  sacred  canon.  That  it  is  veiia- 
also  tlie  youngest  Veda  is  proved  by  its  language,  which,  both  samhita., 
from  a  lexical  and  a  grammatical  point  of  view,  marks  an  inter- 
mediate stage  between  the  main  body  of  the  Rik  and  the  Brah- 
mana period.  It  is  not  less  naanifest  from  the  spirit  of  its  contents, 
which  shows  that  the  childlike  trust  of  the  early  singer  in  the 
willingness  of  the  divine  agents  to  comply  with  the  earnest  request 
of  their  pious  worshipper  had  passed  away,  and  in  its  place  had 
sprung  up  a  superstitious  fear  of  a  host  of  malevolent  powers,  whose 
baleful  wratk  had  to  be  deprecated  or  turned  aside  by  incantations 
and  magic  contrivances.  How  far  some  lower  form  of  worship, 
practised  by  the  conquered  race,  may  have  helped  to  bring  about 
this  change  of  religious  belief  it  would  be  idle  to  inquire  ;  but  it 
is  far  fi'om  improbable  that  the  hymns  of  the  Rik  reflect  chiefly 
the  religious  notions  of  the  more  intelligent  and  ediicated  minority 
of  the  community,  and  that  superstitious  practices  like  thoco 
disclosed  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Atharvan  and  a  portion  of  the 
tenth  book  of  the  Rik  had  long  obtainfd  among  the  people,  and 
became  the  more  prevalent  the  more  the  spiritual  leaders  of  the 
people  gave  themselves  up  to  theosophic  and  metaphysical  specula- 
tions. Hence  also  verses  of  the  Atharvaveda  are  not  unfrcquently 
used  in  domestic  (grihya)  rites,  but  very  seldom  in  the  Srauta 
ceremonial.  But,  even  if  these  or  such  like  spells  and  incantations 
had  long  been  in  popular  use,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  by  the 
time  they  were  collected  they  must  lave  adapted  themselves  to 
the  modifications  which  the  vernacular  language  itself  had  under'' 
gone  in  the  mouths  of  the  people. 

This  body  of  spells  and  hymns  is  traditionally  connected  with 
two  old  mythic  piiestly  families,  the  Angiras  and  Atharvans, 
their  names,  in  the  plural,  serving  either  singly  or  combined 
(Atharvangirasas)  as  tho  oldest  aj.pellation  of  the  collection. 
Instead  of  the  Atharvans,  another  mythic  family,  the  Bhrigus, 
are  similarly  connected  with  the  Angiras  (Bhrigvangirasas)  as  thi 
depositaries  of  this  mystic  science.  The  cutTent  text  of  the 
Aiharva-samhiid^- — apparently  the  recension  of  the  Saunaka  school 
— consists  of  some  750  difl'ercirt  pieces,  about  five-sixths  of  whicy 
is  in  various  metres,  the  remaining  portion  being  in  prose.  The 
whole  mass  is  divided  into  twenty  books.  The  principle  of  dis' 
tribution  is  for  tlio  most  part  a  merely  formal  one,  in  books  i.-xiiL 
pieces  of  the  same  or  about  the  same  number  of  verses  being 
placed  together  in  the  same  book.  Tho  next  five  books,  xiv.- 
xviii.,  have  each  its  own  sjiecial  subject: — xiv.  treats  of  marriag* 
and  sexual  union;  xv.,  in  prose,  of  the  Viatya,  or  religious  v.igrant; 
xvi.  consists  of  prose  formulas  of  conjuration  ;  xviL  of  a  lengthy 
mystic  hymn;  and  xviii.  contains  all  that  relates  to  death  and 
funeral  rites.  Of  the  last  two  books  no  account  is  taken  in  the 
Atharva-pratisakhya,  and  they  indeed  stand  clearly  in  the  rcdation 
of  supplements  to  the  original  collection.  The  eighteenth  book 
evidently  was  the  result  of  a  subsequent  gleaning  of  pieces  similar 

«  The  bulva-3Utia  lias  been  published,  with  the  commentary  of  Kapardisvamln, 
and  a  tvanslati..n  by  G.  Thlbaut,  In  the  Benam  Pandit,  1S75.  The  Dharma.siltrl 
b.na  been  translated  by  G.  Bithler,  £(icic<i  .800*1,  ilT.  ,    ,   „.    .    ,„ 

7  Edited  by  A.  Wcbci'.  '  Vfcbar.  Ind.  Stud.,  HI 

*  Text  and  German  translation  by  A.  Stonzler.  -.,,.,, 

"  Edited,  with  Uvota's  commenlnry,  and  a  German  translation,  by  A.  Weber, 
/nd.  .S'iutf.,  Iv,  ... 

11  The  work  has  been  puhllihed  by  W.  D.  OTiltney,  with  a  translation  and  a  com- 
mentPxy  by  an  unknown  author,  called  Ti Ibliashyaialna,  i.e.,  "  jewel  of  the  thi-ce 
commentaries,"  It  beiiis  founded  on  thrco  older  commentaries  by  Vararuehl, 
CKJtyiyana),  liaiiishoya,  and  Alreya.  ,.,  ^  „•=  tn 

i«  Edited  by  Profs.  Holh  and  Whitney.  1856.    The  second  vol.,  which  was  to 
contain  the   Varix  Lcctiiva.  remains  stlH  unpublished.    Prof.  Ji'''"r"''l'.h^» 
ever,  has  lately  brouithl  out  an  Index  Vcrborum  to  the  work.    The  first  tnrco 
books  have  been  translated  Into  German  by  Prof.  TVcber. /mf.  Sod.,  vols.) 
lill.,  xvlt: 


280 


SANSKRIT 


[lITEaATUEE. 


to  those  of  the  earlier  books,  which  had  probably  escaped  the 
collectors'  attention;  while  the  last  book,  consisting  almost  entirely 
of  hymns  to  Indra,  taken  from  the  ]p.ik-saiphita,  is  nothing  more 
than  a  liturgical  manual  of  the  recitations  and  chants  required  at 
the  Soma  sacrifice. 

The  Atharvan  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  mucn  iess  sausiactory 
state  of  preservation  than  any  of  the  other  Samhitds,  and  its 
interpretation,  which  offers  considerable  difficulties  on  account  of 
numerous  popular  and  out-of-the-way  expressions,  has  so  far 
receive4  comparatively  little  aid  from  native  sources.  A  com- 
mentary by  the  famous  Vodic  exegete  Sayaiia,  which  has  lately  come 
to  light  in  India,  may,  however,  be  expected  to  throw  light  on  some 
obscure  passages.  Even  tpore  import^int  is  the  disco;'Try,  some 
years  ago,  through  the  exertions  of  Sir  AV^illiam  Muir,  of  an  entirely 
different  recension  of  the  Atharva-sarnhita,  preserved  in  Kashmir. 
This  new  recension,*  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  Faippalada  school, 
consists  likewise  of  twenty  books  (kainda),  but  both  in  textual  matter 
and  in  its  arrangement  it  differs  very  much  from  the  current  text. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  latter,  including  unfortunately  the 
whole  of  the  eighteenth  book,  is  wanting;  while  the  hymns  of  the 
lineteenth  book  are  for  the  most  part  found  also  in  this  text,  though 
lot  as  a  separate  book,  but  scattered  over  the  whole  collection. 
Possibly,  therefore,  this  recension  may  have  formed  one  of  the 
sources  whence  the  nineteenth  book  was  compiled.  The  twentieth 
book  is  wanting,  \vith  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  verses  not  taken 
from  the  Kik.  As  a  set-off  to  these  shortcomings  the  new  version 
offers,  however,  a  good  deal  of  fresh  matter,  amounting  to  about 
one-sixth  of  the  whole.  From  the  JIahabhashya  and  other  works 
quoting  as  the  beginning  of  the  Atharva-sarnhita  a  verse  that 
(oinciJes  with  the  first  verse  of  the  sixth  hymn  of  the  current  text, 
it  has  long  been  known  that  at  least  one  other  recension  must  have 
existed ;  but  owing  to  the  defective  state  of  the  Kashmir  MS.  it 
cannot  be  determined  whether  the  nev/  recension  (as  seems  likely) 
coiTesponds  to  the  one  referred  to  in  those  works. 
Athaiva-  The  only  Brahmana  of  the  Atharvan,  the  Gcpatha-hrdnniana,'  is 
veda  jirobably  one  of  the  most  modern  works  of  its  class.  It  consists  of 
brah-  two  parts,  the  first  of  which  contains  cosrnogonic  speculations, 
m.-ma.  interspersed  with  legends,  apparently  taken  from  other  Brah- 
nianas,  and  general  instructions  on  religious  duties  and  observ- 
ances ;  while  the  second  part  treats,  in  a  very  desultory  maimer, 
of  various  points  of  the  sacrificial  ceremoniah 
4thavva-  The  Kalpa-siitras  belonging  to  this  Veda  compnse  both  a  manual 
iTda-  of  arauta  rites,  the  Vaitd.ia-sdtra,'  and  a  manual  of  domestic  rites, 
E5tr::s.  the  Kmisika-siUra.*  Tho  latter  treatise  is  not  only  the  more  inter- 
esting of  the  two,  but  also  the  more  ancient,  being  actually  quoted 
in  the  other.  The  teacher  Kausika  is  repeatedly  referred  to  in  the 
work  on  points  of  ceremonial  doctrine.  Connected  with  this  Siitra 
are  upwards  of  seventy  Parisishtas,  or  supplementary  treatises, 
mostly  in  metrical  form,  on  various  subjects  bearing  on  the  per- 
formance of  grihya  rites.  The  last,  siitra-work  to  be  noticed  in 
connexion  with  this  Veda  is  the  SaunaldyO,  Chaiurddhydyikd,^ 
being  a  Pratisaklija  of  the  Atharva-saiphiti,  so  called  from  its  con- 
sisting of  four  lectures  (adhyaya).  Although  Saunaka  can  hardly 
be  credited  \yith  being  the  actual  author  of  the  work,  considering 
that  his  opinion  is  rejected  in  the  only  rule  where  his  name 
appears,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  chiefly  embodies  the 
phonetic  theories  of  that  teacher,  which  \vere  afterwards  perfected 
by  members  of  his  school.  Whether  this  Saunaka  is  identical  with 
the  writer  of  that  name  to  whom  the  final  redaction  of  the  Sakala- 
jiritisakhya  of  the  Rik  is  ascribed  is  not  known  ;  but  it  is  worthy 
"f  Dote  that  on  at  least  two  points  where  S.ikalya  is  quoted  by 
lanini,  tho^  Chaturadhyayika  seems  to  be  referred  to  rather  than 
the  Eik-pratisakhya.     Saunaka  is  quoted  once  in  the  Vfgasaneyi- 

£rati3akhya;   and  it  is  possible  that  Katyayana  had  the  Chatur- 
dhyayika  in  viev/,  though  his  reference  does  not  quite  tally  with 
the  respective  rule  of  that  work. 
Upam  Another  class  of  writings   already  alluded  to   as  traditionally 

e!i.ad5i  connected  with  the  Atharvaveda  are  the  numerous  Vpanishnds^ 
■which  do  not  specially  attach  themselves  to  one  or  other  of  the 
Samhitas  or  Lrahmanas  of  tlie  other  Vedas.  The  Atharvana- 
upanishads,  mostly  composed  in  ^lokas,  may  bo  roughly  divided 
into  two  classes,  viz.,  those  of  a  purely  speculative  or  general 
n.antheistic  character,  treating  chiefly  of  the  nature  of  the  supreme 
spirit,  and  the  means  of  attaining  to  union  therewith,  and  those 
of  a  sectarian  tendency.  Of  the  former  category,  a  limited  number 
—such  as  the  Prasna,  Mundaka,  and  Mandukya-upanishads— have 

'  It  IS  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  E.  v.  Roth,  who  has  given  an  account 
of  it  in  his  academic  dissertation,  "  Der  Atharvaveda  in  Kaschmir  " 
1875.  -  rdited,  in  the  Bibl.  Ind.,  by  Eajendralala  Mitra. ' 

'  Text  and  a  German  translation  published  by  R.  Garbe. 

*  Tlus  difBoult  treatise  is  about  to  bo  published  by  Prof.  Bloomfield. 
Two  .sections  of  it  have  been  printed  and  translated  by  A.  Weber 
"  Omiua  et  Portenta,"  1859.. 

'  Edited  and  translated  by  W.  D.  Wliitney.  * 

For  a  fuU  list  of  existing  translations  of  and  essays  on  the  Upaai- 
Ehads,  see  Introd.  to  Max  JIuller'a  Upanishads,  Sacred  Looks,  L 


probably  to  be  assigned  to  tho  later  period  of  Vedio  literature  ; 
whUst  the  others  presuppose  more  or  less  distinctly  the  existence 
of  some  fnlly  developed  system  of  philo«()phy,  especially  tho 
Vedilnta  or  the  Yoga.  The  sectarian  Upanishads,  on  the  other 
hand — identifying  the  supreme  spirit  either  with  one  of  the  fornjs 
of  Vishnu  (such  as  the  Narayana,  Nrisiipha-tapanlya,  Klnia- 
tapanlya,  Gopila-tapaniya),  or  with' Siva  {e.g.  tho  Rudropanishad), 
or  with  some  other  deity — belong  to  post-Vedic  times. 

11.  The  Classical  Period. 

The  classical  literature  of  India  i?,  almost  entirely  a  pro- 
duct of  artificial  growth,  in  the  sense  that  its  vehicle  was 
not  the  language  of  the  general  body  of  tho  people,  but  of 
a  small  and  educated  class.  It  would  scarcely  be  possible, 
even  appro-^cimately,  to  fix  the  time  when  the  literary 
idiom  ceased  to  be  understood  by  the  common  people.  We 
only  know  that  in  the  3d  century  B.C.  there  existed  several 
dialects  in  different  parts  of  northern  India  which  differed 
considerably  from  the  Sanskrit ;  and  Buddhist  tradition, 
moreover,  tells  us  that  Gautama  S;ikyamuni  himself,  in 
the  6th  century  B.C.,  made  use  of  the  local  dialect  of 
Magadha  (Behar)  for  preaching  his  new  doctrine.  Not 
unlikely,  indeed,  popular  dialects,  differing  perhaps  but 
slightly  from  one  another,  may  have  existed  as  early  as 
the  time  of  the  Vedic  hymns,  when  the  Indo-Aryans, 
divided  into  clans  and  tribe.s,  occupied  tho  Land  of  the 
Seven  Elvers ;  but  such  dialects  must,  at  any  rate,  have 
sprung  up  after  the  extension  of  the  Aryan  sway  and 
language  over  the  whole  breadth  of  northern  India.  Such, 
however,  has  been  the  case  in  the  history  of  all  nations ; 
and  there  is  no  reason  why,  even  with  the  existence  of 
local  dialects,  the  literary  language  should  not  have  kept 
in  touch  with  tlio  people  in  India,  as  elsewhere,  but  for  the 
fact  that  from  a  certain  time  that  language  remained  alto- 
gether stationa'-y,  allowing  the  vernacular  dialects  mora 
and  more  to  diverge  from  it.  Although  linguistic  research 
had  been  successfully  carried  ou  in  India  for  centuries,  tho 
actual  grammatical  fixation  of  Sanskrit  seems  to  have  taken 
place  about  contemporaneously  with  the  first  spread  of 
Buddhi.'jm  ;  and  indec-d  that  popular  religious  movement 
undoubtedly  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  the  linguistic 
development  of  India. 

A.  Poetical  Literature. 

1.  Epic  Poems. — The  Hindus,  like  the  GreeKS,  possess  two  The 
great  national  epics,  iha  liamayana  and  the  Mahdbhdrata.  natiuj 
Tho  Edmdyana,  i.e.,  poem  "  relating  to  Rama,"  is  ascribed  'P'" 
to  tho  poet  Valmiki ;   and,  allowance  being  made  for  later 
additions  here  and  there,  the  poem  indeed  presents  the 
appearance  of  being  the  work  of  an  individual  genius.     In 
its  present  form  it  consi-sts  of  some   2-l:,000   ^lokas,   or 
48,000  lines  of  sixteen  syllables,  divided  into  seven  books. 

(I.)  King  Dasaratha  of  Eosala,  reigning  at  Ayodliya  (Oudh), 
has  four  sons  born  him  by  three  wives,  viz.,  R.ima,  Bharata,  and 
tho  twins  Lakshmana  and  Satrughna.  Rama,  by  being  able  to 
bend  an  enormous  bow,  formerly  the  dreade  I  weapon  of  th.e  god 
Rudra,  wins  for  a  wife  Sita,  daughter  of  Janaka,  king  of  Viieha 
(Tirhut).  (II.)  On  his  return  to  Ayodhy.a  he  is  to  be  appointed 
hcir-apparcnt  (yuva-raja,  i.e. ,  juvenis  rex);  but  Bharata's  mother 
persuaues  tho  king  to  banish  h.is  eldest  son  for  fourteen  years  to 
the  wilderness,  and  appoint  her  son  instead.  Separation  from  his 
favourite  son  soon  breaks  the  king's  he.art ;  whereupon  the  ministers 
call  on  Bharata  to  assume  tho  reins  of  government,'  Ho  refuses, 
however,  and,  betaking  himself  to  Rama's  retreat  on  the  Chitrakuti 
mountain  (in  Bnndelkhund),  implores  him  to  return  ;  but,  unalie 
to  shake  Rama's  resolve  to  complete  his  term  of  exile,  he  consents 
to  take  charge  of  the  kingdom  in  the  meantime.  (III.)  After  a 
ten  years'  residence  in  tlie  forest,  Bama  attracts  the  attention  of  a 
female  demon  (RakshasI) ;  and,  infuriated  by  the  rejection  of  her 
advances,  and  by  tl\'3  wounds  inflicted  on  her  by  Lakshmana,  who 
keeps  Rama  company,  she  inspires  her  brother  Eavana,  demon- 
king  of  Ceylon,  with  love  for  Sita,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
latter  is  carried  off  by  him  to  his  capital  Lanka.  While  she 
resolutely  rejects  tho  Raksha-sa's  addresses,  Rama  sets  out  with  his 
brother  to  her  rescue.      (IV.)  After  numerous  adventures  thoy 


SANS  K  R  I  T 


■UTEBArUR 

enter  into  an  alliance  witb  Bugrtva,  king  of  tLe  monkeys  ;  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  monkey -general  Hannmiin,  and  Ravana's 
oth  brother  Vibhishana,  they  prepare  to  assault  Lanka.  (V.)  The 
monkeys,  tearing  up  rocks  and  trees,  construct  a  passage  across 
the  straits—  the  so-called  Adam's  Bridge,  still  designated  Rama's 
Bridge  in  India.  (VI.)  Haying  crossed  over  with  his  allies,  Kama, 
after  many  hot  encounters  and  miraculous  deeds,  slays  the  demon 
and  captures  the  stronghold  ;  whereupon  he  places  Vibhishana  on 
the  throne  of  Lank4.  'To  allay  Kama's  misgivings  as  to  any  taint 
she  might  have  incurred  through  contact  with  the  demon,  Sita 
now .  undergoes  an  ordeal  by  tire  ;  after  which  they  return  to 
Ayodhya,  where,  after  a  triumphal  entry,  Kama  is  installed. 
(VII.)  In  the  last  book— probably  a  later  addition— Rama,  seeing 
that  the  people  are  not  yet  satisfied  of  Sita's  purity,  resolves  to 
put  her  away  ;  whereupon,  in  the  forest,  she  falls  in  with  Valmiki 
himself,  and  at  his  hermitage  gives  birth  to  two  sons.  While 
growing  up  there,  they  are  taught  by  the  sage  the  use  of  the  bow, 
as  weU  as  the  Vedas,  and  the  Raiuayana  as  far  as  the  capture  of 
Lanka  and  the  royal  entry  into  Ayodhya.  Ultimately  Rama 
discovers  and  recognizes  them  by  their  wonderful  deeds  and  their 
likeness  to  himself,  and  takes  his  wife  and  sons  back  with  him. 

Tue  Mahdbhdrata,^  i.e.,  "  the  great  (poem  or  feud)  of 
the  Bharatas,"  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  so  much  a  uni- 
form epic  poem  as  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  epic 
poetry,  consisting  of  a  heterogeneous  ma33  of  legendary 
and  didactic  matter,  worked  into  and  round  a  central 
heroic  narrative.  The  authorship  of  this  work  is  aptly 
attributed  to  Vyfea,  ''  the  arranger,"  the  personification  of 
Indian  diaskeuasis. .  Only  the  bare  outline  of  the  leading 
story  can  here  be  given. 

In  the  royal  line  of  Hastinapura  (the  ancient  Delhi)— claiming 
descent  from  the  moon,  and  hence  called  the  Lunar  race  (somavam.sa), 
and  counting  among  its  ancestors  Kijij^  Bharata,  after  whom  India 
is  called  Bharata-varsha  (land  of  the  Bharatas)— the  succession  lay 
between  two  brothers,  when  Dhritarashtra,  the  elder,  being  blind, 
had  to  make  way  for  his  brother  Paiidii.  After  a  time  the  latter 
retired  to  the  forest  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  hunting ; 
and  Dhritarashtra  assumed  the  government,  assisted  by  his  uncle 
Bhiahma,  the  Nestor  of  the  poem.  After  some  years  Pandu  died, 
leaving  five  sons,  viz.,  Yudhishthira.  Bhima,  and  Arjuna  by  his 
chief  wife  Kunti,  and  the  twins'  Nakiila  and  Sahadeva  by  MiJri. 
The  latter  having  burnt  herself  along  with  her  dead  husband, 
Kunti  returned  with  the  five  princes  to  Hastin.ipura,  and  was  well 
received  by  the  king,  who  offered  to  have  his  nephews  biought  uj) 
together  with  his  own  sons,  of  whom  he  had  a  hundred,  Duryodhana 
being  the  eldest.  From  their  great-grandfather  Kuru  botli 
families  are  called  Kanravas ;  but  for  il'.stinction  that  name  is 
more  usually  applied  to  the  sons  of  Dhritarashtra,  while  their 
cousins,  as  the  younger  line,  are  named,  after  their  father,  Pdndavas. 
The  rivalry  and  varying  fortunes  of  these  two  houses  form  the 
main  plot  of  the  great  epopee.  The  Paiidu  princes  soon  proved 
themselves  gi'catly  superior  to  their  cousins  ;  and  Yudhisbthir.a, 
the  eldest  of  them  all,  was  to  bo  appointed  heir-apparent.  But, 
by  his  son's  adv tee,  the  lung,  good-natured  but  weak,  induced  his 
nephews  for  a  time  to  rerire  from  court  and  reside  at  a  house  wliere 
the  unscrupulous  Durjodhana  meant  to  destroy  them.  They 
escaped,  however,  and  pr.ssed  some  time  in  the  forest  with  their 
mother.  Here  Diaupadi,  daughter  of  King  Drupada,  won  by 
Arjuna  in  open  contest,  became  the  wife  of  \i\&  five  brotliers.  On 
that  occasion  they  also  met  their  cousin,  Kunti's  nephew,  the 
famons  Y.ldava  prince  Krishna  of  Dv.irak.i,  who  ever  afterwards 
remained  their  faithful  friend  and  confidential  adviser.  Dhrita- 
rashtra now  resolved  to  divide  the  kingdom  between  the  two 
houses  ;  whereupon  the  Pdndavas  built  for  tbemst-lves  the  city  of 
Intlraprastha  (on  the  'site  of  the  modem  Delhi).  After  a  time  of 
great  prosperity,  Yudhishthira,  in  a  game  of  dice,  lost  everything 
to  Duryodhana,  when  it  was  settled  that  the  P^indavas  should 
retire  to  the  forest  for  twelve  years,  but  should  afterwards  be 
restored  to  their  kingdom  if  they  succeeded  in  passing  an  additional 
year  in  disguise,  without  being  recognized  by  anyone.  During 
their  forest-lilc  they  met  with  many  adventures,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  their  encounter  with  King  Jayadratha  of 
ChcJi,  who  had  carried  of!"  Draupadi  from  their  hermitage.  After 
the  twelfth  year  has  expired  they  leave  the  forest,  and,  assuming 
various  disguises,  take  service  at  the  courtof  king  Vii.ntaof  Matsya. 
Here  all  goes  well  for  a  tiuio  till  the  queen's  brother  Ki'jhaka,  a 
great  warrior  and  commander  of  the  royal  forces,  falls  in  love  with 

*  There  are  several  complete  editions  published  in  India,  the 
handiest  in  4  vols.,  Calcutta,  1824-9.  Numerous  episodes  from  it  have 
been  printed  and  translated  by  European  scholars.  There  is  a  French 
translation,  by  H.  Fauche,  of  about  one  half  of  the  work  ;  but  it 
must  bo  used  with  caution.  An  English  translation  is  being  brought 
out  at  Calcutta  by  Pratip  Chnndra  Koy. 

■21— I-.' 


281 


Draupadi,  and  is  si^m  ry  Bhi:m„.  .  ITie  Kauravas,  profiting  by 
Kichaka's  death,  now  invade  the  Maisyan  kingdom,  when  the 
Piindavas  side  with  king  Virata,  and  there  ensue:;,  on  the  field  of 
Kurukshetra,  a  series  of  fierce  battles,  ending  in  the  annihilation 
of  the  Kauravas.  Y'udhishthira  now  at  last  becomes  yuva-raja,  and 
eventually  king, — Dhritarashtra  having  resigned  and  retii-ed  with 
his  wife  and  Kunti  to  the  forest,  where  they  soon  after  perish  in  a 
conflagration.  Learning  also  the  death  of  Krishna,  Yudhishthira 
himself  at  last  becomes  tired  of  life  and  resigns  his  crown;  and 
the  five  princeSjWith  their  faithful  wife,  and  a  dog  that  joins  them, 
set  out  for  Mount  ileru,  to  seek  admission  to  India's  heaven.  On 
the  way  one  by  one  di'ops  off,  till  Yudliishthira  alone,  with  the  dog, 
reaches  the  gate  of  heaven;  but,  the  dog  being  refused  admittance, 
the  king  declines  entering  without  him,  when  the  dog  turns  out  to 
be  no  other  than  the  god  of  Justice  himself,  having  assumed  that 
form  to  test  Yudhishthira's  constancy.  But,  finding  neither  his 
wife  nor  his  brothers  in  heaven,  and  being  told  that  they  are  in 
the  nether  world  to  expiate  their  sins,  the  king  insists  on  sharing 
their  fate,  when  this,  too,  proves  a  trial,  and  they  are  all  reunited 
to  enjoy  perpetual  bliss. 

Whether  this  story  is  partly  based,  as  Lassen  sug- 
gested, on  historical  events, — perhaps  a  destructive  war 
between  the  neighbouring  tribes  of  the  Kurus  and  Pan- 
chalas, — or  ■whether,  as  Dr  A.  H&ltzmann  thinks,  its  prin- 
cipal features  go  back  to  Indo-Germanic  times,  wUl  pro- 
bably never  be  decided.  The  complete  ■work  consists  of 
upwards  of  100,000  couplets, — its  contents  thus  being 
nearly  eight  times  the  bulk  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  com- 
bined. It  is  divided  into  eighteen  books,  and  a  supple- 
ment, entitled  Harivamsa,  or  genealogy  of  the  god  Hari 
(Krishiia-Vishiiu).  In  the  introduction,  Vyasa,  being 
about  to  dictate  the  poem,  is  made  to  say  (i.  81)  that  so 
far  he  and  some  of  his  disciples  knew  8S00  couplets  ; 
and  further  on  (i.  101)  he  is. said  to  have  composed  the 
collection  relating  to  the  Bkiiratas  (bharata-sarnhita),  and 
called  the  Bhdratam,  ■which,  not  including  the  episodes, 
consisted  of  24,000  slokas.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
portion  relating  to  the  feud  of  the  rival  houses  constitutes 
somevfhere  between  a  fourth  and  a  fifth  of  the  ■work ;  and 
it  is  highly  probable  that  this  portion  once  formed  a 
separate  poem",  called  the  Bhtirata.  But,  ■n'hether  the 
former  statement  is  to  be  understood  as  implying  the 
existence,  at  a  still  earlier  time,  of  a  yet  shorter  version  of 
about  one-third  of  the  present  extent  of  the  leading  narra- 
tive cannot  now  be  determiEed.  AYhile  some  of  the 
episodes  are  so  loosely  connected  with  t'ne  story  as  to  bij 
readily  severed  from  it,  others  are  so  closely  interwoven 
with  it  that  their  removal  would  seriously  injure  the  very 
texture  of  the  work.  This,  however,  only  shows  that  the 
original  poem  must  have  undergone  some  kind  of  revision, 
or  perhaps  repeated  revisions.  That  such  has  indeed  taken 
place,  at  the  hand  of  Brahmans,  for  sectarian  and  caste 
purposes,  cannot  be  doubted. 

The  earliest  direct  information  regarding  the  existence 
of  epic  poetry  in  India  is  contained  in  a  passage  of  Dion 
Chrysostom  (c.  80  a.d.),  according  to  which  "even  among 
the  Indians,  they  say.  Homer's  poetry  is  sung,  having 
been  translated  by  them  into  their  own  dialect  and 
tongue;"  and  "the  Indians  are  well  acijuainted  with  the 
sufferings  of  Priam,  the  lamentations  and  waiis  of  Andro- 
mache and  Hecuba,  and  the  prowess  of  Achilles  and 
Hector."  Now,  although  these  allusions  would  suit  either 
poem,  they  seem  on  the  whole  to  correspond  best  to 
certain  incidents  in  the  Ilahdbkdrata,  especially  as  ne^ 
direct  mention  is  made  of  a  ■warlike  expedition  to  a  remote 
island  for  the  rescue  of  an  abducted  ■woman,  the  resem- 
blance of  which  to  the  Trojan  expedition  ivould  naturally 
have  struck  a  Greek  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
general  outline  of  the  lidmdyana.  Whence  Dion  derived 
his  information  is  not  known ;  but  as  many  leading  names 
of  the  Mah&bharata  and  even  the  name  of  the  poem  itself  •! 
are  aheady  mentioned  in  Piinini's  grammatical  rules,  it  is 

^  Viz.,  as  an  adj.,  apparently  with  "war  "  or  "poem"  understood.' 

XXI.  -  ?J 


282 


SANSKRIT 


[LITSBATtTEK. 


not  only  certaitt  that  the  Bhftrata  legend  must  have  been 
current  in  his  time  (!  c.  400  B.C.),  but  most  probable  that  it 
existed  ah-eady  in  poetical  form,  as  undoubtedly  it  did  at 
the  time  of  Patanjali,  the  author  of  the  "  great  comment- 
ary "  on  P^nini  (c.  150  B.C.).  The  great  epic  is  also 
mentioned,  both  as  Shdraia  and  Makdbhdrata,  in  the 
G rihya-eHtra  of  AivaWyana,  whom  Lassen  supposes  to 
have  lived  about  350  B.C.  Nevertheless  it  must  remain 
uncertain  whether  the  poem  was  then  already  in  the  form 
in  which  we  now  have  it,  at  least  as  far  as  the  leading 
story  and  perhaps  some  of  the  episodes  are  concerned,  a 
large  portion  of  the  episodical  matter  being  clearly  of 
later  origin.  It  cannot,  however,  be  doubted,  for  many 
reasons,  that  long  before  that  time  heroic  song  had  been 
diligently  cultivated  in  India  at  the  courts  of  princes  and 
among  Kshatriyas,  tha  knightly  order,  generally.  In  the 
3Iahdhhdrata  itself  the  transmission  of  epic  legend  is  in 
some  way  connected  with  the  Siitas,  a  social  class  which, 
in  the  caste-system,  is  defined  as  resulting  from  the  union 
of  Kshatriya  men  with  Brahmana  women,  and  which 
supplied  the  office  of  charioteers  and  heralds,  as  well  as 
(along  with  the  Magadhas)  that  of  professional  minstrels. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that,  as  Hellas 
h.ad  her  doiSoi  who  sang  the  kAco  avhpu,v,  and  Iceland  her 
skalds  who  recited  favourite  sagas,  so  India  had  from 
olden  times  her  professional  bards,  who  delighted  to  sing 
^he  praises  of  kings  and  inspire  the  knights  with  warlike 
feelings.  But  if  in  this  way  a  stock  of  heroic  poetry  had 
gradually  accumulated  which  reflected  an  earlier  state 
of  society  and  manners,  we  can  well  understand  why, 
after  the  BrrAmanical  order  of  things  had  been  definitely 
established,  the  priests  should  have  deemed  it  desirable  to 
subject  these  traditional  memorials  of  Kshatriya  chivalry 
and  prestige  to  their  own  censorship,  and  adapt  them  to 
their  own  canons  of  religious  and  civil  law.  Such  a 
revision  would  doubtless  require  considerable  skill  and 
tact ;  and  if  in  the  present  version  of  the  work  much 
remains  that  seems  contrary  to  the  Brahmanical  code 
and  pretensions — e.g.,  the  polyandric  union  of  Draupadi 
and  the  Pandu  princes — -the  reason  probably  is  that  such 
legendary,  or  it  may  be  historical,  events  were  too  firmly 
rooted  in  the  minds  of  the  people  to  be  tampered  with ; 
and  all  the  clerical  revisers  could  do  was  to  explain  them 
away  as  best  they  could.  Thus  the  special  point  alluded 
to  was  represented  as  an  act  of  duty  and  filial  obedience, 
in  this  way,  that,  when  Arjuna  brings  home  his  fair  prize, 
and  announces  it  to  his  mother,  she,  before  seeing  what  it 
is,  bids  him'share  it  with  his  brothers.  Kay,  it  has  even 
been  suggested,  with  some  plausibility,  that  the  Brah- 
manical editors  have  completely  changed  the  traditional 
relations  of  the  leading  characters  of  the  story.  For, 
although  the  Pai.idavas  and  their  cousin  Krishj.ia  are  con- 
stantly extolled  as  models  of  virtue  and  goodness,  while 
the  Kauravas  and  their  friend  Kama — a  son  of  the  sun- 
god,  born  by  KuntJ  before  her  marriage  with  Pandu,  and 
brought  up  secretly  as  the  son  of  a  Sdta — are  decried  as 
monsters  of  depravity,  these  estimates  of  the  heroes' 
characters  are  not  unfrequently  belied  by  their  actions, — • 
especially  the  honest  Karna  and  the  brave  Duryodhana 
contrasting  not  unfavourably  with  the  wiiy  Krishna  and 
the  cautious  and  somewhat  effeminate  Yudhishthira. 
These  considerations,  coupled  with  certain  peculiarities  on 
the  part  of  the  Kauravas,  suggestive  of  an  original  con- 
nexion of  the  latter  with  Buddhist  institutions,  have  led 
Dr  Holtzmann  to  devise  an  ingenious  theory,  viz.,  that 
the  traditional  stock  of  legends  was  first  worked  up  into 
its  present  shape  by  some  Buddhist  poet,  and  that  this 
version,  showing  a  decided  predilection  for  the  Kuru  party, 
as  the  representatives  of  Buddhist  principles,  was  after- 
wards  revised   in  a   contrary  sense,    at  the  time  of  the 


Brtlhmanical  reaction,  by  votaries  of  Vishnu,  when  the 
Buddhist  features  were  generally  modified  into  Saivite 
tendencies,  and  prominence  was  given  to  the  divine  nature 
of  Krishna,  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  The  chief  objec- 
tion to  this  theory  probably  is  that  it  would  seem  to 
make  such  portions  as  the  Bhagavad-gitA  ("  song  of  the 
holy  one ") — the  famous  theosophic  episode,  in  which 
Krishna,  in  lofty  and  highly  poetical  language,  expounds 
the  doctrine  of  faith  (bhakti)  and  claims  adoration  as  the 
incarnation  of  the  supreme  spirit — e\'en  more  modem 
than  many  scholars  may  be  inclined  to  admit  as  at  all 
necessary,  considering  that  at  the  time  of  Patanjali's 
M ahdhhdshya  the  Krishna  worship,  as  was  shown  by  Prof. 
Bhandarkar,  had  already  attained  some  degree  of  develop- 
ment. Of  the  purely  legendary  matter  incorporated 
with  the  leading  story  not  a  little,  doubtless,  is  at  least  as 
old  as  the  latter  itself.  Some  of  these  episodes — especially 
the  well-known  story  of  Nala  and  Damayanti,  aud  the 
touching  legend  of  Savitri — form  themselves  little  epic 
gems,  of  which  any  nation  might  be  proud.  There  can 
be  no  doubt,  however,  that  this  great  storehouse  of 
legendary  lore  has  received  considerable  additions  down 
%o  comparatively  recent  times,  and  that,  while  its  main 
portion  is  considerably  older,  it  also  contains  no  small 
amount  of  matter  which  is  decidedly  more  modern  than 
the  Rdmdyana. 

As  regards  the  leading  narrative  of  the  Edm&nana, 
while  it  is  generally  supposed  that  the  chief  object  which 
the  poet  had  in  view  was  to  depict  the  spread  of  Aryan 
civilization  towards  the  south,  Mr  T.  Wheeler  has  tried 
to  show  that  the  demons  of  Lanka  against  whom  Rama's 
expedition  b  directed  are  intended  for  the  Buddhists  of 
Ceylon.  Prof.  Weber,  moreover,  from  a  comparison  of 
Rama's  story  with  cognate  Buddhist  legends  in  which 
the  expedition  to  Lanki  is  not  even  referred  to,  has 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  this  feature,  having  been  added 
by  Valmiki  to  the  original  legend,  was  probably  derived 
by  him  from  some  general  acquaintance  with  the  Trojan 
cycle  of  legends,  the  composition  of  the  poem  itself  being 
placed  by  the  same  scholar  somewhere  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  Though,  in  the  absence  of  positive 
proof,  this  theory,  however  ably  supported,  can  scarcely 
be  assented  to,  it  will  hardly  be  possible  to  put  the  date  of 
the  work  farther  back  than  about  a  century  before  our 
era ;  while  the  loose  connexion  of  certain  passages  in 
which  the  divine  character  of  Rama,  as  an  avatar  of 
Vishnu,  is  especially  accentuated,  raises  a  strong  sus- 
picion of  this  feature  of  Rama's  nature  having  been  intro- 
duced at  a  later  time. 

A  remarkable  feature  of  this  poem  is  the  great  variation 
of  its  text  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  amounting  in 
fact  to  several  distinct  recensions.  The  so-called  Cauda 
recension,  current  in  Bengal,  which  differs  most  of  all,  has 
been  edited,  with  an  Italian  translation,  by  G.  Gorresio  ; 
while  the  version  prevalent  in  western  India,  and  pub- 
lished at  Bombay,  has  been  made  the  basis  for  a  beautiful 
poetical  translation  by  Mr  B.  GrLflith.  This  diversity  has 
never  been  explained  in  a  quite  satisfactory  way ;  but  it 
was  probably  due  to  the  very  popularity  and  wide  oral 
diffusion  of  the  poem.  Yet  another  version  of  the  same 
story,  with,  however,  many  important  variations  of  details, 
forms  an  episode  of  the  Mahdbhdrata,  the  relation  of 
which  to  Valnuki's  work  is  still  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 
To  characterize  the  Indian  epics  in  a  single  word : — 
though  often  disfigured  by  grotesque  fancies  and  wild 
exaggerations,  'they  are  yet  noble  vrorks,  abounding  in 
passages  of  remarkable  descriptive  power,  intense  pathos, 
and  high  poetic  grace  and  beauty;  and,  while,  as  works  of 
art,  they  are  far  inferior  to  the  Greet,  epics,  in  some 
respects  they  appeal  far  more  strongly  to  the  romantic 


fJTEKATUEE.] 


SANSKRIT 


283 


Blind  of  Europe,  namely,  by  their  loving  appreciation  of 
natural  beauty,  their  exquisite  delineation  of  womanly 
love  arid  devotion,  and  their  tender  sentiment  of  mercy 
and  forgiveness. 
ruranM.  2.  Purdnas  and  TatUras. — The  Purdnas  are  partly 
legendary  partly  speculative  histories  of  the  universe, 
compiled  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  some  special, 
locally  prevalent  form  of  Brahmanical  belief.  They  are 
sometimes  styled  a  fifth  Veda,  and  may  indeed  in  a 
certain  sense  be  looked  upon  as  the  scriptures  of  Brah- 
manical India.  The  term  pnrdiia,  signifying  "old," 
applied  originally  to  prehistoric,  especially  cosmogonic, 
legends,  and  then  to  collections  of  ancient  traditions 
generally.  The  existing  works  of  this  class,  though  recog- 
nizing the  Brahmanical  doctrine  of  the  Trimlirti,  or  triple 
manifestation  of  the  deity  (in  its  creative,  preservative, 
and  destructive  activity),  are  all  of  a  sectarian  tendency, 
being  intended  to  establish,  on  quasi-historic  grounds, 
the  claims  of  some  special  god,  or  holy  place,  on  the 
devotion  of  the  people.  For  this  purpose  the  compilers 
have  pressed  into  their  service  a  mass  of  extraneous  didac- 
tic matter  on  all  manner  of  subjects,  whereby  these  works 
have  become  a  kind  of  popular  encyclopedias  of  useful 
knowledge.  It  is  evident,  however,  from  a  comparatively 
early  definition  given  of  the  typical  Purana,  as  well  as 
from  numerous  coincidences  of  the  existing  works,  that 
they  are  based  on,  or  enlarged  from,  older  works  of  this 
kind,  more  limited  in  their  scope,  and  probably  of  a  more 
decidedly  tritheistic  tendency  of  belief.  Thus  none  of  the 
Purilnas,  as  now  extant,  is  probably  much  above  a 
thousand  years  old,  though  a  considerable  proportion  of 
their  materials  is  doubtless  much  older,  and  may  perhaps 
in  part  go  back  to 'several  centuries  before  our  era. 

In  legendary  matter  the  Purinas  have  a  good  deal  in 
common  with  the  epics,  especially  the  Mahdbhdrata,— the 
compilers  or  revisers  of  both  classes  of  works  having 
Evidently  drawn  their  materials  from  the  same  fluctuating 
mass  of  popular  traditions.  They  are  almost  entirely' 
composed  in  epic  couplets,  and  indeed  in  much  the  same 
easy  flowing  style  as  the  epic  poems,  to  which  they  are, 
fcowever,  geatly  inferior  in  poetic  value. 

According  to  the  traditional  classific.ition  of  these  works,  there 
are  said  to  be  eighteen  {mahd-,  or  great)  Purdnas,  and  as  many 
Upa-picrdnas,  or  subordinate  Puranas,  Tbe  former  are  by  some 
authorities  divided  into  three  groups  of  six,  according  as  one  or 
otlier  of  the  three  primary  qualities  of  external  existence — goodness, 
darkness  (ignorance),  and  passiou — is  supposed  to  prevail  in  them, 
viz. ,  the  Vishnu,  Ndradiya,  lihdgavata,  Garuda,  Padma,  Var&ha,  — 
Matsya,  Kllrma,  Linga,  Siva,  Skanda,  Agni, — Brahindnda, Brahma- 
vaivarla,  Mdrkandei/a,  Bhavishya,  Vdmana,  and  Brahma- Purdnas. 
In  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  several  forms  of  the  Trimurti, 
the  first  two  groups  chiefly  devote  themselves  to  the  commenda- 
tion of  Vishnu  and  S^iva  respectively,  whilst  the  third  group, 
which  would  properly  belong  to  Brahman,  has  been  largely  appro- 
priated for  the  promotion  of  the  claims  of  other  deities,  viz., 
Vishnu  in  his  sensuous  fortn  of  Krishna,  Devi,  Ganesa,  and 
Sijrya.  As  Prof.  Banerjca  has  shown  in  his  preface  to  the  Mdr- 
kandeya,  this  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  cflccted  by  later  additions 
and  interpolations.  The  insufllciency  of  the  above  classification, 
however,  appears  from  the  fact  that  it  pmits  the  Vdyu-purdna, 
probably  one  of  the  oldest  of  all,  though  some  IISS.  substitute  it 
lor  one  or  other  name  of  the  second  group.  The  eighteen  principal 
Puranas  arc  said  to  consist  of  together  400,000  couplets.  In 
Northern  India  the  Vaishnava  Puranas,  especially  the  Bhdgavata 
and  FtsAnu,'  arc  by  far  the  most  popular.  The  lih;igavata  was 
formerly  supposed  to  have  been  composed  by  Vopadeva,  the 
crammarian,  who  lived  in  the  13th  century.  It  has,  however, 
been  shown  ^  that  what  ho  wrote  was  a  synopsis  of  the  Purana, 

'  Thu.o  ore  several  Indian  editions  of  these  two  works.  The 
Bhagavata  has  been  partly  printed,  in  on  edition  de  luxe,  at  Paris,  in 
3  vols.,  by  E.  Bumouf,  and  a  fourth  by  M.  Ilauvekte-Besnault.  Of 
the  Vishnup.  there  b  a  translation  by  H.  H.  Wilson,  2d  ed.  enriched 
with  valuable  notes  by  F.  Hall.  Several  other  Puranas  have  been 
printed  in  India;  the  MJrkandeya  and  Agni  Puranas,'  in  the  Bibl, 
Ind.,  by  Prof.  Banerjca  and  Eajendralala  Mit-a  respectively. 
■  »  K  jend-aiaia  Mitra,  Notices  of  Satuk.  XSS.,  ii.  47.    ' 


and  that  the  latter  is  already  quoted  in  a  work  by  Ballala  Sena  o£ 
Bengal,  in  the  11th  century. 

From  the  little  we  know  regarding  the  Upa-purinas,  their  charJ 
acter  does  not  seem  to  differ  very  much  from  that  of  the  principal!  . 
Puranas.  One  of  them,  the  Brahmdnda-picrdna,  contains,  as  am 
episode,  the  well-known  Adhydtma-Rdmdyana,  a  kind  of  spiritual- 
ized version  of-  Valmiki's  poem.  Besides  these  two  classes  of 
works  there  Is  a  large  number  of  so-called  Sthala-purdnas,  or 
chronicles  recounting  the  history  aud  merits  of  some  holy  '"place" 
or  shrine,  where  their  recitation  usually  forms  an  important  part 
of  the  daily  service.  Of  much  the  same  nature  are  the  numerous 
Mdhdtmyas  (literally  "relating  to  the  great  spirit "),  which  usually 
profess  to  be  sections  of  one  or  other  Purana.  Thus  the  Devi- 
vidhdtmya,  which  celebr-ates  the  victories  of  the  great  goddess 
Durga  over  the  Asuras,  and  is  daily  read  at  the  temples  of  that 
deity,  forms  a  section,  though  doubtless  an  interpolated  one,  of 
the  ilarkandeya-purana. 

The  Tantras,  which  have  to  be  considered  as  a  later  Tantrav 
development  of  the  sectarian  Puranas,  are  the  sacred 
writings  of  the  numerous  Sdkias,  or  worshippers  of  the 
female  energy  (dakti)  of  some  god,  especially  the  wife  of 
Siva,  in  one  of  her  many  forms  (Parvati,  Devi,  Kalf, 
Bhav3,ni,  Durga,  &c.).  This  worship  of  a  female  repre- 
sentation of  the  divine  power  appears  already  in  some  oi 
the  Puranas;  bat  in  the  Tantras  it  assumes  quite  a  peculiar 
character,  being  largely  intermixed  with  magic  perform* 
ances  and  mystic  rites,  partly,  it  would  seem,  of  a  grossly 
immoral  nature.  This  class  of  writings  does  not  appeal! 
to  have  been  in  existence  at  the  time  of  Amarasirnha  {6th 
century);  but  they  are  mentioned  in  some  of  the  Puranas. 
They  are  usually  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  Siva  and 
his  wife.  Their  number  is  very  large;  but  they  still  await 
a  critical  examination  at  the  hands  of  \vestern  scholars. 
Among  the  best  known  may  be  mentioned  the  Rudra 
ydmala,  KulArnava,  Sydmd-rahasya,  and  Kdlilid-tantra. 

3.  Modem  Epics. — A  new  class  of  epic  poems  begin  to  Modeti 
make  their  appearance  about  the  5th  or  6th  century  of  cp'ca. 
our  era,  during  a  period  of  renewed  literary  activity  which 
has  been  fitly  called  *  the  Renaissance  of  Indian  literature. 
These  works  differ  widely  in  character  from  those  that 
had  preceded  them.  The  great  national  epics,  composed 
though  they  were  in  a  language  different  from  the  ordin- 
ary vernaculars,  had  at  least  been  drawn  from  the  living 
stream  of  popular  traditions,  and  were  doubtless  readily 
understood  and  enjoyed  by  the  majority  of  the  people. 
The  later  productions,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  a  decidedly 
artificial  character,  and  must  necessarily  have  been  beyond 
the  reach  of  any  but  the  highly  cultivated.  They  are,  on 
the  whole,  singularly  deficient  in  incident  and  invention, 
their  subject  matter  being  almost  entirely  derived  from 
the  old  epics.  Nevertheless,  these  works  arc  by  bo  means 
devoid  of  merit  and  interest ;  and  a  number  of  them 
display  considerable  descriptive  power  and  a  wealth  of 
genuine  poetic  sentiment,  though  unfortunately  often 
clothed  in  language  that  deprives  it  of  half  its  value.  The 
simple  heroic  couplet  has  mostly  been  discarded  for 
various  more  or  less  elaborate  metres ;  and  in  accordance 
with  this  change  of  form  the  diction  becomes  gradually 
more  complicated, — a  growing  taste  for  unwieldy  com- 
pounds, a  jingling  kind  of  alliteration,  or  rather  agnomina- 
tion, and  an  abuse  of  similes  maiTiing  the  increasing 
artificiality  of  these  productions. 

The  generic  appellation  of  suck  works  is  kdvya,  which,  meaninjl 
"iKiera,"  or  tlio  work  of  an  individual  poet  H-avi),  is  alrcadyi 
npplieil  to  the  Rdmayann.  Six  ]iotms  of  this  kind  are  singled  out 
by  native  iheloricians  as  standard  works,  unilrr  the  title  of  Mahd- 
kdvya,  or  great  poems.  Two  of  these  arc  .-.scribed  to  the  famous 
dramatist  Kalidasa,  the  most  prominent  figure  of  the  Indian 
Renaissance,  and  truly  a  master  of  the  poetic  art.  Ho  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  tho  nine  literary  "  gems  '  at  the  court  of  Vikramii- 
ditya,  now  generally  identified  with  King  Vikramaditya  llarsha  of 
Ujjayini  (Ujjain  or  Oujein),  who  reigned  about  the  middle  of  tho 
6th  century,  and  seems  to  have  originatec".  tho  Vikramaditya  era, 
reckoned  from  56  B.C.     Of  the  poets  whose  works  have  come  down 


"  M.  MttUer,  India :   What  can  it  teach  usi  note  G. 


284 


SANSKRIT 


[LITEEATXrEB, 


lu  US  KMidasa  appeals  to  bo  Sue  of  the  earliest;  but  there  can  be 
littlu  doubt  that  lie  was  preceded  in  this  as  in  other  departments 
of  poetic  composition  by  many  lessor  lights,  eclipsed  by  the  sun  of 
his  fame,  and  forgotten.  Of  the  sis  "great  poems"  named  below 
the  first  two  are  those  attributed  to  Kalidasa.  (1)  The  Bagliu- 
vamJa,^  or  "race  of  Eaghu,"  celebrates  the  ancestry  and  deeds 
of  liama.  The  work,  consisting  of  nineteen  cantos,  is  manifestly 
incomplete ;  but  hitherto  no  copy  has  been  discovered  of  the  six 
additional  cantos  which  are  supposed  to  have  completed  it.  (2)  The 
Kumdra-sambhava-  or  "the  birth  of  (the  war-god)  Kumara "  (or 
S'.i.anda),  the  son  of  Siva  and  Parvatl,  consists  of  eight  cantos,  the 
last  of  which  has  only  recently  been  made  public,  being  usually 
omitted  in  the  MSS. ,  probably  on. account  of  its  amorous  character 
rendering  it  unsuitable  for  educational  purposes,  for  which  the 
works  of  Kalidasa  are  extensively  used  in  India.  Nine  additional 
cantos,  which  were  published  at  the  same  time,  have  been  proved 
to  be  spurious.  Another  poem  of  this  class,  the  Nalodaya,^  or 
"rise  of  Kala," — describing  the  restoration  ol^  that  king,  after 
having  lost  his  kingdom  through  gambling, — is  wrongly  ascribed 
to  Kalidasa,  being  far  inferior  to  tlio  other  works,  and  of  a  much 
more  artificial  character.  (3)  The  Kirdldrjimii/a,*  or  combat 
between  the  Pandava  prince  Arjuna  and  the  god  6iva,  in  the 
guise  of  a  Kii-ata  or  wild  mountaineer,  is  a  poem  in  eighteen 
cantos,  by  Bharavi,  probably  a  contemporary  of  Iviilidasa,  being 
mentioned,  together  with  him  in  an  inscription  dated  634  A.D.' 
(4)  The  Sisupdla-badka,  or  slaying  of  Sisupala,  who,  being  a 
prince  of  Chedi,  reviled  Krishna,  who  had  carried  off  his  intended 
wife,  and  was  killed  by  him  at  the  inauguration  sacrifice  of  Yu- 
dhishthira,  is  a  poem  consisting  of  twenty  cantos,  attributed  to 
Magha,'  whence  it  is  also  called  Mdghak-dvya.  (5)  The  Rlrana- 
badha,  or  "slaying  of  Ravana,'*  more  commonly  called  BhatU- 
kdvya,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  poems  (especially  one  by 
Pravarascna),  likewise  bearing  the  former  title,  was  composed 
for  the  practical  purpose  of  illustrating  the  less  common  gram- 
matical forms  and  the  figures  of  rhetoric  and  poetry.  In  its 
closing  couplet  it  professes  to  have  been  written  at  Vallabhi,  under 
Svidharasena,  but,  several  princes  of  that  name  being  mentioned 
in  inscriptions  as  having  ruled  there  in  the  6th  and  7th  cen- 
turies, its  exact  date  is  still  uncertain.  Bhatti,  apparently  the 
author's  nam^,  is  usually  identified  witli  the  Well-known  gram- 
marian Bhartrihari,  whose  death  Prof.  II.  Jliiller,  from  a  Chinese 
statement,  fixes  at  650  a.d.  ,  while  others  make  him  Ehartrihari's 
son.  (6)  The  Naiskadhtija,  or  KaisJmdha-charita,  the  life  of  Nala, 
king  of  Nishadha,  is  ascribed  to  Sri-Harsha  (son  of  Hira),  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century. 
A  small  portion  of  the  simple  «nd  noble  episode  of  the  Mahdbhd- 
rata  is  here  retold  in  highly  elaborate  and  polislied  stanzas,  end 
with  a  degree  of  lasciviousness  which  (unless  it  be  chiefly  due  to 
the  poet's  exuberance  of  fancy)  gives  a  truly  appalling  picture  of 
social  corruption.  Another  highly  esteemed  poem,  the  Edghava- 
pdjidaviija,  composed  by  Kaviraja  ("king  of  poets"), — whose  date 
is  uncertain,  though  some  scholars  place  him  later  than  the  10th 
century, — is  characteristic  of  the  trifling  uses  to  which  the  poet's 
art  was  put.  The  well-turned  stanzas  are  so  ambiguously  worded 
that  the  poem  may  be  interpreted  as  relating  to  the  leading  story 
©£  cither  the  Jidrndj/aijui  or  the  Mahdbhdraia. 

A  still  more  modern  popular  development  of  tliesa  artificial 
poems  are  the  numerous  so-called  CkampCs,  being  compositions  of 
mixed  verse  and  prose.  As  specimens  of  such  works  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Champd-bhdrata  in  twelve  cantos,  by  Ananta  Bhatta, 
and  the  Champii-rdmdyana  or  Bhoja-champii^  in  five  books,  by 
BhojarJja  (or  Vidarbharaja)  Pandita,  being  popular  abstracts  of 
the  two  great  epics. 

Very  similar  in  character  to  the  artificial  epics  are  the  panegyrics, 
ooniposed  by  court  poets  in  honour  of  their  patrons.  SucTi  pro- 
ductions were  probably  very  numerous ;  but  only  two  of  any  special 
interest  are  hitherto  known,  viz.,  iho  iH-Haraha-thirita,  composed 
in  ornate  piose,  by  Bana,  in  honour  of  Sllldjtya  Harshavarahana 
(c.  610-650  A.D.)  of  K.anyakubja  (Kanauj),  and  the  Fikramdnka- 
charila,^  written  by  the  Kashmir  poet  Bilhana,  about  10S5,  in 
honour  of  his  patron,  the  Chahikya  king  Vikramaditya  of  Kalyana, 
regarding  the  history  of  whose  dynasty  the  work  supplies  much 
valuable  information.  In  this  place  may  also  be  mentioned,  as 
composed  in  accordance  with  the  Hindu  poetic  canon,  the  lidja- 
tarangint,'  or  chronicle  of  tlie  kings  of  Kashmir,  the  only  important 

^  Edited,  with  a  Latin  transl.,  by  F.  Stenzler;  also  text,  and  com- 
mentary, by  S.  P.  Pandit. 

-  Text  and  Latin  transl.  published  by  F.  Stenzler  :  an  En^'lish 
transl.  by  E.  T.  H.  Griffith.  ' 

^  Text,  with  comm.  and  Latin  transl,,  edited  by  F,  Benary;  Engh 
transL,  in  verse,  by  Dr  Taylor, 

■*  Editions  of  this  and  the  three  following  poerus  have  been  pub- 
lished in  India. 

'  Bhao  Daji,  in  his  paper  on  KJliJasa,  calls  M.%?ha  "  a  contem- 
porary of  the  Bhoja  of  the  11th  century."         '  Edited  by  G.  Biihler. 

'.Published  at  Calcutta;  also,  with  a  French  transl.,  by  A.  Troyer. 


historical  work  in  the  Sanskrit  language,  though  even  here  con' 
siderable  allowance  has  to  be  made  for  poetic  licence  and  fancy 
The  work  was  composed  by  the  Kashmirian  poet  Kalhasa,  about 
1150,  and  was  afterwards  continued  by  three  successive  8upple-« 
ments,  bringing  down  the  history  of  Kashmir  to  the  time  of  the 
emperor  Akbar.  Unfortunately  the  two  existing  editions  were 
prepared  from  very  imperfect  AIS.  materials  ;  but  Dr  Biihler'a 
discovery  of  new  SISS.,  as  well  as  of  some  of  the  works  on  which 
Kalhana's  poem  is  based,  ought  to  enable  the  native  scholar  (Prof. 
Bhandarkar)  who  has  undertaken  a  new  edition  to  put  the  text  in 
a  more  satisfactory  condition. 

i.  The  Drama. — The  early  history  of  the  Indian  drama  Drams, 
is  enveloped  in  obscurity.  The  Hindus  themselres  ascribe 
the  origin  of  dramatic  representation  to  the  sage  Bharata, 
who  is  fabled  to  have  lived  in  remote  antiquity,  and  to 
have  received  this  science  directly  from  the  god  Brahman, 
by  whom  it  was  extracted  from  the  Veda.  The  term 
bharata — (!)  i.e.,  one  who  is  kept,  o^ofie  who  sustains  (a 
part) — also  signifies  "an  actor";  but  it  is  doubtful  which 
of  the  two  is  the  earlier, — the  appellative  use  of  the  word, 
or  the  notion  of  an  old  teacher  of  the  dramatic  art  bearing 
that  name.  On  the  other  hand,  there  still  exists  an 
extensive  work,  in  epic  verse,  on  rhetoric  and  dramaturgy, 
entitled  Ndtya-Mstra,  and  ascribed  to  Bharata.  But, 
though  this  is  probably  the  oldest  theoretic  work  on  the 
subject  that  has  come  down  to  us,  it  can  hardly  be  referred 
to  an  earlier  period  than  several  centuries  after  the  Chris- 
tian era.  Not  improbably,  however,  this  work,  which  pre- 
supposes a  fully  developed  scenic  art,  had  an  origin  similar 
to  that  of  some  of  the  metrical  law-books,  which  are  generally 
supposed  to  be  popular  and  improved  editions  of  older 
sutra-works.  We  know  that  such  treatises  existed  at  the 
time  of  Panini,  as  he  mentions  two  authors  of  Nata-suiras, 
or  "rules for  actors,"  viz.,  Silalin  and  Krisasva.  Now,  the 
words  nata  and  ndtya — as  well  as  7uttaka,  the  common 
term  for  "  drama  " — being  derived  from  the  root  nat  (tiart} 
"to  dance,"  seem  to  point  to  a  pantomimic  or  choral 
origin  ■  of  the  dramatic  art.  It  might  appear  doubtful, 
therefore,  in  the  absence  of  any  clearer  definition  in 
Panini's  grammar,  whether  the  "  actors'  rules  "  he  mentions 
did  not  refer  to  mere  pantomimic  performances.  Fortun- 
ately, however,  Patanjali,  in  his  "great  .commentary," 
speaks  of  the  actor  as  singing,  and  of  people  going  "to 
hear  the  actor."-  Nay,  he  even  mentions  two  subjects, 
taken  from  the  cycle  of  Vishnu  legends — viz.,  the  slaying  ' 

of  Kanisa  (by  Krishna)  and  the  binding  of  Bali  (by 
Vishnu) — which  were  represented  on  the  stage  both  by 
mimic  action  and  declamation.  Judging  from  these  allu- 
sions, theatrical  entertainments  in  those  days  seem  to  have 
been  very  much  on  a  level  with  our  old  religious  spectacles 
or  mysteries,  though  there  may  already  have  been  some 
simple  kinds  of  secular  plays  which  Patanjali  had  no  occa- 
sion to  mention.  It  is  not,  however,  till  some  five  or  six: 
centuries  later  that  we  meet  with  the  first  real  dramas, 
which  mark  at  the  same  time  the  very  culminating  point  of 
Indian  dramatic  composition.  In  this,  as  in  other  depart- 
ments of  literature,  the  earlier  works  have  had  to  make. way 
for  later  and  more  perfect  productions  ;  and  no  trace  now 
remains  .of  the  intermediate  phases  of  development. 

Here,  however,  the  problem  presents  itself  as  to 
whether  the  existing  dramatic  literature  has  naturally 
grown  out  of  such  popular  religious  performances  as  are 
alluded  to  by  Patanjali,  or  whether  some  foreign  influence 
has  intervened  at  some  time  or  other  and  given  a  different 
direction  to  dramatic  composition.  The  question  has  been 
argued  both  for  and  against  the  probability  of  Greek 
influence ;  but  it  must  still  be  considered  as  sub  judice. 
There  are  doubtless  some  curious  points  of  resemblance 
between  the  Indian  drama  and  the  Modern  Attic  (and 
Roman)  "comedy,  viz.,  the  prologue,  the  occasional 
occurrence  of  a  token  of  recognition,  and  a  certain  corre- 
spondence  of   characteristic  stage  figures  (especially  the 


ilTEEtTTTRB-J 


S  A  :N   !S  K  E  1  T 


285 


Vidiisbaka,  or  jocose  companion  of  the  hero,  presenting  a 
certain  analogy  to  the  servus  of  the  Roman  stage,  as  does 
the  Vita  of  some  plays  to  the  Roman  parasite) — for  which 
the  assumption  of  some  acquaintance  with  the  Greek 
comedy  on  the  part  of  the  earlier  Hindu  writers  would 
afford  a  ready  "explanation.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
differences  between  the  Indian  and  Greek  plays  are 
perhaps  even  greater  than  their  coincidences,  which, 
moreover,  are  scarcely  close  enough  to  warrant  our  calling 
in  question  the  originality  of  the  Hindus  in  this  respect. 
Certain,  however,  it  is  that,  if  the  Indian  poets  were 
indebted  to  Greek  playwrights  for  the  first  impulse  in 
dramatic  composition,  in  the  higher  sense,  they  have 
inown  admirably  how  to  adapt  the  Hellenic  muse  to  the 
national  genius,  and  have  produced  a  dramatic  literature 
worthy  to  be  ranked  side  by  side  with  both  the  classical 
and  our  own  romantic  drama.  It  is  to  the  latter 
especially  that  the  general  character  of  the  Indian  play 
presents  a  striking  resemblance,  -much  more  so  than  to  the 
classical  drama.  The  Hindu  dramatist  has  little  regard 
for  the  "unities  "  of  the  classical  stage,  though  he  is 
hardly  ever  guilty  of  extravagance  ,in  his  disregard  of 
them.  The  dialogue  is  invariably  carried  on  in  prose, 
plentifully  interspersed  with  those  neatly  turned  lyrical 
stanzas  in  which  the  Indian  poet  delights  to  depict  some 
natural  scene,  or  some  temporary  physical  or  mental  con- 
dition. The  most  striking  feature  of  the  Hindu  play, 
Wwever,  is  the  mixed  nature  of  its  language.  While 
the  hero  and  leading  male  characters  speak  Sanskrit, 
women  and  inferior  male  characters  use  various  Prakrit 
dialects.  As  regards  these  dialectic  varieties,  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  at  the  time  when  they  were  first  employed 
in  this  way  they  were  local  vernacular  dialects ;  but  in 
the  course  of  the  development  of  the  scenic  art  they 
"became  permanently  fixed  for  special  dramatic  purposes, 
just  as  the  Sanskrit  had,  long  before  that  time,  become 
fixed  for  general  literary  purposes.  Thus  it  would  happen 
that  these  Prakrit  dialects,  having  once  become  stationary, 
soon  diverged  from  the  spoken  vernaculars,  until  the 
difference  between  them  was  as  great  as  between  the 
Sanskrit  and  the  Prakrits,  As  regards  the  .  general 
character  of  the  dramatic  Prakrits,  they  are  somewhat  more 
removed  from  the  Sanskrit  type  than  the  Pali,  the  language 
of  the  Buddhist  canon,  which  again  is  in  a  rather  more 
advanced  state  than  the  language  of  the  A^oka  inscriptions 
(c.  250  B.C.).  And,  as  the  Buddhist  sacred  books  were 
committed  to  writing  about  80  B.C.,  the  state  of  their 
language  is  attested  for  that  period  at  latest ;  while  the 
grammatical  fixation  of  the  scenic  Prfikrits  has  probably 
to  be  referred  to  the  early  centuries  of  our  era. 

The  existing  dramatic  literature  is  not  very  extensive.  The 
number  o(  plays  of  all  kinds  of  any  literary  value  will  scarcely 
nimmnt  to  fifty.  The  reason  for  this  paucity  of  dramatic  produc- 
tions doubtless  is  that  they  appealed  to  the  tastes  of  only  a  limited 
class  of  highly  cultivated  peisoiis,  and  were  in  consequence  but 
seldom  acted.  As  regards  the  theatrical  entertainments  of  the 
common  people,  their  standard  seems  never  to  have  risen  much 
above  the  level  of  the  religious  spectacles  mentioned  by  Patanjali. 
Such  at  least  ia  evidently  the  case  as  regards  the  modern  Bengali 
ji'ras — described  by  \V.ilson  as  exhibitions  of  some  incidents  in 
the  youthful  life  of  KrisJuia,  maintained  in  extempore  dialogue, 
interspersed  with  popular  songs — as  well  as  the  similar  nUas  of 
tlic  western  provinces,  al^d  the  rough  and  ready  performances 
of  the  Uianrs,  or  professional  buffoons.  Of  the  religious  drama 
Sanskrit  literature  ofTers  but  one  example,  viz.,  the  famous 
C'itagovindn,^  composed  by  Jayadcva  in  the  12th  century.  It  is 
rather  a  mytho-lyrical  poem,  ^Ahich,  however,  in  the  opinion  of 
Lassen,  may  be  considered  as  a  modern  and  refined  specimen  of 
the  early  form  of  dramatic  composition.  The  subject  of  the  poem 
is  as  follows: — Krishna,  while  leading  a  cowherd's  life  in  Vrin- 
davan.i,  is  in  love  with'  R'ldhi,  the  milkmaid,  but  has  been  faith- 
less to  her  for  a  while.     Presently,  however,   ho   returns  to  her 


*  Ed,,  with  a  Latin  traiutl.,  by  C.  Las.<;cn;  Eugl.  transl.  by  E.  Arnold. 


"whose  image  has  all  the  while  lingered  in  his  breast,"  and  after 
much  earnest  entreaty  obtains  her  forgiveness.  The  emotions 
appropriate  to  these  situations  are  expressed  by  the  two  lovers  and  a 
friend  of  Radha  in  melodious  and  passionate  stanzas  of  great  poetic 
beauty.  Like  the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  GItagovinda,  moreover,  is 
supposed  by  the  Hindu  commentators  to  admit  of  a  mystic  inter- 
pretation ;  for,  "as  Krishna,  faithless  for  a  time,  discovers  tue 
vanity  of  all  other  loves,  and  returns  with  sorrow  and  longing  to 
his  own  darling  Radha,  so  the  human  soul,  after  a  brief  and 
frantic  attachment  to  objects  of  sense,  burns  to  return  to  the  ^ot 
from  whence  it  came"  (Griffith). 

The  MrichchkaJcatikd,"  or  "  earthen  toy-cart,"  is  by  traa.non  Sfluraxa* 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  existing  dramas  ;  and  a  certain  clumsiness 
of  construction  seems  indeed  to  justify  this  distinction.  Accord- 
ing to  several  stanzas  in  the  prologue,  "the  play  was  coniposed  by  a 
king  Sudraka,  who  is  there  stated  to  have,  through  Siva's  favour, 
recovered  his  eyesight,  and,  after  seeing  his  son  as  kijig,  to  have 
died  at  the  ripe  age  of  a  hundred  years  and  ten  days.  Accord- 
ing to  the  same  stanzas,  the  piece  was  enacted  after  the  king's 
death;  but  it  is  probable  that  they  were  added  for  a  subsequent 
jierformance.  In  Bana's  novel  Kddambcfjt  {c.  630  A.D.),  a  king 
Sudraka,  probably  the  same,  is  represented  as  having  resided  at 
Ridisa  (Bhilsa)— some  130  miles  east  of  Ujjayini  (Ujjain),  where 
the  scene  of  the  play  is  laid.  Charudatta,  a  Brahman  merchant, 
reduced  to  poverty,  and  Vasantasena,  an  accomplished  courtezan, 
meet  and  fall  in  love  with  each  other.  This  forms  the  main  story, 
which  is  interwoven  with  a  political  underplot,  resulting  in  a 
change  of  dynasty.  The  connexion  between  the  two  plots  is 
effected  by  means  of  the  king's  rascally  brother-in-law,  who  pur- 
sues Vasantasena  with  his  addresses,  as  well  as  by  the  part  of  the 
rebellious  cowlicrd  Aryaka,  who,  having  escaped  from  prison,  finds 
shelter  in  the  hero's  house.  The  wicked  prince,  on  being  rejected, 
strangles  Vasantasena,  and  accuses  Charudatta  of  having  murdered 
her  ;  but,  just  as  the  latter  is  about  to  be. executed,  his  lady  love 
appears  again  on  the  scene.  Meanwhile  Aryaka  has  succeeded  in 
depoSitig  the  king,  and,  having  himself  mounted  the. .throne  of 
Ujjain,  he  raises  Vasantasena  to  the  position  of  an  honest  woman, 
to  enable  her  to  become  the  wife  of  Charudatta.  The  jilay  is  one 
of  the  longest,  consisting  of  not  less  than  ten  acts,  some  of  which, 
however,  are  very  short.  The  interest  of  the  action  is,  on  the 
whole,  well  sustained ;  and,  altogether,  the  piece  presents  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  social  manners  of  the  time. 

In  Kalidasa  (?  c.  C50  a.d.)  the  dramatic  art  attained  its  highest  Kdlidaaa; 
point  of  perfection.  From  this  accomplished  poet  we  have  three 
well-constructed  plays,  abounding  in  stanzas  of  exquisite  tenderness 
and  fine  de.'icriptive  passages,  viz.,  the  two  well-known  mytho- 
pastoral  dramas,  SaJcuntald  in  seven  and  Vikramoriaii'^  in  five  acts, 
and  a  piece  of  court  intrigue,  distinctly  inferior  to  the  other  two, 
entitled  Mdlavikdgnimilra^*  in  five  acts.  King  Agnimitra,  who 
has  two  wives,  falls  in  love  with  MAlavika,  maid  to  the  first  queen. 
His  wives  endeavour  to  frustrate  their  aiTection  for  each  other,  but 
in  the  end  Malavika  turns  out  to  be  a  princess  by  birth,  and  is 
accepted  by  the  queens  as  their  sister. 

In  the  prologue  to  this  play,  Kalidisa  mentions  BhSsa  and 
Saumilla  as  his  predecessors  in  dramatic  composition.  Of  the 
former  poet  some  six  or  seven  stanzas  have  been  gathered  from 
anthologies  by  Prof.  Aufrecht,  who  has  also  brought  to  light  one 
fine  stanza  ascribed  to  Ramila  and  Sanmila. 

Sri  Harsha-deva — whom  Pr  F.  Hall  has  proved  to  be  identical  Rarsha- 
with  King  Siladitya  Harshavardhana  of  Kanyakubja  (Kanauj),  deva. 
who  reigned  in  the  first  half  of  the  7th  century — has  three  plays 
attributed  to  him.  Most  likely,  however,  he  did  not  write  any  of 
them  himself,  but  they  were  only  dedicated  to  him  as  the  patron 
of  their  authors.  Such  at  least  seems  to  have  been  the  case  as 
regards  the  Jlalndvali,^  which  was  probably  composed  by  Bana. 
It  is*a  graceful  drama  of  genteel  domestic  manners,  in  four  acts,  of 
no  very  great  originality,  the  author  having  been  largely  indebted 
to  Kalidasa "s  plays.  Ratnavali,  a  Ceylon  princess,  is  sent  by  her 
fatlier  to  the  court  of  King  Vatsa  to  become  his  second  wife.  Slie 
Buffers  shipwreck,  but  is  rescued  and  received  into  Vatsa's  palace 
as  ouc  of  queen  Vasavadatta's  attendants.     The  king  falls  in  love 


-  Edited  by  F.  Stenzler,  translated  by  H.  H.  Wilson;  German  by 
O.  BohtUngk  and  L.  Fritze ;  French  by  P.  Regniud. 

'  Both  these  plays  are  known  in  different  ruci-iiilons  in  different  parts 
of  Iniiia.  Tlie  Bcnc^ali  recension  of  tlic  Sahmtild  wa?  translated  by 
Sir  \V.  Jones,  and  into  French,  with  the  text,  by  Chezy,  and  again 
edited  critically  by  K,  Pischel,  who  has  also  advocated  its  greater 
antiquity.  Kditious  and  translations  of  the  western  fDcvan;lgari)  re- 
cension have  been  published  by  0.  Bohtlingk  and  Mon.  Williams.  The 
Vik-ramorvaii  lias  been  edited  critically  by  S.  P.  Pandit,  and  tho 
southern  text  by  R.  Pi&chel,  It  has  been  tianslated  by  H.  U.  Wilson 
and  K.  B.  Cowcll, 

*  Edited  critically  hy  S.  P.  Pandit ;  transl.  by  C.  H..Tawncy,  and 
previously  into  German  by  A.  Weber. 

*  Edited  by  Taranatha  Tarkavuchaspati,  and  by  C.  Cappeller'ir 
Buhtlingk'a  'Sanskrit'Vhresiomathic  ;  translated  by  H.  H.  WilsoD 


286 


SANSKRIT 


[UTERATUXE^ 


"vriih  her,  and  the  queen  tries  to  keep  them  apart  from  each  other  ; 
but,  on  learning  the  maiden's  origin,  she  becomes  reconciled,  and 
recognizes  her  as  a  "sister."  According  to  H.  H.  Wilson,  "the 
manners  depictured  are  not  Influenced  by  lofty  principle  or  pro- 
found reflexion,  but  they  are  mild,  affectionate,  and  elegant.  It 
«nay  be  doubted  whether  the  harams  of  other  eastern  nations,  either 
in  ancient>or  modern  times,  would  afford  materials  for  as  favourable 
a  delineation."  Very  similar  in  construction,  but  distinctly  in- 
ferior, is  the  Priyadariikd,  in  four  acts,  lately  published  in  India, 
having  for  its  plot  another  amour  of  the  same  king.  The  scene 
of  the  third  play,  the  Ndgdnanda,'^  or  "joy  of  the  serpents"  (in 
five  acts),  on  the  other  hand,  is  laid  in  semi-divine  regions. 
Jirndtavahana,  a  prince  of  the  Vidyudharas,  imbued  with  Buddhist 
principles,  weds  JIalayavati,  daughter  of  the  king  of  the  Siddhas, 
a  votary  of  Gauri  (Siva's  wife).  But,  learning  that  Garuda,  the 
mythic  bird,  is  in  the  habit  of  consuming  one  snake  daily,  he 
resolves  to  offer  himself  to  the  bird  as  a  vii^tim,  and  finally  succeeds 
in  converting  Garuda  to  the  principle  of  ahirnsa,  or  abstention 
from  doing  injury  to  living  beings  ;  but  he  himself  is  about  to 
succumb  from  the  wounds  he  has  received,  when,  through  the 
timely  intervention  of  ihe  goddess  Gauri,  he  is  restored  to  his 
former  condition.  The  piece  seems  to  have  been  intended  as  a 
compromise  between  Brahmanical  (Saiva)  and  Buddhist  doctrines, 
being  thus  in  -keeping  with  the  religious  views  of  king  Harsha, 
wlio,  as  we  know  from  Hwen-tsang,  favoured  Buddhism,  but  was 
very  tolerant  to  Brahmans.  It  begins  with  a  benedictory  stanza 
to  Buddha,  and  concludes  with  one  to  GaurL  The  author  is  gene- 
rally believed  to  have  been  a  Buddhist,  but  it  is  more  likely  that 
hu  was  a  Saiva  Brahman,  possibly  Bana  himself.  Nay,  one  might 
almost  feel  inclined  to  take  the  hero's  self-sacrifice  in  favour  of  a 
Naga  as  a  travesty  of  Buddhist  principles. 
Bhava-  Bhavabhuti,  sumamed  Sri-kantha,  "  whose  throat  is  beauty 
ihuti,  (eloquence),"  was  a  native  of  Padmapura  in  the  Vidarbha  country 
(the  Bcrar^),  being  the  son  of  the  Brahman  Nilakantha,  and  his 
wife  Jatiikarni.  He  is  said  to  have  passed  his  literary  life  at  the 
court  of  Yaiovarman  of  Kanauj,  who  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  7th  and  beginning  of  the  8th  century. 
Bhavabhuti  waa  the  author  of  three  plays,  two  of  which,  tha 
Mahdvirackarita^  ("life  of  the  great  hero")  and  the  Uttararlma- 
c/tariVa^  ("later  life  of  Rama"),  in  seven  acts  each,  form  together 
a  dramatized  version  of  the  story'of  the  Rdmdyana.  The  third, 
the  Mdlatt-mddhova*  is  a  domestic  drama  in  ten  acts,  representing 
the  fortunes  of  Madhava  and  ilalati,  the  son  and  daughter  of  two 
ministers  of  neighbouring  kings,  who  from  childhood  have  been 
destined  for  each  other,  but,  by  the  resolution  of  the  maiden's 
royal  master  to  marry  her  to  an  old  and  ugly  favourite  of  his, 
are  for  a  while  threatened  with  permanent  separation.  The  action 
of  the  play  is  full  of  life,  and  abounds  in^  stirring,  though  some- 
times improbable,  incidents.  The  poet  is  considered  by  native 
pandits  to  be  not  only  not  inferior  to  Kalidasa,  but  even  to  have 
surpassed  him  in  his  UttarardmacJiarita.  But,  though  he  ranks 
deservedly  high  as  a  lyric  poet,  he  is  far  inferior  to  Kalidasa  as  a 
dramatic  artist.  .  Whilst  the  latter  delights  in  depicting  the 
gentler  feelings  and  tender  emotions  of  the  human  heart  and  the 
peaceful  scenes  of  rural  life,  the  younger  poet  finds  a  peculiar 
attraction  in  the  sterner  and  more  imposing  aspects  of  nature  and 
the  human  character.  Bhavabhfiti's  language,  though  polished 
and  felicitous,  is  elaborate  and  artificial  compared  with  that  of 
Kalidasa,  and  his  genius  is  sorely  shackled  by  a  slavish  adherence 
to  the  arbitrary  rules  of  dramatic  theorists. 
Bhattji  Bhatta  Narayana,  surnamed  Mrigaraja  or  Siinha,  "tlie  lion," 
Nai-a-  the  author  of  the  Vmisamkdra^  (the  seizing  by  the  braid  of 
yana.  hair"),  is  a  poet  of  uncertain:  date.  Tradition  makes  him  one  of 
the  five  Kanauj  Brahmans  whom  king  Adisiira  of  Bengal,  desirous- 
of  establishing  the  pure  Vaishnava  doctrine,  invited  to  his  court, 
and  from  whom  the  modern  Bengali  Brahmans  are  supposed  to  be 
tlescended.  The  date  of  that  evunt,  however,  is  itself  doubtful; 
while  a  modern  genealogical  work  fixes  it  at  1077,  Lassen  refers  it 
to  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century  and  Grill  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  6th.  If  it  could  be  proved  that  the  poet  is  identical  with  the 
Narayana  whom  Bana  (c.  630)  mentions  as  being  his  friend,  the 
Ijuestion  would  be  aettled.in  favour  of  th&  earlier  calculatiohs.  The 
tplay,  consisting  of  six  acts,  is  founded  on  the  story  of  the  Mahdhhd- 
rata,  and  takes  its  title  from  the  insult  offered  to  Draupadi  by  one 
of  the  Kaurava  princes,  who,  when  she  had  been  lost  at  dice  by 
Yudhishthira,  dragged  her  by  the  hair  into  the  assembly.  The 
piece  is  composed  in  a  style  similar  to  that  of  Bhavabhuti's  plays, 
though  less  polished,  and  inferior  to  them  in  dramatic  construction 
and  poetic  merit. 

^  Edited  by  Madhava  Chandra  Ghosha,  and  translated  by  P.  Boyd, 
with  a  preface  by  E.  B.  Cowell. 

2  Edited  by  F.  fi.  Trithen  (1848),  and  twice  at  Calcutta ;  trans" 
Jated  by  J.  Pickford 

3  Edited  at  Calcutta ;  transl.  -by  H.  H.  Wilson  and  C.  H.  Tawne.y. 
<  Eiited  by  R.  G.  Bhandarkar,^1^7^6 ;  translated  by  H.  H.  Wilaon. 
•  JCmteii  b^  J;  firillj  1871.    ' 


The  Uamcman-ndfnJca  is  a  dramatized  version  of  the.  story  of. 
Eama,  interspersed  with  numerous  purely  descii^»tive  poetic  pas-j 
sages.  It  consists  of  fourteen  acts,  and  on  account  of  its  length  is: 
also  called  the  Mahd-ndtaka,  or  great  dran^a.  Tradition  relates! 
that  it  was  composed  by  Hanuman,  the  monkey  general,  andl 
insoriDed  on  rocks  ;  but,  Yalmiki,  the  author  of  the  Jtdmdi/ayia, 
being  afraid  lest  it  njight  throw  his  own  poem  into  the  ^hade, 
Hanuman  allowed  him  to  cast  his  verses  into  the  sea.  Thence 
fragments  were'  ultimately  picked  up  by  a  merchant,  and  brought 
to  King  Bhoja,  who  directed  the  poet  Damodara  Miira  to  put  them 
together,  and  fill  up  the  lacunce  ;  whence  the-  present  composition 
originated.  Whatever  particle  of  truth  there  loay  be  in  this  story, 
the  "great  drama**  seems  certainly  to  be  the  production  of  different 
hands.  "The  language,"  as  Wilson  remarks,  "is  in  general  very 
harmonious,  but  the  work  is  after  all  a  most  disjointed  and  non- 
descript composition,  and  the  patchwork  is  very  glaringly  and 
clumsily  put  together."  It  is  nevertheless  a  work  of  some  interest, 
as  compositions  of  mixed  dramatic  and  declamatory  passages  of  this 
kind  may  have  been  common  in  the  early  stages  of  the  dramatic 
art.  The  connexion  of  the  poet  with  King  Bhoja,  also  confirmed 
by  iheBkoJa-prabandka,  would  bring  the  composition,  or  final  redac- 
tion, down  to  about  the  10th  or  11th  century.  There  are,  however, 
two  different  recensions  of  the  work,  a  shorter  one  commented  upon 
by  Mohanadasa,  and  a  longer  one  arranged  by  Madhusiidana.  A 
Damodara  Gupta  is  mentioned  as  having  lived  under  Jayapida  oi 
Kashmir  (755-86);  but  this  can  scarcely  be  the  same  author. 

The  MudrdrdJcshasa,^  or  "Rakshasa  (the  minister)  with  the 
signet,"  is  a  drama  of  political  intrigue,  in  seven  acts,  partly  based 
on  historical  events,  the  plot  turning  on  the  reconciliation  oi 
Rakshasa,  the  minister  of  the  murdered  king  Nanda,  with  the  hostile^ 
party,  consisting  of  prince  Chandragupta  (the  Greek  Sandrocottusj 
315-291  B.C.),  who  succeeded  Nanda,  and  his  minister  Chanakyaif 
The  plot  is  developed  with  considerable  dramatic  skill,  in  vigorous^ 
if  not  particularly  elegant,  language.  The  play  was  composed  by 
Viiakhadatta,  prior,  at  any  rate,  to  the  11th  century,  but  perhaps 
as  early  as  the  7th  or  8th  century,  as  Buddhism  is  referred  to  in  iti 
in  rather  complimentary  terms.  \ 

The  Prahodha'ChandrodayaJ  or  "the  moon-rise  of  intelligence," 
composed  by  Krishnami^ra  about  the  12th  century,  is  an  allegorical 
play,  in  six  acts,  the  dramatis  pcrsonse  of  which  consist  entirely  of 
abstract  ideas,  divided  into  two  conflicting  hosts.  3 

Of  numerous  inferior  dramatic  compositions  we  may  mention  as 
the  best — the  Anarghya-rdghava^hj  Murari;  the  Bdla-rdrndyana^ 
one  of  six  plays  (three  of  which  are  known)  by  Rajasekhara ;  and 
the  Prasaniia-rdghavaf  by  Jayadeva,  the  author  of  the  rhetorical 
treatise  Chaiidrdloka.  Abstracts  of  a  number  of  other  pieces  are 
given  in  H,  H.  Wilson's  ^in^^w  Theatre,  the  standard  work  on  this 
subject.  The  dramatic  genius  of  the  Hindus  may  be  said  to  have 
exhausted  itself  about  the  14th  century. 

5.  Lyrical^  Descriptive^  and  Didactic  Poetry. — We  have  Lyric 
already  alluded  to  the  marked  predilection  of  the  mediaeval  po^trYS 
Indian  post  for  depicting  in  a  single  stanza  some  peculiar 
physical  or  mental  situation.  The  profane  lyrical  poetry 
consists  chiefly  of  such  little  poetic  pictures,  which  form  a 
prominent  feature  of  dramatic  compositions.  Numerousi 
poets  and  poetesses  are  only  knovm  to  us  through  such  de- 
tached stanzas,  preserved  in  native  anthologies  or  manuals 
of  rhetoric.  Thus  the  Sadul-tikarndmrita,^  or  "  ear- 
arabrosia  of  good  sayings,"  an  anthology  compiled  by 
Sridhara  Dasa  in  1205,  contains  verses  by  four  hundred 
and  forty-six  different  writers;  while  the  Sdrngadhara-. 
paddhatij  another  anthology,  of  the  14th  century,  contains 
some  6000  verses  culled  from  two  hundred  and  sixty-four 
different  writers  and  works.  These  verses  are  either  of  a 
purely  descriptive  or  of  an  erotic  character;  or  they  have 
a  didactic  tendency,  being  intended  to  convey,  in  an 
attractive  and  easily  remembered  form,  some  moral  truth 
or  useful  counsel.  An  excellent  specimen  of  a  longer  poem, 
^f  a  partly  descriptive  partly  erotic  character,  is  Kalidasa 's 
Megha^ittap  or  *'cloud  messenger,"  in  which  a  vanished 
Yaksha  (demi-god)  sends  a  love-message  across  India  to  his 
wife  in  the  Himalaya,  and  describes,  in  verse-pictures,  the 
various  places  and  objects  over  which  the  messenger,  a 

«  Edited  (Bombay,  18S4)  by  K.  T.  Telang,  who  discu-sses  the  dat» 
of  the  work  in  his  preface. 

.     '  Translated  by  J.  Taylor,  1810  ;  by  T.  Goldstiicker  into  German, 
1842.     Edited  iy  H.  Brockhaus,  1845.  ^ 

*  RajendralSla  Mitra,  Notices,  iii.  p.  134. 

*  Text  and  transl.,  by  H.    H.  "Wilson;   with  vocabulary,  by      . 
ii  Johnson.  ' 


UTEKATUEE.] 


S  A  N  S  K  E  I  T 


'287 


cloud,  will  have  to  sail  in  his  airy  voyage.  This  little 
masterpiece  has  called  forth  a  number  of  more  or  less  suc- 
cessful imitations,  such  as  Lakshmidisa's  Suka-sandesa,  or 
"  parrot-message,"  lately  edited  by  the  maharaja  of  Tra van- 
core.  Another  much  admired  descriptive  poem  by  Kalidasa 
is  the  jRiiu-sanihdra,^  or  "collection  of  the  seasons,"  in 
which  the  attractive  features  of  the  six  seasons  are  suc- 
cessively set  forth. 

As  regards  religious  lyrics,  the  fruit  of  sectarian 
fervour,  a  large  collection  of  hymns  and  detached  stanzas, 
extolling  some  special  deity,  might  be  made  from  Puranas 
and  other  works.  Of  independent  productions  of  this 
kind  only  a  few  of  the  more  important  can  be  mentioned 
here.  Sankaracharya,  the  great  Vedantist,  who  probably 
lived  in  the  7th  century,  is  credited  with  several  devo- 
tional poems,  especially  the  Ananda-lakart,  or  "  wave  of 
joy,"  a  hymn  of  103  stanzas,  in  praise  of  the  goddess  Par- 
vati.  The  Sdrya-sdtjfka,  or  century  of  stanzas  in  praise  of 
Silrya,  the  sun,  is  ascribed  to  Mayttra,  the  contemporary 
(and,  according  to  a  tradition^  the  father-in-law)  of  Bana 
(in  the  early  part  of  the  7th  century).  The  latter  poet 
himself  composed  the  Chandikdstotra,  a  hymn  of  102 
stanzas,  extolling  Siva's  consort.  The  Khandaprasasti,  a 
poem  celebrating  the  ten  avataras  of  Vishnu,  is  ascribed 
to  no  other  than  Hanum.an,  the  monkey  general,  himself. 
Jayadeva's  beautiful  poem  G'dac/oiinda,  which,  like  most 
productions  concerning  Krishna,  is  of  a  very  sensuous 
character,  has  already  been  referred  to. 
Didactic  The  particular  branch  of  didactic  poetry  in  which  India 
poetry,  jg  especially  rich  is  that  of  moral  maxims,  expressed  in 
single  stanzas  or  couplets,  and  forming  the  chief  vehicle  of 
the  NUi-idslra  or  ethic  science.  Excellent  collections  of 
such  aphorisms  have  been  published, — in  Sanskrit  and 
German  by  Dr  v.  Bohtlingk,  and  in  English  by  Dr  J. 
Muir.  Probably  the  oldest  original  collection  of  this  kind 
is  that  ascribed  to  Ch.tnakya, — and  entitled  Mdjanitisa- 
mwchchaya,  "  collection  on  the  conduct  of  kings  " — tradi- 
tionally connected  with  the  Machiavellian  minister  of 
Chandragupta,  but  (in  its  present  form)  doubtless  much 
later — of  which  there  are  several  recensions,  especially  a 
shorter  one  of  one  hundred  couplets,  and  a  larger  one 
of  some  three  hundred.  Another  old  collection  is  the 
Kdmandalctya-NUiadra,-  ascribed  to  KSmandaki,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  the  disciple  of  Chanakya.  Under  the 
name  of  Bhartrihari  have  been  handed  down  three  centuries 
of  sententious  couplets,  one  of  which,  the  niti-kUaka, 
relates  to  ethics,  whilst  the  other  two,  the  drine/dra-  and 
vairdgya-datakas,  consist  of  amatory  and  devotional  verses 
respectively.  The  NUi-pradlpa,  or  "lamp  of  conduct," 
consisting  of  sixteen  stanzas,  is  ascribed  to  Vetilabhatta 
who  is  mentioned  as  one  of  nine  gems  at  Vikramaditya's 
court  (c.  550  A.D.).  The  Amarii-iataka,  consisting  of  a 
hundred  stanzas,  ascribed  to  a  King  Amaru  (sometimes 
wrongly  to  Sankara),  and  the  Chaura-suraiapanchdukd,  by 
Bilhana  (11th  century),  are  of  an  entirely  erotic  character. 
Fables  6.  Fables  and  Narratives. — For  purposes  of  popular  in- 
*"_  Btruction  stanzas  of  an  ethical  import  were  early  worked 
tives.  ^P  'wi'l'  existing  prose  fables  and  popular  stories,  pro- 
bably in  imitation  of  the  Buddhist  jdlakas,  or  birth- 
stories.  A  collection  of  this  kind,  intended  as  ,a  manual 
for  the  guidance  of  princes  (in  vsu»i  dclphini),  was  trans- 
lated intoPahlavi  in  the  reign  of  the  Persian  king  Chosru 
Nushirvan,  531-579  a.d.  ;  but  neither  this  translation 
nor  the  original  is  any  longer  extant.  A  Syriac  transla- 
tion, however,  made  from  the  Pahlavi  in  the  same  century, 
under  the    title   of  "Qualilag   and  Dimnag" — from    the 

1  Tho.  first  8an»l<rit  book  published  (bjr  Sir  W.  Jones),  1792. 
Teit  »nd  Latin  t^nsl.  by  P.  v.  Bohlen.  Partly  transl.,  in  verse,  by 
.E.  T.  H.  Qriffith,  Specimens  of  Old  Indian  Por.ltu. 

>  ^ted  by  Riijeadralila  Mitra,  hiiil.  ind. 


Sanskrit  "Earataka  and  Damaroia,"  two  jackals  who 
play  an  important  part  as  thtflion's  counsellors— has 
been  discovered  and  published.  The  Sanskrit  original, 
which  probably  consisted  of  fourteen  chapters,  was  after- 
wards recast, — the  result  being  the  existing  Panchntantra,'^ 
or  "five  books"  (or  headings).  A  popular  summary  of 
this  work,  in  four  books,  the  Hitopadesa,^  or  "  Salutary 
counsel,"  is  ascribed  to  the  Brahman  Vishnusaruian. 
Other  highly  popular  collections  of  stories  and  fairy  tales, 
interspersed  with  moral  maxima,  are — the  Veldla-pan- 
chaviritsati  or  "  twenty-five  (stories)  of  the  Vetala"  (the 
original  of  theBaitdl  Pachisl),  ascribed  either  to  Jambhala 
Datta,  or  to  Sivadasa  (while  Prof.  Weber  suggests  that 
Vet.^la-bhatta  may  have  been  the  author),  and  at  all  events 
older  than  the  12th  century,  since  Somadeva  has  used  it ; 
the  Suka-saptad,  or  "  seventy  (stories  related)  by  the 
parrot,"  the  author  and  age  of  which  are  unknown  ;  and 
the  Si7)ihdsa)ia-dpdtrtm^ikd,  or  "thirty-two  (tales)  of  the 
throne,"  being  laudatory  stories  regarding  Vikramaditya, 
related  by  thirty-two  statues,  standing  round  the  old  throne 
of  that  famous  monarch,  to  King  Bhoja  of  Dharil  to  dis- 
courage him  from  sitting  down  on  it.  This  work  is  ascribed 
to  Kshemankara,  and  was  probably  composed  in  tbe  time 
of  Bhoja  (who  died  in  1053)  from  older  stories  in  the 
Maharashtra  dialect.  The  original  text  has,  however, 
undergone  many  modifications,  and  is  now  known  in  several 
different  recensions.  Of  about  the  same  date  are  two 
great  storehouses  of  fairytales,  composed  entirely  in  ^lokas, 
viz.,  the  Vrihat-kathd,  or  "great  story,"  by  Kshemendra, 
also  called  Kshemankara,  who  wrote  c.  1020-40,  under 
King  Ananta,  and  the  Kathd-sarit-sdgara,^  or  "the  ocean 
of  the  streams  of  story,"  composed  by  Somadeva,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  12th  century,  to  console  the  mother  of 
King  Harshadeva  on  her  son's  death.  Both  these  works 
are  based  on  a  work  in  the  Paisachl  dialect,  of  the  6th 
century,  viz.,  Gun.adhya's  Vrihat-kathd. 

In  higher  class  prose  works  of  fiction  the  Sanskrit 
literature  is  extremely  poor ;  and  the  few  productions  of 
this  kind  of  which  it  can  boast  are  of  a  highly  artificial 
and  pedantic  character.  These  include  the  Daiakumdro - 
charita,^  or  "  the  adventures  of  the  ten  princes,"  composed 
by  Dandin,  about  the  6th  century,  and  the  VdsavadattdJ 
by  Subandhu,  the  contemporary  of  the  poet  Bana  (c.  620), 
who  himself  ■nTOto  the  first  part  of  a  novel,  the  Kddambari,^ 
afterwards  completed  by  his  son. 

B.  Scientific  Literature. 

I.  Law  (Dhantia). — Among  the  technical  treatises  of  the  later  Ljiiil 
Vedic  period,  certain  portions  of  the  Kalpa-sfltras,  or  manuals  of 
ceremonial,  peculiar  to  particular  schools,  were  referred  to  as  the 
earliest  attempts  at  a  systematic  treatment  of  law  subjects.  These 
are  the  Dharma-sHtras,  or  "rules  of  (religious)  law,"  also  called 
Sdmaijiichdrika-stltras,  or  "rules  of  conventional  usage  (samaya- 
uchara). "  It  is  doubtful  whether  such  treatises  were  at  anytime 
quite  as  numerous  as  the  Grihyasutras,  or  rules  of  domestic  or 
family  rites,  to  which  they  are  closely  allied,  and  of  which  indeed 
they  may  originally  have  been  an  outgrowth.  That  the  number  of 
those  actually  extant  is  comparatively  small  is,  however,  chiefly 
due  to  the  fact  that  this  class  of  works  was  supplanted  by  another 
of  a  more  popular  kind,  which  covered  the  same  ground.  The 
Dharmasutras  consist  chiefly  of  strings  of  terse  rules,  containing 
the  essentials  of  the  science,  and  intended  to  be  committed  to 
memory,  and  to  bo  expounded  orally  by  the  teacher — thus  forming, 
as  it  were,  epitomes  of  class  lectures.  These  rules  are  interspersed 
with  couplets  or  "g;ithas,"  in  various  metres,  either  composed  by 
the  author  himself  or  quoted  from  elsewhere,  which  generally  give 
the  substance  of  the  preceding  rules.  One  can  well  understand 
why  such  couplets  should  gradually  have  become  more  popular,  and 


^  Edited  by  Kosegarten,  G.  Biihier,  and  F.  Kielhom;  transl.  by 
Th.  Benfey,  E.  Lancereau,  L.  Fritze. 

*  Edited  and  Transl.  by  F.  Johnson. 

'  Edited  by  II.  Drockhaua  ;  transl.  by  C.  H.  Tawney. 

'  Edited  by  H.  U.  Wilson  ;  freely  translated  by  P.  "w.  Jacob. 

'  Edited  by  F.  Hall,  BiU.  Ind. 

•  ECted  by  Slodajia  Mohana  Sarmar,  and  by  P.  Peterson. 


288 


SANSKRIT 


[litebatubb. 


«hould  ultimately  have  led  to  the  appearance  of  works  entirely 
*ionipo3ed  in  verse.  Sucli  metrical  law-books  did  spring  np  in 
large  numbers,  not  all  at  once,  but  over  a  lone  period  of  time, 
extending  probably  from  about  the  beginning  of  our  era,  or  even 
earlier,  down  to  well-nigU  tho  Mohammedan  conquest  ;  and,  as  at 
the  time  of  their  first  appearance  the  epic  impulse  was  particular]}' 
strong,  other  metres  were  entirely  discarded  for  the  epic  i^loka. 
These  works  are  the  metrical  Dharma-idstraa,  or,  ag  they  nre 
Usually  called,  the  Siariti,  "  rticollection,  tradition," — a  term 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  belonged  to  the-wbole  body  of  SiUras  (as 
opposed  to  the  Sruti,  or  revelation),  but  which  has  become  tlie 
almost  exclusive  title  of  the  versified  institutes  of  law  (and  the  few 
Dliarraasiltras  still  extant).  Of  metrical  Smritis  about  forty  are 
hitiierto  known  to  exist,  but  their  total  number  probably  amounted 
to  at  least  double  that  ligure,  though  some  of  these,  it  is  true,  are 
but  short  and  insignificant  tracts,  while  others  are  only  different 
recensions  of  one  and  the  same  work. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  of  these  works — such  as  the  Agni-, 
Varna-,  and  Vishnu- Smritis — which  are  ascribed  to  the  respective 
gods,  the  authorship  of  the  Smritis  is  attributed  to  old  rishis, 
such  as  Atri,  Kanva,  Vyasa,  Sandilya,  Bharadvaja.  It  is,  how- 
over,  extremely  doubtful  whether  in  most  cases  this  attribution  is 
not  altogether  fanciful,  or  whether,  as  a  rule,  there  really  existed 
a  traditional  connexion  between  these  works  and  their  alleged 
authors  or  schools  named  after  tliem.  The  idea,  which  Darly  sug- 
gested itself  to  Sanskrit  scholars,  that  Smritis  wliich  passed  by 
the  names  of  old  V^edic  teacliers  and  tlieir  schools  might  simjily  be 
metrical  recasts  of  the  Dharma-  (or  Grihya-)  siitras  of  these  schools, 
was  a  very  natural  one,  and,  indeed,  is  still  a  very  probable  one, 
though  the  loss  of  tlie  original  Sutras,  and  tho  modifications  and 
additions  which  the  Smritis  doubtless  underwent  in  course  of 
time,  make  it  very  diflicult  to  prove  this  point.  One  could,  how- 
ever, scarcely  account  for  the  disappearance  of  the  Dharmasiitras 
of  some  of  the  most  important  schools  except  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  given  up  in  favour  of  other  works;  and  is  It  likely  that 
thia  should  have  been  done,  unless  tiiere  was  some  guarantee  that 
the  new  works,  upon  the  whole,  embodied  the  doctrines  of  the  old 
authorities  of  the  respective  schools-  Thus,  as  regards  the  most 
important  of  tlio  Smutis,  i^Q  Mdnava-'DharmaMsira,^  there  exist 
^anu.  both,  a  Siauta-  and  a  Grihya-sutra  of  the  Manava  school  of  the 
Black  Yajiis,  but  no  such  Dharmasutra  has  hitherto  been  discovered, 
though  the  former  existence  of  such  a  work  has  been  made  all  but 
certain  by  Prof.  Biihler's  discovery  of  quotations  from  a  Manavam, 
consisting  partly  of  prose  rules,  and  partly  of  couplets,  some  of 
which  occur  literally  in  the  Manusmriti,  whilst  others  have  been 
slightly  altered  there  to  suit  later  doctrines,  or  have  been  changed 
from  the  original  trishtubh  into  the  epic  metre.  The  idea  of  an 
old  law-giver  Mann  Svayambhuva, —  sprung  from  the  self-exist- 
3nt  (svayara-bhil) "  god  Brahman, — reaches  far  back  into  Vedic 
antiquity :  he  is  mentioned  as  such  in  early  texts  ;  aud  in  Yaska's 
Nirickta  a  ^loka  occurs  giving  liis  opinion  on  a  point  of  inheritance. 
But  whether  or  not  the  Manava-DharmasCitra  embodied  what  were 
supposed  to  be  the  authoritative  precepts  of  this  sage  on  questions 
of  sacred  law  we  do  not  know  ;  nor  can  it  as  yet  be  shown  that 
the  Manusmriti,  \vhich  seems  itself  to  have  undergone  considerable 
modifications,  is  the  lineal  descendant  of  that  l)harmasutra.  It 
is,  howevej*,  worthy  of  note  that  a  very  close  connexion  exists 
between  the  Manusmriti  and  the  Vishnusastra  ;  and,  as  the  latter 
ss  most  likely  a  modern,  only  partially  remodelled,  edition  of  the 
Sutras  of  the  Black  Yajus  school  of  the  Kathas,  the  close  relation 
between  the  two  works  would  be  easily  understood,  if  it  could  be 
shown  that  the  Manusmriti  is  a  modern  development  of  the 
Sutras  of  another  school  of  the  Charaka  division  of  tho  Black 
Yajurveda, 

The  SXunava  Dharmasastra  consists  of  twelve  books,  the  first 
and  last  of  which,  treating  of  creation,  transmigration,  and  final 
beatitude,  are,  however,  generally  regarded  as  later  additions.  In 
them  the  legendary  sage  Bhrigu,  here  called  a  Manava,  is  inti'o- 
aluced  as  Manu's  disciple,  througli  whom  the  great  teacher  has  his 
work  promulgated.  Why  this  intermediate  agent  should  have 
Ijeeu  considered  necessary  is  by  no  means  clear.  Except  in  these 
two  books  the  work  shows  no  special  relation  to  Mann,  for, 
tho!'.'/h  he  is  occasianally  referred  to  in  it,  the  same  is  done  iu 
other  Smritis.  Tho  question  as  to  the  probable  date  of  the 
final  redaction  of  the  wc*k  cannot  as  yet  be  answered.  Dr  BurneU 
has  tried  to  show  that  it  was  probably  composed  under  the 
Chalukya  king  Pnlake^i,  about  500  a.d.  ,  but  hia  argumentation 
is  anything  but  convincing.  From  several  ilokas  quoted  from 
J  lanu  by  Vanthamihira,  in  the  6th  century,  it  wonld  appear  that 
■the  text  which  the  great  astronomer  had  before  him  dilfered  very 
considerably  from  our  Manusmriti.  It  is,  however,  possible  that 
ho  referred  either  to  the  Brihat-Manu  (Great  M.)  or  the  Vriddha- 

J  1  The  standard  edition  la  by  G.  C.  Haughton,  with  Sir  W.  Jones's  translation, 
i;':?S;  the  latest  translaLions  by  A.  BurneU  and  G.  BUhler.  There  is  also  a 
c.itical  essay  oa  the  work  by  F.  Johiintgen.  On  tho  relation  between  the 
I>hannastUiaj  and  Smvltla  see  eflueclaUy  West  and  BttWer,  Bigeit  ofSiTtdu  Late, 
Stt  rid..  L  ■>:  57  #g. 


Manu  (Old  M. ),  who  are  often  found  quoted,  and  apparently 
represent  one,  if  not  two,  larger  recensions  of  the  Smriti.  The 
oldest  existing  commentary  on  the  Mdnava- Dkarvia&dkra  is  by 
Medhatithi,  who  is  first  quoted  in  1200,  and  is  usually  supposed 
to  have  Hved  in  the  9th  or  10th  century.  He  had,  however, 
several  predecessors  to  whom  he  refers  as  pHrve,  "the  former 
ones." 

Next  in  importance  among  Smritis  ranks  the  Ydjnavalkya  YAjna' 
Dhqrviaidstra.-  Its  origin  and  date  are  not  less  uncertain, — except  v;!kJ^ 
that,  in  the  opinion  of  Prof.  Stenzler,  which  has  never  been  ques- 
tioned, it  is  based  on  the  Manusmriti,  and  represents  a  moro 
advanced  stage  of  legal  theory  and  definiti9n  than  that  work 
Yajnavalkya,  as  we  have  seen,  ip  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of 
the  Vajasaneyins  or  White  Yajus,  and  the  author  of  the  Satapatha- 
brahmana.  In  the  latter  work  he  is  represented  as  having  passed 
some  time  at  the  court  of  King  Janaka  of  Videha  (Tirhut) ;  and  in 
accordance  therewitli  he  is  stated,  in  the  introductory  couplets,  of  tho 
Dharma4astra,  to  liave  propounded  his  legal  doctrines  to  the  sages, 
while  staying  at  Mithila  (the  capital  of  Yidehaj.  Hence,  if  the  con- 
nexion between  the  metricalSmritisandtheoldVedic  schools  be  a  real 
one  and  not  one  of  name  merely,  we  should  expect  to  find  in  the  Ya- 
jnavalkya-smriti  special  coincidences  of  doctrine  with  the  Katiya- 
siitra,  theprincipalSiitra  of  the  Vajasaneyins.  Now,  soniesufficiently 
striking  coincidences  between  this  Smriti  and  Paraskara's  Kdtiija- 
QrihyasMra  have  indeed  been  pointed  out ;  and  if  there  ever  existed 
a  Dharmasutra  belonging  to  the  same  school,  of  which  no  trace  has 
hitherto  been  found,  the  points  of  agreement  between  this  and  the 
Dharmasastra  might  be  expected  to  be  even  more  numerous.  As 
in  the  case  of  Manu,  ^lokas  are  quoted  in  various  works  from  a 
Brihat-  aud  a  Vriddha- Ydjnavalkya.  The  Yajnavalkya-smriti 
consists  of  three  books,  corresponding  to  the  three  great  divisions 
of  the  Indian  theory  ol  law  : — dchdra,  rule  of  conduct  (social  and 
caste  duties);  vyavahdra,  civil  and  criminal  law;  a.uA prdya^chilta^ 
penance  or  expiation.  There  are  two  important  commentaries  ou 
the  work  : — the  famous  Mitdkshard,^  by  Vijnanesvara,  who  lived 
under  the  Chalukya  king  Vikramaditya  of  Kalyana  (1076-1127) 
and  another  by  Apararka  or  Aparaditya,  a  petty  Silara  prince  of  the 
latter  half  of  the  12th  century. 

The  Pardsara -smriti  contains  no  chapter  on  jurisprudence,  but  PariUara, 
treats  only  of  religious  duties  and  expiations  in  12  adhyayas.  The 
deficiency  was,  however,  supplied  by  the  famous  exegcte  Madhava 
(in  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century),  who  made  use  of  Parasara'a 
text  for  the  compilation  of  a  large  digest  of  religious  law,  usually 
called  Pardsara-rnddhavtyam,  to  which  he  added  a  third  chapter 
on  vyavahara,*  or  law  proper.  Besides  the  ordinary  text  of  the 
Parasara-smriii,  consisting  of  rather  less  than  600  couplets,  there 
is  also  extant  a  Brihai-PardsarasmriU,  probably  an  amplification 
of  the  former,  containing  not  less  than  29S0  (according  to  others 
even  3300)  slokas.  The  NdradUja- Dharma &dstra,  or  Ndradasmriti- 
is  a  work  of  a  more  practical  kind ;  indeed,  it  is  probably  the  most 
systematic  and  businessdike  of  all  the  Smritis.  It  does  not  con- 
cern itself  with  religious  and  moral  precepts,  but  is  strictly  con- 
fined to  law.  Of  this  work  again  there  are  at  least  two  different 
recensions.  Besides  the  text  translated  by  Dr  Jolly,  a  portion  of 
a  larger  recension  has  come  to  light  in  India.  This  version  has 
been  commented  upon  by  Asahaya,  "  the  peerless " — a  very 
esteemed  writer  on  law  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  Me- 
dhatithi (?9th  century) — and  it  may  therefore  be  considered  as  the 
older  recension  of  the  two.  But,  as  it  has  been  found  to  contain 
the  word  dlndra^  an  adaptation  of  the  Roman  dcnarixia,  it  cannot, 
at  any  rate,  be  older  than  the  2d  century;  indeed,  its  date  is  prob- 
ably several  centuries  later. 

Whether  any  of  the  DharmasAstras  were  ever  used  in  India  as 
actual  "  codes  of  law  "  for  the  practical  administration  of  justice 
is  very  doubtful ;  indeed,  so  far  as  the  most  prominent  works  of 
this  class  are  concerned,  it  is  highly  improbable. °  No  doubt 
these  works  were  held  to  be  of  the  highest  authority  as  laying 
down  tiie  principles  of  religious  and  civil  duty ;  bnt  it  was  not  so 
much  a;iy  single  text  as  the  whole  body  of  the  Smriti  that  was 
looked  upon  as  th«  embodiment  of  the  divine  law.  Hence,  tho 
moment  the  actual  work  of  codification  begins  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury, we  find  the  jurists  engaged  in  practically  showing  hov/  the 
Smritis  confirm  and  supplement  each  other,  and  in  reconciling 
seemipg  coniradictions  between  them.  This  new  phase  of  Indian 
jurisprudence  commences  with  Vijilauesvai-a's  Mitdkshard,  which, 
though  primarily  a  commentary  on  Yajfiavalkya,  is  so  rich  in 
original  matter  and  illustrations  from  other  Smritis  that  it  is  far 
morQ  adapted  to  serve  as  a  code  of  law  than  the  work  it  professes 
to  explain.  This  treatise  is  held  in  high  esteem  all  over  India, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bengal  or  Gaudiya  school  of  law,  which 
recognizes  as  its  chief  authority  the  digest  of  its  founder,  jimiita- 
vahana,  especially  the  chapter  on  succession,  entitled  Ddyahhdga.^ 

2  Edited,  with  a  German  trans!.,  by  F.  Stenzler. 

3  Transl.  by  H.  T.  Colebrooke. 

*  The  section  of  this  chapter  on  Inheritance  (dflya-vlbbfiga)  has  been  trans- 
lated by  A.  C.  BnmeH.  1868. 

;  5, See  West  aTid  BlUrlor,  Digest,  !.p.  66.  A  different  view  Is  expressed  by  A, 
BurneU,  Dii^uij/idt/j,  p.  jdU.  •  TranaL  by  H.  C.  Coleb/ooke,  18W. 


IITEBATUEE. 


SANSKRIT 


289 


Based  on  the  MitaksliarS  are  the  Smriii-chandrikd,'^  a  work  of 
great  common-sense,  wntten  by  Dev3.nda  Bhatta,  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  highly  esteemed  in  Southern  India  ;  and  the  Vira- 
mitrodaya,  a  compilation  consisting  of  two  chapters,  on  achara 
and  vyavahara,  made  m  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century  by 
Mitramiira,  for  Raja  Virasiinha,  or  Birsinh  Deo  of  OrchhS.,  who 
murdered  Abul^  Fazl,  the  minister  of  the  emperor  Akbar,  and 
author  of  the  Ain  i  Akhari.  There  is  no  need  here  to  enumerate 
any  more  of  the  vast  number  of  treatises  on  special  points  of  law, 
.  of  greater  or  less  merit,  the  more  important  of  which  will  be  found 
mentioned  in  English  digests  of  Hindu  law. 
Pmho-  31.  Philosophy. — The  Indian  mind  shows  at  all  times  a  strong 
tOPHY.  disposition  for  metaphysical  speculation.  In  the  old  religious 
lyncs  this  may  be  detected  from  the  very  first.  Not  to  speak  of 
the  abstract  nature  of  some  even  of  the  oldest  Vedic  deities,  this 
propensity  betrays  itself  in  a  certain  mystic  symbolism,  tending  to 
refine  and  spiritualize  the  original  purely  physical  character  and 
activity  of  some  of  the  more  prominent  gods,  and  to  impart  a  deep 
and  subtle  import  to  the  rites  of  the  sacrifice.  The  primitive 
worship  of  more  or  less  isolated  elementary  forces  and  phenomena 
had  evidently  ceased  to  satisfy  the  religious  wants  of  the  more 
thoughtful  minds.  Various  syncretist  tendencies  show  the  drift 
of  religious  thought  to  be  towards  some  kind  of  unity  of  the 
divine  powers,  be  it  in  the  direction  of  the  pantheistic  idea,  or  in 
that  of  an  organized  polytheism,  or  even  towards  monotheism, 
in  the  latter  age  o£-  tne  hymns  the  pantheistic  idea  ia  rapidly 
gaining  ground,  and  finds  vent  in  various  cosmogonic  speculations  ; 
and  in  the  Brahmana  period  we  see  it  fully  developed.  The 
I'undamental  conception  of  this  doctrinn  finds  its  expression  in  the 
two  synonymous  terras  brahman  (neutr.),  originally  "power  of 
growth,"  tihen  "devotional  impulse,  prayer,"  osid.  dtman  (masc), 
"breath,  self,  soul." 

The  recognition  of  tl  e  essential  sameness  of  the  individual  souls, 
emanating  all  alike  {whether  really  or  imaginarily)  from  the 
ultimate  spiritual  essence  {parama-hrahman)  "as  sparks  issue  from 
the  fire,"  and  destined  to  return  thither,  involved  some  important 
problems.  Considering  the  infinite  diversity  of  individual  souls 
of  the  animal  and  vegetable  world,  exhibiting  various  degrees  of 
perfection,  is  it  conceivable  that  each  of  them  is  the  immediate 
efflux  of  the  Supreme  Being,  the  All-perfect,  and  that  each,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest,  could  re-unite  therewith  directly  at  the 
close  of  its  mundane  existence  ?  Tlie  difficulty  implied  in  tlie 
latter  question  was  at  first  met  by  the  assumption  of  an  inter- 
mediate state  of  expiation  and  purification,  a  kind  of  purgatory  ; 
Met-  but  the  whole  problem  found  at  last  a  more  comprehensive  solu- 
■smpsy-  tion  in  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  {samsdra).  Some  scholars 
■choais,  have  suggested^  that  metempsychosis  may  have  been  the  prevalent 
J)elief  among  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India,  and  may  have  been 
taken  over  from  them  by  the  Indo-Aryans.  This  no  doubt  is 
quite  possible  ;  but  even  in  that  case  we  can  only  assume  that 
speculative  minds  seized  upon  it  as  offering  the  most  satisfactory 
(if  not  the  only  possible)  explanation  of  the  great  problem  of 
phenomenal  existence.  It  is  certainly  a  significant  fact  that,  once 
established  in  Indian  thought,  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  is 
never  again  called  in  question, — that,  like  the  fundamental  idea  on 
■which  it  rests,  viz.,  the  essential  sameness  of  the  immaterial 
element  of  all  sentient  beings,  the  notion  of  samsdra  has  become 
an  axiom,  a  universally  conceded  principle  of  Indian  philosophy. 
Thus  the  latter  has  never  quite  ri-^en  to  the  heights  of  pure 
thought;  its  object  is  indeedyij';l(t?(5,  the  search  for  knowledge  ;  but 
it  is  an  inquiry  {mimdmsd)  into  the  nature  of  things  undertaken 
not  solely  for  the  attainment  of  the  truth,  but  with  a  view  to  a 
specific  object, — the  discontinuance  of  sarfisara,  the  cessation  of 
mundane  existence  after  the  present  life.  Kvery  sentient  being, 
through  ignorance,  bein^  liable  to  sin,  and  destined  after  each  ex- 
istence to  be  bom  again  in  some  new  form,  dependent  on  th'i  actions 
committed  during  the  immediately  preceding  life,  all  riiunlane 
existence  thus  is  the  source  of  ever-renewed  sulfcring  ;  and  the 
task  of  the  philosopher  is  to  discover  the  means  of  attaining 
moksha,  "release"  from  the  bondage  of  material  existence,  and 
yoffa,  "union"  with  the  Supreme  Self, — in  fact,  salvation.  It  is 
with  a  view  to  this,  and  this  only,  that  the  Indian  metaphysician 
takes  up  the  great  problems  of  life, — the  origin  of  man  and  the 
universe,  and  the  relation  between  mind  and  matter. 

It  is  not  likely  that  these  speculations  were  viewed  with  much 
favour  by  the  great  body  of  Brahmans  engaged  in  ritualistic 
practices.  Not  that  the  metaphysicians  actually  discountenanced 
the  ceremonial  worship  of  the  old  mythological  gods  as  vain  and 
nugatory.  On  the  contrary,  they  expressly  admitted  tho  propriety 
of  sacrifices,  and  commended  them  as  the  most  meritorious  of 
human  acts,  by  which  man  could  raise  himself  to  the  highest 
degrees  of  mundane  existence,  to  the  worlds  of  the  Fathers  and 
the  Devas.  Nevertheless,  the  fact  that  these  were  only  hightr 
grades  from  which  the  individual  self  would  still  be  liable  to 
relapse  into  the  vortex  of  material  existence, — that  the  final  goal 

'  The  Mellon  on  Inheritance  has  been  tiansl.  by  T.  Krl striata w my  Iyer,  18CC. 
'  Sec,  «.?.,  A.  E.  Gotigh,  The  PhUotophv  <^tfte  l/panMiadi,v.'2*. 


lay  beyond  even  those  worlds,  unattainable  through  aught  but  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  soul's  nature  and  its  identity  trith  the 
Supreme  Self, — this  fact  of  itself  was  sufficient  to  depreciate  the 
merit  of  the  sacrificial  cult,  and  to  undermine  the  authority  of  the 
sacred  rituals.  "Know  ye  that  Self,"  exhorts- one  of  those  old 
idealists,^  "and  have  done  with  other  words  ;  for  that  (knowledge) 
is  the  bridge  to  immortality  !  "  Intense  self-contemplation  being, 
moreover,  the  only  way  of  attaining  the  all-important  knowledge, 
this  doctrine  left  little  or  no  room  for  those  mediatorial  offices  of 
the  priest,  so  indispensable  in  ceremonial  worship  ;  and  indeed 
wc  actually  read  of  Brahman  sages  resorting  to  Kshatriya  princes 
to  hear  them  expound  this,  the  true  doctrine  of  salvation.  But,  in 
spite  of  their  anti-hierarchical  tendency,  these  speculations  con- 
tinued to  gain  ground  ;  and  in  the  end  the  body  of  treatises  pro- 
pounding the  pantheistic  doctrine,  the  Upanishads,  were  admitted 
into  the  sacred  canon,  as  appendages  to  the  ceremonial  writings, 
the  Brahmanas.  The  Upanishads  thus  form  literally  "the  end 
of  the  Veda,"  the  Vcddnta  ;  but  their  adherents  claim  this  title 
for  their  doctrines  in  a  metaphorical  rather  than  in  a  material 
sense,  as  "the  ultimate  aim  and  consummation  of  the  Veda."  In 
later  times  the  radical  distinction  between  these  speculative 
appendages  and  the  bulk  of  the  Vedic  writings  was  strongly  accent- 
uated in  a  new  classification  of  the  sacred  scriptures.  According 
to  this  scheme  they  were  supposed  to  consist  of  two  great  divisions, 
— thr  Kanna-kdnda,  i.t-. ,  "the  work-section,"  or  practical  cere- 
monial (exoteric)  part,  consisting  of  the  Samhitas  and  Brahmanas 
(including  the  ritual  portions  of  the  AranyakaS),  and  the  Jildna- 
kdnda,  "the  knowledge-section,"  or  speculative  (esoteric)  part. 
These  two  divisions  are  also  called  respectively  the  PQrva. 
(" former ")  and  f/7tara- (" latter,"  or  higher'*)  kdiula  ;  and  when 
ihe  speculative  tenets  of  the  Upanishads  came  to  be  formulated  into 
a  regular  system  it  was  deemed  desirable  that  there  should  also  be 
a  special  system  corresponding  to  the  older  and  larger  portion  of 
the  Vedic  writings.  Thus  arose  the  two  systems — the  J'Hrva-  (or 
Karma-)  vitmdmad,  Or  "former  (practical)  speculation,"  and  the 
UUara-  (or  Brahma-)  intmdmsd,  usually  called  the  Vedunta  philo- 
sophy. 

it   is  not  yet  possible   to   determine,  even   approximately,  the  Piij'.r,- 
time    when  the  so-called  Dar^anas  (literally   "  demonstralions")^  Bopljca.t 
or   systems  of  philosophy,    were  first  formulated.      And,   though  syi'tcu. 
they  have  certainly  developed  from  the  tenets  enunciated  in  the 
Upanishads,  there  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  exact  order  in 
which   these   systems  succeeded   each   other.     The    authoritative 
czposis   of  the  systems  have    apjiarently  passed    through    several 
redactions;   and,  in   their   present  form,  th^se  sutra-works"  evi- 
dently belong  to  a  comparatively  recent  period,  being  probably  not 
older  than  tlie  early  centuries  of  our  era.     By  far  the  ablest  general 
review  of  tlie  philosophical  systems  (except  .he  Vedanta)  produced 
by  a  native  scholar  is  the  Sarva-dariana-tangraha^  ("summary 
of  all   the   Dar^anas "),    composed   in    the   14th  century,  from  a 
Vedantist  point  of  view,  by  the  great  exegeto  Madhava  Acharya. 

Anwng  the  difi'erent  systems,  six  are  generally  recognized  as" 
orthodox,  as  being  (either  wholly  or  for  the  most  part)  consistent 
with  the  Vedic  religion, — two  and  two  of  which  are  agam  more 
closely  related  to  each  other  than  to  the  rest,  viz.  : — 

(1)    PHrva-mtmdmsd     {Mlvid7nsd),     and     (21     Ullara-mlmdnxsd 
( Veddnta)  , 

(3)  Sdnkhya,  and  (4)  Yoga  ; 

(5)  Nydya,  and  (6)  VaUcshika. 

(1)  The  {Filrva-)  Mbndmsd  is  not  a  system  of  philosophy  in  the  Mi- 
proper  sense  of  the  word,  but  rather  a  system  of  dogmatic  criticism  mSriisa. 
and  scriptural  interpretation.  It  maintains  the  eternal  existence 
of  the  Veda,  the  ditferent  parts  of  which  are  minutely  classified. 
Its  princijial  object,  however,  is  to  ascertain  the  religious  (chiet'y 
ceremonial)  duties  enjoined  in  the  Veda,  and  to  show  how  these 
duties  must  be  performed,  and  what  are  the  special  merits  and 
rewards  attached  to  them.  Hence  arises  the  necessity  of  dcterr.un- 
ing  the  principles  for  rightly  interpreting  the  Vedic  texts,  as  also 
of  what  forms  its  only  claim  to  being  classed  among  speculative 
systems,  viz.,  a  philosophical  examination  of  the  means  of,  and  the 
proper  method  for  arriving  at,  accurate  knowledge.  The  founda- 
tion of  this  scliool,  as  well  as  the  composition  of  the  Sutras  or 
aphorisms  which  constitute  its  chief  doctrinal  authority,  is  ascribed 
to  Jaimini.  The  Sutras  were  commented  on  by  Sahara  Svamin  ; 
and  further  annotations  {vdrttika)  thereon  were  supplied  by  the 
great  thpologian  Kumarila  Bhatta,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  (6th  or)  7th  century,  and  to  hare  worked  hard  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  Brahmanism.  According  to  a  popular  tradition 
his  self-immolation  was  witnessed  by  Sankarachiirya.     The  most 


*  Mundaka-upanlshad.  H.  2,  5. 

*  C/.  Rlundaka-upanishad,  1.  4,  5,  where  these  two  divisions  are  ca'.led"tho 
lower  {apara)  and  the  higher  ipara)  knowIcdKC" 

^  Thcue  works  have  all  been  inliilcd  with  commejitarlcs  In  India;  and  they 
have  been  partly  translated  by  J.  Italliintyne,  and  by  K.  H.  Bancrjea.  The  best 
(lenernl  view  of  the  ayetcnift  is  to  ho.  ohtnlned  from  It.  C.  Colcbroukc'a  account, 
Miic.  Ettays,  I..  2d  ed.,  with  Prof.  CowcM's  notes.  Compare  also  the  bi1ef  abstiact 
Kivcit  In  GoIdsiUckcr's  Literary  H<maint.\o\.  \.  A  very  uselul  classified  Index 
of  philosophical  works  wns  published  l»y  V.  Hall,  1«59. 

*  RflUcd  In  the  Bibl.  Ind. ;  tronelatcd  by  E.  U.  Cowi-II  and  A.  E.  Gough,  1&82. 

XXL  —  37 


290 


SANSKRIT 


[literature^ 


approved  general  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Mim&ipsri  ia  the 
metrical  Jaiminiya-Nydya-mdld-vutara,^  with  a  proso  commentary, 
both  by  MiuJhava  Acharya.  This  distinguished  writer,  w)io  ha3 
already  been  mentioned  several  times,  'pas  formerly  supposed, 
from  frequent  statements  in  MSS.,  to  have  been  the  brother  of 
Sliyana,  the  well-known  interpreter  of  the  Veda3,  The  lato  Dr 
Burnell^  has,  however,  made  it  very  probable  that  these  two 
are  one  and  the  same  person,  Suyana  being  his  Telugu,  and 
MMhavachiirya  his  Bnihmanital  ijame.  *Iu  1331  he  became  the 
jagadguru,  or  spiritual  head,  of  the  Smartas  {a  Vedantlst  sect 
founded  by  Sankarilcliarya)  at  the  Math  of  Sringeri,  where,  under 
the  patronage  of  Bukka,  king  of  Vidyanagara,  he  composed  his 
numerous  works.  He  sometimes  passes  under  a  third  name, 
Vidyaranya-svamin,  adopted  by  him  on  becoming  a  samiydsin, 
or  religious  mendicant.- 

V'ed^ta.  (2)  The  Veddnta  philosophy,  in  the  comparatively  primitive 
form  in  which  it  presents  itseif  in  most  of  the  Upanishads,  con* 
stitutcs  the  earliest  phase  of  systematic  metaphysical  speculation. 
In  its  essential  features  it  remains  to  this  day  the  prevalent  belief 
of  Indian  thinkers,  and  enters  largely  into  the  religious  life  and 
convictions  of  the  people.  It  is  an  idealistic  monism,  which  derives 
Ihe  universe  from  an  ultimate  conscious  spiritual  principle,  the 
one  and  only  existent  from  eternity — the  Atman,  the  Self,  or  the 
Puriisha,  the  Person,  the  Brahman.  It  is  this  primordial  essence 
or  Self  that  pervades  all  things,  and  gives  life  and  light  to  them, 
''without  being  sullied  by  the  visible  outward  impurities  or  the 
imisorics  of  the  world,  being  itself  apait," — and  into  which  all 
[things  will,  through  knowledge,  ultimately  resolve  themselves, 
"The  wise  who  perceive  him  as  being  within  their  own  Self,  to 
them  belongs  eternal  peace,  not  to  others."-^  But,  while  the  com- 
mentators never  hesitate  to  interpret  the  Upanishads  as  being  in 
perfect  agreement  with  the  Vedantic  system,  as  elaborated  in  later 
times,  there  is  often  considerable  ditFiculty  in  accepting  their 
explanations.  In  these  treatises  only  the  lecding  features  of  the 
pantheistic  theory  find  utterance,  generally  in  vague  and  mystic 
though  often  in  singularly  powerful  and  poetical  language,  from 
which  it  is  not  always  possible  to  extract  the  author's  real  idea  on 
fundamental  points,  such  as  the  relation  between  the  Supreme 
Spirit  and  the  phenomenal  world, — "vyhether  the  latter  was  actually 
evolved  from  the  former  by  a  power  inherent  in  him,  or  whether 
the  process  is  altogether  a  fiction,  an  illusion  of  the  individual 
;6elf.  Thus  the  Katha-upaiiishad'*  ofTer.'j  the  following  summary  : — 
"Beyond  the  senses  [there  are  the  objects;  beyond  the  objects] 
there  is  the  mind  (manas) ;  beyond  the  mind  there  is  the  intellect 
j(buddhi)  ;  beyond  the  intellect  there  is  the  Great  Self.  Beyond 
fthe  Great  One  there  is  the  Highest  Undeveloped  (avyaktam);  beyond 
the  Undeveloped  there  is  the  Person  (purusha),  the  all-pervading, 
characterless  (alinga).  Whatsoever  knows  him  is  liberated,  and 
attains  immortality."  Here  the  Vedantlst  commentator  assures 
ns  that  the  Great  Undeveloped,  which  the  Sankhyas  would  claim 
as  their  own  primary  material  principle  (pradh5.na,  prakriti),  is  in 
reality  Mdyd,  illusion  (otherwise  called  Avidya,  ignorance,  or 
6akti,  power),  the  fictitious  energy  which  in  conjunction  with  the 
Highest  Self  (Atman,  Purusha)  produces  or  constitutes  the 
Isvara,  the  Lord,  or  Cosmic  Soul,  the  first  emanation  of  the 
Atman,  and  himself  the  (fictitious)  cause  of  all  that  seems  to  exist. 
It  must  remain  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  author  of  the 
Upanishad  really  meant  this,  or  whether  he  regarded  the  Great 
Undeveloped  as  an  actual  material. principle  or  substratum  evolved 
from  out  of  the  Purusha,  though  not,  as  the  Sankhyas  hold, 
coexisting  with  him  from  etermty.  Resides  passages  such  as 
these  which  seem  to  indicate  realistic  or  materialistic  tendencies 
of  thought,  which  may  well  have  developed  into  the  dualistic 
Sankhya  and  kindred  systems,  there  are  others  which  indicate 
the  existence  even  of  nihilist  theories,  such  as  the  Bauddhas — the 
iHnya-vddins,  or  affirmers  of  a  void  or  primordial  nothingness — 
profess.  Thus  we  read  in  the  Chhando^a-upaniahad'*  :  —  "The 
existent  alone,  my  son,  was  here  in  the  beginning,  one  only,  with- 
out a  second.  Others  say,  there  was  the  non-existent  alone  hero 
in  the  beginning,  one  only,  without  a  second, — and  from  the  non- 
existent the  existent  was  born.  But  how  could  this  be,  my  son  ? 
How  could  the  existent  bo  born  from  the  non-existent !  No,  my 
son.  only  the  existent  was  here  in  the  beginning,  one  only,  "^CJi- 
out  a  second." 

The  foundation  of  the  Vedanta  system,  as  "the  completion  of 
the  Veda,"  is  naturally  ascribed  to  Vyasa,  the  mythic  arranger 
of  the  Vedas,  who  is  said  to  be  identical  with  Badar^yana,  the 
reputed  author  of  the  Brahma-  (or  Sdi-lraka-)  sUlra,  the  authorita- 
tive, though  highly  obscure,  summary  of  the  system.  The  most 
distinguished  interpreter  of  these  aphorisms  is  the  famous  Malabar 

Sankara.  theologian  Sankara  Acharya  (7th  or  8th  century),  who  also 
commented  on  the  principal  Upanishads  and  the  Bhagavadgita, 
and  is  said  to  have  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  wandering 
ill  over  India,  as  far  as  Kashmir,  and  engaging  in  disputations 

1  Edited  by  Tb.  GoldstUcker,  completed  by  E.  B.  Cowell. 

«  ramsa-brdhmar}a,  Introd.  3  Katha-npanlahad,  11.  6,  11-13 

*  1.3.  10;  IL6,7.  6  vi.'2,l. 


with  teachers — whether  of  the  6aiva,  or  Vaishnava,  or  less 
orthodox  persuasions — with  the  view  of  rooting  out  heresy  and 
re-establishing  the  doctrine  of  the  Upanishads.  His  controversial' 
triumjths  (doubtless  largely  mythical)  are  related  in  a  number  of 
treatises  current  in  South  India,  the  two  most  important  of  which 
are  the  &ankara-dig-mjaya  ("6ankara's  world-conquest"),  ascribed 
to  his  own  disciple  Anandagiri,  and  the  ^ankara-vijaya,  by  M3.- 
dhavacharya.  In  '^aukara's  philosophy^  the  theory  that  the 
material  world  has  no  real  existence,  but  is  a  mere  illusion  of  the 
individual  soul  wrapt  in  ignorance, — that,  therefore,  it  has  only  a 
practical  or  conventional  (vydvahdrika)  but  not  a  transcendental  or 
true  {pdramdrthika)  reality, — is  strictly  enforced.  To  the  question 
why  the  Supreme  Self  (or  rather  his  fictitious  development,  the 
Highest  Lord,  or  cosmic  soul)  sliould  have  sent  forth  this  phautasma- 
gory  this  great  thjnker  (with  the  author  of  the  Sutras'")  can  return 
uo  better  answer  than  that  it  must  have  been  done  for  sptn-t  {Wd), 
without  any  special  motive — since  to  ascribe  such  a  motive  to  the 
Supreme  Lord  would  bo  limiting  his  self-sufiiciency, — and  that  the 
jirocess  of  creation  has' been  going  on  from  all  eternity.  Sankara 's 
Sdriraka-mividmsd-bhdshya  has  given  rise  to  a  large  number  of 
exegetic  treatises,  of  which  Vachaspati-mi,4ra'e'*  exposition,  entitled 
Bhdntati,^  is  the  most  esteemed.  Of  numerous  other  commentaries 
on  the  Brahma-sutras,  the  Sri-hhdshya,  by  Pamanuja,  the  founder  RlUxi&» 
of  the  Sri- Vaishnava  sect,  is  the  most  noteworthy.  This  religious  naja.  , 
teacher,  who  probably  flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the  12th 
century,  caused  a  schism  in  the  Vedanta  school.  Instead  of  adlv:;r- 
ing  to  ^ankara's  orthodox  advaita,  or  non-duality  doctrine,  he  put 
forth  the  tlieory  of  visishlddvaita,  i.e.,  non-duality  of  the  (two) 
distinct  (principles),  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  explained, 
non-duality  of  that  which  is  qualified  (by  attributes).  According 
to  this  theorf  the  Brahman  (which  is  identical  with  Vishnu)  is 
neither  devoid  of  form  and  quality,  nor  is  it  all  things  ;  but  it  is 
endowed  with  all  good  qualities,  and  matter  is  distinct  from  it  ; 
bodies  consist  of  souls  (chil)  and  matter  (achii) ;  and  God  is  the 
soul.  With  this  theory  is  combined  the  ordinary  Vaishnava 
doctrine  of  periodical  descents  {avatdra)  of  the  deity,  in  various 
forms,  for  tlie  benefit  of  creatures.  In  Il:imS.uuja's  system  con- 
siderable play  is  also  allowed  to  the  doctrine  of  faith  {bhakti).  BhaktL 
This  phase  Qf  Indian  religious  belief,  which  has  attached  itself  to 
the  Vedanta  theory  more  closely  than  to  any  other,  and  the  origin 
of  which  some  scholars-  are  inclined ^to  attribute  to  Christian 
influence,  seems  first  to  make  its  appearanca  very  prominently  in 
the  Bhagavadglid,  the  episode  of  the  liahdbhdrata,  already  referred 
to,  and  is  even  more  fully  developed  in  some  of  the  Purtinas, 
especially  the  Bhagavata.  In  the  Sdndihja-  (Bhakti-)  silt/a,^'^  the 
author  and  date  of  which  are  unknown,  the  doctrine  is  systemati- 
cally propounded  in  one  hundred  aphorisms.  According  to  this 
doctrine  mundane  existence  is  due  to  want  of  faith,  not  to 
ignorance;  and  the  filial Jiberation  of  tho  individual  soul  can  only 
be  effected  by  faith.  Knowledge  only  contributes  to  this  end  by 
removing  the  mind's  foulness,  unbelief.  Its  highest  phase  of 
development  this  doctrine  probably  reached  in  the  religious  creed 
of  the  Bhaktas,  a  Vaishnava  sect  founded,  towards  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  by  Chaitanya,  whoso  followers  subsequently  grafted 
the  Vedanta  speculations  on  his  doctrine.  A  popular  summary  of 
the  Vedanta  doctrine  is  the  Veddnta-sdra  by  Sadananda,  which 
has  been  frequently  printed  and  translated. ^^ 

(3)  The  SdnkhyaJ-  or  "enumerative  "  system,  probamy  derives  S3,nkhy» 
its  name  from  its  systematic  enumeration  of  the  twenty-five 
principles  (taitva)  it  recognizes, — consisting  of  twenty-four  material 
and  an  independent  immaterial  principle.  In  opposition  to  the 
Vedanta  school,  which  maintains  the  eternal  coexistence  of  a 
spiritual  principle  of  reality  nnd  an  unspiritual  principle  of 
unreality,  the  Sankhya  assumes  the  eternal  coexistence  of  a 
material  first  cause,  which  it  calls  either  mUla-Prakriti  (fern.), 
"  chief  Originant "  (Nature),  or  Pradhdna,  "  the  principal  "  cause, 
and  a  plurality  of  spiritual  elements  or  Selves,  Purusha.  The 
system  recognizes  no  intelligent  creator  (such  as  tlie  l.-ivara,  or 
demiurgus,  of  the  VedS.nta) — whence  it  is  called  7iirtivara, 
godless  ;  but  it  conceives  the  Material  First  Cause,  itself  unin- 
telligent, to  have  become  developed^  by  a  gradual  process  of 
evolution,  into  all  the  actual  forms  of  the  phenomenal  universe, 
excepting  the  souls.  Its  first  emanation  is  buddhi,  intelligence  ; 
whence  springs  ahamkdra,  consciousness;  thence  five  elementary 
particles  {tanmdtra)  and  eleven  organs  of  sense  ;  and  finally,  from 
the  elementary  particles,  fiVfe  elements.  The  souls  have  from'  all 
eternity  been  connected  with  Nature, — having  in  the  first  place 
become  invested  with  a  subtile  frame  [linga-,  or  silkshma-,  ^artra)^ 
consisting  of  seventeen  principles,  viz.,  intelligence,  consciousness, 
elementary  particles,   and   organs  of  sense  and  action,  including 


6  P.  Deiissen,  Das  St/s(em  des  Veddnta,  1883.     A.  E.  Gough,  The  Philotophy  of 
the  Upaniihads,  also  follows  chiefly  Sankara's  interRietation. 

7  DrahmasOtra,  Hi.  1,  32-34.  * 

8  Prof.  Cowell  assigns  him  to  about  the  10th  century.  *  BihK  Jnd, 
"  ToJtt,  with  Svapncsvara's  commentary,  edited  by  J.  R.  Ballantyne;  transl.  by 

E    B.  Cnwt'll.  "  Last  by  G.  A.  Jacob. 

'3  E.  Roor,  Lecture  on  the  Sdnkhya  Phitoiophv,  Calcutta,  18H ;  B.  St  HUalre» 
Af^moire  tur  le  Sdnkhua^  1862. 


LITEEATUEE.] 


SANSKRIT 


291 


mind.  Invested  with,  this  subtile  frame,  they,  for  tlie  sake  of 
fruition,  connect  themselves  ever  anew  with  Nature,  thus,  as  it 
were,  creatinEj  for  themselves  ever  new  forms  of  material  existence  ; 
and  it  is  only  on  his  attaining  perfect  knowledge,  whereby  the 
ever-changing  modes  o£  intelligence  cease  to  be  reflected  on  him, 
that  the  Purifeha  is  liberated  from  the  miseries  of  Sarpsara. 

The  reputed  founder  of  this  school  is  the  sage  Kapila,  to  whom 
tradition  ascribes  the  composition  of  the  fundamental  text-book, 
the  {Sdnkhya-sHiray  or)  Sdnkhya-pravachana,^  as  well  as  the 
Taitva-sajndsa,  a  mere  catalogue  of  the  principles.  That  the 
Sutras  have  undergone  subsequent  modifications  mi"ht  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  they  t^ice  refer  to  the  opinion  of  Paficliasikha, 
w^o  elsewhere  is  stated  to  have  received  his  instruction  from  Asuri, 
the  disciple  of  Kapila,  as  well  as  from  the  sage  himself.  Of  the 
commentaries  on  the  Sutras,  that  by  Vijfiana  Bhikshn,^  a  writer 
probably  of  the  16tli  century,  is  the  most  approved.  An 
independent  treatise  by  tlie  ^mo  author,  the  Sdnkhya-sdra,^ 
consisting  of  a  prose  and  a  verse  part,  ia  probably  the  most 
valuable  compendium  of  Sinkhya  doctrines.  Another  admirable 
and  highly-esteemed  treatise  is  l4vara-kmhna's  Sdnkhya-hdrikd,^ 
which  gives,  in  the  narrow  compass  of  seventy-five  ^lokas,  a  lucid 
and  complete  sketch  of  the  system.  Though  nothing  certain  is 
known  regarding  its  author,**  this  work  must  be  of  tolerable 
antiquity,  considering  that  it  was  commented  upon  by  Gauclapada,^ 
the  preceptor  of  Govinda,  who,  on  his  part,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
teacher  of  Sankaracharya, 
To^  (4)  The   Yoga   system  "is   merely  a  schismatic   branch   of  the 

preceding  school,  holding  the  same  opinions  on  most  points  treated 
in  common  in  their  Sutras,  with  the  exception  of  one  import^s^ 
■  point,  the  existence  of  God.  To  the  twenty-five  principles  {tattva) 
of  the  Nirlsvara  Sankhya,  the  last  of  which  was  the  Purusfia,  the 
Yoga  adds,  as  the  twenty-sixth,  the  Nirguna  Pnrusha,  or  Self 
devoid  of  qualities,  the  Supreme  God  of  the  system.  Henca  the 
Yoga  is  called  the  Sesvara  (thcistical)  Sdnkkm.  But  over  and 
above  the  purely  speculative  p:irt  of  its  doctrine,  which  it  shares 
with  the  sister  school,  the  theistic  Sankiiya  has  developed  a 
complete  system  of  mortification  of  tlio  senses — by  means  of 
prolonged  apathy  and  abstraction,  protracted  rigidity  of  posture, 
and  similar  practices, — many  of  which  are  already  alluded  to  in  tho 
Upanishads, — with  the  view  of  Attaining  to  an  ecstatic  vision  of, 
and  reunion  {ijoga)  witli,  tne  Supremo  Sjnrit.  It  is  from  tliis 
portion  of  the  system  that  the  school  derives  the  name  by  which 
it  is  more  generally  known.  The  authoritative  Siitras  of  the 
Yoga,  bearing  the  same  title  as  those  of  the  sister  school,  viz., 
Sdnkhya-pravaclmna,  but  more  commonly  called  Yoga-idstra,  are 
ascribed  to  Patahjali,  who  is  perhaps  identical  with  the  author  of 
the  "great  commentary"  on  Panini.  The  oldest  commentary 
on  the  Sutras,  the  Pdiailjala-hhdshya,  is  attributed  to  no  other 
than  Vyasa,  the  mythic  arranger  of  the  Veda  and  founder  of  the 
VedAnta.  Both  works  have  again  been  commented  upon  by 
Vdchaspati-mi.4ra,  Vijilana-bhiksliu,  and  other  writers. 

(5)  (6)  The  Nydya^  and  VaxsrsMka  are  but  separate  branches  of 
one  and  tl>e  same  school,  which  supplement  each  other  and  the 
doctrines  of  which  have  virtually  become  amalgamated  into  a  single 
system  of  philosophy.  The  special  part  taken  by  each  of  the  two 
branches  in  the  elaboration  of  the  system  may  be  briefly  stated  in  Dr 
liber's  words  : — "To  the  Nyaya  belong  the  logical  (doctrines  of  the 
forms  of  syllogisms,  t^rnis,  and  propositions ;  to  the  Vaise^ikas  the 
systematical  explanation  of  tlie  categories  (the  simplest  metaphys- 
ical ideas)  of  the  metaphysical,  physical,  and  psychical  notions, — 
which  notions  are  hardly  touched  upon  in  tlie  Nyaya-siltras. 
Tliey  differ  in  their  statement  of  the  several  modes  of  proof, — the 
Nyaya  asserting  four  modes  of  proof  (from  perce|)tion,  inference, 
analogy,  and  verbal  commnnication).  tlio  "Vai.scshikas  admitting 
only  the  two  first  ones."  The  term  NySya  {ni-dya,  "in-going,' 
entering),  though  properly  meaning  "analytical  investigation,"  as 
applied  to  philosophical  inquiry  generally,  has  come  to  be  taken 
lx>gic.:  more  commonly  in  the  narrower  scr\%Q  of  "logic,"  because  this 
school  has  entered  more  thoroughly  than  any  other  into  the  laws 
and  processes  of  thought,  and  has  worked  out  a  formal  system  of 
reasoning  which  forms  tho  Hindu  standard  of  lo^ic. 

The  followers  of  these  schools  generally  recognize  seven  categories 
{paddrtka): — substance  {dravya),  quality  {guna),  action  {karma), 
generality  [sdmdnya)^  particularity  {vUcsha),  intimate  relation 
{sanuxvdya),  and  non-existence  or  negation  {nbkdva).  Substances, 
forming  the  substrata  of  qualities  and  actions,  are  of  two  kinils  : — 
eternal  (without  a  cause),  viz.,  space,  time,  ether,  soul,  and  tho 
atoms  of  mint],  earth,  water,  fire,  and  oir;  and  non-eternal,  com- 

I  Trftn«l.  by  J.  R.  Bullantync  ;  2d  cd.  by  F.  IIbH.  *  E.lltcd  by  F.  Hall. 

■  Edited  by  C.  Lajsc-n.  1832.  Trnnslotlnn^  by  II.  T.  Cokbrooko  and  J.  Davlca. 
.  «  One  wrlrBT  makes  him  ihe  pupil  of  Panchoilkha.  whilst  another  even  Identlflea 
him  »iih  KilidUso;  <■/.  F.  Hall,  SttnkhyatAra.n.  JX 

•  TninO.  by  H.  H.  Wllwn.  A  Chinew:  trantlQlinn  of  &  commcnfary  resembling 
that  of  Gau'lapOda  Is  said  to  have  been  made  durJnc  tho  Ch'en  dynnaty.  fti7-583 
A.P.  (M.  5IU1KT,  /ndra.  p.  3M). 

•  ricsMrs  Colcbmokr's  E'tny.  »Ith  Co<rfrir»  noti'*,  wc  Rullantync'ii  Irnn^ilatlon 
of  the  T-trLaSaugraha  anil  tint  Intro-iucilon  to  Ittier'a  translation'  of  tho 
SAAthu^rUJiAeda,  and  hU  artJclc,  /.  D.  J/.  (7,,  xzt.   ^ 


Nyftyti 
and 
Vaiie* 
Bhika,! 


prising  all  compounds,  or  the  things  we  perceive,  and  which  must 
have  a  cause  of  their  existence.  Causality  's  of  three  kinds  : — 
that  of  intimate  relation  (material  cause) ;  that  of  non-intimate 
relation  (between  parts  of  a  compound) ;  and  instrumental  causality 
(effecting  the  union  of  component  parts).  Material  things  are  thus 
composed  of  atoms  (anii),  i.e.^  ultimate  simple  substances,  or  units 
of  space,  eternal,  unchangeable,  and  \vithout  dimension,  character- 
ized only  by  "particularity  (viSesha)."  It  is  from  this  predication 
of  ultimate  "particulars  "  that  the  Vaiseshikas,  the  originators  of 
the  atomistic  doctrine,  derive  their  name.  The  Nyaya  draws  a 
elear  line  between  matter  and  spirit,  and  has  worked  out  a  careful 
and  ingenious  system  of  psychology.  It  distinguish e-s  between 
individual  or  living  souls  ijivdtmaii),  which  are  numerous,  infinite^ 
and  eternal,  and  tho  Supreme  Soul  {Paramd(man),  which  is  one 
only,  the  scat  of  eternal  knowledge,  and  the  maker  and  ruler 
{Isvara)  of  all  things.  It  is  by  his  will  and  agency  that  the  un- 
conscious living  souls  (soul-atoms,  in  fact)  enter  into  union  with  the 
(matenal)  atoms  of  mind,  &c.,  and  thus  partake  of  the  fJeasures 
and  sufferings  of  mundane  existence.  On  the  Hindu  sj'llogism 
compare  Prof.  Cowell's  notes  to  Colebrooke's  Essays,  i.  p.  314. 

The  original  collection  of  Nydya-sHii'as  is  ascribed  to  Gotaraa, 
and  that  of  the  V'aUcshika-siUras  to  Kanada,  The  etymological 
meaning  of  the  latter  name  seems  to  bo  "little-eater,  particle- 
ca*^er,"  whence  in  works  of  hostile  critics  the  synonymous  terms 
Kana-lhuj  or  Kana-bhaksha  are  sometimes  derisively  applied 
to  him,  doubtless  in  allusion  to  his  theory  of  atoms.  He  is 
also  occasionally  referred  to  under  the  name  of  Kiisyapa.  Both 
siltra-works  lurv'e  been  interpreted  and  supplemented  by  a  number 
of  writers,  the  commentary  of  YisvanEltha  on  the  Nyaya  and  that 
of  6ankara-misra  on  the  Vaiseshika  Sutras  being  most  generally- 
used.  There  are,  moreover,  a  vast  number  of  separate  works  on 
the  doctrines  of  these  schools,  especially  on  logic.  Of  favourite 
elementary  treatises  on  the  subject  may  be  mentioned  Kesava- 
misra's  Tarka-bhdshd,  the  Tarka-sa7igrahaJ  and  the  Bhushd' 
parichheda.^  A  large  and  important  book  on  logic  is  Gangesa's 
Chintdwrni^  which  formed  the  text-book  of  the  celebrated  Nuddea 
school  of  Benral,  founded  by  Raghunutha-^iromaiii  about  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century.  An  interesting  little  treatise  is 
the  Kusumdnjali,^  in  which  the  author,  Udayana  Acharya  (about 
the  12th  century,  according  to  Prof.  Cowell)  attempts,  in  72 
couplets,  to  prove  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being  on  the 
principles  of  the  Nyaya  system. 

As  regards  the  diiferent  heretical  systems  of  Hindu  philosophy,  Hereticfc 
there  is  no  occasion,  in  a  sketch  of  Sanskrit  literature,  to  enter  into  systensii 
the  tenets  of  the  two  great  anti-Brahmanical  sects,  the  Jainas  and 
Buddhists.     AVhilo  tlio  original  works  of  the  former  are  wiitten 
entirely  in  a  popular  (tho  Ardhu-mdgadhi)  dialect,  the  northern 
Buddhists, -it  is  true,  have  produced  a  considerable  body  of  litera- 
ture,^'^  composed  in  a  kind  of  hybrid  Sanskrit,  but  only  a  few  of 
their  sacred  books  have  as  yet  been  publi^ahed ; '^  and  It  is,  mere- 
over,   admitted   on   all   hands   that   lor   the   pure  and   authentic 
Bauddha  doctrines  we  have  rather  to  look  to  the  Pali  scriptures  of 
'  the  southern  branch.     Nor  can  we  do  more  here  than  briefly  allude 
\  to  the  theories  of  a  few  of  the  less  prominent  heterodox  systems, 
{  however  interesting  they  may  be  for  a  history  of  human  thought. 
The  CJidrvdkas,  an  ancient  sect  of  undisguised  materialism,  who 
deny  the  existence  of  the  soul,  and  consider  the  huhian  person 
{})urt(s/ia}  to  be  an  organic  body  endowed  with  sensibility  and  with 
thought,  resulting  from  a  modification  of  the  component  material 
elements,  ascribe  their  origin  to  Brihaspati;  but  their  authoritative 
text-book,  the  Bdrhaspatya-s&tra,  is  only  known  so  far  from  a  lew 
quotations. 

The  PdiicJiardlra^i,  or  Bhdgavatax,  are  an  early  Vaishnava  sect, 
in  which  the  doctrine  of  faith,  already  alluded  to,  is  strongly 
developed.  Hence  their  tenets  are  defended  by  Kaminuja,  though 
they  are  partly  condemned  as  heretical  in  the  Brahma-sutras.  Their 
recognized  Icxt-book  is  the  Nnrada-Pafichardtra.'^^  According  to 
their  theory  the  Supreme  Being  (Bhagavat,  Vasudeva,  Vislinu) 
became  four  separate  persons  by  successive  production.  While  the 
Supremo  Being  himself  is  indued  with  the  six  qualities  of  know- 
ledge, power,  strength,  absolute  sway,  vigour,  and  oiicrg}*,  the  three 
divine  persons  succcssivclycmanating  from  him  and  from  one  another 
represent  the  living  soul,  mind,  and  consciousness  respectively. 

The  Pdsupafas,  one  of  several  6aiva  (Mahe^vara)  sects,  hold  tho 
Supreme  Being  {isvara),  whom  they  identify  with  6iva,  to  be  the 
creator  and  ruler  of  the  world,  but  not  its  material  cause,  With 
the  Sankhyas  they  admit  the  notion  of  a  plastic  material  cause,  the 
Pradkdiia;  while  they  follow  Patai-ijali  in  maintaining  tho  exist- 
ence of  a  Supr'Mue  God 

7  Edited  and  trunslntcd  by  J.  fi.  IJnUantyno. 

B  Edited  uml  traiislaled.  with  conimentnry,  by  E.  RiJer. 

"  Edited  ami  irHnsIated,  with  eommentnry,  by  E.  B.  CowcIl. 
10  Sc-c  B.  II.  Hodgson,  7%*  Lanyuayes,  Littratfre,  and  Religion  of  I^cpal  and 
Tibet. 

M  Lalita-tiftara.  edited  and  pnitly  tr.nnsJatcd  by  Rfijemlralflla  Mi!r«;  Uahd- 
rnttu.  e<Mlcd  F,  St-nart ;  Vit.ira  intrichheda,  cdlird  M.  MUlIer;  SaiMhnnna' 
piindarika,  tran.vl.itcd  by  E.  JJlimotlf  ('*  Lotii«  do  la  bonne  led  ");  and  H,  Kern» 
Sacred  HocU  of  the  £ait.  "  tUItLd  by  K.  >\.  Bantijca. 


292 


SANSKRIT 


[litekature. 


Sram-  hi.  Grammar  (rv^tarana). — We  found  this  subject  enumer- 
MAB.  ated  as  one  of  tho  six  "limbs  of  the  Veda,"  or  auxiliary  sciences, 
the  study  of  which  was  deemed  necessary  for  a  correct  interpreta- 
tion of  the  sacred  Mantras,  and  the  proper  performance  of  Vedic 
rites.  Linguistic  imjuiry,  phonetic  as  well  as  grammatical,  was 
indeed  early  resorted  to  both  for  the  purpose  of  elucidating  the 
meaning  of  the  Veda,  and  with  the  view  of  settling  its  textual 
form.  The  particular  work  which  came  ultimately  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  "veddnga"  representative  of  grammatical  science,, 
and  has  ever  since  remained  the  standard  authority  for  Sanskrit 
P^nini.  grammar  in  India,  is  Piinini's  Asktddkydyt,^  so  called  from  its 
"consisting  of  eight  lectures  {adhydya)"  of  four  pdcfas  each.  For 
a  comprehensive  grasp  of  linguistic  facts,  and  a  penetrating  insight 
into  the  structure  of  the  vernacular  language,  this  work  stands 
probably  unrivalled  in  the  literature  of  any  nation, — though 
few  other  languages,  it  is  true,  atford  such  facilities  as  the  Sans- 
krit for  a  scientihc  analysis.  Panini's  system  of  arrangement 
dilfers  entirely  from  that  usually  adopted  in  our  grammars,  viz., 
according  to  the  so-called  parts  of  speech.  As  the  work  is  com- 
posed in  aphorisms  intended  to  be  learnt  by  heart,  economy  of 
memory-matter  was  the  author's  paramount  consideration.  His 
object  was  chiefly  attained  by  the  grouping  together  of  all  cases 
exhibiting  the  same  phonetic  or  formative  feature,  no  matter 
whether  or  not  they  belonged  to  the  same  part  of  speech.  For 
this  purpose  he  also  makes  use  of  a  highly  artificial  and  ingenious 
system  of  al_gebraic  symbols,  consisting  of  technical  letters  {ami- 
bandha),  used  chiefly  with  suffixes,  and  indicative  of  the  changes 
which  the  root?  or  stems  have  to  undergo  in  word-formation. 

It  is  Lclf-evident  that  so  complicated  and  complete  a  system  of 
linguistic  analysis  and  nomenclature  could  not  have  sprung  up  qU 
at  once  and  in  the  infancy  of  grammatical  science,  but  that  many 
generations  of  scholars  must  have  helped  to  bring  it  to  that  degree 
of  perfection  which  it  exhibits  in  Panini's  work.  Accordiiigly  we 
find  Panini  himself  making  reference  in  various  places  to  ten  dif- 
ferent grammarians,  besides  two  schools,  which  he  callsthe  "eastern 
(prdnckas)''  and  "northern  (iidafichas)"  grammarians.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  of  his  predecessors  was  Sakatayana,-  also 
mentioned  by  Yaska — the  author  of  the  Nirukta,  who  is  likewise 
supposed  to  have  preceded  Paniui — as  the  only  grammarian  [vaiyd- 
karaiia)  who  held  with  the  etymologists  {imirukta)  that  all  nouns 
are  derived  from  verbal  roots.  Unfortunately  there  is  little  hope 
of  the  recovery  of  his  grammar,  which  would  probably  have  enabled 
us  to  determine  somewhat  more  exactly  to  what  extent  Panini  was 
indebted  to  the  labours  of  his  predecessors..  There  exists  indeed  a 
grammar  in  South  Indian  MSS.,  entitled  Sahddnuidsana,  which  is 
ascribed  to  one, Sakatayana  ;'  but  this  has  been  proved"*  to  be  tlio 
production  of  a  modern  Jaina  writer,  which,  however,  seems  to  be 
partly  based  on  the  original  work,  and  partly  on  Panini  and  others. 
Panini  is  also  called  Dakshiputra,  after  his  mother  Dakshi.  As 
his  birthplace  the  village  Salatura  is  mentioned,  which  was  situated 
some  few  miles  north-west  of  the  Indus,  in  the  country  of  the 
Gandharas,  wlience  later  writers  also  call  him  Salaturiya,  the 
formation  of  which  name  he  liimself  explains  in  his  grammar. 
Another  name  sometimes  applied  to  him  is  Salanki.  In  the  Kathd- 
saritsdgara,  a  modern  collection  of  popular  tales  mentioned  above, 
Panini  is  said  to  have  been  the  pupil  of  Varsha,  a  teacher  at  Pata- 
lipiitra,  under  the  reign  of  Nanda,  the  father  (?)  of  Chandragupta 
(315-291  B.C.).  The  real  date  of  the  great  grammarian  is,  how- 
ever, still  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  While  Goldstiicker  ^  attempted 
to  put  his  date  back  to  ante-Buddhist  times  (about  the  7th 
century  B.C.),  Prof.  Weber  holds  that  Panini's  grammar  cannot 
have  been  composed  till  some  time  after  the  invasion  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  This  opinion  is  chiefly  based  on  the  occurrence  in  one 
of  the  Sutras  of  the  word  yavandnt,  in  the  sense  of  "the  writing 
of  the  Yavanas  (loniaus),"  tkus  implying,  it  would  seem,  such  an 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  alphabet  as  it  would  be  impossible  to 
assume  for  any  period  prior  to  Alexander's  Indian  campaign 
(326  B.C.).  But,  as  it  is  by  no  means  certain^  that  this  terra 
really  applies  to  the  Greek  alphabet,  it  is  scarcely  expedient  to 
make  the  word  the  corner-stone  of  the  argimient  regarding  Panini's 
.ige.  If  Patanjali's  "great  commentary"  was  written,  as  seems 
highly  probable,  about  the  middle  ot  the  2ud  century  B.C.,  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  assign  to  Punini  a  later  date  than  about  400  B.C. 
Though  this  grammarian  registers  numerous  words  and  formations 
as  peculiar  to  the  Vedic  hymns,  his  chief  concern  is  with  the  ordi- 
nary speech  (bhdshd)  of  his  period  and  its  litc'rature  ;  and  it  is 
noteworthy,  in  this  respect,  that  the  rules  lie  lays  down  on  some 
important"  points  of  syntax  (as  pointed  out  by  Profs.  Bhandarkar 
lud  Kielhorn)  are  in  accord  with  the  practice  of  the  Brahmanas 
rather  than  with  that  of  tiie  later  classical  literature. 

1  Printed,  ^rlth  a  commentaiT.  at  CaJcuttd;  also,  with  notes,  inJeies,  and  aq 
Instinctive  introduction,  by  0.  Buhclin^;k, 

2  I.e.,  son  of  Sakata,  whence  he  is  also  i^alled  &aka(dn^«ja. 
■  Compare  G.  Biiliier's  paper,  Orienl  und  Occident,  p.  d91  jt/. 

•  A.  EuineU,  On  the  Aindra  School  of  Sanskrit  Orammijrians. 

*  Pdnini,  his  place  in  Sansi;rit  Literature.  ISGI. 

«  See  Lassen,  Jnd.  Alt..  I.  p.  723 ;    M.  Uuller,  Biti.  >/  A.  S.  Lit.,  p.  5?t ;  A. 
eber,  Ind.  Stud.,  v.  p.  2  tq. 


Panini's  S&traa  continued  for  ages  after  to  form  the  centre  of 
grammatical  activity.  But,  as  his  own  work  had  superseded  those 
of  his  predecessors,  so  many  of  the  scholars  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  task  of  perfecting  his  system  have  sunk  into 
oblivion.  The  earliest  of  his  successors  whose  work  has  come 
down  to  us  (though  perhaps  not  in  a  separate  form),  is  Katy&yana,  KAtyl- 
the  author  of  a  large  collection  of  concise  critical  notes,  called  yana. 
Vdrttika,  intended  to  supplement  and  correct  the  Siltras,  or  give 
them  greater  precision.  The  exact  date  of  this  writer  is  likewise 
unknown  ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  he  lived  at  least  a 
century  after  PaninL  During  the  interval  a  new  body  of  literature 
seems  to  have  sprung  up,^ — accompanied  with  considerable  changes 
of  language, — and  the  geographical  knowledge  of  India  extended 
over  large  tracts  towards  the  south.  Whether  this  is  the  same 
Katyayana  to  whom  the  Vajasaneyi-pratisakhya  (as  well  as  the 
Sarvanukrama)  is  attributed,  is  still  doubted  by  some  scholars.^ 
Katyayana  being  properly  a  family  or  tribal  name,  meaning  "the 
descendant  of  Katya,  '  later  works  usually  assign  a  second  name 
Vararuchi  to  the  writers  (for  there  are  at  least  two)  who  bear 
it.  The  Kathdsaritsagara  makes  the  author  of  the  Varttikas  a 
fellow-student  of  Panini,  ajid  afterwards  the  minister  of  King 
Nanda  ;  but,  though  this  date  might  have  fitted  Katyayana  well 
enough,  it  is  impossible,  to  place  any  reliance  on  the  statements 
derived  from  such  a  source.  Katyayana  was  succeeded  again, 
doubtless  after  a  considerable  iuterval,  by  Patafijali,  the  author  of  Pata&jalL 
the  {Vydkarana-)  Jilakd-bkdshy a, ^ or  Great  Commentary.  For  the 
great  variety  of  information  it  incidentally  supplies  regarding  the 
literature  and  manners  of  the  period,  this  is,  from  an  historical 
and  antiquarian  point  of  view,  one  of  the  most  important  works  of 
the  classical  Sanskrit  liti^ature.  Fortunately  the  author's  date  ' 
has  been  settled  by  syuchionisms  implied  in  two  passages  of  his 
work.  In  one  of  them  the  use  of  the  imperfect — as  the  tensP 
referring  to  an  event,  known  to  people  generally,  not  witnessed  by 
the  speaker,  and  yet  capable  of  being  witnessed  by  him — is  illus- 
trated by  the  statemt^nt,  "  The  Y^vana  besieged  Saketa,"  which 
there  is  reason  to  believe  can  only  refer  to  the  Indo-Bactrian  king 
Menander  (1-14-c.  124  B.C.),  who,  according  to  Strabo,  extended  his 
rule  as  far  as  the  Yamuna,^'*  In  the  other  passage  the  use  of  the 
present  is  illustrated  by  the  sentence,  "We  are  sacrificing  for  Push- 
pamitra," — this  prince  (i78-(*.  142  B.C.),  the  founder  of  the  Sunga 
dynasty,  being  known  to  have  fought  against  the  Greeks.^"  We 
thus  get  the  years  144-142  B.C. 'as  the  probable  time  when  the 
work,  or  part  of  it,  was  composed.  Although  Patanjali  prob-^bly 
gives  not  a  few  traditional  grammatical  examples  mechanically 
repeated  from  his  predecessors,  those  here  mentioned  are  fortun- 
ately such  as,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  must  have  been 
made  by  himself.  The  Mahabhashya  is  not  a  continuous  com- 
mentary on  Panini's  grammar,  but  deals  only  with  those  Sutras 
(some  1720  out  of  a  total  of  nearly  4000)  on  which  Katyayana  had 
proposed  any  Varttikas,  the  critical  discussion  of  which,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  respective  Siitras,  and  with  the  views  of  other  gram- 
marians expressed  thereon,  is  the  sole  object  of  Patanjali's  com- 
raentatorial  remarks.  Though  doubts  have  been  raised  as  to  the 
textual  condition  of  the  work,  Prof.  Kielhorn  has  clearly  shown 
that  it  has  probably  been  handed  down  in  as  good  a  state  of  pre- 
servation as  any  other  classical  Sanskrit  work.  Patanjali  is  also 
called  Gonardiya, — which  name  Prof.  Bhandarkar  takes  to  mean 
"a  native  of  Gonarda,"  a  pilace,  according  to  the  same  scholar, 
probably  identical  with  Gonda,  a  town  some  20  miles  north-west  of 
Oudh, — and  Gonikaputra,  or  sou  of  Gonika.  Whether  there  is  any 
connexion  between  tliis  writer  and  the  reputed  author  of* the 
Yogasastra  is  doubtful.  The  Mabw6hashya  has  been  commented 
upon  by  Kaiyata,  in  his  Bhdshyapradlpa,  and  the  latter  again  by 
Nagojibhatta,  a  distinguished  grammarian  of  the  earlier  part  of  the 
last  century,  in  his  Bhdihya-pradipoddyota. 

Of  running  commentaries  on  Panini's  Siitras,  the  oldest  extant  Kiiik& 
and  most  important  is  the  Kdsikd  VriHi,^^  or  "comment  of  Kast  vritti. 
(Benares),"  the  joint  production  of  two  Jaina  writers  of  probably 
the  tarst  half  of  the  7th  ceotui-y,  viz.,  Jayaditya  and  Vamana,  each 
of  whom  composed  one  half  (four  adhyayas)  of  the  work.  The  chief 
commentaries  on  this  work  are  Haradatta  llisra's  Padamaiijari, 
which  also  embodies  the  substance  of  tho  Mahabhashya,  and 
Jinendra-buddhi's  Nydsa.^ 

Educational  requirements  in  course  of  time  led  to  the  appearance  Modem 
of  grammars,  chiefly  of  an  elenjentary  character,  constructed  on  a  grammara. 

^  F.  Kielhorn.  K-itydi/ana  utd  Palavjali,  1876.  The  Sangraha,  a  huge  metri- 
z&l  work  on  grammar,  by  VjUdi,  which  la  fiequcutly  referred  to,  doulJtUas 
tjelongs  to  this  period. 

*£.?,.  .4.  Weber.  Goldstiicker  and  M.  Miiller  take  the  opposite  view. 
*  Part  of  this  work  was  first  printed  by  Ballantyne;  followed  by  a  lithographed 
edition,  by  two  Benares  pandits,  1S71 ;  and  a  photo- lithographic  edition  of  tlia 
text  and  commentaries,  published  by  the  India  Office,  under  Goldstiicker'B 
supervision,  1874  ;  finally,  a  critical  edition,  now  in  progress,  by  F.  Kielho:!). 
For  a  review  of  the  literaiy  and  antiquarian  data  supplied  by  the  work,  see  A- 
Weber,  Ind.  Stud.,  xiii.  '293  gq.  The  author's  date  has  been  frequently  dis- 
cussed, most  thoroughly  and  successfully  by  R,  G.  Bhandarkar  In  several  papers. 
See  also  A.  Weber,  Hiit.  of  /.  L.,  p  £23.  ><»  Lassen,  Ind.  AU.,  d.  341,  3G2 

11  Edited  by  Pandit  B&la  Sastil,  Benares,  1876-78. 
<2  Ac]  ii  12  quoted  by  Vopadeva,  it  cannot  be  later  than  the  12th  century. 


LirERATtTEE.J 


SANSKRIT 


293 


Chandrft, 


K&tantra. 


Hema- 
chandra, 


Sub. 

Sidiary 

gram- 

niatieal 

treatises. 


DlCTICN- 
ABIEa 


mc^re  practical  system  of  arrano;pment — the  principal  heads  under 
which  the  grammatical  matter  was  distributed  usually  being — 
rules  of  euphony  {savdhi)  ;  inflexion  of  nouns  {ndman),  geae- 
liUy  including  composition  and  secondary  derivatives  ;  the  verb 
(dkhydta) ;  and  primary  [krid-anta)  derivatives.  In  this  way  a 
number  of  grammatical  schools*  sprang  up  at  different  times,  each 
recognizing  a  special  set  of  Sutras,  round  which  gradually  gathered 
a  more  or  less  numerous  body  oE  comriientatonal  and  subsidiary 
treatises.  As  regards  the  grammatical  material  itself,  these  later 
grammars  supply  comparatively  little  that  is  not  already  contained 
in  the  older  works, — the  difference  being  mainly  one  of  method, 
and  partly  of  terminology,  including  modifications  of  the  system 
of  technical  letters  [anubandha).  Of  the  grammars  of  this  descrip- 
tion hitherto  known  the  Chdiidra-vijdkarana  is  probably  the 
oldest, — its  author  Chandra  Acharya  having  flourished  under  Kin^ 
Abhimanyu  of  Kashmir,  who  is  usually  supposed  to  have  lived 
towards  the  end  of  the  2d  century,-  and  in  whose  reign  that 
grammarian  is  stated,  along  with  others,  to  have  revived  the  Btndy 
of  the  Mahabhashya  in  Kashmir.  Only  portions  of  this  graramai', 
with  a  commentary  by  Anandadatta,  have  as  yet  been  recovered. 

The  Kdtantra^^  or  Kdldpa,  is  ascribed  to  Kum3.ra,  the  god  of  war, 
whence  this  school  is  also  sometimes  called  Kaumdra.  The  real 
author  probably  was  6arva-varman,  who  also  wrote  the  original 
commentary  {vritti),  which  was  afterwards  recast  by  Durgasimha, 
and  again  commented  upon  by  the  same  writer,  and  subsequently 
by  Trilochana-disa.  The  date  of  the  Kitantra  is  unknown,  but  it 
will  probably  have  to  be  assigned  to  about  the  6th  or  7th  century. 
It  is  still  used  id  many  parts  of  India,  especially  in  Bengal 
and  Kashmir.  Other  grammars  are — tho  Sdrasvail  Prakriyd^  by 
Anubhiiti  Svarilpacharya  ;  the  Sankshipta-sdra,  composed  by 
Kramadisvara,  and  corrected  by  Jumara-nandin,  whence  it  is  also 
called  Jaumara  ;  the  Haima-vydkarana,*  by  the  Jaina  writer 
Hemachandra  (1088-1172,  according  to  Dr  Bhao  Daji)  ;  the 
Mugdha-bodha,^  composed,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  century, 
by  Vopadeva,  the  court  pandit  of  King  Mahddeva  (Ramaraja)  of 
Devagiri  (or  Deoghar)  ;  the  Siddhdnta-kaumudt,  the  favourite 
text-book  of  Indian  students,  by  Bhattoji  Dikshita  {I7th  cen- 
tury) ;  and  a  clever  abridgment  of  it,  tho  Laghii-  (Siddhdnla-) 
kaumudt,^  by  Varadanija. 

Several  subsidiary  grammatical  treatises  remain  to  be  noticed. 
The  Paribhdshds  arc  general  maxims  ot  interpretation  presupposed 
by  the  Stitras.  Those  handed  down  as  applicable  to  Panini's 
system  have  been  interpreted  most  ably  by  Kagojibhatta,,  iu  his 
ParibdskejiduhkharaJ  In  the  case  of  rules  applying  to  whole 
groups  of  words,  the  complete  lists  (gana)  of  these  words  are  given 
m  the  Ganapdlka,  and  only  referred  to  in  tho  Siltras.  Vardha- 
mS-na's  Oaliaraitia-viaJiodadhi,^  a  comparatively  modern  recension 
of  these  lists  (1140  a.d.  ),  is  valuable  as  ollering  the  only  available 
commentary  on  the  Ganas  which  contain  many  words  of  unknown 
meaning.  The  Dkdlupdthas  are  complete  lists  of  tho  roots  {dhdtu)  of 
the  language,  with  their  general  meanings.  The  lists  handed  dowu 
under  this  title,*  as  arranged  by  Panini  himself,  have  been  com- 
mented upon,  amongst  others,  by  Matlhava.  The  Unddi-sHtras  are 
rules  on  the  formation  of  irregular  derivatives.  The  oldest  work 
of  this  kind,  commented  upon  by  Ujjvaladatta,'"  is  by  some  writers 
ascribed  to  Katyayana  Vararuchi,  by  others  even  to  Sakatayana. 
The  oldest  known  treatise  on  the  philosophy  of  grammar  and 
syntax  is  the  Vdkya-padhja,^^  composed  in  verse,  by  Bhartrihari 
{?  7th  century),  whence  it  is  also  called  Harikdrikd.  Of  later 
works  on  this  subject,  tho  Vaiydkarana-bhUshatm,  by  Konda- 
bhatta,  and  the  Vaiydkarana-siddhdnta-maiijUiihdf  by  Kagoji- 
bhatta, are  tho  most  important. 

IV.  LEXicoaRAPHT. — Sanskrit  dictionaries  {kosha),  invariably 
composed  in  verse,  aro  either  homonymous  or  synonymous,  or  partly 
the  one  and  partly  the  other.  Of  those  hitherto  published, 
SAivata's  Anekdrthasavntchchaya,^^  or  "collection  of  homonyms," 
ia  probably  the  oldest  While  in  tho  later  homonymic  vocabu- 
laries the  words  are  usually  arranged  according  to  tho  alphabetical 
order  of  the  final  (or  sometimes  tho  initial)  letter,  and  then  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  syllables,  ^asvata's  principle  of  anangemcnt 
—viz.,  the  number  of  meanings  assignable  to  a  word — seems  to  bo 
more  primitive.  Tho  work  probably  ne.vt  in  time  is  the  famous 
Amara-kosha'^^  ("immortal  treasury")  by  Amara-sirpha,  one  of 
"the  nine  gems"  at  the  court  of  King  Vikramaditya  (c.  550  A. D.). 
This  dictionary  consists  of  a  synonymous  and  a  short  homonymous 
part ;  whilst  in  the  fohmer  the  words  are  distributed  in  eections 

^  I)r  Bumell,  In  his  Aindra  School,  proposes  to  apply  this  term  to  all 
grammaii!  arranKed  on  thU  pUn. 

»  Prof.  Bhandarkar,  Early  Ilhtory  of  the  Dekhan,  p.  20.  propoaca  to  fix  him 
•bout  the  end  of  the  3d  century.  >  Ed.,  with  cftmm.,  by  J.  Kggellng. 

«  Part  ed.  and  tiansl.  by  R.  Plschel.  »  Ed.  by  O.  BiihUlngk,  1847. 

•  Ed.  and  trans],  by  J.  R.  Ballantyno.  For  other  modern  prammars  eeo 
Colebrookc,  Eaayt,  11.  p.  41;  Rfljcndralftla  MItra,  Deicriptive  Catalogue,  1,, 
Grammar.  7,  Ed.  and  transl.  by  F.  Kielhom. 

8  Ed.  by  J.  EjtRGllnff.  »  Ed.  i>y  N.  L.  WcstcrguarJ.. 

>0  Text  and  commentary,  cd.  by  Th.  Aufrecht. 
»>  In  coui-se  of  publication,  with  commcnturlea,  at  Btnarcs. 
"  Kd.  by  Th.  Zacharlao. 
w  Edltod  by  H.  T.  Colcbrooko  (1803X  and  by  L-  Dcslongchomps  (ISGiMfi). 


according  to  subjects,  as  heaven  and  the  gods,  time  and  season? 
&c.,  in  the  latter  they  aro  arranged  according  to  their  final  letfsr, 
without  regard  to  the  number  of  syllables.  This  Kosha  has  found 
many  commentators,  the  oldest  of  those  known  being  Kshiiu.- 
svamin."  Among  the  works  quoted  by  commentators  as  Amara's 
sources  are  tho  Trikdnda  and  Utpalint-koshas^  and  the  glossaries 
of  Rabhasa-,  Vyadi,  Katyayana,  and  Vararuchi.  A  Kosha 
ascribed  to  Vararuchi, — whom  tradition  makes  one  of  the  nine 
literary  '*gems,"  and  hence  the  contemporary  of  Aniara-siqiha, — 
consisting  of  ninety  short  sections,  has  been  printed  at  Benares 
(1865)  in  a  collection  of  twelve  Koshas,  The  Abhidhdna-ratna- 
mdld,^^  by  HalayudhgL ;  the  VUvaprakdia,  by  Jfabesvara  (1111); 
and  the  Abhidhdna-chintdmani^^  (or  Haima-kosha),  by  the  Jaina 
Hemachandra,  seem  all  three  to  belong  to  tho  12th  century. 
Somewhat  earlier  thay  these  probably  is  Ajaya  Pala,  the  author 
of  the  (homonymous)  Ndndrtha-sangraha,  being  quoted  by  Var- 
dhamana  (1140  A.D.),  Of  more  uncertain  date  is  Purushottama 
Dova,  who  wroto  the  Trikdnda-icsha,  a  supplement  to  the 
Amarakosha,  besides  tho  Hdrdralt,  a  Collection  of  uncommoa 
words,  and  two  other  short  glossaries.  Of  numerous  other  works 
of  this  class  the  most  important  is  the  Mcdint,  a  dictionary  of 
homonyms,  arranged  iu  the  first  place  according  to  the  finals  nnd 
the  syllabic  length,  and  then  alphabetically.  Tv.'o  important 
dictionaries,  copipiled  by  native  scholars  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, are  the  Sabdakalpadruma  by  Xiadhakanta  Deva,  and  the 
J'dchnspatya,  by  Taranatha  Tarka-vachaspati.  A  full  account 
of  Sanskrit  dictionaries  is  contained  in  the  preface  to  tho  first 
edition  of  H.  H.  Wilson's  Dictionary,  reprinted  in  his  Essays  on 
Sanskrit  Literature,  vol.  iii. 

V.  Prosody  [Chhandas). — The  oldest  trea^tises  on  prosody  have  PrOSODS. 
already  been  referred  to  in  the  account  of  the  technical  branches 

of  the  later  Vedic  literature.  Among  more  modern  treatises  the 
most  important  are  the  Mrifa-sanjicani,  a  commentary  ou 
Pingala's  Siitra,  by  Hdayudha  (perhaps  identical  with  tho  author, 
of  the  glossary  above  referred  to)  ;  the  Vritta-ratndkara,  or 
"jewel-mine  of  metres,"  in  six  chapters,  composed  before  tho 
13th  century  by  Kedara  Bhatta,  with  several  commentaries;  and 
the  Chhando-inafljari,  likewise  in  six  chapters,  by  Gangadasa. 
The  Srti/abodha,  ascribed,  probably  wrongly,  to  tho  great  KalidilsaJ 
is  a  comparatively  insigniticanfr  teeatise,  dealing  only  with  the 
niore  common  metrCs,  in  such  a  way  that  each  Couplet  forma  a) 
specimen  <jf  the  metro  it  descrioes.  Tho  Vritta-darpana  treats 
chiefly  of  Prakrit  metres.  Sanskrit  prosody,  which  is  probably  not 
surpassed  by  any  other  either  in  variety  of  ir^tre  or  in  harmonious- 
uess  of  rhythm,  recognizes  two  classes  of  metres,  viz.,  such  as  con- 
sist of  a  certain  number  of  syllables  of  fixed  quantity,  and  such 
as  aro  regulated  by  groups  of  breves  or  metrical  instants,  this 
latter  class  being  again  of  two  kinds,  according  as  it  is  or  is  notf.  ' 
bound  by  a  fixed  order  of  feet.  A  pleasant  account  of  Sanskrit 
poetics  is  given  in  Colebrooke's  Essays,  vol.  ii.  ;  a  more  complete 
and  systematic  one  by  Prof.  Weber,  Ind.  Stud.,  vol.  viii. 

VI.  Music  (Sdirgita). — The  musical  art  lias  been   practised  in  Musift 
India  from  early  times.     The  theoretic  treatises  on  profane  music 

now  extant  are,  however,  quite  modern  productions.  The  two 
most  highly  esteemed  works  aro  tho  Sanglla-ratndkara  ("jewel- 
mine  of  music"),  bySarngadeva,  and  the  Sangita-darpana  ("  mirror 
of  music"),  by  Dimodara.  Each  of  these  works  consists  of  seven 
chapters,  treating  respectively  of— (1)  sound  and  musical  notes 
[avara)  ;  (2)  mtlodies  {rdga)  ;  (3)  music  in  connexion  with  the 
human  voice  {2)raktrnaka) ;  (4)  musical  compositions  {prabandha)  ; 
(5)  time  and  measure  {tula)  ;  (6)  musical  instruments  and  instru- 
mental music  (I'ddya)  ;  (7)  dancing  and  acting  {7iritta  or  iiritya). 
The  Indian  octave  consists  like  our  own  of  seven  chief  notes 
{svara)  ;  but,  while  with  us  it  is  subdivided  into  twelve  semi-tones, 
the  Hindu  theory  distinguishes  twenty-two  intervals  {£ruti, 
audible  sound).  There  is,  however,  some  doubt  as  to  whether 
these  &rutis  are  quite  equal  to  ono  another, — in  which  case  tho  '  . 
intervals  between  tho  cliief  notes  would  be  unequal,  since  they 
consist  of  either  two  or  three  or  four  irutis^^-or  whether,  if  the 
intervals  between  the  chief  notes  be  equal,  t^e  ^rutls  themselves  , 
vary  in  duration  between  quarter-,  third-,  and  semi-tones.  There 
are  three  scales  {grdma),  dilTering  from  each  other  in  tho  nature 
of  tlie  chief  intervals  (either  as  rcgards'actual  duration,  or  "llio 
numbeV  of  firutis  or  sub-tones).  Indian  music  consists  almoiit 
entirely  in  melotly,  instrumental  ac(nnii)animent  being  performed 
in  unison,  and  any  attempt  at  liannony  tuing  conhned  to  tliQ 
continuation  of  the  key-note.  A  numlmr  of  papers,  by  varioua 
writers,*  have  been  reprinted  with  additional  remarks  oir\  tLe 
subject,-  in  Sourindro  Mohua  Tagorc's  Hindxi,  Music,  Calcutta, 
1 875.  Com  pare  also  "  Hindu  JI  usic, "  reprinted  from  tho 
llindoo  Patriot,  September  7,  1874. 

VII.  Rhetohio  (^/a7ii-<!ra-^tl./ra).— Treatises  on  the  theory  of  RHSTi 

■ ^ ORIC. 

**  A  giammarian  of  tills  name  In  mentioned  as  the  tutor  of  King  Jayflph.la  of 
Knjihinlr  (76&-78(!  A.d);  but  Kshlrn,  tho  commentator  on  Amara  is  placed  by 
i'rof.  Aufrecht  between  the  Hth  and  12tU  centuries,  because  he  quotes  Iho 
^ub'lflnuSlsana  ascilbiid  to  IlhojurAja. 

1*  Ed.  by  Th,  Aufrecht  (Ibi^i '  "  Ed.  by  0.  Luht::.ii{k  and  C.  Itleu  (I8U); 


294 


S  A  N  S  K  K  1  T 


[litekatuke. 


Medi 

•OINE. 


iiterarv  composition  are  very  numerous.     Indeed,  a  subject  of  this 
descrintion-involving  such  nice  distinctions  as  regards  the  various 
kinds  of  poetic  composition,  tho  particular  subjects  and  cliaracters 
adapted  tor  them,  and  tho  diftercnt  sentiments  or  niental  condi- 
tions capable  of  being  both  depictured  and  called  f,. ...  oy  them— 
■«>uld  not  but  bo  congenial  to  tho  Indian  mind      II.  H.  V\  ilson,  in 
his  Theatre  of  the  Hindus,   has  given  a  detailed  account  of  these 
theoretic  distinctions  with  special  reference  to  the  drama,  which  as 
tho   most  perfect  and   varied  kind  of  poetic  production,  usually 
takes  an  important  place   in  the   theory  of  literary  contiposition. 
rrhe  Bharata-idstra  has  already  been  alluded  to  as  probably  the 
oldest   extant  work  in   this   department   of  literature      Another 
comparatively  ancient  treatise  is  t\x^  KdvyMaria^  or     mirror  of 
poetry,"  in   three  chapters,  by  Dandm,  the  author  of  the  novel 
baiakmnriiacharita,     who     probably    flourished     not    long    after 
KMid.asa  (whose  Prakrit  poem  Setubandha  he  <iuotes)  m  the  Cth 
«enturv.     The  work  consists  of  three  chapter^   treating-{l)  of  two 
different  local  styles  {rlti)  of  poetry,  the  Uaudl  and  the  Va>darbhl 
(to   which  later  critics   add   four  othei-s,-  the    Faflchall,  Migadht, 
Lali,  and  Avantik.i)  ;  (2)  of  the  graces  and  ornaments  of  style,  as 
tropes,    figures,    similes  ;  (3)   of  alliteration,  literary  puzzles,  and 
twelve  kinds  of  faults  to  be  avoided  in  composing  poems.     Another 
treatise    on  rhetoric,    in    Siitras,    wdth    a.  commentary    entitled 
KdmManUra-vritti,  is  ascribed  to  \  imana.     Prof.    Cappcllei     to 
whom  we  owe  an  edition  of  this  work,  is  inclined  to  fix  it  as  late 
as  the  12th  century  ;  but  it  may  turn  out  to  be  somewhat  older. 
The    KivvilankAm,    by    the    Kashmirian   Rudrata,    must    have 
been    composed   prior   to    the    llth   century,    as    a    gloss   on   it 
(by  Nami),  which  professes  to  bo  based  on  older  commentaries, 
wi    written    in    1063.       Dhananjaya,    the   author  of  the  Dam- 
Tina'  or   "ten  forms  (of  plays),"  the  favourite  compendium  of 
dramaturgy,  appears  to  have  flourished  in  the  10th  century.     In 
the  concluding  stanza  he  is  stated  to  have  composed  his  work  at 
the  court  of  King  Muftja.  who  is  probably  identical  with  the  well- 
known  Malava  prince,  the  uncle  and  predecessor  of  King  Bhoja  ot 
Dhiri      The  Dasarftpa  was  early  commented  upon  by  Dhanika, 
possibly  the  author's  own  brother,  their  father's  name  being  tlie 
^me  (-V-ishnul      Dhanika  quotes  Rlja^ekhava,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  about  1000  a.d.,»  but  may  after  all  have  to  be  put 
Bomewhat  earlier.      The    &arasmtt-kanlMhliarana        tho    neck- 
ornament  of  Sarasvati  (the  goddess  of  eloquence),     a.  treatise,  m 
five  chapters,  on  poetics  gener.iUy,  remarkable    for  its  wealth  ot 
quotations,  is  ascribed  to  King  Bhoja  himself  (llth  century),  pro- 
bably as  a  compliment  by  some  writer  patronized  by  him.      lUo 
Kduja-prakdia,^  "  tho  lustre  of  poetry,"  another  esteemed  work  ot 
the  same  class,  in  ten  sections,  was  probably  composed  in  tlie  Utli 
century,— the. author,  Mammata,  a  Kashmirian,  havin»  been  the 
maternal  uncle  of  Sri-Harsl,a,  the  author  of  the  Naishadhiya      The 
Sdhilija-darpana,'  or   "mirror  of  composition,'   the  standard  work 
on  literary  criticism,  was  composed  in  the  15th  century,  on  die  banks 
of  the  Brahmaputra,  by  Visvan.itlia  Kavir.ija.     The  work  consists 
of  ten  chapters,  treating  of  the  following  subjects  :-(l)  'h"  "ft"" 
of   poetry;  (2)    the   sentence;  (3)   poetic   flavour  (rasa)  ;  W    the 
divisions  of  poetry  ;  (5)  the  functions  of  literary  suggestion  ;  (o) 
visible  and  audible  poetry  (chiefly  on  dramatic  art) ;  (7)  faults  of 
style;  (8)  merits  ot  style  •  (91  distinction  ot  styles  ;  (10)  ornaments 

■  "  Vlll'  Medicike  (Jyvr-Mtia,  ra!(?i/a-i<!s/ra).— Though  tho  early 
cultivation  of  the  healing  art  is  amply  attested  by  frequent  allu- 
sions in  the  Vedic  writings,  it  was  doubtless  not  till  a  much  later 
period  that  the  medical  practice  advanced  beyond  a  certain  degree 
of  empirical  skill  and  pharmaceutic  routine.  From  the  simultaneous 
mention  of  the  three  tumours  (wind,  bile,  phlegm)  m  a  v^rttika  to 
Panini  (v  1  38),  some  kind  of  humoral  pathology  would,  however, 
seem  to  have  been  prevalent  among  Indian  •  physicians  several 
centuries  before  our  era.  The  oldest  existing  work  Is  supposed  to 
be  the  amraka-samhitd,''  a  bulky  cyclop.-edia  in  slokas,  mi.xi-d  w  ith 
prosp  sections,  which  consisU  of  eight  chapters,  and  was  probably 
composed  some  centuries  after  Christ.  Of  equal  authority,  but 
probnblv  somewhat  more  modern,  is  the  Suiruta  (samhild),'  which 
SuSruta"  is  said  to  have  received  from  Dhanvnntarl,  the  Indian 
.ffisculapius,  whose  name,  however,  appeaw  also  among  the  "nine 
Eema"  c.  650  a.d.).  It  consists  of  six  chapters,  and  is  likewise 
composed  in  mixed  verse  and  prose,-tbe  greater  simplicity  of 
arran-'ement,  as  well  as  some  slight  attention  paid  in  it  to  surgery, 
betokening  an  advance  upon  Charaka.  Both  works  are,  however, 
characterized  by  great  prolixity,  and  contain  much  matter  which 
has  little  connexion  with  medicine.  Tho  late  Prof.  E.  Haas,  in 
frivo  very  su'-fcsrive  papers,"  tried  to  show  that  the  work  of  Susruta 


(identified  DV  him  with  I.  •  /ates,  so  often  confounded  in  th« 
Middle  Ages  with  Hippocr.i^)  was  probably  not  composed  tut 
after  the  Mohammedan  con  nest,  and  that,  so  far  from  the  .Iraljs 
(as  they  themselves  deckre)  having  derived  some  of  their 
knowledge  of  medical  scienc!  from  Indian  authorities,  tho  Indian 
Vaidyasfitra  was  nothing  h^it  a  poor  copy  of  Greek  niedicino,  as 
transmitted  by  tho  Arabs.  But  even  though  Greek  influence  may 
bo  traced  in  this  as  in  othif  branches  of  Indian  science,  there  cam 
bo  no  doabt,^  at  any  rate  that  both  Charaka  and  Susruta  were 
Known  to  the  Arab  Razt  (,».  932  a.d.),  and  to  the  author  of  the 
Fihrist  (completed  987  A.P  ),  and  that  their  works  must  therefora 
have  existed,  in  some  forua  or  other,  at  least  aa  early  aa  the  9th 
century.  Among  the  numerous  later  medical  w^orks  the  most 
important  general  compendiums  are  Vagbhata  sAshlAi^a-hrtdaya 
"the  heart  of  the  eight-limbed  (body  of  medical  science),  and 
Bhava  Misra's  Bhdm-prakdia ;  while  of  special  treatises  may  be 
mentioned  Madhava's  system  ot  nosology,  the  Rugmmichaya  o^ 
Mddhava-niddna,  and  Sarngadhara's  compendium  of  therapeutics, 
the  krnmdhara-samhild.  Materia  medica,  with  which  India  is 
so  lavishlV  endowed  by  nature,  is  a  favourite  subject  with  Umda 
medical  writers,-the  most  valued  treatise  being  the  Ruja-nighantu 
by  the  Kashmirian  Narahari.  Tho  best  general  view  ot  this  brancb 
of  Indian  science  is  continued  in  T.  A.  ^\  ise  s  Commtntary  on 
Hindu  Medicine,  1845,  and  in  his  History  of  Mcdiane  ToL  L, 
1867  ;  but  the  whole  subject,  including  the  principal  original 
works,  still  awaits  a  critical  investigation. 

IX    Astronomy  .AND    Mathejutics.— Hindu  astronomy  may  Astbo- 
be  broadly  divided  into  a  pre-scientific  and  a   scientific  period,  nomt 
While  the  latter  clearly  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  researches  and 
of  Hipparchus  and  other  Greet   astronomers,   it  is  still  doubtful  Mathe. 
whether  the  earlier  astrshomical  and  astrological  theories  of  Indian  uatics- 
writers   were   entirely  of    home   growth   or   partly  derived  from 
forei.'u  sources.     From  very  ancient  (probably  Indo-European)  times 
chronological  calculations  were  based  on  the  synodical  revolutions  of 
the  moon,-the  difference  between  twelve  such  revolutions  imaking 
together  354  days)  and  the  solar  year  being  adjusted  by  the  in- 
sertion, at  the  time  of  tho  winter  solstice,  of  twe  ve  additional  days 
Besides  this  primitive  mode  the  Rigveda  also  alludes  to  the  method 
prevalent  in  post-Vedic  times,  according  to  which  the  year  is  divided 
nto  twelve  {sdv<,na  or  solar)  months  of  thirty  days,  with  a  thir- 
teenth  month  intercalated    every  fifth  year.     This    qu"|q"™°  ^J 
cycle  (yuga)  is  explained  in  the  ^/j/c^i.^Aa,  regarded  as  the  oldest 
astronomical  treatise.     An  institution  which  occnmes  an  >n;Portant 
part  in  those  eariy  speculations  is  the  theory  of  the  so-called    unar 
zodiac,  or  svstcm  of  funar  mansions,  by  which  the  planetary  nath  m 
accordance  with  tho  duration  of  the  moon  s  rotation,  is  divided  into 
twenty-seven  or  twenty-eight  different  stations,  named  a  ter  certam 
constellations  (nakshatra)  which  are  found  alonplde  o   the  eclptic 
and  with  which  the  moon  (masc.)  was  supposed  to  dwell  b"«.«  '^ij 
durino  his  circuit.     The  same  institution  is  found  m  China  and 
Arabil-  but   it   is  still  doubtful"  .whether  the   Hindus,  as  some 
schokrs  hold,  or  the  Chalda^ans,  as  Prof.  Weber  thinks,  are  to  be 
credited  with  tho  invention  of  this  theory.     The  principal  works 
of  this  period  are  hitherto  known  from  quotations  only,  vu.,  the 
adrgt   Samhitd,   which  Prof.   Kern  would   fix  at  c.  M   B.C.,  the 

Jfdradi  Samhitd,  and  others.  9«;n  .  n     is 

Tho  new  era,  which  tho  same  scholar  dates  from  c.  250  AD.  is 
marked  by  the  appearance  of  the  five  original  Slddhantas  (partly 
citLnt  in  revised'^redactions  and  in  quotations),  tl-  -ry  -m-  °f 
two  of  which  suggest  Western  influence,  viz.,  the  FaUumaha-, 
Sarya-  ^^  VasishfL.  Romaka-  (i.e.,  Roman),  ^ni  PauUsa.-^d. 
dhdltas.  Based  on  these  are  the  rorks  of  the  most  distinguished 
Indian  astronomers,  viz.,  Aryabhata,'  probably  born  m  4/6; 
Varaha-mihira  "  probably  505-607;  Brahma-gunta,  who  completed 
l■:Bral^a■^^dd\dnta  L  628;  Bhatta  U'l-la  (10th  century) 
distinguished  especially  as  commentator  of  Varaha-mihira  ,  and 
Bhlskia  Acharfa,  who  finished  his  ffieat  ^""-^^  "  "?°7' '^^ 
Siddhdnta.iirJani,   in    1160.      In  the  works  of  several  of  these 


1  Ed.  with  commentary,  by  Premacliaiiara  Taikablgtso,  Bill.  Ind. 
S  Edited  by  Fitzc.lw.  Hall,  BiW.inrf.,  1805-  ,     .         ,^^.         „„ 

s  R.  I'.ijl.cl,  an.  atl.  a.,  ISSS;  G.  BUtiler,  hi.  Anl..  1S&4,  p.  .3. 

•  Ed.  bj-  Mflhca  Chandia  Xyftyaratna,  ISGil. 

•  Text  .ijiil  translation  In  Bibt.  Ind. 

•  Ed.  by  Jlb.niand.i  Vidj-asacara.  Calc,  1877.' 

'  Ed.  by  MadlYusudana  Gupta.  1535-37,  and  by  Jibananda  \  Idyasagara,  is.  • 
a  g.  D.  il,  O..  1S76,  n.  C17  tyj. :  1S77,  p.  Ct7  tq. 


Siddhdnta-iiroinani,  in  iioo.  lu  .u^  ,.„...„-. 
wiiteis  from  Aryabhata  onwards,  special  atten  ion  is  l^aid  to 
matlTema  caT  respecially  arithmetical  and  algebraic)  computs. 
tion  and  the  respective  chapters  of  Bhlskara's  eompeodium  viz. 
the  XIMrVj  and  hja-qamla,''  still  form  favourite  textbooks  of 
these  suittsThe-^  question  whetjier  AryabhMa  was  acquainted 
w  h  tir'scarches  o'f  the  Greek  algebraist  D'ophantus  c.  ^60 
A  D  )  remains  still  unsettled  ;  but,  even  if  this  was  tho  case 
algebrak  science  seems  to  have  W- carried  by  him  beyond^  the 
point  attained  by  tho  Greeks.  ' 

""n  {Ts^r^JlidZnta.  fanalated  by  0^.  D.  Whitney  and)  E.  Burgess,  18C0. 

Z  ll:  -J;r,'Svri"a'n1  'C^"t^t.  ,..  tra„a,a.ed  b,  H.  Kera ;  th. 
i„ft„-j«a(<..edi.cdby  A.\VoUcra..dll.Jacobl  ,„pectl,c   cbaplor.  of 

/.  A  tr.nsla.lon  ot  both  '■,"•'»'»■,»'  -V".  *„'  t  Colebro^ke%nb  an  Import. 

.  11,  p.  375  >5. 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


295 


SANSON,  Nicolas  (1600-1667),  a  French  carto- 
grapher, who,  while  it  is  a  mistake  to  call  him  the  creator 
of  French  geography,  attained  a  great  and  well-deserved 
eminence  in  his  profession.  He  was  born  of  an  old 
Picardy  family  of  Scottish  descent,  at  Abbeville,  on 
December  20,  1600,  and  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Ajniens.  The  mercantile  pursuit  by  which  he  first  sought 
to  make  his  living  proved  a  failure,  but  in  1627  he  was 
fortunate  enough  to  attract  the  attention  of  Kichelieu  by 
a  map  of  Gaul  which  he  had  constructed  while  still  in 
his  teens,  and  through  the  cardinal's  influence  he  was 
appointed  royal  engineer  in  Picardy  and  geographer  to  the 
king.  How  highly  his  services  were  appreciated  by  his 
royal 'patrons  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  Louis  XIII. 
came  to  Abbeville  he  preferred  to  become  the  guest  of 
Sanson  (then  employed  on  the  fortifications),  instead  of 
occupying  the  sumptuous  lodgings  provided  by  the  town. 
Sanson's  success  was  embittered  by  a  quarrel  with  the 
Jesuit  Labbe,  whom  he  accused  of  plagiarizing  him  in  his 
Tharus  Gallim  Aniiquss,  and  by  the  death  of  his  eldest 
son  Nicolas,  killed  during  the  disturbances  of  the  Fronde 
<1648).  He  died  at  Paris  July  7,  1GC7.  Two  younger 
sons,  Adrien  (died  1708)  and  Guillaume  (died  1703).  suc- 
ceeded him  as  geographers  to  the  king. 

Sanson's  principal  works  are  Gallise  Antiqusc  Dcscriplio  GcO' 
ffrapkica,  1627  ;  Britannia,  1638,  in  which  he  seeks  to  identify 
Strabo'3  Britannia  wiih  Abbeville  {'.}  ;  La  France,  1644  ;  /jt  Pharum 
Oallix  Antiques  Philippi  Labbe  Disquisitioncs,  1647-1648  ;  and 
Geographia  Sacra.  In  1692  Jarnot*coilected  Sanson's  maps  in  an 
Atlas  Nouvcau.     His  cartograpliy  is  generally  bold  and  vigorous. 

SANSOV-INO,  Andkea  Contucci  del  Monte  (1460- 
1529),  an  able  Florentine  sculptor,  who  lived  during  the 
rapid  decline  of  plastic  art  which  took  place  from  a'oout  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century;  he  was  the  son  of  a  shep- 
lerd  called  Niccolo  di  Domenico  Contucci,  and  was  born 
in  1640  at  Monte  Sansavino  near  Arezzo,  w^hence  he  took 
lis  name,  which  is  usually  softened  to  Jiansovino.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Antonio  Pollaiuolo,  and  during  the  first 
part  of  his  life  worked  in  the  purer  style  of  1.5th-century 
Florence.  Hence  his  early  works  are  by  far  the  best, 
such  as  the  terra-cotta  altar-piece  in  Santa  Chiara  at  Monte 
Sansavino,  and  the  marble  reliefs  of  the  Annunciation, 
the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  a  Pietk,  the  Last  Supper, 
and  various  statuettes  of  saints  and  angels  in  the 
Corbinelli  chapel  of  S.  Spirito  at  Florence,  all  executed 
betw*«n  the  years  1488  and  1492.  From  1491  to 
1500  Andrea  worked  in  Portugal  for  the  king,  and  some 
pieces  of  sculpture  by  him  still  e.xist  in  the  monastic 
church  of  Coimbra.^  These  early  reliefs  show  strongly 
the  influence  of  Donatello.  The  beginning  of  a  later  and 
more  pagan  style  is  shown  in  the  statues  of  St  John 
baptizing  Christ  which  are  over  the  cast  door  of  the 
Florentine  baptistery.  This  group  was,  however,  finished 
by  the  weaker  hand  of  Vincenzo  Danti.  In  1502  he 
executed  the  marble  font  at  Volterra,  with  good  reliefs  of 
the  Four  Virtues  and  the  Baptism  of  Christ.  In  1505 
Sansovino  was  invited  to  Rome  by  Julius  II.  to  make 
the  monuments  of  Cardinal  A.scanio  Maria  Sforza  and 
Cardinal  Girolamo  della  Rovere  for  the  retro-choir  of  S. 
Maria  del  Popolo.  The  architectural  parts  of  these 
monuments  and  their  sculptured  foliage  are  extremely 
graceful  and  executed  with  the  most  minute  delicacy,  but 
the  recumbent  effigies  show  the  beginning  of  a  serious 
decline  in  taste.  Though  skilfully  modelled,  they  are 
uneasy  in  attitude,  and  have  completely  lost  the  calm 
dignity  and  simple  lines  of  the  earlier  effigies,  such  as 
those  of  the  school  of  Mino  da  Fiesolo  in  the  same  church. 
These  tombs  had  a  very  important  influence  on  the 
taonumental   sculpture  of   the  time,  and  became  models 

'  Sec  Raczinski,  Lcs  Arts  en  Portugal,  Paris,  1S46,  p.  344. 


which  for  many  years  were  copied  by  most  later  sculptors 
with  increasing  e.xaggerations  of  their  defects.  In  1512, 
while  still  in  Rome,  Sansovino  executed  a  very  beautiful 
group  which  shows  strongly  the  influence  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  both  in  the  pose  and  in  the  sweet  expression  of  the 
faces ;  it  is  a  group  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  with  St 
Anne,  now  over  one  of  the  side  altars  in  the  church  of  S. 
Agostino.  From  1513  to  1528  he  was  at  Loreto,  where 
he  cased  the  outside  of  the  Santa  Casa  in  white  marble, 
covered  with  reliefs  and  statuettes  in  niches  between 
engaged  columns ;  a  small  part  of  this  gorgeous  mass  of 
sculpture  was  the  work  of  Andrea  himself,  but  the  greater 
part  was  executed  by  Montelupo,  Tribolo,  and  others  of 
his  numerous  sciool  of  assistants  and  pupils.  Though 
the  general  effect  of  the  whole  is  very  rich  and  magnificent, 
the  individual  pieces  of  sculpture  arc  both  dull  and  feeble, 
showing  the  unhappy  results  of  an  attempt  to  imitate 
Michelangelo's  grandeur  of  style.  The  ei_riicr  reliefs,  those 
by  Sansovino  himself,  are  the  best,  still  retaining  some  of 
the  sculpturesque  purity  of  the  older  Florentines.  He 
died  in  1529. 

SANSOVINO,  Jacopo  (1477-1570),  was  called  San- 
sovino after  his  master  Andrea  (see  above),  his  family 
name  being  Tatti.  Born  in  1477,  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Andrea  in  1500,  and  in  1510  accompanied  him  to  Rome, 
devoting  himself  there  to  the  study  of  antique  sculpture. 
Julius  II.  employed  him  to  restore  damaged  statues,  and 
while  working  in  the  Vatican  he  made  a  full-sized  cojiy  of 
the  Laocoon  group,  which  was  afterwards  cast  in  bronze, 
and  is  now  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence.  In  1511  he  returned 
to  Florence,  and  began  the  statue  of  St  James  the  Elder, 
which  is  now  in  a  niche  in  one  of  the  great  piers  of  the 
Duomo.  Under  the  influence  of  his  studies  in  Rome  he 
carved  a  nude  figure  of  Bacchus  and  Pan,  now  in  the 
Bargello,  near  the  Bacchus  of  Michelangelo,  from  the 
contrast  with  which  it  suffers  much.  Soon  after  the  com- 
pletion of  these  works,  Jacopo  returned  to  Rome,  and 
designed  for  his  fellow  citizens  the  ^rand  church  oi  S. 
Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini,  which  was  af  :erwards  carried  out 
by  Antonio  Sangallo  the  younger.  A  marble  group  of  the 
Madonna  and  Child,  now  at  the  west  o:'  S.  Agostino,  was  his 
next  important  work.  It  is  heavy  in  style,  and  cjuite  with- 
out the  great  grace  and  beauty  of  the  ?  ladonna  and  St  Anne 
in  the  same  church  by  his  master  Andrea.  In  1527  Jacopo 
fled  from  the  sack  of  Rome  to  Venice,  where  he  was  welcomed 
by  his  friends  Titian  and  Pietro  Arctino;  henceforth  till 
his  death  in  1570  he  was  almost  incessantly  occupied  in 
adorning  Venice  with  a  vast  number  of  magnificent  build- 
ings and  many  second-rate  pieces  of  sculpture.  Among 
the  latter  jacopo's  poorest  works  are  the  colossal  statues 
of  Neptune  and  Mars  on  the  grand  staircase  of  the  ducal 
palace,  from  which  it  is  usually  known  as  the  "  Giants' 
Staircase."  His  best  are  the  bronze  doors  of  the  sacristy 
of  St  Mark,  cast  in  1562  ;  inferior  to  these  are  the  series 
of  six  bronze  reliefs  round  the  choir  of  the  same  church, 
attempted  imitations  of  Oliiberti's  stjle,  but  unquiet  in 
design  and  unsculpturesque  in  treatment.  In  15C5  he 
completed  a  small  bronze  gate  with  a  graceful  relief  of 
Christ  surrounded  by  Angels  ;  this  gate  shuts  oft  the  altar 
of  the  Reserved  Host  in  the  choir  of  St  Mark's. 

Jacopo's  chief  claim  to  real  distinction  rests  upo-  the 
numerous  fine  Venetian  buildings  which  he  designed,  such 
as  the  pulillc  library,  the  mint,  the  Scuola  della  Miseri- 
cordia,  the  Palazzo  de'  Cornari,  and  the  Palazzo  Delfino, 
with  its  magnificent  staircase, — the  last  two  both  on  the 
grand  canal  ;  a  .small  loggia  which  he  built  at  the  foot  of 
the  great  Camjjanilc,  richly  decorated  with  sculpture,  has 
recently  been  pulled  down  and  much  damaged,  but  is 
being  rebuilt.  Among  liis  ecclesiastical  works  the  chief 
are  the  rliurch  of  S.  Fantino,  tliat  of  S.  Martino,  near  the 


296 


3  A  iS  — S  A  N 


arsenal,  the  Scuola  di  S.  Giovanni  degli  Scliiavoni,  and, 
finest  of  all,  the  church  of  S.  Geminiano,  near  St  Mark's, 
a  very  good  specimen  of  the  Tuscan  and  Composite  orders 
used  with  the  graceful  freedom  of  the  Renaissance. 

The  otlierwise  prosperous  course  of  the  artist's  life  vras 
interrupted  by  one  serious  misfortune.  In  1545  the  roof 
of  the  public  library,  which  he  was  then  constructing, 
gave  way  and  fell  in  ;  on  account  of  this  he  was  im- 
prisoned, fined,  and  dismissed  from  the  office  of  chief 
architect  of  the  cathedral,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed 
by  a  decree  of  the  signoria  on  April  7,  1529.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  interveation  of  his  friends,  Titian,  Pietro 
Aretino,  and  others,  he  was  soon  set  at  liberty,  and  in 
1549  ho  was  restored  to  his  post.  He  did  good  service 
to  the  cathedral  of  St  Mark's  by  strengthening  its  failing 
domes,  which  he  did  by  encircling  them  with  bands  of 
iron.  Sansoviuo's  architectural  works  have  much  beauty 
of  proportion  and  grace  of  ornament,  a  little  marred  in 
some  cases  by  an  excess  of  sculptured  decoration,  though 
the  carving  itself  is  always  beautiful  both  in  design  and 
execution.  He  used  the  classic  orders  with  great  freedom 
and  tasteful  invention — very  different  from  the  dull  schol- 
asticism of  most  of  his  contemporaries.  His  numerous 
pupils  were  mostly  men  of  but  little  talent. 

SANTA  ANNA,  Antonio  Lopez  de  (1798-1876),  for 
many  years  a  prominent  figure  in  the  troubled  politics 
of  Mexico,  was  born  at  jAlapa  on  February  21,  1798, 
Having  entered  the  army,  he  joined  the  party  of  Itukbide 
(</.('.)  in  1621,  and  gained  distinction  and  promotion  by 
the  part  he  took  in  the  surprise  and  capture  of  Vera  Cruz. 
In  the  following  year  he  quarrelled  with  his  chief  and 
himself  became  leader  of  a  party,  but  without  in  the  first 
nstance  achieving  success.  In  1828,  however,  he  sided 
with  Guerrero,  who  made  him  war  minister,  and  also 
commander-in-chief  after  a  successful  operation  against 
the  Spaniards  in  1829.  He  successively  accomplished  the 
overthrow  of  Guerrero  in  favour  of  Bustamanto  and  of 
Bustaraante  in  favour  of  Pedraza,  and  finally  in  March 
1833  was  himself  elected  president.  In  183G  he  was 
defeated  and  taken  by  the  Texan  revolutionists,  but 
returned  to  Mexico  the  following  year.  In  1844,  after 
considerable  vicissitudes,  he  was  deposed  and  banished,  but 
he  was  brought  back  once  more  to  the  presidential  chair 
in  1846.  This  second  term  of  oflUce  lasted  till  the  fall  of  • 
Mexico  in  1847,  when  he  resigned.  He  was  made  presi- 
dent again  in  1853,  but  finally  abdicated  in  1855.  In 
1867  he  took  part  in  "prcnunciamientos"  which  led  to 
his  banishment.  In  1874  he  was  permitted  to  return  to 
his  native  soil,  where  hs  died  two  years  afterwards. 

SANTA  CRUZ.  See  Saint  Croix.  For  Santa 
Ckuz  de  Santiago  see  Canary  Islands,  vol  iv.  p.  799 ; 
and  for  S^anta  Cruz  or  Nitendi  Island  see  New 
Hebride-s,  vol.  xvii.  p.  395. 

SANTA  FE,  a  city  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Santa  Fi  (38,600  square  miles ; 
189,000  inhabitants),  occupies  an  area  of  400  acres,  90 
miles  north  of  Rosario,  on  the  north-east  or  left  bank  of  the 
Rio  Salado  at  its  junction  with  the  ParanA,  in  a  district 
subject  to  periodical  inundations.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
governor,  the  bishop,  and  the  legislature,  and  contains  a 
cathedral,  a  Jesuits'  church  (1654)  and  college  (the  latter 
an  important  institution  with  400  boarders),  a  new 
bishop's  palace,  a  town-hall  (with  a  fine  tower),  extensive 
infantry  barracks,  and  a  large  market.  A  foundry,  a 
macaroni-factory,  oil-factories,  and  tile-works  are  the  chief 
industrial  establishments.  The  population  in  1881  was 
10,400,  a  decrease  since  1869.  Santa  Fe  was  founded  in 
1573  by  Juan  de  Garay. 

SANTA  Ti,  a  city  of  f!ie  United  States,  capital  of 
New  Msxico,  stands  in  a  wide  plain  surrounded  by  moun 


tains  about  7000  feet  above  che  sea,  in  35°  41'  N.  lat.  anJ 
105°  46'  W.  long.,  near  the  Santa  ¥6  Creek,  which  joins 
the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  14  or  15  miles  farther  south- 
west. It  is  connected  by  a  branch  line  (18  miles)  with 
the  Atchi.son,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  at  Lamy 
Junction,  835  miles  from  AtchLson.  The  houses  are  mainly 
constructed  of  adobe,  and  the  irregularity  of  the  plan 
shows  how  recently  the  city  has  come  under  the  infiuen.'-e 
of  "  American  "  progress.  Among  the  more  notewortiiv 
buildings  are  the  new  capitol,  for  which  funds  were  voted 
in  1883,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  erected  since 
1870,  and  the  old  governor's  palace,  a  long  low  edifice 
occupying  one  side  of  the  principal  plaza,  wh.icli  now  con- 
tains a  soldiers'  monument  in  honour  of  those  who  fell  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States.  Santa  F&  is  an  important 
centre  of  trade,  and  the  development  of  the  mining  in- 
dustries in  the  vicinity  is  rapidly  increasing  its  prosperity. 
The  population  was  6635  in  1881. 

One  of  the  oldest  cities  of  North  America,  Santa  Fe  de  Saa 
Francisco  was  the  capital  of  Nev/  Mexico  from  1640,  but  remained 
in  comparative  seclusion  till  the  early  part  of  tfie  present  century, 
when  it  became  a  main  station  on  wliat  was  called  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail — tlie  trade  route  between  the  United  States  and  Me-xico,  or 
more  especially  between  St  Louis  and  Chihuahua.  A  custom-house 
was  established  in  the  city  in  1821,  and  the  first  American  mercan- 
tile house  began  business  in  1826.  By  1843  the  value  of  the 
merchandise  eiftl-usted  to  the  train  of  230  v^aggons  from  St  Louia 
was  §450,000.  General  Kearny  built  Fort  Maicy  at  Santa  ¥i  in 
1846,  and  in  1851  the  city  became  the  capital  of  the  new  Territory. 
In  1362  it  was  occupied  for  a  few  days  by  the  Confederates. 

SANTA  Fli;  DE  BOGOTA.     See  BogotA. 

SANTIl  PARGANAS,  The,  a  British  district  in  the 
lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  forming  the  southern 
portion  of  the  BhAgalpur  division,  and  lying  between  20'' 
48'  and  25°  19'  N.  lat.,  and  between  86°  30'  and  87°  58' 
E.  long.  The  total  area  of  the  district  is  5456  square 
miles ;  it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  districts  of 
BhAgalpur  and  Purniah,  on  the  east  by  Maldah,  Murshi- 
d.'vbad,  and  Birbhiim,  on  the  south  by  Bardwin  and 
Mtlnbhiim,  and  on  the  west  by  Hazdribagh  and  Bh/igalpur. 
Three  distinct  types  of  country  are  represented  within  the 
area  of  the  SantAl  Parganas  :  in  the  east  a  sharply  defined 
belt  of  hills  stretches  for  about  a  hundred  miles  from  the 
Ganges  to  the  Naubil  River ;  west  of  this  point  a  rolling 
tract  of  long  ridges  with  intervening  depressions  covers 
an  area  of  about  2500  square  miles ;  while  the  third  type 
is  exemplified  by  a  narrow  strip  of  flat  alluvial  country 
about  170  miles  long,  lying  for  the  most  part  along  the 
loop  line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway.  The  Rajmahal  Hills 
are  the  only  range  of  any  importance  in  the  district,  and 
occupy  an  area  of  1366  square  miles;  but  they  nowhere 
exceed  2000  feet  in  height.  Several  other  hill  ranges 
occur,  which  are  with  few  exceptions  covered  almost  to 
their  summits  with  dense  jungle ;  they  are  all  difficult  of 
access ;  there  are,  however,  numerous  passes  through  all 
the  ranges.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  country,  but  the  coal  is  of  such  inferior  quality 
that  aU  attempts  to  work  it  have  failed.  Wild  animals, 
including  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  hyajnas,  deer,  and  wild 
pig,  with  a  variety  of  small  game,  are  common  almost- 
everywhere.  The  climate  varies  :  the  alluvial  tract  has 
the  damp  heat  and  moist  soil  characteristic  of  Bengal, 
while  the  undulating  and  hilly  portions  are  swept  by  the 
hot  westerly  winds  of  Behar,  and  are  very  cool  in  the 
winter  months.  The  average  annual  rainfall  is  over  50- 
inches.  The  district  is  traversed  on  the  east  by  the  loop 
line,  and  on  the  west  by  the  chord  line,  of  the  East  Indian 
Railway;  the  total  length  of  railway  is  about  130  miles. 

The  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  total  population  in  the  Santa! 
Pargan.-isof  1,568,093  (males  785,330,  females  782,763)  ;  Hindus 
numbered  847,590,  Mohammedans  108,899,  and  Christians  3067. 
The  total  number  of  p— sons  belonging  to  the  aboriginal  trib-^ 
uas  605,517,  of  whom  cl;o  great  majority  (6o;,540)  were  Santala. 


■SAN- 

For  an  account  of  thia  interesting  tribe,  see  India,  vol.  xii.  p. 
778.  The  population  is  almost  entirely  rural ;  only  two  towns 
contain  oyer  5000  inhabitants  each,  viz.,  Deogliar,  which  is  the 
only  municipality,  with  a  population  of  8015,  and  Shahobgunge 
■with  6512.     The  administrative  headquarters  are  at  Naya  Dumka. 

Rice  forms  the  staple  crop  of  the  .Santal  Parganas,  and  is  largely 
grown  in  the  alluvial  strip  of  country  which  runs  along  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  district.  Other  crops  are  millets,  wheat,  barley, 
maize,  various  pulses  and  oil-seeds,*  jute,  flax,  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
and  indigo.  The  district  is  singularly  destitute  of  any  local 
manufactures ;  iron  is  roughly  smelted  by  Kol  settlers  from 
C'hutia  Nagpur;  coarse  cloth  is  woven  as  a  domestic  manufacture, 
and  bell-metal  utensils  are  made  to,  a  small  extent ;  indigo  is  also 
manufactured.  The  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  permanent 
markets.  Exports  consist  chiefly  of  rice,  Indian  corn,  oil  seeds, 
tasar-silk  cocoons,  lac,  small-sized  timber,  aiid  hill  bamboos;  while 
European  piece  goods,  salt,  and  brass  or  bell-metal  utensils  for  house- 
hold use  compose  the  bulk  of  the  imports.  In  ISSS-Sl  the  gross 
revenue  of  the  district  amounted  to  (£45,437,  of  which  tlie  land- 
tax  yielded  £22,556. 

The  Santdls  have  been  known  to  the  British  since  the  latter 
part  of  the  18th  century.  In  1832  two  Government  ofllcials  were 
deputed  to  demarcate  with  solid  masonry  pillars  the  present  area 
of  the  Daman-i;Koh,  or  skirts  of  the  bills.  The  permission  to 
Santals  to  settle  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
Daman  stimulated  SantaL  immigration  to  an  enormous  extent. 
The  Hindu  money-lender  soon  made  his  appearance  amongst  them, 
aud  led  to  the  rebellion  of  1855-56.  The  insurrection  was  not 
ouellcd  WLiJiout  bloodshed,  but  it  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
form  of  adAinistration  congenial  to  the  immigrants;  and  a  land 
settlement  has  since  been  carried  out  on  conditions  favourable  to 
the  occupants  of  the  soil. 

SANTA  MARIA.     See  Capua. 

SANTA  MAURA,  or  Leucadia  (XevKaSa,  ancient 
AtvKas),  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  with  an  area  of  110 
square  miles  and  a  population  (1880)  of  25,000  (20,892 
ia  1870),  lies  of!  the  coast  of  Acarnania  (Greece), 
immediately  south  of  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta. 
It  first  appears  in  history  as  a  peninsula  {Odyssey,  xxiv. 
378),  and,  if  the  statements  of  ancient  authorities  be 
accepted  literally,  it  owed  its  existence  as  an  island  to  the 
Corinthians,  whose  canal  across  the  isthmus  was  again 
after  a  long  period  of  disuse  opened  up  by  the  Romans. 
But  it  is  probable  rather  that  Leucas  was  then  as  now 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  shallow  lagoon  (two 
feet  or  less).  During  the  English  occupation  a  canal  for 
boats  of  four  to  five  feet  draught  was  formed  from  Fort 
Santa  Maura  to  the  town,  but  the  16-feet-deep  ship  canal 
which  it  was  proposed  (1844)  to  carry  right  across  the 
lagoon  or  submerged  isthmus  to  Fort  Alexander  was  only 
partially  excavated.'  Santa  Maura,  measuring  about  20 
miles  from  north  to  south  and  5  to  S  miles  in  breadth,  is 
a  rugged  mass  of  limestone  and  bituminous  slyiles  (partly 
Tertiary),  rising  in  its  principal  ridges  to  heights  of  2000 
and  3000  feet,  and  presenting  very  limited  areas  of  level 
ground.  The  grain  crop  suffices  only  for  a  few  months' 
local  consumption;  but  olive  oil  of  good  quality  is  produ'.'cd 
to  the  extent  of  30,000  to  50,000  barrels  per  annum  ; 
the  vineyards  (in  the  west  especially)  yield  100,000  barrels 
of  red  wino  (bought  mainly  by  Rouen,  Cette,  Trieste,  and 
Venice);  the  currant,  introduced  about  1859,  has  gradually 
come  to  be  the  principal  source  of  wealth  (thecrop  averag- 
ing 2,500,000  lb) ;  and  small  quantities  of  cotton^  flax, 
tobatco,  valonia,  &c.,  are  also  grown.  The  salt  trade,  for- 
merly of  importance,  has  suffered  from  Greek  customs 
regulations.  Though  to  a  large  extent  unlettered  and 
superstitious,  the  inhabitants  are  industrious  and  well- 
behaved.  The  chief  town  (5000  inhabitants)  properly 
called  Amaxikhi,  but  more  usually  Santa  Maura,  after  the 
neighbouring  fort,  is  situated  at  the  north-east  end  of  the 
island  opposite  the  lagoc/n.  In  the  south-west  is  the 
village  of  Vasiliki,  where  a  wharf  protected  by  a  mole 

'  As  a  six  hours'  shortening  of  the  steam-passage  beiv/een  the  Levant 
and  the  Adriatic  would  be  effected  by  such  a  channel  the  scheme  has 
again  been  tnkcn  up.  According  to  ^f.  Pyat,  the  engineer  employed 
lo  report,  the  dredging'could  bo  done  for  1,200.000  francs. 


SAN 


297 


was  built  iu  1877-78  for  shipping  the  curraut  crop.  Re- 
mains of  Cyclopean  and  polygonal  walls  e.xist  at  Kaligoni 
(south  of  Amaxikhi),  probably  the  site  of  the  ancient 
acropolis  of  Neritus  (or  Nericus),  and  of  the  later  and 
lower  Corinthian  settlement  of  Leucas.  From  this  point 
a  Roman  bridge  seems  to  have  crossed  to  the  mainland. 
Between  the  town  and  Fort  Santa  Maura  extends  a 
remarkably  fine  Turkish  aqueduct  partly  destroyed  along 
with  the  town  by  the  earthquake  of  1825.  Forts  Alex- 
ander and  Constantino  commanding  the  bridge  are  relics 
of  the  Russian  occupation ;  the  other  forts  are  of  Turkc- 
Venetian  origin.  The  magnificent  cliff,  some  2000  feet 
high,  which  forms  the  southern  termination  of  the  modern 
island  still  bears  the  substructions  of  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Leucatas  (hence  the  modern  name  Capo  Ducato).  At  the 
annual  festival  of  Apollo  a  criminal  was  obliged  to  plunge 
from  the  summit  into  the  sea,  where,  however,  an  effort 
was  made  to  pick  him  up ;  and  it  was  by  the  same  heroic 
leap  that  Sappho  and  Artemisia,  daughter  of  Lygdami3, 
are  said  to  have  ended  their  lives. 

SANTANDER,  a  province  in  the  north  of  Spain,  on 
the  shores  of  the  Bay  of 'Biscay,  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
Biscaya,  on  the  S.  by  Burgos  and  Palencia,  and  on  the 
W.  by  Leon  and  Oviedo.  The  area  is  2113  square  miles. 
The  province  is  mountainous  in  character,  being  traversed 
from  east  to  west  by  the  C'antabrian  chain,  which  in  the 
Picos  de  Europa  reaches  a  height  of  over  8700  feet,  and 
sends  off  numerous  branches  to  the  sea.  On  the  north  side 
of  the  range  the  streams  are  all  short,  the  principal  being 
the  Ason,  the  Miera,  the  Pas,  the  Be.saya,  the  Soja,  and 
the  Nansa,  which  flow  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay ;  part  of  the 
province  lies  to  the  southward  of  the  watershed,  and  is 
drained  by  the  upper  Ebro.  The  valleys  of  Santander 
are  fertile,  and  produce  various  kinds  of  grain,  maize, 
pulse,  hemp,  flax,  and  vegetables.  Oiangcs,  lemons, 
grapes,  figs,  and  other  fruits  flouri-sh,  and  forests  of  oak, 
chestnut,  walnut,  and  fir  cover  the  hills.  Rich  pasturage 
for  cattle  and  swine  and  a  good  supply  o;"  game  are  al^o 
found  among  them,  and  the  fisheries  along  the  coast  are 
likewise  productive.  Foreign  capital  h.is  been  success- 
fully applied  to  the  development  of  lead,  coal,  and  iron 
mines  ;  and  the  mountains  contain  quarries  of  limestone, 
marble,  and  gypsum,  and  abound  v.ilh  mineral  springs. 
The  district  was  part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Cautabria, 
which,  after  passing  under  the  empire  of  the  Goths,, 
became  the  principality  of  the  Asturias.  The  portion 
called  Asturia  de  Santa  Juliana,  or  Santillana,  was  included 
in  the  kingdom  of.  Old  Castile,  and,  on  the  subdivision  of 
the  old  provinces  of  Spain  in  1833,  became  the  province 
of  Santander.  The  people  are  of  a  purer  race  than  ia 
parts  of  Spain  subjected  by  the  Jloors,  and  both  in  mental 
and  physical  qualities  show  their  Teutonic  ancestry.  The 
industries  of  the  country  are  consequently  in  a  flourit'''ng 
condition,  and,  besides  the  natural  products  above  men- 
tioned, there  are  foundries,  breweries,  distilleries,  tanneries; 
cotton,  linen,  cloth,  and  flour  milks;  brick  and  tilo  works; 
and  manufactories  of  hats,  soap,  buttons,  preserves,  and 
chocolate.  The  province  is  traversed  from  north  to  south 
by  the  railway  and  high  road  from  Santander  by  Palencia 
to  Madrid  ;  the  highest  point  on  the  railway  (Venta  do 
Pazozal)  is  3229  feet  above  the  sea.  For  purpo-ses  of 
administration"  the  province  is  divided  into  eleven  partidos 
judiciales,  containing  103  ayuntamientos,  and  returns  two 
senators  and  five  deputies  to  the  cortos.  The  population 
in  1877  numbered  235,299.  Besides  Santander,  the 
capital,  the  only  places  having  withia  the  municipal 
boundaries  a  population  exceeding  5000  are  Castro- 
Urdhiles  (7G23),  Valle  de  Pielagos  (5500),  Torrelavega 
(7192),  and  Valderrodiblo  (7240).  Santona  has  4428, 
and  Laredo  4384.     Santillana  (177G)  has  a  fine  Roman- 

XXL  —   ^3 


298 


S  A  1^  —  S  A  N 


esquo  church  and  cloifeter  (12th  century),  and  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  architect  Juan  de  Herrera. 

SANTANDER  {Port-is  BlauUum,  Fauum  S.  Andrecc), 
capital  of  the  above  province,  316  miles  by  rail  from 
Madrid,  ia  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  and  one  of  the  chief 
seaports  of  Spain.  The  population  in  1877  numbered 
41,000,  having  almost  doubled  in  the  preceding  quarter  of 
a,  century,  and  the  trade  of  the  port  has  increased  in  an 
even  greater  proportion.  The  town  is  situated  on  the 
inside  of  a  rocky  peninsula,  which  separates  it  from  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  and  forms  a  magnificent  harbour  from  2  to 
3  miles  wide  and  4  miles  long.  The  entrance  is  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  promontory,  and,  though  some- 
what diiEcult  for  sailing  vessels  in  certain  winds,  has 
depth  of  water  sufficient  for  the  largest  ships.  The 
total  burthen  of  the  vessels  entered  in  1882  amounted 
to  104,449  tons  British  and  500,342  tons  of  other  nations. 
The  chief  exports  consisted  of  iron  ore  (20,966  tons)  to 
Great  Britain,  and  wine  (191,400  galls.)  and  oUve  oil 
(8000  galls.)  to  France.  The  city  is  divided  into  an 
upper  and  a  lower  town,  and  contains  few  buildings  of 
interest.  The  cathedral  was  originally  a  Gothic  structure, 
but  has  been  so  altered  by  later  additions  that  little  of 
the  old  work  remains.  In  the  crypt,  or  Capilla  del 
Cristo  de  Abajo,  there  is  a  font  of  Moorish  workmanship 
which  has  some  interest.  The  castle  of  S.  Felice  contains 
a  prison  which  was  probably  the  first  example  of  the 
racliating  system  of  construction.  Besides  these  buildings 
there  are  the  theatre,  which  was  formerly  a  convent,  the 
hospital,  and  the  Jesuits'  church.  The  city  is  essentially 
modern,  and  its  chief  features  are  its  well-built  houses,  its 
quays,  and  its  .factories.  In  addition  to  the  manufactures 
of  the  province  mentioned  above,  Santander  has  gas-works, 
phosphorus,  sulphuric  acid,  and  sail  manufactories,  and  a 
large  cigar  factory,  formerly  a  convent,  where  over  1000 
hands  are  employed.  Besides  being  a  trading  port 
Santander  is  also  a  watering-place  which  enjoys  peculiar 
advantages  of  climate.  The  bathing  establishment  of  the 
Sardinero,  on  the  seaward  side  of  Ve  strip  c'  land  the  town 
is  built  on,  offers  all  the  attrr  i.ions  usual  to  Continental 
■watering-places.  There  is  Cimmunication  by  rail  with 
Madrid  and  by  steamer  with  Liverpool,  London,  and  Ham- 
burg, as  well  as  with  Havana  and  the  seaports  of  Spain. 

The  port  was  in  1753  made  one,  of  tlie  "pucrtos  liabiiitaJos  "  or 
ports  privileged  to  trade  witli  America,  and  in  1755  it  was  created  a 
*'ciudad."  Charles  V.  landed  here  in  1522  when  he  came  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  Spanish  crown,  and  from  this  port  Charles  I.  of  England 
embarked  on  his  return  from  his  ill-fated  visit  incognito  in  search  of 
a  wife.  The  city  was  sacked  by  the  French  under  Soiilt  in  1803  ;  but 
60  little  gratitude  did  the  people  show  to  their  English  allies  that  it 
was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  supplies  were  found  for  the  troops. 

SANTAEEM,  a  city  and  bishop's  see  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Estremadura,  on  the  declivities  of  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tagus,  46i  miles  by  rail  from  Lisbon.  It  has 
the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  well  known  in  Portuguese  history 
as  a  royal  residence,  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
several  of  its  churches  are  of  historic  and  architectural 
interest.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on,  and  the  popu- 
lation was  7001  in  1878. 

Santarem,  so  named  after  a  certain  St  Irene,  is  identified  with 
the  ancient  Scallabis  Prffisidium  Julium.  The  death  of  Diniz  I., 
.nnd  the  birth,  abdication,  and  death  of  Don  Henrique  the  cardinal 
king,  all  occurred  in  the  city ;  it  gave  its  name  to  Joao  de  Santarem, 
one  of  the  15th-century  navigators  ;  and  Fernando  I.  and  Cahral, 
discoverer  of  BraEil,  were  buried  within  its  walls.  The  Jliguelists 
were  completely  routed  here  by  Napier  and  Villaflor  in  1S34. 

SANTAREM,  a  city  of  Brazil,  at  the  head  of  a  comarca 
in  the  province  of  Para,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Tapajos,  a  right-hand  tributary  of 
the  Amazon.  It  is  a  clean  and  neat-looking  place,  with 
row-R  of  whitewashed  houses  in  the  European  town, 
:!usters  of  palm-thatched  huts  in  the  Indian  suburb,  a 
'av<;p.  church,  the  ruins  of  a  stone  fort,  arid;,  standing  apart, 


the  municipal  buildings  with  tne  court-house.  As  the 
Rio  Tapaj6s  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  the  rapids,  170 
miles  above  Santarem,  ond  for  boats  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  Diamantino,  the  town  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  with  Matto  Grosso  and  the  country  along  the  banks. 
The  population  and  importance  of  the  place,  originally 
founded  by  a  Jesuit  missionary  for  his  converts  in  1661, 
and  made  a  city  in  1848,  are  steadily  increasing. 

SANTERRE,  Je.un  Baptiste  (1650-1717),  French 
painter,  born  at  Magny  near  Pontoise  in  1650,  was  a 
pupil  of  Bon  Boulogne.  He  began  life  as  a  portrait- 
jjainter,  but  refused  to  paint  any  except  those  who  pleased 
his  taste ;  he  was  incapable  of  managing  the  large  com- 
positions then  in  vogue,  but  enjoyed  for  half  a  century  a 
great  reputation  as  a  painter  of  the  nude.  He  had  opened 
his  studio  to  a  class  of  young  girls,  to  whom  he  gave 
lessons,  and  who  served  him  as  models.  Much,  however, 
of  Santerre's  work  of  this  class  was  destroyed  by  himself 
in  a  fit  of  lively  repentance  after  a  serious  illness  which 
attacked  him  late  in  life.  He  died  at  Paris  on  November 
21,  1717.  His  paintings,  in  consequence  of  his  extreme 
care  in  choice  of  vehicles  and  pigments,  have  stood  'weU. 
His  Portrait  of  a  Lady  in  Venetian  Costume  (Louvre),  and 
his  Susanna  at  the  Bath  (Louvre,  engraved  by  Porporati), 
the  diploma  work  executed  by  him  in  1704,  when  he  was 
received  into  the  Academy,  give  a  good  impression  of 
Santerre's  taste  and  of  hi3  elaborate  and  careful  method. 

SAN  THIAGO.     See  Cape  Vekd  Islakds,  vol.  v.  p.  60. 

SANTIAGO,  the  capital  of  Chili,  and  the  chief  town  of 
a  province  of  its  ov.m  name  (npw  5223  square  miles  in 
extent,  reduced  in  1883  by  the  formation  of  the  new  pro- 
vince of  O'Higgins),  is  situated  in  33°  26'  42"  S.  lat.  and 
70°  40'  36"  W.  long.,  at  a  height  of  about  1830  feet  above 
the  sea,  in  a  wide  and  beautiful  plain  between  the  main 
range  of  the  Andes  and  the  less  elevated  heights  of  Cuesta 
del  Prado,  115  rail^3  east  of  Valparaiso  by  rail.  In  the 
centre  of  the  city  ri  es  the  rocky  hiU  of  Santa  Lucia,  with 


^vn-ons  of  Santiago, 
its  two  fortresses, — recently  converted  into  a  pleasure- 
ground,  with  theatres,  restaurants,  and  monuments;  and 
immediately  to  the  north-north-west  and  north-east  are 
those  known  as  Colina,  Renca,  and  San  Cr!st6bal.  _  The 
snow-clad  range  of  the  Andes,  in  which  the  summits  of 
La  Chapa  and  Los  Amarillos  are  conspicuous,  is  visible 
from  Santiago.  A  turbid  mountain  stream,  the  Mapocho, 
flows  west  through  the  heart  of  the  city  to  join  the  Colina 
and  ultimately  the  Maipii  or  Maipo ;  its  floods  were  some- 
times, as  in  i-C09  and  1783,  the  cause  of  great  damage 
til!  the  construction  of  a  solid  embankment  was  undertaken 


S  A  JN   T  I  -A  G'O 


299 


nnder  the  government  of  Ambrosio  O'Higgiiis;  it  is  now 
crossed  by  several  handsome  bridges,  the  oldest  of  which, 
a  structure  of  eleven  arches,  dates  from  1767—1779.  From 
the  very  first  Santiago  was  laid  out  with  great  regularity 
in  parallelograms ;  but  owing  to  the  frequency  of  earth- 
quakes the  dwelling-houses  are  seldom  built  of  more  than 
a  single  story  in  height.  The  cathedral,  situated  in  the 
Plaza  de  la  Independencia,  is  the  oldest  of  the  churches. 
Originally  erected  by  Pedro  Valdivia  and  rebuilt  by  Garcia 
Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake 
of  16-17  and  rebuilt  on  a  new  plan  subsequent  to  1748. 
It  is  351  feet  long  by  92  feet  wide,  but  has  no  very  striking 
features:  Among  the  other  ecclesiastical  buildings  are  the 
church  of  San  Agustin,  erected  in  1595  by  Crist6bal  de 
Vera  and  in  modern  times  adorned  with  a  pillared  portico; 
the  churches  of  San  Francisco,  La  Merced,  and  Santo 
Domingo,  dating  from  the  1 8th  centu  .-y ;  the  Augustine 
nunnery  founded  by  Bishop  MedeUiu  in  1576;  the  Carmen 
Alto,  or  church  of  the  Carmelite  nunnery,  an  elegant  little 
Gothic  building ;  the  stately  church  of  the  Reformed 
Dominicans,  rich  in  marble  monolithic  columns ;  and  the 
chapel  erected  in  1852  to  the  memory  of  Pedro  Valdivia 
next  to  the  house  in  which  he  is  reputed  to  have  lived. 
The  public  cemetery,  recently  secularized,  has  a  large 
number  of  marble  and  bronze  monuments,— rmostly  from 
Italy.  Among  the  secular  buildings  the  more  noteworthy 
are  the  palace  of  the  intendency,  the  old  presidential  palace 
(popularly  Las  Cajas),  the  congress  buildings,  the  mint, 
the  palace  of  justice,  the  municipal  theatre.  The  present 
university  of  Santiago  dates  from  1842, — the  older  Uni- 
versidad  de  San  Felipe,  which  had  been  established  in 
1747,  having  been  closeS  in  1839.  It  occupies  a  fine 
building  in  the  Alameda,  and  alongside  stands  the  great 
National  Institute  of  Secondary  Education.  IS  1882  the 
university  wa.s  attended  by  920  students  and  the  institute 
by  1059.  The  city  also  contains  a  school  of  arts  and  trades 
(1849),  a  musical  conservatorio  (1849),  a  national  museum, 
a  military  school  established  in  1842  and  enlarged  on  the 
abolition  of  the  naval  military  school  r.t  Valparaiso'  in  1872  . 
(now  re-established),  and  a  school  of  agriculture  founded 
by  the  Agricultural  'Society  chartered  in  1869.  The 
National  Library  is  a  nohl§  collection  of  books  dating  from 
1813,  especially  rich  irr\ -works  relating  to  America;  there 
is  also  a  good -library  id  the  National  Institute.  Besides 
the  ofiicial  journal,  "Santiago  has  four  daily  papers,  as 
well  as  various  reviews  and  other  serials.  Besides  the 
Alameda,  a  great  tree-planted  avenue  decorated-  with 
statues  (the  Abb6  Molina,  Generals  San  Martin,  Carrera, 
O'Higgins,  and  Freire,  <tc.),  the  principal  open  spaces  in 
Santiago  are  the  Plaza  de  la  Independencia,  the  Canadilla, 
a  broad  tree-bordered  avenue,  the  Alameda  de  Yungay, 
the  Campo  de  Marte  (where  are  the  Penitentiary,  a  prison 
built  and  administered  according  to  the  most  approved 
modern  principles,  and  the  large  Artillery  Park),  the  Quinta 
Normal  de  Agricultura,  which  comprises  zoological  and 
botanical  gardens,  and  the  large  area  in  which  the  Inter- 
national Exhibition  of  1875  was  held.  As  the  Mapocho 
was  unfit  for  drinking,  water  was  introduced  about  1865 
by  an  aqueduct  5  miles  long.  The  prevailing  winds  at 
Santiago  are  from  the  south  and  south-west.  On  an 
average  rain  faUs  for  216  hours  in  the  course  of  the  year, 
mostly  between  May  and  September.  "Snow  and  hail  are 
both  extremely  rare.  Earthquakes  are  so  frequent  that 
as  many  as  twenty-seven  or  thirty  shocks  are  sometimes 
registered  in  a  year.  Those  which  have  proved  really 
disastrous  are  the  earthquakes  of  17th  March  157.5,  13tb 
May  1647,  8th  July  1730,  19th  November  1822,  and  20th 
February  1835.  The  population  of  Santiago,  which  was 
returned  in  1865  as  168,553  (79,920  males  and  88,633 
females),  had  increased  to  200,000  in  1883. 


It  was  in  February  1541  th.it  Pedro  de  Valdivia,  one  of  Pizarro's 
captains,  founded  the  city  of  Santiago  del  Kuevo  Estremo  in 
accordance  with  a  vow  he  had  made  at  Cozco.  The  place  has  all 
along  held  an  important  position  in  Chilian  historj',  but  perhaps 
none  of  the  events  with  which  it  is  associated  sent  such  a  sensation 
through  the  world  as  the  burning  of  the  Jesuit  church  with  the  loss 
of  more  than  two  thousand  lives  in  the-ilames  (Sth  December  1863). 

SANTIAGO  DE  COJIPOSTELLA,  the  former  capital 
of  Galicia,  in  the  north-west  of  Sjiain,  situated  in  42° 
52'  30"  N.  lat.  and  8°  30'  6"  W.  long.,  oU  miles  west- 
by-south  from  Lugo,  and  32  miles  south-by-west  from 
Corunna,  in  the  province  of  that  name.  It  lies  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Monte  Pedroso,  surrounded  by 
mountains  which  draw  down  incessant  rain  that  gives  the 
granite  buildings  df  its  deserted  streets  an  extra  tint  of 
melancholy  and  decay.  The  city  is  still  the  seat  of  a 
university  and  of  an  archbishopric,  which  lays  claim  to 
the  primacy  of  all  Spain,  but  its  former  glories  iave  quite 
departed.  In  the  Middle  Ages  its  shrine,  which  con- 
tained the  body  of  St  James  the  Great,  was  one  of  the 
most  famous  in  Europe,  and  gathered  crowds  of  pilgrims 
from  all  parts.  The  city  became,  in  fact,  the  focus  of  all 
the  art  and  chivalry  of  neighbouring  Christendom,  and  a 
spot  where  conflicting  interests,  could  meet  on  neutral 
ground.  But  the  days  of  pilgrimages  are  past,  and, 
though  the  Congregation  of  Rites  declared  in  1884  that 
the  cathedral  still  enshrines  the  veritable  body  of  the 
apostle,  pilgrims  are  scarcely  mdre  often  seen  than  in  any 
other  cathedral  town.  The  trade  of  Santiago  can  never 
have  been  otherwise  than  dependent  on  the  crowds  of 
pilgrims  who  visited  the  'shrine.  It  now  only  survives  in 
the  silversmiths'  shops  on  the  Plaza  de  los  Plaleros,  which 
still  have  a  steady  sale  for  artistic  .pieces  of  peasant 
jewellery.  Otherwise  it  consists  in  mere  local  traffic  in 
cattle,  linen,  silk,  leather,  hats,  and  paper.  There  is  com- 
munication 'by  rail  with-  the  little  seaport  of  Carril  on 
the  west  coast.  The  population  within  the  municipal 
boundaries,  was  23,000  in  1885.. 

The  relics  of  the  saint  vers  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  835 
by  Theodomir,  bishop  of  Iria,  who  was  guided  to  IhQ  spot  by  a 
star,  whence  the  name  {Ca7npu^  StcUx).  A  chapel  was  forthwith 
erected,  and  the  bishopric  was  transfeTed  thither  by  a  special  bull 
of  Pope  Leo  III.  A  more  stibstantial  building  was  begun  in  868', 
but  was  totally  destroyed  in  997  by  Almanzor,  who,  ho*ever, 
respected  the  sacred  relics.  On  the  reconqu^st  of  the  city  by 
Bermndo  III.  the  roads  which  led  to  it  were  improved  by  that 
monarch,  and  pilgrims  began  to  flock  to  the  shrine,  which  fast 
grew  in  reputation.  In  1078  the  erection  of  the  present  cathedral 
was  begun  during  the  episcopate  of  D'lcgo  Pelaez,  and  was  con- 
tinued until  1188,  when  the  western  doorway  waa  completed.  It 
is  a  cruciform  building  in  tho  Romanesque  style,  280  fei-t  long,  60 
feet  wide,  and  70  feet  high,  and  keeps  its  original  fcrm  in  the 
interior,  but  is  disfigUred  externally  by  much  poor  late  work. 
Besides  the  classic  dome  and  clock-tower,  the  two  western  towers 
have  been  raised  to  a  height  of  220  feet  and  crowned  with  cupolas, 
and  between  them  has  been  erected  a  classic  portico,  above  w-hich 
is  a  niche  containing  a  statue  of  St  James.  The  fagaie  was  the 
work  of  Casas  y  Noboa  in  1738,  and  tho  ..tatue  was  by  Ventura 
Rodriguez  in  176-t.  The  design  is  mediocre,  and  gains  its  chief 
effect  from  forminf^  part  of  an  extended  architectural  '.-omposition 
on  the  Plaza  Mayor,  a  grand  square  which  is  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  public  buildings.  The  ground  rises  to  the  cathedral, 
which  is  reached  by  a  magnificent  quadruple  flight  of  s:ep3,  flanked 
by  statues  of  David  and  Solomon.  Access  to  the  staircase  is 
given  tlvrough  some  fine  ^rrought-iron  gates,  and  in  t!i6  centre,  on 
the  level  of  tho  I'laza,  is  the  entrance  to  a  Komanosquo  chapel,  La 
Iglesia  Baja,  constructed  irader  the  portico  and  contemporary  with 
the  cathedra!.  To  the  north  and  south,  and  in  a  lino  with  the 
west  front,  are  dependent  buildings  of  the  18th  ccnt-ary,  grouping 
well  with  it.  Those  to  the  south  contain  a  light  and  elegant 
arcade  to  tho  upper  windows,  and  serve  as  a  screen  t<»  the  cloisters, 
built  in  1533  by  Fonseca,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Toledo.  They 
are  said  to  be  tho  largest  in  S[>ain,  and  are  a  fair  example  of  tho 
latest  Gothic  The  delicate  sculpture  over  Uio  heads  of  tho 
windows  and  along  the  walbof  tiic  cloister  is  very  t.oticeable.  On 
tho  north  of  tho  cathedral  is  tho  Plazuela  S.  Juan,  where  tho 
peasants  collect  to  do  their  marketing.  Here  is  the  convent  of 
S.  JIartin,  built  in  1G3G,  which,  after  serving  as  a  barrack,  is  now 
used  as  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  restored  to  tho  church.     It  has 


300 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


&  tolerable  cloister  and  boll-tower.  The  north  side  of  tlio  cathedral 
is  much  overlaid  by  classical  and  Cliurii^ucresque  work  ;  and  the 
Bame  treatment  has  been  applied  to  the  east  end,  where  is  the 
l*uerta  Santa,  which  is  kept  closed,  except  in  jubilee  years,  when  it 
is  opened  by  the  archbishop.  The  corner  of  tlie  south  transept  on 
the  rlaza  do  lo3  Platcros  has  been  mutilated  by  the  erection  of  tlio 
clock -tower,  but  the  fagadc  is  fortunately  preserved  intact.  Perhaps 
tlio  chief  beauty  of  the  cathedial,  however,  is  the  Portico  do  la 
Gloria,  behind  the  western  classic  portal.  It  is  a  work  of  the  12th 
century,  and  probably  tlie  utmost  development  of  which  round- 
arcbed  Gothic  is  capaltle.  The  shafts,  tympana,  and  archivolts  of 
the  three  doorways  wliicli  open  on  to  the  nave  and  aisles  are  a  mass 
of  strong  and  nervous  sculpture.  Tlie  design  is  a  general  repre- 
sentation of  tho  Last  .ludgnient,  and  the  subjects  are  all  treated 
|With  a  quaint  grace  which  sliows  tho  work  of  a  real  artist.  Faint 
'traces  of  colour  remain  and  give  a  tone  to  the  whole  work.  The 
cathedral  is  at  such  a  lieiglit  from  the  ground  that  it  is  probable 
that,  until  tho  erection  of  tlie  present  grand  staircase,  the  portico 
could  not  be  reached  from  the  Plaza,  but  stood  open  to  the  air. 
There  are  no  marks  of  doors  in  the  jambs,  and  the  entrance  to  the 
cba]iel  beneath  would  have  been  blocked  by  any  staircase  which 
diffcretl  nmoh  in  plan  from  the  present  one.  The  interior  of  the 
church  is  one  of  the  purest  and  best  examples  of  Romanesque  work 
to  be  met  with  in  Spain.  The  absence  of  a  clerestory  throws  an 
impressive  gloom  over  the  barrel-vaulted  roof,  which  makes  tho 
building  seem  larger  than  it  is.  A  passage  leads  from  the  north 
transept  to  the  Parroquia  of  San  Juan,  or  La  Corticela,  a  small 
"but  interesting  portion  of  the  original  foundation.  JIany  fine 
examples  of  metal  work  are  in  the  cathedral,  as,  for  instance, 
the  two  bronze  ambos  in  the  choir  by  Juan  B.  Celma  of  1503,  the 
gilt  chandeliers  of  1763,  and  tho  enamelled  shrines  of  Sts  Cucufato 
and  Fructuoso.  In  tho  Capilla  del  Relicario  are  a  gold  crucifix, 
dated  874,  containing  a  piece  of  the  true  cross,  and  a  silver  gilt 
custodia  of  1544.  Tlie  Hosjiicio  do  los  Reyes,  on  the  north  of  the 
Plaza  Mayor,  for  tlie  reception  of  pilgrims,  was  begun  in  2o04  by 
Enrique  de  Egas  under  Ferdinand  and  ls.abella.  It  ^;:onsists  of 
two  Gothic  and  two  classic  court-yauls  with  a  chapel  in  tho  centre. 
The  gateway  is  fine,  and  there  is  some  vigorous  carving  in  the 
court-yards,  one  of  which  contains  a  graceful  fountain.  The 
suppressed  Colegio  de  Fonseca  and  tho  adjoining  convent  of  S. 
Geronimo  have  good  Renaissance  doorways.  The  university,  which 
ivas  created  in  1504  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  has  fair  Renais- 
sance buildings,  which  date  from  1532.  Those  of  the  Seminario 
(1777)  have  no  merit.  The  chapel  of  tho  convent  of  S.  Francisco, 
the  cloisters  of  the  half-ruined  S.  Angustin,  the  belfry  of  S. 
Domingo,  the  church  of  S.  Feliz  de  Celorio,  wliich  is  a  modernized 
building  of  tlie  14th  century,  and  the  fa<;ades  of '  several  houses  of 
the  12tli  and  13th  centuries  are  also  good  examples  of  dilferent 
architectural  styles. 

SANTIAGO  (or  ST  .lAGO)  DE  CUBA,  a  city  and  sea- 
port of  Cuba,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  the  whole  island, 
and  now  the  chief  town  of  the  eastern  department,  is 
situated  in  19°  57'  7"  N.  lat.  and  75°  5-1'  3"  W.  long, 
(lighthouse),  on  a  fine  bay  on  the  south  coast.  The  spaci- 
ous and  well-defended  harbour  is  accessible  to  the  largest 
vessels,  but  silt  near  the  wharf  allows  only  those  drawing 
less  than  11  feet  to  come  alongside.  Tho  city,  which  climbs 
a,  hill-side  150  feet  above  the  bay,  has  considerably  im- 
proved since  1870,  though  its  streets  are  still  badly  paved. 
It  contains  the  largest  cathedral  in  the  island,  a  theatre, 
a  custom-house,  barracks  (1858-1880),  and  hospitals. 
Foundries,  soap-works,  tan-yards,  and  cigar  factories  are  the 
only  industrial  establishments.  The  exports  were  valaed  in 
18C7  at  .£1,050,000,  in  1882  at  £1,032,200,  and  in  1SS3 
it  .£722,632.  Besides  sugar,  which  forms  about  -two- 
thirds  of  the  whole,  the  principal  articles  are  cocoa,  rum, 
tobacco  and  cigars,  coffee,  honey  and  wax,  mahogany,  and 
copper-ore — this  last  at  one  time  to  the  extent  of  25,000 
tons  per  annum,  but  now  in  greatly  diminished  quantify. 
The  copper  .'nines  Lomas  del  Cobre  lie  on  the  other  side 
of  the  bay  Inland  from  Punta  de  Sab  Tiie  estimated 
population  is  between  24,000  and  30,000. 

Founded  by  Diego  Velazquez  in  1514,  and  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1522,  Santiago  is  memorable  mainly  for  tho  French  occupation 
^nd  ransom  in  1553,  and  the  affair  of  the  ship  "Virginius"  in  1873, 
rwhich  residtcd  in  the  Spanish  Government  paying  an  indemnity 
to  tho  United  States  for  tho  murder  of  Captain  Fry  and  his 
li^ompanions. 

SANTIAGO  DEL  ESTERO,  chief  town  of  the  province 
of  Santiago  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  is  situated  in  27° 


46'  S.  lat.  and  64°  19'  W.  long.7520  feet  above  tho  sea, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ilio  Dulce.  It  is  the  residence  of  the 
provincial  governor  and  the  scat  of  tho  legislature,  and  it 
ranks  as  the  oldest  European  city  in  tho  republic,  having 
been  founded  by  Aguirre  in  1552.  Tho  most  conspicuous 
building  is  the  cathedral,  whose  dome  contrasts  strangely 
by  its  size  and  evident  costliness  with  the  poverty  of  the 
rest  of  the  town.  The  population  is  about  8000  (most  of 
whom  have  a  great  deal  of  Indian  blood  in  their  veins). 
The  railway  from  Rosario  to  Santiago  (089  miles)  was 
opiencd  in  1884. 

S.'VNTILLANA,  Inigo  Lopez  de  Mendoza,  Makquis 
OF  (1398-1458),  Castilian  poet,  was  born  at  Carrion  de 
los  Condes  in  Old  Castile  on  August  19,  1398.  His 
father,  Don  Diego  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  grand  admiral 
of  Castile,  having  died  while  Ifiigo  was  still  quite  youngj 
the  boy  was  brought  up  by  his  uncle  Don  Alfonso  Enriquez.' 
From  his  twentieth  year  onwards  he  became  an  increasingly 
prominent  figure  at  the  court  of  Juan  II.  of  Castile,  dis', 
tinguishing  himself  both  in  civil  and  military  .service ;  he 
was  created  Mar'ques  de  Santillana  and  Conde  del  Real  de 
Manzanares  for  the  part  he  took  in  the  battle  of  Olniedo 
in  1445.  In  the  protracted  struggle  of  the  Castilian 
nobles  against  the  preponderating  influence  of  Alvaro  de 
Lana  he  showed  great  moderation,  but  ultimately  in  1452 
he  joined  the  combination  which  effected  the  fall  of  the 
favourite  in  the  following  year.  From  the  death  of  Juan  II.' 
in  1454  Mendoza  took  little  part  in  public  affairs,  devoting 
himself  mainly  to  the  pursuits  of  literature  and  to  pious 
meditation.     He  died  at  Guadalajara  on  March  26,  1458. 

Mendoza  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  Italian  sonnet  into 
Castile,  but  his  productions  in  this  class  are  somewhat  conven- 
tional in  style  and  have  little  to  recommend  them  beyond  the  charm 
of  smooth  versification.  He  was  much  more  successful  in  the 
scrranilla  or  highland  pastoral  after  the  Provencal  manner.  His 
long-popular  Ccniiloquio  (1494),  consisting  of  one  hundred  proverbs, 
each  rendered  in  an  eight-line  stanza,  was  prepared  at  the  request 
of  Juan  II.  for  the  instruction  of  Don  Enrique,  the  heir-apparent. 
To  the  same  didactic  category  belong  the  jbidlogo  dc  Bias  contra 
Fortuna  (1448)  and  the  lloctrinal  de  Prlm'dos  (1453).  The 
Comcdieta  de  Pon^t  is  a  Dantesquo  dream-dialogue,  in  octavo 
stanzas,  founded  on  the  disastrous  sea-fight  off  Ponza  in  1435,  when 
tho  kings  of  Aragon  and  Navarre  along  with  the  iufante  of  Castijo 
were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Genoese. 

The  works  of  Siintillana  huvc  been  cJitcd  with  conirucntariea  by  AmcJor  de  !c3 
Rlos  (Madriil,  1852). 

SANTINI,  Giovanni  (1787-1877),  Italian  astronomer, 
born  30th  January  1787  at  Caprese,  in  the  province  of 
Arezzo,  was  from  1813  director  of  the  observatory  at  Padua, 
He  wrote  Etanenii  di  Astronoinia  (2  vols.  1820,  2d  ed; 
1830),  Teoria  degli  Stromenii  otlki  (2  vols.  1828),  and' 
a  great  many  scientific  memoirs  and  notices,  among  which 
are  five  catalogues  of  telescopic  stars  between  -f  10°  and 
-15°  decliaatioq,  from  observations  made  at  the  Padua 
observatory.     He  died  June  26,  1877. 

SANTO  DOMINGO.     See  Haytl 

SANTORIN.     See  Tiieea. 

SANTOS,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Brazil  in  the  province 
of  Sito  Paulo,  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  of 
Sao  Vicente  or  Engua-Gua^u,  which  forms  the  west  side  of 
the  harbour-bay  (an  inlet  Z\  miles  deep,  with  soundings 
varying  from  4  to  10  fathoms).  It  is  a  well-built  town 
with  wide  airy  streets,  and  most  of  the  better  classes 
have  their  residences  at  Barra  Fort  (4  miles  out)  and  other 
suburban  villages.  Commercially  the  town  has  grown  to 
great  importance  as  the  terminus  of  the  whole  railway 
system  of  this  part  of  Brazil — the  Santos  and  Jundiahy 
line  (1SG7)  running  inland  87  miles  and  connecting  Tpith 
the  Sao  Pairlo  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  Railway  and  varioua 
other  lines.  The  export  of  coffee  (the  great  staple)  iin- 
creased  from  344  800  60-kilogramme  bags  in  1862-3  to 
537,478  in  1872-3  and  1,932,194  in  1883-4.  The  value  of 
ths  coEee  wis  estimated  at  £1,030,275  in  1870^71,  and  at 


S  A  0  — S  A.O 


501 


j;3,632,838  in  187S-79.  The  export  and  import  trade  is 
estimated  to  circulate  £10,000,000  a  year.  The  popula- 
tioQ  has  increased  since  1870  from  9000  to  about  15,000. 

As  the  city  of  Sao  Vicente,  the  first  permanent  Portuguese  settle- 
ment in  Brazil,  began  to  decline  from  its  position  as  capital  of  the 
southern  provinces,  Santos,  founJcd  hy  Braz  Cuba  in  15-i3-46, 
gradually  took  its  place.  In  tlie  17th  century  it  w.as  besieged  by 
tlio  Dutch  and  English.  The  provincial  assembly  passed  an 
enactment  by  which  the  city  was  to  be  called  Cidade  de  Bonifacio 
in  honour  of  Jose  Bonifacio  d'Andradc  o  Silva,  the  nation.al  patriot, 
to  whom  it  had  given  birth,  but  the  older  name  of  Santos  Jield  its 
ground. 

SAO  LEOPOLDO,  a  German  colony  in  the  province 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil,  founded  in  1824.  It  is 
connected  with  Porto  Alegre  by  rail  and  also  by  the  Rio 
do'  Jinos,  a  small  but  deep  and  navigable  river.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  town  and  sixteen  neighbouring  settle- 
ments number  in  all  about  20,000,  and  are  engaged  in 
cattle-breeding  and  in  the  culture  of  grain,  arrow-root,  and 
sugar. 

SA6NE.     See  Rhone. 

SA6NE,  Haute-,  a  department  in  the  north-east  of 
France,  formed  in  1790  from  the  northern  portion  of 
Franche  Comt^,  and  traversed  by  the  river  Saone.  Situated 
between  47°  14'  and  48'  1'  N.  lat.  and  between  5°  21 
and  6°  49'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  department 
of  the  Vosges,  E.  by  the  territory  of  Belfort,  S.  by 
Doubs  and  Jura,  and  W.  by  Cufe-d'Or  and  Haute- 
Marne.  On  the  north-east,  w-here  they  are  formed  by  the 
Vosges,  and  to  the  south  along  the  course  of  the  Ognon 
the  limits  are  natural.  The  highest  point  of  the  depart- 
ment is  the  Ballon  de  Servance  (39tO  feet),  and  the  lowest 
the  confluence  of  the  Sadne  and  Ognon  (610  feet).  The 
general  slope  is  from  north-east  to  south-west,  the  direction 
followed  by  those  two  streams.  In  the  north-east  the 
department  belongs  to  the  Vosgian  formation,  consisting 
of  pine-clad  mountains  of  sandstone  and  granite ;  but 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  e.\tcnt  it  is  composed 
oj  limestone  plateaus  800  to  1000  feet  high  pierced  with 
crevasses  and  subterranean  caves,  into  which  the  rain 
water  disappears  to  issue  again  as  springs  in  the  valleys 
200  feet  lower  down.  In  its  passage  through  the  depart- 
ment the  Saone  receives  frofti  the  right  the  Amance  and 
the  Salon  from  the  Langres  plateau,  and  from  the  left 
the  Coney,  the  Lanterne  (augmented  by  the  Breuchin 
which  passes  by  Luxeuil),  the  Durgeon  (passing  Vesoul), 
and  the  Ognon.  The  north-eastern  districts  are  cold  in 
climate  and  have  an  annual  rainfall  ranging  from  36  to  48 
inches.  Towards  the  south-west  the  characteristics  become 
those  of  the  Rhone  valley  generally.  At  Vesoul  and  Gray 
the  rainfall  only  reaches  24  inches  per  annum. 

Outof  a  total  of  1,31!), 570  acres  664, SIC  are  arable,  375,tiD9  under 
forest,  l.'J3,278  natural  meadows  and  orchards,  and  31,7^2  vine- 
yards. The  agricultural  -c:;ul.«tion  numbers  180, 8D3  out  of  a 
total  of  295,905.  They  possess  22,33-1  horses,  152,609  cattle, 
63,000  sheen,  72,678  pigs",  709^  goats,  more  than  19,000  dngs, 
and  15,915  beehives  (40  tons  15  cwts.  of  honey  in  16S1).  Wheat 
is  the  staple  crop — 2,727,425  bushels  in  1883;  next  come  cats, 
3,188,322  bushels ;  potatoes,  8,175,673  bushels;  wine,  mostly  of 
middling  quality,  4,887,652  gallons  (average  vintage  for  the  last 
ten  years  6,086,652  gallons)  ;  rye,  449,308  busliela  ;  barley, 
396,940 ;  meslin,  276,251;  buckwheat,  63,945;  maize,  64,924; 
millet,  154  ;  colza,  456  tons  ;  beetroot,  20,365  tons  ;  pulse,  5062 
bushels;  hemp,  linen,  tobacco,  hops.  The  woods,  wliicli  cover 
more  than  a  quarter  of  the  department,  aro  composed  of  firs  in  tlie 
Vosges  and  beech  trees,  oaks,  wych  elms,  and  aspens  in  the  otlicr 
districts.  Kirschwasser  is  manufactured  at  FongeroUfS  from  the 
native  cherries.  The  industrial  population  number  51,477  ;  550 
workmen  raise  143,842  tons  of  iron-ore  yearly  ;  copper,  silver,  and 
manganese  exist  in  tlie  department,  and  gold  occurs  in  the  bed 
of  the  Ognon.  Rock-salt  mines  yield  annually  11,000  tons  of  salt 
and  the  materials  for  a  considerablo  manufacture  of  sulphuric, 
hydrochloric,  and  nitric  acids,  sulphate  of  soda,  cldorido  of  lime, 
and  Kpsom  and  Glaaber  salts.  Coal  mines,  with  their  principal 
centre  at  Ronchamp,  give  employment  to  more  than  2000  workmen, 
,and  in  1883  yielded  212,680  tons  of  coal.    Peat,  limestone,  plaster, 


huilding-stone,  marble,  porphyry,  granite,  syenite,  and  sandstone 
aro  all  worked  in  tlio  department.  The  green  porphyry  pedestal  ot 
Napoleon's  sarcophagus  at  Les  Invalides  and  the  syenite  columns 
of  the  Grand  Opera  in  Paris  were  cut  at  Servance.  Of  the  many 
mineral  waters  of  Haute-Saone  the  best  known  are  the  hot  springs 
of  Luxeuil,  wliich,  with  their  sixteen  saline  and  two  chalybeate 
sources,  discharge  over  127,000  gallons  in  the  24  iiours  and  arc 
used  for  bathing  and  drinking.  Besides  forty-seven  iron-working 
establishments  (smelting  furnaces,  foundries,  and  wire-drawing 
mills,  producing  in  1833  4875  tons  of  iron  smelted  by  wood-fuel, 
286  tons  of  refined  iron  and  1040  tons  of  sheet-iron,  Sic),  Haute. 
Saone  possesses  copper-foundries,  engineering  works,  steel-foundries, 
and  factories  for  producing  tin  plate,  nails,  pins,  files,  saws,  screws, 
shot,  chains,  agricultural  implements,  locks,  sj>inning  Jnachinery, 
edge  tools,  &c.  Window-glass  is  manufactured  by  105  workmen 
and  glass  wares  by  300,  pottery  and  earthenware  by  220  to  230. 
There  are  also  about  100  brick  and  tile  works  ;  the  paper-uiills 
employ  329  hands,  and  the  21  cotton-mills  (66,700  spiuJles  and 
2518  looms,  of  which  154  are  liand-loonis)  upwards  of  2000.  Print- 
works, fulling  mills,  hosiery  factories,  and  straw-hat  factories  art 
also  of  some  account;  as  well  as  sugar- works,  dye-works,  saw-mills, 
starch-works,  chemical  works,  oil-mills,  tanyards,  and  (lour-mills. 
The  department  exports  wheat  (893,000  bushels),  cattle,  iron,  wood, 
pottery,  kirschwpsser,  and  cooper's  wares.  The  Saone  provniea 
a  navigable  channel  of  40  miles,  which  is  about  to  be  connected 
with  the  Moselle  and  the  ^^eusc  by  the  Canal  de  I'Est  in  course  of 
construction  along  the  valley  of  the  Coney.  Gray  is  the  great 
emporium  of  the  water-borne  trade,  estimated  at  200,000  tons  per 
annum.  The  department  has  186  miles  of  national  roads,  3313 
miles  of  other  roads,  and  235  miles  of  railway — the  Paris-Mulhouse 
and  Nancy-Gray  railways,  crossing  at  Vesoul,  and  various  other 
lines.  Tliere  are  three  arrondissements, — Vesoul,  Gray  (7254  in- 
hribitants  in  the  town).  Lure  (43G0), — 28  cantons,  5S3  communes. 
Haute-Saone  is  in  the  district  of  the  7th  corps  d'armee,  and  in  its 
legal,  ecclesiastical,  and  educational  relations  depends  on  Bcsan<^on. 
Luxeuil  (4376  inhabitants),  the  most  important  i  lace  after  the  sub- 
prefectures,  is  celebrated  for  its  abbey,  founded  by  St  Colunibuji 
in  590. 

SA6NE-ET-L0IRE,  a  department  of  the  east  central 
region  of  France  formed  in  1790'  from  the  districts  of 
Autunois,  Brionnais,  Chalonnais,  Charollais,  and  Maconnais 
previously  belonging  to  Burgundy.  Lying  between  46°  9' 
and  47°  9'  N.  lat.,  3°  37'  and  5°  27'  E.  long.,  it  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  department  of  Cote  d'Or,  E. 
by  that  of  Jura,  S.E.  by  Ain,  S.  by  Rhone  and  Loire,  \V. 
by  AUier  and  Niuvre.  The  two  streams  from  which  it 
takes  its  name  bosnd  the  department  on  the  south-oast  and 
on  the  west  respectively.  Between  these  the  continental 
watershed  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic 
called  the  Charollais  Mountains  runs  south  and  north.  Its 
altitude  (2500  feet  on  the  south)  diminishes  to  the  north 
in  the  direction  of  Cote-d'Or.  The  culminating  point  of 
the  department  is  in  the  heights  of  Morvan,  on  the  border 
of  Niivre  (2960  feet).  The  lowest  point,  where  the  Saeme 
leaves  the  department,  is  under  550  feet.  The  Saone 
crosses  the  department  from  north  to  south,  and  receives 
on  its  right  the  Dheunc,  followed  by  the  Canal  du  Centre 
and  the  Grosne,  and  on  its  left  tlie  Doubs  and  the  Seille. 
The  Loire  only  receives  one  important  affluent  from  the 
right,  the  Arroux,  which  is  increased  by  the  Bourbince, 
whose  valley  is  followed  by  the  Canal  du  Centre.  The 
average  temperature  is  sliglitly  higher  at  Macon  than  at. 
Paris — the  winters  being  colder  and  the  summer  hotter. 
The  yearly  rainfall  (32  inches,  increasing  towards  the 
hilly  districts)  is  distributed  over  135  days;  thcro  tro  2." 
days  of  snow  and  27  of  storm. 

Of  a  toUl  area  of  2,116,311  acres  (this  is  one  of  the  largest  of  tho 
French  departments)  1,079,395  aro  arable,  371,806  forest,  292,287 
natural  meadows  and  orchards,  and  106,111  vineyards.  In  18S0  tho 
live-stock  comprised  26,0u0  horses,  COOO  as.scs  and  mules,  75,000 
bulls  and  oxen,  150,000  cows  and  heifers,  56,000  calves,  216,00" 
sheep,  175,000  pigs,  50,0oC  goats,  35,000  beehives  (yielding  214 
tons  of  honey  and  52  tons  of  wax).  The  white  Charollais  oxen  are 
one  of  the  finest  French  breeds,  equally  suitable  for  labour  and 
fattening.  No  fewer  than  300,252  of  the  inhabitants  of  tho  de- 
partment out  of  a  total  of  625,559  depend  on  agriculture.  In  188? 
there  was  produced  3,678,276  bushels  of  wheat,  22,890  meslin, 
1,022,037  rye;  in  1880  210,375  bvushels  of  barley,  754,875  buck- 
wheat, 809,325  maize,  101,970  millet,  2,107,187  oats,  13,359,307 
potatoes,  38,500  ijnise,  70,936  tons  of  beetroot,  206  tons  hemp,  195 


302 


S  A  O  — S  A  P 


■tons  hcnijtscod,  135,300  bushels  colza-socd,  3177  tons  colza  oil.  In 
18S3  tho  vinta;;o  yieliied  22,636,636  Knllons  of  wine,  the  average 
■quantity  of  recent  years  being  21,809,018  gallons.  The  red  wines 
lof  J\Iaconnais  (especially  those  of  Tliorins)  are  those  in  highest 
repute;  Pouilly  produces  tlie  best  white  wines.  Tho  industrial 
classes  are  represented  by  150,983  individuals.  The  coal-basin 
of  Creusot,  tho  sixth  in  iniportance  in  France,  produced  in  18S2 
1,269,783  tons.  A  pit  at  lilpinae  is  3937  feet  deep.  Iron-ore  was 
extracted  in  18S2  to  the  amount  of  23,654  tons.  Slate,  limestone, 
building-stone,  millstones,  granite,  marble,  marl,  plaster,  bitu- 
inino\is  schists,  peat,  kaolin,  manganese"  (4360  tons  per  annum), 
and  certain  precious  stones  arc  also  found  in  tho  dep.artment.  Tho 
■  most  celebrated  mineral  waters  are  those  of  Bonrbon-Laney,  six  out 
of  tho  seven  springs  being  thermal.  They  arc  strongly  saline. 
JMetal-worldng  is  principally  carried  on  at  Crousot,  which,  with  its 
13,000  workmen  and  its  13  smelting  furnaces,  100  puddling  ovens, 
4  P.essemer  apparatuses  and  4  .Martin's  ovens,  &e.,  produced  in 
1882  63,989  tons  of  iron  (965  tons  of  rails,  21,984  tons  of  sheet-iron) 
and  99,823  tons  of  steel  (72,055  tons  of  rails,  7056  tons  of  sheet- 
iron).  The  engine  works  produce  all  sorts  of  machines,  including 
about  100  locomotives.  The  Clialon  branch  works  tarn  out  shijis, 
boats,  bridges,  and  boilers.  Other  foundries  and  forges  in  the  de- 
partment produced  in  1882  175,113  tons  of  cast  iron  and  certain 
quantities  of  copper  and  bronze.  The  cotton  manufacture  emjjloys 
'14,000  spindles  and  2000  looms,  silk  2900  spindles  and  2500  h.and- 
looms,  wool-spinning  350  spindles.  Other  industrial  establish- 
ments are  potteries,  tile-works,  glass-works  (6,000,000  bottles  at 
Epinac  alone),  distilleries,  oil-works,  mineral-oil  works,  cooperages, 
tanneries,  ilour-mills,  sugar-works — the  total  number  being  850 
with  1372  steam  engines  of  27,780  horse-power.  The  commerce 
of  the  department,  especially  as  regards  its  exports,  deals  mainly 
v'-'di  coal,  metals,  machinery,  wine,  cattle,  bricks,  pottery,  glass. 
^  it  is  facilitated  by  five  navigable  streams  (181  miles), — Loire, 
Arroux,  Saone,  Doubs,  Scille, — the  Canal  du  Centre  wliieh  unites 
Chalon-sur-Saone  with  Digoin  on  tlio  Loire,  and  tho  canal  from 
Koanno  to  Digoin  and  the  lateral  Loire  Canal,  both  following  the 
main  river  valley.  Tho  total  length  of  the  can.als  is  90  miles. 
There  are  365  miles  of  national  road,  7098  of  other  roads,  and  487 
miles  of  railway.  Sauno-et-Loire  forms  the  diocese  of  Autun  ;  it  is 
part  of  the  district  of  the  8th  corps  d'armc'e  (Uourges),  and  its  uni- 
versity "is  that  of  Lyons.  It  is  divided  into  five  arrondisscments, 
- — JIacon,  Chalon-sur-Saone,  Autun,  CharoUes  (3350  inhabitants  in 
the  town),  Louhans  (4280), — 50  cantons,  and  539  communes  ;  tho 
most  populous  commune  is  Creusot  (28,000  inhabitants,  16,000  iu 
tho  town).  ]\Iontceau-les-Mine3  (4500)  is  also  a  mining  centre. 
Glnny  (3500)  is  celebrated  for  its  abbey,  now  occupied  by  the  nor- 
mal school  of  secoiulary  instruction,  and  Paray-le-.Monial  (300)  for 
its  pilgrimage. 

SAO  PAULO,  a  city  of  Brazil,  capital  of  a  province  of 
tbe  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  nortli-western  slope  of 
tbo  Serra  do  Mar,  on  a  left-hand  tributary  of  the  Tiete,  a 
confluent  of  the  Paran.'l.  It  is  an  old  and  irregularly 
built  city,  with  some  picturesque  old  churches  and  con- 
vents.. The  centre  of  the  provincial  railway  system,  8G 
miles  distant  from  S.\nto.s  (q.v.)',  its  seaport  on  tlie 
Atlantic  coast,  and  143  miles  from  Eio  de  Janeiro,  the  city 
has  developed  very  rapidly  within  recent  years.  One  of 
'the  two  academies  of  law  which  Brazil  possesses  is  seated 
at  Sao  Paulo.  The  most  important  public  buildings  are 
the  catliedral,  the  provincial  governor's  and  the  bishop's 
palaces,  and  the  theatre.  A  new  system  of  water-snpjily 
aii,d  drainage  was  constructed  in  1879-80  by  Engli.?h 
engineers  under  a  Brazilian  company.  The  population  of 
the  city  in  1879  numbered  about  35,000. 

Founded  by  the  Jesuits  as  a  college,  Sao  Paulo  was  ni.ide  a  town 
in  1560  instead  of  Santo  Andre,  destroyed  by  order  of  Slendo  do 
Sa.  In  1711  it  beoame  a  city,  in  1740  a  bishopric,  and  in  1823 
an  "  imperial  citv."" 

SAO  PEDliO  DO  RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL.  'See  Rio 
Gr.\nde  do  Sul. 

SAPOR  (Sn.ipiJE  or  SnAHPtrini),  the  name  of  three 
Sas.lnian  kings.     See  Persi.v,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  608-ClO. 

SAPPAK  WOOD  is  one  of  several  red  dyewoods  of 
commerce,  all  belonging  to  the  Leguminous  genus  Casal- 
jnnia,  or  to  the  closely  allied  genus  PtJtophontm.  It  is  a 
native  of  tropical  Asia  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  but, 
as  it  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  of  the  red  dyewoods,  its 
cultivation  has  been  promoted  in  the  AVcst  Indies  and 
Brazil.  The  wood  is  somewhat  lighter  in  colour  than 
.Brazil  wood  n;id  its  other  allic.s,  but  the  saire  tinctorial 


principle,  brazilin,  appears  to  be  common  to  all.  See 
Brazil  'Wood,  voL  iv.  p.  241. 

SAPPHIRE,  a  blue  transparent  variety  of  corundum  or 
native  alumina.  It  differs,  therefore,  from  the  Oriental 
ruby  mainly  in  its  colour.  The  colour  varies  from  the 
palest  blue  to  deep  indigo,  the  most  esteemed  tint  being 
that  of  the  blue  cornflower.  It  often  happens  that  a 
crystal  of  sapiphire  is  particoloured,  and  hence  a  fine  cut 
stone  may  ^derive  its  tint  from  a  deep-coloured  portion  at 
the  back,  instead  of  being  uniformly  tinted  throughout. 
The  sapphire  is  dichroic,  and  the  colour  of  a  fine  velvety 
stone  may  be  resolved  by  means  of  the  dichroiscope  into 
an  ultramarine  blue  and  a  yellowish-green.  The  origin 
of  the  blue  colour  of  the  sapphire  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily determined,  for,  although  oxide  of  cobalt  may 
produce  it,  and  is  invariably  used  for  colouring  imitations 
of  the  stone,  yet  the  presence  of  cobalt  is  not  always 
revealed  in  the  analysis  of  the  sapphire.  According  to 
lapidaries  tho  hardness  of  the  sapphire  slightly  exceeds 
that  of  the  ruby,  and  it  is  therefore  tho  hardest  known 
mineral,  excepting  diamond.  In  consequence  of  its  great 
hardness  it  was  generally  mounted  by  the  ancients  in  a 
partially  rough  state,  the  surface  being  polished  but  not 
cut.  Notwithstanding  its  hardness  it  has  been  occasion- 
ally engraved  as  a  gem.  There  seems  no  doubt  that  the 
ancient  o-u7r<^Etpos,  as  well  as  the  sapphire  (I'SP)  of  the 
Old  Testament  (Job  xxviii.  G),  was  our  lapis  lazuli,  while 
the  modern  sapphire  seems  to  have  been  known  under  the 
name  of  ioKn-^os  or  kyadnlhiis  (King). 

The  finest  sapphires  are  obtained  from  Ceylon,  where 
they  occur  with  other  gem-stones  as  pebbles  or  rolled 
crystals  in  the  sands  of  rivers.  The  Sapphires  have 
generally  preserved  their  crystalline  form  better  than  the 
associated  rubies.  Some  of  'the  slightly-cloudy  Ceylon 
sapphires  display  when  cut  en  cahoclion  an  opalescent  star 
of  six  rays,  whence  they  are  called  siar-sajijMres  or 
asterias.  The  principal  localities  in  Ceylon  yielding  sap- 
phires are  Rakewana,  Ratnapura,  and  Satawaka.  A  few 
years  ago  sapphires  were  discovered  in  Siam  (in  the  pro- 
vince of  Battambong),'  but  the  stones  from  this  locality 
are  mostly  dull  and  of  too  dark  a  colour.  In  Burmah 
they  occur  in  association  with  rubies,  but  are  much  less 
numerous.  They  have  also  been  recently  found  in  Pal- 
dar,  north  of  the  Chandi-abagha  range.  The  sapphire  is 
widely  distributed  through  tho,  gold-bearing  drifts  of 
Victoria  and  New  South  Wales,  but  the  colour  of  the 
stones  is  usually  too  dark.  Some  of  the  finest  specimens 
have  come  from  the  Beechworth  district  in  Victoria. 
Coarse  sapphire  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  a  few  stones  fit  for  jewellery  have  been 
obtained  from  Corundum  Hill,  Macon  county,  North 
Carolina,  and  from  tho'Tither  localities  mentioned  under 
RrBY.  The  sapphire  also  occurs  in  Europe,  being  found 
in  the'  basalts  of  the  Rhine  valley  and  of  I^  Buy  in 
Velay,  but  not  sufficiently  fine  for  purposes  of  ornament. 
The  sapphire  has  been  artificially  reproduced  by  similar 
methods  to  those  described  in  the  article  Ruby. 

SAPPHO  (in  Attic  Greek  2a7r<;f.w,  but  called  by  herself 
'S/diT(f><i>,  which  is  necessitated  by  the  metre  also  in 
Anthol.,  ix.  190,  though  Alcarus,  himself  an  yEolian  and 
her  coiitemporary,  calls  her  2a7r(^w),  incomparably  the 
greatest  poetess  the  world  has  ever  seen,  was  a  native  of 
Lesbos,  and  probably  both  was  born  and  lived  at  Mytilene. 
For  the  idea  that  she  migrated  thither  from  Eresus  is 
merely  a  conjecture  to  explain  a  perfectly  imaginary  difli- 
culty  caused  by  the  grammarians  who  invented  another 
Sappho,  a  courtesan  of  Eresus,  to  whom  to  ascribe  the 
current  scandals  about  the  poetess.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Scamandvonymus  and  Cleis,  of  whom  nothing  more  is 
known.,    Jho   epistle  of   Sappho   to  Phaon,   ascribed  ta 


S  A  K  —  S  A  R 


303. 


Ovid,  says  that  her  "parent"  died  when  she  was  six  years 
old ;  if  Frag.  90  refers  to  Sappho's  own  mother,  which  is 
[very  doubtful,  this  '■  parent "  must  be  her  father.  Her 
date  cannot  be  certainly  fixed,  but  she  must  have  lived 
about  the  end  of  the  7th  and  beginning  of  the  6th  cen- 
turies B.C.,  being  contemporary  with  Alcteus,  Stesichorus, 
«nd  Pittacus,  in  fact  with  the  culminating  period  of  yEolic 
poetry.  But  of  her  life  very  little  else  is  known.  One 
of  her  brothers,  Charaxus,  who  was  engaged  in  the  wine- 
trade  between  Lesbos  and  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  fell  in  love 
there  with  a  courtesan  named  Doricha  and  surnamed  for 
icr  beauty  Rhodopis,  whom  he  freed  from  slavery  and 
\ipon  whom  he  squandered  his  property.  Sappho  wrote 
an  ode  on  this,  in  which  she  severely  satirized  and  rebuked 
lim.  Another  brother,  Larichus,  was  public  cup-bearer  at 
ilytilene, — a  fact  for  which  it  was  necessary  to  be  tvyevrj^, 
so  that  we  may  suppose  Sappho  to  have  been  of  good  family. 
Tor  the  rest  it  is  known  that  she  had  a  daughter,  named 
■after  her  grandmother  Cleis,  and  that  she  had  some 
personal  acquaintance  with  Alcajue.  He  addressed  her 
ill  an  ode  of  which  a  fragment  is  preserved  :  "  Violet-weav- 
ing, pure,  sweet-smiling  Sappho,  I  wish  to  say  somewhat, 
Isut  shame  hinders  me;"  and  she  answered  in  another  ode  : 
i'"Hadst  thou  had  desire  of  aught  good  or  fair,  shame 
jTwould  not  have  touched  thine  eyes,  but  thou  wouldst  have 
spoken  thereof  openly."  Further  than  this  everything  is 
-enveloped  in  doubt  and  darkness.  .  The  well-known  story 
of  her  love  for  the  disdainful  Phaon,  and  her  leap  into  the 
sea  from  the  Leucadian  promontory,  together  with  that  of 
ler  flight  from  Mytileiie  to  Sicily,  which  has  been  con- 
nected with  her  love  for  Phaon,  rests  upon  no  evidence 
that  will  bear  examination.  Indeed,  we  are  not  even  told 
whether  she  died  of  the  leap  or  not.  All  critics  again  are 
agreed  that  Suidas  was  simply  gulled  by  the  comic  poets 
■when  he  tells  us  of  her  imaginary  husband,.  Cercolas  of 
-Andros.  The  name  of  Sappho  was  by  these  poets  con- 
.sistently  dragged  in  the  dirt,  and  both  the  a.spersions 
they  cast  on  her  character  and  the  embellishments  with 
which  they  garnished  her  life  passed  for  centuries  as 
undoubted  history.  Six  comedies  entitled  Sajipko,  and 
two  Fhaon,  were  produced  by  the  Jliddle  Comedy ;  and, 
•when  we  consider,  for  example,  the  way  in  which  Socrates 
was  caricatured  by  Aristophanes,  we  are  justified  in  put- 
ting no  faith  whatever  in  any  accounts  of  Sappho  which 
depend  upon  such  authority,  as  most  ^1  our  accounts 
■appear  to  do. 

Welcker'  was  the  first  to  examine  carefully  the  evidence 
upon  which  the  current  opinion  of  Saiipho's  character 
Tested.  He  found  it  easy  to  disprove,  in  his  opinion,  all 
the  common  accusations  against  her  moral  character,  but 
unfortunately,  not  content  with  disproving  actual  state- 
ments, went  on  to  uphold  Sappho  as  a  model  of  feminine 
virtue.  Bergk  and  Mure  both  combated  his  views,  and  in 
the  Itheiniachcs  jMusftiiii  for  1S57  may  bo  found  the 
issues  between  him  and  the  latter  clearly  stated  on  both 
sides,  unfortunately  with  con.<;iderablo  acrimony.  It  is. 
plain  to  the  impartial  reader  that  both  of  the  controver- 
sialists have  gone  decidedly  too  far,  but  it  can  hardly  bo 
denied,  however  much  we  should  naturally  desire  to 
think  otherwise,  that  Mure  has  very  considerably  the  best 
of  it.  We  owe  thanks  to  Welcker  for  clearing  the  history 
of  Sappho  from  .several  fictions,  but  further  than  this  it  is 
impossible  to  go ;  wo  owe  thanks  to  Mure  for  preferring 
truth  to  sentiment,  but  we  cannot  disregard  some  points 
of  Welcker's  argument  so  completely  as  he  does.  In  fact, 
the  truth  appears  to  be  that  Sappho  was  not,  as  the  Attic 
comedy  represented  her,  a  •woman  utterly  abandoned  to 
vice,    and   only   distinguished   among   the   corrupt    com- 

'  ftapplio  von  cinem  AcmalumUcn  Veruriluii  U/rcj/l,  GvjUiuKtu, 
1816. 


munity  of  Lesbos  by  exceptional  immorality  and  the  gift' 
of  song, — that  indeed  she  was  not  notoriously  immoral  at! 
all,  but  no  worse  and  perhaps  better  than  the  standard  of 
hei  age  and  country  required.  This  seems  clearly  i.idi- 
cated  by  the  epithet  a^yro,  with  which  Alcseus  addressed  Jier. 
On  the  other  hand,  not  merely  tradition  but  the  character 
of  her  extant  fragments,  with  the  other  evidence  adduced 
by  Mure,  constrain  us  to  resign  the  pleasant  dream  of 
Welcker,  K.  O.  Miiller,  and  their  followers, — an  ideal  and 
eminently  respectable  head  of  a  poetic  school,  with  a 
matronly  regard  for  her  pupils,  who  meant  by  her  own 
poems  anything  but  what  she  said,  and  was  more  careful 
to  inculcate  virtue  than  unlimited  indulgence  in  passion. 

To  leave  this  disagreeable  question,  we  will  next\ndicato 
briefly  all  that  is  known  of  her  position  in  Lesbos-,  She 
was  there  the  centre  of  a  brilliant  society  and  head  of  a 
great  poetic  school,  for  poetry  in  that  ago  and  place  was 
cultivated  as  assiduously  and  apparently  as  successfully 
by  women  as  by  men.  Her  most  famous  pupils  were 
Erinna  of  Telos  and  Damophyla  of  Pamphylia.  '  Besides 
them  we  know  the. names  of  Atthis,  Telesippa,  Jlegara, 
Gongyla,  Gyrinna,  Dica,  Muasidica  Eunica,  and  Anactoria, 
to  whom  the  second  ode,  ei's  cpuijj.ivav,  is  said  to  have  been 
addressed.  The  names  also  of  two  of  her  rivals  are  pre- 
served— Andromeda  and  Gorgo ;  but  whether  they  also 
presided  over  similar  schools  or  not  is  very  doubtful,  as 
that  idea  of  them  depends  on  the  authority  of  Maximus 
Tyrius,  which  is  c|uite  worthless  on  this  point. 

In  antiquity  the  fame  of  Sappho  rivalled  that  of 
Homer.  She  was  called  "the  poete-ss,"  as  he  was  called 
"the  poet."  Different  writers  style  her  "the  tenth 
Muse,"  "the  flower  of  the  Graces,"  "a  miracle,"  "the 
beautiful,"  the  last  epithet  referring  to  her  writings,  not 
her  person,  which  is  said  to  have  been  small  and  dark. 
Her  poems  were  arranged  in  nine  books,  on  what  principle 
is  uncertain ;  she  is  said  to  have  sung  them  to  the  Mixo- 
Lydian  mode,  which  she  herself  invented.  The  few 
remains  which  have  como  down  to  us  amply  testify  to 
the  justice  of  the  praises  lavished  upon  Sappho  by  the 
ancients.  The  perfection  and  finish  of  every  line,  the 
correspondence  of  sense  and  sound,  the  incomparable  com- 
mand over  all  the  most  delicate  resources  of  verse,  and  the 
exquisite  symmetry  of  the  complete  odes  raise  her  into  the 
very  first  rank  of  technical  poetry  at  once,  while  her 
direct  and  fervent  painting  of  passion,  which  caused 
Longinus  to  quote  the  ode  to  Anactoria  as  an  example  of 
the  sublime,  has  never  been  since  surpassed,  and  only 
approached  by  Catullus  and  in  the  Vita  Nnova.  Her 
fragments  also  bear  witness  to  a  profound  feeling  for  the 
beauty  of  nature  ;  we  know  from  other  sources  that  .she 
had  a  peculiar  delight  in  flowers,  and  especially  in  the 
rose.  The  ancients  also  attributed  to  her  a  considerable 
power  in  satire,  but  in  hexameter  verse  they  considered 
her  inferior  to  her  pupil  Ennna. 

Tlio  fiagmcnts  of  Sapplio  Imvo  been  all  preserved  by  oiiicr 
authors  incidentally.  An  indcjienilcnt  l'ia;;nicnt,  asciiljed  to  liev 
by  ]i\,\m  but  rejected  by  Bwj^k  and  of  very  doubtful  authenticity, 
lias  been  discovered  on  a  jMiityrus  in  tlio  E^yjitian  inu.seuni  at 
Heilin  (see  Ithciii.  Hits,  for  18s6,  ji.  2S7  ;  Bci-gi,  vol.  iii.  ji.  704); 
but  even  if  ically  liers  it  is  too  fragmentary  to  bo  of  any  valuc.l 
The  best  edition  of  .Saiiplio  is  to  be  found  in  Ber.:,'k'a  I'.jcitic  Lijrici 
Grncci,  vol.  iii.,  4tli  ed. ,  Lcipsio,  1SS2.  TIic  only  scpaiato  e<lition' 
and  the  only  coiniilcto  translation  in  English  is  tliat  ot  Mr  ^\'hal■ton 
(Loudon,  1S85),  in  whicli  it  is  unfortunately  iiniiossiblc  for  tho 
general  reader  to  |daco  much  reliance.  (J.  A.  PL.) 

SAPvABAND  {Ital  SarabanJa,  Zarahanda;  Tt.  Sara-' 
lande),  a  slow  dance,  generally  believed  to  have  been 
imported  from  Spain  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  16th  een- 
tury,  though  atteinjilB  have  sometimes  been  made  to 
trace  it  to  an  Eastern  origin.  The  etymology  cf  tho  word 
is  very  uncertain.  Tho  most  probable  account  is  that  tho 
dance  was  named  after  its  inventor — a  celeUrated  dancer 


304 


S  A  R  ~  S  A  R 


of  Seville,  called  Zarabaiida.  During  tlio  IClli  and  17th 
centuries  the  saraband  was  exceedingly  popular,  alike  in 
Spain,  France,  Italy,  and  England.  Its  music  was  in 
triple  time — generally  with  three  minims  in  the  bar — and 
almost  always  consisted  of  two  strains,  each  beginning 
upon  the  first  beat,  and  most  frequently  ending  on  the 
second  or  tliird.  Many  very  fine  examples  of  it  will  be 
found  among  the  Suites  and  Partitas  of  Handel  and 
J.  S.  Bach  ;  but  by  far  the  finest  we  possess  is  that  which 
Handel  first  composed  for  his  overture  to  Atmira,  and 
afterwards  adapted  to  the  words  "  Lascia,  ch'io  pianga," 
in  liinaldo. 

SARACENS  was  the  current  designation  among  the 
Cliristians  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  for  their  Moslem 
enemies,  especially  for  the  Moslems  in  Europe.  In  earlier 
times  the  name  of  Saraceni  was  applied  hy  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  the  troublesome  nomad  Arabs  of  the  Syro- 
Arabian  desert  who  continually  harassed  the  frontier  of 
the  empire  from  'Egypt  to  the  Euphrates.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  how,  after  Islam,  the  name  came  to  be  extended 
to  tlie  Jloslcm  enemies  of  the  empire  in  general,  but  no 
satisfactory  explanation  has  been  given  of  the  reason  why 
the  Piomans  called  the  frontier  tribes  Saracens.  It  is 
most  natural  to  suppose  that  they  adopted  some  name  of  a 
tribe  or  confederation  and  used  it  in  an  extended  scESe, 
just  as  the  Syrians  called  all  these  northern  nomads  by  the 
name  of  the  tribe  of  Tayyi'.  The  common  derivation  from 
the  Arabic  sharkc,  "  eastern,"  is  quite  untenable.  Sprenger 
suggests  that  the  word  may  be  simply  shorakd,  "allies." 

SARAGOSSA.     See  Zaeagoza. 

SARAKHS.     See  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  618, 

SARAN,  or  Sakun,  a  British  district  in  the  lieutenant- 
governorship  of  Bengal,  lying  between  25°  40'  and  26° 
38'  N.  lat.  [{nd  83°  5S'  and  8j°  U'  E.  long.  It  forms  one 
of  the  north-western  districts  of  the  PatnA  division  in  the 
Bchar  province,  and  comprises  an  area  of  2622  square 
miles.  SAran  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  district  of 
Gorakhpur  in  the  North-Western  Provinces,  on  the  east 
by  the  Bengal  districts  of  Champuran  and  Tirhut,  on  the 
south  by  the  Ganges,  separating  it  from  Sh.AhAbAd  and 
PatnA  districts,  and  on  the  west  by  Gorakhpur.  It  is  a 
vast  alluvial  plain,  possessing  no  mountains,  and  scarcely 
any  hill  or  even  undulations,  but  with  a  general  inclina- 
tion towards  the  south-east,  as  indicated  by  the  flow  of 
the  rivers  in  that  direction.  The  rivers  and  watercourses 
are  very  numerous,  few  tracts  being  better  supplied  in  this 
respect.  The  principal  rivers  besides  the  Ganges  are  the 
Gandak  and  GhagrA,  which  are  navigable  throughout  the 
year.  There  is  little  or  no  waste  land,  and  the  district 
has  long  been  noted  for  the  high  state  of  its  cultivation. 
SAran  is  beautifully  wooded ;  mango  trees  are  very 
numerous ;  and  it  yields  large  crops  of  rice,  besides  other 
cereals,  tobacco,  opium,  indigo,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane. 
Though  possessing  no  railways  or  canals,  the  district  is 
well  provided  with  roads.  There  is  very  little  jungle; 
latge  game  is  not  met  with,  but  snakes  are  very  numerous. 
SAran  is  subject  to  blight,  flood,  and  drought ;  its  average 
annual  rainfall  is  45  inches.  The  administrative  head- 
quarters are  at  Chhapra. 

Tlio  census  of  18S1  returned  the  population  at  2,280,382 
(1,083,505  males  and  1,196,817  females);  Himlus  numbered 
2,010,958,  Mohammedans  269,142,  and  Christmns  282.  The  popu- 
latiou  is  enthely  agricultural  ;  there  are  only  three  towns  with  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants,  viz.,  Chhapra  (51,670),  Sewan  (13,319),  and 
Kevelganj  (12,493).  Manufactures  are  few  and  of  little  account ; 
the  principal  arc  indigo,  sug.ar,  brass-work,  pottery,  saltpetre,  and 
cloth.  The  commerce  of  Saran  consists  chiefly  in  the  export  of  raw 
produce,  of  which  the  cliief  articles  are  oil-seeds,  indigo,  sugar,  and 
grain  of  all  sorts  except  rice  ;  the  imports  consist  principally  of 
rice,  salt,  and  European  piece-goods.  Rcvelganj  is  the  chief  trading 
mart.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  amounted  to 
€203,734,  of  which  the  land  contributed  £122,012.    Saran  formerly 


constituted  one  district  with  Champaran..  The  revenue  areas  of  the 
two  districts  wero  not  finally  separated  until  lS06,ibut  the  magis- 
terial jurisdictions  were  first  divided  in  1837. 

f?ARAPIS.     See  Serapis. 

SARATOFF,  a  government  of  south-eastern  Russia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  lower  Volga,  having  Penza  and 
Simbirsk  on  the  north.  Samara  and  Astrakhan  on  the  east, 
and  the  Don  Cossacks,  Voronezh,  and  Tamboff  on  the 
west.  The  area  is  32,624  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion (1882)  2,113,077.  The  government  has  an  irregular 
shape;  and  a  narrow  stri]),  140  miles  long  and  from  20  to- 
45  mi'es  wide,  extending  along  the  Volga  as  far  south  as 
its  Sarepta  bend,  separates  from  the  river  the  territory  of 
the  Don  Cossacks.  Saratoff  occupies  the  eastern  part  of 
the  great  central  plateau  of  Russia,  which  gently  slopes 
towards  tlie  south  so  as  imperceptibly  to  merge  into  the 
steppe  region ;  its  eastern  slope,  deeply  cut  into  by  ravines, 
abruptly  falls  towards  the  Volga.  As  the  higher  jiarts  of 
the  plateau  range  frorii  700  to  900  feet  above  the  sea, 
while  the  Volga  flows  at  an  elevation^  of  only  20  feet  at 
Klivatynsk  in  tha  north,  and  is  48  feet  beneath  sea-level 
at  Sarepta,  the  steep  ravine-cut  slopes  of  the  plateau  give 
a  hilly  aspect  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  In  the  south, 
and  especially  in  the  narsow  strip  above  mentioned,  the 
country  assumes  the  characteristics  of  true  elevated  steppes, 
intersected  witli  waterless  ravines. 

Every  geological  formation  from  the  Carboniferous  up  to 
the  Miocene  is  represented  in  Saratoff ;  the  older  ones  are, 
however,  mostly  concealed  under  the  Cretaceous,  whose 
fossiliferous  marls,  flint-bearing  clays,  and  iron-bearing 
sandstones  cover  broad  areas.  The  Jurassic  deposits  sel- 
dom make  their  appearance  from  beneath  them.  Eocene 
sands,  sandstones,  and  marls,  rich  in  marine  fossils  and  in 
fossil  wood,  extend  over  large  tracts  in  the  east.  The 
boulder-clay  of  the  Finland  and  Olonetz  ice-sheet  penetrates 
in  Saratoff  as  far  south-east  as  the  valleys  of  the  Medvye- 
ditsa  and  the  Sura ;  while  extensive  layers  of  loess  and 
other  deposits  of  the  Lacustrine  or  Post-Glacial  period 
appear  in  the  south-east  and  elsewhere  above  the  Glacial 
deposits.  Iron-ore' is  abundant;  chalk,  lime,  and  white 
[X)ttery  clay  are  extracted  to  a  limited  degree.  The  mineral 
waters  at  Sarepta,  formerly  much  visited,  have  been  super- 
seded in  public  favour  by  those  of  Caucasus. 

Saratoff  is  well  watered,  especially  in  the  north.  The 
Volga,  from  1  to  7  miles  in  width,  separates  it  from 
Samara  and  Astrakhan  for  a  length  of  500  miles ;  its 
tributaries  are  but  small,  except  the  Sura,  which  rises  in 
Saratoff  and  serves  for  the  northward  transit  of  timber. 
The  tributaries  of  the  Don  are  more  important ;  the  upper 
Medvyeditsa  and  the  Khoper,  which  both  have  a  south- 
ward course  parallel  to  the  Volga  and  water  Saratoff  each 
for  about  200  miles,  are  navigated  notwithstanding  their 
shallows,  ready-made  boats  being  brought  in  separate  pieces 
from  the  Volga  for  that  purpose.  The  Ilovla,  which  flows 
in  tlie  same  direction  into  the  Don,  is  separated  from  the 
Volga  only  by  a  strip  of  land  15  miles  wide;  Peter  I. 
proposed  to  utilize  it  as  a  channel  for  coiinecting  the  Don 
with  the  Volga,  but  the  idea  was  never  carried  out,  and 
the  two  rivers  are  now  connected  by  the  railway  (52  miles) 
from  Tsaritsyn  to  Kalatch  which  crosses  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Saratoff. 

Lakes  and  marshes  occur  only  in  a  few  river-valleys. 
The  region  is  rapidly  drying  up,  and  the  forests  diminish- 
ing. In  the  south,  about  Tsaritsyn,  where  the  hills  were 
densely  covered  with  them  a  few  centuries  ago,  they  have 
almost  wholly  disappeared.  In  the  north  they  still  cover 
more  than  a  third  of  the  surface,  the  aggregate  area  under 
wood  being  reckoned  at  2,661,000  acres.  The  remainder 
is  distributed  as  follows  : — arable  land,  11,509,000  acres  ; 
prairies    and    pasture    lands.     3.799,000 ;     uucultivablSj 


S  A  K  A  TOFF 


305 


2,049,800.  'Such  is  the  scarcity  of  timber  that  the 
peasants'  houses  are  made  of  clay,  the  corner  posts  and 
door  and  window  frames  being  largely"  shipped  fi-om  the 
•wooded  districts  of  the  middle  Volga.  The  climate  is 
severe  and  quite  continental.  The  average  yearly  tempera- 
turfcs  are  4r-5  at  Saratoff  (January,  12'-4;  JuJy,  7Vd) 
and  44°-4  at  Tsaritsyn  (January,  13°-2  ;  July,  74°-6).  The 
average  range  of  temperature  is  as  much  as  119°.  The 
Volga  is  frozen  for  an  average  of  162  days  at  Saratoff  and 
153  days  at  Tsaritsyn.  The  soU  is  very  fertile,  especially 
in  the  north,  where  a  thick  sheet  of  black-earth  covers  the 
plateaus ;  sandy  clay  and  salt  clay  appear  in  the  south. 

The  population  is  very  various,  emigrants  from  all  parts  of  Russia 
being  mixed  with  Finnish  and  Tartar  stems  and  with  German 
colonists.  The  Great  Russians  constitute  75  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation. Little  Russians  7  percent,,  Germans  7,  Mordvinians  6,  and 
Tartars  3 'a  per  cent.  -Tho  Tchuvashes  may  number  about  11,000, 
Mescheriaks  about  3000,  and  Poles  about  5000.  All  are  unequally 
distributed,  Little  Russians  being  more  numerous  ia  the  districts  of 
Atkarsk,  Balashoff,  Tsaritsyn,  and  Kamyshin  (IS  to  13  per  cent.),  . 
the  Mordvinians  in  Kuznetsk  and  Petrovsk  (16  per  cent),  and  the 
Germans  in  Kamyshin  {40  per  cent.).  The  immigration  of  tlie 
Germans  took  place  in  1763-1765,  and  their  wealthy  colonies  have 
ine  aspect  of  minor  West- European  towns  (see  Samara). 

Only  255,140  of  the  population  reside  in  ten  towns,  the 
remainder  (1,827,937)  being  distributed  over  5602  villages,  of 
which  some  have  from  5000  to  12,000  inhabitants,  and  no  less  than 
150  reckon  more  than  2000.  The  annual  mortality  is  42  per  1000 
(1882),  but  this  high  figure  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  the 
births,  which  in  the  same  ye,ir  were  51  per  1000.  The  chief 
occupation  is  agriculture,  ilore  than  one  half  of  the  arable  land 
(6,210,000  acres)  was  under  crops  in  ISSl.  In  1884  the  returns 
were  rye,  3,374,000  quarters  (1,608,300  in  1883) ;  wheat  850,700  ; 
barley,  103,400  ;  oats,  1,657,700  (2,432,700  in  1S83)  ;  and  various, 
764,400.  Drought,  and  sometimes  also  noxious  insects,  cause  great 
fluctuations  in  the  harvest  ;  but  nevertheless  almost  every  season 
leaves  a  considerable  balance  of  corn  for  export.  Oil-yielding  plants 
are  also  cultivated  ;  linseed  in  all  districts  except  Tsaritsyn  ; 
mustard,  both  for  grain  and  oil,  extensively  about  Sarepta'and  in 
the  Kamyshin  district  ;  and  sunflower  (140,000  quartei-s)  in  the 
northern  districts.  Gardening  is  a  considerable  source  of  income 
around  Saratotf,  Volsk,  Atkarsk,  and  Kaiiiyshin.  Tho  mo?oi-a7i  dis- 
senters have  great  plantations  of  water-melons,  melons,  pumpkins, 
&c.  The  peasants  of  Saratotf  are  no  better  off  than  those  of  the 
other  governments  of  south-east  Russia  (see  Sam.ai;.\).  Years  of 
scarcity  are  common,  and  invariably  mean  ruin  for  the  peasants. 
Cattle-breeding,  formerly  a  large  source  of  income,  is  rapidly  falling 
ofl  Between  1877  and  1882  there  was  a  decrease  6i  271,000  head,, 
and  murrain  swept  away  large  numbers  of  cattle  in  1883. 

llanufactures  are  developing  but  slowly,  the  chief  of  them,  those 
dealing  with  animal  produce,  being  checked  by  the  falling  off  in 
cattle-breeding.  The  6500  industrial  manufacturing  establishments 
of  Saratoff  employed  an  aggregate  of  only  17, 500  woi  kmen,  with  an 
annual  production  of  but  20,973,500  roubles  (£2,097,350)  iu  1SS2. 
The  most  considerable  were — cottons,  £17,200  ;  woollen  cloth, 
£64,480  ;  tanneries,  £85,830  ;  tallow,  soap,  wax-candles,  ftour, 
£1,217,800  ;  oils,  £125,360  ;  distilleries,  £255,780  ;  iron,  £15,390  ; 
and  machinery,  £37,195.  Various  petty  trades  arc  rajudly  develop- 
ing among  the  peasantry.  Shipbuilding  is  carried  on  in  the  Volga 
villages  ;  wooden  vessels  and  implements'  are  made  in  the  north, 
and  pottery  in  several  villages  ;  and  quite  recently  the  fabrication  of 
lead-pencils  has  been  added  at  Buturlinovka.  Very  many  peasant:; 
have  still  every  year  to  leave  their  homes  iu  search  of  work  ou  th^i 
Volga  and  elsewhere.  An  active  trade  is  carried  ou  by  the  mer- 
chants of  the  chief  towns, — corn,  hides,  tallow,  oils,  being  exported ; 
the  merchants  of  Saratoff,  moreover,  arc  intermediaries  in  the  trade 
of  south-east  Russia  with  the  central  provinces.  The  chief  por:.s 
are  Saratoff,  Tsaritsyn,  Kamyshin,  and  Khvatynsk. 

Saratotf  is  divided  into  10  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which  and 
their  populations  in  1882  were  as  follows:— Saratoff  (112, 430  inhabit- 
ants); Atkarsk  (7610);  Batashoff  (10,090) ;  Kamyshin  (14,460); 
Khvatynsk  (17,650);  Kuznet-sk  (17,930);  Petrovsk  (15,020) ;  Ser- 
dobak  (10,360);  Tsaritsyn  (31,220);  and  Volsk  or  Voljsk  (34,930). 
The  German  colony  of  Sarcpta,  although  without  municipal  in.'.ti- 
tutions'  is  a  lively  little  town  with  5650  inliabitants,  which  carries 
on  an  active  trade  in  mustard,  woollen  cloth,  and  various  manufac- 
tured wares.  Bubovka  (13,450  inhabitants)  derives  its  importance 
from  its  traffic  with  the  Don  ;  the  villages  Samoitovka  in  the  district 
of  Batasliolf  and  Koloyar  in  Volsk  have  each  more  than  11,000 
inhabitants  ;  Batanda  and  Arkadak  are  important  grain-markets. 

The  district  of  Saratotf  has  been  iahabited  since  at  least  the 

Neolithic  Period ;  its  inhabitants  of  a  later  epoch  have  left  numerous 

bronze  remains  in  the  kurfjans,  but  the  question  of  their  ethnological 

position  is  still  unsettled.     In  the  8th  and  9th  ceuturies  the  half- 

'U  -1.' 


nomad  Burtases  peopled  the  territory  and  reoogrized  the  authority 
of  the  Khazar  piinces.  Whether  the  Burtases  were  the  .-mcestors 
of  the  Mordvinians — as  some  ethnologists  ai'e  inclined  to  admit — 
has  not  yet  been  determined.  At  the  time  of  the  Mongoliafi  inva- 
sion, the  Tartars  took  possession  of  the  territory,  and  one  of  their 
settlements  around  the  khan's  palace- at  Urek,  10  miles  from  Sar.a- 
toff,  seems  to  have  had  some  importance,  as  well  as  those  about 
Tsaritsyn  and  Dubovka.  The  incursions  of  the  Crimean  Tartars 
devastated  the  country  about  the  15th  century,  and  after  the  fall  of 
Kazan  and  Astrakhan  the  territory  was  annexed  to  Moscow.  Sara- 
toff and  Tsaritsyn,  both  protected  by  forts,  arose  in  the  second  half 
of  the  16th  century;  but  the  forests  and  deep  ravines  of  the  terri- 
tory continued  for  two  centuries  more  to  give  shelter  to  numerous 
bands  of  squatters,  Raskolniks,  and  runaway  serfs,  who  did  not 
recognize  the  authority  of  Moscow ;  they  sometimes  robbed  the 
caravans  of  boats  on  the  Volga  aud  were  ready  to  support;  the  insur- 
rections both  of  Razin  and  of  the  impostors  of  the  ISth  century. 
Dmitrievsk  (now  Kamyshin)  and  Petrovsk  were  founded  about  the 
end  of  the  17th  century,  and  a  palisaded  wall  was  erected  between 
the  Volga  and  the  Don,  while  other  Hues  of  military  posts  were 
kept  in  tlie  north  and  west.  A  special  "voisko"  of  Volga  Cossacks 
was  founded  in  1731,  but  as  they  also  joined  the  rebellions  they 
were  soon  transferred  to  the  Terek.  Regular  colonization  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  only  at  the  end  of  the  ISth  century,  when 
Catherine  II.  called  back  the  runaway  dissenters,  invited  German 
colonists,  and  ordered  her  courtiers  to  settle  here  their  serfs, 
deported  from  central  Russia.  In  this  way  the  population  of  the 
lieutenancy,  .which  extended  also  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga, 
reached  640,000  in  1777.  It  exceeded  one  million  in  1817.  In 
1851  the  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volgi  was  transferred  to 
the  new  Samara  government.  (P.  A.  K.) 

SARATOFF,  capital  of  the  above  government,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  532  miles  by  rail  to  the 
south-east  of  Moscow,  has  become  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant cities  of  eastern  Russia,  and  ranks  among  the  very  few 
Russian  cities  which  have  more  than  100,000  inhabitants. 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  side  of  hills  which  come 
close  down  to  the  Volga.  One  of  these,  the  Sokolova  Kill 
(560  feet)  is  liable  to  frequent  landslips,  which  are  a  con- 
tinual source  of  danger  to  the  houses  of  poorer  inhabitants 
at  its  base.  The  terrace  on  which  Saratoff  is  built  being 
intersected  by  two  ravines,  the  city  is  divided  into  three 
parts  ;  the  outer  two  may  be  considered  as  suburbs.  A 
large  village,  Pokrovskaya,  with  about  20,00C  inhabitants, 
situated  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Volga,  though  in  the 
government  of  Samara,  is  in  reality  a  suburb  of  Saratoff. 
Apart  from  this  suburb,  Saratoff  had  in  1882  a  population 
of  112,430 -(49,660  in  1S30,  and  69,660  in  1859).  It  is 
better  built  than  many  towns  of  central  Rti.ssia.  Its  old 
cathedral  (1697)  is  a  very  plain  structure,  but  the  new 
one,  completed  in  1825,  is  fine,  and  has  a  striking"  cam- 
panile. The  theatre  and  the  railway  statioa  are  also  fine 
buildings.  The  streets  are  wide  and  regular,  and  there  are 
several  broad  squares.  A  new  fine-art  gallery  was  erected 
in  1884  by  the  Russian  painter  Bogoluboff,  who  has  be- 
queathed to  the  city  his  collection  of  modern  pictures  and 
of  various  objects  of  art.  A  school  of  drawing  and  the 
public  library  are  in  the  same  building,  which  has  received 
the  name  of  "  Radistcheff's  Museum"  (in  memory  of  Radis- 
tcheff,  the  author  prosecuted  by  Catherine  IL). 

Agiiculture  and  gardening  are  still  the  support  of  a  section  of 
the  population,  who  rent  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city. 
The  culture  of  the  sunflower  deserves  special  mention.  Tho  local 
manufacturing  establishments  do  not  keep  pace  with  the  rapidly 
increasing  trade,  and  their  aggregate  production  cannot  be  esti- 
mated at  more  than  £450,000.  Tho  distilleries  are  first  in  import- 
ance ;  next  come  the  manufactures  of  liqueurs  (£160,000), 'flour- 
mills  (about  £;0,000),  oil-works  (£56,000),  aud  tobacco-factories 
(about  £40,000).  The  city  has  not  only  a  trade  in  corn,  oil, 
hides,  tallow,  woollen  cloth,  wool,  fniits,  and  various  raw  produce 
exported  from  Samara,  but  also  a  trade  in  salt  from  Crimea  and 
Astrakhan,  which  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Sam.ira  merchants,  and  in 
iron  from  tho  Urals  and  woodon  wares  from  tho  upper  Volga 
governments.  Saratoff  also  supplies  south-eastern  Russia  with 
manufactured  articles  and  grocery  wares  imj>orted  from  central 
Russia.  The  traffic  of  the  port  was  estimated  at  about  5,700,000 
roubles  in  1882.  The  shallowness  of  the  Volga  opposite  the. town, 
and  the  immense  shonls  along  its  right  bank  are,  however,  a  great 
drawback.  Vast  sand. banks,  which  formerly,  lay  above  the  cit)', 
have  gradually  shifted  their  position,  and  it  is  supposed  that  iu  a 

XXI.    —  ..^q 


306 


S  A  R  —  S  A  n 


fewyentj  SiratolT  will  be  situoted  Jii  a  slioal  about  1  milo  wide. 
In  isS2  ,iuJ  l.'SS  steamers  were  conjpellcd  to  discharge  cargoes 
50  miles  below  SantolVor  at  tlio  Pokrovsk.iya  suburb  oa  the  left 
bank,— so  that  a  brai^ch  laihvay  lor  conveying  the  cargoes  of  the 
steamers  has  now  been  coustructed  south  of  the  city. 

The  town  of  SaraiolTwas  founded  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga,  some  seven  miles -above  the  present 
site,  to  which  it  was  removed  about  1C05.  The  place  it  now 
occupies  (Sarytau,  or  Yellow  Mountain)  has  been  inhabited  from  a 
remote  antiquity.  Although  founded  for  the  maintenance  of  order 
111  the  Volga  region,  SiratofT,  which  was  not  fortified,  was  several 
times  pillaged  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  Razin  took  it,  and 
his  followers  kept  it  until  1671;  the  insurgent  Cossacks  of  the  Don 
under  Bulavin  and  Kekrasoff  pillaged  it  in  1708  and  PugatchefT 
in  1774.  After  being  placed  under  Kazan  and  later  under  Astra- 
khan, It  became  the  chief  town  of  the  Saratoff  government  in  1797. 

SAR.\TOGA  SPRINGS,  a  village  of  the  United  States, 
whoso  mineral  waters,  apart  from  any  charm  of  situation, 
have  rendered  it  one  of  the  most  fashionable  of  summer 
resorts.  It  lies  in  the  east  of  Saratoga  county,  New  York, 
18G  miles  by  rail  north  of  New  York  city,  on  a  level 
plateau  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  not  far  from  the 
junction  of  this  river  with  the  stream  discharging  from 
Saratoga  Lake.  The  number  and  size  of  its  hotels  (some 
of  which  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world  and  can 
accommodate  upwards  of  1000  guests)  and'  the  large 
influx  of  wealthy  and   fashionable  visitors,  bringing   it.'i 


Plan  of  Saratoga  Springs. 

population  up  to  30,000,  render  Saratoga  Springs  anything 
rather  than  a  "village."  Its  resident  inhabitants  even  num- 
bered 8421  in  1880  and  the  township  contained  10,820. 
There  are  Presbyterian,  Baptist,  Methodist,  Episcopal,  and 
Koman  Catholic  churches,  a  large  town-hall,  a  high  school 
and  other  educational  institutions,  a  fire  department  build- 
ing, a  circular  railway,  and  numerous  private  mansions. 
Congress  Park  was  laid  out  in  1875-6.  In  July  and 
August  the  racecourse  of  the  Saratoga  Racing  Association 
attracts  the  best  patronage  of  the  American  turf. 
<  The  Indians  seem  at  an  early  date  to  have  known  of  the  medi- 
cinal virtues  of  the  High  Kock  Spring,  and  in  1767  Sir  William 
Johnson,  carried  thither  by  a  party  of  Mohawks,  was  restored  to 
health  by  drinking  its  waters.  General  Schuyler  cut  a  road  through 
the  forest  from  Schuylerville,  and  in  1784  erected  the  first  frame 
house  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  springs.  Hotels  began  to  be 
built  about  1815.  New  springs  have  from  timff  to  time  been 
discovered,  and  their  number  has  also  been  increased  by  boring, 
so  that  now  there  are  28  in  all.  They  rise  in  a  stratum  of  Potsdam 
sandstone  underlain  by  Laurentian  gneiss,  &c.,  and  reach  the 
surface  by  passing  through  a  bed  of  blue  clay.  All  are  charged 
with  carbonic  acid  gas.    The  following  are  among  the  most  notable : 


— Congress  Spring  in  Congress  Park,  discovered  in  1792  (chloride 
of  sodium,  bicarbonates  of  lime  and  magnesium) ;  Washington  or 
Champagne  Spring  (1806)  ;  Columbian  Spring  (1806) ;  Hathorn 
Spring  (1808)  ;  Pavilion  Spring  (18.39) ;  Putnam  Spring  ;  Geyser 
Spring  (bored  in  1870  to  a  depth  of  140  feet  and  spouting  25  feet 
into  the  air);  Glacier,  spouting  spring  (bored  in  1871  to  300  feet); 
Flat  Rock  Spring,  known  as  early  as  1774,  but  lost,  and  only 
recovered  in  1884.  The  water  from  several  of  the  springs  is  largely 
bottled  and  exported.  The  Geyser  Spring  (IJ  miles  S.W.)  and 
White  Sulphur  Spring  and  Eureka  Spring  (IJ  miles  E.)  are  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  accompanying  plan. 

SARAwAK,  a  territory  in  the  north-west  of  Borneo, 
which,  reclaimed  from  piracy  and  barbarism  by  the  energy 
of  Sir  James  Beooke  {'/.».),  was  converted  into  an  inde- 
pendent and  prosperous  state.  With  an  area  estimated  at 
from  35,000  to  40,000  square  miles,  it  has  a  population  of 
about  250,000.  The  coast  extends  from  Tanjong  Datu, 
a  prominent  cape  in  2°  3'  N.  lat.,  northwards  to  the 
frontier  of  Brunei  in  3°  10' — a  distance  in  a  straight  line  of 
about  280  miles,  but,  following  the  sinuosities,  about  400 
miles.  Inland  the  boundaries  towards  the  Dutch  territory 
are  hypothetically  determined  by  the  line  of  watershed 
between  the  streams  flowing  north-west  and  those  flowing 
east-south-east  and  south-west,  but  the  frontier  districts 
are  to  a  considerable  extent  unexplored.  Towards  the 
coast  there  are  tracts  of  low  alluvial  land ;  and  some  of 
the  rivers  reach  the  sea  by  deltas  out  of  all  proportion  to 
the  length  of  their  course.  The  surface  of  the  country 
soon,  however,  begins  to  rise  and  to  be  diversified  with 
irregular  hills,  sometimes  of  rounded  sandstone,  some- 
times of  picturesque  and  rugged  limestone.  The  Bongo 
Hills,  in  the  residency  of  Sardwak,  are  about  3000  feet  ' 
high;  and  along  the  frontier,  where  the  Seraung  Mountains, 
the  Klinkong  Mountains,  the  Batang  Lupar  Mountains, 
lie,  are  supposed  to  form  more  or  less  continuous  ranges, 
there  are  altitudes  of  from  4000  to  8000  feet.  In  some 
of  the  limestone  mountains  there  are  caves  of  enormous 
extent  (a  detailed  account  will  be  found  in  Boyle,  Adven- 
tures among  the  Dyahs  of  Borneo,  1865).  The  Rejang  is 
the  largest  river  in  Sarawak.  ■  Its  sources  are  only  1 20  or 
130  miles  directly  inland  near  Mount  Lawi,  Mount  Marud 
(8000  feet),  and  Gura  Peak  ;  but  it  flows  obliquely  south- 
west for  350  miles,  and  the  principal  branches  of  its 
delta  (the  Eyan  river  and  the  Rejang  proper)  ettibrace 
a  territory  of  1600  square  miles  with  a  coast-line  of  60 
miles.  In  their  upper  course  the  headwaters  have  a  rapid 
descent,  and  none  of  them  are  navigable  above  Balleh 
where  the  Rejang  is  deflected  westward  by  the  accession  of 
the  .Balleh  river.  Left-hand  tributaries  from  a  low  line 
of  hills  to  the  south — the  Katibas,  Nymah,  Kanowit,  and 
Kajulan  rivers — continue  to  swell  the  main  stream ;  but 
there  are  no  tributaries  of  any  importance  from  the  right 
hand,  the  country  in  that  direction  being  drained  directly 
seawards  by  a  number  of  short  rivers — the  Oya,  Mukah, 
Balinean,  Tatau,  and  Bintulu, — of  which  the  first  three  rise 
in  the  Ulat-Bulu  Hills  (3600  feet).  At  the  apex  of  the 
Rejang  delta  lies  the  village  and  government  of  Sibu,  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rejang  branch  is  the  important  village 
and  shipping-port  of  Rejang.  Passing  over  the  small  river 
basins  of  the  Kalukah  and  the  Saribas  we  reach  the  Batang 
Lupar,  which  ranks  next  to  the  Rejang,  and  is  navigable 
for  large  vessels  as  far  as  Lingga,  about  30  miles  from  its 
mouth — the  bar  having  3|  fathoms  water  at  high  tide. 
The  value  of  the  navigable  portion  of  the  Batang  Lupar 
is,  however,  greatly  lessened  by  the  formidable  bores  to 
which  it  is  subject ;  they  begin  about  three  days  before 
full  moon  and  change,  and  last  about  three  days,  rushing 
up  the  river  with  a  crest  about  6  feet  high  for  a  distance 
of  CO  miles.  In  several  of  the  other  rivers  a  similar  phe- 
nomenon is  observed.  The  broad  mouth  of  the  Batang 
Lupar  opens  in  the  angle  where  the  coast,  which  has  run 
nearly  north  and  south  from  the  delta  of  the  Rejang,  turns 


S  A  B  —  S  A  R 


307 


ibruptly  west ;  and  all  the^n^ers  ■wblcli  reach  tbe  sea 
between  this  point  and  Tanjong  Datu — the  Sadong,  the 
Samarahan,  the  Sart-lwak  (with  ita  tributaries  the  Senna, 
the  Samban,  the  Poak,  &c.),  the  Lundu,  are  short. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Sar.iwak  13  not  uninipoitant.  Cold 
cashing  lias  long  been  carried  on  in  the  central  resulenry,  thoiii,'h 
aot  witli  more  than  moderate  success  ;  and  more  recently  a  fairly 
prolific  gold-tield  lias  been  opened  in  tlio  neighbourhood  of  ilarup, 
on  the  hatang  Lupar,  where  there  is  a  floiuishing  Chinese  settle- 
ment. Of  mneh  greater  value  are  the  antimony  ores  which  occur 
more  especially  in  the  district  of  the  licadstrcams  of  the  Sarawak, 
in  the  most  various  localities,  occasionally  as  dykes  i)t  situ,  but 
more  fretiuently  in  boulders  deep  in  tlie  clayey  soil,  or  perclied  on 
towerdike  summits  and  craggy  pinnacles,  accessihle  only  by 
ladders.  Those  rich  deposits  have,  however,  peen  largely  exhausted, 
and  no  new  ones  have  been  discovered  in  other  parts  of  the  terri- 
tory, so  that  the  Borneo  Company  (which  has  the  monopoly  of  this 
and  other  minerals  in  the  country)  has  been  tempted  to  erect  local 
furnaces  to  reduce  tlie  poorer  qualities  of  ore  and  the  refuse  of  the 
mines  to  regulus  on  the  spot.  A  deposit  of  cinnabar  was  dis- 
covered by  ilr  Helms  in  1867,  at  Tegora,  at  the  foot  of  the  Bongo 
.Mountains,  but  no  other  occurrence  of  tiiis  ore  of  quicksilver  in  the 
territory  has  yet  been  reported.  In  1876  quicksilver  was  exported 
to  the  value  of  103,050  dollars,  and  in  1879  to  76,620.  Coal  has 
been  worked  for  many  years  at  the  government  mines  of  Simunjun, 
on  the  banks  of  a  right-hand  affluent  of  the  Sadong  ;  and-  there 
is  known  to  exist  at  Silantek  up  the  Lingga  river  (a  left-band 
affluent  of  the  Catang  Lupar)  a  very  extensive  coal-field,  whose 

Eroducts,  still  intact,  could  be  brought  down  for  shipment  at 
lingga  by  a  railway  of  some  18  miles  in  length.  D'amonds  are 
occasionally  fottnd,  and  copper,  manganc-se,  and  plumbago  have 
*^een  discovered,  but  not  in  jtaying  quantities. 

Like  the  rest  of  Borneo,  Sarawak  is  largely  covered  ttith  forest 
and  jungle.  The  bilian  or  ironwood  is  not  only  used  locally  bui: 
exportea,  especially  from  the  Batang  Lupar  district,  to  China, 
where  it  is  highly  valued  as  a  house-building  and  furniture  timber. 
Gutta-percha,  india-rubber  (gutfa-sicsu),  and  birds'  nests  are  also 
exported,  but  in  diminishing  quantities  ;  and  their  place  is  being 
taken  by  gambler  and  pepper,  the  cultivation  of  which  was  intro- 
duced by  the  rajah.  Gambler  figured  at  20,461  piculs  in  the 
exports  of  1881  and  at  22,432  in  1884,  and  pepper  at  28,807 
picuh  in  1881  and  43,490  in  1884.  The  territory  of  Sarawak  is 
said  to  furnish  more  than  half  the  sago  produce  of  the  world,  and 
most  of  it  is  grown  on  the  marshy  banks  of  the  Oya,  Mukah,  and 
other  rivers  of  the  northern  residency  of  Sarawak  to  the  distance  of 
about  20  miles  inland.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  of  .Sarawak 
in  1884  was  1,145,243  doUara  (1,071,628  from  Kuching),  that  of 
the  imports  l,083,2.''i5  dollars.  Natuna  and  Dutch  vessels  are  the 
most  numerous  in  the  shipping  returns. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy — tho  present  rajah 
being  the  nephew  of  Sir  James  Brooke.  The  rajah  is  assisted  by  a 
supreme  council  of  six,  consisting  of  two  chief  European  residents 
and  four  natives,  nominated  by  himself;  there  is  also  a  general 
council  of  fifty,  which  meets  once  every  three  years  or  oftener  if 
rei]uii-ed.  For  administrative  purposes  the  country  is  divided  into 
eight  districts  corresponding  to  the  number  of  principal  river 
basins.  Three  chief  districts  are  presided  over  by  Kiiropeau  officers. 
The  military  force — some  250  men — is  under  the  control  of  an 
English  commandant.  There  is  aIso*a  small  police  force,  and  the 
Government  possesses  a  few  small  steam  vessels.  The  civil  service  is 
regularly  organized,  with  pensions,  &c.  The  revenue  is  in  a  satisfac- 
tory slate,  showing  64,899  dollars  to  the  good  in  the  period  between 
1875  and  1884.  In  1884  the  revenue  was  276,269  dollars  and  tho 
expenditure  289,291.  Roman  Catholics  and  I'rotestants  both  have 
missions  in  Sarawak  ;  and  the  English  bishop  of  Singapore  and 
I.abuan  is  also  Etyled  bishop  of  Sarawak.  The  population  consists 
ofMalays.Chincse,  I^ndDyaks,  Sea  Dy.iks,and  Milauows.  "With- 
out tho  Chinaman,"  s-ays  the  rajah  (Pall  Mall  Ga:clt,;  19th  Septem- 
ber, 1883)  "  wc  can  do  nothing. "  When  not  allowed  to  fcn-m  secret 
Rocicticsho  is  easily  govern«l,  and  this  ho  is  forbidden  to  do  on  pain 
of  death.  The  Dyaks  within  tho  territory  h.ave  given  up  head- 
1°'"'?'  1,'^''°  *'''""°^".  ■^'I'o  li^'«  in  the  northern  districts,  have 
adopted  the  Mal.iy  dress  and  in  many  cases  have  become  Jloham- 
mcdans ;  they  arc  a  ijuiet,  contented,  and  laborious  people.  Slavery 
still  prevails  m  Sarawak,  but  arrangements  are  made  for  its  entire 
abolilion  m  1888.  Kuching,  the  capital  of  Sarawak,  on  the  SarAwak 
nvcr,  IS  a  phico  of  12,000  inhabitants  and  is  steadily  growin". 

Ilistory.—ln  1839-40  Sar,iwak,  the  most  southern  province  of  tho 
miltanato  of  Brunei,  was  in  rebellion  against  tho  tyranny  of  the 
governor,  PangiTan  Makota,  and  Muda  Hassim  had  been  sent  to 
restore  order.  The  insurgents  held  out  at  Balidah  or  Blidah  fort 
in  the  S.niawan  dLstnct,  and  there  James  Brooke  first  took  part  in 
the  airairs  of  tho  tcmtory.  By  his  assistance  the  insurrection  was 
mpp^sjedond  on  September  21th  he  was  appointed  chief  of  Sara- 
wak,   in  184J  Captain  ^oppol  and  Jlr  Broofce  expelled  tho  pirates 


from  the  Sjribas  river  and  in  1844  they  defeated  those  on  the 
Bat;ing  Lupar,  to  whom  Makota  had  attached  himself.  In  1849 
another  severe  blow  was  struck  by  tho  destruction  of  Si'rib  Sahib's 
fort  at  I'atnsan.  The  Chinese,  who  had  begun  to  settle  in  the 
country  about  1850  (at  Bau,  liidi,  &c. ),  made  a  violent  attempt 
to  massacre  rhe  English  and  seize  the  government,  but  they  were 
promptly  „nd  severely  crushed  after  they  had  done  havoc  at 
Kuching.  During  Sir  James  Brooke's  absence  in  England  (1857- 
1860)  hn  n.  phew  Captain  J.  Johnson  (who  had  taken  tho  name 
Brooke,  a-ul  is  generally  called  Captain  Brooke)  was  left  in  author- 
ity :  but  a  quarrel  afterwards  ensued  and  Sir  James  Brooke  was  in 
186-S  RUcceeded_by  Charles  Johnson  (or  Brooke),  a  younger  nephew. 
Tho  independence  of  Sarawak  had  been  recognized  after  much 
controversy  by  England  in  1803  and  previously  by  the  United 
States. 

Soe  Chnrlcg  Hrookc,  Ten  Fears  in  SarAirak,  1806  ;  Oortnide  L.  Jacob.  77ie  Tinja 
of  Sarawai,  1S7(>  ;  Spenser  St  Jihn,  Li/e  in  Che  Foreiti  of  the  Far  Fast,  ISO.', 
and  Li/e  of  Str  Jiintcs  Brooke,  1879;  Helms.  Fwneering  in  tlie  Far  Fast,  ISy:.'; 
"Notes  on  Sarawak,"  ir  Froc.  Roij.  Geofr.  Joe,  1S81,  by  W.  M.  Crocker. 

SARDANAPALUS  was,  according  to  the  account  ol 
Ctesias  (preserved  by  Diodorus,  23  sq.),  the  last  king  ol 
Nineveh,  and  he  is  described  in  terms  that  have  made  his 
name  proverbial  as  the  type  of  splendid  and  luxurious 
cileminacy.  Ctesias's  story  cannot  be  called  historical 
but  the  name  Sardanapalus  seems  to  be  a  corruption  ol 
Assurbanipal  (see  vol.  iii.  p.  188). 

StAVlVlliE{Ci!q)eapilchardus).  SeePlLcn.\RD.  Another 
of  the  Clupeids  (C.  scombri n<:i)  is  the  "oil-sardine"  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Indian  Peninsula. 

SARDINIA  (Ital.  Sardcgna,  Fr.  Sardaigne,  Span. 
Cerda'ia,  called  by  the  ancient'  Greeks  'lx}oica,  from  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  print  of  a  foot),  an  island  in  tho 
Mediterranean,  about  140  miles  from  the  west  coast  of 
Italy,  of  which  kingdom  it  forms  a  part.  It  is  separated 
from  tho  island  of  Corsica  by  tho  Strait  of  Bonifacio, 
which  is  about  71  miles  T"ide,  and  only  about  50  fathoms 
deep.  Sardinia  lies  between  8°  i'  and  9°  49'  E.  long., 
and  extends  from  38°  55'  to  41°  IC  N.  lat  The  len^tli 
from  Cape  Teulada  in  the  south-west  to  Cape  Longo  Sardo 
in  the  north  is  about  160  miles,  the  breadth  from  Cape 
Comino  to  Cape  Caccia  about  68  miles.  The  area  of  the 
island  is  9187  square  miles,- — that  of  the  department  (com- 
pariimento),  including  the  small  -islands  adjacent,  being 
9294  square  miles.  It  ranks  sixth  in  point  of  size  among 
the  islands  of  Europe,  coming  next  after  Sicily. 

Tho  greater  part  of  the  island  is  mountainou.s,  especially 
in  the  east,  where  tho  mountains  stretch  almost  continu- 
ously from  north  to  south,  and  advance  close  up  to  tho 
coast.  The  elevations,  however,  are  not  so  high  as  in  the 
sister  island  of  Corsica.  The  culminating  point  is  Monte 
Gennargentu,  which  rises,  about  22  miles  from  tho  east 
coast,  almost  exactly  on  the  parallel  of  40°  N.,  to  tho 
height  of  6250  feet,  and  is  consequently  little  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  height  of  the  chief  peaks  of  Corsica. 
On  the  east  side  the  principal  breach  in  the  continuity  of 
tho  mountains  occurs  in  the  north,  where  a  narrow  valley 
opening  to  the  east  at  the  Gulf  of  Terranova  cuts  off  tho 
mountains  of  Limpara  in  the  extreme  north-east.  The 
western  half  of  the  island  has  more  level  land.  The  prin- 
cipal plain,  that  of  tho  Campidano,  stretches  from  south- 
east to  "north- west,  between  the  Gulf  of  Cagliari  and  that 
of  Oristano,  and  nowhere  attains  a  greater  elevation  than 
250  feet.  At  both  end.s  it  sinks  to  a  much  lower  level, 
and  has  a  number  of  shallow  lagoons  encroaching  on  it 
from  tho  sea.  In  the  corner  of  the  island  situated  to  the 
south-west  of  tho  Campidano  there  are  two  small  isolated 
mountains  rising  to  the  height  of  from  3000  to  4000  feet, 
which  are  of  importance  as  containing  tho  chief  mineral 
wealth  of  tho  island.  A  small  valley  runs  between  them 
from  tho  southern  end  of  tho  Campidano  to  Iglesias,  the 
mining  centre  of  Sardinia.  North  of  tho  Gulf  of  OrLstano 
mountains  again  appear.  Tho  extinct  volcano  of  Monte 
Ferru  there  rises  to  the  height  of  4400  feet,  and  the 
streams  of  basalt  which  have  issued   from  it  in  former 


308 


SAKDINIA 


ages  form  the  ridge  or  saddle,  about  2000  feqt  high,  con- 
necting this  mountain  with  tlie  highland  area  ou  the  east. 
Still  further  north  a  trachytic  plateau,  intersected  by 
numerous  deep  river  valleys,  occupies  a  considerable  tract, 
advancing  up  to  the  plain  of  Sassari  on  tho  north  coast. 


i ;; Ji 


SV.  if  Scnifacio  1    5« 


F?l%/ioL: 


Asmara  I  rS  /  S)       I    f^  ^ 

/^  Cuff  ^      X    -  C'^    7  A!-i. 


6.fjf0tisei 


P^S/iana,' 


CComino 


SfcrrccayaU^ 


C  Teuljda 

MEDITERRANEAN       SEA 


Mnp  of  Sardini.-x. 

The  rivers  are  numerous  but  short.  The  principal  is 
the  Oristano,  which  enters  the  gulf  of  the  same  name  on 
the  west  coast. 

Geologically  the  island  is  composed  mainly  of  granite 
and  other  crystalline  rocks.  Granite  predominates  espe-. 
cially  in  the  east,  and  the  mountains  of  that  part  of  the 
island  were  apparently  at  one  time  continuous  with  the 
similarly  constituted'  mountains  of  Corsica.  Granitic 
spurs  likewise  extend  to  the  south-west,  and  appear  in  the 
capes  of  Spartivento  and  Teulada.  Altogether  this  rock 
is  estimated  to  cover  one-half  of  the  entire  surface.  In 
the  west  of  the  island  the  principal  crystalline  rocks  are 
porphyritic  in  structure  ;  sedimentary  deposits  are  com- 
paratively unimportant,  and  such  as  are  present  are  mainly 
either  of  very  ancient  or  of  recent  geological  date.  Silurian 
formations  attain  their  most  considerable  development  in 
the  south-west  round  Iglesias,  where  there  occurred  the 
oontemporaneous  porphyritic  outpourings  containing  the 
most  numerous  mineral  veins  of  the  island.  Between  the 
deposits  of  Silurian  and  those  of  Cretaceous  times  there 
are  none  of  any  consequence  except  a  few  patches  of 
Devonian  round  the  slopes  of  Gennargentu,  interesting  as 
containing  some  beds  of  true  coal.  The  members  of  the 
Cretaceous  system  occupy  considerable  tracts  in  the  south- 
west, east  (round  the  Gulf  of  Orosei),  and  north-west  (in 
the  mountains  of  Nurra),  and  a  smaller  area  in  the  south- 
west (in  the  island  of  San  Antioco).  Tertiary  formations 
are  still  more  largely  developed.  _  They  cover  the  whole 


plain  of  the  Campidano,  the  west  coast  opposite  the  island 
of  San  Antioco,  and  the  narrow  valley  in  the  north-east 
already  mentioned.  The  basalts  of  Jlonte  Ferru  are  also 
of  Tertiary  date,  and  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  till 
that  epioch  that  Sardinia  formed  a  single  island. 

In  variety  of  mineral  wealth  the  southern  half  of 
Sardinia  is  the  richest  pirovince  of  Italy,  and  it  stands 
second  in  the  annual  value  of  its  mineral  products.  The 
chief  minerals  are  sulphates  of  lead  more  or  less  argenti- 
ferous (galena),  sulphates  and  silicates  of  zinc,  ordinary- 
iron  pyrites,  sulphates  of  iron  and  copper,  of  antimony, 
and  of  arsenic,  besides  cobalt,  nickel,  and  silver.  The  coal 
on  the  flanks  of  Gennargentu  is  of  good  enough  quality  to 
furnish  a  valuable  fuel,  and  is  found  in  sufficiently  thick 
seams 'to  be  workable  if  only  the  means  of  transport  were 
present,  but  its  situation  is  such  as  to  render  it  of  no 
economical  importance.  In  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  the 
south-west  there  are  some  veins  of  manganese  ore,  and 
also  some  beds  of  lignite  which  are  worked  as  a  source  of 
fuel  for  local  use.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Sardinia  was 
known  in  ancient  times,  and  mines  were  worked  both  by 
the  Carthaginians  and  the  Eomans.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  they  were  for  the  most  part  neglected,  but  the 
industry  was  rtVived  in  modern  times,  and  has  been  greatly 
developed  in  recent  years.  Upwards  of  70  mines  have 
now  been  opened,  most  of  them  in  the  district  of  which 
Iglesias  is  the  centre,  but  a  few  near  the  southern  part  of 
the  east  coast,  where  Muravera  is  the  chief  town.  The 
mines  are  mostly  of  argentiferous  lead,  silver,  ?inc,  and 
iron.  The  ores  are  mainly  exported  in  the  raw  state,  only 
tti3  inferior  sorts  being  smelted  in  the  island.  Among 
other  mineral  products  are  building  stones  (granite, 
marble,  &c.),  alabaster,  and  salt. 

The  climate  of  Sardinia  is'  similar  to  that  of  the  rest  of 
the  Jlediterranoan  region,  and  the  southern  half  of  the 
island  shares  in  the  nearly  rainless  summers  characteristic 
of  the  southern  portions  of  the  Mediterranean  peninsulas. 
At  Cagliari  there  are  on  an  average  only  seven  days  on 
which  rain  falls  during  June,  July,  and  August.  Through- 
out the  island  these  months  are  the  driest  in  the  year,  and 
hence  vegetation  on  the  lower  ground  at  least  is  generally 
at  a  standstill  during  that  period,  and  shrubs  with  broad 
leathery  leaves  fitted  to  withstand  the  drought  (the  so- 
called  'maquis)  are  as  characteristic  here  as  in  Corsica  and 
on  the  mainland.  Winter  is  the  rainiest  season  of  the 
year ;  but  the  heat  and  drought  of  summer  (mean  tempera- 
ture 95°  F.)  make  that  the  most  unpleasant  of  the  seasons, 
while  in  the  low  grounds  the  prevalence  of  malaria  renders 
it  a  most  unhealthy  on-i,  especially  for  visitors.  Autumn, 
which  is  prolonged  into  December,  is  the  most  agreeable 
season ;  there  is  then  neither  heat  nor  cold,  nor  mist  nor 
fever,  and  at  that  period  birds  of  passage  begin  to  immi- 
grate in  large  numbers. 

The  agricultural  products  of  the  jsland  are  greatly  inferior  to 
what  might  be  expected  in  view  of  the  natural  fertility  of  the 
soil.  Two  causes  are  assigned  for  this.  The  first  is  the  minute 
sutiirision  of  the  land,  ivhich,  as  in  Corsica,  is  carried  to  such 
an  extent  that  where  an  owner  has  as  much  as  100  acres  his 
property  is  divided  into  25  or  30  lots  surrounded  by  parcels  of  land 
belonging  to  other  owners.  In  such  circumstances  it  is  neitlier 
possible  to  apply  adequate  capital  to  the  cultivation  of  the  ground, 
nor  for  the  owners  to  acquiie  the  requisite  capita].  The  second 
cause  is  the  malaria  which  renders  certain  districts  possessed  of  a 
fertile  soil  quite  uninhabitable  ;  and  this  second  cause  can  be 
remedied  only  when  a  remedy  has  been  found  for  the  lirst,  for,  as 
tlie  malaria  is  undoubtedly  one  cause  of  Iliminished  cultivation,  it  is 
equally  certain  that  want  of  cultivation  is  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
malaria.  In  ancient  times  Sardinia  was  one  jof  the  granaries  of 
Rome  ;  now  cereals  take  a  comparatively  unimportant  place  among 
the  exports,  and  this  export  is  balanced  by  a  considerable  import 
of  the  same  commodity.  The  chief  products  of  agriculture  ^ro 
wheat,  barley,  and  beans,  the  last  furnishing  an  important  element 
of  the  food  of  the  jieople,  Olives  run  mid  in  many  places,  and 
are   grown   in  sufficient    abundance  to    meet    the   local   demand. 


SARDINIA 


309 


Almouds,  oranges,  and  citrons  are  also  largely  cultivated,  and  the 
oranges  of  San  Vito,  near  JIuravera,  and  of  Milis,  a  few  miles  to 
the  north  of  Orijtano,  arc  noted  for  their  excellence  ;  the  white 
■wines  of  the  banUS  of  the  Oristano  are  of  good  repute.;  and  among 
other  products  ot  ihe  island  are  mulberries,  tobacco,  madder,  and 
leinp.  Forests  of  oak,  cork-oak,  firs,  and  pines,  though  greatly 
reduced  in  extent,  still  corcr,  it  is  said,  about  one-fifth  of  the 
surface.  The  rearing  of  live-stock  receives  more  attention  than 
apiCiUture  proper.  No  artificial  pasture-grasses  are  grown,  but 
the  natural  pastures  beside  tlie  numerous  rivers  yield  abundance 
ot  food,  e.^cept  during  tlie  dry  season,  when  the  horses,  asses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  have  to  content  themselves  with  straw, 
some  dried  beans,  and  a  little  barley.  Jlost  attention  is  Ijcstowed 
on  horses.  At  one  time  the  Sardinian  Government  endeavoured 
to  keep  a  stud  on  the  island  for  reariug  horses  for  the  Pied- 
nionteso  cavalry,  b'ut  the  persons  employed  (nattves'of  the  main- 
land) were  unable  to  withstand  the  malaria.  There  are  some 
large  private  establishments  for  the  rearing  ot  horses,  however, 
and  the  tending  of  live-stock  generally  forms  so  important  a  part 
of  the  occupations  of  the  people  that  ajiimals  rank  next  .after 
minerals  among  the  exports  of  the  island.  Of  the  wild  animals, 
the  wild  sheep,  known  as  tlie  musimon,  or  Euro|icau  mufllou, 
formerly  an  inhabitant  of  all  the  mountains  of  the  Jfediterrancan 
peninsulas  and  islands,  and  now  confined  to  Sardinia  and  Corsica, 
is  the  most  interesting.  Among  the  noxious  animals  are  scorpions 
and  tarantulas. 

The  lagoons  near  the  coast  on  the  south  and  west  abound  in 
mullets,  eels,  mussels,  and  crabs,  which  are  caught  in  great 
numbers  by  the  natives,  while  the  fisheries  round  Sardinia,  as  round 
Corsica,  are  in  the  hands  of  Italians  fioin  the  mainland.  The 
anchovy,  sardine,  and  coral  fisheries  are  all  lucrative.  The  coral 
IS  said  to  be  of  excellent  quality,  and  is  exported  to  the  markets 
of  Genoa  and  Marseilles. 

The  external  commerce  of  the  island  has  nearly  trebled  itself  in 
the  twenty-five  years  1856-81,  the  imports  and  exports  each  auiount- 
iiig  in  the  latter  year  to  about  £1,500,000  (about  £2,  4s.  per  head  of 
]mpulation).  This  increase  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  development  of 
the  mining  industry,  ores  making  up  nearly  one-third  of  the  total 
value  of  the  exports.  Live  animals  make  up  about  a  fourth  of  the 
total  value,  and  cereals,  which  come  next  in  order,  about  onc- 
seventh.  The  chief  imports  are  cotton  and  other  manufactures  and 
colonial  products.  The  inland  trade  has  been  greatly  promoted 
within  the  last  fifty  yeai-s  by  the  construction  of  roads  and 
railways.  Before  1823  there  were  no  roads  at  all  in  the  island  ; 
the  tracks  which  existed  could  be  traversed  only  on  foot  or  on 
-liorsebaok.  But  upwards  of  1500  miles  of  national  and  provincial 
roads,  all  well  made  and  well  kept,  have  since  then  been  con- 
structed. Of  railwayi,  introduced  since  1870,  there  are  now  2G5 
nu  es  in  all  (equal  to  about  1  mile  of  railway  for  every  3i  snuare 
nines  of  surface).  _  ' 

For  administrative  purposes  Sardinia,  like  the  rest  of  Italy  is 
divided  into  proi-inces  and  circles  (circondarii).  The  followin" 
table  gives  the  names  of  those  uoisions  with  the  nopulation  accord^ 
mg  to  the  last  census  (end  of  1881) :— 


Circles. 

Icommiincs. 

Population. 

Circles. 

Communes. 

Population.! 

Ciiffllori 

Tclcslas 

Lanusel 

1         " 

n 

'          43 
106 

l.:3,33« 

77.373 

C4,S1S     ; 
125,110     1 

Sa-'s.iri 

.Mgljcro 

24 

20 
33 
21 
0 

8S.3i2 
43,C24 
50,704 
41,103 
2S,iH 

Oristano 

ProT.  Cagnnri 

Tcmjilo 

Trov.  S  issaii 

257 

420,035     j 

107 

2CI,SC7 

The  whole  population  of  tho  department  is  thus  682,002,  enual 
to  about  74  to  the  square  mile,  Sardinia  being  the  least  populous 
of  all  the  great  divisions  of  the  kingdom,,  in  which  the  average 
density  is  255  to  the  square  mile.     The  jwpulation  is,  however  ' 

'l?»f'',r"'^»-,  "  !'\"f„"'  ™°™  "''■''  '■•'■'^  *'>™  °"  tl'»  mainland! 
Between  18/1  and  1831  it  mcre.iscd  by  about  4(;,000,  or  7 -IS  per 
cent,  while  the  average  rata  of  increase  throughout  tho  kingdom 
Tvas  only  6'16  per  cent. 

hJ}Z  '»"''?^!-T^  °^  Sardinia  are  a  hardy  race,  of  about  middle 
iieight  and  ot  dark  complexion.  They  are  little  accustomed  to  hard 
work,  but  this  IS  one  of  the  consequences  of  the  backward  stale  of 
d  vcl„"nml'^f  f"  f,"'^  °^  ""^  impediments  already  indicated  to  tho 
ricvclopnaent  of  tho  resources   of   tho   island.     Education,   as   in 

l^w  lb  c^  '"I''  "',  ''"'-^■'  '"^  '-"-y  f^^  '^«'""J.  notwithstancling  11  0 
law  which  maizes  elementary  education  compulsory;  but  heie   as 

oZlyZr  'l-u"'^'^"'";  ''  f  ^"'^■'"^  cxtrnding^:'  In  188oU" 
tTon  wde  ;?.  "^r"'."  '"'  *'""  <"«=-«iKl'teonth  of  tho  popula. 
nZwIV,  ''""='«'''"".•-"  tho  clement.-.rv  schools,  but  this 
number,  w,i3  double  what  it  had  beeu  in  18C1-62.      At  CaWiari 

T\^'Z  T"'"r--  "i""!"""^  ^y  f^"-"  S"0  '»  ■'00  students     ° 
„Jr?.^''i^°i''r'^' ■'","">''■  '"^position,  fond  of  music  and 
E2"  Ti?lf?h  JlaZ''"^!""''  ''^°."S  '"  their  family  attac!. 
'fp  th;irM,.ii  il    '^='.t"',t;.l>»"ever,  is  connected  the  chief  blot 
'.T.  their  charactcr-the.r  addiction  to  tho  practice  of  tho  venMa, 


which  prevails  nere  as  in  Corsica,  and  aVcording  to  which  an 
outrage  on  one  s  honour  is  wiped  out  in  blood,  and  the  cause  ot 
one  member  of  a  family  is  taken  np  by  the  rest,  so  that  the  death 
of  one  victim  leads  to  the  sacrifice  of  many  others  But  the 
practice  is  said  to  be  becoming  every  day  more  rare,  and  never  to 
be  resorted  to  except  in  case  of  serious  oil'once. 

The  capital  of  the  island  is  Cagliari,  but  Sassari  in  the  north 
has  an  equally  large  popnlatioi)  (about  34,000).  The  other  chief 
towns  ore  Tempio,  Alghero,  Iglesias,  and  Oristano.  Cagliari 
Alghero,  and  Castel  Sardo  are  fortified.  ' 

The  antiquities  of  tho  island  are  numerous  and  of  peculiar 
interest.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  monuments  called 
nurhmis  (variously  spelled  also  numcjhc,  numghi,  &c.l,  of  which 
there  are  upwards  of  3000  scattered  over  the  island.'  They  ara 
round  structures  having  the  form  of  truncated  cones,  and  are 
generally  built  of  the  hardest  materials  the  island  supplies  (franite 
basalt  trachyte,  limestone,, &c.).  The  stone  is  roughly  hewn  into 
large  blocks,  which  are  laid'  in  regular  horizontal  courses  but  not 
cemented.  The  blocks  in  the  lower  courses  are  sometimes  more 
than  three  feet  in  length.  Entrance  is  obtained  by  a  very  low 
opening  at  the  base  to  an  inner  chamber  ;  and,  when  there  aro  two 
or,  as  in  some  cases,  three  stories,  these  are  connected  by  means  ot 
a  spiral  staircase.  ■  The  origin  and  use  of  these  structures  are  both 
matters  of  speculation.  The  rarity  of  human  remains  in  them  is 
against  the  idea  that  they  were  used  as  tombs,  while  the  absence 
of  any  relics  pertaining  to  a  rclTgious  ceremonial  is  equally  adverse 
to  the  supposition  that_  they  were  used  as  temples.  Next  to  tho 
nurhags  the  most  interssting  of  the  remains  of  antiquity  are  tho 
so-called  tombs  of  the  giants,  which  apnear  to  have  been  actually 
used  as  places  ot  burial,  although,  as  the  name  given  to  them  indi- 
cates,  their  dimensions  are  greatly  in  excess  of  those  of  the  human 
body.  Besides  these  there  are  tombs  tho  structure  of  wdiich  leads 
to  the  belief  that  they  must  be  relics  of  an  Egyptian  colony 

Hislor>j.—Accovdwg    to    Prof.     Crespi,    of   the    university    of 
Carfiari,  the  tombs  just  referred  to  are  not  the  t)nly  signs  of  an 
early    Egyptian    settlement  in    the  island    of   Sardinia.     Various 
remains  are  said  to  prove  beyond  doubt  that  Egyptians  must  have 
founded  at   least  two  colonies  in  very  remote  times— one  at  the 
ancient  town  of  Tharrus  on  the  small  peninsula  of  San  Marco  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Oristano,  and  tho  other  at 
Caralis,  the   present    Cagliari.      But  even    before    the    Egyptians 
Prof.  Crespi  believes  that  tho  Phrenician-.  hod  established  a  colony 
on  the  small  island  of  San  Antioco,  and  had  built  there  the  town 
ofSulcis,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  near  the  town  ot 
San  Antioco.     Of  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians,  however,  there  are 
no  trustworthy  historical  records,  and  the  first  settlers  whose  arrival 
is  historically  accredited  wcro  the  Carthaginians,   who  succeeded 
in  making  themselves  masters  of  the  island  under  H.isdrubal  in 
512  B.C.     The  island  remained  in  Carthaginian  hands  for  upwards 
of  two  hundred  and  seventy  years,  and  then  passcdinto  those  of  the 
Romans,  who  took  advantage  of  tho  war  in  which  Carthage  was 
involved  with  her  mercenary  troops  after  the  close  of  tho  Fu-st 
Punic  War   to  seize    tho  island  (238    e.g.).      Thenceforward  the 
island  remained  in  possession  of  the  Romans  till  near  the  fall  of 
tho  empire  of  the  West,  when  Sardinia  .also  began  to  suffer  from 
tho  ravages  of  the  northern  hordes  by  which  Italy  was  at   that 
time   overrun  and  the  empir'e   of  the  West  overthrown.     About 
the  middle  of  the  .5th    century  the   island  was    occupied  by  tho 
Vandals  under    Genseric,  but   in    the  first  half  of   the  following 
century   these    were    expelled    by    Belisarius.     Very   soon    after, 
however,  Goths  succeeded   the  Vandals,  and   after  these  had   in 
their  turn   been    driven  out  by  Narses  tho  natives  managed  to 
expel  the  Romans  and  to  achieve  their  independence  (C65).     Tho 
Sardinians  thereupon  elected  the  leader  in  the  revolt  against  Rome 
king  of  the  island,  and  by  him  tho  island  was  divided  into  the 
lour  grand.judieatures  of  Cagliari,  Arborea,  Torres,  aud  Gallura. 
The  grand-justices  or  rulers  of  theso  four  divisions  continued  to 
retain  a  coiLsiderablo  amount  of  power  during  a  large  part  of  the 
.Middle  Ages.     But  from  the  early  part  of  tho  8th  century  down 
to  the  middle  of  the  11th  their  influence  w.as  greatly  impaired  by 
repeated  inroads  of  the  Saracens,  who  landed  now  on  one  coast  now 
on  another,  and  kept  the  inhabitants  in  a  consfant  state  of  alarm. 
This  state  of  matters  was  ,at  last  put  an  end  to  by  the  Genoese  and 
I'isans,  who,  acting  under  the  sanction  of  the  pojjc,  despatched  a 
fleet  against  that  of  tho  Saracens.     A  battle  cnsufd  in  tho  Bay 
of  Cagliari  ;  the  .Saracens  were  completely  defeated,  and  the. allies 
landed  on  the  island  (1050).     Very  soon  the  Pi.sans  adroitly  m.TOaged 
to  rill  thcmsclvesof  the  Genoese,  and  to  gain  possession  of  almost 
the  entire  island,  deposing  the  graud.justiccs  of  Cagliari,  Torres,  and 
Gallura.     With  the  Pisans  tho  greater  part  of  the  island  remained 
till  1S25,  when  flic  pope  gave  Sardinia  to  tho  king  of  Aragon,  who 
combined  with  tho  grand-justice  of  Arborea  to  drive  out  tho  former 
rulers.     But,  this  being  accomplished,  war  soon  broke  out  between 
the  two,  and  numerous  successes  were  gained  by  the  grand -justice 
Marian  IV.  and  his  daughter  Eloonora 'acting  as  regent  on  behalf 
of  her  son  Marian  V.,  a  minor.     The  Aragoncse  seemed  to  bo  on 
the  noint  of  being  driven  out  of  the  island  when  Eleonoia  died  of 


yio 


S  A  R  —  S  A  R 


the  pllijrue  (1103),  ai^d  soon  .\{tnT  the  whole  island  bccamo  an 
Aragonese  (after  tlie  union  of  liie  crowns  of  Aragon  and  Castile  a 
Spanjsh)  proWnco.  It  remained  Spanish  till  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  1713,  when  it  'Taa  ceded  to  the  house  of  Anstria,  by  which  in 
1720  it  was  handed  over  to  Victor  Aniadeus  II.,  duko  of  Savoy,  in 
exchange  for  the  island  of  Sicily.  Shortly  before  the  date  of' this 
acquisition  the  duke  of  Savoy  (see  Savoy)  had  had  the  title  of 
king  conferred  npon  him,  and  when  the  cession  of  Sardinia  took 
place  the  title  was  changed  to  that  of  king  of  Sardinia.  AVith  this 
kingdom  the  island  ultimately  became  mcrced  in  the  kingdom  of 
Italy. 

See  La  Mannora,  Voyage  m  Scrd.^itpie  (Pails,  2d  o<l.,  1837-57);  RoIsMrd  de 
ncUet.  ia  Sardai^ne  a  rol  Soiseau  (Paris,  18S4)  ;  Hubert  Tcnnunt,  Sariiinra  and 
lit  JResoarcn  (Load.,  1S85).  (G.  G.  C.) 

SARDIS  (ai  Sa'pScis;,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Lydia,  the  seat  of  a  conventns  under  the  Eoman  empire, 
and  the  metropolis  of  the  province  Lydia  in  later  Koman 
and  Byzantine  times,  was  situated  in  the  middle  Hermus 
valley,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus,  a  steep  and  lofty  spur 
of  which  formed  the  citadel.  It  was  about  20  stadia  (2i 
miles)  south  of  the  Hermus.  The  earliest  reference  to 
Sardis  is  in  the  Perssi  of  yEscliylus  (472  B.C.) ;  in  the 
Iliad  the  name  Hyde  seems  to  be  given  to  the  city  of  the 
JIaeouian  (i.e.,  Lydian)  chiefs,  and  in  later  times  Hyde  was 
said  to  be  the  older  name  of  Sardis,  or  the  name  of  its 
citadel.  It  is,  however,  more  probaBIe  that  Sardis  was 
not  the  original  capital  of  the  Moeonian.s,  but  that  it  be- 
came so  amid  the  changes  which  produced  a  powerful 
Lydian  empire  in  the  8th  century  n.c.  The  city,  but  not 
the  citadel,  was  destroyed  by  the  Cimmerians  in  the  7th 
century,  by  the  Athenians  in  the  Gth,  and  by  Antiochus 
the  Great  in  the  3d  century ;  once  at  least,  under  the 
emperor  Tiberius,  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake ; 
but  it  was  always  rebuilt,  and  continued  to  be  one  of  the 
great  cities  of  western  Asia  Jlinor  till  the  later  Byzantine 
time.  Its  importance  was  due,  first  to  its  military 
strength,  secondly  to  its  situation  on  an  important  high- 
way leading  from  the  interior  to  the  yEgean  coast,  and 
thirdly  to  its  commanding  the  wide  and  fertile  plain  of  the 
Hermu.<!.  The  early  Lydian  kingdom  was  far  advanced  in 
the  industrial  arts  (see  Lydia),  and  Sardis  was  the  chief 
seat  of  its  manufactures.  The  most  important  of  these 
trades  was  the  manufacture  and  dyeing  of  delicate  woollen 
stuffs  and  carpets.  The  statement  that  the  little  stream 
Pactolus  which  flowed  tiirough  the  market-place  rolled 
over  golden  sands  is  probably  little  more  than  a  metaphor, 
due  to  the  wealth  of  the  city  to  which  the  Greeks  of  the 
6th  century  B.C.  resorted  for  supplies  of  gold ;  but  trade 
and  the  practical  organization  of  commerce  were  the  real 
sources  of  this  wealth.  After  Constantinople  became  the 
capital  of  the  East  a  new  road  system  grew  up  connecting 
the  provinces  with  the  capital.  Sardis  then  lay  rather 
apart  from  the  great  lines  of  communication  and  lost  some 
of  its  importance.  It  still,  however,  retained  its  titular 
supremacy,  and  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  the  metro- 
politan bishop  of  the  province.  It  is  enumerated  as  third, 
after  Ephesus  and  Smyrna,  in  the  list  of  cities  of  the 
Thracesian  thema  given  by  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus 
in  the  10th  century ;  but  in  the  actnal  history  of  the  next 
four  centuries  it  plays  a  part  very  inferior  to  Magnesia 
ad  Sipylum  and  Philadelpliia,  which  have  .to  the  present 
day  retained  their  pre-eminence  in  the  district.  The 
Hermus  valley  began  to  suffer  from  the  inroads  of  the 
Seljuk  Turks  about  the  end  of  the  11th  century;  but  the 
successes  of  the  Greek  general  Philocales  in  11  IS  relieved 
the  district  for  the  time,  and  the  ability  of  the  Comneni, 
together  with  the  gradual  decay  of  the  Seljuk  power,  re- 
tained it  in  the  Byzantine  dominions.  The  coimtry  round 
Sardis  was  frequently  ravaged  both  by  Christians  and  by 
Greeks  during  the  13th  century.  Soon  after  1301  the 
Seljuk  emirs  o%-erran  the  whole  of  the  Ilermus  and  Caystcr 
vaUeys,  and  a  fort  on  the  citadel  of  Sardis  was  handed  over 
•to. them  by  treaty.     Finally  in  1390  Philadelphia,  which 


had  for  some  time  been  an  independent  Christian  city, 
surrendered  to  Sultan  Bayazid's  mixed  army  of  Ottoman 
Turks  and  Byzantine  Christians,  and  the  Seljuk  power  in 
the  Hermus  valley  was  merged  in  the  Ottoman  empire. 
The  latest  reference  to  the  city  of  Sardis  relates  its  capture 
(and  probable  destruction)  by  Timur  in  1402.  Its  site  is 
now  absolutely  deserted,  except  that  a  tiny  village,  Sart, 
merely  a  few  huts  inhabited  by  semi-nomadic  Yuruks,  exists 
beside  the  Pactolu.s,  and  that  there  is  a  station  of  the  Smyrna 
and  Cassaba  Railway  a  mile  north  of  the  principal  ruins. 

The  ruins  of  Sardis,  so  far  as  they  are  now  visible,  are  chiefly  of 
the  Romn*n  lime ;  but  probably  few  ancient  sites  would  more 
richly  reward  the  excavator  with  remains  of  all  periods  'from 
the  early  pre-Hellenic  time  downwards.  On  the  banks  of  the  Pac- 
tolus two  columns  of  a  temple  of  the  Greek  period,  probably  the 
great  temple  of  Cybele,  are  still  standing.  More  than  one  attempt 
to  excavate  this  temple,  the  last  by  Sir  G.  Dennis  in  1882,  have 
been  made  and  prentaturely  brought  to  an  end  by  lack  of  funds. 
The  necropolis  of  the  old  Lydian  city,  a  vast  series  of  mounds, 
some  of  enormous  size,  lies  on  the  north  side  of  the  Hermus,  foni 
or  five  miles  from  Sardis,  a  little  south  of  the  sacred  lake  Coloe  j 
here  the  Majonian  chiefs,  sons,  according  to  Homer,  of  the  lake, 
were  brought  to  sleep  beside  their  mother.  The  series  of  mounds 
is  now  called  Bin  Tepe  (Thousand  Hounds).  Several  of  them 
have  been  opened  by  modern  excavators,  but  in  every  case  it 
was  found  that  treasure-seekers  of  an  earlier  time  had  removed 
any  articles  of  value  that  had  been  deposited  in  the  sepulchral 
chambers. 

SARDONYX,  a  name  applied  to  those  varieties  of 
onyx,  or  stratified  chalcedony,  which  exhibit  white  layers 
alternating  with  others  of  red  or  brown  colour.  The 
brown  chalcedony  is  known  to  modern  mineralogists  as 
sard  and  the  red  as  carnelian.  The  simplest  and  commonest 
type  of  sardonyx  contains  two  strata, — a  thin  layer  of 
white  chalcedony  resting  upon  a  ground  of  either  carnelian 
or  sard  ;  but  the  sardony.v.  of  ancient  writers  generally 
presented  three  layers — a  superficial  stratum  of  red,  au 
intermediate  band  of  whi^e,  and  a  base  of  dark  brown 
chalcedony.  .  The  sardonyx  has  always  been  a  favourite 
stone  with  the  cameo-engraver,  and  the  finest  works  have 
usually  been  executed  on  stones  of  five  strata.  Such,  for 
instance,  is  the  famous  Carpegna  cameo,  in  the  Vatican, 
representing  the  triurhph  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres,  and  re- 
puted to  be  the  largest  work  of  its  kind  ever  executed 
(IG  inches  by  12).  When  the  component  layers  of  a 
sardonyx  are  of  fine  colour  and  sharply  defined,  the  stone 
is  known  in  trade  as  an  "Oriental  sardonyx" — a  term 
which  is  used  without  reference  to  the  geographical  source 
whence  the  stone  is  obtained.  A  famous  ancient  locality 
for  sard  was  in  Babylonia,  and  the  name  of  the  stone 
appears  to  be  connected  with  the  Persian  word  sered, 
"yellowi.sh  red,''  in  allusion  to  the  Colour  of  the  sard. 
Pliny,  relying  on  a  st^erficial  resemblance,  derives  the 
name  from  Sardis,  reputed  to  be  its  original  locality.  The 
sardonyx  is  frequently  stained,  or  at  least  its  colour 
heightened,  by  chemical  processes.  Imitations  are  fabri- 
cated by  cementing  two  or  three  layers  of  chalcedony 
together,  and  so  building  up  a  sardonyx ;  while  baser 
counterfeits  are  formed  simply  of  paste.  See  Onyx,  vol. 
svii.  p.  776. 

SARGASSO  SEA.     See  Atlantic,  vol.  iii.  pp.  20,  2G. 

SARGOX,  king  of  AssjTia,  722-705  B.C.  (Isa.  xx.  1). 
See  Babylonia,  vol.  iii.  p.  IS",  and  Isp..\i:l,  voL  xiii.  p. 
412  sq. 

SARI.      See  M.\ZANDAE.iN. 

SARMATIANS  (Savpo/narai,  ^vpixdrai,  Sarmata;).  In 
the  time  of  Herodotus  (iv.  110-117)  the  steppes  between 
the  Don  and  the  Caspian  were  inhabited  by  the  Sauromats, 
a  nomadic  horse-riding  people,  whose  women  rode,  hunted, 
and  took  part  in  battle  like  the  men,  so  that  legend  (pre- 
sumably the  legend  of  the  Greek  colonists  on  the  Black 
Sea)  represented  the  race  as  descendants  of  the  Amazons 
by  Scythian  fathers.     It  is  recounted  both  bv  Herodotus. 


S  A  R  —  S  A  R 


311 


and  by  Hippocrates  (De  Aer.,  17)  that  no  maiden  was 
allowed  to  marry  till  she  had  slain  a  foe  (or  three  foes), 
after  which  she  laid  aside  her  masculine  habits.  The 
Scythians,  we  are  told,  called  the  Amazons  Olop-rrara,  which 
seems  to  be  an  Iranian  name  and  to  mean  "lords  of  man," 
and  it  is  reasonable  to  think  that  the  word  was  applied  to 
the  Sarmatian  viragos  by  the  Scythians,  who  themselves 
kept  women  in  great  subjection,  and  thus  expressed  their 
surprise  at  the  dominating  position  of  the  female  sex 
among  their  neighbours  beyond  the  Don.  But  in  spite 
of  the  difference  of  their  customs  in  this  point  Scythians 
and  Sarraatians  spoke  almost  the  same  language  (Herod. 
iv.  117),  and,  whatever  difficulty  still  remains  as  to  the 
race  of  the  Scythians,  their  language  and  religion  are  now 
generally  held  to  have  been  of  Iranian  character  (see 
Scythia).  That  the  Sarmatians,  at  least,  were  of  Median 
origin  is  the  express  opinion  of  Diodorus  {ii.  43)  and  Pliny. 
From  their  seats  east  of  the  Danube  the  Sarmatians  at 
a  later  date  moved  westward  into  the  lands  formerly 
Scythian,  one  branch,  the  "  transplanted  "  lazyges  (I.  /^era- 
vaarai)  being  settled  between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss 
at  the  time  of  the  Dacian  wars  of  Rome,  while  other 
Sarmatian  tribes,  such  as  the  Maitae  on  the  eastern  shores 
of  Lake  Mseotis  and  the  Roxolani  between  the  Don  and 
the  Dnieper,  ranged  over  the  steppes  of  southern  Russia. 
The  country  of  Sarmatia,  however,  as  that  term  is  used  for 
example  by  Ptolemy,  means  much  more  than  the  lands  of 
the  Sarmatians,  comprising  all  the  eastern  European  plain 
from  the  Vistula  and  the  Dniester  to  the  Volga,  whether 
inhabited  by  nomad  Sarmatians,  by  agricultural  Slavs  and 
Letts,  or  even  by  Finns.  .  This  Sarmatia  was  arbitrarily 
divided  into  an  Asiatic  and  a  European  part,  east  and  west 
of  the  Don  respectively. 

SARNO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Salerno, 
30  miles  east  of  Naples  hy  rail,  lies  at  the  foot  of  the 
Apennines  near  the  sources  of  the  Sarno,  a  stream  con- 
nected by  canal  with  Pompeii  and  the  sea.  Besides  the 
cathedral,  a  basilica  erected  in  1625  at  some  distance  from 
the  city,  Sarno  has  several  interesting  churches  and  the 
ruins  of  a  mediaeval  castle.  Paper,  cotton,  silk,  linen,  and 
hemp  are  manufactured.  The  population  of  the  town  in 
1881  was  11,445.  Previous  to  its  incorporation  with  the 
domains  of  the  crown  of  Xaples,  Sarno  gave  its  name  to  a 
countship  held  in  succession  by  the  Orsini,  Cappola, 
Suttavilla,  and  Colonna  families. 

SARPI,  PiETRO  (1552-1623),  was  born  at  Venice, 
August  14,  1552,  and  was  the  son  of  a  small  trader,  who 
left  him  an  orphan  at  an  early  age.  Quiet,  serious, 
devoted  to  study,  endowed  with  great  tenacity  of  applica- 
tion and  a  prodigious  memory,  the  boy  seemed  born  for  a 
monastic  life,  and,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  his 
relatives,  entered  the  order  of  the  Servi  di  Maria,  a  minor 
Augustinian  congregation  of  Florentine  origin,  at  the  ajo 
of  thirteen.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Paolo,  by  which, 
with  the  epithet  Servita,  ho  was  always  known  to  his  e(m- 
temporaries.  In  1570  he  sustained  no  fewer  than  three 
hundred  and  eighteen  theses  at  a  disputation  in  Mantua, 
with  such  applause  that  the  duko  attached  the  youthful 
divine  to  his  service  by  making  him  court  theologian. 
Sarpi  spent  four  years  at  Mantua,  applying  himself  with 
the  utmost  zeal  to  mathematics  and  the  Oriental  languages. 
He  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Olivo,  formerly  secre- 
tary to  a  papal  legate  at  the'  council  of  Trent,  from  whom 
he  learned  much  that  ho  subsequently  introduced  into  his 
lliatory.  After  leaving  Mantua  for  some  unexplained 
reason,  he  repaired  to  Milan,  where,  he  enjoyed  the  pro- 
tection of  Cardinal  Borromeo,  another  authority  in  the 
council,  but  was  soon  transferred  by  his  superiors  to 
Venice,  as  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Servite  convent. 
In  1570  he  was  sent  to  Rome  on  business  counccted  with 


the  reform  of  his  order,  which  occupied  him  several  years, 
and  brought  him  into  intimate  relations  with  three 
successive  popes,  as  well  as  the  grand  inquisitor  and  other 
persons  of  influence.  The  impression  which  the  papal 
court  made  upon  him  may  be  collected  from  his  sub- 
sequent history.  Having  successfully  termmatcd  the 
affairs  entrusted  to  him,  he  returned  to  Venice  in  1588, 
and  passed  the  next  seventeen  years  in  quiet  study, 
occasionally  interrupted  by  the  part  he  was  compelled  to 
take  in  the  internal  disputes  of  his  community.  In  ICOl 
he  was  recommended  by  the  Venetian  senate  for  the  small 
bishopric  of  Caorle,  but  the  papal  nuncio,  who  wished  to 
obtain  it  for  a  prot(?g6  of  his  own,  informed  the  pope 
that  Sarpi  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  had 
controverted  the  authority  of  Aristotle.  An  attempt  to 
procure  another  small  bishopric  in  the  following  year  also 
failed,  Clement  VIII.  professing  to  have  taken  umbrage 
at  Sarpi's  extensive  correspondence  with  learned  heretics, 
but  more  probably  determined  to  thwart  the  desires  of  the 
liberal  rulers  of  Venice.  The  sense  of  injury,  no  doubt, 
contributed  to  exasperate  Sarpi's  feelings  towards  the 
court  of  Rome,  but  a  man  whose  master  passions  were 
freedom  of  thought  and  love  of  country  could  not  have 
played  any  other  part  than  he  did  in  the  great  contest 
which  was  impending.  For  the  time,  however,  ho 
tranquilly  pursued  his  studies,  writing  those  notes  on 
Viela  which  establish  his  proficiency  in  mathematics,  and 
a  metaphysical  treatise  now  lost,  which,  if  Foscarini's 
account  of  it  may  be  relied  upon,  anticipated  the  sensa- 
tionalism of  Locke.  His  anatomical  pursuits  probably 
date  from  a  somewhat  earlier  period.  They  illustrate  his 
versatility  and  thirst  for  knowledge,  but  are  far  from 
possessing  the  importance  ascribed  to  them  by  the  affection 
of  his  disciples.  His  claim  to  have  anticipated  Harvey's 
discovery  rests  on  no  better  authority  than  a  memorandum, 
probably  copied  from  Csesalpinus'  or  Harvey  himself,  with 
whom,  as  well  as  with  Bacon  and  Gilbert,  he  maintained  a 
correspondence.  The  only  physiological  d'scovery  which 
can  be  safely  attributed  to  him  is  that  of  the  contractility 
of  the  iris.  It  must  be  remembered,  hon-ever,  that  his 
treatises  on  scientific  subjects  are  lost,  and  only  known 
from  imperfect  abstracts 

The  prudent  Clement  died  in  March  1 505  ;  and  after 
one  ephemeral  succession  and  two  very  long  conclaves 
Paul  V.  assumed  the  tiara  with  the  resolution  to  strain 
papal  prerogative  to  the  uttermost.  At  the  same  time 
Venice  was  adopting  measures  to  restrict  it  still  further. 
The  right  of  the  secular  tribunals  to  take  cognizance  of 
the  offences  of  ecclesiastics  had  been  asserted  in  two 
remarkable  cases ;  and  the  scope  of  two  ancient  laws  of 
the  city  of  Venice,  forbidding  the  foundation  of  churches 
or  ecclesiastical  congregations  without  the  Consent  of  tho 
state,  and  the  acquisition  of  property  by  priests  or 
religious  bodies,  had  been  extended  over  the  entire 
territory  of  the  republic.  In  January  1606  the  papal 
nuncio  delivered  a  brief  demanding  the  unconditional  sub- 
mission of  the  Venetians.  The  senate  having  promised 
protection  to  all  ecclesiastics  who  should  in  this  emergency 
aid  the  republic  by  their  counsel,  Sarpi  presented  a  memoir, 
pointing  out  that  the  threatened  censures  might  bo  met  in 
two  ways, — de  facto,  by  prohibiting  tlieir  publication,  and 
dejure,  by  an  appeal  to  a  general  council.  The  document 
was  received  with  universal  applause,  and  Sarpi  was 
immediately  made  canonist  and  theological  counsellor  to 
the  republic.  When  in  tho  following  April  the  last  liopes 
of  accommodation  were  dispelled  by  Paul's  excommunica- 
tion of  the  Venetians  and  his  attempt  to  lay  their 
dominions  under  an  interdict,  Sarpi  entered  with  tho 
utmost  energy  into  the  controversy.  He  prudently  begait 
by  republishing    the   aiili  papal  c|)iaions  of   the   famous 


312 


S  A  R  P  I 


canonist  Gerson.  m  aa  anonymous  tract  published 
shortly  afterwards  (liisposta  di  nn  Dottore  in  Teologia) 
he  laid  down  principles  which  struck  at  the  very  root  of 
the  pope's  authority  in  secular  things.  This  book  was 
promptly  put  upon  the  Index,  and  the  republication  of 
Gerson  was  attacked  by  Bellarmine  with  a  severity  which 
obliged  Sarpi  to  reply  iu  an  A-polnr/ia.  The  Consideraiioni 
suite  Censure  and  the  Tn  HaJo  deW  Inierdeito,  the  latter 
partly  prepared  under  his  direction  by  other  theologians, 
speedily  followed.  Kumerous  other  pamphlets  appeared, 
inspired  or  controlled  by  Sarpi,  who  had  received  the 
further  appointment  of  censor  over  all  that  should  be 
written  at  Venice  in  defence  of  the  republic.  His  activity 
registers  the  progress  of  mankind,  and  forms  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  free  discussion.  Never  before  in  a  religious 
controversy  had  the  appeal  been  made  so  exclusively  to 
reason  and  history ;  never  before  had  an  ecclesiastic  of 
his  eminence  maintained  the  subjection  of  the  clergy  to 
the  state,  and  disputed  the  pope's  right  to  employ 
spiritual  censures,  except  under  restrictions  which 
virtually  abrogated  it.  In  so  doing'  he  merely  gave 
expression  to  the  convictions  which  had  long  been  silently 
forming  in  the  breasts  of  enlightened  men,  and  this,  even 
more  than  his  learning  and  acuteness  as  a  disputant, 
insured  him  a  moral  victory.  JIaterial  arguments  were  no 
longer  at  the  pope's  disposal.  The  Venetian  clergy,  a  few 
religious .  orders  excepted,  disregarded  the  interdict,  and 
discharged  their  functions  as  usual.  The  Catholic  powers 
refused  to  be  drawn  into  the  quarrel.  At  length  (April 
1607)  a  compromise  was  arranged  through  the  mediation 
of  the  king  of  France,  which,  while  salving  over  the  pope's 
dignity,  conceded  the  points  at  issue.  The  great  victory, 
hov/ever,  was  not  so  much  the  defeat  of  the  papal  preten- 
sions as  the  demonstration  that  interdicts  and  excommuni- 
cations had  lost  their  force.  Even  this  w'as  not  wholly 
satisfactory  to  Sarpi,  who  longed  for  the  toleration  of 
Protestant  worship  in  Venice,  and  had  hoped  for  a  separa- 
tion from  Rome  and  the  establishment  of  a  Venetian  free 
church  by  whif'i  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent  would 
have  been  rejected,  and  in  v/hich  the  Bible  would  have 
been  an  open  book.  But  the  controversy  had  not  lasted 
long  enough  to  prepare  men's  minds  for  so  bold  a 
measure.  The  republic  rewarded  her  champion  with  the 
further  distinction  of  state  counsellor  in  jurisprudence, 
and,  a  unique  mark  of  confidence,  the  liberty  of  access 
to  the  state  archives.  Thes.e  honours  exasperated  his 
adversaries  to  the  uttermost  ;  and  after  citations  and 
blandishments  had  equally  failed  to  bring  him  to  Rome 
he  began  to  receive  intimations  that  a  stroke  against  him 
was  preparing  in  that  quarter.  On  October  5  he  was 
attacked  by  a  band  of  assassins  and  left  for  dead,  but  the 
wounds  were  not  mortal.  The  bravos  found  a  refuge  in 
the  papal  territories.  Their  chief,  Poma,  dechred  that  he 
had  been  moved  to  attempt  the  murder  by  his  zeal  for 
religion,  a  degree  of  piety  and  self-sacrifice  which  seems 
incredible  in  a  bankrupt  oil-merchant.  "Agnoseo  stylura ' 
Curije  Piomans,"  Sarpi  himself  pleasantly  said,  when  his 
surgeon  commented  upon  the  ragged  and  inartistic 
character  of  the  wounds,  and  the  justice  of  the  observa- 
tion is  as  incontestable  as  its  wit.  The  only  question  can 
be  as  to  the  degree  of  complicity  of  Pope  Paul  V.,  a  good 
man  according  to  his  light,  but  who  must  have  looked 
upon  Sarpi  as  a  revolted  subject,  and  who  would  find 
casuists  enough  to  a,Esur3  him  that  a  prince  is  justified  in 
punishing  rebels  by  assassins  when  they"  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  executioners. 

The  remainder  of  Sarpi's  life  was  spent  peacefully  in 
his  cloister,  though  plots  against  him  continued  to  be 
formed,  and  he  occasionally  spoke  of  taking  refuge  in 
England.     V\\\2n  not  engaged  in  framing  siato  papers,  ho 


devoted  himself  to  scientific  studies,  and  found  time  fol 
the  composition  of  several  works.  A  Machiavellian  tract 
on  the  fundamental  maxims  of  Venetian  policy  {Opinions 
come  debba  govemarsi  la  i-epubblica  di  Venezia),  used  by  his 
adversaries  to  blacken  his  memory,  though  a  contemporary 
production,  is  undoubtedly  not  his.  It  has  been  attributed 
to  a  certain  Gradenigo.  Nor  did  he  complete  a  reply 
which  he  had  been  ordered  to  prepare  to  the  Squiiinio 
delta  Liberttl  Veneta,  which  he  perhaps  found  unanswerable 
In  1610  appeared  his  History  of  Ecclesiastical  Benefices, 
"  in  which,"  says  Eicci,  "  he  purged  the  church  of  the  de- 
filement introduced' by  spurious  decretab."  In  the  follow- 
mg  year  he  assailed  another  abuse  by  his  treatise  on  the 
right  of  asylum  claimed  for  churches,  which  was  imme- 
diately placed  on  the  Index.  In  1615  a  dispute  between 
the  Venetian  Government  and  the  Inquisition  respecting 
the  prohibition  of  a  book  led  him  to  write  on  the  history 
and  procedure  of  the  Venetian  Inquisition ;  and  iu  1619 
his  chief  literary  work,  the  History  of  the  Council  of  Trenty 
was  printed  at  London  under  the  name  of  Pietro  Soave 
Polano,  an  anagram  of  Paolo  Sarpi  Veneto.  The  editor, 
Marco  Antonio  de  Dominis,  has  been  accused  of  falsifying 
the  text,  but  a  comparison  with  a  MS.  corrected  by  Sarpi 
himself  shows  that  the  alterations  are  both  unnecessary 
and  unimportant.  This  memorable  book,  together  with 
the  rival  and  apologetic  history  by  Carinal  Pallavicini, 
is  minutely  criticized  by  Eanke  {History  of  the  Popes, 
appendix  No.  3),  who  tests  the  veracity  of  both  writers  by 
examining  the  use  they  have  respectively  made  of  their 
MS.  materials.  The  result  is  not  highly  favourable  to 
either,  nor  wholly  unfavourable  ;  neither  can  be  taxed  with 
deliberate  falsification,  but  both  have  coloured'  and  sup- 
pressed. They  write  as  advocates  rather  than  historians. 
Each  had  access  to  sources  of  information  denied  to  the 
other  ;  so  that,  although  it  may  be  true  in  a  sense  that  the 
truth  lies  between  them,  it  cannot  be  attained  by  taking 
the  middle  way  between  their  statements.  Eanke  rates 
the  literary  qualities  of  Sarpi's  work  very  highly.  "  Sarpi 
is  acute,  penetrating,  -and  sarcastic ;  his  arrangement  is 
exceedingly  skilful,  his  style  pure  and  unaffected  In 
power  of  description  he  is  without  doubt  entitled  to  the 
second  place  among  the  modern  historians  of  Italy.  I 
rank  him  immediately  after  Machiavelli,"  Sarpi  never 
acknowledged  his  authorship,  and  baffled  all  the  efforts  of 
the  Prince  de  Conde  to  extract  the  secret  from  him.  He 
survived  the  publication  four  years,  dying  on  January  15, 
1623,  labouring  for  his  country  to  the  last.  The  day 
before  his  death  he  had  dictated  three  replies  to  questions 
on  affairs  of  state,  and  his  last  words  were  "  Esto  per- 
petua."  His  posthumous  History  of  the  Interdict  was 
printed  at  Venice  the  year  after  his  death,  with  the 
disguised  imprint  of  Lyons. 

Sarpi's-scrvircs  to  maiikiiul  ,irc  now.iclcnowleilged  Ky  all  except  tha 
most  extreme  Uliramoiitane  jiartisans  ;  anJ  of  las  general  cliaiactei 
it  is  enough  to  s!iy  that  even  tlieological  hatied  lias  been  unable  to  fix 
tjie  least  personal  iniputatiou  upon  him.  To  the  highest  qualities 
of  tlie  scholar,  the  statesman,  anil  the  patriot  he  aJJej  charity,  mag- 
nanimity, and  disinteicstedness.  Tlce  only  point  oii  which  his  con- 
duct may  be  thought  to  require  apology  is  tlic  reserve  in  which  ho 
shrouded  liis  religious  opinions.  Great  light  has  been  thrown  upon 
his  real  belief  and  the  motives  of  his  conduct  by  the  letters  of  Cliris- 
topli  voii  Dohna,  envoy  of  Christian,  ]>rincc  of  Anhalt,  to  "N'cnice,  pub- 
lished by  iloritz  Ritter  iu  the  Brit'jc  nnd  Aden  zur  Gcschiclitc  o'es 
dixissigjakrigcn  Kricgcs^  vol.  ii.  (Munich,  1874).  Sarpi  told  Dohna 
that  he  greatly  disliked  saying  masi,  and  celebrated  it  as  seldom 
as  possible,  but  that  he  was  compelled  to  do  so,  as  lie  would  other- 
wise seem  to  admit  the  validity  cf  the  papal  prohiljitiou,  and  thus 
betray  the  cause  of  'Venice.  This  supplies  the  key  to  liis  whole 
behaviour;  he  was  a  patriot  first  and  a  religious  reformer  after- 
wards. He  was  most  anxious  to  obtain  liberty  of  Protestant  worship 
at  'Venice,  hut  scarcely  proceeded  beyond  good  wishes,  partly  from 
prudence,  partly  from  being  "  rooted  "  in  what  Diodati  described 
to  Dohna  as  "the  most  dangerous  maxim,  that  God  does  not 
regard  externals  so  long  a.i  th  :  mind  and  heart  arc  right  before 


S  A  R  — S  A  R 


313 


Him."  "It  is  of  littlo  avail," adds  T)iodati,  "to dispute  wiin  him, 
for  all  blows  fall  ineffectually  upon  the  sweetness  and  maturity  of 
affections  and  spirit'  whicK  raise  him  above  well  nigh  every 
emotion."  Sarpi  had  another  maxim,  which  he  thus  formulated  to 
Dohna  :  ^^ Le  falsiidj  non  dico  'inai  mai,  ina  la  veritd  non  a  ognuno." 
It  must  further  be  considered  that,  though  Sarpi  admired  the 
English  prayer-book,  he  was  neither  Anglican,  Lutheran,  nor 
Calviuist,  and  might  have  found  it  difficult  to  accommodate 
himself  to  any  Protestant  church.  On  the  whole,  the  opinion  of  Le 
Courayer,  "qu'  il  etait  Catholiqueen  gros  et  quelque  fois  Protestant 
en  detail,  "seems  not  altogether  groundless,  thougn  itcan  no  longer 
be  accepted  as  a  satisfactory  summing  up  of  the  question.  His 
discoveries  in  natural  science  have  been  overrated,  but  his  scientific 
attainments  must  have  been  great.  Galileo  would  not  have  wasted 
his  time  in  corresponding  with  a  man  from  whom  he  could  learn 
nothing ;  and,  though  Sarpi  did  not,  as  has  been  asserted,  invent 
the  telescope,  he  immediately  turned  it  to  practical  account  by 
constructing  a  map  of  the  moon. 

SGrpI'fl  life  was  written  by  his  enthusiastic  disciple,  FatherFnlgenzlo  Micanzlo, 
whoso  work  docs  honrnn*  to  his  heart,  but  Is  both  meagre  and  ancritical. 
BUinchl-Giovinrs  modem  biography  (1836)  Is  greatly  marred  by  digressions,  but 
la  on  the  wliolo  the  most  satisfactory  extant,  though  inferior  in  some  respects  to 
that  by  Miss  Arabella  Georgina  Campbell  (I860),  a  labour  of  love,  enriched  by 
numerous  references  to  51SS.  unknowTi  to  Bianchi-Giovlni.  Tlie  numerous  mis- 
prints which  rtisflpiii-e  the  English  edition  of, this  work  have  been  corrected  in 
an  Italian  tr.inslfttinn.  T.  A.  Tl-oliope's  Paul  the  Pcpc  and  Paul  the  Friar  (1861) 
Is  En  tho  main  a  mere  abstract  of  Bianchl-Giovini,  but  adds  a  spirited  account  of 
the  conclave  of  Paul  V.  1  he  incidents  of  the  Venetian  dispute  from  day  to  day 
are  related  In  the  contemporary  diaries  published  by  Enrico  Cornet  (Vienna, 
1859).  Giustn  Fontanini's  Storia  Arcana  delta  Vita  di  Pietro  Sarpi  (1863),  a 
bitter  libel,  la  nevertheless  important  for  the  letters  of  Sai-pl  It  contains,  as 
Griselini's  Memorie  Anedote  (17C0)  is  from  the  authoi-'s  access  to  Sarpi's  un. 
published  writinca,  afterwards  unfortunately  destroyed  by  fire.  Foscarlni's 
History  of  Yenrtian  Literature  is  important  on  the  same  account.  Sarpi's 
memoirs  on  stile  affairs  remain  In  the  Venetian  archives.  Portions  of  his 
correspondence  h.ive  been  printed  at  vaiioua  times,  and  inedited  letters  from 
him  are  of  frequent  oecuiTeiic9  In  public  libraries.  The  King's  Library  in  the 
iiritish  Museum  hns  a  valuable  collection  'ot  tracts  in  the  Interdict  controversy, 
formed  by  Consul  Smitli..  (R.  G.) 

SARRAZIN,  Jacques  (1585-1660),  French  painter, 
born  at  Noyon  in  1588,  iivas  a  pupil  of  the  father  of 
Simon  Guillain,  but  he  went  to  Rome  at  an  early  age  and 
worked  there  under  a  Frerichman  named  Anguille.  Start- 
ing thus,  Sarrazin  speedily  obtained  employment  from 
Cardinal  Alilobrandini  at  Frascati,  where  he  won  the 
friendship  of  Domenichino,  with  whom  he  afterwards 
worked  on  the  high  p.ltar  of  St  Andrea  della  Valle.  His 
return  to  Paris,  where  ha  married  a  niece  of  Simon  Vouet's, 
was  signalized  by  a  scries  of  successes  which  attracted  the 
notice  of  Sublet  des  Noyers,  who  entrusted  to  him  tho 
work  by  which  Sarrazin  is  best  known,  the  decoration  of 
the  great  portal  and  dome  of  the  western  facade  of  the 
interior  court  of  the  Louvre.  The  famous  Caryatides  of 
the  attic  show,  especially  in  the  way  in  which  the  shadows 
are  made  to  tell  as  points  of  support,  the  profound  and 
intelligent  study  of  Michelangelo's  art  to  which  Sarrazin 
had  devoted  all  the  time  he  could  spare  from  bread- 
winning  whilst  in  Rome.  He  now  executed  many  commis- 
sions from  the  queen  and  from  all  the  chief  personages  of 
the  day,  devoted  much  time  to  painting,  and  was  an  active 
promoter  of  the  foundation  of  the  Academy.  The  mauso- 
leum for  the  heart  of  the  Prince  de  Cond^  in  the  Jesuit 
church  of  the  Rue  Saint  Antoine  was  his  last  considerable 
work  (seo  Liinoir,  Munee  des  Momiments  Frant;ats,  v.  5) ;  he 
died  3d  December  1660,  whilst  it  was  in  progress,  and  the 
crucifix  of  tho  altar  was  actually  completed  by  one  of  his 
pupils  named  Gros. 

SARSAPARILLA,  a  popular  alterative  remedy,  prepared 
from  tho  long  fibrous  roots  of  several  species  of  the  genus 
Smilax,  indigenous  to  Central  America,  and  extending  from 
the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Mexico  in  the  north 
to  Ft;ru  in  the  south.  These  plants  grow  in  s-tvampy 
fore-sl~s  seldom  vi.sited  by  European  travellers,  and,  being 
(liri'cious  and  varying  much  in  the  form  of  leaf  in  different 
individuals,  they  are  but  imperfectly  known  to  botanists, 
only  two  species  having  .been  identified  as  yet  with  any 
degree  of  certainty.  These  are  Smilax  officinalis,  Kth.,  and 
•S".  mediea,  Schlecht.  and  Cham.,  which  yield  respectively 
the  so-called  "  Jamaica  "  and  the  Mexican  varieties.  The 
introduction  of  sarsaparilla  into  European  medicine  dates 
from  the  middle  of  the  Ifith  century.  Sfonardts,  a  physi- 
n-\A* 


cian  of  Seville,  records  that  it  was  brought  to  that  city 
from  New  Spain  about  1536-'i5,  that  a  better  sort  soon 
afterwards  came  from  Honduras,  and  that  an  excellent 
variety  of  a  darker  colour,  and  consisting  of  larger  roots, 
was  subsequently  imported  from  Guayaquil.  Sarsaparilla 
must  have  come  into  extensive  use  soon  after-wards,  for 
Gerard,  about  the  close  of  the  century,  states  that  it  was 
imported  into  England  from  Peru  in  great  abundance. 

When  boiled  in  water  the  root  affords  a  dark  extractive 
matter,  the  exact  nature  of  which  has  not  been  determined; 
the  quantity  of  extract  yielded  by  the  root  is  used  as  a 
criterion  of  its  quality.  Boiling  alcohol  extracts  from  the 
root  a  neutral  substance  in  the  form  of  crystalline  prisms, 
which  crystallize  in  scales  from  boiling  -water.  This  body, 
which  is  named  parillin,  is  allied  to  the  saponin  of  quillaia 
bark,  from  which  it  differs  in  not  exciting  sneezing.  The 
presence  in  the  root  of  starch,  resin,  and  oxalate  of  lime  is 
revealed  by  the  use  of  the  microscope.  Sarsaparilla  is 
chiefly  used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of  decoction  and  fluid 
extract.  It  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  valuable  alterative 
and  diaphoretic  in  chronic  rheumatism,  syphilis,  and 
various  skin  diseases,  but  by  others  as  possessing  little  if 
any  remedial  value.  It  is  frequently  prescribed  in  com- 
bination with  powerful  medicines,  such  as  iodide  of 
potassium  or  bichloride  of  mercury. 

The  varieties  of  sarsaparilla  met  with  in  commerce  at  present  arc 
the  following  : — Jamaica,  Lima,  Honduras,  Guatemala,  Guayaquil, 
and  Mexican.  Of  these  the  first-named  is  tlie  most  highly  esteemed, 
as  yielding  the  largest  amount  of  extract,  viz. ,  from  33  to  44  pci 
cent. ;  it  is  the  only  kind  admitted  into  tho  British  pharmacopceia. 
On  the  Continent,  and  more  especially  in  Italy,  the  varieties  having 
a  white  starchy  bark,  like  those  of  Honduras  and  Guatemala,  are 
preferred.  "Jamaica"  sarsaparilla  is  n»t  produced  there,  but  derives 
its  name  fi-om  the  fact  that  Jamaica  was  at  one  time  the  emporium 
for  sarsaparilla,  which  was  brought  thither  from  Honduras,  Kcv/ 
Spain,  and  Peru.  Sarsaparilla  is  grown  to  a  small  extent  in  Jamaic.t, 
and  is  occasionally  exported  thence  to  the  London  market  in  small 
quantities,  but  its  orange  colour  and  starchy  bark  are  so  different  in 
appearance  from  the  thin  reddish-brown  bark  of  the  genuine  drug, 
that  it  does  not  meet  with  a  read-y  sale.  The  Jamaica  sarsaparilla 
of  trade  is  collected  on  the  Cordilleras  of  Chiriqui,  in  that  part  of 
the  isthmus  of  Panama  which  adjoins  Costa  Rica,  where  the  plant 
yielding  it  grows  at  an  elevation  of  4000  to  8000  feet,  and  is 
brought  down  to  Boca  del  Toro  on  the  Atlantic  coast  for  shipment. 
It  is  met  with  in  commerce  in  the  form  of  hanks  about  18  inches 
long  and  4  inches  in  diameter,  loosely  wound  round  with  a  long 
root  of  the  same  drug.  The  root  bark  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour, 
thin  and  shrivelled,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  rootlets,  which  are 
technically  known  by  the  name  of  "beard."  Lima'.iarsaparilla 
resembles  the  Jamaica  kind,  but  the  roots  are  of  a  paler  brown 
colour,  and  are  formed  into  cylindrical  bundles  of  similar  length, 
but  only  about  2i  inches  in  diameter.  Honduras  sarsaparilla 
occurs  in  the  form  of  cylindrical  rolls  about  30  inches  long  and  4 
or  more  in  diameter,  closely  wound  round  with  a  long  root  so  as  to 
form  a  neat  bundle.  The  roots  are  less  wrinkled,  and  tho  bark  i^i 
whiter  and  moic  starchy,  than  in  the  Jamaica  kind.  It  is  exported 
from  HcWza  to  the  extent  of  about  10,000  lb  annually.  Guatemala 
sarsaparilla  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Honduras,  but  has  a  moro 
decided  oi-ango  hue,  aiul  the  bark  shows  a  tendency  to  split  off. 
Guayaquil  sarsaparilla  is  obtained  chiefly  in  tho  valley  of  Alausi, 
on  tlic  western  side  of  tho  equatorial  Andes.  The  roots  are  roughly 
packed  in  largo  bales  and  are  not  m.-ido  into  separate  hanks,  and  the 
chump  orrootstock  is  often  allowed  to  remain  attached  to  tho  roots. 
The  bark  is  tltick  and  furrowed,  and  of  a  pale  fawn  colour  internally : 
the  rootlets  are  few,  and  tho  root  itself  is  of  larger  diameter  than  in 
the  other  kinds.  Sometimes  there  is  attached  to  tho  roolstock  a 
portion  of  stem,  which  is  round  and  not  prickly,  dilTeiing  in  these 
respects  from  that  of  Smilax  offxinalis,  which  is  square  and  prickly. 
Mexican  s.arsaparilla  also  is  not  made  up  into  hanks,  but  is  packed 
in  sti-aight  lengths  of  about  3  feet  into  bales,  tho  chump  and  por- 
tions of  an  angular  but  not  siiuare  stem  being  frequently  attached 
to  tho  roots.  The  latter  are  slender,  shrivelled,  and  nearly  dei'oid 
of  rootlets.  This  kind  of  sarsaparilla  is  collected  on  tho  eastein 
.slope  of  tho  Jlexican  Andes  throughout  tho  year,  and  is  tho  pro. 
duco  oi  Smilax  mciUca,  Sclilecdit.  and  Ch.ara. 

The  collection  of  sarsaparilla  root  is  a  very  tedious  business  ;  a 
rindo  root  takes  an  Indian  half  a  day  or  sometimes  even  a  day  and 
a  (i;-.if  to  uncaith  it.  Tlic  roots  extend  horizontally  in  the  ground 
on  all  sides  for  about  9  feet,  and  from  theso  tho  earth  has  to  be 
e-trcfully  tr-a]icd  away  an''  fnher  roots  cut  through  where  such 
come  aCL^ij  tlicm.     .\  '  '.'.'.  K'Ur  voars  old  will  yield  IG  lb  of  fresh 

XXI.  —  ao 


314 


S  A  K  —  S  A  R 


root,  and  a^well-grown  ono  from  32  to  64  ft,  but  more  (liaii  half  tlio 
weight  is  lost  in  drying.  The  more  slender  roots  are  generally  left, 
and  the  stem  is  cut  down  near  to  the  ground,  the  crown  of  the  root 
being  covered  with  leaves  and  earth.  Thus  treated,  the  plant  con- 
tinues to  grow,  and  roots  may  again  bo  cut  from  it  after  the  lapse 
of  two  years,  but  tlie  yield  will  be  .smaller  and  the  .roots  more 
slender  and  less  starchy.  In  some  varieties,  as  the  Guayaquil  and 
Mexican,  the  whole  plant,  including  the  rootstoek,  is  pulled  up.  The 
Indians  are  guided  iu  their  selection  of  roots  by  the  number  of  stems 
arising  from  the  roots,  by  the  thinness  of  the  leaves,  and  the  close- 
ness with  which  the  stem  is  beset  with  prickles. 

In  several  species  of  Sitiifax  the  roots  become  thickened  here  and 
there  into  large  tuberous  swellings  4  to  6  inches  long,  and  one  or 
two  inches  in  thickness.  These  tubers  form  a  considerable  article 
of  trade  in  China,  but  are  used  to  a  limited  extent  only  on  the 
Contiu*ont,  under  the  name  of  China  root,  although  introduced  into 
Europe  about  the  same  time  as  sarsaparilla.  China  root  is  obtained 
both  in  China  and  India  from  Smilax  glabra  and  S.  lancew/olia, 
Roxburgh,  and  S.  China,  L.  A  similar  root  is  yielded  by  S. 
pseudo-China,  L. ,  and  >S'.  tamnoidcs  in  the  United  States  from  New 
Jersey  southwards  ;  by  S.  halbisiana,  Kth.,  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
by  S.  Japicanga  and  S.  si/7-in<ioidcs,  Griseb.,  and  S.  Iirasiiic7isis, 
Spreng. ,  in  South  America.  Ail  these  are  used  as  an  alterative 
remedy  in  the  localities  where  they  grow.  The  amount  of  China 
root  exported  to  Europe  from  Canton  iu  1872  was  only  51,200  lb, 
although  in  the  same  year  as  much  as  1,367,733  lb  was  exported 
from  the  city  of  Hankow  to  other  Chinese  ports.  In  1882  Bombay 
imported  from  China  945  cwts.  of  (he  root.  The  name  of  Indian 
sarsaparilla  is  given  to  the  rootstof  Hcmidcsimcs  indicus,  R.  Cr.,  an 
Aselepiadaceous  plant  indigenous  to  India.  These  roots  are  readilj^ 
distinguished  from  those  of  true  sarsaparilla  by  their  loose  cracked 
bark  and  by  their  odour  and  taste,  recalling  those  of  melilot. 

SARTHE,  a  department  of  the  nortii-west  region  of 
France,  formed  in  1790  out  of  the  eastern  part  of  Maine, 
29  communes  of  Anjou,  and  portions  of  Perclie.  Situated 
between  -17°  35'  and  48°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  between  0°  2.5' 
AV.  and  0°  5.5  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  depart- 
ment of  Orne,  N.E.  by  Eure-et-Loir,  E.  by  Loir-et-Cher,  S. 
by  Indre-et-Loire  and  Maine-et-Loire,  and  W.  by  jMayenne. 
The  Sarthe,  a  sub-tributary  of  the  Loire,  flows  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  through  the  department ;  and  the  Loir, 
which  along  with  the  Sarthe  joins  the  Mayenne  to  form  the 
Maine  above  Angers,  traverses  its  southern  borders.  The 
general  slope  of  the  country  is  from  north  to  south-west. 
While  the  highest  point  (on  the  boundary  towards  Orne)  is 
1115  feet,  the  lowest,  where  the  Loir  leaves  the  depart- 
ment, is  only  65.  The  hills  that  separate  the  streams  rise 
as  they  advance  north-east  into  Perche,  or  north-west  into 
what  are  magniloquently  called  the  Alpes  Mancelles  (lOSO 
feet  high).  The  Sarthe  flows  past  Le  Mans  and  Sabl^,  re- 
ceiving the  Merdereau  and  the  Vegre  from  the  right,  and 
the  Orne  and  the  Huisne  from  the  left.  The  Loir  jjasses  La 
Flcche,  and  along  its  chalky  banks  caves  have  been  hollowed 
3ut  which,  like  those  along  the  Cher  and  the  Loire,  serve  as 
dwelling-houses  and  stores.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
differs  but  slightly  from  that  of  Paris.  There  are  in  the 
year  115  days  of  rain  (with  12  of  snow),  56  of  frost,  ISO  of 
fogs,  20  of  hail,  and  14  of  storm.  The  rainfall  is  about 
24  inches,  or  rather  below  the  average  for  France. 

Of  a  total  surface  of  1,5.33,700  acres,  082,635  acres  in  the  dcpavt- 
nient  are  arable,  108,517  under  wood,  100, 176  in  meadows  and  grass, 
42,000  in  moors,  and  22,284  in  vineyards.  In  1881  the  live  stock 
comprised  61,400  horses,  6524  asses  or  nmlcs,  182,195  cattle, 
40,373  sheep  (wool-clip  83  to  84  tons),  70,737  pigs,  24.369  goats, 
12,898  hives  (76  tons  of  honey,  2H  tons  wa\)  Poultry  (capons, 
geese,  &c.)  form  one  of  the  most  rcmuucrativc  jn-oducts  of  the  de- 
partment, which  sends  yearly  to  Paris  250,000  fowls  and  100,000 
geese,  and  consumes  or  disposes  of  10,000,000  eggs.  The  horses 
arc,  like  those  of  Perche  {pa'c herons),  famous  for  speed  combined 
with  strength.  There  are  three  distinct  districts  ; — the  corn  lands 
to  the  north  of  the  Sarthe  and  the  Huisne  ;  the  moorlands,  partly 
planted  with  pinr,  between  those  two  streams  and  the  Loir  ;  and 
the  wine-growing  country  to  the  south  of  tho  Loir.  In  1883  tlie 
grain  crop  yielded  2,813,387  bushels  of  wheat,  051,039  of  meslin, 
714,218  of  rye,  2,317,760  of  barley,  1,993,0-19  of  oats,  30,880  of 
maize,  and  69,680  of  buckwheat;  and  there  were  9,536,312  bushels 
of  potatoes  and  92,521  of  beans,  pease,  &c.,  81.604  tons  of  beetroot, 
4704  tons  of  hemp,  and  6  oE  f!ax.  In  1834  cider  was  produced  to 
the  extent  of  15,473,414  gallons  (average  quantity  per  annum  in 
privious   years  8,628,444  gallons),  and  wino  to  4,347,134  galbos 


(average  quantity  3,883,330).  Fodder  was  grown  to  tho  amount 
of  381,110  tons;  and  there  were  considerable  supplies  of  chestnuts 
and  hazel  nuts — Chateau  du  Loir  being  the  principal  market  for  the 
former.  From  the  forests,  which  consist  mainly  of  oaks,  witch-elms, 
chestnut-trees,  pines,  and  beeches,  material  is  drawn  to  the  value 
of  £140,000.  The  agriculture  of  the  district  has  made  great  pro- 
gress through  the  opening  up  of  roads,  improvements,  draining, 
and  irrigation.  Besides  mines  of  anthracite  and  coal  (21,205  tons 
in  1882),  iron-ore,  marble,  freestone,  slate,  millstones,  clay,  marl, 
lime,  tulfeau  (a  kind  of  white  chalky  tulfj,  magnesia,  and  peat  are 
all  worked.  The  staple  industry  is  the  weaving  of  hemp  and  flax 
(3395  spindles,  4400  looms,  400  being  power-looms).  The  cotton 
manufacture  ranks  next  (8700  spindles,  185  looms,  of  which  100  are 
power-looms),  while  the  woollen  manufacture  employs  only  350 
spindles  and  161  dooms.  In  the  paper-mills  569  workmen  are 
engaged,  and  the  value  of  the  paper  and  cardboard  produced  was 
£180,880  in  1881.  Irou-foundrics,  copper  and  bell  foundries, 
potteries,  tile-works,  glass-works  and  stained  glass  manufactories, 
currieries,  engine  and  carriage  factories,  wire-gauze  factories,  flour- 
mills,  and  distilleries  are  also  carried  on  ;  and  altogether  about 
256  steam-engines  with  2480  horse-power  aie  employed  in  those 
establishments.  ■  The  commerce  of  the  department  is  facilitated  by 
99  miles  of  navigable  river  (Sarthe  and  Loir),  250  miles  of  national 
roads,  6707  miles  of  other  roads,  and  352  miles  of  railway. 

With  its  438,917  inhabitants  (1881)  Sarthe  has  exactly  tho 
average  density  of  population  in  France,  t'rom  1801  (380,821) 
to  1866  (465,615)  the  number  was  on  the  increase,  but  since  that 
date  there  has  been  a  decline.  The  departmeut  forms  the  diocese 
of  Lo  Mans,  has  its  court  of  appeal  at  Angers,  and  its  university 
authorities  at  Caen,  and  constitutes  part  of  tho  territory  of  the 
fourth  corps  d'armdc  with  its  headquarters  at  Le  Mans.  The  four 
airondissementsaro  named  from  Lo  ilans,  the  chief  town;  LaFleche 
(9424  inhabitants),  famous  for  its  prytanee  militaire  ;  Maraers 
(6070  inhabitants)  ;  and  St  Calais  (3600).  T'hcre  are  33  cantons 
and  387  communes.  Sable  (6000  inhabitants)  contains  a  castle 
built  for  Colbert  by  ilansart ;  and  hard  by  was  the  celebrated 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Solesmes. 

SARTI,  Giuseppe  (1729-i602),  musical  theorist  and 
composer,  was  born  at  Faenza,  Italy,  December  1,  1729, 
educated — according  to  the  best  accounts — by  Padre 
Martini,  and  appointed  organist  of  the  cathedral  of 
Faenza  before  the  completion  of  his  nineteenth  year. 
Resigning  his  appointment  in  1750,  Sarti  devoted  himself 
with  ardour  to  the  study  of  dramatic  music,  and  in 
1751  produced  his  first  opera,  Pompeo,  with  great  success. 
His  next  works,  //  lle-Pastore,  Medoiite,  J)emofoonte,  and 
L'Olimpiade,-  assured  him  so  brilliant  a  reputation  that  . 
in  1753  King  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark  invited  him  to 
Copenhagen,  with  the  appointments  of  hofkapellmeister 
and  director  of  the  opera.  In  1765  he  travelled  to  Italy 
for  the  purpose  of  engaging  some  new  singers ;  and  mean- 
while the  death  of  King  Frederick  put  an  end  for  the  time 
to  his  engagement.'  He  was  recalled  to  Copenhagen  in 
1768,  and  for  some  years  enjoyed  an  extraordinary  amount 
of  court  favour;  but,  though  he  carefully  abstained  from 
politics,  the  disasters  from  which  both  court  and  country  so 
cruelly  suffered  at  this  critical  period  gradually  undermined 
his  position,  and  in  1775  he  was  banished  from  Denmark 
in  disgrace.  During  his  residence  in  Coiienhagen  Sarti 
comiTOsed  a  great  number  of  opera.s,  most  of  which  were 
fairly  successful,  though  few  survived  tho  epoch  of  their 
production.  On  his  return  to  Italy  in  1775  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Ospedaletto — the  most  important 
music  school  in  Venice  ;  this  post,  however,  he  relinquished 
in  1779,  when,  after  severe  competition,  he  was  elected 
maestro  di  cappella  at  the  cathedral  of  Milan.  Here  he 
exercised  his  true  vocation, — composing,  in  addition  to  at 
least  twenty  of  his  most  successful  operas,  a  vast  quantity 
of  sacred  music  for  the  cathedral,  and  educating  a  number 
of  clever  pupils,  the  most  distinguished  of  whom  was 
Cherubini,  who  was  never  weary  of  singing  his  praises  as 
the  most  accomplished  musician  and  first  teacher  of  the  age. 
In  1784  Sarti  was  invited  by  the  empress  Catherine 
II.  to  St  Petersburij.     On  his  way  thither  he  stopped  at 

^  It  was  probably  during  this  temporary  viispcnsion  of  duty  that  be 
made  the  attempt  to  establish  hiiuseli  in  London,  but  failed  to  obtaia 
a  hearing  at  the  Ein.'r's  Theatre. 


S  A  R  — S  A  R 


315 


Vienna,  where  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  received  him  witli 
marked  favour,  and  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Mozart..  MIe  reached  St  Petersburg  in  1785,  and  at  once 
took  the  direction  of  the  opera,  for  which  he  composed 
many  new  pieces,  besides  some  very  striking  sacred  music, 
including  a  Te  Deum  for  the  victory  at  Otchakoff,  in 
■which  he  introduced  the  firing  of  real  cannon.  Ho 
remained  in. Russia  seventeen  .years;  but  by  the  end  of 
that  time  his  health  was  so  broken  by  the  climate  that 
he  solicited  permission  to  return.  The  empress  and  her 
successor  Paul  I.  had  then  been  some  time  dead  ;  but  the 
emperor  Alexander  dismissed  Sarti  with  all  possible  honour, 
and  he  quitted  the  country  in  1802  with  a  liberal  pension 
and  letters  of  nobility  granted  to  him  by  the  empress 
Catherine..  His  most  luccessful  operas  in  Russia  were 
Armida  and  Olega,  for  the  latter  of  which  the  empress 
herself  wrote  the  libretto.  Sarti  did  not  live  to  reach 
Italy,  but  died  at  Berlin,  July  28,  1802. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Chenibiiii  owed  much  of  his  stupen- 
dous learning  to  the  judicious  teaching  of  Sarti,  who  was  an 
accomplislied  mathematician  and  physicist  as  well  as  a  musician, 
and  whose  works,  if  they  lack  the  impress  of  true  genius,  sliow 
extraordinary  talent,  and  arc  marked  throughout  by  faultless  taste, 
combined  with  technical  skill  of  tha  aighest  order. 

SARTO,  Andkea  del  (1487-1531).  This  celebrated 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school  was  bora  in  Gual- 
fonda,  Florence,  in  1487,  or  perhaps  1486,  his  father 
Agnolo  being  a  tailor  (sar(o)  :  hence  the  nickname  by 
which  the  son  is  constantly  designated.  The  family, 
tliough  of  no  distinctioii,  can  be  traced  back  into  the  14th 
century.  Vannucchi  has  constantly  been  given  as  the  sur- 
name,— according  to  some  modern  writers,  without  any 
authority,  but  it  seems  rather  difficult  to  accept  this 
dictum.  There,  were  four  other  children  of  the  marriage. 
In  1494  Andrea  was  put  to  work  under  a  goldsmith. 
This  occupation  he  disliked.  He  took  to  drawing  from 
his  master's  models,  and  was  soon  transferred  to  a  skilful 
woodcarver  and  inferior  painter  named  Gian  Barile,  with 
whom  he  remained  until  1498.  Barile,  though  a  coarse- 
grained man  enough,  would  not  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
advancement  of  his  promising  pupil,  so  he  recommended 
him  to  Piero  di  Cosimo  as  draughtsman  and  colourist. 
Piero  detained  Andrea  for  some  years,  allowing  him  to 
study  from  the  famous  cartoons  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Michelangelo.  -Finally  Andrea  agreed  with  .  his  friend 
Francia  Bigio,  who  was  somewhat  his  senior,  that  they 
would  open  a  joint  shop ;  at  a  date  not  precisely  defined 
tliey  took  a  lodging  together  in  the  Piazza  del  Grano. 
Tiieir  first  work  in  partnership  may  probably  have  been 
the  Baptism  of  Christ,  done  for  the  Florentine  Com- 
pagnia  dello  Scalzo,  a  performance  of  no  great  merit,  the 
beginning  of  a  series,  all  the  extant  items  of  which  are  in 
aionochrome  chiaroscuro.  Soon  afterwards  the  partnership 
A-as  dissolved.  From  1509  ~to  1514  the  brotherhood  of 
;he  SerVi  employed  Andrea,  as  well  as  Francia  Bigio  and 
Andrea  Feltrini,  the  first-named  undertaking  in  the  portico 
oi  the  Annunziata  three  frescos  illustrating  the'life  of  the 
founder  of  the  order,  S.  Filippo  Benizzi.  lie  executed 
chem  in  a  few  months,  being  endowed  by  nature  with 
remarkable  readiness  and  certainty  of  hand,  and  unhesitat- 
ing firmness  in  his  work,  although  in  the  general  mould  of 
his  mind  he  was  timid  and  diffident.  The  subjects  arc 
the  Saint  Sharing  his  Cloak  with  a  Leper,  Cursing  some 
Gamblers,  and  Restoring  a  Girl  possessed  with  a  Devil. 
The  second  and  third  works  excel  the  first,  and  are 
impulsive  and  able  performances.  These  paintings  met 
with  merited  applause,  and  gained  for  their  author  the 
pre-eminent  title  "  Andrea  senza  error! "  (Andrew  the 
unerring), — the  correctness  of  the  contours  being  parti- 
cularly admired.  After  these  subjects  tl:e  painter  pro- 
cfeeded  with  two  others— the  Death  of  St  Philip,  and  the 


Children  Cured  by  Touching  his  Garment, — all  the  five 
works  being  completed  before  the  close  of  1510.  The 
youth  of  twenty-three  was  already  in  technique  about  the 
best  fresco-painter  of  central  Italy,  barely  rivalled  by 
Raphael,  who  was  the  elder  by  four  years.  Michelangelo's 
Sixtine  frescos  were  then  only  in  a  preliminary  stage. 
Andrea  always  worked  in  the  simplest,  most  typical,  and 
most  trying  method  of  fresco — that  of  painting  the  thing 
once  and  for  all,  without  any  subsequent  dry-touching. 
He  now  received  many  commissions.  The  brotherhood  of 
the  Servi  engaged  him  to  do  two  more  frescos  in  the 
Annunziata  at  a  higher  price ;  he  also  painted,  towards 
1512,  an  Annunciation  in  the  monastery  of  S.  Gallo. 

The  "  Tailor's  Andrew  "  appears  to  have  been  an  easy- 
going plebeian,  to  whom  a  modest  position  in  life  and 
scanty  gains  were  no  grievances.  As  an  artist  he  must 
have  known  his  own  value ;  but  he  probably  rested  content 
in  the  sense  of  his  superlative  powers  as  an  executant, 
and  did  not  aspire  to  the  rank  of  a  great  inventor  or 
leader,  for  which,  indeed,  he  had  no  vocation.  Ho  led  a 
social  sort  of  life  among  his  compeers  of  the  art,  was 
intimate  with  the  sculptor  Rustici,  and  joined  a  jolly 
dining-club  at  his  house  named  the  Company  of  the 
Kettle,  also  a  second  club  named  the  Trowel.  At  one 
time,'  Francia  Bigio  being  then  the  chairman  of  the 
Kettle-men,  Andrea  recited,  and  is  by  some  regarded  as 
having  composed,  a  comic  epic,  "The  Battle  of  the  Mice 
and  Frogs" — a  rechauff(5,  as  one  may  surmi.'se,  of  the 
Greek  Batrachomyomacltia,  popularly  ascribed  to  Homer. 
He  fell  in'  love  with  Lucrezia  (del  Fede),  wife  of  a  hatter 
named  Carlo  Rccanati ;  the  hatter  dying  opportunely,  the 
tailor's  son  married  her  on  26th'  December  1512.  She 
was  a  very  handsome  woman,  and  has  come  down  to  us 
treated  with  great  suavity  in  many  a  picture  of  her  foVef- 
husband,  who  constantly  painted  her  as  a  Madonna  and 
otherwise;  and  even  in  painting  other  women  he  made 
them  resemble  Lucrezia  in  general  type.  She  has  been 
much  lass  gently  handled  by  Vasari  and  other  biographers. 
Vasari,  who  v.-as  at  one  time  a  pupil  of  Andrea,  describes 
her  as  faithless,  jealous,  overbearing,  and  vixenish  'with 
the  apprentices.  She  lived  to  a  great  age,  surviving  hei 
second  husband  40  years. 

By  1514  Andrea  bad  finished  his  last  two  frescos  in 
the  court  of  the  Servi,  than  which  none  of 'his  works  was 
more  admired — the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin,  which  shows 
the  influence  of  Leonardo,  Domenico  Ghirlandajo,  and 
Fra  Bartolommeo,  in  effective  fusion,  and  the  Procession 
of  the  Magi,  intended  as  an  amplification  of  a  work  bj 
Baldovinetti ;  in  this  fresco  is  a  portrait  of  Andrea  him- 
self. He  also  executed  at  ''lome  date  a  much-praised  Head 
of  Christ  over  the  high  altar.  By  November  1515  ho  had 
fi'nished  at  the  Scalzo  the  allegory  of  Ju.^iticc,  and  the 
Baptist  Preaching  in  the  Desert, — followed  in  1517  by 
John  Baptizing,  and  other  subjects.  Before  the  end  of 
1516  a  Pictit  of  his  composition,  and ;  afterwards  a 
JIadonna,  were  sent  to  the  French  Court.  These  were 
received  with  applause ;  and  the  art-loving  monarch 
Francis  I.  suggested  in  1518  that  Andrea  sl;oidd  come  to 
Paris.  lie  journeyed  thither  towards  Juno  of  that  year, 
along  with  his  pupil  Andrea  Sguazzella,  leaving  his  wife 
in  Florence,  and  was  very  cordially  .received,  and  for  the 
first  and  only  timo  in  his  life  was  handsomely  remunerated. 
Lucrezia,  however,  wrote  urging  his  retiu-n  to  Italy.  The 
king  assented,  but  oifly  on  tlie  understanding  that  his 
absence  from  Franco  was  to  be  short ;  and  he  entrusted 
Andrea  with  a  sum  of  money  to  bo  expended  in  purchas- 
ing works  of  art  for  his  royal  patron.  The  temptation  of 
having  a  goodly  amount  of  pelf  in  hand  proved  too  much 
for  Andre's  virtue.  Ho  spent  the  king's  money  and 
some  of  hL".  own  in  building  a  house  for  himself  in  Flof- 


ol6 


S  A  S  — S  A  S 


ence.  This  necessarily  brought  him  into  bad  odour  with 
FrancU,  who  refused  to  be  appeased  by  some  endeavours 
which  the  painter  afterwards  made  to  reingratiato  him- 
self. No  serious  punishment,  however,  and  apparently  no 
grave  loss  of  professional  reputation  befell  the  defaulter. 

In  1520  he  resunled  work  in  Florence,  and  executed 
the  Faith  and  Charity  in  the  cloister  of  Lo  Scalzo.  These 
were  succeeded  by  the  Dance  of  the  Daughter  of  Herodias, 
the  Beheading  of  the  Baptist,  the  Presentation  of  his  Head 
to  Herod,  an  allegory  of  Ilope,  the  Apparition  of  the 
Angel  to  Zacharias  (1523),  and  the  monochrome  of  the 
Visitation.  This  last  was  painted  in  the  autumn  of  1524, 
after  -Andrea  had  returned  from  Luco  in  ]\IugeIIo, — to 
which  place  an  outbreak  of  plague  in  Florence  had  driven 
him,  his  wife,  his  step-daughter,  and  other  relatives.  In 
1525  ho  painted  the  very  famous  fresco  named  the 
Madonna  del  Sacco,  a  lunette  in  the  cloisters  of  the  Servi ; 
this  picture  (named  after  a  sack  against  which  Joseph  is 
represented  propped)  is  generally  accounted  his  master- 
piece. His  final  work  at  Lo  Scalzo,  152G,  was  the  Birth 
of  the  Baptist,  executed  with  some  enhanced  elevation  of 
style  after  Andrea  had  been  diligently  studying  Michel- 
angelo's figures  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Lorenzo.  In  the 
following  year  he  completed  at  S.  Salvi,  near  Florence,  a 
celebrated  Last  Supper,  in  which  all  the  personages  seem 
to  be  portraits.  This  also  is  a  very  fine  example  of  his 
style,  though  the  conception  of  the  subject  is  not  exalted. 
It  is  the  last  monumental  w^ork  of  impor  ance  which 
Andrea  del  Sarto  lived  to  execute.  He  dwelt  in-  Florence 
throughout  the  memorable  siege,  which  was  soon  followed 
by  an  infectious  pestilence.  He  caught  the  malady, 
struggled  against  it  with  little  or  no  tending  from  his  \vife, 
who  held  aloof,  and  died,  no  one  knowing  much  about  it  at 
the  moment,  on  22d  January  1531,  at  the  comparatively 
early  age  of  forty-three.  He  was  buried  unceremoniously 
in  the  church  of  the  Servi. 

Various  portraits  painted  by  Andrea  are  regarded  as  likenesses 
of  himself,  but  this  is  not  free  from  some  doubt.  One  is  in  the 
London  National  Gallery,  an  admirable  half-figure,  purchased  in 
1862.-  Another  is  at  Alnwick  Castle,  a  young  man  about  t'.vcnty 
yeafs  of  age,  with  his  elbow  on  a  table.  Another  at  Panslianger  may 
perhaps  represent  in  reality  his  pupil  Doraenico  Conti.  Another 
youthful  portrait  is  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery,  and  the  Pitti  Gallery 
contains  more  than  one.  Among  his  more  renowned  works  not 
already  specified  are  the  following.  The  Virgin  and  Child,  witli 
St  Francis  and  St  John  the  Evangelist  and  two  Angels,  now  in  the 
Uffizi,  painted  for  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  in  Florence  ;  this  is 
termed  the  Madonna  di  S.  Francesco,  or  Madonna  delle  Arpie, 
from  certain  figures  of  harpies  which  are  decorativelj^  introduced, 
and  is  rated  as  Andrea's  masterpiece  in  oil-painting.  The  altar- 
piece  in  the  Uffizi,  painted  for  the  monastery  of  S.  Gallo,  the 
Fathers  Disputing  on  the  Doctrine  of  tho  Trinit)- — Sts  Augustine, 
Dominic,  Francis,  Lawrence,  Sebastian,  and  ilary  Magdalene — 
a  very  energetic  work.  Both  these  pictures  are  comparatively 
early — towards  1517.  The  Charity  now  in  the  Louvre  (perhaps 
the  only  painting  which  Andrea  executed  while  in  France).  The 
Pietii,  in  the  Belvedere  of  Vienna ;  this  work,  as  well  as  the 
Charity,  shows  a  strong  Michclangelesque  influence.  At  Poggio 
a  Caiano  a  celebrated  fresco  (1521)  representing  Julius  Ciesar 
receiving  tribute,  various  figures  bringing  animals  from  foreign 
lands — a  striking  "perspective  arrangement;  it  was  left  unfinished 
by  Andrea,  and  was  completed  by  Alessandro  AUori.  Two  very 
remarkable  paintings  (1523)  containing  various  incidents  of  the 
life  of  the  patriarch  Joseph,  executed  for  tlio  Borgherini  family. 
In  the  Pitti  Gallery  two  separate  compositions  of  the  Assump- 
tion of  the  Virgin,  also  a  fine  T'ici^.  In  the  Madrid  Museum 
tho  Virgin  and  Child,  with  Joseph,  Elizabctli,  the  infant  Baptist, 
and  an  Archangel.     In  the  Louvre  the  Holy  Family,  the  Baptist 

iiointing  upwards.  In  the  Berlin  Galk-iy  a  portrait  of  his  wife, 
n  Panshanger  a  fine  portrait  named  Laura.  The  second  picture 
in  the  National  Gallery  ascribed  to  Andrea,  a  Holy  Family,  is  by 
some  critics  regarded  as  the  work  rather  of  one  of  his  scholars — 
we  hardly  know  why.  A  very  noticeable  incident  in  the  life  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto  relates  to  the  copy,  which  he  produced  in  1523, 
of  the  portiait  group  of  Leo  X.  by  Raphael ;  it  is  now  in  the 
(Naples  Museum,  the  original  being  in  tho  Pitti  Gallery.  Ottaviano 
iO*  -Mediei,  the  owner  of  the  original,  was  solicited  by  Duke 
'rcderick  II.  of  Mar.tua  to  present  it  to  him.  '  Unwilling  to  pait 


with  so  great  a  pictorial  prize,  and  unwilling  also  to  disoblige  tho- 
duke,  Ottaviano  got  Andrea  to  make  tho  copy,  which  was  con- 
signed to  tho  duke,  as  being  tho  original.  So  decci)tivo  was  the 
imitation  that  even  Giulio  Komano,  who  had  himself  manipulated 
tho  original  to  somo  extent,  was  completely  taken  in  ;  and,  on 
showing  the  supposed  Raphael  years  afterwards  to  Vasari,  wlio 
knew  the  facts,  ho  could  only  be  undeceived  when  a  ]u-ivate  marlc 
on  tho  canvas  was  named  to  him  by  Vasari,  and  brought  undef 
his  eye.  It  was  i^Iichclangelo  who  had  introduced  Vasari  in  152-J 
to  Andrea's  studio.  He  is  ^aid  to  have  thought  very  highly  of 
-\ndrca'3  powers,  saying  on  one  occasion  to  Raphael,  "There  ia 
a  little  fellow  in  Florence  who  will  bring  sweat  to  your  brctv 
if  ever  he  is  engaged  in  great  works."  ; 

Andrea  had  true  pictorial  style,  a  very  high  standard  of  correct- 
ness, and  an  enviable  balance  of  executive  endowments.  The  point 
of  technique  'in  which  he  excelled  least  was  perhaps  tiiat  of  dis- 
criminating the  varying  textures  of  different  objects  and  surfaces. 
There  is  not  much  elevation  or  ideality  in  his  works — much  more 
of  reality.  His  chiaroscuro  is  not  carried  out  accoriling  to  strict 
rule,  but  is  adjusted  to  his  liking  for  harmony  of  colour  and  fused 
tone  and  transparence  ;  in  fresco  more  especially  his  predilection 
for  varied  tints  appears  excessive.  It  may  be  broadly  said  that  his 
taste  in  colouring  was  derived  mainly  from  Fra  Bartolommeo,  and 
in  form  from  Michelangelo  ;  and  his  style  partakes  of  the  Venetian 
and  Lombard,  as  well  as  the  Florentine  and  Roman — some  of  his 
figures  are  even  adapted  from  Albert  Diirer.  In  one  way  or  other 
he  continued  improving  to  the  last.  In  drawjng  from  nature,  his 
habit  was  to  sketcli  very  slightly,  making  only  such  a  memorandum 
as  sufiiced  to  work  from.  The  scholars  of  Andrea  were  very 
numerous  ;  but,  according  to  Vasari,  they  were  not  wont  to  stay 
long,  being  domineered  over  by  his  wife  ;  Pontormo  and  Domenico 
Pnligo  may  be  'nentioned. 

In  our  account  of  Andrea  del  S.irto  we  have  followed  the  main  lines  of  the 
naiTdtive  of  Crowe  and  Cavalcasellc.  supplemented  by  Vasari,  Lanzi,  and  others. 
Thci  c  are  biograpliies  by  BLadi  (1820)  and  by  Von  Rcumont.  (W.  M.  11.) 

SASAKIANS.     See  Persi.\. 

SASINE.     See  Seisin. 

SASSARI,  the  chief  town  of  the  northern  province  of 
the  island  of  Sardinia  (Italy),  is  situated  in  the  midst  of 
orange  and  olive  groves  at  a  height  of  650  feet  above 
the  sea,  12i  miles  from  Porto  Torres,  on  the  railway  to 
Chilivani,  a  junction  on  the  main  line  from  Terranova  to 
Cagliari.  Till  about  lSGO-65  it  was  surrounded  by  a  high 
wall  built  in  the  14th  century  and  strengthened  by  twenty- 
six  large  square  towers  from  GO  to  80  feet  high.  The 
castle  dates  from  1327-1331.  Originally  built  in  the 
first  half  of  the  loth  century,  when  the  see  of  Turris 
(Porto  Torres)  was  removed  to  Sassari,  the  cathedral  was 
restored  in  1531  and  received  a  new  facade  in  the  18th 
century.  The  city  besides  contains  a  municipal  palace,  re- 
built since  1820,  an  episcopal  palace  dating  originally  from 
the  13th  century,  and  a  university  (faculties  of  law  and 
medicine,  with  87  students  in  1881-2)  founded  by  Philip 
III.  of  Spain  in  1G17,  as  well  as  barracks,  law  courts, 
hospitals,  and  asylums.  There  is  a  white  marble  fountain 
— Fonte  di  Roselio — on  the  east  side  of  the  town,  sur- 
mounted by  a  statue  of  St  Gavinus,  patron  saint  of  tho 
city,  and  from  this  so.jyce  water  is  still  hawked  about  the 
streets,  though  waterworks  have  recently  been  constructed 
by  the  municipality  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  £60,000. 
Most  of  the  streets  ace  narrow  and  tortuous,  and  vehicles 
are  generally  drawn  by  oxen.  Sassari  is  separated  by  a 
low  and  swampy  stretch  of  country  from  its  port  at  Porto 
Torres — a  village  on  the  site  of  Turris  Libisonis,  Colonia 
Julia,  with  a  basilica  of  the  "llth  century  (S.  Gavino)  and 
the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Fortune  now  called  Palazzo  del 
Re  Earbaro.  The  population  of  the  city  was  22,945  in 
1862,  and  31,596  in  1881. 

Sassari  appears  in  tlie  archives  of  the  monastery  of  San  Pietro  dt 
Silki  in  1118  as  Tathari,  and  the  local  pronunciation  is  still  Tatari. 
In  1294  the  town  was  declared  an  independent  republic,  and  a  very 
liberal  code  of  laws  was  published  in  1316  (edited  by  Don  Pasijualc 
Tola,  Cagliari,  1850).  Sassari  was  sacked  by  the  French  in  1527, 
and  in  1796  the  Sardinian  popular  party  seized  the  city,  expelled 
the  viceroy,  and  dismantled  the  castle  and  "  palaces." 

SASSERAM,  a  subdivision  of  the '  Shahibild  district, 
Bengal,  India,  between  24°  ZY  and  25°  23'  N.  lat.,  and 
between  83°  33'  and  8  1°  30'  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  149J 


S  A  T  —  S  A  T 


317 


square  miles,  and  a  population  in  1881  of  519,207  (males 
253,757,  females  265,450).  This  subdivision  consists-of 
four  thanahs  or  stations,  viz.,  SasserAm,  Khargar,  Dhan- 
gion,  and  Dehree:  The  thanah  of  S.lsserAra  has  an  area 
of  691  square  miles,  and  a  population  (18S1)  of  155,760 
(75,031  males,  80,729  females).  It  contains  the  tomb  of 
the  Afghan  Sher  Shah,  -n-ho  conquered  Humayun,  and 
subsequently  became  emperor  of  Delhi. 

SATALI,  Ao-VLL-i,  or  Ajjdai.iyeh,  one  of  the  principal 
towns  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  giving  the  name 
of  Gulf  of  Adalia  to  the  great  bay  -which  the  ancients 
styled  JIare  Pamphylicum.  Arranged  like  a  Greek  theatre 
round  the  harbour,  it  presents  an  unusually  picturesque 
appearance  against  its  background  of  mountair.s  ;  and  it 
is  enclosed  by  a  triple  wall  of  modern  construction, 
strengthened  by  a  ditch  and  square  towers.  Several  of 
the  mosques. and  churches,  seventeen  in  number,  are  of 
interest,  and  contain  remains  of  Roman  work.  The 
population  was  estimated  by  Spratt  at  13,000,  of  whom 
3000  were  Gi'eeks.  Though  the  physical  changes  produced 
on  this  part  of  the  coast  by  the  tufaceous  deposits  of  the 
rivers  render  the  ancient  descriptions  quite  inapplicable  to 
'.he  present  town,  there  is  little  doubt  that  Satali  not  only 
preserves  the  name  but  occupies  the  site  of  Attaleia,  which 
was  founded  by  Attalus.  II.  Philadelphus,  king  of  Perga- 
mum,  and  became  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  Paniphylia. 
At  an  early  date  it  was  the  see  of  a  Christian  bishop. 

SATAEA,  or  SATTAE.iH,  a  British  district  in  the  central 
division  of  the  Bombay  presidency,  India,  between  16°  50' 
and  18"  10'  N.  lat.  and  73°  45'  and  75°  E!  long.  It  has 
an  area  of  4988  square  mile.s,'and  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  river  Nira  and  the  states  of  Bhor  and  Phaltan, 
on  the  east  by  Sholapur  district,  on  the  south  by  the 
Varna  river  separating  it  from  Kolhapur  and  Sangli 
states,  and  on  the  west  by  the  SahyAdri  mountains,  which 
separate  it  from  the  Concan  districts  of  KoIabA  and 
Ratndgiri.  The  SAtdra  district  contains  two  main  systems 
of  hills,  the  SahyAdri  range  and  its  offshoots,  and  the 
Mahideo  range  and  its  offshoots ;  the  former  runs  through 
the  district  from  north  to  south,  and  the  Mahadeo  range 
starts  about  10  miles  north  of  Mahdbaleshwar  and  stretches 
east  and  south-east  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
district.  The  JIahAdeo  Hills  are  bold  and  abrupt,  present- 
ing in  many  cases  bare  scarps  of  black  rock  and  looking  at 
a  distance  like  so  many  hill  fortresses.  Within  the  .limits 
of  Satdra  are  two  river  systems — the  Bhima  system  in  a 
small  part  of  the  north  and  north-east,  and  the  Kistna 
system  throughout  the  rest  of  the  district.  (Sec  Kistna.) 
The  hill  forests  have  a  large  store  of  timber  and  firewood. 
The  whole  of  Sitdra  falls  within  the  Deccan  trap  area; 
the  Lilis  consist  of  trap  intersected  by  strata  of  basalt 
and  topped  with  laterite,  while,  of  the  different  soils  on 
the  plains,  the  commonest  is  the  black  loamy  clay  con- 
taining carbonate  of  lime.  This  is  a  very  fertile  soil,  and 
when  well  watered  is  capable  of  yielding  hawy  crops. 
Sdtira  district  contains  some  important  irrigation  works, — 
including  the  Kistna  Canal,  open  for  35  miles.  In  some 
of  the  western  parts  of  the  district  the  average  annual 
rainfall  exceeds  200  inches;  but  on  the  eastern  side  water 
is  scanty,  the  rainfall  varying  from  40  inches  in  Sdtdra 
town  to  less  than  12  inches  in  some  places  farther  east. 
There  is  no  railway,  but  the  West  Deccan  Piailway,  which 
is  in  course  of  construction,  will  put  the  district  into  com- 
munication with  Poona  and  Belgaum,  and  will  run  through 
Sitdra  for  about  100  miles.  The  tiger,  panther,  bear, 
and  sambhar  deer  are  found  in  the  west  near  the  Sahyddris, 
and  the  bycena,  wolf,  leopard,  and  smaller  game  in  the  cast. 

According  to  tho  last  census  returns  (I8S1)  the  poimlatioii  of 
Htdra  district  was  1,002,350  (532,525  male-  and  529,825  females). 
Hindus  numbered  1,003,018,  Mohammedans  30,712,  and  Christiana 


886.  Four  towns  had  more  than  10,000  inhabitants, — Sitara  (seo 
below),  Wai  11,676,  Karad  10,778,  Tasgaon  10,206.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  Hindus  consist  of  Kunbis  and  Mahrattas,  who  durin" 
the  period  of  llaliratta  ascendency  f uniishe J  the  bulk  of  the 
armies  ;  and  the  Jlavlds,  who  formed  Shivaji's  best  soldiers,  were 
di-a^-u  fiom  the  hill  tribes  of  Satara  district.  Agiiculture  supporta 
more  than  three-fourths  of  the  peojile  ;  the  soil  is  fertile,  and 
joar  forms  the  staple  food  ;  rice  is  grown  in  the  western  valleys, 
and  in  the  south  and  east  cotton  is  raised.  In  lSS2-S"o,  of 
l,3Si,2D5  acres  held  for  tillage,  270,24-J  were  fallow  or  under  grass, 
while  of  the  remaining  1,114,011  acres  39,757  were  twice  cropped; 
cereals,  consisting  chiefiy  of  joar  and  bajra,  occupied  898,206  acres, 
pulses  159,211  acres,  oil-seeds  42,001  acres,  and  miscellaneoua 
crops  the  remainder.  Besides  blankets  and  coarse  cotton  cloth  the 
chief  exports  are  grain,  tobacco,  oil-seeds,  chillies,  molasses,  and  a 
little  raw  cotton  ;  the  imports  are  piece-goods,  hardware,  salt,  and 
dates.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  amounted  to 
£268,779,  of  which  the  land  contributed  £228,749. 

On  the  overthrow  of  the  Jadhav  dynasty  in  1312  the  district 
passed  to  the  Mohammedan  power,  which  was  consolidated  in  the 
reign  of  the  Bahmani  kings.  On  the  fall  of  the  Bahmanis  towards 
the  end  of  the  loch  century  each  chief  set  up  for  h\mself  until  tho 
Bijapur  kings  finally  asserted.themselves,  and  under  these  kings 
the  Mahrattas  arose,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  an  independent 
kingdom  with  Sdtara  as  its  capital.  Intrigues  and  lUssensions  in 
the  palace  led  to  tho  ascendency  of  tho  pesliwas,  who  removed  tho 
capital  to  Poona  in  1749,  and  degraded  the  raja  of  Satara  into  the 
position  of  a  political  prisoner.  The  war  of  1817  closed  the 
career  of  the  peshwas,  and  the  British  tlien  restored  the  titular 
raja,  and  assigned  to  him  tho  principality  of  Sitara.  In  conse- 
quence of  political  intrigues,  he  was  deposed  in  1S39,  and  his 
brother  was  placed  6u  the_  throne.  This  prince  dying  without 
■male  heirs,  the  state  was  resumed  by  the  Britisli  Government. 

SATARA,  chief  town  and  headquarters  of  the  above 
district,  is  situated  in  17°  41'  25'  N.  lat.  and  74°  2'  10" 
E.  long.,  immediately  below  a  remarkably  strong  hiU  fort 
on  the  summit  of  a  small,  steep,  rocky  hill.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  seventeen  walls,  towers,  and  gates  which 
the  Sdtara  fort  was  supposed  to. possess.  With  a  height 
of  2320  feet  above  sea-level,  Satdra  is  about  60  miles 
from  the  coast,  and  69  miles  south  of  Poona.  Since  the 
death  of  the  last  raja  in  1848  the  population  has  con- 
siderably decreased;  still  Sdtdra  contained  in  1881  some 
28,601  inhabitants  (14,558  males  and  14,043  females). 

SATIN-WOOD,  a  beautiful  light-coloured  hard  wood 
having  a  rich  silky  lustre,  sometimes  finely  mottled  or 
grained,  the  produce  of  a  large  tree,  Chtoroxylon  Sidetenia, 
native  of  India  and  Ceylon.  A  similar  wood,  known  tmder 
the  same  name,  is  obtained  in  the  West  Indies,  the,  tree 
yielding  which  is  said  to  be  Mala  guianensis.  Satin- 
wood  was  in  request  for  rich  furniture  about  the  end  of 
the  18th  century,  the  fashion  then  being  to  ornament  panels 
of  it  with  painted  medallions  and  floral  scrolls  and  borders. 
Now  it  is  used  for  inlaying  and  small  vcneer.s,  and  most 
largely  in  covering  the  backs  of  hair  and  clothes-brushes 
and  in  making  small  articles  of  turnery. 

SATIRE.  Satire,  in  its  literary  aspect,  may  be  defined 
as  the  expression  in  adequate  terms  of  the  sense  of  amuse- 
ment or  disgust  excited  by  the  ridiculous  or  unseemly. 
provided  that  humour  is  a  distinctly  recognizable  elemcnt> 
and  that  the  utterance  is  invested  with  literary  form.  With- 
out humour,  satire  is  invective  ;  without  literary  form,  it  is 
mere  clownish  jeering.  It  is  indeed  exceedingly  difiicult  to 
define  the  limits  between  satire  and  the  regions  of  literary 
sentiment  into  which  it  shades.  Tho  lofty  ethical  feeling 
of  a  Johnson  or  a  Carlyle  borders  it  on  the  one  hand,  the 
witty  sarcasm  of  a  Talleyrand,  rancorous  or  good-natured, 
on  the  other ;  but,  however  exalted  the  satirist's  aims,  or 
amiable  his  temjier,  a  basis  of  contempt  or  dislike  is  the 
groundwork  of  his  art.  This  feeling  may  be  diverted  from 
the  failings  of  man  individual  to  the  feebleness  and  imper- 
fection of  man  universal,  and  tho  composition  may  still  bo  a 
satire ;  but  if  the  element  of  scorn  or  sarcasm  were  entirely 
eliminated  it  would  become  a  sermon.  That  this  expression 
of  aversion  is  of  the  essence  of  satire  appears  from  tho  fact 
that  the  literary  power  which,  the  more  it  is  exerted  upon 


318 


S  A'T  IRE 


^rave  ana  elevated  subjects,  removes  them  further  and 
'urther  from  the  domain  of  satire  can  confer  satii'ic  dig- 
aity  upon  the  most  scurrilous  lampoon.  The  distinction 
between  the  intellectual  form  and  the  raw  material  of 
satire  is  admirably  illustrated  by  a  passage  in  an  accom- 
plished novelist.  The  clever  young  lady  happening  to 
compare  a  keen  and  bright  person  to  a  pair  of  scissors,  her 
unrefined  companion  is  for  the  moment  unable  to  under- 
stand how  a  human  being  can  resemble  a  piece  of  cutlery  ; 
hut  suddenly  a  light  breaks  in  upon  her,  and,  taking  up  a 
hroken  pair  of  scissors  from  the  table,  she  imitates  the 
halting  gait  of  a  lame  lady,  declaring  that  Mrs  Brown 
resembles  that  particular  pair  of  scissors  to  the  life.  The 
first  iiiterlocutor  could  have  been  satirical  if  she  would; 
the  second  would  if  she  could.  The  nice  and  delicate  per- 
ception of  the  former  type  of  character  may  be  fairly  driven 
into  satire  by  the  vulgarity  and  obtuseness  of  the  second, 
as  in  the  case  of  Miss  Austen ;  and  it  may  be  added  that 
the  general  development  of  civilization,  repressing  high- 
handed wrongs  against  which  ridicule  is  no  defence,  and 
encouraging  failings  which  can  be  effectually  attacked  in 
no  other  manner,  continually  tends  to  make  satire  more 
congenial  to  the  amiable  and  refined,  and  thus  exalt  its 
moral  tone  and  purpose. 

The  first  exercise  of  satire  was  no  doubt  sufficiently 
coarse  and  boisterous.  It  must  have  consisted  in  gibing 
at  personal  defects ;  and  Homer's  description  of  Thersites, 
the  earliest  example  of  literary  satire  that  has  come  down 
to  us,  probably  conveys  an  accurate  delineation  of  the 
first  satirists,  the  carpers  and  fault-finders  of  the  clan. 
The  character  reappears  in  the  heroic  romances  of  Ireland, 
and  elsewhere ;  and  it  is  everywhere  implied  that  the 
licensed  backbiter  is  a  warped  and  distorted  being,  readier 
with  his  tongue  than  his  hands.  The  verdict  of  unso- 
phisticated man  on  satire  is  clearly  that  it  is  the  offspring 
of  ill-nature ;  to  redeem  and  dignify  it  by  rendering  it  the 
instrument  of  morality  or  the  associate  of  poetry  was  a 
development  implying  considerable  advance  in  the  literary 
art.  The  latter  is  the  course  adopted  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, where  the  few  passages  approximating  to  satire, 
such  as  Jotham's  parable  of  the  bramble  and  Job's  ironical 
address  to  his  friends,  are  erhbellishcd  either  by  fancy  or 
by  feeling.  An  intermediate  stage  between  personal  ridi- 
cule and  the  correction  of  faults  and  follies  seems  to  have 
been  represented  in  Greece  by  the  Margites,  attributed  to 
Homer,  which,  while  professedly  lampooning  an  individual, 
practically  rebuked  the  meddling  sciolism  impersonated  in 
hira.  In  the  accounts  that  have  come  down  to  us  of  the 
writings  of  Archilochus,  the  first  great  master  of  satire 
(^about  700  B.C.),  we  seem  to  trace  the  elevation  of 
the  instrument  of  private  animosity  to  an  element  in 
public  life.  Though  a  merciless  assailant  of  individuals, 
Archilochus  was  also  a  distinguished  statesman,  naturally 
for  the  most  part  in  opposition,  and  his  writings  seem  to 
have  fulfilled  many  of  the  functions  of  a  newspaper  press. 
Their  extraordinary  merit  is  attested  by  the  infallible 
judgment  of  Quintilian  eight  hundred  years  after  their  com- 
position ;  and  Gorgias's  comparison  of  them  with  Plato's 
persiflage  of  the  Sophists  proves  that  their  virulence  must 
have  been  tempered  by  grace  and  refinement.  Archilochus 
also  gave  satiric  poetry  its  accepted  form  by  the  invention 
of  the  iambic  trimeter,  slightly  modified  into  the  scazonic 
metre  by  his  successors.  3!monides  of  Amorgus,  about  a 
generation  later,  and  Hipponax,  a  century  later  still,  were 
distinguished  like  Archilochus  for  the  bitterness  of  their 
attacks  on  individuals,  with  which  the  former  combined  a 
strong  ethical  feeling,  and  the  latter  a  bright  active  fancy. 
All  three  were  restless  and  turbulent,  aspiring  and  discon- 
tented, impatient  of  abuses  and  theoretically  enamoured 
ot   liberty;   and  the  loss  of  their  writings,  which  would 


have  thrown  great  light  on  the  politics  as  well  as  the 
manners  of  Greece,  is  exceedingly  to  be  lamented.  With 
Hipponax  the  direct  line  of  Greek  satire  is  interrupted ; 
but  two  new  forms  of  literary  composition,  exceedingly 
capable  of  being  rendered  the  vehicles  of  satire,  almost 
simultaneously  make  their  appearance.  Fable  is  first 
heard  of  in  Asiatic  Greece  about  this  date ;  and,  although 
its  original  intention  does  not  seem  to  have  been  satirical, 
its  adaptability  to  satiric  purposes  was  soon  discovered 
and  turned  to  account.  A  far  more  important  step  was 
the  elevation  of  the  rude  fun  of  rustic  merrymakings  tc  a 
literary  status  by  the  evolution  of  the  drama  from  the 
Bacchic  festival.  The  meanS\'iRd  now  been  found  of  ally- 
ing the  satiric  spirit  with  exalted  poetry,  and  their  union 
was  consummated  in  the  person  of  a  poet  who  combined 
humour  with  imagination  in  a  degree  never  again  to  be 
rivalled  until  Shakespeare.  Every  variety  of  satire  is 
exemplified  in  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes;  and  if  he 
does  not  rank  as  the  first  of  satirists  it  is  only  because  he 
is  so  much  beside.  Such  affluence  of  poetical  genius  could 
not  be  perpetual,  any  more  than  the  peculiar  political  and 
social  conditions  which  for  a  time  made  such  fearless  and 
uncontrolled  satire  possible.  Through  the  half-way  house 
of  mythological  parody  the  comedy  of  public  life  passes 
into  the  comedy  of  manner.s,  metiical  still,  but  approxi- 
mating more  closely  to  prose,  and  consequently  to  satire 
on  its  own  side  of  the  line  which  it  is  convenient  if  not 
strictly  logical  to  trace  between  dramatists  and  ordinary 
satiric  writers.  The  step  from  Menander  to  Lucilius  is 
not  a  long  one,  but  it  was  not  destined  to  be  taken  by  a 
Greek. 

A  rude  form  of  satire  had  existed  in  Italy  from  an  early 
date  in  the  shape  of  the  Fescennine  verses,  the  rough  and 
licentious  pleasantry  of  the  vintage  and  harvest,  which, 
lasting  do'ivn  to  the  16th  century,  inspired  Tansillo's 
Vendemmiatore.  As  in  Greece,  these  eventually,  about  364 
B.C.,  were  developed  into  a  rude  drama,  originally  intro- 
duced as  a  religious  expiation.  This  was  at  first,  Livy 
tells  us  (vii.  2),  merely  pantomimic,  as  the  dialect  of  the 
Tuscan  actors  imported  for  the  occasion  was  not  under- 
stood at  Rome.  Verse,  "  like  to  the  Fescennine  verses  in 
point  of  style  and  manner,"  was  soon  added  to  accompany 
the  mimetic  action,  and,  with  reference  to  the  variety  of 
metres  employed,  these  probably  improvised  compositions 
were  entitled  Saturn,  a  term  denoting  miscellany,  and 
derived  from  the  satura  lanx,  "  a  charger  filled  with  the 
first-fruits  of  the  year's  produce,  anciently  offered  to 
Bacchus  and  Ceres."  The  Romans  thus  had  originated 
the  name  of  satire,  and,  in  so  far  as  the  Fescennine  drama 
consisted  of  raillery  and  ridicule,  possessed  the  thing  also; 
but  it  had  not  yet  assumed  a  literary  form  among  them. 
Livius  Andronicus  (240  B.C.),  the  first  regular  Latin  dra- 
matic poet,  appears  to  have  been  little  more  than  a  trans- 
lator from  the  Greek.  Satires  are  mentioned  among  the 
literary  productions  of  Ennius  (200  B.C.)  and  Pacavius  (170 
B.C.),  but  the  title  rather  refers  to  the  variety  of  metres 
employed  than  to  the  genius  of  the  composition.  The  real 
inventor  of  Roman  satire  is  Caius  Lucilius  (148-103  B.C.), 
whose  Satira;  seem  to  have  been  mostly  satirical  in  the 
modern  acceptation  of  the  term,  while  the  subjects  of  some 
of  them  prove  that  the  title  continued  to  be  applied  to 
miscellaneous  collections  of  poems,  as  was  the  case  even 
to  the  time  of  Varro,  whose  "  Saturoe  "  included  prose  as 
well  as  verse,  and  appear  te  have  been  only  partially 
satirical.  The  fragments  of  Lucilius  preserved  are  un- 
fortunately very  scanty,  but  the  verdict  of  Horace,  Cicero, 
and  Quintilian  demonstrates  that  he  was  a  very  consider- 
able poet.  It  is  needless  to  dwell  on  compositions  so 
universally  known  as  the  Satira  of  Lucilius's  successor 
Horace,  in  whose  hands  this  clasvof  composition  received 


!S  A  T  I  R  E 


319 


■in  entirely  new  development,  becoming  genial,  plaj^ul, 
and  persuasive.  "Arch  Horace  strove  to  merid."  The 
didactic  element  preponderates  still  more  in  the  philo- 
sophical satires  of  Persius,  the  propagandist  of  Stoicism, 
a  -writer  whose  intensity,  dramatic  gift,  obscurity,  and 
abruptness  render  him,  like  the  Browning  and  Meredith 
of  our  own  days,  the  luxury  of  the  few  and  the  despair  of 
the  many.  Yet  another  form  of  satire,  the  rhetorical,  was 
carried  to  the  utmost  limits  of  excellence  by  Juvenal,  the 
first  e.xample  of  a  great  tragic  satirist.  Nearly  at  the 
same  time  Martial,  improving  on  earlier  Roman  models 
now  lost,  gave  that  satirical  turn  to  the  epigram  which  it 
only  exceptionally  possessed  in  Greece,  but  has  ever  since 
retained.  The  brevity,  pregnancy,  and  polish  of  the 
Latin  tongue  were  never  more  felicitously  exemplified 
than  by  this  gifted  \\Titer.  About  the  same  time  another 
variety  of  satire  came  into  vogue,  destined  to  become  the 
most  important  of  any.  The  Milesian  tale,  a  form  of 
tlitertainment  probably  of  Eastern  origin,  grew  in  the 
hands  of  Petronius  and  Apuleius  into  the  satirical 
romance,  immensely  widening  the  satirist's  field  and 
exempting  him  from  the  restraints  of  metre.  Petronius's 
"Supper  of  Ti'imalchio"  is  the  revelation  of  a  new  vein, 
never  fully  worked  till  our  days.  As  the  novel  arose  upon 
the  ruins  of  the  epic,  so  dialogue  sprung  up  upon  the  wreck 
of  comedy.  In  Lucian  comedy  appears  adapted  to  suit  the 
exigencies  of  an  age  in  which  a  living  drama  had  become 
impossible.  Lucian's  position  as  a  satirist  is  something 
new,  and  could  not,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  have  been 
cccupied  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  For  the  first  time 
since  the  origin  of  civilization  society  felt  apprehensive  of 
impending  dissolution,  and  its  fears  found  an  interpreter 
in  the  Sophist  of  Samosata,  "the  Voltaire  of  paganism," 
an  universal  censor  and  mocker,  devoid  of  the  Christian's 
hope  of  general  renovation,  and  unable  to  foresee  the  new 
social  order  which  the  barbarian  conquest  was  destined  to 
create.  Next  to  his  wit,  Lucian's  special  note  is  his  sturdy 
lovo  of  truth  and  demand  for  genuineness  in  all  things. 
With  him  antique  satire  expires  as  a  distinct  branch  of 
literature, — though  mention  should  be  made  of  the  sar- 
casms and  libels  with  which  the  population  of  Egypt  were 
for  centuries  accustomed  to  insult  the  Roman  con4ueror 
and  his  parasites.  An  exceedingly  curious  specimen,  a 
denunciation  of  the  a|)Ostate  poet  Hor-Uta — a  kind  of 
Egyptian  "  Lost  Leader  " — composed  under  Augustus,  has 
recently  been  publi-shed  by  M.  Revillout  from  a  demotic 
papyrus. 

It  is  highly  interesting  to  remark  how,  after  the  great 
deluge  of  barbarism  has  begun  to  retire,  one  form  of 
satire  after  another  peeps  forth  from  the  receding  flood, 
'the  order  of  development  being  determined  by  the  circum- 
stances of  time  and  place.  In  the  Byzantine  empire, 
indeed,  the  link  of  continuity  is  unbroken,  and  such 
raillery  of  abuses  as  is  possible  under  a  despotism  finds 
vent  in  the  pale  copies  of  Lucian  published  in  Ellissen's 
Anahkten.  The  first  really  inq)ortant  satire,  however, 
is  a  product  of  Western  Europe,  recurring  to  the  primitive 
form  of  fable,  upon  which,  nevertheless,  it  constitutes  a 
decided  advance.  Reynard  the  Fox,  a  genuine  expression 
of  the  shrewd  and  homely  Teutonic  mind,  is  a  landmark 
in  literature.  It  gave  the  beast-epic  a  development  of 
which  the  ancients  had  not  dreamed,  and  showed  how 
cutting  ridicule  could  be  conveyed'in  a  form  difficult  to 
resent.  About  the  same  time,  probably,  the  popular 
instinct,  perhaps  deriving  a  hint  from  Rabbinical  litera- 
ture, fashioned  >[orolf,  the  prototype  of  Sanclio  Panza,  the 
incarnation  of  sublunar  mother-wit  contrasted  with  the 
starry  wisdom  of  Solomon ;  and  the  Till  Eulensjiiegel  is  a 
kindred  Teutonic  creation,  but  later  and' less  significant. 
riers  riour/hman,  the  next  great  work  of  the  class,  adapts 


the  apocalyptic  machinery  of  monastic  and  anchoritic  vision 
to  the  purposes  of  satire,  as  it  had  often  before  been  adapted 
to  those  of  ecclesiastical  aggrandizement.  The  clergy  were 
scourged  with  their  own  rod  by  a  poet  and  a  Puritan 
too  earnest  to  be  urbane.  Satire  is  a  distinct  element  in 
Chaucer  and  Boccaccio,  who  nevertheless  cannot  be  ranked 
as  satirists.  The  mock-heroic  is  Eacces-sfully  revived  by 
Pulci,  and  the  political  songs  of  the  14th  and  loth  cen- 
turies attest  the  diffusion  of  a  sense  of  humour  among  the 
people  at  large.  The  Renaissance,  restoring  the  knowledge 
and  encouraging  the  imitation  of  classic  models,  sharpened 
the  weapons  and  enlarged  the  armoury  of  the  satirist. 
Partly,  perhaps,  because  Erasmus  was  no  poet,  the 
Lucianio  dialogue  was  the  form  in  the  ascendant  of  his 
age.  Erasmus  not  merely  employed  it  against  supersti- 
tion and  ignorance  with  infinite  and  irresistible  pleasantry, 
but  fired  by  his  example  a  bolder  writer,  untrammelled 
by  the  dignity  of  an  arbiter  in  the  republic  of  letters. 
The  ridicule  of  Ulric  von  Hutten's  Epistolai  Ohscurorum 
Virorum  is  annihilating,  and  the  art  there  for  the  first 
time  fully  exemplified  though  long  previously  introduced 
by  Plato,  of  putting  the  ridicule  into  the  mouth  of  the 
victim,  is  perhaps  the  most  deadly  shaft  in  the  quiver  of 
sarcasm.  It  was  afterwards  used  with  even  more  pointed 
wit  though  with  less  exuberance  of  humour  by  Pa.scal,  the 
first  modern  example,  if  Dante  may  not  be  so  classed,  . 
great  tragic  satirist.  Ethical  satire  is  vigorously  represented 
by  Sebastian  Brant  and  his  imitator  Alexander  Barclay ; 
but  in  general  the  metrical  satirists  of  the  age  seem  tame  is' 
comparison  with  Erasmus  and  Hutten,  though  including  the 
great  name  of  Machiavelli.  Sir  Thomas  More  cannot  L^ 
accounted  a  satirist,  but  his  idea  of  an  imaginary  common- 
wealth embodied  the  germ  of  much  subsequent  satire.  In 
the  succeeding  period  politics  take  the  place  of  literature 
and  religion,  producing  in  France  the  Salt/re  Meiiippie, 
elsewhere  the  satirical  romance  as  represented  by  the 
Argents  of  Barclay,  which  may  be  defined  as  the  adaptation 
of  the  style  of  Petronius  to  state  affairs.  In  Spain,  Avhere 
no  freedom  of  criticism  existed,  the  satiric  spirit  took 
refuge  in  the  novela  piearesca,  the  prototype  of  Le  Sag(i| 
and  the  ancestor  of  Fielding;  Quevedo  revived  the  medi- 
aeval device  of  the  vision  as  the  vehicle  of  reproof ;  and 
Cervantes's  immortal  work  might  be  classed  as  a  satire 
were  it  not  so  much  more.  About  the  same  time  we 
notice  the  appearance  of  direct  imitation  of  the  Roman 
satirists  in  English  literature  in  the  writings  of  Donnt,' 
Hall,  and  Marston,  the  further  elaboration  of  the  mock- 
heroic  by  Tassoni,  and  the  culmination  of  classical  Italian 
satire  in  Salvator  Rosa.  The  prodigious  development  of 
the  drama  at  this  time  absorbed  much  talent  that  would 
otherwise  have  been  devoted  to  satire  proper.  Most  of 
the  great  dramatists  of  the  17th  century  were  more  or 
less  satirist.s,  Moliere  perhaps  tlio  most  consummate  that 
ever  existed;  but,  with  an  occasional  exception  like 
Les  Prceieuses  Ridicules,  the  range  of  their  works  is  too 
wide  to  admit  of  their  being  regarded  as  satires.  The 
next  great  example  of  unadulterated  satire  is  Butler's 
Hxidilrras,  and  perhaps  one  more  truly  representative  of 
satiric  aims  and  methods  cannot  easily  be  found.  At  tho 
same  period  dignified  political  satire,  bordering  on  invec- 
tive, received  a  great  development  in  Andrew  Marvell's 
Advices  to  a  Painter,  and  was  shortly  afterwards  carried 
to  perfection  in  Dryden's  Absalom  and  Aehitophel ;  whilo 
tlio  light  literary  parody  of  which  Aristoplianes  had  given 
the  pattern  in  his  assaults  on  Euripides,  and  which 
Shakespeare  had  handled  somewhat  carelessly  in  tte 
Midsummer  Niyht's  Dream,  was  effectively  revived  in  tho 
duke  of  Buckingham's  Rehearsal.  In  Franco  Boiioau  was 
long  held  to  have  attained  the  ne  plus  ■ultra  oi  the  Iloralian 
style  in  satire  and  of  the  mock-heroic,  but  Pope  was  soon 


320 


S  A  T  —  B  A  T 


to  snow  tn&t  further  progress  was  possible  in  both.  The 
polish,  point,  and  concentration  of  Pope  remain  unsur- 
passed, as  do  the  amenity  of  Addison  and  the  daring  yet 
severely  logioil  imagination  of  Swift ;  while  the  History 
of  John  Bull  and  the  rse^ulologia  place  their  friend  Arbuth- 
not  in  the  first  rank  of  political  satirists.  The  ISth  century 
was,  indeed,  the  age  of  satire.  Serious  poetry  had  for  the 
time  wo.rn  itself  out ;  the  most  original  geniuses  of  the  age, 
Swift,  Defoe,  and  Richardson,  are  decidedly  prosaic,  and 
Pope,  though  a  true  poet,  is  less  of  a  poet  than  Dryden. 
In  process  of  time  imaginative  power  revives  in  Goldsmith 
and  Rousseau  ;  meanwhile  Fielding  and  Smollett  have  fitted 
the  novel  to  he  the  vehicle  of  satire  and  much  beside,  and 
the  literary  siage  has  for  a  time  been  almost  wholly  en- 
grossed by  a  colossal  satirist,  a  man  who  has  dared  the 
universal  appLcation  of  Shaftesbury's  maxim  that  ridicule 
is  the  test  of  trutli.  The  world  had  never  before  seen  a 
satirist  on  the  scale  of  Voltaire,  nor  had  satire  ever  played 
such  a  part  as  a  factor  in  impending  change.  The  parallel 
with  Lucian  is  in  some  respects  very  close.  Toleration  was 
Voltaire's  idol,  as  truth  was  Lucian's ;  and  thus,  aiming 
more  than  his  predecessor  at  the  practical  reformation  of 
manners  and  institutions,  his  work  was  less  purely  negative. 
He  was  nevertheless  a  destroyer,  and  as  utterly  out  of 
sympathy  with  the  positive  spirit  of  science  for  which  he 
was  preparing  the  way  as  Lucian  could  possibly  be  with 
Goths  or  Chris;,ians.  As  a  master  of  sarcastic  mockery  he 
is  unsurpassed ;  bis  manner  is  entirely  his  own ;  and  he  is 
one  of  the  most  intensely  national  of  writers,  notwith- 
standing his  va"t  obligations  to  English  humorists,  states- 
men, and  philosophers.  English  humour  also  played  an 
important  part  in  the  literary  regeneration  of  Germany, 
where,  after  Liscow  and  Rabener,  direct  imitators  of  Swift 
and  the  essayists,  Lessing,  imbued  with  Pope  but  not 
mastered  by  him,  showed  how  powerful  an  auxiliary  satire 
can  be  to  criticism, — a  relation  which  Pope  had  somewhat 
inverted.  Another  great  German  writer,  Wieland,  owes 
little  to  the  English,  but  adapts  Lucian  and  Petronius  to 
the  18th  century  with  playful  if  somewhat  mannered  grace. 
Kortum's  Jobsiad,  a  most  humorous  poem,  innovates  suc- 
cessfully upon  established  models  Iby  making  low  life, 
instead  of  chivalry,  the  subject  of  burlesque.  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  Scott  and  Wordsworth,  are  now  at  hand,  and  as 
imagination  gains  ground  satire  declines.  Byron,  who 
in  the  18th  century  would  have  been  the  greatest  of 
satirists,  is  hurried  by  the  spirit  of  his  age  into  passion 
and  description,  bequeathing,  however,  a  splendid  proof 
of  the  possibility  of  allying  satire  with  sublimity  in  his 
Vision  of  Jtidr/merit.  Moore  gives  the  epigram  a  lyrical 
turn ;  B^ranger,  not  for  the  firsi  time  in  French  literature, 
makes  the  gay  chanson  the  instrument  of  biting  jest;  and 
the  classic  type  receives  fresh  currency  from  Auguste 
Barbier.  Courier,  and  subsequently  Cormenin,  raise  the 
political  pamphlet  to  literary  dignity  by  their  poignant 
^vit.  Peacock  evolves  a  new  type  of  novel  from  the  study 
of  Athenian  comedy.  Miss  Edgeworth  skirts  the  confines 
of  satire,  and  Miss  Austen,  the  most  refined  and  delicate 
of  all  observers  of  manners,  seasons  her  novels  with  the 
most  exquisite  satiric  traits.  Washington  Irving  revives 
tiie  manner  of  The  Spectator,  and  Tieck  brings  irony  and 
persiflage  to  the  discussion  of  critical  problems.  Two  great 
satiric  figures  remain, — one  representative  of  his  nation, 
the  other  most  difficult  to  class.  In  all  the  characteristics 
of  his  genius  Thackeray  is  thoroughly  English,  and  the 
faults  and  follies  he  chastises  are  those  especially  charac- 
teristic of  British  society.  Good  sense  and  the  perception 
of  the  ridiculous  are  amalgamated  in  him ;  his  satire  is  a 
thoroughly  British  ?.rricle,  a  little  over-solid,  a  little  wanting 
in  finish,  but  hone.=t,  weighty,  and  durable.  Posterity  will 
^o  *n  Mm  for  the  humours  oi  the  age  of  Victoria,  as  they 


go  to  Addison  for  those  of  Anne's.  But  Heine  hardly 
belongs  to  any  nation  or  country,  time  or  place.  ■  He  ceased 
to  be  a  German  without  becoming  a  Frenchman,  and  a  Jew 
without  becoming  a  Christian.  Only  one  portrait  really 
suits  him,  that  in  Tieck's  allegorical  tale,  where  he  is  repre- 
sented ^s  a  capricious  and  mischievous  elf;  but  his  song 
is  sweater  and  his  command  over  the  springs  of  laughter 
and  tears  greater  than  it  suited  Tieck's  purpose  to  acknow- 
ledge. In  him  the  satiric  spirit,  long  confined  to  established 
literary  forms,  seems  to  obtain  unrestrained  freedom  to 
wander  '■whero  ft  will,  nor  have  the  ancient  models  been 
followed  since  by  any  considerable  satirist  except  the 
Italian  Giusti.  The  machinery  employed  by  Moore  was 
indeed  transplanted  to  America  by  Russell  Lowell,  whose 
Biglov)  Papers  represent  perhaps  the  highest  moral  level 
yet  attained  by  satire.  In  no  age  has  the  spirit  of  satire 
been  so  generally  diffused  as  in  the  19th  century,  but  many, 
of  its  eminent  writers,  while  bordering  on  the  domains  of 
satire,  escape  the  definition  of  satirist.  Th?  term  cannot 
be  properly  applied  to  Dickens,  the  keen  observer  of  the 
oddities  of  human  life ;  or  to  George  Eliot,  the  critic  of 
its  emptiness  when  not  inspired  by  a  worthy  purpose  ;  or 
to  Balzac,  the  painter  of  French  society ;  or  to  Trollope, 
the  mirror  of  the  middle  classes  of  England.  If  Sartor 
Mesarttis  could  be  regarded  as  a  satire,  Carlyle  would  rank 
among  the  first  of  satirists ;  but  the  satire,  though  very 
obvious,  rather  accompanies  than  inspires  the  composition. 
The  number  of  minor  satirists  of  merit,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  legion,  and  but  few  can  be  mentioned  here.  Poole,  in 
his  broadly  farcical  Little  Pedlington,  has  rung  the  changes 
with  inexhaustible  ingenuity  on  a  single  fruitful  idea ; 
Jerrold's  comedies  sparkle  with  epigrams,  and  his  tales  and 
sketches  overflow  with  quaint  humour  :  Mallock  has  made 
the  most  of  personal  mimicry,  the  lowest  form  of  satire ; 
Samuel  Butler  holds  an  inverting  mirror  to  the  world's  face 
with  imperturbable  gra\'ity;  Courthope  reproduces.the  airy 
grace  and  sonorous  melody  of  the  Attic  comedy ;  and  the 
anonymous  writer  of  the.  "  Barnum  "  Chiistmas  number  of 
Truth  has  resuscitated  with  equal  effect  its  reckless  fun 
and  personality.  One  remarkable  feature  of  the  age  is 
the  union  of  caricature  with  literature  to  a  degree  incon- 
ceivable before  the  improvements  in  wood-engraving.  All 
large  capitals  now  have  their  comic  illustrated  journals, 
destined  for  the.most  part  to  be  the  marvels  and  stumbling- 
blocks  of  posterity.  Punch,  however,  has  become  almost 
a  national  institution,  and  has  fostered  the  genius  of  two 
pictorial  satirists  of  the  first  rank.  Leech  and  Tenniel. 
The  presfint  tendencies  of  the  civilized  world  seem  highly 
favourable  to  the  influence  of  satire  as  a  factor  in  human 
affairs,  but  unfavourable  to  the  production  of  satiric 
masterpieces.  Satire  is  the  inevitable  concomitant  of  free- 
dom of  speech,  which  must  continue  to  prevail  and  diffuse 
itself  unless  checked  by  military  or  socialistic  despotism. 
But  as  the  privilege  of  the  many  it  is  less  likely  to  be  the, 
resource  of  the  few ;  and  it  may  happen  that  the  press, 
dealing  with  follies  of  the  day  as  they  arise,  will  more  and 
more  forestall  the  satire  that  springs  from  meditation  and 
study.  The  principal  security  is  the  originality  and  robust- 
ness of  true  satiric  genius,  which,  having  defied  prisons  and 
scaffolds  iu  the  past,  may  find  the  mean*  of  eluding  public 
impatience  and  satiety  in  the  future.  (e.  g.) 

SATRAP.     See  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  569,  583. 

SATURN",  an  ancient  Italian  god,  vvhom  the  Romans,' 
and  till  recently  the  modern.s,  identified  with  the  Greek 
god  Cronus. 

1.  Cronus  was  the  youngest  of  the  Titans,  the  children 
of  Sky  (Uranus)  and  Earth  (Gaea).  Besides  the  Titans, 
Sky  and  Earth  had  other  children,  the  Cyclopes  and  the 
Hundred-handers.  When  the  Cyclopes  and  the  Hundred- 
handers  proved  troublesome,  Sky  thru.st  them  back  into 


SATURN 


321 


■the  bo:iom  of  Earth.  This  vexed  Earth,  and  she  called  on 
her  sons  to  avenge  her  on  their  father  Sky.  They  all 
shrank  from  the  deed  save  Cronus,  who  waylaid  and  muti- 
lated his  father  with  a  sickle  or  curved  sword.  From 
the  drops  of  blood  which  fell  to  the  earth  sprang  the 
Euries  and  the  Giants.  Cronus  now  reigned  in  room  of 
Sky.  His  wife  was  Rhea,  who  was  also  his  sister,  being 
a  daughter  of  Sky  and  Earth.  Sky  and  Earth  had  fore- 
told to  Cronus  that  he  would  be  deposed  by  one  of  his  own 
children,  so  he  swallowed  them  one- after  another- as  soon 
as  they  were  born.  Thus  he  devoured  Hestia,  Demeter, 
Hera,  Hades,  and  Poseidon.  But  when  Khea  had  brought 
forth  Zeus,  the  youngest,'  she  wrapped  up  a  stone  in 
swaddling  clothes  and  gave  it  to  Cronus,  who  swallowed  it 
instead  of  the  babe.  When  Zeus,  who  had  been  hidden  in 
Crete,  grew  up,  he  gave  his  father  a  dose  which  compelled 
him  to  disgorge  first  the  stone  and  then  the  children  whom 
he  had  swallowed.  The  stone  was  preserved  at  Deljjhi ; 
every  day  it  was  anointed  and  on  festivals  it  was  crowned 
with  wool.  Zeus  and  his  brothers  now  rebelled  against 
Cronus,  and  after  a  ten  years'  struggle  they  were  victorious. 
Cronus  and  the  Titans  were  thrust  down  to  Tartarus,  where 
they  were  guarded  by  the  Hundred-banders.  According 
to  others,  Croniia  was  removed  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blest, 
where  he  ruled  over  the  departed  heroes,  judging  them  in 
conjunction  with  Ehadamanthus.  Plutarch  {De  Def.  Oi-ac, 
18)  mentions  a  story,  that  the  dethroned  monarch  of  the 
gods  slept  on  an  island  of  the  northern  seas  guarded  by 
Eriarcus  and  surrounded  by  a  train  of  attendant  divinities. 
The  reign  of  Cronus  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  happiest 
time  of  the  world,  the  golden  age,  when  men  lived  like 
gods,  free  from  toil  and  grief  and  the  weakness  of  old  age 
(for  death  was  like  sleep) ;  and  the  earth  too  brought  forth 
abundantly  without  cultivation.  There  are  few  traces  of 
,vhe  worship  of  Cronus  in  Greece.  Pausanias,  in  his  descrip- 
tion of  Greece,  mentions  only  one  temple  of  Cronus;  it 
stood  at  the  foot  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  and  was 
f  acred  to  Cronus  and  Ehea  jointly.  The  Athenians  cele- 
brated an  annual  festival  in  his  honour  on  the  12th  of 
Hecatombaeon.  A  mountain  at  Olympia  was  called  after 
him,  and  on  its  top  annuil  sacrifices  were  offered  to  hini 
at  the  spring  equinox. 

The  idea  that  Cronus  was  tlio  god  of  time — an  idea  whioh 
appears  in  antitjuity — seems  to  liave  arisen  from  a  simple  confusion 
between  the  words  Cronus  and  Clironus  ("time").  Curtius  derives 
Cronus  from  the  roofe- tra,  meaning  "to  accomplish."  Cronus 
may  perliaps  have  been  a  god  of  soKi  aboriginal  imlf-savago  tribe 
which  the  Greeks  conquered.  Hence  the  savage  traits  in  liis 
legend,  his  conquest  by  Zeus,  and  tl)0  scanty  traces  of  his  worship 
in  Greece.  The  niytli  of  the  mutilation  ci  Sky  by  Cronus  may 
be  a  particular  fonn  of  the  widespread  story  of  tho  violent  separation 
of  Sky  and  Earth  by  one  of  their  children  (compare  .MYTHOi.OfiV) 
Other  forms  of  tliis.  myth  arc  found  in  Xew  Zealand,  India,  and 
China.  Parallels  to  the  swallowing  and  disgorging  incident  are  to 
be  found  in  the  folk-loro  of  Bushmen,  KalTres,  Basutos,  Indians  of 
Guiana,  and  Eskimo. 

2.  Saturn  and  his  wife  Ops  were  amongst  tho  oldest 
deities  of  ancient  Italy.  He  is  said  to  have  had  an  altar 
at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol  before  Rome  was  founded. 
Saturn  was  a  god  of  agriculture,  his  name  being  derived 
■from  severe,  "  to  sow."  The  identification  of  Saturn  with 
Cronus  gave  rise  to  the  legend  that  after  his  deposition  by 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  Saturn  wandered  to  Italy,  where  he  ruled 
as  king  in  the  golden  ago  and  gave  the  name  Saturnia  to 
the  country.  Janus,  another  of  the  most  ancient  gods  of 
Italy,  is  said  to  ha,vo  welcomed  him  to  Rome,  and  here  lie 
settled  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  which  was  called  after 
him  tho  Saturnian  Hill.  His  temple  stood  at  the  ascent 
from  tho  Forum  to  the  Capitol  and  was  one  of  tho  oldest 
buildings  in  Rome,  but  tho  eight  remaining  columns  of 

*  So  Hosiod.  But  acording  to  Homer  Zeus  was  tho  ddest  of  the 
children  of  Cronus  and  Khea. 


the  temple  probably  formed  a  portion  of  a  new  temple 
built  in  the  imperial  times.  The  image  of  Saturn  in  this 
temple  had  woollen  bands  fastened  round  its  feet  all  the 
year  through,  except  at  the  festival  of  the  Saturnalia; 
the  object  of  the  bands  was  probably  to  detain  the  deity. 
Similarly  thare  was  a  fettered  image  of  Enyalius  (the  War 
God)  at  Sparta,  and  at  Athens  the  image  of  Victory  had  no 
wings,  lest  she  might  fly  away.  The  mode  of  sacrifice  at 
this  temple  was  in  so  far  peculiar  that  the  head  of  the 
sacrifice  was  bare  as  in  the  Greek  ritual,  instead  of  being 
covered,  as  -ivas  the  usual  Roman  practice.  Legend  said 
that  the  Greek  ritual  was  introduced  by  Hercules,  who  at 
the  same  time  abolished  the  human  sacrifices  previously 
offered  to  Saturn.  Others  said  that  the  rule  haij  been 
observed,  by  the  Pelasgians  before.  Under  or  behind  the 
temple  was  the  Roman  treasury,  in  which  the  archives  as 
well  as  the  treasures  of  the  state  were  preserved.  Dionysius 
Halicarnensis  {Ant.  Rom.,  i.  34)  tells  that  there  were  many 
sanctuaries  of  Saturn  in  Italy  and  that  many  towns  '  and 
places,  especially  mountains,  were  called  after  him.  The 
oldest  national  form  of  verse  was  known  as  the  Saturnian. 
Like  m.any  other  figures  in  Roman  mythology,  Saturn  is 
said  to  have  vanished  at  last  from  earth.  His  emblem  r.-as 
a  sicMe.  The  substitution  of  a  great  scythe  for  the  sickle, 
and  the  addition  of  wings  and  an  hour-glass,  are  modern. 
Ops  ("plenty"),  wife  of  Saturn,  was  an  earth-goddess,  as 
appears  from  the  custom  observed  by  her  suppliants  of 
sitting  and  carefully  touching  the  earth  while  they  made 
their  vows  to  her.  As  goddess  of  crops  and  the  harvest 
she  was  called  Consiva,  and  under  this  name  had  a  sanctuary 
at  Rome,  to  which  only  the  Vestals  and  the  priest  v.'ere 
admitted.  As  Saturn  was  identified  in  later  times  with 
Cronus,  so  was  Ops  with  Rhea.  Another  goddess  mentioned 
as  wife  of  Saturn  was  Lua,  a  goddess  of  barrenness.  She 
was  one  of  the  deities  to  whom  after  a  victcry  the  spoils 
of  the  enemy  were  sometimes  dedicated  and  burned. 

Saiurnalia. — This,  the  great  festival  of  Saturn,  Was  celebrated 
on  the  19th,  but  after  Csesar's  refoim  of  the  calendar  on  tlie  17th, 
of  December.  Augustus  decreed  that  the  17tb  slioald  be  sacred  to 
Saturn  and  tho  19tli  to  Ops.  Hencoforv/aid  it  appears  that  tho 
17th  and  18th  were  devoted  to  the  Saturnalia,  and  the  19th  and 
20th  to  the  Opalia,  a  festival  of  Ops.  Caligula  adled  a  fifth  day, 
"the  day  of  yowih^^  {dies  juivnalis),  devoted  no  doubt  to  tho 
sports  of  the  young.  But  in  popular  usage  the  festival  lasted  seven 
days.  Tlie  time  was  one  of  general  joy  and  mirth.  The  -^voollen 
fetters  were  taken  from  the  feet  of  the  ^mage  of  Saturn,  and  Cacli 
nian  offered  a  pig.  During  the  festival  schools  -.vere  closed;  no 
w-ar\va3  decl.i  red  or  battle  fought;  no  punishment  was  inflicted. 
In  place  of  the  toga  an  undress  garment  was  worn.  Distinctions 
of  rank  were  laid  aside  :  slaves  sat  at  table  with  their  masters 
or  were  actually  waited  on  by  tliem,  and  the  utmost  freedom 
of  speech  was  alloweil  them.  Gamblin.g  with  dice,  at  other  times 
illegal,  was  now  permitted  and  practised.^  All  classes  exchanged 
gifts,  the  commonest  being  w-ax  tapers  and  clay  dolls.  These  dolls 
were  especially  given  to  children,  and  the  makers  of  them  held  a 
regular  fair  at  this  time.  Varro . thought  that  these  dolls  repre- 
sented original  sacrifices  of  human  beings  to  tho  infernal  ^od. 
There  certainly  was,  as  w-o  have  seen,  a  tradiiion  that  lir.man 
sacrifices  were  once  offered  to  Saturn,  and  the  Greeks  and  Ucnianf 
gave  tho  name  of  Cronus  and  Saturn  to  a  particularly  cruel  PhcO- 
nician  Baal,  to  whom,  c.y.,  children  w-ero  sacrificed  at  Carthage. 
The  Cronus  to  whom  human  -sacrifices  are  said  to  have  been 
offered  in  Rhodes  w-as  most  probably  a  Baal,  for  there  are  un- 
mistakable traces  of  Phecnician  worship  in  Khodcs.  It  may  bo 
conjectured  that  the  Saturnalia  was  originally  a  celebration  of  the 
winter  solstice.  Hence  tlie  legend  tint  it  -was  instituted  by 
lioinuhis  under  the  name  of  tho  Biumali.i  (i/j-ioiin™  winter  solstice). 
The  prominence  given  to  candles  at  tiic  festival  points  to  the 
custom  of  making  a  new  fire  at  this  time.  The  custom  of  solemnly 
kindling  fires  at  the  summer  solstice  (Eve  of  St  John)  has  prevailed 
in  most  parts  of  Europe,  notably  in  Gcrmunj',  and  there  are  traces 
(of  which  the  yule-log  is  one)  of  the  observance  of  a  similar  custom 
at  the  winter  solstice.  In  ancient  Jlexico  a  new  fire  was  kindled, 
amid  great  rejoicings,  at  tho  end  of  every  period  of  fifty-two  years. 

The  designation  of  tho  planets  by  the  names  of  gods  is  at  least  as 

-  It  is  curious  to  find  a  similar  rule  with  a  similar  exception  ia 
NeiiaJ.     See  U.  A.  Old  field,  Sketches  from  A'cpal,  vol.  ii.  ]ip.  ZO'Jsq. 

■    XXL  —  41 


S  A  T  —  S  A  U 


old  as  the  4th, century  B.C.  The  first  certain  mention  of  the  star 
of  Cronus  (Saturn)  is  in  Aristotle  (^Metaphysics,  p.  1073b,  35).  Tho 
iiamo  also  occurs  in  the  Epinomis  (p.  9S7b),  a  dialogue  of  uncertain 
date,  wrongly  ascribed  to  Plato.  In  Latin,  Cicero  (1st  century  B.C. ) 
is  the  tirst  author  who  speaks  of  the  planet  Saturn.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  name  Saturn  to  a  day  of  the  week  [Satunii  dies,  Saturday) 
is  first  found  in  TibuUus  (i.  3,  18).  (J.  G.  FR.) 

SATYR.  Iq  ancient  Greek  mythology  the  satyrs  were 
spirits,  half-human  half-bestial,  that  haunted  the  woods 
and  mountains,  companions  of  Pan  and  Diony.sus.  Fancy 
represented  them  as  strongly  built,  with  flat  noses,  pointed 
ears,  and  the  tails  of  horses  or  goats.  They  were  a  roguish 
and  wanton  tut  faint-hearted  folk,  lovers  of  wine  and 
women,  ever  roaming  the  wild  to  the  music  of  pipes  and 
cymbals,  castanets  and  bagpipes,  dancing  with  the  nynphs 
or  pursuing  them,  striking  terror  into  men,  whose  cattle 
they  killed  and  whose  women  they  made  love  to.  In  the 
earlier  Greek  art  they  appear  as  old  and  ugly,  much  like 
wild  apes ;  but  in  later  art,  especially  in  works  of  the 
Attic  school,  this'savage  character  is  softened  into  a  more 
youthful  and  graceful  aspect.  There  is  a  famous  statue 
supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  a  work  of  Praxiteles,  representing 
a  graceful  satyr  leaning  against  a  tree  with  a  flute  in  his 
hand.  In  Attica  there  was  a  species  of  drama  known  as 
the  Satyric  drama ;  it  parodied  the  legends  of  gods  and 
heroes,  and  the  chorus  was  composed  of  satyrs.  Euripides's 
play  of  the  Cyclops  is  the  only  extant  example  of- this  kind 
of  drama.  The  symbol  of  the  shy  and  timid  satyr  was 
the  hare.  In  some  districts  of  modern  Greece  the  spirits 
known  as  Calicantsars  offer  points  of  resemblance  to  the 
ancient  satyrs ;  they  Lave  goats'  ears  and  the  feet  of  asses 
or  goats,  are  covered  with  hair,  and  love  worieu  and  the 
dance.  The  herdsmen  of  Parnassus  believe  in  a  demon  of 
the  mountain  who  is  Icrd  of  hares  and  goats. 

In  the  Autlioiizcd  Veision  of  Isi.  xiii.  21,  .xxxiv.  14  the  word 
"satyr"  is  used  to  render  the  Hebrew  sS'irij/i,"  hairy  ones."  A 
kind  of  demon  or  supernatural  being  known  to  Hebrew  folk-lore 
as  inhabiting  waste  plaqes  is  meant ;  a  jtractice  of  sacrificing  to 
tile  sS'irim  is  alluded  to  in  Lev.  xvii.  7,  wliere  E.  V.  has  "devils." 
They  correspond  to  the  "  shaggy  demon  of  the  mountain-pass " 
(azabb  al-'akaba)  of  old  Arab  superstition.  But  tho  satyrs  of  the 
gloomy  Semitic  deserts,  faith  in  which  is  not  yet  extinct,  are  mnch 
more  terrible  than  those  of  Greece. 

SAUL,  son  of  Kiah,  king  of  Israel.  (See  Israel,  vol. 
xiii.  p.  403  sq.)  The  name  of  Saul's  father  Kish  (t^■'p) 
seems  to  be  identical  with  the  Arabic  proper  name  and  god- 
name  Kais. 

SAUMAISE.     See  Salmasius. 

S.\UMAREZ,  James  Saumakez  or  Sausmakez,  Baeon 
DE  (1757-1836),  English  admiral,  was  descended  from  an 
old  family,  and  was  born  at  St  Peter  Port,  Guernsey,  11th 
March  1757.  Many  of  his  ancestors  had  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  naval  service,  and  he  entered  it  as  mid- 
shipman at  the  age  of  thirteen.  For  his  bravery  at  the 
attack  of  Charleston  in  1775  on  board  the  "  Bristol "  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and  he  wiis  pro- 
moted commander  for  his  gallant  services  off  the  Dogger 
Bank,  5th  August  1781,  when  he  was  wounded.  In  com- 
mand of  the  "  Kussell,"  he  contributed  to  Rodney's  victory 
over  De  Grasse,  12th  April  1782.  For  the  capture  of 
"  La  Reunion,"  a  French  frigate,  in  1793  he  received  the 
honour  of  knighthood.  While  in  command  of  a  small 
squadron  he  was  on  5th  June  179-1  attacked  by  a  superior 
French  force  on  the  way  from  Plymouth  to  Guernsey,  but 
by  his  seamanship  and  coolness  succeeded  in  gaining  a 
safe  anchorage  in  the  harbour  of  that  island.  After  being 
promoted  to  the  "Orion"  of  74  guns  in  1795,  he  took 
part  in  the  defeat  of  the  French  fleet  off  L'Orient,  22d 
June,  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  of  Cape  St 
V'incent  in  February  1797,  and  was  present  at  the  blockade 
nf  Cadiz  from  February  1797  to  April  1798,  and  at  the 
battle  of  the  Nile,  1st  August  1798,  where  he  was 
wounded.     On  his  return   from  Egypt  he   received  the 


command  of  the  "  Caesar,"  84  guns,  with  orders  to  watch 
the  French  fleet  off  Brest  during  the  winters  of  1799  and 
1800.  In  1801  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral 
of  the  blue,  was  created  a  baronet,  and  received  the 
command  of  a  small  squadron  which  was  destined  to  watch 
the  movements  of  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Cadiz.  To  prevent 
a  fleet  of  British  merchantmen  from  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  he  engaged  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets, 
which  outnumbered  his  own  small  squadron  by  two  to  one, 
inflicting  on  them  a  severe  defeat  with  a  loss  of  3000  men. 
Regarding  this  achievement  Lord  Nelson  remarked  that 
"a  greater  action  was  never  fought."  For  his  services 
Saumarez  was  rewarded  with  the  order  of  the  Bath,  and  he 
also  received  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London,  together 
with  a  magnificent  sword.  In  1803  he  received  a  pension 
of  .£1200  a  year.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Russia 
in  1809  he  was  entrusted  with  tho  command  of  the  Baltic 
fleet,  and  in  recognition  of  his  services  Charles  XIII.  of 
Sweden  bestowed  on  him  the  grand  cross  of  the  military 
order  of  the  Sword.  At  the  peace  of  1814  he  attained 
the  rank  of  admiral;  and  in  1819  he  was  made  rear- 
admiral,  in  1821  vice-admiral  of  Great  Britain.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  de  Saumarez  in  1831,  and 
died  at  Guernsey,  9th  October  1836. 

See  Memoirs  cf  Admiral  Lord  de  Saumarez,  by  Sir  John  Koss, 
2  vols.,  1833. 

SAUMUR,  a  town  of  France,  at  the  head  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire,  is 
situated  on  an  island  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  38 
miles  south-west  of  Tours,  and  27  miles  south-east  of  Angers. 
A  large  metal  bridge  connects  the  Tours-Angers  railway 
with  that  of  Montreuil-Bellay  by  which  Saumur  communi- 
cates with  Poitiers  and  Niort.  Two  stone  bridges  (755 
and  905  feet  long)  also  unite  the  town  on  the  island  with 
the  two  banks  of  the  river.  Several  of  the  Saamur 
churches  are  interesting.  St  Pierre,  of  the  12th  century, 
has  a  17th-century  faijade  and  a  Renaissance  nave;  and 
Notre  Dame  of  Nantilly  (often  visited  by  Louis  XI.)  has  a 
remarkable  though  greatly  damaged  facade,  a  doorway  and 
choir  of  the  12th  century,  and  a  nave  of  the  11th.  Both 
these  churches  contain  curious  tapestries,  and  in  the  latter, 
fixed  in  the  wall,  is  the  copper  cross  of  Gilles  de  Tyr, 
keeper  of  the  seals  to  St  Louis.  St  Joan  is  a  charming 
little  biiilding  in  the  Angevine  Gothic  style.  Notre  Dame 
of  ArdLliers,  of  the  16  th  century,  was  enlarged  in  the 
following  century  by  Richelieu  and  Madame  de  Montespan. 
The  town-house  is  an  elegant  16th-century  edifice;  and 
the  whole  town  is  rich  in  graceful  and  interesting  examples 
of  the  best  period  of  French  domestic  architecture.  The 
castle,  built  between  the  11th  century  and  the  13th,  and 
remodelled  in  the  16th,  is  used  as  an  arsenal  and  powder 
magazine.  There  is  also  an  interesting  almshouse,  with  its 
chambers  in  part  dug  out  in  the  rock.  The  cavalry  school, 
founded  in  1 708,  and  after  various  interrupticns  reorganized 
in  1824  and  1853,  has  at  the  present  time  (1886)  400 
pupils,  of  wl.om  125  are  ofticera.  Other  esta'rfishments 
are  a  public  library,  a  museum  of  natural  history  and 
local  Roman  and  Celtic  antiquities,  a  horticultural  garden, 
with  a  school  of  vines  in  which  eight  hundred  kinds  of 
grapes  are  cultivated.  Saumur  carries  on  a  large  trade  in 
s[)arkling  white  wines  grown  in  the  neighbourhood,  as  well 
as  in  brandy,  grain,  flax,  and  hemp  ;  and  it  manufactures 
enamels  and  rosaries.  The  population  in  1881  was  13,439 
(14,186  in  the  commune). 

The  Saumur  caves  along  the  Loire  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
valley  of  the  Thouet  (a  left-hand  tributary)  must  have  been  occupied 
at  a  very  remote  period.  Tho  Tour  du  Trone  (9th  century)  served 
as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  district 
during  foreign  invasions,  and  became  the  nucleus  of  a  monastery 
built  by  monks  escaped  from  St  Florent  le  Vieil.  On  the  same 
site  rose  the  castle  of  Saumur  two  hundred  years  later.  The  town 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Foalques  Nerra.  duke  of  Afljou,  iu  1025,  and 


S  A  U  — S  A  U 


523 


p5S3ed  in  the  13th  century  into  the  possession  of  the  kings  of 
France,  to  whom  it  remained  constantly  faithful,  Tlie  English 
failed  to  capture  it  during  all  the  course  of  the  Hundred  Years* 
"SVar.  After  the  Reformation  the  town  became  the  metropolis  of 
Protestantism  in  Franco  and  the  seat  of  a  theological  seminary, 
illustrated  by  many  distinguished  names.  The  school  of  Saumur, 
as  opposed  to  that  of  Sedan,  represented  the  more  liberal  .side  of 
French  Protestantism  (Cameron,  Amyraut,  &c. ).  In  1623  the  forti- 
fications were  dismantled  ;  and  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
leduced-the  population  from  25,000  to  6000. 

SAUNDERSON,  Nicholas  (16S2-1739),  mathema- 
tician, was  born  at  Thurlstone,  Yorkshire,  in  January  1682. 
When  about  a  year  old  he  lost  his  sight  through  small- 
pox ;  but  this  did  not  prevent  hint  from  acquiring,  by  the' 
help  of  kind  friends,  a  "good  knowledge  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  pursuing  with  assiduity  and  success  the  study 
of  mathematics.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he  commenced 
lecturing  in  Cambridge  on  the  principles  of  the  Newtonian 
philosophy,  and,  though  he  was  not  a  member  of  any  of 
the  colleges,  the  university  authorities  placed  no  impedi- 
ment in  his  way.  In  November  1711  he  was  selected  to 
succeed  'Whiston,  the  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics 
in  Cambridge,  after  having  had  the  degree  of  master  of 
arts  conferred  upon  him  to  render  him  eligible  for  the 
appointment.  He  was  created  doctor  of  laws  in  1728  by 
command  of  George  II.,  and  in  173G  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died  of  scurvy  on  tlie 
19th  of  April  1739. 

Sannderson  possessed  the  friendship  of  many  of  the  eminent 
mathematicians  of  the  time,  such  as  Newton,  Halley,  De  iloivre. 
Cotes,  and  for  the  first  of  these  he  entertained  a  profound  venera- 
tion. Whether  from  an  inflexible  love  of  truth,  or  from  a  motive 
leas  exalted,  ho  w.ts  accustomed  to  speak  his  sentimcuts  regarding 
persons  very  freely,  and  friends  as  well  as  enemies  were  ciiticized 
without  reserve.  Aa  is  frequently  the  case  with  the  blind,  his 
senses  of  hearing  and  touch  were  extraordinarily  acute,  and  he  could 
carry  on  mentally  long  and  intricate  arithmetical  or  algebraical  cal- 
culations. iTo  devised  for  his  own  use  a  palpable  arithmetic,  an 
account  of  which  is  oiven  in  his  elaborate  Elements  of  Algebra  (2 
vols.  4to,  Cambridge,  1740),  which  he  did  not  live  to  publish.  Ofhis 
Dther  writings,  prepared  for  the  use  of  his  pupils,  the  only  one  whicli 
has  been  published  is  The  Method  of  Fhtxions  (1  vol.  8vo,  London, 
175G).  At  the  end  of  this  treatise  there  is  given,  in  Latin,  an 
s:tplanation  of  the  principal  propositions  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's 
philosophy. 

SAURIANS.     See  Reptiles. 

S-\URIN,  JACQtJES  (1677-1730),  one  of  the  group  of 
great  French  preachers  of  the  17th  century  (see  France, 
vol.  ix.  p.  662),  was  born  at  Nimes  on  January  6th 
1677,  studied  at  Geneva,  settled  in  London  in  1701  as 
one  of  the  pastors  of  the  Walloon  church,  and  died  at  The 
Hague,  on  December  30,  1730,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
defend  himself  before  the  synod  against  a  trumped-up 
charge  of  heterodoxy.  Besides  collections  of  Sermons,  on 
miscellaneous  texts,  he  wrote  Discours  sur  les  evenements 
let  plus  mcmorables  du  Vieux  et  du  Nouvemi.  Testament 
(Amsterdam,  1720-28),  a  work  which,  as  continued  by 
Beausobre  and  Roques,  became  popular  under  the  name 
of  Saurin's  Bibte. 

SAUROPSIDA.  This  name  was  introduced  by  Huxley 
in  his  Introduction  to  the  Classification  of  Animals,  1869, 
to  designate  a  province  of  the  Yertehrata  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Aves  with  the  Reptitia.  In  his  Elements 
of  Comparative  Anatomy,  1864,  he  had  used  the  term 
"Sauroids"  for  the  same  province.  The  five  divisions  of 
the  Vertebrata — Pisces,  Amphibia,  Reptilia,  Aves,  and 
Mamm/iUa — are  all  distinctly  definable,  but  their  relations 
to  one  another  differ  considerably  in  degree.  The 
Amphibia  are  more  similar  to  the  Pisces  than  to  any  of 
the  other  divisions,  and  the  Aves  are  closely  allied  to 
the  Reptilia,  and  thus  three  provinces — Ichthyopsida, 
Sawopsida,  and  Mammalia — are  formed. 

The  characters  which  distinguish  flie  Sauropsida,  that  is,  which 
■ro  common  to  birds  and  reptiles,  and  not  found  combined  in 
•<ho^othcr  classes,  have  been  thus   summarized  by  Huxley; — no 


branchiae  at  any  period  of  existence  ;  a  well-developed  amnion  and 
allantois  present  in  the  embryo  ;  a  mandible  composed  of  many 
bones  and  articulated  to  the  skull  by  a  quadrate  bono  ;  nucleated 
blood-corpuscles  ;  no  separate '  parasphcnoid  bone  in  the  skull  ; 
and  a  single  occipital  condyle.  In  addition  to  these  principal 
characters,  others  exist  which  are  found  in  all  birds  and  reptiles, 
but  are  not  exclusively  confined  to  them.  The  oviduct  is  always  a 
MUUerian  duct  separate  from  the  ovary  and  opening  from  tho 
body  cavity.  The  adult  kidney  is  a  metanephros  with  sepirato 
ureter  ;  the  mesonephros  and  mesonephric  duct  become  in  the  adult 
male  the  efferent  duct  of  the  testis.  Tho  intestine  and  the  repro- 
ductive and  urinary  ducts  open  into  a  common  cloaca.  There  is 
usually  an  exoskeleton  in  the  form  of  scales  ;  in  the  birds  the  scales 
take  the  form  of  feathers.  There  are  two  aortic  arches  in  reptiles, 
in  birds  only  one, — the  right.  The  heart  is  usually  trilocular, 
becoming  quadrilocular  in  crocodiles  and  birds.  In  all  the  eggs 
are  meroblastic  and  largo,  possessing  a  large  quantity  of  yolk  ;  in 
all  the  egg  is  provided  in  ^he.  oviduct  with  a  layer  of  albumen 
and  outside  this  with  a  horny  or  calcareous  shell.  In  a  few  cases 
the  c^^  is  hatched  in  the  oviduct,  but  in  these  cases  there  is  no 
intimate  connexion  between  the  embryo  and  the  walls  of  the  duct. 
Fertilization  takes  place  internally,  occurring  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  oviduct  previously  to  the  deposition  of  the  albuminous  layer 
and  egg  shell. 

Comparative  anatomy  clearly  shows  that  birds  are 
reptiles  which  have  become  specialized  in  adaptation  to 
the  function  of  flight.  This  conclusion  has  been  con- 
firmed in  the  most  surprisingly  complete  manner  by  the 
discovery  of  fossil  forms  intermediate  between  birds  and 
reptiles.  Two  points  of  specialization  in  addition  to  the 
transformation  of  the  fore  limbs  into  wings  are  conspicuous 
in  birds, — the  reduction  of  the  tail  and  the  absence 
of  teeth.  Archieopteryx  is  a  flying  feathered  animal  witk 
a  long  reptilian  tail.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
numerous  toothed  birds  have  been  recently  discovered, 
and  have  been  studied  and  described  in  a  masterly  fashion 
by  Prof.  O.  C  Marsh.  These  forms  belong  to  the 
Mesozoic  neriod.  For  further  details  see  Reptiles  and 
Birds. 

SAUSSURE,  Horace  Benedict  de  (1740-1799),  one 
of  Switzerland's  most  celebrated  physicists,  was  born  in 
Geneva  on  February  17,  1740.'  His  youth  was  pas.sed 
at  his  father's  farm,  where  he  early  acquired  a  love  for 
the  study  of  nature.  Following  the  example  of  his 
father  and  of  his  uncle  Charles  Bonnet,  with  whom  he 
■was  associated  in  a  research  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  he 
devoted  himself  at  first  to  botany.  Thus  he  was  led  to 
make  the  acquaintance  of  Haller,  who  was  not  long  in 
discerning  and  appreciating  his  rare  powers  as  an  observer. 
In  1762,  when  only  twenty-two  years  of  age,  Saussure  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Geneva,  where,  along 
with  another  professor,, ho  taught  logic  and  physics  alter- 
nately. But  his  natural  leanings  were  all  towards  the 
study  of  external  nature  ;  and  he  took  advantage  of  all 
available  opportunities  of  travelling  to  thoroughly  explore 
the  mountains,  valleys,  and  lakes  of  his  native  land,  and 
to  visit  those  of  foreign  countries,  with  the  view  of  widen- 
ing and  deepening  his  conception  of  the  constitution  of 
the  world.  The  Society  of  Arts  of  Geneva  was  founded 
by  Saussure  in  1772,  and  in  1774,  at  the  invitation  of  the 
Government,  he  elaborated  a  plan  for  tho  reform  of  the 
system  of  teaching  in  his  native  town ;  but  this  was  too 
radical  in  its  nature  to  be  adopted.  In  1786  he  resigned 
his  professorship  to  his  friend  and  fellow-worker  Pictet. 
While  honouring  his  country  by  his  dovotioti  to  laborious 
scientific  investigations,  he  exhibited  his   patriotism   by 

'  IIi«  father,  .Nicolas  do  Saussure  (1709-90),  an  agriculturist  of 
unusu.illy  liberal  opinions  and  wide  sympathies,  when  a  young  man  h.id 
applied  him.self  to  literary  pursuits,  and  especially  to  tho  study  of 
writings  bearing  on  f.iiming.  Ho  resided  all  his  life  at  his  farm  of 
Conches,  on  tho  Arve,  near  Geneva.  As  a  member  of  tho  council  of 
Two  Hundred  ho  took  part  in  public  affairs.  Most  of  his  WTitinga 
were  of  a  pr.\ctical  character,  bearing  on  the  growth  and  disea.scs  of 
grain  and  otlicr  farm  produce.  His  last  work,  On  Fire,  the  Priheiple 
of  Fecundity  in  Plants  and  of  Fertility  in  the  Earth,  published  in 
1782,  was  more  speculative  in  its  nature. 


?24 


S  A  U  —  S  A  V 


untiring  diligence  in  the  exercise  of  his  duties  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  Two  Hundred,  and  afterwards  of 
the  National  Assembly.  In  consequence  of  over-exertion 
in  this  work  his  health  began  to  fail  in  1794  ;  but,  although 
deprived  of  the  use  of  his  limbs,  he  continued  to  revise  the 
concluding  volumes  of  his  great  work  on  Alpine  physio- 
graphy, which  were  publii^hed  in  1796.  Latterly  his  mind 
became  enfeebled,  and  when  he  was  offered  a  chair  of 
philosophy  by  the  French  Government  in  1798  he  had 
lapsed  into  a  condition  of  partial*  imbecility.  He  died 
on  January  22,  1799,  at  the  age  of  fifty-nine,  leaving 
two  sons  and  a  daughter. 

The  Alps  formed  the  centre  of  Saussure's  investigations.  Thoy 
forced  themselves  on  his  attention  as  the  grand  key  to  the  true 
theory  of  the  earth;  but,  as  year  by  year  his  mass  of  facts 
assumed  ever-growing  dimensions,  his  generalizations  became 
more  guarded,  "until  finally  he  came  to  consider  a  simple  rec^irdiiig 
of  observations  as  the  only  justifiable  course.  As  a  youn<^  man  he 
had  roamed  in  search  of  plants  through  many  remote  valieys  and 
over  the  "niontagncs  maudits "  as  his  unappreciative  fcUuw- 
dwellers  by  the  lakes  called  the  snow-capped  sumniits  around 
them.  It  had  been  his  dream,  he  says,  since  he  was  twenty  to 
ascend  Mont  Blanc  ;  and  he  accomplished  the  feat  on  3d  August 
1787.  This  was  the  second  time  that  the  ascent  of  that  mountain, 
until  then  deemed  inaccessible,  was  niado  in  that  year. 

Saussure  found  among  the  Alps  opportunity  for  studying 
geology  in  a  manner  never  previously  attempted.  The  inclination 
of  the  strata,  the  nature  of  the  rocks,  the  fossils,  and  the  minerals 
received  his  closest  attention.  Ke  acquired  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  chemistry  of  the  day,  watching  for  the  brilliant  series  of 
discoveries  and  the  improvements  in  processes  of  analysis  that 
brought  the  science  into  such,  dazzling  prominence  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  and  he  applied  all  to  the  study 
of  minerals,  water,  and  air.  Saussure's  geological  observations 
made  him  a  firm  believer  in  the  Neptunian  theory  :  he  regarded 
all  rocks  and  minerals  as  deposited  from  aqueous  solution  or 
suspension^  and  in  view  of  this  ho  attached  much  importance  to 
the  study  of  meteorological  conditions.  He  carried  barometers 
and  boiling-point  thermometers  to  the  summits  of  the  highest 
mour^nins,  and  estimated  the  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosi'iere 
at  djfierent  heights,  its  temperature,  the  strength  of  solar  radiation, 
the  composition  of  air  and  its  transparency.  Then,  following  the 
precipitated  moisture,  he  investigated  the  temperature  of  the  earth 
at  all  depths  to  which  he  could  drive  his  thermometer  staves,  the 
course,  conditions,  and^temperature  of  streams,  rivers,  glaciers,  and 
lakes,  even  of  the  sea.  He  invented  a  great  number  of  instruments 
for  these  purposes,  tested  them,  and  investigated  the  theory  of 
their  action.  The  most  beautiful  and  complete  of  his  subsidiary 
researches  is  described  in  the  Essai  sur  l'nijgrovUt7'ic,  published  in 
1783.  In  it  he  records  experiments  made  with  various  forms  of 
hygrometer  in  all  climates  and  at  all  temperatures,  and  supports 
the  claims  of  his  hair-h3'grometer  against  all  others.  He  invented 
and  improved  many  kinds  of  apparatus,  including  the  magneto- 
meter, the  cyanometer  for  estimating,  the  blueness  of  the  sky, 
the  diaphanometer  forjudging  of  the  clearness  of  the  atmosjihere, 
the  anemometer,  and  the  mountain  eudiometer.  His  modifica- 
tions of  the  thermometer  adapted  that  instrument  to  many 
purposes :  for  ascertaining  the  temperiture  of  the  air  ho  used 
one  with  a  fine  bulb  hung  in  the  shade  or  whirled  by  a  string, 
the  latter  form  being  converted  into  an  cvaporometer  by  inserting 
its  bulb  into  a  piece  of  wet  sponge  and  making  it  revolve  in  a 
circle  of  knovv-n  radius  at  a  known  rate  ;  for  experiments  ou  the 
earth  and  in  deep  water  lie  employed  largo  thermometers  wrapped 
in  non-conducting  coatings  so  as  to  r,r^nder  therii  extremely  sluggish, 
and  capable  of  long  retaining  the  temperature  once  they  had 
attained  it.  By  the  use  of  these  instruments  he  showed  that  the 
bottom  water  of  deep  lakes  is  uniformly  cold  at  all  seasons,  and 
that  the"  annual  heat  wave  takes  six  months  to  penet.-ate  to  a 
depth  of  30  feet  in  the  earth.  He  recognized  the  immense  advan- 
tages to  meteorology  of  high-level  observing  stations,  and  when- 
ever it  was  practicable  he  arranged  for  simultaneous  observations 
being  made  at  ditferent  altitudes  for  as  long  periods  as  possible. 
It  is  perhaps  as  a  geologist  that  Saussure  worked  most ;  he  ex- 
amined all  the  formations  he  met  witli  much  care  and  exact- 
ness :  and  although  his  ideas  on  matters  of  theory  were  in  many 
casGsA'ery  erroneous  he  was  instrumental  in  greatly  advancing  that 
science. 

Saussure's  work  is"  collected  and  summarized  in  his  four  largo 
volumes  of  Voyages  dans  Ics  Alpcs.  This  book  is  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  narrative  of  the  author's  various  journeys,  interspersed 
with  accounts  of  the  observation's  made  and  descriptions  of  the 
apparatus  employed.  At  the  end  there  is  a  long  list  of  ''agenda," 
or  subjects  for  investigation,  which  he  anticipated  would  throw 
light  on  the  theory  of  the  earth.     These  agenda  are  of  value  as 


exhibiting  not  only  the  scope  and  definite  focussing  of  Saussure's 
mind  but  his  almost  prophetic  foresight,  since  subsequent  scientific 
work  has  advanced  in  each  department  very  nearly  on  the  lines 
there  laid  down. 

Hi3  llfu  W113  wiitten  by  Scnebler  in  ISOl,  ty  Cuvlcr  for  tho  Bicgraphie 
U)iiver!i/'l!e,  i:nd  by  Dc  Ciindollc  in  Decade  Fhilosophiqxie,  No.  xv.,  translated  In 
th(y  fhiloiophical  Magazine,  [i.]  iv.  96. 

SAUSSURE,  Nicolas  TntoDOEE  de  (1707-1845), 
eldest  son  of  Horace  Benedict  de  Saussure,  was  born  on 
October  14,  1707,  at  Geneva,  and  is  tnown  chiefly  for 
his  work  on  the  chemistry  of  vegetable  physiology.  He 
was  a  ,shy  man,  who  lived  quietly  and  avoided  society ; 
yet  like  his  ancestors  he  was  a  member  of  the  Genevan 
representative  council,  and  gave  much  attention  and 
thought  to  public  affairs.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
improvement  of  education,  but  deprecated  the  introduc- 
tion of  science  teaching  into  schools,  on  the  ground  that  it 
would  divert  the  children's  minds  from  the  study  of  the 
classical  languages  and  mathematics.  He  latterly  became 
more  of  a  recluse  than  ever,  and  died  in  April  1845. 

When  a  young  man  Nicolas  Theodore  accompanied  his  father  hi 
tho  Alpine  journeys  and  assisted  liim  by  the  careful  determinr.tion 
of  many  physical  constants.  Ho  was  attracted  to  chemistry  by 
Lavoisier's  brilliant  conceptions,  but  lie  did  not  become  great  as  au 
originator.  He  took  a  leading  share  in  the  rapid  succession  of 
improvements  wliich  rendoied  the  processes  of  ultimate  organic 
analysis  tvustwitVthy.  He  fixed  the  composition  of  ethylic  alcohol, 
etiier,  and  some  other  commonly  occurring  substances,  thereby 
advancing  tlie  knowledge  of  pure  chemistry.  He  also  studied  fer- 
mentation, the  conversion  of  starch  into  sugar,  and  many  other 
processes  of.  minor  importance.  The  greater  number  of  liis  36 
imblished  papers  deal  with  tlie  chemistry  and  physiology  of  plants, 
tlie  natui-e  of  soils,  and  the  conditions  of  vegetable  life.  Thesa 
were  published  under  the  title  Hccha-ches  Ckzviiqucs  svr  la  Vcgcta^ 
lion,  and  were  acknowledged  to  display  remalkable  ability. 

SAVAGE,  EicHARD  (1097-1743),  a  mediocre  poet  and 
notorious  literary  character  of  the  time  of  Pope,  associated 
with  Pope  in  the  publication  of  the  Dunciad.  He  had 
nearly  reached  the  end  of  his  career  when  Johnson  went 
up  to  London,  made  his  acquaintance,  and  was  fascinated 
by  his  vivacity  and  know)»dge  of  the  world.  After  his 
death,  Johnson  gave  his  romantic  history  of  himself  in 
one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  best  of  the  Lives  of  tlie 
Pods — a  fine  example  of  the  great  moralist's  searching 
analysis  and  tolerant  judgment  of  eccentric  character. 
Johnson  apparently  accepted  Savage's  account  of  himself 
and  his  strange  persecution  by  his  alleged  mother,  the 
countess  of  Macclesfield,  without  hesitation,  describing 
her  as  a  "  wretch  who  had,  without  scruple,  proclaimed 
herself  an  adulteress,  and  who  had  first  endeavoured  to 
starve  her  son,  then  to  transport  him,  and  afterwards  to 
hang  him."  Eoswell  was  less  credulous,  made  inquiries 
after  his  cautious  manner  in  various  quarters,  and  indi- 
cated pretty  clearly  that  he  considered  Savage  an  impostor, 
although  he  could  not  explain  why,  if  the  unnatural  stcry 
were  not  true,  the'  countess  could  have  allowed  it  to  be 
put  three  times  in  print  unchallenged  during  her  lifetime 
(see  Boswell's  Life,  chap.  v.).  After  Eoswell,  Malone  and 
IBindley  nibbled  at  the  paradox,  but  it  was  not  subjected 
to  thorough  examination  till  1858,  \ihen  Mr  Jloy  Thomas 
discovered  the  original  manuscript  depositions  in  tho 
earl  of  Macclesfield's  divorce  suit  at  Doctors'  Commons, 
and  also  the  proceedings  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
results  of  Jlr  Thomas's  researches,  prosecuted  with  rare 
acuteness  and  industry,  appeared  in  Notes  and  Queries, 
November  and  December  1858.  To  Johnson's  Life 
and  these  papers  the  reader  may  be  referred  for  the 
strange  story  and  the  elaborate  and  complete  exposure  of 
its  inconsistencies  and  improbabilities.  The  conclusion 
which  Eoswell  hinted  at,  but  was  prevented  by  his  rever- 
ence for  Johnson  from  expressing,  that  Savage  was  an 
impostor,  is  irresistible. 

SAVANNAH,  a  city  of' the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  Chatham  county,  Georgia,  and  the  largest  city  in  the 


S  A  V 


S  A   V 


325 


State,  is  situated  on  the  right  or  southern  bank  of  the 
Savannah  river,  12  miles  in  a  straight  line  and  18  miles 
by  water  from  the  ocean.  By  rail  it  is  104  miles  south- 
west of  Charleston,  S.C.  Stretching  about  three  miles 
along  the  river,  opposite  Hutchinson's  Island,  and  extend- 
ing inland  Ih  miles.  Savannah  has  an  area  of  3 J  square 
miles.  The  site  is  partly  formed  by  a  bold  bluff  of  sand 
about  a  mile  long,  which  lies  40^feet  above  low- water 
mark,  ending  abruptly  at  either  extremity,  but  "slopes 
inland  for  several  miles  with  a  very  gentle  and  regular 
declivity."  Though  laid  out  in  parallelograms,  Savannah 
has  less  than  usual  of  the  monotony  of  system,  no  fewer 
than  twenty-four  small  public  parks  or  gardens  being  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  city,  and  most  of  its  streets  being 
well  shaded  with  trees.  In  the  south  is  Forsyth  Park 
(30  acres),  with  a  fountain  after  the  model  of  that  in 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris,  and  a  monument  to  the 
memory  of  the  Confederate  slain.  Johnson  Square  con- 
tains a  Doric  obelisk,  in  memory  of  General  Nathaniel 
Greene  and  Count  Pulaski,  the  corner  stone  of  which  was 
laid  by  Lafayette  in  1825;  and  in  Monterey  Square,  on 
the  spot  where  Pulaski  fell  in  1779,  rises  a  mors  elaborate 
monument — a  statue  of  Liberty  displaying  the  national 
banner,  c  the  top  of  a  marble  shaft  55  feet  high.  The 
focus  of  commercial  life  in  Savannah  is  the  so-called  Bay, 
a  narrow  street  built  at  the  foot  of  the  river  bluff,  with  its 
top  stories  opening  on  the  higher  level  behind.  Among 
the  more  conspicuous  buildings  are  the  custom-house  and 
post  office,  the  city  exchange,  the  court-house,  Oglethorpe 
United  States  barracks,  Chatham  academy,  St  Andrew's 
hall,  the  library  hall  of  the  Georgia  Historical  Society,  the 
Savannah  medical  college,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral, 
and  St  John's  Episcopal  church.  Besides  being  the 
second  cotton  port  in  the  States,  Savannah  has  a  large 
trade  in  rice,  timber,  resin,  and  turpentine,  the  value  of 
its  exports  being  829,850,275  in  1873,  and  $21,527,235 
in  1880.  Planing  mills,  foundries,  and  flour- mills  are  the 
chief  industrial  establishments.  The  harbour  has  in  Tybee 
Roads  a  depth  of  31  feet  and  38  feet  at  mean  low  and 
high  water,  and  the  bar  19  and  26  feet.  The  population, 
b\Q5  in  1810,  was  15,312  in  1850,  28,235  in  1870,  and 
30,709  (15,654  coloured)  in  1880. 

Savannah  was  settled  in  February  1733  under  General  Ogle- 
thorpe. A  British  attack  in  1776  was  repulsed  ;  but  it  was  cap- 
tured in  1778,  and  tliou;;h  the  French  and  American  forces  macic 
an  attempt  to  recover  it  in  1779  it  was  held  by  the  British  till  July 
1783.  Tho  first  session  of  the  legislature  of  tlie  State  was  held 
in  Savannah  in  January  1784.  A  city  charter  wa3  granted  in 
17S9.  A  great  fire  in  179t)  and  another  in  1820  did  damage  to 
the  amount  of  SI, 000, 000  and  81,000,000  respectively.  During 
the  Civil  "War  Savannah  was  held  by  the  ConTederates  ;  but  it  was 
ultimately  captured  by  General  Slierman  on  21st  December  1864. 

SAVARY.'Anne  Jean  Marie  Ren6  (1774-1833),  duke 
of  Rovigo,  was  born  at  Marcq,  in  the  canton  of  Grandpre 
and  department  of  Ardennes,  on  2Gth  April  1774.  He 
was  educated  at  the  college  of  St  Louis  in,  Metz,  where  ho 
gained  a  scholarship.  When  a  youth  of  sixteen  he  became 
a  volunteer  in  a  cavalry  regiment.  His  first  military  ex- 
periences were  with  the  army  of  the  Rhine  under  Custine ; 
he  distinguished  himself  under  Moreau  and  FiSrino,  and  by 
1797  had  reached  tho  rank  of  major.  In  the  next  year, 
under  Desaix,  he  took  part  in  the  Egyptian  expedition, 
and  he  followed  the  same  general  in  the  second  Italian 
campaign,  and  at  the  great  battle  of  Marengo  (14th  June 
1800).  He  had  by  this  time  attraoted  the  favourable 
notice  of  Napoleon,  who  detected  not  only  his  soldierly 
powers  but  his  singular  gifts  in  the  region  of  diplomacy 
and  intrigue.  For  Savary  the  plans  and  will  of  Napoleon 
formed  a  law  which  obliterated  every  other,  and  in  pre- 
senco  of  which  political  and  moral  scruple  had  no  place. 
So  early  as  1 800,  while  only  twenty-six  years  of  age,  he 
was  anpointed  a  ccloTiel  and  the  commander  of  that  legion 


which  was  afterwards  to  form  the  picked  bodyguard  of 
the  emperor.  In  1803  he  was  general  of  brigade,  and  in 
1804  he  was  charged  with  the  execution  of  the  Dub 
d'Enghien.  Savary  in  his  Memoirs  (-oublisked  in  Paris  in 
1828,  8  vols.  8vo)  avows  that  all  he  did  was  to  convey 
to  Vincennes  a  letter  whose  contents  he  did  not  know, 
and  early  next  morning,  in  obedience  to  the  orders  of  a 
superior  officer,  to  have  the  duke  shot.  The  other  side  of 
the  story  is  that  he  knew  all  about  it, — that  of  set  purpose, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  an  appeal  to  Napoleon's  clemency, 
he  hastened  the  execution ;  and  it  is  certain  that,  unlike  a 
man  merely  under  orders;  he  himself  went  straight  to 
Bonaparte  to  report  the  death.  Savary  was  the  hand 
which .  Napoleon  employed  in  the  delicate  negotiations 
with  the  emperor  Alexander  about  the  time  of  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz  in  1805.  At  Jena  in  1806  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  successful  pursuit  of  the  retreating  Prus- 
sians ;  he  rend:;red  signal  service  by  the  siege  of  Hameln, 
which  he  forced  to  capitulate  on  20th  November;  and, 
finally,  the  severe  defeat  w-hich  he  inflicted  upon  tlie 
Russian  forces  at  Ostrolenka,  on  16th  February  1807, 
was  his  crowning  victory.  Among  other  honours  and 
rewards,  he  received  a  pension  of  20,000  francs.  After 
the  peace  of  Tilsit  he  was  despatched  to  St  Petersburg ; 
but  shortly  thereafter — the  Napoleonic  scheme  for  the 
crown  of  .Spain  being  now  apparently  complete— he  was 
recalled,  was  created  duke  of  Rovigo,  and  started  for 
JIadrid.  His  deceitful  intrigue  was  soon  successful,  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte  ascended  the  Spanish  throne.  From 
1808  to  1810  he  was  again  beside  Napoleon  in  the  many 
and  changing  scenfes  of  his  exploits ;  but  on  the  8th  of 
June  of  the  latter  year  France  itself,  now  fully  alive  to 
the  vast  and  mysterious  power  he  had  learned  to  wield, 
was  star, led  by  his  appointment  as  successor  to  Fouche 
in  the  ministry  of  police.  His  administration,  however, 
was  not  a  success.  After  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon, 
he  desired  to  accompany  his  master  to  St  Helena,  but 
this  was  refused,  and  he  was  imprisoned  at  Malta.  He 
escaped  thence  to  Smyrna,  thereafter  wandered  about  the 
east  of  Europe,  and  finally  embarked  for  England,  which 
he  reached  in  1819.  Three  years  before  he  had  been 
condemned  to  'death  by  default ;  and,  learning  this,  he 
proceeded  to  Paris  to  clear  himself  of  the  sentence,  in 
which  he  succeeded,  being  clso  reinvested  with  his  rank 
and  dignities.  He  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  remained 
till  1831,  when  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  African  army,  and  entrusted  with  the  administration 
of  Algeria.  His  duties  were  successfully  performed,  but 
he  returned  in  March  1^33  in  weak  health  to  Paris,  where 
he  died  on  the  2d  of  June. 

SAVIGLIANO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Cuneo,  31  i  miles  by  rail  south  of  Turin,  lies  in  a  plain 
between  the  Maira  and  the  Mellea  (head-streams  of  the  Po) 
1081  feet  above  the  sea.  It  still  retains  some  traces  of 
its  ancient  walls,  demolished  in  1707,  and  has  a  fine  col- 
legiate church  (Sant'  Andrea,  dating  at  least  from  the  11th 
century,  but  in  its  present  form  comparatively  modern), 
a  triumphal  arch  erected  in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Victor 
Amadeus  I.  with  Christine  of  France,  and  in  the  Taffini 
palace  paintings  by  the  16th-century  local  artist  Giovanni 
MoUineri  (A'uHnari,  II  Caraccino).  Savigliano  has  long 
been  a  place  of  considerable  industrial  activity;  its 
modern  manufactures  comprise  paper,  silk,  and  beer.  The 
population  was  9932  in  1881  (commune  17,150). 

First  mentioned  in  981  as  Villa  Sai-illiani,  Savigliano  appears  iu 
tho  12th  century  as  a  member  of  the  Lombard  leagnc.  Its  name 
pci'petually  crops  up  in  the  history  of  Piedmont  and  Savoy.  It  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  the  duke  of  Savoy  in  1347  and  again  in  1307; 
and  in  the  16th  atid  17th  centuries  it  sufTcrcd  severely  from  French 
garrisons.  Charles  Emmanuel  I.  died  in  1630  at  Savigliano,  where 
the  Piedmoii'.eao  senate  had  met  to  escape  tlis  pestilence 


32{i 


S  A  A'   I  G  N  Y 


SAVIGNY,  Feiepeich  Carl  von  (1779-1861),  was 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  on  February  21,  1779. 
Ho  was  descended  from  an  ancient  family,  -nhich  figures 
in  the  history  of  Lorraine,  and  which  derived  its 
name  from  the  castle  of  Savigny  near  Charmes  in  the 
valley  of  the  Moselle.  When  Lorraine  passed  into  the 
possession  of  France,  his  family  attached  itself  to  Ger- 
many, and  his  ancestors  filled  important  official  posts  in 
Nassau  and  other  German  states.  His  great-grandfather 
wrote  a  work.  La  Dissoliition  de  la  Reunion,  as  a  protest 
against  the  conquests  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  his  grandfather  was 
"  Eegierungsdirector  "  at  Zweibriicken,  and  his  father  was 
a  noble  of  the  empire  and  "  Kreisgesandter "  of  several 
princes  of  the  diet  of  the  circle  of  'the  Upper  Khine. 
His  father,  Carl  Ludwig  von  Savigny,  died  in  1791,  his 
mother  in  1792,  and  he  was  brought  up  and  educated  by 
his  guardian,  Herr  von  Neurath,  assessor  of  the  Eeichs- 
kammergericht  or  imperial  chamber  at  Wetzlar,  a  master 
of  the  "  Staatsrecht "  of  the  time. 

In  1795  Savigny  went  to  study  at  Marburg,  and 
derived  great  advantage,  as  is  gratefully  recorded  by 
liim,  from  the  teaching  and  friendship  of  Professors  Weis 
and  Bauer.  '  For  six  months  he  studied  at  Gcittingen.  It 
is  noted  as  a  curious  circumstance  tliat,  though  Hugo,  the 
_great  civilian,  was  there  lecturing,  Savigny  did  not  attend 
his  course.  He  suffered  much  for  two  or  three  years  from 
ill-health.  Savigny  visited,  after  the  fashion  of  German 
students,  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Halle ;  and  he  returned  to 
Marburg,  where,  on  December  31,  1800,  he  took  his 
doctor's  degree.  His  inaugural  dissertation  was  entitled  •' 
De  Concursu  Delictorum  Fvnnali.^  At  Marburg  he  lectured 
as  privat-docent  on  criminal  law,  the  pandects,  the  law  of 
succession,  obligations,  and  the  methodology  of  law.  In 
1803  he  published  his  famous  treatise,  I)as  Recht  des 
Bcsit;es,  or  the  right  of  possession.  It  was  at  once  hailed 
by  Thibaut  as  a  masterpiece  jtjurists  recognized  that  the 
old  uncritical  study  of  Roman  law  was  at  an  end.  It 
quickly  obtained  a  European  reputation,  and  still  remains 
a  prominent  landmark  in  the  history  of  jurisprudence.  It 
was  the  fountain-head  of  a  stream  of  literature  which  has 
not  yet  ceased  to  flow.  Austin,  no  partial  judge,  pro- 
nounced it  to  be  "  of  all  books  upon  law,  the  most  con- 
summate and  masterly."  In  1S04  Savigny  married  Kuni- 
gunde  Brentano,  the  sister  of  Bettina  von  Arnim  and 
Clemens  Brentano  the  poet.  In  that  year  he  visited 
Paris,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  make  researches  in  the 
National  Library  into  the  lifo  of  the  jurist  Cujas,  whom 
he  greatly  idmired.  In  a  letter  to  be  found  in  his  miscel- 
laneous works  he  explains  the  ground  of  his  admiration. 
"Dans  I'histoire  de  la  jurisprudence  moderne,  il  n'y  a  pas 
d'^poquo  plus  brilliante  que  celle  du  IG"*  siMe.  C'est 
alors  que  la  science  du  droit  eut  viiritablement  un  grand  et 
noble  caractere  qu'elle  n'a  po,s  retrouve  depuis."  A  story 
not  without  significance  as  to  his  character  relates  to  this 
period  of  his  life.  On  his  way  to  Paris,  a  box  containing 
papers  in  which  were  the  results  of  laborious  researches 
was  stolen  from  his  carriage.  He  bore  the  loss  with 
equanimity,  and  managed  with  the  assistance  of  Jacob 
Grimm,  his  wife,  and  one  of  her  sisters  to  do  much  to  re- 
pair the  loss. 

In  ISOS  he  was  appointed  by  the  Bavarian  Government 
ordinary  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Landshut,  where  he 
remained  a  year  and  a  half,  and  where  he  left  many 
pleasant  memcries-.  In  ISIO  ho  was  called,  chiefly  at  the 
instance  of  William  von  Humboldt,  to  Berlin  to  fill  the 
chair  of  Roman  law,  and  assist  in  organizing  the  new 
university.     One  of  his   services   was  to  create,  in  con- 


^  Tho  object  of  bis  investigation  is  thus  described :  "  Delicta 
ccncurrere  dicuntur,  ubi  de  pluribus  legura  violationibus,  quarum 
nonnisi  unus  est  reus,  in  eodem  judicio  puuiendts  agitur." 


nexion  with  the  law  faculty,  a  "  Spruch-OoUegium,"  or 
university  court,  competent  to  deal  with  cases  remitted  to 
it  by  the  ordinary  courts ;  and  he  took  an  active  part  in 
its  labours.  This  was  the  busiest  time  of  his  life.  Ho 
was  engaged  in  lecturing,  in  the  government  of  the  uni- 
versity (of  which  he  was  the  third  rector),  and  as  tutor  to 
the  crown  prince  iu  Roman,  criminal,  and  Prussian  Jaw. 
Not  the  least  important  consequence  of  his  residence  in 
Berlin  was  his  friendship  with  Niebuhr  and  Eichhorn. 
In  1814  appeared  his  pamphlet  Vom  Beruf  tinserer  Zeit 
fiir  Gesdagebv.ng  vnd  Recktstvissenschaft.  It  was  a  protest 
against  tho  demand  for  ■  codification,  and  in  particular 
against  the  extension  of  the  Code  Napoleon  to  Germany. 
Fired  with  the  hcpe  thp.t  a  day  of  resuri-ection  for  the 
national  life  of  Germany  was  at  hand,  Thibaut  had  written 
a  pamphlet  urging  jhe  necessity  of  forming  a  code  for 
Germany.  Savigny  wrote  a  reply,  in  which  were  laid 
down  some  principles  with  which  wise  advocates  of  codi- 
fication might  well  agree.  '  "I  regard,"  he  said,  "  the  law 
of  each  country  as  a  member  of  its  body,  not  as  a  garment 
merely  which  has  been  made  to  please  the  fancy,  and  can 
be  taken  off  at  pleapure  and  exchanged  for  another."  He 
laid  stress  upon  the  connexion  of  the  present  and  the 
past  and  the  consequent  limitations  of  the  power  of  legis- 
lation. But  in  the  course  of  his  argument  he  confounded 
the  errors  of  codifiers  in  France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  and 
especially  the  defects  in  the  Code  Napoleon,  with  the 
necessary  incidents  of  codification.  But  at,  its  highest,  his 
argument  comes  to  little  more  than  others  had-  before 
crudely  expressed  by  saying,  "We  are  not  -wise  enough  to 
compose  a  code."  ^ 

In  1815  he  founded,  with  Eichhorn  and  Goschen,  tho 
Zeitxchrift  fiir  geschichtticke  Rechtswlssenschaft,  the  organ 
of  the  new  historical  school,  of  which  he  was  the  represen- 
tative. In  1816,  while  on  his  way  to  Rome  as  envoy  of 
Prussia,  Niebuhr  made  at  Verona  the  celebrated  dis- 
covery of  the  lost  text  of  Gains.  He  communicated  to 
Savigny  the  fact,  and  also  his  conjecture  that  it  was  the 
work  of  Ulpian.  Savigny  made  known  the  discovery  to 
the  world  in  an  article  in  the  Zeitschrift,  and  pointed  out 
Gaius  as  the  real  author.  Goschen,  Bekker,  and  Holl- 
weg  actually  deciphered  the  manuscript;  but 'there  is 
some  truth  in  Hugo's  saying,  "  Without  Savigny  one 
would  not  have  had  Gaius." 

The  record  of  the  remainder  of  Savigny's  life  consists  of 
little  else  than  a  list  of  the  merited  honours  which  he 
received  at  the  hands  of  his  sovereign,  and  of  the  works 
which  he  published  with  indefatigable  activity. 

In  1815  appeared  thi?first  volume  of  his  Geschichle  des 
R'umisclien  Redds  im  Ilitielalla- ;  the  last  did  not  appear 
until  1831.  This  work,  to  which  his  early  instructor, 
Weis,  had  first  prompted  him,  was  originally  intended  to 
be  a  literary  history  of  Roman  law  from  Irnerius  to  the 
present  time.  His  design  was  in  some  respect  narrowed  ; 
in  others  it  was  widened.  He  saw  fit  not  to  continue  the 
narrative  beyond  the  IGth  century,  when  the  separation  of 
nationalities  disturbed  the  foundations  of  the  science  of 
law.  His  treatment  of  the  subject  was  not  merely  that  of 
a  bibliographer ;  it  was  philosophical.  It  revealed  the  con- 
tinuity in  the  history  of  Roman  law ;  and  it  was  an  emphatic 
protest  against  the  habit  of  vie-nnng  the  law  of  a  nation  as  an 
arbitrary  creation,  not  connected  with  its  history  and  con- 
dition. It  was  the  parent  of  many  valuable  works  which 
continued  Savigny's  investigations.^  In  1817  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  commission  for  organizing  the 
Prussian  provincial  estates,  and  also  a  member  of  thu 
department  of  justice  in  the  Staatsrath,  and  in  1819  he 

-  See  Austin's  criticisms  in  Lectures^  ii.  6t>8. 

^  See  Von  Mont's  Staatsxrissznscha/t,  vol.  iii.  p.  55.  For  a  some- 
wfiat  less  faTour.'iblu  view,  .^.ee  Gans's  VcrmischU  SchrijtEn. 


S  A  V  —  S  A  V 


327 


ibecamB  a  member  of  the  supreme  court  of  cassation  and 
revision  for  the  Rhine  Provinces.  In  1820  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  commission  for  revising  the  Prussian  code. 
In  1822  a  serious  nervous  illness  attacked  Savigny,  and 
compelled  him  to  seek  relief  in  travel.  He  always  con- 
sidered that  ho  had  benefited  much  by  the  homoeopathic 
treatment  of  Dr  Necker,  and  he  remained  a  firm  believer 
in  homceopathy.  In  1835  he  began  his  elaborate  work 
on  the  modern  system  of  Roman  law.  The  eighth  and  last 
volume  appeared  in  1819. 

In  March  18'12  he  ceased  to  perform  his  duties  as 
[)rofessor  in  order  to  become  "  Grosskanzler "  of  Prussia ; 
and  in  that  position  he  carried  out  several  important  law 
reforms  in  regard  to  bills  of  exchange  and  divorce  (a 
subject  on  which  he  had  meditated  much).  He  held  that 
office  until  1818,  when  he  resigned,  not  altogether  to  the 
regret  of  his  friends,  who  had  seen  his  energies  with- 
drawn from  jurisprudence  without  being  able  to  flatter 
themselves  that  he  was  a  great  statesman.  lu  1850,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  jubilee  of  his  obtaining  his  doctor's 
■degree,  appeared  in  five  volumes  his  Vermischie  Schriften, 
consisting  of  a  collection  of  his  minor  works  published 
between  1800  and  1844.  This  event  gave  rise  to  much 
enthusiasm  throughout  Germany  in  honour  of  "  the  great 
master  "  and  founder  of  modern  jurisprudence.  Professor 
Scheurl,  in  his  Einige  Worte  iiher  Savigny,  notes  the  fact 
that  on  the  31st  of  October  Luther  first  revealed  to  the 
world  the  light  of  evangelical  truth,  and  Savigny  on  that 
day  began  his  work  as  a  law  reformer.  In  1853  he  pub- 
lished his  treatise  on  Obligations,  a  t;upplemeut  to  his 
system  of  modern  Roman  law.  Savigny  died  at  Berlin  on 
October  25,  1861.  His  son,  Carl  Friedrich  von  Savigny, 
born  September  19,  1814,  was  Prussian  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1849.  He  represented  Prussia  in  important 
diplomatic  transactions,  especially  in  1866,  and  died 
February  11,  1875. 

In  the  history  of  jurispruJence  Savigny's  fjreat  works  are  the 
lieoht  dcs  Bcsiizcs  and  the  Bcruf  unscrcr  Zclt  fur  Gcsctzgebung, 
The  former  marked  an  epoch  in  jurisprudence.  Prof.  Iheiing 
says:  "With  the  Jicc/U  dcs  Hcsikcs  was  tlio  juridical  method  of  the 
Romans  regained,  and  inoHcrn  jurisi)rudence  born."  It  marked  a 
great  advance  both  in  results  and  method,  and  it  rendered  obsolete 
a  large  literature.  Savigny  sought  to  prove  that  in  Roman  law 
possession  had  always  reference  to  usucapion  or  to  interdicts, 
tliat  it  is  not  a  right  to  continue  in  possession,  but  to  immunity 
from  violence,  and  that  possession  is  based  on  the  consciousness  of 
unlimited  power.  Tliese  and  other  propositions  were  maintained 
with  great  acutencss  and  unequalled  ingenuity  in  interpreting 
and  harmonizing  the  Roman  juiists.  The  book  also  seeks  to  solve 
the  problem  of  general  interest,  common  to  almost  every  system 
of  jurisprudence,  why  possession,  rightful  or  wrongful,  as  distin- 
guished from  property,  should  be  protected.  This  general  problem 
suffers  by  being  almost  solely  discussed  with  reference  toKoman  law. 
Hia  leauing  principle,  that  every  '*  e.^ercise  of  force  "  is  illegal,  is 
not  ineontestible,   and,   if  true,  it  docs   not  clear  up  the  whole 

firoblem.  The  attempt  to  treat  the  historical  accidents  of  Rom  in 
<iw  as  juridical  necessities  is  the  weak  side  of  a  work  in  other 
respects  masterly  ;  and  there  is  a  difficulty  in  understanding 
Austin's  eulogy  that  it  was  of  all  books  ho  knew  "  the  least  alloy  ed 
with  error  and  im.perfection."  The  controversy  which  has  been 
-carried  on  in  Germany  by  Ihcring,  Baron,  Gans,  and  Bruns 
shows  that  many  of  Savigny's  conclusions  have  not  been 
acocptcd.'  The  Dcmif  uitscrcr  Zcit  expresses  the  idea,  un- 
familiar in  ISH,  that  law  is  part  aiid  parcel  of  national  life,  and 
■combats  the  notion,  too  much  assumed  by  Trench  jurists,  espe- 
cially in  last  century,  and  count. nanccd  in  practice  by  Bentham, 
tiiat  law  might  be  arbitrarily  iiuposed  on  a  country  irrespective  of 
Its  state  of  civilization  and  past  history.  Of  even  greater  \aluc 
than  his  services  in  founding  or  consolidating  "  the  historical  sthool 
of  jurisprudence"  is  the  emphatic  reco/jnition  in  his  works  of  the 
fact  tliat  the  practice  and  theory  of  jurisprudence  cannot  be 
divorced  without  injury  to  both.  Writing  at  a  time  when  the 
i.:!fli.enco  of  Megcl  waa  in  the  iscendiot,  and  in  a  city  where  he 
W.1S  official  philosopher,  Sa"=/juy  wa.i  nut  carried  away  by  meta- 
physical theories.  Id  -^ll  .lis  writings  there  is  not  a  word  betraying 
Bcquointaucovnr'-  *J)o  (at>ours  of  his  great  coniemporary,  Bcnthanij 
nor  had  BtJtham  mnrf.  than  the  most  superficial  knowlcilgc  r.f 
'  .uu  WiudscljtiJ,  LchrbiKh  d<^  1'u.ndcktairccU:,  i.  .•I.'ifl. 


him  (see  G^lu^ ■£.  T^uckhlickc  auf  Pcrsojicn).  lerhaps  a  study  of  both 
would  do  more  than  auything  else  to  aid  in  Jlie  construction  of  a 
true  science  of  jurisprudence,  consisting  neith-)r  of  platitudes  and 
logomachies  nor  of  a  worthless  catalogue  of  legal  curiosities.    (J.  M+.) 

SAVILE.     See  Halifax,  vol.  xi.  p.  386. 

SAVILE,  SlE  Henky  (1549-1022),  a  learned  English- 
man, was  the  second  son  of  Henry  Savi'e,  and  was  born 
at  Over  Bradley,  near  Halifax,  30th  November  1549. 
He  was  entered  of  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  whence  he 
was  elected  to  Merton  College  in  1561,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  Arts  and  was  chosen  fellow.  After  graduating 
M.A.  in  1570,  he  voluntarily  read  lectures  on  mathematics 
in  the  university.  He  was  proctor  in  1575  and  1576, 
travelled  on  the  Continent  coUeciiug  MSS.  in  1578,  and 
on  his  return  was  tutor  to  Elizabeth  fn  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics. He  was  warden  of  Merton  College  from  1535 
until  his  death,  and  in  1596  was  chosen  provost  of  Eton 
College.  He  was  offered  preferment  by  James  I.  after  his 
accession  in  1604,  but  would  accept  nothing  more  than 
the  honour  of  knighthood.  After  the  death  of  his  son 
Henry  he  devoted  his  fortune  to  the  promotion  of  learn- 
ing. In  1019  ha  founded  lectures  on  mathematics  and 
astronomy  at  Oxford,  and  he  also  made  various  other 
benefactions  to  the  university,  including  the  foundation  of 
a  mathematical  library  frr  the  professors,  and  the  gift  of 
several  rare  MSS.  and  printed  books  to  the  Bodleian. 
He  died  at  Eton  College  19th  February  1622,  and  was 
buried  in  the  chapel  there.  In  recognition  of  his  great 
services  to  the  university,  a  public  speech  and  verses  were 
made  in  his  praise,  which  were  soon  afterwards  published 
under  the  title  Ultima  Linca  Savilii. 

Savile  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  all  the  learned  of  hia 
time.  He  published  Four  Hooks  of  the  Histories  of  Cornelius 
Tacitus,  and  the  Life  of  Agricola,  with  Notes,  dedicated  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  (1581);  A  View  of  Certain  Military  Mutters,  or  Com- 
vicntarics  concerning  Roman  Warfare  (1598)  ;  Rcruvi  Anglicarum 
Scriptores  post  Bedam  (1596) ;  an  excellent  edition  of  Chrysostom, 
8  vols.  (1613);  Mathematical  Lectures  on  Euclid's  Elements  (1621); 
and  Oratio  coram  Elizabetha  Jtegina  Oxonis.  haiita  anno  1592 
(1658).  In  1613  he  published,  with  a  Life,  Br.!,dwardin's  work 
Dc  Causa  Dei  contra  Pelagium  ct  dc  Virtute  Cat  sarum  ;  and  he 
translated  into  Latin  King  James's  Apology  for  :hc  Oath  of  Alle- 
giance. He  also  left  several  manuscripts  written  by  order  of  King 
James,  all  of  which  are  in  the  Bodleian  library. 

SAVINGS  BANKS  (Fr.  misses  d'epargn.:;  Germ.  Spar- 
kassen)  are  institutions  for  the  purpose  of  .'cceiviug  small 
deposits  of  money  and  investing  them  for  the  benefit  of 
the  depositors  at  compound  interest.  They  are,  in  general, 
managed  by  benevolent  persons,  who  seek  uo  remunera- 
tion for  their  services.  They  originated  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century — a  period  marked  by  a  great  advance 
in  the  organization  of  provident  habits  in  general  (see 
Friendly  Societies).  They  had  been,  however,  one  of 
the  many  excellent  projects  suggested  by  Daniel  Defoe  in 
1697.  The  earliest  institution  of  the  kind  in  Europe  was 
one  established  at  Brunswick  in  1765  ;  it  was  followed  in 
1778  by  that  of  Hamburg,  which  still  exists,  in  1780  by 
one  at  Oldenburg,  in  1790  by  one  at  Loire,  in  1792  by 
that  of  Basel,  in  1794  by  one  at  Geneva,  which  had  but  a 
short  existence,  and  in  1796  by  one  at  Kiel  in  llolslein. 
In  Great  Britain,  in  1797,  Jeremy  Benlham  revived  De- 
foe's suggestion  under  the  name  of  "Frugality  Banks," 
and  in  1799  the  Rev.  Joseph  Smith  put  it  in  action  at 
Wendover.  This  was  followed  in  1801  by  the  addition  of 
a  savings  bank  to  the  friendly  society  which  Mrs  Priscilla 
Wakefield  had  cstabli.shed  in  1798.  Savings  banks  were 
shortly  after  established  in  London,  Ba'th,  Ruthwell  in 
Dumfriesshire,  Edinburgh,  Kelso,  Hawick,  Southampton, 
and  many  other  places.  By  1817  they  had  become 
numerous  enough  to  claim  the  attention  of  the  legislature, 
and  Acts  of  Parliament  were  passed  for  their  management 
and  control.  Their  progress  in  the  United  Kingdom  since 
that  dale  is  shrv/n  by  Iho  following  statement : — 


328 


SAVINGS      BANKS 


Tear 

ending 

Nor. 

20. 

Population. 

Number  of 
Depositors. 

Perccnt- 
ago  of 
PopuI,i- 

tiuu. 

Amount  of 
Deposits. 

Per  Head 

of 
Population. 

1821 

1831 
1841 
1851 
1861 

20,893,584 
24,023,684 
26,730,929 
27,390,629 
23,927,485 

Not  known 

429,400 

841,204 

1,161,838 

1,609,102 

2' 
3 
4 
6 

£ 
4,740,188 
14,693,635 
24,530,971 
30,445,568 
41,542,219 

£    5.  d. 
0    4     6 
0  12     3 
0  IS     4 
12     3 
18     9 

From  this  date  the  progress  of  the  post  office  saTiags 
banks  has  also  to  be.  brought  into  account,  statistics  of 
which  have  already  been  given  under  Tost  OrncE  : — 


Tear. 

Population. 

Number  of  Depositors. 

Percent- 
age of 
Popula- 
tion. 

Trustee 
Savings  Eanlis. 

Post  Office 
Savings  B.'mlis. 

Total. 

1871 
1881 
1834 

31,845,373 
35,241,482 

1.404,078 
1,532,486 
1,582,474 

1,303,492 
2,607,612 
3,333,675 

2,707,570 
4,140,093 
4,916,149 

8-^ 
12 

Amount  of  Deposits. 

Per  Head 
of  Popula- 
tion. 

Per  De- 
positor. 

Trustee 
Savings  Banks. 

Post  OfBco 
Savings  Banks. 

Total 

1871 
1881 
1884 

£ 
38,820,433 
44,137,855 
43,840,887 

£ 
17,023,004 

36,194,493 
44,773,773 

£ 
55,845,462 
80,332,350 
90,614,660 

£    s.    d. 

1  15     0 

2  5     7 

£ 
21 
19 

18 

On  the  24th  April  188G  the  funds  in  the  hands  of  the 
National  Debt  Commissioners  on  account  of  trustee  savings 
banks  were  £4C,1G'2,515,  and  post  office  savings  banks 
£49,881,896,  a  total  of  £96,044,411. 

To  these  may  be  added  the  cash  and  assets  in  the  hands 
of  the  banks  and  the  postmaster-general,  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  previous  year  amounted  to  £764,804,  and 
sdso  the  following  investments  in  stock  on  account  of 
depositors  : — trustee  savings  bank,  £729,522  ;  post  office 
savings  bank,  £2,626,928  ;  total,  £3,356,450  :— making 
the  aggregate  funds  belonging  to  depositors  in  savings 
banks  more  than  £100,000,000. 

The  largest  savings  bank  in  tue  United  Kingdom  is 
that  at  Glasgow,  as  shown  by  the  following  table  of  the 
21  principal  banks  : — 


Glasgov.' 

Liverpool 

Manchester 

E  Jinl>urgh; 

St  Martin's  Place,  London 

Bloomfield  Street,  London 

Exeter 

Sheffield 

Finsbury,  London 

Newcastle-on-Tyne 

Preston 

HuU 

Nottingham 

Leeds 

Bristol 

Devonport 

Bloomsbury ,  London 

Banlis  with  less  capital  but  a 
large  number  of  depositors — 

Aberdeen... .r..' 

Dundee 

Marylcbonc.  I  indou 

Leicester....-....; 


Deposits  on 
SOtli  Novem- 
ber 1S3». 


£ 
686,607 
080,788 
858,468 
412,547 
,351,839 
,263,577 
,034,601 
9.i7,164 
885,195 
776,138 
653,875 
628,903 
607,708 
572,209 
539,093 
523,154 
521,615 


19,374,133 


390,151 
474,089 
301,713 
326  296 


;0,S7-',3S2 


Deposit 

Accounts 

Open. 


127,651 
80,667 
68,162 
59,970 
29,999 
65,301 
34,217 
32,389 
31,880 
21,998 
19,561 
27,597 
22,311 
24,322  . 
14,108 
18,995 

.  23,532 


703,220 


32,668 

22,119 

20,895 

.18,531 


■,433 


Number  of 
Transactions 
in  tlio  Year. 


523,322 

336,281 

210,828 

232,373 

38,350 

104,311 

35,230 

74,150 

97,386 

.40,952 

54,871 

82,414 

40,114 

83,433 

29,286 

23,675 

39,433 


'046,416 


36,380 
81,753 
23,773 
36,141 


2,221,463 


From  this  table  some  interesting  conclusions  may  bo  drawn 

as  to  the  operations  of  savings  banks  in  the  larger  tovras. 
These  21  banks  h?ve  together  more  than  50  per  cent,  o? 
the  depositors,  more  than  45  per  cent,  of  the  deposits, 
and  more  than  65  per  cent,  of  the  transactions  of  all  the  . 

411  savings  banks  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  progress  of  savings  banks  and  the  large  amount  Organiiia 
that  the  deposits  have  now  reached  are  evidence  of  the  "°"- 
general  fitness  of  the  organization  for  its  purpose.  So  far 
as  regards  trustee  savings  banks,  the  provisions  of  the 
Acts  of  18 1.7  are  still  to  a  great  extent  the.  same  as  those 
by  which  they  are  now  Tfgulated,  though  the  law  has 
been  frequently  amended  in  matters  of  detail,  and  twice 
(1828  and  1863)  consolidated.  Its  main  feature  is  the 
requirement  that  the  whole  of  the  funds  should  be  invested 
with  the  Government  through  the  Commissioners  for  the 
Reduction  of  the  National  Debt.  The  local  management 
of  the  banks  has  been  left  entirely  to  the  trustees,  who 
are  precluded  from  receiving  any  remuneration  for  their 
services  or  making  any  profit.  They  are,  however, 
required  to  furnish  the  commissioners  with  periodical 
returns  of  their  transactions.  This  blending  of  private 
management  with  state  control  has  had  many  advantages- 
in  knitting  together  class  and  class,  and  in  many  places 
the  voluntacy  trustees  and  managers  have  been  able  to 
render  real  service  to  the  depositors  in  various  ways.  A. 
new  savings  bank  requires  for  its  establishment  the  con- 
sent of  the  National  Debt  Commissioners  and  the  certi- 
ficate of  the  registrar  of  friendly  societies  to  its  rules ; 
but  since  the  opening  of  the  post  office  savings  banks  in 
1861  few  have  been  established,  and  many  old  savings 
banks  have  been  closed,  not  being  able  to  offer  to  their 
depositors  the  same  advantages  as  the  new  system.  The 
savings  banks,  which  numbered  640  in  1861,  have  thus 
been  reduced  to  411,  and  their  capital  has  been  maintained 
rather  by  the  accumulation  ■  of  interest  than  by  fresh 
deposits. 

The  legislation  of  1817,  among  other  inducements  to  thrift,  latercst 
offered  that  of  a  bounty^  to  the  savings  bank  depositor  in  the 
shape  of  a  rate  of  interest  in  excess  of  that  given  to  the  ordinary 
public  creditor,  or — wliich  is  the  same  thing — in  excess  of  that 
which  could  be  earned  by  the  investment  of  the  deposits  in  the 
purchase  of  Government  stock.  The  interest  offered  in  the  first 
instance  Avas  3d.  per  day,  or  £4,  lis.  3d.  per  cent,  per  annum; 
and  that  rate  continued  to  be  granted  until  the  passing  of  the  Act 
of  1S2S  (9  Geo.  IV.  c.  92).  Tliat  Act  reduced  the  rate  of  inteipw* 
allowed  to  the  trustees  of  savings  banks  to  2^d.  per  day,  or  £5, 
16s.  O^d.  per  aunum,  and  prohiljited  them  from  allowing  more  to 
their  depositors  than  2^d.  per  day,  or  £3,  Ss.  5^d.  per  annum, 
requiring  them  to  pav  the  surplus,  if  any,  into  a  separate  fund 
.held  by  the  National  Debt  Commissioners,  but  bearing  no  interest. 
I.n  18-14  the  interest  to  trustees  was  further  reduced  to  2d.  per 
day,  or  £3,  5s.  per  cent.,  the  maximum  to  be  allo\^■cd  to  depositors 
being  fixed  at  £3,-0s.  lOd.  Finally,  in  1530  the  interest  to  trus- 
tees has  been  reduced  to  £3,  and  that  to  depositors  to  £2,  15s. 

The  result  of  the  bonus  on  thrift  offered  by  the  earlier  statutes 
was  a  loss  ta  the  state,  which  ought  to  have  been  made  good  by 
an  annual  vote.  Eetweeu  1817  and  1S2S  the  ditfercuce  between 
the  interest  credi'ted  and  that  earned' amounted  to  £744  363  ;  and 
tliis  led  to  the  reduction  in  the  rate  of  interest  effected  by  the  Act 
of  the  latter  year.  The  deficiency,  instead  of  being  paid  olf,  was 
allowed  still  to  accumulate,  and  as  the  price  of  slock  rose  and  the 
deposits  increased  fresh  deficiencies  arose,  so  that  by  1844  tho 
deficiency,  wliich  would  have  been  1^  millions  by  the  mere 
accumulation  of  interest  on  the  previous  £744,363,  had  become 
£3,179,930.  The  reduction  of  interest  in  1844  was  about  enough 
to  make  tlie  fund  self-supporting,  thougli  savings  banks  are  always, 
as  Mr  Scratchle.v  clearly  shows,  liable  to  loss  from  tho  fact  that 
deposits  are  in  excess  when  the  funds  are  high  ami  withdrawals 
when  they  are  low  ;  but  the  past  deficiency  was  still  allowed  to 
accumulate,  and  it  was  not  till  ISSO.  that  the  plan  was  adopted 
of  voting  the  deficiency  every  year.  Had  the  accumulated  defi- 
ciency been  then  liquidated,  there  would  have  been  no  necessity 
for  an  annual  vote.  The  bad  political  economy  of  the  legislators 
of  1317  has  left  us  thfs  legacy  of  annual  deficits.  Had  they 
provided  the  bounty  at  their  own  expense  instead  of  that,  of 
their  descendani-:.  there  would  have  been  little  to  be  eaitl 
against  it.  • 


SAVING 

Limita-        The  offer  of  a  bonus  on  thrift  '.vas  of  necessity  accompanied  by 
tion  of     provisions  to  guard   against  its  being  used  by"  others   than   the 
deposits,  classes  it  was  intended  to  encourage.     This  was  done  by  limiting 
the  amount  that  each  depositor  should  bo  permitted  to  pay  ia. 
In  the  first  instance,  in  Engi^na  the  limit  was  fixed  at  £100  for 
the  first  year,  and  £50  a  year  afterwards.     In  1824  these  limits 
weis  reduced  to  £50  for  the  first  year,  £30  a  year  afterwards,  and 
£200  in  the  whole.     In  1828  the  limit  was  adopted  which  still 
remains  in  force  of  £30  a  year  or  £150  in  the  whole,  allowed  by 
addition  of  interest  to  increas*  to  £200  but  no,  further.     Attempts- 
have  been  frequently  made  to  raise  the  annual  limit  to  £50,  but 
have  always  been  defeated.     This  is  to  be  re;-:retted,  for  tho  limit 
is  of  doubtful   utility,  now  that  the  rate  of  interest  has  been  .so 
reduced  as  to  prevent  loss  to  the  state.     It  is  within,  the  common 
experience  of  savings  banks  managers  that  persons  come  to  deposit 
an   amount  exceeding  £30  and  are  disappointed  when  they  find 
they  cannot  do  so.     The  Act  of  1S82,  permitting  investment  in 
Government  stock,  may  diminish  the  mischief. 
Occupa-       With  tho  view  of  showing  to  what  extent  savings  banks  are 
tions  of  used  by  tlie  classes  for  v.hich  they  were  intended,  a  return  was 
deposi.    published  for  tho  year  1852,  showing  (as  nearly  as  could  be  ascer- 
tors.         tained)  the  number  of  depositors  belonging  to  various  occupations, 
and  the  amount  of  their  deposits,  as  follows  : — 


BANKS 


329 


Depositors, 

Deposiis. 

Average. 

Tradesmen    and  their  assistants,   small 
f  armei-s,  clerks,  mechanica.  and  artisans 
not  described  as  jomxeymen,  and  tlieir 
wives 

290,407 
257,711 

182,630 
152,057 
138  853 

X8,H4,206 
6,307,383 
2,426,135 
4,354,080 

£27 
27 
13 
29 
29 
23 
19 

31 
31 

23 
23 

Domestic  servants,  chan-voraen,  nuises, 

Minors  having  acconnU  In  tlicir   own 
names,  including  apprentices 

Labourers,  farm    servants,   journeymen 

Females    described    "bnly    as     married 

Dressmakers,  millin^rt,  shopwomen,  and 

1  „-  •,.- 

24,85'J     1        SS0,202 

Trust  account*  {principally  for  minora). 

Soldiers,    sailors,    boatmen,    fishermen, 
policemen,    letter    canicrs,    revenue 
officers,  pensioners,  railway  men,  and 

21,525 
10,437 

.  20,SC1 
60,263 

733,243 
327.705 

579,523. 
1,394,351 

Persons  engaged  la  education,  mole  and 
female. 

Gentlemen,    persona     of     independent 
means,   professional   men,  onii   their 
wives 

Misceilancous,  and  persons  without  any 

Total 

1,18S,H7 

... 

Deposi- 
tor's 
declara- 
bog. 


('raadu- 

lent 
deposits. 


^ot  two  percent,  of  the  deposits,  therefore,  either  m  number 
or  amount,  are  made  by  classes  whom  it  may  be  supposed  it  was 
the  intention  of  the  legislature  to  exclude. 

When  a  person  comes  with  his  first  deposit  to  a  savings  bank 
he  13  required  to  sign  a  declaration,  sotting  forth  his  name, 
address,  and  occupation,  that  he  desires  to  become  a  depositor  on 
his  own  account,  and  that  he  has  no  money  in  any  other  S3vin<'3 
bank.  If  this  declaration  be  not  true,  the  deposits  are  liable  to 
he  forfeited  ;  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that  few  depositors  take  the 
trouble  to  read  what  they  are  signing,  or  think  much  about  tho 
meaning  of  it.  If  tlio  depositor  cannot  write,  the  actuary  of  tlie 
savings  hank  will  usually  ask  him  a  few  questions,  such  as  his 
ago,  mother's  maiden  name,  &c.,  which  may  tend  to  identify  him, 
or  defeat  any  attempt  to  personate  him  for  the  purpose  of  with- 
drawal. The  enactment  that  deposits  are  to  be  forfeited  if  the 
declaration  be  iaiso  was  qualified  in  1863  by  a  provision  tliat  the 
foifeituro  should  not  be  enforced  unless  in  the  o])iiiicn  of  the 
appointed  barrister  (now  the  solicitor  to  tho  treasury)  the  deposits 
had  been  made  with  a  fraudulent  intention. 

The  con-scquenco  of  tho  determination  by  the  solicitor  to  tho 
treasury  that  the  deposits  have  been  made  with  tlie  "  fraudulent " 
intention  which  tho  Act  contemplates  is  out  of  all  proportion  to 
the  nature  of  the  offence  committed,  being  in  fact  the  forfeiture  of 
all  tho  deposits.  Tho  prohibition  of  double  deposits  arose  when 
the  state  was  granting  a  rate  of  interest  greater  than  that  which 
It  earned  upon  tho  investment  of  the  money,  and  it  has  now  ceased 
to  have  any  real  rctson  wl.atever,  tlie  rate  of  interest  being  less 
than  earned.  Tho  intention  to  "defraud"  now  means  merely 
the  intention  to  evaao  a  restriction  that  has  ceased  to  be  necessary 
not  an  intention  to  deprive  anybody  of  anything  that  belongs  to 
him.  If  It  bo  thought  desirable  to  sanction  by  tho  infliction  of  a 
penalty  the  law  that  these  institutions  should  be  used  only  for 
the  savings  of  tho  poorer  classes,  the  loss  of  interest  would  bo  a 
su..::  lontif  not  an  extravagant  penalty,  without  forfeitnro  of  tho 
I'l:,,  :|al.  Indeed  the  present  excessive  penalty  has,  in  one  re- 
i„..r.. bio  case,  defeated  iticlf,  Tliis  was  the  case  of  a  dciJositor 
"i  ""'nl^f"  savings  bank,  who  invested  in  fictitious  names  the  sum 
of  ».2000.     Th»  «ol>rjtor  to  tho  treasury  felt  compelled  to  dcclara 


that  these  aeposits  were  made  with  a  fraudulent  intention  The 
registrar  m  Ireland  felt  bound  to  act  on  this  determination  and 
refused  to  award  payment  of  the  deposits.  The  High  Court  of 
Justice  and  the  Court  of  Appeal  refused  to  grant  a  mandamus  for 
the  law  would  not  assist  a  wrongdoer.  But  parliament  itself 
voted  £1000,  or  half  the  amount  of  the  forfeiture,  the  legislature 
thus  providing  a  remedy  for  an  injustice  it  had  itself  committed. 
Another  curious  case  was  that  of  a  young  woman,  the  daughter  of 
a  postmaster,  who  in  order  that  her  father  might  be  provided 
with  funds  to  meet  business  claims  as  they  became  due,  purloined 
money  from  him  and  invested  it  in  false  names  in  the  post  office 
savings  bank  kept  at  his  house.  In  this  case,  the  postmaster  him- 
self not  being  the  guilty  party,  no  forfeiture  took  place. 
^  Among  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  legislature' upon  depositors  Settl^?-' 
in  savings  banks  has  been  that  of  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction  mem  of 
of  the  ordinary  courts  of  law  in  cases  of  dispute  with  the  trustees,  disputes. 
By  the  Acts  of  1817  disputes  were  to  bo  settled  by  arbitration. 
By  that  of  1828  the  barrister  appointed  to  certify  the  rules  of  tho 
savings  banks  (then  and  until  his  death  in  1870  Mr  John  Tidd  . 
Pratt)  was  made  umpire  in  case  of  difference  of  opinion  between 
the  arbitrators.  By  that  of  184-4  the  arbitrators  were  abolished, 
and  an  original  and  final  jurisdiction  was  cfnfcrred  upon  the 
barrister.  By  an  Act  of  1876  the  functions  of  tho  barrister  in  this 
respect  -were  conferred  upon  the  registrar  of  friendly  societies. 
This  in  efi'eot  makes  no  change  in  the  law,  for  the  offices  of  barrister 
and  registrar  have  been  always  held  by  tho  same  persons.  As  early 
as  1832  it  was  determined  in  the  case  of  Crisp  v.  Sir  Henry 
Bunbury  that  the  efi'ect  of  these  enactments  is  to  oust  the  juris- 
diction of  all  tho  superior  courts  of  law  and  equity,  and  the  author- 
ity of  that  decision  has  never  been  shaken  or  even  doubted. 

Since  1876  the  registrar  of  friendly  societies  has  made  147  Jurisdic- 
awards  ill  cases  of  disputes  with  savings  banks,  in  addition  to  169  tion  of 
on  disputes  with  the  post  ofiite  savings  bank.  As  the  WTiter  of  regisli-ar. 
the  present  article  is  one  of  the  two  persons  in  whom  this  jurisdic- 
tion is  vested  for  England,  he  hopes  he  may  be  e.xcu.sed  for  express- 
ing the  opinion  that  its  exercise  has  been  highly  beneficial  to 
depositors  in  savings  banks.  Tlie  -costs  of  the  award  are  limited 
by  treasury  warrant  to  a  few  shillings,  never  exceeding  £1.  Tho 
procedure  is  simple  and  elastic,  and  the  results  are  believed  to  bo 
satisfactory.  Tlie  central  .oflioe,  acting  as  registrar,  determines 
law  anc^  faot,  and  adjusts  all  the  equities  of  each  case.  Reference 
to  the  index  to  the  registrar's  decisions  appended  to  the  chief 
registrar's  report  for  1883,  or  to  Mr  Forbes's  useful  work,  will  s'low 
tliat  many  interesting  questions  of  law  have  had  to  be  determined 
with  regard  to  so  small  a  matter  as  the  ov,-nership  of  a  savings 
bank  deposit. 

Questions  between  husband  and  wife  as  to  property  including  Other 
deposits  in  savings  banks  are  now,  under  the  Married  Women's  provi- 
Property  Act,  settled  by  the  judges  of  county  courts.  Whcro  a  sioiia 
depositor,  as  often  happens,  is  of  illegitimate  birth,  a  special  pro- 
vision is  made  by  the  Savings  Bank  Act  in  favour  of  his  relatives, 
to  whom  the  solicitor  to  the  treasury  may  award  his  deposits.  It 
is  open  to  any  depositor  to  nominate  a  person  to  whom  the  amount 
due  to  him  at  his  death  shall  be  payable,  provided  it  does  not 
exceed  £100  and  the  nominee  is  not  an  officer  or  servant  of  the 
bank,  unless  indeed  such  oGiccr  or  servant  is  related  to  the 
depositor.  This  privilege,  derived  from  the  Provident  Nomina- 
tions and  Small  Intcsiacies  Act  passed  in  1883,  is  cot  yet 
suflieicntly  known  to  the  bulk  of  depositors,  and  has  not  been  used 
to  any  largo  e-xtont,  but  may  be  expected  in  time  to  become  very 
valuable.  It  is  an  extension  of  a  privilege  enjoyed  by  members  of 
friendly  societies  since  1855,  and  also  by  industrial  and  provident 
societies  and  trade  unions. 

A  painful  chapter  hi  tho  history  of  savings  banks  is  that  Frauds l>» 
occupied  "by  the  frauds  of  actuaries,  which  have  caused  losses  to  actuariei 
depositors  of  not  less  than  £160,000.  It  too  oftpn  happens  that, 
where  tlie  only  supervision  is  that  of  honorary  officers,  a  jiaid 
servant  may  comndt  frauds  unchecked  over  a  long  period  of  time. 
In  tho  case  of  a  savings  bank  at  Kochdale,  £71,715  was  stolen  by 
the  actuary,  and  £37,433  of  this  loss  had  to  ho  borne  by  tho 
depositors.  In  one  at  Dublin  tho  loss  was  £50,000,  and  in  one  at 
Traleo  £36,000.  These  unhappy  events  must  have  greatly  dis- 
couraged tho  poor,  and  chcckcfl  tho  progress  of  savings  bank.i. 
There  is,  however,  tho  coiiipensiting  fact  that  tho  savings  mado 
by  tho  people  of  Rochdale  sicco  1849,  when  the  savings  bank 
there  was  closed,  have  taken  the  more  favourable  direction  of 
promoting  the  great  co-operative  enterprises  of  that  town.  Savings 
banks,  valuable  and  important  as  their  benefits  are,  are  still  only 
elementary  teachers  of  providence,  and  it  is  well  for  tho  workman  to 
learn  not  merely  to  save  money  hut  to  employ  his  savings  to  advan- 
tage. The  stringent  legislation  as  to  audit  of  18G3  has  diminished 
frauds  on  savings  banks,  an  t  they  arc  now  rarely  heard  of.^ 

In  connexion  with  savings  banks,  and  as  auxiliaries  to  them,  aro  Penny 
penny  banks.     An  ordinary  savings  bank  will  not  accept  a  deposit  biuik^ 

1  Slnco  I  he  above  was  written  tho  illjoSauro  of  /rauda  of  lopg  standing  In  the 
Cardiif  u^Tlug3  t>ank  baa  taker,  place. 

XXI.  —  42 


330 


SAVINGS      BANKS 


iCss  than  Is.  (or  in.  some  cases  53.)  on  account  of  the  expense 
of  maEagoment,  It  seems  to  have  occurred  to  Dr  Chalmers  to 
supplement  the  V'ork  of  the  Edinburgh  Old  Savings  Bank  by 
©staolishing  in  a  Free  Church  congregation  in  Edinburgh  a  bank, 
managed  entirely  by  voluntary  agency,  in  which  a  deposit  of  Id. 
or  6d.,  or  any  sum  not  exceeding  lOs.,  would  be  received.  When 
the  deposit  amounted  to  £1,  the  owner  was  requested  to  transfer 
it  to  the  savings  bank,  and  the  funds  were  invested  with  the 
savings  bank  to  the  extent  of  £100  a  year  or  £300  in  the  whole. 
Similar  banks,  called  "territorial  savings  banks,"  were  established 
in  other  congregations,  ^n  organization  of  penny  banks. has 
existed  in  Glasgow  for  thirty  years,  and  another  has  been  sot  oa 
foot  in  Liverpool  by  the  exertions  of  Mr  T.  Banner  J-fewton,  the 
able  actuary  of  the  savings  bank  there.  On  20th  November  18S5 
there  were  173  such  banks  open  in  Liverpool,  with  17,493 
depositors.  "When  a  deposit  reaches  £1  it  is  transferred  to  the 
depositor's  credit  in  the  Liverpool  Savings  Bank.  The  amounts 
thus  transferred  were  £56,122,  and  £8432  remained  to  the  credit  of 
.  depositors  in  the  penny  banks.  The  transactions  of  the  year  num- 
bered 677,6SC  and  amounted  to  £42,194.  Penny  banks  require  no 
certificate  from  the  registrar  or  other  legal  organization,  but  if  they 
desire  to  deposit  more  than  the  limit  above  mentioned  the  per- 
nission,  of  the  National  Debt  Commissioners  must  first  be  obtained. 
Arm  J  Savings  banks  for  the  army  were  established  in  1842,  and  are 

pndnavy  now  regulated  by  Acts  of  Parliament — 22  and  23  Vict.  c.  20  (1859), 
Savings  20  and  27  YicL  c.  12  (1863),  for  the  Royal  Navy  and  Marines  by 
InoAS.  29  and  30  Vict.  c.  43  (1866),  and  for  seamen  generally  by  17  and 
18  Vkt.  c.  104,  §  180  (1854),  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  91,  §  817  (1855), 
and  laand  20  Vict  c.  41  (1856).  Into  these,  or  indeed  into  any 
trustee  or  post  office  savings  bank,  seamen's  wages  may  be  paid 
under  allotment  note^  by  43  and  44  Vict  c  16,  §  3  and  sen.  1 
(1880).  The  amounts  in  the  hands  of  the  National  Debt  Commis- 
sioners belonging  to  dopositoi-s  in  savings  banks  of  these  various 
classes  at  23d  September  1885^  were  : — 

Military  savings  banks £285,631 

Naval  savings  banks 175,445 

Seamen's  savings  banks 138,810 


Total . 


,  £599,1 


Private 
sav:  ogs 
baak3. 


Railway 

aavings 

^^anka 


Austral- 
asia. 


Voluntary  savings  banks,  unconnected  with  the  Government, 
have  also  been  established,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
Yorkshire  Penny  Bank  and  the  National  Penny  Bank.  The 
depositors- in  these  rely  solely  on  the  character  of  the  persons  by 
whom  they  are  managed,  and  in  some  institutions  of  the  kind 
have  met  with  severe  disappointment  in  consequence.  As  they 
are  under  no  responsibility  to  the  state,  these  institutions  make  no 
returns  to  parliament,  and  no  trustworthy  information  as  to  the 
extent  of  their  operations  can  be  given. 

The  railway  companies,  whicli  are  private  corporations  em- 
powered by  special  Acts  of  Parliament,  have  in  several  cases 
availed  themselves  of  these  Acta  to  take  power  for  establishing 
savings  banks  for  the  benefit  of  their  servants.  The  Manchester, 
Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  Railway  Savings  Bank  has  been  estab- 
lished 25  years,  and  has  2443  depositors,  whose  accounts  amounted 
on  31st  March  1885  to  £249,282  ;  its  transactions  for  the  year  were 
—£66,702  deposits,  £33,756  withdrawals,  in  number  26,596.  Six 
other  railway  companies  have  submitted  the  rules  of  their  savin^cs 
banks  to  the  registrar  of  friendly  societies  in  pursuance  of  their 
private  Acts,  and  the  aggregate  of  their  annual  returns  for  the 
year  1884-5  is  as  follows  : — 

Deposits  during  the  year £171,246 

Repayments £111,399 

Balance  due  to  depositors £661,177 

Number  of  depositors 8,729 

Increase  during  the  year 749 

Kumber  of  transactions  (estimated) 61,621 

Interest  credited £24,033 

In  addition,  five  other  banks  had  been  established  by  railway 
companies  without  reference  to  the  registrar,  and  these  in  1876 
received  £72,505  deposits  and  had  4120  depositors.  The  total 
deposits  in  railway  savings  banks  may  therefore  be  estimated  at  a 
million  sterling. 

British  Colonics. — Tho  thirteen  savings  oanks  in  the  colony  of 
Victoria  had  on  the  3d  December  1882  a  capital  of  £1,970,855. 
In  the  following  year,  however,  the  withdrawals  exceeded  the 
deposits,^  reducing  the  deposits  to  £1,785,990.  The  number  of 
depositors,  however,  has  steadily  increased  from  24,187  in  1S73  to 
70,354  in  1883.  Of  these  39,404  were  males  and  30,950  females; 
1618  depositors  had  balances  over  £200,  amounting  to  £407,932. 
The  transactions  of  the  year  1883  were— deposits,  £1,357,678; 
withdrawals,  £1,610,576.  The  deposits  in  the  post  office  savings 
banks  of  Victoria  also  reached  their  highest  amount  in  1882,  when 
they  were  £1,150,391,  falling  in  1833  to  £1,032,132.  In  them 
alao  the  number  of  depositors  has  steadily  increased  from  34,360 

*  For  this  liiloiuiation  we  are  ioilebted  to  the  authoriU'^a  of  the  Kalional  Dibt 
OfflCJ. 


in  1873  to  65,735  in  1883.  Their  transacti6n8  for  the  year 
1883  were— deposits,  £724,028  ;  withdrawals,  £842,288.  Taking 
the  two  classes  of  savings  banks  together,  the  number  of  depositors 
on  31st  December  18S3  was  136,089,  tho  amount  of  capital 
£2,818,122,  and  tho  average  for  each  depositor  £20,  149.  The 
number  of  depositors  per  cent,  of  the  population  was  15.  Tho 
rate  of  interest  given  to  depositors  is  4  per  cent  The  savings 
bank  of  Melbourue  alone  had,  on  the  30th  June  1885,  deposits 
amounting  to  £1,225,753,  belonging  to  68,129  depositors.  The 
transactions  averaged  1073  per  diem. 

In  New  South  Wales  tho  depositors  in  June  1883  were  66,60i 
.or  8  per  cent  of  the  population,  and  the  deposits  £2,805,856  or 
£42  per  depositor,  the  rats  of  interest  being  4  per  cent  in  tho 
post  office  savings  bank  and  5  and  6  per  cent  in  other  banks. 

In  Queeosland  the  depositors  were  20,642  or  10  per  cent  of  the 
population,  and  the  deposits  £1,086,685  or  £41  per  depositor,  the 
rates  of  interest  being  4  and  5  per  cent 

In  South  Australia  the  depositors,  were  46,338  or  nearly  16  per 
cent  of  the  population,  and  the  deposits  £1,500,249  or  £32  per 
depositor,  the  rate  of  interest  being  4^  p(^r  cent. 

In  Western  Australia,  on  the  31st  December  1882,  there  were 
1904  depositors  or  6  per  cent,  of  the  population,  having  £24,838 
deposits  or  £13  each. 

In  Tasmania  the  depositors  in  June  1883  were  17,231  or  14  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  and  their  deposits  £380,343  or  £22  each, 
the  rate  of  interest  being  3^  per  cent  in  the  postal  banks,  and 
slightly  higher  in  tho  general  savings  bank. 

In  New  Zealand  the  depositors  were  69,966  or  13  per  cent,  of 
the  population  ;  and  their  deposits  £1,687,739  or  £24  each.  The 
rate  of  interest  is  from  4  to  5  per  cent 

The  genei-al  total  for  the  Australian  colonies  is  365,828  depositors 
or  12  per  cent  of  the  population,  and  £10,304,145  deposits, 
which  is  £28  on  the  average  for  each  depositor. 

in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  according  to  a*  paper  read  at  tho  Canad^ 
Montreal  meeting  of  the  British  Association  by  Mr  J.  C.  Stewart, 
the  old  established  savings  banks  in  the  cities  of  Montreal  and 
Quebec  have  £2,000,000  sterling,  belonging  to  42,297  depositors  ; 
tho  post  office  savings  banks  established  in  1868  have  £2,650,000, 
belonging  to  66,682  depositors  ;  and  the  chartered  banks  also 
receive  deposits  on  the  savings  bank  system. 

United  States. — According  to  the  report  for  1884  of  Mr  Henry  W.  Unile^ 
Cannon,  comptrollerofthecurrency,therewere  on.the  SOthNovember  Stiteai 
18S2  in  the  United  States  of  America  forty-two  savings  banks,  with 
capital  amounting  to  £800,000  ($5"£1)  and  having  £8,700,000 
deposits,  and  625  savings  banks  without  capital  having  £192,000,000 
deposits.  In  the  six  years  1876-S2  the  number  of  savings  banks 
with  capital  had  increased  from  twenty-sis  to  forty-two,  but  their 
capital  had  diminished  20  per  cent,  while  their  deposita  had 
increased  16  per  cent  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  savings 
banks  without  capital  had  diminished  from  691  to  625,  but  their 
deposits  had  increased  14  per  cent  Of  the  aggregate  deposits,  the 
422  savings  banks  in  the  New  England  States  held  £87,500,000, 
the  179  in  the  Middle  States  £98,500,000,  the  9  in  the  Southern 
States  £660,000,  and  the  57  in  the  Western  States  and  Territories 
£14,000,000.  In  the*  latter  two  groups  the  banks  with  and  with- 
out capital  are  nearly  equal  in  number  and  in  the  amount  of 
deposits  ;  in  the  former  two  groups  banks  with  capital  are  the 
esceplion,  being  only  one  in  sixty  of  the  whole. 

Savings  banks  in  the  United  States  differ  from  those  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  the  manner  in  which  their  funds  are  invested, 
not  being  limited  to  Government  securities.  Thus,  of  the  200 
millions  sterling  of  deposits  only  AQ  millions  was  invested  in 
United  States  bonds,  viz.,  New  England,  £6,900,000;  Middle 
S  tatcs,  £35, 800, 000  ;  Western  States,  £400, 000 ;  Pacific  States  and 
Territories,  £2,900,000. 

A  statement  of  the  aggregate  resources  and  liabilities  of  636, 
savings  banks  in  1884  (£236,000,000)  is  furnished,  showing:— 

Deposits £215,000,000 

Surplus  fund '. 17,000,000 

Undivided  profits 3,000,000 

Other  liabilities 1,000,000 

Provided  for  as  follows : — 

Loans  on  real  estate 72,000,000 

Loans  on  personal  and  collateral  security 28,000,000 

United  States  bonds 39,000,000 

State,  municipal,  and  other  bonds  and  stocks 44,000,000 

Railroad  bonds  and  stacks 10,000,000 

Bank  stock 8,000,000 

Real  estate  7,000,000 

Other  asseU 14,000,000 

Due  from  banks 11,000,000 

Cash 3,000,000 

According  to  the  report  of  the  comptroller  for  18S5  (which  has 
reached  us  since   the  above  v.-a3   written)  the  deposits  have  in- 
creased during  tho  year  to  £220,000.000,  and  the  total  assets  tc- 
i  £240,000.000. 


S  A  V—  S  A  V 


331 


In  Kcw  England  tHe  depoaitora  number  36  in  every  100  of  the 
populatioa,  and  the  average  amount  of  each  account  is  £66,  or  £24 
for  each  individual  if  distributed  over  the  entire  population.  In 
KewYork  State  the  deposits  would  give  £17  per  head  i£  distributed 
in  like  manner. 

•The  following  table  gives  for  each  State  the  number  of  depositors, 
and  the  amount  and  average  of  deposits,  in  18S5  : —  - 


state. 

Depositoi-3. 

Deposits. 

Average. 

106,000 
121,000 

39,000 

826,000 

116,000 

252,000 

1,165,000 

87,000 
136,000 

78,000 
7,000 

35,000 
9,000 

12,000 

82,000 

£6,5^0,000 

8,700,000 

2,200,000 

52,500,000 

10,200,000 

18,100,000 

87,400,000 

4,800,000 

7,000,000 

5,700,000 

100,000 

2,500,000 

400,000 

600,000 

11,700,000 

£62 
72 
67 
63 
88 
71 
75 
55 
52 
73 
20 
62 
48 
53 

142 

Vermont 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey    

Pennsylvania 

District  of  Columbia.... 
Ohio 

3,071,000 

218,400,000 

71 

Brazil. — The  savings  banks  of  the  empire  of  Brazil  have  been 
made  instruments  in  the  gradual  extinction  of  slavery  in  that 
'country.  Since  1871  each  slave  is  allowed  certain  hours  a  week  to 
labour  for  his  own  benefit,  and  when  his  earnings  deposited  in  the 
savings  bank  amount  to  a  given  sum  the  remainder  of  the  price 
of  his  emancipation  is  provided  by  the  state  out  of  public  funds. 
The  children  of  slave  mothers,  who  since  1871  have  been  born  f;ee, 
are  also  encouraged  to  place  their  earnings  in  school  savings  banks. 
By  a  law  passed  on  the  14th  August  1885,  immediate  enfranchise- 
ment at  the  cost  of  the  state  is  conferred  upon  slaves  employed  in 
agricultural  establishments,  upon  condition  of  tlicir  remaining 
with  the  master  at  fixed  wages  for  five  years  and  paying  half  the 
■wages  into  the  savings  bank  towards  repayment  ot  the  price  paid 
for  their  freedom. 

Continent  of  Europe. — In  several  of  the  countries  of  £urope 
savings  banks  have  been  establishcul  and  are  flourishing.  In 
Prussia  the  first  savings  bank  was  founded  by  the  municipality 
of  Berlin  in  1828.  In  1838  they  were  taken  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Government.  Their  formation  has  been  much  aided  by  an 
association  called  the  "Central  Union"  for  the  good  of  the 
industrious  classes.  A  great  vaiiety  of  investments  is  permitted. 
In  1874  there  were  979  banks,  haviiig  2,059,000  .depositors  and 
£49,315,000  of  deposits,  being  a  little  over  £2  ncr  head  of  the 
population.  Besides  savings  banks,  there  are  the  credit  banks 
establislied  by  the  late  Hcrr  Schultz-Delitzsch,  which  perform  a 
similar  function. 

In  France  79  per  cent,  of  the  deposits  are  invested  in  the  public 
debt,  on  which  interest  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent,  is  guaranteed, 
but  the  savings  banks  are  private  institutions  ;  19  per  cent,  are 
invested  in  mortgages  and  2  per  cent,  on  municipal  securities. 
Post  office  savings  banks  also  exist.  The  average  amount  of 
each  deposit. account  is  smaller  than  in  England,  79  per  cent,  of 
the  deposits  being  under  £20  as  against  63.  per  cent.  The  follow- 
ing statement  shows  the  progress  of  savings  banks  in  Franco  since 
their  first  regulation  by  law  in  1835  :  — 


Number 

Per 

Per 

Date 

of  Banks. 

Number  of 

cent,  of 

Amount  o£ 

Head  of 

tncludlnfi 

Depositors. 

Popula- 

Deposits. 

Popula- 

Br.inchcs. 

tion. 

tion. 

£ 

s.    d. 

3l8t  Dec.  1840 

430 

351,803 

1 

7,695,293 

4     6 

„        1850 

540 

565,995 

0 

5,572,738 

3     1 

„        1860 

638 

1,218,122 

3 

15,054,184 

8     3 

„        1870 

1121 

2,079,141 

B 

25,280,000 

„        1878 

1320 

3,173,721 

9 

40,646,656 

22    0 

I  The  depositors  now  number  nearly  five  millions.  Savings  banks 
were  greatly  alTcotcJ  by  the  Revolution  of  1818  and  by  the  Franco- 
German  War.  Previous  to  the  former  event,  the  deposits  had  risen 
on  31st  December  1845  to  £15,822,164,  falling  on  81st  December 
1849  as  low  as  £2,965,802.  In  the  early  part  of  1870  they  had 
risen  to  £28,800,000  or  153.  for  every  individual  of  the  popul.ation. 
T)]0  separation  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  reduced  tlio  deposits. 
Postal  Ravings  banks  were  est-.blished  in  1875,  but  only  as 
auxiliaries  of  tlic  ordinary  savings  banhs  ;  school  savings  baiilts, 
mainly  through  llio  cnliglitcncd  exertions  of  II.  de  JIalarcc,  wcio 
commenced  in  1874.  These  ore  now  established  in  23,222  scliools, 
have    458,674    d'jpobilors    and  £451,402    deposits.     A    national 


postal  savings  bank  was  instituted  en  9th  April  18S1,  and  was 
extended  to  Corsica  on  1st  March  1882  and  to  Algeria  and  Tunis 
from  1st  April  1884.  On  31st  December  1883  it  had  already 
374,970  depositors  and  £3,097,200  deposits.  The  Paris  savings 
bank  had  on  31st  December  1882  440,723  depositors  and 
£3,513,433  deposits. 

In  Italy,  at  the  end  of  1872,  282  savings  banks  were  in  existence,  Italy, 
of  which  142  were  principal 'banks  and  the  rest  branches.  With 
two  exceptions,  all  are  managed  without  profit  to  tlic  promoters 
or  guarantors.  In  1825  there  were  11  savings  banks  in  which 
£108,000  had  been  deposited  ;  in  1850  the  deposits  amounted 
to  £1,600,00  ,  and  in  1872  to  £17,860,000,  belonging  to  676,327 
depositors.  Of  these  funds,  21  per  cent,  was  invested  on 
mortgage,  10  per  cent,  only  in  the  public  debt,  11  per  cent,  in 
obligations  of  local  authorities,  12  per  cent,  in  shares  and  bonds 
of  companies,  16  per  cent,  in  bills  of  exchange,  15  per  cent,  in 
loans  on  public  funds  and  commercial  securities,  11  per  cent,  in 
current  accounts,  and  4  i)er  cent,  otherwise.  The  average  rate  of 
interest  allowed  to  depositors  is  4^  per  cent.  The  transactions  of 
the  year  were— deposits  £7,911,000,  withdrawals  £6,514,000.  The 
system  of  school  savings  banlcs  has  been  adopted  in  many  com- 
munes. In  addition,  deposits  are  made  in  popular  banks  and 
other  establishments  of  credit,  and  post  office  savings  banks  have 
also  been  established. 

In  Denmark  savings  banks  are  private  institutions,  but  must  Denmark., 
not  be  managed  for  profit,  nor  invest  in  foreign  securities  ;  and 
they  are  required  to  make  annual  returns  to  Government.  In 
1860  the  amount  of  deposits  was  £3i22I,C00  ;  by  1871  it  had 
increased  to  £6,651,031,  and  by  31st  March  18S1  to  £12,707,521. 
The  saviugs  banks  have  increased  in  number  during  the  ten  years 
fi-om  188  to  446,  and  .the  depositors  from  285,991  to  492,296. 
Twenty-six  banks  have  more  than  £100,000  deposits.  The  oldest 
and  largest  is  that  of  Copenhagen,  established  1st  May  1820, 
having  £2,320,892  deposited,  which  has  increased  from  £832,874 
in  the  ten  years.  The  number  of  depositors  has  increased  from 
one  in  six  to  one  in  four  of  the  population,  and  the  deposits  from 
£3,  14s.  8d.  to  £6,  9s.  per  head  of  the  population.  The  transac- 
tions of  the  year  ending  31st  March  1881  were — deposits  £8,141,627; 
withdrawals  £6,702,470.  Of  the  deposit  accounts,  74  per  cent, 
are  under  £23  and  15  per  cent,  above  £23  and  under  £43.  Ono 
half  of  the  funds  are  invested  on  mortgage.  The  reserve  funds  of 
the  banks  had  increased  in  ten  years  from  £226,329  to  £665,597. 

The  following  are  st^atistics  of  savings  banks  in  other  European  Other 
countries  as  published  by  the  Italian  Government  a  few  years  ago: —  European 

countriea. 


Number 

Number  of 

Amount  of 

Country. 

Population. 

of 

BaiilvS. 

Accounts  on 
1st  January, 

Deposiu  on 
]st  Janu.iiy, 

Belgium  (1874) 

5,336,000 

10 

132,000 

£2,510,000 

Austria  (1874)  (Cis- 

Loithan  pro^-inees) 

21,366,000 

275 

1,269,000 

53,931,000 

Hungary  (1873) 

15,417,000 

2S2 

15,209,000 

Saxonv(l£72) 

2,556,000 

156 

517,000 

11,445,000 

Thuringia  (1873).... 

899,000 

7 

33,000 

1,897,000 

Mecklenburg  (1872) 

557,000 

31 

91,000 

1,072,000 

Hamburg  (1874) 

370,000 

8 

81,000 

1,616,000 

Bremen  (1873) 

135,000 

4 

48,000 

1,404,000 

Lubeck(1873) 

52,000 

2 

14,000 

'      138,000 

Bavaria  (1869) 

4,821,000 

260 

279,000 

2,490,000 

Wurtemberg  (1874) 

1,818,000 

121 

2,766,000 

Baden  (1874) 

1,461,000 

99 

141,000 

4,142,000 

Alsace  and  Lorraine 

(1872)              

1,549,000 

41,000 

283,  or  & 

Holland  (1872) 

3,579,000 

240 

99,000 

l,127,0f(' 

Sweden  (1873) 

4,297,000 

271 

503,000 

6, 035,  CO 

Norway  (1873) 

1,750,000 

262 

220,000 

6,201, ceo 

Switzerland  (1872).. 

2,009,000 

312 

542,000 

11,681,C(D 

Russia  (1872)  (cer- 

tain governments 

56,408,000 

71, ono 

735,C(;D 

Finland  (1872) 

1,838,000 

36 

18,000 

346,(00 

126,881,000 

2376 

4,159,001' 

123,9ii,tt6 

M.  do  Malarce  has  obtained  for  the  Diclionnaire  des  Finances  Aggro- 
some  more  recent  statistics,  tlio  details  of  which  have  not  yet  gato. 
reaehcd  u:;,  but  from  information  ho  has  been  so  f.'ood  as  to  com- 
municate wo  infer  an  increase  in  det)osit3  during  the  last  10  years 
in  twelve  European  states  of  £123,000,000,  — making  the  aggregato 
of  savings  bank  deposits  for  all  countiies,  as  far  as  ascertained, 
£725,000,000.  (E.  W.  B.) 

SAVOIE,  a  department  ot  .?outb-eastern  Franco,  formed 
in  18C0  of  the  districts  of  Upper  Savoy,  Savoy  proper, 
Tarentaise,  and  iraurienne,  'wliich  formed  tlie  sovitliera 
I)art  of  the  province  of  Savoy  in  the  kiugcJoai  of  Sardinia. 


332 


S  A  V  O  I  E 


Situated  between  43''  5'  and  45°  55'  N.  lat.  and  between 
5"  37'  and  7°  5'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  depart- 
ment of  Haute-Savoio,  N.W.  by  Ain,  W.  by  Isire,  S.  by 
Hautes-Alpes,  and  S.E.  and  E.  by  Piedmont  (Italy),  the 
limits  for  the  most  part  consisting  of  ridges  of  the  Alps, 
and  on  the  N.W.  being  determined  by  the  Rhone  and  its 
affluents  the  Fier  and  the  Guier.  The  highest  point  in 
the  Vanoise  group  of  mountains  is  12,668  feet  above  the 
sea,  while  the  Rhone  leaves  the  department  at  a  height  of 
695  feet,  and  the  Isere  about  800.  Some  details  in  regard 
to  the  orograiihy  will  be  found  under  Alps  {q.v.).  The 
Isire  flows  east  and  west  through  the  Tarentaiso  valley  by 
Bourg  St  Maurice,  Moutiers,  Albertville,  and  Jlontmelian; 
its  principal  tributary  the  Arc  flows  along  the  Maurienne 
•valley  used  by  the  Jlont  Cenis  Railway.  The  lake  of 
Bourget  discharges  into  the  Rhone  by  the  Savieres  canal. 
The  climate  of  the  department  varies  according  to  altitude 
and  exposure.  At  Chamb6ry  and  Aix-les-Bains  the  average 
temperature  is  a  little  lower  than  that  of  Paris,  but  the 
rainfall  is  about  C5  inches  per  annum,  and  this  amount 
goes  on  increasing  as  the  higher  regions  are  reached. 

^Vitli  a  total  area  cf  1,423,2.54  acres,  Savoy  comprises  434,921 
acres  of  uncultivated  ground,  239.700  acres  of  arable,  205,105  in 
forests,  172, 9SK)  in  meadows,  27,183  in  vineyards.  More  than  tho 
half  of  the  inhabitants  (191,704  out  of  266,438)  are  engaged  in 
agricultm'e.  In  1S31  there  were  in  tho  department  97,487  cows, 
19,328  oxen,  2570  horses,  3156  asses,  4207  mules,  98,826  sheep, 
(10  tons  of  wool),  19,428  pigs,  25,527  goats.  About  1,870,000,000 
gallons  of  milk  are  produced  and  2463  tons  of  butter  and  5911 
tons  of  cheese  are  manufactured,  of  a  total  value  of  £500,000.  From 
tho  19,600  beebives  were  obtained  in  1881  87  tons  of  honey  and 
16  of  v.'ax.  The  grape  rijicns  up  to  an  altitude  of  2625  feet,  and  is 
cultivated  to  an  altitude  of  3940.  Several  growths  of  Savoy  are  in 
great  repute  and  tlie  vineyards  were  (before  the  invasion  of  the 
phylloxera)  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the  department. 
Tobacco  is  also  cultivated.  In  1883  the  crops  comprised  wheat, 
^04,665  bushels;  meslin,  104,600  ;  rye,  679,608  ;  barley,  212,883  ; 
.luckwheat,  20,641;  maize,  245,245;  oats,  722,067;  potatoes, 
1,244,603  ;  pulse,  54,120  ;  chestnuts,  72,036  ;  beetroot,  14,040  tons  ; 
tobacco,  350  tons  ;  hemp,  585  tons  ;  colza-seed,  234  tons  ;  hemp- 
seed,  195  tons  ;  Ttine,  3,895,406  gallons  (annual  average  4,128,520 
gallons)  ;  cider,  137,253  gallons  (average  69,058  gallons).  Not- 
withstanding deplorable  clearances,  Savoy  still  possesses  consider- 
able woods  of  pine,  larch,  beech,  fcc.  The  chestnut,  of  which  the 
finest  specimens  are  in  the  neigbbourhood  of  Aix-lep-Bains,  grows, 
as  do  also  the  walnut  and  hazel,  to  a  height  of  3600  feet,  the 
oak  to  3900,  the  elm  and  the  ash  to  4250,  the  fir  to  4900,  and  the 
pine  to  7200.  The  department  contains  one  of  the  richest  deposits 
of  spathic  iron  in  Europe,  and  the  Crcusot  Company  employs  700 
hands  in  working  it.  Argentiferous  lead  and  copper  have  also 
b^cu  occasionally  worked.  The  Maurienne  and  the  Tarentaise  are 
rich  in  anthracite,  and  yielded  in  1882  16,637  tons  of  fuel.  Peat 
covers  1413  acres,  with  a  thickness  varying  from  8  inches  to  8  feet, 
and  there  are  rich  beds  of  different  kinds  of  marble,  iifty-two 
quarries  of  building  stone,  and  quarries  of  limestone,  plaster, 
cement,  and  slate,  as  well  as  deposits  of  black  lead,  jet,  asbestos, 
talc,  mica,  ochre,  sulphate  of  baryta,  zinc,  antimony,  arsenic, 
manganese,  titanium,  sulphur.  The  department  is  particularly 
rich  in  mineral  waters,  and  the  most  famous,  those  of  Aix-les- 
Bains  (hot  sulphurous)  were  frequented  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
Tlie  waters  at  Marlioz  in  tlie  neighbourhood  are  sulphurous  or 
alkaline  (iodine,  bromine).  Those  of  Challes  near  Chambcry  rank 
among  the  most  powerful  of  the  natural  sulphurous  waters.  Tlie 
Salio^-Moutiers  waters  in  the  Tarentaise  are  hot,  saline,  and  rich 
in  various  minerals  ;  the  hot  springs  of  Brides-lc3-I5ains  in  the  same 
region  are  rich  in  the  sulphates  ot  soda  and  calcium.  Silk  is.  the 
Icatling  object  of  industry  in  the  department  (31  tons  of  cocoons  in 
1883).  Tiie  winding  of  the  cocoons,  the  milling  of  the  silk  (3503 
"  tavallcs  "  and  spindles),  and  the  weaving  of  the  silk-fabi-ics  (303 
looms,  55  being  hand-looms)  employ  mofe  than  1700  workmen, 
5\ud  the  goods  manufactured  are  valued  at  £380,000.  Chambery 
produces  71,000  yards  cf  high-class  gauze,  3000  yards  of  velvet, 
13,000  yards  of  handkerchiefs,  and  some  800,000  yards  of  taffetas 
and  various  other  silk  stuffs.  Linen  manufactures  employ  400 
looms,  woollen  manufactures  1850  spindles.  The  peasants  manu- 
facture about  125,000  yards  of  co.arse  woollen  slufi's  from  their 
home-grown  wooL  The  blast  furnaces  and  iron-works  produced  in 
1381 176  tons  of  manufactured  iron.  Tanneries,  paper-mills,  paper- 
pulp  factories,  brick-works,  saw-mills.  Hour-mills,  &c.,  are  all  of 
some  importance  in  the  department,  which  counts  altogether' sixty- 
one^  establishments  with  steam-engines  of  (aggregate)  271  horse 
power.     Tho  number  of  inhabitants  eng.aged  ih  industrial  pursuits 


is  2(,482,  in  commerce  14,016.  Coal,  skins,  cotton,  provisions 
are  imported  ;  cattle,  cheese,  butter,  wood,  stones,  and  various 
building  materials,  mineral  watei-s,  silk  stuffs,  tanned  leather,  and 
j^aper  are  exported.  There  are  204  miles  of  national  roads,  2518 
miles  of  other  roads,  and  150  miles  of  railroad.  The  population 
was  266,438  in  1881.  The  department  forms  the  three  dioceses  of 
Chambery  (archbishopric),  Moutiers,  and  St  Jean-de-Maurienne  ; 
the  court  of  appeal  and  university  academy  are  at  Chambery,  and 
the  headquarters  of  the  corps  d'arraee  to  which  it  belongs  (the 
14th)  are  at  Grenoble.  There  are  four  arrondissements, — Chambery 
(16,000  inhabitants  in  the  town),  Albertville  (5000),.  Moutiers 
(2000),  St  Jean-de-Maurionne  (3000),— 29  cantons,  and  328  com- 
munes. Aix-les-Bains  (4741),  owing  to  its  hot  spdngs,  is  the  most 
important  place  jn  the  department. 

SAVOIE,  Haute-,  a  frontier  department  of  France, 
formed  in  1860  from  the  old  provinces  of  Genevois, 
Chablais,  and  Faucigny,  which  constituted  the  northern 
half  of  tho  duchy  of  Savoy  in  the  kingdom  of  Sardmia. 
Situated  between  45°  40'  and  46°  25'  N.  lat.  and  between 
5°  50'  and  7°  2'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  theLake  of 
Geneva,  E.  by  the  Valais  canton,  S.E.  by  the  duchy  of 
Aosta  (Italy),  S.  and  S.W.  by  the  department  of  Savoie, 
W.  by  the  departtnent  of  Ain,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Rhone,  and  N.W.  by  the  canton  of  Geneva. 
Almost  everywhere  except  in  the  last  direction  the 
boundaries  are  natural.  The  greater  portion  of  the  depart- 
ment is  occupied  by  mountains  usually  under  8000  feet  in 
height ;  but  it  includes  Mont  Blanc  (15,781  feet),  while 
the  confluence  of  the  Fier  with  the  Rhone  is  only  950  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  streams  are  torrential,  and  they  all 
joiu  the  Rhone  either  directly  or  by  the  Lake  of  Geneva 
or  the  IsKre.  Most  important  is  the  Arve  which  crosses 
the  department  from  south-east  to  north-west  from  JMont 
Blanc  to  Geneva  by  Chamonix,  Sallanches,  and  Bonneville, 
receiving  from  the  right  the  Giffre  and  from  the  left  the 
Borne.  The  Dranse "  falls  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva 
betw^Jn  Evian  and  Thonon.  Direct  tributaries  of  the 
Rhone  are  the  Usses  and  the  Fier,  the  outflow  of  the 
.Lake  of  Annecy.  Passing  M^gfeve,  to  the  south-west  of 
Chamonix,  the  Arly  goes  to  the  Is^re.  A  remarkable 
variety  of  climate  is  produced  by  the  differences  of 
altitude  and  exposure ;  it  is  mildest  eft  the  banks  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva.  Annecy  has  a  moderate  temperature, 
lower  than  that  of  Paris ;  btrt  some  parts  of  tho  shores  of 
tho  lake,  well  sheltered  and  having  a  good  exposure,  form 
health  resorts  even  in  winter.  The  rainfall  on  the  Lake 
of  Geneva  hardly  exceeds  24  inches  ;  it  is  three  times  as 
heavy  in  the  mountains. 

Ot  the  total  area  of  1,066,229  acres  345,959  acres  are  arable, 
214,990  woodland,  132,206  i.ncultivated,  95,880  pasturage,  91,432 
meadows,  21,252  vineyards.  The  live  stock  in  1880  comprised 
9774  horses,  93,171  cows  or  heifers,  11,272  calves,  18,769  pigs, 
25,331  goatSr-33,000  sheep  (wool-clip  41  tons),  21,525  hives  (104 
tons  of  honey,  38  of  wax).  Cheese  is  produced  to  the  value  of 
£220,000,  and  butter  to  £132,000.  The  harvest  in  1883  included 
—wheat,  1,472,381  bushels;  meslin,  196,510;  rye,  190,503.  For 
ISSO  the  returns  were — barley,  136,043  bushels ;  buckwheat, 
88,178;  maize,  10,928;  oats,  793,721;  potatoes,  3,730,800;  pulse, 
42,507  ;  chestnuts,  <!iti,iQ2  ;  besides  beetroot,  hemp,  flax,  and  colza. 
In  18S3  the  vintage  was  3,221,834  gallons,  the  average  for  1873- 
1882  being  3,199,570,  and  cider^was  produced  to  the  amount  of 
757,922  gallons  (aver.ago  742,808).  Tobacco  is  successfully  grow^ 
in  a  part  of  tho  department  (Ruinilly).  Though  much  of  the  W(H>"d 
has  been  cut  down,  Hautc-Savoie  still  contains  fine  pine  forests 
below  7200  feet  of  altitude,  and  fir,  larch,  and  beech  woods  below 
5000  feet,  the  limit  of  the  elm  and  ash  being  4250,  and  that  of  the 
oak  4000.  Splendid  walnuts  and  chestuuts  are  to  he  foui^d  as 
high  up  as  2950  feet  and  hazels  as  high  as  3600.  Argentiferous  lead 
ores  and  copper,  iron,  and  manganese  ores  exist,  .but  are  not  much 
worked.  About  1000  tons  of  anthracite  and  lignis  were  raised  in 
3882,  and  12,405  tons  cf  asphaltic  limestone.  Xisper  and  other 
beautiful  marble,  freestone  largely  used  in  the  buildings  of  Lyons 
and  Chambery,  limestone,  and  slates  are  all  quarried.  Mineral 
waters  of  various  kinds  abound  (Amphion  and  Evian,  chalybeate; 
St  Gervais  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Blanc,  hot,  sulphurous,  and  chaly- 
beate ;  Menthon,  sulphurous ;  La  Caille,  hot,  sulphurous).  Cotton 
manufacture  is  carried  on  at  Annecy,  where  one  establishment  baa 
20,000  spindles,  600  power-looms,  and  100  hand-looms,  pmployisg 


S  A  V  — S  A  V 


33S 


600  workers.  ,Some  600,000  or  600,000  yards  of  silk  stuffs  aro 
woven  throughout  the  department  by  some  850  workers  ;  and 
wool-spinning  and  wool  manufactures  are  also  carried  on.  In  the 
iron  industry  1921  tons  of  cast-iron  and  1956  tons  of  malleable 
iron  were  manufactured  in  1832.  Clock-making,  taught  in  two 
special  schools,  employs  2000  hands.  Tanneries,  paper-mills, 
tile-works,  and  flour-mills  are  numerous.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
cantons  have  the  advantage  of  belonging  to  the  neutral  customs 
zone — that  is,  have  the  right  of  introducing  foreign  goods  duty  free, 
with  the  exception  of  powder  and  tobacco.  Coal,  cotton,  metals, 
and  provisions  are  imported ;  cheese,  cattle,  timber,  leather, 
asphalt,  building  stone,  and  calico  are  exported.  The  national 
roads  make  a  total  of  193  miles,  other  roads  3100  miles,  and  the 
railways — Annecy  to  Aix-les-Bains  and  to  Anuemasse,  on  the  line 
from  Bellegardo  to  Evian — 96  miles.  "With  its  274,087  inhabitants 
(1881),  who  all  speak  French  and  are  almost  exclusively  Roman 
Catholics,  Haute-Savoie  is  only  about  one-tenth  below  the  average 
density  of  France.  It  forms  the  diocese  of  Annecy;  the  court 
of  appeal  and  the  university  academy  aro  at  Chambery,  and 
the  department  is  included  in  the  14th  corps  d'armce  district 
(Grenoble).  There  are  4  arrondisseraents — Annecy  (population  of 
town  11,000),  Bonneville  (2270),  St  Julien  (1500),  and  Thonon 
(5440), — 28  cantons,  and  31-1  communes. 

SAVONA,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Genoa, 
25J  miles  west  of  that  town,  and  91  miles  south  of  Turin 
by  rail,  is  after  Genoa  and  Nice  the  most  important  of  the 
cities  of  the  Riviera.  The  greater  part  of  the  town  is  now 
modern,  consisting  of  handsome  gardens,  boulevards,  and 
well-p?'Ved  broad  streets  lined  with  massive  arcades  and 
substantial  houses,  built  in  enormous  square  blocks  from 
four  to  five  stories  high.  It  is  surrounded  with  green-clad 
hills  and  luxuriant  orange  groves.  On  the  Rock  of  St 
George  stands  the  castle  built  by  the  Genoese  in  1542,  now 
used  as  a  military  prison.  The  cathedral  (1589-1604)  is 
a  late  Renaissance  building  with  a  dome  of  modern  con- 
struction. In  the  Cappella  Sistina  stands  the  magnificent 
tomb  erected  by  Sixtus  IV.  to  his  parents.  Facing  the 
cathedral  is  the  Delia  Rovere  palace  erected  by  Cardinal 
Giulio  della  Rovere  (Julius  II.)  as  a  kind  of  university, 
and  now  occupied  by  the  prefecture,  the  post-office,  and 
the  courts.  San  Domenico  (or  Giovanni  Bftttista)  biult 
by  the  Dominicans,  occupies  the  site  of  the  very  ancient 
church  of  Sant'  Antonio  A-bate.  Several  of  the  churches 
have  paintings  of  some  merit,  and  there  is  a  municipal 
picture-gallery  occupying  part  of  the  extensive  buildings 
of  the  civil  hospital  of  St  Paul,  The  Teatro  Chiabrera, 
erected  in  1853  in  honour  of  the  lyric  poet  Chiabrera,  who 
was  born  in  Savona,  and  is  buried  there  ill  the  church  of 
San  Giacorao,  has  its  fagade  adorned  with  statues  of 
Alfieri,  Goldoni,  Metastasio,  and  Rossini.  The  tov/n-house 
fwith  the. public  library  founded  by  the  bishop  of  Savona, 
Maria  di  Mari,  in  ISlD),  the  episcopal  palace,  and  the 
harbour  tower  surmounted  by  a  colossal  figure  of  the 
Virgin  also  deserve  mention.  As  early  as  the  12th 
century,  the  Savonese  built  themselves  a.  sufficient 
harbour;  but  in  the  ICth  century  their  rivals  the  Genoese, 
fearing  that  Francis  I.  of  Franco  intended  to  make  it  a 
great  seat  of  Mediterranean  trade,  rendered  it  useless  by 
sinking  at  its  mouth  vessels  filled  with  large  stones.  Tiio 
modern  harbour,  dating  from  1815,  has  since  1880  been 
provided  with  a  dock  excavated  in  the  rock,  98G  feet  long 
460  wide  and  23  feet  deep ;  and  other  extensions  are  in 
progress.  In  1884  1012  vessels  (349,462  tons)  entered 
and  988  (346,337  tons)  cleared — the  steamers  being 
respectively  298  (273,237  tons)  and  294  (270,953).  The 
opening  of  the  railway  to  Rra  (1878)  at  once  gave  Savona 
an  advantage  over  Genoa  as  a  port  for  supplying  Turin 
and  Piedmont.  A  large  import  trade  has  since  grown  up, 
especially  in  coals  (300,000  tons  from  Great  Britain  and 
France),  which  can  bo  loaded  directly  from  the  ship  into 
the  trucks.  The  exports  are  confined  to  the  products  of 
the  local  industries,  fruit,  hoop-stave.s,  itc.  The  potteries 
which  have  been  long  established  at  Savona  export  their 
earthenware  to  all    parts   of  Italy;  and  there  are  glass- 


works, soap-works,  and  one  of  the  largest  iron-foundries 
in  North  Italy.  Shipbuilding  is  also  carried  on.  The 
population  of  the  commune,  which  includes  the  suburbs 
of  Fornaci,  Lavagnola,  Legino  and  Zinola,  and  San 
Bernardo,  was  19,611  in  1861  and  29,614  in  1881,  that 
of  the  city  at  the  latter  date  being  19,120. 

Savona  is  the  Savo  where,  according  to  Livy,  Mago  stored  his 
booty  in  the  Second  Punic  "War.  In  1191  it  bought  up  the  terri- 
torial claims  of  the  Marquises  Del  Carretto.  Its  whole  history 
is  that  of  a  long  struggle  against  the  preponderance  of  Genoa.  In 
1746  it  was  captured  by  the  king  of  Sardinia,  but  it  was  rcstcred 
to  Genoa  by  tho  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Columbus,  whose 
ancestors  came  from  Savona,  gave  tho  name  of  the  -city  to  one  ©f 
tho  first  islands  he  discovered  in  the  West  ladies. 

SAVONAROLA,  GmoLAMo  (1452-1498).  Tho  roll  of 
Italian  great  men  contains  few  grander  names  than  that 
of  Savonarola,  and  the  career  of  this  patriot'priest,  re- 
former, and  statesman  is  one  of  the  strangest  pages  of 
Italy's  history  Amid  the  splendid  corruptions  of  the 
Italian  Renaissanco  he  was  the  rep'resentative  of  pure 
Christianity,  the  founder  and  ruler  of  an  ideal  Christian 
republic,  and,  when  vanquished  by  the  power  of  Rome, 
suffered  martyrdom  for  tho  cause  to  which  hjs  life  had 
been  dedicated.  His  doctrines  have  been  tho  theme  of 
interminable  controversies  and  contradictory  judgments. 
He  has  been  alternately  declared  a  fanatic  bent  on  the 
revival  of  mediasval  barbarism  and  an  enlightened  pre- 
cursor of  the  reformation,  a  true  Catholic  prophet  and 
martyr  and  a  shameless  impostor  and  heretii.  It  is 
enough  to  say  here  that  his  best  biographers  and  critics 
give  satisfactory  proofs  that  he  was  chiefly  a  reformer  of 
morals,  who,  while  boldly  denouncing  Pajial  corruptions, 
preserved  an  entire  belief  in  all  the  dogmas  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

Girolamo  Savonarola  was  born  at  Ferrara  21st  September 
1452,  the  third  child  of  Michele  Savonarola  and  his  wife 
Elena  Bonaccossi  of  ]\Iantua.  His  grandfather,  Michele 
Savonarola,  a  Paduan  physician  of  much  repute  and 
learning,  had  settled  in  Ferrara  at  the  invitation  of  tho 
reigning  marquis,  Nicholas  III.  of  Este,  and  gained  a 
large  fortune  there.  The  younger  Michele  was  a  mere 
courtier  and  spendthrift,  but  Elena  Savonarola  seems  to 
have  been  a  woman  of  superior  stamp.  She  was  tenderly 
loved  by  her  famous  son,  and  his  letters  prove  that  she 
retained  his  fullest  confidence  through  all  tho  vicissitudes 
of  his  career. 

Girolamo  was  a  grave  precocious  child,  with  an  early 
passion  for  learning.  He  was  guided  in  his  first  studies 
by  his  wise  old  grandfather  tho  physician  ;  and,  in  the  hope 
of  restoring  their  fallen  fortunes,  his  parents  intended 
him  for  the  same  profession.  Even  as  a  boy  he  had  in- 
tense pleasure  in  reading  St  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the 
Arab  commentators  of  Aristotle,  was  skilled  in  tho  subtle- 
tics'  of  the  schools,  wrote  verses,  studied  music  and  design, 
and,  avoiding  society,  loved  solitary  rambles  on  tho  banks 
of  the  Po.  Grass-grown  Ferrara  was  then  a  gay  and 
bustling  town  of  100,000  inhabitants,  its  prince  Borso 
d'Esto  a  most  magnificent  potentate  To  tho  mystic  young 
student  all  festivities  were  repulsive,  and  although  reared 
in  a  courtier-household  he  early  ns.scrtcd  his  individuality 
by  his  contempt  for  tho  pomp  and  glitter  of  court  life. 
At  the  ago  of  nineteen,  however,  he  had  as  yet  no  thought 
of  renouncing  tho  world,^  for  ho  was  then  passionately  in 
lovo  with  tho  child  of  a  friendly  neighbour,  a  Strozzi 
exiled  from  Florence.  His  suit  was  repulsed  with  disdain  ; 
no  Strozzi,  he  was  told,  might  stoop  to  wed  a  Savonarola. 
This  blow  probably  decided  his  career,  but  ho  endured 
two  years  of  misery  and  mental  conflict  before  resolving 
to  abandon  his  medical  studies  and  dci'ota  himself  to 
God's  service.  IIo  was  full  of  doubt  and  self-distrust  ; 
disgust  for   tho  world  did  not   seem  to  him  a  sufficient 


334 


SAVONAROLA 


qualification  for  the  religious  life,  and  his  daily  prayer 
■was,  "Lord!  teach  me  the  way  my  soul  should  walk." 
But  in  1474  his  doubts  were  dispelled  by  a  sermon  heard 
at  Faenza,  and  his  way  was  clear.  Dreading  the  pain  of 
bidding  farewell  to  his  dear  ones,  he  secretly  stole  away  to 
Bologna,  entered  the  monastery  of  St  Domenico  and  then 
acquainted  his  father  with  his  reasons  for  the  step.  The 
■world's  wickedness  was  intolerable,  he  ■wrote ;  through- 
out Italy  he  beheld  vice  triumphant,  virtue  despised. 
Among  the  papers  he  had  left  behind  at  Ferrara  was  a 
treatise  on  "  Contempt  of  the  World,"  inveighing  against 
the  prevalent  corruption  a'nd  predicting  the  speedy 
vengeance  of  Heaven.  His  novitiate  was  marked  by  a 
fervour  of  humility.  He  sought  the  most  menial  offices, 
and  did  penance  for  his  sins  by  the  severest  austerities. 
According  to  contemporary  ■writers  he  was  worn  to  a 
shadow. 

All  portraits  of  this  extraordinary  man  are  at  first 
sight  almost  repulsively  ugly,  but  written  descriptions 
tell  us  that  his  gaunt  features  were  beautified  by  an 
p?7»ession  of  singular  force  and  benevolence.-  Luminous 
dark  eyes  sparkled  and  flamed  beneath  his  thick,  black 
brows,  and  his  large  mouth  and  protttinent  nether  lip 
were  as  capable  of  gentle  sweetness  as  of  power  and  set 
resolve.  He  was  of  middling  stature,  dark  complexion, 
had .  a  nervous  system  of  exceeding  delicacy  and  the 
Eanguineo-bilious  temperament  so  often  associated  ■with 
genius.  His  manners  were  simple,  his  speech  unadorned 
and  almost  homely.  His  splendid  oratorical  power  was  as 
yet  unrevealed ;  but  his  intellectual  gifts  being  at  once 
recognized  his  superiors  charged  him  with  the  instruction 
of  the  novices,  instead  of  the  humbler  tasks  he  had  wished 
to  fulfil.  Ee  passed  six  quiet  years  in  the  convent,  but 
his  poems  •  written  during  that  period  are  expressive  of 
burning  indignation  against  the  increasing  corruptions  of 
the  church  and  profoundest  sorrow  for  the  calamities  of 
his  country. 

In  1482  hereluctantly  accepted  a  mission  to  Ferrara,  and, 
regarding  earthly  affections  as  snares  of  the  ^vil  one,  tried 
to  keep  aloof  from  his  family.  His  preachings  attracted 
slight  attention  there,  no  one — as  he  later  remarked — 
teing  a  prophet  in  his  own "  land.  An  outbreak  of 
hostilities  between  Ferrara  and  Venice,  fomented  by  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.,  soon  caused  his  recall  to  Bologna^  Thence  be 
■was  despatched  to  St  Mark's  in  Florence  the  scene  of  his 
future-triumph  and  do-wnfall. 

Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  was  then  (1482)  at  the  height 
Cf  his  power  and  popularity,  and  the  Florentines,  dazzled 
by  his  splendour  and  devoted  to  pleasure  and  luxury, 
were- docile  subjects  to  his  rule.  At  first  Savonarola  was 
enchanted  with  Florence.  Fresh  from  the  gloom  of 
Bologna,  sickened  by  the  evils  wrought  on  Italy  by  the 
scandalous  nepotism  of  the  pope,  and  oppressed  by  some 
natural  human' anxiety  as  to  his  reception  in  a  strange 
city,  the  gaiety  and  charm  of  his  novel  surroundings 
lifted  a  weight. from  his  souL  His  cloister,  sanctified  by 
memories  of  St  Antonine  and  adorned  with  the  inspired 
paintings  of  Fvh,  Angelico,  seemed  to  him  a  fore-court  of 
heaven.  But  his  content  speedily  changed  to  horror. 
The  Florence  streets  rang  with  Lorenzo's  ribald  songs  (the 
"'  canti  carnascialeschi ") ;  the  smooth,  cultured  citizens 
were  dead  to  all  sense  of  religion  or  morality;  and  the 
spirit  of  tho  fashionable  heathen  philosophy  had  even 
infected  the  brotherhood  of  St  Mark.  In  1483  Savonarola 
was  Lenten  preacher  in  the  church  of  St  Lorenzo,  but  his 
plain,  earnest  exhortations  attracted  few  hearers,  while  all 
the  -world  thronged  to  Santo  Spirito  to  enjoy  the  elegant 
rhetoric  of  FrJi  Mariano  da  Genazzano.  Discouraged  by 
Uiis  failure  in  t!i6  pulpit,  Savonarola  now  devoted  himself 
to  teaching  in  the  convent,  but  his  zeal  for  the  salvation 


of  the  apathetic  townsfolk  was  soon  to  stir  him  to  fresh 
efforts.  Con-vinced  of  being  divinely  inspired,  he  had 
begun  to  see  visions,  and  discovered  in  the  Apocalypse 
symbols  of  the  heavenly  vengeance  about  to  overtake  this 
sin-laden  people.  In  a  hymn  to  the  Saviour  composed  at 
this  time  he  gave  vent  to  his  prophetic  dismay.  The 
papal  chair  was  now  filled  by  Innocent  VIH.,  whose  rule 
was  even  more  infamous  than  that  of  his  predecessor 
Sixtus  - 

Savona  'a's  first  success  as  a  preacher  was  gained  at 
St  Gemignc  i  (1484-85),  but  it  was  only  at  Brescia  in 
the  following  -ear  that  his  power  as  an  orator  was  fully 
revealed.  In  a  sermon  on  the  Apocalypse  he  shook  men's 
souls  by  his  terrible  threats  of  the  wrath  to  come,  and 
drew  tears  from  their  eyes  by  the  tender  pathos  of  his 
assurances  of  divine  mercy.  .  A  Brescian  friar  relates  that 
a  halo  of  light  was  seen  to  flash  round  his  head,  and  the 
citizens  remembered  his  awful  prophecies  when  in  1512 
their  town  was  put  to  the  sack  by  Gaston  de  Foix. 

Soon,  at  a  Dominican  council  at  Eeggio,  Savonarola  had 
occasion  to  display  his  theological  learning  .and  subtlety. 
The .  famous  Pico  della  Mirandola  was  particularly 
impressed  by  the  friar's  attainments,  and  is  said  to  have 
urged  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  to  recall  him  from  Lombardy, 
When  Savonarola  returned  to  Florence  in  1490,  his  fame 
as  an  orator  had  gone  there  before '  him.  The  cloister 
garden  was  too  small  for  the  crowds  attending  lis 
lectures,  and  on  the  Ist  August  1490  he  gave  his  first 
sermon  in  the  church  of  St  Mark.  To  quote  his  own 
words,  it  was  "  a  -  terrible  sermon,"  and  legend  adds  that 
he  foretold  he  should  preach  for  eight  years. 

And  now,  for  the  better  setting  forth  of  his  doctrines,  to 
silence  pedants,  and  confute  malignant  misinterpretation, 
he  published  a  collection  of  his  -writings.  These  proved 
,  his  knowledge  of  the  ancient  philosophy  he '  so  fiercely 
condemned,  and  showed  that  no  ignorance  of  the  fathers 
caused  him  to  seek  inspiiration^'from  the  Bible  afone.  The 
Tnumph  of  the  Cross  is  his  principal  work,  but  everything 
he  wrote  was  animated  by  the  ardent  spirit  of  piety 
evidenced  in  his  life.  Savonarola's  sole  aim  was  to  bring 
mankind  nearer  to  God. 

In  1491  he  was  invited  to  preach  in  tne  cathedral,  Sta 
Maria  del  Fiore,  and  his  rule  over  Florence  may  be  said 
to  begin  from  that  date.  The  anger  and  uneasiness  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  gave  testimony  to' his  power.  Five  of 
the  leading  men  of  Florence  were  sent  to  urge  him  to 
moderate  his  tone,  and  in  his  own  interest  and  that  of  his 
convent  to  show  more,  respect  to  the  head  of  the  state. 
But  Savonarola  rejected  their  advice.  -"  Tell  your  master," 
he  said  in  conclusion,  "  that,  albert  I  am  a  bumble  stranger, 
he  the  lord  of  Florence,  yet  I  shall  remain  and  he  d^art." 
Afterwards,'  in  the  presence  of  many  witnesses,  he  fore- 
told that  stupendous  changes  impended  over  Italy, — that 
Lorenzo,  the  pope,  and'  the  king  of  Naples  wera  all  near 
unto  death. 

In  the  July  of  the  same  year  he  ■was  elected  prif  of  St 
Jfark's.  As  the  convent  had  been  rebuilt  by  Cosimo,  and 
enriched  by  the  bounty  of  the  Medici,  it  was  coniic'ered 
the  .-duty  of  the  -n&w  superior  to  present  his  homage  to 
Lorenzo.  Savonarola,  however,  refused  to  conform  to  the 
usage.  His  election  was  due  to  God,  not  Lorenzo ;  to 
Sod  alone  would  he  promise  submission.  Upon  this  the 
sovereign  angrily  exclaimed  :  "  This  stranger  comes  to 
dwell  in  my  house,  yet  will  not  stoop  to  pay  tne  a  visit." 
Nevertheless,  disdaining  to  recognize  the  enmity  of  a  mere 
monk,  he  tried  various  conciliatory  measures.  All  were 
■rejected  by  the  unbending  prior,  who  even  refused  to-  let 
his  convent  profit  by  Lorenzo's  donations.  -  The  Magnifico 
then  sought  to  undermine  his  popularity,  and  Frh  Mariano 
was  employsd  to  attack  him  from  the  pulpit.     But  the 


B  A    v    O  In    A  xi  O  1j  A 


335 


preacher's  scaudalous  acciisationa  missed  their  mark,  and 
disgusted  his  hearers  without  hurting  his  rival.  Savon- 
arola took  up  the  challenge ;  his  eloquence  prevailed,  and 
Fri' Mariano  was  silenced.  But  the  latter,  Avhilo  feigning 
indifference,  was  thenceforth  his  rancorous  and  determined 
foe. 

In  April  1492  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  was  on  ms  death- 
hed  at  Careggi.  Oppressed  by  the  weight  of  his  crimes, 
he  needed  some  assurance  of  divine  forgiveness  from 
trustier  lips  than  those  of  obsequious  courtiers,  and 
summoned  the  unyielding  prior  to  shrive  his  soul. 
Savonarola  reluctantly  came,  and,  after  hearing  the  agitated 
confession  of  the  dying  prince,  offered  absolution  upon 
three  conditions.  Lorenzo  asked  in  what  they  consisted. 
First,  "  You  must  repent  and  feel  true  faith  in  God's 
mercy."  Lorenzo  assented.  Secondly,  "  You  must  give  up 
your  ill-gotten  wealth."  This  too  Lorenzo  promised,  after 
some  hesitation  ;  but  upon  hearing  the  third  clause,  "  You 
must  restore  the  liberties  of  Florence,"  Lorenzo  turned  his 
face  to  the  wall  and  made  no  reply.  Savonarola  waited  a 
few  moments  and  then  went  away.  And  shortly  after  his 
penitent  died  unabsolved. 

Savonarola's  influence  now  rapidly  mcreased.  Many 
adherents  of  the  late  prince  came  over  to  his  side, 
disgusted  by  the  violence  and  incompetency  of  Piero  de' 
Medici's  rule.  All  state  affairs  were  mismanaged,  and 
Florence  was  fast  losing  the  power  and  prestige  acquired 
under  Lorenzo.  The  same  year  witnessed  the  fulfilment 
of  Savonarola's  second  prediction  in  the  death  of  Inno- 
cent VIII.  (July  1-192);  men's  minds  were  full-  of 
anxiety,  and  the  scandaloas  election  of  Cardinal  Borgia  to 
the  papal  chair  heralded  the  .climax  of  Italy's  woes.  The 
friar's  utterances  became  more  and  more  fervent  and 
impassioned.  Patriotic  solicitude  combined  with  close 
study  of  Biblical  prophecies  had  stirred  him  to  a  pious 
frenzy,  in  which  he  saw  visions  and  believed  him.«elf  the 
recipient  of  divine  revelations.  It  was  during  the  delivery 
of  one  of  his  forcible  Advent  sermons  that  he  beheld  the 
celebrated  vision,  recorded  in  contemporary  medab  and 
engravings,  that  is  almost  a  symbol  of  his  doctrines.  A 
hand  appeared  to  him  bearing  a  flaming  sword  inscribed 
with  the  words :  "  Gladius  Domini  supra  teriam  cito  et 
velociter."  He  hoard  supernatural  voices  proclaiming 
mercy  to  the  faithful,  vengeance  on  the  guilty,  and  mighty 
cries  that  the  wrath  of  God  was  at  hand.  Then  the  sword 
bent  towards  the  earth,  the  sky  darkened,  thunder  pealed, 
lightning  flashed,  and  the  whole  world  was  wasted  Juy 
famine,  bloodshed,  and  pestilence.  It  was  probably  the 
noise  of  these  sermons  that  caused  the  friar's  temporary 
removal  from  Florence  at  the  instance  of  Piero  do'  Medici. 
He  was  presently  addressing  enthusiastic  congregations  at 
Prato  and  Bologna.  In  the  latter  city  his  courage  in 
rebuking  the  wife  of  Bentivoglio,  the  reigning  lord,  for 
interrupting  divine  service  by  her  noisy  entrance  nearly 
cost  him  his  life.  Assassins  were  sent  to  kill  him  in  his 
cell ;  but  awed,  it  is  said,  by  Savonarola's  words  and 
demeanour  they  fled  dismayed  from  his  presence.  At  the 
close  of  his  last  sermon  the  undaunted  friar  publicly 
announced  the  day  and  hour  of  his  departure  from 
Bologna  ;  and  his  lonely  journey  on  foot  over  the  Apennines 
was  safely  accomplished.  Ho  was  rapturously  welcomed 
by  the  community  of  St  Mark's,  and  at  on£e  proceeded  to 
re-establish  the  discipline  of  the  order  and  to  sweep  away 
all  abuses.  For  this  purpose  he  obtained,  after  much 
difficulty,  a  papal  brief  emancipating  the  Dominicans 
of  St  >(ark  from  the  rule  of  the  Lombard  vicars  of 
that  order.  Ho  thus  became  an  independent  author- 
ity, no  longer  at  the  command  of  distant  superiors. 
Thoroughly  reorganizing  the  convent,  he  relegated  many 
of  the  brethren  to  a  quieter  retreat  outside  the  city,  only 


retaining  in  Florence  those  best  fitted  to  aid  in  intellectual 
labour.  To  render  the  convent  seff-supporting,  ho  opened 
schools  for  various  branches  of  art,  and  promoted  tha 
study  of  Oriental  languages.  His  efforts  were  completely 
successful;  the  brethren's  enthusiasm  was  fired  by  their 
superior's  example  ;  religion  and  learning  made  equal  pro- 
gress ;  St  Mark's  became  the  most  popular  .monastery  in 
Florence,  and  many  citizens  of  noble  birth  flocked  thither 
to  take  the  vows. 

!>f  can  while  Savonarola  continued  to  denounce  the 
abuses  of  the  church  and  the  guilt  and  corruption  of  man- 
kind, and  thundered  forth  predictions  of  heavenly  v.-rath. 
The  scourge  of  war  was  already  at  hand,  for  in  149-1  the 
duke  of  Milan  demanded  the  aid  of  France,  and  King 
Charles  VUI.  brought  an  army  across  the  Alps.  Piero  de' 
Medici,  maddened  v;ith  fear,  and  forgetting  that  hitherto 
Florence  had  b^en  the  firm  friend  of  France,  made  alliance 
with  the  Neapolitan  sovereign  whose  kingdom  was  claimed 
by  Charles.  Then,  repenting  this  ill-judged  step,  he 
hurried  in  person  to  the  French  camp  at  Pietra  Santa,  and 
humbled  himself  before  the  king.  And,  not  content  with 
agreeixg  to  all  the  latter's  demands,  he  further  promised 
large  sums  of  money  and  the  surrender  of  the  strongholds 
of  Pisa  and  Leghorn. 

This  news  drove  Florence  to  revolt,  and  the  worst 
excesses  were  feared  from  the  popular  fury.  But  even  at 
this  crisis  Savonarola's  influence  was  all-powerful,  and  a 
bloodless  revolution  was  effected.  Piero  Capponi's  declara- 
tion that  "  it  was  time  to  put  an  end  to  this  baby  govern- 
ment "  was  the  sole  weapon  needed  to  depose  Piero  de' 
Medici.  The  resuscitated  republic  instantly  sent  a  fresh 
embas.sy  to  the  French  king,  to  arrange  the  terms  of  his 
reception  in  Florence.  Savonarola  was  one  of  the  envoys, 
Charles  being  known  to  entertain  the  greatest  veneration 
for  the  friar  who  had  so  long  predicted  his  coming  and 
declared  it  to  bo  divinely  ordained.  He  was  most  respect- 
fully received  at  the  camp,  but  could  obtain  no  definite 
pledges  from  the  king,  who  was  bent  on  first  coming  to 
Florence.  During  Savonarola's  absence  Piero  de'  ^Medici 
had  re-entered  the  city,  found  his  power  irretrievably  lost, 
and  been  contemptuously  but  peaceably  expelled.  It  is  a 
proof  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  Savonarola's  convent 
was  held  that,  although  the  headquarters  of  the  victorious 
popular  party,  Piero's  brother.  Cardinal  Medici,  entrusted 
to  its  care  a  large  share  of  the  family  treasures. 

Returning  full  of  hope  from  Pietra  Santa,  Savonarola 
might  well  have  been  dismayed  by  the  distracted  state  of 
public  affairs.  There  was  no  Government,  and  revolted 
Pisa  was  Secretly  favoured  by  the  monarch  who  was 
knocking  at  the  gates  of  Florence.  Nevertheless,  with 
the  aid  of  Capponi,  he  guided  the  bewildered  city  safely 
through  these  critical  days  Charles  entered  Florence  on 
the  17th  November  1494,  and  the  citizens'  fears  evaporated 
in  jests  on  the  puny  exterior  of  the  "threatened  scourge." 
But  the  exorbitance  of  his  demands  soon  showed  that  he 
came  as  a  foe.  All  was  agitation;  disturbances  arcso, 
and  serious  collision  with  the  French  troops  seemed 
inevitable.  The  signory  resolved  to  be  rid  of  their 
dangerous  guests ;  and,  when  Charles  threatened  to  sound 
his  trumpets  unless  the  sums  c.icactcd  were  paid,  Capponi 
tore  up  the  treaty  in  his  face  and  made  the  memorable 
reply:  "Then  wo  will  ring  our  bells."  Tho  monarch 
was  cowed,  accepted  moderate  term.s,  and,  '  yielding  to 
Savonarola's  remonstrance.?,  left  Florence  on  tho  24th 
November. 

Tho  city  was  now  free  but  in  tho  utmost  disorder,  its 
commerce  ruined,  its  treasury  drained.  After  seventy 
years'  subjection  to  tho  >Iedici  it  had  forgotten  tho  art  of 
self-government,  and  felt  tho  need  of  a  strong  guiding 
hand.     So  tho  citizens  turned  to  tho  patriot  monk  whoso 


336 


S  A  V  O  N  A  11  OLA 


words  bad  freed  them  of  King  Charles,  and  Savonarola 
became  the  lawgiver  of  Florence.  The  first  thing  done 
at  his  instance  was  to  relieve  the  starving  populace  within 
and  without  the  walls ;  shops  were  opened  to  give  wwrk 
to  the  unemployed ;  all  taxes,  especially  those  weighing 
on rfho  lower  classes,  were  reduced;  the  strictest  admini- 
stration of  justice  was  enforced,  and  all  men  were  exhorted 
to  place  their  trust  in  the  Lord.  And,  after  much  debate 
as  to  the  constitution  of  the  new  republic,  Savonarola's 
influence  carried  the  day  in  favour  of  Soderini's  proposal 
of  a  universal  or  general  government,  with  a  great  council 
on  the  Venetian  plan,  but  modified  to  suit  the  needs  of 
.the  city.  The  Florentines'  love  for  their  great  preacher 
was  enhanced  by  gratitude  on  this  triumphant  defence  of 
•  their  rights.  The  great  council  consisted  of  3200  citizens 
of  blameless  reputation  and  over  twentj'-five  years  of  age, 
a  third  of  the  number  sitting  for  six  months  in  turn  in 
the  hall  of  the  Cinquecento  expressly  built  for  the  pur- 
pose. There  was  also  an  upper  council  of  eighty,  which 
in  conjunction  with  the  signory  decided  all  questions  of 
too  important  and  delicate  a  nature  for  discussion  in  the 
larger  assembly.  These  institutions  were  approved  by  the 
people,  and  gave  a  fair  promise  of  justice.  Savonarola's 
programme  of  the  new  government  was  comprised  in  the 
f ollomng  formula  : —  ( 1 )  fear  of  God  and  purification  of 
manners;  (2)  promotion  of  the  public  welfare  in  pre- 
ference to  private  interests ;  (3)  a  general  amnesty  to 
political  offenders ;  (4)  a  council  on  the  Venetian  model, 
but  with  no  doge.  At  first  the  new  machinery  acted 
well;  the  public  mind  was  tranquil,  and  the  war  with 
Pisa — not  as  yet  of  threatening  proportions — was  enough 
to  occupy  the  Florentines  and  prevent  internecine  feuds. 

Without  holding  any  official  post  in  the  commonwealth 
he  had  created  the  prior  of  St  Mark's  was  the  real  head  of 
the  state,  the  dictator  of  Florence,  and  guarded  the  public 
weal  with  extraordinary  political  wisdom.  At  his  instance 
the  tyrannical  system  of  arbitrary  imposts  and  so-called 
voluntary  loans  was  abolished,  and  replaced  by  a  tax  of 
ten  per  cent,  (la  decima)  on  all  real  property.  The  laws 
and  edicts  of  this  period  read  hke  paraphrases  of 
Savonarola's  sermons,  and  indeed  his  counsels  were  always 
given  as  addenda  to  the  religious  exhortations  in  which  he 
denounced  the  sins  of  his  country  and  the  pollution  of  the 
church,  and  urged  Florence  to  cast  off  iniquity  and  become 
a  truly  Christian  city,  a  pattern  not  only  to  Rome  but  to 
the  world  at  large.  His  eloquence  was  now  at  the  flood. 
Day  by  day  his  impassioned  words,  filled  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Old  Testament,  wrought  upon  the  minds  of  the 
Florentines  and  strung  them  to  a  pitch  of  pious  emotion 
never  before — and  never  since — attained  by  them.  Their 
fervour  was  too  hot  to  be  lasting,  and  Savonarola's  un- 
compromising E2)irit  roused  the  hatred  of  political  adver- 
saries as  well  as  of  the  degraded  court  of  Eome.  Even 
now,  v/hen  his  authority  was  at  its  highest,  when  his  fame 
filled  the  land,  and  the  vast  cathedral  and  its  precincts 
lacked  space  for  the  crowds  flocking  to  hear  him,  his 
enemies  were  secretly  preparing  his  downfall. 

Pleasure-loving  Florence  was  completely  changed.  Ab- 
juring pomps  and  vanities,  its  citizens  observed  the  ascetic 
regime  of  the  cloister ;  half  the  year  was  devoted  to 
abstinence  and  few  dared  to  eat  meat  on  the  fasts  ordained 
by  Savonarola.  Hymn?  and  lauds  rang  in  the  streets 
that  had  so  recently  echoed  with  Lorenzo's  dissolute  songs. 
Both  sexes  dressed  with  Puritan  plainness  :  husbands  and 
wives  quitted  their  homes  for  convents ;  marriage  became 
an  awful  and  scarcely  permitted  rite ;  mothers  suckled 
their  own  babes  ;  and  persons  of  all  ranks — nobles,  scholars, 
and  artists — renounced  the  world  to  assume  the  Dominican 
robe.  Still  more  wonderful  was  Savonarola's  influence 
over  children,  and  their  response  to  his  appeals  is  a  proof 


of  the  magnetic  power  of  his  goodness  and  purity.  He 
organized  the  boys  of  Florence  in  a  species  of  sacred 
militia,  an  inner  republic,  with  its  own  magistrates  and 
officials  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  his  rules  for  the 
holy  life.  It  was  with  the  aid  of  these  youthful  enthu- 
siasts that  Savonarola  arranged  the  religious  carnival  of 
'496,  when  the  citizens  gave  their  costliest  possessions  in 
alms  to  the  poor,  and  tonsured  monks,  crowned  with 
flowers,  sang  lauds  and  performed  wild  dances  for  the 
glory  of  God.  In  the  same  spirit,  and*  to  point  the 
doctrine  of  renunciation  of  carnal  gauds,  he  celgbrated 
the  carnival  of  1497  by  the  famous  "burning  of  the 
vanities "  in  the  Piazza  della  Signoria.  A  Venetian 
merchant  is  known  to  have  bid  22,000  gold  florins  for  the 
■doomed  vanities,  but  the  scandalized  authorities  not  only 
rejected  his  offer  but  added  his  portrait  to  the  pile. 
Nevertheless  the  artistic  value  of  the  objects  consumed 
has  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  some  writers.  There  is 
no  proof  that  any  book  or  painting  of  real  merit  was 
sacriflced,  and  Savonarola  was  neither  a  foe  to  art  nor  to 
learning.  On  the  contrary,  so  great  was  his  respect  for 
both  that,  when  there  was  a  question  of  selling  the  Medici 
library  to  pay  that  family's  debts,  he  saved  the  collection 
at  the  expense  of  the  convert  purse. 

Meanwhile  events  were  taking  a  turn  hostile  to  the 
prior.  Alexander  VI.  had  long  regretted  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  St  Mark's  from  the  rule  of  the  Lombard 
Dominicans,  and  now,  having  seen  a  transcript  of  one  of 
Savonarola's  denunciations  of  his  crimes,  resolved  to 
silence  this  daring  preacher  at  any  cost.  Bribery  was  the 
first  weapon  employed,  and  a  cardinal's  hat  was  held  out 
as  a  bait.  But  Savonarola  indignantly  spurned  the  offer, 
replying  to  it  frem  the  pidpit  with  the  prophetic  words : 
"No  hat  will  I  have  but  that  of  a  martyr,  reddened  with 
my  own  blood." 

So  long  as  King  Charles  remained  in  Italy  Alexander's 
concern  for  his  own  safety  prevented  all  vigorous  measures 
against  the  friar.'  But  no  Borgia  ever  forgot  an  enemy. 
Ho  bided  his  time,  and  the  transformation  of  sceptical 
Florence  into  an  austerely  Christian  republic  claiming  the 
Saviour  as  its  head  only  increased  his  resolve  to  crush 
the  man  who  had  wrought  this  marvsl.  The  potent  duke 
of  Slilan,  Ludovico  Sforza,  and  other  foes  were  labouring 
for  the  same  end,  and  already  in  July  1495  a  papal  brief 
had  courteously  summoned  Savonarola  to  Rome.  In  terms 
of  equal  courtesy  the  prior  declined  the  invitation,  nor 
did  he  obey  a  second,  less  softly  worded,  in  September. 
Then  came  a  third,  threatening  Florence  %'»jth  an  interdict 
in  case  of  renewed  refusal.  Savonarola  disregarded  the 
command,  but  suspending  his  sermons  went  to  preack 
for  a  while  in  other  Tuscan  cities.  But  in  Lent  his 
celebrated  sermons  upon  Amos  were  delivered  in  th' 
duomo,  and  again  he  urged  the  necessity  of  reforming  th^ 
church,  striving  by  ingenious  arguments  to  reconcile  re- 
bellion against  Alexander  with  unalterable  fidelity  to  the 
Holy  See.  All  Italy  recognized  that  a  mortal  combat  was 
going  on  between  a  humble  friar  and  the  head  of  the 
church.  "What  would  be  the  result  1  Savonarola's  voice 
was  arousing  a  storm  that  might  shake  even  the  power  of 
Rome !  Alive  to  the  danger,  the  pope  knew  that  his  foe 
must  be  crushed,  and  the  religious  carnival  of  149G 
afforded  a  good  pretext  for  stronger  proceedings  against 
him.  The  threatened  anathema  was,  for  some  reason, 
deferred,  but  a  brief  uniting  St  Mark's  to  a  new  Tuscan 
branch  of  the  Dominicans  now  deprived  Savonarola  of  his 
independent  power.  However,  in  the  beginning  of  1497 
the  Piagnoni  were  again  in  oflice,  with  the  prior's  staunch 
friend,  Francesco  Valori,  at  their  head.  In  March  the 
aspect  of  affairs  changed.  The  Arrabbiati  and  the 
Medicean    faction    merged   political   differences    in   their 


s 


\r  0  l<r  A  B,  O.  L  A 


337 


common  hatred  to  Savouarola.  Btero  de'  Medki'a  fresh 
attempt  to  rc-eritcr  Florence  ii'Aed ;  ijeverthe)^.'ss  his 
foUowera  continued  their  ip.imgaes,  and  party  spirit  in^  ; 
creased  in  virtilence.  Tha  cilizens  were  growing  weary 
of  the  monastic  austerities  imposed  on  them,  and  Alexander 
foresavr  that  his  revenge  was  at  hand. 

A  signory  openly  hostile  to  Savonarola  tooh  office  in 
May,  and  on  Ascension  Dsy  his  enemies  ventured  on  active 
insult.  His  pulpit  in  tte  duomo  was  defiled,  an  ass's 
skin  spread  over  the  cusXion,  and  sharp  nails  fixed  in  the 
bijard  on  irhich  he  wouid  strike  his  hand.  The  outrage 
■was  (iiscorered  and  remedied  before  the  service  began  ; 
and,  although  the  Arrabbiati  half  filled  the  church  and 
even  sought  to  attempt  his  life,  Savonarola  kept  his  com- 
posure and  delivered  a  most  impressive  sermon.  But  the 
incident  proved  the  bitterness  and  energy  of  his  foes,  and 
the  signory,  in  feigned  anxiety  for  the  public  peace,  be- 
sought him  to  suspend  hb  discourses.  Shortly  afterwards 
the  threatened  boll  of  excommunication  ^»-as  launched 
against  him,  and  Fri  Mariano  was  in  Rome  stimulating 
the  pope's  T.rata.  Savonarola  remained  undauiited.  The 
sentence  was  null  and  void,  he  said.  Ilis  mission  was 
divinely  inspired;  and  Alexander,  elected  timoniacally  and 
laden  with  crimes,  was  no  true  pope.  Nevertheless  the 
readirg  of  the  bull  in  the  duomo  with  the  appropriate, 
terrifying  ceremonial  made  a  deep  impression  on  the 
Florenti.^e3.  And  now,  the  Arrabbiati  signory  putting 
no  check  on  the  Compagnacci,  the  city  returned  to 
the  wanton  licence  of  Lorenzo's  reign.  But  in  July 
Savonarola's  friends  were  again  in  power  and  did  their 
best  to  have  his  excommunication  removed.  Meanwhile 
party  jtrife  was  stilled  by  an  outbreak  of  the  plague. 
The  prior  of  St  Mark's  used  the  wisest  precautions  for  the 
safety  of  his  two  hundred  and  fifty  monks,  sustained  their 
courage  by  his  own,  and  sent  the  younger  men  to  a  country 
retreat  out  of  reach  of  contagion.  During  this  time 
Rome  was  horror-struck  by  the  mysterious  murder  of  the 
young  duke  of  Gandia,  and  the  bereaved  pope  mourned 
his  son  with  the  wildest  grief.  Savonarola  addressed  to  the 
pontifE  a  letter  of  condolence,  boldly  urging  him  to  bow 
to  the  will  of  Heaven  and  repent  while  there  was  yet  time. 

The  plague  ended,  Florence  was  plunged  in  fresh 
troubles  from  Medicean  intrigues,  and  a  conspiracy  for 
the  restoration  of  Piero  was  discovered.  Among  the  five 
leading  citizens  concerned  in  the  plot  was  Bernardo  del 
Nero,  a  very  aged  man  of  lofty  talents  and  position.  The 
gonfalonier,  Francesco  Valori,  used  his  strongest  influence 
to  obtain  their  condemnation,  and  all  five  were  put  to 
death.  It  is  said  that  at  least  Bernardo  del  Nero  would 
have  been  spared  had  Savonarola  raised  his  voice,  but, 
although  refraining  from  any  active  part  against  the 
prisoners,  the  prior  would  not  ask  mercy  for  them.  This 
silence  proved  fatal  to  his  popularity  with  moderate  Dien, 
gave  new  adherents  to  the  Arrabbiati,  and  whetted  t'le 
fury  of  the  pope,  Sforza,  and  all  potentates  well  disposed 
to  the  Medici  faction.  He  was  now  interdicted  from 
preiching  even  in  his  own  convent  and  again  summoned 
to  Rome.  As  before,  the  mandate  was  disobeyed.  He 
refrained  from  public  preaching,  but  held  conferences  in 
St  Mark's  -wHth  large  gatherings  of  his  disciples,  and  defied 
the  interdict  on  Christmas  Day  by  pulalicly  celebrating 
mass  and  beading  a  procession  through  the  cloisters. 

The  year  1498.  in  which  Savonarola  was  to  die  a 
martyr's  death,  opened  amid  seemingly  favourable  auspices. 
The  Piagnoni  were  again  at  the  head  of  the  state,  and  by 
their  request  the  prior  resumed  his  sermons  in  the  duomo, 
while  hU  dearest  disciple,  Fri  Domenico  Buonvicini,  filled 
the  pulpit  of  St  Lorenzo.  Scaffoldings  had  to  be  erected 
to  accommodate  Savonarola's  congregation,  .".nd  the  Arrab- 
biati could  only  vent  their  spito  by  noisy  riots  on  the 
21  —  11 


piay/a  'outside   the    lAthedral.     For    the   last   tinle   the 
citnivsl  was  again  kept  with  strange  reUgious  festivities, 
and  many  valuable  books  and  works  of  art  were  sacrificed 
in  a  second  bonfire  of  "  vanities."     But  menacing  briefs 
poured    in    from    Rome ;    the    pope   had    read    one    of 
Savonarola's   recent  sermons   on  Exodus ;  the  city  itself 
was  threatened  with  interdict,  and  the  Florentine  ambas- 
sador could  bartily  obtain  a  short  delay.     Now  too  the 
Piagnoni  quitted  office;  the  new  signory  was  less  friendly, 
and  the  prior  was  persuaded  by  his  adherents  to  retire  to 
St  Mark's.     There  he  continued  to  preach  with  unabated 
zec\ ;  and,  since  the  women  of  Florence  deplored  the  loss  of 
his  teachings,  one  day  in  the  week  was  set  apart  for  them. 
The  signory  tried  to  conciliate  the  pope  by  relating  the 
wonderful  spiritual  effects  of.  their  preacher's  words,  but 
Alexander  was   obdurate.      The  Florentines  must    either 
silence  the  man  themselves,  or  send  him  to  be  judged  by 
a  Reman  tribunal. 

Undismayed  by  personal  danger,  Savonarola  resolved  to 
appeal  to  aU  Christendom  against  the  unrighteous  pontiff, 
and  despatched  letters  to  the  mlers  of  Europe  adjuring 
them  to  assemble  a  council  to  condemn  thiq  antipope. 
The  council  of  Constance,  and  the  deposition  of  John 
XXIIL,  were  satisfactory  precedents  still  remembered  by 
the  world.  One  of  these  letters  being  intercepted  and 
sent  to  Rome  '^y  the  duke  of  Milan  (it  is  said)  proved  fatal 
to  the  friar.  'The  papal  threats  were  now  too  urgent  to  be 
disregarded,  and  the  cowed  signory  entreated  Savonarola 
to  put  an  end  to  his  sermons.  He  reluctantly  obeyed,  and 
concluc'fd  his  last  discounre  with  the  tenderest  and  most 
touching  farewell.  Perhaps  he  foresaw  that  he  should 
never  again  address  his  flock  from  the  pulpit. 

The  Government  now  hoped  that  Alexander  would  be 
appeased  and  Florence  allowed  to  breathe  freely.  But 
although  silenced  the  prophet  was  doomed,  and  the  folly 
of  his  disciples  precipitated  his  fate.  A  creature  of  the 
Arrabbiati,  a  Franciscan  friar  named  France  ico  di  Pugiia, 
cl.allengM  Savonarola  to  prove  the  truth  of  his  doctrines 
by  the  ordeal  of  fire.  At  first  the  prior  treated  the  pro- 
vocation with  merited  contemptj  but  unfortunately  his 
too  zealous  disciple  Fra  Domenico  accepted  the  challenge. 
And,  when  the  Franciscan  declared  that  1  e  would  enter 
the  fire  with  Savonarola  alone,  Fra  Dom':nico  protested 
his  willingness  to  enter  it  with  any  one  in  defence  of  his 
master's  cause.  So,  as  Savonarola  resolutely  declined  the 
trial,  the  Franciscan  deputed  a  convert,  one  Giuliano  del 
Rondinelli,  to  go  through  the  ordeal  with  Fra  Domenico. 
There  were  long  preliminary  disputes.  Savonarola,  per- 
ceiving that  a  trap  was  being  laid  for  him,  discountenanced 
the  "  experiment "  until  over-persuaded  by  his  disciple's 
prayers.  Perhaps  because  it  was  a  mere  reduciiiy  ad 
ahsurdum  of  his  dearest  beliefs,  he  was  strangely  perplexed 
and  vacillating  with  regard  to  it.  AVith  his  firm  convic- 
tion of  the  divinity  of  his  mission  he  sometimes  felt 
assured  of  the  triumphant  issue  of  the  terri'ula  ordeal< 
Alternately  swayed  by  impassioned  zeal  and  the  prompt- 
ings of  reason,  his  calmer  judgment  was  at  last  overborne 
by  the  fanaticism  of  his  followers.  Aided  'oy  the  signory, 
which  was  playing  into  the  hands  of  Rome,  the  Arrabbiati 
and  Compagnacci  pressed  the  matter  on,  and  the  way  was 
now  clear  for  Savonarola's  destruction. 

On  the  7th  April  1498  an  immense  throng  gathered  in 
the  Piazza  della  Signoria  to  enjoy  the  barbarous  sight. 
Two  thick  banks  of  combustibles  forty  yards  long,  with  a 
narrow  space  between,  had  been  erected  in  front  of  the 
palace,  and  five  hundred  soldiers  kept  a  wide  circle  clear 
of  the  crowd.  Some  writers  aver  that  the  piles  were 
charged  with  gunpowder.  Not  only  the  square  but  every 
window,  balcony,  or  housetop  commanding  a  glimpse  of 
it    ras   filled   with   eager    spectators.     The    Dominicans 

XXL  —  ^x 


338 


SAVONAKOIjA 


from  one  side,  the  Franciscans  from  tli.^  other,  marched  in 
solemn  procession  to  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  which  had  been 
divided  by  a  hoarding  into  two  separate  compartments. 
The  X)ominicans    were   led  by   Savonarola   carrying   the 
host,  which  he  reverently  deposited  ou  an  altar  prepared 
in  his  portion  of  the  loggia,  and  when  Fri  Domenico  was 
seen  to  kneel  before  it  the  Piagnoni  burst  into  a  song  of 
praise.     The  magistrates  signalled  to  the  two  champions 
to  advance.     Fra  Domenico  stepped  forward,  but  neither 
Rondinelli  nor  Fri  Francesco  appeared,     The  Franoiscans 
began    to   urge   fantastic    objections.     The   Dominican's 
■vestments  might  be  bewitched,  they  said.     Then,  when  he 
promptly  changed  them  for  a  friar's  robe,  they  pretended 
that  his  proximity  to  Savonarola  had   probably  renewed 
the    charm.     He    must   remove    the    cross  that  he  wore. 
He  again  complied, — was  ready  to  fulfil  every  condition  in 
order  to  enter  the  fire.     But  fresh  obstacles  were  suggested 
by  the  Franciscans,  and,  when  Savonarola  insisted  that  his 
champion  should  bear  the  host,  they  cried  out  against  the 
sacrilege  of  exposing  the  Redeemer's  body  to  the  flames. 
All  was  turmoil  and  confusion,  the  crowd  frantic.     And, 
althougk    Rondinelli   hacf   not    come,    the    signory   sent 
angry  messages  to  ask  why  the  Dominicans  delayed  the 
trial     Meanwhile  the  Arrabbiati  stirred    the   public  dis- 
content and  threw  all  the   blame  on  Savonarola.     Some 
Compagnacci  assaulted  the  loggia  in  order  to  kiU   him, 
but   were  driven   back  by  Salviati's  band.     The    foreign 
soldiery,    fearing   an  attack   on   the  palace,  charged   the 
excited  mob,  and   the    tumult  was  temporarily  checked. 
It  was  now  late  in  the  day,  and  a  storm  shower  gave  the 
authorities  a  pretext  for  declaring  that  heaven  was  against 
the    ordeal       The    crafty   Franciscans  slipped  away  un- 
observed, but  Savonarola  raising   the  host  attempted  to 
lead  his  monks  across  the  piazza  in  the  same  solemn  order 
as  before.     On   this  the  popular  fury  burst  forth.     De- 
frauded of  their  bloody  diversion,  the  people  were  wild 
with  rage.     FrJi  Girolarao's  power  was  suddenly  at  an  end. 
These  Florentines  who   had  worshipped  him   as    a   saint 
turned  on   him  with   rabid   hate.      Neither   he    nor    his 
brethren  would  have  lived  to  reach  St  Mark's  but  for  the 
•devoted  help  of  Salviati  and  his  men.     They  were  pelted, 
■stoned,  and  followed  with  the  vilest  execrations.     Against 
the  real  culprits,  the  dastardly  Franciscans,  no  anger  was 
felt ;    the    zealous   prior,    the    prophet   and   lawgiver   of 
Florence,    was    made  the   popular   scapegoat.      Notwith- 
standing the  anguish  that  must  have  filled  his  heart,  the 
fallen  man   preserved  his    dignity   and    calm.      Mounting 
bis  own  pulpit  in   St  Mark's  he  quietly  related  the  events 
of  the   day   to  the  faithful  assembled  in   the  church,  and 
then  withdrew  to  his  cell,  while  the  mob  on   the  square 
outside  was  clamouring  for  his  blood. 

The  next  morning,  the  signory  having  decreed  the 
prior's  banishment,  Francesco  Valori  and  other  leading 
Piagnoni  hurried  to  him  to  concert  measures  for  his  safety. 
Meanwhile  the  Government  decided  on  his  arrest,  and  no 
sooner  was  this  made  public  than  the  populace  rushed  to 
the  attack  of  the  convent.  The  doors  of  St  Mark's  were 
hastily  secured,  and  Savonarola  discovered  that  his 
adherents  had  secretly  prepared  arms  and  munitions  and 
were  ready  to  stand  a  siege.  The  signory  sent  to  order 
all  laymen  to  quit  the  cloister,  and  a  special  summons  to 
ValorL  After  some  hesitation  the  latter  obeyed,  hoping 
by  his  influence  to  rally  all  the  Piagnoni  to  the  rescue. 
But  he  was  murdered  in  the  street,  and  his  palace  sacked 
by  the  mob.  The  monks  and  their  few  remaining  friends 
made  a  most  desperate  defence.  In  vS,in  Savonarola 
besought  them  to  lay  down  their  arms.  Fra  Benedetto 
the  painter  and  others  fought  like  lions,  while  some  hurled 
tUes  on  the  assailants  below.  When  the  church  was  finally  ' 
stormed  Savonarola  was  seen  praying  at  the  altar,  and  Fri 


Domenico,  armed  with  an  enormous  candlestick,  guafdiS;^, 
him  from  the  blows  of  the  mob.  Profiting  by  the  smoke 
and  confusion  a  few  disciples  dragged  their  beloved 
master  to  the  inner  library  and  urged  him  to  escape  by 
the  window.  He  hesitated,  seemed  about  to  consent, 
when  a  cowardly  monk,  one  Malatesta  Sacramoro,  cried  out 
that  the  shepherd  should  lay  down  his  life  for  his  flock. 
Thereupon  Savonarola  turned,  bade  farewell  to  the  brethren, 
and,  accompanied  by  the  faithful  Domenico,  quietly 
surrendered  to  his  enemies.  Later,  betrayed  by  the  same 
Malatesta,  Frk  Silvestro  was  also  ■  seized.  Hustled, 
insulted,  and  injured  by  the  ferocious  crowd,  the  prisoners 
were  conveyed  to  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  and  Savonarola  was 
lodged  in  the  tower  cell  which  had  once  harboured  Cosimo 
de'  Medici. 

Now  came  an  exiiltant  brief  from  the  pope.  His  well- 
beloved  Florentines  were  true  sons  of  the  church,  but  must 
crown  their  good  deeds  jy  despatchfng  the  criminals  to 
Rome.  Sforza  was  equally  rejoiced  by  the  news,  and  the 
only  potentate  who  could  have  perhaps  saved  Savonarola's 
life,  Charles  of  France,  had  died  on  the  day  of  the  ordeal 
by  fire.  Thus  another  of  the  friar's  prophecies  was  verified, 
and  its  fulfilment  cost  him  his  sole  protector.' 

The  result  of  the  trial  was  a  foregone  conclusion.  The 
signory  refused  to  send  their  prisoners  to  Rome,  but  they 
did  Rome's  behests.  Savonarola's  judges  were  chosen  from 
his  bitterest  foes.  Day  after  day  he  was  cruelly  torttired, 
and  in  his  agony,  ^ith  a  frame  weakened  by  constant 
austerity  and  the  mental  strain  of  the  past  months,  he 
made  every  admission  demanded  by  his  tormentors.  But 
directly  he  was  released  from  the  rack  he  always  withdrew 
the  confessions  uttered  in  the  delirium  of  pain.  ■  And,  these 
being  too  incoherent  to  serve  for  a  legal  report,  a  false 
account  of  the  friar's  avowals  was  drawn  up  and  published 
instead  of  his  real  words. 

Though  physically  unable  to  resist  torture,  Savonai-ola's 
clearness  of  mind  returned  whenever  he  was  at  peace  in 
his  cell  So  long  as  writing  materials  were  allowed  him 
he  employed  himself  in  making  a  commentary  ou  tha 
Psalms,  in  which  he  restated  all  his  doctrines.  His  doom 
was  fixed,  but  some  delay  was  ■  caused  by  the  pope's 
unwillingness  topermit  the  execution  in  Florence.  Alex- 
ander was  frantically  eager  to  see  his  enemy  die  in  Rome. 
But  the  signory  remained  firm,  insisting  that  the  false 
prophet  should  suffer  death  before  the  Florentines  whom 
he  had  so  long  led  astray.  The  matter  was  finally  com- 
promised. A  second  mock  trial  was  held  by  two  apostolic 
commissioners  specially  appointed  by  the  pope.  One  of  the 
new  judges  was  a  Venetian  general  of  the  Dominicans,  the 
other  a  Spaniard.  Meanwhile  the  trial  of  Brothers 
Domenico  and  Silvestro  was  still  in  progress.  The  former 
remained  nobly  faithful  to  his  master  and  himself.  No 
extremity  of  torture  could  make  him  recant  or  extract  a 
syllable  to  Savonarola's  hurt ;  he  steadfastly  repeated  his 
belief  in  the  divinity  of  the  prior's  mission.  Fri  Silvestro 
on  the  contrary  gave  way  at  mere  sight  of  the  rack,  and 
this  seer  of  heavenly  visions  owned  himself  and  master 
o-uilty  of  every  crime  laid  to  their  charge. 

The  two  commissioners  soon  ended  their  task.  They 
had  the  pope's  orders  that  Savonarola  was  to  die  "  even 
were  he  a  second  John  the  Baptist."  On  three  successive 
days  they  "  examined  "  the  prior  with  worse  tortures  than 
before.  But  he  now  resisted  pain  better,  and,  although 
more  than  once  a  promise  to  recant  was  extorted  from 
him,  he  reasserted  his  innocence  when  unbound,  crying  out, 
"  My  God,  I  denied  Thee  for  fear  of  pain."  On  the  evening 
of  May  22  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  on  him  and 
his  two  disciples.  Savonarola  listened  unmoved  to  the 
awful  words,  and  then  quietly  resumed  his  interrupted 
devotions.     Fra  Domenico  exulted  in  the  thought  of  dying 


S  A   V  — S  A  V 


339 


by  his  master's  side  ;  Fri  Silvestro,  on  the  contrary,  raved 
with  despair. 

The  only  favour  Savonarola  craved  before  death  was  a 
short  interview  with  his  fellow  victims.  This,  after  long 
debate,  the  signory  unwillingly  granted,  and  meanwhile  a 
monk  was  sent  to  shrive  all  the  three.  The  memorable 
meeting  took  place  in  the  hall  of  the  Cinquecento.  During 
their  forty  days  of  confinement  and  torture  each  one  had 
been  told  that  the  others  had  recanted,  and  the  false  report 
of  Savonarola's  confession  had  been  shown  to  the  two  monks. 
The  three  were  now  face  to  face  for  the  first  time.  Fri 
Domonico's  loyalty  had  never  wavered,  and  the  weak  Silvcs- 
tro's  enthusiasm  rekindled  at  sight  of  his  chief.  Savonarola 
prayed  with  the  two  men,  gave  them  his  blessing,  and  ex- 
horted them  by  the  memory  of  their  Saviour's  crucifixion  to 
submit  meekly  to  their  fate.  Jlidnight  was  long  past  when 
Savonarola  was  led  back  to  his  •cell.  Jacopo  Niccolini,  one 
of  a  religious  fraternity  dedicated  to  consoling  the  last 
hours  of  condemned  men,  remained  with  him.  Spent  with 
weakness  and  fatigue  he  asked  leave  to  rest  his  head  on 
his  companion's  lap,  and  quickly  fell  into  a  quiet  sleep. 
As  Niccolini  tells  us,  the  martyr's  face  became  serene  and 
smiling  as  a  child's.  On  awaking  he  addressed  kind  words 
to  the  compassionate  brother,  and  then  prophesied  that  dire 
calamities  would  befall  Florence  during  the  reign  of  a  pope 
named  Clement  The  carefully  recorded  prediction  was 
verified  by  the  siege  of  1529. 

The  execution  took  place  the  next  morning.  A  scaffold, 
connected  by  a  wooden  bridge  with  the  magistrates' 
rostrum,  had  been  erected  on  the  spot  where  the  piles  of 
the  ordeal  had  stood.  At  one  end  of  the  platform  was  a 
huge  cross  with  faggots  heaped  at  its  base.  As  the 
prisoners,  clad  in  penitential  haircloth,  were  led  across 
the  bridge,  wanton  boys  thrust  sharp  sticks  between  the 
planks  to  wound  their  feet.  First  came  the  ceremonial 
of  degradation.  Sacerdotal  robes  were  thrown  over  the 
victims,  and  then  roughly  stripped  off  by  two  Dominicans, 
-the  bishop  of  Vasona  and  the  prior  of  Sta  JIaria  Novella. 
To  the  bishop's  formula,  "  I  separate  thee  from  the  church 
militant  and  the  church  triumphant,  "  Savonarola  replied 
in  firm  tones,  "  Not  from'  the  church  triumphant ;  that  is 
beyond  thy  power."  By  a  refinement  of  cruelty  Savonarola 
was  the  last  to  suffer.  His  disciples'  bodies  already 
dangled  from  the  arms  of  the  cross  before  he  wa.s  iTung  on 
the  centre  beam.  Then  the  pile  was  fired.  For  a  moment 
the  wind  blew  the  flames  aside,  leaving  the  corpses 
untouched.  "  A  miracle,"  cried  the  weeping  Piagnoni ; 
but  then  the  fire  leapt  up  and  ferocious  yells  of  triumph 
rang  from  the  mob.  At  dusk  the  martyrs'  remains  were 
collected  in  a  cart  and  thrown  into  the  Arno. 

Savonarola's  party  was  apparently  annihilated  by  his 
death,  but,  when  in  1529-30  Florence  was  exposed-  to  the 
horrors  predicted  by  him,  the  most  heroic  defenders  of  his 
beloved  if  ungrateful  city  were  Piagnoni  who  ruled  their 
lives  by  his  precepts  and  revered  his  memory  as  that  of  a 
saint. 

S-ivonarola's  writings  may  bo  classed  in  tlirco  categories: — (1) 
tramcrous  Rcrmons,  collected  mainly  by  Lorenzo  Violi,  one  of  his 
most  cntlinsiastic  hearers  ;  (2)  an  immense  number  of  devotional 
and  moral  essays  and  some  tbeolopcal  works,  of  which  II  Trionfo 
delta  C'locc  is  the  chief;  (3)  a  few  uliort  poems  and  a  political 
treatise  on  the  fjovernmcnt  of  I'lorenrj?.  Although  his  faitli  in 
the  dogmas  of  th'c  Roman  Catholic  Cliuich  never  swerved,  his 
strenuous  protests  against  papal  corruptions,  his  reliance  on  the 
Bibic  as  liis  surest-  guide,  and  liis  intense  moral  caiitestncas  nn- 
douttedly  connect  Savonarol.i  with  the  movement  tliat  heralded 
tlie  Refoi-mation. 

Sec  Riidclhach,  Ilieramimui  Strfiiiniola  mid  trtse  ZfU.  am  den  Qti«;i,ii 
darg*Hrin  <l'^:'.o);  Karl  Mclrr.  00-nfanio  Satovarofa,  au*  yroitcntlieilt  tfjiid- 
tcfirt/Hirrini  QiirHtH  Jrir-ir>lr-lt  llhao);  r«'lrc  \"lncorizo  .Marclif^e,  Sloiia  Ji  R 
ittMrco  dt  t'lifntr  <I.'»J'>):  K.  T.  ri:rri-ii».  J^rHma  S'irciiaro'a.  ta  vie,  let  pr>'di- 
f-ittotii,  ttt  eerilt  (Iv.'.a);  R.  R.  M.nddcn,  Tlie  Life  and  ilai-nirdom  of  Civolamo 
>iaeoniri}la.  etc.  XtH^f;  Bnnolommeo  AO'iiironc.  Vita  di  fid  Crroiitiiio  \jron- 
iiiota  {lAi7);  PMsquale  Vlllarl,  La  Storta  dl  Giroiamo  Suraiarola  t  de  nuoi 
luifHiaeiy  (L.  v.i 


SAVOY.  The  history  of  the  house  of  Savoy  shows  in  a 
striking  manner  how  the  destinies  of  a  nation  may  depend 
on  the  fortunes  of  a  princely  family.  During  eight  centu- 
ries, and  through  all  changes  of  fortune,  the  princes  of 
Savoy  have  kept  one  end  steadily  in  view,  and,  in  the 
words  of  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  have  "treated  Italy  as 
an  artichoke  to  be  eaten  leaf  by  leaf."  The  ambitions  of 
princes  and  the  interests  of  the  people  have  fortunately 
tended  in  the  same  direction,  and  their  work  is  now  per- 
fected in  the  glory  of  their  house  and  the  freedom  of  the 
state. 

The  descent  of  Humbekt  the  Wliitehanded,  the  founder 
of  the  family,  is  uncertain,  but  he  was  most  probably  a  son 
of  Amadeu.s,  the  great-grandson  of  that  Boso  of  Provence 
(879)  who  was  father  of  the  emperor  Louis  the  Blind. 
In  reward  for  services  rendered  to  Rudolph  III.  of  Aries, 
Humbert  obtained  from  him  in  1027  the  counties  of 
Savoy  and  Maurienne,  and  from  the  emperor  Conrad  the 
Salic  Chablais  and  the  .Lower  Valais.  His  territories, 
tiierefore,  all  lay  on  the  north-western  slopes  of  the  Alps. 
On  his  death  in  1048  he  was  succeeded  ])erhaps  by  his 
eldest  son  Amapeds  I.,  but  eventually  by  his  fourth  son 
Otho,  who,  by  his  marriage  with  Adelaide,  sole  heiress  of 
the  marquis  of  Susa,  obtained  the  counties  of  Tiu-in  and 
the  Val  d'Aosta,  and  so  acquired  a  footing  in  the  valley  of 
the  Po.  His  wife's  rank,  too,  as  marchioness  made  the 
family  guardians  of  the  frontier  by  authority  of  the  king 
of  Italy,  as  they  had  been  before  by  possession  of  territory, 
and  was  the  foundation  of  their  subsequent  power  as 
"warders"  of  the  Alps.  Otho  was  succeeded  in  1060  by 
his  son  A.MADEUS  II.,  who  maintained  a  judicious  neutral- 
ity between  his  brother-in-law  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  and 
the  pope.  In  reward  for  his  mediation  between  them  he 
obtained  from  the  former  after  Canossa  the  province  of 
Bugey.  The  accession  of  his 'son  HnMBERT  II.  in  1080 
brought  fresh  increase  of  territory  in  the  valley  of  the 
Tarantaise,  and- in  1091  this  prince  succeeded  to  the  dig- 
nities of  his  grandmother  Adelaide,  when  he  assumed  the 
title  of  prince  of  Piedmont.  Amadeus  III.  came  to  the 
throne  in  1103,  and  in  1111  his  states  were  created  counties 
of  the  empire  by  Henry  V.  On"  his  way  home  from  the 
crusades  in  11-19  Amadeus  died  at  Nicosia,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Humbert  III.  This  prince  did  not 
follow  the  example  of  Amadeus  II.,  but  took  the  part  of 
the  pope  against  Earbarossa,  who  accordingly  ravaged  his 
territories  until  Humbert's  death  in  1188.  The  guardians 
of  his  son  Thomas  acted  more  discreetly,  and  reconciled 
their  ward  and  the  emperor.  He  remained  Ghibelline  all 
his  life,  and  received  from  Henry  VI.  accessions  of  territory 
in  Vaud,  Bugey,  and  Valais,  with  the  title  of  imperial  vicar 
in  Piedmont  and  Lombardy.  He  was  followed  in  1233 
by  Amadeus  FV.,  whose  wife  was  the  beautiful  Cecilia  of 
Beaux,  surnamed  Passe  Rose.  A  campaign  against  the 
inhabitants  of  Valais  ended  in  the  anne.vation  of  their 
district,  and  his  support  of  Frederick  II.  against  the  pope 
caused  the  erection  of  Chablais  and  Aosta  into  a  duchy. 
In  1253  his  son  Boniface  succeeded  to  his  states  at  the 
age  of  nine,  but,  after  giving  proofs  of  his  valour  by  defeat- 
ing the  troops  of  Charles  of  Anjou  before  Turin,  he  w.-is 
taken  prisoner  and  died  of  grief  (1263). 

The  Salic  law  now.canie  into  operation  for  the  first  time, 
and  Peter,  the  uncle  of  Boniface,  was  railed  to  the  throne. 
This  prince,  on  the  marriage  of  his  nieces  Eleanor  and  Sancha 
of  Provence  with  Henry  III.  of  England  and  Richard, 
earl  of  Cornwall,  had  visited  England,  where  he  had  been 
created  earl  of  Richmond,  and  built  a  palace  in  London 
afterwards  called  Savoy  House.  His  brothers  Boniface 
and  William  were  also^appointed,  the  former  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  and  the  latter  to  the  presidency  of  the  council. 
I;;  icturn  he  recognized  the  claims  of  Richard  to  the  imnc- 


340 


SAVOY 


Genealogical  Table  of  the  House  of  Savoxj. 

HUMBERT  =  AXCILr. 

the  White-handed, 

6th  in  descent  from 

Boson  of  Provence 

(873),  d.  1048. 


fcllADEDS  I.  (?) 


Oti!o  =  Adelaide,  dr.  and  hetross  of  Odeilc  Manfred, 
d.  lOGO.  I  marquis  of  Siisa,  d.  1091. 


AMADEC3  11.,  d.  lOSO. 

I 
Hdiibert  II.,  the  Fat,  d.  1103. 


Bertha  =  emperor  Henry  rv. 


AilADEDfl  III.=MathlIda,  dr.  of 

d.  1149.        I    Gulgnes  VI.  of  Albon. 


Alice  =  Loai8  VI.  of  France. 

or  Adelaido 


HnMBKItT  III.  = 

tho  Saint,  d.  118^  I 


MathUda  =  AffonSo  Henrlqnes, 
1st  king  of  .PoitugaL 


Thomas  =  Eeati  ice  of  Geneva. 
1177-1233. ^Margaret  of  Faucigny. 
I 


A*IADED9  rv. 

U  9  7-1 253. 


Ci^cile  do  Beaux, 
"Pasae-Roae." 


'nionia3  =  Joan  of  Flanders. 
1199-1259.  =Beatricodl  Fiesclil. 


pETErt  =  Agnes  of 


earl  of 
Richmond, 
1203-1268. 


Faucigny. 


PntLip  I.  =A!ice  of 
1208-1285.       Mciania. 


I 

Boniface, 

arclibishop  of 

Canterbury, 

d.  1270, 


Beatrice = Raymond- 
Et^renger 
IV.  of 
Provence. 


BOKIPACE, 
1244-12C3 


Thomas. 


I  i  I  i  i  i 

Amadecs  V.=  Sibylla.  Beatrice  =  Gay  Eleanor  Sancha  Maigaret  Beatrice 

the  Great,    ]=  Mary  of  Brabant.  Vieime.  =Hcnry  HI.  =  Rich.,  earl  =S.  Louis  ^Charles 

1249-1323.  of  England.  of  Cornwall.  of  France.  of  Aajou. 


Philip,  prlnco 
of  Actiala. 


Louis. 


1  I 

EnwARD-Blanchc  of  ArMON  =  YoIande  of 

the  Llbcrnl,  I  Burgundy.  the  Peaceful,  |  Jlontfcnato. 

1284-1329.  1291-1343. 


Joan=John  III. 

of  Brittany. 


Amadeds  VI.  = 
the  Green  Count,  I 
1333-1383. 

Amareus  VIT.  = 

the  R?d  Count,  I 

13G0-1391. 

AMADErs  Vin.- 
the  P'-st  dake.  ofter- 
■svaras  Pope  Felis  V., 
1383-1400. 


Bonne  de 
Bourbon. 


Anno  =  Andronicu3  III., 

Iernpcror  of 
Constantinople. 

Johi. 
Pal.'Eologiis. 


=  Bonne  de  Berry. 


=  MaFy  of  EurgTmdy. 


Lnn3  =  Anne  of  Lnsignano. 
1402-14G5.  I 


AuADKUS  IX.=Yolande.  dr.  of 
1436-1472.    I    Charles  VII. 
of  France. 


PniLiP  Il.-Marg.iret  of  Bourbon  =  Cluddine  de  PenthlflVW, 

of  Brcssf.  I  I 

1438-1497. 


PhilibertL 
1465-1482. 


Charles  I.  =  Blanche  of 
14:8-1459.  I  Montferrato. 


Philibert  II.  =  Tolande 
1430-1504.    dr.  of  Clias.  L 


Charles  II. 
1433-1496. 


Louise=Charle9  of 
1  Angetil^me. 

Francis  I. 
of  France. 


CnARLE9  III. - 
the  Good. 
1486-1553. 


Beatrice  of 

Portugal. 


Philip,  founder 
of  tiie  houae 
of  Nemours. 


EsrwAKUEL  pHrLiBEBT=:  Margaret,  dr.  of 
the  Iron-headed,      I  Francis  I.  of  France. 
152S-1680. 


Charles  EsntANnEL  I. 
the  Great.  1562-1630. 


=  Catherine,  dr.  of 
1  PliUip  II.  of  Spain. 


Victor  AAadeus  1.: 
1537-1637. 


Christina,  dr.  of 
Henry  IV. 
of  France. 


Thomas  Francis  =  Mary  of  CouibOD. 
of  Savoy-Caricnano,  I 
1596-1656.  I 


Francis  Hyacinth, 
1632-1638. 


CHAni.r3  Emmanuel  II.: 
1G34-16:£. 


^Jfary  of 
Savoy- Nemours, 


Emmatmel  Philiberl  = 
1631-1709.  I 


Victor  Amadecs  II.  =  Mary  of  Orleans. 

king  of  Sardinia,      I  gd.  dr.  of  Clias.  I. 
1606-1732,  abd.  1730.  of  England. 


Charles  Emmanuel  111.= 
1701-1773. 


Anne  of  Sulzbach, 
and  two  otkers. 


Ango  Catharina 
d'Este. 


Eugene  Manrlce  =  01ympla 
1633-1708.        I  Mancini. 


Victor  Ama<i^U3  =  Victorla  Franceaca 
1690-1766.        I  of  Savoy. 


Louis  Victor = Christina  of  Hesse. 
1721-   ?    .    I 


Prlnco  Engene, 
1663-1736, 


Victor  Amadeds  III.  = 
1727-1796. 


Marie  Antoinette 
of  Spain. 


I  I 

Charles  Emmanuel  IV.,    Victor  Emuandel  I. 

1751-1820,  abd.  1802.         1759-1824,  abd.  1820. 


Victor  Amaden3  =  Mary  Josephine 

1743-1780.        I  of  Lorrainc-Armagnac. 


Charles  FffLix, 
176^1831. 


Charles  Emmannel  = 

1770-1800.  j 

Charles  Albert= 
179S-1849. 

Victor  Emmanuel  IT. : 
the  first  king  of  Italy, 

1820-1878. 


=  Mary  Christina 
of  Saxony. 

;  Maria  Theresa 
I    of  Tuscany. 

=  Adelaide,  dr.  of 
I  Archduke  Rainer 
of  Austria. 


MarysPrince  de 
1749-1792.    LambaUe. 


Clotllde  = 
6. 1843. 


Prince  Napoleon. 


H^ilBKRT  I. 

&.  1644. 


=  Mary  of  Savoy. 


Amadeus,  6,  1845. 
king  of  Spain,  1870-73. 


Maria  Pia 
b.  1847. 


=  Louis, 
king  of  FortOfal, 


SAVOY 


341 


via!  throne,  and  received  from  him  Kyburg  in  tho  dioceso 
of  Lausr.ane,  conveniently  near  to  tbo  county  of  Geneva, 
which  had  been  willed  to  him  by  the  last  count.  But  this 
increase  of  territory  only  brought  new  anxieties,  for  Peter's 
short  reign  was  occupied  in  reducing  refractory  vassals  to 
obedience.  At  his  death  in  1268  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Philip  I.,  who  died  in  1285,  when  their  nephew 
Amadeus  V.  came  to  the  throne.  This  prince,  surnamed 
the  Great,  united  Baug^  and  Bresse  to  his  states  in  right 
of  his  wife  Sibylla,  and  later  on  Lower  Faucigny  and  part 
of  Geneva.  For  his  second  wife  he  married  Mary  of  Bra- 
bant, sister  of  the  emperor  Henry  VII.,  from  whom,  in 
reward  for  his  servicej  in  North  Italy,  he  received  the 
seigneury  of  Aosta.  His  life  was  passed  in  continual  and 
victorious  warfare,  and  one  of  his  last  exploits  was  to  force 
the  Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of  Rhodes.  In  commemoration 
of  his  victory  it  is  said  that  he  substituted  for  the  eagles 
in  his  arms  the  letters  F.E.R.T.  [Foriitudo  ejus  Ehodum 
tenuii).  He  died  in  1323  while  making  preparations  for  a 
campaign  in  aid  of  his  nephew,  the  emperor  of  the  East. 
His  son  Edwat.d  succeeded  him,  and,  dying  ia  1329,  was 
followed  by  his  brother  Atmon.  This  prince  died  in  1343, 
when  his  son  Amadeus  VI.  ascended  the  throne.  His 
reign  was,  like  his  grandfather's,  a  series  of  petty  wars, 
from  which  he  came  out  victorious  and  with  extended  terri- 
tory, until,  accompanying  Louis  of  Anjou  on  his  expedition 
against  Naples,  he  died  there  of  the  plague  (-1383).  The 
reign  of  his  son  Amadeus  VII.  promised  to  be  as  glorious 
as  those  of  his  ancestors,  but  it  was  cut  short  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse  in  1301.  Before  his  death,  however,  be 
had  received  the  allegiance  of  Earuclonnette,  Ventimiglia, 
VUlafranca,  and  Nice,  -so  gaining  access  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

His  son  AmadeOs  VIII.  now  came  to  the  throne,  under 
the  guardianship  of  his  grandmother  Bonne  ua  Bourbon. 
On  attaining  his  majority  he  first  directed  his  efforts 
to  strengthening  his  power  in  the  outlying  provinces, 
and  in  this  he  was  particularly  successful.  The  states 
of  Savoy  now  extended  from  the  Lake  of  Geneva  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  from  the  Saune  to  the  Sesic.  Its 
prince  had  therefore  considerable  power,  and  Amadeus 
threw  aU  the  weight  of  this  on  the  side  of  the  emperor. 
Sigismund  was  not  ungrateful,  and  in  1416  erected  the 
counties  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont  into  duchies.  At  this 
time  too  the  duke  recovered  the  fief  of  Piedmont,  which 
had  been  granted  to  Philip,  prince  of  Achaia,  by  Amadeus 
v.,  and  his  power  was  thus  thoroughly  consolidated.  The 
county  of  Vercelli  afterwards  rewarded  him  for  joining 
the  league  against  the  duke  of  Milan,  but  in  1434  a  plot 
against  his  life  made  him  put  into  execution  a  plan  he  had 
long  formed  of  retiring  to  a  monastery.  He  acrfirdingly 
made  his  son  Louis  lieutenant-general  of  the  dukedom, 
and  assumed  the  habit  of  the  knights  of  S.  Maurice,  a 
military  order  he  had  founded  at  the  priory  of  Ripaillo. 
But  he  was  not  destined  to  find  the  repose  he  sought 
The  pj-elates  assembled  at  the  council  of  Basel  voted  tho 
deposition  of  Pope  Eugenius  TV.,  and  elected'-Amadeus  in 
his  place.  Felix  V.,  as  he  was  no%v  called,  then  abdicated 
his  dukedom  definitively,  but  without  much  gain  in  tem- 
poral honours,  for  the  schism  continued  until  the  death 
of  Eugenius  in  1447,  shortly  after  which  it  was  healed 
by  the  honourable  fubmission  of  Felix  to  Nicholas  V. 
Tho  early  years  of  Louis's  reign  were  under  the  guidance 
of  his  father,  and  peace  and  prosperity  bler.scd  his  people ; 
bnt  ho  afterwards  made  an  alliance  with  the  dauphin 
which  brought  him  into  conflict  with  Charles  VII.  of 
Franco,  though  a  lasting  reconciliation  was  soon  effected. 
Hia  son  Amadeus  L\.  succeeded  in  1465,  but,  though  his 
virtues  led  to  his  beatification,  his  bodily  sufferings  made 
him  assign  the  regency  to  hit  wifo  Yolande,  a  daughter  of 


Charles  VII.  He  died  in  1472,  when  his  son  Philibem 
I.  succeeded  to  the  throne  and  to  his  share  in  the  contests 
of  Yolande  with  her  brother  and  brothers-in-law,  who  tried 
to  deprive  their  nephew  of  his  rights.  His  reign  lasted  only 
ten  years,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles 
I.  This  prince  raised  for  a  time  by  his  valour  the  droop- 
ing fortunes  of  his  house,  but  he  died  in  1489  at  the  age  of 
thirty-one,  having  inherited  from  his  aunt,  Charlotte  of  Lu- 
signano,  her  pretensions  to  the  titular  kingdoms  of  Cyprus, 
Jerusalem,  and  Armenia.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Chaeles  II.,  an  infant,  who,  dying  in  149G,  was  followed 
by  Philip  II.,  brother  of  Amadeus  IX.  He  died  in  1497, 
leaving  Philibep.t  II.,  who  succeeded  him,  and  Charles 
III.,  who  ascended  the  throne  on  his  brother's  death  in 
1504.  In  spite  of  himself  Charles  was  drawn  into  the 
wars  of  the  period,  for  in  the  quarrel  between  Francis  I. 
and  the  pope  he  could  not  avoid  espousing  the  cause  of 
his  nephew.  But  tho  decisive  victory  of  Francis  at  Mari- 
gnano  gave  the  duke  tho  opportunity  of  negotiating  the 
conference  at  Bologna  which  led  to  tho  conclusion  of 
peace  in  151 G.  So  far  well,  but  Charles  was  less  fortunate 
in  the  part  he  took  in  tho  wars  between  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  V.,  tho  brother-in-law  of  his  wife.  He  tried  to 
maintain  a  strict  neutrality,  but  his  attendance  at  the 
emperor's  coronation  at  Bologna  in  1530  was  imperative 
in  his  double  character  of  kinsman  and  vassal.  The  visit 
wa?  fatal  to  him,  for  he  was  rewarded  with  the  county  of 
Afiti,  and  this  so  displeased  the  French  king  that,  on  the 
revolt  of  Geneva  to  Protestantism  in  1532,  Francis  sent 
help  to  tho  citizens.  Bern  and  Freiburg  did  likewise, 
and  BO  expelled  the  duke  from  Lausanne  and  Vaud. 
Charles  now  sided  definitely  with'  the  emperor,  and 
Francis  at  once  raised  some  imaginary  claims  to  his  states. 
On  their  rejection  the  French  army  marched  into  Savoy, 
and,  finding  the  pa.ss  of  Susa  unfortified,  descended  on 
Piedmont  and  seized  Turin  (1536).  Charles  V.  came  to 
the  aid  of  his  ally,  and  invested  the  city,  but,  being  him- 
self hard  pressed,  was  obliged  .to  make  peace.  Franco 
kept  Savoy,  and  the  emperor  occupied  Piedmont,  so  that 
only  Nice  remained  to  the  duke.  On  the  resumption  of 
hostiUties  in  1541  Piedmont  again  suffered.  In  1544  the 
treaty  of  Crespy  restored  his  states  to  Charles,  but  the 
terms  were  not  carried  out  and  ho  died  of  grief  in  1553. 
His  only  surviving  son  E.mmanuel  Philibeet  succeeded 
to  tho  rights  but  not  the  domains  of  his  ancestors.  Since 
1536  he  had  attached  himself  to  the  eervico  of  the  emperor, 
and  had  already  given  promise  of  a  brilliant  career.  On 
the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  the  duko  was  appointed 
governor  of  tho  Lov/  Countries,  and  in  1557  tho  victory  of 
St  Quentin  marked  him  as  one  of  the  finit  generals  of  his 
time.  Such  services  could  not  go  unrewarded,  and  tho 
peace  of  Catcau-Cambresis  restored  him  his  states,  with 
certain  exceptions  still  to  be  held  by  France  and  Spain. 
One  of  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  also  provided  for  the 
marriage  of  die  duke  with  the  lovely  and  accomplished 
Margaret  of  France,  sister  of  Henry  II.  The  evacuation 
of  the  places  held  by  them  was  faithfully  curried  out  by 
the  contracting  powers,  and  Emmanuel  Philibcrt  occupied 
himself  in  strengthening  his  military  and  naval  forces, 
until  his  death  in  1580  prevented  the  execution  of  the 
ambitious  designs  he  had  conceived.  Ilia  son  Chaeles 
Emmanuel  I.,  called  the  Great,  being  prevented  by  Henry 
III.  from  retaking  Geneva,  throw  in  his  lot  with  Spain, 
and  in  1590  invaded  Provence  and  was  received  by  the 
citizens  of  Ai-x.  Hia  intention  was  doubtless  to  revive  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Aries,  but  his  plans  were  frustrated  by 
the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  to  tho  throne  of  France.  After 
effecting  with  Henry  an  exchange  of  Brcsso  and  Bugey 
for  the  marqui.sate  of  Saluazo  ha  kept  up  an  intermittent 
T.Tjr    v.ith    him    until    1609,    when,    disgusted    with   Uia 


342 


S  A  V  — S  A  W 


behaviour  of  Spain,  he  made  a  treaty  with  Franco  against 
Philip.  But  he  could  not  remain  faithful  for  lonj,  and, 
Biding  first  with  ona  and  then  with  tho  other,-  he  found 
himself  in  almost  tho  same  straits  aa  his  grandfather, 
when  death  put  an  end  to  his  ambitions  and  failures  in 
1G30.  The  first  care  of  his  son  Victoe  Amadeus  was  to 
free  himself  from  the  double  burdciyof  his  enemy  and  his 
ally,  80  he  concluded  peace  iu  1C31.  In  1635,  ho^vever, 
Richelieu  determined  to  drive  the  Spamards  out  of  Italy, 
and  offered  the  duke  tho  alternatives  of  war  or  Jlilan.  He 
gave  but  a  half-hearted  assent  to  the  schemes  of  France, 
and,  without  gaining  Milan,  died  in  1G37,  leaving  by  his  wife 
Christina  of  France  Francis  Hyacinth,  a  minor,  who  only 
survived  till  the  following  year,  and  Chaeles  E-Mmaxuel 
XL,  whose  legitimacy  was  unfortunately  rather  doubtful. 
The  regency  of  Christina  resembled  that  of  Yolando  in  tho 
sama  need  for  guarding  her  son's  interests  against  tho 
pretensions  of  his  uncles,  Louis  XIII.  and  the  princes 
of  Savoy.  But  fortune  favoured  her,  and  ou  the  duke's 
reaching  his  majority  in  IG-tS  the  wars  of  the  Fronde 
occupied  all  the  attention  of  JIazarin.  The  brunt  of  the 
conflict  with  Spain  consequently  fell  upon  Savoy,  and 
was  borne  not  ingloriously  until  the  conclusion  of  peace. 
Charles  Emmanuel  occupied  the  remaining  part  of  his  reign 
i-n  repairing  the  ravages  caused  by  twenty-four  years  of 
warfare,  and  died  in  1675,  leaving  an  only  son,  Victor 
Amadeus  II.,  whose  minority  was  as  peaceful  as  his  fatjier's 
had  been  the  reverse.  He  married  JIary  of  Orleans,  the 
daughter  of  Henrietta  of  England,  and  consequently  the 
legitimate  heiress  to  the  English  crown  on  the  death  of 
Anue  and  on  the  exclusion  of  the  Pretender.  For  a  time 
he  J'nited  with  Louis  XIV.  in  persecuting  the  Protestants, 
but  the  overbearing  behaviour  of  his  ally  made  him  join 
the  coalition  of  Augsburg  in  1690.  His  campaign  against 
Louis  was  carried  on  with  varying  results  until  1095,  when 
he  accepted  proposals  of  peace.  This  defection  led  to  the 
peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  and  in  reward  he  received  from 
Louis  the  territories  then  occupied  by  France.  In  1700 
he  sided  with  France  against  Austria,  but,  an  extension  of 
ten'itory  in  the  Milanese  not  being  granted  by  Louis,  he 
went  over  to  the  enemy  iu  1703.  The  generalship  of  his 
relative  Prince  Eugene  proved  too  much  for  the  French, 
and  in  1706  they  were  defeated  before  Turin  and  driven 
across  the  frontier.  The  peace  of  L^trecht  afterwards  con.- 
firmed  the  duke  in  the  possession  of  tho  places  granted  on 
his  joining  the  coalition,  including  the  long-coveted  Mont- 
ferrato,"- and  endowed  him  besides  with  the  crown  of  Sicily. 
Austrian  influences  now  replaced  Spanish  in  the  peninsula, 
and  Charles  VI.  persuaded  him  to  exchange  his  kingdom 
for  that  of  Sardinia.  This  was  accordingly  effected  in 
1720  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  and  afterwards  proved  the 
very  salvation  of  the  house  of  Savoy.  In  1730  the  king 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son,  in  order  to  marry  the 
oountess  of  San  Sebastian,  at  whose  instigation  he  after- 
wards tried  to  regain  the  crown,  but  he  died  in  1732. 

Charles  Emmanuel  III.  continued  his  father's  intrigues 
to  obtain  possession  of  Milan,  and  joined  the  league  of 
France  and  Spain  against  Austria  in  1732.  Eu'  he  used 
the  victories  of  the  allied  forces  over  the  imperialists  in 
such  a  half-hearted  way  that  it  seemed  as  if  he  did  not 
wish  to  break  finally  with  Austria.  In  the  end  he  only 
gained  from  the  treaty,  which  he  signed  in  1739,  the- 
Novnrese  and  Tortona,  instead  of  Milan.  The  death  of 
Charles  VI.  in  17-iO  gave  him  the  chance  of  expelling  the 
Austrians  from  Italy,  but,  though  he  at  first  claimed  Milan 
from  Maria  Theresa,  he  ended  in  1742  by  espousing  hcv 
cause.  The  complete  defeat  of  the  French  in  1747  led  to 
tho  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by  which  Charles  Emmanuel 
received  the  L'pper  Novarcse  and  Vigevano,  after  which 
he  remained  at  peace  until  bis  (hath  in  1773.     His  eon 


Victor  Amadhtis  IIL  succeeded  hin.,  and  devoted  the 
early  years  of  his  reign  to  tho  improvement  of  the  admin- 
istration and  the  reorganization  of  his  army.  The  time 
soon  camo  for  him  to  use  the  weapon  he  had  created,  and 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in  France  he  headed 
the  coalition  of  Italian  princes  against  her.  The  house  of 
Savoy  thus  assumed  the  headship  of  Italy,  but  for  the  time 
without  much  gain,  for  Napoleon's  brilliant  victories  of 
1796  ended  in  the  peace  of  Paris,  by  which  Savoy,  along 
with  Kice,  was  given  to  France.  Victor  Amadeus  died 
shortly  afterwards,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles 
Emmanuel  IV^.  The  fever  of  the  Piovolution  spread  to 
Piedmont,  and  in  1798  nothing  was  loft  to  the  king  but  to 
retire  to  Sardinia.  In  1802  he  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
brother,  A'ictou  Emmanuel  I.,  v.-ho,  in  his  island  kingdom, 
protected  by  the  English  fleet,  became  the  symbol  of  the 
coalition  against  France.  The  kjng  returned  to  Turin  in 
1S14,  and  in  the  following  year  took  possession  again 
of  Savoy.  The  anti-revolutionary  measures  which  were 
adopted  by  the  Italian  princes  on  their  return  caused  a 
spirit  of  rebellion  to  spring  up  among  their  subjects.  The 
freedom  o!  the  individual  and  the  unity  of  the  nation  thus 
came  to  be  considered  objects  to  be  attained  at  ona  and  the 
same  time.  The  influence  of  Austria  was  paramount  in 
the  Peninsula,  but  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Turin  in 
1820  demanding  war  with  her,  and,  rather  than  embroil 
himself  both  with  his  people  and  with  Austria,  Victoi 
Emmanuel  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  brother,  Charles 
Felix.  The  general  insurrection  was  suppressed,  and  for 
the  next  few  years  Italy  snilered  everything  possible. at  the 
hands  of  various  petty  princes,  whose  fears  and  weakness 
left  them  no  weapon  but  persecution.  In  1831  Charles 
Felix  died  without  issue,  and  in  him  the  elder  branch  of 
tho  family  ended.  He  was  succeeded  by  Charles  Albert, 
of  the  line  of  Savoy-C'arignano,  which  was  founded  by 
Thomas  Francis,  sou  of  Charles  Emmanuel  the  Great,  and 
grandfather  of  Prince  Eugene.  The  first  care  of  Charles 
Albert  was  to  reorganize  his  military  and  naval  forces  in 
readiness  for  the  conflict  with  Austria  which  ho  foresaw. 
At  the  same  time  he  put  down  the  conspiracies  which 
would  have  forced  his  hand,  among  which  the  most  famous 
was  that  of  Mazzini  and  Ramorino  in  1834.  The  French 
revolution  of  1848  fanned  the  embers  of  Italian  patriotism, 
and  Charles  Albert,  without  any  aid,  began  the  War  of 
Independence.  Victory  at  first  followed  his  arms,  but  he 
was  defeated  at  last  by  the  Austrians  at  Custozza.  In  the 
next  year  he  was  again  driven  into  war  with  the  Austrians, 
and,  after  his  defeat  at  Xovara,  he  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  From  this  point  the 
history  of  the  house  of  S!>-oy  has  been  told  in  the  article 
Italy  (vol.  xiii.  pp.  489  si/.).  (h.  b.  b.) 

SAVOY.  For  the  French  departments  of  Savoy  and 
U^pper  Savoy  see  Savoie  and  Satoie,  Haute-. 

S.A.W.     See  Saws. 

SAWANTWARI,  or  Sawuntwareie,  a  native  state 
forming  the  southern  j^rt  of  the  Concan  division  of  the 
Bombay  presidency,  India,  and  lying  between  15°  37'  and 
16°  16'  X.  lat.  and  between  73°  36'  and  74°  21'  E.  long. 
It  has  a  total  area  of  about  900  square  miles,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Ratnagiri  district,  on 
tho  east  by  the  Sabyidri  Mountains,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  Portuguese  territory  of  Goa.  The  general  aspect  of  the 
country  is  strikingly  picturesque.  Its  surface  is  broken 
;:nd  rugged,  interspersed  with  densely-wooded  hills ;  in  the 
valleys  are  gardens  and  groves  of  cocoa-nut  and  betel-nut 
palms.  SAw-antwitri  has  no  rivers  of  any  considerable 
size  ;  tho  chief  strtams  are  the  Karli  on  the  north  and  tho 
Terekhol  on  tho  south,  both  navigable  for  small  craft. 
The  climate  is  humid  and  relaxing,  with  an  average  annual 
rainfall   of   over    130   inches.     The   forests  and  wooded 


S  A  W  —  S   AW 


343 


slopes  of  tHe  SahyAdris  contain  largo  numbers  of  wild 
animals,  including  the  tiger,  panther,  leopard,  bear, 
hyjena,  <fec.  Snakes  and  other  reptiles  also  abound.  The 
state  possesses  no  railway  ;  but  there"  is  an  excellent  trunk 
road  through  the  territory. 

The  census  of  1881  returued  the  population  of  Sawantwari  at 
174.433  (males  86,061,  females  88,372)  ;  Hindus  numbered  166,080, 
Mohammedans  3970,  and  Christians  4213.  Agriculture  supports 
the  greater  part  of  the  population.  The  staple  product  is  rice, 
but  eiccepting  rice  none  but  the  coarsest  grains  and  pulses  are 
raised,  both  soil,  which  is  stony,  and  climate  being  against  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  and  other  superior  grains  ;  oil  seeds,  hemp,  and 
pepper  are  also  grown.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  state  in  1883-84 
amounted  to  about  £34,000.  ^efore  the  establishment  of 
Poi'tuguese  power  (1510)  Sawantwari  was  the  highway  of  a  great 
traffic  ;  but  during  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  trade  suffered 
much  from  the  rivalry  of  the  Portuguese,  and  in  the  disturbances 
of  the  18th  century  it  almost  entirely  disappeared.  Since  the 
establishment  of  order  under  the  British  (1819),  trade  has  con- 
siderably developed.  The  present  chief  being  a  minor,  the  ad- 
ministration has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  British  since  1869. 

SAW-FISH.     See  Ray,  vol.  xx.  p.  299. 

SAW-FLIES  {Tenthredinidm).  This  sUbdivisioQ  of  the 
Bymenoptera  is  characterized  by  possessing  a  sessile 
abdomen  which  hides  the  base  of  the  posterior  legs.  The 
antennas  vary  in  their  structure  and  in  the  number  of 
their  joints.  The  ovipositor  is  modified  to  form  two  saws, 
which  when  at  rest  lie  in  a  sheath  formed  of  two  valves. 
The  larvsB  resemble  caterpillars,  but  may  be  disttngiiished 


Turnip  Saw-Fly  [Athalia  spinarum).     Saw-FIy  (magnified,  with  lines 
to  left  showing  natural  size),  caterpillars,  pupa,  and  pupa-caae. 

by  their  greater  number  of  legs ;  usually  9  to  11  pairs 
are  present.  WTien  alarmed  they  have  the  habit  of 
colling  themselves  up  in  a  spiral  fashion ;  some  also  dis- 
charge a  thin  fluid  from  lateral  pores  situated  above  the 
spiracles.  The  females  place  their  eggs  in  small  incisions 
made  by  means  of  their  saws  in  the  soft  parts  of  leaves. 
Usually  one  egg  is  placed  in  each  slit.  Some  species 
merely  attach  their  eggs  in  strings  to  the  exterior  of  the 
leaves.  With  each  incision  a  drop  of  fluid  is  usually 
excreted,  which  serves  to  excite  a  flow  of  sap  to  the 
wounded  part.  ■  The  egg  is  said  to  absorb  this  sap,  aAd  so 
to  increase  in  size.  One  genus  {Nematus)  alone  forms 
galls.  These  occur  in  the  young  leaves  of  the  willow,  a 
tree  which  the  true  gall-flies  do  not  attack,  Nmnatus 
ventricosus  resembles  the  bees  and  wasps  in  the  fact  that 
the  parthenogenetic  ova  produce  only  males  ;  as  a  rule  in 
the  animal  kingdom  the  absence  of  fertilization  results  in 
the  production  of  females. 

The  injury  which  the  saw-flies  inflict  upon  crops  or 
young  trees  is  almost  entirely  brought  about  by  the 
voracious  habits  of  the  larvae.  These  possess  well  devel- 
oped mouth-appendages,  by  means  of  which  they  gnaw 
their  way  out  of  the  leaf  in  which  they  have  been  hatched, 
and  then  eat  it.  In  this  way  the  Turnip  Saw-Fly  (Alhalut 
tpinarum),  not  to  be  confused  with  the  Turnip  Fly  (P)njllo- 
treta  nemorum),  attacks  the  leaves  of  the  turnip,  often 
completely  consuming  the  leafage  of  acres  at  a  time.  The 
Pine    Saw-Fly   {U>i>kyrus   pint)  causes  great    damage    to 


plantations  of  young  Scotch  nrs,^  devouring  the  budj, 
the  leaves,  and  even  the  bark  of  the  young  shoots.  Other 
speciea  infest  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes,  consutuii:-' 
the  soft  parts  of  the  leaves,  and  leaving  only  the  tough 
veins.  The  only  effectual  remedy  in  most  cases  is  to  col- 
lect and  kill  the  larvae  when  they  first  appear.  "  Syringing 
.  the  affected  parts  with  hot  water  or  tobacco  water  is  also 
recommended. 

SAWS.  Blades  of  steel  with  serrated  edges  have  been 
used  from  lime  immemorial  to  rend  or  divide  substances 
of  various  kinds,  including  metals  and  stone  ;  but  the 
principal  modern  use  of  the  saw  is  to  divide  wood. 
Modern  saws  are  of  th  finest  steel,  but  the  ancients  used 
bronze  saws,  and  among  uncivilized  nations  saws  have 
been  made  with  flakes  of  flint  imbedded  in  a  wooden 
blade,  and  held  in  place  by  means  of  bitumen  (see 
Grimshaw,  History,  <£•<;.,  of  Saws),  while  obsidian  has  been 
used  by  the  Mexicans,  and  shark's  teeth  and  even  notched 
shells  form  the  saws  of  certain  savage  islanders.  Th" 
pyramid-builders  in  ^gypt  cut  granite  and  other  hard 
stones  by  means  of  bronze  saws  sat  with  jewels  (see 
vol.  XX.  p.  124). 

Space  would  fail  to  describe  minutely  the  various 
adaptations  of  the  saw  to  mechanical  uses.  It  is  indispens- 
able to  the  carpenter,  the  furniture-manufacturer,  the  watch- 
maker, and  manipulator  of  metals.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
trustworthy  tools  of  the  surgeon's  case,  while  without  it 
the  dentist  would  of  necessity  drop  back  to  the  barbarous 
customs  of  a  past  century.  Iron,  horn,  pearl,  india-rubber, 
and  the  thousand  and  one  conveniences  of  civilized  life  are 
dejjendent  upon  this  useful  instrument,  which  is  but  an 
exaggeration  after  all  of  the  .sharpest  of  knives,  whose 
edge  when  examined  under  the  microscope  exhibits  an 
array  of  saw  teeth  so  minute  as  to  present  a  smooth  plane 
to  the  unassisted  eye.  As  the  chief  use  of  the  tool  is  to 
saw  wood,  the  enormous  timber  industry  of  America  has 
given  an  impetus  to  the  improvement  of  the  saw  and  its 
manufacture,  which  has  no  parallel  elsewhere. 

Saws  may  be  classified  aa  (1)  straight  (reciprorating  in 'action), 
having  a  flat  blade  and  straight  edge,  making  a  piano  cut,  or  (2) 
circular  or  disk-like,  cutting  at  right  angles  to  the  motion,  or  (3) 
cylindrical  or  barrel-shaped,  with  a  convex  edge  cutting  parallel 
to  its  axis,  or  (4)  band-saws,  being  a  cbntinuoi.3  ribbon  or  band 
running  upon  an  upper  and  lower  pulley,  making  a  plane  or  curved 
cut,  with  a  straight  edge  parallel  to  the  a.\is  of  motion.  The  oldest 
and  commonest,  with  the  ^dest  range  of  adaptability,  is  the 
straight  saw,  with  reciprocating  rectilinear  blade.  In  this  class 
is  included  the  ordinary  hand-eaw  with  its  varying  range  of  uses 
from  fine  to  coarse  and  from  rip  to  cro.s3-cut,  and  with  teeth  of 
forms  aa  various  as  are  the  different  duties  which  it  is  calculated 
to  perform.  The  teeth  aj-e  long  or  short,  cutting  one  way  or  both 
ways  according  to  the  "  pitch  '  or  **  set  "  which  may  "be  given, 
and  which  should  be  adapted  to  both  the  kind  and  character  of 
the  timber  to  be  sawn.  The  "  pitch  "  of  a  saw-tooth  is  the  angle 
of  the  point  with  reference  to  the  blade,  and  is  found  by  sub- 
tracting the  back  angle  from  the  front,  CO*  being  the  generic  anglo 
of  saw-teeth,  which,  however,  may  bo  variously  placed.  From 
the  smallest  hand-saw  to  the  largest  "  mill-saw  tho  same  general 
rules  apply.  In  the  largest  saws  of  this  class  may  be  named  the 
"pit-saw,"  used  in  the  earliest  manufactures  of  lumber  or  timber, 
and  worked  by  one  person  standing  over  tho  log  and  drawing 
upward  while  another  in  tho  pit  below  follows  with  tho  downward 
or  cutting  thrust.  From  the  pit-saw  wo  advance  to  the  "  gate-saw  '* 
used  in  the  earlier  adaptation  of  motive  power  to  the  cutting  of 
timber,  thence  to  the  **  mulcy-saw,"*  suspended  without  strain 
upon  a  pitman  beneath,  having  its  upper  end  hung  in  slides 
pendent  from  a  heavy  beam  above.  These  saws  must  oif  iMJCessity 
bo  thick,  to  sustain  tho  heavy  thrusts  which  they  are  expected  to^ 
endure,  and  are  consequently  of  "heavy  gauge,"  thi^  being  based 
upon  the  different  sizes  of  wire,  tho  largest  gaugo  representing  tho 


*  According  to  some  writers  tho  term  "muley"  (or  mulay)  is  de- 
rived  from  the  German  "Muhlsage,"  mill-saw,  but,  as  this  form  of 
saw,  when  introduced,  differed  only  from  the  onlinary  uiill-saws  long 
In  u-iG  in  tho  manner  in  which  it  w.i.s  hung  (free  from  strain),  tho 
namo  may  have  been  given  to  signify  "hornless,"  indicating  the 
fthsenco  of  the  ponderous  gate  which  was  the  essential  feature  o' 
strained  saws. 


844 


SAWS 


tiuDner  blade  ;  e.g.^  a  4-gauge  saw  is  much  thicker  than  an  8-gauge, 
&c.  From  the  necessity  for  more  rapid  production  grew  tlio  "gang- 
saw,"  a  modification  of  the  gate,  differing  from  it  only  in  length 
ftnd  thicknessi  (less  than  one-third  the  thickness  of  the  ordinary 
gate-saw  and  but  about  two-thirds  its  length).  A  large  number  of 
th^'sc,  varying  from  2  to  40,  are  strained  in  a  gate  or  frame,  at 
such  ilistances  apart  as  the  thickness  of  lumber  demands,  and  the 
log  ia  wholly  made  into  boards  in  one  operation.  Of  the  recipro- 
cating class  of  sa^vs  is  the  "  cross-cut,"  used  for  cutting  across  the 
grain  of  the  timber  or  wood  to  bo  converted  into  shorter  lengths. 
The  length,  breadth,  "pitch,"  and  "set"  of  saws  vary  according 
to  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  them  and  the  kind  of  timber 
which  is  to  be  manipulated.  In  a  cross-cut  saw  the  cutting  edge 
strikes  the  fibre  at  ri;,^liji  angles  to  its  length,  and  while  its  pitch  is 
but  slight  (if  any)  it  must  sever  from  each  side  before  dislodging 
the  sawdust,  "A  slitting  or  ripping  saw  has  the  cutting  edge 
about  at  a  right  angle  to  the  fibre  of  the  wood,  severing  it  in  one 
piece, — the  throat  of  the  tooth  wedging  out  the  piece."  In  slitting 
saws  the  "rake"  ia  all  in  front,  in  the  cross-cut  on  the  side. 

The  circular  saw  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  its  introduc- 
tion dating  from  1790,  when  Brunei  first  announced  the  principle. 
At  first  only  circular  saws  ©f  small  diameter  were  used  ;  but,  from 
the  small  *'  buzz-saw  "  of  the  watchmaker  and  fine  metal  worker, 
or  the  ripping  saw  of  the  planing-niill  or  carpenter  shop,  where 
small  diameters  have  to  be  divided,  the  circular  saw  has  passed 
to  the  saw-mill,  where,  in  diameters  of  from  12  to  30  inches,  it  is 
the  needful  instrument  for  edging  or  ripping  the  lumber  which 
drops  from  the  log  in  an  imperfect  condition,  requiring  finer 
manipulation  to  prepare  it  for  market ;  OT  in  diameters  of  from 
40  to  84  inches  it  may  be  found  as  the  main  saw  of  the  mill  for 
tending  the  logs  as  they  come  from  the  forest  into  shapes  and 
sizes  adapted  for  the  various  purposes  of  the  builder.  It  is  capable 
of  dividing  logs  into  boards  one  inch  thick  or  upwards  at  as  high 
a  rate  as  60,000  superficial  feet  in  a  day  of  twelve  hours,  while 
a  straight  (muley  or  gate)  saw  would  give  only  5000  to  8000  feet. 
In  the  chief  lumber  sections  of  the  United  States  saws  of  60 
inches  diameter  are  in  most  common  use  ;  upon  the  Pacific  coast 
saws  of  8  feet  diameter  are  not  unknown.  Attempts  to  work  large 
circular  saws  in  nests  or  gangs  have  not  hitherto  proved  successful, 
but  three,  four,  or  five  saws  of  30  inches  diameter  hung  on  a  single 
shaft  or  "arbor"  may  be  used  to  trim  and  divide  the  boards  or 
planks  thrown  off  from  a  log. 

Barrel  saws,  for  the  manufacture  of  staves  lor  baiTols,  pails,  or 
tubs,*  are  in  the  form  of  a  straight-sided  barrel  vrith  both  heads 
removed,  and  the  stave  ends  of  one  head  serrated. 

For  the  manufacture  of  veneers,  where  valuable  timber  ia  to  be 
economically  manipulated,  we  have  the  segment-saw,  constructed 
by  bolting  segments  of  saw-blades  npon  the  outer  rim  of  a  cast- 
iron  centre,  forming  a  circular  saw  of  the  desired  diameter,  but 
with  a  cutting  edge^of  so  light  a  gauge  as  to  waste  but  little  of  the 
valuable  timber  to  be  sawed,  the  cast-iron  pentre  insuring  the 
requisite  stiffness  and  strength.  With  these  saws  veneers  scarcely 
thicker  than  a  sheet  of  paper  may  be' cut,  the  width  being  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  log  ;  such  saws  are  often  from  80  to- 100 
inches  in  diameter. 

Circular  saws  of  the  larger  size  are  often  constnicted  witli 
•*  inserted  "  teeth.  A  disk  ofeteel  of  suitable  size,  having  slots  cut 
in  its  periphery  of  the  exact  size  and  shape  of  the  tooth  which 
is  to  be  inserted,  may  have  these  teeth  removed  as  often  as  the 
■wear  upon  them  may  require,  without  reducing  the  diameter  of 
the  plate.  The  teeth  of  lumber  saws  have  to  be  sharpened  with 
the  file  at  least  three  or  four  times  in  twelve  hours'  work,  and  a 
saw  of  five  feet  in  diameter  is  rapidly  reduced  in  size  with  a  great 
loss  of  efficiency.  In  the  Insert  tooth  plate  new  teeth  cost 
only  about  three  cents  (Ud.")  each,  and  the  saw  plate  remains  of 
its  original  diameter.  Inserted  teeth  are  of  various  forms  and 
shapes,  from  that  of  the  ordinary  saw  tooth,  held  in  place  by  a 
rivet  at  the  root  of  the  tooth,  to  a  "chisel  point"  held  by  an 
ingenious  system  of  wedging. 

Band-saws  have  for  many  years  been  used  for  continnous  and 
rapid  cutting  in  the  planing  mill  or  oth«r  wood-working  estab- 
lishment, where  scrolls  or  fancy  lines  and  curves  were  to  bo 
followed,  requiring  great  flexibility  of  the  saw-blade.  Of  late,  and 
notably  within  the  jjast  two  years  (1S34-65),  successful  endeavours 
have  been  made  to  adapt  them  to  lumber  manufacture.  The 
band-saw  is  a  continuous  blade  or  ribbon  running  over  pulleys 
above  and  below,  forming  a  *' steel  belt"  whose  serrated  edge  is 
always  '*,in  the  cut."  These  saws  are  usually  from  a  half  incn  in 
\vidth  (for  shop  work)  to  six  and  eight  inches  wide  for  the  heavier 
work  of  the  saw-mill,  and  in  the  latter  have  a  cutting  capacity  of 
from  30,000  to  40,000  supcrficiai  feet  in  twelve  hours.  They  are 
extremely  thin  (usually  16-gauge),  and  the  kerf  produced  is  so 
much  less  than  that  of  tho  upright  or  the  circular  that  a  saving  of 
at  least  20  per  cent  of  timber  is  claimed  in  their  use. 

Saws  used  by  surgeons,  butchers,  and  in  all  branches  of  manu- 
facture are  but  modifications  of  one  of  the  varieties  above  described, 
ivnd  do  not  demand  more  extended  description. 


Saw-Mills  are  factories  fof-  the  conversion  of  forest  trees 
iuto  lumber  and  timber.  The  earliest  form  of  saw-mill 
was  unquestionably  the  saw-pit,  stiH  .found  in  a  modified 
form  in  shipbuilders'  yards,  the  log  being  raised  on  trestle 
horses  instead  of  one  of  the  sawyers  being  sunk  in  the  pit. 
Saws  were  run  by  windmill-power  as  early  as  the  13th 
century  ;  aud  the  use  of  vvater-power  soon  followed.  The 
primitive  water  saw-mill  consisted  of  a  wooden  pitman 
attached  to  the  shaft  of  ^he  water-wheel,  the  log  to  be 
sawed  being  placed  on  rollers  sustained  by  a  framework 
over  the  wheel,  and  being  fed  forward  on  the  rollers  by 
means  of  levers  worked  by  hand.  Good  authorities  mention 
saw-mills  running  by  water-power  in  Germany  as  early  as 
1322.  In  1663  an  attempt  to  establish  a  mill  in  England 
was  abandoned  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  sawyers, 
and  no  further  attempt  was  made  till  1768,  when  a  mill  was 
erected"  at  Limehouse,  but  was  soon  destroyed  by  a  mob. 
North  America,  with  its  vast  forests,  may  be  aptly  termed 
the  home  of  saw-mills.  As  early  as  1634  a  saw-mill  was 
erected  at  the  fhUs  of  the  Piscataqua,  near  the  line  divid- 
ing Maine  from  New  Hampshire.  This  was  no  doubt  the 
pioneer  of  the  vast  array  of  mills  which  subsequently 
made  Maine  famous  as  a  lumber-producing  State  for  many 
years.  From  about  the  same  date  several  mills  were 
erected  abng  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America,  a  description 
of  one  being  that  of  all.  In  these  mills  the  saw  was 
attached  by  a  long  pitman  from  the  wheel  shaft  to  a 
ponderous  gate,  running  in  wooden  slides  upon  two  heavy 
posts,  crossed  above  by  a  beam  connecting  the  two  sides 
of  the  mill-frame.  The  mill-carriage  on  which  the  log  lay 
was  pushed  ton-ards  the  saw  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  tfcc, 
moved  by  a  feed-wheel.  The  daily  capacity  of  these  .mills 
was  from  500  to  1500  superficial  feet.  The  first  great 
improvement  upon  this  class  of  mills  was  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  two  or  more  saws  to  the  gate,  the  general  character 
of  the  methods  remaining  the  same.  With  the  demand 
for  more  rapid  production  came  improvements  in  the 
**gaHg"  feature,  and  the  wonder  of  the  age  was  the 
"  YaLiCee  gang,"  so  arranged,  by  placing  half  the  saws 
facing  in  one  direction  and  the  other  half  in  the  opposite, 
that  two  logs  were  worked  up  in  one  movement  of  the 
carriage,  or,  as  in  the  "slabbing"  gang,  the  outsides  or 
slabs  v,v,re  cut  from  one  log,  which  was  then  turned  upoa 
its  flattened  sides  to  the  other  set  of  saws  which  cut 'it 
into  boards.  The  "stock"  gang,  "pony"  gang,  "slab- 
bing "  gang,  and  "  Yankee  "  gang  are  favourites  with 
saw-mill  proprietors,  because  of  the  uniform  character  of 
the  lumber  produced,  and  the  saving  of  timber  realized 
from  the  use  of  saws  of  scarcely  one-third  the  thickness  of 
the  gate,  muley,  or  circular. 

Gang-saws  are  seldom  thicker  than  14-gauge,  and  are  success- 
fully worked  at  IS-gauge,  making  a  saw-kerf  or  waste  of  but 
\  inch,  whereas  the  ordinary  gate,  muley,  or  circular  takes  -j^ 
inch.  The  muley  was  introduced  later  than  the  gang,  and  was 
received  with  great  favour,  entering  into  more  general  use  be- 
cause of  its  comparative  cheapness  and  adaptability  where  the 
sawyer  had  not  to  deal  with  large  quantities  of  lumber.  The 
muley  mill  dispensed  with  the  ponderous  gate  and  heavy  posts 
of  the  saw-frame.  "While  the  Jower  portion  of  the  mill  is 
arranged  much  as  in  tho  use  of  the  gate-saw,  with  the  addition 
of  necessary  slides,  the  upper  end  of  the  saw  is  guided  in  a 
Btrong  iron  frame  pendent  iiom  the  weigh-beam'  overhead.  Oa 
each  side  of  this  frame  ais  slides  in  which  are  placed  boxes, 
attached  by  a  noddle  pin  and  strap  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
saw,  keeping  the  tool  m  line  with  the  cut,  and  the  cutting  is- 
accomplished  wholly  by  the  do^Tiward  tlirust,  the  motion  of 
the  crank  beneath  imparting  a  forward  motion  to  the  blade  in 
its  cutting  functions  and  a  retreating  motion  as  it  ri^es  from  the 
cut  By  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  the  glides  an  increased 
oscillation  may  be  imparted,  the  object  being  to  cause  the  saw- 
teeth to  hug  the  timber  closer  on  the  downward  or  cutting  thrust, 
and  to  recede  and  run  clear  of  the  timber  on  the  upward  motion, 
thus  decreasing  the  friction,  Muley-saws  are  usually  run  at  a 
speed  of  300  revolutions  of  the  driving,  wluf^l  per  minute,  and 
the  daily  capacity  may  be  stated  at  about  iiOOO  superficial  feet 


SAWS 


345 


Water-power  was  used  almost  exclusively  in  eaw-mills  until  1835, 
after  which  year  steam  was  rapidly  substituted,  until  at  the  present 
time  it  is  as  dif&cult  to  find  a  water-power  saw-mill  as  it  is  to  find 
a  gate  or  muley. 

The  use  of  the  circular  as  the  main  saw  "of  a  mill  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin,  the  experimental  point  in  its  introduction 
having  been  passed  only  about  the  year  1855.  Since  that  time  it 
has  rapidly  reached  the  highest  etficiency.  Driven  by  engines 
of  from  25  to  100  horse-power  the  circular  saw-mill,  under  proper 
management,  turns  out  from  20,000  feet  per  day  for  smaller  to 
50,000  and  60,000  feet  per  day  for  larger  mills,  in  addition  to 
running  the  doublc-edgers  and  trimming  saws,  requisite  for 
trimming  off  tho  rough  edges  and  bad  ends  of  the  lumber 
produced. 

The  modem  saw-mill  stands  upon  the  banks  of  a  river  or  pond, 
at  an  elevation  usually  of  twelve  feet  from  the  level  of  tho  land  to 
the  saw-floor.  The  logs  are  floated  from  the  forest  (often  many 
hundred  miles  distant  from  the  mill)  down  the  river,  in  lengths  as 
desired.  Piling  driven  at  convenient  distances  in  the  water 
serves  to  hold  the  long  pieces  of  timber,  whicli,  secured  to  the 
piles  by  heavy  chains,  form  a  strong  "  boom,"  floating  into 
which  the  logs  are  penned  or  *'  boomed  "  until  required.  From 
the  rear  end  of  the  millj  at  the  second  story  or  saw-floor,  a  "jack 
ladder"  is  constructed  of  heavy  timber,  the  lower  ends  resting  in 
the  bottom'of  the'stream  upon  a  bed  of  timber  heavily  weighted. 
Upon  tho  sides  of  the  jack  ladder  are  laid  ribbons  of  iron  forming 
a  track  for  the  log  car,  which,  strongly  constructed  and  ^vith  its  top 
cross  sections  or  "bunks"  heavily  studded  ^vith  /\-headed  bolts, 
is  run  under  the  water  at  a  depth  to  allow  the  log  to  float  over  it 
:n  such  manner  that,  as  the  chain  running  to  the  *'  bull-wheel" 
:u  the  mill  Is  wound  up,  the  spikes  of  the  car  catch  upon  the 
under-side  of  tho^log  or  logs,  which  thus  load  themselves  and  are 
hauled  up  the  incline  to  the  mill  floor.  Here  they  are  rolled  upon 
skids  leading  to  the  saw-carriage,  and  are  soon  running  r;xpidlv 
their  course  of  manufacture.  Loaded  upon  the  "  head-blocks,  ' 
by  a  quick  motion  of  a  lever  upon  the  standard,  the  "setter  " 
inserts  an  iron  *'  dog,"  which  holds  the  log  firmly  in  place  ready 
for  advancing  to  the  saw.  This  is  accomplished  by  one  of  several 
methods: — (1)  by  rack  and  pinion  worked  by  "cone  feed,"  in 
which  a  belt  is  ipoyed  upon  two  parallel  cones  to  impart  a  more 
rapid  or  a  slower  motion  to  the  pinion  shaft ;  (-2)  by  **  rope  feed," 
a  rope,  usually  of  wire,  being  attached  to  each  end  of  the  mill 
carriage,  and  passing  over  pulleys  in  the  floor  to  a  drum  beneath, 
so  arranged  as  to  be  under  control  of  the  sawyer  in  its  feeding 
movement  or  in  reversal  to  '*  gig  "  the  carriage  baftk  to  its  first 
position  ;  or  (3)  by  "steam  feed."-  This  is  the  more  modem  and 
rapid  means  employed,  and  is  sometimes  termed  '*  lightning  feed." 
A  ateam  cylinder  of  8-or  10  inches  diameter  is  laid  upon  the  floor  of 
the  mill  beneath  the  saw-carriage,  its  piston  connecting  with  the 
carriage.  Steam  being  admitted  to  the  ariving  end  of  tho  cylinder 
{the  length  of  whicli  is  according  to  the  length  of  timber  to  be 
sawed,  sections  being  added  or  removed  at  pleasure)  the  saw 
carriage  is  driven  w4tn  lightning  s|>eed,  both  in  the  cutting  feed 
and  reversing  "gig."  Thirty  ordinary  cuts  per  minute,  on 
12  inches  feed  to  tho  revolution  of  the  saw,  may  be  attained 
with  this  adaptation.  As  the  limit  of  capacity  for  work  with  a 
circular  saw  is  practically  the  ability  of  the  operators  to  remove 
the  lumber,  60.000  to  70,000  feet  per  day  is  no  unusual  cut, 
while  a  rate  of  100.000  feet  per  day  Las  been  maintained  (for  a 
short  period)  by  a  single  circular.  Tho  lumber  as  it  drops  from 
the  8.aw  falls  upon  '*  live  rolls,"  a  scries  of  iron  or  wooden  rollers 
connected  by  chain  belts,  which  carry  it  within  reach  of  the 
"cdger,"  who  rapidly  passes  that  portion  which  requires  "  edging  " 
or  splitting  through  the  *'double-cdger,"  to  a  carriage  or  truck 
on  which  it  is  pushed  to  the  piling  ground,  or,  in  some  mills,  to 
nnother  series  of  live  rolls  which  take  it  to  the  front  of  the 
"trimmer,"  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  table,  beneath  which 
arc  several  saws  which  advance  or  recede  at  the  operator's  pleasure, 
ovitting  tho  lumber  to  even  and  uniform  lengths,  or  trimming  off 
such  defects  as  may  exist  in  tho  end  of  tho  piece.  Ordinary 
lijngth*  arc  12,  14,  16,  and  IS  feet,  and  by  use  of  tho  trimmer  all 
superfluous  ends  are  removed,  leaving  each  piece  of  unifonn  length 
with  its  fellows.  The  waste  of  tho  log,  consisting  of  the 
"slabs"  and  edgings,  are  carefully  gone  over,  and  such  as  are 
suitable  for  that  purpose  go  to  the  "  lath"  machines,  where  they 
aro  cut  into  strips  four  feet  in  length,  ^  inch  thick,  and  1^  inches 
\vide,  for  lath  and  plaster  work.  In  the  sawing  of  logs,  imj^erfec- 
tions  aro  often  discovered  in  the  timber,  unfitting  it  for  ordinary 
uses,  and  in  many  mills  it  is  customary  to  saw  such  timber  into 
"cants"  of  usually  six  iuehes  thickness.  These  cants  aro  turned 
over  to  a  "butting  saw,"  where  they  are  cut  into  lengths  of  16 
inches  (in  somo  localities  18  inches)  and  turned  over  to  ino  shingle 
mill  to  bo  manufactured  into  shingles.  Shingles  are  tapering  pieces 
{  inch  thick  at  orio  end,  and  ^^f  inch  at  the  other,  and  are  used  as 
a  roof  covering  in  lieu  of  slating  or  tiles.  They  are  laid  in  uniform 
courses,  with  4^  to  5  inches  of  the  butt  end  laid  to  the  weather, 
and  are  good  for  from  20  to  30  years'  wear  upon  a  roof.  An 
•21—14* 


adjunct  to  the  circular  saw  is  often  found  in  a  top  or  upper  saw, 
overhanging  the  main  circular  a  little  in  advance  of  its  track,  for 
the  purpose  of  enabling  larger  logs  to  be  handled  than  the  diametei 
of  an  ordinary  circular  will  permit.  The  upper  saw  cuts  into  the 
top  of  the  log  in  a  line  with  the  cut  of  the  lower  or  main  saw, 
thus  increasing  the  depth  of  the  cut.  In  California,  where  logs  of 
8  and  10  feet  diameter  are  not  unusual  (larger  logs  being  quartered 
by  tho  use  of  gunpowder  or  other  explosive,  timber  as  much  as  20 
and  even  25  feet  in  diameter  being  found  in  the  jedwood  forests), 
an  ingenious  arrangement  of  four  saws  placed  one  higher  than  tho 
other,  some  horizontal  and  others  vertical,  permits  the  handling  ot 
huge  trees  which  until  recently  were  not  considered  available. 
A  thoroughly  modern  saw-mill  embraces  all  which  has  been  said 
regarding  the  circular,  with  the  addition  of  the  "gang"  feature, 
for,  while  a  majority  of  the  saw-mills  of  Xorth  America  are  single 
"circulars,"  many  of  them  have  a  rotary  upon  each  side  -of  the 
mill  floor,  the  log-jack  being  in  the  centre  of  the  building  rolling 
its  logs  either  to  the  right  hand  or  tho  left.  The  larger  mills 
have  in  addition  to  the  rotaries  from  one  to  four  gangs,  li* 
these  cases  the  log  usually  goes  first  to  tho  circular,  where  tin: 
slabs  of  two  sides  are  removed,  leaving  a  flat  cant,  which  is  then 
transferred  to  the  gangs.  These  mills  are  fully  equipped  with  all 
the  modem  patent  improvements.  The  logs  are  drawn  from  thr 
water  by  an  endless  chain  running  in  a  V-sha]icd  log  sliae, .the 
chains  being  provided  either  with  spikes  or  cOncave  chairs  whicli 
hold  the  log  from  slipping  back.  One  log  follows  the  other  in 
endless-succession.  On  its  arrival  at  the  log  deck  on  the  mill  floor, 
the  manipulation  of  a  lever  causes  an  arm  or  aims  to  rise  through 
the  floor  ar-inst  tho  side  of  the  log,  which  is  partially  raised  and 
thrown  wi'h  considerable  force  upon  the  skids  leading  to  the  saw 
carriage.  "When  one  log  has  been  sawed,  another  is  loaded  by  thc 
simple  touch  of  a  lever  in  the  hands  of  the  sawyer,  cauMug  arms 
to  rise  in  the  skids  under  the  log,  which  is  thrown  upon  the 
carriage  ready  for  the  saw.  "When  the  fii-stslab  has  been  removed, 
the  sawyer's  touch  of  a  lever  brings  through  the  floor  the  "nigger," 
a  piece  of  strong  timber,  iron-bound  and  with  sharp  teeth  or  spikes 
protruding  from  its  front  face.  Its  motion  tends  slightly  forward 
as  it  advances  to  a  height  of  five  or  six  feet  above  t>.e  floor,  its 
spiked  surface  catching  the  side  or  face  of  the  log,  turning  it 
instantly  to  any  desired  position.  If  the  log  is  simply  to  be 
"canted"  for  the  gang  the  two  opposite  sides  or  slabs  are 
removed,  and  as  the  last  cut  is  complete  a  hook  thrown  over  tha 
rear  end  of  the  cant  prevents  its  return  with  the  saw  carriage  autl 
it  drops  upon  rolls  v/hich  move  it  so  far  out  of  tho  way  of  tho 
returning  carriage  with  its  fresh  load  as  is  necessary  to  start  it  in 
an  opposite  direction  to  the  gang  whicli  is  to  complete  its  manu- 
facture. Until  now,  and  until  it  .shall  emerge  from  the  gang,  no 
hand  of  man  has  necessarily  touched  the  log.  Jlachinery  guided 
by  human  intelligence  has  done  all  the  work.  When  the-  log 
♦■ached  the  carriage  it  was  dogged,  not  with  the  old-fashioned 
lever  dog  driven  by  a  mallet,  but  by  the  simple  movement  of  a 
lever.  It  was  brought  to  its  proper  position  before  the  saw  by 
nicely  adjusted  set  works,  which  graduated  its  position  to  ono- 
eighth  of  an  inch.  After  the  slab  was  it-moved,  if  another  cut  wr.i 
required  the  same  set  works  moved  it  forward  with  lightning 
quickness,  leaving  it  at  the  exact  point,  to  a  nicety,  requisite  for 
the  production  oif  just  the  thickness  desired  for  the  next  piece. 
From  the  water  to  the  pile  in  tho  miUyard  hands  have  necessarilv 
been  employed  in  actual  handling  of  the  product  only  at  the  edgcr 
and  the  trimmer,  and  in  assorting  the  qualities  upon  the  tram-car 
^vhich  removes  it  -from  the  mill.  JInchinery,  guided  by  huinnn 
intelligence,  has  done  all  the  heavy  work.  A  mill  answering  closely 
to  our  description  was  recently  burned  at  Bay  City,  Michigan, 
tho  yearly  production  of  wliich  for  seveial  years  past  has  been 
40,000,000  feet  of  lumber,  besides  shingles,  lath,  pickets,  &c.,  cut 
from  the  slabs  and  wa'ite.  Tho  total  production  of  the  saw- 
mills of  the  United  States  approximates  26,000,000,000  feet 
annually. 

The  "  band  "  saw-mill  is  rapidly  working  its  way  into  public 
favour  because  of  the  (Economy  attending  its  use.  The  band  saw  is 
a  long  ribbon  of  steel,  six  to  eight  inches  in  wiJth,  running  over 
large  pulleys  above  and  below,  the  upper  pulley  running  almost 
vertically  above  the  lower,  the  saw  acting  as  a  brlt  between  the 
two  and  as  tho  driving  power  to  tho  upjjer  wlieel.  These  saws 
are  very  thin  and  have  a  manufacturing  capacity  of  from  30,000  to 
40,000  feet  p6r  day,  with  the  consumption  of  25  to  40  per  cent  les.s 
power  than  is  required  for  tho  ordinary  circular  saw  of  tho  same 
daily  capacity  ftir  work.  Tho  main  advantage  found  in  tho  use  of 
tho  band-saw  is  in  the  saving  of  timber  (20  per  cent).  The  set 
works  do  not  differ  from  those  of  rotary  mills,  and  cither  coup, 
rope,  or  steam  feed  may  be  used  in  connexion  with  it. 

A  useful  adjunct  to  the  many  saw-mills,  which  produce  moro 
waste  than  can  be  consumed  in  raising  the  necessary  steam,  is  tho 
"slab-burner"  or  "Iicll,"  a  large  circular  brick  furnace  often  50 
feet  in  height  by  25  feet  internal  diameter,  erected  conveniently 
near  the  saw-mill,  into  which  by  chain  carriers  leading  to  an 
opening  at   a   suflidcnt  height   from   tho   bottom,  the  sawdust. 


346 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


edgings,  wortlJess  slafcg,  and  debris  of  the  mill  are  conveyed,  to  be 
destroyed  by.  fire. 

Shingle  Mills. — A  standard  shingle  is  four  inches  wide,  and  all 
computations  of  quantity  are  based  upon  that  width,  although  tho 
individual  shinglo  may  be  six  or  eight  inches  wide  or  as  much  as 
18  inches,  iu  the  latter  case  counting  4i  shingles.  A  shingle  mill 
differs  from  a  saw-uiill  in  the  adaptations  of  machinery.  Saws  of 
16-gauge,  40  inches  in  diameter,  are  most  commonly  employed. 
In  cases  where  shinglo  manufacture  is  carried  on  in  connexion  with 
the  saw-mill,  the  process  of  preparing  the  blocks  has  already  been 
described.  A  majority  of  the  shingles  manufactured,  however,  are 
made  in  mills  built  for  the  special  purpose.  LOgs  suitable,  usually 
of  a  medium  qualit)',  are  placed  before  a  "bolting"  or  "drag" 
saw,  which  severs  them  into  tlie  required  length.  The  block  is 
then  stripped  of  its  bark  and  sap  by  splitting  off  a  section  of  the 
enter  circumference  to  the  heart  wood,  with  axes  ;  it  is  next 
quartered,  and*  the  inside  section  of  heart,  which  is  never  sound, 
removed ;  and  then  it  goes  to  the  machine  for  manufacture.  The 
machines  are  sometimes  horizontal,  sometimes  vertical,  but  all 
work  upon  the  same  principle,  viz.,  that  of  a  tilting  table,  allowing 
a  thick  butt  and  a  thm  point  to  be  alternately  taken.  The  shingles 
as  they  drop  from  the  saw  are  rough-edged,  and  require  to  be 
"jointed,"  generally  upon  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel,  upon  the  face 
of  which  are  secured  four  well-balanced  knives,  which,  as  the 
shingle  is  pressed  against  them,  eat  away  the  imperfect  edge  with 
great  rapidity,  leaving  a  straight  smooth  edge,  which  when  laid 
upon  a  roof  makes  a  good  joint  with  its  fellows.  The  edging  or 
jointing  process  is  often  performed  with  small  saws  in  place  of  the 
wheel-jointer  The  shingles  are  usually  packed  in  bunches  con- 
taining the  Univalent  of  one  quarter  thousand  4-inch  pieces,  and 
are  more  used  for  roof  covering  than  any  other  material  iu  the 
United  States  or  Canada.  (G.  W.  H. ) 

SAXE,  Mattrice,  Gomte  de  (1696-1750),  marshal  of 
France,  was  the  natural  son  of  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony 
and  the  countess  Aurora  of  KBnigsmark.  An  entry  in 
the  parish  registers  of  Ooslar  shows  that  be  was  born  in 
that  town,  28th  October  1696.  In  1698  the  countess 
sent  him  to  Warsaw  to  his  father,  who  had  been  elected 
iing  of  Poland  the  previous  year,  but  on  account  of  the 
tinsettled  condition  of  the  country  the  greater  part  of  his 
youth  was  spent  outside  its  limits,  a  yearly  income  being 
assigned  him.  This  enforced  separation  from  his  father 
made  him  more  independent  of  his  control  than  he  would 
otherwise  have  been,  and  had  an  important  effect  on  tlie 
character  of  his  future  career.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he 
was  present,  under  the  direction  of  the  count  of  Schulen- 
bnrg,  in  the  army  of  Eugene,  at  tht  sieges  of  Tournay  and 
■Mons  and  the  battle  of  Malplaquet,  but  the  achievements 
ascribed  to  him  in  this  campaign  are  chiefly  fabulous.  A 
proposal  to  send  him  at  the  close  of  it  to  a  Jesuit  college 
at  Brussels  was  relinquished  on  account  of  the  strong 
protests  of  his  mother ;  and,  returning  to  the  camp  of  the 
allies  in  the  beginning  of  1710,  he  displayed  a  courage  so 
impetuous  as  to  call  forth  from  Eugene  the  friendly 
admonition  not  to  confound  rashness  with  valour.  After 
receiving  in  1711  formal  recognition  from  his  father,  with 
the  rank  of  count,  he  accompanied  him  to  Pomerania,  and 
in  1712  he  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Stralsund.  As  he 
grew  up  to  manhood  he  tvas  seen  to  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  his  father,  both  in  person  and  character.  His 
grasp  was  so  powerful  that  he  could  bend  a  horse-shoe 
with  his  hand,  and  to  the  last  his  energy  and  endurance 
.vcre  unsubdued  by  the  severe  bodily  illnesses  resulting 
from  his  many  excesses.  The  impetuosity  noted  by 
Eugene  manifested  itself  in  his  private  life  in  a  dissolute- 
ness only  slightly  tempered  by  his  generosity  and  good 
humour.  In  his  military  career  during  his  mature  years 
it  was  indicated  only  in  his  blindness  to  danger  and  his 
unmoved  calm  amidst  the  blackest  lowerings  of  misfor- 
tune, for  it  was  tempered  by  the  "  vigilance,  forethought, 
sagacious  precaution  "  which  Carlyle  notes  as  "  singular  in 
so  dissolute  a  man."  In  1714  a  marriage  was  arranged 
between  him  and  one  of  the  richest  of  his  father's  subjects, 
the  Countess  von  Loeben,  but  her  immense  fortune  he 
dissipated  so  rapidly  that  he  was  soon  heavily  in  debt, 
and,  heving  given  her  more  serious  grounds  of  complaint 


against  him,  he  consented  without  defence  to  an  annnl- 
ment  of  the  marriage  in  1721.     Meantime,  after  serving 
in  a  campaign  against  the  Turks  in  1717,  he  had  in  \1\% 
gone  to  Paris  to  study  mathematics,  and  in  1720  obtained 
the  office  of  "  mardchal  de  camp."     In  1725  negotiations 
were  entered  into  for  his  election  as  duke  of  Courland,  at 
the  instance  of  the  duchess  Anna  Ivanovna,  who  offered 
him  her  hand.     He  was  chosen  duke  in  1726,  but  declin- 
ing  marriage  with   the  duchess  found   it  impossible  to 
resist  her  opposition    to   his  claims,   although,   with  the 
assistance    of   £30,000  lent   him  by  the  French  actress 
Adrienne  Lecouvreur,  his  relations  with  whom  form  the 
subject   d    the    drama    of    that    name    by   Scribe    and 
Legouve,  published  in  1849,  he  raised  a  force  by  which 
he  maintained  his 'authority  till  1727,  when  he  withdrew 
and  took    up  his  residence  in   Paris.     On  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  in   1734  he  served  under  Marshal   Berwick, 
and  for  a  brilliant  exploit  at  the  siege  at  PhUippsburg  he 
was  in  August  named   lieutenant-general.     It  was,  how- 
ever, with  the  opening  of  the  Austrian  Succession  War  in 
1741   that  he  first  rose  into  prominence.     In  command 
of  a  division  forming  the  advance  guard  of  an  army  sent 
to  invade  Austria,  he  on   the   19th  November  surprised 
Prague  during  the  night,  and  took  it  by  assault  before  the 
garrison  were  aware  of  the  presence  of  an  enemy,  a  coup 
de   main   which  at  once   made   him  famous   throughout 
Europe.     After   capturing   on    tlie   19th  April  1742  the 
strong  fortress  of  Eger,  he  received  leave  of  absence,  and 
went  to  Russia  to  push  his  claims  oh  the  duchy  of  Cour- 
land, but  obtaining  no  success  returned  to  his  command. 
His  exploits  had  been  the  sole  redeeming  feature  in  an 
unsuccessful    campaign,    and   on    26th    March    1743   his 
merits  were   recognized  by  his  promotion  to  be  marshal 
of   France.     In    1744    he  was   chosen  to   command   the 
exjiedition  to  England  in  behalf  of  the  Pretender,  which 
assembled  at  Dunkirk  but  did  not  proceed  farther.     After 
its  abortive  issue  he  received  an  independent  command  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  by  dexterous  manoeuvring  succeeded 
in  continually  harassing  the  superior  forces  of  the  enemy 
without  risking  a  decisive  battle.     In  the  following  year 
he  made  a  rapid  march  on  Tournay,  and,  when  the  allies 
sent  an  army  of  60,000  under  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
to  its  relief,  gave  them  battle  11th  May,  without  relaxing 
the  siege,  from  a  strongly  entrenched  position  at  Fonte- 
noy.       The    contest    raged    from   early  morning  till  two 
o'clock,  when,  by  a  charge  at  a  critical  moment   which 
annihilated  a  column  of  the  enemy,  fortune  was  decided  in 
his  favour.     During  the  battle  he  was  unable  on  account 
of  dropsy  to  sit  on  horseback  except  for  a  few  minutes, 
and  was  carried  about  iu  a  wicker  basket.     la  recognitioB 
of  his  brilliant  achievement  the  king  conferred  on  him  the 
castle  of  Chamford  for  life,   and   in  April  1746  he  was 
naturalized.     The  campaign   of  1746    was  signalized   by 
the  capture  of  Antwerp  on  the  1st  June,  the  capture  of 
Namur  in  September,  and  the  total  rout  of  Prince  Charles 
at  Raucoux   11th  October.     Having  on  the  12th  January 
1747    been   made    marshal-general,  he  in    the   following 
campaign  won  the  victory  of  Lawfeldt  ovei  the  ^uke  /if 
Cumberland,  and  on  16th  September  he  stormed  Bergen-op- 
zoom.    In  May  1H8  he  captured  Maestrichtafteramonth'.^ 
siege.     After  the  peace,  he  lived  in  broken  health  chiefly  at 
Chamford,  and  he  died  there  30th  November  1750. 

Jfaurice  de  Saxc  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  military  science. 
Mcs  J-lcacric3,  described  by  Carlyle  as  "a  strange  military  farrago, 
dictated,  as  I  should  think,  under  opium,"  published  posthumously 
in  1757  {last  ed.,  Paris,  1877).  His  Lrllrcs  ct  Mimoires  Choisn 
appeared  in  1794.  Many  previous  errors  in  former  biographies 
were  corrected  and  additional  information  supplied  in  Carl  von 
"Weber's  Moritz,  Graf  xon  Sachscn,  Marschall  von  Franlreicn,  nacA 
archivatisc^icn  Quellcn  (I.eipsic,  1863),  and  in  Taillandier's  Maurice 
de  Saze,  ititde  historiqiu  (Capris  les  documniis  des  Archives  da 
Dresde  (1885).     See  also  Carlyle's  Frederick  the  Great. 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


347 


See  SAXE-ALTENBURG    (Germ.     Sachsen-Altenhv.rg),    a 

Plate  V.  duchy  in  Tharjngia,  and  an  independent  member  of  the 
German  empire,  consists  of  two  detached  and  almost  equal 
parts,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  portion  of  Reuss 
(junior  line),  and  bounded  on  the  S.  and  W.  by  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar -Eisenach,  on  the  N.  by  Prussia,  and 
on  the  E.  by  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  There  are  in  addi- 
tion 12  small  exclaves.  The  total  area  is  510  square  miles 
(about  half  the  size  of<Cheshire  in  England),  of  which  254 
are  in  the  east  or  Altenburg  division  and  25G  in  the  west 
or  Saal-Eisenberg  division.  The  former  district,  traversed 
by  the  most  westerly  offshoots  of  the  Erzgebirge  and 
watered  by  the  Pleisse  and  its  tributaries,  forms  an  undu- 
lating and  fertile  region,  containing  some  of  the  richest 
agricultural  soil  in  Germany.  The  western  district,  through 
which  the  Saale  flows,  is  rendered  hilly  by  the  beginnings 
of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  in  some  measure  makes  up 
by  its  fine  woods  for  the  comparatively  poor  soil.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  Saxe-Altenburg  is  scanty;  lignite,  the 
chief  mineral,  is  worked  ma-inly  in  the  eastern  district. 

According  to  the  returns  for  1883,  53^  percent  of  the  entire 
duchy  was  occupied  by  arable  land,  and  27^  per  cent,  by  forests, 
of  -n-bicli  four-fifths  were  coniferous.  The  chief  crops  were  rye 
<42,317  acres,  yielding  20,412  tons),  oats  (3i),807  acres,  22,996 
tons),  barley  (21,390  acres,  13,912  tons),  wheat  (17,490  acres, 
9724  tons),  and  potatoes  (19,870  acres,  113,209  tons).  Tlie  cattle- 
raising  and  horse-breeding  of  the  duchy  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance. In  1883  the  duchy  contained  093-;  horses,  60,335  cattle, 
20,996  sheep,  46,387  piga,  and  12,420  goats.  About  35  per  cent. 
of  the  population  are  directly  supported  by  agriculture.  The 
manufactures  of  the  duchy  are  very  varied,  but  none  is  of  any  great 
niiportance  ;  woollen  goods,  gloves,  hats,  porcelain  and  earthen- 
ware, and  wooden  articles  are  the  chief  jiroducts.  Trade  in  these, 
and  in  horses,  cattle,  and  agricultural  produce,  is  tolerably  brisk. 
The  chief  seats  of  trade  and  manufacture  are  Altenburg  the 
capital  (29,422  inhabitants  in  1885),  Ronneburg  (5485  inhabitants 
iu  1880),  Schmolln  (6394),  Gdssnitz  (4949),  and  Meusehvitz  (3402) 
in  the  Altenburg  division  ;  and  Eisenbiirg  (G277),  Roda  (3465), 
aiid  Kahla  (2999)  in  the  Snal-Eisenburg  division.  Besides  these 
there  are  the  towns  of  Lucka  (1505)  and  Orlamiinde  (1461),  and 
449  villages,  of  which  Russdorf  (1781),  in  an  exclave,  is  the 
largest. 

Next  to  the  two  principalities  of  Reuss,  Saxe-Altenburg  is  the 
most  densely  peopled  part  of  Thuringia.  In  1880  the  population 
was  155,036,  or  304  per  square  fnilc.  Of  these  154,187  were 
Protestants,  741  Roman  Catliolics,  33  Jews,  and  75  of  other  sects. 
The  population  in  1885,  according  to  a  provisional  return  of  the 
census  of  that  year,  was  161,129.  In  the  west  division  the  popu- 
lation (49,788)  is  wholly  Teutonic,  but  in  the  east  (111,341)  there 
is  a  strong  Wendish  or  Slavonic  clement,  still  to  be*  traced  in  the 
peculiar  maojiers  anil  costume  of  the  country-people,  though  these 
are  gradually  being  given  up.  The  farmers  ana  pcasant-proprietofs 
of  the  cast  division  (Altenburger  Bauern)  are  an  industnoua  and 
well-to-do  class,  but  like  similar  classes  in  other  countries  they  are 
said  to  be  avaricious  and  pui^e-proud.  Their  holdings  are  seldom 
divided ;  a  custom  correspouding  to  BoROUGn-ENoLisu  {q.v.), 
though  not  supported  by  law,  obtains  among  them  ;  and  sometimes 
the  elder  brothers  are  cmi»loyed  by  the  youngest  as  servants  on  the 
paternal  farm.  The  destitution  to  which  the  disinherited  children 
are  often  reduced  by  this  custom  is  seriously  prejudicial  to  morality. 
The  Altenburg  peasants  are  pleasure-loving,  and  in  spite  of  their 
avarice  are  said  to  gamble  for  very  high  sUikes,  especially  at  the 
complicated  card-game  of  "  skat,"  now  universal  in  Germany,  which 
many  believe  to  have  been  invented  here. 

Saxe-Altenburg  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  its  constitu- 
tion resting  on  a  law  of  1831,  subsequently  modified.  The  diet 
consists  of  30  members,  elected  for  3  years,  of  whom  9  are  returned 
by  the  highest  taxpayers,  9  by  the  towns,  ajul  12  by  the  country 
districts.  The  francliise  is  enjoyed  by  all  males  over  25  years  of 
age  who  pay  taxes.  The  duke  has  considerable  powers  of  initiative 
and  veto.  The  government  is  carried  on  by  a  ministry  of  three 
members,  of  whom  two  administer  justice  and  finance  respectively, 
aud  the  third  all  the  other  departments  of  home  and'foreign  affairs. 
The  budget  for  1384-80  estimated  the  yearly  income  at  £127,180 
and  the  yearly  expenditure  at  £125,530.  Tlie  Altenburg  troops 
are  united  with  the  contingents  of  Schwarzburg,  Rudolstidt,  and 
the  two  Rcusses  to  form  the  7th  Thuringian  infantry  repimcjnt  of 
the  imperial  army.  Saxe-Altenburg  has  one  vote  in  the  Reichstag 
aud  ono  in  the  federal  council. 

After  the  conquest  of  tho  Wends,  the  present  Altenburg  district 
became  an  imperial  posscsnion,  lying  partly  in  tho  Pleisc-.nrau  and 
I  ortly  in  tha  Voigtland,  whila  tho  west  district  was  divided  among 


a  number  of  small  nobks.  The  L';".rjTave  of  Saxony  obtained 
permanent  possession  o(  Altenburg  airaut  1329,  and  the  west 
division  was  also  early  incorporated  with  his  dominions.  Both 
districts  were  among  the  lands  assigned  to  tho  Ernestine  lino  of 
the  house  of  Saxohy  by  tho  convention  of  "Wittenberg  in  Ih^' 
(see  Saxony).  From  1603  till  1672  there  existed  an  independei 
duchy  of  Altenburg;  but  in  1826,  when  the  present  divisio.i 
into  the  four  Saxon  duchies  was  made,  both  Altenburg  and  Elsen- 
burg  belonged  to  Gotha.  Duke  Frederick,  who  exchanged  Saxe- 
Hildburghausen  for  the  present  duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg  in  1826 
was  tho  founder  of  the  reigning  line.  A  oonstitution  was  granted 
in  1831  in  answer  to  popular-  commotion  ;  and  greater  concessions 
were,  extorted  by 'more  threatening  disturbances  in  1848.  The 
second  duke  (Joseph)  abdicated  iu  1848  in  favour  of  his  brother 
George.  Under  Ernest,  who  succeeded  his  father  as  fourth  duke 
iu  1853,  a  period  of  violent  reaction  set  in,  so  that  even  now  the 
constitution  is  considerably  less  liberal  than  it  was  in  1849.  In 
1873  the  long-disputed  question  as  to  the  public  domains  waa 
settled,  two-thirds  of  these  being  now  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
duke  in  Jidcicoymnissit])i  and  iu  lieu  of  a  civil  liet 

SAXE-COBUKG-GOTHA  (Germ.  Sachsm-Kohirg-  See 
Gotha),  a  duchy  in  Thuringia,  and  an  independent  member  P'^^» 
of  the  German  empire,  consists  of  the  two  formerly 
separate  duchies  of  Coburg  and  Gotha,  which  lie  at  a 
distance  of  1 4  miles  from  each  other,  and  of  eight  small 
scattered  exclaves,  the  most  northerly  of  which  is  70  miles 
from  the  most  southerly.  The  total  area  is  760  square 
miles  (about  2  square  mUes  more  than  the  county  of  Sttrrey 
in  England),  of  which  217  are  in  Coburg  and  543  in 
Gotha.  The  duchy  of  Coburg  is  bounded  on  tho  S.E.,  S., 
and  S.W.  by  Bavaria, .  and  on  the  other  sides  by  Saxe- 
Meiningen,  which,  Vith  part  of  Prussia,  separates  it  from 
Gotha.  The  considerable  exclave  of  Konigsberg  in 
Bavaria,  10  miles  south,  belongs  to  Coburg.  Lying  on 
tho  south  slope  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  in  the 
Franconian  plain,  this  duchy  is  an  undulating  and  fertile 
distrifctf,  reaching  its  highest  point  in  the  Senichshohte 
(171G  feet)  near  Mirsdorf.  Its  streams,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  Itz,  Steinach,  and  Rodach,  all  find  their  way  into 
the  Main.  The  duchy  of  Gotha,  more  than  twice  the  size 
of  Coburg,  stretches  from  the  south  borders  of  Prussia 
along  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  the 
highest  summits  of  which  (Grosso  Eeerberg,  3225  feet ; 
Schneekopf,  3179  feet;  Inselberg,  2957  feet)  rise  within 
its  borders.  Tho  more  open  and  level  district  on  the 
north  is  spoken  of  as  the  "open  country"  ("das  Land") 
in  contrast  to  tho  wooded  hills  of  the  "forest"  ("der 
Wald  ").  The  Gera,  Hdrsel,  Unstrut,  and  other  streams 
of  this  duchy  flow  to  the  Werra  or  to  the  Saale. 

In  both  duchies  the  chief  industry  is  agriculture,  which  employs 
33  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population.  According  to  the  returns 
for  1683,  53J  per  cent,  of  the  area  was  occupieil  by  arable  land,  10 
per  cent,  by  meadow-land  and  pasture,  and  30  per  cent,  by  forest 
In  the  same  year  the  chief  crops  were  oats  (43,715  acres,  yielding. 
19,229  tons),  b.nrley  (37,387  acres,  20,148  tons),  rye  (29,077  acres, 
12,048  tons),  wheat  (24,265  acres,  9,272  tons),  md  potatoes  (24,548 
acres,  116,695  tons).  A  small  quantity  of  hemp  and  flax  i:;  laisod 
(less  than  lOOO  acres  of  each),  but  a  considerable  quantity  of  fruit 
and  vegetables  is  annually  produced.  'Cattle-breeding  is  an  im- 
portant resource,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Itz  ir.  Coburg.  .  In 
1883  tho  two  duchies  contained  8187  horses,  58,196  cattle,  73,249' 
slieop,  51,549  pif^s,  and  27,015  goats.  The  mincial  wealth  of  Sax«- 
Coburg-Gotha  is  insignificant ;  small  quantities  ^i  coal,  lignite, 
ironstone,  millatone,  &c.,  are  annually  raised.  Therb  are  also  salt- 
works and  son.e  deposits  of  potter'aclay. 

Tho  manufactures  of  tho  duchies,  especially  In  tho  mountainons 
parts  less  favourable  for  agriculture,  are  tolerably  brisk,  but  there 
IS  no  largo  industrial  centre  in  the  country.  Iron  goods  and 
niachiner}',  snfcs,  glass,  earthenware,  eh.'micals,  and  wooden 
articles,  including  largo  quantities  of  toys,  are  prodticcd  ;  and 
various  blanches  of  textile  industry  aro  carried  on.  Ruhla  (two- 
fiftha  of  which  is  situated  in  Saxe- Weirnar- Eisenach)  is  famous  for 
its  meerschaum  pipes  and  cigar-holders,  which  are  exported  to  all 
p;irts  of  tho  world;  and  tho  maps  of  Terthes's  geographical  institute 
at  Gotha  mayalso  bo  reckoned  among  the  national  products.  Coburg 
(15,791  inhabitants  in  1881)  and  Gotha  (28. 100  in  1885)  aro  the  chief 
towns  of  tho  duchies,  to  which  they  rcspoctirely  give  namo  ;  the 
Latter  is  tho  capital  of  tho  united  duchy.  Tliere  aro  seven  othor 
small  towns,  and  320  villages  and  hamlets.     TK-i  villages  of  Fried- 


348 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


richroda  and  Ruhla  and  tho  Insolborg  and  Schneekopf  nnd  other 
t -icturescjue  points  annually  attract  an  increasing;  number  of  suni- 
aer  visitors  and  tourists.  Ncudictendorf  or  Gnadeuthal  is  a 
.^onivian  settlement  fnunded  in  17-} 2. 

The  population  in  18S0  was  194,716,  or  256  per  square  mile,  of 
whom  56,728  (261  per  square  mile)  were  in  Cobur*;  and  137,988 
(254  per  square  mile)  in  Gotha.  In  tho  former  diiohy  the  people  be- 
long to  the  Fmnconian  and  in  the  latter  to  the  Thuringiau  branch 
c€  tho  Teutonic  family.  In  1880  there  were  19'J,025  Lutherans, 
li062  Koman  Catholics.  490  Jews,  and  139  others.  In  1885  the 
population  was  19S.717,— 57,355  in  Coburg  and  141,362  iu  Gotha, 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  its. con- 
stitution resting  on  a  law  of  1852,  modified  in  1874.  For  its  own 
immediate  affairs  each  duchy  has  a  separate  diet  (in  Coburg  o\  11, 
iu  Gotha  of  19  members) ;  but  in  more  important  and  general 
matters  a  common  diet,  formed  of  the  members  of  the  separate 
diets,  meeting  at  Coburg  :ind  Gotha  alternately,  exercises  authority. 
Tho  menibci-a  are  elected  for  four  years  ;  the  franchise  is  extended 
to  all  male  taxpayers  of  twenty-five  years  of  ago  and  upwards.  The 
ministry  has  special  departments  for  each  duchyj  but  is  under  a 
common  pre^idgnt.  In  finance  the  ducliies  are  also  separate,  the 
budget  in  Coburg  being  voted  for  a  term  of  six  years,  and  in  Gotha 
for  four  years.  After  long  disputes  between  the  duke  and  the 
Government  a  compromise  was  effected  in  1855,  by  wliich  the 
CTeater  part  of  the  public  lands  is  regarded  as  a.  Jidcicommissum  in 
tho  possession  of  the  reigning  duke,  while  the  income  from  the  rest 
16  regardwi  as  state-revenue.  There  are  thus  two  budgets  for  each 
d«chy.  The  annual  income  of  the  public  lands  iu  Coburg  is 
estimated  for  tho  period  1886-92  at  £20,700,  and  the  expenditure 
at  £11,900  ;  in  Gotha  (period  1886-90)  the  same  source  is  estimated 
to  yield  £102,621  and  to  cost  £61,996  ;— together  producing  a 
surplus  of  £49,425,  of  which  the  duke  receives  £29,700  and  tho 
state-treasury  £19,725.  The  annual  state-revenue  in  the  same 
periods  was  estimated  for  Coburg  at  £51,520,  or  £2246  more  than 
the  estimated  expemditure,  and  in  Gotha  at  £106,020,  or  £2244 
more  than  the  expenditure.  Besides  the  civil  list  the  duko  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  enjoys  a  very  large  private  fortune,  amassed 
ohiefly  by  Ernest  I.,  who  sold  the  principality  of  Lichtenberg  to 
Prussia  in  1834  for  an  annual  payment  of  £12,000.  Tho  congress 
of  Vieuna  had  bestowed  the  principality  upon  him  in  recognition 
of  his  services  in  1813.  The  house  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  is 
directly  connected  with  five  of  the  royal  houses  of  Europe,  and  tho 
actaal  rulers  or  the  heirs  of  three  kingdoms  trace  their  descent 
from  it.  The  succession  is  hereditary  in  the  male  lino  ;  and  by 
I^Q  deed  of  succession  of  1855  the  heir  to  the  throne  is  the  duke 
of  Edinburgh,  nephew  of  the  present  duke. 

History. — The  elder  line  of  Saxe-Coburg  was  founded  in  1680  by 
Albert,  the  second  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious.  On  his  dying  child- 
less in  1699,  however,  the  line  became  extinct,  and  his  possessions 
became  the  subject  of  vehement  coiitention  amongst  the  other 
Saxon  houses,  until  tUey  were  finally  distributed  at  tiie  end  of  the 
18th  century.  The  present  reigning  family  is  the  posterity  of 
John  Ernest,  the  seventh  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious,  who  originally 
ruled  in  Saxe-Saalfeld.  His  two  sons,  ruling  in  common,  acquired 
possession  of  Coburg,  and,  changing  their  residence,  styled  tliem- 
selves  dukes  of  Saxe-Coburg-SauUeld.  Under  the  son  and  successor 
»f  the  survivor  (who  introduced  the  principle  of  primogeniture), 
Ernest  Frederick  I.  (1764-1800),  the  land  was  plunged  into 
bankruptcy,  so  that  an  imperial  commission  was  appointed  on  his 
death  to  manage  the  finances.  The  measures  adopted  to  redeem 
•he  country's  credit  were  successful,  but  imposed  so  much  hardship 
OQ  the  people  that  a  rising  took  place,  which  had  to  be  quelled 
\TJth  the  aid  of  troops  from  the  electorate  of  Saxony.  The  duke 
Francis  Frederick  Antony  died  in  December  1806,  and  was  suc- 
cet^ded  by  his  son  Ernest  III.  (1806-1844).  altlioui;h  the  country 
was  occupied  by  tho  French  fi-om  1807  until  the  peace  of  TiKit  in 
1S16.  In  the  redistribution  of  the  Saxon  lands  in  1826,  Ernest 
resigned  Saalfeld  to  Moiningen,  receiving  Gotha  in  exchange  and 
assuming  the  title  of  Ernest  I.  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  Theline  of 
^xe-Gotha  had  been  founded  in  1680  by  the  eldest  son  of  Ernest 
the  Pious,  and  had  become  extinct  in  1825.  "When  Ernest  II. 
(h._  181S)  succeeded  iu  1844  both  the  public  finances  and  the 
jjcivate  fortune  of  the  ducal  family  (seo  above)  wore  flourishing. 
In  his  reign  various  liberal  reforms  have  been  achieved,  and  the 
anion  of  the  duchies  has  been  made  closer. 

SAXE-METNIXGEN"  (Germ.  Sacnsm-Meiningen),  a 
duchy  in  Thuringia,  and  an  independent  meiiiber  of  the 
Cfermaa  empire,  consists  chiefly  of  an  irregular  crescent- 
shaped  territory,  which,  with  an  average  breadth  of  10 
miles,  stretches  for  over  ^0  miles  along  the  south-west  slope 
:  f  the  Thuringian  Forest.  The  convex  side  rests  upon  the 
d  ichy  of  Coburg,  and  U  in  part. bounded  by  Bayaria, 
while  the  concave  side,  turned  towards  the  north,  contains 
.ortionaof  four  other  ThuriBgian  states  and  Prussia  be- 


tween its  horns,  which  are  4-6  Tuiles  apart.  The  district? 
of  KranichfeM,  15  miles  north-west,  and  Hamburg,  27 
miles  due  north  of  the  eastern  horn,  together  with  a 
number  of  smaller  scattered  exclaves,  comprise  74  of  the 
953  square  miles  now  belonging  to  the  duchy  (about  tho 
size  oi  county  Down  in  Ireland).  The  surface  on  tho 
whole  is  hilly,  and  is  partly  occupied  by  offshoots  of  the 
Thuringian  Forest ;  the  highest  summits  are  the  Kieserlo 
(2851  feet)  and  the  Bless  (283-t  feet).  The  chief  streams 
are  tho  Werra,  whieh  traverses  the  south  and  east  of  th* 
ducliy,  and  various  tributaries  of  the  Main  and  the  Saale, 
so  that  Saxe-Meiningen  belongs  to  the  basins  of  the  three 
great  rivers  Weser,  Rhine,  and  Elbe. 

The  soil  is  not  very  productive,  although  agriculture  nourishes 
in  the  valleys  and  on  the  level  ground  ;  grain  has  to  be  imported 
to  meet  the  demand.  In  1883  only  41*8  per  cent  of  the  totsvl 
area  (in  1878,  41 '6)  was  devoted  to  agriculture,  while  meadow  Ian 'I 
and  pasture  occupied  11  per  cent.  The  chief  grain  crops  in  188'' 
were  rye  (44,442  acres,  yielding  16,112  tons),  oats  (42,447  acre;, 
17,343  tons),  wheat  (25,252  acres,  9033  tons),  and  barley  (19,01^ 
acres,  94,456  tons).  The  cultivation  of  potatoes  is  very  genera') 
(31,006  acres,  143,327  tons).  Tobacco,  hops,  and  flax  (in  1833, 
997  acres)  arc  also  raised.  The  Werrathal  and  the  other  fertili 
valleys  produce  large  quantities  of  fruit.  Sheep  and  cattle  raisin/i; 
is  a  tolerably  important  branch  of  industry  throughout  the  duchy  ; 
horses  are  bred  in  Kamburg.  In  1883  Saxe-Meiningen  contained 
5174  horses,  66,733  cattle,  58,940  sheep,  45,136  pigs,  and  26,8i;' 
goats.  The  extensive  and  valuable  forests,  of  which  75  per  cent 
are  coniferous  trees,  occupy  41 '9  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area 
Nearly  one  half  of  the  forests  belong  to  tiie  stata  and  about  one 
third  to  public  bodies  and  institutions,  leaving  little  more  thai ' 
a  sixth  for  private  owners.  The  mineral  wealth  of  tho  duchy  in 
not  inconsiderable.  Iron,  coal,  and  slate  are  the  chief  minerals 
worked.  There  are  salt-works  at  Salzuugen  and  Suiza,  the  formei 
tho  most  important  in  Thuringia;  and  the  minenil  water  of 
Friedrichshall  is  well  known.  The  manufacturing  industry  c^ 
Saxe-Meiningen  is  very  active,  especially  in  the  districts  of  Sonne  ■ 
berg,  Grafenthal,  and  Saalfeld.  Iron  goods  of  various  kinds,  glasi 
and  pottery,  school-slates,  marbles,  &c.,  are  produced  ;  the  abund 
ant  timber  fosters  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  wooden  arricles. 
especially  toys  ;  and  textile  industry  is  also  carried  on  to  a  sUghi 
extent. 

The  capital  of  the  duchy  is  Meiningen  (in  1881  11,227  inhab 
itants).  Of  the  sixteen  other  towns  (Salzungen,  "Wasungen, 
Hildburghausen,  Eisfeld,  Sonneberg,  Saalfeld,  Possneek,  Kamburg 
&.C. )  none  has  so  many  as  10,000  inhabitants.  There  are  39i: 
villages  and  hamlets.  In  1880  the  population  was  207,075  {2\',^ 
per  square  mile),  of  whom  30  per  cent,  lived  in  cociimunities  o^ 
more  than  2000.  As  in  the  other  Saxon  duchies  tlie  population  ii 
almost  exclusively  Lutheran  ;  in  1883  202,970  belonged  to  thai 
confession,  2274  were  Roman  Catholics,  204  of  other  Christian  sects, 
and  1627  Jews. 

Saxe-!Meiningen  is  a  limited  monarchy,  its  constitution  resting 
on  a  law  of  1829,  subsequently  modified.  The  diet,  elected  for  six 
years,  consists-of  24  members,  of  whom  4  are  elected  by  the  largest 
landowners,  4  by  those  who  pay  the  highest  personal  taxes,  and  IG 
by  the  other  electors.  The  franchise  is  enjoyed  by  all  domiciled 
males  over  twenty-five  years  of  aje  who  pay  at  least  a  minimum  of 
taxes.  The  government  is  carried  on  by  a  ministry  of  five,  with 
departments  for  the  ducal  house  and  foreign  affairs,  home  afTuiri-. 
justice,  education  and  public  worship,  and  finance.  The  rcturnH 
of  the  state-lands  and  the  ordinary  state-revenue  are  treated  in 
separate  butlgets,  Tho  estimate  for  the  period  1884-86  puts  tin* 
annual  income  from  the  former  at  £105,340  and  the  annual  ex- 
penditure at  £77,915,  while  the  annual  income  and  expenditurs 
of  the  latter  are  balanced  r.t  £145,148.  Half  of  the  surplus  of 
£27,425  is  credited  to  each  fund.  The  duke's  civil  list  of  £19,71=. 
(394,286  marks)  is  paid  out  of  the  returns  from  the  state-lands,  at 
one  time  in  the  possession  of  the  reigning  house.  Saxc-Meiningsij 
has  one  vote  in  the  federal  council  and  sends  two  deputies  to  the 
reichstag. 

The  original  territory  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  founded 
in  1680  hy  Bernhard,  third  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious,  consisted  of 
what  is  now  the  western  horn  of  the  duchy,  from  Henneber,(^ 
northwards.  Bernhard  was  succeeded  in  1706  by  his  three  sons; 
but  by  1746  the  only  survivor  was  the  youngest,  Antony  Ulrich, 
who  reigned  alone  until  his  death  iu  1763.  The  duchy  had  mean- 
while been  considerably  increased  in  extent  ;  but  contentions  and 
petty  wars  with  the  other  Saxoa  principalities  on  questions  of 
inharilance,  the  extravagance  of  the  court,  and  the  hardships  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War  plunged  it  into  bankru-ptcy  and  distress.  A 
happier  time  was  enjoyed  under  Charlotte  Amalie,  Antoui-'s  wif  , 
who  ruled  as  regent  for  ner  two  sons  Charles  (1775-1782)  and  Guoj^.^ 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


349 


(1782-1803),  and  also  under  these  princes  themselves.  George, 
who  had  introduced  the  principle  of  primogeniture,  was  succeeded 
by  his  infant  son  Bernhard  Erich  Freund,  born  in  1800.  .The  war 
with  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  with  its 
attendant  quartering  of  troops,  conscription,  and  levies  of  money, 
joined  with  cattle-disease  and  scanty  harvests  in  once  more 
plunging  the  country  into  distress,  from  which  it  but  slowly  re- 
covered. Bernhard  had  already  spontaneously  granted  a  liberal 
constitution  to  his  subjects  in  1824,  when  large  additions  (530 
square  miles)  consequent  upon  the  redistribution  of  the  Saxon 
lands  in  1826  more  than  doubled  his  possessions  and  rendered  re- 
organization necessary.  Among  the  additions  to  Saxc-Meiningen 
were  the  ducTiy  of  Hildburghauacn  (whence  the  full  title  of  the 
present  duchy  is  Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen),  which  had  been 
founded  in  1680  by  Ernest,  the  sixth  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious;  tho 
principality  of  Saalfeld,  which,  founded  by  John  Ernest,  Ernest's 
seventh  son,  in  1630,  had  been  united  to  Coburg  in  1735  ;  and  the 
districts  of  Themar,  Kranichfeld,  Kamburg,  and  other  smaller 
territories..  Saxe-Meiningen,  like  the  other  Saxon  duchies,  entered 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806  ;  but  in  1866,  unlike  its 
neighbours,  it  declared  for  Austria  in  the  war  against  Prussia.  The 
land  was  at  once  occupied  by  Prussian  troops,  and  Bernhard 
abdicated  (September  1866)  in  favour  of  his  son  George,  who  made 
peace  with  Prussia  and  entered  the  Korth  German  Confederation. 
In  1871  the  dispute  which  had  lasted  since  1826  between  the  duke 
and  the  diet  as  to  the  respective  rights  of  each  to  the  state-lands 
was  terminated  by  a  compromise. 
See  SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH  (Germ.  Sachsen-  \nimar- 

Plate  V.  Eisenach),  the  largest  of  the  Thuringian  states,  is  a  grand- 
duchy  and  a  member  of  the  German  empire.  It  consi.sts 
of  the  three  chief  detached  districts  of  Weimar,  Eisenach, 
and  Neustadt,  and  twenty-four  scattered  exclaves,  of 
which  Allstedt,  Oldisleben,  and  Ilmenau  belonging  to 
Weimar,  and  Ostheim  belonging  to  Eisenach,  are  the  chief. 
The  first  and  last  named  of  these  exclaves  are  70  miles 
ipart ;  and  the  most  easterly  of  the  other  exclaves  is  100 
miles  from  tho  most  westerly.  The  total  area  of  the 
grand-duchy  is  1387  square  miles  (or  slightly  larger  than 
Wiltshire  in  England),  of  which  678  are  in  Weimar,  465 
in  Eisenach,  and  244  in  Neustadt. 

The  district  of  Weimar,  which  is  at  once  tne  largest 
diivision  and  the  geographical  and  historical  kernel  of  tho 
grand-duchy,  is  a  roughly  circular  territory,  situated  on 
the  plateau  to  the  north-east  of  the  Thuringian  Forest. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  Prussia,  on  the  S.  and 
W.  .by  the  Schwarzburg  Oberherrschaft  and  detached 
portions  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  and  lies  23  miles  ea.5t  of  the 
nearest  part  of  Eisenach,  and  7  miles  north-west  of  the 
nearest  part  of  Neustadt.  The  exclaves  of  Allstedt  and 
Oldisleben  lie  in  Prussian  territory  10  miles  to  the  north 
and  north-west  respectively  ;  Ilmenau  as  far  to  the  south- 
west. The  surface  is  undulating  and  destitute  of  any 
striking  natural  features,  although  the  valleys  of  the 
Saale  and  Ilm  are  picturesque.  The  Kickelhahn  (2825 
feet)  and  the  Hohe  Tanne  (2641  feet)  ri.se  in  Ilmenau; 
but  the  Grosser  Kalm  (1814)  near,  Remda,  in  the  extreme 
south,  is  the  highest  point  in  the  main  part  of  Weimar. 
Tho  broad-based  Ettcrsberg  (1519  feet),  a  part  of  which 
is  known  as  "  Herder's  Hill "  after  the  poet,  rises  on  the 
Ilm  plateau,  near  Ettersburg,  where  Schiller  finished  his 
Maria  Stuart.  Tho  Saale  flows  through  the  east  of  the 
district,  but,  although  the  chief  river  hyflrogi-aphically,  it 
yields  in  fame  to  its  tributary  the  Ilm.  Tho  Unstrut  joins 
the  Saale  from  Oldisleben  and  Allstedt.  The  chief  towns 
are  V/eimar,  the  capital,  on  the  Ilm ;  Jena,  with  the  common 
university  of  tho  Thuringian  states,  on  tho  Saale;  and 
Apolda,  the  "  Manchester  of  Weimar,"  to  tho  west. 

Eisenach,  the  second  district  in  size,  and  the  first  in 
point  of  natural  beauty,  stretches  in  a  narrow  strip  from 
north  to  south  on  tho  extreme  western  boundary  of 
Thuringia,  and  includes  parts  of  the  churcli  lands  of  Fulda, 
of  Hesse,  and  of  the  former  countship  of  Henneberg.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  Prussia,  on  the  S.  by 
Bavaria  (which  also  surrounds  the  exclave  of  Ostheim), 
and  on  the  E.  by  Saie-Meiningen  and  Saxe-Gotha.     The 


north  is  occupied  by  the  rounded  hills  of  the  Tlmringian 
Forest,  while  the  Ehon  Mountains  extend  into  the 
southern  part.  The  chief  summits  of  the  former  group, 
which  is  more  remarkable  for  its  fine  forests  and  pictur- 
esque scenery  than  for  its  height,  are  the  Wartburg  Hill 
(1355  feet),  the  north-western  termination  of  the  system, 
Ottowald  (2103  feet),  AVachstein  (1801  feet),  Rin<;berg 
(2106  feet),  Hohe  Vogelheid  (2378  feet),  and  the  GlOrkner 
(2211  feet).  Among  the  RhiJn  Mountains  in  Eisenach 
the  loftiest  summits  are  the  Elnbogen  (2677  feet),  Bayer- 
berg  (2359  feet),  Hohe  Rain  (2375),  and  the  Glaserberg 
(2231  feet).  The  chief  river  is  the  Werra,  which  flows 
across  the  centre  of  the  district  from  east  to  west,  and 
then-bending  suddenly  northwards,  re-enters  from  Prussia, 
and  traverses  the  north-eastern  parts  in  an  irregular 
course.  Its  chief  tributaries  in  Eisenach  are  the  Hijrsel 
and  the  Ulster.  Eisenach  is  the  only  town  of  importance 
in  this  division  of  the  grand-duchy. 

Neustadt,  the  third  of  the  larger  divisions,  is  distin- 
guished neither  by  picturesque  scenery  nor  historical 
interest.  It  forms  an  oblong  territory,  about  24  miles 
long  by  16  broad,  and  belongs  rather  to  the  hilly  district 
of  the  Voigtland  than  to  Thuringia.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Reuss  (junior  line)  and  Saxe-A!tenburg,  on  the  W. 
by  Saxe-Meiningen  and  a  Prussian  exclave,  on  the  S.  by 
the  two  Reuss  principalities,  and  on  the  E.  by  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony.  The  Kesselberg  (1310  feet)  near  the  town  of 
Neustadt  is  "the  chief  eminence.  This  district  lies  in  the 
basin  of  the  Saale,  its  chief  streams  being  tho  White 
Elster,  tho  Weida,  and  tie  Orla.  Neustadt,  Auma,  and 
Weida  are  the  principal  towns. 

Agriculture  forms  the  chief  occupation  of  tho  inhabitants  in  all 
parts  of  the  duchy,  though  in  Eisenach  and  Ilmenau  a  large 
proportion  of  the  area  is  covered  with  forests.  According  to  tlie 
returns  for  1883,  56  "3  per  cent,  of  the  entire  surface  was  occupied 
by  arable  land,  25*3  per  cent,  by  forests,  S'8  by  pasture  and 
meadow-land,  and  4'1  per  cent,  by  buildings,  roads,  and  wafer. 
Only  5  per  cent,  was  unproductive  soil  or  moorland.  These 
figures  indicate  that  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  has  nearly  as  larro  a 
percentage  of  arable  land  as  Saxe-Altenburg,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  extensive  v/oods  in  Eisenach  and  Ilmenau,  a  lower  propcit'jn 
of  forest  than  any  other  Thuringian  state.  In  1S83  the  chief  grain 
crops  were  oats  (30,082  acres,  yielding  38,271  tons),  barley  (78,007 
acres,  45,249  tons),  ry3  (72,607  acres,  29,000  tons),  and  wheat 
(47,732  acres,  19,049  tons).  About  50,000  acres  were  planted  with 
potatoes,  yielding  237,027  ton.s,  or  nearly  4  percent,  per  acre  less 
than  tho  average  of  tho  five  years  immediately  ]-,reecding.  AU  the 
grain  crops  were  slightly  above  tho  average  cf  the  same  period. 
The  79,405  acres  devoted  to  hay  produced  93,910  tons.  Among 
the  other  crops  were  beetroot  for  sugar  (8C02  acres),  flax  (1300 
acres),  and  oil-yielding  plants  (4.062  aci-cs).  Fruit  grows  in  abund- 
arre,  especially  in  tho  neighbourhood  of  Jena,  n  tlie  valley  of  the 
Gleisse,  and  on  the  lower  Ilm;  1070  acres,  mostly  on  the  banks  (,f 
the  Saale,  were  occupied  with  vines.  Of  the  forests  38 '5  per  cent, 
are  deciduous  and  61 '5  per  cent,  coniferous  trees;  fully  a  half  cf 
the  former  are  beeches.  The  greater  part  of  the  forests  belong  to 
tho  Govcrnuient.  Cattle-raising  is  carried  en  to  a  corisiderablo 
extent,  especially  in  Eisenach  and  Neustad :,  wliilo  the  sheep- 
farming  centres  in  Weimar.  Tho  grand-duial  stud-fitrm  in  Allstedt 
maintains  the  breed  of  horses.  In  1883  the  duchy  contained  17,271 
horses,  110,092  cattle,  145,442  sheep,  101,443  pigs,  and  41,291  goats. 
Although  iron,  copper,  cobalt,  and  lignite  are  worked,  tho  mineral 
wealth  is  trifling.     Salt  is  also  worked  at  diln.-rent  jihu'cs. 

The  manufacturing  industries  in  tho  grani-dmhy  are  consider- 
able ;  they  employ  37 "3  per  cent,  of  tho  -population.  Tho  mos-t 
important  is  the  textile  industry,  which  centres  in  Apolda,  n.nd 
employs  more  than  20,000  hands  througho.lt  tho  country.  The 
production  of  woollen  goods  (stockings,  cloth,  underclothing)  forms 
the  leading  branch  of  tho  industry ;  but  cotton  and  linen 
weaving  and  yarn-spinning  are  also  carried  on.  Largo  quantities 
of  earthenware  and  crockery  are  made,  especially  at  Ilmenau.  The 
microscopes  of  Jena,  tho  scientific  instruments  (tliermomctcrs, 
barometers,  &c. )  of  Ilmenau,  ard  tho  pipes  and  cigar-holders  of 
Ruiila  (partly  in  Gotha)  are  well  known.  Leather,  paper,  glass, 
cork,  and  tobacco  are  among  the  leas  prominent  manufactures. 
There  are  numerous  breweries  in  the  ^iuchy.  Tho  volume  of 
trade  is  not  very  great,  although  some  of  the  productions  (chiefly 
those  first  mentioned)  are  exported  all  over  Europe,  and  in  somo 
cases  to   other  continents   as  well.     The  chief   imj'orts,  beiridcs 


350 


S  A  X  — b  AX 


GoloDial  "goods,  are  wool  for  the  manafactures,  hides,  coal,  meer- 
flchaura  (from  Smyrna  and  Vienna),  amber,  horn,  &c.  Eisenach 
and  Weimar  are  the  chief  seats  of  trade. 

The  population  in  1830  was  309,577,  or  223  persquare  mile,  of 
whom  297,735  were  Luthemns,  10,267  Roman  Catholics,  327 
Christians  of  other  sects,  and  1248  Jews.  The  Th'uringian  and 
Franconian  branches  of  the  Teutonic  family  are  botli  represented 
in  the  duchy.  According  to  the  employment  census  of  1882, 
agriculture,  forestry,  and  tishing  supported  135,200  or  44  per  cent, 
of  the  population;  industrial  pursuits,  114,835  or  37"3  x)er  cent ; 
ti-iide,  23,939  or  7 "8  per  cent.;  service,  4086  or  1'3  per  cent.; 
official,  military,  and  professional  employments^.16,066  or  5 '2  per 
cent ;  while  13,597  persons  or  4'4  per  cent,  made  no  returns. 

Sa.xe- Weimar-Eisenach  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  ana 
wa.9  tl)6  first  state  in  Germany  to  receive  a  liberal  constitution. 
This  was  granted  in  1816  by  Charles  Augustus,  the  patron  of 
Goethe,  and  was  revised  in  1850.  The  diet  consists  of  one  chamber 
with  thirty-one  members,  of  whom  one.  is  chosen  by  the  nobility, 
four  by  owners  of  land  worth  at  least  £150  a  year,  five  by  those  who 
derive  as  much  from  other  sources,  and  twenty-one  by  the  rest  of 
the  inhabitants.  The.  diet  meets  every  three  years  ;  the  deputies 
ire  elected  for  six  years.  The  franchise  is  enjoyed  by  .all  domi- 
ciled citizens  over. twenty-five  years  of  age.  The  government  is 
carried  on  by  a  ministry  of  three,  holding  the  portfolios  of  finance, 
of  home  and  foreign  affairs,  and  of  religion,  education,  and  justice, 
with  which  is  combined  the  ducal  household.  The  budget  for  the 
finance-period  1SS4-86  estimated  the  yearly  income  at  £308,586  and 
the  yearly  expenditure  at  about  £1560  less.  ■  The  public  debt  is  more 
than  covered  by  the  active  capital.  The  tlucal  house  recj^ives  a 
civil  list  of  £46,500.  The  Saxe- Weimar  family  is  the  oldest- branch 
of  the  Ertfestine  lin6,  and  hence  of  the  whole  Saxon  house.  By 
treaties  of  succession  the  grand-duke  is  the  next  heir  to  the  throne 
of  Saxony,  should  the  present  Albertine  lino  become  extinct.  He 
is  entitled  to  the  predicate  of  '*  royal  highness."  By  a  treaty  with 
x*russia.  in  1867,  wliich  afterward^  became  the  model  for  similar 
treaties  between  Prussia  and  other  Thnringian  states*  the  troops  of 
the  grana-duchy  were  incorporated  with  the  Prussian  army. 

In  early  times  Weimar,  with  the  surrounding  district,  belonged 
to  tlie  counts  of  Orlaraiiude,  and  from  the  end  of  the  10th  century 
until  1007  it  was  the  seat  of  a  line  of  counts  of  its  own.  It 
afterwards  fell  to  the  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and  in  1440  Dashed 
into  the  possession  of  Frederick  the  Mild,  elector  of  Saxony. 
Involved  after  the  convention  of  Wittenberg  (1547)  in  the  com- 
plicated and  constantly  shifting  succession  arrangements  of  the 
Ernestine  dukes  of  Saxony,  who  delayed,  the  ijtroduction  of 
primogeniture,  Weimar  does  not  emerge  into  an  independent 
historical  position  until  1640,  when  the  brothers  AVilliam,  AlbeYt, 
and  Ernest  the  Pious  founded  the  principalities  of  Weimar, 
Eisenach,  and  Gotha.  Eisenach*  fell  to  Weimar  in  1644,  and, 
although  the  principality  was  once  more  temporarily  split  into 
the  lines  Saxe-Weimar,  Saxe-Eisenach  (1672-1741),  and  Saxe- 
Jena  (1672-1690),  it  was  again  reunited  under  Ernest  Augustus 
(1728-1748),  who  secured  it  against  future  subdivision  by  adopting 
the  principle  6f  primogeniture.  His  son  of  the  same  name  who 
succeeded  died  in  1758,  two  years  after  his  marriage  with  Anna 
Amalia  oC  Brunswick.  Next  year  the  duchess  Amalia,  although 
not  yet  twenty  years  old,  was  appointed  by  the  emperor  regent  of 
the  principality  and  guardian  of  her  infant  son  Charles  Augustus 
(1758-1328).  The  reign  of  the  latter,  who  assumed  the  govern- 
ment in  1775,  is  the  most  brilliant  epoch  in  the  history  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  A  gifted  and  intelligent  patron  of  literature  and  art, 
Charles  Augustus  attracted  to  his  court  the  leading  authors  and 
schslars  of  Germany,  poctlie,  Schiller,  and  Herder  were  members 
of  the  illustrious  society  of  the  capital,  and  the  university  of  Jena 
became  a  focus  of  light  a'nd  learning,  so  that  the  hitherto  obscure 
little  state  attracted  the  eyes  of  all  Europe.*  The  war  with  France 
was  fraught  with  danger  to  the  continued  txistence  of  the  princi- 
pality, and  after  thebattle  of  Jena  (October  14,  1806)  it  was  mainly 
the  skilful  management  of  the  duchess  Louise  that  dissuaded 
Napoleon  from  removing  her  husband  from  among  the  reigning 
princes.  '  In  1807  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  entered  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhinfr,  and  was  promoted  from  a  principality  (Furstenthum) 
to  a  duchy  (Herzogthum).  In  the  following  campaigns  it  suffered 
greatly  ;  and  in  1815  the  congress  of  Vienna  recompensed  it? 
ruler  with  an  addition  to  his  territory  of  660  square  miles  (includ- 
ing most  of  Neustadt)  with  77,000  inhabitants,  and  with  the  title 
of  grand-duke  (Grossherzog).  On  the  restoration  of  peace  Charles 
Augustus  redeemed  his  promise  of  granting  a  liberal  constitution 
(1816).  Freedom  of  the  press  was  also  granted,  but  after  the 
festival  of  the  Wartburg  in  1819  it  was  seriously  curtailetl.  Charles 
Frederick  (1S2S-1853)  continued  his  father's  policy,  but  liis  reforms 


*  Ad  article  on  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  would  hardly  be  complete 
without  Goethe's  famous  lines  :— 

"  Klein  1st  unter  den  FQraten  Germaniera  freillch  der  melne, 

Kuis  und  schmal  ist  sein  Land,  masslg  nur  was  er  vermag;  I 

Abcr  so  wcrdc  nach  innen,  so  \wende  rach  aussen  die  Erafte  | 

Jedcr.  da  woi''  rJa  Fe«t  Deutsche!'  mit  Deutschen  zu  aeln,'* 


were  neither  thorough  enough  nor  rapid  enough  to  avert  politicftl 
commotion  in  1848.  A  popular  ministry  received  power,  and 
numerous  reforms  were  carried' through.  Reaction  set  in  under 
Charles  Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1853,  and, the  union 
of  the  state-lands  and  crown-lands  was  repealed,  though  both  were 
appointed  to  remain  under  the  same  public  management  In  1866 
the  grand-dachy  joined  Prussia  against  Austria,  although  its 
troops  were  th'eh  garrisoning  towns  in  the  Austrian  interest ;  later 
it  entered  the  North  German  Confederation.  ,  The  press  restric- 
tious  were  removed  ia  li868  and  the  tendency  of  recent  legislatioa 
has  been  liberal.  (F.  MU.).    . 

SAXIFRAGE  {Saxifraga^,  a  genus  of  plants  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  order  of  which  it  is  a  member. 
There  are  nearly  200  species  distributed  in  the  temperate 
and  arctic  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  frequently  at 
considorable  heights  on  the  mountains.  They  are  mostly 
herbs  with  perennial  rootstocks,  leaves  in  tufts,  or,  on  the 
flower-stalks,  scattered.  The  arrangement  of  the  flowera 
is  very  various,  •  a^  also  are  the  size  and  golour  of  the 
flowers  themselves.  They  have  a  calyx  with  a  short  tube, 
five  petals,  ten  (or  rarely  five)  stamens  springing,  like  the 
petals,  from  the  edge  of  the  tube  of  the  calyx.  .  The  pistil 
is  partly  adherent  to  the  calyx-tube,  and  is  divided  above 
into- two  styles.  Tiie  ovules  are  numerous,  attached  to 
axile  placentas.  The  seed-vessel  is  capsular.  Many  species 
are  natives  of  .Britain,  some  alpine  plants  of  great  beauty 
{S,  oppositifolia^  S:  nivalis^  S.  aizoides^  &c.),  and  others^ 
like  S.  gramdata,  frequenting  me'adows  and  low  ground, 
while  S.  tridactylite^  may  be  found  on  almost  any 'dry  wall. 
Many  species  are  in  cultivation,  including  the  Bergenias  or 
ilegaseas  with  their  large  fleshy  leaves  and  copious  panicles 
of.  rosy  or  pink  flowers,  the  numereus-alpine  species,  such 
as  S.  pyramid-alls.  S.  Cotyledon^  6:c.,  with  tall  panicles 
studded  with  white  flowers,  and  ma'ny  others* 

SAXO  GEAMMATICUS,  the  celebrated  Danish  his- 
torian and  poet,  belonged  to  a  family  of  "warriors,  his 
father  and  grandfather  having  served  under  king  Valdemar 
I.  {d.  ,1182),  He  himself  was  brought  up  for  the  clerical 
profession,  entered  about  IISO  the  service  of  Archbishop 
Absalon  as  one  of  his  secretaries,  and  remained  with  him 
in  that  capacity  until  the  death  of  Absalon  in  1201.  At 
the  instigation  of  the  latter  he  began,  about  1185,  to  write 
the  history  of  the  Danish  Christian  kings  from  the  time 
of  Sven  Estriuson,  but  later  Absalon  prevailed  on  him  to- 
write  also  the  history  of  the  earlier,  heathen  times,  and  to 
combine  both  into  a  great  work,  Gesta  J)a7iomm,  Tha 
archbishop  died  before  the  work  was  finished,  and  there- 
fore the  preface,  written  about  1208,  is  dedicated  to  his 
successor  Archbishop  Andreas,  and  to  King  Valdemar  JI. 
Nothing  else  is  known  about  Saxo's  life  and  person;  a 
chronicle  of  1265  calls  him  "  mirae  et  urbanae  eloquentiae 
clericus  ;"  and  an  epitome  of  his  work  from  about  1340  de- 
scribes him  as  "egregius  grammaticus,  origine  Sialandua ;"' 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Zealand  is  probably  correct,  inas- 
much as,  whereas  he  often  criticizes  the  Jutlanders  and 
the  Scanians,  he  frequently  praises  the  2ealanders»  The 
surname  of  "Grammaticus"  is  probably  of  later  origin, 
scarcely  earlier  than  1500,  apparently  owing  to  a  mistake. 
The  title  of  "provost  (dean)  of  Eoskilde,"  given  him  in 
the  16th  century,  is  also  probably  incorrect,  the  historian 
being  confounded  with  an  older  contemporary,  the  provost 
'of  the  same  name.  Saxo,  from  his  apprenticeship  as  the 
archbishop's  secretary,  had  acquired  .a  brilliant  but  some- 
what euphuistic  Latin  style,  and  wrote  fine  Latin  verses, 
but  otherwise  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any  very  great 
learning  or  extensive  reading.  His  models  of  style  were 
Valerius  Slaximus,  Justin,  and  Martianus  Capella,  especi- 
ally, the  last,  Otcasionally  he  mentions  Bede,  Dudo,  and 
Paulus  DiaconiTs,  but  does  not  seem  to  have  studied  them 
or  any  other  historical  works  thoroughly,  and  he  neither 
understands  nor  is  interested  in  scientific  research,  in  gene- 
rdi  history,  or  even  in  chronology.     He  wrote  because  he- 


S  A  X  —  S  A  X 


351 


did  not  like  his  countrymen  to  be  behind  other  nations 
through  the  want  of  an  historian,  and  because  he  mshed 
to  perpetuate  the  record  of  the  exploits  of  the  Danes.  His 
sources  are  partly  Danish  traditions  and  old  songs,  partly 
the  statements  of  Archbishop  Absalon,  partly  the  accounts 
of  Icelanders,  and,  lastly, .  some  few  earlier,  but  scanty, 
sources,  being  lists  of  Danish  kings  and  short  chronicles, 
which  furnished  him  with  some  reliable  chronological  dates. 
He  considered  traditions  as  history,  and  therefore  made  it 
his  chief  business  to  recount  and  arrange  these,  by  the  help 
of  the  lists  of  the  kings,  into  a  connected  whole.  His 
work,  therefore,'  is  a  loosely  connected  series  of  biographies 
jf  Danish  kings  and  heroes ;  he  dwells  with  predilection 
on  those  periods  during  which  Danish  kings  were  said  to 
have  made  great  conquests,  and  he  represents  these  con- 
querors as  the  paragons  of  their  times. 

The  first  nine  hooks  comprise  "Antiquity,"  that  is,  traditions  of 
kings  and  heroes  of  the  half-mythical  time  up  to  about  950. 
Here  we  have  traditions  about  Fredfrode,  about  Amleth  (Hamlet) 
and  Fenge,  about  Bolf  Krake,  Hadding,  tlie  giant  Starkather, 
Harald  Hikletann,  and  Kagnar  Lodbrok.  In  this  earlier  history 
Saxo  has  al5t)  embodied  myths  of  national  gods  who  in  tradition 
had  become  Danish  kings,  for  instance,  Balder  and  Hother,  and  of 
foreign  heroes,  likewise  incorporated  in  Danish  history,  as  the 
Gothic  JaimUDrik.(A,  S.  Eormeuric),  the  Anglian  Vermund  (A.  S. 
Gdrmtind)  and  Uffe  (A.  S.  Ofla).  the  German  Hedin  and  llild,  kc. 
Fr'jquently  the  narrative  is  interrupted  by  translations  of  poeiuc, 
which  Saxo  has  used  as  authentic  sources,  although  they  are  often 
only  a  few  generations  older  than  himself.  In  the  later  books 
(x.-xvi.)  of  his  work  he  follows  to  a  greater  extent  historical 
accounts,  and  the  more  he  approaches  his  own  time  the  fuller  and 
the  more  trustworthy  his  relation  becomes  ;  especially  biiUiant  is 
his  treatment  of  the  history  of  King  Vahlemar  and  of  Absalon. 
But  his  patriotism  often  makes  him  i>artial  to  his  countrymen,  and 
his  want  of  critical  sense  often  blinds  him  to  the  historical  truth. 

Saxo'swork  was  widely  read  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  several 
extracts  of  it  were  made  for  smaller  chronicles.  It  was  published 
for  the  first  time,  from  a  SIS.  afterwards  lost,  in  Paris,  1514,  by 
the  Danish  humanist  Christiem  Petlersen  ;  this  edition  was 
reprinted  at  Basel,  1534,  and  at  Frankfort,  1576.  Of  later  editions 
may  be  mentioned  that  of  Steniien  Stephanius,  Soro,  1644,  that  of 
C.  A.  Klotz,  Leipsic,  1771,  aiid  that  of  P.  E.  JliiUer  and  J.  JI. 
Velsehow,  Copenhagen,  1839.  No  complete  JIS.  any  longer  exists; 
yet  of  late  small  fragments  have  been  found  of  three  MSS.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  fragment  found  at  Angers,  in 
France,  written  shortly  after  12O0,  perhaps  by  Saxo  himself  or 
under  his  superintendence  ;  here  several  corrections  arc  found 
above  the  lines,  showing  how  the  author  varied  and  polished  his 
Latin  style. 

SAXON    DUCHIES.     For   the   four  Saxon  duchies, 

SAXE-ALTENBtTKG,  SaXE-CoBURG-GoTHA,  SaXE-MeINLKGEN, 

and  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,  see  those  headings. 

SAXONS,  Law  of  the.  See  Salic  Law. 
V.  SAXONY  is  the  name  successively  given  in  German 
Jiistory  to  a  mediceval  duchy  in  northern  Germifny,  to  a 
later  electorate  which  afterwards  became  the  present 
kingdom  of  Saxony  (described  below),  and  to  a  ducal 
province  of  Prussia.  The  last  was  formed  directly  out  of 
part  of  the  second  in  1815,  but  the  connexion  between  the 
first  and  second,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  present  article, 
is  neither  local  nor  ethnographical  but  political. 

The  Saxons  (Lat.  Saxones,  Ger.  &(f/*.w«),  a  tribe  of  tlio 
Teutonic  stock,  are  first  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  occupy- 
ing the  southern  part  of  the  Cimbrian  peninsula  between 
the  Elbe,  Eider,  and  Trave,  the  district  now  known  as 
Holstein.  The  name  is  most  commonly  derived  from 
"sahs,"  a  short  knife,  though  some  authorities  explain  it 
as  meaning  "  settled,"  in  contrast  to  the  Suevi  or  "  wander- 
ing" people.  By  the  end  of  the  .Id  century,  when  we 
bean  of  a  "Saxon  Confederation"  embracing  the  Cherusci, 
Chauci,  and  Angrivarii,  and  perhaps  corresponding  to  the 
group  of  tribes  called  Ingasvones  by  Tacitus,  the  chief  seat 
of  the  nation  had  been  transferred  south  of  the  Elbe  to 
the  lands  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser  now  occupied  by 
Oldenburg  and  Hanover.  The  Saxons  were  one  of  the 
tjjost  w.irlikc  and  advcuturoua   of  the  Teutonic   peoples, 


and  they  not  only  steadily  extended  the  borders  of  their 
home,  but  made  colonizing  and  piratical  excursions  by 
sea  far  and  wide.  In  287  they  assisted  the  Menapian 
Carausius  to  make  himself  master  of  Romanized  Britain, 
where  he  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus ;  and  on  the 
Continent  they  came  into  collision  with  the  Pioman  empire 
under  both  Julian  and  Valentinian,  the  latter  of  whom  de- 
feated them  in  373  so  far  soutli  as  Ueutz,  opposite  Cologne. 
Their  settlements  along  the  coast  of  France  extended  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Loire,  and,  though  these  were  soon  absorbed 
by  the  Franks,  their  expeditions  to  England  finally  resulted 
in  the  foundation  of  lasting  kingdoms  (Essex,  Sussex, 
Wessex)  (see  England,  vol.  viii.  pp.  268  sq.).'^  About 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  part  of  the  Flemish  coast 
became  known  as  the  Lilus  Saxoniuin,  from  the  settlements 
of  this  people.  The  Saxons  who  remained  in  Germany 
(Alt-Sachsen  or  Old  Sr.xons)  gradually  pushed  their  borders 
further  and  further  until  they  approached  the  Rhine,  and 
touched  the  Elbe,  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Harz  Mountains. 
In  531  they  joined  their  neighbours  the  Franks  in  a  sue-, 
cessful  expedition  against  the  Thuringians,  and  received 
as  their  spoil  the  conquered  territory  between  the  Ilarz  and 
the  Unstrut.  Their  settlements  here  were,  however,  forced 
to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Franks,  and  from 
this  period  may  be  dated  the  beginning  of  the  long  strife 
between  these  two  peoples  which  finally  resulted  in  the 
subjugation  of  the  Saxons.  During  the  reigns  of  the 
weak  Merovingian  kings  who  succeeded  Lothair  I.  on  the 
prankish  throne,  the  Saxons  pished  into  northern  Thur- 
ingia,  afterwards  known  as  the  Alt-Mark.  Pippin  the  Short 
obtained  a  temporary  advantage  over  them  in  753  and 
imposed  a  tribute  of  three  hundred  horses,  but  their  final 
conquest  was  reserved  for  Charlemagne.  At  this  time  the 
Saxons  did  not  form  a  single  state  under  one  ruler,  but 
were  divided  into  the  four  districts  of  Westphalia  to  the 
west  of  the  Weser,  Eastphalia  chiefly  to  the  east  of  that 
river,  Engern  or  Angria  along  both  banks,  and  Nordal- 
bingia  in  Holstein.  The  gaus  were  independent,  each  having 
an  ealdorman  of  its  own ;  and  they  only  combined  in  time 
of  war  or  other  emergency  to  choose  a  herzog,  or  common 
leader.  The  people  were  divided  into  the  "  frilingo  "  or 
"f rone,"  who  possessed  the  land,  the  "  liti  "  or  "laza,"  a 
semi-freed  class,  and  the  serfs,  who  had  no  rights.  Tha 
".edilinge"  were  the  chiefs,  but  had  no  political  advantages 
over  the  "  frilinge."  Their  religion  was  a  simple  type  of 
northern  heathenism.  See  Geemant,  vol.  x.  pp.  473  and 
477  xq. 

In  772  Charlemagne,  induced  partly  by  a  desire  to 
protect  his  kingdom  from  the  incursions  of  hostile  neigh- 
bours and  partly  by  a  proselytizing  spirit,  began  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  Saxons.  The  war,  waged  on  both  sides 
with  the  utmost  ferocity,  lasted  in  a  series  of  campaigns 
with  but  brief  intervals  for  thirty-one  years.  Repeatedly 
conquered  and  baptized,  the  Saxons  rose  again  and  again  in 
revolt  as  soon  as  Charlemagne  withdrew  his  troops,  threw 
off  their  forced  allegianc'e  to  Christianity,  and  under 
various  leaders,  of  whom  AV'ittekind  or  Widukind  is  the 
most  famous,  struggled  fiercely  to  regain  their  independ- 
ence. Charlemagne  was  too  strong  and  his  measures  too 
relentless.  On  one  occasion  he  butcliered  4500  captives 
in  cold  blood,  as  a  revenge  and  a  warning.  Wittekind 
surrendered  and  was  baptized  in  785  ;  and  after  what  is 
called  the  Second  Saxon  War,  which  broke 'out  in  792, 
resistance  died  away  about  803.    The  Saxons.were  allowed 

*  Though  the  Saxons  were  not  tlie  first  to  effect  the  foundation  of  a 
Teutonic  kingdom  in  England,  tliey  were  the  first  to  attempt  if,  and 
hence  their  name  ^v.^s  ai-plicd  (as  it  still  is)  by  the  Celtic  inhabit.Tnts 
of  the  British  islands  to  .^^  Teutonic  settlers.  A  similar  general  use 
of  the  name  suri'ives  in  Tr.insylvania,  where  the  Gorman  inhabitants 
arc  called  "Saxons,"  altliough  only  a  small  proportion  of  them  trace 
their  descent  from  the  Saxon  branch  of  the  Teutonic  family. 


352 


SAXONY 


[aieioar 


a  considerable  amount  of  freedom  by  their  sagacious  con- 
i^ueror.  The  first  Capitulare  Saxonicum,  issued  at  Pader- 
liorn  in  78$,  while  very  strict  in  maintaining  Christianity 
iind  in  punishing  all  rebellion,  confirmed  a  great  number 
of  Saxon  customs  and  laws.  After  803  the  laws  were 
•made  milder,  and  no  tribute  except  tithes  was  demanded. 
The  people  lived  according  to  their  former  laws,^  under 
grafs  appointed  by  Charlemagne  ;  various  bishoprics  were 
founded,  of  which  Osnabriick  (783),  Verden  (786),  aad 
Bremen  (787)  are  the  earliest ;  and  tranquillity  was  still 
further  secured  by  transplanting  colonies  of  Saxons  to  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  introducing  Frankish  colonies 
to  take  their  place  in  Saxony.  The  land  now  gradually 
became  an  integral  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.- 
Under  Louis  the  German,  to  whom  Saxony  had  fallen  at 
the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  8-13,  it  was  harassed  by  the  inroads 
of  the  Normans  and  Slavs  on  either  side,  and,  in  order  to 
cope  with  these,  herzogs  or  dukes  were  appointed  about 
850  to  keep  the  Saxon  Mark,  a  narrow  territory  in 
Nordalbingia,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Elbe.  These 
herzogs,  remembering  their  predecessors  or  their  ancestors 
(Ludolf,  the  first  duke  of  Saxony,  is  said  to  have  been  a 
descendant  of  Wittekind),  rapidly  extended  their  power 
beyond  the  mark  over  the  rest  of  Saxony,  and  thus 
founded  the  powerful  duchy  of  Saxony.  Otto  the  Illus- 
trious, who  succeeded  his  brother  Bruno  as  duke  in  8S0, 
added  Thuringia  to  the  duchy,  and  attained  such  a  pitch 
of  power  that  he  was  offered  the  crown  of  Germany  in  911. 
He  refused  the  honour  on  the  score  of  old  age,  but  his  son 
Henry  the  Fowler  accepted  it  in  919,  and  founded  the  line 
of  Saxon  emperots  which  expired  with  Henry  11.  the  Pious 
in  1024.  Otto  the  Great,  son  of  Henry  I.,  bestowed  the 
duchy  of  Saxony-  upon  Hermann  Billing  or  Billung,  in 
whose  family  it  remained  till  1106.  The  power  and  in- 
fluence of  Saxony  during  this  period  depended  partly  on 
the  favour  of  the  emperors,  but  chiefly  on  the  sagacity  and 
energy  of  the  successive  dukes.  The  Saxons  were  hostile 
to  the  Franconian  emperors  who  succeeded  the  Saxon 
house,  and  in  1073  they  rose  in  revolt  against  Henry  IV. 
They  were  at  first  successful,  but  in  1075,  at  the  battle 
of  Langensalza,  they  were  defeated  by  the  emperor.  The 
rebels  were  severely  piunished,  though  Otto  of  Nordheim, 
oae  of  tlieir  leaders,  was  made  administrator  of  the  duchy. 
Taking  advantage  of  Henry  ly.'s  troubles  with  the  pope, 
they  again  rebelled  and  espoifced  the  cause  of  Rudolf  of 
Swabia ;  but  in  1087,  on  the  resignation  of  Hermann  of 
Luxemburg,  whom  they  had  chosen  king,  they  made  peace 
once  more  with  the  emperor.  Magnus  was  the  last  duke 
of  the  Billing  line.  The  emperor  Henry  V\  now  (1106) 
presented  the  lapsed  duchy  to  Lothair,  count  of  Supplin- 
burg,  who  rapidly  became  the  most  powerful  prince  in 
Germany,  and  in  1125  was  placed  on  the  imperial  throne 
by  the  influence  of  the  papal  party.  Two  years  after  his 
elevation  he  assigned  the  duchy  of  Saxony  to  his  power- 
ful son-in-law  Henry  the  Proud,  who  was  already  duke  of 
Bavaria  and  had  inherited  the  private  possessions  of  the 
Billings  in  Saxony,  in  right  of  his  mother,  who  was  a 
daughter  of  Magnus.  Henry  had  aspired  to  be  emperor 
in  1138,  and  his  successful  rival  Conrad  III.,  wishing  to 
reduce  his  power,  alleged  that  it  was  unlawful  for  one 
prince  to  hold  two  duchies,  and  ordered  him  to  resign 
Saxony.  On  his  refusal,  the  emperor  immediately  de- 
clared both  duchies  to  be  forfeited.  Henry  died  before 
the    ensuing  war  was   ended,  and   Conrad   compromised 


^  The  Lex  Saxonum^  19  titles  of  which  have  survived,  was  reduced 
to  writing  under  Charlemagne.     See  under  S.\LIC  Law. 

^  The  Hcliand  (Saviour),  a  religious  poem  ascribed  to  an  unknown 
Saxon  poet  of  the  9th  century,  is  often  cited  as  a  proof  of  the  rapid 
Christianization  of  the  Saxons.  It  is  also  almost  the  only  relic  of 
their  dialect. 


matters  by  appointing  his  opponent's  young  son,  after- 
wards known  as  Henry  the  Lion,  to  the  duchy  of  Sasony, 
compensating  Albert  the  Bear,  the  former  imperial  candi- 
date, with  the  independence  of  the  North  Mark  of  Saxony, 
afterwards  called  Brandenburg,  (see  Prussia,  vol.  xx.  p.  2). 
In  1155  Henry  received  Bavaria  from  his  cousin  and  per- 
sonal friend  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  thus 
became  second  only  to  the  emperor  in  power.  He  added 
considerably  to  the  extent  of  Saxony  by  conquest  among 
the  Wends,  east  of  the  Elbe,  where  the  boundary  had 
always  been  a  fluctuating  one.  But  Henry  was  not  only 
jiowerful,  he  was  also  arrogant,  and  incurred  the  jealousy 
of  the  other  princes,  so  that,  when  he  quarrelled  with  the 
emperor  and  his  lands  were  declared  forfeited  in  1180,  he 
had  no  allies  to  assist  him  in  his  resistaitte.  Westphalia, 
the  principal  part  of  Saxony,  went  to  the  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  the  Saxon  Palatinate  to  the  landgrave  of  Thur- 
ingia, and  other  portions  to  other  princes.  A  sma  district 
round  Lauenburg,  north  of  the  Elbe,  was  assigned  with 
the  title  of  duke  of  Saxony  to  Bernhard  of  Ascania,  sen 
of  Albert  the  Bear.  Henry  was  reduced  to  submission 
in  -1181  ;  but  hisj  duchies  could  not  be  restored,  and  he 
was  forced  to  content  himself  with  Brunswick  and  Liine- 
burg.  The  duchy  of  Saxony  was  never  restored  in  the 
old  sense,  in  which  it  had  been  one  of  the  four  princii»l 
duchies  of  the  empire,  and  embraced  the  territories  now 
occupied  by  Westphalia,  Oldenbm-g,  Hanover,  the  Harz, 
and  parts  of  !Mecklenburg  and  Holstein.  The  new 
creation  never  rose  to  any  importance.  Bernhard  of 
Ascania  (1181-1212),  before  his  accession  as  duke  of 
Saxony,  had  held  Anhalt  and  Wittenberg,  to  the  south- 
east of  Saxony,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Mark  oJ 
Brandenburg;  and  when  his  grandsons  John  and  Albert  IT. 
divided  their  inheritance  in  1260  the  latter  placed  his 
seat  at  Wittenberg,  and  two  tiny  duchies  arose — Saxe- 
Lauenburg  and  Saxe-Wittenberg.  Saxe-Lauenburg  was 
now  the  only  part  of  the  great  duchy  which  retained  the 
name ;  while  Saxe-Wittenberg,  the  nucleus  of  the  later 
electorate,  transferred  the  name  to  entirely  new  .soil. 
Both  duchies  claimed  the  electoral  privileges,  including 
the  office  of  grand  marshal  (EreWarschall),  which  had 
belonged  to  the  original  duke  of  Saxony,  but  the  Golden 
Bull  of  1356  confirmed  the  claims  of  Wittenberg.  Eudolph 
II.  (about  1370)  is  the  first  duke  who  formally  styles 
h.mself  elector  (princeps  elector).  The  small  electorate 
was  made  still  smaller  in  1411  by  the  formation  of 
Anhalt  into  a  separate  principality.  In  1422  the  Ascanian 
line  became  extinct  with  Albert  III.,  and  in  1423  the 
emperor  Sigismund  conferred  their  lands  and  titles  upon 
Frederick,  margrave  of  Meissen,  and  landgrave  of  Thur- 
ingia, to  whom  he  was  deeply  indebted  both  for  money 
and  assistance  in  the  Hussite  wars.  The  new  and  more 
lK)nourable  style  of  elector  of  Saxony  superseded  Frede- 
rick's other  titles,  and  the  term  Saxony  gradually  spread 
over  all  his  other  possessions,  which  included  the  coun'ry 
now  known  under  that  name.  The  early  history  of  the 
electorate  and  kingdom  of  Saxony  is  thus  the  early  histor? 
of  the  Mark  of  Jleissen,  the  name  of  which  now  linge  ] 
only  in  a  solitary  town  on  the  Elbe.^ 

^  A  different  and  considerably  later  use  of  the  narae  Saxony  may  La 
conveniently  mentioued  here,  for,  though  not  based  upon  any  poUtical 
or  ethnographical  considerations,  it  is  frequently  referred  to  in  German 
history.  When  Maximilian  (1493-J.'19)  formed  the  ten  great  im- 
perial administrative  circles,  that  pan  c*"  the  empire  to  the  east  of  the 
Weser  and  north  of  the  Erzgebirge  wa.-;  Jivided  between  the  circles  of 
Lower  and  Upper  Saxony.  The  former,  occupying  the  north-west  of 
this  territory,  included  the  Harz  principahu-s,  Magdeburg,  Brunswick, 
Mecklenburg,  Bremen,  and  Holstein;  the  Jitter,  besides  Thuringia, 
the  electorate  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  '■mbraced  the  conquered 
Slavonic  lands  to  the  east  and  north,  ihclad.jig  Lusatia  and  Ponte- 
rania.  The  laiids  which  still  preserve  the  name  of  Saxony  are  tbw 
all  within  the  limits  of  these  circles. 


VOL.  XXI 


^  '^X*,^^  -1  A  U  T  J 

K      1  / 


■''t^<ij^'^::i 


^'rcbi^. 


/  ^^  tiiannr  if         y 


K  ^' 


10 


I  jBrA 


/•jr/e  S5i. 


ONY. 


PLATE    V 


UISTOEY.] 


S  A  X  0  ^   Y 


Among  tha  mountains  of  Lusatia,  in  the  south  of  the  Saxon 
■province  cf  Bautzen,  there  exist  to  this  day  about  50,000  'Wends, 
possessing  chiracteristics  and  speaking  a  language  of  their  ovn. 
These  curious  people  are  the  relics  of  a  vast  Slavonic  horde  which, 
appearing  on  the  borders  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Hennundnri  or 
Thuringians  about  the  4th  century,  pressed  into  their  territories  on 
the   downfall  of  that  kingdom   ia  the  6th   century,  and  settled 
themselves  between  the  Spree  and  the  Saale.     They  were  known 
as  the  Sorbs  or  Sorabi,  and  the  country,  which  included  the  whole 
of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Saxony,  was  called  Sorabia.     Warlike 
and  persistent,  their  influence  has  never  been  obliterated,  and, 
though  conquered,  their  stock  has  neither  been  exterminated  nor 
absorbed.     They  were  skilled  in  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding, 
and  soon  improved  the  fertile  soil  of  their  new  settlements.     Some 
writers  are  disposed  to  recognize  their  influence  in  the  strong  bent 
,to  agricultural   and    industrial    pursuits  which    has    ever°  since 
characterized  the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  Germany  ;  and  less 
doubtful   traces  liave  been  left   in  the  jwpular  superstitions  and 
legends,  and  in  the  local  names.     For  more  than  a  hundred  years 
after  their  first   collision  with  the   German   kingdom  the   Sorbs 
repulsed  all  attacks,  but  in  928  Henry  the  Fowler,  the  first  Saxon 
emperor,   crossing   the    Elbe,   devastated   the   land  of  the   Dale- 
minzians,  and  built  the  strong  castle  of  Jlisnia  or  Meissen,  which 
thenceforward  formed  the  centre  of  a  gradually  increasing  mark 
against  the  heathen.     For  two  hundred  years  the  office  of  margrave 
of  Meissen  was  not  hereditary,  but  in  1123  Count  Conrad  ofWettin 
obtained  the  succession  for  his  house,  and  founded  a  line  of  princes 
whose  descendants  still  occupy  the  throne.     It  is  said,  though  on 
very  doubtful  grounds,  that  Conrad  was  a  scion  of  the  family  of  the 
old  Saxon  hero  Wittekind.     In  115G,  when  Conrad  abdicated  and 
set  the  pernicious  example  of  dividing  his  lands  among  his  sons, 
his  possessions  extended  from  the  Xeisse  and  the  Erzgcbirge  to  the 
Harz  and  the  Saale.     During  these  two  centuries  the  state  of  the 
country  had  but  slowly  improved.     The  Sorbs  had  been  reduced 
to  a  condition  of  miserable  serfdom,  and  the  best  land  was  in  the 
hands  of  Frankish  peasants  who  had  been  attracted,  by  its  fertility 
Agriculture  was  encouraged  by  the  ecclesiastics,  especially  by  Bishop 
Benno,  who  occupied  the  see  of  Meissen  (founded  in  901)  about  the 
time  of  the  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans.    In  the  reign  of 
Otto  the  Kich  (1 157-1190)  the  first  silver  mines  were  discovered  and 
the  famous  mining  to\vii  of  Freiberg  founded.     Trade  also  received 
Its  fj-st  encouragement ;  the  great  fairs  of  Leipsic  were  protected  ; 
and  roads  were  made  and  towns  fortified  with  the  produce  of  the 
mines.    Otto's  giand.son,  Henry  the  Illustrious  (1221-12S8),  whose 
mother  Jutta  was  b  Thuiingian  princess,  reunited  most  of  Conrad's 
lands  by  inheriting  part  of  Thuringia  (the  rest  went  to  the  duke  of 
Brabant)  and  the  l'leissnerland,as  the  district  on  both  banks  of  the 
upper  course  of  the  Pleisse  was  called.     Ho  too  lost  the  chance  of 
founding  a  magninocnt  kingdom  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  by  sub- 
dividing his  territories,  which  stretched  in  a  compact  mass  from 
the  Werra  to  the  Odor  and  from  the  mountains  of  Bohemia  to  the 
Harz.     The  consequences  of  this  policy  of  subdivision,  which  was 
followed  by  his  successors,  were  bitter  family  feuds  and  petty  wars 
seriously  hampering  the  development  of  the  country.     Frccicrick 
the  Grave  (1324-13-17)  was  the  last  prince  of  the  house  of  -Wettiii 
who  was  solo  ruler  of  all  the  ancestral  lands  of  his  house.     The  next 
powerful  figure  is  Frederick  the  Warlike,  who  became  margrave  in 
1381.     Besides  the  Mark  ho  possessed  the  Osloriand,  the  territory 
to  the  north-west  of  the  present  kingdom,  stretching  from  the  Saale 
at  ^\  eissenfels  to  the  Elbe  at  Torgau,  and  embracing  the  plain  of 
Leipsit     Frederick,  in  whose  reign  the  university  of  Leipsic  was 
founded,  had   acquired  his   surname  by  his   energetic  eul'port  of 
bigismund,  especially  in  the  Hussite  wars.     As  wo  have  seen    that 
emperors  desire  to  attach  to  himself  so  powerful  an  ally  led  hiu 
to  bestow  the  vflcant  electoral  duchy  of  Saxe-Wittenberg  upon  the 
margrave  in  1423.     Despite  the  troublous  state  of  public  affairs 
the  mternal  prosperity  of  the  land  had  steadily  advanced.     Most 
of  the  chief  towns  had  by  this  time  been  founded,— Leipsic,  Erfurt 
jiiviekau,  and    Freiberg  being   the  most  conspicuous.     Chemnitz 
had  begun  its  textile  industry.     The  condition  of  thp  peasants  was 
still  far  below  that  of  tlie  burghers  of  the  towns  ;  many  of  them 
were  mere  serfs.     The  church   retained  the  high  pitch  of  power 
winch  It  had  eariy  attained  in  Meissen,  and  religious  institutions 
were  numerous  all  over  the  most  fertile  districts.     In  spite  of  fresh 
discoveries  of  silver,  the  pecuniary  wants  of  the  princes  had  to  be 
ocCTsionally  supplied  by  contributions   called  "bedcs"   from  iho 
nobles  and  ecclesiastics,  who  were  summoned  from  time  to  time  to 
meet  in  a  kind  of  diet. 

Frederick'.s  new  dignities  as  elector,  combined  witli  his 
personal  qualities,  now  made  him  one  of  the  most  powerful 
princes  in  Germany ;  had  the  princiiile  of  primogeniture 
been  established  in  the  country  as  he  left  it,  Saxony  and 
not  Brandenburg  might  have  been  the  leading  power  in 
the  empire  to-day.  He  died  in  1428,  just  in  time  to 
escape  the  grief  of  seeing  his  lands  cruelly  ravaged  by 


353 


the  Hussites  in  1429  and  1430.  The  Jivision  oi  territory 
between  his  two  sons,  Frederick  the  Mild  (142S-14C4) 
and  William,  once  more  called  forth  destructive  internecine 
w-ars  (the  "  BrUderkrieg  "),  in  which  the' former  for  a  time 
forgot  nis  surname.  It  was  in  1455,  during  this  war, 
that  the  knight  Kunz  von  Kaufungen  carried  into  execu- 
tion his  bold,  though  only  momentarily  successful,  plan 
of  stealing  the  two  young  sons  of  the  elector  Frederick 
Ernest  and  Albert,  the  two  princes  in  question,  succeeded 
to  their  father's  possessions  in  1464,  and  for  twenty  years 
ruled  peacefully  in  common.  The  land  rapidly  prospered 
during  this  respite  from  war.  Trade  made  great  advances, 
encouraged  by  an  improved  coinage,  which  was  one  of  the 
consequences  of  the  silver  discoveries  on  the  Schneeberg. 
Several  of  the  powerful  ecclesiastical  principalities  were  at 
this  time  held  by  members  of  the  Saxon  electoral  house,  so 
that  the  external  influence  of  the  electorate  corresponded 
to  its  mternal  prosperity.  Matters  were  not  suffered  to 
continue  thus.  The  childless  death  of  their  uncle  Williai» 
m  1482  bequeathed  Thuringia  to  the  two  princes,  and  the 
younger  Albert  insisted  upon  a  division  of  the  commoa 
possessions.  In  August  1485  the  Partition  of  Leipsic  took 
place,  which  resulted  in  the  foundation  of  two  Saxon  lines, 
the  Ernestine  and  the  Albertine.  The  lands  were  never 
again  united.  Ernest  divided  the  lauds  into  two  portions 
and  Albert  chose.  Apart  from  the  electoral  duchy  of 
Wittenberg,  which  necessarily  went  to  Ernest  as  the  elder 
brother,  the  lands  were  divided  into  Thuringia,  half  of  the 
Osterland,  and  Kaumburg  and  the  Voigtlaiid  on  the  one 
hand,  ar.d  Meissen  and  the  remaining  parts  of  eastern 
Saxony  on  the  other.  To  Ernest's  deep  chagrin,  Albeit 
chose  Meissen,  the  old  ancestral  lands  of  the  Wettins. 
The  former  only  survived  his  vexation  a  year. 

The  electorate  remained  at  first  with  the  Ernestine  line 
Ernest   was   succeeded    by   his   son    Frederick  the   Wise 
(1486-1525),    one  of    the   most    illustrious    princes    in 
German  history.     Under  his  rule  Saxony  was  perhaps  the 
most  influential  member  of  the  German  empire  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  Maximilian  the   imperial   crown  it.^elf  was 
offered  to  him,  but  he  vindicated  his  chanicter  by  refus- 
ing It.     In  this  reign  Saxony  became  the  cradle  of  the 
Kelormation.     The  elector's  wise  tolerance  f.nd  subsequent 
protection  and  hearty  support  of  Luther  are  well  known 
to  every  reader.     He  is  said  to  have,  remained  unmarried 
out  of  love  to  his  brother  John,  who  succeeded  him.     He 
died_during   the    horrors   of    the   Peasants'  War.     John 
(1525-1532)  was  an. even  more  enthusiastic  favourer  of 
the  Reformed  doctrines,  and  shared  the  leadership  of  the 
Schmalkald  League  with  Philip  of  Hcss£.     His  son,  John 
Frederick   the    Magnanimous    (1532-1547),    might   with 
equal  propriety  have   been    surnamed   the   Unfortunate. 
Ho  took  part  in  the  Schmalkald  War,  but  in  1547  was 
captured  at   Muhlberg  by   the  emperor  Charies   V.,  and 
forced  to  sign  the  capitulation  of  Wittenberg.     This  deed 
transferred  the  electorate  and  nearly  all  the  Saxon  lands  to 
the  Albertine  line,  whose  astute  representative  had  taken 
the  imperial   side.      Only  a  fevY  scattered   territories  in 
Thuringia  were  reserved  for  John  Frederick's  sons,  and  on 
these  were  afterwards  founded  the  Ernestine  duchies  of 
Weimar,  Gotha,  Ac.     For  the  second  time  in  the  history 
of  the  Saxon  electorate,  the  younger  line  on  a   division 
ultimately  secured  the  highest  dignity,  for  the  Wittenberg 
line  had  been  junior  to  the  Lauenberg  line.     The  Alb€r^ 
ine  line  is  now  the  royal  line  of  Saxony. 
_  The  Albertine  Maurice  became  elector  after  the  capitula- 
tion of  Wittenberg.     He  was  the  grandson  of  the  founder  of 
his  house,  and  had  been  preceded  on  the  throne  of  Meissen' 
by  his  uncle  George  (1500-1539)  and  by  his  father  Henry 
(1539-1541).      George  was   a   zealous   Eoman  CathoUc, 
and  had  vainly  endeavoured  to  stem  the  Reformation  in 

XXL  —  4s 


354 


SAXONY 


[history. 


hia  dominions ;  Henry  was  an  equally  devoted  Protestant. 
Maurice  (1541-1553)  was  also  a  Protestant,  but  he  was 
too  astute  to  permit  his  religion  to  blind  him  to  his 
political  interests.  His  ruling  motive  seems  to  have  been 
arabition  to  increase  his  personal  power  and  the  consequence 
of  his  country.  He  refused  to  join  the  Schmalkald  League 
with  the  other  Protestant  princes,  and  made  a  secret  treaty 
with  the  emperor  instead.  By  invading  the  Ernestine 
lands  in  John  Frederick's  absence  during  the  Schmalkald 
War,  he  forced  that  prince  to  return  hastily  from  the 
Danube,  and  thus  weakened  the  army  opposed  to  the 
emperor.  Though  he  was  compelled  to  retreat  before  his 
indignant  and  surprised  kinsman,  his  fidelity  to  the 
emperor  was  rewarded,  as  we  have  seen,  at  the  capitulation 
of  Wittenberg.  All  the  lands  torn  from  the  Ernestines 
were  not,  however,  assigned  to  Maurice  :  he  s-as  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  Bohemia  over  the  Voigtland 
and  the  Silesian  duchy  of  Sagan,  and  to  renounce  his 
own  superiority  over  the  Pieuss  dominions.  The  Koman 
Catholic  prelates  were  moreover  reinstated  in  the  three 
great  bishoprics  of  Meissen,  Merseburg,  and  Naumburg- 
Zeitz.  Recognizing  as  a  Protestant  sovereign  that  the 
best  alliance  for  securing  his  new  possessions  was  not 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  emperor  but  with  the  other  Pro- 
testant princes,  Maurice  now  began  to  withdraw  from  the 
former  and  to  conciliate  the  latter.  In  1552,  suddenly 
marching  against  the  emperor  at  Innsbruck,  he  extorted 
from  him  the  peace  of  Passau,  which  accorded  religious 
freedom  throughout  Germany.  Thus,  at  the  close  of  his 
life  (he  died  of  a  wound  in  battle  in  1553),  Maurice 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  champion  of  German  natior^^l 
and  religious  freedom.  Amid  the  distractions  of  outward 
affairs,  Maurice  had  not  neglected  the  internal  interests  of 
Saxony.  To  the  already  conspicuous  educational  advant- 
ages in  the  country  he  added  the  three  grammar  schools 
(I'iirstenschulen)  at  Pforta,  Grimma,  and  Meissen  ;  and  for 
administrative  purposes,  especially  for  the  collection  of 
the  taxes  which  had  now  become  practically  annual,  he 
divided  the  country  into  the  four  "  circles "  of  the 
Electorate,  Thuringia,  Leipsic,  and  Meissen.  In  1542  the 
first  coal  mine  was  opened.  Over  two  hundred  convents 
were  suppressed  in  Saxony;  Leipsic,  Wittenberg,  Jena,  and 
Erfurt  had  each  a  university ;  books  began  to  increase, 
and  the  Saxon  dialect  became  the  ruling  dialect  of  .German 
in  virtue  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible.  Augustus 
L  (1563-1586),  brother  of  Maurice,  was  one  of  the  best 
domestic  rulers  that  Saxony  ever  had.  He  increased 
the  area  of  the  country  by  the  "circles"  of  Neustadt 
and  the  Voigtland,  and  by  parts  of  Henneberg  and 
the  silver-yielding  Mansfeld,  and  he  devoted  his  long 
reign  to  the  development  of  its  resources.  He  visited  all 
parts  of  the  country  'himself,  and  personally  encouraged 
agriculture  ;  he  introduced  a  more  economical  mode  of 
mining  and  smelting  silver  ;  he  favoured  the  importation 
of  finer  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle  ;  and  he  brought  foreign 
weavers  from  abroad  to  teach  the  Saxons.  Under  him 
lace-making  began  on  the  Erzgebirge,  and  cloth-making 
flourished  at  Zwickau.  He  was  the  first  to  fortify  th^ 
Konigstein,  the  one  fortress  in  modern  Saxony,  and  he 
built  other  castles.  With  all  his  virtues,  however, 
Augustus  was  an  intolerant  Lutheran,  and  used  very  sevei-e 
means  to  exterminate  the  Calvinists  ;  in  his  electorate 
he  is  said  to  have  expelled  one  hundred  and  eleven 
Calvinist  preachers  in  a  single  month.  Under  his  son 
Christian  I.  (15S6-1591)  the  chief  power  vras  wielded 
by  the  chancellor  Crell,  who  strongly  favoured  Calvinism, 
but,  when  Christian  II.  (1591-1611)  came  to  the  throne  a 
mere  child,  Crell  was  sacrificed  to  the  Lutheran  nobles. 
The  duke  of  Weimar  was  made  regent,  and  continued  the 
persecution  of  crypto-Calvinism,  in  spite  of  the  breach  with 


the  Reformed  imperial  diet  which  this  course  involved. 
Christian  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John  George  L 
(1611-1656),  under  whom  the  country  was  devastated  by 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  John  George  was  an  amiable  but 
weak  prince,  totally  unfitted  to  direct  the  fortunes  of  a 
nation  in  time  of  danger.  He  refused  the  proffered  crown 
of  Bohemia,  and,  when  the  Bohemian  Protestants  elected  a- 
Calvinist  prince,  he  assisted  the  emperor  against  them 
with  men  and  money.  The  Restitution  Edict,  however,  iu 
1629,  opened  his  eyes  to  the  emperor's  projects,  and  he 
joined  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Saxony  now  became  the 
theatre  of  war.  The  first  battle  on  Saxon  soil  was  fought 
in  1631  at  Breitenfeld,  where  the  bravery  of  the  Swedes 
made  up  for  the  flight  of  the  Saxons.  Wallenstein 
entered  Saxony  in  1632,  and  his  lieutenants  Hoik  and 
Gallas  plundered,  burned,  and  murdered  through  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  at  the  battle  of  Liitzen,  not  far 
from  Leipsic,  in  1632,  the  elector,  who  was  at  heart  an 
imperialist,  detached  himself  from  the  Swedish  alliance, 
and  in  1635  concluded  the  peace  of  Prague  with  the 
emperor.  By  this  peace  he  was  confirmed  in  the 
possession  of  Upper  and  Lower  Lusatia,  a  district  of  180 
square  miles  and  half  a  million  inhabitants,  which  had 
already  been  pledged  to  him  as  a  reward  for  his  services 
against  the  Bohemians.  Lusatia  had  once  belonged  to. 
Conrad  of  Meissen,  whose  descendants,  however,  had  lost 
it  to  Brandenburg  at  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
Saxony  had  now  to  suffer  from  the  Swedes  a  repetition  of 
the  devastations  of  Wallenstein.  No  other  country  in 
Germany  was  so  terribly  scourged  by  this  terrible  war. 
Immense  tracts  were  rendered  absolutely  desolate,  and 
whole  villages  vanished  from  the  map  ;  the  people  were 
tortured  to  reveal  their  treasures,  or  from  wanton  brutal- 
ity ;  famine  was  followed  by  plague  ;  civilization  was 
thrown  back  and  barbarism  revived.  In  eight  years  the 
population  sank  from  three  to  one  and  a  half  millions. 
When  the  war  was  at  length  ended  by  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  in  1648,  Saxony  found  that  its  influence  had 
begun  to  decline  in  Germany.  Its  alliance  with  the 
Catholic  party  deprived  it  of  its  place  at  the  head  of 
the  Protestant  German  states,  which  was  now  taken  by 
Brandenburg.  John  George's  will  made  the  decline  of 
the  electorate  even  more  inevitable  by  detaching  from  it 
the  three  subsidiary  duchies  of  Saxe-Weissenfels,  Saxe- 
Merseburg,  and  Saxe-Zeitz  in  favour  of  his  younger  sons. 
By  1746,  however,  these  lines  were  all  extinct,  and  their 
possessions  had  returned  to  the  main  line.  Saxe- 
Neustadt  was  a  short-lived  branch  from  Saxe-Zeitz,  extinct 
in  1714.  The  next  three  electors,  whoeach  bore  the  name 
of  John  George,  had  uneventful  reigns.  The  first  made 
some  efforts  to  heal  the  wounds  of  his  country ;  the  second 
wasted  the  lives  of  his  people  in  foreign  wars  against  the 
Turks  ;  and  the  third  was  the  last  Protestant  elector  of 
Saxony.  John  George  IV.  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Frederick  Augustus  I.,  or  Augustus  the  Strong  (1694- 
1733).  This  prince  was  elected  king  of  Poland  as 
Augustus  II.  in  1697,  but  any  weight  v.hich  the  royal  title 
might  have  given  him  in  the  empire  was  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  the  fact  that  he,  though  the  ruler  of  an 
almost  exclusively  Protestant  electorate,  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  order  to  qualify  for  the  new  dignity.  The 
connexion  with  Poland  was  disastrous  for  Saxony.  In 
order  to  defray  the  expens8s  of  his  wars  with  Charles  XII., 
which  resulted  from  his  Polish  policy,  Augustus  pawned 
and  sold  large  districts  of  Saxon  territory,  while  he  drained 
the  electorate  of  both  men  and  money.  For  a  year  before 
the  peace  of  Altranstadt  in  1706,  when  Augustus  gave  up 
the  crown  of  Poland,  Saxony  was  occupied  by  a  Swedish 
army;  which  had  to  be  supported  at  an  expense  of  twec^T'- 


FISIOEY.] 


SAXONY 


355 


tiiree  million  thalers.  The  wais  and  extravagance  of  the 
elector-king,  who  regained  the  Polish  crown  in  1709,  are 
said  to  have  cost  Saxony  a  hundred  million  thalers.  From 
this  reign  dates  the  privy  council  (Geheimes  Kabinet), 
which  lasted  tiU  1830.  The  caste  privileges  of  the  estates 
(Stande).were  increased  by  Augustus,  a  fact  which  tended 
to  alienate  them  more  from  the  people,  and  so  to  decrease 
their  power.  Bottger  made  his  famous  discovery  in  1710, 
and  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  was  begun  at  Jleissen, 
and  in  this  reign  the  Moravian  Brethren  made  their 
settlement  at  Herrnhut  (1722).  Frederick  Augustus  II. 
(1733-1763),  who  succeeded  his  father  in  the  electorate, 
and  was  afterwards  elected  to  the  throne  of  Poland  as 
Augustus  III.,  was  an  indolent  prince,  wholly  under  the 
influence  of  Graf  von  Briihl.  Briihl  was  an  incompetent 
statesman  and  an  extravagant  financier,  who  yet  contrived 
to  amass  large  sums  for  his  private  purse.  Under  his  ill- 
omened  auspices  Saxony  sided  with  Prussia  in  the  First 
Silesian  War,  and  with  Austria  in  the  other  two.  It 
gained  nothing  in  the  first,  lost  much  in  the  second,  and 
in  the  third,  the  Seven  Years'  AVar  (1756-1763),  again 
became  the  scene  of  war  and  suffered  renewed  miseries. 
The  country  was  deserted  by  its  king  and  his  minister,  who 
retired  to  Poland.  By  the  end  of  the  war  it  had  lost 
90,000  men  and  a  hundred  million  thalers  ;  its  coinage 
was  debased  and  its  trade  ruined ;  and  the  whole  country 
was  in.  a  state  of  frantic  disorder.  The  elector  died  seven 
months  after  his  return  from  Poland  ;  Briihl  died  twenty- 
three  days  later.  The  elector's  son  and  successor,  Frederick 
Christian;  survived  his  father  only  two  months,  leaving 
a  son,  Frederick  Augustus  III.  (1763-1827),  a  boy  of 
thirteen.  Prince  Xaver,  the  elector's  uncle,  was  appointed 
guardian,  and  he  set  himself  to  the  sorely-needed  work  of 
healing  the  wounds  of  the  country.  The  foundation  of 
the  famous  school  of  mining  at  Freiberg,  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Saxon  breed  of  sheep  by  the  importation  of 
merino  sheep  from  Spain,  were  due  to  his  care.  Frederick 
asiumed  the  government  in  1768,  and  in  his  long  and 
eventful  reign,  which  saw  the  electorate  elevated  to  the 
dignity  of  a  kingdom,  though  deprived  of  more  than  half 
its  area,  he  won  the  suraame  of  the  Just.  As  he  was  the 
first  king  of  Saxony,  he  is  usually  styled  Frederick 
Augustus  I.  The  first  ten  years  of  his  active  reign  passed 
in  peace  and  quiet ;  agriculture,  manufactures,  and 
industries  were  fostered,  economical  reforms  instituted ; 
and  the  heavy  public  debt  of  forty  million  thalers  was 
steadily  reduced.  In  1770  torture  was  abolished.  When 
the  Bavarian  succession  fell  opeu  in  1777,  Frederick 
Augustus  joined  Prussia  in  protesting  against  the  absorp- 
tion of  Bavaria  by  the  Austrian  emperor,  and  Saxon  troops 
took  part  in  the  bloodless- "potato-war."  The  elector 
commuted  uis  claims  in  right  of  'his  mother,  the  Bavarian 
princes^  Maria  Antonia,  for  six  million  florins,  which  he 
spent  chiefly  in  redeeming  Saxon  territory  that  had  been 
pawned  to  other  German  states.  When  Saxony  joined  the 
Fiirstcnbund  in  1785,  it  had  an  area  of  15,185  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  nearly  2,000,000,  but  its  various 
parts  had  not  yet  been  combined  into  a  homogeneous 
whole,  for  the  two  Lusatias,  Querfurt,  Henneberg,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  foundations  of  Naumburg  and  Mcrseburg 
had  each  a  separate  diet.and  government,  independent  of 
the  diet  of  the  electorate  proper.  In  1791  Frederick 
declined  the  crown  of  Toland,  altliough  it  was  now  offered 
as  hereditary  even  in.  the  fen:iale  line.  He  remembered 
how  unfortunate  for  Saxony  the  former  Polish  connexion 
liad  been,  and  he  mistrusted  the  attitude  of  Russia  towards 
the  proffered  kingdom.  Next  year  saw  the  beginning 
of  the  great  struggle  between  Franco  and  Germany. 
Frederick's  conduct  throughout  was  perhaps  more 
pusiUanimous  than  self-seeking,  but  it   entailed  its  own 


punishment.  His  first  policy  was  one  of  selfish  abstention, 
and  from  1793  until  1796,  when  he  concluded  a  definite 
treaty  of  neutrality  with  France,  he  limited  his  contribution 
to  the  war  to  the  bare  contingent  duefrom  him  as  a  prince 
of  the  empire.  When  war  broke  out  in  1806  against 
Napoleon,  22,000  Saxon  troops  shared  the  defeat  of  the 
Prussians  at  Jena,  but. the  elector  immediately  afterwards 
snatched  at  Napoleon's  offer  of  neutrality,  and  abandoned 
his  former  ally.  At  the  peace  of  Posen  (11th  December 
1806)  Frederick  entered  the  Confederation  of  the  Khine, 
assuming  the  title  of  king  of  Saxony,  and  promising  a 
contingent  of  20,000  men  to  Napoleon. 

No  change  followed  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  new 
kingdom,  except  that  Roman  Catholics  were  admitted  to 
equal  privileges  with  Protestants.  Its  foreign  policy  was 
dictated  by  the  will  of  Napoleon,  of  whose  irresistibility 
the  king  was  too  easily  convinced.  In  1807  his  sub- 
mission was  rewarded  with  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  and  the 
district  of  Cottbus,  though  he  had  to  surrender  some  of 
his  former  territory  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia. 
The  king  of  Saxony's  faith  in  Napoleon  was  -momentarily 
shaken  by  the  disasters  of  the  Russian  campaign,  in  which 
21,000  Saxon  troops  had  shared,  and  in  1813  he  began  to 
lean  towards  an  alliance  with  Austria.  Napoleon's  victory 
at  LUtzen  (May  2,  1813),  however,  suddenly  restored  all  his 
awe  for  that  great  general,  and  the  Saxon  king  and  the 
Saxon  army  were  once  more  at  the  disposal  of  the  Frenoh. 
After  the  battle  of  Bautzen,  Napoleon's  headquarters 
were  successively  at  Dresden  and  Leipsic.  During  the 
decisive  battle  at  the  latter  town  in  October  1813,  the 
popular  Saxon  feeling  was  displayed  by  the  desertion  of 
the  Saxon  troops  to  the  side  of  the  allies.  Frederick 
was  taken  prisoner  in  Leipsic,  and  the  government  of  his 
kingdom  was  assumed  for  a  year  by  the  Russians,  who 
promptly  turned  its  resources  against  its  late  French  ally. 
Saxony  was  now  regarded  as  a  conquered  country.  Nothing 
but  Austria's  vehement  desire  to  keep  a  powerful  neighbour 
at  a  distance  from  her  boundaries,- preserved  it  from  being 
completely  annexed  by  the  Prussians,  who  had  succeeded 
the  Russians  in  the  government.  As  it  was,  the  congress 
of  Vienna  assigned  the  northern  portion,  consisting  of  7800 
square  miles,  with  864,40-1  inhabitants  to  Prussia,  leaving 
5790  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  1,182,744  to 
Frederick,  who  was  permitted  to  retain  his  royal  title. 
He  was  forced  to  acquiesce  in  the  dismemberment  of  his 
kingdom,  and  to  console  himself  with  the  reilexion  that  his 
share,  though  the  smaller  half,  was  richer,  more  populous, 
and  more  beautiful  than  the  other. 

From  the  p.Tvtition  in  1815  to  tho  war  of  lS6fl  the  history  of 
Saxony  is  mainly  a  narrative  of  the  slow  grow  tli  of  constitutionalism 
and  popular  liberty  within  its  limits.  Its  influence  on  the  general 
history  of  Europe  ceased  when  the  old  Germ.in  empire  was  dis- 
solved. In  the  new. empire  it  is  too  completely  ovei-shadowed  hy 
Prussia  to  have  any  objective  importance  by  itself.  Frederick 
lived  twelve  years  after  the  division  of  his  kingdom.  The  .com- 
mercial and  industrial  interests  of  the  country  continued  to  bo 
fostered,  but  only  a  few  of  the  most  unavoidable  political  reforms 
were  granted,  'i'hc  fact  that  some  of  these  had  not  been  *^ranted 
before  is  more  significant  th:in  that  they  were  granted  now. 
Religious  et^uality  was  extended  to  the  Reformed  Church  in  1818, 
and  the  separate  diet  of  Upper  Lusatia  abolished.  Frederick 
Augustus  w-as  succeeded  by  his  sejituagenarian  .brother  Antony 
(1827-1836),  to  the  great  disappijintment  of  the  iicopic,  who  hail 
expected  a  more  liberal  era  under Tiince  Frederick  Augustus,  the 
king's  nephew.  Antony  announced  his  intention  of  following  the 
lines  laid  down  by  his  predecessor.  He  accorded  at  first  only  a 
few  trifling  reforms,  which  were  far  from  removing  the  pqpular 
discontent,  ivhilehc  retained  the  un[>opular  minister  Einsiedel  und 
continued  the  encour.igcment  of  the  Romnn  Catholics.  The  old 
feudal  arrangement  of  the  diet,  with  its  inconvenient  divisions, 
was  retained,  and  the  privy  council  continued  to  be  the  depository 
of  jiow-er.  An  active  opposition  began  to  m.ike-itself  evident  in  the 
diet  and  in  the  press,  and  in  1830  riots  in  Leipsic  and  Dresden 
impressed  the  king  with  the  necessity  of  concession.  Einsiedel  wa.s 
casnicred,  Prince  Frederick  Augustus  assumed  as  co-regcnt,  and  a. 


356 


SAXONY 


[history. 


constitution  promiaeiL     After  consultation  with  the  diet  the  king 

i)romul;5ated  a  now  constitution  on  September  4, 1831,  which  is  tlio 
)asis  ot  t!ie  present  government.  An  oiler  from  Metternich  of 
Austrian  arms  to  repress  the  discontent  by  force  had  been  refused. 
The  feudal  estates  were  replaced  by  two  chambers,  largely  elective, 
and  the  privy  council  bv  a  responsible  ministry  of  six  departments. 
Bernhard  von  Lin<!;-i:iu  was  the  head  of  the  first  responsible 
cabinet,  and  the  first  constitutional  assembly  sat  from  January  27, 
1833,  till  October  30,  1631.  While  Si.xony's  political  liberty 
was  thus  enlarged,  its  commerce  and  credit  were  stimulated  by  the 
construction  of  railways.  Antony  had  died  in  1836,  and  Frederick 
Augustus  II.  (1836-1S.')4)  became  sole  king.  Growing  interest  in 
)>'olitics  produced  dissatisfaction  with  the  compromise  of  1831,  and 
the  liberal  opposition  grew  in  numbers  and_  influence.  The  burn- 
ing questions  were  the  publicity  of  legal  proceedings  and  the 
freedom  of  the  press  ;  ami  on  these  the  Government  sustained  its 
first  crushing  defeat  in  the  lower  or  second  chamber  in  1842. 
Lindenan  resigned  in  1843.  Religious  considerations  as  to  the 
recofuitiou  of  the  Get  mm  Catholics  and  a  new  constitution  for  the 
i'rotestant  Church  began  to  mingle  with  purely  political  questions, 
and  Prince  John,  as  the  supposed  head  of  the  Jesuit  party,  was 
insulted  .at  a  review  of  the  communal  gi\ards  at  Leipsic  in  1845. 
The  military  raslily  interfered,  and  several  innocent  spectators 
ivcre  shot.  The  bitterness  which  this  occurrence  provoked  was 
intensified  by  a  political  reaction  which  was  initiated  about  the 
aame  time  under  Von  Kunneritz.  Warned  by  the  sympathy 
excited  in  Saxony  by  the  revolutionary  events  at  Paris  in  1848, 
the  king  dismissed  his  reactionary  ministry,  and  a  liberal  cabinet 
took  its  place  in  March  1848.  The  disputed  points  were  now 
conceded  to  the  country.  The  privileges  of  the  nobles  were 
curtailed  ;  the  administration  of  justice  was  put  on  a  better  foot- 
ing ;  the  press  was  unshackled  ;  publicity  in  legal  proceedings  was 
granted  ;  trial  by  jury  was  introduced  for  some  special  cases  ;  and 
the  German  Catholics  were  recognized.  The  feudal  character  of 
the  first  chamber  was  abolished,  and  its  members  m.ado  mainly 
elective  from  among  the  highest  tax-payers,  while  an  almost 
universal  suffrage  was  introduced  for  the  second  chamber.  The 
first  demaljd  of  the  overwhelmingly  democratic  diet  returned  ut.der 
this  reform  bill  was  that  the  king  should  accept  the  Frankfort 
constitution.  Frederick,  alleging  the  danger  of  acting  without  the 
concurrence  of  Prussia,  refused,  and  dissolved  the  diet.  A  public 
domonstratiou  at  Dresden  in  favour  i<f  the  Frankfort  constitution 
Avas  prohibited  as  illegal  on  May  2,  1S19.  This  at  once  awoke  the 
]iopular  fury.  The  mob  seized  the  town  and  barricaded  the  streets  ; 
Dresden  was  almost  destitute  of  troops  ;  and  the  king  fled  to  the 
Kdnigstein.  The  rebels  then  proceeded  to  appoint  a  provisional 
Government,  consisting  of  Tzschirner,  Henbncr,  and'Todt,  though 
the  true  Iqader  of  the  insurrection  was  the  Rtissian  Bakunin. 
Jleanwhile  Prussian  troops  had  arrived  to  aid  the  Government,  and 
after  bvo  days'  fierce  street  fighting  the  rising  was  quelled.  The 
hond  with  Prussia  now  became  closer,  Und  Frederick  entered  with. 
Prussia  and  Hanover  into  the  temporary  "alliance  of  the  three 
kings."  Ho  wa5  not  sincere,  however,  in  desiring  to  exclude  Austria, 
and  in  1850  accepted  the  invitation  of  that  power  to  send  deputies  to 
Frankfort.  The  first  chamber  immediately  protested  igainst  this 
step,  and  refused  to  consider  the  question  of  a  pressing  loan.  The 
king  retorted  by  dissolving  the  diet  and  summoning  the  old 
estates  abolished  in  1848.  When  a  quorum,  with  some  difficulty, 
was  obtained,  another  period  of  retrograde  legislation  set  iu.  The 
constitution  of  the  chambers  has  never  been  restored  to.  the  basis 
of  1848.  The  king  himself  was  carried  away  with  the  reactionary 
current,  and  th"o  people  remained  for  the  time  indifferent.  "Von 
Beust  became  minister  for  both  home  and  foreign  alfairs  in  1852, 
and  under  his  guidance  the  policy  of  Saxony  became  more  and 
more  hostile  to  Prussia  and  friendly  to  Austria.  Saxony  was  not, 
however,  able  to  withdraw'Jrom  the  customs  union,  which  indeed 
conferred  the  very  highest  benefit  on  its  trade  and  manufactures. 

The  sudden  death,  of  the  king,  by  a  fall  from  his  carriage  in 
Tyrol,  left  the  throne  to  his  brother  John  (1SS4-1873),  a  learned 
and  accomplished  prince,  whose  name  is  known  in  German 
literature  as  a  translator  and  annotator  of  Dante.  His  brother's 
ministers  kept  their  portfolios,  but  their  views  gradually  be- 
came somewhat  liberalized  with  the  spirit  of  the  times.  Beust, 
however,  still  retained  his  fedcralistic  and  philo-Austrian  views. 
When  war  was  declared  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in  186G, 
.Saxony  declined  the  former's  offer  of  neutrality,  and,  when  a 
Prussian  force  crossed  the  border,  tho  Saxon  army  under  the  king 
and  the  crown  prince  joinetl  the  Austrians  in  Bohemia.  The 
entire  kingdom,  with  tho  solitary  exception  of  the  Konigstein,  was 
occupied  by  the  Prussians.  -  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  Saxony 
lost  no  territory,  but  had  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  ten  million 
th.ilers,  and  was  compelled  to  enter  the  North-German  Confedera- 
tion. Its  army  ,.  !d  its  postal  and  telegraph  system  were  placed 
under  the  control  of  Prussia,  and  its  representation  at  foreign 
courts  was  entrusted  to  the  Prussian  embassies.  Beust  was  fprced 
to  resign  ;  and  lil>eral  measures  in  both  church  and  state  were 
actively  canied    through.     Johu  was  euceecded   in    1873   by  his 


elder  son  Albert  (born  1828),  who  had  won  distinction  as  a  general 
in  the  wars  of  1866  and  1870.  Under  this  prince  the  general 
course  of  politics  has  presented  nothing  of^  special  importance, 
except  perhaps  the  steady  spreadr^of  the  doctrines  of  social 
democracy,  which  has  flourished  especially  in  Saxony.  As  a, 
loyal  member  ot  the  new  German  empire,  Saxony  has  grad,  ly 
transferred  its  sympathies  from  its  old  ally  Austria  to  its  new 
leader  Prussia.  In  1877  Leipsic  was  chosen  as  tho  seat  of  the 
supreme  court  of  law  for  the  empire. 

The  political  history  of  the  parts  of  Saxony  left  by  the  capitula- 
tion of  Wittenberg  to  the  Ernestine  line,  which  occupy  the  region 
now  generally  styled  Thuringia  (Thuringen),  is  mainly  a  recital 
of  partitions,  reunions,  redivisions,  and  frfsh  combinations  of 
territory  among  tho  various  sons  of  the  successive  dukes.  The 
principle  of  primogeniture  was  not  introduced  until  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  so  that  the  Protestant  Saxon  dynasty,  instead  of 
building  up"  a  single  compact  kingdom  for  itself,  has  split  Into 
four  petty  duchies,  ot  no  political  influence  whatever.  In  1547 
the  ex-elector  John  Frederick  the  Magnanimous  was  allowed. to 
retain  Weimar,  Jena,  Eisenach,  Gotha,  Henneberg,  and  .Saalfeld. 
Altenburg  and  a  few  other  districts  were  added  to  the  Ernestine 
possessions  by  the  treaty  of  Naumburg  in  1554,  and  other  addi- 
tions were  made  from  other  sources.  John  Frederick,  who  had 
retained  and  transmitted  to  his  descendants  the  title  of  duke 
of  Saxony,  forbade  his  sons  to  divide  their  inheritance  ;  but  his 
wishes  were -respected  only  until  after  the  death  df  his  eldest  son 
in  1565.  Tlie  two  survivors  then  founded  separate  jurisdictions  at 
Weimar  and  Coburg,  though  arrangements  were  made  to  exchange 
territories  every  three  years.  In  ■  596  Saxe-Coburg  gave  off  th* 
branch  Saxe-Eisenach  ;  and  in  1603  Saxe-Vv'eimar  gave  off  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  the  elder  Weimar  line  ending  and  the  younger  begin- 
ning with  the  latterMate.  By  1638  Weimar  had  absorbed  both 
Cobiirg  and  Eisenach  ;  Altenburg  remained  till  1672.  John,  duke 
of  Saxe-Weimar,  who  died  in  1605,  is  regarded  as  the  common 
ancestor  of  the  present  Ernestine  lines.  In  1640  his  three  surviving 
sons  ruled  the  duchies  of  Weimar,  Eisenach,  and  Gotha.  Eisenach 
fell  in  in  1644  and  Altenburg  in  1672,  thus  leaving  the  dukes  of 
Saxe-Weimar  and  Saxe-Ggtha  to  become  the  ancestors  of  the 
modern  ruling  houses.  Saxe-Weimar  was  still  repeatedly  divided  ; 
in  1668  a  Saxe-Marksuhl  appears,  and  about  1672  a  Saxe-Jena  and 
a  new  Saxe-Eisenach.  All  these,  however,  were  extinct  by  1741, 
and  their  possessions  returned  to  the  main  line,  which  had  adopted 
the  principle  of  primogeniture  in  1719.  The  present  grand-duchy 
of  SAXE-WErMAR-EiSENACH  1%  separately  noticed. 

Saxe-Gotha  was  even  more  subdivided  ;.  and  the  climax  was 
reached  about  1680,  when  Gotha,  Coburg',  Meiningrn,  Romhild, 
Eisenberg,  Hddburghajisen,  and  Saalfeld  were  each  the  capital  of 
a  duchy."  By  the  beginning  of  1825  only  the  first  three  of  these 
and  Hildbvfrghausen  remained,  the  lands  of  the  others  having 
been  divided  after  much  quarrelling.  In  that  year  the  Gotha  line 
expired,  and  a  general  redistribution  of  the  lands  of  the  "  Nexus 
Gothanus,"  as  this  group  of  duchies  was  called,  was  arranged  on 
12th  November. 1826.  The  duke  ot  Hildburghausen  gave  up  his 
lands  entirely  for  Altenburg  and  became  duke  of  Saxe-Altenbdrg  ; 
the  duke  of  Coburg  exchanged  Saalfeld  for  Gotha-  and  became  duke 
of  Saxe-Cobuec-Gotha  ;  and  the  duke  of  Saxe-Mj5iningem 
received  Hildburghausen,  Saalfeld,  and  some  other  territories,  and 
added  Hildburghausen  to  his  title.  These  duchies  are  separately 
noticed.   -See  also  Thueingia. 

Geography  and  Sr.iTisxics. 

The  kingdom  ot  Saxony,  the  history  of  which  has  been  traced 
above,  is  the  third  constituent  of  the  German  empire  in  point  of 
population,  and  the  fifth  in  point  of  area.  With  the  exception 
of  the  two  small  exclaves  of  Ziegelhein  in  Saxe-Altenburg  and 
Leibschwitz  on  the  borders  of  Reuss,  Saxe-Weimar,  and  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  it  forms  a  compact  whole, of  a  triangular  shape, 
its  base  extending  from  north-east  to  south-west,  and  its  apex 
pointing  north-west.  It  lies  between  50°  10'  and  51°  29'  N.  lat. 
and  between  11°  53'  and  15°  4'  E.  long.  The  total  area  is  5789 
square  miles  (about  half  the  sizo  of  Belgium),  or  27  per  cent  of 
the  entire  empire  ;  its  greatest  length  is  130  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  93  miles.  Its  frontiers  have  a  circuit  of  760  miles.  On 
the  south  it  is  bounded  by  Bohemia,  on  the  west  by  Bavaria  and 
the  Thuringian  states,  and  on  the  remaining  sides  by  Prussia. 
Except  on  the  south,  where  the  Erzgebirge  forms  at  once  the  limit 
'of  the  kingdom  and  of  the  empire,  tho  boundaries  are  entirely 
political.  For  administrative  purposes  t'l^  kingdom  of  Saxony  is 
divided  into  the  four  districts  of  Bautzen  ni  the  south-east,  JJresdcn 
in  the  north-east,  Leipsic  in  the  north-west,  and  Zwickau  in  the 
south-west. 

Physical  Features.  —Saxony  belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  central 
mountain  region  of  Germany,  only  tho  districts  along  the  nortk 
border  and  around  Leipsic  descending  into  the  great  North- 
European  plain.  The  average  elevation  of  the  country  is  not, 
however,  groat;  and  it  is  more  property  described  as  hilly  than  as 
mountainous.    The  ordinary  estimates  return  one-fifth  of  the  area  as 


OEOGKAPHY   AND   STATISTICS.] 


S  A  ^  O  I^    i 


plain  two-hfths  .IS  lii II  country,  and  two-fifths  as  mountain  land. 
The  slope  is  very  regularly  from  south-e.^si  to  north-west  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  shorter  axis.  The  chief  mountain  range  is  tffe  Erzgebirge, 
Btrctching  for  90  miles  along  the  south  border,  Snd  reachinf  in  the 
F.chtolbergs  (3979  feet  and  3953  feet)  the  highest  elevatioS  in  the 
kingdom.  The  west  and  south-west  half  of  Saxony  is  more  or  less 
occupied  by  the  ramifications  and  subsidiary  groups  of  this  range, 
one  of  which  is  known  from  its  position  as  the  Central  Saxon 
ohain,  and  another  lower  group  still  farther  north  as  the  Oschatz 

Eoup.      Ihe  south-east  angle  of  Saxony  is  occupied  by  the  moun- 
ins  01  Upper  Lusatia  (highest  summit  2600  feet),  which  form  the 
Ik  between  the  Erzgebirge  and  Riesengebirge  in  the  great  Sudetic 
*ain.     North-west  from  this  group,  and  along  both  banks  of  the 
Hlbe,  whicli  divides  it  from  the  Erzgebirgo,  extends  the  picturesque 
mountain  region  known  as  the  Saxon  Switzerland.     The  action  of 
water  and  ice  upon  the  soft  sandstone  of  which  the  hills  here  are 
lOhicfiy  composed  has  produced  remarkable  formations  of  deep  gorges 
and  isolated  fantastic  peaks,  which,  however,  though  both  beautiful 
»nd  interesting,   by  no  means  recall  the  characteristics  of  Swiss 
scenery.     The  highest  snmmit  attains  a  height  of  1830  feet ;  but 
the  more  interesting  peaks,  as  the  Lilienstein,  Konigstein,  and  the 
Bastei,  are  lower.     VVith  the  trifling  exception  of  the  south-east  of 
Bautzen   which  sends  its  waters  by  the  Neisse  to  the  Oder,  Saxony 
lies  wholly  m  the  basin  of  the  Elbe,  which  has  a  navigable  course 
of  72  miles  from  south-east  to  north-west  through  tlio  kingdom 
Comparatively  few  of  the  numerous  smaller  streams  of  Saxony  flow 
directly  to  the  Elbe,  and  the  larger  tributaries  only  join  it  beyond 
the  Saxon  borders.     The  Mulde,  formed  of  two  branches    is  the 
Mcond  river  of  Saxony;  others  are  the  Black  Elster,  the  White 
Elster,  the  Pleisse,  and  the  Spree.     There  are  no  lakes  of  any  size 
but  mineral  springs  are  very  abundant.     The  best  known  is  at  Bad 
Elster  in  the  Voigtland. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Saxonv  i»  gtVo:^;;?  heaitliy  It  is 
mildest  in  the  valleys  of  the  Elbe,  Mulde,  and  Pleisse,  andsevcrcst 
m  the  Erzgebirge,  where  the  district  near  Johanngeorgcnstadt  is 
known  as  Saxon  Siberia.  The  average  temperature,  like  that  of 
central  Oeripany  as  a  whole,  varies  from  48°  to  50°  Fahr.  •  in  the 
Elbe  valley  the  mean  in  summer  is  from  62°  to  64°,  and  in  winter 
about  39  ;  in  the  Erzgebirgo  the  mean  temperature  in  summer  is 
from  55  to  57  ,  and  in  winter  23°  or  24°.  The  Erzgebirgo  is  also 
the  rainiest  district,  27!,  to  33^  inches  falling  pe?  annum;  the 
amount  decreases  as  we  proceed  northwards,  and  Leipsic  with  an 
annual  fall  of  15V  to  21J  inches  enjoys  the  driest  climate. 

io»?.— Saxony  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  parts  of  Germany  and 
m  regard  to  the  productive  occupation  of  its  soil  it  stands  among 
tlie  most  advanced  nations  of  the  world.  Only  1  per  cent  of  the 
total  area  is  waste  or  unused.  According  to  the  returns  for  1883 
5.T7  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  under  agriculture,  117  in  pasture  and 
meadow,  J7-4  onder  forest,  and  4-2  occupied  by  buildings,  roads 
and  water.  _  The  lowest  lands  are  the  most  productive,  and 
lertility  diminishes  as  we  ascend  ton-aids  the  south,  until  on  the 
bleak  crest  of  the  Erzgebirgo  cultivation  ceases  altogether.  Saxon 
agTiculture,  though  dating  its  origin  from  the  Wends,  has  received 
its  full  development  only  in  the  present  century.  Lon-^  fettered 
by  antiquated  customs,  the  land  was  subdivided  into  small  parcels 
and  subjected  to  vexatious  rights.  But  in  1834  a  law  was  passed 
providing  for  the  union  of  the  scattered  lands  belonging  to  each 
proprietor,  and  that  may  be  considered  the  dawn  of  nrodern  Saxon 
agriculture,  which  has  now  reached  a  very  high  pitch  of  excellence. 
It  has  been  fostered  both  publicly  and  privately,  and  a  special 
official  secretary  assists  the  minister  of  the  interior  in  attending  to 
this  branch  of  national  prosperity.  In  1383  the  agricultural  lands 
in  Saxony  were  divided  .among  192,000  farmers  or  proprietors,  of 
whom  only  758  held  250  acres  and  upwards,  28,200  between  25 

m,  ^,V-J"'^  """  '■"'  '"'  **""'  25  acres.  The  small  pro- 
prietors held  28  V  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,    the  middle  class 

JJr  M  ■  i^'P"  '"™''"  "'^^     'r''"  '•''=1»=^'  «"">  Jistriets  are 

near  Jlcisscn  Grimma,  Bautzen,  Doheln,  and  Pima.  The  chief 
crop  !9  rye,  but  oats  are  hardly  second  to  it.  Wheat  and  bariov 
are  grown  in  considerably  less  quantity.  Very  large  ,,uantities  of 
potatoes  are  grown,  especially  in  the  Voigtland.  Vet  is  chieny 
grown  as  feeding  stuff  for  cattle,  and  not  for  sugar.  Flax  (8270 
whoL'".i;„  ,  '  "  f  T"  '"  H  Krzgebjrgc  and  Lusatian  mountains, 
where  the  manufacture  of  linen  was  at  one  time  a  flourishing 

Zv^rLl  r?ternalelector  Augustus  (1563-1580),  who  is  said 
"monrr  the  °.  f  ■abroad  without  fruit  seeds  for  distribution 
XrrL  i!,   "^'I^'    ■?"''    f"™"^-      Knormous    quantities    of 

fevis  ^^ct^KI  f'^''.'^'''-  •^'"'  "''""tion  "f  the  vine  in 
nfficant  W^„^  '  .ff.'t\»'^tiq-ity,  though  the  yield  is  insig- 
anS,^-  tbl  d    ^  '^'■'^  '°  ^'^   ''™''   B™™"  hero  in  the  lltl. 

»»7  goats.    The  brcedtng  of  horses  ia  carried  on  to  a  vcr^ 


limited  cxt-nt  in  Saxony,  more  than  nine-tenths  of  tho  horses 
required  being  imported.  Cattle-rearing,  which  hL  been  an 
industry  smce  the  advent  of  the  Wends  in  the  6th  a-ntury  ha" 
attained  very  considerable  importance  on  the  extensive  pitur'4  o? 
the  Erzgebirge  and  in  the  Voigtland.  Sheep-farming  Im^on  ider 
ably  declined  withm  the  last  few  decades,  as  in  most  par  s  of 
northern  Germany  While  other  elasses  of  domestic  animris  a-  e 
retained  very  much  tho  same  proportion  to  tho  number  of  Uo 
human  population,  sheep  have  decrea,sed  from  one.  to  every  six 
inhabitants  in  1801  to  one  to  every  twenty  in  1883.  In  1765  tie 
regent  Prince  Xaver  imported  300  merino  sheep  from  Spa  n  and 
so  improved  he  native  breed  by  this  new  strain  that  Saxon  Lhc"' 
were  eagerly  imported  by  foreign  nations  to  improve  their  flo^sr 

market      The  V  r'l   T'     ^"''^'",''  <""=  °^  ""^  ''^■^'  ^'"''^  '"  ^h" 
maiket      The  high  level  was  not  long  maintained;  flock-mastcrj 

,n-d  H,„°  W  "'°''°  ''"\"t'™  t°  1"-^"ti'y  than  to  quality  of  yyo,A 
and  the  Saxon  wool  has  accordingly  deteriorated.  In  18r,»  no 
less  than  1166  130  lbs.  of  wool  were  ofl-ered  for  sale  in  the 
wool  markets  of  Saxony,  of  which  Leipsic  and  Dresden  a-,  tho 
chief;  in  1S84  only  276,843  lbs.  were  olTe.cd.  Swine  iu'rnSi 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  flesh-diet  of  tho  people.  Gec^c 
abound  particularly  round  Leipsic  and  in  Up[^r  Lusatia,  poultry 
about  Bautzen  Bee-keeping  flourishes  on  the  l.caths  on  he  right 
bank  of  the  Elbe  ;  in  1883  there  were  53,756  be,  -hives  in  SaNou 
Oame  is  not  now  very  abundant;  hares  and  partridges  are  shot  iii 
the  plams  to  the  north-west. 

}J'^""n~'''W'"^'^?  of  Saxony  are  extensive,  and  have  lor,- 
been  well  cared  for  both  by  Government  and  by  private  pronrieton" 
The  famous  schoo  of  forestry  at  Tharandt  w.as  founded  in  181 1' 
Ihe  Voigtland  is  the  most  densely  wooded  portion  of  the  kingdom " 

ce"nt"of  tbTl'  W  ^"S'^;^"^-  ^'"""  8,3-9,200  acres,  or  85  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  forest  land,  were  planted  with  coniferous  trees  ■ 
andabout  1  439,700  acres  or  15  per  cent,  with  deciduous  t4es' 
among  which  beecnes  and  birches  are  the  commonest.  About  SO 
per  cent,  of  the  total  belongs  to  Government 

J/»wra,V -The  mineral  wealth  of  Saxony  is  vei-y  considerable  ■ 
and  Its  mines  aio  among  tho  oldest  in  Germany.  .Silver  was  raisci 
m  the  12th  century,  and  argentiferous  lead  is  still  tho  most 
yaluablo  ore  mined;  tin,  iron,  and  cobalt  rank  next;  end  cc->l 
l^  one  of  the  chief  exports.  ,  Copper,  zinc.'and  bismuth  are  alTo 
wo.ke,!.  .Saxon  mines  now  produce  about  6  iwr  cent,  of  tiie  Pnsi 
qu.'.ntity,  and  a.bout  S  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate  value  of  metals 
raised  ^in  Germany.  The  country  is  divided  into  four  minin- 
Tu  i!f  '■—^'i'^'^'-e-  ■^■licre  silver  and  lead  are  the  chief  products" 
Atenberg where  tin  is  mainly  raised;  Schneebei■.^  yielding 
cobalt,  nickel,  and  ironstone;  and  Johanngeorgenstidt,  with 
ironstone  and  silver  mines.  There  are  in  all  236  n,ines  hut 
in  1883  only  150  of  these  were  in  operation,  emploving'gOlS 
hands  In  18/0  253  mines  employed  9132  hands.  The  total  valuo 
"J'^^T^i  ""/.    \".^^f°''y,  i"   1883  was  £288,200  ;  in  1370  it  was 


£314  916.  Coal  is  found  principally  in  two  fields, -one  near 
Zwickau,  and  the  other  in  the  circle  of  Dresden.  Bro\,  n  coal  or 
lignite  13  found  chiefly  in  the  north  .ind  north-west,  hut  not  in 
sufficiently  large  quantities  to  he  exported.  The  number  of  coal- 
mines 13  steadily  decreasing,  though  the  numbers  of  miners  and 
the  gross  produce  are  both  on  the  increase.  The  following  tahlo 
shows  the  output  in  tons  since  the  years  named  :— 


1870 
18S0 
1883 


Mine: 


242 
189 
166 


16,811 
19,025 
20,l.i6 


Cool 


2,608,705 
3,622,007 
4,088,484 


Lignite. 


500,687 
590,119 
648,044 


Anthracite. 


346 
345 

280 


Value. 


£1,033,625 
1,363,780 
1,610,803 


Peat  13  especially  abundant  on  the  Erzgebirge.  Immense  quantities 
01  bncks  ar»  made  all  over  the  country.  Excellent  sandstone  lor 
building  IS  found  on  the  hills  of  tho  Elbe;  in  1883  266  quarries 
emnloyed  1348  hands.  Fine  porcelain  clay  occurs  near  Meissen 
and  coareer  varieties  elsewhere.  A  few  precious  stones  are  found 
amoti^  the  southern  mountains.     Saxony  has  no  saltmines. 

Indicslries.—The  Central-European  position  of  Saxony  lias 
fostered  its  commerce  ;  and  its  manufactures  have  been  ciicoura:;cd 
by  the  abundant  water-jiower  throughout  tho  kingdom.  Nearly 
one-half  of  the  motive  power  used  in  Saxon  factories  is  supplied  by 
the  streams,  of  which  tho  Muldc,  in  this  respect,  is  the  ehiof! 
Iho  early  foundation  of  tho  Leipsic  fairs,  and  the  enlightened 
policy  of  the  rulers  of  the  country,  have  also  done  much  to  develop 
Its  commercial  and  inilustrial  resources,  Next  to  agriculture, 
which  supports  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  population,  by  far  the 
most  important  industry  is  tho  textile.  Saxony  carries  on  26  per 
cent,  of  tho  whole  textile  industry  in  Germany,  a  share  far  in 
excess  of  its  proportionate  population.  Prussia,  which  has  more 
than  nine  times  as  many  inhabitants,  carries  on  46  jicr  cent.,  and 
no  other  state  more  than  8  per  cent.  Neariy  18J  per  cent,  o'l  the 
Tiopulatiou  were  engaged  in  this  industry  in  1882,  by  far  the 
largest  proportion  in  any  German  state  except  Beuss  (iiltcrcr  IJniel 
wlii,;h   had   33    per  cent,    so  engaged.       The  chief  seats    of  the 


358 


S  AX  O  N  Y 


[gEOOEAPHT   and   STATISTIoa. 


■manufacture  rto  ZnricTcan,  Chemnitz,  Gkuchau,  Meerane,  and 
IKihenstein  in  the  south  of  Zwickau,  and  Camenz,  Pulsnitz,  and 
B-ischofswerda  iu  the  north  of  Dresden.  The  centre  of  the 
cotton  manufacture  (especially  of  cotton  hosiery)  is  Chemnitz  ; 
■Outton-muslins  are  made  throughout  the  Voigtiand,  ribbons  at 
Tulsriitz  and  its  neighbourhood.  Woollen  cloth  and  buckskin  are 
woven  at  Camenz,  BischofswerJa,  and  Groifwinhain,  all  in  the 
north-east,  woollen  and  half-woollen  underclothing  at  Chemnitz, 
Glauchau,  Meerane,  and  Reichonbach  ;  while  Bautzen  and  Lirabach 
produce  woollen  stocking.  Linen  is  manufactured  chiefly  in  the 
mountains  of  Lusatia,  where  the  looms  are  still  to  some  extent 
fonud  in  the  homes  of  the  weavers.  The  coarser  kinds  only  aicnow 
made,  owing  to  the  keen  English  competition  in  the  finer  varieties. 
Damask  is  produced  at  Gross-Schonaa  and  Neu-Schonau.  Lace- 
making,  discovered  or  introduced  by  Barbara  Uttniann  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  16th  century,  and  now  fostered  by  Govern- 
ment schools,  has  long  been  an  important  domestic  industry  among 
the  villages  of  the  Erz  Mountains.  Straw-plaiting  occupies  6000 
hands  on  the  mountain  slopes  between  Gottleuba  and  Lockwitz. 
Waxcloth  is  manufactured  at  Leipsic,  and  artificial  flowers  at 
Lcipsic  and  Dresden.  Stoneware  and  earthenware  are  made  at 
Cliemnitz,  Zwickau,- Bautzen,  and  Meissen,  porcelain  ("Dresden 
cliina")  at  Meissen,  chemicals  in  and  near  Leipsic.  Dobeln, 
"VVerdau,.  and  Lossnitz  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  Saxon  leather 
trade  ;  cigars  are  very  extensively  made  in  the  town  and  district 
of  Leipsic,  and  hats  and  pianofortes  at  Leipsic,  Dresden,  and 
Ciiemnitz.  Paper  is  made  chiefly  in  the  west  of  the  kingdom,  but 
does  not  keep  pace  v/ith  the  demand.  Machinery  of  all  kinds  is 
produced,  from  the  sewing-machines  of  Dresden  to  the  steam- 
locomotives  and  marine-engines  of  Cliemnitz.  The  last-named 
place,  though  the  centre  of  the  iron-mamifacture  of  Saxony,  has  to 
import  every  pound  of  iron  by  railway.  The  leading  branch  is  the 
machiner}'  used  in  the  industries  of  the  country — mining,  paper- 
making,  and  weaving.  The  very  large  printing  trade  of  Leipsic 
encourages  tho  manufacture  of  printing-presses  in  that  city.  In 
1883-84  Saxony  contained  74-4  active  breweries  r/nd  6S3  distil- 
leries. Tho  ti-ndency  in  this  branch  of  industry  is  to  extinguish 
tho  smaller  establishments,  and  to  form  largo  joint-stock  com- 
panies. The  mnelting  and  refining  of  the  metal  ores  is  also  an 
important  industry.  The  chief  smelting  works,  at  Preiberg, 
employed  1377  hands  in  1883. 

Trot^c— L'eipsic,  with  its  famous  and  still  frequented  fairs,  is 
the  focus  of  the  trade  of  Saxony.  The  fur  trade  between  eastern 
arwi  western  Europe  and  tho  book-trade  of  Germany  centre  here. 
Chemnitz,  Dresden,  Plauen,  Zwickau,  Zittau,  and  Bautzen  are  the 
other  chief  commercial  cities.  The  principal  exports  are  wool, 
woollen,  cotton,  and  linen  goods,  and  the  other  produce  of  the 
factories  and  of  the  mines. 

Communication. — The  roads  of  Saxony  are  numerous  and  good. 
In  1S83  there  were  2304  miles  of  road  in  the  kingdom.  Saxony 
was  the  first  German  state  to  encourage  and  develop  a  railway 
system,  and,  although  at  first  private  enterprise  led  the  way,  tho 
Saxon  lines  are  now  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  Govern- 
ment. Tho  fiist  railway,  between  Leipsic  and  Althen,  was  opened 
on  April  24,  1837.  In  1837  there  were  9  miles  of  state  railway  ; 
in  1840,  71  miles;  in  1850,  250;  in  1870,  685;  in  1880,  1184; 
and  in  1834,  1355  miles,  which,  together  with  75  miles  of  private 
line,  mostly  worked  by  the  state,  employed  24,400  hands.  There 
are  no  canals  in  Saxony,  and  the  only  navigable  river  is  the  Elbe.  ' 

Population. —In  1880  the  population  of  Saxony  was  2,972,805,  or 
6^  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  of  the  German  empire,  on  2'7 
per  cent,  of  its  area.  The  provisional  returns  of  the  census  of  1885 
>;ave  a  population  of  3,'179,168.  With  the  exception  of  the  free 
towns.  Saxony  is  the  most  densely  peopled  member  of  the  empire, 
and  its  population  is  increasing  at  a  more  rapid  ratw  than  is  the 
case  in  any.of  the  larger  German  states.  In  1880  Saxony  had  513'5 
inhabitants  per  square  mile,  nearly  three  times  as  many  as  Bavaria ; 
Prussia  had  202*3,  and  the  average  for  tho  empire  was  21 6 '7. 
More  than  half  ,(56  per  cent.)  of  the  people  live  in  communities  of 
aver  2000  inhabitants.  The  following  table  shows  tho  distribu- 
tion of  the  population  among  the  four  administrative  districts.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  industrial  district  of  Zwickau  is  tho  most 
Jensely  peopled. 


District. 

PopulflHon, 

Area  In 
Square  Jliles. 

Average  jwr 
Square  Slik. 

Bautzen 

351,326 

803,512 

707,826 

1,105,141 

953 
1675 
1377 
1784 

363-6 
482-7 
614-0 
619-4 

Dresden 

Leipsic 

The  growth  of  the  population  since  1815,  when  the  kingdom 
•eceived  its  present  hmitehas  been  as  follovfs :— in  1815,1,178,802; 
in  1830,  1,402,066;  in  1840,  1,706,275;  in  1864,  2,344,094;  and 
in  1875,  2,760,586. 

The  number  of  marriages  per  1000  inhabitants  is  between  3  and 


9 ;  the  birth-rate  is  43,  and  the  death-rate  30  per  thousand.  Tha 
annual  increase  of  the  population,  on  the  average  of  the  five  yeara 
between  1875  and  1880,  is  at  the  rate  of  1-48  per  cent  Tho 
death-rate  in  Saxony  is  the  highest  in  Germany,  but  its  birth-rat« 
is  also  the  highest,  except  in  the  small  state  of  Reuss  (altcrer 
Linie).  In  1883,  out  of  132,209  births,  16,990,  or  12-8  per  cent, 
were  illegitimate,  and  4935,  or  3-7  per  cent,  were  still-born,  and 
these  rates  represent  tolerably  accurately  the  average  of  the  last 
few  years.  In  the  relative  number  of  suicides  (311  per  1,000,000 
inhabitants)  Saxony  ranks  highest  among  the  European  states  (see 
Morselli,  Int.  Sci.  Scr.,  vol.  xxxvi.).  In  1884  1114  persons,  of 
whom  861  were  males,  committed  suicide.  In  the  same  year  17,706 
persons  were  punished  as  vagi-ants. 

Tho  preponderating  industrial  activity  of  Saxony  fosters  the 
tendency  of  the  population  to  concentrate  in  towns  ;  with  th« 
exception  of  the  free  towns  and  Anhalt,  no  German  state  has  sor 
large  a  proportion  of  urban  population,  i.e.,  inhabitants  residing  in 
communities  of  2000  persona  and  upu-ards.  In  the  empire  as  a 
whole  41-4  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  urban  in  this  sense  ;  in 
Saxony  the  ]n-oportion  rises  to  5G-6  per  cent.  The  largest  towns  are 
Dresden  (24^,515  inhabitants),  the  capital  since  the  middle  of  tlia 
16tli  century,  Leipsic  (170,076),  and  Chemnitz  (110,693).  Eighteen 
other  towns,  cliiefly  in  the  manufacturing  district  of  Zwickau,  have 
over  10,000  inhabitants,  and  thirty-five  between  5000  and  10,000. 
The  main  results  of  the  industrial  census  of  1882,  which  shows  an 
increase  of  ]>opulatiou  since  1880  of  42,000,  are  summarized  in  the 
following  table,  which  gives  the  number  of  persons  (including  wives, 
families,  and  ^lepen  J.ints)  supported  by  the  several  occupations,  aad 
the  percentage  of  tlic  total  population : — 


Oxupations. 

Persons. 

Percentage. 

1.  Agriculture,  forestry,  and  fishing 

602,378 
1,695,895 
360,675 
53,584 
148,361 
153,929 

20 

68-2 

12 

1-7 

5 

6-1 

. 

3.  Trade 

\ 

4.  Domestic  servants  and  general  labourers 

5.  Oflicial,  military,  and  professional  classes 

6.  Not  returned  under  any  occupation... 

t 

1 

The  people  of  Saxony  are  chiefly  of  pure  Teutonic  stock  ;  a  pro* 
portion  are  Germanized  Slavs,  and  in  the  south  of  Bautzen  thera 
are  still  about  50,000  Wends,  who  retain  their  peculiar  customs  and 
language.  In  some  villages  near  Bautzen  hardly  a  word  of  Germaa 
is  spoken. 

Jieligious  Statistics. — About  97  per  cent;  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Saxony  are  Protestants  ;  between  6000  and  7000  are  Jews,  and  tlie 
remainder,  including  the.  royal  family,  are  mostly  Roman  Catholios: 
According  to  the  religious  census  of  1830,  2,886,806  were  Evangeli- 
cals, 74,333  Roman  Catholics,  1467  German  Catholics,  620  Ang.li- 
cana,  453  Greek  Catholics,  6518  Jews,  and  339  "others."  The 
Evangelical-Lutheran  or  State  Church  had  1130  pastors  and  1393 
places  of  worship  in  1884.  Its  head  is  tho  minister  **de  evangelicis" 
so  long  as  the  king  is  Roman  Catholic  ;  and  its  management  w 
vested  in  the  Evangelical  Consistory  at  Dresden.  Its  representative 
assembly,  consisting  of  twentj'-nine  clergymen  and  thirty-five  lay- 
men is  called  a  synod  {Synode).  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
enjoyed  the  patronage  of  tho  reigning  family  since  1697,  though  it 
was  the  peace  of  Posen  (1806)  which  placed  it  on  a  level  with  the 
Lutherans.  By  the  peace  of  Prague,  which  transferred  Uppoi' 
Lusatia  to  Saxony  iu  1635,  stipulations  were  made  iji  favour  of  tho 
Roman  Catholics  of  that  region,  who  are  ecclesiastically  in  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  cathedral  chapter  of  St  Peter  at  Bautzen,  the  dean 
of  which  has  ex  officio  a  seat  in  the  first  chamber  of  the  diet.  The 
other  districts  are  managed  by  an  apostolic  vicariate  at  Dresden, 
under  the  direction  of  the  minister  of  public  worship.  Two  nun- 
neries in  Bautzen  are  the  only  conventual  establishments  in  Saxony, 
and  no  others  may  be  founded.  Among  the  Rmaller  religious  sects 
the  Moravian  Brethren  iq.v.),  whose  chief  seat  is  at  Herrnhut,, 
are  perhaps  the  most  interesting.  In  1863  civil  rights  were  declared' 
to  be  independent  of  religious  confession. 

Education.  — Saxony  claims  to  be  one  of  the  most  highly  educated 
countries  in  Europe,  and  its  foundations  of  schools  and  universities 
were  among  the  earliest  in  Germany.  Of  the  four  universities 
founded  by  the  Saxon  electors  at  Leipsic,  Jena,  "Wittenberg,  and 
Erfurt,  only  the  first  is  included  in  the  present  kingdom  of  Saxony. 
It  is  second  only  to  Berlin  in  the  number  of  its  students.  The 
endowed  schools  (Fiirstenschulen)  at  Meissen  and  Grimma  have 
long  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  Besides  tiicse  there  are  12  other 
gjTnnasia,  13  realschulen  of  the  first  class,  and  19  of  the  second 
class,  the  organization  of  which  resembles  that  already  described  in 
detail  under  Prussia.  There  are  nearly  4000  elementary  and  pre- 
paratory schools  ;  and  education  is  compulsory.  Of  8856  recruits 
in  1883-84  only  13  {'15  per  cent.)  were  unable  to  read  and  write. 
Saxony  is  particularly  well-eqnipped  with  technical  schools,  the* 
textile  industries  being  especially  fostered  by  numerous  schools  of 
weaving,  embroidery,  lace-making,  &c.  ;  but  the  mining  academy 
■it  Freiberg  and  the  sciionl  of  forestry  tt  Tharandt  are  probab'y  the 


SAXONY,] 


SAXONY 


OOtj' 


!most  widely  known.     The  conservatory  of  music  at  Leipsic  enjoys 
a  world-wide  reputation  ;  not  lesa  the  art-colle«tion3  at  Dresden. 

Constitution. — Saxony  is  a  constitutional  monarchy  and  a 
member  of  the  German  empire,  with  four  votes  in  the  federal 
council  and  twenty-three  in  the  reichstag.  The  constitution  rests 
on  a  law  promulgated  on  4th  September  1S31,  and  subsequently 
amended.  The  crown  is  hereditary  in  the  Albortine  Saxon  line, 
with  reversion  to  the  Ernestine  line,  of  which  the  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  is  now  the  head.  The  king  enjoys  a  civil  list  of  2,940,000 
marks  or  £147,000, ,  while  the  apanages  of  the  crown,  including 
•the  payments  to  the  other  members  of  the  royal  house,  amount  to 
£1 5,670  more.  The  legislature  (Standeversammlung}is  bicameral, — 
the  constitution  of  the  co-ordinate  chambers  being  fmally  settled 
by  a  law  of  1S6S  amending  the  enactment  of  1831.  The  first 
chamber  consists  of  the  adult  princes  of  the  blood,  five  hereditary 
members  from  among  the  nobility,  representatives  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Roman  Catholic  Churches,  a  representative  of  Leipsic  university, 
twelve  representatives  of  proprietors  with  landed  property  of  an 
annual  value  of  at  least  £1.^*0,  elected  for  life,  and  ten  representa- 
tives of  the  same  class  nominated  for  life  by  the  crown,  tiie  chief 
magistrates  of  the  eight  principal  towns,  and  five  other  life 
members,  chosen  without  any  restrictions  by  the  king.  The 
second  chamber  consists  of  thirty-five  mcmbei-s  from  the  towns  and 
forty-five  from  the  country,  elected  for  six  years.  All  male  citizens 
twenty-five  years  old  and  upwards  who  pay  one  tiialer  (Ss. )  per 
annum  in  ta:fes  have  the  suffrage  ;  and  all  above  thirty  years  of 
age  who  pay  10  thalers  in  annual  taxes  are  eligible  as  members  of 
the  diet.  The  chambei-s  must  be  convened  at  least  once  every  two 
years  ;  and  extraordinary  meetings  take  place  at  every  change  of 
ruler  and  on  other  special  occasions.  One-third  of  the  members  of 
the  second  chamber  retire  at  the  end  of  every  period  of  two  years. 
"With  the  exception  of  the  hereditary  and  some  of  the  ex-officio 
Toembers  of  the  first  chamber,  the  membera  of  the  diet  are  entitled 
to  an  allowance  (12s.)  for  their  daily  expenses,  as  well  as  their 
travelling  expenses.  The  executive  consists  of  a  responsible  min- 
istry (Gesammtministerium),  with  the  six  departments  of  justice, 
finance,  homo  affairs,  war,  public  worship  and  education,  and 
foreign  aflairs.  The  minister  of  the  royal  household  'docs  not 
belong  to  tho  cabinet.  The  constitution  also  provides  for  the 
formation  of  a  kind  of  privy  council  (Staatsrath),  consisting  of  the 
cabinet  ministers  and  other  members  appointed  by  the  king. 

Por  administrative  purposes  Saxony  is  divided  into  four 
Kreishauptmannschaften  or  governmental  departments,  subdivided 
into  fifteen  Amtshauptm.innschaften  and  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
Aemter.  Tho  cities  of  Dresden  and  Leipsic  form  departments  by 
themselves.  The  supreme  court  of  law  for  both  civil  and  criminal 
cases  is  the  Oberlandes-Gericht  at  Dresden,  subordinate  to  which 
are  seven  other  courts  in  the  other  principal  towns  and  one  hundred 
and  five  inferior  tribunals.  The  German  imperial  code  was  adopted 
bySaxonyin  1879.    Leipsic  is  the  seat  of  the  imperial  supreme  court. 

Finuna:. — The  Saxon  financial  period  embraces  a  space  of  two 
yeare.  For  18S4-5  the  "  ordinary  "  budget  showed  an  income  of 
£3,496,000,  balanced  by  the  expenditure,  which  included  a  reserve 
fund  of  £29,400.  The  chief  sources  of  income  were  taxes 
(£1,377,293,  including  £809,975  of  direct  taxes),  state-railways 
(£1,357,890),  and  the  public  forests  and  domains  (£369,171). 
Lotteries  brought  in  £232,270,  and  the  royal  porcelain  manu- 
factore  £17,500.  Tho  chief  expenditure  was  on  the  interest 
(£1,135,681)  and  sinking  fund  (£410,000)  of  the  national  debt. 
The  "  extraordinary  "  budget,  applying  exclusively  to  public  works, 
showed  an  income  and  expenditure  tallying  at  £882,800.  Tlie 
national  debt,  incurred  almost  wholly  in  making  and  buying 
railways,  amounted  on  1st  January  1885  to  £32,670,300,  mostly 
paying  interest  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent. 

jirmi/.—Tho  Saxon  army  is  modelled  on  that  of  Prussia.  It 
forms  the  12th  army  corns  in  the  imperial  German  army,  and  om- 
sista  of  the  23rd  and  24th  divisions,  with  hcadquartcre  at  Dresden 
and  Leipsic  respectively.  On  its  peace-footing  tlie  Saxon  contingent 
includes  20,600  infantry,  4180  cavalry,  and  3000  artillery  ;  in  war 
it  has  75,800  infantry,  6630  cavalry,  and  8050  artillery. 

The  sfntl.^Ociil  Infoi-mation  in  the  abovo  nrtlclo  hni  hf(n  derived  chkfljr  from 
Iho  Kalenilar  vn<l_MtallUisclw>  Ja/irbuch  fur  dat  KaaOjieirk  Saelnen  (LHc»Ucn 
1875-8C)  mid  tho  Ztllichri/I  Jrt  Kuiil^llc/im  Sadithclirt,  ilatlillsclten  Bureau 
(Urcikicn,  lEiS-S'S).  Tlio  Slaalihaadbucl,  fSr  dot  KOuOjrekh  Sathun  Is  m 
annual  oHlclol  rcglMcr.  Engcllwirtfs  Varrrlandttundc /llr  SchuU  ujid  Haus  im 
KoaigrtUJi  Suchim  COrcsd™,  3d  «d.  by  lliitlie,  1S77)  contnlns  n  comprelicnsivo 
necount  o(  tiie  country  nnd  111  rcsourcej;  Diid  Dnniulj  llanjbuch  der  aeogrnphU 
•(Lclrislc,  1631)  clearly  Bummnriicn  tho  principal  polnlii.  Tho  standuid  history  of 
kiixony  1.  BOltlcers  r,„(Uchl,  dri  Kurilaatt  u«d  KSnlgrtlchi  Saeltsem  (3  vol» 
^ottM  Sd  cd  tdllcd  .nd  conllnued  by  Flathc,  ISC7-73).  Itrnnde.'a  Orundiin 
der  SaclilUchm  CetcMMe  (Lei|,»ic.  1360)  1»  n  aucclnct  but  .oniCMh.it  dry  sum- 
'^rl:  °""'  ''"Jl"!!  »»■!<'  on  tho  tubjects  ape  Grol.chcl,  OikUM,  dn 
fS,,  r-f "!,  *"""'  ,"'"'  ''°'*'  <'^  ""  •  '••■'1»'<--  5'1  ''I-  ""tinned  by  r.nlau, 
Ji  .  .  I'  „">;"""■  "'"''I'l'"  ''"  SdclisUclim  VolU  (2  vol..,  I-olpsic,  lsr.n-35)  ■ 
Hclnrich,  *.c/,.(..Ae  achUhu  (2  voij.,  Leipalc,  )810-12)-.  and  Wel.w,  Oeiihlchtc 
f^.n'if'",^"  f """"  'Z  ""''••  '"P"""-  II'W-l^)-  Tho  puMic.lion  of  tho 
.,^h      r  "m  •^■'■''""•' «'!''»  was  begun  in  ISM  undrrthc  eare  ot  Gcr»dorf, 

M<a  h»«  Ivxncontlnmcd  under  ro„o  and  EmcriKh.     ro^.B  haj  alw  pubii.hrd 

-ifAfc/l»  (Uii-Jc,  0  to!..),  «hlch  conlWni  full  laroniatloo  m  to  woii.-«a  the 


Iilstory  of  tha  country.  Webcv'a  older  Ai-chiv  fiir  die  Sdehsiiche  Qecchicltte 
appeared  In  1864  tq.\  and  a  still  older  periodical  publication  on  tho  subject  Is 
Vun  Biaun'a  itonatUcher  Auszuy  aus  d^r  Gcschiclite  d^s  Kur-  und  Funt'ichen 
JIauics  SachitJU  {C  vela.,  Langensalza,  1778-81).  See  also  Tutaclimann'a  Atlcu 
eur  Geschichte  der  Sdchniicheji  Lander  (GrllTima,  1852).  (F.  MU.) 

SAXONY,  Prussian  (Germ.  Provinz  Sackscn),  one  of  f 
the  central  provinces  of  tbe  kingdom  of  Prussia,  consists  ' 
mainly  of   what  was   formerly  the  northern  part  of  th 
kingdom  of  Saxony  (ceded  to   Prussia  in  1815),  but  ale- 
comprises   the  duchy  of    Magdeburg,  the   Altmark,    anil 
other  districts,  the  connexion  of  which  with  Prussia  is  o 
earlier  date.     Th^  area  of   the  province  is  9750  squar. 
miles.       On    the    W.    it   is    bounded    by    Hesse-Nassau, 
Hanover,  and   Brunswick,  on    the   N.  by   Hanover   and 
Brandenburg,  on  the  E.  by  Brandenburg  and  Silesia,  and 
on    the   S.    by   the  kingdom   of   Saxony  and   the   small 
Thuringian  states.     It  is,  however,  very  irregular  in  form, 
entirely  surrounding  parts  of  Brunswick  and  tho  Thuringiai 
states,  and  itself  possessing  several  "exclaves,"  while  the 
northern  portion  of  tha  province  is  almost  entirely  severed 
from  the  southern  by  the  duchy  of  Anhalt.     The  major 
part  of  tho  province  is  flat  and  belongs  to  the  great  North- 
German  plain,  but  the  western  and  south-western  districts 
are  hilly,  including  parts  of  the  Harz  (wi'h  the  Brocken, 
3417    feet)   and    tho    Thuringian    Forest.    .  About    nine- 
tenths  of  Prussian  Saxony  belongs  to  the  system  of  the 
Elbe,  the  chief  feeders  of  which  within  the  province  are  tho 
Saale  and  the  Jfulde,  but  a  email  district  on  the  west  drain 
into   the  Weser.     The  saltwater  lakes  between  Halle  and 
Fislcben  are  the  only  lakes  of  tho  kind  in  Prussia. 

Saxony  is  on  the  whole  the  most  fertile  province 
or  Prussia,  and  excels  all  the  others  in  its  produce  of 
wheat  and  beetroot  sugar  (as  well  as  in  salt,  brown  coal 
and  copper),  but  the  nature  of  its  soil  is  very  unequal 
The  best  crofvproducing  districts  lie  near  the  base  of  the 
Harz  Mountains,  such  a.s  the  "  Magdeburger  Bcirde"  and 
the  "  Goldene  Aue,"  and  rich  pasture  lands  (iccur  in  tha 
river  valleys,  but  the  sandy  plains  of  the  Altmark,  in  the 
north  part  of  the  province,  yield  but  a  scanty  return  foi 
the  husbandman's  toil. 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  provinco  CI  per  ecni-.  is  occupied  bj 
arable  land,  13  per  cent,  by  meadows  and  pastures,  and  20*6  jier 
cent,  by  forests.  Wheat  and  rye  aic  raised  in  such  abundance  aa 
to  allow  of  a  considerable  export,  while  tlie  other  grain  crops  meel 
the  local  demand.  Tho  beetroot  for  sugar  is  grown  chieny  in  the 
district  to  tlio  north  of  the  Harz,  as  far  as  tho  Ohrc,  and'  on  the 
banks  of  the  Saale  ;  and  the  amount  of  sugar  juoduccd  (upwards 
of  400,000  tons  in  1883-84)  is  nearly  as  much  as  that  of  all  the 
rest  of  Prussia  together.  Flax,  hops,  and  seeds  for  oil  are  also 
cultivated  to  some  extent,  and  large  fjunntities  of  excellent  fruit 
are  grown  at  the  foot  of  tho  Il.-irz  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Unstrut 
and  the  Saale.  The  market-gardening  of  Eifuit  is  well-known 
tliroughout  Germany.  Wine,  of  indiireient  quality,  is  produced 
in  tho  vicinity  of  Kaninburg.  Saxony  is  conii>aratively  poor  in 
timber,  though  there  nro  some  fine  forests  in  the  Harz  an<l  other 
hilly  districts.  Cattle-rearing  is  carried  on  with  success  in  ilio 
river  valleys,  and  more  goats  are  met  with  here  than  in  any  other 
l^ai't  of  Prussia.  Tlic  live-stock  census  for  1883  gave  the  followin,'; 
tigure-s  :— horses,  182,485;  cattle,  624,973;  sheep,  1,300,915;  [ligf, 
719,627;  goats,  261,225.  (Compare  tho  tables  under  I'uussiA, 
vol.  XX.  p.  14.) 

The  principal  underground  wealth  of  Prussian  Saxony  consists 
of  its  salt  and  its  brown  coal,  of  both  of  whicli  it  possesses  largci 
stores  than  any  other  part  of  the  German  enqiiic.  Tho  rock-sail 
mines  and  brine  springs  (tho  chief  of  which  are  at  Stassfurt, 
S.hbncbcck,  Halle,  kc.)  produced  in  1883-4  no  less  than  256,000 
tons  of  salt,  wliilo  tho  annual  output  of  brown  coal  amounts  to 
about  8  million  tons,  or  more  than  the  entire  yield  of  the  rest  of 
Germany.  Prussian  Saxony  also  possesses  three- fourths  of  the 
wealth  ofGcrmanyin  copper,  the  yield  in  18S3  amounting  to445,000 
tons  of  ore  and  11,000  tons  of  tlio  pure  metal.  The  copper  mines 
are  found  chiefly  in  tho  Harz  district  The  other  mineral  resonrcea 
incluJc  silver  (ono-tliird  of  the  total  German  yield),  pit-coal, 
pyiites,  alum,  plaster  of  Paris,  sulphur,  alabaster,  and  several 
varieties  of  good  building-stone.  Numerous  mineral  springs  oecnr 
in  tlic  Harz. 

hi  addition  to  the  production  of  sugar  already  nuied,  the  most, 
important  industries  nro  the  manufactures  of  cloth,  Icnther,  iro-i 
a:.l    steel  wares  (chiefly  at  Sulil  and   SiJmmcrda),  spirits  (Noru- 


360 


S  A  Y  —  S  ^.  Y 


hausen),  chemicals  (Stassfurt),  and  starcli.  Beer  h  also  brcK°d 
extensively  in  Prussian  Saxony,  where  the  annual  consumption 
per  head  (107  quarts)  is  considerably  in  excess  of  the  average  for 
the  kingdom.  Trade  is  much  facilitated  by  the  great  waterway  of 
the  Elbe,  as  well  aa  by  a  very  complete  system  of  railways.  The 
chief  articles  are  wool,  grain,  sugar,  salt,  lignite,  and  the  principal 
manufactured  products  iKimed  above. 

The  population  uf  tlie  province  of  Saxony  in  18S0  wa.s  2,312,007, 
including  2,154,663  Protestants,  145,018  Roman  Catholics,  and 
C700  Jews  ;  in  1835,  according  to  provisional  census  returns,  tlie 
population  was  2,427,968.  The  great  bulk  of  tiie  inhabitants  are 
of  unmixed  German  stock,  but  many  of  those  in  the  east  part  of 
tiie  province  ha»e  W'enJish  blood  in  their  veins.  The  piovince 
belongs  to  the  more  thickly  populated  parts  of  Germany,  the  aver, 
ago  being  237  i.^rson3  to  the  st^uare  mile,  and  the  ratio  of  the  urban 
]iopulatior:  to  the  rural  is  about  as  4^  to  5^.  The  occ'niatiou 
pensue  of  1382  gives  the  following  percentages  for  tlie  different 
•la-sses  of  the  population  : — agficuhural.  36"7S;  industrial,  35'18  ; 
trade,  8"15:  domestic  servants  and  day  labourei-s,  870;  official  and 
jtt*ofessional,  5'12. 

Prussian  Saxony  is  divided  into  the  three  governmeiit  districts 
«f  Magdeburg,  Slei-scburg,  and  Erfurt.  Magdeburg  is  the  most 
important  town  and  the  headquarters  of  an  army  corjw,  but  the 
provincial  chambers  meet  at  filerseburg.  The  province  sends 
tiventy  members  to  the  rcichstag  and  thirty-eight  to  the  Prussian 
kouse  of  representatives.  Tlie  religious  control  of  the  district  is 
in  the  hands  of  a  consistory  at  Jlagdeburg  ;  the  Roman  Catholics 
belong  to  the  diocese  of  Paderborn.  The  university  of  Halle  holds 
a  high  rank  among  German  seats  of  learning,  and  the  other  educa- 
tional requirements  of  the  province  are  adequately  provided  for. 
The  illiterate  recruits  of  this  province  in  1883-4  numbered  only 
13  out  of  a  total  of  7868,  equivalent  to  0'17  per  cent.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Magdeburg  (about  150,000  inhabitants,  including 
Neustadt  and  Buckau),  Hrflc  (81,869),  Erfurt  (58,307).  Halberstadt 
(34,048),  Nordhauscn,  Miihlhausen,  and  Aschersleben. 

The  history  of  the  present  Prussian  province  of  Saxony  as  such 
dates  only  from  1815,  and  is,  of  course,  merely  of  local  interest. 
The  previous  history  of  its  constituent  parts,  of  considerable  more 
interest  and  importance,  must  be  sought  for  under  the  various 
headings  that  will  suggest  themselves,  such  as  Saxony  (supra), 
Pbu.=isia,  Magdebuko,  Erfuiit,  kc.  It  is,  however,  worth  noting 
that  the  province  comprises  the  Altmark  or  old  North  Mark  that 
f')rmed  the  kernel  of  the  Prussian  state  (see  Pri:ssia,  vol.  X-X.  p. 
2),  anil  also  the  old  bishoprics  on  the  Elbe  and  Saale,  from  which 
ad  a  centre  the  Christiauization  of  Germany  mainly  spread.  And 
th.2  leading  position  of  this  part  of  Gerin*ny  in  promoting  the 
Reformation  should  also  be  remembered. 

SAY,  Jean  Baptiste  (1767-1832),  an  eminent  I*rencli 
political  economi.st,  was  born  at  Lyons  5th  January  17C7. 
Iii3  father,  Jean  fitienne  Say,  -s-as  of  a  Protestant  family 
v/hich  had  originally  belonged  to  Ntmes,  but  had  removed 
to  Geneva  for  some  time  in  consequence  of  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Young  Say  was  intended  to 
follow  a  commercial  career,  and  wds  accordingly  sent,  with 
his  brother  Horace,  to  England,  .and  lived  first  at  Croy- 
don, in  the  house  of  a  merchant,  to  whom  he  acted  as 
derli,  and  afterwards  at  London,  where  he  was  in  the 
service  of  another  employer.  When,  on  the  death  of  the 
latter,  he  returned  to  France,  he  was  employed  in  the 
office  of  a  life  assurance  company  directed  by  Claviire, 
afterwards  known  in  politics.  It  was  Claviere  who  called 
his  attention  to  the  Wealth  of  Nations,  and  the  study  of 
that  work  revealed  to  liim  his  vocation.  His  first  literary 
attempt  was  a  vamphlct  on  the  liberty  of  the  press,  pub- 
lished in  17SC'.  He  worked  under  the  celebrated  Mira- 
beau  on  the  Counicr  <te  Provence.  In  1792  he  took  part 
13  a  volunteer  in  the  campaign  of  Champagne;  in  1793 
he  assumed,  in  conformity  with  the  Revolutionary  fashion, 
the  pre-name  of  Alliens,  and  became  secretary  to  Claviere, 
then  finance  minister.  He  married  in  1793  Mile.  Deloche, 
daughter  of  a  former  avoeat  au  cnnscil ;  the  young  pair 
were  greatly  straitened  in  means  in  consequence  of  the 
depreciation  of  the  assignats.  From  1794  to  1800  Say 
edited  a  periodical  entitled  La  Decade  pAilosophiqKe,  lit- 
teraire,  et  politique,  in  which  he  expounded  the  doctrines 
of  Adam  Smith.  He  had  by  this  time  established  his 
reputation  as  a  publicist,  and,  when  the  consular  govern- 
ment was  established  in  the  year  VIII  (1799),  he  was 
selected  as  one  of  the  hundred  members  of  the  tribunate, 


and  resigned.  ■^.  consequence,  the  direction  of  the  Decade:. 
He  publishea  in  1800  OHie.  nn  Essai  stir  les  moyens  dt 
riformer  l-'s  mcfurs  dune  nation. 

In  1803  appeared  his  principal  work,  the  Traite  cC 
isonomie  Politn/ve.  In  1604,  h.'ivipg  shown  his  unwTll 
ingness  to  sacrifice  '!•;*'  conviction^  for  the  purpose  of 
'  furthering  the  desigcs  of  Napoleon,  he  was  removed  from 
I  the  office  of  tribune,  be.r.g  at  the  same  time  nominated 
to  a  lucrative  post,  which,  however,  he  thought  it  his 
duty  to  resign  He  then  turned  to  indu.'^trial  pursuits, 
and,  having  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  processes  of 
the  cotton  manufacture,  founded  at  Auchy,  in  the  Pas 
de  Calais,  a  spinning-mill  which  employed  four  or  five 
hundred  persons,  principally  women  and  children.  He: 
devoted  his  leisure  hours  to  the  improvement  of  his 
economic  treatise,  which  had  for  some  time  been  out  of 
print,  but  which  the  censorship  did- not  permit  him  to 
republish;  and  in  181-1  he  availed  himself  (to  use  his  own 
words)  of  the  sort  of  liberty  arising  from  the  entrance  of 
the  allied  powers  into  France  to  bring  out  a  second  edition 
of  the  work,  dedicated  to  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  had 
professed  himself  his  pupil  In  the  same  year  the  French  ' 
Government  sent  him  to  study  the  economic  condition  cf 
Great  Britain.  The  results  of  his  observations  during  his 
journsy  through  England  and  Scotland  a.ppeared  in- a  tract 
De  I'Angleterre  et  des  Anylais  ;  and  his  conversations  with 
distinguished  men  in  those  countries  contributed,  he  tells 
us,  to  give  greater  correctness  to  the  exposition  of  prin- 
ciples in  the  third  edition  of  the  Traite,  which  appeared 
in  1817.  A  chair  of  industrial  economy  was  founded  for 
him  in  1819  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Jli^tiers,  in 
which  he  lectured  with  ability  and  success.  In  1831  he 
was  made  professor  of  political  economy  at  the  College  de 
France.  He  published  in  1828-30  his  Cours  Complet 
d'£cono?nie  Politique  pratique,  which  is  in  the  main  an 
expansion  of  the  Traits,  with  practical  applications.  In 
his  later  years  he  became  subject  to  attacks  of  nervous, 
apoplexy,  which  increasingly  reduced  his  strength.  He 
lost  his  wife,  to  whomhe  was  fondly  attached,  in  January 
1830;  and  from  that  time  his  health  constantly  declined. 
WTien  the  revolution  of  that  year  broke  out,  he  was  named 
a  member  of  the  council-general  of  the  department  of  the 
Seine,  but  found  it  necessary  to  resign  that  position. 
He  died  at  Paris  16th  November  1832,  leaving  behind 
him  a  well-earned  reputation  for  private  worth  and  polit- 
ical integrity. 

Say  was  essentially  a  propagandist,  not  an  originator.  Hii  great 
service  to  mankind  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  disseminated  throughout 
Europe  by  means  of  the  French  language,  and  popularized  by  Iiis 
clear  and  easy  style,  the  economic  doctrines  of  Adam  Smith.  It 
is  true  that  his  French  panegyrists  (and  he  is  not  himself  free 
from  censure  on  this  score)  are  unjust  in  their  estimate  of  Smith  as 
an  expositor  ;  they  give  false  or  exaggerated  ideas  of  his  obscurity, 
his  piolixity,  and  his  want  of  method  ;  and  tiicy  accordingly  extol 
too  highly  the  merits  of  Say.  Those  merits  arc,  however,  real 
and  considerable  ;  his  writings  were  without  doubt  very  elTcctivo 
in  diffusing  throughout  Continental  Europe  a  taste  for  economic 
inquiry  and  a  knowledge  of  its  principal  results.  On  the  side  of 
the  philosophy  of  science  Say  is  weak  ;  his  observations  on  that 
subject  are  usually  commonplace  or  superficial.  Thus  lie  accepts 
the  shallow  dictum  of  Condillac  that  tovtc  scicnc/s  sc  re'duit  li  une 
lanrjne  bicn/aiCe.  He  recognizes  political  economy  and  statistics 
as  alike  sciences,  and  represents  tlie  distinction  between  them  as 
having  never  been  made  before  him,  though  he  quotes  what  Smith 
had  said  of  political  arithmetic.  "Whilst  always  deserving  the 
praise  of  honesty,  sincerity,  and  independence,  he  is  very  inferior 
to  his  great  predecessor  in  breadth  of  view  on  moral  and  political 
questions.  In  his  general  conception  of  hunlbn  affairs  ther-;  is  a 
tendency  to  regard  too  exclusively  the  material  side  of  tilings, 
■which  made  him  pre-eminently  the  economist  of  the  French  liberal 
bourgeoisie  ;  thus  Storch  justly  censures  the  levity  with  which  ho 
doubts  the  necessity  of  a  public  religious  cultus,  suggesting  that 
enlightened  nations  might  dispense  with  it  "  as  the  Pacific  islanders 
do."  Ho  is  inspired  wi.h  the  dislike  and  jcilousy  of  Governments 
so  otten  felt  and  expressed  by  tiiinkcrs  formed  in  the  social 
atmosphere  of  the  last  century.     Scidicra  are  for  him  not  merely" 


S  C  A  — S  0  A 


361 


unpi"oductive  labourers,  as  Smith  called  them ;  they  are  rather 
"destructive  labourers."  **A  nation  might,"  he  says,  "strictly 
speaking,  subsist  withoiit  a  government,  each  profession  exchang- 
ing the  fruits  of  its  labours  with  the  products  of  the  labours  of 
others," — a  remark  which  bctTays  the  notion  that  ecoaoraic  coin- 
cides with  social  life.  Taxes  are  uncompensated  payments  ;  they 
are  plagues  like  hail,  war,  or  depredation;  they  rriy  fitly  be 
described  as  of  the  nature  of  robbery.  AVhen  he  says,  "  Lorsqu' 
■on  vous  vend  un  privilege,  comme  le  droit  de  chasse,  ou  seulemcnt 
de  port  d'armes,  on  vous  vole  votre  droit  naturel  d'etre  arme  pour  le 
"Vous  vendre  apr^s  I'avoir  vole,"  we  see  that  we  are  still  iu  the  region 
of  the^MS  naiitrai,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  the  old  economics. 
Say  is  considered  to  have  brought  out  the  importmce  of  capital 
as  a  factor  in  prodilction  more  distinctly  than  the  English  econo- 
mists, who  unduly  emphasized  labour.  The  special  doctrines  most 
commonly  mentioned  as  due  to  hira  are — (1)  that  of  *'immatenal 
products/"  and  (2)  what  is  called  his  **theorie  des  debouches." 
Objecting,  as  Germain  Gamier  had  done  before  him,  to  Smith's 
well-known  distinction  between  productive  and  unproductive 
laboixr,  ho  maintains  that,  production  consisting  in  the  creation  or 
addition  of  a  utility,  all  useful  labour  is  productive.  Ho  is  thus 
led  to  recognize  immaterial  products,  whoso  characteristic  quality 
is  that  they  are  consumed  immediately  and  are  incapable  of  accumu- 
lation ;  under  this  head  are  to  be  ranged  the  services  rendered 
either  by  a  person,  a  capital,  or  a  portion  of  land,  as,  €.(/,,  the 
advantages  derived  from  medical  attendance,  or  from  a  hired  house, 
-or  from  a  beautiful  view.  But  in  working  out  the  consequences  of 
this  view  Say  is  not  free  (as  Storch  has  shown)  from  obscurities 
and  inconsistencies  ;  and  by  his  comprehension  of  these  immaterial 
products  within  the  domain  of  economics  he  is  confirmed  in  the 
error  of  regarding  that  science  as  filling  the  whole  sphere  which 
really  belongs  to  sociology.  His  "  theorie  des  debouches  ^  amounts 
to  this,  that,  products  beiug,  in  last  analysis,  purchased  only  \nih 
products,  the  extent  of  the  markets  (or  outlets)  for  home  products 
is  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  foreign  productions ;  when  the 
sale  of  any  commo(iity  is  dull,  it  is  because  there  is  not  a  sufiicient 
number,  or  rather  value,  of  other  commodities  produced  with  which 
it  could  be  purchased.  Another  proposition  on  which  Say  insists 
is  that  every  value  is  consumed  and  is  created  only  to  be  consumed. 
Valqes  can  therefore  be  accumulated  only  by  being  reproduced  in 
the  course  or,  as  often  happens,  by  the  very  act  of  consumption  ; 
hence  his  distinction  between  reproductive  and  unproductive  con- 
sumption. We  find  in  him  other  corrections  or  new  presentations 
of  views  previously  accepted,  and  some  useful  suggestions  for  the 
improvement  of  nomenclature. 

Say'8  writings  occupy  vols,  Ii.-xll.  of  GuIIlaumln'a  CoUeetion  des  Prineipaux 
ieonomiitei.  Among  them  are,  In  addition  to  tli030  already  mentioned, 
Catechisme  d"  Economie  Politique,  1815  ;  Pttit  Volume  conlenant  quelgues  aper^us 
des  ffommes  et  de  la  Sorirttf,  Lcttres  h  Malthus  sur  diff-^rens  tvjets  rf  Economii 
Politique,  ls-20;  £pUome  det  Prineipcs  de  V  £conomie  Polilique,  1631,  A 
volume  of  ife'langcs  et  Con-espondance  vaa  pablisbed  posthamously  by  Charles 
Comte,  anthor  of  the  Traits  de  Legislation,  who  was  his  son-in-law.  To  the 
above  must  be  added  an  edition  of  Storch's  Court  d"  Economic  Politique,  which 
Say  publlahcd  In  1823  without  Storch's  authorization,  with  notes  embodying  a 
"critique  am^re  et  vimletite,"  c  piocccding  \\hich  Storch  justly  rcsenlcd. 

The  last  edition  of  the  Traill  d"  £conomie  Politique  which  appeared  during  the 
life  of  the  author  was  the  5fh(182G);  the  6lh,  wiUi  the  author's  final  con  cct ions, 
was  edited  by  the  eldest  son,  Horace  tmile  Suy,  liimself  known  as  an  cconomisr, 
In  1846.  The  woik  was  translated  into  Enalish  ''from  the  4th  edition  of  the 
French"  by  C.  R.  Prinaep  (1821).  Into  German  by  Ludwig  Helnrich  von  Jakob 
(180T)  and  by  C.  Ed.  Morstndt  (1S18,  and  1«30>.  and,  aa  Say  himself  Informs  us, 
into  Spanish  by  Jos^  Qucypo.  The  Court  d'  Economic  Politique  ptatique,  from 
which  Morstadt  had  giren  extracts,  was  translated  Into  German  by  >hix  Stlmer 
fl845).  Tlie  Cat^chii/n4  and  tho  Pettt  Volume  have  also  been  translolcd  into 
•ovcral  European  languages.  An  English  version  of  the  Leitrcs  a  Malthiu 
-ap^^eal*8  in  vol,  xvil.  of  the  Pamphleteer,  1821.  (J.  K.  I.) 

SCALA  NOVA,  Scala  Nuova,  or  (Turkish)  Kush- 
ADASSI,  also  known  as  New  EpLesus,  a  harbour  oa  the 
west  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  vilayot  of  Aidin,  opposite 
the  island  of  Samos.  Before  the  opening  of  tho  Smyrna- 
Aidin  railway  its  excellent  roadstead  was  largely  fre- 
quented by  vessels  trading  with  the  Anatolian  coast,  and 
it  has  often  been  proposed  to  connect  it  with  this  system 
by  a  branch  line,  and  thus  enable  it  to  compete  with 
Smyrna  as  a  trading  centre.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  7000  to  10,000,  of  whom  about  3000  are  Greeks. 

SCALIGER.  For  some  account  of  tho  great  Delia 
Scala  (Lat.  Scaliger)  family,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Verona.  Tho  name  has  also  been  borne  by  two 
scholars  of  extraordinary  eminence  in  the  world  of  letters!. 

I.  Julius  Cesar  Scaliger  (1484-15.58),  so  distin- 
guished by  his  learning  and  talents  that,  according  to  De 
Thou,  no  one  of  tho  ancients  could  bo  placed  above  him  and 
tho  age  in  which  he  lived  could  not  show  his  equal,  was, 
according  to  his  o-vn  account,  a  scion  of  tho  illustrious 
house  of  La  Scala,  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  princes  of 


Verona,  and  was  born  in  1484  at  the  castle  of  La  Bocca 
ou  tho  Lago  de  Garda.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was 
presented  to  his  kinsman  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and 
placed  by  him  among  his  pages.  He  remained  for 
seventeen  years  in  the  service  of  the  emperor,  following 
him  iu  his  expeditions  through  half  Europe,  and  distin- 
guishing himself  no  less  by  personal  bravery  as  a  soldier 
than  by  military  skill  as  a  captain.  But  he  was  unmind- 
ful neither  of  letters,  in  which  ho  had  the  most  eminent 
scholars  of  the  day  as  his  instructors,  nor  of  art,  which  he 
studied  with  considerable  success  under  Albert  Diirer. 
In  1512  he  fought  at  the  battle  of  Eavenina,  where  his 
father  and  elder  brother  were  killed.  He  there  displayed 
prodigies  of  valour,  and  received  the  highest  honours  of 
chivalry  from  his  imperial  cousin,  the  emperor  conferring 
upon  him  with  his  own  hands  the  spurs,  tho  collar,  and 
the  eaglo  of  gold.  But  this  was  the  only  reward  he 
obtained  for  his  long  and  faithful  devotion.  He  left  the 
service  of  Maximilian,  and  after  a  brief  employment  by 
another  kinsman,  the  duke  of  Ferrara,  he  decided  to  quit 
the  military  life,  and  in  1514  entered  as  a  student  at  the 
university  of  Bologna.  He  determined  to  take  holy 
orders,  in  the  expectation  that  he  would  become  in  due 
time  cardinal,  and  then  be  elected  pope,  when  he  would 
wrest  from  the  Venetians  his  principality  of  Verona,  of 
which  tho  republic  had  despoiled  his  ancestors.  But,' 
though  he  soon  gave  up  this  design,  he  remained  at  the 
university  until  1519.  The  next  six  years  he  passed  at 
the  castle  of  Vico  Nuova,  in  Piedmont,  as  a  guest  of  tho 
family  of  La  Eovire,  at  first  dividing  his  time  between 
military  expeditious  in  the  summer,  in  which  he  achieved 
great  successes,  and  study,  chiefly  of  merlicine  and 
natural  history,  in  the  winter,  until  a  severe  attack  of 
rheumatic  gout  brought  his  military  career  to  a  close. 
Henceforth  his  life  was  wholly  devoted  to  study.  In 
1525  he  accompanied  M.  A.  de  la  Eovere,  bishop  of 
Agen,  to  that  city  as  his  physician.  Such  is  the  outline 
of  his  own  account  of  his  early  life.  It  was  not  until 
some  time  after  his  death  that  the  enemies  of  his  son  first 
alleged  that  he  was  not  of  the  family  of  La  Scala,  but 
was  the  son  of  Benedetto  Bordone,  au'  illuminator  or 
schoolmaster  of  Verona ;  that  he  was  educated  at  Padua^ 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.;  and  that  his  story  of 
his  life  and  adventures  before  -arriving  at  Agen  was  a 
tissue  of  fables.  It  certainly  is  supported  by  no  other 
evidence  than  his  own  statements,  some  of  which  are 
inconsistent  with  well-ascertained  facts. 

The  remaining  thirty-two  years  of  his  life  were  passed 
almost  wholly  at  Agen,  in  the  full  light  of  contemporary 
history.  They  were  without  adventure,  almost  without 
incident,  but  it  was  in  them  that  he  achieved  so  much 
distinction  that  at  his  death  in  1558  he  had  the  hightit 
scientific  and  literary  reputation  of  any  man  in  Europe. 
A  few  days  after  his  arrival  at  Agen  he  fell  in  love  v/ith  ,i 
charming  orphan  of  thirteen,  Andiette  de  la  Roquo  Lobeja:. 
Her  friends  objected  to  her  marriage  with  an  unknown 
adventurer,  but  in  1528  he  had  obtained  so  much  success 
as  a  physician  that  the  objections  of  her  family  were  over- 
come, and  at  forty-five  he  married  Andiette,  who  was  then 
sixteen.  The  marriage  proved  a  complete  success  ;  it  wa-s 
followed  by  twenty-nino  years  of  almost  uninterrupted 
happinos-s,  and  by  the  birth  of  fifteen  children. 

A  charge  of  heresy  in  1538,  of  which  he  was  acquitted 
by  his  friendly  judges,  one  of  whom  was  his  friend  Arnoul 
Le  Ferron,  was  almost  tho  only  event  of  interest  during 
these  twenty-nine  years,  except  the  publication  of  his 
books,  and  the  quarrels  and  criticisms  to  which  they  gave 
rise. 

In  1531  he  printed  his  first  oration  against  Erasmus,  in 
defence  of  Cicero  and  the  Ciceronians.     It  is  a  piece  of 

"SXl.  —  46 


362 


S  C  il  L  I  G  E  R 


vigorous  invective,  displaying,  like  all  Lis  euBsequent 
writings,  an  astonishing  knowledge  and  conima^id  of  the 
Latin  language,  and  much  brilliant  rhetoric,  but  full  of 
vulgar  abuse,  and  completely  missing  the  point  of  the 
Ciceroniaiius  of  Erasmus.  The  writer's  indignation  at 
finding  it  treated  with  silent  contempt  by  the  great  scholar, 
who  thought  it  was  the  work  of  a  personal  enemy — Aleander 
— caused  him  to  write  a  second  oration,  more  violent, 
more  abusive,  with  more  self-glorification,  but  with  less 
real  merit  than  the  first.  The  orations  were  followed  by 
a  prodigious  quantity  of  Latin  verse,  which  appeared  in 
successive  volumes  in  1533,  1534,  1539,  1546,  and  1574; 
of  those,  a  friendly  critic,  Mr  Pattison,  is  obliged  to 
approve  the  judgment  of  Huet,  who  says  :  "  par  ses  po6sies 
brutes  et  informes  Scaliger  a  deshonor6  le  Parnasse  ; "  yet 
their  numerous  editions  show  that  they  commended  them- 
adves  not  only  to  his  contemporaries  but  to  succeeding 
scholars.  A  brief  tract  on  comic  metres  {De  Comicis 
Dimensionibus)  and  a  work  De  Causis  Lingux  Latinse — 
the  earliest  Latin  grammar  on  scientific  principles,  and 
following  a  scientific  method — were  his  only  other  purely 
literary  works  published  in  his  lifetime.  His  Poetics  was 
left  unpublished,  and  only  appeared  in  1561  after  his 
death.  •  With  many  paradoxes,  with  many  criticisms 
which  are  below  contempt,  and  many  indecent  displays  of 
violent  personal  animosity, — especially  in  his  reference  to 
the  unfortunate  Dolet,  over  whose  death  he  gloated  with 
brutal  malignity, — it  yet  contains  much  acute  criticism, 
and  shows  that  for  the  first  time  a  writer  had  appeared 
who  had  formed  an  adequate  idea  of  what  such  a  treatise 
ought  to  be,  and  how  it  ought  to  be  written. 

But  it  is  as  a  philosopher  and  a  man  of  science  that 
J.  C.  Scaliger  ought  to  be  judged.  His  tastes  were  for 
metaphysics  and  physics  rather  than  for  literature. 
Classical  studies  he  regarded  as  an  agreeable  relaxa,tion 
from  severer  pursuits.  Whatever  the  truth  or  fable  of  the 
first  forty  years  of  his  Ufe,  he  had  certainly  been  a  most 
close  and  accurate  observer,  and  had  made  himself 
acquainted  with  many  curious  and  little-known  pheno- 
mena, which  he  had  stored  up  in  &  most  tenacious  memory, 
and  which  ho  was  able  to  make  use  of  with  profit.  His 
scientific  writings  are  all  in  the  form  of  commentaries,  and 
it  was  not  until  his  seventieth  year  that  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  brief  tract  on  the  De  Insomniis  of  Hippocrates) 
he  felt  that  any  of  them  were  sufficiently  complete  to  be 
given  to  the  world.  In  1556  he  printed  his  Dialoijue  on 
the  De  Plantis  attributed  to  Aristotle,  and  in  1557  his 
Exercitationes  on  the  work  of  Cardan,  De  Suhtilitaie.  His 
other  scientific  works,  Commentaries  on  Theophrastus's 
History  of  Plants  and  Aristotle's  Ilistory  of  Animals,  he 
left  in  a  more  or  less  unfinished  state,  and  they  were  not 
printed  until  after  his  death.  They  are  all  marked  by 
the  same  characteristics  :  arrogant  dogmatism,  violence  of 
language,  irritable  vanity,  a  constant  tendency  to  self- 
glorification,  which  we  expect  to  find  only  in  the  charlatan 
and  the  impostor,  are  in  him  combined  with  extensive  real 
knowledge,  with  acute  reasoning,  with  an  observation  of 
facts  and  details  almost  unparalleled.  "»  He  displays  every- 
where what  Nf-ude  calls  "  an  intellect  teeming  with  heroic 
thought."  But  he  is  only  the  naturalist  of  his  own  time. 
That  he  anticipated  in  any  manner  the  inductive  philo- 
sophy cannot  be  contended ;  his  botanical  studies  did  not 
lead  him,  like  hia  ecutemporary  Gesner,  to  any  idea  of  a 
natural  system  of  claasification,  and  he  rejected  with  the 
utmost  arrogance  and  violence  of  language  the  discoveries 
of  Copernicus.  In  metaphysics  and  in  natural  history 
Aristotle  was  a  law  to  him^  and  in  medicine  Galen,  but 
he  was  not  a  slave  to  the  text 'or  the  details  of  either.  He 
has  thoroughly  mMtored  their  principles,  and  is  able  to 
see  when  his   masters  are  not  true  to   themselves.     Ho 


corrects  Aristotle  by  himself.  He  is  in  that  stage  of 
learning  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  harmonize  the 
written  word  wiLh  the  aclual  facts  of  nature,  and  the 
result  is  that  his  works  have  no  real  scientific  value. 
Their  interest  is  only  historical.  His  Exercitationes  upon 
the  De  Suhtilitate  of  Cardan  (1557)  is  the  book  by  -which 
Scaliger  is  best  known  as  a  philosopher.  Its  numerous 
editions  bear  witness  to  its  jrapularity,  and  until  the  final 
fall  of  Aristotle's  physics  it  continued  a  popular  text-book;, 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  an 
elaborate  commentary  upon  it  was  published  by  Sperling, 
a  professor  at  Wittenberg.  Wo  are  astonished  at  the 
encyclopaedic  wealth  of  knowledge  which  the  Exercitationes. 
display,  at  the  vigour  of  the  author's  style,  at-tho  accuracy 
of  his  observations,  but  are  obliged  to  agree  with  Naudo 
that  he  has  conmiitted  more  faults  than  he  has  discovered 
in  Cardan,  and  with  Nisard  that  his  object  seems  to  be  to 
deny  all  that  Cardan  aflirms  and  to  affirm  all  that  Cardan 
denies.  Yet  it  is  no  light  praise  that  writers  like  Leibnitz, 
and  Sir  William  Hamilton  recognize  J.  C.  Scaliger  as  the 
best  modern  exponent  of  the  physics  and  metaphysics  of 
Aristotle.     He  died  at  Ageu  21st  October  1558. 

2.  Joseph,  Justus  Scaliger  (1540-1009),  the  great- 
est scholar  of  modern  times,  was  the  tenth  child  and. 
third  son  of  Julius  C;esar  Scaliger  and  Andiette  de  la 
Roque  Lobejac  (see  above).  Born  at  Agen  in  1540,  he 
was  sent  when  twelve  years  of  age,  with  two  younger 
brothers,  to  the  college  of  Guienue  at  Bordeaux,  then, 
under  the  direction  of  Jean  Gelida.  An  outbreak  of  the- 
plague  in  1555  caused  the  boys  to  return  home,  and  for 
the  next  few  years  Joseph  was  his  father's  constant  com- 
panion and  amanuensis.  The  composition  of  Latin  verse 
was  the  chief  amusement  of  Julius  in  his  later  years,  and 
he  daily  dictated  to  his  son  from  eighty  to  a  hundred 
lines,  and  sometimes  more.  Joseph  was  also  required 
each  day  to  write  a  Latin  theme  or  declamation,  but  ia 
other  respects  he  seems  to  have  been  left  to  his  own 
devices.  The  Latin  verso  of  Julius,  faulty  as  it  is  in  all 
that  constitutes  poetry,  yet  displays  a  more  extensive- 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  and  a  greater  command 
of  its  resources,  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  versa  of 
any  of  his  contemporaries ;  and  this  constant  practice  in 
writing  and  reading  or  speaking  Latin,  under  the  super- 
vision of  one  who  knew  the  language  thoroughly,  was. 
probably  the  foundation  of  Joseph's  Latin  scholarship. 
But  the  companionship  of  his  father  was  worth  more  to, 
him  than  any  mere  instruction.  He  learned  from  Julius 
what  real  know-ledge  was,  and  that  it  did  not  consist 
in  discussions  on  words  and  phrases ;  and  to  his  father  he 
owed  it  that  he  w-as  not  a  mere  scholar,  but  something 
more — an  acute  observer,  never  losing  sight  of  the  actual 
world,  and  aiming  not  so  much  at  correcting  texts  as  at 
laying  the  foundation  of  a  science  of  historical  criticism. 

In  1558,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  he  proceeded  to  Paris, 
and  spent  four  years  at  the  university  there.  Of  his  Jifc- 
at  Paris  we  know  but  little.  Hitherto  he  had  not  studied 
Greek.  Now  he  felt  that  not  to  know  Greek  was  to  know 
nothing.  It  was  in  the  literature  of  Greece  that  he  must 
look  for  the  true  key  of  antiquity,  and  he  forthwith  began 
to  attend  the  lectures  of  Turnebus.  But  after  two  months, 
he  found  out  his  mistake.  He  had  much  to  learn  before 
he  could  be  in  a  position  to  profit  by  the  lectures  of  the 
greatest  Greek  scholar  of  the  time.  He  shut  himself  up 
in  his  chamber,  and  determined  to  teach  himself  He- 
read  Hon}er  in  twenty-one  days,  and  then  went  through 
all  the  other  Greek  poets,  orators,  and  historians,  forming 
a  grammar  for  himself  as  he  went  along.  From  Greek,. 
at  the  suggestion  of  Postcl,  he  proceeded  to  attack 
Hebrew,  and  then  Arabic  ;  of  both  he  acquired  a  respect- 
able knowledge,  though  not  the  critical  mastery  which  be 


SOALIGER 


36a 


possessed  in  Latin  and  Greek.  The  name  of  Dorat  then 
stood  as  high  as  that  of  Turnebus  as  a  Greek  scholar,  and 
far  higher  as  a  professor.  He  has  left  nothing  to  justify 
his  reputation  as  a  scholar;  but  as  a  teacher  he  un- 
doubtedly possessed  the  highest  qualifications.  He  was 
able  not  only  to  impart  knowledge,  but  to  kindle  enthu- 
siasm for  his  subject  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers  and 
pnpila.  It  was  to  Dorat  that  Scaliger  owed  the  home 
which  he  found  for  the  next  thirty  years  of  his  life.  In 
1563  the  professor  recommended  him  to  Louis  de 
Cha«taigner,  the  young  lord  of  La  Koche  Pozay,  as  p 
companion  in  his  travels,  A  close  friendship  sprung  up 
between  the  two  young  men,  which  remained  unbroken 
till  the  death  of  Louis  in  1595.  The  travellers  first  pro- 
ceeded to  Eome.  Here  they  found  Muretus,  who,  ■when 
at  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse,  had  been  a  great  favourite 
and  occasional  visitor  of  Julius  Caesar  at  Agen.  Muretus 
soon  recognized  Scaliger's  merits,  and  devoted  himself  to 
making  his  stay  at  Rome  as  agreeable  as  possible,  intro- 
ducing him  to  all  the  men  that  were  worth  knowing. 
After  visiting  a  large  part  of  Italy,  the  travellers  pa.'ssed 
to  England  and  Scotland,  taking  as  it  would  seem  La 
Koche  Pozay  on  their  way,  for  Scaliger's  preface  to  his 
first  book,  the  Conjectanea  in  Varronem,  is  dated  there  in 
December  1564.  Scaliger  formed  an  unfavourable  opinion 
of  the  English.  Their  inhuman  disposition,  and  inhos- 
pitable treatment  of  foreigners,  especially  impressed  him. 
He  was  also  disappointed  in  finding  few  Greek  manu- 
scripts and  few  learned  men.  It  was  not  until  a  much 
later  period  that  he  became  intimate  with  Kichard 
Thompson  and  other  Englishmen.  In  the  course  of  his 
travels  he  had  become  a  Protestant.  His  father,  though 
he  lived  and  died  in  the  communion  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  had  been  suspected  of  heresy,  and  it  is  probable 
that  Joseph's  sympathies  were  early  enlisted  on  the  side 
of  Protestantism.  On  his  return  to  France  he  spent  three 
years  with  the  Chastaigners,  accompanying  them  to  their 
different  chateaux  in  Poitou,  as  the  calls  of  the  civil  war 
required  their  presence.  In  1570  he  accepted  the  invita- 
tion of  Cujas,  and  proceeded  to  Valence  to  study  juris- 
prudence under  the  greatest  living  jurist.  Here  he  re- 
mained three  years,  profiting  not  only  by  the  lectures  but 
even  more  by  the  library  of  Cujas,  which  filled  no  less 
than  seven  or  eight  rooms  and  included  five  hundred 
manuscripts. 

The  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew — occurring  as  he  was 
about  to  accompany  the  bishop  of  Valence  on  an  embassy 
to  Poland — induced  him  with  other  Huguenots  to  retire 
to  Geneva,  where  he  was/received  with  open  arms,  and 
was  appointed  a  professor  iii  the  academy.  ■  He  lectured 
on  the  Organon  of  Aristotle  and  the  De  Finibus  of  Cicero 
with  much  satisfaction  to  the  students  but  with  little  to 
himself.  He  hated  lecturing,  and  was  bored  to  death 
with  the  importunities  of  the  fanatical  preachers ;  and  in 
1574  he  returned  to  France,  and  made  his  home  for  the 
next  twenty  years  in  the  chateaux  of  his  friend  the  lord  of 
La  Roche  Pozay.  Of  his  life  during  thus  period  we  have 
for  the  first  time  interesting  details  and  notices  in  the 
Lettres  frani;aiset  ineditea  de  Joseph  Scaliger,  edited  by  M. 
Tamizey  de  Larroque  (Agen,  1881),  a  volume  which  adds 
much  to  our  knowledge  of  Scaliger's  life.  Constantly 
moviiig  from  chateau  to  chateau  through  Poitou  and  the 
Limousin,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  civil  war  required, 
occasionally  taking  his  turn  as  a  guard  when  the  chateau 
was  attacked,  at  least  on  one  occasion  trailmg  a  pike  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Leaguers,  with  no  access  to  libraries, 
and  frequently  separated  even  from  his  own  books,  his  life 
during  this  period  seems  in  one  aspect  most  unsuited  to 
Btudy.  He  had,  however,  what  so  few  contempof>ry 
scholars  possessed — leisure,  and  freedom  from  uecuni-iy 


cares.  In  general  he  coold  deVote  his  whole  time  to 
study ;  and  it  was  during  this  period  of  his  life  that  he " 
composed  and  published  the  books  which  showed  how  far 
he  was  in  advance  of  all  his  contemporaries  as  a  scholar 
and  a  critic,  and  that  with  him  a  new  school  of  historical 
criticism  had  arisen.  His  editions  of  the  Catalecta  (1574), 
of  Fcstus  (1576),  of  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius 
(1577),  are  the  wgrk  of  a  man  who  writes  not  only  books 
of  instruction  for  learners,  Viut  who  is  determined  himself 
to  discover  and  communicate  to  others  the  real  meaning 
and  force  of  his  author.  Discarding  the  trivial  remarks 
and  groundless  suggestions  which  we  find  in  the  editioca 
of  nearly  all  his  contemporaries  and  predecessors,  he  first 
laid  down  and  applied  sound  rules  of  criticism  and 
emendation,  and  changed  textual  criticism,  from  a  series 
of  haphazard  and  frequently  baseless  guesses,  into  a 
"  rational  procedure  subject  to  fixed  laws "  (Pattison). 
But  these  work^  while  proving  Scaliger's  right  to  the 
foremost  place  among  his  contemporaries  as  far  as  Latin 
scholarship  and  criticism  were  concerned,  did  not  go  beyond 
mere  scholarship.  It  was  reserved  for  his  edition  of 
Manilius  (1579), and  hia De EmeTuJaticne  Temporum  (1580), 
to  revolutionize  all  the  received  ideas  of  the  chronology  of 
ancient  history, — to  show  for  the  first  time  that  ancient 
chronology  was  of  the  highest  importance  as  a  corrector 
as  well  as  a  supplement  to  historical  narrative,  that 
ancient  history  is  not  confined  to  that  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  but  also  comprises  that  of  the  Persians,  the 
Babylonians,  and  the  Egyptians,  hitherto  neglected  as 
absolutely  worthless,  and  that  of  the  Jews,  hitherto  treated 
as  a  thing  apart  and  too  sacred  to  be  mixed  up  with  the 
others,  and  that  the  historical  narratives  and  fragments 
of  each  of  these,  and  their  several  systems  of  chronology, 
must  be  carefully  and  critically  compared  together,  if  any 
true  and  general  conclusions  on  ancient  history  are  to  be 
arrived  at.  It  is  this  which  constitutes  his  true  glory, 
and  which  places  Scaliger  on  so  immeasurably  higher  an 
eminence  than  any  of  his  contemporaries.  Yet,  while  the 
scholars  of  his  time  admitted  his  pre-eminence,  neither 
they  nor  those  who  immediately  followed  seem  to  have 
appreciated  his  real  merit,  but  to  have  considered  his- 
eraendatory  criticism,  and  his  skill  in  Greek,  as  constitut- 
ing his  claim  to  special  greatness.  "  Scaliger's  gieat 
works  in  historical  criticism  had  overstepped  any  pov.er 
of  appreciation  which  the  succeeding  age  possesscl " 
(Pattison).  His  commentary  on  ManQius  is  really  a 
treatise  on  the  astronomy  of  the  ancients,  and  it  forms 
an  introduction  to  the  De  Emendatione  Temporum,  in  which 
he  examines  by  the  light  of  modern  and  Copernican 
science  the  ancient  system  as  applied  to  epochs,  calendars, 
and  computations  of  time,  showing  upon  what  principles 
they  were  based. 

In  the  remaining  twenty-four  years  of  his  life  ho  at 
once  corrected  and  enlarged  the  basis  which  lie  had  laid 
in  the  De  Emendatione.  With  incredible  patience,  some- 
times with  a  happy  audacity  of  conjecture  which  itself  is 
almost  genius,  he  succeeded  in  reconstructing  the  lo.st 
Chronicle  of  Eusebius— one  of  the  most  precious  remains 
of  antiquity,  and  of  the  highest  value  for  ancient 
chronology.  This  he  printed  in  ICOC  in  his  Thesam~us 
Temporum,  in  which  ho  collected,  restored,  and  arranged 
every  chronological  relic  extant  in  Greek  or  Latin.  In 
1590  Lipsius  retired  from  Leyden,  where  for  twelve  years 
he  had  been  professor  of  Roman  history  and  antiquities. 
The  university  and  its  protectors,  the  statetgeneral  of 
Holland  and  the  prince  of  Orange,  resolved  to  obtain 
Scaliger  as  his  successor.  He  declined  their  offer.  H'" 
hated  the  thought  of  lecturing,  and  there  were  those 
among  his  friends  who  erroneously  believed  that  witl« 
the,  success  of   Heiu-y  IV.    'earning  would  flourish,  and 


364 


SCALI&ER 


Protestantism  be  no  bar  to  distinction  and  advancement. 
Tbo  invitation  was  renewed  in  the  most  gratifying  and 
flattering  manner  a  year  later.  Scaliger  would  not  be 
required  to  lecture.  The  university  only  wished  for  his 
presence.  He  would  be  in  all  respects  the  mas.ter  of  his 
time.  This  offer  Scaliger  provisionally  accepted.  About 
the  middle  of  1593  he  started  lor  Holland,  where  he 
passed  the.  remaining  thirteen  years  o£  his  life,  never 
returning  to  France.  His  reception  at  Leydcn  was  all 
that  he  could  wish.  A  handsome  income  was  assured  to 
hini.  He  was  treated  with  the  -highest  r.onsid-Tation. 
His  rank  as  a  prince  of  Verona  was  recognized.  Placed 
midway  between  The  Hague  and  Amsterdam,  he  was  able 
to  obtain,  besides  the  learned  circle  of  Leyden,  the  advant- 
ages of  the  best  society  of  both  these  capitals;  For 
Scaliger  was  no  hermit  buried  among  his  books ;  he  was 
fond  of  social  intercourse  with  persons  of  merit  and 
intelligence,  and  was  himself  a  good  talker. 

For  the  first  seven  years  of  his  residence  at  Leyden  his 
reputation  was  at  its  highest  point.  His  literary  dictator- 
ship was  unquestioned.  It  was  greater  in  kind  and  in 
extent  than  that  of  any  man  since  the  revival  of  letters — 
greater  even  than  that  of  Erasmus  had  been.  From  liis 
throne  at  Leyden  he  ruled  the  learned  world,  and  a  word 
from  him  could  make  or  mar  a  rising  reputation.  The 
electric  force  of  his  genius  drew  to  him  all  the  rising 
talent  of  the  republic.  He  was  surrounded  by  young 
men  eager  to  listen  to  and  profit  by  his  conversation,  and 
he  enjoyed  nothing  better  than  to  discuss  with  them  the 
books  they  were  reading,  and  the  men  who  wrote  them, 
and  to  open  up  by  his  suggestive  remarks  the  true 
methods  and  objects  of  philological  and  historical  study. 
He  encouraged  Grotius  when  only  a  youth  of  sixteen  to 
edit  Capella;  the  early  death  of  the  younger  Douza  he  wept 
as  that  of  a  beloved  son;  Daniel  Heinsius, "from  being 
bis  favourite  pupil,  became  his  most  intimate  friend. 
But  Scaliger  had  made  numerous  enemies.  He  hated 
ignorance,  but  he  hated  still  more  half  learning,  and  most 
of  all  dishonesty  in  argument  or  in  quotation.  Himself 
the  scml  of  honour  and  truthfulness,  with  a  single  aim  in 
all  his  writings,  namely,  to  arrive  at  the  truth,  he  had  no 
tojeratioij  for  the  disingenuous  arguments,  and  the  mis- 
sfa'tements  of  facts,  of  those  who  WTOte  to  support  a  theory 
or  to  defend  an  unsound  cause.  Neither  in  his  conversa- 
tion nor  in  his  writings  did  he  conceal  his  contempt  for 
the  ignorant  and  the  dishonest.  His  pungent  sarcasms  were 
soon  carried  to  the  ears  of  the  persons  of  whom  they  weffe 
uttered,  and  his  pen  was  not  less  bitter  than  his  tongue. 
He  resembles  his  father  in  his  arrogant  tone  towards 
those  whom  he  despises  and  those  whom  he  hates,  and 
he  despises  and  hates  all  who  differ  from  him.  He  is 
conscious  of  his  power  as  a  literary  dictator,  and  not 
always  sufficiently  cautious  or  sufiiciently  gentle  in  its 
exercise.  Nor,  it  must  be  admitted,  was  Scaliger  always 
right.  He  trusted  much  to  his  memory,  which  was 
occasionally  treacherous.  His  emendations,  if  frequently 
happy,  were  sometimes  absurd.  In  laying  the  foundations 
of  a  science  of  ancient  chronology,  he  relied  sometimes 
upon  groundless,  sometimes  even  upon  absurd  hypotheses, 
frequently  upon  an  imperfect  induction  of  facts.  Some- 
times he  misunderstood  the  astronomical  science  of  the 
ancient-s,  sometimes  that  of  Copernicus  and  Tycho  Brahe. 
And  he  was  no  mathematician.  But  his  enemies  were  not. 
merely  those  whose  errors  he  had  exposed,  and  whose 
hostility  he  had  excited  by  the  violence  of  his  language. 
The  results  of  his  system  of  historical  criticism  had  been 
adverse  to  the  Catholic  controversialists,  and  to  the 
authenticity  of  many  of  the  documents  upon  which  they 
had  been  accustomed  to  rely.  The  Jesuits,  who  aspired 
■to    be    the   expounders  of  antiquity,   the   source  of   all 


scholarship  and  criticism,  perceived  that  the  writings  and 
authority  of  Scaliger  were  the  most  formidable  barrier  to 
their  claims.  It  was  the  day  of  conversions.  Muretus 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  professed  the  strictest  ortiio- 
doxy;  Lipsius  had  been  reconciled  to  the  Church  of  Rome; 
Casaubon  was  supposed  to  be  wavering;  but  Scaliger  was 
known  to  be  hopeless,  and  as  long  as  his  supremacy  was 
unquestioned  the  Protestants  had  the  victory  in  learning 
and  scholarship.  A  determined  attempt  must  be  made,  2 
not  to  answer  his  criticisms,  or  to  disprove  his  statements, 
yet  to  attack  him  as  a  man,  and  to  destroy  his  reputation. 
This  was  no  easy  task.,  for  his  moral  character  was  ab- 
solutely spotless. 

After  several  scurrilous  attacks  by  the  Jesuit  party,  in 
which  coarseness  and  violence  were  more  conspicuous  than 
ability,  in  1607  a  new  and  more  successful  attempt  was 
made.  Scaliger's  weak  point  was  his  pride.  Brought  up 
by  his  father,  whom -he  greatly  reverenced,  in  the  belief 
that  he  was  a  prince  of  Verona,  he  never  forgot  this  him- 
self, nor  suffered  it  to  be  forgotten  by  others.  Naturally 
truthful,  honourable,  and  virtuous  ia  every  respect,  he 
conceived  himself  especially  bound  to  be  so  on  account  of 
his  illustrious  ancestry.  In  1-594,  in  an  evil  hour  for  his 
happiness  and  his  reputation,  he  published  his  Ej'istola  de 
Veluslate  et  Splendore  Geittu  Scaligcrx  et  J.  C.  Scaligeri 
Vila.  In  1607  Caspar  Scioppius,- then  in  the -service  of 
the  Jesuits,  whom  he  afterwards  so  bitterly  libelled, 
published  his  Scaliger  Hypaholimsms  ("The  Supposititious 
Scaliger"),  a  quarto  volume  of  more  than  four  hundred 
pages,  written  with  consummate  ability,  in  an  admirable 
and  incisive  style,  with  the  entire  disregard  for  truth 
which  Scioppius  always  displayed,  and  with  all  the  power 
of  that  sarcasm  in  which  he  was  an  accomplished  master. 
Every  piece  of  gossip  ■  oi;  scandal  which  could  be  raked 
together  respecting  Scaliger  or  his  family  is  to  be  found 
there.  The  author  professes  to  point  out  five  hundred  lies 
in  the  Epistola  de  Vetustate  of  Scaliger,  but  the  main 
argument  of  the  book  is  to  show  the  falsity  of  his 
.pretensions  to  be  of  the  family  of  La  Scala,  and  of  the 
narrative  of  his  father's  early  life,  and  to  hold  up  bjth 
father  and  'SOn  to  contempt  and  ridicule  as  impudent 
impostors.  "No  stronger  proof,"  says  Mr  Pattison,  "can 
be  given  of  the  impressions  produced  by  this  powerftd 
philippi,c,  dedicated  to  the  defamation  erf  an  individual, 
than  that  it  has  been  the  source  from  which  the  biography 
of  Scaliger,  as  it  now  stands  in  our  biographical  collections, 
has'maiuly  flowed."  To  Scaliger  the  blow  was  crushing. 
Whatever  the  case  as  to  Julius,  Joseph  had  undoubtedly 
believed  himself  a  prince  of  Verona,  and  in  his  Epistola 
had  put  forth  with  the  most  perfect  good  faith,  and 
without  inquiry,  all  that  he  had  heard  from  his  father  as 
to  his  family  and  the  early  life  of  Julius,  It  'was  this 
good  faith  that  laid  the  way  for  his  humiliation.  His 
Episfxila  IS  full  of  blunders  and  mistakes  of  fact,  and, 
relying  partly  on  his  own  memory  partly  on  his  father's 
good  faith,  he  has  not  verified  one  of  the  statements  of 
Julius,  most  of  which,  to  speak  most  favourably,  are 
characterized  by  rhodomontade,  exaggeration,  or  inaccuracy. 
He  immediately  wrote  a  reply  to  Scioppius,  entitled 
Confxdniin  Fahulx  Burdonum.  It  is  written,  for  Scaliger, 
with  unusual  moderation  and  good  taste,  but  perhaps  for 
that  very'  reason  had  not  tho  success  which  its  author 
wi.shed  and  even  expected.  In  the  opinion  of  the  highest 
and  most  competent  authority,  Jlr  Pattison,  "as  a 
refutation  of  Scioppius  itfs  most  complete";  but  there  are 
certainly  grounds  for  di.ssenting,  though  with  diSidence, 
from -this  judgment.  Scaliger  undoubtedly  shows  that 
Scioppius  has  committed  more  blunders  than  he  has 
corrected,  that  his  book  literally  bristles  with  pure  lies 
and    baseless   calumnies  ;    but    he   does    uoi   succeed  in. 


S  G  A  — S  C  A 


365 


adducing  a  single  proof  either  of  his  father's  descent  from 
the  La  Scala  family,  or  of  any  single  event  narrated  by 
Julius  as  happening  to  himself  or  any  member  of  his 
family  prior  to  his  arrival  at  Agen.  Nor  does  he  even 
attempt  a  refutation  of  what  seems  really  to  be  the  crucial 
point  in  the  whole  controversy,  and  which  Scioppius  had 
proved,  as  far  as  a  negative  can  be  proved, — namely,  that 
William,  the  last  prince  of  Verona,  had  no  son  Nicholas, 
the  alleged  grandfather  of  Julius,  nor  indeed  any  son  v/ho 
could  have  been  such  grandfather.  But  whether  complete 
or  not,  the  Confutatio  had  no  success  •;  the  attack  of  the 
Jesuits  was  successful,  far  more  bo  than  they  could  possibly  " 
have  hoped.  Scioppius  was  wont  to  boast  that  h is  book  had 
killed  Scaliger.  It  certainly  embittered  the  few  remaining 
months  of  his  life,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  mortifi- 
cation which  he  suffered  may  have  shortened  his  days.  The 
Confutatio  was  his  last  work.  Five  months  after  it  ap-, 
peared,  "on  the  21st  of  January,  1603,  at  four  in  the 
morning,  he  fell  asleep  in  Heinsius's  arms.  The  aspiring 
spirit  ascended  before  the  Infinite.  The  most  richly  stored 
intellect  which  had  ever  spent  itself  in  acquiring  know- 
ledge was  in  the  presence  of  the  Omniscient"  (Pattison). 

Of  Joseph  Scaliger  the  only  biography  in  any  way  adequate  is 
that  of  Jacob  Bernays  (Berlin,  1835).  It  was  reviewed  by  the 
late  Mark  Pattison  in  an  excellent  article  in  the  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  cviiL  (1860).  Sir  Pattison  had  made  many 'IMS.  collections 
Eqt  a  life  of  Joseph  Scaliger  on  a  mnch  more  exvensive  scale, 
which  it  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  he  left  unfinished,  and  in  too 
fragmentary  a  state  to  be  published.  The  present  writer  has  had 
access  to  and  made  much  use  of  these  JISS.,  which  include  a  life 
of  Julius  CjEsar  Scaliger  written  some  years  since.  For  the  life 
of  Joseph,  besides  the  recently  published  letters  above  referred 
to,  the  two  old  collections  of  Latin  and  French  iQtters  and  the 
two  Scaligcrana  are  the  most  important  sources  o?  information. 
For  the  life  of  Julius  Cxsar  the  letters  edited  by  his  son,  those 
subsequently  published  in  1630  by  the  President  do  Maussac,  the 
Scaligcrana,  and  his  own  writings,  which  ire  Jnll  of  autobio- 
raphical  matter,  are  the  chief  authorities  ^  M.  De  Bourousse  de 
laBore's  i^lude  sur  JiUcs  Cesar  de  Lcscale  (-igeu,  1860)  and  M. 
Magen's  Doeiimcnts  sur  Jiiliiie  Cxsar  Scaliger  et  sa  famillc  (Agen, 
1873)  add  important  details  for  the  lives  of  both  father  and  son. 
Tlie  lives  b^'  M.  Charier  Nisard — that  of  Julius  in  Lt:s  Oladiateura 
de  la  Jlepublique  des  LeCtres,  and  that  of  Joseph  in  Le  Triumvirat 
Littirtdre  au  scizihnc  siiclc — are  equally  unworthy  of  their  author 
and  their  subjects.  Julins  is  simply  held  up  to  ridicule,  while 
the  life  of  Joseph  is  almost  wholly  based  on  the  book  of  Scioppius 
and  the  Sccdigerana.  A  complete  list  of  the  works  of  Joseph  will 
be  found  in  his  life  by  Bernays.  (R.  C.  C.) 

SCAMMONY..  Under  this  name  tne  dried  juice  of  the 
root  of  Convoltfulvf-  Scammonia,  L.  (o-Ka/iwi'i'a),  is  used  in 
medicine.'  It  appears  to  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks 
as  early 'tj  the  3d  century  B.C.,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  medicines  recommended  to  Alfred  the 
Great  by  Helias,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  (Cochaijne  Leech- 
doms,  vol.  ii.  pp.  xxiv.,  289,  175;  273,  281).  The  scam- 
mony  plant  is  a  native  of  the  coi>tries  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  basin,  growing  in  bushy  waste 
places,  from  Syria  in  the  south  to  the  Crimea  in  the  north, 
its  range  extending  westward  to  the  Greek  island.s,  but 
not  to  northern  Africa  or  Italy.  It  is  a  twining  perennial, 
bearing  floweri;' like' those  of  Convolvulus  arvensis,  and 
having  irregularly  a.Vow-shapcd  leaves  and  a  thick  fleshy 
rootr  The  drug  is  collected  principally  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
near  Aleppo  in  Syria,  although  a  little  is  obtained  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mount  Carmcl  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias. 
The  principal  places  of  export  are  Smyrna  and  Aleppo 
(Scanderoon),  but  the  drug  often  bears  in  commerce  the 
name  of  the  district  where  it  was  collected,  f.^.,  Brous.sa, 
Angora,  ka.  Formerly  Aleppo  scammony  was  considered 
the  best  and  commanded  the  highest  price,  but  at  present 
the  purest  article  comes  from  Smyrna.  The  very  variable 
quality  of  the  drug  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  resin  prepared 
directly  from  the  root,  which  affords  it  to  the  extent  of  .'Ji 

'  It  was  formerly  called  diagrydion,  probably  from  ZiKpo,  a  tear, 
in  allvision  to  the  manner  the  juice  exudes  from  the  incised  root. 


I 


per  cent.,  and  an  establishment  for  its  manufacture  was 
founded  at  Broussa  in  1870.  The  dried  root  is  also 
exported  to  England,  and  the  resin  prepared  from  it 
there.  By  purification  the  resin  can  be  obtained  almost 
white.  The  crude  resin  obtained  from  the  root,  being 
free  from  gum,  does  not  present  a  milky  appearance 
when  rubbed  with  a  wetted  finger,  and  is  thus  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  natural  product. 

Scammony  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  safe  but  energetic 
purgative,  and  is  frequently  prescribed  in  combination 
with  calomel  and  colocynth.  Its  medicinal  activity  is 
due  to  the  resin  scammonin,  which  is  also  called  jalapin 
from  its  occurrence  in  the  root  of  the  male  jalap  {Ipomsea 
orizabensis),  and  of  Tampico  jalap  (/.  siimilans)^see  Jalap).' 
The  export  of  scammony  from  Smyrna  in  1881  was  only  97 
boxes,  valued  iit  £5ii,  the  amount  having  decreased  of  latej 
years  owing  to  the  increased  export  of  the  root  from  Syria. 
More  than  half  of  this  quantity  was  taken  by  England, 
about  one-fourth  by  France,  and  the  remainder  by  Italy, 
America,  and  Austria. 

The  drug  is  obtained  from  the  root  by  slicing  off  obliquely  one 
or  two  inches  from  the  crown  and  allowing  the  milkv  juice  which 
exudes  to  drain  into  a  small  shell  ^genera. ly  th.at  of  a  frcshvrater 
mussel),  which  is  inserted  in  the  root  just  below  the  base  of  tho 
incision.  To  prevent  the  juico  from  becoming  soiled,  the  earth  is 
scraped  away  so  as  to  leave  exposed  four  or  five  inches  of  the  root.' 
The  shells  are  collected  in  the  evening  and  their  contents  emptied 
into  a  copper  or  leathern  vessel, — the  scrapings  from  the  surface  of 
the  root,"consisting  of  partially  dried  tears,  being  added.  On  the 
average,  about  one  drachm  is  alfordcd  by  each  incision;  n  plart  four 
years  old  may  give  two  drachms  ;  in  rare  cases  as  much  as  twelve 
drachms  has  been  obtained  from  a  single  large  root.  The  collection 
usually  takes  place  when  the  plant  is  in  flower  towards  the  end  of 
summer.  .  The  product  of  different  roots  naturally  varies  m  quality, 
and  the  peasants  therefore,  on  anival  at  their  homes,  rend-er  it 
uniform  by  mixing  it  with  a  knife.  It  is  then  spread  out  m  the 
air  to  dry.  Sometimes  tho  gathering  of  several  days  is  allowed  to 
accumulate,  and  then  moistened,  kneaded,  and  made  up  into  cakes. 
During  the  drying  it  appears  to  undergo  a  kind  Of  fermentation, 
which  gives  the  drug  a  slightly  porous  appearance  and  dark  colour. 
Frequently  it  is  adulterated  by  adding  40  per  cent,  of  flour  and 
earthy  matter.  It  then  assumes  a  paler  colour  and  opaque  appear- 
ance, and  loses  its  brittleness.  This  adulterated  article  is  known  as 
*'  skilip,"  and  tho  pure  article  as  "virgin"  scammony.  The  latter 
is  met  with  in  the  form  of  flattened  pieces  half  an  inch  or  more  in 
thickness,  with  a  blackish,  resinous  fracture,  thin  fragments  being 
transluceut.  Externally  it  is  often  covered  with  a  greyish  powder. 
The  odour,  when  a  pi^ce  is  freshly  broken,  is  cheesy;  when  chewed, 
it  leaves  an  acrid  sensation  in  the  throat.  Scammony  of  good 
quality  should  yield  to  other  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  resin;  the  remain- 
der consists  of  gum  and  mineral  matter. 

SCANDERBEG,  i.e.,  Iskander  (Alexander)  Bey,  is 
the  Turkish  name  and  title  of  Georoe  Casteiota,  the 
youngest  son  of  John  Castriota,  lord  of  an  hereditary  prin- 
cipality in  Albania.  He  was  born  abont  tho  year  1404,' 
and  as  a  boy  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  the  Ottoman  court, 
where  he  was  brought  up  as,  a  Mohammedan  for  the' 
Turkish  military  service.  Ho  early  distinguished  himself 
as  a  soldier  and  received  high  promotion  under  Amurath 
II.  In  1443  he  was  of  tho  expedition  against  the  Mag- 
yars, but  shortly  after  taking  the  field  he  heard  of  his 
father's  death  and  resolved  to  strike  a  blow  for  freedom. 
Availing  himself  of  the  'opportunity  afforded  by  John 
Hunyady's  defeat  of  the  Turks  at  Ni.sh,  ho  forced  from 
the  principal  secretary  of  tho  sultan  a  firmam  making  him 
governor  of  Oroya,  his  native  town,  and  forthwith  left  the 
camp  with  300  Albanian  horsemen.  Once  master  of  the 
place,  ho  abjured  Islam  arid  proclaimed  his  independence. 
The  Albanians  soon  recognized  him  as  their  head,  and 
flocked  to  his  standard,  and  pasha  after  pa.sha  was  vainly 
sent  to  crush  him.  Amurath  II.  in  person  unsuccessfully 
besieged  him  in-14.'J0,  and  Mohammed  II.  found  it  neces- 
sary to  grant  him  favourable  terms  of  peace  in  1461. 
Instiga,ted  by  the  legates  of  Pius  TI.  and  tho  ambassadors 
of  the  Venetian  republic,  Scandcrbeg-  again  proclaimed 
war  in  14G4,  and  at  least  was  successful  in  repelling  the 


366 


S  C  A  — S  C  A 


suRan,  who  'uad  invaded  Albania.  He  died  in  January 
1467  at  Alessio,  leaving  an  infant  son  named  John,  ■whom 
he  commended  to  the  care  of  the  Venetians.  After  a  twelve 
years'  war,  the  Turks  finally  gained  possession  of  Croya,  the 
representatives  of  Scanderbeg  sEttling  in  Calabria. 

SCANDEROON  (IscandebO.n),  or  Alexandretta,  lies 
girdled  by  green  hills  on  the  picturesque  bay  of  the  same 
name,  the  ancient  Sinvs  Issicus,  at  the  extreme  north 
of  the  Syrian  coast,,  where  it  forms  an  angle  with  that  of 
Asia  Minor.  Alexandretta  succeeded  an  older  town  of 
Alexandria  (Little  Alexandria),  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  but  does  not  perhaps  occupy  quite  the  same  site. 
The  harbour  is  the  best  on  the  Syrian  coast,  and  steamers 
call  at  it  regularly,  but  the  town  is  scourged  with  fever 
and  has  only  some  2500  inhabitants,  mainly  Greek 
Christians.  It  is  the  port  of  Aleppo,  and  would  naturally 
be  the  port  of  an  "  Euphrates  railway." 

SCANDINAVIAN  LANGUAGES.  By  this  expres- 
sion we  understand  the  closely  allied  languages  which  are 
and  have  been  spoken  by  the  Germanic  population  in 
Scandinavia,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  that 
have  been  wholly  or  partially  peopled  from  it.  At  present 
Territory,  the  territory  of  these  languages  embraces — Sweden,  except 
the  most  northerly  part  (Lapland  and  inland  parts  of 
Vesterbotten,  where  Finnish  and  Lappish  exclusively  or 
chiefly  prevail);  certain  islands  and  districts  on  the  coast 
of  western  and  southern  Finland,  as  well  as  Aland  ;i  a 
small  tract  on  the  coast  of  Esthonia,  where  Swedish  is 
spoken,  as  it  is  also  to  some  extent  in  the  Esthonian  islands 
of  Dago,  Nargo,  Nukkii,  Ormsii,  and  Rdgij ;  -  Gammal- 
svenskby  ("  Galsvenskbi ")  in  southern  Russia  (govern- 
ment of  Kherson),'  a  village  colonized  from  Dago ;  the 
Livonian  island  of  Runij,''  where  Swedish  is  spoken,  as  it 
formerly  was  on  the  island  of  Osel ;  Norway,  except 
certain  regions  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country, 
peopled  by  Finns  and  Lapps  (diocese  of  Trom.sii) ;  Den- 
mark, with  the  Faroes,  Iceland,  and  Greenland,  where, 
however,  Danish  is  only  spoken  by  a  very  small  part  of 
the  population;  the  northernmost  part  of  Schleswig  ;  and, 
final!y,_several  Scandinavian  colonies  in  the  United  States 
of  North  America.  Scandinavian  dialects  have  besides 
been  spoken  for  varying  periods  in  the  following  places : 
Norwegian  in  certain  parts  of  Ireland  (800-1300  a.d.) 
and  northern  Scotland,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  the  Hebrides 
(800-1400,  or  longer),  the  Shetland  Islands  (800-1800), 
and  the  Orkneys  (800-1800)  ;*  Danish  in  the,whole  of 
Schleswig,  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  England  (the 
"Danelag"),  and  in  Normandy  (900-1000,  or  a  little 
longer);^  Swedish  in  Russia  (from  the  end  of  the  9th  to 
the  beginning  of  the  11th  century).^  At  what  epoch  the 
Germanic  population  settled  in  Scandinavia  we  cannot  as 
yet  even  approximately  decide.  It  is  quite  certain,  how- 
ever, that  it  already  existed  there  before  the  Christian 
era, — nay,  most  probably  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
so-called  ^tone  Age  (three  thousand  years  before  Christ). 

*  See  A.  O.  Freudenthal,  Om  Svenska  allmogein&Ut  i  ^yland. 
1870  ;    Ueher  den  NUrpesdiaUct,  1878. 

'  A.  O.  Freudenthal,  Upplysnitigar  om  Higd-  och  Wichterpalm&let, 
1875  ;  H.  Vendell,  Laiit-  vTtd  Fomilchre  dcr  Schwedischen  Mundarten 
in  den  Kirchspr'elen  Ormso  itnd  Ntthko,  18S1. 

*  H.  Vendel!,  "  Om  och  frfiu  Gammahvenskby"  {Finsk  Tidskri/l, 
1882).  ■■  H.  Veudell,  RunbmiUts  Ijiid-  och /ormlUTa,  1882-6. 

'  J.  J.  A.  Worsaae,  Minder  cjt.  de  Danske  og  Nordmamdcne  i 
England,  Skctland,  eg  Jrland,  1851;  A.  Lanrensen  and  K.  J. 
Lyngby,  "Om  sproget  paa  HjaltlandBoerne"  {Ann.  /.  2^ord.  Ol^kynd., 
1860)  ;  P.  A.  Munch,  Samlede  A/kandlinger,  iii.,  iv.,  1875-76. 

"■Worsa.ae,  I.e.;  J.  C.  H.  R.  Steenstrup,  Danelag,  1882;  Ea. 
Tegner,  "  Norrman  eller  Danskar  i  Normandie,"  and  * '  Ytterligare 
om  de  nordiska  ortnamnen  i  Normandie"  {Nordisk  Tidskrift,  1884). 

^  V.  Thomsen,  Ryska  rikets  grundl&ggning  genom  Skandinavema, 
1882  {The  Relations  bettoecn  Ancient  Russia  and  Scandinavia, 
1877);  S.  Bngge,  "Oldsvenske  na^Tie  i  Rusland"  (^rKc/or  iVor-?isi 
Filolcgi,  ii.  1885). 


If  this  view  be  correct,  the  Scandinavian  languages  have 
had    an    existence    of    more    than   four    thousand   years.' 
But  we  do   not   know  anything  about   them  during  the 
period  before   the  birth  of  Christ.     It  is  only  from  that 
epoch  we  can  get  any  information  concerning  the  language 
of  the  old  Scandinavians,   which  seems  by  that  time  not 
only   to  have   spread  over   Denmark   and  great   parts   of 
southern  and  middle  Sweden  and  of  (southern)  Norway, 
but  also  to  have  reached  Finland  (at  least  Nyland)  and 
Esthonia.      In  spite  of  its  extension  over  this  considerable 
geographical   area,  the    language  appears   to    have   been 
fairly  homogeneous  throughout  the  whole  territory.     Con- 
sequently, it  may  be  regarded  as  a  uniform  language,  the 
mother  of  the  younger  Scandinavian  tongues,  and  accord-  The 
ingly  has  been  named  the  primitive  Scandinavian  (umor-  primitiT« 
disk)  language.      The,  oldest  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  S'^'^- 
this  tongue   are  the   words  which  were  borrowed  during  iajy_m™_ 
the  first  centuries  of  the    Christian   era   (some  of  them 
perhaps  even  earlier)  by  the  Lapps  from  the  inhabitants 
of  central  Sweden  and  Norway,   and  by  the  Finns  from 
their    neighbours    in    Finland    and    Esthonia,    and   which 
have  been  preserved  fn  Finnish  and  Lappish  down  to  our 
own    days.'      These '  borrowed    words,    denoting    chiefly  Borrowed 
utensils  belonging  to  a  fairly  advanced  stage  of  culture,  worje. 
amount  to  several  hundreds,  with  a  phonetic  form  of  a 
very  primitive  stamp ;  as  Finn,  tei-va  (O.  Sw.  ii^7-a,  Germ. 
theer),  tar;  airo  (O.  Sw.  ar),  oar;  kansa  (O.  H.  G.  hanea), 
people;    napal-aira   (O.    H.    G.   nabager,   O.   Sw.    navar), 
auger  ;  nekla  (Got.  niyla,  O.  Sw.  nal),  needle ;  ansas  (Got. 
ans,  O.   Sw.  as),  beam ;   Lapp   sajet  (Got.   saian,  O.   Sw. 
so),  sow ;  garves  (O.  H.  G.  garawer,  O.  Sw.  gor),  finished ; 
difres  (0.  Sax.  diuri,  O.  Sw.  di/r),  dear ;  saipo  (0.  H.  G. 
ssifa,  Sw.  ecipa),  soap.      These  words,  with  those  mentioned 
by  contemporary  Roman  and  Greek  authors,  are  the  oldest 
existing  traces  of  any  Germanic  language.     Wrest«d  from 
their  context,  however,  they  throw  but  little  light  on  the 
nature  of  the  original  northern  tongue.     But  a  series  of 
linguistic  monuments  have  come  down  to  tis  dating  from 
the  end  of  the  so-caUed  early  Iron  Age  (about  450  a.d.), — 
the  knowledge  and  the  use  of  the  oldest  runic  alphabet 
(with  twenty-four  characters)  having  at  that  period  been 
propagated   among   the   Scandinavians   by  the   southern 
Germanic  tribes.     In  fact  we  still  possess,  preserved  down 
to   our  own  times,  primitive  northern  runic  inscriptions,  Bnm« 
the  oldest  upon  the  utensils  found  at   Tkorsbjerg,  dating  »s"tp- 
back  to  about  300  a.d.^",  which,  together  with  the  MS.  *■"* 
fragments   of    Ulfila's   Gothic   translation    of   the  Bible, 
about   two  hundred   years   later  in  date,    constitute   the 
oldest   veritable    monuments    of    any   Germanic   tongne. 
These  runic  inscriptions  are  for  the  most  part  found  on 
stone-monuments  (sometimes  on  rocks)  and  bracteates  (gold 
coins  stamped  on  one  side  and  used  for  ornaments),  as 
well  as  on  metallic  audi  wooden   utensils,  weapons,  and 
ornaments.^'     Up  to  this  time  there  have  been  discovered 
more  than  one  hundred,  but  of  these  only  about  one-half 
give  us  any  information  concerning   the   language,  and 
most  of  them  are  only  too  short.     The  longest  one,  the 
stone-monument  of  Time,  in  south-eastern  Norway,  con- 
tains only  sixteen  words.     Their  language  is  somewhat 
later  in  character  than  that  of  the  oldest  words  borrowed 
by   the   Lapps  and  Finns :   accented  e,   for  example,   is 
already  changed  into  a  {cf.  martR  =  Goth,  mcrs,  renowned  ; 
but  the  Finn,  borrowed  word  netla  =  Goth,  tiffla,  needle), 
and  the  voiced  s  into  a  kind  of  r  {cf.  dagoR  =  Goth,  dags, 

^  0.    Montelius,    "Om    v&ra   forfaders    invandring   till   Norden " 
{!fordisk  Tidskri/t,  1884). 

*  W.  Thomsen,   Ueber  den  Einjluss  der  Oenn.    Sprachen  auf  d/U 
Finnisch-Lappischen,  1870. 
*^  0.  Montelius,  Die  Kuliur  Schwsdens  in  vorchrisllicher  Zeit,  1885. 
"  See  the  plates  in  G.  Stephens's  Handbook  of  Old  Northern  Rrniic 
Monun^enta,  1884. 


SCANDINAVIAN      LANGUAGES 


367 


delation 
f  0  other 
lan- 
«u»ges. 


Trans- 
ftirma* 

tiOQ. 


4ay  ;  but  Finn,  amias  =  Goth,  arms,  poor).  On  the  other 
hand,  in  all  essential  matters  it  is  much  earlier  in  character 
than  the  language  of  contemporary  Gothic  manuscripts, 
and  no  doubt  approaches  more  nearly  than  any  Germanic 
idiom  the  primitive  form  of  the  Gurmanic  tongue.  For 
the  sake  of  comparison,  we  give  a  Gothic  translation  of  one 
of  the  oldest  of  the  primitive  Scan4Jnavian  inscriptions, 
that  on  the  golden  horn  of  Gallehus,  fbund  on  the  Danish- 
German  frontier,  and  dating  from  about  400  a.d.  : — 

Scand. :   ZK  HLEWAOASTliJ.   HOLTINOAiJ.   HORNA.  TA5VID0  ; 

Goth.:  ik  hliugasis.  huUiggs.  haurn.  tawida ; 

Engl. :  I,  HlewagastiK,  son  of  Holta,  made  the  horn ; 

as   well   as   the   inscription    on   the  stone-monument   of 
Jarsharg  in  western  Sweden,  which  is  at  least  a  hundred 
years  later  : — : 
Scand.  :  cbaJJ  arrz.     H.uiAEA_N'.ii;  v.'it  iah  ek  ERiiAil  KUNoil 

WARITU  ; 
Goth.  :  v/ar  hita,  hrabna  v>itjah  ik  airils  r<2nCs  icritu; 
EngL  :  In  memory  of  HitaE.     We  both,  HarabanaR  and  I  ErilaR, 

WTote  the  runes. 
Although  very  brief,  and  not  yet  thoroughly  inter- 
preted,^ these'  primitive  Scandinavian  inscript'ons  are 
nevertheless  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  determine  with  some 
certainty  the  relation  which  the  languags  in  which  they 
are  written  bears  to  other  languages.  Thus  it  is  proved 
that  it  belongs  to  the  Germanic  family  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean stock  of  languages,  of  which  it  constitutes  an  inde- 
pendent and  individual  branch.  Its  nearest  relation  being 
the  Gothic,  these  two  branches  are  sometimes  taken 
together  under  the  general  denomination  Eastern  Germanic, 
as  opposed  to  the  other  Germanic  idioms  (German,  English, 
Dutch,  ic),  which,  are  then  ca|lled  Western  Germanic. 
The  most  essential  point  of  correspondence  between  the 
Gothic  and  Scandinavian  branches  is  the  insertion  in  certain 
cases  of  gg  before  w  and  j  (ggj  iu  Gothic  was  changed 
into  ddj),  as  in  gen.  plur.  O.  H.  G.  nceiio,  O.  Engl.  txi;ega 
(two),  compared  with  0.  Icel.,  0.  Norw.  tveggja,  O.  Sw., 
O.  Dan.  triggjx,  Goth,  twaddje ;  and,  still,  in  Germ,  treu, 
EngL  true,  compared  ivith  Sw.,  Norw.,  Dan.  trygg,  IceL 
tryggr,  Goth,  triggws.  However,  even  in  the  primitive 
Scandinavian  age  the  difference  between  Gothic  and 
Scandinavian  is  more  clearly  marked  than  the  resem- 
blance; thus,  for  example — just  to  hint  only  at  some  of 
the  oldest  and  most  essential  differences — Goth.  nom.  sing. 
ending  in  -s  corresponds  to  primitive  Scandinavian  -<iE,  •!>. 
(as  Goth,  dags,  day,  gasts,  guest  =  Scand.  daga'B.,  gastin) ; 
Goth.  gen.  sing,  in  -is  to  Scand.  -as  (as  Goth,  dagis,  day's  = 
Scand.  dagas) ;  Goth.  dat.  sing,  in  -a  to  Scand.  -e  (as  Goth. 
kaurrM,  corn  =  Scand.  kume);  Goth.  Isi  pers.  sing.  pret. 
in  -da  to  Scand.  -do  (as  Goth,  iawida,  did  =  Scand.  tauiido). 
As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  so-called  later  Iron 
Age  (about  700  a.d.)  the  primitive  Scandinavian  language 
had  undergone  a  considerable  transformation,  as  is  proved 
for  example  by  the  remarkable  runic  stone  at  Istaby  in 
the- south  of  Sweden,  with  the  inscription — 

AF^TR     HARIWUL^r^     UAjlUWnL^FiJ    HAEKUWUL^FliJ   W^RAIT 
BUNA^  )lAIAii  ; 

Eiigl. :  In  memory  of  HariwulfR,  HaJtunulfB,  son  of  HcniwalfB, 
v.Tote  thc3e  runes. 

Here,  e.g.,  we  find  nom.  sing,  in  -aR  changed  into  -r  (</. 
Aajniiffu/n/ii  with  holtingan  on  the  golden  horn),  and  the 
plural  ending  -or  into  -or  (c/.  runaR  with  runoR  on  the 
Jarsbarg-stone).  At  the  beginning  of  the  so-called  Viking 
Period  (about  800  a.k)  the  Scandinavian  language  seems 
to  have  undergone  an  extraordinarily  rapid  development, 
which  in  a  comparatively  short  time   almost  completely 


'  For  tbo  ictcrpretationa  w«  are  principally  indebted  to  Prof.  S. 
Bugqc's  ingenious  investigations,  who  iu  1865  satisfactorily  suc- 
ceeded in  deciphering  the  inscription  of  the  golden  horn,  and  by  this 
means  gained  a  fixed  starting-point  for  further  researches.     A  short 

■cview  of  their  most  important  resulta  ia  given  by  F.  Burg,  Die  iiUcrcn 

Kordiich^.n  Runcninachri/ten,  1885. 


transformed  its  character.  This  change  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  dropping  of  unaccented  vowels,  and  in  the 
introduction  of  a  certain  vowel  harmony  of  different  kinds 
("  Umlaut",  vowel  changes,  caused  by  a  folli;wing  i  (J)  or  u 
(w)',  as  Tcvceii  for  hwd&i,  poem,  and  "Brechung",  as  kealpa 
insteid  of  hefpa,  to  help),  different  assimilations  of  conson- 
ants (as  tl,  nn  for  Jf,  n]t ;  II,  nn,  rr,  and  {s  for  /r,  »ir.,  rR,  and 
«e),  dropping  of  w  before  o  and  u  (as  orS,  ulfr  for  zcor3,  word, 
vmlfR,  wolf),  simplified  inflexion  of  the  verbs,  a  new  passive 
formed  by  means  of  affixing  the  reflexive  pronoun  iik  to  the 
active  form  (as  kalla-sk,  to  call  one's  self,  to  be  called),  <tc. 
At  this  epoch,  therefore,  the  primitive  Scandinavian 
language  must  be  considered  as  no  longer  existing.  The 
next  two  centuries  form  a  period  of  transition  as  regards 
the  language  as  well  as  the  alphabet  which  it  employed. 
We  possess  some  inscriptions  belonging  to  this  period  in 
which  the  old  runic  alphabet  of  twenty-four  characters  is 
still  used,  and  the  language  of  which  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  primitive  Scandinavian  monuments,  as,  for 
example,  those  on  the  stones  of  Steiitoften  and  Bjorketorp, 
both  from  southern  S\veden,  probably  dating  from  the 
10th  century,  and  being  the  longest  inscriptions  yet  found 
with  the  old  runic  alphabet.  On  the  other  hand,  inscrip- 
tions have  <;ome  down  to  us  dating  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  9th  century,  in  which  the  later  and  exclusively 
Scandinavian  alphabet  of  sixteen  characters  has  almost 
completely  superseded  the  earlier  alphabet,  from  which  it 
was  developed,  while  the  language  not  only  differs  widely 
from  the  original  Scandinavian,  but  also  exhibits  dialec- 
tical pectdiarities  suggesting  the  existence  of  a  Danish- 
Swedish  language  as  o])posed  to  Norwegian,  as  the  form 
ruulf  on  the  stone  at  Flemluse  in  Denmark,  which  in  a 
Norwegian  inscription  would  have  been  written  h.rv.vXj 
corresponding  to  Hrolf  in  Old  Norwegian  literature. 
These  differences,  however,  are  unimportant,  and  the 
Scandinavians  still  considered  their  language  as  one  and 
the  same  throughout  Scandinavia,  and  named  it  Donsk 
tunga,  Danish  tongue.  But  when  Iceland  was  colonized 
at  the  end  of  the  9th  and  the  beginning  of  the  10th 
century,  chiefly  from  western  Norway,  a  separate  (western) 
Norwegian  dialect  gradually  sprang  up,  at  first  of  course 
only  differing  slightly  from  the  mother-tongue.  It  v.as 
not  until  the  introduction  of  Christianity  (about  1000 
A.D.)  that  the  language-  was  so  far  differentiated  as  to 
enable  us  to  distinguish,  in  runic  inscriptions  and  in  the 
literature  which  was  then  arising,  four  different  dialects, 
which  have  ever  since  existed  as  the  four  literary  lan- 
guages— Icelandic,  Norwegian,  Swedish,  and  Danish.  Of 
these  the  latter  two,  often  comprehended  within  the  name 
of  Eastern  Scandinavian,  as  well  as  the  former  two,  Western 
Scandinavian,  or,  to  use  the  Old  Scandinavians'  own  name, 
Norr^nt  mdl,  Northern  tongue,  are  very  nearly  related  to 
each  other.  The  most  important  differences  between  the 
two  branches,  as  seen  in  the  oldest  preserved  documents, 
are  the  following: — (1)  In  E.  Scand.  far  fewer  cases  of 
"  Umlaut,"  as  vdri,  W.  Scand.  vxri,  were  ;  land,  W.  Scand, 
lr,nd  (from  land}i),  lands;  (2)  E.  Scand.  "Brechung"  of 
i  into  in  (or  to)  before  ng{t(t),  nk{w),  as  siungse,  W.  Scand. 
syngva  (from  singica),  to  sing;  (3)  in  E.  Scand.  mp,  jxk, 
nl  are  in  many  cases  not  assimilated  into  pp,  kk,  it,  as 
krumpen,  W.  Scand.  kroppenn,  shrunken  ;  icnk-ix,  W.  Scand. 
ekkja,  widow ;  hant,  W.  Scand.  ia«,  ho  bound  ;  (4)  in  E. 
Scand.  the  dative  of  the  definite  plural  ends  in  -omen  instead 
of  \V.  Scand.  -onopi,  as  in  handomen,  hondonom,  (to)  the 
hands ;  (5)  in  E.  Scand.  the  simplification  of  the  verbal 
inflexional  endings  is  far  further  advanced,  and  the  passive 
ends  in  -s  for  -sk,  as  in  kallx.%  W.  Scand.  kallask,  to  be 
called  In  several  of  these  points,  and  indeed  generally 
speaking,  the  Western  Scandinavian  languages  have  pre- 
served the  Inore  primitive  forms,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 


Ptnol  of 
transi:iou 


Diale.-ls 


ci!Ce« 

betveea 

Eastern 

and 

Wtstorn 

Scandi- 

n%"'in 


368 


SCANDINAVIAN     LANGUAGES 


Ice- 
landic. 


Olil  Ice 
landic 


Form  of 
iho  lan- 
guage. 


oldest  Eastern  Scandinavian  runic  inscriptions,  dating  from 
a  period  before  the  beginning  of  tlio  literature,  as  well  as  in 
many  modern  Eastern  Scandinavian  dialects.  For,  having 
regard  to  the  Scandinavian  dialects  generally,  we  must 
adopt  quite  a  different  classification  from  that  indicated  by 
the  dialects  which  are  represented  in  the  literature.  Wo 
now  pass  on  to  review  the  latter  and  their  history. 

I.  IcELANDio.— lu  ancient  timoa  Icelandic  was  by  far  the  most 
important  of  tho  Scandinavian  languages,  in  form  as  well  as  in 
litoratuvc.  To  avoid  ambiguity,  the  language  before  the  Reforma- 
tion (about  1530-10)  is  often  called  Old  Icelandic. 

1.  Old  Icelandic  was  spolcen  not  only  iu  Iceland,  but  also  in  Giccn- 
lanii,  where  Icelandic  colonists  lived  for  a  lengthened  period  (9S3- 
about  1400).     Our  knowledge  of  its  character  is  almost  exclusively 
derived  from  the  remarkably  voluminous  literature,'  dating  from 
tho  middle  of  the  12th  century,  and  written  in  the  Latin  alphabet, 
njapted  to  the  special  requirements  of  tliis  language.     Nothing  is 
preserved  of  older  runic  literature."    Indeed,  Old  Icelandic  pos- 
sesses only  very  few  runic  monuments  (about  forty),  all  of  them 
almost  worthless  from  a  philological  point  of  view.     Tlie  oldest, 
tho  inscription  on  tho  church  door  of  V.allyofstaSr,  dates  from  tho 
beginning  of  tho  13th  century,^  and  is   consequently  later  than 
the  oldest  preserved  manuscrip'ts*  in  the  Latin  alphabet,  some  of 
which  are  as  old  as  the  end  of  the  12th  century.     A  small  frag- 
ment (Cod.  AM.  237,  fol.)  of  a  Book  of  Homilies  (of  which  a  short 
specimen  is  given  below)  is  considered  the  oldest  of  all.     About 
contemporary  with  this  is  tlie  oldest  part  of  an  inventory  entitled 
EeykjahoUs  mdldage.    From  about  1200  we  possess  a  fragment  (Cod. 
Reg.  old  sign.  1S12)  of  the  only  existing  Old  Icelandic  glossanj, 
and  from  the  first  years  of  tho  13th  century  tho  Stockholm  Book  of 
Homilies  (Cod.  Holm.  15,  4to),  which  from  a  philological  point  of 
view  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  chielly  on  account  of  its  very 
accurate  orthography,  which  is  especially  noticeable  in  tho  indica« 
tion  of  quantity;  from  tho  early  part  of  the  samo  century  comes 
tho  fragment  (Cod.  AM.  325,  2,  4to)  entitled  Agrip  ("abridgment 
of  the  history  of  Korway),  probal)ly  a  copy  of  a  Norwegian  original, 
also  orthographically  important.    Among  later  manuscript's  we  may 
mention,  as  philologically  interesting,  tlie  Annates  Rcgii  (Cod.  Keg. 
2087)  from  the  bcg'inning  of  the  14th  century,  orthographicaUy  of 
great  value;  the  rich  manuscript  of  miscellanies,  Uauksbiik  (CoiA. 
AM.  371,   544,  675,  4to),  a  great  part  of  which  is  written  with 
Haukr  Erlendsson's  (tl334)  own  hand  ;  and,  above  all,  three  short 
essays,  in  which  some  Icelanders  have  tried  to  write  a  grammatical 
and  orthographical  treatise  on  their  own  mother-tongue,  all  three 
appearing  as  an  appendix  to  the  manuscripts  of  tho  Prose  Edda. 
The  oldest  and  most  important  of  these  essays  (preserved  in  tho 
Cod.  Worm,  from  about  1330)  is  by  an  unknown  author  of  about 
1150,  and  is  probably  intended  to  bo  a  continuation  of  a  lost  work 
of  tho  first  grammarian  of   Iceland,   j'oroddr  Kunamoistari   (who 
flourished  at  tho  beginning  of  tho  12th  century);  the  second  (the 
oldest  known  manuscript  of  which  is  preserved  in  tho  Cod.  Upa.,  c. 
1290)  is  perhaps  the  work  of  tho  famous  Snorri  Sturloson  (tr241) ; 
the  third  (the  oldest  manuscript  in  Cod.  AM.  748,  4to,  of  tho  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century)  is  by  Snorri's  nephew  Olafr  Hvjtaskald 
(tl259),  and  is  no  doubt  b^iscd  partly  upon  )>6rodd's  woik  above 
mentioned,  partly  and  chiefly  upon  Piiscian  and  Donatus.' 

The  oldest  form  of  the  Icelandic  language  is,  however,  no*  pre- 
served in  the  above-mentioned  earliest  manuscripts  of  the  end  of 
the  12th  century,  which  are  written  iu  tho  language  of  their  own 
age,  but  iu  far  later  ones  of  the  13tli  century,  which  contain  poems 
by  the  oldest  Icelandic  poets,  such  as  the  renowned  EgiU  Skalla- 
"rimson  (about  930)  and  the  unknown  authors  of  the  so-called 
Edda-songs.  In  spito  of  the  late  date  of  tho  manuscripts,  the 
metrical  form  has  been  tho  means  of  preserving  a  good  deal  of  the 
ancient  language.  But,  as  already  remarked,  during  tho  10th  and 
11th  centuries  this  dialect  differs  but  littlo  from  Norwegian,  though 
in  the  12th  this  is  »o  longer  tho  case. 

Wo  may  here  contrast  a  specimen  of  the  above-mentioned  oldest 
Icelandic  manuscript  (from  the  end  o(  tho  12th  century)  with  an 
almost  contemporary  Norwegian  one  (Cod.  AM.  619;  see  below):— 


Iccl.—Y,n  Jjat  es 
vitanda,  at  .allt  ma. 
andlega  merkiaso  oo 
fyllaso  I  OSS,  tat  es 
til  k.rkio  bunings 
ej)a  Jiionosto  barf  at 
haua,  ef  ver  liuom 
sva  hreinlega  at  vor 
sein  verjier  at  callasc 
gojjs  mustero. 


>  \  complete  cataloeiio  of  tlio  lltcvaturo  edited  hitherto  Is  clven  by  Th.  Slobliis, 
Cal.tlo^us  libroyum  hinndieoriim  el  iVortegitorum  .Clali$  Hr.lix,  IS.'.C,  imil  Ver- 
reiV/ifiiss  der  .  .  .  alliiiandischen  nud  alhioiwagtschen  .  .  .  von  IS^J  bis  1S79 
encMcneiu-n  Scliri/te:i,  mo.     Comfarc  Uelakd. 

a  See  H    UnKnih^on  Oisen,  Jiunente  i  den  Otdtsla»dsie  liCerarur,  iii)i.) 

a  Sea  Kr.  Krtlund,  "  IsUnda  foitldslovniiiger"  (in  tho  Aarb^ger  /or  Kordtik 
(Hdkijndiijhtd,  ISS2). 

«  An  aceount  of  all  the  oldest  Icelandic  manuscripts  (to  about  1230)  Is  Riven 
by  J.  Hottory  in  the  am.  Oel.  Anz.,  ISSl,  p.  US  sq.  ,  .    ,      j    v  r 

»  .V  shovt  review  of  the  most  important  Old  Icelandic  manuscripts  (and  their 
editions),  classed  according  to  suhjicls.  is  eiven  hy  O.  Biennei-,  Altnordischtt 
Bcmdbiich,  pp.  13  s<j.  Tho  princlpai  collections  of  manuscilpts  are— 1,  the 
ArnamaKna-an  (AM.)  in  CopenhaKen,  founded  hy  Ami  Magnusson  (tl™);  2, 
the  collccUon  of  the  Royal  Library  (ReR.)  In  Copenhasen,  founded  by  Th.  Torlajus 
(tl719)  and  Brynjdlfr  Syelnsson  (fl674);  3,  the  Dclagardian  collection  (Doing. 
ca-  lips)  at  Upsaia,  founded  In  1051  by  Magnus  Gabiiel  de  la  Gardie  ;  ■!,  tJio 
Stocliholin  coll.rction  (Uolm.).  foundoj  by  Jdn  Rugmcn  (In  1CC2)  and  Jc5n 
Eggettson  (la  lt82). 


Norw.—Y.n  |)at  er  Engl. — And  that  is 
vitanda,  at  allt  ma  to  be  known  that  all 
andlega  merkiaso  oo  that  is  medcd  for 
fyllnsc  i  os,  Jiat  er  the  decoration  of  tho 
til  kirkiu  bunings  church  or  the  service 
ciSa  til  Jiionasto  t>arf  may,  spiritually,  be 
at  hafa,  ef  ver  lifnm  found  and  imitated 
sva  rffiinlega,  at  ver  within  us,  if  wc  live 
sem  verSir  at  kallasc  so  cleanly  that  wo  an: 
guSSs  mysterL  worthy  to  bo  callei 

God's  temple. 

Apart  from  the  fact  that  the  language  is,  gcnerallyspeaking, archaic, 
we  find  in  the  Icelandic  text  two  of  thf  oldest  and  most  essential 
characteristics  of  Icelandic  as  opposed  to  Norwegian,  viz.,  tho 
more  complete  vowel  assimilation  (^ionoslo,  ^ionasto  ;  ef.  also,  e.g., 
Icel.  kcMo\om,  Norw.  kalhtSum,  we  called)  and  the  retention  of 
initial  A  before' r  {hreinlega,  rwitilega),  I,  and  n.  Other  differ- 
ences, some  of  which  occur  at  this  period,  others  a  little  later,  are— 
in  lech  lengthening  of  rt,  o,  u  before  If,  Ig.  Ik,  Im.  and  Ip  (as  Icek 
hdlfr,  Norw.  and  oldest  loci,  lialfr,  hall) ;  later  still,  also  of  a,  i,  u, 
anil  y  before  ng  and  nk ;  Icel.  ik  and  ey  for  older  fi  and  jj;/  (as  in 
Icel.  dima,  hcyra,  Norw.  and  oldest  Icel.  diii.na,  to  deem,  h^yra,  to 
hoar) ;  Icol.  termination  of  2nd  plur.  of  verbs  in  -S  (M  or  -t,  but 
Norw.  often  in  -r  (as  Icel.  iakiS,  -«,  Norw.  tukir,  you  take).  Thcso 
points  may  be  sufficient  to  characterize  the  language  of  tho  earlier 
''classical''  period  of  Icel.andic  (about  1190-1350).  At  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century  the  written  language  undergoes  material  changes, 
owing  in  a  great  measure,  no  doubt,  to  the  powerful  influence  of 
Snoni  Sturlifion.  Thus  in  unaccented  syllables  i  now  appears  for 
older  e,  and  u  (at  first  only  when  followed  by  one  or  more  con- 
sonants belonging  to  tho  same  syllable)  for  o  ;  tho  passive  ends  iu 
■z  for  -sk.  The  other  differences  from  Norwegian,  mentioned  above 
as  occurring  later,  are  now  completely  established.  With  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century  there  appear  several  new  linguistic  pheno- 
mena :  a  ti  is  inserted  between  final  r  and  a  preceding  consonant 
(.as  in  riktir,  mighty);  o  (pronounced  as  an  open  o)  passes  into  o 
(tho  chai-acter  6  was  not  introduced  till  the  16th  century),  or  before 
ng,  nk  into  au  (as  long,Jigll,  pronounced  laung,  /toll) ;  c  before  ng, 
nk  passes  into  ci ;  a  littlo  later  (  passes  into  ic,  and  tho  passive 
chanfcs  its  termination  from  -;,  oldest  -sk,  into  -zt  (or  -zs!)  (as  m 
kallazt,  to  bo  called).  Tho  post-classical  period  of  Old  Icelandic 
(1350-1530),  which  is,  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  of  but  littlo 
importance,  already  shows  marked  differences  that  aro  character- 
istic of  Modern  Icelandic  ;  as  early  as  the  15th  century  wc  find  ddl 
for  II  and  rl  (as  falla,  pronounced  faddla,  to  fall),  ddn  for  nn  and 
™  (as  horn,  pron.  hoildn,  horn) ;  about  tho  year  1500  ve  after  h 
passes  into  vo,  in  other  positions  to  vii  (as  hvelpr,  pron.  x«olpur, 
whelp;  kvcm,  pron.  twnt,' mill),  etc. 

Although  dialectical  difforcuccs  are  not  altogether  wanting,  they  Dialects^ 
do  not  occur  to  any  great  extent  in  the  Old  Icelandic  literary 
language.  Thus,  in  some  manuscripts  we  find  /(  replaced  hy  fit 
(oft,  ofsl,  often) ;  in  manuscripts  from  the  western  part  of  the  island 
there  appears  in  the  13tli  and  14th  centuries  a  tendency  to  change 
;/,  rf  into  Ih,  rb  {tolf,  tolb,  twelve  ;  ^nrf,  W6,  want),  &c.  To  wdiat 
extent  the  language  of  Greenland  ditlcrcd  from  that  of  kcland  wo 
cannot  judge  from  the' few  runic  monuments  which  have  come 
down  to  us  from  that  colony. 

Apart  from  tho  comparatively  inconsiderable  attempts  at  a  Grtmi- 
grammatical  treatment  of  Old  Icelandic  in  tho  Middle  Ages  which  matical: 
we  have  mentioned  above,  grammar  as  a  science  can  only  be  said  treat- 
to  have  commenced  in  the  17  th  century.  The  first  grammar,  written  ment. 
by  the  Icelander  Runolphus  Jonas  (tlC54),  dates  from  1651.  His 
contemporary  and  compatriot  Gudmund  Andre.r?  (+1654)  compiled 
the  first  dictionary,  which  was  not,  however,  edited  till  1083  (by  the 
Dane  Petrus  Resenius,  tlOSS).  The  first  scholars  who  studied 
Old  Icelandic  systematically  were  H.  K.  Kask  (1787-1832),  whose 
works  »  laid  tho  foundation  to  our  knowledge  of  tho  language,  and 
his  "loat  contemporary  Jac.  Crimm,  in  whose  Deutsche  Grammatlk 
(isfs  s-/.)  particular  attention  is  paid  to  Icelandic.  _  Those  who 
since  the  timo  of  Rask  and  Grimm  have  principally  uesorved  we.l 
of  Icelandic  grammar  are— tho  ingenious  and  learned  Norwegian 
P  A.  Munch,  1SC3,'  to  whom  wo  really  owe  tho  normalized 
ortho-raphy  that  has  liitherto  been  most  in  uso  in  editing  Old 
Icelandic  texts;  the  learned  Icelander  K.  Gislnson,  whose  works 
are  chiefly  devoted  to  phonetic  researches  ;»  the  Danish  scholars 
IC  J  Lyn"by  (tl8711,  tho  author  of  an  essay'  which  is  of  funda^ 
mental  iinTiortanco  il'i  Icelandic  orthography  and  phonetics,  and 
L  F  A  Wimmer,  who  has  rendered  gieat  services  to  the  study  ot 
the  etymolo-y."  The  latest  Icelandic  grammar  is  by  the  Swede 
Ad     Norcen."      As  lexicographers  the  first  rank    is  held  by  tlie 


8  £.».,  Veiltdaim  HI  dct  IslMdste  !prog.  ISU  ;  In  a  now,  much  Improvel 
Swedish 'edition,  ^Tjui'mn;?  fl' /j/«n^sta".  ISIS.  ,.,.  n    » 

7  Fomtwenskmii  och  Fomnonkam  sprikbygcinad,  1819.  and  (along  wltS  C.  K. 
yj-ni^cvi  NoTr6nasprogetsgraimnatik,\Ml. 

'  E,r,(!CiB»y  Vm/rumparta  III fti:krarltin(!alforni,!d,\SiS. 

'  Ctii  Oldiiordiskeudlale,  ISOl.  '»  Farnnordiskformjaralb.t. 

"  AHislditdhdie  und  altnomegischc  Orammalii  tmler  BerOcisiOilfuag  aa 
CrnwrdtscAcn,  16c  l. 


SCANDINAVIAN     LANGUAGES 


369 


Icelanders  St.  Egilsaon  (tl852),»  G.  Vigfiisson,''  and  J.  forkels 
son,^  and  tlie  Norwegian  J.  Fritzner.* 

2.  Modem  Icelandic  is  generally  dated  from  the  introduction  of 
the  Reformation  into  Iceland;  the  book  first  printed,  the  New 
Testament  of  1540,  may  be  considered  as  the  earliest  Modem 
Icelandic  document.  Although,  on  account  of  the  exceedingly 
conservative  teddency  of  Icelandic  orthography,  the  language  of 
Modern  Icelandic  literature  still  seems  to  be  almost  identical  with 
the  language  of  tho  17th  century,  it  has  in  reality  nndergone  a 
constant  and  active  development,  and,  phonetically  regarded,  has 
changed  considerably.  Indeed,  energetic  efforts  to  bring  about  an 
orthography  more  in  accordance  with  phonetics  were  made  during 
the  yeara  1835-47  by  the'maoazine  entitled  Fjolnir,  where  we  find- 
snch  authors  as  Jonas  Hallgnmsson  and  Konr.  Gislason  ;  but  these 
attempts  proved  abortive.  Of  more  remarkable  etymological 
changes  in  Modern  Icelandic  we  may  note  the  following  : — already 
about  the  year  1550  the  passive  termination  -^  (-zsl)  passes  into 
the  till  then  very  rare  termination  -st  (as  in  kallast,  to  be  called) ; 
y;  $,  and  ey  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  coincided  with  i,  i, 
and  ei ;  the  long  Towels  d,  a, .  aod  6  have  passed  into  the  diph- 
thongs au  (at  least  about  1650),  ai  (about  1700),  oa  (as  mdl, 
language,  inala,  to  speak,  stdll,  chair) ;  g  before  i,  j  is  changed 
into  dj  (after  a  consonant)  or  j  (after  a  vowel), — e.g.,  liggi(i, 
to  lie,  eigi,  not ;  in  certain  other  cases  g  has  passed  into 
gv)  or  UJ, — e.g.,  Idgtp',  low,  IJ^ga,  to  li*; ;  initial  g  before 
n  is  silent, — e.g.,  {g)ruiga,  to  gnaw  ;  hn  has  passed  into  hn, — 
e.g.,  hteMr,  knot;  ps,  pt  into/s,  ft;  bb,  dd,  gg  are  pronounced 
as  bp,  dt,  gk,  and  11,  rl.  Tin,  m  now  in  most  positions  (not, 
however,  before  d,  t,  and  8,  and  in  abbreviated  names)  as  dtl,  din, — 
najjall,  mountain,  bjHm,  bear ;  /before  n  is  now  pronounced  as  bp, — 
as  hra/n,  raven,  &c.  Both  in  vocabulary  and  syntax  w^  find  early, 
e.g.,  in  the  lawbook  J6nsb6k,  printed  in  1578(-80),  Danish  exercis- 
ing an  importaoit  influence,  as  might  be  expected  from  political 
circumstances.  In  the  ISth  century,  however,  we  meet  with 
purist  tendencies.  As  one  of  the  leading  men  of  this  century  may 
be  mentioned  the  poet  Eggert  6lafsson  (tl76S),  whose  poems 
were' not  printed  till  1832.  Worthy  of  mention  in  the  history 
of  Modern  Icelandic  language  are  the  learned  societies  which 
appeared  in  the  same  century,  of  which  the  first,  under  the  name 
of  "HiSisynilega,."  was  established  in  1760.  At  this  time  archaic 
tendencies,  going  back  to  the  Old  Icelandic  of  the  13th  and  14lli 
centuries,  were  continually  gaining  ground.  In  our  century  the 
'oUowing  have  won  especial  renown  ia  "Icelandic  literature :— 
Bjarne  porarenseu  (tl8'4l),  Iceland's  greatest  lyric  poet,  and  Jonas 
Hallgrimsson  (+  1845),  perhaps  its  most  prominent  prose-author  in 
modern  times.^ 

Tne  dialectical  differences  in  Modern  Icelandic  are  comparatively 
trifling  and  chiefly  phonetic.  The  Westiand  dialect  has,  for 
example,  preserved  the  Old  Icelandic  long  a,  while  the  other 
:Iii:lect3  have  changed  it  to  the  diphthong  au ;  in  the  Northland 
dialoct  initial  hn  13  preserved,  in  the  others  changed  into  hn  ;  in 
thb  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  inland  Old  Icelandic  hv 
appears  as  hv,  in  a  part  of  south-eastern  Iceland  as  x,  in  the  other 
dialects  .js  x^t — ^-O-i  hvelpr,  whelp.  As  aniatter  of  curiosity  it  may 
bo  noted  ilut  on  the  western  and  eastern  coasts  traces  are  found  of 
A  French -loclandic  l.inguage,  which  arose  from  the  long  sojourn  of 
French  fishermen  there.    ■ 

Owing  to  the  exclusive  interest  taken  in  the  ancient  language, 
but  little  ctiention  is  given  even  now  to  the  grammatical 
treatment  of  lio>1cm  Icelandic.  Some  notices  of  the  language 
of  the  17th  ce.nt'jry  may  be  obtained  from  the  above-mentioned 
grammar  of  Kjiolphus  Jonas  (1651),  and  for  the  language 
of  the  18th  from  Slusk's  grammatical  works.  For  the  language  of 
our  own  time  ther,^  is  hardly  anything  to  refer  to  but  N.  iriiSriks- 
Bon's  works,  Islcnzk  mahnyiidnJjjsing,  1861,  and  Sharing  hinna 
afmennu  mAl/yafSisit-qi:,  hugmytida,  1864,  wliich,  however,  are 
not  especially  devoted  txt  the  modem  state  of  philology  ;  compare 
also  B.  Magnlisson  Olsen's  valuable  paper  "  Zur  neuislindischcn 
Gi-ammatik"  {Germania,  rtxvii.,  1352)."  A  dictionary  of  merit 
.w.-j  that  of  Bjbrn  Hallaoi.wa  (tl7a4),  edited  in  1814  by  Rask. 
Cleasby-Yigfiisson'a  dictio.^ary  mentioned  above  also  pays  some 
attention  to  the  modern  la.ig"ia,^e.  A  really  convenient  Modern 
Icelandic  dictionary  is  still  v/a-iting,  the  desideratum  being  only 
partly  supplied  by  K.  Gislason'"?  excellent  Danish. Icelandic  Doitsk 
oriSabdk  mcd  Islenzkttm  bj^lngitm,  K51. 

II.  Norweoian  or  Norse. — Thxi  Old  Norwegian  language  (till 
the  Reformation)  was  not,  like  the  modem  language,  confined  to 
Norway  and  the  Faroes,  but  was,  as  already  stated,  for  some  time 

<  Cexieim  pottUum,  1S54-SO. 

»  Alt  Icetandie-F.ngiufi  DUUonary,  based  on  the  ilS.  collections  of  tlie  lato 
R.  ClcMby,  IMS-;*. 
"  Supptemtnt  III  ItJaruUke ordb^gtr,  197C  and  1970-8a. 
«  Ordbo.jozer  dtt  Oamle  Sorike  iproy,  1862-67  ;  mv,  ^d     lA^I  irj. 

*  Soo  v..  Arpl,  "Ii<;»rdn  jnRTO  lltcratnr  och  sprak"  iHpriktetaukapUga  tUlU 
Jcapeti  fdrruindlingar.  188.3-8w). 

•  iJoticc-*  of  the  Modcra  Icelandic  proimnclatlon  are  aliO  to  I30  fonnd  In 
H.  Swccfii  Ratdbook  of  Phonetici,  1877,  Chr.  Vidstecn'a  Oplyi.\i7,je,  om  ByyiU- 
.jiaatene  t  Hardangcr,  1S8^,  and  R.  Arpi'i  aboYo-quolcd  paper. 

21—15 


spoken  in  parts  of  Ireland  and  the  north  of  Scotland,  the  Icle  of 
Man,  the  Hebrides,  Shetland,  and  Orkney  (in  the  last  two  groups 
of  islands  it  continued  to  survive  down  to  modem  times),  and  also 
in  certain  parts  of  western  Sweden  as  at  present  defined  (Bohnslan, 
Sama  in  Dalarna,  Jamtland,  and  Harjcdalen). 

Our  kno"n'ledgo  jf  it  is  due  only  in  a  small  measure  to  mnic  Source* 
inscriptions,''  for  these  are  comparatively  few  in  number  (a 
little  more  than  one  hundred)  and  of  trifling  iraports^ce  from  a 
philological  point  of  view,  especially  as  they  almost  wholly  belong 
to  the  period  between  lOSO  and  1350,'  and  consequently  are 
contemporary  with  or  at  least  not  much  earlier  than  the  earliest 
literature.'  The  whole  literature  preserved  is  written  in  the  Latin 
alphabet.  The  earliest  manuscripts  are  not  much  later  than  the 
oldest  Old  Icelandic  ones,  and  of  the  greatest  interest.  On  -the 
whole,  however,  the  earliest  Norwegian  literature  is  in  quality  as  w^ell 
as  in  quantity  incomparably  inferior  to  the  Icelandic.  It  amounts 
merely  to  about  a  score  of  different  works,  and  of  these  but  few  are 
of  any  literary  value.  A  small  fragment  (Cod.  AM.  655,  4to, 
Fragm.  ix,,  A,  E,  0),.  a  collection  of  legends,  no  doubt  written  a 
little  before  1200,  is  regarded  as  the  earliest  extant  manuscript. 
From  the  very  beginning  of  the  13th  century  we  have  the 
Norwegian  Book  of  Bomilies  (Cod.  AM.  619,  4to)  and  several 
frngnionts  of  law-hooks  (the  older  Gula]iiiigsla!!)  and  the  older 
MSsivapingslmc).  The  chief  manuscript  (Cod.  AM.  243B.,  fol.) 
of  the  prmcipal  work  in  Old  Norwegian  literature,  the  Speculum 
Regale,  or  Kommgsskuggsjd  ("ilirror  for  Kings"),  is  a  little  later. 
Of  still  later  manuscripts  the  so-called  legendary  Olafssaga  (Cod. 
Delag.  8,  fol.),  from  about  1250,  deserves  mention.  The  masses  of 
charters  which — occurring  throughout  the  whole  Middle  Age  of 
Norway'  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century^afford  much 
information,  especially  concerning  the  dialectical  differences  of  thp 
language,  are  likewise  of  great  philological  importance. 

As  in  Old  Icelandic  so  in  Old  Norwegian  we  do  not  find  the  Fonn  ot 
most  primitive  forms  in  the  oldest  MSS.  that  have  come  down  the  laa. 
to  us  ;  for  that  purpose  wo  must  recur  to  somewhat  Uater  ones,  guage. 
containing  old  poems  from  times  as  remote  .as  the  days  of  Brage 
Boddason  (the  beginning  of  the  Sth  century)  and  ("jo'Solfr  of  Hvin 
(end  of  the  same  century).  It  has  already  been  stated  that  tha 
language  at  this  epoch  differed  so  little  from  other  Scandinavian 
dialects  that  it  could  scarcely  yet  be  called  by  a  distinctive  name, 
and  also  that,  as  Icelandic  separated  itself  from  the  Norwegian 
mother-tongue  (abont  900),  the  difl'erence  between  the  two  languages 
was  at  first  infinitely  small — as  far,  of  course,  as  the  literary 
language  is  concerned.  From  the  13th  century,  however,  they 
exhibit  more  marked  differences  ;  for,  while  Icelandic  develops  to 
a  great  extent  independently,  Norwegian,  owing  to  geographical 
and  political  circumstances,  is  considerably  influenced  by-  the  . 
Eastern  Scandinavian  languages.  The  nicst  important  differences 
between  Icelandic  and  Norwegian  at  the  epoch  of  the  oldest  MSS. 
(about  1200)  have  already  been  noted.  The  tendency  in  Norwegian 
to  retain  the  use  of  the  so-called  M-Umlaut  has  already  been 
mentioned.  On  the  other  hand,  there  appears  in  Norwegian  in 
the  13th  century  another  kind  of  vowel-assimilation,  almost 
unknown  to  Icelandic,  the  vowel  in  terminations  being  in  some 
degi-ee  influenced  by  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable.  Thus, 
for  instance,  we  find  in  some  manuscripts  (as  the  above-mentioned 
legendary  Olafssaga)  that  the  vowels  e,  0  and  long  a,  si,  (J  are 
followed  in  terminations  by  «,  0;  i,  u,  y,  and  short  a,  m,  0,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  i,  it, — as  in  l^ner,  prayers,  honor,  women  ;  but 
tiSir,  times,  tungur,  tongues.  The  same  fact  occurs  in  certain 
Old  Swedish  manuscripts.  "When  Norway  liad  been  united  later 
with  Sweden  under  one  crown  (1319)  we  meet  pure  Suecisms 
in  the  Norwegian  literacy  language.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
14th  century  exhibits  several  differences  from  the  old  language'": 
rl,  m  are  sometimes  assimilated  into  II,  nn, — as  kail  (cider  harl),_ 
man,  kmn  (horn),  corn,  prcstanncr  (prcstamir),  the  priests;  i 
passes  into  y  before  r,  /,— as  hyriSir  (kirSir),  shepherd,  lyhijl  {lyhiU), 
key  ;  final  -r  after  a  consonant  is  changed  into  -cr  or  -mr,  sometimes 
only  -c,  -«,— as  hester  (kistr),  horse  ;  bfiker  (lakr),  books  ;  tho 
names  \olUifxv  (^orUifr\,  GuNxifx  (GuSlcifr).  About  the 
beginning  of  tho  15th  century  initial  kv  occurs  for  old  hv  (not, 
ho^vevcr,  in  pronouns,  wldcli  take  ke  only  in  western  Norway),  as 
the  local  name  QvitcseiiS  {hvitr,  white).  During  the  15th  century, 
Norway  being  united  with  Denmark,  and  at  intervals  also  with 
Sweden,  a  great  many  Danisms  and  a  few  Suecisms  are  im- 
ported into  the  language.  As  Suecisms  wo  may  mention  the  ter- 
mination -in  of  the  2d  pers.  plur.  instead  of  -ir,  -iS  (as  vilin,yo\i 
will),  the  pronounjai  instead  of  cX-,  I.  The  most  important  Danisms 

7  For  IhcJC  Dco  csrcclnJIy  Nicolayjcn.  Sortko  for:itcrjitr.gtr,W(,i-m. 

8  Tho  oldest  are  thoao  on  tlio  Valdby-  (L.nri-ik)  and  Strand-  (Aafjord)  utonc, 
both  from  pngan  times.  Tlio  lalcst  ninc-s'oncs  nrc  Horn  the  end  of  the  14.J 
century.  Owing  to  Influcuco  ot  Iho  learned  such  elones  appear  again  In  tho  Ulh 
centurv,  t.g.,  In  Telemftrken.  ,    ^  ,       \     t  r  .,m. 

•  On  the  Old  KonrcBlan  monuscttpH  Me  Iho  "orlta  cited  In  notes  4, 5,  poec  368, 

for  (he  lltcnltaro  hitherto  edited  eeo  note  1,  pago  363.    ,     .^    ,  „      ,  ._ 

"  The  p-cjcns  writer  Is  Indebted  to  Prof.  Job.  Storm  for  the  followlnit  rcmnrss 

on  tho  history  ot  tho  Sonregian  UaRnago  and  lu  dlalecU  during  the  14tli  and 

Uth  coDCurlcs.  „ ., 

XXI.  —  4  7 


;70 


SCANDIK AVIAN      LANGUAGES 


are  tV.e  following :  b,  d,  and  g  are  substituted  for  ;>,  J,  and  i,-as  m 
the  local  names  Kab0  (earlier  Kapa),  TvciLx  so^n  {]>vnla  s6kn);  -a 
in  terminations  passes  into  ■<:,— as  hfirc  (hfSyra),  to  hcar,s0j7i^  ^■T^-'Jr 
to  seek  ;  sinclo  Danish  words  are  introduced,— as;ci-(ct),i.  ««(«/«). 
to  see  ;  \pi,igc  {sp'J'ja),  to  ask,  &c.     Towards  the  end  of  the  Jliddlo 
Aoes   the   Danish  influence   shows  an   immense   increase    whicli 
marks  the  gradual  decline  of  Norwegian  literature,  untd  at  last 
Korwc"iau    as    literarv   language    is    comidctely  supplanted    by 
Danisl"     During  the  iSth  century  Norway  has  hardly  any  Utera- 
ture  except  charters,  and  as  early  as  the  end  of  that  century  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  those  are  written  in  almost  pure  Danish.    In 
the    IGth   century,    again,  charters   written   in   Norwegian   occur 
only  as  rare  exceptions,  and  from  the  Reformation  onward,  when 
the    ISiblo  and   the  old   laws   wcro    translated  into    Danish,  not 
into  Norwegian,  Danish  was  not  only   the    undisputed    literary 
lan"ua-eof  Njrwav,  but  also  the  colloquial  language  of  dwellers 
in  towns  and  of  th"oso  who  had  learned  to  read      lor  the  rise  in 
recent  times  of  a  now  Norwegian  language,  employed  in  literature 
and  spoken  by  the  educated  classes,  see  p.  373.      ^ 
Dialects.      Dialectical  dilfcrences,  as  above  hinted,  occur  m  groat  number 
in  the  Norwegian  charters  of  the  13th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries. 
Especially   marked  is   the   dlHerence    between    the    language   of 
western  Norway,  which,  in  many  respects,  shows  a  development 
parallel  to  that  of  Icelandic,  and  the  langu.age  of  eastern  Norway, 
'vhicii  exhibits  still  more  striking  correspondences  with  conteni- 
■norarv  Old  Swedish.     The  most  romarkable  characteristics  of  the 
iastern  dialects  of  this  epoch  arc  the  following  ;-«.is  changed  into 
le  in  the  pronouns  \,ic,ui,  this,  \.r,l.  that,  and  the  particle  J.^r,  there 
(the  latter  as  early  as  tlie  13th  century),  and  later  on  un  the  14th 
ccuturv)  also  in  t'erminations  after  a  long  root  syllable,-as  semlic, 
to  send    h^yrx.  to  bear  (but  ffcra,  to  do,  vita,  to  knojv) ;, a  passes 
(as  in  Old  Swedish  and  Old  Danish) into  ia-as/ii-c-MIcel.  kjaria), 
heart;  y  sometimes  r.->sses  into  ia  before  r   ?, -as  /»,:,t/«-   shep- 
herd   bikini,  key,  instead   of  lojrSir,   bjlyl   (older   still,    hir^tr, 
h,kih;s^^  above",  p.  3G9>;   final  -r  after  a  consonant  often  passes 
into  -nr,  sometimes  only  into  -a,-!^^  prcslar  (j,rcstr)    priest    bpkar 
ibfikr).  books,  dat.   sing.   br(SSa  (trpSV)    (to  a)  brother  ;     t  V^^r^os 
into  hi,  si.  -as  lisla  (litla),  (tiic) little,  the  name  Atdc  AshiAtlc) 
TS  Eives  a  "thick"  s-SQund  (written  ls),-c.s  Bierdols.gennivo  of 
the  name  Bc>v\"ir,- ;  nd.  Id  are  assimilated  into  ,m   H,-as  hann. 
(iMVul),  band,  the  local  name  ircstjoll  (V  eslfold) ;  and  (as  far  back 
aa    the    13th    century)   traces   occur   of  the   vowel   assimilation, 
"  tilia^vnin"  "  that  is  so  highly  characteristic  of  the  modern  Nor- 
wegian dialects, -as  t'oJ:o,  i.,</.-«,  for  miii,  (Icel.  i-fio, -«),  accusative 

singular  of  vaka,  wake,  mylnjll  for  ',nykill,  much.  On  the  other 
liand  as  characteristics  of  the  western  dialects  may  be  noted  the 
following  —final  -r  after  a  consonant  glasses  into  -nr,  -or,— as  velur 
(■:clr)  wmter,  rdtiir  {rellr),  right,  a/tor  {nftr),  agaiii ;  si  passes  into 
/(,- as  syllla  («.&?«),  charge  ;  hv  is  changed  into  kv  also  in  pronouns, 
—as  kvcr  (hvcrr),  who,  kvassii  (hvcrsu),  how. 

This   splitting   of   the   language    into    dialects    seems  to   have 
continued  to  gain   ground,  probably  with  greater  rapidity  as   a 
Norwe-ian  literary  language  no  longer  existed.     Thus  it  is  ^ely 
likely  that  the'present  dialectical  division  was  m  all  essentials  accom- 
plished about  the  year  1800  ;  for,  judging  from  the  first  "-o'.:  on 
Norwegian  dialectology,'  the  S^ndfjord  (Western  Norway)  aialect  at 
least  possessed  at  that  time  most  of  its  present  features.     A  little 
clof-calendar  of  the  year  1644  seems  to  prove  the  same  regarding  tlie 
Vafders  (Southern  Norway)  dialect.     How  far  the  Old  Norwegian 
dialects  on  the  F.aroes,  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  on  the  Scottish 
islands,  and  on  the  Isle  of  Man  differed  from  the  mother-tongue  it 
is  impossible  to  decide,  on  account  of  the  few  remnants  of  these 
dialects  which  exist  apart  from  local  names,  viz  ,  some  charters 
(from  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century  onxtard)  from  the  Fai°"- 
and  Orkneys,"  and  a  few  runic  inscriptions  from  the  Orkneys  (thirty 
in  number)"  and  the  Isle  of  Man  (fourteen  in  nnmber).=    These 
T.inic  inscriptions,  however,  on  account  of  their  imperfect  ortho- 
crapbv,  throw  but  little  light  on  the  subject.     Of  the  Oikncy  diafcct 
we  know  at  least  that  initial  hi,  h,i,  /irstiU  preserved  h  in  the  13th 
century  —that  is,  two  hundred  years  longer  than  in  Norway. 
Gram.          Old 'Norwegian   grammar   has   hitherto  always  been  taken  up 
matical    in  connexion  with  Old  Idelandic,  and  conhned  to  notes  and  a].,.en. 
trea...       dices   inserted   in  works  on    Iceland^   grammar.      A  systematic 
Du-.t.       treatise   on  Old  Nor^  egian  grammar  is  still  ^vanting    «'t '  th» 
exception  of  a  short  work  by  the  Danish  scholar  N.  M   Teteisen 
(t  ISC'^1  <■  which,  although  brief  and  decidedly  antiquated,  deserves 
kn  I.r.aise.     A  most  valuable  collection  of  materials  exists    how- 
ever  in  the  Norwegian  charters,  carefully  and  f  curate  y  edited  by 
iie  Norwe-an  scholars  Chr.  Lange  (+1S61)  and  C.  R.  Unger,'  and 
In  a  fen  :cxt3  ediied  with  diplomatic  accuracy. 

1  Cht.  Jenscn-ii  Xonk  dUlioriftrium  eUir  ^losthcg,  ICIC. 

s  Sec  Uiploma'arium  Kon-cgiium   vol.  i.  11.  isO  and  oJl. 

^  See  Dip!.  Sorv.,  i.  n.  303. 

»  See  r.  A.  Manch,  Sumlcde  nfhmdHngtr,  Iv.  51C  sj. 

s  Sec  Maiicli.  Sarnl.  afh.,  iii.  ISl  57.  l  ,    .  ,„„-. 

c-  m  DaMkl  XorAe.  05  Sve,i>ke  >prog!  ;,.sIor.f,  part  !l.  pp.  l-3«  (ed.  1S30). 

7  oiplomalJwm  KoWr,iic,w,.  1S07  „•.  10  vols,  hiivc  .llrcaJ  •  »PP=^'^- 

8  Compare  the  piclaces  to  victusson'a  ediuon  of  the  ^TKl-i^aAiJnsa  (-SCJ), 


III.  Swedish.— The   Pre-Eeforraation   language  is  calUd  Old  SwH>«n. 
Swedish. 


reaisn. 

1.    Old  Swedish.— The  territory  of  the  Old  Swedish  conipre-  Old 
bended— (1)    Sweden,    except    the    most    northerly   jiart,    where  Swedish. 
Lappish  (and  Finnish  ?)  was  spoken,  the  most  southerly  (Skliie, 
Halland,  and  Blckinge— see  below,  p.  373),  and  certain  parts  of 
western  Sweden  (see  above,  p.  309)  ;  (2)  extensive  maritime  tract* 
of  Finland,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia,  with  their  surrounding  islands; 
and   (3)    certain   places   in   Russia,    where   Swedish   was   spoken 
for  a  short  time.     The  oldest  but  also  the  most  meagre  sources  Sources, 
of   our  knowledge   of   Old   Swedish   are  those  w*ords,  almost  ex- 
clusively   personal    names    (nearly    one    hundred),    which    wero 
introduced    into    the    Russian    language    at    the    foundation   of 
the   Russian   realm   by  Swedes  (in   8G2),   and  which  are  for  the 
most   part  somewhat  influenced   by  Russian  phonetic  laws,  pre- 
served in  two  Russian  documents  of  the  years  912  and  945,'— as 
Igor  (0.  Sw.  Itigvar),  Surik  (Br^ikr),   0kg   {Uialge,  secondary 
form  of  Ilclge),  Olga  (Hialga,  Helga).     Of  about  the  same  date, 
but  of  an   inhnitely  greater  variety,  are   the  runic   inscriptions, 
amounting  in  number  to  about  two  thousand,  which   have  been 
found  cut  on  stones  (rarely  wood,  metal,  or  other  materials)  almost 
all  over  Sweden,  though  they  occur  most  frequently  (about  half 
of  the  total  number)  in 'the  province  of  Uppland,  next  to  which 
come  Sbdermanland,  Ostergiitland,  and  Gotland,  with  about  tw» 
hundred  each.     For  the  most  part  they  are  tombstones  or  monu- 
ments  in   memory   of  deceased   relatives,   rarely   public   notices. 
Their  form  is  often  metrical,  in  part  at  least.     Most  of  them  are 
anonymous,  in  so  far  that  we  do  not  know  the  name  of  the  engraver, 
though,  as  a  rule,  the  name   of   the   man  who   ordered   them  is 
recorded.     Of  the  engravers  named,  about  seventy  in  number,  the 
three  most  productive  are  Ubir,  Bali,  and  Asmundr  Kar.-.sun,  all 
three  principally  working  ill  Upland;  the  first-mentioned  name  is 
signed  on  about  forty,  the  others  on  nearly  twenty  stones  each. 
These  inscriptions  vary  very  much  in  age,  belonging  ro  all  centuries 
of  Old  Swedish,  but  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  them  date  from 
the  nth  and  12th  centuries.     From  heathen   times— as   well  as 
from  the   last  two  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages— we  have  com- 
paratively lew.      The  oldest  are   probably  the  Ingelstad  inscrip- 
tion  in  Ostergbtland,  and  the  Gursten  one  found   in  the   north 
of  Sm4land."     The  rune   stone  from  Eok  in  Ostergotland  prob- 
ably dates  from  the  first  half  of  the  10th  century.     Its  inscrip- 
tion  surpasses   all   the   others    both  in   length    (more  than   ono 
hundred  and  fifty  words)  and  in  the  importance  of  its  contents, 
which  are  equally  interesting  as  regards  philology  and  the  bistory 
of  culture  ;  it  is  a  fragment  (partly  in  metrical  form)  of  an  Old 
Swedish  heroic  tale."     From  about  the  year  1000  we  possess  the 
inscriptions  of  Asmundr  Karasun,  and  from  about  1050  the  so-called 
In"var  monuments  (about  twenty  in  number),  erected  most  of  theni 
in  Sodermanland,  in  honour  of  the  men  who  fell  in  a  great  war  in 
eastern  Europe  under  the  command  of  a  certain  Iiigvar  ;  the  stones 
cut  by  Bali  belong  to  the  same  period.     Somewhat  later  are  the 
inscriptions  cut  by  Ubir,  and  about  contemporary  with  them,  yiz., 
from   the    beginning   of    the    12tli   century,    is    the    remarkable 
inscription  on  the  door-ring  of  the  church  of  Forsa  m  Helsingland, 
containing'  the  oldest  Scandinavian  statute"  now  preserved,    a» 
well  as  other  inscriptions  from  the  same  province,  written  in  a 
particular  variety  of  the  common   runic  alphabet,  the   so-called 
"  staflbsa  "  (stafflcss,  without  the  perpendicular  stall")  runes,  as  the 
Ion"  genealogical  inscription  on  the  Slalstad-stone.     The  inscrip- 
tions" of  th?  following  centuries  are  of  far  less  philological  interest, 
because  after  the  13th  century  there  exists  another  and  more  fruit- 
ful source  for  Old  Swedish,  viz.,  a  literature  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  which  was  only  in  a  limited  degree  written  in  runes. 
Of  the  runic  literature  hardly  anything  has  been  preserved  to  our 
days,"  while  the  literature  in  the  Latin  letters  is  both  in  quality 
and   extent   incomparably  inferior  to   Old    Icelandic,   though  it, 
at  least  in  quantity,  considerably  surpasses  Old  Norwegian.     In 
a-e    however,  it  is  inferior  to  both  of  them,  beginning  only  m 
the'  13th  century.     The   oldest   of  the   extant  manuscripts   is  a 
codex  of  the  Older  Vcslgolalaw  (Cod.  Holm.  B  59),  written  about 
the  year   1290,    and  philologically   of  the   greatest  importance. 
Not  much  later  is  a  codex  of  the  Uplandslaw  (Cod.   Ups.  12)  of 
the  year  1300.     Of  other  works  of  value  from  a  philological  point 
of  view  we  only  mention  a  codex  of  the  Sodermannalaw  (Cod. 
Holm.  B  53)  of  about  1330,  the  two  manuscripts  containing'  a 

Keyscr-S  .inJ  Unger's  editions  ot  the  legendary  Ola/uxga  ('849),  and  Barjaamis 
lllTok  Joi^phaU  (ISol),  UnECi's  ed.  of  \„drHi^nm  (1S53),  and  Tli.  Moblu.. 
fssuv  tV6rruiea//nor(JiSf/i^.Sp/-af:'i*r,  pp.  15-18(18.2). 

9  ^ee  V.  Thomsen,  lif/^kn  rikett  gr-jndldggninfj,  especially  p.  11*  'l-t  =>• 
Eii^trc.  "  OUsvcnske  iiavne  i  P.usland"  i^Arkivf.  Hard.  Filol,  ii.). 

lo' Kindly  cominunicilcd  by  Fiot.  S.  Bi. gee.  n  ,.,/;„n-,j,t 

11  See  S.  Buece,  '-Tolkning  at  runeindskrilten  pa  nokstencn  (/4n(i}tarOV 
Tidikrift/.Sctrige,i..K-'S). 

i:  See  S.  Bucge,  Itineindskri/Un  pan  nngm  t  Forsa  'J  ":*^1°' ,',-.,„„„    r,„,ur. 

13  For  the  runic  Inscriptions  in  general,  sec  sbove  all  J.  G.  Uljegrcn.  """"^ 
lundrr.  1SS3  ;  J.  Giiransson,  lia,da.  1750;  R.  r>ybeck,  SveTUk^  runurkundfr 
lS.'.5-50,  and  Scti-ites  runurktmdsr,  1SC0-7C  ;  and  the  Jotimah  ol  the  antlqimnan 

°n  see'Ll'F.'L^S'cr.  ■•  Fomsvenska  runlmudskritler  "  (.Vorrfii*  Tii>h-<fl,  1879). 


SCANDINAVIAN      LANGUAG.ES 


371 


collection  of  legeuds  generally  named  Cod.  Burcanua  (written  a 

little  after  1360)  and  Cod.  Bildstenianus  (between  U20  and  1450), 

and  ±ho  great  Oxenstiernian  manuscript,  which  consists  chiefly  of 

a   collection  of  legends  written  for  the  most  part  in  1385.     The 

very  numerous  Old  Swedisli  charters,  from  1343  downwards,  are 

also  of  great  importance.  \ 

Form  of       Old^Swedish,  durinj,  its  earliest  prc-literary  period  (900-1200), 

Iha  Ian-    retains  quite  as  original  a  ch&racter  as  contemporary  Old  Icelandic 

gu»ge.      and  Old  Norwegian.     The  first  Dart  of  the  inscription  of  the  Rbk- 

stoUd  running  thus — 

APT  CAMU>  STANTA  UUNAiJ  JiAiJ  IN  UARIN  FAjl  FAjJlil  AFT 
FAIKIAN  SBNU," 

and  probably  pronounced — 

ffift  Wamod  stjnda  riihar  btoR  ;  en  Warenn  faSe  faSelj  left 
•  faeighijn  sunu, 
..Savf,  no  doubt,  .have  had  the  same  form  in  contemporary 
Icelandic,  except  the  last  word,  which  would  probably  have  had 
the  less  original  form  sun.  The  formal  changes  of  the  Swedish 
language  during  this  period  are,  generally  speaking,  such  as  appear 
about  the  same  time  in  all  the  membersof  the  group,— as  the  change 
of  soft  B  into  common  r  (the  Rok-stoue  rimaR,  later  runar,  runes  ; 
this  appeared  earliest  after  dental  consonants,  later  after  an  accented 
vowel),  and  the  change  of  s^  into  st  (in  tho  10th  century  raisipi,  later 
reUti,  raised);  or  they  are,  at  least,  common  to  it  with  Norwegian, 

as  the  dropping  of  h  before  I,  n,  and  r  (in  tho  10th  century  hraur, 

younger  ror,  cairn),  and  the  changing  of  na.'ial  vowels  (the  long 
one's  latest)  into  non-nasalized.  A  very  old  specific  Swedish  charac- 
teristic, however,  is  the  splitting  up  of  i  into  iu  before  ngtc,  nkw, — 
as  siunga,  to  sing,  siunka,  to  sink,  from  primitive  Scandinavian 
singwan,  ■sinkimn  (Icel.-Norw.  syngva,  s^kkra).  But  the  case  is 
dtogether  different  during  what  we  ma.y  call  the  classical  period  of 
Old  Swedish  (1200-1350),  the  time  of  the  later  runic  inscriptions 
a?  d  the  oldest  literature.  During  this  period  the  language  is  already 
distinctly  separate  from  the  (literary)  Icelandic-Norwegian  (though 
not  yet  from  Danish).     The  words  of  the  Older  Vestgdta.law — 

FALDER  KLOCKiB  NIDEB  I  BOVO}!  MANNI,  BcJTI  SOPCN  MAKCHUM 
))R1M,   F.N  HAN  FAR  BAN^  AF — ^ 

would  in  contemporary  Iceilandic  be — 

fellr  klukka  ni3r  i  hoTuS  manni,  biti  s6kn  -morijum  frim, 
ef  hann  far  bana  af. 
These  few  words  exhibit  instances  of  the  following  innovations  in 
Swedish  : — d  is  inserted  between  II  {nn)  and  a  following  r  (as  b 
between  m  and  Z,  r,  and  p  between  m  and  t,  n, — as  hambrar^  Icel. 
hamrar,  hammers,  sampt,  Icel.  sam(,  together  with);  an  auxiliary 
vowel  is  inserted -between  final  r  and  a  preceding  consonant ;  a  m 
terminations  is  often  changed  into  m  ;   a  a  in  the  final   syllable 
cai'scs  no  change  of  a  preceding  a ;    the  prcoent  tense  takes  the 
vowel  of  the  infinitive  (and  the  preterite  subjunctive  that  of  preterite 
indicati-ve  plural).     Other  important  changes,  appearing  at  the  same 
time,    but  probably,    partly   at   least,  of  a  somewhat  older  date, 
are  the  following  : — all  diphthongs  are  contracted  (as  oglia,  Icel. 
aif^a,  eye  ;  driima,   Icel.   rfr0?/m«,  to   dream;    sten,    Icel.    stcinriy 
stone — traces  of  which  we  find  as  early  as  the  12th  century);   i 
has   passed   into  m  (as  knsE^  Icel.    kiii,  knee}  ;   ia  into  ix,  as  in 
Eastern   Norwegian  (as  kissrta,   Icel.    hjarta,  heart) ;    iu   into  y 
after  r,  and  a  consonant  +1  (as  flygha,  Icel.  fljuga,  to  fly);    the 
forms   of  the   three   persons   singular  of  verbs   have   assimilated 
(except   in    the   so-called    strong   preterite);  .the   2d   pcrs.    plur. 
ends  in  -in  for  -i3,  and  tho  passive   voice  in    -s  for   tho   earlier 
■ak;  the  dat.    plur.   of  substantives  with  suffixed  article  ends  in 
•umin  (Icel.    -'moiii,    as  sunumin,  suno7iom,   to   the   sons).      Tho 
transition  to  the  iith  century  is  marked  by  important  changes  : — 
3hort  y,   t.g.,   passed  into  o  in  many  positions  (as  dor  for  dyr, 
loor,    &c.),  and   tho   forms  of  tho  dative  -and   the   accusative  of 
pronouns  gradually  became  the  same.     The  number  of  borrowed 
words  is  as  yet  very  limited,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to  ecclesiastical 
words  of  Latin  and  Greek  origin,  introduced  along  with  Christian- 
ity (as  kors,  cross,  hrcf^  ei'i.stle,  sknli,  achool,  prseslcr,  priest,  almosa, 
alms).     At  tho  middle  of  tho  14th  century  tlie  literary  language 
undergoes  a  remarkable  reform,  developing  at  tho  samo  time  to  a 
"  rikssprak,"  a  uniform  language,  common  to  tho  wholo  country. 
The  chief  characteristics  of  this  later  Old  Swedish  are  tho  follow- 
ing:— tho  long  a  has  passed  into  d  (that  is,  an  open  o),  and  io 
(except  before  rd^    rt)   ilito   id   (.is  sib,  sen,    lake);   at   tlie   same 
time  there   appears   a  so-called   law  of  vowel  balance,    according 
to  \Ybich  tho  vowels  i  and  u  are   always  found  in  terminations 
after  a  shoi  t  root  syllable,  and — at  Icist  when  no  consonant  fol- 
lows— e  and  o  after  a  long  one  (as  Gudi,  to  God,  lit  salu^  for  sale, 
but  i  gar]>c,  in  tho  court,  /or  visso,  assuredly) ;  g  and  k  (sk)  before 

1  Tho  Old  Swedish  monmnonlB  nro  for  tho  most  pait  published  In  the  follow  Inc 
tancclionn -.—arfnika  /omtkrt/ttdflMtapctt  tamliiujar,  K4  parts,  1844-8-1;  C.  J. 
Sclilyt*T.  Samlmg  af  Sttrigti  gamla  layar,  vols,  l.-vil.  and  x.-xl!.,  1827-C9  ; 
SDtpikt  Uiptomatarium,  6  vols.,  1829-78,  new  Bciles,  2  vols.,  1875-81. 

■  In  memory  of  ViAmit\  thrso  runes  aland;  and  Warenn,  hla  father,  wrote 
them  In  memory  of  his  ion,  (by  destiny)  condemned  to  death. 

*  If  the  bell  fall  down  on  anyboQy't  bead,  the  pariah  payi  a  lino  of  three  marks 
•hoold  he  dk  from  It. 


palatal  vowels  are  softened  into  dj  and  Ij  (slj);  k  and  t  in  unaC' 
cented  syllables  often  pass  into  gh,  dh  (as   Sverighe  for  Sverikc, 
Sweden,  lilcdh  for  hlel,  a  little);  the  articles  ^Ken  (or  >.i'ji),  tne,  a-.id 
(a  little  later)  £it,  a,  come  into  use  ;  the  dual  pronouns  vanish;  the 
'relative  wr,  that,  is  changed  with  sum;  the  present  jarticip;  j  'akes  i> 
secondary  form  in  -s  (as  gangandcs,  beside  gangande,  going).     A 
little  later  the  following  changes  appear  :— a  short  vowel  is  length, 
ened  before  a  single  consonant,  first  when  the  consonant  belong) 
to  the  samo  syllable  (as  hat,  hate),  afterwards  also  when  it  belong; 
to  the  following  one  (as  hala,-tn  hate)  ;  an  auxiliary  vowel  is  in- 
serted between  I  or  n  and  a  preceding  consonant  (as  gavel,  gable,  oicTi, 
desert)  ;  short  t,  ending  a  syllable,  passes  into  e  (as  leva,  to  live)  ; 
th  passes  into  (;  a  new  conjugation  is  formed  which  has  no  infini- 
tive termination,  but  doubles  the  sign  of  tho  preterite  (as  bo,.bodde, 
bolt,  to  dwell,  dwelt,  dwelt).      Owing  to  the  political  and  com- 
mercial state  of  the  country  the  language  at  this  period  is  deluged 
with  borrowed  words  of  Low  -German  origin,  mostly  social  ind 
industrial  terms,  such  as  the  great  number  of  verbs  in  -era  (dg., 
hantcra,  to  handle),  the  substantives  in  -eri  {rbveri,  robbery),  -inna 
i/brstinna,    princess),    -Tiet    {fromhct,    piety),   be-  {bclala,   to  pOT); 
apd  a  great  many  others  (klcn,  weak,  smaka,  to  taste,  grover,  big, 
pung,  purse,  <uW,  discipline,  bruka,  to  use,  Ivist,  quarrel,  stbvel.'boot, 
arbeta,  to  work,  frokostcr,  lunch,  &c. ).     Owing  to  the  political  rjr- 
cumstances,  we  find  towards  the  end  of  the  period  a  very  powerful 
Danish  infltience,  which  extends  also  to  phonetics  and  etyfrioiogy, 
so  that,  for  example,  nearly  all  the  terminal  vowels  are  ,su:jplanted 
by  tlie  liniform  Danish  e,  the  hard  consonants  p,  t,  k  by  6,  d,  g  as 
in  Danish,  the  second  person  plural  of  tho  imperative  ends  in  -er, 
beside  -cil  (as  tagher,  for  older  takin). 

Dialectical  differences  incontcsUbly  occur  in  (he  runic  inscnp   Dialects, 
tions  as  well  as  in  the  literature  ;  in  the  former,  however,  most  ot 
them  are  hidden  from  our  eyes  by  tlie  character  of  the  writing, 
which  is,  from  a  phonetic  point  of  view,  highly  unsatisfactory, 
indicating  tho  most  difl'erent  sounds  by  the  same  sign  (for  taam-> 
pie,  0,  u,  y,  and  S  are  denoted  by  one  and  tho  same  rune) ;  in  the 
literature  again  they  are  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  the  awakening 
desire  to  fo°rm  a  uniform  literary  language  for  the  whole  country, 
and   by   tho   literary  productivity   and   consequent   predominant 
influence  of  certain  provinces  (as  Ostergtjtland).     Tl^is  question, 
moreover,  has  not  hitherto  been  investigated  with  sufficient  care.* 
Only  one  distinct  dialect  has  been  handed  down  to  us,  that  of  the 
island  of  Gotland,  which  differs  so  essentially  from  the  Old  Swedish 
of  the  mainland  that  it  has  with  good  reasonbeen  characterized,  under 
the  name  Forngulniska,  as  in  a  certain  sense  a  separate  language.  Fomgut-i 
JIaterials  for  its   study   are   very   abundant'  :    on   one   hand   we  niska. 
possess  more  than  two  hundred  runic  inscriptions,  among  them  a 
very  remarkable  one  of  the  12th  or  13th  century,  counting  upwards 
of  three  hundred  runes,  cut  on  a  font  (nbw  iu  Aakirkeby  on  tho 
island  of  Bornholm),  and  representing  the  life  of  Christ  in  a  series 
of  pictures  and  words  ;  on  the  other  hand  a  literature  has  been  pre- 
served consisting  of  a  runic  calendar  from  1328,  the  law  of  tho 
island  (from  about  1350),   a  piece  of  tr.-iditional  history,  and  a 
guild  statute.     The  language  is  distinguished  from  the  Old  Swedish 
of  the  mainland  especially  by  tho  following  characteristics  :— tho 
old  diphthongs  are  preserved  (e.g.,  aicga,  eye,  droyma,  to  dream, 
slain,  stone),  and  a  new  triphthong  has  arisen  by  the  change  of  iH 
into  iau  (as  Jtiauga,  to  fly) ;  the  long  vowels  e,  a;  8,  have  passed 
into  i,  c,  y  (as  kni,  knee,  mcla,  to  epeak,  dyma,  to  deem)  ;  short 
0  rarely  occurs  except  before  r,  being  in  othei  positions  changed  into 
u  ;  to  is  dropped  before  r  (as  rai'^i,  wrath) ;  tlie  genitive  singular 
of  feminines  in  -a  ends  in  -ur  for  -u  (as  kirkiur,  of  the  church). 
Owing  to  the  entire  absence  of  documentary  evidence  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  how  far  the  dialects  east  of  the  Baltic,  which  no 
doubt  had  a  separate  individitality,  differed  from  the  mother- tongue. 

The  first  to  pay  attention  to  the  study  of  Old  Swedish  «  was  the  i»"  "'"' 
Swedish  savant  J.  Buraus  (+1C52),  who  by  several  works  (from  ot  OKI 
1599  onwards)  called  attention  to  and  excited  a  lively  interest  in  bweaisj. 
the  funic  monuments,  and,  by  his  edition  (1034)  of  tlie  e-\cellent 
Old  Swedish  work  Um  Shirihi  Konnnga  ok  Ho/)>tnga,  m  Old 
Swedish  literature  also.  Hi's  no  longer  extant  Specimen  I'rimanm 
Lingua  Scantzianx  gave  but  a  very  sliort  review  of  Old  Swedish 
inflexions,  but  is  remarkable  as  tho  first  essay  of  its  kiiid,  and  i-f 
perhaps  tho  oldest  attempt  in  modern  times  at  a  giammatical  treat- 
ment of  any  ohl  Germanic  langu.age.  Tho  study  of  runes  w.as  very 
popular  in  tho  17th  century;  M.  Celsius  (flfi79)  lleciphered  the 
"Rtafflcss"  runes  (see  above,  p.  370),  and  .1.  lladorph  (tlG93),  who 
also  di.l  goo.1  work  in  editing  Old  Swedish  textji,  copied  more  tlian 
a  thousand  runic  inscriptions.  During  tlio  18lh  century,  again. 
Old  Swedish  was  almost  completely  neglected  ;  but  in  the  iiresent 
tury  tho  st\idy  of  runes  has  been  well  reiirescnted  by  tlve  col- 
;ion  of  the  Swede  Liljegren  (tl837)  and  by  tho  Norwegian  S. 


cen 
lection 


J.  E.  Kydqvlst,  St,.  SprSkcl,  laoar.  Iv.  153  .,.;  L.  F.  Le.llcr,  On,v-oml}udcl,\9..1 
pp.  37  J7.,  85,  76  ;  S,  BiiCKO,  Ru„ci,<J>lri/lcn  fra  Foria.  p.  49  >qr.  A.  Koek, 
Sludin-  I  /•oriuccn..*  IJMdliira.  I.,  18s:>.  pp.  .V>  »»,.  144  .?.,  l..'.l  in..  "8. 


pp.  37  sfi; 

»  Seo  C    Siivc,  (lulnUla  vrkim,ler.  l.»5'J:  J.  G.  UlJfKleii.  /iunurliinj^r    1833.^ 
•  Seo  A.  Hoieen.  "Apertu  do  Iblatolro  do  la  aclcQco  llugulalliiuo  Suddolae  . 

(.Le  i/iaeon,  U. ,  18^). 


372 


SCANDINAVIAN      LANGUAGES 


Sources, 


Bngge's  ingenious   interpretation  and  grammAtical  treatment  of 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  inscriptions.    Old  Swedish  literature 
has  also  been  made  the  ,bject  of  grammatical  researches.     A  first 
outline  of  a  history  of   the  Swedish  language  is  to  bo  found  in 
the  work  of  N.  M.  Peterson  (1830)  mentioned  above  (p.  '370),  and 
a  scheme  of  an  Old  Swedish  grammar  in  P.  A.  Hunch's  essay 
Fornswctiskaiis  och  Fornnorskans  sprHkhyggnad  (1849) ;    but   Old 
Swedish  grammar  was  never  treated  as  an  independent  branch  ot 
science  until  the  appearance  «f  J.  E.  Rydqvisfs  (t  1877)  monu- 
mental  work  SK,iska.  spn'^kcts  lanar  (in  6  vols.,  1850-83),  which 
was  followed  in  Sweden  by  a  whole  literature  on  the  same  subject. 
Thus  phonetics,  which  were  comparatively  neglected  by  Rydqvist, 
have  been   investigated  with  great  success,   especially   by   X..    i. 
Lefller  and  A    Kock  ;  while  the  other  parts  of  grammar  have  been 
treated  of  above  all  by  K.  F.  Sidcrwatl,  the  chief  of  contemporary 
Old  Swedish  scholars.     His  principal  work,  Ordbok  ojvcr  hunska 
nu:rfa»Ws«'rilirf(1884s?.),'nowin  course  of  publication,  gives  the  list 
of  words  in  the  later  Old  Swc<lish  language,  ar^U-taken  along  with 
the  Ordlok  till  samlingcn  af  Svcrigcs  gamla  lagar  (J8/7),  b.vO.  J. 
Schlvtcr,  tho  well-known  editor  of  Old  Swedish  texts,  which  con- 
tains the  vocabulary  of  the  oldest  literature— it  worthily  meets  the 
demand  for  an  Old  Swedish  dictionary.    An  Old  Swedish  gramrnar, 
answering  the  reciuirenicnts  of  modern  philology,  is  still  needed 
Moderti        2.  Modem  SicctUsh.-lho  first  complete  translation  of  the  Bible 
Swedish   edited  in  1541  by  the  brothers  Olaus  and  Laurentius  Petri,  and 
generally  called  the  Bible  of  Gustavus  I.,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
earliest  important  monument  of  this.     Owing  to  religious  and  poli- 
tical circumstances,  and  to  t.ie  learned  influence  of  humanism,  theo- 
logical and  histoi'ico-political  works  preponderate  m  the  Swedish 
U°erature   of   the  following  period,   which   therefore  affords  but 
scanty   material   for  philological  research.     It  is  not   until   the 
middle  of   the    17th  century   that   Swedish  literature  adequately 
•xemplifies  tho  language,  for  at  that  period  literature  first  began 
tc  be  cultivated  as  a  fine  art,  and  its  principal  representatives,  such 
aa  Stiernhielm,  Columbus,  and  Spegel,  were  in  reaUty  the  first  to 
study  it  as  a  means  of  expression  and   to  dsvelop  its   resources.- 
Amongst  tho  authors  of  the  18th  century  we  have  to  mention  in 
the  first  place  Dalin,  who  was  to  some  extent  the  creator  of  the 
prose  styh  of  that  epoch  ;  while  of  the  end  of  the  century  Kellgrcn 
and  Bellman  are  the  most  noteworthy  examples,  representing  tae 
higher  and  the  more  familiar  style  of  poetry  respectively      lue 
lan<'ua<'e  of  the  19th  centurv,  or  at  any  rate  of  the  middle  of  it,  is 
best  represented  in  the  works  of  Wallin  and  Tegner,  which,  on 
account  of  their  enormous  circulatioH,  have  had  a  greater  influence 
than  those  of  any  other  authors. 

As  to  tho  lan''uage  itself  the  earliest  Jlodern  Swedish  tex-ts,  as 
Gustavus  I.'s  Bible,  difler  considerably  from  the  latest  Old  Swedish 
ones  2    We  find  a  decided  tendency  to  exterminate  Danisms  and 
reintroduce  native  and  partiaUy  antiquated  forms.     At  the  same 
time  there  appear  several  traces  of  a  later  state  of  the  language: 
all  genitives  (singular  and  plural),  e.g.,  end  in  -s,  which  m  earlier 
times  was  the  proper  ending  ot  only  certain  declensions.     In  spite 
of  the  archaistic  etforts  of  many  writers,  both  in  forms  and  m  voca- 
bulary   the  language  nevertheless  underwent  rapid  changes  during 
the  16th  and  )7th  centuries.     Thus  sj  and  stj  (original  as  well  as 
derived  from  sk  before  a  naiatal  vowel)  assimilate  into  a  simple  sh- 
sound  •  dj  (original  as  well  as  derirad  from  g  before  a  palatal  vowel), 
at  least  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  dropped  its  rf-sound  (com- 
pare  such  spellings  as  div/wer,  gidilar,  cnvogi,  fov  ju/icr   udder, 
jdttnr;  giants,  enrol/*!, -envoy) ;  hj  passes  into  ^  (such  spe  lings  are 
found  Mjorl  for  hjort,  hart,  and  !ijdr}ie  hi  jdrve,  hazel  grouse); 
b  and  p   inserted  in  such  words  as   himhlar,  heavens,  hamorar, 
hammers,  javipn,  even,  sampt,  together  with  (see  above,  p.  371),  are 
dropped  ;  the  first  person  plural  of  the  verb  takes  the  form  ol  the 
third  person  (as  vi/ara,/orc,  for  vifarom,  /orom,  we  go,  went) ;  by 
the  side  of  the  pronoun  /,  you,  there  arises  a  secondary  form  Ni, 
in   full   use  in   the  spoken  language   about   1650  ;  the   adjective 
gradutilly  loses  all  the  case-inflexii-ns  ;  in  substantives  the  nomin- 
ttive    dative,  and'  accusative  take  the  same  form  as  earlv  as  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century  ;  in  the  declension  with  suffixed  article 
the  old  method  of  expressing  number  and  case  both  in  the  substan- 
tive and  the  article  is  changed,  so  that  the  substantive  alone  takes 
the  number-inflexion  and  the  article  alone  the  case-ending ;  neuter 
substantives  ending  iu  a  .vowel,  which  previously  had  no  plural 
ending  take  the  plural  ending  -n,  some  -cr,— as  b,-n,  bees,  lageri-cr, 
bakerFes.     About  the  year  1700  the  Old  Swedish  inflexion  may   in 
general,  be  considered  as  almost  completely  given  up,  altliough  a 
work  of  such  importance  in  the  history  of  tho  language  as  Charles 
XII. 's  Bible  (so-called)  of  1703  (edited  by  Bishop  J.  Svedberg), 
by  a  kind  of  conscious  archaism  has  preserved  a  good  many  of  the 
old  forms      To  these  archaistic  tendencies  of  certain  au.hoi-s  at  the 
end  of  tho  17th  centurv  wo  owe  the  great  number  of  Old  Swedish 
and  Icelandic  borrowed  words  then  introduced  into  the  language,— 


Form  of 
the  lan- 
guage. 


as /oyer,  fair,  hiirja,  to  ravage,  later,  manr-cr?,  mille,  genius,  iania, 
girl,  tima,  to  happen,  ko.     In  addition  to  this,  owing  to  hum.»nistio 
ir.flnence,  learned  expressions  were  borrowed  from  Latin  during  the 
v,-*;ole  16th  and  17tli  centuries  ;  and  from  German,  chiefly  at  tlia 
lleformation  and  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  numberless  -words 
were  introduced,— as  spr&k,  language,  tapper,  brave, /)rai(,  niagniti- 
cence,  hurtig,  brisk,  &c.  i  among  these  may  bo  noted  especially  a 
great  number  ot  words  beginning  in  an-,  ei--,f6r-^  and  ge-.^    Owing 
to  the  constantly  increasing  political  and  literary  predominance  of 
France  French  words  were  largely  borrowed  in  the  17th  century,  and 
to  an  equally  great  extent  in  the  18th  ;  such  are  afar,  business, 
rcsiKkl,  respect,  talang,  talent,  charmant,  charming,  &c    In  the  19th 
century,  again,  especially  about  tho  middle  of  it,  we  anew  meet 
with  conscious  and  energetic  eflorts  after  purism  both  in  tho  forma- 
tion of  new   words  and  in   the  adoption  of  words  from  the   old 
lanoua^e  (id,  diligence,  mala,  to  speak, /i//i-i«s',  battle-array,  &c.l, 
and°fro°m  the  dialects  {bliga,  to  gaze,  fiis,  flake,  skrabbig,  bad,  &c. ). 
Consequently,  the  present  vocabulary  difl'ers  to  a  very  great  extent 
from  that  of  the  literature  of  the  17th  century.     As  for  the  sounds 
and   grammatical   forms,  on   the   other  hand,  comparatively  few 
important  changes  have  taken  place  during  the  last  two  centurie.9. 
In  the  18th  century,  however,  the  aspirates  dh  and  gh  passed  into 
d  »nd  g  (after  I  ana  r  mtoj),— as'kj  for  lagli,  law,  brbd  for  brodh, 
bread  ;  hv  passed  into  t>  (in  dialects  already  about  the  year  1600),— 
as  valpioe  la-alper,  whelp  ;  IJ  likewise  into  ;,  — thus  Ijuster,  leister, 
occurs  written yiisfcr.     In  our  time  rd,  rl,  rn,  is,  and  rt  are  passing 
into  simple  sounds  ("  supradeutal "   d,  I,  ii,  s,  and  (),  while  tho 
singular   of  the   verbs   is   gradually  supplanting  the  .plural.     A 
vigorous  reform,  slowly  but  firmly  carried  on   almost   uniformly 
dming  all  periods  of  tho  Swedish  langnage,  is  the  throwing  back 
of  the  principal  accent  to  the  beginning  of  the  word  m  cases  where 
previously  it  stood  nearer  the  end,  a  tendency  that  is  characteristiis 
of  all  the   Scandinavian  languages,  but   no   doubt   especially   of 
Swedish.     In    the    primitive    Scandinavian   age   the   awent   was 
removed  in  most  simple  words  ;  the  originally  accented  syl!-_ble, 
however,  preserved  a  musically  high  pitch  and  stress.     Thus  there 
arose  two  essentially  different  accentualions,— the  one,  with  un- 
accented final  syllable,  as  in  Iccl.  sligr  (Gr.  o-refx^").  *°"  6°"'' 
the  compaiative    bctre   (ef.   Gr.    eiircwv  from   TaxiJs),   better,   tho 
other,  with  secondary  stress  and  high  pitch  on  the  final,  as  in  IceL 
pret.  plur.  tiiSom  (Sanskr.  bubudhimd),  we  bade,  part.  pret.  bilena 
(Sanskr.  bhintuis),  bitten.     The  same  change  afterwards  took  pl.ice 
in  those  compound  words  that  had  the  principal   accent  on  the 
second  member,  so  that   such   contrasts   as   German  urthctl  and. 
crthelkn.  were  gradually  brought  into  conformity  with  the  former 
accentuation.     At    he  present  day  it  is  quite  exceptionally  (and 
chiefly  in  borrowed   lords  of  later  date)  that  the  principal  accent 
in  Swedish  is  on  ai.  .  otlier  syllable  than  tlie  first  as  m  Ickdmen, 
body,  vdlsigiui,  to  biegs.  ,     ,   ««_ 

The  scientific  st„dv  of  Modern  Swedish  =  dates  from  Sweden  sTbe 
glorious  epoch,  the  iast  half  of  the  17th  century.  The  first  regular  rtudy  4 
Swedish  grammar  ,vas  written  in  1684  (not  edited  till  1884)  in  Modan 
Latin  by  Er.  Aurivillius  ;  the  first  in  Swedish  is  by  N.  Tiallman,  Swodu 
1696  Nothing,  1  owcver,  of  value  was  produced  before  the  great 
work  of  Rydqvist  -nentioned  above,  which,  although  chiefly  dealing 
with  the  old  language,  throws  a  flood  of  light  on  the  modern  also. 
Among  the  works  of  late  years  we  must  call  special  attention  to 
the  researches  ii.to  the  history  of  the  lau-iuge  by  k.  F.  SodcrwalV 
F  A  Tanim,''  i.nd  A.  Kock.«  But  little  study,  and  that  only  in 
isolated  parts,  has  been  devoted  to  the  grammar  of  the  moderu 
language,  if  tiie  advanced  state  of  philology  is  considered.  A 
good  though  short  abstract  is  given  in  H.  Sweet  s  essay  on 
^Sounds  and  /orms  of  Spoken  Swedish"  (Traiw.  Plal.Soc.,m7- 
79)  Attempts  to  construct  a  dictionary  were  made  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury the  earliest  being  the  anonymous  Variarum  Rcrum  Voeabula 
cum  Sueca  Interprctatioiie,  in  1538,  and  the  SynonymonimLtbcllus 
by  Elavus  Petri  Helsingius,  in  1587,  both  of  which,  however, 
followed  Gorman  originals.  The  first  regular  dictionary  is  by 
H  Spcfcl  1712  ;  and  in  1769  Joh.  Ihro  (t  1780),  probably  the 
sreat"st°vl.'lological  genius  of  Sweden,  published  his  Glossarium 
Svionoilevm.  which  still  remains  the  most  copious  Swedish 
dictionary  in  oistence.  In  the  present  century  the  diligent 
lexicograpiier  A.  F.  Palin  has  publisTicd  several  useful  works.  At 
present  the  Swedish  Academy  has  in  -preparation  a  gigantic  dic- 


1  A.  Nortcn  has  an  Old  Swedish  graramar  in  prcpuratlon.  .„j„,„n„ 

i>  Tho  primed  choracteiB  are  also  consideiaWy  changed  by  the  introduction 
e.'^he  new  letters  a  (wllh  the  transl.  o(  the  New  Testament  ot  1526,,  and  a,  6 
(hoth  aheady  in  the  first  print  in  Swedish  of  U95)  for  aa,  a,  ^. 


tionary  oa   about  the  same   plan  as  Br  Murray's  Kew  English 
Dietioiari,;  there  will  also  "PPear  as  soon  asjiossible^a  roinpleta 


drawn  up  by  A. 
in  jse  in 


list  (withVammatical  and  etymological  notes),  drawn  uj 

Anderssonr  Ad.  Noreen,  and  F.  A.  Tamm    of  the  words  i 

the  present  language.    The  riiaracteristic  e^ifl-erences  between    he 

Swedish  literary  language  used  in  Finland  and  that  of  Swedei. 

are  exhibited   in   the   Finsk   Tidskrift,  vol.  _xix._  pts.  5,  6, 

(" 


1885 


Studier  pA  Svensk  sprikbotten  i  Finland,"  by  Karl  Lindstrom). 


s  See  A.    SToi-een,    "Apertu,"   ic;  H.  Hemlund.  FSr^lag  och  , 
Smiiia  str^lspraLels  regliraide,  1SS3. 

i  Bv/iudepotcrM  a,f  Svenska  spraiets  ulhildmng.lSno 
s  Several  tssaye  on  the  borrowed  words  In  Swedish. 


6  Sprak.*ilitorUka  undersiifcningar om 


Svemk  akcent,  I.,  1878,  U.,  1864-i. 


SCANDINAVIAN     LANGUAGES 


373 


Ciinap. 


Old 
Danish. 


Sooicea. 


Dtaliicts. 


FonB  of 
tbelan- 


Grsm- 
nudical 
tnab- 
ment. 


IV.  Danish,  like  Swedish,  is  divided  into  the  two  great  Pre- 
and  Post-Reformation  epochs  of  Old  and  Modern  Danish, 

1.  Old  Daiush. — The  territory  of  Old  Danish,  included  not 
only  the  present  Denmark,  but  also  the  southern  Swedish  pro- 
vinces of  Halland,  Skine,  and  Blekinge,  the  whole  of  Schles- 
■vig,  and,  as  stated  above,  for  a  short  period  also  a  great  part 
of  England,  and  Normandy.  The  oldest  monuments  of  the  lan- 
guage arc  runic  inscriptions,  altogether  about  250  in  number.^ 
The  oldest  of  them  go  a^far  back  as  to  the  beginning  of  tlie  9th 
century,  the  Snoldelev-stone  for  instance  on  Scaland,  and  the 
Fleml0se-ston6  on  Fiinen.  From  about  the  year  000  date  the 
very  long  inscriptions  of  Tryggcva^lde  (Sealand)  and  Glavcndrup 
(Funen) ;  from  the  10th  century  ^ve  have  tho  stones  of  Jcel- 
linge  (Jutland),  in  memory  of  two  of  the  oldest  historical  kings 
of  Denmark  (Gorm  and  H;uald)  ;  while  from  about  1000  we  have 
a  stone  at  Dannevirke  (Schleswig),  raised  by  the  conqueror  of 
England,  Sven  Tjuguska^rig  Kelics  of  about  the  same  age  are  the 
words  that  were  introduced  hy  the  Danes  into  English,  the  oldest 
of  which  date  from  tho  end  of  ihs  9th  century,  the  time  of  the 
first  Danish  settlement  in  England  ;  most  of  these  are  to  be  found 
in  the  early  English  work  Onnulum.^  Ko  Danish  literature  arose 
before  the  13th  century.  The  oldest  manuscript  that  has  come 
down  to  U3  dates  from  the  end  of  that  century,  written  in  runes 
and  containing  the  law  of  Ska.ne.  From  about  the  year  1300  we 
possess  a  manuscript  written  in  Latin  characters  and  containing 
Valdcmar's  and  Erik's  laws  of  Sealand,  the  Flensboig  manuscript 
of  the  law  of  Jutland,  and  a  manuscript  of  the  municipal  laws  of 
Flensborg.  These  three  manuscripts  represent  three  different 
dialects, — that,  namely,  of  Skdnc,  Halland,  and  Blekinge,  that  of 
Sealand  and  the  other  islands,  and  that  of  Jutland  and  Schleswig. 
There  existed  no  uniform  literaiy  language  in  the  Old  Danish 
period,  although  some  of  the  most  important  works  of  the  15th 
century,  such  as  Michael's  Foeins  and  the  Rhymed  Chronicle  (the 
I'li-st  book  printed  in  Danish,  in  1495),  on  account  of  their  excellent 
diction,  contributed ,materially  to  the  final  preponderance  of  their 
dialect,  that  of  Sealand,  towards  the  Reformation. 

As  to  the  form  of  the  language,  it  hardly  differs  at  all  during 
tho  period  between  800  and  1200  a.d.  from  Old  Swedish.  It  is 
only  in  the  oldest  literature  that  we  can  trace  any  marked  differ- 
eoces;  these  are  not  very  important,  and  are  generally  attributable 
to  the  fact  that  Danish  underwent  a  little  earlier  the  same  changes 
that  afterwards  took  place  in  Swedish  {e.g.,  k  in  hv  and  /;/  in 
Danish  was  mute  as  early  as  the^  end  of  the  14th  century  ;  cf. 
p.  372,  above).  The  laws  referred  to  above  only  agree  in  differing 
from  the  "Swedish  laws  in  the  following  points: — the  nominativo 
already  takes  the  form  of  the  accusative  (as  kalf,  calf,  but  Old  Sw. 
nom.  kalver,  aoc  kalf)  ;  the  second  person  plural  ends  in  -a;  (as 
kop^,  but  Old  Sw.  kopin,  you  buy)  ;  in  the  subjunctive  no  differ- 
ences are  e.Tpressed  between  persons  and  numbers.  Among  them- 
selves, on  tlie  contrary,  they  show  considerable  differences  ;  the 
lav.-  of  Skdno  most  nearly  corresponds  with  the  Swedish  laws,  tlioso 
of  Sealand  keep  the  middle  place,  while  the  law  of  Jutland 
exhibits  the  most  distinctive  individuality.  The  SkAne  law,  e.g., 
retains  the  vowels  a,  i,  u  in  terminations,  which  otherwise  in 
Danish  have  become  uniformly  m  ;  the  same  law  inserts  b  and  d 
between  certain  consonants  (like  Old  Sw.;  see  p.  371),  has  pre- 
served the  dative,  and  in  the  present  tense  takes  the  vowel  of  tho 
inlinitive;  the  law  of  Jutland,  again,  docs  not  insert  h  and  d,  and 
has  dropped  the  dative,  while  the  present  tense  (undergoing  an 
"  Umlaut")  has  not  always  accepted  the  vowel  of  the  infinitive;  in 
all  three  characteristics  the  laws  of  Sealand  fluctuate.  After  1350 
we  meet  an  essentially  altered  language,  in  which  we  must  first  note 
the  change  of  jt,  p,  t  after  a  vowel  into  g,  b,  d  (as  tag,  roof,  l^be,  to 
run,  mde,  to  eat)  ;  th  passes  into  t  (as  ting,  thing),  gh  into  w  (as  law 
for  lagh,  guild)  and  into  i  (as  m  for  xtrngk,  way)  ;  Id,  nd  are  pro- 
nounced like  U,  nn  ',  s  is  the  general  genitive  ending  in  singular 
and  plural,  &c,  Tho  vocabulary,  which  in  earlier  times  only 
borrowed  a  few  and  those  mostly  ecclesiasticsl  words,  is  now 
— chiefly  owing  to  the  predominant  influence  of  the  Han»o  towns— r 
inundated  by  German  words,  such  as  those  beginning  with  be-, 
t*-»  ?*■)  /w"-,  and  und-,  and  ending  in  -hcd,  and  a  great  number 
of  others,  as  blivc,  to  become,  skc,  to  happen,  /ri,  free,  krig,  war, 
btixcr,  pantaloons,  ganske,  quite,  ic. 

An  Old  Danish  grammar  is  still  wanting,  and  the  preparatory 
studies  which  exist  are,  although  excellent,  but  few  in  number, 
being  chiefly  essays  by  tho  Danes  K.  J.  Lyngby  and  L,  F.  A. 
Wimmer,'  with  N.  M.  Petersen's  treatise  Dct  Daiiske,  Norske,  og 
Svemke  aprogs  historic,  vol.  i.  (1829),  one  of  tho  first  works  that 
paid  any  attention  to  Old  Danish,  which  till  then  had  been  com- 
pletely neglected.  A  dictionary  on  a  large  scale  covering  the  whole 
of  Old  Danish  literature,  e.\cept  the  very  oldest,  by  O.  Kalkar, 
has  been  in  course  of  publication  since  1881  ;  older  and  smaller  is 
Chr.  Molbech's  Dansk  Qlo&sarixim  (1857-66). 


1  ScoP.  G.T\ioncT\,DeDan»i:tivnemind<$mgBrker,\.,  18(^1,  iL.lSTO-SI  ;  L.  F.  A. 
Wlrmncr,  '■  Kuncsk)1fl/:ns  Ocrlndi-Uo  ■'  (Aarb4,Qcr/or  ^^ordiik  OlU^^ighed.  1874). 

'  S«o  E.  Brole.  "  Koidlache  LchnwiJrtcr  Im  Orrmulum  "  {/'aul-Braunc's  Btitrd^e, 
I.,  1S&4). 


2.  Modern  Vanish. —HhQ  first  importani  monument  of  this  is  tlie  Modem 
translation  of  the  Bible,  by  Chr.   Pedersen,  Peder  Palladitrs,  and  Danish, 
others,  tho  so-called  Christian  III.'s  Bible  (1550),  famous  for  the  Sources, 
unif^ue  purity  and  excellence  of  its  language,  the  dialect  of  Sealand, 
then  inccntestably  promoted  to  be  tho  language  of  the  kingdom. 
The    first   secular  work  deserving   of  the    same    praise  is  Yedcl's 
translation    of  Saxo    (1575).     The   succeeding  period   until    1750 
offers  but  few  works  in  really  good  Danish  ;  as  perfectly  classical, 
however,  we  have  to  mention  the  so-called  Christian  V.'s  Law  of 
Denmark  (1683).     For  the  rest,  humanism  has  stamped  a  highly 
Latin-French    character   on    the    literature,  striking   oven   in   tho 
works  of  the  principal  writer  of  this  period,  Holberg.     But  about 
the  year  1750  there  begins  a  new  movement,  characterized  by  a 
reaction  against  the  language  of  the  preceding  period  and  purist 
tendencies,  or,  at  least,  efforts  to  enrich  the  language  with  ncv/- 
formcd  words  (not  seldom  after  the  German  pattern),  as  omkreds, 
periphery,  selvsiscndigkedy  independence,  vahjsprog,  devise,  digtcr^ 
poet.     The  leading  representatives  of  these  tendencies  were  Eilschow 
and   Sneeilorf.     From    their  time    Danish    may  be   said    to    ..avo 
acquired  its  present  essential  f:;aturcs,  though  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  several  later  authors,  as  J.   Ewald  and  Ohlenschlager,   have 
exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  the  poetical  style.     As  tho 
most  important  diil'erences-between  the  grammatical  forms  of  tho  Form  of 
ISth  and  19th  centuries  on  one  hand  and  those  of  the  16th  and  17th  the  lan- 
ceuturies  on  the  other  may  be  noted  the  following  : — most  neuter  guage. 
substantives  take  a  j?lural  ending  ;  those  ending  in  a  vowel  form 
their  plural  by  adding  -r  (as  rigcr,  for  older  rigc,  plural  of  rige, 
kin;^dom),  and  many  of  those  ending  in  a  consonant  by  adding  -e 
(  s  husc  for  kus,  of  hus,  house)  ;  substantives  ending  in  -ere  drop 
their  final  -c  (as  doinmcr  for  doinmcre,  judge) ;  the  declension  with 
suffixed  article  becomes  simplified  in  the  same  v.'ay  as  in  Swedish 
(see  above,  p.  372)  ;  the  plural  of  verbs  takes  the  singular  form  (as 
drak  for  drukke,  we  drank) ;  and  tho  preterite  subjunctive  is  sup- 
planted by  the  infinitive  (as  var  for  vaare,  were).     The  first  Modern 
Danish  grammar  is  by  E.   Pontoppldan,   1068,  but  in  Latin  ;  the  Gram- 
first  in  Danish  is  by  the  famous  Peder  Syv,  1685.     The  works  of  maticaJ 
the    self-taught    J.     H0jsgaard    [e.g.,    Acccniiicrct    og    raisonnerct  itzBi- 
grammatica,  1747)  possess  great  merit,  and  are  of  especial  iniport-  ment. 
ance   as   regards   accent   and   syntax.     The    earlier   part   of    this 
century  gave  us  Rask's  grammar  (1830).     A  thoroughly  satisfactory 
Modern  Danish  grammar  does  not  exist ;  perhaps  ths  best  is  that 
by  Th.    Miibtus   (1871).     Tlie   vocabulary  of  the  16th    and  17th 
centuries  is  collected  in  Kalkar's  Ordhog,  mentioned  al>ove,  that  of 
the    18th    and    19th    centuries    in    the   voluminous   and   as   yet 
unfinished    dictionary    of    Videnskabernas    Selskab,    and    in    C. 
Molbech's  Da:isk  ordbog  (2d  ed.  1S59).3 

.  As  already  mentioned  (p.  370), 'Danish  at  the  Reformation  Dano- 
became  the  iangirage  of  the  literary  and  educated  classes  of  Nor- 
Norway  and  remained  so  for  three  -hundred  years,  although  -ft-efian. 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  Korwcgian  authors  even  during 
this  period  wrote  a  language  with  a  distinct  Norwegian  colour, 
as  for  instance  the  prominent  prose-stylist  Peder  Clauss^n  Friis 
(tl614),  the  popular  poet  Peder  Dass  (f  1708),  and,  in  a.  certain 
degree,  also  the  two  literary  masters  of  the  18th  century,  Hol- 
berg and  Wesseh  But  it  is  only  since  1814,  when  Norway 
gained  her  independence,  that  we  can  clearly  perceive  the  so- 
called  Dano-Norwcgian  gi'adually  developing  as  a  distinct  offshoot 
of  the  general  Danish  language.  The  first  representatives  cf 
this  "new  language  are  the  writer  of  popular  life  M.  Hansen 
(t  1842).  the  poet  H.  Wcrgeland  (t  1845),  and  above  all  the  talo- 
writer  P.  C  Asbj^rnsen  (f  1885).  In  our  own  days  it  has  been 
further  developed,  especially  by  the  great  poets  Ibsen  and  Bjprnson 
and  the  novelist  Lie  ;  and  it  has  been  said,  not  without  reason,  to 
have  attained  its  classical  perfection  in  the  works  of  the  first-named 
author.  This  language  differs  from  Danish  partic''larly  in  its 
vocabulary,  having  adopted  very  many  Norwegian  provincial  words 
(6000  to  7000),  less  in  its  inflexions,  but  to  a  very  great  extent 
in  its  pronunciation.  The  most  striking  differences  in  this  re- 
spect are  tho  following : — Norwegian  p,  t,  k  answer  to  Danisli  h.  Form  of 
d,  g  in  cases  where  they  are  of  later  date  (see  above), — as  l^pc,  the  Ian- 
Danish  l0b€,  to  run,  litc7i,  D.  lidcii,  little,  hak,  D.  lag,  back)  ;  lo  guagc. 
Danish  k,  g  before  palatal  vowels  answer  Norwegian  fj,  j  ;  r  (point- 
trill,  not  back-trill  as  in  Danish)  is  assimilated  in  some  way -with 
following  t  [d],  I,  n,  and  s  into  so-called  suj)radcntal  sounds  (see 
p.  372) ;  both  the  primitive  Scandinavian  sy.stems  of  accentuation 
are  still  kept  separate  from  a  musical  point  of  view,  in  opposition 
to  the  monotonous  Danish.  There  are  several  other  cnaractor- 
istics,  nearly  all  of  which  are  points  of  corresiondence  with 
Swedish.*  Dano-Korwegian  is  grammatically  treated  b^  J.  L0kko 
(Modcrsmaalds /onnlwrc,  1855),  K.  Knudsen  {Dnnsk-Aorsk  sprog 
lesrt.  1856),  and  K.  Brekko  {Bidrag  til  Dansk-Norskcns  bjdlxre, 
1881),  and  others. 

At  the  middle  of  this  century,  however,  far  more  advanced  pre-  Nor- 
tensions  were  urged  to  an  independent  Norwegian  language.     By'wegian- 

'  .Spo  L(uilv1j;)  \y(inimcrV    "Pet  Dnnitko   SproK,"  In   Aordisk  ConversaCions- 
Uxikon,  3d  cd.,  1R8-'.  ;  T.  Stiiini,  VaniK  LUfraturfiittorie,  2d  cd     1878.  V/egiau. 

*  £co  J.  A.  Liuidcll,  '■  Norskt  spriiJt  '*  {j\vrdi)k  Tiditri/t,  1882). 


374 


S  C  A  — S  C  A 


the  study  of  the  Modern  Nor\vc;;iari  dialects  and  their  inotlicr 
language,  Old  Nor\Vf}:;ian,  the  eminent  philologist  J.  Aasen  was  led 
to  undertake  the  bold  project  of  constructing,  by  the  study  of  these 
two  sources,  and  on  the  basis  of  his  native  dialect  (S0udm0re), 
1  Norwegian-Norwegian  ("  Norsk-Norsk  ")  language,  the  so-called 
"Landsmdl."  In  1853  ho  exhibited  a  specimcji  of  it,  and,  thanks 
to  such  excellent  writers  as  Aasen  himself,  the  poets  0.  Vinjo  and 
li.  Janson,  and  the  novelist  A.  Garborg,  as  well  as  a  zealous  pro- 
jiagandism  of  the  society  "  Dot  Norsko  Samlag  "  (founded  in  1668), 
there  has  since  arisen  a  valuable  though  not  very  large  literature 
iu  the  "Laudsmil."  But  it  is  nowliere  spoken.^  Its  grammatical 
structure  and  vocabulary  are  exhibited  in  Aasen's  A'^orsk  gi'avi- 
Tixatik,  1864,  and  Norsk  ordbog,  1873 
Dialects.  Scandinavian  Dialects. — Asabovorcmarked,  the  Scandinavian 
dialects  are  not  grouped,  so  i"ar  as  their  relationship  is  concerned, 
as  might  be  expected  judging  from  the  liter- 
ary languages.  Leaving  out  of  account  the 
Ict-landic  dialects  and  those  of  the  Faroes, 
each  of  which  constitutes  a  separate  group, 
the  remainder  may  be  thus  classified  :- — 

(1)  West- Norwegian  Dialects, — spoken  on 

the  western  coast  of  Norway,  between 
Christiansand  and  Molde. 

(2)  North- Scandinavian, — the  remaining 

Norwegian  and  the  Swedish  dialects 
of  Vestmanland,  Dalarna,  Norrland, 
Finland,  and  Russia. 

(3)  The  dialects  on  tlio  island  of  Gotland. 
(4J  Middle- Swedish, — spoken  in'  the  rest 

of  Sweden,  except  the  southernmost 

parts  (No.  5). 
(5)  South- Scandinavian, — spoken    in   the 

greater  part  of.Smiland  and  Halhnd 

the  wJiolo  of  Sk&ne,   Blckinge,    a  d 

Denmark,  and  the  Danish-speaki  ^ 

part   of  Schlcswig.      Tliis   group    is 

distinctly  divided  into  three  sm  Her 

groups, — the    dialects    of    soutl    rn 

Sweden  (with    the   island  of   Born 

holm),  of  the  Danish  islands,  and  of 

Jutland  (and  Schleswig). 
The  study  of  the  Modern  Scandinavian 
dialects  has  been  very  unequally  prosecuted 
Hardly  anything  has  been  done  towards  tl  e 
investigation  of  the  Icelandic  dialects,  ^  hilo 
those  of  the  Faroes  have  been  studied  cl  lefly 
by  Hammershaimb.  The  Norwegian  dialects, 
have  been  thoroughly  examined  by  Aasen 
whose  works  give  a  general  account  of  tl  en 
while  in  our  own  days  Joh.  Storm,  above  all 
displays  an  unwearying  activity,  cspec  ally 
in  the  minute  investigation  of  their  phonet  c 
constitution,  to  which  Aasen  had  paid  b  t 
scant  attention.  Tlic  substance  of  th  so 
researches  in  the  Norwegian  dialects  has  re 
ccntly  been  presented  in  a  magazine,  call  1 
Norvcgia,  of  wdiich  the  first  volume  s  n 
course  of  publication  ;  it  employ-s  an  alpha 
bet  invented  by  Storm.  For  the  study  of 
Danish  dialects  but  little  has  been  done 
Molbech's  Z>if(?t:cMcxico?i  of  1841  being  veiy 
deficient.  The  Schleswig  dialect,  on  the  con 
trary,  has  been  admirably  treated  of  by  E 
Hagerup  (1854)  and  K.  J.  Lyngby  (1858). 
At  present  two  important  works  are  in  pre- 
paration,— H.  F.  Feilberg's  great  dictionary 
of  the  dialect  of  Jutland,  and  J.  C.  Espersen's 
of  the  dialect  of  Bornholm.  There  is  no 
country  in  wliich  the  dialects  have  been  and 
are  studied  with  greater  zeal  and  more  fruit- 
ful results  than  in  Sweden^  during  the  last 
hundied  and  fifty  years.  ,  Archbishop  E. 
Benzelius  the  younger  (tl743)  made  collec- 
tions of  dialect  words,  and  on  his  work  is 
based  the  dialectical  dictionary  of  Ihro  of  1766.  An  excellent 
work  considering  its  age  is  S.  Hofs  Dialeetus  Vcstrogothica,  1772. 
The  energy  and  zeal  of  C.  Save  (essays  on  the  dialects  of  Gotland 
and  Dalarne)  inspired  thece  studies  with  extraordinary  animation 
at  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  ;  in  1867  J.  E.  Rietz  published  a 
voluminous  dialect  dictionary  ;  the  number  of  special  essays,  too, 
increased  yearly.  From  1872  so-called  "  landsm&lsfureningar  "  (dia- 
J^  Sec  J.  Storm,  "Det  Norske  maalstiiev"  [Nordisk  Tidskri/t,  1878). 
-See  J.  A.  Luiidell,  "Oin  de  Svenska  folkmftlens  frandskaper" 
{Antropotogiska  Sektioncns  Tidskri/t,  1880). 

'See  J.   A.   Lundell,   '*Ofversikt  af  de  senaste  &rtiondcnas  vark- 
oamhet  for  kiuincdom  ora  folkmal"  (Svenska  Land&malcn,  i.,  ISSO), 


Icct  societies)  were  founded  among  the  students  at  the  universities  of 
Upsala,  Lund,  and  Helsingfors  (at  Upsala  alone  13),  for  a  systematic 
and  thorough  investigation  of  dialects.  We  find  remarkable  progress 
in  scientific  method— especially  with  regard  to  phonetics — in  the 
constantly  increasing  literature  ;  special  mention  maybe  made  of  the 
detailed  descriptions  of  the  dialects  of  Varmland,  Gotland,  and 
Dalarna  by  Ad.  Norcer,  ind  A.  F.  Freudenthal's  monographs  on  the 
Finnish  and  Esthonian  Swedish  dialects.  Since  1879  the  Swedish 
dialect  societies  have  published  a  magazine  on  a  comprehensive  plan, 
Jjc  Svenska  Landsmalcii,  edited  by  J.  A.  Lundell,  who  has  invented 
for  this  purpose  an  exctUent  phonetic  alphabet  (partially  based  on 
C.  J.  Suudevall's  work  Owi^j/ionciisAra  &o^s/a/'-t;cr,  ""^^-SS).     {A.  NO.) 

SCAREOFOUGH,  a  parliamentary  borough  of  England, 
frequently  ca''ed  *' the  Queen  of  Watering  Places/'  situ- 


1.  Old  Town  Hall. 

2.  Custom  House. 

3.  Old  Post  Ullice, 

4.  ilurket  Uall. 


5.  News  Room. 

6.  ThL-atie  Rnyal. 

7.  Police  Station. 
S.  Museum. 


Plan  of  Scarborougl: 


0.  St  Mary's  Church. 
10.  Clnist  Do, 

U.  St  Tliomns'  J)o. 
12.  Indcpenil't  Do. 


13   Rom.  Cath.Ch. 
U.  Post  ORioe. 
15,  York    City    jmd 
Counly  liank. 


IG.  Savings  Bank. 
17.  Sea-Baihing    In- 
firmary. 
IS.  Tlieatie. 


ated  on  the  east  coast  of  Yorkshire,  in  the  North  Riding, 
40  miles  from  York,  and  between  54°  15'  0"  and  54"  17'  15" 
K  lat.  and  0'^  22'  25"  and  0"  2G'  24"  W.  long.  Its  two 
parts,  north  and  south,  each  with  a  fine  stretch  of  sand 
and  bay,  a'-e  divided  by  a  rocky  pronontory  300  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  which  stand  the  remains  of  the  castle.  The 
clifi  is  much  exposed  to  denudation  by  the  sea,  which  haa 
been  proceeding  during  the  presen';  century  at  the  rate  of 
1  yard  in  17  years.  The  plateau  forming  the  castle  yard 
in  1190,  according  to  William  of  Kewburgb,  comprised  GO 


S  C  A  — S  C  A 


375 


acres,  bnt  it  is  not  now  more  than  17  acres  10  perches,  or 
43  acres,  including  store  yards,  dykes,  and  holms.  The 
first  castle  was  built  in  the  Anglo-Norman  period,  and  is 
referred  to  as  being  in  decay  in  11 54 — a  fact  which 
throws  back  its  origin  earlier  than  1136,  the  date  assigned 
for  its  erection  by  William  Le  Gros,  earl  of  Albemarle 
and  Holderness,  its  first  knon-n  governor.  The  list  of  its 
governors  stretches  from  that  date  to  1832.  The  streets 
*f  the  older  part  of  ihe  town,  immediately  south  of  the 
castle  hill,  come  down  to  the  sea,  but  the  newer  parts  of 
the  south  as  well  as  the  north  side  are  built  upon  rising 
ground.  A  deep  valley  (Ramsdale)  wliich  divides  the 
south  side  is  bridged  from  St  Nicholas  Clifi  to  tho  South 
Cliff.  The  approach  by  rail  is  through  the  upper  part  of 
this  valley,  by  the  side  of  which  there  is  a  marsh  known  as 
the  Mere.  The  town  is  thus  situated  in  a  kind  of  basin, 
which  opens  out  to  the  north  towards  extensive  and  lofty 
moorland  ranges.  The  modern  period  of  its  history  dates 
from  1620,  when  Mrs  Farren,  a  lady  resident,  first  discovered 
its  mineral  springs.  The  town  contained  30,504  inhabi- 
tants in  1881,  but  during  the  season,  which  lasts  from 
May  to  October,  its  population  is  augmented  by  from  ten 
to  twenty  thousand  visitors,  for  whose  convenience  there 
is  increasingly  ample  accommodation.  The  Grand  Hotel, 
fronting  the  sea  on  the  south  bay,  stands  on  St  Nicholas 
Cliff,  at  the  north  side  of  the  Ramsdale  valley,  and  is 
one  of  the  largest  in  England.  An  aquarium  (1877) 
stands  beneath  the  Clifl  Bridge,  and  close  by  is  the 
museum,  a  Roman-Doric  rotunda,  built  in  1828.  The 
spa  saloon,  opened  in  1800,  contains  a  hall  in  the  Italian- 
Renaissance  style,  a  theatre,  and  refreshment  rooms. 
There  is  a  promenade  in  front  protected  by  a  sea  wall. 
The  south  spring  is  aperient  but  contains  some  iron,  while 
the  north  or  chalybeate  spring  is  more  tonic  in  its  pro- 
perties. The  waters,  however,  are  seldom  taken  now,  the 
town  being  mainly  frequented  for  the  sea-bathing.  The 
grounds  of  the  present  spa  are  tastefully  laid  out.  A- 
foreshore  road,  made  in  1878  by  the  corporation,  and 
shortly  to  be  extended  round  the  castle  cliff  to  the  north 
side,  makes  an  excellent  drive  or  promenade.  The  north 
side  has  fine  sands,  a  hoist,  and  a  promenade  pier,  but  is 
not  BO  attractive  as  the  south  side,  nor  are  the  houses 
there  of  so  good  a  character  and  style.  The  salubrity  of 
Scarborough  is  attested  by  its  vital  statistics.  Tho  mean 
annual  mortality  from  1873  to  1882  was  18-4  per  1000. 
The  death-rate  from  consumption  in  all  England  is  2'4 
per  1000 ;  amongst  the  indigenous  population  of  Scar- 
borough from  1873  to  1882  it  was  1-7  per  1000.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  is  47'9  Fahr.  In  December, 
January,  and  February  it  is  only  0-6°  colder  than  Brighton, 
whilst  in  the  summer  months  Brighton  is  3'6  warmer. 

The  town  is  a  royal  borough,  its  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion dating  from  1161.  It  returned  two  members  to 
parliament  from  1283  to  188.'),  when  one  of  the  seats  was 
taken  away.  Tho  limits  of  the  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary boroughs  coincide, — the  area  being  2348  acres, 
the  population  24,259  in  1871  and  30,504  in  1881. 

Shipbuilding,  salt-manufacturo,  and  knifc-tiiakin_:j  were  formerly 
common,  but  the  only  craft  now  remaining  is  jet-manufacture. 
The  fishing  trade  is,  however,  very  con.sidcral)le.  Disputes  about 
dues  for  tho  old  pier  and  tho  fiah-titho  occupy  a  conspicuous 
place  in  tho  town  records  ;  tho  pier  seems  to  have  sufTcrod 
prcatly  in  tho  various  sieges  to  v.'hich  tho  town,  after  it  was  walled, 
became  exposed.  The  old  town-hall  in  St  Nicholas  Street,  tho 
new  town-hall  in  Castle  lioad,  tho  market-hall  in  St  Helen's 
Square,  in  tho  Tuscan  stylo,  and  tho  new  post  oftlco  in  Iluntriss 
Row  are  conspicuous  amongst  tho  public  buildings.  There  are 
two  theatres.  Of  the  monastic  buildings  belonging  to  the  Grey 
Friars,  Dominicans,  and  Carmclitca  there  are  no  remains,  but  the 
parish  church  of  St  Mary,  conspicuously  situated  on  a  mound  to 
the  south  of  Castlo  Hill,  occupies  the  fitc,  of  tho  old  Cistercian 
monastery.  Tho  old  church  was  mndo  the  site  of  a  battery  in  the 
■ego  of  tho  castlo  in  16.<.'   «ud  one  of  its  towers  fell  in  16&9.     Tho 


restoration  of  the  present  building  took  place  ia  1350.  There  are 
other  churches  and  chapels  of  a  much  more  receut  date,  including 
a  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  racecourse  is  on  the  top  of  a  hill, 
commanding  fine  views  of  tho  moors  and  of  the  sea. 

The  old  name  of  the  town  waj  written  Skardeburge.  It  is  not 
mentioned  in  Domesdfly  Book,  but  it  was  probably  waste,  as  Tosti, 
ccunt  of  Northumberland,  had  ravaged  and  burnt  it  some  time 
previously.  Thorklen  mentions  it  as  having  been  ravaged  by 
Adelbreeht,  king  of  Northumberland,  and  by  Harold  Hardrada, 
Douglas,  the  Scottish  chief,  also  burnt  it  in  131S.      Henry  II.  com- 

yelled  the  count  of  Aumale  to  surrender  the  castle  in  IU'5.  King 
ohn  visited  the  castle  in  1206  and  121G,  and  the  "house  and 
castle  of  Scarborough"  are  mentioned  in  1223  AVhen  no£  used  as 
a  temporary  royal  residence  the  castle  was  a  royal  prison.  In 
1312  tho  earl  of  Pembroke  besieged  it,  and  in  the  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace  insurrection  (153C)  it  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by 
Sir  Robert  Aske.  A  detailed  survey  of  it,  made  in  153S,  is 
still  extant,  the  castle  yard  and  land  therein  described,  with  tho 
buildings,  corresponding  with  a  survey  made  in  1839.  It  w-as 
again  besieged  in  1644-45  and  in  1648.  In  1055  George  Foi  the 
Qyaker  was  imprisoned  in  the  castlo.  In  1G45  the  town  wai 
captured  by  assault,  and  in  later  years  its  inhabitants  were  ranrdi 
impoverished  by  military  exactions  and  expenses.  A  view  of  tho 
town  and  castlo  in  1485  is  still  extant.  The  precise  date  when  tlio 
town-walls  were  dismantled  is  not  known.  In  1730  Daniel  Defoe, 
writing  from  the  place,  said:  "The  town  is  well-built,  pleasant, 
and  populous,  and  we  found  a  great  deal  of  company  here,  dr;  k- 
ing  the  waters,  who  have  not  only  come  from  the  north  of  Kngland 
but  from  Scotland." 

See  History  c/  Scartiorotiffh  Spav,  1C79;  Genf'a  History  of  Seat-horough,  1735; 
ninderweirs  Hiitorif  of  ,'icaiborough,  ITSS;  Colo's  Scjrbrougli  Worthies,  1830; 
Constitution  and  Byctatos  of  the  Corporation  of  Scarbron/jh,  1827  ;  Brief  Historf 
of  St  Mary's,  Scarbrouijh,  18^5  ;  The  Geology  of  Hcarbroutih,  by  C.  Fox  Stiang- 
ways,  1880;  Flora  of  !:carbrou(jh,  by  Q.  ilOEser,  1881;  and  Seailorough  at  a 
Health  Resort,  by  A.  HavUand,  1833. 

SCARLATTI,  Alessandeo  (1659-1725),  composer  of 
sacred  and  dramatic  music,  was  born  at  Trapani  in  Sicily 
in  1659,  and  became  in  early  youth  a  pupil  of  Carissimi. 
In  1680  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  appointed  him  her 
maestro  di  cappella,  and  commissioned  hira  to  write  his 
first  opera,  L'Onestii  nelV  Amore,  for  pe-rformance  at  her 
palace  in  Rome.  In  1693  he  produced  his  first  oratorio, 
I  Dolori  di  3faria  sempre  Vergine.  In  tl:o  following  year 
he  was  appointed  maestro  di  cappella  to  the  viceroy  of 
Naples,  and  from  that  time  forward  his  works  multiplied 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  his  time  being  spent  partly  in 
Naples  and  partly  in  Rome,  where  he  entered  the  service 
of  Cardinal  Ottoboni,  as  private  maestro  di  cappella.  His 
prodigious  fertility  of  invention  did  not,  however,  tempt 
him  to  write  carelessly.  On  t!io  contrary  he  did  his  best 
to  neutralize  the  evil  caused  by  the  founders  of  the 
monodic  school,  whose  insane  hatred  of  counterpoint  and 
form  reduced  their  dramatic  music  to  the  dreary  level  of 
monotonous  declamation.  Ho  was  by  far  the  most  learned 
contrapuntist  of  his  ago  ;  and  it  was  to  this  circumstance 
that  his  compositions  owed  their  resistless  power.  More- 
over, his  sense  of  form  was  as  just  as  his  feeling  for 
harmony,  and  to  this  he  was  indebted  for  the  originality 
of  many  of  his  finest  conceptions.  He  has  been  credited 
with  two  very  important  inventions — accompanied  recita^ 
tivo  and  tho  ila  capo.  That  he  really  did  invent  the  first 
there  is  very  little  doubt.  Instances  of  the  latter  have 
been  found  of  .earlier  date  than  most  of  his  works,  but  he 
was  certainly  the  first  to  bring  it  into  general  uso.  Ho 
also  struck  out  ideas  in  his  orchestral  accompaniments, 
which  must  have  seemed  bold  indeed  to  the  musicians  of 
tho  period,  using  ohllirjato  passages  and  other  combina- 
tions previously  unknown,  and  introducing  ritornclli  and 
sinfunie  with  excellent  effect.  In  1707  Scarlatti  was 
appointed  principal  maestro  di  cappella  at  Santa  Maria 
Slaggiore,  and  soon  afterwards  he  was  invested  by  the 
pope  with  tho  order  of  the  Golden  Spur,  with  which 
Cluck  and  Mozart  were  afterwards  honoured.  He  resigned 
his  appointment  after  two  years'  service,  end  died  at  Naples 
October  24,  1725. 

Very  few  of  Scarlatti's  works  Tiave  been  publiahca.  Hia  com- 
positions include  116  operas  (41  only  of  which  »ro  nov  Icncvn  tr 
exist,  and  these  only  m  Jib.),  20C  masses   9  oratorios,  uiore  war.. 


376 


S  C  A  — S  C  A 


500  cantatas,  ai<d  innumerable  smaller  pieces,  both  sacred  and 
socular.-'  MSS.  of  three  o£  his  operas,  Gcrone,  11  Flavio  Cuniberlo, 
and  La  Teodora  Aufjusia,  are  preserved  in  the  library  of  Clirist 
Church,  Oxford  ;  and  Tl  Prigioniero  Forlunato  forms  part  of  tlie 
"Dragonetti  Collection"  in  the  British  JIuseum. 

SCAELATTI,  Domenico  (1683-1757),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Naples  in  1683,  and  studied  music 
first  under  his  father  and  then  under  Gasparini.  He 
began  his  career  by  composing  a  few  operas,  among  them 
Amleto,  produced  at  Rome  in  1715,  and  remarkable  as  the 
earli3st  knovrn  attempt  to  pose  Shakespeare's  hero  as  the 
prima  uomo  of  a  dramvia  per  la  mitsioa.  But  his  real 
strength  lay  in  the  excellence  of  his  performances  on  the 
harpsichord  and  organ.  During  Handel's  first  sojourn  in 
Italy  in  1708-9  D.  Scarlatti, was  invited  to  a  trial  of  skill 
vnth  htm  on  both  instruments  at  the  palace  of  Cardinal 
Ottoboni,  and  all  present  decided  that  the  harpsichord 
performances  terminated  in  a  drawn  battle,  though  Handel 
had  a  decided  advantage  on  the  organ.  The  justice  of 
the  verdict  cannot  be  doubted ;  for,  whenever  Scarlatti  was 
afterwards  praised  for  his  organ-playing,  he  used  to  cross 
himself  devoutly  and  say,  "  You  should  hear  Handel!  " 

On  the  death  of  Bai  in  1715  D.  Scajlatti  was  appointed 
maestro  di  cappella  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome.  In  1719 
he  conducted  the  performance  of  his  Narciso  at  the 
King's  Theatre  in  London,  and  in  1721  he  played  with 
great  success  in  Lisbon.  He  then  returned  to  Naples ; 
but  in  1729  he  was  invited  to  Madrid,  with  the  appoint 
ment  of  teacher  to  the  princess  of  Asturias,  and  remained 
there  twenty-five  years,  returning  in  175-1.  to  Naples, 
iwhere  he  died  in- 1757. 

D.  Scarlatti's  compositions  for  the  harpsichord  are  almost  in- 
numerable, and  many  of  them  have  been  published.  In  the 
character  of  their  teeh'iique  thej  are  infinitely  in  advance  of  the 
age  in  which  they  were  wi-itten  and  played  ;  and  many  of  them  are 
difficult  enough  "to  tas  the  powers  of  the  best  perCoVniers  of  the 
.present  day, 

SCARLET  FEVER  and  Scajrlatina  are  names  applied 
indifferently  to  an  acute  infectious  disease,  characterized 
by  high  fever,  accomp.^nied  with  sore  throat  and  a  diffuse 
red  rash  upon  the  skin.  This  fever  appears  to  have  been 
first  accurately  described  by  Sydenham  in  1676,  before 
which  period  it  had  evidently  been  confounded  with  small- 
pos  and  measles. 

In  connexion  with  the  causation  of  this  disease,  the 
following  points  have  been  ascertained.  (1)  It  is  a  highly 
contagious  malady,  the  iafectire  material  being  nne  of 
the  most  subtle,  diffuse,  and  lasting  known  in  fevers.  It 
would  seem  that  the  disease  is  communicable  from  an 
early  period  of  its  occurrence,  all  through  its  progress, 
and  especially  during  convalescence  when  the  process  of 
desquamation  is  proceeding,  and  when  the  shed-off 
epidermis  which  contains  the  germs  of  the  disease  in  great 
abundance  is  apt  to  be  inhaled,  to  become  attached  to 
articles  of  clothing,  to  find  entrance  into  food,  or  to  be 
transmitted  in  other  ways  to  healthy  persons.  (2)  It 
is  a  disease  for  the  most  part  of  early  life,  young  children 
being  specially  susceptible ;  but  adults  may  also  suffer  if 
they  have  not  had  this  fever  in  childhood.  (3)  It  occurs 
both  in  isolated  cases  (sporadically)  and  in  epidemics. 
(4)  One  attack  in  general,  although  not  always,  confers 
immunity  from  a  second.  (5)  Certain  constitutional 
conditions  act  as  predisposing  causes  favouring  the 
development  of  the  fever.  Thus,  where  overcrowding 
prevails,  and  where  the  hygienic  state  of  children  is  ill 
attended  to,  the  disease  is  moie  likely  to  prevail  and 
spread,  and  to  assume  unfavourable  forms.  Further,  in 
the  puerperal  state  in  women  there  appears  to  be  a  special 
susceptibility  to  suffer  in  a  dangerous  manner  should  there 
be  exposure  to  the  infection  of  the  fever.  As  to  the 
nature  of  the  infecting  agent^  nothing  positive  is  known, 
although   from   the   analogy    of    similar    diseases    it    is 


probable  that  specific  micro-organisms  or  germs  are 
concerned  in  its  production. 

The  period  of  incubation  in  scarlet  fever  (that  is,  the 
time  elapsing  between  the  reception  of  the  poison  and  the 
development  of  symptoms)  appears  to  vary.  Sometimes  it 
would  seem  to  be  as  short  as  one  or  two  days,  but  in  most 
instances  it  is  probably  about  a  week,  "rhe  invasion  of 
this  fever  is  generally  sudden  and  sharp,  consisting  in 
rigors,  vomiting,  and  sore  throat,  together  with  a  rapid 
rise  of  temperature" and  increase  in  the  pulse.  Occasionally, 
especially  in  young  children,  the  attack  is  ushered  in  by  con- 
vulsions. These  premonitory  .symptoms  usually  continue  for 
about  twenty-four  hours,  when  the  characteristic  eruption 
makes  its  appearance.  It  is  first  seen  on  the  neck,  chest, 
arras,  and  hands,  but  quickly  spreads  all  over  the  body, 
although  it  is  not  distinctly  marked  on  the  face.  This  rash 
consists  of  minute  thickly-set  red  spots,  which  coalesce  to 
forni  a  general  diffuse  redness,  in  appearance  not  unlike  that 
produced  by  the  application  of  mustard  to  the  skin.-  In 
some,  instances  the  redness  is  accompanied  with  smaU 
vesicles  containing  fluid.  In  ordinary  cases  the  rash 
comes  out  completelj'  in  about  two  days,  when  it  begins 
to  fade,  and  by  the  end  of  a  week  from  its  first  appearance 
it  is  usually  gone.  The  severity  of  a  case  is  in  some 
degree  measured  by  the  copiousness  and  brilliancy  of  the 
rash,  except  in  the  malignant  varieties,  where  there  may 
be  little  or  no  eruption.  The  tongue,  which  at  first  was 
furred,  .becomes  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  denuded  Qf 
its  epithelium  and  acquires  the  peculiar  "  strawberry " 
appearance  characteristic  of  this  fever.  The  interior  of 
the  throat  is  red  and  somewhat  swoUeir,  especially  the 
tivula,  soft  palate,  end  tonsils,  and  a  considerable  amount 
of  secretion  exudes  from  the  inflamed  surface.  There  ia 
also  tenderness  and  slight  swelling  of  the  glands  under  the 
jaw.  In  favourable  cases  the  fever  departs  with  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  eruption  and  convalescence  sets  in  with 
the  commencement  of  the  process  of  "  desquamation  "  or 
peeling  of  the  cuticle,  which  first  shows  itself  about  the 
neck,  and  proceeds  slowly  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
body.  Where  the  skin  is  thin  the  desquamation  is  in  the 
form  of  fine  branny  scales ;  but  where  it  is  thicker,  as 
about  the  hands' and  feet,  it  conies  off  in  large  pieces, 
which  sometimes  assume  the  form  of  casts  of  the  fingers  or 
toes.  The  duration  of  this  process  is  variable,  but  it  is 
rarely  complete  before  the  end  of  six  or  eight  weeks,  and 
not  unfrequently  goes  on  for  several  weeks  beyond  that 
period.  It  is  during  this  stage  that  complications  are  apt 
to  appear,  particularly  those  due  to  cold,  such  as  inflam- 
mation of  the  kidneys;  and  all  throughout  its  continuance 
there  is  the  further  danger  of  the  disease  being  communi- 
cated to  others  by  the  cast-off  epidermic  scales. 

Scarlet  fever  shows  itself  in  certain  well-marked 
varieties,  of  which  the  following  are  the  chief  : — 

1.  Scarlatina  Simplex  is  the  most  common  form;  in  this  the 
symptoms,  both  local  and  general,  are  moderate,  and  the  case  usually 
runs  a  favourable  course.  It  is  always,  however,  to  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  duration  and  the  infectiveness  of  the  disease, ,  in-| 
eluding  its  convalescence,  are  uninfluenced  by  the  mildness  of  the' 
attack.  In  some  mre  instances  it  would  seem  that  the  evidences 
of  the  disease  are  so  slight,  as  regards  both  fever  and  rash,  that  they, 
escape  observation  and  only  become  known  by  the  patient  subse- 
quently suffering  from  some  of  the  complications  associated  with  it. 
In  such  cases  the  name  latent  scarlet  fever  (scarlatina  latais)  is 
applied. 

2.  Scarlatina  Anginosa  is  a  more  severe  form  of.  the  fever,  par,- 
ticularly  as  regards  tlie  throit  symptoms.  The  rash  may  be  wcU 
marked  or  not,  but  it  is  often  slow  in  developing  and  in  subsiding;; 
There  is  intense  inflammation  of  the  throat,  the  tonsils,  uvula,  and 
soft  palate  being  swollen  and  ulcerated,  or  having  upon  them  mem- 
branous patches  not  unlike  those  of  diphtheria,  while  externally 
the  gland  tissues  in  the  neck  are  enlarged  and  indurated  and  not 
unfrequently  become  the  seat  of  abscesses.  There  is  difficult}^  in 
opening  the  mouth  ;  an  acrid  discharge  exudes  from  the  nostrils 
and  excoriates  the  lips ;  and  the  countenance  is  pale  and  waxy- 


SCARLET      F  E  V  E  R 


377 


looking.  Tliis  forte  of  the  disease  is  marked  by  great  prostration  of 
strength,  and  it  is  much  more  frequently  fatal  than  the  preceding. 
3.  Scarlatina  Maligna  is  the  most  serious  form  of  all.  The 
malignancy  may  be  variously  displayed.  Thus  a  case  of  scarlatina 
anginosa  may  acquire  such  a  severe  character,  both  as  to  tliroat 
Snu  general  symptoms,  as  rapidly  to  produce  profound  exhaustion 
and  death.  Eut  the  typically  malignant  forms  are  those  in  which 
the  attack  sats,  in  with  great  violence  and  the  patient  sinks  from 
the  very  first.  In  such  instances  the  rash  cither  docs  not  come 
out  at  all  or  is  of  the  slightest  amount  and  of  livid  rather  than 
scarlet  appearance,  while  the  throat  symptom^  are  often  not 
prominent.  Death  in  such  cases  may  take  place  in  from  twenty- 
four  to  forty-eight  hours,  and  is  frequently  preceded  by  great  eleva- 
tion of  the  temperature  of  the  body  and  by  delirium,  coma,  or 
other  nervous  symptoms.  A  further  example  of  a  malignant  form 
ia  occasionally  observed  in  cases  where  the  rash,  which  had 
previously  been  well-developed,  suddenly  recedes,  and  convulsions 
or  other  nei-vous  phenomen^  and  rapid,  death  supervene. 

Tlife  complications  and  effects  of  scarlet  fever  are,  as 
already  indicated,  among  the  most  important  features  in 
this  disease,  and,  although  their  occurrence  is  exceptional, 
they  appear  with  sufficient  frequency,  and  are  of  such  a 
nature,  as  ought  to  make  the  medical  attendant  careJuUy 
watch  every  case  for  any  of  their  early  indications.  The 
most  common  and  serious  of  these  is  inflammation  of  the 
kidneys,  which  may  arise  during  any  period  in  the  course 
of  the  fever,  but  is  specially  apt  to  appear  in  the  con- 
valescence, while  desquamation  is  in  progress.  Its  onset 
is  sometimes  announced  by  a  return  of  feverish  symptoms, 
accompanied  with  vomiting  and  pain  in  the  loins;  but 
in  a  laJge  number  of  instances  it  occurs  without  these 
and  comes  on  insidiously.  One  of  the  most  prominent 
symptoms  is  slight  Swelling  of  the  face,  particularly  of  the 
eyelids,  which  is  rarely  absent  in  this  complication.  If  the 
urine  is  examined  it  will  probably  be  observed  to  be 
diminished  in  quantity  and  of  dark  smoky  or  red  appear- 
ance, due  to  the  presence  of  blood ;  while  it  will  also 
be  found  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  albumen.  This, 
together  with  the  microscopic  examination  which  reveals 
the  presence  of  tube  casts  containing  blood,  epithelium, 
&.C.,  testifies  to  a  condition  of  acute  inflammation  of  the 
kidney  (glomerular  and  tubal  nephritis).  In  favourable 
cases  these  symptoms  may  soon  disappear,  but  they  may 
on  the  other  hand  prove  extremely  serious, — the  risks 
being  the  '  suppression  of  urine,  leading  to  tiriemic 
poisoning  and  causing  convulsions  which  may  terminate 
fatally,  or,-  further,  the  rapid  development  of  general 
dropsy,  and  death  from  this  cause.  Although  thus  a 
very  formidable  complication;  it  is  yet  one  which  is 
amenable  to  treatment,  and  by  the  prompt  and  judicioiis 
application  of  remedies  lives  may  often  be  saved,  even  in 
desperate  circumstances.  Occasionally  this  condition  does 
not  wholly  pass  off,  and  consequently  lays  the  foundation 
for  Beight's  DisE.iSE  (?.«.).  Another  of  the  more  common 
complications  or  i-esults  of  scarlet  fever  is  suppuration  of 
the  ears,  due  to  the  extension  of  the  inflammatory  process 
from  the  throat  along  the  Eustachian  tube  into  the  middle 
ear.  This  not  unfrequently  leads  to  permanent  ear- 
discharge,  with  deafness  from  the  di.sease  affecting  the 
inner  ear  and  temporal  bone,  a  condition  implying  a 
degree  of  risk  from  its  proximity  to  the  brain.  Other 
maladies  affecting  the  heart,  lung.s,  pleura,  ic,  occasionally 
arise  in  connection  with  scarlet  fever,  but  they  are  of  less 
common  occurrence  than  those  previously  mentioned. 
Apart,  however,  from  such  definite  forms  of  disease  there 
may  remain  as  the  result  of  scarlet  fever  .simply  a  general 
weakening  of  health,  which  may  render  the  patient  delicate 
aud  vulnerable  for  a  long  time.  " 

In  the  treatmentof  scarlet  fever,  one  of  the  first  require- 
ments is  the  isolation  of  the  case,  with  the  view  of  prevent- 
ing the  spread  of  the  disease.  In.large  houses  this  may  be 
possible,  but  in  most  instances  it  can  only  be  satisfactorily 
accomplished  by  sendi^ig  away  those  other  members  of  the 
21—15* 


family  who  have  not  Eunered  from  the  fever.  The 
establishment  in  many  lar^^e  towns  of  hospitals  for  infec- 
tious diseases,  which  provide  accommodation  for  patients  of 
all  classes,  affords  the  best  of  all  opportunities  for  thorough 
isolation.  In  l^rge  families,  where  few  or  none  of  the 
members  have  had  the  disease,  the  prompt  removal  of  a 
case  to  such  an  hospital  will  in  many  instances  prevent 
the  spread  of  the  fever  through  the  household,  as  well  as 
beyond  it,  and  at  the  same  time  obviate  many  difficulties 
connected  with  the  cleansing  aud  purification  of  the 
house,  which,  however  carefully  done,  may  still  leave 
remaining  some  risk  in  the  case  of  a  fever  the  contagious 
power  of  which  is  so  intense. 

'\\Tien,  however,  the  patient  is  treated  at  home,  the  sick 
room  should  contain  only  such  furniture  as  may  be  re- 
quired, and  the  attendants  should  come  as  little  as  possible 
in  contact  with  other  members  of  the  household.  Should 
oth^  children  be  in  the  house,  they  should  be  kept  away 
from  school  during  all  the  time  that  the  risk  of  infection 
continues.  The  possibility  of  the  fever  being  communi- 
cated by  letters  sent  from  the  sick  room  should  not  bo 
forgotten  by  those  in  attendance.  Disinfectants,  such  as  car- 
bolic acid,  Condy's  fluid,  ic,  may  be  used  freely  in  the  room 
and  passages,  and  all  body  or  bed  clothes  when  removed 
should  be  placed  at  once  in  boiling  water,  or  in  some  disin- 
fecting fluid.  In  convalescence,  with  the  view  of  preventing 
the  transmission  of  the  desquamated  cuticle,  the  inunction 
of  the  body  with  carbolized  oil  (I  in  40)  and  the  frequent 
use  of  a  bath  containing  soda  are  to  be  recommended. 

All  books,  toys,  &c.,  used  by  the  patient  during  the 
illness  should  be  carefully  destroyed  or  given  to  fever 
hospitals,  as  their  preservation  has  frequently  been  known 
to  cause  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  at  a  subsequent  time. 
With  respect  to  the  duration  of  the  infective  period,  it 
may  be  stated  generally  that  it  is  seldom  that  a  patient 
who  has  suffered  from  scarlet  fever  can  safely  go  about 
before  the  expiry  of  eight  weeks,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  period  may  be  considerably  prolonged  beyond  this, 
the  measure  of  the  time  being  the  completion  of  the  pro- 
cess of  desquamation  in  every  portion  of  the  surface  of 
the  body.  As  to  general  management  during  the  progress 
of  the  fever, — in  favourable  Cases  little  is  required  beyond 
careful  nursing  and  feeding.  The  diet  all  through  the 
fever  and  convalescence  should  be  of  light  character,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  milk  food.'  Soups  may  be  taken,  but 
solid  animal  food  should  as  far  as  possible  be  avoided. 
During  the  febrile  stage  a  useful  drink  may  be  made  by  a 
weak  solution  of  chlorate  of  potash  in  water  (1  drachm  to 
the  pint),  and  of  this  the  patient  may  partake  freely.  In 
the  more  severe  forms  of  the  disease,  where  the  throat  is 
much  affected,  the  application  with  a  brush  of  a  strong 
solution  of  Condy's  fluid  or  other  disinfectant,  such  as 
boroglyceride,  glycerine  of  carbolic  acid,  quinine,  ic,  may 
be  required,  or  gargling  with  these  substances  when  this 
can  be  done.  In  the  malignant  variety,  where  the  eruption 
is  not  appearing,  or  is  but  ill  developed,  stimulants  inter- 
nally, and  the  hot  bath  or  pack,  may  sometimes  afford  a 
chance,  or  the  hypodermi^c  use  of  pilocarpin, — ilthough  it 
must  be  confessed  that  in  such  cases  little  can  be  expected 
from  any  remedies.  The  treatment  of  the  kidney  com- 
plication and  its  accompanying  dropsy  is  similar  to  that 
for  acute  Bright's  disease.  Depletion  by  leeching  or  cup- 
ping the  loins,  and  the  promotion  of  cutaneous  action  by 
a  hot  air  bath  or  a  hot  wet  pack,  or  by  pilocarpin,  are 
the- most  useful  measures,  and  will  often  succeed  in  saving 
life.  The  abscesses  of  the  neck  which  occasionally  occur  as 
complications  should  be  opened  antiseptically,  while  the 
ear  disorders,  which  are  apt  to  continue  long  after  tho 
termination  of  convalescence,  will  demand  the'  f^pecial 
attention  of  the  aurist.  (J.  o.  a.) 

XXI.   —   4ii 


378 


S  C  A  — S  C  E 


SUABRON,  Paul  (1610-1860),  poet,  dramal'st,  no/el- 
ist.  and  husband  of  Madame  de  Maintenoa,  was  born 
or  at  least  baptized  on  the  4th  July  1610.  His  father,  of 
the  same  name,  was  a  man  of  position,  and  a  member  of 
the  parlement  of  Paris.  Paul  the  younger  (who  is  said 
to  have'  quarrelled  with  his  stepmother)  became  r,n 
abbe,  was  not  ill-allowanced,  and  travelled  to  Rome  in 
1634..  He  returned  and  became  a  well-known  figure  in 
literary  and  fashionable  society.  A  wild  story  used  to 
be  told  of  his  having  (when  in  residence  at  his  canonry 
of  Le  Mans)  tarred  and  feathered  himself  as  a  carnival 
freak,  of  his  having  been  obliged  to  take  refuge  from 
l)opular  wrath  in  a  swamp,  and  of  his  consequent  deformity 
from  rheumatism.  The  simple  fact  seems  to  be  that  in 
y;37  he  had  an  attack  of  fever  with  the  usual  sequels  of 
rheumatic  attacks,  and  that  he  put  himself  into  the  hands 
of  a  quack  doctor.  This  at  least  is  how  Tallemant  tells 
the  story,  though  he  substitutes  a  less  creditable  disease 
for  fever.  .  What  is  certain  is  that  Scarron,  after  havmg 
been  in  perfect  health  for  nearly  thirty  j-ears,  passed 
twenty  more  in  a  state  of  miserable  deformity  and  pain. 
His  head  and  body  were  twisted,  and  his  legs  became 
useless.  Nevertheless  he  bore  up  against  his  sufferings 
with  invincible  courage,  though  they  were  complicated  by 
his  ijiheriting  nothing  from  his  father,  and  by  the  poverty 
and  miscouduct  of  his  sisters,  whom  he  supported.  For  a 
few  years  he  really  held  a  benefice  at  Le  JIans,  but  was 
then  in  no  case  to  play  pranks.  It  ia  said,  however,  that 
here  he  conceived  the  idea  of  the  Roman  Comique  and 
wrote  the  drama  of  Jodclet,  which  gave  a  nickname  to  the 
actor  who  performed  it.  In  1616  he  returned  to  Paris 
and  worked  hard  for  the  booksellers,  from  the  name  of 
one  of  whom  he  is  taid  to  have  called  literature  pleasantly 
his  "  marquisat  de  (Juinet."  He  had  also  a  pension  from 
Mazarin  and  one  from  the  queen,  but  lost  both  from  being 
accused  of  "  Frond  3ur"  sentiments.  The  most  singular 
action  of  his  life  remains  to  be  told.  In  his  early  Jears 
he  had  been,  as  hinted,  something  of  a  libertine,  and  a 
J'oung  lady  of  some  family.  Celeste  Palaiseau,  had  openly 
lived  with  him.  But  in  1652,  sixteen  years  after  he  had 
beccml  almost  entirely  paraly.sed,  he  married  a  girl  of 
much  beauty  and  no  fortune,  Francoise  or  Francine 
d'Aubigne,  granddaughter  of  Agrippa  d'Aubigne,  after- 
wards famous  as  Madame  de  Maintenon.  Scarron's  house 
was,  both  before  and  after  the  marriage,  a  great  centre 
of  society,  despite  his  narrow  means.  Yet  only  the  most 
malignant  and  unscrupulouslibellers  of  the  future  favourite 
accuse  her  of  light  conduct  during  the  eight  years  of  her 
mar.iage  to  this  strange  husband,  and  the  wuU-informed 
author  of  the  HistoriMcs  distinctly  acquits  her  of  any 
such.  But  Scarron,  who  had  long  been  able  to  endure 
life  only  by  the  aid  of  constant  doses  of  opium,  was  at 
length  worn  out,  and  died  on  the  6th  October  1660. 
,  S-^anou's  worl;  is  very  abundant,  and,  written  as  it  was  under 
J)re?5U!*.'  cf  want  and  pain,  it  is  very  unequal.  The  piece  most 
fanioiri  in- Ins  own  day,  liis  Vi}-(jiJc  Travcsli  (164S-53),  is  now 
thouf^ht,  and  not  unjustly,  a  somew}iat  i;;noblo  and  unprofitable 
■waste  of  si ugillar  powers  for  burlesr^nc.  But  the  Komnn  Comiquc 
(Itiol)  IS  a  woi'ithe  merit  of  which  can  be  denied  by  no  competent 
ju4ge  who  has  read  it.  Unfinisllcd,  and  a  little  desultory,  tliis 
histoi-y  of  a  troop  of  strolling  actors  is  almost  the  first  French 
novel,  in  point  of  date,  which  shows  real  power  of  painting 
maimei-s  and  character,  and  is  singularly  vivid.  It  furnished 
'ni''nphile  Gautie^  with  the  idea  and  with  some  of  the  detliils  of 
'liis  Capitaine  Fracasse.  Scarron  also  wrote  some  shorter  novels 
cf  i-ieiit.  which  are  thought  to  have  inspired  Jloliero  and 
Sedainc.  Of  his  plays  Joddct  (1645)  and  Don  Japhct  cV Armcnic 
(1653)  are  the  best:  Both  these  and  the  others  which  he  wrote 
are  of  course  somewhat  antiquated  in  style,  but  with  Comeille's 
Mcntcur  they  stand  above  everything  eilse  in  comedy  before  ^lolieze 
He  also  produced  manv  miscellaneous  nieces-. 

Scarron  is  generally  st«ier.  uc  ana  tliousW  of  as  a  representative 
writer  of  burlesque,  but  m  reality  he  possessed  in  abund/ince  the 
I  faculty  of  true  comedy.     The  most  complete  edition  of  his  Work*  is 


held  to  be  that  of  1737  {10  vols.,  Amsterdam),  but  his  more  celebrated 
pieces,  including  all  tlioss  mentioned  above,  iave  been  frc(iuentlj 
reprinted. 

SCAUP, — the  wild-fowler's  ordinary  abridgment  of 
Sc.4.up-Ducs,  meaning  a  Duck  so  called  "  because  she 
feeds  upon  Scaup,  i.e.,  broken  shelnsh,"  as  may  be  seen  in 
Willughby's  Ornifholoffy  (p.  365) ;  but  it  would  be  more 
proper  to  say  that  the  name  comes  from  the  "Mussel- 
scaups,"  or  "  ilussel-scalps,'"  the  beds  of  rock  or  sand  on 
which  Mussels  [Mvtihis  edwHs,  and  other  species)  are 
aggregated, — the  Anas  mariia  of  Linnaeus  and  Fuligula 
marila  of  modern  systematic  wri'ters,  a  very  abundant  bird 
around  the  coasts  of  most  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere, 
repairing  inland  in  spring  for  the  purpose  of  reproduction, 
though  so  far  as  is  positively  known  hardly  but  in  northern 
districts,  as  Iceland,  Lapland,  Siberia,  and  the  fur-countries 
of  America.  It  was  many  years  ago  believed  {Edin.  If. 
Fhilos.  Journal,  sx.  p.  293)  to  have  been  found  breeding 
in  Scotland,  but  assertions  to  that  effect  have  not  buen 
v/hoUy  substantiated,  though  apparently  corroborated  by 
some  later  evidence  (Proc.  N.  U.  Soc.  Glasr/ow,  ii.  p.  121, 
and  Proc.  Phys.  Soc.  Edinhtirffk,- vii.  p.  203).  The  Scaup- 
Duck  has  considerable  likeness  to  the  PocH.iRD  (vol.  xix. 
p.  202),  both  in  habits  and  appearance ;  but  it  much  more 
generally  afEects  salt-water,  and  the  head  of  the  male  ia 
black,  glossed  with  green,  and  hence  the  name  of  "  Black- 
head," by  which  it  is  commonly  known  in  North  America, 
where,  however,  a  second  species  or  race,  smaller  than  the 
ordinary  one,  is  also  found,  the  Fidigjda  a  finis.  The  female 
Scaup-Buck  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  Dunbird 
or  female  Pochard  by  her  broad  white  fage.       ■     (a.  x.)     • 

SCEPTICISJI  signifies  etymologically  a  state  of  doubt 
or  indecision  in  the  face  of  difierent  mutually,  conflicting 
statements  {<TKiTTToij.ai,  I  consider,  reflect,  hesitate,  doubt). 
It  is  implied,  moreover,  that  this  doubt  is  not  merely  a 
stage  in  the  road  to  certainty  and  true  knowledge. 
The  provisional  suspense  of  judgment  recommended  by 
Descartes  and  others  as  the  true  beginning  of  philosophy 
is  no  more  than  a  passing  phase  of  the  individual's  mind 
in  his  search  for  truth.  But  the  doubt  of  the  sceptic  is 
professedly  the  last  result  of  investigation ;  it  is  the 
renunciation  of  the  search  for  truth  on  the  ground  that 
truth  or  real  knowledge  is  unattainable  by  man.  An 
account  of  the  chief  historical  appearances  of  scepticism 
and  its  different  motives  will  serve  to  illustrate  and  amplify 
this  statement,  and  will  lead  up  to  any  further  considera- 
tions of  a  general  nature.  At  the  outset,  and  in  general 
terms,  scepticism  may  be  summarily  defined  as  a  thorough- 
going impeachment  of  man's  power  to  know — as  a  denial 
of  the  possibility  of  objective  knowledge. 

Trust,  not  distrust,  is  the  primitive  attitude  of  the  mind.  Hlstflri- 
What  is  put  before  us,  whether  by  the  senses  or  by  the  <^  ^P- 
statements  of  others,  is  instinctively  accepted  as  a  veracious  P***""'" 
report,  till  experience  has  proved  the  possibility  of  decep- 
tion.    In  the  history  of  philosophy,   in  the   same  way, 
affirmation   precedes    negation ;    dogmatism   goes   before 
scepticism.     And  this  must  be  so,  because   the  dogmatic 
systems  ^re,  as  it  were,  the  food  of  scepticism ;  without 
them  it  would  be  without  motive,  without  a  basis  oper- 
andi.    Accordingly,  we  find  that  sceptical  thought  did  not 
make  its  appearance  till  a  succession  of  positive  theories 
as    to    the  nature   of   the  real,    by  their   mutual  incon- 
sistency, had  suggested  the   possibility  that  they  might 
all  alike  be  false.     The  Sophistic  epoch  of  Greek  philo-  The 
sophy^was,  in  great  i:>art,  such  a  negative  reaction  against  §opliIsf» 
the.  luxuriance « of  seL'-roiiSOEnt  assertion  in  the  nature-:- 
Dhilosupuies  of  the  preceding  age.     Though  scepticism  as, 
-a  definite  school  of  opinion   may  be  Said,  ic   accordance 

^  "Scalp"  primarily  signifies  a  shell;  c/.  Old  I>iltch  schefpc  ana 
Old  Fr.  fscalope  (Skeat,  Etipnol.  Dicliona-y,  p.  528). 


SCEPTICISM 


379 


■with  old  precedent,  to  date  only  from  the.  time  of  Pyrrho 
of  Elis,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  main  currents  of 
Sophistic  thought  were  sceptical  in  the  wider  sense  of  that 
term.'  The  Sophists  were  the  first  in  Greece  to  dissolve 
knowledge  into  individual  and  momentary  opinion  (Prota- 
goras), or  dialectically  to  deny  the  possibility  of  know- 
ledge (Gorgias).  In  these  two  examples  we  see  how  the 
weapons  forged  by  the  dogmatic  philosophers  to  assist,  in 
the  establishment  of  their  own  theses  ,are  sceptically 
turned  against  philosophy  in  general.  As  every  attempt 
to  rationalize  nature  iinplies  a  certain  process  of  criticism 
and  interpretation  to  which  the  data  of  sense  are  subjected, 
and  in 'which  they  are,  as  it  were,  transcended,  the  anti- 
thesis of  reason  and  sense  is  formulated  early  in  the 
history  of  speculation.  The  opposition,  being  taken  as 
absolute,  implies  the  impeachment  of  the  vei-acity  of  the 
senses  in  the  interest  of  the  rational  truth  proclaimed  by 
the  philosophers  in  question.  Among  the  pre-Socratic 
nature-philosophers  of  Greece,  Heraclitus  and  the  Eleatics 
are  the  chief  representatives  of  this  polemic  against  the 
"  lying  witness  "  of  the  senses.  ■  The  diametrical  opposi- 
tion of  the  grounds  on  which  the  veracity  of  the  senses  is 
impugned  by  the  two  philosophies  (viz.,  by  Heraclitus 
because  they  testify  to  an  apparent  permanence  and 
identity  in  things,  by  the  Eleatics  because  they  testify  to 
an  apparent  multiplicity  and  change)  was  in  itself  sugges- 
tive of  sceptical  reflexion.  Moreover,  although  these  philo- 
sophers are  not  in  any  sense  themselves  sceptical,  their 
arguments  are  easily  susceptible  of  a  wider  application. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  the  arguments  by  which  Heraclitus 
supported  his  theory  of  the  universal  flux  are  employed  by 
Protagoras  to  undermine- the  possibility  of  objective  truth, 
by  dissolving  all  knowledge  into  the  momentary  sensation 
or  persuasion  of  the  individuah  The  idea  of  an  objective 
flux,  or  law  of  change  constituting  the  reality  of  things,  is 
abandoned,  and  subjective  points  of  sense  alone  remain, — 
which  is  tantamount  to  eliminating  the  real  from  human 
knowledge. 

Still  moro  nnequlvocal  was  the  sceptical  nihilism  ex- 
pressed by  Gorgias  in  his  three  celebrated  theses  : — (1) 
nothing  exists ;  (2)  if  anything  existed,  it  would  be  un- 
knowable ;  (3)  if  anything  existed  and  were  knowable, 
the  knowledge  of  it  could  not  be  communicated.  The 
arguments  of  his  book,  "  -Concerning  the  Non-existent,  or 
Nature,"  were  drawn  from  the  dialectic  which  the  Eleatics 
had  directed  against  the  existence  of  the  phenomenal 
world.  But  they  are  no  longer  used  as  indirect  proofs  of 
a  universe  of  pure  and  unitary  Being.  The  prominence 
given  by  most  of  the  Sophift«  to  rhetoric,  their  cultiva- 
tion of  a  subjective  readiness  as  the  essential  equipment 
for  life,  their  substitution  of  persuasion  for  conviction,  all 
mark  the  sceptical  undertone  of  their  teaching.  This 
attitude  of  indifference  to  real  knowledge  passed  in  the 
younger  and  less  reputable  generation  into  a  corroding 
moral  scepticism  which  recognized  no  good  but  pleasure 
and  no  right  but  might. 

What  Sooratcs  chiefly  did  was  to  recreate  the  instinct 
for  truth  and  the  belief  in  the  possibility  of  its  attain- 
ment. Tlie  scientific  impulse  thus  communicated  was 
sufficient  to  drive  scepticism  into  tlie  background  during 
'.-t  great  ago  of  Gropk  philosophy  (i.e.,  the  hundred  years 
preceding  Arictotle's  death,  323  B.C.).  The  captious 
logic  of  the  Megaric  school, — in  which  the  Eleatic  in- 
fluence was  strong,; — their  devotion  to  eristic  and  the  elab- 
oration of  fallacies,  was  indeed  in  some  cases  closely  related 
to  sceptical  results.  The  school  has  been  considered  with 
somr  truth  to  form  a  connecting  link  with  the  later  scep- 
ticism, just  as  the  contemporary  Cynicism  and  Cyrenaicism 
may  bo  held  to  be  imperfect  preludes  to  Stoicism  and 
Epicureanism. •»  The  extreme  nominalism  of  some  of  the 


Cynics  also,  who  denied  the  possibility  of  any  but  identical 
judgments,  must  be  similarly  regarded  as  a  solvent  of 
knowledge.  But  with  these  insignificant  exceptions- it  holds 
true  that,  after  tha  sceptical  wave  marked  by  the  Sophists, 
scepticism  does  not  reappear  tiU  after  the  exhaustion  of 
the  Socratic  impulse  in  AristoUe. 

The  first  man  in  antiquity  whose  scepticism  gave  name 
to  his  doctrine  was  Pyrrho  of  Elis  (about  360-270  B.C.).  Pyn-bo.i 
Pyrrho  proceeded  with  the  army  of  Alexander  the  Great 
as  far  as  India,  in  the  company  of  Anaxarchus,  the 
Democritean  philosopher.  He  afterwards  returned  to  his 
native  city,  where  he  lived  in  poor  circumstancos,*but 
highly  honoured  by  his  fellow-citizens.  Pyrrho  himself 
left  no  writings,  and  the  accounts  of  his  doctrine  are 
mainly  derived  from  his  pupil  Timon  of  Phlius  (about 
325-235  B.C.).  Timon  is  called  the  Sillographist,  from  his 
satirical  poeni  (Si'AAoi),  in  which  all  the  philosophers  of 
Greece  are  held  up  to  ridicule,  with  the  exception  of 
Xenophanes,  who  honestly  sought,  and  Pyrrho,  who 
succeeded  in  finding,  tha  truth.  Other  disciples  are 
mentioned  besides  Timon,  but  the  school  was  short-lived, 
its  place  being  presently  taken  by  the  more  moderate  and 
cultured  doubt  of  the  New  Academy.  Zelkr  sums  up 
Pyrrho's  teaching  in  three  propositions :— We  know  nothing 
about  the  nature  of  things ;  hence  the  right  attitude 
towards  them  is  to  withhold  judgment ;  the  necessary 
result  of  withholding  judgment  is  imperturbability.  The 
technical  language  of  the  school  expresses  the  first  position 
by  tha  weird  oKaraAiji/'ia ;  things  are  wholly  incompre- 
hensible or  inaccessible ;  against  every  -statement  tha 
opposite  may  be  advanced  with  equal  justice  (Icroa-dcycia 
Tuiv  Xo'ywi').  The  sceptical  watchword  which  embodies  the' 
second  position  is  cVo^^,  reserve  of  judgment,  or,  as  it  is 
put  by  Timon,  oiSiv  jxaWov,  that  is,  no  one  assertion  is 
truer  than  another.  This  complete  suspense  of  opinion  is 
also  expressed  by  the  terms  appeifria,  or  equilibrium,  and 
arfiacria,  Or  refusal  to  speak,  as  well  as  by  other  expressions. 
The  Pyrrhonists  were  consistent  enough  to  extend  their 
doubt  even  to  their  own  principle  of  doxibt.  They  thus 
attempted  to  make  their  scepticism  universal,  and  to 
escape  the  reproach  of  basing  it  upon  a  fresh  dogmatism. 
Mental  imperturbability  (drapafia)  was  the  result  to  be 
attained  by  cultivating  such  a  frame  of  mind.  The 
happiness  or  satisfaction  of  the  individual  was.  the  end 
which  dominated  this  scepticism  a.s  well  as  the  contem- 
porary systems  of  Stoicism  and  Epicureanism,  and  all  three 
philosophies  place  it  in  tranquillity  or  self-centred  indif- 
ference. Scepticism  withdraws  the  individual  completely 
into  himself  from  a  world  of  which  he  can  know  nothing. 
It  is  men's  opinions  or  unwarranted  judgments  about 
things,  say  the  sceptics,  which  betray  them  into  desire, 
and  painful  effort,  and  disappointment.  From  all  this  a 
man  is  delivered  who  abstains  from  judging  one  state  to 
be  preferable  to  another.  But,  as  complete  inactivity 
would  have  been  synonymous  with  deat'^^it  appears  to 
have  been  admitted  that  the  sceptic,  while  retaining  his 
consciousness  of  the  complete  uncertainty  enveloping  every 
ste[),  might  follow  custom  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life. 

The  scepticism  of  the  New  Academy  (or,  to  speak  more  Scepli- 
strictly,  of   th*;  Middle  Academy,  under  Arcosilaus  and  "''^  °^ 
Carneadc:,  lounders  respectively  of  the  so-called  secpnd  ' '°  ,     . 
and  tnird  Academics)  differed  very  little  from  that  of  the 
Pyrrhonists.      The  differences  asserted  by  later  writers  aro 
not  borne  out  on  investigation.     Put  the  attitude  n^iain- 
taincd  by  the  Academics  was  chiefly  that  of  a  negative 
criticism  of  the  views  of  others,  in  particular  of  the  some- 
what crude  and  imperious  dogmatism  of  the  Stoics.     They 
also,  in  the  absence  of  certainty,  allowed  a  large  scope  to 
probability    as   a  motive   to  action,   and   defended    their 
doctrine  on  this  jioint  with  greater  care  and  skill.     The 


380 


s  c  E  p  T  I  c;  I  8  ]\1 


■whole  position  was  stated  with  more  urbanity  and  cul- 
ture, and  was  supported,  by  Carncadcs  in  particular,  by 
argumentation  at  once  more  copious  and  more  acute.  It 
seems  aho  true  that  the  Academics  were  less  overborne 
than  the  Pyrrhonists  by  the  inactical  issue  of  their  doubts 
(imperturbability) ;  their  interest  was  more  purely  intel- 
lectual, and  they  had  something  of  the  old  delight  in 
mental  exercitation  for  its  own  sake.  Arcesilas  or 
Arccsi-'  Arcesilaus  (about  315-240  B.C.)  made  the  Stoic  theory  of 
>aus  irresistible  impressions  ((^ai-xao-iai  KaTaXtjirTiKai)  the  special 
object  of  his  attack.  !Mere  irresistibleness  (KaTak-qij/i';), 
ho  maintained,  is  no  criterion  of  truth,  since  false 
perceptions  may  equally  possess  this  power  to  sway  the 
mind.  He  seems  chieHy  to  have  supported  his  position  by 
adducing  the  already  well-known  arguments  of  former 
philosophers  against  the  veracity  of  the  senses,  and  he 
evidently  held  that  by  these  arguments  the  possibility  of 
knowledge  in  general  was  sufficiently  subverted.  We  can 
know'nothing,  he  concluded, — not  even  this  itself,  that  we 
know  nothing.  Ho  denied  that  the  want  of  knowledge 
reduces  us  to  inaction.  Notions  influence  the  will 
immediately,  apart  from  the  question  of  their  truth,  and, 
in  all  questions  of  conduct,  probability  (rb  cvXoyov)  is 
our  sufficient  guide,  as  it  is  our  highest  attainable 
standard.  It  is  stated  that  Arcesilaus  made  his  negative 
criticism  merely  a  preliminary  to  the  inculcation  of  a 
modified  Platonism.  But  this  account,  though  not  in 
itself  incredible,  is  not  borne  out  by  any  evidence  at  our 
Car-  disposal.  The  theory  of  Carncades  (213-129  B.C.)  repre- 
meades.  gentg  jJig  highest  development  of  Academic  scepticism. 
The  dogmatic  system  which  Carneades  had  in  viev.-  was 
that  of  Chrysippus,  the  Stoic,  whose  main  position'.- 
whether  in  the  theory  of  knowledge,  in  morals,  or  ic 
theology,  he  subjected  to  an  acute  and  thorough-goir^ 
criticism.  As  to  the  ci-iterion  of  truth,  Carneades  ucuied 
that  this  could  be  found  in  any  impression,  as  such;  for  in 
order  to  prove  its  truth  an  impression  must  testify,  not 
only  to  itself,  b"t  also  to  the  objects  causing  it.  We  find, 
however,  admittedly,  that  in  many  cases  we  are  deceived 
by  our  impressions ;  and,  if  this  is  so,  there  is  no  kind  of 
impression  which  can  be  regarded  as  guaranteeing  its  own 
truth.  According  to  his  own  examples,  it  is  impo.ssible  to 
distinguish  objects  so  much  alike  as  is  one  egg  to  another  ; 
at  a  certain  distance  the  painted  surface  seems  raised,  and 
a  square  tower  seems  round;  an  oar  in  water  seems 
broken,  and  the  neck-plumage  of  a  pigeon  assumes 
different  colours  in  the  sun  ;  objects  on  the  shore  seem 
moving  as  we  pass  by,  and  so  forth.  The  same  applies, 
he  argued,  to  purely  intellectual  ideas.  JIany  fallacies 
cannot  be  solved,  and  we  cannot,  for  example,  draw  any 
absolute  distinction  between  much  and  little,  or,  in  short, 
between  any  quantitative  differences.  Our  impressions, 
therefore,  furnish  us  with  no  test  of  truth,  and  we  can 
derive  no  aid  from  the  operations  of  the  understanding, 
which  are  purely  formal,  combining  and  separating  ideas 
without  giving  any  insight  into  their  validity.  Besides 
this' general  criticism  of  knowledge,  Carneades  attacked 
the  cardinal  doctrines  of  the  Stoic  school, — their  doctrine 
of  God  and  their  proof  of  divine  providence  from  the 
evidences  of  design  in  the  arrangements  of  the  universe. 
Many  of  his  arguments  are  preserved  to  us  irt  Cicero's 
Aeademics  and  De  Natura  Deofiitn.  His  criticism  of  the 
contradictions  involved  in  the  Stoic  idea  of  God  really 
constitutes  the  first  discussion  in  •  ancient  times  of  the 
personality  of  God,  and  the  difficulty  of  combining  in  one 
conception  the  characters  of  infinity  and  individuality. 
As'  a  positive  off'set  against  his  scepticism,  Carneades 
elaborated  more' fully  the  Academic  theory  of  probability,' 
for  which  he  employed  the  terms  £/i<^a(ri5  and  Ti$cvuTri<;. 
Being  neces.sarily  ignorant  of  the  relation  of  ideas  to  the 


objects  they  represent,  we  are  reduced  to  judging  them  by 
their  relation  to  ourselves,  i.e.,  by  their  greater  or  less 
clearness  and  appearance  of  truth.  Though  always  falling 
short  of  knov/ledge,  this  appearance  of  truth  may  be 
strong  enough  to  determine  us  to  action.  Carneades  recog- 
nized three  degrees  of  probability.  The  first  or  lowest 
IS  where  our  impression  of  the  truthfulness  of  aij  'dea 
is  derived  simply  from  the  idea  itself ;  the  second  degree 
is  where  that  impression  is  confirmed  by  the  agreemen"; 
of  related  ideas ;  if  a  careful  investigation  of  all  the 
individual  ideas  bears  out  the  same  conclusion,  we  have 
the  third  and  highest  degree  of  probability.  In  the  first 
case,  an  idea  is  called  probable  {-TnOav-i]) ;  in  the  second, 
probable  and  undisputed  (TriflaW/  xai  aTrcpiViracrros)  ;  in 
the  third,  probable,  undisputed,  and  tested  {TnOainj  koi 
aTTcpt'cTTraoTos     Kal     TrepttuSev/LAc'ry;).  The     scepticism     of 

Carneades  was  expounded  by  his  successor  Clitomachus, 
but  the  Academy  was  soon  afterwards  (in  the  so-called 
fourth  and  fifth  Academies)  invaded  by  the  Eclecticism 
which  about  that  time  began  to  obliterate  the  distinctions 
of  philosophical  doctrine  which  had  hitherto  separated 
the  schools.  Cicero  also,  who  in  many  respects  was 
strongly  attracted  by  the  Academic  scepticism,  finally 
took  refuge  in  a  species  of  Eclecticism  based  upon  a 
doctrine  of  innate  ideas,  and  on  the  argument  from  the 
consensus  gentium. 

The  later  scepticism — which  is  sometimes  spoken,  of  as  Later 
the  third  sce.ptical  school — claimed  to  be  a  continuation  of  stepti- 
tho  earlier  Pyrrhonism.  .(Enesidemus,  though  ni.t  abso-  ^  . 
lutely  the  first  to  renew  this  doctrine,  is  the  first  of  whose 
doctrine  anything  is  known.  He  appeaVs  to  have  taught 
in  Alexandria  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Among  the  successprs  of  .^nesidemus,  the  chief  names 
are  those  of  Agrippa,  whose  dates  cannot  be  determined, 
and  the  physician  Sextus  Empiricus  (about  200  a.d.), 
whose  Pyrrhonk  Hypotyposes,  and  his  vtov^  Adversus 
Mathematicos,  constitute  a  vast  armoury  of  the  weapons  of 
ancient  scepticism.  They  are  of  the  utmost  value  as  an 
historical  record.  With  Saturninus",  the  pupil  of  Sextus, 
and  Favorinus,  the  .gransmarian,  ancient  scepticism  may 
be  said  to  disappear  from  history.  What  speculative 
power  remained  was  turned  entirely'  into  Neoplatonio 
channels.  To  ^Enesidemus  belongs  the  first  enumeration 
of  the  ten  so-called  tropes  (rpoTroi),  or  modes  of  sceptical  ScepUc»l 
argument,  though  the  arguments  themselves  we-e,  of  troi'ss- 
course,  current  before  his  time.  The  first  trope  appesls  to' 
the  different  constitution  of  different  animals  as  involving 
different  modes  of  perception ;  the  second  ajiplies  tht 
same  argument  to  the  individual  differences  which  are 
found  among  men  ;  the  third  insists  on  the  way  in  whicl 
the  senses  contradict  one  another,  and  suggests  that  an 
endowment  witli  more  numerous  senses  would  lead  to  a 
different  report  as  to  the  nature  of  things ;  the  fourth 
argues  from  the  variability  of  our  physical  state  and 
mental  moods  ;  the  fifth  'orings  forward  the  diversities  of 
appearance  due  to  the  position  and  distance  of  objects  ; 
the  sixth  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  we  know  nothing 
directly,  but  only  through  some  medium,  such  as  air  or 
moisture,  whose  influence  on  the'  process  cannot  be  elimi- 
nated ;  the  seventh  refers  to  the  changes  which  the  sup- 
posed object  undergoes  in  quantity,  temperature, .  colour, 
motion,  ic. ;  the  eighth  really  sums  up  the  thought  which 
underlies  the  whole  series,  when  it  argues  from  the  rela- 
tivity of  all  our  perceptions  an,a  notions;  the  ninth  points 
out  the  dependence  of  our  impressions  on  custom,  the  new 
and  strange  impressing  us  much  more  vividly  than  the 
customary;  the  tenth  adduces  the  diversity  of  customs, 
manners,  laws,  doctrines,  and  opinions  among  men. 
^nesidemus  likewise  attacked  the  notion  of  cause  at  con- 
sii^erable  length,  but  neither  in  his  arguments  nor  in  the 


SCEPTICISM 


381 


■numerous  objections  brought  against  the  notion  by  Sextus 
Empiricus  do  we  meet  with  the  thought  which  furnished 
the  nerve  of  modern  scepticism  in  Hume,  The  practical 
result  of  his  scepticism  ^nesidemus  sought,  like  the 
Pyrrhonists,  in  drapa^ia.  He  is  somewhat  strangely  said 
to  have  combined  his  scepticism  with  a  revival  of  the 
philosophy  of  Heraclitus  ;  but  the  assertion  perhaps  rests, 
as  Zeller  contends,  on  a  confusion.  To  Agrippa  is  attri- 
buted the  reduction  of  the  sceptical  tropes  to  five.  .Of 
these,  the  first  is  based  on  the  di.screpancy'  of  human 
opinions ;  the  second  on  the  fact  that  every  proof  itself 
requires  to  be  proved,  which  implies  a  rcyressus  in  infini- 
tum, ;  the  third  on  the  relativity  of  our  knowledge,  which 
varies  according  to  the  constitution  of  the  percipient  and 
the  circumstances  in  which  he  perceives.  The-  fourth  is 
really  a  completion  of  the  second,  and  forbids  the  assump- 
tion of  unproven  propositions  as  the  premises  of  an  argu^ 
menl.  It  is  aimed  at  the  dogmatists,  who,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  regressus  in  infinitum,  set  out  from  some  principle 
illegitimately  assumed.  The  fifth  seeks  to  show  that 
reasoning  is  essentially  of  the  nature  of  a  circulus  in  pro- 
banda, inasmuch  as  the  principle  adduced  in  proof  requires 
itself  to  be  supported  by  that  which  it  is  called  in  to  prove. 
The  attack  made  in  several  of  these  'five  tropes  upon  the 
possibility  of  demonstration  marks  this  enumeration  as 
distinctly  superior  to  the  first,  which  consists  in  the  main 
of  arguments  derived  from  the  fallibility  of  the  senses. 
The  new  point  of  view  is  maintained  in  the  two  tropes 
which  were  the  result  of  a  further  attempt  at  generaliza- 
tion. Nothing  is  self-evident,  says  the  first  of  these 
tropes,  for,  if  all  things  were  certain  of  themselves,  men 
would  not  differ  as  they  do.  Nor  can  anything  be  made 
certain  by  proof,  says  the  second,  because  we  must  either 
arrive  in  the  process  at  somethiug  self-evident,  which 
is  impossible,  as  has  just  been  said,  or  we  must  involve 
ourselves  in  an  endless  regress. 

^\^len   we  review  the  history  of  ancient  thought,  we 
find,   as  Zeller  puts    it,   that   "the  general  result  of  all 
sceptical  inquiries  lies  in  the  proposition  that  every  asser- 
tion may  be  opposed  by  another,   and  every  reason  by 
reasons  equally  strong — in  the  iVoo-ficVtia  tCiv  X6y(jjv.     Or, 
as  the  same  thing  may  be  expressed,  what  all  sceptical 
.<ji-        proofs  come  back  to  is  the  relativity  of  all  our  ideas.     We 
P..160B  ofcan    never  know  the  nature    of  things   as  they  are,  but 
,?i  always  only  the  manner  in  which  they  appear  to  us.     The 

modern  criterion  of  the  sceptic  is  the  appearance.  Not  even  his 
tsejiVi-  own  proof  can  claim  truth  and  universal  validity :  he  does 
'isin.  not  assert;  he  only  seeks  to  relate  how  a  thing  strikes  him 
at  the  present  moment.  And  even  when  he  expresses  his 
doubts  in  the  form  of  universal  statements  they  are 
intended  to  be  included  in  the  general  uncertainty  of 
knowledge"  {Phil.  d.  Griechen,  iii.  2,  p.  58).  Both 
Zeller  and  Hegel,  it  may  be  added,  remark  upon  the 
difference  between  the  calm  of  ancient  scepticism  and  the 
perturbed  state  ofoiiind  evinced  by  many  modern  sceptics. 
Universal  doubfwa*  ihe  instrument  which  the  sceptics  of 
antiquity  recommended  for  the  attainment  of  complete 
peace  of  mind ;  rest  and  satisfaction  can  be  attained,  they 
say,  in  no  other  way.  By  the  moderns,  on  the  other 
hand,  doubt  is  portrayed,  for  the  most  part,  as  a  state  of 
unrest  and  painful  yearning.  Even  Hume,  in  various 
noteworthy  passages  of  his  Treatise,  speaks  of  himself  as 
recovering  cheerfulness  and  mental  tone  only  by  forgelful- 
ness  of  his  own  arguments.  His  state  of  universal  doubt, 
BO  far  from  being  painted  as  a  desirable  goal,  is  described 
by  him  aa  a  "  malady  "  or  as  "  philobopbical  melancholy 
and  delirium."  The  difference  might  easily  be  interpreted 
either  aa  a  sign  of  aentimental  weakoens  on  the  part  of  the 
moderna  or  m  a  proof  of  the  limitation  of  the  ancient 
aceptic*  which  randered  thorn  more  easily  natisfied  in  the 


absence  of  trutn.  Tt  seems  to  prove,  at  all  events,  that 
the  ancient  sceptics  were  more  thoroughly  convinced  than 
their  modern  successors  of  the  reasonableness  of  their  own 
attitude.  But  whether  the  ancients  were  the  better  or 
the  worse  sceptics  on  that  account  is  a  nice  question 
which  need  not  be  decided  here.  It  may  be  doubted, 
however,  whether  the  thoroughgoing  philosophical  scepti- 
cism of  antiquity  has  any  exact  parallel  in  modern  times, 
with  the  single  exception  possibly  of  Hume's  Treatise  on 
Human  Nature.  It  is  true  we  find  many  thinkers  who 
deny  the  competency  of  reason  when  it  ventures  in  any 
way  beyond  the  sphere  of  experience,~and  such  men  are 
not  unfrequently  called  sceptics.  This  is  the  sense  in 
which  Kant  often  uses  the  term,  and  the  usage  is  adopted 
by  others,' — for  example,  in  the  following  definition  from 
Ueberweg's  History  of  Philosiqjhy : — "  The  principle  of 
scepticism  is  universal  doubt,  or  at  least  doubt  with  regard 
to  the  validity  of  all  judgments  respecting  that  which  lies 
beyond  the  range  of  experience."  The  last  characteristic, 
however,  is  not  enough  to  constitute  scepticism,  in  the 
sense  in  which  it  is  exemplified  in  the  ancient  sceptics. 
Scepticism,  to  be  complete,  must  hold  that  even  within 
experience  ive  do  not  rationally  conclude  but  are  irration- 
ally induced  to  believe.  "  In  all  the  incidents  of  life,"  as 
Hume  puts  it,  "  we  ought  still  to  preserve  our  scepticism. 
If  we  believe  that  fire  warms,  or  water  refreshes,  'tis  only 
because  it  costs  us  too  much  pains  to  think  otherwise " 
{Treatise,  bk.  i.  iv.  7).  This  tone,  which  fairly  represents 
the  attitude  of  ancient  sceptics,  is  rare  among  the  moderns, 
at  least  among  those  who  are  professed  philosophers.  It 
is  more  easily  matched  in  the  unsystematic  utterances  of 
a  man  of  the  world  like  Montaigne. 

One  form  of  scepticism,  however,  may  be  clairaea  as  Scepti- 
an    exclusively    modern    growth,    namely,    philosophical  "^"^ 

scepticism  in    the   interests   of  theological    faith.     These '".    ^  . 

,  interest 

sceptics  are  primarily  Apologists.     Their  scepticism  is  not  ^^  f^m^ 

"de  bonne  f oy  "  ;  it  is  simply  a  means  to  the  attainment 
of  a  further  end.  They  find  that  the  dogmas  of  tbeii 
church  have  often  been  attacked  in  the  name  of  reason, 
and  it  may  be  that  some  of  the  objections  urged  have 
proved  hard  to  rebut.  Accordingly,  in  an  access  of  pious 
rage,  as  it  were,  they  turn  upon  reason  to  rend  her.  They 
deny  her  claim  to  pronounce  upon  such  matters  ;  they  go 
further,  and  dispute  her  prerogative  altogether.  They 
endeavour  to  show  that  she  is  in  contradiction  with  her- 
self, even  on  matters  non-theological,  and  that  everywhere 
this  much  vaunted  reason  of  man  (la  superbe  raison)  is  the 
creature  of  custom  and  circumstance.  Thus  the  "im- 
becility "  of  reason  becomes  their  warrant  for  the  reception 
by  another  organ — by  faith — of  that  to  which  reason 
had  raised  objections.  The  Greeks  had  no  temptation  to 
divide  man  in  two  in  this  fashion.  When  they  were 
.sceptics,  their  scepticism  had  no  ulterior  motives ;  it  was 
an  end'  in  itself.  But  this  line  of  argument  was  latent 
in  Christian  thought  from  the  time  when  St  Paul  spoke 
of  the  "  foolishness "  of  preaching.  Tertullian  fiercely 
re-echoed  the  sentiment  in  his  polemic  against  the  philo- 
sophers of  antiquity  : — "  Crucifixus  est  Dei  filius  ;  non 
pudet,  quia  pudendum  est.  Et  mortuos  est  Dei  fflius; 
prorsus  credibile  est,  quia  ineptum  est.  Et  sepultos 
resurrexit ;  eertum  est,  quia  impo.ssibile  est."  But,  as 
Christianity  became  firmly  establi.shed.  Christian  writers  * 
became    more    tolerant   of   speculation;   and,  inst-ead  of 

^  This  turn  of  thought  is  not  confined,  however,  io  ChristiaQ 
thinkera ;  it  appears  al-so  in  tiia  Araljian  philoxophy  of  the  East. 
Al-  Ghaizali  (Algaicl)  (1059-1111)  in  his  Tah^'/al  at- FiUa^fa  ("The 
Collapse  of  the  Philosophers ")  is  the  advocate  of  complete  philo- 
sophical sccpticiHm  in  the  interests  of  9rthodoi  MohamnicdaDism — an 
orthodoxy  which  passed,  however,  in  his  own  case  into  a  epcoiea  of 
mysticisn^  He  did  his  work  of  destruction  bo  thoroughly  that  Arabian 
philosophy  died  out  after  his  time  in  the  land  of  ite  birth. 


382 


SCEPTICISM 


flaunting  tlie  irreconcileable  opposition  of  reason  and 
dogma,  tliey  laboured  to  reduce  tlio  doctrines  of  the  church 
to  a  rational  system.  This  was  the  long  task  essayed  by 
Scholasticism ;  and,  though  the  great  Schoolmen  of  the 
13th  century  refiaincd  from  attempting  to  rationalize  such 
doctrines  as  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  they  were 
far  from  considering  them  as  essentially  opposed  to  reason. 

(Theory    It  was  not  til]   towards    the  close  of  the   Middle  Ages 

^  ""^      that   a   sense  of  conflict  between  reason  and  revelation 
ture     became  widely  prevalent  and  took'  shape  in  the  essentially 

fii  truth,  sceptical  theory  of  the  twofold  nature  of  truth.  Philo- 
sophical truth,  as  deduced  from  the  teaching  of  Aristotle, 
it  was  said,  directly  contradicts  the  teaching  of  the  church, 
which  determines  truth  in  theology;  but  the  contradiction 
leaves  the  authority  -of  the  latter  unimpaired  in  its  own 
sphere.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  this  doctrine  was 
ever  put  forward  sincerely ;  in  the  most  of  those  who 
professed  it,  it  was  certainly  no  more  than  a  veil  by  which 
they  sought  to  cover  their  heterodoxy  and  evade  ifs 
consequences.  Rightly  divining  as  much,  the  church 
condemned  the  doctrine  as  early  as  1276.  Nevertheless 
it  was  openly  professed  during  the  period  of  the  break 
up  of  Scholastic  Aristotelianism.  Pomponatiuj,  the  Alex- 
andrist  of  Padua  (ob.  1525),  was  one  of  its  best  known 
advocates. 

J'xical.  The  typical  and  by  far  the  greatest  example  of  the 
Christian  scepric  is  Pascal  (1G23-1662).  The  form  of  the 
Pensees  forbids  the  attempt  to  evolve  from  their  detached 
utterances  a  completely  coherent  system.  For,  though  he 
declares  at  times  "Le  pyrrhonisme  est  le  vrai,"  "  Se 
moquer  de  la  philosophic  c'est  vraiment  philosopher,"  or, 
again,  "  Humiliez-vous,  ralson  impuissante,  taisez-vous, 
nature  imbecile,"  other  passages  might  be  quoted  in  which 
he  assumes  the  validity  of  reason  within  its  own  sphere. 
But  what  he  everywhere  emphatically  denies  is  the 
possibility  of  reaching  by  the  unassisted  reason  a  satis- 
factory theory  of  things.  The  contradictions  jvhich  meet 
us  everywhere  are  summed  up  and  concentrated  in  the 
nature  of  man.  Man  is  a  hopeless  enigma  to  himself,  till 
he  sees  himself  in  the  light  of  revelation  as  a  fallen 
creature.  The  fall  alone  explains  at  once  the  nobleness 
and  the  meanness  of  humanity;  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only 
solution  in  which  the  baffled  reason  can  rest.  These 
are  the  two  points  on  which  Pascal's  thought  turns. 
"  There  is  nothing  which  is  more  shocking  to  our 
reason  "  than  the  doctrine  of  original  sin ;  yet,  in  his  own 
word.s,  "le  nosud  de  notre  condition  prend  ses  replis  et 
ses  tours  dans  cet  abime;  de  sorte  que  I'homme  est  plus 
inconcevable  sans  ce  mystere  que  ce  mystere  n'est  incon- 
oevabie  b.  I'homme."  Far,  therefore,  from  being  able  to 
sit  in  judgment  upon  the  mysteries  of  the  faith,  reason  is 
unable  to  solve  its  own  contradictions  without  aid  from  a 
higher  source.  In  a  somewhat  similar  fashion,  in  the 
present  century,  Lamennais  (in  the  first  stago  of  his 
speculations,  represented  by  the  Essai  sur  VIndiffirence  en 
Matiere  Religiev.se,  1817-21)  endeavoured  to  destroy  all 
rational  certitude  in  order  to  establish  the  principle  of 
authority;  and  the  same  profound  distrust  of  the  power 
of  the  natural  reason  to  arrive  at  truth  is  exemplified 
(though  the  allegation  has  been  denied  by  the  author)  in 
the  writings  of  Cardinal  Newman.  In  a  different  direction 
and  on  a  larger  scale,  Hamilton's  philosophy  of  the  con- 
ditioned may  be  quoted  as  an  example  of  the  same  religious 
scepticism.  Arguing  from  certain  antinomies,  said  to  be 
inherent  in  reason  as  such,  Hamilton  sought  to  found 
theology  (in  great  part  at  least)  upon  our  nescience,  and 
to  substitute  belief  for  krowledge.  He  also  imitated 
Pascal  at  times  in  dilating  upon  the  "  impotence "  and 
"  imbecility "  of  our  faculties ;  but,  as  with  Pascal,  this 
was  rather  in  reference  to  their  incapacity  to  evolve  an 


"absolute"  system  than  to  their  veuacity  in  the  ordinary 
details  of  experience.  The  theological  application  and 
development  of  Hamilton's  arguments  in  Jlansel's  Bampton 
Lectures  On  the  Limits  of  lieligious  Tliyougkt  marked  a 
still  more  determined  attack,  in  the  interesb*  of^  theology, 
upon  the  competency  of  reason. 

.  Passing  from  this  particu'""-  vein  of  sce'flical  br  sefii- Boopiir* 
sceptical  thought,  we  find,  !«o  vve  should  expect,  that  t'i6"'^^'2' 
do^^Tlfall  of  Scholasticism,  and  the  conflict  of  philosophical  ^  \^fu^ 
theories  and  religious  confessions  which  ensued,  gave  a 
decided  impetus  to  sceptical  reflexion.  One  of  the  earliest 
instances  of  this  spirit  is  affirded  by  the  book  of  .\grippa 
of  Nettesheim  (1487-1535),  De  Incertitudine  et  Vanitate 
Scientiamm.  Sceptical  reflexion  rather  than  systematic 
scepticism  is  what  meets  us  in  Jlichel  de  Montaigne 
(1533-1592),  though  the  elaborate  presentation  of  sceptical 
and  relativistic  arguments  in  his  "Apologie  de  Raimond 
Sebond  "  (Essais,  ii.  12),  and  the  emblem  he  recommends 
— a  balance  with  the  legend,  "  Quo  scay-je  ? " — might 
allowably  be  adduced  as  evidence  of  a  more  thoroughgoing 
Pyrrhonism.  In  his  "  tesmoynages  de  nostre  imbecilUt^," 
he  follows  iu  the  main  the  lines  of  the  ancients,  and  he 
sums  up  with  a  lucid  statement  of  the  two  greafl 
arguments  in  which  the  sceptical  thought  of  every  ago 
resumes  itself — the  impossibility  of  verifying  our  faculties,' 
and  the  relativity  of  all  impressions.^  The  argument  from 
the  mutability  of  opinions  and  customs  was  probably  the 
one  which  appealed  most  strongly  to  himself.  In  the' 
concluding  lines  of  this  essay,  Montaigne  seems  to  tura 
to  "nost.-e  foy  chrestienne  "  as  man's  only  succour  from 
his  native  state  of  helplessness  and  uncertainty.  But 
undoubtedly  his  own  habitual  frame  of  mind  is  better 
represented  in  his  celebrated  saying — "  How  soft  and 
healthful  a  pillow  are  ignorance  and  incuriousness  .... 
for  a  weU-ordered  head."  More  inclined  than  Montaigne 
to  give  a  religious  turn  to  his  reflexions  was  his  friend 
Pierre  Charron  (1541-1003),  who  in  his  book  De  la 
Sogesse  systematized  in  somewhat  Scholastic  fashion  the 
■train  of  thought  which  we  find  in  the  Essais.  Francois 
Sanchez  (15G2-1632),  professor  of  medicine  and  philo- 
sophy in  Toulouse,  combated  the  Aristotelianism  of  the 
schools  with  much  bitterness,  and  was  the  author  of  a  book 
with  the  title  Quod  niiui  scilur.  Of  more  or  less  isolated 
thinkers,  somewhat  latef  in  point  of  time,  who  wrote  ini 
the  same  sceptical  spirit,  may  be  mentioned  the  names  of 
Francois  de  la  Mothe  le  Vayer  (15S8-1C72),  whose  Cinq 
Diilcgues  appeared  after  his  death  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Orosius  Tubero  ;  Samuel  Sorbiere  (1615-1670),  who  trans- 
lated the  HypotyjMses  Pyrrhones  of  Sextus  Empiricus ; 
Simon  Foucher  (1644-1696),  canon  of  Dijon, -who  wrote  a 
History  of  ike  Academics,  and  combated  Descartes  and 
Malebranche  from  a  sceptical  standpoint.  The  work  of 
Hieronymus  Hirnhaira  of  Prague  (1637-1679),  De  Typho 
Generis  Hiimani  sive  Scientiarum  Humanarnm  Inani  at 
Ventoso  Tumore,  was  written  in  the  interests  of  revelation. 
This  is  still  more  the  case  with  t6e  bitter  polemic  of 
Daniel  Huet  (1630-1721),  Censura  Philosophise  Carte- 
sians, and  his  later  work,  Traite  Philosophique  de  la 
Faihlesse  de  VEsprit  Hmnain.  The  scepticism  of  Joseph 
Glauvill  (1636-1680),  in  his  two  works  The  Vanity  of 
Dogmatizing  (1661)  and  Scepsis  Scientifka  (1665),  has  mora 
interest  for  Englishmen.     Glanvill  was  not  a  sceptic  at  all 

^  "Pour  juger  des  apparences  que  nous  recevons  des  subjects,  il 
ncus  f.iuldr.-!  un  instniment  judicatoire  ;  pour  verifiei:  cet  instrument, 
il  uous  y  fault  de  la  demonstration  ;  pour  Terifier  la  demonstration,  un 
instrument  ;  nous  voyla  aa  rouet.  ,  .  Finalement  il  n'y  a  aulcune 
constante  existenc^e,  ny  de  nostre  estre  ny  de  celuy  des  objects  ;  et 
nous,  et  nostre  jugement,  et  toutes  choses  mortellei,  vont  coulant  et 
roulant  sans  cesse  ;'  ainsin,  il  ne  se  pcult  establir  lien  de  certain  ua 
I'un  a  I'aultre,  et  le  jugeaut  et  le  juge  estants  en  contiuueUe  mutation 
et  brausle"  {Kssais,  Gamier,  i.  570)j 


SCEPTICISM 


383 


points,  seeing  that  he  was  full  of  enthusiasm  for  the 
advance  of  physical  science  and  for  the  newly-founded 
Royal  Society.  But  he  attacked  unsparingly  the  Aristotel- 
ianism  of  the  schools,  which  was  still  dominant  at  0:;fo.rd. 
Against  this,  and  also  against  the  materialistic  dogmatism 
of  Hobbes,  he  invoked  the  weapons  of  scepticism;  and  he 
was  led  by  his  own  arguments  to  query  "  whether  there  be 
any  science  in  the  sense  of  the  dogmatists."  Ho  based 
this  conclusion  partly  upon  the  ground  that  our  knawledge 
of  causes,  being  derived  simply  from  "  concomitancy,"  is 
far  from  being  "infallibly  conclusive."  "The  causality 
itself,"  he  says,  anticipating  Hume,  "  is  insensible " ; 
accordingly,  "  the  foundation  of  scientifical  procedure  is 
too  weak  for  so  'magnificent  a  superstructure."  More 
celebrated  than  any  of  the  above  was  Pierre  Bayle  (lGi7- 
1706),  whose  scepticism  lay  more  in  his  keen  negative 
criticism  of  all  systems  and  doctrines  which  came  before 
Jiim  as  literary  historian  than  in  any  theoretic  views  of 
hh  own  as  to  the  possibility  of  knowledge.  Bayle  also 
paraded  the  opposition  between  reason  and  revelation  ;  but 
the  argument  in  his  hands  is  a  double-edged  weapon,  and 
when  he  extols  the  merits  of  submissive  faith  his  sincerity 
is  at  least  questionable. 
B»mc  Hume,  the  most  illustrious  and  indeed  the  typical  sceptic 
of  modern  times,  is  treated  at  length  in  a  separate  article. 
Here,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  point  out  shortly 
in  what  his  scepticism  consists.  It  is  sometimes  placed,  as 
we  have  seen  it  is  by  Kant,  in  his  distrust  of  our  ability 
and  right  to  pass  beyond  the  empirical  sphere.  But  the 
mere  denial  of  the  possibility  of  "  divinity  or  school  meta- 
physics," as  we  find  it  in  the  Inquiry,  combined  vith  an 
apparent  confidence  in  "  experimental  reasoning  concern- 
ing matter  of  fact  and  existence,"  does  nqt  constitute 
scepticism,  but  rather  what  would  pow  be  called 
agnosticism  or  positivism.  It  is  essential  to  the  sceptical 
position  that  reason  be  dethroned  within  experience  as 
well  ■  as  beyond  it,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  the  result 
at  which  Hume  arrives  in  his  larger  and  n'.ore  thorough- 
going work.  More  generally,  therefore,  his  scepticism 
may  be  considered  to  he  in  his  relation  to  preceding 
philosophy..  The  Treatise  is  a  reduciio  ad  absurdum  of 
the  principles  of  Lockianism,  inasmuch  as  these  principles, 
(vhen  cofisistently  applied,  leave  the  structure  of-  experience 
entirely  "  loosened "  (to  use  Hume's  own  expression),  or 
cemented  together  only  by  the  irrational  force  of  custom. 
Hume's  scepticism  thus  really  arises  from  his  thorough- 
going empiricism.  Starting  with  "  particular  perceptions  " 
or  i-solated  ideas  let  iu  by  the  senses,  be  never  advances 
beyond  these  "  distinct  existences."  Each  of  them  exists 
on  its  own  account ;  it  is  wliat  it  is,  but  it  contains  no 
reference  to  anything  be^'ond  itself.  The  very  notion  of 
objectivity  and  truth  therefore  disappears  ;  the  Sc/iein  or 
appearance  of  the  moment  is  the  only  reality.  Hume's 
analysis  of  the  conceptions  of  a  permanent  world  and  a 
permanent  self  reduces  us  to  the  sensationalistio  relativism 
of  Protagoras.  He  expressly  puts  this  forward  in  various 
passages  as  the  conclusion  to  which  reason  conducts  us. 
xho  fact  that  the  conclusion  is  in  "direct  and  total 
opposition  "  to  the  apparent  -testimony  of  the  senses  is  a 
fresh  justification  of  philosophical  scepticism.  For,  indeed, 
scepticism  -syith  regard  to  the  senses  is  considered  in  the 
Inquiri/  to  be  sufTiciently  justified  by  the  fact  that  they 
lead  us  to  suppose  "an  external  universe  which  depends 
not  on  our  perception,"  whereas  "  this  universal  and 
primary  opinion  of  all  men  is  soon  dest?oyed  by  the 
slightest  philosophy."  Scepticism  with  regard  to  reason, 
on  the  other  hand,  depends  on  an  insight  into  the  irrational 
character  of  the  relation  which  we  chiefly  employ,  viz.,  that 
of  cause  and  effect.  It  is  not  a  real  relation  in  objects  but 
rather  a  mental  habit  of  belief  engendered   by  frequent 


repetition  or  custom.  This  point  of  view  is  applied  m 
the  Treatise  universally.  All  real  connexion  or  relation, 
therefore,  and  with  it  all  possibility  of  an  object^^•e 
system,  disappears ;  it  is,  iu  fact,  excluded  by  Hume  ah 
initio,  for  "  the  mind  never  perceives  any  rea,l  connexion 
among  distinct  existences."  Belief,  however,  just  because 
it  rests,  as  has  been  said,  on  custom  and  the  influence  of 
the  imagination,!  survives  such  demonstrations.  "  Nature," 
as  Hume  delights  to  reiterate,  "is  always  too  strong  for 
principle."  "  Nature,  by  an  absolute  and  uncontroUabla 
necessity,  has  determined  us  to  judge  as  well  as  to  breathe 
and  feel."  The  true  philosopher,  .therefore,  is  not  the 
Pyrrhonist,  trying  to  maintain  an  impossible  equilibrium 
or  suspense  of  judgment,  but  the  Academic,  yielding 
gracefully  to  the  impressions  or  maxims  which  he  finds,  as 
matter  of  fact,  to  have  most  sway  over  himself.  "I  may- — 
nay,  I  must — yield  to  the  current  of  nature,  in  .Submitting 
to  my  senses  and  understanding ;  and  in  this  blind  sub- 
mission I  show  most  perfectly  my  sceptical  principles,"  for, 
after  all,  "if  we  believe  that  fire  warms  or  water  refrcshe.s, 
'tis  only  because  it  costs  us  too  much  pains  to  think  other- 
wise." - 

The  system  of  Kant,  or  rather  that  part  of  his  sy.stem 
expounded  in  the  Critique  of  Pure  Season,  though 
expressly  distinguished  by  its  author  from  scepticism,  has 
been  included  by  many  writers  in  their  survey  of  sceptical 
theories.  The  difference  between  Kant,  with  his  system  of 
pure  reason,  and  any  of  the  thinkers  we  have  passed  in 
review  is  obvious ;  and  his  limitation  of  reason  to  tho- 
sphere  of  experience  suggests  in  itself  the  title  of  agnostic 
or  positivist  rather  than  that  of  sceptic.  Yet,  if  we  go  a 
little  deeper,  there  is  substantial  justification  for  the  view 
which  treats  agnosticism  of  the  Kantian  type  as  essentially 
sceptical  in  its  foundations  and  in  its  results.  For  criticism 
not  only  limits  otir  knowledge  to  a  certain  sjAere,  but 
denies  that  our  knowledge  within  that  sphere  is  real ;  we 
never  know  things  as  they  actually  are,  but  only  as  they 
appear  to  us.  Our  knowledge,  in  Kant's  language,  does 
not  show  us  "  the  inward  essence  of  the  object  in  itself, 
but  oulj-  the  relation  of  the  object  to  the  subject."  But 
this  doctrine  of  relativity  really  involves  a  condemnation 
of  our  knowledge  (and  of  all  knowledge),  because  it  fails 
to  realize  an  impossible  and  self-contradictory  ideal.  The 
man  who  impeaches  the  knowing  faculties  because  of  the 
fact  of  relation  which  they  involve  is  pursuing  the 
phantom  of  an  apprehension  which,  as  Lotze  expresses  it, 
does  not  apprehend  things,  but  is  itself  things ;  he  is 
desiring  not  to  know  but  to  he  the  things  themselves.  If 
this  dream  or  prejudice  be  e.xploded,  then  the  scepticism 
originating  iu  it — and  a  large  proportion  of  recent  sceptical 
thought  docs  so  originate — loses  its  raison  cFetre.^  The 
prejudice,  however,  which  meets  us  in  Kant  is,  in  a  some- 
what different  form,  the  same  prejudice  which  is  found  in 
the  tropes  of  antiquity- — what  Lotze  calls  "  the  inadmissiblo 
relation  of  tho  world  of  ideas  to  a  foreign  world  of  objects." 

^  "  Belief  is  moro  properly  aa  act  of  the  sensitive  than  of  the 
co;;itativc  part  of  our  uature." 

-  Much  tho  s.ime  conclusion  is  readied  in  what  h  perhaps  the 
ablest  English  exposition  of  pure  philosophic  scepticism  since  Hume 
—.Mr  Ai-tliur  Balfour's  Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt  (1879).  "The 
reailcrniay  ivish  to  know,"  s.ays  Mr  B.alfour,  "what  constitute  the 
'claims  on  our  belief  which  I  assert  to  bo  }iossc5sed  alike  by  scii'nce 
and  theology,  and  which  I  put  forward  as  the  solo  practic.il  founda- 
tion on  which  our  convictions  nUiniatcIy  rest.  .  .  .  Whatever  they 
may  be,  they  aro  not  rational  gi-ounds  of  conviction.  .  .  It  would 
bo  more  proper  to  describe' them  as  a  kind  of  inward  inclinaiiojk  o;; 
impulse"  (pp.  316-7). 

^  It  may  be  as  well  to  add  that  the  sceptical  side  of  Kantianism  if:- 
mainly  confined  to  tho  C'riti'/ue  of  Pure  Reason,  but  this  side  of  Kantian 
thouglit  has  been  most  widely  inlinenlial.  Tho  remarks  made  above 
would  not  apply  to  the  coherent  system  of  idealism  which  may  be 
evolved  from  Kant's  writings  and  which  many  would  consider  aioao 
to  deserve  the  iijnie  of  Kantianism  or  Criticism. 


Sceptical 
side  of 
Kanti.-ui- 
ism. 


Preju- 
dices on 
which 
scepti- 
cism 
wstsa 


384 


8  C  E  — S  C  E 


Toi,  as  ae  ngncij  points  out,  wtiether  we  suppose  idealism 
or  realism  to  be  true,  in  neither  case  do  the  things  them- 
selves pass  into  our  knowledge.  No  standpoint  is  possible 
Irora  which  we  could  compare  the  world  of  knowledge 
with  such  an  independent  world  of  things,  in  order  to 
judge  of  the  conformity  of  the  one  to  the  other.  But 
the  abstract  doubt  "whether  after  all  things  may  not 
bo  quite  other  in  themselves  than  that  which  by  the  laws 
of  our  thought  they  necessarily  appear "  is  a  scepticism 
which,  though  admittedly  irrefutable,  is  as  certainly 
groundless.  No  arguments  can  be  brought  against  it, 
simply  because  no  arguments  can  be  brought  to  support 
it;  the  scepticism  rests  on  nothing  more  than  the  empty 
possibility  of  doubting.  This  holds  true,  even  if  we  admit 
the  "  independent "  existence  of  such  a  world  of  things. 
But  the  independence  of  things  may  with  much  greater 
reasoB  be  regarded  as  itself  a  fiction  or  prejudice.  The 
real  "objective"  to  wKch  our  thoughts  mu.5t  show  con- 
formity is  not  a  world  of  things  in  themselves,  but  the 
system  of  things  as  it  exists  for  a  perfect  intelligence. 
Scepticism  is  deprived  of  its  persistent  argument  if  it  is 
seen  that,  while  our  individual  experiences  are  to  be 
judged  by  their  coherence  with  the  context  of  experience 
in  general,  experience  as  a  whole  does  not  admit  of  being 
judged  by  reference  to  anything  beyond  itself. 

To  the  attack  upon  the  possibility  of  demoiistration, 
inasmuch  as  every  proof  requires  itself  a  fresh  proof,  it 
may  quite  fairly  be  retorted  that  the  contradiction  really 
lies  in  the  demand  for  proof  of  the  self-evident,  on  which 
all  proof  most  ultimately  depend.  It  is  of  course  always 
possible  that  in  any  particular  case  we  may  be  deceived  ; 
we  may  be  assuming  as  self-evidently  true  what  is  in 
reality  not  so.  But  such  incidental  lapses  are  found  to 
correct  themselves  by  the  consequences  in  which  they 
involve  us,  f.nd  they  have  no  power  to  shake  our  trust  in 
the  general  validity  of  reason.  It  may,  however,  be 
granted  that  the  possibility  of  lapse  throws  us  open  to  the 
objections,  ingenuous  or  disingenuous,  of  the  sceptic  ;  and 
we  must  remain  exposed  to  them  so  long  as  we  deal  with 
our  first  principles  as  so  many  isolated  axioms  or  intui- 
tions. But  the  process  of  self-correction  referred  to  points 
to  another  proof — the  only  ultimately  satisfactory  proof 
of  which  fii'st  principles  admit.  Their  evidence  lies  in 
their  mutual  interdependence  and  in  the  coherence  of  the 
system  which  they  jointly  constitute. 

Of  a  scepticism  which  professes  to  doubt  the  validity 
of  every  reasoning  process  and  every  operation  of  all  -our 
faculties  it  is,  of  course,  as  impossible  as  it  would  be 
absurd  to  offer  any  refutation.  Here,  as  Butler  incisively 
put  it,  "we  can  go  no  further.  For  it  is  ridiculous  to 
attempt  to  pro.ve  the  truth  of  those  very  perceptions 
■whose  truth  we  can  no  otherwise  prove  than  by  other  per- 
ceptions of  exactly  the  same  kind  with  them,  and  which 
there  is  just  the  same  ground  to  suspect,  or  to  attempt  to 
proYe  the  truth  of  our  faculties,  which  can  no  otherwise 
be  proved  than  by  means  of  those  very  suspected  faculties 
themselves."  This  absolute  scepticism,  indeed,  can  hardly 
be  regarded  as  more  than  empty  words ;  the  position 
which  they  would  indicate  is  not  one  which  has  ever 
existed.  In  any  case,  such  scepticism  is  at  all  times 
suGBciently  refuted  by  the  imperisljable  and  justifiable 
Function  trust  of  reason  in  itself.  The  real  function  of  scepticism 
ciscepti-  in  tiie  history  of  philosophy  is  relative  to  the  dogmatism 
""""■  which  it  criticizes.  And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  has  been 
seen  that  many  so-called  sceptics  were  rather  critics  of  the 
eSete  systems  which  tiey  found  cumbering  the  ground 
than  actual  doubters  of  the  possibility  of  knowledge  in 
generah  And  even  when  a  thinker  puts  forward  his 
doubt  as  absolute  it  does  not  follow  that  his  successors 
are  bound  to  regard  it  in  the  same  light.     The  progress 


of  thought  may  show  it  to  be,  in  truth,  relative,  as  when 
the  nerve  of  Hume's  scepticism  is  shown  to  be  his 
thoroughgoing  empiricism,  or  when  the  scepticism  of  the 
Critique  of  Pure  Reason  is  traced  to  the  unwarrantable 
assumption  of  things-in-themselves.  AVhen  the  assump- 
tions on  which  it  rests  are  proved  to  be  baseless,  the  parti- 
cular scepticism  is.  also  overcome.  In  like  manner,  the 
apparent  antinomies  on  which  such  a  scepticism  builds  will 
be  found  to  resolve  themselves  for  a  svstem  based  on  a 
deeper  insight  into  the  nature  of  things.  The  serious 
thinker  will  always  repeat  the  words  of  Kant  that,  in 
itself,  scepticism  is  "not  a  permanent  resting-place  for 
human  reason."  Its  justification  is  relative  and  its  func- 
tion transitional 

Authorilic}.— Ancient  scepticism  is  fully  treatediin  the  relative 
parts  of  Zellef's  Fhilesophie  dcr  Gricchcn,  with  which  may  be  com- 
pared Zimraermanu's  Darsicllting  d.  Fyrrhonisckcn  Philosophie 
(1841),  and  Uebcr  Urspruiig  u.  Bcdcutung  d.  Fyrrh.  Phil.  (1843); 
Wachsmuth,  Ds  Timone  Phliasio  (1859);  Getfers,  De  Arcesila 
(1849);  Norman  llacColl,  Greek  See jilics  from  Pyrrho  to  Sextus 
(1869);  Haas,  Dc  Phihsophorum  Sccptieorum  Successionihus  (1875). 
Among  other  works  may  be  mentioned  Staudlin,  Geschichie  und 
Ceist  d,  Secpticisj^ius,  vorziXglich  in  liiieksickt  anf  Moral  fi.  Religion 
(1794);  Tafel,  Geschichte  d.  Sccpticismus  (1834);  E.  Saisset,  Le 
Seepticismc :  JliUsideme,  Paseal,  Kant  (1875).  (A.  SE.) 

SCEPTRE.  Though  the  sceptre  is*  now  used  'prin- 
cipally as  one  of  the  insignia  of  royalty,  the  word  origin- 
ally had  a  more  extended  meaning.  Among  the  early 
Greeks  the  o-x^-n-rpof  was  simply  a  long  staff  used  by  agi3d 
men  {II.  xviii.  410;  Herod.,  i.  196),  and  thus  came  to 
be  used  as  a  sign  of  authority  by  officials  of  many  kinds 
• — judges,  military  leaders,  priests,  heralds,  and  others. 
It  is  frequently  represented  on  Greek  painted  vases  as  a 
long  staff,  tipped  with  metal  in  some  ornamental  fashion, 
and  is  borne  by  some  of  the  gods.  Among  the  Etruscans 
sceptres  of  great  magnificence  were  used  by  the  kings  and 
also  by  the  upp,er  orders  in  the  priesthood.  Many  repre- 
sentations occur  on  the  walls  of  the  painted  tombs  of 
Etruria.  Some  specimens  which  still  exist  are  among  tiie 
finest  examples  known  of  ancient  jewellery.  The  BritL.h 
JIuseum,  the  Vati-ean,  and  the  Louvre  possess  Etruscj.n 
gold  sceptres  of  the,  most  minute  and  elaborate  workman-' 
ship.  Some  of  these  are  hollow  gold  batons,  about  nine 
to  twelve  inches  long  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  com- 
pletely covered  with  that  very  delicate  ornament  for 
which  the  Etriuscan  goldsmiths  were  so  famed,  produci;d 
by  soldering  thousands  of  microscopically  minute  globules 
of  gold  arranged  in  rich  patterns  on  to  the  plain  gold 
cylinder  which  forms  the  ground.  J3ne  magnificent  speci- 
men in  the  gold-ornament  room  of  the  British  Museum 
has  its  top  formed  like  a  flower,  with  outer  petals  of 
beaten  gold  and  an  inner  core  made  by  a  large  emerald ; 
it  is  of  the  greatest  beauty  both  in  workmanship  and 
design. 

The  sceptre  of  the  Romans,  like  most  of  their  insignia 
of  rank,  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Etruscans. 
An  old  and  more  Latinized  form  of  the  word  is  sciydo 
(see  Liv.,  v.  41).  Under  the  republic  an  ivory  sceptre 
{sceptrum  ehurneum)  was  one  of  the  marks  of  consular 
rank.  It  was  also  used  by  victorious  generals  who  re- 
ceived'the  title  of  imjKrator,  and  this  use. still  survives 
iu  the  modern  marshal's  baton.  In  Soman  paintings  the 
long  staff-like  sceptre  is  frequently  Tepresented  in  the 
hands  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  as  chief  of  the  gods. 

TTnder  the  empire  the  sceptrum  Angusti  (Suet.,  Galhci, 
i.)  was  specially  used  by  the  emperors!  It  was  often  of 
ivory,  tipppd  with  a  gold  eagle  (Juv.,  Sat.,  x.  43),  and  is 
frequently  shown  on  medallions  of  the  later  empire,  whi»h 
have  on  the  obverse  a  half-length  figure  of  the  emperor, 
holding  in  one  hand  the  short  eagle-tipped  sceptre  and  iji 
the  other  the  orb  surmounted  by  a  small  figure  of  Victory. 
The  older  stafi-Hke  form  of  sceptre  still  survived  under 


S  C  H  — S  G  H 


3S.5 


the  name  hasta  pura ;  it  is  shown  on  the  reverses  of  many 
Roman  coins  in  the  hand  of  deities  and  of  the  emperor  or 
empress,  though  originally  the  hasta  pura  had  a  very 
different  use,  being  simply  a  mark  of  distinction  given  by 
Roman  generals  to  soldiers  who  had  shown  unusual 
bravery  (Tac,  Ann.,  iiL  21).'  After  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  as  the  state  religion,  the  imperial  sceptre  was 
frequently  tipped  with  a  cross  instead  of  the  eagle,  though 
both  were  used.  All  through  the  Middle  Ages  both  these 
forms  survived,  and  scgptres  of  gold  studded  with  jewels 
were  used  by  most  sovereigns  of  .Europe.  The  gold 
sceptre  of  Charlemagne,  a  magnificent  specimen  of  early 
jeweller's  work,  still  exists  among  the  regalia  at  Vienna. 
Some  mediaeval  sceptres  were  of  crystal  or  ivory  mounted 
in  gold.  Several  fine  ancient  examples  existed  among  the 
regalia  of  England  till  after  the  death  of  Charles  I.,  when 
the  whole  set  were  broken  up  and  melted  by  order  of  the 
Parliament. 

At  the  Restoration,  four  new  sceptres  were  made  for  the 
coronation  of  Charles  II.  (see  Archieologia,  xxix.  p.  262) ; 
and  these  still  exist  among  the  regalia  in  the  Tower. 
They  are — (1)  the  so-called  St  Jidward's  staff  of  gold,  4 
feet  7  inches  long,  set  with  jewels,  and  surmounted  with 
a  cross  and  orb — a  copy  of  the  older  one  which  contained 
in  the  orb  a  fragment  of  the  true  cros.s  (this  sceptre  is 
borne  in  kont  of  the  sovereign  during  the  processional 
part  of  the  ceremony  of  coronation);  (2)  a  gold  sceptre 
tipped  with  a  cross,  which  at  the  coronation  is  placed  in 
the  sbvereign's  right  hand  by  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury; (3)  a  similar  sceptre  tipped  with  a  gold  dove,  which 
is  placed  in  the  sovereign's  left  hand  ;^  (-i)  a  small  gold 
jewelled  sceptre  for  the  queen  consort.  Nos.  (1)  and  (2) 
are  both  studded  with  diamonds.  In  addition  to  these  four, 
there  is  a  gold-mounted  ivory  sceptre,  which  was  made  for 
the  queen  of  James  II. ;  it  is  tipped  with  a  gold  dove  and 
is  studded  with  jewels.  A  sixth  gold  sceptre  is  that  which 
was  made  for  the  queen  at  the  coronation  of  William  and 
Mary. 

Among  the  Scottish  regalia  at  Edinburgh  a  fine  15th- 
century  gold  sceptre  still  exists ;  and  others  of  the  same 
or  earlier  date  are  preserved  among  the  royal  insignia  of 
several  European  countries. 

SCHADOW,  a  distinguished  name  in  the  annals  of  Ger- 
man art. 

L  JoHAJTN  Gottfried  Schabow  (1764-1850),  an 
eminent  sculptor,  was  born  in  1764  in  Berlin,  where  his 
father  was  a  poor  tailor.  His  first  teacher  was  an  inferior 
sculptor,  Tassaert,  patronized  by  Frederick  the  Great ;  .the 
master  offered  his  daughter  in  marriage,  but  the  pupil 
preferred  to  elope  with  a  girl  to  Vienna,  and  the  father-in- 
law  not  only  condoned  the  offfence  but  furnished  money 
wherewith  to  visit  Italy.  The  young  man  made  the  most 
of  advantages  which  in  those  days  fell  to  the  lot  of  few : 
he  gained  in  competition  a  prize  for  a  group  of  Perseus 
and  Andromeda ;  three  years'  study  in  Rome  formed  his 
style,  and  in  1788  he  returned  to  Berlin  to  succeed  his 
former  master,  Tassaert,  as  sculptor  to  the  court  and 
secretary  to  the  Academy.  Prussia  in  rising  into  a  great 
kingdom  had  need  for  much  sculpture,  and  Schadow 
brought  timely  talent  and  exceirtional  training.  Over 
half  a  century,  crowded  with  commissions,  he  persistently 
produced  upwards  of  two  hundred  works,  varied  in  style 
a<  in  subjects.  Among  his  ambitious  efforts  are  Frederick 
the  Great  in  Stettin,  Bliicher  in  Rostock,  and  Luther  in 
Wittenberg.  His  portrait  statues  include  Frederick  the 
Great  playing  the  flute,  and  the  crown-princess  Louise  and 

^  Both  these  Bccptrea  (or  rather  tho  oltler  ones)  were  showri,  one. 
Id  each  hand  of  the  fine  bronze  efligy  of  Edward  III.  in  We3tmin;:ter 
Abbey,  but  u  a  rule  royal  efBgi^a  were  reuresent'^d  with  only  one 
sceptre. 


her  sister.  His  busts,  which  reach  a  total  of  -nore  than  oh" 
hundred,  comprise  seventeen  colossal  head;?  in  the  Walhalla, 
Ratisbon ;  from  the  life  were  modelled  Goethe,  Wieland, 
and  Fichte.  Of  church  monuments  and  memorial  works 
thirty  are  enumerated  ;  yet  Sphadow  hardly  ranks  among 
Christian  sculptors.  He  is  claimed  by  classicists  and 
idealists :  the  quadriga  on  the  Brandenburger  Thor  and 
the  allegorical  frieze  on  the  facade  of  the  Royal  Mint, 
both  in  Berlin,  are  judged  among  the  happiest  growths 
from  the  antique.  Fauns,  nymphs,  cupids,  and  figures  of 
fancy,  scattered  among  plain  portrait  work,  kept  ali  ve  to  an 
advanced  age  early  associations  formed  in  Italy.  Schadow, 
as  director  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  gave  proof  of  intellectual 
powers  which  made  him  a  leader  and  secured  many  and 
devoted  followers.  Personal  influence  he  extended  and 
fortified  by  his  books.  He  wrote  on  the  proportions  of 
the  hurhan  figunj,  on  national  physiognomy,  &c. ;  and 
many  volumes  by  himself  and  others  describe  and  illustrate 
his  method  and  his  work.  Ho  died,  full  of  honours,  at 
Berlin  in  1850. 

II.  Rudolph  Sch.a.dow  (1786-1822),  sculptor,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1786.  His  father, 
v/ho  returned  to  Berlin  in  1788,  was  his  first  master. 
Rudolph  in  1810  obtained  the  pension  for  Rome  and 
received  kindly  help  from  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen.  His 
talents  were  versatile  :  his  first  independent  work  was  a 
figure  of  Paris,  and  it  ha.d  for  its  companion  a  spinning  girl. 
Following  the  example  set  by  leading  German  artists 
then  settled  in  Rome,  he  exchanged  the  Protestant  for  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  gave  pledge  of  his  convictions  by  statues 
of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  the  Virgin  and  Child.-  In  Eng- 
land he  became  known  by  bas-reliefs  executed  for  the  duke 
of  Devonshire  and  for  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne.  His 
last  composition,  commissioned  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  was 
a  colossal  group,  Achilles  with  the  Body  of  Penthesilea; 
the  model,  universally  admired  for  its  antique  character 
and  the  largeness  of  its  style,  had  not  been  carried  out 
in  marble  when  in  1822  the  artist  died  in  Rome. 

III.  Feiedkich  Wilhel.m  Schadow  (1789-1862), 
painter,  born  in  1789  in  Berlin,  was  the  second  son  of 
Johanu  Gottfried  Schadow  the  sculptor,  from  whom  he 
received  his  earliest  instruction.  In  1806-7  he  served  as  a 
soldier  ;  in  1810  he  went  with  his  elder  brother  Rudolph  to 
RonVe.  He  became  one  of  the  leaders  among  the  German 
pre-Raphaelite  brethren  who  eschewed  classicism  and  the 
Italian  Renaissance  and  sought  to  rebuild  Christian  art 
on  the  principles  and  practice  of  early  and  purer  times. 
Following  the  example  of  Overbeck  and  others,  he  joined 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  held  that  an  artist  must  believe 
and  live  out  the  truths  he  essays  to  paint.  The  sequel 
showed  that  Schadow  was  qualified  to  shine  less  as  a 
painter  than  as  a  teacher  and  director.  The  Prussian 
consul.  General  Bartholdi,  befriended  his  young  com- 
patriots by  giving  them  a  commission  to  decorate  with, 
frescos  a  room  24  feet  square  in  his  house  on  the  Pincian 
Hill.  The  artists  engaged  weje-  Schadow,  Cornelius, 
Overbeck,  and  Vcit ;  the  subject  selected  was  the  story  of 
Joseph  and  his  brethren,  and  two  scenes,  the  Bloody 
Coat  and  Joseph  in  Prison,  fell  to  the  lot  of  Schadow. 
These  well-studied  and  sound  wall-paintings  brought  re- 
nown to  the  brethren,  who  were  further  fortified  by  the 
friendship  of  Kicbuhr  and  Bunsen ;  tho  former  writes — 
"They  are  all  men  of  talent,"  and  "Schadow  is  parti- 
cularly refined  and  intellectual."  Schadow  was  in  1819 
appointed  professor  in  the  Berlin  Academy,  and  his  ability 
and  thorough  training  .gained  devoted  disciples.  To  this 
period  belong  pictures  for  churches.  In  1826  the  pro- 
fes.sor  was  made  director  of  the  Diisseldorf  Academy,  arid 
Eo  higlijy  were  his  character  and  teachings  esteemed  that 
soma  of  th©  Lest  scholars  accompanied  their  master.     The 

XXL  —  40 


38G 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


high  and  sdcied  ait  inatHiud  in  Uoine  SchaJow  trafis.- 
planteu  to  Diisseldorf  ;  ho  reorganized  the  Academy,  which 
in  a  few  years  grew  famous  as  a  centre  of  Christian  art  to 
which  pupils  flocked  from  all  sides.  In  1S37  tha  director 
selected,  at  request,  those  of  his  scholars  best  qualified  to 
decorate  the  chapel  of  St  ApoUinaris  on  the  Khind  ■\vitli 
frescos,  which  when  finished  were  accepted  as  the  fullest 
and  purest  manifestation  of  t|ie  Diisseldorf  scliool  on  its 
spiritual  side.  To  1842  belong  the  Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins,  in  the  Stiidel  Institute,  Frankfort;  this  large  and 
important  picture  is  carefully  considered  and  wrought, 
but  lacks  power.  Schadow's  fame  indeed  rests  less  on  his 
own  creations  than  on  the  Ecliool  he  formed  ;  he  imparted 
to  others  nobility  of  conception,  beauty  of  form,  refine- 
ment and  delicacy  in  e.xpreasion  and  execution.  Yet  the 
master  in  Diisseldorf  encountered  opposition:  a  reaction 
Bet  in  against  the  spiritual  and  sacerdotal  style  he  had 
established ;  a  younger  generation  rose  who  stigmatized 
his  system  as  narrow  and  bigoted  ;  and  in  1859  the  party 
of  naturalism  and  realism  .nfter  a  severe  struggle  drove  the 
venerable  director  from  his  chair.  Schadow  died  at  Diissel- 
dorf in  1862,  and  a  monument  in  the  platz  which  bears 
his  name  was  raised  at  the  jubilee  held  to  commemorate 
his  directorate.  (j.  B.  A.) 

SCHAFAKUC  (in  Bohemian  S.iJAiiiK),  Paul  Joseph 
(1 795-1 8C1),  was  by  origin  a  Slovak,  and  was  born  in  1795 
at  Kobeljarova,  a  village  of  northern   Hungary,  where  his 
father  was  a  Protestant  clergyman.      It  was  not  till  his 
.sixteenth  year  that  any  enthusiasm  was  aroused  in  him  for 
the  language  and  literature  of  his  race.     At  this  time  an 
essay  of  Jungmann's  fell  into  his  hands,  and  at  once  gave 
a  direction  to  his  studies.      His  first*  production  was  a 
volume  of  poems  in  Bohemian  entitled  Thi  Muse  of  Tatra 
with  a  Slavonic  Lyre,  published  at  Levocza  in  1814.     After 
this  we  find  him   collecting  Slovak  songs.     In   1815  he 
began  a  course  of  study  at  the  university  of  Jena,  and  while 
there  translated  into  Czech  the   Clouds  of  Aristophanes 
and  the  Maria  Stuart  of  Schiller.      In  1817  he  came  to 
Prague  and  joined  the  literary  circle  of  which  Dobrovsky, 
Jungmann,  and  Hanka  -were  members.     In  1819  he  was 
appointed  headmaster  of  the  high  school  at  Neusatz  (Novi 
Sad)  in  the  south  of  Hungary ;  ho  remained  occupied  with 
the- duties  of  this  office  till  1833.     But  besides  his  educa- 
tional functions  he  busied  himself  with  the  study  of  Servian 
literature  and  antiquities,  and  acquired  many  rare  books 
and  manuscripts.      In  1826  his   Geschichle  der  Slaii'ischen 
Sprache  und  Literatur  nach  alien  Mundarien  appeared  at 
Pesth.     This  may  trujy  be  called  an  epoch-making  book 
in  the  history  of  Slavonic  studies.     It  was  the  fli'st  attempt 
to  give  anything  like  a  systematic  account  of  the  Slavonic 
languages,  the  knowledge  of  which  was  at  that  time  in 
such  a  rudimentary  state  that  evea  Schafarik  is  not  able 
to    classify    properly    the     Bulgarian    language,    but    has 
grouped  it  with  Servian.      In  1833  appeared  his  Serhisehe 
Leselcijmer  oder  historisch-lcritiseheBeleuchtunij  der  Serhiscken 
Mtindart,  and  in  1837  his  great  work  Slovansl-e  Staroziinosti 
("  Slavonic  Antiqirities  "),  by  which  he  is  at  the  present  time 
best  known.      The  "  Antitiuities  "  have  been  translated  into 
Polish,  Russian,  and    German,  and  we   are  promised  an 
English  version  shortly  from  the  pen  of  Mrs  Alexander 
Kerr.     This  valuable  work  was  enlarged  and  improved  in 
the  second  edition,  which  appeared  among  the  collected 
works  of  Schafarik,   edited  by  JireSek  after  the   author's 
death.     In  1840  he  published  in  conjunction  with  Palacky 
Die  iiliesten  Denl'mider  der  Bohmischen  Spi'ache,  in  which 
he    defended  the   authenticity    of  those    Bohemian  docu- 
ments which  have  been  declared  spurious  by  some  scholars. 
In  the  year   1837    poverty  compelled  him  to  accept  the 
uncongenial  office  of  censor  of  Czech  publications,  which 
he   abandoned    in    1847    on   becoming   custodian  of   the 


Prague  public  library.  In  18'2  he  published  lils  valuable 
work  Slovansl:jj  l^drndopis,  whioji  gives  a  complete  account 
of  Slavonic  ethnology.  In  1848  ht  was  made  prol  ssor  of 
Slavonic  philology  in.  the  iiniversity  of  Prague,  but  resigned 
it  in  tlie  following  year,  probably  from  causes  in  some  way 
connected  with  the  political  troubles  of  that  period,  of 
which  Prague  was  one  of  the  centres.  He  was  then  made 
keeper  of  the  university  library,  in  which  office  he  con- 
tinued till  his  death  in  1861.  He  had  long  been  in  broken 
health, — his  pains  of  body  being  augmented  by  brain  dis- 
ease, which  had  been  brought  on  by  his  severe  literary 
labours  and  also  by  family  anxieties.  His  latter  days  were 
devoted  to  philology,  one  of  the  chief  subjects  treated  of  by 
him  being  the  antiquity  of  the  Glagolitic  alphabet,  about 
which  ho  held  very  dilferent  opinions  at  various  periods 
of'  his  life.  He  was  also  for  some  time  conductor  of  the 
"  Journal "  of  the  Bohemian  Museum,  and  edited  the  first 
volume  of  the  Yylor,  or  selections  from  old  Czech  writers, 
which  appeared  under  the  auspices  of  the  literary  society 
ill  1845.  To  this  he  prefixed  a  grammar  of  the  Old 
Bohemian  language.  His  correspondence  with  Pogodin 
has  been  \  ublishcd  by  Prof.  Kil  PopofE  of  JIoscow  among 
the  letters  of  that  eminent  scholar. 

Sch.ifarik  was  a  inau  of  the  \  urcly  liteiary  type, — an  indefatigable 
worker,  an  enthu.--iast,  aiul  f.  sincere  patriot.  The  study  of  Slavonic 
I'liilology  and  ctimology  has  advanced  since  his  time,  but  tlie 
greater  jjart  of  Ills  work  is  jiermanent  and  montinicntal.  Besides 
Ills  collected  writings  {Schrane  Spinj),  which  were  reprinted  at 
Prague  after  his  death  during  the  years  1862-1865,  a  postliuinous 
work  by  liim  also  made  its  appearance,  edited  by  J.  JireCek, 
Gcschichtc  der  Siidalawischci  Lilcralur, 

SCHAFFHAUSEN",  in  area  (111-7  square  mil.es)  and 
actual  population  (38,348)  the  19th  and  in  relative 
density  of  population  the  7th  of  the  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land, forms  the  most  northern  angle  of  the  Swiss  territory, 
and  lies  on  the  right  or  German  side  of  the  Rhine,  which 
separates  it  from  the  cantons  of  Thurgau  and  Zurich.  It 
is  divided  into  three  distinct  portions  by  spurs  of  the 
grand-duchy  of  Baden,  which  also  possesses  the  small 
enclave  of  Biisingen  on  the  Rhine.  Geologically  it 
belongs  for  the  mo§t  part  to  the  Swabian  Jura,  and 
dhectly  or  indirectly  it  all  drains  to  the  Rhine,  which 
forms  its  famous  falls  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  chief 
town  (see  Rhine,  vol.  x.x.  p.  519).  In  the  broad  straths 
of  the  Ivlettgau  vine-growing  and  agriculture  go  hand  in 
hand  (the  wines  of  Hallau  being  in  high  repute) ;  the 
more  elevated  di.<;tricts  of  Rauden  and  Reyat  (highest 
point  3040  feet  above  the  sea)  raise  the  grain-production 
of  the  canton  above  the  home  demand,  and  also  provide 
large  quantities  of  potatoes,  hemp,  and  fruit.  Under  a 
careful  regime  the  forests  are  recovering  from  a  state  of 
comparative  exhaustion.  The  Schafi'hausen  cattle  are 
partly  Swabian  and  partly  Swiss  ;  Klettgau  has  a  special 
breed  of  pigs  of  its  own.  Manufacturing  industries  have 
their  best  development  at  Schaiihausen-Neuhausen.  The 
population,  which  increased  from  35,300  in  1850  to  38,348 
in  18S0,  is  almost  exclusively  of  German  speech  (230 
individuals  only  using  other  languages).  Protestants  are 
to  Roman  Catholics  as  S  to  1  (33,897  and  4154);  the 
latter  are  attached  to  the  bishopric  of  Basel.  Schaflhausen 
has  been  a  member  of  the  Swiss  confederation  since  1601. 
By  the  new  constitution  of  1876  it  became  remarkably 
democratic.  The  great  council  consists  of  representatives 
of  the  people  elected  for  four  years  at  the  rate  of  one  for 
every  five  hundred  inhabitants.  On  the  petition  of  any 
thousand  of  the  electors,  a  measure  may  be  introduced  to 
the  chamber  or  submitted  to  the  direct  vote  of  the  citizens. 
The  five  members  of  the  administration  are  also  popularly 
elected.  Education  is  well  endowed,  primary  education 
being  compulsory.  A  reformatory  for  destitute  children 
is  maintained  at  Friedeck,  near  Buch. 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


387 


SCHAFFHAUSEN,  the  capital  of  the  above  canton,  is 
situated  on  the  bank  of  the  Rhine,  30J  miles  by  rail  west 
of  Constance  and  60  east  of  Basel,  and  communicates,  by  a 
bridge  vdth  the  village  of  Feuertbalen  (1000  inhabitaaits) 
in  Zurich.  It-  is  a  city  of  contrasts — medieval  architec- 
ture of  the  true  Swabian  type  and  modern  manufactures 
mingling  curiously  together.  The  cathedral,  formerly  the 
church  of  the  abbey  of  All  Saints  (Allerheiligen),.  is  a 
massive, basilica  founded  in  1104  and  completed  in  1453; 
its  great  bell  (14S6)  bears  the  inscription  Vivos  voco, 
mortuos  plangp,  jfulgura  frango,  which  suggested  Schiller's 
"Song  of  the  Bell"  and  the  opening  of  Longfellow's 
^Golden,  Legend.  On  the  Eebhiigel  above  the  town  rises 
the  castle  of  Munoth  (1564-1590)  with  bomb-proof  case- 
mates, and  a  tower  whose-top  is  reached  by  a  spiral  ascent 
up  which  one  can  ride  or  drive.  In  HeiTenacker  Platz 
stands  the  Imthurneum,  a  building  erected  (1864)  and  pre- 
sented to  the  town  by  a  Swiss  citizen,  resident  in  London, 
for  the  "promotion  of  ssthetic  and  scientific  culture";  it 
contains  a  theatre,  concert^rooms,  kc.  The  public  library 
(28,000  volumes)  possesses  the  printed  and  MS.  collections 
of  Johaun  von  Miiller,  who  was  born  at  Schaffhausen  in 
175'2,  and  his  monument  adorns  the  promenade  ,of  the 
Vesenstaub.  In  the  museum  is  preserved  the  famous 
Keszlerloch  "find."  Among  the  industrial  establishments 
of  the  city  and  vicinity  are  ironworks,  waggon  and  carriage 
factories,  woollen  and  cotton  factories,  breweries,  distilleries, 
and  champagne  factories.  The  population  of  the  commune 
was  10,303  in  1870  and  11,795  in  ISSO. 

Schaffhausen  (Latinized  as  Scaficsia  or  Griecized  into  ProhaiopoUs) 
first  appears  ia  tlie  9th  century-,  and  had  already  attaiued  the  rank 
•fan  imperial  city  in  126-i. 

SCHALCKEN,  Godfeied  (1643-1706),  genre  ana  por- 
trait painter,  was  born  at  Dort  in  1643,  and  studied  under 
Van  Hoogstraten,  and  afterwards  under  Gerhard  Douw, 
whose  works  his  earlier  genre-pictures  very  closely  resemble. 
He  visited  England  and  painted  several  portraits,  of  v.-hich 
the  half-length  of  AVilliam  .III.,  now  in  the  TMuseum, 
Amsterdam,  is  a  good  example.  In  this  work  he  shows  an 
effect  of  candle-light,  which  he  also  introduced — frequently 
with  fine  effect — in  many  of  his  subject-pictures.  These 
may  be  studied  in  the  collections  at  Buckingham  Palace, 
the  Louvre,  Viennij,  and  Dresden.  He  executed  several 
Scriptural  subjects — such  as  that  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins,  at  Munich — of  vopy  indifferon*;  merit. ,  He  died  at 
The  Hague  in  1706. 

SCHAJIYL  (i.e.,  tSAsiuEL;,  propnet  and  hero  of  the 
Caucasian  mountaineers,  was  born  in  1797.  See  Caucasus,  ' 
vol.  V.  p.  258.  After  his  defeat  and  capture  he  passed 
ten  years  in  Russia,  where  he  was  well  treated.  In  1870 
he  went  on  pilgrimage  to  51er/^  and  died  at  Jledina  in 
March  of  the  following  year 

SCHANDAU,  a  small  town  ol  iSaxony,  is  "Rtuated 
on  the  right  bank-  of  the  Elbe,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
litfle  valley  of  the  Kirnitzsch,  21  miles  to  the  south-east 
of  Dresden,  and  4  miles  from  Iho  Bohemian  frontier.  Its 
position  in  the  heart  of  the  romantic  "Saxon  Switzer- 
land "  gives  it  an  -importance  to  which  on  other  grounds 
it  is  not  entitled,  and  thousands  of  tourists  make  it  their 
headquarters  in  .".ummer.  _The  stationary  population  in 
ISCO  was  3301 

SCHAENHOKST.  Gerhaed  Joh,«n- '  D.wid  von 
(175G-1813),  Prussian  general,  celebrated  as  Ihe  author  of 
tho  so-called  "  Kriimpersystem,"  or  shert-scrvice  system 
(see  voL  ii.  p.  594),  by  which  the  Prussian  nation  was 
prepared  for  tho  war  of  liberation,  was  a  Hanoverian  by 
birth,  and  served  in  the  Hanoverian  army  from  1778  to 
1801,  when  he  passed,  into  Prussian  service,  and  soon 
became  the  leader  in  the  reconstruction  of  its  forces..  In 
the  war  with  France  in  1813  he  accomj)anied  Bliicher  as 


chief  ot  the  general  staff,  but  reciived  a  severe  wound  in 
the  first  battle  (Grossgorschen),  which  soon  after  was 
followed  by  his  death.  The  first  part  of  an  extensive  and 
important  biography  of  Scharnhorst  by  Lehmann  hr.s 
recently  appeared  (Leipsic,  1886). 

SCHASSBURG  (Hung.  Segesvdr),-  chief  town- of  the 
Transylvanian  county  of  Nagy-Kiikiillo,  Hungary,  stands 
on  the  river  Nagy-Kiikiillo,  24  miles  east-south-east  oi 
Maros-V^sArhel}-,  in  46°  10'  N.  lat.,  24°  47'  E.  long. 
It  consists  of  two  parts, — the  one  which  formerly  served 
as  a  fortress  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  and  the  other  in 
the  valley  below, — the  two  being  corinebte.d  by  a  covered 
passage.  Sch.assburg  is  the  seat  of  various  public  offices 
and  of  a  district  court  of  justice ;  its  other  institutions 
include  a  Franciscan  convent,  a  Protestant  upper  gymna- 
sium, a  teachers'  institute  and  seminary,  two'  savinjTs 
banks,  a  free  library,  ho'spital,  barracks,  Ac.  As  a  station 
on  the  eastern  system  of  the  Hungarian  State  Railways, 
Schassburg  has  a  good  woollen  and  linen  trade,  as  well  as 
exports  of  wine'and  fruit.  Among  it^  principal  buildings 
an  old  Gothic  church  and  the  lofty  town-hall  are  specialTy 
worthy  of  mention.  The  population  in  1SS4  amounted  to 
8810,  the  majority  being  Germans  (Saxons),  and  the 
remainder  Roumanians  and  Hungarians. 

Schassburg  was  founded  by  Saion  colonists  at  the  end  of  thS  12th 
century  ;  its  Latin  name  was  Caslrum  Sex.  The  most  important 
event  in  its  history  was  the  battle  onTlie  Sl.'st  July  1S49,  in  which 
tho  Hungarian  army  under  Bom  was  defeated  by  the  overwhelming 
numbei-s  of  the  Russian  General  Liiders.  The  great  national  poet^ 
Petofi,  was  last  seen,  and  is  generally  believed  to  have  met  his  end, 
in  this  engagement. 

SCH-A.UMBUEG-LIPPE.^  See  Lippe. 

SCHEELE,  IvARL  WrLHELM  (1742-1786),  an  eminent 
chemist,  was  born  at  Stralsund,  the  capital  of  Pomerania, 
which  then  belonged  to  Sweden,  on  the  19th  December 
1742.  ^His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  Karl  Wilhelm  was 
the  seventh  of  a  family  of  eleven.  In  due  time  the  boy 
was  sent  to  school,  but  he  did  not  care  for  the  languages, 
and  as  he  showed  a  strong  taste  for  pharmacy  he  was 
apprenticed  at  the  age  of  fourteen  to  an  apothecary  _iu 
Gothenburg,  called  Bauch,  with  whom  he  stayed  for  eight 
years.  He  was  thoughtful  and  silent,  and  very  punctual 
and  precise  in  discharge  of  his  duties.  His  spare  time  and 
great  part  of  his  nights  were  devoted  to  the  experimental 
examination  of  the  different  bodies  which  he  dealt  "ivith, 
and  the  careful  study  of  the  standard  works  on  chemistry. 
By  these  means  he  acquired  a  large  store  of  knowledge 
and  great  practical  skill  and  manipulative  dexterity.  In 
1765  he  removed  to  Malmb,  and  resided  for  five  years  with 
Kaistriim,  an  apothecary,  whence  he  removed  to  Stockholm, 
to  Scbarenberg,  also  an  apothecary.  'W.iile  here  he  wrote 
out  an  account  of  his  experiments  with  cream  of  tartar, 
from  which  he  had  isolated  tartaric  acid,  and  sent  it  to 
Bergman,  the  leading  chemist  in  Sweden.  Bergman  some- 
how neglected  it,  and  this  caused  for  a  time  a  reluctance 
on  Scheele's  part  to  become  acquainted  with  that  savant, 
but  the  paper,  through  tho  instrumentalit}-  of  Retzius,  was 
■ultimately  communicated  to  ths  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Stockholm.  In  1771  Scheele  finished  an  elaborate  inquiry 
into  the  composition  of  the  beautiful  mineral  fluor-spar, 
and  showed  that  it  consisted  of  lime  and  a  peculiar  acid 
which  he  called  fluor  acid.  He  misunderstood,  however, 
the  true  character  of  the  decomposition  he  had  effecte', 
and  gave  an  crropcous  explanation  of  it.  His  experiments 
had  been  conducted  in  glass  vessels,  and  he  was  not 
aware  that  what  he  actualh'  got  was  the  fluo-silicic  acid. 
This  mistake  was  subsequently  poihted  out  and  corro(itc<? 
by  some  other  chemi3*.s.  He  left  Stockholm  in  1773  and 
took  up  his  residence  at.  Upsala.  Here  he  made  the 
acquaintance,  of  Gahn,  assessor  of  mines  at  Fahlnn, 
throujih  wh'osp  mediation  he  was  at  length  introduced  to 


388 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


Bergman ;  tho  two  eooa  became  excellent  friends,  in 
1774  Scheelo  published  his  epoch-making  investigation 
into  the  black  oxide  of  manganese,  which  had  occupied 
him  for  two  or  three  years,  and  in  1775  his  memoirs  on 
benzoic  and  arsenic  acids.  In  the  same  year  he  left  U^.-iIa, 
in  order  to  settle  at  Koping,  a  small  place  at  the  western 
extremity  of  Lake  Miliar.  Having  heard  that  an  apothe- 
cary's shop  was  vacant,  ho  applied  for  it,  passed  a  brilliant 
examination  before  the  medical  college,  and  was  appointed. 
But,  instead  of  a  small  flourishing  business,  he  found  that 
he  had  to  face  confusion  and  debt.  Undismayed  he  set  to 
work,  introduced  order  and  some  prosperity,  and  in  two 
years  bought  the  business  from  the  widow  of  the  former 
proprietor.  During  this  unfortunate  period  Scheele  must 
have  worked  very  hard,  for  in  spite  of  debt  and  diffi- 
culties he  published  in  1777  his  treatise  upon  Air  and 
FirCj  one  of  the  most  remarkable  books  in  the  whole  range 
of  chemical  literature,  whether  its  originality,  its  close 
reasoning,  the  number  of  discoveries  which  it  contains^  or 
the  enormous  amount  of  experimental  work  it  represents 
be  considered.  About  this  time  Bergman  obtained  for 
him  from  the  Academy  a  grant,  Scheele's  appreciation  of 
which  was  shown  by  his  reserving  one-sixth  for  his  personal 
wants  and  devoting  the  remainder  to  his  experiments. 

Subsequent  to  this  period,  and  for  the  remaining  nine 
years  of  his  life,  the  only  events  to  be  recorded  are  the 
papers  which  he  composed.  Every  year  he  published  two 
or  three,  and  almost  every  one  contained  a  capital  dis- 
covery, either  the  explanation  of  a  phenomenon  or  reaction 
previously  misunderstood  or  the  description  of  sojne  new 
compounds.  Ke  was  at  the^zenith  of  his  now  European 
fame  as  a  profound  chemist  and  unfailing  experimenter, 
and  in  the  best  years  of  his  life,  when  his  career  was 
suddenly  arreste^i.  The  common  account  is  that  his 
unremitting  work,  especially  at  night,  exposing  him  to 
cold  and  draughts,  induced  a  rheumatic  attack,  to  which  in 
the  course  of  a  couple  of  months  ho  succumbed.  Possibly 
his  strength  had  been  exhausted  by  long  years  of  privation 
and  neglect  of  himself.  He  had  intended,  as  soon  as  his 
circumstances  should  enable  him,  to  marrj'  the  widow 
of  his  predecessor.  His  illness,  however,  increased  very 
fast,  and  it  was  on  his  death-bed  that  he  carried  out  his 
design  on  the  19th  May  17S6.  Two  days  later  he  died, 
bequeathing  to  his  wife  what  property  he  had  acquired. 
He  was  only  forty-four  years  of  age. 

The  discoveries  with  Vv-hich  Scheele  enriched  chemistry  are 
7i\imerous  and  important.  Reference  has  been  already-made  to  the 
discovery  of  tartaric  acid  and  of  tho  composition  of  fluor-spar.  The 
analysis  of  manganese  oxide  in  1774  led  hira  to  the  discovery  of 
chlorine  and  of  baryta  [terra  pondcrosa,  as  it  was  called),  to  indi- 
vidualizing the  salts  of  manganese  itself,  including  the  green  and 
purple  compounds  with  potash,  and  to  the  explanation  of  how 
manganese  colours  and  decolorizes  glass.  In  1775  he  shoued  how  to 
prepare  bp.rizoic  acid  by  precipitating  it  from  a  solution  in  lime,  and 
he  investigated  arsenic  acid  and  its  reactions  with  different  sub- 
stances, discovenng  arseniurettcd  hydrogen  and  the  green  colour 
"Scheele's  green," — a  process  for  preparing  which  on  the  large  scale 
he  published  in  177?.  Other  researches  of  this  period  were  con- 
cerned with  tho  nature  of  quartz,  clay,  and  alum,  and  with  an 
animal  concretion  or  calculus  from  which  he  got  for  the  first  time 
uric  acid. 

The  treatise  on  Air  and  Fire  appeared  in1777.  It  is  unnecessary 
now  to  enter  into  Scheele's  argument,  for,  however  admirably  it 
be  worked  out,  it  started  from  an  erroneous  basis,  and  it  is  equally 
impossible  in  limited  space  even  to  enumerate  the  experiments  and 
the  discoveries  which  fill  this  book,  and  which  have  remained  as 
pe<-manent  acquisitions  to  science  through  all  subsequent  changes 
of  theory.  Among  tlio  most  important  of  these  is  his  demonstra- 
tion that  the  air  consists  mainly  of  two  gases, — one  which  supports 
'he  burning  of  bodies,  the  other  which  prevents  it.  This  he  showed 
Doth  analytically  and  synthetically.  His  "empyreal,"  or  "flrc-air," 
or  oxygen,  he  obtained  for  his  synthesis  from  acid  of  nitre,  from 
saltpetre,  from  black  oxide  of  manganese,  and  from  several  other 
bodies.  After  the  discovery  of  tliis  substance  Scheele  applied  it  to 
account  for  a  great  number  of  actions,  and  especially  for  its  function 
n  reqpiraticn  and  the  growth  of  plants.     Ho  -went  through  a  lt>ng 


series  of  actions,  seemingly  the  most  diverse  in  character,  trying  to 
bring  them  under  one  general  law  and  making  at  every  step  the 
most  acute  and  far-reaching  observations  and  discovering  new 
compounds  and  new  reactions.  Thus  he  incidentally  made  and 
described  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  and  he  explained  the  chemical 
effect  of  light  upon  compounds  of  silver  and  other  substances. 

In  1778  he  proposed  a  new  method  of  making  calomel  and 
powder  of  algaroth.  He  also  examined  a  mineral,  molybdasna 
nilcjis,  which  had  been  supposed  to  contain  lead,  but  which  he 
showed  was  quite  distinct,  and  he  got  from  it  molybdio  acid.  He 
demonstrated  in  1779  that  plumbago  consists  almost  solely  of 
carbon,  a7id  he  j^iblishcd  a  record  of  estima'tions  of  the  amount  of 
pure  air,  i.  c. ,  of  oxygen,  contained  in  the  atmosphere,  which  he  had 
carried  on  daily  during  the  entire  year  of  1778.  In  1780  he  showed 
that  the  acidity  of  sour  milk  was  due  to  a  peculiar  acid,  now  called 
lactic  acid  ;  and  from  milk  sugar,  by  boiling  it  with  nitric  acid,  he 
obtained  mucic  acid.  His  next  discovery,  in  1781,  was  the  com-" 
position  of  tungsten,  since  called  scheelite,  which  he  found  consisted 
of  lime  combined  with  a  peculiar  acid — tungstic  acid.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  examined  the  mode  of  producing  ether,  and  in  1783 
discovered  glycerin,  -the  sweet  principle  of  fats  and  oils.  In  1782- 
1783  appeared  a  research  which— ^f  all  those  Scheele  conducted — 
exhibits  his  experimental  genius  at  its  very  best.  By  a  wonderfal 
succession  of  experiments  he  showed  that  the  colouring  matter 
of.  Prussian  blue  could  not  be  produced  without  the  presence  of  a 
substance  of  the  nature  of  an  acid,  to  which  was  ultimately  given 
the  name  of  prussic  ac^d.  He  shovved  how  this  body  was  com- 
posed, dc^Tcribcd  its  properties  and  compounds,  and  mentioned  its 
smell  and  taste,  utterly  unaware  of  its  deadly  character.  Kothing 
but  a  study  of  Scheele's  own  memoir  can  give  an  adequate  notion 
of  the  manner  in  which  he  attacked  and  solved  a  ^problem  so 
difficult  and  complicated  as  this  was  at  the  period  in  the  hLstory 
of  chemistry  when  Scheele '  lived.  In  1784-85-86  he  returned 
to  the  subject  with  which  he  had  begun  his  career,  that  of  the 
vegetable  acids,  and  described  four  new  ones— citric,  malic,  oxalic, 
and  gallic  acidi. 

The  preceding  is  a  bare  list  of  the  more  prominent  of  Scheele's 
uiscovorics,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  was  not  merely  the 
first  to  prepare  these  bodies,  but  that  he  made  iili  the  compounds  of 
them  possible  at  the  time  and  explained  the  conditions  under  which 
he  produced  them.  Notable  as  is  the  list,  and  of  supreme  im- 
portance a5  are  most  cf  the  bodies  themselves,  no  conception  can  he 
gathered  from  it  of  Scheele's  immeose  power  of  experimental  re- 
search,— a  i^ower  that  has  seldom,  if  ever,  been  surpassed.  Ria 
natural  endowments  were  cultivated  by  unwearied' practice  and  un- 
divided attention;  for  scientific  work  was  at  once  his  occupation 
and  his  relaxation.  To  appreciate  this  fully  his  own  account  of 
his  researches  must  be  studied.  It  will  thus  bo  seen  that  his  dis- 
coveries were  not  made  at  haphazard-,  but  were  the  outcome  of 
experiments  carefully  planned  to  substantiate  the  accuracy  of 
theoretical  views  at  which  he  had  arrived.  He  thus  saved  himself 
unnecessary  labour ;  his  experiments  tell  decisively  on  tlie  question 
at  issue,  and  lie  reached  his  conclusions  by  the  shortest  and  simplest 
means.  At  the  same  time  hedeft  nothing  in  doubt  if  experiment 
would  establish  it;  he  grudged  no  labour  to  make  the  trath  indis- 
putable ;  and  ho  evidently  never  considered  his  work  complete 
about  any  body  Vmless  he  could  both  unmake  and  remake  it:  For 
him  chemistry  was  both  an  analytic  and  a  synthetic  science,  and  he 
shows  this  p^rominently  in  his  researches  ob  Prussian  blue. 

His  accuracy,  qualitative  and  quantitative, — considering  his 
primitive  apparatus,  his  want  of  assistance,  his  place  of  residence, 
tho  undeveloped  state  of  chemical  and  physical  science, — was  un- 
rivalled. Th§  work  he  executed  left  hardly  anything  to  bo* added 
to  it :  it  was  as  thoroughly  done  as  it  was  in  the  power  of  an  all- 
conscientious  man  to  do.  The  tme  aim  of  Scheele's  life — and  he 
never  swerved  from  it — was  the  experimental  discovefy  of  the 
truth  in  nature.  Like  many  other  short-lived  men  of  genius  he 
compressed  into  his  few  years  an  amount  of  work  of  the  greatest 
originality  ;  but  how  he  managed  to  do  it  is  a  mystery  to  the  less- 
gifted.  What  he  might  have  achieved  had  he  lived  a  little  longer 
can  only  be  surmisLii;  but  it  may  bo  supposed  tiat,  under  the 
newer  theory  of  combustion  to  which  he  himself  had  unwittingly 
contributed  so  much,  he  would  have  made  certainly  no  fewer  and 
no  less  important  discoveries  than  those  which  were  the  outcome  of 
its  erroneous  predecessor. 

Schcclc"3  papci  9  .ippcare.1  first  in  the  Transaetiom  of  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Sciences,  in  Crcll'a  Neua  Efitdeckungen  .ind  Annalen,  and  in  other  periouicala. 
A  list  of  them  is  civcn  in  Fuchs's  Eepa-torium  der  chemitchen  Litteratur,  Jena, 
1S06-1S03:  In  Ki;UiS's  Keperlorivm  Comrnentaticnuni,  vol.  iil.,  Gijtlincen, 
1S0:I;  find  in  roggendorfTs  Biograpliiseh-Uterarisches  Handudrtcrbuch,  Lcipslc, 
1SC3.  '  They  wei-e  coUcctcd  and  published  in  French.  English,  Lntin,  and  German  ; 
Memoirci  de  Chtjmie,  2  vols.,  Palis.  1785-88  ;  Chemical  E^xai/s,  hj  Thomas 
BC'kloes,  1  vol.,  London,  ITSC ;  Opin^cufa,  translated  by  S':!i;ifer,  edited 'by 
Hebenstreit,  2  vols..  Lci|>*ic,  17SS-S9;  Sdrrmtliche  Werbc,  edited  by  HcrmbWiidt, 
2  vols..  Berlin,  1793.  Tho  TreaCisefn  Air  and  Fire  ajBoared  in  German,  Upsala 
'  17S2l;  in  English,  by  J.  R.  Forstcr,  London.  17!^" 


and  LcipsJr,  1777,  and  apj; 

In  Frcncli.  by  Dietrich,  jPaiis,  1781 


(J.  F.) 


SCHEFFEK,  Ary  (1795-1S5S\  Dutch  painter,  who  was 
bora  at  Dort  on  10th  February  1795,  represents  the  senti- 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


389 


mental  phase  of  the  Romantic  movement  in  France. 
After  the  early  death  of  his  father,  a  poor  painter,  Ary 
was  taken  to  Paris  and  placed  in  the  studio  of  Gu^rin  by 
his  mother,  a  woman  of  great  energy  and  character.  The 
moment  at  which  Schefler  left  Guerin  coincided  with  the 
commencement  of  the  Bomantic  movement.  He  had 
little  sympathy  with  the  directions  given  to  it  by  either 
of  its  most  conspicuous  representatives,  Sigalon,  Dela- 
croix, or  Gericault,  and  made  various  tentative  efforts — 
Gaston  de  Foix  (182i),  Suliot  Women  (1827)— before 
he  found  his  own  path.  Immediately  after  the  exhibition 
of  the  last-named  work  he  turned  to  Byron  and  Goethe, 
selecting  from  Faust  a  long  series  of  subjects  which  had  a-n 
extraordinary  vogue.  Of  these,  we  -may  mention  Margaret 
at  her  Wheel ;  Faust  Doubting ;  Margaret  at  the  Sabbat ; 
Margaret  Leaving  Church;  the  Garden  Walk;  and  lastly, 
perhaps  the  most  populaT  of  all,  Margaret  at  the  Well. 
The  two  Mignons  appeared  in  1836;  and  Francesca  da 
Rimini,  which  is  on  the  whole  Scheffer's  best  work, 
belongs  to  the  same  period.  He  now  turned  to  religious 
subjects:  Christus  Consolator  (1836)  was  followed  -by 
Christus  Bemunerator,  the  Shepherds  Led  by  the  Star 
(1837),  The  Magi  Laying  Down  their  Crowns,  Christ  in 
the  Garden  of  Olives,  Christ  Bearing  his  Cross,  Christ 
Interred  (18i5),  St  Augustine  and  Monica  (18i6),  after 
which  he  ceased  to  exhibit,  but,  shut  up  in  his  studio,  con- 
tinued to  produce  much  which  'w.t,s  first  seen  by  the  outer 
world  after  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Argenteuil  on 
the  15th  June  1858.  At  the  posthumous  exhibition  of 
his  works  there  figured  the  Sorrows  of  the  Earth,  and  the 
Angel  Announcing  the  Resurrection,  which  he  had  left 
unfinished.  Amongst  his  numerous  portraits  thos6  of 
La  Fayette,  Biranger,  Lamartine,  and  Marie  Amelie  were 
the  most  noteworthy.  His  reputation,  much  shaken  by 
this  posthumous  exhibition,  was  further  undermined  bv 
the  sale  of  the  Paturle  Gallery,  which  contained  many  of 
his  most  celebrated  achievements;  the  charm  and  facility 
of  their  composition  could  not  save  them  from  the  con- 
demnation provoked  by  their  poor  and  earthy  colour  and 
vapid  sentiment.  Scheffer,  who  married  the  widow  of 
GenertJl  Baudrand,  was-  only  made  commander  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  in  1848', — that  is,  after  ho  had  wholly 
withdrawn  from  the  Salon.  His  brother  Henri,  born  at  The 
Hague  27th  September  1798,  v,-as  also  a  fertile  painter. 

See  Vitet'a  notice  prefixed  to  BiD£:ham's  publication  of  works  of 
A.  SchefTer  ;  Etex,  Ary  SdicucT  ;  Mrs  Grotc,  Lift  of  A.  Schtffir  \ 
Julius  Meyer's  Ccschichtc  der  franzcsiscJicn  Kunsi. 

SCHELDT,  or  Schelde  (Fr.  Escaut,  Lat.  Scaidis,  O. 
Dutch  Bchoude  or  Schomce),  a  river  of  north-svest  Europe, 
belonging  for  75  miles  of  its  course  to  France,  137  to 
Belgium,  and  37  to  the  Netherlands.  Rising  at  a  height 
of  295  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  small  lake  (7  square  miles) 
at  the  old  abbey  of  St  JIartin,  near  Catclet,  in  the  French 
department  of  Aisne  (Picardy),  it  becomes  navigable  by 
the  junction  of  the  St  Quentin  Canal,  below  Catelet,  and 
passes  by  Cambray,  Denain  (where  it  receives  the  Selle), 
Valenciennes,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rouello,  Conde,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Haisne  or  Henne,  and  Chiteau  I'Abbaye,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Scarpe.  Entering  Belgium  between 
Mortagne  and  HoUain,  it  continues  by  Fontenoy,  Tournay, 
and  Oudenarde  to  Ghent,  where  it  is  jCined  by  the  Lys 
from  the  left,  and  by  tho  canals  which  unite  this  town 
\vith  Sas  and  Bruges.  At  Ghent  tho  tide' rises  31  feet 
and  lasts  for  four  hours ;  and  it  would  ascend  much 
farther  were  it  not  for  sluices.  But  the  river,  instead  of 
proceeding  straight  towards  the  sea,  as  it  appears  to. have 
done  perhaps  as  late  as  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  makes 
a  great  bend  towards  the  east  to  Dcndcrmonde  (the  month 
of  the  Dender)  and  Antwerp,  whence  it  again  turns  north- 
west and  loses  itself  in  the  estuaries  among  the  islands  of 


Zealand.  The  whole  of  the  lowlands  to  the  north  of 
Ghent  are  so  intersected  .  with  canals,  and  the  natural 
channels  are  so  intermingled  with  those  partially  or 
entirely  artificial,  that  it  is  impossible  to  discover  with 
certainty  what  has  been  the  real  history  of  the  lower 
course  of  the  Scheldt.^  The  Hont  or  Western  Scheldt,  the 
principal  estuary  by  which  nearly  all  Belgium  commerce 
is  conveyed,  was  probably  opened  up  by  a  storm  in  1173, 
and  about  105S  must  have  been  a  mere  narrow  creek. 
The  Eastern  Scheldt,  which  then  received  most  of  the 
river,  has  gradually  diminished  in  importance,  and  since 
the  construction  of  the  railway  bridge  across  it  between 
the  mainland  and  South  Beveland  in  1867  has  become 
completely  obstructed  with  sands.  At  Aiitwern  the  depth 
at  high  water  is  49  feet. 

Between  1348  and  1792»  the  Dutch  closed  the  mouths  of  the 
Scheldt  against  foreign  commerce.  The  emperor  Joseph  of  Austria, 
at  that  time  ruler  of  Autwerp,  protested  against  this  action  in  1783, 
but  in  1784,  by  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau,  he  recognized,  in  return 
for  concessions  of  territory  and  9^  million  florins,  tlje  right  of  the 
Dutch  to  adhere  to  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  In 
1792  by  conquest  of  Dumouriez,  and  in  1795  by  treaty  between 
France  and  .Holland,  the  Scheldt  was  declared  open.  During  the 
union  of  Holland  and  Belgium  the  question  paturally  lay  ill 
abeyance.  "When  Belgium  became  independent  (1839)  Holland  so 
far  resumed  her  exclusive  policy,  but  in  1863  the  dues  which  gbe 
was  allowed  to  levy  by  the  treaty  of  separation  were  capitalized  by 
Belgium  paying  17,141,640  florins,  a  sum  which  was  largely  repaid 
to  Belgium  by  twenty  other  countries  who  felt  they  had  an  interest 
in  the  free  navigation  of  the  Scheldt.  Great  Britain's  share  was 
8,782,320  francs. 

See  Vifqaain,  Des  Votes  yaritjabJfs  en  BeJgique,  1841 ;  Waavennans,  "Sot  les 
Variations  de  rE;:caut  au  XVI.  sltcle,"  in  if't7,  de  la  Soc.  di  Gecgr.  <fAnrers,  ToL 
1.;  Raemdonck,  "L'yist.  da  Coura  de  I'Escaut,"  and  V?i-straete,  "Conra  Priinltif 
de  I'Escaut,"  both  In  BuU.  de  la  Soc.  Beige  de  Geogr.,  1878. 

SCHELLING,  Friedkich  Wilhelm  Joseph  .  von 
(1775-1854),  a  distinguished  German  philosopher,  was 
born  on  27th  January  177o  at  Leonberg,  a  small  town  of 
Wiirtemberg,  otherwise  notable  as  scene  of  the  early  years 
of  Kepler's  life.  Through  both  parents  he  was  connected 
with  families  of  distinction  in  the  Protestant  church  com- 
munity. His  father,  a  solidly  trained  scholar  of  Oriental 
languages,  was  called  in  1777  as  chaplain  and  professor  to 
the  cloister  school  of  Bebeuhausen,  near  Tiibingen,  a  pre- 
paratory seminary  for  intending  students  of  theology  at 
Tiibingen.  Here  Schelling  received  his  earliest  education 
and  gave  the  .first  evidences  of  what  afterwards  so 
eminently  distinguished  him,  remarkable  precocity  and 
quickness  of  intellect..  From  the  Latin  school  at  Kiirtin- 
gen,  whither  he  had  been  sent  in  his  tenth  year,  he  was 
returned  in  two  years  as  having  already  acquired  all  the 
school  could  give  him,  and  his  father  with  regret  was 
compelled  to  allow  him  at  so  abnormally  young  an  age  to 
study  with,  the  seminarists  at  Bebenhausen.  In  1790, 
with  special  permission,  for  he  was  yet  three  years  under 
the  prescribed  age,  Schelling  entered  the  theological 
seminary  at  Tiibingen,  where  he  had  as  fellow  students, 
contemporary  as  scholars  though  elder  in  years,  Hegel  and 
Holderlin.  The  character  and  direction  of  his  studies  may 
bo  gathered  sufficiently  from  the  titles  of  the  essays  which 
for  various  purposes  were  accomplished  during  tho  five 
years  of  his  student  career.  In  1792  he  graduated  in  the 
philosophical  faculty  with  a  thesis  Anliquissiiiii  de  prima 
malorum  knmanorum  origine  philosophematis  explicandi 
tentamen  crilicnm  et  pitilosophicum ;  in  1793  he  contri- 
buted to  Paulus's  Memorabilien  a  paper  Ueber  Mythns, 
hUtorUche  Sagen,  iind  Philosophone  drr  iiltesten  Welt;  and 
in  1795  his  thesis  for  his  theological  degree  was  De 
Marcion'.  Faullinarum  epistolnnim  cmendatore.  Tho  in- 
fluence of  these  early  studies  over  his  later  literary  career 

'  BylancU,  Belp.-iire,  Rcnar*l,  and  Wauveimans  impugn,  and  Pes 
Bochcs,  Vifquain,  Van  R,icm(lonck  and  Vcrstr.iete  maintain,  the 
existence  within  historic  times  of  a  direct  main-river  chaimel  from 
Ghent  northward  to  the  $e.x 


:iyo 


SCHELLING 


has  been  often  exaggerated,  but  doubtless  they  contributed 
to  strengthen  his  natural  tendency  to  dwell  rather  on  the 
large  historico-speculativo  problems  than  on  the  difficulties; 
of  abstract  thinking.  Before  the  date  of  his  last  essay 
noted  above,  a  new  and  much  more  important  influence 
had  begun  to  operate  on  him.  In  conjunction  v/ith  some 
of  his  fellow-students  ho  was  in  1793  studying  the  Kantian 
system.  The  difficulties  or  imperfections  of  that  system 
he  claims  soon  to  have  perceived,  and  no  doubt  the  per- 
ception was  quickened  by  acquaintance  with  the  first  of 
those  writings  in  which  Fichte  put  forward  his  amended 
form  of  the  critical  philosophy.  The  "  Eeview  of  yEneside- 
nius"  and  the  tractate  On  the  Notion  of  WUscnschaftslehre 
found  in  SchoUing's  mind  most  fruitful  soil.  With 
characteristic  zeal  and  impetuosity  Schelling  had  no 
sooner  grasped  the  leading  ideas  of  Fichte's  new  mode  of 
treating  philosophy  than  he  threw  together  the  thoughts 
suggested  to  him  in  the  form  of  an  essay,  which  appeared, 
under  the  title  Ucbir  die  Miir/lichkeit  einer  Form  der  Philo- 
sophie  iiberhaupt,  towards  the  end  of  1794.  There  was 
nothing  original  in  the  treatment,  but  it  showed  such, 
power  of  appreciating  the  new  ideas  of  the  Fichtean 
method  that  it  was  hailed  with  cordial  recognition  bj' 
Fichte  himself,  and  gave  the  author  immediately  a  place 
in  popular  estimation  as  in  the  foremost  rank  of  existing 
philosophical  writers.  The  essay  was  followed  up  in  1795 
by  a  more  elaborate  writing,  Vcnyi  Ich  ah  Princip  der 
Phtlosop/iie,  oder  iiber  das  Unhedingte  im  nicnschlichen 
Wissen,  which,  still  remaining  •within  the  limits  of  the 
Fichtean  idealism)  yet  exhibits  linmistakable  traces  of  a 
tendency  to  give  the  Fichtean  method  a  more  objective 
application,  and  fo  amalgamate  with  it  Spinoza's  more 
realistic  view  of  things. 

The  reputation  so  quickly  gainod  led  soon  to  its  natural 
result.  In  midsummer  1798  Schelling  was  called  as 
extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy  to  Jena,  and  thus 
stepped  into  the  most  active  literary  and  philosophical 
circle  of  the  time.  The  intervening  period  had  not  been 
unfruitful.  While  discharging  for  two  years  at  Leipsio 
the  duties  of  companion  or  tutorial  guardian  to  two 
youths  of  noble  family,  Schelling  had  contributed  various 
articles  and  reviews  to  Fichte  and  Niethamraer's  Journal, 
and  had  thrown  himself  with  all  his  native  impetuosity 
into  the  study  of  physical  and  medical  science.  From 
1796  date  the  Mi-iefe  iilxr  Dor/matismus  und  Kriticismus, 
an  admirably  written  critique  of  the  ultimate  issues  of  the 
Kantian  system,  which  will  still  rejjay  study  ;  from  1797 
the  essay  entitled  H'ene  Deductio7i  des  Katurrechts,  which 
to  some  extent '  anticipated  Fichte's  treatment  in  the 
Grnndlciffe  des  JVcitiirrechls,  published  in  1796,  but  not 
before  Schclling's  essay  had  been  received  by  the  editors 
of  the  Jonrnal.  The  reviews  of  current  philosophical 
literature  were  afterwards  collected,  and  with  needful 
omissions  and  corrections  appeared  under  the  title  "  Ab- 
hsndlungen  zur  Erliiuterung.  des  Idealismus  der  AYlssen- 
schaf tslehre  "  in  Schelling's  Ph'/os.  Schriften,  vol.  i.,  1809. 
The  studies  of  jjhysical  science  bore  rapid  fruit  in  the  Ideen 
zu  einer  Philosophie  der  Kdtur,  1797,  and  the  treatise  Von 
der  Weltseele,  1798,  the  drift  of  which  will  be  noted  later. 
Schelling's  professoriate  in  .Jena  lasted  till  the  early 
part  of  1803.  His  fectures  were  extraordinarily  attrac- 
tive; his  productive  powers  were  at  their  best;  and  Ihe 
circumstances  of  his  surroundings  developed  forcibly  tTie 
good  and  evil  qualities  of  his  character.  Of  his  writings 
during  this  period  a  merely  chronological  notice  will  mean- 
while suffice.  In  1799  appeared  the  Erster  Entirurf  eines 
S^steins  der  Naturphilosophie,  with  an  independent  and  sub- 
sequent Einleituny  ;  in  IS'OO  the  System  des  transcenden- 
Udcn  Idealismus,  in  form  one  of  the  most  finished,  in 
substance  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  his  works ;  in 


the  same  year,  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  spel-ulative  Phydk, 
edited  by  him,  "  Allgemeine  Deduction  des  dynamischen 
Processes  ";  and  in  1801  the  Darstclhing  meines  Systems  der 
Philosophie ;  in  1 802,  in  the  Ne%ie  Zeitsehr.fiir  spek.  Physik, 
the   "  Fernere  Darstellungen  aus  dem  System  der  Philo- 
sophie"; also  in  1802  the  dialogue  .Crawo  and  the  excellently 
written     Vorlesungen    iiber  die  Methode  des  akademischm 
Stjidimns.     In  conjunction  with  Hegel,  who  in  1801  at 
Schelling's  invitation  had  come  to   Jena,    he  edited  the 
Kritisehes  Journal  fur  Philosojihie,  the   greater   part  of 
which  was  written  by  Hegel.     Regarding  the  authorship 
of  certain  articles  in  the  volume  and  a  half  of  this  Journal 
a  discussion  of  no  great  significance  has  arisen,  concerning 
which  perhaps  the  best  statement  is  that  by  Schelling's  SQa 
in  the  preface  to  vol.  v.  of  the  Sdmmtliche  Werle,  Abth.  i 
The  philosophical  renown  cf  Jena  reached  its  culminat- 
ing point  during  the  years  of  Schelling's  residence  there, 
in  no  small  measure  through  the  imposing  force   of  his 
character  and  teaching.     Recognized  as  of  the  first  rank 
among  living  thinkers  he  was  received  with  every  mark  of 
distinction,   and  his  intellectual    sympathies  soon  united 
him  closely  with  some  of  the  most  active  literary  tenden- 
cies of  the  time.     With  Goethe,  who  viewed  with  interest 
and   appreciation   the   poetical   fashion   of   treating   fact 
characteristic  of    the  Naturphilosopjhi'e,    he  .continaed  on 
excellent  terms,  while  on  the  other  hand  he  was  repelled 
'oy   Schiller's  less  expansive  disposition,   and  failed  alto- 
gether  to    understand    the    lofty   ethical   idealism    that 
animated   his    work.      By    the    representatives    of    the 
Romantic  school,  then  in  the  height  of  their  fervour  o,nd 
beginning  their  downward  course,  he  was  hailed  as  a  most 
potent  ally,  and   quickly   became  jxir  excellence  the  philo- 
sopher of  the  Romantic  type.     The  Schlegels  and  their 
friends,   who  had  found  at  least  one  "fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  Romantic  strain  in  Fichte,  had  begun  to  be  dis- 
satisfied with   the    cold  and  abstract  fashion  of  viewing 
nature  that  seemed  necessarily  to  follow  from  the  notioa 
of  the  Wissenschaftslfhre,  and  at  the  same  time  the  deep- 
seated  antagonism  of  character  between   Fichte  and  the 
impetuous  litterateurs  of  the  Romantic  school  v/as  begin- 
ning to  be  felt.      In  Schelling,  essentially  a  self-conscious 
genius,  eager  and   rash,   yet  with   undeniable  power,  they 
hailed  a  personality  of  the  true  Romantic  type,  and  in  his 
philosophy   a   mode   cf  conceiving   nature  adequate  to  the 
needs  of  poetic    treatment.     During  the  Jena  period  the 
closest   union  obtained  between  Schelling  and  those  who 
either  at  Jena  or  at  Berlin  carried    on  warfare  for  the 
Romantic  idea.     With  August  Wilhelm  Schlegel  and  his 
gifted     wife    Caroline,    herself    the    embodiment    of     tha 
Romantic    spirit,   Schelling's  relations  vi'ere  of   the  most 
intimate  kind'.     Personal  acquaintance  made  at  Dresden 
before    Schelling   began  his    professorial   career  at   Jena 
rapidly  developed  into  a  warm  friendship,  to  which  circum- 
stances soon  gave  a  new  and  heightened  colour.     Caroline 
Schlegel,  a  woman  of  remarkable  receptive  and  apprecia- 
tive power,  emotional  to  excess,  and  full  of  the  ardent-ill- 
balanced  sympathies  that  constituted  the  Romantic  tone, 
felt   for    Schelling  unbounded   admiration.     In    him  she 
found  the  philosophic  view  which  gave  completeness  and 
consistency  to  the  tumultuous  literary  and  personal  feel- 
ings that  animated  her,  and  she  was  not  less  attracted  by 
the  dominating  force  of  his  personal  chaiar.lti'.      It  is  pro- 
bable thai  in  the  early  stages  ot  their  friendship  a  future 
marriage  between  Schelling  and  Caroline's  young  daughter, 
Auguste  Bohmer,  was,  if  pot    definitely  understood,  yet 
vaguely  contemplated  by  both,  and  that   in  consequence 
neither   was  fully   aware   of   the  nature  of  the   feelings 
springing   up   between   them.      The   untimely   death   of 
Auguste  in  the  summer  of  1800,  a  death  in  which  Scfapl- 
ling's  rash  confidence  in  his  medical  knowledge  was  unior^ 


S  C  H  E  L  L  I  N  G 


391 


tuuatel^  involved,  while  a  severe  blow  to  both,  drew  them 
much  more  closely  together,  and  in  the  I'ollowing  year, 
A-  W;  Schlegel  having  removed  to  Berlin,  and  Caroline 
remaining  in  Jena,  .affairs  so  developed  themselves  that 
quietly,  amicably,  and  in  apparently  the  most  friendly 
manner,  a  divorce  was  arranged  and  carried  to  its  comple- 
tion in  the.  early  summer  of  1803.  On  tbe  2d_  June  of 
the  same  year  Schelling  and  Caroline,  after  a  visit  to  the 
fotmer's  father, .  were  married,  and  with  the  marriage 
ScheUing's  life  at  Jena  came  to  an  end.  It  was  full  time, 
for  ScheUing's  undoubtedly  overweening^  self-confidence 
and  most  arrogant  mode  of  criticism  had  involved  him  in 
a  series'  of  virulent  disputes  and  c^uarrels  at  Jena,  tbe 
details  of  which  are  in  themselves  of  little  or  no  interest, 
but  are  valuable  as  illustrations  of  the  evil  qualities  in 
ScheUing's  nature  which  deface  much  of  bis  philosophic 
,work.  The  boiling  fervour  whicb  the  Romanticists  prized 
is  deplorably  ineffective  in  the  clear  cold  atmosphere  of 
speculation. 

■  A  fresh  field  was  found  in  the  newly-constituted  uni- 
versity of  Wiirzburg,  to  which  he  was  called  in  September 
1803  as  professor  of  "  JSTaturphilosopliie,"  and  where  he 
remained  till  April  1806,  when  the  Napoleonic  conquests 
compelled'-  a  change.  ■  The  published  writings  of'  this 
period  {Philosophic  und  Religion,  1804,  and  Ueber  das  Ver- 
Juiltniss  dcs  Rcalen  und  Idealai  in  der  Naiur,  1806),  and 
Etill  more,  the  unpublished  draft  of  his  lectures  as  con- 
tinued in  volumes  v.  and  vi.  of  the  Sammiliche  Werke, 
exhibit  an  important  internal  change  in  his  philosophic 
views,  a  chaage  which  was  accentuated  by  the  open  breach 
on  the  one  hand  with  Fichte  and  on  the  other  hand  with 
Hegel.  .ScheUing's  Uttle  pamphlet  Darlegmi;/  des  wahren 
"Verhulinisses  der  NaturphilosojMo  zur  vcrhesserten  Field'- 
ischen  Lehre  was  the  natural  sfequel  to  the  difference  which 
had  brought  the  correspondence  of  the  former  friends  to  a 
dose  in  1803,  and  to  Fichte's  open  condemnation  in  the 
Grundsiige  d.  gegenvxirt.  Zeitalters.  Hegel's  preface  to 
the  Phiinomenologie  dcs  Geistes  was  in  like  manner  the 
sequel  to  the  severe  treatment  which  in  his  Jena  lectures 
lie  had"  bestowed  on  the  emptiness  of  the  Scheliingian 
method,  and  with  the  appearance  of  that  work  correspond- 
ence and  friendship  between  the  two  ceased,  and  in 
ScheUing's  mind  there  remained  a  deeply  rooted  sense  of 
injury  and  injustice. 

_  The  AV iirzburg  professoriate  had  not  been  without  its 
inner  trials.'  SchelUng  had  many  enemies,  and  his  irre- 
concilable and  lofty  tone  of.  dealing  with  them  ojdy 
increased  the  virulence  of  their  attacks.  He  embroiled 
hinjsclf  '\vith  his  colleagues  and  with  the  Government,  so 
that  it  was  doubtless  with  a  sense  of  relief  that  he  found 
external  events  bring  his  tenure  of  the  chair  to  a  close. 
In  Munich,  to  which  with  his  wife  he  removed  in  1806, 
ho  found  a  long  and  quiet  residence.  A  position  as  state 
official,  at  first  as  associate  of  the  academy  of  sciences 
and  secretary  of  the  academy  of  arts,  afterwarrls  as 
Betretary  of  the  philosophical  section  of  the  academy  of 
sciences,  gave  him  ease  and  leisure.  Without  resigning 
his  official  position  ho  lectured  for  a  short  time  at  Stutt- 
gart, and  during  seven  years  at  Erlangen  (1820-27).  In 
1809  Caroline  died,  and  three  years  later  Schelling 
married  one  of  her  closest,  most  attached  friends,  Paulino 
Ootter,  in  whom  ho  found  a  true  and  faithful  companion. 
During  .tho  long  stay  at  Munich  (1800-18^M  Sche.1- 
Ji'ug'a  literary  accivity  seemed  gradually  fd-come  to  a 
standstill  The  "Aphorisms  on  Naturphilosophie  "  con- 
tained in  the  JahrlUchrr  der  ihdicin  als  Wissenschaft 
(1806-8)  are  for  the  most  part  extracts  from  the  Wurz- 
burg  lectures;  and  the  Denkmcd  der  Sehrifl  von  den 
gutilithen  Dingen  des  Uerrn  Jacobi  was  drawn  forth  by 
the  special  incident  of  Jacobi's  work.     Tho  or.ly  'writing 


of  significance  is  the  "  Philosophischc  Untersuchungen  vbet 
das  Wesen  der  menschlichen  Freiheit,"  which  appeared  in 
the  Philosophisclte  Schriften,  vol.  i.  (1809),  and  which 
carries  out,  with  increasing  tendency  to  mysticism,  tho 
thoughts  of  the  previous  work,  Philosophic  und  licligijn. 
In  1815  appeared  the  tract  Vcher  die  Gotthciten  zn  Samo- 
thrahc,  ostensibly  a  portion  of  the  great  work.  Die  Wellalter, 
on  which  Schelling  was  understood  to  be  engaged,  a  work 
frequently  announced  as  ready  for  publication,  but  of 
which  no  great  part  was  ever  written.  Probably  it  was 
the  overpowering  strength  and  influence  of  the  Hegelian 
system  that  constrained  Sclielling  to  so  long  a  silence,  for 
it  was  only  in  1834,  after  the  death  of  Hegel,  that,  in  a 
preface  to  a  translation  by  H.  Beckers  of  a  work  b}'  Cousin, 
he  gave  public  utterance  to  the  antagqfiism  in  which  he 
stood  to  the  Hegelian  and  to  his  own  earlier  conceptions  of 
philosophy.  The  antagonism  certainly  was  not  then  a 
'  new  fact;  the  Erlangen  lectures  on  the  history  of  philosophy 
{Si'invit.  ITer/iC,  x.  124-.5)  of  1822  express  the  same  in  a 
pointed  fashion,  and  Schelling  had  already  begun  the 
treatment  of  mythology  and  religion  which  in  his  view 
constituted  the  true  positive  complement  to  the  negative 
of  lagical  or  speculative  philosophy.  Public  attention, 
which  had  been  from  time  to.  timo  drawn  to  ScheUing's 
prolonged  silence,  ■was  powerfully  attracted  by  these 
vague  hints  of  a  new  system  which  promised  something 
more  positive,  as  regards  religion  in  particular,  than  the 
apparent  results  of  Hegel's  teaching.  For  the  appearance 
of  the  critical  writings  of  Strauss,  Fcuerbach,  and  Bauer, 
and  the  evident  disunion  in  the  Hegelian  school  itself,  had 
alienated  the  sympathies  of  many  from  the  then  dominant 
philosophy.  In  Berlin  particularly,  the  headquarters  of 
the  Hegelians,  the  desire  found  expression  to  obtain 
officially  from  Schelling  a  treatment  of  the  new  .system 
which  he  was  vfnderstood  to  have  in  reserve.  The  realiza: 
tion  of  the  desire  did  not  come  about  till  1841,  when  the 
appointment  of  Schelling  as  Prussian  privy  councillor  and 
member  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  gave  him  the  right,  a 
right  he  'was  requested  to  exercise,  to  deliver  lectures  in 
the  university.  The  opening  lecture' 'of  his  course  was 
listened  to  by  a  large  and  most  appreciative  audience : 
and  thus,  in  the  evening  of  his  career,  Schelling  found 
himself,  as  often  before,  the  centrs  of  attraction  in  the 
world  of  philosophy.  The  enmity  of  his  old  foe  H.  E.  G. 
Paulus,  sharpened  by  ScheUing's  apparent'  success,  led  to 
the  surreptitious  publication  of  a  verbatim  report  of  tho 
lectures  on  the  philosophy  of  revelation,  and,  as  Schelling 
did  not  succeed  in  obtaining  legal  condemnation  and  sup- 
pression of  this  piracy,  he  in  184D  ceased  the  delivery  of 
any  public  courses.  No  authentic  information  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  new  positive  philosophy  was  obtained  •'tiU 
after  his  death  in  1851,  when  his  sons  began  the  issue  of 
his  collected  writings  with  the  four  volumes  of  Berlin 
lectures: — vol.  i..  Introduction  to  the  Pliilosophy  of  Mytho- 
logy (1856) ;  ii.,  Philosophy  of  Mythology  (18.57);  in.  and 
iv..  Philosophy  of  Revelation  (1858). 

AVliatovcr  fiulgment  one  may  form  ot  tlic  total  (vorth  of  Sriielling 
as  a  iihilosoplicr,  his  place  in  Uio  iiistory  of  tliat  impouant  move- 
ment called  generally  German  philosopliy  is  unmistakable  and 
assured.  It  happened. to  liini,  as  lie  himself  claimed,  to  turn  a 
page  in  the  history  of  thought,  and  one  cannot  ignore  the  actual 
advance  upon  his  predecessor  acliieved  by  him  or  the  brilliant 
fertility  of  the  geniii*  by  which  that  achievement  was  aceoninlished. 
On  the  other  liana  (tiauot  vobo  uenied  tnat  Sjcneiiing,  lo  wnom  on 
unusually  Ion»  period  of  activity  was  accorded,  nowlicre  succeed? 
in  att.aining  tiio  rounded  comi>lctrncss  of  scientific  system.  Hi3 
philosophical  writings,  extended  over  more  than  half  a  century, 
lie  before  us,  not  as  parts  of  one  whole,  but  as  tho  successive  mani- 
festations of  a  restless  highly  endowed  spirit,  -striving  continuously 
but  unsuccessfully  after  a  solution  of  its  own  problems.  Such 
unity  as  they  pos:-ies-s  is  a  unity  of  tendency  and  endeavour  ;  they 
£re  not  part's  of  a  whole,  and  in  some  respects  tho  final  form  they 
assumed  is  the  least  satisfactory  of  all.     bcnro  it  lias  come  about 


392 


SCHELLING 


that  Schclling  remains  fo*  tho  philosophic  student  but  a  moment 
of  historical  valuo  in  tho  development  of  thought,  and  that  his 
works  have  for  the  most  part  ceased  now  to  have  more  than 
historic  interest.  ^  Throi.^hout  his  thinking  bears  the  painful 
impress  of  hurrj,  rn'^ompleteness,  and  spasmodic  striving  after  an 
ide;J  which  could  only  be  attained  by  patient,  laborious,  and 
methodic  "effort.  Brilliant  contributions  there  are  without  doubt 
to  thp  evolution  of  a  philosophic  idea,  but  no  systematic  fusion  of 
all  into  a  whole.  It  is  not  unfair  to  connect  the  apparent  failings 
o£  Schellmg's  philosophizing  with  the  very  nature  of  the  thinker 
aud  with  the  historical  accidents  of  his  ,cariccr.  In  the  writ- 
ings of  his  early  manhood,  for  example,  more  particularly  those 
making  up  NaturphilosopJiic,  one  finds  in  painful  abundance  the 
evidences  of  hastily-acquired  knowledge,  impatience  of  the  hard 
labour  of  minute  thought,  over-confidence  in  the  force  of  individual 
genius,  and  desire  instantaneously  to  present  even  iu  crudest 
fashion  the  newest  idea  that  has  dawned  upon  the  thinker. 
Schelling  was  prematurely  thrust  into  the  position  of  a  foremost 
productive  thinker ;  and  when  tho  lengthened  period  of  quiet 
meditation  was  at  last  forced  upon  him  there  unfortunately  lay 
before  him  a  system  which  achieved  what  had  dimly  been  involved 
in  his  ardent  and  impetuous  desires.  It  is  not  possible  to  acquit 
Schelling  of  a  certain  disingenuousness  in  regard  to  the  Hegelian 
philosophy  ;  and  if  we  claim  for  him  perfect  disinterestedness  of 
view  we  can  do  so  only  by  imposing  on,  him  the  severer  condem- 
nation of  deficient  insight. 

It  was  a  natural  concomitant  of  this  continuous  hurry  under 
which  Schelliug's  successive  efforts  at  constructive  work  were 
carried  out  that  he  should  have  been  found  at  all  stages  supporting 
himself  by  calling  to  his  aid  tho  forms  of  some  other  system.  The 
successive  phases  of  his  development  might  without  injustice  be 
characterized  by  reference  to  these  external  supports.  Thus  Fichte, 
Spinoza,  Jakob  Bochmc  and  the  Mystics,  and  finally,  the  great  Greek 
thinkers  with  their  Neoplatonic,  Gnostic,  aud  Scholastic  commen- 
tators, give  respectively  colouring  to  particular  works  in  which 
Schelling  unfolds  himself.  At  the  same  time  it  would  be  unjust  to 
represent  Schelling  as  merely  borrowing  from  tJiese  external  sources. 
There  must  be  allowed  to  liim  genuine  philosophic  spirit  and  no 
small  measure  of  philosophic  insight.  Of  the  philosophic  aj^atus 
he  was  in  no  want ;  and  it  might  be  fairly  added  that,  under  all 
tho  differences  of^exposicion  which  seem  to  constitute  so^many 
differing  SchelHngian  systems,  there  is  one  and  the  same  philo- 
sophic effort  and  spirit  But  what  Schelling  did  want  was  power 
to  work  out  scientifically,  methodically,  the  ideas  with  which  his 
spirit  was  filled  and  mastered.  Hence  he  could  only  find  expression 
for  himself  in  forms  of  this  or  that  earlier  philosophy,  and  hence 
too  the  frequent  formlessness  of  his  own  thought,  the  tendency  to 
relapse  into  mere  impatient  despair  of  ever  finding  an  adequate 
vehicle  for  transmitting  thought. 

It  is  thus,  moreover,  a  matter  of  indifference  how  one  distributes 
or  classifies  the  several  forras  and  periods  of  Schelling's  philosophic 
activity.  "Whether  one  aciopts  as  basis  the  external  form,  i.e.,  the 
foreign  mode  of  speculation  laid  under  contribution,  or  endeavours 
to  adhere  closely  to  inner  dilTerenccs  of  view,  the  result  is  very 
much  the  same.  There  is  one  line  of  speculative  thought,  in  the 
development  of  which  inevitable  problems  call  for  new  methods  of 
handling,  while  the  results  only  in  part  can  claim  to  have  a  place 
accorded  to  them  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  It  is  fair  in 
dealing  with  Schelling's  development  to  take  into  account  the 
indications  of  his  o'wn  opinion  regarding  its  more  significant 
momenta.  In  his  own  view  the  turning  points  seem  to  liave  been 
— (1)  the  transition  fiom  Fichte's  uic-thod  to  the  more  objective 
conception  of  nature, — the  advance,  in  other  words,  to  Katur- 
philosopkie;  (2)  the  defnute  formulation  of  that  which  implicitlyy 
as  Schelling  claims,  was  involved  in  the  idea  of  Naliirphilosophie, 
viz.,  the  thought  of  the  identf-.l.  indifferent,  absolute  substratum 
of  both  nature  and  spirit,  the  advance  io  IdcntUatsvhilosophu  \ 
(3)  the  opposition  of  negative  and  positive  ].hilosophy,  an  opposi- 
tion which  IS  ihc  theme  of  the  Bcnlin  lectures,  but  the  germs  of 
which  n;ay  be  traced  hack  to  1804,  and  of  which  more  than  the 
gftims  ave  found  m  the  work  on  freedom  of  1809.  Only  what. 
rnUs  under  th"  first  and  spcoi.I  of  the  divisions  so  indicated  can  be 
said  to  have  dis^Mrgi-d  a  function  in  developing  philosophy  ;  only 
5o  much  ccubtit'.'is  S'he^iJn^^'s  philosojihy  proper.  A  very  brief 
notice  of  ihc  rhara'.;.';-' •■....'  fua fores  of  the  thrL-i-  stuiia  must  hei^ 
suffice. 

(1)  Katiirphilo'iopfnc —'ihc  I"-htcan  method  hud  stiiven  to 
exhibit  the  whole  struttnic  of  Tpaliiy  as  the  uecfssary  implication 
of  st-lf-fonsciousncss-  The  fundamental  featutis  of  lir.owlcdge, 
^h(,Lher  as  activity  or  as  sum  of  apprchendrd  fa-t,  ai.d  (  f  conduct 
btidbyitn  deduced  as  elements  ncr-.ssiiry  "n  the  attainn.-  n'  t.f  self- 
fon*^i.ioasn(.ss.  Fir.htenn  idealism  therefore  at  on-^e  stood  out 
ntgatuely.  as  abolishing  thf^  dognn+ic  Conception  of  the  two  real 
vvouds,  subject  and  obj'^ft,  by  vhose  interaction  cognition  and 
practice  anj.e,  tind  as  amci.ding  the  critical  idea  which  retained 
^vfth  t  dangerous  cantiou  too  many  fragments  of  dogmatism  , 
positiyel}'.  as  insisting  on  the  unity  of  phiiosoph- -al  interpretation 


and  as  supplying  a  key  to  the  form  or  method  by  which  a  completed 
^philosophic  system  might  be  construc(;ed.  But  the  FJchtean  teach- 
ing appeared  on  the  one  hand  to  identify  too  closely  the  ultimate 
ground  of  the  universe  of  rational  conception  with  the  finite,  indi- 
vidual spirit,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  endanger  the  reality  of"  tho 
world  of  nature  by  regarding  it  too  much  after  the  fashion  of  sub- 
jective idealism,  as  mere  moment,  though  necessitated,  in  the 
existence  of  the  finite  thinking  mind.  It  was  almost  a  natural 
consequence  that  Fichte  never  succeeded  in  amalgamating  with  bis 
own  system  the  sesthetic  view  of  nature  to  which  the  Kriiik  of 
Judipfunt  had  pointed  as  an  essential  component  iu  any  complete 
philosophy. 

From  Fichte's  position  Schclling  started.  From  Fichte  he 
derived  the  ideal  of  a  completed  whole  of  philosophic  conception  ; 
from  Fichte  he  derived  the  formal  method  to  wliich  for  the  most 
part  he  continued  true.  The  earliest  writings  tended  gradually 
towards  tho  first  important  advanoo. .  Nature  must  not  be  con- 
ceived as  merely  abstract  limit  to  the  infinite  sti'iving  of  spirit,  as 
a  mere  series  of  necessary  thoughts  for  mind.  It  iriust  be  that 
and  more  than  that.  It  must  have  reality  for  itself,  a  reality 
which  stands  in  no  conflict  with  its  ideal  character,  a  reality  the 
inner  structure  of  which  is  ideal,  a  reality  the  root  and  spring  of 
which  is  spirit.  Nature  as  the  sum  of  that  which  is  objective, 
intelligence  as  the  complex  of  all  the  activities  making  up  self- 
consciousness,  appear  thus  as  equally  real,  as  alike  exhibiting  ideal 
structure,  as  parallel  with  one  another.^  The  philosophy  of  nature 
and  transcendental  philosophy  are  tho  two  complementary  portions 
of  philosophy  as  a  whole. 

Animated  with  this  new  conception  Schelling  made  his  hurried 
rush  to  Natitrphilosophie,  and  with  the  nid  of  Kant  and  of  frag- 
mentary knowledge  of  contemporary  scientific  movements,  threw 
off  iu  quick  succession  the  Idccn,  the  IFcUseelc,  and  the  Erstcr 
Enticurf.  NakLrpTiilosophic^  which  thus  became  an  historical  fact, 
has  had  scant  mercy  at  the  hands  of  modern  science  ;  and  un- 
doubtedly there  is  much  in  it,  even  in  that  for  which  Schelling 
alone  is  responsible,  for  which  only  contempt  can  be  our  feeling. 
Schclling,  one  must  say,  had  neither  the  strength  of  thinking  nor 
the  acquired  knowledge  necessary  to  hold  the  balance  between  the 
abstract  treatment  of  cosmological  notions  and  the  concrete 
researches  of  special  science.  His  efforts  afttr  a  construction  of 
natural  reality  are  bad  in  themselves  and  gave  rise  to  a  wearisome 
flood  of  perfectly  useless  physical  speculation.  Yet  it  would  be 
unjust  to  ignore  the  many  brilliant  and  sometimes  valuable  thoughts 
that  are  scattered  throughout  the  writings  on  Katxtrpkilosophie, — 
thoughts  to  which  Schelling  himself  is  but  too  frequently  untrue. 
Regarded  merely  as  a  criticis^n  of  the  notions  with  which  scientific 
interpretation  proeecds,  these  writings  have  still  importance  and 
might  have  achieved  more  had  they  been  untainted  by  the  tfcnuency 
to  hasty,  ill-considered,  a  priori  anticipations  of  nature. 

Nature,  as  having  reality  for  itself,  forms  one  completed  whole. 
Its  manifoldness  is  not  then  to  be  talcen  as  excluding  its  funda- 
mental unity:  the  divisions  which  our  ordinary  perception  and 
thought  introduce  into  it  have  not  absolute  validity,  but  are  to  be 
interpreted  as  tht;  outcome  of  the  single  formative  energy  or 
complex  of  forces  which  Is  the  inner  aspect,  tho  soul  ol  nature. 
Such  iriner  of  nature  we  are  in  a  position  to  apprehend  arid 
constructively  to  exhibit  to  ourselves  in  the  successive  forms' which 
its  development  assumes,  for  it  is  the- same  spirit,  though  uncon- 
scious, of  which  we  become  aware  in  self-consciousness.  It  is  the 
realization  of  spirit.  Nor  is  the  variety  of  its  forms  imposed  upon 
it  from  without  ;  there  is  nei,thcr  external  teleology  in  nature,  nor 
mechanism  in  the  narrower  sense.  Nature  is  a  whole  and  forms 
itself;  within  its  range  we  are  to  look  for  no  other  than  natural 
explanations.  The  (nnction  of  J^'^atnrphiiosopkic  is  to  exhibit  the 
ideal  as  springing  from  the  real,  not  to  deduce  tho  real  from  the 
ideal-.  The  incessant  change  which  experience  brings  before  us, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  t!ie  thought  of  unity  in  productive  force 
of  nature,  leads  to  the  all-important  concejition  of  the  duality,  the 
polar  opposition^through  which  nature  cxjircsses  itself  in  its  varied 
jModucts.  The  dynamical  scries  of  stages  in  nature,  the  forms  in 
which  the  ideal  structure  of  nature  is  realized,  are  matter,  as  the 
equilibrium  of  the  fundamental  expaiiiiivc  and  contractive  forces  ; 
light,  with  its  subordinate  processes, — m.ignetism,  electricity,  and 
chemical  actiqn;  organism,  with  its  component  phases  of  re  prod  uc 
tion,  irritabihty,  and  sensibility.^ 

Just  as  nature  exhibits  to  us  the  series  of  dynamical  stages  of 
processes  by  which  spirit  struggles  towards  consciousneiis  of  itself, 
so  the  world  of  intelligence  and  jiracticc,  the  world  of  mind,  exhibits 
the  scries  of  stages  through  whicli  self-consciousness  with  it« 
inevitable  ojipositions  and  reconciliations  develops  in  its  ideal 
'form.  The  theoretical  side  of  inner  nature  in  its  successive  grades 
from  sensation  to  tho  highest  form  of  spirit,  the  abstracting  reason 
\*hich  emphasizes  the  difference  qf  subjective  and  objective,"lcaves 

1  The  briefest  and  best  account  in  Si-hcllinc  Iiimst-U  of  Xaturphi'aophie  is 
that,  cont-iined  In  tho  EinUiiun.y  ta  d-rr.  ISyilfr  £nt<ct:yf  {S.  IK.,  Ill  ):  Tlio  fuHest 
nnd  mo3t  lucid  statement  of  yaiurphiioiophie  IS  thai  glvca  by  K.  flscbcr  bl  Uis 
Cd»A.  d.  n.  Fiiil.,  vl.  433-111)2. 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


dd'S 


an  unsolved  problem  Which  receives  satisfactioa  only  in  the  pritc- 
ticalj  the  indiridualizing  activity.  The  practical,  again,  taken  in 
conjttnotioa  ivith  the  theoretical,  forces  on  the  question  of  the 
reconciliation  between  the  free  conscious  organization  of  thought 
and  the  apparently  necessitated  and  unconscious  mechanism  of  the 
objective  world.  -In  the  notion  of  a  tcleological  connexion  ond  in 
that  which  for  spirit  is  its  .<;nbjective  expression,  viz.,  art  and 
genii>s,  the  subjective  and  objective  find  their  point  of  uuion. 

(.2)  Nature  and  spirit,  Naturphilosophie  and  Trayiscmdcntalphilo- 
5P/iii«,.  thus  stand  as  two  relatively  complete,  but  complementary 
parts  of  the  whole..  It  was  impossible  for  Schelling,  the  animating 
principle  of  whose  thought  was  ever  the  reconciliation  of  differences, 
not  to  talce  and  to  take  speedily  the  step  towards  the  conception  of 
the  uniting  basis  of  which  nature  and  spirit  are  manifestations, 
forms,  or  consequences.  Tor  this  common  basis,  however,  he  did 
not  succeed  at  first  in  finding  any  other  than  the  merely  negative 
expression  of  indifference.  The  identity,  the  absolute,  whicli 
underlay  all  difference,  all_the  relative,  is  to  be  characterized 
simply  as  Mutrum,  as  absolute  undifferentiated  self-equivalence. 
It  lay  in  the  very  nature  of  this  thought  that  Spinoza  should  now 
offer  himself  to  Schelling  as  the  thinker  whose  form  of  presentation 
came  nearest  to  his  new  probl&m.  The  DaHtelliuig  mcUus  Systems, 
and  the  more  expandeil  and  more  careful  treatment  contained  in 
the  lectures  on  System  der  yesammten-  Philosophic  mid  der  Natv.r- 
philosophic  insbeso-.idere  giren  iu  'Wiirzburj,  1804  (published  only 
in  the  Sdmmilicha  Werlcc,  vol.  vi.  p.  131-57G),  are  thoroughly 
Spiuozistic  in  form,  and  to  a  large  extent  in  substance.  They  are 
not  without  value,  indeed,  as  extended  commentary  on  Spinoza. 
With  all  his  efforts,  Schelling  does  not  succeed  iii  bringing  his 
conceptions  of  nature  and  spirit  into  any  vital  conn':!xion  withothe 
primal  identity,  the  absolute  indifference  of  reason.  No  true  solution 
could  be  achieved  by  resort  to  the  mere  absence  of  distinguishing, 
differencing  feature.  The  absolute  w,''.5  left  with  no  other  function 
than  that  of  removing  all  the  differences  on  which  thought  turns. 
The  criticisms  of  Ficlite,  and  more  particularly  of  Hegel  (iu  the 
"Vbrrede"  to  the  Phiinomcnologie  des  Gcistcs),  point  to  the  fatal 
defect  in  the  conception  of  the  absolute  as  mere  featureless  identity. 

(3)  Along  two  distinct  lines  Schelling  is  to  be  found  in  all  his 
later  \rritin^3  striving  to  amend  the  conception,  to  which  he  re- 
mained true,  of  absolute  reason  as  the  ultimate  ground  of  reality. 
It  was  necessary,  in  the-Srst  place,  to  give  to  this  absolute  a  char- 
acter, to  make  of  i;  ioniething  more  than  empty  sameness  ;  it  was 
necessfiry,  in  the  second  place,  to  clear  up  in  some  way  the  relation 
Id  whicli  the  actuality  or  apparent  actuality  of  nature  and  spirit 
stood  to  the  nltimcte  real.  Schelling  had  already  (in  the  System 
deiKfjcs.  Phil.)  begun  to  endeavour  after  an  amal,^araation  of  the 
Spiuozistic  conception  of  substance  with  the  Platonic  view  of  an 
ideal  realm,  and  to  find  therein  tho  means  of  enriching  the  bare- 
ness of  absolute  reason.  In  Bruno,  and  in  Fhilos,  u.  Rdigion,  the 
same  tliought  finds  expression.  In  the  realm  of  idc^s  tlie  abr.o- 
lute  finds  itself,  has  its  own  nature  over  against  itself  as  olijcctive 
over  against  subjective,  and  thus  is' in  the  way  of  overcoming  its 
abstractness,  of  becoming  concrete.  This  conception  of  a  differ- 
ence, of  an  internal  structure  in  the  absolute,  finds  other  and  not 
less  obscure  expressions  in  tho  mystical  cjutribiitions  of  the 
Menschliche  Freiheii  and  in  tlie  SL-liola-tic  speculations  of  the 
Berlin  lectures  on  mythnlogy.  At  the  same  time  it  connects  itself 
with  the  second  problem,  hov.-  to  attain  in  conjunction  with  the 
abstractly  rationaf  charactiT  of  tho  absoKite  an  explanation  of 
actualitjj.  Tilings, — nature  and  spirit, — have  an  actual  bring.  They 
exist  not.  merely  as  logical  conseipience  or  devclopuient  of  the 
absolute,  but  have  a  stubbornness  of  being  in  them,  an  antagonistic 
ft-'aturc  wliicli  in  all  times  philosophers  have  been  driven  to  recog- 
nize, and  which  they  have  described  in  varied  fashion.  The  actu- 
ality of  things  is  a  Qcfection  from  tho  absolute,  and  tlieir  existence 
compels  a  i-cconsideration  of  our  conception  of  God.  There  must  be 
recognized  in  God  as  a  completed  actuality,  a  dim,  obscure  ground 
or  bnsis,  which  can  only  be  described  as  not  yi-t  being,  but  as  con- 
taining in  itself  the  impulse  to  extcrnalizatiou,  to  existence.  It  is 
through  'his  ground  of  ISeiug  in  God  Himself  that  we  must  find 
oxplanatio.i  of  tliat  independence  which  things  assert  over  against 
God.  And  it  is  easy  to  see  how  fi/jni  tliis  position  Schelling  was 
led  on  to  tlic  further  statements  that  not  in  tho  rational  conception 
of  God  is  an  explanation  of  existence  to  bo  found,  nay,  that  nil 
rational  conception  extends  but  to  the  form,  and  touclies  not  tlie 
real, — that  God  is  to  be  conceived  as  act,  as  will,  as  something  over 
and  above  the  rational  conception  of  the  divine.  Hence  the  stress 
laid  on  will  as  the  realizing  factor,  in  oppo.sition  to  thought,  a 
view  through  whicli  Schelling  connects  himself  with  Schopenhauer 
and  Von  Hartniann,  .and  on  t!io  ground  of  which  he  has  been 
recognized  by  tho  latter  as  the  reconciler  of  idealism  and  realism. 
'  Finally,  then,  there  emerges  the  opposition  of  negative,  i.e.,  mci-cly 
rational  philosophy,  and  po.itivc,  of  which  tho  content  is  the  real 
evolution  of  tho  divine  as  it  has  taken  place  in  fact  and  in  history 
and  as  it  is  recorded  in  tlie  varied  mythologies  and  religions  of  man- 
kiTi  Kot  much  satisfaction  can  bo  felt  with  the  exposition  of 
either  as  it  appears  in  the  volumes  of  Berlin  lectures.  I 


Schclling's  works  were  collected  and  published  l)y  his  sons,  in  H  vols.,  1856-61. 
For  tile  life  (rood  materials  aio  to  be  found  in  tiie  tiiice  vnh..  .^-.n  Schelling's 
Lebcn  in  Urie/en,  1S69-70,  in  whlcIi  a  biogruplilc  skctcli  of  tlic  pliilosopher'a 
early  life  Is  civcn  by  his  son,  and  in  Waitz,  Korolim,  2  vols.,  1S71  An  intcrtstinR 
little  work  is  Klaiber,  Iloldertin,  Ili'ycl,  u.  S^ttrlUnfj  in  threat  ,'iihirafii<c?iin  J-.-gcud- 
J(!/:ren,  1S77.  The  biosiaphy  in  Kuno  Fischer's  volume  ia  coniiiUle  ;LUd  admir- 
able. Apart  from  the  exi  ositions  in  the  larger  hiatoiics  of  modern  pliloaopliy, 
in  Michelet,  Erdmann,  "WUim.  and  Kuno  Fisclier,  .-:id  in  liaym's  RaiiurnCisciie 
5i7i;;/e,  valuable  studies  arc — Jlosenkranz,  Schilling,  1S43;  ^ciack,  Schrtlirig  uiid  dig 
.  Philo5ophie der  Romantik,  2  vols.,  1S50;  Frantz,  Schclling'spczidva P!iilosn}yitit,^ 
vols.,  1S79-80;  \;aIsot\,  SiJicUvig's  Transcendental  Idealism,  \S%2.        (It.  AD.)    . 

SCHE^INITZ  (Hung,  lielmeczbdnya),  a  mining  town  in 
the  Cis-Danubian  county  of  Hont,  Hungary,  lies  about  65 
miles  north  from  Budapest,  in  48°  27'  N.  lat.,  18°  52'  E. 
long.,  on  an  elevated  site,  2300  feet  above  the  level  of  tho 
sea>  Its  institutions  include  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a 
Protestant  gymnasium,  a  high  school  for  girls,  a  com't  of 
justice,  a  hospital,  and  several  benevolent  and  scientific 
societies.  Schemnitz  otss  its  chief  importance  to  tho  fact 
of  its  being  the  mining  centre  of  the  kingdom.  Con- 
nected with  this  local  industry  are  important  Government 
institutions,  such  as.  various  mining  superin  tendencies,  a 
chemical  analytical  laboratory,  and  an  excelieut  academy 
of  mining  and  forestry  (with  a  meteorological  observa- 
tory and  fl,  remarkable  collection  cf  minerals),  attended 
by  pupils  from  all  countries  of  Europe  and  also  from 
America.  The  mines' are  chiefly  the  property  of  the  state 
and  the  corporation ;  the  average  yield  annually  is — 
gold,  232  lb;  silver,  45,000  lb;  lead,  11,600  cwt; 
copper,  180  cwt.  IroUj  arsenic,  Ac,  to  the  value  of  about 
£150,000  are  also  produced.  There  are  also  flourishing 
potteries  where  v,-ell-known  tobacco  pipes  are  manufactured. 
With  Schemnitz  is  conjoined  the  town  of  B61abiinya ;  their 
united  population  in  1884  was  15,265,  chiefly  Slovaks,  of 
whom  nearly  3000  were  engaged  in  mining. 

Schemnitz,  which  was  already  noted  for  its  mines  in  the  lime-  of 
the  Romans,  has  played  considerable  part  in  the  history  of  Hungary. 
The  ercluves  of  the  town  contain  niapy  interesting  documents. 
After  the  Tartar  invasion  in  the  12th  century  it  was  colonized  by 
Germans,  but  had  become  quite  Slavonized  before  the  academy  ol 
mining  was  founded  by  Maria  Theresa  (1780).  The  school"  o." 
forestry  was  added  in  1809.  The  corporation  is  wealthy,  having 
received  special  commercial- privileges  iron^  the  crown  in  considera- 
tion.of  pecuniary  aid  afforded  in  times  of  emergency. 

SCHENECTADY,  a  city  of  tho  United  States,  county 
S'^at  of  Schenectady  county,  Kew  York,  iu  the  valley  of  the 
ilohawk  river,  17  miles  by  rail  north-west  of  Albany,  with 
which  it  is  also  connected  by  the  Erie  Canal.  It  is  best 
known  as  the  seat  ot Union  College,  an  institution  founded 
in  1795  by  a  union  of  several  religious  sects,  and  now 
possessed  of  large  endowments,  extensive  buildings,  and  a 
valuable  library,  and  along  with  the  Albany  medical  and 
law  schools,  (tc,  forming  the  Union  Universitj".  Besides 
manufacturing  locomotives,  iron  bridges,  and  agricultural 
implements,  Schenectady  has  shawl,  hosiery,  carriage,  and 
varnish  factories.  The  population,  was  9579  in  1860, 
11,026  in  lS70,^and  13,655  in  1880. 

Occupying  tho  site  of  one  of  the  council  grounds  of  the  Jfohawks, 
Schenectady  was  chosen  as  a  Dr'ch  trading  post  in  1620,  was 
chart^rc-l  in  158i,  and  became  a  borough  in  1765  and  a  city  in 
17i}3.  In  1691  it  was  burned  by  the  French  and  Indians,  and 
sixty-three  of  its  inhabitants  massacred. 

SCHETKY,  JoHX  Alexaxdek  (1785-1824),  a  younger 
brother  of  J.  C.  ScheUvy  (see  below),  studied  nieditmo 
in  Edinburgh  university  and  drawing  in  the  Trustees' 
Academy.  As  a  military  surgeon  he  served  with  distinc- 
tion under  Lord  Beresford  in  Portugal.  Ho  contributed 
excellent  works  to  the'  exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Academy 
and  of  the  Water-Colour  Society,  and  executed  some  of  the 
illustration;,  in  Sir  W.  Scott's  Provincial  Antiquities.  He 
died  at  Cape  Coast  Castle,  5th  September  1824,  when 
preparing  to  follow  Muugo  Park's  route  of  exploration. 

SCHETKY, '  JonN  Chkistian  (1778-1874),  marine 
painter,  descended  from  an  old  Tran.sykfanian  family,  was 
born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  11th  of  August  1778.  He 
studied  art  jnder  .iVloxander  Nasmyth,  and  after  having 

-X.XI.  —  so 


394 


S  C  H— S  CH 


travelled  on  tUo  Continent  ho  settled  in  Oxford,  and 
tai'^ht  for  six  years  as  a  drawing-master.  In  1808  lie 
obtained  a  post  in  the  military  college,  Great  Marlow,  and 
thi-ee  years  later  ho  received  a  congenial  appointment  as 
professor  of  drawing  in  the  naval  college,  Portsmouth, 
where  he  had  ample  opportunities  for  the  study  of  his 
favourite  marine  subjects.  From  1836  to  1855  he  held  a 
similar  professorship  in  the  military  college,  Addiscombe. 
To  the  Eoyal  Academy  exhibitions  he  contributed  at 
intervals  from  1805  to  1872,  and  he  was  represented  at 
the  Westminster  Hall  competition  of  1847  by  a  largo  oil- 
painting  of  the  Battle  of  La  Hogue.  He  was  marine 
painter  to  George  IV.,  William  IV.,  and  Queen  Victoria. 
Among  his  published  works  aro  the  illustrations  to  Lord 
John  Manners's  Cruise  in  Scotch  Waters,  and  a  volume  of 
photographs  from  his  pictures  and  drawings  issued  in 
1867  under  the  title  of  Veterans  of  the  Sea.  He  died  in 
London,  on  the  28th  of  January  1874. 

One  of  his  beet  works,  tlie  Loss  of  the  Royal  George,  painted  in 
i840,  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  and  the  United  Service 
Club  possesses  another  important  marine  subject  from  his  brush. 
His  memoir  by  his  daughter  was  published  in  1877. 

SCHEVENINGEN,  a  fishing  village  and  watering-place 
in  Holland,  on  the  North  Sea,  about  two  miles  from  The 
Hague,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  shaded  avenue 
with  a  tramway.  There  is  a  fine  sandy  beach  below  the 
line  of  dunes  that  separate  the  village  from  the  sea»  The 
terrace  crowning  the  dunes  serves  as  a  promenade.  Popu- 
lation in  1879,  7713.  Scheveningen  has  a  considerable 
herring  fleet.  In  a  naval  engagement  o£E  the  coast  in 
1673  De  Euyter  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  the 
French  and  English. 

SCHIAVONETTI,  Luigi  (1765-1810),  engraver,  was 
born  at  Bassano  in  Venetia,  on  April  1,  1765.  After 
having  studied  art  for  several  years  he  was  employed  by 
Testolini,  an  engraver  of  very  indiflferent  abilities,  to 
execute  imitations  of  Bartolozzi's  works,  which  he  passed 
off  as  his  own.  In  1790  Testolini  was  invited  by 
Bartolozzi  to  join  him  in  England,  and,  it  having  been 
discovered  that  Schiavonetti,  who  accompanied  him,  had 
executed  the  plates  in  question,  he  was  taken  by  Bartolozzi 
into  his  employment,  and,  having  greatly  improved  under 
his  instruction,  he  became  an  eminent  engraver  in  both  the 
line  and  the  dot  manner,  "  developing  an  individual  style 
which  united  grandeur  with  grace,  boldness,  draughtsman- 
like power,  and  intelligence  with  executive  delicacy  and 
finish."  Among  his  early  works  are  four  plates  of  subjects 
from  the  French  Revolution,  after  Benazech.  He  also 
produced  a  Mater  Dolorosa  after  Vandyck,  and  Michel- 
angelo's cartoon  of  the  Surprise  of  the  Soldiers  on  the 
Banks  of  the  Arno.  From  1805  to  1808  he  was  engaged 
in  etching  Blake's  designs  to  Blair's  Grave,  which,  with  a 
portrait  of  the  artist  engraved  by  Schiavonetti  after  T. 
Phillips,  R.  A.,  were  published  in  the  last-named  year.  The 
etching  of  Stothard's  Canterbury  Pilgrims  was  one  of  his 
latest  works,  and  on  his  death  on  the  7th  of  June  1810 
the  plate  was  taken  up  by  his  brother  Niccolo,  and  finally 
completed  by  James  Heath. 

SCHIEDAM,  a  town  of  the  Nethcilacds,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  South  Holland,  not  far  from  the  confluence  of  tha 
Schis  with  the  Jlaas,  3  miles  by  rail  from  Rotterdam.  It 
is  best  known  as  the  seat  of  a  great  gin  manufacture,  which, 
carried  on  in  more  than  two  hundred  distilleries,  gives 
employment  besides  to  malt-factories,  cooperages,  and  cork- 
cutting  establishments,  and  supplies  grain  refuse  enough 
to  feed  about  30,000  pigs.  Other  industries  are  ship- 
building, glass-blowing,  and  candle-moulding.  Schiedam, 
which  has  recently  been  growing  rapidly  towards  the  south- 
west in  the  Nieuw-Frankenland,  is  not  behind  the  larger  of 
the  Netherlands  cities  in  the  magnificence  cf  its  private 


residences,  but  none  of  its  putlic  buildings  are  of 'mncS 
not.e.  It  is  enough  to  mention  the  Groote  or  Jans-Kerk, 
with  the  tomb  of  Cornells  Haga,  ambassador  to  Turkey, 
the  aid  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  synagogue,  the  town- 
house,  the  exchange,  the  Musis  Sacrum,  the  post  ofiice 
(Blaauwhuis),  and  a  ruined  castle  (Huis  te  Riviere).  The 
.population  of  the  commune  increased  from  9157  in  1811 
to  12,360  in  1840,  21,103  in  1875,  23,035  in  1880,  and 
24,321  in  .1884;  the  population  of  the  town  was  18,854 
in  1870. 

Schiedam,  which  first  appears  in  a  document  of  1264,  obtained 
privileges  from  Floris  V.  in  1275,  and  gradually  acquired  im- 
portance as  a  commercial  town.  In  the  16tn  century  it  had  a  con- 
siderable share  in  the  herring  fishery  and  carried  on  salt-making, 
brick-making,  and  weaving,  and  began  to  turn  its  attention  to  dis- 
tilling.    The  town  was  flooded  in  1775. 

SCHIEFNER,  Fbauz  Anton  (1817-1879),  linguist, 
was  born  at  Eeval,  in  Russia,  on  the  18th  July  1817. 
His  father  was  a  merchant  who  had  emigrated  from 
Bohemia  at  the  end  of  last  century.*  He  received  his 
education  at  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  place,  where 
also  his  subsequent  colleague,  the  celebrated  naturalist 
Karl  Ernst  von  Baer,had  been  brought  up.  He  matricu- 
lated at  St  Petersburg  as  a  law  student  in  1836,  but  while 
qualifying  for  this  profession  he  pursued  with  keen  in- 
terest the  study  of  the  classics,  and  subsequently  devoted 
himself  at  Berlin,  from  1840  to  1842,  exclusively  to  Eastern 
languages.  On  his  return  to  St  Petersburg  in  1843  he 
Vas  employed  in  teaching  the  classics  in  the  First  Grammar 
School,  and  soon  afterwards  received  a  post  in  the  Imperial 
Academy,  where  in  1852  the  cultivation  of  the  Tibetan 
language  and  literature  was  assigned  to  him  as  his  special 
function.  Simultaneously  he  held  from  1860  to  1873  the 
professorship  of  classical  languages  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
theological  seminary.  From  1854  till  his  death  he  was  an 
extraordinary  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy.  He  died 
after  a  fortnight's  illness  on  the  16th  November  1879. 

Schiefner  made  his  mark  in  literary  research  in  three  directions. 
First,  he  contributed  to  the  Memoirs  and  Bulhlin  of  the  St 
Petersburg  Academy,  and  brought  out  independently,  a  number  of 
T.tluable  articles  and  larger  publications  on  the  language  and 
literature  of  Tibet.  He"  possessed  also  a  remarkable  acquaintance 
v.'ith  Mongolian,  and  when  death  overtook  him  had  just  finished 
a  revision  of  the  New  Testament  in  that  language  with  which,  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  had  entrusted  him.  Further, 
he  was  one  of  the  greatest  authorities  on  the  philology  and  ethnology 
of  the  Finnic  tribes.  He  edited  and  translated  the  great  Finnic  epic 
JCalcvala  ;  he  arranged,  completed,  and  brought  out  in  twelve 
volumes  the  literary  remains  of  Alexander  Castren,  bearing  on  the 
languages  of  the  Samoyedic  tribes,  the  Koibal,  Karagass,  Tungusian, 
Buryat,  Ostiak,  and  Kottic  tongues,  and  prepared  several  valuable 
papers  on  Finnic  mythology  for  the  Imperial  Academy.  In  the  third 
place,  ho  made  himself  the  exponent  of  recent  investigations  into 
tlie  languages  of  the  Caucasus,  which,  thanks  to  his  lucid  analyses, 
have  now  been  placed  within  reach  of  European  philologists.  Thus 
he  gave  a  full  analysis  of  the  Tush  language,  and  iu  quick  succes- 
sion, from  Baron  P.  Uslar's  investigations,  comprehensive  papers 
on  the  Av.-ar,  Ude,  Abkhasian,  Tchetchenz,  Kasi-Kurairk,  Hiirkanian 
and  Kiirinian  languages.  He  had  also  completely  mastered  the 
Ossetic,  and  brought  out  a  number  of  translations  from  that 
language,  several  of  them  accompanied  by  the  original  text.  For 
many  of  his  linguistical  investigations  he  had,  with  as  much  tact 
as  patience,  availed  himself  of  the  presence  in  St  Petersburg  of 
natives  (soldiers  chiefly)  of  the  districts  on  the  languages  of 
which  he  happened  to  be  engaged  The  importance,  however, 
of  the  vast  miiis  of  linguistical  material  thus  opened  up  by  him, 
and  of  the  results  to  which  his  investigations  led,  has  not  yet 
been  fully  realized,  except  so  far,  perhaps,  as  his  numerous  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  Eastern  fables  are  concerned,  for 
which  branch  of  literature  he  evinced  throughout  his  works  a  keen 
appreciation. 

With  a  rare  philological  acumen,  which  with  equal  facility  grasped 
the  morphological  and  idiomatic  parts  of  a  language,  Schiefner 
combined  an  indefatigable  industry  and  a  love  of  research  which 
never  flagged.  He  visited  England  three  tines  for  purposes  of 
research,— in  1863, 1867,  and  1878,— when  he  endeared  himself  to  all 
who  were  brought  in  contact  with  him  by  his  modesty  and  single- 
heartedness,  his  animated  and  spirited  conversation,  and  his  tiD- 
swerving  devotion  to  his  various  'itc.-ary  pursuits. 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


395 


'  Tlia  following  list  ot  his  works  lias  been  drawn  up  from  biographical  notices 
which  appeared  In  the  AtltCJtxum  tor  24th  January  ISSO.  and  In  the  /Ja..f(m  oi 
the  St  PetersburB  Academy,  ixvi.  pp.  30-44  ■.—Bemertuvgm  mm  Pojcy  scnm 
Trxt  da  Demndhatrnw,  1846;  ISctlra^e  tur  Krilii  (Us  BhrT-'.hari  atts  Idmgail- 
hara's  Paddliati,  1847;  (with  A.  Weber),  rarin  I'ctwnrs  oo  Sohlemi  eJHtoMtn 
Bltartriltaris  smlenUarum  pertinentes,  1850 ;  Uebcr  die  Icgisclim  wid  gmmmaC- 
iscAea  Wtrte  dts  Tandjur,  1847;  Ueber  JnttraS  Dotmerkeil,  1848  ;  Itathtrage  lu  den 
von  0  BohtUngk  und  J.  Schmtdl  verfafslen  Yerzcichnissen  der  ati/  Indten  and 
Tibet  bttiglichen  Handichri/ten  und  Hohdrucke  tm  asialischen  Museum  der  t. 
Atademie  der  Wissinschaflen,  1S4S;  Eine  libelisehe  Lebensbesehreibung  Cakya- 
munis,  1843;  Ueber  das  Wert  ■•  Rgyis  Iclier  rol pa,"  1848-50;  TiMiseiieSliuliei, 
1851-6i  Ueber  eine  eigmt/iiimlie'he  Art  der  tibetischen  Compostta,  ISoG  ;  Leber 
F!uratbe:eiclmungen  tm  Tibetischen,  1877;  Ueber  die  TerschlecUerungs-Pennicn 
der  ilenseJiheit  nach  buddhisliseJier  Ansehauungsueise,  1851;  Benefit  uber  die 
neues:t  Hiidiersendutyj  aas  f,tiiig.  «8ol ;  Bos  buddldstiselie  Sutra  der  42  Satze 
•!  in  Tibetischen  iberselit,  1351;  Srgdiiiungen  und  Beruhtigungen  tu  J. 
Schmidt- 1  Atisgabe  des  Dsanglun.  1852;  Ueber  das  Werk  ■'Bisloire  de  la  rie  de 
lHouen-thsang,"  1853;  Beiicht  fiber  die  tclsstntcha/tltche  Thattgkeit  des  Uerrn 
Prt^fess:'s  Wassiljea,  1854;  Uber  die  nepalisehen,  assamischen,  und  ceytonisehen 
iliitizen  des  aiiatisehtn  Museums,  1854 ;  Ein  kleiner  Beitrag  lur  mongolischen 
Paliographit,  ISSS;  Sprachliche  Bedenken  gegen  das  Jlongolenthum  der  Stythen, 
185S  ;  Berich:  liber  Pref.  Wassiljew's  Werk  liber  den  Buddhitmus,  1856  ;  Ueber  die 
witer  demA'amen  '^  Geschiehte  des  Ardshi  Bordshi  Chan,"  bekannte  mongottsche 
Mdrchensammlung,  1857;  Carmiiiis  indict  Vimalaprafnottara  ratnamald  versio 
tibetica,  mit  deutscher  Uebersettung,  1856;  Buddhistisehe  Triglotte,  1859;  Ueber 
ein  iadisehes  Krdhenorakd,  1859;  Ueber  die  hohen  Zahlen  der  Buddhisten,  1862; 
Jasehke's  Bemuhur.gen  um  eine  Handsdirift  des  Gesar,  1868;  Tdrandthx  de 
doctrinx  buddhicx  in  India  propagatione  narratio  tibetica,  18C8  (German,  1869); 
Ueber  einige  morgcnUindische  Fassungm  der  Ithampsimtsage,  1869  ;  Zur  buddhist- 
ischen  Apokalyptik,  1874;  Biiaratm  responsa,  tib.  et  latine,  1874;  Mahdkdtjajana 
wid  Konig  Tcfianda-pradiota,  1875;  Jndische  KUnstleranekdoten,  1875;  Indische 
Erzdhlungen,  1S7G-77  (an  English  translation  of  thpse  by  W.  K.  S.  Ralston  ap- 
peared in  1882);  Ueber  Vasuba/tdhu's  Gdthdsangraha,  1873  ;  Ueber  eiite  litetische 
Handschrijt  des  India  IIou;e,  1879  ;  Ueber  das  Bonpo-Sutra,  1880  ;  Zur  Sampo- 
mt/tfie,  1830;  Kleine  Beitrdge  rur  f.nnischen  Mgthologie,  1852;  Zur  ehstnischen 
ilgthologie,  1854;  Ueber  den  ilythengelialt  der  finnischen  Mdrchen,  1855;  Ueber  die 
Heldensagen  der  minussinischen  Tataren,  183S ;  Hetdensagen,  d:e.,rhtithmisch  bear- 
beitet,  1859;  Zum  il'jthus  vom  Wettuntergange,  1859;  Uet)er  die  eiistniselie  Sage 
vom  Kalewi-poeg,  1860  ;  Zur  russischen  Heldtnsage,  1S61 ;  Ueber  Kaleica  und  die 
KaleiDingen,  1862;  Kalevala,  deutsch  in  rhytlimi seller  Foj-m,  1852 ;  Ueber  das 
Thier  "tanas"  im  finnischen  Epos,  1848-49;  Die  Lieder  der  Wotefl,  melriseh 
iit>ertragen,1856;  Ueber  das  IJ'orr  " sampo"  in  finnischen  Ei  os,  1861;  Versuch 
einer  osijakischen  Sprachlehre,  1849-1856;  Grammatikund  iyorterverzcichnisse  der 
tamojedischen  Sprdchen,  1854-1855;  Grundzdge  eiiier  tungusischen  Sprachiehre, 
1856;  Versuch  einer  burjdtisehen  Sprachlehre,  1857;  Versuch  einer  koibalischen 
und  karagassischen  Sprachlehre,  1S57 ;  Versuch  einer  jenisei-osljakischen  und 
kottisehen  Sprachlehre,  1858 ;  Das  13-monatliche  Jahr  und  die  hlonatsnamen  der 
iibirisehen  Volker,  1856;  Ueber  die  Sprache  der  Jukagircn,^SbO-^\;  Beitrdge  zur 
Kenntniss  der  tungusischen  Mundarten,  1859  ;  Tungusische  Miscellen,  1874  ;  Ueber 
die  eon  G.  con  Mat/dell  gesammelten  tungusischen  Sprachproben,  1874;  A,  Czeka- 
nowskistungusischesWdrterverzeichniss,  1877;  Ueber sibirische Eicjenlhumszeichen, 
1855-1859;  A'tinc  Charakteriilik  der  Thuschrprache,  1854;  Versuch  Uber  die  Thusch- 
tprachj,  1856;  Versuch  iiber  das  Aurarische,  1SG2;  Ueber  Barcm  Uslar's  neuere 
linguL^tisefie  I'orsehungen.  1863  ;  Versuch  iiber  die  Sprache  der  Uden,  1863;  Alts- 
f'ihrlicher  Bericht  liber  Baron  Uslar's  abchasische  Studien,  1863  ;  Tschctseftenzische 
Studien,  1864;  Aus/uhrlicher Bericlit  tiler  Baron  Uslar's  Kastkitmiikische  Stttdicn, 
1866;  Iliirkanisehe  Studien,!^!!:  Amarisehe  Studien,  IS'i'i  :  Kiirinische  Studien, 
1873;  Auiarisehe  Texte,  1873;  Ossetische  Spriichiciirter,  1862;  Ossetische  TcTte, 
18C3;  Zi£ei  ossetische  Thiermdrchen,  1864;  Ossetische  Sagen  und  Mdrchen,  1867. 

SCHILLER,  JoHAXN  Christoph  Feiedrich  (1759- 
1805),  German  dramatist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Marbach, 
in  Wiirtemberg,  on  the  10th  or  llth  (probably  10th) 
November  1759.  His  grandfather  and  great-grandfather 
had  been  bakers  in  Bittenfeld,  a  village  at  the  point  where 
the  Kenis  flows  into  the  Neckar ;  and  the  family  was 
probably  descended  from  Jacob  Georg  Schiller,  who  was 
born  in  Grossheppach,  another  Swabian  village,  in  1587. 
Schiller's  father,  Johann  Kaspar  Schiller,  who  was  about 
thirty-six  years  of  age  when  his  sou  was  born,  was  a  man 
of  remarkable  intelligence  and  energy.  In  1749,  after  the 
War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  in  which  he  had  served  as 
a,  surgeon  in  a  Bavarian  regiment  of  hussars,  he  went  to 
vi^it  a  married  sister  at  Marbac\  a  little  town  on  the 
Neckar  ;  and  here,  a  few  months  after  his  arrival,  ho 
married  Elizabeth  Dorothea  Kodwciss,  a  girl  of  seventeen, 
the  daughter  of  the  landlord  of  the  inn  in  which  ho  had  a 
lodging.  She  had  great  sweetness  and  dignity  of  character, 
and  exercised  a  strong  influence  over  her  husband,  who, 
xlthough  essentially  kind  and  thoroughly  honourable, 
was  apt  to  give  way  to  a  somewliat  harsh  and  imperious 
temper.  They  had  six  children,  of  whom  the  eldest, 
Ohrisiophine,  was  born  eight  years  after  their  marriage. 
i'Jexi  came  Schiller,  and  after  him  were  born  four 
daughters,  of  whom  only  two,  Louisa  and  Nanette,  survived 
infancy. 

Until  Schiller  was  four  years  of  ago  liis  mother  lived  with 
her  parents  in  'Mrrbach,  while  his  father  served  in  the 
Wurtt.aberg  army,  in  which  h-i  ^.adually  rose  to  the  rank 
of  major.  In  17G1  the  elder  Schiller  was  joined  by  his 
family  at  Lorcb,  a  village  on  the  eastern  border  of  Wurtem- 
"jerg,  where  ho  served  for  about  three  years  as  a  recruiting 
officer.     Afterwards  he  was  transferred  to  Ludwigsburp, 


an.l  in  1775  he  was  made  overseer  of  the  plantations  anii 
nursery  gardens  at  the  Solitude,  a  country  residence  of  tto 
duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  near  Stuttgart.  The  duties  of  this 
position  were  congenial  to  the  tastes  of  Major  Schiller, 
and  he  became  widely  known  as  a  h.gh  authority  on  the 
subjects  connected  with  his  daily  work. 

At  Lorch  Schiller  had  been  taught  by  the  chief  clergy- 
man of  the  village,  Pastor  Moser,  whoso  name  he  after- 
wards gave  to  one  of  the  characters  in  Die  Rdither.  When 
the  family  settled  in  Ludwigsburg  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin 
school,  which  he  attended  for  six  years.  He  took  a  good 
place  in  the  periodical  examinations,  and  was  much  liked 
by  his  masters  and  fellow-pupils,  for  he  was  active,  intelli- 
gent, and  remarkable  for  the  warmth  and  constancy  of  his 
affections.  At  a  very  €arly  age'  he  gave  evidence  of  a 
talent  for  poetry,  and  i-t  was  carefully  fostered  by  his 
mother,  who  was  herself  of  a  poetic  temperament.  His 
parents  intended  that  he  should  become  a  clergyman,  but 
this  decision  was  abandoned  at  the  request — practically  by 
the  order — of  the  duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  insisted  on 
his  being  sent  to  the  military  academy,  an  institution 
which  had  been  established  at  the  Solitude  for  the  training 
of  youths  for  the  military  and  civil  services.  Schiller 
entered  this  institution  early  in  1773,  when  he  was 
between  thirteen  and  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  he 
remained  in  it  until  he  was  twenty-one.  For  some  time 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence,  but  the 
subject  did  not  interest  him,  and  in  1775,  when  a  medical 
faculty  was  instituted  at  the  academy,  he  was  allowed  to 
begin  the  study  of  medicine.  In  that  year  the  academy 
was  transferred  from  the  Solitude  to  Stuttgart. 

Schiller  was  often  made  wretched  by  the  harsh  and 
narrow  discipline  maintained  at  the  academy,  but  it  had 
no  permanently  injurious  effect  on  his  character.  W  ith 
several  of  his  fellow-students  he  formed  a  lasting  friend- 
ship, and  in  association  with  them,  notwithstanding  the 
vigilance  of  the  inspectors,  he  was  able  to  read  many 
forbidden  books,  including  some  of  the  writings  of 
Rousseau,  Klopstock's  Messiah,  the  early  works  of  Goethe, 
translations  of  a  few  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  and  a  German 
translation  of  Macpherson's  rendering  of  the  poems  of 
Ossian.  Under  these  influences  he  became  an  ardent 
adherent  of  the  school  which  was  then  .protesting 
vehemently  against  traditional  restrictions  on  indi- 
vidual freedom ;  and  he  contrived  to  maks  opportunities 
for  the  expression,  in  more  or  less  crude  dramas  and 
poems,  of  his  secret  thoughts  and  aspirations.  For  abou; 
two  years  work  of  this  kind  was  interrupted"  by  the  pres- 
sure of  professional  studies  ;  but  in  the  last  year  of  his 
residence  at  the  academy  ho  resumed  it  with  increased 
fervour.  In  this  year  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of  I--c 
Jiciuber,  the  most  striking  passages  of  which  ho  road  to 
groups  of  admiring  comrades. 

On  the  14th  December  1780  Schiller  was  iii5orm:a 
that  he  had  been  appointed  medical  officer  to  a  grenadier 
regiment  in  Stuttgart,  and  he  almost  immediately  beg.n 
his  new  duties.  He  was  not  a  very  expert  doctor,  and  ho 
was  too  passionately  devoted  to  hterature  to  take  much 
trouble  to  excel  in  a  profession  which  he  disliked.  J)ie 
liduhcr  was  soon  finished,  and  in  July  1781  it  was 
published  at  his  own  expense,  some  persons  of  his 
acquaintance  having  become  .security  for  the  necessary 
amount.  This  famous  play  is  ill-constructed,  and  contains 
much  boyi.sh  extravagance,  but  it  is  also  full  of  cnergj' 
and  revolutionary  fervoui-,  and  it  captivated  the  imagina- 
tion of  many  of  Schiller's  contemporaries.  Early  in  1782 
it  was  represented  at  the  JIannheira  theatre,  and  it  was 
so  warmly  applauded  that  Schiller,  who  liad  Stolen  away 
from  Stuttgart  to  see  his  pls}',  began  to  think  it  might  b( 
possible  for  him  to  devote  his  time  wholly  to  the  work  c 


396 


SCHILLER 


a  dramatist.  By  and  by  ho  was  persuaded  to  go  again  to 
Mannheim  without  leave ;  and  for  this  oSence,  of  which 
the  duko  ot  Wurteraberg  was  informed,  he  was  condemned 
to  two  weeks'  arrest.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  per- 
emptorily forbidden  to  write  books,  or  to  hold  communica- 
tion with  persons  who  did  not  reside  in  Wiirtemberg. 
This  tyrannical  order  filled  him  with  so  much  indignation 
that  he  resolved  at  all  costs  to  secure  freedom,  and  on  the 
17th  September  17S2,  accompanied  by  his  friend  Streicher, 
n  young  musician,  he  fled  kom  Stuttgart. 

Schiller  had  now  before  him  a  time  of  much  distress 
and  anxiety.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  ho  finished 
Fiesco,  a  play  which  he  had  begun  at  Stuttgart ;  but 
Dalberg,  the  director  of  the  Mannheim  theatre,  declined 
to  put  it  on  the  stage,  and  the  unfortunate  poet  knew  not 
how  he  was  to  obtain  the  means  of  living.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  thought  probable  that  a  request  for  his 
extradition  might  be  addressed  to  the  elector  of  the 
Palatinate.  In  this  perplexity  Schiller  wrote  to  Frau  von 
"Wclzogen,  a  friend  at  Stuttgart,  asking  to  be  allowed  to 
take  refuge  in  her  house  at  Bauerbgich,  a  village  in  the 
Thuringian  Forest,  within  two  hours'  walk  of  Meihingen. 
This  request  was  granted,  and  at  Bauerbach  Schiller 
remained  for  nearly  seven  mouths,  working  chiefly  at  the 
play  which  he  ultimately  called  Cabale  und  Liebe  and  at 
Dmi  Carlos. 

In  July  1783  Schiller  returned  to  Mannheim,  and  this 
time  he  obtained  from  Dalberg  a  definite  appointment  as 
dramatic  poet  of  the  Mannheim  theatre.  Fiesco,  which 
was  soon  represented,  was  received  rather  coldly,  but  for 
this  disappointment  Schiller  was  amply  compensated  by 
the  admiration  excited  by  Cahale  imd  Liebe.  These  two 
plays  express  essentially  the  same  mood  as  that  which 
prevails  in  Die  Rduber,  but  they  indicate  a  striking 
advance  in  the  mastery  of  dramatic  methods.  This  is 
esjjecially  true  of  Cabale  mid  Liebe,  which  still  ranks  as 
one  of  the  most  effective  acting  plays  in  German  literature. 

In  addition  to  his  dramas  Schiller  wrote  a  good  many 
lyrical  poems,  both  before  and  during  his  residence  at 
Mannheim.  Few  of  these  pieces  rise  to  the  level  of  his 
early  plays.  For  the  most  part  they  are  excessively  crude 
in  sentiment  and  stj-le,  while  in  some  his  ideas  are  so 
vague  as  to  be  barely  intelligible.  Perhaps  the  best  of 
them  are  the  poems  entitled  Die  Freimdschaft  and 
Eoussedu,  both  of  which  have  the  merit  of  expressing 
thoughts  and  feelings  that  were  within  the  range  of  the 
writer's  personal  experience. 

Schiller's  engagement  with  Dalberg  was  cancelled  in 
August  1784,  and,  as  he  had  now  a  heavy  burden  of  debt, 
he  thought  for  some  time  of  resuming  the  practice  of  his 
profession,  but  in  the  end  he  decided  to  try  whether  he 
could  not  improve  his  circumstances  by  issuing  a  periodi- 
cal, Thalia,  to  be  written  wholly  by  himself.  This  plan 
he  accomplished,  the  first  number  being  published  in  the 
spring  of  1785.  It  contained  the  first  act  of  Don  Carlos 
and  a  paper  on  "The  Theatre  as  a  Moral  Institution," 
which  he  had  read  on  the  occasion  of  his  being  admitted 
a  member  of  the  German  Society,  a  literary  body  in 
Jlannheim,  of  which  the  elector  palatiile  was  the  patron. 

Meanwhile,  he  had  been  corresponding  with  four 
admirers  who  had  written  from  Leipsic  to  thank  him  for 
the  pleasure  they  had  derived  from  his  writings.  These 
friends  were  C.  G.  Korner,  L.  F.  Huber,  and  Minna  and 
Dora  Stock.  Weary  of  incessant  struggle,  Schiller  pro- 
posed to  visit  them  ;  and  Korner,  the  leading  member  of 
the  party,  not  only  encouraged  him  in  this  design,  but 
readily  lent  him  money.  Accordingly,  in  April  1785 
Schiller  left  Mannheim,  and  for  some  months  he  lived  at 
Qohlis,  a  village  in  the  Rosenthal,  near  Leipsic.  In  the 
summer  of  the  same  ,year  Korner  and  Minn"  Stock  were 


married,  and  settled  in  Dresden,  taking  with  them  Dora, 
Minna's  sister.  Schiller  and  Huber  also  went  to  Dresden, 
and  Schiller  remained  there  nearly  two  years.  Almost 
every  day  he  spent  the  afternoon  and  evening  at  Korner's 
house,  and  he  derived  permanent  benefit  from  this  in- 
timate intercourse  with  the  kindest  and  most  thoughtful 
friends  he  had  ever  had.  While  in  Dresden,  he  published 
in  lliatia  several  prose  writings,  auiong  others  Pkiloso- 
phische  Briefe,  in  which  he  set  forth  with  enthusiasm  some 
of  his  opinions  about  religion,  tnd  a  part  of  the  Geisler- 
seher,  a  romance,  which,  although  written  in  a'brilliant  style, 
was  so  imperfectly  planned  that  he  was  never  able  to  finish 
it.  He  also  issued  Don  Carlos,  v;hich  he  completed  early 
in  1787.  A  considerable  interval  having  passed  between 
the  writing  of  the  earlier  and  that  of  the  later  parts  of  this 
play,  Don  Carlos  represents  two  different  stages  of  intel- 
lectual and  moral  growth.  It  lacks,  therefore,  unity  of 
design  and  sentiment.  But  it  has  high  imr.ginative  quali- 
ties, and  the  Marquis  Posa,  through  whom  Schiller  gave 
utterance  to  his  ideas  regarding  social  and  political  progress, 
is  one  of  the  most  original  and  fascinating  of  his  creations. 
Posa  is  not  less  revolutionary  than  Karl  Moor,  the  hero  of 
Die  RCiubcr,  but,  while  the  latter  is  a  purely  destructive 
force,  the  former  represents  all  the  best  reconstructive 
energies  of  the  18th  century. 

In  July  1787  Schiller  went  to  Weimar,  where  he  was 
cordially  welcomed  by  Herder  and  Wieland.  For  several 
years  after  this  time  he  devoted  himself  almpst  exclusively 
to  the  study  of  history,  and  in  1788  he  published  his 
GescJticMe  des  Ah/alls  df:r  vereinig(en~JCiederla?ide  von,  der 
Spanischea  Eegierimg.  This  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
minor  historical  essays  (published'  in  Thalia),  and  by  his 
Gcschichte  des  dreissigjiikrif/en  Krieges,  which  appeared  in 
1792.  These  writings  secured  for  Schiller  a  high  place 
among  the  historians  of  his  own  time.  In  every  instance 
he  derived  his  materials  from  original  authorities,  and 
they  were  presented  with  a  freedom,  boldness,  and  energy 
which  made  them  attractive  to  all  classes  of  readers.  One 
result  of  the  publication  of  his  history  of  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands  was  his  appointment  to  a  professorship  at  the 
university  of  Jena,  where  he  delivered  his  introductory 
lecture  in  May  1789.  He  lived  in  Jena  for  about  ten 
years,  and  during  that  time  frequently  met  Fichte,  Schel- 
ling,  the  two  Schlegels,  "Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  and 
many  other  writers  eminent  in  science,  philosophy,  and 
literature. 

On  the  22d  of  Feoruary  1790  Schiller  married  Char- 
lotte von  Lengefeld,  whom  he  had  met  at  Rudolstadt  about 
two  years  before.  She  was  of  a  tender  and  affectionate 
nature,  bright  and  intelligent,  and  Schiller  found  in  her 
love  and  sympathy  a  constant  source  of  strength  and 
happiness.  They  had  four  children,  the  eldest  of  whom 
was  born  in  1793. 

About  a  year  after  his  marriage  he  was  attacked  by  a 
dangerous  illness,  and  from  this  time  he  was  always  in 
delicate  health,  sufifering  frequently  from  paroxysms  of 
almost  intolerable  pain.  In  the  autumn  of  1793  he  went 
with  his  wife  to  Wiirtemberg  in  the  hope  that  his  native 
air  might  do  him  good ;  and  he  did  not  return  to  Jena 
until  the  spring  of  the  following  year.  He  was  enabled 
to  obtain  this  period  of  rest  through  the  kindness  of  the 
hereditary  prince  of  Augustenburg  and  the  minister  Count 
von  Schimmelmann,  who  had  jointly  begged  to  be  allowed 
to  place  3000  thalers  at  his  disposal,  to  be  paid  in  yearly 
instalments  of  1000  thalers.  Schiller  heartily  enjoyed  his 
visit  to  his  native  state,  where  he  had  much  pleasant  inter- 
course with  his  father,  mother,  and  sisters,  and  with  some  of 
his  early  friends.  He  did  not  again  seehisfather  andmother, 
the  former  of  whom  died  in  1796,  the  latter  in  1802. 

The  Geschickte  des  dreissigjdhrigen  Krieges  was  the  laat 


SCHILLER. 


397 


important  Listorisal  work  writttn  by  Schiller.  He 
abandoned  history  in  order  to  study  philosophy,  which, 
under  the  impulse  communicated  by  Kant,  was  then 
exciting  keen  interest  among  the  educated  classes  of 
Germany.  Schiller's  philosophical  studies  related  chiefly 
to  aesthetics,  on  which  he  wrote  a  series  of  essays,  some  of 
them  being  printed  in  Netie  Thalia  (issued  from  1792  to 
1794),  others  in  the  Eoreii,  a  periodical  which  he  began 
in  1794  and  continued  until  1798.  The  most  remarkable 
of  these  essays  are  a  paper  on  "  Die  Aumuth  und  Wiirde," 
a  series  of  letters  addressed  to  the  prince  of  Augustenburg 
en  "  Die  asthetiscbe  Erziehung  des  Menschen,"  and  a 
treatise  on  "  Die  Naive  und  .Sentimentalische  Dichtung." 
In  philosophical  speculation  Schiller  derived  inspiration 
mainly  from  Kant,  but  he  worked  his  way  to  many 
independent  judgments,  and  his  theories  have  exercised 
considerable  influence  on  those  German  writers  who  have 
dealt  with  the  ultimate  principles  of  art  and  literature. 
Goethe  was  of  opinion  that  in  "Die  Naive  und  Senti- 
mentalische Dichtung  "  Schiller  had  laid  the  foundation  of 
modern  criticism.  In  that  powerful  essay  the  vital  dis- 
tinction between  classical  and  romantic  methods  was  for 
the  first  time  clearly  brought  out. ' 

Schiller  had  been  introduced  to  Goeth"  in  1788,  but 
they  did  not  begin  to  know  one  another  well  until  1794, 
■when  Goethe  was  attracted  to  Schiller  by  a  conversation 
they  had  after  a  meeting  of  a  scientific  society  at  Jena. 
Afterwards  their  acquaintance  quickly  ripened  into  inti- 
mate friendship.  To  Schiller  Goethe  owed  what  he  him- 
self called  "a  second  youth,"  and  tliis  debt  was  amply 
repaid,  for  by  constant  association  with  the  greatest  mind 
of  the  age  Schiller  was  encouraged  to  do  full  justice  to  his 
genius.  Moreover,  his  intellectual  life  was  enriched  by 
new  ideas,  and  he  was  led  by  Goethe's  indirect  influence 
to  balance  his  speculative  judgments  and  idealistic  concep- 
tions by  a  keener  and  more  accurate  observation  of  the 
facts  of  ordinafy  life. 

During  the  years  which  followed  his  departure  from 
M?,nnheim  Schiller  had  written  An  die  Fre-ude,  Die  Gutter 
Giiechenlands,  I)ie  Kii.nstler,  and  other  Ij'rical  poems,  all 
of  which  are  of  very  much  higher  quality  than  the  poems 
of  his  earlier  period.  But  he  had  been  so  absorbed  by 
labours  of  a  different  kind  that  ho  had  had  little  time  or 
inclination  for  his  proper  work  as  a  poet.  Now,  stimu- 
lated by  intercourse  with  Goethe,  he  began  to  long  once 
more,  for  the  free  exercise  of  his  creative  faculty ;  and 
from  1794  he  allowed  no  year  to  pass  without  adding  to 
the  list  of  his  lyrical  writings.  Among  the  lyrics  yvo- 
duced  in  this  the  last  and  greatest  period  of  his  career  the 
foremost  place  belongs  to  the  ±,ied  von  der  Gloclce,  but 
there  is  hardly  les?  imaginative  power  in  Das  Ideal  und 
das  Leben,  Die  Ideate,  Der  Spaxiergaitr;,  Der  Genius,  Die 
Erwarlung,  Das  Eleusische  Fest,  and  Cassandra.  Few  of 
Schiller's  lyrics  have  Jhe  charm  of  simple  and  spontaneous 
feeling ;  but  as  poems  giving  expression  to  the  results  of 
philosophic  contemplation  the  best  of  them  are  unsur- 
passed in  modern  literature.  Schiller  had  a  passionate 
faith  in  an  eternal  ideal  world  to  which  the  human  mind 
has  access ;  and  the  contrast  between  ideals  and  what  is 
called  reality  he  presents  in  many  different  forms.  In 
developing  the  poetic  significance  of  this  contrast  liis 
thoughts  are  always  high  and  noble,  and  they  are  offered 
in  a  style  which  is  almost  uniformly  grand  and  melodious. 

In  179G  Schiller  and  Goethe  together  wrote  for  the 
Jlvjsenalnianach  (an  annual  volume  of  poems,  issued  for 
several  years  by  Schiller)  a  series  of  epigrams  called 
Xenien,  each  consisting  of  a  distich.  Most  of  them 
were  directed  against  coutomporary  writers  wliom  the 
poets  disliked,  and  much  animosity  was  excited  by  their 
sharply   satirical  tone.      A    higher   interest   attaches   to 


Votivtafeln,  another  series  of  epigrams,  written  at  the 
same  time  as  the  Xenien.  They  are  among  the  most 
suggestive  of  Schiller's  writings,  for,  as  he  explains  in  the 
introductory  epigram,  they. embody  truths  which  he  had 
found  helpful  in  the  experience  of  life.  Soon  after  finish- 
ing these  fine  poems  SchUler  .began,  in  rivalry  with 
Goethe,  to  write  his  ballads,  which  surprised  even  bis 
most  ardent  admirers  by  the  boldness  of  their  conceptions 
and  by  the  graphic  force  of  their  diction.  As  a  writer 
of  .ballads  Goethe  yielded  the  palm  to  Schiller,  and  this 
judgment  has  been  confirmed  by  the  majority  of  later 
critics. 

Schiller  never  intended  that  Don  Carlos  should  be  hfe 
last  drama,  and  from  1791  he  worked  occasionally  at  a 
play  dealing  with  the  fate  of  Wallenstein.  He  was  unable, 
however,  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  plan  until  179S, 
when,  after  consulting  with  Goethe,  he  decided  to  divide 
it  into  three  parts,  Wallensteins  Lager,  Die  Piceolomini, 
and  Wallensteins  Tod.  Wallensteins  Lager  was  acted  for 
the  first  time  at  the  Weimar  theatre  in  October  1798,  and 
Die  Piceolomini  in  January  1799.  In  April  1799  all 
three  pieces  were  represented,  a  night  being  given  to  each. 
The  work  as  a  whole  produced  a  profound  impression,  and 
it  is  certainly  Schiller's  masterpiece  in  dramatic  literature. 
He  brings  out  with  extraordinarj'  vividness  the  ascendency 
_of  Wallenstein  over  the  wild  troops  whom  he  has  gathered 
around  him,  and  at  the  same  time  we  are  made  to  see  hov/ 
the  mighty  general's  schemes  must  necessarily  end  in  ruin, 
not  merely  because  a  plot  against  him  is  skilfully  pre- 
pared by  vigilant  enemies,  but  because  he  himself  is  lulled 
into  a  sense  of  security  by  superstitious  belief  in  his 
supposed  destiny  as  revealed  to  him  by  the  stars.  Wallen- 
stein is  the  most  subtle  and  complex  of  Schiller's  dramatic 
conceptions,  and  it  taxes  the  powers  of  the  greatest  actors 
to  present  an  adequate  rendering  of  the  motives  "which 
explain  his  strange  and  dark  career.  The  love-story  of 
Ivlax  Piceolomini  and  Thekla  is  in  its  own  way  not  less 
impressive  than  the  story  of  Wallenstein  with  which  it  is 
interwoven.  Max  and  Thekla  are  purely  ideal  figures, 
and  Schiller  touches  the  deepest  sources  of  tragic  "pity  by 
his  masterly  picture  of  their  hopeless  passion  and  of  their 
spiritual  freedom  and  integrity. 

Wallenstein  was  received  with  so  much  favour  that 
Schiller  resolved  to  devote  himself  in  future  mainly  to  the 
drama ;  and  in  order  to  be  near  a  theatre — partly,  too, 
that  ha  might  have  more  frequent  opportunities  of  inter- 
course with  Goethe — he  transferred  his  residence,  in 
December  1799,  from  Jena  to  Weimar,  where  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life.  He  took  with  him  to  Weimar  three 
acts  of  Maria  Stuart,  and  early  in  the  summer  of  ISOO 
ho  finished  it  at  Ettersburg,  a  country  house  of  the  duke 
of  Weimar.  The  technical  qualities  of  Maria  Stuart  are 
of  the  highest  order,  but  the  subject  does  not  seem  to 
have  interested  Schiller  very  deeply,  and  it  cannot  be  said 
either  that  the  characters  are  finely  conceived  or  that  the 
closing  scenes -of  Queen  Mary's  life  are  presented  in  a 
truly  poetic  spirit.  In  his  next  play,  Die  Jung f ran  von 
Orleans,  completed  about  a  year  afterwards,  Schiller  had  a 
more  congenial  theme,  and  the  vigour  with  which  ho 
handled  it  commanded  the  warm  admiration  of  Goethe. 
The  scenes  in  which  the  maid  is  misled  by  her  passion  ffr 
Lionel  are  sliglitly  perplexing,  as  they  do  not  appear  to 
accord  with  the  essential  qualities  of  her  character;  but  in 
the  earlier  and  later  parts  of  the  play  Schiller  displays 
splendid  dramatic  art  in  revealing  the  lofty  courage  and 
enthusiasm  with  which  she  fulfils  her  mission.  In  Die 
lirav.t  von  Messina,  which  was  acted  for  the  first  time  at 
the  Weimar  thoatro  in  March  1803,  Schiller  attempted  to 
combine  romantic  and  classical  elements.  The  experiment 
is  not  perfectly  successful,  and  even  in  its  most  striking 


398 


S  C  H— S  C  H 


passages  Ae  play  is  remarkable  rather  for  brilliant  rhetoric 
than  for  pure  poetry.  His  last  original  drama,  Wilhelm 
Tell,  the  first  representation  of  which  took  place  in  March 
1804,  is  in  some  respects  greater  than  any  of  those  which 
preceded  it,  Wallenstein  excepted.  It  has  some  obvious 
faults  of  construction,  but  these  defects  do  not  seriously 
mar  the  impression  produced  .by  its  glowing  picture  of  a 
romantic  and  truly  popular  struggle  for  freedom. 

Besides  his  complete  original  plays,  Schiller  left  some 
dramatic  sketches  and  fragments,  the  most  important  of 
which,  Demetrius,  has  been  finished  in  Schiller's  manner  by 
several  later  writers.  He  also  produced  German  versions 
of  Macbeth,  of  Gozzi's  Turandot,  of  two  comedies  by  Picard, 
and  oi-Phedre.  His  renderings  of  Picard's  comedies  are 
entitled  Der  Farasit  and  Der  Nefe  als  Onhel. 

In  his  last  years  Schiller  received  many  tokens  of 
growing  fame.  In  1802  he  was  raised  to  noble  rank,  and 
in  1804  he  was  informed  that  if  he  pleased  he  might  be 
invited  to  settle  in  Berlin  on  advantageous  terms.  He 
went  with  his  family  to  the  Prussian  capital,  but  the  only 
result  of  the  negotiations  into  which  he  entered  was  that 
the  duke  of  Weimar,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  losing 
him,  doubled  his  salary  of.  400  thalers.  His  health  was  at 
this  time  completely  undermined,  and  from  the  summer 
of  1804  work  was  often  rendered  impossible  by  serious 
illness.  On  the  evening  of  the  29th  April  1S05  he 
returned  from  the  Weimar  theatre  in  a  state  of  high  fever, 
and  from  this  attack  he  was  unable  to  rally.  He  died  on 
the  9th  Hay  1805,  in  his  forty-sixth  year. 

Schiller  was  tall,  slight,  and  pale,  with  reddish  hair,  and 
eyes  of  an  uncertain  colour,  between  light-brown  and  blue. 
At  the  military  academy  he  acquired  a  m.anner  somewhat 
formal,  like  that  of  a  soldier ;  but  in  carrying  on  conversa- 
tion that  interested  him  he  became  eager  and  animated. 
ila  had  little  appreciation  of  humour,  and  even  in  the 
treatment  of  subjects  which  he  made  his  own  he  was  apt 
to  recur  too  frequently  to  the  same  ideas  and  the  same 
tyjes  of  character.  But  when  he  is  at  his  best  he  is 
excelled  among  the  poets  and  dramatists  of  Germany  only 
By  Goethe  in  the  power  with  which  he  expresses  sublime 
thoughts  and  depicts  the  working  of  ideal  passions.  As 
a  man  he  was  not  less  great  than  as  a  writer.  He  started 
in  life  with  high  aims,  and  no  obstacle  was  ever  formidable 
enough  to  turn  him  from  paths  by  which  he  chose  to 
advance  to  his  goal.  Terrible  as  his  physical  sufferings 
often  were,  he  maintained  to  the  last  a  genial  and  buoyant 
temper,  and  those  who  knew  him  intimately  had  a  con- 
stantly increasing  admiration  for  his  patience,  tenderness, 
ind  charity.  With  all  that  was  deepest  and  most  humane 
m  the  thought  of  the  18th  century  he  had  ardent 
sympathy,  and  to  him  were  due  some  of  the  most  potent 
of  the  influencefe  which,  at  a  time  of  disaster  and  humilia- 
tion, helped  to  kindle  in  the  hearts  of  the  German  people  a 
Icmging  for  a  free  and  worthy  national  life. 

There  have  been  many  editions  of  Schiller's  collected  works. 
The  first  iras  issued  in  twelv-e  volumes  at  Stuttgart  and  Tiibingcn 
in  1812-15,  the  editor  heing  his  friend  C.  G.  Kbrner.  There  are 
also  a  good  many  volumes  of  Schiller's  correspondence,  the  most 
interesting  being  his  correspondence  witli  Goethe.  Of  the  bio- 
graphies of  Schiller,  Carij-le's— published  in  1S25 — was  one  of  the 
earliest.  See  also  Schillcrs  Zcbcii,  by  Frau  vou  Wolzogen,  Schiller's 
sister-in-Uw ;  Schillcrs Lcbcn,  by  HofTmeister  (extended  by  Vielioff) ; 
Schillers  Lehcn,  by  Boas  ;  Schillers  Lcbcn  niui  H'crkc,  by  Palleske  ; 
Schillcrs  Lclcn,  by  H.  Duntzer ;  and  Schiller,  by  J.  Sime  (in 
"Foreign  Classics  for  English  Readers").  (J.  ST.) 

SCHINKEL,  Kakl  Feiedeich  (1781-1841),  architect 
and  painter,  and  professor  in  the  academy  of  fine  arts  at 
Berlin  from  1820,  was  born  at  Keuruppin,  in  Brandenburg, 
on  March  13,  1781,  and  died  at  E^erlin,  on  October  9,  1841. 
Ha  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  original  of  modern  German 
architects.  His  principal  buildings  are  in  Ber'lin  {q.v.) 
and  its  neighbourhood.     They  include  the  Bauakademie, 


which  contains  a  museum  of  his  designs.  His  Sammlung 
architektonUchcr  Entioiirfe  {\%2Q-\%Z1  ;  3d  ed.  1857-58) 
and  Werke  der  Iwheren  Baukunst  (1845-6;  new  ed.  1874) 
exemplify  his  style. 

SCHIRMER,  Friedkich  Wjlhelm  (1802-1866),  land- 
scape artist,  was  born  in  1802  in  Berlin.  As  a  youth  he 
painted  flowers  in  the  royal  porcelain  factory ;  afterwards 
he  became  a  pupil  of  F.  W.  Schadow  in  the  Berlin 
Academy,  but  his  art  owed  most  to  Italy.  His  first 
journey  across  the  Alps  was  taken  in  1827  ;  his  sojourn 
extended  over  three  years ;  he  became  a  disciple  of  his 
countryman  Joseph  Koch,  who  built  historic  landscape  on 
the  Poussins,  and  is  said  to  have  caught  inspiration  from 
Turner.  In  1831  Schirmer  established  himself  in  Berlin  in 
a  studio  with  scholars  ;  in  1839  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  landscape  in  the  academy;  in  1845  he  again  visited 
Italy,  but  duties  soon  brought  him  back  to  Berlin.  Illness 
compelled  him  in  1S65  to  seek  a  southern  clime;  he  grew 
worse  in  Piome,  and  died  on  his  way  home  in  1866. 

Schirmer's  place  in  the.history  of  art  is  distinctive  :  his  sketches 
in  Italy  were  more  than  transcripts  of  tlie  spots  ;  he  studied  nature 
V.  ith  the  purpose  of  composing  historic  and  poetic  landscapes.  On 
the  completion  of  the  Berlin  Museum  of  Antiquities  came  his 
opportunity  :  upon  the  walls  he  painted  classic  sites  and  temples, 
and  elucidated  the  collections  by  the  landscape  scenery  with  wnich 
they  were  historically  associated.  His  supreme  aim  at  all  times  was 
to  make  his  art  the  poetic  interpretation  of  nature.  His  pictures 
.^ppcal  to  the  mind  by  the  ideas  they  embody,  by  beauty  of  form, 
harmony  of  line,  significance  of  light  and  colour.  In  this  construc- 
tional landscape  German  critics  discover  " motive,''  *'innermeau* 
ing,"  "the  subjective,"  "the  ideal."  And  Schirmer  thus  formed 
a  school.  Nevertheless  at  times  he  painted  poor  pictures,  partly 
because  ho  deemed  technique  secondai-y  to  conception. ' 

SCHIRMER,  JoHANN  Wilhelm  (1807-1853),  land- 
scape painter,  was  born  in  1807,  at  Jiilich  in  Ehenish 
Prussia.  This  artist,  only  a  namesake  of  the  preceding;  had 
similar  aim  and  career.  He  first  was  a  student,  and  subse. 
quently  became  a  professor  in  the  academy  of  Diisseldorf. 
In  1854  he  was  made  director  of  the  art  school  at  Carlsruhe, 
where  in  1863  he  died.  He  travelled  and  sketched  iu 
Italy,  and  aimed  at  historic  landscape  after  the  manner  of 
the  Poussins.  His  Biblical  landscapes  with  figures  are  held 
in  good  esteem. 

SCHIZOMYCETES,  a  term  proposed  by  Xageli  in  1857 
to  include  all  those  minute  organisms  known  as  Bacteria, 
Microphytes,  Microbes,  ic,  and  allied  forms.  These  terms 
have  been  used  at  various  times  by  different  authors  with 
widely  different  meanings  in  detail,  but  it  is  now  agreed  that 
the  Schizomycetes  are  minute  vegetable  organisms  devoid 
of  chlorophyll  and  multiplying  by  repeated  bipartitions. 
They  consist  of  single  cells,  which  may  be  spherical,  oblong, 
or  cylindrical  in  shape,  or  of  filamentous  or  other  aggre- 
gates of  such  cells.  True  spores  occur  in  several,  but  na 
trace  whatever  of  sexual  organs  exists.  From  their  mode 
of  growth,  division,  and  spore-formation  (in  part),  as  well 
as  their  habit  of.  forming  deliquescent,  swollen  cell-walls, 
and  other  peculiarities,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  close 
alliance  between  the  Schizomycetes  and  certain  lower 
Alyx;  whence  both  groups  have  been  conjoined  under  the 
name  Schizopht/ta.  No  one  character  except  the  want  of 
chlorophyll — which  of  course  entails  physiological  differ^ 
ences — separates  the  Schizomycetes  from  other  Schuophyia; 
morphologically  and  phylogenetically  the  two  groups  ar? 
united.  From  this  point  of  view  we  relegate  all  the  so- 
called  bacteria  which'  contain  chlorophyll  (f.y.,  Engelmann'a 
Bacterium  chlorinum,  Van  Tieghem's  B.  viride  and  Bacillui 
firens,  Cohn's  Micrococcus  chlorinus,  ic.)  to  the  Atgx. 

Schizomycetes,  then,  are  saprophytic  or  parasitic  Schizo- 
jyhyta  devoid  of  chlorophyll,  though  they  may  secrete  othei 
colouring  matters.  In  size  their  cells  are  commonly  abou< 
0-001  mm.  (called  1  micro-millimetre  =  Ifi)  in  diameter,  or 
from  two  to  five  times  that  length  ;  but  smaller  ones  and 


SCHIZCilYCETES 


399 


a  few  larger  are  knoivn.  The  various  shapes  assumed  by 
the  celh  are  shown  in  fig.  1  ;  the  filamentous  and  other 
aggregates  will  be  described  below. 


Flo.  1. — Typical  (ornis  of  SchlzomjTotcs.  (Aft«r  Zopf.)  a,  Jl/icrococcvi ;  b, 
Macroeoccus  or  "  Monas  " ;  r,  Baelerium  ;  d,  Daciltus ;  e,  Clostridium ;  /, 
Uortai  okaiii;  g,  Leplothrix;  A,  i,  Vibrio;  i,  Spirillum',  /,  "Spirvlijia"  (a 
fonil  of  Bfggiatoa  alba);  m,  ** Spiromonas"  (\VamiIng);  n,  Spirochicte',  0, 
CladotkHx.    The  granules  in  b, /,  and  /  are  paiticlea  of  6u!piiur. 

/ener^  Schizomycetes  are  ubiquitous  as  saprophytes  m  still 
'"^'"St-  ponds  and  ditches,  in  running  streams  and  rivers,  and  in 
the  sea,  and  especially  in  drains,  bogs,  refuse  heaps,  and  in 
the  soil,  and  wherever  organic  infusions  are  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  short  time.  Any  liquid  (blood,  urine,  milk, 
beer,  ic.)  containing  organic  matter,  or  any  r=olid  food- 
stuff (meat,  preserves,  vegetables,  &c.),  allowed  to  stand 
exposed  to  the  air  soon  swarms  with  bacteria,  if  moisture 
is  present  and  the  temperature  not  abnormal.  Though 
they  occur  all  the  world  over  in  the  air  and  on  the  surface 
of  exposed  bodies,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  they  are  by 
any  means  equally  distributed,  and  it  is  questionable 
whether  the  bacteria  suspended  in  the  air  ever  exist  in 
such  enormous  quantities  as  was  once  believed.  The 
evidence  to  hand  shows  that  on  heights  and  in  open 
country,  especially  in  the  north,  there  may  be  few  or  even 
no  Schizomycetes  detected  in  the  air,  and  even  in  towns 
their  distribution  varies  greatly  ;  sometimes  they  appear  to 
exi.st  in  minute  clouds,  as  it  were,  with  interspaces  devoid 
of  any,  but  in  laboratories  and  closed  spaces  where  their 
cultivation  has  been  promoted  the  air  may  be  considerably 
laden  with  them.  Of  course  the  distribution  of  bodies  so 
I'ght  and  small  is  easily  influenced  by  movements,  rain, 
■wind,  changes  of  temperature,  itc.  As  parasites,  certain 
Schizomycetes  inhabit  and  prey  upon  the  organs  of  men 
and  animals  in  varying  degrees,  and  the  conditions  for 
their  growth  and  distribution  are  then  very  complex. 
Plants  appear  to  be  less  subject  to  their  attacks, — possibly, 
as  has  been  suggested,  because  the  acid  fluids  of  the 
higher  vegetable  organisms  are  less  suited  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Schizomycetes ;  nevertheless  some  are  known  to 
be  parasitic  on  plants.  Schizomycetes  exist  in  every  part 
of  the  alimentary  canal  of  animals,  except,  perhaps,  where 
acid  secretions  jirevail ;  these  are  by  no  means  necessarily 
harmful,   though,  by  destroying   the  teeth   for   instDnce, 


certain    forms    may   incidentally   be   the   forerunners  of 
damage  which  they  do  not  directly  cause.' 

Little  was  known  about  these  extremely  minute  organ-  Historji 
isms  before  1860.  Leeuwenhoek  figured  Bacteria  as  far 
back  as  the  17th  century,  and  O.  F.  Miiller  knew  several 
important  forms  in  1773,  while  Ehrenberg  in  1830  had 
advanced  to  the  commencement  of  a  scientific  separation 
and  grouping  of  them,  and  in  1838  had  proposed  at  least 
sixteen  species,  distributing  them  into  four  genera.  Our 
modern  more  accurate  though  still  fragmentary  knowledge 
of  the  forms  of  Schizomycetes,  however,  dates  from  Cohn's^ 
brilliant  researches,  the  chief  results  of  which  were  pub- 
lished at  various  periods  between  1853  and  1872 ;  Cohn's 
classification  of  the  Bacteria,  published  in  1872  and  ex- 
tended in  1875,  has  in  fact  dominated  the  study  of  these 
organisms  almost  ever  since.  He  proceeded  in  the  main 
on  the  assumption  that  the  forms  of  Bacteria  as  met  with 
and  described  by  him  are  practically  constant,  at  any  rate 
within  limits  which  are  not  v/ide  :  observing  that  a  minute 
spherical  Micrococctts  or  a  rod-like  Ba;iUus  regularly  pro- 
duced similar  micrococci  and  bacilli  respectively,  he  based 
his  classification  on  what  may  be  considered  the  constancy 
of  forms  which  he  called  species  and  genera.  As  to  the 
constancy  of  form,  however,  Cohn  maintained  certain  reser- 
vations which  have  been  ignored  by  some  of  his  followers. 
The  fact  that  Schizomycetes  produce  spores  appears  to 
have  been  discovered  by  Cohn  in  1857,  though  it  was 
expressed  dubiously  in  1872;  these  spore?  had  no  doubt 
been  observed 'previously.  In  1876,  however,  Cohn  had 
seen  the  spores  germinate,  and  Koch,  Brefeld,  Pratzmowski, 
Van  Tieghem,  De  Bary,  and  others  confirmed  the  discovery 
in  various  species. 

The  supposed  constancy  of  forms  in  Cohn's  species  and 
genera  received  a  violent  shock  when  Lankester  in  1873 
pointed  out  that  his  Bacterium  rubescens  (since  named 
Bcagiatoa  r6seo-j}ersici7ia,  Zopf)  passes  through  conditions 
which  would  have  been  described  by  most  observers  influ- 
enced by  the  current  doctrine  as  so  many  separate  "  species" 
or  even  "  genera," — that  in  fact  forms  known  as  Bacterium, 
Micrococcus,  Bacillus,  Leptotkrix,  ic,  occur  as  phases  in 
one  life-history.  Lister  put  forth  similar  ideas  about  the 
same  time;  and  Billroth  came  forward  in  1S7-1  with  the 
startling  view  that  the  various  "  form  species  "  and  "form- 
genera"  are  only  different  states  of  one  and  the  same 
organism.  'From  that  time  to  the  present  the  discussion 
as  to  the  limits  of  "  species  "  among  the  Schizomycetes  has 
been  maintained  ;  much  extravagance  has  resulted,  as  well 
as  valuable  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  forms. 
Klebs  (1875)  and  Niigeli  (1877)  upheld  similar  views  to 
those  suggested  by  Lankester  ;  and  the  researches  of  Cien- 
kowski,  Zopf,  Kurth,  and  De  Bary  have  rendered  it  clear 
that  forms  employed  by  Cohn  to  define  genera  and  species 
(it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Cohn  recognized  their 
provisional  nature)  occur  as  phases  in  one  and  the  same 
life-history.  Zopf  showed  (1882)  that  minute  spherical 
" cocci,'' (ihort  rodlets  ("bacteria"),  longer  rodlcts  ("ba- 
cilli"), and  filamentous  ("leptothrix ")  forms  as  well  as 
curved  and  spiral  threads  ("vibrio,"  "spirillum"),  &c., 
occur  as  vegetative  stages  in  one  and  the  same  Schizomy- 
cote  (r/.  fig.  16).  In  the  meantime,  while  various  observers 
were  building  up  our  knowledge  of  the  morphology  of  the 
Schizomycetes,  others  were  laying  the  foundations  of  what 
is  known  of  the  relations  of  these  organisms  to  fermenta- 

^  See  De  Bary,  Morphologie  und  Biologic  dcr  Pilzf,  1884,  and 
Vorlcsunffcn  iibcr  Bacterirn,  1S85  ;  Zopf,  Vie  Spaltpihc,  3d  ed., 
1885;  Cohn,  Beilr.  tur  Biol,  dcr  I'J!.,  Hft.  2,  1872;  Magiiin,  Lcs 
Bacth-ies,  1878  ;  Burdon-Sandcrson,  Quart.  Jour.  Micros.  Sc.^  1871  ; 
Tyndall,  Floating  Matter  of  (he  Air,  1881  ;  .Miflct,  in  Cohn's  Beitr. 
zur  Biul.,  iii.  nft.  i.,  1S79  ;  Pasteur,  Jour,  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys., 
ser.  iii.,  18G2  ;  Jliqvicl,  Comptes  Rendus,  1878,  and  Annua'rc  de  I'ob- 
scTvatoirt  de  MonCsouris,  1377  sq. 


400 


SCHIZOMYCETES 


tioii  and  disease, — that  ancient  Will-o'-tlic-wisp  "spontane- 
ous generation'"  being  revived  by  the  way.  When  Pas- 
teur in  1857  showed  that  the  lactic  fermentation  depends 
on  the  presence  of  an  organism,  it  was  already  Icnown  from 
the  researches  of  Schwann  (1837)  and  Helmholtz  (1843) 
that  fermentation  and  putrefaction  are  -  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  ]iresonce  of  organisms  derived  from  the 
air,  and  tliat  the  preservation  of  putrescible  substances  de- 
pends on  this  principle.  In  1862  Pasteur  placed  it  beyond 
reasonable  doubt  that  the  ammoniacal  fei-mentation  of  urea 
is  due  to  the  action  of  a  minute  Schizomycete ;  in  1864 
this  was  confirmed  by  Van  Tieghem,  and  in  1874  by 
Colin,  who  named  the  organism  ilicrococcuc  urese.  Pasteur 
and  Cohn  also  pointed  out  that  putrefaction  is  but  a 
special  case  of  fermentation,  and  before  1872  the  doctrines 
of  Pasteur  were  established  with  respect  to  Schizomycetes. 
Jleanwhilo  two  branches  of  inquiry  had  arisen,  so  to  speak, 
from  the  above.  In  the  first  place,  the  ancient  Cjuestion 
of  "  spontaneous  generation  "  received  fresh  impetus  from 
the  difficulty  of  keeping  such  minute  organisms  as  bacteria 
from  reaching  and  developing  in  organic  infusions;  and, 
secondly,  the  long-suspected  analogies  between  the  pheno- 
mena of  fermentation  and  those  of  certain  diseases  again 
made  themselves  felt,  as  both  became  better  understood. 
Needhair  in'  1745  had  declared  that  heated  infusions  of 
organic  matter  were  not  deprived  of  living  beings;  Spal- 
lanzani  (1777)  tad  replied  that  more  careful  heating  and 
other  precaution?  prevent  the  appearance  of  organisms  in 
the  fluids.  Va.'ious  experiments  by  Schwann,  Helmholtz, 
Schultz,  Schroeler,  Dusch,  and  others  led  to  the  refutation, 
step  by  step,  Q.f  the  belief  that  the  more  minute  organ- 
isms, and,  partieuiarly  bacteria,  aro.?o  de  novo  in  tlie  special 
cases  quoted.  Neverthele.ss,  instances  were  adduced  where 
the  most  careful  heating  of  yolk  of  egg,'  milk,  hay- 
infasions,  Ac,  had  failed, — the  boiled  ijifusions,  Szc,  turn- 
ing putrid  and  swarming  with  Schizomycetes  after  a  few 
liours. 

In  1862  Pasteur  repeated  and  e.\tended  such  experi- 
ments, and  paved  the  wayfor  a  complete  explanation  of 
the  anomalies;  Cohn  in  1872  published  confirmatory 
results ;  and  it  became  clear  that  no  putrefaction  can  take 
place  without  Schizomycetes.  In  the  hands  of  Brefeld, 
Burdon-Sanderson,  De  Bary,  Tyndall,  Pioberts,  Lister, 
and  others,  the  various  links  in  the  chain  of  evidence 
grew  stronger  and  stronger,  and  every  case  adduced  as 
one  of  "  spontane.ous  generation  "  fell  to  the  ground  when 
examined.  No  case  of  so-called  "spontaneous  genera- 
tion "  has  withstood  rigid  investigation  ;  but  the  discussion 
contributed  to  more  exact  ideas  as  to  the  vibiquity, 
minutenes.^,  and  high  powers  of  resistance  to  physical 
agents  of  the  spores  of  Schizomycetes,  and  led  to  more 
exact  ideas  of  antiseptic  treatments.  Methods  were  also 
improved,  and  the  application  of  some  of  them  to  surgery 
at  the  hands  of  Lister, "Koch,  and  others  has  yielded  results 
of  the  highest  importance. 

'  Long  before  any  clear  ideas  as  to  the  relations  of 
Schizomycetes  to  fermentation  and  disease  were  possible, 
various  thinkers  at  different  times  liad  suggested  that 
resemblances  exist  betvv'een  the  phenomena  of  certain 
diseases  and  those  of  fermentation,  and  the  idea  that  a 
virus  or  contagium  might  be  something  of  the  nature  of  a 
minute  organism  capable  of  spreading  and  reproducing 
itself  had  been  entertained.  Such  vague  notions  began 
to  take  more  definite  shape  as  the  ferment  theory  of 
Cagniard-Latour  (1828), i  Schwann  (1837),  and  Pasteur 
made  way,  espc.ially  in  the  hands  of  the  last-named 
savant.  From  about  1870  onwards  the  "germ  theory  of 
disease"  has  passed  into  acceptance.  Bayer  in-  1850  and 
Davaine  had  observed  the  bacilli  in  the  blood  of  animals 
dead  of  anthrax  (splenic  fever),  and  PoUender  discovered 


them  anew  in  1855.  In  1863,  imbued  with  ideas  derived 
from  Pasteur's  researches  on  fermentation,  Davaine  re- 
investigated the  matter,  and  put  forth  the  opinion  that 
the  anthrax  bacilli  caused  the  splenic  fever ;  this  was 
proved  to  result  from  inoculation^  Koch  in  1876  put-* 
lishc-d  his  observations  on  Davaine's  bacilli,  placed  beyond 
doubt  their  causal  relation  to  splenic  lever,  discovered  the 
spores  and  the  saprophytic  phase  in  the  life-history  of  the 
organism,  and  cleared  up  important  points  in  the  whole 
question  (figs.  10  and  ll).  In  1870  Pasteur  had  proved 
that  a  disease  of  silkworms  was  due  to  a  ferment-organism 
of  the  nature  of  a  Schizomycete  ;  and  in  1871  Oertel  showed 
that  a  Ilicroeocciis  already  known  to  e.xist  in  diphtheria  is 
intimately  concerned  in  producing  that  disease.  In  1872, 
therefore,  Cohn  was  already  justified  in  grouping  together 
a  number  of  "pathogenous"  Schizomycetes.  Thus  arose 
the  foundations  of  the  modern  "germ,  theory  of  disease"; 
and,  in  the  midst  of  the  wildest  conjectures  and  the  worst 
of  logic,  a  nitcleus  of  facts  was  won,  which  has  since 
grown,  and  is  growing  daily.  Septicoeniia,  tuberculosis, 
glanders,  fowl-cholera,  relapsing  fever,  and  a  few  other 
diseases  are  now  brought  definitely  within  the  range  of 
biology,  and  several  other  contagious  and  infectious 
diseases  are  Icnown  to  be  also  due  to  Schizomycetes. ' 

Other  questions  of  the  highest  importance  have  arisen 
"from  the  foregoing.  A  few  years  ago  Pasteur  showed" 
that  Bacillus  anihracis  cultivated  in  chicken  broth,  with 
plenty  of  oxygen,  and  at  a  temperature  of  42-43°  C.  lost 
its  virulence  after  a  few  "  generations,"  and  ceased  to  kill 
even  the  moliso ;  Toussaint  and  Chaveau  confirmed,  and 
others  have  extended  the  observations.  More  remarkable 
still,  animals  inoculated  with  such  "  attenuated "  bacilli 
proved  to  be  curiously  resistent  to  the  deadly  effects  of 
sub-sequ'ent  inoculations  of  the  non-attenuated  form.  In 
other  words,  animals  vaccinated  with  the  cultivated  bacillus 
showed  immunity  from  disease  when  reinoculated  with 
the  deadly  wild  form.  The  questions  as  to  the  causes  and 
nature  of  the  changes  in  the  bacillus  and  in  th&host,  as  to 
the  extent  of  immunity  enjoyed  by  the  latter,  &c.,  are  now 
burning, — Metschnikoti's  recent  observations  (1884),  show- 
ing that  the  white  corpuscles  eliminate  the  bacilli  from  the 
blood,  being  one  of  the  most  startling  contributions  to 
the  answers. 

Another  burning  question  has  already  been  in  part 
touched  upon.  Experiments  have  shown  that  Schizomy- 
cetes are  pleomorphic ;  they  are  also  very  sensitive,  so  to 
speak,  to  the  influences  of  the  environment.  The  investi- 
gations of  Cohn,  Pasteur,  Koch,  Nageli,  Kurth,  De  Bary, 
and  others  leave  no  doubt  that  many  Schizomycetes  are 
sensibly  affected  by  the  media  in  which  they  are  cultivated : 
not  only  are  the  forms  modified,  but  also  the  physiological 
activity  varies  in  degree,  and  even  in  kind.  These  and 
similar  facts  seem  to  be  largely  responsible  for  recent  ideas  ■ 
as  to  the  possibility  of  being  able  to  cultivate  or  "  educate  " 
certain  Schizomycetes.  One  case  only  need  be  referred 
to.  BacilUis  anihracis  and  B.  suhtilis  are  only  distinguish- 
able with  great  difficulty  morphologically  (f/.  figs.  10-12); 
the  former  is  parasitic  in  its  vegetative  stages,  the  latter 
is  always  a  saprophyte.  Kow  B.  anihracis,  as  said,  can 
liceome  liarmless  by  cultivation,  and  so  it  has  been  thought 
that  the  two  forms  were  convertible.  Buchner  even  went 
so  far  as  to  declare  that  he  had  transformed  B.  anihracis 
into  B.  sithtilii,  i.e.,  tliat  the  differences  which  botanists 
detect  are  only  due  to  the  influence  of  the  environment  at 
the  time.  These  assertions  cannot  be  regarded  as  proved ; 
but  the  question  whether  harmless  forms  can  become  edu- 
cated, as  it  were,  to  a  parasitic  mode  of  life  within  periods 
which  we  can  control  is  of  course  of  the  highest  import- 
ance. Such  are  a  few  of  the  questions  now  under  discussion, 
together  with  others  as  to  the  mode  of  action  of  oatho- 


S  C  H  I  Z  O  M  Y  C  E  T  E  S 


401 


genie  Schizomycetes,  as  to  the  nature  of  immunity,  and  as 
to  the  limitation  of  "  species  "  among  such  simple  forms.^ 

MoKPHOLOGY. — Sizes,  Forms,  Sti-ucfui-e,  <L-c. — The  Schizo- 
mycetes consist  of  single  cells,  or  of  filamentous  or  other 
groups  of  cells,  according  as  the  divisions  are  completed 
at  once  or  not.     While  some  unicellular  forms  are  less  than 
Size.  1/x  (•001  mm.)  in  diameter,  others  have  cells  measuring  4/j, 

or  5/i  or  even  7/x  or  8/t  in  thickness,  while  the  length  may 
vary  from  that  of  the  diameter  to  many  times  that  measure- 
ment. In  the  filamentous  forms  the  individual  cells  are 
often  difficult  to  observe  until  reagents  are  applied  {e.g., 
fig.  14),  and  the  length  of  the  rows  of  cylindrical  cells  may 
be  many  hundred  times  greater  than  .the  breadth.  Simi- 
larly, the  diameters  of  flat  or  spheroidal  colonies  may  vary 
from  a  few  times  to  many  hundred  times  that  of  the  indivi- 
dual cells,  the  divisions  of  which  have  produced  the  colony. 
form  and  The  shape  of  the  individual  cell  (fig.  1)  varies  from  that  of 
str^c'are.  a  minute  sphere  to  that  of  a  straight,  curved,  or  twisted 
filament  or  cylinder,  which  is  not  necessarily  of  the  same 
diameter  throughout,  and  may  have  flattened,  rounded,  or 
even  pointed  ends.  The  rule  ia  that  the  cells  divide  in 
one  direction  only — i.e.,  transverse  to  the  long  axis — and 
therefore  produce  aggregates  of  long  cylindrical  shape ; 
but  in  rarer  cases  iso-diaraetric  cells  divide  in  two  or 
three  directions,  producing  flat,  or  spheroidal,  or  irregular 
colonies,  the  size  of  which  is  practically  unlimited.  As  to 
the  structure  of  the  cell,  little  more  can  be  said  than  that 
it  consists  of  a  mass  of  homogeneous  or  very  slightly 
granular  protoplasm,  with  a  pearl-like  lustre,  and  without 
vacuoles ;  this  is  enveloped  by  a  membranous  envelope, 
which  is  so  delicate  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  In  the 
actively  vegetating  or  mobile  conditions-  this  cell  wall 
appears  very  thin  and  sharp,  and  is  extremely  flexible  and 
elastic,  but  at  other  times  it  is  swollen  and  diffluent,  fur- 
■  nishing  the  intereellular  gelatinous  matrix  of  the  zooglcea 
condition  (fig.  3).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  thin  envelope 
closely  applied  to  the  protoplasm  is  not  always  simply  the 
innermost  layer  of  a  very  diffluent  covering,  which  is  con- 
tinuously thickening  and  throwing  off  its  outermost 
swollen  and  disorganized  lamella;.  The  facts  to  hand 
seem  to  show  that,  while  in  so'me  cases  this  envelope 
consists  mainly  of  cellulose,  in  others  (zooglcea  of  Bacteria, 
e.g.)  it  contains  relatively  large  proportions  of  nitrogenous 
compounds.  In  some  cases  the  cell-walls  form  a  lamel- 
lated  sheath.  No  cuticularization  occurs,  nor  are  deposits 
of  lime  or  silex  known  in  the  cell  walls.  Colouring 
pigments,  however  (red,  yellow,  and  even  green  and  blue), 
are  sometimes  met  with,  and  a  rusty  or  brown  tinge  is  in 
some  cases  produced  by  the  precipitation  of  iron  oxides  in 
the  walls.  ■  In  the  typical  Schizomycetes  the  protoplasmic 
contents  (which  aVe  said  to  consist  largely  of  a  peculiar 
substance  named  mycoprotein)  are  colourless,  or  more 
rarely  tinged  with  colouring  matters — bright  red,  yellow, 
ic. — which  cannot  be  mistaken  for  chlorophyll.  The  few 
forms  described  as  containing  a  green  pigment,  allied  to 
or  identical  with  chlorophyll,  will  not  bo  considered  here, 
but  relegated  to  the  Alya:.  The  occurrence  of  starch  or  a 
granulose-like  substance  in  some  Bacteria  is  undoubted ; 
it  yields  a  deep  blue  colour  with  iodine  solutions,  is 
dlBused  in  bands  or  patches,  and  arises  in  cases  whero 

*  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  compare  Napeli,  Vntcrsuchtnffen  iihcr 
nkdcrc  Pilze,  18S2  ;  Buclmer,  iiid.,  and  in  Virch.  Arch.,  xci.,  1883; 
NogBli,  Theoric  dcr  O/ihruT^j,  1879  ;  Cliaveau  in  Comples  Rcndus, 
1879-1884  ;  Davaine,  ibid.,  1863-64  and  1873  ;  E.  Ray  Lankcster, 
Quart.  Jour,  of  Micros.  So.,  1873  and  1870  (also  valuable  papers 
in  Q.  J.  if.  S.  from  1870  to  1884)  ;  Pa.steur,  numerous  papers  in 
Compici  ifciirfus— especially  1SC2  and  1877— and  in  Ann.  dc  Chim. 
el  Fhys.,  1S58,  1862,  ic;  Koch  in  Cohns  Bcitr.,  ii.  lift.  2,  1876; 
Kurtli,  5c<.  Zeitunn,  1883;  Scliiitzonberger,  Ferincntation,  1876; 
Mclr.ctmil;cff,  Virch.  ylrcA.,  1384  ;  Xature,  various  papers  from  1S71 
«1878.      ^,_„. 


the  Schizomyceto  is  nourished  by  a  matrix  which  does  not 
contain  starch.  Trecul  noticed  this  formation  of  amyloid 
substance  in  Clostridium,  Van  Tieghem  in  a  Spirilhim, 
and  several  other  eases  are  known  ;  Ward  detected  s'.arcli 
in  a  Bticillus  found  in  decaying  cofTee  seeds,  and  in  other 
media  devoid  of  starch.  In  the  filamentous  Schizomycetes 
{Bcggiatoa,  e.g.)  are  found  extremely  minute  dark  gran- 
ules ;  Cramer  and  Cohn  have  shown  that  these  consist  of 
sulphur  in  fine  crystals  (fig.  14).  Oily  or  fatty  substances 
and  minute  granules  of  undetermined  nature  occur  in  the 
protoplasm,  but  no  nucleus  has  as  yet  been  discovered  in 
any  Schizomycete.  . 

Vegetative  States. — While   many   forms  arc  fixed  to  a  Vc^itativs 
substratum,    others    are  free ;   and  in  certain    conditions  s'ltes. 
single  cells  or  groups  may  be  motile.     In  some  cases  the 
movements  are  mere  oscillation.?,  in  others  there  are  rapid 
movements  of  translation,  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  action 
of  flagella  or  cilia ;  these  movements  are  of  course  not  to 
be   confounded    with    the   dancing    "  Brownian    motion " 
observed  in  the  case  of  all  such  minute  bodies  suspended 
in  fluids.     Cilia  have  now  been  described  in  some  of  the 
smallest  Bacteria  by  several  good  observers  (Dallinger  and 
Drysdale,"  Cohn,  Koch,  Zopt),  though,  on  account  of  their 
extreme  fineness,  and  the  difiiculty  of   fi.xing  them,  muck 
discussion       has 
taken     place    as 
to    their   nature, 
functions,  origin^ 
numbers,        and 
even    •existence ; 
that    they   occur 
is  proved  by  the 
photographs,  but 
whether  they  are 
not      sometimes 
mere     •  filaments 
drawn  out  from 
the   cell-walls    is 
very        doubtful 
(figs.  2  and  12). 
While  some  Schi- 
zomycetes appear 
to  have  no  active 
stage,  and  many 
are    only   motile 
under        certain 
conditions    when 

swarming,  others   Fia.  2.— Types  ot  motile  ana  ciliated  terms  of  Schizo- 

are  described  as 
possessing  two  or 
even  three  dis- 
tinctactiveforms. 
When  vigorously 
growing  and  di- 
viding, the  Schi- 
zomycetes   as    a 

rule  present  certain  definite  forms,  which  are  it  any  rate 
so  constant  under  constant  conditions  that  they  can  bo 
figured  and  described  with  such  accracy  and  certainty 
that  good  observers  have  regarded  them  as  fixed  species, 
or  at  least  as  "  form-species  "  or  "  form-genera,"  We  now 
know,  however,  that  many  Schizomycetes  pass  througii 
several  such  phases,  and  we  may  therefore  regard  them  in 
these  cases  as  "  vegetative  forms, '  which  piass  into  ono 
another  too  gradually  to  admit  of  their  being  employed  as 
sharply  distinctive  of  genera. 

As   the  chief   of  these   forms   may    be  mentioned  the 
following  (see  fig.  1) : — 


mycetes,  (After  Zopf.)  1,  MUrocnccus  with  one 
ciiiiira;  2,  the  same  dividing;  ;!,  group  of  swarmtofj 
macrococci  of  Bcf/giatoa  roico-pci'sUnia  (Itacteritifit 
fub^sceni  of  Lanlie&ter) ;  4,  bncterlum-illio  motile 
form  of  the  annne  ;  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  otlier  forms  of  tho 
same  (3  is  dividing) ;  6,  bncillusllitc  motile  form 
(Koeh) ;  G,  motile  chain  of  hay  bacilli  (HrcfLld) — each 
terminal  rodlet  has  one  cilinm;  11,  spirillurn  form 
with  one  cilium  ot  each  end  ;  i?,  stouter  spirilluni- 
like  form  with  two  cilia  at  each  end;  1.3,  "cpltiito- 
rnonas"  form  (Warmliu;).  Tho  irrftnulcs  in  3,  4,  7,  B, 
9,  12,  and  13  aro  part'clcs  of  sulphur. 


'  Dallinger  aud  Diysdalc, 


Montldy  Micros.  Jour.,  1S7{ 

XXI.  —  SI 


402 


SCHIZOBIYCETES 


Cocci:  si>hcrical  or  spheroidal  ..  Us,  which,  according  to  their 
rcUtivo  (not  very  well  defined)  sizes  are  spoken  of  as  Micro- 
cocci. Macrococci,  and  perhaps  Monas  forms. 

j  ods  or  rodUis :  slightly  or  more  considerably  elongated  cells 
which  are  cylindrical,  biscuit-shaped,  or  somewhat  fu^form. 
The  cylindrical  forms  are  short,  i.e.,  only  three  or  four 
times  as  long  as  broad  {Bacterium),  or  longer  {Bacillus) ;  the 
biscuit-shaped  ones  are  Badcria  in  the  early  stages  of  divi- 
sion.    Clostridia,  kc,  are  spindle-shaped. 

Jilamcnis  {Lcptothrix  forms)  really  consist  of  elongated  cylindii- 
cal  cells  which  remain  united  end  to  end  after  division,  and 
they  may  break  up  later  into  elements  each  as  those 
described  above.  Such  filaments  arc  not  always  of  the 
same  diameter  throughout,  and  their  segmentation  varies 
considerably.  They  may  be  free,  or  attached  at  one  {the' 
"  basal ")  end.  A  distinction  is  made  between  simple  fila- 
ments (  e.g.,  Lcptotlirix)  and  such  as  exhibit  a  false  branch- 
\}\g{c.g.,  Cladothrix). 

Curved  and  spiral  forms.  Any  of  the  elongated  forms  described 
rbove  may  be  curved,  or  sinuous,  or  twisted  into  a  corkscrew- 
like  s]nral  instead  of  straight.  If  the  sinuosity  is  slight  we 
have  the  Vibrio  form;  if  pronounced,  and  the  spiral  wind- 
ing well  marked,  the  forms  are  known  as  Spirillum, 
Spirochete,  kc.  These  and  similar  terms  have  been  applied 
partly  to  indiWdual  cells,  but  more  often  to  filaments  con- 
sisting of  several  cells ;  aud  much  confusion  has  arisen  from 
the  difficulty  of  defining  the  terms  themselves.  Various 
observers  have,  moreover,  described  particular  cases  where 
tho  cells  or  ceU-"filament3  exhibit  irregularities  of  form  ; 
such  "involution  forms,"  "toinila  forms,"  kc,  appear  to  be 
fairly  constant  in  some  cases. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  hpwever,  certain  Schizomycetes  present 
aggregates  in  the  form  of  plates,  or  solid  or  hollow  and  irregular 


Growth  and  Division. — Whatever  the  shape  and  size  Reprodno* 
of  the  individual  cell,  cell-filament,  or  cell-colony,  liie  t-ion, 
immediate  visible  re- 
sults of  active  nutfition 
are  elongation  of  the 
cell  and  its  division 
into  two  equal  halves, 
across  the  long  axis, 
by  the  formation  of  a 
septum,  which  either 
splits  at  once  or  re- 
mains    intact      for     a 


Fic  s.— Types  of  Zcoglcea,  (After  Zocf.)  A,  mixed  zooglcea  found  as  a 
p-^llicle-on  the  sarface  of  Tcgctablc  infusicns.  &.c,;  it  consists  of  various  forma, 
and  contains  coed  (a)  and  rodleta,  in  series  (6  and  c),  i;c.  (  x  540).  E,  cgg-shapcd 
mass  of  zooglcea  of  Bcgyialoa  rcr.eo-pcrs-.cina  {Bacterium  rtitescens  of 
Lankestcr);  the  gelatinous  swollen  walis  of  the  large  crowded  coed  are  fused 
into  a  common  gelatinous  envelope.  C,  reticulate  zooglcea  of  the  same 
( <  250).  D,  E,  H,  colonies  of  Myconostoc  enveloped  in  dlfQuent  matrix 
(X  MO).  F.'branehed  fniUcose  zooglcea  of  Cladcihnx  (slightfy  Hiagnifled). 
G,  zooglcea  of  Baclsrium  merismopedioidei,  Zopf,  containing  cocci  arranged 
in  tablets. 

branched  colonies,  .This  may  be  due  to  the  successive  divisions 
occurring  in  two  or  three  planes  instead  of  only  across  the  long  axis 
{Sarcina),  or  to  displacements  of  the  cells  after  division  (as  ia  the 
zooglcea  conditions,  kc. .  see  fig.  3). 


Fig.  4.— a,  branch  of  a  zooglcea  of  Clcdothfip  i::c>.c^o;.^a  (<-/.  fig.  3.  F),  x  MO. 
(After  Zopf.)  It  contains  short  and  longer  occiUar  ferns  (a  and  6),  Uptothrix 
forms  (c),  some  of  vhich  are  ciu-vcd  like  Vibrio  (d)  and  Spirillum.  B,  the 
same,  but  the  rodlcts  biealdng  np  into  coccL    (After  Zopf.) 

shorter  or  longer  time.  This  process  is  then  repeated, 
and  so  on.  In  the  first  Case  the  separated .  cells  assume 
the  characters  of  the 
parent-cell  whose 
division  gave  rise 
to  them ;  in  the 
second  case  they 
form  filaments,  or, 
if  the  further  elon- 
gation and  divisions 
of  the  cells  proceed 
in  di!?3rent  direc- 
tions, plates  or  sphe- 
roidal or  other- 
shaped  colonies.  It 
not  unfrequently 
happens,  however, 
that  groups  of  cells 
break  away  from 
their  former  con- 
nexion as  longer  or 
shorter  straight  or 
curved  filaments,  or 
as  solid  masses.    In 

some  filamentous p^^  S.-Tj-pcs  of  Spore-foi^at-.*  in  Schlzomycct'cs. 
forms  this  *'  frag-  (.iftor  Zopf.)  a,  various  slages  In  the  develop- 
ment cf  the  cndopcnou#  spores  ia  a    Coitriiiium 


mentation "' 


into 


multicellula,r   pieces     endogenous  spores  of  the  ha;-  bacillus.     C,  a  chain 

of  equal  length  or 
nearly  so  is  a  nor- 
mal phenomenon, 
each  partial  fila- 
ment repeating  the 


{Dacilltis) — the  email  letieis  indlcilc  the  order.  B, 
endogenous  spores  of  the  ha;'  bacillus.  C,  a  chain 
of  cc<ct  of  Zeuconoitoc  mcsenterioidis,  with  two 
"  resting  spores,"  i.e.,  arthrospor.s.  (After  Van 
TiegUem.)  D,  a  motile  rodlct  with  one  ciUum  and 
with  a  spoic  formed  inside.  E,  eporc-formaUon  in 
Vibrio-\ik&  {c)  and  ^p:r-Mum.\\]LQ  (a,  b,  d}  Schizo- 
mycetes.' r,  long  rodOi"-:^  form  containing-  a  spore 
(these  are  the  ^o-cr;lIci  "  Kop/i:hc!iQac{i:ri<H "  cf 
German  aothoi-s).  G,  >':iJ-:o  form  with  spore.  (After 
,  ....  Ptazmowski.)     H,  Clc^'.ridi^m — one  cell  co:ita:r.3 

growth,         division,     twoEpors3{Pi-azmowski).     I,  SplHllum  containing 

ind    fracrmpntation  ^^^y  ^P^"^^  f'^)'  "^'"^'^  ^'°  liberated  at  6  by  the 

ana     iragraentauon  breaking  up  of  tlic  p.irent  cells.     K.  gcr:nination  of 

as  before  (cf.  figs.  15  the  spore  o"f  the  hay  bacillus  (S.  sutti!ii),—lha  axis 

A     M*\         Vi'n-illv  °'  giowih  of  the  genninal  rodlet  is  at  right  angles 

ana     iO^.        rinaiiy,  j^  j[,e  Icng  axis  of  the  spore.     L,  germination  of 

such  filaments  may  s-pcre  of  Closti-idivmlut^ricum — the  axis  of  crowih 

.,     •  coincides  with  the  long  axis  of  tho  spore, 
break  up  into  tneir 

individual  cells,  foruiing  **  bacilli,"  "bacteria,"  or  "cocci"  as 
the  case  may  be.  Ey  these  means  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
cells  may  be  produced  in  a  few  hours,  ^  and,  according  to  tho 

^  Brefcld  has  observed  that  a  Uacterium  may  di\-ide  once  every  half 
hour,  and  its  progeny  repeat  the  process  in  the  same  lima  Ona 
bacterium  might  thus  produce  iu  twenty-four  hours  2  number  of 
sc^nieats  amounting  to  many  miiiions  of  millions. 


SCHIZOMYCETES 


403 


species  and  the  conditiona  (the  medium,  temperature,  (fee.), 
enormous  collections  of  isolated  cells  may  cloud  the  fluid  in 
•which  they  are  cultivated,  or  form  deposits  below  or  films 
on    ifs    surface ;    .        a  b  0 

valup.ble    charac-    ;      '^    .        .    •  "•'  *•      •'??§&>■•. 
tersare  sometimes  °     '  ''    ,        .'••.   s;...         ^■■"!''^!^' '''■■':::::;■,. 
obtained        from  -  i  '=  \         •  •,,      .....        ;:;■;  0^       ■  / -■s-.5i 
theseappearances.    =    .  "■  .        .»  'A    "  ■.'  .,  •;.■■ 

When  these  dense         •  ' 
"  swarms  "  of  ve- 
getative cells  be- 


t9 


r  •'"^^^     "^^^WjMW 

come  fixed  in  a  pio.  O.— characteristic  gronps  of  Mia'ocxH.  (A(ter 
matrix  of  their  t.'ohr..)  .a,  Micrococcus  prodtgiosus.  h,  if.  vaccittis. 
C,  zooRloia  stage  of  a  Micrococcus,  fomiing  a  close 
own  swollen  con-  membrane  oji  infusion— I*a6teiir's  JilycodcrmcL  (Vtry 
tigUOUS  cell-walls,      Ws"')' ""SnlCed.) 

they  pass  over  into   a   sort  of  resting  state  as  a  so-called 
zoogkea  (fig.  3). 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  life- 
history  of  the  Schizomycetes  is  the  formation  of  this 
zoogloea  stage,  which  corresponds  to  the  "  palmella  "  con- 
dition of  the  lower 


Algx.  This  occurs 
as  a  membrane  on 
the  surface  of  the 
medium,  or  as  irre- 
gular clumps  or 
branched  masses 
(sometimes  several  ; 
inches   across)   sub-  k 


'«35 


(0, 


;~) 


"^^ 


.0 


,/■  _ 


iCV 


\c^ 


lb) 


merged  in  it,  and 
consists  of  more  or 
less  gelatinous  ma- 
trix enclosing  in- 
numerable "  cocci," 
"  bacteria,"  or  other 

elements        of        the  Flo.  7.—Ascocoecus  UllrothH.      (After    Cotin.)      It 
Srlii7^m\-npfp       rnn.     forms  inegolar  colonies  of    zoogltca   cimraining 
.-cuizorajcete      con      i„„„mei.ai,ie  micrococci,    (x  cs.i 
cerned.       Formerly 

regarded  as  a  distinct  genus — the  natural  fate  of  all  the 
various  forms — the  zoogloea  is  now  known  to  bo  a  sort 
of  resting  condition  of  the  Schizomycetes,  the  various 
elements  being  glued  together,  as  it  were,  by  their 
enormously  swollen  and  dilUuent  cell-walls  becoming  con- 


'-  ro.  i.—Budiriim  zop/ii.  (After  Kurlh.)  A,  colls  of  the  lilaraentons  (Icplo- 
llirfx)  stage  sllll  actively  growing.  B,  tlio  some  colli  obscr>ccl  a  few  houi» 
later ;  the  fllan:cnta  liuvo  become  cnt  tip  Into  segments  by  septa,  the  segments 
■er.ir3tlng  as  rocllcti  fl^cltrla).  C,  tlio  •arao  colls  a  few  lionis  later  still  :  tlie 
rodlcts  broken  nip  Into  yet  shorter  segmenta  or  cocci,    (x  740.) 

liguous.  TUo  zooglma  is  formed  by  act've  division  of 
single  or  of  several  mother-cells,  and  the  progeny  appear 
io   gc  on  secreting  the  cell-wall  substance,   which  then 


absorbs  many  times  its  volume  of  water,  and  remama  as  a 
consistent  matrix,  in  which  the  cells  come  to  rest.  The 
matrix — i.e.,  the  swollen  cell-walls; — in  some  cases  consists 
mainly  of  cellulose,  in 
others  chiefly  of    "  r^W.    a^  v^-.  ai    i^ 


m-   ^^^i 


coprotein,"  the  substance 
said  to  be  met  with  in 
the  protoplasm  ;  the  ma- 
trix in  some  cases  ia 
horny  and  resistent,  in 
others  more  like  a  thick 
solution  of  gum.  It  is 
intelligible  from  the 
mode  of  formation  that 
foreign  bodies  may  be- 
come entangled  in  the 
gelatinous  matrix,  and 
compound  zooglcoaj  may 
arise  by  the  apposition 
of  several  distinct  forms, 
a  common  event  in  ma- 
cerating troughs  (fig.  3, 
A).  Characteristic  forms 
may  be  assumed  by  the 
young  zooglcca  of  differ- 
ent species, — spherical, 
ovoid,  reticular,  filament- 
ous, fruticose,  lamellar, 
(tc, — but  these  vary  considerably  as  the  mass  increases  or 
comes  in  contact  with  others.  Older  zoogloeae  may  precipi- 
tate oxide  of  iron  in  the  matrix,  if  that  metal  exists  in  small 
quantities  in  the  medium.  Under  favourable  conditions 
the  elements  in  the  zoogloea  again  become  active,  and  move 
out  of  the  matrix,  distribute  themselves  in  the  surrounding 
medium,  to  grow  and  multiply  as  before  (fig.  4).  If  the 
zoogloea  is  formed  on  a  solid  substratum  it  may  become  firm 
and  horny;  immersion  in  water  softens  it  as  described  above. 
A 


Fio.  9. — Baciilus  mcgalerium.  (,\fter  De 
Eary.)  a,  a  chain  of  motil3  roiilets  atlll 
growing  and  dividing  iTiaci'.li);  b,  a  pair  of 
bacilli  actively  gro^^lnff  and  dividing;  p, 
a  rodlet  in  this  condition  (but  divided  into 
four  gcgmenis)  alter  treatment  with  alco- 
holic iodine  solution;  c,  d,  e,  /,  succesalvo 
stagea  In  the  development  of  the  eporea ;  r, 
a  rodlet  segmented  in  four,  each  segment 
containing  one  ripe  spore ;  gr',  ?',  5;^,  early 
6t.igC3  in  tile  germination  of  the  spores 
(al'tur  being  dried  several  days);  A,,  h.,,  i, 
/:,  I,  and  m,  successive  stages  in  the  gennina- 
tlon  of  the  spore,  (a  x  2S0:  all  the  rest 
X  COO.) 


Fio.  10. — Sacilltis  anthracis.  (After  Koch.)  A,  HitcilH  mingled  with  blood, 
corpuscles  from  the  blood  of  a  Guinea  pig ;  some  of  the  bctcii:i  ditt.Vling.  II, 
the  rodlets  after-three  hours'  culture  In  a  drop  of  arineous  hujnour.  Th^y 
grow  out  into  long  /<7'(o(Ari.r.llke  Clainenla,  wiiich  become  Bvptate  lalcr,  and 
sporca  arc  developed  in  the  segments,    (x  <;i'X) 

Spores. — Spores  or  resting-cclls  arc  now  Known  in  many  i 
Schizomycetes  (fig.  5).  They  may  be  formed  in  two  ways. 
In  Leuconostoc,  Bacterium  zopfii,  Crcnothri.r,  Bfygiatoa, 
and  Cladolhrix  the  snore  is  simply  one  of  the  smallest 
segments  ("  cocci ")  mto  which  tlie  filament  at  length 
breaks  up.  Do  Bary  terms  such  forms  "  arthrosporous  " 
(</.  figs.  8,  13,  It,  and  IG).  Iii  others  th^  formation  of 
the  spore  is  "endosporcus"  (De  Bary).  It  begins  with 
the  appearance  of  a  iniiiute  granule  in  the  proto])hsm. 
of  a  vegetative    cell ;  tliis  granule  enlarges,  and  in  a  fe-.v 


404 


S  C  H  I  Z  0  M  Y  C  E  T  E  S 


hours  has  taken  to  itself  all  the  protoplasm,  secreted  a 
dense  envelope,  and  is  a  ripe  ovoid  spore,  smaller  than  the 
mother-cell,  and  lying  loosely  in  it  (<•/-  figs.  9,  11,  and  12). 
[n  the  case  of  the  simplest  and  most  minute  Schizomycetes 
(Micrococcus,  &c.)  no  definite  spores 
have  been  discovered  ;  any  one  of  the 
vegetative  micrococci  may  commence 
a  aew  series  of  cells  by  growth  and 
division.  We  may  call  these  forms 
"  asporous,"  at  any  rate  provisionally. 

The  spore  may  bo  formed  in  short 
or  long  segments,  the  cell-wall  of  which 
may  undergo  change  of  form  to  accom- 
modate itself  to  the  contents.  As  a 
rule  only  one  spore  is  formed  in  a  cell, 
and  the  process  usually  takes  place  in 
a  bacillar  segment.  In  some  cases  the 
spore-forming  protoplasm  gives  a  blue 
reaction  •-nth  iodine  solutions.  The 
spores  may  be  developed  in  cells  which 
are  actively  swarming,  the  movements 
not  being  interfered  with  by  the 
process  (fig.  5,  D).  The  so-called 
"Kopfchenbacterien"  of  older  writers 
are  simply  bactorioid  segments  with 
a  spore  at  one  end,  the  mother  cell-wall 
having  adapted  itself  to  the  outline  of 
the  spore  (fig.  5,  F).  The  ripe  spores  Fio.  ii.-A,  Baeuiiu  an- 
of  Schizomycetes  are  spherical,  ovoid,  (Soo'f iheYo'ngaTam*?!'* 
or  long-ovoid  in  shape,  and  extremely 
minute  (e.ff.,  those  of  Bacillus  suhlilis 
measure  0'0012  mm.  long  by  O'OOOO 
mm.  broad  according  to  Zopf),  highly 
refractive  and  colourless  (or  very  dark, 
probably  owing  to  the  high  index  of 
refraction  apd  minute  size).  The  mem- 
brane may  be  relatively  thick,  and  even 
exhibit  shells  or  strata. 

The  germination  of  the  spores  has 
now  been  observed  in  several  forms 
with  care.  The  spores  are  capable  of 
germination  at  once,  or  ihey  may  be  kept  for  months  and 
even  years,  arid  are  very  resistent  against  desiccation,  heat 
and  cold,  &'c.  In  a  suitable  medium  and  at  a  proper  tem- 
perature the  germination  is  completed  in  a  few  hours.  The 
spore  swells  and  elongates,  and  the  contents  grow  forth  to  a 
cell  like  that  which  produced  it,  in  some  cases  clearly  break- 
ing through  the  membrane,  the  rems'ns  of  which  may  be 
C 


(B,  flg.  10),  in  whicli 
spores  are  belDg  de- 
veloped. The  Bpeclmen 
was  cultivated  lii  broth, 
and  the  Bporea  are  dmwn 
Q  little  too  small — they 
should  bo  of  .the  same 
diameter  transversely  as 
the  segments,  (x  600.) 
B,  Bacithcs  tublitii. 
(.liter  De  Bar)-.)-  1, 
frngments  of  filaments 
with  ripe  spores;  2-5; 
successive  stages  In  the 
germination  ol  the  spores, 
the  remains  of  the  spore 
attached  to  the  germinal 
rodlets.    ( x  COO.) 


|ii«l!\ 


I) 


,1 


mi 


m: 


mmm^ 


fia,  li.— Bacillus  stblilis.    (After  Strashurger).    A,  zooglcea  pellicle  (X  500). 
'  B.  motile  rodlets  (X  1000).    C,  devclupment  ol  spores  (x  800). 

seen  attached  to  the  young  germinal  rodiet  (figs.  5, 9,  and  11); 
in  other  cases  the.surrounding  membrane  of  the  spore  swells 
and  dissolves.  The  germinal  cell  then  grows  forth  into  the 
forms  typical  for  the  particular  SSchizomycete  concerned.^ 


Pleomorphism. — As  already  stated,  some  Schizomycetes  Pleo- 
have  been  shown  to  present  as  vegetative  forms,  or  phases  moT'n 
in  one  and  the  same  life-history,  "  cocci,"  "  bacteria,"  '^'"" 
"  leptothrix-filaraents,"  and  even  spiral  and  curved  forms 
known  as  "  spirillum,"  "  vibrio,"  .fee.  On  the  other  hand, 
several  Schizomycetes  which  have  t^en  long  and  diligently 
investigated  by  the  best  observers  show  no  such  pleo- 
morphism. As  examples  of  the  latter "  we  may  select 
Bacillus  megaterium  (fig.  9)  and  numerous  Micrococci 
which  produce  similar  cells  generation  after  generation. 
A  remarkable  example  of  a  pleomorphic  form  is  Clado- 
tkrix  dichotoma  (fig.  1 6).  According  to  Zopf  this  species 
fiasses  successively  through  the  stages  known  as  "coccus," 
"  bacterioid,"  "  bacillar,"  and  "  leptothrix,"  by  mere 
elongation  and  division  by  transverse  septa ;  'the  observer 
named    declares     that     these  ^, 

simple  filaments  have  formerly         ^  ^ 
received   generic  and    specific 
names   (Leptothrix   parasitica 


Fig.  13. 


F)g.  H. 


'  Cuhn,  Beiirdgz  i:ur  'Biologie,  passim  ;  Zopf,  Die  Sj^aiispilze,  3d 
,1^  1885  :  De  Barj,  Mor^ih.  und  Liot.  dsr  Pike.  k<:.,liii^  and 


Fro.  13. — Crenothrix  ktiftniana.  a  to  e,  cocci  or  spores, — c,  d,  and  e,  dlvidinf;  ; 
/to  n,  filamentous  stage.  The  filaments  varj'  in  shape,  diameter,  &c.,  and  are 
fixed  below ;  at  i  to  n  Is  seen  the  common  investing  sheath  ;  m  and  J,  tlio 
sejjmcats  oeparatlDg  and  escaping;  in  it  the  segments  divide  up  still  fmther 
before  escaping  as  minute  cocct'  or  spores — all  stages  of  division  are  seen. 
(xCOO.)  .  •^ 

"•"lo.  14. — Beggiatoa  alba.  (After  Zopf.)  1;  agronp  of  attached  filaments  (x  540); 
2,  a  filament  brealiing  up  ;  3,  4,  5,  portions  of  filaments  treated  with  methyl- 
violet  80  as  to  show  the  septa,  which  are  usually  obscured  by  the  sulphur 
granules  In  Uio  filaments;  in  5  some  of  the  segments  are  undergoing  longi- 
tudinal as  well  as  transverse  divisions  prior  to  forming  cooci  (spores);  6,  CuCcI 
becoming  Isolated  (X  900). 

and  L.  ochracea,  Kiitz.). '  Certain  of  the  threads  then 
partially  breakup,  and  .the  portions  •  become  slightly  dis- 
placed from  the  linear  series ;  these  portions  go  on  growing 
in  a'direction  at  an  angle  with  the  previous  one,  but  still 
in  contact,  and  thus  produce  the  "  false-branching "  tcf 
which  Cloydothrix  owes  its  name.  Finally  the  filaments 
break  up  into  segments  corresponding  with  the'  septa 
which  have  been  formed  across  them.  This  fragmentation 
is  peculiar  in  that  the  filaments  separate  first  into  shorter 
filaments,  then  into  rodlets,  and  finally  into  "cocci.", 
Portions  of  the  filaments  or  branches  may  become  separated 
and  travel  with  a  gliding '  movement,  ot  even  Uecome 
more  active  and  swarm  by  means  of  cUia.  Such  portions 
may  break  up  into  shorter  filaments  or  rods  which  also 

Vorlesungen  ilber  Bactericn,  1885.*,  .The  enormous  and  scattered 
litci  .lure  on  the  morphology  of  Schizomycetes  is  coUected  to  a  gre.it 
extent  in  the  works  cited. 


SCHIZOMYCETES 


405 


swarm.  But,  in  addition  to  these  straight  and  more  or 
less  rigid  forms  (which,  it  will  be  noticed,  simulate  Ehren- 
bergand  Cohn's  "genera  "  Micrococcm,  Bacterium,  Bacillus, 
and  Leptothrix  so  closely 
that  any  of  them  observed 
alone  wjuld  undoubtedly 
have  been  formerly  placed 
apart  in  one  of  those  "  gene- 
ra "),  it  is  interesting  to  find 
that  some  of  the  filaments 
become  spirally  twisted  and 
Bimulate  Spirillum,  Spira- 
chmte,  and  Vibrio,  the  dis- 
tinctions depending  on  the 
relative  length  and  thick- 
ness of  the  filament,  and  the 
closeness  or  steepness  of 
the  coils.  Moreover  these 
twisted  filaments  also  break 
up  into  shorter  gliding  or 
ciliated  portions,  which  at 
length  fall  into  rodlets  and 
"  cocci"  as  before. 

A  branched  zooglcea  form 
also   occurs,  and   this  con- ^.^^  j^  _j,^^^,.^,^^  „,5^    (After  zopt.) 

tains     cocci,    bacterium-hke     Cuired  and  spiial  fonns.    C,  I),  nepar- 

or  bacillar  rods,  or  filaments    "/elil?"  u'|;^°im'*fnrS  Tn"!?.  "e! 

resembling      Leptothjix      or     motilB  spirillum  form  witll  a  cUlum  at 
„.,     .  °     J.         .        •  each  end.    (XMO.) 

Vtbno  according  to  circum- 
stances. In  Lankester's  Bacterium  ruhescen$  wo  have  an- 
other species  which  is  variable  in  a  high  degree.  Many 
other  Schizomycetes  have  now  been  shown  to  be  more 
or  less  pleomorphic, 
and  the  researches  of 
Lankester,  Nageli, 
Zopf,  Miller,  Kurth, 
De  Bary,  and  others 
have  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  a  know- 
ledg)  of  the  cir- 
cumstances which 
induce  the  changes 
in  form  referred  to  ; 
it  is  at  least  certain 
that  alterations  in 
the  nutritive  me- 
dium, in  the  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  at 
the  dispo.sal  of  the 
organism,  and  in 
the  temperature, 
&c.,  play  their  part 
in  the  matter. 

It  by  no  means 
follows,  however, 
that  because  some 
species  are  pleomor- 
phic all  must  be  so, 
and  still  less  that  no 
species  of  Schizo- 
mycetes— or  only 
one — eldst  at  all ; 
those  who  deny  the 
existence  of  species 
among  the  Schizo- 
mycetes on  the  evi- 
dence to  hand  must, 
to  be  Lgically  consistent,  deny  the  existence  of  species 
altogether.  But  even  if  that  be  allowed,  some  name  of 
similar  intention  must  bo  employed  to  denote  any  group 


Fjo.  16. — CladothHx  dUhotoma.  A,  brnnched  plant, 
tiio  branches  In  part  spiral  and  ot  the  forro  known 
aa  Vibrio  (a)  or  Spirillum  {(')  (slichfly  maKnlflcd), 

B,  a  long  coiled    branch  more    hichly  ma^fniQed. 

C,  portion  of  branch  reacnibjiiig  llpirillum  at  ono 
end  and  Vihrio  at  UiQ  otiicr.  D,  cnilr.d  blanches. — 
a,  not  BCgmcntcd ;  b,  c  segmented  Into  rodleta  and 
cocci.  E,  .S>iror/iar(tf-Uko  portions  breaking  up  Int. 
rodleta  and  cocci. 


of  organisms  which  within  our  experience  exhibit  periodi- 
cal repetitions  cf  a  process  of  development,  i.e.,  a!'  the 
individuals  of  successive  generations  go  through  the  sfjne 
phases  periodically.  It  matters  not  that  variations — ill- 
defined  deviations  from  an  average  or  "  type  " — occur  on 
the  part  of  individuals  or  generations;  the  periodically 
repeated  life-history  or  development  marks  what  we  term 
a  species. 

The  difiiculties  presented  by  such  minute  and  simple 
organisms  as  the  Schizomycetes  are  due  partly  to  the  few 
"  characters "  which  they  possess,  and  partly  to  the 
dangers  of  error  in  manipulating  them ;  it  is  anything  but 
an  easy  matter  either  to  trace  the  whole  development  of  a 
single  form  or  to  recognize  with  certainty  any  one  stage 
in  the  development  unless  the  others  are  known.  This 
being  the  case,  and  having  regard  to  the  minuteness  and 
ubiquity  of  these  organisms,  we  should  be  very  careful  in 
accepting  evidence  as  to  the  continuity  or  otherwise  of  any 
two  forms  which  falls  short  of  direct  and  uninterrupted 
observation.  The  outcome  of  all  these  considerations  is 
that,  while  recognizing  that  the  "  genera  "  and  "  species  " 
as  defined  by  Cohn  must  be  recast,  we  are  not  warranted 
in  uniting  any  forms  the  continuity  of  which  has  not  been 
directly  observed  ;  or,  at  any  rate,  the  strictest  rules  should 
be  followed  in  accepting  the  evidence  adduced  to  render  the 
union  of  any  forms  probable.^ 

Classification. — Tho  limits  of  this  article  prevent  our  ex.  Ciassif!- 
amining  in  detail  the  system  of  classification  proposed  by  Cohu,  cation, 
or  the  modifications  of  it  followed  by  other  authorities.  Zopf, 
in  tlie  third  edition  of  his  work  (1885),  proposes  a  scheme  based  on 
the  modern  views  as  to  the  pleomorphism ;  we  must  refer  to  the 
original  for  the  details,  simply  remarking  that,  apart  from  the  ex- 
treme views  accepted  by  the  author,  his  system  is  impracticable  to 
a  degree  and  recognized  by  him  as  provisional  only.  Indeed  any 
such  classification  must  be  provisional,  for  ^ve  are  at  the  threshold 
only  of  a  knowledge  of  the  .Schizomycetes. 

Tlio  best  starting-point  for  a  modem  classification  of  theso 
organisms  is  that  suggested  by  Do  Bary — the  two  modes  of  forma- 
tion of  the  spores, — and  as  a  provisional  scheme,  and  simply  to 
facilitate  comparison  of  the  groups,  we  might  perhaps  employ 
De  Bary's  two  groups,  and  a  third  one  to  include  those  simple 
forms  which  show  no  trace  of  spore-formation.  Many  gaps  exist, 
and  many  changes  wiU  probably  have  to  be  made.  Meanwhile  it 
might  be  advisable  to  classify  the  Schizomycetes  provisionally  as 
follows : — 

Group  A.    Asporeee. 

There  are  no  spores  distinct  from  the  vegetative  cells. 

I.  CoccACEiB  (figs.  6  and  7). 

Genera  :  1,  Micrococcus  (and  Streptococcus) ;  %  Sarcina  (anil 
Zopfs  Mcrismopedia) ;  3,  Ascococcus. 

Geohp  B.    ArthrosporetB  (De  Bary). 
Tlie  vegetative  cells   differ  in  shape,    size,   growtn,   or  other 
characters  from  the  spores :  the  latter  are  produced  by  segmenta- 
tion. 

II.  Arthrobactekiacre. 

Genera:    4,    Bacterium    (fig.     8);    5,     Leuconostoc ;     0, 
Spirochsctc  (!). 

III.  Leptoteichej;. 

Genera:  7,    Crenclhrix  {fig.   13);  8,  Bcggiatoa  (figs.  14  ami 
16);  9,  Phragmidothrix  (!)  ;  10,  Leptothrix. 

IV.  Cladothiches. 

Genus:  11,  Cladothrix  (fig.  16). 

Group  C.    EndosporefB  (Do  Bary;. 
Genera:   12   (figs.  9-12),  Bucillus  (and   Clostridium);  18, 
Vibrio  (t);  14,  Spirillum  (at  least  in  part)." 

'  Ray  Lankester,  Quart.  Jour.  Micr.  Sc,  1873  an'  1876;  Nageli 
and  Buchner,  Nicdcre  Pilze,  1882;  Billroth,  Untcrsuchungcn  Ube- die 
Vegetalionaformen  der  Coccohacttria  scptica,  Berlin,  1874  ;  K^'^bs, 
numerous  papers  in  Archiv  f.  exp.  Pathol,  und  Pharmacol.  ;  Kurth, 
r.ot.  Zeitung,  1883;  Prazmowski,  Biol.  Ccr.lralblatt,  1884;  Zopf,  Zwr 
Morph.  dcr  SpaUp/u7is:€n,  Leipsic,  1882;  Cienkowski,  Zur  Morpho- 
logi'.  d.  Bactcrien,  1876. 

*  For  the  definitions  of  tbo  genera  (and  species)  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  .special  works,  especially  those  of  Zopf  and  Do  Bary  ; 
akt  Wint:ir-Kabcii]ior3t,  Kry2)toraTrxn  Flora — Pilze,  1.,  1831 ;  and 
Grove,  ijynopais  of  the  Bacteria  and  Ycasi-Fungi,  1884. 


406 


SCHIZO^IYCETES 


Nutri- 


ticns. 


Phtsiologt  — A?  in  the  case  of  other  plant-?,  ve  are  here 
concerned  with  the  functions  of  the  Schizomycctc-  and  their 
relations  to  the  environment;  for  convenience,  the  subject  may  bo 
(reale,!  nnder  various  headings.  Limitation  of  spare  prevents  our 
doing  more  than  toucii  lightly  upon  snch  matters  as  the  action  of 
the  Schizomyoetes  as  ferments,  and  their  relations  to  disease, 
thoM^h  both  subjects  belong  strictly  to  the  physiology  of  their 
nutrition  and  actions  on  the  environment. 

A'«;ri(ion.— Having  no  chlorophyll,  the  Sohizomycetes  of  conrso 
(U'pend  on  other  organisms  for  their  carbonaceous  food,  and  are 
either  saprophytes— I.e.,  live  on  the  remains  of  dead  organisms— 
or  parasites— i.e.,  jbtain  their  food  direct  from  living  organisms. 
Pasteur,  N.igeli,  and  others  have  shown  that  these  organisms  can 
derive  their°  carbon  from  very  numerous  and  widely  different 
organic  substances,  e.rj.,  suiars  of  all  kinds,  mannite,  glycerine, 
tartaric  and  other  vegetable  acids,  kc,  and  even  from  ethyl- 
altobol,  'jcnzoic,  salicylic,  and  carbolic  acids  to  some  extent. 
Carbonic,  formic,  and  oxalic  acids,  cyano^n,  urea,  and  osamide 
»re,  however,  useless  for  this  purpose.  The  nitrogen  and  carbon 
together  may  be  obtained  from  leuciu,  asparagin,  methylamine, 
kc,  or  the  nitrogen  alone  from  these  or  urea,  and  compounds  of 
ammonia  with  vegetable  acids  or  phosphorus.  The  best  nutritive 
substances  are  proteids  (peptones)  and  sugars  (glucoses) ;  others 
must  be  passed  over  here.  The  nature  of  the  particular  Schizo- 
mycete  has  to  be  studied  as  well  as  the  solution,  and  external 
agents  affect  the  matter  also.  Certain  minerals  are  of  course 
nccessarj'.'-sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium  (or  rubidium  or 
casium),  and  calcium  (or  magnesium,  barium,  or  strontium)  being 
indispensable.  As  one  of  many  suitable  nutritive  solutions  we 
may  select  the  follov-nng  : — 

Di-potassium  phosphate 0-20  grarnm. 

Magnesium  sulphate 0'04       ., 

Calcium  chloride 0'02       ,, 

Peptone I'OO 

Water  lOO'OO       „ 

For  other  solutions,  particulars  as  to  changes  of  concentration,  &c., 
and  the  peculiarities  of  different  Schizomjcetes  in  this  connexion, 
special  works  must  be  consulted. 

The  chief  sources  of  error  in  cultures  of  these  very  minnte  forms 
are  the  introduction  of  spores,  &c.,  from  withont  into  the  vessels, 
and  on  the  instruments,  &c.,  and  the   dilEculty  of  continuously 
obserWng  a  developing  individual  with  the  necessary  high  powers. 
Numerous  errors  have  arisen  from  inferences  being  employed  to  fill 
up  "aps  in  life-histories   which  have   only  been  partly  observed. 
Tho°first:  object  of  the  cultivator,  then,  is  to  guarantee  the  pnnly 
of  his  materials,  instruments,  kc,  and  then  to  keep  one  forin  (or 
even  a  single  specimen)  under  observation  for  a  sufficiently  long 
period  and  under  suitable  conditions.      The  practical  difficulties 
are  enormous,  of  course,  and  are  very  rarely  entirely  overcome  for 
Dcriods  at  all  long.     Here  again  we  must  refer  to  the  special  works 
for  details  as  to  the  beautiful  and  refined  methods  now  devised  or 
employed  by  De  Bary,  Cohn,  Koch,  Brefeld,  Lister,  Xagcli,  and 
others,  calling  special  attention  to  the  gelatine  method  devised  by 
Yittadini  and  Brefeld  and  so  successfully  used  and  improved  by 
Koch.     Thoroughly  conducted  cultivations  should  decide  in  what 
medium  the  Schizomycete  flourishes  best,  and  how  it  behaves  in 
others,— what  vegetative  forms   it   presents    normally,    and   how 
changes  in  the  environment  affect  these.     They  should  also  decide 
the  characters  of  the  aggregates  or  colonies  ;  at  what  temperatures 
germina:ion,  growth,  division,  spore-formation,  kc,  take  place  or 
cease,  and  so  on  ;   the  necessity  or  otherwise  of  free  oxygen  ;   the 
effects  of  the  organism  on  its  substratum  or  medium— whether  it 
cause  fermentation,  or  putrefaction,  or  excrete  soluble  ferments, 
and   so  on.     Moreover,   the  products  of  these  actions  should  be 
examined   in   detail.     'Wliere   the    particular    Schizomycete   is   a 
parasite  (wholly  or  partially)  the  methods  of  culture  are  even  more 
refined.     Here  the  fluids  or  tissues  of  the  host  must  be  regarded  as 
a  soil  in  which  (by  means  of  "  infection,"  "inoculation,"  &c.)  the 
observer  sows    the   spores  or    vegetative    cells   of  the    parasitic 
organism.     It  is  impossible  to  go  more  into  details  in  the  linnts  of 
this  article,  however,  and  we  must  dismiss  the  subject  with  the 
remark  that,  having  regard  to  the  complexity  of  the  medium  (e.jr., 
blood)  and  the  organization  of  the  host,  the  diiBcnlties  of  manipula- 
tion become  greater  than  ever. 

Temperature  — As  with  other  plants,  so  with  the  Schizomycetes, 
their  various  functions,  e.g.,  germination,  growth,  division,  forma- 
tion of  spores,  &c.,  can  only  be  carried  on  at  certain  temperatures  : 
the  best  average  temperature  is  about  35°  C. ,  but  the  optimum  may 
differ  for  each  sp<;cics  and  for  each  function.  The  same  is  generally 
true  for  the  minimum  and  maximum  temperatures,  which  have  to 
bo  determined  separately  also.  Remarkable  phenomena  are  con- 
nected with  *he  death-points  of  certain  Bacilli,  &c.  The  spores 
of  some  of  these  forms  have  been  frozen  for  days  or  weeks  without 
injury,  and  some  are  said  to  have  resisted  temperatures  as  low  as 
-  100°  C,  or  even  lower:  it  appears  to  be  all  but  impossible  to  kill 
Buch  SDores  brcokl     High  temperatures  are  more  fatal;  but  the 


spoi-.s  of  Bacilli  have  germinated  after  the  fluid  containing  -hem 
was  boiled  for  an  hour,  end  even  a  temperature  of  110°  C.  and 
higher  has  been  withstood.  The  vegetative  states  aK  lef  re- 
sistent  ;  neverthele  a  the  bacilli  of  anthrax  were  not  killed  by 
heating  the  fluid  to  75-80°  for  an  hour  or  more.  Speaking 
generally,  ripe  spores  are  most  resistent  and  germinating  ones 
least  so;  dry  cells  or  spores  resist  extreme  temperatures  better 
than  normally  saturated  ones.  Of  course  time  is  an  importafct 
factor  ;  and  other  conditions  also  affect  the  matter,  eg.,  slightly 
acid  media  are  more  fatal  than  neutral  or  feebly  alkaline  ones, 
denser  less  so  than  thm  ones  {ceteris  paribits),  and  so  on. 

To  illustrate  the  importance  of  these  facts  we  may  note  Tyn- 
dall's  method  of  "discontinuous  heating":  by  boiling  th(  Solu- 
tions containing  the  spores  for  5-10  minutes  daily  all  the  Hfo  was 
destroyed  in  two  or  three  days,  though  an  exposure  of  an  hour  or 
more  to  a  temperature  of  l5o°  C.  did  not  kill  the  spores  if  not 
repeated.  The  explanation  is  that  the  spores  which  rcsiat  the 
first  or  second  short  boiling  have  time  to  begin  germiaating  in 
the  interval,  and  they  then  succumb  at  once  when  the  liquid  is 
again  boiled.^ 

Light,  Elcdricilv,  Gramtatiott,  &c.— The  relations  between  these 
and  the  functions  of  Schizomycetes  have  been  partly  investigated, 
but  the  results  must  be  passed  over  here.  A  few  of  the  higher 
genera  show  polarity— or  at  any  rate  difference  between  base  and 

SffcdsofChanical  Agents.— Oxygen.— Tistem  s^iowcHhit,  nhile  Chcm 
some  Schizomycetes  require  free  oxygen  like  other  plants,  there  istry 
are  some  which  need  none,  or  almost  very  little— the  extreme  case 
is  perhaps  still  doubtful  ;  but  't  anacrobiotic"  forms  like  Bacillus 
butyricus  stand  in  sharp  contrast  to  such  exquisitely  "  aerobiotic 
ones  as  Baderiitm  acdi,  Badllus  suhtilis,  kc  A  few  are  known  to 
flourish  best— or  at  any  rate  they  are  more  active— when  supplied 
with  oxygen  in  proportion  less  than  that  in  the  atmosphere. 
Engelmaun  showed  that,  while  some  species  congregated  close  to  a 
bubble  of  air,  othere  collected  at  a  certain  distance  from  it,  and 
came  nearer  when  the  bubble  contained  less  oxygon.  The  same  is 
true  for  the  same  species  when  brought  near  an  Alga  which  is 
evolving  oxygen— the  aerobiotic  forms  collect  where  the  oxygen-  i.'i 
being  e'volved  (in  the  yellow-red,  &c.,  of  the  spectrum).  Some 
Schizomycetes  are  powerful  deoxidizing  and  reducing  agents:  it 
has  already  been  stated  that  Be;gSatoa  deposits  pure  sulpliur  in  its 
lilaments.  Baderiitm  acdi  and'otheis,  on  the  contrary,  transfer 
oxygen  in  large  quantities  to  the  medium  in  which  they  live,  and 
the  (arbon  in  that  may  be  entirely  consumed.  Fermentation  once 
started  may  go  on  without  free  oxygen  or  not  (accordtng  to  the 
particular  Schizomyceto,  kc),  but  it  is  necessary  at  the  commence- 
ment. Oxygen  is  of  course  necessary  for  the  respiration  of  tho 
growing  Schizomycete.'  ^,      .  ^, 

Water  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  life  and  growth  of  tho 
Schizomycetes,  but  the  spores  (and  to  a  less  extent  the  vegetative 
ceils)  of  some  can  resist  desiccation  for  long  periods  ;  others  {e.g., 
Bacterium  zopfti)  soon  die.  Those  cf  Bacillus  siibtilis  have  been 
kept  air-drv  for  years  ;  and  those  of  B.  anthracis  were  not  killed 
after  several  weeks  in  absolute  alcohol.  A"  year  in  water  failed 
to  kill  the  spores  of  B.  subtilis.  Zoogla>a  and  vegetative  ccl.s 
of  some  resist  drying  for  some  time— how  long  la  uncertain. 
In  the  dry  state  spores  and  cells  are  disseminated  by  currents 
of  air  •  how  f.ar  spores  maybe  buried  and  still  retain  life  (earned 
down  by  rain,  kc)  is  uncertain.  The  importance  of  thcso  facts, 
however,  is  obvious.'  ,  ^    ..     ,•»      i. 

Acids  Poisoiu%  tc— The  reader  must  be  refeiTed  to  the  literature 
tor  details  as  to  the  quantities  of  acids  an4  other  products  oi  their 
own  decomposition  which  can  be  endured.by  given  Schizomycetes 
(see  especially  the  literature  on  fermentation  and  cultivation,  and 
alsorespectiug  the  action  of  poisons,  antiseptics,  S:c.).f 

Attradion  Foicards  Protcid  Food-Subslanccs.-TiicteTio.  have  long  Att.ac 
been  known  to  swarm  around  pieces  of  organic  food-materials,  hut  t:ou  to 
although  Ehrenberg  and  Cohn  noticed  the  fact  it  was  not  investi-,  loon-  . 
.-ated  In  det^iil  until  quite  recently.     Pfeffer  finds  that  Bacteria 
and  Spirilla  are  attracted  in  a  definite   minncr  towards  minu  -■ 
tubes  containing  extract  of  meat  or  soludon  of  asparagin,  just  as 
he  finds  antherozoids  and  zoospores  of  various  kinds  attracted  by 
definite  substances  into  tubes  designed  to  imitate  archegonia.    tor 
Pfeffcr's   proofs  that  the   substances   mentioned  exert  a   specihc 


Hft  2,  ISTG; 

■  ScfiimTiiilpi/.e, 
mi.  Trans.,  is:4  ; 


■  See    Cohn,    Bfilr.    lur  Bid.   <f.  /■/.,!.    Htt.  5,   1S72,   II. 
TiiCLm.  Bnlr.  ,vr  Bioh,  I.  Utt.    3,  1ST5  ;    Brcfc  d,  t  «(€«.    <,bc, 
W.  :  Tyndall,  Floating  Matter  of  the  Atr,  I8S1;    Robcrls, 
rasteu'r,  .4111.  ie  Oilmie,  18C2.        ,„,.,,,  r-,      ,., 

'  See  EnKelmann,  Untcrs.  aul   d.  PhijswJ.  lab.  ill  Ctrfehl, 
Mcndelssolin  In  Bcitr.  zur  Biol.  d.  Pjl.,    iil.   I 
phi/sioto^ie,  il.  p.  156,  1SS\.  ,.    ™.        .      ,       „rt    • 

i  Sec  Pasleur,  Comptes  Rindus,  ]fCl-C3 ;  Kasell,  Theorie  der  Gainng. 
Sctiiilzenberecr!     Fermentation.    1S7C!     Eneelmann,  Bol.   ^eitun;,    1S51     and 
IS^2;  Fli!aer,P/raninphytlo!o(!ie,JSS\  _  .  „,  , 

I  See  Pasleur    Cooiptrs  Kendas.  IS-^S  :   Kuith.     "  Baclerlum  zonfil, 
Zeitung,  1SS3  ;   Brefeld,  Schimmelpihe,  iv. ;  see  also  the  litscaturo  on  i 
tion  .ind  o_cur.enco  of  Scliizcmycctes. 

'  See  Woodhcad  and  Hare,  PMiological  iliicolog),^., 
is  there  quoted. 


J  1&92 ;  Cohn  and 
Pfcffcr,   l'jiar,z-ni' 


1S;9; 


'  in  Bol. 
disti'lbu- 


ISSj.   Vurtlier  ilteraturo 


S  C  H  I  Z  O  M  Y  C  E  T 


Pcnrien- 
tatiua. 


attraction  on  the  organism  the  reader  is  referred  to  his  treatise, 
_  Locomotonsohe  Richtungsbewegungen  durch  chemische  Keize  " 
in  Uitters.  aus  dcm  hot.  Insl.  :u  Tubingen,  i.  Hft.  3,  1884 

Fermentation  and  Putrc/acl ion.— The  growth  and  development 
of  a  bchizomyccte  m  any  organic  medium  results  in  a  breaking 
down  of  the  complex  food-materials  into  simpler  bodies,  ivhiclt 
may  then  become  oxidized  and  still  further  decomposed.      Such 
processes   are   known  as  fermentation  in  the  wider  sense.      The 
particular  kind  of  fermentation  depends  on  the  medium  and  on 
the  spec.es  of  Schizomycete,  and  may  be  affected  by  other  circum- 
stances ;  as  the  process  goes  on  volatile  substances  may  escape  and 
others  remain  behind.    WTiere  proteid  substances  are  being  decom- 
posed by  Schizomycetes    and  evil-smelling  gases  escape,  the  fer- 
mentation IS  spoken  of  as  putrefaction  ;  in  certain  cases,  where 
fiitcnse  oxidation  follows  and  still  further  consumes  the  products  of 
docomposi'ion,  the  process  has  been  termed  eremocausis.     In  a  few 
instances  a  process  of  reduction  sets  in,  as  when  sulphur  salts  are 
decomposed  by  Bcggiatoa.      Tho  theory  of  Fermentation  (a  v  ) 
cannot  be  treated  in  detail  here,  but  it  is  important  to  note  that 
side  by  sido  with  the  actions  referred  to  another  kind  of  action 
may  go  on.     Many  Schizomycetes  excrete  what  are  called  "  soluble 
ferments,    which  are  capable  of  changing  proteids  into  peptones, 
sugar -into  glucose,  and  so  on.     These  processes  of  inversion    &c 
rS"    ■,^,'™P'^  '"  ''"  alteration  of  the  proteid,  ic.,  from  the'non'- 
cliHusible   and  non-assimilable   condition    to    tho    diffusible    and 
assimilable  one,  and  are  in  no  way  destructive  as  are  the  fermenta- 
lons  described  above.     Nevertheless  it  is  the  custom  to  speak  of 
ooth  as  cases  of  fermentation  ;  the  one  series  of  changes  renders 
the  medium  less  and  less  capable  of  supporting  life  at  every  stage 
the  other  series  does  not  do  so,  yet  the  same  name  is  frequently 
given  to  both  kinds  of  action.     It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  same 
Schizomycete  may  produce  a  different  fermentation  in  each  of  two 
diHerent  media.     The  various  fermentations  are  distinguished  and 
valued  according  to  the  products  which  result ;  these  bye-products 
are  usually  injurious  to  tho  ferment  organism  as  they  accumulate 
ana  olten  complicate  the  investigation. 

Of  important  fermentations  due  to  Schizomycetes  may  be  men- 
tioned  those  concerned  in  the  making  of  vinegar  and  cheese,  in  the 
preparation  of  flax,  hemp,  &c,,  in  the  souring  and  diseases  of  beer 
wmes  &c.,  the  destruction  of  sugars,  preserved  food,  &c  Others 
are  ot  importance  in  the  soil,  and  in  tho  destruction  of  organic 
matter  m  ponds,  nvers,  drains,  &c.  In  fact,  much  of  the  raison 
d&rc  of  sanitary  science  may  be  referred  here;  and  it  may  turn 
out  to  be  still  more  true  than  wc  now  know  that  Schizomycetes  are 
important  in  agi-icultnre. 

In  pathology  the  changes  due  to  these  organisms  are  at  length 
being  duly  recognized.  Apart  from  the  comparatively  harm  hiss 
actions  of  those  forms  normally  existing  in  the  alimentary  canal- 
LcploJinx  a^ds  in  the  decay  of  teeth,  &c.-it  is  now  certain  that 
some  invasions  are  dangerous.  The  injurious  effects  of  some 
Schizoinycetes  when  introduced  into  open  wounds,  kc,  against 
which  tho  brilliant  labours  of  Lister  have  been  so  successfully 
directed,  arc  acknowledged  everywhere  ;  but  it  is  important  to 
recognize  that  on  the  whole  the  diseases  due  to  organisms  in  the 
Wood  depend  fundamentally  upon  changes  of  the  same  category  as 
those  referred  to  Of  course  the  fluids  of  a  living  body  present 
comp heated  conditions,  and  the  action  of  a  patho|enous  Schizo- 

H„^^'  hff  ""°l,i  ''Tif  ""''  f'^''^'^  ""Ply  "^  "■  tyPi=^l  fermenta- 
tion ,  but,  although  the  conditions  presented  are  involved  and 
spec  al.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  common  principles  lie  at  tho  base 
of  all  the  phenomena,  and  that  the  fluids  of  the  diseased  organism 
muo.  be  treated,  so  to  speak,  as  fermentable  media 
J^umcroiis  otr.er  fermentations  of  scientific  interest  are  duo  to 

oIor„'?^nh^'''i  '■"■•  *''°":,'°  "'"'=''  '"'o""  "^  fo^-^d.  certain 
c^cs  of  phosphorescence,  the  ammoniacal,  fermentation  if  urine, 

Rcl.i-  ScirizoMYCETES  AND  DiSEASE.-The  presence  of  Schizomycetes 

lioDS  tc    m  tho  blood    tissues,  or  organs  of  animals  and  man  si fferir/from 

duca*.    certain  specific  diseases  U  admitted,  and  has  natural  yig?,est,d 

S,^>,?1    l'",-""^!"  they  accompaniments  only  or  have  they  any 

cau.,a-l  relations  to  "the  diseaserconditions  ?    Their  constaiL    n 

as  to  how  the  causal  connexion  comes  about  and  in  what  it  consists 
adrscussion  which  is  still  going  on  as  to  tho  details.  The  ch  ef 
Follows  °"^''''^'"='i  """y  b"  expressed  generally  somewhat  ^ 

rIZ  t^'^f"   !C'"''?°  ^'"='''°>    '5'"=   *»   tl>«  action  of  a  definite 
Schizomycete,    tlie   latter   may   be   conceived   to   be   injurious  in 


407 


SdiliixIPK  ..ml  .MUntr,  CMptfi  nmiu,  U^lw    ',        ,  '■'"i"  ""'  '"   ""■  "*'='': 
Labci:-,.  Undon.1885:  SchroolcMn  r'oW.  „'2         '' U^'"''''"'"-  "'•  l-V  ""<' 


several  ways.  If  it  robs  the  blood  or  tissues  of  oxy-en  or  of  anir 
other  valuable  constituent,  or  if  its  activif  results  in  the  excre- 
tion of  poisonous  substances  or  in  their  formation  as  products  oi" 
degradation  of  the  matrix,  or  if  it  simply  acts  more  or  l.ss  as  a 
■  °"^™a"'cal  obstruction  or  irritant,-in  any  of  these  cases  harm  may 
result  to  the  delicately  adjusted  organism  of  the  host.  It  beini 
known  that  Schi^mycetcs  act  thus  in  nutrient  pabula  outside  tha 
body  their  rapid  growth  and  multiplication  inside  can  of  courao 
only  be. explained  as  duo  to  their  success  in  the  pabula  there  met 
with,  and  are  indications  that  they  produce  changes  there  which 
must  result  in  abnormality  so  far  as  the  host  is  couperned  This 
does  not  end  the  matter,  however.  The  living  tissues  of  a  heal.hy 
animal  exert  actions  which  are  antagonist'c  to  those  of  the  parasii  \ 
invader  ;  and  it  IS  now  generally  admitted  that  the  mere  admission  0  • 
a  bciiizomycete  into  an  animal  does  not  necessarily  cause  disease  ' 
Wero  It  otherwise  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  higher  organisms 
could  escape  at  all.  Schizomycetes  abound  all  over,  "aliout  and 
around  us  ;  many,  of  course,  are  unable  to  live  in  the  fluids  of 
the  body,  but  many  are  able  to  do  so.  Something  must  therefore  be 
placed  to  tho  action  of  the  tissues  of  the  host,  which  when  healthy 
can  resist  '  the  attemfits  of  a  Schizomycete  to  settle,  grow,  and 
multiply  with  fatal  e.^-ct.  Much  can  undoubtedly  be  explained 
by  this  struggle  for  exisu  -e  between  the  cells  of  the  parasite  and 
tliose  of  the  healthy  tissues  >vaded.  But  the  higher  organisms 
again,  present  obstacles  of  other  kinds  to  the  lodgment  of  Schizd 
mycctes  :  ciliary  actions,  active  excretions,  isolating  processes  of 
tissue-formation,  tc,  may  be  mentioned.  Thus  not  every  Schizo- 
mycete met  with  in  the  body  can  do  harm. 

But  even  when  a  Schizomycete  has  gained  access  to  the  blood- 
vessels, lymph-passagos,  &c.,  and  has  succeeded  in  establishing 
Itself  and  multiplying,  there  are  other  facts  to  be  taken  into 
account  before  we  dismiss  the  question  as  to  its  relations  to  disease.' 
the  rapidity  of  its  growth  may  vary  according  to  many  circum- 
staiices,— temperature,  oxidation,  &c,,-as  well  as  the  still  partially 
obstructive  action  of  the  invaded  organism  ;  whether  the  parasite 
excretes  a  poison,  or  simply  robs  the  host,  or  distributes  injurious 
agents  of  any  kind,  it  is  clear  that  everything  which  favours  it 
aids  in  intensifying  its  action.  And  this  may  be  local  or  General 
also  according  to  complex  circumstances.  Of  course  sores,  open 
wounds,  &c.,  may  render  the  access  of  a  given  Schizomycete  very 
easy  and  pave  the  way  for  its  success  in  tho  tissues,  &c.,  different 
strata  of  wliich  may  be  exerting  less  and  less  resistance  to  its 
attacks  The  study  of  this  subject  has  led  to  the  methods 
of  modern  surgery  devised  by  Lister.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  Schizomycetes  which  produce  bad  effects  on  injured  or  dead 
tissues  of  wounds  are  not  !'Kessarily  able  to  live  in  tho  healthy 
organism  liowever  deadly  thi  ^.oisonous  products  of  their  action 
may  be  when  they  succeed  in  establishing  themselves. 

All  these  and  many  other  facts,  then,  point  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  mere  pVesence  of  a  Schizomycete  in  an  organ  or  tissue 
IS  not  sufficient  proof  of  its  causal  relation  to  disease,  and  lead  u> 
to  the  following  requirements  to  be  satisfied  before  any  such 
relation  can  be  admitted  (Koch):-(l)  given  a  specific  disease  in 
Which  a  defanite  Schizomycete  is  constantly  detected,  and  with  a 
constant  disposition  with  respect  to  the  tissues,  organs  &c  —this 
organism  should  be  absent  from  animals  free  from  the  disease  •  (") 
the  Schizomycete  should  bo  cultivated  in  nutrient  media  outside 
the  body,  kept  pure  for  several  "generations,"  and  obtained  in 
some  quantity  by  these  means;  (3)  inoculation  of  a  smaU  amount 
ot  this  pure  cultivation  should  reproduce  the  specific  disease  in  a, 
healthy  animal ;  (4)  tho  same' foreign  elements  as  before  should' 
bo  clearly  detected  in  tho  tissues  of  the  now  diseased  subject,  and 
m  tho  same  relations  as  before. 

The  satisfying  of  all  these  requirements  is  difficult,  and  thf 
necessity  of  overcoming  the  difficulties  has  led  to  what  may  almost 
bo  termed  a  special  branch  of  medical  art.  At  tho  same  time  the 
majority  oi  the  principles  which  are  V.ere  becoming  recognized 
have  long  been  known  to  biologists,  and  especially  to  botanists, 
ana  there  are  still  numerous  indications  of  a  want  of  botanica' 
training  on  the  part  of  writers  on  these  subjects.  It  is  impossible 
here  to  even  mcnUon  all  the  methods  devised  for  staining,  prepar- 
ing and  examining  tis.sue,s,  kc.j  and  the  Schizomycetes  they  contain, 
or  lor  cultivating  these  minute  organisms  under  corstant  conditions 
on  sterilized  potatoes,  bread-paste,  jelly,  blood-serum,  kc,  or  in 
animal  infusions  or  fluids,  &c.  Somo  of  tho  more  important 
points  in  cultivation  have  already  been  referred  to  ;  the  litera- 
ture must  be  consulted  for  further  details.'  (H.  M   'W  )    ' 


'  Only  a  (cw  authorities  can  bo  mentioned  licie,  for  tlio llteraluro  on  nathoKen-' 
003  Schliomycetcs  and  methods  la  simply  enonnous;  further  references  may  Be 
made  to  tho  works  of  Bahcs,  Koch,  Davainc,  I'astear,  Chauveau,  Bolllnirer 
Jchelson.  Klein,  Gaffky,  Miller,  Rosenlmeh,  Oerlcl,  Ohcmieycr,  Burdon: 
.^amlcrson  Toussaint,  Wnldeyer,  Watson  Clicync,  Dreschteld,  and  many  others 
,.,'■  r.,.;;'™.''."'  ","''  M"<ro|.aia»ltcn  ■■  In  Zlcmssen's  Handbach  der  ilygime. 
Lelps.c,  IHM;  SlacMin  Lc. -ILicUric,  i'arls,  1878;  Klein,  llicro-orgmUm,  avk 
Dx,ta,t,  1881;  \Vo..,lhcart  and  Hue,  ratliologicat  A/ycoto™,  188i,  Valuallo 
papers  are  also  to  bo  found  In  the  followlni:  piriodlcals  :— Zln(.  Med.  Jour    Tra.i 

"i"f.  III./,,  Su!l.  d!  I  Acad,  d,  Med.,  Deulseht  mcd.   Woehemehrt/t.  Tin  Lan.el. 
Quail.  Jour,  c/ After.  Sc,  und  olliort  * 


408 


3  C  H  — S  C  H 


SCHLAGIXTWEIT-SAKUNLUNSKI,  Hermann-  von 
(182C-1882),  the  eldest  of  a  band  of  brothers,  all  more  or 
less  noted  as  scientific  explorers  or  students  of  foreign 
countries,  sons  of  an  oculist  of  Munich.  Hermann  was 
born  on  the  13th  of  May  182G.  His  first  scientific  labours 
were  studies  in  the  Alps,  carried  on  between  1846  and 
1848  in  association  with  his  brother  Adolf  (born  January 
9,  1829).  The  publication  of  the  Sbuliai  iiber  die 
physikalische  Geographle  der  Alpen  in  1850  founded  the 
scientific  reputation  of  the  two  brothers,  and  their  reputa- 
tion was  increased  by  their  subsequent  investigations  in 
tlie  same  field,  in  which  the  third  brother  Robert  (born 
Oct.  27,  1837)  also  took  part.  Soon  after  the  publication 
of  the  Neiie  Unlersuchunrjen  ilbcr  die  pJiT/s.  Gtorj.  u.  Geol. 
der  Alpen  (1854,  4to),  the  three  brothers  received,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Alex,  von  Humboldt,  a  commission 
from  the  East  India  Company  to  travel  for  scientific  pur- 
poses in  their  territory,  and  more  particularly  to  make 
observations  on  terrestrial  magnetism.  Their  explorations 
extended  over  the  period  1854-57,  during  which  they 
travelled,  sometimes  in  company,  sometimes  separately, 
in  the  Deccan  and  in  the  region  of  the  Himalayas,  even 
prosecuting  their  investigations  beyond  the  frontiers  of 
the  Company's  territory  into  the  region  of  the  Karakorum 
and  Kuenlun  Mountains.  Hermann  and  Robert  were  the 
first  Europeans  who  crossed  the  latter  mountains,  and  it 
was  in  honour  of  that  achievement  that  the  former  had 
the  title  or  surname  of  Sakiinliinski  bestowed  upon  him 
(in  18G4).  The  two  returned  to  Europe  in  the  summer  of 
1857,  but  Adolf,  who  remained  to  prosecute  his  explora- 
tions in  Central  Asia,  was  put  to  death  by  the  emir  of 
Kashgar  on  the  26th  of  August.  Between  1860  and  1866 
Hermann  and  Robert  published  in  four  volumes  the 
"  Results  of  a  Scientific  Mission  to  India  and  High  Asia." 
The  extensive  collections  of  ethnography  and  natural  history 
made  by  them  were  ultimately  deposited  in  the  Burg  at 
Nuremberg  through  the  intervention  of  the  king  of  Bavaria 
(May  1877).  Hermann  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life 
chiefly  in  literary  and  scientific  activity,  partly  at  Munich 
partly  at  the  castle  of  Jagernburg  near  Forchheim.  He 
died  at  Munich  on  the  19th  of  January  1882. 

His  brother"  Robert  was  appointed  professor  of  geography  at 
Gieasen  ia  1864,  but  his  academical  labours  were  sometimes  inter- 
rupted by  travels,  especially  in  the  United  States,  wliich  furnislied 
him  with  material  for  more  or  less  important  works.  He  died  at 
Giessen,  June  6,  1885.  Of  two  other  brothers,  one,  Edward  (born 
March  23,  1831),  killed  in  battle  at  Kissingen  in  1866,  made  him- 
self known  by  an  account  of  the  Spanish  expedition  to  Morocco 
in  1859-60.  Emil  (born  July  7,  1835)  is  the  author  of  several 
learned  works  relating  to  India  and  Tibet. 

SCHLANGENBAD.     See  Schwalbach. 

SCHLEGEL,  August  Wilhelm  von  (1767-1845), 
German  poet,  translator,  and  critic,  was  born  on  the  8th 
September  1767  at  Hanover,  where  his  father,  J.  Adolf 
Schlegel,  was  a  pastor.  He  was  educated  at  the  Hanover 
gymnasium  and  at  the  university  of  Gottingen.  Having 
spent  some  years  as  a  tutor  in  the  house  of  a  banker  at 
Amsterdam,  he  went  to  Jena,  where  he  Avas  made  a  pro- 
fessor, and  received  from  the  duke  of  Weimar  the  title  of 
"  Rath."  Here  he  began  his  translation  of  Shakespeare, 
■which  was  ultimately  completed,  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Tieck,  by  Tieck's  daughter  Dorothea  and  Count 
Baudissin.  A  revised  edition  of  this  rendering,  which  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  poetical  translations  in  the 
German  language,  has  been  issued  by  the  German  Shake- 
speare society.  At  Jena  Schlegel  contributed  to  Schiller's 
periodicals  the  Uoren  and  the  Musenalmanach ;  and  with 
his  brother  Friedrich  he  conducted  the  Athenmum,  which 
ranked  among  the  most  powerful  organs  of  critical  opinion 
in  Germany.  He  also  published  a  volume  of  poems,  and 
carrie/i  on  a  rather  bitter  controversy  with  Kotzebue.     At 


this  time  the  two  brothers  were  remarkable  for  the  vigour 
and  freshness  of  their  ideas,  and  commanded  respect  as 
the  leaders  of  the  rising  Romantic  schooL  In  1802 
Schlegel  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  delivered  lectures  on 
art  and  literature ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  issued 
Ion,  a  tragedy  in  the  antique  style,  which  gave  rise  to  a 
suggestive  discussion  on  the  principles  of  dramatic  poetry. 
About  the  same  time  appeared  his  Spanish  Theatre,  in 
which  ho  presented  admirable  translations  of  five  of 
Calderon's  plays  ;  and  in  another  volume  he  gave  transla- 
tions of  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  ItaUan  lyrics.  In  1807 
ho  attracted  much  attention  in  France  by  an  essay  in  the 
French  language,  in  which  he  compared  Racine  with 
Euripides.  His  lectures  on  dramatic  art  and  literatu/e, 
which  have  been  translated  into  most  European  languages, 
were  delivered  at  Vienna  in  1808.  Meanwhile  he  had 
been  travelling  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  other 
countries  with  Madame  de  Stael,  who  owed  to  him  many 
of  the  ideas  which  she  embodied  in  her  work,  Dt 
r Allemagne.  In  1813  he  acted  as  the  secretary  of  the 
crown  prince  of  Sweden,  through  whose  influence  the 
right  of  his  family  to  noble  rank  was  revived.  .  Schlegel 
was  made  a  professor  at  the  university  of  Bonn  in  1818, 
and  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  occupied  himself 
chiefly  with  Oriental  studies,  although  he  continued  to 
lecture  on  art  and  literature,  and  in  1828  he  issued  two 
volumes  of  critical  writings.  In  1823-30  ho  published 
the  Indische  Bibliotheh ;  and  as  separate  works  appeared 
(1823)  the  Bhagavad-GUa  with  a  Latin  translation,  and 
(1829)  the  Bdmdjana.  Schlegel  was  twice  married — first 
to  a  daughter  of  Prof.  Michaelis  of  Gottingen,  then  to  a 
daughter  of  Prof.  Paulus  of  Heidelberg.  Both  wives 
separated  from  him  soon  after  their  marriage.  He  died 
at  Bonn  on  the  12th  May  1845.  As  an  original  poet 
Schlegel  is  unimportant,  but  as  a  poetical  translator  he 
has  rarely  been  excelled,  and  in  criticism  he  exercised  a 
strong  influence  by  the  emphasis  with  which  he  marked 
the  distinction  between  classical  and  romantic  literature. 
By  his  study  of  Sanskrit  he  helped  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  development  of -the  science  of  language. 

In  1846-47  Schlegel's  German  works  were  issued  in  twelve 
volumes  by  Bocking.  There  is  also  an  edition  of  his  (Euvres, 
^critcs  en  fran^ais,  and  of  his  Optiscula  LatUw, 

SCHLEGEL,  Johann  Elias  (1718-1749),  a  German 
dramatic  writer,  was  born  at  Meissen  on  the  28th  January 
1718.  He  was  educated  at ^Schulpforta  and  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Leipsic.  In  1743,  having  finished  his  studies, 
he  became  private  secretary  to  his  relative,  Von  Spener, 
the  Saxon  ambassador  at  the  Danish  court.  Afterwards 
he  was  made  professor  extraordinary  at  the  academy  Of 
Soroe,  where  he  died  on  the  13th  August  1749.  Schlegel 
was  a  contributor  to  the  Bremisehen  Beitrage,  and  for 
some  time,  while  he  was  living  in  Denmark,  he  edited  a 
weekly  periodical,  Der  Fremde.  He  was  also  known  as  a 
writer  of  clever  poetical  epistles.  Incomparably  his  best 
works,  however,  are  his  dramas,  which  did  much  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  dramatic  achievements  of  Lessing, 
by  whom  his  genius  was  warmly  appreciated.  He  wrote 
two  lively  and  well-constructed  comedies,  the  Triumph 
der  guten  Fraueii  and  the  Slunime  Schonkeit,  the  latter  in 
alexandrines,  the  former  in  prose.  Hermann  and  Kanul 
(in  alexandrines)  are  generally  considered  his  best 
tragedies. 

His  works  were  edited  after  his  death  by  his  brother,  J.  H, 
Schlegel,  who  had  a  considerable  reputation  as  a  writer  on  Danish 
history.  Another  brother,  J.  Adolf  Schlegel,  an  eminent  preacher, 
and  author  of  some  volumes  of  verse,  was  the  father  oi  August 
Wilhelm  and  Friedrich  von  Schlegel. 

SCHLEGEL,  Kakl  Wilhelm  Friemich  von  (1772- 
1829),  known  chiefly  as  an  historian  of  literature,  was  the 
brother  of  August  Wilhelm  von  Schlegel.     Uo  was  born 


S  C  H 


H 


409 


at  Hanover  on  the  10th  March  1772.  Having  studied  at 
Gottingen  and  Leipsic,  he  attracted  some  attention  by  a 
book  oa  the  Griechen  und  ROiner  (1797),  which  was 
praised  by  Heyne.  This  worli  was  soon  followed  by  his 
Geichichie  der  Poesie  der  Griechen  und  Homer.  At  Jena, 
where  he  lectured  as  a  privat-docent  at  the  university,  he 
contributed  to  the  Athenx'..m  many  striking  critical  articles, 
and  a  number  of  lyrical  poems  which  were  afterwards 
included  in  a  volume  entitled  Gedichte.  Here  also  he 
wrote  Lucinde,  an  unfinished  romance,  which  was  held  by 
some  of  the  best  of  his  contemporaries  to  be  of  a  deeply 
immoral  tendency,  and  Alarcos,  a  tragedy,  in  which  he 
attempted  without  much  success  to  combine  romantic  and 
classical  elements.  In  1802  he  went  to  Paris,  where  ho 
edited  Europa,  lectured  on  philosophy,  and  carried  ■  on 
Oriental  studies,  some  results  of  which  ho  embodied  in  a 
well-known  book,  Ueber  die  Sprache  und  Weisheit  der 
Indier.  In  1803  he  and  his  wife  joined  the  Roman 
Church,  and  from  this  time  he  became  more  and  more 
opposed  to  the  principles  of  political  and  religious  freedom. 
He  went  to  Vienna  in  1808,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  engaged  as  imperial  court  secretary  at  the  head- 
quarters  of  the  archduke  Charloe.  At  a  later  period  he 
was  for  some  time  councillor  of  legation  in  the  Austrian 
embassy  at  the  Frankfort  diet,  but  in  1818  he  returned 
to  Vienna.  Meanwhile  he  had  published  two  series  of 
lectures,  Ueler  die  neuere  Gcschichie  (1811)  and  Geschichie 
der  alien  und  neuen  Literaiur  (1815).  After  his  return 
to  Vienna  from  Frankfort  he  edited  Concordia,  and  began 
the  issue  of  his  Siimmtliche  WerJce.  He  also  delive''«d 
lectures,  which  were  republished  in  his  Philosophie  dee 
Lebens  (1828)  and  in  his  Philosophie  der  Geschichie 
(1«29).  He  died  on  the  11th  January  1829  at  Dresden, 
where  ho  was  delivering  the  course  of  lectures  which 
appeared  in  1830  under  the  title  Philosophische  Varies- 
ungen,^ inshesondere  iiber  die  Philosophie  der  Sprache  und 
des  Wortes.  His  own  collection  of  his  works  included  ten 
volumes,  and  to  this  number  five  volumes  were  added 
after  his  death.  A  permanent  place  in  the  history  of 
German  literature  belongs  to  Friedrich  Schlegol  and  his 
brother  August  Wilhelm  as  the  critical  leaders  of  the 
Romantic  school,  which  derived  from  them  most  of  its 
governing  ideas  as  to  the  characteristics  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  as  to  the  methods  of  literary  e.xpression.  In 
their  writings,  too,  there  is  the  fullest  and  most  impres- 
sive statement  of  the  mystical  spiritual  doctrines  of  the 
Romantic  school.  Of  the  two  brothers,  August  Wilhelm 
did  the  highest  permanent  service  to  his  countrymen 
by  his  translations  from  Shakespeare  and  C'alderon.  The 
best  of  Friedrich's  works  is  his  Geschichie  der  alien  und 
neuen  Literaiur,  in  which  was  presented  for  tlve  first  time 
a  systematic  account  of  the  development  of  Europear, 
literature  as  a  whole. 

Friedrich  Schlcgcl's  wife,  I)orothca,  a  daugltter  of  Mosca  Men- 
delssohn, was  born  at  Berlin  about  the  year  1770,  and  died  at 
Frpnkfort  in  1839.  Slic  was  an  eccentric  but  remarkably  clever 
woman,  and  wrote  or  edited  several  works,  i.ssued  by  her  liusband, — 
fho  unfinished  romance  Florcntin  (1801),  the  first  volume  of  the 
Sammlung  romaniischcr  Dichtunrjen  des  MiltdaUtrs  (2  vols.,  1804), 
and  Lothfr  und  Mailer  (1805).  By  her  first  marriage  she  had  a 
HOD,  Philip  Veit,  who  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  painters  of 
his  day  in  Germany. 

SCHLEICHER,  August  (1821-18G8),  born  at  :Meinin- 
gen  on  February  19,  1821,  studied  at  the  univcr-sities  of 
Leipsic  and  Tiibingen,  became  e.vtraordinary  professor  of 
philology  in  Prague  in  1850,  removed  to  Jena  as  ordinary 
professor  in  1857,  and  died  there  December  6,  18G8.  His 
work  ia  characterized  in  the  article  Philology,  vol.  xviii. 
p.  782. 

SCHLEIDEN,  Matthias  (180J-1881),  was  born,  at 
Hamburg  in  1804.  He  studied  law  at  Heidelberg  and 
21  — ii;» 


practised  as  advocate  in  Hamburg  till  1831,  but  not 
succeeding  he  studied  botany  und  medicine  at  Oottingpu 
and  Berlin,  and  graduated  in  Jena  in  1839,  where  he 
afterwards  became  professor  of  botany  (1816-50).  In 
1863  he  was  called  to  Dorpat,  but  resigned  the  following 
year  and  returned  to  Germany,  where  he  lived  as  a  private 
teacher.  He  died  at  Frankfurt  in  1881.  His  title  to 
remembrance  is  twofold.  Uniting  the  labours  of  two 
centuries  of  workers  in  vegetable  histology,  from  Malpighi 
and  Grew  to  Mirbel  and  Robert  Brown,  he  proved  that  a 
nucleated  cell  is  the  only  original  constituent  of  the  plant 
embryo,  and  that  the  development  of  all  vegetable  tissues, 
must  be  referred  to  such  cells,  thus  preparing  the  way  for 
the  epoch-making  cell  theory  of  Schwann ;  and  his  Prin- 
ciples of  Scientijic  Botany,  which  went  through  several 
editions  (1842-50),  did  much  to  shake  the  tyranny  of  the 
purely  systematic  Linncan  school,  whoso  accumulations  he 
was  accustomed  irreverently  to  describe  as  "  hay."  Despite 
a  certain  inability  to  criticize  and  verify  his  own 
hypotheses,  he  gave,  both  by  his  speculative  activity  and 
by  the  introduction  of  improved  technical  methods,  so 
vivid  an  impulse  to  the  younger  botanists  of  his  time  as 
to  have  earned  from  De  Bary  the  title  of  reformer  of 
scientific  botany.  His  botanical  labours  practically  ceased 
after  1850,  when  he  entered  on  various  philosophical  and 
historical  studies.     See  Schwann. 

SCHLEIERMACHER,  Feiedrich  Daniel  Ern.st 
(1708-1834),  theologian  and  philosopher,  was  the  son  of 
a  Prussian  army-chaplain  of  the  Reformed  confession,  and 
was  born  November  21,  1768,  at  Breslau.  '  In  his  fifteenth 
j'ear  the  boy,  who  was  of  a  weak  constitution,  was  placed 
by  his  parents  in  a  Moravian  school  at  Niesky  in  Upper 
Lusatia,  and  two  years  later  in  the  seminary  of  the  same 
sect  at  Barby  near  Halle.  Here  Moravian  theology  proved 
inadequate  to  satisfy  the  deep  religious  needs  and  awak- 
ening intellect  of  the  youth.  It  was  particularly  the 
doctrines  of  eternal  punishment,  of  the  deity  and  the 
substitutionary  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  of  the  total 
corruption  of  human  nature  that  were  stumbling-blocks  to 
him.  He  was  also  unable  to»niako  his  own  the '  peculiar 
religious  experiences  of  his  Jloravian  and  pielistic  teachers. 
The  efforts  of  his  sti'ictly  orthodox  father  and  of  the  heads 
of  the  seminary  to  lead  him  to  crush  his  doubts  as  sinful, 
and  to  shun  modern  theology  and  literature,  tended  only  to 
strengthen  his  desire  to  explore  the  great  world  of  know^ 
ledge.  Reluctantly  his  father  gave  him  permission  to  leave 
Barby  for  the  university  of  Halle,  and  the  correspond- 
ence between  the  father  and  the  son  on  this  painful 
crisis  in  Friedrich's  life  supplies  a  striking  illustration  of 
a  typical  phase  of  distressing  modern  mental  history. 
When  Schleiermacher  entered  the  university  of  Halle 
(1787)  the  reign  of  pietism  there  had  ceased,  having  given 
way  to  the  rationalistic  philosophy  of  Wolf  with  the 
critical  theology  of  Semler,  though  the  new  philosophy  of 
Kant  was  rapidly  displacing  Wolf's.  As  a  student  ho 
pursued  an  independent  course  of  reading  and  neglected 
to  his  permanent  loss  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  Oriental  languages.  But  he  frequented  the  lectures  of 
Semler  and  of  J.  A.  Eberhard,  acquiring  from  the  former 
the  principles  of  an  independent  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  from  the  latter  his  love  of  Hato  and  Aristotle. 
At  the  same  time  ho  studied  with  great  earnestness  the 
writings  of  Kant  and  Jacobi.  He  commenced  thus  early 
his  characteristic  habit  of  forming  liis  opinions  by  the 
process  of  patiently  examining  and  weighing  the  position-, 
of  all  thinkers  and  parties.  But  with  the  repeptivity  of 
a  great  eclectic  he  combined  the  reconstructive  power  of 
a  profoundly  original  thinker.  While  yet  a  student  he 
began  to  apply  ideas  gathered  from  the  Greek  philosophers 
in  a  reconstruction  of  Kant's  system.     At  the  conipletioa 

XXL  —  52 


410 


SCHLEIERMACHER 


of  his  three  years'  course  at  Halle  he  obtained  through  the 
influence  of  the  court-chaplain  Sack  an  appointment  as 
private  tutor  in  the  family  of  Count  !Dohna-Schlobitten, 
which  he  held  upwards  of  two  years,  developing  in  a  culti- 
vated and  aristocratic  household  his  deep  love  of  family 
and  social  life.  After  short  engagements  in  tuition  and 
a^  locu7n  tenens  to  a  clergyman  of  the  small  town  of 
Landsberg,  he  received  (179G)  the  appointment  of  chaplain 
to  the  Charite  Hospital  in  Berlin,  a  position  which  he  held 
nearly  sis  years,  and  which  offered  no  scope  for  the 
development  of  his  powers  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the 
more  induced  to  seek  the  satisfaction  of  his  mental  and 
spiriti'al  necessities  in  the  cultivated  society  of  Berlin,  and 
in  profound  philosophical  studies.  This  was  the  period  in 
which  he  was  constructing  the  framework  of  his  philoso- 
phical and  religious  system.  It  was  the  period  too  when 
he  made  himself  widely  acquainted  with  art,  literature, 
science,  and  modern  culture  generally.  He  was  at  that 
time  profoundly  affected  by  German  Romanticism,  as 
represented  by  his  friend  Priedrich  Schlegel,  and  it 
required  all  the  energy  of  his  moral  natufe  and  the  force 
of  his  intellect  to  preserve  himself  from  its  moral  and 
mental  extravagances.  Of  this  his  Confidential  Letters  on 
Schlegel's  Lucinde  (1801),  as  well  as  his  perilous  relation 
to  Eleonore  Grunow,  the  wife  of  a  Berlin  clergyman,  are 
proof  and  illustration.  Gradually  his  sound  moral  nature, 
his  deep  religiousness,  and  his  powerful  intellect  enabled 
him  to  emancipate  himself  entirely  from  the  errors  and 
weaknesses  of  a  transient  phase  of  mental  and  social 
history,  and  to  appropriate  at  the  same  time  the  elements 
of  truth  and  goodness  which  it  possessed  in  rich  measure. 
Romanticism  unlocked  for  him  the  divine  treasures  of  life 
and  truth  which  are  stored  in  the  feelings  and  intuitions  of 
the  human  soul,  and  thus  enabled  him  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions of  his  philosophy  of  religion  and  his  ethical  system. 
It  enriched  his  imagination  and  life  too  with  ideals  ancient. 
and  modern,  which  gave  elevation,  depth,  and  colour  to  all 
his  thought.  Meantime  he  studied  Spinoza  and  Plato, 
and  was  profoundly  influenced  by  both,  though  he  was 
never  a  Spinozist;  he  made  Kant  more  and  more  his 
master,  though  he  departed  on  fundamental  poiiits  from 
him,  and  finally  remodelled  his  philosophy  ;  with  some  of 
Jaocirfs  positions  he  was  in  sympathy,  and  from  Fichte 
and-Schelling  he  accepted  ideas,  which  in  their  i)la<.'e  in  his 
sysiem,  however,. received  another  value  and  import.  The 
literasy  fruit  of  this  period  of  intense  fermentation  and.  of 
rapid  development  was  his  "  epoch-making "  book,  Reden 
iiher  die  Reli'jion  (1799),  and  his  "  new  year's  gift "  to  the 
new  century,  the  Moncloyen  (1800).  In  the  first  book  he 
.'indicated  for  religion  an  eternal  place  amongst  the  divine 
mysteries  of  human  _  nature,  distinguished  it  from  all 
current  caricatures  of  it  and  allied  phenomena,  and  de- 
scribed the  perennial  forms  of  its  manifestation  and  life 
in  men  and  society,  giving  thereby  the  programme  of  his 
subsequent  theological  system.  In  the  Monologen  he 
threw  out  his  ethical  manifesto,  in  which  he  proclaimed 
his  ideas  as  to  the  freedom  and  independence  of  the  spirit, 
and  as  to  the  relation  of  the  mind  to  the  world  of  sense 
and  imperfect  social  organizations,  and  sketched  his  ideal 
of  the  future  of  the  individual  and  society.  In  1802,  to 
his  great  advantage  morally  and  intellectually,  Schleier- 
macher  exchanged  the  brilfiant  circle  of  Berlin  Romanticists 
for  the  retired  life  of  a  pastor  in  the  little  Pomeranian 
town  of  Stolpe.  Here  he  remained  two  years,  which  were 
full  of  pastoral  and  literary  work,  as  well  as  rich  in 
personal  ana  moral  progress.  He  relieved  Friedrich 
Schlegel  entirely  of  his  nominal  responsibility  for  the 
translation  of  Plato,  which  they  had  together  undertaken, 
and  regarded  the  completion  of  it  as  the  work  of  his  life. 
The  first  volume  was  published,  in  1804,  and  the  last  (the 


Republic)  in  1C28.  At  the  same  time  ar  other  work,  Gruna- 
linien  einer  Kritik  der  bisherigen  Sittenlehre  (1803),  the 
first  of  his  strictly  critical  and  philosophical  productions, 
occupied  him.  This  work  is  a  severe  criticism  of  all 
previous  moral  systems,  especially  those  of  Kant  and 
Fichte,  Plato's  and  Spinoza's  finding  most  favour ;  its 
leading  principles  are  that  the  tests  of  the  soundness  of  a 
moral  system  are  the  completeness  of  its  view  of  the  laws 
and  ends  of  human  life  as  a  whole  and  the  harmonious 
arrangement  of  its  subject-matter  under  one  fundamental 
principle ;  and,  though  it  is  almo.st  exclusively  critical 
and  negative,  the  book  announces  clearly  the  division 
and  scope  of  moral  science  which  Schleiermacher  sub- 
sequently adopted,  attaching  prime  importance  to  a 
"  Guterlehre,"  or  doctrine  of  the  ends  to  be  obtained  by 
moral  action.  But  the  obscurity  of  the  style  of  the  book 
as  well  as  its  almost  purely  negative  results  proved  fatal  to 
its  immediate  success.  In  1804  Schleiermacher  removed 
as  university  preacher  and  professor  of  theology  to  Halle, 
where  he  remained  until  1807,  and  where  he  quickly 
obtained  a  reputation  as  professor  and  preacher,  and 
exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  spite  of  the  contradictory 
charges  of  his  being  an  atheist,  Spinozist,  and  pietist.  In 
this  p°eriod  he  wrote  his  dialogue  the  Weihnaehtxfaer  {l^QQi), 
a  charming  production,  which  holds  a  place  midway  between 
his  Rcdeii  and  his  great  dogmatic  work  the  Christliche 
Giaube,  and  presents  in  the  persons  of  its  speakers  phases 
of  Ilia  growing  appreciation  of  Christianity  as  well  as  the 
conflicting  elements  of  the  theology  of  the  period.  After 
the  battle  of  Jena  he  returned  to  Berlin  (1807),  was  soon 
appointed  pastor  of  the  Trinity  Church  there,  and  the 
next  year  married  the  widow  of  his  friend  WilUch.  At 
the  foundation  of  the  Berlin  university  (1810),  in  which  he 
took  a  prominent  part,  he  was  called  to  a  theological  chair, 
and  soon  became  secretary  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  was  thus  placed  in  a  position  suited  to  his  powers 
and  in  domestic  and  social  surroundings  adapted  to  meet 
the  wants  of  his  rich  nature.  At  the  same  time  he 
approved  himself  in  the  pulpit  and  elsewhere  as  a  large- 
hearted  and  fearless  patriot  in  that  time  of  natienal 
calamity  and  humiliation,  acquiring  a  name  and  place  in 
his  country's  annals  with  Arndt,  Fichte,  Stein,  and  Scharn- 
horst.  He  took  a  prominent  part  too  in  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  Prussian  church,  and  became  the  most  powerful 
advocate  of  the  union  of  .the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
divisions  of  German  Protestantism.  The  twenty-four 
years  of  his  professional  career  in  Berlin  were  opened  with 
his  -short  but  inrportant  outline  of  theological  study 
(Kurze  Darstelliing  des  theolorjisehen  Studiums,  1810),  in 
which  he  sought  to  do  for  theology  what  he  had  done  for 
religion  in  his  Reden.  While  he  preached  every  Sunday, 
he  also  gradually  took  up  in  his  lectures  in  the  uuiv«?isity 
almost  every  branch  of  theology  and  philosophy — New 
Testament  exegesis,  introduction  to  and  interpretation 
of  the  New  Testament,  ethics  (both  philosophic  and 
Christian),  dogmatic  and  practical  theology,  church  history, 
history  of  philosophy,  psychology,  dialectics  (logic  and 
metaphysics),  politics,  psedagogy,  and  aesthetics.  His  own 
materials  for  these  lectures  and  his  students'  notes  and 
reports  of  them  are  the  only  form  in  which  the  larger 
proportion  of  his  works  exist, — a  circumstance  which  has 
greatly  increased  the  difficulty  of  getting  a  clear  and 
harmonious  view  of  fundamental  portions  of  his  philo- 
sophical and  ethical  systeta,  while  it  has  effectually 
deterred  all  but  the  most  courageous  and  patient  students 
from  reading  these  posthumous  collections.  As  a  preacher 
he  produced  a  powerful  effect,  yet  not  at  all  by  the  force 
of  his  oratory  but  by  his  intellectual  strength,  hia 
devotional  spirit,  and  the  philosophical  breadth  and  unity 
of  his  thought.     In  politics  he  Was  an  earnest  friend  of 


S  C  H  L  E  I  E  R  IM  A  0  H  E  R 


411 


aberty  and  progress,  and  in  the  period  of  reaction  which 
followed  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  he  was  charged  by 
the  Prussian  Government  with  "demagogic  agitation"  in 
•:onJunction  with  the  great  patriot  Arndt:  At  the  same 
time  he  prejiared  for  the  prfes  his  chief  theological  work 
Der  christliche  Glanhe  nach  den  Gritndsdtzen  dtr  evan- 
gelischen  Kircke  (1821-22;  2d  edition,  greatly  altered, 
1830-3"".).  The  fundamental  principle  of  this  classical 
work  is,  that  religious  feeling,  the  sense  of  absolute 
dependence  on  God  as  communicated  by  Jesus  Christ 
through  the  church,  and  not  the  creeds  or  the  letter  of 
Scripture  or  the  rationalistic  understanding,  is  the  source 
and  law  of  dogmatic  theology.  The  work  is  therefore 
simply  a  description  of  the  facts  of  religious  feeling,  or  of 
the  inner  life  of  the  soul  in  its  relations  to  God,  and 
these  inward  facts  are  looked  at  in  the  various  stages  of 
their  development  and  presented  in  their  systematic  con- 
nr.cion.  The  aim  of  tlio  work  was  to  reform  Protestant 
theology  by  means  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  Reden, 
to  jiiit  an  end  to  the  unreason  and  superficiality  of  both 
supernaturalism  and  rationalism,  and  to  deliver  religion 
and  theology  from  a  relation  of  dependence  on  perpetually 
changing  systems  6f  philosophy.  Though  the  work  added 
to  the  reputation  of  its  author,  it  naturally  aroused  the 
increased  opposition  of  the  theological  schools  it  was 
intended  to  overthrow,  and  at  the  same  time  Schleier- 
inacher's  defence  of  the  right  of  the  church  to  frame  its 
own  liturgy  in  opposition  to  the  arbitrary  dictation  of 
the  monarch  or  his  ministers  brought  upon  him  .fresh 
troubles.  He  felt  himself  in  Berlin  more  and  more 
isolated,  although  his  church  and  his  lecture-room  con- 
tinued to  be  largely  attended.  But  he  prosecuted  his 
translation  of  Plato  and'  prepared  a  new  and  greatly 
altered  edition  of  his  Cloislliche  Glauhe,  anticipating 
the  latter  in  two  letters  to  his  friend  Liicke  (in  the 
Siudien  und  Kritilien,  1S29),  in  which  he  defended  with  a 
masterly  hand  his  tlieological  position  generally  and  his  book 
in  particular  against  opponents  on  the  right  and  the  left. 
The  same  year  he  lost  his  only  son — a  blow  which,  he  said, 
'■■  drove  the  nails  into  his  own  coffin."  But  he  continued 
to  defend  his  theological  position  against  Hengstenterg's 
jjarty  on  the  one  hand  and  the  rationalists  Von  CiJlln  and 
D.  Scliulz  on  the  other,  protesting  against  both  subscrip- 
tion to  the  ancient'  creeds  and  the  imposition  of  a  new 
rationalistic  formulary.  In  the  midst  of  such  labours, 
and  enjoying  still  full  bodily  and  mental  vigour,  he  was 
carried  off  after  a  few  days'  illness  by  inflammation  of  the 
lungs.  He  died  thinking  "  the  profoundest  speculative 
ideas  which  were  one  with  his  deepest  religious  feeling," 
and  partaking  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper, 
February  12,  1834. 

Schleiermacher's  friend,  the  naturalist  and  poet  Steffens, 
has  left  the  following  description  of  his  appearance  about 
the  beginning  of  the  century: — "  Schleicrmacher  was  of 
small  stature,  a  little  deformed,  yet  hardly  enough  to 
disfigure  him  ;  all  his  movements  were  animated,,  and  his 
features  in  the  highest  degree  expressive;  a  certain  keen- 
ness in  his  glance  produced  perhaps  a  repellent  effect; 
indeed,  ho  appeared  to  see  through  every  one ;  his  face 
rrther  long„  all  his  features  sharply  cut,  the  lips  firmly 
closed,  the  chin  projecting,  the  eyes  animated  and  flashing, 
his  look  always  serious,  collected,  and  thoughtful." 
I'l.iinK-  SMeicrmacur'a  Philosophical  System.— K  great  aiititlicsis  lies 
■Mc.il  a  tlio  basis  of  lU  tliouglit  and  lifo— tliat  of  the  real  and  the  ideal, 
«v>t'.Mu.  of  organism, orsensc,  and  intellect.  ]5ut  tlio  antitticsis  is  notabso- 
liilc,  for  in  lite  and  being  both  elements  are  united— [lioiigh  witli- 
out  its  i>rcsenco  life  and  tliouglit  would  bo  inipossiblo.  In  tlio 
actual  world  the  antitliesis  ajijicars  as  reason  and  nature,  in  cacli 
cf  which,  howc'-cr,  there  is  a  combination  of  ita  two  elements-  the 
idc.iKand  the  real,— the  reason  having  a  preponderance  of  the  fust 
ail  I  nature  a  pieiiondcrancc  of  the  second.  At  the  basis  of  aturo 
W"S  I'liivcrsal  reason  as  its  organizing  priiieiplo,  and  whc.  .c.ason 


becomes  a  ..onscious  power  in  man  it  finds  itself  in  conflict  as  well 
as  in  harmony  with  external  nature.  The  whole  effort  an;'  end  of 
human  thought  and  action  is  the  gradual  reductijn  of  the  lealm 
and  the  power  of  this  antithesis  in  the  individual,  tho  race,  and 
the  world.  Tliough  the  antithesis  is  real  and  deep,  the  liun.an 
mind  cannot  admit  its  absolute  nature  ;  we  are  compelled  to  sun- 
pose  a  transcendental  reality  or  entity  in  which  the  real  and  tiie 
ideal,  being  and  thought,  subject  and  object,  are  one.  Conscious- 
ness itself  involves  the  union  of  the  antithetic  elements,  and  prior 
to  moral  action  nature  is  found  organized  and  reason  manifested 
or  symbolized  therein.  "We  are  ourselves  proofs  of  the  unity  of  tiie 
real  and  the  ideal,  of  thought  and  being,  for  we  are  both,  our  set'- 
consciousness  supplying  the  expression  of  tho  fact.  As  we  have  in 
ourselves  an  instance  of  the  identity  of  thought  and  being,  wa 
must  suppose  a  universal  identity  of  the  ideal  and  real  behind  t"ne 
antithesis  which  constitutes  the  world.  This  supposition  is  t're 
basis  of  all  knowledge,  for  thought  becomes  knowledge  only  when 
it  corresponds  to  being.  The  supposition  may  be  called  a  belief, 
but  it  is  so  only  in  the  sense  in  which  belief  appears  in  tlie  rel'gious 
department,  where  it  is  the  ultimate  ground  of  all  action.  The 
supposition  is  the  basis  of  all  ethics,  for  without  the  conviction  of 
the  correspondence  of  thought  and  reality  action  would  bo  fruitless 
and  in  the  end  impossible.  It  is  above  all  the  substnnce  of  religious 
feeling,  which  is  the  ininiediate  consciousness  of  theunity  of  the 
world,  of  the  absolute  oneness  behind  the  infinite  multiplicity  of 
contrasts  ;  indeed,  it  is  the  religious  conviction  of  the  unity  which 
is  tho  best  guarantee  of  the  truth  of  the  suppositions  of  philosophy. 
It  is  "the  religious  consciousness  of  the  unity  of  tho  intellectual 
and  physical  world  in  God  "  which  is  to  overcome  the  scepticism  of 
the  critical  philosophy.  Cut,  though  this  unity  must  bo  laid  down 
as  the  basis  of  knowledge,  it  is  absolute  and  transcendental.  In 
contrast  with  tho  "world,"  as  the  totality  of  being  in  its  differen- 
tiation, this  absolute  unity,  or  God,  in  whom  the  real  as  manifold, 
and  tho  spirit  as  one,  find  their  unifying  base,  by  its  very  nature 
is  unpheiiomcnal,  indefinable,  and  inconceivable.  Tho  idea  is 
outside  the  boundary  of  thought,  though  its  necessary  postulate, 
and  it  is  no  less  inaccessible  to  religious  feeling,  though  it  is  its  life 
and  soul.  Neither  member  of  the  antithesis  of  the  real  and  the  ideal 
must  be  conceived  as  producing  tho  other  ;  they  are  both  equally 
existent  and  equally  constituent  elements  of  the  world  ;  but  in  God 
they  are  one,  and  therefore  the  world  must  not  be  identified  with 
Him.  The  world  and  God  are  distinct,  but  correlative,  and  neither 
can  be  conceived  without  the  other.  The  world  without  God 
would  be  "chaos,"  and  God  without  the  world  an  empty  "phan- 
tasm." But  though  God  is  transcendent  i  ad  unknowable  He  is 
immanent  in  the  world.  In  self-consciousness  God  is  present  as 
the  basis  of  the  unity  of  our  nature  in  every  transition  from  an  act 
of  knowledge  to  an  act  of  will,  and  vice  versa.  As  far  as  man  is 
the  unity  of  tiie  real  and  the  ideal,  God  is  in  him.  He  is  alsc  in 
all  things,  inasmuch  as  in  everything  the  totality  of  the  world  and 
its  transcendental  basis  is  presupposed  by  virtue  of  their  being  and 
correlation.  The  unity  of  our  personal  life  amidst  the  multiplicity 
of  its  functions  is  the  symbol  of  God's  immanence  in  the  world, 
though  we  may  not  conceive  of  the  Absolute  as  a  person.  The 
iilca  of  the  world  as  the  totality  of  being  is,  like  the  correlative 
idea  of  God,  only  of  regulative  value  ;  it  is  transcendent,  as  we 
never  do  more  than  make  approaches  to  a  knowledge  of  the  sum  of 
being.  The  one  idea  is  the  transcendental  terminus  a  quo  and  tho 
other  the  transcendental  terminus  ad  quern  of  all  knowledge.  But 
tliough  the  world  cannot  be  exhaustively  known  it  can  be  known 
very  extensively,  and  though  the  positive  idea  of  God  must  always 
remain  unattainable  we  are  able  to  reject  those  ideas  which  involve 
a  contradiction  of  the  postulate  of  tlie  Absolute.  Thus  the  pan- 
theistic and  tho  theistic  conceptions  of  God  ai  the  supreme  power, 
as  the  first  cause,  as  a  person,  arc  alike  unallowable,  since  they  all 
bring  God  within  the  sphere  j(  antithesis  and  preclude  His  absolute 
unity.  On  tho  other  hand,  the  world  can  bo  knov.'u  as  the  realm 
of  antithesis,  and  it  is  the  correlative  of  God.  Though  He  may 
not  be  conceived  as  the  absolute  cause  of  the  world,  the  idea  of 
absolute  causality  as  symbolized  in  it  may  be  taken  ns  the  best 
approximate  expression  of  the  contents  of  the  religious  conscious- 
ness. The  unbroken  connexion  of  cause  and  effect  throughout  the 
world  becomes  thus  a  manifestation  of  God.  God  is  to  bo  sought 
only  in  oui-selvcs  and  in  the  world.  Ho  is  coni]detely  immanent 
in  tho  universe.  It  is  impossible  that  His  cau.sality  should  have  an^ 
other  sphere  than  the  world,  which  is  the  totality  of  being.  '  rio 
God  without  a  world,  and  no  world  without  God. "  Tho  divine  omni- 
potence is  quantitatively  reprcscnti:d  by  tlic  sum  of  tho  forces  of 
nature,  and  qu.alitatively  distinguished  from  them  only  as  the  unify 
of  infinite  causality  from  the  multiplicity  o'  its  finite  pheriomcna. 
Throughout  the  world — not  excepting  the  realm  of  mind— ab.soIute 
necessity  prevails.  As  a  whole  the  world  is  ^-  good  and  perfect  us 
a  world  could  possibly  be,  and  everything  in  it,  as  occupying  its 
necessary  place  in  the  whole,  is  also  good,  evil  being  only  tho 
necessary  limitation  of  individual  being. 

Sclileiorni.i.chcr's  psychology  takes  ns  its  basis  tho  phenomenal 
dualism  of  the  ego  and  the  non-cgn,  and  regards  tho  lilc  of  man  as 


412 


SCHL"^IE}IMACHER 


tho  interaction  of  these  elements  wttU  their  intcrpenetvrtion  as 
its  infinite  destination.  The  dualism  is  therefore  not  absolute, 
ana,  though  present  in  man's  own  constitution  as  composed  of 
body  and  soul,  is  relative  only  even  there.  The  ego  is  itself 
both  body  and  soul, — the  conjunction  of  both  constitutes  it;  our 
"  organization  "  or  sense  nature  has  its  intellectual  element,  and  our 
"intellect"  its  organic  element.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  "pure 
mind"  or  "pure  body."  Ttio  one  general  function  6f  the  ego,, 
thought,  becomes  in  relation  to  the  non-ego  either  receptive  or  spon- 
taneous action,  and  in  both  forms  of  action  its  organic,  or  sense,  and 
its  intellectual  energies  co-operato  ;  and  in  relation  to  man,  nature, 
and  the  universe  the  ego  gradually  finds  its  true  individuality  by 
becoming  a  part  of  them,  "every  extension  of  consciousness  being 
higher  life."  The  specific  functidns  of  the  ego,  as  determined  by  the 
relative  predominance  of  sense  or  intellect,  are  either  functions  of 
the  senses  (or  organism)  ov  functions  of  the  intellect.  The  former 
fall  into  the  two  classes  of  feelings  (subjective)  and  perceptions 
(objective) ;  the  latter,  according  as  the  receptive  or  the  spontaneous 
element  predominates,  into  cognition  and  volition.  In  cognition 
being  is  the  object  and  in  volition  it  is  the  purpose  of  thought :  in 
the  hrst  case  wc  receive  (in  our  fashion)  the  object  of  thought  into 
ourselves;  in  the  latter  we  plant  it  out  into  the  world.  Both  cogni- 
tion and  volition  are  functions  of  thought  as  well  as  forms  of  moral 
action.  It  is  in  those  two  functions  that  the  real  life  of  the  ego  is 
manifested,  bat  behind  them  is  self-co^isciousncss  permanently 
present,  which  is  always  both  subjective  and  objective — conscious- 
ness of  ourselves  and  of  the  non-ego.  This  self-consciousness  is  the 
third  .special  form  or  function  of  thought, — which  is  also  called 
feeling  and  immediate  knouledge.  In  it  we  cognize  our  own  inner 
life  as  affected  by  the  non-ego.  As  the,  non-ego  helps  or  hinders, 
enlarges  or  limits,  our  inner  life,  we  feel  pleasure  or  pain.  ^Esthetic, 
moral,  nnd  religi-,  us  feelings  are  respectively  produced  by  the 
reception  into  consciousness  of  large  ideas, — nature,  manliind,  and 
the  world  ;  those  feelings  are  the  sense  of  being  one  with  these 
vast  objects.  Religious  feeling  therefore  is  the  highest  form  of 
thought  and  of  life  ;  in  it  we  are  conscious  of  our  unity  with  the 
world  and  God  ;  it  is  thus  the  sense  of  absolute  dependence. 
SchleiermacUer's  doctrine  of  knowledge  accepts  the  fundamental 
principle  of  Kant  that  knowledge  is  bounded  by  experience,  but 
it  seeks  to  remove  Kant's  scepticism  as  to  knowledge  of  the  Dinr; 
an  sick,  or  Sci7i,  as  Schleiermacher's  term  is.  The  idea  of  knowledge 
or  scientific  thought  as  distinguished  from  the  passive  form  of 
thought — of  festhetics  and  religion — is  thought  which  is  produced 
by  all  thinkers  in  the  same  form  and  which  corresponds  to  being. 
All  knowledge  takgs  the  form  of  the  concept  {Bcgriff)  or  the 
judgment  {(Jrtkcil),  the  former  conceiving  the  variety  of  being  as 
a  definite  unity  and  plurality,  and  the  latter  simply  .connecting 
the  concept  with  certain  individual  objects.  In  the  concept  there- 
fore the  intellectual  and  in  the  judgment  the  organic  or  sense 
element  predominates.  The  universal  uniformity  of  the  production 
of  judgments  presupposes  the  uniformity  of  our  relations  to  the 
outward  world,  and  tiie  uniformity  of  concepts  rests  similarly  on 
the  likeness  of  our  inward  nature.  This  uniformity  is  not  based 
on  the  sameness  of  either  the  intellectual  or  tho  organic  functions 
alone,  but  on  the  correspondence  of  the  forms  of  thought  and 
sensation  with  the  forms  of  befng.  The  essential  nature  of  the 
concept  is  that  it  combines  the  general  and  the  special,  and  the 
same  combination  recurs  in  being  ;  in  being  the  system  of  sub- 
stantial or  permanent  forms  answers  to  the  system  of  concepts  and 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect- to  tho  system  of  judgments,  the 
higher  concept  answering  to  "force"  and  the  lower  to  the  pheno- 
mena of  force,  and  the  judgment  to  the  contingent  interaction  of 
things.  The  sum  of  being  consists  of  the  two  systems  of  sub- 
stantial forms  and  interactional  relations,  and  it  reappears  in  the 
form  of  concept  and  judgment,  the  concept  representing  being  nnd 
the  judgment  being  in  action.  Kncvledge  has  under  both  forms 
the  same  object,  the  relative  difference  of  the  two  being  that  when 
the  conceptual  form  predominates  we  have  speculative  science  and 
when  the  form  of  judgment  prevails  we  have  empirical  or  historical 
scieuce.  Throughout  the  domain  of  knowledge  the  two  forms  are 
found  in  constant  mutual  relations,  another  proof  of  the  funda- 
mental unity  of  thouglit  and  being  or  of  the  objectivity  of  know- 
ledge. It  is  obvious  that  Plato,  Spinoza,  and  Kant  had  contri- 
buted characteristic  elements  of  their  thought  to  this  system,  and 
directly  or  indirectly  it  was  largely  indebted  to  Schelling  for 
fundamental  conceptions.  » 

EthicSt  Schlciennachcr  s  Ethics. — Next  to  religion  and  theology  it  was 
'to  the  moral  world,  of  which,  indeed,  the  phenomena  of  religion 
and  theology  were  in  his  systems  only  constituent  elements,  that 
he  specia''.ly  devoted  himself.  In  his  earlier  essays  he  endeavoured 
to  point  out  the  defects  of  ancient  and  modern  ethical  thinkers, 
particularly  of  Kant  and  Fichte,  Plato  and  Spinoza  only  finding 
favour  in  his  eyes.  He  failed  to  discover  in  previous  morsil  systems 
any  necessary  basis  in  thought,  any  completeness  as  regards  the 
phenomena  of  moral  action,  any  systematic  arrangement  of  its 
parts,  and  any  clear  and  distinct  treatment  of  specific  moral  nets 
and  relations.     His  own   moral  system  is  an   attempt  to  supply 


these  deficienc'es.  It  connects  the  moral  world  by  a  deductiva 
process  with  the  fundamental  idea  of  knowledge  and  bei.ig  ;  it 
offers  a  view  of  the  entire  world  of  human  action  which  at  all  events 
aims  at  being  exhaustive;  it  presents  an  arrangement  of  the 
matter  of  the  science  which  tabulates  its  constituents  after  the 
model  of  tho  physical  sciences;  and  it  supplies  a  sharply  defined 
treatment  of  specific  moral  phenomena  in  their  relation  to  the 
fundamental  idea  of  "human  life  as  a  whole.  Schleiermacher 
defines  ethics  as  the  theory  of  the  nature  of  the  reason,  or  as 
the  scientific  treatment  of  the  cfl'ects  produced  by  human  reason- 
in  the  world  of  nature, and  man.  As  a  theoretical  or  speculative 
science  it  is  purely  descriptive  aud  not  practical,  being  correlated 
on  the  one  hand  to  physical  science  and  on  the  other  to  history. 
Its  method  is  the  same  as  that  of  pliysical  science,  being  dis- 
tinguished from  the  latter  only  by  its  matter.  The  ontological 
basis  of  ethics  is  the  unity  of  the  real  and  the  ideal,  and  the 
psychological  and  Actual  basis  of  the  ethical  process  is  the  tendency 
of  reason  and  nature  to  unite  in  the  form  of  the  complete  organiza- 
tion of  the  latter  by  the  former.  The  end  of  the  ethical  process 
is  that  nature  {i.c.^  all  that  is  not  mind,  tho  human  body  as  well 
as  external  nature)  may  become  the  perfect  symbol  aud  o;-gan  of 
mind.  Conscience,  as  the  subjective  expression  of  the  presupposed 
identity*  of  reason  and  nature  in  their  bases,  guarantees  the 
practicability  of  our  moral  vocation.  Kature  is  preordained  or 
constituted  to  become  the  symbol  and  organ  of  mind,  just  as  mind  is- 
endowed  with  the  impulse  to  realize  this  end.  But  the  moral  law 
must  not  be  conceived  under  the  form  of  an  "impei-ative"  or  a 
"  Sollcn  " ;  it  differs  from  a  law  of  nature  only  as  being  descripti^'e 
of  the  fact  that  it  ranks  the  mind  as  conscious  will,  or  zwecJcdoikend, 
above  nature.  Strictly  speaking,  the  antitheses  of  good  and  bad 
and  of  free  and"n€cessary  have  no  place  in  an  ethical  system,  but 
simply  in  history,  which  is  obliged  to  compare  the  actual  with  tho 
ideal,  but  as  far  as  the  terras  "  good  "  and  "  bad  "  are  used  in  morals 
they  express  the  rule  or  the  contrary  of  reason,  or  the  harmony  or 
the  contrary  of  the  particular  and  the  general  The  idea  of  "  free  " 
as  opposed  to  necessary  expresses  simply  the  fact  that  the  mind 
can  propose  to  itself  ends,  though  a  man  cannot  alter  his  own  nature. 
In  contrast  to  Kant  and  Fichte  and  modern  moral  philosopher^ 
Schleicrmacher  reintroduced  and  assigned  pre-eminent  imjtortancc 
to  the  doctrino  of  the  stiinmum  honunij  or  highest  good.  It 
represents  in  his  system  the  ideal  and  aim  of  the  entire  life  of  man, 
supplying  the  ethical  view  of  the  conduct  of  individuals  in  relation 
to  society  and  the  universe,  and  therewith  constituting  a  philosophy 
of  history  at  the  same  time.  Starting  with  the  idea  of  tho  highest 
good  and  of  its  constituent  elements  {Gutcr\  or  the  chief  forms  of 
the  union  of  mind  and  nature,  Schleiermacher's  system  divides  itself 
into  the  doctrine  of  moral  ends,  the  doctrine  of  virtue,  and  the 
doctrine  of  duties  ;  in  other  words,  as  a  development  of  the  idea  of 
the  subjection  of  nature  to  reason  it  becomes  a  description  of  the 
actual  forms  of  the  triumphs  of  reason,  of  the  moral  power  mani- 
fested therein,  and  of  the  specific  methods  employed.  Every  moral 
good  or  product  has  a  fourfold  character:  it  is  individual  and 
universal ;  it  is  an  organ  and  symbol  of  the  reason,  that  is,  it  is  the 
product  of  the  individual  with  relation  to  the^  community,  and 
represents  or  manifests  as  well  as  classifies  and  i-ules  nature.  The 
first  two  characteristics  provide  for  the  functions  and  rights  of  the 
individual  as  well  as  those  of  the  commmuty  or  race.  Though  a 
moral  action  may  have  these  four  characteristics  at  various  degrees 
of  strength,  it  ceases  to  be  moral  if  one  of  them  is  quite  absent. 
All  moral  products  may  be  classified  according  to  the  predominance 
of  one  or  the  other  of  these  characteristics.'  Universal  organizing 
action  produces  the  forms  of  intercourse,  and  universal  symbolizing 
action  produces  the  various  forms  of  science  ;  individual  organiz- 
ing action  yields  the  forms  of  property  and  iudividual  symboliz- 
ing action  the  vai-ious  representations  of  feeling,  all  these  constitut- 
ing the  relations,  the  productive  spheres;  or  the  social  conditions 
of  moral  action.  Moral  fuSctions  cannot  be  performed  by  the  iudi- 
vidual in  isolation  but  only  in  his  relation  to  tlic  family,  the  state, 
the  school,  the  church,  and  society, — all  forms  of  human  life  which 
ethical  science  finds  to  its  hand  and  leaves  to  the  science  of  natural 
history  to  account  for.  The  moral  process  is  accomplished  by  the 
various  sections  of  humanity  in  their  individual  spheres,  and  the 
doctrine  of  virtue  deals  with  the  reason  as  the  moral  power  in 
each  individual  by  which  the  totality  of  moral  products  is  obtained. 
Schleicrmacher  classifies  the  virtues  under  the  two  fonns  of 
Gcsimncng  and  Fcrtigkcif,  the  first  consisting  of  the  pore  ideal 
element  in  action  and  tho  second  the  form  it  assumes  in  relatiou 
to  circumstances,  each  of  the  two  classes  falling  respectively  into 
the  two  diWsions  of  wisdom  and  love  and  of  intelligence  and  appli- 
cation. In  his  system  the  doctrine  of  duty  is  the  description  of '  he 
method  of  the  attainment  of  ethical  ends,  the  c.mception  of  duty 
as  an  imperative,  or  obligation,  being  excluded,  as  we  have  seen. 
No  action  fulfils  the  conditions  of  duty  except  as  it  combines  the 
three  following  antitheses  :  reference  to  the  moral  idea  in  its  whole 
extent  and  likewise  to  a  definite  moral  sphere ;  connexion  with  exist- 
ing conditions  and  at  the  same  time  absolute  personal  production  ;. 
the  fulfilment  of  the  entire  moral  vocation  every  moment  though. 


It  can  ou!y  hs  dor.e  in  a  definite  sphere.  Duties  are  divided  with 
reference  to  the  principle  that  every  man  make  his  own  the  entire 
moral  pioblem  and  act  at  the  same  time  in  an  existing  moral 
society.     This  condition  gives  four  general  classes  of  dutyl  duties 

?p^f?"5-  r,f  °    ''i"^''  ■'  ''"'''=^  ^''"^  reference  to  the  community 
{Bcchispflicht),  and  duties  of  vocation  (Berv/spJlicht)-both  with  a 
universal  reference,  duties  of  the  conscience  (in  which  the  indi' 
vmual  .3  soJe  judge),  and  duties  of  love  or  of  personal  association 
It  waa  only  the  first  of  the  three  sections  of  the  science  of  ethics 
— tne  doctrine  of  moral  ends— that  Schleiermacher  handled  with 
approximate  completeness  ;  the  other  two  sections   were   treated 
jery  summarily.     In  his  Ch;-wtian  Ethics  he  dealt  with  the  subject 
irom  the  basis  of  the  Christian  consciousness  instead  of  from  that 
ot  reason  generally ;  the   ethical  phenomena   dealt  with  are  the 
same  inboth  systems,  and  they  throw  light  on  each  other,  whUe 
the  Christian  system  treats  more  at  length  and  less  aphoristicallv 
the  principal  ethical  realities-church,  state,  family,  art,  science 
and  society      Kothe,  amongst  other  moral  philosophers,  bases  his 
system^  substantially,   with  important   departures,   on  Schleier- 
macher s.     In  Beneke's  moral  syStem  his  fundamental  idea  was 
worked  out  lu  its  psychological  relations. 
B.ahS^orxa.     Schleiermacher' s   Meliyious  System—From    Leibnitz,    Lessin.' 
O-otem.     xnchtc,  Jacobi,  and.  the  Komantic  .school  he  had  imbibed  a  vro- 
tound  and  mystical  view  of  the  inner  depths  of  the  human  per- 
sonality,    rhe  ego,  the  person,  is  an  individualization  of  universal 
reason ;  and  the  primary  act  of  self-consciousness  is  the  first  co'a- 
junction  of  universal  and  individual  life,  the  immediate  union  or 
marriage  ot  the  universe  with  incarnated  reason.       Thus  every 
person  becomes  a  specific  and  original  representation  of  the  uni- 
verse and  a  compendium  of  humanity,  a  microcosmos  in  which  the 
world  13  immediate  y  reflected.     While  therefore  we  cannot,  as  we 
lavo  seen,  attain  the  idea  of  the  supreme  unity  of  thought  and 
being  by  either  cognition  or  volition,  we  can  find  it  in  our  own 
personality,  m  immediate  self-consciousness  or  (which  is  the  same 

;^n:«  J  'Tf-  -'v' w'°°'°ffy^  '■^"''"p-  ^'^<=''"g  ia  this  higher 
Xh^ff  drstinguished  from  Sorganio ''"sensibilitl,  Empfindm^n). 
^»^^^  the  minimum  of  distinct  antithetic  consciousness,  the 
cessation  of  the  antithesis  of  subject  and  object,  constitutes  like- 
oo'ni  ln?'7  "^T  ''t"'S,  in  which  the  opposite  functions  of 
Slro,  T  f  volition  have  therr  fundamental  and  permanent 
background  of  personality  and  their  transitional  link.  liavin- 
rt„  .ItL'S  w  ?"*/''' ,?""'  "^  our  being,  or  indeed  consisting  iS 
111  rtf  ^!  1  of  self-consciousness,  religion  lies  at  the  basis  of 
au  thought  and  action.  At  various  periods  of  his  life  Schleier- 
macher ped  different  terms  to  represent  the  character  and  relation 
of  re  igious  feeling.  In  his  earlier  days  he  called  it  a  feel'nror 
n°ature""nf  th/i"fi'T''  '^°''.l"°''^>"^=^ °f  the  unity  pf  reason  ?ud 
tennnl)  'I'^'w'^";'?  'l"'^ /'>''  «t<=rnal  within  the  finite  and  the 
temporal.  In  later  life  he  described  it  as  the  feeling  of  absolute 
dependence  or,  as  meaning  the  same  thing,  the  consciousness  of 
being  m  relation  to  God.  In  our  consciousness  of  the  Torid  the 
feelings  of  relative  dependence  and  relative  independence  are  found- 

Z,  th^l  n  "PT'  ''"i  "■'  '^'^"^'^i^^t-  In  our  religious  conscious- 
ne  3  the  lat  cr  element  13  excluded,  and  everything  within  and 
^ithout  us  13  referred  to  its  absolute  cause,  that  it,  God.     But 

^d  c,  -'Lf^  *'"u  ''"°'"''  '='"f  ^°^-  ^^'  ''^°>«  ^t^nds  solely^ 
indicating  the  unknown  source  of  our  receptive  and  active  existence  • 
on  the  one  hand  it  means  that  the  world  upon  which  we  can  react 

^^Vr.V°T'nl'\^''''''f'  °°  '^'  ""'"•  tf'^'t  the  Absoute  is 
Senend.n  «  "^  *•""«'','  "  ^''°\^<^^S<'-  This  feeling  of  absolute 
fcSne^f  w  '."''  ""I  ■", -combination  with  other  forms  of  con- 
fr'^T  t  ^<!/"ivo  the  Idea  of  a  totality  by  means  of  its  parts 
o?ld?v  f  Tl*^™*^'  '^"'^  "^^  "S  comes  to  ui  through  the  agency 
of  ,nd  vidual  phenomena.  As  in  every  affection  of  on-  bein-  by 
,±1';^""'  P""^"""?™*  -^^  "<=  '"■ought  into  contact  with  the  whole 
universe,  we  are  brought  into  contact  with  God  at  the  same  tin  e 
T.i^JnZZ^-f^  """'=•  .T.l"^  religious  feeling  is  not  know" 
bnt°1t  ?ic3  at  thf  b""'"'  f-W  f  P"?'?  subjective°or  immediate  ; 
1.7lJ  1!  ■    ■'"'"^  "^  ""  knowledge.     As  immediate  know- 

If  fhe  wrd^'a'-f -r  "?':\""°  *''°  "n--"^'--  of  the  uniTy 
fnnnirl  R  r  ?  """^  ,«'"*  ^^n  never  bo  reached  by  human 
by^God  afo  IS  *7i""-  ™f>  ^'  *°  determination  of  a^l  thrngs 
ny  God,  aro  simnly  the  implications  of  the  feeling  of  absolute 

K  en^:"anv"ihis^2"'  that  feeling  is  the  characterisL  ofTe  g?on 
word  Ve^„cTT"7''T'''  ^'!™'  "^  *'">  "I'eions  of  the 
rion  or  ttoreli'^nn^r "'"""'  ?'  distinguished  from  positive  reli- 
gion or  the  religion  of  reason,  13  a  mere  abstraction.  All  religions 
are  paitiyo,  or  their  characteristics  and  value  are  ma  nly  d?tcr 
?,t  tt/  *'  """"" '"  "'"^l^  *'»"  ^™rld  is  conceived  andTn«4ned 
rcHriou    V  3,fcH°°"P*r°?  ^"J''  "-^'^  ^'^•■fi'''"'  nieaningtfcomo 

founders   of  rdirl,?r    "''^'""!'!  °>^diatora  of  tho  religious  life, 


S  C  H  —  S  C  H 


413 


ri,'l°''V^"i  j,*^  concepti.n  of  the  way  in  which  Deity  deals  with 

lumaf     It^is^fhrl:?-  ^^'"T"'- T^''^^  "e  both^divine  and' 
numan.      It   13   the   religion   of    mediatorial   salvation     and     ns 
Schleiermacher  emphaticallv  taught  in  his  riner  worV,   .    cfi    V 
through  the  mcdirtion  of  Chrirt ;  that  s,Ts.  po/st  ^o';  a  llr 
di'Z  -^  ^^",^f  ,t«°  <l^l'.v"<=d  by  Jesus  of  Na^ar  Ih  f "m  t  coT 
dition  m  which  their  religious  consciousness  was  overridden  by  the 
sense-consciousness  of  the  world  and  put  into  one  in  which  Udon^ 
nates,  and  e^ryth  ng  is  subordinated  to  it.     The  conscTou  nes3  of 
being  saved  ,n  this  sense  is  now  transmitted  and  mediated  by  thi 
Chnstian  church,  but  in  the  case  of  Jesus,  its  originator,  it  wis  an 
ment  Ld"^  ^""^  f^^f^  ^^^'or  in  the  process  of  ?eligioJs  deTe  op 
ment,  and  in  so  far,  like  every  new  and  higher  stage  of  beincr   a 
siipematm-al  revelation.     It  was  at  the  same°time  a  natural  attain! 
ment,  m  as  far  as  man  3  nature  and  tho  universe  were  so  constituted 
as  to  involve  its  production.     The  appearance  of  tho  Saviour  in 
human  history  is  therefore  as  a  divine  Vevelation  neither  absoh.te? 
he^mh  cent'"' w  "'"''{  beyond  reason,  and  the  controversy  of 
the  18th  century  between  the  rationalists  and  supcrnaturalists  rLts 
on  false  grounds,  leads  to  wrong  issues,  and  each  party  is  right  and 
wrong  (see  Kationalism).    As  regards  Christian  theology  it  is  not 
hl^Tr^T  1°  '^°™"'f  ?  and  estabUsh  a  system  of  object™  trutt 
nf  CW?,-^    -  •?i;'''"'i"'  ^  '=''='"'  "'"^  oonnected  form  a  given  bodj^ 
of  Christian  laith  as  the  contents  of  the  Christian  consciousness 
Dogmatic  theology  is  a  connected  and  accurate  account  of  the  doc 

chu,tb  Rllf  "  ''i  i™l!-  *""'  '°  "■  S'v^i  sectionof  the  Christian 
elm  eh.  But  such  doctrines  as  constitute  no  integral  part  of  tlie 
Christian  consciousness-c.9..,  the  docti-ine  of  the  Trinity-must  0 
Ts'lel'f /'T  '\  *^^°'°Sical  system  of  the  evangelical  [heoZ  an 
iZS  *  °  'p"'""™  °  *"°'°Sy  *°d  philosophy,  it  is  not  oSe  0 
dependence  or  of  opposition  on  either  side,  but  of  complete  inde 
pendence,  e^nal  authority,  distinct  functions,  and  perfect  haLony 
tifr,  if  ;'  T'  "  ''^°'^'  ^""J*'""  subordinate  to  cognition  oTvolV- 
tion   but  of  equal  rank  and  authority;  yet  feeling  cognition   and 

bvdrr"'t'''?^'''"^^*°  ''^'*  '-^  the^  unknown  IbsoTute,' though 
by  different  paths  and  processes.  '  """"b" 

mlntiTlhfJ?''^^!  °^  Schleiermacher's  thought  in  every  depart- 
ment  is  the.  effort  to  combine  and  reconcile  in  the  unity  Vf  ? 
system  the  untithetic  conceptions  of  other  thinkers.  Ho  is  real' 
isao  and  idealistic,  individualistic  and  universalistic,  monistic  and 
dualistie  sensationalist  and  irtellectualist,  naturalist  and  s up"^ 
natura  1st,  rationalist  and  mystic,  gnostic  and  agnostic  He  I 
th?oFo"""'  °^  '^l  ^^"^"''''  '"  Pbilosophy,  ethicsf  reli^onf  nd 

tWl??^-.^?"!'^''  "^r  "''^''='^^  *°  "™"<^"°  ^^1'°  antitheses  of 
thought   and    being    by   weakening  and    hiding    the    points    of 

on  Hn?r'H?  t'>^,»-f.r-ry,  ho  brings  them  out^in  theirshaqiest 
^^  ,  fl,  •  .^''  T^t'^  V°  distinctly  define  tho  opposing  elements 
and  then  to  sock  their  harmonious  combination  by  thf  aid  of  a  ' 
deeper  conception  Apart  from  the  positive  and  permanent  value 
of  the  Higher  unities  which  ho  succeeds  in  establishing,  the  light 
and  suggestiveness  of  his  discussions  and  treatment  0?  the  gr^ea 
points  at  issue  m  all  the  principal  fields  of  human  thought^un- 
himonooT'-ho-r?,,''  f'?  P°f-'°°^  "'^y  be- considoroS.  make 
An^l  «^n.„ti;  r  "A'-'P'^?^  ^""^  instructive  of  modern  thinkers. 
And,  since  the  focus  of  his  almost  universal  thought  and  inquiry  and 
of  his  rich  culture  and  varied  life  was  religion  and  theology;  he  must 
tjj-f"^-  ^'  "'''/l\^?,"cal   representative  of  moderf  effort  to 


Gla,  bonslohro,"  „  theJaMl,.  /.  Scut.  T!,rol..  vol.  II.  pp.  JM-SoFs^D  8rfl  •  Zelh  r 

\\r     ■n^lJ.     l^H,\    ■   V°''^"l".  Schleiermacher;  S,:ie«ltl,rcW«.Thmt:.l%il)- 
(IMC  ?m     i  fMetcrmacher,  Thcolo,tc   mil   ihr.n-  pMlosoyh.ul^n    an/iuilagii 

SCHLESWIG  (Danish  Sksviq),  tlio  capital  Af '  the 
Prussian  province  of  SchJeswig-HoIstein,  is  situated  at 
the  west  end  of  tlie  long  narrow  arm  of  tho  sea  called 
the  Schlei,  30  miles  to  tho  north-west  of  Kiel.  The 
town  consists  mainly  of  a  single  street,  3^  miles  long, 
forming  a  semicircle  round  tho  Schlei,  and  1%  di-ided  into 
the  Altstadt  (with  the  Holm),  tho  Lollfuss,  and  tho 
Friednchsbcrg.  The  principal  church,  erected  as  a 
cathedral  about  1100,  but  renewed  in  the  Gothic  stylo  in 
tuo  15th  century,  contains  a  very  fino  carved  oak  altar-' 
screen,    regarded   as  tho  most   valuable  work  of  art  in 


414 


SCHLESWIG 


Schloswig-Holstein.  Between  Friedriclisberg  ana  LoUfuss 
is  the  old  chateau  of  Gottorp,  now  despoiled  of  its  art 
treasures  and  used  as  barracks.  The  former  commercial 
importance  of  the  town  has  disappeared,  and  the  Schlei 
now  affords  access  to  small  vessels  only.  Fishing  and  the 
manufacture  of  a  few  articles  of  common  use  are  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  The  population  in  1S85 
was  15,187,  all  Protestants  except  about  250  Roman 
Catholics  and  70  Jews. 

Schleswig  {ancient  forms  Sliesthorp,  Sliaswic,  i.e.,  the  town  or 
biy  of  the  Slia  or  Schlei)  is  a  tovm  of  very  remote  origin,  and 
seems  to  have  been  a  trading  place  of  considerable  importance  as 
eai.''y  a3  the  9th  century.  It  served  49  a  medium  of  commercial 
.  intercourse  between  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  and  was  known 
to  the  old  Arabian  geographers.  The  first  Christian  church  in  this 
district  was  built  here  by  Ansgarius  about  850,  and  it  became  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  sbout  a  centnry  later.  The  town  also  became  the 
seat  of  the  dukes  of  Schleswig,  but  its  commerce  gradually  dwindled 
owing  to  the  rivalry  of  Liiheck,  the  numerous  wars  in  which  the 
district  was  involved,  and  the  silting  up  of  the  Schlei.  At  the 
partition  of  1541  the  old  chateau  of  Gottorp,  originally  built  in 
1160  for  the  bishop,  became  the  residence  of  tto  ducal  or  Gottorp 
line  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  which  remained  here  till  expelled  by 
Frederick  IV.  in  1713.  From  1731  to  1846  it  was  the  scat  of  the 
Danish  governors  of  the  duchies.  In  the  wars  of  1848  and  1864 
Schleswig  was  an  important  strategical  point  on  account  of  its 
proximity  to  the  Banewerk,  and  was  occupied  by  the  different 
contending  parties  in  turn.  It  has  been  the  capital  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  since  its  incorporation  by  Prussia. 

To  the  sonth  of  Schleswig  are  tho  scanty  remains  of  the  Daneasrh 
or  Vamisimrke,  a  line  of  entrenchments  between  the  Scfelei  and  the 
Treene,  believed  to  have-  been  originally  thrown  up  in  the  9th 
century  or  even  earlier,  and  afterwards  repeatedly  strengthened  and 
enlarged.  After  tho  union  of  Schleswig  and  Holsteiu  it  lost  its 
importance  as  a  frontier  defence,  and  was  allowed  to  fall  into 
disrepair.  The  Danewerk  was  stormed  by  tho  Prussians  in  1848, 
but  was  afterwards  so  greatly  extended  and  strengthened  by  the 
Danes  that  it  would  have  been  almost  impregnable  if  defended  by 
a  sufficient  number  of  troops.  In  the  war  of  1864,  however,  the 
Danish  army  was  far  too  small  for  tfeis  task,  and  General  de  Meza 
abandoned  the  Danewerk  without  striking  a  blow,  a  step  which 
caused  deep  disappointment  to  tho  Danes  and  led  to  the  dismissal 
of  the  general.     Since  then  the  works  have  been  entirely  levelled. 

^  SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN,  a  maritime  province  in 
the  north-west  of  Prussia,  formed  out  of  the  once  Danish 
duchies  of  Schleswig-Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  is  bounded 
on  the  W.  by  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  N.  by  Jutland, 
on  the  E.  by  the  Baltic,  Ltibeck,  and  Mecklenburg,  and 
on  the  S.  by  Mecklenburg  and  tho  lower  course  of  the 
Elbe  (separating  it  from  Hanover).  It  thus  consists  of 
the  southern  half  of  the  Cimbric  peninsula,  and  forms  the 
connecting  link  between  Germany  and  Denmark.  In 
addition  to  the  mainland,  which  decreases  in  breadth 
from  south  to  north,  the  province  includes  several  islands, 
the  most  important  being  Alsen  and  Fehmarn  in  the 
Baltic,  and  Rom,  Sylt,  and  Fohr  in  the  North  Sea. 
The  total  area  of  the  province  is  72S0  square  miles, 
450  of  which  belong  to  the  small  duchy  of  Lauenburg 
in  the  south-east  corner,  while  the  rest  are  divided 
almost  equally  between  Holstein  to  the  south  of  the 
Eider  and  Schleswig  to  the  north  of  it.  From  north 
to  south  the  province  is  about  140  miles  long,  while  its 
breadth  varies  from  90  miles  in  Holstein  to  35  miles  at 
the  narrower  parts  of  Schleswig. 

Schleswig-Holstein  belongs  to  the  great  North-German 
plain,  of  the  characteristic  features  of  which  it  affords  a 
faithful  reproduction  in  miniature,  down  to  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Baltic  ridge  or  plateau  (see  GERMAJnf)  by  a 
range  of  low  wooded  hills  skirting  its  eastern  coast  and 
culminating  in  the  Bungsberg  (570  feet),  a  little  to  the 
north  of  Eutin.  This  hilly  district  contains  the  most 
productive  land  in  the  province,  the  soil  consisting  of 
diluvial  drift  or  boulder  clay.  The  central  part  of  the 
province  forms  practically  a  continuation  of  the  great 
LUncburg  Heath,  and  its  thin  sandy  soil  is  of  little  use  in 
cuitivation.    Along  the  west  coast  extends  the  "  Marsh- 


land," a  belt  of  rich  alluvial  soil  formed  by  the  deposits  of 
the  German  Ocean,  and  varying  in  breadth  from  five  to 
fifteen  miles.  It  is  seldom  more  than  a  few  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  while  at  places  it  ia  actually  below  it,  and  it 
has  consequently  to  be  defended  by  an  extensive  system 
of  dykes  or  embankments,  25  feet  high,  resembling  those 
of  Holland.  The  more  ancient  geological  formations  are 
scarcely  met  with  in  Schleswig-Holstein.  The  contrast 
between  the  two  coast-lines  of  the  province  is  very 
marked.  .  The  Baltic  coast,  about  300  miles  in  length, 
has  generally  steep  well-defined  banks  and  is  very  irregular 
in  form,  being  pierced  by  numerous  long  and  narrow  fjords, 
which  run  deep  into  the  interior  of  the  land  and  often  afford 
excellent  harbours.  The  islands  of  Alsen  and  Fehmarn 
are  separated  from  the  coast  by  very  narrow  channels. 
The  North  Sea  coast  (200  miles),  on  the  other  hand,  is  very 
low  and  fiat,  and  its  smooth  outline  is  interrupted  only  by 
the  estuary  of  the  Eider  and  the  peninsula  of  Eiderstedt. 
Dunes  or  sand-hills,  though  rare  on  the  protected  main- 
land, occur  on  Sylt  and  other  islands,  while  the  small 
unprotected  islands  called  "  Jlalligen  "  are  being  gradually 
washed  away  by  the  sea.  The  numerous  islands  on  the 
west  coast  probably  formed  part  of  the  peninsula  at  no 
very  remote  period,  and  the  sea  between  the'm  and  the 
mainland  is  very  shallow  and  full  of  sandbanks.  The 
climate  of  Schleswig-Holstein  is  mainly  determined  by 
the  proximity  of  the  sea,  and  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture, varying  from  45^  Fahr.  in  the  north  to  49°  Fahr. 
in  the  south,  is  rather  higher  than  is  usual  in  the  same 
latitude.  Eain  and  fog  are  frequent,  but  the  climate 
is  on  the  whole  very  healthy.  The  lower  course  of  the 
Elbe  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  Holstein  for  65 
miles,  but  the  only  river  of  importance  within  the  pro- 
vince is  the  Eider,  which  rises  in  Holstein,  and  after  a 
course  of  120  miles  falls  into  the  North  Sea,  forming  an 
estuary  3  to  12  miles  in  breadth.  It  is  navigable  from  its 
mouth  as  far  as  Kendsburg,  and  the  waterway  between 
the  two  seas  is  completed  by  a  canal  from  Rendsburg  to 
Kiel.  The  new  Baltic  Canal,  which  is  to  bo  navigable  for 
large  vessels,  will  also  intersect  Holstein.  There  are 
numerous  lakes  in  north-east  Holstein,  the  largest  of 
which  are  the  Ploner  See  (12  square  miles)  and  the  Selent^t 
See  (9  square  miles). 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  province  53  '3  per  cent,  is  occupied  by 
tilled  land,  28  "5  per  cent  by  meadows  and  pastures,  and  only  6  4 
per  cent,  by  forests.  The  ordinary  cereals  are  all  cultivated  with 
success  and  there  is  generally  a  considerable  surplus  for  exportation  ; 
rape  is  grdwn  in  the  marsh  lands  and  ilax  on  the  east  coast,  while 
large  quantities  of  apples  and  other  fruit  are  raised  near  Altona  for 
the  Hamburg  and  English  markets.  In  18S3  the  province  contained 
156,534  horses,  727,505  cattle,  320,768  sheep,  268,061  pigs,  and 
42,580  goats.     The  marsh  lands  afford  admirable  pasture,  and  a 

freater  proportion  of  cattle  (65  per  100  inhabitants)  is  reared  in 
chleswig-Holstein,  mainly  by  small  owners,  than  in  any  other 
Prussian  province.  Great  Rumbers  of  fat  cattle  are  exported  to 
England.  The  Holstein  horses  aje  also  in  request,  but  sheep- 
farming  is  comparatively  neglected.  Bee-keeping  is  found  a 
productive  industry,  and  in  1883  the  province  possessed  113,836 
hives.  The  hills  skirting  the  bays  of  the  Bailie  coast  are  generally 
pleasantly  wooded,  but  the  forests  are  nowhere  of  great  extent 
except  in  tho  duchy  of  Lauenburg.  The  fishing  in  the  Baltic  is 
productive  ;  Eckernforde  is  the  chief  fishing  station  in  Prussia. 
The  oysters  from  the  beds  on  the  west  coast  of  Schleswig  are 
widely  known  under  the  misnomer  of  "  Holstein  natives.'*  1V^ 
mineral  resources  of  the  province  are  almost  confined  to  a  few  layers 
of  rock-salt  near  Segeborg.  The  manufacturing  industry  is  also 
insignificant  and  does  not  extend  much  beyond  the  large  towns, 
such  as  Altona,  Kiel,  and  Flensburg.  The  shipbuilding  of  Kiel 
and  other  seaports  is,  however,  important ;  and  lace  is  made  by  the 
peasants  of  Worth  Schleswig.  The  commerce  and  shipping  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  stimulated  by  its  position  between  two  seas,  as 
well  as  by  its  excellent  harbours  and  waterways,  are  mujh  more 
prominent  than  its  manufactures.  Kiel  is  the  chief  seaport  of 
Prussia,  while  an  oversea  trade  is  also  carried  on  by  Altona  and 
Flensburg.  The  main  exports  are  giain,  cattle,  horses,  fish,  and 
oysters,  in  return  for  which  come  timber,  coal,  salt,  wine,  and. 


SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEI 


U5  COO  ton/-  mJr.  fl     ("2/teamers),   with  a  total  burthea  of 
d^'co^t   but'%n.r.^^?  \''  v"""  ^''■P^  *'^^™g<^d   to  «>''   North 

.nJ?'l??T83''p™t°/t''%PTir4°  '880  was  1,127,149.  compris- 
Th°e  ^rbai  and  n^  *"■  ^^?^-  ^°"^  Catholics,  aid  3522  Jews. 

AbouTsPBor  i,^  ifT""°'V''  "°  '"  "''=  proportion  of  i  to  6. 
26  per  cent  hit  *^«  Pop"'^*  °i  "e  supported  by  agriculture, 
whfe  12 1.;  Z^  °"'?''"'""S  industry,  10  per  ceit.  by  trade 
cent  i  aWrb?i-.f"i°'"1l".°,^^"'='°'^  and  .fay-labourers,  6  pe 
pe?ceS.  bvJh„i\*\°®"'i  *'"'  professional  classes,  ^nd  54 
of  th„  Vlf^  ^vho  returned  no  occupation.  The  g^at  bulk 
01    the   Holstoiners   and  more   than  half  the  Schleswi^rs  arf,  of 

fofl'h°U^r?''^rs  U*'  ^"'  'Y'"  --bout,150,000^°n:?irtle' 
tonensff^n  r  ""i'^-  .^"O"?  "">  Germans  the  prevalent 
tongue  13  Low  German,  but- the  North  Frisians  on  the  west  coit  of 

?  S  dial  ct  '':i'\^r'''^^'  (^^°"'  '''°''  ^  auTstilTsTcak 
a  rnsian  dialect,  which,  however,  is  graduaUy  dvinff  ont-      Tho 

peninsula  of  Angeln,  between  the  Gulf  »?Flens7ur?lnd  theSchli 
I'XIT^  '"^^^  ''"°  "'^  °"g'°^'  ^^^t  of  the  E^gUsh,  and  most 
distr^  anf?"'  *°  T  %  ^W^ing  resemblancoSetween  th 
district  and  the  counties  of  Kent  and  Surrey.  The  peasants  of 
Dithmarschen  also  retain  many  of  their  ancient  pecuIiarit,V,Tl,i 
boundary  between  the  Danish^nd  Ger^n  Lngua^st  apprj^' 

per  tnt"  of^'thf  rf'"  ^^'"'Y^  ""'l  ^S""^''^  ;  nof  ^ora  tCTs 
L  thel  ^„f\  f""  POPH,'/"'"''  of  tho  province  speak  Danish 
S^hlesJ.HnkuT'°°2i',!-  ^-^^  ^^''^  educational  institution  in 
fu  S  °  l^'^  "^  *^^  university  of  Kiel ;  and  the  excellence  of 
the  ordinary  school  system  iii  proved  by  the  fact  that  in Ts83-8rthe 
Iv  nT;^'"°'''\";  "■,'""""  '^owed  a  smaller  proportion  of  iU^^ter- 
acy  (0-11  per  cent.)  than  those  from  any  other  part  ofThe  German 
IT"-  T^}?V'-'S  is  the  official  capital  of '^the  proWnce  bu^ 
Altona  and  Kiel  are  tho  largest  towns,'  the  former  being  aui  the 

rGcTm'nv"  KZTJr-T-'f  "j^  '^'^"  *'>■=  ^^^-f -f al  stat  on 
or  (^crmany.     Iiicl  and  Fricdrichsort  are  fortified,  and  the  old  lines 

?o  ?h??.'-  b"f  "''"  !?^'?t^'"»i     The  province  sends  ten  member 

The  nw     •  f=  fl'^  °'°'''"=°  *o  thePrussiaahouse  of  Sties 

The  provincial  estates  meet  in  Rendsburg  "  oi^ueputies. 

ffistory.-The   history   of  the   southern    part    of    the  Cimbric 

^Z^Z  l^T^^n  n-l-  ??f  «^™-  -""oHtie^  -int^i^-^h^t 


N 


41 J 


;»  .„,    li. r- "'.•'"  '='•">-».,  auu  uerman  authorities  main 

It  was  tho  emigration  to  England  of  the  Jutes  and  Angles  that  first 

a^mtnebchlei  Some  attempt  to  introduce  Christianity  was  also 
Sfddl  of  r  f 'm  °  ^^  ^'''"P  Ansgarius,  but  it  wi  not  tm  the 

ajSin^t^-'irrrarpCe'  ''i^ziri^T  T'[' '« 

ot^Sch'ltwf^^'i^  ^-r)obS  frlm  aira'dth?  oti'tl^f 
of  Schleswiga  independence  of  the  empire,  and   henceforth     ho 

Denmark'rEidor^R"™"-^'^  >'""'-'^'''  ''^'^"^°  «^"°-y  ^ni 
uenmark(  EidoraRomani  terminus  imperU").  Schlcswiir  thon.,!, 
a  Danish  province,  was  not  merged  in  the  other  Ssionsff 
PCT\^''}'''m-'ifc.rUin  Measure  of  indeperdenc  under 
.he  rule  of  viceroys  or  dukes  chosen  from  the  younger  sons  of  the 

IZlhTms  naif  who"".'  1'TT '' ''''''  "'""-'  ^nul 

i.awara  (U 15-1131),  who  extended  his  sway  over  the  Wendisb 
t^2     "^J^Sn^  (f «  below)  and  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  German 

!i^Sfl  Vh"!,™',"'-'"  1**°  ''"'  ™'"-  of  Schles^vig   to   hold  Tha° 
Mogular  double  relationship  to  the  king  of  Denmark  and  tlT^  rv™  . 
emijire  which  after^rda  be'came  so  important  a  factor  in  the  hXy 
t„d  Knn"r ''^-    7=""^?;".  ^o"  of  Knud,  became  king  of  Denma?7 

South  JutUnJor's'l  Z""?  '''''''?'""  "-  ™"f-red^he  ducTy  of 
^outft  Jutland  or  Schleswig  on  his  son  Abel  in  1232.  Tho  terms 
of  this  mvcs  ment  afterwards  became  a  fertile  subiTct  of  dispute 

he  dthd  iLd"''"""'.^  "^V""™'  ''"'  former  maintain  ngthftC 
Ivi;  ^.l  I  .>,    i  ?"  ''"'"I'tary  and  inalienable  fief,  while  the  kints 

ITencdorth  wo  have  tho  same  princenJin.  tT^Z::i;,'li':, 


ctabrir^i.°i/';„'i'i,!i.''.j3  o7'u."j;v?i°i5f;r' "°  '°^'^'''  f^""'  -^^ 


o^Si'rkSCL^.SL°:mpi1  "^  '■'^  "^^'^'—  -<>  «>^ 

The  history  of  Holstein  before  ita  union  with  Schleswicr  has  br^n 

Fa"^'Ltni^h''oft/°^r4rXbfc  bf td^^^^^^ 

.^hom  itwasdividedi^to  four';/«"r\'SS:%fx^^^^^^^^^ 

o'r  s  'Ti^  t'h  "S'id^°  W '"  -^"P","'  "°"^^'^°  C'm'a  of  the 
south  ^n,e  T^nS"^^'''  •^^^^"''  "V'^"  '^^^'t'  =""1  Stormarn  on  tho 
?h,l?K    n,     ^ordalbmgians  were  the  last  of  the  Saxons  to  be  sub 

the  ObS    "^^Vbr'l-  ^-"^o  gave  Wagria  to  his  AVendish  a    e 
tue  Ubotntes,  and  established  a  Wendish  mark  on  their  frontier  at 
TheoT    'r'  *''  *"=  ''^t^blished  a  Danish  mark  on    he  E  der 
Sfe,m^s  i  ''\^'"'  ^"'^  i?™'-porated  with  the  duchy  of  Saxony 

Hokt"fn   and    1"°^   '"""Yf  ^  '^'   ^"'""^''■P   of  Stade   wiil;  ■ 
Holstein   and   Stormarn   had   a   count   of   their  own.      In   1110 
the  countsh.p   of  Holstein   was   conferred   upon   Adolphus  I     of 

tne  north  of  tho  Elbe,  and  their  conquests  were  confirmed  bv  an 
mperial  grant  m  1214.     This  state  of  alTairs,  however   was  of  no 

sL1,lTshrh?,"i'  r^  ^/°'f'"i=  '"■  "f  "o'^t""  succe  ded  in  re? 
W,™  f-.  "'4<'P=''dence  in  1225.  The  Holstein  family  now 
became  split  up  mto  several  branch-lines,  of  which  thit  of 
Rendsburg  proved  the  niost  lasting  and  important      A  daughter 

:  uLt^ln^S?"fuuPdt\b^'^l"'' ^^'''^^"'S,   -'^  «-   HoXin 
counts  lent  laithlul  aid  to  their  kinsmen  in  resisting  tho  encroach 

statTof  Dei^Tk  a"    Z  f  "^^  °'  °?","''--     ^n  the  dTst'ctt 
Gerhard  of  Hn W.;  \  beginning  of  the    Hth  century  Count 

trltZ^Al  ^o'stein  became  the  practical  ruler  of  tho  kingdom   but 

Fe.X  £'""  'i'  r°"'°  °°  "-^  '"^^d  of  !>i^  nephew  Valdcmar 

Legally  speakm^,    Holstein   remained  a  mediate  fief  nf  «,, 

In  1«8  the  royal  lino  of  Denmark  became  extinct  and  th« 
crown  was  oflered  to  Adolphus  VII.  of  SchleLi"HoIs'teln  who 
refused  it  for  himself  but  exerted  hi.s  influenceTolecure  it  for  his 
nephew  Christian  of  Oldenburg.  Adolphus  died  in  1459  leaving 
no  sons  Christian  was  the  legal  heir  of  Schles;.-ig,  but  h  s  cla  m? 
to  Holstein  were  by  no  means  so  strong.  The  estat  s  of  Schl  s™.- 
Holstem  however,  decided  in  his  favour  on  the  plea  that  the- 
tion  orthbhiTl  '??^P-^*^d'  -^  --cted  from  hi?/:  confiUa 
hit  tb»  ?  "I'l'ssoluble  connexion.  It  was  also  formally  stipulated 
that  he  duchies  should  never  bo  actually  incorporat«l  with  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  while  the  hereditary  natu  e  of  the  fi  f  was 
given  up  and  the  estates  acquired  tho  right  to  choose  as  heir  duke 
any  one  of  Christian's  descendants.  This  SuccessTon  let  was  the 
tZ  "ft'';  ""'on  of  the  two  duchies  for  the  next  four  hu^d  ed 
J  ears,  and  the  practical  contradiction  between  their  own  nsemrable 
connexion  ami  their  feudahduty  to  different  sovereigns  is ^t^nce 
Ho^lsrerfsLl""  ^^^'^""^™  °^   '"-   ^o..licate/..«\t«-! 

cfrtSri:^f:7?Lr'^8^^yv-gi;'S^:;r;-;--- 

Oldenburg  family  thus  formed  are  represented  by  two  main 
Une      Inae'div?"'  or  Gluckstadt  line  Ld  the  Gotlorp  or  ducal 

r  ^r^^r^u-- --^:v'Sf  :^id'th:€S 

Holstem  under  th.t  of  Germany.'  Practically  Schleswi^  came  to  be 
wTth  German''^  "'  '  part  of  Denmark,  whili  Holstein°s  Tonne^on 
nenn!!^lT^  preserved  for  it  a  flicker  of  independence.  In  1660 
,Z  ■  '^'="™^''»  absolute  monarchy  and  the  principi;  of  Lnale 
succession  was  acknowledged.  As  in  Schleswig-Holste  n  the  right 
of  inheritance  was  confined  to  the  male  line,  the  poIicyTf  Denmrk 

a Tsirairlht^hf'tl  °"f '1  ''"'"S  ""^^  ^^  f-  -  Po-°>o  wUh 
au  sepaiate  rights  m  tho  duchy  and  to  getting  Uio   Gottorn   or 

?"r'   Pr",°r   '"'"   '^'   P°^^"''on   of  th^e   crown      Thi     poll"; 

pol,^  I'-il  irederick  IV  was  able  to  gain  ti,e  guarantee  of  th^ 
powers  for  the  incorporation  of  the  whole  of  Schleswig  wUK  til 
Danish  mon.-.rcliy.  He  had,  however,  to  give  up  his  claim  t^ 
Hobtein  In  1762  the  Holstein-Gottin,  lino  succeeded  to  t!^ 
throne  of  Russia  in  Uie  person  of  Peter  Ilf,  and  this  led  in  1773  to 
an  agreement  by  which  tlio  Gottorp  line  resigned  its  share  of  Ho  stefn 
W  f  -Sf  °^  Denmark  in  exchange  for  Oldenburg  and  Dclmeu- 
horst.      Tlio  whole  of  Schlcswig-lFolsteia   thus  came   onco  more 

Denmark"  '""'  "'  "   """   "■""  ""'   ^'   "'»  -'«  'i-o  "i^^^f 

Tho  perio.l  from  1773  to  1846  was  one  of  peace  for  tho  ducliics 

^ith  considcrable.progress  in  material  prosperity.     The  fall  of  tS 


dlicm  HoUlcln,  wo,  not  .ubducd  till  ulV.  •upposcd  to  ia  t  pui  ol 


416 


S  C  H  —  S  C  H 


German  empire  ia  1806  released  Holstein  for  a  time  fjom  any  con- 
nexion with  a  power  outside  of  Dcnmarl<,  but  in  1815  tlio  Danish 
raonarcli  had  to  cut4!r  the  GBVinan  Confederation  for  Holstein  ami 
for  the  recently  acquired  duchy  of  Laiiendubo  {q.v.).  A  strong 
feeling  of  German  patriotism  gradually  arose  fn  Holstein,  affecting 
part  of  Schleswig  also,  and  dissatisfaction  with  the  delay  of  tlio 
Danish  crown  in  recognizing  tho  constitutional  rights  of  the  duchies 
led  to  the  events  forming  the  recent  history  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 
These  will  bo  found  described  with  some  detail  in  the  articles 
Denmark  (vol.  vii.  pp.  88,  89)  and  Germaj^y  (vol.  x.  pp.  50^ 
S09-512).  (J.  F.  M.) 

SCHLEITSTADT,  a  small  town  in  Lower  Alsace, 
stands  on  the  111,  2G  miles  to  the  south  of  Strasburg.  It 
po.'-sesses  two  fine  churches,  relics  of  a  period  of  former 
importance,  and  cari'ies  on  manufactures  of  wire  gauze, 
and  a  considerable  trade  in  country  produce.  The  popu- 
lation in  1880  was  8979  (7755  Roman  Catholics),  showing 
a  sliglit  decrease  since  it  has  passed  into  German  hands. 

Schlcttstadt  is  a  place  of  very  early  origin,  and  became  a  free 
town  of  tho  empire  in  tho  13th  century,  fn  the  15th  century  it 
was  tho  seat  of  a  celebrated  academy,  founded  by  Agricoia,  which 
contributed  not  a  little  to  the  revival  of  learning  in  this  part  of 
Germany  ;  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  was  one  of  its  students.  In  1G34 
tho  town  came  into  tlie  possession  of  France,  and  it  was  afterwards 
fortified  by  Vauban.  It  offered  little  resistance,  liowever,  to  the 
Germans  in  1870,  and  the  fortiticatious  have  bccu  I'azed. 

SCHLOZER,  August  Ludwig  von  (1735-1809), 
German  historian,  was  born  at  Gaggstedt,  in  the  county 
of  Hohenlohe-Kirchberg,  on  the  5th  July  1735.  Having 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Wittenberg  and  Gottingen, 
he  went  in  1755  as  a  tutor  to  Stockholm,  and  afterwards 
to  Upsala ;  arid  while  in  Sweden  he  wrote  in  the  Swedish 
language  an  Essay  on  the  History  of  Trade  (1758). 
In  1759  he  returned  to  Gottingen,  where  he  began  the 
study  of  medicine.  Afterwards  he  went  to  St  Petersburg 
•with  Miiller,  the  Russian  historiographer,  as  Miiller's 
literary  assistant  and  as  tutor  in  his  family.  Here 
Schlozer  learned  the  Russian  language  and  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  Russian  history;  and  in  1762  he 
was  made  an  adjunct  of  the  Academy  and  a  teacher  at 
the  Rasurnovski  educational  institute.  A  quarrel  with 
Midler  placed  him  in  a  position  of  some  dilBculty,  from 
which  he  was  happily  delivered  by  a  call  to  a  professor- 
ship at  the  university  of  Gottingen.  He  began  his 
career  at  Gottingen  in  1767,  and  soon  ranked  among  the 
foremost  hi.storical  writers  of  his  day.  His  most  import- 
ant works  were  his  AUijemeine  nordische  Geschichte  (1772) 
and  his  translation  of  the  Russian  chronicler  Kestor  to 
the  year  980  (1802-9).  He  awoke  much  intelligent 
interest  in  universal  history  by  his  Wclf'jeschichte  im 
Ausziige  wid  Zttsammcnhange  (1792-1801);  and  in  several 
works  he  helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of  statistical  science. 
He  also  produced  a  strong  impression  by  his  political 
writings,  tho  Bricfwechsel  (10  vols.,  1776-82)  and  the 
Staatsarizeigen  (18  vols.,  1782-93).  In  1801  he  was 
ennol5led  by  the  emperor  of  Russia.  He  witlidrew  from 
active  life  in  1805,  and  died  on  the  9th  September  1800. 

See  Zermelo,  Aiujust  Ziulwi(f  SchJozcr  (1875),  and  AVcsendonk, 
Die  Begrilndimij  dcr  neuern  dcni^Jicn  Gcschkhtschrcihung  durch 
Oattercr  und  Schlozer  (1876).  Schlozer's  daughter,  Dorothea, 
born  on  the"  10th  August,  1770,  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
women  of  her  time,  and  received  in  1787  tho  degree  of  doctor. 
She  was  recognized  as  an  authority  on  several  subjects,  especially 
on  Russian  coinage.'  After  her  marriage  with  lioddc,  the  burgo- 
master of  Hibeck,  she  devoted  herself  to  domestic  duties.  She 
died  on  the  12th  July  1825.  Schlozer's  son  Christian  (born  1774, 
(lied  1831)  was  a  professor  at  Bonn,  and  published  Anfangsgriindc 
dcr  Staatswirthschaft  (1804-6)  and  his  father's  Ocffcntlichcs  und 
Privai-Lcben  aits  Originalurkundcn  (1828J? 

SCHMALKALDEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Hesse-Nassau,  lies  about  30  miles  to  tho  south- 
west of  Erfurt,  and  in  1885  contained  6788  inhabitants, 
chiefly  emi^loyed  in  the  manufacture  of  hardware  articles. 
It  still  possesses  the  'inn  in  which  tho  important  Pro- 
testant League  of  Schraalkalden  or  Smalkald  ws  s  concluded 


in  1531,  and  aJso  the  "house  in  which  the  articles  were 
drawn  up  in  1537  by  Luther,  Melanchthoii,'  and  other 
Kcfcmers.  See  Gekmany,  vol.  x.  p.  498,  and  Lutheb, 
vol.  XV.  p.  83. 

SCHNEIDEMUHL  (Polish  PUa),  a  small  town  of 
Prussia,  ia  the  province  of  Posen,  lies  on  the  Cuddow,  45 
miles  north  of  Posen  and  140  miles  east  by  north  of 
Berlin.  It  is  a  railway  junction  of  soma  iniportancG, 
carries  on  a  trade  in  wood,  grain,  and  potatoes,  and  pos- 
sesses an  iron  foundry,  several  glass  works  and  machine- 
shops,  and  other  industrial  establishments.  In  1885  the 
population  was  12,259,  of  whom  7700  were  Protestants 
and  aliout  1000  Poles. 

SCHNORR  VON  KAROLSFELD,  ,.Tulil,'s  (1794- 
1872),  of  a  family  of  artists,  was  born  in  1794  at  Leipsic, 
where  he  received  his  earliest  instruction  from  his  father, 
a  draughtsman,  engraver,  and  painter.  At  seventeen  he 
entered  the  Academy  of  Vienna,  from  which  Overbeck  and 
others  of  tlie  new  school  who  rebelled  against  the  old 
conventional  style  had  been  expelled  about  a  year  before. 
In  1818  he  followed  the  founders  of  the  new  school  of 
German^pre-llaphaelites  in  the  general  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 
This  school  of  religious  and  romantic  art  abjured  modern 
styles  with  three  centuries  of  decadence,  and  reverted  to 
and  revived  the  principles  and  practice  of  earlier  periods. 
At  the  outset,  an  effort  was  made  to  recover  fresco  painting 
and  "monumental  art,"  and  Schnorr  soon  found  oppor- 
tunity of  proving  his  power.^,,  when  commissioned  to 
decorate  with  frescos,  illustrative  of  Ariosto,  the  entrance 
hall  of  the  Villa  Massimo,  near  the  Lateran.  His  fellow- 
labourers  were  Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  Veit.  His 
second  period  dates  from  1825,  when  he  left  Rome,  settled 
in  Munich,  entered  the  service  of  King  Louis,  and  trans- 
l4anted  to  Germany  the  art  of  wall-painting  learnt  in 
Italy.  He  showed  himself  qualified  as  a  sort  of  poet- 
painter  to  the  Bavarian  court ;  he  organized  a  stafi  of 
trained  executants,  and  set  about  clothing  five  halls  in  ths 
new  palace  with  frescos  illustrative  of  the  Nibchingenlie^d. 
Other  apartments' his  prolific  pencil  decorated  with  scenes 
from  the  histories  of  Charlemagne,  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
and  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  These  vast  and  interminable 
composition3-[lispJayt!i&  master's  merits  and  defects:  they 
are  creative,  learned  in  composition,  masterly  in  drawing, 
but  exaggerated  in  thought  and  extravagant  in  style. 
Schnorr's  third  period  is  marked  by  his  "  Bible  Pictures  " 
or  Scripture  History  in  180  designs.  The  artist  was  a 
Lutheran,  and  took  a  broad  and  unsectarian  view  which 
won  for  his  Pictorial  Bible  ready  currency  throughout 
Christendom.  The  merits  are  unequal :  frequently  the 
compositions  are  crowded  and  confused,  wanting  in 
harmony  of  line  and  symmetry  in  the  masses ;  thus  they 
suffer  under  comparison  with  Raphael's  Bible.  Chront)- 
logically  speaking,  the  style  is  severed  from  the  simplicity 
and  severity  of  early  times,  and  surrendered  to  tJie  florid 
redundance  of  the  later  Renaissance.  Yet  throughout  aro 
displayed  fertility  of  invention,  academic  knowledge  with 
facile  execution ;  and  modern  art  has  produced  nothing 
better  than  Joseph  Interpreting  Pharaoh's  Dream,  tho 
Meeting  of  Rebecca  and  Isaac,  and  the  Return  ef  tho 
Prodigal  Son.  TIte  completion  of  the  arduous  work  waj 
celebrated  in  18G2  by  the  artists  ■  of  Saxony  with  a 
festival,  and  other  German  states  offered  congratulations 
and  presented  gifts. 

Biblical  drawings  and  cartoons  for '  frescos  formed  a 
natural  prelude  to  designs,  for  church  windows.,  T!ie 
painter's  renown  in  Germany  secured  commissions  in  Great 
Britain.  Schnorr  made  designs,  carried  out  in't'je  royal 
factory,  Munich,  for  windows  in  Glasgow  cathedral  and 
in  St  Paul's  cathedral,  London.  This  Munich  glass 
provoked  controversy :  mediievalists  objected  to  its  want 


S  C  H  —  S  C  H 


417 


of  lustre,  and  stigmatized  the  windows  as  coloured  blinds 
and  picture  transparencies.  But  the  opposing  party 
claimed  for  these  modern  revivals  "the  union  of  the  severe 
end  excellent  drawing  of  early  Florentine  oil-paintings 
with  the  colouring  and  arrangement  of  the  glass-paintings 
o£  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century."  Schnorr's  busy  life 
closed  at  Munich  in  1872. 

SCHOLASTICISM  is  the  name  usually  employed  to 
denote  the  most  typical  products  of  mediaeval  thought. 
The  final  disappearance  of  ancient  philosophy  may  be 
dated  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century  of  our  era. 
Boetius,  its  last  representative  in  the  West,  died  in  525, 
and  four  years  later  the  Athenian  schools  were  closed 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian.  Before  this  time 
Christian  thought  had  already  been  active  in  the  fathers 
of  the  church,  but  their  activity  had  been  entirely  devoted 
to  the  elaborating  and  systematizing  of  theological  dogmas. 
Although  the  dogmas  unquestionably  involve  philosophical 
assumptions,  the  fathers  deal  with  them  throughout  simply 
as  churchmen,  and  do  not  profess  to  supply  for  them  a 
philosophical  or  rational  basis.  Only  incidentally  do  some 
of  them —  like  Augustine,  for  example — digress  into  strictly 
philosophical  discussion.  After  the  centuries  of  intellectual 
darkness  during  which  the  settlement  of  the  new  races 
and  their  conversion  to  Christianity  proceeded  and  the 
foundations  of  the  modern  European  order  were  being 
laid,  the  first  symptoms  of  renewed  intellectual  activij;y 
appear  contemporaneously  with  the  consolidation  of  the 
empire  of  the  West  in  the  hands  of  Charlemagne.  That 
enlightened  monarch  endeavoured  to  attract  to  his  court 
the  best  scholars  of  Britain  and  Ireland  (where  the 
classical  tradition  had  never  died  out),  and  by  imperial 
decree  (787)  commanded  the  establishment  of  schools 
in  connexion  with,  every  abbey  in'  his  realms.  Peter  of 
Pisa  and  Alcuin  of  YorK-  were  his  advisers  in  directing 
this  great  work,  and  under  their  fostering  care  the 
opposition  long  supposed  to  exist  between  godliness  and 
secular  learning  speedily  disappeared.  Besides  the  cele- 
brated school  of  -the  Palace,  where  Alcuin  had  'among  his 
•hearers  the  members  of  the  imperial  family  and  the 
dignitaries  of  the  empire  as  well  as  talented  youths  of 
humbler  origin,  we  hear  of  the  episcopal  schools  of  Lyons, 
Orleans,  and  St  Denis,  the  cloister  schools  of  St  Martin 
of  Tours,  of  Fulda,  Corbie,  Fontenelle,  and  many  others, 
besides  the  older  monasteries  of  St  Gall  and  Reichenau. 
These  schools  became  the  centres  of  mediaeval  learning 
and  speculation,  and  from  them  the  name  Scholasticism  is 
derived.  They  were,  designed  to  communicate  instruction 
in  the  seven  liberal  arts  which  constituted  the  educational 
curriculum  of  the  Middle  Ages — grammar,  dialectic,  and 
rhetoric  forming  the  trivium  of  arts  proper,  while 
geometry,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  and  music  constituted 
the  quadrivium  of  the  sciences.  Tlie  name  doctor  scholas- 
iicus  was  applied  originally  to  any  teacher  in  such  an 
ecclesiastical  gymnasium,  but,  as  the  study  of  dialectic  or 
logic  soon  became  the  object  of  absorbing  interest  to  the 
best  intellects  of  the  time,  it  tended  to  overshadow  the 
more  elementary  disciplines,  and  the  general  acceptation 
of  "doctor"  came  to  be  one  who  occupied  him.self  with 
th<i  teaching  of  logic  and  the  discussion  of  the  philo- 
sophical questions  arising  therefrom.  The  philosophy  of 
the  later  Schola-stics  is  more  extended  in  its  scope  ;  but  to 
the  very  end  of  the  mediaeval  period  philosophy  centres 
in  the  discussion  of  the  same  logical  problems  which  began 
to  agitate  the  teachers  of  the  9th  and  10th  centuries. 
'  V  .'.  ,   .    Scholasticism  in  the  widest  sense  thus  extends  from  the 

\Jl\U  ^"^  ^  *^"*  ^^  °^  ^^^  "'''■^  °''  *''®  beginning  of  the  15th 
century — from  Erigena  to  Occam  and  his  followers.  The 
belated  Scholastics  who  lingered  beyond  the  last-mentioned 
(Ute  served  only  as  marks  for  the  obloquv  heaped  upon. 


the  schools  by  the  men  of  the  new  time. '  But,  although 
every  systematic  account  of  Scholasticism  finds  it  necessary 
to  begin  with  Erigena,  that  philosopher  is  of  the  spiritual 
kindred  of  the  Neoplatonists  and  Christian  mystics  rather 
than  of  the  typical  Scholastic  doctors.  In  a  few  obscure 
writings  of  the  9th  tentury  we  find  the  beginnings  of  dis- 
cussion upon  the  logical  questions  which  afterwards  proved 
of  such  absorbing  interest ;  but  these  are  followed  by  the 
intellectual  interregnum  of  the  10th  century.  The  activity 
of  Scholasticism  is  therefore  mainly  confined  within  the 
limits  of  the  11th  and  the  14th  centuries.  It  is  clearjy 
divisible  {by  circumstances  to  be  presently  explained;  into 
two  well-marked  periods, — the  first  extending  to  the  end 
of  the  12th»  century  and  embracing  as  its  chief  names 
Eoscellinus,  An.selm,  WiUiam  of  fihampeaux,  and  Abelard, 
while  the  second  extended  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century  to  the  Renaissance  and  the  general  distraction  of 
men's  thoughts  frojn  the  proble  us  and  methods  of  Scho- 
lasticism. In  this  second  period  the  names  of  Albertus 
Magnus,  Thomas'Aquinas,  and  Duns  Scotus  represent  (in 
the  13th  century  and  the  first  years 'of  ""/he  14th  century) 
the  culmination  of  Scholastic  thought  and  its  consolidation 
into  system. 

It  is  a  remark  of  Prantl's  that  there  is  no  sucn  thing  aslji'sio 
philosophy  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  there  are  only  logic  and  tiSeologj 
theology.  If.  pressed  literally  the  remark  is  hypercritical, 
for  it  overlooks  two  facts, — in  the  first  place  that  the  main 
objects  of  theology  and  philosophy  are  identical,  though 
the  method  of  treatment  is  different,  and  in  the  second 
place  that  logical  discussion  commonly  leads  up  to  meta- 
physical problems,  and  that  this  was  pre-eminently  the 
case  with  the  logic  of  the  Schoolmen.  But  the  saying 
draws  attention  in  a  forcible  way  to  the  two  groat  in-' 
fluences  which  shaped  mediaeval  thought — on  the  one  side 
the  traditions  of  ancient  logic,  on  the  other  the  system  of 
Christian  theology.  Scholasticism  opens  with  a  discussion 
of  certain  points  in  the  Aristotelian  logic ;  it  speedily 
begins  to  apply  its  logical  distinctions  to  the  doctrines  of 
the  church ;  and  when  it  attains  its  full  stature  in  St 
Thomas  it  has,  with  the  exception  of  certain  mysteries, 
rationalized  or  Aristotelianized  the  whole  churchly  system. 
Or  we  might  say  with  equal  truth  that  the  philosophy  of 
St  Thomas  is  Aristotle  Christianized.  It  is,  moreover,  the 
attitude  of  the  Schoolmen  to  these  two  influences  that 
yields  the  general  characteristic  of  the  period.  Their 
attitude  throughout  is  that  of  interpreters  rather  than  of 
those  conducting  an  independent  investigation.  And 
though  they  are  at  the  same  time  the  acutest  of  critics, 
and  offer  the  most  ingenious  developments  of  the  original 
thesis,  thsy  never  step-oufside  the  charmed  circle  of  tho 
system  they  have  inherited.  ■  They  appear  to  contemplate 
the  universe  of  nature  and  man  not  at  first  hand  with 
their  own  eyes  but  in  the  glass  of  Aristotelian  formula}. 
Their  chief  works  are  in  the  shape  of  commentaries  upon 
the  writings  of  "  the  philosopher. "'  Their  problenis  and 
solutions  alike  spring  from  the  master's  dicta — from  tho 
need  of  reconciling  these  with  ene  another  and.  with  the 
conclusions  of  Christian  theology. 

Tho  fact  that  tho  channels  of  thought  during  tho  Middle  Reasoa 
Ages  were' /determined  in  this  way  by  tl!o  external  influence  '^^^^ 
of  a  twofold  tradition  is  usually  expressed  by  saying  that  .. 
reason   in  tho   Middle  Age   is   subject   to  authority.     It 
has  not  the  free  play  which  characterizes  its  activity  in 
Greece  and  in  the  philosophy  of  modern  times.     Its  con- 
clusions  are    predetermined,    and   the    initiative   of    tho 
individual  thinker  is  almost  confined,  therefore,  to  formal 
details  in  the  treatment  of  his  thesis.     From  the  side  of 
the  church  this  characteristic  of  tho  period  is  exp.-es.sed  in 
the  saying  that  rea.son  has  its  proper  station  as  the  hand- 
1  Thjft  common  desigoatioa  of  Aristotle  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

XXL  —  <-K 


418 


SCHOLASTICISM 


maid  of  faith  (aiiciUa  fidei).  But  it  is  only  fair  to  add 
that  this  principle  of  the  subordination  of  the  reason 
wears  a  different  aspect  according  t-^  the  century  and 
writer  referred  to.  In  Scotus  Erigena,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Scholastic  era,  there  is  no  such  subordination  con- 
templated, because  philosophy  and  theology  in  his  work 
are  in  implicit  unity.  According  to  his  memorable  expres- 
sion, "  Conficitur  inde  veram  esse  philosophiam  veram 
religionem,  conversimque  veram  religionera  esse  vcrara 
philosophiam  "  (De  Divisione  Naturae,  i.  1).  Reason  in  its 
own  strength  and  with  its  own  instruments  evolves  a 
system  of  the  universe  which  coincides,  according  to 
Erigena,  with  the  teaching  of  Scripture.  For  Erigena, 
therefore,  the  speculative  reason  is  the  supreme  arbiter 
(as  he  himself  indeed  expressly  asserts) ;  and  in  accordance 
with  its  results  the  utterances  of  Scripture  and  of  the 
church  have  not  infrequently  to  be  subjected  to  an  alle- 
gorical or  mystical  interpretation.  But  this  is  only  to 
say  again  in  so  many  words  that  Erigena  is  more  of 
a  Neoplatonist  than  a  Scholastic.  In  regard  to  the 
Scholastics  proper.  Cousin  suggested  in  respect  of  this 
point  a  threefold  chronological  division, — at  the  outset  the 
absolute  subordination  of  philosophy  to  theology,  then  the 
period  of  their  alliance,  and  finally  the  beginning  of  their 
separation.  In  other  words,  we  note  philosophy  gradually 
extending  its  claims.  Dialectic  is,  to  begin  with,  a  merely 
secular  art,  and  only  by  de.grees  are  its  terms  and  distinc- 
tions applied  to  the  subject-matter  of  theology.  The 
early  results  of  the  application,  in  the  hands  of  Berengarius 
and  Roscellinus,  did  not  seem  favourable  to  Christian 
orthodoxy.  Hence  the  strength  with  which  a  champion 
of  l>e  faith  like  Anselm  insists  on  the  subordination  of 
reason.  To  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  many  other  con- 
servative churchmen  the  application  of  dialectic  to  the 
things  of  faith  at  all  appears  as  dangerous  as  it  is  impious. 
At  a  later  date,  in  the  systems  of  the  great  Schoolmen,  the 
rights  of  reason  afb  fully  established  and  amply  acknow- 
ledged. The  relation  of  reason  and  faith  remains,  it  is 
true,  an  external  one,  and  certain  doctrines — an  increasing 
number  as  time  goes  on — are  withdrawn  from  the  sphere 
of  reason.  •  But  with  these  exceptions  the  two  march  side 
by  side;  they  establish  by  different  means  the  same 
results. :,  For  the  conflicts  which  accompanied  the  first 
intrusion  of  philosophy  into  the  theological  domain  more 
profound  and  cautious,  thinkers  with  a  far  ampler  appa- 
ratus of  knowledge  had  substituted  a  harmony.  "  The 
constant  effort  of  Scholasticism  to  be  at  once  philosophy 
and  theology"'  seemed  at  last  satisfactorily  realized.  But 
this  harmony  proved  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the 
further  progress  of  Scholastic  thought  consisted  in  a  with- 
drawal of  doctrine  after  doctrine  from  the  possibility  of 
rational  proof  and  their  relegation  to  the  sphere  of  faith. 
Indeed,  no  sooner  was  the  harmony  apparently  established 
by  Aquinas  than  Duns  Scotus  began  this  i.egative  criti- 
cism, which  is  carried  much  farther  by  William  of  Occam. 
But  this  is  equivalent  to  a  confession  that  Scholasticism 
had  failed  in  its  task,  which  was  to  rationalize  the  doc- 
trines of  the  church.  The  two  authorities  refused  to  be 
reconciled.  The  Aristotelian  form  refused  to  fit  a  matter 
for  which  it  was  never  intended  ;  the  matter  cf  Christian 
theology  refused  to  be"  forced  into  an  alien  form.  The 
Scholastic  philosophy  speedily  ceased  therefore  to  possess 
a  raison  (Tetre,  and  the  spread  of  the  sceptical  doctrine  of 
a  twofold  truth  proclaims  the  destruction  of  the  fabric 
erected  by  mediaeval  thought.  The  end  of  the  period  was 
thus  brought  about  by  the  internal  decay  of  its  method 
and  principles  quite  as  much  as  by  the  variety  of  external 
cau'es  which  contributed  to  transfer  men's  interests  to 
other  subjects. • 


'  MUman's  Latin  Christianity,  ix.  101. 


But,  although  the  relation  of  reason  to 'an  external  tjcuoias- 
authority  thus  constitutes  the  badge  of  mediaeval  thought,  *''=''™ 
it  would  be  in  the  last  degree  unjust  to  look  upon  Scholas-  °°*  . 
ticism  as  '  philosophically  barren,  and  to  speak  as  if  gressi,'p. 
reason,  after  an  interregnum  of  a  thousand  years, 
resumed  its  rights  at  the  Renaissance.  Such  language 
was  excusable  in  the  men  of  the  Renaissance,  fighting 
the  battle  of  classic  form  and  beauty  and  of  the  raany- 
sidedness'of  life  against  the  barbarous  terminology  and 
the  monastic  ideals  of  the  schools,  or  in  the  protagonists 
of  modern  science  protesting  against  the  complete  absorp- 
tion of  human  talent  by  metaphysics-^an  absorption  nevet 
witnessed  to  the  same  extent  before  or  since.  The  new  is 
never  just  to  the  old  ;  we  do  not 'expect  it  to  be  so.  It 
belongs  to  a  later  and  calmer  judgment  to  recognize  how 
tho  old  contained. in  itself  the  germs  of  the  new;  and  a 
closer  study  of  history  is  invariably  found  to  diminish  the 
abruptness  of  the  picturesque  new  beginnings  which  furnish 
forth  our  current  divisions  of  epochs  and  pieriods.  In  the 
schools  and  universities  of  the  Middle  Age  the  intellect  of 
the  semi-barbarous  European  peoples  had  been  trained  for 
the  work  of  the  modern  world.  It  had  advanced  from  a 
childish  rudeness  to  an  appreciation  of  the  subtlest  logical 
and  metaphysical  distinctions.  The  debt  which  modern 
philosophy  owes  to  the  Schoolmen  for  this  formal  training 
has  been  amply  acknowledged  even  by  a  writer  like  J.  S. 
Jlill.  But  we  may  go  further  and  say  that,  in  spite  of 
their  initial  acceptance  of  authority,  the  Scholastics  are  not 
the  antagonists  of  reason ;  on  tho  contrary  they  fight  its 
battles.  As  has  often  been  pointed  out,  the  attempt  to 
establish  by  argument  the  authority  of  faith  is  in  reality 
the  unconscious  establishment  of  the  authority  of  reason. 
Reason,  if  admitted  at  all,  must  ultimately  claim  the  whole 
man.  Anselm's  motto.  Credo  wt  intelligam,  marks  vfell 
the  distance  that  has  been  traversed  since  TertuUian's 
Credo  quia  absurdum  est.  Tlie  claim  of  reason  has  been 
recognized  to  manipulate  the  data  of  faith,  at  first  bUndly 
and  immediately  received,  and  to  .I'eld  them  into  a  system 
such  as  will  satisfy  its  own  needs.  Scholasticism  that  has 
outlived  its  day  may  be  justly  identified  with  obscurant- 
ism, but  not  so  the  systems  of  those  who,  by  their  mighty 
intellectual  force  alone,  once  held  all  tlie  minds  of  Europe  in 
willing  subjection.  The  scholastic  systems,  it  is  true,  are 
not  the  free  products  of  speculation ;  in  the  main  they  are 
summx  theologise,  or  they  are  modified  versions  of  Aristotle. 
But  each  system  is  a  fresh  recognition  of  the  rights  of 
reason,  and  Scholasticism  as  a  whole  may  be  justly 
regarded  as  the  history  of  the  growth  and  gradual  eman- 
cipation pf  reason  which  was  completed  in  the  movements 
of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation.  Indeed,  the 
widening  of  human  interests  which  then  took  place  is  not 
without  its  prelude  in  the  systems  of  the  second  period  of 
Scholasticism.  The  complementary  sciences  of  theology 
and  philosophy  remain,  of  course,  the  central  and  dominat- 
ing interest ;  but  Albertus  Magnus  was  keenly  interested 
in  natural  science,  and  a  system  like  that  of  Aquinas  is  as 
wide  as  Aristotle's  in  its  range,  and  holfjs  no  part  of 
nature  to  lie  outside  its  inquiries. 

In  speaking  of  the  origin  of  Scholasticism — name  and  "  Uni- 
thing — it  has  been  already  noted  that  mediaeval  specula  ^«'^''^- 
tion  takes  its  rise  in  certain  logical  problems.  To  be 
more  precise,  it  is  the  nature  of  "universals''  which  forms 
the  central  theme  of  Scholastic  debate.  This  is  the  case 
almost-  exclusively  during  the  first  period,  and  only  to  a 
less  extent  during  the  second,  where  it  reappears  in  a 
somewhat  different  form  as  the  difficulty  concerning  the 
principle  pf  individuation.  Otherwise  expressed,  the 
question  07  which  centuries  of  discussion  were  thus 
expended  concerns  the  nature  of  genera  and  species  and 
their  relation  to  the  individual.  _  On  thio  'N'ominalists  and 


SCHOLASTICISM 


419 


Realists  take  opposite  sides;  and,  exclusively  legjcal  as 
the  point  may  at  first  sight  seem  to  be,  adherence  to  one 
Bide  or  the  other  is  an  accurate  indication  of  philosophic 
tendency.  The  two  opposing  theories  express  at  bottom, 
fa  the  phraseology  of  their  own  time,  the  radical  diver- 
gence of  pantheism  and  iudividualisin — the  two  extremes 
between  which  philosophy  seems  pendulura-wise  to  oscil- 
late, and  which  may  be  said  still  to  await  their  perfect 
reconciliation.  First,  however,  we  must  examine  the 
form  which  this  question  assumed  to  the  first  mediaDval 
thinkers,  and  the  source  from  which  they  derived  it.  A 
Por-  single  sentence  in  Porphyry's  Isagoge  or  "  introduction"  to 
phyry's  the  Categories  of  Aristotle  furnished  the  text  of  the  pro- 
Isagcr^  longed  discussion.  The  treatise  oi  Porphyry  deals  with 
what  are  commonly  called  the  predicables,  i.e.,  the  notions 
of  genus,  species,  difi'erence,  property,  and  accident  ;  and 
ho  mentions,  but  declines  to  discuss,  the  various  theories 
that  have  been  held  as  to  the  ontological  import  of  genera 
and  species.  In  the  Latin  translation  of  Boetius,  in 
which  alone  the  Isagoge  was  then  known,  the  sentence 
funs  as  follows  : — "  Mox  de  generibus  et  speciebus  illud 
quidera  sive  subsistant,  sive  in  soils  nudis  intellectibus 
posita  sint,  sive  subsistentia  corporalia  sint  an  incorporalia, 
et  utrum  separata  a  sensibilibus  an  in  sensibilibus  posita  et 
circa  haeo  consistentia,  dicere  recusabo ;  altissimum  enim 
negotium  est  hujusmodi  et  majoris  egens  inquisitionis." 
The  second  of  these  threo  questions  may  be  safely  set 
aside ;  the  other  two  indicate  with  sufficient  clearness. 
three  possible  positions  with  regard  to  universals.  It 
may  be  held  that  they  exist  merely  as  conceptions  in  our 
minds  {in  soils  nudis  intellectibus) ;  this  is  Nominalism  or 
Conceptualism.  It  may  be  hold,  in  opposition  to  the 
Nominalistic  view,  that  they  have  a  substantial  existence 
of  their  own  {subsistentia),  independent  of  their  existence 
in  our  thoughts.  But  Realism,  as  this  doctrine  is  named, 
may  be  again  of  two  varieties,  according  as  the  substan- 
tially existent  universals  are  supposed  to  exisi  apart  from 
,  the  sensible  phenomena  {separata  a  sensibilibus)  or  only  in 

and  r.'ith  the  objects  of  sense  as  their  essence  {in  setisibil ibus 
posita  et  circa  haec  consistentia).  The  first  form  of  Realism 
corresponds  to  the  Platonic  theory  of  the  transcendence  of 
the  ideas ;  •while  the  second  reproduces  the  Aristotelian 
doctrine  of  the  essence  as  inseparable  from  the  individual 
thing.  But,  though  he  implies  an  ample  previous  treat-, 
ment  of  the  questions  by  philosophers,  Porphyry  gives  no 
references  to  the  different  systems  of  which  such  dis- 
tinctions are  the  outcome,  nor  does  he  give  any  hint  of  his 
own  opinion  on  the  subject,  definite  enough  though  that 
was.  He  simply  sets  the  discussion  aside  as  too  difficult 
for  a  preliminary  discourse,  and  not  strictly  relevant  to  a 
purely  logical  inquiry.  Porphyry,  the  Neoplatonist,  the 
disciple  of  Plotinus,  was  an  unknown  personage  to  those 
early  students  of  the  Isagoge.  The  passage  possessed  for 
them  a  mysterious  charm,  largely  due  to  its  isolation  and 
to  their  ignorance  of  the  historic  speculations  which  sug- 
gested it.  And  accordingly  it  gave  rise  to  the  three  great 
doctrines  which  divided  the  media;val  schools  : — Realism 
of  the  Platonic  type,  embodied  in  the  formula  universatia 
ante  rem. ;  Realism  of  the  Aristotelian  typo,  universalia  in 
re ;  and  Nominalism,  including  Conceptualism,  expressed 
iby  the  phrase  universalia  post  rem,  and  also  claiming  to  be 
based  upon  the  Peripatetic  doctrine. 

To  form  a  proper  estimate  of  the  first  stage  of  Scholastic 
discussion  it  is  requisite  above  all  things  to  have  a  clear 
idea  of  the  appliances  then  at  the  disposal  of  the  writers. 
In  other  words,  what  was  the  extent  of  their  knov/lcdge 
of  ancient  philosophy !  Thanks  to  tho  researches  of 
Jonrdain  and  others,  it  ia  possible  to  answer  this  question 
with  something  like  precision.  To  bsgin  with,  we  know 
•  that  till  tho  13th  century  the  Middle  Ago  was  ignorant 


of  Greek,  and  possessed  no  philosophical  works  in  their 
Greek  original,  while  in  translations  their  stock  was 
limited  to  tho  Categories  and  the  De  Iiiterpretatione  of 
Aristotle  in  the-  versions  of  Boetius,  and  the  Timmus  of 
Plato  in  tho  version  of  .Chalcidius.  To  these  must  be 
added;  of  course,  Boetius's  translation  of  Porphyry's 
Isagoge  alre.'idy  referred  to.  The  whole  metaphysical, 
ethical,  and  physical  works  of  Aristotle  were  tlius  unknowr, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  12th  century  (after  the  year  1128) 
that  the  Analytics  and  the  Topici  became  accessible  to  tho 
logicians  of  the  time.  Some  general  information  as  to, 
tho  Platonic  doctrines  (chiefly  ia  a  JTeoplatonic  garb)  ■^/as 
obtainable  from  the  commentary  v.ith  which  Chalcidius 
(6th  cent.)  accompanied  his  transl.\tion,  from  the  v.-ork  cf 
Apuleius  (2d  cent.)  Dc  Dogmate  Platonis,  and  indirectly 
from  the  co.mmentary  of  Macrobius  {e.  400)  on  the  Sovir.iiim 
Scipiionis  of  C;cero,  and  from  the  writings  of  St  Augt!.itine. 
As  aids  to  the  study  of  logic,  the  doctors  of  this  period 
possssssd  two  commentaries  by  Boetius  on  the  Itagoge  {Ad 
Porpht/rium  a  Victorino  translatum  and  In  Pdrphyrium  a 
se  traiislatum),  two  commentaries  by  the  same  author  oa 
the  De  Interpretatione  and  one  on  the  Categories,  as  well 
as  another,  mairdy  rhetorical.  Ad  Ciceronis  Topica.  To 
these  are  to  be  added  the  following  original  treatises  of 
Boetius : — Introductio  ad  Categoricos  SyllogismoSy  De  Syilo- 
gismo  Catcgorico,  De  Syllogismo  Hypotheiico,  De  Divisione, 
De  Dejinitione,  and  Dc  Dijfcrentiis  Topicis,  the  last  dealing 
almost  exclusively  with  rhetoric.  Ther£:  w^re  also  in  circu- 
lation two  tracts  attributed  to  St  Augustine,  the  first  of 
which,  Principia  'Dialecticae,  is  probably  his,  but  is  mainly 
grammatical  in  its  import.  The  othef  tract,  known  aa 
Categoriae  Decern,  and  taken  at  first  for  a  translation  of 
Aristotle's  treatise,  is  really  a  rapid  summary  of  ii,  acd 
certainly  does  not  belong  to  Augustine.  To  this  list  thero 
must  bo  added  three  works  of  an  encyclop£edtc  character, 
which  played  a  great  part  as  text-books  in  the  schools.  Of 
these  the  oldest  and  most  important  was  the  Satyricon  of 
Marcianus  Capella  (close  of  5th  century),  a  curious  mediey 
of  prose  and  allegorical  verse,  the  greater  part  of  which  ij 
a  treatise  on  the  seven  liberal  arts,  the  fourth  book  dealing 
with  logic.  Similar  in  its  contents  is  tho  work  of  Cassio- 
dorus  (468-562),  De  Artibus  ai  Disciplinis  Liberalium 
Literarum,  of  which  the  third  work  referred  to,  the  Origiuea 
of  Isidore  of  Seville  {ob.  G36),  is  little  more  than  a  re- 
production. •  The  above  constitutes  without  exception  tho 
whole  material  which  the  earlier  Jliddle  Age  had  at  it3 
disposal. 

The  grandly  conceived  system  of  Erigena  (see  Erigeiia  Erigona 
and  Mysticism)  stands  by  itself  _ in  the  9th  century  lika 
the  product  of  another  age.  John  the  Scot  was  etiil 
acquainted  with  Greek,  seeing  that  he  translated  the  work 
of  tho  pseudo-Dionysius ;  and  his  speculative  genius 
achieved  the  fusion  of  Christian  doctrine  and  Neoplv 
tonic  thought  in  a  system  of  quite  remarkable  meta- 
physical completeness.  It  is  the  only  complete  and  inde- 
pendent system  between  Iho  decline  of  ancient  thought 
and  the  system  of  Aquinas  in  the  13th  century,  if  indeed 
we  ought  not  to  go  further,  to  modern  times,  to  find  a 
parallel.  Erigena  pronounces  no  express  opinion  upon 
tho  question  which  was  even  then  beginning  to  occupy 
men's  minds ;  but  I  is  Platonico-Chiistian  theory  of  the 
Eternal  Word  as  containing  in  Himself  tho  cxem^plars  of 
created  things  is  equivalent  to  tho  assertion  of  universalia 
ante  rem.  His  whole  system,  indeed,  is  based  upon  tho 
idea  of  tho  divine  as  the  exclusively  real,  of  v/hich  the 
world  of  individual  existence  is  but  the  theophany ;  the 
special  and  tho  individual  are  immanent,  therefore,  in  tba 
general.  And  hence  at  a  much  later  date  (in  .'la  begin- 
ning of  the  13th  ccn'ury)  his  name  was  invoked  io  cover 
the   pantheistic  heresies   of  Amalrich   of  Cfia.     Erigens.- 


420 


SCHOLASTICISIM 


doea^hiTt  separate  bis  Platonic  theory  of  pre-existect 
exemplars  from  the  Aristotelian  doctrine  of  the  universal 
as  in  the  individuals.  As  Ueberweg  points  out,  his  theory 
is  rather  a  result  of  the  transference  of  the  Aristotelian 
conception  of  substance  to  the  Platonic  Idea,  and  of  an 
identification  of  the  relation  of  accidents  to  the  substance 
in  which  they  inhere  with  that  of  the  individuals  to  the 
Idea  of  which,  in  the  Platonic  dsctrine,  they  are  copies 
(Eist.  of  Fhilosophy,  i.  3i33,  Eng.  trans.).  Hence  it  may 
be  said  that  the  universals  are  in  the  individuals;  constitut- 
ing their  essential  reality  (and  it  is  an  express  part  of 
Erigena's  system  that  the  created  but  creative  Word,  the 
second  division  of  Nature,  should  pass  into  the  third  stage 
of  created  and  non-creating  things);  or  rather,  perhaps, 
■we  ought  to  say  that  the  individuals  exist  in  the  bosom 
of  their  universal.  At  all  events,  while  Erigena's  Realism 
is  pronounced,  the  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  forms  of  the 
doctrine  are  not  distinguished  in  his  writings.  Prantl  has 
professed  to  find  the  headstream  of  Nominalism  also  in 
Scotus  Erigena ;  but  beyond  the  fact  that  he  discusses  at 
considerable  length  the  categories  of  thought  and  their 
mutual  relations,  occasionally  usijg  the  term  "voces"  to 
express  his  meaning,  Prantl  appears  to  adduce  no  reasons 
for  an.  assertion  which  directly  contradicts  Erigena's  most 
fundamental  doctrines.  Moreover  Erigena  again  and 
again  declares  that  dialectic  has  to  do  w-ith  the  stadia  of  a 
real  or  divine  classification: — " Intelligitur  quod  ars  ilia, 
quae  dividit  genera  in  species  et  species  in  genera  resolvit, 
quae  SioAcktikj;  dicitur,  non  ab  humanis  machinationibus 
sit  facta,  sed  in  natura  rerum  ab  auctore  omnium  artium, 
quae  verae  artes  sunt,  condita  et  a  sapientibus  inventa  " 
(Z)e  Dii'isione  Naturae,  iv.  4). 

The  immediate  influence  of  Erigena's  system  cannot 
have  been  great,  and  his  works  seem  soon  to  have  dropped 
out  of  notice  in  the  centuries  that  followed.  The  real 
germs  of  Kealism  and  Nominalism,  as  they  took  shape  in 
mediaeval  thought,  are  to  be  found  in  the  9th  century,  in 
scattered  commentaries  and  glosses  (mostly  still  in  manu- 
script) upon  the  statements  of  Porphyry  and  Boetius. 
Influ-  Boetius  in  commenting  upon  Porphyry  had  already 
ence  of  started  the  discussion  as  to  the  nature  of  universals.  He 
is  definitely  anti-Platonic,  and  his  language  sometimes 
takes  even  a  nominalistic  tone,  as  when  he  declares  that 
the  species  is  nothing  more  than  a  thought  or  conception 
gathered  from  the  substantial  similarity  of  a  number  of 
di,ssiniiiar  individuals.  The  expression  "  substantial  simi- 
larity "  is  still,  however,  sufficiently  vague  to  cover  a 
multitude  of  views.  He  concludes  that  the  genera  and 
spec'es  exist  as  universals  only  in  thought ;  but,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  collected  from  singulars  on  account  of  a  real 
resemblance,  they  have  a  certain  existence  independently 
of  the  mind,  but  not  an  existence  disjoined  from  the 
singulars  of  sense.  "Subslstunt  ergo  circa  sensibilia, 
intelliguntur  autem  praeter  corpora."  Or,  according  to 
the  phrase  which  recurs  so  often  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
"  universale  intelligitur,  singulare  sentitur."  Boetius  ends 
by  declining  to  adjudicate  between  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
remarking  in  a  semi-apologetic  style  that,  if  lie  has  ex- 
pounded Aristotle's  opinion  by  preference,  his  course  is 
justified  by  the  fact  that  he  is  commenting  upon  an  intro- 
duction to  Aristotle.  And,,  indeed,  his  discussion  cannot 
claims  to  be  more  than  semi-popular  in  character.  The 
point  in  dispute  has  not  in  his  hands  the  all-absorbing 
importance  it  afterwards  attained,  and  the  keenness  of 
later  distinctions  is  as  yet  unknown.  In  this  way,  how- 
ever, though  the  distinctions  drawn  may  still  be  compara- 
tively "ague,  there  existed  in  the  schools  a  Peripatetic 
tradition  to  set  over  against  the  Neoplatonic  influence  of 
John  the  Scot,  and  amongst  the  earliest  remains  of  Scho- 
lastic thought  we  find  this  tradition  a.sserting  itself  some- 


Boetio^. 


what  vigorously.     There  were  Nominalists  before  Roscel- 
liius  among  these  early  thinkers. 

Alcuin,  the  first  head  of  the  school  of  the  Palace,  does 
nothing  more  in  his  Dialectic  than  abridge  Boetius  and 
the  other  commentators.  But  in  the  school  of  Fulda;  pi-e' 
sided  over  by  his  pupil  Hrabanus  Maurus  (776-85G),  there  firabanui 
are  to  be  found  some  fresh  contributions  to  the  discussion.  Mau;!-.*.- 
The  collected  works  of  Hrabanus  himself  contain  nothing 
new,  but  in  some  glosses  on  Aristotle  and  Porphyry, 
first  exhumed  by  Cousin,  there  are  several  noteworthy 
expressions  of  opinion  in  a  Nominalistic  sense.  The 
author  interprets  Boetius's  meaning  to  be  "  Quod  eadern 
res  individuurn  et  species  et  genus  est,  et  non  esse  univer- 
salia  individuis  quasi  quoddara  diversum."  He  alsj 
cites,  apparently  with  approval,  the  view  of  those  who 
held  Porphyry's  treatise  to  be  not  de  quinque  rebus, 
but  de  quinque  vocibus.  A  genus,  they  said,  is  essen- 
tially something  which  is  predicated  of  a  subject ;  but  a. 
thing  cannot  be  a  predicate  {7-cs  enim  non  ^iraedicatury 
These  glosses,  it  should  be  o,dded,  however,  have  been 
attributed  by  Prantl  and  Kaulich,  on  the  ground  of  divert 
gence  from  doctrines  contained  in  the  puhlished  works  of 
Hrabanus,  to  some  disciple  oi  his  rather  than  to  Hrabanus 
himself.  Fukla  had  become  through  the  teaching  of 
the  latter  an  intellectual  centre.  Eric  or  Heiricus,  who  EiJc,  - 
studied .  there  under  Ilairaon,  the  successor  of  Hrabanus, 
and  afterwards  taught  at  Auxerre,  wrote  glosses  on  the 
margin  of  his  copy  of  the  pseudo-Augustinian  Categoriae, 
which  have  been  published  by  Cousin,  and  Haureau. 
He  there  says  in  words  which  recall  the  language  of  Locke 
(Essay,  iii.  3)_that  because  proper  names  are  innumerable, 
and  no  intellect  or  memory  would  suftice  for  the  knowing 
of  them,  they  are  all  as  it  were  comprehended  in  the 
species  ("Sciendum  autem,  quia  propria  nomina  primum 
sunt  innumerabilia,  ad  quae  cognoscenda  intellectus  nuUus 
seu  memoria  sufficit,  haec  ergo  omnia  coartata  species  com- 
prehendit,  et  facit  primum  gradum ").  Taken  in  their 
strictness,  these  words  state  the  position  of  extreme 
Nominalism;  but  even  if  we  were  not  foibidden  to  do  so 
by  other  passages,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  moderate 
Realism  is  adopted  (under  cover  of  the  current  distinction 
between  the  singular  as  felt  and  the  pure  (universal  as 
understood),  it  would  still  be  unfair  to  press  any  passage 
in  the  writings  of  this  period.  As  Cousin  says,  "Realism 
and  Nominalism  were  undoubtedly  there  in  germ,  but 
their  true  principles  with  their  necessary  consequences 
remained  profoundly  unknown  ;  their  connexion  with  all 
the  great  questions  of  religion  and  politics  was  not  even 
suspected.  The  two  systems  were  nothing  more  as  yet 
than  two  difTerent  waj^s  of  'nterpreting  a  phrase  of 
Porphyry,  and  they  remained  unnoticed  in  the  obscurity 
of  the  schools.  ...  It  was  the  11th  century  which  gave 
Nominalism  to  the  world." ' 

Remi  or  Remigius  of  Auxerre, ,  pupil  of  Eric,  became  Rsmi. 
the  most  celebrated  professor  of  dialectic  in  the  Parisian 
schools  of  the  10th  century.  As  he  reverted  to  Realism, 
his  influence,  first  at  Rhcims  aiid  then  in  Paris,  was 
doubtless  instrumental  in  bringing  abmt  the  general 
acceptance  of  that  doctrine  till  the  advent  of  Roscellinus 
as  a  powerful  disturbing  influence.  "  There  is  one  genus 
more  general  than  the  rest,"  says  Remi  (apiid  Haureau, 
De  la  Philosophie  Scolastique,  i.  140),  "beyond  which  the 
intellect  cannot  rise,  called  by  the  Greeks  ovcw'a,  by  the 
Latins  essentia.  The  essence,  indeed,  comprehends  all 
natures,  and  everything  that  exists  is  a  portion  of  this 
essence,  by  participation  in  which  everything  that  is  hath 
its  existence."  And  similarly  with  the  intermediate 
genera.  "  Homo  est  multorum  hom'uum  substantialis 
unitas."     Remigius  is  thus  a  Reali.st,  as  Haureau  remarks. 


k;CHOLAS'lIClSM 


421 


Perbert.' 


School  of 
Cha*tres, 


Applica- 
tion of 
logic  to  ' 
tbeolop.v. 


not  80  -much  i  the  .sense  of  Plato  as  io  t lie  spirit  of 
Parmenides,  and  Hauri^au  applies  to  this  form  of  Realism 
Bayle's  Qescription  of  Healism  in  genecal  as  "le  Spinosisme 
con  developpe."  The  10th  century  as  a  whole  is  especially 
marked  out  as  a  dark  age,  being  partly  filled  -aith  civil 
troubles,  and  partly  characterized  by  a'  reaction  of  faith 
against  reason.  In  the  monastery  of  St  Gall  there  was 
considerable  logical  activity,  but  nothing  of  philosophical 
interest  is  recorded.  The  chief  name  of  the  century  is 
that  of  Gerbert  (died  as  Pope  Sylvester  II.  in  1003).  He 
studied  at  Aurillac  under  Otto  of  Clugny,  the  pupil  of 
Remigius,  and  later  amortg  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and  taught 
afterwards  himself  in  the  schools  of  Tours,  Fleury,  Sens, 
and  Rheims.  He  was  a  man  of  universal  attainments, 
but  only  his  treatise  De  Rationali  et  Rations  uti  need  be 
mentioned  here.  It  is  more  interesting  as  a  display  of 
the  logical  acquirements  of  the  age  than  as  possessing  any 
direct  philosophical  bearing.  The  school  of  Chartres, 
founded  in  990  by  Fulbert,  one  of  Gerbert's  pupils,  was 
distinguished  for  nearly  two  centuries  not  so  much  for  its 
dialectics  and  philosophy  as  for  its  humanistic  culture. 
The  account  "which-John  of  Salisbury  gives  of  it  in  the 
first  half  of  the  12th  century,  under  the  presidency  of 
Theodoric  and  Bernard,  gives  a  very  pleasant  glimpse  into 
the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Since  then,  says  their 
regretful  pupil,  "less  time  and  less  care  have  been 
bestowed  on  grammar,  and  persons  who  profess  all  arts, 
liberal  and  mechanical,  are  ignorant  of  the  primary  art, 
■without  which  a  man  proceeds  in  vain  to  the  rest.  For 
albeit  the  other  studies  assist  literature,  yet  this  has  the 
sole  privilege  of  making  one  lettered."^ 

Hitherto,  if  dialectical  studies  had  bjen  sometimes 
viewed  askance  by  the  stricter  churchmen  it  was  not 
because  logic  had  dared  to  stretch  forth  its  hands  towards 
the  ark  of  God,  but  simply  on  the  ground  of  the  old 
opposition  between  the  church  and  the  world :  these 
secular  studies  absorbed  time  and  ability  which  might 
javo  been  employed  for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  service 
3f  the  church.  But  now  bolder  spirits  arose  who  did  not 
^hrink  from  applj'ing  the  distinctions  of  their  human 
■jvisdom  to  the  mysteries  of  theology.  It  was  the  excite- 
Uent  caused  by  their  attempt,  "and  the  heterodox  con- 
clusions which  were  its  first  result,  that  lifted  these 
SchoIa.stic  disputations  ■•  into  the  central  position  which 
they  henceforth  occupied  in  the  life  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
And  whereas,  up  to  this  time,  discussion  had  been  in  the 
main  of  a  purely  logical  character,  the  next  centuries 
Show  that  .  peculiar  combination  of  logic  and  theology 
which  is  the  mark  of  Scholasticism',  especially  in  the 
period  before  the  13th  century,  i^  For  reason,  having 
already  asserted  itself  so.  far,  could  not  simply  be  put 
under  a  ban.  Orthodoxy  had  itself  to  put  on  the  armour 
of  reason  ;'..and  so  panoplied  its  champions  soon  proved 
themselves  .superior  to  their  antagpnists  on  their  own 
Jjattleficld. 

One  of  the  first  of  these  attacks  was  made  by 
feerengarius  of  Tours  (099-1088)  uiion  the  doctrine  of 
iransubstantiation ;  he  denied  the  possibility  of  a  change 
of  substance  in  the  bread  and  wine  without  some  corre- 
sponding change  in  the  accidents.  Berengarius  had 
studied  at  Chartres,  where  his  exclusive  devotion  to 
dialectic  caused  Fulbert  more  than  once  to  remonstrate 
with  his  pupil.  According  to  the  testimony  of  his  oppo- 
nent and  former  fellow-student,  Lanfranc,  he  seems  even 
in  his  student  days  to  have  been  by  temperament  a  rebel 
'against  authority.  "When  weiworo  in  the  schools 
tbgdlher,'"  Mys  Lanfranc,  "it  was  your, part  always  to 
collect  authorities   against   the  Catholic  faith."      M.    do 

•  '  Mclalojjicus,  i.  27,  quoted  in  Poole'i  lUuatrationa  <J  Mediwval 
Xho.iaht. 


R^musat  characterizes  his  view  on  the  Eucharist  as  a 
specific  application  of  Nominalism  ("un  nominalisme 
special  ou  restreint  h,  une  seule  question").  More  inti 
mately  connected  with  the  progress  of  philosophical 
thought  was  the  tritheistic  view  of  the  Trinity  propounded 
by  Roscellinus  as  one  of  the  results  of  his  Nominalistic  Roseel- 
theory  of '  knowing  and  being.  The  sharpness  and  one- '"^"^ 
sidedness  with  which  he  formulated  his  position  were  the 
immediate  occasion  of  the  contemporaneous  crystallization 
■  of  Realism  in  the  theories  of  Anselra  and  William  of 
Champeaux.  Henceforth  discussion  is  carried  on  with  a^ 
full  consciousness  of  the  differences  involved  and  the  issues 
at  state ;  aud,  thanks  to  the  heretical  conclusion  disclosed 
by  Roscellinus,  Realism  became  established  for  several 
centuries  as  the  orthodox  philosophical  creed.  Roscellinus 
(o6.  c.  1125)  was  looked  upon  by  later  times  as  the 
originator  of  the  sententia  vocum,  that  is  to  say,  of  Nom- 
inalism proper.  Unfortunately,  we  are  reduced  for  a 
knowledge  of  his  position  to  the  scanty  and  ill-natured 
notices  of  his  opponents  (Anselm  and  Ahelard).  From 
these  we  gather  that  he  refused  to  recognize  the  reality  of 
anything  but  the  individual ;  he  treated  "  the  universal 
substance,"  says  Anselm,  as  no  more  than  "  flatum  vocis," 
a  verbal  breathing  or  sound ;  and  in  a  similar  strain  he 
denied  any  reality  to  the  parts  of  which  a  whole,  such  as 
a  house,  is  commonly  said  to.  be  composed.  The  parts  in 
the  one  case,  the  general  name  or  common  attributes  in 
the  other,  are  only,  he  seems  .t*  have  argued,  so  many 
subjective  points  of  view  from  which  we  choose  to  regard 
tha.t  which  in  its  own  essence  is  one  and  indivisible, 
existing  in  its  own  right  apart  from  any  connexion  with 
other  individuals.  This  pure  individualism,  consistently 
interpreted,  involves  the  denial  of  all  real  relation  what- 
soever ;  for  things  are  related  and  classified  by  means  of 
their  general  characteristics.  Accordingly,  if  these  general 
characteristics  do  not  possess  reality,  things  are  reduced 
to.'  3.  number  of  characterless  and  mutually  indilferen'j^ 
points.  It  is  possible,  as  Haureau  maintains,  that  Roscel- 
linus meant  no  more  than  to  refute  the  untenable  Realism 
which  asserts  the  substantial  and,  above  all,  the  inde- 
pendent existence  of  the  universals.  Some  of  the  expres- 
sions used  by  Anselm  in  controverting  his  position  favour 
this  idea,  since  they  prove  that  the  Realism  of  Anselra 
himself  embraced  positions  discarded  by  the  wiser  advo- 
cates of  that  doctrine.  Anselm  upbraids  Roscellinus,  for 
example,  because  he  was  unable  to  conceive  whiteness 
apart  from  its  existence  in  something  white.  But  this  is 
precisely  an  instance  of  tho  hypostatization  of  abstrac- 
tiofis  in  exposing  which  the,  chief  strength  and  value  of 
Nominalism  lie.  Cousin  is  correct  in  pointing,  out,  from 
the  Realistic  point  of  view,  that  it  is  one  thing  to  deny 
the  hypostatization  of  an  accident  like  colour  or  wisdom, 
and  another  thing  to  deny  the  foundation  in  reality  of 
tho.se. "true  and  legitimate  universals"  which  we  under- 
stand by  the  terms  genera  and  species.  "The  human 
race  is  not  a  word,  or,  if  it  is,  we  are  driven  to  assert  that 
there  is  really  nothing  common  and  identical  in  all  men — 
that  the  brotherhood  and  equality  pf  tho  human  family 
are  pure  abstractions,  and  that,  since  individuality  is  the 
sole  Tpality,  tho  sole  reality  is  difference,  that  is  to  say, 
hostility  and  war,  with-no  right  but  might,  no  duty  but 
interest,  and  no  remedy  but  despotism.  These  are  the 
sad  but  necessary  consequences  which  logic  and  history 
impose  upon  Nominalism  and  Empiricism."^  It  is  not  for 
a  moment  to  be  suppo-sod  that  the  full  scope  of  his  doctrine 
was  present  to  the  mind  of  Roscellinus ;  but  Nominalisrr 
would  hardly  have  made  the  sensation  it  did  had  its 
assertions  been  as  innocent  as.  Haurea-u  would  make 
them.  Like  most  innovators,  Roscellinus  stated  his  post- 
^  Ouvrages  tiiMils  d'AUlardf  Introd.,  p.  cvi 


4'22 


S  C  11  O  L  A  S  T  1  C  I  tS  M 


tioa  ill  bola  language,  wliich  err  .ihnsized  Lis  opposition  to 
accepted  doctrines^  anijl;ht3  words,. if, not  his  iutcDtions, 
involved  thf  ExtremF  Nominalism  vliich,  by  making 
universality  merely  6UDjectivc,  pulverizes  existence  into 
detached  particulars.  And,  though  we  may  acquit  Eoscel- 
linus  of  consciously  propounding  a  theory  so  subversive  of 
all  knowledge,  his  criticism  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
is  proof  ai,  least  of  the  determination  with  which  he  was 
prepared  to  carry  out  his  individualism.  If  we  are  not 
prepared  to  say  that  the  three  Persons  are  one  thing — in 
which  case  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ohost  must  have 
been  incarnate  along  with  the  Son — then,  did  u.sage  permit, 
ho  says,  we  ought  to  speak  of  three  Gods 
.ajisel-i.  It  was  this  theological  deduction  from  his  doctrine  that 
drew  upon  Eoscellinus  the  polemic  of  his  most  celebrated 
opponent,  Anselm  of  Canterbury  (1033-1109).  Eoscel- 
linus appears  at  first  to  have  imagined  that  his  tritheistic 
theory  had  the  sanction  of  Lanfranc  and  Anselm,  and  the 
latter  was  led  in  consequence  to  compose  his  treatise  De 
Fide  TriniUitis.  From  this  may  be  gathered,  in  a  some- 
what indirect  and^'^ncid^utal  fashion,  his  views  on  the 
nature  of  universals."  How  shall  he  who  has  not  arrived 
at  understanding  how  Several  men  are  in  species  one  man 
comprehend  how  in  that  most  mysterious  nature  several 
persons,  each  of  which  is  perfect  God,  are  one  God?"  The 
aianner  in  which  humanity  exists  in  the  individual  was  soon 
to  be  the  subject  of  keen  discussion,  and  to  bring  to  light 
diverging  views  within  the  Eealistic  camp  ;  but  St  Anselm 
does  not  go  into  detail  on  this  point,  and  seems  to  imply 
that  it  is  not  surrounded  by  special  difficulties.  In  truth, 
his  Realisms  as  has  just  been  seen,  was  of  a  somewhat 
uncritical  type.  It  was  simply  accepted  by  him  in  a  broad 
v.'ay  as  the  orthodox  philosophic  doctrine,  and  the  doctrine 
•which,  as  a  sagacious  churchman,  he  perceived  to  be  most 
in  harmony  with  Christian  theology.  But  Anselra's  heart 
•was  not  in  the  dialectical  subtleties  which  now  began 
more  and  more  to  engross  the  schools.  The  only  logical 
treatise  which  he  wrote,  De  Gravimatica,  falls  so  far 
Iclow  the  height  of  his  reputation  that  it  leads  Prantl 
into  undue  depreciation  of  Anselm's  eminence  as  a  thinker. 
Anselm's  natural  element  was  theology,  and  the  high 
metaphysical  questions  which  are  as  it  were  the  obverse 
of  theology.  Haureau  calls  him  with  truth  "  the  last  of 
the  fathers";  the  sweep  of  his  thought  recalls  St  Augus- 
tine rather  than  the  men  of  his  own  time.  Ou  the  other 
hand,  as  the  first  to  formulate  the  ontological  argument 
for  the  existence  of  God,  he  joins  hands  with  some  of  the 
pi'ofoundest  names  in  modern  philosophy.  This  celebrated 
argument,  which  fascinated  in  turn  Descartes,  Leibnitz, 
and  Hegel,  not  to  mention  othe-  names,  appears  for  the 
firtt  time  in  the  pages  of  AiTselm's  Pi-oslor/ium.  To 
Anselm  specially  belongs  the  motto  Credo  ut  intcUii/am,  or, 
as  it  is  otherwise  expressed  in  the  sub-title  of  his  P7-os- 
lojir  m,  Fides  quaerens  intcUcctum.  "  His  method,  "  says 
Cousin  (p.  ci.),  "is  to  set  out  from  the  sacred  dogmas  as 
they  are  giv*en  by  the  hand  of  authority,  and  without  at 
my  time  departing  from  these  dogmas  to.  impregnate 
them  by  profound  reflexion,  and  thus  as  it  were  raise 
the  darkness  visible  of  faith  to  the  pure  light  of  philo- 
sophy." In  this  spirit  he  endeavoured  to  give  a  philo- 
sophical demonstration  not  only  of  the  existence  of  God 
but  also  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  which  were 
placed  by  the  later  Scholastics  among  the  "mysteries," 
The  Christological  theory  of  satisfaction.  ey>_icaauec(  in 
the  Ctir  Dens  Iloinr  falls  beyond  *,ii'.  sc^pe  of  the  present 
article.  But  the  Plntonic'.I'.y  conceived  proof  of  the  being 
rf  God  contain'-d  '.i  ;he  Monohghim  shows  that  Anselm's 
doctrine  '■(  '.h:;  universals  as  substances  in  things  {vnieer- 
v/'-'i  ill  ,f!  ..as  closely  connected  in  his  mind  with  the 
thoughr    of    tb"    tiiiuvrsalia    at'Je  ;l".;,    the   c::emplar3  of 


perfect  goodne.  =  and  truth  and  justice,  by  p.u'ticipation 
in  which  all  earthly  things  are  judged  to  possess  these 
qualities.  In  this  way  he  ri"es  like  Plato  to  the  absolute 
Goodness,  Justice,  and  Truth,  and  then  proceeds  in  Neo- 
platonio  fashion  to  a  deduction  of  the  Trinity  as  involved 
iu  the  idea  of  the  divine  Word. 

Besides  its  connexion  with  the  speculations  of  Anselm, 
the  doctrine  of  Eoscellinus  was  also  of  decisive  influence 
within  the  schools  in  crystallizing  the  opposite  opinion. 
William  of  Champeaux  is  reputed  the  founder  of  a  Will;. m 
definitely  formulated  Realism,  much  as'  Eoscellinus  is  °^  Cliaif 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  Nominalism."-'  William  of ^l''^''"''" 
Champeaux  (1070-1121)  was  instructed  by  Eoscellinuf 
himself  in  dialectic.  His  own  activity  as  a  teacher 
belongs  to  the  first  years  of  the  12tli  century.  Hq 
lectured  iu  Paris  in  the  cathedral  school  of  Notre  DaBio 
till  the  year  11  OS,  when  he  retired  to  the  priory  of  St 
VictODr  on  ths  outskirts  of  Paris.  But  soon  afterwards, 
unable  to  resist  the  importunities  of  his  friends  and  pupili, 
he  resumed  his  lectures  there,  continuing  them  till  his 
removal  to  the  see  of  Clndons  in  1113,  and  thus  laying 
the  foundation  of  the  reputation  which  the  monastery 
soon  acquired.  Unfortunately  none  of  the  philosophical 
works  of  William  have  survived,  and  we  are  forced,  to 
depend  for  an  account  of  his  doctrine  upon  the  statements 
of  his  opponent  Abelard,  in  the  Ilistoria  Calfimilattma  • 
Mearum,  and  in  certain  manuscrip>ts  discovered  by  Cousin. 
From  these  sources  it  appears  that  William .  professed 
"successively  two  opinions  on  the  nature  of  the  universals, 
having  been  dislodged  from  his  first  position  by  the  criti' 
cism  of  Abelard,  his  quondam  pupiL  There  is  no  obscurity 
about  William's  first  position.  It  is  a  Eealism  of  thui 
most  uncompromising  type,  which  by  its  reduction  o6 
individuals  to  accidents  of  one  identical  substance  seems 
to  tremble  on  the  very  verge  of  Spiuozism.  He  taught, 
says  Abelard,  that  tlie  same  thing  or  substance  was 
present  in  its  entirety. and  essence  in  each  individual,  and 
that  individuals  differed  no  whit  in  their  essence  but  only 
in  the  variety  of .  their  accidents.  "Erat  autem  in  ca> 
sententia  de  communitate  universaliuni,  ut  eandem  essen- 
tialiter  rem  totam  simul  singulis  suis  inesse  adstraereti 
individuis,  quorum  quidem  nulla  esset  in  essentia  diver- 
sitas,  sed  sola  mrdtitudine  accidentium  varietas."  Thusi 
"Socratitas"  is  merely  an  accident  of  the  substancs- 
"  liumanitas,"  or,  as  it  is  put  by  the  author  of  the  treatise 
De  Gaieribus  ei  Speeiel^is,^  "Man  is  a  species,  a  thing 
essentially  one  (res  una  esscnt><flitei-),  which  receives  certain- 
forms  which  make  it  Socrates.  This  thing,  remaining 
essentially  the  same,  receive^  in  the  same  way,  other  forms 
which  constitute  Plato  anr  the-  other  individuals  of  the 
species  man  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  those  forms  whichi 
mould  that  matter  into  the  individual  Socrates,  there  is 
nothing  in  Socrates  that  is  not  the  ?T.me  at  the  same  time 
under  the  forms  of  Plato.  .  .  .  According  to  these  men,, 
even  though  rationality  did  not  exist  in  any  individual, 
its  existence  in  nature  Would  still  remain  intact"  (Cousin, 
Introduction,  ic,  p.  cxx.).  Eobert  PuUeyn  expresses  the 
same  point  of  view  concisely  when  he  makes  the  Ecalist 
say,  "Species  una  est  substantia,  ejus  vero  individua 
multae  personae,  et  hae  multae  personar  sunt  ilia  una 
substantia."  But  the  difliculties  in  the  way  of  treating 
the  vwivcroal  as  substance  or  thing  arc  so  insuperable,  and 
■St 'i^  aii.ne  cime  so  obvious,  that  criiicism  was  speeany 
at  Tiork  upon  William  of  Champeaux's  position.  Ka  had 
said  expressly  that  the  universal  essence,  by  the  addicion 

^  This  trL'.itise,  first  published  by  Cousin  iu  his  Qtivrages  .iie^iuf 
(VAb/jlarti,  was  attributeil  b.v  Isiin  to  Abelard,  and  be  was  follovyed  in 
this  opinion  by  Haurtau  ;  but  Pvantl  adduces  reasons  %Yhich  seem 
satisfactory  for  believing  it  to  be  the  vvoilc  of  au  unknown  writer  of 
sninewhat  later  date  (see  Prantl,  G^^chichic  d.  Logik,  ii.  143). 


SCHOLAbTiCISM 


423 


of  the  individual  forms,  was  individualized  and  present 
secundum  totam  svam  quanlitatem  in  each  individual.  But 
if  homo  is  wholly  and  essentially  present  in  Socrates, 
then  it  is,  as  it  were,  absorbed  in  Socrates ;  where  Socrates 
is  not,  it  cannot  be,  consequently  not  in  Plato  and  the 
other  individua  hominis.  This  was  called  the  argument 
of  the  homo  Socraticus  •  and  it  appears  to  have  been  with 
the  view  of  obviating  such  time  and  space  difficulties, 
emphasized  in  the  criticism  of  Abelard,  that  WiUiam 
latterly  modified  his  form  of  expression.  But  his  second 
position  is  enveloped  in  considerable  obscurity.  Abelard 
says,  "Sic  autem  correxit  sententiam,  ut  deinceps  rem 
eamdem  non  essentialiter  sed  individualiter  diceret."  In 
other  words,  he  merely  sought  to  avoid  the  awkward  con- 
sequences of  his  own  doctrine  by  substituting  "individu- 
aliter" for  "essentialiter  "  in  his  definition.  If  we  are  to 
put  a  senre  upon  this  new  expression,  William  may  pro- 
bably have  meant  to  recall  any  words  of  his  which  seemed, 
by  locating  the  universal  in  the .  entirety  of  its  essence  in 
each  individual  to  confer  upon  the  individual  an  inde- 
pendence which  did  not  belong  to  it — thus  leading  in  the 
end  to  the  demand  for  a  separate  universal  for  each 
individual.  In  opposition  to  this  Nominalistic  view, 
which  implied  the  reversal  of  his  whole  position,  William 
may  have  meant  to  say  that,  instead  of  the  universal  being 
multiplied,  it  is  rather  the  individuals  which  are  reduced 
to  unity  in  the  universal.  The  species  is  essentially  one, 
but  it  takes  on  individual  varieties  or  accidents.  If, 
however,  we  are  more  ill-natured,  we  may  regard  the 
phrase,  with  Prantl,  as  simply  a  meaningless  makeshift  in 
extremities ;  and  if  so,  Abelard's  account  of  the  subse- 
quent decline  of  William's  reputation  would  be  explained. 
But  there  is  in  some  of  the  manuscripts  the  various  read- 
ing of  "  indifferenter  "  for  "  individualiter,"  and  this  is' 
accepted  as  giving  the  true  sense  of  the  passage  by 
Cousin  and  Remusat  (Haureau  and  Prantl  taking,  on 
different  grounds,  the  opposite  view).  According  to  this 
reading,  William  sought  to  rectify  his  position  by  assert- 
ing, not  the  numerical  identity  of  the  universal  in  each 
individual,  but  rather  its  sameness  in  the  sense  of  indis- 
tinguishable similarity.  Ueberweg  cites  -a  passage  from 
his  theological  works  which  apparently  bears  out  this 
view,  for  William  there  expressly  distinguishes  the  two 
senses  of  the  word  "same."  Peter  and  Paul,  he  says,  are 
the  same  in  so  far  as  they  are  both  men,  although  the 
humanity  of  each  is,  strictly  speaking,  not  identical  but 
simil.ir.  In  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  relation  is  one  of  absolute  identity. 
Theofj  ■  AVhether  this  view  is  to  be  traced  to  William  or  not,  it 
nfindif  ig  certain  that  the  theory  of  "indifference"  or  "noh- 
.i.cLce.  difference JJj  (indiferentia)  was  a  favourite  solution  in  the 
Realistic  schools  soon  after  his  time.  The  inherent  diffi- 
culties of  Realism,  brought  to  light  by  the  explicit  state- 
ment of  the  doctrine  and  by  the  criticism  of  Abelard,  led 
to  a  variety  of  attempts  to  reach  a  more  satisfactory 
formula.  John  of  Salisbury,  in  his  account  of  the  con- 
troversies of  these  days  {Metaloyims,  ii.  17)  reckons  up 
nine  different  views  which  were  held  on  the  question  of 
the  universals,  and  the  list  is  extended  by  Prantl  (ii. 
118)  to  thirteen.  In  this  list  are  included  of  coarse  all 
shades  of  opinion,  from  extreme  Nominalism  to  extreme 
Realism.  The  doctrine  of  indifference  as  it  appears  in 
later  ■nTiters  certainly  tends,  as  Prantl  points  out,  towards 
Nominalism,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  up  the  substantiality  of 
the  viversals.  The  universal  consists  of  the  non-different 
elements  or  attributes  in  the  separate  individuals,  which 
alom  exist  substantially.  If  we  restrict  attention  to  these 
1  on-difTcreot  elements,  the  individual  becomes  for  us  the 
epe.ies,  the  genus,  ic;  everything  depends  on  the  point  of 
•view  from  which  we  regard  it.    "  Nihil  omnino  est  praeter 


individuum,  sed  et  illud  aliter  et  aliter  att' n'-.'.iTn  species 
et  genus  et  generalissimum  est."  Adelard  of  Bath  (wl-ose 
treatise  De  Eodem  et  Diverso  must  have  been  writt  n 
between  1105  and  1117)  was  probably  the  author  or  at  all 
events  the  elaborator  of  this  doctrine,  and  he  sought  by 
its  means  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  Plato  and 
Aristotle : — "  Since  that  which  we  see  is  at  once  genus 
and  species  and  individual,  Aristotle  rightly  insisted  that 
the  universals  do  not  exist  except  in  the  things  of  sense. 
But,  since  those  universals,  so  far  as  they  are  called  genera 
and  species,  cannot  be  perceived  by  any  one  in  their 
purity  without  the  admixture  of  imagination,  Plato  main- 
tained that  they  existed  and  could  be  beheld  beyond  the 
things  of  sense,  to  wit,  in  the  divine  mind.  Thus  these 
men,  although  in  words  they  seem  opposed,  yet  held  in 
reality  the  same  opinion."  Prantl  distinguishes  from  tho 
system,  of  indifference  the  "status"  doctrine  attributed 
by  John  of  Salisbury  to  Walter  of  Mortagne  {ob.  1174), 
according  to  which  the  universal  is  essentially  united  to 
the  individual,  which  may  be  looked  upon,  e.g.,  as  Plato, 
man,  animal,  ikc,  according  to  the  "status"  or  point  of 
view  which  we  assume.  But  this  seems  only  a  different 
expression  for  the  same  position,  and  the  same  may  doubt- 
less be  said  of  the  theory  which  employed  the  outlandish 
word  "maneries"  (Fr.  mmiit-re)  to  signify  that  genera  and 
species  represented  the  different  ways  in  which  individuals 
might  be  regarded.  The  concessions  to  Nominalism 
which  such  views  embody  make  them  representative  of 
what  Haureau  calls  "  the  Peripatetic  section  of  the  Realistic 
scliooL" 

Somewhat  apart  from  current  controversies  stood  the 
teaching  of  the  school  of  Chartres,  humanistically  nourished 
on  the  study  of  the  apcients.  Bernard  of  Chartres  {ob.  BemarC 
1167),  called  by  John  of  Salisbury  "  perfectissimus  inter  ■'f 
Platonicos  seculi  nostri,"  taught  at  Chartres  in  the  begin-  "^ 
ning'of  the  12th  century,  when  William  was  still  lectur- 
ing at  St  Victor.  He  endeavoured,  according  to  John  of 
Salisbury,  to  reconcile  Plafo  and  Aristotle;  but  his 
doctrine  is  almost  wholly  derived  from  the  former  through 
St  Augustine  and  the  commentary  of  Chalcidius.  The 
■universalia  in  re  have  little  place  in  his  thoughts,  which 
are  directed  by  preference  to  the  eternal  exemplars  as 
they  exist  in  the  supersensible  world  of  the  divine  thought. 
His  Megacosmns  and  Microcosmus  are  little  more  than  a 
poetic  gloss  upon  the  Timneus.  William  of  Conches,  a 
pupil  of  Bernard's,  was  more  eclectic  in  his  views,  and, 
devoting  himself  to  psychological  and  physiological  ques- 
tions, was  of  less  importance  for  the  specific  logico-meta- 
physical  problem.  But  Gilbert  de  la  Porree  (Gilbertus  Gilbert 
Porretanus,  or,  from  his  birthplace,  Poitiers,  also  called  ^^ '''. 
Pictaviensis,  1075-1154),  who  was  also  a  pupil  of  Bernard's,  ^°"'"^ 
and  who  was  afterwards  for  about  twenty  years  chancellor 
of  the  cathedral  of  Chartres  before  he  proceeded  to 
lecture  in  Paris,  is  called  by  Haureau  the  most  eminent 
logician  of  the  Realistic  school  in  the  12th  century  and 
the  most  profound  metaphysician  of  either' school.  Tho 
views  which  he  expressed  in  his  commentary  on  the 
pseudo-Boetian  treatise,  De  Trinitate,  are  certainly  much 
more  important  than  the  mediatizing  systems  already 
referred  to.  The  most  interesting  part  of  the  work  is  the 
distinction  which  Gilbert  draws  betweeh  the  manner  of 
existence  of  genera  and  species  and  of  substances  proper. 
He  distinguishes  between  the  quod  est  and  the  quo  f5^ 
Genera  and  species  certainly  exist,  but  they  do  not  exist 
in  their  own  right  as  substances,  ^\'hat  exists  as  a  su^ 
stance  and  the  basis  of  qualities  or  forms  {qnod  est)  may 
be  said  sulslare ;  the  forms  on  the  other  hand  by  which 
such  an  individual  substance  exists  qualitatively  \quo  est) 
subsistunt,  though  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  svlstant. 
Tho  intellect  collects  the  universal,  which  exists  but  not 


424 


SCHOLASTICISM 


as  a  substanca  (est  sed  non  substat),  irom  fhe  particular 
things  which  not  merely  arc  (su7it)  but. also,  as  subjects  of 
accidents,  have  substantial  existence  (substant),  by  con- 
sidering only  thjir  substantial  similarity  or  conforraity. 
The  universals  are  thus  forms  inherent  in  things — "native 
forms,"  according  to  the  expression  by  which  Gilbert's 
doctrine  is  concisely  known.  The  indiyidaal  consists  of 
an  assemblage  of  such  forms ;  and  it  is  individual  because 
nowhere  else  is  exactly  such  ah  assemblage  to  be  met 
■with.  The  form  exists  concretely  in  the  individual  things 
(sensibilis  in  re  se7isibili),  for  in  sensible  things  form  and 
matter  are  always  united.  But  they  may  be  conceived 
abstractly  or  non-sensuously  by  the  mind  {sed  mente  con- 
cipitur  insensibilis),  and  tliey  then  refer  themselves  as 
copies  to  the  Ideas  their  divine  exemplars.  In  God,  who 
is  pure  fortn.  without  matter,  the  archetypes  of  material 
things  exist  as  eternal  immaterial  forms.  In  this  way 
Gilbert  was  at  once  Aristotelian  and  Platonist.  The  dis- 
tinctions made  by  him  above  amount  to  a  formal  criticism 
cf  categories,  and  in  the  same  spirit  he  teaches  that  no 
one  of  the  categories  can  be  applied  in  its  literal  sense  to 
God.  Gilbert  was  also  the  author  of  a  purely  logical  work, 
De  Sex  Principiis,  in  which  he  criticized  the  Aristotelian 
list  of  the  ten  categories,  drawing  a  distinction  between 
the  first  four — substance,  quality,  quantity,  and  relation 
(i.e.,  according  to  Gilbert,  indeterminate  or  potential  rela- 
tion)— which  he  called  foiinae  inhnerentes,  and  the  remain- 
ing six,  which  he  maintained  belong  to  an  object  only 
through  its  actual  relation  to  other  objects  (respeciu  alle- 
rizis).  To  these  six,  therefore,  he  gave  the  name  oi  formae 
assistentes.  This  distinction  was  adopted  in  all  the  schools 
till  the  16th  century,  and  the  treatise  De  Sex  Principiis. 
■was  bound  up  with  the  Isnr/or/e  and  the  Categories. 
febelftrd  But  by  far  the  most  outstanding  figure  in  the  contro- 
versies of  the  first  half  of  the  12th  century  is  Abelard 
(Petrus  Abaslardus,  also  called  Palatinus  from  Pallet,  tlie 
place  of  his  birth,  1079-1142).  Abelard  was  successively 
the  pupil  of  Roscellinus  and  William  of  Champeaux,  and 
the  contrast  between  their  views  doubtless  emphasized  to 
him  at  an  early  period  the  extravagances  of  extreme 
Nominalism  and  extreme  Realism.  He  spjeedijy  acquired 
a  reputation  as  an  unrivalled  dialectician,  the  name  -Peri- 
pateticus  being  bestowed  upon  him  in  later  years  to  signify 
this  eminence.  Almost  before  he  had  emerged  from  the 
pupillary  state,  he  came  forward  in  public  as  the  acute 
and  vehement  critic  of  his  masters'  doctrines,  especially 
that  of  William  of  Champeaux,  whom  Abelard  seems 
ultimately  to  have  superseded  in  Paris.  About  Abelard's 
own  system  there  is  far  from  being  perfect  linanimity  of 
opinion,  some,  like  Kitter  and  Erdmann,  regarding  it  as  a 
moderate  form  of  Realism, — a  return  indeed  to  the  position 
of  Aristotle, — while  others,  like  Cousin,  Remusat;  Haureau, 
and  Ueberweg,  consider  it  to  be  essentially  Nominalistic, 
only'  more  prudently  and  -perhaps  less  consistently  ex- 
pressed than  was  the  ease  with  Roscellinus.  His  position 
is  ordinarily  designated  by  the  name  Conceptualisni, 
though  there  is  very  little  talk  of  concepts  in  Abelard's 
own  writings  ;  and  Conceptualism,  Haureau  tells  us,  "  c'est 
le  nominalisme  raisonnable."  There  can  be  no  doubt,  at 
all  events,  that  Abelard  himself  intended  to  strike  out  a 
via  media  between  the  extreme  Nominalism  of  Roscellinus 
and  the  views  of  the  ordinary  Realists.  As  against  Realism 
he  hiaintains  consistently  Bcs  dc  re  non  praedicatzir ; 
genera  and  species,  therefore,  which  are  predieattd  of  the 
individual  subject,  cannot  be  treated  as  things  or  sub- 
stances. This  is  manifestly  true,  however  real  the  facts 
may  be  which  are  designated  by  the  generic  and  specific 
names  ;  and  the  position  is  fully  accepted,  as  has  been  seen, 
by  a  Realist  like  Gilbert,  who  perhaps  adopted  it  first  from 
Abelard.     Abelard  also  perceived  that  Realism,  by  separ- 


ating the  universal  substance  from  the  forms  which  indi- 
vidualize U,  makes  the  universal  indifferent  to  these  forms, 
and  leads  directly  to  the  doctrine  of  the  identity  of  all 
beings  in  one  universal  substance  or  matter — a  pantheism 
which  might  take  either  an  Averroistic  or  a  Spinozistic 
form.  Against  the  system  of  non-differenee  Abelard  has 
a  number  of  logical  and  traditional  arguments  to  hiing, 
but  it  is  sufficiently  condemned  by  his,  fundamental 
doctrine  that  only  the  individual  exists  in  its  own  right. 
For  that  system  still  seems  to  recognize  a  generic  sul> 
stance  as  the  core  of  the  individual,  whereas,  according  to 
Cousin's  rendering  of  Abelard's  doctrine,  "only  individuals 
exist,  and  in  the  individual  nothing  but  the  individual." 
The  individual  Socrates  may  be  said  to  be  made  Soqratee 
by  the  form  Soq,ratiias ;  now  "the  subject  of  this  form 
is  not  humanity  in  itself  but  that  particular  part  of  human 
nature  which  is  the  nature  of  Socrates.  The  matter  in 
the  individual  Socrates  is  therefore  quite  as  much  indi- 
vidual as  his  form"  (p.  clxxiv.).  Holding  fast  then  on 
the  one  hand  to  the  individual  as  the  only  true  substance, 
and  on  the  other  to  the  traditional  definition  of  the  genus 
as  that  wliich  is  predicated  of  a  number  of  individuals 
{quod  praedicatur  de  pluribtts),  Abelard  declared  that  this 
definition  of  itself  condemns  the  Realistic  theory ;  only  a 
name,  not  a  thing,  can  be  so  predicated,- — not  the.  name, 
however,  as  s,flcUus  vocis  or  a  collection  of  letters,  but  the 
name  as  used  in  discourse,  the  name  as  a  sign,  as  having 
a  meaning — in  a  word,  not  vox  but  sermo.  Sermo  est 
piraedicabilis.  By  these  distinctions  Abelard  hoped  to 
escape  the  consequences  of  extreme  Nominalism,  from 
which,  as  a  matter  of  history,  his  doctrine  has  been  dis- 
tinguished under  the  name  of  Conceptualism,  seeing  that 
it  kys  stress  not  on  the  word  as  such  but  on  the  thought 
■which  the  word  is  intended  to  convey,  iloreover,  Abelard 
evidently  did  not  mean  to  imply  that  the  distinctions  of 
genera  and  species  are  of  arbitrary  or  merely  human 
imposition.  His  favourite  expression  for  the  universal  is 
"quod  de  pluribus  natum  est  praedicari "  (a  translation  of 
Aristotle,  De  Interpretaiione,  7),  ■wh'ch  'n^puld  seem  to 
point  to  a  real  or  objective  counterpait  of  the  products  of 
our  thought ;  and  the  traditional  definitions  of  Bootius, 
whom  he  freijucntly  quotes,  support  tbe  same  view  of  the 
concept  as  gathered  from  a  number  of  individuals  in 
virtue  of  a  real  resemblance.  What  Abelard  combats  is 
the  substantiation  of  these  resembling  qualities,  ■n'hich 
leads  to  their  being  regarded  as  identical  in  all  the 
separate  individuals,  and  thus  paves  the  'svay  for^  the 
gradual  undermining  of  the  individual,  the  only  true  and 
indivisible  substance.  But  he  modifies  his  Nominalism  so 
as  to  approach,  though  somewhat  vaguely,  to  the  position 
of  Aristotle  himself.  At  the  same  time  he  has  nothing 
to  say  against  the  Platonic  theory  of  miiversalia  ante 
rem,  the  Ideas  being  interpreted  as  exemplars,  existing  in 
the  divine  understanding  before  the  creation  of  things. 
Abelard's  discussion  of  the  problem  (which  it  is  right  to 
■say  is  on  the  ■whole  incidental  rather  than  systematic)  is 
thus  marked  by  an  eclecticism  which  was  perhaps  the 
source  at  once  of  its  strength  and  its  weakness.  Remusat 
characterizes  his  teaching  as  displaying  "  rather  an  origin- 
ality of  talent  than  of  ideas,"  and  Prantl  says  that  in  the 
sphere  of  logic  his  activity  shows  no  more  independence 
than  that  of  perhaps  a  hundred  others  at  the  same  time. 
But  his  brilliant  ability  and  restless  activity  made  him  the 
central  figure  in  the  dialectical  as  in  the  other  discussions 
of  his  time.  To  him  was  indirectly  due,  in  the  main, 
that  troubling  of  the  Realistic  waters  which  resulted  in  so 
many  modifications  of  the  origiHal  thesis  ;  and  his  own 
somewhat  eclectic  ruling  on  the  question  in  debate  came 
to  be  tacitly  accepted  in  the  schools,  as  the  ardour  of  the 
disputants  began  to  abate  after  the  middle  of  the  century. 


SCHOLASTICISM 


425 


Aielard's  application  of  dialectic  to  theology  betrayed 
the  Nominalistic  basis  of  his  doctrine.  He  zealously 
combs^ted  the  Tritheism  of  Roscellinus,  but  his  own  views 
on  the  Trinity  were  condemned  by  two  councils  (at 
Soissons  in  1121  and  at  Sens  in  1140).  Of  the  alterna- 
tives— three  Gods  or  utia  res — which  his  Norainalistio 
logic  presented  to  Roscellinus,  Roscellinus  had  chosen  the 
first ;  Abelard  recoiled  to  the  other  extreme,  reducing  the 
three  Persons  to  three  aspects  or  attributes  of  the  Divine 
Being  (Power,  Wisdom,  and  Love).  For  this  he  was 
Bernard  called  to  account  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (1091-1153), 
■of  Clair-  t'Qg  recognized  guardian  of  orthodoxy  in  France.  Bernard 
'*"^  declared  that  he  "savoured  of  Arius  when  he  spoke  of  the 
Trinity,  of  Pelaglus  when  he  spoke  of  grace,  and  of  Nestorius 
when  he  spoke  of  the  person  of  Christ."  "While  he 
laboured  to  prove  Plato  a  Christian,  he  showed  himself  a 
heathen."  Kor  can  it  be  said  that  the  instinct  of  the 
saint  was  altogether  at  fault.  The  germs  of  Rational- 
ism were  unquestionably  present  in  several  of  Abelard's 
opinions,  and  still  more  so,  the  traditionalists  must  have 
thought,  in  his  general  attitude  towards  theological 
questions.  "  A  doctrine  is  believed,"  he  said,  "  not 
because  God  has  said  it,  but  because  we  are  convinced  by 
reason  that  it  is  so."  "  Doubt  is  the  road  to  inquiry,  and 
by  inquiry  we  perceive  the  truth."  ("  Dubitando  enim  ad 
inquisitionem  venimns,  inquirendo  veritatem  percipimus.") 
The  application  of  dialectic  to  theology  was  not  new. 
Anselra  had  made  an  elaborate  employment  of  reason  in 
the  interest  of  faith,  but  the  spirit  of  pious  subordination 
■which  haH  marked  the  demonstrations  of  Anselm  seemed 
■wanting  in  the  argumentations  of  this  bolder  and  more 
restless  spirit ;  and  the  church,  or  at  least  an  influential 
section  of  it,  took  alarm  at  the  encroachments  of  Rational- 
ism. Abelard's  remarkable  compilation  Sic  et  Jfori  was 
not  calculated  to  allay  their  suspicions.  In  bringing 
together  the  conflicting  opinions  of  the  fathers  on  all  the 
chief  points  of  Christian  dogmatics,  it  may  be  admitted 
that  Abelard's  aim  was  simply  to  make  these  contradic- 
tions the  starting  point  of  an  inquiry  which  should  deter- 
mine in  each  case  the  true  position  and  via  media  of 
Christian  theology.  Only  such  a  determination  could 
enable  the  doctrines  to  be  summarily  presented  as  a  system 
of  thought.  The  book  was  undoubtedly  the  precursor  of 
the  famous  Boolcs  of  Sentences  of  Abelard's  own  pupil  Peter 
Lombard  and  others,  and  of  all  the  Summae  Tkfologiae  ■nith 
which  the  church  ■was  presently  to  abound.  But  the  anti- 
nomies, as  they  appeared  in  Abelard's  treatise,  without 
their  solutions,  could  not  but  seem  to  insinnate  a  deep-laid 
scepticism  with  regard  to  authority.  And  even  the  pro- 
posal to  apply  the  unaided  reason  to  solve  questions 
which  had  divided  the  fathers  must  have  been  resented 
by  the  more  rigid  chiu^chmen  as  the  rash  intrusion  of  an 
over-confident  Rationalism. 

Realism  was  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century  the 
dominant  doctrine  and  the  doctrine  of  the  church ;  the 
Nominalists  ■(vere  the  innovators  and  the  especial  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Rationalistic  tendency.  \\\  order  to  see 
the  difference  in  this  respect  between  the  schools  we  have 
only  to  compare  the  peaceful  and  fortunate  life  of  William 
of  Champcaux  (who  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  St  Bernard) 
with  the  agitated  and  persecuted  existence  of  Roscellinus 
and,  in  a  somewhat  less-  degree,  of  Abelard.  But  now 
the  greater  boldness  of  the  dialecticians  awakened  a  spirit 
of  general  distrust  in  the  exercise  of  reason  on  sacred 
subjects,  and  we  find  even  a  Realist  like  Gilbert  de  la 
Porr(5e  arraigned  by  Bernard  and  his  friends  before  a 
general  council  on  a  charge  of  heresy  (at  Rheims,  1148). 
Though  Gilbert  was,  acquitted,  the  fact  of  his  being 
brought  to  trial  illustrates  the  gi-owing  spirit  of  suspicion. 
Those  heresy -hunts  show  U"  the  worst  side  of  St  Bernard, 


yet  they  are  in  a  way  just  the  obverse  of  his  deep  mystical 
piety.  This  is  the  judgment  of  Otto  of  Freising,  a  con- 
temporary ; — "  He  was,  from  the  fervour  of  his  Christian 
religion,  as  jealous  as,  from  his  habitual  meekness,  he  was 
in  some  measure  credulous ;  so  that  he  held  in  abhorrence 
those  who  trusted  in  the  ■wisdom  of  this  world  and  were 
too  much  attached  to  human  reasonings,  and  if  anything 
alien  from  the  Christian  faith  were  said  to  him  in  reference 
to  them  he  readily  gave  ear  to  it."  The  'same  attitude  is 
maintained  by  the  mystical  school  of  St  Victor.  Hugo 
of  St  Victor  (1097-1141)  declares  that  "the  uncor- 
rupted  truth  of  things  cannot  be  discovered  by  reason- 
ing." The  perils  of  dialectic  are  manifold,  especially  in 
the  overbold  spirit  it  engendera  Nevertheless  Hugo,  by 
the  composition  of  his  Su'mma  Seiitentiarum,  endeavoured 
to  give  a  methodical  or  rational  presentation  of  the  con- 
tent of  faith,  and  was  thus  the  first  of  the  so-called  Sura- 
mists.  Richard  of  St  Victor,  prior  of  the  monastery  from 
1162  to  1173,  is  still  more  absorbed  in  mysticism,  and  his 
s-accessor  Walter  loses  his  temper  altogether  in  atuse  of 
the  dialecticians  and  the  Suramists  alike.  The  Summists 
have  as  much  to  say  against  the  existence  of  God  as  for 
it,  and  the  dialecticians,  having  gone  to  school  to  the 
pagans,  have  forgotten  over  Aristotle  the  way  of  salvation. 
Abelard,  Peter  Lombard,  Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  and  Peter 
of  Poitiers  he  calls  the  "  four  laV.yrinths  of  France." 

This  anger  and  contempt  may  have  been  partly  justified 
by  the  discreditable  state  into  which  tlie  study  of  logic 
had  fallen.  The  speculative  impulse  was  exhausted  which 
marks  the  end  of  the  11th  and  the  first  half  of  the  12th 
century, — a  period  more  original  and  more  interesting  in 
many  ways  than  tie  great  age  of  Scholasticism  in  the  13th 
century.  By  the  middle  of  the  century,  logical  studies  had 
lost  to  a  great  extent  their  real  interest  and  application, 
and  had  degenerated  into  trivial  displays  of  ingenuity.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Summists  '  occupied  themselves  merely 
in  the  systematizing  of  authorities.  The  mystics  held  aloof 
from  both,  and  devoted  themselves  to  the  practical  work 
of  preaching  and  edification.  The  intellect  of  the  age 
thus  no  longer  exhibited  itself  as  a  unity ;  disintegration 
had  set  in.  And  it  is  significant  of  this  that  the  ablest 
and  most  cultured  representative  of  the  second  half  of  the 
century  ■was  rather  an  historian  of  opinion  than  himself  a 
philosopher  or  theologian.  John  of  Salisbury  (Johannes 
Sarisb'eriensis)  was  educated  in  France  in  the-  years 
113C-48 — in  Paris  under  Abelard  (who  had  then  returned 
to  Paris,  and  was  lecturing  at  St  Genevieve)  and  Robert  of 
Melun,  at  Chartres  under  William  of  Conches,  then  again 
in  Paris  under  Gilbert  de  la  Porree  and  Robert  PuUeyn. 
The  autobiographical  account  of  these  years  contained  in 
his  Meialogicm  is  of  the  utmost  value  as  a  picture  of  the 
schools  of  the  time  ;  it  is  also  one  of  the  historian's  chief 
sources  as  a  record  of  the  many-coloured  logical  views  of 
the  period.  John  was  a  man  of  p  flairs,  secretary  to  three 
successive  archbishops  of  C-antci'-ur)-,  of  whom  Becket 
was  one.  He  died  in  1180  as  bishop  of  Chartres.  When 
a  pupil  there,  he  had  imbibed  to  the  full  the  love  of  class- 
ical learning  which  was  traditional  in  the  school.  An 
ardent  admirer  of  Cicero,  he  was  himself  the  master  of  an 
elegant  Latin  stylo,  and  in  his  works  lie  often  appears 

^  Among  tlieso  may  bo  mertioned  Robert  PuHeyn  (o6.  ll.'iO), 
Peter  Lombard  {ob.  1154),  called  tlie  MaijisUr  Senleidiarum,  wlioso 
work  became  tlie  text-book  of  the  scliools,  and  remained  so  for  ce.'- 
turies.  Hundreds  of  commeid.iries  were  written  upon  It,  Peter  of 
Poitiers,  the  \m\n\  of  Peter  the  Iy]nib.[rd,  flourished  about  ]  100-70. 
Other  names  are  Robert  of  Slelun,  Hugo  of  Amiens,  Stephen 
I-angton,  and  'William  of  Auxerro.  More  important  is  Alain  de  Lille 
(Alanus  de  In$ulis),  who  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1203.  His  DcArtt 
sett  de  Articvlis  Catholicae  FiJ'i  is  a  Snmvta  of  Christian  theology, 
but  with  a  greater  infusion  than  usual  of  philosophical  reasoniag. 
Alanus  was  acqtrainted  with  the  celebrated  Libcr  de  Catisis. 

XXL  —  t;.t 


Hugo 
of  St 
Victor 
and  the 


Deciine 
of  logic. 


John  of 
Sahsbort 


426 


S  C  H  0  L  A  S  T  I  C  I  S.M 


Exlension 
of  kuov.-- 
ledge  of 
the  ■works 
of  Aris- 
totle. 


more  fts  a  cultivated  humanist  than  as  a  Soholastio 
divine.  His  Polii^raticus,  it  has  been  taid,  "  is  to  .  jomo 
extent  an  encyclopa;dia  of  the  cultivated  thought  of  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century."  The  ifdalo'jicus  is  a 
defence  of  logic  again.st  those  who  despised  all  philo- 
sophical training.  But  John  recoiled  from  the  idle 
casuistry  which  occupied  his  own  logical  contemporaries  ; 
and,  mindful  probably  of  their  aimless  ingenuity,  he  adds 
the  caution  that  dialectic,  valuable  and  necessary  as  it  is, 
is  "like  the  sword  of  Hercules  in  a'pigmy's  hand  "  unless 
there  be  added  to  it  the  accoutrement  of  the  otlier  sciences. 
Catholic  in  spirit  rather  than  dogmatic,  John  ranks  him- 
self at  times  among  the  Academics,  "  since,  in  those  things 
about  which  a  wise  man  may  doubt,  I  depart  not  from 
their  footsteps."  The  list  which  he  gives  of  things  which 
may  be  doubted  {quae  sunt  duhilahilia  sapicnti)  is  at  once 
curious  and  instructive.  It  is  not  fitting  to  subtilize 
overmuch,  and  in  the  end  John  of  Salisbury's  solution  is 
the  practical  one,  his  charitable  .spirit  pointing  him  in 
particular  to  that  love  which  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law. 

The  first  period  of  Scholasticism  being  thus  at  an  end, 
there  is  an  interval  of  nearly  half  a  century  without  any 
noteworthy  philosophical  productions.  The  cause  of  the 
new  development  of  Scholasticism  in  the  13th  century 
was  the  translation  into  Latin  for  the  first  lime  of  the 
complete  works  of  Aristotle.  An  inventory  has  been  given 
of  the  scanty  stock  of  works  accessible  to  students  in  the 
9th  century.  The  ftoek  remained  unenlarged  till  towards 
the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  when  the  remaining  trea- 
tises of  the  Organon  became  known.  Abelard  e.xpre.ssly 
states  that  he  knew  only  the  Categories  and  the  De  Inter- 
pretatione ;  but  it  S'jems  from  passages  adduced  by  Prantl 
that  he  must,  before  the  date  of  liis  Dialediea,  have  had 
some  indirect  and  hearsay  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  the 
other  treatises,  though  without  being  able  himself  to  con- 
sult a  copy.  The  books  made  their  way  almost  noiselessly 
into  the  schools.  In  1132  Adam  de  Petit-Pont,  it  is 
stated,  made  a  version  of  the  Prior  Analytics.  Gilbert 
de  la  Porree,  who  died  in  1154,  refers  to  the  Analytics  as 
currently  known.  His  disciple  Otto  of  Freising  carried  the 
Analytics,  the  Topl'ri,  arid  the  Soph,  ElencJii  from  France 
to  Germany,  probably  iu  the  translation  of  Boetius. 
John  of  Salisbury  was  acquainted  with  these  and  also  mth 
newer  and  more  literal  translations.  Cut,  while  the  fuller 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  logic  resulted  in  an  increase  of 
formal  acuteness,  it  appears  to  have  been  of  but  small 
benefit  to  serious  stuflies  till  there  was  added  to  it  a  know- 
ledge of  the  other  works  of  Aristotle.  This  knov.ledge 
came  to  the  Scholastics  in  the  first  instance  through  the 
medium  of  Arabian  philosophy.  (See  Akaei.vn  Philo- 
sophy.) The  doctrines  and  the  works  of  Aristotle  had 
been  transmitted'  by  the  Nestorians  to  the  Arab.s,  and 
among  those  kept  alive  by  a  succession  of  philosophers, 
first  in  the  East  and  afterwards  in  the  West.  The  chief  of 
these,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  the  influence  which  they 
exerted  on  mediajval  philosophy,  were  Avicenna,  Avem- 
pace*  and  Averroes.  The  unification  by  the  last-men- 
tioned of  Aristotle's  active  inttlleet  in  all  men,  and  his 
consequent  denial  of  individual  immdrtality  are  well 
known.  The  universal  human  intellect  is  made  by  him 
to ,  proceed  from  the  divine  by  a  series  of  Keoplatonic 
emanations.  In  the  course  of  the  12th  century  the  writings 
of  these  men  were  introduced  into  France  by  the  Jews 
of  Andalusia,  of  Marseilles,  and  Montpellier.  "  These 
wutings  contained,"  says  HaQreau,  "the  text  of  the 
Organon,  the  Physics,  the  Metaphysics,  the  £thics,  the  De 
Anima,  the  Parva  Naturalia,  and  a  large  number  of 
other  treatises  of  Aristotle,  accompanied  by  continuous 
commentaries.  There  arrived  besides  by  the  same  channel 
the  glosses  of  Theophrastus,   of   Simplicius,   of  Alexander 


of  Aphrodisias,  of  Philoponus,  annotated  in  the  same  sense 
by  the  same  hands.  This  was  the  rich  but  dangerous 
pre-cnt  made  by  the  Mussulman  school  to  the  Ch.istian  " 
(i.  3S2).  To  these  must"  be  added  the  Keoplatonically 
inspired  Fons  Vitae  of  the  Jewish  philosopher  and  poet 
Ibn  Gebirol,  whom  the  Scholastics  cited  as  Avicebron  and 
believed  to  bo  an  Arabian. 

By  special  command  of  Kaimund,  archbishop  of  Toledo, 
the  chief  of  these  works  were  translated  from  the  Arabic 
through  the  Castilian  into  Latin  by  the  archdeacon 
Dominicus  Gonzalvi  with  the  aid  of  Johannes  Avendeath 
(-ben  David),  a  converted  Jew,  about  1100.  About 
the  same  time,  or  not  long  after,  the  Liber  de  Cansis 
became  known — a  work  destined  to  have  a  powerful 
influence  on  Scholastic  thought,  especially  in  the  period 
immediately  succeeding.  Accepted  at  first  as  Aristotle's, 
and  actually  printed  in  the  first  Latin  editions  of  his  works, 
the  book  is  in  reality  an  Arabian  compilation  of  Keo- 
platonic theses.  Of  a  similar  character  was  the  pseudo- 
Aristotelian  Theologia  which  was  in  circulation  at  least  as 
early  as  1200.  * 

The  first  effects  of  this  immense  acquisition  of  ilew 
material  were  markedly  unsettling  on  the  doctrinal  ortho- 
doxy of  the  time.  The  apocryphal  Neoplatonic  treatises 
and  the  views  of  the  Arabian  commentators  obscured  for  the 
first  students  the  genuine  doctrina  of  Aristotle,  and  the  13th 
century  opens  with  quite  a  crop  of  mystical  heresies.  The 
mystical  p,antheism  taught  at  Paris  by  Amalrich  of  Bena 
{oh.  1207  ;  see  AwALracH  and  Mysticism),  though  based 
by  him  upon  a  revival  of  Scotus  Erigena,  ■was  doubtless 
connected  in  its  origin  with  the  Neoplatonic  treatises  which 
now  become  current.  The  immanence  of  God  in  all  things 
and  His  incarnation  as  the  Holy  Spirit  in  themselves  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  chief  doctrines  of  the  Amalricans. 
They  are  reported  to  have  said,  "  Omnia  unum,  quia 
quicquid  est  est  Deus."  About  the  same  time  David  of 
Dinant,  in  a  book  De  Tomis  (rendered  by  Albertus  De 
Divisionibus),  taught  the  identity  of  God  with  matter  (or  the 
indivisible  principle  of  bodies)  and  nous  (or  the  indivisible 
principle  of  intelligences) — an  extreme  Realism  culminating 
in  a  materialistic  pantheism.  If  they  were  diverse,  he 
argued,  there  must  exist  above  them  some  higher  or 
common  element  or  being,  in  which  case  this  would  be 
God,  nous,  or  the  original  matter.  The  spread  of  the 
Amalrican  doctrine  led  to  fierce  persecutions,  and  the 
provincial  council  which  met  at  Paris  in  1209,  after  con- 
demning the  heresies  of  Amalrich  and  David,  expressly 
decreed  "  that  neither  the  books  of  Aristotle  on  natural 
philosophy,  nor  commentaries  on  the  same,  should  be  read, 
whether  publicly  or  privately,  at  Paris."  In  1215  this 
prohibition  is  renewed  iu  the  statutes  of  the  university  of 
Paris,  as  sanctioned  by  the  papal  legate.  "  Et  quod  legant 
libros  Aristotelis  de  dialectica  tarn  veteri  quam  de  nova.  .  . 
Non  legantur  libri  Aristotelis  de  metaphysica  et  naturali 
philosophia,  ncc  summa  de  iisdem."  Permission  is  thus 
given  to  lecture  on  the  logical  books,  both  tho.se  which 
had  been  known  all  along  and  those  introduced  since  1 128, 
but  the  veto  upon  the  Physics  is  extended  to  the  Meta^ 
physics  s^nd  the  summaries  .of  the  Arabian  commentators. 
By  1231,  however,  the  fears  of  the  church  were  beginning 
to  be  allayed.  A  bull  of  Gregory  IX.  in  that  year  makes 
no  mention  of  any  Aristotelian  works  except  the  J'hysics. 
Ag  these  had  been  "prohibited  by  the  provincial  ccnincil 
for  specific  reasons,"  they  are '  not  to  be  u'-.rJ  in  the 
university  "till  such  time  as  they  have  been  examined  and 
purged  of  all  suspicion  of  errors."  Finally,  in  the  year 
1254,  we  find  the  university  officially  prescribing  how 
many  hours  are  to  be  devoted  to  the  explanation  of  the 
Metaphysics  and  the  principal  physical  treatises  of  Aristotle. 
These  dates  enable  us  to  measure  accurately  the  stages  bj 


Fii.t 
effects  ot 
the  new 
kll0^v- 

led^?. 


SCHOLASTICISM 


427 


:..'  Halci. 


Ueiidi 

cant 

friars 


Johft  fit 
Roclii::io 


which  th"  Cuurch  accommodated  itself  to,  and  as  it  were 
took  possession  oi,  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  Growing 
knowledge  of  Aristotle's  works  and  the  multiplication  of 
translations  enabled  students  to  distinguish  the  genuine 
Aristotle  from  the  questionable  accompaniments  witTi 
which  he  had  made  his  first  appearance  in  Western  Europe, 
Fresh  translations  of  Aristotle  and  Averroes  had  already 
been  made  from  the  Arabic  by  Michael  Scot  and 
Hermannus  Alemannus,  at  the  instance  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.;  so  that  the  whole  body  of  Aristotle's  works 
was  at  hand  in  Latin  translations  from  about  1210  to  1225. 
Soon  afterwards  efforts  began  to  be  made  to  Becure 
more  literal  translations  direct  from  the  Greek.  Piobert 
Grosseteste  (ok  1253)  Was  one  of  the  first  to  stir  iu  this 
matter,  and  be  waa  followed  by  Albertus  JIagnus  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  Half  a  century  thus  sufficed  to  remove 
the  ban  of  the  church,  and  soon  Aristotle  was  recognized 
on  all  hands  as  "  the  jjhilosopher "  par  excellence,  the 
master  of  those  that  know.  It  even  became  customary  to 
draw  a  parallel  between  him  as  the  praecursor  Chrisfi  in 
naturalibus  and  John  the  Baptist,  the  praccnrsor  Chrisli 
in  ffratiiitis. 

■This  unquestioned  supremacy  was  not  yielded,  however, 
at  the  very  beginning  of  the  period.      The  earlier  doctors 
who  avail  themselves  of  A/istotle's  works,-while  bowing  to 
his  authority  implicitly  in   matters  of  Ijgic,  are  generally 
found    defending  a  Christianized   Platonism  against    the 
doctrine  of  the  Metap/tysics.     So  it  is  with  Alexander  of 
Hales  (o6.  1245),  the  first  Scholastic  who  was  acquainted 
with  the  whole  of  the  Aristotelian  works  and  the  Arabian 
commentaries  upon  them.     He  was  more  of  a  theologian 
than  a  philosopher ;  and  in  his  chief  work,  Surmna  Uni- 
oersae   Theologiae,  he  simply  employs  his  increased  philo- 
sophical knowledge  in  tlie    domonslration  of    theological 
doctrines.     So  great,  however,  did  his  achievement  seem 
that  he  was  honoured  with  the  titles  of  Doctor  Irre/rar/a- 
b/lis  and  Theolo'jorum  Monarcha.     Alexander  of  Hales  be- 
longed to  the  Franciscan  order,  and  it  is  worth  remarking 
that  it  was  the  mendicant  orders  which  now  came  forward 
as  the  protagonists  of  Christian  learning  and  faith  and, 
as  it  were,  reconquered  Aristotle  for  the  church.     During 
the  first  half  of  the  13th  century,  when  the  university  of 
Paris  was  plunged  in  aiigry  feuds  with  the  municipality, 
feuds  which  even  led  at  one  time  (1229)  to  the  flight  of 
the  students  in  a  body,  the  friars  established  teachers  in 
their  convents  in  Paris.     After  the  university  had  settled 
its  quarrels  these   continued  to  teach,  and  soon  became 
formidable  rivals  of  the  secular  lecturers.     After  a  severe 
struggle    for   academical    recognition    they   were    finally 
admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  university  by  a  bull 
of  Alexa«<ler  IV,  in  1253.     The  Franciscans  took  the  lead 
in  this  intellectual   movement  with  Alexander  of  Holes 
and  Bonaventura,  but  the  Dominicans  were  soon  able  to 
boast   of   two   greater   names    in  Albert  the   Grc?t   and 
Thomas  Aquinas.     Still   later  Duns    Scotus  and   Occam 
were  both  Franciscans.     Alexander  of  Hales  was  succeeded 
in  his  chair  of  instruction  by  his  pu[Hl  .John  of  Rochclle, 
who  died  ia  1271  but  taught  only  till  1253.     His  treatise 
De  Anima,  on  which  Uaureau  lays   particular  stress,  is 
interesting  as   showing  the  .greater  scope   now  given  to 
psychological  discussions.     This  was  a  natural   restdt  of 
acquaintance  with  Aristotle's  De  Anima  and  the  numerous 
Greek   and   Arabian   commentaries    upon    it,    and    it    is 
eb,servable  in  most  of   the  wrictfrs  that   have  still  -to  be 
mentioned.     Even  the  nature  of  the  i;-iiver.sals  is  no  longer 
discussed  from  a  purely  logical  or  mota])hysical  point  of 
view,  but  becomes  connected  with  psychological  questions. 
And,  on  the  whole,  the  widening  of  intellectual  interests  is 
the  chief  feature  by  which  the  second  period  of  Scholasti- 
cism may  be  distinguished  from  the  first.     In  some  respects 


there  is  more  freshness  and  interest  in  the  speculations  Geneisl 
which  burst  forth  so  ardently  in  the  end  of  the  11th  and  characVT 
the  fast  half  of  the  12lh  century.  Albert  ajid  Aquinaa ''"'=^  "' 
no  doubt  stood  on  a  higher  level  than  Anselra  and  Abelard,  '^"°  ^ 
not  merely  by  their  wider  range  of  knowledge  but  also  by 
the  intellectual  massiveness  of  their  achievements  ;  but  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  the  earlier  writers  did  not 
possess  a  greater  force  of  originality  and  a  keener  talent. 
Originality  was  at  no  time  the  strong  point  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  in  the  later  period  it  was  almost  of  necessity 
buried  under  the  mass  of  material  sU'^.denly  thrust  upon 
the  ago,  to  be  assimilated.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
influence  of  this  new  material  is  everywhere  evident  in 
the  wider  range  of  questions  which  are  discussed  by  the 
doctors  of  the  period.  Interest  is  no  longer  to  the  same 
e.xtent  concentrated  on  the  one  question  of  the  universals. 
Other  questions,  B,ay3  Hauriau,  are  "  placed  on  the  order 
of  the  day, — the  questioi  of  the  elements  of  substance, 
that  of  the  principle  of  indivi  luation,  that  of  the  origin  of 
the  ideas,  of  the  manner  of  their  existence  in  the  human 
understanding  and  ii  the  divii  e  thought,  as  well  as 
various  others  of  equal  interest  "  (i.  420).  Soiie  of  those, 
it  may  be  said,  are  simply  the  old  Scholastic  problem  in  a 
different  garb  ;  but  the  extended  horizon  of  which  Hauroau 
speaks  is  amply  proved  by  mere  reference  to  .the  treatises 
of  Albert  and  St  Thomas.  They  there  seek  to  reproduce 
for  their  own  time  all  the  departments  of  the  Aristotelian 
system. 

John    of    Rochelle    was    succeeded    in    12-^3    by    John  Bona- 
Fidanza,  better  known  as    Bonaventura  (1221-74),  who  vontura, 
had  also  been  a  pupil  of  Alexander  of  Hales.'     But  the  fame 
of   "  the  Seraphic  Doctor  "  is  connected  more  closely  with 
the  history  of  mysticism  (see  Mysticism)  than  with  the 
main  stream  of  Scholastic  thought.     Like-his  master,  Le 
defended  Plato — or  what  he  considered  to  be  the, Platonic 
theory — against  the  attacks   of  Aristotle.     Thus  he   de- 
fcuded  the  mtiversalia  ante  rem  as  exemplars  existent  ia 
the  divine  intelligence,  and  censured  Aristotle's  doctrine 
of  the  eternity  of  the  world.     Among  the  earlier  teachers 
and  writers  of  this  century  we  have  also  to  name  William  V/illiimof 
of  Auvergne  (oh.  1249),  whose  treatises  De  Universo  and  Auvergne 
De  Anima  make  extensive  use  of  Aristotle  and  the  Arabians, 
but  display  a  similar  Platonic  leaning.     The  existence  of 
intellections  in  our  minds   ia,  ho    maintains,  a  sufficient 
demonstration  of  the  existence  of   an  intelligible  world, 
just  as    the   ideas  of   sense   are  suflicient  evidence  of   a 
sensible  world.     This  archetypal  world  is  the  Son  of  God 
and  true  God.     Robert  Grosseteste,  important  in  the  sphere  Grossc- 
of  ecclesiastical  politics,  has   been  already  mentioned  as  ••^'''=- 
active  in  procuring  translations  of  Aristotle  from  the  Greek. 
He  also  wrote  commentaries  on  logical  and  physical  works 
of  Aristotle.     Jlichael  Scot,  the  renowned  wirard  of  popular  Micli.-.ui 
tradition,  earned  his   reputation  by  numerous    works  on  ^™'- 
astrology  and  alchemy.     His  connexion  with  philosophy 
was  chiefly  in  the  capacity  of  a  translator:     Vincent  of  Vinti-nt  o! 
Bcauvais  (ob.  1264)  was  the  author  of  an  encyclopaedic  work  l!^'-'>"':i« 
called  Speculum  Majns,  in  which,  without  much  independent 
ability,  he  collected  the  opinions  of  ancient  and  mediaeval 
writers    on    the    most    diverse    points,    transcribing   the 
fragments.of  their  works  which  he  deemed  most  interesting. 

Albertus  Jlagnus  introduces  us  at  once  to  the  great  age  AlVit 
of  Scholasticism.     Born  in  Swabia  in  1193,  he  lived  to  the  •'■"'I 
great  ago  of  eighty -seven,  dying  at  Cologne  in  12S0.     The  Aqnii".. 
limits  of  his  life  thus  include  that  of  his  still  greater  j.apil 
Thomas  Aquinas,  who  was  born  in   1227  and  died  while 
st'ill  comparatively  young  in  1274.     For  tliis  reason,  and 
because  the  system  of  'I'homas  is  simply   that  of  Albert 
rounded  to  a  greater  completeness  and  elaborated  in  parts 
by  the  subtle  intellect  of  the  younger  man,  it  will  be  con- 
venient not  to  separate  the  views  of  master  and  scholar. 


428 


SCHOLASTICISM 


*'  Mys- 
teries " 
excluded 
Trnm 
philo- 
cophj*. 


crcept  wnero  their  differences  make  it  necessary ;  and  in 
giving  an  account  of  their  cominon  system  it  will  be  well 
to  present  it  at  once  in  its  most  perfect  form.  Albert  was 
"tlio  first  Scholastic  who  reproduced  the  whole  philosophy 
of  Aristotle  in  systematic  order  with  constant  reference 
to  the  Arabic  commentators,  ana  who  remodelled  it 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  ecclesiastical  dogma" 
(Ueber^reg,  i.  43C).  On  this  account  he  was  called  by 
his  contemporaries  "  the  Universal  Doctor."  But  in  Albert 
it  may  be  said  that  the  matter  was  still  too  new  and  too 
multifarious  to  be  thoroughly  mastered.  The  fabric  of 
knowledge  is  not  fitly  jointed  together  ia  all  its  parts; 
the  theologian  and  the  philosopher  are  not  perfectly  fused 
into  one  individual,  but  speak  sometimes  with  different 
voices.  In  St  Thomas  this  is  no  longer  so ;  the  fusion  is 
almost  perfect.  The  pupil,  entering  into  his  master's 
labours,  was  able  from  the  first  to  take  a  more  compre- 
hensive survey  of  the  whole  field ;  and  in  addition  he  was 
doubtless  endovred  with  an  intellect  which  was  finer, 
though  it  might  not  be  more  powerful,  than  his  master's. 
Albert  had  the  most  touching  affection  for  his  distinguished 
scholar.  AVhen  he  went  to  Paris  in  1245  to  lecture  and  to 
take  his  doctor's  degree,  his  pupil  accompanied  him  ;  and, 
on  their  return  to  Cologne,  Aquinas  taught  along  with  his 
master  in  the  great  Dominican  school  there.  At  a  later 
date,  when  Aquinas  proceeded  to  Paris  to  lecture  inde- 
pendently, he  occupied  the  Dominican  chair  at  the  same 
time  that  Bonaventm'a  held  the  Franciscan  professorship. 
They  received  the  degree  of  doctor  iu  the  same  year,  1257. 
Rivals  in  a  manner  though  they  were,  and  differing  on 
points  of  philosophy,  the  Angelic  and  Seraphic  Doctors  were 
united  in  friendship  and  Christian  charity. 

The  monotheistic  influence  of  Aristotle  and  his  Arabian 
commentators  shows  itself  in  Albert  and  Aquinas,  at  the 
outset,  in  the  definitive  fashion  iu  which  the  "mysteries" 
of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation  are  henceforth  detached 
from  the  sphere  of  rational  or  philosophical  theology.  So 
long  as  the  Neoplatonic  influence  remained  strong, 
attempts  were  still  made  to  demonstrate  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  chiefly  in  a  mystical  sense  as  in  Erigena,  but 
also  by  orthodo.ic  churchmen  like  Anselm.  Orthodoxy, 
whether  Catholic  or  Protestant,  has  since  generally 
adopted  Thomas's  distinction.  The  existence  of  God  is 
maintained  by  Albert  and  Aquinas  to  be  demonstrable  by 
I'cason ;  but  here  again  they  reject  the  ontological  argu- 
ment of  Anselm,  and  restrict  themselves  to  the  a  ;}osterio>'i 
proof,  rising  after  the  manner  of  Aristotle  from  that 
which  is  prior  for  us  {irporcpov  jrpoj  '/fSs)  to  that  which 
is  prior  by  nature  or  in  itself  {-r-poTipov  t^iicret).  God 
is  not  fully  comprehensible  by  us,  says  Albert,  because  the 
finite  is  not  able  to  grasp  the  infinite,  yet  he  is  not  alto- 
goilier  beyond  our  knowledge ;  our  intellects  are  touched 
by  a  ray  of  his  light,  and  through  this  contact  we  are 
bi ought  into  communion  with  him.  God,  as  the  only 
self-subsistent  and  necessary  being,  is  the  creator  of  all 
things.  Here  the  Scholastic  philosophy  comes  into  con- 
flict with  Aristotle's  doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  the  world. 
A'ibert  and  Aquinas  alike  maintain  the  beginning  of  the 
world  in  time ;  time  itself  only  exists  since  the  moment  of 
this  mirasulous  creation.  But  Thomas,  though  he  holds 
t'oe  fact  of  creation  to  be  rationally  demonstrable,  regards 
the  beginniiig  of  the  world  in  time  as  only  an  article  of 
faith,  the  philosophical  arguments  for  and  against  being 
inconclusive. 

The  question  of  uuiversals,  though  fully  discussed,  no 
longer  forms  the  centre  of  speculation.  The  great  age  of 
Scholasticism  presents,  indeed,  a  substantial  unanimity 
upon  this  vexed  point,  maintaining  at  once,  in  diff'erent 
senses,  the  existence  ''f  the  universals  ap.te  rem,  in  re,  and 
vast  rent.     Albert  ni;d  Aaumas  both  profess  the  moderate 


Aristotelian  llealism  which  treats  genera  and  species  only 
as  suhstaniiae  secundae,  yet  as  really  inherent  in  the 
individuals,  and  constituting  their  form  or  essence.  The 
universals,  therefore,  have  no  existence,  as  universals,  in 
reruni  naiura ;  and  Thomas  endorses,  iu  this  sense,  the 
polemic  of  Aristotle  against  Plato's  hypostatized  abstrao- 
tions.  But,  in  the  Augustinian  sense  of  ideas  immanent 
in  the  divine  mind,  the  universal  ante  rem  may  viaW 
be  admitted  as  possessing  real  existence.  Finally,  by 
abstraction  from  the  individual  things  of  sense,  the  mind 
is  able  to  contemplate  the  universal  apart  from  its  accom- 
paniments {animal  sine  homiiie,  asino,  et  aliis  speciebus) ; 
these  subjective  existences  are  the  tmiversalia  post  rem  of 
the  Nominalists  and  Conceptualists.  But  the  difficulties 
which  embarrassed  a  former  age  in  trying  to  conceive  the 
mode  in  which  the  universal  exists  in  the  individual 
reappear  in  the  systems  of  the  present  period  as  the  pro- 
blem of  the  principitim  individuationis.  The  universal, 
as  the  form  or  essence  of  the  individual,  is  called  its 
qitidditas  (its  "what-ness"  or  nature);  but,  besides  pos- 
sessing a  general  nature  and  answering  to  a  general  defi- 
nition {i.e.,  being  a  "  what  "),  every  man,  for  example,  is 
this  particular  man,  here  and  now.  It  is  the  question  of 
the  particularity  or  "  this-ness  "  {haccceitas,  as  Duns  Scotm 
afterwards  named  it)  that  embarrasses  the  Scholastics. 
Albert  and  Aquinas  agree  in  declaring  that  the  principle 
of  individuation  is  to  be  found  in  matter,  not,  however,  in 
matter  as  a  formless  substrate  but  in  determinate  matter 
{materia  siffnata),  which  is  explained  to  mean  matter  quan- 
titatively determined  in  certain  respects.  "The  variety 
of  individuals,"  says  Albert,  "depends  entirely  upon  the 
division  of  matter"  {individuormn  multitu(^  fit  ornnis  per 
divisionem  materiae) ;  and -Aquinas  says  "the  principle  of 
the  diversity  of  individuals  of  the  same  species  is  the 
quantitative  division  of  matter  "  {divisio  materiae  secunduin 
quantitaiem),  which  his  followers  render  by  the  abbreviated 
phrase  materia  quanta.  A  tolerably  evident  shortcoming 
of  such  a  doctrine  is  that,  while  declaring  the  quantitative 
determination  of  matter  to  be  the  individual  element  in 
the  individual,  it  gives  no  account  of  how  such  quantitative 
determination  arises.  Yet  the  problem  of  the  individual 
is  really  contained  in  this  prior  question  ;  for  determinate 
matter  already  involves  particularity  or  this-ness.  fl'his 
difiicuUy  VTas  presently  raised  by  Duns  Scotus  and  the  real- 
istically-inclined opponents  of  the  Thomist  doctrine.  But,  as 
Ueberweg  points  out,  it  might  fairly  be  urged  by  Aquinas 
that  he  does  not  pretend  to  explain  how  the  individual  is 
actually  created,  but  merely  states  what  he  finds  to  be  an 
invariable  condition  of  the  existence  of  individuab.  Apart 
from  this  general  question,  a  difficulty  arises  on  thfl 
Thomist  theory  in  regard  to  the  existence  of  spirits  or 
disembodied  personalities.  This  affects  first  of  all  the 
existence  of  angels,  in  regard  to  whom  Aquinas  admits  that 
tliey  are  immaterial  or -separate  forms  {formae  stparatae^ 
They  possess  the  principle  of  individuation  in  themselves} 
he  teaches,  but  plurality  of  individuals  is  in  such  a  case 
equivalent  to  plurality  of  species  {in  eis  tol  suni  species 
quot  snnt  individua).  The  same  difficulty,  however, 
affects  the  existence  of  the  disembodied  human  spirit. 
If  individuality  depends  in  matter,  must  we  not  conclude 
with  Averroes  that  individuality  is  extinguished  at  death, 
and  that  only  the  univereal  form  survives  ?  This  conclu- 
sion, it  is  needless  to  say,  is  strenuously  opposed  both  by 
Albert  and  Thomas.  Albert  wrote  a  special  treatise  De 
Unitate  Intellectus  contra  Averroisias,  and  Thomas  in  his 
numerous  writings  is  even  more  explicit.  It  is  still  admis- 
sible, however,  to  doubt  whether  the  hateful  consequence 
does  not  follow  consistently  from  the  theory  laid  down. 
Aquinas  regards  the  souls  of  men,  like  the  angels,  as 
immaterial  forms ;  and  he  iucludes  in  *be  soul-unit,  so  to 


of  i^dl- 
yidiiatlon. 


kCHOLASTICISM 


429 


speak,  not  merely  the  anima  rationalis  of  Aristotle,  but  also 
the  vegetative,  sensitive,  appetitive,  and  motive  functions. 
The  latter  depend,  it  is  true,  on  bodily  organs  during 
our  earthly  sojourn,  but  the  dependence  is  not  necessary. 
The  soi'l  is  created  by  God  when  the  body  of  which  it  is 
the  entelechy  is  prepared  for  it.  It  is  the  natural  state 
of  the  soul  to  be  united  to  a  body  {Animae  prius  con- 
tenit  esse  nnitain  corpori  quam  esse  a  corpore  separa- 
tam),  but  being  immaterial  it  is  not  aSected  by  the  dis- 
solution of  the  body.  The  soul  must  be  immaterial  since 
it  has  the  power  of  cognizing  the  universal ;  and  its  immor- 
tality is  further,  based  by  St  Thomas  on  the  natural  longing 
for  unending  existence  which  belongs  to  a  being  whose 
thoughts  are  not  confined  to  the  "  here  "  and  "  now,"  but 
are  able  to  abstract  from  every  limitation. 

Thomism,  which  was  destined  to  become  the  official 
philosophy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  became  in  the 
first  instance  the  accepted  doctrine  of  the  Dominican 
order,  who  were  presently  joined  in  this  allegiance  by  the 
Augustinians.  The  Franciscan  Order,  on  the  other  hand, 
early  showed  their  rivalry  in  attacks  upon  the  doctrines  of 
Albert  and  Aquinas.  One  of  the  first  of  these  was  the 
Reprehensorium  sen  Correctorium  Fratris  Tliomae,  published 
in  1285  by  William  Lamarre,  in  whicli  the  Averroistic 
consequences  of  the  Thomist  doctrine  of  individuation  are 
already  pressed  home.  More  important  was  Richard  of 
Jliddlctown  (died  about  1300),  who  anticipated  many  of 

Eons       the    objections   urged  soon   after  him    by   Duns   Scotus. 

Scciuv.  This  renowned  opponent  of  the  Thomist  doctrine  was  born 
in  the  second  half  of  the  13th  century,  and  after  achieving 
an  extraordinary  success  as  a  lecturer  in  Oxford  and  Paris 
died  at  an  early  age  in  the  year  1308.  His  system  is 
conditioned  throughout  by  its  relation  to  that  of  Aquinas, 
of  which  it  is  in  effect  an  elaborate  criticism.  The  chief 
characteristic  of  this  criticism  is  well  expressed  in  the 
name  bestowed  on  Duns  by  his  contemporaries — Doctor 
Huhlilis.  It  will  be  sufficient  therefore  to  note  the  chief 
points  in  which  the  two  great  antagonists  differ.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  Duns  shows  less  confidence  in 
the  power  of  reason  than  Thomas,  and  to  that  extent 
Erdmann  and  others  are  right  in  looking  upon  his  system 
as  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of  Scholasticism.  Foi; 
Scholasticism,  as  perfected  by  Aquinas,  implies  the  har- 
mony of  reason  and  faith,^  in.  the  sense  that  they  both 
teach  the  same  truths.  To  this  general  position  Aquinas, 
it  has  been  seen,  .makes  several  important  exceptions ;  but 
the  exceptions  are  few  in  number  and  precisely  defined. 
Scotus  extends  the  number  of  theological  doctrines  which 
are  not,  according  to  him,  susceptible  of  philosophical 
proof,  including  in  this,  class  the  creation  of  the  world  out 
of  nothing,  the  immorta'''.y  of  the  human  soul,  and  even 
the  existence  of  an  almighty  divine  cause  of  the  universe 
(though  he  admits  the  possibility  of  proving  an  ultimate 
cause  superior  to  all  else).  His  destructive  criticism  thus 
tended  to  reintroduce  the  dualism  between  faith  and 
reason  which  Scholasticism  had  laboured  through  cen- 
turies to  overcome,  though  Scotus  himself,  of  course,  had 
no  such  sceptical  intention.  But  the  way  in  which  he 
founded  the  leading  Christian  doctrines  (after  confessing 
his  inability  to  rationalize  thom)  on  the  arbitrary  will 
of  God  was  undoubtedly  calculated  to  help  in  the  work  of 
disintegration.  And  it  is  significant  that  this  primacy  of 
the  undetermined  will  (voluntas  superior  intelleetu)  was 
the  central  contention  of  the  Scotists  against  the  Thomist 
doctrine.  Voluntary  action,  St  Thomas  had  said,  is  action 
originating  in  self  or  in  an  internal  principle.  As  com- 
pared with  the  animals,  which  are  immediately  determined 
to  their  ends  by  the  instinct  of  the  moment,  man  deter- 
mines hia  own'  course  of  action  freely  aftnr  r.  certain  pvo- 
ces3  of  rational  comparison  Itx  co'Uaiione  quadam  rationis). 


It  is  evident  that  the  freedom  here  spoken  of  is  a  freedom 
from  the  immediacy  of  impulse — a  freedom  based  upon 
our  possession  of  reason  as  a  power  of  comparison,  memory, 
and  forethought.  Nothing  is  said  of  an  absolute  freedom 
of  the  will ;  the  will  i.s,  on  the  contrary,  subordinated  to 
the  reason  in  so  far  as  it  is  supposed  to  choose  what 
reason  pronounces  good.  Accordingly,  the  Thomist 
.doctrine  may  be  described  as  a  moderate  determinism. 
To  this  Scotus  opposed  an  indeterminism  of  the  extremest 
type,  describing  the  will  as  the  possibility  of  determining 
itself  motivelessly  in  either  of  two  opposite  senses.  Trans- 
ferred to  the  divine  activity,  Thomui's  doctrine  led  him  to 
insist  upon  the  perseitas  boni.  '  The  divine  will  is,  equally 
with  the  human,  subject  to  a  rational  determination ;  God 
commands  what  is  good  because  it  is  good.  Scotus,  on 
the  other  hand,  following  out  his  doctrine  of  the  will, 
declared  the  good  to  be  so  only  by  arbitrary  irricosition. 
It  is  good  because  God  willed  it,  and  for  no  other  reason ; 
had  He  commanded  precisely  the  opposite  course  of  con- 
duct, that  course  would  have  been  right  by  fhe  mere  fact 
of  His  commanding  it.  Far  removed  from  actuality  as 
such  speculations  regarding  the  priority  of.  intellect  or  will 
in  the  Divine  Being  may  seem  to  be,  the  side  taken  is  yet 
a  sure  index  of  the  general  tendency  Of  a  philosophy. 
Aquinas  is  on  the  side  of  rationalism,  Scotus  on  the  side 
of  scepticism. 

AYhile  agreeing  with  Albert  and  Thomas  in  maintaining 
the  threefold  existence  of  the  universals.  Duns  Scotus 
attacked  the  Thomist  doctrine  of  individuation.  The  dis- 
tinction of  the  universal  essence  and  the  individualizing 
determinations  in  the  individual  does  not  coincide,  he 
maintained,  with  the  distinction  betwefen  form  and  matter. 
The  additional  determinations  are  as  truly  "form"  as  the 
universal  essence.  If  the  latter  be  spoken  of  as  quidditas, 
the  former  may  be  called  haecceitas.  Just  as  the  genus 
becomes  the  species  by  the  addition  of  formal  determina- 
tions called  the  difference,  .so  the  species  becomes  the 
individual  by  the  addition  of-  fresh  forms  of  difference. 
As  animal  becomes  homo  by  the  addition  of  hnmanitas,  so 
homo  becomes  Socrates  by  the  addition  of  the  qualities 
signified  by  Socratitas.  It  is  false,  therefore,  to  speak  of 
matter  as  the  principle  of  individuation  ;  and  if  this  is  so 
there  is"  no  longer  any  foundation  for  the  Thomist  view 
that  in  angelic  natures  every  individual  constitutes  a 
species  apart.  Notwithstanding  the  above  doctrine,  how- 
ever, Scotus  holds  that  all  created  things  possess  both 
matter  and  form — the  soul,  for  example,  possessing  a 
matter  of  its  ovvn  before  its  union  with  the  body.  But 
the  matter  of  spiritual  beings  is  widely  different  from  the 
matter  of  corporeal  things.  In  his  treatment  of  the  con- 
ception of  matter.  Duns  shows  .thai  he  inclined  much 
more  to  the  Realism  vvhich  makes  for  pantheism  than  was 
the  case  with  the  Aristotelianism  of  Thomas.  A  perfectly 
formless  matter  {materia  prima)  was  regarded  by  him  as 
the  universal  substratum  and  common  clement  of  all  finite 
Existences.  He  expressly  intimates  in  this  connexion  his 
acceptance  of  Avicebron's  position.  E<jo  autem  ad  posi'' 
tionem,  Avicchronis  redeo,  that  is,  to  the  Nooplatonically 
conceived  Fans  Vitae  of  the  .lew  Gebirol. 

In  the  end  of  the  13th  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  the  Tiomists  and  Scotists  divided  the  philosophical 
and  theological  world  between  them.  Among  the  Tbon'.ists 
may  be  named  .John  of  Paris,  yEgidius  of  Lessines  (wrote  in 
1278),  Bernard  of  Trilia  (1240-'J2),  and  Peter  of  Auvorgne. 
More  important  was  ylCgidius  of  ColonOa  (1247-1310), 
general  of  the  Augustinian  order,  surnamcd  Doctor  Funda- 
tissimus  or  Fnndamentarius.  Hervajus  Natalis  {ob.  1323) 
and  Thomas  Bradwardine  {ob.  1349)  were  determined  oppo- 
nents of  Scotism.  Siger  of  Brabant  and  Gottfried  of  Fon- 
taines, cbaacfeUor  of  the  unlvereity  of  Paris,  taugLt  Thomism 


Freedonu 
c.f  tbe 
Kill. 


Tlior.istft 
.iTul  ooot- 
ists. 


430 


S  C  H  O  L  A  y  T  I  C  I  S  II 


at  the  Sorbonne ;  and  through  Humbert,  abbot  of  Prulli, 
the  doctrine  won  admission  to  the  Cistercian  order.  Among 
the  disciples  of  Duns  Scotns  arc  mentioned  John  of  Bas- 
^..-•lis,  Franciscus  de  Mayronis  (oi.  1327),  Antonius  Andreaa 
(ob.  c.  1320),  John  Dumblcton  and  Walter  Burleigh 
(1275-1357)  of  Oxford,  Nicolaus  of  Lyra,  Peter  of  Aquila, 
and  others,  llenry  GoetliaLs  or  Henry  of  Ghent  (Hen- 
ricus  Gandavensis,  1217-93),  surnametl  Ihcior  Solmnis, 
occupied  on  the  whole  an  independent  and  pre-Thomist 
position,  leaning  to  an  Augustinian  Platonism.  Gei'ard  of 
Bologna  (ob.  1317)  and  Eaoul  of  Brittany  are  rather  to  be 
ranked  with  the  Thomists.  So  also  is  Petrus  Hispanus 
(died  1277  as  Pojje  John  XXI.),  who  is  chiefly  important, 
however,  as  the  author  of  the  much-used  manual  Smn- 
mti/x  Lo;/icales,  in  which  the  logic  of  the  schools  was 
expanded  by  the  Jhcorporation  of  fresh  matter  of  a  semi- 
grammatical  character.  Petrus  Hispanus  had  predecessors, 
however,  in  William  of  Shyreswood  (died  1249  as  chan- 
cellor of  Lincoln)  and  Lambert  of  Auxerre,  and  it  has 
been  hotly  disputed  whether  the  whole  of  the  additions 
are  not  originally  due  to  the  Byzantine  Synopsis  of  Psellus. 
By  far  the  greatest  disciple  of  Aquinas  is  Dante  Alighieri, 
in  whose  Divina  CommerJia  the  theology  and  philosophy 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  as  fixed  by  Saint  Thomas,  have 
received  the  immortality  which  poetry  alone  can  bestow. 
Two  names  stand  apart  from  the  others  of  ti.e  century — 
Eaymond  Lully  (123-1-1315)  and  Roger  Bacon  (12U- 
94).  The  Ars  Magna  of  the  former  professed  by  means  of 
a  species  of  logical  machine  to' give  a  rigid  demonstration 
of  all  the  fundamental  Christian  doctrines,  and  was 
intended  by  its  author  as  an  unfailing  instrument  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Saracens  and  heathen.  Roger  Bacon 
was  rather  a  pioneer  of  modern  science  than  a  Scholastic, 
and  persecution  and  imprisonment  were  the  penalty  of 
his  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  his  time. 

The  last  stage  of  Scholasticism  preceding  its  dis.solution 
is  marked  by  the  revival  of  Nominalism  in  a  militant 
form.  This  doctrine  is  already  to  be  found  in  Petrus 
Aureolus  {ob.  1321),  a  Franciscan  trained  in  the  Scotist 
doctrine,  and  in  William  Durand  of  St  Pour^ain  {ob. 
1332),  a  Dominican  \vho  passed  over  from  Thomism  to 
his  later  position.  But  the  name  with  whicli  the  Nominal- 
ism of  the  14tli  century  is  hi^^torically  associated  is  that 
Tl  ,li:iiiicf  of  the  "Invincible  "Doctor,"  William  of  Occam  {ob.  1347), 
fc"  '"•  ,-.  j,o^  ag  the  author  of  a  doctrine  which  came  to  be  almost 
i...iversally  accepted,  received  from  his  followers  the  title 
Vc.'.'jrabilis  Inceptor.  The  hypostatizing  of  abstractions 
is  the  error  against  which  Occam  is  continually  fighting. 
His  constantly  recurring  maxim — known  as  Occam's  razor 
— ii^  Entia  nun  sunt  mnltipliainda  praHer  necessitatcm.  The 
Realists,  lie  considers,  have  greatly  sinnecl  against  thi* 
maxim  in  their  theory  of  a  real  universal  or  common 
element  in  all  the  individuals  of  a  class.  From  one 
'ab-.tracrtion  they  are  led  to  another,  to  solve  the  difficul- 
ties which  are  created  by  the  realization  of  the  first. 
Thus  the  great  problem  for  the  Realists  is  how  to  derive 
the  individual  from  the  universal.  But  the  whole  inquiry 
moves  in  a  world  of  unrealities.  Everything  that  exists, 
by  the  mere  fact  of  its  existence,  is  individual  (Qimelibet 
res,  CO  ipso  quod  est,  est  ha'ic  res).  It  is  absurd  therefore  to 
seek  for  a  cause  of  the  individuality  of  the  thing  other 
than  the  cause  of  the  thing  itself.  The  individual  is  the 
only  reality,  whether  the  question  be  of  an  individual 
thing  in  the  xternal  world  or  an  individual  state  in  the 
world  of  mii.d.  ,  It  is  not  the  individual  which  needs 
explanation  but  the  universal.  Occam  reproaches  the 
■  "  modern  Platonists "  for  perverting  the  Arii-totelian 
doctrine  by  these  speculations  and. claims  the  authority 
of  Aristotle  for  his  own  Nominalistic  doctrine.  The  uni- 
versal is  :rjt  anything  reallv  existinc  •  it   is  a  tenmnus  or 


Jjiredicable  (whence  the  followor.s  of  Occam  were  at  first 
called  Terminists).  It  is  no  more  than  a  "mental  con- 
cept signifying  univocally  several  singulars."  It  is  a 
natural  sign  representing  these  singulars,  but  it  has  nc 
reality  beyond  that  of  the  mental  act  by  which  it  is  pro- 
duced and  that  of  the  singulars  of  which  it  is  predicated. 
As  regards  the  existence  (if  we  may  so  speak)  of  the  uni- 
versal in  mente,  Occam  indicates  his  preference,  on  the 
ground  of  simplicity,  for  the  view  which  idertifies  the 
concept  with  the  actus  intelliycndl  ("une  modalite  pas- 
sagtre  de  rAnM,"  as  Ilaureau  expresses  _it),  rather  than 
for  that  which  treats  ideas  as  distinct  entities  witjiin  the 
mind.  And  in  a  similar  spirit  he  explains  the  vtiivcrsalia 
ante  cem'as  being,  not  substantftil  existences  in  God,  but 
simply  God's  knowledge  of  things — a -knowledge  which  is 
not  of-universals  but  of  singulars,  since  these  alone  exist 
realitcr.  .  Such  a  doctrine,  in  the  stress  it  lays  upon  tho 
singular, .the  object  of  immediate  perception,  is  evidently 
inspired  by  a  spirit  differing  widely  even  from  tho 
moderate  Realism  of  Thomas.  It  is  a  spirit  which  dis- 
trusts abstractions,  which  makes  for  direct  observation, 
for  inductive  research.  «  Occam;  who  is  still  a  Scholastic, 
gives  us  the  Scholasticjustification  of  tlie  spirit  which  had 
already  taken  hold  upon  Roger  Bacon,  and  which  was  to 
enter  upon  its  rights  in  the  15tli  and  16th  centuries. 
Moreover,  there  is  no  denying  that  the  new  Nominalism 
iiot  only  represents  the  love  of  reality  and  the  spirit  of 
induction,  but  also  contains  in  itself  the  germs  of  that 
empiricism  and  sensualism  so  frequently  associated  with 
the  former  tendencies.  St  Thomas  had  regarded  the 
knowledge  of  the  universal  as  an  intellectual  activity 
which  might  even  be  advanced  in  proof  oi  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  Occam,  on  the  other  hand,  maintains  in  the 
spirit  of  Hobbes  that  the  act  of  abstraction  does  not  pre- 
suppose any  activity  of  the  understanding  or  v.-ill,  but  is 
a  spontaneous  secondary  process  by  which  the  fii-st  act 
(perception)  or  the  state  it  leaves  behind  {habitus  derclictvs 
ex  pi-imo  aci e«  =  Hobbes's  "decaying  setise")  is  naturally 
followed,  as  soon  as  two  or  more  similar  representations 
are  present. 

In  another  way  also  Occam  'heralds  the  dissolution  of 
Scholasticism.  The  union  of  philosophy  and  theology  is 
the  mark  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  in  Occam  their  sever- 
ance is  complete.  A  pupil  of  Scotus,  he  carried  his 
master's  criticism  farther,  and  denied  that  any  theological 
doctrines  were  r.-Uionally  demonstrable.  Even  the  exist- 
ence and  unity  of  God  were  to  be  accepted  as  articles  of 
faith.  The  Gentiloquium.  Thcolorjicum,  which  is  devoted 
to  this  negative  criticism  and  to  showing  the  irrational 
consequences  of  many  of  the  chief  doctrines  of  the  church, 
has  often  been  cited  as  an  example  of  thoroughgoing 
scepticism  under  a  mask  of  solemn  irony.  But  if  thr.t 
were  so,  it  would  still  remain  doubtful,  as  Erdmann 
remarks,  whether  the  irony  is  directed  against  the  churcii 
or  against  reason.  On  tlie-  whole,  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  Occam's  honest  adhesion  to  each  of  the  two  guides 
whose  contrariety  he  laboured  to  display.  None  the  less 
is  the  position  in  itself  an  untenable  one  and  the  pai'ent  of 
scepticism.  The  principle  of  the  twofold  nature  of  truth ' 
thus  embodied  in  Occam's  system  was  unquestionably 
adopted  by  many  merely  to  cloak  their  theological  unbelief: 
and,  as  has  been  said,  it  is  significant  of  the  internal  dis- 
solution of  Scholasticism,  Occam  denied  the  title  of  a 
science  to  theology,  emphaiizing,  like  Scotus,  its  practical 
character.  He  also  follov.'ed  his  master  in  laying  stress  on 
the  arbitrary  will  of  God  as  the  foundation  of  morality. 

^  This  princij^le  appeared  occasionally  at  an  earlier  d.ate,  for  e.tain- 
pte  iu  Simon  of  Toiirnay  about  1200.  li.  was  expressly  censured  by 
Pojie  .John  XXI.  in  12?'3.  But  only  in  tho  i^^ri.i.l  fnU.-iwin?  Ocf-nm 
..'.id  it  b-.L-oine  a  current  doctrine 


S  U  H  — «  U  H 


Spread  0 


The 

"List 


.1- 

.StlCS.' 


f      Nominalism  was  at  first  met  by  the  opposition  of  the 
church  and  the  constituted  authorities.     In  1339  Occam's 
treatises  were  put  under  a  ban  by  the  university  of  Paris 
and  in  the  following  year  Nominalism  was  solemnly  cc.n- 
demncd.      Nevertheless   the  new  doctrine  spread  en  all 
nands.     Dominicans  like  Armand  de  Beau  voir  (ob.  133-i) 
and   Gregory  of  Rimini  accepted  it.     It  was  taught   in 
Paris  by  Albert  of  Sasony  (about  1350-00)  and  Jilarsilius 
of  Inghen  (about  1364-77,  afterwards  at  Heidelberg);  as 
well  as  by  Johanaes  Buridanus,  who  was  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity as  early  as  1327.     We  find,  however,  as  late  as 
1473  the  attempt  made  to  bind  all  teachers  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Paris  by  oath  to  teach  the  doctrines  of  Realism  ;  but 
this  expiring  effort  was  naturally  ineSectual,  and  from  14S1 
onward  even  the  show  of  obedience  was  no  longer  e.xacted. 
Pierre  d'Aiily  (1350-1425)  and  John  Gerson  (Jean  Charlier 
de  Gerson,  1303-1429),  both  chancellors  of  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  the  former  a  cardinal  of  the  church,  are  the 
chief  figures  among  the  later  Nominalists.     Both  of  them, 
however,    besides   their    philosophical   writings,    are    the 
authors  of  works  of  religious  edification  and  mystical  pfety. 
They  thus  combine  temporarily  in  their  own  persons  what 
was  no  longer  combined  in  the  spirit  of  the  time,  or  rather 
they  satisfy  by  turns  the  claims  of  reason  and  faith.  .  Both 
are   agreed  in  placing   repentance   and    faith   far   above 
philosophical  knowledge.     They  belong  indeed  (Gerson  in 
particular)    to   the   history   of  mysticism  rather  than  of 
Scholasticism,    and   the   same    may   be    said   of    another 
cardinal,  Nicolaus  of  Cusa  (1401-G4),  who  is  sometimes 
reckoned  among  the  last  of  the  Scholastics,   but  who  has 
more  affinity  with  Scotus  Erigena  than  with  any  inter- 
vening teacher.     The  title    "last  of  the  Scholastics"  is 
commonly   given   to    Gabriel    Biel,    the    summarizer    of 
Occam's  doctrine,  who  taught  in  Tiibingen,   and  died  in 
the  year   1495.     The   title  is  not  actually   correct,  and 
might  be  more  fitly  borne  by  Francis  Suarez,  who  died  in 
1G17.     But    after    the   beginning   of    the    15th   century 
Scholasticism  was  divorced  from  the  spirit   of   the  time, 
and  it  is  useless    to  follow  its  history  further.     As  has 
been  indicated  in  the  introductory  remarks,  .the  end  came 
both    from  within   and  from  without.     The  harmony  of 
rgason  and  faith  had  given  place  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
dual    nature  of   truth.     While   this  sceptical   thesis  was 
embraced  by  philosophers  who  had  lost  their  interest  in 
religion,  the  spiritually  minded  sought  their  .satisfaction 
more   and  more   in    a   mysticism    which   frequently  cast 
itself  loose  from^ ecclesiastical  trammels.     The   14th  and 
1 5th  centuries  were  the  great  age  of  German  mysticism, 
and  it  was  not  only  in  Germany  that  the  tide  set  this  way. 
Schslasticism   had    been   the   expression    of   a    universal 
church  and  a  common  learned  language.     The  university 
of  Paris,   with  its   scholars  of  all  nations  numbered   by 
thousands,    was  a    symbol   of    the    intellectual   unity    of 
Christendom ;   and'  in    the   university  of    Pari.s,   it    may 
filniost  be  said.  Scholasticism   was  reared  and  flourished 
•incb  died.     But   the   different    tiations   and    tongues    of 
modern  Europe  were  now  beginning  to  assert  their  indi- 
viduality, and  meji's  interests  ceased  to  bo  predominatingly 
occlesiastical.     Scliolastlcism,   therefore,   which  was  in  its 
essence  ecclesiastical,  had  no  longer  a  proper  field  for  its 
activity.     It  was  in  a  manner  deprived  of  its  accustomed 
."^ubje.-.t-matter   and    died    of    inanition.    .Philosophy,    as 
Ifauriau  finely  says,  was  the  passion  of  the  13th  century; 
but  in  the   15th  humanism,  art,  and   the   beginnings  of 
science  a. id  of  practical  discovery   were  busy  creating  a 
new  world,"  which  was  destined  in    Hie  time  to  give  bii'th 
to  a  new  philosophy. 

Authori'ii.  —  Ucmics  tlio  numerous  worki  dcalinj;  with  indi- 
vidual jiliilosopliers,  the  chief  histories  of  Scholasticism  arc  those 
cf  Hauri-au  (Ve  la  Philosophic  Scolasliqtie,  2  vols.,  1S50;  rcvi  lil 


and  expanded  in  1870  as  Bistoire  ih  ^a  y-J\  Scol  \  Faulich 
{G^jchichte  d.  schol.  Philosophic)  and  htbckl  (Ocsch.  dc'r  i-liil  de} 
mudalUrs).  Supplemcutary  details  are  given  in  Hauriaus 
SingularMs  Historiqucs  ct  Litli'ra-„-cs,  1861,  and  in  R.  L.  Poole's 
Illustrations  of  the  History  of  ],{cdixral  Tiiought  (1S34).  The 
accounts  of  media:val  thouglit  given  by  Kittcr,  Erdmann,  and 
Ueberweg  in  their  general  histories  ot  pliilosophy  are  excecdinjly 
good.  There  are  also  notices  of  the  leading  systems  in  Milman's 
History  of  Latin  Chrislianv  ,j  ;  and  the  same  wTitcrs  are  considered 
from  the  theological  side  m  many  works  devoted  to  theology  and 
the  history  of  dogma.  Oourdain's  liahcrchcs  Critiques  sur  I'Agect 
I'Originedes  Tradticiio-'U Latinos d' Aristotc  (Paris,  1819  ;  2d  edition, 
1843),  Rousselot's  £l„dcs  sur  la  Philosophie  dans  Is  Moijcn-Aqt 
(1840-42),  Cousin's  Introduction  to  liis  Ouvraqcs  inedils  d'Ahthiid 
(1836),  and  Pi-ant''s  Gcschichte  dcr  Lofjik  im  Ahendlande  (4  vols., 
1855-7*5)  are  invaluable  aids  in  studying  the  history  of  niediccvai 
thought  "  (A.  SE.) 

SCHOMBERG,  Feedi^rick  Arm.^nd,  Duke  op  {c. 
1619-1090),  marshal  of  France  and  English  general,  was 
descended  from  an  old  family  of  the  Palatinate,  and  was 
born  about  1619.  He  began  his  military  career  under 
Frederick  Henry,  prince  of  Orange,  and  after  his  death  in 
1659  entered  the  service  of  France,  acquiring  ultimately 
a  reputation  as  a  general  second  only  to  that  of  Tureune 
and  the  prince  of  Conde.  In  Paris  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Charles  II.,  who  according  to  his  own  account 
"admitted  him  to  great  familiarities  with  him."'  In  1000 
he  was  sent  to  Portugal,  and  on  his  way  thither  passed 
through  England  to  concert  with  Charles  measures  for 
supporting  that  country  in  the  contest  with  Spain.  For 
his  services  to  Portugal  he  T.as  in  l-SGS  made  a  grandee, 
and  received  a  pen.sion  of  £5000'  a  year.  In  1673  he  was 
invited  by  Charles  to  England,  with  the  view  of  taking 
command  of  the  army,  but  so  strong  was  the  general 
sentiment  against  the  appointment  as  savouring  of  French 
influence  that  it  was  not  carried  into  effect.  He  therefore 
again  entered  the  service  of  France,  and  after  his  capture  of 
Bellegarde,  29th  July  1675,  received  the  rankof  marshal. 
In  subsequent  campaigns  he  continued  to  add  to  his 
reputation  until  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  (22d 
October  1085)  compelled  him  as  a  Protestant  to  quit  his 
adopted  country.  Ultimately  he  was  chosen  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  -orces  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  and 
with  the  elector's  consent  he  joined  the  prince  of  Orange 
on  his  expedition  to.^ngland  in  1688,  as  second  in  com- 
mand to  the  prince.  The  following  year  he  was  made  a 
knight  of  the  Garter,  created  successively  baron,  marquis, 
and  duke,  and  received  from  the  House  of  Commons  a 
vote  of  £100,000.  In  August  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  expedition  to  Ireland  against  James 
II.  After  capturing  Carrickfergus  he  marched  unopposed 
through  a  country  desolated  before  him  to  Dundalk,  but, 
as  the  bulk  of  his  forces  were  raw  and  undisciplined  as 
well  as  inferior  in  numbers  to  the  enemy,  he  deemed  it 
imprudent  to  risk  a  battle,  and  entrenching  himself  at 
Dundalk  declined  to  be  drawn  beyond  the  circle  of  his 
defences.  Shortly  afterwards  pestilence  broke  out,  and 
when  he  retired  to  winter  quarters  in  Ulster  liis  forces  were 
in  ?.  more  shattered  condition  than  if  tliey  liad  sustained 
a  severe  defeat.  At  the  same  time  conijictcnt  authorities 
were  agreed  that  the  policy  of  masterly  inactivity  which 
he  pursued  was  the  only  one  open  to  him.  In  the  spring 
he  began  the  campaign  with  the  capture  of  Charlemont, 
but  no  advance  southward  was  made  until  the  arrival  of 
William.  At  the  Boyne  (July  1,  1090)  Schombcrg  gave 
his  opinion  against  the  determination  of  William  to  cross 
the  river  in  face  of  the  opposin.g  army.  In  the  battle  he 
held  cogimand  of  the  centre,  and,  while  riding  turough  the 
river  without  his  cuirass  to  rally  his  men,  was  surrounded 
by  a  band  of  Irish  horsemen  and  met  instantaneous  death. 
He  was  buried  in  St  Patrick's  cati.edral,  Dublin,  where 
•here  is  a  monument  to  him,  with  a  Latir.  inscrijition  bv 
Dean  ,Swift.     Schomberg  was  generally  regarilcd  in  Eng- 


4:^2 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


land  with  great  respect,  and  Ks  manners  and  bearing 
rendered  him  universally  popular.  ,,„„„  ,o/>c.\ 

SCHOjSFBEIN,  Chkisti.^  Fkiedkich  (1/99-1806), 
from  1828  professor  of  chemistry  at  Basel,  is  known  as 
the  discoverer  of  Ozone  (q.v.). 

SCHONEBECK,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  9  miles  above  Magdeburg.  It  contams 
manufactories  of  chemicals,  machinery,  percussion  caps, 
starch,  white  le»d,  and  various  other  articles,  but  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  extensive  salt  springs  and  works,  which  pro- 
duce about  70,000  tons  of  salt  per  annum.  Large  beds 
of  rock-salt  also  occur  in  the  neighbourhood,  in  which 
shafts  have  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  more  than  1200  feet. 
There  is  a  harbour  on  the  Elbe  here,  and  a  brisk  trade  is 
carried  on  in  grain  and  timber.  In  1885  Schunebeck  con- 
tained 13,310  inhabitants  (including  the  adjoining  com- 
-lunities  of  Salze,  Elmen,  and  Frohse,  about  20,000). 

SCHONEBERG,  a  so-called  Prussian  "  village,"  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  is  now  really  a  suburb  of  Berlin 
which  it  adjoins  on  the  south-west.     It  contains  the  royal 
botanic  garden,  a  large  maison  de  sante,  and  manufactories 
of  paper  collars,  enamels,  railway  rolling-stock,  and  chem- 
icals     The  population  in  1880  was  11,180.     The  founda- 
tion   of    Alt-Schoneberg  is    ascribed  to  Albert  the  Bear 
(12th  century),    while  Neu-Scbiineberg  was  founded  by 
Frederick    the   Great    in    17.50    to   accommodate   some 
Bohemian  weavers,  e.xiled  for  their  religion  (rf.  Rixdoef). 
SCH0NGAUI:R,  or  Sboen,  Martin  (1450-c.  1488), 
the  most  able  engraver  and  painter  of  the  early  German 
school.      His  father   was  a  goldsmith  named  Casper,   a 
native-  of  Augsburg,  who  had  settled  at  Colmar,  where  the 
chief  part  of°MaitVn's  life  was  spent.i     Schongauer  estab- 
lished at  Colmar  a  very  important  school  of  engraving,  out 
of  which  grew  the  "  little  masters  "  of  the  succe-iding  gene- 
ration, and  a  large  group  of  Nuremberg  artists.      As  a 
painter,  Sclwngauer  was  a  pupil  of  the  Flemish  Roger  Van 
der  Weyden  the  Elder,  and  his  rare  existing  pictures  closely 
resemble,  both  in  splendour  of  colour  and  exquisite  minute- 
ness of  execution,  the  best  works  of  contemporary  art  m 
Flanders.     Among  the  very  few  paintings  which  can  with 
certainty  be  attributed  to  him,  the  chief  is  a  magnificent 
altarpiece.in  the  church  of  St  Martin,  at. Colmar,  repre- 
senting the  Virgin  and  Child,  crowned  by  Angels,  with  a 
background  of  roses— a  work  of  the  highest  beauty,  and 
large  in  scale,  the  figures  being  nearly  life  size.     The  Colmar 
Museum  possesses  eleven  panels  by  his  hand,  and  a  small 
panel  of  David  with  Goliath's  Head  in  the  Munich  Gallery- 
is  attributed  to  him.     The  miniature  painting  of  the  Death 
4  the  Virgin  in  the  English  National  Gallery  is  probably 
the  work  of  some  pupil.^     In  1488  Schongauer  died  at 
Colmar,  according  to  the  register  of  St  Martin's  church. 

The  main  T\-ork  of  Schongiuer's  life  was  the  production  of  a 
large  number  of  most  l.ighly  finished  and  beautiful  engravings, 
which  were  largely  soldr  not  only  in  Germany,  but  also  m  Ita  y 
and  even  in  Edgland.     In  this  way  his  influence  was  very  widely 
extended.     Vasari  speaks  ot  him  with  much  enthusiasm,  aud  says 
that  Michelangelo  copied  one-  of  his  engraymgs-the  Tnal  ot   bt 
Anthony.'    Schongauer  was  known  in  Italy  by  the  names      Bel 
1  The  date  of  Schongauer's  birth  is  usually  given  wrongly  as  c.  1420; 
he  was  really  bora  about  thirty  years  later,  and  is  mentioned  by  A. 
Diirer  as  being  s  young   appreutioe  in  1470       His  portrait  in  the 
Munich  Pinakothek  is  now  1-  lown  to  be  a  copy  by  Burgkmau-,  painted 
after  1510.  from  an  original  of  14S3,-not  1453  as  has  been  sup- 
posed.    The  date  of  Schongauer's  death,  1499,  written  on  the  back 
of  th.,  panel  by  Burgkmair  is  obviously  a  blunder  ;  see   Hensler  in 
Xau,Jnn-s  Archiv,   1867,  p.  129,  and  Wurzbach,   M.   Schongauer 
Viei-na    1830.      These    contradict  the  view   of  Goutnviller    in  his 
Martin  Schongauer  ei  son  tcoU,  Paris,  1875.     C/.  Schnaase^  Gesch. 
Ta  Schont-auers,"  in  the  MiUUil.  der  K.  A.  Commission,  18^,  Wo.  /. 
=  Another  painting  of  the   same   subject  in  the   Dona  Palace  in 
Rome  (usually  attributed  to  Diirer)  i^  given  to  Schongauer  ty  Cr^we 
and  Cavalcaselle,  Flemish  Painters,  London,  18(2,  p.   iM ;  hut  tlie 
txecution  is  not  equal  to  Schongauer's  wonderful  touch.  _ 

'  An  iute.esting  example  of  Schonganer's  popularity  in  naly  is 


Martino"  and  "Martino   d'Anversa."     His   subjects  are   always 
religious  !  more  than  130  prints  from  copper  by  his  hand  are  still 
known,  and  about  100  more  are  the  production  ot  hia  hotteg^. 
jMost  of  his  pupils'  plates  as  well  as  his  own  are  signed  M-H-s. 
Araon"  the  iost  beautiful  of  Schongauer  s  engravings  are   the      . 
scries  of  the  Passion  and  the  Death  and  Coronation  o£  the  Virgu, 
and  the  series  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish  \  irgins;  as  much  as  £420 
has  been  eiven  for  a  fine  state  of  the  Coronation  plate.     All  are 
remarkable  for  their  miniature-Uke  treatment,  their  briUiant  touch 
and  their  chromatic  force.     Some,  such  as  the  Death  of  the  Virgin 
and  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,. are  richly^filled  compositions  of 
many  fi-u.es,  treated  with  much  largeness  of  style.rn  spite  of  their 
minute  Icale      Though  not  free  from  the  mannerism  of  his  age  and 
country    Schongauer"  possessed  a  rare   feeling  for  beauty  and  for 
dignity  of  pose  ;  and  in  technical  power  over  his  graver  and  copper 
nlate  he  has  never  been  surpassed.  ,  „  .  > 

The  British  Museum  possesses  a  fine  collection  of  Schongauer  s 
prints.  Fine  facsimiles  of  his  engi-avings  have  been  produced  \>y 
Amanct-Durand  with  text  by  Duplessis,  Vans,  1881. 

SCHOOLCRAFT,  Heney  Rowe  (1793-1864),  a  North- 
American  traveller,  ethnologist,  and  author,  was  ]>or°  28th 
March  1793  at  Watervliet  (now  called  Guilderland),  Albany 
county,  New  York,  and  died  at  Washington  10th  December 
1864.    After  studying  chemistry  and  mineralogy  at  college 
he  had  several  years'  experience  of  their  practical  appUca- 
tion,  especially  at  a  glass-factory  of  which  his  father  was 
manager,  and  in  1817  published  his  Vrtreology      in  tne 
following  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  in  1819  he  pub  ished  his 
View  cf  the  Lead  Mines  of  Missouri.     Soon  after  he  accom- 
panied General  Cass  as  geologist  in  his  expedition  to  the 
Lake  Superior  copijer  region,  and  evinced  such  capacity  lor 
good  exploring  work  on  the  frontier  that  in  1823  he  was 
appointed  "  agent  for  Indian  affairs."      He  then  married 
the  granddaughter  of  an' Indian  chief;  and  during  several 
years'  official  work  near  Lake  Superior  he  acquired  a  vast 
fund  of  accurate  information  as  to  the  physique,  language, 
social  habits,  and  tribal  institutions  of  the  American  natives. 
From  1828  to  1832  Schoolcraft  was  an  active  member  of  the 
Alichigan  legislature,  during  the  same  period  delivering  lec- 
tures on  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  Indian  language, 
which  procured  him  the  gold  medal  of  the  French  Institute. 
In  1832  also,  whemon  an  e.mbassy  to  some  Indians,  he  ascer- 
tained the  reaii  source  of  the  Mississippi  to  be  Lake  Itasca. 
Previous  to  1832  he  had  published  Travels  in  the  Central  Por- 
tions of  the  Mississippi    Valley,  and  in  1839   ^PPe^'-^d  Ji's  Algv 
i;«.arc/,«,  containing  "Memoirs  of  a  R'f  J"^!;" /  J^'^'^  f^^",^ 
with  the  Indian  Tribes,"  and  also,  notably,  "  The  Myth  of  Hn.- 
:.atha  a'nd  other  Oral  Legends, "-probably  the  ?-'  °-"-™«„f 
the  name  immortalized  (in  1855)  in  Longfellow  s  poem      bchoob 
craft's  literary  activity  was  indeed  remarkable,  ^;°<^^.  te^.des  'iis 
ethnological   writings,    he   composed   a    ^"^"l!"^]^?"?^'^^' 
poetry  and  several  minor  prose   works,    especially  A  ofes  on  the 
Yroqiois  (1848),    Statistic  of  the  Six  Aa/io,«  (184.  ,  Scme^a"^ 
Adventures  iJ'tke  Ozarle  Mountains  (1853).  ,.H>3  P"""?^  'j-';; 
Eistorieal  and  Statistical  Information  '^'^P'f^'^S^h'/f'^tlflZ 
of  the  United  States,  illustrated  with  336  ,vcll-executed  plates  fron. 
oriUnal  drawings,  was  issued  under  tlie  patronage  of  Congress  in 
six"  quarto  volumes,   from  1851  to  1857.      It  is  a  vast  mine  of 
ethuolo<rical  researches  as  to  the  F^  Hen  of  Amenca,  systernati- 
cally  arra^T-ed  and  fully,  if  not  exhaustively,  detailed,--describ,ng- 
not^only  their  origin,  histol-y,  aud  antiquities    but  the  phys^al 
and  mental  "  type,^'  the  tribal  characteristics,  the.  vocabulary  and. 
grammar    the  're'ligion  and  mythology.      Schoolcraft's  djplomat.e 
work  on  the  Indian  frontier  was  important.-more  than  sixteen 
m°llions  of  acres  beiug  added  to  th.  States'  territory  by  means  of 
treaties  which  he  negotiated. 

SCHOOLS.  SeeEDDCATioN,  Blind,  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
CoNSEEVATORY,  &c.,  and  the  relative  sections  of  the  articles 

on  individual  countries  and  states. ^ 

given  by  the  lovely  Faenza  plate  in  the  British  Museum,  on  which  is 
painted  a  copy  of  Martin's  beautiful  engraving  of  the  Death  ot  the 
Virgin  ;  see  POTTERT,  vol.  xix.  p.  627.  .     ,  r,  ■  ,    i,« » 

■■See  Bartsch,  Peintre  Graveur,  andWillsh.re,  Ancient  Prints,  b(?st 
edition  of  1877.  According  to  a  German  tradition  Schongauer  was 
the  inventor  ot  printing  from  metal  plates  ;  he  certainly  was  on,  ol 
the  first  who  brought  the  art  to  perfection.  See  an  interestmg  article 
by  Sidney  Colvin  in  the  Juhrbuch  der  k.  preussis  hen  KunslsammlunJ,. 
vi.  p.  69,  Berlin,  1885. 


'433 


SCHOOLS     OF     PAINTING 


mi 


iiicUio4 
of  work 
ing. 


HE  word  "  school  "  as  applied  to  painting  •  is  used  with 
I  various  more  or  less  comprehensive  meanings.  In 
its  widest  sense  it  includes  all  the  painters  of  one  country, 
of  every  date, — as,  for  example,  "the  Italian  school."  In 
its  narrowest  sense  it  denotes  a  group  of  painters  who  all 
worked  under  the  influence  of  one  man, — as,  for  example, 
"the  school  of  Rapha'el."  In  a  third  sense  it- is  ajiplied  to 
the  painters  of  one  city  or  province  who  for  successive 
generations  worked  under  some  common  local  influence, 
and  with  some  general  similarity  in  design,  colour,  or 
technique, — as,  for  example,  "the  Florentine  school,"  "the 
Umbrian  school."  For  many  reasons  the  existence  of 
well-defined  schooU  of  painting  is  now  almost  wholly  a 
thing  of  the  past,  and  the  conditions  under  which  the 
modern  artist  gains  his  education,  finds  his  patrons,  and 
carries  out  his  work  have  little  in  common  with  those 
which  were  prevalent  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  Painters 
in  the  old  times  were  closely  bound  together  as  fellow- 
members  of  a  painters'  guild,  with  its  clearly  defined  set  of 
rules  and  traditions  ;  moreover,  the  universal  system  of 
apprenticeshii),  which  compelled  the  young  painter  to  work 
for  a  term  of  years  in  the  Uiltfi/n  or  studio  of  .some  estab- 
li.-.lied  freednian  of  the  guild,  frequently  cau.'ied  the  impress 
of  the  genius  of  one  man  to  be  very  clearly  stamped  on  a 
large  number  of  pupiU,  who  thts  all  picked  up  and  fre- 
qnently  retained  for  life  certain  tricks  of  manner  or  peculi- 
arities of  method  w  hich  often  make  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  authorship  of  a  special  painting.-  The  strong  similar- 
ity which  often  runs  through  the  productions  of  several 
artists  who  had  been  fellow-pupil-i  under  the  same  master 
was  largely  increased  by  the  fact  that  most  popular 
painters,  such  as  Botticelli  or  rerugino,  turned  out  from 
their  liotti'ijltit  many  picture.-,  to  wliicli  the  master  himself 
contributed  little  beyond  the  general  design, — the  actual 
execution  being  in  part  or  even  wholly  the  work  of  pupils 
or  paid  assistants.  It  was  not  beneath  the  dignity  of  a 
great  painter  to  turn  out  works  at  ilitt'erent  scales  of  prices 
to  suit  rich  or  poor,  varying  from  the  well-paid-for  altar- 
piece  given  by  some  wealthy  donor,  wliich  the  master 
would  paint  wholly  with  liis  own  hand,  down  to  the 
humble  bit  of  decoi alive  work  lor  llie  sides  of  a  wedding 
cnssoiie,  which  would  be  left  entirely  to  the  'prentice  hand 
of  a  pu[)il.  In  other  cases  the  heads  only  in  a  picture 
would  be  by  tho  master  himself  or  possibly  the  whole  of 
the  principal  figure-,  the  background  and  acces.sories  being 
left  to  assistant.s.  The  Imyer  sometimes  stipulated  in  a 
carefully  drawn  up  coii'i.ut  thai  the  cartoon  or  design 
should  be  wholly  the  work  of  the  m;vster,  and  that  he 
should  himself  transfer  it  on  to  tJie  wall  or  paiicl.  It  will 
thus  be  setii  how  impossible  it  is  always  to  deride  whether 
'^  picture  should  bo  classc.l  as  a  ]Mtce  of  Iju'/nj:!  work  or 
OS  a  genuine  pr  .JuctiiMi  of  a  iioied  iimslcr  ,  and  this  will 
explain  the  stiange  inequality  cf  exeiMtioii  which  is  so 
striking  in  many  of  the  works  of  the  oil  masters,  especially 
the  Italians.  .\ni'->ng  the  early  Flemi.-^h  and  Dutch  (lamteis 
this  method  of  painting  does  noi  appeor  to  have  been  so 
largely  practised,  probably  because  they  considered  minute 
perfection  of  workmanship  to  be  of  paramount  iiiiiio.  taiice. 

1.    Itntmn. 
In   Italy,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  tho  Byzantine 
school    of    painting   was   for  many   centuries   iiiiivcr^ally 
prevalent,'' and  it  was  i-ot  idl  quite  the  end  of  the  13th 

'  For  cl.xsaii-al  pAii.l*  Iff  tmiv  AncH  tot.'Xir  vlI.  II.  p.  343  »/.  ,  see 
also  Fresco.  Mcu,\l  DacoraTioN,  IcMi'tK.v,  auJ  tho  articles  ou 
kepAratu  [■nnitt-m. 

-  Tins  U  espt-ciftlly  the  caw  with  tlic  nnmerous  pupifa  of  PcniglDO. 

'   Sec  MUKAL  DtCOR.XTIOX,  vol  XMI.   p.   43  */. 

31—17 


century  that  one  man  of  extraordinary  talent — Giotto — 
broke  through  the  long-established  traditions  and  inaugu- 
rated the  true  Renaissance  of  this  art.  According  to  Vasari, 
it  was  Cimabue  who  first  ceased  to  work  in  the  Byzantine 
manner;  but  the  truth  is  that  his  pictures,  though  ctrtainly 
superior  to  those  of  his  predecessors,  are  thoroughly  charac- 
teristic specimens  of  tho  Byzantine  style.  Ghiberti,  in  his 
Qommentnry  (a  century  earlier  than  Vasari's  work),  with 
greater  accuracy  remarks  that  both  Duccio  of  Siena  and 
Cimabue  worked  in  the  Byzantine  manner,  and  that  Giotto 
was  the  first  who  learnt  to  paint  with  naturalistic  truth. 

In  the  12th  and  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century  Pisa  Lucco 
and  Lucca  were  the  chief  seats  of  what  rude  painting  then  ex-  ""J  PI** 
isted  in  Italy.  A 
numberof  works 
of  this  date  still 
exist,  chiefly 
jiainted  Cruci- 
fixions treated 
in  the  most  con- 
ventional By- 
zantine manner. 
Giunta  Pisano, 
who  was  paint- 
ing in  the  first 
half  of  the  13lh 
century,  A\-as  a 
little  superior 
to  the  otherwise 
dead  level  of 
hieratic  conven- 
tionalism. He 
is  said  to  have  I 
been  Cimabue's  ' 
master.  In  the 
14th  century 
[lainting  in  Pisa ! 

was  either  Flor- ,,      .      „    .       ,     .      .    .    ,     ,,      •    ,-t, 

^^.         I- IC.  1 Cfiitri;  of  .1  Iript)  L-li,  by  Diii.x-Lu  di  Buoiim- 

entine  or  bien-  se^ia, — the  Madonna  wilh  Angels,  anti,  above, 
Cse  in  style.  Da\-id    and   six    Prophets.       (National   Galler}-, 

Kg  city,  not     Lon.lon.)  g.^_^^ 

even  Florence,  was  so  fertile  as  Siena  in  native  painters 
during  the  13tli  and  14th  centuries.  The  earliest,  work- 
iiigbeforel300, 
did  not  emanci- 
pate themselves 
from  the  old 
Byzantine  man- 
nerism ;  Guido 
da  Siena,  Duc- 
cio (see  fig. 
1 )  and  Segna 
di  Buoninsegna 
po.s.sessed  many 
of  the  pcculi- 
aritn-s  of  the 
old  school, — its 
rigid  attitudes, 
Its  Uiin  stiff 
foMs,  and  its 
greenish  sha- 
dows i.-.  the 
flesh  tints.     In  L 

the  first  half  of       Fic,  2  — Madcum   h^  c 
thcl4tli  century  Gallery.) 

a  number  of  very  able  painters  were  carrying  on  at  Siena  a 
parallel  development  to  that  which  Giotto  had  inaugurated 

XXI.  —  s.! 


"^"A^^.^^ 


(,\aUoual 


434 


SCHOOLS      OF      P.A  I  N  T  I  N  G 


at  Florence ;  chief  among  them  were  Simone  di,  Martino, 
Lippo    !Memrai,    and   especially    Ambrogio   Lorenzetti,   a 


Fio.  3. — Fresco  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  Florence,  by  Giotto — 
the  Disciples  of  St  Francis  discovering  the  atigraata  on  his  Body. 

oainter  of  both  panels  and  large  frescos,  v/hich  show  rich 
and  noble  imaginative  power  and  much  technical  skill.  It 
is  important  to 
note  that  Ambrogio 
and  probably  other 
painters  of  his  time 
"K'ere,  like  the  ear- 
lier Pisan  Niccola, 
beginning  to  study 
,the  then  rare  ex- 
amples of  classical 
sculpture.  Ghiberti, 
in  his  Commentary^ 
speaks  with  enthu-  _ 

„;„„„     f  1.1      1         1     flG.  4. — )■  resco  over  a  door  m  tlie  cloister  of 
8iasm  of  tJie  beauty      t,,,  ,„„,,„t  „f  s_  jj,,^^„  ^j  Florence,  by  Fra 

of  an  antique  statue      Angelico— Christ  meeting  St  Domenic  and 

which  he  knew  only     St  Francis. 

from     a     drawing    by    Ambrogio    Lorenzetti.       In    the 

Becond  half  of  the   14th  century  Siena  produced  a  large 


Fig.  5. — Picture  oe  canvas  in  the  Ulhzi,  Florence,  by  Botticelli — the 
Birth  of  Venus. 

number  of  more  mediocre  pointers ;  but  these  were  suc- 
ceeded by  an  abler  generation,  among  whom  the  chief  were 


Fig.  F  — Tlie  Annunciation,  by  Liiij'O  Lij.i^.      (National  Gallery.) 
perhaps  Sano  di  Pietro  and  Matteo  di  Giovanni,  whose 
^I'and  altarpiece  ^No.  ill55),  recently  accjuired,  is  one  of 


Many  ex- 


the  glories  of  the  Ei 
cellent  masters  were 
working     at    Siena 
throughout  the  15th 
century    and     even 
later;  the  last  narnes 
of  any  real  note  are 
those  of  Peruzzi  and 
Beccafumi.       Sodo 
ma,  thoughhesettled 
in   Siena    in    1501, 
does   not  belong   to 
the  school  of  Siena  , 
his    early    Life    was 
passed     at     Milan, 
chiefly     under     the  I 
influence      of      Da  I 
Vinci.       His    talent  I 
was     developed     at  j 
Rome  among  the  fol 
lowers  of  Raphael. 

On  the  whole  the  Fiu   7  —Portrait  bead   by  Gbirlanlaio,  fronl  Flotvn 
Florentine        school      one  of  his  frescos  m  the  letio  choir  of  S. 
surpasses  in  import-     •^'"'■'"  ^'"^"^"^  ^'  Florence, 
ance  all  o^Jiers  throughout  Italy       Cimabue    though  he 


Fig.  8. — The  so-called  School  of  Pan,  by  SigiioroUi,  the  most  beautiful 
of  his  easel  pictures.     (Berlin  Gallery.) 

did  not  emancipate  himself  from  the  Byzantine  manner, 

was  a  painter  of  real 

genius   (see    fig.    2).  "^)f~~^>  fC^ 

(iiotto     is     perhaps'  r^  i^         .mtE.,  ,    iBi 

the  most  important 
painter  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  develop- 
ment of  art,  for 
during  the  whole  of 
the  .  Hth  ■  century 
the  painters  of  Flor- 
ence may  be  said 
to  have  been  his 
[lupils  and  imitators 
(see  fig.  3).  Orcag- 
na  alone  developed 
rather  a  dirferent 
line,  more  richly  de- 
orative  in  style  and 
brighter  in  colour, — 
a  link  between  the 
art  of  Giotto  and  -^^,  ,  _ 
that  of  Siena.   In  the  IWl^^V,  '^ 


1  5th    century     Flor-  Fit.  9.— Fresco  of  Is.aiah,  by  Michelangelo, 
ence  reached  its  pe-        ^roxn  tlie  vault  of  the  Sistine  Chapel. 
riod  of  highest  artistic  splendour  and  developed  an  almost 


dCHOOLS     OF      PAINTING 


435 


naturalistic  school,  which  appears  to  have  been  inaugurated 
by  Masolino  and  Masaccio.  Some  few  painters,  such  as 
Fra  Angelico  (see  fig.  4)  and  his  pupil  Benozzo  Gozzoli, 
produced  more  purely  sacred  and  decorative  work,  follow- 
ing the  lead  of  Orcagna.  As  Baron  Rumohr  has  pointed 
out,  the  main  bulk  of  the  Florentine  15th-century  painters 
may  be  divided  into  three  groups  with  different  character- 
istics. The  first,  including  Masolino,  Masaccio,  Lippo 
Lippi,  Botticelli,  Filippino  Lippi,  and  their  pupils,  aimed 
especially  at  strong  action,  dramatic  force,  and  passionate 
expression  (see  figs.  5  and  6).  The  second,  including 
Baldovinetti,  Ros- 
selli,  Ghirlandaio, 
and  his  pupils,  are 
remarkable  fcr  real- 
istic truth  and  vigor- 
ous individuality  (see 
fig.  7).  To  the  third 
belong  Ghiberti,  who 
began  lifeas  apainter, 
PoUaiuolo,^  Verroc- 
chio,  and  his  pupils 
Leonardo  da  Vinci 
and  Lorenzo  di  Credi, 
— a  group  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  prac- 
tice of  the  arts  of  the 
goldsmith  and  the 
sculptor.  Signorelli, 
whose  chief  works 
are  at  Orvieto  and 
Monte  Oliveto  near 
Siena,  was  remark-  Fxa.  10. — Baptum  of  Christ,  hy  Piero  delta 
able    for    his    know-  Francesci.     (National  Gallery  ) 

ledge  and  piasterly  treatment  of  the  nude  (see  fig  8) 
and  had  much  influence  on  the  early  development  of 
Michelangelo,  whose  gigantic  genius  in  later  life  p  oduced 
the  most  original  and  powerful  works  that  the  modern 
world  has  seen  (see  fig.  9).  Andrea  del  Sarto  was  one 
of  the  last  artists  of  the  golden  age  of  painting  in 
Florence ;  the  soft  beauty  of  his  works  is,-  however,  often 
marred  by  a  monotonous  mannerism.  To  him  are  wrongly 
attributed  many  paintings  by  Puligo  and  other  schohrs 


Jmbru. 


Fla.  11. — TliQ  Adoration  of  tlic  Shepherds,  by  Fioreuzo  dl  Loreiuo 
(Gallery  at  Pcnigia. ) 

■who  imitated  his  style  with  various  degrees  of  closeness. 
The  ICth  century  in  Florence  was  a  period  of  the  most 
rapid  decline  and  wa.s  for  long  chiefly  remarkable  for  its 
feeble  caricatures  of  Michelangelo's  inimitable  style. 

Between  the  end  of  the  14th  and  the  beginning  of  the 


*  It  Is  interesting  to  note  how  Ant.  PoUaiiioIo's  fine  figure  of  St 
SeWitian  in  the  National  Gallery  (Lonilon)  resembles  the  fitatuc  of  the 
nume  saint  in  Lucca  cathedral  by  Matteo  Civitale. 


i6th  century  the  Umbrian  school  produced  many  painter" 
of  great  importance 
grouped  around  a 
number  of  different 
centres,  such  as  Gub- 
bio,  where  Ottaviano 
Nelli  lived;  San  Se- 
verino,  with  its  two 
Lorenzos ;  Fabriano, 
famed  for  its  able 
masters  Allegretto 
Nuzi  and  Gentile  da 
Fabriano  ;  Foligno, 
whence  Niccolo  took 
his  name;  and  above 
all  Borgo  San  Sepol 
cro,  where  Piero  della 
Francesca  was  born 
Piero  was  one  of  tlvp 
most  charming  of  all 
painters  for  his  deli 
cate  modelling,  ten- 
der colour,  and  beauty 
of  expression  (see  fig 
10).  His  masterpiece, 
a  large  altar-painting 
of  the  Madpnna  en 
throned,  with  stand 
ing  saints  at  the  side 
andinfrontakneeling 

portrait  of  Duke  Fed  Fio.  12.— Centre  of  tiiptjch,  bj  raugii,,., 
erigo  da  Montefeltro,  painted  for  the  Certosa  near  Pavia.  (Na 
in  the  Brera  gallery,     tional  Gallery.) 


jt   t       1  Mag. 

(National  Gallery.) 


FiC   13 —The  Ma  loi  nil    t    c  n  St  T  1     L 
dalene,  by  Andrea  Mantegna,  on  canv.a.s. 
is.  Strange  to  say,  attributed  to  his  pupil  Fra  Carnovale.' 

'  The  attribution  of  tliis  m.agnificent  picture  to  Fra  Camovale  resto 
wholly  on  a  fitatemeut,  evidently  erroneous,  of  Pungileoui ;  and  henco 
many  other  works  by  Piero,  such  as  the  St  Michael  in  the  National 
Gallery,  are  wrongly  given  to  Camovale.  It  is  dtubtCul  whether  any 
genuine  picture  by  the  latter  is  now  known  ;  if  the  Brera  picture  were 
really  by  him  ho  would  nut  only  be  greater  than  hi.s  master  Piero,  but 
would  be  one  of  the  chief  painters  of  the  15th  century. 


436 


SCHOOLS      OF      P  A  1,  K  T  I  N  G 


Padui 


ut  retable,   by 
(National  Gal- 


Centile  da  Fabriaiio  worked  iii  the  purely  religious  and 
richly  decorative, style  that  characterized  Fra  Angelico  at 
Perugia.  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo  (see  fig.  11)  and  Bonfigli 
l)reijared  the  way  for  Perugino  (see  fig.  12)  and  his  pupils 
Pinturicchio,  Rai^hael,  Lo  Spagna,  and  others.  Tiinoteo 
Viti  was  another  Umbrian  painter  of  great  ability,  whose 
portrait  by  Raphael  in  black  and  red  chalk  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  drawings  in  the  Print  Kooni  of  the 
British  .Museum. 

The  Paduau  school  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  great 
name  of  Andrea  Mantegna,  the  )iupil  of   ^ 
firm  and  sculpturesque  draw- 
ing is  combined  with  great 
beauty  of  colour  and  vigor- 
ous e.^pression  (see  fig.  13). 

His     pupil     Montagna    also 

studied   under  Gian.   Bellini 

at  Venice.    Andrea  Mantegna  pS 

influenced  and  was  influenced 

by,  the  Venetian  school ;   to 

him  are  attributed  many  of 

the   early  paintings    of    his 

brother-in-law  Gian.  Bellini, 

such  as  the  Vatican  Pietk,  and 

other  works  more  remarkable 

for  vigour  than  for  grace. 
Mezzo.        The  school  of  Arezzo  was 

early     in     its     development. 

Margaritone,  who  is  absurdly 

overpraised    by    his    fellow- 

fownsman    Vasari,     was    an 

artist    of    the    most    feeble 

abilities.      In  the  1-ith  cen- pj^    i4_|^,„;. 

tury   Arezzo    produced   such     Crivelli,  147S. 

.ible  painters  as  Spinello  di     lery.) 

Luca,  Kiccolo  di  Gerini,  and  Lorenzo  di  Bicci.     In  the 

15th    century  it   possessed   no   native   school  worth  re- 
cording. 
Vewse.        Venice  did  not  come  into  prominence  till  the  15th  cen- 
tury; the  Vivarini  family  of  Murano  were  at  work  about 

the  middle  of  it,  and  &^f^pt!:^-'''mi'Ms;ih'S 


were  perhaps  influ-  "  """' 
enced  by  the  Ger 
man  style  of  a  con- 
temporairy  painter 
from  Cologne,  kno'ivn 
as  Johannes  Aleman- 
uus,  who  had  settled 
in  Venice.  Som-^- 
years  later  the  tech- 
nical methods  oi 
Flanders  were  intro- 
duced by  Antonello 
of  Messina,  ■  who  is 
said  to  have  learnt 
the  secret  of  an  oil 
medium  from  the 
Van  Eycks.i  Cri- 
velli, an  able  though 
mamiered  painter  of 
the  second  half  of  fia.  15. —Portrait  of  Doge  Loreauuo,  by  GL-mT 
the     15th    century,  EelUni.     (National  GaUery.)- 

adhered  to  an  earlier  type  than  his  contemporaries  (see 
fig.   1-1).      Gian.   Bellini   is  one  of   the  chief   glories  of 

*  *  Antouello  certainly  possessed  tecliiiic.al  knowledge  beyond  that  of 
Iii3  contemporaries  in  Venice,  namely,  that  of  glazing  in  transparent 
oil  coloui-s  over  a  tempei-a  gi-onnd,  and  he  must  either  in  Italy  or  in 
Flandei-s  have  come  in  contact  with  some  painter  of  the  Flemish 
Bchool  ;  many  of  the  chief  Flemish  vr.intc-rs  visited  Italy  in  the  15th 
teotury. 


the  Venetian  school  (see  fig  15);  as  ire  also  in  a  second 
ary  de{.ree  his  trother  Gentile  and  hi,  puj-il  "S  I'tore 
^ 


oo  called  b.icred  ai;'l  1  ruUiie  Lo\e,  by  iiti,iiu 
(Borghese  Gallery,  Eome.) 

Carpaccio.-  In  the  following  century  Venice  possessed  a 
school  which  for  glory  of  colour  and  technical  power  has 
never  been  rivalled, ' 
though  it  soon  lost 
the  sweet  religious 
sentiment  of  the  ear- 
lier Venetians.  The 
chief  names  of  this 
epoch  are  Palma 
Vecchio,  Giorgione, 
Titian  (see  fig.  16)., 
and  Lorenzo  Lotto, 
— the  last  a  magnifi- 
cent portrait  painter, 
a  branch  of  art  in 
"ivhicb  Venice  occu- 
pied the  ■  highest 
rank.  In  the  16th 
century  Tintoretto 
and  Paul  Veronese 
were  supreme  (see 
fig.  17).-  In  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries 
Venice  produced 
some  fairly  good 
work. 


Fia. 


17* — V.arions  saints,  Ijy  Paul  Veronese. 
(Brera  Gallery,  Milan.) 

The  Brescian  school  has  Bequeathed  two  very  illustrious  1 
names, — Jloretto   and   his   pupil   Morpni,    both   portrait 
painters  of  extraordinary  power  durins;  the  16th  century 
(see  fig.  18).     Mo-  .       "  '  -  .    , 

retto   also    painted  ^«.  -v.  i 

some      fine      larg  .    '' "     'i,  i 

altar-i^ieces,  remark  •■.  _  < 

able  for  their  deli  7 

cate  silver  -  grey 
tones  and  refined  i 
modelling..  Ho- 1 
maniuo  was  an  ex- 
tremely able  jiainter  1 
of  frescos  as  well  as  j 
of  easel  pictures. 

The     school     of  | 
Verona,    which   ex- 
i-»ed  from  the  13th  I 

•  he  17th  century, 
. .  ntains  few  names  j 

of   highest   import- 1 

ance ;  except  that  of  f^^J 
Pisanello,  the  chief  E 
were  painters  of  the     Fic.  18. — Portr.-ut  of  ,a  ..i_..l 

end  of  the  15th  and  (National  Gaaeiy.j 

the  early  part  of  the  16th  century,  as  Domenico  and  Fran- 
cesco Morone,  Bonsignori,  Girolamo  dai  Libri,  and  Cavaz- 


^  It  should  be  noted  that  tliere  are  a  large  uuiiibL-r  of  forged  signa- 
tures of  Giau-  Bellini,  ninny.of  them  attached  to  their  own  pictures 
by  his  pupils,  such  as  Catena  and  Rondinclii. 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


437 


zola..  Paul  Veronese,  thougli  at  first  he  painted  in  his 
native  town,  soon  attached  himself  to  the  Venetian  school. 
Jowra.  Ferrara  possessed  a  small  native  school  in  the  15th  and 
1 6th  centuries,  Cosimo  Tura,  Ercole  Grandi,  Dosso  Dcssi, 
and  Garofalo  heing  among  the  chief  artists.  The  paintings' 
pf  this  school  are  often  vigorous  in  drawing,  but  rather 
mannered,  and  usually  somewhat  hard  in  colour.     After 


Fia.  19. — Pieta,  by  Francia.     (National  Gallery.) 
1470  there  waa  an  intimate  connexion  between  the  schools 
of  Ferrara  and  Bologna. 
a«ioguj.      The  Bologna  school  existed,  thougli  not  in  a  very  char- 
acteristic form,  in  thr  lith  century. 
Frihcia  and.  Lorenzo  Costa  of  Fer- 
rara were  its  chief  painters  at  the 
tnd  of  the  15th  century  (see  fig. 
■19).  ~  It  was,  however,  in  the  16th 
and   17th   centuries   that   Bologna 
toftk  a  leading  plkce  as  a- school  of  gs, 
Italian  painting,  the  beginning  of '  *' 
which  dates  from  about  1480,  when 
several  able  painters  from  Ferrara 
settled  in  Bologha.  •  Th6  three  Car- 
acci,  Guido  (see  fig.  20),  Domeni-  "^-^-'S'.-J^'^ 

chino,  and  Guercino  were  the  most  Fio.  20;— Etce  Homo,  by 
admired  painters  of  their  time,  and  f^^'^°-  (Ni^tional  Gal- 
continued  to  be  esteemed  far  be-  ■ 
yond  their  real  value  tiU  about  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century.  Since  then,  however,  the  strong  reaction  in 
favour  of  earlier  art  has  gone  to  the  other  extreme,  and 
the  roal  merits  of  the  Bolognese  school,  such  as  their 
powerful  dra\\'ing 
and  skilful  though 
visibly  scholastic 
composition,  are  now 
usually  overlooked. 

Both  Modena  and 
Parma  possessed  me- 
diocre painters  in  the 
14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies. In  the  16th 
Correggio  and  his 
pupil  Parmigiano 
attained  to  a  very 
high  degree  of  popu- 
larity. Correggio, 
who  was  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  Fer- 
rara-Bologna  school, 
is  sometimes  weak  in 
drawing  and  affected 
in  compo.sitioii,  but 
will  fihvays  be  es- 
teemed for  the  rich 
aoftnes.s  of  his  model- 
ling and  the  delicate  Fio.  21. — The  Education  of  Cupid,  byCor- 
pearly  tone  of  his  flesh  "KS'O-    (Natioual  GallJry. ) 

tints.     I'ig.  21  is  an  excellent  example  of  his  style,  though 
ranch  iiyured  by  repainting. 


Uodena 
▼an*  4, 


The  small  school  of  Cremona  occupies  only  f,  .«;ubordi- Crcima 
nate  position.     Boccaccino  was  its  ablest  painter  ;  his  rare 
works  are  remarkable  for  conscientious  finish,  combined 
with  some  provincial  mannerism. 

In  the  15th  and  early  part  of  the  16th  century  Miktu  Jlikii. 
had  one  of  the  most  im 
portant  schools  in  Italy, 
its  first  membf  r  of  any 
note  was  Vincenzo  Fop- 
pa,  who  was  paintmg 
in  1457  and  was  the 
founder  of  the  earl} 
school.  Ambrogio  Bor 
gognone  (born  c  1455) 
was  an  artist  of  gre^t 
merit  and  strong  reli 
gious  sentiment.  He 
followed  in  the  foot 
steps  of  Foppa,  and  hi^ 
■pictures  are  remarkable 
for  the  calm  beauty  of 
the  face.?.,  and  for  their 
delicate  colour  (see  fig 
22),  -which  recalls  the 
manner  of  Piero  della 
Francesca.  Leonardo  __ 
da  Vinci,  thoughtramed  j.- 
in  Florence,  may  be  said 
to  have  created  the 
later   Milanese   school. 

Fig.  23  shows  one  of  the  very  few  pictures  by  his  hand 
which  still  exist.     The  marvellous  and  almost  universaJ 
genius    of   Xeo- 
nardo  cJaivsed  bis 
influence   to    be 
powerfully     px- 
oended,  not  only 
among    his  'im- 
mediate   pupih, 
but  also  among 
almost    all     the  f 
Lombard   pain^ 
ers   of    his   o\mi 
and  the  succeed 
ing     generation 
His    closest   fol 
lowers  were  Sa 
laino,  Luini,  C 
sare    da     Sest 
Beltrafiio,       and 
ilarco      d'Oggi 
ono,    and    in    a 
lesser  degree  An 
drea        Solano, 
Gaudenzio    Fer 
rari,     and      So- 
doma,  who  intro 
duced  a  newstj  le  ^!^'"'- 
of  painting  into  Fig   26  -Tl.e  Madouua  «.tli  the  Rocks,  bj  Leo- 


0.  22.— Tlie  Mys.tic  Maixiage  of  St 
Catherius  of  Alexandria  and  St  Cather- 
ine of  Siena  to  Chris-t.  by  Ambrogio 
Eorgo^one.     (National  Gallery.) 


Siena.       Solano 


naido  da  ViucL     (National  C-llcr\  ) 


'also  studied  in  Flanders,  and  in  Venice  under  Gian.  Bel- 
lini, so  that  a  curiously  composite  stylo  is  visible  in  soma 
of  his  magnificent  portraits  (see  fig.  24).  Most  of  tha 
pictures  and  many  drawings  usually  attributed  to  Da  Vinci 
are  really  the  work  of  his  pupils  and  imitators.  Luini, 
in  his  magnificent  frescos,  was  one  of  the  last  painters 
who  preserved  the  religious  dignity  and  simplicity  of  the 
older  mediaeval  schools.  Fresco  painting  was  .practised 
by  the  Milanese  after  it  had  been  generally  abandoned 
elsewhere. 


438 


SCHOOLS     OF      PAIN 


G 


1*3  aVi^rnce  of 


^a{)le: 


Fiu.  24. — i'liitiait  of  a  \'ciietinn 
Senator,  by  Audrea  Solario. 
(National  Galleiy  ) 


Roiua  Rome  has  always  been  remarkable 

native  talent  in  any  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  nearly  all  the 
members  of  the  so-called 
Koman  school  came  from 
other  cities.  This  school  at 
first  consisted  of  the  per 
sonal  pupils  of  Raphael, — 
Fran.  Penni,  Da  Imola,  Gm 
lio  Romano,  and  Del  V  "i 
Sassoferrato  and  Carlo  Ma- 
ratta  were  feeble  but  Ter> 
popular  painter?  in  the  17th 
century. 

The  early  history  of  the 
Neapolitan  school  is  mosth 
mythical ;  it  had  no  indi- 
vidual existence  till  the  16th 
century,  and  then  chiefly 
in  the  person  of  Caravaggio.  During  the  15th  cen- 
tury many  works  cf  the  Van  Eyeks  and  other  Flemish 
painters  were  imported  into  Naples ;  some  of  these 
were  afterwards  claimed  by  the  vanity  of  native  writers 
as  paintings  by  early  Neapolitan  artists,  for  whom  ima- 
ginary names  and  his 
tories  were  invented 
The  Spaniard  Rib 
Salvator      Rosa, 

Giordano  were  its  chal  j,   ^        «      Jl 
members    in   the 
century. 

2.   German. 

'Germau        It  i^as  especially  at 

•chooL  Cologne  in  Westi)lialia 
and  in  the  Rhine  pro- 
vinces generally  that 
German  painting  was 
developed  at  an  early 
time.  William  of  Col- 
ogne, ■who  died  about 
1378,  painted  panels 
with  ranch  delicacy  and 
richness  of  colour  (see 
fig.  25).  A  number  of 
large  and  highly  finished 
altarpieces  were  painted  Fio.  2:.— bt  Verouica,  by  Willnm  of 
in  this  part  of  Germany  Ca\a^^.     (Naticn.il  Ga'.Ierj-.) 

during  the  loth  century,  but  the  names  of  very  few  of  the 
painters  of  that  time  " 


are  known.     Artist; 

such  as  Schongauei, 

Von  Meckenon,  Crr.  ' 

oach,     and      other .  | 

.vers  more  at  homi  ' 

in  the  engraving  of 

copper     and     woo  1 

than  in  painting,  an  1 1 

to  some  extent  tli 

same  might  be  sai  1 1  ^ 

of  Albert  Durer,  an 

artist  of  the  highest 

and  most  varied  ti 

lents,  who  especial)  v 

excelled  as  a  jjortrait 

painter  (see  fig.  26)  l^^ 

The  Hans  Holbeins, 

father    and  son,   es-    ■^"^'  -'^ 

pecially    the    latter. 

attained  the  highest  rank  as  portrait  painters 


can  exceed  the  vivid  tiutkfulness  and  exquisitt  work-' 
nianship  oi  the  por- 
traits by  the  youngtr 
Holbein  (see  fig.  27), 
who  also  painted  very 
beautiful  religioui 
pictures.  Since  his 
time  Germany  has 
produced  few  note 
worthy  painters.  In 
the  19th  centur\ 
Overbeck  was  remark 
able  for  an  attempi, 
to  .revive  the  lon_ 
dead  religious  spuit 
in  painting,  and  h 
attained  much  popu 
larit7,which,howe\  i,r, 
has  now  almost  wholly 
died  away. 

3.  FlanisJi. 
Hubert    and     Jan  '■^'<)V»]\]  ''  Tho^Ta» 

van  Eyck,   who  were  Fig.  27. — Portrait  of  an  Unknown  Lady,  ty '■SV''?  . 
painting    at    the    be  Ho  bem      ^The  Hague  Galler)  )  '^^'^'^^^^-^'S 

ginning  of   the  15th   cent 'ry    were  artists  of  the  verv 
highest  rank ;    with 
their  unrivalled  tecl 
nical  skill,  their  e^ 
quisite  finish,  and  ti 
splendour    of     the 
colour,  they  produce 
works  which  in  sonr  >, 
respects     even     .sui 
passed  those  of  a  ) 
of  the  Italian  paint 
ers.       Probably    no 
other     artists     ever 
lavished    time     ard 
patient  labour  quit 
to  the  same   extei  t 
to    -which    Jan   va 
Eyck  did  upon  somt 
of    his   works,   such 
as  the  Arnolfiui  and  Fio 
0  her  portraits  in  the 
K  ationi 


UiZ 


(N   t  ui    It    U  rj  ) 
Gallery  (see  fig.  28);  and  the  Madonna  with  the 


-r  t 

Durer. 


f  a  ^       '   •■    bl  Altcrt 
(National  Gallery.) 

nothing 


Fic.  29.— Tlie  Eutoiubnient  of  C'urist,  by  Van  der  Weyden  the  eUer. 
painted  in  tempera  on  unprimed  linen.     (National  Gallery.) 

kneeling  Donor  in  the  Louvre.     This  last  is  one  o£  the^ 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


439 


30.— bt  ll.irj   M.ig(l.i 
tlie  younger  Vaa  der  Weydeu. 
Gallery.) 


(National 


loyeliest  pictures  in  the  world,  both  as  a  figure  painting 
and  from  its  exquisite  miniature  landscape  and  town  in 
the  distance,  all  glowing  with  the  warm  light  of  the  setting 
sun.  The  elder  Van  der  Weyden  was  a  most  able  pupil  of 
the  Van  Eyeks ;  he  occasionally  practised  a  very  different 
technical  method  from  that  usually  employed  in  Flanders, — 
that  is  to  say,  he  painted  in  pure  tempera  colours  on  un- 
primed  linen,  the  flesh  tints  especially  being  laid  on  ex- 
tremely thin,  so  that  the  texture  of  the  linen  remains 
unhidden.  Other  colours,  such  as  a  smalto  blue  used  for 
draperies,  are  applied  in  greater  body,  and  the  whole  is 
left  uncovered  by  any  varnish.  A  very  perfect  example 
of  this  exists  in  the  National  Gallery  (see  fig  29)  The 
special  method  used 
with  such  success  by 
the  Van  Eycks  and 
their  school  was 
paint  the  whole  p 
ture  carefully  in  tem 
pera  and  tlien  to 
glaze  it  over  in  trans- 
parent oil  colours , 
the  use  of  oil*  as  a 
medium  was  com 
mon  in  the  13th 
century  and  even 
earlier  (see  MUR  u. 
Decoration).  To 
the  school  of  the 
Van  Eycks  belong 
a  number  of  other 
very  talented  paint  fiq, 
ers,  who  inherited 
much  of  their  mar- 
vellous delicacy  of  finish  and  richness  of  colour ;  the  chief 
of  these  were  Memling,  Van  der  Meire,  and  the  younger 
Van  der  Weyden,  to  whom  is  attributed  No.  0.54  in  the 
National  GLllery  (see  fig.  30).  The  colour  of  this  lovely 
picture  is  magnificent  beyond  a^l  description.  Quintin 
Malsys  (Massys)  and  .,::.•;,_'»■.  -.:•  .■■ 

Gheerardt  David  also 
produced  works  of 
great  beauty  and  ex- 
traordinary finished 
execution.^ 
lettT  At   the   beginning 

Onnth  of  the  16th  century 
Flemish  art  began  to 
lose  rapidly  in  vigour, 
a  weaker  style  being 
substituted  under  the 
influence  of  Italy.  To 
this  period  belong 
Mabu.se,  Van  Orley, 
and  Patinir,  who  ap- 
pear to  have  bt«  n 
special  admirers  ot 
Raphae''3  latest  man- 
ner, la  the  latter  half 
of  the  century  Antonij 
Mor,  usually  known  Fio.  31. — Portrait  by  Rubens,  Itnown  as  the 
as  Antonio  More,  was  "Chapeau  de  PoiL"  (.National  Gallery.) 
a  portrait    painter  of   the  very  highest  rank.      A   por- 

*  Elaborate  directions  for  painting  in  oil  are  given  by  the  Gerniair 
monk  Theophilu.^  {Scked.  div.  art.,  i,  37,  38),  who  wrote  in  the  12th 
century. 

•  Though  the  elder  Van  der  Weyden  and  other  Flemish  paintera  of 
Ilia  time  vi.sited  Italy,  the  Italian  style  of  painting  appears  to  have 
h*d  very  little  influence  on  their  vigorous  work.s.  The  weaker  Flemish 
paintent  of  the  16th  century*,  on  the  contrary,  were  close  imitators  of 
the  Itoliims  and  produced  pictures  of  a  rather  feebly  pretty  type. 


trait  of  Queen  Mary  of  England  at  Madrid,  and  one  of  a 
youth  of  the  Farnese  family  at  Taniia,  are  real  masterpieces 


of    portraiture.      He 


spent  some  time  in  / 
England.  The  Breu-  ', 
ghel  family  in  the 
16th  and  17  th  cen- 
turiesproduced  feeble 
works  finished  with 
microscoiiic  detail. 
Rubens  and  his  pupil 
Vandyck  in  the  17th 
century  were  among 
the  greatest  portrait 
painters  the  world  ^ 
lias  ever  seen  (see 
figs.  31  and  32),  and 
had  many  able  fol- 
lowers on  the  Con- 
tinent  and    in   Eng- Fio  i2— rnrti  ii   n   n  in  \  i    i  r(,,i  t, 

and.  *  by  Vaudy.,k  or  Uubei.s.  (National  Gallery.) 

4.    Bvtc/l. 
This  school  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  painters  of  Dutch 
;/pnre  subjects,  often  treated  with  a  very  ignoble  realism,  stliool, 
especially  by  the  various  members  of  the  Teniers  family. 
Rembrandt,  the  greatest  painter  of  the  school,  developed 
a  quite  original  style,  reiparkable  for  the  force  shown  in 
his  efi'ective  treatment 

of    light   and    shade.  ^  ^. 

the  vigorous  life  and  -  -^  -'-'-     ^^ 

technical  skill  sho^vn         ,,  '     .,  '  4(/j, 

in  some  of  his  por-  /?  -  '  ^-,  '  '^\'  >■  -'fy 
traits  have  never  been 
surpassed  (.see  fig. 
33).  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, he  cared  but 
little  for  colour,  and 
used  the  etching  .l^^, 
needle  with  special  i;'',|'^ 
enjoyment  and  dex- 
terity. Terburg,  Ger- 
hard Don  ( Douw),  and 
Wouwerman  had  more 
sense  of  beauty,  and 
woTked  with  the  most 
miniature  -  like  deli- 
cacy.   Another  .school 


% 


\i^hmM 


Fio.  33.— Portrait  of  an  01(1  Woman,  bj 
Rembrandt."    (National  Gallery.) 

excelled  in  landscape,  especially  Ri:ysdael  and  Hobbema 
(see  figs.  34  and  3.")).      Vandevelde  was  remarkable  for 


'Fio.  34.  —  Uindicape,  by  Ruysdael.     (National  Gallery.) 
his  sea-pieces,  and  Paul  Potter  for  quiet  pastoral  scenes 
with  exquisitely  painted  cattle.     Throughout  the   17tl» 


440 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


century  the  painters  of  the  D  ^■ch  school  far  outnumbered 


arttool. 


YX'.. 


-Xicv.-  of  MlddelhaniU  in  HoUaiid.  by  Llobbtiiua. 
(National  Gallery.) 


tliose  of  any  other,  and  many  of  them  reached  a  very  fair 
average  of  skiU. 
5.  Spanish. 
The  early  Spanish 
painters  of  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries 
were  merely  feeble 
imitators  "of  Italian 
art.  Many  of  them, 
such  as  Juan  de 
Juanes,  studied  in 
Italy.  Ribalta  and 
Zurbaran  were  per- 
haps the  first  able 
artists  who  deve- 
loped a  national 
style.  The  latter  is 
remarkable  for  his 
paintings  of  monks  ; 
fig.  36  shows  one  of 
the  best  examples. 
His  large  altar^rieces 
are  less  successful. 
Velazquez,  one  of  the 
greatest  masters  of 
skilful  execution  the 

world  has  seen,  was  alike  gi-eat  in  portraiture  (see  fig.  3 
and  in  large  figure 
subjects.     His  early 
religious    paintings, 
executed  under  thf. 
influence  of  Ribalt, 
are   far    inferior   t 
his  later  works,  tli 
best   of    which    ai 
at  Madrid.     Muril! 
is  usually  rather  n. 
dervalued ;    he    w; 
very  unequal  in  hi- 
work,    and    is   well 
represented  nowhere 
except    at     Seville. 
No  words    can   de- 
scribe the   exquisite 
religious  beauty  and 
pathos  of  his  great  '■'' 
picture  of  Christ  on  ^'°-  ^ 
I'le    Cross    bending 
Co'vra  to  embrace  St  Francis. 


Fig.  36  ■ 


T-raiiLi     11  Frnr,  hj  Zurlann 
(^at^.,na!  Oallerj  ) 


19th  century,  was  an  artist  of  great  powijr,  haun'^d  by 
a  hideous  imagination.  Fortuny,  a  very  clever  yoimg 
painter,  who  died  in  Rome  in  1874,  was  remarkable  for 
his  daring  use  of  the  most  brilliant  colour,  with  which  his 
pictures  are  studded  like  a  mosaic.  His  success  has 
caused  him  to  have  countless  imitators,  most  of  whom 
reproduce  the  faults  rather  than  the  merits  of  his  work; 
His  iniiuence  on  modern  Continental  art  has  been  very 
great. 

"6.  French. 

French  art,  like  that  of  Spain,  was  almost  wholly  imder  Fr-nr* 
Italian   influence   during  the    15th  and    16th  centuries.  "='>''>>*- 
Nicolas  Poussin,  in  the   17th  century,  was  the  first  to 
develop  a  native  style,  though  he  was  much  influenced  by 
Titian.     His  best  works  are  bacchanalian  scenes,  of  whic) 
one  of  the  finest  is  in  the  Nat  on^l  Gallery  (see  fig  38) 


J. — Portrait  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  by 
Velazquez.     (National  Gallery.) 

Gnva.  who  lived  into  the 


->^4i 


Fig.  38. — Baccliai^lian  Scene,  by  Nicol.xs  Poussiu,  (Xatiooal  Caller}'.) 
^Mien  at  his  best  his  flesh  painting  resembles  that  of 
Titian,  but  it  is  frequently  marred  by  unpleasant  hot 
colouring.  Claude  Lorraiu  is  remarkable  for  his  beauti 
fill  and  imaginative  landscapes, — often  wanting  in  a  real 
study  of  nature  (see  fig.  39).     His  finest  works  are  in 


Fig.  ."L*.  — Landscape,  by  Claude  Lo:;.;i;i.      iX.-.lxual  Gnllciy.; 

England  (see  p.  445).  Throughout  the  18th  centui-y  the 
French  school  was  veiy  prolific,  but  shared  the  mediocrity 
of  the  age,  the  corruption  and  artificiality  of  which  im- 
pressed themseh-es  strongly  on  the  painting  of  the  time. 
The  most  popular  artists  of  that  century  were  "VYatteai^ 
Boucher,  Greuze,  Claude  Vernet,  Fragonard,  and  David, 
the  reviver  of  the  pseudo-classic  style.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  19th  century  Prud'hon,  Ingres, -Horace  Vernet,  and 
Delaroche— artists  of  only  moderate  merit — were  in  great 
repute,  and  more  deservedly  the  very  brilliant  landscape 
painter  Rousseau.  iliUet,  though  little  valued  during  his 
lifetime,  is  now  highly  appreciated.     Eegnault,  a  very  able 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


441 


painter,  who  wliile  yet  young  was  killed  at  tlie  siege  of 
Paris  in  1S71,  belongs  to  the  latest  development  of  French 
art.  At  present  (1886)  Paris  possesses  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant school  of  art  existing,  and  French  paintei'S  on  the 
whole  are  supreme  in  power  of  drawing  and  in  technical 
iskill.  Unhappily  these  great  merits  are  often  counter- 
balanced by  false  sentimentalism  or  excessive  realism,  and 
especially  by  gross  sensuality.  Art  in  France — that  is,  in 
Paris — is  now  in  a  state  of  the  most  prolific  activity,  and 
is  branching  out  into  new  and  startling  phases,  such  as  the 
impressionist  style,  in  which  form  is  suppressed  for  the 
sake  of  colour,  and  the  naturalist  school,  which  leans  rather 
to  what  is  ugly  or  even  loathsome ;  to  the  latter  belong 
some  of  the  technically  ablest  painters  alive.'  As  in  Spain 
and  Italy,  the  influence  of  Fortuny  is  strong  in  Paris,  and 
Parisian  influence  now  extends  very  widely,  as  the  £cole 
des  Beaux -Arts  is  resorted  to  by  art  students  from  all 
countries  except  Germany. 

7.  British. 

The  modern  Bn 
tish  ^  school  begin 
with  the  painters 
miniature  portra 
in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  amoiu 
whom  the  earli<  ^t 
■were  Nicholas  Hil 
liard  and  Isaac  Oh 
ver,  artists  of  some 
note  in  the  reign  ot 
Elizabeth.  Many 
very  beautiful  minia 
txires  were  produced 
by  them  and  by  the 
younger  Peter  Oh 
♦er,  who  "xise  into 
celebrity  undei  -.-/•/   |      ,  ,, 

the  Commonwealth  p,^  \^  Jportrait  of  Dr  John  ou,  by  Rey- 
Other  able  i^rtrait  nolds.  (National  Gallery.  A  reiilica  of 
painters  of  the  17th  this  exists  in  Pembroke  College,  Oxford. ) 
century  were  the  Scotch  .Tamesone,  a  pupil  of  Riibpns, 
William  Dobson,  a 
pupil  of  Vandyclc,^ 
■id  Samuel  Cooper ; 
but  the  chief  court 
paintei-s  after  the 
Restoration  were  the 
Flemish  Sir  Peter 
Lely  and  Sir  God- 
frey KneUer,  whose 
influence  on  art  in 
England  was  dLsas- 
trons.  The  18th 
century  produced 
many  painters  of  the 
Lighcst  merit,  as 
Hogarth,  who  stands 
unrivalled  as  a  cari- 
caturist and  moral- 
ist, Reynolds  and  his 

rival  Gainsborough,  Fio.  41.— Portrait  of  Mra  Siddons,  by  Gaius- 
BOtable    among   the  borough.     (National  Gallery.) 

chief   portrait  painters  of   the  world   (see   figs.   40  and 

!  '  A  few  years  ago  a  gold  med.il  was  won  at  the  Salon  by  a  iiicturo 
of  Oils  cl.asa, — a  real  in.«terpicce  of  teclinicil  skill.  It  rcincseiited 
Job  .IS  an  emaciated  old  man  coveretl  witli  ulcers,  carefully  studied 
in  tlio  P.arU  hospitals  for  skin  di.seascs. 

'  For  nicdimval  painting  in  Il^gland,  see  Mcb.m,  DEConATios,  vol. 
«M  p.  4i. 

J_V''''d.vck  llnJ  and  worked  in  England  from  1C32  to  IGJl. 
21— J'* 


41),  and  Richard  Wilson,  the  founder  of  the  English  school 
of  landscape,  the  chief  artistic  speciality  of  the  country. 
The  three  brothers  Smith  of  Chichester,  Gainsbdrougii, 
and     later     in    the 

century  John   (Old)  ''  ^  ~ 

Crome  of  Norwich 
and  James  Ward, 
were  all  landscape 
painters  of  great 
ability.  England  has 
since  the  18th  cen- 
tury been  specially 
famed  for  its  school 
of  water-colour  paint- 
ers, of  which  Paul 
Sandby  was  one  of 
the  founders ;  he  was 
followed  by  Wheat- 
ley,  Webber,  Girtin, 
and  Prout.  Sir  Henry 
Raeburn  was  a  Scot- ' 
tish  portrait  painter 
of  the  highest  rank 
(■see  fig.  42),  but  Fio.  42.— Portrait  ofRev.  Arch.  Alison,  by  Sir 
■  as      far      less      ad-    H.  R.ieburn.     (.National  Portrait  Gallery.) 

lired  in  England  than  the  very  feeble  Lawrence.     Little 
can   be  .said    in   favour   of   many  of   the    most   popular 


„>'  ^-^  yy 


—  "  t:\ 


*i^ 


"-»-        -^e- 


l\ii.  -IJ.— Till 


Tcmcmire  towed  to  Iter  la^t  ^I».A;nu^j,  by  Turner. 
(National  Gallery.) 

painters  of  that  time,  as  West,  Barry,  Fuseli,  North- 
cote,  and  Shee,  who  practised  what  was  -considered 
the  highest 

branches  of  art, 
such  as  histori- 
cal [jaintrng 
William  Blake, 
in  spite  of  his 
wonderful  poet 
ical  and  ima 
•,'inative  power 
lived  and  du( 
with  very  inide 
quate  reco^ni 
tion.  To  the  hrsl 
half  of  the  10th 
century  belon 
Turner,  tli 

greatest    of 
landscape  pamt 
ers  (see  fig  43)  j^^^^^ 
and      his     very     p^^  ^^ 
able     contempo 
raries  Constable,  J.  J.  Chalon,  Copley  Fielding,  and  St,  n- 


Uiiite  Gabriel  1- 


XXI.  —  56 


442 


SCHOOLS      OF      P  A  1  :^  T  I  J^   (J 


field.  Scotland  ]irodncc<l  two  of  the  chief  painters  of 
ihia  time  —Sir  "Willmm  Allan  and  Sir  David  V.'ilkie. 
Mulreacly  was  a  fine  diaug'-.t^nian.  .skiIf>U  in  comi)Osition, 
hut  weak  in  C'^lour  Ktty"*i  '-rholasittc  drawing  recalls  the 
merits  and  faults  of  the  fV>lognese  Kciiool,  and  he  is 
frequently  very  fine  in  colour.  Eastlake  was  weak  in 
drawinr^  and  fcelile  in  composition,  i^ir  Edwin  Landseer 
excelled  in  animal  painting,  especially  in  his  rendering  of 
the  texture  of  hair  and  fur,  but  was  frequently  rather 
linrsh  in  rolour  and  commonplace  in  motive.  David 
Itobcrts  is  worthy  of  note  for  his  very  clever  water- 
colours  of  architectural   scenes,  J.  F.  Lewis  for  his  ex- 


quisitely finished  Oriental  subjects,  and  J.  S.  Raven  for  his 
grand  and  imaginative  landscapes,  which,  however,  are  very 
little  known.  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  (see  fig.  44),  who 
died  in  1SS2,  was  one  of  the  chief  painters  of  the  century, 
both  for  the  richness  of  his  colouring  and  for  his  strong 
poetical  imagination  ;  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  "  brotherhood  "  (see  Rossetti),  whose  rise, 
development,  and  widespread  influence  on  painting  in 
Britain  have  been  the  chief  artistic  events  in  this  centurj', 
and  have  produced  a  few  painters  whose  earnestness  of 
purpose  and  originality  of  power  give  them  a  foremost 
and  absolutely  unique  position  in  modern  Eiu-oue, 


LrsT   OF    PAl^TTKr.S. 

The  following  lists  give  the  chief  painters  classified  according  to  their  schools  in  chronological  order.^ 


1.  Ifni;n4  Sihoofs.- 

(1.)  liicrfi  tntd  P'lK'. 

I/itliarins  siiil   Ranuccitis  of  Lnccn, 

known    only   from    a    «l(>riinicnt,   a 

trraiy  with  Pisa,  Rigiied  by  tlic:^  hi 

iL'CS. 
Bonavcntum  Derlhigliipri.S  fl.i?»j-il. 
Enrico  <^f  Pi-ci.  miiiiarurei,  fl.li:M>. 
JIani  Bei liii^Iiieil,  iniiilatuies iu a M3. 

Cible,  fl.!2^. 
B;iione  BiTliiiglileH,  several  cniciflxe^, 

tt.l240-S4. 
De<Mla»i  Oilamli  of  Liirra.  fl.l2SS-1301. 
Giiint.1  Pisano,  firat  lialf  of  ISlli  ctfu-. 

tiiry. 
Tniiiio  Taiml,  Bccoiid  h  ilf  nf  14th  ceu- 

Imy. 

Tlic  naniM  of  niaiiv  oflier  Piian 
paintrrs  of  the  Inter  put  of  the  IJtli 
fcntiirynien-'conled  in  liocunicnts,  bnt 
110  paintiusa  by  them  aia  kiiuwu  to 
cxisu 

Oi.)  5/f .."  4 
GnidodaSI^n.i.  i\.\220, 
Diutisalvi,  fl.ljro. 
Diu-ciodi  Bnoiii(i>-^=-'i.T    fl.l-IOO. 
Begiia  ili  Bnoninsiiiiin.  t1.130'>. 
Kimone  tli  Mart  mo,  f.  l;Si-c.lil4. 
LippoMemmJ,  <l.f.l3:7 
Berna,  fl. tally  14th  ci-ntnrj-. 
Pictro  Loreiiaetti,  H.ia.'0-c.l.l4S. 
Ambrogio  Loreii7etti,  Pictro's  brother, 

tl.l330,  (l.r.l.-HS. 
Niccolo  ill  Srgna,  fl.VUi 
Jacopo  <Ii  Sliiio,  fl.l34'2. 
LipixiVanni,  fl.l3J0-c.l3rfi. 
Niccolo  di  Bnoiiaccoi-H\  fl-l-tOO-SS. 
nartolo<li  Fmlt,  fl.l.aw.l410. 
Lnca  di  Tominc,  fl.lSlJ^. 
Paolo  di  Giovanni,  fl.i::sO. 
Meoda  Siena,  fl.l3S0. 
Tad'leodi  Bartr.lo.  1^61-14-22. 
Antlrea  di  Dartolo.  fl.i.iSO,  d.U2S. 
Gresorio  CecchJ,  fl.HOO. 
Martino  di  BaitAlomco,  fl.l403,  d.U33. 
Ilomeiiico  di  B-irtnlo,  d.l440. 
Stefano  di  Giovanni,  fl.l4iS.  d.1400 
Giovanni  di  Paolo,  c.l 403- liSi 
Sanodi  Pietro,  14CW-S1. 
Lorenzo  di  Pictro  (Vccchietla),  HIO- 

80,  better  Icnown  as  a  s^nlptor. 
Mattco  ili  Giovanni,  14i?0-'.i). 
Beuvcnutodi  Giovaiuii,  1430-lJlS. 
Francesco  di  Giorgio,  btl430. 
JTei-occio  di  Lan-li,  1447-1  jOO. 
Pictro  di  Domenico,  1457-1501. 
Bemardiiio  Funn:ai,  1400-1516. 
Andrea  di  Niccolo,  1400-1520. 
Girolanio  di  Bi^nvcniito,  1470-1624. 
Giaconm  Paccliiarotto,5  b.I474. 
Girolamo  del    Paccliia,5  1477  to  after 

1521. 

■  1  When  the  years  ofa  lx^intl•r*s  birtli 
aiid  death  are  unkn-Avn.  ti.  r>r  "flour- 
ished "  Is  put  l>cfore  the  date,  which 
is  taken  cither  from  existing  datcl  pic- 
tures or  from  documentarj'  reconls. 

a  Of  recent  yean  a  more  careftil 
warch  for  ilocuirients  relating  to  Italian 
art  has  done  much  to  concct  the  dat<'.'* 
of  many  painters'  lives;  hence  in  many 
cafUTs  the  years  ofa  painter's  birth  and 
"leath  given  in  Uie  follouinK  list  difler 
from  tlmso  in  most  previous  ■works  ou 
the  subject. 

3  The  three  Beillnglueri  were  of  a 
Xtil.-ineso  fcimily,  but  worked  mostly 
at  Lncca. 

4  Most  valuable  assistance  in  the 
preparation  of  this  list  of  Sienu<»e 
laintcrs  was  given  by  Mr  C.  Fail-fax 
Murray. 

5  Tlic  works  of  these  tivo  painters  are 
ii-equeutlj'  coulcunded ;  a  cniomoUtho 


Jlichelangelo  Buonarroti,  1475-1504, 
Francesco      di     Cristofauo     (Praucia 

Bigio),  14S2-1555. 
Rldolfo  Ghirlandaio,  1453-1^0. 
Alidrta     del     Sailo.     14S7-I5:il.       His 

Bcliolar  Pnligo  closely  imitated  hia 

style. 
Jacopo    Carucci   ms    Pontomio,    1404- 

j5o7. 
Giulio  Clovio  of  DalraatSa,  niiniatiirlst, 

140S-1573. 
Anyelo  Broiuino.  1502-72. 
>larcello  Venusti,  d.c.laSO. 
I>aniele  da  Volterrn,  I'lOO-iHl. 
Francesco  dc"  Itossi  (culled  Del  SaUi- 

ati).  1510-03. 
Giorgio  Vasari,  art  histovian,  loT2-T4. 
Alessandro  Allori,  15UV1C07, 
Orazio  Lonii  de'  Gmtileschi,  15G2-1040. 
CrLStofuro  Allon.  1577-10:21. 
Carlo  Dolci,  IGlG-SiS. 

Tlie  ntlier  Florentine  painti-rs  of  t]ie 
iater  partofMie  Kith  and  17th  centuries 
arc  of  little  imi>ortaui.-e. 

Civ.)  VhOirio. 
OderisioofGiibliio,  )uiniatnri!:t(T)ante, 

/'«r.,  xi.  7;').  fl.12iH-f.12-.Ki. 
Guido    Palmerucci    (GubbioX    12S0-f. 

J  345. 
Arlrgietto  Xn2f,  fl.l34fl-S.-.. 
Gentile  da  Fabriano,  b.  between  1300 

and  1370,  d.l450. 
Ottaviano  Xelli,  fl.1410-.34.     . 
Lorcnra  da  San  Severiiif.,   ii.l374,  fl. 

1400. 
Fiiio  Boi-xlicse  (Delia  FrancoBCJi),  c. 

1415  to  after  U04. 
Fra  Camovale,  pupil  oT  P.  Bon^licsc, 

second  half  of  IMh  c.nlnr\-. 
Benedetto  B<mDgM,  fl.l4-"rOtPti. 
Xiccolo  of  F"ligno,8  H.U.^S-i'O. 
Lorenzo  da  San  beverino  Iho  younger, 

fl.l4S0-OG. 
Mt'lozzo  da  Forli.  143=^  04. 
Kiorenzodi  l..ircnzo,  (1.1470-0^. 
Giovanni    Santi   (faOicr   of    Raphael), 

]mpil  of  Mid'-zzo  da  Foill,  d.l404. 
Pietra  Vannucci  (Pfrugino),  I41i>-1524. 
Bernardino    di    Betto    (Piutmicchio), 

14M-151.1. 
Marco  Palmczzam  of  Ftrli,  '.1450,  J. 

nflcr  15:i7. 
.\ndrca  Alovlgi  (L'Inccgno).  fl.l4S4. 
Lodovico  Aii.^'eh,  fl.l4Sl-150ti. 
Giovanni  d    Pietro fLoSiiagna),  fl.l50a, 

d.  in  or  l*fnre  lo:'.0. 
Giannicola  Maimi.  11.1403,  d.l544. 
Timoteo  Viti.  14«i!i-15::3. 
RapharlSaiwio,  14S3-1520;  Vlonsf^l  to 

the  Pcru-jan  school  only  duiing  th* 

fii-st  few  yeans  of  his  cjii-crr. 
[  Less  inipc.rtint  Umbriaii  jiaintersof 
(the  15tli  century  were  Giov.  lloccati, 
;  Girolanio  di  Giovanni,  Slattt-o  <la 
'Gnaldo,  Bi.itol«i;;co  di  Tommasn,  and 
'  I'ietrc  Antonio,  alv)  a  number  of  thinl- 
rate  TAinters  who  belonjjed  to  the 
I  school  of  Perugina 

(v.)  Piuhxt, 
Gnari.mto.  fl.l::b5-05. 
Jii~tns  >ir  P.;dn.i  (Giusto  GiovanniX  '- 

1  i^O-UOO,  apimreutly  a  follower  of 

Giotto. 
Francesco  Siinarcinne,  l."r'4-14T4, 
Gro;4or.o   Scliiavone,    se&md    linlf  of 

lith  ceiitnry. 
Andi'ca  Manti-gna.  1431 -150(1.    Htsrhlcf 

piM>d3  wero  his  son  Fi-am-esro  (b,  r. 

14:"0,  died  after  1517).  Carlo  (calle-l) 

dfl  Mantc^na,  Glov.  Fran.  Carotto. 

ami  Francesco  Boiisignori  of  Vcroua 

(1455.1510). 


Glov.  Ant  Baz7i  (SodoniaX  1477-1549 ; 
thougn  not  of  the  aienese  school,  he 
had  miich  influence  on  the  Sieiiese 
I-aintrrs  in  the  early  pait  of  the  lOtli 

Bal.ia.ss.™  V^r-z?\,  1481-1537. 
Dompnico      illcliaiino     (Beccafomi), 
14Si>-l550. 

The  most  imjiortant  Siencsc  painters 
dm  ing  the  secoml  half  of  the  loth  and 
tlie  17th  centuries  were  Arcuigiolo 
Salimbeni,  Alessandro  Casolaiii,  Pictro 
Savi,  Ventura  Salimbeni,  Fiancesco 
Vanni,  Francesco  Rnstici,  Ilutilio 
Manetti,  Astidfo  Petrazzi,  and  Kaf- 
fayllo  Vanni 

(iii.)  Florrnee. 
Andrea  Tafl,  12W-?1204  (Va.sarf). 
Ci'i'po  di  Jiarcovaldo,  n.iJwi-75. 
G;iddo  Gaddi,  1230-1312  (according  to 

Vasari). 
Giovanni    Gualt'eri    fCimabue),    1210- 

?1j02. 
GioltoiM  Bnndone,  127C-1337. 
Taddeo  Gaddi,  ?13O0  to  afU-r  13C0 
Puccio    Capaiina,    first    lialf   of   14tU 

centnrj". 
Buonaniico  Cliristof.ini  (BrifTalniacco), 

Ilrst  half  of  Nth  ct-nlniy. 
Giovanni  Jacobi  da  Milano,  R.lSOj. 
Giottino  (real  name  douljtfulj,  first  half 

of  14tli  centurj- 
Jacopo  Landiiii,  c.l310-'-.l-00. 
Agiiolo  G.addi  (^n  of  Taddt.-o  Gaddi), 

14th  century. 
Aiulrea  Orciigua,  f.niC-c.l370,  and  his 
brothers  Lionarijo?  (fl.lJ32-47)  and 
Jacnjx). 
Francesco  Traini,  chief  of  Orcagna's 

pupils,  fl. 1311-45. 
Antonio  Longhi(Vene2iano),  fl.l570-S7. 
Glieianlo  Stirnina,  1354,  d.  art.-r  1  lOO. 
Giidiaiio    d'ArrigO    (Pesello),    13oi     to 

after  1427. 
Tumn,;,i.>  di  Fini  (Masolino),  b.l3S3. 
Loienzo  Monaco,  11.1404-1^. 
Fra  AngcUtO  (Guido  di  Vicchio),  1357- 

I45i. 
Andi-ea  del  C^astagno,  1300-1457. 
Paolo  Uccello,  0.1^00-1475. 
Tomniaso  di  S.  Giovajiiii  (Masacclo), 

1402-20, 
Fra  LipiK>  Lippi,  c.1412  00. 
FrancebcodiFtM;n.>(PesellinoX1422-5T. 
Ale-ssoBaldovtiietti,  1422-00. 
Donicnico  Vcneziano,  fl.l4aS,  d.l401. 
Benozzo  Gozzoli,  1424,  d.  after  1455. 
Andrea  Venoo  hio,  1432-C.US3. 
Antonio  Pollaiuolo,  1433-OS, 
Cnsimo  Rosselli.  14!0-1J07. 
Lnca    SignouIIi    (Da   Cortona),    1441- 
1523;  iiis  princip.il  pupil  woi  GutJ- 
lanio  Genga,  1470-1551. 
Pietro  Polkiiuolo.  144:;,  ,1.  before  1490. 
Sandro  BuItiCilli,  1447-1515. 
iJomenico  Bigonii  (Gliirlamlaio),  1440- 
04.     His  works  were  closely  Jnutatfl 
by  his    pnfUi   and    brotliei-iu-law 
D.tstiano  JKt\)iardi. 
Lorciizodi  Crcdi,  1450-15:^".     His  chief 

scholar  was  Sogliani,  1402-1544. 
Filippino  Li]>pi,  1400-1504. 
Pipro  di  Cosimo,  1402-1521. 
RafTaellino  del  Garbo,  1400-1524. 
Fmncesco  Gitinacci,  1400-1543. 
Giuliano  Bn^ianlini.  1471-15'.4. 
Mariotto  AlbrrtinelH.  1474-1515. 
Fra  Bartolomco  dclla  pojia,  1475-1 517. 
graph  of  a  fm^o  by  Pucchia— a  scene 
finm  th*-  life  of  St  Catherine— has  U-cn 
j)nblished  by  the  Arnudfl  Society  as 
Ixini  from  a  work  of  Pia-rhiamtto. 
I      6  s<>e  Lanzi,  Paintl»3  in  Ili'fy,  Bohn's 
I  al.,  vol.  i.  1).  200. 
I     7  Wj-oU'dycalledBcruai-doby  Va^a^L  i     3  Wi-ou^ly  callcil  AJuuuo  by  \a.-ciii. 


B.Trtnlnnjco  Montagna  (fl.l-(S7,  d.lSSSY 
a  pupil  of  Maute;;na  and  Gian.  Bel- 
lini, founded  a  school  at  Vicenza,  to 
wliich  belonged  Giovanni  Sperana 
and  Bcnwlelto  iloutagna,  the  latter 
au  able  engraver. 

(vL)  ylrfT'-i. 
Margaritone  di  M.agnnno^  (according 

to  Vasari).  1210-03. 
Mantano  di  Arezzo,  0.1305-10. 
Jacoiio  di  Cnsciitlno,  C.1310-f.l300. 
Spiuello  di  Ltitva  (Aretino),  eliief  pupil 

of  C.^sentlno,Io  c-1330  1410. 
Xiccolo    di    PittTO    Gerini,   d.   before 

13S9,     Hia  son  Lorenzo  was  alao  a 

painter, 
Loi-enzo  di  Bicci,  fl.J370-1400. 
Pani  Spinelli,  early  loth  ci-nlurr. 
3iccl  di  Ixirenzo,  11.1420,  fl.H52. 
BartolomeodelIaGalta,c.l410-91.    Hbi 

pupils  Domenico  IVcori  .nnd  Xict-i»W 

Soggi  were  men  of  but  Utile  talent- 

(\ii.)  r*»i<f. 
Xlccnlo  Seniitccolo,  fl.l351-140a 
Ijorenzo  Vcneziano,  fl,  13.57-7'.>. 
stefano  Veneziano,    fl.l3r.9.sl. 
Jacobello  del  Fiore,  fl.1400-;'.'.'. 
Johannes     AlemannuH,     proUiMy     of 

Cologiie.  fl.l440  w/. 
Jncoi>o  Bellini.  1305-1470;  and  his  f  to 

sons — 
Gentile  Bellini  (1421-1507)  and 
Giovanni     Bellini    (1420 -I'lH".).  ^    Gio- 
vanni's closest  iuiitatur  was  Nivcolu 
Rondinelli. 
Giovanni  Vivarinl  of  Mnrano,  fl.1440-1". 
.Vnt'Hiio  Vivarini.  fl.1440-70. 
liirtolomeo  Vivarini,  11.1450-08. 
Alviso  Vivarini,  fl.l4W-154j3. 
Antoncllo  da  Mrssini.  C.1444-C.1403. 
Carlo  Oivrili,  11.14-^6  to  aftir  150O 
Mansueti.  fi. 1404-1500. 
Vittore  Cari-accio,  c.1450  to  aft.T  15-25. 
His  cldL-r  piij'il  was  Lazziito  &eba*- 
tianl. 
Marco  Mar7ialp.  fl.l402-i:O7. 
JLttco  B.isaiti.  fl.l470-r.i:0. 
j  iM-ances'-oToibido  (Mom.),  14f50.134rt. 
Vicenzo  Oiti  i.a.  ft. 1405,  d.  aftrr  1531. 
'  Ciina  da  Com-^Iiano,  f1.14S0-1517, 
I  M.acriiio  d  AiKi,  fl.l400-150S. 
,  iJnttolnmro  Vini'zinno,  fl.c.l50.>-?0L 
,  \h'rco  Belli.  fl.Kdl. 
'  I.   OCCS.0  Bi>soh..  fl.l'.00  23. 
1  Peii    lino  da  San  UanioV.  '•.14^.3-1547 
'  Andrea  Pre^itali.  fl.r-Or..  d.l5JS. 
I  t..omi7o  I."tto,  r.l470.!rA'.. 
it.iopjio    Barljarelli    (Giorgionc^   H.«. 
1 51 1. 
Tiziano  Vecrllio.  1477  157C. 
.-.ncio  Pnluja  (Vnchio).  14«C-152S. 
t.\h\.  Ant.  Licinio  (/■i.nlin..m),  14S3 
I      1 5:iO. 
■  S*  la-rtano  Lticlani  (Did  Piondi"),  14S5 

m7 
.  Gi.T.lanm  da  Tifvis/i.  14071*41 
Bonifa.  lo.     Then-  wen*  ^llr.■l•  iointfr!# 
of  this  name,— lionifiicio  of  V.  pins, 
d.lJ-iO;  an-.tiipr  Vpn'ue^  Bonifac*.', 


I*  Miin-'niiton-',  a  vrn  Ka-I  iiainirr, 
irincli  ■.\rrpini-/-<l  by  Va-^ai  i.  Ndon^^'i 
I. ally  to  no  sprd.d  sih^..!:  l.K  n-.iki 
niv  inf.-iii>r  to  ri'iil(nii«>inr>-aihl  uiiib.f 
uuntlii:r*oft;.f  Bvznntine-«hoi'l.  TJi' 
National  Galh-rx  'i.^'^'ssc-'  an  ugly  bnl 
intr-rp^ring  exin'1'h-  of  his  wtik.  si^o-l 
'■Mai-trorif  dc  Aiiti"."  b<>i.ic  other 
ivnintti-^  iMim  at  Arczzo  Wh-ng  I"  th< 
Khmnti^e  school,  ainonn  tht  tu  Gior^i* 
Vasari,  a  very  freble  imitat^^r  jf  MIcIh^ 
an;;elo. 

''*  Tlir'V  two  piinteiN  bclun^  ratlK* 
i  tu  thf  Florcutinc  (sclwoL 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


443 


d. M53.  botli  pnpils  of  Talma  Vccilj in, 

and  a  V.'m-tian,    who  \\;i3  paintin;,' 

after  1570,  i«ruVi.ibly  a  son  of  oUe  ol 

the  elder  Umiiracios. 
Girolaino  -la  .Saiilacmce,  fl.lJ:.'0-4S. 
I'aris  Conlone,  i:/00-71. 
Jacupo  da   Poiite   (Bassaiio),    IJIO-OS. 

Four  ot  liis  sous  were  paintci's. 
Jacopo  RAbusti  (Tiiitoa-tto),  IJI.'.OJ. 
Bernardiinxla  Pordenoiic,  K''_*0-70. 
Andrea  &:hiavoiiL-,  1022  Sl', 
I'aolo  Ca^-'Iiari  (VeioncscX  lo2S-$S. 
UattisU  Kflutti.  (MJU2-02. 
Jacopo  P;ihiia  (Giovaiie),  1544-li).!S. 
AIrssandroVarutari(radovauiuo),lCOO- 

lOjO. 
Sebaatiano  Ricci,  IGOO-1731. 
Giov.  iiatt.  Tvpol..,  Iii90-1770. 
Antonio  Cai!ale(Canalett<>),  1007-170S. 
Fiancesco  Zucclieielli,  1702-yj. 
Francesco  Gnaiili,  1712-03. 
Ueniardo  Bollolto,  1720  SO.  nephew  of 

Canaletto  and  a  close  imitator  of  his 

style. 

(viii.)  BrtK'la. 
Vincenzo  Foppa,   tl.l4J0-iJ0  (see   also 

Mil.iii). 
Viuceiuo  Civcrcliio  of  Crcuui,  fl.NOJ- 

IMO. 
Fionivante  Pcn-aniola,endori5th  cent. 
Girolnnin   Rouiani  (U    Rojiiauiiio),   c. 

Cirolamo  Savoldo,  r.l4S7  to  after  1540. 

Alessnndro  Diiouvicino(Moi-ctto),  149S- 
lo35. 

<Jiov,  Batt  Moroni  of  Bcrsamo,  c.lJ2J- 
78. 

(is.)  Vei'onn. 

Tarone  da  Verona,  fl.l3iiO. 

AlUcliicro  da  Zevjo  and  Giaeonio  desli 
Avanzi,  l4th  ccntniy.  The  other 
Veronese  painters  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury were  of  litlK-  artistic  power. 

Vittore  Pisano(Pisanello),  13S0-c.HJ"i. 
llii  chief  pupils  were  Stt'fano  di 
Zevio,  Giovanni  Oiiolo,  and  Bono  of 
Ferrara  (see  Fen-ara). 

Ponieiiico  Moroue,  d,  after  1503. 

Liberale  .ta  Voronr,  UM-lSJiJ. 

Francfjjo  B-msignori,  1455-1519. 

Niccolo  Giidlino,  C.14ii3  to  after  1513. 

Francesco  Moroue,  1473-1529. 

Girolaino  dal  Libri,  1474-1550. 

Paolo  Morando  (Cavazzola),  14SG-1522. 

•    Paolo    Veronese    au<l    his    imitator 

Battista  TTelotti,  a  native  of  Verona, 

l*elong  rather  to  the  Venetian  school. 

(x.)  Fcr.-am. 
OosiinoTum,  1430-?HCHJ. 
Francesco  Cossa,  latt«r  jart  of  Ijtii 

century. 
n-JHoda  Fcri-ara,  fl.HCl,  pupil  of  Pia- 
'    anello. 

Francesco  Bianchi,  e  1445-15'10. 
Ercole  Gnindi»  (or  Ilobcrti),  cU45,  d. 

before  15U. 
Giovanni  Oriolo,  fl.l440  to  after  14C1, 

pupil  of  Pisaut-Ilo. 
Lorenzo  Cnst.i,  1 100-1535,  belongs  rather 

to  tlie  Bolo^'upse  school. 
Gian.  B.itli^U  Bartucci,  fl.cliOG. 
DoR>o    Dossi,  14sO-15aO.     His  bnilhcr 

Gianbaltisti  was  also  a  palnti-r. 
L<>iln\  ico  Mazzolino  da  Fi-irara,  147S- 

?  15.10. 
FninccHCu  ZflganelU  da  O.tignoln,  fl.  I 

15051S,  and  his  brother  Beiu.trdino.  ' 
Brnvcnut.i  Tisio  (Gnrofalo),  14S1-155!!. 
Gmvauui  Battista  Benvcuuti  (L'OrUn 

lauoX  early  part  of  xi.th  ccuturj?. 
Girolaino  Carpi,  1501-50. 

(xi.)  DoIoQui'. 
Cniilo  da  Bolo^ia.  fl.ll77. 
Ventura,  tl.liv7-1217. 
Ursone.  n,122tJ-4S.:( 
Vitale  ila  Boloj^na,  fl-LISO  50. 
Lippu  Ualnnsii,  rt.l37i»  to  aUer  1410. 
i»inione  (caMc.l)d(!'  Ciocillv*!,  fl.U70. 
Oiac'imo  d.vli  Avanzi.  fl.  later  jui  t  of 

mil    ecntury,    alw    rlaateJ    wiili 

Vcrotie.-ie  school. 
Jai-'tjo  di  I'aolo,  early  15th  ccutui-)*. 
Mareo  Zopi»o,  ft.l471*.)y. 
Francesco    Ralbolini   (callc*l    Francin 

after  ti:i  nui-itcr),  <-.I450-15l7. 
l^rcnzw  Co^ta  of  Ferrara,  UiiO-1535. 
Franecsco  Priuiaticcio,  1501-70. 
Luilovjeu  Caracci,  1555.1019. 
Ayosiljno  C:n    cci.  1553-1601. 
Atinibali-  Carac.;!,  1500. loC;-". 


*  At  Coniiii.  ^loiTiii  hat  joiii'itl  fitit, 
€i-andi'«*iRii.Ttn-eand  tlicilale  1531  on 
a  picture  of  lh<-  Eiitonibniriit,  fonncily 
in  the  Boryltf-M*  (plU-iy  In  Rnuic,  arc 
a  forgery,— Gi-ihdi  lu-illy  haviiie  dlnl 
l"ne  w-'roi-c  ;  It  may,  howi-ve r,  be  by 
llic  younger  i-aiiUcr  of  the  Mine  nam.-. 

=  Sec  M,-iIva.iia,  J'tUiiut  i'itUiie, 
■U>.>lo^'iu,  ic:^ 


Cnldo  Reui,  157M0J2. 
Francesto  Albanl,  157S-1000. 
Doniciiifo     Zanipieri     (UoiueEJchino), 

15S1.1041.  -4 

Fiancesco   Biubieri  (Querciuo),   1591- 

IGOO. 
Giiiflo  Ca^aeeio,  li'-Ol-Sl. 
I'ier  Fran.  M'd.i.  1012-OS. 
Elisabctta  Siraui,  l(i^S-05. 

(xii.)  .l/nrffjirt  atitt  Pnrnia. 
Tommasoda  M.nltiia,  tl.KOO-i'O. 
aaniaboda  Motlciia,  tl.l3(-0t>0. 
Ilartolonieo  Crossi,  H.U02. 
.lacopo  Loschi.  t1.f.l400. 
Cnstofoi-oCascHi.  t1.l4C"0. 
I-o*lovico  'la  Painift,  »>upll  of  Francla 

of  Bulo^na.  early  lOUi  centuiy. 
Ma^zuola,     tlireo     brothera,     JlicheU*, 

Pierilario,    and    Filippo,    early   lOlli 

ceutui v 
Antonio  Allegii  (CoiTeg:::io),  1403-1534, 

closely  coun^:ctl.^l  with  thu  Ferrara 

school 
France-ico      Mazzuola      (Pnnuigiano). 

1504-40.     His  pui'd    GiiTlaiiio   Maz- 

zuula  clo.-teiy  imitated  his  wurks. 

(xiii.)  Cremonn. 
Frp.nce.sco  Tacconi,  fl.1404-00. 
-MtoboUo  Melone,  fl.1515-20 
Uoccaccio  Bocc.iccino,  fl^HUO,  d,1525. 
Giulio  Canipi,  1500-72. 

(\iv)  Milnn. 

Vincenzo   Foi'i>a,   tl.l4J0-OO  (sec  al^o 

-  Brescti). 

Anibi-o^io  "■e\'flacqna,  fl.l4'5(>. 

Vincenzo  Civei'chio(Bee  Brescia),  closely 
coiuiecte<l  with  early  Milanese  sclioni. 

Francesco  IJianrhi  (Il-FraiT),  1447-1510. 

Btrnanlo  Zcnale  da  Trevisrtio,  d.  after 
1521. 

Leonai-do  da  Vinct,  1452-151!).  To  his 
scliool  liolnjig  Reniardnio  Luiiii  (.-. 
1470  to  after  15J0),  S-xlonia  (1477- 
I'yiC),  Andi-ea  da  Solai  io  {i.-.  145S  t" 
after  1515),  and  more  directly  Gian. 
PietriJio,  AinbiDgio  Pi-cila,  Ccsare  da 
Scsto  (14S01521),  Maicn  .fOssioii'. 
(c.  1470-1540),  Andrea  Salaiiio,  and 
Giov.  Ant  Bcltratfiu  (1407-1510). 

Aiubi-ogio  da  Foss:in')  (U'tr^ngnnnc),  '•. 
1455-1523  ;  his  two  brotliei's  weie  his 
pnpils  an«l  a-s-sKtanls. 

Biutolomco  Siiaixli  (Bmniantino)  (H 
1405-152i))and 

Gaiideuzio  Ferrari  (14&J-1040)  were  also 
Influenced  by  L<;onnnIo.  Ferraris 
chief  pupils  were  :— 

Boniai\Iino  Laniiii  (r.l508-c.l57S)  and 
Giov.  Paolo  Loiuazzo,  the  Milnmuse 
art  histoiian,  whosu  Tivtlnlo  della 
Piiitnm  was  )>ublislie«i  in  15S4.  Am- 
bmgio  Flyino  was  an  able  scholar  of 
Loiiiazzo,  togctlicr  with  Ciistofoivj 
Ciocca. 

Ercole  Piocaccini,  1520-00. 

Ueniai-vlino  Canipi,  1522-90. 

Camillo  Pmcaccini,  1540-102G. 

Giov.  Batt.  Cixspi,  1557-IC3X 
A     iiuipi1>cr    of     Infcriiir     MihncHC 

paintenj  U\eU  in  the  loth  century ,3 

(\v.)  lioine. 

Raplincl  Sanzio,  14S3.1520,  who  hi  his 
early  youth  belonged  fli>-t  to  the 
Pcrugian  and  then  to  the  FInrentiYic 
wIi'hjI,  was  the  founder  of  the  no- 
called  Uoiiian  8cho<d,  which  at  fli-st 
consisted  almost  wlmUvofhi^  pnpils. 

Ginv.  Fran.  Peuui  (II  fattoieX  14SS- 
152S. 

Iniiocenzoda  Inmln,  1400-1540. 

Pididoroda  Caiava--i..,  14;'5-I543. 

Giulio  Pipj.i  de'  Giaiinuzzi  (Romano), 
llOS-1540. 

Periiiodel  Vagn,  1500"I7. 

Feilerigo  Barocci,  1523-1012. 

Ccsare  d'Arj'inn,  1507-1040 

Bnitolomcn  Sehedone,  USO-IOIO. 

Giijv.  Lanfi-ancn.  r..Sl-1047. 

Bait,  Maufic-Ii,  15S1-1017. 

Piitro  da  Cortoua,  1500-1009 

An.lrea  Sacchi,  150S-10GL 

Giaii^attista  liah'i  (Sa'^sofcn-ato),  1005- 

Cail.i  Maratta,  1G25-1711. 
Paolo  Paiiiiini,  1001-1704. 
(wi.)  .Xi'i^ts. 
Tlie  names  of  Sinionc  Xaivdetann, 
Cl^Ialttn|lin,  aiiil  other  native  paiiitei-n 
who  weiv  fiipjioAed  to  Iiave  worked  in 
the  1 1th  and  ]5tli  wtituries  a]>pcarto  l>c 
those  of  wholly  niylliical  i»ei-snnages. 
MichelauppJoda  Cniavast^o,  1500-1000. 

GinsrpiK;I{ibcia(LoSpagnaIetto).  l.'>iS- 
?105'i.  »         »    °  /• 

Aiii^llo  Falcone,  1504-ICOj. 


a  Sec  Laiizl.  IIUI.  o/Fvintluy,  Bolii 
f»l.,  ii    Ji.  ivj  .y. 


S;ilva(nrllo*a,  1015-73. 
Luca  Gionlimo,  1032-1705. 

2.  Gcithan  School. 
WiUieliii     of     Heile     or     WilH-im     uf 

Cologne,  tI.135S,  d.r.lJ7S. 
Stephen  Lochner,  tl.l442,  d.l451. 
Ma^^ler  ol  Liesborii,  11.1405. 
.Michael  Wohlgemuth,  1434-1510. 
Master  uf  the  Lyvei-sK'i-g  Passion,  H. 

1403-.S0. 
Israel  vou  MecVenen,  e.1440-1503. 
Maitiii  bcliougauei',  I450<-i>S. 
Matthias    Ginnewald,    c.1400  to  after 

1529. 
.Master  Christophonis,  fl. 1500-10. 
il.tster  of  the  beath  of  the  Virgin,  n. 

1515,  d.l550. 
Hans  IIolKin   the  cMer,  e.l4G0-1523, 

and  his  bmther  Sigmund  llolbdii,  c. 

1405  to  after  1540. 
Albrccht  Dui-er,  1471-1523. 
Lneas  Cianuch,  1472-1553. 
lians  liurckmair,  1473-1531. 
Hans  Fuss  (Von  Kulinbach),  pnpil  of 

A.  Durer,  d.r.15,'2. 
Albi-echt  Altdoifei,  U  bcfni-c  US0-153S. 
Hans  Lcouhanl  Schaiirulin,  14'.i0-1540. 
Hans  Holbein  the  younger,  1407-1543. 
Hans  Scbal.l   Uehani,  1500-50,  and  his 

brother  Barthel  Beham,  1502-cl540. 
Heijirich  Ahlesrevcr,  1502-58, 
Viigil  Soils,  1514-02. 
Lnciis  Craiiach  the  younger,  1515-SO. 
Jost.  Amman,  1531-01. 
Heimich  GoIzin<!,  1558-1017. 
Johann  Ruttcjiluimiuer,  1'.<4-1C23. 
Adam  Elshainier,  1574-1C20. 
Joachim  von  Siindrart,  1000-SS, 
Balthasar  Deliner,  10S5-1747. 
Chn^t.  Will.  Enf>t  Dietrich,  1712-74. 
Anton  RaplKiel  IMeiigs,  172K-7S. 
iVter  von  Cornehus,  17S3-1807. 
■lohaim  Fried.  Overbeck.  17iO-lSCO. 
liieil.  Wil.  von  Schailow,  17Si>-liS02. 
Jiiltns  Sclmnir,  17'.'4-1S72. 
Wilhclm  vou  KaulUich,  lS05-7i. 
Kail  FiiiHl.  Lcssnig,  ISOS&O. 

3.  Flemish  School. 
Jlolchlor  Brooleil-im,  fi.l;iS2-c.U00. 
Hubert  van  Eyck,  b.il300,  d. after  1420, 
Jan    van    E)ck,    younger    brother  of 

Hubert,  d.  after  1440. 
Jlargaix-t  van  Eyck,  a  younger  sister 

of  t]ie  above,  diLsl  soon  afti-r  Hiibnt. 
Pctrns  Christus,  a  pupil  of  the  \an 

Eycks.  fl.1447-71. 
Dieiick  Bnuts,  c.1301-1475. 
Roger  ^an   der  Wcyden  the  elder,  c. 

1400-64. 
GeiTinl  van  der  Mcii-e,  c.l410  to  afUr 

1474. 
Hans  Mending,  '■.1430,  d.  before  HOi, 
Roger  van  der  Wejdeu  the  younger,  c. 

1450-1520. 
llUgo  van  dcr  Goes,  fl.l407,  d.l4S!. 
Justus  ofGheut,  fl. 1451-70. 
Gheeranlt  Ua\  id,  r.l455-l52::. 
Quintin  Matsys,  UOO-1531. 
Jan  Gossart  <le  Mabuse,  1470-1532. 
Bernard  van  Oi  ley,  1470-1541. 
J.Tii  Mosicit,  1474-1550. 
Hcniide  Cles.  14S0.C.1550. 
Jn.iehiiu  da  Patinir,  b.  bctwc-cn  14S5 

and  1400,  d  1524. 
Jan  van  Schorccl,  1405-15C2. 
-Michiel  Coxcie,  1400-1502. 
Lambert  Loinbaitl  (Su.'>tcnuann),  1500 

to  after  1500. 
Marinu3   van    noinci-swale,    fl.l53'    tu 

after  1507. 
Picfer  Pourlms  1510-S3. 
AuLouii  Mor  (Antonio  Alnm),  1512-77. 
Fitter  Birughel,  c.l520-oy. 
Paul  Bril.  1550-1020. 
Pieter  Breughel,  1504-1C37. 
Peter  Paul  Rubens,  1577-1010. 
FmnsSn\dei-s.  1579-1057. 
Kasppr  de  Crayer,  15S2-1C00. 
DaMd  Tnniei^s,^  15S2-104O 
Jan    (called    "Velvet")    Breuglic!,    c 

15S5-r.l042. 
Jarob  Jonlains,  1503-1073 
I.ucai  van  U<h-ii,  15'.'5-1072. 
Anton  Vandyck,  1509-lCll. 
Adriaan  van  Ctivclit.  15'J0-1C5?. . 
Philipiw  dc  Champaigue,  1002-;4. 
.lull  \.Tii  E'.-u'ii,  lOO'J-05. 
J.ii;  Fyt,  loOU-01. 

Ua^  ill  Tciiiei-s  the  younger,  K.lO-04. 
Jacobus  van  Ailoi^  lid3  to^iilt;r  10S4.  I 
Gonzales  Coques,  li-U-s.!.  I 

Pieter  van  der  Faei*  (Sir  Peter  Lely), 
lOlS-SO. 

*  Xot  1420,  a*  Ih  Usually  supjinsfl. 
Seliongaucr  is  mrntioiicd  by  A.  Duix-r 
OS  being  a  young  appienticf!  in  1470. 

5  ThJ  Teniers,  though  Flemidi  by 
'.birth  and  cdiic.-ition.  belong  uioit: 
clun^I/  tw  the  Dutch  Bchoul, 


.\bt7d1.u11  Triiirl^,  1029-71. 
d-i-anl  de  Uiiiv-*,-,  1041-1711. 
Jean  Franrols  .Mill.t,  1042 -M). 
Cuniclis  Hnysmaiirt,  I'mj.l7j7. 
Jan  \an  Jloemeii,  lOi. 2-1740, 

A  lar^e  luiinU-r  ol  Fkiuii-h  painters, 
many  of  them  j-npils  of  Rnl^ns,  li^t-d 
in  the  i;th  century,  but  they  arv  ol 
Uttle  iini>ortaiice. 

4.   Dutch  School. 

Allvcrt  \an  Ouwater,  curly  part  of  15th 

century, 
Cor.ini  of  Hnarlcni,  end  of  15Ih  century. 
Hieronymus  van  Ackeii,  c.l-li-'0-I5Is. 
Lucas  (Jacobsz)  vail  Leydeli,  1404-1533. 
Jan  van  Kdioirel,  1405-1502. 

Mniten  van  Hccinskeick  (1408-1574), 
Cornells  van  Haarh-m  (1502-10J&),  O.r- 
iirlis   \an    Poeleiibiiig  (15SO-1007)  uiid 
Gi-ranI    \an    ll.inthi.i-st    (1502-?  lOiiOV 
lhonj;ti    Dutch    by  birth,    \\ei-e   feeble 
niiitatois  of  I  Lai  Ian  schouls, 
liaiis  Hals,  1584-1000. 
Thonunsde  KeyM:i,  ^.  1 505 ■  c J 600. 
CoMRlis  Jaiissi-n,  c.lSOO-lOOS. 
Jan  ^an  Goyeii,  1500-1050. 
Jnn  de  Heem,  li.03-50. 
Albert  Cuyp,  lOO-oi. 
Rembrandt  \;in  Rijn  ot  B\T),  1606-69. 
Knianuel  de  Wittc,  1007-'.'2. 
Jan  Wynants,  d.  after  1074. 
Geiliaixl  Teiburg,  1008■^il. 
Siilumoii  Kuiiing,  1009-O.s. 
Jan    Both  f.1010-50,  and  hid  younger 

biother  Aiidiics  Botli. 
Adrian  van  Ost,nde,  lulO-85. 
I  eidinand  Bol,  1011-81. 
Bait,  van  der  Hel^t,  1013-70. 
Geihanl  Dou,  1013-75. 
Aai-t  van  der  Neer,  c.lGlO  to  after  1C91, 
Philip  de  Koniuck,  1010-80. 
Philip  Wouwerman,  loiO-oa 
Jan  Battista  Weciiix,  IO2I-0O. 
Is,aac  \an  Ostade,  1021-40. 
Gcibi-aii.It  van  ik-r  Eckhout,  l'J2l.74. 
Nirholas  Bcicliem,  1024-S3. 
Pa.d  Potter,  1025-54. 
Jacob  Rn\3tlael,  1G25-S1. 
Jan  Stccn,  l(i20-79. 
Kaivl  Dnianlin,  1030-78. 
Gabriel  .Metsu,  1030  to  after  1007. 
Lndolf  BaekhuiiX'n,  1O31-170O. 
Nicholas  Maes,  l(i32-03. 
Pieter  de  IIim>cIi,  1032-81. 
Jan  van  <lei'  Meer,  10^2-95. 
Willciii  Vande\chle  the  younffcr.  1033- 

1707. 
Jan    Vandez    OiiioUc,  X  1035   to  afler 

lOSO. 
Fraiis  van    Jficiirt  the  cider,  1035-Sl. 

His  sons  Jaij  and  WiUeni  were  botk 

patntei-s. 
Melchiordc  Hondccocter,  1G30-95. 
Jail  Ilackaert,  r.IO3O-1708. 
Jaij  van  dcr  Hey<Ien,  1037-1712. 
Meindert  Hobbema,  103^-1700. 
Adrian  Vaiidf\clde,  ltl3'.i-72. 
Gasjijird  Xetscher,  1030-S4. 
Daniel    .Myt.-na    the    younger,   C.1C44 

r.  li.ss. 
Jan  Weenie,  1044-1710. 
Jan  vail  Huchtenbniv.  1040-1733. 
Van  der  PLlis.  U'>47-1704. 
Wil.  \an  MieiM.  1002-1744. 
Jail  \'au  Huystim,  1US2-1740. 
Finns   van    Jlieris  the  voungcr,  ICtO- 

1703. 
Jail  van  Os,  1744-lSOS. 

A  large  number  of  niostiv  thinl-rati 
luintci^  cxisttil  iu  the  10th  aud  17tl* 
eeiituiiea, 

5.    Sjiailihh  School. 

Antonio  del  Rincou,  1410-15O0. 

Ahmso  I!.iugnete,  14SO-1501. 

Luis  dc  \'argas,  1502-OS, 

Jmii  de  Jnaiics  (Viciitc  Jnane%X  150«i- 

70.     Hi>  ehiid  pii|»il  was  Boia'aii. 
I, His  do  MoiJiIvs,  r.r.lO-SO. 
Alou-"  S.m.hez  Co<IIn,  C.1M2-00. 
(Ja-pcr  Bec'.-iia.  1 '.20-70. 
Kranci-^co  ih-  Ribaltii,  e.l  V'.0-1028. 
Juan  dp  las  R.-elas,  155S-Ii.25. 
Francisco  P.icluro,  r.71-lii".4. 
Francisco    de     Henein     the   cider,   K 

1570,  and   his  sou  known  as  Fi«u^ 

eisco  "  El  Mozo," 
Engenio  Caxcs,  1577-1042. 
Juan  dc  Ribalta,  1597-102S. 
Fi-aiicisco  Znrbaran,  1508-1G02. 
Diego  Vplaz<iuez  dc  Siha,  150'J-IOOO. 
Francisco  Cnllaiites,  15U0-Iu>0. 
K-'pinosa,  1000-80. 
Al-.iiso  Cano,  1001-67. 
Juan  Caneflo  de  .Miranda,  1G14-S.'.. 
Bartolome  Estcban  Murillo,  1013-52. 
Jnaii  de  Valdcs,  lti30-!»l 
ClamlKi  Cf'ollo,  1035-03. 
Fl-anci^co  Goya,  I74r.-lS2S. 
Maiimio  Forluny,  1S3S-74. 


444 


ti  C  H  O  0  J.  S      O  i''      r  A  i  ^^   T  .1  i\   G 


6.  French  School. 
Rco^  king  of  Aiijon,  HOS-SO,  loarncxl 

painting  ill  It.'i1y,  aiiU  ia  naiil  to  liavc 

practised  tlie  art  in  France. 
Jonii  Fouiiuct,  b.  between  l-115ainl  1120, 

belongs  nlso  to  U;e  Italian  stfliuol. 
Jean  Clnuet  of  Tours,  tl.HSO;  liia  Bon 

Jean  Clouetthe  younger,  c.lJS.')-! 5^5, 

and  priindson  Fi-an<;oisClcuettJaiiet). 
Jean  du  Gounnont,  fl.1557. 
Jean  Cousin,  c.lSOO-c.lSSff. 
Ambi-oise  Dubois,  1543-1615. 
Antoine  le  Nain,  and  his  brother  Lonia. 

n.  1629-77. 
fiiinon  Vnuet,  1500-1G49. 
hVan^nis  Peirier,  1^90-1655. 
Nicolas  Pon-isin,  1^9-1-1065. 
Jacques  Sttflla,  139ij-1057. 
Jacques  Dlanchai-d,  Io00-3S. 
Valentin  de  Boullongne,  ar.00-34. 
Claude  Gelee(Lonain),  1600-S2. 
Charles  Antoine  Dufi-csnoy,  1011-65. 
Pierre  Mignard  (Le  Roinain),  1612-05. 
Gasiwr  Dii_:;!iet  (Lalk-<1    Puussin   after 

liis  brotlier-in-law  Nicolas),  1613-75. 
Eustache  le  Suenr,  1610-55. 
a^liastien  Ilourdon,  1610-71. 
Cliarlos  le  Brun,  1619-90. 
Jacques   Coui-tois  (Le    Boui-giiignoii), 

1021-70. 
Jean  Jouvenet,  1044-1717. 
Jean  Bciitisto  Santerre,  1651-1717. 

Inferior  French  i)aintcr3  who  worlccd 
in  the  17th  and  isth  centuiios  were  the 
Boullougne    (father    and    two    sons), 
Nicolas     do     Lar^illi^re,      Hyacinthe 
Rigaud,  Nicolas  Lancvet,  Pierre  Sub- 
IcjTaa,  Carl  van   Loo,  Claude  Yemet, 
nnd  Hadaine  le  Brun. 
Antoluo  Wattcau,  1(3S1-17'21. 
Jean  ifaptisto  I'ater,  1099.1736. 
Francois  B.-iuchcr,  1704-70. 
Jean  Baptiste  Grpuzc,  1725-1S05. 
Jean  Honnre  Fi-ago:ir,rd,  1732-lSOO. 
Jacques  Louis  David,  174S-1S25.      He 

carried  to  its  Iiigliest  point  the  dull 

pseudo-classic  style  inaugurated  by 

Joseph-JIaiie  Vien,  1716-1S09. 

Many  other  painters  of  fouvtli-i-atc 
talent  worked  and  obtaiiicil  much  popu- 
larity throughout  the  ISth  century. 
Pierre  Paid  Prud'lion,  175S-lS-*3. 
Francois  Marius  Granet,  1775-1849. 
Jean  Ausustiii  Ingres,  17S0-1SC7. 
Hoi-ace  Veniet,  I7S9-iS63. 
Th^otlore  GiJricault,  1791-1824. 
Leopold  Robert,  1794-1S35. 
Ary  Schcfter,  1795-1S5S. 
Paul  Delaroche,  1797-1S56. 
Eugene  Delacroix,  17991Si;S. 
Alexfintlre  GabrielrDecanips,  iS03-60. 
Theodore  R/jusseau,  1S12-67. 
Jean  Frani;Di5  Millet,  1S14-75. 
Henri  Uegiiault,  1S43-7L 


7.  British  School, 

Nichoms    HiUiara,    1547-1CI9   (minia- 
turist), 

Isaac  Oliver,  1555-1017  (minlatuHst). 

Goor^e  Janicsone,  15S0-1044,  pupil  of 
RubcuB  (portraits). 

Peter  Oliver,  1601-00  (miniaturist). 

Ritbeit  Walker,  d.c.1600  (porti'alts). 

Sanuiel  Cooper,  1609-72  (poitroits). 

John  Hoskins,  d.li'>t,4  (portraits). 

■Wdliani  Dobson,    l610-4iS   follower  of 
Vaudyck. 

I?aac  Fuller,  d. 1672  (portraits)^ 

Htiiry  Stone,  ltil6'53  (porU-aits). 

Rubert  Streator,  1024-80  dxjrtraits); 

Henry   Anderton.    1630   to  alter    1605 
(l>orti-aits). 

Jolin  Riley,  1640-91  (portmits). 

Sir  Peter  L<?lv,  canij  to  England  In  1041. 

Sir    Godfrey    Kneller,    1046-1723  (por- 
traits). 

John  Greeuhill.  1040-70  (portraits). 

John  Miclinel  Wright,  f.) 0.55- 1700. 

Jonathan  Richardson,  1665-1745  (por- 
traits). I 

Charles  Jer^-as,  1^751739  (jwrtraits). 

Sir  James  ThoruhUl,    1670-1734  (wall 
decoration-). 

William  Aikman,  1CS2-1731. 

Wdliain  Hogarth,  1697-1764  (satirist)- 

S.  Scott,  d.l77i 

Francesco    ZuccarelH,    1701-SS    Oand- 
FCape), 

Thonias  Hudson,  3701-79,   RejTiolds's 
master. 

James  Wootton,  d. 1765  (animals). 

Three  brothers    Smith  of  Chicliestcr, 
1707-60  (landscape). 

Francis  Uaynian.  170S-65. 

Allan  Ramsay,  1709-S4. 

Richani    Wilson,  -1718-82,    founder  of 
the  Englis'.i  school  nf  landscape. 

Sir    Joshua    Reynolds,    1723-92    (por- 
traiU). 

George  Stubbs,  1724-lSOO  (ai'inials). 

Francesco    Bartolozzi,    1725-\S15    (eu- 
g  raver). 

Francis  Cotes,  1725-70. 

Paul  Sandby,  1725-1S09  (watcr-co'onr). 

Thiimas    GaJnsborough,    1727-SS  (inir- 
traita  and  landscape). 

Nathaniel  Hone,  1730-84  (miniatures). 

Nathaniel  Dance,  second  half  of  18th 
cpnttiry. 

_'o=<-ph  Wright  of  Derby,  1734-97  (night 
scenes), 

George  Roniney,  1734-1S02  (porii-aits). 

Johann  Zominy,  1735-lSlO. 

Jolin  Singleton  Copley,  1737-1S15. 

Benjamin  West,  173S-1S20. 

RiciiardCosway,1740-lS21(nuniatu'^o). 

Angelica    Kauhnann,    1741-1S07    (por- 
traits). 

Hackert,  1V41-1S00  (water-colour). 


.^-^\lM■H  n;ury.  1711-lROi.. 
11.111  V  rus.il,  1741-1^2:.. 
ft!;ny  Moscr,  1744-1£19  (tlowcr  painter). 
l);ivi']  Allan    1744-96. 
Jan,c3  Northcotc,  1746-1S31. 
F.  Wheatlry,  1747-lSOl  (wator-colour). 
John  Smith,  1750-1S12  (water-colour). 
RobL-rt  Smlrke,  1752-18-15. 
John  Webber,  1752-93  (water-colour). 
John  Cozens,  17'.2-99  (water-coloui). 
Thomas    Bewick,   1753-1S2S  (wood-en- 
graver). 
Sir  George  Beaumont,  1753-1S27  (por- 
trait a). 
Sir  William  Beechey,  1753-1S39. 
Henry  Bone,  1755-1834  (miuiatures  on 

enamel), 
Gilbert  Stuart,  1755-lSCS. 
niouLis  StuthanI,  1755.1S34. 
Sir   Henry    Raebum,    175G-1S23    (por- 
traits). 
James  Gillray,  1757-1S15  (caricaturist). 
William  Blake,  1757-1S2S  (pr>etry). 
T.  Rowlandaon,  1757-1827 (caiicaturist). 
Jolm  Hoppner.  1759-lSlO, 
John  Opie,  1701-1S07. 
Edwarcl  Bird,  17621819. 
Samuel  Woodforde,  1703-1817. 
George  Morlaud,  1764-1S04  (animals). 
N.  Pococke,  1705-1821. 
John  (Old)  Cronie,  1769-1^21,  founder 

of  the  Norwich  school  of  landscape 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  1709-1S30  (por- 
traits). 
H.  H.ward,  1769-1847. 
James  Ward,  1700-1859  O-indscapeX 
Tlioinas  Phillips.  1770-1S45. 
Sir  Martin  Shec,  r701&50. 
George  Clint,  i;  70-1854. 
n.   W.   Williams,   1773-1S29  (ckssical 

buililings). 
Henry  Thomson,  1773-1843. 
Thomas  Girtin,  1773-1S02  (landscape). 
Thomas  Hai'greavea,  1775-1846  (minia- 
tures). 
Joseph  Jlallord  William  Turner,  17:.';- 

1851. 
John  Constable,  1776-1S37  (landscape). 
John  Varley,  1777-1S42  (water-colour). 
Ji-hii   James  Chalon,  1777-li>54  (land- 
scape). 
John    Christian    Schetky,    J77S-1S74 

(marine). 
John  Jackson,  177S-1S31  (landscape). 
William      Payne,      fl.l7S6-90     (water- 
Jo.*,  Thnnson,  177S-1SJ0. 
Jan.',:3  I*Turei.t  Agassc  of  Geneva,  c. 

1779-1546. 
Sir  A-gnstu-^Cancott,  1770-1S44. 
Ar  hew  Wilson,  17S0-IMS. 
AUretl  Chalon,  rsO-lSCCovater-colour). 
J.  S.  Cotman,  1780-1843  (watei'-cclour), 
John  Simpson.  1782-1847: 
Sir  WilUani  Allan,  17S2-lS50(i)ortmits). 


C.  Wild,  1732-1835  (watr-r-colour). 

Tliomas  U^\ins,  1782-15.'i7. 

Dc,  Wint,  17S3-1S49  (wator-colour). 

Samuel  Prout,  1753-1825  (water-coloui).- 

Sir  David  Wilkie,  17S5-1S41. 

W.  Hilton,  1780-1839. 

B.  R.  H.aydon,  1780-1S4C. 
Will.  Mulready,  17S0-1S03. 
A.  Fraser,  1780-1865. 
George  Jones,  17S0-1S69. 
William  Etty,  17S7-1849. 

Copley  Fielding,  1787-1855  (landscape). 

Sir  J.  Watson  Goixlon,  176S-1S64. 

W.  Collins,  1785-1847. 

John  Martin,  1759-1354  (imaginative 
landscape). 

Sir  John  Gordon,  1790-18G5. 

H.  P,  Bdggs.  1702-1844. 

John  Liiinel,  b  1792. 

Francis  Danby,  1793-1861. 

David  Cox  (senior),  1793-1858  (water- 
colour). 

Sir  diaries  EastlaUe,  1793-1805. 

G.  B.  Newton,  1794-1S35. 

C.  R.  Leslie.  1794-1S59. 
J.  F.  Herring,  1795-1S65. 

David  Roberta.  1790-18G4  (architecture 
and  landscape). 

Clarksoii  Stanllcld,  1798-1367  (laiiJ- 
^rapp). 

James  Holland,  lSOO-70. 

George  Catteraiole,  lSOO-08  (water- 
colour). 

William  Simson,  lS00-47(water-ColourX 

R.  P.  Bonington,  1801-28. 

Sir  Edwin  Landsoer,  1802-73  (animals). 

George  Lance.  1802-64  (still  Ufe). 

Sir  Francis  Grant,  1S03-7S. 

Horatio  JIncculloch,  1S05-G7  (land- 
scape). 

Sir-Daniel  Macnee.  :S06-S2. 

William  Dyce,  1806-04. 

Sir  George  Harvev,  1806-70. 

John  Ficil.  Lewis,  1800-76  (Oriental 
scenes). 

Tliomas  Duncan,  1S07-45. 

Joseph  Nash,  1807-78  (architecture). 

Aaron  Pcnley,  1S07-70  (water-colour). 

Thomas  Creswick,  1811-60  (landscape). 

Edw.  Will.  Cooke,  lSll-80  (marine). 

Daniel  Maclise,  1811-70. 

Will.  James  Slnller,  1812-45  (water- 
colour). 

William  Bro<Ue,  1815-81. 

James  Drunimond,  1816-77. 

A.  L.  Esc:,  1810-63. 

Jolm  PInllip,  1S17-07. 

Tlios.  SeUlnn,  lS21-56(E*re-RaphaeUtcX 

Samuel  Bough,  1S22-78  (landscape). 

Thos.  Leeson  Rowbotiiam,  1823-75 
(water-colour). 

Dautc  Gabriel  Eossetti,  1828-82  (Pre- 
Raphaelite). 

John  Samuel  Raven,  1829-77  OanJ- 
scapo). 


Picture  Gallekies  of  Europe. 


The  following  list  gives  some  indication  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  existing  pictures  of  various  schools  are  distri- 
buted among  the  chief  galleries  of  Europe. 
Brftional  The  National  Gallp'v.  lyin-^lnn,  <^ont.iinft  fo'-  its  siz"  p  very  large 
Gallerj-,  nunijer  of  liighly  important  pictures  of  tlio  Italian  schools,  many 
Londoii.  of  them  signed  and  dated  ;  in  fact,  as  a  representative  collection, 
embracing  as  it  does  Avell-cliosen  specimens  of  every  school  and  in- 
cluding many  paintings  of  very  rare  masters,  it  is  hardly  surpa'^^ed 
by  any  gallery  in  the  world.  Tliongh  weak  in  paintings  of  Giotto 
an(^-  his  school,  it  possesses  many  early  Sicnese  pictures  of  great 
interest  and  exceptional  importance  (see  fig.  1),  and  a  collection 
«nrivalled  out  of  Italy  of  the  works  of  the  best  Florentine  painters 
of  the  15th  century,  as  Paolo  Uccello,  Lippo  Lippi,  Pollaiuolo, 
Si'^norelli,  Botticelli,  Lorenzo  di  Credi,  and  others  (see  fig.  6). 
Otthe  very  few  existing  easel  pictures  by  Pisanello^  tiie  National 
Gallery  contains  one  (signed),  St  George  and  St  Anthony.  The 
portrait  by  Andrea  del  Sarto  is  one  of  his  finest  works, — full  of  life 
and  expression  and  jich  in  toiie.  In  addition  to  a  large  painting 
on  canvas  of  the  school  of  Michelangelo — Leda  and  the  Swan  - — the 
National  Gallery  possesses  two  unfinished  pictures,  a  Madonna  and 
Angels  and  an  Entombment  of  Christ,  both  of  which,  in  spite  of 
many  adverse  criticisms,  appear  to  be  genuine  works  of  Michel- 
angelo, the  former  in  his  eaily,  the  latter  in  his  later  manner — a 
very  remarkable  possession  for  one  gallery^  seeing  that  the  only 
other  genuine  easel  painti'..g  by  him  is  the  c  rcular  panel  of  the 
Madonna  in  the  tribune  of  the  UfTizi  (Florence).  No  four  pictures 
could  Ixtter  represent  Raphael's  highly  varied  manners  than  the 
miniature  Knight's  Dream,  the  Ansidci  Sladonna,  the  St  Catherine, 
and  the  Garvagh  Madonna,  which  in  the  dates  of-their  execution 


1  S^.me  small  panels  attributed  to  Pisanello  in  Rome  and  elsewhere  are  of 
very  doubtful  genuineness. 

*  Not  c.vhibitcd  ;  it  is  proliably  a  pupil's  copy  of  the  marble  group  of  the 
same  subject  desit^ued  by  Michelan^lo. 


cover  neaily  the  whole  of  his  short  working  life.  In  the  A'enetian 
school  the  National  Gallery  is  almost  unrivalled:  it  contains  a 
large  number  of  fine  examples  of  Crivelli  {see  fig.  14), — Venice  not 
posscssuig  one  ;  two  lare  panels  byMarziale,  both  signed  and  dated 
(1500  and  T-OT),  the  finest  specimi^ns  of  Giovanni  Bellini  (see 
fig.  15)  and  his  school  which  exist  out  of  Venice;  one  of  Titian's 
noblest  works,— the  Ariadne  and  Bacchus,  finished  in  1523  for  the 
duke  of  Ferrarn,  together  with  two  otlier  fine  pictures  of  earlier 
date  ;  and  the  masterpiece  of  Scbastiano  del  Fiombo,  his  Raising  of 
Lazarus,  partly  designed  by  Michelangelo.  The  smaller  schools  of 
Ferrara  and  Cremona  arc  well  represented  by  examples  of  nearly 
all  their  chief  paintei-s.  Of  the  Umbrian  school  tlie  gallery  pos- 
sesses two  or  rather  three  important,  though  much  injured,  panels 
by  Piero  della  Franccsca  (see  fig.  10),  a  fine  picture  by  Fiorenzo  di 
Lorenzo,  as  well  as  one  of  Perngino's  best  works,  the  triptych  from 
the  Certosa  near  Pavia  (see  fig.  12),  and  other  paintings  by  him. 
Correggio  is  represented  by  three  fine  pictures,  classical  and  re- 
ligious, specimens  of  unusual  excellence  (see  fig.  21).  Of  the 
Bolo^nese  school  there  are  three  woiks  by  Francia,  one  signed 
(see  fig.  19),  and  specimens  of  the  painters  of  the  later  school,— 
Annibale  Caracci,  Guide  (sec  fig.  20),  and  othei-s._  Paul  Veronese's 
Dream  of  St  Helena  and  the  group  d  portraits  of  the  Pisani 
family,  arranged  as  the  scene  of  the  family  of  Darius  before  Alex- 
ander, are  aniong  his  finest  works.  The  three  pictures  by  Lotto 
are  excellent  examples  of  his  supreme  talents  in  portraiture  ;  and 
no  collection  outside  Brescia  and  Bergamo  is  so  rich  in  the  noble 
portrait  pictures  of  Moretto  and  his  pupil  Jloroni.  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  {the  rarest  of  the  great  masters)  is  represeatcd  by  a  very- 
beautiful  picture  ^  which  appears  to  have  been  partly  finished  by 

3  In  addition  to  the  strong  internal  evidence  in  favour  of  this  picture  beins 
at  lea!>t  in  part  a  genuine  work  of  Da  Vinci,  it  is  exrres.sly  mentioned  as  being 
by  him  in  the  Traftato  fJdhi  Pifhira  (ii.  17  and  iv.  1),  written  by  the  Milanese 
Lomazzo  before  15SI.  The  painting  was  then  in  tha  church  ofS.  Francesco  at 
Wjhm,  where  it  remained  till  170G. 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


445 


a  pupil ;  ■vrith  slight  alterations  it  is  the  same  in  design  as  tlie 
Vierge  aux  Rochers  in  the  Louvre  (see  fig.  23),  Leonardo's  use 
of  almost  monochromatic  colouring  differs  strongly  from  the  style 
of  his  pupils  and  imitators  Luini,  Andrea  da  Solario  (see  fig.  24), 
nnd  Beltraffio,  all  of  whom  are  represented  by  excellent  and 
characteristic  examples.  Of  the  earlier  Milanese  school  the  gal- 
lery contains  two  magnificent  examples  by  Ambrogio  Borgognone, 
—  the  Marriage  of  St  Catherine  especially  being  a  work  of  the 
highest  importance  and  beauty  (see  fig.  22).  The  gallery  possesses 
rare  examples  of  the  early  German  masters  (see  fig.  25,  by  William 
of  Cologne),  though  it  is  weak  in  the  works  of  the  later  Germans, 
as  Albert  Durer,  who  is  represented  only  by  one  portrait,  which  is 
signed  (see  fig.  26),  and  Hans  Holbein  the  younger,  who  is  totally 
absent  except  for  the  noble  portrait  lent  by  the  duke  of  Norfolk.^ 
The  coUectWD  is,  however,  unusually  rich  in  fine  examples  of  early 
Flemish  art,  —  of  the  Van  Eycks  and  their  school  (see  fig.  2S).  Tire 
portrait  of  Jean  Arnolfini  and  his  wife  (signed  and  dated)  is  one  of 
Jan  van  Eyck's  noblest  works  on  a  small  scale, — only  surpassed, 
perhaps,  by  the  Madonna  and  Worshipper  in  the  Louvre.  The  En- 
tombment of  Christ  by  Van  der  Weyden  the  elder  (see^fig.  29),  the 
thre.i  or  more  examples  of  fliemling,  the  Exhumation  of  St  Hubert 
by  Dierick  Bouts,  the  Reading  Magdalene  by  Van  der  Weyden  the 
younger  {see  fig.  30),  and  the  Saints  and  Doner  by  Gheerardt  Dr.vid 
are  aU  unrivalled  examples  of  these  great  paintcr.x^  The  delicate 
little  panel  of  the  Madonna  by  Margaret  van  Eyck  is  a  work  of 
much  interest.  The  later  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  are  equally 
well  represented,  especially  by  a  number  of  noble  portraits  by  Rem- 
brandt (see  fig.  33),  Rubens,  and  Vandyck  ;  a  portrnit  of  an  old 
woman,  the  *'  Chapeau  de  Foil,"  and  the  portrait  of  Van  der  Gcest 
(^v^ongly  called  Gevartius)  are  among  the  finest  works  of  these  three 
masters  (see  figs.  31  and  32).  Hobbema,  Ruysdacl,  De  Hooge, 
"Wouwerman,  and  others  of  their  school  are  very  riciily  represented 
(see  figs.  34  and  35).  Of  the  Spanish  school  the  National  Gallery 
contains  an  excellent  portrait  head  of  Philip  IV.  (see  fig.  37)  by 
Velazquez,  a  full-length  of  the  same  king,  not  wholly  by  his  hand, 
and  also  two  pictures  of  sacred  subjects  and  a  cui'ous  boar-hunting 
scene  of  much  interest,  but  of  iufeiior  beauty.  The  examples  of 
Murillo,  like  most  out  of  Seville,  are  but  third-rate  specimens  of 
his  power.  The  Kneeling  Friar  as  an  example  of  Zurba,ran'3  work 
is  unrivalled  either  in  Spain  or  out  of  it  fsec  fig.  36).  Among  the 
pictures  of  the  French  scliool  a  number  ol'  fine  landscapes  by  Claude 
Lorrain  and  a  very  masterly  Bacchanalian  Scene  by  Nicolas  Poussin 
are  the  most  notable  (see  figs.  38  and  39).  The  English  school  is 
hardly  represented  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the  chief  national  collec- 
tion, but  it  is  supplemented  by  a  large  number  of  fine  paintings  in 
the  South  Kensington  Museum.  The  chief  treasures  in  tliis  branch 
possessed  by  the  National  Gallery  are  Hogarth's  series  of  "  Marriage 
4  la  Mode,"  some  noble  portraits  by  Reynolds  and  Gainsborough, 
ajid  an  unrivalled  collection  of  Turner's  works  of  all  periods  (see 
fi<^.  40,  41,  and  43). 
Hamilton  The  royal  gallery  at  Hampton  Court  (London),  a'nong  a  large 
Coart.  number  of  inferior  paintings,  contains  some  of  great  value,  especially 
the  Baptism  of  Christ,  an  early  work  of  Francia,  a  most  magnificent 
portrait  of  Andrea  Odoni  by  Lor.  Lotto,  both  signed,  and  a  portrait 
of  a  youth  attributed  to  Raphael.  The  chief  treasure  of  the  palace 
is  the  grand  series  of  decorative  paintings  (nine  in  number)  executed 
in  tempera  on  canvas  by  Andrea  Mantegna  in  1485--92  for  the  duke 
of  Mantua,  but  much  injured  by  repainting.  The  equally  celebrated 
cartoons  designed  by  Raphael  for  tapesti-y  to  decorate  the  Sistine 
Chapel  are  now  moved  to  tl-e  South  Kensington  Museum.  The 
gallery  also  possesses  several  fine  examples  of  Tintoretto,  many 
good  Flemish  and  Dutch  pictures,  some  small  but  fine  examples  of 
Holbein  and  his  school,  and  a  number  of  historically  interesting 
works  by  English  painters  of  the  17th  century.  The  portrait  of 
a  Jewish  Rabbi  by  Rembrandt  is  one  of  his  finest  works, — a  perfect 
masterpiece  of  portraiture. 
Other  The  Dulwich  gallery  is  especially  rich  in  works  of  the  Dutch 

Kngliil;  school,  and  contains  some  noble  portraits  by  Gainsborough  and 
goUerit:,.  Reynolds,  as  well  as  an  interesting  early  woik  by  Raphael,  —  the 
predella  with  seven  small  subjects  painted  in  1504  as  part  of  the 
lar^e  altarpiece  for  the  monastery  of  St  Anthony  in  Penida  ;  the 
main  part  of  tliis  largo  retable,  which  is  the  property  of  tlie  heirs 
of  the  duke  of  Ripalda,  has  been  for  many. years  deposited  but  not 
exhibited  in  the  National  Gallery.  The  National  Portrait  Gallery'* 
ut  Kensington  contains  many  paintings  of  different  schools  which 
are  valuable  both  as  works  of  an  and  from  their  interest  as  portraits. 
The  Royal  Academy  has  placed  in  the  attics  of  Burlington  House 
its  valuable  coUectici  of  diploma  pictures,  and  in  an  adjoining 
room  a  few  treasures  of  earlier  art,  among  them  a  large  cartoon 
of  the  Madonna  and  St  Anne  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci, — similar  in 
Bubjcct  to,  but  different  in  design  from,  an  unfinished  picture  by 
him  in  tlie  Louvre,  and  a  copy  of  his  Cc-nacolo  at  Milan  by  his 
pupil  Marco  d'Oggiono,  of  priceless  value  now  that  the  original 
la  an  utter  WTcck.     In  the  same  room  is  a  very  beautiful  but  un- 


1  EnRland  geocrally  i.%  liowever,  very  rich  Id  the  works  of  Holbein, - 
portraita. 
*  Now  temporarily  moved  to  Bcthnal  Oreen. 


:hiefly 


finished  piece  of  sculpture  by  Michelangelo,  a  circular  relief  of  the 
i\Iadonna. 

England  is  especially  rich  in  collections  of  dr.iwings  by  the  old  Other 
masters.  The  cniefarc  thoac  in  the  British  ]\lu^elun,  In  tlio  Taylor  British 
Buildings  at  Oxford,  and  in  the  possession  of  the  (^ucen  and  of  Mr  coimc- 
Malcolm  of  Poltalloch.  Among  the  crilection  in  ^Vnldso^  Castle  Uc.*i>. 
are  eighty-seven  portraits  in  red  chalk  ly  Holbein,  all  of  wonderful 
beauty.  The  celebrated  "Liber  Veritatis,"  a  collection  of  original 
drawings  by  Claude  Loirain,  is  in  the  possession  of  the  duke  of 
Devonsliire  at  Chatswoith.  In  Buckingham  Palace  is  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  paintings  of  the  Flemish  and  Dutth  schools.  An  nlmost 
incredibly  large  number  of  fine  paintings  of  all  schools  arc  scattered 
throughout  tiie  private  galleries  of  Britain  ;  an  account  of  the  chief 
of  thebc  is  given  by  Dr  Waagen,  Trca^Mvcsof  Art  in  £/!7aijj,  London, 
1854.  But  many  of  the  collections  described  by  Dr  AVaagen  havo 
.<^ince  been  moved  or  dispersed;  the  Peel  and  AVynn  Elll^picturcs  have 
been  purchased  by  the  National  G'allcry,  which  has  also  acquired 
important  pictures  from  the  sales  of  the  Eastlake,  Barker,  Novar» 
Hamilton,  and  Blenheim  collections.  The  largest  private  galleries 
which  still  exist  in  England  are  those  of  the  duke  ofoWcstininstcr 
(Grosvenor  House),  the  duke  of  Sutherland  (Stafford  House),  tlie 
carl  of  Ellcsmere  (Bridgewatcr  House),  and  tlie  maniuis  of  Exeter 
(Burghley  House).  The  public  gallery  at  Liverpool  contains  some 
very  important  Italian  pictures,  as  does  also  the  growing  collection 
in  Dublin.  The  Edinburgh  National  Galleiy  possesses  a  few  speci- 
mens of  early  masters,  among  them  part  of  the  great  altaipiece  by 
the  unknown  "Master  of  Liesborn,"  a  picture  of  St  Hubert  by  tlie 
"Master  of  Lyversbcrg,"  some  fine  Dutch  pictures,  ancl  Gains- 
borough's masterpiece,  the  portrait  of  the  Hon.  Mrs  Graham,  to- 
gether with  many  examples  of  the  excellent  portraits  by  David 
Allan  and  Sir  Henry  Raeburu.  In  the  palace  of  Holyrood  is  pre- 
served a  very  beautiful  altarpiece,  with  portraits  of  James  III.  and 
his  queen  and  other  figures.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  painted 
about  1480  by  Van  der  Goes  of  the  school  of  the  Van  Eycks.  Eng- 
land is  especially  rich  in  the  finest  examples  of  Nicolas  Poussin 
and  Claude  Lorrain  ;  tlie  paintings  by  the  latter  in  Grosvenor  House, 
the  National  Gallery,  and  elsewhere  in  the  country  are  unrivalled 
by  those  of  any  foreign  gallery. 

The  Louvre  is  rich  in  works  of  nearly  all  scliools,  and  especially  Lou- re. 
in  fine  examjiles  of  Signorelli,  Mantegna,  Raphael,  Titian,  Paul 
Veronese,  Correggio,  and  the  later  Bologuese  painters.  Its  chief 
glory  is  the  possession  of  some  ot  the  very  rare  works  of  Da  Vinci, — 
La  Vierge  aux  Rocliers,  the  Virgin  and  Si.  Anne,  and  tiic  wontlcr- 
ful  portraits  of  Moua  Lisa  and  La  belle  Ft  rronniere.  It  is  chieftj 
weak  in  examples  of  the  earlier  Venetian  painters,  not  possessin;^ 
a  single  genuine  wcnk  by  Giovanni  Bellini.  It  contains  some  ver> 
beautiful  frescos  by  Botticelli  and  by  Luini,  and  the  finest  work 
of  Murillo  which  exists  out  of  Seville, — the  Virgin  in  Cloiy.  The 
later  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  are  well  represented  :  the  small 
painting  of  the  Virgin  with  a  kneeling  Worshipptr  by  Jan  van 
Eyck  is  one  of  the  loveliest  pictures  in  the  world  ;  but  tho  Louvre 
is  otherwise  deficient  in  paintings  of  his  school.  The  portraits  by 
Holbein,  Rubens,  and  Vandyck  are  of  great  importance.  In  the 
French  school  tho  Louvre  is  of  course  unrivalled  :  the  paintings  of 
Nicolas  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorrain  are  the  best  among  them  ;  but 
the  general  average  of  merit  is  very  lov;.  'i"ho  Louvre  also  possesses 
a  magnificent  collection  of  drawings  by  the  old  masters. 

The.  Berlin  gallery,  now  rapidly  being  added  to,  contains  a  largo  Gerr^ici 
number  of  very  important  Italian  pictures;  among  them  is  Sig- falii  liee. 
norelli's  finest  easel  picture  (see  fig.  8), — a  classical  scene  with  Pan 
and  other  nude  figures  playing  on  pipes,  a  masterpiece  of  powerful 
drawing.  The  gallery  is  more  especially  rich  in  works  of  the 
German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  schools,  including  six  panels  from  the 
lar"e  altarpiece  of  the -Adoration  of  the  Lamb  at  Ghent  by  Hubert 
and  Jan  van  Eyck.  The  Dresden  gallery  is  mainly  rich  in  paint- 
ings of  tho  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools,  but  also  contains  some  fine 
Italian  pictures  Raphael's  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  is  the  chief  glory 
of  the  collection,  together  with  many  fine  examples  of  Giorgione, 
Palma  Vecchio,  Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  and  Correggio,  and  a  number 
of  works  of  the  later  Bologncsc  §choo!.  Tho  gallery  is  especially 
remarkable  for  its  genuine  examples  of  that  very  rare  master 
Giorgione.  The  Pinakothek  at  Munich  possesses  some  good  Italian 
pictures,  among  them  four  by  Raphael  and  a  number  of  fine  Titians. 
It  contains  a  large  collection  of  German,  Dutch,  and  Flemish  paint- 
ings, with  a  number  of  fine  portraits  by  Albert  Durer  and  Vandyck. 
It  is  especially  rich  in  works  of  Lucns  Cranach  tho  elder,  of  Mem- 
ling,  of  Roger  van  der  Weyden,  of  Wohlgiiciuth,  and  of  Rembrandt.* 
The  Cassel  gallery  is  mainly  rich  in  Flemish  and  Dutch  paintings- 
Tho  small  Wallraf-Ri-diartz  Museum  at  Cologne  contain.^  a  few 
paintings  of  great  interest  to  tho  student  of  early  German  art. 

The  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna  is  exceptionally  rich  in  works  Auatrif 
of  tho  Venetian  Bchool,  especially' of  Palma  V6cchio,  Titian,  and 
Paul  Veronese.     Holbein,  Rubens,  Vandyck,  and  other  masters  ftf 
tho  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  are  richly  represented.     Vienna 
also  contains  some  large  private  galleries,  chiefly  rich  ia  Flemish 

3  A  mcwt  valuable  c.italoffue  of  tlio  Muulch  pictures,  well  lllastrftted  wilb 
lihotograpbs,  has  i-cccntly  bton  published. 


446 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


and  Dutch  pictiiro?i,  ami  a  magnificent  collection  of  drawings  by 
old  masters.     The  iliuhipcst  gallery  (Eszterhazy  coUectiou)  contains 
many  fine  Venetian  and  some  Florcutino  pictures,  with  a  large 
number  of  Flemish  and  Dutch  works. 
stPeters-      The  GalU-ry  of  tlio  HermiUt^  at  St  Petci-sburg  is  one  of  the 
oufg.         largest  and  most  important  in  Europe  ;  though  weak  in  pictures  of 
the  early  Italian  schools,  it  rontaius  fine  examples  of  Luini,  R^-phae), 
Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  and  tiie  IJolognese  school,  and  is  extraordi- 
narily rich  iu  paintings  by  Murillo.  Rembrandt,  Rubeiis,  Vandyck, 
and  the  later  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  generally. 
Belgium        The  many  galleries  of  liclgiiim  and  Holland  are  mostly  rich  in 
and  Hoi-  the  works  of  local  scliools.     Antwerp  possesses  the  masterpieces  of 
i^Qd.  Rubens  and  many  fine  examples  of  his  pupil  Vandyck.    The  church 

of  St  Bavon  at  Ghent  contains  the  masterpiece  of  the  Van  Eycks, 
the  main  ])art  of  a  large  altarpiece  in  many  panels  with  the  Adora- 
tion of  the  Lamb  as  the  central  subject;  this  is  only  rivalled  in 
Jioint  cf  size  and  beauty  by  the  Fountain  of  Salvation  painted  by 
an  van  Eyck  about  1432,  and  now  in  the  musL-um  of  the  Sautis- 
Kima  Trini^lad  at  Madrid,  Among  the  many  fine  Flemish  and 
Dutch  pictures  in  the  museum  at  The  Hague  is  a  half-length  of 
an  unknown  lady  by  Holbein,  which  ia  oue  of  the  most  beautiful 
portraits  in  the  world  (see  fig.  27). 

The  galleiy  of  Madrid  is  in  some  respects  unrivalled  both  from 
its  widely  representative  chai-acter — at  least  as  regards  the  later 
schools — and  from  the  number  of  exceptional  masterpieces  which 
it  contains  ;  it  possesses,  however,  very  few  specimen^  of  Italian 
art  earlier  than  1500.  In  the  works  of  the  later  Italian  masters  it 
is  very  rich,  possessing  four  important  works  by  Raphael, — the 
Madonna  called  La  Pei-la  (once  at  Hampton  Court  in  the  collection 
of  Charles  I.),  the  Virgin  of  the  Fish,  the  Virgin  of  the  Rose,  and 
Christ  on  IIis  way  to  Calvary  {Lo  Spasivw).  No  other  gallery  con- 
tains so  many  fine  specimens  of  Titian's  paintings  ;  it  includes  a 
scene  of  liacchus  at  Naxos,  with  a  nude  sleeping  figure  of  Ariadne 
in  the  foreground,  the  companion  to  the  magnificent  Ariadne  iu 
the  English  National  Gallery,  bnt  surpassing  it  in  beauty  and  per- 
fection of  preservation.  The  third  picture  of  the  trio  painted  for 
the  duke  of  Ferrara  is  also  at  Madrid  ;  it  is  known  as  the  Sacrifice 
to  Fecundity,  and  consists  of  a  laige  group  of  nude  infants  sporting 
or  sleeiung,  a  perfect  miracle  for  its  wealth  of  colour  and  unrivalled 
flesh  painting.  In  addition  to  these  wonderful  pictures  there  are 
some  splendid  portraits  by  Titian,  and  many  of  his  later  works, 
showing  a  sad  decadence  in  his  old  age.  The  gallery  also  contains 
many  important  works  of  Paul  Veronese  and  othei-s  of  the  Venetian 
school,  and  a  very  fine  collection  of  Flemish  and  Dutch  pictures, 
including  a  number  of  noble  portraits  by  Antonio  Moro,  Rubens, 
and  Vaudyck,  together  with  some  of  Claude  Lorrain's  best  land- 
scapes. In  the  Spanish  schools  the  Madrid  gallery  is  uniivalled  ; 
it  contains  a  number  of  poor  but  interesting  paijitings  by  Juan  de 
Juanes,  the  best  collection  of  the  works  of  Ribcra  (Spagnoletto),  and 
the  chief  masterpieces  of  Velazquez.  It  is  in  Madrid  alone  that  the 
greatness  of  Velazquez  can  be  fully  realized,  just  as  the  marvellous 
uilents  of  Murillo  are  apparent  only  in  Seville.  Among  the  many 
wonderful  paintings  by  Velazquez  in  this  galleiy  the  chief  are  the 
Crucifixion,  the  Tapestry  Wcavei-s  {Las  Hilandcras)^  the  Surrender 
of  Breda  {Las  Lanzas),  the  Drinking  Peasants  {Los  BorracJios],  the 
portrait  group  known  as  Las  McniTias,  and  many  magnificent  por- 
traits. The  gallery  also  contains  a  number  of  Zurbaran's  works, 
and  many  by  ilurillo.  none  of  which  are  among  his  finest  paintings. 
The  best  picture  by  Murillo  at  Madrid  ia  the  scene  of  St  Elizabeth 
of  Hungary  tending  the  Lepci"s,  preserved  in  the  Academia  de  San 
Fernando.  Seville  alone  contains  tlie  real  masterpieces  of  JIurillo, 
a  very  unequal  painter,  who  produced  a  large  number  of  third-rate 
works,  such  as  are  to  be  seen  in  many  of  the  chief  galleries  of  Europe, 
but  who  at  his  best  deserves  to  i^ank  with  the  greatest  painters  of 
the  world.  It  is  impossible  to  desnibe  the  wonderful  rich  tone, 
the  intense  pathos,  and  the  touching  religious  feeling  of  such 
pictures  as  the  Crucified  Chiist  embracing  St  Francis,  or  tlie  appari- 
tion of  the  Infant  Saviour  to  St  Anthony  of  Padua,  in  the  Seville 
galleiy,  and  the  larger  composition  of  the  latter  scene  iu  the 
cithtdral.  Other  very  noble  works  by  Murillo  exist  in  the  monastic 
rliurch  of  La  Caridad.  The  Seville  gallery  also  contains  several  of 
Zurbaran's  chief  pictures,  and  some  by  other  painters  of  the  Spanish 
school.  The  other  chief  gallery  of  Spain,  that  at  Valencia,  contains 
a  number  of  weak  but  historically  interesting  pictures  of  early 
S[_ianish  artists, — feeble  imitations  of  the  style  of  Franria  and  other 
Italian  paintei-s.  It  possesses  also  many  pictures  by  Ribalta  and 
other  later  and  unimportant  mastei-s  of  the  Valencian  school. 
Home.  The  Vatican  Gallery,  though  not  large,  contains  a  very  large  pro- 

portion of  important  pictures,  such  as  a  jxivtrait  group  in  fresco 
by  M.iozzo  da  Forli,  the  unfinished  monochromatic  painting  of  St 
Jerome  by  Da  A'inci,  the  finest  of  Raphnel's  early  works,  —  the 
CoTonatiou  of  the  Virgin,  the  ^ladoniia  di  Foligno,  and  the  Trans- 
fi^iration.  The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  by  Pinturicchio  is  one  of 
ins  best  panel  pictures,  and  a  portrait  of  a  Doge  by  Titian  a  master- 
piece of  portraiture.  The  Last  Communion  of  St  Jeiome  by  Do- 
nienichino  is  his  finest  work.  The  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  painted 
by  Fra  Angelico  (see  Fiesole),  the  Appa,-tameuti  Borgia  by  Pintu* 


ncchio,  the  stanze  by  Raphael,  and  the  Sjstine  Ch.ipcl  by  Michel- 
angelo are  described  in  the  articles  on  these  painters.  The  Capitol 
contains  but  few  works  of  much  merit ;  the  chief  are  a  very  beauti- 
ful series  of  frescos  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses  in  separate  panels,  life- 
si<:e,  by  some  painter  of  the  school  of  Perugino,  probably  Lo  Spagna  ; 
they  are  remarkable  for  grace  of  diuwing  and  extreme  dcUcaoj'  of 
colour.  The  Rape  of  Enropa,  by  Paul  Veronese,  is  a  fine  replica  of 
that  in  the  doge's  palace  at  Venice.  The  gallery  also  contains  some 
of  the  chief  works  of  Guercino  and  Guido  and  a  very  noble  portrait 
by  Velazquez.  The  Borghese  Galleiy  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
private  collection  in  the  world.  It  is  rich  in  Florentine  pictures 
of  the  15th  century,  and  possesses  the  celebrated  Entombment  by 
Raphael  A  small  panel  of  St  Stephen  by  Fraucia  (signed)  is  o£ 
unusual  beauty  and  interest, — very  highly  finished  and  magnificent 
in  colour  ;  it  seems  to  show  the  influence  of  Jan  van  Eyck  ;  it  is 
one  of  Francia's  earliest  works,  and  is  very  far  superior  to  those  of 
his  later  style.  The  great  glory  of  the  gallery  is  the  (so-called) 
Sacred  and  Profane  Love  by  Titian  (see  tig.  16),  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  pictures  in  the  world  both  for  design  aud  colour,  and  a 
marvel  for  its  rich  warm  rendering  of  flesh  ;  it  appeai-s  to  be  a 
portrait  of  the  same  lady  repeated  twice, — nude  and  draped.  It. 
belongs  to  a  somewhat  earlier  period  than  the  bacchanal  trio  in 
Madi'id  and  London.  This  gallery  contains  also  one  of  Vandyck's 
finest  portraits,  that  of  Catherine  de'  iledici,  and  other  excellent 
portraits  of  the  Venetian  school.  The  Danae  by  Correggio  is  an 
interesting  example,  very  weak  in  drawing,  but  remarkable  for  the 
fine  pearly  tones  of  the  tlcsh.  The  Corsini  Gallery,  now  the  property 
of  the  municipality  of  Rome,  contains  some  good  panels  by  Fia 
Angelico,  but  is  mainly  strong  only  in  the  later  iJoiognese  paintings. 
It  also  possesses  a  rich  collection  of  early  Italian  engravings.  The 
Doria  Gallery  is  large,  but  contains  only  a  small  propoi  tion  of  valu- 
able pictures.  Some  paintings  by  Kiccolo  Rondinelli  are  of  much 
interest  ;  they  show  him  to  have  been  an  able  puj'il  and  close 
imitator  of  Giovanni  Bellini,  to\\hommany  paintings  in  various 
galleries  are  attributed  wliich  are  really  the  woik  of  pupils.  A 
beautiful  JIadonna  in  the  Doria  Palace  by  Rondinelli  has  a  caricllino 
inscribed  with  Bellini's  name.  The  chief  treasures  of  this  collection 
aie  the  portraits  of  two  Venetians  attributed  to  Raphael,  and  that 
of  Pope  Innocent  X.  by  Velazquez, — the  latter  a  iparvel  of  dashing 
and  almost  too  skilful  execution.  There  is  also  a  fine  portrait  of 
Andi-ea  Doria  by  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,  well  modelled,  but  rather 
wanting  in  colour.  The  Sciarra-Colonna  Palace  contains  a  few  good 
pictures,  among  them  a  very  fine  portrait  of  a  violin-player  by- 
Raphael,  and  a  giticeful  painting  of  Modesty  and  Vanity  by  Luini, 
attributed  to  Da  Vinci,  as  is  often  the  case  with  Luini's  pictures. 
The  Colonna,  Barbcrini,  and  other  private  galleries  of  Rome  contain 
but  little  that  is  noteworthy.  The  church  of  S.  Maria  so[ua  Minerva 
contains  some  splendid  frescos  by  Lippo  Lippi ;  some  of  Pintu- 
licchio's  chief  frescos  are  in  the  churches  of  S.  Slaria  del  Popolo  and 
S.  Maria  in  Ara  Co.di  ;  and  the  monastery  of  S.  Onofiio  possesses  a 
very  lovely  fresco  of  th'e  JIadonna  and  a  kneeling  Donor,  attiibute*' 
to  Da  Vinci, — probably  a  pupil's  work. 

The  Florentine  Accademia  delle  Belle  Arti  contains  a  most  vain-  Floi^Hc 
able  collection  of  early  Florentine  and  other  15th-century  picture^:, 
including  the  finest  panel  picture  by  Gentile  da  Fabriano, — the 
Adoration  of  the  Magi, — a  rare  example  of  Venorchio,  partly  painted 
by  his  pupil  Da  A'inci,  some  mngniftccnt  examples  of  Botticelli, 
good  specimens  of  Fra  Angelico,  Ghirlandaio,  Signorelli,  LippK> 
Liji])!,  Fra  Bartolomeo,  and  a  gioup  of  saints  by  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
one  of  his  best  works.  The  magnificent  galleries  in  the  Ufl!izi  and 
Fitti  Palaces  contain  an  uniivalled  collection  of  the  gi-eat  Florentine 
painters  of  all  dates.  In  the  Vflizi  are  several  fine  paintings  by 
Raphael, — the  Madonna  del  Caidellino,  a  portrait  of  Julius  II.,  and 
an  exquisitely  finished  head  of  an  unknown  lady.  Among  the 
many  fine  examples  by  Titian  is  his  portrait  of  a  nude  lady  reclining 
(Danae), — a  most  wonderful  work.  In  the  same  room  (La  Tribuna) 
is  the  circular  panel  of  the  Madonna  and  St  Joseph,  an  early  work 
by  Michelangelo,  showing  the  influence  of  Signorelli.  Many  of 
Botticelli's  finest  works  nrc  in  this  galleiy,  and  the  I'ffizi  also 
possesses  an  almost  unrivalled  collection  of  di-a\\ings  by  Italian 
paintei-s  of  all  dates.  The  Pitti  Palace  contains  sr-nie  of  the  chief 
works  of  Ra|diael, — the  early  ^lailonna  del  Gian  Dnca,  and  por- 
traits of  Angelo  Doni  and  his  wife,  the  pnrtiaits  of  Cardinal  Bibiena 
and  Leo  X.  (in  his  later  manner),  the  JIadonna  dcUa  Seggiola,  and 
the  miniature  Vision  of  Ezekieb  The  portrait  of  a  nun,  attributed 
to  Da  Vinci,  hut  probably  the  work  of  a  pupil,  is  a  work  of  extra- 
ordinaiy  finish  and  refinement.  The  Magdalen  and  the  lady's 
portrait  (Ia  Belial  by  Titian  are  among  his  best  works.  Both 
these  collections  contain  some  good  Flemish  and  Dutch  pictures. 
In  the  church  of  Santa  Croce  are  the  chief  works  of  Giotto,  in  S. 
Maria  Novella  the  best  pictures  of  Orcagna  and  Ghirlandaio,  aud 
in  the  monasteiy  of  S.  Marco  the  principal  frescos  of  Fra  Angelico. 
Some  of  the  chief  frescos  of  Spinello  Aretiuo,  much  repainted,  exist 
in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Miniato,  and  the  most  important  frescos  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto  are  in  the  church  of  S.  Anuunziata.  Smollec 

.Thcomall  galleries  at  Perugia  and  Siena  are  of  great  interest  for  Italiae 
their  collections  of  rai-e  works  by  painters  of  the  local  schools.    The  galler. 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


447 


BHUiU  collection  at  Pisa  also  possesses  some  curious  early  panels  by 
local  painters  ;  in  the  church  of  S.  Caterina  is  a  magiiiticent  altar- 
piece  by  Frau.  Traini,  Orcagna's  chief  pupil.  At  Prato  are  the 
tinest  fi-escos  of  Lippo  LippL  The  gallery  at  Bologna  contains  some 
of  Francia's  chief  works,  the  St  Cecilia  of  Raphael,  and  a  number 
of  examples  of  the  Caracci  and  othei-s  of  the  later  Bolognese  school. 
Parma  is*  specially  rich  in  the  works  of  Correggio  aud  Parmi^ano  ; 
Buhappily  the  great  frescos  by  the  former  iu  the  cathedral  have 
almost  wholly  jerished.  The  small  collection  at  Fcrrara  possesses 
interesting  examples  of  paintings  of  the  local  school.  Brescia  and 
Beroumo  are  very  rich  in  fine  works  of  Sloretto  and  Moroni,  aud 
also  possess  a  number  of  &ne  Venetian  paintings  of  various  dates. 
Padua  has  but  a  small  and  unimportant  gallery,  but  the  town  is 
rich  in  frescos  by  Giotto,  Altichiero,  and  Jacopo  Avanzi,  and  most 
noble  frescos  by  Andrea  Maute^ua.  Mantua  also  contains  some 
grand  frescos  by  Mantegna  in  the  Castello  di  Corti,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  showy  and  cleverly  executed  wall  au'I  ceiling  paintings 
by  Giulio  Romano  iu  the  Palazzo  del  Te.  The  Verona  gallery  con- 
tains some  few  goo<l  examples  of  the  local  school.  The  church  of 
S.  Zenouc  possesses  a  magnificent  altarpiece  by  Mantegna  ;  and  iu 
S.  Anastasia  is  the  wreck  of  a  fine  fresco  of  St  George  and  the 
Dragon  by  Pisanello.  The  Viceuza  collection  contains  little  of 
Talue  except  some  good  examples  of  Bart.  Montagna.  The  Turin 
gallery  possesses  a  few  gootl  pictures,  especially  some  fine  panels  by 
Botticelli  and  splen.lid  portraits  by  Vandyck.  ilany  of  \  andyck's 
finest  works  exist  in  the  various  iialaces  of  Genoa.  The  large  gallery 
at  Naples  contains  an  unusual  projwrtion  of  had  pictures  ;  there  are, 
however,  some  fine  works  of  Titian  and  some  interesting  examples  of 
the  early  Flemish  school  which  have  been  in  Naples  ever  since  the 
15th  century.  The  only  painting  of  much  imiiortance  in  iho  ^Uery 
at  Palermo  is  a  very  beautiful  triptych  of  the  school  of  Van  Eyck. 

Veuice,  Venice  is  exri-aordinarily  rich  in  the  works  of  its  own  school,  with 
the  exception  of  those  of  Crivelli,  who  is  completely  absent  The 
works  in  Venice  of  the  Bellini  family,  of  Carpaccio  and  others  of 
Gian.  Bellini's  pupils,  of  Titian,  Tintoretto,  and  Paul  Veronese, 
are  among  the  c^iief  glories  of  the  world.  The  Grimani  breviary, 
iu  the  doge's  library,  contains  a  very  beautiful  series  of  miniatuie 
pictures  of  the  school  of  Mending. 

yfloA.  The  Brera  Gallery  at  ililan  contains  a  large  number  of  master- 

pieces, esi>ccially  of  the  Lombard  and  Venetian  schools,  among 
thcra  the  clnef  work  of  Gentile  Bellini,  St  Mark  at  Alexandria, 
some  unrivallcil  portraits  by  Lorenzo  Lotto,  and  very  important 
examples  of  Moretto's  religious  paintings.  One  of  its  greatest 
treasures  is  the  altarpiece  painted  for  the  duke  of  Montefeltro  by 
Piero  della  Francesco,  anit  wrongly  attributed  to  his  pupil  Fra 
Caniovale.  The  celebrated  S^wsalizio  is  the  most  important  work 
of  Raphael,  executed  wholly  under  the  influence  of  Pcrugino.  The 
gallery  is  especially  rich  in  works  of  the  pupils  and  imitators  of 
Leonardo  and  other  Milanese  painters.  The  Bibliotcca  Ambrogiana 
contains  some  priceless  drawings  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  a  large 
number  of  his  autograph  MSS.,  selections  from  which  have  been 
published  by  Dr  Richter,  London,  18S3.  Another  important  MS. 
of  Da  Vinci  from  the  same  library,  the  Codice  Atlantico^  is  now 
(1836)  iu  course  of  publication  in  Rome  in  its  entirety. 

This  very  scanty  sketch  of  the  contents  of  the  chief  galleries  of 
Europe  will  give  some  notion  of  the  places  where  the  works  of 
special  schools  and  masters  can  best  be  studied.  In  some  cases 
there  is  bat  little  choice  :  the  greatness  of  Giotto  can  only  be  fully 
realized  in  Florence  and  Padua,  of  Carpaccio  and  Tintoretto  in 
Venice,  of  Signorelli  at  Orvieto  and  Monte  Oliveto,  of  Fra  Angelico 
in  Florence,  of  Con'cggio  in  Parma,  of  Velazquez  in  Sladrid,  and 
of  Murillo  in  Seville. 

List  of  Works  to  be  rt)nsit7(eff,l— Paintino  oenbrallv.— Aginconrt,  Hlsloire 
dtVAH,  Pari3,  1311-23;  Bell,  Schools  of  Painting,  London,  1842;  Blanc,  Uis- 
toin  dta  Peintrts  de  tontes  les  tcoles,  Paris,  1S4S-76  ;  Buchanan,  Memoirs  of 
Vaulting,  London,  1924;  Chabert,  GaUrie  des  Pcinlres,  Pari*?.  1822;  Daryl, 
Dictio.wrii  of  Painters,  I^ndon,  1878;  Duchesne,  Mvsenm  of  Puiiitinj,  Pans, 
1829-34;  Eastlflkc.  Handbook  of  Painting,  4th  ed.,  London,  1874;  Gorling, 
Cfwliichte  dfr  Malerei,  L«ipsic,  1967;  Havard,  Ui^oire  de  la  Peintnrt,  Paris, 
ISSi ;  Mre  Hcaton,  Concise  History  o/.Painting,  London,  1S72 ;  Hcinrich,  Lchen 
■  lui  IVerks  der  btruhmtciUa,  Maler,  Berlin.  1804;  Lecarpentler,  Gaicrin  dca 
Peintrts  Crlibres,  Paris,  1310-21;  Menanl,  Uistoire  des  Beaux-Arts,  Paris,  1873; 
Montabert,  Traiti  da  la  Peinture,  Paris.  1820-51;  Parroccl,  Aannlcs  d<i  la 
iViafure,  PariA,  lSi32;  Vcfitrcman,  Jlisto  ire  del  Art.  Pzri%\SS2;  Diderot,  Esaais 
9mr  la  Peintnre,  L^ipslc.  18G2  ;  Emeric- David.  La  Pein/ure  Moderne.  1362; 
WichkU,  Lrt  Ptint-aTtd}t  IVmaau  A"f/m«5wc/p,' Brussels,  1S03  ;  MUotz,  Hlstoire 
He  la  Peintnre,  Paiis,  1881 ;  Stendhal,  Uistotre  de  la  Peinture,  Paris.  iSfiO  :  Miss 
K.  TliompHon.  HnndfMok  to  Picture  GaUerirs  of  Europe,  3d  cd.,  London,  ISSO ; 
Wornum,  History  of  Painting,  London,  1347,  and  Epochs  of  Painting.  13<>4  ;  Eckl 
ond  Atz,  Die  Mad/tnTia  nis  Gegcutand  christlidier  Kun^lmderel,  Brixcn,  1SS3  ; 
Hotlio,  GexK.  drr  chrlaUck^a  IJalerei,  Stuttgart,  1673;  Argcns,  Examen  <fei 
1     A     n  *^'  ^rl'°'  1769;  Hobbes,  Piciure-Collcrtoi^s  Manual,  London, 

JW;  Bo'aii,  Dicttonarv  of  Painttrt,  London,  1865;  Sivet,  Diction.  Hist,  des 
lunlrei.  Parts.  1855;  Bartsch,  Peintre  graveur,  Vienna.  1802-21  ;  Sont.  Gesch 
'•"'  'l^'-^*Jj!^'iMaUrfl,  Berlin.  1853;  Waaccn,  Trf<is:ires  of  AH  in  Britain, 
Lx)n<lon,  lSo4.57  ;  Rebrc.  Kttnstgesthtchie  d*s  MitUlalters,  Leipslc,  1S85.  Earlv 
WKDi^VALScnooLB.— Mallooly,  Paintings  in'S.  Genente,  Rome.  1800;  Pcrrct, 
t»/fico«6fi  rfc  Ro,ru,  Paris.  iaJ2-57  ;  DeRoi^ni.  R^yma  SoOerranea,  Rome.  18tM-S0; 
Wdfon,  Manuel  <rTconograi.ki4  Chritienn^,  Paris.  1845  (in  this  is  printed  the 
llUKcntuiT  M3.  Ep^rfwela  r^t  furypa^tjc^t,  on  the  hieratic  mica  of  Byzan- 

tlfAmeieatSrtdpt»r*(in4  Pn.ntxnj,  London.  1812;  Pownall,  "Ancient  PaifUlnR 

»  FocfUrUicr  Uita  orautUoriUGs  tc  tLe  rariou.  artlclm  ou  the  ecparato  palnttn. 


iu  England, "  in  Arckieologia,  ix.   p.  141,  and  other  papers  in  the  same  publica- 
tion ;  the    Vet-usta  Monunienta^  publialied  by  the  liot-iety  of  Antiquaries,  ho.'* 
valuable   reproductions  of  the    14th-centuiy  wall-paintings  in  8t  Stephen's 
Clia]>el,  Westminster,  which  are  now  destroyed,  except  a  few  fiagments  in  the 
British  Sluseum  ;  many  articles  on  medieval  painting  occur  in  tlie  voluiics  of 
the  A-xh.vohgical  Journal,  and  in   tho  Proceedings  of  many  other  socictu-s  in 
England  and  abroad.     Italian  Schoolb  oe>jerally. — Crowe  and  CavalcascUe 
History  of  Painting  in  Italy,  LoDdoii,  1364-6t>,  and  iliilory  of  Painting  in  Xorli 
Italy,  1871 ;  Woeniianu  and  Woltniann,  History  of  Painting,  ed.  by  s.  Colvm. 
London,  1880;    Kugler.   Handbook  of  Painting,  London,    1S74 ;  Tanzi,   Stori'l 
viltorica,  Florence.  1S22 ;  Rosini,  Storia  della  PiUuru  Stnliana,  Pisa,   lSJ'J-47  ; 
Runiohr,   Italie.iische   Forxhnngen,    Berlin,    1S20-31  ;    Korstt-r,    Denlmale   if^l', 
Mulcrei,  Leij'sic,  1S70-73  ;  Dohnie,  Kiiitst  viul  Kmuller  Itnl,  Berlin,  1S78  ;  Burck'- 
hardt,  The  Cicerone,  bested.  LoutloD,  lb.  9  ;  Coiudet,  HiMoire  de  la  Peinlureen 
Ualie,  Paris,    1S61  ;  Lubke,  C'xk.  der  ital.  Mttlerei,  Stuttgnrt,  1S7S  ;  Ottley, 
Italian  ScIimI,  London,  1323  ;  W,  B.  Scott,  Pictures  by  Haliiui  Mni/ers,  London, 
1S76;  Mrs  Jameson,  Early  Italian  Paintrrs.    Loudon,   ISJO  ;  Syuionds,  Renais- 
sance in  Italy  (Fine  ArUi),  London,  1S77  ;  Tytler,  Old  Masters  and  their  Pictures, 
London,  liiTi  ;  Bemasconi,  Storia  rf.  ruiiim  ItnhniKi,  Pisa,  ISW  ;  Clement,  La 
Peinture  Italienne,  Paris,   1S57  (on  early  painters);  Pa^icolt.    Vite  del  Pittori, 
Rome,  1736;  Pojiiter,  Painting,  Early  Christum,  <£.■.,  small  handbo<;'»;j  London, 
1SS2  ;  L.  Scott,  renaissance  in  Italy,  small  liaml book    London,  1SS3  ;  Richter, 
Italian  Art  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  1SS3  ;  Frizzoni.  L'Arte  Italiana 
■ncUa  Gal.   Nat.  di  Lon^lra,  Milan,  ISSO,  published  in  the  A'rhivio  Storico  di 
Milano;  Reisct,  in  the  Gar.    des  B.-Ayls  for  1S77,  gives  a  valuable  series  of 
articles  entitle  '  "  Une  Visite  aux  Musees  de  Londrea    ;  Moi-clli,  lUUian  MasUrs 
in  German  Galle.-^cs,  lran=i.,  London.  1SS3,  and  his  valuable  series  of  articles  on 
the  BorgheseGalhry  in  Lutzow's  ZciLxh rift  far  bildende  Kunst.     This  very  able 
art  critic,  who  also  writes  under  the  name  of  "  Lermolieff,"  has  developed  a 
somewhat  new  system  of  criticism,  baseil  on  minute  observation  of  the  way 
in  which  each  painter  treated  dct-Tils,  such  as  the  hand  and  car, — in  most  cases 
(according  to  Mprelli)  a  s.ifcr  guMc  than  the  general  impression  derived  from 
the  whole  effect  or  spirit  of  a  picture,  and  less  misleiding  than  a  judgiuent 
formed  from  technical  pecnliarities  ;  the  Comm.  Mnrelli,  aided  by  a  good  know- 
ledge of  the  documentary  histoi-y  of  art,  has  thus  bf<en  enabled  to  give  back  to 
their  right  authors  many  paintings  which  for  long  have  been  wrongly  immcd. 
Italian  Special  Schools. -BorUiga,   Opere  del  Gnnd,  Ferrari,   Milan,   1835; 
Pagani,  Le  Pitture  di  Modena,  Modcna,  1770 ;  Vedriani,  Pittori,  £c,,  Modanesl, 
Modena,  16i}2 ;  Zaist,  Pittori  Cre^nonesi,   Cremona,   1774;   Gniselli,  Biog.  del 
Pittori  Cremone^i,  Cremona,  1327  ;  Arco,  Delle  Arti  di  Mantola,  Mantua,  1857- 
5S ;  Codde,  Dizio»ario  del  Pittori  Mantovani,   Mantua,  1S37 ;  Pozzo,   Vite  del 
Pittori  Veivnesi,  Verpna,  1718;    Ferri,  Pittori  Milanesi,  Rome,  1S6S ;  Rio,  Im 
da  Vinci  ft  son  tcolc,  Paris,  lS5o  ;  Moschini,  /^  Pittiuii  in  Padoia,  Padaa.  1320  ; 
Botloni,  Pitture  Parmensi,  Parma,  ISOO ;  Olfi,  Vitn  del  Parmigianino,  Parma, 
1784  ;  Leoni,  Pitture  di  Con-eg'iio,  Modena,  1S41 ;  Pungilconi,  Memorie  sloriche 
di  Correggio,  Parma,  1S17-21 ;  Malvasia,  Fel  si  na  Pitt  rice,  Bologna,  1678;  Banitt:, 
Pitture  di  Ferntra,  Fen-ara,  1770;  Laderchi,  La  Pitt  urn  Ferraresc,  Fcrrara,  1356  ; 
Baruffakli,  Vite  dci  Pittori  Ferraresi,  Ferrara  ;  Mesnaixl,  La  leiiUure  a  tiienne, 
Paris,  1S78;  Delia  Valle,  Lritere  Sanezi,  Venice,  1732-86;  Lasiiiio,  Pitture  .  .  . 
di  Siena.  Florence,  1325  ;  Milanesi,  Docitmenti  dclV  Arte  Sen^se,  ISSS  ;  BnuUier, 
L'Art  Venitien,  Paris,  1870  ;  W.  B.  Scott,  Pictnresby  Venetian  Painters,  I>indon, 
1S75;  Ruskln.  .'ii  Marl's  r.cst,  London,  1879,  5/OJifS  of  Venice,  1S5G,  and  Guide  to 
principal  Pictures  at  Venice,  IS7S  ;  Zanetti,  Storia  d.  Pittnra  Vencziana,  Venice 
1771  ;  Longhi.  Vite  dci  Pittori  Veneiiant.  Venice,  17G2;  Ridnlfl,  Mamriglie  dell^ 
Arte,  Venice,  1043  ;  Verci,  Pittori,  £c.,  di  LaiMtno,  Venice,  1775  ;  Tassi,  Vitedei 
Pittori^  dc  ,  Bergnmaschi,  Bergamo,  1793  ;  Chizzola,  Pttlure  di  Brescia,  Brescia, 
ISOO;    Calvi,    Vita   di   Francia,   Bologna,    1312,    and   Vila  di  Fran.  Barb-rri 
(Guercino),  1303;  Ratti,  Pittura,  tfc,,  in  Genora,  Gcnai,  1780;  Pascoli,    Vitt 
dci  Pittori,  tCc,  Periigini,  Rome,   1732;  ilariotti,  Letteie  PUtoriche  Perugine, 
Perugia,  17SS  ;  Finrillo,  Gesch.  der  Mnln-ei  in  Toxana,  Berlin,  1S50  ■  M.irchese, 
Pittori  Dovienicani,  Florence,  1845  ;  Ricci.  Mem.  di  Melozzo  da.  i'Oi/i, Vojli,  1834  ; 
Reggiani,  Mem.  sfor.  d.  Arti  della  Marra  di  Ancona^  Macerata,  1334  ;  Domenici, 
Vite  del  Pittori  Nvpoletani,  Naples,  1340-46,— not  trustworthy  in  its  account  of 
supposed  enrly  Neapolitan  painters;  Crowe  and  C-avalcaselle,  Life  of  Titian, 
London,  1878,  and  Life  of  Hapharl,  ISSO-So  ;  Visclicr,  L.  SignorrlU  und  die  Hal 
lienaicsance,  Leipsic,  1S79.     Germa.v,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schools.— Bo<le, 
Frans  Hals  vml  ssine  Scfiule,  Leipsic.  1371,  Die  Kimsiler  von  Haarlem,  1S72,  and 
Osch.  der  hollaudischen  Molei-ei^  1SS3  ;  Burger,  £tJt<les  snr  les  Peintres  Hollandais^ 
Paris,  1S59;  Burnet,  lUwbrandt  and  /it>  H'orls,  London,  1S59  ;  Schcltema,  Hem- 
hrnnd,  Bedrvoering,  dc,  Anir.ttTilam,  1345  ;  Fairliolt,  Homes,  dc,  of  the  Dutch 
Painters,  London,  1871  ;  R.  Gnwer,  Flg^tre  Painters  of  Holland,  London,  1830; 
Havard,  L'Art  Hollandais,  Paris,  1370.  and  Histoire  de  la  Peinture  HoUandaiee, 
Paris,  1882;  Kramm,  Levensen  Wcrken  der  Holla ndische  Kunstichi/ders,  Amster- 
dam, 1S57-C1 ;  Rathgeber,  Annalen.  der  nie^li'rluitdisclten  Malerei,  Gotha,  1842- 
44;  Renouvier,  Les  Peintres  de  I'Anci-nne  tc<jle  llollandaise,  Paris,  1357;  Van 
Mander,  Le  Livre  dej^  PeiiUreo,  Paris,  13S4  ;  Riegel,  Bedrxgezur  nietlerlundisckeu 
KnnstgesdiicJite,    Berlin,    1SS2 ;    Van    Eyndcn,    Geschiedents  der    utterlandsfh^ 
S-hilderkii nst.Amsterylam,  1342  ;  Vlotcn,  Sedcrla ads  SchUdcrkitnst,  Ainst«rdan;, 
1574;    Van    Goul,    Nicitwe    Scho^iburg    der   Knn^tschildens,  Amstenlain,  1858; 
Hotho,  Ccich.  der  deutschen  und  nirderlund.  Maleret,  Berlin,  1840-43  ;  Descauip:. 
La    Vie   drf  Pein/rvs   Flaniands,    Paris,    1753-64;     Dehaisncs,   L'Art    Chrct.    ei 
Flandre.  Douai,  1300;  Fttis,  Les  Artistes  Beiges,  Brussels,  1857;  Fronicntir., 
Les  Maiires  dautrefots,  Paris,  1S7C;  Saint-Genuain,  G'lide  de  Tahlea:'z,  kcoit 
AUejnaiide,  dc,  Paris,    1S41 ;    Hcris,   Hi^oi.e  de  V Ecolc  Fhnand^,    Brussels, 
IS:^  ;  Houasaye,  Histoire  de  la  Peinture  Flamande,  dc,  Paris,  ISG6  ;  MicliJcls, 
Les  Peintres  Bnigeo is,  Brussels.  1346,  Histoire  de  la  Peinture  Flamande,  dc.,\M', 
and  LlEcole  d'Anvers,  Paris.  1S77  ;  Potvin,  L'Art  Flanuind,  Pari?*,  1308  ;  Rooses, 
Gesch.  der  Malerschn'e  A'Uncrpetis,  Munich,  ISSO;  Stanley,  Princii>al  Painters  0/ 
Dutch  and  Flemish  Schools,  London,  1S'<5  ;  Hca<I,  Handbook  of  Pamtini,  Germnn. 
Flemish,  and  Dntch,  London,  1816;  Waagen,  Die  deulschen  und  niederhindisdieiL 
Malcrxhul'n,  Stuttgart,  1502;  Kugler,  Handbook  of  Painting.  2d  ed.,  London, 
1374-;  Crowe  and  Cavalcascllc,  F.arly  Flemish  Pair.tere,  Loudon,  1372  ;  J.  Smith, 
Catnlogne  of  Works  of  Dutch,  Flemish,  and  French  Painters,  London,  18*9-42; 
Sandrart,  L'Acrademla  Tedcscn,  Nuremberg,  lti75-79 ;  Lindau,  Lncas  CranacU, 
I^'ipsic.  1SS3  ;  Heller,  Cranach't  Leben  und  \Verle,  Nurenibei-g,  1804  :  Willigen, 
Les  Artistes  de  Haarlem,  Haarlem,  1S70  ;  W'olt:uaun,  Ham  Holbein.  Berlin.  ISiL*  ; 
Wornum,  Life  of  Holbein.  London,  IStW ;    Tliausing,   Albrecht  D"rer,  Berlin, 
1872-7C  ;  Mrs  Heaton,  Life  of  A.  DUrtr,  I/indon,  ISSl  ;  Ilcller,  Leben  and  U'erlv 
A.  Dtlrers,  Loipsic,  1331  ;   Innstadten,  Z)ars/f//iiit'7 '/'■'■CfWi.  rfer  .Vn/crci.  Vienna, 
1S53;  Knirim,  Die  Hariimnlerti,  dc,  Leipslc,   1339;    Passavant,  BiitrGge  tur 
Kenntnlts,  dc.  Berlin,  1840  ;  Houbraken,  Nederlandsrht  Knnslschdders,  Amster- 
dam, 1718-21  ;  Immcizcel,  De  Txrf)tsen  iVerken  der  }iot'andsche,  dc,  Amsterdam, 
1842-43;  Wcale,  Notes  s^tr  Jean  Van  F.yck,  Lon'lon.  1801  ;  Carton,  Let  t nit  Vntt 
Efjck,   Bmaes,    1848;    Helncckcn.  None  Nachrichtrn  von  KUnstlern,   Di-ewlco, 
1768-71;  Gwinncr,  Kunst  und  KiinUl'r  in  Frnnkpirl,  Frankfort.  1862;  Merlo, 
Nachrichten  von  de<a  Lehen,  dc,  l^nischer  Kiint/ltr,  Cologne,  1350  ;  Busschcr, 
Corpora/iOii  rf.-*  Peintres  a  Gand,  Brussels.  13-^3  ;  Taurel,  /.    Irt  en  HoUande,  dc, 
Amsterdam,  1872;    Burget.  Mva^e*  d»  la  Hollaude,  Bruiwels,  1858-60;  Aiis*m 
Wcerth,  Kunsideiilmaler  df$ Christ.  Mitlelattrrs,  Lcipslc.  1357-00  ;  Salnt-Germam. 
Guide  de  Tableaux  (German,  Flemish,  fln<l  Dntch).  Paris.  1S41  ;  Dolime.  Bode, 
and  other*.  Gesch.  der  denitchtn  Knnsi,  Bcriln,  1SS5  :  W.  *"  Scott.   The  Li/tJe 
Maskrt,  London,  IS79.    Uodlrx  OerJiIan  Scuools.— Douuiol,  L'Art  chittitn  et 


448 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


r £eot€  AUemanrJey 'PttT\s^  iS^  \  Ormos,  reler  txtn  CorneJlus,  <tc.,  Berlin,  1SR6; 
Ranroiii,  MctUrtt  in  It'ien,  Vienna,  1S73 ;  Riegel,  Gacli.  tier  tleutschen  Kunst, 
Hanover,  1S76;  Wnstniann,  Gesch.  der  MaUrH  in  Leijtzig,  Leipsic,  IS79 ; 
Seliaslcr,  Hit  Wttittl^jeinitlih  roii  KantbachSj  Berlin,  18j4 :  Peclit,  Detitsclie 
k'tinsilcr,  XoitUinsen,  IS77-S1 ;  Leixner,  Die  modente  Kunst,  Berlin,  1S7S ; 
Rosenbei'g,  Cesch.  tier  inod.  Kniisl,  Leipsic.  1SS2.  Spanish  School. — HeaJ, 
Jlctitiitjo<3k  o/ l'(untiii<3  (Spanish),  London,  1S47  ;  Stirling,  Annaiso/lhe  Artisli  0/ 
Spain,  London,  18J8,  and  Velitsqnez  and  li'S  Works,  ISOJ  ;  O'Xeil.  Dictionavii  oj 
^iKtnisli  Puiniers,  London,  \%.ii  ;  .Montccuccoli,  Sloria  delia  I'Uturri  in  IsfKtfjnn, 
MoUeua,  1S41 ;  Cumberland,  Eminent  I'uinten  ,n  .Simln,  London,  17S2  ;  Laforge, 
I'esArli  en  /.'-/KW-ie.  Lyons,  l.-^'.O;  W.  B.  Scott,  Mnrdto  and  the  Spo/iisft  SrAoof, 
London,  1S7J;  CnrtiT*,  ilnrdh  and  Velasrjue:,  London,  ISSJ  ;  Daviea,  Li/e  0/ 
Mnrdln,  London,  ISIO  ;  Viardot,  Us  Pr'utC'jx'njc  Peinlres  de  V Espagne,  Paris. 
IS30;  Ensel.i,  idj  d:ffrrulri  Evuelns  de  riatarn,  Sladrid,  1S2.T,  Malpica,  El 
Arte  de  I'l  Pi-dnrn,  >I.ldriU,  lii74  ;  Bcrnmdcz,  Diciow^lo  de  ias  Beilas  Artes  en 
Espanti,  .Madiid,  ISOO  ;  Robinson,  Earii/  Portntjuese  Panitinfj,  Bungny,  ISGC  ; 
Oavillier.  yiiuianr>  Eoitn.>>i,  sn.  Vie,  .Ce.,  Paris,  1S75.  French  ScHOOf.— Mrs 
31.  Pattison,  liennissance  0/  Art  in  h'rni"e,  1S70  ;  La  Cliaviyjieric,  Dictionnniie 
de  rEcoIe  Eriinniisr,  Paris,  1SS:(  ;  Ueraud,  Annates  de  t'Ecole  Franraise,  Paris, 
1S27  ;  Dcro-cr,  L'flcole  Enmrni-j;  Paiis,  1S70  ;  Dnfour,  Peiidres  Parisiens 
tins  XIV  et  XV  Steele),  Pans',  1S70  ;  Par|-ocel,  Antatles  de  in  I'cinfnre,  Paris, 
lS»i2;  De  Saint-Germain,  Trois  Sietlea  de  ia  I'eiittiife  en  Frttnre,  Paris,  ISOfi; 
Laborde,  Renaissance  des  Atls  tt  Itt  tnitr  tie  Fr\tnee,  Paris,  IRjO-Co  ;  Gmicoiut, 
L'Art  flans  le  Xl'lllme  Steele,  P.iri^i,  1.SS0-S4.  Modern  French  School. — 
Cliesnean,  La  Peinlnre  fr".,oiise  ."i  XlXttte  Siede,  Paris,  1302;  Clarelie,  L'Art 
Friin^tiis  Conlf'npnftjin,  Paris,  1S76 ;  Posqnidoux,  L'A't  on  XlXtne  Sil;cle, 
Paris,  ISSl  ;  Jonrdan,  Lfs  Peintres  Eran^ftis,  Paris,  1SJ9  ;  Laloi-ge,  la  Peintnt'e 
en  Fraiiee,  Paris,  1850;  Laureiit.Pichat,  L'Art  en  Ftvnce,  l.>i9;  Lerlcrcq, 
L'icoie  Franraise,  Paris,  ISSl  ;  Merson,  Art  Peinlnre  en  Frttttre,  ISOl  ;  Meyer, 
Getch.  tier  wio-/.  /ritiutjsivhen  Mttlrrei,  Leipsic,  1807;  Rosenberg,  Gesch.  tier 
moit.  Kniisr,  Leii'sic,  18!^;  Wnrzl'-ich,  Die  /ratts^^iischen  Mttler,  Stuttgai-t, 
1S79.  British  ScnooL — Graves,  IH'tionani  0/  JJrirlsh  jirtisls  Jroin  I?W  to 
JStfO,  London,  1S81 ;  Bedi^rave,  J'ainters  tif  the  Entjtish  School,  London,  IStJO, 


and  Didionary  of  Arttsit  fEngllsli^  ISTS ;  W.  B.  Scott,  Our  tr'llsh  lait^tmvt 
ptiinters,  London,  1S72 ;  Slicplierd,  J!i;i;s;i  School  0/ Painting,  london,  I8S«; 
Walpole,  Anerdttles  of  Painting  in  England,  London,  I80I ;  Wod<Ierspo,in,  ^ 
Cro'ne  attd  his  U'oris,  Norwich,  IS08;  Cliesnean,  Ln  Peinlnre  Angluise,  Paria, 
1S,SJ;  Clayton,  English  Female  Aitists.  London,  IS70 ;  Cnnniiigham,  Lives  0/ 
Erttisk  Painters,  ed.  Mrs  Heaton.  1S70;  Dallaway,  Patnlmg  ^n  Enolaiuf, 
London,  1S49  ;  Hannay  and  otliei^,  M'otis  of  lloqnrth,  London.  JSOO;  Hoare, 
Araiietnic  Anntds  of  Painting,  London,  1S05.9  ;  linmas,  .fl/orffMw!r{,s/;,  Paris, 
ISS2;  Ruskin,  Modern  Painters.  London,  ISol-OO  ;  Oiir  Living  Painters  ^i\i\on.\ 
London,  l&:i9  ;  Monkhouse,  Masterpieces  0;  English  Art,  London,  1S08  ;  britton, 
Ettie  Arts  of  lite  English  School,  Ixjndon,  1812  ,  Biocl<-Arnold,  Galnshorough  and 
Jtetinolds,  London,  1831  ;  Leslie  and  Taylor,  Life  and  Ti^nes  of  Iteynolds,  London, 
ISOi;  Conway,  Iteij.iolds  anil  Gainsijorcnigh,  London,  ISSG.  Eablv  Treatises 
ON  Painting.— Tlieophilus,  /)irers/(ru)it^/(ti/m  Sc/ieWii/ti,  trans.,  London,  1&17; 
Ceiinino  Cennini,  Traltato  delln  Pillurxi,  trans.,  together  with  other  early  docu- 
iiienLs  on  painting  by  Mrs  Merrilield,  Trcat'isei  on  Painting,  London,  184S; 
Eastlalte,  Materials  for  Hislortj  of  Ud  Painting,  1847. r,9;  the  Comsiuntarij  of 
Lorenzo  Ghibcrti,  containing  a  sliort  his.oiy  of  Florentine  art,  has  been  pnb- 
lished  (in  French)  by  Perkins,  Chilcrti  et  son  Ecole,  Paris,  183';  Filaretf, 
'I'raltato  tleir  Architettnra,  tCc.,  written  at  Florence,  HG4,  Pretiosn  MargaritOf 
edited  by  Aldus,  Venice,  1540 ;  Da  Vinci.  Trattalo  delta  piltnra,  Bologna,  1780, 
and  selections  from  forty-two  ant^grapli  MSS.  at  Milan,  edited  by  Richter, 
London,  1SS3 ;  Lotnazzo,  Tratttito  d.  Pittnra,  Milan,  1 JS4  ;  Vasari,  Vitn  dei 
-  .ttori,  first  complete  edition,  Florence,  15GS,  best  eilitinn  by  Milanesl,  Flof- 
ence,  1878  S2;  ilmcUt,  Sotisin  tVOiiere  di  Disegno  .  .  .  scritta  dfi  Kit  /tiio,(ijiKi 
(a  work  of  the  1-Oth  century) ;  Bassano,  ISOO,  best  edition  by  Ki  izzoni,  Bnlpgna^ 
1SS4  ;  Bellori,  ^'i(e  ifei  7'i(/o<i,  Home,  1072;  Ridolfi,  ^/Hrririff/.eiV//*  ,4./e,  Voliice, 
1G4S;  BaUtinucci,  Piofessori  <lei  Disegno,  Florence,  loSl-SS  ;  Dn  Flxsnoy,  Ati 
of  Painting,  London.  1096;  Van  Lcircsse,  A-l  of  Painting,  trans.,  London, 
1733  ;  Piles,  Divers  Oiivrnges  snr  la  I'eintnre,  Paris,  1755.  For  the  bibliogi-aphy 
of  painting,  see  Weigel,  Kv nstcataing,  Leiiwiic,  ISilS  and  following  years;  ami 
Reninont,  Kotiiie  ijibliogntjiche  dei  Lavoei  jjubi,  in  Certnania  tt'Olt.  d.  Belle  Artl, 
Florence,  1S47-C3.  "   H.  il.)    , 


SCHOPENHAUER,  Arthur  (1788-1860),  was  born 
in  Dantzic  (117  Heiligen-Geibt  Stiasse)  on  22d  February 
1788.  Doomed  for  the  first  thirty  years  of  his  career  to  find 
his  Tvorks  ignored  with  galling  silence,  he  came,  from  the 
year  1845  onwards,  to  be  looked  up  to  by  a  scanty  but 
devoted  following  as,  what  lie  himself  claimed  to  be,  the 
founder  of  the  first  true  philosophy.  Historical  criticism 
has  done  much  to  dispel  his  pretensions  to  originality,  and 
logical  examination  has  demonstrated  the  incongruities 
lurking  in  his  system.  But  the  fact  of  his  dominant  influ- 
ence on  contemporary  thought  remains  undiminished  after 
every  such  disparaging  analysis.  He  consoled  himself  for 
the  neglect  of  hi?  own  generation  by  the  assurance  that 
his  would  be  the  philo.sophy  of  the  future.  His  ideas, 
recommended  by  the  mastery  of  language  and  brilliance  of 
illustration  which  entitle  him  to  a  first  class  ia  literature, 
have  become  the  burden  of  much  of  our  current  speculation, 
and  have  leavened  to  an  unusual  extent  the  view  of  life 
and  of  the  universe  which  animates  the  average  educated 
world  and  finds  expression  in  literary  art. 

His  father,  Heinrich  Floris  Schopenhauer,  the  youngest 
of  a  family  to  which  the  ynother  had  brought  the  germs 
of  mental  malady,  w'as  anian  of  strong  will  and  originality 
vehement  and  resolute  in  the  extreme,  and  so  proud  of 
the  independence  of  his  native  town  that  when  Dantzic 
i.i  1793  surrendered  to  the  Prussians  he  and  his  whole 
establishment  withdrew  to  Hamburg.  The  mother  of  the 
future  philosopher  was  Johanna  Henriette  Xrosiener. 
Both  parents  belonged  to  the  mercantile  aristocracy,  the 
bankers  and  traders,  of  Dantzic.  Johanna,  who  at  the 
age  of  twenty  accepted  a  husband  of  forty,  was  as  yet 
undeveloped  in  character ;  and  perhaps  he  hoped,  that  her 
want  of  love,  which  she  did  not  conceal,  might  be  com- 
pensated by  the  community  of  tastes  and  interests  which, 
under  his  guidance,  would  grow  up  between  them.  But 
the  radical  rift  in  the  wedded  heart  could  not  be  stopped 
up  by  a  merely  intellectual  cement.  The  two  children  of 
tlie  marriage,  Arthur  born  in  1788  and  Adele  in  1796, 
bore  (according  to  the  theory  of  the  former^)  the  penalty 
of  their  par:;nts'  incompatibilities.  While  they  inherited 
from  their  mother  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  and  literary 
Ntyle,  they  were  burdened  by  an  abnormal  urgency  of 
desire  f  _d  capacity  for  suffering,  which  no -doubt  took 
different  phases  in  the  man  and  the  woman,  but  linked 
them  together  in  a  common  susceptibility  to  ideal  pain. 
In  the  summer  of  1787,  a  year  after  the  marriage,  the 


'  Die  ._Jt  tth  WiUe,  it  c.  43. 


elder  Schopenhauer,  whom  commercial  experiences  Lad 
made  a  cosmopolitan  in  heart,  took  his  young  wife  on  a 
tour  to  western  Europe.  It  had  been  his  plan  that  the 
expected  child  should  see  the  light  in  England,  but  tliB 
intention  was  frustrated  by  the  state  of  his  wife's  health, 
and  they  had  to  beat  a  hasty  retreat  homewards  in  early 
winter.  The  name  of  Arthur,  given  to  the  child  in  St 
Mary's  at  Dantzic,  was  chosen  because  it  remains  the  same 
in  English,  French,  and  German.  The  first  five  years  of 
his  life  Arthur  spent  under  the  care  of  his  mother,  chiefly 
ill  their  country  house  at  Oliva,  about  4  miles  west  of 
Dantzic.  There,  at  the  foot  of  the  iirettily  wooded  .sand- 
hills which  look  out  upon  the  dim  Baltic,  the  young 
mother  enjoyed  a  life  of  leisure,  dissipating  the  long  solitary 
hours  with  her  horses,  the  gondola  on  the  pond,  the  foun- 
tains, and  the  lambs,  or  with  the  French  novels  her  husband 
put  amply  at  her  disposal.  It  was  only  on  Saturday  and 
Suiwlay  that  he 'would  quit  his  office  in  town  and  come 
down,  generally  in  company  with  a  friend  or  two,  to  get 
a  glimpse  of  his  wife  and  son.  The  latter  was  often  taken 
on  a  visit  for  weeks  to  the  manor-house,  between  Dantzic 
and  the  sea-coast,  where  his  maternal  grandparents  lived. 
.\fter  1793  the  father  never  set  foot  in  his  old  home ;  but 
Johanna  was  allowed  every  four  years  to  revisit  the  scene.s 
of  her  youth. 
j  During  the  twelve  years  they  had  their  lionie  at  Ham-  Ham- 
'  burg  (1793-180.'))  the  Schopenhauers  made  frequent  ex-i""S 
I  cursions.  The,  year  after  his  sister's  birth  Arthur  wasl*"*"^ 
taken  by  his  father  to  France,  and  left  for  two  yeaiu 

■  (1797-99)  as  a  boarder  with  M.  Gregoire,  a  merchant  of 
Havre,   and   friend   of  the   Hamburg  house.      The  boy 

I  formed  a  fast  friendship  with  his  host's  son,  Anthime, 
and  grew  so  familiar  with  French  that  by  the  end  of  his 

■  sojourn  he  had  almost  forgotten  his  mother-tongue.  •  The 
youthful  friends  lost  sight  of  each  other  ior  long  years ; 
and  when  the   Frenchman  sought  to  renew  their  corre- 

j  spondence  in  the  evening  of  life  tiiey  found  that  they  had 
drifted  far  asunder  ;  and  unworthy  suspicions  led  Schoi">ei»- 

1  hauer  to  dismiss  his  old  comrade  in  abrupt  silence.  Arthiu 
returned  alone  by  sea  to  Hamburg,  ancl  for  the  next  foiu 
years  had  but  indiffererit  training.  AVhen  he  reached  the 
age  of  fifteen  the  scholarly  and  literary  instincts  began  to 
awaken,  and  he  became  _  anxious  to  be  initiated  into  tLe 
fraternity  of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences.  But  his  father, 
steeped  in  that  old  pride  of  casts  which  looks  down  upoto 
the  artist  and  the  writer  of  books  as  mere  means  or  instru- 
ments to  decorate  and  diversify  the  life  of  business,  was 
unwilling  a  son  of  his  should  worship  knowledge  and  trutfe 


BCHOPENHAUER 


449 


as  ends  in  themselves.  Accordingly  he  offered  his  son  the 
choice  between  the  classical  school  and  an  excursion  to 
England.  A  boy  of  fifteen  could  scarcely  hesitate.  In 
1803  the  Schopenhauers  and  their  son  set  out  on  a 
lengthened  tour,  of  which  Johanna  has  given  an  accounl, 
to  Holland,  England,  France,  and  Austria.  Sis  months 
were  spent  in  England,  and  Arthur,  while  his  parents 
proceeded  as  far  as  Scotland,  was  left  for  a  few  weeks  as 
a  boarde  ith  a  Rev.  Mr  Lancaster  at  Wimbledon.  He 
found  English  ways  dull  and  precise  and  the  religious 
observances  exacting;  and  his  mother  had — not  for  the 
last  time — to  talk  seriously  with  him  on  his  imsocial  and 
wilful  character.  Perhaps  the  part  of  the  tour  which  gave 
him  most  pleasure  was  the  last, — a  solitary  pedestrian 
stroll  along  the  ridge  of  the  Riesengebirge,  just  before  he 
joined  his  mother  at  Dantzic,  September  1804,  where  he 
.was  confirmed. 

At  Hamburg  in  the  beginning  of  1805  he  was  placed 
in  the  office  of  a  merchant  called  Jenisch.  He  had  only 
been  there  for  three  months  when  his  father,  who  had  shown 
symptoms  of  mental  alienation,  fell  or  threw  himself  from 
an  elevated  opening  of  his  warehouse  into  the  canaL  After 
his  death  the  young  widow  (still  under  forty)  got  affairs 
wound  up,  and,  leaving  Arthur  at  Hamburg,  proceeded 
with  her  daughter  Adele  in  the  middle  of  1806  to  Weimar, 
where  she  arrived  only  a  fortnight  before  the  tribulation 
which  followed  the  victory  of  Napoleon  at  Jena.  At 
Weimar  her  talents,  hitherto  held  in  check,  found  an  atmo- 
sphere to  stimulate  and  foster  them  ;  her  sesthetic  and 
literary  tastes  formed  themselves  imder  the  influence  of 
Goethe  and  his  circle,  and  her  little  salon  gained  a  certain 
celebrity.  Arthur,  meanwhile,  was  left  at  his  desk  in 
Hamburg,  cursing  his  prosaic  lot,  and  smuggling  literature 
under  the  ledger ;  the  hot  blood  of  youth  was  turning  his 
thoughts  to  morbid  cynicism,  and  his  easy-minded  mother, 
alarmed  at  his  discontent,  adopted  the  advice  of  h^  friend 
Fernow,  and  offered  him  a  release  from  the  loathed  task- 
work. He  hastened  to  make  up  lost  ground,  and  at  the 
age  of  nineteen  began  to  decline  measa  with  Doering  at 
Gotha.  But  the  wantonness  and  rcstiveness  which  he 
had  grown  familiar  with  in  the  lax  schooling  of  the  world 
would  not  let  him  alone ;  he  allowed  his  satirical  pen  to 
play  on  one  of  tlie  teachers  of  the  grammar-school,  and  pro- 
fessional etiquette  required  Doering  to  dismiss  his  pupil. 
After  a  plain  but  gentle  rebuke  for  his  follv,  his  mother 
settled  him  at  Weimar — not  in  her  own  house,  for,  as  she 
told  him,  she  was  content  to  know  that  he  was  well  and 
could  dispense  with  his  company — but  with  the  Greek 
scholar  Passow,  who  superintended  his  classical  studies. 
This  time  he  made  so  much  progress  that  in  the  course  of 
two  years  he  became  a  tolerable .  scholar,  and  read  Greek 
and  Latin^witli  fluency  and  interest. 
OnKer-  In  1809  his  mother  handed  over  to  him  (aged  twenty- 
^'T  one)  the  third  part  of  the  paternal  estate,  a  sum  of  19,000 
'*'™''  thalers,  which,  bejng  invested  in  good  securitits,  yielded 
him  from  the  first  a  yearly  income  of  more  than  1000 
thaler3  =  £150.  Possessed  of  this  fair  patrimony,  Schopen- 
hauer in  October  1809  entered  the  university  of  Guttingen, 
•with  a  clear  plan  of  acquiring  all  that  machinery  of  know- 
ledge which  bchools  can  give.  The  flirection  of  his  philo- 
sophical reading  was  fixed  by  the  advice  of  Professor  G. 
E.  Schulze  to  study,  especially,  Plato  and  Kant.  For  the 
former  he  soon  found  himself  full  of  reverence,  and  from 
the  latter  he  acquired  the  standpoint  of  modern  philo- 
sophy. The  names  of  "  Plato  the  divine  and  the  marvel- 
lous Kant  "are  conjunctly  invoked  at  the  beginning  of  his 
earliest  work.  But  neither  the  formal  exercises  of  the 
cicss-room  nor  the  social  and  hygienic  recreations  which 
ho  did  not  fail  to  combine  with  them  filled  his  hours  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  ideas  which  began  to  formulate  them- 


selves in  him.  Contempt  for  the  superficiality  of  human 
life  settled  itself  more  and  more  deeply  in  his  hesirt,  with 
the  sense  of  a  bitterness  tainting  the  very  source  of  being, 
and  the  perception  that  the  egoism  of  individuals  seeks 
for  nothing  better  than  to  push  on  the  load  of  misery 
from  one  to  another,  instead  of  making  an  efi'ort  to  re- 
duce the  burden.  These  pessimistic  reflexions  (which  his 
mother  found  eminently  unsocial)  were  naturally  concomi- 
tant with  grotmdless  nervous  terrors;  sudden  panics  would 
dash  over  his  mind,  and  even  in  those  days  he  had  begun 
to  keep  loaded  weapons  always  ready  at  his  bedside.  As 
a  philosopner  has  said,  "  the  sort  of  philosophy  we  choose 
depends  on  the  sort  o£  people  we  are ;  for  a  philosophical 
system  is  not  a  dead  bit  of  furniture :  it  draws  its  life 
from  the  sotd  of  the  man  who  has  it."  He  was  a  man  of 
few  acquaintances,  amongst  the  few  being  Bunsen,  ths 
subsequent  scholar-diplomatist,  and  Bunsen's  pupil,  ''V.  C. 
Astor,  the  sou  of  Washington  Irving's  millionaire  hero. 
Even  then  he  found  his  trustiest  mate  in  a  poodle,  a  ad  its 
bearskin  was  an  institution  in  his  lodging.  Yet,  pr«;cise'y 
because  he  met  the  world  so  seldom  in  easy  dialogue,  he 
was  unnecessarily  dogmatic  in  controversy  ;  and  many  a 
bottle  of  wine  went  to  pay  for  lost  wagers.  But  he  had 
made  up  his  mind  to  be  not  an  actor  but  an  onlooker  and 
critic  in  the  battle  of  life ;  and,  when  Wieland,  whom  he 
met  on  one  of  his  excursions,  suggested  doubts  as  to  the 
wisdom  of  his  r-hoice,  Schopenhauer  replied,  "Life  iz  a 
ticklish  business  ;  I  have  resolved  to  spend  it  in  reflecting 
upon  it." 

After  two  yeaxs  at  Gottingen,  he  took  two  years  at 
Berlin,  where  the  university  had  been  founded  only  four 
years  before.  H°,re  also  he  dipped  into  divers  stores  of 
learning,  notably  classics  under  Wolf.  In  philosophy  he 
heard  Fichte  and  Schleiermacher.  Between  1811  and 
1813  the  lectures  of  Fichte  (subsequently  published  from 
his  notes  in  his  Na^Lgelaesene  Werhe)  dealt  with  what  he 
called  the  "facts  of  consciousness"  and  the  "theory  of 
science,"  and  struggled  to  present  his  final  conception  of 
philosophy.  These  lectures  Schopenhauer  attended, — at 
first,  it  is  allowed,  with  interest,  but  afterwards  with  a  spirit 
of  opposition  which  is  said  to  have  degenerated  into  con- 
tempt, and  which  in  after  years  never  permitted  him  to  re- 
fer to  Fichte  without  contumely.  Yet  the  words  Schopen<' 
hauer  then  listened  to,  often  with  baffled  curiosity,  certainly 
helped  to  give  direction  to  the  current  of  his  speculation. 

Schopenhauer  did  not  find  the  city  of  intellect  at  all  to 
his  mind,  and  was  lonely  and  unhappy.  One  of  his  inter- 
ests was  to  visit  the  hospital  La  Charitd  and  study  the 
evidence  it  afforded  of  the  interdependence  of  the  moral 
and  the  physical  in  man.  In  the  early  days  of  1813  sym- 
pathy with  the  national  enthusiasm  against  the  French 
carried  him  so  far  as  to  buy  a  set  of  arms;  but  he  stopped 
short  of  volunteering  for  active  service,  reflecting  that 
Napoleon  gave  after  all  only  concentrated  arid  untram- 
melled utterance  to  that  self-assertion  and  lust  for  more 
life  which  weaker  mortals  feel  but  must  perforce  disguise. 
Leaving  the  nation  and  its  statesmen  to  fight  out  their 
freedom,  he  hurried  away  to  Weimar,  and  thence  to  the 
quiet  Thuringian  town  of  Eudolstadt,  where  in  the  inn 
Zum  Bitter,  out  of  sight  of  soldier  and  sound  of  <lrum,  he 
wrote,  helped  by  books  from  the  Weimar  library,  his  essay 
for  the  degree  of  doctor  in  pliilosophy.  On  the  2d  of 
October  1813  he  received  his  diploma  from  Jena;  and  in 
the  same  year  from  the  press  at  Eudolstadt  there  was 
published — without  winning  notice  or  leaders — his  first 
book,  under  the  title  Uehcr  die  vierfache  Wurzel  des  SiU.'Cs  Satz  reit 
vom  tnireic/teiiden  Gninde,  in  148  pages  Svo.  zimid. 

*•  cruhtt 

Schopenhauer's  monograph  On  the  Fourfold  Soot  0/  Ke  Frin-  Grunde, 
ciple  of  SuJUicnt  Iif(isnn\uff:i  tlir.t,  in  discussing  the  principle  of 
necessary  conne.\ioai  philosoijhei-s  had  Ciiled  to  distinguisli  between 

XXL  —   57 


450 


SCHOPENHAUER 


reason  as  ground  of  belief  and  n  on  us  cause  of  a  fact.  The  prin- 
ciple gives  expression  to  the  law  that  nothing  singular  and  uncon- 
nected can  be  an  oliject  for  us  but  only  as  forming  part  in  a  system. 
This  law  has  four  main  roots,  according  to  the  four  classes  of  objects. 
in  each  of  which  a  special  form  of  connexion  prevails.  These 
objects  are — (1)  real  objects  of  perception,  where  the  relation  of 
causa  and  effect  requires  each  state  to  be  dependent  on  its  ante- 
cedent ;  (2)  propositions,  which  are  tied  together  as  premises  and 
conclusions  ;  (3)  the  formal  conditions  of  perception,  viz.,  space  and 
time,  where  each  part  is  intuitively  seen  to  be  in  reciprocal  depend- 
ence on  every  other ;  (4)  voluntary  agents,  where  the  law  of  motiva- 
tion prescribes  the  dependence  of  action  upon  tlie  idea  of  an  object 
presented  to  the  character  of  the  agent.'  Modifying  the  Kantian 
theory,  that  things  are  mental  projections,  he  emphasizes  the  intel- 
lectual operation  vvliich  elevates  sensation  to  perception.  The  feeling 
of  alteration  in  an  organ  is  taken  by  the  intellect,  whose  one 
category  is  causality,  to  refer  to  a  real,  i.e.,  material  object  winch 
gene°ates  the  change  in  our  body.  But  the  reference  is  an  intuitive 
interpretation  of  a  felt  modification  in  the  organism.  Hence  the 
important  place  assigned  to  the  humaa  body  :  it  is  the  first  of 
objects,  the  "immediate  object,"  tha  means  by  which  all  other 
objects  come  within  consriousncsa.  As  a  perpetual  correlative  of 
external  perceptions,  the  body  further  serves  as  an  instrument  for 
separating  phantasm  from  fact.  To  detect  and  scare  away  hallucilft- 
tion  we  have  only  to  realize  the  presence  of  our  bodies.  In  dealing 
with  motives  Schopenhauer  touches  upon  the  relation  between 
volition  and  cognition.     The  ego — which  is  the  subject  that  knows 

is  a  mere  correlative  to  the  Icnowu  object :  object  perceived  and 

subject  perceiving  are  not  two  things,  but  one,  perpetually'dividing 
itself  into  two  poles  ;  and  what  are  called  the  severfil  faculties  of 
the  CO  are  only  an  inference  or  a  reflex  from  the  several  classes 
of  mental  object.  The  "  1  "  in  "  I  know"  is  already  the  implication 
and  virtual  presence  of  knowledge.  But  the  "I  will"  is  a  new 
fact, — the  revelation  of  another  aspect  of  the  world,  the  first  fact 
of  inner  .and  real  existence.  In  this  perception  there  is  given  us 
the  unity  of  the  volitional  self  with  the  knowing  subject ;  and  this 
identity  of  the  "I"  who  "will"  with  the  "I"  who  "know"  is  in 
Schopenhauer's  words  the  miiacle  jMr  cix-'llencc  {das  IVunder  Kar' 

In  November  1813  Schopenhauer  returned  to  Weimar, 
and  for  a  few  months  boarded  with  his  mother.  But  the 
strain  of  daily  association  was  too  much  for  their  antagon- 
istic natures.  The  mother  felt  herself  gaiee  in  the  pre- 
sence of  a  disputatious  and  gloomy  son  ;  she  missed  the 
ease  of  her  emancipated  life ;  and  her  friends  found  their 
movements  watched  by  a  suspicious  eye,  which  was  ready 
to  surmise  evil  in  the  open  and  light-hearted  style  of 
houselieeping.  In  short,  his  splenetic  temper  and  her 
Ruplurs  volatility  culminated  in  an  cpen  rupture  in  May  1814. 
with  his  From  that  time  till  her  death  in  1S3S  Scliopenhauer  never 
mother.  ^^^  j^j^  mother  again.  It  was  during  these  few  months  at 
Weimar,  however,  that  he  made  some  accjuaintances  de- 
stined to  influence  the  subsequent  couise  of  his  thought. 
Conversations  with  the  Orientalist  F.  Mayer  directed  his 
studies  to  the  philosophical  speculations  of  ancient  India. 
In  1808  Friedrich  Schlegel  had  in  his  Lanr/uarje  and  Wis- 
dom of  the  Old  Hindus^  brought  Brahmanical  philosophy 
within  the  range  of  European  literature.  Still  more  in- 
structive tor  Schopenhauer  was  the  imperfect  and  obscure 
Latin  translation  of  the  Upanishads  which  in  1801-2 
Anquetil  Duperron  had  published  from  a  Persian  version 
of  the  Sanskrit  original.  Another  friendship  of  the  same 
period  had  more  palpable  immediate  effect  but  not  so  per- 
manent. This  was  with  Goethe,  who  succeeded  in  securing 
his  interest  for  those  investigations  on  colours  on  which  he 
was  himself  engaged.  Schopenhauer  took  up  the  subject 
in  earnest,  and  the  result  of  his  reflexions  (and  a  few  ele- 
mentary observations)  soon  after  appeared  (Easter  1816) 
as  a  monograi>h,  Ueber  d<is  Sehen  itnd  die  Farben.  The 
essay,  which  must  be  treated  as  an  episode  or  digression 
from  the  direct  path  of  Schopenhauer's  development,  due 
to  the  potent  deflecting  force  of  Goethe,  was  written  at 
Dresden,  to  which  he  had  transferred  his  abode  after  the 

*  This  claasification  Schopenhanersubsequentlymodified, — substitut- 
ing for  the  fir*t  and  fourth  a  graduated  scale  rising  from  cause  proper 
(i^i  inorg.iuic  nature)  to  stimulus  (in  vtsretative  life)  and  motive  (iu 
the  animal  world),  t!ie  last  agnin  being  either  iutuitive  motive,  a£  iu 
the  lower  anin;a^=    '^^  :-J^'^T^-l  uiotire,  as  iu  man* 


rupture  -min  his  mother.  It  had  been  sent  in  JIS.  to- 
Goethe  in  the  autumn  of  1815,  who,  finding  in  it  a  trans- 
formation rather  than  an  expansion  of  his  own  ideas,  in- 
clined to  regard  the  author  as  an  opponent  rather  than  an 
adherent. 

The  pamphlet  begins  by  re-stating  with  reference  to  sight  the  Essay  on 
general  theory  that  pei-ception  of  an  objective  world  rests  upon  an  Sight 
instinctive  causal  postulation,  which  even  when  it  misleads  still  a7irf 
remains  to  haunt  us  (instead  of  being,  like  eiTors  of  reason,  open  Coiotirs. 
to  extirpation  by  evidence),  and  proceeds  to  deal  mth  physiolodcal 
colour,  i.e.,  with  coloui's  as  felt  (not  perceived)  modifications  of  the 
action  of  the  retina.  First  of  all.  the  distinction  of  white  and 
black,  with  their  mean  point  in  grey,  is  referred  to  the  activity 
or  inactivity  of  the  total  retina  in  the  graduated  presence  or 
absence  of  full  light  Further,  the  eye  is  endowed  with  polarity, 
by  which  its  activity  is  divided  into  two  parts  qualitatively  dis- 
tinct It  is  this  circumstance  which  gives  rise  to  the  phenomenon 
of  colour.  All  colours  are  complementary,  or  go  in  pairs  ;  each 
pair  makes  up  the  whole  activity  of  the  retina,  and  so  is  equivalent 
to  white  ;  and  the  two  partial  activities  are  bo  connected  that  when 
the  first  is  exhausted  tlie  other  spontaneously  succeeds.  Such  pairs 
of  colour  may  bo  regarded  as  infinite  in  number  ;  but  there  are 
three  pairs  which  stand  out  prominently,  and  admit  of  easy  expres- 
sion for  ths  ratio  in  which  each  contributes  to  tlie  total  action. 
These  are  red  and  green  (each  =  i),  orange  and  blue  (2  :  1),  and 
yellow  and  violet  (3  : 1).'  This  theory  ol  complementary  colours 
as  due  to  the  polarity  in  the  qualitative  action  of  the  retina  is 
followed  by  some  criticism  of  Newton  and  the  seven  colours,  by 
an  attempt  to  explain  some  facts  noted  by  Goethe,  and  by  some 
reference  to  the  external  stimuli  which  cause  colour. 

The  grand  interest  of  his  life  at  Dresden  was  the  com- 
position of  a  work  which  should  give  expression  in  all  its 
aspects  to  the  idea  of  man's  nature  and  destiny  which  had 
been  gradually  forming  within  him.  Without  cutting 
himself  altogether  either  from  social  pleasures  or  from  art, 
he  read  and  took  notes  with  regularity.  Jlore  and  more 
he  learned  from  Cabanis  and  Helvetius  to  see  in  the  will 
and  the  passions  the  determinants  of  intellectual  life,  and 
in  the  character  and  the  temper  the  source  of  theories  and 
beliefs.  The  conviction  was  borne  irrupon  him  that  scien- 
tific explanation  could  never  do  more  than  systematize  and 
classify  the  mass  of  appearances  which  to  our  habit-blinded 
eyes  seem  to  be  the  reality.  To  get  at  this  reality  and  thus 
to  reach  a  standpoint  higher  than  that  of  ietiology  was  the 
problem  of  his  as  of  all  philosopliy.  It  is  only  by  such  a 
tower  of  speculation  that  an  escape  is  possible  from  the 
spectre  of  materialism,  theoretical  and  practical ;  and  so, 
says  Schopenhauer,  "  the  just  and  good  must  all  have  this 
creed  :  I  believe  in  a  metaphysic."  The  mere  reasonings 
of  theoretical  science  leave  no  room  for  art,  and  practical 
prudence  usurps  the  place  of  morality.  The  higher  life  of 
aesthetic  and  ethical  activity — the  beautiful  and  the  good 
— can  only  be  based  upon  an  intuition  which  penetrates 
the  heart  of  reality.  Towards  the  spring  of  1818  the  work 
was  nearing  its  end,  and  Brockliaus  of  Leipsic  had  agreed 
to  publish  it  and  pay  the  author  one  ducat  for  every  sheet 
of  printed  matter.  But,  as  the  press  loitered,  Schopen- 
hauer, suspecting  treachery,  wrote  so  rudely  and  haughtily 
to  the  publisher  that  the  latter  broke  off  correspondence 
with  his  client.  In  the  end  of  1818,  however,  the  book  ^Velt  als 
appeared  (with  the  date  1819),  in  725  pages  8vo,  with  the  J''-'''«,  ^ 
title  Die  Welt  ah  Wille  nnd  Vorstelluna,  in  four  books,  ''Jltr„JT 
with  an  appendix  containing  a  criticism  of  the  Kantian 
philosophy. 

The  first  book  of  The  WorU  as  Will  nud  Idea  resumes  the  argu-  Book  i. 
ment  of  the  earlier  work,  that  all  objects  are  constituted  by  intel- 
lectual relations,  describable  as  fomis  of  the  causal  principle.  As 
so  apprehending  a  world  of  objects,  man  is  said  to  possess  in- 
telligence {Vcrstand),  the  perception  of  individual  sequences  and 
coexistences.  It  is  a  faculty  he  shares  with  th*:  animals,  and  by  its 
means  the  world  presents  itself  as  an  endless  number  of  objects  in 
space  and  time  bound  together  by  necessaiy  laws  of  causality.  But 
man  has  also  the  power  of  reason (  Vcrnunft\  by  which  he  generalizes, 
the  vehicle  of  this  generalization  being  language.      By  means  of 

*  In  this  doctrine,  so  far  as  the  facts  go,  Schoi^enhauer  is  indebted 
to  a  paper  by  R.  Waring  Darwin  iu  vol.  IxxvL  of  the  Transactions  vf 
the  Philosophicid  Socieiv. 


SCHOPENHAUER 


451 


Ungnage  and  rearouing  he  rises  out  of  the  animal  immersion  in  the 
present  and  is  able  to  anticipate  the  future.  Ho  forms  general 
ideas  and  thus  can  presei-ve  and  communicate  abstract  knowledge. 
But  reason,  though  its  "  laws  of  thought "  have  a  formal  truth  of 
their  own,  has  no  independent  value  either  as  theoretical  or  as 
practical.  In  the  former  aspect  it  gives  rise  to  scientific  knowledge 
— the  knowledge  of  facts  and  sequences  not  in  their  single  occur- 
rences but  as  instances  of  a  general  law.  By  means  of  the  general 
truths  thus  arrived  at  we  can  deduce  or  prove.  But  a  proof  is,  after 
all,  only  a  means  of  showing  the  disputatious  that  something  which 
they  deny  is  inseparably  bound  up  with  something  they  admit. 
It  is  a  mistake,  therefore  to  substitute  for  the  ocular  demonstration 
of  which  geometry  is  susceptible  a  syllogistic  reasoning  which  may 
compel  assent' but  cannot  inspire  insight.  Singular  experiences 
are  the  trne  workers  which  support  the  lu-xury  of  general  ideas,  and 
reasoning  cannot  claim  to  be  more  than  a  re-arrangement  of  pro- 
ducts from  other  fields. 

Keasou  is  equally  important  and  equally  limited  as  a  factor  in 
conduct.  It  enables  us,  as  it  were,  to  lead  a  second  life,  guided 
by  general  principles  and  not  by  single  appetitions.  Such  a  life  is 
what  is  called  a  life  according  to  reason,  typified  in  the  ideal  of  the 
Stoic  sage.  The  wise  man  carries  out  the  items  of  conduct  accord- 
ing to  a  general  plan  and  is  superior  to  the  impulses  of  the  moment. 
But  here  too  the  general  rests  upon  the  particular  ;  a  systematic 
happiness  takes  the  place  of  single  and  conflicting  pleasures,  but 
still  can  only  justify  itself  by  procuring  pleasure.  Thus,  unless 
there  be  a  new  perception  of  life's  meaning,  reasoning  cannot 
make  a  man  virtuous,  it  can  only  make  him  prudent ;  it  tell,  him 
how  to  reckon  with  lus  natural  character,  but  it  cannot  show  him 
how  to  amend  it. 
Book  ii.  Book  ii.  is  an  attempt  to  name  that  residual  reality  which  is  pre- 
supposed but  not  explained  in  every  scientific  explanation,  whether 
ffitiological  or  morphological.  The  key  is  found  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  ourselves  as  exerting  will.  What  to  the  inner  conscious- 
ness is  volition  is  to  the  outer  perception  a  bodily  movement. 
And  as  each  act  of  volition  is  perceived  in  a  bodily  motion,  so  will 
OS  a  whole  is  by  us  perceived  as  body.  This  consciousness  that  my 
body  is  my  will  objectified — my  will  translated  into  terms  of  scien- 
tific apprehension — is  the  "  philosophical  truth  "  of  tiuths.  And, 
generalizing  this  truth,  we  conclude  that,  as  our  corporeal  frame 
Is  the  visibifity  of  our  mode  of  will,  so  everything  is  some  grade 
in  the  objectification  of  the  will.  While  the  atiology  of  science 
accounts  for  the  familiar  complex  by  a  simpler  and  more  abstract 
phase,  pliilosophy  uses  the  clearer  and  more  conspicuous  instance 
to  explain  the  more  rudimentary.  The  law  of  motivation  is  taken 
as  a  key  to  open  the  incomprehensibility  of  mere  causation,  and  in 
the  stone  we  presume  a  feeble  analogue  of  what  tix  know  as  will. 
The  will  as  such,  apart  from  its  objectification  in  animals,  knows 
nothing  of  motives,  which,  though  they  explain  the  special  circum- 
stances, presuppose  the  underlying  and  originative  force.  No  doubt 
a  false  icfea  of  simplicity  has  often  led  theorists  to  reduce  all  sciences 
in  the  last  resort  to  applied  mathematics,  in  which  the  mysterious 
something  called  force  was  eliminated  and  only  the  forms  of  space 
snd  time  and  motion  left.  But,  though  it  is  doubtless  posrible  to 
reduce  the  list  of  original  forces,  we  cannot  get  rid  of  an  ine::plic- 
able  activity.  Hence  the  original  force  or  will  is  beyond  the  range 
of  causality  ;  every  cause  is  only  an  "occasional  cause,"  and  but 
states  the  temporal  conditions  of  operation  of  the  eternal  energy. 
AVhile  each  several  act  has  an  aim,  the  collective  will  has  none. 

The  numerical  differences  of  objects  do  not  touch  the  underlyi7ig 
activity.  It  is  felt  in  one  oak  as  much  as  in  a  million,  for  time 
aud  spaccare  only  semblance  for  (animal)  intelligence.  And  there- 
fore, instead  of  wondering  at  the  uniformity  pervading  the  in- 
stances of  any  objectification  of  will,  we  should  remember  that  the 
will-force  operating  iu  all  is  the  same,  and  reveals  its  inner  identity 
in  the  common  law.  For  the  same  reason  the  adaptations  of  the 
parts  of  an  organic  body  or  of  one  organic  body  to  another  are 
only  the  consequences  of  the  unity  of  will.  Just  as  the  series  of 
actions  throughout  a  life  are  only  the  utterances  of  one  ongmal 
character,  and  so  intrinsically  interdependent,  so  the  grades  of 
objectification  in  nai'ire  are  the  expression  of  one  identical  will, 
which  forms  the  conditions  of  cxiateuce  as  well  as  the  living  creatures 
accouinicHlating  themschcs  to  them.  Will,  which  appears  in  its 
lowest  grade  of  objectification  as  the  physical  forces  of  inorganic 
n.nture,  rises  in  the  vegetative  world  to  a  i>eculiar  sympathetic 
ri'sponsc  to  the  stimulation  by  extenial  circumstances,  and  in  the 
animal  world  produces  for  itself  a  special  org.an,  the  brain,  which 
jossesses  the  power  of  presenting  under  the  fojms  of  sense  and  in- 
tellect that  objective  manifestation  of  will  which  we  call  the  worid 
of  lur  cxiwrience.  With  the' existence  of  the  animal  brain,  the 
world  emerged  into  time  and  space.  It  was  a  step  necessitated  by 
the  jn^owing  complexity  of  type  in  the  will-products,  which  could 
iK-itlicr  exist  nor  preserve  their  kind  without  this  new  instrument 
which  substituted  conscious  adaptation  for  unconscious  teleology. 
In  this  strange  mythology  by  which  Schopenhauer  replaces  tlie 
niystci-y  of  creation  we  see  the  magic  world  of  will,  weavin"  ever 
higher  complexities  of  material  existence,  brought  at  length  by 


stress  of  circumstances  to  forge  a  mateiial  oigan  which  shows  the 
sense-world  as  the  objectification  of  the  will.  In  this  one  material 
organ  the  wUl  has  come  to  see  itself  expanded  into  a  complicated 
order  of  time  and  place.  But  at  first  the  br.iin  and  its  function, 
knowledge,  are  solely  employed  in  the  service  of  the  wUL 

Book  iii.  shows  how  the  intellect  is  emancipated  fiom  this  bond-  Boo':  iif. 
age  to  the  will  When  we  contemplate  an  object  simply  for  its  own 
sake,  forgetting  everything  and  ourselves  even  in  the  visioi,,  then 
what  we  have  before  us  is  no  longer  one  thing  among  ]  lany  but  a 
tj'pe,  not  one  of  a  class  but  an  ultimate  individuality,  not  a  Tiar- 
ticular  but  an  adequate  embodiment  of  the  univei-saL  Instead  of 
the  general  concept  or  class-notion  we  have  the  Platonic  "idea" — 
one  image  into  which  all  the  esseuti.-il  hfe  of  the  object  has  been 
concentrated.  To  realize  this  individual  which  has  not  entered 
into  the  bonds  of  individuation,  this  universal  which  is  not  a  mere 
genus  but  the  eternal  truth  of  the  individual,  is  the  province  of 
genius.  The  man  of  genius,  neglectin  the  search  for  relationships 
between  things — unpractical  and  to  practical  judgment  sometimes 
seeming  to  have  a  touch  of  madness — instead  cf  seeking  to  classify 
a  thing  or  find  out  what  it  is  for,  looks  at  it  for  its  own  sake  and 
sees  the  one  type  or  ideal  which  is  seeking  for  expression  in  its 
various  and  contingent  nianifestations.  Kuch  genius  begets  art. 
Yet  so  much  at  least  of  genius  is  in  all  men  that  they  can  follow 
where  the  artist  leads  and  see  through  his  eyes.  Everything  as 
thus  contemplated  disinterestedly  for  its  own  sake  and  in  its  per- 
manent significance  is  beautifuh  Yet  one  thing  is  more  beautiful 
than  another.  For  there  are  objects  which  more  than  others  facili- 
tate the  quiescence  of  desire  and  present  to  us  theii  permanent 
character  without  suggesting  or  stimulating  appetite.  The  sense 
of  sight  is  more  independent  than  others  of  associations  of  desire, 
the  past  and  distant  purer  from  self-interest  than  the  present 
Those  objects  are  specially  beautiful  where  the  significant  idea  is 
most  clearly  presented  in  the  individual  form.  Indeed,  when  a 
certain  effort  is  requked  to  keep  out  of  eight  the  general  bearing 
of  the  object  on  the  will,  then  the  object,  where  the  perception  of 
genius  still  sees  the  perfect  type  in  the  single  form,  is  called  sublime. 

The  several  aits  fall  naturally  into  an  order  which  rises  from  the 
passive  enjoyment  in  the  contemplation  of  inorganic  forces  to  the 
active  perception  of  will  in  its  most  complex  types.  Architecture 
seeks  iu  works  dedicated  to  human  use  to  give  expression  to  the 
fundamental  features  of  physical  force,  e.g.,  cohesion,  weight  &c., 
and  to  that  end  it  intensifies  the  appearance  of  strain  by  refusing 
the  forces  au  easy  and  immediate  lapse  into  their  natural  tendency. 
In  short,  it  seeks  to  show  resistance  visible.  Sculpture  presents 
the  beauty  and  grace  of  the  human  form,  i.e.,  the  "idea"  of  that 
fonn  as  a  whole  and  in  the  single  movements.  Here  the  ' '  idea  " 
is  not  derived  by  comparison  and  abstractic  n  of  observed  forms ; 
but  we,  as  ourselves  the  will  seeking  manifestation,  anticipate  by 
our  ideal  the  meaning  of  the  imperfect  phases  and  lay  down  an 
a  priori  ca'on  of  beauty.  While  sculpture  gives  expression  to  the 
more  generic  type  in  figure  and  motion,  painting  aims  at  repre- 
senting action.  But  even  historical  pictures  seek  in  a  given  scene 
to  present  not  the  historical  importance  of  the  action  but  its  per- 
manent meaning.  Poetry,  which  uses  an  arrangement  of  general 
concepts  to  convey  an  "idea,"  or  moulds  reality  out  of  abstractions, 
gives  us  the  central  and  abiding  truth  which  history  usually  dis- 
sipates in  a  host  of  particulars  and  relations.  In  lyric  poetry  the 
individual  subject  of  will  presents  himself  as  the  subject  of  artistic 
perception  :  his  ov.-n  experience  is  displayed  as  typical  and  universaL 
In  tragedy  the  truth  shown  is  the  inner  conflict  at  the  very  root  of 
the  will.  '  The  hero  is  exhibited  as  brought  to  see  the  aimlessnes^J 
of  all  wUl ;  and  by  suffering  he  learns  resignation.  Music,  unlike 
the  other  arts,  is  an  image  of  the  movement  of  will  not  yet  ob- 
jectified ;  and  in  its  elements  and  harmoni'.'s  we  have  a  parallel  to 
t!ie  stages  and  complexities  of  the  actual  woild.  Hence  the  ex- 
planation of  music  would  be  a  philosophy  of  the  world. 

But  art,  though  it  affords  an  interval  of  rest  from  the  drudgery  Book  i». 
of  will-service,  cannot  claim  to  be  more  than  a  transient  consola- 
tion. Book  iv.  indicates  a  surer  way  of  release.  It  reminds  us 
that  our  life  is  the  phenomenon  of  the  will, — a  phenomenon  which 
begins  at  birth  and  ends  at  death,  and  of  ,\hich  every  instant  is  a 
partial  birth  and  a  partial  death.  But  fhe  cessation  of  the  indi- 
vidual life  is  not  an  annihilation  of  the  will ;  our  essential  being  is 
indestructible.  The  manifestation  of  the  will  in  human  life  is 
spread  out  and  disposed  in  an  ei.dless  multitude  of  actions.-  Fx- 
perience  sums  up  these  in  a  single  forr  ula, — the  maxin  of  our 
empirical  character  ;  and  that  lesult  itsel:'  is  the  type  or  idea  *hich 
reveals  the  one  unalterable  utterance  of  will,  which  is  the  intel- 
ligible character.*  It  is  this  iinmem<'ri.'il  act  which  fixes  our 
empirical  character,  which  gives  the  consistency  .and  regularity 
of  our  acts.  VcUe  ivm  discUur.  Char;,ctcr  is  given  (by  an  ante- 
pheuomenal  act)  ;  it  is  not  acquired.  If  in  one  sense  we  can  speak 
of  an  "acquired  character,"  we  mean  tacreby  that  we  now  under- 
stand what  manner  of  men  we  are,  that  we  have  learned  the  best 
and  woret  of  ourselves.     But,  though  the  character  is  given  once 

.1  Tlie  ternu  are  borrowe-l  from  Kant. 


452 


SCHOPENHAUER 


for  all  in  the  beginning,  knowledge  is  not  useless.  We  can  leam 
to  adopt  neu-  means  thouc;h  the  end  of  will  remains  unaltered.  It 
IS  this  new  knowledge  w-hich  causes  repentance,  when  we  see  w-o 
have  adopted  undue  methods  to  attain  our  aim.  The  sur\-ey  of  the 
phenomena  of  life  in  the  light  of  their  piinciple  shows  that  all  life 
is  a  ceaseless  battle  for  existence  between  iudividuab,  that  happi- 
ness is  onl)-  negative,  viz  a  relief  from  pain,  that  life  is  a  tragedy. 
l)Ut  the  natural  man,  immersed  in  the  sense  of  life,  plays  the  egoist 
iS  if  he  were  the  centre  of  existence  and  the  will  to  life  spoke 
in  him  alone.  In  such  a  spirit  he  not  merely  acts  as  if  affirming 
his  own  will  to  life,  but  as  if  he  denied  that  of  others.  He  com- 
mits injustice.  The  sense  of  wrong-doing,  he  may  feel,  is  the  wit- 
ness of  cousciou5nes3  to  the  identity  between  himself  and  others  ; 
it  is  the  appearance  of  mor.nl  law  and  gives  rise  to  that  sense  of 
right  wliich  is  the  beginning  of  ethics.  But  for  the  most  part 
practical  reflexions  note  only  the  e\-ils  caused  by  egoism,  and  induce 
tlie  sufferci-s  to  form  a  law  to  produce  by  repression  the  same  results 
as  molality  attains  by  stimulation.  Thus  penal  law,  as  opposed  to 
moral  law,  aims  only  at  checking  intrusions  upon  the  rights  of 
others,  and  the  whole  pcUtical  organization  is  only  an  instrument 
for  checking  egoism  by  egoism,  for  making  each  seek  the  welfare 
of  all  because  it  includes  iiis  own.  Its  justice  is  tem-poral ;  it  adds 
311  additional  pain  by  legislative  machinery,  with  a  view  to  the 
welfare  of  the  greater  number. 

But  there  is  another  and  an  eternal  justice.  Here  there  is  no 
sepavatiau  of  time  and  place  between  the  wrongdoer  and  the 
sufferer.  This  eternal  justice  reveals  itself  to  him  who,  having 
seen  through  "the  veil  of  Maya,"  has  found  that  in  the  world  of 
truth  the  divisions  between  individuals  fall  away,  and  that  he  who 
does  wronjg  to  another  has  done  the  wrong  to  his  own  self.  The 
periuasion  of  this  doctrine  of  eternal  justice  is  so  ingrained  in 
luiman  nature  that  we  welcome  the  punishment  that  overtakes  the 
victorious  evildoer.  Similar  lessons  are  hidden  in  the  myths  of 
transmigration  of  souls.  The  secret  sense  that  the  pains  of  others 
are  in  reality  not  alien  constitutes  the  torments  of  remorse  which 
visit  the  wicked.  The  good  man,  on  the  contrary,  who  has  been 
brought  to  see  through  the  veil  of  individuality  into  the  unity  of 
all  being,  will  not  merely  practise  justice, — he  will  be  animated  by 
n  universal  benevolence.  Instead  of  ^pws  or  the  blind  lust  of  life 
(seen  at  its  strongest  in  sexual  appetite),  he  has  learned,  by  means 
of  self-knowledge,  that  d7aTr7j  which  is  pitying  love,  or  caritas 
(jcncris  hitiaani. 

Such  benevolence  only  alleviates  the  miseiy  of  others.  It  culmi- 
nates in  self-sacrifice,  which  is  carried  out  by  voluntaiy  and  com- 
plete diastity,  by  utter  poverty,  by  mortification,  by  fasting,  and 
host  of  all  by  death.  Such  a  course  of  life,  however,  is  seldom 
t-iught  by  instruction  alone,  and  the  broken  will  generally  comes 
only  where  a  mighty  shock  of  grief  reveals  the  inevitable  pain  of 
existence  and  brings  a  quietive  to  the  lust  of  life.  Yet  the  ^•ictory 
over  the  will  to  life  is  not  attained  once  for  all ;  the  supremacy 
must  be  retained  by  a  career  of  asceticism.  Such  ascetics,  in  ivhom 
the  will  to  life  was  deadened  and  the  body  remained  as  a  mere 
empty  semblance,  were  tlie  saiuts  and  mystical  devotees  of  all  ages. 
They  had  crucified  the  flesh  with  its  affections  and  lusts.  Their 
will  had  been  emanci^iated  from  the  bondage  to  which  in  life  it  was 
subject,  had  been  released  from  the  objectification  in  corporeity  and 
restored  to  its  original  infinity.  In  such  saints  alone  has  the  essen- 
tial freedom  of  the  will  appeared  on  the  temporal  scene,  but  appeared 
only  to  desti-oy  the  old  Adam  and  bring  in  the  new  birth.  By  the 
lively  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  things  the  wUl  has  denied  itself, 
has  passed  into  a  stage  where  the  objective  world  is  as  if  it  were 
not, — the  stage  which  was  when  will  as  yet  had  not  gone  forth  to 
objectify  itself  in  a  world  and  when  knowledge  had  not  yet  mirrored 
the  reality  in  an  idea,  when,  in  short,  nothing  was. 

Visit  to  Long  before  the  work  had  come  to  the  hanos  of  the 
-Italy.  public,  Schopenhauer  had  rushed  off  to  Italy  and  ex- 
changed the  labours  of  giving  the  gospel  of  renunciation 
a  metaphysical  basis  for  the  gaiety  of  southern  life  and 
the  influences  of  classic  art.  At  Venice,  where  he  first 
lingered  for  a  while,  he  found  himself  a  fellow-denizen 
with  Lord  Byron  ;  but,  except  for  a  solitary  chance  when 
his  jealousy  was  stirred  by  the  outspoken  admiration  of 
his  fair  Venetian  companion  for  the  handsome  Briton  who 
rode  past  them  on  the  Lido,  the  two  insurgent  apostles  of 
the  Weltsi-hmei-z  never  came  across  each  other's  path.  At 
Rome,  where  he  passed  the  depth  of  winter,  he  saw  the 
first  copjps  of  his  book.  It  found  him  in  assiduous  attend- 
ance on  the  art  galleries,  the  opera,  and  theatre, — turning 
from  the  uncongenial  companionship  of  his  romantic  coun- 
trymen and  gladly  seizing  every  chance  of  conversing  in 
English  with  Englishmen.  In  March  1819  he  had  gone 
as  far  as  Xaples  and  Pcestum.     On  his  way  homewards 


ne  was  startled  by  receiving  at  Milan  a  letter  from  his 
sister  announcing  that  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the 
Dantzic  house  a  large  part  of  his  own  and  his  mother's 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  his  sister's  fortune  were  endangered. 
This  change  of  circumstances  was  a  heavy  blow  to  the 
ladies,  and  he  himself  was  almost  induced  by  the  mischance 
to  qualify  himself  to  teach  in  the  university  at  Heidelberg 
in  July  1819.  But  he  sternly  refused  the  compromise  of 
seventy  per  cent,  offered  by  the  insolvent  firm,  and  was  so 
angrily  suspiciotis  with  his  sister  who  accepted  it  that  he 
ceased  to  correspond  with  her  for  about  fourteen  years. 
Fortunately  his  determined  and  skilful  assertion  of  his 
rights  was  crowned,  after  a  long  dispute,  with  success- 
He  recovered  the  whole  debt,  receiving  in  principal  and 
interest  the  sum  of  9400  thalers. 

After  some  stay  at  Dresden,  hesitating  between  fixing  Appoin'; 
himself  as  university  teacher  at  Gottingen,  Heidelberg,  ?*"| "' 
or  Berlin,  he  finally  chose  the  last-mentioned.  In  his  ex- 
amination before  the  faculty  (dispuiatio  pro  venia  legendi) 
he  enjoyed  what  he  reckoned  the  satisfaction  of  catching 
up  Hegel  (who  had  just  been  appointed  professor)  in  a  lax 
use  of  a  technical  term  ("animal"  for  "organic"  functions). 
And  in  his  first  and  only  course  of  lectures  he  had  the 
further  satisfaction  of  selecting  as  his  hours  the  same  times 
(12  to  1  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday)  as  Hegel 
had  taken  for  his  principal  class.  This  course  on  the  first 
princfples  of  philosophy  or  knowledge  in  general,  given  in 
the  summer  of  1820,  was  not  a  success,' — indeed  did  not 
reach  its  natural  end,  and,  though  the  notice  of  lecture  was 
repeated  during  his  stay  in  Berlin  up  to  1831,  the  lecture- 
room  knew  him  no  more.  Brilliant  as  he  was  in  powers  of 
luminous  illustration  and  characteristic  as  is  his  style,  he 
was  wanting  in  the  patient  exposition  of  a  subject  for  its 
own  sake  and  not  as  the  field  for  exemplifying  a  favourite 
thesis.  The  :osult  of  his  experiences  in  1820-21,  which 
he  attributed  to  Hegelian  intrigues,  was  to  intensify  his 
suspicions  of  his  colleagues,  one  of  whom,  F.  E.  Beneke 
(another  clleged  victim  to  Hegel's  jealousies),  he  accused  of 
garbled  quotations  in  his  review  of  The  World  as  Will  and 
Idea.  Except  for  some  attention  to  physiology,  the  first 
two  years  at  Berlin  were  wasted.  In  May  1822  he  set 
out  by  way  of  Switzeriand  for  Italy.  After  spending  the 
winter  at  Florence  and  Rome,  he  left  in  the  spring  of  1823 
for  Munich,  where  he  stayed  for  nearly  a  year,  the  prey 
of  illness  and  isolation.  When  at  the  end  of  this  wretched 
time  he  left  for  Gastein,  in  May  1824,  he  had  almost  en- 
tirely lost  the  hearing  of  his  right  ear.  Dresden,  w^hich  he 
reached  in  August,  no  longer  presented  the  same  hospitable 
aspect  as  of  old,  and  he  was  reluctantly  drawn  onwards  to 
Berlin  in  May  1825. 

The  place  had  unpleasant  associations  of  many  kinds, 
but  one  disagreeable  incident  of  his  former  stay  now  re 
turned  to  him  in  a  judicial  award  of  pains  and  penalties. 
One  day,  about  a  year  after  his  first  settlement  in  Berlin, 
on  1 2th  August  1821,  on  returning  to  his  lodging  he  found 
three  women  standing  in  the  passage  in  front  of  his  room 
door.  The  event  had  annoyed  him  before,  and  his  land- 
lady had  promised  it  should  not  occur  again.  On  this 
occasion  accordingly  Schopenhauer  ordered  them  out  of 
what  he  held  to  be  his  own  "  stair-head,"  walked  into  his 
room,  and  emerged  in  a  few  minutes  with  hat  and  stick  as 
he  had  entered.  One  of  the  women  was  still  on  the  spot, 
— a  semptress,  forty-seven  }-ears  old,  a  friend  of  the  land- 
lady, and  occupant  of  a  small  chamber  adjacent  to  that  of 
Schopenhauer.  This  person  he  ejected ;  and  when  she 
returned  to  pick  up  a  piece  of  cloth  (there  stood  a  chest  of 
drawers  belonging  to  her  in  the  passage)  he  put  her  forcibly 
out  again,  upon  which  she  fell  with  a  shriek  that  alarmed 
the  house.  Next  day  she  lodged  an  action  against  him 
for  personal  injuries  ;  and,  after  B  variety  of  opjjosing  deci- 


SCHOPENHAUER. 


4.53 


S<Ht1ft- 
Dicut  at 
Fnxok- 
lort. 


aions,  the  final  issue  was  in  1826  to  award  the  cotnpiamant 
compensation  (with  five-sixths  of  costs  and  a  small  sura  for 
medical  expenses)  to  the  amount  of  a  quarterly  aliment 
o^  fifteen  thalers,  which  sura  she  received  till  her  death, 
fifteen  yeaan  afterwards. 

The  six  years  (1825-31)  at  Berlin  were  a  dismal  period 
in  the  life  of  Schopenhauer.  In  vain  did  he  watch  for  any 
sign  of  recognition  of  his  philosophic  genius.  Hegelianisra 
reigned  Ln  the  schools  and  in  literature  and  basked  in  the 
sunshine  of  authority.  It  was  a  bad  time  for  an  inde- 
pendent thinker  who  ignored  the  state  and  the  yearlong 
alliance  between  philosophy  and  theology.  Thus  driven 
back  upon  himself,  Schopenhauer  fell  into  morbid  medita- 
tions, and  the  world  which  he  saw,  if  it  was  stripped  naked 
of  -its  disguises,  lost  its  proportions  in  the  distorting  light. 
The  sexual  passion  had  a  strong  attraction  for  him  at  all 
times,  and,  according  to  his  biographers,  the  notes  he  set 
down  in  English,  when  he  was  turned  thirty,  on  marriage 
and  kindred  topics  are  unfit  for  publication.  He  had  in 
opening  manhood  been  so  fascinated  by  a  Weimar  actress 
that  he  declared  he  would  take  her  to  his  home  though  he 
found  her  breaking  stones  on  the  roadside.  Later  years 
had  nipped  the  freshness  of  his  -enthusiasm,  and  casual 
experiences  generated  an  overweening  misogyny,  which, 
while  allo\ving  xooman  her  place  in  the  natural  economy, 
regarded  the  lady  as  the  invention  of  a  false  civilization. 
Yet  in  the  loneliness  of  life  at  Berlin  the  idea  of  a  wife  as 
the  comfort  of  gathering  age  sometimes  rose  before  his 
mind, — only  to  be  driven  away  by  cautious  hesitations  as 
to  the  capacity  of  hi-i  means,  and  by  the  shrinking  from 
the  loss  of  familiar  liberties.  He  continued  his  bachelor- 
dom,  and  lound  consolation  in  less  onerous  associations. 
At  home  he  tuned  his  flute ;  he  dined,  and  it  might  be 
conversed,  with  his  fellow-guests  at  the  Hotel  de  Russie ; 
he  read  for  hours  at  the  royal  library,  and  gave  his  even- 
ings to  the  theatres.  But  he  wrote  nothing  material.  la 
1R28  he  made  inquiries  about  a  chair  at  Heidelberg;  and 
in  1830  he  got  a  shortened  Latin  version  of  his  physio- 
logical theory  of  colours  inserted  in  the  third  volume  of  the 
Scriplores  Optitluilmologici  Minores  (edited  by  Radius). 

Another  pathway  to  reputation  was  suggested  by  some 
remarks  he  saw  in  the  seventh  number  of  the  Foreign 
RevUip,  in  an  article  on  Damiron's  French  Philosophy  in 
Vie  19th  Century.  With  reference  to  some  statements  in 
the  article  on  the  importance  of  Kant,  he  sent  in  very 
fair  English  a  letter  to  the  writer,  offering  to  translate 
Kant's  principal  works  into  English.  He  named  his 
wages  and  enclosed  a  specimen  of  his  work.  His  corre- 
spondent, Francis  Haywood,  made  a  counter-proposal 
which  so  disgusted  Schopenhauer  that  he  addressed  his 
next  letter  to  the  publishers  of  the  review.  When  they 
again  referred  him  to  Haywood,  he  applied  to  Thomas- 
CarapbeM,  then  chairman  of  a  company  formed  for  buy- 
ing up  the  copyright  of  meritorious  but  rejected  works. 
Nothing  came  of  this  application.^  A  translation  of  selec- 
tions from  the  works  of  Balthazar  Gracian,  which  was 
published  by  Frauenstadt  in  1862,  seems  to  have  been 
made  about  this  time.^ 

In  the  summer  of  1831  cholera  raged  at  Berlin,  and 
Schopenhauer  fled  to  Frankfort.  About  a  year  later  he 
adjourned  to  Mannheim.  But  after  eleven  months'  ex- 
perience of  the  latter  he  decided,  from  a  carefully  weighed 
list  of  comparative  advantages,  in  favour  of  Frankfort. 
And  there,  accordingly,  for  the  rest  of  his  life  he  remained. 
He  resumed  correspondence  with  his  sister,  who  was  liv- 
ing with  her  mother  in  straitened  circumstances  at  Bonn. 

'  It  wa»  not  till  1841  thot  u  translation  of  Kant's  Kritik  in  English 
«j>pcarcd. 

■  He  also  projocteJ  a  trtiniktion  of  Hume's  Essays  and  wrote  a 
prt-face  for  it. 


At  first  the  good  people  of  Frankfort  knew  him,  not  as 
the  celebrated  philosopher,  but  as  the  son  of  the  famous 
Johanna  Schopenhauer,^  and  as  the  companion  of  a  familiar 
poodle.  The  day  had  not  yet  risen  when,  as  he  had  pro- 
phesied to  his  mother  (who  joked  at  his  boob  on  "  four- 
fold root"  as  smelling  of  the  apothecary),  his  works  would 
be  read  of  all,  and  hei-s  only  be  used  by  the  grocer  no 
wrap  his  goods  in.  The  sense  of  unappreciated  work, 
aggravated  by  ill  health  and  by  pecuniary  worry  about 
his  Dantzic  property,  sank  deep  into  a  heart  that  was  ;  earn- 
ing for  outward  recognition.  He  seemed  to  see  around 
him  none  but  enemies,  a  world  mainly  filled  with  knaves 
and  fools,  where  a  true  man  was  rarer  than  an  honest 
woman,  and  where  the  very  touch  of  society  was  so  perilous 
that  irony  and  reserve  were  imposed  on  every  one  who  re- 
tained his  self-respect.  In  solitude  he  devoured  his  own 
soul.  At  the  hotel  table  a  stranger  might  occasionally  be 
drawn  into  listening  to  his  vigorous  monologue  ;  but  it 
was  seldom  he  was  thus  encouraged  to  discourse.  Ground- 
less fears  of  hidden  dangers  made  him  see  himself  and 
every  other  indej^endent  genius  the  aim  of  a  conspiracj  of 
vulgar  charlatans.  He  would  never  entrust  his  neck  to 
the  barber's  hand ;  and  he  succeeded  in  secreting  his 
valuables  so  thoroughly  that  some  of  them  were  after  his 
death  recovered  only  after  much  search. 

Ever  since  the  publication  of  Th^  World  as  Wilt  and 
Idea  he  had  silently  waited  for  some  response  to  his 
message.  He  had  uttered  the  word  he  felt  himself 
charged  to  utter.  As  the  years  passed  he  noted  down 
every  confirmation  he  found  of  his  own  opinions  in  the 
vrritings  of  others,  and  every  instance  in  which  his  views 
appeared  to  be  illustrated  by  new  researches.  Full  of  the 
conviction  of  his  idea,  he  saw  everji-hing  in  the  light  of 
it,  and  gave  each  aperfu  a  place  in  his  alphabetically 
arranged  note-book.  Everything  he  published  in  later 
life  may  be  called  a  coramentarj-,  an  excursu.s,  or  a 
scholium  to  hLs  main  book ;  and  many  of  them  are 
decidedly  of  the  nature  of  commonplace  books  or  collec- 
tanea of  notes.  But  along  with  the  accumulation  of  his 
illustrative  and  corroborative  materials  grew  the  bitter- 
ness of  heart  which  found  its  utterances  neglected  and 
other  names  the  oracles  of  the  reading  world.  Tho 
gathered  ill-humour  of  many  years,  aggravated  by  the 
confident  assurance  of  the  Hegelians,  found  vent  at  length 
in  the  introduction  to  his  next  book,  where  Hegel's  works 
are  described  as  three-quarters  utter  absurdity  and  one- 
quarter  mere  paradox, — a  specimen  of  the  language  in 
which  during  his  subsequent  career  he  used  to  advert  to 
his  three  predecessors  Fichte,  Schelling,  but  above  all 
Hegel.  This  work,  with  its  wild  outcry  against  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  professoriate,  was  entitled  Ucber  den  Wilten  in 
der  Nalur,  and  was  published  in  1836. 

The  eiffht  essays  which  go  under  the  title  of  The  Will  in  Katitrr  W'Ul  t, 
Reek  to  snow  that  his  theory  has  the  unique  distinction  of  finding  lialuie 
in  physical  science  testimony  to  its  metaphysical  doctrines  tli.it 
will  is  the  primary  basis  of  all  nature  and  intellect  a  derivativo 
phenomenon.  Often  a  trivial  similarity  of  phrases  serves  to  establish 
in  his  judgment  an  agreement  of  radical  view.  In  the  second  essay 
he  argues  for  the  origin  of  animal  organization  from  will,  pointing 
out  how  in  growing  creatures  the  tendency  to  use  an  organ  appears 
before  the  organ  itself  is  formed,,  and  maintaining  that,  instead  of 
seeking  the  protoplasm  of  the  animal  kingdom  in  a  mere  lump  of 
vitalized  matter,  to  be  moulded  by  external  conditions,  we  should 

'  Johanna  Schopenhauer  (1766-1838)  was  in  her  day  au  authoress 
of  some  reputation.  Besides  editing  the  memoirs  of  Feruow,  she 
published'.A'o;<r5  07i  Trawls  in  England,  Scciland,  and  Southern  France 
(1813-17);  Johann  van  Eijck  and  his  Successors  (\S23);  three  romances, 
Gabride  (1819-20),  Dk  Tante  (1823),  and  Sidonia  (1828),  besides 
some  shorter  tales.  Tliese  novels  teach  the  m^>ral  of  renunciation 
(Entsaijung).  Her  daughter  Adelo  (1796-1849)  seems  to  have  had  a 
brave,  tender,  and  uns.itisfied  heart,  and  lavished  on  her  brother  an 
affection  he  sorely  tried.  She  also  v;aa  an  authoress,  publisliing  in 
1844  a  volume  of  Hans-,  U^ald;  und  Fdd-Mahrchen,  full  of  quaint 
ixxtical  conceits,  and  iu  1845  Anna,  a  novel,  in  two  vols. 


454 


SCHOPENHAUER 


Tux) 
Main 
Pnb- 
3fms  of 
EUais. 


look  lor  it  in  the  immemorial  act  of  will  wliieh  is  the  timeless  ' 
origin  of  living  beings.  The  third  essay  represents  the  intellect — 
or  "the  worl  J  as  idea  "—as  having  its  origin  in  the  narrow  partition 
which  in  men  and  animals  is  interposed  between  the  stimulation 
of  a  cause  and  the  reaction  which  supervenes.  From  this  realistic 
standpoint  intellect  seems  an  interloper  in  nature,  an  accident 
associated  with  the  fortunes  of  man,  and  made  victorious  in  the 
genius  which  can  behold  the  world  "in  maiden  meditation,  fancy- 
free."  The  fourth  essay  traces  the  grades  of  disproportion  between 
cause  and  effect  from  inorganic  to  organic  nature.  AVliere  there 
is  causality  there  is  will ;  but  for  us  the  more  obviously  the  one 
shows  itself  the  less  is  the  other  remarked.  Another  paper  seeks 
to  connect  animal  magnetism  (mesmerism,  hypnotism)  and  magic 
with  the  doctrine  that  in  each  of  us  the  whole  undivided  will  re- 
tains its  miraculous  potency. 

In  1837  Schopenhauer  sent  to  the  committee  entrusted 
with  the  execution  of  the  proposed  monument  to  Goethe 
at  Frankfort  a  long  and  deliberate  expression  of  his  views, 
in  general  and  particular,  on  the  best  mode  of  carrying 
out  the  design.  But  his  fellow-citizens  passed  by  the 
remarks  of  the  mere  writer  of  books.  More  weight  was 
naturally  attached  to  the  opinion  he  had  advocated  in 
his  early  criticism  of  Kant  as  to  the  importance,  if  not 
the  superiority,  of  the  first  edition  of  the  Kritik  ;  in  the  col- 
lected issue  of  Kant's  works  by  Eosenkranz  and  Schubert 
in  183S  that  edition  was  put  as  the  substantive  text,  with 
supplementary  exhibition  of  the  differences  of  the  second. 

In  1841  he  published  under  the  title  Die  buiden  Grtind- 
probleme  der  Ethik  two  essays  which  he  had  sent  in 
1838-39  in  competition  for  prizes  offered.  The  first  was 
in  answer  to  the  question  "  Whether  man's  free  will  can 
be  proved  from  self-consciousness,"  proposed  by  the  Nor- 
wegian Academy  of  Sciences  at  Droutheim.  His  essay 
v.'a3  awarded  the  prize,  and  the  author  elected  a  member 
of  the  society.  But  proportionate  to  his  exultation  in 
this  first  recognition  of  his  merit  was  the  depth  of  his 
mortification  and  the  height  of  his  indignation  at  the 
result  of  the  second  competition.  Hs  had  sent  to  the 
Danish  Academy  at  Copenhagen  in  1839  an  essay  "On 
the  Foundations  of  ilorality"  in  answer  to  a  vaguely 
worded  subject  of  discussion  to  which  they  had  invited 
candidates.  His  essay,  though  it  was  the  only  one  in 
competition,  was  refused  the  prize  on  the  grounds  that  he 
Lad  failed  to  examine  the  chief  problem  {i.e.,  whether  the 
tasis  of  morality  was  to  be  sought  in  an  intuitive  idea  of 
right),  that  his  explanation  was  inadequate,  and  that  he 
had  been  wanting  in  due  respect  to  the  siinuni  philosopki 
of  the  age  that  was  just  passing.  This  last  reason,  while 
probably  most  effective  with  the  judges,  only  stirred  up 
more  furiously  the  fury  in  Schopenhauer's  breast,  and  his 
preface  is  one  long  fulmination  against  the  ineptitudes 
and  the  charlatanry  of  his  bete  noire,  Hegel. 

In  the  essay  on  the  freedom  of  the  will  Schopenhauer  shows 
that  the  deliverance  of  self-consciousness,  "  I  can  do  what  I  will," 
is  a  mere  statement  of  our  physical  freedom,  or  the  sequence  of 
outward  act  upon  inner  resolve,  in  the  absence  of  physical  restraint. 
"The  .'statement  of  self-consciousness  concerns  the  v.-iU  merely  a 
•parte  post,  the  question  of  freedom,  on  the  contrary,  a  parte  ante." 
Self-consciousness  throws  no  light  on  the  relation  of  volition  to  its 
antecedents.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  turn  to  the  objects  of  the 
outer  senses,  we  find  that  it  is  part  and  parcel  of  their  very  nature 
to  be  not  free  but  necessitated,  governed,  in  short,  by  the  principle 
of  causation.  But  in  the  ascending  scale  of  causation  cause  aud 
efiect  become  more  and  more  heterogeneous,  their  connexion  more 
unintelligible.  This  is  seen  in  motivation,  especially  where  the 
motives  are  not  immediate  perceptions  but  general  abstract  ideas. 
It  is  in  the  possibility  of  a  conflict  of  motives  that  man's  fi-eedom 
of  choice  consists.  But,  because  we  can  by  a  feat  of  abstraction 
keep  an  image  of  one  course  of  action  before  us  and  neglect  the 
other  concrete  conditions  of  behaviour,  there  grows  up  an  illusion 
that  the  mere  initial  solicitation  or  velleity  might,  if  v.e  pleased, 
Tjecome  actual  wiU.  Hence  the  delusion  that  we  are  free  to  will 
and  not  to  will.  Still  the  necessitating  cause  or  motive  is  only 
tlie  rale  under  which  the  real  force  or  radical  will  operates.  In 
this  radical  will  consists  our  being,  and  on  it  action  is  consequent ; 
<)]3crari  scqiiitur  esse.  By  our  original  character  acting  in  certain 
circumstances  of  motive  our  actions  are  inevitably  determined. 
But  the  sense  of  responsibility  for  oiur  conduct  is  not  altogether  a 


delusion,  it  is  really  a  responsibility  for  onr.  character,  which  wa 
liavo  gradually  learned  experimentally  to  know,  and  which  so 
known  serves  as  a  court  of  appeal  against  single  actions,  or,  in 
other  words,  becomes  a  conscience.  TJat  character  is  the  supra- 
temporal  action  of  that  will  which  we  and  all  things  are.  Thus 
this  question  of  the  fieedom  of  the  will,  which  is  "a  touchstono 
for  distinguishing  the  profound  from  the  superficial  thinker,"  is 
solved  by  the  Kantian  distinction  of  empirical  and  transcendental 
world.     In  the  words  of  Malebranche,  "  La  liberty  est  un  mystere." 

The  essay  on  the  foundation  of  morality  is  an  attempt  to  present 
the  fundament.al  fact  of  the  moral  consciousness  and  to  show  its 
metaphysical  bearings.  It  includes  a  lengthy  criticism  of  Jiant's 
system  of  ethics  as  only  the  old  theological  morality  under  a 
disguise  of  logical  formulie,  Kant,  according  to  his  critic,  though 
he  struck  a  severe  blow  at  eudsemonism,  made  the  mistake  of 
founding  ethics  on  ideas  of  obligation  and  respect,  which  are 
meaningless  apart  from  a  positive  sanction.  His  categorical  im- 
perative is  attributed  to  reason, — a  power  which  we  only  know  as 
human,  but  which  Kant  regards  as  more  than  human  and  borrowa 
from  the  "rational  psychology,"  which  itself  had  received  it  from 
theology.  The  moral  spring  should  be  a  reality  and  a  fact  of 
nature,  whereas  Kant  seeks  it  in  the  subtilties  of  general  ideas, 
forgetting  that  reasoning  is  one  thing  and  virtue  another.  And, 
when  Kant  has  to  illustrate  the  application  of  his  rule  for  discover- 
ing the  categorical  imperative,  he  is  forced  to  have  recourse  to  con- 
siderations of  self-interest. 

After  this  examination,  Schopenhauer  preludes  his  exposition  by 
the  sceptical  survey  of  so-called  virtuous  actions  as  due  in  the  vast 
majority  of  instances  to  other  than  moral  motives,  and  by  a  dis- 
integration of  the  average  conscience  into  equal  parts  of  fear  of 
man,  superstition,  prejudice,  vanity,  and  custom.  The  mainspring 
of  human  action  (as  of  animal)  is  egoism,  supplemented  by  the 
hatred  or  the  malice  which  arises  through  egoistic  conflicts.  But, 
though  these  are  the  predominant  springs  of  conduct,  there  are 
cases  of  unselfish  kindness.  It  is  in  sympathy,  or  in  our  as  it  were 
substituting  ourselves  for  another  who  is  in  pain,  that  we  find  the 
impulse  which  gives  an  action  a  truly  moral  value.  The  influence 
of  sympathy  has  two  degrees  :  either  it  keeps  me  back  from  doing 
wTong  to  others,  and  in  this  sense  leads  to  justice  as  a  moral  virtue 
(whereas  civil  justice  prevents  from  suS'eruig  wrong) ;  or  sympathy 
may  carry  me  on  to  positive  kindness,  to  philanthropy  or  love  of 
the  human  kind.  It  is  on  sympathy — the  feeling  of  one  identical 
nature  under  all  the  appearance  of  multiplicity — that  the  two  car- 
dinal virtues  of  justice  and  benevolence  are  based.  Schopenhauer 
notes  especially  that  his  principle  extends  to  the  relation  between 
man  and  animals,  and  that  a  mistaken  conception  of  human  digiiity 
has  been  allowed  to  hide  the  fundamental  community  of  animal 
nature. 

In  1844  appeared  the  second  edition  of  The  World  aa 
Will  and  Idea,  in  t\TO  volumes.  The  first  volume  was 
a  slightly  altered  reprint  of  the  earlier  issue ;  the  second 
consisted  of  a  series  of  chapters  forming  a  commentary 
ji-i-allel  to  those  into  which  the  original  work  was  now 
tirst  divided.  The  longest  of  these  new  chapters  deal  with 
the  primacy  of  the  will,  with  death,  and  with  the  meta- 
physics of  sexual  love.  But,  though  only  a  small  edition 
was  struck  off  (500  copies  of  vol.  i.  and  750  of  vol.  ii.), 
the  report  of  sales  which  Brockhaus  rendered  in  1846 
was  unfavourable,  and  the  price  had  afterwards  to  be 
reduced.  Yet  there  were  faint  indications  of  coming  Da\vTdni 
fame,  and  the  eagerness  with  which  each  new  tribute  re™g- 
from  critic  and  admirer  was  welcomed  is  both  touching  j!™ 
and  amusing.  From  1843  onwards  a  jurist  named  F.  „^,^j^g_ 
Dorguth  had  trumpeted  abroad  Schopenhauer's  name. 
In  1844  a  letter  from  a  Darmstadt  lawyer,  Joh.  August 
Becker,  asking  for  explanation  of  some  difficulties,  began 
an  intimate  correspondence  which  went  on  for  some  time 
(and  which  was  published  by  Becker's  son  in  1883).  But 
the  chief  evangelist  (so  Schopenhauer  styled  his  literary 
followers  as  distinct  from  the  apostles  who  published  not) 
was  Frauenstiidt,  who  made  his  personal  acquaintance  it. 
1846.  It  was  Frauenstiidt  who  succeeded  in  finding  a 
publisher  for  the  Parerrj.x  mid  I'aralipomena,  which 
appeared  at  Berlin  in  1851  (2  vols.,  pp.  465,  531).  Yet 
for  this  bulky  collection  of  essays,  philosophical  and 
others,  Schopenhauer  received  as  honorarium  oniy  ten  free 
copies  of  the  work.  Soon  afterwards,  Dr  E.  O.  Lindner, 
assistant  editor  of  the  Vossisclie  Zeitung,  began  a  series  of 
Schopenhaucrite  articles.    Amongst  them  may  be  reckoned 


SCHOPENHAUER 


455 


i-  :nven- 
:ional  _ 
cudre- 
jiioiiism 
and  ItU 
pessi- 
mistic 
asccti- 
lasm. 


a  translation  by  Mrs  Lindner  of  an  article  by  John  Osen- 
ford  which  appeared  in  the  Westminster  Review  for  April 
1853,  entitled  "  Iconoclasm  in  German  Philosophy,"  being 
an  outline  of  Schopenhauer's  system.  In  185-t  Frauen- 
stadt's  Letters  on  the  Schopenhauerean  Philosopht/  showed 
that  the  new  doctrines  were  become  a  subject  of  discus- 
sion,— a  state  of  things  made  stili  more  obvious  by  the 
university  of  Leipsic  offering  a  prize  for  the  best  exposi- 
tion and  examination  of  the  principles  of  Schopenhauer's 
system.  Besides  this,  the  response  his  ideas  gave  to 
popular  needs  and  feelings  was  evinced  by  the  numerous 
correspondents  who  sought  his  advice  in  their  difficulties. 
And  for  the  same  reason  new  editions  of  his  works  were 
called  for, — a  second  edition  of  his  degree  dissertation  in 
1847,  of  his  Essay  on  Colours  and  of  The  Will  in  Nature 
in  1854,  a  third  edition  of  The  World  as  Will  and  Idta  in 
1859,  and  in  1860  a  second  edition  of  Tlie  Main  Problems 
of  Ethics. 

In  these  later  years  Schopenhauer  had  at  length  realized 
that  peace  which  can  be  given  in  the  world ;  he  had 
become  comparatively  master  of  himself.  His  passions 
had  slackened  their  strain,  and  he  was  no  longer  the 
victim  of  unavailing  regrets.  As  a  youth  he  had  known 
none  of  those  ties  which  give  the  individual  an  esjmt  de 
corps,  a  sense  of  community  which  he  never  quite  loses. 
Wandering  about  from  place  to  place  throughout  Europe, 
■with  no  permanent  home  sweetened  by  the  different 
phases  of  family  affection,  with  no  reminiscences  of  com- 
radeship in  schoolboy  days,  with  no  sentiment  of  the 
dues  of  nationality,  Schopenhauer  is  the  fitter  interpreter 
of  that  modern  cosmopolitanism  which  disdains  the  more 
special  ties  of  common  life  and  mutual  obligation  as  being 
obstacles  to  free  development.  In  exaggerated  .self-con- 
sciousness, he  looks  down  upon  the  common  herd  who 
live  the  life  of  convention  and  compromise,  and  puts  the 
supreme  value  on  that  higher  intellectual  life  which  leisure 
and  means  permit  him  to  enjoy.  A  subtler  egoism,  which 
emancipates  itself  from  the  lusts  and  the  duties  of  the 
world,  takes  the  place  of  the  vulgar  self-seeking  of  the 
multitude  and  of  the  self-devotion  of  the  patriot  or 
philanthropist.  To  such  a  mind  the  friction  of  jTrofessional 
duties  seems  irksome  :  the  bonds  of  matrimony  and  the 
duties  incumbent  on  social  membership  are  so  many 
checks  on  freedom  of  thought  and  resolution.  The  indi- 
vidualist recognizes  none  of  those  minor  morals  and 
parochial  or  provincial  duties  which  appropriate  three- 
fourths  of  our  conduct.  In  the  wide  universe  he  sees 
Limself  and  others,  none  more  akin  to  him  than  another, 
beings  not  bound  by  external  ties,  and  united  only  in  the 
fundamental  sameness  of  their  inner  nature.  To  ordinary 
mortals,  absorbed  in  "  the  trivial  round,  the  common  task," 
the  links  that  bind  individuals  are  forged  by  the  petty 
ordinances  and  observances  of  society.  But  to  those 
whom  temper  and  circumstances  have  denied  local  and 
partial  association.ship,  the  craving  for  totality  is  so  keen 
that  it  makes  them  seek  their  higher  country  in  that  far- 
off  world  (strangely  called  "  intelligible  ")  where  their  per- 
sonality disappears  in  the  one  being  of  the  universe. 
Thus  wide  is  the  antagonism  between  thn  eudoDmonisra 
of  civilization,  with  aspirations  towards  perfecting  our 
homes  and  bodies,  so  that  in  all  things  comfort  may  be 
established,  and  the  pessimistic  asceticism  of  Schopen- 
hauer, which  sees  the  perfection  of  life  not  in  the  abun- 
dance of  those  things  which  we  eat  and  drink  and  where- 
with we  are  clothed  but  in  a  deadening  of  passion,  a 
negation  of  the  would-live-and-enjoy,  and  an  existence  in 
a  calm  ecstasy  of  beatific  vision,  of  knowledge  not  abstract 
but  lively  intuition.  It  is  this  protest  of  Schoiicnhauer 
against  the  vanity  of  the  aims  prescribed  by  conventional 
civilization  and  enlightenment  which  has  gained  him  sonic 


of  those  ardent  followers  who  find  in  his  doctrine  that 
religion  of  which  they  stand  in  need. 

It  is  a  religion  which  owns  no  connexion  with  theism  His 
or  pantheism.  Unlike  Spinoza  and  Hegel  and  the  other  religioo. 
leaders  of  modern  speculation,  Schopenhauer  disdains  the 
shelter  of  the  old  theology.  His  religion  is  cosmic  and 
secular ;  it  finds  its  saints  in  Buddhist  and  Christian 
monasticism,  in  Indian  devotees  and  19th-century  "beau- 
tiful souls,"  and  holds  the  one  to  be  no  nearer  or  more 
impressive  as  an  example  than  the  other.  Of  Judaism 
he  has  no  good  to  say ;  its  influence  on  Christianity  has 
been  pernicious.  The  new  faith  is  a  ministry  of  art  and 
of  high  thinking,  which  may  be  rendered  by  all  thost?  who 
by  plain  living  and  unselfish  absorption  in  the  great  mean- 
ing and  typal  forms  of  the  world  have  slain  the  root  of 
bitterness  that  constantly  seeks  to  spring  up  Within  them. 
It  is  far  from  being  a  worship  of  the  blind  force  which  lies 
at  the  back  of  phenomena  :  it  is  a  "  re-implication  "  of  the 
individual  into  the  absolute  from  which  life  has  separated 
him.  Each  seeker  after  this  reunion  is  himself  (when  he 
has  learnt  wisdom  by  experience  and  sel.'-restraint)  the  very 
being  who  has  become  all  things  ;  and  if  the  "  cosmic  will " 
may  be  termed  God  (an  impossible  identification)  then  he 
knows  God  more  intimately  than  he  knows  anything  else. 
And  here  if  anywhere  it  may  be  said,  "  He  serveth  best 
who  loveth  best  all  things  both  gi-eat  and  small."  Yet 
love  in  this  creed  is  second  to  knowledge ;  the  odi  pro- 
fanum  rndgus  rf  the  misanthrope  is  heard  from  the  soli- 
tary's shrine,  and  instead  of  the  service  of  humanity  we 
have  the  contemplation  of  the  eternal  forms,  and  the  ele- 
vation to  that  world  where  self  ceases  to  be  separated  from 
other  selves,  and  where,  in  the  ultimate  ecstasy  of  know- 
ledge, all  things  positive  and  definite  disappear  and  there 
is  a  being  which  the  sensuous  soul  of  man  fails  to  dis- 
tinguish from  non-being. 

It  is  often  said  that  a  philosophic  system  cannot  be  Eolation 
rightly  understood  -(vithout  reference  to  the  character  and  "f  'to 
circumstances  of  the  philosopher.     The  remark  finds  ample  P'''J°- 


sopber 

to  hlK 


application  in  the  case  of  Schopenhauer.  The  conditions 
of  his' training,  which  brought  him  in  contact  with  thesysUm. 
realities  of  life  before  he  leai-ned  the  phrases  of  scholastic 
language,  give  to  his  words  the  stamp  of  self-seen  truth 
and  the  clearness  of  original  conviction.  They  explain  at 
the  same  time  the  naivete  which  set  a  high  price  on  the 
products  his  own  energies  had  turned  out,  and  could  not 
see  that  what  was  so  original  to  himself  might  seem  less 
unique  to  other  judges.  Pre-occupied  with  his  own  ideas, 
he  chafed  under  the  indifference  of  thinkers  who  had  grown 
blase  in  speculation  and  fancied  himself  persecuted  by  a 
conspiracy  of  professor:  of  philosophy.  It  is  not  so  easy 
to  demonstrate  the  connexion  between  a  man's  life  and 
doctrine.  But  it  is  at  least  plain  that  in  the  case  of  any 
philoiiopher,  what  makes  him  such  is  the  faculty  he  has, 
more  than  other  men,  to  get  a  clear  idea  of  what  be  himself 
is  and  does.  More  than  others  he  leads  a  second  life  in 
the  spirit  or  intellect  alongside  of  his  life  in  the  flesh, — 
the  life  of  knowledge  beside  the  life  of  will.  It  is  inevi- 
table that  he  should  bo  especially  struck  by  the  points  in 
which  the  sensible  and  temporal  life  comes  in  conflict  with 
the  intellectual  and  eternal.  It  was  thu.i  that  Schopenhauer 
by  his  own  experience  saw  in  the  primacy  of  the  will  the 
fundamental  fact  of  his  philosojihy,  and  found  in  the  en- 
grossing interests  of  the  selfish  t/3<us  the  perennial  hin- 
drances of  the  higher  life.  For  his  absolute  individualism, 
which  recognizes  in  the  state,  the  church,  the  family  only 
so  many  superficial  and  incidental  jn-ovisions  of  human 
craft,  the  means  of  relief  was  absoi-ption  in  the  intellectual 
and  purely  ideal  aims  which  i)reparc  the  way  for  the  cessa- 
tion of  temporal  individuality  altogether.  But  theory  is 
one  thing  and  practice  another  ;  and  he  will  of'c;-.  '.-.:,■  most 


456 


SCHOPENHAUER 


stress  on  the  theory  who  ia  most  conscious  of  defects  in 
the  practice.  It  need  not  ihercforo  surprise  us  that  the 
man  who  formulated  the  sum  of  virtue  in  justice  and  bene- 
volence was  imable  to  be  just  to  his  own  kinsfolk  and 
reserved  his  compassion  largely  for  the  brutes,  and  that 
the  delineator  of  asceticism  was  more  than  moderately 
sensible  of  the  comforts  and  enjoyments  of  life. 
flaWtsot  Having  renounced  what  he  would  call  the  superstitions 
^o-  of  duty  to  country,  to  kindred,  and  to  associates,  except 
in  so  far  as  these  duties  were  founded  on  contract  (and 
that,  according  to  him,  all  duties  imply),  it  was  natural 
that  he  should  take  steps  to  minimize  that  friction  which 
he  so  easily  excited,  and  which  had  induced  his  voluntary 
exile  from  the  arena.  His  regular  habits  of  life  and  care- 
ful regard  to  hb  own  health  remind  us  of  tha  conduct  of 
the  bachelor  Kant.  He  would  rise  between  seven  and  eight 
both  siunmer  and  winter,  sponge  himself,  bathing  his  eyes 
carefully,  sit  dovra  to  coifee  prepared  by  his  own  hands, 
and  soon  get  to  work.  He  was  a  slow  reader.  The  cla-ssics 
were  old  friends,  always  revisited  with  pleasure.  He  only 
read  original  works — the  classics  of  pure  literature — avoid- 
ing all  books  about  books,  and  especially  e^Aewed  the  more 
modern  philosophers.  Hume  in  English  and  Helv^tius  and 
Chamfort  in  French  he  found  to  his  mind  in  their  sceptical 
estimates  of  ordinary  virtue.  Mystical  and  ascetic  writ- 
ings, from  Buddhism  and  the  Upanishads  to  Eckhart  and 
the  D'utsche  Theologie,  commended  themselves  by  their  in- 
sistence on  the  reality  of  the  higher  life.  Their  example 
of  will-force  drew  his  favourable  notice  to  the  phenomena 
of  mesmerism,  just  as  his  sympathy  with  the  lower  brethren 
of  man  made  him  an  interested  observer  of  a  young  orang- 
outang shown  at  Frankfort  in  1834.  He  was  familiar  with 
several  literatures,  English  certainly  not  the  least.  The 
names  of  Shakespeare,  Scott,  Byron,  Calderon,  Petrarch, 
Dante,  are  frequent  in  his  pages.  What  he  read  he  tried 
to  read  in  the  original, — or  anywhere  but  in  a  German  trans- 
lation. Even  the  Old  Testament  he  found  more  impress- 
ive in  the  Septnagint  version  than  in  Luther's  rendering. 
The  hour  of 'noon  brought  cessation  from  his  contempla- 
tions, and  for  half  an  hour  he  solaced  himself  on  the  flute. 
At  one  o'clock  he  sat  do^vn  to  dinner  in  his  inn,  and  after 
dinner  came  home  for  an  hoar's  siesta.  After  some  light 
reading  he  went  out  for  a  stroll,  alone,  if  possible  country- 
Vards,  with  cane  in  hand,  cigar  ht,  and  poodle  following. 
Occasionally  ho  would  stop  abruptly,  turn  round  or  look 
back,  mutter  something  to  himself,  so  as  to  leave  on  the 
passer-by  the  impression  that  he  was  either  crack-brained 
or  angry.  Like  Kant,  he  kept  his  lijis  closed  on  principle. 
His  walk  over,  he  retired  to  the  reading-room  and  studied 
the  Times, — for  he  hadbeen  always  somewhat  of  an  Anglo- 
maniac,  and  had  learnt  this  habit  of  English  life  from  his 
father.  In  winter  he  would  sometimes  attend  the  opera. 
Between  eight  and  nine  he  took  supper,  with  a  half-botUe 
of  light  wine  (he  avoided  his  country's  beer),  at  a  table  by 
himself. 

With  hb  low  estimate  of  the  average  human  being,  his 
sympathies  were  aristocratic.  He  left  the  bulk  of  his 
fortune  to  an  institution  at  Berlin  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  had  suffered  on  the  side  of  order  during  the  revolu- 
tionary struggles  of  1848-49.  But  in  so  doing  it  was  not 
hb  sympathy  with  kings  but  his  recognition  of  the  merits 
of  public  security  which  gave  the  motive  to  his  actions. 
With  all  his  eulogy  of  voluntary  poverty,  he  did  not  agree 
to  being  deprived  of  hb  property  by  the  maUce  or  cupidity 
of  others,  and  fears  of  the  loss  of  his  means  haunted 
him  not  less  keenly  than  other  imaginary  terrors, — the 
fancied  evils  dbtracting  him  no  less  perhaps  than  would 
have  done  those  domestic  and  civil  obUgaticms  from  which 
he  endeavoured  to  hold  himself  free.  The  Nemesis,  of  his 
social  Idckete  fell  npon  him ;  and,  like  all  solitaries,  he 


gave  an  exaggerated  importance  to  trifles,  which  the  sweep 
of  business  and  customary  duty  clear  away  from  the 
ordinary  man's  memory. 

It  was  not  till  he  wa-s  fifty  years  of  age  that  he  set  up  Pcramn!' 
rooms  and  fwnitnre  of  hb  own.  These  abodes  ho  changed  iletail* 
at  Frankfort  about  four  times,  Uving  latterly  on  the 
street  which  runs  along  the  Main.  On  the  mat  in  hb 
chamber  lay  hb  poodle, — latterly  a  brown  dog,  which  had 
succeeded  the  original  white  one,  named  Atma  (the  World- 
Soul),  of  which  he  had  been  especially  fond.  These  dogs 
had  more  than  once  brought  him  into  trouble  with  hb 
landlord.  In  a  comer  of  the  room  was  placed  a  gilt 
statuette  of  Buddha,  and  on  a  table  not  far  off  lay 
Duperron's  Latin  translation  of  the  Upanishads,  which 
served  as  the  prayer-book  from  which  Schopenhauer  read 
his  devotions.  On  the  desk  stood  a  bust  of  Kant,  and  a 
few  portraits  hung  on  the  walb.  The  philosopher's  person 
was  under  middle  size,  strongly  built  and  broad-chested, 
with  small  hands.  His  voice  was  loud  and  clear;  hb 
eyes  blue  and  somewhat  vride  apart ;  the  mouth  full  and 
sensuous,  latterly  becoming  broad  as  his  teeth  gave  way. 
The  high  brow  and  heavy  under-jaw  were  the  evidence  of 
his  contrasted  nature  of  ample  intellect  and  vigorous  im- 
pulses. In  youth  he  had  light  curly  hair,  whereas  hb 
beard  in  manhood  was  of  a  sUghtly  reddish  tint!  He 
always  dressed  carefully  as  a  gentleman,  in  black  dress- 
coat  and  white  necktie,  and  wore  shoes.  In  his  later  years 
his  portrait  was  taken  more  than  once,  and  by  several 
artists,  and  his  bust  was  modelled  somewhat  to  his  own 
mind  in  1859.  Reproductions  of  these  Likenesses  have 
made  familiar  his  characteristic  but  unamiable  features. 

In  1854  Richard  Wagner  sent  him  a  copy  of  the  Ring 
of  the  Nibelung,  with  some  words  of  thanks  for  a  theoiy 
of  music  which  had  fallen  in  with  his  own  conceptions. 
Three  years  later  he  received  a  visit  from  his  old  college 
friend  Bunsen,  who  was  then  staying  in  Heidelberg.  On 
his  seventieth  birthday  congratulations  flowed  in  from 
many  quarters.  In  April  1860  he  began  to  be  affected 
by  occasional  difficulty  in  breathing  and  by  palpitation 
of  the  heart.  Another  attack  came  on  in  autumn  (9th 
September),  and  again  a  week  later.  On  the  evening  of 
the  18th  his  friend  and  subsequent  biographer,  Dr 
Gwinner,  sat  with  him  and  conversed.  On  the  "morning 
of  the  21st  September  he  rose  and  sat  do%vn  alone  to 
breakfast ;  shortly  afterwards  his  doctor  called  and  found 
him  dead  in  hb  chair.  By  his  will,  made  in  1852,  with  a 
codicQ  dated  February  1859,  hb  property,  with  the  ez- 
ception  of  some  small  bequests,  was  devised  to  the  above- 
mentioned  institution  at  Berlin.  Gwinner  was  named 
executor,  and  FrauenstJidt  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of 
hb  manuscripts  and  other  literary  remains. 

The  philosophy  of  Schopenhauer,  like  almosi  every  system  of  the  PhUo- 
19th  century,  can  hardly  be  iindei-stood  w'ithont  reference  to  the  sophy 
ideas  of  Kant      Anterior  to  Kant  the  gl-adual  advance  of  idealism  from 
had  been  the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  philosophic  speculation.  Kant  to 
That  the  direct  objects  of  knowledge,  the  realities  of  experience,  Schopeo 
were  after  all  only  our  ideas  or  perceptions  was  the  lesson  of  every  hauer. 
thinker  from  Descartes  to  Hume.     And  this  doctrine  was  generally 
understood  to.  mean  that  human  thought,  limited  as  it  was  by  its 
own  weakness  and  acquired  habits,  could  hardly  hope  to  cope  suc- 
cessfully with  the  problem  of  apprehending  the  i-eal  things.     Tho 
idealist  position  Kant  seemed  at  first  sight  to  retain  with  an  even 
stronger  force  than  ever.     But  it  is  darkest  just  before  the  dawn  ; 
and  Kant,  the  Copernicus  of  philosophy,  had  really  altered  the 
aspects  of  the  doctrine  of  ideas.     It  was  his  purpose  to  show  that 
the  forms  of  tliought  (which  he  sought  to  isolate  from  the  peculi- 
arities incident  to  the  organic  body)  were  not  merely  customary 
means  for  licking  into  convenient  shape  the  data  of  perception,  but 
entered  as  underlying  elements  into  tho  constitution  oi  objects, 
making  experience  possible  and  determining  the  fundamental  struo- 
tiire  of  nature.     In  other  words,  the  forms  of  knowledge  were  tha 
main  factor  in  making  objects.     By  Kant,  however,  these  forma 
are  generally  treated  psychologically  as  the  action  of  the  several 
faculties  of  a  mind.     Behind  thinking  there  is  the  thinker.     But 


SCHOPENHAUER 


457 


in  his  successors,  from  Fichtp  to  Hegel,  this  axiom  of  the  plain  man 
is  set  aside  as  antiquated.  Thought  or  conception  vrithout  a  sub- 
ject-agent appears  as  the  principle,— thought  or  thinking  iu  its 
univLisality  without  any  individual  substrata  in  which  it  is  em- 
bodied  :  rb  vo^lv  or  vb-qat^  is  to  be  substituted  for  vovi.  This  is  the 
step  of  advance  which  is  required  alike  by  Fichte  when  he  asks  his 
reader  to  rise  from  the  empirical  ego  to  the  ego  which  is  subject- 
object  {i.e.y  neither  and  both),  and  by  Hegel  when  he  tries  to  sub- 
stitute the  Begriff  OT  notion  for  the  Vorstdlung  or  pictorial  concep- 
tion. As  spiritism  asks  us  to  accept  such  suspension  of  ordi  lary 
mechanics  as  permits  human  bodies  to  float  thi-ough  the  air  and 
part  without  injury  to  their  members,  so  the  new  philosop  ly  of 
Kant's  immediate  successors  requires  from  the  postulant  for  initia- 
tion willingness  to  reverse  his  customary  beliefs  in  quasi -material 
subjects  of  thought. 

But,  besides  removing  the  psychological  slag  which  clung  to 
Kent's  ideas  from  their  matrix  and  presenting  reason  as  the  active 
piinciple  in  the  formation  of  a  universe,  his  successors  carried  out 
with  far  more  detai],  and  far  more  enthui-iusm  and  historical  scope, 
liis  principle  that  in  reason  lay  the  a  priori  or  the  anticipation  of 
the  world,  moral  and  physical.  Not  content  with  the  barren  asser- 
tion that  the  understanding  makes  nature,  and  that  we  can  construct 
science  only  on  the  hypothesis  that  there  is  reason  in  the  world, 
they  proceeded  to  show  how  the  thing  was  actually  done.  But 
to  do  so  they  had  fii-st  to  brush  away  a  stone  of  stumbling  which 
Kant  had  left  in  the  way.  This  was  the  thing  as  it  is  by  itself 
and  apart  from  our  knowledge  of  it, — the  something  which  we 
know,  when  and  as  we  know  it  not.  This  somewhat  is  what  Kant 
calls  a  limit-concept.  It  marks  only  that  we  feel  our  knowledge  to 
Le  inadequate,  end  for  the  reason  that  there  may  be  another  species 
of  sensation  than  ours,  that  other  beings  may  not  be  tied  by  the 
special  laws  of  our  constitution,  and  may  apprehend,  as  Plato  says, 
by  the  soul  itself  apart  from  the  senses.  But  this  limitation,  say 
the  successoi"s  of  Kant,  rests  -upon  a  misconception.  The  sense  of 
inadequacy  is  only  a  condition  of  growing  knowledge  in  a  being 
subject  to  the  laws  of  space  and  time;  and  the  very  feeling  is  a 
proof  of  its  implicit  removal.  Look  at  reason  not  in  its  single 
temporal  manifestations  but  in  its  eternal  operation,  and  then  this 
universal  thought,  which  may  be  called  God,  as  the  sense-condi- 
tioned reason  is  called  man,  becomes  the  very  breath  and  structure 
of  the  world.  Thus  in  the  true  idea  of  things  there  is  no  irreduc- 
ible residuum  of  matter :  mind  is  the  Alpha  and  Omega,  at  once 
the  initial  postulate  and  the  final  truth  of  reality. 

In  various  ways  a  reaction  arose  against  this  absorption  of  every- 
thing iu  reason.  In  Fichte  himself  the  source  of  being  is  primeval 
activity,  the  groundless  and  incomprehensible  deed-action  {Tliat' 
Jlaiidlung)  of  the  absolute  ego.  The  innermost  character  of  that 
€go  is  an  infinitude  in  act  and  effort.  "The  will  is  the  living 
principle  of  reason,"  he  says  again.  "In  the  last  resort,"  says 
i3chelling(1809),  inhis/«^K/?7'cs  into  the  'Nature  of  Human  Freedom, 
*' there  is  no  other  being  but  will.  JVollcn.  ist  Urscin  (will  is 
primal  being) ;  and  to  this  alone  apply  the  predicates  fatlioniless, 
tternal,  indt-pendent  of  time,  sclf-afhniiing."  It  is  unnecessary 
to  multiply  instances  to  prove  that  idealism  was  never  without  a 
protest  that  there  is  a  heart  of  existence,  life,  will,  action,  which 
IS  presupposed  by  all  knowledge  and  is  not  itself  amenable  to  ex- 
planation. AVe  may,  if  we  like,  call  this  element,  which  is  assumed 
as  the  basia  of  all  scientific  method,  irrational,  —  will  instead  of 
reason,  feeling  rather  than  knowledge. 

It  is  under  the  banner  of  this  protest  against  rationalizing 
idealism  that  Schopenhauer  advances.  But  what  marks  out  his 
armament  is  its  pronounced  realism.  lie  fights  v.ith  the  weapons 
of  physical  doctrine  and  on  the  basis  of  the  material  earth.  Ho 
knows  no  reason  but  the  human,  no  intelligence  save  what  is  ex- 
hibited by  the  animals.  Kc  knows  that  both  animals  £.nd  men 
have  come  into  existence  within  assignable  limits  of  time,  and  that 
there  was  an  anterior  age  when  no  eye  or  ear  gathered  the  life  of 
tiio  universe  into  perceptions.  Knowledge,  therefore,  with  its 
vehicle,  the  intellect,  is  dependent  upon  the  existence  of  certain 
nerve -organs  located  in  an  animal  system;  and  its  function  is 
originally  only  to  present  an  image  of  the  interconnexions  of  the 
manifestations  external  to  the  individual  orga^iism,  and  so  to  give 
to  the  individual  in  a  partial  and  reflected  fonn  that  feeling  with 
oth\;r  things,  or  innate  sympathy,  which  it  loses  as  organization 
becomes  more  complex  and  cliaiacteristic.  Knowledge  or  intellect, 
therefore,  is  only  the  aurrogatd  of  that  more  intimate  unity  of 
feeling  or  will  which  is  the  underlying  reality — the  pririciple  of  all 
existence,  the  essence  of  all  manifestations,  inorgainc  and  organic. 
And  the  perfection  of  reason  is  attained  when  man  hqs  transcended 
those  limits  of  individuation  in  which  his  knowledge  at  first  pre- 
sents him  to  himself,  wjien  by  art  he  has  risen  from  single  objects 
to  universal  types,  and  by  suffering  and  sacrifice  has  penetrated 
to  that  innermost  sanctuary  where  the  euthanasia  of  consciousness 
is  reached, — the  blessedness  cf  eternal  repose. 

In  substantials  the  theory  of  Schopenhauer  may  be  compared 
with  a  more  prosaic  statcmont  of  3Ir  Herbert  Spcnner  (moderaizing 
Hume).     All  psychical  states  may,  according  to  him,  be  treated  as 


incidents  of  the  coiTespoudence  between  the  organism  and  its  ea- 
vii'onment.  In  this  adjustment  the  lowest  stage  is  taken  by  reflex 
action  and  instinct,  where  the  change  of  the  organs  is  purely 
automatic.  As  the  external  complexity  increases,  this  automatic 
regularity  fails  ;  there  is  only  an  incipient  excitation  of  the  r  irves. 
This  feeble  echo  of  the  full  response  to  stimulus  is  an  idea,  ,phich 
is  thus  only  another  word  for  imperfect  organization  or  adjustment. 
But  gradually  this  imperfect  correspondence  is  improved,  and  the 
idea  passes  over  again  into  the  state  of  unconscious  or  organic 
memory.  Intellect,  in  short,  is  only  the  consequence  of  insufiicient 
response  between  stimulus  and  action.  "Where  action  is  entirely 
automatic,  feeling  does  not  exist.  It  is  when  the  excitation  is 
partial  only,  when  it  does  not  inevitably  and  immediately  appear 
as  action,  that  wo  have  the  appearance  of  intellect  in  the  gap.  The 
chief  and  fundamental  difTerence  between  Schopenhauer  and  Mr 
Spencer  lies  in  the  refusal  of  the  latter  to  give  this  "adjustment" 
or  "automatic  action"  the  name  of  will.  "Will  according  to  llr 
Spencer  is  only  auother  aspect  of  what  is  reason,  memory,  or  feel- 
ing,— the  dilTerence  lying  in  the  fact  that  as  will  the  nascent  ex- 
citation (ideal  motion)  is  conceived  as  passing  into  complete  or  full 
motion.  But  he  agrees  with  Schopenhauer  iu  basing  conscious- 
ness, in  all  its  forms  of  reason,  feeling,  or  will,  upon  "  automatic 
movement, — psychical  change,"  from  which  consciousness  emerges 
and  in  which  it  disappears. 

"What  Schopenhauer  professed,  therefore,  is  to  have  dispelled  Main 
the  claims  of  reason  to  priority  and  to  demonstrate  the  relativity  tendeu- 
and  limitation  of  science.  Science,  he  reminds  us,  is  based  on  final  ciesof  his 
inexplicabilities  ;  and  its  attempts  by  theories  of  evolution  to  find  syetem. 
an  historical  origin  for  humanity  in  rndimentary  matter  show  a 
misconception  of  the  problem.  In  the  successions  of  material 
states  there  can  nowhere  be  an  absolute  first.  The  true  origin  of 
man,  as  of  all  else,  is  to  be  sought  in  an  action  wliich  is  everlasting 
and  which  is  ever  present :  nee  te  gusesiveris  extra.  There  is  a  source 
of  knowledge  within  us  by  which  we  know,  and  more  intimately 
than  we  can  ever  know  anything  external,  that  we  will  and  feeL 
That  is  the  first  an>I  the  highest  knowledge,  the  only  knowledge 
that  can  strictly  be  called  immediate  ;  and  to  ourselves  v.e  a."i  tlie 
subject  of  will  are  truly  the  "immediate  object,"  It  is  in  this 
sense  of  will — of  will  without  motives,  but  not  without  conscious- 
ness of  some  sort — that  reality  is  revealed.  Analogy  and  experi- 
ence make  us  assume  it  to  be  omnipresent.  It  is  a  mistake  to  say 
will  means  for  Schopenhauer  only  force.  It  means  a  great  deal 
more  ;  and  it  is  his  contention  that  what  the  scientist  calls  force 
is  really  will.  In  so  doing  he  is  only  following  the  line  predicted 
by  Kant^  and  anticipated  by  Leibnitz.  If  we  wish,  said  Kant,  to 
give  a  real  existence  to  the  thing  in  itself  or  the  noumenon  we  can 
only  do  so  by  investing  it  v.ith  the  attribu^jes  found  in  our  own 
internal  sense,  viz.,  with  thinking  or  something  analogous  thereto. 
It  is  thus  that  Fechner  in  his  "day-view  "  of  things  sees  in  plants 
and  planets  the  same  fundamental  "soul"  is  in  us — that  is,  "one 
simple  being  which  appears  to  none  but  itself,  in  us  as  elsewhere 
wherever  it  occurs  self-luminous,  dark  for  every  otlier  eye,  at  the 
least  connecting  sensations  in  itself,  upon  which,  as  the  grade  of 
soul  mounts  higher  and  higher,  there  is  coi  structed  the  conscious- 
ness of  higher  and  still  higher  relations."'  It  is  thus  that  Lotze 
declares 3  that  "behind  the  tranquil  surface  of  Biatter,  behind  its 
rigid  and  regular  habits  of  behaviour,  we  are  forced  to  seek  the 
glow  of  a  hidden  spiritual  activity."  So  Schopenhauer,  but  in  a 
way  ail  his  own,  finds  the  truth  of  things  in  a  will  which  is  indeed 
unaffected  by  conscious  motives  and  yet  cannot  be  separated  from 
some  faint  analogue  of  non-intellectual  consciousness. 

In  two  ways  Schopenhauer  has  influenced  the  world.  He  h.l3 
sho^\^l  with  unusual  lucidity  of  expression  how  feeble  is  the  spon- 
taneity of  that  intellect  which  is  so  hif^hly  lauded,  and  how  over- 
powering the  sway  of  original  will  in  all  our  action.  He  thus  re- 
asrerted  realism,  whose  gospel  reads,  "In  the  beginning  was  appetite, 
passion,  will,"  and  has  discredited  the  doctrinaire  belit;!'  that 
ideas  have  original  force  of  their  own.  This  creed  of  naturalism 
is  dangerous,  and  it  may  bo  true  that. the  pessimi-sm  it  impliea 
often  degenerates  into  cynicism  and  a  cold-blooded  denial  that 
there  is  any  virtue  and  any  truth.  But  in  the  crash  of  established 
creeds  and  the  spread  of  political  indifTurentiKm  and  social  disin- 
tegi-ation  it  is  probably  wise,  if  not  always  agreeable,  to  lay  bare 
the  wounds  under  which  humanity  suffers,  though  pride  would 
prompt  their  concealment.  But  Schopenhauer's  theory  has  another 
side.  If  it  is  daringly  realistic,  it  is  no  less  audacious  in  its  ideal- 
ism. The  second  aspect  of  his  influence  is'tho  doctrine  of  redemp- 
tion of  the  soul  from  its  sensual  bonds,  first  by  the  medium  of  art 
and  second  by  the  path  of  renunciation  and  ascetic  life.  It  may 
bo  difficult  in  each  ca.so  to  draw  the  line  betweon  social  duty  and 
individual  perfection.  But  Schopenhauer  reminds  us  that  tho 
welfare  of  society  is  a  temporal  and  subordinate  aim,  never  to  bo 
allowed  to  dwarf  ihQ  full  realization  of  our  ideal  bein^.  llan*s 
duty  is  undoubtedly  to  join  in  the  common  service  of  sentient. 

1  AVidfc  (Tnms.  Anal.),  bli-  ii-,  Apiwndlx. 

2  Uehcr  die  Seelenfragc,  p.  9,  I^'ipaic,  1861. 

3  Uikrokonma^  voL  L  i>.  408<2cfcU.). 

XXI.  —  ^3 


458 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


beings  ;  but  his  final  goal  is  to  rise  above  tlie  toils  and  comforts  of 
the  visible  creature  into  the  vast  bosom  of  a  peaceful  Nirvana. 

Bihlio^raphtf.— The  works  of  Schojwnhaucr  were  published  after  hia  death 
by  J.  Fniiienstadt  in  6  volumes  (Leipsic,  1S71).  Besides  these,  several  papers 
and  aphorisms  appeared  in  1S34,  A\is  Sdinpenhnuer's  handic.riftlichem  Kaddass, 
by  the  same  editor.  The  best  biography  of  .Schupenhanfr  is  that  by  Gwinner ; 
second  and  much  enlarged  edition  in  1S7S.  Hoe  also  Frauenstadt  and  Lindner, 
Arthur  ^clioixnluiiter  ;  roji  iVini;  iiber  ihii  (1S63);  O.  Busch,  A.  Schopenhmur 
(1S7S) ;  K.  Peters,  Schoptnhaver  ah  Philosoph  (1S80),  and  li'illfnsjtxlt  nnd  IVelt- 
kWc  (1SS3) ;  anu  Koeber,  Scliopcnhaucrs  Erl  ■siiit^ildirc  (ISSl).  A  list  of  works 
on  Seiiopenliauer  is  given  by  Balan,  Schopi'  hauer-Lilcrtxtur  (ISSO).  See  also 
Pessimism.  (W.  W.) 

SCHROTER,  JoHANN  Hieeonymijs  (1745-1816), 
amateur  astronomer,  principally  known  by  his  physical 
observations  of  the  moon  and  planets  (see  Obsekvatoky, 
under  Lilienlhal). 

SCHUBERT,  Fkanz  Peter  (1797-1828),  composer  of 
vocal  and  instrumental  music,  was  born  at  Vienna  31st 
January  1797.  For  the  foundation  of  his  general  educa- 
tion he  was  indebted  to  his  father,  a  schoolmaster  in  the 
Leopoldstadt ;  but  the  beauty  of  his  voice  attracted  so 
much  attention  that  in  180S  he  was  received  into  the 
choir  of  the  imperial  chapel,  and  diu'ing  the  five  years 
which  followed  he  was  taught  to  sing  and  to  play  the 
violin  in  the  choristers'  school  called  the  "  Convict." 
No  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  to  teach  him  com- 
position, but,  through  the  kind  intervention  of  an  older 
chorister,  he  was  sujjplied  with  music-paper,  and  thence- 
forward he  wrote  incessantly,  as  his  fancy  dictated,  with- 
out any  help  wlratever,  always  carefully  signing  and  dating 
his  MSS.,  which  extend  back  as  fai-  as  1810.  Wlien  his 
voice  broke  in  1813  Schubert  left  the  "Convict,"  and, 
to  avoid  the  conscription,  taught  for  three  years  in  his 
father's  school.  This,  however,  in  nowise  damped  his  zeal 
for  composition.  Even  at  this  early  period  his  invention 
was  inexhaustible  and  the  rapidity  of  his  pen  almost  in- 
credible. In  1815  he  composed  2  symphonies,  5  operas, 
and  no  less  than  137  songs  (67  of  which  have  been  pub- 
lished), besides  a  multitude  of  other  important  piece|. 
Yet  so  little  was  his  genius  appreciated  that  when  in  1816 
ke  applied  for  an  appointment  at  a  Government  music 
school,  with  a  salary  equal  to  about  twenty  guineas  a  year, 
he  was  rejected  afe  "imperfectly  qualified." 

In  1818  Count  Johann  Eszterhazy  secm-ed  the  services 
of  Schubert  as  resident  teacher  of  music  to  his  daughters, 
for  one  of  whom  the  young  composer  has  been  supposed 
— on  very  insufficient  authority — to  have  entertained  a 
romantic,  and  of  course  utterly  hopeless,  affection.  The 
appointment  w;B  of  great  importance  to  him,  for  he  was 
poor,  almost  to  starvation ;  yet  it  led  to  no  permanent 
improvement  in  his  prospects  :  in  fact  his  life  was  one 
long  bitter  disappointment  from  beginning  to  end.  He 
.yrote  on,  year  after  year,  producing  music  of  indescribable 
beauty  in  such  enormous  quantities  that  but  for  the 
rated  ilSS.  we  should  refuse  to  believe  the  accounts 
transmitted  to  us  by  his  biographers.  He  wrote  because, 
.vhen  his  genius  inspired  him  with  an  idea,  he  could  not 
refrain.  Yet  he  scarcely  ever  looked  at  his  compositions 
after  they  were  finished,  and  very  rarely  heard  any  of  them 
performed.  Very  little  of  his  dramatic  music  was  given 
to  the  world.  Two  litt'e  operettas — Die  ZudlUngshriiihr 
and  Die  Zaiiherliarfe — barely  escaped  failure  in  1820;  and 
tlie  beautiful  incidental  music  to  Madame  von  Chezy's 
/?os!i»!!;rt<fesm"vived  but  two  representations  in  1823.  Of 
his  greater  operas  not  one  was  placed  upon  the  stage  dur- 
ing his  lifetime.  With  his  songs  he  was  more  fortunate. 
Many  of  them  were  published,  and  their  fresh  bright  melo- 
dies were  irresistible.  They  were  produced  by  hundreds, 
and  with  a  rapidity  bordering  upon  the  miraculous. 
Among  the  MSS.  seven  or  eight  may  be  found  dated  on 
the  same  day ;  yet  even  in  these  he  never  repeated  huu- 
8elf  :  every  one  was  the  result  of  a  new  inspiration,  com- 
mitted to  paper  at  the  moment  of  conception,  laid  aside 
immediately  aftenvards,  and  so  completely  forgotten  that 


ho  has  been  known  to  ask  who  was  the  composer  of  one  of 
his  own  Lieder  not  very  long  after  he  had  composed  it. 
And  this  wonderful  facility  of  production  led  to  no  un. 
worthy  form  of  treatment.  The  original  MS.  of  Hark, 
Hark,  tlie  Lurk  was  written  at  a  "beer-garden,"  on  the 
back  of  a  bill  of  fare,  the  moment  after  the  composer  had 
read  the  \yords  for  the  first  time ;  and  there  are  strong 
reasons  for  believing  that  Who  is  Syliia? — one  of  tlie 
most  perfectly  finished  songs  on  record — and  Come,  t/inu 
Monarch  of  tlie  Vine,  were  produced 'on  the  same  occasion. 
But  the  success  of  the  songs  did  not  make  Schubert  a 
prosperous  man.  All  his  life  long  he  suffered  from  grind- 
ing poverty.  Though  he  received  an  actual  commission 
to  write  his  greatest  dramatic  work,  Fierabras,  for  the 
court  theatre  at  Vienna,  it  was  rejected  in  1824  for  the 
weakness  of  its  lihretto.  Once,  and  once  only,  a  chance 
seemed  open  to  him.  He  was  accepted  in  1826  as  a  candi- 
date for  the  vacant  post  of  conductor  to  the  court  theatre, 
and  requested  to  compose  some  music  as  a  test  of  his 
powers.  At  the  rehearsal  the  part  he  had  designed  for 
the  prima  donna  w'as  found  too  trying  for  her  voice,  and 
he  was  requested  to  alter  it.  "  I  will  alter  nothing,"  said 
Schubert ;  and  his  refusal  to  listen  to  reason  cost  him  the 
coveted  appointment. 

Of  Schubert's  ten  symphonies  not  one  made  its  mark 
during  his  lifetime  ;  yet  the  stamp  of  genius  is  upon  these 
as  plainly  as  upon  his  songs.  It  is  true  that  in  works  of 
large  dimensions  genius  loses  half  its  power  if  unsupported 
by  learning  ;  and  Schubert  was  not  learned  enough  to  turn 
his  inspirations  to  the  best  account.  His  ideas  came  sc> 
quickly  that  the  knowledge  he  possessed  was  not  sufficienr, 
to  enable  him  to  arrange  them  in  that  perfect  order  which 
forms  the  chief  charm  of  the  symphonies  of  Mozart  and 
Beethoven.  And  the  same  element  of  weakness  is  dis- 
cernible in  his  sonatas  and  other  long  pieces  of  chamber 
music.  But  these  are  all  true  works  of  genius,  precious 
and  imperishable. 

It  was  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  under  his  hea\"y 
trials  Schubert's  health  failed  rapidly.  After  recovering 
from  more  than  one  serious  attack  of  illness,  he  was  seized 
with  a  sudden  access  of  delirium  while  at  supper  on  13th 
October  1828;  and  on  19th  November  he  died,  leaving 
behind  him  a  few  clothes  and  other  possessions,  which  were 
officially  valued  at  sixty -three  Vienna  florins  (  =  .£2,  10s.). 
His  grave  at  the  Ortsfriedhof,  bought  by  the  scanty  savings 
of  his  brother  Ferdinand,  lies  within  a  few  feet  of  that  of 
Beethoven. 

Schubert's  works,  now  (1886)  in  course  of  publication  in  a  com- 
plete series  by  Messrs  Breitkopf  &  Hiirtel  of  Lc;j-..ic,  include  18 
dramatic  pieces,  8  sacred  compositions,  10  symphonies,  21  piano- 
forte sonatas,  a  vast  collection  of  songs,  of  which  457  ar**  already 
published,  and  a  multitude  of  other  works  which  are  too  numerous 
to  mention. 

SCHULTENS.  Three  Dutch  Orientalists  of  this  name 
have  an  honourable  place  among  the  scholars  of  the  18th 
century.  The  first  and  most  important,  Albert  Schultens 
(1686-1750),  was  born  at  Groningen  in  1686.  He  studied 
for  the  chm-ch  at  Groningen  and  Leyden,  applying  him- 
self specially  to  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  tongues.  His 
dissertation  on  The  Use  of  Arabic  in  the  Interpretation  of 
Scripture  (1706)  indicates  the  point  of  view  which  pre- 
vailed with  the  school  of  Arabists  of  which  he  n-as 
founder,  and  which  differentiates  his  aims  trom  those  of 
Reiske  {q.v.).  After  a  visit  to  Reland  in  Utrecht,  he 
returned  to  Groningen  (1708);  then,  having  taken  his 
degree  in  theology  (1709),  he  again  went  to  Leyden,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  MS.  collections  there 
till  in  1711  he  became  pastor  at  'W^assenaer.  Parochial 
work  was  little  to  his  taste,  and  in  1713  he  took  the 
Hebrew  chair  at  Franeker,  which  he  held  till  1729,  whe», 
he  was  transferred  to  Leyden  as  rector  of  the  collegixoK 


S  C  li  — S  G  M 


459 


Vteologicum,  or  seminary  for  poor  students.  From  1733 
till  his  death  (at  Leyden  on  26th  January  1750)  he  was 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Leyden.  Schultens  was 
the  chief  Arabic  teacher  of  his  time,  and  in  some  sense  a 
restorer  of  Arabic  studies,  but  he  differed  from  Reiske  and 
De  Sacy  in  mainly  regarding  Arabic  as  a  handmaid  to 
Hebrew.  His  chief  work  was  to  vindicate  the  value  of 
comparative  study  of  the  Semitic  tongues  against  those 
who,  like  (Jousset,  regarded  Hebrew  as  a  sacred  tongue 
with  which  comparative  philology  has  nothing  to  do.  Schul- 
tens, on  the  other  hand,  certainly  went  much  too  far  in  his 
appeab  to  Arabic  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  the  laws  of  comparative  Semitic  philology  were  not 
yet  known,  so  that  the  comparison  of  roots  was  often  guess- 
work, and  the  value  of  the  exegetical  tradition  in  Hebrew 
was  not  accurately  determined.  Hence  he  did  not  leave  so 
much  of  permanent  value  for  Hebrew  grammar  and  lexico- 
graphy as  might  have  been  expected  from  his  learning ;  but 
the  systematic  illustration  of  phrases  and  modes  of  thought 
from  Arabic  literature,  e.g.,  in  his  Liber  Jobi,  has  a  higher 
value,  which  has  been  too  much  overlooked  in  the  reaction 
against  the  extravagances  of  the  school  he  founded.^ 

.Albert's  son,  John  James  ScHnxTENS  (1716-1778), 
became  professor  at  Herbom  in  1742,  and  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  chair.  He  was  in  turn  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Henry  Axbeet  Schultens  (1749-1793),  a  man 
of  great  parts,  who,  however,  left  comparatively  liltle 
behind  him,  having  succumbed  to  excessive  work  while 
preparing  an  edition  of  Meidani,  of  which  only  a  part 
appeared  posthiimously  (1795). 

SCHULTZE,  Max  Johann  Siegmitnd  (1825-1874), 
German  microscopic  anatomist,  was  born  at  Freiburg  in 
Breisgau  (Baden)  on  25th  March  1825  He  studied  at 
Greifswald  and  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  extraordinary 
professor  at  Halle  in  1854  and  five  years  later  ordinary 
professor  of  anatomy  and  histology  at  Bonn.  He 
died  at  Bonn  16th  January  1874  His  contributions  to 
biology  were  numerous  and  varied.  He  founded  and 
edited  the.  important  Archiv  fur  mikrosJcopische  Anatomie, 
to  which  he  contributed  many  papers,  and  advanced  the 
subject  generally,  by  refining  on  its  technical  methods. 
He  also  contributed  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Protozoa  (see 
FoRAMlNiFEKA,  Protozqa).  He  will  be  longest  remem- 
bered, however,  by  his  reform  of  the  cell  theory.  Uniting 
DujardLn's  conception  of  animal  sarcode  with  Von  Mohl's 
of  vegetable  protoplasma,  he  pointed  out  clearly  their 
identity,  and  included  them  under  the  common  name  of 
protoplasm.  He  thus  reorga  nized  the  theory  as  established 
by  Schwann,  diminished  the  importance  of  the  cell-wall 
and  nucleus,  and  laid  down  the  modern  definition  of  the 
cell  as  "  a  nucleated  mass  of  protoplasm  with  or  without  a 
cell-wall "  (see  Peotoplasji  and  Schwann).  An  obituary 
notice  of  Schultze  is  given  in  Arch.  mikr.  Anat.,  1875. 

SCHUMACHER,  Heineich  Christian  (1780-1850), 
astronomer,  born  at  Bramstedt  in  Holstein,  3d  September 
1780,  was  director  of  the  Mannheim  observatory  from 
1813  to  1815,  and  then  became  professor  of  astronomy 
in  Copenhagen.  From  1817  he  directed  the  triangulation 
of  Holstein,  to  which  a  few  years  later  was  added  a  com- 
plete geodetic  survey  of  Denmark  ;  the  latter  was  left  in- 
complete by  Schumacher,  but  was  finished  after  his  death. 
For  the  sake  of  the  survey  an  observatory  was  established 
at  Altona  (see  Obseevatory)  and  Schumacher  resided 
there  permanently,  chiefly  occupied  with  the  publication 

.  '  A.Schultcn3'3chiefworksareOriyrnMZ/«i^«,'a'(2  voIs.,1724,173S), 
?cl  cd.,  1761,  with  the  De  d'feclibua  lingua  Ildrrmm  (Ist  cd.,  1731)  ; 
Com,  on  Job,  1737  ;  Cam.  on  Pronerba,  1748  ;  Hebrew  grammar  (Insli- 
tuliona),  1737  ;  Viiua  tt  rejia  via  Ilebraizandi,  1738  ;  ilonumenla 
ntustiora  Arahum  (1740 — extracts  from  Nowairi,  Maa'udi,  &c. ) ;  cd. 
of  Bcha-ed-rlin's  Life  of  Saladin ;  his  Opera  Minnra  (1769)  and  a 
•^Moqc  Diiscrtationum  (1772,  1775)  appcarwl  posthumously. 


of  Epkemerides  (11  parts,  1822-32)  and  of  the  journal 
Astronomische  Nachrichten,  of  which  he  lived  to  edit  thirty- 
one  volumea,  and  which  still  continues  to  be  the  principal 
astronomical  journal.  Schumacher  died  at  Altona  on  2£th 
December  1850. 

SCHUMANN,  EoBEKT  (1810-1856),  musical  critic  and 
composer,  was  born  at  Zwickau,  Saxony,  on  8th  June 
1810.  In  deference  to  his  mother's  wish,  he  made  a  pre- 
tence of  studying  for  the  law,  until  he  had  completed  his 
twentieth  year ;  but  in  reality  he  took  so  little  pains  to 
acquaint  himself  with  the  mysteries  of  jurisprudence  and 
so  much  to  master  the  technical  difficulties  of  the  piano- 
forte that  when  the  day  of  examination  drew  near  it  was 
evident  that  he  could  not  hope  to  pass  with  credit.  His 
mother  therefore  wisely  gave  up  her  cherished  project, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1830  permitted  him  to  settle  for  a 
time  in  Leipsic  that  he  might  receive  regular  instruction 
from  Friedrich  Wieck,  the  most  accomplished  and  success- 
ful teacher  of  the  pianoforte  then  living  in  North  Germany. 
Under  Wieck's  superintendence  Schumann  would  doubt- 
lessly have  become  a  pianist  of  the  highest  order  had  he 
not  endeavoured  to  strengthen  the  third  finger  of  his  right 
hand  by  some  mechanical  contrivance  the  secret  of  which 
he  never  clearly  explained.  But  the  process  failed  most 
signally,  and  the  hand  became  so  hopelessly  crippled  that 
the  young  artist  was  compelled  to  give  up  all  thought  of 
success  as  a  performer  and  to  devote  himself  thenceforward 
to  the  study  of  composition,  which  he  cultivated  diligently 
under  the  guidance  of  Heinrich  Dorn. 

This  change  of  purpose  led  him  to  direct  his  attention 
to  subjects  connected  with  the  higher  branches  of  art 
which  he  had  previously  very  much  neglected.  Moreover, 
it  gave  him  time  and  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
a  peculiar  talent  which  he  soon  succeeded  in  turning  to 
excellent  account, — the  talent  for  musical  criticism.  His 
first  essays  in  this'  direction  appeared  in  the  form  sf  con- 
tributions to  the  AUgemeine  musiJcalische  Zeitung ;  but  in 
1834  he  started  a  journal  of  his  own,  entitled  Dk  A'eue 
Zeitschrift  fiir  Musik,  and  to  this  from  time  to  time  he 
contributed  critiques  of  the  most  profound  character,  some- 
times openly  written  under  his  own  name,  sometimes 
ostensibly  emanating  from  an  imaginary  brotherhood  called 
the  Davidsbund,  the  members  of  which  were  living  men 
and  women,  Schumann's  most  intimate  friends,  though  the 
society  itself  existed  only  in  his  own  fertile  imagination; 
His  time  was  now  fully  occupied.  He  composed  with  in- 
exhaustible ardour,  and  by  the  exercise  of  his  extraordi- 
■  nary  critical  faculty  struck  out  for  himself  new  paths,  which 
he  fearlessly  trod  without  a  thought  of  the  reception  his 
works  were  likely  to  meet  with  from  the  public.  'The  habit 
of  passing  a  just  judgment  upon  the  works  of  others  led 
him  to  judge  his  own  productions  with  relentless  severity; 
and  it  may  be  safely  said  that  he  was  harder  upon  himself 
than  upon  any  capdidate  for  public  favour  whose  attempts 
ho  was  called  upon  to  criticize. 

Schumann's  first  great  orchestral  work  was  his  Symphony 
in  £\>,  produced  in  1841, — the  year  after  his  marriage  with 
Clara  Wieck,  now  so  wejl  known  to  the  world  as  Madame 
Clara  Schumann,  the  accomplished  pianisto,  to  whose  fault- 
less interpretation  of  her  husband's  works  wo  are  indebted 
for  our  fullest  appreciation  of  their  inherent  beauty. 
Another  symphony,  in  D  minor,  and  an  orchestral  over- 
ture, scherzo,  and  finale,  appeared  in  the  same  year ;  and 
from  this  time  forward  works  on  an  erpially  grand  scale 
appeared  in  rapid  succession,  culminating  with  his  first 
and  only  opera,  G'.noveva,  which,  though  completed  in  1848, 
was  not  produced  until  1850.  In  1843  Schumann  was 
appointed  professor  of  composition  in  Mendelssohn's  newly 
founded  conservatory  of  music  at  Leipsic.  Two  years  after 
i  Mendelssohn's  death  he  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  appoint- 


460 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


nent  of  director  of  the  Gewandhaus  concerts,  but  was 
rejected  in  favour  of  J.  Rietz.  In  1850  he  was  invited  to 
Diisseldorf  as  musical  director — a  post  in  whieh  Mendels- 
sohn had  greatly  distinguished  himself  many  years  pre- 
viously. Schumann  retained  this  until  1853,  when  his 
mental  powers  began  to  decline  rapidly  through  a  disease 
of  the  brain  from  which  he  had  long  suffered,  and  of 
which  he  died  at  Endenich,  near  Bonn,  29th  July  1856. 

Scliumaim'3  position  in  tho  history  of  German  music  is  vei-y 
important  and  marks  tho  last  stage  but  one  of  its  progress  towards 
its  present  condition.  His  style  was  very  advanced  and  strikingly 
original.  His  published  works  include  one  opera,  four  symphonies, 
five  overtures,  a  series  of  scenes  from  FauU,  and  other  choral  and 
orchestral  wurks  written  on  a  very  extensive  scale,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  songs,  pianoforte  pieces,  and  other  smaller  works  of  the 
mgnest  excellence  and  beauty, 

SCHWABE,  S.4jauEL  Heinkich  (1789-1875),  German 
amateur  astronomer,  was  born  on  25th  October  1789  at 
Dessau,  where  ho  died  on  11th  April  1875;  he  observed 
the  sun-spots  regularly  from  1826  and  pointed  out  (in 
1843)  the  periodicity  in  the  number  of  these  objects. 

SCHWALBACH,  or  LANGEUscHWALB.iCH,  a  favourite 
German  health  resort,  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse- 
Nassau,  is  pleasantly  situated  in  the  deep  valley  of  the 
Miinzenbach  near  its  junction  with  the  Aar,  lli  niles  north- 
west from  Wiesbaden,  with  which  it  has  regular  communi- 
cation by  diligence.  Besides  a  large  kursaal,  the  town 
has  four  churches,  a  synagogue,  a  real  school,  and  a  higher 
school  for  girls.  The  three  principal  springs,  which  are 
largely  impregnated  in  varying  proportions  with  iron  and 
carbonic  acid  (compare  Mineeal  Waters),  are  connected 
by  promenades.  The  permanent  population  of  the  to\vn 
was  2811  in  1880,  and  the  number  of  visitors  reaches 
about  5000  annually. 

About  4  J  miles  to  the  south  of  Schwalbach  is  Schlangen- 
BAD  (3G0  inhabitants),  the  thermal  springs  of  which  are 
efEcacions  in  nervous  complaints  and  attract  about  2000 
visitors  (chiefly  ladies)  every  year.  The  water  is  used 
externally  only. 

SCHWANN,  Theodoe  (1810-1882),  author  of  the  cell 
theory  in  physiology,  was  bom  at  Neuss  in  Rhenish  Prussia 
on  7th  December  1810.  His  father  was  a  man  of  great 
mechanical  talents ;  at  first  a  goldsmith,  he  afterwards 
founded  an  important  printing  establishment.  Schwann 
inherited  his  father's  mechanical  tastes,  and  the  leisure 
of  his  boyhood  was  largely  spent  in  constructing  little 
machines  of  aU  kinds.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  college 
in  Cologne  and  afterwards  at  Bonn,  whire  he  met  Johannes 
Miiller,  in  whose  physiological  experiments  he  soon  came 
to  assist.  He  next  went  to  Wiirzburg  to  continue  Ms 
medical  studies,  and  thence  to  Berlin  to  graduate  in  1834. 
Here'he  again  met  MUlIer,  who  had  been  meanwhile  trans- 
lated to  Berlin,  and  who  finally  persuaded  him  to  enter 
on  a  scientific  career  and  appointed  him  assistant  at  the 
anatomical  museum.  Schwann  in  1838  was  called  to  the 
chair  of  anatomy  at  the  Roman  Catholic  university  of 
Louvain,  where  he  remained  nine  years.  He  then  went 
as  professor  to  Li6ge,  where,  in  spite  of  brilliant  offers 
from  many  German  universities,  he  led  a  very  quiet  un- 
eventful life,  broken  only  by  the  international  commsmora- 
tion  of  the  fortieth  ansiversary  both  of  his  professoriate 
and  the  publication  of  his  magmini  optes,  till  his  death  on 
11th  January  1882.  He  was  of  a  peculiarly  gentle  and 
amiable  character  and  remained  a  devout  Catholic  through- 
out his  life. 

It  was  during  tho  four  years  spent  under  the  influence  of  JliiUer 
at  Berlin  that  all  Schwann's  really  valuable  work  was  done.  JIuUer 
was  at  this  time  preparing  his  great  book  on  physiology,  and 
Schwann  assisted  him  in  the  experimental  work  required.  His 
retention  being  thus  directed  to  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues, 
'  :sides  making  such  histological  discoveries  as  that  of  the  envelope 
cf  the  nerve-iibres  which  tiovr  bears  his  name,  he  initiated  those 
rcjcarches  in  oascular  contractility  since  so  elaborately  worked 


out  by  Du  Bois  RejTnond  and  others.  He  was  thus  the  first  o* 
MiiUer's  pupils  who  broke  with  the  traditional  vitalism  and  workea 
towards  a  physico-chemical  explanation  of  life.  Miiller  also  directed 
his  atteution  to  the  process  of  digestion,  which  Schwann  showed 
to  depend  essentially  on  the  presence  of  a  ferment  called  by  him 
pepsin,  thus  not  only  practically  bringing  tho  subject  up  to  its 
modern  state  but  preparing  for  the  subsequent  advances  in  medical 
treatment  made  by  Roberts.  Schwann  also  examined  the  question 
of  spontaneous  generation,  which  he  aided  igreatly  to  disprove,  and 
in  tne  course  of  his  experiments  discovered  the  organic  nature 
of  yeast.  His  theory  or  fermentation  was  bitterly  attacked  and 
ridiculed  by  Liebig,  but  has  been,  after  the  lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  triumphantly  confirmed.  In  fact  the  whole  germ  theory 
of  Pasteur,  as  well  as  the  antiseptic  application  of  Lister,  is  thus 
traceable  to  the  influence  of  Schwann.  Once  when  dining  with 
Schleiden,  in  1837,  the  conversation  turned  on  the  nuclei  of  vege- 
table cells.  Schwann  remembered  having  seen  similar  structures 
in  the  cells  of  the  notochord  (as  had  been  shown  by  Miiller)  and 
instantly  seized  the  importance  of  connecting  the  two  phenomena. 
The  resemblance  was  confirmed  without  delay  by  both  observers, 
aud  the  results  soon  appeared  in  the  famous  Microscopic  Invatiga- 
ticms  on  the  Accordaiice  in  the  Structure  and  Growth  of  I'!anti  and 
Animals  (Berlin,  1S39  ;  trans,  Sydenham  Society,  1347),  ant\  the 
cell  theory  (see  Morphology)  was  th\is  definitely  constituted.  In 
the  course  of  his  verifications  of  the  cell  theory,  in  whi^h  he  traversed 
the  whole  field  of  histology,  he  proved  the  cellular  origin  and  dtv 
velopmeut  of  the  most  highly  difierentiated  tissues,  nails,  feathers, 
enamels,  &c.  Although  mistaken  in  his  view  of  the  origin  of  new 
cells,  his  generalization  at  once  became  the  foundation  of  all  modem 
histology,  and  in  the  hands  of  Virchow  (whose  cellular  pathology 
is  an  inevitable  deduction  from  Schwann)  has  afforded  the  means 
of  placing  modern  pathology  on  a  truly  scientific  basis. 

An  excelleLt  aceoun't  of  Schwann's  life  aiid  work  is  that  by  Leon  Fr^d^cq 
(Licce,  1SS4). 

SCHWANTHALER,  Lctiwig  Michael  (1802-1848), 
German  sculpAor,  was  bom  in  Munich  on  20th  August 
1802.  His  family  had  been  known  in  TjtoI  by  its  sculptors 
for  three  centuries ;  young  Ludwig  received  his  earliest 
lessons  from  his  father,  and  the  father  had  been  instructed 
by  the  grandfather.  The  last  to  bear  the  name  was  Xaver, 
who  worked  in  his  cousin  Ludwig's  studio  and  survived 
till  1854.  For  successive  generations  the  family  lived  by 
the  carving  of  busts  and  sepulchral  monuments,  and  froni 
the  condition  of  mechanics  rose  to  that  of  artists. 

From  the  Mimich  gymnasium  Schwanthaler  passed  aa 
a  student  to  the  Munich  academy ;  at  first  he  purposed 
to  be  a  painter,  but  afterwards  reverted  to  the  plastic  arts 
of  his  ancestors.  His  talents  received  timely  encouraga- 
ment  by  a  commission'  for  an  elaborate  silver  service  for 
the  king's  table.  Cornelius  also  befriended  him ;  the 
great  painter  was  occupied  on  designs  for  the  decoration 
in  fresco  of  the  newly  erected  Glyptothek,  and  at  his 
suggestion  Schwanthaler  was  employed  on  the  sculpture 
within  the  halls.  Thus  arose  between  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture  that  union  and  mutual  support  which 
characterized  the  revival  of  the  arts  in  Bavaria,  Schwan- 
thaler in  1826  went  to  Italy  as  a  pensioner  of  King  Louis, 
and  on  a  second  visit  in  1832  Thorwaldsen  gave  him 
kindly  help.  His  skill  was  so  developed  that  on  his  return 
he  was  able  to  meet  the  extraordinary  demand  for  sculp- 
ture consequent  on  King  Louis's  passion  for  building 
new  palaces,  churches,  galleries,  and  museums,  and  he 
became  the  fellow-worker  of  the  architects  Klenze,  Gartner, 
and  Ohhniiller,  and  of  the  painters  Cornelius,  Schnorr, 
and  Hess,  Owing  to  the  magnitude  and  multitude  of  the 
plastic  products  they  turned  out,  over-pressure  and  haste 
in  design  and  workmanship  brought  down  the  quality  of 
the  art.  The  works  of  Schwanthaler  in  Munich  are  so 
many  and  miscellaneous  that  they  can  only  be  briefly  indi- 
cated. The  new  palace  is  peopled  with  his  statues  :  the 
throne-room  has  twelve  imposing  gilt  bronze  figures  10  feet 
high ;  the  same  palace  is  also  enriched  with  a  frieze  and 
•with  sundry  other  decorations  modelled  and  painted  from 
his  drawings.  The  sculptor,  like  his  contemporary  painters,, 
received  help  from  trained  pupils.  The  same  prolific  artist 
also  furnished  the  old  Pinakothek  with  twenty-five  marbles, 
commemorative  of  as  many .  great  oainters :  likewise  ha 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


461 


supplied  a  composition  for  the  pediment  of  the  exhibition 
bnilding  facing  the  Glyptothek,  and  executed  sundry 
figures  for  the  public  library  and  the  hall  of  the  marshals. 
Bacred  art  lay  outside  his  ordinary  routine,  yet  in  the 
churches  of  St  Ludwig  and  St  MariahiLf  he  gave  proof  of 
the  widest  versatility.  The  Ruhmeshalle  afforded  further 
gauge  of  unexampled  power  of  production ;  here  alone  is 
work  which,  if  adequately  studied,  might  have  occupied  a 
lifetime;  ninety-two  metopes,  and,  conspicuously,  the  giant 
figure  of  Bavaria,  60  feet  high,  rank  among  the  boldest 
feats  of  physical  force.  A  short  life  of  forty-six  years 
did  not  permit  serious  undertakings  beyond  the  Bavarian 
capital,  yet  time  was  fotmd  for  the  groups  within  the  north 
pediment  of  the  Walhalla,  Katisbon,  and  also  for  numerous 
portrait  statues,  including  those  of  Mozart,  Jean  Paul 
Eichter,  Groethe,  and  Shakespeare.  Schwanthaler  died  at 
Munich  in  1848,  and  left  by  wiU  to  the  Munich  academy 
all  his  models  and  studies,  which  now  form  the  Schwan- 
thaler Museum.  The  sculptor's  style  may  be  designated 
as  romantic-classic  or  modern-antique,  and  its  conventional 
ideal  stands  far  removed  from  the  schools  of  naturalism 
and  of  realism. 

SCHWARZ,  or  Sckwaktz,  CmiisTiAif  Friedsich 
(1726-1798),  Protestant  missionary  to  India,  was  born  on 
8th  October  1726  at  Sonnenburg,  in  the  electorate  of 
Brandenburg,  Prussia.  After  attending  Jie  grammar 
school  of  his  native  town  and  an  academy  at  Kiistrin,  he 
in  1746  entered  the  university  of  Halle.  Having  learned 
Tamil  to  assist  in  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  that  lan- 
guage, he  was  led  to  form  the  intention  of  becoming  a 
missionary  to  India.  He  received  ordination  at  Copen- 
hagen on  the  8th  August  1749,  and,  after  spending  some 
time  in  England  to  acquire  the  English  language,  embarked 
early  in  1750  for  India,  and  arrived  at  Trichinopoly  on 
the  30th  July.  Tranquebar  was  for  some  time  his  head- 
quarters, but  he  paid  frequent  visits  to  Tanjore  and  Tri- 
chinopoly, and  in  1 766  removed  to  the  latter  place.  Here 
be  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  garrison,  who  erected  a  church 
for  his  general  use.  In  1769  he  secured  the  friendship 
of  the  rajah  of  Tanjore,  who,  although  he  never  embraced 
Christianity,  afforded  him  every  countenance  in  his  mis- 
sionary labours.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  committed 
to  Schwarz  the  education  of  his  adopted  son  and  successor! 
In  1779  Schwarz  undertook,  at  the  request  of  the  lladras 
Government,  a  private  embassy  to  Hyder  Ali,  the  chief  of 
Mysore.  WTien  Hyder  invaded  the  Carnatic,  Schwarz 
was  allowed  to  pass  through  the  enemy's  encampment 
without  molestation.  After  twelve  years  in  Trichinopoly 
he  removed  to  Tanjore,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
hb  life.  He  died  on  13th  February  1798.  Schwarz's 
direct  success  in  making  converts~-3Xceeded  that  of  any 
other  Protestant  missionary  in  India,  in  addition  to  which 
he  succeeded  in  winning  the  esteem  of  Mohammedans  and 
Hindus.  The  rajah  of  Tanjore  erected  a  monument,  exe- 
cuted by  Flaxman,  in  the  mission  church,  in  Which  he  is 
represented  as  grasping  the  hand  of  the  dying  missionary 
and  receiving  his  benediction.  A  splendid  monument  to 
Schwarz  by  Bacon  was  placed  by  the  East  India  Company 
in  St  Mary's  church  at  Madras. 

See  Remains  of  Schwarz,  with  a  sketch  of  his  life,  1826  ; 
Memoirs  of  Life  and  Correspondence,  by  H.  N.  Pearson,  1834,  3d 
cd.  1839  ;  Life,  by  H.  N.  Pearson,  1855. 

SCHWAEZBURG-RUDOLSTADT,  a  small  Thuringian 
principality  and  an  indepenaent  member  of  the  German 
empire,  shares  with  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  the  posses- 
sions of  the  old  house  of  Schwarzburg,  consisting  of  the 
upper  barony  (Oberherrschaft)  in  Thuringia,  on  the  Gera, 
Ilm,  and  Saale,  and  the  lower  barony  (Unterherrschaft), 
an.  isolated  dbtrict  on  the  Wipper  and  Helbe,  about  2.1 
'lailes  to  the  north,  surrounded  by  the  Prussian  province 


of  Saxony.  See  plate  V.  As  the  dignity  oi  pnnce  is 
held  in  virtue  of  the  Oberherrschaft  alone,  a  share  of  both 
baronies  was  given  to  each  sub-line  of  the  main  house.  The 
total  area  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  is  363  square  miles, 
of  which  283  are  in  the  upper  and  80  in  the  lower  barony  ; 
the  chief  towns  in  the  former  dis'rict  are  Kudolstadt  (8747 
inhabitants),  the  capital,  and  Blankenburg  (1889),  and  in 
the  latter  Frankenhausen  (4985).  Both  baronies  are  hilly, 
but  no  great  height  is  anywhere  attained.  The  scenery  of 
the  Thuringian  portion  of  Schwarzbtirg-Rudolstadt  att-  acts 
many  visitors  annually,  the  most  beautiful  spots  being  the 
gorge  of  the  Schwarza  and  the  lovely  circular  valley  ir 
which  the  village  of  Schwarzburg  nestles  at  the  foot  of  a 
curiously  isolated  hill,  crowned  by  the  ancient  castle  of  the 
princely  line.  Cattle-rearing  and  fruit-growing  flourish  in 
the  lower  barony,  while  the  upper  barony  is  finely  wooded. 
Of  the  whole  country  44  per  cent,  is  under  forest  (mainly 
coniferous  trees),  and  41  per  cent,  is  devoted  to  agricul- 
ture. The  chief  grain  crops  are  rye,  oats,  and  barley,  but 
in  1883  thrice  as  much  ground  was  occupied  by  potatoes 
as  by  all  these  three  tosether.  The  live-stock  returns  in 
1883  showed  19,83'  cattle,  39,024  sheep,  19,544  pigs, 
14,420  goats,  and  2813  horses.  Agriculture  and  forestry 
support  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  mining 
and  cognate  industries  about  10  per  cent.  Trade  and 
manufactures  are  insignificant ;  iron,  lignite,  cobalt,  alum, 
and  vitriol  are  among  the  mineral  productions.  In  1880 
the  population  was  80,296  (an  increase  of  1779  since  1875), 
or  about  221  to  the  square  mile.  Of  these  79,832  were 
Protestants. 

Schv.'arzburg-Rudolstadt  is  a  limited  hereditary  sovereignty,  its 
constitution  resting  on  laws  of  1854  and  1870,  though  a  diet  has 
met  at  intervals  since  1816.  The  present  diet  consists  of  sixteen 
members  elected  for  six  years,  four  chosen  by  the  highest  taxpayers, 
the  othfers  by  general  election.  The  diet  must  be  summoned  every 
three  years.  The  budget  for  1885-87  estimated  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure each  at  £101,210  ;  £57,670  was  the  estimated  income 
from  the  public  lands  and  forests.  The  public  debt  was  £230,350. 
The  troops  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  have  been  incorporated  with 
the  Prussian  army  since  the  convention  of  1867.  The  principality 
has  one  vote  in  the  Reichstag  and  one  in  the  federal  council. 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  is  the  cadet  branch  of  the  family.  In 
1710  the  count  was  made  a  prince,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  although  he  was  prevented  from  taking  his 
scat  in  the  imperial  college  untU  1754.  The  principality  eatcred 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1807  and  the  German  League  ia 
1815.  In  1819  it  redeemed  the  Prussian  claims  of  superiority  by 
surrendering  portions  of  its  territory. 

SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN,  a  small  Thur- 
ingian principality  and  an  independent  member  of  the 
German  empire,  shares  the  old  Schwarzburg  lands  with 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  as  explained  in  the  preceding 
article.  Its  total  area  is  333  square  miles,  of  which  133 
are  in  the  upper  and  200  in  the  lower  b?rony.  The  chief 
to-OTis  are  Arnstadt  (10,516  inhabitants),  which  at  one 
time  gave  name  to  a  line  of  counts,  in  the  latter  district, 
and  Sondershausen  (6110),  the  capital,  in  the  former.  The 
general  description  of  the  nature  and  resources  of  Schwarz- 
burg-Rudolstadt applies  also  to  this  principality,  excej)t 
that  58  per  cent,  of  the  whole  is  devoted. to  agriculture 
and  30  per  cent,  to  forests,  only  about  two-fifths  of  which 
are  coniferous  trees.  The  chief  crops  are  cats,  barley, 
wheat,  and  rye  ;  but  here  also  by  fai'  the  most  land  is  planted 
with  potatoes.  In  1883  the  principality  contained  2I,20r) 
cattle,  54,276  sheep,  22,884  pi^'s,  11,372  goats,  and  4283 
horses.  About  39  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  sui> 
ported  by  agricvilture  and  forestry,  and  about  5  per  cent, 
by  mining.  In  1830  the  population  was  71,107  (an  increa-se 
of  3627  since  1875),  or  about  213  to  the  square  mile.  Of 
these  70,450  were  Protestants. 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  is  a  limited  hereditary  sovereignty, 
its  constitution  resting  on  a  law  of  1857.  The  diet  consists  of  five 
representatives  elected  by  the-  highest  taxpayers,  five  by  general 
election,  and  not  more  than  five  nominated  for  lifo  by  the  prince. 


462 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


Tho  first  ten  members  are  elected  for  four  years,  which  is  also  the 
financial  period.  There  ia  a  ministry  with  five  departments — for 
tho  prince's  household,  domestic  iilfaira,  finance,  churches  and 
schools,  and  justice.  The  hndget  for  c.ich  year  in  tho  period 
188J-S7  estimated  tho  income  at  £112,475  and  tho  expenditure  at 
£1000  less.  The  public  debt  in  1885  was  £199,625.  The  troops 
of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  have  been  incorporated  with  the 
Prussian  army  by  convention  since  1867.  The  principality  has 
one  vote  in  the  Keichsta?  and  one  in  tho  federal  council. 

The  house  of  Sclnvarzburg  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  noblest  in 
Germany  ;  and  tradition  traces  its  descent  from  Witikind  and  tho 
kinr;3  of  the  Franks.  Its  historical  ancestors  were  the  counts  of 
Kafcrnburg,  from  whom  the  counts  of  Schwar.'^burg  sprang  about* 
tlic  beginning  of  the  13tli  century.  Tlio  name  Gunther  Decame 
the  distinctive  name  for  the  members  of  this  house  (corresponding 
to  Hcinrich  in  the  Reuss  family),  the  various  Gunthers  being  at 
first  distinguished  by  numbers  and  afterwards  by  preti.xed  names. 
Vanous  subdivisions  and  collateral  lines  were  formed,  but  by  1599 
all  \vero  extinct  but  the  present  two.  Count  Giinthcr  XL.,  who 
died  in  1552,  was  tho  last  common  ancestor  of  both  lines.  Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen is  the  senior  line,  although  its  possessions  are 
the  smaller.  In  1697  the  count  was  raised  to  tne  dignity  of 
imperial  prince  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  Tho  prince  had  to  pay 
7000  thalers  to  the  elector  of  Saxony  and  3500  to  the  duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  numerous  disputes  arose  in  connexion  with  the 
superiorities  thus  indicated.  In  1807  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 
entered  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  became  a  sovereign 
etate.     In  1816  it  joined  the  German  League,  and  redeemed  with 

Fortions  of  its  territory  all  rights  of  superiority  claimed  by  Prussia, 
ts  domestic  government  has  gradually,  though  not  very  quickly, 
improved  since  that  time, — the  oppressive  game-laws  in  particular 
having  been  abolished.  A  treaty  of  mutual  succession  was  made 
between  the  two  families  in  1713. 

SCHWAEZENBERG,  KarlPhilipp,  rttiNCEOF  (1T7i- 
1820),  Austrian  field-marshal,  was  born  on  15tli  April  1771 
at  Vienna.  He  fought  in  1789  under  Lacy  with  distinc- 
tion against  the  Turks  and  became  major  in  1792.  In 
the  French  campaign  of  1793  he  held  command  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  advanced  guard  under  the  duke  of  Coburg, 
and  in  1794  his  impetuous  charge  at  the  head  of  a  cavalry 
regiment  greatly  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Cateau- 
Cambr^sis.  After  the  battle  of  Wiirzburg  in  September- 
1796  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  in 
1799  to  that  of  field-marshal  in  command  of  a  division. 
At  tho  defeat  of  Hohenlinden  in  1800  his  promptitude  and 
courage  saved  those  under  his  command  from  being  sur- 
rounded and  taken  prisoners.  In  the  war  of  1805  he 
held  command  of  a  division  vinder  General  Mack,  and 
when  Ulm  capitulated  to  Napoleon  in  October  he  cut  his 
way  through  tho  hostile  lines  with  some  cavalry  regiments. 
At  the  special  request  of  the  emperor  Ale.xander  he  under- 
took an  emba':..sy  to  St  Petersburg  in  1808,  but  two  days 
before  the  battle  of  Wagram  he  arrived  in  the  camp  and 
assumed  command  as  general  of  the  cavalry.  After  tho 
peace  of  Vienna  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  "negotiate  a  marriage 
between  Kapoleon  and  the  duchess  Maria  Louisa.  From 
this  time  he  secured  Napoleon's  special  confidence  and 
esteem,  and  at  his  request  took  command  of  the  Austrian 
au.xiliary  corps  in  the  Russian  campaign.  In  August  he 
received  the  command  of  the  seventh  or  Saxon  army  corps ; 
after  gaining  some  slight  advantages  over  the  Russians, 
he  was  compelled  to  retreat  before  superior  forces  to  the 
duchy  of  Warsaw,  --nhere,  according  to  instructions  from 
Napoleon,  he  remained  for  some  months  inactive  at  Pultusk. 
In  1813  he  was  ap])ointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied, 
forces,  and,  after  defeating  Napoleon  at  Leipsic  ia  October, 
carried  the  campaign  to  a  successful  issue  by  entering  Paris 
in  March  1814.  On  tho  conclusion  of  the  war  he  became 
president  of  the  Aulic  Council.  He  died  from  paralysis 
at  Leipsic  on  15th  October  1820. 

See  Prokesch-Osten,  Dcnkii;urdigl;cUcn  axt3  dem  Lchcn.  des  Feld- 
mnrschalVs  Filrsicn  Schwarzenberg,  Vienna.  1823  ;  Berger,  Das 
Fkrstcnhaus  Schicnrzinbcrg,  Vienna,  1806. 

SCHWEGLER,  Albert  (1819-1857),  historical,  philo- 
sophical, and  theological  wi-iter,  one  of  the  first  and  most 
distinguished  of  the  pupils  of  F.  C.  Baur  and  of  the  dei 
minores  of  the  Tubingen  school.     He  was  born  at  Slichel- 


bach  in  Wiirtemberg  on  10th  Febmary  1819,  the  son  of 
a  country  clergyman,  and  entered  the  university  of  Tiibin- 
gen  in  1836  as  a  student  of  theology,  though  with  a  pre- 
dominant liking  for  classical  philology.  Under  Baur^ 
influence  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ecclesiastical 
history,  and  his  first  work  was  Der  Montanismus  u.  die 
christliche  Kirche  des  2ten  Jahrhunderts  (1841),  in  which 
he  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  Montanism  was  much 
more  than  an  isolated  outbreak  of  eccentric  fanaticism  in 
the  early  church,  though  he  introduced  fresh  misconcep- 
tions by  connecting  it  with  Ebionitism  as  he  conceived 
the  latter.  This  work,  with  other  essays,  brought  Schwegler 
into  conflict  with  the  authorities  of  the  church,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  gave  up  theology  as  his  professional 
study  aud  cbo.so  that  of  philosophy.  In  1843  he  com- 
menced in  the  Tiibingen  university  the  career  of  a  teacher 
(privat-docent)  of.  philosophy  and  classical  philology,  and 
in  1848  was  made  extraordinary  professor  of  the  latter 
subject  and  soon  after  ordinary  professor  of  history.  His 
death  took  place  on  5th  January  1857. 

His  principal  theological  work  was  Das  nachapostojische  Zeitalter 
(2  vols.,  1846).  It  was  this  book' which  first  put  before  the  world, 
with  Schwegler's  characteristic  boldness  and  clearness,  the  results 
of  ttie  critical  laboure  of  the  earlier  Tubingen  school  in  relation  to 
tha  first  development  of  Christianity.  Carl  Schwarz  says  of  it, 
"  This  work — full  thvJiigh  it  was  of  youthful  exaggerations  and  pro- 
vocations, partisan  as  it  was*  in  its  line  of  argument,  untrue  and 
alistract  as  its  contrast  of  Paulinism  and  Petiinism  was,  and  arbi- 
trary as  was  its  use  of  those  party  names — produced  nevertheless  by 
its  masterly  literary  form  (which  reminds  us  of  Strauss),  and  by  its 
easy  handling  and  presentation  of  all  tlie  important  data,  a  power- 
ful impression,  and,  although  in  many  points  of  detail  it  is  out  of 
date,  it  may  still  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  '-standard  works  '  of  the 
school."  Schwegler  published  also  an  edition  of  the  Clementine 
Hoinilies  (1847),  and  of  Kusebius's  Ecclesiadical  History  (1852). 
In  the  department  of  philosophy  we  have  an  edition  of  the  Meta- 
physics of  Aristotle,  with  a  translation  and  commentary  (4  vols., 
1847-48),  the  well-knoivn  sketch  of  the  History  of  Philosophy 
(1848),  and  a  posthumous  GeschicJiie  der  Gricch.  Fhilosophie  (1859). 
In  history  he  commenced  a  Hbmische  Gc-sehichte  (vols.  i--iii.,  1853- 
58,  2d  ei,  1869),  which  he  brought  down  only  to  the  laws  o( 
Licinius. 

SCH  W  EIDNITZ,  a  manufactunng  and  trading  town 
of  Lower  Silesia  in  Prussia,  is  picturesquely  situated  on 
the  left  bank  'of  the  Weistritz,  28  miles  south-'O'est  of 
Breslau.  Well  built,  with  wide  streets,  the  to^vn  contains 
several  old  churches  (one  of  which  has  a  tower  338  feet 
high)  and  an  ancient  town-house  with  a  tower  130  feet 
high.  The  surrounding  country  is  fertile  and  highly 
cultivated,  and  the  large  quantities  of  flax  and  hemp  there 
raised  encourage  an  active  weaving  industry  in  the  town. 
Beetroot  for  sugar,  grain,  and  fruit  are  also  grown.  The 
manufacture  of  furniture,  leather  gloves,  machinery  and 
tools,  carriages,  nuts  and  sCJews,  needles,  and  other  hard- 
ware goods  is  carried  on.  The  beer  of  Schweidnitz  has 
long  been  famous  under  the  name  of  "  Schwarze  Schijps," 
and  in  the  16th  century  it  was  exported  as  far  as  Italy. 
Schweidnitz  is  the  chief  grain  market  of  the  district.  The 
population  in  1885  was  23,775  (an  increase  of  6  per  cent, 
since  1880);  in  1816  it  was  10;046. 

Schweidnitz,  dating  from  about  the  11th  century,  received  town 
rights  in  1250.  About  1278  it  became  the  capital  of  a  principality, 
with  an  area  of  935  square  miles,  which  belonged  to  Bohemia  from 
1353  till  1741,  when  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  Prussia.  The 
"  Polerei  of  Schweidnitz  "  is  the  name  given  to  the  riotous  revolt 
of  the  town,  in  1520-22,  against  a  royal  edict  depriving  it  of  the 
right  of  coining  its  own  money.  The  town  was  four  times  besieged 
and  taken  in  the  Seven  Years'  "War;  and  in  1807  it  was  captured 
by  the  French,  who  demolished  the  fortifications.  In  1816  new 
works  were  raised,  but  in  1864  they  were  converted  into  a  public 
park. 

SCHWEINFURT,  a  manufacturing  town  of  -Lower 
Franconia  in  Bavaria,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Main,  22  miles  north-east  of  Wiirzburg.  The  Renaissance 
town-house  in  the  spacious  market-place  dates  from  1570 -, 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


463 


it  contains  a  library  anrl  a  collection  of  antiquities.  St 
John's  church  is  a  Gothic  edifice  vnth  a  lofty  tower ;  St 
Salvator's  was  built  about  1720.  Schweinfurt  is  well 
furnished  with  benevolent  and  educational  institutions, 
including  a  gjinnasium  founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
The  Main  is  here  spanned  by  two  bridges.  The  chief 
manufacture  is  paint  ("Schweinfurt  green"  is  a  well-known 
brand  in  Germany),  introduced  in  1809  ;  but  beer,  sugar, 
machinery,  soapand  other  drysalteries,  straw-paper,  vinegar, 
<S:c.,  are  also  produced.  Cotton-spinning  and  bell-founding 
are  carried  on ;  and  the  Main  supplies  water-power  for 
numerous  saw,  flour,  and  other  mills.  Schweinfurt  carries 
on  an  active  trade  in  the  grain,  fruit,  and  wine  produced 
in  its  neighbourhood,  and  it  is  the  seat  of  an  important 
sheep  and  cattle  market.  Riickert  the  poet  (d.  1866)  was 
born  here  in  1788.  The  population  in  1880  was  12,601, 
of  whom  one-fourth  were  Roman  Catholics. 

Schweinfurt  is  mentioned  in  790,  and  in  the  10th  century  was 
the  seat  of  a  margrave.  It  fell  later  to  the  counts  of  Henneberg  ; 
but,  receiving  town  rights  in  the  13th  century,  it  maintained  its 
independence  as  a  free  imperial  city  with  few  interruptions  until 
1803,  when  it  passed  to  Bavaria.  Assigned  to  the  grand-duke  of 
Wurzburg  in  1810,  it  was  restored  to  Bavaria  in  1814.  In  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  occupied  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who 
erected  fortifications,  remains  of  which  are  still  extant. 

SCHWELM,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  in  Prussia,  is  sitKated 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  22  miles  east  of  Diisseldorf 
and  27  north-east  of  CoJogne.  Lying  close  to  the  Harkort 
iron  and  sulphur  mines,  within  the  populous  and  rich 
mineral  district  on  the  lower  Rhine,  it  carries  on  iron- 
founding,  wire-drawing,  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery 
of  various  kinds,  besides  an  active  trade  in  iron,  steel,  and 
brass  goods.  Scarcely  less  important  are  its  manufactures 
of  ribbons,  damask,  cord,  and  paper.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood are  chalybeate  springs,  resorted  to  by  invalids.  The 
population  in  1880  was  12,127,  one-fourth  of  whom  were 
Roman  Catholics.  Schwelm  is  said  to  have  existed  as 
early  as  1085,  though  it  did  not  receive  town-rights  untU 
1590. 

SCmVENKFELD,  Caspar  (1490-1561),  of  Ossing,  as 
Tie  called  himself  from  his  property  at  this  place  in  the 
principality  of  Liegnitz  in  Silesia,  one  of  the  first  and 
noblest  representatives  of  Protestant  mysticism  in  the  16th 
century,  was  born  in  1490.  He  was  of  noble  descent,  and 
acquired  at  Cologne  and  other  universities  an  education 
greatly  superior  to  that  possessed  by  most  noblemen  of  his 
time.  After  leaving  the  university  he  served  in  various 
minor  courts  of  Silesia,  finally  entering  the  service  of  the 
duke  of  Liegnitz,  over  whom  his  influence  was  great. 
Though  he  was  educated  as  a  strict  Catholic,  the  writings 
of  Tauler  and  Luther  produced  a  profound  impression  upon 
him,  so  that  in  1522  he  visited  AVittcnberg,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Carlstadt  and  Thomas  Miinzer,  spirits 
destined  to  be  more  congenial  to  him  than  Luther  himself. 
On  his  return  to  Liegnitz  he  joined  in  an  active  propaga- 
tion of  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  in  the  principality 
and  in  Silesia.  But  very  early  Schwenkfeld  uttered  warn- 
ings against  the  abuse  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith.  The  Protestant  controversy  as  to  the  Eucharist 
(1524)  revealed  his  disagreement  with  Luther  on  that 
critical  point.  He  sought  to  establish  a  via  media  between 
the  doctrines  of  Luther  and  Zwingli,  and  vainly  hoped  to 
obtain  for  it  Luther's  acceptance.  He  as  vainly  sought 
to  secure  Luther's  adoption  of  a  strict  rule  of  church  discip- 
line, after  the  manner  of  the  Moravian  Brethren.  Mean- 
while the  Anabaptists  obtained  a  footing  in  Silesia,  and 
suspicions  of  Schwenkfeld's  sympathy  with  them  were 
aroused.  Letters  and  writings  of  his  own  (1527-28) 
proved  him  to  hold  strongly  anti-Lutheran  heresies,  and 
both  Catholics  and  Lutherans  urged  the  duke  of  Liegnitz 
to  dismiss  him.    He  voluntarily  left  Liegnitz  in  1529,  and 


took  up  his  abodj  at  Strasburg  for  five  years  amongst  the 
numerous  Reformed  clergy  there.  In  1533,  in  an  important 
.synod,  he  defended  against  Bucer  the  principles  of  religions 
freedom  as  well  as  his  own  doctrine  and  life.  But  the 
heads  of  the  church  carried  the  day,  and,  in  consequence 
of  the  more  stringent  measures  adopted  against  dissenters, 
Schwenkfeld  left  Strasburg  for  a  time.  Wiile  residing  in 
various  cities  of  south  Germany  he  kept  up  a  wide  corre- 
spondence with  the  nobility  particularly,  and  in  Wiirtem- 
berg  propagated  his  views  personally  at  their  courts.  In 
1535  a  sort  of  compromise  was  brought  about  between 
himself  and  the  Reformers,  he  promising  not  to  disturb  the 
peace  of  the  church  and  they  not  to  treat  him  as  a  dis- 
turber. The  compromise  was  o'  only  short  duration.  His 
theology  took  a  mora  distinctly  heterodox  form,  and  tho 
publication  (1539)  of  a  book  in  proof  of  his  most  charac- 
teristic doctrine — the  deification  of  the  humanity  of  Christ 
— led  to  the  jctive  persecution  of  him  by  the  Lutherans  and 
his  expulsion  from  the  city  of  Ulm.  The  next  year  (1540) 
he  published  a  refutation  of  the  attacks  upon  his  doctrine 
with  a  more  elaborate  exfwsition  of  it,  under  the  title 
Grosse  Confession.  His  book  was  very  inconvenient  to  the 
Protestants,  as  it  served  to  emphasize  tlio  differences  be- 
tween the  Lutherans  and  Zwingiians  as  regarded  the  Eucha^ 
rist  at  a  moment  when  efi'orts  were  being  made  to  reconcile 
them.  An  anathema  was  accordingly  issued  from  Schnial- 
kald  against  Schwenkfeld  (together  with  Sebastian  Franck); 
his  books  were  placed  on  the  Protestant  "  index  "  ;  and  he 
himself  was  made  a  religious  outlaw.  From  that  time  he 
was  hunted  from  place  to  place,  though  his  wide  connexions 
with  the  nobility  and  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by 
numerous  followers  and  friends  provided  for  him  secure 
hiding-places  and  for  his  books  a  large  circulation.  An 
attempt  in  1543  to  approach  Luther  only  increased  the 
Reformer's  hostility  and  rendered  Schwenkfeld's  situation 
still  more  precarious.  He  and  his  followers  withdrew 
from  the  Lutheran  Church,  declined  its  sacraments,  and 
formed  small  societies  of  kindred  views.  He  and  they 
were  frequently  condemned  by  Protestant  ecclesiastical 
and  political  authorities,  especially  by  the  Government  of 
WUrtemberg.  His  personal  safety  was  thereby  more  and 
more  imperilled,  and  he  was  unable  to  stay  in  any  place 
for  more  than  a  short  time.  At  la.st,  in  his  teventy-second 
year,  he  died  at  Ulm,  on  10th  December  1561,  surrounded 
by  attached  friends  and  declaring  undiminished  faith  in  his 
views. 

Sch-venkfeld  left  behind  him  a  sect  (who  were  called  subscqneutly 
by  others  Schwenkfeldians,  but  who  called  themselves  "ConfcssorH 
of  the  Glory  of  Christ")  and  numerous  writings  to  perpetuate  his 
ideas.  His  writings  were  partially  collected  in  four  folio  volumes, 
the  first  of  wliich  was  published  in  the  year  1564,  containing  his 
principal  theological  works.  Erbkani  states  that  his  uiiprintcd 
writings  would  make  more  than  another  four  folios.  His  adherents 
were  to  be  found  at  his  death  scattered  throughout  Germany.  In 
Silesia  they  formed  a  distinct  sect,  which  has  lasted  until  our  own 
times.  In  the  17th  century  they  were  associated  with  tiie  followers 
of  Jacob  Bohme,  and  were  undisturbed  until  1703,  when  an  inquiry 
was  made  as  to  their  doctrines.  In  1720  a  commission  of  Jesuits 
was  despatched  to  Silesia  to  convert  them  by  force.  Most  of  them 
fled  from  Silesia  into  Sa.wny,  and  thence  to  Holland,  England,  and 
North  America.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  when  he  seized 
Silesia,  extended  his  protection  to  those  who  remained  in  that 
province.  Those  who  had  fled  to  Philadelphia  in  Pennsylvania 
formed  a  small  community  under  the  name  of  Schwenkfeldians; 
and  Zinzendorf  and  Sjiangenbcrg,  when  they  visited  the  United 
States,  endeavoured,  but  with  little  success,  to  convert  them  to 
their  views.  This  community  still  exists  in  Pcnsyjvania,  and 
according  to  information  obtained  from  their  ministeis  by  Robert 
Barclay  they  consisted  in  1875  of  two  congregations  of  5C0  members, 
with  three  meeting-houses  and  six  ministers.  Their  views  appear 
to  be  substantially  those  of  the  English  Society  of  Friends.  Seo 
Robert  Barclay's  /ii7i<r  Life  of  the  Rdigioua  Societica  of  the  Coni/- 
monwrallh,  London,  1876,  pp.  226-247. 

Schwenkfeld's  mysticism  was  the  cause  of  his  divergence  from 
Protestant  orthodoxy  and  the  root  of  his  peculiar  religious  an* 


464 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


ilogical  rosition.     It  led  him  to  oppose  the  Lutheran  \^cw  of 
value  ot  the  outward  means  of  grace,  such  as  the  ministr}'  of 


ttieoli 

tlie  value  of  the  outward  means  ot  grai 

tlie  word,  baptism,  the  Eucharist.  He  regarded  as  essential  a  direct 
and  immediate  participation  in  the  grace  of  the  glorified  Christ, 
and  looked  on  an  observance  of  the  facraments  and  religious  ordi- 
nances OS  immaterial.  He  distinguislied  between  an  outward  word 
of  God  aud  an  inward,  the  former  being  the  Scriptures  and  perish- 
able, the  latter  the  divine  spirit  and  eternaL  In  his  Christology  he 
departed  from  the  Lutheran  and  Zwiuglian  doctrine  of  the  two 
natures  by  insisting  on  what  he  called  the  Vergottung  des  Fleisches 
Chrisli,  the  deification  or  the  glorification  of  the  flesh  of  Christ. 
The  docta-ine  was  his  protest  against  a  separation  of  the  human 
and  the  divine  in  Christ,  and  was  iutimately  connected  with  his 
mystical  view  of  the  work  of  Christ.  He  held  tliat,  though  Christ 
was  God  and  man  from  His  birth  from  the  Virgin,  He  only  attained 
His  complete  deification  and  glorification  by  His  ascension,  and 
that  it  is  in  the  estate  of  His  celestial  Vcrgottung  or  glorification 
that  He  is  the  dispenser  of  His  divine  life  to  those  who  by  faith 
become  one  with  Him.  This  fellowship  with  the  glorified  Christ 
rather  than  a  less  spiritual  trust  in  His  death  and  atonement  Is  with 
him  the  essential  thing.  His  peculiar  Christology  was  based  upon 
profound  theological  and  anthropological  ideas,  which  contain  the 
germs  of  some  recent  theological  and  Christological  speculations. 

See  Amoldt,  Kirchen-  und  Ketzer-Bistorie  (Frankfort,  ed.  1700) ;  Salig,  Historie 
der  Augsburg.  Con/esaion  ;  Erbkam,  Gesch.  der  prot.  Sekten  (184S)  :  Corner,  Gesch. 
d.  prot.  Theol.  (1SC7);  also  Erbkam's  article  in  Ilerzog's  lUalnncyklopadie, 
Robert  Barclay's  work  quoted  above,  and  Beard's  Bibberi  Lectures  (1SS3). 

SCHWEREN,  the  capital  and  one  of  the  most  attractive 
cities  of  the  gi-and-duchy  of  Mecklenburg -Schwerin,  is 
prettily  situated  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  Lake  of 
Schwerin  (14  miles  long  and  3^  miles  broad),  1^0  miles 
north-west  of  Berlin.  The  town  is  closely  surrounded  and 
hemmed  in  by  a  number  of  lakelets,  with  high  and  in 
some  cases  well-wooded  banks;  and  the  hilly  en-vdrons 
are  occupied  by  meadows,  woods,  and  pretty  villas.  The 
old  and  new  towns  of  Schwerin  were  only  united  as  one 
city  in  1832;  and  since  that  date  the  suburb  of  St  Paul 
and  another  outer  suburb,  known  as  the  Vorstadt,  have 
grown  up.  Though  Schwerin  is  the  oldest  town  in 
Mecklenburg,  its  aspect  is  comparatively  modern, — a  fact 
due  to  destructive  fires,  which  have  swept  away  most  of 
the  ancient  houses.  The  most  conspicuous  of  the  many 
fine  buildings  is  the  ducal  palace,  a  huge  irregularly  penta- 
gonal structure  with  numerous  towers  (the  highest  236 
feet),  built  in  1844-57  in  the  French  Renaissance  style. 
It  stands  on  a  small  round  island  between  Castle  Lake 
and  the  Lake  of  Schwerin,  formerly  the  site  of  a  Wendish 
fortress  and  of  a  later  medi:eval  castle,  portions  of  which 
have  been  skilfidly  incorporated  with  the  present  building. 
The  older  and  much  simpler  palace ;  the  opera-house, 
rebuilt  after  a  fire  in  1882;  the  Government  buildings, 
erected  in  1825-34  and  restored  in  1865  after  a  fire;  and 
the  museum,  in  the  Greek  style,  finished  in  1882,  all  stand 
in  the  "  old  garden,"  an  open  space  at  tlie  end  of  the 
bridge  leading  to  the  new  palace.  Among  the  other 
secular  buildings  are  the  palace  of  the  heir-fipparent  (built 
in  1779  and  restored  in  1878),  the  large  arsenal,  the  ducal 
stables,  the  gymnasium,  the  town -house,  the  artillery- 
barracks,  the  military  hospital,  &c.  The  cathedral  was 
originally  consecrated  in  1248,  though  the  present  building 
—a  brick  structure  in  the  Baltic  Gothic  style,  v;ith  an 
unfinished  tower — dates  for  the  most  part  from  the  15th 
century.  Since  1837  Schwerin  has  been  once  more  the 
residence  of  the  grand-duke,  and  the  seat  of  government 
and  of  various  high  tribunals, — a  fact  which  has  had  con- 
siderable influencb  on  the  character  of  the  town  and  the 
tone  of  its  society.  Neither  the  manufacturing  industry 
nor  the  trade  of  Schwerin  is  important.  In  1885  the  popu- 
Jation  was  32,031 — including  about  700  Roman  Catholics 
and  400  Jews — an  increase  of  6'4  per  cent,  since  1880. 

Schwerin  is  mentioned  as  a  'Wendish  stronghold  in  1018,  its 
name  (Zwarin  or  Swarin)  being  a  Slavonic  wonl  equivalent  to  "game- 
preserve."  The  Obotrite  prince  Niclot,  whose  statue  is  placed  above 
the  portal  of  the  palace  as  the  ancestor  of  the  present  reigning 
family,  had  his  residence  here.  The  town,  founded  in  1161  by 
Hemy  the  Lim  ii;  ciipoi:  ion  to  tb'"  pagan  fortress,  received  to\vn. 


rights  in  11G7.  From  1170  to  1624  it  gave  name  to  a  bishoprie; 
and  it  was  also  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Schwerin,  which  forms 
the  western  part  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Mecklcnburg-Schwerin. 
Destructive  fires,  the  hardships  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the 
removal  of  the  court  to  Ludwigslust  in  17£)6  seriously  depressed 
the  town.  It  owes  its  revival  and  many  of  its  chief  buildings  to 
the  grand-duke  Paul  Frederick  (1837-42).  to  whom  a  statue  by  Ranch 
was  erected  in  1859. 

SCHWIND,  MoRiTZ  VON  (1804-1871),  a  painter  of  the 
romantic  school,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1804.  He  received 
rudimentary  training  and  led  a  joyous  careless  Ufa  in 
that  gay  capital ;  among  his  companions  was  the  musician 
Schubert,  whose  songs  he  illustrated.  In  1828  he  removed 
to  Munich,  and  had  the  advantage  of  the  friendship  of 
the  painter  Schnorr  and  the  guidance  of  Cornelius,  then 
director  of  the  academy.  In  1834  he  received  the  com- 
mission to  decorate  King  Louis's  new  palace  with  wall 
paintings  illustrative. of  the  poet  Tieck.  He  also  found  in 
the  same  palace  congenial  sport  for  his  fancy  in  a  "  Kinder- 
fries";  his  ready  hand  was  likewise  busy  on  almanacs,  &c., 
and  by  his  illustrations  to  Goethe  and  other  writers  he 
gained  applause  and  much  employment.  In  the  revival  of 
art  in  Germany  Schwind  held  as  his  own  the  sphere  of 
poetic  fancy.  To  him  was  entrusted  in  1839,  in  the  new 
Carlsruhe  academy,  the  embodiment  in  fresco  of  ideas 
throivn  out  by  Goethe ;  he  decorated  a  villa  at  Leipsic 
■jvith  the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  and  further  justified 
his  title  of  poet-painter  by  designs  from  the  Niehelungen- 
lied  and  Tasso's  Gerusalemme  for  the  walls  of  the  castle  of 
Hohenschwangau  in  Bavarian  Tyrol.  From  the  year  1844 
dates  his  residence  in  Frankfort ;  to  this  period  belong 
some  of  his  best  easel  pictiu'es,  pre-eminently  the  Singers' 
Contest  in  the  Wartburg  (1846),  also  designs  for  the 
Goethe  celebration,  likewise  numerous  book  illustrations. 
The  conceptions  for  the  most  part  are  better  than  the 
execution.  In  1847  Schwind  returned  to  Munich  on  being 
appointed  professor  in  the  academy.  Eight  years  later 
his  fame  was  at  its  height  on  the  completion  in  the  castle 
of  the  Wartburg  of  wall  pictures  illustrative  of  the  Singers' 
Contest  and  of  the  History  of  Elizabeth  of  Hungary.  The 
compositions  received  universal  praise,  and  at  a  grand 
musical  festival  to  their  honour  Schwind  himself  played 
among  the  violins.  '  In  1857  appeared  his  exceptionally 
mature  "  cyclus "  of  the  Seven  Ravens  from  Grimm's 
fairy  stories.  In  the  same  year  he  visited  England  to 
report  officially  to  King  Louis  on  the  Manchester  art 
treasures.  And  so  diversified  were  his  gifts  that  he  turned 
his  hand  to  church  ■svindows  and  joined  his  old  friend 
Schnorr  in  designs  for  the  painted  glass  in  Glasgow  cathe- 
dral. Towards  the  close  of  his  career,  with  broken  health 
and  powers  on  the  wane,  he  revisited  Vienna.  To  this 
time  belong  the  "cyclus"  from  the  legend  of  Melusineand 
the  designs  commemorative  of  chief  musicians  which  de- 
corate the  foyer  of  the  new  opera-house.  Cornelius  writes, 
"  You  have  here  translated  the  joyousness  of  music  into 
pictorial  art."  Sohwind's  genius  was  lyrical ;  he  drew 
inspiration  from  chivalry,  folk-lore,  and  the  songs  of  the 
people ;  his  art  was  decorative,  but  lacked  scholastic  train- 
ing and  technical  skill.  Schwind  died  at  Munich  in  1871, 
and  his  body  lies  in  the  old  Friedhof  of  the  same  town.  • 

SCHWYZ,  one  of  the-  forest  cantons  of  Stvitzerland, 
raiiking  fifth  in  the  confederation.  It  extends  from  the 
upper  end  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich  on  the  north  to  the  middle 
reach  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne  on  the  south  ;  on  the  west  it 
touches  at  Kussnacht  the  northern  arm  of  the  latter  lake, 
and  at  Arth  the  Lake  of  Zug,  while  on  the  east  it  stretches 
to  the  ridgPs  at.  the  head  of  the  Mupttathal,  which  dividei 
it  from  Glarus.  .  Its  .total  area  is  350'7square  miles,  or 
which  254'9  are  classed  as  "prodiictive  land"  (193'3  of 
this  being  pasture  or  arable  land)  and  95'8  as  "unpro- 
ductive  land"  (glaciers   and  lakes  occupying  21  souare 


S  C  I  — S  C  I 


465 


milesX  The  highest  point  is  the  Grieseltstock  or  Faulen 
(9200  feet) ;  the  sutr'nit  of  the  Rigi  (Rigi  Kulni)  is  also 
within  its  limits.  1 1  1880  the  population  (nearly  equaUy 
divided  between  the  two  sexes)  was  51,235,  an  increase 
of  3530  since  18' 0.  The  only  towns  of  any  size  are 
Einsiedela  (population,  8-tOl)  and  the  capital,  Sch^vJ•z 
(•3543).  German  is  the  riiother-tongue  of  49,631  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  there  is  an  Italian  colony  of  1377.  The 
Roman  Catholics  number  50,266,  the  Protestants  but 
954.  Till  1814  the  canton  formed  part  of  the  diocese  of 
Constance ;  since  that  time  it  Is  practically  (though  not 
formally)  included  in  that  of  Chur.  Besides  a  monastery 
of  Capuchin  friars  and  four  nunneries,  the  canton  boasts 
bf  the  gi"eat  Benedictine  abbey  of  Einsiedeln,  which  grew 
up  round  the  cell  of  the  hermit  St-  Meinrad  (d.  863) ;  it 
received  its  first  charter  in  946  from  Otho  I„  and  contains 
a  black  statue  of  the  Virgin,  which  attracts  about  150,000 
pilgrims  annually.  In  Sch'\"(yz  primary  education  is  free 
and  compulsory,  the  state  also  giving  grants  in  aid  of 
secondary  instruction.  The  population  are  mainlji  engaged 
in  i>a3toral  occupations,  the  chief  article  of  export  (largely 
to  north  Italy)  being  a  special  breed  of  cattle,  which  enjoys 
a  very  high  reputation  in  the  confederation.  -  The  only 
railways  in  the  canton  are  the  portion  of  tlie  St  Gotthard 
line  between  Kiissnacht,  Immensee,  and  Sisikon,  and  the 
line  from  Arth  to  the  summit  of  the  Rigi. 

The  valley  of  Schwyz  fii-st  appears  in  liistory  iu  970.  Later  a 
community  of  free  men  is  found  settled  at  the  foot  of  the  Mythen, 
possessing  common  lands  and  subject  only  to  the  count  of  the  Zurich 
gaic,  as  the  rc^eseatative  of  the  emperor  ;  from  the  Hapslnir^is 
Steinen  in  1269  and  Arth  (completely)  in  1354  bought  their  free- 
dom and  became  p*rt  of  the  free  community  of  Schwyz.  The  early 
liistory  of  Schwyz  consists  mainly  of  struggles  witli  the  abbey  of 
Einsiedeln  about  lights  of  pasture.  In  1240  the  inhabitants 
obtained  from  Fredenck  11.  the  **  Reichsfreiheit,"  i.e.,  dij'ect  depend- 
ence on  the  emperor,  being  thus  freed  from  the  Hapsburg  counts 
if  the  Zurich  gau.  In  1273  the  younger  branch  of  the  house  of 
ifapsburg  sold  all  its  property  and  rights  in  the  valley  to  the  elder 
branch,  which  a  fe^s■  months  later  obtained  the  empire,  and  in  April 
1 291  bought  the  rights  of  the  Alsatian  abbey  of  ilurbach  over 
lucerne.  Schwyz  took  tlie  lead  in  making  the  famous  league  of 
lit  -lugust  1291  with  the  ueiglrbouring  districts  of  Uri  and  Unter- 
v.alden,  for  which  its  position  and  the  free  spirit  of  its  inhabitants 
ipcciaUy  fitted  it.  Au  attack  by  Schwyz  on  Einsiedeln  was  the 
excuse  for  tlic  Austrian  invasion  which  on  15th  November  1315  was 
gloriously  beaten  ba<'k  in  ilorgarten  Pass.  In  the  history  of  the 
Kague  Schwyz  was  always  to  the  front,  so  that  its  name  in  a  dialectal 
f-*rm  (Schweiz)  was  applied  by  foreigners  from  tho  14th  century 
onwards  to-'the  league  a3  a  whole,  though  it  foi-med  part  of  its  formal 
style  only  from  1S03.  Soon  after  the  victory  of  Sempach  (1386) 
thq  men  of  Schwyz  l>cgau  to  extend  their  borders.  In  1394  they 
a':quired  the  town  of  Kinsie*leln  (becoming  in  1397,  and  finally  in 
l'?34,  the  "protectors"  ol  the  gi-eat  abbey)  and  in  1402  Kiissnacht, 
while  in  1412-37  they  won  the  "  JIarch,"  and  in  1440  Wollerau  and 
pfiiffikon, — all  on  or  near  tho  Lake  of  Zurich.  All  these  districts 
were  governed  by  .S<:hwyz  as  subjects,  not  as  equals  or  allies,  supreme 
power  resting  with  the  "  Lajidsgeracinilo  "  (or  asseniljly  of  all  citizens 
of  full  age)  of  Schwyz,  which  is  first,  mentioned  in  1294.  .Schwyz. 
.joined  the  other  forest  cantons  in  opposing  the  Reformation,  and 
took  p.ait  in  tho  battle  of  Cappel  (1531),  in  which  Zwingli  fell.  In 
1  j36  It  bocame  a  member  of  the  Golden  or  Bonomcan  League,  formed 
to  continue  the  work  of  Charles  liorronieo  in  carrying  out  the 
counter-Reformation.  In  1798  Schwyz,  including  Gcrs.iu  (free  since 
1390),  formed  part  of  the  "Tell  gau"  or  "  Rcpubliquo  Tclliane," 
.^et  up  by  the  French,  which  a  week  later  gave  way  to  tlio  "  Helvetic 
republic,"  thougli  the  free  men  offered  a  valiant  resistance  under 
Aloys  Reding.  In  1799  it  was  tho  scone  of  the  disastrous  retreat 
from  Altdorf  to  Glarua  made  over  tho  Kiiizigkulm  and  Pragel 
Hatses  by  the  Rus-sians  nnjcr  SuwarofT  in  face  of  tlie  French  army. 
•Hchwyz  ateadily  resisted  all  proposals  for  the  revi-'^iu  ■  of  the 
federal  constitution  of  1815,  jomcd  tho  league  of  Sanu'U  in  1832, 
and,  when  religious  disputes  had  further  eoinplicatcd  matters,  the 
"Sonderbund"  (1843  and  1345),  which  was  only  jiut  down  by  the 
war  of  November  1847.  The  constitution  of  1848  was  revised  iu 
1855, 1876  (when  membership  of  one  of  the  twenty-nine  "Gemeindo  " 
or  communes  became  the  political  qualification),  and  1884. 

SCIACCA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Oirgenti, 
Sicily,  28  mile-s  southeast  of  Castelvetrano  (Selinua)  and 
37  north-we.st  of  Oirgenti,  lies  on  the  south  coast  on  a  steep 
21  — is 


rocky  decline,  and  With  its  walls  and  castles  has  from  a 
distance  an  imposing  appearance.  The  cathedral  was 
founded  in  1090  by  Julia  de  Hauteville,  daughter  of  Roger 
I.,  who  had  presented  her  with  the  lordship  of  Sciacca  on 
her  marriage  with  Perollo ;  and  two  other  chm-ches,  S. 
Salvadore  and  S.  Maria  delle  Giummare,  date  from  the 
same  period.  In  the  clLflFs  are  excavated  granaries  in  which 
imder  the  Spanish  viceroys  tho  grain  used  to  be  stored 
under  .Government  control.  To  the  east  of  the  tov>n,  at 
the  foot  of  Monte  S.  Calogero,  are  the  hot  wells  (s»ilphur- 
ous  and  saline)  of  Sciacca ;  and  the  steam  that  breaks 
forth  from  the  top  of  tho  hill  seems  to  have  been  used  (as 
it  still  is)  for  vapour  baths  from  a  remote  (possibly 
Phcenician)  period.  The  population  was  21,451  (22,195 
including  Marina)  in  1881. 

Sciacca  was  the  birthplace  of  Tommaso  Fazello  (1493-1570),  the 
historian  of  Sicily.  In  the  15th  century  it  wan  the  scene  of  a  ter- 
rible feud  between  the  PeroUos  Cloixls  f.f  Sci.icca)  ajiA  the  counts 
of  Luna: 

SCIATICA,     oee  JNEtrRALCiA,  vol.  xvu.  p.  36*. 

SCILLY  ISLES,  a  group  of  islands,  about  forty  in 
number,  in  the  county  of  Cornwall  (see  vol.  vi.  plate  IX.), 
England,  are  situated  about  25  miles  west  by  south  of 
Land's  End  and  40  west  from  Lizard  Point,  in  50°  N.  !at. 
u.:d  6°  W.  long.  They  arc  composed  wholly  of  granite, — 
outlieio  of  the  granite  highlands  of  Cornwall.  There  are 
some  metaiIi''erous  veins  or  lodes,  but  none  that  could  ever 
have  yielded  much  iron.  On  account  of  the  mild  climate 
the  vegetation  is  remarkably  luxuriant.  The  mean  average 
temperature  in  winter  is  about  45°  and  in  summer  about 
58°.  Fuchsias,  geraniums,  and  myrtles  attain  an  immense 
size,  and  aloes,  cactus,  and  the  prickly  pear  grow  in  the 
open  air.  The  inliabitants  devote  their  attention  principally 
to  the  cultivation  of  e3,rly  potatoes  for  the  London  market. 
Aisparagus  and  other  early  vegetables,  as  well  as  flowers, 
are  also  largely  cultivated.  Lobsters  are  caught  and  sent 
to  London,  but  tlie  fishing  industry  is  of  comparativelv 
minor  importance. 

The  total  area  of  the  islands  is  3560  acres,  with  a  population  in 
1871  of  2090,  and  in  1881  of  2320,  including  276  person.s  on  boanl 
vessels.  The  inhabit-;!  islands  are  St  JIary's  (area  about  1500 
acres),  Tresco  (700),  St  JIartin's  (550 1,  St  Agnes  (350),  and  Biyber 
(300).  The  principal  town,  Hugh  Town  in  St  Mary's,  occupies  a 
sandy  peninsula  crowi^  d  by  the  height  called  the  GaiTison,  with 
Star  Castle,  erected  in  \  i  time  of  Elizabeth.  It  possesses  a  harbour 
aud  pier  with  a  roadstea  laffording  anchorage  for  large  vessels.  Tlie 
coaat-Iine  is  wild  and  pvfuresque,  with  precipitous  headlands  and 
many  extensive  caves.  (,.^n  Tresco  there  are  remains  of  au  abbey; 
and  St  Agnes  has  a  lighl^j'^use  72  feet  in  height  On  the  islands 
there  are  numerous  rude  J.J  lars  and  circles  of  stones',  similar  to  thoso 
iu  Coruwall.  \i 

The  SciUy  Lsles  are  proyibly  the  Cassitcridcs  or  "Tin  Islands" 
of  the  Greeks  (see  vol.  xvi  ,v  p.  806).  The  islands  were  granted  iir 
936  by  Athelstau  to  the  ^  lonks  settled  at  Tresco,  b\it  on  tho 
endowment  of  the  abbey  <  .'-Tavistock  the  greater  portion  of  them 
were  included  amongst  its  ,  oses-sions.  In  the  reign  of  Eliz.ibcth 
they  were  divided  amongst  (^  vcral  proprietors.  During  the  Civil 
War  Hugh  Town  held  out  f<-^^  ho  king,  and  in  1645  afforded  shelter 
for  a  time  to  Priuce  Charles  \y.  til  he  escaped  to  Jersey.  In  1649 
they  were  taken  possession  of  C  Sir  John  Grenville,  a  Royalist,  who 
made  use  of  them  as  a  couven  \.  t  shelter,  whence  he  Issued  to  swce]» 
tho  neighbouring  seas,  until  .^^.',651  he  was  forced  to  sun-ender  to  a 
fleet  under  Blake  and  Sir  Join  \  vscuo.  In  ancient  times  a  frequent 
haunt  of  pirates,  the  islands  we  .,  ifterwanls  notorious  for  smuggling. 
On  tho  suppression  of  smuggli  J.  Jlr  Augustus  J.  Smith  did  muc'\ 
to  introduce  order  and  eucou.i  'e  habits  of  industry  amongst  tho 
inhabitants.  q\ 

SCINDE.     SeoSiND.     v*;' 

SCIO,  tho  Italian  name  Man  island  on  the  \\-cst  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  called  by  tl^j 'Greeks  Chios  (>}  Xi'os,  "s  t>) 
Xi'o)  and  by  the  Turks  Saki  Vlasi;  tho  soft  pronunciation 
of  X  before  i  in  Modern  Oreev..,;ipiiroximating  to  sh,  caused 
Xi'o  to  be  Italianized  as  Sc^J  Scio,  which  is  about  30 
miles  long  from  north  to  s'^'''.h,  and  varies  in  breadth 
from  8  To  15  miles,  is  divide  j^."nto  a  larger  northern  part 
and  a  smaller  southern  part,  c^A^d  re.spectively  ajinitomena 

\i        XXI.  —  'io 


) 


4G6 


S  C 1 1  —  S  C  I 


ftnci  krdomeria.  Tlie  island  is  rugged  and  well  deserves 
the  epithet  "craggy"  (rucraAoco-o-a)  applied  to  it  in  the 
Homeric  hymn.  The  southern  part  is  less  rocky  than 
the  northern,  and  the  \.-ealth  of  the  island  is  concentrated 
there.  The  figs  of  Chios  were  noted  in  ancient  times,  but 
wine  an*]  giiii)  mastic  have  ahvays  been  its  most  important 
product.-j.  The  climate  is  almost  perfect,  the  atniosiihere 
delightful  and  healtliy  ;  oranges,  olives,  and  even  palms 
grow  freely.  The  finest  wine  was  grown  on  the  north- 
western coast,  in  the  district  called  by  Strabo  Ariusia,  and 
was  known  in  Italy  as  nninn  Arvisuivt.  The  population 
of  Olios  has  ahvays  been  far  greater  than  its  resources 
could  feed ;  the  jioople  have  therefore  been  forced  to  import 
the  necessaries  of  life  in  exchange  for  their  wine  and  mastic 
and  fruit,  and  alike  in  ancient  and  modern  times  they  have 
been  known  as  merchants  and  traders.  Pottery  of  Chios 
and  Thasos  was  exported  to  lUyria  (Strab.,  p.  317)  and 
doubtless  elsewhere  ;  it  formed  or  contained  the  cargo  of 
outward-bound  trading  ships.  Tliasian  ware  is  familiar  in 
museums,  where  the  stamped  handles  of  Thasian  amphoras 
have  been  collected  in  thousands  ;  but  no  pottery  has  yet 
been  identified  as  of  Chian  manufacture.  An  incidental 
liroof  of  the  imijortance  of  Chian  handicrafts  lies  in  the 
fact  that  early  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  Glaucus  of  Ch''-d 
discovered  the  process  of  soldering  iron,  and  the  irot;  stand 
of  a  large  crater  whose  parts  were  all  connected  by  this 
process  was  constructed  by  him,  and  preserved  as  one  of  the 
most  interesting  relics  of  antiquity  at  Delphi.  The  long 
line  of  Chian  sculptors  in  marble,  Bupalus  aid  Athenis,  sons 
of  Archermus,  son  of  Micciades,  son  of  jMdas,  bears  witness 
to  the  fame  of  Chian  art  in  the  perioc  660  to  540  B.C. 
The  AVinged  Victory  of  Micciades  and  Archermus,  which 
was  dedicated  at  Delos,  is  still  preserved, — the  most  im- 
portant attested  work  extant  of  archaic  (Jreek  art.  Marble 
cjuarries  also  were  worked  in  the  islind.  In  literature 
file  chief  glory  of  Chios  was  the  school  of  epic  jioets 
called  Homeridfe,  who  carried  on  and  jave  an  Ionic  tone 
to  the  traditional  art  of  the  older  iEoli;  bards.  Cinsethus 
is  said  to  have  written  the  Homerii  Hymn  to  Apollo  of 
Delos,  and  is  believed  by  some  moden  critics  to  have  exer- 
cised great  influence  on  the  text  of  t'e  Iliada,nd  Odys&ey. 
The  Chian  recension  of  these  poems  "Xta  "EkSoo-is)  was  in 
later  times  one  of  the  standard  texts  Ion  the  tragic  poet, 
Theopompus  the  historian,  and  otherwriters  maintained  the 
position  of  Chios  in  literature  dimcg  the  cla.':sical  period. 

Tlie  chief  city  of  Cliios  li.as  ahvays  trne  the  same  name  as  tlie 
island.  It  is  situated  near  the  inidillo  f  the  eastern  coast,  and  at 
the  present  day  contains  about  17,000  nhabitants.  A  theatio  and 
a  temple  of  Atliena  Poliuehus  existed  x  the  ancient  city.  About 
o  miles  north  of  the  city  there  is  a  cur'ius  luonunieut  of  antiquity, 
coniuiouly  called  **tho  school  of  Hdiier  " ;  it  is  a  very  ancient 
sanctuary  of  Cybcle,  with  an  altar  aiy  a  figure  of  tlie  goddess  with 
Iter  two  lions,  cut  out  of  the  native  fck  on  the  summit  of  a  hill. 
On  the  west  coast  there  is  a  niou^.tery  of  great  wealth  with  a 
cliuivh  founded  by  Coustantine  IX./1042-54).  Startiug  fiom  tlie 
city  and  encomjiassing  the  island,  ofe  passes  in  succession  tlie  pio- 
liioutory  Posidium  ;  Cape  Phann?,  t/e  southeru  extremity  of  Chios, 
with  a  liarboui-  and  a  temple  of  ;poUo  ;  Kotiuni,  probably  the 
south-western  jioint  of  the  island  j^aii,  opposite  the  city  of  Cliios, 
where  the  island  is  narrowest ;  th  town  Eoiissus  (now  Volisso), 
the  homo  of  the  Homerid  poets  ;  lietena,  the  north-western  point ; 
t'e  wilie-gioning  district  Ariusia  Cardamyle  (now  Cardhamili)  ; 
the  north-eastern  promontory  ws  probably  named  Phlium,  and 
the  inountains  that  cross  the  norliem  part  of  the  island  Pelinojus 
or  Pellen.TUS.  The  situation  f  the  small  towns  Leuconium, 
Delphinium,  Caucasa,  Caila,  ant  Poliohni^,  is  uncertain  ;  probably 
most  of  them  were  in  the  south™  part.  The  island  is  subject  to 
earthquakes  ;  a  very  dcstructivtshock  occurred  in  llarch  1881. 

The  history  of  Chios  is  very  cscure.  According  to  Pherecydes, 
the  oiigiual  inhabitants  were  ^eleges,  while  according  to  other 
.accounts  Thessalian  Pelasgi  pfisessed  the  island  before  it  became 
an  Ionian  state.  The  name  .Italia,  common  to  Chios  and  Leninos 
in  very  early  time,  suggests  thoriginal  existence  of  a  homogeneous 
population  in  thc«o  and  otherieighbouring  islands.  (Enopiuni,  a 
mythical  hero,  son  of  Dion)'^'.  or  of  Rhadamanthus,  was  an  early 
king  of  Chios.     Kis  Bucccsst  in  the  fourth  generation,  Hector, 


united  the  island  to  the  Ionian  confcdersoy  (Pau.san.,  vii.  4),  though 
.Strabo  (p.  633)  implic3  an  actual  conquest  by  Ionian  settlers.  The 
iiamo  Hector  and  tlie  fountiiin  Hclene  ^nrobably  at  the  modern 
Tlielena  in  the  north)  niiglit  be  cxpeetc  1  in  the  island  of  the 
Ilouierida:.  Tlie  regal  government  was  at' ^  later  time  exchanged 
for  an  oligarchy  or  a  democracy,  but  nothing  is  known  as  to  the 
manner  and  date  of  the  change.  As  in  most  other  states  of  Greece, 
tyrants  sometimes  ruled  in  Oliios  ;  the  namei  of  Amphiclus  and 
Polytecnus  are  mentioned.  The  early  relations  of  Chios  with  other 
states  are  very  obscure,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  an  ally  of  Miletus, 
and  to  have  been  at  enmity  with  the  Piioca-o-Samian  alliance,  to 
which  the  neighbouring  Erythrre  belonged.  The  Eainc  fonn  of  the 
Ionian  dialect  was  spoken  in  Chios  and  in  Erytlirie. 

When  the  Persians  appeared  on  the  Ionian  coast  Chios  willingly 
submitted,  refused  to  their  old  enemies  the  Phocxans,  who  were 
fleeing  from  the  Persian  yoke,,  a  refuge  on  their  islands  OEnussre, 
and  even  surrendered  the  Lydian  fugitive  Pactyes  in  defiance  of 
all  religious  scruples.  Strattis,  tyrant  of  Chios,  followed  Darius 
in  his  Scythian  expedition.  The  Chians  joined  in  the  Ionian 
reliellion  against  tlio  Persians  (500-495)  and  supplied  100  ships. 
After  the  Persian  victory  at  Lade  the  island  was  most  severely 
treated,  the  towns  and  temples  burned,  and  many  of  the  people 
enslaved.  At  Salamis  (4S0)  the  Chian  ships,  led  by  the  tyrant 
Strattis,  served  in  the  Persian  fleet  After  the  battle  of  Mycale 
(479)  the  island  became  free  and  a  democratic  government  no  doubt 
took  the  place  of  the  tyranny.  Chios  was  the  most  piowcrful  state 
after  Athens  in  the  Delian  confederacy,  and  it  was  an  ally  on  equal 
terms  of  the  Athenian  empire,  paying  no  tribute,  but  furnishing 
ships  in  case  of  war.  It  remained  a  faithful  ally  of  the  Athenians 
till  the  year  412,  when,  encouraged  by  the  weakness  caused  in 
Athens  by  the  Sicilian  disasters,  it  joined  the  Lacedaemonians.  Its 
fleet  then  consfsted  of  fifty  ships.  The  Athenians  defeated  them 
in  three  battles,  at  Bolissus,  Plian.-c,  and  Leuconium,  but  could  not 
reconquer  the  island.  Finding  the  Spartan  hegemony  more  op- 
pressive than  the  Athenian,  Chios  returned  to  the  Athenian  cou- 
nexioii  in  394,  but  soon  afterwards  deserted  and  joined  the  Thebans. 
In  the  wars  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Memnon,  supjjorted  by  the 
oligarchical  party,  held  the  island  for  the  Persians.  It  was 
afterwards  involved  in  the  rapid  vicissitudes  of  Ionian  history, 
falling  under  the  power  of  various  dynasties  among  the  diadoclii. 
In  the  Mithradatic  wars  it  favoured  the  Roman  alliance,  and  the 
king's  general  Zenobins  fined  the  island  2000  talents  and  carried 
off  a  great  number  of  the  population  into  slavery  in  Poutus.  It 
had  many  centuries  of  jieaceful  pvosjicrity  under  Roman  and 
Byzantine  rule.  The  Genoese  held  it  from  the  14th  century  till 
in  1566  the  Turks  conquered  it  and  tlie  third  great  Chian  disaster 
and  massacre  occurred.  Except  for  a  brief  Venetian  occupation  in 
1694,  Cliios  has  remained  in  Turkish  hands  till  the  present  day. 
A  fourth  massacre  afflicted  the  island  in  1822,  when  the  Turks 
repressed  with  fire  and  sword  the  attempted  Greek  insurrection. 
Till  this  teiTible  event  the  island  was  i-nled  very  leniently  by  the 
Turks  ;  the  intei-nal  government  was  left  in  the  hands  of  five 
archons,  three  Greek  and  tw-o  Catholic,  while  two  resident  Turkish 
officials  represented  the  sultan  and  received  through  tiio  archons 
the  stipulated  tribute.  (W.  M.  RA. ) 

SCIPIO.  The  Scipios,^  a  memorable  name  in  Komaii 
history,  were  a  branch  of  the  ancient  and  noble  family  of 
the  Cornelii.  It  was  in  Rome's  wara  with  Carthage  that 
they  made  themselves  specially  famous. 

1.  PcjBLitJs  Cornelius  Scipio,  the  father  of  the  Elder 
Africanus,  was  the  first  Koman  general  to  encounter 
Hannibal  in  battle.  He  was  consul  in  218  B.C.,  the  fir.^t 
year  of  the  Second  Punic  War,  and,  having  Spain  for  his 
jirovince,  he  went  with  an  army  to  Massilia  (Marseilles) 
with  the  view  of  arresting  the  Carthaginian's  advance  on 
Italy.  Failing,  however,  to  meet  his  enemy,  he  hastened 
back  by  sea  to  Cisalpine  Gaul,  leaA'ing  his  army  under  the 
command  of  his  brother  Cneius  Scipio,  who  was  to  harass 
the  Carthaginians  in  Spain  and  hinder  them  from  support- 
ing Hannibal.  In  a  sharp  cavalry  engagement  in  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Po,  on  the  Ticinus,  he  was  defeated 
and  severely  wounded,  and  it  is  said  he  owed  his  life  to 
the  bravery  of  his  son,  tUen  a  mere  stripling.  Again,  in 
the  December  of  the  same  year,  he  witnessed  the  complete 
defeat  of  the  Roman  army  on  the  Trebia,  his  colleague 
Sempronius  having  insisted  on  fighting  contraiy  to  his 
advice.  But  he  still  retained  the  confidence  of  the  Roman 
people,  since  his  term  of  command  ■nas  extended,  and  we 
find  him  with  his  brother  in  Spain  in  the  following  yer.r, 

'  The'  name  nieaus  a  "  stick  "  or  "  stall." 


: 

gC  0-p  I  o 


■winning  victories,  over  the  Carthaginians  and  streng"^^'*^"^^' 
ing  Rome's  hold  on  that  country,  till  212  or  211.  '^i  ^'^ 
details  of  these  campaigns  are  not  accurately  known  to  0}^ 
but  it  would  seem  that  the  ultimate  defeat  and  death  of 
the  Scipios  were  due  to  the  desertion  of  the  Celtiberi, 
bribed  by  Hasdrubal,  Hannibal's  brother. 

8.  PuBLros  CoRNEUUs  Scipio  Afeicanus  the  Elder. — 
After  having  been  present  at  the  disastrous  battles  of  the 
Ticinus,  the  Trebia,  and  Cann«,  and  having  after  that  last 
crushing  defeat  had  the  spirit  to  remonstrate  with  several 
Roman  nobles  who  advocated  giving  up  the  struggle  and 
quitting  Italy  in  despair,  Scipio,  at  the  age  of  twenty  four, 
oflFered  to  take  the  command  of  the  Roman  army  in  Spain 
the  year  after  his  father's  death.  The  people  already  had 
an  intense  belief  in  him,  and  he  was  unanimously  elected. 
All  Spain  west  of  the  Ebro  was  in  the  year  of  his  arrival 
(210)  under  Carthaginian  control,  but  fortunately  for  him 
the  three  Carthaginian  generals,  Hasdrubal  (Hannibal's 
brother),  Hasdrubal  the  son  of  Gisgo,  and  Mago  (also 
Hannibal's  brother),  were  not  disposed  to  act  in  concert. 
Scipio  was  thus  enabled  to  surprise  and  capture  New 
Carthage,  the  headquarters  of  the'  Carthaginian  power  in 
Spain,  from  which  he  obtained  a  rich  booty  of  war  stores 
and  su[)plies,  with  a  particularly  good  harbour.  The  native 
Spanish  tribes  now  became  friendly,  and  Scipio  found  use- 
ful allies  among  them.  In  the  following  year  he  fought 
Hasdrubal  somewhere  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, but  the  action  could  hardly  have  been  a  decisive  one, 
as  soon  afterwards  the  Carthaginian  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army  on  his  way  to  Italy. 
Xext  year  another  battle  wzn  fought  in  the  same  neigh- 
bourhood, and  Scipio's  success  appears  to  have  been  suffi- 
ciently decided  to  comi)el  the  Carthaginian  commanders 
to  fall  back  on  Gades,  in  the  south-westernrforner  of  Spain. 
The  country  was  now  for  the  most  part  under  Roman  influ- 
ence, a  result  due  even  more  to  the  statesmanlike  tact  of 
Scipio  than  to  his  military  ability.  With  the  idea  of 
striking  a  blow  at  Carthage  in  Africa,  the  Roman  general 
mid  a  short  visit  to  the  Nuniidian  princes,  Rypha.^  and 
Masinissa,  but  at  the  court  of  Syiihax  he  vas  foiled  bj-  the 
presence  of  Hasdrubal,  the  son  of  Ciisgo,  whose  dough ter 
Sophonisba  was  married  to  the-  Nuiuidian  chief.  On  his 
return  to  Spain  Scipio  had  to  quell  a  n:utiiiy  which  had 
broken  out  among  his  troops.  Hannibal's  brother  Mago 
had  meanwhile  sailed  for  Italy,  and  Scipio  himself  in  206, 
after  having  established  thj  Roman  ascendency  in  Spain, 
gave  up  his  command  and  returned  to  Rome  to  stand  for 
the  consulship,  to  which  ho  was  unanimously  elected  the 
following  year,  the  province  of  Sicily  being  assigned  to 
him.  I5y  this  time  Hasdrubal  with  his  army  had  perished 
on  the  Metaurus,  and  Hannibal's  movements  were  restricted 
to  the  south-western  extremity  of  Italy.  For  Rome  the 
worst  part  of  the  struggle  wa.s  over.  The  war  was  now 
to  be  transferred  hy  Scipio  from  Italy  to  Africa.  He  was 
himself  eagerly  intent  on  this,  and  his  great  name  drew  to 
hiii'i  a  number  of  volunteers  from  all  parts  of  Italy.  There 
was  but  one  obstacle:  the  old-fashioned  aristocracy  of 
Rome  did  not  like  him,  as  his  taste  for  splendid  living 
and  Greek  culture  was  particularly  offensive  to  them. 
A  party  in  the  senate  would  have  recalled  him,  but  the 
jjopular  enthusiasm  was  too  strong  for  them.  A  commis- 
sion of  inquiry  was  sent  over  to  Sicily,  and  it  found  that 
be  was  at  the  head  of  a  well-equipped  fleet  and  army.  At 
the  commissioners'  bidding  he  sailed  in  204  from  Lilybaium 
(Marsala)  and  landed  on  the  coast  of  Africa  near  Utica. 
Carthage  meanwhile  had  secured  the  friendship  of  the 
powerful  Numidian  chief  Syphax,  whoso  advance  com- 
pelled Scipio  to  raise  the  siege  of  Utica  and  to  entrench 
himself  on  the  shore  between  that  place  and  Carthage. 
Next  year  he  surpriiicd  and  utterly  defeated  f5yj)hax  and 


467 

Irove  the  Carthaginian  army  out  of  the  field.  There  was 
'n  attempt  at  negotiation,  but  the  war  party  prevailed 
•Hd  Hannibal  was  recalled  'from  Italy.  The  decisive 
Jattle  was  fought  near  the  Numidian  town  of  Zania  in  202 
and  ended  in  Hannibal's  complete  defeat.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded with  the  Carthaginiarts  in  the  following  year  on 
terms  wiiich  strictly  confined  their  dominion  to  a  compara- 
tively small  territory  in  Africa,  almost  annihilated  their 
fleet,  and  exacted  a  heavy  war  contribution.  In  fact,  the 
independence  of  Carthage  was  destroyed,  and  it  became 
simply  a  rich  commercial  city.  The  old-fa-'hioned  and 
narrow-minded  aristocrats  who  were  in  sympathy  with  the 
"  delenda  est  Carthago  "  policy  subsequently  announced  by 
Cato  thought  these  terms  too  lenient ;  but  Sci])io  was  too 
great  and  too  generous  a  man  to  lend  himself  'o  the  base 
work  of  utterly  extinguishing  an  ancient  and  noble  centre 
of  civilization.  Rome  was  new  perfectly  safe  from  attack. 
It  was  a  great  Mediterranean  power :  Sp.iin  and  Sicily 
were  Roman  provinces,  and  the  north  of  Africa  was  under 
a  Roman  protectorate.  Such  was  the  end,  after  seventeen 
years,  of  the  Second  Punic  War.  Scipio  was  welcomed 
back  to  Rome  with  the  surname  of  Africanus,  and  he  had 
the  moderation  and  good  sense  to  refuse  the  many  honours 
which  the  people  would  have  thrust  upon  him.  For  some 
years  he  lived  quietly  and  took  no  part  iu  ijolitics.  In  190 
his  brother  Lucius  Scipio  was  consul  and,  on  the  under- 
standing that  he  should  have  the  benefit  of  the  militaiy 
skill  and  experierice  of  Africanus,  ho  was  entrusted  witli 
the  war  in  Asia  against  Antiochus.  The  two  brothers 
brought  the  war  to  a  conclusion  by  a  decisive  victory  at 
Magnesia  in  the  same  year.  Meanwhile  Scipio's  political 
enemies  had  gained  ground,  and  on  their  rctiu'u  to  Rome 
a  prosecution  was  started  against  Lucius  on  the  ground  of 
misappropriation  of  moneys  received  from  Antiochus.  As 
Lucius  A.'as  in  the  act  of  producing  his  account-books  his 
brother  wrested  theui  from  his  hands,  tore  them  in  jiieces. 
and  flung  them  on  the  floor  of  the  senate-house.  He  wa-; 
then  himself  accused  of  having  been  bribed  by  Antioc-hur^ 
but  he  reminded  his  accusers  that  the  day  was  ill  chosen,  r.s 
it  happened  to  be  the  anniversary  of  his  great  victory  over 
Hannibal  at  Zania.  There  was  an  outburet  of  enthusia.sni, 
and  Scipio  was  once  again  the  hero  and  the  darling  of  tlio 
Roman  people,  who,  it  is  said,  crowded  round  him  an:i 
followed  him  to  the  Capitol.  After  all,  however,  he  endul 
his  days,  as  a  voluntary  exile  in  all  probability,  at  Liternum 
on  the  coast  of  Campania,  dying,  it  would  scorn,  iu  183, 
the  year  of  Hannibal's  death,  when  a  little  above  fifty 
years  of  age.  Scipio's  wife  was  yKiiiilia,  daughter  of  th'^ 
.Kmilius  Paullus  who  fell  at  Cauna;  and  who  was  the  father 
of  the  conqueror  of  JIaccdonia.  By  her  he  had  a  daughter, 
Cornelia,  who  became'  the  mother  of  the  two  famous 
Gracchi. 

Spain,  Xortlicrn  Africa,  the  so-called  province  of  Asia,  were  added 
to  Rome's  dominion  <lunn;;  liis  life.  S':ii)io  livt-d  t(  f^ee  Konie 
develo])  fi-oni  a  nieiely  Italian  jjower  to  Ijo  in  fart  the  mistiest  of 
the  Morld,  and  lie  himself  greatly  contribntcd  to  '.Ii'h  result. 
AmoM^  Rome's  great  generals  \vc  murit  rank  liiin  nffer  Oieaar.  lie 
knew  now  to  plan  a  campaign  as  well  os  hov!  to  figl't  a  battle,  and 
he  had  the  faculty  of  inspuing  his  soMiors  with  c-o-.ifideni.-o  and 
enthusiasm.  Ho  never  had  to  make  head  agai:;st  suth  trentendoiis 
dillieultics  as  his  great  antagonist,  ami  his  achicvenients,  great  as 
they  were,  ivinst  he  distinctly  ranked  beneath  tho  marvellous  suc- 
cesses of  Hannibal.  Still  tho  story  was  told  that,  in  a  eonvei-sation 
between  tho  two  generals  at  tho  court  of  Antiochus,  Hannibal,  who 
h'ad  named  Alcicandcr  as  the  first  and  Pyrrhus  as  the  !«coiid  araon^ 
military  commanders,  confessed  that  had  he  beaten  Seipio  he  should 
have  put  himself  before  eii  her  of  them.  It  seems  to  nc  at  any  rate 
certain  that  the  two  gi-eat  men  res]icctcd  and  admir.'d  each  other, 
and  it  is  nuich  to  Scipio's  credit  that  he  withstood  tho  mean  perse- 
cution with  which  tho  Roman  senate  followed  up  the  Carthaginian. 
It  may  bo  that  ho  had  rather  too  nnuli  aristocrat  i>;  haulenr  for  a 
statesman  iu  timo  of  peaew,  but  against  this  we  must  -.-et  tho  pleasinrj 
fact  that  ho  was  a  man  of  gnat  inlcllcctnul  culture  ami  could  spcaic 
and  write  Creek  just  as  well  as  his  native  Latin.     Ho  wrote  his 


468  !^  ^  -f 

ovi-n  memoirs  in  Gicck.  There  must  inilccd  liavo  been  a  _,  "' 
rliann  about  the  inn»,  and  there  was  a  belief  that  lie  waL-^fle 
favourite  of  heaven  and  hold  actual  conuuunication  with  t:^  .  ^. 
It  is  quite  itusj.iblo  too  that  he  himself  honestly  shared  this  W  ^' 
and  so  it  was  tiiat  to  his  political  oiv>oneuts  he  could  be  hni-sh  a:'.U' 
arrogant  antl  towards  othera  singularly  gracious  and  sympathetic. 
For  a  time  he  enjoyed  a  popularity  at  Rome  which  no  one  but 
I'.xsar  ever  attaineil. 

3.  PtTBLHTS  CORNKLIUS  SciPIO  AFEICANDS  THE 
"ousr.ER. — This  Scipio,  also  one  of  Piome's  greatest 
i^enerals,  was  the  younger  son  of  vflmiluis  PauUus,  and 
he  fought  wlien  a  youth  of  seventeen  by  liis  father's  side 
at  Pydna,  16S, — the  battle  which  decided  tlie  fate  of 
Macedonia  and  made  nortliern  Greece  subject  to  Rome. 
He  was  adopted  by  tlie  eldest  son  of  Scipio  Africanns  the 
Elder,  and  from  him  took  the  name  Scipio  witli  the  surname 
Africanns.  In  151, .a  time  of  defeat  and  disaster  for  the 
Romans  in  Spain,  which  as  yet  had  been  but  very  imper- 
fectly subjugated,  he  served  with  credit  in  that  country  and 
obtained  an  influence  over  the  native  tribes  similar  to  that 
which  the  elder  Scij)io,  his  grandfather  by  adoption,  had 
acquired  nearly  si.xty  years  before  him.  In  the  next  year  an 
appeal  was  made  to  him  by  the  Carthaginians  to  act  as 
arbiter  between  them  and  tlie  Numidian  prince  Masinissa, 
who,  backed  up  by  a  party  at  Rome,  was  incessantly 
encroaching  on  Carthaginian  territory.  Rome's  policy  in 
.\frica  was  to  aold  the  balance  between  ilasinissa  and 
Cartilage,  and,  when  it  was  seen  tliat  Cartilage,  as  the  result 
of  several  years  of  peace,  was  again  becoming  a  jirosperous 
and  powerful  city,  there  grew  up  a  feeling  at  Rome  that  the 
Numidian  king  must  be  supported  and  their  old  rival 
thoroughly  humiliated.  Marcus  Cato  and  his  party  would 
hear  of  no  compromise ;  Cartilage,  they  said,  must  be  de- 
stroyed if  Rome  was  to  be  safe.  It  was  easy  to  find  a 
jirete.xt  for  war  in  the  disputes  between  Carthage  and 
Masinissa.  In  149  war  was  declared,  and  the  Cartha- 
ginians felt  it  to  be  a  life-and-death  struggle  :  every  man 
and  every  woman  laboured  U)  the  uttermost  for  the  defence 
of  the  city  with  a  furious  eutliusiasin.  The  Roman  army, 
ill  whidi  Scipio  at  first  served  in  a  subordinate  capacity, 
was  utterly  baffled.  In  tlie  following  year  he  was  elected 
consul,  wliile  yet  under  tlie  legal  age,  for  the  express 
purjiose  of  giving  him  the  supreme  command.  After  two 
years  of  desperate  fighting  and  splendid  lieroism  on  the 
]iart  of  the  defenders,  the  famished  garrison  could  no 
longer  hold  the  walls :  Carthage  was  caiitured,  and  the 
ruins  of  llie  city  were  burning  for  seventeen  days ;  Rome 
decreed  tliat  the  place  should  be  for  ever  desolate.  On 
his  return  to  Home  Scipio  became  the  subject  of  violent 
political  attacks,  against  which  he  successfully  defended 
iiimself  in  speeches  (no  longer  extant)  that  ranked  as 
brilliant  specimens  of  oratory.  In  134  ho  was  again 
consul,  with  the  jjrovince  of  Spain,  where  a  demoralized 
Roman  army  was  vainly  attemiiting  the  conquest  of 
Numantia  on  the  Douro.  Scipio,  after  devoting  several 
months  to  the  discijiline  of  his  troops,  reduced  the  city 
Jjy  blockade.  The  fall  of  Numantia,  which  was  utterly 
destroyed  in  133,  established  the  Roman  dominion  in  the 
)irovince  of  Kither  or  Nearer  Spain,  the  eastern  portion  of 
that  country.  Rome  meanwhile  was  shaken  by  the  great 
political  agitation  of  the  Gracchi,  whose  sister  Sempronia 
was  Scipio's  wife.  Scipio  himself,  though  not  in  sympathy 
with  the  extreme  men  of  tlie  old  conservative  party,  was 
decidedly  opposed  to  the  schemes  of  the  Gracchi.  "  Justly 
slain  "  (jure  cajsuni)  is  said  to  liave  been  his  answer  to  the 
tribune  Carbo,  who  asked  liim  before  the  people  what  he 
thought  of  the  death  of  Tiberius  Gracchus.  This  gave  dire 
offence  to  the  I'opular  party,  which  was  now  led  by  his 
oitterest  foes.  Soon  afterwards,  in  129,  he  was  found 
dead  ii  bed  on  the  morning  of  a  day  on  which  he  had  in- 
tended to  make  a  speech  on  a  point  connected  with  the 


8  C 


O 


Strab.an  proposals  of  the  Gracchi, — "  a  victim  of  |>oliticaI 
nan-ssination"  Mommsen  confirJently  pronounces  him.  Tlie 
?.y3tciy  was  never  cleared  up,  and  there  were  political 
easons  for  letting  the  matter  drop. 

The  Younger  Scipio,  great  general  and  great  man  as  ho  was,  is 
for  ever  associated  with  a  hideous  work  of  destrnctiou  at  Carthage, 
which  we  feel  he  might  have  done  more  to  avert.  Yet  he  was  a 
man  of  culture  and  leliuement  ;  he  gathered  round  him  such  mcu 
as  tlie  Greek  histoiiau  I'olybius,  the  philosopher  Pana'tius,  and  the 
poets  Lucilins  and  Terence.  And  at  the  same  time,  accoi-ding  to 
Polybins  and  Cicero,  he  had  all  the  good  sterling  virtues  of  an  old- 
fashioned  Roman,  and  steadily  set  his  face  against  the  increasing 
luxury  and  extravagance  of  his  day.  As  a  speaker  he  seems  to  have 
been  no  less  distinguished  than  as  a  soldier.  He  spoke  remarkably 
goo  '.  "nd  pure  Latin,  and  he  particularly  enjoyed  serious  and  intel- 
lectual conversation.  There  seems  to  have  been  nothing  mean  or 
gi-asiiing  about  him.  After  the  capture  of  Carthage  he  gave  back  to 
the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily  the  works  of  art  of  which  Carthage  had 
robbed  them.  He  did  not  avail  himself  of  the  many  opportunities 
he  must  have  had  of  amassing  a  fortune.  Though  jtolitically 
opposed  to  the  Gracchi,  he  cannot  be  saitl  to  have  been  a  foe  to  the 
interests  of  the  i>eople.  He  was,  in  fact,  a  moderate  man,  m 
favour  of  conciliation,  and  ho  was  felt  by  the  best  men  to  be  a 
safe  politir.Tl  adviser,  while,  as  often  happens  ia  such  cases,  he 
could  not  iielp  olVcnding  both  parties. 

4.  Scipios  are  continually  appearing  in  Roman  historj' 
in  more  or  less  prominent  positions  down  to  the  time  of  the 
empire.  One  of  them,  Scipio  Nasic.^  (Nasica  denoting  an 
aquiline  nose),  contemporary  of  the  Younger  Africanus,  in- 
stigated the  murder  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  whom  the  people 
were  bent  on  re-electing  (133)  to  the  tribuneship.  Though 
he  was-pontifex  maximus  at  the  time,  the  senate;  to  save 
him,  had  to  get  him  away  from  Rome,  and  he  left  never  to 
return,  dying  soon  afterwards  in- Asia.  (w.  j.  b.) 

SCIRE  FACIAS,  in  English  law,  is  a  judicial  writ 
founded  ujion  some  record  directing  the  sheriff  to  make  it 
known  {scire  facias)  to  the  party  against  whom  it  is 
brought,  and  ryjuiriiig  the  latter  to  show  cause  why  the 
party  bringing  the  writ  should  not  have  the  advantage  of 
sucli  record,  or  why  (in  the  case  of  letters  patent  and 
grants)  the  record  should  not  be  annulled  and  vacated. 
Proceedings  in  scire  facias  are  regarded  as  an  action,  and 
the  defendant  may  plead  his  defence  as  in  an  action.  The 
writ  is  now  of  little  jiractical  importance  ;  its  princiijal 
uses  are  to  compel  the  appearance  of  coriiorations  aggregate 
in  revenue  suits,  and  to  enforce  judgments  against  share- 
holders in  such  companies  as  are  rcgiJated  by  the  Com- 
panies Clauses  Act,  1S45,  or  similar  private  Acts,  and 
against  garnishees  in  proceedings  in  foreign  attachment 
in  the  lord  mayor's  court.  Proceedings  by  sa're  facias  to 
repeal  letters  patent  for  inventions  were  abolished  by  the 
Patents,  Designs,  and  Trademarks  Act,  18S3,  and  a  jjetition 
to  the  court  substituted. 

SCOPAS.     See  Aech.eology,  vol.  ii.  p.  360. 

SCORESBY,  William  (1789-18.57),  English  arctic 
explorer  and  physicist,  was  born  near  ^A^litby,  Yorkshire, 
on  5th  October  1789.  His  father,  also  named  William, 
who  achieved  distinction  as  an  arctic  whaler,  was  the  son 
of  a  farmer  near  Crompton,  Lancaslih'e,  where  he  was  born 
on  3d  ilay  1760.  He  went  to  sea  when  he  was  tweilty 
years  of  age,  and  became  one  of  the  most  jnomineiit  and 
successful,  as  well  as  daring,  of  arctic  whale -fishers.  In 
1823  he  retired  with  an  ample  competency,  and  died  in 
1829.  Young  Scofesby  made  his  first  voyage  with  Lis 
father  to  Greenland  in  1800,  when  he  was  only  eleven 
years  of  age.  On  his  return,  up  to  1803,  he  diligently 
pursued  his  education,  acquiring  a  very  fair  knowledge  of 
mathematics  and  navigation.  From  1803  he  was  his. 
father's  constant  companion  to  the  whale-fishery.  On 
25th  Slay  1806,  as  chief  officer  of  the  "Resolution,"  he 
succeeded  in  reaching  Sl°  30'  N.  in  19°  E.  long.,  the  farthest 
point  north  attained  by  any  navigator  up  to  that  date.  On 
ins  return,  during  the  following  winter,  Scoresby  attended 
the  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  clas.ses  in  Edinburgh 


s  c  o  — s  c  o 


469 


university,  as  he  did  again  iu  1S09,  wlien  he  added  several 
ether  subjects.  In  his  voyage  of  ISO"  he  commenced,  as 
in  all  subsequent  voyages  he  continued,  the  study  of  the 
meteorology  and  natural  history  of  the  polar  regions ; 
among  the  earlier  results  are  his  original. observations  on 
snow  crystals.  In  1809  Professor  Jameson  of  Edinburgh 
brought  Scoresby's  arctic  papers  before  the  Wcrnerian 
Society  of  that  city,  of  which  he  was  at  once  elected  a 
member.  Soon  after  attaining  his  majority,  in  1811, 
Scoresby  was  promoted  to  the  command  of  the  "  Kesolu- 
tion,"  and  in  the  same  year  married  the  daughter  of  a 
shipbroker.  In  1813  he  changed  the  "Resolution"  for 
the  "Esk,"  in  both  vessels  bringing  home  large  and  pro- 
fitable captures.  In  his  voyage  of  1813  Scoresby  ascer- 
tained that  the  temperature  of  the  polar  ocean  is  warmer 
at  considerable  depths  tlian  it  is  on  the  surface.  Each 
subsequent  spring  found  Scoresby  in  search  of  whales,  and 
no  less  eagerly  of  fresh  additions  to  scientific  knowledge. 
His  letters  of  this  period  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks  no  doubt 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  modern  search  for  the  north- 
west passage.  In  1819  he  w&s  elected. a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  among  other  papers  of 
the  year  was  one  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  through  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  "On  the  Anomaly  in 
the  Variation  of  the  Jilagnetic  Needle,"  touching  upon  a 
subject  of  the  first  scientific  importance.  In  1820 
appeared  Scoresby's  History  and  Desa-iption  of  the  Arctic 
Regions,  in  which  he  gathers  up  the  results  of  his  own 
observation,  as  well  as  those  of  previous  navigators,  and 
which  still  remains  a  standard  authority.  In  his  voyage  of 
1822  to  Greenland,  among  other  scientific  work,  Scoresby 
surveyed  400  miles  of  the  east  coast,  between  69°  30' 
and  72°  30'  N.,  with  so  much  accuracy  that  the  Govern- 
ment expeditions  of  the  ne.xt  year  were  unable  to  make 
any  substantial  correction,  although  they  attempted  to 
ignore  his  work.  This  was  the  last  of  Scoresby's  arctic 
voyages.  On  his  return  he  found  his  wife  dead,  and  this 
event,  acting  upon  his  naturally  pious  spirit  along  with 
other  influences,  decided  him  to  enter  the  church.  After 
two  years  of  residence  in  Cambridge,'  he  iu  1825  was 
ordained  and  on  17th  July  was  appointed  curate  of'  Bass- 
ingby.  Meantime  had  appeared  at  Edinburgh,  in  1823, 
his  Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  the  Korthern  W/ia/e-Fisheri/, 
including  Researches  and  Discoveries  on  the  Eastern  Coast 
of  Greenland.  The  faithful  and  successful  discharge  of  his 
clerical  duties  at  Bassingby,  in  the  mariners'  chapel  at 
Liverpool,  at  Exeter,  and  at  Bradford  did  not  prevent 
Scoresby  from  taking  as  much  interest  in  science  as  he  did 
during  his  whaling  voyages.  In  1824  the  Royal  Society 
elected  him  a  fellow,  and  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  an 
lionorary  corresponding  member.  From  the  first  he  was 
an  active  meniber  and  official  of  the  British  Association,  to 
which  he  made  several  important  contributions,  one  being 
"  An  Exposition  of  some  of  the  Laws  and  Phenomena  of 
Magnetic  Induction."  To  the  progress  of  terrestrial  mag- 
netism especially  Scoresby  is  recognized  as  liaving  largely 
contributed.  Of  the  sLxty  papers  which  follow  his  name 
in  the  Royal  Society  list  many  are  more  or  less  connected 
with  this  department  of  research.  But  his  observations 
extended  into  many  other  departments,  including  certain 
branches  of  optics.  In  order  to  obtain  additional  data 
for  his  theories  on  magnetism  he  made  a  voyage  to  A  13- 
tralia  in  18.56,  the  results  of  which  were  publislied  in  a 
posthumous  wot\,— Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  Australia  for 
Magnetical  Research,  edited  by  Archibald  Smith  (18.'")9). 
He  made  two  visits  to  America,  in  1844  and  1848  ;  on  his 
return  home  from  the  latter  visit  he  made  some  valuable 
observations  on  the  height  of  Atlantic  waves,  tlie  results 
of  whidi  were  given  to  t!ie  British  Association.  Scoresby 
interested  himself  much  in  social  questions,  especially  the 


I  improvement  of  the  condition  of  factory  operatives.  He 
also  publislied  numerous  works  and  papers  of  a  religious 
character,  a  list  of  which,  as  well  as  of  his  many  scientific 
papers,  is  appended  to  the  Life  of  William  Scoreshy  by  his 
nephev/,  Dr  R.  E.  Scoresby-Jackson  (1861).  In  1850  ho 
published  a  work  on  the  Franklin  expedition,  urging  the 
jjrosecution  of  the  search  for  the  missing  ships,  and  giving 
the  valuable  results  of  his  own  experience  in  arctic  naviga. 
tion.  Scoresby  was  twice  married  after  tho  death  of  his 
first  wife, — to  Miss  Elizabeth  Fitzgerald  in  1S2S,  and  iu 
1849  to  Miss  Georgina  Kerr.  After  his  third  marriage 
Scoresby  built  a  villa  at  Torquay,  where  he  spent  tlie 
remainder  of  his  life,  and  where  he  died,  21st  March  18.57. 
He  was  a  man  of  simple  but  deep  piety,  amiable,  cheerful, 
and  guileless. 

SCORPION.     See  AR.iCHNiDA,  vol.  ii.  p.  281  sq. 

SCOT,  !MicH.4EL,  whose  fame  as  a  magician  has  sur- 
rounded his  history  with  legend,  is  sometime?  claimed  by 
the  Italians  as  a  native  of  Salerno  and  by  the  Spaniards 
as  a  native  of  Toledo  ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the 
Scottish  origin  to  which  his  name  testifies.  .  Scottish  tradi- 
tion is  unanimous  in  identifying  him  with  Sir  ilichael 
Scot  of  Bahvearie  in  Fifeshire,  but  the  ascertainable  dates 
place  some  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this.  The  traditional 
date  of  Scot's  birth  is  1190,  but  this  does  not  harmonize 
well  with  the  embassy  to  Norway  attributed  to  Sir  Jlichael 
Scot  in  1290.  Some  accordingly  have  fixed  the  date  of 
his  birth  approximately  as  1214,  but  apparently  without 
any  further  reason  than  is  afforded  by  the  supposed  date  of 
his  death  in  1291.  But  Jourdain'  refers  to  certain  manu- 
script translations  of  Scot's  which  are  expressly  dated 
"1217  at  Toledo."  This  would  accord  fairly  well  with 
the  date  1190,  the  translations  being  executed  by  Scot 
soon  after  the  conclusion  of  his  student  period.  Scot  is 
said  to  have  studied  at  Oxford,  whence  he  ]:roceeded,  as 
was  usual,  to  Paris,  then  the  centre  of  media,'\'al  learning, 
devoting  himself  especially  to  philosophy  and  mathematics. 
Du  Boulay,  the  historian  of  the  university  of  Paris,  adds 
tliat  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  and  ac- 
quired a  brillia.it  reputation  in  that  faculty.  There  is  no 
evidence  of  this,  however,  in  his  writings.  At  Toledo, 
where  he  also  studied,  Scot  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
Arabic.  It-is  not  likely  that  his  knowledge  extended  to 
Greek  and  the  other  Eastern  tongues  menf.oned  by  the 
earlier  bibliographers.  His  knowledge  of  Arabic  was 
sufficient  to  open  up  to  liim  the  Arabic  versions  of  Aris- 
totle and  the  multitudinous  commentaries  of  the  Arabians 
upon  them,  with  which  Western  Christendom  had  only 
lately  become  acquainted  in  Latin  translations  (see  Scho- 
lasticism). It  also  brought  him  into  contact  with  the 
original  works  of  Avicenna  and  Averroes.  His  own  first 
work  was  done  as  a  translator.  He  was  one  of  the  savants 
whom  Frederic;  II.  attracted  to  his  brilliant  court,  and  at 
the  instigation  of  the  emperor  he  .superintended  (along 
^^■ith  Hermannus  Alemannus)  a  fresh  translation  of  Aris- 
totle and  the  Arabian  commentaries  from  Arabic  into 
Latin.  There  exist  translations  by  Scot  himself  o£.  the 
Ilistoria  Animalium,  the  De  Anima,  and  De  Ccelo,  along 
with  the  commentaries  of  Averroes  upon  them.  This 
connexion  with  Frederick  and  Averroes — both  of  evil 
reputation  in  the  Middle  Ages — doubtless,  contributed  to 
the  formation  of  the  legend  whicii  soon  enveloped  Micliael 
Scot's  name.  His  own  books,  however,  dealing  as  they 
do  almost  exclusively  with  astrology,  alchemy,  and  the 
occult  sciences  generally,  are  mainly  responsible  for  his 
popular  reputation.  The  chief  of  these  according  to  the 
more  critical  views  of  recent  investigators  arc  Svjyer  Auc- 
torem  Spherse,  printed  at  Bologna  in  1495  and  at  Venice 
in  1G31  ;  De  Safe  el  Luna,  printed  at  Strasbnrg,  1622, 
'  liechcrcltes  siir  Ics  anciaines  I'-aduciions  Latmesd'Aris'ote,  p.  ^33. 


470 


s  c  o  — s  c  o 


in  the  I'heairum  Chimicum,  and  containing  more  alchemy 
than  astronomy,  the  sun  and  moon  being  taken  as  the 
images  of  gold  and  silver ;  De  Cliiromantia,  an  opuscule 
often  published  in  the  1 5th  century ;  and,  perhaps  best 
known  of  all,  De  Physiognomia  ft  de  Hominis  Frocreailone^ 
which  saw  no  fewer  than  eighteen  editions  between  1477 
and  1660.  This  treatise  is  divided  into  three  books,  of 
which  the  first  deals  with  generation  according  to  tlie 
doctrine  of  Aristotle  and  .Galen,  the  second  with  the  signs 
by  which  the  character  and  faculties  of  individuals  may 
be  determined  from  observation  of  different  parts  of  the 
body.  The  Phi/xior/nomia  (which  abo  exists  in  an  Italian 
translation)  and  the  Super  Anetoreni  Spheral  e^ressly  bear 
that  they  were  undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  emperor 
Frederick.  To  the  above  list  should  be  added  certain 
treatises  in  manuscript, — De  Signis  Planefarvm  ;  Contra 
Arerrhoevi  in  Meteora  ;  Xotitia  Coni'inctionis  Mundi  Ter- 
trstris  mm  Co^te^ti^  et  de  Dejjnitione  vtrivsque  Mundi ;  De 
Prsesagiis  Stellarnm  et  Elementarihus.  Michael  is  said  to 
have  foretold  (after  the  double-tongued  manner  of  the 
ancient  oracles)  the  place  of  Frederick's  death,  which  took 
I'lace  in  1250.  The  Italian  tradition  makes  Scot  die  in 
.Sicily  not  long  afterwards,  stating  that  he  foretold  the 
manner  of  his  own  death.  Jourdain  is' inclined  to  agree 
with  this  approximate  date,  observing  that  Scot  is  spoken 
of  by  Albert  the  Great  as  if  he  were  already  dead,  and 
that  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  c.  1 268)  quotes  him  with  the 
epithet  "  vetus."  But  the  generally  received  tradition 
makes  him  return  by  way  of  England  (where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  much  honour  by  Edward  I.)  to  his  native 
country.  The  ordinary  account  gives  1291  as  the  date  of 
.Scot's  death.  According  to  one  tradition  he  was  buried 
at  Holme  Cultram  in  Cumberland  ;  according  to  another, 
Avhicb  Sir  Walter  Scott  has  followed  in  the  Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel,  in  Melrose  Abbey.  In  the  notes  to  that 
]ioem,  of  which  the  opening  of  the  wizard's  tomb  forms 
the  most  striking  episode,  Scott  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  the  various  exploits  attributed  by  popular  belief 
to  the  great  magician.  "  In  the  south  of  Scotland  any 
work  of  great  labour  and  antiquity  is  ascribed  either  to 
the  agency  of  Auld  Michael,  of  Sir  'William  Wallace,  or 
the  devil."  He  used  to  feast  his  friends  with  dishes 
brought  by  spirits  from  the  royal  kitchens  of  France  and 
Spain  and  other  lands.  His  embassy  to  France  alone  on 
the  back  of  a  coal-black  demon  steed  is  also  celebrated,  in 
which  he  brought  the  French  monarch  to  his  feet  by  the 
effects  which  followed  the  repeated  stamping  of  his  horse's 
hoof.  Other  powers  and  exploits  are  narrated  in  Folengo's 
Macaronic  i>oem  of  Merlin  Coccaius  (1595).  But  Michael's 
reputation  as  a  magician  was  already  fixed  in  the  age  im- 
mediately following  his  own.  He  appears  in  the  Inferno 
of  Dante  (canto  xx.  115-117)  among  the  magicians  and 
soothsayers — 

*'  Quel!'  altro,  che  lie'  fianchi  e  cosi  jioco) 
Jlicliele  Scotto  fii ;  clio  verameute 
Delle  magiche  frode  seppe  11  giiioco." 

He  is  represented  in  the  same  character  by  Boccaccio,  and 
is  severely  arraigned  by  John  Pico  de  Mirandola  in  his 
work  against  astrology,  while  Naude  finds  it  necessary  to 
defend  his  good  name  in  his  Apologie  ponr  les  grands  per- 
sonnages  fanssement  accuses  de  maqie. 

SCOT,  Reginald  (c.  1 538-1599),  was  the  son  of  Richard, 
third  son  of  Sir  John  Scot  of  Scotshall,  Smeeth  (Kent), 
studied  at  Hart  Hall  in  Oxford,  and  afterwards  lived  in 
.studious  retirement  at  Smeeth,  dying  in  1599.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  very  remarkable  book,  The  Discoverie  of 
Witchcraft,  the  object  of  which  was  to  put  an  end  to  the 
cruel  persecution  of  witches,  by  showing  that  "  there  will 
be  found  among  our  Witches  only  two  sorts  ;  the  one  so7-t 
being  such  by  imputation,  as  so  thought  of  by  otters  (and 


these  are  abused  and  not  abusers),  the  o!/ier  by  aceeptctio:'^ 
as  being  willing  so  to  be  accounted,  and  these  be  meei 
Cosencrs."  This  thesis  is  worked  out  in  sixteen  book.-, 
with  great  learning  and  acuteness,  in  a  spirit  of  righteous 
indignation  against  the  witchmongers.  Scot  was  far  in 
advance  of  his  time,  and  his  book,  of  which  the  first 
edition  appeared  in  1584,  was  burned  by  order  of  King 
James  I.  The  book  is  still  interesting,  not  only  as  having 
anticipated  Bekker  by  a  century,  but  for  the  great  ma'Sa 
of  curious  details  as  to  every  branch  of  so-called  witchcraft 
which  it  contains.  It  also  takes  up  natural  magic  and 
conjuring  at  considerable  length  (bk.  xiii.),  and  contains 
an  argument  against  "  alchymistry  "  (bk.  iiv.). 

Scot  also  publi:,lied  in  1574  A  pcrfk  Flnt/orme  of  a  noppe 
Oardcn  (3d  ed..  157S),  which  is  noteworthy  as  liaviiif;  originated 
the  cultivation  of  the  hop  in  Englaml.  A  second  edition  of  the 
Discoverie  appeai-ed  iu  1651  and  a  third  in  1665  ;  the  latter  con* 
tained  nine  new  chapters,  prefi.'ced  by  on  anonynions  hand  to  bk. 
XV.  of  the  Discoverie,  and  the  addition  of  a  second  book  to  the 
"Discourse  concerning  Angels  and  Spirits." 

See  B.  Xicln-lsou's  S^Ws  Oisc^^very  of  W itch': raft,  London,  1SS6. 

SCOTER,  a  word  of  doubtful  origin,  perhaps  a  variant 
of  "Scout,"  one  of  the  many  local  nanie.i  shared  in  com- 
mon by  the  Guillemot  (vol.  xi.  p.  262)  and  the  Razorbill 
ho\.  XX.  p.  302),  or  perhaps  primarily  connected  with  Coot 
(vol.  vi.  p.  341),^  the  English  name  of  the  Anas  nigra  of 
Linnteus,  which  with  some  allied  species  has  been  justifiably 
placed  in  a  distinct  genus,  CEdemia  (often  misspelt  Oidemia) 
— a  name  coined  in  reference  to  the  swollen  appearance  of 
the  base  of  the  bilL  The  Scoter  is  also  very  generally 
known  around  the  British  coasts  as  the  "  Black  Duck " 
from  the  male  being,  with  the  exception  of  a  stripe  of 
orange  that  runs  dpwn  the  ridge  of  the  bill,  wholly  of  that 
colour.  In  the  representative  American  form,  (E.  ameri- 
cana,  the  protuberance  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  black  in  the 
European  bird,  is  orange  as  well.  Of  all  Ducks  the  Scoter 
has  the  most  marine  habits,  keeping  the  sea  in  all  weathers, 
and  rarely  resorting  to  land  except  for  the  purpose  of  breed- 
ing. Even  in  summer  small  flocks  of  Scoters  may  generally 
be  seen  in  the  tideway  at  the  mouth  of  any  of  the  larger 
Britisii  rivers  or  iu  mid-channel,  while  in  autumn  and 
winter  these  flocks  are  so  increased  as  to  number  thousands 
of  individuals,  and  the  water  often  looks  black  with  them. 
A  second  species,  the  Velvet-Duck,  CE.  fusca,  of  much  larger 
size,  distinguished  by  a  white  spot  under  each  eye  and  a 
white  bar  on  each  wing,  is  far  less  abundant  than  the  for- 
mer, but  examples  of  it  are  occasionally  to  be  seen  iu  com- 
pany with  the  commoner  one,  and  it  too  has  its  American 
counterpart,  (E.  velirtina  ;  while  a  third,  only  known  as  a 
straggler  to  Europe,  the  Surf-Duck,  CE.  perspicillata,  with 
a  white  patch  on  the  crown  and  another  on  the  nape,  and  a 
curiously  jiarticoloured  bill,  is  a  not  uncommon  bird  in 
Xorth-American  wat«rs.  All  the  species  of  (Edemia,  like 
most  other  Sea-Ducks,  have  their  true  home  in  arctic  or 
subarctic  couutrie-s,  but  the  Scoter  itself  is  said  to  breed 
occasionally  in  Scotland  (Zoologist,  s.s.  p.  18G7).  The 
females  disiilay  little  of  the  deep  sable  hue  that  charac- 
terizes their  partners,  but  are  attired  in  soot-colour,  varied, 
especially  beneath,  with  brownish  white.  The  flesh  of  all 
these  birds  has  an  exceedingly  strong  taste,  and,  after 
much  controversy,  was  allowed  by  the  authorities  to  rank 
as  fish  in  the  ecclesiastical  dietary  (cf.  Graindorge,  Traite 
de  I'origine  des  Macreuses,  Caen,  1680:  and  Corresjxind- 
ence  of  John  Say,  Ray  Soc.  ed.,  p.  148). 

*  In  the  former  case  tlie  derivation  seems  to  be  from  the  0.  Fr. 
Escoicte,  and  that  from  the  Latin  auscidtare  {comp.  Skeat,  Elymot. 
Dictionary,  p.  533),  but  in  the  latter  from  tlie  Dutch  Koct,  which  is 
said  to  be  of  Celtic  extraction — cirtinr  {op.  cil.,  p.  134).  Tlie  French 
.Macrcitse,  possibly  from  the  Latin  inncer,  indicating  a  bird  that  may 
be  e.iten  in  Lent  or  on  the  fast  days  of  the  Roman  Church,  is  of  doubla 
signification,  meaning  in  the  south  of  France  a  Coot  and  in  the  nortli  .- 
Scoter.  By  the  wild-fowlers  of  parts  of  North  America  Scoters  ar 
c-jT.niouly  called  Coot^. 


471 


SCOTLAND 

PART  I.— HISTORY. 


1.  Roman  Period. — Tlie  first  certoLa  lines  of  the  history 
of  Scotland  were  written  by  the  Romans.  Their  account 
of  its  partial  conquest  and  occupation  for  more  than 
three  hundred  years  gives  the  earliest  facts  to  which 
.-.grico  fixed  d^tes  can  be  assigned.  The  in%asion  commenced 
n'b  cai  i^.y  Jvdius  Ccesar  reached  in  Agricola's  last  campaign 
p-i«ns,  ijjjjita  never  afterwards  exceeded.  It  was  in  the  last  year 
of  Vespasian's  life  that  Julius  Agricola,  the  ablest  general 
bred  in  his  camp,  came  to  command  the  army  in  Britain. 
Landing  in  midsummer  7S,  he  at  once  commenced  a  cam- 
paign against  Wales.  In  his  second  campaign  he  passed 
the  Solway  and,  defeating  the  tribes  of  Galloway,  introduced 
rudiments  of  Roman  civilization  in  the  district  where  Ninian 
taught  the  rudiments  of  Christianity  three  centuries  later. 
This  was  the  first  conquest  within  modern  Scotland.  Two 
main  roads,  of  which  traces  can  still  be  seen,  mark 
his  advance  :  the  western,  from  Carlisle  through  Dumfries 
and  Lanark,  extends  across  the  Clyde  to  Camelon  on  the 
Carron ;  and  the  eastern,  from  Bremeniura  (High  Rie- 
chester)  in  Northumberland,  passes  through  Roxburgh 
md  Lothian  to  the  Forth  at  Cramond.  Next  year  Agri- 
cola  subdued  unknown  tribes,  reached  the  estuary  of  the 
Tay,  and  occupied  camps  at  various  points  of  central 
Scotland,  in  the  future  shires  of  Stirling  and  Perth. 
Traces  of  them  are  still  visible  at  Bochastle  near  Callander, 
Dalginross  near  Comrie,  Fendoch  on  the  Almond,  Invcr- 
almond  at  the  junction  of  the  Almond  with  the  Tay  near 
Perth,  Ardargie  on  the  north  of  the  Ochils,  and  thegreat 
camp  at  Ardoch  south  of  CriefT.  Tlie  fourth  year  of  his 
command  was  devoted  to  the  construction  of  a  line  of  forts 
between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  This  barrier,  strength- 
ened by  a  wall  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  guarded 
the  conquests  already  made  against  the  Caledonians — the 
general  Latin  name  of  the  northern  tribes  of  the  forests 
and  mountains,  the  Highlanders  of  later,  times — and,  in 
connexion  with  camps  already  occupied  in  the  lowlands  of 
Perthshire,'  formed  the  base  for  further  operations.  In 
the  fifth  year  Agricola  crossed  the  Clyde,  and,  without 
making  any  permanent  conquest  on  the  western  mainland, 
viewed  from  Cantyre  tlie  Coast  of  Ireland.  Statements 
by  one  of  its  chiefs  as  to  the  character  and  factions  of  that 
country,  whose  ports  were  already  known  to  Roman  mer- 
chants, led  to  the  opinion  communicated  to  Tacitus  by 
Agricola,  that  with  a  single  legion  and  a  few  auxiliaries 
he  could  reduce  it  to  subjection.  The  number  of  legions 
in  the  Roman  army  of  Britain  was  fi.xed  at  five,  besides 
auxiliaries  and  cavalry, — a  total  of  perhaps  50,000  men. 
The  resistance  of  northern  Britain  explains  why  the  easier 
conquest  was  not  undertaken.  A  year  was  required  to 
explore  the  estuaries  of  tlie  Forth  and  the  Tay  with  the 
fleet.  The  absence  of  camps  indicates  that  no  attempt 
was  made  to  conquer  the  peninsula  of  Fife,  perliajjs  a 
separate  kingdom ;  and  '  Agricola  iireparcd  to  advance 
against  the  Caledonians.  Two  years'  fighting,  although 
Tacitus  chronicles  only  an  assault  on  the  advanced  camp  of 
the  IXth  legion  (at  Lintrose  (?)  near  Coupar  Angus),  passed 
before  the  final  engagement  known  in  history  as  the  battle 
of  the  Grampians  (84).  It  was  probably  fought  in  the  hilly 
c ijuntry  of  the  Stormont  near  Blairgowrie,  the  Celts  descend- 
ing from  strongholds  in  the  lowest  spurs  of  the  Grampians 
and  attacking  the  Romans,  whose  camp  lay  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Isla  and  the  Tay.  It  decided  that  the  Roman 
conquwt  was  to  stop  at  the  Tay.  Galgacus,  tlie  Caledonian 
leader,  was,  according  to  the  Roman  liistorian,  defeated ; 
but    in    the  following   winter  Agricola   retreated  to   the 


camps  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  while  the  fleet  73-120. 
was  sent  round  Britain.  Starting  probably  from  the 
Forth  and  rounding  the  northern  capes,  it  returned  after 
establishing  the  fact,  already  suspected,'  and  of  so  much 
consequence  in  future  history,  that  Britain  was  an  island,. — 
planting  .during  its  progress  the  Roman  standard  on  the 
Orkneys,  which  had  for  several  -centuries  been  known  by 
report,  and  sighting  Shetland,  the  Thule  of  earlier' navi- 
gators. Agricola,  \vith  one  legion  —  probably  the  IXth, 
which  had  suffered  most-;— 'was  now  recalled  by  Domitian. 

The  absence  of  any  notice  of  Britain  for  t'sventy  years 
implies  the  cessation  of  further  advances, — a  change  of 
policy  due  to  -the  reverses  in  the  Dacian  War  and  the 
financial  condition  of  the  empire. 

The  indefatigable  Hadrian  came  to  Britain  (120)  'with  Qa- 
the'VIJh  legion,  named  Victrix,  which  replaced,  the  IXth.'"*"' 
He  began,  and  his  faveurite  general  Aulus  'Plautorius  '"  ' 
Nepos  completed,  between ,  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  near 
Newcastle  and  the  Solway  near  Carlisle,  the  great  wall 
of  stone  (see  Hadrian,  Wall  of),  about  80  miles  uft 
length,  16  feet  high,  and  8  feet  thick,  protected  on 
the  north  by  a  trench  34  feet  wide  and  9  deep,  with 
two  parallel  earthen  ramparts  and  a  trench  on  the  south, — 
proving  the  line  required  defence  on  both  sides.  Massive 
fragments  of  the  wall,  its  stations,  ^castles,  and  protecting 
camps,  with  the  foundation  of  a  bridge  over  the  North 
Tyne,  may  be  still  seen.  It  was  garrisoned  by  the  Vlth 
legion,  and  by  the  Xlth  and  XXth,  which  remained 
throughout  the  whole  Roman  occupation.  The  conquests 
of  Agricola  in  what  is  modern  Scotland  were  for  a  tima 
abandoned.  Hadrian's  wall  was  the  symbol  of  the  strength 
of  Rome,  and  also  of  the  valour  of  the  northern  Britons. 
There  must  have  been  a  stubborn  resistance  to  induce  the 
conquerors  of  the  world  to  set  a  limit  to  tlieir  province, 
though  the  roads  through  the  wall  showed  they  did  not 
intend  this  limit  to  be  permanent.  The  first  step  had 
been  taken.  The  country  between  the  Tyne  and  Solway 
and  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  including  the  southern  Lowlands 
of  Scotland,  was  now  within  the  scope  of  Roman  history,  if 
not  yet  of  Roman  civilization.  The  country  north  of  the  last 
two  rivers  remained  barbarous  and  unknown  under  its  Celtic 
chiefs.  Hadrian  had  thus  resumed  the  task  of  Agricola, 
in  one  of  the  rapid  campaigns  by  which  he  consolidated 
the  empire  through  visits  to  its  most  distant  parts ;  but  it 
is  doubtful  whether  he  jiassed  beyond  the  wall,  which 
continued  to  separate  the  Romans  from  the  barbarians. 
In  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Antoninus  Pius,  LoUius 
Urbicus  recovered  the  country  from  the  wall  of  Hadrian 
to  the  forts  of  Agricola,  and  built  an  earthen  rampart 
about  half  the  length  of  the  southern  vail,  20  feet  high 
and  24  thick,  protected  on  the  north  by  a  trench  40  feet 
wide  and  20  deep.  It  was  known  later  as  Grim's  or 
Graham's  dyke.  Remains  may  yet  bo  seen  between 
Carriden  near  Borrowstounness  on  the  Forth  and  AVcst 
Kilpatrick  on  the  Clyde,  with  forts  either  then  or  sub- 
sccjuently  erected  at  intermediate  station.s,  connected  by  a 
military  road  on  the  south  of  the  wall. 

About  this  period  Ptolciny  composwl  t)io  first  gcogr.ai>Iiy  of  tlio  Pto'icny's 
world,  illustrated  by  ni.ips — prob.-ibly  constructed  Bomewhat  later  g^ot^-pliy- 
— of  Irel.ind  and  Britain,  still  called  Albion.'     South  of  modem 
Scotland  tlie  plan  and  description  of  the  distances  arc  generally 
accurate,  but  north  of  the  Solway  (Itunic  yEstuaiium)  and  the 
"Wear  (?'Vedra)  the  island  is  fi^ircd  as  lying  west  and  east  instead 

'  His  information  inxtst  have  conic  from  Roman  ollicerd,  who,  wo 
know,  studied  this  br.inch  of  the  military  art,  as  maps  have  been 
found  painted  on  the  iKtrticos  of  their  viUad 


472 


SCOTLAND 


[m^rXOllV. 


161-3Ci.  of  north  and  south.  Learacfl  ingenuity  corrects  this  error  and,  by 
other  niodiiicatious  and  the  use  of  a  few  points  deemed  certain, 
applies  the  names  of  Ptolemy  to  places  on  the  map  of  modern 
Srotland,  But  the  certain  points  ore  almost  confined  to  the  Clyde 
(Glotta  jEstuanuin),  tho  Forth  (Boderia  jEstuariuni),  the  Tay  (Tava 
J^stii.iriniii),  antl  pcrlwps  the  Wear  (Vcdra)  and  tlio  With  (Novius), 
the  Caledonian  Wood  {Caledonia  Silva),  and  the  Orkneys  (Oreades). 
Even  if  tlio  other  identifications  were  clear,  it  would  not  add  much 
to  our  knowh'dgO  of  ancient  Scotland.  The  names  of  Ptolemy  aio 
names  on  his  map  and  in  books  only.  No  tribe  (except  the 
Calcdonii),  no  town,  no  river  (i-xccpt  the  Forth  and  Clyde  and 
Tay),  no  island  {oi^cept  tlia  Orkneys'),  was,  so  far  as  we  know, 
called  before  or  since  by  tho  names  which  there  appear.  No  in- 
scription or  coin  confirms  them.  No  mountains  in  tiiia  land  of 
mountains  are  to  be  found  on  tho  plan  of  the  geographer.  ,  Etymo- 
Icical  cojijectnrr,  .Tfter  allowance  for  mispronunciation  and  enors 
of  transcribois,  fails  to  reconcile  tho  names  of  Ptolemy  with  tho 
oldest  nanips  of  Celtic  origin  still  retained  by  the  rivers  and  hills. 
Yet  the  attempt  represents  tlie  highest  knowledge  embodied  in 
writing  to  which  the  Romans  attained  of  this  distant  and  disputed 

Iiart  of  tlie  empire,  for  the  Itincjaries,  except  the  forged  one  attri- 
tnted  to  Richard  o?  Cirencester,  stop  at  Hadrian's  wall.  His 
treatise  remained  until  the  revival  of  learning;  the  only  written 
geographical  descrijitiou  of  the  country  from  wliieli  the  learned 
could  picture  northern  Britain.  With  all  its  imperfections  and 
mistakes,  it  conveyed  in  rough  outline  the  figure  of  a  country  to 
tho  west  of  tho  European  continent,  to  tho  north  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Britain,  to  the  cast  of  Ireland,  snrroujidod  by  the 
German  Olciu,  the  Northern  Ocean,  and  tho  Irish  Channel,  with 
bold  pioniontoyies  and  many  livei-s  (several  tidal),  peopled  b3- 
various  tribes,  its  towns  chiefly  on  the  rivers  or  the  coast,  and  in 
its  centre  the  vast  forest  to  which  the  Caledonians  gave  or  from 
which  they  received  their  name,  itself  the  northern  ]iart  of  the 
largest  British  island,  with  groups  of  smaller  isles  lying  off  its 
northern  and  western  shores.  This  region  was  unknown  to  Caesar 
and  imperfectly  known  to  Tacitus, — the  only  writer  of  the  first 
Tadtus's  century  to  uhom  we  can  resort.  Yet  the  description  of  the 
arcouut  Britons  by  the  greatest  historical  genius  of  Rome,  based  ou  the 
cf  iuha-  account  of  one  of  its  greatest  generals,  attempts  a  discrimination 
l:tants.  between  the  Celtic  tribes  first  and  those  afterwards  conquered, 
which  may  perhaps  be  applied  to  tlio  inhabitants  of  the  north  as 
contrasted  with  those  of  tlie  south  of  Britain. 

"Whether  the  inhabitants  of  Britain  were  indigenous  or 
foreigners,  being  barbarian,  tliey  did  not  take  the  trouble  to 
inquire.  The  dilhMent  character  of  their  bodily  appearance  in 
dilierent  parts  of  the  isl.ind  gave  rise  to  arguments.  The  red  hair 
and  big  limbs  of  the  natives  of  Caledonia  point  to  a  German  origin. 
The  coloured  faces  of  the  Silures,  their  hair  generally  plaited,  and 
Spain  being  opposite  give  credit  to  the  opinion  that  the  ancient 
Iberi  had  migrated  and  occupied  these  settlements.  Those  nearest 
tho  Gauls  were  like  them,  whether  on  account  of  the  enduring  force 
of  descent  or  the  position  of  the  sky  determining  in  lands  adjoin- 
ing the  character  of  the  races.  On  a  general  view  it  is  credible 
thai  the  Gauls  occupied  the  neighbouring  island.  You  may  detect 
the  same  sacred  rites  and  superstitions.  ^  There  is  not  much 
difference  in  their  language.  There  is  the  same  daring  in  demand- 
ing, the  same  fear  in  declining  danger.  The  Britons  exhibit 
greater  fierceness,  as  a  long  peace  has  not  yet  softened  them.  For 
we  have  heard  that  the  Gauls  also  were  distinguished  iu  war,  until 
sloth  came  with  ease  and  valour  was  lost  with  freedom.  This 
too  has  been  the  case  with  the  Britons  formerly  conquered.  The 
rest  remain  what  the  Gauls  were.  Their  strength  is  iu  their  foot  ; 
some  tribes,  however,  fight  also  from  chariots.  The  noble  drives  ; 
his  followers  are  in  front.  Formerly  they  obeyed  kings.  Now 
tliey  are  disti-acted  by  parties  and  factions  amongst  their  chiefs, 
and  the  want  of  common  counsel  is  most  useful  to  us.  An  agree- 
ment between  two  or  three  states  to  resist  a  common  danger  is 
rare  ;  so  while  they  fight  singly  tho  whole  are  defeated." 

In  the  account  of  the  battle  of  the  Grampian  Mount  and  the 
speech  of  Galgacus  there  is  little  that  is  local  or  individual.  AVhat 
the  Celtic  chief  said  iu  an  unknown  tongue  can  scarcely  have  been 
literally  interpreted  to  the  Romans.  The  historian  trained  in 
oratoi-y  embodies  in.  Latin  eloquence  the  universal  sentiments  of 
freedom.  It  may  be  thought,  however,  that  the  soil  and  air  of 
Scotland  favour  independence  of  action  and  thought,  and  that  the 
words,  whether  of  Tacitus  or  of  Galgacus,  contain  an  uiiconscious 
prophecy  of  passages  in  its  future  annals  and  traits  in  the  char- 
acter of  its  people  not  yet  obliterated.  In  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  ei-a  Scotland  was  the  scene  of  events  which  belong  to' 
universal  history. 

The  necessity  of  the  walls  of  Hadrian  and  Antonine  to 
protect  the  Roman  province  soon  appeared.  It  is  doubt- 
ful bow  long  or  during  what  intervals  the  countrj'  between 
them  remained  subject.  Few  coins  of  emperors  later  than 
Antonine  liave  been  found  to  the  noith  of  Hadrian'^  \va!L 


la.liian 

0 

cvc-nis. 


In  the  reign  of  Aureliu.%  the  philosophic  emperor,  war  was 
not  encouraged ;  but  Calphurnius  Agricola  had  to  be  scut 
(161)  as  legate  and  proprietor  to  Britain  to  prevent  incur- 
sions of  the  northern  tribes.  In  that  of  Commodus  a 
more  formidable  invasion  passed  the  wall,  but  Ulpiu^ 
Marcellus  drove  back  the  Britons  and  repaired  it,  gaining 
for  Commodus  the  title  of  Britannicus.  While  Septiniiua 
Soverus  was  removing  rivals  from  his  path,  his  legate, 
Virius  Lupus,  putf^IiaseJ  peace  (201)  from  the  Meata.^,  a 
tribe  of  central  Scotland  now  first  named,  who  along  with 
the  Caledonii  sujiersede  the  older  designations  of  Tacitus 
and  Ptolemy  for  the  population  iu  the  vicinity  and  to  tho 
north  of  Antonine's  wall,  until  in  the  latter  half  of  the  4th 
century  the  Picts  and  Scots  appear.  Seven  years  later 
(208)  Severus,  with  his  sons  Caracalla  and  CJeta,  came, 
like  Edward  I.  in  hia  last  campaign,  worn  out  in  body 
but  not  in  spirit,  to  Britain.^  After  rejjairing  the 
breaches  in  Hadrian's  wall  he  not  only  reconquered  the 
country  between  it  and  the  wall  of  Antonine,  which  be 
restored,  but,  passing  beyond  the  steps  of  Agricola, 
carried  the  Roman  eagles  to  the  most  noithern  points 
they  reached.  The  traces  of  Roman  roads  from  Falkirk 
to  Stirling,  through  Strathearn  to  Perth,  thence  through 
Forfar,  Mearns,  and  Aberdeen  to  the  Moray  Firth,  and 
of  Roman  camps  at  Wardykes  (Keithock),  Raedykes 
(Stonehaven),  Norman  Dykes  (on  the  Dee),  and  Raedykes 
on  the  Ythan  belong  to  this  period  and  represent  an 
attempt  to  subdue  or  overawe  the  whole  island.  The 
historian  Dion  does  not  conceal  the  failure  of  the  enter- 
prise, which  he  ascribes  to.  the  illness  that  terminated  in 
the  death  of  Severus  at  York  (211).  He  adds  a  little  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  Caledonians  by  describing  the 
painting  of  their  bodies  with  forms  of  animals,  their  scanty 
clothing  and  iron  ornaments,  their  arms — a  sword,  small 
shield,  and  spear,  witJioilt  helmets  or  breastplates — their 
chariots,  and  their  mode  of  warfare  by  rapid  attack  and  ns 
rapid  retreat  to  the  forest  and  the  marsh.  Being  without 
towns,  they  lived  on  the  produce  of  herds  and  the  chase, 
not  on  fish,  though  they  had  plenty.  Their  mode  ot 
government  he  calls  democratic,  doubtless  from  the  absence 
of  any  conspicuous  king  rather  than  of  chiefs. 

From  the  death  of  Severus  to  the  accession  of  Constan- 
tius  Chlorus,  a  period  of  nearly  a  century,  the  history  of 
northern  Britain  is  unknown.  In  the  first  (305)  of  the 
two  years,  of  his  reign  Constantius  defeated  the  tribes 
between  the  walls  called  by  Eumenius  the  Panegyric* 
"the  Caledonians  and  other  Picts," — a  name  now  first 
heard,  and  by  this  association  identified  with  the  Cak^do 
nians.  Next  year  Constantius  died  at  York ;  and  foi 
more  than  fifty  years  a  veil  is  again  drawn  over  northern 
Britain.  It  was  during  this  period  that  Constantine  was 
converted  to  Christianity,  which  his  father  Constantius 
had  favoured  during  the  persecutions  of  Diocletian.  So 
rapid  was  the  progress  of  the  church  in  the  British 
province  that  only  ten  years  after  the  martyi-dom  of  St 
Alban  Celtic  bishops  of  York,  London,  and  Caerleon — 
probably  the  place  of  that  name  on  the  L^sk — were  present 
at  the  council  of  Aries.  In  360  the  Scots  are  for  the 
first  time  named,  by  Ammianus  ^larcellinus,  who  records 
their  descent  along  with  the  Picts  upon  the  Roman  pro- 
vince in  terms  which  imply  tliat  they  had  before  passed 
the  southern  wall.  Four  years  later  the  Picts,  Sa.xons, 
Scots,  and  Attacotts  are  said  by  the  same  writer  to  have 
caused  the  Britons  perpetual  anxiety ;  but  Theodosius, 
father  of  the  emperor  of  the  'same  name,  repulsed  them 

^  Papinian,  the  grefet  jurist,  then  administered  justice  at  York. 
Whether  the  Romnu  law  so  introduced  survived  in  any  part  of  modent 
England  is  a  problem  not  yet  solved  ;  it  eertaiuly  flid  not  beyond  the 
wall.  The  Ronmu  substratum  of  Scottish  lav.-  w;;s  of  later  origin, 
derived  chic;Iy  from  Ihc  canoa  law  of  tlic  church. 


Stveru* 

in 

Britcin. 


tins  1.0 
depart- 
ure of 


EAKLycELTIC  I'KUIoD.J 


SCOTLAND 


473 


Baman 
oocupa- 
tiou. 


Bnu  or 


and  recovwed  tlie  country  between  the  walls,  which 
became  (jGS)  a  fifth  province  of  Britain,  called  in  honour 
jf  the  reeling  emperor  Valentia.  It  remained  so  for  a 
.■ery  brief  space:  the  revolt  of  Maximus  (391),  which 
■educed  th-  ^oniau  troops  to  two  legions,  led  to  fresh  raids 
of  the  K.-«  and  Scots.  A  legion  sent  by  Stilicho  drove 
them  back  to  the  northern  wall.  But  it  was  soon  recalled, 
and  the  garrisons  were  permanently  removed  prior  to  409. 

Tlie  Roman  empire  in  Britain  left  wijely  ilifferciit  results  in  the 
southern  and  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  island.  The  former 
became  an  organized,  and  in  the  centres  of  population  a  civilized 
province,  in  whicli  Latin  was  spoken  by  the  educated,  the  arts 
cultivated,  Roman  law  administered,  and  Cliristianity  introduced. 
The  latter,  with  the  partial  exception  of  the  district  south  of 
Antonine's  wall,  remained  in  the  possession  of  bailjarous  heathen 
races,  whose  customs  had  alteied  little  since  Roman  writers 
described  tliem  as  similar  to,  though  ruder  than,  those  of  the  Celts 
in  Gaul  before  its  conquest.  The  condition  of  the  population  be- 
tween the  walls  was  probably  intermediate  between  that  of  the 
southern  provincial  Britons  and  that  of  the  northern  savages  of 
the  same  original  Celtic  stock,  more  nearly  resembling  the  latter, 
perhaps  not  unlike  the  condition  of  the  people  of  \Vales,  which 
the  Romans  in  like  manner  overran,  but  could  not  hold,  or  of 
Afghanistan  as  compared  with  British  India.  No  Roman  towns 
existed,  and  only  one  or  two  villas  have  been  found  north  of 
York,  and  quite  near  to  that  place.  The  camp,  the  altar,  the 
sepulchral  monument,  possibly  a  single  temple  (the  mysterious 
Arthur's  Oven  or  Julius's  Hof  on  the  Carron,  now  destroyed,  but 
described  by  Boece  and  Buchanan  and  figured  by  Camden),  the 
stations  along  the  wall,  the  roads  with  their  milestones,  a  number 
of  coins  (chiefly  prior  to  the  2d  century),  and  a  few  traces  of  baths 
ire  the  only  vestiges  of  Roman  occupation  in  this  part  of  Britain, 
So  completely  had  Bntain  passed  beyond  the  serious  attention  of 
the  emperor  of  the  East  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century 
IJelisarius,  Justinian's  general,  sarcastically  ofiered  it  to  the  Goths 
in  exchange  for  Sicily  ;  while  Procopius,  the  Byzantine  historian, 
lias  nothing  to  tell  of  it  except  that  a  wall  was  built  across  it  by 
the  ancients,  the  direction  of  which  he  supposes  to  have  been  from 
'lorth  to  south,  separating  the  fruitful  and  populous  east  from  the 
ijorren  serpent-haunted  western  district,  and  the  strange  fable  that 
its  natives  were  e»ctised  from  tribute  to  the  kings  of  the  Franks  in 
return  for  the  service  of  feiTying  the  souls  of  the  dead  from  the 
mainland  to  the  shores  of  Britain. 

2.  Early  Celtic  Period  to  Union  of  Pids  and  Scots  by 
/lennet/i  J/acalpine. — It  is  to  the  Celts,  the  first  known 
inhabitants  of  Britain,  that  our  inquiry  ne.xt  turns.  This 
pf^ple  were  not  indigenous,  but  came  by  sea  to  Britain. 
A  conjecture,  not  yet  proved,  identifies  as  inhabitants  of 
Britain  before  the  Celts  a  branch  of  the  race  now  repre- 
sented in  Europe  only  by  the  Basques.  Amongst  many 
names  of  British  tribes  in  Latin  writers  three  occur,  two 
with  increasing  frequency,  as  the  empire  drew  near  its 
close  —  Britons,  Picts,  aijd  Scots  —  denoting  distinct 
branches  of  the  Celts.  Britain  was  tlie  Latin  name  for 
the  larger  island  and  Britons  for  its  inhabitants ;  Albion, 
a  more  ancient  title,  has  left  traces  in  English  poetry, 
and  in  the  old  liame  Alba  or  Albany  for  northern  Scot- 
land. The  Britons  in  Roman  times  occupied,  if  not  the 
whole  island,  at  least  as  far  north  as  the  Forth  and  Clyde. 
Their  language,  British,  called  later  Cymric,  survives  in 
modern  Welsh  and  the  Breton  of  Brittany.  Corni.sh, 
which  became  e.xtinct  in  the  17th  century,  was  a  dialect 
>f  the  same  speech.  Its  extent  northwards  is  marked  by 
the  Cumbraes — the  Islands  of  Cymry  in  the  Clyde — and 
I  'umberland,  a  district  originally  stretching  from  the  Clyde 
10  the  Mersey. 

The  Plots,  a  Latin  name  for  the  northern  tribes  who 
•  preserved  longest  the  custom  of  painting  their  bodies, 
called  themselves  Cruithne.  Their  original  settlements 
x[i\>ea.T  to  have  been  in  the  Orkneys,  the  north  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  north-cast  of  Ireland — the  modern  counties 
of  Antrim  and  Down.  They  spread  in  Scotland,  before  or 
shortly  after  the  Romans  left,  as  far  south  as  the-Pentland 
Hills,  which,  like  the  Pentland  Firth,  are  thought  to  pre- 
.■•■■rve  th^ir  name,  occupied  Fife,  and  perhaps  left  a  de- 
'Achnient  in  Galloway.     Often  crossing,  probably  some- 


times  using,  the  deserted  •n-all  of  Hadriaa,  they  caused  it 
to  acquire  their  name, — a  name  of  awe  to  the  provincial 
Britons  and  their  English  conquerors.  Their  langua<'e, 
though  Celtic,  is  still  a  problem  difiicult  to  solve,  as  so  few- 
words  have  been  preserved.  Its  almost  complete  absorp- 
tion in  that  of  the  Gaels  or  Scots  suggests  that  it  did  not 
difl'er  widely  from  theirs,  and  with  this  agrees  the  fact 
that  Columba  and  his  followers  had  little  difficulty  in 
preaching  to  them,  though  they  sometimes  required  an 
interpreter.  Some  philologists  believe  it  to  have  been 
more  allied  to  Cymric,  and  even  to  the  Cornish  variety ; 
but  the  proof  is  inconclusive. 

The  Scots  came  originally  to  Ireland,  one  of  whose 
names  from  the  6th  to  the  13th  century  was  Scotia; 
Scotia  Major  it  was  called  after  part  of  northern  Britain 
in  the  11th  centnry  had  acquired  the  same  name.  Irish 
traditions  represent  the  Scots  as  Milesians  from  Spain. 
Their  Celtic  name  Gaidhil,  Goidel,  or  Gael  appears  more 
akin  to  that  of  the  natives  of  Gaul.  They  had  joined  the 
Picts  in  their  attack  on  the  Roman  province  in  the  4th 
century,  and  perhaps  had  already  settlements  in  the  west 
of  Scotland;  but  the  transfer  of  the  name  was  due  to  the 
rise  and  progress  of  the  tribe  called  Dalriad,  which  migrated 
from  Dalriada  in  the  north  of  Antrim  to  Argyll  and  the 
Isles  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century.  Their  language, 
Gaidhelic,  was  the  ancient  form  of  tlie  Irish  of  Ireland 
and  the  Gaelic  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders.  No  clear 
conclusion  has  been  reached  as  to  the  meaning  of  Briton, 
Cruithne,  Scot,  and  Gael. 

The  order  of  the  arrival  of  the  three  divisions  of  the 
Celtic  race  and  the  extent  of  the  islands  they  occupied  are 
uncertain.  Bede  in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century  gives 
the  most  probable  account. 

"  This  island  at  the  present  time  contains  five  nations,  the  Angles, 
Britons,  Scots,  Picts,  and  Latins,  each  in  its  own  dialect  cultivat- 
ing one  and  the  same  sublime  study  of  divine  truth.  .  ,  .  The 
Latin  tongue  by  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  has  become  common  to 
all  the  rest.  At  first  this  island  had  no  other  inhabitants  but  the 
Britons,  from  whom  it  derived  its  name,  and  who,  carried  over  into 
Britain,  fl5  is  reported,  from  Armorica,  possessed  themselves  of  the 
southern  parts.  When  they  had  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
greatest  part  of  the  island,  beginning  at  the  south,  the  Picts  from 
Scythia,  as  is  reported,  putting  to  sea  in  a  few  long  ships,  were 
driven  by  the  winds  beyond  the  shores  of  Britain,  and  anived  on 
the  northern  coast  of  Ireland,  where,  finding  the  nation  of  the  Scots, 
they  begged  to  be  allowed  to  settle  among  them,  but  could  not 
succeed  in  obtaining  their  request  The  Scots  answered  that  the 
island  could  not  contain  them  both,  but  '  we  can  give  you  good 
advice  what  to  do  :  we  know  there  is  another  island  not  far  from 
ours,  to  the  east,  which  we  often  see  at  a  distance,  when  the  days 
are  clear.  If  you  go  thither  you  w  ill  obtain  a  settlement ,  or,  if  any 
should  oppose,  you  shall  have  our  aid.'  The  Picts  accordingly, 
sailing  over  into  Britain,  began  to  inhabit  the  noilhern  part  of  the 
island.  In  process  of  time  Britain,  after  the  Britons  and  Picts, 
received  a  third  nation,  the  Scots,  who,  migrating  from  Ireland 
under  their  leader  Renda,  either  by  fair  means  or  force  secured 
those  settlements  amongst  the  Pirts  which  they  still  possess." 
"There  is,"  he  says  in  another  passage,  "a  very  large  estuary  of  the 
sea  which  formerly  divided  the  nation  of  the  Picts  from  the  Britons, 
which  gulf  runs  from  the  west  far  into  the  lanil,  where  to  this  day 
stands  the  strong  city  of  the  Britons  called  Alclyth.  The  Scots 
arriving  on  the  north  side  of  the  estuary  settled  themselves  there 
as  in  their  own  country." 

This  statement  in  its  main  points  (apart  from  the 
country  from  which  the  Picts  are  said  to  have  come)  isi 
confirmed  by  Latin  authors,  in  whose  meagre  notices  the 
Picts  appear  before  the  Scots  are  mentioned,  and  both 
occur  later  than  the  Britons ;  by  the  legends  of  the  three 
Celtic  races ;  by  the  narratiTes  of  Gildas  and  Nennins,  the 
only  British  Celtic  historians,  the  Irish  Annah,  and  the 
Pictish  Chronicle.  It  is  in  harmony  with  the  facts  con- 
tained in  the  TAfe  of  Cotum!j<f,  written  in  tlie  7th  century, 
but  based  on  an  earlier  Life,  by  one  of  his  successors, 
Cumine,  abbot  of  lona,  who  may  have  seen  Columba,  and 
must  have  known  persons  who  had.  The  northern  Britain 
brought  before  us  in  connexion  with  Columba  in  the  latter 

XXI.  —  6o 


36S-i;th 
cem. 


Ecot>  Of 
Gaels. 


Order 
arrival 
Celtit 
races. 


474 


CJ  O  T  L  A  JN   D 


[HiSTORV, 


Conver- 
sion to 
Chris- 
tiiuily. 


bih  and  half  of  the  6th  century  i-s  peoi'lctl  uy  Cruithno  or  Picts  in 
CihwaU-the  north  and  central  Highlands,  having  their  chief  royal 
fort  on  tlic  Ness,  and  by  Scots  in  Argyi!  and  the  Isles,  as 
far  north  as  lona  and  on  the  mainland  Drumalban,  the 
mountiiiu  ridge  which  separatosiArgyll  from  Perth  and 
Inverness ;  there  is  a  British  K'^c;^  ruling  the  south-west 
from  the  rock  on  the  Clyde  <ben  known  as  Alclyth  or 
Alclyde,  now  Dumbarton ;  and  Saxony,  under  Northum- 
brian kings,  is  the  name  given  to  the  district  south  of 
the  Forth,  including  the  eastern  Lowlands,  where  by  this 
time  Angles  had  settled.  The  scarcity  of  Celtic  history  ^ 
belonging  to  Scotland  indicates  that  its  tribes  were  less 
civilized  than  their  Irish  and  Welsh  kin. 

It  is  in  the  records  of  the  Christian  church  that  we  first 
touch  historic  ground  after  the  Romans  left.  Although 
the  legends  of  Christian  superstition  are  almost  as  fabu- 
lous as  those  of  heathen  ignorance,  we  can  follow  with 
reasonable  certainty  the  conversion  of  the  Scottish  Celts. 
Three  Celtic  saints  venerated  throughout  Scottish  history 
— Ninian,  Kentigern,  Columba — Patrick,  the  patron  saint 
of  Ireland,  David,  the  patron  saint  of  Wales,  and  Cuthbert, 
the  apostle  of  Lothian  and  patron  saint  of  Durham,  be- 
longing to  the  Celtic  Church,  though  probably  not  a  Celt, 
ffiark  the  common  advance  of  the  Celtic  races  from 
heathenism  to  Christianity  between  the  end  of  the  4th 
and  the  end  of  the  6th  century.  The  conversion  of  Scot- 
land in  the  time  of  Pope  Victor  L  in  the  2d  century  is 
unhistoric,  and  the  legend  of  St  Kule  (Regulus)  having 
brought  the  relics  of  St  Andrew  in  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tius  from  Achaea  to  St  Andrews,  where  a  Pictish  king 
built  a  church  and  endowed  land's  in  h'^  honour,  is,  if 
historical  at  all,  antedated  by  some  centuries.  There  is 
no  proof  that  amongst  the  places  v/hich  the  Romans  had 
not  reached,  but  which  had  accepted  Christianity  when 
Tertullian  wrote,  there  was  any  part  of  modern  Scotland ; 
but,  as  Christian  bishops  from  Britain  without  fixed  local- 
ity begin  to  appear  in  the  4th  century,  possibly  the  first 
converts  in  Scotland  had  been  made  before  its  close. 

NlxiAN  (q.v.),  the  son  of  a  British  chief  in  Galloway  already 
Christian,  after  converting  or  reforming  his  countrymen — one  of 
his  converts  being  Tudwalla,  king  of  Alclj'de  (?  Tothael,  father  of 

*  Of  the  three  branches  of  the  Celts  which  appear  as  the  first  kuov-Ti 
inhabitants  of  Scotland  the  native  records  are  scanty  and  of  late  date, 
ilespecting  the  Britons  nothing  remains  except  the  HistOTy  of  Gildas 
in  the  6th  and  that  of  Nennius  in  the  6th  centurj-,  of  which  very 
small  parts  relate  to  Scotland  ;  the  poems  of  Aneurin  and  Taliessin, 
commonly  called  Welsh  bards,  but  perhaps  natives  of  Strathclyde  ; 
the  lives  of  saints  ;  and  a  fragment  of  criminal  law,  common  to  thera 
and  the  Scots,  preserved  at  the  time  of  its  suppression  by  Edward  I. 

Dealing  with  the  Picts  there  is  a  Latin  Chronicle  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury and  additions  of  later  date,  containing  a  valuable  list  of  kings 
in  their  own  language,  and  the  entries  in  the  Book  of  Deer  of  the  gifts 
to  that  monastery  by  the  Pictish  mormaers  (chiefs)  of  Buchan  *  but 
the  earliest  of  these  is  in  an  old  form  of  Gaelic. 

The  Scots  are  noticed  in  the  Li/e  of  Columba,  the  Dvan  Albanach 
of  the  11th  century,  a  Latin  Chronicle  of  the  12th  century,  a  few 
poems  treating  of  their  origin  and  migration,  later  Latin  tracts  de- 
scribing their  settlemeut  in  Scotland,  and  the  lives  of  saints,  not 
ivritten  in  their  existing  form  till  the  12th  century.  But  a  consider- 
able amount  of  legendary  material,  chiefly  consisting  of  additions  to 
or  glosses  oa  the  earlier  sources,  has  been  collected.  When  all  is  told, 
Scotland  has  nothing  to  compare  with  the  Irish  Annals  and  the  Welsh 
Triads,  whose  fulness  of  detail  and  fabulous  antiquity  in  the  early 
portions  raise  suspicious  as  to  the  later  which  are  perhaps  undeser\'ed. 
IL  has  no  equivalent  to  the  collection  of  laws  contained  in  the  Scnckas 
Jifor  or  Kain  Patrick  of  Ireland  and  the  Dimetian  and  Venedotian 
codes  of  Wales,  where,  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  minute  customs 
implying  a  long  settlement  in  western  lands,  there  are  traces  of  others 
that  seem  to  have  come  with  the  Celts  from  their  far-off  Eastern  birth- 
place. From  these  sources — especially  from  the  Irish  A7inals,  and  in 
particular  the  Anyials  of  Tigemach,  who  died  in  1088,  the  St/ncJironisjiis 
of  Flann  Mainistreach,  who  died  in  1056,  the  Annals  of  InnisfalUn, 
compiled  in  1215,  and  of  Ulster,  compiled  in  1498,  but  from  older 
authorities — the  dearth  of  proper  Scottish  material  has  been  sujple* 
mented  ;  but  this  source  of  information  has  to  be  used  with  caution. 
The  whole  materials  are  collected  in  the  Chronicles  of  the  Picts  and 
Scots,  edited  by  Mr  Skene  for  the  lord  clsrk  register  of  Scotland. 


NiniAn. 


Ryd  >*^^  k  Hael)— and  organizing  a  diocese,  Teut  r.s  a  nnsr>!onary 
to  the  southern  Picts,  who  lived  amongst  or  near  the  nir>unlains 
north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  in  the  modem  counties  of  Stilling, 
Perth,  and  Forfar.  His  fame  grew  with  the  church,  and  as  far 
north  as  Shetland,  as  far  south  as  W^estinoreland  and  Northumber- 
land, ohurcheM  were  dedicated  in  his  name.  His  wondcr-vorkin< 
relics  in  the  olivine  of  Candida  Casa  (at  Whithorn*  in  Galloway) 
became  an  object  of  pilgrimage  for  more  than  a  thousand  years. 
Three  otlier  missionaries  belong  to  the  period  between  Ninian  and 
Kentigern,  his  successor  amongst  tlie  Britons  of  the  west :  Palladius, 
sent  to  the  Christians  in  Ireland  by  Pope  Celestine,  died  at  Fordoun 
in  Mearns  labouring  amongst  the  Picts,  and  his  disciples  Serf  and 
Ternan  converted  respectively  the  Picts  of  Fife  and  those  of  the 
lowlands  of  Aberdeen.  Kentigern  {q.v.)  of  Strathclyde  was  sup-  Ke«iti- 
ported  by  Rydderick  or  Roderick,  called  Hael  ("  the  Liberal  ")  from  gem. 
his  bounty  to  the  church,  Columba  visited  Kentigern  at  the 
cemetery  of  Ninian,  on  the  Molendinar  Burn,  where  courtesies  were 
interchanged  between  these  representatives  of  the  two  branches  of 
the  Celtic  Church  in  western  Scotland,  shortly  before  the  British 
bishops  declined  at  the  meeting  at  St  Augustine's  oak  to  submit  to 
the  Roman  missionaiy  who  had  converted  the  Saxons  of  southern 
England.  Jocelyn  of  Furness  states  that  Kentigern  was  at  Rome 
seven  times  and  obtained  the  privilege  of  being  the  pope's  vicar 
free  from  subjection  to  any  metropolitan.  The  prince  of  Cumbria 
is  even  said  to  have  acknowledged  his  precedency.  These  are 
inventions  of  a  later  age  ;  but  the  large  possessions,  extending  over 
the  whole  western  kingdom,  conferred  by  Rydderick,  and  after  a 
long  lapse  of  time  found  by  the  inquest  of  David  I.  when  prince 
of  Cumbria  to  have  belonged  to  the  see,  may  be  historical.  He 
died  about  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century,  and  a  long  period  of 
darkness  hides  the  British  kingdom  and  church  of  Strathclyd-e. 
St  Patrick  {q.v.),  succeeding  where  Palladius  failed,  Christianized 
Ireland  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  ceutur)',  A  passage  in  Ms  Con- 
fession, if  all  of  it  applies  to  Scotland,  seems  to  prove  the  existence 
of  the  church  in  Scotland  for  two  generations  before  Patrick's  birth, 
and  the  allowance  during  these  of  marriage  to  the  clergy. 

Scotland  gave  Patrick  to  Ireland,  and  Ireland  returned  the  gift  in  Columba 
Columba.  A  rare  good  fortune  has  preserved  in  Adamnan's  Zi/e  the 
tradition  of  the  acts  of  the  greatest  Celtic  saint  of  Scotland,  and  a 
picture  of  the  monastic  Celtic  Church  in  the  6th  and  7th  centuries, 
— an  almost  solitary  fragment  of  history  between  the  last  of  the 
Roman  and  the  first  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  historians.  Bom  in  621 
at  Gartan  in  Donegal,  Columba  (q.v.)  spent  his  boyhood  at  Doire 
Eithne  near  Gartan,  his  youth  at  Jloville  on  Strangford  Lough 
under  Abbot  Finian,  calkd  the  foster-father  of  the  Irish  saints  from 
the  number  of  his  disciples.  Here  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and, 
after  completing  his  education  under  Gemmian,  a  Christian  bard, 
at  the  monastery  of  Clonard,  he  received  priest's  orders.  In  561  hd 
took  parti  in  the  battle  of  Culdrevny  (in  Connaught),  when  the 
chiefs  of  the  Hiii  Neill  (Dalriad  Scots),  his  kindred,  defeated 
Diarmid  (Diarmait),  a  king  of  eastern  Ireland.  Excommunicated 
by  the  synod  of  Teltownin  Meath,  the  country  of  Diarmid,  for  his 
share  in  the  battle — according  to  one  account  fought  at  his  instance 
— and  moved  by  missionary  zeal,  he  crossed  two  years  aftenvaids 
the  narrow  sea  which  separates  Antrijn  from  Argyll  with  twelve 
companions  and  founded  the  monastery  of  lona  (Hy),  on  the  little 
island  to  the  west  of  Mull,  given  him  by  .his  kinsman  Conall.  The 
Dalriad  Scots,  who  had  settled  in  the  western  islands  of  Scotland 
and  in  Lorn  early  in  the  6th  century,  were  already  Christians  ;  but 
Columba  soon  after  visited  the  Pictish  king  Bmde,  the  son  of 
Slailochon,  at  Craig  Phadrich,  the  isolated  hill  fort  on  the  Ness, 
whom  he  converted,  and  from  whom  he  received  a  confirmation  of 
Conall's  grant.  Columba,  on  the  death  of  Conall,  gave  the  sanction 
of  religion  to  the  succession  of  his  cousin  Aidan,  and  at  the  council 
of  Drumceat  in  Derry  obtained  the  exemption  of  the  Daliiads  of 
lona  from  tribute,  though  they  wore  still  bound  to  give  militar>' 
service  to  the  Irish  king,  the  head  of  the  Hui  Neill.  He  frequently 
revisited  Ireland  and  took  part  in  its  wars  :  the  militant  spirit  is 
strongly  marked  in  his  character  ;  but  most  of  his  time  was  devoted 
to  the  admuiistration  of  his  monastery  of  lona,  and  to  the  planting 
of  other  churches  and  religious  houses  in  the  neighbouring  isles  and 
mainland,  till  his  death  in  597.  None  of  the' remains  now  found 
in  almost  every  island — not  even  those  in  lona  itself — date  from 
his  time,  when  wood  was  still  used  for  building.  But  the  original 
foundations  of  the  churches  of  Skye  and  Tirce  were  his  work  ;  those 
extending  from  Bute  and  Cantyre— on  Islay,  Oronsay,  Colonsay, 
JIull,  Eigg,  Lewis,  Harris,  Bcnbecula,  and  even  the  distant  St 
Kilda — to  Loch  Arkaig  on  the  northern  mainland  of  Scottish 
Dalriada  are  to  be  ascribed  to  him  or  his  immediate  followers  or 
successors  in  the  abbacy,  as  well  as  those  in  the  country  of  the 
Picts,  from  the  Orkneys  to  Deer  in  Buchan.  Tlie  churches  which 
received  his  name  fartlier  south  were  later  foundations  in  his  honoiu". 
The  most  celebrated  of  his  disciples  were  Baithene,  his  successor  as 
abbot ;  Machar,  to  whom  the  church  of  Aberdeen  traces  its  origin  ; 

^  In  a  cave  at  Glasserton  rude  crosses  incised  on  stor.e — probably 
a  font— and  the  letters  SANCT.NI.P.  (?)  h^ivc  receutly  beeu  fo  M. 


E.Vr.LV   CELTIC  PtKIOD.] 


tS  C  O  T  L  A  K   D 


475 


and  Columba  s,  won  the  victoty  of  tho  cross 


Comiac,   the  na\  iijator,  the  first  missionary  to  the  Orkneys,  nho 
jierhaps  readied  the  Faroes  anj  Icelinil  ;  and  Drostan,  tlie  founder 
of  tlie  Scottisli  monastery  of  Deer. 
Celtic  Tho  character  of  the  Celtic  Church  of  Coluniba  was,  like   its 

Ciinrchof  mother  church  in  Ireland,  modified  by  migration  to  a  country  onlv 
I  oiumba.  in  small  part  Christian.     It  nus  a  missionary  church,  not  diocesan 
but  monastic,  with  an  abbot  who  was  a  presbyter,  not  a  bishop, 
for  its  head,  thougli  the  ofiice  of  bishop  for  ordination  existed,  and 
bishops  \<-oro,  in  Ireland  at  least,  more  numerous  than  in  the  later 
c-hurcJi.     It  spread,  not  by  the  erection  of  parishes  and  the  care 
of  parochial  clergy,  but  by  the  reproduction  of  similar  monasteries, 
the  homes  of  those  who  auopted'a  religious  life,  the  only  schools 
in   an  ago  of  war.      It  preferred  islands  for  its  monasteries  for 
safety,  and,  in  the  case  of  some  of  its  members,  who  sought,  in 
the  language  of  those  times,  "a  desert  in  the  ocean,"  as  hermitages 
where  they  might  live  aua  die  apai  t  from  the  world.     But  these 
were  exceptions.     The  idsi  of  tho  Celtic  monastej  j  n-as  that  of  a 
Christian  celibate  society.      Its  inmates  regarded  themselves  as 
being,  and  often  were,  members  of  a  family  or  clan,  preseiving  the 
customs  of  their  race  so  far  as  consistent  with  ceJibacy  and  religious 
discipline.     Of  eleven  successors  of  Columba  as  abbot  nine  were  of 
his  kin.     The  rule,  though  its  confession  is  |irimitive,  adapted  to 
an  infant  and  isolated  church  planted  in  a  hcatlien  world,  did  not 
Jillcr  greatly  from  that  of  later  orders.     Implicit  obedience  to  the 
superior,  poverty,  chastity,  hospitulity,  wcie  Uie  chief  -precepts. 
The  observance  of  Easter  according  to  the  ancient  cvcle,  the  use  of 
the  semicircular  instead  of  tho  coronal  tonsure,  and  a'  jieculiar  ritual 
for  mass,  and  baptism  were  its  chief  deviations  from  the  practice  of 
the  catholic  church  as  fixed  by  the  council  of  Nice,  to  which  it 
yielded  in  tho  beginning  of  the  8th  century  ;  frequent  prayer,  the 
singing  of  psalms  and  hymns,  the  reading  of  Scripture;  the  copying 
and  illuminating  of  M.SS.,  tlie  teaching  of  children  and  novices, 
and  the  labour  to  provide  and  prepare  the  necessary  food  (the  ser- 
vice of  women  being  excluded)  were  the  occupations  of  the  monks. 
A  similar  conventual  system  of  which  St  Bridget,  abbess  of  Kil dare, 
was  foundress  enlisted  the  fervour  of  her  sex,  and  had  followers  in 
Darlugdach,  abbess  of  Kildaro,  who  founded  Abernothy,  in  JEbba 
at  Coldingham,  and  in  Hilda  at  Lindisfarne.     It  was  a  form  of 
Chnsdanity  fitted  to  excite  the  wonder  and  gain  the  affection  of 
the  heathen  amongst  whom  the  monks  came,  practising  as  well  as 
jircaching  the  self-denying  doctrine  of  the  cross.    The  religion  of  the 
C«1U  is  a  shadowy  outline  on  the  page  of  history.    Notices  of  idols 
are  rare.     They  had  not  the  art  necessary  for  an  ideal  representa- 
tion of  the  human  form,  tjiough  tliey  learnt  to  decorate  the  rude 
stone  monuments  of  an  earlier  age  with  elaborate  tracery.     They 
had  no  temples.     Tho  mysterious  circles  of  massive  stones,  with 
uo  covering  but  the  heavens,  may  have  served  for  places  of  worship, 
as  well  as  memorials  of  the  more  illustrious  dead.     The  names  of 
gods  are  conspicuously  absent,  though  antiquaries  trace  the  worship 
nf  the  Sun  in  the  Beltane  fires  and  other  rites  ;  but  in  the  account 
of  their  adversaries   wo   read   of    demons   whom   they   invoked. 
Divination  by  rods  or  twigs,  incantations  or  spells,  strange  rites 
connected  with  the  elements  of  water  and  of  fire,  ''choice  of  weather, 
lucky  times,  the  watching  of  t!ie  voice  of  birds,"  are  mentioned 
as  amount  the  practices  of  the  Druids,  a  priestly  caste  revered 
for  superior  learning  and,  if  we  may  accept  Cresar  as  an  authority 
lughly  educated.      This,  rather  than   fetish   or  animal   worship 
appears  to  have^been  their  cult.     It  was,  so  far  as  scanty  indi- 
cations allow  a  ceneralization,  by  an  empirical  knowledge  of  the 
rninor  and  secondary  rather  than  the  greater  phenomena  of  nature 
that   the   Druids  of  Britain   and    Ireland   exercised   influence  — 
the  tempest  and  its  elements— wind  and  rain  and  snow,  thunder 
and  lightning— rather  than  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.     Whatever 
Its  precise  form,  this  religion  niado  a  feeljle  resistance  to  the  Chris- 
tian, taught  by  the  monks,  with  learning  drawn  from  Scripture 
and  some  acnuaintance  with  Latin  as  well  as  Christian  literature 
and  enforced  by  the  example  of  a  j.ure  life  and  the  hope  of  a  future 
world.      The  charms  of  music  and  poetry,  in  which  the  Celt  de- 
lighted  were  turned  to  sacred  use.     Columba  was  a  protector  lof 
the  bards,— himself  a  bard. 

"  It  ia  not  with  the  'screod'  our  destiny  Is 
Nor  with  the  bird  on  tlic  top  of  tho  twig,' 
^o^  with  the  trunk  of  a  Icnotted  tree, 
Nor  with  n  'seadan'  hand  In  hand. 

I  adore  not  the  voice  of  birds, 

Kor  the  '  ncreod  ■  nor  de.5tiny  nor  lots  In  thla  world, 

^o^  a  son  nor  chance  nor  woman  ■ 

My  Druid  is  airint  the  Son  of  God 

Oirjst,  Son  of  Mary,  the  Great  Abbot, 

Tlie  hathcr,  the  Hon,  and  the  Holy  Ghost." 

Adamnan  relates  mirades  of  Columba  scarcely  above  the  level 
rf  the  practices  of  the  Druids.  But  superstition  is  not  vanquished 
by  superstition.  Celibacy  was  a  protest  against  the  promiscuous 
intcrconrse  for  which  Chn,rtian  fathers  condemn  the  Celts.  Fasts 
am  vigil,  contrasted  with  the  gros,,,  perhaps  cannibal,  practices 
and  ^Xi^b  •      '  ""fr  '"'"'  '"Christ,  of  I'ives  such  a,  ktrick's 


^  hen  we  pass  to  civu  History  our  knowledge  is  restricted  ■;Qr-63'; 
to  a  list  of  names  and  battles;  but  the  labours  of  recent  "  "' 
scholars  allow  a  brief  account  of  the  Celtic  races  from  the 
end  of  the  6th  to  their  union  in  the  middle  of  the  9th 
century,  in  part  hypothetical,  yet  a  great  advance  on  the 
absolute  blank  which  made  historians  of  the  18th  century 
decline  the  task  in  despair. 

The  Britons,  whose  chief  king  had  ruled  at  Alclyde,  Britons 
were  separated  from  their  fellow-countrj-men,  the  Cymry  in  ofi5trath. 
Wales,  shortly  after  Columba's  death  by  the  rapid  advance '^'i''^^' 
of  the  Anglian  kingdom  of  Northumberland,  founded  in  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century  by  Ida  of  Bumborough.  One  of 
his  successors,  Ethelfred,  struck  the  blow,  completed  by  the 
wars  of  the  next  king,  Edwin,  which  severed  modern  Wales 
from  British  Cumbria  and  Strathclyde.  Even  Mona,  the 
holy  isle  of  both  heathen  and  Christian  Britons,  became 
Anglesey,  the  island  of  the  Angles.  A  later  incursion 
towards  the  end  of  the  century  reached  Carlisle  and  sepa- 
rated the  kingdom  of  Alclyde,  which  had  for  its  boundary 
the  Catrail  or  Picts'  trench  between  Peel  Fell  and  Gala- 
shiels, from  English  Cumbria  (Cumberland  south  of  the 
Solway),  and  reduced  for  a  short  time  Strathclyde  to  a 
siibject  province.  When  Bede  wrote  in  731  an  Anglian 
bishopric  had  been  established  at  Whithorn,  which  con- 
tinued till  803.  The  decline  of  the  Northumbrian  king- 
dom in  the  8th  century  enabled  the  kings  of  Strathclyde  to 
reassert  their  independence  and  maintain  their  rule  within 
a  restricted  district  more  nearly  answering  to  the  valley 
of_  the  Clyde,  and  in  Galloway,  in  which  there  are  some 
faint  indications  of  a  PictLsh  population,  till  it  was  united 
to  the  kingdom  of  Scone  by  the  election  of  Donald,  brother 
of  Constantine  II.,  king  of  the  Scots,  to  its  throne. 

Of  the  Scots  of  Dalriada  somewhat  more  is  known. 
Their  history  Ls  interwoven  with  that  of  the  Picts  and 
meets  at  many  points  that  of  the  Angles  of  Northumber- 
land, who  during  the  7th  and  the  beginning  of  the  8th 
century,  when  their  kings  were  the  greatest  in  Britain, 
endeavoured  to  push  their  boundaries  beyond  the  Forth 
and  the  Clyde.     The  history  of  this  kingdom— see  North-  North 
UMBERLAJJD  (KINGDOM  of) — forms  part  of  that  of  Scot- "'"'"■'» 
land  during  these  centuries.     It  planted  in  Lothian  (q.v.)  *"P" 
the  seed  from  which  the  civilization  of   Scotland   grew. '"'"'^'' 
To  an  early  period  of  the  contest  between  the  Angles  and 
the  Britons,  and  to  the  country  between  the  Forth  and  the 
Tweed  and  Solway,  perhaps  belong  the  battles  magnified  by 
successive  poets  who  celebrated  the  hero  of  British  medi- 
aeval romance.     Whether  these  battles  were  really  fought 
in  southern  Scotland  and  on  the  borders,  and  Arthur's  Seat 
was  one  of  his  strongholds,  still  "unknown  ia  the  grave 
of   Arthur."      Before   Edwin's  death  (633)  his  kingdom 
extended  to  the  Forth,  and  the  future  capital  of  Scotland 
received  the  name  of  Edwinsburgh  from  him  in  place  of 
the  Mynyd  Agned  and  Dunedin  of  the  Briti-sh  and  Gaelic 
Celts.     During  the  reign  of  Oswald  (635-642)  the  North- 
umbrians  were    reconverted    by   Aidan,    a   monk    whom 
Oswald  summoned  from  lona,  and  who  became  monastic 
bishop  of  Lindisfarne— a  southern  lona— from  which  the 
Celtic  form  of  the  Christian  church  spread  amongst  the 
Angles  of  the  north  and  east  of  England,  until  the  council 
of  WTiitby  and  the  election  of  Wilfrid  to  the  .sec  of  York 
restored  tho  Roman  ritual  and  dioce.san  episcopacy,  ivlien 
Colinan,  their  Celtic  bishop  at  Lindisfarne,  retired  with 
his  monks  to  lona.     Oswald's  brother  Oswy  extended  the 
dominion  of  Northumberland  over  a  portion  of  the  country 
of  the  northern  Picts  beyond  the  Forth.     In  hia  reign  lived 
CuTHBEKT  (q.v.),  the  apostle  of  Lothian,  where  the  monas- 
tery of  St  /iilbba  at  Coldingham,  the  church  on  the  Bass, 
the  three  churches  of  St  Baldred  at  Auldham,  Tynning- 
hame,  and  Preston,  and  tho  .sanctuary  of  Wedale  (Stow) 
kept  alive  the  memory  of  the  Celtic  Church.     His  name 


47G 


S  C  O  'i   L  A  IS   J) 


[histokt; 


685-766.  is  preserved  in  St  Cuthbert's  church  at  Edinburgh  and  in 
Kirkcudbright.  .  To  the  same  period  belong  two  inscrip- 
tions, tlic  earliest  records  of  Anglian  speech,  one  on  the 
cross  of  Uewcastle  in  Cumberland,  commemorating  Alfred, 
a  son  of  Oswy,  the  other,  taken  [lerhaps  from  a  poem  of 
Caedmon,  at  Kuthwell  in  Dumfries.  Neither  the  Tweed  nor 
.the  Solway  was  at  this  period  a  line  of  division.  Oswy 
svas  succeeded  by  his  son  Egfrid  (685),  against  whom  the 
Picts  succ^sfuUy  rebelled ;  and  the  Scots  and  a  considcr.able 
part  of  the  Britons  also  recovered  their  freedom.  Anglian 
bishops,  however,  continued  to  hold  the  see  of  Whithorn 
during  the  whole  of  the  8th  century.  The  Northumbrian 
kings,  more  successful  in  the  west  than  in  the  east, 
gradually  advanced  from  Carlisle  along  the  coast  of  Ayr, 
and  even' took  Alclyde.  In  what  is  now  England  their 
power  declined  from  the  middle  of  the  8th  century  before 
the  rise  of  Mercia.  Shortly  before  the  commeneement  of 
the  9th  century  the  descents  of  the  Danes  began,  which 
led  to  the  conflict  for  England  between  them  and  the 
Saxons  of  Wessex.  The  success  of  the  latter  under  Alfred 
and  his  descendants  transferred  the  supremacy  to  the 
princes  of  the  southern  kingdom,  who,  gradually  advanc- 
ing northwards,  before  the  close  of  that  century  united 
all  England  under  their  sceptre. 

Before  its  fall  Northumbedand  produced  three  great 
men,  the  founders  of  English  literature  and  learning, 
though  two  of  them  wrote  chiefly  in  Latin, — Caedmon,  the 
monk  of  Whitby,  the  first  English  poet ;  Bede,  the  monk 
of  Jarrow,  the  first  English  historian  ;  and  Alcuin,  the 
monk  of  York,  whose  school  might  have  become  the  first 
English  university,  had  he  not  lived  in  the  decline  of 
Northumbrian  greatness  and  been  attracted  to  the  court 
of  Charlemagne,  It  is  to  this  early  dawn  of  talent  among 
the  Angles  of  Northumberland  that  England  owes  its 
name  of  the  land  of  the  Angles  and  its  language  that  of 
English.  The  northern  dialect  spoken  by  the  Angles  was 
the  speech  of  Lothian,  north  as  well  as  south  (in  North- 
umberland) of  the  Tweed,  and  was  preserved  in  the 
broad  Scotch  of  t,he  Lowlands,  while  modern  English  was 
formed  from  the  southern  dialect  of  Alfred,  Chaucer,  and 
Wycliffe.  This  early  Teutonic  civilization  of  the  lowland 
district  of  Scotland,  in  spite  of  the  Danish  wars,  the 
Celtic  conquest,  and  border  feuds,  never  died  out,  and 
it  became  at  a  later  time  the  centre  from  which  the 
Anglo-Saxon  character  permeated  the  whole  of  Scotland, 
without  suppressing,  as  in  England,  •'■e  Celtic.  Their 
union,  more  or  less  complete  in  difl'erent  districts,  is,  after 
the  diSerence  in  the  extent  of  the  Roman  conquest,  the 
-second  main  fact  of  Scottish  history,  distinguishing  it 
from  that  of  England.  Both,  to  a  great  degree,  were 
the  result  of  physical  geography.  The  mountains  and 
arms  of  the  sea  repelled  invaders  and  preserved  longer 
■  he  ancient  race  and  its  customs. 
Early  It  is  necessary,  before  tracing  the  causes  which  led  to 

Tictisc  (lie  union  of  races  in  Scotland,  to  form  some  notion  of 
aunala.  ^grthern  Scotland  during  the  century  preceding  Kenneth 
Macalpine,  during  which — the  light  of  Adamnan  and  Bede 
being  withdrawn- — we  are  left  to  the  guidance  of  the 
Pictish  Chronicle  and  the  Irish  Annals.  The  Picts  whom 
Columba  converted  appear  to  have  been  consolidated  imder 
a  single  monarch.  Brude,  the  son  of  Mailochon,  ruled 
from  Inverness  to  lona  on  the  west  and  on  the  north  to  the 
Orkneys.  A  sub-king  or  chief  from  these  islands  appears 
at  his  court.  The  absence  of  any  other  Pictish  king,  the 
reception  of  the  Columbite  mission  in  Buchan  under 
Drostan,  a  disciple  of  Columba,  and  perhaps  Columba 
himself,  the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Mortlach  near 
Aberdeen  by  Machar,  another  of  his  disciples,  favour  the 
conclusion  that  the  dominion  of  Brude  included  Aberdeen  as 
well  as  Moray  and  Ross.     Its  southern  limits  are  unknown. 


The  Picts'  of  Stirling,  Perth,  and  Forfar,  corresponding 
to  Strathearn  and  Menteith, — Athole  and  Gowrie,  Angus 
and  Mearns,  had  been  already  converted  by  Ninian  in  the 
5th  century — may  have  already  come  under  a  single  king 
ruling  perhaps  at  Abernethy,  with  mormaers  under  him. 
It  seems  certain  that  Abernethy  was  earlier  than  Dun- 
keld  a  centre  of  the  Celtic  Church  distinct  from  lona,  and 
the  seat  of  the  first  three  bishops  of  Scotland.  Its  round 
tower  cannot  be  safely  ascribed  to  an  earlier  date  than 
the  9th  century,  but  may  have  been  preceded  by  a  church 
dedicated  to  St  Bridget  either  in  the  5th  by  Nechtan 
Morbet,  or  in  the  Gth  century  by  Garnard,  son  of  Donald, 
a  later  Pictish  king.  Although  there  exists  a  complete 
list  of  the  Pictish  kings  from  Brude,  son  of  Mailochon, 
to  Brude,  son  of  Ferat,  conquered  by  Kenneth  Macalpine, 
and  of  the  Scots  of  Dalriada  from  Aidan  (converted  by 
Columba)  to  Kenneth  Macalpine,  with  their  regnal  years, 
it  is  only  here  and  there  that  a  figure  emerges  suffi- 
ciently distinct  to  enter  history.  Parts  of  these  lists  are 
fictitious  and  others  doubtful,  nor  do  we  know  over  what 
extent  of  country  the  various  monarchs  ruled.  Of  the 
figures  more  or  less  prominent  amongst  the  Pictish  kings 
are  Brude,  the  son  of  Derili,  the  contemporary  of  Adam- 
nan,  who  was  present  at  the  synod  of  Tara  when  the  law 
called  Kain  Adamnan,  freeing  women  from  military 
service,  was  adopted,  and  who  died  in  706,  being  then 
styled  king  of  Fortren.  Nechtan,  another  son  of  Derili, 
was  the  contemporary  of  Bede,  who  gives  (710)  the  letter  of 
Ceolfrid,  abbot  of  Weannouth,  to  him  when  he  adopted  the 
Roman  Easter  and  the  tonsure.  Six  years  later  Nechtan 
expelled  the  Columbite  monks  from  his  dominions.  They 
retired  to  Dalriada,  as  their  brethren  in  N(  rthumberland 
had  done  when  a  similar  change  was  made  by  Oswy. 
Nechtan  also  asked  for  masons  to  build  a  church  in  the 
Roman  style,  to  be  dedicated  to  St  Peter,  and  several 
churches  in  honour  of  that  apostle  were  founded  within 
his  territory.  Shortly  after,  Egbert,  an  Anglian  monk, 
persuaded  the  community  tjf  Hy  (lona)  itself  to  conform, 
but  too  late  to  lead  to  the  union  of  the  churches  of  the 
Scots  and  the  Picts,  which  were  separated  also  by  political 
causes. 

Fifteen  years  later  the  greatest  Pictish  monarch;  Angus  Angm 
MacFergus,    after   a   contest  with  more  than   one  rival,  ^^"^ 
gained   the    supremacy,  which    he  held  for  thirty   years  ^"'^ 
(731-761).     In  revenge  for  the  capture  of  his  son  Brude 
by  Dungal,  son  of  Selvach,  king  of  the  Dalriad  Scots,'  he 
attacked  Argyll,  and  laid  waste  the  whole  country,  destroy- 
ing Dunnad  (?  on  Loch  Crinan),  then  the  capital,  burnt 
Creich  (in  Mull),  and  put  in  chains  Dungal  and  Feradach, 
the  sons  of  Selvach.     He  next  conquered  (739),  and  it  is 
.said  drowned,  Talorgan,  son  of  Drostan,  king  of  Athole, 
one  of  his  rivals,  and,  resuming  the  Dalriad  war,  reduced 
the   whole   of   the  western   Highlands.     The   Britons   of 
Strathclyde  were  assailed   by  a  brother   of  Angus,  who 


^  But  there  had  been  a  time  wheu  uot  one  but  several  Pictish  kings 
ruled  the  northern  and  central  districts  of  Scotland,  and  of  this  we 
have  perhaps  a  trace  in  the  Pictish  legend  according  to  whiph 
Cruithne,  the  eponynms  of  the  race,  had  Swen  sons,  —  Cait,  Cee, 
Ciric,  Fii>,  Fidach,  Fotla,  Fortren.  Conjecture  identifies  five  of  these 
names  with  districts  known  in  later  history, —  Cait  with  Caithness, 
Ciric  with  Mearns  (Magh  Circen,  the  plain  of  Ciric),  Fib  with  Fife, 
Fotla  with  Ailiole  {.\thfotIa),  Fortren  with  southern  Perthshire,  con- 
Meeting  it  with  a  division  of  the  same  county  in  a  tract  of  the  12th 
century.  (Comp.  i>late  VI.)  Si.t  of  the  divisions — Angvis  and  Mearns, 
Athole  and  Gov.Tie,  Strathearn  and  Jlcnteith,  Fife  and  For'treive,  Mai 
and  Buchan,  Moray  and  Ross  —  fairly  correspond  to  districts  after- 
wards ruled  by  the  Celtic  mormaers  of  Angus,  Athole,  Strathearn, 
Fife,  Mar,  and  Moray  ;  Caithness  in  the  9th  century  became  Norse, 
and  a  new  earl  (of  March)  w-.is  introduced  from  the  south  of  the 
Forth.  They  correspond  also  to  seven  great  earhloms  of  Scotland, 
which  appear  with  more  or  less  distinctness  on  several  occasions  in 
the  reigns  of  the  AlesanJcrs.  This,  at  least,  is  a  highly  ingenious 
theorj-,  but  uot  certain  history. 


fStRLY  CELTIC  PEI.IOD.^ 


SCOTLAND 


477 


fell  in  battle  at  Mugdoch  in  Stirlii.g  ;  and  Angus,  with 
his  ally  Ecbert,  king  of  Northumberland,  retaliated  by 
burning  Alclyde  (756).  About  this  time  (752)  Coilin 
Droighteach  (the  Bridgemaker),  abbot  of  lona,  removed 
most  of  the  relics  of  his  abbey  to  Ireland,  and  this  is  the 
most  probable  date  of  the  legend  of  the  relics  of  St- An- 
drew being  brought  from  Patras  to  St  Andrews,  where 
the  sons  of  a  Pictish  king,  Hungus  (Angus  MacFergus), 
who  was  absent  in  Argj'U,  or,  according  to  another  ver- 
sion, Hungus  himself,  dedicated  Kilrighraont  (St  Andrews) 
and  the  district  called  the  Boar's  CI  ase  to  St  Andrew. 
The  ascription  of  the  foundation  to  an  earlier  king  of  the 
same  name  in  the  4th  century  was  due  to  the  wish  to  give 
the  chief  bishopric  of  Scotland  an  antiquity  greater  than 
lona  and  Glasgow,  greater  even  than  Canterbury  and  York. 
After  the  death  of  Angus  MacFergus  no  king  is  connected 
with  any  event  of  importance  except  Constantine,  son  of 
Fergus  (died  820),  who  is  said  to  have  founded  the  church 
of  Dunkeld,  —  226  years  after  Garnard,  son  of  Donald, 
founded  Abernethy.  This  fact,  though  the  earlier  date 
is  not  certain,  points  to  the  Perthshire  lowlands  as  having 
been  for  a  long  time  the  centre  of  the  chief  Pictish  mon- 
archy. Probably  Scone  was  during  tlih  period,  as  it  cer- 
tainly became  afterwards,  the  political  capital ;  and  the 
kings  latteily  are  sometimes  called  kings  of  Fortren.  If 
so,  the  chief  monarchy  under  the  pressure  of  the  Norse 
attacks  had  passed  south  from  Inverness,  having  occupied 
perhaps  at  various  tinne,  Dunottar,  Brechin,  Forfar,  Fort- 
eviot,  and  Abernethy  as  strongholds  ;  but  it  is  not  pcssible 
to  say  whether  there  may  not  have  continued  to  be  inde- 
pendent Pictish  rulers  in  the  north. 
B»rly  The  annals  of  Dalriada  are  even  more  perplexing  than 

^BKtla  of  those  of  the  Picts  after  the  middle  of  the  6th  century. 
nad  >p]jgjg  jg  jjjg  usual  list  of  kings,  but  they  are  too  numer- 
ous, and  their  reigns  are  calculated  on  an  artificial  system. 
'The  forty  kings  from  FergtiS  MacEarc  to  Fergus  MacFerch- 
ard,  who  would  carry  the  date  of  the  Scottish  settlement 
back  to  three  centuries  at  least  before  the  birth  of  Christ, 
have  been  driven  from  the  pale  of  history  by  modern  cri- 
ticism. The  date  of  the  true  settlement  was  that  of  the 
later  Fergus,  the  sou  of  Earc,  in  503.  From  that  date 
down  to  Selvach,  the  king  who  was  conquered  by  Angus 
MacFergus  about  730,  the  names  of  the  kings  can  be 
given  with  reasonable  certainty  from  Adamnan,  Bede,  and 
the  Irish  Annals.  But  the  subsequent  names  in  the  Scot- 
tish chronicles  are  untrustworthy,  and  it  is  an  ingenious 
conjecture  that  some  may  have  been  inserted  to  cover  the 
century  following  730,  during  which  Dalriada  is  supposed 
to  have  continued  under  Pictish  rule.  This  view  is  not 
free  from  its  own  difficulties.  It  is  hard  to  explain  how 
Kenneth  Macalpine,  called  by  all  Scottish  records  a  Scot, 
though  in  Irish  Annals  Styled  (as  are  several  of  his  succes- 
sors) king  of  the  Picts,  succeeded  in  reversing  the  concjuest 
of  Angus  MacFergus  and  establishing  a  Scottish  line  on 
the  throne  of  Scone,  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  century. 
This  difficulty  is  supposed  to  be  solved  by  the  hypothesis 
that  Kenneth  was  the  son  of  a  Pictish  fatlier,  Alpine,  but 
of  a  Scottish  mother,  and  was  entitled  to  the  crown  by  a 
peculiarity  of  Pictish  law,  which  recognized  descent  by 
the  mother  as  the  test  of  legitimacy.  The  records  which 
speak  of  the  destruction'  of  the  Picts  are  treated  as  later 
inventions,  and  it  is  even  doubted  whether  the  connexion 
between  Alpine  and  Kenneth  and  the  older  race  of  Dalriad 
kings  is  not  fictitious.' 

•  The  above  statement  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  reconstruction  of  this 
period  of  Scottish  history  due  to  two  scholars  who  have  done  more 
than  any  others  to  elucidate  it.  Father  Innes  and  Mr  Skene.  Their 
negative  criticism,  which  destroys  the  fabric  reared  by  a  succession  of 
historians  from  Fordun  or  his  continuator  Bowmakcr  to  Buchanan,  is 
a  masterly  work,  not  likely  to  be  superseded.  "Whetlier  the  conf.truc- 
tive  part  will  stand  is  not  certain,  but  it  explains  many  of  the  facts. 


Whatever  may  be  the  solution  ultimately  reached  as  'o 
Kenneth  Macalpine's  antecedents,  his  accession  repressuts 
a  revolution  which  led  by  degrees  to  a  complete  union  of 
the  Picts  and  Scots  and  the  establishment  of  one  kingdom 
■ — at  first  called  Albania  and  afterwards  Scotia — ■which 
included  all  Scotland  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde, 
except  Caithness,  Sutherland,  Orkney  and  Shetland  (the 
northern  isles  or  Nordreyar),  the  Hebrides  (the  southern 
isles  or  Sudreyar),  and  Man  ;  these  fell  for  a  time  into 
the  hands  of  the  Norsemen.  This  revolution  had  two 
causes  or  concomitants,  one  religious  and  the  other  poli- 
tical. Kenneth  Macalpine  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign 
(851)  brought  the  relics  of  St  Columba  from  lona  to  a 
church  he  built  at  Dunkeld,  and  on  his  death  he  was 
buried  at  lona.  A  little  earlier  the  Irish  Culdees,  then  in 
their  first  vigour,  received  their  earliest  grant  in  Scotland 
at  Loch  Leven  from  Brude,  one  of  the  last  kings  of  the 
Picts,  and  soon  found  their  way  into  all  the  principal 
Columbite  monasteries,  of  which  they  represent  a  reform. 
The  Irish  monastic  system  did  not  yet  give  place  to  the 
Roman  form  of  diocesan  episcopacy.  The  abbot  of  Dun- 
keld succeeded  to  the  position  of  the  abbot  of  lona  and 
held  it  until  the  beginning  of  the  10th  century,  giving 
ecclesiastical  sanction  to  the  sovereign  at  Scone,  as 
Columba  had  done  in  the  case  of  Aidan.  As  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  century,  however,  a  Pictish  bishop  of 
Scotland  appears  at  a  council  of  Rome,  and  he  Wad  at 
least  two  successors  as  sole  bishops  or  primates  of  the. 
Celtic  Church  before  dioceses  were  formed.  Scotland 
north  of  the  firths  thus  remained  at  a  lower  stage  of 
church  organization  than  England,  where  a  complete  system 
of  dioceses  had  been  established  in  great  part  answering 
to  the  original  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  or  their  divisions, 
with  Canterbury  and  York  at  their  head  as  rivals  for  the 
primacy.  But  the  Celtic  clergy  Who  now  conformed  to 
the  Roman  ritual  preserved  some  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
language,  and  a  connexion  with  Rome  as  the  centre  of 
Latin  Christianity,  which  was  certain  to  result  in  the 
adoption  of  the  form  of  church  government  now  almost 
universal.  The  other  circumstance  which  had  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy  of  Scone  and 
the  concolidation  of  the  Celtic  tribes  was  the  descent  on 
all  the  coasts  of  Britain  and  Ireland  of  the  Norse  and 
Danish  vikings.  The  Danes  chiefly  attacked  England  from 
Northumberland  and  along  the  whole  east  and  part  of  the 
southerri  seaboard;  the  Norsemen  attacked  Scotland, 
especially  the  islands  and  the  north  and  west  coasts,  going 
as  far  south  as  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  east  and  south  of 
Ireland.  It  had  now  become  essential  to  the  existence 
of  a  Scottish  Celtic  kingdom  that  its  centre  should  bo 
removed  farther  inland.  Argj'U  and  the  Isles,  including 
lona,  were  in  the  path  of  danger.  No  monk  would  have 
now  cho.sen  island  homes  for  safety.  In  787  the  first 
arrival  of  the  viking  ships  is  noticed  in  the  An'jhi-,S(i.ron 
Chronicle.  Some  years  later  the  Irish  A^innls  mention  that 
all  "the  i.slands  of  Britain  -n-ere  wasted  and  much  harassed 
by  the  Danes."  Amongst  these  were  Lindisfarne,  Rathlin 
off  Antrim,  lona  (794),  and  Patrick's  i.sland  near  Dublin 
(798).  lona  was  thrice  plundered  between  802  and  826, 
when  Blathmac,  an  abbot,  was  killed.  A  poem  composed 
not  long  after  the  event  states  that  the  shrine  of  Columba 
was  one  of  the  objects  in  .search  of  which  the  Norsemen 
came,  and  that  it  was  concealed  by  the  monks.  It  was  to 
preserve  the  relics  from  this  fate  that  some  of  them  were 
transferred  by  Droigliteach,  the  last  abbot,  to  Ireland  and 
others  by  Kenneth  to  Dunkeld.  For  half  a  centiiry  the 
vikings  were  content  with  phmder,  but  in  the  middle  of 
the  9th  they  began  to  form  settlements.  In  849  Olaf  the 
White  established  himself  at  Dublin  as  king  of  Hi'ii  Ivnr ; 
in  867  a  Danish  kingdom  was  set  up  in  Northumberland  ; 


,756-867. 
Union  of 
Picts  and 
Soots. 


Viking 
raid3. 


478 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


«7-814.  and  Harold  the  Fairhaired,  who  in  872  became  sole  king 
of  Norway,  soon  after  led  an  expedition  against  the  vikings, 
who  had  already  seized  Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  estab- 
lished an  earldom  under  Rognwald,  earl  of  Moeri,  whose 
son  Hrolf  the  Ganger  conquered  Normandy  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  next  century.  The  position  of  Scotland, 
therefore,  when  Kenneth  united  the  Picts  and  Scots  was 
this :  central  Scotland  from  sea  to  sea — Arg)'ll  and  the 
Isles,  Perthshire,  Angus  and  Mearns,  and  Fife — was  under 
the  dominion  of  the  king  who  had  Scone  for  his  capital ; 
the  south-west  district — the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  Ayr, 
Dumfries,  and  Galloway  —  was  under  a  British  king  at 
Dumbarton ;  the  south-east  district  or  Lothian  was  part 
of  "Saxon  or  Sassenach  Land," — the  general  Celtic  name 
for  the  country  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  but  now  owing  to 
the  divided  state  of  Northumberland  held  by  different 
lords  ;  the  north  of  Scotland  was  under  independent  Celtic 
chiefs,  as  Moray  and  Mar,  or  already  occupied  by  Norse- 
men, as  Caithness,  Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  the  Hebrides. 
The  whole  Celtic  population  was  Christian  ;  but  the  Norse 
rteligion  ..ivaders  were  still  heathen.  Their  religion  was  similar 
if  Norse  to  that  of  their  Anglo-Saxon  kin,  of  a  type  higher  than 
vikings.  j)jg  paganism  of  the  Celts.  It  resembled  the  Celtic  indeed 
in  the  absence  or  infrequency  of  idols,  but  a  complex 
mythology  peopled  heaven  with  gods — Woden  and  Thor, 
Freya  and  Balder,  and  others  of  inferior  rank^— devised 
legends  of  the  origin  of  earth  and  man,  Valhalla  the 
hero's  paradise,  and  a  shadowy  hell  for  all  who  were  not 
lieroes.  Some  of  its  legends  are  coloured  from  Christian 
sources,  and  underneath  the  mythology  may  be  detected 
a  ruder  and  more  ancient  superstitious  belief  in  omens  and 
divination, — a  nature-worship  more  like  that  of  the  Celts. 
But  it  is  the  later  form  which  represents  the  Norse  character 
as  it  was  whan  it  came  into  contact  with  the  nations  of 
Britain, — its  daring  defiance  of  man  and  the  gods,  its 
struggle  with,  yet  in  the  end  its  calm  acceptance  of,  the 
decrees  of  fate.  The  Norsemen  both  at  home  and  in  their 
colonies  in  Scotland  embraced  Christianity  under  Olaf 
Tryggvason  in  the  end  oi  the  10th  century  ;  but  along 
■with  Christianity  they  retained  the  old  heathen  senti- 
ments and  customs,  which,  like  their  language,  mingled 
with  and  modified  the  Celtic  chararter  on  the  western  but 
far  more  on  the  northern  coasts  and  islands,  where  the 
population  wag  largely  Norse.  A  strain  neither  Celtic  nor 
Teutonic  nor  Norman  occasionally  meets  us  in  Scottish 
history :  it  is  derived  from  the  blood  or  memory  of  the 
Norse  vikings. 
''.OBtiii  3.  Later  Celtic  Period:  Growth  of  the  Kingdom  of  Scone 
llac-  from.  Kenneth  Macalpine  to  Malcolm  Cantnore. — During 
.Ipine.  jijjg  period,  though  the  Celtic  annals  are  still  obscure,  we 
can  trace  the  united  Celtic  kingdom  growing  on  all  sides 
under  Kenneth's  successors, — southward  by  the  conquest 
of  Lothian  on  the  east  and  by  the  union  of  the  Strath- 
clyde  kingdom  on  the  west,  and  for  a  time  by  holding 
English  Cumbria  under  the  English  kings,  and  northward 
by  the  gradual  incorporation  of  Angus,  Mearns,  Moray, 
and  possibly  the  southern  district  of  Aberdeen.  Kenneth 
Macalpine's  reign  of  sixteen  years  (844-860)  was  a  time  of 
incessant  war.  He  invaded  Saxony  (Lothian)  six  times, 
burnt  Dunbar,  and  seized  ^Melrose  (already  a  rich  abbey, 
though  on  a  different  site  from  the  Cistercian  foundation  of 
David  I.),  while  the  Britons  (of  Strathclyde)  burnt  Dun- 
blane and  the  Danes  wasted  the  land  of  the  Picts  as  far  as 
Cluny  and  Dunkeld.  After  they  left  Kenneth  rebuilt  the 
church  of  Dunkeld  and  replaced  in  it  Columba's  relics.  He 
died  at  Forteviot  and  was  buried  at  lona. 
Itortldl.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Donald  I.  (861-863), 
who,  with  his  people  the  Gaels,  established  the  laws  of  Aed, 
son  of  Eachdach,  at  Forteviot.  Aed  mas  a  Dalriad  king  of 
the  8th  century  ;  but  the  contents  of  hb  laws  are  unknown. 


Perhaps  tanistry,  by  which  the  successor  to  the  king  was 
elected  during  his  life  from  the  eldest  and  worthiest  of 
his  kin,  usually  a  collateral  in  preference  to  a  descendant, 
was  one  feature,  for  it  certainly  prevailed  amongst  the 
Irish  and  Scottish  Gaels.  The  next  king,  who  succeeded 
in  accordance  with  that  custom,  was  Constantino  I.  (8G3-  CooBtanr 
877),  son  of  Kenneth.  His  reign  was  occupied  with  '"■«  I- 
conflicts  with  the  Norsemen.  Olaf  the  White,  the  Norse 
king  of  Dublin,  laid  waste  the  country  of  the  Picts  and 
Britons  year  after  year,  and  in  870  reduced  Alclyde, 
the  British  capital ;  but,  as  he  disappears  from  history,  he 
probably  fell  in  a  subsequent  raid.  He  is  said  to  have 
married  a  daughter  of  Kenneth,  and  some  claim  in  her 
right  may  account  for  his  Scottish  wars.  In  the  south  the 
Danish  leader  Half  dan  devastated  Northumberland  and 
Galloway;  while  in  the  north  Thorsten  the  Red — a  son  of 
Olaf  by  Audur,  the  wealthy  daughter  of  Ketil  Flatnose 
(called  Finn,  "  the  Fair,"  by  the  Celts),  a  Norse  viking  of 
the  Hebrides,  who  afterwards  went  to  Iceland  and  figures 
in'the  sagas — conquered  the  coast  of  Caithness  and  Suther- 
land as  far  as  Ekkials  Bakki  (the  Oikel).  But  he  was 
killed  in  the  following  year.  Consfantine  met  with  the 
same  fate  at  a  battle  at  Inverdovat  in  Fife  in  877,  at  the 
hands  of  another  band  of  northern  marauders.  His  death 
led  to  a  disputed  succession.  His  heir,  according  to  the 
custom  of  tanistry,  was  his  brother  Aodh,  who  was  killed 
by  his  own  people  after  a  year.  Eocha,  the  son  of  Run, 
a  king  of  the  Britons,  claimed  in  right  of  his  mother,  a 
daughter  of  Kenneth,  according  to  the  Pictish  law,  and 
governed  at  first  along  with  Ciric  or  Grig,  his  tutor  ;  then  Grig, 
Grig  ruled  alone,  until  they  were  both  expelled  from  the 
kingdom  and  Donald  II.,  son  of  Constantine,  came  to  the 
throne  (889).  The  Pictish  Chronicle  reports  that  during 
the  government  of  Grig  the  Scottish  Church  was  freed 
from  subjection  to  the  laws  of  the  Picts  (meaning  probably 
from  liability  to  secular  service).  Grig  is  also  said  to 
have  subdued  all  Bemicia  and  "  almost  Anglia,"  a  state- 
ment which  if  confined  to  the  north  of  the  Northumbrian 
kingdom  is  not  improbable,  for  it  had  then  fallen  into 
anarchy  through  the  attacks  of  the  Danes.  The  church 
of  Ecclesgreig  near  Montrose  possibly  commemorates  Grig 
and  indicates  the  northward  extension  of  the  monarchy  of 
Scone.  In  the  reign  of  Donald  II.  (889-900),  son  of  Donill 
Constantine  I.,  Scotland  was  again  attacked  by  the  H- 
Norsemen.  Sigurd,  the  Norse  earl  of  Orkney,  seized 
Caithness,  Sutherland,  Ross,  and  part  of  Moray,  where 
he  built  the  fort  of  Burghead,  between  the  Findhorn  and 
the  S|>ey.  Farther  south  the  Danes  took  Dunnottar,  where 
Donald  was  slain.  After  his  time  the  name  of  the  kingdom 
of  Scone  was  no  longer  Pictavia,  but  Albania  or  Alba,  a 
more  ancient  title  of  northern  Scotland,  perhaps  resumed 
to  mark  the  growth  of  the  Scottish-Pictifih  monarchy  in 
the  central  and  eastern  Highlands. 

Donald  II.  was  followed  by  Constantine  11.  (900-940),  Constai 
son  of  Aodh  and  grandson  of  Kenneth,  and  his  long  reign  is  ti"*  U- 
a  proof  of  his  power.  He  was  the  greatest  Scottish  king, 
as  Angus  MacFergus  had  been  the  greatest  of  the  pure 
Pictish  race.  In  the  first  part  of  it  his  kingdom  was  stih 
beset  by  the  Norsemen.  In  his  third  year  they  wasted 
Dunkeld  and  all  Alba.  Next  year  they  were  repulsed  in 
Strathearn.  In  his  8th  yeaj  Rognwald,  the  Danish  king 
of  Dublin,  with  earls  Oltir  and  Oswle  Crakaban,  ravaged 
Dunblane.  Six  years  later  the  same  leaders  were  de- 
feated on  the  Tyne  (!  in  East  Lothian)  by  Constantine,  ' 
who  had  been  summoned  to  assist  Eldred,  lord  of  Bam- 
borough.  Ottir  was  slain,  but  Rognwald  escaped  and 
reappears  some  years  later  as  king  of  Northumberland. 
This  is  a  battle  whose  site  and  incidents  are  told  in  a  con- 
flicting manner  by  different  chronicles ;  but  it  appears 
certain  that  ConstanUne  saved  his  dominions  from  further 


LATEB  CELTIC  PERIOD.] 


SCOTLAND 


479 


serious  attacks  by  tlie  vikings.  He  had  now  to  meet  a 
more  formidable  foe, — the  West  Saxons,  whose  kings,  the 
descendants  of  Alfred,  were  steadily  moving  northwards. 
In  spite  of  his  vrars,  Constantina  found  time  in  the  early 
p4rt  of  his  reign  for  two  important  reforms, — one  eccle- 
siastical, the  other  civil.  In  his  sixth  year  (906)  he,  along 
with  Cellach,  bishop  of  St  Andrews— the  first  of  twelve 
Celtic  bishops  of  Scotland — swore  on  the  Hill  of  Faith 
at  Scone  (906)  that  "the  laws  and  discipline  of  the  faith,  and 
the  rights  of  the  churches  and  the  gospel,  should  be  pre- 
served on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Scots."  This  obscure 
notice  of  the  Pictish  Chronicle  indicates  the  establishment 
or  restoration  of  the  Scottish  Church,  which  the  Pictish 
kings  had  oppressed,  to  an  equality  with  that  of  the  Pictish. 
As  a  sign  of  the  union  the  crozier  of  St  Columba,  caOed 
Cathbuadth  ("victory  in  battle"),  was  borne  before  Con- 
stantine's  armies.  Two  years  later,  on  the  death  of 
Donald,  king  of  the  Britons  of  Strathclyde,  Constantine 
procured  the  election  of  his  own  brother  Donald  to  tlut 
kingdom.  Though  he  thus  strengthened  church  and  state, 
Alfred's  successors  v/ere  too  powerful  for  him.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  records  of  Edward  the  Elder,  that  in  924, 
having  built  a- fort  at  Bakeweil,  in  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire, 
"  the  king  and  nation  of  the  Scots,  Eogawald  the  North- 
umbrian and  others,  and  also  the  king  of  the  Strath- 
clyde Welsh  and  his  people,  chose  him  for  father  and 
lord."  His  son  -A.thelsfan  is  related  by  the  same  authority  to 
have  subjugated  all  the  kings  in  the  island,  amongst  whom 
are  mentioned  by  name  HoweU  king  of  the  west  Welsh, 
Constantine  king  of  the  Scots,  Owen  king  of  Gwent,  and 
Eldred  of  Bamborough,  who  "made  peace  with  oaths  at 
Emmet  and  renounced  every  kind  of  idolatry."  These 
entries  are  not  beyond  suspicion.  The  Peak  was  a  distant 
point  for  the  Scottish  king.  PtOgnwald,  the  Northumbrian, 
died  in  920,  according  to  the  Irish  An7>als.  Howell  and 
Constantine  were  already  Christians  and  could  not  have 
then  reaounced  idolatry.  If  there  is  any  truth  in  the  sub- 
mission of  the  Scots  to  Edward  the  Elder  it  did  net  last, 
for  some  years  later  the  Chronicle  states  that  Athelstan 
went  into  Scotland  with  a  land  and  sea  force  and  ravaged 
a  great  part  of  it.  A  league  of  the  northern  kings  against 
Athelstan  was  dispersed  (937)  by  his  great  victory  at 
Brunanburgh  (1  Wendun,  between  Aldborough  and  Knares- 
borough,  according  to  Skene).  The  forces  allied  against 
him  were  those  of  Constantine,  his  son-in-law  Olaf,  son 
■  of  Sitric  (called  also  the  Red),  and  another  Olaf,  son  of 
Godfrey,  from  Ireland,  besides  the  Strathclyde  and  north 
Welsh  kings.  For  Athelstan  there  fought,  in  addition  to 
his  own  West  Saxons,  the  Mercians  and  some  mercenaries 
from  Norway,  amongst  them  Egil,  son  of  Skalagrim,  the 
hero  of  a  famous  Icelandic  saga.  No  greater  slaughter  had 
been  known  since  the  Anglo-Saxons,  "proud  war-smiths," 
as  their  poet  calls  them,  overcame  the  Welsh  and  gained 
England.  A  son  of  Constantine  was  slain,  four  kings, 
and  seven  earls.  Constantine  himself  escaped  to  Scot- 
land, where  in  old  age  he  resigned  the  crown  for  the 
tonsure  and  became  abbot  of  the  Culdees  of  St  Andrews. 
Athelstan  died  two  years  after  Brunanburgh,  but  before 
his  death  granted  Northumberland  to  Erik  Bloody-Axe, 
son  of  Harcld  Haarfagr,  who  \va.s  almost  immoijiately 
expelled  by  the  Irish  Danes.  Athelstan,  even  after  so 
fc'reat  a  victory,  could  not  annex  Northumberland,  much 
less  Scotland,  to  his  dominions. 

Constantino's  successor,  Malcolm  I.  (913-954),  son  of 
Donald  II.,  began  his  reign  by  invading  Moray  and  killing 
Cellach,  its  chief  king.  Meantime  tlio  Danish  kings  of 
Dublin  had  been  endeavouring  to  maintain  their  hold  on 
Northumberland  with  the  aid  of  the  Cumbrians,  whose 
country  they  had  already  settled,  and  in  this  attempt  the 
two  Olafs  had  a  temporary  success;  but  Eadmund,  the 


successor  of  Athelstan,  expelled  Olaf,  son  of  Sitric,  from  914.101 
Northumberland,  and  in  the  following  year,  to  prevent  the 
Cumbrians  from  again  aiding  the  Danes,  he  "  harried 
Cumberland  and  gave  it  all  up  to  JIalcolm,  king  of  Scots, 
on  condition  that  he  should  be  his  fellow-worker  both  on 
sea  and  land."  This  was  the  same  policy  which  led  his 
father  to  call  in  the  aid  of  Erik  Bloody-Axe.  The  kings 
of  Wessex  wisely  granted  what  they  could  not  hold  to  the 
best  northern  warrior,  Celt  or  Scandinavian,  under  con- 
ditions which  acknowledged  more  or  less  strictly  their 
supremacy.  The  Cumbria  so  granted  was  the  country 
south  of  the  Solway  to  the  Dee,  but  it  may  also  have 
included  Strathclyde,  for  at  this  period  Strathclyde  Waelas 
and  Cumbrians  are  frequently  used  as  equivalent  names. 
Malcolm  lent  no  aid  to  Erik  Bloody-Axe,  when  in  the 
rei'gn  of  Eadred  he  tried  (949)  to  recover  Northumberland, 
but  he  joined  his  brother-in-law  Olaf,  Sitric's  son,  in  an 
expedition  with  the  .same  object,  when  they  laid  waste 
the  country  as  far  south  as  the  Tees.  Three  years  later 
Erik  again  returned,  and  finally  drove  Olaf  back  to  Ire- 
land, where  he  founded  the  kingdom  of  Dublin,  which 
lasted  till  the  tattle  of  Clontarf.  Malcolm  died  fighting 
either  against  the  n'fen  of  ilearns  or  of  Moray.  Three 
kings  followed  (954-971),  —  Indulf,  son  of  Constantine, 
Duff,  son  of  Malcolm,  Colin,  son  of  Indulf ;  in  the  reign 
of  Indulf  the  Northumbrians  evacuated  Edinburgh,  which 
thenceforward  was  Scottish  ground.  A  Saxon  burgh,  a 
fort,  perhaps  a  town,  was  now  for  the  first  time  within 
the  Celtic  kingdom. 

Kenneth  II.  (971-995),  son  of  Malcolm,  soon  after  his  Keim«.. 
accession  made  a  raid  on  Northumberland  as  far  south  as  " 
Cleveland.  The  statement  of  two  English  chroniclers 
(John  of  Wallingford  and  Henry  of  Huntingdon),  that 
Lothian  was  ceded  to  him  by  Eadgar  on  condition  of 
homage,  and  that  the  people  should  still  use  the  language 
of  the  Angles,  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  or 
any  Scottish  chronicle.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  believe  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  as  amplified  by  Florence  of  Worce- 
ster, that  Kenneth  was  one  of  the  kings  who  rowed 
Eadgar  on  the  Dee  in  sign  of  homage.  At  this  time,  in 
the  north  and  west,  the  Orkney  earls  were  all-powerful, 
and  Kenneth  was  occupied  with  contests  nearer  his  own 
territory, — especially  with  the  morraaer  of  Angus,  whose 
grandson,  through  his  daughter  Fenella,  he  slew  at  Dun- 
sinane,  and  in  revenge  for  which  he  was  himself  treacher- 
ously killed  at  Fettercairn  in  Mearns  by  Fenella,  whose 
name  is  still  preserved  in  the  traditions  of  that  district. 
The  foundation  of  the  church  at  Brechin  is  attributed  to 
this  king. 

Kenneth  was  followed,  as  he  had  been  preceded,  by 
insignificant  kings, — Constantine,  son  of  Colin,  and  Ken- 
neth, .son  of  Duff.  His  son,  Malcolm  II.  (1005-34),  gained  .Viicoim 
the  throne  by  the  slaughter  of  his  predecessor  Duff  at  'L 
Monzievaird,  and  at  once  turned  his  arms  southwards;  but 
his  first  attempt  to  conquer  northern  Northumberland  was 
repelled  by  Ethelred,  son  of  Waltheof,  its  earl,  who  de 
feated  him  at  Durham.  About  the  .lamo  time  Sigurd, 
earl  of  Orkney,  having  defeated  Finlay,  mormacr  of  Moray, 
became  ruler,  according  to  the  Norse  saga,  of  "Boss  and 
Moray,  Sutherland  and  the  dales"  of  Caithness.  He  had 
conflicts  with  other  Scottish  chiefs,  but  appears  to  have 
made  terms  with  the  kings  of  both  Norway  and  Scotland, 
— with  Olaf  Trygg\'ason  by  becoming  Christian  and  with 
Malcolm  by  marrying  his  daughter.  He  fell  at  Ckntart 
(1014),  the  memora'ole  battle  near  Dublin,  by  winch  Brian 
l?oru  and  his  son  Murcadh  dcfeaied  the  Danish  kings  in 
Ireland  and  restored  a  Celtic  dyna.sty.  Malcolm  conferred 
the  earldom  of  Caithness  on  his  grandson  Thorfinu,  the 
infant  son  of  Sigurd  ;  and  Sigurd  s  Orkney  earldom  fell  to 
his  sons,  Somerled,  Brusi,  and  Eiuir ;  while  Jforay  again 


480 


SCOTLAND 


[niSTOBl. 


1014-1058.  came  into  the  possession  of  a  Celtic  mormaer,  Finlay,  who 
is  called  king  of  Alba  by  one  of  the  Irish  chronicles,  and 
the  Hebrides  probably  into  that  of  a  Norso  earl,  Oilli, 
from  whom  they  were  afterwards  recovered  by  Thorfinn. 
While  the  Celts  of  Ireland  were  thus  expelling  the  Danish 
invaders  and  in  Scotland  there  was  divided  possession,  the 
result  of  compromise  and  of  intermarriage,  England  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Danish  kings  Sweyn  _  and 
Canute.  Canute  committed  Northumberland  to  Erik,  a 
Dane,  as  earl ;  but  Eadulf  Cudel,  a  weak  brother  of  the 
brave  Oswulf  and  son  of  Waltheof,  the  Anglian  earl,  still 
retained  the  northern  district  as  lord  of  Bamborough. 
Profiting  by  the  distracted  state  of  northern  England, 
Malcolm  a^ain  invaded  Northumberland  with  Owen  of 
Cumbria,  called  the  Bald,  and  by  the  victory  of  Carham 
Conquesit  (1018)  near  Coldstream  won  Lothian,  which  remained 
of  from  that  time  an   integral   part  of  Scotland.     Canute, 

Lothian.  ^^  j^j^  ^gturn  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Eome,  is  said  by 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  to  have  gone  to  Scotland, 
where  Malcolm  and  two  other  kings,  Maelbeth  and  Jeh- 
marc,  submitted  to  him,  but  he  held  Scotland  for  only  a 
little  while.  Maelbeth  is  supposed  to  be  Macbeth,  then 
mormaer  of  Jloray,  afterwards  king,  and  Jehmarc,  a  Celtic 
or  Scandinavian  chief  in  Argyll.  The  hold  which  Canute, 
who  was  trying  to  grasp  Norway  and  Denmark  as  well  as 
England,  had  upon  northern  Britain  must  have  been 
slender  as  well  as  short;  but  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
supremacy  of  so  great  a  king  was  natural.  At  his  death 
his  overgroMTi  empire  fell  to  pieces,  and  Scotland  was 
left  to  itself.  Two  years  before  Malcolm  II.  died.  His 
conquest  of  Lothian  perhaps  led  to  the  new  name  of 
Scotia  (now  generally  applied  to  his  kingdom),  which 
was  to  become  its  permanent  name.  The  Scotland  he 
governed  still  had  its  centre  at  Scone,  but  included  besides 
the  original  Pictish  district  of  Perthshire,  Angus  and 
Mearns,  Fife,  the  southern  district  of  Aberdeen,  and' 
Lothian,  his  own  conquest,  while  Moray  and  western 
Ross,  and  perhaps  Argyll  and  the  Isles,  owned  his  suze- 
rainty. But  the  Norse  earl,  Tliorfinn,  at  this  time  held 
th^  Orkneys,  Caithness,  Sutherland,  and  the  Hebrides. 
WTiether  a  Cumbrian  king  still  ruled  Strathclyde  and 
Galloway  is  doubtful.  After  Owen  the  Bald,  who  fought 
at  Carham,  the  next  king  mentioned  is  Duncan,  son  of  the 
grandson  and  the  successor  of  Malcolm.  Malcolm  II.  was 
liberal  to  the  church,  as  we  know  from  his  gifts  to  the 
church  of  Deer  ;  but  the  foundation  of  Mortlach  (Banff- 
Bhire),  the  future  see  of  Aberdeen,  belongs  to  the  reign  of 
Malcolm  Canmore.  The  laws  attributed  to  him  are 
spurious,  introducing  into  the  Celtic  kingdom  a  fully  deve- 
loped feudalism,  which  was  not  known  in  England,  still 
less  in  Scotland,  till  after  the  Conquest.  As  he  left  no 
male  heir,  JIalcolm's  death  led  to  a  doubtful  succession 
and  a  perplexed  period  of  Scottish  history. 

The  Scottish  historians  and  the  Norse  sagas  can  with 
difficulty  be  reconciled.  Little  light  can  be  got  from 
either  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  or  the  Irish  Annals. 
Shakespeare  seized  the  weird  story  of  Macbeth,  as  told 
by  Boece  and  translated  in  Holinshed,  and  history  can 
hardly  displace  the  tragedy,  so  true  to  the  dark  side  of 
human  nature,  by  the  meagre  outline  atMts  command. 
This  outline  is  supported  by  authentic  evidence,  and  agrees 
with  the  situation  which  existed  between  the  death  of  Mal- 
colm IL  and  the  accession  of  Malcolm  Canmore. 
Dtmcan.  Malcolm  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Duncan 
■(1034-40),  son  of  his  daughter  Bethoc  and  Crinan,  a  lay 
or  secular  abbot  of  Dunkeld  ;  but  jhis  right  was  probably 
from  the  first  contested  by  Thorfinn,  who  had  become  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Norse  earls.  If  the  Orkney  saga 
could  be  relied  upon,  he  had  as  many  as  eleven  earls  or 
mormaers  sul  ject  to   him,  and  a  modern  but  unsafe  -in- 


terpretation of  one  passage  extends  his  dominion  as  far 
as  Galloway.  Duncan,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on 
Durham,  turned  his  arms  to  the  north  to  check  the  further 
advance  of  his  kinsman,  but  was  defeated  on  the  Pentland 
Firth.  Moddan,  whom  he  had  tried  to  set  up  as  earl  of 
Caithness,  was  burnt  in  his  own  house,  and  Duncan  him- 
self was  killed  at  Bothgownan  near  Elgin  by  Macbeth,  his 
own  general.  Macbeth  was  son  of  Finlay,  mormaer  of  Macbetli, 
Moray,  and  his  vrde  Gruoch  was  daughter  of  Boete,  son  of 
Kenneth  11.;  thus  he  had  a  possible  pretension  to  the 
crown  if  it  could  descend  by  females.  But  his  real  posi- 
tion appears  to  have  been  that  of  a  successful  general 
assertiiig  the  independence  of  the  northern  Celts  against 
Duncan,  who  by  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Earl 
Siward,  the  Northumbrian  earl,  had  shown  the  tendency 
to  unite  Saxon  with  Celtic  blood  which  was  followed 
by  his  son  Malcolm  (III.)  Canmore.  Macbeth  reigned 
seventeen  years  (1040-57).  He 'was,  as  far  as  records 
state,  an  able  monarch,  who  succeeded  in  repelling  the 
attacks  of  Siward  on  behalf  of  his  grandson,  who  showed 
liberality  to  the  church,  as  the  foundation  of  himself 
and  his  wife  at  Loch  Leven  testify,  sent  money  for  the 
poor  to  Rome,  and  possibly  went  with  it  on  a  pilgrim- 
age; but  he  fell  at  last  in  the  battle  of  Limiphanan  in 
Mar,  where  the  young  Malcolm  was  aided  by  Tostig,  son 
of  Godwine,  the  great  West  Saxon  earl  who  had  Become 
earl  of '  Northumberland.  A  few  months  later,  Lulach, 
the  son  of  Gillecomhain,  a  former  mormaer  of  Moray,  who 
had  continued  the  war,  and  is  nominally  counted  a  king, 
though  called  fatuous,  was  slain  at  Essie  in  Strathbogie 
(N.W.  Aberdeen),  and  Malcolm  Canmore  became  king. 
With  his  reign  a  new  and  clearer  era  of  the  history  of 
Scotland  commences. 

The  Scottish  Gaels  had  proved  themselves  capable  of  govern-  Mon- 
mcnt.     The  united  monarchy  of  Scone  lasted  for  two  centuries  in  archy  of 
spite   of  its  powerful  neighbours,   but  it  was  dependent  almost  Scone., 
entirely  on  the  attachment  of  the  clans  to  their  chiefs  and  of  the 
whole  race  to  the  hereditary  king.     It  was  traditional,  not  consti 
tutional,  with  some  accepted  customs,  othenvise  it  could  not  have 
held  together,  but  nith  nttle  settled  law  and  no  local  government. 
It' wanted  the  elements  of  civil  life,  for  it  had  no  organized  towns 
or  assemblies  of  the  people.     There  was  little  commerce  or  trade. 
Cattle  and  sheep  were  the  chief  commodities  and  the  medium  of 
exchange.     There  is  no  trace  of  an  independent  coinage.     Chiis- 
tianity  had  not  yet  leavened  the  whole  population,  though  the 
monasteries   were  centres   of  light  within  limited  circles.      The 
Celtic  character,   alien  to  set  and  quick  forms  of  business,  was  Celtic 
alive  to  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  oratory,  and  song.      Its  and 
cardinal  defect  was  a  light  regard  for  truth.     Its  chief  virtue  was  Anglo^ 
devotion  to  a  leader,  whether  priest,  chief,  or  king.     The  Christian  Saxon 
Anglo-Saxons  of  the  Lothians,  the  Norsemen,  only  recently  and  characief     j 
half  converted,  in  the  islands  of  the  north  and  west,  brought  qualities 
and  customs  into  the  common  stock  of  the  future  Scottish  people 
which  were  wanting  to  the  Celts.     The  Anglo-Saxon  in  his  original 
home,  as  in  Britain  the  inh.ibitant  of  the  plain— "the  creeping 
Saxon,"  as  he  was  called  by  an  Irish  bard — developed  in  the  house 
and  the  town  a  better  regulated  freedom,— the  domestic  and  civic 
virtues.     His  imagination,  even  his  poetiy,  had  a  touch  of  prose, 
but  he  possessed  the  piosaio  qhalities  of  plain  speech,  common 
sense,  and  truth,— the  essence  of  trust.     Tlie  contact— for  it  was  a 
contact,  not  a  conquest— with  this  race  was  of  the  highest  value 
to  the  Scottish  nation  of  the  future.      The  Nfirmans  introduced 
new  elements,  the  spirit  of  chivalry  and  the  too  rigid  bonds  of  the 
feudal  law.      The  changes  due  to  these  new  elements  began  in 
Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  and  were  completed  in 
those  of  his  descendants.     The  Scottish  Celtic  kingdom  becamo 
gradually  civilized  under   Saxon  and   Norman  influences,   while 
retaining  its  native  vigour.     The  result  was  the  establishment  of 
the  independence  of  Scotland  within  its  present  bounds  during  the 
prosperous  reigns  of  the  Alexanders  (1107-1285). 

4.   Transition  from  a  Celtic  to  an  Anglo-Norman  Feudal  U^)cclm     ^ 
Morjirchy :    Malcobn    Canmore    and    his    Descendants. —  HI.  Can,     _^ 
Malcolm  Canmore  (1058-93)  spent  his  boyhood  in  Cum-"""^' 
bria,  his  youth  at  the  court  of  Edward  the  Confessor  of 
England.      He   was   by  race   only  half   a   Celt,  for   his 
mother  was  an  Anglo-Dane,  sister  of  Earl  Siward.     The 
coiu-t  which  helped  to  form  his  character  was  already  sub-j 


I 


TO  ALEXANDER  In.] 


S  C  O  T  L 


u 


181 


ject  t<.  Norman  influence.  The  Confessor,  like  Canmore, 
had  1/een  educated  in  exile,  at  the  Norman  court,  and 
favoured  the  Normans.  Though  the  course  of  events  led 
Malcolm  to  aUy  himself  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  royal  house, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Angi.--Norman  periods  of  Scottish 
history  were  not,  as  in  England,  separated  by  several 
centuries,  but  were  nearly  'contemporaneous.  If  Malcolm, 
Edgar,  and  the  first  Alexander  may  be  regarded  as  Scoto- 
Saxon,  David  I.  and  his  successors  were  truly  Scoto-Nor- 
man  feudal  monarchs.  Apart  from  the  customs  and 
language  of  Lothian,  which  descended  from  Anglian  North- 
umberland, Scotland  received  scarcely  any  pure  Saxon 
institutions.  Those  it  did  receive  have  a  mixed  Scixon 
and  Norman  ■  imprint.  There  were  no  tithings,  wapen- 
takes, or  hundreds,  no  trial  by  compurgation,  no  frank- 
pledge. No  witenagemot  or  foLkmotes  preceded  the  great 
council  which  became  parliament.  In  short,  the  system 
of  government  we  caU  the  Anglo-Saxon  constitution  never 
existed  in  Scotland,  although  the  court  of  the  four  southern 
burghs  and  the  customs  of  the  towns  of  Lothian  copied 
from  those  of  Newcastle,  and  a  similar'  association  of 
burghs,  the  Hanse  of  Aberdeen,  of  which  there  are  faint 
traces  in  the  north,  had  a  Teutonic  origin.  And  some 
traces  of  Anglo-Saxon  criminal  law  are  to  be  found  in  the 
early  Scottish  charters. 

Canmore  ascended  the  throne  (1058)  not  long  before 
England  was  subjugated  by  WiUiam  the  Conqueror. 
The  ordy  recorded  event  of  his  reign  prior  to  the  Conquest 
was  his  quarrel  with  Tcstig,  his  "  sworn "  brother,  when 
he  made  a  raid  south  of  the  Tweed  and  violated  the  peace 
of  St  Cuthbert  by  ravaging  Lindisfarne.  The  early  years 
of  his  reign  were  devoted  to  establishing  his  rule  in  the 
uorthem  districts,  where  his  marriage  to  Ingebiorg,  -n-idow 
of  Earl  Thorfinn,  related  by  the  Norse  but  not  the  Scottish 
writers,  may  have  aided  him.  Ingebiorg,  already  old,  can- 
not have  long  survived  the  union,  nor  is  the  fact  of  the 
marriage  certain.  The  victory  of  Hastings  brought  to 
the  Scottish  court  as  refugees  Edgai  Atheling,  grandson 
of  Edmund  Ironside,  and  his  three  sisters.  Their  father, 
Edward,  had  found  shelter  in  Hungary  in  the  reign  of 
Canute  and  married  an  Hungarian  princess.  The  eldest 
daughter  of  the  marriage,  ilargaret,  became  the  wife 
(1068)  of  Malcolm  Canmore.  Her  virtues  more  than  his 
wars  make  his  reign  an  epoch  of  Scottish  history.  This 
alliance  and  the  advance  of  the  Conqueror  on  North- 
timberland  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign  rendered  a 
collision  ine'vitable.  Malcolm  twice  harried  Northumber- 
land during  the  reign  of  the  Conqueror  with  the  view  of 
restoring  the  Atheling.  In  the  interval  between  these 
expeditions  William  retaliated  by  invading  Scotland  as  far 
as  Abernethy,  where  he  forced  Malcolm  to  do  homage. 
After  the  second  he  sent  his  son  Eobert,  who  reached 
Falkirk ;  but  he  returned  ■svithout  having  accomplished 
anything,  except  that  he  built  Newcastle  as  a  frontier 
fortress.  In  this  reign  Northumberland  itself  was  never 
really  subdued,  and  William  laid  wrste  the  district  betweer: 
the  Humber  and  the  Tees  as  a  barrier  against  the  northern 
Angles  and  Danes.  After  the  Conqueror's  death  Malcolm 
prepared  for  war,  but  peace  was  matle  before  he  had  left 
Lothian,  and  he  again  took  an  oath  of  homage.  Next  year 
WiUiam  Rufus  succeeded  in  reducing  Cumbria  south  of  the 
Solway,  then  held  by  Dolphin,  lord  o£  Carlisle,  a  vassal 
of  Malcolm,  rebuilt  the  castle  of  Carlisle,  and  made  the 
adjoining  country  for  the  first  time  English.  He  then 
summoned  Malcolm  to  Gloucester  ;  but  the  meeting  ended, 
like  others  -n-hen  a  summons  to  do  homage  at  a  distance 
from  the  border  was  sent  to  the  kings  of  Scotland,  in 
settling  both  in  a  more  hostile  attitude.  Malcolm  on  his 
return  raised  his  whole  forces  for  the  last  expedition  of 
his  life,  in  which  he  was  slain  (1093)  in  an  ambu.scade 


near  Alnwick  by  Morel  of  Bambcrough.  He  left  to  his  1058  -1097. 
successor  a  kingdom  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Tweed, 
the  Che-yiots,  and  the  Solway,  though  there  was  much 
debatable  land  along  the  borders,  and  the  English  king 
claimed  Lothian  as  successor  of  the  Northumbrian  Angles, 
while  the  Scotch  claimed  English  Cumberland  as  a  de- 
pendency dating  from  the  grant  of  Eadgar.  Malcolm's 
defeat  of  the  mother  of  Maelsnechtan,  son  of  Lulach  and 
mormaer  of  Moray,  is  the  only  event  recorded  to  indicate 
that  his  relations  'with  the  Celtic  population  were  not 
peaceful,  but  iho  materials  are  too  scanty  to  make  it  clear 
how  far  thg  northern  chiefs  asserted  their  independence. 
The  foundation  of  Mortlach  by  Malcolra  is  proof  that  ike 
Aberdeen  lowlands  at  least  were  'within  his  dominion. 

The  brightest  side  of  Malcolm's  reigu  was  the  refonn  Majgset 
due  to  Margaret.  Her  life  by  Theodorir,  a  monk  of 
Durham,  or  her  confessor,  Turgot,  though  coloured  by  par- 
tiality for  a  good  woman,  the  patron  of  the  courch,  bears 
the  marks  of  a  true  portrait.  The  muaculous  element  in 
the  lives  of  the  Celtic  saints,  diminished  but  atiU  present 
in  Bede,  disappears.  The  chief  changes  in  the  Celtic 
Church  effected  by  Margaret  with  the  aid  of  monks  sent 
by  Lanfranc  from  Canterbury  were  the  observance  of  Lent, 
the  reception  of  the  Eucharist  at  Easter,  which  had  fallen 
into  neglect,  the  ase  of  the  proper  ritual  in  the  mass,  the 
prohibition  of  labour  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  of  marriage 
between  persons  related  by  affinity.  She  restored  lona, 
long  desecrated,  founded  the  church  of  Dunfermline  in 
commemoration  of  her  marriage,  and  protected  the  hermits, 
still  common  in  the  Scottish  Church.  Her  severe  fasts  and 
her  Liberality  to  the  sick  and  aged  are  especially  noted. 
She  washed  the  feet  of  the  poor  and  fed  children  with 
food  she  had  prepared,  procured  freedom  for  captives,  and 
on  either  side  of  the  ferry  called  Queensferry  after  her 
.she  erected  hostelries  for  pilgrims.  Nor  did  her  piety 
lead  her  to  neglect  domestic  duties.  The  rude  manners 
of  the  Celtic  court  were  refined  by  her  example.  The 
education  of  her  children,  her  chief  care  in  her  husband's 
frequent  absence,  was  rewarded  by  the  noble  character  of 
the  saintly  David  a,nd  the  good  Queen  Maude.  She  did 
not  long  survive  her  husband :  hearing  of  his  death  she 
thanked  the  Almighty  for  enabling  her  to  bear  such  sorrow, 
to  cleanse  her  from  sin,  and  after  receiving  the  sacrament 
died  praying.  The  chapel  on  the  castle  rock  at  Edinburgh, 
erected  in  her  memory,  is  the  oldest  building  now  existing 
in  Scotland,  with  the  exception  of  the  meagre  ruins  of  the 
Celtic  Church  in  the  western  Highlands. 

After  Malcolm's  death  there  was  a  fierce  contest  for  the 
cro-wn  (1093-97),  which  showed  that  the  union  of  Celtic 
and  Saxon  blood  was  not  yet  complete  in  the  roya:l  house, 
much  less  in.  the  nation.  Before  the  corpse  of  Margaret 
could  be  removed  to  Dunfermline  for  burial,  Donald  Bain,  Donald 
brother  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  besieged  the  castle,  and  P^'°» 
its  removal  was  only  accomplished  under  cover  of  mist. 
Donald,  'n-ho  had  the  support  of  the  Celts  and  the  custom 
i  of  tanistry  in  favoiu'  of  his  claim,  was  king  nominally  at 
least  six  months,  when  he  was  expelled  by  Duncan,  son  of 
Malcolm  and  Ingebiorg,  assisted  by  an  English  force,  in 
which  there  were  Normans  as  well  as  Saxons ;  but  his 
tenure  was  equally  short,  and  Donald,  aided  by  Edmund, 
the  only  degenerate  son  of  Malcolm  and  Margaret,  who 
slew  his  half-brother  Duncan,  again  reigned  three  years. 
This  was  the  last  attempt  of  the  Celts — though  partial 
risings  continued  frequent — to  maintain  a  king  of  their 
race  and  a  kingdom  governed  according  to  their  customs. 
Edgar  Atheling,  who  had  become  reconciled  to  the  Norman 
king,  led  an  army  into  Scotland  and  by  a  hard-fought 
battle  dispossessed  Donald  and  restored  his  eldest  nephev, 
Edgar,  to  his  father's  throne. 

The  reign  of  Ed"ar  (1007.1107'!  was  nnimporttnt.     Its  Edgar. 

XXI.  —  6 1 


482 


SCOTLAND 


[histoky. 


197-1127.  chief  event  was  tlie  cession  of  the  Sudreyar  or  islands  on 
the  west  coast  to  the  Norse  king  ilagnus  Barefoot,  who 
aiso  conquered  Man  and  Anglesea.  The  terms  of  the  treaty 
which,  after  two  expeditions,  he  extorted  from  Edgar  were 
that  every  island  was  to  be  his  between  which  and  the 
mainland  a  helm-bearing  ship  could  pass,  and  by  carrying 
one  across  the  mainland  he  included  Cantyre.  Magnus  was 
killed  in  Ulster;  but  the  Hebrides  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Norse  kings  or  lords,  and  acknowledged  their  sway  till 
the  battle  of  Largs  (1263).  Their  cession  was  the  necessary 
price  for  the  consolidation  of  the  Scottish  monarchy  in  the 
south  of  the  kingdom.  Edinburgh  was  the  capital  of  Edgar, 
a  circumstance  which  marked  the  removal  of  the  centre 
of  the  kingdom  to  its  southern  and  Saxon  district.  His 
standard  had  been  blessed  at  Durham  when  he  recovered 
the  crown,  and  it  was  to  Durham  or  Dunfermline,  where 
ha  was  buried,  that  his  benefactions  were  made.  lona  had 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Magnus,  but  he,  being  a  Christian, 
respected  its  sanctity.  Scone  was  henceforth  only  the  scene 
of  the  coronation  ceremony. 
Aleian-  Edgar,  dying  childless,  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
derl.  Alexander  I.  (1107-24).  Educated  by  his  mother,  and 
after  her  death  in  England,  Alexander,  like  his  brothers, 
brought  to  the  government  of  Scotland  Saxon  combined 
'.vith  Norman  culture.  The  singular  will  by  which  Edgar 
left  Cumbria  to  his  younger  brother  David  was  not  to 
Alexander's  taste;  but  the  support  which  the  Saxon  popu- 
lation and  the  Norman  barons,  now  beginning  to  bold 
land  in  that  district,  gave  to  David  forced  his  brother  to 
acquiesce  in  the  division  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  now 
restricted  to  Lothian,  Merse,  and  the  country  beyond 
the  firth.s,  as  Tar  as  Mar  and  Buchan.  His  hold  of  Jloray 
and  Ross,  Sutherland  and  Caithness,  must  have  been  ratner 
as  suzerain  than  as  sovereign  ;  the  mainland  of  Argyll  was 
now  or  soon  after .  in  the  possession  of  Somerled,  ancestor 
of  the  lords  of  the  Isles;  the  northern  isles  (Nordreyar)  as 
weU  as  the  Sudreyar  remained  Norse.  The  chief  towns  of 
Alexander  were  Edinburgh,  Stirling,  Inverkeithing,  Perth, 
and  Aberdeen.  At  Scone  he  founded  a  monastery  for  canons 
of  St  Augustine ;  but  St  Andi'ews  was  still  the  sole  Scottish 
bishopric.  Alexander  married  Sibylla,  a  natural  daughter 
of  Henry  I.  of  England,  and  secured  peace  with  that 
country.  His  only  recorded  war  was  with  the  men  of 
Mearns  and  Moray,  who  surprised  him  at  Invergowrie. 
He  pursued  them  to  the  Moray  Firth,  where  a  signal 
victory  (1114)  gained  for  him  the  epithet  of  "The  Fierce." 
The  change  from  the  Celtic  to  the  Roman  form  of  church 
government  commenced  by  his  mother  and  his  brother 
Edgar  was  continued.  Anselm  congratulated  him  on 
his  accession,  and  asked  protection  Igv  monks  sent  to 
Scotland  at  Edgar's  request.  On  the  death  of  Fothad, 
the  last  Celtic  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  Alexander  procured 
the  election  of  Turgot,  his  mother's  confessor  and  prior 
of  Durham.  His  consecration  was  delayed  through  a 
dispute  between  Canterbury  and  York,  and,  having  failed 
to  effect  the  anticipated  reforms,  he  went  back  to  Dur- 
ham. On  his  death  Eadmer,  a  monk  of  Canterbury  and 
chronicler  of  note,  was  selected  for  the  office  by  Ralph, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  choice  was  confirmed  by 
the  clergy  and  people  ;  but  a  quarrel  with  Alexander  as  to 
his  investiture  led  to  his  return  to  Canterbury.  Robert, 
prior  of  Scone,  became  bishop  in  the  year  of  Alexander's 
death,  but  his  consecration  also  had  to  be  put  off.  These 
disputes  as  to  the  consecration  and  investiture  of  the 
bishop  of  St  Andrews  turned  on  the  rival  claims  of 
Canterbury  and  York  to  be  the  metropolitan  of  Scotland, 
and  the  refusal  of  Alexander  to  cede  the  independence  of 
the  Scottish  Church,  though  anxious  for  an  English  monk 
to  organize  the  diocese.  National  feeling  was  already 
strong  in  Scotland,  even  in  a  kine-  mih  English  sympathies. 


Without  the  aid  of  Turgot  or  Eadmer,  Alexander  himself 
laid  the  foundation  of  diocesan  episcopacy.  The  first 
bishops  of  Dunkeld  and  Moray  date  from  his  reign,  and 
the  first  parish  on  record,  Eduam  in  Roxburghshke.  At 
Inchcolm,  as  well  as  Scone,  he  introduced  the  canons 
regular  of  Augustine,  and  on  an  island  of  Loch  Tay  a 
cell  from  Scone  was  built  in  memory  of  his  wife  Sibylla. 
He  restored  the  "Boai-'s  Chase"  to  St  Andrews  and 
increased  the  endowments  of  Dunfermline.  The  offices 
of  chancellor,  constable,  and  sheriff  also  now  appear ;  and 
the  mormaers  of  the  Celtic  districts  are  designed  as  earls 
(comiks)  in  one  of  his  charters.  The  transition  from  the 
Celtic  to  the  feudal  monarchy  had  begun.  Alexander  was 
a  learned  monarch,  like  his  father-in-law  Henry  Beauclerk, 
pious  and  friendly  to  the  church  but  severe  to  his 
subjects. 

David  I.  (1124-53),  the  youngest  son  of  Malcolm  and  Dsni  1 
Margaret,  became  king  at  the  ripe  age  of  forty-four.  He 
had  been  trained  at  the  court  of  Henry  I.  a  .  1  his  sister 
Matilda,  so  that  "  his  manners  were  polished  irom  the  rust 
of  Scottish  barbarity."  After  Edgar's  death  he  served  an 
apprenticeship  for  the  royal  office  as  earl  or  prince  of 
Cumbria,  where  his  power  was  little  short  of  regal.  He 
married  a  Saxon,  the  daughter  of  Waltheof,  earl  of 
Northumberland,  widow  of  Simon  de  St  Liz,  Norman 
earl  of  Northampton,  and  his  friends  and  followers  were 
chiefly  Norman.  His  marriage  brought  him  the  earldom 
of  Huntingdon,  and  he  was  guardian  of  the  earldom  of 
Northampton  during  his  stepson's  minority,  so  that  he 
entered  into  feudal  relations  with  the  Norman  king  of 
England,  in  the  government  of  his  principality  he  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  a  wild  part  of  Scotland  into  order, 
using  for  this  purpose  the  agency  of  the  church. 

The  historyof  the  church  in  Strathclyde  since  Kentigem's  EccUsi- 
death  is  obscure.  The  records  of  York  claim  the  consecra-  "^'icaJ 
tion  of  a  bishop  of  Glasgow  in  the  middle  of  the  11  th  and  ''"^"^• 
another  at  the  commencement  of  the  12th  century;  but 
they  are  unknown  in  the  records  of  Glasgow,  and  were 
perhaps  invented  to  support  the  metropolitan  claim  of 
York  over  that  see.  Glasgow  certainly  was  restored  after 
some  considerable  lapse  in  the  person  of  John,  the  tutor  of 
David,  who  at  his  request  was  consecrated  by  Pope  Paschal 
II.  This  was  a  parallel  step  to  the  summons  of  Turgo'  And 
Eadmer  to  St  Andrews,  but  David,  like  Alexander,  main- 
tained the  independence  of  his  own  bishopric,  and,  though 
pope  after  pope  sent  letters  and  legates  exhorting  obedience 
to  York,  neither  Jolm  nor  his  successors  yielded  it.  A  new 
see  erected  at  Carlisle  by  Henry  I.  and  the  restoration  of 
^^^lithorn  by  Henry  II.,  both  subject  to  York,  were  counter 
measures  on  the  part  of  the  English  sovereigns.  The 
independence  of  the  Scottish  from  the  English  Church 
(with  the  exception  of  Galloway  and  some  jilaces  of  Lothian 
stUl  under  Durham)  thbs  asserted  by  the  rulers  of  Scotland 
was  of  great  moment  in  its  subsequent  history,  and  was 
promoted  by  the  liberality  of  David  and  his  brothel's.  The 
inquest  by  David's  order  by  which  the  land  of  the  see  of 
Glasgow  was  made  may  refer  to  ancient  possession,  but  it 
had  the  effect  of  a  new  grant.  Its  extent — covering  lands  in 
the  dales  of  the  Clyde,  Tweed,  Teviot,  Annan,  Nith,  and  in 
Ayrshire — corresponds  to  the  district  of  Cumbria  under 
David  and,  with  slight  deviations,  to  the  future  diocese  of 
Glasgow.  While  David's  province  did  not  include  all  of 
ancient  Cumbria,  it  did  include  some  parts  of  ancient 
Lothian,  the  future  shires  of  Berwick,  Roxburgh,  and 
Selkirk.  The  Cumbrian  nobles  were  a  mixed  (jiass, — 
some  Saxon  and  others  Norman.  There  were  few  of  jjure 
Celtic  blood. 

Three  years  after  his  accession  David  was  present  at  the  David 
council  of  London,  where,  along  with  the  English  barons,  he  ?'"' 
swore   to   accept   his   niece   JIatilda   as   the   successor  of 


(.ANMOKE  10  ALEXANDER  III.] 


SCOTLAND 


4b3 


Henry  I.,  wiio  had  lost  his  oniy  son  by  tne  shipwreck  of 
the  "  White  Ship."  Soon  after  a  rising  of  Scottish  Celts 
under  a  natural  son  of  Alexander  and  Angus,  a  grandson  of 
the  mormaer  of  Moray,  was  defeated  at  Stracathro  (Forfar) 
by  David's  troops  in  his  absence'in  England,  and  four  years 
later  another  under  "Wimund,  who  pretended  to  be  Malcolm 
MacHeth,  a  chief  in  Ross,  aided  by  Somerled  of  Argyll, 
who  had  acquired  some  of  the  adjacent  isles,  was  put 
down  by  Wimund's  capture.  The  death  of  Henry  I.  and 
the  claim  of  Stephen  to  the  English  throne  led  to  the 
invasion  of  England  by  David,  in  support  of  JIatilda, 
with  an  army  drawn  from  all  parts  of  his  kingdom, 
—  the  men  of  Galloway,  Cumbria,  Teviotdale,  Lothian, 
Lennox,  the  Isles,  Scotia  (the  country  south  of  the  Forth 
or  Scots  Water),  and  Moray.  Their  defeat  at  tlie  battle 
of  the  Standard  at  Cuton  Moor  (1138)  near  Northallerton 
by  the  barons  of  northern  England  was  due  to  the  want  of 
discipline  of  the  men  of  Galloway,  and,  though  signal,  was 
not  decisive.  At  Carlisle  peace  was  made  on  condition  that 
David's  son  Henry  should  hold  Northumberland  as  an 
earldom  under  Stephen,  with  the  exception  of  the  castles  of 
Bamborough  and  Newcastle.  David  gave  hostages,  but 
retained  Carlisle  and  Cumberland  without  any  condition  of 
homage.  Two  years  later,  when  Matilda  seized  London, 
David  joined  her ;  but  she  was  unable  to  maintain  her 
advantage.  David  was  forced  to  return  to  Scotland,  and 
did  not  again  engage  in  active  hostilities  against  Stephen. 
His  death  was  preceded  by  that  of  his  only  son ;  but 
his  power  was  so  firm  that  he  procured  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  grandson  ilalcolm,  a  boy  of  twelve,  as  successor 
to  the  Scottish  croAvn,  while  William,  his  younger  grandson, 
succeeded  to  Northumberland  and  the  English  fiefs  his 
father  had  .held. 
,  r-l.icesiE  The  comparative  peace  of  his  last  twelve  years  gave 
>-'i  David  opportunity  for  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  organiza- 
_  tion  of   the   kingdom.      He  found   three  and   left   nine 

^iun  of  bishoprics,  adding  to  St  Andrews,  Moray,  and  Dunkeld 
kmgjloni.  the  new  sees  of  Glasgow,  Brechin,  Dunblane,  Aberdeen 
(transferred  from  Jlortlach),  Ross,  and  Caithness.  Closely 
connected  with  their  establishment  was  the  suppression  of 
the  Celtic  Culdees  at  Dunkeld,  St  Andrews,  and  Loch 
Leven,  and  perhaps  also  &i  Dunblane  and  Dornoch,  where 
canons  regular  of  St  Augastine  became  the  chapters  of  the 
bishop.  The  abbeys,  chiefly  Cistercian,  which  he  founded 
were  Holyrood,  Newbattle,  Jlelrose,  Jedburgh,  Kelso, 
Cambuskenneth,  Urquhart,  and  ICinloss.  He  rdded  to  the 
endowments  of  his  father  and  mother  at  Dunfermline,  and 
so  lessened  the  crown  lands  that  James  I.  called  him 
"a  sore  saint  for  the  crown."  The  division  into  dioceses 
stimulated  the  formation  of  parishes  endowed  by  the 
bishops  or  by  the  lords  of  the  manor ;  but  the  first  steps 
of  the  parochial  division  of  Scotland  are  obscure.  The 
diocesan  episcopate  now  included  the  whole  of  Scotland 
except  what  was  held  by  the  Norsemen,  who  had  bishops 
of'  their  own  for  the  Orkneys  and  the  western  isles, 
subject  to  the  metropolitan  of  Drontheim.  It  preceded 
the  civil  division  into  sheriffdoms,  which  also  began  in 
this  reign,  but  took  a  longer  period  to  complete  The 
Celtic  chiefs  in  the  north  and  in  Galloway  were  as  yet  too 
powerful  to  allow  royal  officers  to  hold  courts  within  their 
territoiy,  .and  regalities  with  the  full  rights  of  the  crown 
in  matters  of  justice  were  more  lavishly  granted  in  Scotland 
than  ill  England,  where  they  were  confined  to  the  few 
palatine  earls  or  bishops  on  the  border.  The  feudal  .system 
in  Scotland,  erroneously  antedated  to  the  reign  of  Malcolm 
II.  or  Malcolm  Canmore,  really  took  root  in  that  of  David. 
The  king  administered  justice  in  person.  The  great  judicial 
officer  of  state,  the  justiciar,  who  went  circuits  in  the  king's 
name,  appears  either  in  this  or  the  preceding  reign  j  so 
also  do  the  seneschal  or  steward  of  the  royal  household 


and  the  chamberlain  who  collected  the  royal  revenues.  1127.1 165 
The  tenure  of  land  by  charter,  of  which  there  are  a  few 
examples  by  Edgar  in  favour  of  Durham  and  by  Alexander 
I.  in  favour  of  Scone,  now  became  common.  The  charters' 
of  David  to  the  abbey  of  Holyrood,  to  Robert  Bruce  of 
Annandale,  and  others  are  in  the  regular  style  of  the 
Norman  chancery.  There  are  also  instances  of  subordinate 
grants  by  subjects,  which  the  king  confirms.  Though  no 
charter  to  a  burgh  is  extant,  David  refers  to  Edinburgh, 
Perth,  and  Stirling  as  his  burghs.  The  inquest  in  favour  of 
the  see  of  Glasgow  is,  by  the  verdict  of  those  best  acquainted 
with  the  facts,  similar  to  the  Norman  inquest.  The  laws 
of  the  four  burghs  of  Lothian  —  Berwick,  Roxburgh, 
Edinburgh,  and  Stirling — are  records  of  customs  existing 
in  this  reign,  while  a  variety  of  other  laws  called  assizes, 
chiefly  relating  to  tolls  and  m.atteis  of  criminal  jurispru- 
dence, were  the  legislative  acts  of  the  king,  assisted  by  the 
council  of  his  great  nobles.  The  beginning  of  the  feudal 
system  in  Scotland  was  invigorated  by  the  personal  character 
of  David.  The  absence  of  any  large  body  of  settled  Celtic 
or  Saxon  customs  gave  full  play  to  its  assimilative  influence. 
In  the  reigns  which  followed  Scotland  became  a  purer 
example  of  a  feudal  state  than  England,  where  a  large 
number  of  Teutonic  castoms  contributed  to  form  the 
common  law.  A  few  of  these  found  their  way  into  Scotland, 
chiefiy  through  the  burghs  or  the  medium  of  Norman 
charters,  in  which  they  had  been  incorporated.  But  the 
Scottish  common  law  was  in  the  main  derived  from  the 
Roman  code  through  the  canon  law,  and  not  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  customs.  Though  never  canonized  by  tlie  church, 
this  great  monarch,  for  his  faithful  administration  of 
justice  and  the  purity  of  his  domestic  life,  was  deemed  a 
saint  by  the  people. 

David's  grandson  and  successor  Malcolm  TV.  (1154-65),  Malcolm 
called  '  The  JIaiden,"  died  too  young  to  leave  a  permanent  ^^■ 
impression.  A  rising  by  Somerled,  lord  of  the  Isles,  and 
the  sons  of  Malcolm  JtacHetli,  mormaer  of  Moray,  was 
suppressed  in  the  early  years  of  his  reign,  and  peace  wa.s 
made  with  Somerled  in  1 158.  A  treaty  by  which  Malcolm 
surrendered  Northumberland  and  Cumberland  to  Henry  II., 
and  his  following  that  king  (who  knighted  him  at  Tours) 
in  an  expedition  to  Toulouse,  led  to  the  revolt  of  the 
earl  of  Strathearn  with  five  other  chiefs.  This  brought 
him  suddenly  home.  An  attempt  to  take  him  by  surprise 
at  Perth  failed,  and  next  year  he  succeeded  in  reducing 
Moray  and  Galloway,  whose  carl,  Fergus,  hnd  also  taken 
advantage  of  his  absence.  Moray  was  occupied  by  foreign 
settlers  (IIGO),  amongst  whom,  besides  Norman  baron.s, 
were  Flemings, -^a  race  fitted  to  civilize  a  new  country  by 
their  industry.  It  is  to  this  settlement  that  the  permanent 
subjection  of  iloray  to  the  Scottish  kings,  and  perhaps  the 
peculiar  dialect  and  charact,  r  of  the  inhabitants  of  that 
part  of  Scotland,  Avere  due.  Tour  years  later  Somerled 
again  attacked  the  west  coast,  but  was  defeated  and  slain 
at  Renfrew,  when  the  isles  south  of  Ardnamurchan,  which 
he  had  won  from  Godred  the  Black,  son  of  Olaf,  king  of 
Man,  -v^-ere  divided  amongst  his  sons  Dugall,  Reginald,  and 
Angas.  Next  year  (1165)  the  young  king  hiin.self  died  at 
Jedburgh.  ^V^lilo  ho  was  reproached  for  j  ielding  too  much 
to  the  powerful  English  monarch,  his  service  abroad  enabled 
him  to  obtain  the  neces.sary  cxjicricnce  to  contend  with  the 
Celtic  chiefs.  The  reduction  of  Galloway  and  Moray  moro 
than  compensated  for  the  loss  of  the  earldoms  in  northern 
England,  the  possession  of  which  by  the  Scottish  king 
must  have  been  precarious.  Before  his  death  Bute  had 
been  taken  by  the  steward  of  Scotland, — the  first  footing 
the  Scotch  got  on  the  larger  isles,  but  it  was  afterwards 
recovered  by  the  Norwegian  king  Hnco  and  restored  to 
Euari,  a  descendant  of  Reginald. 

Malcolm,  dying  childless — thotighhe  had  an  illcgitimato 


484 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


1165-1215.  son  who  predeceased  liim— ivas  succeeded  by  his  brother 
WilUam  Vi'illiam  the  Lion  (1165-1214).     His  reign,  the  longest  of 
the  Lion,  any  Scottish  monarch,  though  not  so  uniformly  successful 
as  that  of  his  grandfather,  was  an  important  era  in  Scottish 
history.     It  is  divided  into  nearly  equal  portions  by  the 
accession  of  Richard  Coiur  de  Lion.     Tlie  first  consists  of 
the  -ivar  •nith  Heniy  II.,  in  which  William  was  captured 
(1175),  and  this  made  him  the  subject  of  the  English  king 
for  fourteen  years.     In  the  second  lie  recovered  his  in- 
dependence, and,  resuming  the  task  of  his  predecessor, 
consolidated  the  Scottish  kingdom  in  the  north  and  west. 
William  commenced  his  reign  by  taking  part  in  the  war 
with  France  as  vassal  of  Henry  II.  for  the  fief  of  Hunting- 
don ;  but,  being  disappointed  of  the  promised  restoration 
of  the  northern  earldoms,  he  entered  into  negotiations  wdth 
Louis  VII.  of  France.     This  memorable  event  is  the  first 
authentic  connexion  between  Scotland  and  France,  and  was 
afterwards  antedated  by  a  fiction  to  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne.    Dictated  by  the  situation  of  the  two  countries, 
equally  exposed  to  danger  from  the  power  of  England  under 
the  Angevin  or  Plantagenet  kings,  the  alliance   between 
France  and  Scotland  continued  with  few  breaks  untQ  the 
close  of  the  ICth  century,  and  even  in  the  I7th  and  18th 
was  relied  upon  by  the  last  of  the  Stuarts.    France  proved  a 
brpken  reed  to  the  Scottish  kings  ;  but  the  intercourse 
between  the  two  countries  brought  the  Scottish  people, 
when  war  v,ith  England  after  the  close  of  the  14th  century 
shut  them  out  from  the  advancing  civilization  of  that 
country,  into  contact  with  the  chivalrous  manners  of  the 
court  and  the  learning  of  the  schools  of  France  during  the 
Wiirwitli  best  period  of  French  history.    Nothing  came  of  the  alliance 
Bogland.  at  this  time,  and  two  years  later  William  and  his  brother 
David,  in  whose  favour  he  resigned  the  earldom  of  Hunting- 
don, attended  the  coronation  (during  his  father's  Ufe)  of  the 
younger  Henry  at  Windsor.     That  ill-judged  step  and  the 
murder  of  Becket  led  to  a  domestic  revolution,  and  William, 
tempted  by  the  promise  of  the  earldom  of  Northumberland, 
joined  the  young  king  against  his  father  (1173).     He  failed 
in  the  sieges  of  Wark  and  Carlisle,  and  next  year  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Alnwick  by  Eanulph  de  GlanviUe  and  sent  by 
Henry's  order  to  Falaise  in  Normandy.     To  procure  his 
release  he  made  a  treaty  with  Henry  by  which  he  became 
his  vassal  for  Scotland  and  all  his  other  territories.     The 
Scottish  Church  then  for  the  first  and  last  time  owned 
subjection  to  that  of  England.     This  treaty  settles  the 
disputed  question  of  the  Scottish  homage.     It  was  only  by 
conquest  and  the  captivity  of  its  king  that  such  terms 
could  be  obtained.    To  secure  the  observance  of  the  treaty 
the  four  burghs  of  Scotland  were  to  be  placed  in  Henry's 
hands  and  hostages  given  till  their  delivery.    The  ambiguous 
terms  of  the  clause  as  to  the  church  enabled  the  Scottish 
bishops  to   refuse  obedience    to    the   see  of  York,   and, 
Canterbury  having  advanced  a  rival  claim,  Henry,  not 
displeased  to  see  ecclesiastics  quarrel,  allowed  the  Scottish 
bishops  to  leave  the  council  of  Norham  without  acknowledg- 
ing it.    The  foundation  of  the  abbey  of  Arbroath  in  memorj' 
of  Becket,  whom  he  had  known  at  Henry's  court,  was  almost 
the  only  endowment  of  William.     At  home  he  put  down 
revolts  in  Galloway,  Ross,  and  Caithness.     A  long  dispute 
with  successive  popes  as  to  the  see  of  St  Andrews  afforded 
a  signal  example  of  the  perseverance  of  William.    He  also 
procured  a  distinct  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of 
the  Scottish  Church  and  its  immediate  subjection  to  Rome 
aione,  which  Henry  II.,  now  approaching  the  calamitous 
end  of  his  reign,  could  not  prevent ;  nor  was  he  able  to 
enforce  payment  of  the  Saladin  tax  from  the  Scottish 
bishops.     Immediately  after  Henry's  death  Richard  Coeur 
de  Lion,  moved  by  the  necessity  of  money  for  the  crusades, 
consented  fc  a  pc.>Tnent  of  10,000  marks  to  the  abrogation 
of  the  treaty  of  Falaise  (1189)  as  having  been  extorted 


from  William  when  a  captive,   and  restored  Scotland's 
ancient  marches. 

The  second  part  of  William's  reign  was  occupied  with  InteniaJ 
internal  afiairs.      Richard's  absence  and  John's  disputes  ^^irs- 
with  tlie  pope  and  his  own  barons  gave  a  relief  from 
English  war.     The  raising  of  the  ransom  tried  the  re- 
sources of  Scotland,  and  was  met  by  an  aid  from  tlie 
clergy  and  barons.     Risings  by  Harold,  earl  of  Caithness, 
and   his   son   Torphin  (1197),  and   another  by  Guthred 
(1211),   a    descendant   of    the    mormaer    of    Ross,  were 
quelled.    The  birth  of  a  son  strengthened  William's  throne. 
He  at  one  time  contemplated  an  invasion  of  England,  for 
which  John's  weakness  afi'orded  a  good  opportuiiity,  but 
desisted,  it  is  said,  in  consequence  of  a  vision,  perhaps 
remembering   his   own   age  and   that  of  his  heir.     The 
proposed  erection  by  John  of  a  castle  at  Tweedmouth  to 
overawe  Berwick  led  to  a  rupture ;  but,  after  protracted 
negotiations  and  threats,  a  treaty  was  made  (1209)  by-which 
William  agreed  to  pay  15,000  marks.     John  was  to  procure 
suitable  matches  for  his  two  daughters,  and  Tweedmouth 
was  not  to  be  rebuilt.     The  barons  promised  at  a  council  in 
the  follomng  year  to  raise  10,000  and  the  burghs  GOOO 
marks.     This  is  the  first  mention  of  a  contribution  by  the 
burghs  to  a  feudal  aid.    William  was  their  great  benefactor, 
as  Henry  the  Fowler  in  Germany  and  Richard  in  England  : 
many  of  their  charters  date  from  his  reign.     Legislation 
continued  in  the  form  of  assizes,  which  required  the  sanction 
of  a  great  council     As  in  England,  the  necessity  of  raising 
money  first  gave  rise  to  municipal  rights  and  to  facilities  for 
some  discussion  of  public  aSairs  in  what  afterwards  grew 
to  be  the  parliament.     This  assembly  was  still  the  curia 
rerjis  of  the  vassals  of  the  king,  and  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment never   lost  marks   of    its  origin.     William  died  at 
Stirling  in  1214  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age. 
The  lion  rampant,  which  he  took  for  his  seal,  became  his 
epithet,   and    represents    his   chivahous   and   determined 
character.     He  set  the  example,  which  his  son  and  grand- 
son followed,  of  cultivating  friendly  relations  with   the 
English  sovereign,  and  his  efforts  to  maintain  the  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland  were  rewarded  by  internal  peace.     It 
was  only  in  the  outlying  districts  that  risings  had  now  to 
be  feared.     The  number  of  shires  where  the  king's  sheriff, 
frequently  (by  a  policy  wise  at  the  time,  but  afterwards 
dangerous)  the  chief  Isaron  of  the  district,  administered 
justice  at  the  head  towns  increases,  and  this,  as  well  as 
the  growth  of  trade,  brought  into  prominence  the  burghs, 
each  with  a  royal  castle  where  the  king  in  his  frequent 
progresses  held  his  court,  and  if  needful  summoned  the 
great   council   of    his   realm.      The  chief   burghs  whose 
charters  date  from  this  reign  are  Perth,  Aberdeen,  Inver- 
ness,  Dumiiies,    Lanark,    Irvine,    Aj-r,   Forfar,    Dundee, 
Arbroath,  l^Iontrose,  Inverurie,  Kintore,  Banff,  CuUen,  and 
Nairn.     Their  number  and  sites,  spread  over   the  whole 
country,  mark  a  settled  policy  and  the  progress  of  the 
kingdom   in  the  arts  of  peace.     A  new  diocese — Argy-U 
— was  founded  by  separation  from  Dunkeld,  to  which 
John  the  Scot,  then  bishop,  sent  his  chaplain  as  knowing 
Gaelic;  and,  though  the  Hebrides  were  still  Norse,  this 
was  a   step   towards    the  complete   organization  of    the 
church  and  to  the  extension  of  the  kingdom  which  fol- 
lowed in  the  next  two  reigns,  when  the  Isles  also  were 
added  (1266)  to  Scotland. 

Alexander  11.  (1214-49),  son  of  William,  was  crowned  Aleian- 
at  Scone  in  his  seventeenth  year,  in  time  to  take  part  in  '3«''  'L 
the  great  struggle  in  England  for  Magna  Charta,  which 
had  reached  its  crisis.  He  sided  with  the  English  barons, 
who  made  an  agreement  by  which  Carlisle  and  the  county 
of  Northumberland  were  to  be  given  to  Alexander.  In 
fulfilment  of  his  part  he  besieged  Norham,  while  the 
barons  inserted  in  ilagna  Charta  a  clause  by  which  Joha 


CANMcr.E  TO  ALEXxy.ur.a  111. 


SCOTLAND 


485 


-promised  to  render  to  Alexander  what  was  his  right  w-ith 
reference  to  the  marriage  of  his  sisters  and  his  kingdom, 
unless  the  charters  of  his  father  William  authorized  other- 
wise, and  this  was  to  be  decided  by  the  judgment  of  his 
peers  in  the  aa-ia  rcijis.  The  position  of  the  Scottish 
king  as  one  of  the  English  barons  in  whose  favour  Magna 
Charta  was  granted  is  pregnant  evidence  of  the  fact  that 
he  was  not,  like  John,  Henry  III.,  and  Edward  I.,'  a 
monarch  with  imperial  tendencies,  the  adversary  of  the 
rights  of  the  barons  and  the  people.  The  Scottish  kings 
in  this  century  and  Bruce  in  the  next  were  popular 
sovereigns,  and  their  memory  supported  the  crown  when 
it  was  worn  by  less  worthy  successors.  Next  year  John 
broke  the  charter,  reduced  by  the  aid  of  mercenaries  the 
northern  counties  of  England,  and,  advancing  into  Scot- 
land, stormed  Berwick  and  burnt  Roxburgh,  Haddington, 
and  Dunbar.  On  his  return  he  pillaged  Coldingham  and 
set  fire  to  Berwick.  Alexander  retaliated  by  wasting 
England  as  far  as  Carlisle,  which  town,  but  not  the  castle, 
he  took  in  the  autumn ;  then,  marching  to  Dover,  he  did 
homage  to  Louis,  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus,  whom  the 
English  barons  had  chosen  as  king.  Next  year  (1217)  ho 
again  invaded  England,  but  made  peace  with  Henry  III., 
which  was  confirmed  three  years  later  at  York.  Alexander 
agreed  to  restore  Carlisle,  do  homage  for  his  English  fiefs, 
and  obtain  release  from  the  excommunication  which  the 
pope  had  declared  against  the  barons  and  their  allies. 
Henry  promised  to  give  Alexander  one  of  his  sisters  in 
marriage  and  to  procure  suitable  husbands  for  the  Scottish 
princesses.  Accordingly,  Alexander  married  Joan,  the 
■elder  daughter  of  John,  while  Margaret,  his  sister,  be- 
came the  wife  of  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Kent,  and 
Isabella  of  Roger  Bigod,  earl  of  Norfolk,  both  nobles  who 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Barons  War.  These  alliances 
rendered  the  peace  with  England  more  secure,  and  allowed 
Alexander  to,  devote  himself  to  the  reduction  of  the 
periodical  insurrections  of  the  Celtic  and  Norse  chiefs  on 
his  northern  and  western  borders.  He  reduced  Argyll 
(1222),  which  he  created  a  sherifl'dom,  and  forced  John, 
earl  of  Caithness,  to  surrender  part  of  his  lands  and  pay 
compensation  for  his  share  in  the  burning  of  Adam,  its 
bishop.  The  wisdom  of  his  settlement  of  Argyll  was  proved 
by  the  inhabitants  repelling  an  attack  by  Haco,  the  Norse 
king.  He  was  equally  successful  in  quelling  the  risings  of 
two  chiefs  of  the  same  name,  Gillescop,  one  in  the  west, 
the  other  in  Moray.  Five  years  later  (1230)  a  disputed 
succession  in  Galloway  gave  him  the  opportunity  of  chas- 
tising that  turbulent  province  and  dividing  it  among  three 
co-heiresses.  The  fall  of  Hubert  de  Burgh  and  the  suc- 
cession of  Peter  des  Roches  to  the  chief  place  in  the 
council  of  Henry  III.  changed  the  attitude  of  that  king 
towards  Scotland,  but  Otho,  the  papal  legate,  preserved 
peace  by  a  compromise' of  the  rival  claims,  A  little  more 
than  a  year  after  the  death  of  his  wife  Joan  without  issue, 
Alexander  married  Mary  de  Couci,  daughter  of  a  French 
noble  house,  which  counted  itself  the  equal  of_  kings,  and 
Alexander  III.,  the  child  of  the  marriage,  was  betrothed 
when  an  infant  of  a  year  old  to  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Henry  III.  Two  years  later  (1244)  a  serious  rupture, 
fomented  by  Walter  Bisset,  a  Scottish  exile,  and  caused 
by  a  projected  alliance  of  Alexander  with  France  and 
the  erection  of  castles  on  the  border,  was  averted  by  the 
treaty  of  Newcastle,  by  which  the  kings  of  England  and 
Scotland  bound  themselves  not  to  make  alliances  with  the 
enemies  of  each  other.  The  last  year  of  his  life  was 
occupied  in  putting  down  a  second  rising  in  Galloway, 
and  in  preparing  for  an  expedition  against  Haco,  \vith 
the  view  of  annexing  the  H^rides ;  but  he  died  of  fever 
It  Kerrera,  in  the  Bay  of  Oban,  while  mustering  his  fleet. 
Theso  expeditions,  all  8ucr">ahil,  are  proof  of  the  active 


character  of  the  king,  who  must  have  been  called 
ful  "  because  he  preserved  peace  with  England,  for  he  was 
in  fact  a  warlike  monarch,  enforcing  the  feudal  levy,  which 
according  to  Matthew  Paris,  amounted  in  his  time  to  10  000 
horse  and  100,000  foot,  and  extending  the  feudal  civil 
government.  Like  his  predecessors,  he  was  a  benefactor 
of  the  church,  especially  of  the  new  mendicant  orders 
whose  monasteries  were  founded  in  all  the  principal  towns. 
The  most  important  of  his  statutes  were  the  substitution 
of  trial  by  jury  for  the  ordeals  of  fire  and  water,  and  the 
regulation  of  trial  by  battle,  with  provision  for  the  case 
of  women  and  the  clergy.  He  was  deemed,  like  David,  a 
protector  of  the  poor. 

Alexander  III.  (1249-85)  was  only  eight  years  old  when  Alesan- 
his  father  died. .  A  succession  of  contests  for  the  regency  '^'^^  I'^- 
between  a  party  of  nobles  who  favoured  English  influence 
and  a  national  party  was  the  consequence.  The  former 
tried  to  delay  the  coronation  era  the  pretence  that  the 
young  prince  was  not  a  knight ;  but  Comyn,  earl  of 
Menteith,  bafiled  them  by  the  proposal  that  the  bishop 
■  of  St  Andrews  should  perform  both  ceremonies.  The 
rehearsal  of  his  descent  from  the  Celtic  line  of  kings  was 
made,  according  to  a  custom  becoming  old-fashioned,  for 
the  last  time  by  a  Highland  sennachy,  to  please  the 
Gaelic  subjects,  whUe  tlie  translation  of  the  corpse  of  St 
Margaret  into  a  precious  shrine  at  Dunfermline  was  cal- 
culated to  have  a  similar  effect  in  the  Lov/lands.  Henry 
III.  had  asked  the  pope  to  declare  the  coronation  illegal 
without  his  consent,  but  the  pope  refused.  Foiled  in  this, 
Henry  celebrated  at  York  the  nuptials  of  his  daughter  and 
the  young  king,  whom  he  asked  to  render  homage  for  his 
kingdom.  The  reply  that  he  had  not  come  to  answer  such 
a  question  and  must  advise  •with  his  counsellors  implied 
that  he  had  counsellors  little  likely  to  grant  it.  About 
this  time  DiuTvard  the  justiciar  and  Robert  the  chan- 
cellor were  dismissed,  and  the  earl  of  Menteith  held  the 
chief  power  for  five  years.  A  secret  mission  of  Simon  de 
Montfort  led  to  the  earl  of  March,  Durward,  and  other 
nobles  seizing  the  young  king  and  queen,  and  at  a  meeting 
with  Henry  at  Kelso  the  Oomyns  and  their  supporters  were 
removed  from  office  (1255)  and  other  regents  appointed. 
Two  years  later  the  bishop  of  St  Andrews  got  the  pope  to 
excommunicate  Durward  and  the  English  regents.  Next 
year  a  compromise  was  effected  and  a  -joint  regency 
appointed,  consisting  of  the  queen  dowager  and  her 
husband,  the  earl  of  Menteith  and  Durward,  and  the 
supporters  of  both  parties.  When  Alexander  was  nearly 
of  age  the  earl  of  Menteith  died,  whereupon  the  king  took 
the  goverimient  into  his  own  hands  (1261).  Henry, 
engaged  in  the  dispute  with  his  barons,  could  not  interfere. 
Alexander  at  once  resumed  his  father's  project  for  the  Rednotion; 
reduction  of  the  Hebrides  ;  but  Haco,  the  Norwegian  king,  "f  ^° 
forestalled  him  by  invading  Scotland,  wher.  a  storm,  which  ,^51^3°™ 
dispersed  his  fleet,  and  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  Largs  (1263) 
forced  him  to  retire  to  the' Orkneys,  where  he  died.  JIagnus 
Olafson,  king  of  Man,  the  chief  Norse  feudatory,  a 
descendant  of  Godred  the  Black,  submitted  to  Alexander, 
and  although  some  of  the  islands  held  out  they  were  reduced 
by  the  earls  of  Buchan  and  Mar  and  Alaa  Durward.  At 
last  Magnus,  the  son  of  Haco,  concluded  a  treaty  at  Perth 
(12G6),  by  which  he  suiTendered  Man  and  the  Sudreyar 
for  a  payment  of  4000  marks  and  an  anoual  rent  of  100  ; 
the,  rights  of  the  bishop  of  Drontlicim  wero  reserved.  From 
this  time  the  western  isles  were  subject  to  Scotland.  At 
the  parliament  of  1284,  which  settled  the  crown  on  the 
Maid  of  Norway,  their  great  noble.'.,  descendants  of 
Somerled,  attended  as  vassals,  and-  the  subsequent  revolts 
(of  which  there  were  many)  were  instigated  by  the  English 
king,  who  found  useful  allies  in  the  chiefs  of  the  Isles. 
In  the  Barons  War  Alexander  aided  Lis  father-in-law,  on 


486 


SCOTLAND 


[histoet. 


1263-1292.  whose  side  three  Scottish  barons,  John  Comyn,  Robert 
Bruce,  and  JcLn  Baliol,  fought  at  Lewes,  where  the  first  two 
were  taken  prisoners.  In  the  matter  of  the  independence 
of  his  kingdom  Alexander  w^as  as  firm  as  his  predecessors, 
and"  would  not  allow  Henry  himself  or  the  legate  Ottobon 
to  collect  within  it  a  tithe  for  the  crusade  which  the  pope 
had  guaranteed  to  the  English  king.  On  the  accession  of 
Edward  I.  (1272)  Alexander  attended  his  coronation,  but 
neither  then  nor  si.-?  years  later,  when  specially  summoned 
to  Westminster,  would  he  do  homage  for  Scotland.  The 
closing  years  of  Alexander  were  saddened  by  domestic 
losses.  His  wife  died  in  1273,  his  younger  son  David  in 
1281.  His  only  daughter,  -Margaret,  married  two  years 
before  to  Erik  of  Norway,  and  his  elder  son,  Alexander, 
both  died  in  1283.  The  following  year  the  estates  at 
Scone  recognized  the  succession  of  ilargarat,  the  Maid  of 
Norway ;  but  Alexander,  in  hope  of  a  male  heir,  married 
Joleta,  daughter  of  Count  de  Dreux.  At  the  festivities  in 
Jedburgh  in  honour  of  the  marriage  a  ghostly  figure  in  the 
masque  was  deemed  an  omen  of  the  king's  death,  which 
followed  from  a  fall  near  Kinghorn  (1285).  The  prosperity 
of  Scotland  in  his  reign  was  celebrated  in  one  of  the  earliest 
verses  preserved  in  the  Scottish  dialect — 

"  Quhen  Alysander  oure  k\yg  was  dede. 

That  Scotland  led  in  luve  and  le, 
A^ay  i^es  sons  of  ale  and  brede, 

Of  wyne  and  wax,  of  gamyn  and  gle, 
Ouro  gold  was  changed  into  lede. 

Cryst,  born  into  virginite, 
Succour  Scotland  and  remede 

That  sted  in  his  pei-plexitie. " 

Feadal         Under  the  wise  rule  of   three  kings,   extending  over 

Scotland,  more  than  a  century — a  circumstance  rare  in  that  age — 
Scotland  attained  a  degree  of  wellbeing  before  unknown, 
which  did  not  return  till  the  18th  century.  The  extent  of 
the  revenue  is  attested  by  the  returns  of  the  sheriffs  to  the 
chamberlain  and  by  the  accoimts  of  the  tax  which  Boiamand 
deVicci,  the  pope's  representative,  levied  from  the  clergy  for 
the-crusade.  Berwick,  the  chief  Scottish  port,  was  likened 
to  Alexandria,  and  attained  an  importance  it  never  recovered 
after  its  union  vrith  England.  Its  customs  were  reckoned 
as  equal  to  a  third  of  those  of  all  England, — a  statement 
hardly  credible  till  we  remember  that  the  trade  of  Britain 
was  chiefly  with  France  and  Flanders,  and  that  a  harbour 
for  small  craft  was  sufficient.  The  personal  character  and 
bravery  of  these  kings  subdued  the  turbulence  of  the 
outlying  districts  and  kept  in  check  the  ambition  of  the 
nobles.  The  bounds  of  the  kingdom  were  almost  as  they 
now  are,  and  the  name  of  Scotland  permanently  passed  to 
the  whole  country  south  as  well  as  north  of  the  Forth. 
In  spite  of  differences  of  race,  the  unity  of  the  nation  had 
been  secured,  and  its  independence  was  acknowledged  by 
the  pope  and  other  sovereigns ;  the  English  alone  kept  up 
a  nominal  claim  to  rights  which  had  for  short  periods  been 
held  by  Canute  and  the  Conqueror,  and  f6r  longer  by  the 
second  Henry,  until  they  were  abandoned  by  the  treaty 
of  Canterbury.  But  now  all  was  to  be  changed.  Three 
centtiries  of  war,  though  diminishing  in  intensity  as  time 
went  on,  display  heroic  character,  but  imply  an  amount  of 
suffering  to.the  people  which  cannot  be  told.  Perhaps  a 
contest  between  the  two  proud  nations  which  shared  Britain 
was  inevitable,  yet  the  reigns  of  the  Alexanders  suggest  a 
different  possibility.  That  the  contest  came  when  it  did 
was  due  to  the  disputed  succession  on  the  death  of  Mar- 
garet, the  Maid  of  Norway.  This  gave  to  the  ambition  of 
Edward  I.  an  opportunity  to  reduce  the  whole  island  to 
his  sway,  which  he  was  quick  to  seize. 

Maid  of        5.    War  of  Independence  ;  from  Death  of  Alexander  III. 

Norway,  to  Accession  of  House  of  Stvart. — The  Maid  of  Norway, 
whose  right  was  at  once  acknowledged  (for  Scotland-  hke 
England,  knew  no  Salic  law),  was  not  to  wear  the  crown. 


A  regency  administered  the  kingdom  for  five  years  after 
Alexander's  death.  A  conference  at  Salisbury  between 
commissioners  of  Erik  of  Norway,  Edward  I.,  three  of  the 
regents,  and  Bruce,  lord  of  Annandale,  agreed  that  Margaret 
should  be  sent  home  unbetrothed.  Her  marriage  to  Ed-  Treaty 
ward's  son,  for  which  a  dispensation  had  been  got  from  °f  ^''i- 
Eome,  was  sanctioned  by  an  assembly  at  Brigham  near 
Roxburgh  (18th  July  1290),  in  a  treaty  which  made  anxious 
provision  for  the  independence  of  Scotland.  This  country 
was  to  remain  free,  and,  saving  the  right  of  the  king  of 
England  in  the  marches  or  elsewhere,  separate  from  Eng- 
land by  its  lawful  bounds.  No  parliament  was  to  sit,  and 
no  Scottish  suit  to  be  tried,  out  of  Scotland.  Edward  con- 
firmed this  treaty  by  oath ;  but  the  death  of  Margaret  in 
the  Orkneys  rendered  it  abortive.  To  prevent  an  armed 
contest  for  the  crown,  Fraser,  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  invited 
Edward  to  intervene,  and  certain  Scottish  nobles  made  a 
similar  request.  He  accordingly  summoned  the  Scottish 
estates  to  meet  him  on  10th  May,  and  the  English  parlia- 
ment on  3d  June  1291,  at  Norham  near  Berwick.  WhenCompetj 
the  Scots  came  Edward  refused  to  judge  the  cause  of  the  ti°" 
Scottish  succession  unless  his  title  as  superior  of  Scotland  ^'''™ 
was  admitted.  After  some  delay  the  barons  and  clergy  j^j^ 
gave  the  admission,  as  also  did  the  claimants — no  fewer  BalioL 
than  thirteen — but  the  representatives  of  the  commons 
withheld  any  such  acknowledgment.  The  court  for  the 
decision  of  the  cause  -was  then  appointed.  Forty  members 
were  named  by  Baliol  and  as  many  by  Bruce,  between  whom 
the  competition  really  lay,  while  Edward  chose  twenty-four. 
On  the  following  day  the  competitors  agreed  that  -sasine  of 
the  kingdom  should  be  given  to  Edward ;  a  week  later 
the  regent  surrendered  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  and  the 
keepers  the  chief  castles  into  his  hands  as  lord  paramount. 
He  restored  possession  after  adding  several  Englishmen 
to  the  regency.  After  another  adjournment  the  com- 
petitors put  in  their  claims.  Three  descendants  of  David, 
earl  of  Huntingdon,  brother  of  Wilham  the  Lion — all 
English  barons,  though  one,  Bruce,  had  large  estates  in 
Scotland — were  alone  serious.  John  Baliol  claimed  as 
grandson  of  David's  eldest  daughter  Margaret,  wife  of 
Alan,  lord  of  Galloway ;  Robert  Bruce  as  son  of  David's 
second  daughter,  wife  of  the  lord  of  Aimandale ;  while 
David  de  Hastings,  grandson  of  the  third  daughter  Ada, 
contended  that  the  kingdom  was  partible.  This  last  ques- 
tion was  postponed  untU  the  claims  of  Baliol  and  Bruce  had 
been  considered.  After  two  long  adjoturnments  it  was  at 
last  decided  (14th  October  1292)  that  the  case  was  to  ht 
ruled  by  the  law  of  the  kingdom  applicable  to  titles  ol 
earldoms,  baronies,  and  other  indivisible  inheritances,  and 
"that  by  this  law  in  every  heritable  succession  the  more 
remote  by  one  degree  descended  from  the  eldest  sister 
was  preferable  to  the  nearer  in  degree  from  the  second." 
Edward  accordingly  decided  (17th  November  1292)  in  Baliol 
favour  of  Baliol.  Two  days  afterwards  the  regents  were  f".*^* 
ordered  to  give  sasine  to  Baliol ;  the  day  following  he  ^°^" 
swore  fealty  to  Edward  at  "Norham  ;  ten  days  after  he  was 
crowned  at  Scone  ;  within  a  month  he  did  homage  to  Ed- 
ward at  Newcastle. 

The  judgment  was  just,  aecordmg  to  the  principles  of 
feudal  law  afterwards  fixed,  though  then  imperfectly  estab- 
lished, in  favour  of  primogenittu-e ;  the  acknowledgment 
of  the  suzerainty  of  Edward  was  a  different  matter.  In 
the  course  of  the  proceedings  Edward  obtained  from  the 
cathedrals  and  religious  houses  of  England  returns  of 
homage  by  Scottish  kings.  No  such  returns  were  asked 
from  Scotland.  Those  from  England  recited  the  well- 
known  cases  of  isolated  conquest  followed  by  homage  to 
Saxon,  Danish,  and  Norman  kings,  Edward  the  Elder  and 
Athelstan,  Canute  and  the  two  Williams,  and  the  treaty 
of  Falaise  by  which  William   the  Lion  surrendered  the 


WAE  OF  IXDEPEXDENCE  } 


SCOTLAND 


487 


independence  of  Scotland.  They  ignored  the  treaty  of 
Canterbury  by  which  it  was  restored,  the  clause  of  Magna 
Charta  relating  to  Scotland  and  the  rights  of  its  king, 
the  refusal  of  the  last  two  Alexanders  to  render  homage 
for  their  kingdom,  and  the  treaty  of  Brigham  by  which 
Edward  had  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Scotland. 
One  result  of  the  submission  to  the  English  king  over- 
looked by  the  eager  competitors,  but  not  by  the  lawyers 
who  advised  Edward,  immediately  emerged.  An  appeal 
was  soon  taken  from  the  court  of  Baliol  to  the  court  of  his 
superior  at  Westminster.  Baliol  referred  in  vain  to  the 
express  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Brigham  that  no  Scottish 
Buit  was  to  be  tried  beyond  Scotland;  Edward  replied  this 
was  an  appeal  from  his  own  officers  during  the  interregnum, 
but  asserted  his  right  to  hear  appeals  in  all  cases.  Other 
appeals  followed,  and  Baliol  weakly  surrendered  his  claim 
to  independent  jurisdiction.  Shortly  afterwards  (October 
1293)  he  was  himself  summoned  to  Westminster  as  defend- 
ant in  a  suit  by  Macduft",  son  of  the  earl  of  Fife.  Declin- 
ing to  appear,  he  was  condemned  for  contempt,  and  three 
of  his  principal  castles  were  ordered  to  be  seized.  He  again 
yielded  and  promised  to  attend  next  parliament.  There 
could  be  no  longer  doubt  what  had  been  the  efiect  of  sub- 
mitting the  dispute  as  to  the  crown  to  Edward.  Instances 
of  homage  had  not  been  difficult  to  find ;  but  the  records 
might  be  ransacked  in  vain  for  an  example  of  v/hat  would 
now  become  frequent, — the  adjudication  by  the  court  of 
the  English  king  on  the  rights  of  Scotsmen.  The  exe- 
cution of,  this  decision  by  force  in  Scotland  carried  with 
it  at  no  distant  date  the  subjection  of  the  kingdom. 
Baliol  quitted  Westminster  suddenly  in  1294  to  escape 
service  in  the  Gascony  war.  By  yielding  in  the  question 
of  appeal  he  had  lost  the  confidence  of  the  Scottish  barons. 
In  the  parliament  of  Scone  a  council  was  appointed  to  con- 
trol him,  and  all  fiefs  held  by  Englishmen  were  forfeited. 
In  the  following  year  he  formed  an  alliance  against  Eng- 
land with  the  French  king,  and  his  son  was  promised 
the  daughter  of  that  king's  nepliew,  the  count  of  Anjou, 
in  marriage.  The  Scottish  army  headed  by  six  earls  then 
invuded  England,  but  was  repulsed  at  Carlisle  (28th  March 
li96),  and  Edward,  leaving  his  French  campaign,  at  once 
marched  northwards.  Before  the  end  of  March  1296  he 
stormed  Berwick.  While  there  the  abbot  of  Arbroath 
brought  him  a  renunciation  of  Baliol's  homage.  Dunbar 
was  taken  soon  afterwards  by  the  earl  of  Surrey ;  Box-' 
burgh,  Jedburgh,  and  Edinburgh  fell  before  the  end  of 
June ;  Stirling,  Perth,  and  Scone  surrendered  without  a 
Wow.  At  this  time  no  Scottish  town  was  walled  and  no 
resistatfce  could  be  made  against  the  English  feudal  levy 
led  by  such  a  general  as  Edward.  In  the  churchjard  of 
Stracathro  in  Forfar  Baliol  renounced  his  alliance  with 
France,  and  a  few  days  afterwards.(10th  July)  surrendered 
Scotland  to  Anthony  Beck,  bishop  of  Durham.  IMward 
marched  as  far  as  Elgin,  but  it  was  a  conquest  of  Baliol, 
not  of  Scotland.  This  impotent  monarch  was  carried 
captive  with  his  son  to  London  and  vanishes  from  Scottish 
historj'.  He  died  at  one  of  his  French  fiefs  twenty  years 
afterwards,  never  having  attempted  to  regain  the  kingdom. 
On  his  hon\eward  march  Edward  took  and  recorded  in  the 
Ragman  Rolls  the  homage  of  the  Scottish  nobility,  and 
carried  txj  Westminster  the  sacred  stone  of  Scone,  on  w-hich 
the  Celtic  monarchs  had  been  crowned,  and  the  black  rood 
of  Margaret,  the  hallowed  relic  of  the  Saxon  line.  Surrey 
was  appointed  guardian,  Sir  Hugh  Cressingham  treasurer, 
and  William  Ormsby-  jxisticiar  of  Scotland ;  the  nobles 
were  treated  \s'ith  lenity  and  the  bishops  bribed  by  the 
privilege  of  bequeathing  their  movables  like  their  English 
brethren.  The  most  important  result  of  the  campaign 
was  the  capture  and  fortification  of  Berwick.  That  city, 
the   key  to  the  Lothians,  was  the  commercial  capital ; 


and  Scotland  was  left  without  one  until  the  rise,  after  the  1292 -1298. 
imion,'  of  Glasgow  and  the  mercantile  centres  of  the  Clyde. 

When  the  fortunes  of  Scotland  v.-ere  at  the  lowest,  when  Wallace's 
the  country  was  deserted  by  the  king,  and  its  nobles  and  =t™.?S'= 
clergy  were  making  terms  with  the  conqueror,  Wallace,  'f''  '^'^''^ 
the  man  of  the  people,  appeared.  The  second  son  of  Sir  ^^^  ^'"^'''' 
Malcolm  Wallace  of  Elderslie  near  Paisley,  his  name  in- 
dicates a  remote  Celtic  origin  from  a  Welsh  or  Cambrian 
stock.  In  the  spring  of  1297,  in  revenge  for  the  nuudev 
of  his  wife,  Wallace  slew  Hazelrig,  sheriff  of  Ayr,  ar.d 
burned  Lanark.  Collectings  band  of  followers  animated 
with  like  patriotism,  and  aided  by  a  single  noble,  Sii 
William  Douglas,  he  surprised  and  drove  Ormsby,  the 
justiciar,  from  Scone  and  Beck,  the  bishop  of  Durham, 
from  Glasgow.  Some  of  the  barons,  headed  by  James  the 
Steward,  joined  him,  and  Wallace  and  Douglas  carried 
everything  before  them  in  Lennox  and  Galloway, — dis- 
tricts more  favourable  to  the  national  cause  than  Lothian. 
The  nobles  fell  away  fi-om  Wallace  almost  as  soon  as  Percy 
appeared  at  the  head  of  an  English  force,  and  Douglas,  the 
Steward,  Bruce  the  future  king,  and  others  capitulated  at 
Irvine  (9th  July  1297).  Wallace,  while  engaged  in  the 
siege  of  the  castle  of  Dundee,  heard  that  Surrey  and  Cress- 
ingham were  advancing  on  Stirling,  and  he  marched  to  its 
relief.  There  at  the  bridge  over  the  Forth  near  Cambus- 
kenueth  he  won  his  most  famous  victory  (11th  September). 
The  English  were  totally  routed  and  Cressingham  was 
killed.  The  disparity  of  numbers  was  great,  for  the 
English  had  50,000  foot  and  1000  horse,  against  at  most 
40,000  foot  and  only  ISO  horse.  The  generalship  cf 
Wallace,  who  tempted  his  adversary  to  cross  the  bridge  in 
his  face  and  held  his  troops  in  hand  until  the  moment  of 
the  charge,  won  the  day,  the  first  in  which  a  feudal  army 
was  beaten  by  Ught-armed  peasants.  Wallace  attempted 
to  organize  the  kingdom  he  had  won.  He  assumed  the 
title  of  guardian  of  the  realm  in  narae^  of  the  Lord  Joha 
(Baliol),  and  associated  with  himself  Sir  Andrew  Moray  of 
Bothwell,  son  of  the  only  baron  who  stood  by  him  and 
who  fell  in  the  battle.  He  held  the  nobles  in  awe,  while 
he  rewarded  his  adherents.  The  grr.nt  (fortunately  pre- 
served) of  the  office  of  constable  of  Dundee  to  Alexander 
Scrymzeour  can  scarcely  have  been  a  solitary  one.  He 
introduced  better  discipline  in  the  army,  and  tried  also 
to  revive  trade.i  Shortly  after  the  battle  of  Stirling 
Wallace  carried  the  war  as  far  as  Hexham,  whose  monks 
he  protected.  That  he  penetrated  farther  south  and  won 
the  favour  of  Eleanor,  Edward's  wife,  is  one  of  the  romantic 
additions  to  his  sconty  history  in  the  poem  of  Blind  Harry. 
Edward  recognized  the  crisis  and,  leaving  Flanders,  sent 
a  force  before  him  under  Pembroke,  following  in  person 
at  the  head  of  80,000  foot  and  10,000  horse.  For  a  brief 
space  success  attended  Wallace,  who  defeated  the  English 
in  Fife  and  Ajt  ;  but  the  bishop  of  Durham  retook  the 
castle  of  Dirleton,  and  Edward  himself,  by  the  victory  of 
Falkirk  (22d  July  1298),  in  which  the  nobles  again  proved 
false  to  the  popular  cause,  reversed  that  of  Stirling. 
Wallace  took  refuge  in  France,  and,  although  the  French 
king  at  Amiens  ofi'ered  to  surrender  him,  he  was  soon  re 
leased  and  provided  with  a  safe  conduct  to  the  jiope. 
Papers  found  on  him  when  captured  show  that  he  received 
similar  letters  from  Haco  of  Norway  and  Baliol.  ^Vhether. 
he  went  to  Rome  is  not  certain,  but  he  may  have  been 
one  of  the  Scots  who  at  this  time  induced  Boniface  VIII. 
to  claim  the  superiority  of  Scotland.  The  claim  was  in- 
dignantly repelled  by  the  English  barons  at  the  parliament 
of  Lincoln ;  Edward,  however,  thought  it  prudent  to  lay 
before  the  pope  a  statement  in  which  he  advanced  not  only 


'  A  letter  from  him  and  Moray  to  'the  citizens  of  Liibeck  aucl 
Hamburg  who  sympatliized  with  the  Scottish  conimou^  lias  been  found 
in  the  archives  of  Hamburg. 


488 


C  O  T  L  A 


D 


[n^ioar. 


1298-1328.  the  instances  of  homage  collected  for  iise  at  Norham 
but  the  fable  of  Brute  the  Trojan,  from  whoso  eldest  son 
Locrinus  he  claimed  descent,  and  therefore  superiority 
over  the  Scottish  kings  sprung  from  Albanactus  the  second 
as  well  as  those  of  Wales  descended  from  Camber  the  third. 
Ealdrcd  do  Bisset,  the  Scottish  commissioner  at  Rome, 
in  his  answer  admitted  the  pope's  right,  but  replied  to 
Edward's  fiction  by  another  as  bold, — the  descent  of  the 
Scots  from  Scota,  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh.  A  more  solid 
argument  was  founded  on  the  treaty  of  Brigham.  The 
pope  delayed  judgment,  and  in  1302  suddenly  changed 
sides  and  exhorted  the  Scots,  by  several  bulls,  to  submit. 
Edward  had  not  v.-aited  for  this  sanction ;  the  period  be- 
tween the  battle  of  Falkirk  and  the  taking  of  Stirling  was 
3,  continuous  and  bloody  struggle.  In  person  he  laid  waste 
Galloway  and  took  Caerlaverock  (1300);  in  1302,  his 
general  Sir  John  Segrave,  having  fought  a  battle  of  doubt- 
ful issue  with  Comyn  and  Fraser  at  Roslin,  Edward  re- 
turned (1303),  marched  as  far  as  Caithness,  and  reduced 
the  whole  east  of  Scotland  by  the  capture  of  Stirling  (24th 
January  1304).  Scotland  was  subdued,  yet  Wallace  lived, 
and  we  catch  gUmpscs  of  him,  in  the  woods  of  Dunferm- 
line, in  the  forest  of  Ettrick,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Lanark.  A  price  was  set  on  his  head,  and  at  last  he 
was  betrayed  by  a  servant  of  Sir  John  de  Menteith  near 
Glasgow  and  taken  to  London,  where,  after  a  mock  trial 
in  Westminster  Hall,  ho  received  the  traitor's  doom  (23d 
August  1305),  though  he  denied  with  truth  that  he  had 
taken  any  oath  to  Edward. 
Settle-  This  time  Edward,  in  order  to  make  the  conquest  of 
ment  of  Scotland  permanent,  proceeded  to  incorporate  it  in  the 
^p^**  empire  of  England.  With  apparent  fairness  an  assembly 
J^^  j  was  summoned  to  Perth  to  elect  ten  representatives  to 
attend  a  parliament  at  Westminster  to  treat  of  the  affairs 
of  Scotland.  Nine  commissioners  came  to  London,  where 
they  were  associated  with  twenty  Englishmen.  The  result 
was  the  "  Ordinacio  facta  per  dominum  regem  pro  stabili- 
tate  terrse  Sccttiae"  (1305).  Though  never  fully  carried 
out,  this  document,  on  the  model  of  similar  ordinances  for 
Wales  and  Ireland,  discloses  Edward's  designs.  English 
nobles  were  appointed  to  administer  the  government  of 
the  country,  and  eight  justices  to  administer  the  law.  The 
law  and  usages  of  Scotland  (except  those  of  the  Brets  and 
Scots,  which  were  abrogated)  were  to  be  observed  in  the 
meantime ;  but  the  lieutenant  (John  of  Brittany,  the  king's 
nephew)  and  council  were  to  amend  what  was  contrary  to 
God  and  reason,  or  in  case  of  difEculty  refer  to  Edward  at 
Westminster.  The  whole  country  was  divided  into  sheriff- 
doms, the  sheriffs  being  removable  at  the  discretion  of  the 
lieutenant.  The  office  of  coroner,  more  important  then 
than  now,  was  also  regulated ;  certain  persons  were  nomi- 
nated constables  of  the  chief  castles ;  and  many  nobles 
were  fined  and  others  banished.  Bruce  (the  competitor's 
grindson)  was  ordered  to  put  Kildrummy  Castle  (Aberdeen) 
i:i  charge  of  an  officer  for  whom  he  should  be  responsible. 
The  ordinance  was  suitable  to  its  object, — moderate,  even 
humane.  The  banishment  of  the  nobles  was  limited  as  to 
time.  PieUef  was  given  in  the  payment  of  fines.  Many 
jld  officers  were  continued,  Edward's  aim  at  this  time 
was  to  pacify  the  country  he  had  conquered,  to  put  down 
resistance,  bat  to  encourage  submission.  It  is  as  wrong 
to  call  him  a  tyrant  as  Wallace  a  rebel :  the  one  was  a 
statesman  king  with  imperialist  aims,  the  other  a  patriot 
leader  with  keen  popular  sympathies.  The  king  triumphed ; 
Irat  bsfore  his  death  his  well-laid  plans  were  shattered  : 
Scotland  again  rose  in  arms,  and  this  time  the  nobles  joined 
the  people,  vmder  the  leadership  of  Robert  the  Bruce. 
Robert  The  position,  as  well  as  the  character,  of  Bruce  con- 
<ie  trasted  with  that  of  Wallace.     Instead  of  being  a  cadet  of 

^'"^'^-     the  ordinary  landed  e?r.+ry.  Bruce  represented  a  family  in 


which  for  more  than  two  centuries  the  purest  Norman 
blood  had  flowed.  The  English  branch  of  Skelfcon  in 
Cleveland  and  the  Scottish  branch  of  Annandale  divided 
their  large  possessions ;  but  those  of  the  latter  sufficed  to 
make  its  head  one  of  the  most  powerful  nobles  in  Scotland, 
who  still  retained,  as  so  many  did,  English  fiefs.  More 
than  one  of  his  ancestors  had  intermarried  with  the  royal 
house  of  Scotland  (see  Robert  the  Bruce,  vol.  xx.  p.  592). 
On  his  father's  death  Bruce  succeeded  to  Annandale.  He 
held  besides  several  manors  in  England.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  War  of  Independence,  like  many  .barons  with 
conflicting  interests,  he  had  wavered,  sometimes  supporting 
Wallace,  more  frequently  the  English  king.  In  1303-4  he 
a.ssisted  Edward  in  the  preparation  for  the  siege  of  Stirling. 
He  had  been  consulted  with  regard  to  the  ordinance  of 
1305.  But  there  were  already  signs  of  mutual  distrust. 
The  provision  in  the  ordinance  as  to  KUdnunmy  shows 
that  Edv-ard  was  aware  special  precautions  had  to  be 
taken  to  secure  the  loyalty  of  Bruce,  and  on  11th  June 
1304  Bruce  secretly  met  near  Cambuskenneth  Lamberton, 
bishop  of  St  .Vndrews,  and  entered  into  a  bond  referring 
to  future  dangers  from  Edward.  Of  all  the  Scottish  clergy 
Lamberton  had  been  most  friendly  to  Wallpj:e,  and  this 
bond  was  a  link  between  the  two  periods  of  the  War  of 
Independence  and  their  leaders.  Bruce  had  attended  at 
Westminster  when  the  -ordinance  was  settled,  but  left  sud- 
denly, arriving  at  Dumfries  on  the  seventh  day.  There 
he  met  in  the  church  of  the  Friars  Minor  John  (the  Rftd) 
Comyn  of  Badenoch,  Baiiol's  nephew,  and  slew  him  before 
the  high  altar  (10th  February  1306).  The  die  was  cast, 
and  indecision  vanished  from  the  character  of  Bruce. 
Collecting  his  adherents  at  Lochmaben  and  Glasgow,  he 
passed  to  Scone,  where  he  was  crowned  by  the  bishop  of 
St  Andrews.  It  at  first  seemed  likely  that  a  saying  of 
his  wife  would  prove  true, — that  he  was  a  summer  but 
would  not  be  a  winter  king.  His  defeat  at  Methven  (19th 
June  1306)  was  followed  by  another  at  StrathfiUan  (11th 
August),  and  Bruce  took  refuge  in  the  island  of  Rathlin 
(off  Antrim,  Ireland).  The  tales  of  his  hairbreadth  escapes, 
his  courage  and  endurance  in  all  changes  of  fortime,  were 
gathered  by  Barbour  from  the  mouths  of  the  people,  who 
followed  the  life  of  their  champion  with  the  keenest  in- 
terest. Meanwhile  Edward  came  north  and  gave  a  fore- 
taste of  his  jengeance.  But  his  severity  strengthened  the 
party  of  Bruce,  which  grew  daily.  All  classes  now  made, 
with  few  exceptions,  common  cause  against  the  enemy  of 
all.  Edward's  death  at  Burgh-on-Sands  (7th  June  1307)  at 
once  changed  the  whole  aspect  of  the  invasion.  Edward  U. 
wasted  in'  the  ceremony  of  a  funeral  and  the  diversions  of 
a  youthful  court  the  critical  moment  of  the  war.  Bruce 
seized  his  opportunity,  and  by  the  close  of  1313  Berwick 
and  Stirling  alone  remained  English.  The  independence 
of  Scotland  was  finally  determined  by  the  ever-memorable 
victory  of  Baimockburn  (24th  June  1314). 

Bruce  reigned  fifteen  years  after  Bannockbum  and  (if 
the  Irish  expedition  of  his  brother  Edward  be  left  out  of    • 
account)  with  almost  uninterrupted  success.     On  his  return 
from  .Ireland  he  reduced  Berwick  (March  1318)  and  con- 
verted it  from  an  English  to  a  Scottish  frontier  town.    His 
recognition  by  the  pope  was   followed  by  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  Flanders  and  France ;   and  the  long  truce 
which  Edward  II.  had  been  forced  to  agree  to  before  his 
death  became  in  the  new  reign  a  formal  treaty  known  as 
that  of  Northampton  (April  1328).     By  its  leading  article  Treaty  o." 
'/  Scotland  according  to  its  ancient  bounds  in  the  days  of  North- 
Alexander  III.  shall  remain  to  Robert,  king  of  Scots,  and  '™I"'"^ 
his  heirs,  free  and  divided  from  England,  without  any  sub- 
jection, servitude,  claim,  or  demand  wl^atsoever."    In  pur- 
suance of  another  article  Johanna,  Edward's  sister,  was 
married  to  David,  the  infant  son  of  Bruce,  at  Berwick  on 


WAR  OF  ISDEPENDElsC:--.] 


SCOTLAND 


489 


12th  July.  As  ail  administrator  and  legislator  he  showed 
an  ability  not  inferior  to  that  which  in  his  earlier  years 
he  had  manifested  as  a  warrior  and  a  general.  He  obtained 
from  the  estates  a  settlement  of  the  succession,  reformed 
abuses  in  the  feudal  law,  regulated  the  courts,  providing 
equal  justice  for  poor  and  rich,  and  framed  strict  Acts 
against  sedition.  He  also  encouraged  trade,  especially 
shipbuilding,  foreseeing  its  future  importance  to  Scotland. 
Never  off  his  guard,  amongst  his  most  anxious  legislative 
provisions  are  those  relating  to  the  defence  of  the  kingdom, 
— arming  all  able-bodied  men,  prohibiting  exports  of  arms, 
fortifying  the  towns  and  castle*  on  the  boiders,  arranging 
signals  to  give  notice  of  invasion.  Though  attacked  by 
leprosy  contracted  in  his  campaigns,  he  remained  active  to 
the  last, — a  monarch  such  as  occurs  only  once  in  many 
centuries,  brave,  liberal,  \fise,  and  pious,  like  the  English 
Alfred,  the  darling  of  the  nation  he  had  delivered.  (For 
fuller  details,  see  Robert  the  Bruce,  vol.  xx.  p.  594  sq.) 
Dsvidir.  The  wise  provision  that  Bruce  mads  for  the  regency 
secured  the  peaceful  succession  of  his  son  David  II.  (1329- 
70),  who  was  the  first  Scottish  king  anointed  at  his  coro- 
nation,—a  privilege  conceded  to  Bruce  in  a  bull  which 
reached  Scotland  after  his  death.  According  to  the  ideas 
of  the  age  this  placed  the  Scottish  king  on  an  equality 
with  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  The  War  of  Independence 
quickened  the  sentiment  of  Scottish  nationality,  and  left 
the  country  poorer  m  wealth  but  richer  in  spirit.  The 
memories  of  Wallace  and  of  Bruce  educated  the  people  and 
produced  in  the  next  generation  their  earliest  literature. 
England,  unconscious  of  the  benefit,  gained  by  its  own  de- 
feat. But  for  the  resistance  of  the  Scots  it  might  have  be- 
come earlier  than  France  a  centralized  feudal  monarchy. 
The  distinct  character  of  the  Scots — a  blend  of  the  Celt, 
•  Saxon,  Norseman,  and  Norman — strengthened  by  variety 
the  collective  force  of  Britain.  The  loss  which  must  be 
balanced  against  the  gain  was  the  bitter  hatred  between 
two  races  of  kindred  origin  Avithin  one  narrow  isle,  which 
for  centuries  retarded  the  nrogress  of  both,  especially  of  the 
smaller  kingdom. 

The  almost  contemporaneous  reigns  of  David  11.  and 
Edward  III.  reversed  the  position  of  the  two  countries : 
Scotland  had  now  one  of  its  feeblest  and  England  one  of 
its  most  powerful  kings.  Had  not  the  love  of  liberty 
become  the  life-blood  of  both  nobles  and  commons' in  Scot- 
land it  must  have  succumbed  in  the  desperate  struggle. 
After  the  death  of  Robert,  Randolph,  carl  of  Moray, 
governed  with  wisdom  and  vigour  for  three  years.  On  his 
death  the  estates  chose  Donald,  earl  of  Mar,  another  nephew 
of  Bruce,  whom  he  had  passed  over,  foreseeing  his  inca- 
pacity. Encouraged  by  the  divisions  of  the  noble;.,  Edward, 
son  of  John  Baliol,  with  the  barons  who  had  lost  their  land 
by  espousing  the  English  side,  suddenly  landed  at  Kinghorn. 
-.zg.u  Nine  days  after  his  election.  Mar  was-  met  and  worsted  by 
Baliol  on  Duppliu  Muir  (1 1th  .Vugust  1332),  where  Mar  him- 
self and  many  nobles  were  slain.  Baliol  was  tTOwned  at 
Scone;  but  Pertli  was  immediately  retaken,  and  Baliol,  liav- 
ing  been  defeated  at  Annan  by  the  young  earl  of  Moray,  left 
Scotland.  Next  year  Edward  came  with  a  large  army  to 
his  support  and  defeated  at  Halidon  Hill  (20th  July  1333), 
chiefly  through  the  skill  of  the  archers,  the  Scots  led  by 
Archibald  Douglas,  lord  of  Galloway,  who  was  now  regent. 
Berwick  capitulated  and  Baliol  surrendered  it  to  England, 
pledging  in  addition  the  castles  of  the  Lothians,  including 
Edinburgh  and  Linlithgow,  insecurity  for  an  annual  tribute 
of  £2000.  Like  his  grandfather,  Edward  III.  made  a  new- 
ordinance  for  the  government  of  Scotland,  but  his  officers 
never  obtained  possession  of  their  po.<»ts.  :Meantime  David 
and  his  queen  fled  to  France,  where  they  remained  seven 
years.  Fortunately  for  Scotland  a  new  race  of  patriotic 
leaders  appeared  :  Moray  of  Eotliwdl  hai,''-  d  ''o,vn  the 


ivanl 


1  DMvi.l's 
.  c.^|^li^  ity 
,-iufi  re- 
'  k.ise. 


traditions  of  Wallace  and  Bruto,  while  Robert  the  Steward.  1325-1365 
Douglas  the  knight  of  Liddcsdale,  and  Sir  Alexander 
Ramsay  of  DaUiousie  sustained  the  fame  of  Bruce,  Ran- 
dolph, and  Douglas.  The  attraction  of  a  French  campaign 
with  the  crown  of  France  as  prize  prevented  Edward  from 
ever  using  his  whole  force  against  Scotland,  and  a  French 
fleet  made  a  diversion  by  attacking  the  Channel  Islands 
and  threatening  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Edward  retaliated  by 
assuming  the  title  of  king  of  France,  and  after  two  veaTs' 
preparation  invaded  that  countiy  from  Flanders.  The 
armies  met  at  Vironfosse  (26th  September  1339),  where 
David  of  Scotland  was  present.  Never  was  the  pomp  or 
chivalry  seen  in  greater  splendour,  but  the  first  act  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  which  seemed  destined  to  make 
French  and  English  eternal  enemies  and  French  and 
Scots  perpetual  allies,  passed  without  a  blow. 

Two  years  later  the  recovery  of  the  Scottish  castles  and  ] 
the  repulse  of  Salisbury's  attempt  on  Dunbar  made  it  safe ' 
for  David  to  return  to  Scotland,  which  Baliol  had  aban- 
doned. Though  scarcely  eighteen,  he  assumed  the  govern- 
ment (30th  March  13-12).  Before  his  arrival  Edinburgh 
had  fallen,  and"  next  year  Roxburgh  was  taken  by  Sir 
Alexander  Ramsay,  whom  David  unfortunately  rewarded 
by  the  sheriffdom  of  Teviotdale,  which  the  knight  of 
Liddesdale  claimed,  and  Ramsay,  seized  by  treachery,  war: 
starved  to  death  at  the.  Hermitage  by  the  knight  of 
Liddesdale,  who  entered  into  correspondence  with  the 
English  king,  and  dishonoured  his  name  of  the  "  Flower  of 
Chivalry."  Bullock,  an  ecclesiastic  who  liad  risen  to  the 
office  of  chamberlain  under  Baliol  and  transferred  his 
services  to  David,  met  the  same  fate  at  the  hands  of  the 
king  on  a  suspicion  of  treason.  Other  signs  of  weak 
government  were  not  wanting.  On  the  conclusion  of  a 
brief  truce,  David,  tempted  by  Edward's  absence,  invaded 
England  in  spite  of  the  defection  of  some  of  his  chief 
nobles,  and  was  defeated  at  Neville's  Cross  (17th  October 
13-16)  near  Durhani  by  the  archbiihop  of  York  and  the 
northern  barons,  the  king  and  several  of  his  nobles  being 
taken  prisoners.  The  rigour  of  David's  captivity  (which 
lasted  eleven  years)  was  relaxed  so  far  as  to  allow  him  to 
return  frequently  to  Scotland  and  try  to  persuade  the 
people  to  raise  his  ransom,  which  the  English  king  urgently 
required.  Though  Baliol  was  still  ackno\\lcdged  as  nominal 
king  by  Edward,  he  resided  in  Gal'oway,  while  Robert  the 
Steward,  elected  regent  in  the  name  of  David,  really 
governed.  At  length  by  the  treaty  of  Newcastle  (13th 
July  135-1)  David's  ransom  was  agreed  on,  sufficient 
hostages  being  taken  for  its  payment.  Next  year  the 
French  king  resumed  the  Scottish  war  by  sending  Eugene 
de  Garanciere  with  men,  monej',  and  arms.  Several  bo'i'der 
engagements  followed,  but  Edward,  advancing  to  the 
frontier,  took  Berwick,  and  obtained  from  his  puppet 
BalioJ  an  absolute  surrender  of  the  Scottish  kingdom  foi 
an  annuity.  He  ravaged  the  Lothians  in  the  raid  called 
the  Burnt  Candlemas,  but  failed  really  to  reduce  the 
country.  Edward's  victory  over  the  French  at  Poitiers, 
in  which  many  Scots  were  slain,  forced  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment to  grant  the  terms  dictated  by  the  English  king. 
Peace  was  finally  concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Berwick  (3d 
October  1357),  and  confirmed  at  Scone, — the  ran.som  being 
raised  and  the  condition  as  to  hostages  made  more  severe 
David  at  once  returned  to  Scotland.  But  his  sympathies 
had  become  English;  he  revisited  that  country  almost' 
every  year,  and  it  required  all  the  strength  of  the  Scottish ' 
estates  to  prevent  the  son  of  Bruce  from  making  a  surrender 
of  his  kingdom  more  ignominious  than  Baliol's.  The 
enormous  ransom  pressed  hard  on  so  poor  a  country.  Aii 
attempt  to  induce  France  to  resume  the  war  failed,  and 
David,  like  a  debtor  dealing  Ayith  a  money-lender,  had  to 
•vnew  his  bills  at  usurv.     Negotiations  for  this  purpose 

XXL  —  6; 


i  F.tlation^ 

witli  ?A- 

'wanlTlI. 


490 


SCOTLAND 


[HIilOEY. 


365-1390.  went  on  till  130.'.  v.hen  a  true;  for  four  year.s  was  agreed 
to.  Edward  and  David  latterly  devised  schemes  for  pay- 
ment by  another  process, — the  transfer  of  the  crown  at 
David's  death  to  an  English  prince.  At  the  parliament 
of  Scone  David  proposed  that  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence, 
should  be  recognized  as  his  heir  ;  but  the  estates  replied 
with  one  voice  that  no  Englishi.ian  should  rule  Scotland, 
and  renewed  the  settlement  of  the  succession  by  Bruce  on 
Robert  the  Steward.  Hatied  of  foreign  aggression  and 
the  weakness  of  the  king  enabled  the  Scottish  barons  to 
play  a  part  similar  to  that  taken  by  the  nobles  of  England 
in  the  reigns  of  John  and  Henry  III.,  and  obtain  guarantees 
for  the  constitution  by  limiting  the  monarchy.  Such  was 
probably  the  origin  of  the  committees  of  parliament  (at  a 
later  date  turned  to  an  opposite  use)  for  legislation  and 
for  judicial  business  which  first  appear  in  1367,— the 
statutes  for  the  more  regular  administration  of  justice, 
purity  of  the  coinage,  and  the  revocation  of  the  grants  of 
royal  revenues  and  estates.  It  was  expressly  declared 
that  no  attention  was  to  be  paid  to  the  royal  mandate 
when  contrary  to  law.  About  this  period  David  entered 
into  a  secret  agreement  with  Edward,  promising  in  return 
for  a  remission  of  the  ransom  to  settle  the  crown  on  him 
failing  heirs  of  his  own  body,  but  the  public  negotiations 
for  its  payment  went  on.  In  the  same  year  his  marriage 
T\-ith  his  second  wife,  Margaret  Logie,  a  daughter  of 
Drummond,  a  lesser  baron,  led  to  a  revolt.  He  quelled  it 
and  threw  the  steward  and  at  least  one  of  his  sons  into 
prison,  making  lavish  grants  to  Margaret  and  her  relatives. 
Her  influence  did  not  last  long,  as  she  was  supplanted  in 
the  king's  fav-r'ur  by  Agnes  of  Dunbar.  Margaret  was 
<livorced  by  the  Scottish  bishops,  for  w-hat  cause  is  not 
knowTj,  and,  though  her  appeal  to  the  pope  succeeded, 
David  did  not  .survive  the  decision.  He  died  on  21st 
February  1370,  childless,  and  the  succession  opened  to 
Eobert,  son  of  Bruce's  daughter  ^Marjory,  the  first  of  the 
Stuarts  who  were  to  govern  Scotland  for  the  next  two 
centuries. 

C.  House  of  StnaH  from  Robert  II.  to  James  IV. — The 
descent  of  the  house  of  Stuart  is  traced  from  Walter  Fitz- 
Alan,  a  Norman,  steward  of  David  I.  His  estates  were  in 
Renfrew,  to  which  Alexander,  the  fourth  steward,  added 
Elite  by  marriage.  Walter,  the  sixth  steward,  was  scarcely 
one  of  the  chief  nobles  ;  but  his  prowess  in  the  War  of  In- 
dependence gained  him  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of  Bruce. 
Robert  II.  was  their  only  son.  Such  was  the  prosperous 
r-:^cord  of  the  family  before  it  ascended  the  throne.  Its 
subsequent  history  presents  a  series  of  tragedies  of  which 
that  of  !Mary  Stuart  is  only  one.  though  the  most  famous. 
\Miile  the  fate  of  kings  excites  the  imagination,  history 
must  trace  the  growth  of  the  nation  and  the  slow  changes 
which  transformed  the  bulk  of  the  Scottish  people  from 
loyal  subjects  to  bitter  enemies  of  their  native  kings  and 
its  kings  from  patriot.?  to  tyrants. 
Robeit  Robert  II.  (1370-90),  already  fifty-four,  continued  rather 
^'-  than  commenced  his  government  on  the  death  of  David  II., 

for  he  had  been  t«"ice  regent  during  David's  exile  and  cai> 
'ivity.  He  did  not  ascend  the  throne  without  opposition, 
)Ut  the  memory  of  Bmce  was  too  fresh  to  admit  of  his 
ettlement  being  put  aside.  The  earl  of  Douglas,  whose 
;reat  estates  on  the  border  made  him  more  formidable  as 
t  competitor  than  his  claim  by  descent  from  a  daughter  of 
David,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  was  conciliated  by  the  mar- 
.•iage  of  the  king's  daughter  Isabella  to  his  son  and  by  his 
5wn  appointment  as  justiciar  south  of  the  Forth  and  warden 
)f  the  eastern  marches.  This  impediment  removed,  the 
coronation  proceeded,  and  it  was  followed  by  a  public  de- 
laration  of  the  settlement  of  the  crown  on  Robert's  son 
John,  earl  of  Carrick.  at  hia  father's  death.  A  still  more 
explicit  settlement  was  made  two  years  afterwards  on  the 


king's  sons  by  his  first  marriage  with  Elizabeth  More, — 
John  earl  of  Carrick,  Robert  earl  of  Fife,  and  Alexander 
lord  of  Badenoch  ;  and  failing  them  on  those  of  his  second 
with  Euphemia  Ross, — David  earl  of  Strathearn  and 
Walter  his  brother.  A  question  as  to  the  legitimacy  of 
the  children  by  Elizabeth  Jilore  rendered  this  declaration 
necessary.  The  first  fourteen  years  of  Robert's  reign 
passed  with  scarcely  anything  worthy  of  record.  The  king, 
whose  portrait  is  drawn  by  Froissart  as  a  man  "not  valiant, 
with  red  bleared  eyes,  who  would  rather  lie  still  than  ride," 
left  the  cares  of  government  to  his  sons,  especially  the 
second.  England,  after  the  death  of  Edward  III.  (1377), 
was  occupied  with  the  necessary  arrangements  for  a  new 
reign  and  with  the  rising  of  Wat  Tyler  (1381).  The 
absence  of  any  movement  in  Scotland  similar  to  this  or 
the  French  Jacquerie  perhaps  indicates  a  better  relation 
between  the  peasantry  and  the  upper  classes  :  but  a  third 
estate  of  the  commons  was  as  yet  unknown  in  Scotland. 
John  of  Gaunt,  who  had  invaded  Scotland  the  year  before, 
now  took  refuge  there  and  was  hospitably  received  in 
Edinburgh  till  the  young  Richard  II.,  by  putting  down 
the  rising,  made  it  safe  for  him  to  return.  This  visit  led 
to  the  first  entrance  into  the  northern  kingdom  of  the 
principles  of  Wickliffe  and  the  Lollards,  whom  Gaunt 
favoured.  The  French,  still  anxious  to  incite  the  Scots 
to  attack  England,  sent  a  small  party  of  free  lances,  who 
landed  at  Montrose  and  were  allowed  to  make  a  raid  on 
their  own  accoimt.  They  were  foUowed  by  John  de  Vienne 
with  1000  men-at-arms  and  many  followers.^  The  licence 
of  the  French  knights  did  not  promote  good  feeling ;  but 
the  interest  of  the  two  countries  prevented  a  rupture. 
I  After  the  French  left  the  Scots  made  another  raid  into 
;  Northumberland,  in  retaliation  for  an  expedition  in  which 
I  Richard  II.  wasted  the  Lothians.  Three  years  later,  under 
the  earl  of  Douglas,  they  attacked  Newcastle,  but  were 
repulsed  by  Henry  Percy,  who,  true  to  his  name  of  Hotspur, 
in  order  to  recover  his  pennon,  pursued  them  to  near  Redes- 
dale,  about  20  miles  from  their  own  border,  and  fought 
the  battle  of  Otterburn  (1388).  Douglas  himself  fell,  but 
the  victory  went  to  the  dead  man,  for  young  Percy  and 
his  brother  were  taken  captive,  and  the  bishop  of  Durham 
would  not  venture  to  intercept  the  retreat  of  the  Scots. 
In  1388,  Robert's  inactivity  increasing  and  his  son  the  earl 
of  Carrick  being  disabled  by  a  kick  from  a  horse,  the  earl 
of  Fife  was  chosen  regent  by  the  estates  under  condition 
of  annually  accounting  to  them  for  his  administration. 
In  April  1 390  his  father  died.  His  prosperous  reign  rather 
than  any  pArsonal  quality  except  an  easy  disposition  gained 
Robert  the  praise  of  Wyntoun,  who,  writing  under  his 
son,  prays  God  to  give  him  grace 

"  To  govern  and  uphold  the  land 

In  na  war  state  r.or  he  it  fand. 

For  quhv-n  Iiis  fadyr  erdyt  was 

Of  Scotland  v.-as  na  part  of  laud 

Out  of  Scottj's  niennys  liaud, 

Outn-ith  Berwick,  Ro.Nburgh,  and  Ji'dburgli.' 

This  prayer  was  only  partially  fulfilled.  The  English  did 
not  acquire  more  of  Scotland,  but  the  border  war  was  not 
so  successful,  and  the  royal  house  was  the  scene  of  tragic 
events  which  threatened  to  change  the  order  of  succession. 

Robert  III.  (1390-U06)— for  under  that  name  the  earl  Robert 
of  Carrick  was  crowned  to  avoid  the  hated  name  of  John  m- 

^  Froissart  gives  a  vivid  accouut  of  the  poverty  of  the  country  aud 
the  rudeness  of  its  people.  "  Tlie  people  set  little  upon  the  distinc- 
tion of  their  houses  and  said  shortly  how  with  three  or  four  poles  they 
would  make  them  again.  Edinburgh,  though  the  king  kept  there  bis 
chief  residence  and  it  is  Paris  in  Scotland,  is  not  like  Tonrnay  or  V.il- 
enciennes,  for  in  all  the  town  there  are  not  4000  houses."  The  men 
Vienne  brought  with  him  bad  to  be  lodged  in  Dunfermline,  Kelso,  D.il- 
keitb,  Dunbar.  On  his  return  he  was  asked  by  the  young  king  Charles 
VI.  how  he  fared  ;  he  said  he  had  rather  be  count  of  Savoy  or  Artois 
tliao  king  of  Scotland. 


STCJAKIS  10  JA-MES  IV,  J 


S  C  O  T  I;  A  N  D 


491 


— was  even  less  active  than  his  father.  He  is  briefly  but 
truly  described  by  an  historian  as  a  good  man  but  not  a 
good  king.  He  scarcely  reigned,  for  the  regency  of  his 
brother  continued  after  his  accession  till  it  was  succeeded 
for  a  few  years  by  that  of  Robert's  son,  on  whose  death 
the  earl  of  Fife  again  became  regent.  There  was  a  truce 
^vith  England  for  nine  years,  during  which  the  irrepres- 
sible love  of  fighting  had  to  satisfy  itself  within  Scotland. 
The  king's  younger  brother,  Alexander,  called  the  Wolf  of 
Badenoch,  who  had  been  created  earl  of  Buchan,  quarrelled 
with  the  bishop  of  Elgin  and  burnt  his  cathedral.  The 
Wolf  and  his  sons  were  constantly  engaged  in  private  wars. 
The  earl  died  in  1394,  but  his  sou  Alexander  continued 
to  defy  the  law,  which  the  Government  was  too  weak  to 
enforce  in  the  northern  Highlands.  Policy  was  usgd  to 
suppress  the  violence  of  the  clans.  Such  seems  the  ex- 
planation of  the  combat  between  thirty  of  the  Clan  Kay 
and  as  many  of  the  Clan  Chattan  before  the  king  on  the 
North  Inch  of  Perth,  which  ended  in  the  slaughter  of 
nearly  all  the  combatants  on  both  sides.  In  the  council 
or  parliament  of  lo9S  a  change  was  made  in  the  Govern- 
ment due  to  the  general  distrust  of  Fife  and  the  rising 
spirit  of  the  earl  of  Carrick,  the  king'e  eldest  son.  The 
form  of  it  was  a  compromise.  The  young  prince  was 
made  lieutenant  for  three  years,  but  with  the  advice  of  a 
council,  of  whom  his  uncle  Fife  was  one;  they  were  created 
dukes  of  Rothesay  and  Albany  respectively,  the  first  of 
that  title  in  Scotland.  Other  acts  of  this  council  were 
designed  to  restrain  the  monarchy  by  constitutional  laws. 
Parliament  was  to  meet  annually.  The  king,  if  accused 
of  misgovernment  or  breach  of  law,  might,  "  to  excuse  his 
defaults,"  arraign  his  officers  before  the  council.  No  one 
was  to  ride  through  the  country  with  more  followers  than 
he  could  pay  for.  The  grant  of  £11,000  for  the  common 
weal  and  profit  of  the  kingdom  by  the  three  estates — 
barons,  clergy,  and  burghs — was  made  under  protest  that 
it  was  not  to  be  a  precedent,  and  the  burghs  stipulated 
that  in  future  they  were  not  to  pay  more  than  under 
Robert  II.  In  the  following  year  the  revolution  took 
place  in  England  which  led  to  the.  deposition  and  death 
of  Richard  11.  and  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  An  im- 
postor who  had  assumed  the  name  of  Richard  too'K  refuge 
in  the  Hebrides  and  was  received  at  the  Scottish  court. 
The  expedition  of  Henry  to  Scotland  (1400),  partly  due 
to  this,  was  also  prompted  by  the  desire  to  distinguish  a 
new  reign  and  by  the  invitation  of  the  earl  of  March, 
indignant  at  the  preference  given  to  the  daughter  of 
Douglas  over  his  own  as  wife  fv  Rothesay.  Reviving  the 
old  claim  of  feudal  superiority,  which  was  now  supported 
by  the  forged  charters  of  Hardyng  as  well  as  the  fictions 
of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  Henry  cited  Robert  to  do  homage 
at  Newcastle,  and,  on  his  failing  to  appear,  marched  to 
Edinburgh.  Rothesay  successfully  defended  the  capital, 
and  Henry  was  suddenly  recalled  by  the  rising  of  Owen 
Glendower  and  the  Percies.  Next  year  (1401)  occurred 
tiie  death  of  Rothesay  by  starvation  at  Falkland,  where 
he  had  been  committed  by  his  father  at  Albany's  instance 
on  account  of  his  bad  government  and  dissolute  conduct. 
The  declaration  of  the  council  at  Edinburgh,  which  acquitted 
.\lbany  of  all  concern  in  the  death,  was  enough  for  the 
moment,  but  in  after  times,  like  Bothwell's  acquittal,  a 
corroboration  of  guilt.  The  last  years  of  Robert  were 
clouded  by  private  and  public  misfortime.  His  queen, 
Annabella  Drummond,  his  son-in-law,  the  earl  of  Douglas, 
and  Trail,  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  one  of  the  wisest  of  his 
council,  died  within  a  short  interval.  The  son  of  Douglas, 
though  brave,  was  unequal  to  the  task  of  holding  the 
border  against  the  Percies  and  the  earl  of  March,  and  so 
constantly  lost  battles  that  he  was  called  Archibald  Tyne- 
nian.     The  Scots, were  signally  defeated  at  Nisbet  Muir 


(14th  September  1402)  in  Merse  and  at  Homildon  Hill  1390-1 'i 3. 
near  Wooler  by  Percy,  where  the  slain  and  prisoners  equalled 
the  number  at  Otterburn.  Nor  could  order  be  maintained 
within  Scotland  itself,  of  which  the  forcible  marriage  of 
the  countess  of  Mar  by  Ale.xander,  a  bastard  of  the  Wolf 
of  Badenoch,  was  an  example.  Afraid  of  Albany,  and 
warned  by  the  fate  of  Rothesay,  Robert  sent  his  remaining 
son  James  to  France  (1405);  but  the  ship  in  which  he 
sailed  was  taken  by  an  English  cruiser,  and  the  future  king 
was  a  priaDner  in  England  for  nineteen  years.  This  last 
blow  broke  the  weak  heart  of  Robert,  who  died  at  Dun- 
donald  and  was  buried  at  Paisley.  Though  his  reign  was 
inglorious,  the  tradition  of  the  War  of  Independence  still 
warmed  the  heart  of  the  nation  and  produced  the  earliest 
writers  in  Scottish  literature, — Barbour,  Fordun,  and  Wyn- 
toun.     The  Bruce  of  Barbour  became  the  national  epic. 

The  year  after  Robert  s  death  the  first  martyr  in  Scot- 
land, James  Resby,  an  English  priest,  was  burnt  at  Perth 
by  Albany,  who  is  described  by  Wyntoun  as  "a  constant 
Catholic."  Resby  was  condemned  at  the  instance  of  Laur- 
ence of  Lindores,  called  the  inquisitor  of  Scotland,  for  forty 
theses  from  the  books  of  Wickliffe.  The  Lollard  doctrines 
continued  to  be  secretly  held  by  a  small  sect,  chiefly  in  the 
west,  Knox  traces  the  descent  of  the  first  Scottish  Re- 
formers— the  Lollards  of  Kyle — from  Wickliffe  and  Hus. 
This  religious  movement  was  destined  to  exercise  a  pro- 
found influence  on  the  history  of  Scotland.  The  time 
when  the  church  was  a  civilizing  and  purifying  power  was 
passing  away.  Its  enormous  wealth,  a  contrast  to  Us  early 
poverty,  its  developed  so  different  from  its  primitive  doc- 
trine, celibacy,  and  the  confessional  in  a  lax  society,  that 
was  no  longer  moved  by  the  fervour  of  a  new  faith,  pro- 
duced a  corruption  which  forced  itself  on  minds  of  a 
reforming  tendency.  Catholicism  allowed  no  place  for 
individual  reformers,  and  their  protests,  often  carried  to 
extremes,  were  deemed  attacks  upon  the  church  itself, 
which  became  (unwillingly  on  the  part  of  its  best  friends) 
the  defender  of  its  worst  abuses.  From  first  to  last  in 
Scotland  the  movement  was  popular,  though  not  at  first 
democratic.  It  did  not  at  all  or  only  to  a  slight  extent 
change  through  political  causes  as  in  England. 

Though  he  was  a  captive,  the  right  of  James  I.  (1406-37)  Jaraes  I. 
on  his  father's  death  was  at  once  acknowledged  by  a  general 
council  held  at  Perth  ;  but  the  appointment  of  Albany  as 
governor  boded  ill  for  his  return.  He  held  the  office  Aioaay's 
thirteen  years,  administering  it  till  his  death  so  as  to  con-  regency, 
ciliate  all  classes  and  pave  the  way  to  his  own  accession 
to  the  throne,  which  would  have  been  his  by  right  had 
the  young  king  died.  The  recovery  of  Jedburgh  (1408),' 
long  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  gave  the  regent  an  easy 
opportunity  of  popularity.  It  was  decided  by  a  general 
council  that  its  walls  suould  be  razed  and  the  expense 
defrayed  by  a  poll  tax,  but  Albany  refused  to  burden  the 
people  and  paid  it  out  of  the  royal  customs.  Next  year 
Albany  and  Douglas  (now  released  froin  captivity  in  Eng- 
land) entered  into  a  bond  of  alliance.  With  the  earls  of 
March  and  Mar  and  others  similar  engagements  were 
made ;  but  Douglas,  who  had  acquired  the  lands  of  March, 
whii-h,  however,  were  now  restored,  had  to  bo  conciliated 
by  a  grant  of  Lochmaben  and  Annandale,  the  patrimony 
of  the  Bruces.  The  more  independent  nobles  of  the  north 
could  not  bo  so  easily  gained,  and  Donald,  lord  of  the 
Isles,  disappointed  in  a  claim  to  the  earldom  of  Ros.s,  in- 
vaded Aberdeenshire  with  a  groat  host,  whose  defeat  by 
the  earl  of  Mar  at  Harlaw  (17th  May  1412)— the  Otter- 
burn  of  northern  ballads — was  followed  by  the  capture  of 
Dingwall,  his  chief  castle  on  the  mainland,  and  his  final 
defeat  at  Lochgilphead. 

The  firs-t  Scottish  university — St  Andrews — was  founded 
bv  bulls  granted  a  year  later  at  the  instance  of  James  and 


492 


SCOTLAND 


[msioRY. 


413-142 


Ka;ica- 
ticn  of 
James  I. 


.  Bishop  Wardlaw,  who  had  been  his  tutor.  The  higher 
education  had  already  been  to  some  extent  sujiplied  by 
cathedral  and  monastic  schools ;  but  Scots  who  sought  a 
complete  curriculum  had  to  resort  to  Oxford  or  I'aris. 
One  of  their  number,  Major,  expresses  his  wonder  that 
the  Scottish  prelates  had  not  earlier  thought  of  a  national 
university.  That  now  founded  was  destined  to  play  an 
important  part  in  promoting  the  Reformation  and  along 
with  the  later  universities  in  civilizing  Scotland. 

Little  of  note  occurred  during'  the  remaining  years  of 
Albany's  regency.  His  futile  siege  of  Roxburgh  (lil5), 
soon  abandoned,  got  the  name  of  the  Fool's  Raid.  Greater 
credit  attended  the  Scottish  arms  in  France,  where  the_ 
earls  of  Douglas,  Buchan,  and  Wigtown  won  battles  for 
the  French  king,  and  lands  and  honour  for  themselves  ;  but 
the  defeats  of  Crevant  and  Verneuil  efl'aced  the  honours  of 
Beaiige  (in  Anjou),  and,  though  the  remnant  of  the  Scots 
remained  as  the  king's  bodyguard,  no  considerable  num- 
ber of  troops  from  Scotland  afterwards  went  to  France. 
Albany  died  at  Stirling  in  his  eightieth  year  (3d  September 
1419).  His  son  Murdoch  assumed  the  regency  as  if  heredi- 
tary; but,  himself  indolent  and  with  lawless  .-jons,  he  did 
not  retain  the  influence  of  his  father.  In  1  -t23  ambassadors 
sent  by  the  Scottish  parliament  to  England  at  last  arranged 
terms  for  the  return  of  James  from  his  long  exile  (12th 
May  1423). 

Exile  had  its  uses,  and,  except  at  the  beginning  and 
again  -wter  the  accession  of  Henry  V.,  his  captivity  had 
not  been^  rigorous.  Sir  John  Pelham  was  Lis  governor, 
and  he  was  instructed  in  Latin  grammar,  oratory,  and 
poetry,  as  well  as  in  bodily  exercises, — wTestling  and  the 
ase  of  the  spear.  Though  distinguished  for  physical 
strength,  his  benl  was  to  the  Muses,  and  he  became  pro- 
ficient in  dancing,  music,  and  poetry.  Buchanan  blames 
this  taste  as  carried  beyond  what  became  a  king,  but  no- 
thing in  his  after  life  showed  he  was  ever  led  by  amuse- 
ments to  neglect  graver  studies.  Wlien  thirty  he  was 
taken  by  Henry  V.  to  France  with  the  view  of  detaching 
the  Scottish  allies  of  the  dauphin,  but  refused  to  be  made 
a  tool  of,  saying  he  had  as  yet  no  kingdom  and  they  owed 
him  no  allegiance.  He  proved  his  soldiership  by  the  capture 
of  Dreux.  On  his  return  to  England  he  married  (11th 
February  1423)  Johanna  Beaufort,  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Somerset  and  grand-daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt.  In  the 
Kingis  Quhair  he  describes  his  love  at  first  sight  in  the 
language  of  his  master  Chaucer,  but  with  original  genius. 
The  marriage  facilitated  his  release,  which  w-as  negotiated 
for  a  sum  of  60,000  marks.  He  confirmed  the  treaty  at 
Melrose  and  was  crowned  with  his  bride  at  Scone  (21st 
May  1423)  by  Wardlaw. — Albany,  as  earl  of  Fife,  placing 
him  on  the  throne. 

He  lost  no  time  in  addressing  himself  to  the  task  of 
restoring  the  royal  authority  and  the  obedience  to  the  law 
which  the  long  regency  had  weakened.  From  this  time 
dates  the  conflict  between  the  king  and  the  nobles, — the 
latter  not  maintaining,  as  in  England,  constitutional  rights, 
but  .contending  for  exorbitant  privileges.  The  experiment 
of  government  wi/thout  a  king  had  been  tried  too  long  not 
to  make  those  who  had  exercised  unrestrained  power  desire 
its  continuance.  The  nature  of  the  country — divided  by 
rivers,  mountains,  and  arms  of  the  sea — the  absence  of 
great  cities  and  the  number  of  strong  castles,  the  close  con- 
nexion of  the  principal  nobles  by  marriage  and  bonds  of 
alliance,  the  large  jurisdiction  within  their  territories,  the 
clanship  not  only  in  the  Highlands  and  on  the  borders 
but  in  some  measure  throughout  the  whole  countrj',  which 
made  fidelity  to  the  chief  a  natural  duty,  strengthened  the 
aristocracy  and  weakened  the  crown.  The  sovereign  had  to 
rely  on  the  people  and  the  clergy.cn  foreign  alliances,  on  the 
influence  due,  partly  to  the  virtues  of  ids  predecessors,  partly 


to  the  magic  which  in  that  age  encircled  the^name  of  king. 
The  first  parliament  of  James  at  Perth  passed  quietly, 
but  with  indications  of  a  policy  long  meditated  and 
now  to  be  put  into  operation.  One  Act  forbade  private  J.imes 
war;  another  imposed  the  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  life  and  ""<!  '''^ 
goods  for  rebellion ;  and  a  third  directed  an  inquest  by  "'■'''''^^ 
the  .sheriff  what  lands  "pertain  to  the  king  or  has  per- 
tained "  in  the  time  of  the  last  three  kings  and  ■  in  whose 
hands  they  now  are.  The  choice  of  the  privy  council  was 
significant.  It  was  headed  by  Lauder,  bishop  of  Glasgow, 
who  had  negotiated  the  king's  release,  but  none  of  the 
greater  nobles  were  included.  In  their  stead  appear  an 
unusual  number  of  minor  gentry,  some  holding  high  oflices. 
The  parliament  held  at  Perth  in  the  following  year  was 
the  scene  of  a  coup  d'etat  (12th  I^Iarch).  Albany,  his 
younger  son  Alexander,  Alan  of  Otterburn  his  secretary, 
and  Sir  John  Montgomery  were  seized  on  one  day,  and 
immediately  after  Isabella,  Albany's  wife,  whose  father, 
the  earl  of  Lennox,  had  already  been  arrested.  The  only 
one  of  Albany's  kin  still  at  large,  his  youngest  son  James, 
made  a  short  resistance,  burnt  Dumbarton,  and  slew  the 
Red  Stuart  of  Dundonald,  the  king's  uncle,  but,  being 
hotly  pursued,  fled  to  Ireland.  Parliament,  at  an  adjourned 
sitting  at  Stirling,  proceeded  to  the  trial  of  Albany  and 
his  adherents,  which  was  held  with  feudal  solemnity  before 
an  assize.  Albany,  his  two  sons,  and  Lennox  were  con- 
demned and  executed  on  the  Heading  Hill.  Clemency 
was  shown  to  those  who  had  not  been  his  intimate  sup- 
porters. Historians  are  divided  as  to  the  policy  or  neces- 
sity for  such  severity.  But  it  secured  its  immediate  object ; 
it  was  felt  that  Scotland  had  again  a  king  to  defend  his 
rights.  James  for  twelve  years  carried  out,  not  without 
murmurs,  but  without  successful  opposition,  his  projects 
of  reform. 

Foreign  states  recognized  his  power.  At  the  request  —.nies  i; 
of  the  Flemish  estates  Sliddelburg  was  restored  as  the  f^reigu 
market  for  Scottish  trade;  in  return  the  privileges  of^^'^^" 
the  Scots  were  guaranteed  and  Flemish  merchants  imdcr- 
took  to  raise  part  of  James's  ransom.  Flemish  artisans 
and  manufacturers  settled  in  Scotland.  More  than  one 
embassy  passed  to  and  from  Rome  with  regard  to  the 
affairs  of  the  Scottish  Church,  which  James,  while  strictly 
repressing  heresy  (a  Bohemian  doctor,  Crawar,  being 
burnt  as  a  disciple  of  Hus),  showed  his  intention  of 
reforming.  The  new  pope  Martin  V.  had  put  an  etd  to 
the  schism.  The  bitter  enemy  of  the  English  king  on 
account  of  the  regulations  which  culminated  in  the  Statute 
of  Praemunire,  he  welcomed  James's  advances.  James, 
while  showing  his  attachment  to  the  church  by  founding 
a  Carthi>sian  monastery  at  Perth  and  a  Franciscan  in. 
Edinburgh,  asserted  his  right  to  remedy  abuses  of  the 
ecclesiastical  courts,  and  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Bene- 
dictine and  Augustinian  monks  reproaching  them  for  laxity. 
To  Erik  of  Korway  he  sent  an  embassy  and  obtained  a 
commutation  of  the  arrears  due  for  the  Hebrides  under 
the  treaty  of  Largs.  A  marriage  between  the  dauphin 
and  Margaret,  his  infant  daughter,  previously  arranged, 
was  celebrated  shortly  before  his  death.  He  thus  estab- 
lished friendly  relations  with  the  Continent,  and,  though 
his  position  as  regards  England  could  not  be  the  same, 
the  truce  was  only  twice  broken  towards  the  end  o£ 
his  reign — by  a  raid  of  the  English,  who  were  defeated 
at  Peferden  (1425)  by  the  earl  of  Angus,  and  his  own 
attempt  to  recover  Roxburgh.  During  the  fourteen  years 
of  his  actual  reign  James  held  thirteen  parliaments,  prov- 
ing his  desire  to  obtain  the  support  of  the  aation  in  hia 
reforms.  In  1426  he  introduced  the  session,  a  royal  court 
for  civil  causes  sitting  in  the  principal  towns,  to  provide 
the  justice  too  often  denied  in  the  baronial  courts.  Next 
year  he  summoned  a  ijaiiianier.t  to  Inverness — an  unusual 


rUAr.TS  TO  JAMES  IV.] 


SCOTLAND 


493 


Subjuga 
Tion  of-- 
High- 


D^aliQgs 
•vith  his 
cobles. 


place  of  meeting — for  the  purpo.se  of  restoring  the  peace 
of  the  Highlands.  Its  records  are  lost ;  but  the  chief 
event  was  the  seizure  of  Alexander,  carl  of  Ross,  lord  of 
the  Isles,  and  his  mother,  along  with  as  many  as  forty 
chiefsi  Two  were  beheaded  and  a  third  hanged,  but  most 
of  them,. including  the  lord  of  the  Isles,  after  a  short  im- 
prisonment, were  released.  Ross  at  once  raised  the  stan- 
dard of  rebellion  and  burnt  Inverness,  but  was  defeated  by 
James  at  Lochaber,  where  the  clans  Chattan  and  Cameron 
deserted  to  the  royal  side.  On  the  Sunday  following  the 
former  killed  in  a  church  the  whole  of  the  latter  clan  who 
were  present.  Another  internecine  conflict  took  place  in 
Caithness  seven  years  afterwards.  Such  private  feuds, 
traditional  amongst  the  Celts,  were  one  cause  of  the  success 
of  James  and  of  the  ultimate  subjugation  of  the  Highlands. 
So  completely  was  the  power  of  the  lord  of  the  Isles 
broken  that  he  came  as  a  suppliant  and  placed  his  sword 
in  the  king's  hands  at  flolyrood.  His  life  was  spared,  but 
he  was  confined  to  Tantallon  castle.  In  a  parliament  held 
later  in  the  same  year  at  Perth  an  Act  was  passed  for  the  re- 
presentation of  the  shires  and  the  election  of  a  speaker;  but 
this  imitation  of  the  English  House  of  Commons  was  not 
acted  on.  The  Scottish  parliament  continued  to  sit  in  one 
chamber  of  lords,  clergy,  and  conimops,  and  it  was  only  in 
the  reign  of  James  V.  that  representation  of  the  shires  was 
admitted.  The  following  parliament  (HSS)  provided  that 
an  oath  of  fealty  should  be  taken  to  the  queen  by  all 
persons  succeeding  to  lands  or  dignities,  which  shows  that 
James  knew  the  danger  of  his  policy.  In  i429  an  Act  was 
passed  for  the  protection  of  tlie  tillers  of  the  ground,  who 
were  not  to  be  removed  for  a  year,  and  provision  was  made 
for  arming  all  landowners  and  burge.sses.  The  birth  of 
twins — Alexander,  who  died  young,  u.nd  James,  afterwards 
king — strengthened  the  king's  position  by  interposing  two 
lives  besides  his  own  against  any  attempt  at  revolution. 
Two  years  later  Donald  Balloch,  a  kinsman  of  the  lord  of 
the  Isles,  renewed  the  rebellion  ;  but,  though  he  defeatecl 
Mar  and  Caithness,  on  the  approach  of  James  hims^U  Jje 
fled  to  Ireland. 

In  1434  the  king  applied  the  statute  of  his  fir.st  parlia- 
ment B&  to  the  resumption  of  lands  to  which  no  sufficient 
title  could  be  shown.  The  estates  of  the  earl  of  March 
were  forfeited  on  the  ground  that  Albany  had  exceeded 
iiis  power  in  restoring  them.  He  was  created  earl  of 
Buclran  with  the  intention  no  doubt  of  removing  him  from 
the  border  and  conciliating  him  for  his  loss.  The  death 
in  143.5  of  .^Jexander  Stuart,  earl  of  Mar,  led  to  tlie  lapse 
of  that  earldom  to  the  crown  on  account  of  his  bastardy, 
and  the  following  year  the  ^arldora  of  Strathearn  was  re- 
sumed on  the  ground  that  n  was  a  male  fee  and  did  not 
pass  to  the  wife  of  Patrick  Graham,  the  heir-female.  It 
was  bestowed  in  life-rent  on  the  king's  uncle,  the  earl  of 
Athole,  and  Malise,  the  son  of  Patrick  Graham,  was  made 
earl  of  Menteith.  This  assertion  of  right  on  the  part  of  the 
king  to  deal  witli  the  estates  of  the  nobles  though  fortified 
by  legal  documents  and  recognized  posses.iion  was  certain 
to  make  enemies.  It  is  more  surprising  tliat  James  so 
long  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  authority  than  that  he 
at  last  perished  for  doing  so;  but  he  had  the  people  on  hi.s 
side.  In  the  summer  of  1436  he  was  obliged  to  rclinqui.sli 
the  siege  of  lloxburgh  owing  to  the  barons'  refusal  of 
support.  In  October  when  the  forfeiture  of  Strathearn* 
was  made  in  a  parliament  at  Edinburgh,  Sir  Robert' 
Graham,  uncle  and  tutor  of  the  young  heir  Malise,  de- 
nounced tlie  king  in  the  boldest  tarm.s  and  urged  the 
barons  to  seize  hid  person  ;  but,  failing,  ho  was  banished 
from  the  court.  As  in  other  cases,  this  leniency  was  not 
requited.  In  his  Highland  retreat  Graham  formed  a  con- 
spiracy with  Atholc,  the  king's  uncle,  who  aimed  at  the 
crown,  and  Sir  Kpbert  Stuart,  Athole'a  grandson.     James 


was  to  spend  Christmas  at  Perth.  Before  he  crossed  the  1*27-1448, 
Forth  he  was  warned  by  an  old  Highland  woman  that  if 
he  passed  he  would  never  return.  She  tried  unsuccessfully 
to  get  access  to  him  again  at  the  Dominican  monasLerj  at 
Perth,  where  he  lodged.  At  midnight,  when  he  was  half 
undressed,  Graham  with  300  men  surrounded  the  monas- 
tery, Theit  approach  was  heard ;  but  it  was  found  that 
the  bolts  had  been  removed  by  treachery.  James  was 
hastily  concealed  in  n  vault  underneath  the  room.  Before 
the  conspirators  entered  a  brave  attempt  was  made  by 
Catherine  Douglas,  one  of  the  queen's  maids,  to  bar  the 
door  with  her  arm,  but  the  fragile  obstacle  broke  and 
Graham  burst  in.  The  fall  of  another  of  the  maids  into 
the  vault  discovered  the  king,  who  fought  fiercely  for  his 
life.  The  queen  was  wounded  in  trying  to  save  hlin,  ful- 
filling an  unconsciou.s  prophecy  of  the  Kingis  Quhair.  At 
last,  after  killing  two  of  his  assailant-s,  he  fell,  overcome  by 
numbers  (February  1437).  Vengeance  speedily  overtook 
the  murderers,  who  had  made  no  provision  tp  follow  up  their 
deed.  Within  a,  month  they  v;ere  aU  executed  in  a  manner 
exceeding  even  the  barbarous  usages  of  the  time.  James 
was  buried  in  the  Carthusian  monastery,  where  his  doub- 
let was  long  kept  as  a  relic  and  seen  by  the  people  with 
veneration.  Such  was  the  sad  fate  of  the  best  of  the  Stuarts, 
— a  king  in  advance  of  his  age  and  too  rapid  in  his  reforms. 

James  II.  (1437-GO),  an  infant  of  six,  called  "  Fiery-face  "  James 
from  a  red  stain  on  one  cheek,  was  crowned  at  Holyrood  "■ 
five  weeks  after  his  father's  death,  and  there  commenced 
one  of  the  long  minorities  which  the  early  deaths  of  the 
Stuart  kings  made  common,  and  during  which  history  is 
chiefly  occupied  with  the  contest  for  the  person  of  the 
king.  Tliese  have  been  truly  represented  as  weakening 
the  royal  authority.  The  possession  of  power  rendered  the 
nobles  impatient  of  restraint  and  accustomed  to  licence ; 
but  they  had  also  a  reverse  eil'cct.  When  the  monarch 
succeeded  he  was  received  with  favour  by  the  people  as 
a  deliverer  from  the  oppression  of  the  barons,  too  often 
petty  tyrants.  A  rule  of  law  allowing  him  to  revoke  grants 
in  his  minority  was  often  used  with  great  effect.  On  the 
whole,  monarchy,  in  spite  of  the  weakness  and  vices  of  the 
king.s,  was  popular  in  Scotland  until  the  Reformation  and 
the  fatal  chain  of  events  in  which  Mary  was  involved  in- 
troduced a  democratic  tendency,  which  grew  under  the  bad 
government  of  her  successors.  The  nobles,  though  their 
word  was  law  with  their  kinsmen  and  retainers,  were  seldom 
favourites  of  the  people.  Archibald;  fourth  earl  of  Douglas,  StiuKglea 
the  greatest  of  the  Scottish  nobility  and  duke  of  Tomaine  f"'  """ 
in  France,  was  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom  from''"'"^^' 
James's  accession  till  his  own  death  the  year  after  ;  but  Sir 
William  Crichton,  master  of  the  hou.sehold  of  James  I., 
who  was  keeper  of  the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  where  the 
young  king  was  detained,  appears  to  have  exercised  the 
chief  power.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  Douglas  James's 
mother  carried  oft"  her  son,  on  the  pretext  of  a  pilgrimage, 
to  Stirling,  of  which  Sir  Alexander  Livingstone  of  Callander 
was  governor.  Livingstone  laid  siege  to  Edinburgh,  but 
made  terms  with  Crichton,  who  became-  chancellor.  The 
alternate  struggles  and  reconciliations  of  these  rivals  con- 
tinued till  James  was  fourteen,  when  he  favoured  Douglas 
(the  eighth  earl)  in  order  to  free  himself  from  their  control. 
■This  was  a  time  of  civil  or  rather  of  private  wars.  The 
only  contemporary  chronicle  marks  almost  every  year  with 
the  seizure  of  a  castle  or  a  party  fight.  Douglas  brought 
the  earl  of  Crawford  and  his  retainers  from  the  Highlands, 
who  ravaged  the  estates  of  the  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  and 
himself  besieged  Edinburgh  castle.  The  castle  surrendered ; 
but  Crichton,  one  of  the  adroit  statesmen  who  rise  after 
every  fall,  continued  chancellor,  and  .soon  after,  by  negotiat- 
ing the  marriage  of  James  with  Mary  of  Guelders  (1448), 
ensured  his  favour  with  tha  court.     Shortly  after  the  cele; 


494 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


H4S.H66.  bration  of  this  marriage  Livingstone,  now  chamberlain, 
with  many  of  his  kiudrctl  and  triends,  w  as  suddenly  arrested 
and  tried  before  a  parliament  at  Edinburgh  ;  two  were  exe- 
cuted, and  the  others,  including  the  chamberlain,  attainted 
and  i)lacod  in  strict  ward  in  Dumbarton.  Douglas  and 
Crichton  received  part  of  the  forfeited  estf.tes.  James  was 
chiefly  advised  at  this  period  by  Bishop  Kennedy,  whose 
counsel  was  the  old  one  of  "  divide  et  impera."  He  now 
determined  to  do  to  the  more  powerful  Douglas  as  he  had 
done  to  the  Livingstones.  The  earl  had  shown  no  modera- 
tion in  prosperity.  His  revenue  and  retainers  equalled 
those  of  the  king  :  1000  horsemen  were  his  ordinary  train, 
and  he  attended  the  king's  marriage  with  five  times  that 
number.  His  courts  on  the  borders  were  almost  parlia- 
ments. In  the  year  of  jubilee  (1450)  he  went  to  Roma 
with  a  large  suite.  On  his  return  he  visited  the  new 
king  of  England,  Edward  IV.  At  the  parliament  of 
Edinburgh  (1-151)  he  submitted  to  the  king's  mercy, 
and  at  the  request  of  the  queen  and  estates  received 
a  regrant  of  his  lands  and  honours.  He  was  already 
suspected  of  treason,  and  had  in  fact  renewed  a  secret 
bond  with  the  earls  of  Crawford  and  Ross,  the  most 
powerful  nobles  in  the  north,  which  threatened  the 
royal  authority.  James  felt  a  crisis  had  come  and  sum- 
J.imes's  moned  Douglas  to  Stirling  at  Shrovetide.  There  the  young 
energetic  king,  in  violation  of  hospitality  and  a  safe  conduct  which 
he  had  given  the  earl,  when  Douglas  refused  to  break  the 
bond  with  the  other  earls,  struck  him  with  his  knife  and 
killed  him  (21st  February  1452).'  An  appeal  to  arms  neces- 
sarily followed.  Douglas's  brother  James,  the  ninth  earl, 
came  to  Stirling  and  burnt  great  part  of  the  town.  But 
the  clergy  and  commons  and  other  nobles,  some  even  of 
Douglas's  own  kin,  not  sorry  at  the  fall  of  one  who  over- 
topped them,  stood  by  the  king.  Parliament  sanctioned- 
James's  act  and  declared  Douglas  had  deserved  death.  At 
length,  after  repeated  struggles,  Crawford  was  defeated  at 
the  Jluir  of  Brechin  and  Douglas  fled  to  England.  His 
estates  were  of  course  forfeited.  The  lordship  of  Douglas 
was  granted  to  Angus.  Ettrick  Forest  and  Galloway  were 
annexed  to  the  crown.  Some  years  later  Douglas  made 
another  desperate  effort  against  James,  but  after  wasting 
Merse  was  totally  defeated  by  Angus  (1458).^  The  energy 
of  James  in  visiting  all  parts  of  his  kingdom  was  con- 
spicuous during  the  last  period  of  his  reign.  The  good 
relations  with  the  French  and  other  Continental  courts  con- 
tinued. AVith  England^one  brief  interruption  excepted — 
peace  had  been  preserved  during  tlie  reign  of  Henry  VI. 
Henry  even  agreed  to  restore  Ro.xburgh  and  Berwick  to 
Scotland  in  return  for  assistance  against  the  duke  of  York. 
'Wlien  Henry  was  taken  prisoner  at  Northampton,  his  queen 
and  her  young  son  flred  to  Scotland,  and  James  was  called 
on  to  fulfil  his  engagements.  He  laid  siege  to  Roxburgh, 
which  for  more  than  a  century  had  defied-  his  predecessors, 
and  after  a  stout  resistance  it  was  taken ;  but  James  did 
not  live  to  enjoy  the  triumph.  When  inspecting  the  dis- 
charge of  a  new  gun  it  burst,  and  he  was  killed  (3d  August 
1460).  He  had  not  reached  his  thirtieth  year. 
C'l.-iv-  His  reign  had  been  singularly  fortunate,  for  he  succeeded 

-i.-ur  of    ^where  his  father  failed)  in  restoring  the  royal  authority  and 
•'"■es  s    j.g{|y(.ing  the  power  of  the  nobles.     This  may  have  been 


tiott. 


'  The  origin  of  two  great  faniilies  dates  from  the  fall  of  Douglas. 
Sir  James  Hamiltou  of  Cadzow  deserted  liis  hinsmau  for  the  king  ami 
received  large  grants  of  land  and  the  king's  daughter  as  \Tife.  Sir 
Walter  Scott  of  Kirkurd  and  Buccleuch,  a  border  chief,  was  similarly 
^e^varded.  These  were  the  ancestors  of  the  dukes  of  Hamilton  and 
Buccleuch. 

-  lu  the  next  reigu  along  with  the  king's  banished  brother,  Albany, 
he  made  a  daring  raid  on  Loclunaben,  but  being  taken  prisoner  he 
ended  his  days  as  a  monk  at  Lindores.  A  saying  attributed  to  liiin, 
*'  If  a  man  cannot  better  be,  he  may  be  a  monli,"  was  a  sign  of  the 
I'lange  of  limes  since  Celtic  kings  were  proud  to  assume  the  cowl. 


III. 


partly  due  to  the  counsels  of  Kennedy,  bishop  of  St 
Andrew  s,  and  Crichton ;  but  James  showed  skill  in  govern- 
ment and  vigour  in  war,  though  the  murder  of  Douglas  has 
left  a  stain  on  his  character.  The  crown  was  richer  at  his 
death  than  it  had  been  since  the  time  of  Alexander 
III.,  by  many  forfeitures  secured  from  alienation  by 
the  Act  of  Annexation  (1455,  c.  41).  The  royal  pre- 
rogative was  strengthened  by  the  first  statute  defining 
treason  (1449,  c.  25).  Provision  was  made  for  the  execu- 
tion of  criminal  justice  by  the  king,  his  justiciar,  and 
sheriffs,  and  of  civil  justice  by  the  session.  Stringent  rules 
were  laid  down  against  violent  spoliation  of  lands  and 
goods  (1449,  e.  30).  The  coinage  was  regulated,  an 
attempt  made  to  pre.serve  its  standard,  and  to  prohibit 
export  of  gold  and  silver  (1451,  e.  23).  Towards  the  end 
of  the  reign,  when  war  with  England  was  impending, 
statutes  were  passed  for  the  defence  of  the  borders,  giving 
the  king  more  direct  control,  and  declaring  that  the  office 
of  warden  should  not  be  hereditary.  The  progress  of  agri- 
culture was  furthered  by  the  famous  Act  tor  the  encourage- 
ment of  feu  farm,  an  existing  form  of  tenure  becoming 
more  common,  and  another  giving  fi.\ity  of  tenure  to  leases 
until  the  expiry  of  their  terms  notwithstanding  alienation 
of  the  lands.  There  were  also  many  minor  laws  which 
had  for  their  object  thi  welfare  of  the  people.  Though 
the  legislation  of  James  II.  was  not  so  large,  it  was 
perhaps  as  important  as  that  of  James  I. 

On  the  Sunday  after  his  father's  death  James  III.  Minorit 
(1460-88)  was  crowned  at  Kelso.  A  regencj' was  formed ''f  J""' 
consisting  of  the  queen,  Kennedy,  and  others.  A  parlia- 
ment followed  at  Edinburgh,  which  was  blamed  by  tlie 
nobles  for  leaving  so  much  power  in  the  hands  of  a  woman; 
but  there  was  a  full  appointment  to  the  offices  of  state, 
and,  though  Mary  of  Guelders  aimed  at  more  than  the 
guardianship  of  her  son,  it  does  not  appear  that  she  really 
exercised  royal  authority.  After  the  defeat  of  Towton 
(29th  March  1461),  Henry  VI.  and  his  queen  took  refuge 
in  Scotland.  In  return  for  their  reception  and  in  hope  .  f 
further  aid,  Henry  surrendei-ed  Berwick  (23d  April)  to  the 
Scottish  king,  in  whose  hands  it  remained  till  its  final 
annexation  to  England  at  the  close  of  the  reign.  Edward 
IV.  retaliated  by  a  treaty  (13th  February  1462)  with  llie 
banished  earl  of  Douglas,  the  earl  of  Ross,  lord  of  the 
Isles,  and  Donald  Balloch,  by  which  Douglas  was  to  be 
restored  to  his  estates,  and  the  whole  country  north  of  the 
Forth  divided  between  the  two  Highland  chiefs.  George, 
earl  of  Angus,  who  had  risen  on  the  ruins  of  the  house  of 
Douglas,  made  a  counter-league  with  Henry  VI.,  by  which 
he  was  promised  an  English  dukedom  and  valuable  land'' 
bet\veen  Trent  and  Humber,  biiA  was  to  preserve  his  alle- 
giance to  the  Scottish  king.  These  were  paper  promises, 
and  all  that  came  of  them  were  an  ineffectual  risin*  in  the 
north  and  the  relief  of  Alnwick,  which  had  been  besieged 
by  the  Yorkists.  Next  year  the  Lancastrian  cause  having 
received  a  fatal  blow  by  the  defeat  of  Hexham,  a  singular 
offer  by  Edward  IV.  to  marry  the  queen  dowager  of  Scot- 
land— one  of  the  many  schemes  of  the  king-maker,  earl  of 
Warwick — was  frustrated  by  her  death  or  perhaps  by  the 
fiiscovery  of  an  intrigue  with  Adam  Hepburn  of  Hales, 
whose  wife  was  alive.  Kennedy,'  wlio~1iad-^ie  chief  cont'pl 
.of  Scottish  afi'airs,  negotiated  the  release  of  Alexander,  the 
king's  brother,  who  had  been  taken  by  an  English  cruiser, 
and  secured  a  truce  between  England  and  Scotland  for 
fifteen  years.  He  understood  the  nature  of  his  countrymen 
better  than  any  man,^aiKl  was  always  ready  to  give  counsel 
in  parliament,  while  his  learning,  especially  in  the  civil 
law,  made  him  respected  by  foreign  powers.  When  he 
died  the  country  wept  for  hiin  as  for  a  [larent. 

Before  his  death  a  plot  had  been  formed  which  threw 
the  young  king  into  difl'ereut  hands.     Amongst  the  b.Trons 


STtTAETS  TO  JAMES  IV.] 


SCOTLANi^ 


495 


Ascend  who  received  office  at  the  commencement,  of  the  reign 
ency  0/  one  of  the  foremost  was  Robert  Boyd  of  Kilmarnock,  the 
^^'^-  justiciar.  Boyd  determined  to  play  the  part  of  Livingstone 
in  the  last  reign,  and  usurp  the  supreme  power  by  seizing 
the  person  of  the'  king.  Bonds  with  this  object  were 
."ntered  into  between  him,  Fleming  of  Cumbernauld,  Lord 
Kennedy,  a  brother  of  the  bishop,  and  others.  ^Vhile 
holding  a  court  at  Linlithgow  James  was  carried  off  to 
Edinburgh  by  Boyd.  Kennedy  made  a  feinj;  to  save  him 
by  seizing  his  bridle,  but  was  overpowered;  perhaps  the 
attempt  was  real,  for  Kennedy  afterwards  separated  from 
the  Boyds.  In  parliament  Boyd  went  through  the  form  of 
asking  pardon  of  the  young  king  in  presence  of  the  estates, 
and  was  immediately  entrusted  with  the  custody  of  the 
royal  person  (October  1466)  and  that  of  his  brothers  Albany 
and  Mar,  as  well  as  the  fortresses  of  the  kingdom.  Next 
year  he  was  made  chamberlain,  which  gave  him  control  of 
the  revenue.  The  marriage  of  his  son  Thomas,  created  earl 
of  Arran,  with  the  king's  sister  Mary,  marked  the  height 
of  his  ambition.  The  fall  of  Boyd,  as  sudden  as  his 
rise,  whom  with  his  brother  Alexander  James  at  first 
favoured,  was  due  to  the  same  cause  as  that  of  Livingstone, 
— the  king's  marriage  and  his  desire  when  major  to  assert 
his  independence.  Negotiations  for  an  English  match 
having  fallen  through,  an  alliance  with  a  Norwegian  prin- 
cess was  determined  on,  and  an  embassy  sent  to  Norway 
by  parliament.  Christian  of  Denmark  and  Norway  readily 
assented.  He  promised  his  daughter  a  dowry  of  60,000 
florins,  besides  a  surrender  of  the  claim  of  arrears  of  the 
annual  payment  for  the  Hebrides.  But,  as  it  was  incon- 
venient to  pay  the  dowry,  both  the  Orkneys  and  the 
Shetlands  were  mortgaged  to  Scotland,  and  have  remained 
ever  since  under  the  Scottish  crown.  Two  years  later 
(July  1469)  the  princess  Margaret  arrived  in  Scotland, 
when  the  marriage  took  place.  Arran  on  Ms  arrival  at 
Leith  with  the  king's  bride  received  .a  message  from  his 
wife  warning  him  that  James  had  conceived  a  great  hatred 
against  him ;  accordingly  he  fled  to  Denmark.  In  the 
parliament  his  father  and  his  uncle.  Sir  Alexander  Boyd, 
were  attainted.  The  chamberlain  saved  himself  by  flight ; 
§>r  Alexander  was  executed.  The  specific  charge  made 
was  the  seizure  of  the  king's  person ;  but  a  general  clause 
had  reference  to  the  immense  estates  they  had  annexed. 
The  king's  sister,  divor«ed  from  Arran,  was  married  to 
Lord  Hamilton,  who  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  a  family 
whose  head  more  than  once  aspired  to  the  crov.'n. 

The  refusal  of  parliament  in  1473  to  sanction  the  pro- 
posed passage  of  James  to  France,  to  aid  Louis  XI.  against 
Charles  the  Bold,  on  the  score  of  the  expense  and  risk,  was 
the  first  indication  of  the  difference  between  the  king  and 
the  nobility  which  led  to  the  disasters  of  the  close  of  his 
reign.  The  parliament  of  1476  took  a  bolder  step.  At 
its  adjournment  it  committed  its  whole  powers  to  certain 
members,  of  whom  the  duke  of  Albany  and  the  earl  of 
Mar,  the  king's  brothers,  were  the  principal, — a  measure 
Ljrvcrn-  which  indicated  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  king.  He 
'  by  had  .shown  himself,  like  Louis  XL,  disposed  to  govern  by 
"'■  new  men  who  owed  their  elevation  to  himself, — a  policy 
which  alienated  the  aristocracy.  Of  these  favourites  the 
chief  were  Robert  Cochrane,  originally,  it  was  said,  a 
mason,  who  proved  himself  a  skilful  architect;  Roger,  an 
English  musician ;  and  Andrews,  a  physician,  who  dealt 
in  astrology, — all  able  to  gratify  tastes  of  James.  There 
were  besides  a  few  young  men  of  birth  who  gained  favour 
by  flattery  or  other  arts.  Cochrane  became  all  powerful 
and  disgusted  the  nobles  by.  sumptuousness  and  arrogance, 
and  the  people  by  debasing  the  coin.  He  succeeded,  it 
was  reported,  by  relating  a  prophecy  that  a  lion  should  be 
devoured  by  its  whelps,  in  producing  in  the  king's  mind 
^■ji  aversion  to  his  brothers,  whose  characters  and  knightly  I 


accomplisnments  made  tnem  popular.     James  seized  Mar  1-1C6-1488 
and  sent  him  to  Craigmillar  castle.     He  soon-  after  died 
(1479)  in  Edinburgh  under  circumstances  which  gave  rise 
to  suspicion  of  foul  play.     The  gift  to  Cochrane  of  the 
vacant  earldom  or  its  revenues  strengthened  the  suspicion 
of  his  complicity.    Albany,  committed  to  Edinburgh  castle 
(1480),  escaped  to  Dunbar  and  thence  to  France.      He 
there  married  Anne  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  whose  son  was 
the  regent  Albany  in  the  reign  of  James  V.     Failing  to 
induce  Louis  to  do  more  than  urge  his  restoration,  two 
years  afterwards  he  quitted  France  and  at  Fotheringay 
entered  into  a  treaty  (1482)  with  Edward  IV.,  by  which, 
in  return  for  the  empty  title  of  Alexander  IV.,  he  owned 
the  subjection  of  the  country  to  England  and  made  other 
humiliating  promises.     Supported  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester 
and  the  exiled  earl  of  Douglas,  Albany  laid  siege  to  Ber- 
wick, \vhile  James  collected  his  forces  on  the  Boroughmuir 
of  Edinburgh  and  advanced  to  Lauder.     There  the  chief 
nobles,    indignant    at    the    favour    shown   to    Cochrane, 
mutinied,  and,  led  by  Angus,  who  then  acquired  his  name 
of  "Bell  the  Cat,"  seized  Cochrane  and  some  of  the  other 
favourites  of  James  and  hanged   them   before  his  eyes. 
Berwick  fell  and  was  never  afterwards  recovered  by  the 
Scots.  ■    The  nobles,  distrusting  Angus,   who  had  made 
secret  terms  with  Albany  and    the  English  king,   were 
induced  by  Schivas,    the  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  king  and  his  brother, 
who  received  the  vacant  earldom  of  Mar  and  for  a  little 
became  chief  minister.      A  parliament  in  December  ap- 
pointed Albany  lieutenant-general,  but  his  continued  in- 
trigues with  the  EnglLsh  king  being   discovered  he  was 
attainted  for  treason  and  fled  to   England  (1483),  and 
thence  to  France.    James  had  now  a  brief  period  of  peace, 
during  which  the  revolutions  in  England  freed  him  from 
the  danger  of  war  in   that  quarter.      New  matrimonial 
projects  were  tried.     It  was  proposed  that  the  prince  of 
Scotland  should  marry  a  niece  of  Richard  HI.,  Anne  de  la 
Pole,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  after  Richard's 
deposition  a  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  was  suggested.     On  the  death   of   Queen  ^Margaret 
James  himself  made  an  offer  for  the  hand  of  the  widow  of 
Edward  IV.     Such  proposals,  though  abortive,  were  signs 
of  a  better  understanding  between  the  two  countries,  or 
at  least  between  their  sovereigns.      When  the  rebellion 
broke  out  in  the  follovving  year  the   nobles  and  James 
accused  each  other   of   treasonable  correspondence  witli 
England,  but  no  assistance  was  got  by  either,  for  England 
was  still  scarcely  released  from  its  own  civil  war.     In  1487 
the   greater  part  of   the  Scottish   barons  rose  in  arms. 
James  had^  abandoned  himself  to  another  favourite.  Sir 
John  Ramsay,  whose  life  had  been  spared  at  Lauder.    The 
chiefs  of  the  party  were  the  earls  of  Angus  and  Argyll, 
Blackadder,  bishop  of  Glasgow,  and  the  Homes  and  Hep- 
burns,  powerful  barons  on  the  border.      Having  seized 
the  person  of  the  young  prince,  whom  they  already  desig- 
nated king,  they  pretended  to  act  in  his  name.     James 
retreated  to  Aberdeenshire,  for  the  northern  barons  still 
adhered  to  him.     Father  and  son,  at  the  licad  of  their 
respective  forces,  first  met  at  Blackness  (.May  1488)  on  the 
Forth,  where  a  pacification  was  agreed  to  on  terms  which 
showed  the  liing's  party  was  the  weaker.    In  the  following 
month  the  rebellion  was  renewed  and  the  king  was  slain 
at  Sauchie   (11th  June),  within  sight  of  Eannockburn. 
He  was  buried  at  Cambuskenneth,  being  only  thirty-five 
years  of  age.     He  did  not  fall,  like  his  father,  through 
the  strength  of  tfce  nobles,  for  they  were  much  divided, 
and  he  commenced  his  independent  reign  master  of  tlie    • 
situation.      The  Wars  of  the  Roses  gave  liim  an  oppor- 
tunity, which  he  missed,  of  strengthening  his  kingdom  in 
relation  to  England,  whose  monai  j..s  adopted  a  new  attitude 


496 


S  C  O  T  L  x\  :■>   D 


[hisioi'.y. 


IV. 


WS8-I5I2.  towards  Scotland  from  that  of  the  Plantagenets, — seeking 
alliance  rather  than  war.  His  own  weakness,  his  Jove  of 
favourites  and  of  money,  his  passion  for  music  and  art — 
perhaps  inlierited  from  his  grandfatlier,  but  carrred  to  ex- 
cess and  not  counterbalanced  by  the  qualities  of  a  states- 
man and  gejieral — proved  his  ruin.  The  rebellions,  first 
tliat  of  his  brother,  then  that  in  the  name  of  his  son,  were 
fatal  precedents  in  the  reign  of  Mary  Stuart. 

James  IV.  (14SS-1513)wa5  already  si.\teen  when  crowned 
at  Scone.  His  reign  is  an  interlude  in  the  record  of  almost 
constant  battles,  murders,  and  e.xecutions  with  which  Scot- 
tish history  abounds.  There  were  not  wanting  causes  of 
offence  between  England  and  Scotland,  hut  the  politic 
Henry  VII.  avoided  war  and  effected  what  previous  kings 
had  failed  in  the  marriage  between  the  royal  houses.  James, 
a  popular  monarch,  succeeded  better  than  any  of  his  pi-e- 
decessors  and  successors  in  keeping  on  good  terms  with 
all  classes.  His  court  was  one  of  splendour  for  a  small 
country ;  indeed  Scotland,  almost  for  the  first  time,  pos- 
sessed a  court  which  set  thu  fashion  of  civilization  and 
culture.  The  death  of  James  III.,  instead  of  exciting  the 
horror  awakened  by  the  death  of  James  I.,  was  treated 
with  indifl'erence,  almost  as  a  relief.  The  chief  offices  of 
state  were  distributed  amongst  the  supporters  of  the  young 
kin^i'.  The  first  business  of  the  parliament,  which  met  in 
Edinburgh,  was  the  treason  trials.  The  persons  put  on 
their  trial  were  not  those  who  fought  against  but  those 
who  supported  the  late  king.  Several  were  condemned, 
but  iirudently  treated  with  great  leniency.  All  were 
charged  witli  correspondence  with  England  as  well  as 
with  their  presence  at  the  field  of  Stirling  (Sauchie).  There 
followed  a  curious  transaction  called  in  the  records  "  the 
debate  and  cause  of  the  field  of  Stirling," — the  first  debate 
in  a  Scottish  parliament  of  which  we  have  any  account. 
The  result  was  a  unanimous  resolution  "  that  the  slaughter 
committed  in  the  field  of  Stirling,  when  our  sovereign 
lord's  father  happened  to  be  slain,  was  due  entirely  to  the 
fault  of  him  and  his  privy  council  divers  times  before  the 
said  field."  There  was  not  a  single  execution.  Heritable 
ofiicei-s  who  had  fought  against  the  prince  were  only  sus- 
pended, not  deposed,  and  the  heirs  of  those  slain  were  by 
special  grace  admitted  to  their  estates.  The  only  person 
who  felt  compunction  was  the  yoimg  king.  His  frequent 
pilgrimages  and  an  iron  belt  he  wore  were  due  to  his  re- 
morse for  his  father's  death.  The  leniency  of  James  was 
rewarded  by  the  loyalty  of  the  nobility,  except  a  few 
northern  barons  headed  by  Lennox  and  Huntly,  and  these, 
after  being  defeated  by  James  in  the  following  year,  were 
also  treated  with  clemency.  .  The  only  trace  of  rebellion 
during  his  reign  was  a  secret  intrigue  between  Henry  VII. 
and  Angus,  who'  succeeded  to  the  traditionary  policy  of 
the  Douglases. 

A  determined  effort  was  made  by  parliament  to  put 
down  robbery  and  theft  by  special  commissions  to  certain 
lords  who  were  to  be  responsible  for  difierent  districts.  It 
was  provided  that  the  king  in  person  should  attend  the 
justice  air  (eyre), — a  provision  which  James  acted  upon.  A 
new  master  of  the  mint  was  appointed  to  restore  the  purity 
of  the  coinage.  The  penalty  of  treason  was  to  be  imposed 
on  those  who  purchased  benefices  from  Rome.  An  active 
spirit  of  reform,  a  desire  to  remedy  the  evils  of  the  late 
reign,  was  displayed  by  both  the  king  and  his  advisers. 
The  personal  character  of  James  showed  itself  in  a  liberal- 
ity contrasting  with  his  father's  avarice,  and  in  a  love  of 
chivalrous  display  encouraging  tournaments  aud  martial 
exercises,  as  well  as  in  the  care  of  the  navy. 

From  the  time  of  Bruce  we  hear  of  ships  and  shipbuild- 

'  *  ing,  natural  in  a  country  with  so  large  a  seaboard;  Scottish 

merchantmen   now  began   to  make  distant  voyage.s,  and 

their  ships,  half  private>;rs,  half  traders,  were  commanded 


Legisla. 


Fori,.* 
liora  of  i 


and  manned  by  sailors  who  were  a  match  for  those  of  any. 
co\mtry.  The  most  famous  commander.  Wood  of  Largo, 
with  the  "Flower"  and  the  "Yellow  Carvel,"  cleared  the 
Forth  of  English  pirates.  Stephen  Bull,  an  Engli-sh 
captain,  promised  to  take  Wood  dead  or  alive,  but  was 
captured  himself ;  James  sent  him  back  to  Henry  VIII. 
with  a  chivalrous  message  that  the  Scots  could  now  fight 
by  sea  as  well  as  land.  Wood  was'made  one  of  the  king's 
council.  By  his  advice  James  built  the  "Great  St  Jlichael" 
for  a  crew  of  300  and  1000  men-at-arms.  It  exhausted 
all  the  woods  in  Fife  except  Falkland,  and  cost  £30,000. 
The  king's  policy  was  not  -confined  to  building  ships  of 
war :  every  town  was  to  have  vessels  of  at  least  20  tons. 
The  navy  was  for  the  protection  of  trade,  to  w^hich  the 
national  instinct  pointed  as  a  source  of  wealth. 

The  marriage  of  James  early  attracted  the  attention  of 
parliament,  and  embassies  were  sent  to  foreign  courts  to 
seek  a  suitable  spouse  ;  but  James  had  formed  a  connexion 
with  Lady  Margaret  Dsummond,  and  could  not  be  per- 
suaded to  a  political  alliance.  The  chief  events  of  his 
reign  prior  to  his  marriage  to  Margaret  Tudor  were  his  ex- 
peditions to  the  north-east  and  the  western  Highlands.  He 
adopted  with  the  chiefs  a  similar  policy  to  that  which  had 
succeeded  with  the  barons,  attaching  them  to  his  person 
by  gifts,  offices,  and  favours,  and  committing  .to  them  the 
suppression  of  crime.  In  1-)9G  the  impostor  Perkin  War- 
beck  came  to  Scotland  ...nd  was  recognized  by  James,  who 
gave  him  his  kinswoman,  Catherine  Gordon,  daughter  of 
the  earl  of  Huntly,  called  for  her  beauty  the  White  Rose, 
in  marriage.  Raids  were  twice  made  across  the  border  on 
his  behalf,  but  there  was  only  one  engagement  of  any  con- 
sequence, at  Dunse  (1497),  and  an  unsuccessful  siege  of 
ISIelrose.  Henry  VII.,  whose  talent  lay  in  diplomacy,  ap- 
proached the  Scottish  king  with  the  tempting  oft'er  of  the 
hand  of  his  daughter  Margaret.  Commissioners  met  to 
consider  this  at  Jedburgh,  and,  though  James  refused  to 
give  up  Perkin  Warbeck,  a  truce  was  arranged,  and  Perkin 
left  Scotland.  The  marriage  of  James  and  Margaret  was 
soon  afterwards  agreed  to  and  a  peace  concluded.  The 
papal  dispensation  was  procured  in  1,'iOO,  but  the  final 
treaty  was  not  ratified  till  two  years  later  (8th  August 
1502).  Some  of  Henry's  counsellors  sought  to  dissuade 
him  from  the  marriage,  for  if  his  son  Henry  died  James 
would  be  next  in  succession  to  the  English  throne  ;  Ibut  he 
replied  that  ii  so  Scotland  would  be  an  accession  to  Eng- 
land and  not  the  reverse,  recalling  the  example  of  Nor- 
mandy and  England.  Margaret,'  a  girl  in  -her  fourteentii 
year,  made  a  triumphal  progress  to  Scotland,  where  she 
was  received  with  pomp ;  but  the  m.arriage  was  o:io  of 
policy,  and  the  young  wife  was  discontented  with  her  new 
country  and  her  husband.  Their  court  as  it  is  painted 
in  the  poems  of  Dunbar  was  merry,  but  not  moral.  The 
licence  which  prevailed  and  was  tolerated  by  the  church  was 
shown  by  the  elevation  of  one  of  the  king's  bastards  by 
Jane  Kennedy  to  the  archbishopric  of  St  Andrews  when 
a  youth  of  eighteen.  Others  received  rich  benefices,  and 
Jane  Kennedy  herself  married  the  earl  of  Angus.  Scottish 
history  during  the  six  years  after  the  king's  marriage  was 
uneventful. 

Henry  VII. 's  death  (1509)  changed  the  relations  between 
Scotland  and  England.  Henry  VIII.  had  not  liked  his 
sister's  marriage,  and  his  refusal  to  deliver  to  her  a  legacy 
of  jewels  left  by  his  father  led  to  a  coolness.  The  mutual 
attacks  of  English  and  Scottish  privateers  and  border  frays 
increased  the  bad  feeling.  Andrew  Barton's  ship  the 
"Lion,"  after  an  obstinate  conflict,  in  which  Barton  was 
killed,  was  seized  (1512)  in  the  Downs  by  the  sons  of 
Howard,  the  English  high  admiral,  and  James's  request 
for  redress  was  met  with  the  contemptuous  answer  that 
kings  should  not  dispute  as  to  the  fate  of  pirates.     But  it 


Jaces'a 

to  Mar- 
garet 
Todcr. 


Warwitli 
EnsUml. 


BETOEMATION.j 


SCOTLAND 


4^7 


was  Henry's  Continental  policy  which  in  the  end  provotted 
the  war.  The  struggle  in  Italy  between  Louis  XII.  and 
Pope  Julius  n.  gave  him  an  opportunity,  and  he  allied  him- 
self with  the  latter  and  invaded  Fi-ance.  He  attempted 
before  leaving  England  to  secure  peace  with  Scotland  by 
promising  to  redress  its  grievances.  But  James  had  re- 
newed the  old  alliance  with  France,  and  the  only  answer 
given  to  the  first  embassy  in  1512  was  an  offer  to  mediate 
between  France  and  England.  In  1513  the  message  was, 
that  if  Henry  passed  to  France  war  would  not  be  declared 
without  a  herald  being  sent.  The  French  queen  (Anne  of 
Brittany)  had  given  James  a  ring  with  a  substantial  sub- 
sidy, and  he  had  abeady  made  up  his  mind  for  war.  Like 
Henry,  he  longed  to  win  his  spurs.  Henry  went  to  France 
in  June,  and  soon  after  his  arrival  at  the  camp  at  T^rouanne, 
the  Scottish  Lord  Lyon  brought  the  threatened  declaration 
of  war  (11th  August  1513).  The  grounds  stated  were  the 
seizure  of  Scotsmen  on  the  borders,  the  refusal  of  Margaret's 
legacy,  and  the  death  of  Barton.  No  time  was  lost  by 
James  in  carrying  the  declaration  into  effect ;  but  the  war 
was  disliked  by  the  nation.  The  earl  of  Arran,  sent  with 
the  fleet  to  aid  the  French,  sailed  instead,  in  defiance  of 
orders,  to  Carrickfergus.  James  himself  called  out  the 
whole  land  force  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  councU, 
mustering  at  the  Boroughmuir  100,000  men  according  to 
English  accounts — probably  exaggerated,  but  doubtless  as 
large  an  army  as  had  been  seen  in  Scotland.  Crossing 
the  border,  he  took  Norham,  Wark,  and  Ford.  At  the 
last  of  these  castles  the  wife  of  Heron,  the  proprietor, 
then  a  prisoner  in  Scotland,  beguiled  James  by  her  beauty, 
causing  him  to  waste  several  days  and  betraying  his 
movements  to  the  enemy.  In  the  conduct  of  the  'cattle 
Flodden.  (9th  September  1513)  which  followed  he  committed  almost 
every  fault  a  general  could  commit, — neglecting  to  engage 
when  the  enemy  were  crossing  the  Till,  allowing  himself  to 
be  outflanked  by  Surrey,  who  got  between  him  and  the 
Scottish  border,  abandoning  his  strong  position  on  the  hill 
of  Flodden,  and  finally  exposing  his  own  person  on  foot  in 
the  centre  of  the  fight.  Some  Scottish  writers  claim  that 
the  battle  was  a  divided  success  and  that  the  total  number 
of  English  killed  was  greater;  but  Hall,  an  exact  chronicler, 
says  12,000  Scots  fell  and  only  1500  English,  as  appeared 
from  the  book  of  wages  when  the  soldiers  were  paid. 
What  made  Flodden  so  great  a  disaster  was  the  quality 
of  the  Scottish  loss.  Ths  king  himself,  his  son,  the  arch- 
bishop of  St  Andrews,  two  bishops,  two  abbots,  twelve 
carls,  and  fourteen  lords,  besides  many  knights  and  gentle- 
men, were  left  on  the  field.  There  was  scarcely  a  noble 
family  which  did  not  mourn  some  of  its  members. 
Surrey  did  not  follow  up  his  victory  by  invading  Scot- 
land, since  his  object  was  gained :  the  diversion  by  the  Scots 
in  favour  of  France  was  at  an  end.  Scotland  was  again 
left  with  an  infant  king,  scarcely  more  than  a  year  old. 
Chirac.  The  character  of  James  IV.  was  on  the  surface.  An 
jT  "'  IV  *'''^^"^°'  observer,  the  Spanish  ambassador  Ayala,  notes 
"  his  good  looks  and  agreeable  manners,  his  knowledge  of 
languages  and  history,  his  respect  for  the  service  of  the 
church  and  its  priests,  his  liberality  and  courage,  "  even 
more  than  a  king  should  liave,  not  taking  the  least  care  of 
himself,"  his  bad  generalship,  "  beginning  to  fight  before  he 
had  given  his  orders,"  and  his  wise  statesmanship,  deciding 
nothing  without  counsel,  but  acting  according  to  his  own 
judgment,  which  was  generally  right. 
Scolt:  h  The  reign  of  James  fell  within  the  era  of  the  revival 
iTtbis^  of  learning,  and  Scotland,  though  late,  came  within  the 
*p«!)'  '^'"''^l®  °f  *''^  intellectual  which  preceded  the  religious  refor- 
mation. It  was  common  for  Scottish  scholars  to  complete 
their  education  and  sometimes  to  remain  teaching  in  the 
universities  of  France.  One  of  these,  Elphinstone,  bi.shop 
of  Aberdeen,  who  founded  its  university,  brought  another 
L'l— 10 


Hector  Boece,  the.  historian,  to  be  first  principal  of  King's  1512-15K' 
College,  Aberdeen.  James  himself  engaged  Erasmus  as 
tutor  to  his  son,  the  future  archbishojj.  Two  other  Scotsmen 
passed  to  Paris  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  reign,  John 
Major  and  his  pupil  Buchanan,  who  brought  back  less  of 
the  critical  but  more  of  the  Reforming  spirit.  These  and 
other  learned  men  neglected  a  reform  as  essential  as  any, — 
the  use  of  the  mother-tongue  in  their  writings,  and  the 
neglect  has  lessened  their  fame ;  but  it  had  its  exponents 
in  Dunbar,  Henrj'son,  Sir  David  Lyndsaj',  and  Gavin 
Douglas.  The  printing  press  also  found  its  way  to  Edin- 
burgh, and  Chepman  and  Myllar  published  their  first  broad- 
s'lieets  with  works  of  Dunbar,  Douglas,  and  the  remains  of 
the  older  poetry  (see  p.  540  sg.  below). 

7.  The  Jieformaiion,  its  Antecedenls  and  Consequences. —  jimes  v. 
James  V.  (1513-42),  scarcely  eighteen  months  old  when  he 
succeeded,  was  st  once  crowned  at  Scone,  where  a  par- 
liament met,  chiefly  attended  by  the  clergy.  The  queen 
dowager  was  appointed  regent, — a  secret  message,  however, 
being  Sent  to  John,  duke  of  Albany,  to  come  from  France 
and  assume  the  regency.  The  son  of  the  exiled  brother  of 
James  III.,  Albany  had  by  his  marriage  to  his  cousin,  the 
heiress  of  De  Ij  Tour  d'Auvergne,  become  a  great  noble  in 
France,  where  he  held  the  office  of  high  admiral,  and  neither 
he  nor  the  French  king,  Louis  XII.,  was. willing  that  he 
should  quit  France.  The  Sieur  de  la  Bastie  came  as  his 
representative.  The  precipitate  marriage  of  the  queen,  ' 
four  months  after  the  birth  of  a  posthumous  child,  to  the 
young  earl  of  Angus,  and  a  dispute  as  to  the  see  of  St 
Andrews,  to  which  Margaret  appointed  Gavin  Douglas  the 
poet,  her  husband's  kinsman,  although  Hepburn  the  prior 
had  been  chosen  by  the  chapter,  led  the  Scottish  estates  to 
renew  their  request  that  Albany  should  come  to  Scotland. 
He  arrived  at  Dumbarton  on  18th  May  1515  and  was  at 
once  appointed  regent.  The  queen  refused  to  give  up  her  Eegcn 
son,  but  Albany  besieged  Stirling  and  forced  her  to  sur-  "f 
render.  Her  new  husband  fled  to  France,  and  Margaret  ^-'^^^^y 
first  to  Dacre,  warden  of  the  marches,  and  then  to  her 
brother's  court,  where  she  was  joined  by  Angus.  At 
Harbottle  in  Northumberland,  on  her  journey  south,  she 
bore  a  daughter,.  Margaret  Douglas,  afterwards  Lady 
Lennox,  Darnley's  mother.  Henry  VIII.  asked  the  Scottish 
parliament  to  remove  Albany  from  the  regency,  but  was 
met  with  a  decided  refusal ;  for,  though  a  party  of  nobles, 
especially  the  border  barons  Lord  Hume,  the  chamberlain, 
and  his  brother,  were  opposed  to  him,  he  was  supported 
by  the  nation.  The  young  duke  of  Ross,  Margaret's 
younger  son,  having  died  suddenly,  Albany  procured  a 
declaration  from  parliament  that  Ross's  elder  half-brother 
was  illegitimate  and  himself  next  heir  to  the  crown. 
Hume  and  his  brother  were  seized  and  executed  at 
Edinburgh  (26th  October  1516).  These  events  aroused 
suspicion  that  Albany  aimed  at  the  crown ;  but  the  suspicion 
appears  to  have  been  unfounded.  His  tastes  were  French  ; 
hence  he  quickly  tired  of  trying  to  govern  Scotland,  and 
in  autumn  obtained  with  difiiculty  leave  of  absence  for  four 
months.  Before  leaving  he  put  Dumbarton,  Dunbar,  and 
Inchgarvie  (in  the  Forth)  in  charge  of  French  garrisons 
under  De  la  Bastie,  who  held  the  post  of  warden  of  the 
marches;  but  an  interim  regency  vras  appointed.  Margaret 
now  returned  to  Scotland  ;  but  she  was  not  permitted  to 
take  part  in  the  government.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  in 
France  Albany  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Rouen  (2Cth 
August)  by  which  an  alliance  between  France  and  Scotland 
was  agreed  on  against  England,  and  a  promise  given  that 
the  Scottish  king  should  marry  a  daughter  of  Francis  I., 
or  if  that  failed  another  French  princess.  In  September 
De  la  Bastie  was  murdered  near  Dunbar  by  Hume  of 
Wedderburn  with  the  connivance  of  Dacre.  The  perpe- 
trators were  forfeited,  but  never  brought  to  justice,  although 

XXL  —  6.1 


498 


SCOTLAND 


[mSTOET. 


Ftl3-Il-i.<.  \iTan,  who  succeeded  to  the  ofBce  of  warden,  was  sent  for 
that  purpose.     The  absence  of  a  supreme  authority  gave 
free  scope  to  the  licence  of  the  nobles. 
S«  Plate      A  serious  rising  in  the  Highlands  to  support  the  claim 
^^  of  Macdonald  of  Lochalsh  to  the  lordship  of  the  Isles  lasted 

Straggle  for  several  years,  till  the  death  of  tho  claimant  and  the 
between  vigour  of  the  earl  of  Argyll,  the  head  of  a  house  now  rising 
~^"^  into  pre-eminence,  led  to  its  suppression.  The  chief  dis- 
Arran.  turbances  arose  from  the  ambition  of  Angus :  Archibald, 
his  uncle,  was  chosen  provost  of  Edinburgh ;  his  brother 
William  seized  the  priory  of  Coldingham  ;  his  uncle  Gavin, 
though  he  failed  to  secure  the  primacy,  retained  the  see  of 
Dunkeld.  Angus  was  supported  by  the  earls  of  Crawford, 
Erroll,  and  Glamis,  by  Forman,  archbishop  of  St  Andrews, 
and  most  of  the  other  bishops,  except  James  Beaton,  arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow  and  chancellor.  The  English  warden, 
Dacre,  was  also  on  his  side  and  tried  by  intrigue  and 
bribery  to  foment  dissension  and  prevent  Albany's  return. 
The  opposite  faction  was  headed  by  Arran,  Lennox,  Eglin- 
ton,  Cassilis,  Semple,  the  bishop  of  Galloway,  and  the 
chancellor.  Scotland  was  thus  divided  between  an  English 
party,  strongest  in  the  east,  and  a  French  party,  chiefly  in 
the  west.  Their  disput  as  reached  a  crisis  in  a  street  fight  in 
Edinburgh,  which  got  the  name  of  '-Cleanse  the  Causeway  " 
(30th  April  1520),  in  which  Angus  drove  Arran  out  of  the 
town  and  seized  the  castle.  Sir  Patrick  Hamilton,  a  brother 
•  of  Arran,  was  slain  by  Angus, — an  injury  never  forgiven. 
Meantime  Margaret  quarrelled  with  her  husband,  and, 
though  there  was  a  temporary  reconciliation,  mutual 
accusations  of  infidelity  were  too  well  grcunded  to  permit 
of  its  being  permanent, 
finpre-  Next  year  Albany  returned  and  the  queen  who  had  been 
macy  of  {n  secret  correspondence  with  him,  entrustea  him  with  the 
^''^'"  custody  of  the  young  king.  Henry  VIII.  again  requested 
the  Scottish  parliament  to  expel  Albany ;  but  they  again 
refused,  and  Angus  made  terms  with  Albany  on  condition 
that  he  should  himself  withdraw  to  France.  War  was 
now  declared  between  England  and  Scotland  (1522) ;  but, 
although  Albany  advanced  with  a  large  army  as  far  as 
Carlisle,  he  was  persuaded  by  Dacre  to  a  month's  truce  and 
soon  after  went  back  to  France,  leaving  the  king  in  charge 
of  a  regency  of  which  Beaton,  Arran,  Huntly,  and  Argj'll 
■were  the  leaders.  Albany  returned  in  the  following  year 
and  again  with  a  large  force  invaded  England,  but  failed  to 
take  Wark,  while  Surrey,  the  English  commander,  ravaged 
the  border.  This  failure  lost  Albany  his  credit  with  the 
Scots.  In  1524  he  went  to  France  on  condition  that  if 
he  did  not  come  back  before  31st  August  his  regency 
should  end.  He  never  returned,  and  during  his  absence 
Margaret  carried  oflF  her  son  from  Stirling  to  Edinburgh, 
where,  although  only  a  boy  of  twelve,  he  was  declared 
king.  Angus  made  an  agreement  with  Wolsey  to  support 
the  English  interest ;  and  at  a  parliament  in  Edinburgh 
Albany's  regency  was  declared  at  an  end  (12th  February 
1525),  and  Angus  and  Beaton  obtained  possession  of  the 
king's  person  and  governed  in  his  name.  The  queen,  who 
had  now  openly  broken  with  her  brother,  in  vain  appealed 
to  France  and  Albany.  The  French  were  occupied  with  the 
war  against  the  emperor ;  but  she  obtained  from  James 
Beaton,  now  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  a  divorce  from 
Angus  and  married  Henry  Stuart,  son  of  Lord  Avondale, 
creating  him  Lord  Methven. 

For  three  years  Angus  retained  the  supreme  power  and 
filled  all  oflBces  with  his  adherents.  Beaton,  -n-ith  whom  he 
quarrelled,  was  required  to  resign  that  of  chancellor,  and 
Angus  nominated  himself  as  his  successor.  The  indignant 
nobles  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  seize  the  person  of 
the  king,  who  at  last,  on  23d  May  1528,  effected  his  escape 
from  Falkland,  riding  at  night  to  Stirling,  where  he  was 
welcomed  by  the  governor.     Before  parliament  met  a  pro- 


clamation forbade  any  Douglas  to  remain  in  the  capita/,  ki.rm'^ 
A  new  ministry  was  appointed  with  Gr.vin  Dunbar,  now  'i^  <=f 
archbishop  of  Glasgow,  who  had  been  the  king's  tutor,  as  ^'  ^^' 
chancellor ;  Cameron,  abbot  of  Holyrood,  as  treasurer;  and  j    -^J3^7 
the  bishop  of  Dunkeld  as  privy  seal.     The  Douglases  were 
attainted  and  their  estates  divided  amongst  the  nobles  of 
the  opposite  faction.     A  truce  was  made  with  England  for 
five  years.     During  the  minority  and  duress  of  James  the 
Scottish  nobility  became  accustomed  to  bribes  either  from 
England  or  France.    The  French,  to  which  the.higher  clergy 
belonged,  were  in  the  ascendant  at  the  court  of  the  young 
king,  who  naturally  felt  ill-will  towards  the  Douglases  and 
leant  on  Albany,  and  after  a  time  on  Cardinal  David  Beaton, 
bishop  of  Mirepoix  in  France  and  nephew  of  the  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews,  whom  he  afterwards  succeeded.     Beaton 
was  the  Wolsey  of  Scotland ;  but  James  V.  was  not  Henry 
VIIL,  and  the  ambition  of  the  great  prelate  was  baffled, 
not  by  the  king,  but  by  the  nation.     Three  months  before 
the  king's  escape  Patrick  Hamilton  (q.v.),  abbot  of  Feme, 
was  burnt  for  heresy  at  St  Andrews. 

James,  only  seventeen  when  he  gained  his  independence 
(1528),  showed,  like  other  Stuarts,  activity  in  government, 
and  the  fourteen  years  of  his  actual  rule,  while  not  marked 
by  outstanding  events,  were  a  period  of  renewed  order  and 
prosperity.  He  first  turned  to  the  borders,  where  constant 
wars  with  England  had  bred  a  race  of  lawless  freebooters. 
By  the  severity  of  his  measures  he  succeeded  in  doing  what 
Angus  and  his  predecessors  had  in  vain  tried  to  do.  Th« 
borders  continued  till  the  union  to  trouble  the  ministers  of 
the  law  ;  but  the  clans  who  lived  by  plunder  and  blaekmail 
were  first  really  broken  by  the  expedition  of  James  V. 
But  it  was  not  only  borderers  who  required  to  be  taught 
that  a  king  was  again  on  the  throne :  Argyll,  who  had 
sought  to  make  himself  independent,  was  deprived  of  his 
lieutenancy  and  imprisoned ;  Bothwell,  the  father  of 
Mary's  husband,  was  beheaded  for  the  favour  he  showed 
the  borderers  ;  and  the  estates  of  the  earl  of  Crawford  were 
forfeited.  James  made  a  progress  through  the  Highlands 
and  was  sumptuously  entertained  by  the  earl  of  Athole. 
While  criminal  justice  was  strictly  enforced,  a  step  was  at 
last  taken  to  organize  a  central  civil  court  (15th  May  1532), 
which  had  been  a  settled  plan  of  the  kings  since  James  I. 
The  College  of  Justice  or  Court  of  Session  was  founded  in 
Edinburgh  by  the  influence  of  Albany  with  the  pope, — 
funds  being  got  from  the  bishops'  revenues  for  the  payment 
of  the  judges.  Of  the  fifteen  judges  eight,  including  the 
president,  were  to  be  clergy,  and  the  barons  were  conciliated 
by  the  anomalous  office  of  extracH-dinary  lords.' 

The  relations  between  James  and  Henry  VIII.  continued  H:= 
hostile  and  there  were  mutual  raids  till  peace  was  concluded  raamags. 
in  1534.  Henry  was  then  at  the  critical  point  of  his 
divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon  and  anxious  to  secure 
an  ally.  France  and  Spain  were  also  competing  for  the 
favour  of  the  Scottish  monarch,  and  Charles  V.  proposed  a 
marriage  with  Mary  of  Portugal.  But  he  had  already 
indicated  a  preference  for  a  French  alliance,  selecting  Mary, 
daughter  of  the  due  de  Vendome.  The  pope  addressed 
James  as  defender  of  the  faith,  a  title  Henry  VIII.  had 
forfeited.  The  clergy  by  Beaton's  advice  granted  him  a 
large  allowance  out  of  their  revenues.  These  inducements 
and  the  influence  of  Beaton  and  Dunbar,  the  two  arch- 
bishops, kept  James  firm  in  his  attachment  to  the  old 
church,  in  spite  of  the  temptation  which  Henry  held  out 
in  its  endovnnents  and  of  the  satires  in  which  Sir  David 

^  There  were  already  signs  of  the  small  begiiming  of  the  professioB 
of  lay  lawyers  who  were  to  play  an  important  part  in  Scottish  aifaiw 
in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  The  establishment  of  a  settled  system 
of  justice,  independent  alike  of  the  baronial  and  ecclesiastical  courts, 
was  a  much  needed  reform  ;  but  the  latter  still  retained  their  conu"* 
torial  jurisdiction. 


p 


REFOKMATION.] 


SCOTLAND 


499 


Lyndsay,  his  old  tutor,  and  Buchanan,  the  tutor  of  one  of 
his  bastards,  exposed  its  abuses.  In  1537  he  went  to 
France  to  see  his  bride,  but,  falling  in  love  with  Madeleine, 
daughter  of  Francis  I.,  obtained  her  hand  instead.  After 
an  absence  of  nine  months  he  returned ;  but  the  young 
queen  died  within  a  few  weeks  after  landing.  The  following 
year  he  married  Mary,  dowager  duchess  of  Longueville, 
daughter  of  Claude  of  Lorraine,  duke  of  <3uise.  Next  year 
(1539)  Henry  made  another  attempt  to  gain  James  through 
his  envoy  Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  but,  though  the  succession  to 
the  English  crown  in  the  event  of  Prince  Edward's  death 
was  held  out  as  a  bait,  James  remained  unmoved.  In  1540 
the  king  made  a  voyage  round  Scotland, — the  first  circum- 
navigation of  his  dominions  by  a  Scottish  sovereign.  The 
Irish  are  said  to  have  offered  him  their  crown,  and  the 
barons  of  the  north  of  England,  whose  sympathies  were 
Catholic,  were  inclined  to  favour  him.  The  position  was 
perilous  for  Henry,  many  of  whose  subjects  still  remained 
Cathohcs  at  heart.  He  made  a  last  attempt  to  induce 
James  to  meet  him  at  York,  but  the  Scottish  king  would 
not  go  so  far  across  the  border.  Henry  now  ordered  the 
marches  to  be  put  in  a  state  of  war,  and  Sir  James  Bowes, 
accompanied  by  Angus  and  Sir  George  Douglas,  crossed 
the  border,  but  was  defeated  in  Teviotdale  by  Huntly  and 
Home.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  advanced  with  a  large  force, 
and,  efforts  to  avert  war  having  failed,  James  assembled 
the  whole  Scottish  army  and  marched  to  Fala  on  the 
Lamraermuirs,  where  he  was  reluctantly  obliged  to  disband 
his  force  through  the  refusal  of  the  nobles  to  go  farther ; 
they  even  thought  of  repeating  the  tragedy  of  Lauder,  but 
could  not  agree  as  to  the  victims.  James  raised  a  smaller 
force  and  gave  the  command  of  it  to  Oliver  Sinclair,  whose 
promotion  was  ill  received  by  the  barons.  Their  discord 
allowed  an  easy  victory  to  Dacre,  who  routed  them  as  they 
were  passing  over  Solway  Moss  (25th  November  1542), 
taking  Sinclair  and  several  of  the  leaders  prisoners.  The 
neWs,  brought  to  James  at  Caerlaverock,  together  with 
the  disaffection  of  the  nobles,  broke  his  heart.  A  few 
weeks  later  at  Falkland  he  heard  of  the  birth  of  Mary 
Stuart,  but  the  news  brought  him  no  comfort.  His  saying, 
"  The  crown  came  with  a  lass  and  will  go  with  a  lass,"  has 
passed  into  history,  although  the  prophecy  was  not  fulfilled. 
Outwardly  his  reign  had  been,  with  the  exception  of  the 
closing  scene,  successful.  He  had  restored  order  along  the 
borders,  and  put  down  all  attempts  of  the  nobles  against 
his  person.  He  had  maintained  the  church,  supporting  the 
bishops  by  severe  laws  against  heresy.  He  had  secured  by 
liis  marriage  the  alliance  of  France  and  was  on  good  terms 
with  other  Continental  states.  His  powerful  neighbour  had 
not  succeeded  in  wresting  any  land  from  Scotland.  He  was, 
like  his  father,  a  popular  king,  mingling  with  the  people  in 
their  sports,  and  respected  because  of  his  strict  administra- 
tion of  justice.  But  his  foreboding  was  not  without  cause. 
The  power  of  the  nobles  had  only  been  restrained,  not  de- 
stroyed. Th3  aristocracy  had  too  many  heads  to  bo  cut  off 
by  one  or  several  blows.  The  principles  of  the  Reformation 
were  gradually  spreading  in  spite  of  the  attempts  to  stifle 
them,  and  the  infant  to  whom  he  left  the  crovm  had  to 
encounter  rebellion  at  home  and  the  hostility  of  England, 
not  the  less  dangerous  that  she  was  heir  to  the  English 
crown  and  its  rulers  veiled  their  hatred  of  her  by  professions 
of  friendship.  Knox  describes  James  as  "  a  blinded  and 
most  vicious  king."  Buchanan,  who  knew  him  better,  is 
more  fair,  ascribing  his  faults  to  his  time  and  bad  education 
and  doing  justice  to  the  qualities  which  made  him  loved  by 
the  people. 
Mary  Mary  Stuart  was  deemed  queen  of  Scotland  from  14th 

Stuart.  December  1542  till  29th  July  1567,  when  her  son  James 
VI.  was  crowned  in  her  stead.  This  period  of  a  quarter  of 
a  century  is  more  crowded  with  events  than  any  other  part 


of  the  Scottish  annals,  except  the  War  of  Independence.  1534-!" 
It  was  the  epoch  of  the  Reformation,  and  it  became  a 
question  of  European  as  well  as  natior.al  in-.portance  which 
side  Scotland  would  take.  Closely  coruected  with  the 
religious  question  w;as  the  political,  affecting  the  union  of 
Scotland  and  England.  The  life  of  Mary,  who  united  the 
personal  charm  of  her  race  and  its  evil  fortune,  adds  tragic 
interest  to  the  national  history.  It  falls  intc  tbree  parts, — 
from  her  birth  to  her  return  from  Fi-ance  as  the  young 
widow  of  Francis  II.  in  ISiu  ;  from  her  arriva!  iu  .Scotland 
till  her  flight  iu  1568 ;  airt  from  her  arrival  in  England 
till  her  execution  in  1587;  but  only  the  second  of  these 
enters  into  the  direct  current  of  Scottish  history.  During 
the  first  Scotland  was  under  the  regency,  first  of  Arran,  then 
of  Mary  of  Guise.  It  vms  nunoured  that  Cardinal  Beaton 
forced  James  V.  on  his  deathbed  to  sign  a  will  naming  him 
regent,  or  had  forged  such  a  document ;  but  the  principal 
nobles  proclaimed  the  earl  of  Arran  heu--presumptive  toKegency 
the  cro^-n,  governor  of  the  realm,  and  tutor  to  the  queen,  oiAn-^n. 
and  this  was  confirmed  by  parliament  in  the  following 
spring.  Beaton  was  thrown  into  prison,  but  soon  released. 
The  death  of  James  suggested  to  Henry  a  nev.'  Echeme  for 
the  annexation  of  Scotland  by  tha  marriage  cf  the  infant 
heiress  to  his  son  Edward,  and  he  released  the  nobles  taken 
at  So'way  Moss  on  easy  terms  under  an  assurance  that  they 
would  aid  him.  Angus  and  his  brother  George  Douglas 
also  returned  to  Scotland  from  their  long  exile  on  the  same 
promise.  Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  one  of  the  ablest  English  resi- 
dents at  the  Scottish  court— half  envoys,  half  spies — was 
sent  to  conduct  the  negotiations.  Arran  was  tempted  to 
favour  the  marriage  by  the  offer  of  the  princess  Elizabeth 
for  his  son  and  the  government  north  of  the  Forth.  But 
the  queen  dowager,  though  she  pretended  not  to  be  averse 
to  it,  and  Beaton  did  all  they  could  to  counteract  Henry's 
project.  One  part  of  it,  the  immediate  delivery  of  Mary 
and  the  principal  castles  to  the  English  king,  was  specially 
objected  to.  A  mutual  alliance  between  the  two  kingdoms 
was  agreed  to  on  1st  July  1543,  and  Mary  was  to  be  sent 
to  England  when  ten  years  old.  Soon  after  a  party  of  the 
nobles  opposed  to  the  match  got  possession  of  the  young 
queen  and  removed  her  to  Stirling.  The  English  treaty 
was  ratified  by  parliament ;  but  Beaton  and  his  partisans 
did' not  attend,  and  a  few  days  later  the  regent,  as  Sadler 
expresses  it,  revolted  to  the  cardinal.  It  was  evident  that 
the  assured  lords,  though  in  English  pay,  were  not  to  be 
relied  on,  and  Henry  resolved  on  war.  His  first  act — Warwith 
the  seizure  of  Scottish  merchantmen  in  English  ports —  ^^'^P' 
roused  the  patriotic  feeling  of  Scotlatid.  Before  the  close  ' 
of  the  year  the  Scottish  estates  declared  the  treaty  with 
England  null  and  renewed  the  old  league  v.'ith  France. 
Lord  Lisle  was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  the  Firth  of  Forth,, 
along  with  Hertford  (afterwards  the  protector  Somersrt) 
as  commander  of  the  army,  and  Leith  was  sacked  and 
Edinburgh  burnt,  though  the  castle  held  out.  Lisle  on 
his  voyage  home  ravaged  the  ports  of  the  Forth,  while 
Hertford  destroyed  the  towns  and  villages  of  the  Lothians, 
aided  by  the  English  wardens,  who  made  a  raid  across  the 
border.  Hertford  returned  the  following  year  and  de-  ■ 
stroyed  the  abbeys  of  Kelso,  Jedburgh,  Melrose,  Dryburgh, 
Roxburgh,  and  Coldingham,  besides  many  castles,  market- 
towns,  and  villages.  Such  barbarous  warfare  renewed  the 
memory  of  the  War  of  Independence  and  the  intense  hatred 
of  England,  which  had  greatly  abated.  Lennox  and  Glen- 
cairn  alone  of  the  nobles  sided  with  the  English,  and  the 
Reformers  saw  with  regret  the  nation  driven  to  q,  French 
alliance  as  at  least  preferable  to  Engli.'ih  conquest. 

Beaton  at  this  time  really  governed,  imposing  his  wall  Dcatu 
on  the  va.cillating  regent  and  sternly  repressing  heresy.  ■>'  ^  '^l"' 
George  Wishart,  the  chief  preacher  of  the  Reformers,  was  ^l^^-^ 
seized,  found  guilty  of  eighteen  articles  of  heresy,  mostly 


500 


SCOTLAND 


415.155S.  taken  from  Calvin,  and  burnt  at  St  Andrews.  Tte  war 
of  religion,  now  openly  declared,  could  not  be  carried  on 
without  bloodshed  on  both  sides.  Beaton  was  assassinated 
less  than  three  months  after  Wishart's  death  in  his  own 
castle  by  Norman  Leslie  and  other  young  men,  some  v/ith 
private  grievances,  all  desiring  to  avenge  Wishart.  The 
effect  was  adverse  to  the  Keformers.  Leslie  and  his  asso- 
ciates, joined  by  a  few  others,  of  whom  Knox  was  one, 
being  shut  in  the  castle,  held  it  for  a  short  time  against 
the  regent,  but  were  forced  to  surrender  to  Stroz?;i,  the 
French  admiral. 

The  death  of  Henry  Vni.  (1547)  did  not  put  a  atop  to 
the  war  with  England.     The  protector  Somerset  proved  to 
be  an  implacable  enemy,  and,   partly  to  strengthen  his 
position  as   rpgent,  determined  to  strike  a  more ,  signal 
Somcr-     blow.    Invading  Scotland  simultaneously  with  a  large  fleet 
»«t's        and  army,  he  defeated  the  Scottish  regent  at  pinkie  (18th 
'*''^'       September  1547),  took  Edinburgh,  and  placed  garrisons  in 
several  castles.      Scotland  had  suifered  no  such  reverse 
Mnco  Redden.     The  progi'css  of  the  capita!  was  thrown 
back   at  least   a  century;    scarcely  a   building   remains 
prior  to  the  date  of  his  savage  raids.     Somerset  was  not 
in  a  position  to  follow  up  his  advantage,  for  he  had  to 
return  home  to  counteract  intrigues.     The  young  queen 
was    sent    from    Dumbarton    in   the   following    summer 
(August  1548)  to  the  court  of  France,  where  she   was 
brought  up  with  the  children  of  Henry  IL  by  Catherine 
de'  Medici.    Before  she  went  a  French  force  had  been  sent 
to  Scotland,  and  in  the  camp  at  Haddington  the  estates 
had,  by  a  majority  led  by  the  regent  and  queen  dowager, 
8,greed  to  Jilary's  betrothal  to  the  dauphin.     The  regent 
was  promised  the  dukedom  of  Chastelherault  in  return 
for  his  part  in  the  treaty.     For  two  years  a  fierce  iuter- 
mittti't  war  continued  between  England  and   Scotland ; 
but  the  former  country  was  too  much  engaged  in  horns 
affairs  and  the  French  war  to  send  a  large  force,  and  the 
Scots  recovered  the  places  they  had  lost  except  Lauder. 
The  issue  of  the  French  war  was  also  adverse  to  the 
English,  who  were  forced  to  agrefe  to  the  treaty  of  Bou- 
logne (24th  March  1550),  in  which  Scotland  was  included. 
In  September  the  queen  dowager  went  to  France  and  ob- 
tained the  transfer  of  the  regency  from  Arran  to  herself. 
On  her  return,  Arran  not  being  prepared  to  relinquish  his 
office,  she  proved  herself  a  skilful  diplomatist,  gaining  over 
the  nobles  by  promises  and  the  people  by  abstaining  from 
persecution  of  the  Reformers.     A  single  execution — that 
of  Adam  Wallace,  "a  simple  but  very  zealous  man  for  the 
new  doctrines" — took  place  in  1550  under  the  sanction  of 
Archbishop  Hamilton,  natuiul  brother  of  Arran,  who  had 
succeeded  Beaton ;   but  tliat  prelate,  whose  natural  dis- 
position was  towards  compromise,  authorized  a  Catechism 
in  1S53  which  minimized  the  distinctions  in  doctrine  be- 
tween the  church  and  the  Beforraers,  and  was  conspicuous 
for  omitting  all  reference  to  the  siipremacy  of  the  pope. 
At  this  time  a  large  section  of  the  clergy  and  people  were 
still  wavering,  and  the  necessity  of  retaining  them  br 
moderation  and  reform  was  evident.    The  death  of  Edv.ard 
.    yi.  and  the  accession  of  Mary  in  1553  had  an  important 
influence  on  the  progress  of  the  Scottish  Reformation.    The 
Scottish  Reformers  who  had  taken  refuge  in  England  had 
*o  escape  persecution  by  returning  home  or  going  abroad, 
and  the  powerful  preaching  of  Har'aw,  Willock,  and  Knox, 
who  came  t,c  Scotland  towards  the  end  of  1555,  promoted 
the  new  dootrmes. 

S'^li"^  ^  ^^^  ^''""^  °^  ^^^^  ^''®  ^'^^'^"  dowager  at  last  suc- 
of  Ouke.  "^f^^^  '"  «>''^taining  from  the  reluctant  Arran  a  surrender 
of  the  regency.  Mary  had  now  attamed  her  twellth  year 
and  a  nomination  by  her  of  her  mother  as  tutor  gave  the 
form  of  b.w  to  what  was  really  the  act  of  the  queen  dowager, 
t-c  Freach  kt.g.  and  the  r.obilitv    The  people  a.i.joiesced. 


for  all  classes  were  tired  of  a  governor  whose  chief  object 
was  money.  His  actual  investiture  in  the  French  dukedom 
removed  any  scrupls  in  relinquishing  a  dangerous  dignity. 
For  the  next  six  years  the  queen  dowager  was  regent  and 
conducted  the  government  with  such  prudence  that  her 
real  aims  were  only  seen  through  by  the  most  penetrating. 
Knox  has  been  accused  of  a  harsh  opinion  of  her ;  but 
the  upshot  of  her  policy  if  successful  would  have  been  to 
subject  Scotland  to  France  and  to  that  party  in  France  so 
soon  to  bo  the  relentless  persecutors  of  the  Reformers. 
She  knew  well  how  to  bide  her  time,  to  yield  when  re- 
sistance was  impolitic,  to  hide  her  reui  object,  but  this 
she  pursued  with  great  tenacity  of  purpose.  A  variety 
of  circumstances  favoured  her, — the  condition  of  England 
under  llary  Tudor,  the  ill-will  Arran  had  incurred,  the 
absence  of  any  leading  noble  who  could  attempt  to  seize 
the  supreme  power,  the  safety  at  the  French  court  of  her 
daughter,  in  whose  name  she  governed,  and  the  knowledge 
of  her  adopted  country  acquired  by  long  residence.  Yet 
her  first  step  was  a  mistake  so  serious  as  to  have  well- 
nigh  provoked  revolution.  In  appointments  to  ofSces 
she  showed  such  preference  for  her  ov,-!!  countrymen  as 
created  intense  jealousy  on  the  part  of  the  Scottish  nobility, 
and  would  probably  have  led  to  open  action  but  for  tha 
fact  that  many  Scotsmen  got  offices  and  pensions  from  the 
French  king.  The  new  regent  applied  herself  at  once  to 
the  perennial  work  of  every  Scottish  Government,  the  re- 
pression of  disorder  in  the  Highlands,  and  first  Huntly, 
afterwards  Argyll  and  Athole,  were  sent  to  Argyll  and  the 
Isles ;  but  the  presence  of  royalty  was,  as  had  before  been 
found,  the  best  remedy,  and  she  made  next  year  a  circiut 
in  person  with  more  success-  than  any  of  her  lieutenants. 
Under  the  advice  of  her  French  counsellors  she  now  garri- 
soned Dunbar  with  French  soldiers  .and  built  a  fort  at 
Eyemouth  (1556).  She  even  ventured  to  propose  to  levy 
a  tax  for  the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army ;  but  the 
remonstrance  of  300  barons,  headed  by  Sir  John  Sandi- 
lands,  forced  her  to  abandon  a  project  so  fatal  in  that  age 
to  liberty.  Next  year,  at  the  Instigation  of  the  French 
king,  she  endeavoured  to  force  the  country  into  an  English 
war.  No  time  could  have  been  worse  chosen,  for  com- 
missioners from  England  and  Scotland  had  actually  met 
at  Carlisle  to  adjust  diffsrences  between  the  two  countrios. 
The  Scottish  barons  refused  to  iight,  and  from  that  date, 
Bishop  Lesley  notes,  the  queen  regent  could  never  agree 
with  the  nobility,  and  sundry  of  them  sought  by  all  means 
to  raise  sedition  against  her  and  the  French. 

In  the  parliament  at  the  close  of  the  year  commis-  J.I«ry-8 
sioners  were  appointed  to  go  to  France  for  the  marriage  mai^T- 
between  Mary  and  the  dauphin.  Their  instnictions  were  '°  ° 
to  obtain  a  promise  from  both  to  observe  the  liberties  and  "  ' 
privileges  of  Scotland  and  its  laws,  and  a  ratification  of  the 
Act  passed  in  1548,  when  it  was  first  proposed  to  send  the 
young  queen  to  France.  The  contract  of  marriage  pro- 
vided that  their  eldest  son  was  to  be  king  of  France  and 
Scotland  and  the  eldest  daughter  (should  there  be  no  son) 
queen  of  Scotland,  to  be  given  in  marriage  by  the  joint 
consent  of  the  king  of  France  and  the  Scottish  estates. 
In  the  event  of  her  husband's  death  Mary  was  to  be  free 
to  stay  in  France  or  return  to  Scotland.  The  marriage 
was  solemnized  at  Notre  Dame  on  24th  July  1558.  But 
prior  to  the  pubhc  contract  a  secret  arrangement  had  been 
made,  by  which  Mary,  in  three  several  deeds,  made  over 
the  kingdom  of  Scotland  to  the  king  of  France  and  his 
heirs  if  she  died  childless,  assigned  to  him  possession  of 
the  kingdom  until  he  was  reimbursed  in  a  million  pieces 
o;  gold  for  her  entertainment  in  France,  and  declared  that, 
whatever  documents  she  might  afterwards  sign  by  decree 
of  parliament,  this  arrangement  expressed  her  genuine  in- 
t'->nt!on.     Mfer  the  return  of  the  tommi:;sioners  the  crown 


BErORJIATlON.] 


SCOTLAND 


501 


matrimonial,  witli  the  title  o(  lung,  was  granted  by  parliar 
ment  to  the  dauphin. 
proTcss  'WTiile  statesmen  were  occupied  with  the  queen's  mar- 
of  fie-  riage  the  Reformation  had  been  steadily  advancing.  Knox 
forma-  laboured  incessantly,  preaching  in  Edinburgh  ten  days  in 
*'■"'■  succession  and  making  rapid  visits  to  the  central  and  west- 
ern shires.  He  attracted  to  his  side  representatives  of  the 
nobility  and  gentry,  and  had  much  support  in  the  towns. 
The  earl  of  Glencaim,  Lord  Lome,  Lord  James  Stuart, 
the  future  regent,  and  the  laird  of  Dun,  John  Erskine, 
in  Angus  were  amongst  his  earliest  followers,  as  well  as 
many  of  the  tradesmen  and  artisans.  Knox  now  openly 
denounced  attendance  at  mass  as  idolatrous  and  began  to 
administer  the  Lord's  Supper  aft^r  the  manner  of  the  Sv.Lss 
Reformers.  He  was  summoned  to  Edinburgh  on  a  charge 
of  heresy ;  but,  though  he  kept  the  day,  the  proceedings 
were  dropped.  Shortly  after  he  v/as  again  summoned,  but 
meanwhile  had  accepted  a  call  from  Qeneva.  In  his  absence 
he  was  condemned  for  heresy  and  burned  in  effigy  at  the 
laarket  cross  of  Edinburgh.  Though  absent,  ho  continued 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  and  as 
the  result  of  his  exhortations  Argj'll,  Glencairn,  J.Iorton, 
Lord  Lome,  and  Erskine  of  Dun  drew  up  a  bond  (3d 
December  1557)  to  "defend  the  whole  congregation  of 
Christ  and  every  member  thereof  .  .  .  against  Satan  and 
all  wicked  power,"  themselves  forsaking  and  renouncing 
"  the  congregation  of  Satan  ivith  all  the  superstition, 
abomination,  and  idolatry  thereof."  This  was  the  first 
of  .many  bonds  or  covenants  in  which,  borrowing  the  old 
form  of  league  amongst  the  Scottish  nobility,  the  Lords  of 
Congregation  applied  it  to  the  purposes  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. They  afterwards  passed  resolutions  that  prayers 
should  be  read  weekly  in  all  parishes  by  the  curates 
publicly,  with  lessons  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
and  that  doctrine  and  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures 
should  be  used  privately  in  quiet  houses  until  God  should 
move  the  prince  to  grant  public  preaching  by  faithful 
ministers.  Argyll  at  once  acted  upon  the  resolutions  and 
protected  John  Douglas,  formerly  a  Dominican,  his  chap- 
lain, who  preached  at  Castle  Campbell  in  spite  of  ihe 
remonstrance  of  Archbishop  Hamilton.  That  prelate  next 
took  a  fatal  step.  Walter  Myln,  parish  priest  of  JLunan 
near  Jlontrose,  an  old  man  of  eighty-two,  was  burnt  for 
heresy  at  St  Andrev/s  (8th  April  1558).  He  was  the 
last  Protestant  martyr  in  Scotland.  The  total  number 
of  deaths  was  small,  it  is  believed  twenty  in  all ;  but  many 
people  were  banished  or  forced  to  leave  the  country  and 
many  fined,  while  none  were  allowed  freedom  of  worship. 
Immediately  after  the  death  of  Myln  there  began,  says 
Knox,  "a  new  fervencio  amongst  the  whole  people." 
Gathering  courage  front  the  popular  feeling,  tho  Lords  of 
Congregation  presented  petitions  in  rapid  succession  to  tho 
regent.  The  first  laid  before  her  prayed  "  that  it  might  be 
lawful  to  meet  in  public  or  in  private  for  common  prayer 
in  the  vulgar  tongue,  to  interpret  at  such  meetings  hard 
places  in  Scripture,  and  to  use  that  tongue  in  administer- 
ing baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  ";  in  reply  permission 
•was  granted  to  preach  in  private  and  to  administer  the 
sacraments  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  The  second  presented 
at  the  meeting  of  parliament  prayed  for  a  suspension  of 
all  Acts  against  heretics  until  a  general  council,  that  copies 
of  tho  accusation  and  depositions  should  be  given  to  all 
persons  accused  of  heresy,  that  the  accused  should  be 
allowed  them.-.elves  to  interpret  any  words  charged  as 
heretical,  and  should  not  be  coademned  unless  found 
guilty  of  teaching  contrary  to  Scripture.  "Tho  regent," 
Knox  remarks,  "  spared  not  amiable  looks  and  good 
words,"  but  sufTered  tho  parliament  to  bo  dissolved  (2d 
ilarch  1557)  without  any  answer.  In  tho  spring  a  synod 
met  in  Edinburgh  and  a  third  petition  was  laid  before  it, 


praying  that  the  canons  should  be  enforced  against  clergy  15&7-15f 
who  led  scandalous,  lives,  that  there  should  be  preach- 
ing on  every  Lord's  day  and  on  holidays,  that  no  priests 
should  be  ordained  unless  able  to  read  the  Catechism 
distinctly,  that  prayer  should  be  in  the  vulgar  tongue, 
that  the  mortuary  dues  and  Easter  offerings  should  ba 
optional,  and  that  the  consistorial  process  should  be  re- 
formed. Another  point  was  included  according  to  Lesley, 
— that  bishops  should  be  elected  witli  the  consent  of  ih-i 
laity  of  the  diocese  and  priests  with  that  of  their  parish- 
ioners. The  synod  replied  that  they  could  not  dispense 
with  Latin  in  public  prayer  as  appointed  by  tho  church, 
and  that  the  canon  law  must  be  o'oserved  as  to  flections 
of  bishops  and  priests.  On  otlier  matters  they  were  pre- 
pared to  make  concessions,  and  passed  thirty-four  canons 
in  the  spirit  of  the  council  of  'frent  dirscted  to  the  due 
investigation  and  punishment  of  immorality  of  the  clergy 
and  the  .inspection  of  monasteries,  better  provision  for 
preaching  by  bishops  and  priests,  the  remission  of  mortuary 
due.3  to  the  very  poor,  and  the  recognUion  of  the  sacrament 
of  baptism  as  administered  by  the  Reformers.  A  short 
exposition  of  the  mass  was  to  be  published.  These  con- 
cessions proved  the  necessitj'  for  reform  ;  but,  as  they  were 
silent  on  the  principal  points  of  doctrine,  as  well  as  on  the 
more  radical  reforms  in  church  government,  tbey  could  not 
be  accepted.  The  time  of.  compromise.  If  compromise  had 
ever  been  practicable  between  Rome  and  Geneva,  to  which 
the  Scottish  Reformers  adhered,  wa,s  now  past.  Two  events 
had  occurred  before  the  synod  separated  which  hastened 
the  crisis.  On  17th  November  15.'>8  the  death  of  Mary 
Tudor  once  more  placed  on  the  Enqli.sh  throne  a  sovereign 
inclined  to  favour  the  Reformation.  In  May,  di'ring  the 
sittings  of  the  synod,  Knox  returned  to  Scotland  and  the 
Scottish  Reformers  once  move  had  a  dc'.;ermined  leader. 

The  regent  issued  about  Easter  (1559)  a  proclamation  Straggla 
forbidding  any  one  to  preach  or  administer  the  sacraments  l^c'ws™ 
without  authority  of  the  bishops.  Willock  and  other  lead-  ""See- 
ing preachers  having  disregarded  it  were  summoned  tOaJj.jMarv 
Stirling  on  10th  May.  Their  adherents  assembled  in  great  of  Gvhe. 
numbers,  but  mostly 'unarmed,  at  Perth,  a  town  zealous 
for  the  Reformed  opinions.  Erskine  of  Dun  went  from 
there  as  a  mediator  to  the  regent  at  Stirling ;  she  pro- 
mised, but  in  vague  terms,  that  she  would  take  some 
better  order  with  the  ministers  if  their  supporters  did  not 
advance.  Notwithstanding  they  were  outlawed  for  not 
appearing  on  the  day  of  trial.  Next  day,  when  the  news 
reached  Perth,  Knox  preached  his  first  public  sermon 
(1 1th  May)  since  his  return,  inveighing  against  "  idolatry." 
Hardly  had  he  ended  when  a  priest  began  mass  and  opened 
the  tabernacle  on  the  high  altar.  A  young  man  called 
out,  "  This  is  intolerable  that,  when  God  by  His  Word  hath 
plainly  damned  idolatry,  we  shall  stand  and  see  it  used." 
Tho  priest  struck  the  youth,  who  retaliated  by  throwing  a 
stone,  which  broke  an  image.  From  this  spark  the  fire 
kindled.  The  people  destroyed  the  images  in  the  church 
and  then  proceeded  to  sack  the  monasteries.  The  example 
of  Perth  was  followed  at  many  other  placss.  The  regent 
could,  not  remain  passive  when  the  Congregation  was 
sanctioning  such  action.  But  Iier  position  was  one  of 
grave  difficulty.  Her  main  support  was  from  France,  and, 
though  she  had,  adherents  amongst  tho  Scottish  nobility, 
Argyll  and  Lord  Jame-s,  who  v;ere  still  with  her  at  Stirling, 
were  really  committed  to  the  Congrt:gation.  What  course 
tho  new  queen  of  England  would  take  was  still  uncertain. 
On  11th  May  tho  regent  advanced  towards  Perth,  but  tli-; 
arrival  of  Glencaim  with  2500  men  from  tho  west  to  aid 
the  Congregation  led  to  a  compromise,  of  which  the  terms 
were  these :  both  parties  were  to  disband  their  troops ; 
Perth  was  to  be  left  open  to  the  regent,  but  no  French 
troops  were  to  come  within  3  miles ;  the  inhabitants  wero 


502 


BOO  T  LAND 


[histort. 


J559-1560.  not  to  be  called  upon  to  answer  for  their  recent  conduct ; 
and  all  controversies  were  to  be  reserved  for  parliament. 
The  Congregation,  however,  remained  distrustful ; .  Knox 
openly  preached  that  the  treaty  would  only  be  kept  till 
the  regent  and  her  Frenchmen  became  the  stronger,  and 
before  leaving  Perth  the  Lords  of  Congregation  entered 
into  a  new  bond  for  mutual  defence.  The  regent  entered 
Perth  tha  day  they  left  (29th  May),  accompanied  by  the 
dake  of  Cha.stelherault  and  a  bodyguard  of  French  as  well 
as  Scottish  troops  paid  by  French  money.  The  deposition 
of  the  provost  in  favour  of  a  Papist  and  the  occupation  of 
the  town  by  these  troops  were  deemed  breaches  of  the 
agreement,  and  Argj'U  and  Lord  James  now  joined  the 
Reformers  and  took  the  lead  in  their  proceedings.  Their 
numbers,  increasing,  the  regent  felt  unable  to  retain  Perth, 
and  quitting  it  marched  south,  followed  by  the  army  of 
the  Congregation,  to  which  she  abandoned  Stirling,  Lin- 
lithgow, and  Edinburgh,  taking  refuge  at  Dunbar.  The 
only  conflict  was  at  the  Muir  of  Cupar,  where  a  small  force 
sent  to  save  St  Andrews  was  quickly  dispersed  by  the 
superior  numbers  of  its  opponents.  It  was  made  a  condi- 
tion of  a  truce  that  no  Frenchman  should  be  left  in  Fife. 
The  Reformei-s  occupied  Edinburgh  for  a  few  weeks,  but 
were  obliged  to  abandon  it  upon  new  terms  of  truce  in- 
tended' to  preserve  the  status  cp/.o.  Both  parties  were 
engaged  in  negotiations  for  active  assistance,  the  one  from 
France  and  the  other  from  England.  The  regent  had 
been  daily  expecting  reinforcements,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  troops  about  this  time  landed  at  Leith,  which 
they  began  to  fortify. 
Ncgoti.i-  In  the  end  of  June  Kirkaldy  of  Grange  began  a  corre- 
tions  of  spondence,  afterwards  continued  by  Knox,  with  Cecil,  Percy, 
Vth  ^^^  ^'''  H^'^^^''*'  Croft.  Their  scheme  was  far-reaching. 
England  Tl*®  young  earl  of  Arran,  though  brought  up  in  France,  had 
become.  Protestant,  and  if  he,  the  heir-presumptive  to  the 
Scottish  crown,  were  married  to  Elizabeth  the  union  of  the 
two  countries  would  be  secured  along  with  the  Reforma- 
tion. This  would  be  a  counter-stroke  to  the  union  of 
France  and  Scotland  under  a  Catholic,  which  almost  at 
the  moment  became  for  a  brief  time  an  accomplished  fact; 
by  the  dauphin  succeeding  as  Francis  EE.  to  the  French 
crown  on  the  death  of  his  father.  The  policy  of  the 
Guises,  who  continued  to  control  the  Government  under 
the  new  king,  almost  forced  Elizabeth- in  this  direction. 
Mary  quartered  the  arms  of  England  with  those  of  Scot- 
land, implying  denial  of  Elizabeth's  right  both  as  illegiti- 
mate and  as  a  ■  heretic.  But  Elizabeth  knew  the  value 
both  of  her  hand  and  of  the  state,  which,  thanks  to  the 
ability  of  her  ministers,  was  daily  becoming  more  loyal. 
She  had  special  cause  for  hesitating  to  ally  herself  with 
the  Lords  of  Congregation.  Knox  had  offended  her  by  his 
vehement  Blasts  against  the  Regiment  of  Women,  which, 
though  primarily  aimed  against  the  Catholic  queens,  ad- 
mitted no  exception  in  favour  of  a  Protestant.  Nor  could 
ICnox  even  when  supplicating  aid  adopt  the  courtier's 
language  to  which  Elizabeth  was  accustomed.  She  was 
really  afraid  of  the  revolutionary  jirinciples  of  some  of  the 
Keformtrs,  which  seemed  to  threaten  the  throne  as  well  as 
the  altar.  Moreover,  Arran,  who  came  secretly  to  the 
English  court,  did  not  please  her,  and  there  was  an  end  of 
the  matrimonial  part  of  the  scheme.  The  rest  of  it  would 
probably  also  have  miscarried  but  for  the  consummate 
statesmanship  of  Cecil,  who  saw  where  the  interest  of 
England  lay.  In  August  1 559  Sadler  was  sent  wjth  £3000 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Scottish  Protestants.  Another 
supply  followed,  but  was  intercepted,  and  in  January  1560 
a  treaty  was  agreed  to  at  Berwick  between  Elizabeth  and 
the  Lords  of  Congregation,  to  whom  the  duke  of  Chastel- 
heranlt  had  now  gone  over.  The  Scots  engaged  not  to 
enter  into  an  alliance  with  France,  and  to  defend  tlje 


country  against  French  aggression.  Elizabeth  was  to 
support  Scotland  by  an  army,  but  no  place  of  strength 
was  to  be  left  in  English  hands.  If  any  were  taken  from 
the  French  they  were  to  be  razed  or  retained  by  the  Scots. 
The  Scots  were  to  assist  England  if  attacked  by  France, 
and  to  give  hostages  for  fulfilment  of  the  treaty.  Next 
spring  an  English  army  under  Lord  Grey  crossed  the  Tweed 
(28th  March  1560),  met  the  forces  of  the  Congregation  at 
Prestonpans,  and  invested  Leith,  in  which  the  French  irere 
also  blockaded  by  sea.  The  regent  had  taken  refuge  in  Death  of 
Edinburgh  castle,  and  here  on  10th  June  she  died  of  dronsy.  ''^o^  of 
She  had  been  deserted  gradually  by  almost  all  her  Scottish  '^"•'®- 
adherents.  The  last  to  go  was  Maitland  .of  Lethington, 
the  most  talented  but  also  the  most  cunning  of  the  Scottish 
statesmen.  His  desertion  was  the  sign  of  a  lost,  cause. 
Even  some  of  the  higher  clergy  now  conformed.  -Lord 
Erskine  almost  alone  remained  faithful.  The  regent's 
own  courage  never  failed,  and,  though  she  received  a  visit 
from  the  leaders  of  the  Congregation  and  consented  to  see 
Willock,  she  died  a  firm  Catholic.  Her  misfortunes  and 
her  conciliatory  policy  during  her  long  struggles  to  main- 
tain the  French  connexion  with  Scotland  have  gained  her 
a  leniest  judgment  even  from  Protestants,  all  save  Knox, 
whose  pe'-sonal  animosity  is  palpable,  though  his  view  of 
her  policy  is  correct. 

Her  death  removed  the  chief  obstacle  to  peace,  which  Treatj  of 
the  English  and  the  French  courts  had  for  some  time  de-  ^^'i"" 
sired,  and  the  treaty  of  Edinburgh  was  concluded  on  8th  '^""S''- 
July  1560  upon  tenns  favourable  to  Scotland.  The  mili- 
tary forces  of  both  France  and  England  were  to  evacuate 
Sec  tiand,  except  a  certain  number  of  French,  who  were  to 
remain  in  Inchkeith  and  Dunbar.  Leith  and  Eyemouth 
were  'o  be  dismantled ;  Mary  and  Francis  were  to  abstain 
from  using  the  arms  of  England.  By  separate  articles 
certain  concessions  were  granted  to  the  nobility  and  people 
of  Scotland  showing  the  length  to  which  the  limitation  of 
the  monarchy  was  carried.  No  French  or  other  soldiers 
were  to  be  brought  into  the  realm  unless  in  the  event  of 
an  invasion  and  only  with  the  consent  of  the  estates. 
Neither  peace  nor  war  was  to  be  made  vpithout  their  con- 
sent, A  council  of  twelve  (seven  chosen  by  the  king  and 
queen  and  five  by  the  estates  out  of  twenty-four  selected 
by  the  estates)  were  to  govern  the  kingdom  during  the 
absence  of  Mary  and  Francis.  The  chief  ofEcers  of  the 
crown  were  to  be  natives.  An  Act  of  oblivion  was  to  be 
passed  fox  all  Acts  since  6th  March  1558.  Neither  the 
nobles  nor  any  oiher  persons  were  to  assemble  in  arms  ex- 
cept in  cases  provided  by  the  law.  •  The  duke  of  Chastel- 
herault  and  his  son,  Arran,  and  all  other  Scots  were  to.  be 
restored  to  their  French  estates.  With  matters  of  religion 
the  deputies  refused  to  deal ;  but  envoys  were  to  bo  sent 
to  the  king  and  queen  to  lay  before  them  the  state  of 
affairs,  particularly  those  last  mentioned. 

Before  parliament  met  an  important  step  towards  a  new  Reforni- 
orgarjzation  of  the  church  was  taken.  Superintendents,  ^'"^^ 
some  lay,  others  clerical,  were  appointed  for  Lothian,  Glas-^,^^^" 
gow,  Fife,  Angus,  Mearns,  Argjil,  and  the  Isles.  The 
principal  ministers  of  the  Congregation  were  planted  in  the 
chief  towns, — Knox  receiving  Edinbiu-gh  as  his  charge. 
The  convention  parliament  which  .assembled  on  10th  July 
and  began  its  business  on  1st  August  156Q  was  the  Reforma- 
tion parliament  of  Scotland.  Like  Henry  VIII.'s  famous 
parliament,  its  work  was  thorough.  It  not  merely  reformed 
abuses  but  changed  the  national  creed .  and '  accomplished 
more  in  one  than  the  English  parliament  did  in  three 
sessions.  The  parliament  was  the  most  numerous  yet  held 
in  Scotland,  being  attended  not  only  by  nearly  all  the 
nobility  but  by  some  bishops  and  an  unusually  large  num- 
ber of  lesser  barons  or  landed  gentry,  representatives  of 
the  burghs.     Its  statutes  never  received  the  royal  assent, 


REFORMATION.] 


SCOTLAND 


503 


but  were  confinned  by  tbe  first  parliament  after  Mary's 
deposition.  On  18th  August  the  Confession  of  Faith 
receiyed  the  sanction  of  the  estates.  On  the  24th  an  Act 
was  passed  declaring  that  the  bishop  of  Rome  had  no  juris- 
diction or  authority  within  the  realm.  Another  rescinded 
all  Acts  passed  since  James  I.  contrary  to  God's  word ; 
and  a  third  prohibited  the  mass  or  baptism  according  to 
the  Roman  rite,  and  ordained  strict  inquisition  against  all 
persons  contravening  the  statute.  The  form,  of  church 
government  was  not  explicitly  altered.  The  archbishop 
«f  St  Andrews,  and  Dunkeld  and  Dunblane  alone  of  the 
bishops,  are  said  to  have  vote^  against  the  Confession,  and 
Athole,  Somerville,  Caithness,  and  Bothwell  alone  of  the 
liobles.  The  whole  power  of  the  state  was  at  this  t-me 
io  the  hands  of  the  party  of  the  Reformation  and  resist- 
ance was  useless.  The  Confession  of  Faith,  the  corner- 
stone of  the  new  policy  both  in  church  and  state,  was  drawn 
up  by  Knox  and  five  other  ministers,  but  revised  by  the 
more  moderate  Reformers  Lethington  and  Winram.  The 
power  of  the  civil  magistrate  was  declared  in  terms  which 
indicate  the  revision  of  Lethington  rather  than  the  original 
draft  of  Knox.  Its  language  is  certainly  such  as  monarchs 
had  been  little  accustomed  to,  though  the  expression  is 
iK)t  so  blunt  as  Knox  used  in  preaching  and  conversation. 
Kings,  princes,  and  magistrates  in  free  cities  are  declared 
to  be  those  to  whom  the  reformation  of  religion  "  chiefly 
and  most  principally  appertains."  They  are  themselves  to 
be  judged  by  God,  being  appointed  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  true  religion  and  suppression  of  idolatry.  Resistance 
to  them,  but  only  when  vigilant  in  the  execution  of  their 
office,  is  declared  sinful. 

The  same  persons  who  had  prepared  the  Confession 
were  entrusted  with  the  composition  of  a  code  of  ecclesi- 
astical polity,  and  a  draft,  after  being  first  laid  before  the 
convention  of  1560,  was  submitted  as  revised  to  that  of 
the  follo^ving  year.  This  First  Book  of  Discipline  was  not 
universally  approved ;  several  of  its  provisions,  especially 
those  relating  to  church  estates  and  their  application  to 
the  sup^jort  of  the  ministry,  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and 
the  furtherance  of  education,  were  httle  to  the  taste  of  the 
robility,  and  it  was  never  sanctioned  by  the  estates  or  fully 
acted  on.  Other  parts  of  it  were,  however,  embodied  in 
the  Second  Book  of  Discipline,  which  became  the  law  of 
the  Reformed  Church.  It  remains  a  memorial  of  the  far- 
sighted  views  of  Knox,  its  author ;  and  the  verdict  of 
posterity  has  been  in  his  favour  and  against  the  nobles  who 
prevented  its  being  carried  out.  See  Presbyterianism, 
vol.  xix.  p.  C79  sq. 

The  death  of  Francis  11.  (6th  December  1560)  materially 
altered  the  political  situation.  The  much  feared  subordi- 
iiation  of  Scotland  to  France  was  at  last  averted.  Mary 
Stuart,  only  nineteen,  was  young  enough  to  be  influenced 
by  a  new  husband  and  new  responsibilities.  Her  character 
was  not  yet  known,  but  her  relations  with  Catherine  de' 
Medici  were  not  friendly,  and  there  was  little  doubt  that 
she  would  take  advantage  of  the  provision  in  her  marriage 
articles  and  return  to  Scotland.  Sir  John  Sandilands's 
mission  to  France  to  procure  the  royal  sanction  to  the  treaty 
of  Edinburgh  and  the  Acts  of  the  Reformation  parliament 
must  have  been  unpalatable,  and  he  was  not  favourably  re- 
Mary's,  ceived.  Before  she  left  France  Mary  was  visited  by  envoys 
Bcotlmir  °^  "'^  opposite  parties  into  which  Scotland  was  divided. 
Lesley,  official  of  Aberdeen,  afterwards  bishop  of  Ross, 
and  her  valiant  defender,  was  sent  by  the  Catholic  lords 
and  bishops  with  a  special  message  from  Huntly,  urging 
her  to  come  to  Aberdeen,  where  an  army  of  20,000  men 
would  be  at  her  disposal  But  Huntly  had  not  proved 
trustworthy  during  the  regency  and  Mary  rejected  an  offer 
which  would  have  plunged  the  kingdom  in  war  from  the 
moment  she  landed.     The  very  day  after  she  had  seen 


Lesley  her  brother  Lord  James,  who  had  been  sent  by  156i3-1663 
the  Lords  of  Congregation,  met  her  at  St  Dizier.  She 
received  him  favourably,  but  declined  to  ratify  the  treaty 
till  she  consulted  her  council.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
capture  Mary  on  her  way  to  Scotland ;  but,  sailing  from 
Calais  on  Hth  August,  she  landed  at  Leith  on  the  19th. 
She  w>^3  accompanied  by  three  uncles  and  a  considerable 
suite,  including  Castelnau  the  historian,  Brantome  the 
-■emoir  writer,  and  the  poet  Chastelard.' 

On  her  return  to  Scotland  Mary  showed  herself  disposed 
to  conciliate  the  Reformers  provided  she  was  allowed  the 
exercise  of  her  own  faith.  This  had  been  guaranteed  her 
by  Lord  James.  His  near  kinship  to  the  queen  at  a  time 
when  the  stain  of  bastardy  was  less  regarded,  and  his  close 
relation  with  the  Reformers,  made  him  necessary  to  both 
and  gave  him  an  influence  which  his  eminent  prudence 
used  for  the  good  of  the  nation,  but  with  an  eye  to  his 
own  advantage.  Without  thrusting  himself  too  promi- 
nently forward,  he  led  the  privy  council  (ably  supported  by 
Lethington),  and,  without  the  name,  was  in  fact  prime 
minister.  The  title  of  Mar,  and,  when  that  was  reclaimed 
by  the  heir  of  the  Erskines,  of  Moray  or  Murray  {q.v.),  with 
its  large  territories,  gave  him  the  designation  by  which  he 
is  best  known,  as  well  as  great  wealth,  which  he  dispersed 
by  means  not  well  explained.  But  the  leaven  of  another 
influence  than  that  of  the  statesman  was  now  at  work  in 
Scottish  politics.  This  was  embodied  in  John  Knox,  the  Knox 
most  representative  Scotsman  since  Wallace.  The  first  ■>'"' 
Sunday  after  Mary's  arrival  the  mob  tried  to  interrupt  ^'^5'' 
mass  at  Holyrood,  and  Moray  had  himself  to  keep  the 
chapel  door  to  prevent  its  being  broken.  "  His  best  ex- 
cuse was,"  says  Knox,  "that  he  wald  stop  all  Scotchmen 
to  enter  into  the  mass.''  Next  Sunday  Knox  preached  in 
Edinburgh  against  idolatry.  '•  One  mass  was  more  fearful 
to  hira,"  he  said,  "  than  20,000  armed  enemies."  Little 
likely  as  such  sentiments  were  to  please  the  young  queen, 
a  meeting  between  her  and  the  preacher  was  arranged  by 
Moray,  the  only  third  party  present.  On  the  matt-er  of 
religion  he  was  unbending,  yet  not  more  so  than  Mary. 
His  judgment  of  the  queen's  cliaracter  was,  "  If  there  be 
not  in  her  a  proud  mind,  a  crafty  spirit,  and  an  indurate 
heart  against  God  and  His  truth  my  judgment  faileth  me." 
In  1562  Huntly,  the  chief  Romanist  in  the  north,  who 
offered  to  have  the  mass  said  in  three  counties,  rebelled, 
being  indignant  at  the  grant  to  Jloray  of  an  earldom  whose 
estates  he  then  held.  Mary,  accompanied  by  her  brother, 
made  a  progress  in  the  north,  where  Huntly  was  defeated 
and  slain  at  Corrichie,  his  elder  son  being  imprisoned,  his 
second  beheaded,  and  the  lands  of  Huntly,  of  his  kinsman 
the  earl  of  Sutherland,  and  other  barons  of  the  house  of 
Huntly  forfeited.  On  her  return  to  Edinburgh  Mary  again 
met  Knox  at  Holyrood.  He  rebuked  her  for  dancing  and 
other  frivolities,  advised  her  to  attend  the  public  sermons, 
and  told  her  that  it  was  not  his  duty  to  leave  his  studies 
in  order  to  wait  at  her  chamber  door.  Tliere  were  other 
intervie'.vs,  in  one  of  which  (April  1563)  only  Mary  seemed 
to  yield  a  little.  She  was  anxious  to  use  his  influence  to 
quiet  a  threatened  rising  in  the  west,  and  to  heal  a  quarrel 
between  her  half  sister  the  countess  of  Argyll  and  her 
husband.  Knox  promised  his  aid,  but  required  in  return 
that  the  penal  laws  should  be  enforced  against  the  Papists. 
This  Mary  agreed  to,  and  Iior  promise  was  also  apparently 
kept.  Hamilton,  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  and  forty- 
seven  other  persons  were  prosecuted  for  hearing  confession 

^  The  story  of  Mary  Stuart,  which  now  approaches  by  rapid  steps  its 
climax,  ha.<t  been  told  by  Jlr  Swinburne  (see  Maby,  vol.  xv.  p.  594  sq. ), 
and  a  poet  may  regard  human  character  in  a  manner  different  from 
the  historian, — interpreting  motives  end  drawing  conclusions  which 
history,  whose  view  is  limited  by  evidence,  cannot  reach.  Here  only 
the  leading  facts  in  her  personal  story  can  bo  stated  so  far  as  they 
affect  the  coiu-se  of  Scottish  history. 


.'04 


GOTLAND 


[DI3T0KY. 


^j3-156r.  and  celebrating  the  mass.  Yet  Knox's  comment  in  his 
History  is,  "  This  conference  we  have  inserted  to  let  the 
world  see  how  Marie  queen  of  Scotland  can  dissemble,  and 
how  that  she  could  cause  men  to  think  that  she  bore  no 
indignation  for  any  controversy  in  religion,  while  that  yet 
in  her  heart  was  nothing  but  venom  and  destruction,  as 
short  after  that  did  appear."  She  was  in  fact  corre- 
sponding v/ith  her  uncle  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  \n.\h.  the 
pope,  with  Philip  II.,  testifying  her  steadfast  attachment 
to  Pa,pacy  and  her  desire  to  restore  the  Catholic  faith.  At 
a  last'conference  Knox  remonstrated  against  her  marriage, 
then  thought  imminent,  with  a  Papist,  claiming  the  right 
of  a  subject  "  to  speak  out  on  this  topic  which  so  nearly 
concerned  the  commonwealth,"  remaining  unmoved  by  the 
last  argument  of  a  woman,  which  he  savagely  describes  as 
"howling  and  tears  in  greater  abundance  than  the  matter 
required."  Nothing  but  perasal  of  the  conversations  can 
bring  before  us  this  pregnant  passage  of  history — the  abase- 
ment of  the  Scottish  monarchy  before  the  religious  de- 
mocracy— of  the  woman  forced  to  dissemble  and  weep  be- 
fore the  stern  man  believing  he  delivered  a  message  from 
God  to  the  head  of  a  corrupt  court.  Something  was 
allowed  to  Knox's  sincere  outspokenness.  He  moved 
men  and  women  alike  by  words  which,  like  Luther's,  go 
straight  to  the  rsalities  of  life.  He  is  the  typical  Scottish 
divine  framed  on  the  model  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  and 
often  reproduced  in  weaker  copies.  The  Keformation  in 
Scotland,  in  both  *t3  strength  and  its  weakness,  was  his 
work  more  than  that  of  any  other  man.  The  Presbyterian 
form  of  government,  of  which  his  friend  Calvin  was  the 
author,  was  introduced  by  Knox  from  Geneva  and  con- 
tinued for  long  to  enforce  discipline,  first  by  censure  and 
then,  if  need  be,  by  excommunication  and  temooral  punish- 
ment, entirely  in  his  spirit. 
Mary's  Not  only  to  Knox  and  the  Pvcformers  but  to  all  classes 
larriaje  the  question  of  the  day  was  the  queen's  marriage.  Apart 
0  Darn-  fj,gjjj  jjgj.  V|e^^^|;y^  }igj  political  position  rendered  her  hand 
"°''  of  importance  to  the  balance  of  power.  It  held  not  only 
the  dowry  of  France  and  the  possession  of  Scotland  but  a 
claim,  which  might  be  at  any  moment  asserted,  to  the 
English  crown.  She  avowed  her  inclination  to  marry, 
and  indeed  she  required  a  man  to  put  her  in:  possession  of 
her  kingdom.  Don  Carlos,  the  archduke  of  Austria,  son 
of  Philip  of  Spain,  Charles  IX.  of  France,  the  kings  of 
Denmark  and  of  Sweden,  the  archduke  Charles,  second 
son  of  the  emperor,  were  all  passed  in  review  but  rejected. 
Elizabeth  pressed  the  claim  of  her  favourite  Leicester, — a 
project  supported  by  Cecil  and  Moray.  In  the  end  the 
fair  face  and  fine  figure  of  her  young  cousin  Henry  Stuart, 
Lord  Darnley,  carried  the  day.  A  party  of  the  Scottish 
nobles — Athole,  himself  a  Stuart,  Morton,  Cravrford,  Eglin- 
ton,  and  Cassilis — favoured  the  alliance.  David  Eizzio, 
the  queen's  foreign  secretary,  who  already  had  great  in- 
fluence with  her,  promoted  it.  But  it  was  her  oivn  act, 
the  most  dangerous  of  many  false  steps  in  her  life.  Shortly 
before  the  marriage  (29th  July  1565)  Moray  attempted 
to  seize  Darnley  and  the  queen  as  they  rode  from  Perth 
to  Callendar  near  Falkirk.  When  it  was  accomplished  he 
rose  in  arms  with  the  duke  of  Chastelherault,  the  head  of 
the  Hamiltons,  Argyll,  and  Rothes ;  but  Mary  with  a  large 
force  pursued  them  from  place  to  place  in  the  Roundabout 
Raid,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh  through  Fife, 
where  she  levied  fines,  and  finally  to  Dumfries,  from  which 
Moray  fled  to  England.  He  had  been  secretly  but  not 
vigorously  supported  by  Elizabeth,  who,  when  she  heard 
of  his  flight,  recalled  her  orders  to  Bedford,  then  on  the 
marches,  to  place  troops  at  the  disposal  of  the  insurgents. 
Mary  still  retained  some  of  the  popularity  of  a  young  queen, 
and  fostered  it  by  an  apparent  desire  to  humour  the  Re- 
formers.     For  the  first  time  she  attended  a  Protestant 


sermon.  But  the  consequences  of  a  union  between  a  high- 
spirited  woman,  active  in  mind  and  bodj'  beyond  her  sex 
and  years,  with  a  vain  and  dissolute  youth  were  soon  seen. 
His  alienation  from  the  queen,  the  murder  of  Rizzio,  with 
the  intrig-ue.s  that  preceded  and  followed  it,  the  rapid 
growth  of  Bothwell's  influence,  the  pitiable  vacillations  of 
Darnley,  and  his  murder  at  Kirk  of  Field  (10th  February  Murder 
1567)  have  been  sketched  in  the  article  Mary  (vol.  xv.  "fl'™i' 
p.  596  sq.).  The  authors  of  the  last  crim.e  were  Bothwell,  ^^' 
who  devised  it,  and  his  servants,  './ho  executed  it.  Their 
confessions  leave  no  doubt  of  their  own  guilt.  Who  were 
their  accomplices  has  from  that  day  to  this  been  debated 
without  conclusive  answer.  The  great  controversy  is 
whether  the  nobles  with  Moray  at  their  head  had  bound 
themselves  to  support  Bothwell,  as  he  and  Mary  after- 
wards declared,  or  whether  Mary,  possessed  with  passion 
for  Bothwell  and  hate  of  Darnley,  herself  instigated  her 
husband's  murder.  Some  have  thought  both  the  queen 
and  the  nobles  were  implicated.  The  casket  letters,  alleged 
to  have  been  found  in  a  coffer  that  was  given  to  Morton 
by  Dalgleish  when  intrusted  with  it  by  Sir  James  Balfour 
for  its  delivery  to  Bothwell,  must  be  left  out  in  any  fair 
examination  of  this  question.'  The  mode  of  their  recovery 
and  their  production,  first  partially  and  secretly  before 
Elizabeth's  commissioners  at  York,  then  with  apparent  but 
not  real  publicity  at  Westminster  (for  Mary's  counsellors 
were  not  allowed  to  see  them),  their  contents,  so  different 
from  her  known  writings,  and  the  disappearance  of  the 
originals  render  their  evidence  inadmissible.  What  weighs 
most  against  Mary  is  her  subsequent  conduct,  explicable 
only  in  favour  of  innocence  if  she  was  absolutely  in  Both- 
well's power  from  the  time  of  the  murder  to  the  defeat  ot 
Carberry, — an  hypothesis  not  borne  out  by  facts.  Though 
Lennox  and  his  wife  urged  that  the  murderers  be  brought 
to  justice,  there  was  delay  till  13th  April,  when  Bothwell 
was  at  last  brought  before  an  assize.  The  trial  was  a 
sham,  and  his  acquittal  on  the  pretence  that  there  was  no 
accuser  could  deceive  no  one. 

The  strange  wooing  which  commenced  when  Darnley  was  Mary  e 
just  buried,  if  not  before,  was  continued  by  the  seizure  of  relation. 
Mary  by  Bothwell  near  Cramond  and  her  captivity  in  her  ^'^ 
own  castle  of  Dunbar— a  pretence  according  to  her  adver-  ^^i_ 
saries,  an  opportunity  for  an  outrage  from  which  marriage 
was  the  only  escape  according  to  her  defenders — at  last 
culminated  in  the  marriage  at  six  in  the  morning,  at  Holy- 
rood,  on  the  15th  of  May  1567.  It  was  the  month  when 
wicked  women  marry,  said  the  people,  writing  Ovid's  line 
on  the  Tolbooth  walls.  Before  it  took  place  she  created 
Bothwell  duke  of  Orkney,  and  pardoned  him  for  any 
violence.  She  also  wrote  in  palliation  of  his  conduct  to 
the  French  king.  His  divorce  from  Lady  Jane  Gordon 
had  been  hurried  through  both  the  bishops'  court  and  that 
of  the  Protestant  commissaries, — in  the  former  on  the  false 
pretence  that  there  had  been  no  papal  dispensation  for  his 
marriage  to  one  of  near  kin,  and  in  the  latter  on  the  ground 
of  adultery.  Mary  had  been  more  than  once  warned  of 
the  consequences  of  such  a  marriage  by  Lord  Herries,  by 
the  faithful  Melville,  and  by  Craig,  the  minister  who,  with 
the  utmost  reluctance,  proclaimed  the  banns.  It  was  an 
act  which  required  no  warning.  She  had  no  alternative, 
urge  heE  vindicators,  to  save  her  honour,  and  her  tears  on 
the  morning  of  marriage  are  proof  that  she  was  forced ;  but 
the  more  scrupulous  admit  she  should  have  preferred  death 
to  union  with  a  man  she  must  at  least  have  known  was 
not  clear  of  Darnley's  murder.  Her  enemies  said  then,  and 
historians  who  take  their  side  repeat,  that  it  was  the  mad- 
ness of  a  passion  she  could  not  resist.  The  view  most 
consistent  with  the  facts  seems  to  be  that  she  accepted, 
not  without  fits  of  remorse,  the  service  of  the  strongest 
sword  at  her  disposal  on  the  only  terms  on  which  she 


KEFORMATION.] 


SCOTLAND 


505 


could  obtain  it.  But,  if  Mary  cannot  be  acquitted  of 
the  degree  of  complicity  implied  in  accepting  the  conse- 
quences of  the  murder,  many  of  the  leading  nobles  were 
involved  in  equal  guilt.  On  19th  April  a  bond  asserting 
Bothwell's  innocence  and  urging  Mary  to  marry  him  had 
been  signed  at  Ainslie's  tavern,  not  only  by  Bothwell's 
few  friends,  but  by  "a  great  part  of  the  lords."  Most  of 
those  who  signed  had  in  the  parliament  just  concluded  re- 
ceived grants  of  land  or  remission  of  forfeiture,  and  it  is 
urged  by  Mar/s  defenders  that  they  were  bribed  to  acqui- 
esce in  Bothwell's  designs.  When  the  bond  was  after- 
wards put  in  evidence  against  them  their  plea  was  that 
they  had  been  forced  to  sign  it  by  Bothwell.  It  is  con- 
tended on  Mary's  behalf  that  with  so  many  of  the  nobles 
committed  to  approval  of  the  marriage  she  had  no  one  on 
whom  to  rely.  There  is  something  in  this  argument;  but 
it  does  not  meet  the  point — Why  did  she  rely  on  Bothwell? 
That  a  scheme  was  arranged  before  Darnley's  murder  to 
entrap  her  into  this  marriage,  in  order  to  pave  the  way 
for  her  deposition,  and  that  the  casket  letters  were  fabri- 
cated to  clench  her  guilt,  has  been  suggested ;  but  tlie 
facts  necessary  to  prove  so  deep  a  train  of  conspiracy 
are  wanting.  The  two  Scotsmen  who  almost  alone  main- 
tained the  character  of  honest  men,  Kirkaldy  of  Grange 
and  Sir  James  Melville,  who  were  so  far  from  being  un- 
friendly to  Mary  that  they  ultimately  espoused  her  cause, 
believed  that  she  was  a  willing  victim  and  threV  herself 
into  Bothwell's  arms.  The  narrative  in  her  own  despatch 
to  the  bishop  of  Dunblane  does  not  allege  that  she  was 
forced,  but  only  that  "  he  partlie  extorted  and  partlie 
obtained  our  promise  to  take  him  as  our  husband." 

The  leading  nobles  were  not  disposed  to  accept  a  new 
master  in  Bothwell,  whose  vices,  unlike  those  of  Darnley, 
were  coupled  with  a  strong  instead  of  a  weak  character. 
They  kept  jealous  possession  of  the  young  prince,  placed 
in  the  custody  of  Mar  in  Stirling  ;  and,  when  a  muster  was 
called  to  enforce  order  on  the  border,  secretly  collected 
their  forces  to  act  against  instead  of  for  the  queen  an(3 
her  husband.  Within  a  month  of  her  marriage  she  was 
met  at  Carberry  Hill,  near  Musselburgh  (loth  June  1567), 
by  a  force  of  the  confederate  lords,  headed  by  Morton  and 
^/drj  i  Glencairn,'  Ruthven  and  Lindsay.  Mary,  after  a  fruitless 
j)ri50»ei.  attempt  at  mediation  by  Du  Croc,  the  French  ambassador, 
and  an  offer  equally  vain  by  Bothwell  to  decide  the 
issue  by  single  combat,  surrendered  to  Kirkaldy.  Both- 
well  rode  off  to  Dunbar  with  a  few  followers,  and  Mary 
was  conducted  to  Morton's  camp.  Once  in  their  hands, 
the  lords  treated  her  as  a  prisoner,  and  confined  her  at 
Lochleven  Castle,  where  she  was  forced  to  abdicate,  sur- 
rendering the  crown  in  favour  of  her  son  and  committing 
the  regency  during  the  minority  to  Moray.  The  young 
king  was  crowned  at  Stirling  on  29th  July.  The  prudent 
Moray,  who  had  kept  out  of  the  way  in  France  wliile  these 
events  were  transacted  in  Scotland,  now  returned  and  was 
installed  as  regent  (22d  August).  Maty  remained  .prisoner 
in  Loch  LeVen  for  nearly  a  year.  After  her  escape  on  2d 
May  1568  the  duke  of  Chastelherault  and  other  Catholic 
nobles  rallied  round  her  standard  ;  but  on  1 3th  May  Moray 
and  the  Protestant  lords  met  her  forces  at  Langside 
near  Glasgow,' and  the  issue  of  that  battle  forced  her 
to  fly  to  England,  where  she  placed  herself  (19th  May)  in 
the  hands  of  Lord  Lowther,  governor  of  Carlisle,  recalling 
Elizabeth's  promises  of  protection.  Mary,  however,  fovmd 
that  slic  was  really  a  prisoner.  Like  Raliol,  she  disappears 
personally  from  the  field  of  Scottish  history ;  but  her  life 
in  exile,  unlike  his,  was  spent  in  busy  plots  to  recover 
her  lost  throne.  It  became  clear  as  time  went  on  that 
she  placed  her  whole  reliance  on  the  Catholic  minority  and 
foreign  aid ;  even  in  prison  she  was  a  menace  to  Elizabeth 
and  ready  to  plot  against  her  as  an  enemy.  The  Pro- 
21— III* 


testant  party  increased  in  Scotlana  until  it  became  a  1567-16(39 
majority  almost  representative  of  the  whole  nation  ;  even 
her  own  son  when  he  came  to  hold  the  sceptre,  Little  in- 
clined as  he  was  to  accept  Presbyterian  principles,  regarded 
her  as  a  revolutionary  element  fortunately  removed.  Her 
knowledge  of  Babington's  plot  for  the  invasion  of  England 
is  proved,  though  her  assent  to  the  death  of  Eliza.beth 
is  still  an  open  question.  By  her  -n-ill,  confirmed  by 
her  last  letters,  she  bequeathed  the  crown  of  Scotland  and 
her  claim  to  that  of  England  to  Philip  II.  The  letters 
contain  this  modification  only,  that  her  son  was  to  have 
an  opportunity  of  embracing  the  Catholic  faith  under  the 
guardianship  of  Philip  to  save  his  own  throne.  There  was 
no  such  reservation  as  regards  that  of  England.  The 
Armada,  from  whose  overthrow  date  the  fall  of  Spain  and 
the  rise  of  Britain  as  the  chief  European  power,  was  due 
to  the  direct  instigation  of  Mary  Stuart.. 

Meantime,  in  Scotland,  four  regencies  rapidly  succeeded 
each  other  during  the  minority  of  James.  The  deaths  by 
violence  of  two  regents,  Moray  and  Lennox,  the  suspicion 
of  foul  play  in  the  death  of  the  third,  Mar,  and  the  end 
scarcely  less  violent  because  preceded  by  a  trial  of  the 
fourth,  Morton,  mark  a  revolutionary  period  and  the  im- 
possibility of  the  attempted  solution  by  placing  the  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  the  most  powerful  noble.  Heredi- 
tary royalty,  not  the  rule  of  the  aristocracy,  was  still 
dominant  .  in  Scottish  politics  and  a  regency  was  an 
experiment  already  di.sparaged  in  the  preceding  reigns. 
Moray,  said  Sir  J.  ifelviile,  "was  and  is  called  the  good  Moray's 
regent,"  mingling  with  this  praise  only  the  slight  qualifi-  cliarao, 
cation  that  in  bis  later  years  he  was  apt  to  be  led  by  ^"' 
flatterers,  but  testifying  to  his  willingness  to  listen  to 
Melville's  own  counsels.  This  epithet  bestowed  by  the 
Protestant-s,  whose  champion  he  was,  still  adheres  to  him  ; 
but  only  partisans  can  justify  its  use.  He  displayed  great 
promptness  in  baffling  the  schemes  of  Mary  and  her  party, 
suppressed  with  vigour  the  border  thieves,  and  ruled  with 
a  firm  hand,  resisting  the  temptation  to  place  the  crown 
on  his  own  head.  His  name  is  absent  from  many  plots 
of  the  time.  He  observed  the  forms  of  personal  piety, — 
possibly  shared  the  zeal  of  the  Reformers,  while  he  moder- 
ated their  bigotry.  But  the  reverse  side  of  his  character' 
is  proved  by  his  conduct.  He  reaped  the  fruits  of  the 
conspiracies  which  led  to  Rizzio's  and  Darnley's  murders. 
He  amassed  too  great  a  fortune  from  the  estates  of  the 
church  to  be  deemed  a  pure  reformer  of  its  abuses.  He 
pursued  his  sister  with  a  calculated  animosity  which  would 
not  have  spared  her  life  had  this  been  necessary  to  his  end 
or  been  favoured  by  Elizabeth.  The  mode  of  production 
of  the  casket  letters  and  the  false  charges  added  by 
Buchanan,  "  the  pen  "  of  Moray,  deprive  Moray  of  any 
reasonable  claim  to  have  been  an  honest  accuser,  zealous 
only  to  detect  guilt  and  to  benefit  his  country.  The 
reluctance  to  charge  JIary  with  complicity  in  the  murder 
of  Darnley  was  feigned,  and  his  object  was  gained  when 
he  was  allowed  to  table  the  accusation  without  being  forced 
to  prove  it.  Mary  remained  a  captive  under  suspicion  of 
the  gravest  g\iilt,  while  Moray  returned  to  Scotland  to  ruli? 
in  her  stead,  supported  by  nobles  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
steps  which  ended  in  Bothwell's  deed.  Moray  left  London  His 
on  12th  January  1569.  During  the  year  between  his '■*'8'^°'^^ 
return  and  his  death  several  events  occurred  for  which  he ' 
has  been  censured,  but  which  were  necessary  for  his  secur- 
ity,— the  betrayal  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  of  the  secret 
plot  for  the  liberation  of  Mary  to  Elizabeth,  the  imprison- 
ment in  Loch  Leven  of  the  carl  of  Northumberland,  who 
after  the  failure  of  his  rising  in  the  north  of  England  had 
taken  refuge  in  Scotland,  and  the  charge  broiight  against 
Maitland  of  Lethington  of  complicity  in  Darnley's  murder. 
Lethington  was  committed  to  custody,  but  rescued  by 

XXL  —  64 


506 


SCOTLAND 


[lUSTORy. 


15S9-lo75.  Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  who  held  the  castle  of  Edinburgh, 
and  uhile  there  "  the  cliameleon,"  as  13uc)ianan  named 
Maitland  ii>  his  famous  invective,  contrary  to  the  nature 
of  that  animal,  gained  over  those  in  the  castle,  including 
Kirkaldy.  Moray  was  afraid  to  proceed  with  the  charge 
on  the  day  of  trial,  and  Kirkaldy  and  Maitland  became 
partisans  of  the  queen.  The  castle  was  the  stronghold 
of  the  queen's  party, — being  isolated  from  the  town  and 
able  to  hold  out  against  the  regent  who  governed  in  the 
name  of  her  son.  This  defection  was  mourned  over  by 
the  Keformei'S.  Kno.x,  with  the  self-confidence  which 
marked  his  character,  sent  from  his  deathbed  to  Kirkaldy 
a  message  of  warning  that  "  neither  the  cragrcy  lock  in 
which  he  confided,  nor  the  carnal  wisdom  of  the  man 
[ilaitland]  whom  he  esteemed  a  demi-god,  nor  the  assist- 
ance of  strangers,  should  preserve  him  from  being  disgrace- 
fidly  dragged  to  .ignominious  punishment."  It  has  been 
suspected  that  Maitland  and  Kirkaldy  were  cognizant  of 
the  design  of  Hamilton  of  BothweUhaugh  to  murder  Moray, 
for  he  had  been  with  them  in  the  castle.  This  has  been 
ascribed  to  private  vengeance  for  the  ill-treatment  of  his 
mfe  ;  but  the  feud  of  the  Hamiltons  with  the  regent  is 
til"  most  reasonable  explanation.  As  he  rode  through 
Linlithgow  Moray  was  shot  (23d  January  1570)  from  a 
window  by  Hamilton,  who  had  made  careful  jireparation 
ifor  the  murder  and  his  own  escape.  !Morny  was  buried  in 
the  south  aisle  of  St  Giles  Cathedral,  Edinburgh,  amid  gen- 
eral mourning.  Knox  preached  the  sermon  and  Buchanan 
furnished  the  epitaph,  both  unstinted  panegyrics.  His 
real  character  is  as  diflicult  to  penetrate  as  that  of  !M«ry. 
It  is  easy  for  the  historian  to  condemn  the  one  and  praise 
the  other  according  to  his  own  religious  or  political  creed. 
It  is  nearer  truth  to  recognize  in  both  the  graces  and 
talents  of  the  Stuart  race,  which  won  devoted  followers, 
but  to  acknowledge  that  times  in  which  Christian  divines 
approved  of  the  murder  of  their  enemie^^  were  not 
likely  to  produce  a  stainless  heroine  or  faultless  hero, 
indeed  necessitated  a  participation  in  deeds  which 
would  be  crimes  unless  they  can  bo  jialliated  as  acts  of 
civil  war.  Let  us  absolve,  if  we  can,  Jloray  and  Jfary  of 
Darnley's  blood.  It  remains  indisputable  that  Mary  ai>- 
proved  of  Jloray's  assassination  and  that  Jloray  would  have 
sanctioned  Mary's  death. 
Regen-  Moray  was  succeeded  in  the  regency  by  Lenno.x,  Darnley's 
dcs  of  father,  the  male  nearest  of  kin  to  the  future  sovereign,  but 
j'w"  really  the  nominee  of  Elizabeth.  His  brief  term  of  otRce 
'  was  marked  by  the  renewal  of  the  English  war  under  Sussex 
and  other  generals,  which  made  the  queen's  cause  again  the 
more  popular.  Lennox,  another  ■\ictim  of  violence,  was 
slain  (3d  September  1  i)  in  a  hasty  attack  by  one  of  the 
Hamiltons  on  StirU'i;,  from  which  Morton,  the  real  head 
of  the  Protestant  part)-,  who  at  first  had  been  taken  and 
threatened  with  the  same  fate,  barely  escaped.  IMar,  who 
had  all  along  held  the  custody  of  the  young  king,  was  now 
chosen  regent  and  held  tlie  post  for  a  year,  when  he  died 
(28th  October  1572).  During  his  regency  the  civil  war 
between  the  queen's  and  the  king's  party  continued. 
An  English  intrigue  was  carried  on  with  great  mystery, 
and  never  brought  to  a  point,  by  Handoliih  and  Killigrew 
to  deliver  Mary  to  the  regent  that  she  might  be  tried 
within  her  own  dominions.  On  the  death  of  Mar,  Jlorton, 
who  I'.ad  been  the  most  powerful  noble  during  the  last 
regency,  at  length  reached  the  object  of  his  ambition  by 
being  elected  regent.  On  tlie  day  of  Morton's  election 
Knox's  Knox  died.  He  was  "one,"  said  Morton,  "who  never 
work.  feared  the  face  of  man."  If  we  condemn  his  violent 
language  and  bitter  spirit,  it  is  just  to  remember  that  he 
lived  during  the  red  heat  of  the  struggle  between  Rome 
and  the  Pieformation,  and  died  before  the  triumph  of  the 
latter  in  Scotland  was  secure.  .-'He  had  felt  the  thongs  of 


the  galleys  and  narrowly  escaped  the  stake.  The  massacre 
of  St  Bartholomew  .spread  consternation  thuughout  Pro- 
testant Europe  just  before  his  last  illness.  JIary  and 
Philip  of  Spain  were  still  plotting  for  the  destruction  of 
all  he  held  vital.  His  scheme  for  the  reformation  of  the 
church  and  application  of.  its  revenues  was  in  advance  not 
of  his  own  time  only.  He  contemplated  free  education 
for  children  of  the  poor  who  really  required  such  aid, — 
a  graduated  .system  of  parish  schools,  burgh  schools,  and 
universities,  which  would  have  forestalled  the  most  recent 
educational  reform.  While  he  introduced  Presbyterian 
government  by  kirk -sessions,  presbyteries,  synods,  and 
general  assembly  and  opposed  even  a  modified  Eijiscopacy, 
he  saw  the  advantage  of  the  superintendence  of  districts 
by  the  more  Icained  and  able  clergy.  While  he  insisted 
en  the  preaching  of  the  word  and  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  his  liturgy  show.",  his 
favour  for  forms  of  public  prayer.  Knox's  first  wife  was 
English,  and  two  of  his  sons  took  orders  in  the  Churc'i  of 
England.  Scottish  Presbyterianisni  had  not  yet  bpen 
hardened  by  persecution  into  a  hatred  of  prelacy  as  bitter 
as  that  of  Popery.  It  meant  separation  from  Pome,  but 
inclined  to  union  with  England,  and  the  question  of  th". 
form  of  church  government  was  still  open. 

Morton,  like  his  predecessor,  favoured  the  Episcopal  I'.egc-aq/ 
order,  and,  acting  upon  a  compromise  agreed  to  at  Leith, ',' 
a  modified  Episcopacy  was  restored.  The  bishops  appointed 
were  declared  subject  to  the  king  in  temporal  and  to  the 
church  and  general  assembly  in  spiritual  matters,  and  were 
to  have  the  same  jurisdiction  as  the  superintendents.  The 
assembly  of  Pertli  protested  against  the  use  of  certain' 
ecclesiastical  titles,  but  passed  over  that  of  bishop.  Most 
of  the  clergy  sanctioned,  though  with  reluctance,  the  ai>-' 
pointment  of  bishops  in  the  hope  of  retaining  their  re-, 
venues.  The  people  called  them  "  tulchan  "  bishops,  froin 
the  straw  counterfeit  used  to  rob  the  calf  of  its  mother's 
milk.  Almost  the  whole  church  property  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  landed  proprietors,  Moray  in  the  first  instance 
and  afterwards  Jlorton  receiving  a  lion's  share.  Avarice 
was  Morton's  besetting  sin.  In  other  respects  he  was  an 
energetic  and  capable  ruler.  He  eiTected  at  Perth,  with 
the  aid  of  Elizabeth's  envoy,  a  pacification  with  Huntly, 
Chastelherault,  and  the  Catholic  nobles  who  sujiported 
Mary.  Only  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  held  out,  and  this, 
aided  by  English  artillery,  lie  succeeded  in  taking  after  a 
brave  resistance  by  Kirkaldy  and  Lethington.  Kirkaldy 
and  his  brother  were  executed  at  the  cross  of  Edinburgh. 
Lethington  escaped  their  fate  in  what  Melville  calls  "  the' 
Eoman  manner," — at  his  own  hands,  perhaps  bj'  poison. 
The  death  of  the  bravest  and  the  ablest  Scotsman  of  that 
age  put  an  end  to  the  last  chance  of  Mary's  restoration 
by  native  support.'  Morton,  now  without  a  rival,  restored 
order  in  the  borders,  and  when  an  encounter  occurred 
between  the  English  and  .Scottish  borderers  called  the  Paid 
of  the  Eedswyre  his  prudence  prevented  it  becoming  a 
national  conflict.  He  ajipointed  a  commission  for  the 
reform  of  the  law,— a  far-sighted  scheme,  often  at- 
tempted but  always  stopping  short  of  success,  to  codify 
the  law,  which  several  Continental  states,  notably  Denmark, 
about  this  period  engaged  in.  The  time  w'as  not  ripe  for 
a  change  which,  now  that  it  is,  remains  unaccomplished. 
But,  Mhile  all  seemed  to  favour  Morton,  there  were  under- 
currents which  combined  to  procure;  his  fall.  The  Presby-. 
terian  clergy  were  alienated  by  his  leaning  to  Ei)iscopacy, 
and  all  parties  in  the  divided  church  by  his  seizure  of 
its  estates.  Andrew  Melville,  Avho  had  succeeded  to 
the  leadershi])  of  Kno.x,  was  more  decided  than  Knox 
against  any  departure  from  the  Presbyterian  model,  and 
refused  to  be  won  by  a  place  in  his  household.  His 
expensive  buildings  at  Dalkeith,  which  got  the  name  of 


r.ErORJIATIOX.] 


SCOTLAND 


507 


the  Lion's  Den,  roused  the  jealousy  of  the  nobles.  The 
arrogance  of  his  favoucites  exceeded  his  own.  The  com- 
mons were  disgusted  by  a  depreciation  of  the  coinage. 
The  powerful  earl  of  Argyll,  incensed  by  the  recovery 
from  his  wife,  the  widow  of  Moray,  of  some  of  the  crown 
jewels,  and  Athole,  a  Stuart  and  Eonian  Catholic,  united 
with  Alexander  Erskine,  governor  of  Stirling,  who  now 
iad  the  custody  of  the  young  king,  in  a  league  which 
received  so  much  support  that  Jlortoa  bent  before  the 
storm  and  offered  to  resign.  The  king,  whose  education 
iad  been  forced  by  Buchanan,  now  barely  twelve  years  of 
age,  nominally  assumed  the  government,  but  was  directed 
"by  a  council  of  nobles  headed  by  Athole  as  chancellor. 
Morton  surrendered  the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  the  palace 
of  Holyrood,  and  the  royal  treasures,  retiring  to  Loch 
Leven,  where  he  busied  himself  in  laying  out  gardens. 
But  his  ambition  could  not  deny  itself  another  stroke  fcr 
2')0wer.  Aided  by-  the  young  earl  of  JIar,  he  got  possession 
of  Stirling  castle  and  the  person  of  the  king.  Civil  war 
■was  avoided  only  by  the  influence  of  Bowes,  the  English 
ambassador.  A  nominal  reconciliation  was  effected,  and 
a  parliament  at  Stirling  introduced  a  new  government. 
Morton,  who  secured  an  indenmity,  was  president  of  the 
•council,  but  Athole  remained  a  privy  councillor  in  an  en- 
larged council  with  representatives  of  both  parties.  Shortly 
afterwards  Athole  died,  of  poison  it  was  .said,  and  suspicion 
pointed  to  Morton.  His  return  to  power  was  brief,  and 
the  only  important  event  was  the  prosecution  of  the  two 
Hamiitons,  the  abbots  of  Arbroatli  and  Paisley,  who  still 
supported  Mary  and  saved  their  lives  by  flight  to  England. 
The  struggle  with  the  Presbyterian  clergy  continued.  The 
Second  Book  of  Discipline  had  been  presented  to  the  king 
tefore  he  assumed  office,  and,  although  the  general  assembly 
in  1580  condemned  Episcopacy  absolutely,  parliament  did 
not  sanction  the  condemnation.  The  final  fall  of  Morton 
came  from  an  opposite  quarter.  In  September  1579  Esm6 
Stuart,  Lord  D'Aubigny,  the  king's  cousin,  camo  to  Scot- 
land from  France,  gained  the  favour  of  James  by  his 
courtly  manners,  and  received  the  lands  and  earldom  of 
Lennox,  the  custody  of  Dunrbarton  castle,  and  the  office 
of  chamberlain.  One  of  his  dependants,  Captain  James 
Stuart,  son  of  Lord  Ochiltree  and  brother-in-law  of  Knox, 
had  the  daring  to  accuse  Jlorton  at  a  meeting  of  the  council 
in  Holyrood  of  complicity  in  the  murder  of  Darnlcy,  and 
he  was  at  once  committed  to  custody.  Some  months  later 
Morton  was  condemned  by  an  assize  for  having  taken  part 
in  that  crime,  and  the  verdict  wa-s  justified  by  his  con- 
fession that  Bothwell  had  revealed  to  him  the  design, 
althoujfli  he  denied  2)articipation  in  its  execution.  Ho 
was  executed  by  the  Maiden — a  guillotine  he  had  himself 
brought  from  England^on  2d  June  1581. 

From  December  15S0  to  Augu.st  15S2  the  government 
was  in  the  hands  of  Lennox  and  Stuart,  now  captain  of 
the  guard, — a  small  force  which  the  estates  had  reluctantly 
allowed  the  king  to  j)rotect  his  person.  Their  jealousy 
threatened  but  never  reached  an  oiien  rupture.  Stuart  was 
rewarded  by  the  gift  first  of  the  tutory,  then  of  the  earldom 
of  Arran  in  April  1581.  Lennox  was  created  duke,  a  title 
seldom  granted  in  Scotland.  Their  aim,  carefully  concealed 
by  nominal  adherence  to  the  Protestant  faith,  ajipears  to 
have  been  the  association  of  Mary  with  her  son  in  the 
government,  a  breach  with  England,  the  renewal  of  the 
league  with  France,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Pioman 
Church.  The  nobles,  bribed  by  office  or  the  spoils  of  the 
church,  were  men  of  too  feeble  character  to  resist,  but 
the  Presbyterian  ministers  were  made  of  stronger  metal. 
Illegal  bani.slnnent  of  the  contumacious  clergy  and  arbitrary 
orders  of  council  were  follo\vcd  by  a  rising  against  Epis- 
copacy. The  proclamation  of  an  extraordinary  cliambcrlain 
air — an  itinerant  court  of  justice— to  be  held  by  Lennox 


at  Edinburgh  on  27th  August  precipitated  the  covp  d'etat  of  1375-1585 
the  Raid  of  Ruthven,  which  took  the  usual  form  of  Scottish 
revolutions, — the  seizure  of  the  king  and  the  transfer  of 
power  to  his  captors.     Wlien  en  a  visit  (22d  August  1582) 
to  the  earl  of  Gowrie,  son  of  his  mother's  foe  Lord  Ruthven,  Raid  of 
at  his  castle  of  Hunting  Tower  near  Perth,  the  earl  his  host,  Rutt'ea 
Mar,  the  master  of  Glamis,  and  others,  taking  advantage 
of  the  absence  of  Lennox  and  Arran,  surrounded  the  castle 
with  armed  men  and  made  James  a  prisoner,  though  still 
ostensibly  treating  him  as  king.    Arran,  returning  to  Perth 
with  only  two  followers,  was  seized  and  put  in  prison. 
Lennox,  after  taking  refuge  in  the  castle  of  Dumbarton, 
fled  to  France,  where  he  died  in  disgrace  with  the  Catholics, 
because  he  had  conformed  to  the  Protestant  doctrine. 

The  government  was  for  ten  months  in  the  hands  of  a 
new  council,  of  which  Go'wrie  as  treasurer  was  the  head. 
There  was  no  parliament,  but  a  convention  at  Holyrood 
ratified  the  consequences  of  the  Raid  of  Ruthven.  A 
declaration  was  extorted  from  the  king  condoning  his 
■  capture ;  but  James,  no  longer  a  boy,  chafed  under  the 
tutelage  of  the  Protestant  nobles  and  the  admonitions  of 
the  Protestant  ministers.  In  June  of  the  following  year 
he  escaped  from  Falkland  to  St  Andrews,  which  was  held 
by  Colonel  Stewart.  Arran  was  recalled,  the  Raid  of  Reaction 
Ruthven  declared  treason,  Gowrie  executed,  and  the  chief  '"  f^^'ir 
Protestant  lords  banished.  Jlelville  and  other  ministers  °'  ^1""' 
found  it  necessary  to  fly  to  England.  A  parliament  con-  '  ' 
firmed  the  supremacy  of  Arran,  who  was  created  chan- 
cellor, and  the  forfeiture  of  the  chief  persons  implicated 
in  the  Ruthven  Raid.  The  king's  power  was  declared  to 
extend  over  all  estates  and  subjects  within  tlio  realm ;  all 
jurisdictions  not  approved  by  parliament  and  all  assemblies 
and  conventions  without  the  king's  licence  were  discharged. 
A  commission  was  granted  to  Patrick  Adamsou,  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews,  and  other  bishops  for  trying  ecclesiastical 
causes,  and  a  form  of  judgment  was  established  for  depriv- 
ing ministers  of  their  benefices  for  worthy  causes.  A 
declaration  was  recjuired  to  be  subscribed  by  all  beneficed 
men — ministers,  readers,  masters  of  colleges  and  schools- 
acknowledging  their  submission  to  the  king  and  obedience 
to  their  ordinary  bishop  or  superintendent  appointed  by 
him,  under  pain  of  forfeiture.  A  few  subscribed  uncondi- 
tionally, others  with  the  cjualification,  "according  to  the 
Word  of  Crod";  but  a  large  number  declined,  and  sufiered 
the  penalty.  Early  in  15S5  Adamson  issued  a  paper  de- 
claring the  king's  supremacy  in  matters  ecclesiastical, 
defending  the  restoration  of  bishops,  and  announcing  the 
king's  intention  that  tlie  bishops  should  hold  synods  twice 
a  year,  that  general  assemblies  .should  be  allowed  provided 
they  had  his  sanction,  but  that  no  jurisdiction  was  to  bo 
exercised  by  presbyteries.  This  document,  which  cut  at 
the  root  of  the  Presbyterian  system  and  was  a  formal 
declaration  in 'favour  of  the  royal  supremacy  and  Episco- 
pacy, was  met  with  vehement  protests  by  Melville  and  the 
exilc'd  ministers. 

Meantime  a  series  of  intriguos  went  on   between  theJ.imcs 
English   and    Scottish    courts.      Elizabeth,   while    osten-^;';' 
sibly  favouring  the  exiles,  disliked  their  political  principles.  ^  /f}' 
James  and  Arran,  instead  of   loaning  on  tlie  papacy  as 
Mary  did,  had  shown  signs  of  accepting  a  solution  of  the 
problem  of  church  government  more  like  that  of  England 
than  of  Geneva.    There  was  here  ground  for  a  compromise 
of  the  religious  controversy  which  political  reasons  made 
so  desirable.      Accordingly   Lord    Hunsdon,   a  favourite 
courtier  of   Elizabeth,   met  Arran   near   Berwick   in   the 
autumn,  when  it  was  arranged  that  the  master  of  Gray, 
then  a  follower  of  Arran  and  personal  favourite  of  Jamc ;, 
should  go  to  London  in  October.    At  his  instance  Elizabeth 
removed  the  banished  Scottish  lords  and  ministers  from 
Xcwcastle  to  London.      But  Gray  was  playing  his  own 


508 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


;ij-159j.  game,  and  his  suggestions  tliat  tlics5  lords  might  return 
to  Scotland,  and  that  the  alliance  'with  England  should  be 
carried  out  by  their  aid  and  his  own  influence  independ- 
ently of  Arran,  were  taken  up  by  the  queen,  who  had  no 
persorul  liking  for  Arran,  and  ultimately  effected.  Eliza- 
beth sent  Wotton  to  Scotland,  who  won  the  confidence  of 
Jame.s,  to  whom  he  promi-sed  a  pension  of  £5000  a  year, 
and  while  openly  nego'J.iting  with  Arran  secretly  plotted 
with  Gray  for  his  downfall.  A  mutual  league  between 
England  and  Scotland  against  the  Catholics,  called  "the 
Bond  ancnt  the  True  Religion,"  was  agreed  to  by  a  con- 
vention of  estates  in  July  15S5. 

This  was  a  turning-|>oint  in  the  life  of  James  and  in  the 
history  of  Scotland.  The  choice  was  made  between  France 
and  England,  Komanism  and  protestantism.  It  was  not 
likely  to  be  reversed  when  with  Elizabeth's  declining  years 
the  crown  of  England  was  thrown  into  the  balance.  The 
day  before  tlie  conclusion  of  the  treaty  Arran  was  at  the 
request  of  Elizabeth's  envoy  put  in  strict  ward,  under  the 
pretext  that  he  had  been  privy  to  the  death  of  Lord 
liussell,  son  of  the  earl  of  Bedford^  in  a  border  fray,  and 
he  only  escaped  at  the  price  of  his  estates  and  honours. 
In  November  the  banished  lords — Angus,  Mar,  the  master 
of  Glamis — returned,  and  along  with  them  the  two  Hamil- 
tons ;  and,  aided  by  Gray,  they  seized  the  person  of  the 
king  and  the  castle  of  Stirling,  and  assumed  the  government. 
The  alliance  with  England  was  finally  ratified  at  Berwick 
by  Randolph.  James,  at  the  instigation  of  Gray,  wrote  a 
harsh  letter  to  his  mother;  and  at  the  instance  of  Eliza- 
beth he  allowed  George  Douglas,  who  had  been  concerned  in 
Darnley's  murder,  to  return  to  Scotland.  The  exiled  Pro- 
testant ministers  were  restored  to  their  livings  ;  but  James 
was  resolute  in  maintaining  Episcojvacy  anct  enforcing  the 
laws  against  all  who  denied  the  royal  supremacy.  Adam- 
son  was  indeed  forced  by  a  general  assembly  to  disclaim 
any  authority  as  archbishop  not  allowed  by  God's  Word, 
and  an  Act  was  passed  again  dividing  Scotland  into  presby- 
teries, but  the  king  refused  to  subject  the  bishops  to  their 
jurisdiction.  Mary,  deserted  by  her  son,  now  allowed 
herself  through  her  immediate  confidants,  especially  her 
secretaries  Kau  and  Curie,  to  take  an  active  though  secret 
part  in  the  Jesuit  plots  which  embraced  both  Scotland 
and  England  in  their  ramifications.  That  which  liad  for 
its  aim  the  assassination  of  Elizabeth  was  discovered  by 
Walsingham's  spies,  and,  though  forgery  was  resorted  to, 
it  is  difficult  to  doubt  that  Mary  was  cognizant  of  the 
design.  The  trial  at  Fotheringay  could  have  but  one  result 
under  a  statute  according  to  which  any  attempt  against 
the  queen's  life  was  treason  in  the  person  for  whom  it  was 
made  as  well  as  in  the  actual  jierpetrators.  The  execu- 
tion (8th  February  1587)  of  Mary  naturally  roused  the 
anger  of  the  Catholic  powers  and  some  indignation  in 
Scotland,  which  James  professed  to  share ;  yet  he  did 
nothing  but  expostulate.  In  truth  his  own  crown  was 
tlireatened  by  the  same  enemies.  Mary  h.ad  disinherited 
him  in  favour  of  Philip  of  Spain,  unless  he  adoj>ted  the 
'Catholic  faith.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  by  the 
sovereign  ar.d  people  of  both  countries  was  felt  to  be  a 
providential  deliverance.  Nothing  could  have  served  better 
to  efface  the  memory  of  Mary  and  extinguish  pity  for  her 
Mdjoritj-  fate.  The  fall  of  Gray,  who  w-as  tried  and  condemned  for 
ofJames.  treachery  during  iiis  English  embassy  and  for  correspond- 
ence with  Catholic  jirinces,  left  James,  now  of  full  age, 
without  what  was  almost  a  necessity  to  his  weak  nature, 
— a  favourite,  though  Sir  John  ^laitland,  a  younger  brother 
of  Lethington,  was  secretary  and  exercised  the  chief  influ- 
ence in  the  government.  Advantage  was  taken  of  the 
royal  majority  to  pass  an  Act  annexing  to  the  crown 
all  church  lands  under  certain  limited  reservations.  But, 
as  all  prior  grants  to  lay  impropriators  were  saved,  and 


the  king  was  .still  allowed  to  grant  feus  of  church  lands, 
the  nobles  and  landed  gentry  reallj-  profited  most  by  this 
measure,  which  gave  a  parliamentary  title  to  their  estates 
derived  from  the  church  and  the  hope  of  future  spoils. 
The  Act  was  accompanied  by  a  general  revocation  of  all 
gifts  Uiade  during  the  king's  minority  or  by  Mary  after 
his  accession.  Another  statute  of  constitutional  import- 
ance renewed,  and  for  the  first  time  carried  into  effect, 
the  law  of  James  I.  by  which  the  lesser  barons  in  the 
counties  were  cxoised  from  personal  attendance  and  allowed 
to  send  rei)rcsentatives  to  parliament.  This  was  a  check 
on  the  nobles  who  liad  hitherto  almost  exclusively  attended 
and  ruled  parliament.  It  was  the  first  and  only  large 
deviation  of  the  Scottish  parliament  from  the  feudal  model 
of  the  cti)-ia  renis. 

Projects  for  the  king's  marriage  had  been  on  foot  at  an 
earlier  period ;  but  at  last  the  choice  fell  upon  Anne  of 
Denmark.  Elizabeth  ojiposed  the  match  ;  but  James,  per- 
hajvs  tempted  by  the  oft'er  to  surrender  the  Danish  claim  to 
Orkney  and  Shetland,  perhaps  also  not  unwilling  to  show 
he  could  choose  for  himself,  was  married  to  Anne  by  proxy. 
Anne  set  sail  for  Scotland,  but  was  driven  back  by  a  storm. 
Accordingly  James  him.self  went  to  claim  his  bride,  when 
the  actual  marriage  was  at  once  celebrated  at  Copenhagen, 
where  he  spent  the  winter.  It  was  a  political  advantage 
both  to  the  king  and  to  Scotland  to  form  a  connexion  with 
a  kingdom  which,  though  small,  stood  comparatively  high 
at  that  time  in  Europe,  and  was  completely  independent 
both  of  England  and  of  France.  After  the  king's  return 
the  Presbyterian  party  was  in  the  ascendant.  It  has  been 
doubted  whether  the  favour  shown  to  it  by  James  at  this 
time  was  genuine,  but  without  reason.  He  had  been 
married,  and  the  queen  was  crowned,  by  Robert  Bruce, 
a  leading  minister,  for  whom  he-  had  a  personal  liking. 
Shortly  before  going  to  Denmark  James  had  published  a 
tract  interpreting  the  Apocalypse  in  the  well-known  Protest- 
ant sense.  Notwithstanding  the  failure  of  the  AiTnada, 
the  air  was  still  full  of  Jesuit  intrigues  and  Spanish  plots. 
At  no  moment  of  his  life  was  James  less  inclined  towards 
the  Englisli  form  of  the  Reformation,  which  he  described 
in  a  celebrated  speech  as  retaining  the  superstition  of  the 
mass  "without  the  liftings."  A  severe  blow  was  given 
to  Episcopacy  in  Scotland  by  Archbishop  Adamson  shortly 
before  his  death  retracting  in  a  published  confession  his 
writings  against  presbyterianism.  In  1592  parliament,  led 
according  to  James  Melville  by  Maitland,  now  Lord  Thirle- 
stane  and  chancellor,  re-established  Presbyterian  church 
government.  General  assemblies  were  to  meet  once  a 
year,  and  iirovincial  assemblies  or  synods,  presbyteries, 
and  sessions  were  confirmed.  The  Act  of  1584  conferring 
jurisdiction  on  bishops  was  rescinded,  but  there  was  no 
formal  abrogation  of  the  oflice.  The  assembly  had  asked 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Act  of  Annexation  of  1587,  but  this 
was  not  conceded.  The  landed  interests  were  too  powerful 
to  allow  of  the  Reformed  Cliurch  receiving  the  patrimony 
of  its  predecessor.  Shortly  after  the  termination  of  the 
parliament  the  discovery  of  the  plot  of  "the  Spanish 
blanks  "  showed  that  the  danger  of  a  Catholic  rising  and 
foreign  invasion  was  real.  The  conspiracy  proved  abor- 
tive, and  two  of  its  chief  promoters  'Huntly  and  Erroll) 
left  Scotland  ;  on  their  return  three  year^  later  they  publicly 
renounced  Catholicism  and  conformed  to  the  I'rotestant 
faith. 

From  the  king's  majority  to  his  accession  to  the  English 
throne,  his  relations  to  the  nobles  on  the  one  hand  and  to 
the  Presbyterian  party  led  by  the  min;^L.^is  on  the  other 
require  to  be  kept  in  view  as  giving  the  key  to  a  singularly 
confused  and  changing  course  of  events.  After  the  death 
of  Thirlestane  in  1595,  the  king  had  to  rely  on  his  own 
counsel,  of  the  value  of  which   he  had  an  overweening 


Re-estab 

of  Prei- 

byteri.alj- 

ism. 


F.cl.i- 

tions 

betweeu- 

church 

and 

state. 


KEFORMATION.] 


a  U  Q  'X  h  '^  'iN  D 


509 


opinion.  He  had  studied  the  theory  of  kingcraft  and  -irrote 
the  Basilkon  Doron  expounding  it.  He  fancied  that  he 
really  governed,  while  he  was  in  fact  drawn  this  way  or 
that  by  the  contending  forces  which  emerged  in  this  revolu- 
tionary epoch.  In  spite  of  occasional  displays  of  resolution, 
his  character  was  at  bottom  weak.  It  was  the  destiny 
which  conducted  him  to  the  EngUsli  throne  that  saved  him 
from  the  dangers  of  his  situation  in  Scotland.  A  noble- 
man, who,  although  only  connected  by  his  mother  with 
-Mary's  Bothwell,  seeratd  to  inherit  the  reckless  daring  of 
Lis  predecessor  in  the  title,  thrice  attempted  and  once  for 
a  short  time  succeeded  in  seizing  the  royal  person  and 
assuming  the  reins  of  government.  But  James,  who  was 
hot  without  adroitness  in  baffling  plotters  by  arts  siinilar 
to  their  cvm,  escaped  from  his  custody.  Towards  the 
Catholic  lords  his  policy  was  not  to  proceed  to  extremities, 
but  to  keep  them  in  hand  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  extreme 
Protestant  party.  He  prudently  allowed  tlie  finances  to 
be  managed  after  Thirlestaue's  death  by  a  committee,  called 
i'r.s  from  its  number  the  Octavians,  on  which  both  Catholics 
"•"'»•  and  Protestants  acted, — Seton,  afterwards  Lord  Dunfernj- 
'•^^'  line,  the  president  of  the  session,  and  Lindsay  of  Balcarres 
being  the  leading  members.  With  their  advice  James  set 
himself  against  any  measures  which  the  Protestant  minis- 
ters proposed  for  the  restoration  or  increase  of  the  revenues 
of  the  church.  It  was  this  critical  point  of  money,  the 
assertion  of  the  royal  supremacy  in  spiritual  matters,  and 
the  favour  the  king  showed  to  the  Catholics  which  led  to 
the  quarrel  between  him  and  the  ministers.  At  a  conven- 
tion of  the  estates  at  Falkland  and  then  more  strongly 
as  one  of  a  deputation  sent  by  the  ministers  from  Cupar, 
Andrew  Melville,  in  the  spirit  and  manner  of  Knox,  made 
his  well-known  speech  to  "  God's  silly  vassal "  on  the  two 
kingdoms  and  the  two  kings.  Although  James,  frightened 
by  this  vehejnent  language,  made  promises  that  he  would 
ilo  nothing  for  the  Catholic  lords  till  they  had  made  terms 
with  the  church,  it  was  impossible  that  a  quarrel,  whose 
roots  were  so  deep,  as  to  the  limits  of  the  royal  authority 
and  jurisdiction  in  matters  ecclesiastical  could  be  appeased. 
Neither  party  to  it  could  see  how  far  each  overstepped  the 
bounds  of  reason.  The  king  was  blind  to  the  right  of 
freedom  of  conscience  which  Protestantism  had  established 
as  one  of  its  first  principles.  Melville  and  the  ministers 
were  equally  blind  to  the  impossibility  of  any  form  of 
monarchy  yielding  to  t!ie  claim  that  the  members  of  an 
ecclesiastical  assembly  should  use  the  name  of  Christ  and 
the  theory  of  His  headship  over  the  church  to  give  them- 
selves absolute  power  to  define  its  relations  to  the  state. 
Other  occasions  quickly  arose  for  renawing  the  controversy. 
A  violent  sermon  by  Black  at  St  Andrews  gave  a  favour- 
able opportunity  to  James  of  invoking  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  privy  council,  and  the  preacher  was  banished  north  of 
the  Tay.  Soon  afterwards  a  demand  made  on  the  king 
in  consequence  of  a  sermon  of  another  minister,  Balcan- 
([uhal,  and  a  speech  of  Bruce,  the  king's  former  favcfurite, 
that  he  should  dismiss  the  Octavians,  led  to  a  tumult  in 
Edinburgh,  which  gave  James  a  pretext  for  leaving  the 
town  and  removing  the  courts  of  justice  to  Linlithgow. 
Supported  by  the  nobles,  he  returned  on  New-Ycdr's  Day 
1-597,  received  the  submission  of  the  town,  levying  a  severe 
fine  before  he  would  restore  its  privileges  as  a  corporation 
and  withholding  from  it  the  right  of  electing  its  own  magis- 
trates or  ministers  withoirt  the  royal  consent.  Emboldened 
by  tliis  success,  James  now  addressed-  himself  to  the  diffi- 
cult problem  of  church  and  state.  He  did  not  yet  feel 
strong  enough  to  restore  Episcopacy,  perhaps  had  not  quite 
determined  on  that  course.  The  ingenious  scheme  due  to 
Lindsay  of  Balcarres  was  fallen  on  of  introducing  repre- 
sentatives of  the  cliurch  into  parliament  without  naming 
them  bishops.      Thi.'s  would  have  the  twofold  effect  of 


diminishing  the  authority  of  the  general  assemblies  and  1595-1603 
of  conferring  on  parliament  a  competency  to  deal  with 
matters  ecclesiastical.  Parliament  in  1597  passed  an  Act 
that  all  ministers  promoted  to  prelacies  (i.e.,  bishoprics  or 
abbacies)  should  have  seats  in  parliament,  and  remitted  to 
the  king  with  the  general  assembly  to  determine  as  to  the 
office  of  such  persons  in  the  spiritual  policy  and  govern- 
ment of  the  kirk.  Accordingly  James  suinmoned  succes- 
sive asseinblies  at  Perth  and  Dundee,  where  there  were  two 
sessions  in  1597,  and  finally  at  Montrose  in  1600,  selecting 
those  tovms  in  order  to  procure  a  good  attendance  from 
the  north,  always  more  favourable  to  royalty  and  Episco- 
pacy and  less  under  the  influence  of  the  Edinburgh  clergy. 
By  this  and  other  manccuvres  he  obtained  some  concessions, 
but  not  all  that  he  desired  (see  Pkesbytekianism,  vol.  siz.  Gov.ile 
pp.  C81-6S2).  It  was  the  Gowrie  conspiracy  (5th  August '=°"- 
1  GOO)  whose  failure  gave  him  the  courage  and  the  ground  ^P"^^'^*' 
for  finally  abandoning  the  Presbyterians  and  casting  in  his 
lot  with  the  bislicps.  Repeated  investigations  at  the  time 
and  since  cannot  be  said  to  have  completely  cleared  up  the  . 
mystery  of  this  outrage.  The  most  probable  solution  was 
afforded  by  the  discovery  several  years  afterwards  of  a  corre- 
spondence between  Gowrie  and  Logan  of  Kestalrig  which 
pointed  to  the  seizure  of  the  person  rather  than  the  murder 
of  James  as  the  object  of  the  plot.  Jlore  important  than 
this  object,  which  failed,  was  the  sequel.  The  Ruthvens, 
who  were  chiefly  implicated,  were  amongst  the  most  promi- 
nent of  the  Protestant  nobility,  and  the  Presbyterian  minis- 
ters with  few  exceptions  refused  to  accept  James's  owu 
account  of  v/hat  had  happened,  confirmed  though  it  was 
by  depositions  of  various  noblemen  who  were  %vith  the 
king  at  the  time.  They  even  insinuated  that  the  plot  had 
not  beair  by  but  against  Gowrie  at  the  king's  instance. 
Although  James  by  arguments  and  threats  at  last  extorted 
an  acknowledgment  of  tlie  truth  of  his  account  from  all  the 
ministers  except  Bruce,  who  was  deprived  of  his  benefice 
and  banished  for  his  contumacy,  the  insult  and  the  injuri- 
ous suspicions  were  never  forgiven. 

In  October,  with  the  consent  of  the  convention  of  estates, 
he  appointed  three  bishops  to  vacant  Sees,  and  they  sat 
in  parliament,  though  as  yet  without  any  place  in  the 
government  of  the  church,  which  was.  still  Presbyterian, 
and  with  no  sanction  of  course  from  the  assembly  or  the 
ministers.     James  had  to  assume  the  English  crown  before  Cuion  of 
Episcopacy  could  really  be  restored.     This  crisis  of  his  J^^olisI: 
career  was  not  long  delayed.     Already  Elizabeth's  death  g^^^j^,, 
was  being  calculated   on,   and  her  courtiers  from   Cecil  crowDS. 
downwards  were'  contending  for  the  favour  of  her  heir. 
She  died  on  24th  March  1603  and  James  was  at  once  pro- 
claimed her  successor  in  accordance  with  her  o-wn  declara- 
tion that  no  minor  person  should  ascend  her  throne  but 
her.  cousin,  the  king  of  Scots.     Leaving  Edinburgh  on  6th 
April,  James  reached  London  on  6th  May,  being  every- 
where received  with  acclamatioh  by  the   people.      I'hua 
peacefully  at  a  memorable  epoch. in  the  history  of  Europe 
was  accomplished  the  union  of  South  and  North  Britain. 
Often  attempted  in  .vain  by  conc^uest,  it  was  now  attained 
in  a  manner  soothing  the  pride  of  the  smaller  country, 
without  at  first  exciting  the  jealousy  of  the  larger,  whose 
interest  wa.s,  a.s  Henry  Vfl.  prophesied,  sure'to-predpminate. 
To  .James  it  was  a  welcome  change  from,  nobles  who  had 
threatened  his  liberty  and  life,  and  from  ministers  who  ■ 
withstood  his  will  and  showed  little  respect  for  his  person 
or  office,  to  the  courtier  statesmen  of  England  trained  by 
the  Tudors  to  reverence  the  monarch  as  all  but  absolute, 
and  a  clergy  bound  to  recognize  hiirt  as  their  head.     To  Adran- 
Scotland,  a  poor  country,  and  its  inhabitants,  poor  also  '■'F"-'''  '•'' 
but  enterprising  and  eager  for  new  careers,  it  opened  pro-  °<^^''"'=*^ 
spects  of  national  prosperity  which,  though  not  at  once, 
were  ultimately  realized.     It.  was  an  immediate  gain  that 


510 


SCOTLAND 


[niSTOBT. 


I6y316]5.  border  wars  and  English  and  French  intrigues  were  at  an 
end.  This  more  than  counterbalanced  the  loss  of  the  court, 
a  loss  v'hich  probably  favoured  the  independent  develop- 
ment of  the  nation.  For  the  present  no  change  was  made 
in  ils  constitution,  its  church,  or  its  laws.  The  Reforma- 
tion had  continued  the  -work  of  the  War  of  Independence. 
Scotland  no  longer  consisted  only  of  the  prelates,  the 
nobles,  and  the  landed  gentry.  The  commons,  imperfectly 
represented  in  parliament  by  the  burghs,  not  yet  wealthy 
enough  to  be  powerful,  had  found  a  voice  in  the  assemblies 
of  the  church  and  leaders  in  its  ministers  and  elders. 

Superstition  did  not  fall  with  the  fall  of  the  church  of 
Rome  nor  licence  with  the  decline  of  the  nobility.  Fiather, 
both  took  new  forms  of  extreme  virulence  and  threatened 
to  impede  the  national  progress ;  but  both  were  exposed 
to  the  light  of  pubhc  discussion  and  the  growth  of  public 
opinion.  The  contact  with  the  more  cultured  south  was 
of  immense  value.  Scotland,  now  beginning  to  use  in  the 
services  of  the  church,  in  the  proceedings  of  the  courts, 
.  and  in  printed  books  the  vulgar  tongue,  which  differed 
only  as  a  dialect  from  that  of  England,  was  admitted 
to  the  freedom  of  the  noblest  language  and  literature  in 
Europe,  then  in  its  prime.  The  arts  which  increase  the 
convenience  and  pleasure  of  daily  life  spread  northward 
with  the  increase  of  w-ealth.  Science,  starting  on  a  new 
method  taught  by  the  great  English  philosopher,  was  intro- 
duced and  after  a  time  eagerly  prosecuted.  Commerce, 
for  which  the  Scots  had  a  natural  aptness,  found  new 
fields.  And  all  these  benefits  were  procured  without  any 
.sacrifice  of  the  independent  spirit  wliich  had  been  derived 
from  their  forefathers.  Even  the  separate  intercourse 
v.-ith  the  Continent — with  France,  Germany,  Holland,  and 
Scandinavia — from  which  Scotland  had  already  received 
so  much  -  advantage,  though  not  quite  so  intimate  with 
France  as  before,  continued.  But  before  the  blessings  of 
the  tmion  could  be  fully  realized  a  century  was  to  inter- 
vene, which  at  times  seemed  to  hide  if  not  to  bury  them, 
— a  century  of  civil  war  and  religious  controversy.  Af 
the  moment  when  James  ascended  the  throne  and  pro- 
claimed the  virtues  of  peace  it  required  no  far-sighted 
observer  to  discern  elements  of  discord  which  might  at 
any  moment  bur^t  in  storm.  To  hold  Papal  Ireland, 
Episcopal  England,  and  Presbyterian  Scotland  united  under 
one  sceptre  was  a  task  of  infinite  difficulty,  not  lessened 
because  in  each  there  was  a  minority  who  dissented  strongly 
from  the  prevailing  opinion  as  to  church  government  and 
doctrine.  The  sudden  separation  from  Rome  gave  birth 
to  every  variety  of  religious  opinion,  andScotland  became 
even  more  than  England  a  land  of  sects.  The  constitution 
of  the  civil  government  was  a  problem  not  yet  solved.  In 
England  the  Tudor  sovereigns  had  sapped  the  principles  of 
the  parliamentary  constitution  established  ifi  the  times  of 
the  Plantagenets,  and  fortunately  recorded  in  writings  which 
could  not  be  forgotten.  In  Scotland  such  principles  had 
never  yet  been  practically  adopted.  Ireland  was  niled  as 
a  dependency  on  the  principle  of  subjection. 

At  this  ixiint  in  the  treatment  of  some  historians  the 
history  of  Scotland  ends.  Juster  views  now  prevail. 
Neither  the  union  of  crowns  nor  of  parliaments  really 
closes  the  separate  record  of  a  nation  which  retained  sepa- 
rate laws,  a  separate  church,  a  separate  system  of  education, 
and  a  well-marked  diversity  of  character.  But  a  great 
part  of  the  subsequent  history  of  Scotland  is  necessarily 
included  in  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  has  been  treated 
under  England  (q-v.).  Considerations  of  space  and  pro- 
portion make  it  necessary  .that  what  remains  should  be 
told  even  more  rapidly  than  the  narrative  of  what  preceded 
the  accession  of  James  to  the  English  throne.  James 
during  the  first  half  of  his  reign  as  sovereign  of  Great 
Britain  allowed  himself  to  be  mainly  guided  bj  Robert 


Cecil,  Lord  Salisbury,  the  son  of  Burghley,  an  hersditcry 
statesman  of  great  ability  as  an  administrator.  But  on 
two  subjects  closely  connected  with  Scotland  the  king  had 
decided  opinions  of  his  own.  He  desired  to  see  Scotland 
bound  to  England,  not  merely  by  the  union  of  the  crowns, 
but  by  a  union  of  the  parlianients  and  laws,  and  if  not  an 
immediate  an  ultimate  union  of  the  churches.  He  was 
equally  determined  that  the  church  in  both  countries  should 
combine  a  moderate  Protestant  doctrine — a  via  media  be- 
tween Rome  and  Geneva — with  Episcopal  governme- t. 
Both  desires  were  founded  on  prudent  policy  and  might 
possibly  have  been  accomplished  by  a  stronger  and  wiser 
monarch.  But  the  former  was  opposed  by  the  jealousy  of. 
England  and  the  pride  of  Scotland.  The  latter  could  not 
be  accomplished  in  Scotland  without  force,  so  deep  were 
the  roots  which  Presbyterianism  had  struck.  James  at- 
tempted to  carry  both  measures  in  a  manner  calculated 
to  raise  rather  than  to  overcome  opposition.  The  union 
scheme  was  brought  before  his  first  English  parliament, 
and  commissioners  were  appointed  to  treat  with  the  Scottish 
commissioners  nominated  somev.-hat  reluctantly  by  the  par- 
liament of  Perth.  The  commissioners  met,  but  difference? 
at  once  emerged  on  thetopics  of  freedom  of  trade  between 
the  two  countries,  to  which  the  English  were  averse,  and 
the  acceptance  of  the  laws  of  England,  which  the  Scots 
objected  to.  Two  important  points  were  carried  by  a 
declaration  of  the  law  rather  than  agreement  of  the  com- 
missioners,— that  subjects  born  in  either  country  after  the 
accession  (post  nati)  should  have  the  full  privileges  of  sub- 
jects and  not  be  deemed  aliens,  and  that  those  born  before 
should  be  -capable  of  denization  and  so  of  mheriting  or 
acquiring  land  in  England,  though  not  of  political  rights  or 
ofiices.  The  English  parliament  of  1607,  however,  refused 
to  sustain  the  decision  of  the  Exchequer  Chamber  in  favour 
of  the  po&t  nati,  although  it  consented  to  abolish  the  laws 
which  treated  Scotland  as  an  enemy's  country  and  made 
arrangements  for  the  extradition  of  criminals.  The  reli- 
gious or  ecclesiastical  question  was  first  brought  to  a  point 
in  England  at  the  Hampton  Court  conference,  which  met 
on  14th  January  1604,  in  which  trifling  concessions  were 
made  to  the  Puritans,  chiefly  as  to  the  observance  of  Sunday 
and  the  removal  of  the  Apocrypha  from  the  Authorized 
Version.  In  Scotland  Episcopacy  was  restored  by  a  series 
of  steps  which  were  gradual  only  for  the  purpose  of  over- 
coming opposition,  not  because  James  hesitated  as  to  the 
end  in  view.  At  length  the  parliament  of  1612  repeated 
the  Act  of  1592,  so  that  Episcopacy  was  now  once  mere 
established  in  Scotland  by  law,  but  contrary  iSp  the  wish 
of  the  majority  of  the  nation  and  under  circumstances 
which  made  it  the  symbol  of  absolute  government.  While 
this  resolute  in  favour  of  Episcopacy,  James  showed  no 
sign  of  leaning  to  the  P.cman  Church,  although  efforts  to 
convert  him  had  been  made  at  an  earlier  i)eriod  in  Scot- 
land. The  Armada,  now  followed  by  the  Gunpowder 
Plot,  convinced  him  that  he  had  nothing  to  hope  for  fro;.-, 
the  Papists  but  open  war  or  secret  conspiracy. 

After  the  death  of  Cecil  James  gave-  way  to  that  influence 
of  favourites  to  which  -he  had  shown  himself  prone  in  his 
youngef  years ;  but  in  the  affairs  of  Scotland,  which  pro- 
duced much  trouble  and  little  profit,  Somerset  and  Buck- 
ingham took  no  interest  and  James  was  his  owri  master. 
After  an  absence  of  f6urteen  years  he  visited  his  native 
country.  He  had  proijiLsed  to  return  every  three  years, 
but  the  business  and  pleasures  of  the  English  court  detamed 
him.  His  main  object  was  to  can7  out  still  fiurther  the 
uniformity  of  the  chm-ch,  in  which  the  bishops  had  not 
succeeded  in  establishing  the  same  service  as  in  Englanc 
This  object  was  apparently  attained  in  1618  by  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth  (see  vol.  xix.  n.  682. 
but  at  the  cost  of  sowing  the  seed  of  leligious  war.    From 


J.imes's 
de-sire  for 
puliticaj 
unicu. 


Ee-est.ij 
lishir.eiii 
of  Epi3- 


FiT« 

Articles 
of  Pertli. 


LATER  STUA 


S  C  O  T  L  x\.  K  D 


511 


this  time  to  Jaira^'i  dcatli  little  occurred  worthy  of  note 
in  the  history  oi  licotland.  A  parliament  in  1G21,  held 
under  the  marquis  ot  Hamilton  as  commissioner,  confirmed 
the  Five  Articles,  taough  by  a  majority  that  is  narrow 
when  the  power  of  thi;  king  in  a  Scottish  parliament  is  kept 
in  view,  and  only  on  .\a  assurance  from  the  commissioner 
that  no  further  ecclcsia:  tical  innovations  would  be  proposed. 
It  also  introduced  a  nt  .v  mode  of  electing  the  Lords  of  the 
Articles,  which  practically  gave  the  whole  influence  to  the 
bishops,  the  nominees  ol  the  crown.  As  this  body  prepared 
the  entire  business  of  a  parliament  in  which  there  was  no 
power  of  bringing  in  Biila  by  private  members,  this  was  a 
long  step  in  the  dircctioi.  of  absolute  government.  James, 
in  fact,  declared  in  one  of  jiis  speeches  to  the  English  parlia- 
ment that,  according  to  .die  Scottisli  constitution,  he  was 
master  of  its  whole  proceadings,  with  the  absolute  power 
of  initiative  as  well  as  of  v  eto.  His  declaration  was  an  ex- 
aggeration, for  there  were  well-known  precedents  of  the 
estates  passing  laws  withi  ut  the  roj'al  assent ;  but  the 
.Scottish  constitution  was  in  a  fluid  state  without  the 
guarantee  of  written  charteis  or  clearly  defined  rules  as  to 
the  refusal  of  supplies,  and  above  all  without  an  independ- 
ent House  of  Commons  to  represent  the  wishes  of  the 
people  and  demand  redress  for  their  grievances.  The  only 
part  of  the  policy  of  James  OjI  which  it  is  possible  to  look 
back  with  satisfaction  was  that  which  concerned  coloniza- 
Colouizi-  tion,  then  called  "  plantation."  This  gave  an  outlet  to  the 
'■'"''■  increasing  population,  while  i'.  advanced  the  civilization 
of  the  countries  to  which  the  settlers  went.  The  earliest 
of  these  schemes,  the  "  plantation  "  of  the  Hebrides  by  a 
number  of  gentlemen  of  Fife  called  "undertakers,"  had 
comparatively  little  effect,  but,  apart  from  it,  some  progress 
was  made  in  introducing  order  and  law  in  the  Highlands 
and  islands,  wliere  the  people  were  still  in  a  semi-barbarous 
condition.  More  important  was  the  plantation  of  IHster, 
chiefly  by  Scottish  farmers,  whose  descendants  still  retain 
a  Scottish  dialect  and  a  Presbyterian  church.  But  as  an 
augury  of  the  future  the  colonization  of  Nova  Scotia, 
though  attempted  in  an  arbitrary  manner,  was  of  the 
greatest  qpnsecjuence.  It  was  a  commencement  of  the 
great  migration  to  the  New  World  across  the  Atlantic  and 
to  the  other  colonial  possessions  of  Great  Britain,  in  which, 
equally  to  their  own  profit  and  that  of  the  empire,  the 
Scottish  nation  in  the  two  following  centuries  was  to  play 
so  great  a  part.  On  22d  March  1625  James  died,  leaving 
to  his  son  Charles  a  burden  of  government  heavier  than 
when  he  had  himself  undertaken  it.  His  apparent  success 
in  carrying  to  a  further  point  the  absolute  and  arbitrary 
principles  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns  scarcely  concealed  the 
real  failure.  Ireland,  with  difficulty  kept  down,  was  not 
really  subdued.  The  parliament  of  England  had  given 
unmistakable  signs  that  it  was  only  waiting  an  opiiortunity 
to  restore  the  constitution  on  the  old  basis..  The  religious 
and  political  instincts  of  the  Scottish  nation,  sti|ipressed 
by  force,  were  gathering  strength  to  reassert  themselve.. 
if  necessary  by  revolutionary  methods.  An  exhausted  ex- 
chequer, which  James  had  attempted  to  fill  by  monopolies, 
and  by  the  sale  of  offices  and  honours  and  so-called  bene- 
volences, added  to  the  other  difficulties  of  carrying  on  the 
government,  but  was  fortunately,  as  in  the  time  of  tlie 
Plantagenets,  to  afford  the  occasion  for  maintaining  the 
constitutional  struggle. 

8.  Period  of  Civil  Wars,  Charles  I.  to  Revolution. — 
>]ight  years  after  his  accession  Charles  I.  revisited  Scotland 
(1G33).  During  these  ho  had  pursued  his  father's  policy. 
No  Scottish  parliament  .sat,  though  a  nonnnal  one  was 
adjourned  annually  between  1628  and  1033.  No  general 
assembly  met,  but  the  restoration  of  Episcopacy  and  the 
mniformity  of  the  churches  were  steadily  prosecuted  by 
royal  influence  and  the  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative. 


In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  a  convention  of  the  estate.s,  1003-1637 
which  nearly  ended  in  bloodshed,  the  king  carried  out  the 
resumption  of  tithes  for  the  benefit  of  the  clergy  from  their 
lay  impropriators.  The  revocation  in  1G2D  of  all  grants  in  Ecclesi- 
prejudice  of  the  crown,  whether  before  or  after  the  Act  of  ■'^^'''^^' 
Annexation  of  1587,  was  superseded  by  a  new  measure,  ||,j„tj 
ratified  by  parliament  in  1633,  declaring  the  terms  on 
which  the  tithes  might  still  be  acquired  and  valued  by  the 
heritors.  Few  measures  have  been  of  greater  importance 
in  their  bearing  .on  Scottish  history.  The  revocation 
alienated  the  nobles  and  landed  gentry,  who  dreaded  that 
when  so  much  had  been,  still  more  might  be,  taken  from 
their  profits  in  the  Reformation.  The  new  valuation  left 
the  parochial  clergy  in  the  position  of  a  poor  class,  with 
interests  antagonistic  to  the  gentry,  whose  income  was 
diminished  whenever  the  ministers  attempted,  to  raise  their 
scanty  stipends.  The  loyalty  for  which  the  Scots  had 
been  distinguished  had  received  a  sliock  bjr  the  removal 
of  the  court,  and  this  was  a  second  and  more  serious 
blow.  Yet  when  Charles  came  to  Edinburgh  and  received 
the  crown  at  Holyrood  (ISth  June  1C33)  he  was  well  re- 
ceived. The  disaffection  still  lay  beneath  the  surface. 
Although  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth  were  not  rigidly  en- 
forced, all  the  court  could  do  was  done  to  introduce  the 
most  obnoxious, — the  practice  of  kneeling  at  the  com- 
munion, which  Presbyterians  deemed  a  relic  of  the  mass. 
The  question  of  a  liturgy  was  not  allowed  to  rest.  It 
was  brought  before  the  Scottish  bishops  in  1629  ;  their 
draft  was  submitted  to  Laud,  who,  detecting  in  it  Low 
Church  doctrine  as  to  bajitism  and  traces  of  Knox's  Booh 
of  Cominon  Order,  refused  his  approval. and  advocated  the 
introduction  of  the  English  Prayer  Book,  by  which  uni- 
formity would  be  scoured.  Though  this  was  not  yet  at- 
tempted, Charles  took  the  same  view  as  the  zealous  and 
ambitious  churchman  who  was  now  his  guide  in  ecclesi- 
astical matters.  When  he  came  to  Scotland  Laud  was  in 
his  suite,  and  the  coronation  was  conducted  with  a  ritual 
which  "  had  great  fear  of  inbringing  of  Popery."  Edin- 
burgh was  created  a  bishopric.  The  parliament  over  which 
Charles  presided  passed  thirty-one  Acts,  "not  three  of 
whicli,"  says  a  contemporary,  but  were  most  "  hurtful  to 
the  liberty  of  the  suliject."  One  in  particular  declared 
in  a  large  sense  the  royal  prerogative,  and  by  an  ill-omened 
conjunction  gave  the  king  ])ower  to  regulate  the  apparel  of 
churchmen.  It  was  disjmted  in  parliament  whether  this 
Act  was  carried,  but  the  piresence  of  the  king,  who  took 
notes  of  the  votes,  overawed  opposition.  About  a  year 
after  Charles  left  Scotland  the  trial  of  Lord  Balmerino, 
which  grew  out  of  the  Acts  of  this  parliament,  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  Scottish  revolution.  That  nobleman, 
who  had  po.sse.ssed  a  copy  of  a  petition  protesting  again-st 
the  Acts  then  carried,  was  tried  under  the  old  Acts  against 
leasing-making  or  sedition  and  condemned  by  a  majority 
of  one  upon  a  single  charge, — that  of  not  revealing  the 
petition  and  its  author  (March  1635).  Althougli  Charles 
respited  the  capital  sentence,  the  condemnation  deeply 
stirred  the  people,  who  saw  almost  the  only  mode  of  con- 
stitutional redress,  that  by  petition,  declared  illegal  and 
an  act  capable  of  innocent  interpretation  treated  as  a 
heinous  crime.  Before  the  trial  the  appointment  of  Spot- 
tiswoodo  as  chancellor,  the  first  ecclesiastic  who  held  the 
oflTicc  .since  the  Reformation,  and  the  admission  of  nine 
bi.shops  to  the  privy  council,  increased  the  disaffection.  In 
1630  the  Booh  of  Canons,  ratified  by  the  king  the  year 
before,  was  published  at  Aberdeen,  containing  the  most 
di.stinct  assertion  of  the  royal  supremacy  and  a  complete 
Episcopal  organization. 

At  last  on  Sunday,  23d  July  1637,  the  much-dreaded  IiitroJuc 
liturgy,  the  use  of  which  had  been  enjoined  by  the  Canons  t'""  "' 
and  announced  on  the  preceding  Sunday,  was  introduced  '  ™"' 


SCOTLAND 


[histokt. 


1637-1639.  in  the  service  of  St  Giles  Cathedral,  Edinburgh.  For  the 
most  part  a  transcript  of  the  English  Prayer  Book,  it 
deviated  slightly  in  the  direction  of  the  Roman  ritual 
Its  use  provoked  an  uproar,  of  which  the  stool  flung  at  the 
dean  by  a  woman,  Jenny  Geddes  or  Anne  Mein,  was  the 
symbol,  and  brought  the  service  to  a  close, — Lindsay,  the 
bishop,  being  with  difficulty  saved  from  the  violence  of  the 
mob.  A  similar  riot  took  place  in  Greyfriars  church,  where 
the  bishop  of  Argyll  attempted  to  use  the  book.  There 
had  been  no  such  tumult  since  the  Reformation.  The 
pri\-y  council  arrested  a  few  rioters,  b-'t  suspended  the  use 
of  the  service  book  until  the  king's  pleasure  was  known, 
and  when  Laud  at  the  king's  request  wrote  that  its  use 
should  be  continued  no  one  dared  to  read  it  in  Edinburgh  or 
throughout  Scotland  except  in  a  few  cathedrals.  Jleantime 
numerous  supplications  against  it  and  the  Canons,  joined 
with  accusations  against  the  bishops,  were  sent  to  Charles. 
His  only  answer  was  the  removal  of  the  courts  and  privy 
council  to  Linlithgow  and  an  order  to  all  ministers  who 
signed  the  supplications  to  leave  Edinburgh.  There  fol- 
lowed fresh  supplications  and  protests,  in  which  some  of 
the  nobility,  especially  Rothes,  Balmerino,  Loudon,  Mon- 
trose, and  a  prominent  lawyer,  Johnston  of  Warrislon, 
joined  with  the  ministers.  Hope,  the  king's  advocate, 
secretly  favoured  them.  Traquair,  a  leading  member  of 
the  privy  council,  went  to  London  to  press  on  Charles  and 
Laud  the  gravity  of  the  situation  ;  but,  though  ambiguous 
concessions  were  made,  the  king  and  his  advisers  were 
determined  to  insist  on  the  service  book.  In  a  proclama- 
tion issued  at  Stirling  (20th  February  1G3S)  the  king  as- 
sumed the  responsibility  of  its  introduction  ;  but  the  op- 
position was  too  powerful  to  be  put  down  by  words.  Its 
organization,  begun  by  commissioners  headed  by  Rothes, 
continued  in  committees  of  the  noble.s,  lesser  barons, 
The  ministers,  and  b  irghs,  was  noAv  called  "  the  Tables  "  from 

Covenanti  those  in  the  Parliament  House,  where  they  sat  sometimes 
separately,  sometimes  collectively,  and  formed  a  standing 
assembly  which  defied  the  king's  council.  The  Covenant, 
prepared  by  Alexander  Henderson,  leader  of  the  ministers, 
and  Johnston  of  W'arriston,  was  revised  by  Rothes,  Loudon, 
and  Balmerino,  and  accepted  by  upwards  of  two  hundred 
ministers  who  had  gathered  in  Edinburgh.  It  was  signed 
at  Greyfriars  church  on  1st  March  1638,  first  by  many 
of  the  nobles  and  gentry,  then  by  three  hundred  ministers 
and  a  great  multitude  of  the  people.  Copies  were  at  once 
despatched  throughout  the  country,  and  with  few  excep- 
tions, chiefly  in  St  Andrews  and  Abeideen,  it  was  accepted 
by  all  ranks  and  classes.  Its  form  was  suggested  by  the 
bonds  for  material  aid  of  which  Mary's  reign  had  given 
so  many  examples,  but  the  new  name  pointed  to  a  Biblical 
origin,  and  the  parties  were  not  the  nobles  and  their 
retainers  but  God  and  His  people.  While  nominally 
professing  respect  for  the  royal  oflice,  it  was  entered  into, 
as  it  anxiously  reiterated,  for  "the  defence  of  the  true 
religion  (as  reformed  from  Popery)  and  the  liberties  and 
laws  of  the  kingdom."  The  spirit  in  which  it  was  signed 
was  that  of  a  religious  revival.  JIany  subscribed  with 
tears  on  their  cheeks,  and  it  was  commonly  reported  that 
some  signed  with  their  blood.  Charles  could  not  relish 
a  movement  which  opposed  his  deepest  convictions  as  to 
church  government  and  under  the  form  of  respect  repudi- 
ated his  supremacy ;  but,  destitute  of  power  to  coerce  the 
Covenanters,  he  was  compelled  to  temporize.  Hamilton 
as  his  commissioner  offered  to  withdraw  the  service  book 
and  Book  of  Canons,  to  give  up  the  Court  of  High  Com- 
mission, and  to  allow  the  Articles  of  Perth  to  remain  in 
abeyance.  A  new  confession  called  the  "  negative,"  framed 
on  that  of  1580,  and  a  new  covenant  called  the  "  king's,"  on 
the  model  of  one  drawn  in  1590,  which  bound  the  signers 
only  to  stand  by  the  king  in  suppressing  Papists  and 


promoting  the  true  religion,  were  devised,  but  failed  to 
satisfy  even  the  least  zealous  Covenanters. 

An  assembly  at  last  met  in  Gla.sgow,  over  which  Hamilton  Assem- 
presided,  with  faint  hope  that  matters  might  still  be  accom-  bly  »f 
modated.  Hamilton  had  orders  to  dissolve  it  if  it  proved  Glassow 
to  be  intractable.  The  members  had  been  chosen  by  the 
influence  of  the  Tables,  according  to  a  mode  invented  in 
1597.  Three  ministers  represented  each  presbytery  and 
an  elder  the  laity  of  the  district.  The  burghs  also  sent  re- 
presentatives. The  Covenanters  had  declared  their  inten- 
tion of  prosecuting  the  bishops,  and  a  libel  laid  before  the 
presbytery  of  Edinburgh  was  read  in  the  churches.  Charles 
on  his  side  announced  that  he  challenged  the  mode  of 
election  and  wotild  not  allow  the  prosecutions.  He  was 
already  fireparing  for  war.  At  the  first  sitting  Alexander 
Henderson  was  chosen  moderator,  and  Johnston  of  Warri- 
ston  clerk.  In  spite  of  the  commissioner's  attempt  to  raise 
the  question  of  the  validity  of  elections,  the  assembly  de- 
clared itself  duly  constituted.  A  letter  from  the  bishops 
was  read  declining  its  jurisdiction,  and  the  commissioner, 
while  ofi'ering  redress  of  grievances  and  that  bishops  should 
be  responsible  to  future  assemblies  of  clergy,  declared  that 
the  present  assembly  was  illegal  in  respect  of  the  admission 
of  lay  representatives.  Discussion  was  useless  between  a 
commissioner  and  an  assembly  whose  power  to  act  ha 
denied.  He  accordingly  dissolved  it  in  the  name  of  the 
king  and  left  Glasgow ;  but  this  only  stinmlated  its  mem- 
bers. It  annulled  the  pretended  assemblies  between  1606 
and  1628,  condemned  the  service  book.  Book  of  Canons, 
Book  of  Ordinances,  and  the  High  Commission  Covu-t,  de- 
posed the  bishops  on  separate  libels  which  set  forth  various 
acts  of  immorality  or  crime,  many  of  which  were  false, 
declared  Episcopacy  to  have  been  abjured  in  1580,  and  con- 
demned the  Five  Articles  of  Perth.  It  concluded  its  month's 
labours  by  restoring  Presbyterian  church  government. 

The  distance  from  such  an  assembly  to  the  field  of  arms  AjukcI 
was  short,  and  on  7th  June  1639  the  army  of  the  Cove- 1»  wajs. 
nanters  under  Alexander  Leslie,  a  general  trained  in  the 
service  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  met  the  royal  troops  led  by 
the  king  at  Dunse  Law.  Charles,  though  slightly  superior 
in  numbers,  had  an  undisciiilined  army  and  no  Snoney  to 
maintain  it,  while  Leslie  had  trained  ofiicers  and  troops 
animated  by  religious  zeal.  Their  colours  were  stamped 
with  the  royal  arms,  and  the  motto  "  For  Christ's  Crown 
and  Covenant  "  in  golden  letters.  Councils  of  war  as  well 
as  religious  meetings  were  held  daily,  and  the  militant 
fervour  of  the  Covenanting  troops  steadily  rose.  Charles 
declined  to  engage  such  an  army  and  general,  and  by  the 
Pacification  of  Berwick  (18th  June)  both  parties  agreed  to 
disband,  and  Charles  to  issue  a  declaration  that  all  ecclesi- 
astical matters  should  be  regulated  by  assemblies,  and  all 
civil  by  parliament  and  other  legal  courts.  On  1st  August 
a  free  general  assembly  was  to  be  held  at  Edinburgh,  and 
on  the  20th  a  free  parliament  in  which  an  Act  of  Oblivion 
was  to  be  passed.  The  assembly  met  as  appointed  and, 
without  explicitly  conforming,  re-enacted  the  principal  re*- 
solutions  of  that  of  Glasgow,  and  declared  that  the  Covenant 
should  be  subscribed  by  every  one  in  oflice  and  authority. 
Before  it  separated  it  condemned  the  Large  Deilaration, 
a  pamphlet  by  Balcanquhal,  dean  of  Durham,  [jublished  in 
the  king's  name,  which  gave  an  adverse  narrative  of  recent 
events  in  Scotland.  The  parliament  effected  httle  legis- 
lation, but  showed  its  disposition  by  aboHbhing  Episcopacy 
and  reforming  the  election  of  the  Lords  of  the  Articles, 
of  whom  eight  were  hencefortli  to  be  chosen  by  the  nobles, 
lesser  barons,  and  burghs  respectively.  The  predominance 
of  the  king  and  the  church  was  thus  removed  from  the  body 
which  initiated  all  legislation.  Charles  had  beforehand 
determined  not  to  sanction  the  abolition  of  Episcopacy, 
and   the   parliament   was   prematurely   adjourned   (liiis. 


lATER  STUAKTS.] 


SCOTLAND 


513 


CLarlea'a 
ccnces- 
sions  to 
the  Scots. 


Civil 

W.-.r. 


November)  witnout  the  royal  asseijt  to  its  Acts.  It  -was 
evident  that  the  struggle  between  the  king  and  the  Scots 
■would  be  renewed,  and  b'oth  parties  reluctantly  had  re- 
course to  allies  whose  choice  showed  their  sense  of  the  crisis. 
Charles  summoned  an  English  parliament ;  but  the  three 
weeks'  session  of  the  Short  Parliament  was  spent  in  a  vain 
attempt  to  obtain  redress  for  its  own  grievances.  It 
separated  without  granting  supplies,  and  the  king  had  to 
depend  on  private  loans.  The  Scots  negotiated  with  the 
French  king;  butEichelieu  prevented  the  unnatural  alliance 
of  the  Catholic  king  and  the  Covenanters.,  The  Scots  took 
the  first  step  in  the  war.  The  army  under  Leslie  crossed  the 
Tweed  and,  forcing  the  passage  of  the  Tyne  at  Newburn, 
occupied  Newcastle.  Charles,  who  had  his  headquarters  at 
York,  paralysed  by  the  want  of  money  and  new  demands 
to  summon  an  English  parliament,  was  driven  to  accept  a 
truce  at  Ripon  (2d  September  IG'iO),  under  which  the 
Scottish  army  was  to.  receive  a  subsidy  to  relieve  the 
northern  counties  from  contributions.  Parliament  was 
summoned  to  Westminster  for  3d  November';  but  its  first 
act  was  the  impeachment  of  Strafford.  Until  a  pledge 
was  given  by  his  death  that  Charles  would  recognize  the 
limits  of  monarchy,  the  Parliamentary  leaders  thought  it 
safer  that  the  Scots  should  hold  the  north  of  England. 
Peace  was  concluded  by  the  Act  immediately  following 
that  of  Strafford's  attainder,  by  which  £300,000  was 
ordered  to  be  raised  as  "  friendly  assistance  and  relief 
piromised  to  our  brethren  in  Scotland.'' 

The  king  now  made  up  his  mind  to  revisit  Scotland, 
hoping  there  to  find  a  way  out  of  his  English  troubles. 
He  had  received  a  letter  from  Montrose '(y.f.),  urging  him 
to  come  and  gain  the  Scots  by  a  moderate  policy.  He 
came  to  Edinburgh  early  in  August  16il  and  a  parliament 
met  under  his  presidency,  when  he  not  only  ratified  the 
Acts  substituting  a  Presbyterian  for  the  Episcopal  form 
of  church  government  but  sanctioned  important  reforms. 
The  Lords  of  the  Articles  were  in  future  to  be  elected  by 
each  of  the  three  estates  separately,  the  burghs  taking  the 
place  of  the  bishops ;  the  Court  of  High  Commission  was 
abolished ;  arbitrary  proclamations  were  prohibited ;  the 
officers  of  state  and  the  judges  were  to  be  chosen  with  the 
advice  of  parliament ;  and,  following  an  English  Bill,  parlia- 
ment was  to  meet  every  third  year.  During  his  stay  in 
Scotland  occurred  "the  Incident,"  —  still  spoken  of  as 
mysterious  by  historians,  some  of  whom  liken  it  to  the 
English  incident  of  the  arrest  of  the  five  members.  Argyll 
and  Hamilton  had  led  >he  party  which  carried  all  the 
tneasurcs  of  this  jjarliament.  Montrose  had  been  com- 
mitted to  the  castle  by  the  estates  before  the  arrival  of 
Charles  on  a  charge  of  plotting  against  Argyll  by  false 
accusations  to  the  king.  From  his  prison  ho  renewed  his 
charges  against  both  Argyll  and  Hamilton,  whom  he  accused 
of  treason.  Charles  about  this  time  unwisely  attended 
parliament  ^vith  an  unusual  guard  of  500  men,  which  gave 
Hamilton  and  Argyll  a  pretext  for  asserting  that  their  lives 
were  in  danger  and  to  quit  Edinburgh.  They  soon  re- 
turned and  a  favourable  committee  of  investigation  let  the 
matter  drop.  Argyll  was  now  more  powerful  than  ever. 
In  November  the  king  returned  to  London,  which  became 
during  the  next  year  the  centre  of  the  events  which  led  to. 
tlie  Civil  War. 

T)ie  progress  of  the  Civil  War  belongs  to  English  history. 
xlere  only  the  part  taken  by  the  Scots  can  bo  stated.  They 
were  now  courted  by  king  and  Parliament  alike.  The 
campaign  of  1612-43  under  Essex  proved  indecisive,  and 
the  Parliament  sent  commissioners  headed  by  Sir  Henry 
Vane  to  Edinburgh  in  the  autumn  of  1613,  who  agreed 
to  the  "Solemn  League  and  Covenant,"  already  accepted 
by  the  Scottish  a.o^embly  and  parliament,  and  now  ratified 
by  the  English  parliament  ar.d  the  assembly  of  divines 


at  Westminster.  This  memorable  document,  whose  name  1639-1047. 
showed  its  descent  from  the  Natioivvl  Covenant,  bound  the 
pafties  to  it  "  to  preserve  the  Reformed  Church  in  Scot- 
land and  effect  the  reformation  of  that  in  England  and 
Ireland  in  doctrine,  worship,  discipline,  and  government 
according  to  the  Word  of  God  and  the  example  of  the  best 
Reformed  Churches."  But'  the  alliance  with  the  Scottish 
Covenanters  did  not  produce  the  advantage  expected  from 
it.  The  victory  of  Marston  Moor  was  due  to  Cromwell  and 
his  Ironsides,  who  were  Puritans  and  Independents.  The 
Scots,  who  formed  the  centre  of  the  Parliamentary  army, 
were  repulsed.  In  the  autumn,  although  the  Scots  took 
Newcastle,  the  Tiing  gained  ground  in  the  west,  where 
Essex,  the  general  who  represented  the  Presbyterians, 
narrowly  escaped  capture.  Next  year  Montrose,  in  the 
brilliant  campaign  on  which  his  military  fame  rests,  made 
a  formidable  diversion  in  the  Highlands.  With  dazzling 
rapidity,'  at  first  supported  only  by  a  handful  of  followers, 
but  gathering  numbers  with  success,  he  erected  the  royal 
standard  in  Dumfries;  then,  passing  to  tie  Highlands,  after 
the  victory  of  Tippermuir  he  took  Perth,  and  defeated 
Lord  Lewis  Gordon  at  the  Bridge  of  Dee.  Next,  after 
ravaging  the  county  of  Argyll,  he  marched  to  Inverness, 
but  returned  to  defeat  Argyll  at  Inverlochy,  won  further 
victories  at  Auldearn  near  Nairn  and  Alford  on  the  Don, 
and  by  that  of  Kilsyth  appeared  to  have  recovered  Scot-' 
land  for  Charles.  The  fruit  of  all  these  victories  was  lost 
by  his  defeat  at  Philiphaugh  (13th  September  104-1)  by 
Leslie.  Meantime  Charles  had  lost  the  battle  of  Naseby, 
and  next  year  was  forced  to  take  refuge  at  Newark  with 
Leslie,  whom  he  had  created  earl  of  Leven.  As  the  result 
of  his  surrender  he  ordered  Montrose,  who  was  again  raising" 
the  Royalists  in  the  Highlands,  to  lay  down  bis  arms  ;  and 
the  Scottish  army  in  England,  no  longer  on  good  terms 
with  the  Parliament,  returned  to  Newcastle,  that,  being 
nearer  home,  it  might  dictate  the  terms  of  its  services. 
Here  it  remained  eight  months,  during  which  a  strenuous  Cli.arks 
attempt  was  made  to  force  Charles  to  accept  the  Covenant.  V^  °'^"°' 
Alexander  Henderson  argued  the  matter  with  him  in  a  ^'"ti"',';^, 
singularly  temperate  correspondence.  But  the  king  was  s^,ot,, 
bound  to  Episcopacy  by  hereditary  sentiment  and  personal 
conviction.  Another  negotiation  was  going  on  at  the  same 
time  between  the  Scottish  army  and  the  English  Parlia- 
ment for  arrears  of  pay.  On  30th  January  1C46  they 
surrendered  the  king  to  the  English  commissioners,  the 
question  of  pay  having  been  settled  by  the  receipt  of 
£200,000  a  fev,-  days  .before  and  a  like  sum  a  few  days 
after  that  date.  There  was  no  express  condition  which 
bound  the  two  circumstances  together,  but  their  concur- 
rence cannot  have  been  accidental. 

In  his  captivity  Charles  renewed  his  negotiations  with 
the  Scottish  estates,  over  which  Hamilton  had  now  ac- 
quired influence,  and  a  compromise  was  at  last  agreed  to 
at  Newport  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  by  which  he  promised  to 
confirm  the  League  and  Covenant  by  Act  of  I'arliaracnt, 
to  establish  Presbyterianisra  and'  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion, which  as  well  as  tho  Directory  had  been  adopted  by 
the  Scottish  parliament  for  three  years.  After  that  period 
it  was  to  be  fixed  by  the  king  and  parliament  what  form 
of  church  government  was  most  agreeable  to  the  Word  of 
God,  and  this  after  consultation  with  the  assembly  was  to 
be  established.  The  Scots  consented  that  in  the  meantime 
the  Covenant  should  not  be  enforced  on  those  who  had 
conscientious  scruples,  and  that  tho  king  might  continue 
,  to  use  the  English  .service.  The  Covenanters  who  accepted 
these  terms,  and  who  formed  tho  most  moderate  section, 
received  the  name  of  Engagers.  Relying  on  the  promised 
support  from  Scotland,  Charles  rejected  the  proposals  of 
the  English  Parliament.  That  body  had  now  broken  with 
the  army   in  which  the  Independents  and  Cromwell  were 


514 


fclCOTLi\ND 


[UISTORY. 


of  Cove- 


IClilCH.  fast  acquiring  si  premacy.  Their  division  afforded  an 
opportunity  for  renewing  the  war,  and  Hamilton  invaded 
England  in  the  following  year,  but  was  routed  at  Preston 
(17th  August"  16-18)  by  Cromwell.  A  party  led  by  Argyll 
had  opposed  the  compromise  with  Charles  effected  by 
Hamilton.  They  were  chietly  strong  in  tlie  south-west, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  this  year  a  band  of  them  raised  by 
Lord  Eglinton  marched  to  Edinburgh  and  were  met  by 
Argyll,  who  put  himself  at  their  head.  Their  numbers 
had  risen  to  6000,  a  sufficient  force  to  give  thera  supreme 
influence  orer  the  Goveniment.  It  was  from  this — the 
"  \^'lliggamo^e  "  raid — that  the  name  of  Whigs  took  its 
rise.  The  meeting  of  estates  now  resolved  to  renew  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  and  by  an  Act  called  the 
Act  of  Classes  removed  from  the  courts  and  all  places  of 
public  trust  those  who  had  accepted  the  "late  unlawful 
engagement."  The  English  Parliament  at  this  point  took 
an  exactly  opposite  course  and  showed  signs  of  conciliation 
with  the  king ;  but  the  frustration  of  its  action  by  the 
energetic  policy  of  Cromwell  was  quickly  followed  by  the 
trial  and  execution  of  the  king.  Hamilton,  who  had  been 
taken  after  Preston,  soon  after  shared  the  same  fate. 
Charles  The  death  of  Charles  altered  in  a  moment  the  relations 
11. 'a  ac-  between  England  and  Scotland.  In  the  former  Cromwell 
ctpt.iMco  became  all  ijowerful,  while  in  the  latter  the  moderate 
I'resbyterians  attached  to  the  principle  oi  monarchy  and 
the  hereditary  line  at  once  proclaimed  Charles  II.  Charles 
II.  had  been  brought  up  with  different  views  of  royalty 
from  those  of  the  Covenanters,  and  Scotland  was  not  pre- 
pared to  accept  a  king  except  on  its  own  terms.  A  com- 
mission from  the  estates  and  from  the  assembly  was  at  once 
sent  (March  1619)  to  The  Hague,  where  the  young  king 
was.  Charles  promised  to  maintain  the  government  of 
Scotland  in  church  and  state  as  settled  by  law,  ai;d  particu- 
larly the  Covenant,  Confession  of  Faith,  and  Presbyterian 
system,  but  declared  that  he  could  not  impose  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant  on  England  aiid  Ireland  without  the 
consent  of  their  parliaments.  The  commissioners  returned 
dissatisfied  with  this  answer  and  with  the  presence  at  court 
of  Montrose,  by  whom  it  had  probably  been  framed.  But 
in  October  Ormonde's  Irish  expedition  failed,  and  Crom- 
well, already  master  of  England,  had  reduced  Ireland  by 
force  of  arms ;  both  parties  felt  inclined  to  renew  the 
treaty.  At  length  it  was  agreed  that  Charles  should  be 
accepted  as  king  on  condition  of  his  subscribing  the 
Covenant,  establishing  Presbyterian  church  government 
and  worship,  sanctioning  the  Acts  of  Parliament  passed  in 
his  absence,  and  putting  in  force  the  law  against  Catholics. 
In  return  he  stipulated  for  the  free  exercise  of  his  royal 
authority,  the  security  of  his  person,  and  the  aid  of  a 
Scottish  army.  The  treaty  was  closed  in  these  terms  on 
9th  May  IG.jO,  and  early  in  June  Charles  set  sail  for 
Scotland.  On  the  voyage  he  was  forced  to  consent  to 
further  conditions  which  the  Scottish  parliament  ordered 
the  commissioners  to  impose,  in  particular  to  e.-sclude  from 
his  court  all  persons  within  the  first  and  second  classes  of 
the  Acts  of  1646  and  1649,  and  to  keep  the  duke  oC 
Hamilton,  brother  of  the  late  duke,  and  certain  other 
persons  out  of  Scotland.  On  Sunday,  23d  June,  at  the 
raouth  of  the  Spey  he  subscribed  the  Covenant  and  landed. 
Whilst  Charles  was  negotiating  with  the  commissioners, 
the  expedition  of  Montrose,  which  he  had  encouraged  but 
afterwards  disowned,  had  come  to  an  end  by  the  capture 
of  its  gallant  leader  in  Caithness.  He  was  executed  in 
Edinburgh  a  month  before  Charles  reached  Scotland. 
Crom-  .'Jarmed  at  the  prospect  of  another  Scottish  invasion, 

well's  ill-  Cromwell  with  wonderful  rapidity  transferred  his  forces 
Wbnf  ^''°'"  Ii'<:l=ind,  and   within  a  month   after  Charles  landed 
"  crossed  the  Tweed   and  advanced  to   Edinburgh.      Baffled 
in  all  attempts  against  the  town  by  the  tactics  of  David 


Leslie,  the  nephew  of  Leven,  ho  was  forced  from  want  of 
supplies  to  retire.  His  retreat  was  nearly  cut  off,  but  he 
gained  an  unexpected  victory  at  Dunbar  (3d  September 
1650)  over  that  able  general,  who  had  been,  induced  by 
the  over-confidence  of  the  ministers  in  his  camp  to  descend 
from  the  Doon  Hill  and  attack  the  English  on  level  ground. 
So  complete  was  the  defeat  that  the  south  of  Scotland  fell 
into  Cromwell's  hands.  Meantime  Charles  had  attempted 
to  escape  from  the  restraints  of  the  Presbyterian  camp  by 
"the  Start,"  as  it  was  called,  from  Perth  to  Clova,  where 
he  hoped  to  raise  the  loyal  Highlanders;  but,  not  getting 
the  support  expected,  he  returned.  In  the  beginning  of 
next  year,  after  renewing  his  subscription  to  the  Covenant 
and  submitting  to  the  imposition  of  a  day  of  fasting  and 
humiliation  on  account  of  the  sins  of  his  family,  he  was 
crowned  at  Scone  on  1st  January  1G51.  Argyll,  still  the 
leader  of  the  Covenanters,  placed  the  crown  on  his  head, 
a  circumstance  which  he  recalled  when  he  lost  his  own. 
The  invasion  of  England  v/as  now  determined  on,'  and, 
Cromwell  having  been  unable  to  intercept  the  royal  army, 
it  advanced  as  far  as  Worcester.  Here,  after  effecting  a 
junction  with  Fleetwood,  Cromwell  with  a  much  smaller 
force  routed  the  king's  army  on  the  anniversary  of  Dun- 
bar. Charles  had  a  hairbreadth  escape  from  capture,  and 
after  many  adventures  crossed  from  Brighton  to  France. 
The  last  great  battle  qf  the  Civil  War  placed  England  in 
the  liands  of  the  army  and  its  general. 

Scotland  offered  more  resistance ;  but  Monk,  whom 
Cromwell  had  left  in  command,  stormed  Dundee  and  terri- 
fied the  other  towns  into  submi-ssion.  Although  a  nominal 
union  was  proclaimed  and  Scotland  was  allowed  members 
in  the  English  parliament,  it  was  really  governed  as  a 
conquered  country.  In  1653  the  general  assembly  was 
summarily  dissolved  by  Colonel  Cotterel.  Next  year 
Monk  was  sent  by  the  Protector  to  quell  a  Royalist  rising, 
which,  first  under  the  earl  of  Glencairn  and  afterwards 
under  Middle(on,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  began  to  show  head 
in  the  Highlands.  Monk,  as  usual,  carried  out  effectually 
the  work  he  was  sent  for  and,  partly  by  an  indemnity  which 
many  leading  Royalists  accepted  and  partly  by  the  defeat 
of  Middleton  at  Lochgarry  (25th  July  1654),  reduced 
the  Highlands.  He  also  dispersed  the  general  assembly, 
which  made  another  attempt  to  sit.  Strong  forts  were 
built  at  Leith,  Ayr,  Inverness,  and  Gla.sgow,  and  Monk 
with  an  army  of  10,000  men  garrisoned  the  country.  A 
council  of  state,  containing  only  two  Scottish  members,  was 
appointed,  but  matters  of  importance  were  referred  to 
Cromwell  and  his  English  council.  The  administration  of 
justice  was  committed  to  four  English  and  three  Scottish 
judges  in  place  of  the  Court  of  Session,  with  the  view  of 
introducing  English  law.  The  use  of  Latin  in  legal  writs 
was  abolished.  A  sequestration  court  to  deal  with  the 
forfeited  estates  sat  at  Leith.  A  separate  commission 
was  issued  for  the  administration  of  criminal  justice,  and 
theft  and  highway  robbery  were  stringently  inquired  into 

^  With  the  view  of  procuring  forces  for  the  expedition,  a  reconcilia- 
tion ^a3  effected  between  the  Roy.-ilists  and  the  more  moderate  Cove- 
nanters by  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  all  person^,  not  excommunicated 
should  be  allowed  to  serve  in  the  army.  This  new  party,  now  called 
"  Rcsolutioners,"  was  practically  the  same  as  that  formerly  known  as 
the  "  Engagers."  A  minority,  on  the  other  hand,  became  known  as  the 
"Protestors"  or  "Remonstrants"  (compare  vol\  xix.  p.  6S3).  This 
division  of  the  Cc-venanters  into  a  moderate  and  an  extreme  section 
continued  throughout  the  whole  of  tlie  17th  century.  The  Engagers 
and  Resolutionors  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Established  Presbyterian 
Church  ;  the  Protestors  or  Remonstrants  of  the  Seceders  or  Dissenting 
churches,  each  of  which  maintained  with  unabated  confidence,  however 
small  its  numbers,  that  it  was  the  true  church  of  Scotland,  the  only 
church  really  faithful  to  the  Covenant  and  Christ  as  the  head  of  the 
churclu  Both  parties  for  long  regarded  Epibcopaliaus  and  Romauists 
alike  as  "malignant^,"  standing  without  the  pale  of  the  churph,  with 
whom  no  compromise  could  be  made. 


Monk  9 
adminis- 
tration. 


Prolect- 
orr.fe  of 
Scotland. 


LATEK  STOAETS.j 


SCOTLAND 


515 


and  punished.  In  the  church  the  Presbyterian  form  of 
service  and  tlie  system  of  presbyteries  and  synods  were 
flowed  to  continue,  but  the  stipends  of  ministers  depended 
on  their  being  approved  by  a  commission  appointed  by 
Cromwell.  Justices  of  the  peace  were  introduced  for  local 
business.  Free  trade  and  an  improved  postal  system  be- 
tween the  two  countries  were  established.  The  universities 
were  visited.  In  all  departments  of  government  there  was 
vigour  and  the  spirit  of  reform,  so  that  it  was  admitted 
even  by  opponents  that  the  eight  years  of  Cromwell's 
usurpation  were  a  period  of  peace  and  prosperity.  There 
was  undoubtedly  one  exception.  The  taxation  was  severe. 
A  land-tax  of  £10,000  a  month,  afterwards  reduced  to 
£6000,  and  levied  upon  the  valued  rent  under  a  valuation 
of  Charles,  far  exceedid  any  subsidy  before  granted  to  the 
crown.  Customs  and  also  excise  duties,  recently  intro- 
duced from  England,  were  diligently  levied;  so  also  were 
the  rents  of  the  crown  and  bishops'  lands.  Altogether  it 
was  estimated  that  a  revenue  of  £143,000  v.-as  collected  in 
Scotland.  But  this  had  to  be  supplemented  by  an  equal 
•um  from  England  to  meet  an  expenditure  of  £286,000. 
\s  nearly  the  whole  was  spent  in  Scotland  and  the  burden 
)f  taxation  fell  on  the  upper  classes,  the  nation  Jenerally 
lid  not  feel  it  so  much..as  might  have  been  expected.  It 
vas  a  maxim  of  Cromwell's  policy  to  improve  the  condition 
■f  the  comrfions,  and  in  one  of  his  last  speeches  he  claimed 
in  memorable  words  to  have  effected  this  in  Scotland.  In 
this  respect  the  Commonwealth  and  protectorate  continued 
t!ie  political  effect  of  the  Reformation.  The  commonalty' 
for  the  first  time  since  the  War  of  Independence  acquired 
a  consciousness  of- its  existence  and  hope  for  the  future. 
r;-ii  of  Cromwell,  Hke  former  powerful  rulers,  aimed  at  uniting 

■  -.tish  Scotland  with  England,  but  his  proposals  in  this  direction 
.^,     were  premature.    To  Barebones's  Parliament  (1653),  which 

-  j".'  met  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Long  Parliament,  five 
iLCLts.  Scottish  members  were  summoned,  there  being  134:  from 
England,  Wales,  and  Ireland.  By  the  Instrument  of 
Government  and  an  ordinance  following  on  it,  Scotland 
was  granted  30,  while  England  had  400  rriembers ;  but 
only  20  Scottish  attended  the  parliament  of  1654,  and 
care  was  taken  by  Monk  that  they  should  be  men  attached 
to  Cromwell's  interest.  When  in  his  second  parliament 
in  1656  he  tried  the  experiment  of  a  House  of  Lords, 
three  Scotsmen  were  summoned,  the  quota  of  members  to 
the  Commons  remaining  as  before.  Cromwell's  idea  of 
a  parliament  was  an  a.ssembly  to  ratify,  not  to  discuss,  his 
measures,  and  this,  like  his  other  parliaments,  was  speedily 
lissolved.  Had  it  continued  the  Scottish  representatives 
would  have  had  little  weight.  Scotland  continued  to  be 
governed  by  the  council  of  state.  On  the  death  of  the 
Protector  his  son  Richard  was  proclaimed  his  successor 
in  Scotland  as  well  as  in  England,  and  30  members  were 
again  returned  to  the  new  parliament,  which,  however, 
was  almost  immediately  afterwards  dissolved.  The  Re- 
storation soon  followed,  though  in  Scotland  there  was  no 
need  of  it,  for  Charles  II.  was  already  king.  However 
beneficial  the  rule  of  Cromwell  may  be  deemed,  it  had  a 
fatal  defect  in  the  eyes  of  a  people  proud  of  their  freedom. 
It  was  imposed  and  maintained  by  force.  His  death  and 
the  restoration  of  the  ancient  line  of  kings  were  looked  on 
as  a  deliverance  from  oppression. 
h.'^sMi-^-      The  hopes  of  the  Scots  from  Charles  II.  were  doomed  to 

■  "•        speedy  disappointment.     So  far  from  being  grateful  for 

the  support  they  had  given  him  in  adversity,  he  looked 
back  with  disgust,  as  his  grandfather  had  done,  on  the 
time  when  he  was  under  the  yoke  of  the  Presbyterian 
ministers.  Cromwell  had  shown  the  possibility  of  govern- 
ing Scotland  by  military  force  and  of  raising  a  consider- 
able revenue  from  it,  and  Charles  took  advantage  of  both 
lessons.     From  this  date  rather  thsn  frc,.-,  ths  Luiiitr  ^^r 


later  tmion  Scottish  history  assumes  a  provincial  character. 
Scotland  wag;^governed  without  regard  to  its  interest  or 
wishes  according  to  the  royal  pleasure  or  the  advice  of  the 
nobles  who  for  the  time  had  the  ear  of  the  king.  The  power 
of  the  clergy  had  been  broken  by  Cromwell's  policy  and 
their  own  divisions.  The  party  of  the  Resolutioners  or 
moderate  Presbyterians,  some  of  whom  now  leant  to  Episco- 
pacy, and  the  party  of  the  Remonstrants  were  still  irrecon- 
cilable, and  their  mutual  hatred  rendered  the  task  of 
government  easier.  The  burghs  were  not  yet  sufficiently 
organized  to  be  a  poM'er  in  the  state,  and  the  nobles 
again  resumed  their  old  position  as  leaders  with  no  rivals, 
for  the  bishops  were  shorn  of  their  revenues  and  dependent 
on  royal  favour.  For  the  first  two  years  after  the  Restora- 
tion the  government  of  Scotland  was  in  the  hands  of 
Middleton,  who  had  been  created  an  earl.  The  measures 
of  retaliation  were  few  but  signal.  Argyll  was  tried  and 
beheaded  on  a  charge  of  treason,  which  could  not  have 
been  established  but  for  the  treachery  of  Monk,  who  gave 
up  private  letters  written  to  him  when  they  both  were  sup- 
porting the  Commonwealth.  Guthrie,  a  leading  minister 
of  the  Remonstrants,  was  hanged.  Johnston  of  Warriston, 
two  years  later,  was  brought  back  from  France  and  exe- 
cuted. No  hesitation  was  shown  as  to  the  mode  of 
governing  Scotland.  Parliament,  under  the  presidency  of 
Jliddletoii,  pa.ssed  the  Rescissory  Act,  annulling  the  Acts 
of  all  parliaments  since  1640,  declaring  the  Covenant  no 
longer  binding,  and  imposing  an  oath  on  all  persons  in 
office,  not  only  of  allegiance  but  of  acknowledgment  of 
the  royal  prerogative  restored  in  all  its  fulness  over  all 
persons  and  in  all  causes.  In  August  Lauderdale,  who 
acted  as  secretary  for  Scotland  in  London,  wrote  to  the 
privy  council  announcing  the  royal  intention  to  restore 
Episcopacy,  and,  regardless  of  his  oath,  Charles  sanctioned 
this  by  the  first  Act  of  the  parliament  of  1662.  James 
Sharp,  minister  of  Crail,  who  had  been  sent  on  behalf  of 
the  Resolutioners  to  Charles  before  his  return,  allowed 
himself  to  be  easily  converted  to  Episcopacy  and  was  re- 
warded by  his  appointment  as  archbishop  of  St  Andrews ; 
his  example  was  followed  by  other  ministers  of  the  same 
party.  But  the  majority  and  all  the  Remonstrants  stood 
firm ;  350  were  deprived  of  their  livings,  each  of  which 
became  a  centre  of  disaffection  towards  the  Government, 
while  their  attachment  to  the  Covenant  was  every  day 
strengthened  by  persecution.  The  Covenant  and  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant  were  declared  unlawful  oaths,  and 
all  persons  speaking  or  ^  'riting  against  the  royal  supre- 
macy in  matters  ecclesiastical  were  incapaciLated  from 
office.  Middleton  had  the  immediate  responsibility  for 
these  measures,  and  the  condemnation  and  forfeiture  of 
the  new  earl  of  Argyll,  whose  estates  he  coveted,  under 
the  old  law  against  leasing-making  increased  the  hatred 
with  which  he  was  regarded.  His  fall  was  due  to  an 
attempt  to  supplant  his  rival  Lauderdale  by  the  Act  of 
Billeting,  under  which  the  Scottish  parliament  named  by 
ballot  twelve  persona  with  Lauderdale  at  their  head  as 
incapable  of  holding  public  office.  This  and  other  Acts 
were  carried  out  without  the  previous  consent  of  Charles ; 
Lauderdale  persuaded  Charles  that  his  [lersonal  authority 
was  in  danger,  and  Middleton  was  called  to  court  and  .sent 
as  governor  to  Tangier,  where  ho  soon  after  died.  The 
earl  of  Rothes  was  now  appointed  commissioner,  but  the 
chief  influence  was  in  the  hands  of  Lauderdale,  who  con- 
tinued to  act  as  Scottish  secretarry  in  London. 

The  change  in  its  rulers  brought  no  relief  to  Scotland. 
The  declaration  that  the  Covenants  were  illegal  oaths  was 
re-enacted  and  imposed  on  all  persons  in  office  who  had 
not  yet  taken  it.  The  old  mode  of  electing  the  Lords  of 
the  Articles,  which  placed  the  election  in  the  hands  of  the 
biskops,  the  nominees  of  the  king,  was  restored.     Sharp, 


1654.166- 


G<  vern- 
uieut  of 
Middle- 
ton. 


lion  of 
Episco- 
pacy. 


Severe 
tj-cut- 

ITKllt  of 

Cove- 
nant era. 


516 


SCOTLAND 


[HISTOKY. 


■64.1631.  not  warned  by  the  fato  of  Laud,  procvwed  tho  restora- 
tion of  the  Court  of  High  Commission  to  enforce  the  laws 
ag.iinst  ecclesiastical  offenders.  Fines  were  itnposed  on 
all  who  absented  themselves  from  their  parish  churches 
or  attended  tho  sermons  of  tlie  deposed  ministers.  Sir 
James  Turner  was  sent  by  the  privy  council  to  the  western 
shires  to  prevent  conventicles  and  field  preaching  and  to 
enforce  tho  law  as  to  conformity ;  and  his  e.xactions,  with 
the  burden  of  maintaining  his  soldiers  quartered  upon  all 
persons  suspected  of  favouring  the  ousted  ministers,  led 
to  risings  in  Galloway,  Clydesdale,  and  Ayr.  With  their 
ministei-3  and  a  few  of  the  gentry  at  their  head  the 
Covenanters  marched  to  Edinburgh,  but  were  defeated 
at  Rullion  Green  in  the  Pentlands  by  Dalziel,  a  Scottish 
officer  whom  Charles  had  recalled  from  the  service  of  the 
czar.  The  executions  which  followed,  and  especially  that 
of  llugh  M'Kail,  a  young  and  enthusiastic  preacher,  fank 
deeply  into  the  spirit  of  the  people.  He  was  the  first 
martyr  of  the  Covenant  as  Wishart  had  been  of  the  Re- 
formation. The  use  of  torture,  before  this  rare,  now  be- 
came frequent,  and  bonds  of  law-burrows  were  wrested 
from  their  original  use  to  compel  the  principal  landowners 
to  be  sureties  for  the  peace  of  the  whole  district.  Large 
fines  continued  to  be  extorted  from  al!  persons  who  re- 
fused to  conform  to  the  ecclesiastical  laws.  Next  year 
a  change  in  the  Scottish  administration,  the  cause  of  which 
IS  not  well  explained,  but  which  was  probably  due  to  the 
fall  of  Clarendon  and  the  rise  of  the  Cabal  ministry,  led  to 
Policy  of  a  milder  but  undecided  policy  in  Scotland.  Lauderdale, 
indol-  one  of  the  Cabal,  still  directed  Scottish  affairs,  but  Rothes 
^""'^'^  and  Sharp  were  treated  is  responsible  for  the  rising  in  the 
west  and  suspended.  An  indemnity  was  oiTered  to  all  who 
would  appear  before  the  council  aad  subscribe  bonds  to 
keep  the  peace.  A  rash  attempt  to  assassinate  Sharp  in 
Edinburgh  prevented  this  policy  from  being  adhered  to  in 
1668;  but  it  was  renewed  in  the  following  year.'  An  in- 
dulgence was  granted  wliich  allov/ed  the  deposed  ministers 
who  had  lived  peaceably  to  return  to  their  manses  and 
glebes,  and  to  receive  such  a  stipend  as  the  privy  council 
might  allow.  The  grace  of  this  concession  was  undone  by 
a  severe  Act  against  conventicles.  It  favoured  a  con- 
ciliatory policy  that  schemes  for  union  were  in  the  air. 
Leighton,  the  good  bishop  of  Dunblane,  proposed  a  union 
of  the  churches  upon  the  basis  that  the  bishops  w'ere  no 
longer  to  exercise  jurisiliction,  but  to  act  only  as  jrerpetual 
moderators  of  presbyteries,  subject  to  censure^by  the  synods, 
and  that  ministers  should  be  ordained  by  the  bishops,  but 
with  consent  of  the  presbj^ters.  There  was  a  meeting  at 
Holyrood  with  some  of  the  leading  ministers,  ,but  they 
would  listen  to  no  compromise.  The  name  of  bishop  was 
hateful  whatever  were  his  functions.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether  Charles  and  his  English  advisers  would  have 
submitted  to  a  curtailment  of  the  bishop's  office  and 
dignity.  The  subject  of  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  was 
again  brought  forward  in  the  parliament  of  1669,  to  which 
Lauderdale  was  sent  as  commissioner ;  and  though  it 
v.-as  not  well  received  commissioners  were  appointed  in 
the  following  year,  who  went  to  London  in  autumn  to  dis- 
cuss with  English  commissioners  certain  specified  points 
proposed  by  the  king.  After  several  meetings  the  con- 
ference broke  up  in  consequence  of  a  demand  by  the 
Scottish  members  that  Scotland  should  have  the  same 
number  of  members  in  the  united  as  in  its  own  parliament. 
The  arbitrary  government  favoured  by  the  want  of  a  settled 
constitution  in  Scotland  was  more  to  the  taste  of  the  king 
and  his  advisers.  Lauderdale  openly  boasted,  as  James 
VI.  had  done,  that  nothing  could  be  proposed  in  the  Scot- 
tish parliament  except  what  the  king  through  the  Lords  of 
the  Articles  ajjproved.  The  "indulgence"  entirely  failed  of 
the  desired  eiVect.     The  ministers  who  took  advantage  of 


it  were  despised  by  the  people,  who  continued  to  attend 
the  conventicles.  In  1672  an  Act  was  passed  punishing 
preachers  at  such  conventicles  v,-ith  death  and  imposing 
fine.i,  imprisonment,  and  exile  for  having  children  baptized 
by  deprived  ministers  and  for  absence  for  three  Sundays 
from  the  parish  church.  In  1675  letters  of.intercommun- 
ing  were  issued  against  about  a  hundred  of  those  who 
attended  the  conventicles,  both  ministers  and  laymen,  for- 
bidding their  friends  and  relations  to  have  any  dealings 
with  them  under  the  same  penalties  as  if  they  had  them- 
selves been  present  at  the  conventicles.  In  1678  Mitchell, 
a  fanatical  preacher,  who  had  ten  years  before  attempted 
the  life  of  Sharp  and  mortally  wounded  the  bishop  of 
Orkney,  was  tried  and  executed.  The  feeling  of  the  times, 
and  the  cruel  manner  in  which  a  confession  had  been 
wrung  from  him  by  torture,  led  to  his  being  regarded  as 
a  martyr.  Prior  to  this  year  17,000  persons  had  suffered 
fines  or  imprisonment  for  attending  conventicles.  A  host 
of  10,000  men,  chiefly  Highlanders,  was  quartered  in  the 
western  shires  in  order  to  force  the  landowners  who  favoured 
the  Covenanters  to  enter  into  bonds  of  lav\'-burrows. 

It  appears  to  have  been  the  design  of  Lauderdale,  Risij •  r  «t 
who  still  governed  Scotland  absolutely  through  the  privy  1371. 
council  (no  parliament  having  been  summoned  since 
1674),  to  force  the  Scots  to  rebel.  "Allien  I  was  once 
saying  to  him,"  relates  Burnet,  "'Was  that  a  time  to  driv« 
them  into  a  rebellion  ! ' '  Yes,'  said  he,  '  would  to  God  thej 
would  rebel  that  he  might  bring  over  an  army  of  Irisk 
Papists  to  cut  their  throats.'  "  One  part  of  his  wish  was 
speedily  fulfilled.  In  1679  the  rebellion  so  long  smoulder- 
ing broke  out.  The  murder  of  Sharp  (3d  5Iay)  by  Hack- 
ston  of  RathiUet  and  a  small  band  of  Covenanters  was 
followed  by  a  still  more  stringent  proclamation  against 
field  conventicles,  which  were  declared  treasonable,  and  the 
possession  of  arms  was  prohibited.  This  severity  provoked  a 
rising  in  the  west.  A  small  party  led  by  Hamilton,  a  youth 
educated  by  Bishop  Burnet  at  Glasgow,  who  had  joined 
the  Covenanters,  burnt  at  Kutherglen  the  statutes  and 
acts  of  privy  council  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Restoration, 
and  being  allowed  to  gather  numbers  defeated '  Graham 
of  Claverhouse  at  Loudon  Hill  (1st  June).  The  duke  of 
Monmouth,  the  favourite  natural  son  of  Charles,  sent  with 
troops  from  England  to  suppress  the  rising,  gained  an  easy 
victory  at  Bothwell  Bridge  (22d  June).  His  desire  was  to 
follow  it -up  by  a  policy  of  clemency,  and  a  new  indulgence 
was  issued,  but  its  effect  was  counteracted  by  Lauderdale. 
All  officers,  ministers,  and  landowners,  as  w-ell  as  those  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  rising  and  did  not  surrender  within 
a  short  space,  were  excepted  from  the  indulgence.  Several 
preachers  were  executed  and  many  persons  sent'  to  the 
colonies,  while  fines  and  forfeitures  multiplied.  A  new 
and  fiercer  phase  of  the  rebellion  was  originated  by  CargtU 
and  Cameron,  two  preachers  who  escaped  at  Bothwell 
Bridge,  and,  assembling  their  followers  at  Sanquhar,  pub- 
lished a  declaration  renouncing  allegiance  to  Charles  as  a 
perjured  king.  They  were  soon  surprised  and  Cameron  was 
killed,  but  Cargill  continued  to  animate  his  followers,  called 
the  "Society  Men"  or  "Cameronians,"hy  his  preaching,  and 
at  a  conventicle  at  Torwood  in  Ayrshire  excommunicated 
the  king,  the  duki  of  York,  Lauderdale,  and  Kothes. 

The  duke  of  York,  who  had  become  a  Roman  Catholic  Coatinu- 
during  his  residence  abroad,  was  now  sent  to  Scotland,  ^°*  ^ 
partly  to  avoid  the  discussion  raised  by  his  conversion  as^'""""^'" 
to  his  exclusion  from  the  succession.     During  a  short  stay 
of  three  months  he  astonished  the  Scots  by  the  mildness  of 
his  administration,  but  on  his  return  in  the  following  year 
he  revealed  his  true  character.    The  privy  council  renewed 
its  proclamations  against  conventicles  and  increased  the 
fines,  which  were  levied  by  the  sheriff  or  other  magistrate 
undei   the  pain  of  liability  if  they  were  remiss  in  their 


I^TEB  fTrAETS. 


SCOTLAND 


-17 


James 
VII. 


exaction,  Miiitarj-  commission.!  -n-ere  issued  to  Claver- 
house  and  other  officers  in  the  southern  and  western  shires 
empowering  them  to  quarter  their  troops  on  recusants  and 
administer  martial  law.  Torture  was  freely  resorted  to  by 
the  pri\'y  council  and  tlis  duke  himself  took  pleasure  in 
witnessing  it.  A  parliament  summoned  in  1681,  after 
passing  a  general  Act  against  Popery  to  lull  suspicion,  pro- 
ceeded to  declare  the  succession  to  be  in  the  ordinary  line 
of  blood  and  unalterable  on  account  of  difference  of  religi6n 
by  any  future  law.  The  Test  Act  was  then  carried,  not 
without  many  attempts  to  modify  it.  Its  ambiguous  and 
contradictory  clauses  make  it  an  admirable  instrument  of 
tyranny,  a  shelter  for  the  lax  and  a  terror  to  the  upright 
conscience.  It  was  at  once  enforced,  and  Argj-U,  who  de- 
clared he  took  it  only  so  far  as  it  was  consistent  with  itself 
and  the  Protestant  religion,  was  "tried  and  condemned  to 
death  for  treason,  but  escaped  from  prison  to  Holland. 
Dalrymple,  the  president  of  the  Court  of  Session,  and  many 
leading  Presbyterian  ministers  and  gentry  followed  his  ex- 
ample, and  found  a  hospitable  refuge  in  the  republic  which 
first  acknowledged  toleration  in  religion.  They  there  met 
a  similar  band  of  English  exiles.  The  next  two  years  were 
spent  in  plots,  of  which  the  centre  was  in  Holland,  with 
branches  in  London  and  Edinburgh.  The  failure  of  the 
Rye  House  Plot  in  1683  led  to  the  execution  of  Russell  and 
Sidney  and  the  arrest  of  Spence,  a  retainer  of  Argyll, 
Carstares,  Baillie  of  Jer%'iswood,  and  Campbell  of  Cess- 
nock.  Against  Campbell  the  proof  of  complicity  failed,  and 
Spence  and  Carstares,  though  cruelly  tortured,  revealed 
nothing  of  moment.  Baillie,  however,  was  condemned  and 
executed  upon  slender  proof.  The  Cameronians,  who  kept 
alive  in  remote  districts  the  spirit  of  rebellion,  were  treated 
with  ruthless  cruelty.  Although  doubt  has  been  cast  on 
the  death  of  Brown  the  carrier,  shot  down  in  cold  blood  by 
Claverhouse,  and  the  Wigtown  martyrs,  two  poor  women 
tied  to  a  stake  and  drowned  in  the  Bay  of  Luce,  the  account 
of  Wodrow  has,  after  a  keen  discussion,  been  sustained  as 
accurate.  The  conduct  of  the  Government  in  Scotland 
gained  for  this  period  the  name  of  the  "  Killing  Times." 

The  short  reign  of  James  VII.  is  the  saddest  period  in  tho 
history  of  Scotland.  He  succeeded  in  the  brief  space  of 
three  years  in  fanning  the  revolutionary  elements  in  both 
England  and  Scotland  into  a  flame  which  he  was  powerless 
to  quench.  He  declined  to  take  the  Scottish  coronation 
oath,  which  contained  a  declaration  in  favour  of  the 
church  then  established.  A  submissive  parliament  held 
(28th -April  1685)  under  the  duke  of  Queensberry  as  com- 
missioner not  only  overlooked  this  but  expressed  its  loyalty 
in  terms  acknowledging  the  king's  absolute  supremacy. 
The  excise  was  granted  to  the  crown  for  over  and  the  land- 
tax  to  James  for  life.  The  law  against  conventicles  was 
even  extended  to  those  held  in  houses,  if  five  persons  be- 
sides the  family  attended  domestic  v.-orship  ;  while,  if  the 
meeting  was  outside  the  house,  at  the  door  or  windows,  it 
was  to  be  deemed  a  field  conventicle,  punishable  by  death. 
The  class  of  persons  subject  to  tlie  test  was  enlarged. 
Undeterred  or  provoked  by  these  terrors  of  the  law,  Argyll 
made  a  descent  upon  the  western  Highlands  and  tried  to 
raise  Lis  clansmen,  but,  being  badly  supported  by  the 
officers  under  him,  his  troojjs  were  dispersed  and  he 
himself  taken  prisoner,  when  he  was  brought  to  Edinburgh, 
condemned,  and  executed  under  his  former  sentence.  Kext 
year  Perth  the  lord  chancellor,  Melfort  his  brother,  and 
the  earl  of  Moray  became  converts  to  the  Popish  faith. 
The  duke  of  Queensberry,  who  did  not  follow  their  example, 
was  enabled  only  by  the  most  servOe  submission  in  other 
points  to  the  royal  wishes  to  save  himself  and  his  party  in 
the  privy  council  from  dismissal.  James  sent  a  letter  to 
parliament  offering  free  trade  with  England  and  an  indem- 
nity for  political  offences,  in  return  for  which  it  was  rpquired 


that  tho  Catholic?  should  be  released  from  the  test  and  the  lesi-iasg. 
penal  laws.  But  the  estates  refused  to  be  bribed.  Even  the 
Lords  of  the  Articles  declined  to  propose  a  repeal  of  the 
Test  Act.  The  burghs  almost  for  the  first  time  in  a  Scottish 
parliament  showed  their  independence.  The  refractory 
parliament  was  at  once  adjourned  and  soon  after  dissolved, 
and  James  had  recourse  in  Scotland  as  in  England  to 
the  dispensing  power.  ITnder  a  pretended  prerogative  he 
issued  a  procI?.mation  through  the  privy  council,  granting 
a  full  indulgence  to  the  Romanists,  and  by  another  deprived 
the  burghs  of  the  right  of  electing  magistrates.  A  more 
limited  toleration  was  granted  to  Quakers  and  Presby- 
terians, by  which  they  were  allowed  to  worship  according  to 
their  consciences  in  private  houses.  This  was  followed 
by  a  second  and -a  third  indulgence^  which  at  last  gave  full 
liberty  of  worship  to  the  Presbyterians  and  was  accepted 
by  most  of  their  ministers  ;  but  the  laws  against  field  con- 
venticles continued  to  be  enforced.  In  February  1688 
Renwick  was  executed  under  them  at  Edinburgh.  A 
band  of  his  followers,  including  women  and  children,  were 
marched  north  and  imprisoned  vnth  great  cruelty  in 
Dunnottar. 

Meantime  the  rapid  series  of  events  which  led  to  the  Kevoln- 
Revolution  in  England  had  reached  its  climax  in  the  trial  ■'<"> »' 
and  acquittal  of  tho  seven  bishops.  William  of  Orange,  who  J^!^'^"' 
had  long  watched  the  progress  of  his  father-in-law's  tyranny, 
saw  that  the  moment  had  come  when  almost  all  classes  in 
England  as  well  as  Scotland  would  welcome  him  as  a 
deliverer.  But  the  Revolution  was  differently  received 
in  each  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  England  there 
was  practically  no  opposition;  in  Catholic  Ireland  it  was 
established  by  force.  Scotland  was  divided.  The  Catholics, 
chiefly  in  the  Highlands,  and  the  Episcopalians  led  by  their 
bishops  adhered  to  James  and  formed  the  Jacobite  party, 
which  kept  up  for  half  a  century  a  struggle,  for  the 
principle  of  legitimacy.  The  Presbyterians — probably  the 
most  numerous,  certainly  the  most  powerful  party,  especi- 
ally in  the  Lowlands  and  burghs — supported  the  new  settle- 
ment, which  for  the  first  time  gave  Scotland  a  constitu- 
tional or  limited  monarchy.  Shortly  before  his  flight 
James  had  summoned  his  Scottish  troops  to  England  ;  but 
Douglas,  brother  of  the  duke  of  Queensberry,  their  com- 
mander-in-chief, went  over  to  William.  Claverhouse,  now  Pacifica- 
Viscount  Dundee,  the  second  in  command,  who  had  the ''°°  °^ 
spirit  of  his  kinsman  Montrose,  after  in  vain  urging  James  f?'^ 
to  , fight  for  his  crown,  returned  to  Scotland,  followed  by 
some  thirty  horsemen.  In  Edinburgh  the  duke  of  Gordon 
still  held  the  castle  for  James,  while  the  convention  parlia- 
ment, presided  over  by  the  duke  of  Hanr.ilton,  was  debating 
on  what  terms  the  crown  should  be  ofi'ered  to  William. 
Dundee  passed  through  Edinburgh  unmolested,  and  en- 
couraged Gordon  to  hold  out,  while  be  himself  gathered 
the  Highland  chiefs  round  his  standard  at  Lochaber. 
Mackay,  a  favourite  general  of  William,  sent  to  oppose 
him,  was  defeated  at  Killiecrankie  (29th  July  1689), 
where  the  spirited  leadership  of  Dundee  and  the  dash  of 
the  Highlanders'  attack  gained  the  day  ■  but  success  was 
turned  into  defeat  by  a  bullet  which  killed  Dundee  almost 
at  tho  moment  of  victory.  No  succe:-.?or  appeared  to  take 
his  place  and  keep  the  chiefs  of  the  clans  together.  The 
Camcroniau.5,  organized  into  a  regiment  under  Cleland, 
repulsed  Cannon,  the  commander  of  the  Highland  army,  at 
Dunkeld,  and  tho  success  of  Livingston,  who  defeated  the 
remnant  under  Cameron  and  Bucfian  at  the  Haughs  of 
Cromdalc  on  the  Spey,  ended  tlie  short  and  desultory  war. 
The  castle  of  Edinburgh  had  been  surrendered  a  month 
before  the  battle  of  Killiecrankie.  Three  forts^  at  Fort 
William,  Fort  Augustus,  and  Inveness,  sufficed  to  keep  the 
Highlands  from  rising  for  the  nexc  two  reigns. 

Meantime  the  convention  parliiment  in  Edinburgh  had 


sm 


SCOTLAND 


f  HISTORY. 


3659-1705.  carried  the  recessary  measures  for  the  transfer  of  the 
WUliai:\  government  of  Scotland  to  William  and  Mary.  It  declared 
III-Is  in  bolder  terms  tlian  the  Knglish  parliament  that  James 
aneo'or  ''■'^''  forfeited  the  crown  and  that  the  throne  was  vacant. 
Scoltisli  T''o  fifteen  articles  whicii  contained  the  reasons  for  this 
crowii.  resolution  -cere  included  in  a  Declaration  and  Claim  of 
Plight, — a  parallel  to  the  Engli^  Declaration  and  Bill  of 
l-ights.'  Besides  the  declarations  against  the  Papists  with 
which  it  commenced — that  no  Papist  could  be  king  or 
queen,  that  proclamations  allowing  mass  to  be  said,  Jesuit 
schools  and  colleges  to  be  erected,  and  Popish  books  to  be 
printed  were  contrary  to  law — it  detailed  each  of  the  un- 
<;or)«titutional  acts  of  James  and  pronounced  it  contrary 
to  law.  This  formidable  list  included  imposing  oaths 
v.ithout  the  authority  of  parliament ;  grants  without  the 
consent  of  piarliament ;  employing  officers  of  the  army  as 
judges  throughout  the  kingdom;  irapo.sing  exorbitant  fines; 
imprisoning  persons  without  expressing  the  reason,  and 
delaying  trials;  forfeiture  upon  insufficient  grounds,  especi- 
ally that  of  Argyll ;  the  nomination  by  the  king  of  the 
magistrates  of  burghs ;  sending  of  royal  letters  to  courts 
of  justice  with  reference  to  pending  cases ;  granting  pro- 
tections for  debt ;  forcing  the  lieges  to  depone  against 
themselves  in  capital  crimes ;  the  use  of  torture  without 
evidence  in  ordinary  crimes;  quartering  of  an  army  in 
time  of  peace  upon  any  part  of  the  kingdom ;  the  use  of 
law-burrows  at  the  king's  instance ;  putting  garrisons  in 
private  houses  in  time  of  peace  ■without  the  consent  of  the 
owners  and  of  parliament ;  and  fining  husbands  for  their 
wives.  It  closed  v/ith  asserting  that  Prelacy  and  the  superi- 
ority of  any  office  in  the  church  above  presbyters  were 
insupportable  grievances  and  ought  to  be  abolished,  and 
that  it  was  the  right  and  privilege  of  subjects  to  protest 
to  parliament  for  "remeid"  of  law  and  to  petition  the  king, 
and  that  for  redress  of  grievances  it  was  necessary  parlia- 
ment should  frequently  be  called,  with  freedom  of  speech 
secured  to  members.  As  a  conclusion  from  these  premises 
the  estates  resolved  that  William  and  JIary  should  be  de- 
<;lared  king  and  (jueen  of  Scotland  during  their  lives,  but 
with  the  right  of  exercising  regal  power  in  William  alone' 
as  long  as  he  lived.  After  their  death  the  crown  was  to 
pass  to  the  heirs  of  the  queen's  body,  and  failing  her  to 
Anne  of  Denmark  and  her  heirs,  failing  whom  to  the  heirs 
of  William.  Commissioners  were  despatched  to  London 
to  present  the  declaration  and  statement  of  grievances  and 
take  the  royal  oath  to  the  acceptance  of  the  crown  on  their 
terms.  This  was  done  at  Whitehall  in  the  following  j\Iarch 
(1389);  but  William,  before  taking  the  oath,  required  an 
afjurauce  that  persecution  for  religious  opinion  was  not 
intended  and  made  a  declaration  in  favour  of  toleration. 
nis  gov-  By  desire  of  William  the  convention  was  superseded  by 
■larliament  which  niet  in  June ;  but,  with  the  exception 
ci"'"  o*  'I''  ■^''^  abolishing  Prelacy,  it  transacted  no  business  of 
importance.  The  parliament  of  1690  was  more  fruitful. 
'.t  abolished  the  committee  of  the  Articles,  which  had 
become  an  abuse  inconsistent  with  the  freedom  of  parlia- 
ment, and,  while  it  retained  a  committee  on  motions  and 
overtures  in  its  place,  declared  that  the  estates  might  deal 
with  any  matter  without  referring  it  to  this  committee. 
The  Act  of  Supremacy  was  rescinded.  The  Presbyterian 
ministers  deposed  since  1661  were  restored  and  the  West- 
minster Confession  approved,  though  not  imposed  as  a  test 
except  on  professors.  With  more  difficulty  a  solution  was 
found  for  the  question  of  church  government.  The  Presby- 
terian Church  was  re-established  with  the  Confession  as 
its  formula,  and  patronage  was  placed  in  the  heritors  and 
elders  with  a  small  compensation  to  the  patrons.  These 
prudent  measures  were  due  to  the  influence  of  Catstares, 
the  chief  adviser  of  William  in  Scottish  ecclesiastical 
jnatters.^=  He  was  not  so  well  advised  in  the  <.onduci  of 


■emmeut 
•of  Scot- 


the  civil  government  by  the-  master  of  Stair,  who  became 
sole  secretary  for  Scotland.  The  proclamation  for  calling 
out  the  militia  may  have  been  a  necessary  precaution,  but 
it  raised  much  opposition  amongst  the  landed  gentry,  and 
the  militia  was  not  then  embodied.  The  massacre  of  theGIancoei 
llacdonalds  at  Glencoe  by  Campbell  of  Glenlyon  was  con 
trary  to  the  spirit  of  the  indeunuty  offered. to  tlio  High 
landers.  While  the  treachery  with  which  it  was  executed 
may  be  attributed  to  Glenlyon,  it  was  too  plainly  proved 
before  the  committee  of  inquiry  which  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment insisted  on  that  it  had  been  designed  by  Stair  and 
Breadalbane,  and,  now  that  the  whole  documents  have  been 
published,  it  is  also  proved  that  it  had  been  sanctioned  by 
William.  It  was  intended  to  strike  terror;  but  its  partial 
success  was  dearly  bought,  for  it  kept  alive  the  Jacobite 
disaffection  and  gained  for  it  much  sympathy.  The  unfair  Dorien. 
treatment  of  the  Scots  in  the  matters  of  free  trade  and 
navigation,  in  which  the  new  Government  appeared  to  follow 
the  policy  of  Charles  rather  than  that  of  Cromwell,  and 
acted  with  an  exclusive  regard  to  the  prejudices  and  sup- 
posed interests  of  England,  reached  a  climax  in  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  Scottish  settlement  at  Darien  when  attacked 
by  the  Spaniards.  The  over-sanguine  hopes  of  Paterson 
and  the  Scottish  colonists  and  capitalists  who  supported 
his  enterprise,  so  suddenly  transformed  into  a  financial 
disaster  overwhelming  to  a  poor  country,  accompanied  by 
the  loss  of  many  lives,  embittered  the  classes  on  whicli 
the  Revolution  settlement  mainly  depended  for  its  support. 
It  was  the  anxious  wish  of  William  to  have  effected  th( 
legislative  union ;  but,  although  he  twice  attempted  it, 
the  last  time  a  month  before  his  death,  the  temper  of  the 
English  parliament  and  of  the  Scottish  people  appeared  to 
give  small  chance  of  its  realization. 

9.  The  Union  and  its  Consequences. — The  reign  of  Anne,  Union  C 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  Scotland,  centred  in  the  accomplish-  r^rlia- 
ment  of  the  union.  In  spite  of  the  dis-parity  of  num-°'"™ 
bers,  both  nations  now  met  to  treat  on  equal  terms.  Still 
there  were  grave  difficulties,  and  it  required  all  the  wisdom 
of  the  ministers  of  the  early  years  of  Anne,  aided  by  the 
glory  of  Marlborough's  arms,  to  overcome  national  preju- 
dices and  secure  an  object  plainly  for  the  benefit  of  both. 
The  memories  of  Glencoe  and  Darien  and  the  refusal  of 
equpJ  rights  of  trade  led  the  Scottish  parliament,  the  year 
after  Anne's  accession,  to  pass  an  Act  of  Security,  by  which, 
if  the  queen  died  without  issue,  the. Scottish  estates  were 
to  name  a  successor  from  the  Protestant  descendants  of 
the  royal  line ;  but  the  successor  to  the  English  crown 
was  expressly  excluded  unless  there  were- "  such  conditions 
of  government  settled  and  enacted  as  may  secure  the 
honoiir  and  sovereignty  of  the  crown  and  kingdom,  the 
freedom,  frequency,  and  power  of  parliament,  the  reli- 
gious freedom  and  trade  of  the  nation  from  EngUsh  or  any 
foreign  influence."  Political  economy  had  not  yet  taught 
the  reciprocal  advantage  of  free  trade,  and  the  English 
jealousy  of  Scottish  traders  was  intense.  An  incident 
about  this  time  warned  the  English  ministers  that  Scot- 
land might  easily  revert  to  its  old  attitude  of  enmity.  A 
Scottish  ship  of  the  African  or  Darien  Company  having 
been  seized  in  the  Thames  at  the  suit  of  the  Enghsh  East 
India  Company,  the  "  Worcester,"  an  English  East  India- 
man",  was  taken  in  the  Forth  by  way  of  -retaliation,  and 
Green,  its  captain,  with  two  other  officers,  was  executed 
at  Leith  on  a  charge  of  piracy  insufficiently  proved.  An 
attempt  had  been  already  made  to  complete  the  union  by 
a  commission,  which  sat  from  10th  November  1702  to  3cl 
February  1705;  but  this  miscarried  through  the  refusal 
to  grant  free  trade  between'  the  kingdoms.  But  again  in' 
1705  the  English  parliament  sanctioned  the  appointment 
of  other  commissioners,  and  new  officers  of  state  w-ere 
nominated  for  Scotland  with  the  express  purpose  of  oress 


VNION.] 


SCOTLAISD 


51  & 


feME5  of 

taty  of 

a>oc. 


fc  jtin- 

*"-flaiid. 


ing  the  scheme  forward  in  the  Scottish  parliament.  Though 
opposed  on  contrary  grounds  by  the  Jacobites  and  the 
party  of  Fletcher  of  Salton,  the  Scottish  ministry  of. 
Queensberry  succeeded,  by  the  aid  of  a  third  party  nick- 
named the  "Squadrone  Volante,"  in  getting  the  consent 
of  parliament  to  the  appointment  of  commissioners  by  the 
«rown.  The  Act  expressly  excepted  the  church  from  the 
maite.'S  with  which  the  commission  was  to  deaL  The  com- 
miss  oners,  thirty-one  from  each  coxmtry,  met  at  "OTiitehaU 
on  ioth  April  and  concluded  their  sittings  on  23d  July. 
The  nomination  by  the  crown  had  secured  persons  anxious 
to  accomplish  the  union ;  experience  had  disclosed  the 
cause  of  former  failures,  and  the  commissioners  were  guided 
by  the  statesmanship  of  Somers.  It  had  been  recognized 
from  the  first  that  the  only  settlement  of  the  ecclesiastical 
question  possible  was  to  leave  to  each  country  its  o^vn 
church.  It  was  wisely  decided  to  treat  the  law  and  the 
courts  in  the  same  manner.  These  two  subjects  being  re- 
moved from  the  scope  of  the  treaty  narrowed  the  debates 
to  four  main  points, — the  succession,  trade,  taxation,  and 
the  composition  of  the  future  parliament.  The  Scottish 
commissioners  yielded  on  the  first,  the  English  on  the 
second,  and  the  remaining  two  were  adjusted  by  a  skilful 
compromise.  The  chief  articles  of  the  treaty  were  tne 
settlement  of  both  crowns  according  to  the  English  Act  of 
Succession  on  Anne  and  her  descendants,  and  failing  them 
on  the  electress  Sophia  and  the  Hanoverian  line ;  the 
establishment  of  free  trade  between  England  and  Scotland, 
and  the  admission  of  the  Scots  to  equal  privileges  as  regards 
trade  with  other  countries ;  the  national  debt  and  taxation 
were  adjusted  by  the  imposition  on  Scotland  of  a  moderate 
share  (£48,000)  of  the  land-tax,  of  which  England  was 
still  to  bear  £200,000,  and  there  was  to  be  a  vmiform 
rate  of  custom  and  excise,  Scotland  being  compensated 
by  an  equivalent  of  about  £400,000  for  becoming  liable 
to  a  proportioii  of  the  English  national  debt,  which  already 
amounted  to  £16,000,000;  forty-five  representatives  of 
Scotland  were  to  be  admitted  to  the  House  of  Commons 
and  sixteen  elected  peers  to  the  House  of  Lords.  Although 
the  terms  were  on  the  whole  favourable  to  Scotland,  their 
announcement  was  received  with  dissatisfaction,  especially 
in  Edinburgh.  The  loss  was  immediate,  from  the  aboli- 
tioa  of  an  independent  parliament,  the  reduction  of  the 
capital  to  a  provincial  town,  and  the  increase  of  taxation 
to  pay  the  growing  national  debt.  The  gain  was  in  the 
future  and  in  part  doubtfxd.  No  one  contemplated  the 
rapid  and  enormous  extension  of  trade.  A  proud  people 
was  unwilling  to  admit  the  advantage  consequent,  upon 
free  intercourse  with  a  country  in  which  wealth  and  civiliza- 
tion were  more  widespread.  It  ha,d  a  natural  attachment 
to  its  own  institutions,  though  these  were  less  popular 
than  tlie  English.  It  feared  that,  notwithstanding  the 
most  solemn  guarantee,  neither  its  church  nor  its  laws 
could  resist  the  influence  of  a  country  so  much  larger  and 
more  populous,  in  which  henceforth  was  to  bo  the  sole  seat 
of  government,  and  that  much  of  its  wealth  and  talent 
would  be  attracted  to  the  south  and  become  English.  The 
last  parliament  of  Scotland  was  preceded  by  a  stormy  agita- 
tfon  Against  the  union,  and  began  its  session  with  numer- 
ous addresses  praying  that  the  treaty  should  not  be  ratified, 
while  none  were  presented  in  its  favour.  The  popular 
feeling  was  embodied  in  the  speeches  of  Lord  Belhaven 
from  a  sentimental  and  patriotic  point  of  view,  and  of 
Fletcher  of  Salton,  who  represented  the  dtmocratic  or  re- 
publican element  latent  in  a  portion  of  the  nation.  But 
common  sense  aided  by  ministerial  influence  prevailed. 
The  vote  on  the  first  article  was  prudently  taken  with  a 
proviso  that  it  was  to  be  dependent  on  the  rest  being 
carried,  but  it  really  decided  the  fate  of  the  measure.  The 
Government  commanded  a  large  majority  of  the  peers, 


perhaps  more  amenable  to  influence.  They  were  accricd '.'o.'^ITOP 
by  the  Jacobites  of  being  bribed,  but  the  sums  received  in 
name  of  payment  of  arrears  of  pension  and  of  debts  were 
too  small  to  justify  the  charge.  The  lesser  baro-js  or 
county  members  and  the  representatives  of  the  torghs 
were  nearly  equally  divided  ;  bat  there  was  a  majority  of 
four  of  each  of  these  estates  in  favour  of  the  article.  The 
whole  estates  voted  together  and  the  total  majority  was 
thirty-five.  This  was  increased  when  the  last  vote  was 
taken  to  41,  the  numbers  being  110  for  and  69  against, 
and  the  Act  of  Ratification  to  take  efiect  from  1st  May 
1707  was  carried.  The  Presbyterian  Church  received  an 
additional  giiarantee  in  an  Act  passed  for  "  securing  the 
Protestant  religion  and  the  Presbyterian  Establishment." 

In  the  English  parliament  there  was  less  serious  opposi- 
tion, proceeding  chiefly  from  the  High  Church  party,  which 
was  conciliated  by  an  Act  for  the  security  of  the  Church 
of  England.  On  6th  March  1707  the  Scottish  and  EngUfh 
Acts  ratifying  the  union  received  the  royal  asser.t. 

Iwn  Aflts  of  the  British  parhament  naturally  followed  I^^sia^ss- 
the  ^cf  of  UnJou.  The  ScottisU  privy  councO  was  abol- *•<>"  "''i' 
ished  Ln  170e.  A  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland  continued  ^^'i"^'''^ 
'until  1746  to  manage  the  Scottish  department  in  Londcn  ; 
but  the  lord  advocate,  the  adviser  of  the  crown  on  all 
legal  matters  both  in  London  and  Edinburgh,  gradually 
acquired  a  large,  and  aft^r  the  suppression  of  the  office  of 
the  Scottish  secretary  a  paramount  inCuence  in  purely 
Scottish  affairs,  thougl  uc  was  nominally  a  subordinate 
of  the  home  secretary.'  In  1709  the  law  of  treason  waa 
assimilated  to  that  of  England,  being  made  more  definite 
and  less  liable  to  extension  by  construction  in  the  criminal 
courts.  In  the  later  years  of  Anne,  when  after  the  fall  ot 
Marlborough  power  passed  from  the  Whig  to  the  Tory 
party,  two  statutes  were  passed  of  a  different  character. 
Patronage  was  restored  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  not- 
withstanding the  protests  of  the  assembly,  and  proved -a 
fertile  source  of  discord.  A  limited  toleration  Act  in  favour 
of  the  Episcopalians,  permitting  them  to  worship  in  private 
chapels,  was  opposed  by  the  Presbyterians  but  carried. 

With  the  union  of  the  parliaments  Scotland  lost  its  Other 
legislative  independence.  Its  representation  in  the  British  results  of 
parliament  for  more  than  a  century,  based  on  the  freehold"^" 
franchise  in  the  counties  and  in  the  burghs  controlled  by  j^^^ 
town  councils,  which  were  close  corporations,  was  a  repre- 
sentation of  special  classes  and  interests  rather  than  of  thr 
nation.  It  almost  appeared  as  if  the  prophecy  of  Belhaven 
would  be  accomplished  and  there  would  be  an  end  of  an 
old  song.  But  Scottish  history  was  not  destined  yet  to 
end.  The  character  of  the  people,  though  thair  language 
and  manners  gradually  became  more  like  those  of  Eng- 
land, remained  distinct.  They  retained  a  separate  church 
and  clergy.  Indepeudent  courrs  and  a  more  cosmopolitan 
system  of  law  opened  a  liberal  profession  and  afforded  a 
liberal  education  to  youthful  ambition:  A  national  S3stem 
of  parish  schools,  burgh  schools,  and  universities,  th.ough 
inadequately  endowed  and  far  from  reaching  the  idtal  ot 
Knox  and  Melville,  gave  opportunities  to  the  lower  as  well 
as  the  higher  classes  of  receiving  at  a  small  cost  an  educa- 
tion suited  for  practical  uses  and  the  business  of  everyday 
life.  The  Scot  had  been  from  the  earliest  times  more  in- 
clined to  travel,  to  migrate,  to  colonize  than  the  English- 
man, not  that  he  had  a  less  fervent  love  of  home,  but  a  soil 
comparatively  poor  made  it  necessary  for  many  to  seek 
tlieir  fortune  abroad.  This  tendency  -.vhich  had  led  Scottish 
monks,  soldiers,  and  professors  to  embrace  foreign  service, 
now  found  new  openings  in  trade,  commerce,  colonial  enter- 
prise in  America,  the  East,  and  the  West  Indies,  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  and  the  exploration  of  unknown  parts 


'  In  1835  a  secretary  for  Scotland  was  again  appointed  with  a 
separate  office  at  Dover  House,  London. 


5^0 


S  C  O  T  L  A  :T  D 


[histoky 


rebel- 
lions. 


«0D-1"46.  of  the  globe.  Accustomed  to  poverty,  Scottish  emigrants 
acquired  habits  of  frugality,  industry,  and  pcrsevaran're, 
and  were  rewarded  by  success  in  most  of  their  undertak- 
ings. Nor,  if  >war  be  regarded  as  necessary  to  the  continued 
existence  of  a  nation,  was  it  altogether  absent,  but  the 
cause  with  which  the  name  of  Scotland  became  identified 
Jacobite  was  the  losing  one.  The  two  rebellions  proved  the  devoted 
loyalty  which  still  attached  many  of  the  Highland  clans, 
the  Catholics,  and  some  of  the  Episcopalians  to  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Stuarts.  But  that  in  1715,  preceded  by  an 
abortive  attempt  in  170S,  was  put  down  by  a  single  battle; 
Sheriffmuir,  if  it  could  scarcely  be  claimed  as  a  victory  by 
Argyll,  led  to  the  speedy  dispersal  of  the  clans  which  had 
gathered  round  the  standard  of  Mar.  Thirty  years  later 
the  romantic  -ising  of  the  Highlanders  under  the  Young 
Pretender  found  the  Government  unprepared.  Once  more 
for  a  brief  space  Holyrood  was  a  royal  court.  The  defeat 
of  Cope  at  Prestonpans  and  the  rapid  march  of  the  Scotti-sh 
army,  slightly  reinforced  by  Catholics  from  the  northern 
and  midland  shires  of  England,  to  Derby,  by  which  it  cut 
off  the  duke  of  Cumberland's  forces  from  the  capital,  made 
London  tremble.  Divided  counsels,  the  absence  of  any  able 
leader,  and  the  smallness  of  their  number  (not  more  than 
5000)  prevented  the  daring  policy  of  attacking  London, 
which  Charles  himself  favoured,  and  a  retreat  was  deter- 
mined on.  It  was  skilfully  effected,  and  on  26th  December 
the  little  army,  which  had  left  Edinburgh  on  31st  October 
and  reached  Derby  on  -Ith  December,  arrived  in  Glasgow. 
It  was  not  favourably  received,  the  south-west  of  Scotland 
being  the  district  least  inclined  to  the  Stuarts,  and  it 
marched  on  Stirling  to  assist  Lord  John  Drummond  and 
Lord  Strathallan,  who  had  commenced  its  siege,  which 
General  Hawley  threatened  to  raise.  His  defeat  at  Falkirk 
was  the  last  success  of  the  Jacobites.  The  duke  of  Cum- 
berland was  sent  to  command  the  royal  forces,  and  Charles 
Edward  was  forced  by  Lord  George  Murray  and  the  High- 
land chiefs  to  abandon  the  siege  of  Stirling  and  retreat 
to  Inverness.  He  was  at  once  pursued  by  the  duke,  and 
his  defeat  at  CuUoden  (16th  April  1746)  scattered  his 
followers  and  compelled  him  to  seek  safety  in  flight  to  the 
Hebrides,  from  which,  after  five  months'  wanderings,  he 
escaped  to  France.  The  last  rebellion  within  Great  Britain 
was  put  down  with  severity.  Many  soldiers  taken  in  arms 
were  shot  and  no  consideration  was  shov/n  to  the  wounded. 
The  chief  officers  and  even  some  privates  taken  prisoners 
were  tried  and  executed  at  various  places  in  the  north  of 
England.  The  earls  of  Cromarty  and  Kilmarnock  and  Lord 
Balraerino  were  reserved  for  the  judgment  of  their  peers 
in  London,  and  having  pleaded  guilty  were  beheaded  at 
Tower  Hill.  The  crafty  Lovat,  who  had  avoided  appearing 
in  arms,  but  was  really  at  the  bottom  of  the  rising,  though 
he  pretended  to  serve  both  sides,  was  the  last  to  suffer. 
An  Act  of  indemnity  was  passed  a  few  weeks  after  his 
execution.  But  effective  measm-es  were  taken  to  prevent 
any  renewal  of  the  rebellion.  The  estates  and  titles  of  all 
who  had  been  priN-y  to  it  were  forfeited.  An  Act  was  passed 
prohibiting  the  use  of  arms  and  the  Highland  dress ;  and 
the  abolition  of  the  military  tenure  of  ward-holding,  un- 
fortunately preserved  at  the  linion,  rooted  out  the  remnants 
of  feudal  and  military  power  till  then  left  in  the  hands  of 
the  nobles  and  chiefs.  These  changes  in  the  law  had  the 
willing  consent  of  the  Lowland  and  burghal  population  in 
Scotland,  to  whom  the  lawless  and  freebooting  habits  of 
the  Highlanders  had  been  a  cause  of  frequent  loss  and 
constant  alarm.  Somewhat  later  the  masterly  policy  of 
Pitt  enlii  red  the  Scottish  Celts  in  the  service  of  the  crown 
by  forming  the  Highland  regiments.  The  recollection  of 
Glencoe  and  CuUoden  was  forgotten  after  the  common 
victories  of  the  British  arms  in  India,  the  Peninsula,  and 
Waterloo.     In  one  direction  the  Jacobite  cause  survived 


its  defeat.  Poetry  seized  on  its  romantic  incidents,  ideal- 
ized the  young  prince  who  at  least  tried  to  win  his  father's 
crown,  satirized  the  foreign  and  German,  the  Whig  and 
Covenanting,  elements  opposed  to  the  Stuart  restoration, 
and  substituted  loyalty  for  patriotism.  Self-sacrifice  and 
devotion  to  a  cause  believed  right,  though  deserted  by 
fortune  (qualities  rare  amongst  the  mass  of  any  nation), 
dignified  tlie  Jacobites  like  the  cavaliers  with  some  of 
the  nobler  traits  of  chivalry,  and  the  Jacobite  ballads 
have  their  place  in  literature  as  one  of  the  last  expiring 
notes  of  mediaival  romance.  Music  and  tradition  fortu- 
nately preserved  their  charm  before  the  cold  hand  of  history 
traced  the  sad  end  of  Charles  Edward,  the  pensioner  of 
foreign  courts,  wasting  his  declining  years  in  ignoble  plea- 
sures. It  might  be  hard  to  say  whether  the  first  Hanover- 
ians or  the  last  Stuarts  least  deserved  that  men  should  fight 
and  die  for  them ;  but  the  former  represented  order,  pro- 
gress, civil  and  religious  liberty  the  latter  were  identified 
with  the  decayr.'.g  legend  of  the  divine  right  of  kings  and 
the  claim  of  the  Roman  Church  not  merely  to  exclusive 
orthodoxy  but  to  temporal  power  and  jurisdiction  inconsist- 
ent with  the  independence  of  nations  and  freedom  of  con- 
science. Although  a  larger  minority  in  Scotland  than  ia 
England  clung  to  the  traditions  of  the  past,  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority  of  the  nation,  including  all  its  progressive 
elements,  were  in  favour  of  the  new  constitution  and  the 
change  of  dynasty. 

During  the  remaininghalf  of  the  18th  century  .and  the  commence-  Pr<^css 
nient  of  tlie  19th  a  period  of  prosperity  was  enjoyed  by  Scotland,  during 
and  the  good  effects  of  tlie  union,  intercepted  by  the  rebellions,  ISthcer* 
became  visible.  The  Scottish  nation,  without  losing  its  indivi-  tury. 
duality,  was  stimulated  by  contact  and  fiiendly  rivalry  with  its 
English  neighbour  in  the  arts  of  peace.  It  advanced  in  intel- 
lectu.al  as  well  as  material  respects  more  tliau  in  any  part  of  its 
previous  history.  It  became,  through  commerce,  manufactures, 
and  improved  agriculture,  a  comparatively  rich  instead  of  a  poor 
country.  Skilful  engineering  made  the  Clyde  a  successful  com- 
petitor with  the  Thames  and  the  Mersey,  and  Glasgow  became  one 
of  the  most  populous  cities  iu  Great  Britain.  The  industrial  arts 
made  r.apid  progress,  and  the  fine  arts  began  to  flourish.  The  art 
of  saving  capital  and  using  it  as  a  source  of  credit  was  reduced  to  a 
system.  Banks,  not  unknown  in  other  countries  and  at  an  earlier 
date,  are  in  their  modern  form  a  Scottish  invention.  Besides  those 
which  sprang  up  in  Scotland  itself,  the  national  banks  of  England 
and  France  owed  their  origin  to  two  Scotsmen.  A  safe  system  of 
life  insurance  represented  the  provident  habits  and  business  talents 
of  the  nation.  Adam  Smith  shares  with  the  French  economists  the 
honour  of  founding  political  economy  as  the  science  of  the  wealth  of 
nations,  llental  philosophy  became  a  favourite  study,  and  a  dis- 
tinctively Scottish  school  produced  thinkers  who  deeply  influenced 
the  later  systems  of  the  Continent.  The  history  not  of  Scotland 
only  but  of  England  and  some  portions  of  that  of  Europe  were 
written  by  Scotsmen  in  works  equal  to  any  existing  before  Gibbon. 
The  dawn  of  the  scientific  er.-i  of  the  19th  century  was  foreshadowed 
by  Scottish  men  of  science,  the  founders  of  modern  geology, 
chemistry,  anatomy,  pihysiology,  and  the  practice  of  medicine.  In 
Scotland  was  made  the  first  of  the  great  line  of  discoveries  in  the 
practical  application  of  science  by  the  use  of  steam  as  a  motive- 
power.  The  same  period — so  varied  were  its  talents — gave  birth  to 
two  Scottish  poets,  of  world-wide  fame.  Burns  expressed  the 
feelings  and  aspirations  of  the  people  ;  Scott  described  both  in 
verse  and  prose  their  history  and  the  picturesque  scenes  in  which 
it  had  been  transacted.  During  the  last  half-century  the  material 
progress  continued,  but  the  intellectual  was  too  brilliant  to  last. 
Tlie  preponderating  influence  of  England  even  threatened  to  extin- 
guish native  Scottish  genius  by  centralizing  the  political  and  social 
life  of  the  island  in  the  English  capital.  Only  two  changes  of 
importance  occurred.  The  political  institutions  of  Scotland  were 
reformed  by  a  series  of  Acts  which  placed  the  franchise  on  a  broader 
basis  and  made  the  representation  of  tlie  people  real.  The  Estab- 
lished Church,  already  weakened  by  secessions,  was  further  divided 
by  a  disruption  largely  due  to  the  ignorance  of  political  leaders  aa 
to  the  deep-seated  aversion  of  the  nation  to  any  interference  with 
the  independence  of  the  church,  especially  iu  matters  of  patronage. 
Educational  reform  has  also  in  recent  years  raised  tlie  standard  of 
the  universities  and  schools  without  injuring  their  popular  character. 
A\Trile  it  would  be  incorrect  to  say  that  Scotland  has  had  no  inde- 
pendent history  since  the  union,  that  history  must  be  chiefly  read  in 
the  annals  of  its  church,  its  law,  and  its  literature.  Its  political, 
existence  has  been  absorbed  in  that  of  Great  Britain.         (.E.  M.) 


GEOLOGY.  J 


SCOTLAND 


521 


PAUT  n.— PHYSICAL  FEATURES 


Plite  Scollana  lorms  the  northern  portion  of  Great  Britain  and  is 

yH  divided  from  England  by  the  rivers  Sark,  Liddell,  and  Kershope 

(an  affluent  of  the  Liddell),  the  Cheviot  Hills,  the  river  Tweed,  and 
the  liberties  of  Berwick.  The  mainland  lies  between  oS°  40'  30"  (at 
Dunnet  Head,  Caithness)  and  54°  3S'  N.  lat.  (Mull  of  Galloway)  and 
1°  45'  30"  (Peterhead)  and  6°  11'  W.  long.  (Ardnamurc'han  Point, 
Argj-llshire).  Including  the  islands,  the  extreme  N.  lat.  is  60° 
£1'  30"  (Outsack,  Shetland)  and  the  cstreme  W.  long.  8°  35'  30" 
(St  Kilda).  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south,  from  Durness 
in  Sutherland  to  Burrow  Head  in  Wigtownshire,  is  272  miles,  and 
the  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west,  from  Peterhead  in  Aber- 
deenshire to  Applecross  in  B.oss-shire,  is  155,  while  the  narrowest 
part,  from  Grangemouth  in  Stiidingshire  to  Bowling  in  Dumbarton- 
shire, is  only  30i  miles  wide.  The  total  area  -in  1881,  according  to 
the  Ordnance  Survey,  was  19,777,490  acres  or  30,902  square  miles, 
—  the  area  of  foreshore  being  310,413  acres  or  485  square  miles, 
of  water  403,846  acres  or  631  square  miles,  and  of  land-surface 
19,063,231  acres  or  29.786  square  miles.  But  of  the  water  area 
the  acreage  included  under  lakes  and  rivers  respectively  has  not 
been  ascertained. 

Geology. 

In  the  article  Geolog?  (vol.  i. )  descriptions  will  be  found  of  most 
jf  the  geological  formations  of  Scotland.  AH  that  need  therefore 
be  inserted  here  is  a  succinct  summary  of  these  formations  with 
references  to  the  pages  of  that  article  where  fuller  details  are  given, 
i'cn.ean  The  oldest  rocks  of  Scotland  and  of  the  British  Islands,  known 
rocks.  as  jVrchcean,  consist  chiefly  of  gneiss  (Fundamental,  Lewisian, 
Hebridian),  which  varies  from  a  coarselj"-  crystalline  granitoid  mass 
to  fine  schist.  The  coarse  varieties  are  most  abundant,  intermingled 
with  bands  of  hornblende-rock,  hornblende-schist,  pegmatite,  eurite, 
mica-.schist,  sericite-schist,  and  other  schistose  accompaniments. 
In  a  few  places  limestone  has  been  observed.  No  trace  of  any 
organism  has  ever  been  detected  in  any  of  these  rocks.  Over  wide 
are^s,  particularly  on  the  mainland,  the  hands  of  gneiss  have  a 
general  north-west  trend  and  undulate  in  frequent  plications  with 
variable  inclination  to  north-east  and  south-west.  The  largest 
tract  of  Archrean  rock  is  that  which  forms  almost  the  whole  of  the 
Oute^ebridcs,  from  Barra  Head  to  the  Butt  of  Lewis.  Other  areas 
more  or  less  widely  separated  from  each  other  run  down  thfe  western 
parts  of  Sutherland  and  iioss,  and  are  probably  continued  at  least 
as  far  as  the  Island  of  Rum.  How  far  Archaean  rocks  reappear  to 
the  cast  of  this  western  belt  has  not  yet  been  ascertained. 
Cam-  Above  the  Archajan  gneiss  lies  a  series  of  redand  chocolate-coloured 

brian        sandstones,  conglomerates,  and   breccias   (Cambrian   or  Tocndon 
sand-        sandstone),  which  foim  a  number  of  detached  areas  from  Cape  Wrath 
stone        down  the  seaboard  of  Sutherland  and  Ross,  across  Skyc,  and  as  far 
as  the  Island  of  Rum  (Geology,  vol.  x.  p.  330).     They  rise  into 
prominent  pyramidal  mountains,  which,  as  the  stratification  is 
usually  almost  horizontal,  present  in  their  terraced  sideS  a  singular 
contrast  tp  the  neighbouring  heights,  composed  of  highly  plicated 
crystalline  schists.     In  the  Torridon  district  these  sandstones  can 
be  seen  towering  bed  above  bed  to  a  height  of  about  4000  feet,  and 
their  thickness  is  still  greater.     They  have  not  yet  yielded  any 
recognizable  fossil ;   their  geological  age  is  accordingly  doubtful, 
ihough  from  their  relation  to  the  overlying  fossiliferous  rocks  and 
from  their  own  lithological  characters  they  have  with  much  prob- 
ability been  classed  with  the  Cambrian  system  of  Wales.     They 
are  not  met  with  anywhere  else  in  Scotland  than  in  the  north-west 
Highlands. 
:Jilaiian        Rocks  belonging  to  the  Silurian  system  occur  in  two  distinct 
^sUm.    regions  and  in   bvo  very  strongly  contrasted  conditions.      They 
constitute  nearly  the  whole  of  the  southern  uplands  .Geolooy, 
vol.  X.  pp.  333,  337).     In  that  belt  of  countiy  they  con.«.ist  for  the 
most  part  of  greywacke,  grit,  shale,  and  other  sedimentary  rocks, 
but  in  the  south-west  of  A^Tshiro  they  include  some  thick  lenti- 
cular bands  of  limestone.    They  have  been  thrown  into  many  plica- 
tions, the  long  axes  of  which  lun  in  a  general  north-easterly  direction. 
It  is  this  structure  which  has  determined  the  trend  of  the  southern 
uplands.     The  plications  of  the  Highlands  and  the  chief  disloca- 
tions of  the  country  have  followed  the  same  general*&u-ection,  and 
hence  the  parallelism  and  north-easterly  trend  of  the  main  topo- 
graphical features.    Abundant  fossils  in  certain  parts  of  the  Silurian 
rocks  have  shown  that  representatives  of  both  the  Lower  and  Upper 
divisions  are  present.    By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  uplands  belongs 
to  the  former.     The  Upper  Silurian  shales  and  sandstonos  appear 
jnly  along  the  northern  and  southern  margins. 
^  lu  the  north-west  Highlands  the  Cambrian  red  sandstones  are 
overlain  unconformably  by  several  hundred  feot  of  white  quartzite 
ivith  annelid  tubes,  followed  by  fossiliferous  limestones' and  shales 
^Geoiogv,  vol.  X.  p.  333).    The  abundant  fossils  in  these  strata 
prove  them  to  bo  of   Lt/we.'  Sduiian  age.      it  was  believed  by 
Jlurchison  that,  as  these  Silurian  strata  dip  conformably  belov 
various  schists  which  spread  eastwards  into  the  rest  of  the  High- 
iaii4s,  they  demonstrate  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  UighlaudU  to 


be  of  later  than  Silurian  age.  Recently,  however,  the  structure  Oi 
Sutherland  has  been  investigated  anew  with  minute  care  and  the 
result  is  to  show  that  the  schists  believed  to  overlie  the  Silurian 
strata  conformably  hav«  been  really  pushed  over  them  and  consist 
in  part  of  the  Archsean  gneiss.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  from 
the  mouth  of  Loch  Erribpll  on  the  north  coast  of  Sutherland  south 
wards  to  the  Isle  of  Skye,  a  distance  of  more  than  100  miles,  a  gigantic 
system  of  earth-movements  has  taken  place,  whereby  the  Silurian. 
Cambrian,  and  Archcean  rocks  have  been  crumpled,  inverted,  dis- 
located, and  have  pushed  over  each  other.  In  some  places  the  hori- 
zontal displacement  of  these  shifted  masses  has  been  not  less  than 
10  miles.  So  intense  has  been  the  shearing  of  the  rocks  that  theii 
original  structure  has  in  many  places  been  entirely  destroyed. 
They  have  acquired  a  new  schistosity,-  which  is  in  a  general  sense 
parallel  with  the  bedding  of  the  Silurian  rocks  to  the  west  of  the 
line  of  disturbance.  Hence  the  appaient  conformabUity  of  the 
schists  overlying  these  rocks.  The  total  thickness  of  recognizable 
Silurian  strata  is  about  2000  feet.  The  rocks  that  overlie  them  t» 
the  east  of  the  line  of  disturbance  in  Sutherland  and  Ross  are  fine' 
flaggy  schists,  quite  unlike  any  part  of  the  Archiean  gneiss  and  oftei 
strangely  suggestive  of  altered  sandstones.  "What  are  their  triu 
age  and  history  remains  still  to  be  determined.  Tl)ere  can  be  n< 
doubt,  however,  that  they  have  acquired  their  present  schistosit; 
since  the  Lower  Silurian  period,  ana  hence  that  the  present  condi 
tion  of  the  metamorphic  rocks  of  the  central  Highlands  does  noi 
go  back  to  Archffian  time.  That  portions  of  the  Archffian  series 
may  have  been  pushed  up  in  different  parts  of  the  Highl.-'nds  is 
quite  conceivable.  But  that  much  of  the  Highlands  consists  of 
altered  sedimentary  rocks  like  those  of  the  Silurian  uplands  admit' 
of  no  question.  The  solution  of  this  difficult  but  interesting 
problem  has  the  most  important  bearing  ujjon  the  theory  of  meta 
morphism,  hut  it  can  only  be  attained  by  patieu'^  and  laboriouj 
mapping  of  the  ground  such  as  is  being' prosecuted  by  the  Geo 
logical  Survey. 

As  Scotland  is  the  tjrpical   European  region  for  the  Old  ived  OM  H". 
Sandstone  a  full  account  of  this  series  of  rocks  has  al'esdy  been  Sand- 
given  in  the  article  Geology  (vol.  x.  pp.  343,  344).     '^cso  rocko  atone, 
are  grouped  in  two  divisions,  Lower  and  Upper,  both  of  whicij 
appear  to  have  been  deposited  in  lakes.    The  Lower,  with  its  abun 
dant  intercalated  lavas  and  tuffs,  extends  continuously  as  a  broad 
belt  along  the  northern  margin  of  the  midland  valley,  reappears  ir 
detached  tracts  along  the  southern  border,  is  found  agam  on  thv, 
south  side  of  the  uplands  in  Berwickshire  and  the  Cheviot  HUls. 
occupies  a  tract  of  Lorne^  Argyllshire,  and  on  the  north  side  ot 
the  Highlands  underlies  most  of  the  low  ground  on  both  sides  of 
the  Jloray  Firth,  stretches  across  Caithness  and  through  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  is  proloQged  into  Shetland.    The 
Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone  covera  a  more  restricted  space  in  most 
of  the  areas  just  mentioned,  its  chief  development  being  on  the 
flanks  of  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  snuthern  uplands,  where  it 
spreads  out  over  the  Lammermuir  Hilk  and  the  valleys  of  Berwick- 
shire and  Roxburghshire. 

The  areas  occupied  by  Carboniferous  rocks  are  almost  entirely  Cftrbon- 
restiicted  to  the  midland  valley,  but  they  are  also  to  be  found  iferous. 
skirting  the  southern   uplands  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tweed  to 
that  of  the  Nith.     The  subdivision  .  of  this  important  s}'stem,  its 
coal-fields  and  igneous  rocks,  have  been  described  in  the  article 
Geology  (voh  x.  pp.  346,  348,  349).   ^  _ 

Rocks  assignable  to  the  Permian  system  occupy  only  a  few  small  Permian- 
arcsis  in  Scotland.  Extending  from  Cumberland  under  the  Solway 
Firth,  they  fill  up  the  valley  of  the  Nith  for  a  few  miles  north  of 
Dumiries,  and,  reappearing  again  in  the  same  valley  a  little  farther 
north,  run  up  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Carron  Water  to  the  Lowther 
HUls.  Other  detached  tracts  of  similar  rocks  cover  a  considerable 
space  in  Annandale,  one  of  them  ascending  the  deep  defile  at  tho 
head  of  that  valley.  Another  isolated  patch  occurs  among  the 
Lead  Hills ;  and  lastly,  a  considerable  space  in  the  heart  of  the 
Ayrshire  coal-field  is  occupied  by  Permian  rocks.  Througnout 
these  separate  basins  the  prevailing  rock  is  a  red  sandstone,  varied 
in  the  narrow  vallej  s  with  intercalated  masses  of  breccia  (Gidology, 
voh  X.  p.  351).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  valleys  in  which 
these  patches  of  red  rocks  lie  already  existed  in  Permian  time. 
They  seem  then  to  have  been  occupied  by  small  lakes  or  inlets, 
not  unlike  fjords.  Numerous  amphibian  tracks  have  been  found 
in  the  red  sandstone  of  Annandale  and. also  near  Dumfries,  but 
no  other  traces  of  the  life  of  the  time.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
features  of  the.  Scottish  devciopitient  of  tho  Permian  system  is  tho 
occurrence  of  intercalated  bands  of  contemporaneously  erupted 
volcanic  rocks  in  tho  Carron  AVater,  Nithsdale,  and  Ayrshire.  The 
actual  vents  which  were  the  sites  of  the  small  volcanoes  still  remain 
distinct,  and  the  erupted  lavas  fonp  hit'h  frround  m  the  mVifh  of 
Ayrshire.  ' 

,     "^10  Tria.ssic  system  appears  to  bo  oniy  leebly  represented  iu  Triaasic 
Scotland      To  this  division  of  the  geological  record  are  assigned 
the' yellow  landstones  of  Elein.  whicn  '"""e  yielded  remains  of  ren- 

XX^     -.6f 


522 


SCOTLAND 


tne,  but  which  at  the.same  tu^  ca^ot  ^^^^^^^^^r^ 
from   similar  underlying  ^t'^'\,^J"^^,  JX  Lias  on  some  parts 

coast  of  Ross,  where  they  must  be  ='="/„^ , ?" "^'^^tHf  the  Second- 
the  east  side  of  the  --'^  •  t"he  gfa  S  depo""  »  large  mass  of 
ary  rocks  occur  as  I"'"''''-"  "'^  j  i^^g„ia  near  Elgin  containing 
strata  was  formerly  f  POf^^  "'  ^  belong  to  the  Rhcetio  beds  at 
fossils  which  appear  to  ^""^  '*  f  ^J^f  ,,ee,  and  was  almost 
the  top  of  the  Tnas,  Ba  it  was  "^^F  strata  no  doubt  exist 
certainly  a  mass  transported  b)  ice.     nn 

,-.  «■<„  It  no  great  distance  --  "  'h/^  ^m*  Sea  ^.^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

Jurassic.  The  Jurassic  system  f^.^^fj J  P^^gutiierland  good  sections  are 
Highlands.  Along  tlie  "='  ""f/  °'  j"'  Among  these  the  Lower 
exposed  showing  the  ^■■',<^'="^;°";td  by  their  fostils.  The  Lower 
and  Middle  Lias,  can  be  jf  "';f;„<i„,^y  *^'  t  of  some  coal-seams, 

are  found  m  ^^ny  detached  ar^'.o  ^^^„„  „,    ,  u.cir 

southern  shores  of  Hull.     Uyer  muc  ofi^^s  poured  over 

preservation  n  groat  measure  l°^XTlncoy,rei,  indeed,  only 
them  in  Tertiary  t"^«-  TJ>;y  '^^"j  ^/^t"  They  comprise  a  con- 
at  a  o^-^P^^atively  recent  g=;^°S-f  ^"^^/^^J^  „f  tL  Liis  up  to  the 

n^fo^rChr  ThtTow  r  mdle  and  Upper  Lias  consist  chielly  of 
Oxford  Cl'iy-  "^  ';°^;  ^.it^  5„me  sandstones,  well  seen  aiong 
shales  aud  =«;!'? '"'^""S^'ingv^e  and  iii  some  of  the  adjacent 
the  shores  ot  Broad  ord  Bay  '"  S.^''  ^       ^f  sandstones  and  shales 

islands.  Tlie  ^o'"  0°1'^'=^J'^^  "^^l^^i,!  ^  ,„eral  hundred  feet  of 
with  some  limestones  and  are  ovenayy  ^^  ^^^.^^^  ^^^.^^ 

an  f  f^^^'r^r,;^=™;,;/,{^:^e  ,^^eXt  and  shelly  limestones, 
sandstones,  below  and  auove  «'"  „n<ipvucath  the  basalt  terraces 
These  roclcs  form  a  prominent  f^^^"^,^  ""J^f'^^Thev  fo,m  the  highest 
"  ''^r^'t^fhe  JurSiSS're^^es^Lfng  prolbly  some  part  of 
^rOxford  =?ay  The  next  Seco'ndary  ro°cli  (Cretaceous)  succeed 
tl:em  unconiormably.  „    ,        ,,3  ,^stem  undoubtedly  at  one 

ing  the  Moray  \"'^'^- ,;''?''  ['„  ^\  no  gr-'at  distance,  if  indeed 
H^^a-l^rXll^I^^y  ;^>^^Al,:i^Lshire  and  the  neigh- 

Basaltic   '^°SyZ%^^t^3.ond.y^oc^^^^ 
pUteaus,  t«-ed  plateaus  of^H.lt,.h^  ^^^^^ 

of  [h;  chaS  of  th^  Inner  Hebades(GEOLOo,  vo    x^p.    0^^^^^ 
plateaus  are  composed  of  near,    h^uonta.    heetso^  ^  ^  ^^.^^_ 

nar,  amorpnous,  '>\?;^l-' f^f%X^.,  ^,,  prolonged  southwards  into 
ness  of  move  than  3000  teet.  ^  J^"  yji'  i-.,ii,,-i°,.  Secondary  strata 
Antrim  (Ireland),  wnere  =™'l\r  \^^f  ^^^  -^f   „Tr  are  intercalated 

»'■-  %''\1^  r,'  Ilui  ifkewe" tarns  of  fine  clay  or  shale  which 
among  these  la-. a.,,  ana  "''y'"  ,     j.,jauts.     The  presence 

have  preserved  the  f™""^^"  ^"^^^ns  ^re  subaerial,  anfl  a  com- 
"'''°nlr,^^em"wtlho\tuewheVe  found  among  older  Tertiary 
r^S  s^^'X^hey  ^oUbly  ^^^J^:^^:^^^^^ 

i;:!r^:t  i:;^i:rlntS^- EiSHsSL^ 

appears  to  have  resembled  m  it^  --".^  '--^t^tho^'Lid  square 
pourings  of  basalt  which  ".='■«  .'f'"'',/;.,,,,  t.,,tes  The  eruptions 
^iles  of  the  western  territones  of  'h?  Umted  Sta  es     ^1  n      J^  ^^^^ 

were  connected  with  "'."'^■"^^'a"'^  ^fiV-«d  out  at  the  surface. 


[I'HYSICAL 


„r  Fi...  for  example,  the  basalts  had  already  been  deeply  eroded  by 
;  ve  Si\  on  aSo  the  river-course  a  cuiTent  of  glassy  lava  pitch, 
'one)  flowed.  Denudation  has  continued  active  "er  since  and  no  v 
stone;  ^w""  hardn»ss  and  consequent  power  of  resistance,  the 
°r  i  nvi  stands  UP  af  the  rromi.«;nt  and  picturesque  ridge  of 
f  ,fs  i?r  Uu"  he  Lsalt3  wh?ch  formerly  rose  high  above  it  have 
;  n  wori  do  vn  into  terraced  declivities  that  s  ope  away  irom  i 
l,-.cn  ^^orn  ^^  ■  ,    ,  ,     feature  in  the  volcanic  phenomena  wa, 

he*',Ssruptiot  o    the  b'saltie  plateaus  by  large  bosses  of  gabbio 
thedisrupnon  °'  ••  ,   ,         These  intrusive  masses  now  tower 

and  of  vanous  gianitoid  rocks      ii«s<;  mi 

into  conspicuous  ^ouP.  of  M^^^ 

*"n   f^'Z  Pos'  t  T  i'-n  divi^^o™  ™me  xhf  records  of  the  Ice  Age,  Youngos^. 
Under  the  Fost-tirti..r}  aivm  ground  down,  forma- 

when  Scotland  Yf^^*^]'  L\\fder  rock    ove    the  whole  country  and  tioos. 

f  frWiind^thrn^^Se  w  lesp^^^^^^^^^  of  clay,  gravel,  and 

left  behind  tliem  lue  """=-F'  nature  of  the  evidence  and 

sand  known  as  gla"al  depos:         The  natur    ot  t 

the  deductions  dra       &«- it  have  be.i^a^^^^y^^^^^^.^^^ 

vol.  X.  pp.  365-u6S)  J:''';J°';"i:^.^j5,^,it°  peat-mosses,  and  other 

on  its  surface  (Geology,  voh  x  pp.  2o6.  290,  3b9). 
Physical  Featukes. 

garded  as  embracmg  all  tbat  part  «' ^  ^-j^         3  tjj^nce  Imds. 

between  the  foot  of -the  hills  and  the  sea  .         ^  j^to  the 

county  of  Caithne^  is  one  ^''^"^  P'^'"^  ""Vth'rn  mar<^,  the  area 
Orkney  Islands  Seen  f^'^fyXfiiied  chain  of  hiul,  ^hich  rise 
of  t!ie  Highlands  presents  a  ^ll^^^'^^^^^  43  test  observed 

rising  up  to  a  singularl>  unuor      j,  summits  in 

and  there  and  a!  o-s  gUmp  -  to  be  l.ad  of^^^^^  ^^^.  ^^^.^.^^  ^^,^^^ 

5^o\:far?romTh:M:;.ayTh-th;«  .-.-.1  the  Jlams  of  Caithness  or 

°^^::?S  a  commanding  -^'^  ^^^f^^^^^:^  S' 
seen  to  differ  from  a  v:-™°.*T  ^^'Lufin Iheir  configuration  and  moun- 
i„  their  inferior  eevauonu.t  --^-U> -*-„;,,  „°  ,ess  nearly  tarns. 
structure.     Th«3' ■".^™a^';'?P  °' ,  jj     ^.^ole,  a  trend  from 

parallel  confluent  ndges,  J,!"*  1  ";;  °"  3"'  ^ted  by  longitudinal 

only  higher  pa^t.  o    nd.e^     ""S^^V^irh™ The' ^nSal  average  of 

of  view  a  mountain  may  apjpai  .0^-  -;bo™^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  .^ 
country,  but,  look,:d  at  Irom  a  su  „uch  above  the  general 

enrironment  it  may  be  f"™^^""'^/; '^^^i  j^S  dominant  "masses 
uniformity  of  ^^l^ati™.  There  are  n  j^  j^rrestrial  disturbance, 
that  must  °l^"°-V:utot  to  thi  statement  rise  along  the  westera 
A  few  appaivnt  «f  P  ''^'"%we  and  elsewhere,  but  an  examination 

ject  in  tnnumerable  bosses  a^f  ^S^^^  ^^^^^^^4°,"f=Xese  roughnesses  Umd. 
crests  of  the  ridges.     Th"  'o>»s  and  ^°;°      j^_     ■^vi,,,e  the  latter 
depend  on  the  natiire  °f  t''«.'°"=V  ""<  f  °/;'°  ^^rangular  blocks, 
is  hard  and    ointed,  ^'■''^athering    nto  lar  e  quaar 

the  hills  are  mo^^  "P'="ally 'I'^'^f  if  !,en  in  Ben^edi  and  the 
character  of  their  declivities,  as  f  ay.^^j;„^^d"f  ^alive  gi-its  and 
chain  of  height,  to^he  "J*-  /j^  "--f, ^J  ^^^  de<fys  into 
SSiJrtt^ds,  ^'^iil^^i^a^t  to  assum.  smoother  contours,  as  m 


FEAITTBES.] 


SCOTLAND 


523 


the  slate  hills  that  run  from  the  Kyles  of  Bute  to  Loch  Lomond. 
Wherever  any  mass  of  rock  occurs  differing  much  from  those 
M^und  it  in  its  power  of  resisting  decomposition  it  affects  the 
scenery,  rising  into  a  prominence  where  it  is  durable,  or  sinking 
kito  lower  ground  where  it  is  not.  This  relation  between  relative 
destructibility  and  external  configurahon  is  ti-aceable  in  every  part 
of  Scotland,  and  indeed  may  be  regarded  as  the  law  that  has  mainly 
determined  the  present  topography  of  the  country. 
Tivo  The  Highlands  are  , separated  into  two  completely  disconnected 

re^ioti.i  and  in  some  respects  contrasted  regions  by  the  remarkable  line 
ofiHigh-  of  the  Great  Glen,  which  runs  from  Loch  Linnhe  to  Inverness.  In 
■lands.  the  northern  portion  the  highest  ground  rises  along  the  west  coast, 
mounting  steeply  from  the  sea  to  an  average  height  of  perhaps 
between  2000  and  3000  feet.  The  watershed  consequently  keeps 
dose  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  indeed  in  some  places  it  is  not  more 
Ihan  a  mile  and  a  half  distant  from  the  beach.  From  these  heights, 
which  catch  the  first  downpour  of  the  western  rains,  tlie  ground 
falls  eastwards,  but  with  numerous  heights  that  prolong  the  moun- 
tainous character,  to  the  edge  of  the  North  Sea  and  the  line  of  the 
Great  Gien.  .  The  best  conception  of  the  difference  in  the  general 
level  on  the  two  sides  of  the  v.-atershed  may  be  obtained  by  obscrv- 
iug  ihe  contrast  between  the  lengths  of  their  streams.  On  the 
western  side  the  drain_age  is  poured  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  after 
flowing  only  a  few  miles,  while  on  the  eastern  side  it  has  to  run  at 
(east  30  or  40.  At  the  head  of  Loch  Nevis  the  western  stream  is 
only  S  miles  long  ;  that  which  starts  from  the  eastern  side  has  a 
•ourse  of  some  13  to  the  Great  Glen.  Throughout  the  northern  or 
north-western  region  a  general  uniformity  of  feature  characterizes 
thie  scenery,  betokening  even  at  a  distance  ^he  general  monotony 
in  the  structure  of  the  underlying  schists.  But  the  sameness  is 
relieved  along  the  western  coast  of  Sutherland  and  Koss  by  singular 
groups  of  cones  and  stacks  (to  be  afterwards  referred  to),  and  farther 
south  by  the  terraced  plateaus  and  abrnpt  conical  hills  of  Skye, 
Rum,  and  Mull.  The  valleys  mn  for  the  most  part  in  a  north-west 
and  south-east  direction,  and  tliis  is  also  generally  true  of  the 
sea  lochs. 

The  south-eastern  region  of  the  Highlands,  being  more  diversi- 
fied in  geological  structure,  presents  greater  contrasts  of  scenery. 
In  the  ftrst  place,  its  valleys  chiefly  run  in  a  south-west  and  north- 
oast  direction  and  so  also  do  most  of  the  lakes  and  sea  lochs.  This 
r^ture  is  strikingly  exhibited  in  the  western  part  of  Argyllshire. 
But  there  are  also  nnmerous  and  important  transverse  valleys,  of 
■which  that  of  the  Garry  and  Tay  is  the  most  conspicuous  example. 
Again,  the  watershed  in  this  region  is  arranged  somewhat  differ- 
ently. It  first  strikes  eastward  round  the  head  of  Loch  Laggan 
and  then  s\vings  southward,  pursuing  a  sinuous  course  till  it 
emerges  from  the  Highlands  on  the  enst  side  of  Loch  Lomond. 
But  the  streams  flowing  westward  are  still  short,  while  those  that 
nm  north-east  and  east  have  long  courses  and  drain  vride  tracts  of 
higli  ground.  The  Tay  in  particular  pours  a  larger  body  of  wate» 
into  tue  sea  than  any  other  river  in  Great  Britain.  Moreover,  the 
occurrence  of  many  bosses  of  granite  and  other  eruptive  rocks  gives 
•ise  to  various  interruptions  in  the  monotonous  scenery  of  the 
crystalline  schists  which  constitute  the  gieatcr  part  of  the  country. 
But  a  marked  contrast  may  be  traced  bet^veeu  tlie  configuration  of 
the  noith-casterii  district  and  the  other  parts  of  this  region.  In 
■that  area  the  Grampians  rise  into  wide  flat-topped  heights  or 
elevated  moors  often  over  3000  and  sometimes  exceeding  4000  fv?et 
in  height  and  bounded  by  steep  declivities  or  not  infrequently  by 
jprecipices.  Seen  from  an  eminence  on  their  suiface,  these  plateaus 
look  like  fragments  of  an  original  *road  tableland,  which  has  been 
trenched  into  segments  by  the  formation  of  the  transverse  and 
longitudinal  valleys^  Farther  to  the  south-west  in  Perthshii-e, 
Inverness-shire,  and  Argyllshire,  they  give  place  to  the  ordinary 
hummocky  crested  ridges  of  Highland  scencr}',  some  summits  on 
which,  however,  exceed  4000  fuet  in  elevation.  For  the  probable 
meaning  of  this  transition  from  broad  flat-topped  heights  to  narrow 
crests  and  isolated  peaks,  see  telow  (pp.  525-526). 

Besides  the  principal  tracts  of  low  gi-ound  in  the  Highlands 
already  referred  to,  there  occur  numerous  long  but  narrow  strips 
of  flat  laud  in  the  more  important  valleys.  Each  strath  and  glen 
is  usually  provided  witii  a  floor  of  detiitus  which,  spread  out  bc- 
iwccn  the  bases  of  tho  bounding  hills,  has  been  levelled  into 
meadow-land  by  tho  rivers,  and  furnishes  as  a  rule  the  only  arablo 
ground  in  each  district. 
pouL"  '.  -.2.  Tho  southern  uplands  form  the  most  southerly  of  the  three 
Vj-n.  transverse  belts  in  Scottish  topogrnphv.  Extending  from  St 
Patrick's  Channel  to  St  Abb's  Head,  they  constitute  a  well-defined 
belt  of  hilly  ground,  but  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the  scenery 
of  the  Highlands.  The  rocks  which  underlie  tliem  consist  almost 
wholly  ofSilurian  grits,,  grey  wackca,  and  shales,  which  have  been 
gi-catly  plicated,  tho  ccnbral  axis  of  the  folds  running  parallel  with 
♦liat  of  the  whole  belt,  or  from  south-west  to  north-cast.  These 
nplands,  thongh  much  less  ele%'atcd  than  the  Highlands  (their 
highest  point  is  not  more  than  2764  feet  above  tlio  sea),  rise  vrith 
scarcely  less  abruptness  abovo  the  lower  tracts  that  bound  them. 
Their  north-western  anargin  for  the  most  part  springs  boldly  above 


the  fields  and  moorlands  of  the  midland  valley,  and  its  boundary 
for  long  distances  continues  remarkably  straight.  Their  southern 
and  south  eastern  limits  are  in  general  less  prominently  defined, 
except  to  the  west  of  the  Nith,  where  they  plunge  into  the  sea. 
Between  the  Solway  Firth  and  the  Cheviot  Hills\liey  pass  under 
a  line  of  high  and  picturesque  escarpments  which  nins  from 
Birrenswark  in  a  north-east  duection.  In  BcrwickshLve,  however, 
they  again  tower  boldly  above  the  plain  of  the  ilei-se.  These  up- 
lands are  distinguished  above  all  by  the  smoothness  of  theii*  sur- 
fp-ze.  Tliey  may.  be  regarded  as  a  rolling  tableland  or  moorland, 
traversed  by  innumerable  valleys  which  with  gentle  verdant 
declivities  conduct  the  drainage  to  the  sea.  This  character  is 
impressively  seen  from  the  heights  of  Tweedsmuir.  .  Wide  mossy 
moors,  lying  2000  feet  or  more  above  the  sea  and  sometimes  level  ' 

as  a  racecourse,  sj>read  out  on  all  sides.  Their  continuity,  how- 
ever, is  inten-upted  by  numerous  intervening  valleys  ",hich  separate 
them  into  detached  fiat-topped  hilla.  Unlike  the  Highlands,  these 
southern  heights  comparatively  seldom  present  precipices  of  naked 
rock.  Where  the  rock  projects  it  more  usually  appears  in  low- 
crags  and  knolls,  from  which  long  trails  of  grey  or  purple  debris 
descend  the  slopes  till  they  are  lost  among  the  grass.  Hence, 
besides  being  smooth,  the  uplands  are  pre-eminently  verdant. 
They  form  indeed  excellent  pasture-land,  while  the  alluvial  flats 
in  the  valleys  and  even  some  of  the  lower  slopes-  of  the  hills  are 
fitted  for  corn  and  green  crops. 

This  uniformity  of  external  aspect  is  doubtless  traceable  to  the  Their 
prevalence  of  the  same  kind  of  rocks  and  the  same  geological  struc-  geo- 
ture.  The  Silurian  greywackes  and  shales  that  underlie  almdst  logical 
the  whole  of  these  uplands  weather  generally  into  small  angular  structara 
debris,  and  at  a  tolerably  uniform  rate  of  disintegration.  But 
slight  differences  may  readily  be  detected  even  where  no  feature 
interferes  in  a  marked  way  \vith  the  general  monotony.  The  bands 
of  massive  grit  and  coarse  greywacke,  for  example,  break  up  into 
larger  blocks  and  fi-om  their  greater  hardness  are  apt  to  project 
above  the  general  surface  of  the  other  and  softer  rocks.  Hence 
their  line  of  trend,  which  like  that  of  all  the  other  strata  is  in  a 
north-easterly  direction,  may  be  followed  from  hill  to  hill  even  at 
a  distance  by  their  more  craggy  contours.  Only  in  the  higher 
tracts  of  these  uplands  are  any  rugged  features  to  be  seen  that 
remind  one  of  the  more  savage  character  of  Highland  scenery.  In 
tho  heights  of  Hartiell  (2651  feet)  and  Whitecoomb  (2695),  whence 
the  Clyde,  Tweed,  Annan,  and  Moffat  "Water  descend,  the  high 
moorlands  have  been  scarped  into  gloomy  corries,  with  crags  ana 
talus-slopes,  which  form  a  series  of  landscapes  all  the  more  striking 
from  tlie  abrupt  and  unexpected  contrast  they  present  to  everything 
around  them.  In  Galloway,  also,  the  highest  portions  of  the  up- 
lands have  acquired  a  ruggedness  and  wildness  more  like  those  of 
the  Highlands  than  any  otlicr  district  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
For  this,  however,  there  is  an  obvious  geological  reason.  In  that 
region  the  Silurian  rocks  have  been  invaded  by  largo  bosses  of 
granite  and  have  undergone  a  variable  amount  of  metamorphism 
which  has  in  some  places  altered  them  into  hard  crystalline  schists. 
These  various  rocky  masses,  presenting  gi-eat  diflerences  in  their 
powers  of  resisting  decay,  have  jdelded  unequally  to  disintegration  : 
the  harder  portions  project  in  rocky  knolls,  crags,  and  cliffs,  while 
the  softer  parts  have  been  worn  down  into  more  flowing  outlines. 
The  highest  summit  iu  the  south  of  Scotland — Merrick  (2764  feet) 
— consists  of  Silurian  strata  much  altered  by  proximity  to  tho 
granite,  while  the  rest  of  the  more  prominent  heights  (all  in 
Kirkcudbrightshire)  —  Kinns  of  Kells  (2668  feet),  Cairnsmore  of 
Carsphairn  (2612),  and  Cairnsmore  of  Fleet  (2331) — arc  formed  of 
granite. 

The  watershed  of  the  southern  uplands  is  of  much  interest  in  Wafer- 
relation  to  their  geological  history.  It  runs  from  the  mouth  ofsliedof 
Loch  Ryan  in  a  sinuous  north-easterly  direction,  keeping  near  the  southern 
northern  limit  of  the  region  till  it  reaches  the  basin  of  tlie  Nith,  uplands, 
where  it  quits  the  uplands  altogether,  descends  into  tlie  lowlands 
of  Ayrshire,  and,  after  circling  round  the  headwaters  of  tho  Nith, 
strikes  south-eastwards  across  half  the  breadth  of  the  uplands, 
tlicn  sweeps  north  and  eastwards  between  the  basins  of  the  Clyde, 
Tweed,  and  Annan,  and  thou  through  the  moors  that  surround 
tho  sources  of  the  Ettrick,  Teviot,  and  Jed,  into  the  Cheviot  Hills. 
Here  again  the  longest  slope  is  on  the  east  side,  where  the  Tweed 
bears  the  whole  drainage  of  that  side  into  the  sea.  Althouf'h  tho 
rocks  throughout  the  southern  uplands  have  a  persistent  noitlj-east 
and  south-west  strike,  and  though  this  trend  is  apjiarent  in  tlic 
bands  of  more  rugged  hills  that  mark  the  outcrop  of  hard  grits 
and  grej'wackes,  nevertheless  gcolngical  structure  has  been  much 
less  effective  in  determining  the  lines  of  ridge  and  valley  than  in 
tho  Highlands.  On  the  soutlicrn  side  of  the  watershed,  in  Dumfries- 
shire and  Galloway,  the  valleys  nm  generally  tranaverscly  from 
•  north-west  to  south-east.  But  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  uplands 
the  valleys  do  not  ai)pear  to  have  any  relation  to  the  geological 
structure  of  the  gi-ound  undcnicath. 

3.   Between  tho  two  belts  of  high  gi-ound  lie  tho  broad  lowlands  Centrr.'. 
of  central  Scotland,  or  the  midland  valley,  bounded  on  the  north  lowland?, 
side  by  the  range  of  heights  that  extendi  from  the  mouth  of  the 


524 


S  C  O  T  L  A  xN[  D 


irnvbicAi. 


Clyde  to  Stonehaven,  on  the  south  side  hy  the  pastoral  nplniids 
that  stretch  fioin  Girvan  to  Dunbar.  The  simplest  conception  of 
the  general  aspect  and  structure  of  tliis  important  part  of  tlie  king- 
dom is  obtained  by  regarding  it  as  a  long  trougli  of  younger  rocks 
lot  down  by  pavaJlel  dislocations  between  the  older  masses  of  the 
Iiigh  grounds  to  the  south  and  north.  The  lowest  of  these  younger 
rocks  are  the  various  Rudimentary  and  volcanic  members  of  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone.  Those  are  covered  by  the  successive  formations  of 
the  Carboniferous  system.  The  total  thickness  of  both  these  groups 
of  rock  cannot  be  less  than  30,000  feet,  and,  as  most  of  them  bear 
evidence  of  having  been  deposited  in  shallow  water,  it  is  manifest 
tliat  tb',"'  could  only  have  been  accumulated  during  a  prolonged 
period  of  depressif^n.  The  question  Lirises  whether  tliis  depression 
aflccted  only  the  area  of  the  midland  valley  itself,  or  wliether  it 
exi:;ndcd  also  over  the  regions  to  the  north  and  south,  JIaterials 
do  not  yet  exist  for  a  definite  answer  to  this  fiuestion  ;  but  so  far 
as  the  evidence  now  before  us  goes  there  is  ground  for  the  infer- 
ence that,  while  the  depression  had  its  maximum  along  the  line 
of  the  lowlands,  it  also  involved  some  portion  at  least  of  the  high 
grounds  on  eiJiicr  side.  In  other  words,  the  Old  Red  Sandstone 
and  Carboniferous  rocks,  though  chiefly  accumulated  in  tlie  broad 
lowland  valley,  crept  al^o  over  some  part  at  least  of  the  hills  on 
eitner  side,  where  a  few  outliers  are  left  to  tell  of  their  former  ex- 
tension. The  centTal  Lowlands  of  Scotland  are  thus  of  great  geo- 
logical antiquity.  During  and  since  the  deposition  of  the  rocks 
that  underlie  them  the  tract  lias  been  the  scene  of  repeated  ter- 
restrial disturbances.  Long  dislocations,  running  like  the  ridges 
nf  the  Highlands  and  the  southern  uplands  from  south-west  to 
jiorLh-east,  have  sharply  defined  its  northern  and  southern  mprgins. 
By  other  fractures  and  unequal  movements  of  upheaval  or  depres- 
sion portions  of  the  older  rocks  have  been  brought  up  within  the 
bounds  of  the  younger,  and  areas  of  the  younger  have  been  enclosed 
by  the  older.  On  the  whole,  these  terrestrial  disturbances  have 
followed  the  same  prevalent  north-easterly  trend,  and  hence  a 
general  tendency  may  be  observed  among  the  main  ridges  and 
valleys  to  run  in  that  direction.  The  chains  of  the  Ochil,  Sidlaw, 
Pentland,  Renfrew,  Campsie,  and  Fintry  Hills,  and  the  valleys  of 
Stiathraore,  Firth  of  Tay,  and  the  basin  of  Midlothian,  may  be 
cited  as  examples.  But,  undoubtedly,  the  dominajit  cause  in  the 
determination  of  the  topographical  prominences  and  depressions  of 
the  district  has  been  the  relative  hardness  and  softness  of  the  rocks. 
Almost  the  whole  of  the  eminences  in  the  Lowlands  consist  of  hard 
igneous  rocks,  forming  not  only  chains  of  hills  like  those  just 
referred  to  and  others  in  Ayrshire  and  Lanarkshire,  but  isolated 
crags  and  hills  like  those  ol  Stirling  Castle,  Edinburgh  Castle,  and 
others  conspicuous  in  the  scenery  of  Fife  and  the  Lothians. 

Of  the  three  chief  valleys  in  the  central  Lowlands  two,  those  of 
the  Tay  and  the  Forth,  descend  from  the  Highlands,  and  one,  that 
of  the  Clyde,  from  the  southern  uplands.  Though  on  the  whole 
transverse,  these  depressions  furnish  another  notable  e^tample  of  that 
independence  of  geological  structure  already  mentioned. 

AVe  now  proceed  to  consider  the  leading  physical  features  of  the 
country  with  especial  reference  to  their  distinctive  aspects  and  their 
respective  modes  of  origin.  Though  an  eminently  hilly  country, 
Scotland  is  not  dominated  by  ajiy  leading  mountain  chain  on 
i\'hich  all  the  other  topographical  features  are  dependent.  Its 
leading  features  are  not  the  monotonous  ridges  of  the  high  grounds 
but  the  valleys  that  have  been  opened  tlirough  them.  If  these 
valleys  were  filled  up,  the  high  grounds  would  once  move  become 
what  they  probs;bly  were  at  first,  elevated  plains  or  plateaus,  with 
no  strongly  marked  features, — no  eminences  risin?  much  above  nor 
liollows  sinking  much  below  the  general  surface. 
Valleys.  Valleys. — Even  apart  from  any  knowledge  of  tneii'  origin,  the 
valleys  of  the  country  are  thus  seen  to  bo  its  fundamental  topo- 
gi-aphical  element,  and  to  deserve  the  first  consideration  in  any 
attempt  to  describe  and  explain  its  physical  features.  The  longi- 
tudinal valleys,  which  run  in  the  same  general  direction  as  the 
ridges-  that  is,  north-east  and  south-west — liave  had  their  trend 
dofinc'  by  geological  structure,  such  as  a  line  of  dislocation  (the 
Great  Glen),  or  the  plicatioils  of  the  rocks  (Lochs  Ericht,  Tay,  and 
Awe,  and  most  of  the  sea  lochs  of  Argyllshire).  The  transverse 
valleys  run  north-west  or  south-east  and  are  for  the  most  part  in. 
dependent  of  geological  structure.  The  valley  of  the  Garry  and 
Tay  crosses  the  strike  of  all  the  Highland  rocks,  traverses  the  great 
fiiult  on  the  Highland  border,  and  finally  breaks  through  the  chain 
of  the  Ochil  Hills  at  Perth.  The  valley  of  the  Clyde' crosses  the 
strike  of  the  Silurian  plications  in  the  southern  uplands,  the 
boundary  fault,  and  the  ridges  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  and 
pursues  its  north-westerly  course  across  the  abundant  and  often 
powerful  dislocations  of  the  Carboniferous  systenr. 
Origin  of  That  valleys  are  essentially  due  to  erosion  and  not  to  dislocation 
Scottish  or  subsidence  of  the  earth's  surface  is  a  fact  which  has  now  been 
valleys,  demonstrated  by  so  overwhelming  a  mass  of  evidence  from  all  parts 
of  the  globe  that  it  may  be  accepted  as  one  of  the  axioms  of  geology. 
The  plications  of  the  earth's  crust  which  folded  the  rocks  of  the 
Highlands  and  southern  uplands  not  improbably  upraised  above  the 
sea  a  series  of  iuu.criludinal  ridges  having  a  general  north-easterly 


direction.  The  earliest  rain  that  fell  upon  these  ridges  would  run 
off  them,  first  in  transverse  watercourses  down  eacli  short  slope  and 
tlien  in  longitudinal  depressions  •wherever  such  Iiad  been  formed 
during  the  terrestrial  disturbance.  Once  chosen,  the  pathways  of 
the  streams  would  be  giadually  deepened  and  widened  into  valleys. 
Hence  the  valleys  are  of  higher  antiquity  than  the  mountains  that 
rise  from  them.  The  mountains  in  fact  have  emerged  out  of  the 
original  bulk  of  the  land  in  proportion  as  the  valleys  have  been 
excavated.  The  denudation  would  continue  so  lon^  as  tlie  grounc) 
stood  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  but  there  have  been  prolonged 
periods  of  depression,  when  the  ground,  instead  of  being  eroded, lay 
below  the  sea-level  and  was  buried  sometimes  under  thousands  of 
feet  of  accumulated  sediment,  which  completely  filled  up  and 
obliterated  the  previous  drainage-lines.  "Wiien  the  land  reappeared 
a  new  and  independent  series  of  valleys  would  at  once  begin  to  be 
eroded  ;  and  the  subsequent  degradation  of  these  overlying  sedi- 
ments might  reveal  portions  of  the  older  topography,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Great  Glen,  Lauderdale,  and  other  ancient  valleys.  But  the 
new  drainage-lines  have  usually  little  or  no  reference  to  the  old 
ones.  Determined  by  the  inequalities  of  surface  of  the  overlying 
mantle  of  sedimentary  material,  they  would  be  wholly  independenc 
of  the  geological  structure  of  th"  locks  lying  below  that  mantle. 
Slowly  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  land,  they  might  event- 
ually reach  the  older  rocks,  but  they  would  keep  in  these  the  lines 
of  ^■alley  that  they  had  followed  in  the  overlying  deposits.  In 
process  of  time  the  whole  of  these  deposits  might  be  denuded  from 
the  area.  The  valleys  would  then  be  seen  running  in  utter  dis- 
regard of  the  geological  structure  of  the  rocks  around  them,  and 
there  might  even  remain  no  trace  of  the  younger  formations  on 
which  they  began  and  which  guided  their  excavalion.  This  is 
probably  the  explanation  of  the  striking  independence  of  geological 
structure  exhibited  by  the  Tweed  and  the  Nith. 

Among  the  valleys  of  Scotland  certain  prevailing  characteristics  General 
have  been  recognized  in  the  popular  names  bestowed  upon  them.  c}iia"ao- 
" Straths"  are  broad  expanses  of  low  ground  between  bounding  teriatica. 
hills  usually  traversed  by  one  main  stream  and  its  tributaries, — 
Strath  Tay,  Strath  Spey,  Strath  Conon.  The  name,  however,  has 
also  been  applied  to  wide  tracts  of  lowland  which  embrace  portions 
of  several  valleys,  but  are  defined  by  lines' of  heights  on  either  side ; 
the  best  example  is  afforded  by  Strathmore — the  "grea;-,  strath  " — 
between  the  southern  margin  of  the  Highlands  and  the  line  of  tho 
Ocliil  and  Sidlaw  Hills.  This  long  and  wide  depression,  though  it 
looks  like  one  great  valley,  strictly  speaking,  includes  portions  of 
the  valleys  of  the  Tay,  Isla,  North  Esk,  and  South  Esk,  all  of 
which  cross  it.  Elsewhere  in  central  Scotland  such  a  wide  depres- 
sion is  known  as  a  "howe,"  as  in  the  Howe  of  Fife  between  the 
Ochil  and  Lomond  Hills.  A  "  glen  "  is  usually  a  narrower  and. 
steeper-sided  valley  than  a  strath,  though  the  names  have  not 
always  been  applied  with  discrimination.  Most  of  the  Highland 
vallt^ys  are  true  glens.  The  hills  rise  rapidly  on  either  side,  some- 
times in  grassy  slopes,  sometimes  in  rocky  bosses  and  precipitous 
clifls,  while  the  bottom  is  occupied  by  a  flat  platfoim  of  alluvium 
through  which  a  stream  meanders.  Frequently  the  bottom  vf  some 
part  of  the  valley  is  occupied  by  a  lake.  In  the  south  of  Si^otland 
the  larger  streams  flow  in  wide  open  valleys  called  "dales,"  as  in 
Clydesdale,  Tweeddale,  Teviotdale,  Liddisdale,  Eskdale,  Kithsdale. 
The  strips  of  alluvial  land  bordering  a  river  are  known  as  "haiighs," 
and  where  in  estuaries  they  expand  into  wide  plains  they  are  termed 
"carsos."  The  carses  of  the  Forth  extend  seawards  as  far  as  Bor- 
rowstounness  and  consist  cliiefly  of  raised  benches.  The  Car:>e  of 
Gowrie  is  the  strip  of  low  gi-ound  intervening  between  the  Firlb  of 
Tay  and  the  line  of  hills  that  stretches  from  Perth  to  Dundee. 

River-gorges  are  characteristic  features  in  many  of  the  valleys  of  Hiver- 
Scotland,  In  the  Old  Red  "Sandstone  they  are  particularly  pro;ai-  gofgca. 
nent  where  that  formation  has  lain  in  the  pathway  of  the  streams 
sweeping  down  from  the  Higlvlands.  In  the  basin  of  the  Moray 
Firth  some  fine  examples  may  be  seen  oo  the  iNaiin  and  Findhoin, 
v.-hile  on  tlie  west  side  of  the  Cromarty  Futh  some  of  the  small 
streams  descending  from  the  high  grounds  of  the  east  of  Ross-shire 
have  cut  out  defiles  in  the  conglomerate,  remarkable  for  their  dei)th 
and  narrowness.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Highlands  still  more 
notable  instances  of  true  "caiions"  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  are 
to  be  seen  where  the  Ericht,  Isla,  and  North  Esk  enter  that  forma- 
tion. The  well-known  gorge  in  which  the  Falls  of  Clyde  are 
situated  is  the  best  example  in  the  midland  valley.^ 

Types  of  Mountain  and  Hill.  —  While  the  topography  of  th*'  Flat- 
country  is  essentially  the  result  of  prolonged  denudation,  we  maj'  topped 
reasonably  infer  that  the  oldest  surfaces  likely  to  be  in  any  measure  n^ouB- 
preserved  or  indicated  are  portions  of  some  of  the  platforms  ol  UJas 
erosion  which  have  successively  been  produced  by  the  wearing  away 
of  the  land  down  to  the  sea-level.     Relics  of  these  plattJTms  seem 
to  be  recognizable  both  in  the  Highlands  and  among  the  southern 
uplands.     Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  remarkable  flat- 
topped  moorlands  which  in  the  eastern  Grampians  reach  heights 

1  For  the  principal  rivers,  the  Tay,  Spey,  Forth,  Glycie,  and  Tweed,  see  the 

separate  articles,  and  for  the  Dee  fAberdecn,  Kirkcudbnght),  &c.,  see  articles 
en  the  respective  counties. 


rEATUBES.] 


SCOTLAND 


p25 


of  3000  to  4000  feet  above  the  sea.  Their  most  familiar  example 
perhaps  is  the  top  of  Lochnagar,  where  when  the  level  of  3500  feet 
Las  been  gained  the  traveller  finds  himself  on  a  broad  undulating 
moor,  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  sloping  gently  southwards 
tcw£.:"ds  Glen  Moick  and  terminating  on  -the  north  at  the  edge  of  a 
range  of  granite  precipices.  The  top  of  Bea  Macdui  stands  upon 
nearly  a  eqnare  mile  of  moor  exceeding  4000  feet  in  elevation. 
These  nrountains  lie  within  granite  areas ;  hut  not  less  striking 
examples  may  be  found  among  the  schists.  The  mountains  at  the 
head  of  Gien'^Esk  and  Glen  Isla,  for  instance,  sweep  upward  into  a 
broad  moor  some  3000  feet  above  the  sea,  the  more  prominent  parts 
of  which  have  received  special  names, — Driesh,  Mayar,  Tom  Buidhe, 
Tolmount,  Cairn  na  Glasha.  It  would  hardly  be  an  exaggeration 
t')  say  tliat  there  is  more  level  ground  on  the  tops  of  these  moun- 
t-tins than  in  areas  of  corresponding  size  in  the  valleys  below. 
That  thpse  high  plateaus  are  planes  of  erosion  is  shown  by  their 
independence  of  geological  structure,  the  upturned  edges  of  the 
vertical  and  contorted  schists  having  been  abruptly  shora  off  and 
the  granite  having  been  wasted  and  levelled  alon^  its  exposed  sur- 
face. They  look  like  fragments  of  the  original  tableland  of  erosion 
put  of  which  the  present  valley-systems  of  the  Highlands  have 
been  carved.  Among  the  southern  uplands  traces  of  a  similar 
tableland  of  erosion  are  in  many  places  to  be  detected.  The  top 
of  Broad  Law  in  Peeblesshire,  for  example,  is  a  level  moor  com- 
prisiufT  between  300  and  400  ceres  above  the  contour  line  of  2500 
feet  and  lying  upon  the  upturned  edges  of  the  greatly  denuded 
Silurian  grits  and  shales.  An  instructive  example  of  the  similar 
destruction  of  a  much  younger  platform  is  to  be  found  in  the  ter- 
raced plateaus  of  Skye,  Eigg,  Canna,  Muck,  Mull,  and  Morven, 
which  are  portions  of  what  was  probably  originally  a  continuous 
plain  of  basalt  Though  dating  back  only  to  older  Tertiary  time, 
this  plaiu  has  been  so  deeply  trenched  by  the  forces  of  denudation 
that  it  has  been  reduced  to  mere  scattered  fragments.  Thousands 
of  feet  of  basalt  have  been  worn  away  from  many  parts  of  its  sur- 
face ;  deep  and  wide  valleys  have  been  carved  out  of  it;  and  so 
enormously  has  it  been  wasted  that  it  has  been  almost  entirely 
E-ripped  from  wide  tracts  which  it  formerly  covered  and  where  cmly 
scattered  outliers  remain  to  prove  that  it  once  existed. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made, 
that  broad  fiat-topped  mountains  are  cliiefly  to  be  found  in  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  country.  Traced  westwards  these  forms  gi-adu- 
ally  give  place  to  narrow  ridges  and  crests.  No  contrast,  for  in- 
£:tance,  can  be  greater  than  that  between  the  wide  elevated  moors 
of  the  eastern  Grampians,  and  the  crested  ridges  of  western  Inver- 
ness-shire and  Argyllshire — Loch  Houm,  Glen  Nevis,  Glencoe — 
or  that -between  the  broad  uplands  of  Peeblesshire  and  the  preci- 
pitous heights  of  Galloway.  No  satisfactory  reason  for  these  con-' 
trasts  can  be  found  in  geological  structure  alone.  Perhaps  the  key 
to  them  is  to  be  sought  mainly  in  ditferenccs  of  rainfall.  The 
■western  mountains,  exposed  to  the  fierce  dash  of  the  Atlantic  rains, 
sustain  the  heaviest  and  most  constant  precipitation.  Their  sides 
are  seamed  with  torrents  which  tear  down  the  solid  rook  and  sweep 
its  detritus  into  the  glens  and  sea  lochs.  The  eastern  heights,  on 
the  other  hand,  experience  a  less  rainfall  and  consequently  a  dimi- 
nished rate  of  erosion.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  present 
preponderance  of  rainfall  in  the  west  has  persisted  for  aneuoi'mous 
duration  of  time. 

Regarding  the  existing  flat-topped  heights  among  the  eastern 
Grampians  as  representing  what  may  have  been  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  surface  out  of  which  the  present  Highlands  have  been 
carved,  we  "an  trace  every  step  in  the  gi-adual  obliteration  of  the 
tableland  •  id  in  the  formation  of  the  most  nigged  and  individual- 
ized fonns  of  isolated  moiintain.  In  fact,  in  journeying  westwards 
across  the  tops  of  the  Highland  mountains  we  pass,  as  it  were,  over 
successive  stages  in  the  history  of  the  origin  of  Highland  scenery. 
The  oldest  types  of  form  lie  on  the  east  side  and  the  newest  on  tho 
T?est,  From  the  larger  fragments  of  the  denuded  tableland  we 
advance  to  ridges  with  naiTOW  tops,  which  pass  by  degrees  into 
sharp  rugged  crests.     The  ridges,  too,  are  more  and  more  trenched 


until  thev  become 


group! 


s  of  detached  hills  or  mountains.     In  the 


progress  of  this  erosion  lull  scope  has  been  afforded  for  the  modifica- 
tion of  form  produced  by  variations  in  geological  structure.  Each 
ridge  and  mountain  has  been  cut  into  its  shape  by  denudation, 
but  it*  actual  outlines  hai'c  been  determined  by  the  nature  of  the 
rocks  and  the  manner  in  which  they  have  yielded  to  decay.  Every 
distinct  variety  of  rock  has  impressed  its  own  characters  upon  the 
landscapes  in  which  it  plays  a  part  Hence,  amid  the  monotonous 
taccession  of  ridge  beyond  ridge  and  valley  after  valley,  consider- 
able diversity  of  detail  has  resulted  from  the  varj'ing  composition 
and  grouping  of  tiie  rorks. 

The  proccbs  b^*  which  the  ancient  tablelands  of  the  country  have 
been  trenched  into  the  present  sj'stem  of  valleys  and  confluent 
ridges  is  most  instructively  displavcd  among  the  higher  mountains, 
wiicrc  erosion  procceibi  at  an  acctlerated  pace.  The  long  "screes" 
or  taras-slopcs  at  the  foot  cf  every  ciagand  cliff  Ix-ar  witness  to  the 
continual  waste  of  the  mountain  sides.  The  headwaters  of  a  river 
cut  Jute  ths  dopfi  of  the  piient  hill.     E^ch  voUey  is  coi'ircoupjalU' 


lengthened  at  the  expense  of  the  monntAin  from  which  it  descends.- 
\V  here  a  number  of  small  torrents  converge  in  a  steep  mountain 
recess,  they  cut  out  a  crescent -shaped  hollow  or  half- cauldron, 
which  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  is  known  as  a  "  corry. "  Whether  Corries 
the  convergent  action  of  the  streams  has  been  the  sole  agency  con-  and 
earned  in  the  erosion  of  these  striking  concavities,  or  whether  snow  glens, 
and  glacier-ice  may  have  had  a  share  in  the  task,  is  a  qu-  ^tion  that 
cannot  at  present  be  satisfactorily  solved.  No  feature  in  Highland 
scenery  is  more  characteristic  than  the  corries,  and  in  none  can  the 
influence  of  geological  structure  be  more  instructively  seen.  Usu- 
ally the  upper  part  of  a  corry  is  formed  by  a  crescent  of  naked  rock, 
from  which  long  trails  of  debris  descend  to  the  bottom  of  the  hollow. 
Every  distinct  variety  of  rock  has  its  own  tj-pe  of  corry,  the  pecu- 
liarities being  marked  both  i.i  the  details  of  the  upper  cliffs  and 
crags  and  in  the  amount,  form,  and  colour  of  the  screes.  The 
Scottish  corries  have  been  occupied  by  glaciers.  Hence  their 
bottoms  are  generally  well  ice-worn  or  strev,-n  over  with  moraine 
stuff.  Not  infrequently  also  a  small  tarn  fills  up  the  bottom, 
ponded  back  by  a  moraine.  It  is  in  these  localities  that  we  can 
best  observe  the  last  relics  left  by  the  retreat  of  the  glaciers  that 
once  overspread  the  country.  Among  these  high  grounds  also  the 
gradual  narrowing  of  ridges  into  sharp,  narrow,  knife-edged  crests 
and  the  lowering  of  these  into  cols  or  passes  can  be  admirably 
studied.  Where  two  glens  begin  opposite  to  each  other  on  the 
same  ridge,  their  corries  are  gradually  cut  back  until  only  a  sharp 
crest  separates  them.  This  crest,  attacked  on  each  front  and  along 
the  summit,  is  lowered  with  comparative  rapidity,  until  in  the  end 
merely  a  low  col  or.  pass  may  separate  the  heads  of  the  tvvo  glens. 
The  various  stages  in  this  kind  of  demolition  are  best  seen  where 
the  underlying  rock  is  of  granite  or  some  similar  material  which 
possesses  considerable  toughness,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is 
apt  to  be  split  and  splintered  by  means  of  its  numerous  trans- 
verse joints.  The  granite  mountains  of  Arran  furnish  excellent 
illustrations. 

"Where  a  rock  yields  with  considerable  unifoimity  in  all  directions  Fom.a- 
to  the  attacks  of  the  weather  it  is  apt  to  assimxe  conical  forms  in  tion 
the  progress  of  denudation.  Sometimes  this  uniformity  is  attained  of  moun 
by  a  general  disintegration  of  the  rock  into  fine  debris,  which  rolls  tain 
doxvn  the  slopes  in  long  screes.  In  other  cases  it  is  secured  by  the  cones, 
intersection  of  joints,  whereby  a  rock,  in  itself  hard  and  durable, 
is  divided  into  small  angular  blocks,  which  are  separated  by  the 
action  of  the  elements  and  slide  dov.-n  the  declivities.  In  many 
instances  the  beginning  of  the  formation  of  a  cone  may  be  detected 
on  fidges  which  have  been  deeply  trenched  by  valleys.  The  smaller 
isolated  portions,  attacked  on  all  sides,  have  broken  up  under  the 
influence  of  the  weather.  Layer  after  layer  has  been  sti-ipned  from 
their  sides,  and  the  flat  or  rounded  top  has  bten  narrowed  until  it  has 
now  become  the  apex  of  a  cone.  The  mountain  Schiehallien  (3547 
feet)  is  a  noble  instance  of  a  cone  not  yet  freed  from  its  parent  ridge. 
Occasionally  a  ridge  has  been  carved  into  a  series  of  cones  united  at 
their  bases,  as  in  the  chain  of  the  Pentland  Hills.  A  further  stage 
in  denudation  brings  us  to  isolated  groups  of  cones  completely 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  rocks  among  which  they  once  lay 
buried.  Such  groups  may  be  carved  out  of  a  continuous  band  of 
rock  which  extends  into  the  regions  beyond.  The  Paps  of  Jura, 
for  instance,  rise  out  of  a  long  belt  of  quartzite  which  stretches 
through  the  islands  of  Isla,  Jura,  aud  Scarba.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  groups  point  to  the  existence  of  some  boss  of  rock  of 
greater  durability .  than  those  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  as 
in  the  CuchuUins  and  Red  Hills  of  Skye  and  the  group  of  granite 
cones  of  Ben  Loyal,  Sutherland.  The  most  impressive  form  of  soli- 
tary cone  is  that  wherein  after  vast  denudation  a  thick  overlying 
formation  has  been  reduced  to  a  single  outlier,  such  as  Morven  in 
Caithness  and.  the  two  Ben  Griams  in  Sutherland,  and  still  more 
strikingly  the  p}Tamids  of  red  sandstone  on  the  western  margin  of 
Sutherland  and  Ross-shire.  The  horizontal  stratification  of  some 
of  these  masses  gives  them  a  curiously  architectural  aspect,  which 
is  further  increased  by  the  effect  of  the  numerous  vertical  joints 
by  which  the  rock  is  cleft  into  buttresses  and  recesses  along  the 
fronts  of  the  precipices  and  ijito  pinnacles  and  fmials  along  the 
summits.  Solitary  or  grouped  pyramids  of  red  sands^oue,  rising 
to  heights  of  betw^een  3000  and  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  are  merf 
remnants  of  a  once  contiauous  sheet  of  red  sandstone  that  spread 
far  and  vdde  over  the  western  Highlands. 

Stratified  rocks  when  they  have  not  been  iiio^jh  disturbed  frcm  Escarp- 
their  original  approximate  horizontality  weather  into  what  are  ments 
called  ^'escarpments"— lines  of  cliff  or  steep  bank  marking  the 
edgo  or  outcrop  of  harder  bands  which  lie  upon  softer  or  more 
easily  eroded  layers.  Such  cliffs  may  nm  for  many  miles  across  a 
country,  rising  one  above  another  into  lofty  terraced  hills.  In 
Scotland  the  rocks  have  for  the  most  part  been  so  dislocated  and 
disturbed  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  continuous  escarpments, 
and  Ihb  interesting  form  of  rock-scenery  is  consequently  almost 
entirely  absent,  except  locally  and  for  the  most  part  on  a  compara- 
tively small  scale.  Tho  most  cxtcn-^ivc  Scottisli  escarpments  are 
found  among  the  ignro-^s  rocks.  Where  lava  has  been  piUd  up  in 
.accssive  nearly  horizontal  sheet*-.  •;ith  occasional  lavei-s  ^  -t^ 


526 


SCOTLAND 


[physical 


or  other  softer  rock  between  tlicm,  it  ofTei's  conditions  peculiarly 
favourable  for  the  formation  of  escarpments.  In  the  wide  basalt 
plateaus  of  the  Inner  Hebrides  these  conditions  have  been  mani- 
fested on  a  great  scale.  The  Carboniferous  lavas  of  the  Campsie 
and  Fintry  Hills  and  of  the  sonth  of  Dunifriossiiire  and  Roxbm-gh- 
shire  likewise  rise  in  lines  of  bold  escarpment. 

Lakes. — These  important  features  in  the  landscapes  of  Scotland 
prptspnt  the  general  characters  of  the  water-basins  so  profusely 
scattered  over  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  North  Amerii  a. 
They  may  bo  classified  in  four  groups,  each  of  which  lias  its  own 
peculiar  scenery  and  a  distinct  mode  of  origin — (1)  glen  lakes,  (2) 
rock-tarns,  (3)  moraine-tarns,  (4)  lakes  of  the  plains. 
XJlen  (1)  Glen  lakes  are  those  wjiicli  occupy  portions  of  glens.     They 

.lakes.  are  depressions  in  the  valleys,  uot  due  to  mere  local  heaping  up  of 
detritus,  but  true  rock-basins,  often  of  great  depth.  Much  discus- 
sion has  arisen  as  to  their  mode  of  ori'^in.  They  have  been  re- 
garded as  caused  by  special  subsidence  of  their  areas,  open  fissures 
of  the  ground,  general  depression  of  the  central  part  of  each 
mountain  district  fiom  which  they  radiate,  and  by  the  erosive 
action  of  glacier  ice.  That  they  are  not  open  fissures  and  cannot 
be  explained  by  any  general  subsidence  of  a  neighbouring  region  is 
now  generally  admitted.  That  glaciers  have  occupied  the  glens 
where  these  lakes  exist  and  have  worn  do'wn  the  rocks  along  the 
sides  and  bottom  cannot  be  doubted,  but  whether  the  ice  would  be 
capable  of  eroding  hollows  so  deep  as  many  of  these  lakes  is  a 
question  which  has  been  answered  with  equal  confidence  affirma- 
tively and  negatively.  On  the  other  hand,  to  suppose  that  each 
of  these  hollows  has  been  caused  by  a  sj^ecial  local  subsidence  would 
involve  a  complex  series  of  subterranean  disturbances,  for  which 
some  better  evidence  than  the  mere  existence  of  the  basins  is  re- 
quired. Under  any  circumstances  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  lakes 
must  be  of  recent  geological  date.  Any  such  basins  belonging  to 
the  time  of  the  plication  of  the  crystalline  schists  would  have  been 
tilled  up  and  effaced  long  ago.  So  rapid  is  the  infilling  by  the 
torrents  which  sweep  down  dttiitns  from  the  surrounding  heights 
that  tlte  present  lakes  are  being  visibly  diminished,  and  they 
cannot,  therefore,  be  of  high  geological  antiquity.  Jt  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  the  glen  lakes  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the 
western  half  of  the  Highlands,  where  they  form  the  largest  sheets 
of  fresh  water.  Hardly  any  lakes  are  to  be  seen  east  of  a  lino 
drawn  from  Inverness  to  Perth.  AVest  of  that  line,  however,  they 
abound  in  botli  the  longitudinal  and  the  transverse  valleys.  The 
most  remarkable  line  of  them  is  that  which  fills  up  so  much  of  the 
Great  Glen.  Loch  Ness,  the  largest,  is  upwards  of  20  miles  long, 
about  1^-  miles  broad,  and  not  less  than  774  feet  deep  in' the 
deepest  part.  This  great  depression  exceeds  the  general  depth 
v^ached  by  the  floor  of  the  North  Sea  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  opposite  shores  of  the  Continent.  Other  important  longitudinal 
lakes  are  Lochs  Tay,  Awe,  Ericht,  and  Shiel.  The  most  pictur- 
esque glen  lakes,  however,  lie  in  transverse  valleys,  which  being 
cut  across  the  strike  of  the  rocks  present  greater  variety,  and 
usually  also  more  abruptness  of  outline.  Lochs  Lomond,  Katrine, 
and  Lubnaig  in  the  southern  Highlands,  and  Lochs  Maree  and 
More  in  the  north,  are  conspicuous  examples. 
Pc!ck-  (2)  Rock-tarns  are  small  lakes  lying  in  rock-basins  on  the  sides 

tarns.  of  mountains  or  the  summits  of  ridges,  and  on  rocky  plateaus  or 
plains.  Unlike  the  glen  lakes,  they  have  no  necessary  dependence 
upon  lines  of  valle^'.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  scattered  as  it 
were  broadcast  over  the  districts  in  which  they  occur,  and  are  by 
far  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  lakes  of  the  country.  Dispersed 
over  all  parts  of  the  western  Highlands,  they  are  most  numerous 
in  the  north-west,  especially  in  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  hi  the  west 
of  Koss-shire  and  Sutherland.  The  surface  of  the  Archrean  gneiss 
is  so  thickly  sprinkled  with  them  that  many  tracts  consist  almost 
as  much  of  water  as  of  land.  They  almost  invariably  lis  on  strongly 
ice-worn  platforms  of  rock.  Their  sides  and  the  rocky  islets  which 
diversify  their  surface  have  been  powerfully  glaciated.  They  cannot 
be  due  to  either  fracture  or  subsidence,  but  are  obviously  hollows  pro- 
duced byerosion.  They  have  accordingly  with  much  probability  been 
assigned  to  the  gouging  action  of  the  sheets  of  land-ice  by  which 
the  general  glaciation  of  the  country  was  eff'ected.  In  the  southern 
uplands,  owing  probably  to  tlie  gi-eater  softness  and  uniformity  of 
texture  among  the  rocks,  rock-tarns  are  comparatively  infrequent, 
except  in  Galloway,  where  the  protrusion  of  granite  and  its  associated 
metamorphism  have  given  rise  to  conditions  of  rock-structure  more 
like  tliose  of  the  Highlands.  Over  the  rocky  hill-i-anges  of  the 
central  Lowlands  rock-tarns  occasionally  make  their  appearance, 
ivioraine-  (3)  Jloraine-tarns — small  sheets  of  water  ponded  back  by  some 
■  ms.  of  the  last  moraines  shed  by  the  retreating  glaciers — are  confined 
to  the  more  mountainous  tracts.  Among  the  southern  uplands 
many  beautiful  examples  may  be  seen,  probably  the  best  known 
and  certainly  one  of  the  most  picturesque  being  the  wild  lonely 
Loch  Skene  lying  in  a  recess  of  AVhitecoomb  at  the  head  of  the 
Moffat  Water.  Others  are  sprinkled  over  the  higher  parts  of  the 
valleys  in  Galloway.  None  occur  in  the  central  Lowlands.  In  the 
Highlands  they  may  be  counted  by  hundreds,  nestling  in  the 
bottoms  of  the  corries.     In  the  north-western  counties,  where  the 


glaciers  continued  longest  to  descend  to  the  sea-level,  lakes  retaiuea 
by  moraine -barriers  may  he  found  very  little  above  the  sea. 

(4)  Tlie  lakes  of  the  plains  lie  in  hollows  of  the  glacial  detritus  La^es 
which  is  strewn  so   thickly  over  the  lower  grounds.      As  these  ^flho 
hollows  were  caused  by  original  irregular  deposition  rathor  thauf>raiuA 
by  erosion,  they  have  no  intimate  relation  to  the  present  di-ainagc- 
lines  of  the  country.     The  lakes  vary  in  size  from  mere  pools  up'^to 
wide  sheets  of  water  several  square  miles  in  area.     As  a  rule  they 
are  shallow  in  proportion  to  their  extent  of  surface.     Though  still 
snfficienlly   numerous  in   the   Lowlands,   they  were  once  greatly 
more  so,  for,  partly  from  natural  causes  and  partly  by  artificial 
means,  they  have  been  made  to  disappear.     The  largest  sheets  of 
fresh  water  in  tlie  midland  valley  are  of  this  class,  as  Loch  Levea 
and  the  Lake  of  l^Ienteith. 

Coast-Line. — The  eastern  and  western  seaboards  of  Scotland£k>a«t- 
present  a  singular  contrast.  The  former  is  indented  by  a  series  offco. 
broad  arms  of  the  sea,  but  is  otherwise  tolerably  unbroken.  The 
land  slopes  gently  down  to  the  margin  of  the  sea  or  to  the  edge  of 
cliffs  that  have  been  cut  back  by  the  waves.  The  shores  are  for 
the  most  part  low,  with  few  islands  in  front  of  them,  and  cultivatioa 
comes  down  to  the  tide-line.  The  western  side  of  the  countrj',  ob 
the  contrary,  is  from  end  to  end  intersected  with  long  narrow  sea 
lochs  or  fjords.  The  land  shelves  down  rapidly  into  the  sea  and  is 
fronted  by  chains  and  gioups  of  islands.  This  contrast  has  some- 
times been  erroneously  referred  to  gi'eater  erosion  by  the  waves  oa 
the  western  than  on  the  eastern  coast.  The  true  explanation, 
however,  must  be  sought  in  the  geological  sti-ucturo  of  the  land. 
The  west  side  of  Scotland,  as  we  have  seen,  has  been  more  deeply 
eroded  than  the  eastern.  The  glens  are  more  numerous  there  and 
on  the  whole  deeper  and  narrower.  Many  of  them  are  prolonged 
under  the  sea  ;  in  other  words,  the  narrow^  deep  fjords  which  win(i 
so  far  into  the  land  arc  seaward  continuations  of  the  glens  whicll 
emerge  from  their  upper  ends.  Tlie  presence  of  the  sea  in  tliesfli 
fjords  is  an  accident.  If  they  could  be  raised  out  of  the  sea  thejj 
would  become  glens,  with  lakes  filling  up  then*  deeper  portionai 
That  this  has  really  been  their  history  can  hardly  admit  <s 
question.  They  are  submerged  land- valleys,  and  as  they  run  dow» 
the  whole  western  coast  they  show  that  side  of  the  country  to  have 
subsided  to  a  considerable  depth  beneath  its  former  level.  The 
Scottish  sea  lochs  must  be  viewed  in  connexion  with  those  of 
western  Ireland  and  of  Norway.  The  whole  of  this  aorth-westem 
coast-line  of  Europe  bears  witness  to  recent  submergence.  The  bed 
of  the  North  Sea,  which  at  no  distant  date  in  geological  history  was 
a  land  surface  across  which  plants  and  animals  migrated  freely  into 
Great  Britain,  sank  beneath  the  sea-level,  while  the  Atlantic  ad- 
vanced upon  the  western  margin  of  the  contiaient  and  filled  the  sea- 
ward ends  of  w-hat  had  previously  been  valleys  open  to  the  sun.  Not 
improbably  the  amount  of  subsidence  was  gi-eater  towards  the  west. 

Nearly  the  whole  coast-line  of  Scotland  is  rocky.  On  the  cast 
side  of  the  country,  indeed,  the  shores  of  the  estuaries  are  gener- 
ally low,  but  the  land  between  the  mouths  of  these  inlets  is  mora 
or  less  precipitous.  On  the  west  side  the  coast  is  for  the  most  pari 
either  a  steep  rocky  declivity  or  a  sea-wall,  though  strips  of  lowei 
gi'ound  are  found  in  the  bays.  The  sea-clitTs  everywhere  vary  in 
their  characters  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rock  out  of  whic) 
they  have  been  carved.  At  Cape  "Wrath  precipices  nearly  300  fee 
liigh  have  been  cut  out  of  the  Arch.xan  gneiss.  The  varying  tex 
ture  of  this  rock,  its  irregular  foliation  and  jointing,  and  its.  rami 
fying  veins  of  pegmatite  conspire  to  give  it  very  uueqiial  powers  o 
resistance  in  different  parts  of  its  mass.  Consequently  it  projecte 
in  irregular  bastions  and  buttresses  and  retires  into  deep  recesses 
and  tunnels,  showing  eveiywheic  a  ruggedness  of  aspect  which  is 
eminently  characteristic.  In  striking  contrast  to  these  precipices 
are  those  of  the  Cambrian  red  sandstone  a  few  miles  to  the  east. 
Vast  vertical  walls  of  rock  shoot  up  fiom  the  waves  to  a  height  of 
600  feet,  cut  by  their  perpendicular  joints  into  quadrangular  piers 
and  projections,  some  of  which  even  stand  out  alone  as  cathedral- 
like islets  in  front  of  the  main  cliff.  The  sombre  colouring  is 
relieved  by  lines  of  vegetation  along  the  edges  of  the  nearly  flat 
beds  which  project  like  vast  cornices  and  serve  as  nesting-places 
for  crowds  of  sea-fowl.  On  the  west  side  of  the  countiy  the  most 
nota,bie  cliff's  south  from  those  of  Cape  AVrath  and  the  Cambrian 
sandstones  of  Sutherland  are  to  be  found  among  the  basaltic  islands^, 
particularly  in  Skye,  where  a  magnificent  range  of  precipices  rising 
tolOOO  feet  bounds  the  western  coast-line.  The  highest  cliffs  ia 
the  country  are  found  among  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Islands, 
The  sea-wall  of  Foula,  one  of  the  Shetland  group,  and  the  western 
front  of  Hoy  in  Orkney  rise  like  walls  to  heights  of  1100  or  120« 
feet  above  the  waves  that  tunnel  tlieir  base.  Caithness  is  one  wi(^ 
moor,  terminating  almost  everywhere  in  a  range  of  sea-precipices 
of  Old  Ked  Sandstone.  Along  tlie  eastern  coast-Une  most  of  tlw 
cliffs  are  formed  of  rocks  belonging  to  the  same  formation.  Begin- 
ning at  Stonehaven,  an  almost  unbroken  line  of  precipice  varying 
up  to  200  feet  in  height  runs  southwards  to  the  mouth  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Tay.  The  southern  uplands  plunge,  abruptly  iut» 
the  sea  near  St  Abb's  Head  in  a  noble  range  of  precipices  300  to 
500  feet  in  height,  and  on  the  western  side  tbe  <:air»  high  groui^'^ 


[Ii:atukes.] 


SCOTLAND 


527 


I 


tfi-minate  iu  a  long  troken  lir.e  of  sea-wall,  which  begins  at  the 
■mouth  of  Loch  Ryan,  extends  to  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  and  re- 
appears again  in  tl»e  southern  headlands  of  Wigtown  and  KU'kcud- 
bright.  One  of  the  most  picturesque  features  of  the  Scottish  ^a- 
cUtfs  is  the  numerous  ''stacks"  or  columns  of  rock  which  during 
the  demolition  and  recession  of  the  precipices  have  been  isolated 
and  left  standing  amidst  the  waves!  These  remnants  attain  their 
most  colossal  size  and  height  on  the  cliffs  of  Old  Ked  Sandstone. 
Thus  the  Old  Man  of  Hoy  in  Orkney  is  a  huge  column  of  yellow 
sandstone  between  400  and  500  feet  high,  forming  a  conspicuous 
landmark  in  the  north.  The  coast  of  Caithness  abounds  in  out- 
standing pillars  and  obelisks  of  flagstone. 

The  low  shores  on  the  west  coast  are  not  infrequci-.tly  occupied 
by  sand-dunes.  Such  accumulations  fringe  the  western  margin  of 
If  orth  and  South  Uist,  and  are  found  in  many  bays  from  the  north 
of  Sutherland  to  the  coast  of  Ayrshire.  Tliey  are  more  abundant 
on  the  east  coast,  especially  on  the  shores  of  Aberdeenshire,  between 
the  mouths  of  the  two  Esks,  on  both  sides  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  and  at  various  places  in  the  Firth  of  Forth.  Raised 
sea-beaches  likewise  play  a  part  in  the  coast  scenery  of  the  country. 
These  alluvial  terraces  form  a  strip  of  low  fertile  land  between  the 
edge  of  the  sea  and  the  rising  ground  of  the  interior,  and  among 
the  western  fjords  sometimes  supply  the  only  arable  soil  in  their 
neighbourhood,  their  flat  green  surfaces  presenting  a  strong  con- 
trast to  the  brown  and  barren  moors  that  rise  from  them,  jlost 
of  tho  seaport  towns  of  the  country  stand  upon  platforms  of  raised  , 
beach.  Considerable  deposits  of  mud,  silt,  and  sand  are  accumu- 
lating in  most  of  tho  estuaries.  In  the  Tay,  Forth,  and  Clyde, 
where  important  harbours  are  situated,  considerable  expense  is  in- 
volved in  dredging  to  remove  the  sediment  continually  brought 
down  from  the  land  and  carried  backward  and  forward  by  the  tides. 
Wide  alluvial  flats  are  there  e.xposed  at  low  water. 
lucM^s,  While  no  islands  except  mere  solitary  rocks  like  May  Island, 
the  Bass  Rock,  and  Inchkeith  diversify  the  eastern  seaboard,  the 
western  side  of  Scotland  presents  a  vast  number,  varying  in  size 
from  such  extensive  tracts  as  Skye  down  to  the  smallest  sea-st:ick 
or  skeriy.  Looked  at  in  the  broadest  way,  these  numerous  islands 
may  he  regarded  as  belonging  to  two  groups  or  series, — the  Outer 
ind  the  Inner  Hebrides.  The  Outer  Hebrides,  extending  from 
Barra  Head  to  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  consist  of  a  continuous  chain  of 
islands  composed  (with  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  in  the  cast 
of  Lewis)  entirely  of  Archasan  rocks.  Most  of  the  ground  is  low, 
rocky,  and  plentifully  dotted  over  with  lakes  ;  but  it  rises  into 
mountainous  heights  in  Harris,  some  of  the  summits  attaining 
elevations  of  2600  feet.  The  general  trend  of  this  long  belt  of 
islands  is  north-north-east.  The  Inner  Hebrides  form  a  much  less 
definite  group.  They  may  be  regarded  as  beginning  mth  the 
Shiant  Isles  in  the  Minch  and  stretching  to  the  southern  headlands 
of  Isla,  tho  most  important  members  being  Skye,  Mull,  Isla,  Jura, 
Rum,  Eigg,  Coll,  Tiree,  and  Colonsay.  The  irregularity  of  thb 
fri.jge  of  islands  has  no  doubt  been  in  chief  measure  brought  about 
by  its  remarkable  diversity  of  geological  structure.  Archiean 
gneiss,  Cambrian  sandstone,  Silurian  quartzite,  limestone,  and 
schist,  Jurassic  sandstone  and  limestone.  Cretaceous  sandstone, 
and  Tertiary  basalts,  gabbros.  and  granitic  rocks  all  enter  into  the 
composition  of  tho  islands. 
Influ-  Within  the  limits  of  this  article  it  is  only  possible  to  allude  to 

once^  of  some  of  the  more  important  influeneetj  of  the  topography  on  the 
-opo-  history  of  the  inhabitants.  How  pewerfuUy  tho  configuration  of 
^■aphy  the  country  affects  tho  climate  is  shown  in  the  remarkable  difl'erence 
"»  between  the  rainfall  of  tho  mountainous  west  and  of  the  lowland 

inliab't-  east.  This  difference  has  necessarily  affected  the  character  and 
aiita.  employments  of  tho  people,  leading  to  tlie  development  of  agricul- 
ture on  the  one  side  and  the  raising  of  sheep  and  cattle  on  the  other. 
Tlie  fertile  low  grounds  on  ,the  east  have  offered  facilities  for  the 
invasions  of  Romans,  Norsemen,  and  English,  while  tho  moun- 
tainous fastnesses  of  the  interior  and  the  west  have  served  as 
secure  retreats  for  the  older  Celtic  population.  While,  therefore, 
Teutonic  people  have  spread  over  the  one  area,  the  earlier  race  has 
to  this  day  maintained  its  ground  in  tho  other.  Not  only  the 
external  configuration  but  the  internal  geological  structure  of  the 
country  has  profoundly  influenced  the  progress  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  the  Highlands  no  mineral  wealth  has  been  discovered  to  stimulate 
the  industry  of  the  natives  or  to  attract  tho  labour  and  capital  of 
strangers.  These  tracts  remain  still  as  of  old  sparsely  inliabited 
and  given  over  to  the  breeding  of  stock  and  tho  pursuit  of  game. 
In  the  Lowlands,  on  the  other  hand,  rich  stores  of  coal^  iron,  lime, 
and  other  m'inerals  have  been  found.  The  coal-fields  have  gradually 
drawn  to  them  an  ever-increasing  share  of  the  population.  Villages 
and  towns  have  there  sprung  recently  into  existence  and  have  rapidly 
i'jcreased  in  size.  Manufactures  have  been  developed  and  commerce 
has  advanced  v.-ith  accelerated  pace.  Other  influences  have  of  course 
contributed  largely  to  tho  development  of  the  country,  but  among 
them  all  tho  chief  place  must  undoubtedly  be  assigned  to  that  fortu- 
nate geological  structure  which,  amid  the  revolutions  of  the  past,  has 
T.rKcrvcd  in  the  centre  of  Scotland  those  fields  of  coal  and  ironstone 
which  are  tho  foundations  of  tho  national  industry.        (A.  GE..) 


Climate.  — In  considering  the  climate  e?  Scotland  tho  first  place  Cliraat_ej 
must  bo  assigned  to  the  temperature  of. the  various  districts  during 
the  months  of  the  year,  it  being  this  which  gives  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  climate  and  not  tho  mean  temperature  of  tho  whole  y«ar. 
Thus,  while  the  annual  temperatures  of  the  west  and  east  coasts  are 
nearly  equal,  the  summer  and  winter  temperatures  are  vei-y  different. 
At  Portree  (on  east  coast  of  Skye)  tho  mean  temperatures  of  Januaiy 
and  July  are  39°  and  56°"S,  whereas  at  Perth  they  arc  37°'5  and  SO^'O. 
The  prominent  feature  of  the  isothermals  of  the  whiter  months  is 
their  north  and  south  direction;  thus  pointing  not  to  the  sun  but 
to  the  warm  waters  of  the  Atlantic  as  the  more  powerful  influence 
in  determining  the  Scottish  climate  at  this  season  through  the 
agency  of  the  prevailing  westerly  winds.  The  Atlantic  is  in  truth  a 
vast  repository  of  heat,  in  which  the  higher  temperature  of  snmmer 
and  that  of  more  southern  latitudes  are  treasured  up  against  the 
rigours  of  winter  ;  and  iu  exceptionally  cold  seasons  the  ocean' 
protects  all  places  in  its  more  iinmediate  neighbourhood  against  the 
severe  frosts  which  occur  in  inland  situations.  While  this  influ- 
ence of  the  ocean  is  felt  at  all  seasons,  it  is  most  strikingly  seen 
in  winter  ;  and  it  is  more  decided  iu  proportion  as  the  locality  is 
surrounded  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Atlantic.  '  At  Edinburgh 
the  temperature  is  27"'0  and  at  Ler\vick  32^*5  higher  than  would 
otherwise  bo  the  case  ;  in  other  words,  but  for  the  ameliorating 
influenoG  of  tho  Atlantic  tho  temperature  of  Edinbiu'gh  in  mid- 
winter woidd  only  be  12°"5  and  of  Lerwick  7°*5,  or  such  winters  as 
characterise  the  climates  of  Greenland  and  Iceland.  The  influence 
of  the  North  Sea  is  similarly  apparent,  but  in  a  less  degree.  Along 
the  whole  of  the  eastern  coast,  from  the  Pentland  Firth  southwards, 
temperature  is  higher  than  what  is  found  a  little  inland  to  the  west. 
The  lowest  temperature  yet  observed  in  the  British  Isles  was  -lO'^O, 
which  occurred  near  Kelso  in  December  1879.  In  summer^  every- 
where, latitude  for  latitude,  temperature  is  lower  in  the  west  than 
in  the  east  and  inland  situations.  In  winter  the  inland  climates 
are  the  coldest,  but  in  summer  the  warmest.  The  course  of  the 
isotbennal  lines  at  this  season  is  very  instructive.  Thus  the  line 
of  59°  passes  from  the  Solway  directly  northwards  to  the  north  of 
Perthshire  and  thence  curves  round  eastwards  to  near  Stonehaven. 
From  Teviotdale  to  the  Grampians  temperature  falls  only  one 
degree  ;  but  for  the  same  distance  farther  northwards  it  falls  thrco 
degrees.  The  isothermal  of  56"  marks  off  the  districts  where  the 
finer  cereals  are  most  successfully  raiseil.  This  distribution  of  the 
temperature  shows  that  the  influence  of  the  Atlantic  in  moderating 
the  heat  of  summer  is  very  great  and  is  felt  a  .long  way  into  the 
interior  of  the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  the  high  lands  of 
western  districts  by  robbing  the  westerly  winds  of  theu'  moisture, 
and  thus  clearing  the  skies  of  eastern  districts,  exercise  an  equally 
striking  effect  in  the  opposite  direction, — in  raising  the  temperature. 

There  is  nearly  twice  as  much  wind  from  the  south-west  as  from 
the  north-east,  but  the  proportions  vaiy  greatly  in  different  months. 
The  south-west  prevails  most  from  July  to  October,  and  again  from 
December  to  February  ;  accordingly  in  these  months  the  rainfall  is 
heaviest.  These  are  the  summer  and  winter  portions  of  the  year, 
and  an  important  result  of  the  prevalence  of  these  winds,  with 
their  accompanying  rains,  which  are  coincident  with  the  annual 
extremes  of  temperature,  is  to  imprint  a  more  strictly  insular 
character  on  the  Scottish  climate,  by  moderating  the  heat  of 
summer  and  tho  cold  of  winter.  The  north-east  winds  acquire 
their  greatest  frequency  from  March  to  June  and  in  November, 
which  are  accordingly  the  clriest  portions  of  the  year. 

The  mountainous  regions  of  Scotland  aie  mostly  massed  in  thi^ 
west  and  lie  generally  north  and  south,  or  approximately  perpen- 
dicular to  the  rain-bringing  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  Hence  tho 
westerly  wmds  are  turned  out  of  their  horizontal  course,  and, 
being  thrust  up  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  theu" 
temperature  is  lowered,  when  the  vapour  is  condensed  into  cloud 
and  deposits  in  rain  the  water  they  can  no  longer  hold  in  sus- 
pension. Thus  the  climates  of  tho  west  are  essentially  wet.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  climates  of  tho  cast  are  dry,  because  tho  surface 
is  lov;er  and  more  level  ;  and  the  breezes  borne  thither  from  the 
west,  being  robbed  of  most  of  their  superabundant  moisture  in  cross- 
ing tho  western  hills,  are  therefore  ilrici'  and  precipitate  a  greatly 
diuunishcd  rainfall.  It  thus  happens  that  the  driest  climates  in^ 
tho  ea.st  are  those  which  have  to  south-westwards  the  broadest 
extent  of  mountainous  ground,  and  that  tho  wettest  eastern  climates 
are  those  which  are  least  protected  by  high  lands  on  the  west. 
The  breakdown  of  the  wattirshed  between  tho  Firths  of  Clyde  and 
Forth  exposes  southern  I^erlhshirc,  tlic  counties  of  Clackmannan 
and  Kinross,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  Fife  to  the  clouds  and  rains  of 
the  west,  and  their  climates  are  consequently  wetter  than  those  of 
any  other  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  country.  Tho  driest  climates 
of  tho  cast,  on  the  other  hand,  are  in  Tweeddale  about  Kelso  ani 
Jedburgh,  tho  low  grounds  of  East  Lothian,  and  thoso  on  the  Jloray 
Firth  from  Elgin  round  to  Donioch.  In  these  districts  the  annual 
rainfall  for  tho  twenty-four  years  ending  1883  was  about  26  inches, 
whereas  over  extensive  breadths  in  the  west  it  exceeds  100  inches, 
in  Glcncroe  being  nearly  130  inches  and  on  the  top  of  Ben  Nevis 
150  mches.  (A.  B.l 


528 


SCOTLAND 


[statistics. 


PAET  in.— STATISTICS. 


Populu-  Population;  Vital  and  Social  Statistics. — At  the  end  of  the  15th 
tion.  century  it  is  supposed  that  the  population  of  Scotland  did  not 
exceed  500,000, — Edinburgh  having  about  20,000  inhabitants, 
followed  by  Perth  with  about  9000,  and  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and 
St  Andrews  each  with  about  4000.  By  the  time  of  the  Union  in 
1707  it  is  supposed  to  have  reached  1,000,000,  while  according 
to  the  returns  furnished  by  tlie  clergy  to  Dr  Webster  in  1755  it 
was  1,265,330.  At  the  time  of  the  first  Government  census  in 
ISOl  it  had  reached  1,608,420.  The  increase  through  all  the 
succeeding  decades  has  been  continuous,  though  fluctuating  in 
amount,  and  in  1881  it  had  reached  3,735,573  (males  1,799,475, 
females  1,936,098),  —  an  increase  within  the  eighty  years  of  132 
per  cent.  During  the  same  period  the  population  of  England  and 
Wales  had  increased  192  per  cent,,  while  the  population  of 
Ireland,  owinsx  to  a  rapid  decrease  since  1841,  does  not  now  differ 
OTcatly  from  what  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The 
loUov.'iug  table  (T.)  gives  the  areas  of  the  various  counties  and  of 
the  whole  of  Scotland,  the  population  in  1871  and  18SI,  the  num- 
ber of  persons  to  the  square  mile  of  land-surface  in  the  latter  year, 
and  the  increase  nr  decrease  per  cent,  between  1871  snd  1381 : — 


Coanti-;;. 

Arc-i  i.-l 
Acres. 

Population. 

Pop.  per 

Sq.  Kile, 
ISSl. 

Increase 

cr 
Decrease 
per  cent. 
1S71.1S31. 

1371. 

1331. 

/."herdeen 
ixgyU    .. 

A-.-r 

S;nff 

Berwick 

1,262,098 
2,124,271 
73;,262 
■!13,7EI 
297,161 
113,997 
443.  SGT 
31.S76 
172,677 
70.1,946 
234.920 
312,346 
325,427 
669.8.51 
179,142 

2.ri)7,ors 

243,195 
49,812 

610,343 

56S.S68 
81,113 

127,900 

6.'!8,332 

227,809 

1,604,690 

162,423 

2,073,896 
426,464 
166.5-34 
258,579 

1,S59,S4C 
327,900 

244,603 
75,679 

200,809 
62,023 
36,486 
16.977 
39,992 
23,747 
55,557 
74,808 

328,379 
43,128 

160,735 

237,567 
37.771 
88,015 
34,6.S0 
7,198 
41,859 

705,339 
40,965 
10,225 

62,882 
12,330 
127,768 
216,947 

80,955 
49,«7 
18,572 
93,213 
24.317 
88,830 

267,990 
76,468 

217,519 
62,730 
35,392 
17,657 
33,865 
25.080 
75,333 
76,140 

389,164 
43,758 

171,931 

266.360 
38,502 
90,454 
34,461 
6,697 
42,127 

904,412 
4.5,510 
10,455 

01,749 
13,822 
129,007 
203,374 

78,547 
53,4a 
25,504 
112,443 
23.370 
38,611 

137 

24 
193 

98 

77 

81 

57 
539 
212 

72 
1075 

92 
349 
304 
142 

22 

90 

93 

47 
1026 
363 

58 
Orkney    85 
Shetland  54 

33 

51 
1075 

25 
8-0 
99 
251 

75 

+  9-5S 
+  1-04 
+  8-32 
•r  1-15 

-  3-00 
+  4-00 

-  2-82 
+  8-14 
+27-99 
+  1-78 
+1S-51 
+  1-53 
•f  6-96 
+  12-12 
+  1-94 
+  2-77 

-  0-43 

-  6-96 
+  0-64 
+  18-17 
+  6-21 
+  2-25 
+  2-46 

-  6-02 
+12-10 
+  0-97 
+21-40 

-  2-97 
+  8-17 
+37-65 
+  14-48 

-  3-89 

-  0-56 

Caithness  

CU-ickmant.aa   . . 

Dumbartou  

Dumfries   

Edinburgh    

Elgin  or  Moray 
Pife 

Haddington  .... 

Irivernesa 

Kincardine    

Kinross  

Elirlccadbright.. 

Lanark  

Linlithgow    

Orkney  and 
Shetland    .... 

Peebles  

Perth  . . 

Benfrew 

Ro33  and    Cro- 
marty  

Roxburgh 

Selkirk  

Stirling 

Stitheriand    .... 
Wigtown    

Total 

IJ.777,490  1  3,300,010 

3,735,573 

125 

+  11-18 

Table  II.  (see  below)  affords  a  comparison  of  the  numbers  of  the 
population  in  1861,  1871,  and  1881  as  grouped  in  towns,  villages, 
and  rural  districts.  The  returns  do  not  afford  a  means  of  comparison 
between  earlier  years  than  those  given.  A  striking  fact  deserving 
of  mention  is  that  in  every  county  in  Scotland  the  population 
increased  between  1801  and  1?41,  the  increase  being  more  than 


10  per  cent,  in  each  county,  with  the  exception  of  Argjdl,  Perth, 
and  Sutherland.  The  census  returns  for  these  years  do  not 
supply  materials  for  an  accurate  estimate  as  to  the  increase  of 
the  purely  rural  or  agricultural  population,  but  it  must  have  been 
considerable.  Between  1841  and  ISSl  the  following  counties 
declined  in  population:  —  ArgjMl,  Inverness,  Kinross,  Perth,  Rosa 
and  Cromarty,  Sutherland,  and  Wigtown, — all  chiefly  agricultural, 
and  five  of  them  in  the  Highlands,  where  much  of  the  land 
was  held  by  crofters.  Only  one  county,  Kinross,  has  a  smaller 
population  in  1881  than  in  1801..  Between  1851  and  1881  the 
island  population,  chiefly  croftei-s,  decreased  by  4850,  and  the  rural 
population  between  1861  and  18S1  by  125,583,  In  the  following 
Highland  counties  the  diminution  in  i-ural  population  between  1861 
and  1831  was  as  follows  :— Argyll  from  60,109  to  46,081.  Caithness 
from  28,279  to  24,309,  Inverness  from  74.439  to  67,355,  Perth  from 
69,480  to  57,016,  Ross  and  Cromarty  from  59,147  to  49,882,  and 
Sutherland  from  21,560  to  18,696.  In  the  total  population  of 
Scotland  the  rate  of  increase  was  considerably  Icls  between  1841  and 
1881  than  during  the  first  forty  years  of  the  century, — ■42'5  to  62*9 
per  cent.-  The  rates  per  cent,  of  'jicrease  in  the  several  decades 
from  1801  have  been  as  follows  :— 12-27,  15-82,  13-04,  10-82,  10-25, 
6, 9-72,  and  11*18.  The  hi^h  rate  of  increase  between  1871  and  1881 
was  due  to  an  exceptional  briskness  of  trade,  and  unless  it  has  been 
maintained  (which  is  not  probable)  the  estimate  of  the  registrar- 
general,  which  makes  the  population  in  1885  number  3,907,736, 
must  be  regarded  as  much  too  sanguine.  Table  III.  (see  below) 
gives  the  population  of  the  eight  largest  towns  of  Scotland  at 
decennial  periods  since  1801.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  each  of 
these  towns  has  maintained  its  place  in  the  *' eight,"  although 
several  towns  now  tread  closely  on  the  heels  of  Perth,  whose  rate 
of  progi-ess  with  that  of  Paisley  has  lagged  greatly  behind  that  of 
the  other  six. 

While  in  England  and  Wales  the  number  of  persons  to  the  sqxiare  Distribn. 
mile  in  1881  was  452  and  in  Ireland  159,  in  Scotland  the  number  tion  of 
was  only  125.  The  small  density  of  Scotland  is  due  chiefly  to  the  popula- 
large  proportion  of  mountainous  land.  In  the  ii^rth -western  conn-  tion. 
ties  the  density  was  only  23  to  the  square  mile,  in  the  northern  34, 
in  the  west  midland  63,  in  the  southern  68,  while  in  the  north- 
eastern it  was  115,  in  the  cast  midland  149,  in  the  south-eastern 
299,  and  in  the  south-western — Renfrew,  Ayr,  and  Lanark — 614. 
Table  IV.  (see  p.  529}  shows  by  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  the 
increase  that  should  have  taken  place  between  1861  and  1871,  and 
between  1871  and  1881  (but  for  the  balance  of  emigration  over 
immigration),  compared  with  the  actual  increase,  the  grouping  being 
into  towns  with  over  25,000  inhabitants,  towns  bet^\'een  10,000  ana 
25,  OOO^towns  under  10,000  and  above  2000,  and  rural  districts.  It 
is  impossible  to  make  a  comparisou  between  1861  and  ISSl  inasmuch 
as  the  proportion  of  large  and  small  towns  and  rural  districts  has 
varied.  It  must  also  be  explained  that  in  comparing  1861  and 
1871  the  census  of  1861  is  taken  as  the  authority  for  the  grouping 
and  in  comparing  1871  and  ISSl  the  census  of  1871.  This  table 
shows  in  both  decades  an  actual  increase  in  the  large  and  in 
the  principal  towns  greater  than  tliat  resnilting  from  excess  of 
births  over  deaths.  It  is  the  result  not  only  of  migration  from 
the  small  towns  and  rural  districts  but  of  the  immigration  of 
English,  Irish,  and  foreigners,  and  the  return  of  natives  of  Scotland 
from  abroad.  By  a  comparison  with  'Table  II.  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  increase  in  the  rural  districts  between  the  decades  in  Table 
IV.  occurs  only  in  the  villages,  and  a  closer  examination  of  Table 
IV.  further  shows  that  any  seeming  increase  is  really  delusive,  and 
arises  from  the  fact  that  there  is  no  provisiou  for  the  increase  in 


i 

ABLE    II. 

Groups. 

Total  PoptU-Ttio::. 

Iccrear.e  or  Decrease, 
1361  to  U71. 

Incrca?e  or  Dt-cre::sc, 
1S71  to  1881. 

Percentage 
to  Total  Popul-tion.       | 

ISil. 

isri. 

ISSl. 

Act-jal. 

Percentage. 

Actlui. 

percentage. 

1S61. 

1571. 

ISSl. 

Towns 

1,616,134 

339,740 

l,106,4->0 

1,-V.1,704 

336,993 

1,021,321 

2,306,3,52 
447,684 
980,837 

+335.570 
+  47,253 
-    65,099  ■ 

+20-73 
+  13-90 
-   7-69 

+355,148 
+  60,391 
-    40,484 

+18-20 
+  15-73 
-    3.-S6 

52-78 
11-09 
30-13 

53-09 
11-52 
30-39 

61-75 
11  99. 
26-26 

100-00 

Rural  districts 

Scotland 

3,062,294 

3,3S0,01S 

3,735,673 

+  297,721     1       +  S-72 

+375,555 

+  11-18 

100-00 

100  00 

Table  III. 


Edinburgh  ) 
Leith  S 

Glasgow  .. . 
Aberdeen    . 

Dundee    

P.iisley 

Greenock     . 
Perth    


61,404 
77,058 
26,992 
27,396 
25,058 
17,190 
16,363 


101,492 
103.824 
34,640 
31,058 
29,461 
13,750 
16564 


126,351 

140,432 
43,821 
3-2,126 
S8,102 
21,719 
18,197 


( 136,548 
I  25.C55 
193,0.10 
56,681 
48,026 
46,222 
27,082 
19,238 


1841. 

1851. 

1801. 

1S7!. 

1S31. 

1885. 

132,977 

160,302 

.163,121 

196,979 

228,357 

250,616 

25,934 

30,919 

33,628 

44.280 

59,485 

08,414 

261.004 

329,097 

394,.<'G4 

477,156 

551,415 

519,965 

ec.sss 

71,973 

73,S05 

88,103 

105.189 

113,212 

64,C2S 

78,931 

80,417 

118,977 

140,239 

152,833 

48,263 

47,952 

47,406 

48,240 

65,638 

69,103 

36,169 

36- C£! 

42,093 

57,146 

66,704 

73,695 

20,4C7 

23,835 

25.250 

25,535 

23,930 

31.322 

STATISTICS.] 


SCOTLAND 


529 


ality. 


the  number  of  small  to^iia.  1  hus  according  to  the  grouping  of 
1871  the  rural  population  of  1871  was  nearly  28,000  less  than  the 
rural  population  of  1861  according  to  the  grouping  of  1861.  It 
is  from  the  villages  and  small  towns  that  the  large  towns  are 
principally  recruited,  the  purely  rural  population  preferring  as  a 
rule  to  emigrate. 

Table  V.  shows  the  nationalities  of  the  people  of  Scotland  in  1871 
and  1881,  with  the  nationalities  in  1881  in  those  burghs  which 
had  a  population  of  10,000  and  upwards  :^ 


Nationalities. 

Scotland  1S71. 

Scotland  ISSl. 

Bnrghs  ISSl. 

.Number. 

Per- 
centage 
to  Pop. 

Number. 

Per- 
centage 
to  Pop. 

Number. 

Per- 
cent-ige 
to  Pop. 

Scota 

3,061,531 

207,770 

69,401 

9,740 

6,068 

4,693 

1,081 

729 

91-117 
6-1S4 
2-065 
0-290 

0151 
0-140 
0-032 
0-021 

3,397,759 
218,745 
90,017 
12,574 

7,024 

6,399 

1,806 

949 

90-957 
5-366 
2-410 
0-345 

0-18S 
0-171 
0-048 
0-025 

1,429,012 

141,620 

51,402 

7,763 

4,954 
4,171 

SS2 
543 

S7-116 
8-634 
3-134 
0-473 

C-254 
0-302 
0-054 
0  033 

Irish   

British  colonials.. 

British       subjects 

frora  abroad  .... 

Foreigners    

Welsh 

From  Channel  Isles 

Totals    

3,360,018 

100-000 

3,735,573 

100-000 

1,610,360  1  100-000  1 

This  table  indicates  not  merely  an  actual  but  a  proportional  in- 
crease in  non-natives,  there  being  an  actual  increase  but  a  pro- 
portional decrease  of  natives  of  Ireland,  and  both  an  actual  and  a 
proportional  increase  of  natives  of  England.  Over  the  whole  of 
Scotland  the  proportion  of  non-natives  is  a  little  over  9  per  cent., 
while  in  the  burghs  it  is  nearly  13  per  cent.  The  number  of 
persons  of  Scottish  birth  in  Ireland  in  1881  was  22,328,  and  in 
England  it  was  253,528, — a  total  in  the  two  countries  of  275,856. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  natives  of  the  two  countries  in  Scotland 
in  1881  were  together  308,762,  so  that  there  is  a  smaller  migra- 
tion from  Scotland  to  these  countries  than  from  these  countries  to 
Scotland. 

The  following  table  (VI.)  shows  tho  emigration  of  persons  of 
Scottish  origin  from  the  United  Kingdom  at  various  periods 
since  1853 : — 


rears.... 

1853-55 1 1850.60 

1861-65  1866-70 

1S71.75  '■  1876-80 

1881-85 

1853-85 

Emigrants 

.  62,514     69,016 

62,461     85,621 

95,055     70,596 

133,527 

563,790 

r,:  .igfl. 

Cou. 


Comparing  1856-60  witli  1881-85  it  will  be  seen  th.it  the  number 
of  emigrants  has  more  than  doubled, — an  increase  of  course  propor- 
tionately much  greater  than  the  population.  There  are  no  statistics 
as  to  the  n-amber  of  immigrants  into  Scotland ;  and  the  significance 
of  Table  VI.  is  further  lessened  by  the  fact  that  it  includes  persons 
who  may  have  been  for  some  time  resident  in  England  or  Ireland,  or 
who  may  have  been  born  there  of  Scottish  parentage,  and  also  sup- 
plies no  information  regarding  emigration  to  the  Continent.  Only 
the  principal  ports,  moreover,  are  included  in  the  return. 
Tltat  The  m.-ile  population  in  1881  was  1,799,475,  an  increase  since 

atatistics.  1871  of  12"2  percent.  ;  the  female  population  1,936,098,  an  increase 
of  only  10-2  per  cent.  Since  1811,  when  there  were  118-5  females  to 
every  100  males,  the  proportion  has  been  continuously  diminishing, 
and  in  1881  it  was  107-6,  but  still  greater  than  prevails  cither  in 
England,  which  was  105-5,  or  in  Ireland,  which  was  104-3.  The 
proportion  differs  greatly  in  different  counties,  being  as  high  as 
134-71  in  Shetland,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  number  of  males  at 
sea.  In  Scotland  the  proportion  of  female  births  is  smaller  than 
that  of  male  births:  in  1885  it  was  100  to  105;  and  males 
preponderate  in  the  population  up  till  the  age  of  twenty. five, 
clearly  showing  that  the  excess  of  females  is  due  to  male  emigra- 
tion or  the  greater  mortality  of  male  occupations^     The  percentage 


of  illegitimate  to  the  total  number  of  births  in  1855  was  7-8, 
and  reached  its  maximum  in  1865,  when  it  was  102,  while  in 
1885  it  was  8-46.  It  is  much  higher  in  the  lowland  rural 
districts  than  in  the  Highland  rural  districts,  and  lo\?est  in  the 
large  towns.  The  percentages  of  births,  deaths,  and  niarriases 
to  population  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  registrar-general  are^in 
a  great  de-^ee  misleading,  inasmuch  as  the  estimated  population 
generally  differs  greatly  from  the  actual.  They  place  it,  however, 
beyond  doubt  that  the  greatest  birth,  marriage,  and  mortality 
rates  are  in  the  town  districts,  that  the  smallest  birtii  and  niarriago 
rates  are  in  the  insular  districts,  after  -n-hich  come  the  mainland 
rural  districts,  and  that  the  mortality  is  not  so  high  in  the  insular 
rural  as  in  the  mainland  rural  districts.  Table  VH.  {sue  below) 
gives  the  percentage  of  single,  married,  and  widowed  to  the  total 
of  each  sex  in  Scotland,  England  and  Wales,  and  Ireland  respect- 
ively in  1881. 

The  number  of  blind  persons  in  Scotland  in  1831  was  3158B'..vl, 
(males  1556,  females  1602),  the  proportion  to  the  total  population  &c. 
being  1  in  1182  (males  1156,  females  1208) ;  the  proportion  in  1871 
was  1  in  1112.  The  deaf  and  dumb  in  1881  numbered  2142  (males 
1149,  females  993),  the  proportion  to  the  total  population  being  1 
in  every  1744  as  against  1  in  every  1010  in  1871.  The  number  of 
lunatics  was  returned  as  8406  (males  3939,  females  4467)  or  1  in 
every  444  of  the  total  population,  the  proportion  in  1871  being  1 
in  every  494.  In  addition  to  this  there  were  5991  imbeciles  (males 
2896,  females  3095),  or  1  to  every  623  of  the  population,  the  pro- 
portion in  1871  being  1  in  every  727. 

Table  VIII.  gives  a  classification  of  the  population  according  to  Occupa 
occupations  in  1871  and  1881 : —  tions. 


Classes  of  Occupation. 

1S71. 

ISSl. 

Per  cent,  of  Total  Pop. 

1371. 

ISSl. 

1.  Professional 

2.  I'omestic     

3.  C.-immercial    

4.  Agricultural 

5.  Industrial  

G.  Unproductive   

72,911 
159,403 
114,094 
270,003 
751,281 
1,991,721 

96,103 
170,5C5 
132,120 
209,537 
932,053 
2,128,539 

2-17 
4-74 
3-41 
8-04 
22-36 
69-23 

2-57 
4-73 
S-54 
T-21 
24-97 
66-93 

It  should  be  explained  that  the  apparent  diminution  in  the  pro-  Pauper- 
portion  cf  the  unproductive  class  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  ism. 
that  in  1871  paupers  were  returned  in  this  class,  whereas  in  1881 
they  were  returned  under  the  occupation  at  which  they  used  to 
work.  The  increase  in  the  proportion  of  the  professional  and 
commercial  classes  is  at  least  a  slight  indication  of  higher  average 
prosperity,  but  this  is  more  conclusively  established  by  the  fact 
that  the  number  of  paupers  has  for  many  years  been  steadily  on 
the  decline,  the  proportion  being  now  {1386)  only  2i  of  the 
population.  The  average  cost  of  maintenance  is,  howe\:er,  on  the 
increase,  owing  entirely  to  the  increased  cost  of  the  maintenance  of 
the  lunatic  poor. 

Crime,  like  pauperism,  is  also  steadily  declining,  as  is  sho\ni  Crimea, 
by  Table  IX. :— 


Offences. 

Average. 

I8S4. 

1836-' 1851-' 1875. 
40.   1   55.    1   79. 

ISSO- 
84. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

751 !l014 ;    SSI 
530      532'    520 

1676  1 1910  ;  1102 
47        62      122 
120      109        44 
206      247      112 

833 
524 

930 
89 
4S 

122 

905 
515 

619 

52 
36 
82 

75 

80 

262 
S 
6 

980  ' 

Against  property  with  violence 
Against  property  without  vio. 

695  i 
911 

Against  property,  malicious. . 

fO 
42 

89 

3390 ,  3S80  ;  2781 

2551 

2239 

433 

=rj' 

Table  IV. 


Groups. 

Population  according  to 
.Grouping  in  1861. 

Population  acconltng  to 
Grouping  in  1871. 

Births 
1801-71. 

Deaths 
1801-71. 

Births 
1871-81. 

Deaths 
1871-81. 

Increase  or  Decrease 
1   from  1S61  to  1871. 

Increase  or  Decrease 
from  1871  to  ISSl. 

1861. 

1871. 

1871. 

1881. 

1 
Actual. 

Excess 
of  Births 

over 
Deaths. 

ActuaL 

Excess 
of  Births 

over 
Deaths. 

Principal  town» 

Large  towns    

Small  towns    

Rural  dlstrteti    .... 

Bcotluul  

SS4.95J 

254,030 

602,833 

1,420,476 

3,062,294 

1,068.556 
810,165 
64(^807 

1.440,490 

1,193,940 

327,734 

696,958 

1,141,386 

1,411,536 
383,797 
790,796 

1,144,444 

876,856 
103,519 
190,123 
450,283 

274,511 
68,709 
115,147 

247,709 

429,679 
150,095 
293,220 
361,357 

296,285 
94,493 
171.485 
203,200 

+183,601 
+  60,135 
+  37,974 
+  20,014 

+  102,845 
+  34.750 
+  74,981 
+202,519 

+  217,596 
+  61,063 
+  93,838 
+     3,058 

+133,304 
+  65,697 
+  121,735 
+  158.167 

8,860,018 

8,360,018     I    3,735,573 

1,120,791  1  706,136 

1,234,351 

765,463  1   +297,724 

+  414,595 

+376,565 

+468,888 

Table  VII. 


irm. 

ScctlRad. 

England  and  Wales. 

Ireland. 

BIngls. 

Married. 

Widowed. 

Single. 

Married. 

Widowed. 

BIngle. 

Married. 

Widowed. 

M4lm  

06 -291 

80-441 
23 -JS? 

8-279 
8-160 

61-882 
69-2:9 

84-629 
33''>92 

8-440 
7-492 

63-714 
63-442 

87-601 
20-1170 

8-785 
£1-S52 

1  iP.mftles 

J 

11—20 


XXI.  —  67 


530 


SCOTLAND 


[statistics. 


Eoads.  Comimtmcatwn.'—ln  the  12tli  century  nn  Act  was  passed  provid- 

riig  that  the  highways  between  market-towns  sliould  be  at  least 
20  feet  broad.  Over  the  principal  rivers  at  this  early  period  there 
were  bridges  near  the  most  populo\ia  places,  as  over  the  Deo  near 
Aberdeen,  the  Esk  at  Brechin,  the  Tay  at  Perth,  and  the  Forth 
near  Stirling.  Until  the  ICth  century,  however,  traffic  between 
distant  places  was  carried  on  chiefly  by  pack-horses.  The  firet 
stage-coach  in  Scotland  was  tliat  which  ran  between  Edinburgh 
and  Leith  in  1610.  In  1658  there  was  a  fortnightly  stage-coach 
between  Edinburgh  and  London,  but  afterwards  it  woidd  appear 
to  have  been  discontinued  for  many  years.  Separate  Acts  en- 
joining the  justices  of  the  peace,  and  afterwards  along  with 
them  the  commissioners  of  supply,  to  take  measures  for  the 
maintenance  of  roads  were  passed  in  1617,  1669,  1676,  and 
1686.  These  provisions  had  reference  chiefly  to  what  afterwards 
came  to  be  known  as  ''statute  labour  roads,"  intended  primarily 
to  supply  a  means  of  communication  within  the  several  parishes. 
Tliey  were  kept  in  repair  by  the  tenants  and  colters,  and,  when 
their  labour  was  not  sufficient,  by  the  landlords,  who  were  required 
to  "  stent  "  (assess)  themselves,  customs  also  being  sometimes  levied 
at  brit'^es,  ferries,  and  causeways.  By  scpar;  e  local  Acts  the 
"statute  labour"  was  in  many  cases  converted  into  a  payment 
called  "conversion  money,"  and  the  General  Roads  Act  of  1845 
made  the  alteration  universal.  By  the  Roads  and  Bndgey  (Scotland) 
Act  of  1878  the  old  organization  for  the  management  of  these  roads 
was  entirely  superseded  in  1883.  The  Highlands  had  good  (mili- 
tary) roads  earlier  than  the  rest  of  the  count;y.  The  project,  begun 
in  1725,  took  ten  years  to  complete,  and  the  roads  were  afterwards 
kept  in  repair  by  an  annu-i.1  parliamentary  grant.  In  the  Lowlands 
the  maia  lines  of  roads  have  been  constructed  under  the  Turnpike 
Acts,  the  earliest  of  which  was  obtained  in  1750.  Onginally  they 
(vere  maintained  by  tolls  exacted  from  those  who  used  them  ;  but 
this  method  was  —  after  several  counties  had  obtained  separate 
A(  ts  for  its  abolition  —  superseded  throughout  Scotland  in  1883 
by  the  general  Act  of  1878,  providing  for  llie  maintcnajice  of  all 
classes  of  roads  by  assessment  levied  by  the  county  road  trustees. 

Canals.  Scotland  possesses  two  canals  constructed  primarily  to  abridge 
the  sea  passage  round  the  coast, — the  Caledonian  and  the  Crinan. 
The  Caledonian  Canal,  extending  from  south-west  to  north-east, 
a  distance  of  60  miles  along  the  lino  of  lochs  from  Loch  Linnhe 
on  the  west  coast  to  the  Moray  Firth  on  the  east  coast,  was 
begun  in  1803,  opened  while  yet  unfinished  in  1822,  and  com- 
pleted in  1847,  the  total  cost  being  about  .21,300,000.  Constructed 
originally  to  afford  a  quicker  passage  for  ships  to  the  east  coast  of 
Scotland  and  the  coasts  of  Europe,  it  has,  owing  to  the  increased 
size  of  vessels,  ceased  to  fulfil  this  purpose,  its  chief  service  having 
been  in  opening  up  a  picturesque  route  for  tourists,  assisting  local 
trade,  and  affording  a  passaga  for  fishing  boats  between  the  east 
and  west  coasts.  The  Crinan  Canal,  stretching  across  the  Mull  of 
Cantyre  from  Loch  Gilp  to  Jura  Sound,  a  distance  of  9  miles,  and 
admitting  the  passage  of  vessels  of  200  tons  burden,  was  opened  in 
1801  at  a  cost  of  over  £100,000.  The  principal  boat  canals  are  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  or  Great  C:^nal,  begun  in  1733,  between  Grange- 
mouth on  the  Forth  and  Bowling  on  the  Clyde,  a  distance  of  30| 
miles,  with  a  branch  to  Port  Dundas,  making  the  total  distance 
33}  miles  ;  the  Union  Canal  between  Edinburgh  and  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  Canal  at  Port  Dundas,  near  Glasgow,  completed  in  1822  ;  and 
the  Monkbnd  Canal,  completed  in  1791,  connecting  Glasgow  with 
the  Monkland  mineral  district  and  communicating  with  a  lateral 
branch  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  at  Port  Dundas.  Several 
other  canals  in  Scotland  have  been  superseded  by  railway  routes. 

Rail-  The  first  railway  in  Scotland  for  which  an  Act  of  Parliament 

Vaya.  was  obtained  was  that  between  Kilmarnock  and  Troon  (9|  miles), 
opened  in  1812,  and  of  course  worked  by  horses.  A  similar  rail- 
way, of  which  the  chief  source  of  profit  was  the  passenger  traffic, 
was  opened  between  Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith  in  1831,  branches 
being  afterwards  extended  to  Lcith  and  Musselburgh.  By  1840 
the  length  of  the  railway  lines  in  Scotland  for  which  Bills  were 
passed  was  191J  miles,  the  capital  being  i£3,l'22,133.  The  chief 
railway  companies  in  Scotland  are  the  Caledonian,  formed  in  1845, 
total  capital  in  1SS4-S5  £37,999,933  ;  the  North  British,  of  the  same 
date,  total  capital  £32,821,526  ;  the  Glasgow  and  South-AVestern, 
formed    by   amalgamation    in    1850,    total   capital   £13,230,849  ; 


the  Highland,  formed  by  amalgamation  in  1866,  total  capital 
£4,445,316  ;  and  the  Great  North  of  Scotland,  1846,  total  capital 
£4,869,983.  The  management  of  the  small  branch  lines  belonging 
to  local  companies  is  generally  undertaken  by  the  larger  cominmiea. 
By  1849  there  were  795  miles  of  railway  in  Scotland.  The  follow- 
ing table  (X.)  shows  the  progress  since  1857  (see  also  Railway, 
voh  XX.  pp.  226-230)  :— 


1S57 
1S74 
1584. 


First 
Class. 


1C-13  1.S23.542  2,180,234 
■270(14,201,473  3,769,483 
2999  4, 711, SOO  2,715,032 


I   Tliinland 
Mixed 
Classes. 


10,729,677 
30,189,934 

46,877,042 


14,733.503 

38,220,89r 
54,305,074 


Receipts 
from 
Goods 
Tiains. 


Total. 


£  £ 

916,697  1,584,78112,501.478 

2,350,593  3,884, 424|6,235,017 

2,931,737  4,420,023  7,367,700 


Agriculture- — Table  XL  shows  the  divisions  of  land  as  regards  (>nier- 
ownership  according  to  the  return  (the  latest)  of  1873  : —  ship  of 

soil. 


n 

. 

a    • 

Owners  liolding 

each 

M^ 

Gross 
Annual 

1° 

Value. 

< 

fe-gS 

£ 

£      B, 

28,177 

205  17 

•1 

More  than  1  aero  and  Ic 

5S  than  10.. 

9,471 

20,327 

1,433,106 

48  17 

.2 

10 

SO.. 

3,409 

77,019 

843,471 

10  17 

•4 

SO 

100.. 

1,213 

66,483 

380,345 

4     8 

•5 

100 

too.. 

2,367 

56.372 

1,674,77; 

3     0 

2-9 

600 

1,000.. 

62r. 

582,741 

1, 203,5-24 

2     3 

31 

„      1.000 

2,000.. 

6!)li 

635,242 

1,179,756 

1     8 

4-4 

„      2,000 

5,000.. 

687 

1,843,378 

1,946,607 

1     1 

9-7 

„     s.aoo           „ 

10.000.. 

25C 

1,726,869 

1,043,519 

0  12 

91 

„   10,000 

20,000.. 

16(1 

2,150,111 

965,106 

0    9 

11-3 

„     20,000 

M.OOO.. 

103 

3,071,728 

945,9H 

0     0 

lC-2 

,.    60,000 

100,000.. 

44 

3,025,616 

6S8,78S 

0     4 

16-0 

24 

4,931,884 

623,148 
10,740 

0    3 

26*1 

11 

11 

1,147 
18,946,694 

Total  

132,130 

18,698,804 

1    0 

1000 

Scotland,  as  compared  with  either  England  or  Ireland,  is  em- 
phatically a  country  of  large  proprietoi-3.  Taking  the  population 
of  1871  as  the  basis  of  comparison,  a  little  over  3*9  per  cent  of  the 
population  of  Scotland  have  a  share  in  the  ownership  of  the  soil, 
the  proportion  in  England  and  Wales  being  about  5  per  cent,  while 
in  Ireland  it  ia  only  about  1"7.  On  an  average  each  owner  in 
England  possesses  33  acres,  in  Scotland  143,  and  in  Ireland  293. 
"While  in  Ireland,  however,  only  a  little  over  one-half  of  the  number 
of  proprietors  possess  less  than  1  acre,  and  in  England  about  five- 
sevenths,  this  class  in  Scotland  amounted  to  about  tive-sixths  of  the 
whole.  They  possessed  only  '1  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  the  re- 
maining  99'9  being  possessed  by  19,131  persons,  while  171  persons 
held  58'3,  and  68  persons  42*1.  "NVhereas  in  England  1  and  in 
Ireland  only  3  proprietors  held  upwards  of  100,000  acres  each, 
in  Scotland  there  were  24  persons  who  each  held  more  than  this 
amount,  and  together  they  possessed  26*1  per  cent  of  the  total 
area.  The  excessive  size  of  the  properties  of  Scotland  may  be 
partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
land  is  so  mountainous  and  unproductive  as  to  be  unsuitable  for 
division  into  small  properties  ;  but  two  other  causes  have  also 
powerfully  co-operated  with  this,  viz.,  the  wide  territorial  authority 
exercised  by  some  of  the  lowland  nobles,  as  the  Scotts  an(! 
Douglases,  and  such  powerful  Highland  nobles  as  the  Argylls  and 
Breadalbanes,  and  the  stricter  law  of  entail  introduced  by  the  Act 
of  1685  (see  Eiitail,  voh  viii.  p.  452).  The  largest  estates  are 
thus  in  the  hands  of  the  old  hereditary  families.  The  almost 
absolute  power  anciently  wielded  by  the  landlords,  who  within 
their  own  territories  were  lords  of  regality,  tended  to  hinder  in- 
dependent agricultural  enterprise,  and  it  was  not  till  after  the 
abolition  of  hereditary  jurisdictions  in  1746  that  agriculture  in 
Scotland  made  any  real  progress. 

The  following  table  (XII.)  gives  a  classification  of  the  holdings  HoldiBi;3a 
of  Scotland  in  1375  and  1880  :— 


Years. 

60  Acres  and 
under. 

From  50  to  100 
Acres. 

From  100  to  300 
Acres. 

Prom  300  to  500 
Acres. 

From  500  to  1000 
Acres. 

Xbove  1000  Acres. 

ToUL 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Numodr. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

1875 
1880 

56,311 
55,260 

666,356 
653,295 

0873 
6726 

697.620 
721,844 

11,833 
12,3.<S 

1,980.031 
2,052.914 

1967 
2007 

729,885 
750,295 

691 
661 

427,478 
418,650 

126 
79 

109,675 
114,298 

80,790 
80,101 

4,011,095 
4,741,290 

t  will  be  observed  that  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  area  of  the  hold- 
ings is  occupied  by  those  j>ossessing  from  100  to  300  acres  each.  The 
holdings  over  300  acres  are  generally  sheep  farm?,  and  it  is  to  the 
enterprise  of  the  medium  class  of  holders  that  the  agricultural 
progiess  of  Scotland  is  chiefly  due.  A  society  of  improvers  in 
the-kaowlcdge  of  agiiculture  was  founded  in  1723,  but  ceased  to 


exist  after  the  Rebellion  of  1745  ;  and  the  introduction  of  new  and 
improved  methods,  where  not  the  result  of  private  enterprise,  ha£ 
been  chiefly  associated  with  the  eflbrts  of  the  Highland  Society, 
instituted  in  1783,  and  latterly  known  as  the  Highland  and  Agri- 
cultural Society,  A  great  stimulus  was  also  aff"orded  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19lh  century  by  the  high  prices  obtained  during  tl  2 


STATISTICS.] 


SCOTLAND 


531 


lisnd-  Continental  wars,  and,  arthough  periods  of  occasional  s^veredepres- 
lord  and  eion  have  occurred  since  then,  not  only  has  the  science  of  agriculture 
XesinL  continued  rapidly  to  advance  but  the  position  of  the  large  farmer 
has  until  within  recent  years  been  one  of  increasing  prosperity. 
The  system  of  nineteen  years'  lease  had  proved,  as, regards  both 
agricultural  progress  and  the  interests  of  the  farmer,  a  much  superior 
arrangement  to  the  system  of  yearly  tenancy  so  largely  prevatlmg 
in  England  ;  but  it  was  conjoined  with  customs  and  modified  by 
conditions  which  during  the  period  of  agricultural  distress  prevail- 
ing since  1S72  "have  caused  the  relations  between  landlord  and 
tenant  to  become  severely  strained.  The  more  prominent  griev- 
ances of  the  farmer  were  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  sufficient  com- 
pensation for  improvements,  the  inconveniences  resulting  from  the 
law  of  hypothec  {see  Hypothec,  toL  xii.  p.  598),  and  the  hardships 
fiu.Tered  from  the  existence  of  the  game  laws.  Hypothec  was 
abolished  in  1379,  except  as  regards  the  Act  of  Sederunt  ;  a  ground 
game  Act  was  passed  in  1880;  and,  succeeding  the  report  of  the 
duke  of  Richmond's  commission  in  1882,  the  Agricultural  Holdings 
Act  was  passed  in  18S3,  containing  provisions  for  securing  to  the 
tenant  control  in  the  disposition  of  his  lease,  and  also  compensation 
for  improvements ;  but  already  it  is  evident  that  these  reforms 
have  failed  to  meet  the  difficulties  created  by  ths  altered  conditions 
of  thin^,  due  to  the  increasing  scarcity  of  land  and  the  import- 
ation offoreign  produce. 
Croft  liTE.  While  the  relations  between  the  landlord  and  the  large  farmei 
ccinnot  be  regarded  as  satisfactory,  the  difficulries  of  the  crofters — 
tmall  holders  now  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  western  Highlands 
end  the  islands  to  the  north  and  west  of  Scotland — have  reached 
a  more  acute  stage.  The  crofter  sj'steni  prevailing  in  Orkney  and 
Shetland — described  in  the  article  on  those  islands — has  a  totally 
citferent  origin  from  that  prevailing  in  the  Highlands.  On  account 
of  the  ancient  relations  between  the  Highlander  and  his  chief,  the 
inheritance  is  claimed  by  the  Highland  crofters  of  an  inalienable 


right  to  security  of  tenure  ;  but  when  th?  old  feudal  system  of  tha 
Highlands  was  suddenly  abolished  after  the  Rebellion  of  1745  no 
legal  steps  were  taken  for  the  recognition  of  this  right,  and  from 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  wholesale  clearances  of  tenants 
were  carried  out  in  many  districts  even  by  the  heirs  of  the  old 
Highland  chiefs.  In  the  words  of  the  report  of  the  crofters  com- 
mission of  1884  : — "The  crofter  of  the  present  time  has  through 
past  evictions  been  confined  within  narrow  limits,  sometimes  oa 
inferior  land  and  exhausted  soil.  He  is  subject  to  arbitrary 
augmentations  of  money  rent,  he  is  without  security  of  tenure-.-aui 
has  only  recently  received  the  concession  of  compensation  for  im- 
provements. "  The  crofters  in  Scotland  are  now  estimated  ■  to 
number  40,000  families  or  200,000  persons,  and  many  of  them  sup- 
port themselves  partly  by  fishing.  In  the  struggle  for  e.xistenco 
they  have  had  to  contend  against  the  tendency  towards  the  creation 
of  large  farms,  the  demand  for  sponing  estates,  the  desire  of 
landlords  to  escape  the  burden  of  poor  rates,  and  the  fact  that 
they  have  absolutely  no -choice  as  regards  the  conditions  imposed 
on  them  by  the  landlord.  In  March  18S3  a  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  cotters  and  crofters  in 
the  Highlands  and  islands,  of  Scotland  ;  this  commission  gave  in 
its  report  in  1884,  and  an  Act  based  on  their  recommendations  was 
passed  in  1886. 

Notwithstanding   the   unsatisfactory  condition   of  agricultural  DistribU' 
affairs  in  Scotland  at  present,  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  ticn  of 
where  farming  is  prosecuted  with  more  skill  and  enterprise.     On  c.rpa, 
account  of  the  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate  the  method"  in 
^  operation  differ  greatly  in  different  districts,  and  for  special  details 
'  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  on  the  several  counties.     Tha 
following  table  (X 1 11. )  shows  the  cultivated  area  and  the  areas  under 
each  kind  of  crop  in  different  years,  with  the  proportion  of  the  acreage 
under  each  kind  of  crop,  kc,  to  every  1000  acres  of  cultivated  land 
for  1885  in  Scotland,  England,  and  Ireland  ■. — 


Yearly  Averages.               ] 

1880. 

.1885. 

Average  per  1000  Acres  18S5.         1 

1807-70. 

1S71-75. 

Scotland.    1    England. 

Irelsnd. 

Acres 

IMO 

Total  acreage  Doder  crops,  tare  fallow,  and  grass 

Acres. 
4,420,375 

Acres. 
4,500,825 

Acres. 

4,733,127 

Acres. 
4,845,805 

Acres. 
1000 

Acres. 
1000 

1,036,841 
3,353,431 

1,0S4,!1S3 
3,475,842 

1,159,35* 
3.578,-74 

1,220,000 
3,025,805 

74S 

492 
508 

073 

327 

Arable  laud 

Com  crops — 
Wheat  

124,296 

227.9S3 

1,011,480 

8,135 

23,711 

2,367 

122,513 

252,105 

1,007,339 

10,480 

26.748 

2,332 

73,976 

264,120 

1,037,254 

7,333 

19,9n 

1,227 

55,155 

237,472 

1,0)0,285 

7,086 

23,135 

1,750 

11 
49 
216 
2 
S 

95 
76 

60 

16 
9 

5 

11 
87 

1 

Oats  

Rye    

Pease 

Total  order  corn  crope   

1,397,977 

1,421,515 

1,403,887 

1,370.392 

:s3 

204 

104 

Green  crops- 
Potatoes  

170,978 

490,598 

944 

964 

8,441 

14,529 

167,880 
603,709 

1,748 

1,043 

4,656     . 
14,780 

187,061 
485,987 
1,822 
1,393 
6,473 
15,705 

148,994 
484.213 
1.495 
1,296 
5.633 
18.088 

31 
100 

"i 

4 

M 
£5 
14 
1 
6 
16 

53 

20 
2 

"a 

2 

Carrots               .... 

Cabbage,  kohlrabi,  and  rape    

Total  under  gi-een  crops 

(81,4:4 

693,821 

1,338,106 
731 

2l',669 

697.446 

659,919 

136 

110 

so 

1,248,747 

1.417 

I 

54,289 

1,455,745 
182 

21,514 

1.571,745 
41 

'?3,203 

824 

no 
"s 

21 

134 

7 

Flax  

KaUow  

The  earliest  year  included  in  this  table  (1867)  is  the  date  at  which 
the  agricultural  Etatistics  began  to  be  collected  and  published  by 
the  Board  of  Trade.  The  work  previous  to  this  had  been  under- 
taken by  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  but 
their  returns  were  necessarily  less  complete  and  accurate.  The 
return  for  1857,  for  example,  gives  the  arable  acreage  ("acreage 
tinder  a  rotation  of  crops  )  as  3,776,572  ;  but  this  is  clearly  too 
much,  as  it  exceeds  that  of  1885,  and  since  1867  there  has  been 
a  gradual  incrca.sc.  Only  a  little  over  one-fourth  of  the  area  of 
Scotland  is  cultivated,  while  in  England  only  one-fourth  is  left 
uncultivated.  It  must,  however,  be  taken  into  consideration 
that  in  tha  agricnltural  returns  "permanent  pasture"  does  not 
include  the  mountainous  districts  which  form  such  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  surface  of  Scotland,  where  heaths  and  natural  grasses 
occnpy  the  soil  and  yield  a  scanty  herbage  for  sheep  and  cattle. 
In  the  return  "  permanent  pasture  "  is  represented  as  occupying 
an  area  little  more  than  a  third  as  large  as  that  occupied  by 
arable  land,  while  in  England  the  two  areas  are  pretty  nearly 
equal,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  pasturage  plays  a  much  more  im- 
portant part  in  the  economy  of  the  Scottish  than  of  the  English 
farmer.  It  will  be  observed  that  as  regards  the  main  divisions 
of  arable  land  the  total  areas  under  both  com  crops  and  giecn 
crops  have  been  sliglitly  decreasing,  while  there  has  been  a 
considerable  increase  in  T^ie  area  under  rotation  grasses.  The  fol- 
lowing table  (XIV.)  djowB  the  yield  of  the  principal  crojia  in 


1857,  1884,  and  1885,  with  the   average   yield  per  acre   in   the  T>«m  of 
last  two  years  : —  «rc^.3. 


1857. 

1884. 

1885. 

Average  per  Acre  1 

18S4. 

1885. 

Wheat    ..   Bushels 
Barley    ..        „ 

Oata 

Beans  ) 

Pease   (■•         " 
Turnips  ..   Tons 
Potatoes..      „ 

6,154.986 
7,236,207. 
82,750,703 

1,037,700 

6,690.109 
430,403 

2,34S,ltii 
7,901,202 
36,713,321 
(705,393- 
\    38,551 
7,532.779 
9S0,S0S 

r.303,501 

8,245,820 

83,407,127 

709,577 

37,404 

6,490,139 

803,523 

S4-I7 
84-27 
85-10 
82-23 
24-74 
15-53 
6-02 

34-33 
84-72 
81-93 
30-67 
21-41 
15-39 
5-39 

This  table  being  founded  on  estimates  can,  of  couise,  only  be  ref^.rded 
as  approximately  correct.  The  average  yield  of  both  whe:it  and 
barley  is  higher  than  that  of  England,  while  the  average  yield  of 
both  oats  and  potatoes  is  lower,  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  first  two  crops  occupy  the  best  soils  of  Scotland, 
while  the  last  two  occupy  every  variety  of  soil  in  the  country. 
Wheat  is  grown  chiedy  in  the  sea-coast  districts  and  the  fertilo 
river-valleys.  The  area  under  wheat  has  declined  more  than  a 
lialf  since  1867,  the  combined  causes  of  this  being  wet  seasons  and' 
increased  foreign  competition.  Barley,  for  which  the  distilleries 
keep  up  a  steady  demand,  and  oats,  the  staple  crop  of  the  country, 
have  rather  increased  in  area  since  1867.  The  area  under  potatoes — 
a  very  uncertain  crop — has  rathei  declined  within  recent  years,  and 


532 


SCOTLAND 


[statistics. 


LiTO 
stock. 


that  under  turnips  has  consiJerably  declineil,  partly  owinf;  to  the 
Increased  use  of  artificial  sUft's  in  cattle-feeding.  The  following 
table  (XV..)  shows  the  number  of  live  stock  iu  different  years,  With 
the  average  number  to  every  1000  acres  of  cijtivated  land  in  1885 
in  Scotland  .ind  England  : — 


Yearly  Average. 

ISSO. 

1885. 

141,522 
46,770 

Average 

per  1000 

Acres 1SS5. 

isor-To. 

1S71-75. 

Scot, 
land. 

29 
10 
39 

87 

54 
102 

243 

Eng- 
land. 

30 
IS 
43 

74 
43 

Horses  (including  ponies)— 
UKed  solely  for  agricultural 

138,504 
134,307 

136,689 
41,903 

141,332 

52,681 

Unbroken  horses  and  mares 
kept  for  breeding 

1 172.ST1 

178,052 

194,013 

188,292 

Cattle- 
Cows  and  heifers  in  milk  or 

ill  calf  

Other  cattle— two  years  old 

and  above.. 

,,         under  two  yeai-s 

380,509 

249,541 
392,336 

392,252 

267,920 
407,165 

387,195 

258,907 
453,124 

419,210 

260,505 
490,289 

1,0-22,386 

1,099,280 

1,170,004 

ISO' 

Sheep- 
One  year  old  and  above 

Under  one  year  old 

Total  sheep 

4,582,835  4,735,008 
2,355,142  2,426,114 

4,651,116 
2,420,972 

4,560,436 
2,396,702 

941 

495 

4071 
209  1 

6,937,977 
153,959 

7,101,122 
166,148 

7,072,088 

6,957,198 

1430 

6-6  ' 

Pigs  

120,925 

150,984 

3. 

82 

This  table  does  not  indicate  any  constant  decrease  or  increase  in 
any  of  the  classes  of  live  stock.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  average 
number  of  cattle  to  the  acreage  of  cultivated  land  in  Scotland  is 
about  a  third  more  than  in  England,  and  of  sheep  more  than  double 
as  many  ;  but  the  number  of  pigs  in  England  is  more  than  double 
as  many  to  the  acreage  of  cultivated  land  as  it  is  in  Scotland,  and 
the  number  of  horses  is  greater.  The  special  breeds  of  horses  in 
Scotland  are  the  Shetlaud  ponies,  the  Highland  ponies,  and  the 
Clydesdale  draught  horses,  tlie  latter  origijially  bred  iu  the  Clydes- 
dale district  from  crossing  with  Flemisii  stallions  imported  about 
the  beginning  of  the  ISth  century.  Tlie  breeds  of  cattl«  include 
the  Ayrshire,  which,  since  they  arc  chiefly  noted  for  their  yield  of 
milk,  and  are  specially  adapted  for  dairy  farms  (which  prevail 
especially  in  the  south-west  of  Scotland),  have  in  a  great  measure 
Supplanted  the  Galloway  in  their  native  district,  except  where  these 
4re  kept  for  feeding  purposes;  the  polled  Angus  or  Aberdeen,  fair 
milkers,  but  chiefly  valuable  for  their  beef-making  qualities,  and 
oa  this  account,  as  well  as  their  hardihood,  in  especial  favour  in 
the  north-east  of  Scotland,  where  the  art  of  cattle-feeding  has 
reached  its  greatest  perfection  ;  and  the  west  Highland  breed, 
noted  for  their  long  horns,  their  shagginess,  the  decide(i  character 
of  their  various  colours — black,  red,  dun,  cream,  and  brindle— 
and  their  power  of  thriving  on  wild  and  heathy  pasture.  The 
special  breeds  of  sheep  are  the  fine-wooUed  breed,  peculiar  to  Shet- 
land ;  the  blackfaced,  native  to  the  Highland  districts  ;  and  the 
Cheviots,  native  to  the  range  of  hills  of  that  name,  and  now  the 
favourite  breed  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  althoiigh  border  Leicesters 
and  other  English  breeds,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  crosses,  are  kept 
for  winter  feeding  on  the  lowland  farms, 
pore^la.  The  area  under  orchards  as  returned  on  4th  June  1885  was  1892 
acres  and  under  nursery  grounds  1654.  Orchards,  chiefly  for  apples, 
are  most  numerous  in  the  Carse  of  Gowrie  and  the  neighbourhood 
of  Perth,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  above  Hamilton. 
The  area  under  woods  in  1812  was  907,695  acres,  of  which  501;469 
«cre3  were  natural  woods  and  406,226  planted  ;  by  1872  it  had 
declined  to  734,490,  but  by  1881  (i.e.,.  by  the  latest  return)  it  had 
increased  to  829,476,  the  principal  increase  having  been  in  Aberdeen, 
Perth,  and  Invemess,  the  counties  where  the  growth  of  woods  is 
largest.  The  Board  of  Trade  returns  do  not  distinguish  between 
planted  and  natural  woods,  but  it  is  well  known  that  large  cuttings 
Lave  been  made  in  the  indigenous  forests  of  the  Highlands,  while 
at  the  same  time  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  within  the 
present  century  to  the  growth  of  plantations  in  the  Lowlands,  partly 
as  a  covert  for  game  ;  the  science  of  forestry  has  made  great  ad- 
vances within  recent  years  owing  to  the  encouragement  and  guid- 
ance of  the  Scottish  Arboricultutal  Society,  established  in  1854, 
and  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society.  The  modern  planta- 
tions are  formed  chiefly  of  Scotch  fir  with  a  sprinkling  of  larch. 
On  the  botany  of  Scotland  H.  C.  Watson's  Topographical  Botany 
(1883)  may  be  consulted. 
Deer  According  to  the  report  of  the  crofters  commission,  the  area  under 

fore^,  deer  forests  in  Scotland  is  1,975,209  acres,  or  about  one-tenth  of  the 
ganxi,  whole  area  of  the  country.  The  species  of  deer  peculiar  to  the 
&c.  Scottish  Highlands  is  the  red  deer ;  the  fallow  deer  is  not  uncommon 

1  These  figures  are  for  1870  only. 


in  the  Lowlands,  especially  in  tue  hilly  soutli-western  districts.  The 
grouse  moors  of  Scotland  occupy  a  much  more  extensive  area,  and  are 
also  much  more  widely  distributed,  while  they  supply  sport  to  a 
much  greater  number  of  persons.  Ptarmigan  and  blackcock  are 
abundant  ia  many  districts  ;  and  pheasants  and  partridges,  as  well 
as  hares,  are  carefully  preserved  on  many  estates  in  the  cultivated 
districts.  Rabbits  are  common  throughout  the  whole  country.  Fox- 
hunting is  a  fashionable  sport  in  most  of  the  Lowland  counties ;  but 
otter-hunting  has  almost  died  out.  The  bear,  wolf,  and  beaver,  at 
one  time  common  iu  Scotland,  have  become  extinct.  The  last  wolf, 
it  is  said,  was  killed  by  Sir  Ewen  Cameron  of  Lochiel  in  1680.  The 
wild  cat  is  still  to  be  found  iu  the  Highlands,  and  the  polecat,  ermine, 
and  pine  marten  exist  in  considerable  numbers.  The  golden  caglo 
and  the  white-tailed  eagle  tenant  the  wdder  mountainous  dist»icts, 
but  other  larger  birds  of  prey,  as  the  osprey  and  the  kite,  are 
becoming  scarce.  In  all  there  are  more  than  300  species  of  birds 
in  Scotland,  including  a  great  variety  of  w^t^er-fowl  in  tho  sea 
and'iidand  lochs. 

Fisheries. — Details  regarding  the  Scottish  fisheries  will  be  found  Fiaherie* 
under  Fj-sheries  (vol.  ix.  pp.  257-262).  The  former  Board  of  White 
Herring  Fishery  was  abolished  in  1SS2  and  the  Fishery  Board  of 
Scotland  established,  ivhich  has  devoted  more  systematic  attention 
to  the  collection  of  statistics  and  the  general  encouragement  of  the 
industry.  In  1856  the  lierring  and  deep-sea  fisheries  engaged  onl} 
about  30,000  persou.«  »«  Scotland, "but  in  1884  they  employed  directl; 
or  indirectly  103,804  persons,  while  the  total  estimated  produce 
in  1884  was  valued  at  ^£3, 351, 848, — the  value  of  cured  fish  being 
£2,279,614  (herrings,  £2,121,346;  cod,  ling,  and  hake  dried, 
£149,407;  ditto  pickled,  £8861);  of  white  fish  sold  fresh,  £716,295 
(haddocks,  £300,712  ;  herrings,  £150,720;  cod,  ling,  and  hake, 
£97,443  ;  torsk  and  saithe,  £10,481  ;  whitings,  £32,808  ;  sprats, 
£5232 ;  mackerel,  £5286  ;  turbot,  £9368  ;  holibut,  £17,624 ; 
flounde.s,  £47,723  ;  skate,  £14,171  ;  soles  and  other  flat  fish. 
£24,727);  of  sheU-fish,  £80,939;  and  of  salmon,  £275,000. 

Mining  Industries. — The  chief  sources  of  the  mineral  wealth  ofCoaL 
Scotland  are  coal  and  iron,  which  are  generally  found  in  convenient 
juxtaposition.  The  principal  coal-fields  are  described  under  Coal 
(vol.  vi  p.  52  sq.).  The  privilege  of  digging  coal  in  the  lands  of 
Pittencrieflf  was  conferred  by  charter  on  the  abbot  and  convent 
of  Dunfermline  in  1291,  and  at  a  very  early  period  the  monks  of 
Newbattle  Abbey  dug  coal  from  surface-pits  on  the  banks  of  the 
Esk,  .^neas  Sylvius  (afterward^  Pope  Pius  II.),  who  visited 
Scotland  in  the  15th  century,  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  poor 
people  received  at  the  church  doors  a  species  of  stone  which  they 
burned  in  place  of  wopd  ;  but,  although  the  value  of  coal  for  smith's 
and  artificer's  work  was  early  recognized,  it  was  not  generally 
employed  for  domestic  purposes  till  about  the  close  of  the  16th 
century.  In  1606  an  Act  was  passed  binding  colliers  to  perpetual 
service  at  the  works  at  which  they  were  engaged,  and  their  full 
emancipation  did  not  take  place  till  1799.  An  Act  was  passed  in 
1843  foi  bidding  the  employment  of  children  of  tender  years  and 
of  women  iu  underground  mines.  According  to  the  census  of  1851, 
the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  connexion  with  coal-mining  was 
_36,9''3  males  and  358  females  (the  latter  employed  above  giound), 
"and  in  1881  the  numbers  were  53,340  and  401.  According  to  tho 
mineral  statistics  of  1885  there  were  69,425  persons  employed  ir 
the  coal-mines  of  Scotland, — 45,082  in  the  western  and  24,343  in 
the  eastern  district.  The  output  within  twenty  years  has  been 
more  than  doubled.  .  In  1854  it  was  7,488,000  tons,  by  1866  it  had 
increased  to  12,034,638,  and  in  1884  it  was  21,186,688. 

The  rise  of  the  iron  industry  in  Scotland  dates  from  the  establish-  IrofV 
ment  in  1760  of  the  Carron  ironworks  near  Falkirk.  The  number 
of  persons  employed  in  iron-raining  in  1851  was  7648,  and  in  iron 
manufacture  13,296;  and  by  1881  the  numbers  had  increased 
respectively  to  10,473  and  38,309.  The  total  output  of  iron  ore 
and  ironstone  in  Scotland  in  1884  was  1,885,376  tons,  valued  at 
£854,416,  less  than  the  estimated  amount  in  1858,  which  was 
2,312,000  tons,  valued  at  £750,000.  There  has  been  no  increase  in 
the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  since  about  1866.  The  imports  of  iron 
ore  were  356,380  tons  in  ]883,'»valued  at  £359,918,  and  in  1S84 
4p6,007  tons,  valued  at  £356,451.  The  production  of  pig-iron 
increased  with  great  rapidity  after  the  intt-oduction  of  railways. 
In  1796  the  quantity  produced  was  18,640  tons,  and  in  1830  only 
37,500  ;  in  1840  it  had  risen  to  241,000,  in  1845  to  475,000,  in  1865 
to  1,164,000  ;  but  in  1884  it  was  only  988,000,  the  industry  being 
confined  to  Ayrshire,  Fifeshire,  and  Lanarkshire.  The  iron-mills 
and  forges  in  operation  are  confined  to  the  last  county,  there  being 
in  1884  22  works,  334  puddling  furnaces,  and  82  rolling  mills.  In 
1884  there  were  63  open-hearth  steelworks  in  operation,  of  which 
46  were  in  Glasgow,  10  in  Holytown,  4  in  Motherwell,  and  3  iu 
Wishaw,  the  quantity  made  in  1884  being  208,650  tons. 

Since  about  the  years  1850-55  shale-mining  has  become  an  inj-  Other 
portant  industry,  especially  in   Linlithgowshire  and  Midlothian,  miniuff 
the  total  quantity  raised  in  Scotland  in  1884  being  1,469,649  tons,  indus- 
valued  at  £370,024.     Lead  ore  is  worked  at  Abington  in  Lanark-  tries, 
shiro  and  Wanlockhead  in  Dumfriesshire  ;  the  dressed  lead  ore 
obtained  amounts  to  4327  tons,  valued  at  £34,997,  and  yielding 


STATI8KCS.] 


SCOTLAND 


533 


3219  tons  of  lead  and  20,011  ounces  of  silver.  The  amount  of  fire- 
clay dug  in  1884  was  463,294  Ions,  valued  at  £56,237.  Stone  quarry- 
ing, especially  of  granite,  sandstone,  flagstone,  slate,  and  limestone, 
is  extensively  carried  on,  but  the  returns  of  the  several  amounts 
raised  annually  are  incomplete.  The  nuhiber  of  persons  engaged 
in  quarries  in  1881  was  13,742,  and  the  value  of  the  materials  raised 
in  1884  was  estimated  at  £1,030,650.  The  principal  granite  works 
occur^m  Abordeeushire  and  Kirkcudbrightshire,  while   freestone 

Quarries  are  common  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Lowland 
istrict,  although  whinstone  also  is  frequently  used  for  building 
purposes.  Large  quantities  of  paving  stones  are  exported  from 
Caithness  and  Forfarshire,  and  there  are  very  extensive  slate-quarries 
at  Ballachulish  and  other  places  in  Argyllshire. 
W<tolUu  Manufactures. — Although  a  company  of  woollen  weavers  was 
cfotti.  incorporated  by  the  town  council  of  Edinburgh  in  1475,  the  cloth 
worn  by  the  wealthier  classes  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  was  of  English  or  French  manufacture,  the  lower  classes 
wearing  "  coarse  cloth  made  at  home,"  in  the  fashion  still  prevailing 
in  the  remoter  districts  of  the  Highlands.  In  1601  seven  Flemings 
were  brought  to  Edinburgh  by  commissioners  from  the  burghs  to 
instruct  the  people  in  the  manufacture  of  serges  and  broadcloth,  and 
eight  years  later  a  company  of  Flemings  was  established  in  the 
Canongate  (Edinburgh)  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth  under  the 
special  protection  of  the  king  ;  but,  notwithstanding  also  the 
establishment  in  1631  of  an  English  company  for  the  manufacture 
of  woollen  fabrics  near  Haddington,  the  industry  for  more  than 
fifty  years  after  this  made  very  tardy  progress  ia  the  country.  In 
fact  its  importance  dates  from  the  introduction  and  improvement 
of  machinery  in  the  l&th  century.  The  most  important  branch  of 
the  trade,  that  of  tweeds,  first  began  to  attract  attention  shortly 
after  1830  ;  though  still  having  its  principal  seat  in  the  district 
from  which  it  takes  its  name,  including  Galashiels,  Hawick,  In- 
nerleithen, and  Selkirk,  it  extends,  to  a  large  number  of  towns 
througliout  Scotland,  especially  to  Aberdeen,  Elgin,  Inverness, 
Stirling,  Bannockburn,  and  Paisley.  The  chief  seat  of  the  hosiery 
trade  is  Hawick.  Carpet  mamifacture  has  had  its  principal  seat 
in_  Kilmarnock  since  1817,  but  is  also  carried  on  in  Aberdeen,  Ayr, 
Bannockburn,  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  other  towns.  Tartans  are 
largely  manufactured  in  Tillicoultry,  Bannockburn,  and  Kilmarnock, 
and  shawls  and  plaids  are  largely  manufactured  in  several  towns. 
In  1850  there  were  ia  Scotland  188  woollen  and  worsted  factories, 
■with  233,533  spindles  and  247  power-looms,  employing  10,210 
persons.  Twenty-eight  years  later  (1878)  the  total  number  of 
factories  was  246,  in  which  there  were  559,021  spinning  spindles, 
62,013  doubling  spindles,  and  6284  power-looms,  tlie  number  of 
persons  employed  being  22.667,  of  whom  10,083  were  males  and 
12,584  females.  _ 
Linen  The  manufacture  of  cloth  from  flax  is  of  very"  ancient  date  in 

Asd  yAb.  Scotland,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century  Scottish  Iqien 
clotlu  were  largely  exported  to  foreign  countries,  besides  having  an 
extensive  sale  in  England.  Regulations  in  regard  to  the  manufacture 
were  passed  in  1641  and  1661.  In  a  petition  presented  to  the  privy 
council  in  1684,  complaining  of  the  severe  treatment  of  Scotsmen 
selling  linen  in  England,  it  was  stated  that  12,000  persons  were 
engaged  in  the  manufacture.  Through  the  intercession  of  the 
secretaiT  of  state  with  the -king  these  restrictions  were  removed. 
To  further  encourage  the  trade  it  was  enacted  in  1686  that  the 
bodies  of  all  persons,  with  the  exception  of  poor  tenants  and  cotters, 
should  be  buried  in  plain  linen  only,  spun  and  made  within  the 
kingdom.  The  Act  was  repeated  in  1693  and  1695,  and  in  the 
former  year  another  Act  was  passed  prohibiting  the  export  of  lint 
and  permitting  its  import  free  of  duty.  At  the. time  of  the  Union 
the  annual  amount  of  linen  cloth  manufactured  in  Scotland  is 
supposed  to  have  been  about  1,500,000  yards.  The  Union  gave 
a  considerable  impetus  to  the  manufacture,  as  did  also  the 
establishment  of  the  Board  of  Manufactures  in  1727,  which  applied 
an  annual  sum  of  £2650  to  its  encouragement,  and  in  1729 
established  a  colony  of  French  Protestants  in  Edinburgh,  on  the 
«ite  of  the  present  Picardy  Place,  to  teach  the  spinning  and  weaving 
.of  cambric.  From  1st  November  1727  to  1st  November  1728  the 
amount  of  linen  cloth  s"tamped  in  Scotland  was  2,183,978  yards, 
■valued  at  £103,312,  but  by  the  year  endingylst  November  1771  it 
'had  increased  to  13,672,648  yards,  valued  at  £632,389,  during  the 
year  ending  1st  November  1798  to  21,297,059,  valued  at  £850,405, 
and  by  the  year  ending  1st  November  1822,  when  the  regulations 
OS  to  the  inspection  and  stamping  of  linen  ceased,  to  36,268,530 
yards,  valued  at  £1,396,296.  The  counties  in  which  the  manufacture 
IS  now  most  largely  carried  on  are  Forfar,  Perth,  Fife,  Kinross, 
and  Clackmannan,  but  Aberdeen,  Renfrew,  Lanark,  Edinburgh, 
and  Ayrare  also  in  a  considerable  degree  3.isociatcd  .with  it. 
Dundee  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  coarse  fabrics,  Dunfermline 
of  the  table  and  other  finer  linens,  while  Paisley  is  widely  known 
lor  its  sewing  threads.  The  allied  industry  of  jute  is  the  staple" 
industry  of  Dundee.  The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the 
flax-factoriea  of  Scotland  in  1837  was  16,462.  The  following  table 
C^VI.)  gives  particulars,  of  these  factories  for  the  years  1856,  1867, 
f.."l  1878  :— 


Tears.  - 

Factories. 

Spindles. 

Power. 
Looms. 

Persona 
employed. 

Spinning.   |   Doubling. 

1S:.6 

1807 

1878 

ICS 
197 

278,304 

487,579 

203,203             IS,  405    . 

4,011 
19,917 
16,756 

SI,72S 
77,195 
S6,4"(; 

Principally  owing  to  foreign  competition,   the  linen  manufacture 
has  within  recent  years  been  in  a  very  languid  condition 

The  first  cotton-mill  in  Scotland  was  built  at  Rothesay  by  an  O,tton. 
English  Company  in  1778.  It  was  soon  afterwards  acquired  by 
David  Dale,  who  was  the  agent  in  Scotland  for  Arkwnght,  and 
had  the  invaluable  aid  of  his  counsel  and  advice.  Dale  aGo  estab- 
lished cotton-factories  in  1785  at  New  Lanark,  afterwards  so  closely 
associated  with  the  socialistic  schemes  of  his  son-in-law,  Robert 
Owen,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  industry  in  thd  two 
counties,  Lanark  and  Renfrew,  which  are  now  its  principal  seats 
in  Scotland.  Nine-tenths  of  the  cotton -factories  of  Scotland  are 
now  concentrated  in  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  the  neighbouring  towns, 
but  the  industry  extends  into  other  districts  of  the  west  of  Scotland 
and  is  also  represented  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Perth,  and 
Stirling.  The  following  table  (XVII.)  gives  particulars  for  1850/ 
1861,  1875,  and  1885 


i 

Tears. 

Factories. 

.  Spindles. 

Power 
Looms. 

Persons 
employ—. 

168 
103 
96 
147 

1,683,093 
1,915,398 
1,711,214 
1,149,514 

23,564 
80,110 
29,171 
29,684 

34,325 
41,237 
36,652 
37,16? 

IStil 

1875 

1885  .". 

For  further  particulars  regarding  the  manufacture  in  Scotland,  see 
Cotton,  vol.  vL  pp.  501-503. 

Silk  is  manufactured  in  Paisley  and  Glasgow,  but  the  industry  £ilk,  ^'3. 
is  of  minor  importance,  employing  only  about  600  persons.     Floor- 
cloth is  manul'acturcd  at  Kirkcaldy,  where  also  the  first  linoleum 
factory  in  Scotland  was  established  in  1877. 

Next  to  textile  fabrics,  the  most  important  manufacture  in  Whifky, 
Scotland  is  that  of  whisky,  in  which  it  has  Ireland  for  its 
only  competitor.  Distillation  was  introduced  into  Scotland  from 
England,  but  by  177J  large  quantities  of  spirits  were  sent  to 
England  from  Scotland.  The  legal  manufacture  of  whisky  was 
greatly  checked  in  the  19th  century  by  occasional  excessive  ad- 
vances in  the  rates  of  duty,  but  after  the  reduction  to  2s.  4^d.  per 
gallon  in  1823  the  number  ol  licensed  distillers  rapidly  increased, 
while  illegal  distillation  became  much  less  common.  The  following 
table  (XVIII.)  shows  the  number  of  gallons  made  in  various  years 
since  1824  :— 


Tear. 

Gallons, 

Tear. 

Gallons, 

Tear. 

Gallons. 

1824 
1840 

5,108,373 
9,032,353 

1855    . 
1805 

11,283,630 
13,445,752 

1678 

1884 

■  17,670,400 
20,164,962 

Ale  was  a  common  beverage  in  Scotland  as  early  aa  the  12th  Beer. 
century,  there  being  one  or  more  brew-houses  attached  to  every 
religious  house  and  barony.  So  important  was  the  use  of  the  bever- 
age even  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  that  a  threatened 
imposition  of  a  tax  on  malt  in  1725  led  to  serious  riots  in  Glasgow 
and  a  proposal  to  repeal  the  Union.  Though  ale  has  been  super- 
seded by  whisky  as  the  national  beverage,  Scotland  still  possesses 
several  largo  breweries,  and  Edinburgh  ales  vie  in  repute  with  those 
of  Burton -on-Trent.  The  number  of  barrels  charged  with  duty  in 
Scotland  in  1896  was  1,237,323,  the  number  in  England  being 
24,519,173. 

The   first  sugar-refinery  in   ocotland   was   erected  in   1765   in  Mir-  I- 
Greenock,  where  the  industry  made  rapid  progress  and  has  still  lanei,  j 
its  principal  seat,  although  it  is  extensively  carried  on  in  Leith  ind:is- 
and  in  a  lesser  degree  in   Glasgow  and  Dundee.     Glass-making,  trice, 
introduced  in  1610  by  Sir  John  Hay  at  Wemyss  in  Fif*,  is  now  of 
considerable  importance,  Edinburgh  being  celebrated  for  the  finer 
br.inches  of  the  manufacture.      A  paper-null  was  erected  in  1675  at 
Dairy  Mills  on  the  "Water  of  Leith,  in  which  French  workmen  were 
employed  to  give  instruction,  with  the  result,  aa  was  rf^i^rted  by  the 
owners,  that  '*grey  and  blue  paper  was  produced  much  finer  thaa 
ever  was  done  before  in  the  kin»aom."    The  most  important  seat  of 
the  industry  is  now  Vallevfieltf  near  Penicuik,  where  it  was  intro- 
duced in  1709.     Eflinburgh  has  since  the  time  of  the  Ballantyncs 
enjoyed  a  widely -ex  tended  fame  for  the  excellence  and  beauty  of  ita 
printing.     The  other  manufactures  prevailing  in  different  parts  of 
Scotland,  such  as  those  of  leather,  soap,  earthenware  and  hardware, 
carriages,  and  the  various  iinplemcnta  and  utensils  ia  general  use, 
do  not  call  for  special  characterization. 

Commerce  and  S?iipjnng.— That  Scotland  had  a  considoraole  trade  Shif  ^  lag. 
with  foreign  countries  at  a  very  early  pnriod  may  bo  inferred  from 
the  importation  of  rich  drenses  by  Malcolm  III.  and  the  enjoy- 
ment of  Oriental  luxuriea  by  Alexander  I.  David  I.  receives  the 
special  praise  of  Fordun  for  enriching  "the  ports  of  hia  kingdom 
with  foreign  mcrchandiae. "     In  the  13th  ccntuT  the  Scots  had 


SCOTLAND 


[ST^. .  ISTICS. 


acquired  a  considerable  celebrity  in  shipbuilding  ;  and  a  powerful 
French  baron  had  a  ship  siiccially  built  at  InvfirK'ss  in  1249  to 
convey  him  and  his  vassals  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  principal  ship- 
owners p'-  this  period  were  tlie  (-lergy,  wlio  embarked  the  wealth  of 
their  reli^wus  houses  in  commercial  enterprises.  Deiinite  state- 
ments regarding  tlie  number  and  tonnage  of  shipping  are,  however, 
lackin"  till  the  18th  century.  From  tWo  reports  printed  by  the 
Scottisli  Bnrgh  Record  Society  in  1881,  it  appears  that  the  number 
of  vessels  belonging  to.  the  iirincipal  ports — Leith,  Dundee,  Glasgow, 
Kirkcaldy,  and  Montrose — in  1666  vas  53,  the  tonnage  being  3140, 
and  that  by  1692  they  had  increased  to  97  of  5905  tons.  These 
figures  only  represent  a  portion  of  the  total  shipping  of  the  king- 
lom.  At  the  time  of  the  Union  in  1707  the  number  of  vessels 
(.as  215  of  14,485  tons.  The  following  table  (XIX.)  gives  the 
numbers  for  various  years, from  1850  : — 


ISSO. 

isr.o. 

1S70. 

■ISSJ          1 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

No. 

Tons. 

Sailing  vessels 
8tcam  vessels 

Tot2l    .... 

3433 
100 

491,305 
30,327 

3172 
314 

552,212 
71,679 

2715 
582 

3297 

T.    1. 

2065 
1403 

827,295 
806,780 

1,694,075 

3601 

522,222 

3486 

623,791 

93;  ,0^4 

3408 

Table  XX.  shows  tho  progress  of  the  coasting  and  foreign  tride 
since  1855: — 


Year. 

Coasting. 

Colonial  and  Foreign. 

Total.                1 

Entered. 

Cleared. 

Entered. 

Cleared. 

.':ntcred. 

Cleared. 

1855 
1380 
1884 

1,963,552 
0,628,853 
■7,107,230 

2,057,936 
6,091,136 
6,098,938 

608,078 
2,700,915 
3,073,501 

840,150 
3,001,897 
3,638,423 

8,631,630 
.  9,329,703 
10,240,791 

2,898,080 
8,093,033 
9,737,361 

-om-  Table  XXI.  shows  the  great  expadsion  of  the  foreign  and  colonial 

'owec.      trade  since  1765: — ' 


Tear. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

£535,576 
l,-235,405 
976,791 
2,340,009 
6,997,709 

Tear. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1755 
1780 
1795 
1800 
1815 

£464,411 
■    1,088,337 
1,208,520 
2,212,790 
3,447,853 

1825 
1851 
1874 
ISSO 
1SS4 

£4,994,304 
8,921,108 
81,012  750 
34,997,052 
30,600,258 

£5,842,296 
6,016,110 
17,912,932 
18,243,078 
20,322355 

(rail.: 


•The  value  of  the  imports  into  Scotland  is  only  about  a  tenth  of 
that  of  England,  but  this  does  not  tepresent  the  proper  proportion 
of  foreign  imports  used. or  consumed  in  Scotland,  as  large  quantities 
finii  their  way  to  Scotland  from  England  by  rail, — nearly  all  tho 
tea,  for  example,  consumed  in  Great  Britain  being  imported  into 
London,  while  various  other  ports  have  almost  a  monopoly  of 
certain  other  imports.  Reckoning  by  the  combined  value  of  their 
imports  and  exports,  tho  principal  ports  of  Scotland  are  Glasgow, 
Leith,  Greenock,  Dundee,  Grangemouth,  and  Aberdeen,  in  the  order 
named,  but  for  particulars  regarding  the  trade  of  these  and  other 
ports  reference  must  be  made  to  the  articles  on  the  several  towns. 
For  many  of  the  most  important  improvements  in  the  construc- 
.  tion  of  ships,  especially  stepm  vessels.  Great  Britain  is  indebted  to 
tne  enterprise  and  skill  of  the  Clyde  shipbuilders.  From  the  time 
of  the  construction  by  Mr  Robert  ITapier  of  tho  steamers  for  the 
Cunard  line,  formed  in  1840,  the  shipbuilders  on  tho  Clyde  have 
enjoyed  an  unrivalled  reputation  for  the  construction  of  large  ocean 
steamers,  both  as  regards  mechanical  appliances  and  the  beauty 
and  convenience  of  the  internal  arrangements.  Shipbuilding  is 
also  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  at  Dundee,  Leith,  and 
Aberdeen,  and  to  a  certain  degree  at  most,  of  the  ports  of  the  king- 


dom, but  within  recent  years  the  industry  has  been  in  a  very 
iluctuating  condition,  the  tonnage  of  tiie  vessels  constructed'arnu- 
ally  varying  between  1880  and  1885  from  a  littlo  over  100,000  to 
nearly  300,000. 

NMonul  WcaWi. — The  immense  increase  in  the  wealth  ofN.'.ticnei 
Scotland  within  the  last  200  years  is  sufficiently  proved  by  tho  fact  wealth, 
tliat,  while  in  1674  tho  valued  rent  was  only  £3,650,408  Scots  or 
£304,700  sterling,  the  gross  annual  value  of  the  land  according  tl 
the  estimate  in  the  return  of  1873  was  £18,698,804,  or  more  than 
sixty  times  as  much,  and  about  tifteen  times  as  great  as  tho 
proportional  increase  of  population.  This  increase  is  of  course 
j)artly  due  to  agricultural  improvements  and  partly  to  the  discovery 
and  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  in  coal  and  iron,  but  it  may 
also  bo  accounted  for  by  the  smaller  representative  value  of  ni'-,.  _,, 
and  by  the  fictitious  increase  in  rents  in  towns,  which  docs  not 
represent  an  increase  in  absolute  value.  The  annual  value  of  real 
property  assessed  for  income-tax  under  sciicdule  A  in  1843  was 
£9,481,000  ;  the  average  value  for  the  three  years  ending  5th  April 
1883  was  £16,995,718,  and  for  the  year  ending  5th  April  1884  tha 
value  was  £17,066,705.  For  the  year  ending  5th  April  1857  the 
amount  of  property  and  income  charged  with  duty  was  £22,663,238  ; 
and  during  the  following  twenty-five  years  it  was  more  than  doubled, 
the  average  amount  for  the  three  years  ending  5th  April  1883  being 
£48,069,765,  and  for  the  year  ending  5th  April  1884  £49,600,348. 
This  is  less  than  a  tenth  of  that  for  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
total  amount  of  money  lying  in  deposit  in  savings  banks  in  1884 
was  £7,709,471,— about  a  seventh  part  of  the  whole  amount 
deposited  in  the  savings  banks  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Notice  of 
the  rise  and  progress  of  banking  in  Scotland  will  be  louna  unaer 
B.\NKiNO  (voh  iii.  pp.  332-336).  The  total  paid-up  capital  of  the 
Scottish  banks  at  tlie  dates  of  balance  in  1885  was  £9,052,000  and 
their  total  liabilities  £107,882,595. 

Education. — Notices  of  the  existence  of  schools  in  the  principal  ElemeQ^ 
towns  occur  as  early  as  the  13th  century.  They  were  under  the  ary 
supervision  of  the  chancellor  of  each  diocese  and  were  chiefly  scl.oole. 
devoted  to  studies  preparatory  for  the  church.  Previous  to  the 
Reformation  schools  foi-  general  education  were  attached  to  many 
religious  houses.  In  the  First  Book  of  Discipline^  1560,  a  com- 
prehensive scheme  of  general  education  was  propounded,  but  neither 
this  proposal  nor  an  Act  passed  in  1616  by  the  privy  council  for  tb.- 
establishment  of  a  school  in  every  parish  was  carried  into  elfect ; 
and  the  system  of  parochial  schools  which  prevailed  till  the  passing 
of  the  Education  Act  of  1872  really  dates  from  the  Act  of  William 
and  Mary  in  1696.  providing  for  the  mainteriance  of  a  school  in 
every  parish  at  the  cost  of  tho  heritors.  Tne  various  religious 
secessions"  in  Scotland  led  to  the  founding  of  a  large  number  of 
denomination^^l  and  subscription  schools,  and  at  the  Disru])ti(.n  in 
1843  the  Free  Church  made  provision  for  the  supply  of  se;ular 
education  as  well  as  religious  instruction  *to  its  adherents.  !rhe 
Education  Act  of  1872  abolished  the  old  management  of  the  parish 
schools,  and  provided  for  the  creation  of  districts  under  the  manage, 
ment  of  school  boards  elected  for  three  years  by  the  ratepayers, 
male  and  female.  These  boards  have  the  power  to  levy  rates  for 
the  maintenance  and  erection  of  schools  for  primary  instruction, 
elect  the  teachers,  and  enforce  the  clause  in  regard  to  compulsory 
attendance.  The  maintenance  of  schools  is  also  aided  by  a  Govern- 
ment grant,  and  the  salary  of  the  teacher  is  paid  partly  by  school 
fees  and  partly  by  a  grant  dependent  ujion  the  result  of  the  examina- 
tion of  the  scholars  by  the  Government  inspector,  the  school  board 
having  the  power,  however,  to  make  their  own  terms  with  tho 
teacher.  Denominational  schools  are  permitted  to  receive  a  Govern- 
ment grant.  The  following  table  (XXII.)  shows  the  proportion 
of  persons  in  the  receipt  of  education  in  Scotland  in  1861,  1871, 
and  1881  :— 


Tear. 


1861 
1871 
1881 


Population  at  different  Ages. 


0-5  years.  5-15  years.  15  and  above.       Total, 


417,259 
455,620 
510,591  ■ 


685,912 
776,871 
855,015 


1,959,123 
2,127,527 
2,369,967 


3,052,294 
3,360.018 
3,735,573 


Persons  jn  Receipt  of  Education. 


0-5  years..  5-15  years.  15  and  above.       Total, 


8,666 
10,025 
14,152 


439,388 
641,095 
675,314 


19,002 
22,101 
30,633 


407,056 
674.121 
720,099 


Percentages  to  the  Population  at  each  Age. 


0-5  years.  5-15  years.  15  and  above.      Total. 


2  08 
2-19 
2-77 


64  05 
69-77 


0-96 
104 
1-29 


1525 
17  09 
19-28 


Partiailars  in  reg.ard  to  schools  under  school  board  management 
are  given  in  tha  following  table  (XXIII.) : — 


1 

n  3 

E-S. 

0  ^ 

II 

|3 

School 
Places. 

a   . 

Expendi- 
ture per 

Scholar  on 
Average 

Attendance. 

Scholars 
Examined 
in  Higher 

Subjects. 

■3 

II 

1875 

1884 

£551,140 
933,223 

314,104 
458,121 

391,538 
655.072 

2730 
3131 

£1  15     91 
2     1     5J 

12,953 
61,429 

3811 
6220 

129 
1012 

4202 
36-.9 

All  the  draining  colleges  for  teachers  in  board  schools  are  connected 
.with  religious  denoininations — three  with  the  Established  Church, 
three  with  the  Free  Church,  and  one  with  the  Episcopal  Church. 

As  early  as  the  14th  century  some  of  the  burghs  had  grammar- 
schools  .partly  under  the  control  of  the  magistrates.     In  1496  an 


Act  was  pa'5std  ?njoining  the  attendance  at  the  schools  of  the  eldest 
sons  of  barons  and  freeholders  until  "they  fce  founded  .'n  perfect 
Latin,  and  thereafter  to  remain  at  the  schools  of  arts  and  law  " 
(where  ecclesiastics  were  trained).  The  grammar  or  '/;..gh  schools 
enjoyed  a  monopoly  jtf  teaching  certain  branches,  and  private 
schools  were  frerjucntly  prohibited  as  interfering  with  their  rights. 
Cfram  mar -schools  were  chiefly  devoted  to  instruction  in  Latin,  and 
the  course  usually  extended  to  five  years.  According  to  the  report 
of  the  edu-:ation  commissioners,  the  number  of  burgh  schools  in 
1867  was  twenty-six.  By  tlva  'Act  of  1872  their  management  was 
transferred  to  the  school  board,  but  they  were  excluded  from  paiti- 
cipation,  in  the  school  fund,  and  no  provision  was  made  for  tlulr 
inspection.  The  Act  of  1878  authorized  certain  grants  of  moue;;;, 
and  contained  certain  provisions  for  inspection,  which,  hovev^, 
have  been  practically  inoperative.  The  Educational  Endowiinnt? 
Act  of  1882  provides  for  a  more  comprehensive  scheme  foi   i\\i 


STATISTICS.] 


SCOTLAND 


535 


prombfcion  of  secondary  education,  and  also  for  a  scheme  of 
systematic  inspection.  These  educational  endowments — the  xesult 
of  private  bequest — yield  an  annual  income  of  £175,000,  and,  on 
account  of  the  changed  conditions  of  society,  the  pvimcry  objects 
of  the  donors  were  in  a  great  degree  frustrated  by  the  manner  in 
which  they  *ere  being  administered.  Some  of  the  best  secondary 
schoob  in  Scotland  are  under  the  management  of  trustees.  For 
the  four  universities  of  Scotland  (St  Andiews,  Aberdeen,  Glacgow, 
and  Edinburgh)  cce  the  articles  on  these  cities,  also  U::ive:'.;ities. 
University  College  in  Dundee  and  Anderson's  College  in  Glasjo-.v 
have  similar  courses  of  iiistructica  to  the  univercitiec,  but  pc:3:c- 
no  power  to  grant  degrees  c.ad'  receive  no  Government  aid.  Ji. 
notice  of  the  various  inedical  schools  a'.;d  ::lentific  colleges  will  bo 
found  in  the  articles  on  the  towns  in  which  they  are  sltualci 
Piesby  Beligion. — For  an  historical  account  of  the  more  important 
terian  religious  denominations  of  Sccthnd  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
cbun-hea.  articles  Scotland,  Chup.ck  o?,  "i:aEE  Ceitech  of  Scotla>-d, 
United  Puesbytep.ian  Cbup.ch,  and  PEESBYTEr.:A::i:M.  The 
bulk  of  the  population  is  Presbyterian,  and  the  foHov.ing  table 
(XXIV.)  gives  particulars  reported  in  1885  regarding  the  Church  cf 
Scotland  and  other  churches  originated  by  secessions  from  it  at 
various  times, — the  "contributions"  indicating  the  amounts  raised 
by  the  churches  for  all  purposes,  and  of  course  excluding  tho 
en  Jowmenta  of  the  Establichcd  Church  : — 


Cliurca  of 
Bcot'-nd. 

Frc; 
Ciurch. 

U.P. 
Church. 

Evann. 
Union. 

Original 
decoders. 

Kcfomiec] 
Presby. 

Con^reEatlona . . 

Members  

Contributions  . . 

1,479 

E65,201 

£366,431 

1.C07 

323,541 

«e2(j,0CC 

S43 

ir7,:!7 

«57,oJ5 

67 

13,510 

£21,700 

27 

Sits 

£5000 

12 

1037 

£25^2 

deno* 

mill  a - 
tjcos. 


Paiifia.  , 

meatary 

seuta- 


Uv. 


The  Roman  Catholic  Cliur^h  has  C27  "  churches,  chapels,  and 
stations," — the  estimated  population  conncctsd  vrith  it  being  over 
340,000.  The  EpiscopL.  Church  in  Scotland  has  abou-  250  churches 
with  SO.OOO  members  (of  all  ages)  and  nearly  30^000  crmmuni- 
cants.  The  churches  in  connexion  Trith  the  Con^cgationil  Union 
number  101,  73  of  which  rep  ^rt  a  membership  of  10,£C9,  the  money 
raised  lor  all  purposes  in  1834-85  being  £23,027.  The  Bipti-t 
Union  has  88  churches  with  £388  memoers ;  and  the  Wcsleyan 
Methodists  haVe  ?6  "circuits"  rrdh.  4o53.  There  are  a  few  other 
relidoaa  denorain-tions,  such  as  the  Primitive  Methodists,  the 
Catnol'c  Apostol'c  Cnurch,  and  the  Glassites,  but  the  member- 
ship of  each"  ia  comparatively  small. 

GovemineTxii  Lew,  c^  Local  Administration. — By  the  Act  of 
Union  in  1707  Scotland  ceased  t.;  have  a  separate  parliament  and 
its  government  was  a-:;imilrited  to  that  of  England.  In  the 
parliament  of  Great  Britain  its  representation  was  fixed  at  sixteen 
peers  (the  same  number  aa  at  present)  elected  by  the  peers  of 
Scotland  at  each  new  parliament,  in  the  House  of  L^rds,  and  at 
forty-f.ve  members  in  the  House  of  Commons, — the  counties 
retaining  thirty  and  the  burghs  fifteen.  The  power  of  the  sove- 
reign to  create  nev!  Scottish  peerages  lapsed  at  the  Union,  and  their 
number  has  already  diminished  by  nearly  one-half.  By  the  Reform 
Act  of  1832  the  number  cf  Scottish  representatives  in  the  Commons 
was  raided  to  fifty-thre;,  the  counties  under  a  slightly  altered 
arrangement  returning  thirty  members  aa  before,  and  the  burghs, 
reinforced  by  the  erection  of  various  towns  into  prrliamentary 
burghs,  twenty-three;  tii3  second  Reform  Act  (1£68)  increased 
the  number  to  sixty,  the  universities  obtaining  representation  by 
two  members,  while  thres  additional  members  were  assigned  to  the 
counties  and  two  to  the  burghs  ;  by  the  Redistribution  of  Scats  Act 
of  1885  an  addition  of  six  members  was  made  to  tho  representation 
of  the  counties  and  six  to  that  of  the  burghs,  the  tclal  representation 
bein;;  raised  to  seventy-two.  The  management  of  Scottish  business 
in  parliament  has  since  1885  been  under  the  charge  of  the  secretary 
for  Scotland. 

At  the  Uiiion  Scotland  retained  its  old  system  of  law  and  legal 
adminiiiLration,  a  system  modelled  on  that  of  France  ;  but  since  the 
Union  the  laws  of  England  and  Scotland  have  been  on  many 
points  assimilated,  the  criminal  law  of  the  two  countries  being 
now  practically  identical,  although  the  methods  of  procedure  are 
in  many  respects  different.  The  Court  of  Scs.sion,  as  the  supreme 
court  in  civil  causes  is  called,  dates  from  1532,  and  was  formed 
on  the  model  of  the  parlement  of  Paris  ;  it  is  held  at  Edinburgh, 
the  capitaL  Since  the  Union  it  has  undergone  certain  modifica- 
tions. It  consists  of  thirteen  judges,  acting  in  an  Inner  and 
an  Outer  House.  The  Inner- Housa  has  two  divteions,  with  four 
judges  each,  the  first  being  presided  over  by  the  lord  president 
of  tho  whole  court,  and  the  second  by  the  lord  justice  clerk.  In 
the  Outer  House  five  judges,  called  lords  ordinary,  sit  in  separate 
coufts.  Appeals  may  be  made  from  the  Iprds  ordinary  to  either 
of  the  divisions  of  the  Inner  House,  and,  if  the  occasion  demands, 
tlie  opinion  of  all  the  judges  of  the  Court  of- Session  may  be 
called  for  ;  but  whether  this  be  done  or  not  the  deci.sioa  is  re- 
garded as  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Session.  Appeals  may  be 
made  from  the  Court  of  Session  to  the  House  of  Loras.  Tho  lord 
Justice  general  (lord  president),  the  lord  justice  clerk,  and  five  other 


judges  form  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary,  instituted  in  1672,  fof 
criminal  cases,  which  sits  at  Ediubur^^j  far  the  trial  of  cases  from 
the  thres  Lothlans  and  of  cases  referred  from  the  circuit  courts. 
TI:c  latter  meet  -for  the  south  at  Jedburgh.  Dumfries,  and  Ayr ; 
for  tho  west  at  Glasgov:,  Invei-aray,-and  Stirling;  and  for  the  north 
at  Perth,  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and  Invernees.  The  law  c^ciits  who 
undertake  cases  to  be  decided  before  tho  supreme  courts  are  either 
solicitors  before  the  supremo  courts  or  v.riters  to  the  signet,  tho 
latter  cf  whom  possess  certain  special  privileges.  The  lavryof 
authorized  to  plead  before  the  supreme  courts  is  termed  an  ad- 
vocate. The  principal  law  cfnccr  cf  th*'  crown  is  the  loid  cdvccate^ 
who  is  assictcd  by  the  soiicitcr-^:r.craI  and  by  c:dvoc:;tc3-dcputa. 
The  lord  advocate  has  since  1C25  ccas?d  to  have  the  charga  of 
Scottish  business  in  the  House  cf  C:;mmons.  See  Advocate,  vol. 
L  173.  The  subordinate  legal  comts  and  officials  are  described 
under  the  nest  heading. 

The  largest  administrative  area  is  that  of  the  county,  but  for  Local 
purposes  of  registration  Scotland  is  partitioned  into  eight  divisions,  '^j  'J'j'qjJ^ 
to  each  of  which  an  examiner  for  insvicction  of  registers  is  appointed 
by  the  registrar- {general  ;  and  for  the  carrying  cut  of  the  provisions 
of  the  Lunacy  Acts  it  is  divided  into  t".venty-tAvo  districts.  Regis- 
tration counties  data  from  the  Act  of  1854  providing  that  for  pur- 
poses of  registration  the  areas  cf  the  counties  may  be  altered.  For 
the  purposes  of  the  General  Police  Act  of  1862  part  of  the  area  of 
cue  county  may  also  be  brought  into  the  ^^rea  of  another.  Certain 
counties  have  been  united  for  parliamentary  or  other  purposes,  and 
certain  others  have  been  divided  for  parliamentary  pi'-rpoi.:^  \\-liilo 
others  again  for  certain  administrative  purposes  retain  their  old 
subdivisions,  Lanark  for  assessmenl  purpc^es  being  still  divided  into 
wards.  Tlie  civil  counties  were  originally  eynonymous  either  with 
sheriffdoms  or  ctewartries.  St:".vartries  ceased  with  the  abolition  of 
hereditary  jurisdictions  in  1748,  but  Kirkcudbright  still  retains  the 
designation.  The  office  of  sheriff,  which  fonnerly  implied  a  much 
less  limited  authority  than  at  preseut,  was  in  existence  in  the  reigu 
of  David  I.,  v.'hen  the  greater  pr.rt  of  the  kinf;;doni  was  divided  into 
twenty-five  sheriffdoms.  In  tho  latLer  part  of  the  loth  century 
they  numbered  thirty-four.  The  counties  now  number  thirty-three, 
of  which  Ross  and  Crqpiarty  constitute  one,  while  Edinburgh  is  a 
"county  of  a  city."  The  higlicst  county  dignitary  is  the  lord- 
lieutenant,  the  ofi.ce  being  instituted  in  1782.  He  b  nominated  by 
the  crown,  holds  ofrice  for  life,  except  in  cases  of  misconduct, 
represents  the  crown  in  niiiitary  matters,  recommends  for  com- 
missions of  the  peace,  holds  the  position  of  hi^h  sheriff,  and  is  a 
member  of  the  police  committee.  Prcictically,  however,  the  office 
is  little  more  than  honoraiy,  and  the  real  administration  of, county 
affairs  is  in  the  hands  of  commissioners  of  supply,  who  v.ere  originally 
appointed  to  apportica  and  collect  the  national  revenue,  but  v-ho  now 
regulate  the  land-tax,  control  the  county  police,  raise  the  militia, 
and  levy  rates  to  meet  the  county  e:;penaiture.  In  1878  an  Act 
was  passed  for  the  creation  of  road  tnistec^,  who  have  the  power  to 
levy  rates  for  the  maintenance  throughout  the  county  of  roads  and 
bridges  (see  p.  530  above).  TJie  practical  administration  cf  the  law 
in  the  county  is  under  the  control'  of  the  sheriiT.  See  Sheriff. 
A  large:  proportion  of  his  duties  are,  however,  delegated  to  the 
sheriff- substitute.  Atone  time  the  functions  of  the  sheriff- principal 
were  confined  to  one  county,  but  by  an  Act  passed  in  1855  it  v.aa 
arranged  that  as  sheriffdoms  fell  vacant  certain  counties  should  be 
grouped  into  districts,  each  under  the  control  of  one  sheriff-princi- 
pal, and  in  1S70  this  arrangement  was  further  modified  and  ex- 
tended. The  sheriu- clerk,  appointed  by  the  crown,  has,  under  the 
Ballot  Act  of  1872,  the  charge  of  ballot  papers  in  connection  with 
the  parliamentary  elections,  and  is  custcs  rotidonr.n.  The  public 
prosecutor  for  counties  is  the  procurator -fiscal,  who  takes  the 
initiative  in  regard  to  suspected  cases  of  sudden  death,  although 
in  this  respect  the  lawof  Scotland  is  less  strict  than  thetof  England 
Justices  of  the  peace,  who  are  unpaid  and  reouire  no  special  qualifi- 
cation, but  who,  as  they  arc  recommended  oy  the  lord-lieutenant, 
are  generally  persons  of  position  in  tho  county,  exercise  a  certain 
subordinate  jurisdiction.  Their  office  expires  on  the  demise  of  the 
crown.  In  every  commission  of  the  peace  certain  public  officials 
are  included.  The  justices  of  the  peace  hold  quarter  sessicna,  take 
affidavits  and  declarations  (such  as  declarations  of  marriage),  sign 
warrants,  try  petty  criminal  cases  (such  especially  as  poaching  and 
assault),  and  regulate  public-house  licences.  Under  Eoeough  (y;iL 
iv.  pp.  63-64)  will  bo  found  an  account  of  the  history  and  constitu- 
tion of  the  three  classes  of  ancient  burglis  in  Scotland,  — roval 
burghs,  burghs  of  regality,  and  burghs  of  barony.  Police  burgna, 
which  may  include  any  of  the  other  classes  of  burghs,  are  formed 
of  those  places  which  have  adopted  the  General  Police  and  Improve- 
ment  Acts  (13  and  1^.  Vict.  c.  33  and  25  and  26  A'ict.  c.  101).  They 
are  governed  by  police  commissioners,  who  have  power  to  regulate 
all  sanitary  matters.  T'aey  may  indudo  more  th2.n  one  of  the 
other  burghs  and  may  extend  into  another  county.  Under  Via 
Improvement  Act  (25  and  26  Vict.  c.  101)  faiost  of  the  burghs  with 
over  7000  inhabitants  maintain  their  own  police.  Tho  parliament- 
ary burghs  do  not  now  include  all  tho  royal  ^urghs  and  include 
various  other  towns  in  addition  to  them.     The  number  of  royai 


536 


SCOTLAND 


^cnuBcH. 


burghs  ia  seventy, .and,  as  was  to  be  expected,  while  some  since 
their  rornlation  have  enormously  increased  in  population  ami  wealth, 
others  have  so  declined  or  lyade  so  little  progress  that  they  now 
rank  only  as  villages.  In  18S1  there  were  ten  royal  burghs  which 
had  less  than  1000  inhabitants  each  and  four  which  had  less  than 
500  each,  Earlsferry  (Fitu)  having  only  -S6.  Under  the  Public 
Health  Act  of  18G7,  amended  in  1879,  the  erection  of  urban  and 
rural  sanitary  districts  was  provided  for.  The  corporation  of  the 
burghs  is  formed  of  the  provost  {or  lord  provost),  bailies,  and 
councillors.  Bailie  courts  are  held  in  the  burghs  for  the  trial  of 
minor  olTences;  The  civil  parish  or  parish  quoad  ovmin,  origin- 
ally the  ecclesiastical  parish  or  area  subject  to  one  cure  of  souls,  is 
a  division  of  the  county  -for  registration  of  births,  deaths,  and 
marriages  and  for  poor  law  administration.  The  boundaries  are 
determined  by  the  boundaries  of  the  estates  which  appear  to  lip  in 
the  parish,  but  may  be  altered  by  consent  of  proprietors  holding 
the  major  value  of  the  property  in  it.  For  all  sanitary  purposes 
the  areas  of  burghs  arc  removed  from  those  of  the  parishes,  and 


certain  civil  l)arisbe3  may  be  classed  as  burghal,  landward,  and 
mixed.  Under  Graham's'Act  (7  and  8  Vict.  c.  44)  a  parish  quoad 
sacra  may  be  erected  on  the  application  of  persons  who  have  built 
and  endowed  a  church.  For  administrative  purposes  the  oldest 
parish  organization  is  that  of  the  heritors  or  landowners,  who  are 
required  to  provide  and  maintain  a  church,  churchyard,  manse, 
and  church  glebe,  and,  before  the  passing  of  the  Education  Act  in 
1872,  had  to  maintain  the  parochial  school.  In  1579  the  power 
was  granted  them  of  assessment  for  poor  relief,  but  in  1600  the 
kirk-session  was  united  with  them  for  these  purposes.  This  omaniza- 
tion  still  exists  in  those  paiishes,  now  very  few  in  number,°which 
have  not  adopted  the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act  of  1845  ;  this  Act 
provides  for  the  constitution  of  a  parochial  board  composed  of 
nominees  of  the  kirk-session  and  a  proportion  of  persons  elocted 
by  the  ratepayers.  Under  the  Education  Act  of  1872  the  conaty 
is  divided  into  school-board  districts,  whose  area  corresponds  with 
the  civil,  or  the  qjioad  sacra,  or  landward,  or  burghal  parish  (sea 
p.  534 'above).  (T.  F.  H.' 


Index. 


Administration,      local, 

Ci\il  War,  513. 

Edgar,  481. 

James  III.,  494. 

Mary  of  Guise,  600. 

ii35. 

Climate.  527. 

Edinburgh,  treaty  of,  502. 

„      IV.,  496. 

Mary  Stuart,  499  sq.' 

Agricola,  471. 

Coast-line,  526. 

Education,  534. 

v.,  497. 

Molville,  Andrew,  506. 

A-^Ticultur.',  530. 

Cochrane,  405. 

Emigration,  529. 

„      VI.,  507  53. 

Melville,  Sir  James,  505. 

Albany,    dukes    of,    401, 

Colonization,  511,  518. 

Ei>iscop3cy,  597,  510. 

„     VII.,  517. 

Middleton,  615. 

497. 

Columba,  474,  475.     * 

Falaise,  treaty  of,  484. 

Kennedy,  bishop,. 494. 

Minerals.  532. 

Alexander  T..4S2. 

Commerce     and     trade. 

Falkirk,  487. 

Kennetli  -I.  (Macalpine), 

Monk's    administration. 

„          II.,  484. 

492,  40i3,  534. 

Fisheries,  532. 

477-478. 

514. 

„       in.,  4S5. 

Confession  of  Faith,  503. 

FlodJen,  497. 

„       n.,  479. 

Montrose,  513. 

Angus,  carls  of,  495,  408. 

Congresat^ion,   Lords  of. 

Forests,  533. 

Kentigcrn,  474. 

Moray,  regent,  505  eq. 

Angus  MacPergus,  470. 

501  3'i. 

France,    relations   with. 

Killiecrankie,  517. 

Morton,  regent,  506. 

Area,  521,  523. 

Constantine  I.,  47S. 

4S9  sq. 

Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  502. 

Mouutains,  522,  524. 

Argyll,  eails  of.  513,  517, 

11..  478. 

G.%me,  &c,,  532. 

Knox,  500  sq.,  503,  50C. 

Nationalities,.  529. 

A-rran,  earl  of,  493  sj. 

Constantius,  472. 

Geography,  471,  522  sq. 
Geology,  521  sy. 

Lakes,  526. 

Neville's  Cross,  489. 

Daliol,  486. 

Conversion  to  Christian- 

Largs, battle  of,  482,  485. 

Newcastle,      treaty     of, 

B.inaockburn,  4S3. 

ity,  474. 

Glasgow,    assembly    of. 

Lauderdale,  515. 

480.    ■ 

Boatons,  403. 

Court  of. Session,  493,  535. 

512. 

Law,  4?3,  535. 

Ninian,  474. 

Berwick,  tr.-aty  of,  489. 

Covenant,  512. 

Glencoe,  51S. 

Lenno:c,  regents,  5C6,  507. 

Norsemen    in    Scotland, 

Books  of  DiiciplijiT,  503, 

Covenanters,  persecution 

Glens,  525. 

Liturgy,  introduction  of. 

477  sq.,  482. 

531 

of,  515s7. 

Government,  535. 

511. 

Northampton,  txeaty  of. 

Bothwetl  Bridge,  516. 

Crichton,  \Yiniam,  493. 

Gowrie  conspiracy,  503. 

Livingstone,  493. 

488. 

Bothwell.  earl  of,  504- 

Crofters,  531. 

Hadrian,  471,  472. 

Lothi:in,  conquest  of,  480. 

Nortiiumbrir.n        supre- 

Boundarie3, 521. 

Cromwell's  invasion,  514. 

Hilidon  Hill,  4S9. 

Lowlands,  central,  623. 

macy,  475. 

Boyd  of  Kilmarnock,  495. 

Crops,  531. 

Hastings,  the  competitor. 

Macbeth,  4S0. 

Occupations,  520. 

Brigham,  treaty  of,  -isr.. 

Culloden,  520. 

480. 

Maitland  ol  Lethington, 

Octaviajis,  500. 

Britons  of   StrathclyUe, 

Cuthhert,  475. 

Highlands,     pacification 

502. 

Otterbum,  400. 

473,  475  sq. 

Dalriada,  473  sg.,  477. 

of,  517. 

Malcolm  1 ,  47ft. 

Ownership  of  soil,  630. 

Bruce,  competitor,  4S6. 

Darnley,  504. 

Highlands,  physical  fea- 

„       11.,  479. 

Parliamentary         repre- 

Bruce, Robert,  48S-4S9. 

David  I.,  4S2. 

tures  of,  522-523. 

„     III.      (Canmore), 

sentation,  535. 

Bmaanburgh,  479. 

„     II.,  489. 

Highlands,     subjugation 

480. 

Pauperism,  529. 

Burghs,  484,  535. 

David,  earl  of  Hunting- 

of. 493. 

„      IV.,4S3. 

Picts,  47357.,  476^7. 

Cambuskenneth,  487. 

don,  484,  486. 

Huntly,  403. 

Manufactures,  533. 

Pinkie,  500. 

Canals,  520. 

Donald  I.,  478. 

Inhabitants,  early,  472. 

Mar,  regent.  506. 

Population,  528. 

Celtic  Church,  475. 

„     11..  478. 

lona,  474  sq. 

Margaret,  Maid  of  Nor- 

Presbj-terianisra, 504  sq. 

Celts.  473,  4S0. 

DouRlas,  487  57.,  ^91,  494. 

Islands,  527. 

way,  486. 

Pretenders.  520. 

Charles  I.,  511. 

Dunbar,  battle  of,  514. 

Isles,  reduction  of,  485. 

Margaret,   sister  of   the 

Railways,  530. 

„      n.,  514. 

Dimc:in,  4S0. 

Jacobite  risings,  520. 

Atheling,  481. 

Reformation,  497,  501. 

Chastelherault,  duke  of, 

Ecclcsi.iitical      history. 

James  I.,  491. 

Margaret  Tudor,  496. 

Religion.  535,  536. 

502  sq. 

482,  501  sq. 

„      11.,  493. 

Mary  of  Guclders,  494. 

Rivers,  524. 

SCOTLAND,  Church  of.  In  the  Article  Presby- 
TERiANis.M  the  history  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  was 
brought  down  to  the  middhe  of  the  18th  century,  and  the 
story  of  the  sece.?sion3  of  173-3  and  1751  was  there  told. 
We  take  up  here  the  church's  history  at  the  beginning  of 
the  "  Moderate  "  rule.  Her  annals  during  tlie  next  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  are  singularly  uneventful.  In  close 
alliance  with  the  state,  she  increases  in  power  and  dignity, 
and  becomes  the  home  of  letters  and  philosophy.  But 
there  is  no  great  movement  of  a  theological  nature,  no 
striking  religious  development  to  lend  her  popular  interest. 

The  strength  of  the  church  as  well  as  her  tendency  to 
moderation  arose  in  gxeat  part  out  of  the  political  circum- 
stances of  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century.  Presbytery, 
bemg  loyal  to  the  house  of  Hanover,  while  Episcopacy  was 
Jacobite,  enjoyed  the  royal  favour  and  was  treated  as  a 
firm  ally  of  the  Goverhment.  The  Patronage  Act  of  1712 
threw  the  filling  up  of  parishes  into  the  hands  of  those 
well-affected  to  the  Government,  and  the  example  of  the 
mode  of  patronage  practised  in  England  may  have  tended 
to  promote  a  disregard  of  the  religious  feelings  of  the 
jjcople.  The  effect  on  the  clergy  was  to  encourage  them 
to  seek  the  friendship  of  tlie  landed  gentry  and  to  regard 
the  higher  rather  -than  the  lower  orders  of  society  as  their 
natural  allies,  so  that  they  were  at  the  same  time  led  to 
liberal  ways  of  thinking  and  rendered  largely  independent 
of  their  congregations. 


Roads,  471,  4?2,  630 

Robert  I.,  488. 
„  II.,  490. 
„    111.,  490. 

Romans  ia  Scotland,  47). 

Buthven,  Raid  of,  607. 

St    Andrews,    bishoprio 
of,  474,  477,  482. 

Sauchie,  495. 

Sconej  monarchy  of,  47r, 
480. 

Scota  of  Dalriada,  473, 
477. 

Severus,  472. 

Slieriir,  483,  535. 

SbippinR.  Sic,  533-534^ 

Solemn  League  and  Co- 
venant, 513. 

Southern  uplands,  52i. 

Statistics,  528  jr/. 

Stirling,  494,  496,  507. 

Stuart,  Lortl  James,  n- 
'gent,  501,  507. 

Stuarts,  490-520. 

Tacitus,    on  ancient  In- 
habitants, 472. 

Trade     and     commerce, 
492,  49'6,  534. 

Union  of  crowns,  509. 

Union    of    parliaments, 
515,  518. 

Valleys,  origin  of,  524. 

Vital  statistics,  529. 

Wallace,  487-488- 

Wall  of  Antoninus.  471. 
„    ,,  Hadrian,  471. 

Wealth,  national,  534. 

William  III-,  517- 

William  the  Lion,  ',84. 


It  is  remarked  by  Dr  Hill  Burton,  and  Carlyle  repeats  the  Peri»d'»f 
remark,  that  "  Scots  dissent  never  was  a  protest  against  the  Mods- 
principles  of  tho  church,  but  always  tended  to  preserve  the  ^ema- 
old  principles  of  the  church,  whence  the  Establishment — by  eacy.. 
the  progress  of  enlightenment  as  some  said,  by  deterioration 
according  to  others — was  lapsing."    The  secessions  carried 
off  the  more  fervent  elements  ;  yet  enough  of  the  old  leaven 
always  remained  to  exert  a  powerful  influence.    Thus,  while 
the  ch;irch  as  a  whole  was  more  peaceful,  more  courtly,  more 
inclined  to  the  friendship  of  the  world  than  at  any  former 
time,  it  contained  two  well-marked  parties,  in  one  of  which 
these  characteristics  of  the  religion  of  the  18th  century  were 
more  marked  than  in  the  other.     The  Moderate  party,  which 
maintained  its  ascendency  till  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  and  impressed  its  character  on  the  church,  sought 
to  make  the  working  of  the  church  in  its  different  parts  aa 
systematic  and  regular  as  possible,  to  make  the  assembly 
supreme  and  enforce  respect  for  its  decisions  by  presbyteries, 
and  to  render  the  judicial  pirocedure  of  the  "church  as  exact 
and  formal  as  that  of  the  civil  courts.     The  popular  party, 
regarding  the  church  less  from  tho  side  of  the  Government 
had  less  sympathy  with  the  progressive  movements  of  the 
age,  and  desired  greater  stiictness  in  discipline.    The  main  Qoestioa 
subject  of  dispute  arose  at  first  from  the  exercise  of  patron- °^_ 
age.    Presbyteries  in  various  parts  of  the  country  were  still  ^" 
disposed  to  disregard  the  presentations  of  lay  patrons,  and 
to  settle  the  men  desired  by  the  people ;  but  legal  decisions 


CHITHCH.] 


SCOTLAND 


537 


had  shown  that  if  th'-y  acted  in  this  way  their  nominee, 
while  legally  minister  of  the  parish,  could  not  claim  the 
stipend.  To  the  risk  of  such  sacriiices  *he  church,  led  by 
the  Moderate  party,  refused  to  expose  herself.  By  the  new 
policy  inaugurated  by  Dr  Hobertoon,  which  led  to  he  second 
secession,  the  assembly  compelled  presbyteries  to  give  effect 
to  presentations,  and  in  a  long  series  of  disputed  settlements 
the  "call,"  though  still  held  essential  to  a  settlement,  was 
less  and  less  regarded,  until  it  was  declared  that  it  was  not 
necessary,  and  that  the  church  courts  were  bound  to  induct 
any  qualified  presentee.  The  substitution  of  the  word  "con- 
currence" for  "call"  about  1764  indicates  the  subsidiary 
and  ornamental  light  in  which  the  assent  of  the  parishioners 
was  now  to  be  regarded.  The  church  could  have  given  more 
weight  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  ;  she  professed  to  regard 
patronage  as  a  grievance,  and  the  annual  instructions  of  the 
assembly  to  the  commission  (the  committee  representing  the 
assembly  till  its  next  meeting)  enjoined  tliat  body  to  take 
advantage  of  any  opportunity  which  might  arise  for  getting 
rid  of  the  grievance  of  patronage,  an  injunction  which  was 
not  discontinued  till  1784.  It  is  not  likely  that  any  change 
in  the  law  could  have  been  obtained  at  this  period,  and  dis- 
regard of  the  law  might  have  led  to  an  exhausting  struggle 
with  the  state,  as  was  actually  the  case  at  a  later  period. 
Still  it  was  in  the  power  of  the  church  to  give  more  weight 
than  she  did  to  the  feelings  of  the  people  ;  and  her  working 
of  the  patronage  system  drove  large  numbers  from  the 
Establishment.  A  melancholy  catalogue  of  forced  settle- 
ments marks  the  annals  of  the  church  from  1749  to  1780, 
and  wherever  an  unpopular  presentee  was  settled  the  people 
quietly  left  the  Establishment  and  erected  a  meeting-house. 
Ill  1763  there  was  a  great  debate  in  the  assembly  on  the  pro- 
gress of  schism,  in  which  the  popular  party  laid  the  whole 
blame  at  the  door  of  the  Moderates,  while  the  Moderates 
rejoined  that  patronage  and  Moderatism  had  made  the 
church  the  dignified  and  powerful  institution  she  had 
come  to  be.  In  1764  the  number  of  meeting-houses  was 
120,  and  in  1773  it  had  risen  to  190.  Nor  was  a  conciliatory 
attitude  taken  up  towards  the  seceders.  The  ministers  of 
the  Relief  desired  to  remain  connected  with  the  Establish- 
ment, but  were  not  suffered  to  do  so.  Those  ministers 
who  resigned  their  parishes  to  accept  calls  to  Relief  con- 
gregations, in  places  where  forced  settlements  had  taken 
place,  and  who  might  have  been  and  claimed  to  be  recog- 
nized as  still  ministers  of  the  church,  were  deposed  and 
forbidden  to  look  for  any  ministerial  communion  with  the 
clergy  of  the  Establishment.  Such  was  the  policy  of  the 
Moderate  ascendency,  or  of  Principal  Robertson's  adminis- 
tration, on  this  vital  subject.  It  had  the  merit  of  success 
in  so  far  as  it  completely  established  itself  in  the  church. 
The  presbyteries  ceased  to  disregard  presentations,  and  lay 
patronage- came  to  be  regarded  as  part  of  the  order  of  things. 
But  the  growth  of  dissent  steadily  continued  and  excited 
alarm  from  time  to  time ;  and  it  may  be  questioned  whether 
the  peace  of  the  cliurch  was  not  purchased  at  too  high  a 
price.  The  Moderate  period  is  justly  regarded  as  in  some 
respects  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  the  church. 
Her  clergy  included  many  distinguished  Scotsmen,  of  whom 
an  account  is  given  under  their  respective  names.  See 
Reid  (Thomas),  Campbell  (George),  Feegcsok  (.\dam). 
Home  (John),  Blair  (Hugh),  Robertson"  (William),  and 
Erskine  (John).  The  labours  of  these  men  were  not 
mainly  in  theology ;  in  religion  the  age  was  one  not  of 
advance  but  of  rest ;  they  gained  for  the  church  a  great 
and  widespread  respect  and  influence. 

Another  salient  feature  of  the  Moderate  policy  was  the 
consolidation  of  discipline.  It  is  frequently  asserted  that 
discipline  was  lax  at  this  jjcriod  and  that  ministers  of 
scandalous  lives  were  allowed  to  continue  in  their  charges. 
It  cannot.  fc<"'ev£T.  be  shown  that  the  leaders  of  the  church 

.M— 20^ 


at  this  time  sought  to  procure  the  miscarriage  of  justice 
in  dealing  with  such  cases.  That  some  offenders  wero 
acquitted  on  technical  grounds  is  true;  it  was  insisted 
that  in  dealing  with  the  character  and  status  of  their 
members  the  church  courts  should  proceed  in  as  formal 
and  punctilious  a  manner  as  civil  tribunals  and  should 
recognize  the  same  laws  of  evidence,  in  fact,  that  the 
same  securities  should  exist  in  the  church  as  in  the  state 
for  individual  rights  and  liberties. 

The  religious  state  of  the  Highlands,  to  which  at  the  Re. 
period  of  the  Union  the  Reformation  had  only  very  par-  lijinns 
tially  penetrated,  occupied  the  attention  of  the  church  dur-  <:"i'''- 
ing  the  whole  of  the  ISth  century.     In  1725  the  gift  called  y°\°' 
tlie  "royal  bounty"  was  first  granted, — a  subsidy  amounting  huds. 
at  first  to  .£1000  per  annum,  increased  in  George  IV. 's  reign 
to  £2000,  and  continued  to  the  present  day  ;  its  original 
object  was  to  assist  the  reclamation  of  the  Highlands  from 
Roman  Catholicism  by  means  of  catechists  and  teachers. 
The  Society  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowledge,  incor- 
porated in   1709,  with  a  view  2)artly  to  the  wants  of  the 
Highlands,  worked  in  concert  with  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
setting  up  schools  in  remote  and  destitute  localities,  while 
the  church  promoted  various  schemes  for  the  dissemination  , 

of  the  Scriptures  in  Gaelic  and  the  encouragement  of  Gaelic 
students.  In  consequence  of  these  efforts  Roman  Catho- 
licism now  lingers  only  in  a  few  islands  and  glens  on  the 
west  coast.  In  these  labours  as  well  as  in  other  directions 
the  church  was  sadly  hampered  by  poverty.  The  need  of  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  parishes  was  urgently  felt,  and, 
though  chapels  began  to  be  built  about  1796,  they  were  pro- 
vided only  in  wealthy  places  by  local  voluntary  liberality  ; 
for  the  supply  of  the  necessities  of  poor  outlying  districts  no 
one  as  yet  looked  to  any  agency  but  the  state.  In  every  part 
of  the  country  many  of  the  ministers  were  miserably  poor ;. 
there  were  many  stipends,  even  of  important  parishes,  not 
exceeding  £40  a  year;  and  it  was  not  till  after  many  debates 
in  the  assembly  and  appeals  to  the  Government  that  an  Act 
was  obtained  in  1810  which  made  up  the  poorer  livings  to 
£150  a  year  by  a  grant  from  the  public  exchequer.  The 
churches  and  manses  were  frequently  of  the  most  miserable 
description,  if  not  falling  to  decay. 

With  the  close  of  the  18th  century  a  great  change  passed 
over  the  spirit  of  the  church.  The  new  activity  which 
sprang  up  everywhere  after  the  French  Revolution  pro- 
duced in  Scotland  a  revival  of  Evangelicalism  which  has 
not  yet  spent  its  force.  Moderatism  had  cultivated  the 
ministers  too  fast  for  the  people,  and  the  church  had 
become  to  a  large  extent  more  of  a  dignified  ruler  than  a 
spiritual  mother.  About  this  time  the  brothers  Robert 
and  James  Haldane  devoted  themselves  to  the  work  of  pro-  Tlie  Hal. 
moting  Evangelical  Christianity,  James  making  missionary  doara. 
journeys  throughout  Scotland  and  founding  Sunday  schools ; 
and  in  179S  the  eccentric  preacher  Rowland  Hill  visited 
Scotland  at  their  request.  In  the  journals  of  these  evan- 
gelists dark  pictures  are  drawn  of  the  religious  state  of  the 
country,  though  tht-ir  censorious  tone  detracts  greatly  from 
their  value ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  tlie  elTorts  of  the 
Haldanes  brought  about  or  coincided  with  a  quicKening 
of  the  religious  spirit  of  Scotland.  The  a.'i.icmbly  of  1799 
passed  an  Act  forbidding  the  admission  to  the  pulpits  of 
laymen  or  of  ministers  of  other  churches,  and  issued  a 
manifesto  on  Sunday  schools.  These  Acts  helped  greatly  to 
discredit  the  Moderate  party,  of  whose  spirit  tliey  were  the 
outcome  ;  and  that  party  further  injured  tlieir  standing 
in  the  country  by  attacking  Leslie,  afterwards  Sir  John 
Leslie,  on  frivolous  grounds, — a  [ihrase  he  had  used  about 
Hume's  view  of  causation — when  he  applied  for  the  chair  of 
mathematics  in  Edinburgh.  In  this  dispute,  which  made 
a  great  sen.sation  in  the  country,  the  popular  party  success- 
fully defended  Leslie^  and  thus  obtained  the  symimthy  of 

XXL—  68 


538 


SCOTLAND 


[church. 


the  enlightened  portion  of  the  community.  In  1810  the 
Christian  Instntdor  began  to  appear  under  the  editorship 
of  Dr  Andrew  Thomson,  a  churchman  of  vigorous  intellect 
and  noble  character.  It  was  an  ably  written  review,  in 
which  the  theology  of  the  Haldanes  asserted  itself  in  a 
somewhat  dogmatic  and  confident  tone  against  all  unsound- 
ness and  Moderatism,  clearly  proclaiming  that  the  former 
things  had  passed  away.  The  question  of  pluralities  began 
to  be  agitated  in  18l;i,  and  gave  rise  to  a  long  struggle, 
in  which  Dr  Chalmers  took  a  notable  part,  and  which 
terminated  in  the  regulation  that  a  university  chair  or 
principalship  should  not  be  held  along  with  a  parish  which 
was  not  close  to  the  university  seat. 

The  Towth  of  Evangelical  sentiment  in  the  church,  along 
with  the  example  of  the  great  missionary  societies  founded 
in  the  end  of  the  18th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  led  to  the  institution  of  the  various  missionary 
schemes  still  carried  on,  and  their  history  forms  the  chief 
jArt  of  the  history  of  the  church  for  a  number  of.  years. 
The  education  scheme,  having  for  its  object  the  plant- 
ing of  schools  in  destitute  Highland  districts,  came  into 
existence  in  182-t.  The  foreign  mission  committee  was 
formed  in  1825,  at  the  instance  of  Dr  Ingh3,.a  leader  of 
*  the  Moderate  party ;  and  Dr  Duff  went  to  India  in  1829 

as  the  first  missionary  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  The 
church  extension  committee  was  first  appointed  in  1828, 
and  in  1831  it  was  made  permanent.  .The  colonial  scheme 
was  inaugurated  in  1836,  and  the  Jewish  mission  in  1838, 
Jl'Cheyne  and  Andrew  Bonar  setting  out  in  the  following 
year  as  a  deputation  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the 
Jews  in  Palestine  and  Turkey  and  on  the  Continent  of 
Cainrcn  Europe.  Of  these  schemes  that  of  church  extension  has 
exten-  most  historical  importance.  It  was  originally  formed  to 
'^'5°  collect  information  regarding  the  spiritual  wants  of  the 
^  ™^  country,  and  to  apply  to  the  Government  to  build  the 
churches  found  to  be  necessary.  As  the  population  of  Scot- 
land had  doubled  since  the  Reformation,  and  its  distribution 
had  been  completely  altered  in  many  counties,  while  the 
number  of  parish  churches  remained  unchanged,  and  meet- 
ing-houses had  only  been  erected  where  seceding  congrega- 
tions required  them,  the  need-  for  new  churches  was  very 
great.  The  application  to  Government  for  aid,  however, 
proved  the  occasion  of  a  "Voluntary  controversy,"  which 
raged  with  great  fierceness  for  many  -years  and  has  never 
completely  subsided.  The  union  of  the  Burgher  and  the 
Antiburgher  bodies  in  1820  in  the  United  Secession— both 
having  previously  come  to  hold  Voluntary  principles — 
added  to  the  influence  of  these  principles  in  the  country, 
while  the  political  excitement  of  the  period  disposed  men's 
,mind3  to  such  discussions.  The  Government  built  forty- 
two  churches  in  the  Highlands,  providing  them  with  a 
Sender  endowment ;  and  these  are  still  known  as  parlia- 
mentary churches.  Under  Dr  Chalmers,  however,  the 
church  extension  committee  struck  out  a  new  line  of  action. 
That  great  philanthropist  had  come  to  see  that  the  church 
could  only  reach  the  masses  of  the  people  effectively  by 
greatly  increasing  the  number  of  her  places  of  worship  and 
abolishing  or  minimizing  seat-rents  in  the  poorer  districts. 
In  his  powerful  defence  of  establishments  against  the 
voluntaries  in  both  Scotland  and  England,  in  which  his 
ablest  assistants  were  those  who  afterwards  became,  along 
with  him,  the  leaders  of  the  Free  Church,  he  pleaded 
that  an  established  church  to  be  effective  must  divide  the 
country  territorially  into  a  large  number  of  small  parishes, 
so  that  every  corner  of  the  land  and  every  person,  of  what- 
ever class,  shall  actually  enjoy  the  benefits  of  the  parochial 
machi.iery.  This  "  territorial  principle  "  the  church  has 
steadily  kept  in  view  ever  since.  With  the  view  of  realizing 
this  idea  he  appealed  to  the  church  to  provide  funds  to 
build  a  large   number  of   new  churches,  and  personally 


carried  his  appeal  throughout  the  country.  By  1835  he 
had  collected  i65,626  and  reported  the  building  of  sixty- 
two  churches  in  connexion  with  the  Establishment.  The 
keenness  of  the  conflict  as  it  approached  the  crisis  of  1843 
checked  the  liberality  of  the  people  for  this  object,  but  by 
1841  £305,747  had  been  collected  and  222  churches  built. 

The  zealous  orthodoxy  of  the  church  found  at  this  period 
several  occasions  to  assert  itself.  M'Leod  Campbell,  min- 
ister of  Row,  was  deposed  by  the  assembly  of  1830  for 
teaching  that  assurance  is  of  the  essence  of  faith  and  that 
Christ  died  for  aH  men.  He  has  since  been  recognized  as 
one  of  the  profoundest  Scottish  theologians  of  the  19th 
century,  although  his  deposition  has  never  been  removed. 
The  same  assembly  condemned  the  doctrine  put  forth  by 
Edward  Irving,  that  Christ  took  upon  Him  the  sinful  nature 
of  man  and  was  not  impeccable,  and  Irving  was  deposed 
five  years  later  by  the  presbytery  of  Annan,  when  the  out- 
burst of  supposed  miraculous  gifts  in  his  church  in  London 
had  rendered  him  still  more  obnoxious  to  the  strict  censures 
of  the  i>eriod.  In  1841  Wright  of  Borthwick  was  deposed 
for  a  series  of  heretical  opinions,  which  he  denied  that  he 
held,  but  which  were  said  to  be  contained  in  a  series  of 
devotional  works  of  a  somewhat  mystical  order  which  he 
had  published. 

The  influence  of  dissent  also  acted  along  with  the  rapidly  Du«t 
rising  religious  fervour  of  the  age  in  quickening  in  the  *'<*■  ^ 
church  that  sense  of  a  divine  mission,  and  of  the  right  and 
power  to  carry  out  that  mission  without  obstruction  from 
any  worldly  authority,  which  belongs  to  the  essential  con- 
sciousness of  the  Chri-stian  church.  An  agitation  against 
patronage,  the  ancient  root  of  evil,  and  the  formation  of 
an  anti-patronage  society,  helped  in  the  same  direction. 
The  Ten  Years'  Conflict,  which  began  in  1833  with  the 
passing  by  the  assembly  of  the  Veto  and  the  Chapel 
Acts,  is  -treated  in  the  article  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 
It  is  not  therefore  necessary  to  dwell  further  in  this  place 
on  the  consequences  of  those  Acts.  The  assembly  of  1843, 
from  which  the  exodus  took  place,  proceeded  to  undo  the 
Acts  ,of  the  church  during  the  preceding  nine  years.  The 
Veto  was  not  repealed  but  ignored,  as  having  never  had 
the  force  of  law ;  the  Strathbogie  ministers  were  recog- 
nized as  if  no  sentence  of  deposition  had  gone  forth  against 
them.  The  protest  which  the  moderator  had  read  before 
leaving  the  assembly  had  been  left  on  the  table ;  and  an 
Act  of  Separation  and  deed  of  demission  were  received 
from  the  ministers  of  the  newly  formed  Free  Church,  who 
were  now  declared  to  have  severed  their  connexion  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  assembly  addressed  a  pastoral 
letter  to  the  people  of  the  country,  in  which,  while  declin- 
ing to  "  admit  that  the  course  taken  by  the  seceders  was 
justified  by  irresistible  necessity,"  they  counselled  peace 
and  goodwill  towards  them,  and  called  for  the  loyal  support 
of  the  remaining  members  of  the  church. 

Two  Acts  at  once  passed  through  the  legislature  in 
answer  to  the  claims  put  forward  by  the  church.  The 
Scottish  Benefices  Act  of  Lord  Aberdeen,  1843,  gave  the 
people  power  to  state  objection.?  personal  to  a  presentee, 
and  bearing  on  his  fitness  for  the  particular  charge  to 
which  he  was  presented,  and  also  authorized  the  presbytery 
in  deaUng  with  the  objections  to  look  to  the  number  and 
character  of  the  objectors.  Sir  James  Graham's  Act,  1844, 
provided  for  the  erection  of  new  parishes,  and  thus  created 
the  legal  basis  for  a  scheme  under  which  chapel  ministers 
might  become  members  of  church  courts. 

The  Disruption  left  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  a  sadly  I.ovrfop 
maimed  condition.     Of  1203  ministers  451  left  her,  and  m™' of 
among  these  were  many  of  her  foremost  men.     A  third  of  i°,.,,u 
her  membership  is  computed  to  have  gone  vnth  them.    In  gjnc, 
Edinbm-gh  many  of  her  churches  were  nearly  empty.    The  18-13 
Gaelic-speaking  population  of  the  northern  counties  com- 


CHURCH.] 


SCO  T  L  AND 


539 


tioB  of 


neDts  tu 
public 


pletely  deserted  her.  All  her  missionaries  left  her  but 
one.  She  haxl  no  gale  of  popular  enthusiasm  to  carry  her 
forward,  representing  as  she  did  not  a  newly  arisen  principle 
hut  the  opposition  to  a  principle  which  she  maintained  to 
he  dangerous  and  exaggerated.  For  many  years  she  had 
much  obloquy  to  endure.  But  she  at  once  set  herself  to 
the  task  of  filling  u^)  vacancies  and  recruiting  the  mission- 
ary staff.  A  lay  a-ssociation  was  formed,  which  raised  large 
siims  of  money  for  the  missionary  schemes,  so  that  their 
income  was  not  allowed  seriously  to  decline.  The  good 
Tvorks  of  the  church,  indeed,  were  in  a  few  years  not  only 
continued  but  extended.  All  hope  being  lost  that  parlia- 
ment would  endow  the  new  churches-  built  by  the  church 
extension  scheme  of  Pr  Chalmers,  it  was  felt  that  this 
also  must  be'the  work  of  voluntary  liberality.  Under  Dr 
James  Robertson,  professor  of  church  history  in  Edinburgh, 
one  of  the  leading  champions  of  the  Moderate  policy  in  the 
Ten  Years'  Conflict,  the  extension  scheme  was  transformed 
into  the  endowment  scheme,  and  the  church  accepted  it  as 
ber  duty  and  her  task  to  provide  the  machinery  of  new 
parishes  where  they  were  required.'  By  185-1  30  new- 
parishes  had  been  added  at  a  cost  of  £130,000,  and  from 
this  time  forward  the  work  of  endowment  proceeded  still 
more  rapidly.  In  1860  61  new  parishes  had  been  endowed, 
in  1870  150,  in  1876  250,  while  in  18SS  there  were  351. i 
In  1843  the  number  of  parishes  was  924.  Of  42  parlia- 
mentary churches  existing  at  that  time  40  have  been 
er«"'ted  into  parishes  quoad  sacra  ;  hence  the  total  number 
of  parishes  in  Scotland  at  midsummer  1886  was  1315. 
By  the  Poor  Law  Act  of  1845  parishes  were  enabled  to 
remove  the  care  of  the  poor  from  the  minister  and  the 
kirk-session,  in  whom  it  was  formerly  vested,  and  to  appoint 
a  parochial  board  with  power  to  assess  the  ratepayers. 
Xhe  Education  Act  of  1872  severed  the  ancient  tie  con- 
necting church  and  school  together,  and  created  a  school 
board  having  charge  of  the  education  of  each  parish.  At 
that  date  the  Church  of  Scotland  had  300  schools,  mostly 
in  tlie  Highlands.  The  church,  however,  continues  to 
carry  on  normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  in 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen. 

In  1874  patronage  was  abolished.  The  working  of  Lord 
Aberdeen's  Act  had  given  rise  to  many  unedifying  scenes 
?nd  to  lengthy  struggles  over  disputed  settlements,  and  it 
was  early  felt  that  some  change  at  l^st  was  necessary  in 
the  law.  The  agitation  on  the  subject  went  on  in  the 
as-»embly  from  1857  to  1869,  when  the  assembly  by  a 
large  majority  condemned  patronage  as  restored  by  the 
Alt  of  Queen  Anne,  and  resolved  to  petition  parliament 
for  its  removal.  The  reque^  "  was  granted,  and  the  right 
■A  electing  parish  ministers  was  conferred  on  the  congrega- 
tion; thus  a  grievance  of  old  standing,  from  which  all  the 
2cclesiastical  troubles  of  a  century  and  a  half  had  sprung, 
ivas  removed  and  the  church  placed  on  a  thoroughly  demo- 
;ratic  basis.  This  Act,  combined  with  various  efforts  made 
ivithin  the  chi^rch  for  her  improvement,  has  secured  for  the 
Scottish  "Establishment  a  large  measure  of  popular  favour, 
_and  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  she  has  grown 
•  rapidly  both  in  numbers  and  in  influence.  Tliis  revival  is 
largely  due  on  the  one  hand  to  the  improvement  of  her 
worship  which  began  with  the  efforts  of  Dr  Robert  Lee 
(1804-2868),  minister  of  Old  Greyfriars,  Edinburgh,  and 
orofessor  of  Biblical  criticism  in  Edinburgh  university. 
8y  introducing  into  his  church  a  printed  book  of  prayers 

'  Tliose  branches  of  the  cimrch  extension  scheme  which  de.llt  with 
church  building,  ami  with  the  opening  of  nev/-  missions  to  meet  the 
wants  of  increasing  populations,  were  taken  up  by  a  new  department, 
called  the  home  mission  scheme.  Tlie  home  mission  as  the  pioneer 
in  opening  up  new  ficWs  of  labour,  and  the  endowment  scheme  which 
renders  permanent  the  religious  centres  that  the  mission  has  founded, 
»r«  both  traceabls  to  Dr  Chalnier 


and  also  an  organ  Dr  Lee  stirred  up  vehement  controversies 
in  the  church  courts,  which  resulted  in  the  recognition  of 
the  liberty  of  congregations  to  improve  their  worship.  A 
church  service  society,  having  for  its  object  the  study  o' 
ancient  and  modern  liturgies,  with  a  view  to  the  prepara^ 
tion  of  forms  of  prayer  for  public  worship,  was  founded  in 
1865;  it  has  publi-shed  five  '  •'itions  of  its  "Book  of 
Common  Order,"  which,  though  at  first  regarded  with 
suspicion,  is  now  recognized  as  a  useful  and  respected  ad- 
junct.  Church  music  has  been  cultivated  and  improved 
in  a  marked  degree ;  a  fine  collection  of  hymns  has  been 
introduced  to  supplement  the  psalms  and  paraphrases. 
And  architecture  has  restored  the  larger  churches  from 
their  disfigurement  by  partition  walls  and  galleries — ■ 
though  much  still  remains  to  be  done  in  this  way^ — and 
has  erected  new  churches  of  a  style  favourable  to  devotion. 

The  fervour  of  the  church  has,  on  the  other  hand,  found 
a  channel  in  the  operations  of  a  "  Committee  on  Christian 
Life  and  Work,"  appointed  in  1869  with  the  aim  of  exercis- 
ing some  supervision  of  the  work  of  the  church  throughout 
the  country,  stimulating  evangelistic  efforts,  and  organizing 
the  labours  of  lay  agents.  This  committee  publishes  a 
magazine  of  "  Life  and  Work,"  which  has  a  circulation  of 
about  100,000,  and  has  lately  been  seeking  to  organize 
young  men's  guilds  in  connexion  with  congregatio.is.  It 
was  to  reinforce  this  element  of  the  church's  activity,  as 
well  as  to  strengthen  her  generally,  that  !Mr  James  Baird 
in  1873  made  the  munificent  gift  of  £500,000.  This  fund 
is  administered  by  a  trust  which  is  not  under  the  control 
of  the  church,  and  the  revenue  is  used  mainly  in  aid  of 
church  building  and  endowment  throughout  the  country. 

The  church  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years  in  liberal- 
ity of  sentiment,  and  there  has  been  no  deposition  for 
heresy  since  1843  A  volume  of  Scotch  Sermon^  pub- 
lished in  1880  by  ministers  holding  liberal  views  brought 
out  the  fact  that  the  church  would  not  willingly  be  led 
into  such  prosecutions  .\n  agitation  on  the  part  of  the 
Dissenters  for  disestablishment  sprang  up  afresh  after  the 
passing  ot  the  Patronage  Act  and  has  continued  ever  since;' 
while  a  counter-movement  was  represented  by  a  Bill,  intro- 
duced into  parliament  in  1886  to  declare  the  spiritual 
independence  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which,  if  success, 
ful,  would,  it  was  understood,  have  opened  the  way  for  :» 
reunion  of  the  Presbyterian  bodies.'^ 

Church  Membership. — Tlie  Churcli  of  Scotland  has  now  (1886) 
1315  parislies,  160  non-pavochial  churches,  and  121  preaching  and 
mission  stations,  in  all  1596  charges.  The  number  of  presbyteries 
is  84,  and  there  are  16  provincial  synods.  The  general  assembly 
consists  of  252  cleiical  and  118  lay  members  elected  by  presbytenes 
with  73  Tepresentatives  of  royal  burglis  and  universities,  and 
rejireseutatives  of  churclies  abroad, -in  all  447  mem'^ers.  In  187ff 
the  number  of  communicants  as  rctumcd  to  pailiament  in  1874  was 
460,526  ;  in  1878  the  number  as  rctui-ned  to  parliament  in  1879 
was  515,786;  in  1883  the  number  returned  to  the  assembly  o> 
1384  was  543,969  ;  in  1885,  564,435.  Tlie  professors  of  divinity  al 
tlie  four  Scottish  universities  must  be  ministers  of  the  cliurch,  and 
students  aspiring  to  the  ministry  arc  required  to  attend  one  of  the 
divinity  lialls  of  tlie  universities  for  tlirce  sessions,  afttr  an  arts 
course  of  three  years.  A  large  number  of  ministers  of  the  church 
are  employed  elsewhere  than  in  Scotland.  The  Church  of  Scotland 
in  England  consists  of  16  charges.  There  are  31  chaplains  minis- 
tering to  Presbyterians  in  the  army  and  navy,  15  of  thc-se  beine 
stationeil  in  India.  The  foreign  mi-ssion  em|>Ioys  15  ordaiiicd  and 
11  unordained  European  missionaries,  with  a  large  number  of  native 
agents,  in  India,  East  Africa,  and  China.  The  Jewish  mission  era- 
ploys  6  ordained  ministers,  with  other  agents,  at  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  Salonica,  Beyrout,  and  Alcsandri.1.  Tlie  colonial  com- 
mittee supplies  religious  ordinances  to  emigrants  from  Scotland  in 
India,  Fiji,  Cyprus,  Mauritius,  Ceylon,  and  the  West  Indies,  be.sides 
assisting  Presbyterian  colleges  in  Canada  and  Australia.  A  minister 
of  the  church  presides  over  a  Scots  church  of  old  standing  at  Amster- 
dam. Two  lectureships  have  been  founded  in  recent  times  in  con- 
nexion with  thochurch— one  by  Mr  James  Baird  (already  mentioned), 

'  For  the  period  since  1843  tlie  most  useful  book  is  Dr  Story's 
L!/e  o/Dr  Mdbcrt  Lee,  1870. 


Conir.:il 
tee  c  u 
Chri 
Life  nud 
Woik. 


a^^ 


Statistios 
of  mera- 
beralilp, 
Jo. 


540 


SCOTLAND 


[LITERATtTRE. 


1^1 


iQC«. 


Adim- 
nan. 


tlio  other  by  JIi'  John  Croall  of  Southfichl— and  tli^so  Iiavo  already 
produced  several  not..ole  coHtributions  to  Scottish  theology. 

An  association  for  augumenting  tho  smaller  livinga  ^-cis  formed 
n  I8GG,  and  the  church  now  has  a  smaller  livings  scheme,  which 
aims  at  bringing  up  to  £200  a  year  nil  livings  that  fall  below  that 
mm.  Such  numbered  3U  in  ISS.'J ;  ami  the  sum  distributed  among 
them  was  £8537,  which,  however,  was  £5000  short  of  tlie  sum  ueccs- 
lary  to  aceoniplish  fully  the  desired  object. 

In  the  following  details  of^the  income  of  tho  chureh  we  give  first 
the  value  of  her  endowments  and  then  some  figures  shov.-ing  tho 
growth  of  her  voluntary  liberality. 

Means  from  Endowments.— (\)  From  a  parliamentary  retnni  ob- 
tained in  1S74  the  church  is 'seen  to  derive  from  teinds,  includ- 
ing the  value  of  manses  and  glebes,  tho  annual  sum  of  £289,413. 
Augmentations  have  been  obtained  since  that  date  amounting  to 
upwards  of  £10,000,  but  tho  fiars  prices  havo  declined  during  the 
same  period  by  nearly  25  per  cent.,  so  that  the  total  amount  so 
derived  has  not  increased.  The  unexhausted  tciuds  auiountcd  in 
1880  to  £134, •113.  (2)  The  exchequer  pays  to  190  poor  parishes 
ami  to  42  Highland  churches,  from  church  property  in  the  hands 
of  the  crown,  £17,040.  (3)  From  local  sources  the  church  derives 
£23,501.  (4)  The  endowments  raised  by  the  church  for  342  new 
parishes  amount  to  £42,500.  Tho  total  endowments,  not  counting 
church  buildings,  amount  to  £383,041. 

Means  from  Voluntary  Liberality. — The  following  tabic  (I.)  gives 
a  view  of  the  financial  progress  of  certain  of  the  schemes  of  the 
church  since  the  secession  : — 


Tear. 

Foreign 
Mission. 

Eilucation. 

Colonial 
Scl.cme. 

Jeni^h 
?Iis3ion. 

Rome 
JlissiLn. 

1S12 

£0,743 

£3C30 

£3,753 

*>42!13 

1S15 

3,572 

S6S3 

2,4S1 

1S07 

£2.615 

JSiO 

6,047 

4019 

2,707 

2472 

3,^C7 

lSo5 

3,712 

44GI! 

3,060 

2019 

S.80(i 

1S50 

4,873 

44S7 

8,228 

2S04 

4.S53 

1S65 

6,822 

4052 

3,606 

S2M 

b.Si) 

1S70 

7,754 

8245 

4,6M 

4101 

7,0S2 

1S73 

12,315 

9033 

f,37l 

5644 

11.163 

ISSO 

10,270 

11,674 

4715 

15,004 

ISSJ 

13,?4S 

4,750 

M29 

0,400 

No  attempt  wr.s  made  until  1873  to  collect  sta.i:;t:c3  ^^^  tho  whole 
liberality  of  the  church;  and  changes  introduced  from  time  co  time 
in  the  mode  of  stating  the  various  sumj  make  it  impossi  le  to  give 
a  complcto  comparative  statement  since  t!i:it  date".  The  foIlo\vinf; 
table  (11.)  shows  the  amount  at  quinqwcnnial  period-,  down  to  1835, 
the  church-door  collections  and  scat-rents  probably  affording  the 
most  accurate  indication  of  the  general  progress  of  the  body.  Tlio 
bnilding  operations  of  which  thfs  values  are  given  include  only  such 
building  as  is  the  result  of  voluntary  effort.  Under  the  head  of 
"general  church  objects"  are  included  the  collections  for  missions, 
for  small  livings,  aged  and  infirm  ministers,  zenana  missions,  kc. 
These  figures  do  not  include  income  from  trust  funds  or  endow- 
ments ;  they  state  what  was  given  in  the  year  referred  to.  A 
number  of  objects  of  liberality  are  not  included  in  the  table. 


Year. 

Church.door 
CoUectiong. 

Seat 
Rents. 

ClmrcU 

or  Manso 

Building  or 

Rftl'alrs. 

General 

-    Chniil. 

Objects. 

Other 
Objects. 

Totjil 

1872 
1877 
1SB2 
1885 

£41,561 
65,827 
76,399 
80.SS7 

£3:, 225 
63,004 
50.S59 
63,107 

£31,851 
60,  SCO 
07,134 
60,395 

£43,618 
40,117 

'51,520 
60,110 

£27,224 
64,572 
61.253 
61,739 

£255,350 
373.715 
SS6,001 
374,578 

The  following  sums  were  raised  din-ing  the  thirteen  years  1872- 
84  : — congregational  and  charitable  purposes,  £1,462,091  :  support 
if  ordinances  and  supplement  of  stipends,  £233,406;  education 
(exclusive  of  sums  raised  for  training  colleges),  £161,931  ;  home 
mission  work,  £358,543  ;  church  building,  £737,775  ;  endowment 
of  new  parishes,  £486,693  ;  foreign  mission  work,  £376,523  ;  total, 
£3,816,962.  Mr  James  Baird's  gift  is  not  included  in  this  state- 
ment. '  (A.  M*.) 

SCOTLAND,  LiTERATtnsE  of.  Literature  in  Scotland, 
as  distinct  from  England,  dates  from  the  time  of  Columba 
(j.f.).  Adamnan,  abbot  of  lona,  wlio  in  690  wrote  in 
Latin  the  life  of  his  predecessor,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
first  author  that  Scotland  produced.  In  addition  to  his 
biography  of  St  Columba,  a  long  extract  from  a  work  of 
his  on  the  "  Holy  Places  "  is  incorporated  by  Bede  in  his 
Ecchiiastical  History.  The  greater  part  of  Scotland  was 
at  that  time  inhabited  by  a  Celtic  population  and  the  period 
from  the  7th  to  the  13th  century  has  left  but  few  literary 
remains  (see  Celtic  Literature,  vol.  v.  p.  313).  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  13th  century  what  may  be  called  the 
ancient  literary  language  of  Scotland  was  used  in  the  dis- 
trict between  the  Hum'oer  and  the  Forth  and  coastwise  as 


1  Arthul 
, ian  ro- 
,  niaucei 


far  north  as  Aberdeen.  Its  earliest  writer  is  Thomas  of 
Ercildoune,  or  Thomas  the  Rhymer,  who  reached  the  heig'  t 
of  his  fame  in  1280.  The  fairy  tale  or  romance  that  bears 
liis  name  may  be  regarded  as  the  earliest  example  of 
romance  pojtrjt  in  Britain.  ICearly  contemporary  with 
the  Pihynier  were  two  other  distinguished  Scots,  Michael 
Scot  (q.v.)  and  John  of  Duns,  or  Duns  Scotus  (7.!'.),  both 
of  whom,  however,  wrote  in  Latin.  Three  Arthurian . 
romances  taken  from  Anglo-Norman  sources  relating  to' 
Sir  Gawain,  one  of  the  mott  celebrated  knights  of  tiic ' 
Round  Table,  seem  to  have  been  composed  about  the  end 
of  the  1 3tli  century.  These  were — Stjr  'lawayn  and  iha 
Grcne  Knycld,  the  Knight!;/  Tah  of  Golcim-os  and  Gawayne, 
and  tho  Aifiityrs  of  Arthur  at  the  Terneioathelyne.  Sir 
Gawain'a  exploits  were  so  popular  in  the  soutli  of  Scotland 
that  he  was  claimed  by  the  people  as  one  of  their  own 
chieftains  and  called  the  lord  of  Galloway.  The  Awntyrs 
of  Arthur,  or  the  adventures  of  King  Arthur  at  the  Tern- 
wadling,  a  .small  lake  near  Carlisle,  and  the  Pystil  nf  Kmete 
Sitmn,  a  version  of  the  apocryphal  story  of  Susanna,  are 
Eupp'>sed  to  have  been  the  productions  of  Sir  Hew  of 
Eglintoun  about  that  period.  The  Taill  of  Ravf  C'oi!:-ar, 
in  which  the  advntures  of  the  emperor  Charlemagne  in 
the  liouse  of  a  charcoal-burner  named  Ralph  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Paris  are  related  with  much  poetic  humour, 
and  tho  fairy  tale  of  Orfeo  and  HeuiuJis  were  written  in 
the  early  part  of  the  14th  century  and  v.ere  very  populi..' 
in  Scotland  in  former  times. 

The  War  of  Independence  gave  a  new  impetus  to  Scot- 
tish nr.lionaUty  and  produced  a  corresponding  effect  on  the 
literature  of  the  country.  The  Bmc,  or  metrical  account 
of  the  deeds  of  Robert  Bruce,  was  written  by  John  Bai^-  Barl-ju* 
Bocrr.  (q.v.),  archdeacon  of  Aberdeen,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  14th  century.  To  him  we  owe  a  translation  of  a 
medisevol  romance  on  the  Trojan  War,  nearly  3000  lines 
in  length,  and  a  large  coUecticn  of  metrical  lives  of  saints, 
which,  after  being  long  preserved  in  manuscript,  have  re- 
cently been  printr  '  by  Dr  Horstminn.  About  this  time 
was  compiled  the  urst  formal  history  of  Scotland  by  John 
of  FoRDUN  (rj.v.),  which  was  written  in  Latin  and  brought  fc.-uttii. 
down  to  the  death  of  David  I.  He,  however,  left  materiah 
for  the  completion  of  the  work,  the  last  date  of  which  i.^ 
?385.  In  1441  a  continuation  of  it  was  made  by  Walter 
Bower  or  Bowmaker.  The  whole  work  was  then  ."^tyleu  Eswer. 
the  Scotichroiiicon,  and  brings  the  history  of  Scotland  do\.n 
to  1437.  A  metrical  history  was  written  between  1420 
and  1424  by  Andrew  of  Wyntoun,  a  canon  regular  of  St  1 
Andre'.'s  and  prior  of  St  Serf's  Inch  in  Loch  Leven.  This ' 
work,  known  as  the  Orygynale  Croiiylil  rf  Scotland,  is  pre- 
faced by  an  account  of  the  human  race  from  the  creation, 
and,  although  for  the  most  part  its  verse  is  homely  and 
dull,  its  author  occasionally  describes  stirring  incidents 
with  considerable  power.  The  beautiful  poem  of  James  I.  James  f 
called  The  Kingis  Quhair,  written  about  tlijs  period,  was 
far  in  advance  of  the  contemporary  metrical  chronicles. 
It  possesses  a  melody  of  verse  unknown  before  and  gives 
the  king  a  conspicuous  place  in  early  Scottish  literature. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  also  written  A  Ballad  of  Good 
Counsel  and  a  song  On  Absence ;  but  two  poems,  Christis 
Kirk  of  the  Grene  and  Peblis  to  the  Play,  believed  to  have 
been  his  composition,  have  been  recently  shown  by  the 
Rev.  W.  W.  Skeat  to  be  by  some  other  early  poet.  An 
allegorical  poem  called  the  Bule  of  the  Iloielat  was  .vritten 
about  1450  by  Sir  Richard  Holland,  an  adherent  of  the 
noble  family  of  Douglas.  It  is  a  warning  against  pride, 
exemplified  by  the  owl,  decked  out  in  the  splendour  of 
borrowed  feathers,  compelled  on  account  of  his  insolence 
to  resume  his  original  form.  The  poem  displays  some 
inventive  and  descriptive  power,  though  marred  oy  its 
alliteration.     The  exploits  of  Sir  William  Wallace  found 


;  Wyn- 
!  toun. 


LITERATURE.] 


SCOTLAND 


541 


Blind  about  1460  a  worthy  chronicler  in  Henry  the  Minstrel,  or 
Harry.  Blind  Harry,  -who,  bom  with  such  a  serious  defect,  must 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  individuals 
recorded  in  the  annals  of  literature.  His  well-k.own  poem, 
which  bears  the  name  of  his  hero,  is  in  versification,  ex- 
pression, and  poetic  imagery  a  remarkable  production  for 
Henry  that  period.  The  grave  and  thoughtful  poetry  of  Robert 
*on.  Henkyson  (q.v.),  notary  public  and  preceptor  in  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  at  Dunfermline,  who  flourished  about  1470, 
contrasts  favourably  with  that  of  his  English  contempo- 
raries. His  Testament  of  Cresseid  was  often  incorporated 
in  the  old  editions  of  the  works  of  Chaucer,  to  whose 
poetry  it  is  not  inferior.  His  Robene  and  MaJcyne  is  the 
earliest  specimen  of  pastoral  poetry  in  the  Scottish  lan- 
■  guage.  These,  with  his  Fables  and  other  works,  entitle 
him  to  a  high  place  amongst  the  early  Scottish  poets. 
Nearly  coeval  with  Henrj-son  was  Sir  Gilbert  Hay, 
chamberlain  to  Charles  VI.  of  France,  who  made  several 
translations  from  the  works  of  French  authors.  One 
of  these,  taken  from  a  popular  French  romance  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  extends  to  upwards  of  20,000  lines.  'A 
long  anonymous  poem  called  Ctariodus  belongs  tc  this 
period.  It  is  a  romance  founded  on  a  French  original, 
the  more  material  incidents  of  which  are  supposed  to  have 
happened  at  the  English  court.  It  abounds  with  illustra- 
tions of  the  manners  and  customs  peculiar  to  the  age  of 
chivalry.  Being  nearly  3000  lines  in  length,  it  is,  like  the 
last-mentioned,  an  extensive  specimen  of  the  language  and 
versification  of  the  time.  Ths  Thrie  Tales  of  the  Thrie 
Preistis  of  Pehlis  (1490),  the  authorship  of  which  is  un- 
known, are  moral  tales  possessing  considerable  freshness. 
As  a  fragment  of  an  old  version  of  them  occurs  in  the 
Asloan  ilS.,  WTitten  in  1490,  they  must  have  existed  long 
before  the  edition  printed  by  Henry  Charteris  in  1603,  in 
which  form  only  they  are  now  accessible.  The  Ledger  of 
Andrew  Halybo.'ton,  conservator  of  the  privileges  of  the 
Scottish  nation  in  the  Netherlands,  1492-1503,  is  a  valu- 
able source  of  information  regarding  the  early  trade  of 
Scotland. 

The  close  of  the  15tli  century  exhibited  a  consider- 
able growth  of  literary  ability  in  the  writings  of  William 
Ouabar.  Dunbar  {q.v.)  and  his  contemporaries  His  works  were 
so  highly  esteemed  at  the  time  he  wrote  tKit  he  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  "  the  makar  "  or  poet-laureate  of  Scot- 
land. Such  of  Dunbar's  writings  as  have  come  down  to 
the  present  time  are  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  in  which 
there  is  much  power  of  description  and  command  of  verse. 
The  Thistle  and  the  Jio^e  an  '•  the  Golden  Targe  are  excel- 
lent bpccimcns  of  his  poetic  power.  His  satirical  poems, 
such  as  the  Twa  Mariit  Wemen  and  the  Wedo  and  the  Flyt- 
ing  with  Kenncdie,  contain  much  coarse  humour.  Seven 
of  his  poems  were  the  first  specimens  of  Scottish  typo- 
graphy, having  been  printed  by  Chepman  and  Jlyllar  at 
Edinburgh  in  150S,  followed  in  1509  by  the  well-known 
Breviary  for  the  church  of  Aberdeen.  A  humorous  poem 
called  the  Freiris  of  Beiirik  has  been  attributed  to  Dunbar 
and  is  usually  printed  with  his  works.  Contemporary  with 
Dunbar  were  a  number  of  minor  Scottish  poets,  of  whose 
works  only  a  few  specimens  have  come  down  to  the  present 
time.  Tliese  were  Walter  Kenncdie,  with  whom  he  had 
his  "flyting"  or  poetical  contest,  Sir  John  Rowll,  Quintyne 
Shaw,  Patrick  Johnestoun,  Merseir,  James  Adlek,  and 
others.'  The  most  classical  of  the  Scottish  poets  was  Gawyn 
e.ivin  or  Gavin  Douglas  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  whose  great 
Doug^.  literary  work  was  the  translation  of  the  yFneid  of  Virgil 
into  Scottish  verse.     To  each  book  he  prefixed  a  prologue; 

•  Kcnne<lieivrote  The  Praise  of  Aigc  and  The  Passioun  of  Christ ; 
EowU,  The  C'lirsiiif/  on  tlie  Steilaris  uf  his  Fowlis  ;  Shaw,  Advice  to  a 
Courtier  ;  Johnestoun,  The  Three  Deid  Poiois  ;  Slerseir,  PvrrcU  in 
Paramours  ;  and  Afllek,  The  Quair  of  Jelousy, 


the  one  before  the  twelfth  is  an  admirable  descriptive  poem 
of  the  beauties  of  May.     His  Palice  of  Honour  and  Kyno 
Hari,  two  allegorical  poems,  are  able  productions,  the  latuc 
of  which  is  full  of  dramatic  vigour.      Contemporary  ■nitU 
Douglas  was  Sir  David  Lyndsay  {q.v.),  Lyon  king-of-arms  Sir 
in  the  reign  of  James  V.,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  D.ivia 
popular  of  the  early  Scottish  poets.     His  Monarehie,  or^'''"^^' 
ane  Dialog  hetuix  Experience  and  ane   Comteour  of  the 
Miserabyl   Estait  of  the    Warld'  gives   a  short   survey  of 
sacred  and  classical  history  which  rendered  it  very  popular 
in  its  time.      His  Satire  of  the  2'hrie  Estaitis  is  a  skilfully 
written  attempt  to  reform  the  abuses  of  the  period,  especi- 
ally those  of  the  church.     While  some  of   its  characters 
recite  long  and  erudite  political   sj^eeches,  he  introduces 
interludes  of  a  farcical  kind  suited  to  the  tastes  of  the 
times.     This  work  may  be  considered  the  first  dramatic 
effort  of  any  British  author.      In  his   2'estnmeiit  of  Squire. 
Meldnim  he  relates  the  adventures  of  his  hero  with  much 
poetic  fire.     Lyndsay's  other  poems  consist  of  appeals  to 
the  king  for  advancement  and  some  jeu.x  desprit  of  no 
great  length.     One  of  the  best' scholars  and  teachers  of  this 
period  was  John  Major  or  Mair,  a  native  of  Haddington, 
who  was  principal  of  St  Salvator's  College,  St  Andrews. 
Besides   being   the  author   of   learned    commentaries  on 
Aristotle,  he  wrote  a  well-known  work,  De  hisloria  gentis 
Scotorvm  libri  ser,   printed   in   1521.      Another  .Scottish 
author  that  WTOte  in  Latin  with  considerable  elegance  was 
Hector  Boece  (q.v.),  principal  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen   Boece. 
His  great  work,  J/istoria  gentis  Scotorum  a  prima  genlis 
origine,  was  published  in  Paris  in  152G.     It  was  translated 
into  Scottish  by  John  Bellenden,  archdeacon  of   Moray, 
under  the  title  of  the  Hystory  and  Cronikhs  of  Scotland, 
printed  at  Edinburgh  in  1536.     Bellenden  also  tran.sla'.ed 
the  first  five  books  of  Livy  into  Scottish.     The  Chronicle 
of  Boece  \yas  versified  in  Scottish  in  1531-35  by  William 
Stewart,  a  descendant  of  the  first  earl  of  Buchan.     It  was 
■(VTitten  by  command  of  Margaret,  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  for  the  instruction  of  her  son,  the  youthful  James 
V.     A  Latin  work  of  much  merit,  entitled  De  animi  tran- 
quillitate,  was  published  in  1543  by  Florence  Wilson,  master 
of  Carpentras  School.     It  is  in  tlie  form  of  a  dialogue  and 
displays  much  variety  of  knowledge,  while  its  Latiiiity  has 
long  been  celebrated.     In  an  anonymous  work,  written  in 
1548  or  1549,  and  called  the  Complcynt  of  Scotland,  the 
author  dfeplores  the  calamities  to  which  Scotland  was  then 
subject.     These  are  stated  to  be  the  wrongs  done  to  the 
Scottish  labourers  at  the  hands  of  the  landholders  and  the 
clergj',  the  difficultie*  with  England,  and  the  treachery  of 
the  Scottish  nobility.     The  work  is  valuable  as  affording 
a  glimpse  of  the  literature  then  popular  in  Scotland,  some 
pieces  of  which  are  no  longer  to  be  found, — such  as  The 
Tayle  of  the  Reyde  Eyttyn  [red  giant]  vith  the  Thre  Heydes, 
The  Tayl  of  the  Volfe  of  the  Varldis  Etui,  The  Tayl  of  the 
Giantis  that  eit  Quyk  Men,   The  Tayl  of  the  ihne  fultit 
Dog  of  S^'orroivay,  and  Robyn  Iliidc  and  Litil  Jhone. 

In  1552  there  was  printed  at  St  Andrews  a  Catechism, 
that  is  to  say  ane  Commone  and  Catholike  Inslructioiin  of 
the  Christian  People  in  Materis  of  our  Catholile  Faith  and_ 
Religioun,  written  by  John  Hamilton,  arclil.ishop  of  Si; 
Andrews,  the  last  primate  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in 
Scotland.  The  poems  of  Sir  Richard  Maitland,  which  are  uralt. 
of  a  somewhat  satirical  kind,  are  valuable,  as  they,  like  '""i 
those  of  Lyndsay,  contain  much  information  about  the 
abuses  of  the  time  (1560),  such  as  the  oppressive  conduct  of 
the  landholders,  ve.\atious  lavsuits,  ana.the  dc])redation3 
of  the  Border  thieve.^-  J^ir  Richard  deserves  the  thanks 
of  posterity  for  the  larj,e  manuscript  collection  of  poem.s 
by  Scottish  authors  wliich  lie  and  liis  daughter  formed, 
and  which  is  now  preserved  in  the  Pejiysian  Library,  at 
Magdalene  College,   Cambridge.      The  name  of   George 


542 


SCOTLAND 


Bar.n.i.      Bauiiatjrae  is  inseparably  connected  witli  the  history  of 

')"*i.  Scottish  poetry,  as  in  15GS  lie  too  formed  an  extensive 
collection  of  Scottish  poetry  which  is  certainly  the  'most 
valuable  now  extant.  It  was  w-rittcn  by  him  at  Edin- 
burgh in  the  time  of  the  plague,  when  the  dread  of  in- 
fection confined  him  closely  at  home.  The  Bannatyne 
MS.  now  jireserved  in  the  Advocates'  Library  extends  to 
800  pages  folio,  and  includes  several  of  Bannatyne's  own 
poems,  of  which  the  two  most  considerable  are  of  an 
amatory  character.  The  works  of  Alexander  Scott,  con- 
sisting principally  of  love  poeijis,  embrace  also  a  spirited 
account  of  a  Jojis/iiff  hclivij;  Aihmson  and  St/m  at  the 
Drum,  a  j)lace  a  little  to  the  south  of  Edinburgh.  Tlie 
author,  who  was  one  of  the  most  elegant  poets  of  this 
period,  has  sometimes  been  called  the  "Scottish  Anacreon." 
Two  poems  of  some  merit  —  the  Praises  of  Wemen  and 
the  Miseries  of  a  Puir  Scolar — were  written  by  Alexander 
Arbuthnot,  ^  rincipal  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  about 
1570.  A  poem  of  considerable  length,  called  the  Seye  of 
the  Caste/l  of  Edinburgh,  published  in  1573,  was  by  Robert 
Semple,  who  also  wrote  an  attack  on  Archbishop  Adamson, 
called   the   Legend  of  the  Bishop  of  Sand  Androis  Lyfe. 

RoHaoii.,  To  this  period  belong  two  poems  of  considerable  length — 
the  Court  of  Venus  (1575),  an  imitation  of  the  Paliee  of 
Honour  of  Gawyn  Douglas,  and  the  romance  of  the  Seavcn 
Seages  (1578),  a  Scottish  version  of  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable mediasval  collections  of  stories  belonging  to  the 
same  class  as  the  Arabian  Nights,  in  which  one  single 
story  is  employed  as  a  means  of  stringing  together  a  multi- 
tude of  subsidiary  tales.  These  poems  were  written  by 
John  Holland,  notary  in  Dalkeith.     One  of  the  best  Latin 

EivAimau.  scholars  that  modern  Europt  has  produced  was  George 
Buchanan  (q.v.),  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century.  He  wrote  several  Latin  tragedies  and  an 
unrivalled  translation  of  the  Psalms.  His  De  jxire  regni 
apud  Scotos  was  composed  to  instruct  James  VI.,  to  whom 
be  had  been  tutor,  in  the  duties  belonging  to  his  kingly 
office.  His  last  and  most  important  labour  was  his  History 
of  Scotland,  originally  printed  in  1582,  of  which  seventeen 
editions  have  appeared.  An  excellent  specimen  of  the 
ancient  vernacular  language  is  the  Chronicle  of  Scotland 
by  Robert  Lyndsay  of  Pitscottie.  It  ii.clades  the  period 
from  1436  to  the  marriage  of  Mary  to  Darnley  in  1565. 
Although  its  author  was  a  simple-minded  and  credulous 
man,  he  describes  events  of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness 
with  circumstantiality  and  great  prolixity  of  detail.  An- 
other historical  work  of  greater  importance  was  the  De 

Ltsicjr.  origine,  monbus,  et  rebus  gestis  Scotorum  (1578)  by  John 
Lesley,  bishop  of  Ross.  A  translation  of  this  work  made 
by  Father  James  Dalrymple,  a  religious  in  the  Scottish 
cloister  of  Ratisbon,  1596,  is  in  course  of  publication  by 
the  Rev.-Father  E.  B.  Cody  for  the  Scottish  Te.xt  Society. 
Lesley  also  wrote  in  Scottish  a  History  of  Scotland  from 
the  death  of  James  I.  in  1-136  to  the  year  1561.  This 
work,  intended  foj'  the  [Derusal  of  ilary  while  in  captivity 
in  England,  is  written  in  an  elegant  style.  The  bishop 
was  the  champion  of  that  unfortunate  queen,  and  in  1569 
wrote  a  Defence  of  the  Honour  of  Marie  Quene  of  Scotland 
and  Dowager  of  France,  with  a  declaration  of  her  right, 
title,  and  interest  to  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  England. 
The  Reformation  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on 
Scottish  literature.  Amongst  the  earliest  Protestant  writers 
of  the  country  may  be  mentioned  Alexander  Ales  or  Alesius, 
a  native  of  Edinburgh,  who  published  several  controversial 
works  and  commentaries  on   various  parts  oi   the  Bible. 

Keox.  But  the  most  eminent  promoter  of  the  reform  was  John 
Knox  {q.c),  who  wrote  several  controversial  pamphlets  and 
some  religious  treatises  ;  his  great  work  was  the  History 
of  the  Reformation  of  Religion  in  Srotland,  first  printed  in 
,1586.     One  of  the  princii^al  opponents  of- Knox  was  Ninian 


of  Pit. 
sdUttic 


AVinzet,  a  priest  of  considerable  ability  and  one  familiar  vviuzet 
with  the  scholastic  learning  of  the  age.     He  began  life  as 
master  of   Linlithgow  school   and   subsequently  became 
abbot  of  St  James's  at  Ratisbon.     He  wrote  .several  tracts 
in  which  he  strenuously  recommended  the  observance  of 
certain  popish  festivals.     In  1562  he  published  his  Bulcc 
of  Four  Scoir  Thrie  Questions  tuchijig  Doctrine,  Ordom;  and 
Maneris  ]:iroponit  to  the  Prechouris  of  the  Protestantis  in 
Scotland  and  dcliverit    to    Jhone   Knox  the  20th  day  of 
February  1562.     The  writings  of  James  VI.,  who  was  a-J.-imes 
man  of  scholarly  attainments,  embrace  several  works  both  ^^■ 
in  poetry  and  prose.     His  earliest  production,  published 
in  1584,  when  lie  was  only  eighteen,  was  the  Essayes  of 
a  Prentice  in  the  Divine  Art  of  Poesie.     This  was  followed 
by  his  poetical  Exercises  at    Vacant  Zfowrcs  (1591).     He 
also  wrote  a  great  many  sonnets   and  a  translation  of 
the  Psalms.     His   prose  works  are   Da-monologie  (1597), 
BacriAiKo;'  Aw/jor  (1599),    Counterblast  to   Tobacco,   Para- 
phrase on  Revelation,  Law  of  Free  Monarchies,  <tc.    Among 
tJie  Scottish  poets  who  frequented  his  court  were  William 
Fowler,  the  elegant  translator  of  the  Triumphs  of  Petrarch, 
and  Stewart  of  Baldinnies  (Perth),  a  translator  of  Ariosto. 
Both  these  poets  wrote  other  works  which  exist  in  MS., 
but  are  still  unpublished.    The  zeal  of  'Sir  David  Lyndsay  Reli- 
and  others  for  the  reformation  of  the  church  initiated  as*""' 
religious  revival,  and  in  1597  was  published  the  collection  t'™'^ 
known  as  Ane  Compendious  Booke  of  Godly  and  Spiritual 
Sangs  for  avoiding  of  Sinne  and  Harlotrie.     This  very 
curious  work  is  attributed  to  John  and  Robert  Wedder- 
burn,  the  latter  of  whom  was  vicar  of  Dundee.    A  number 
of  religious  poems  were  written  about  the  end  of  the  16th 
century  by  James  Melville,  minister  of  Anstruther,  after- 
wards of  Kilrenny,  both  in  Fife.     His  Morning    Vision, 
printed   in   1598,   consists  of  i)araphrases  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  "Shorter  Catechism,  and  the  Ten  Command- 
ments.    He  also  wrote  the  Black  Bastel,  a  lamentation  over 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  which  is  dated  1611.     Another 
religious- poet  was  James  Cockburn,  a  native  of  Lanark- 
shire, who  wrote  Gabriel's  Salutation  to  Marie  (1605),  and 
some  other  poems   not  destitute  of  merit.     An  eminent 
theological  writer  of  this  era,  Robert  Pollock,  first  principal 
of  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  wrote  many  commentaries 
on  the  Scriptures  which  show  extensive  learning.     Most 
are  in  Latin  ;  but  one  or  two  are  in  the  Scottish  language. 
A  very  popular  poem,  the  Cherrie  and  the  Slae,  first  printed  :Moiit- 
by  Waldegrave  at  Edinburgh  in   1597,  afterwards  went  snnierk. 
through  many  editions.     Its  author  was  Alexander  Mont- 
gomerie,  v.-ho  also  wrote  some  translations  of  the  Psalms 
and   the    Fit/ting   bctioi.H   Montgomerie  and  Pohcarth,   in 
imitation  of  Dunbar's  Flyting  with  Kennedie.     In   1599 
was  published  an  interesting  volume  of  poems  written  by 
Alexander  Hume,  entitled  Hymnes  or  Sacred  Songs,  wherein 
the  Right  Use  of  Poesie  may  be  espied.    One  is  on  the  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  Armada.     To  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  belongs  a  comedy  in  rhyming  stanza,  the  authorship 
of  which  is  unknown, — Ane  rerie  Excellent  and  Delectabill 
Treatise  intituHt  Philotus,  quhetirin  we  may  perceive  the  Greit 
Inconvenie7ices  thatfallis  out  in  the  Marriage  bctuix  Aige  and 
Youth  (1603).     Its  versification  is  easy  and  pleasant,  and 
its  plan  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  modern  drama  than 
the  .satire  of  Lyndsay.     In  the  same  year  ajipeared  the 
poems  of  Sir  William  Alexander  (?.('.),  earl  of  Stirling.  Sir 
One,  called  Doomsday,  or  the  Great  Day  of  the  Lord's  Judy-  Williaai 
ment,  consists  of  1 1,0(>0  verses.    His  Monarrhiche  Tragedies,  ^^^y-' 
four  in  number,  were  not  intended  for  representation  on 
the  stage.      His  exhortation  or  Parscnesis  to  Prince  Henry 
(1604)  is  his  best  poem.      He  also  wrote  Recreations  wit/i 
the  Muses  (1637),  which  is  of  a  somewhat  philosophical 
character.     One  of  the  most  distinguished  writers  of  this 
era  was  William  Dk  tmmond  (j.f.)  of  Hawthornden,  who 


s  c  o  — s  c  o 


543 


Dnini- 
iBOmi  of 
H»vr- 

Ihnrn- 

dOQ. 


Mannay. 


Met  be- 
mati- 


Hiila- 
•joplicrs. 


Writera 
nD  juria- 
t>rad- 


Mddical 
vmtera. 


publishedPofms,  amorous,  funerall,  d{vi7ie,  pastorall  (1616), 
and  Flowers  of  Zion,  or  Spiritual  Poems  (1623).  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  Scotland  during  the  Reigns  of  the  Five 
Jameses' (1655),  some  political  tracts,  and  the  Cypress 
Grove,  a  moral  treatise  in  prose.  As  a  writer  of  sonnets 
he  has  always  been  highly  esteemed.  Nearly  contemporary 
with  Drummond  was  Patrick  Hannay,  a  native  of  Gallo- 
way, who  seems  to  have  followed  James  to  England.  He 
published  his  poems  in  1622,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Philomela  the  Nightingale  and  Sheretrine  and  Mariana. 
He  occupies  a  favourable  position  amongst  the  minor 
Scottish  poets.  After  the  removal  of  the  Scottish  court 
to  London  and  the  union  of  the  crowns  in  1603,  the  old 
language  began  to  be  considered  as  a  provincial  dialect ; 
and  the  writers  subsequent  to  Drummond,  who  was  the 
first  Scottish  poet  that  wrote  well  in  English,  take  their 
places  amongst  British  authors. 

To  the  short  sketch  above  given  may  be  added  a  notice  of  the 
early  Scottish  writers  on  mathematics,  philosopliy,  jurisprudence, 
and  medicine.  In  mathematical  science  the  name  of  Joannes 
Sacro  Bosco  (John  Holywood  or  Holybush)  may  be  mentioned,  as 
he  is  believed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Nithsdale  and  a  canon  of 
the  monastery  of  Holywood,  from  which  he  took  his  name.  He 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  13th  ceutury,  and  liis  treatise 
De  Sphera  Mundi  was  very  generally  taught  in  colleges  and  schools. 
The  system  of  astronomy  and  the  other  mathematical  treatises  of 
James  Bassantie,  who  taught  at  Paris  about  1560  with  much  success, 
were  celebrated  in  their  time.  The  greatest  of  the  Scottish  mathe- 
maticians, however,  was  John  Napier  {q.v. )  of  Merchiston,  who 
wrote  on  various  kindred  subjects,  and  in  1614  astonished  the 
world  by  his  discovery  of  logaritlims.  In  philosophy,  besides  the 
voluminous  works  of  Duns  Scotus  and  John  Major  already  men- 
tioned, various  learned  contmcntaries  on  Aristotle,  of  which  Scottish 
philosophy  then  almost  entirely  consisted,  were  published  by 
KobertBalfour,  principal  of  the  college  of  Guienne;  by  John  Ruther- 
ford, professor  of  philosophy  at  St  Andrews  (under  whom  Admirable 
Crichton  was  a  pupil) ;  and  by  James  Cheyne,  professor  of  philosophy 
at  DouaL  In  jurisprudence  a  celebrated  treatise  on  the  Feudal 
Lavo  was  written  by  Sir  Thomas  Craig  about  1603.  It  was  not, 
however,  published  till  about  half  a  century  after  his  death,  as  the 
printing  of  any  treatise  on  the  law  of  Scotland  wliile  he  lived  secnts 
to  have  been  considered  as  out  of  the  question.  Commentaries  on 
some  of  the  titles  of  the  Paiidcda  of  Justinian,  and  a  treatise  Vi: 
Potcstate  Papm  (1609),  in  opposition  to  the  usurpation  of  temporal 

flower  by  the  pope,  were  written  by  AVilliam  Barclay,  professor  of 
aw  in  the  university  of  Angers.  Another  early  legal  work  was  a 
treatise  On  thi  Connexion  betivcen  Government  and  liehgion,  by 
Adam  Blackwood,  judge  of  the  parloment  of  Poitiers,  who  was  the 
antagonist  of  Buchanan  and  a  strenuous  defender  of  Mary  queen 
of  Scots.  In  medicine  the  principal  early  Scottish  works  were 
written  by  Duncan  Liddell,  a  native  of  Aberdeen,  who  in  1605 
published  at  Helmstiidt  liis  Dispiitationcs  medicinalcs,  containing 
the  theses  or  disputations  maintained  by  himself  and  his  pnpils 
from  1592  to  1606.  He  also  published  other  works,  which  contain 
an  able  digest  of  the  medical  learning  of  his  age^  Henry  Blackwood, 
dean  of  faculty  to  the  college  of  physicians  at  Paris,  wrote  various 
treatises  on  medicine,  of  wliich  a  list  will  bo  found  in  Mackenzie's 
Live3  of  the  Scottish  IVriters,  but  which  are  now  only  historically 
interesting.  (J.  SM. ) 

SCOTT,  David  (1806-18-49),  historical  painter,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  October  1806,  and  studied  under  his  father, 
Robert  Scott,  an  engraver  of  repute  in  the  city.  For  a 
time  in  his  youth  he  occupied  himself  with  the  burin ; 
but  he  soon  turned  his  attention  to  original  work  in  colour, 
and  in  1828  he  exhibited  his  first  oil  picture,  the  Hopes  of 
Early  Genius  dispelled  by  Death,  which  was  followed  by 
Cain,  Nimrod,  Adam  and  Eve  singing  their  Morning 
Hymn,  Saqjedon  carried  by  Sleep  and  Death,  and  other 
subjects  of  a  poetic  and  imaginative  character.  In  1829 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Scottish  Academy,  and  in 
1832  visited  Italy,  where  he  spent  more  than  a  y^ar  in 
btudy.  At  Rome  he  executed  a  large  symbolical  painting, 
entitled  the  Agony  of  Discord,  or  the  Household  Gods 
Destroyed.  On  his  return  to  Scotland  he  continued  tlie 
strenuous  and  unwearied  practice  of  his  art ;  but  his  pro- 
ductions were  too  recondite  and  abstract  in  subject  ever  to 
become  widely  popular,  while  the  defects  anti  exaggerations 
of    their  draftsmanship   repelled   connoisseurs.      So   the 


gravity  which  had  always  been  characteristic  of  the  artist 
passed  into  gloom ;  he  shrank  from  society  and  led  a 
secluded  life,  hardly  quitting  his  studio,  his  mind  con- 
stantly occupied  with  the  great  problems  of  life  and  of 
his  art.  The  works  of  his  later  years  include  Vasco  da 
Gama  encountering  the  Spirit  of  the  Storm,  a  picture- 
immense  in  size  and  most  powerful  in  conception — finished 
in  18i2,  and  now  preserved  in  the  Trinity  House,  Leith ; 
the  Dulce  of  Gloucester  entering  the  ^Yater  Gate  of  Calais 
(18il),  an  impressive  subject,  more  complete  and  har- 
monious in  execution  than  was  usual  with  the  artist ;  the 
Alchemist  (1838),  Queen  Elizabeth  at  the  Globe  Theatre 
(1840),  and  Peter  the  Hermit  (1845),  remarkable  for  their 
varied  and  elaborate  character-painting ;  and  Ariel  and 
Caliban  (1837)  and  the  Triumph  of  Love  (1846),  distin- 
guished by  their  beauty  of  colouring  and  depth  of  poetic 
feeling.  The  most  important  of  his  religious  subjects  are 
the  Descent  from  the  Cross  (1835)  and  the  Crucifixion — 
the  Dead  Rising  (1844).  In  addition  to  his  works  in 
colour  Scott  executed  several  remarkable  series  of  designs. 
Two  of  these — the  Monograms  of  Man  and  the  illustra- 
tions to  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner — were  etched  by  his 
own  hand,  and  published  in  1831  and  1837  respectively, 
while  his  subjects  from  the  Pi/grim's  Progress  and  Nichol's 
Architecture  of  the  Heavens  were  issued  after  his  death. 
Among  his  literary  productions  are  five  elaborate  and 
thoughtful  articles  on  the  characteristics  of  the  Italian 
masters,  published  in  Blackwood s  Magazine,  1839  to  1841, 
and  a  pamphlet  on  British,  French,  and  German  Painting, 
1841.  He  died  in  Edinburgh  on  the  5th  of  March  1849. 
As  a  colourist  David  Scott  occupies  a  high  place  in  the 
Scottish  school,  but  the  most  distinctive  merit  of  his  works 
lies  in  the  boldness  of  their  conception  and  their  imagina- 
tive and  poetic  power. 

See  W.  B.  Scott,  Memoir  of  David  Scott,  R.S.A.  (1850),  and 
J.  SI.  Gray,  David  Scott,  B.S.A.,  and  his  Works  (183«). 

SCOTT,  Sir  George  Gilbert  (1811-1878),  one  of  the 
most  successful  ecclesiastical  architects  of  the  19th  century, 
was  born  in  1811  at  Gawcott  near  Buckingham,  where  his 
father  was  rector ;  his  grandfather  was  Thomas  Scott 
(1747-1821),  the  well-known  commentator  on  the  Bible. 
In  1827  young  Scott  was  apprenticed  for  four  years  to  an 
architect  in  London  named  Edmeston,  and  at  the  end  of 
his  pupildom  acted  as  clerk  of  the  works  at  the  new 
Fishmongei-s'  Hall  and  other  buildings  in  order  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  the  practical  details  of  his  profession.  In 
Edmeston's  ofiice  he  became  acquainted  with  a  fellow- 
pupil,  named  Moflat,  a  man  who  possessed  considerable 
talents  for  the  purely  business  part  of  an  architect's  work, 
and  the  two  entered  into  partnership.  In  1834  they 
were  appointed  architects  to  the  union  workhouses  of 
Buckinghamshire,  and  for  four  years  were  busily  occupied 
in  building  a  number  of  cheap  and  ugly  unions,  both  there 
and  in  Northamptonshire  and  Lincolnshire.  In  1838 
Scott  built  at  Lincoln  his  first  church,  won  in  an  open 
competition,  and  this  was  quickly  followed  by  six  others, 
all  very  poor  buildings  without  chancels ;  that  was  a 
period  when  church  building  in  England  had  reached  its 
very  lowest  point  both  in  style  and  in  poverty  of  construc- 
tion. About  1839  his  enthusiasm  was  aroused  by  some 
of  the  eloquent  writings  of  Pugin  on  medieval  architect- 
tu-e,  and  by  the  various  papers  on  ecclesiastical  subjects 
published  by  the  Camden  Society.  These  opened  a  new 
world  to  Scott,  and  he  thenceforth  studied  and  imitated 
the  architectural  styles  and  principles  of  the  Middle  Ages 
with  the  utmost  zeal  and  patient  care.  The  first  result  of 
this  new  study  was  his  design  for  the  Martyrs'  Memorial 
at  Oxford,  erected  in  1840,  a  clever  adaptation  of  the  late 
13th-century  crosses  in  honour  of  Queen  Eleanor.  From 
that  time  Scott  became  the  chief  ecclesiastical  architect  ia 


544 


SCOTT 


England,  and  in  the  next  twenty-eight  years  completed 
an  almost  incredibly  large  number  of  new  churches  and 
"restorations,"  the  fever  for  whicli  was  fomented  by  the 
Ecclesiological  Society  and  the  growth  of  ecclesiastical 
feeling  in  England. 

In  1844  Scott  won  the  first  premium  in  the  competition 
for  the  new  Lutheran  church  at  Hamburg,  a  noble  building 
with  a  very  lofty  spire,  de.oigni'H  alri(,-tly  in  tho  style  of  the 
13th  century.  In  the  following  year  his  jiartnership  with 
Moffat  was  dissolved,  and  in  1847  Scott  was  employed  to 
renovate  and  refit  Ely  cathedral,  the  first  of  a  long  series 
of  English  cathedral  and  abbey  churches  which  passed 
through  his  hands.  In  1851  Scott  visited  and  studied  the 
architecture  of  the  chief  towns  in  northern  Italy,  and  in 
1855  won  the  competition  for  the  town-house  at  tiamOurg, 
designed  after  the  model  of  similar  buildings  in  north 
Germany.  In  spite  of  his  having  won  the  first  prize, 
■mother  architect  was  selected  to  construct  the  building, 
ifter  a  very  inferior  design.  In  lS5fl  a  .>>n:p.t;',iun  iva^ 
bi  Id  for  designs  of  the  new  GovvrLn.oiit  omces  in  London  ; 
fcrott  obtained  the  third  place  in  this,  but  the  work  was 
afterwards  given  to  him  on  the  condition  (insisted  on  by 
Lf  rd  Palmerston)  that  he  should  make  a  new  design,  not 
Gf^ohic,  but  Classic  or  Renaissance  in  style.  This  Scott 
very  unwillingly  consented  to  do,  as  he  had  little  sympathy 
with  any  stylos  but  those  of  England  or  France  from  the 
13tb  to  the  15th  century.  In  18G2-C3  he  was  employed  to 
design  and  construct  the  Albert  Memorial,  a  very  costly 
and  elaborate  work,  in  the  style  of  a  magnified  13th-century 
reliquary  oi  ciborium,  adorned  with  many  statues  and  re- 
liefs in  bronze  and  marble.  On  the  partial  completion  of 
this  he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  18G6  he 
competed  for  the  new  London  law-courts,  but  the  ])nze  was 
adjudged  to  his  old  pupii,  CJ.  E.  Street.  In  1873,  owing 
to  illness  caused  by  overwork,  Scott  spent  some  time  in 
Rome  and  other  parts  of  Italy.  The  mosaic  pavement 
which  he  designed  for  Durham  cathcdi-al  soon  afterwards 
was  the  result  of  his  study  of  the  13th-century  mosaics  in 
the  old  basilicas  of  Rome.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
resumed  his  professional  labours,  and  continued  to  work 
almost  without  intermission  till  his  short  illness  and  death 
in  1878.  He  was  buried  in  the  uave  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  an  engraved  brass,  designed  by  G.  E.  Street, 
was  placed  over  his  grave.  In  1838  Scott  married  his 
cousin,  Caroline  Oldrid,  who  died  in  1870  ;  they  had  five 
sons,  two  of  whom  have  taken  up  their  father's  profession. 

Scott's  architectural  works  were  more  numerous  than  those  of 
any  other  architect  of  the  century  ;  uiifoitumttely  for  his  fame,  he 
undertook  far  more  tlian  it  was  possible  for  hinl  really  to  desigu  or 
supervise  witli  tliouglit  and  care.  He  carried  out  extensive  works 
pf  repair,  refuruishing,  and  restoration  in  t!ie  following  buildings: 
— the  cathedrals  of  Ely,  Hereford,  Lichfield,  Salisbury,  Chichester, 
Durham,  St  David's,  Bangor,  St  Asa{ih,  Chester,  Gloucester,  Ripon, 
^Vorcestc^,  Exeter,  Rochester,  the  itbbcys  of  AVcstminster,  St  Albans, 
Tewkesbury,  and  coujitless  minor  churches.  He  also  uuilt  the  new 
Government  offices  (rndin,  Foreigii,  Home,  and  Colonial),  the  Mid- 
land Railway  terminus  and  hotel,  and  a  large  number  of  private 
houses  and  other  buildings.  His  stylo  was  (with  the  one  exception 
of  the  Government  offices)  a  careful  copy  of  architectural  periods 
■of  the  Middle  Ages,  used  with  a  profound  knowledge  of  detail,  but 
without  much  real  inventive  power,  aird  conseiiuently  rather  dull 
and  uninteresting  in  eflect.  As  a  "restorer"  of  ancient  buildings  ho 
was  guilty  of  an  immense  amount  of  the  most  irreparable  destruc- 
tion, but  any  other  architect  of  his  generation  would  probably  have 
done  as  much  or  even  more  harm.  While  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  Scott  held  for  many  year°  ^h,"  post  ./f  ptofcaaut  ol  arclu- 
tecture,  and  gave  a  long  senr?  of  ..bio  lecLuiea  on  medi.'pval  styles, 
which  were  published  in  1879.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Domestic 
ArchitcctiLi-c,  and  a  volume  of  Personal  and  Professional  Recollections, 
which,  edited  hy  his  eldest  son,  w-as  published  in  1879,  and  also  a 
large  number  of  articles  and  reports  on  many  of  the  ancient  build- 
lu^^  with  which  lie  had  to  deal.  Owing  to  his  numerous  pupils, 
among  whom  have  been  many  leading  architects,  his  influence  was 
for  some  time  very  widely  spread  ;  but  it  is  now  n'pidly  passing 
*way,  maiuly  owing  to  the  growing  reaction  against  \  he  somewhat 


narrow  mcdisevalism  of  which  he,  both  in  theory  and  practice,  was 
the  chief  exponent. 

SCOTT,  John.     See  Eldon,  Earl  op. 

SCOTT,  MicHAiEi,.     See  Scot,  Michael. 

SCOTT,  Sir  Walter  (1771-1832),  poet  and  novelist, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  15th  August  1771.  His  pedi- 
gree, in  which  he  took  a  pride  that  strongly  influenced  tlie 
course  of  his  life,  may  bo  given  in  the  words  of  his  own 
iragmcnt  of  autobiography.  "  My  birth  was  neither  dis- 
tinguished nor  sordid.  Ac-ording  to  the  prejudices  of  my 
country  it  was  esteemed  gentle,  as  I  was  connected,  though 
remotely,  with  ancient  families  both  by  my  father's  and 
mother's  side.  My  father's  grandfather  was  Walter  Scott, 
well  known  by  the  name  of  Beardie.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Walter  Scott,  first  laird  of  Raeburn,  who  was  third 
son  of  Sir  William  Scott,  and  the  grandson  of  Walter  Scott, 
commonly  called  in  tradition  Aidd  Watt  of  Harden.  I 
am  therefore  lineally  descended  from  that  ancient  chief- 
tain, whose  name  I  have  made  to  ring  in  many  a  ditty, 
and  from  his  fair  dame,  the  Flower  of  Yarfow, — no  bad 
genealogy  for  a  Border  minstrel." 

Scott's  desire  to  be  known  as  a  cadet  of  the  house  of 
Harden,  and  his  ruling  passion — so  disastrous  in  its 
ultimate  results — to  found  a  minor  territorial  family  of 
Scotts,  have  been  very  variously  estimated.  He  himself, 
in  a  notice  of  John  Home,  speaks  uf  j.riJe  of  family  as 
"  natural  to  a  man  of  imagination,"  remarking  that,  "  in 
this  motley  world,  the  family  pride  of  the  north  country 
has  its  effects  of  good  and  of  evil."  Whether  the  good  or 
I  the  evil  preponderated  in  Scott's  own  case  would  not  be 
I  easy  to  determine.  It  tempted  him  into  courses  that 
I  ended  in  commercial  ruin  ;  but  throughout  his  life  it  was 
a  constant  spur  to  e.xertion,  and  in  his  last  years  it  proved 
itself  as  a  working  principle  capable  of  inspiring  and  main- 
taining a  most  chivalrous  conception  of  duty.  If  the 
ancient  chieftain  Auld  Watt  was,  according  to  the  anecdote 
told  by  his  illustrious  descendant,  once  reduced  in,  the 
matter  of  live  stock  to  a  single  cow,  and  recovered  his 
dignity  by  stealing  the  cows  of  his  English  neighbours. 
Professor  Veitch  is  probably  right  in  holding  that  Scott's 
Border  ancestry  were,  as  a  matter  of  literal  fact,  sheep- 
farmers,  who  varied  their  occupation  by  "  lifting"  sheep 
and  cattle,  and  whatever  else  was  "  neither  too  heavy 
nor  too  hot."  The  Border  lairds  were  really  a  race  of 
shepherds  in  so  far  as  they  were  not  a  race  of  robbers. 
Professor  Veitch  suggests  that  Scott  may  have  derived 
from  this  pastoral  ancestry  an  hereditary  bias  towards  the 
observation  of  nature  and  the  enjoyment  of  open-air  life. 
He  certainly  inherited  from  them  the  robust  strength  of 
constitution  that  carried  him  successfully  through  oo  many 
e.xhausting  labours.  And  it  was  his  pride  in  their  real 
or  supposed  fetidai  dignity  and  their  rough  marauding 
exploits  that  first  directed  him  to  tire  study  of  Border 
history  and  poetry,  the  basis  of  his  fame  as  a  poet  and 
romancer.  His  father,  a  writer  to  the  signet  (or  attorney) 
in  Edinburgh — the  original  of  .the  elder  Fairford  in  Rcct- 
gaunlUt — was  the  first  of  the  family  to  adopt  a  town  life 
or  a  learned  profei,slon.  His  mother  was  the  daughter  of 
Dr  Rutherford,  a  medical  professor  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  who  also  traced  descent  from  the  chiefs  of 
famous  Border  clans.  The  ceilings  of  Abbotsford  display 
the  arms  of  about  a  dozen  Border  families  with  which 
Scott  claimed  kindred  through  one  side  or  the  other.  His 
father  was  conspicuous  for  mothorlical  and  thorough  in- 
dustry ;  his  mother  was  a  woman  of  imagination  and  cul- 
ture. The  son  seems  to  have  inherited  the  best  qualities 
of  tho  olio  ctnJ  acquired  the  best  oualities  of  the  other. 

The  details  of  his  car:y  education  are  given  with  great 
precision  in  his  autobiography.  Stuart  Mill  was  not  more 
minute  In  recording  the  various  circumstances  that  shaped 


SCOTT 


545 


bia  habits  of  mind  and  work.  We  learn  from  himself  the 
fecret — as  much  at  least  as  could  be  ascribed  to  definite  ex- 
traneous accident — of  the  "  extempore  speed  "  in  romantic 
composition  against  which  Carlyle  protested  in  his  famous 
review  of  Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott}  The  indignant  critic 
assumed  that  Scott  wrote  "  without  preparation";  Scott 
himself,  as  if  he  had  foreseen  this  cavil,  is  at  pains  to  show 
that  the  preparation  began  with  his  boyhood,  almost  with 
his  infancy.  The  current  legend  when  Carlyle  wrote  his 
essay  was  that  as  a  boy  Scott  had  been  a  dunce  and  an 
idler.  With  a  characteristically  conscientious  desire  not  to 
set  a  bad  example,  the  autobiographer  solemnly  declares 
that  he  was  neither  a  dunce  nor  an  idler,  and  explains  how 
the  misunderstanding  arose.  His  health  in  boyhood  was 
uncertain ;  -  he  was  consequently  irregular  in  his  attend- 
ance at  school,  never  became  exact  in  his  knowledge  of 
Latin  syntax,  and  was  so  belated  in  beginning  Greek  that 
out  of  bravado  he  resolved  not  to  learn  it  at  all. 

Left  very  much  to  himself  throughout  his  boyhood '  in 
the  matter  of  reading,  so  quick,  lively,  excitable,  and  un- 
certain in  health  that  it  was  considered  dangerous  to 
press  him  and  prudent  rather  to  keep  him  back,  Scott 
began  at  a  very  early  age  to  accumulate  the  romantic 
lore  of  which  he  afterwards  made  such  splendid  use.  As 
a  child  he  seems  to  have  been  an  eager  and  interested 
listener  and  a  great  favourite  with  his  elders,  apparently 
having  even  then  the  same  engaging  charm  that  made 
him  so  much  beloved  as  a  man.  Chance  threw  him  in 
the  way  of  many  who  were  willing  to  indulge  his  delight 
in  stories  and  ballads.  Not  only  his  own  relatives — the 
old  women  at  his  grandfather's  farm  at  Sandyknowe,  his 
aunt,  under  whose  charge  he  was  sent  to  Bath  for  a  year, 
his  mother — took  an  interest  in  the  precocious  boy's  cjues- 
tions,  toli  him  tales  of  Jacobites  and  Border  worthies  of 
his  own  and  other  clans,  but  casual  friends  of  the  family 
— such  as  Jhe  military  veteran  at  Prestonpans,  old  Dr 
Blacklock  the  blind  poet.  Home  the  autho;  of  Douglas, 
Adam  Ferguson  the  martial  historian  of  the  Roman 
republic — helped  forward  his  education  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  bent  of  his  genius  lay.     At  the  age  of  six 


I 


^  Latest  edition  in  10  vols.  fcap.  8vo,  Edinburgh,  1847-43. 

-  Dr  Charles  Creighton  supplies  us  with  the  following  medical  note 
on  Scott's  early  illness  : — ■"  Scott's  lameness  was  owing  to  an  arrest  of 
growth  in  the  right  leg  in  infancy.  When  he  was  eighteen  months  old 
he  had  a  feverish  attack  lasting  three  days,  at  the  end  of  -which  time 
it  was  found  that  he  'had  lost  the  power  of  his  right  leg,' — i.e.,  the 
child  instinctively  declined  to  move  the  ailing  member.  The  malady 
was  .1  swelling  at  the  ankle,  and  either  consisted  in  or  gave  rise  to 
arrest  of  the  bone-forming  function  along  the  growing  line  of  cartilage 
which  connects  the  lower  epiphysis  of  each  of  the  two  leg-bones  with 
its  shaft.  In  his  fourth  year,  when  he  had  otherwise  recovered,  the 
leg  remained 'much  shrunk  and  contracted,'  The  limb  would  have 
been  blighted  very  much  more  if  the  arrest  of  growth  had  t.iken  place 
at  thempper  epiphysis  of  the  tibia  or  the  lower  epiphysis  of  the  femur. 
The  narrowness  and  peculiar  depth  of  Scott's  head  point  to  some  more 
general  congenital  error  of  bone-making  allied  to  rickets  but  certainly 
not  the  same  as  that  malady.  The  vault  of  the  skull  is  the  typical 
*  scaphoid '  or  boat-shaped  formation,  due  to  premature  union  of  the  two 
parietal  bones  along  the  sagittal  suture.  When  the  bones  of  the  cranium 
are  universally  affected  with  that  arrest  of  growth  along  their  formative 
edges,  the  sutures  become  prematurely  fixed  and  effaced,  so  th.at  the 
brain-case  cannot  expand  in  any  direction  to  accommodate  the  growing 
brain.  This  universal  synostosis  of  the  cranial  bones  is  what  occurs  in 
the  case  of  microcephalous  iaiots.  It  happened  to  me  to  show  to  an 
eminent  French  anthropologist  a  specimen  of  a  miniature  or  micro- 
cephalic skull  preser%'cd  in  the  Cambridge  museum  of  anatomy  ;  the 
French  scimtit,  holding  up  the  skull  and  pointing  to  the  '  scaphoid '  vault 
of  lliO  crown  and  the  effaced  sagittal  suture,  exclaimed  '  Voili  Walter 
Scott  I'  Scott  had  fortunately  escaped  the  early  closure  or  arrest  of 
growth  at  other  cranial  sutures  than  the  sagittal,  so  thirt  the  growing 
brain  could  make  room  for  Itself  by  forcing  up  the  vault  of  the  skull 
bodily.  \Vhen  his  head  was  opened  after  death,  it  was  observed  that 
*the  brain  was  not  large,  and  the  cranium  thinner  than  it  is  usually 
found  to  be.'  In  favour  of  the  theory  of  congenital  liability  it  has  to 
bo  laid  that  he  was  the  ninth  of  a  family  of  whom  the'  first  six  died 
in  '  very  early  youth. '  " 


he  was  able  to  define  himself  as  "a  virtuoso,"  "one  who 
wishes  to  and  will  know  everything."  At  ten  his  collec- 
tion of  chap-books  and  ballads  had  reached  several  volumes, 
and  he  was  a  connoisseur  in  various  readings.  Thus  he 
took  to  the  High  School,  Edinburgh,  when  he  was  strong 
enough  to  be  put  in  regular  attendance,  an  unusual  store 
of  miscellaneous  knowledge  and  an  unusually  quickened 
intelligence,  so  that  his  master  "  pronounced  that,  though 
many  of  his  schoolfellows  understood  the  Latin  better, 
Gualterus  Scott  was  behind  few  in  following  and  enjoying 
the  author's  meaning." 

Throughout  his  school  days  and  afterwards  when  he 
was  apprenticed  to  his  father,  attended  university  classes, 
read  for  the  bar,  took  part  in  academical  and  professional 
debating  societies,  Scott  steadily  and  ardently  pursued 
his  own  favourite  studies.  His  reading  in  romance  and 
history  was  really  study,  and  not  merely  the  indulgence 
of  an  ordinary  schoolboy's  promiscuous  appetite  for  excit- 
ing literature.  In  fact,  even  as  a  schoolboy  he  special- 
ized. He  followed  the  line  of  overpowering  inclination  j 
and  even  then,  as  he  frankly  tells  us,  "  fame  was  the 
spur."  He  acquired  a  reputation  among  his  schoolfellows 
for  out-of-the-way  knowledge,  and  also  for  story-telling, 
and  he  worked  hard  to  maintain  this  character,  which 
compensated  to  his  ambitious  spirit  his  indififerent  distinc- 
tion in  ordinary  school- work.  The  youthful  "  virtuoso," 
though  he  read  ton  times  the  usual  allowance  of  novels 
from  the  circulating  library,  was  carried  by  his  enthusiasm 
into  fields  much  less  generally  attractive.  He  was  still  a 
schoolboy  when  he  mastered  French  sufficiently  well  to 
read  through  collections  of  old  French  romances,  and  not 
more  than  fifteen  when,  attracted  by  translations  to  Italian 
romantic  literature,  he  learnt  the  language  in  order  to  read 
Dante  and  Ariosto  in  the  original.  This  willingness  to 
face  dry  work  in  the  pursuit  of  romantic  reading  affords 
a  measure  of  the  strength  of  Scott's  passion.  In  one  of  the 
literary  parties  brought  together  to  lionize  Burns,  when 
the  peasant  poet  visited  Edinburgh,  the  boy  of  fifteen 
was  the  only  member  of  the  company  who  could  tell  the 
source  of  some  lines  affixed  to  a  picture  that  had  attracted 
the  poet's  attention,  —  a  slight  but  significant  evidence 
both  of  the  width  of  his  reading  and  of  the  tenacity  of 
his  memory.-  The  same  thoroughness  appears  in  another 
little  circumstance.  He  took  an  interest  in  Scottish  family 
history  and  genealogy,  but,  not  content  with  the  ordinary 
sources,  he  ransacked  the  MSS.  preserved  in  the  Advocates' 
Library.  By  the  time  he  was  one  and  twenty  he  had 
acquired  such  a  reputation  for  his  skill  in  deciphering  old 
manusc;-ipto  that  his  assistance  was  sought  by  professional 
antiquaries. 

This  early,  assiduous,  unintermittent  study  was  the 
main  secret,  over  and  above  his  natural  gifts,  of  Scott's 
extempore  speed  and  fertility  when  at  last  he  found  forms 
into  which  to  pour  his  vast  accumulation  of  historical  and 
romantic  lore.  He  was,  as  he  said  himself,  "like  an 
ignorant  gamester  who  keeps  up  a  good  hand  till  he 
knows  how  to  play  it."  That  he  had  vague  thoughts 
from  a  much  earlier  period  than  is  commonly  supposed 
of  playing  the  hand  some  day  is  extremely  probable,  if, 
as  he  tells  us,  the  idea  of  wTiting  romances  first  occurred 
to  him  when  he  read  Cervantes  in  the  original.  This  was 
long  before  he  was  out  of  his  teens ;  and,  if  we  add  that 
his  leading  idea  in  his  first  novel  was  to  depict  a  Jacobitic 
Don  Quixote,  we  can  Sco  that  there  was  probably  a  .'  ..^ 
interval  between  the  first  conception  of  Waverley  and  the 
idtiraate  completion. 

Scott's  preparation  for  painting  the  life  of  past  times  wr 
probably  much  less  unconsciously  such  than  hii  equa' 
thorough  preparation  for  acting  as  the  painter  of  Scotti... 
manners  and  character  in  all  grades  of  society.     With  f " 

xxr  —  fio 


546 


SCOTT 


the  osteut  of  his  reading  as  a  schoolboy  and  a  young  man 
ha  was  far  from  being  a  cloistoral  student,  absorbed  in  his 
books.  In  spite  of  his  lameness  and  his  serious  illnesses 
in  youth,  his  constitution  was  naturally  robust,  his  dis- 
position genial,  his  spii-its  high :  he  was  always  well  to 
the  front  in  the  fights  and  frolics  of  the  High  School,  and 
a  boon  companion  in  the  "high  jisks"  of  the  junior  bar. 
Tho  future  novelist's  experience  of  life  was  singularly  rich 
and  varied.  While  he  lived  the  life  of  imagination  and 
scholarship  in  sjTupathy  with  a  few  choice  friends,  he  was 
brought  into  intimate  daily  contact  with  many  varieties  of 
real.Ufe.  At  home  he  had  to  behave  as  became  a  member 
of  a  Puritanic,  somewhat  ascetic,  well-ordered  Scottish 
household,  subduing  his  own  inclinations  towards  a  more 
graceful  and  comfortable  scheme  of  living  into  outward  con- 
formity with  his  fathers  strict  rule.  Through  his  mother's 
family  he  obtained  access  to  the  literary  society  of  Edin- 
burgh, at  that  time  electrified  by  the  advent  of  Burns, 
ftiU.of  vigour  and  ambition,  rejoicing  in  the  possession  of 
not  a  few  widely  known  men  of  letters,  philosophers, 
historians,  novelists,  and  critics,  from  racy  and  eccentric 
Monboddo  to  refined  and  scholarly  Mackenzie.  In  that 
Bociety  also  he  may  have  found  the  materials  for  the 
manners  and  characters  of  St  Ronan's  Well.  From  any 
tendency  to  the  pedantry  of  over-culture  he  was  effectually 
saved  by  the  rougber  and  manlier  spirit  of  his  professional 
comrades,  who,  though  they  respected  belles  lettres,  would 
not  tolerate  anything  in  the  shape  of  affectation  or  senti- 
meutali^m.  The  atmosphere  of  the  Parliament  House  (the 
Westminster  Hall  of  Edinburgh)  had  considerable  influence 
on  the  tone'of  Scott's  novels.  His  peculiar  humour  as  a 
story-teller  and  painter  of  character  was  first  developed 
among  the  young  men-  of  his  own  standing  at  the  bar. 
They  were  the  first  mature  audierfce  on  which  he  experi- 
mented, and  seem  often,  to  have  been  in  his  mind's  eye 
when  he  enlarged  his  public.  From  their  mirthful  com- 
panionship by  the  stove,  where  the  briefless  congregated  • 
to  discuss  knotty  points  in  law  and  help  one  another  to 
enjoy  the  humours  of  judges  and  litigants,  "  Duns  Scotus  " 
often  stole  away  to  pore  over  old  books  and  manuscripts 
in  the  library  beneath ;  but  as  long  as  he  was  with  them 
he  was  first  among  his  peers  in  the  art  of  providing  enter- 
tainment. It  was  to  this  market  that  Scott  brought  the. 
harvest  of  the  vacation  rambles  which  it  was  his  custom 
to  make  every  autunm  for  seven, years  after  his  call  to 
the  bar' and  before  his  marriage.  He  scoured  the  country 
in  search  of  ballads  and  other  relics  of  antiquity ;  but  he 
found  also  and  treasixred  many  traits  of  living  manners, 
many  a  lively  sketch  and  story  with  which  to  amuse  the 
brothers  of  "the  mountain"  on  his  return.  His  staid 
father  did  not  much  like  these  escapades,  and  told  him 
bitterly  that  he  seemed  fit  for  nothing  but  to  be  a  "  gangrel 
scrape-gut."  But,  as  the  companion  of  "his  Liddesdale 
raids"  happily  put  it,  "he  was  mahin'  himsell  a'  the  time,- 
but  ho  didna  ken  maybe  what  he  was  about  tiU  years  had. 
passed  :  at  first  he  thought  p'  little,  I  daresay,  but'  the 
queerness  and  the  fun." 

We  may  as  well  dispose  at  once  of  Scott's  professional 
career.  His  father  intended  him  originally  to  follow  hii 
own  business,  and  he  was  apprenticed  in  his  sixteenth 
year ;  but  he  preferred  the  upper  walk  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession, and  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  faculty  of 
advoca-tes  in  1792.  He  seems  to  have  read'  hard  at  law 
for  four  years  at  least,  but  almost  from  the  first  to  have 
limited  hiis  ambition  to  obtaining  some  comfortable  appoint- 
ment such  as  would  leave  him  a  good  deal  of  leisure  'for 
literary  pursuits.  In  this  he  was  .not  disappointed.  In 
1799  he  obtained  the  office  of  sherifi'-depute  of  Selkirk- 
shire, with  a  salary  of  £30(X  and  very  light  duties.  In 
1806  he  obtained  the  reversion  of  the  office  of  clerk  of 


session.  It  is  sometimes  supposed,  from  tho  immensa 
amount  of  other  work  that  Scott  accomplished,  that  this 
office  was  a  sinecure.  But  the  duties,  which  are  fully 
described  by  Lockhart,  were  really  serious,  and  kept  him 
hard  at  fatiguing  work,  his  biographer  estimates,  tor  at 
least  three  or  four  hours  daily  during  six  months  out  of 
the  twelve,  while  the  court  was  in  session.  He  discharged 
these  duties  faithfully  for  twenty-five  years,  during  tha 
height  of  his  activity  as  an  author.  He  did  not  enter  on 
the  emoluments  of  the  office  till  1812,  but  from  that  time 
he  received  from  the  clerkship  and  the  sheriffdom  combined 
an  income  of  iClGOO  a  year,  being  thus  enabled  to  act  in 
his  literary  undertakings  on  his  often-quoted  maxim  that 
"  literature  should  be  a  staff  aud  not  a  crutch.'' 

Scott's  profession,  in  addition  to  supplying  him  with  a 
competent  livelihood,  supplied  him  also  with  abundance 
of  opportunities  for  the  study  of  men  apd  manners.  Char- 
acters of  all  types  and  shades  find  their  way  into  courts  of 
law.  The  wonder  is  that  so  much  technical  drudgery  did 
not  crush  every  particle  of  romance  out  of  him ;  but  such 
was  the  elasticity  ^nd  strength  of  his  powers  that  this 
daily  attendance  at  the  transaction  of  affairs  in  open  court 
face  to  face  with  living  men — under  a  strain  of  attention 
that  would  have  exhaxisted  an  ordinary  man's  allowance  of 
energy — seems  rather  to  have  helped  him  in  giving  aa 
atmosphere  of  reality  to  his  representations  of  the  life  of 
the  past. 

It  was  not,  however,  as  a  prose  writer  that  he  was  first 
to  make  a  reputation.  The  common  notion  is  that  Scott, 
havuig  made  a  reputation  as  a  poet,  was  led  to  attempt 
romances  in  prose  by  a  chance  impulse,  hitting  upon  the 
new  vein  as  if  by  accident.  The  truth  seems  rather  to 
be  that,  as  it  is  his  prose  romances  which- give  the  fullest 
measure  of  his  genius,  so  the  greater  part  of  his  early  life 
was  'a  conscious  or  unconscious  preparation  for  writing 
tjiem ;  whereas  his  metrical  romances,  in  every  way  slighter 
and  less  rich  and  substantial,  were,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, a  casual  and  temporary  deviation  from  the  main  pur- 
pose of  his  life.  According  to-  his  o-wn  account,  he  was 
led  to  adopt  the  medium  of  verse  by  a  series  of  accidents, 
t'he  story  is  told  by  himself  at  length  an^  with  his 
customary  frankness  and  modesty  in  the  Essay  ore  Imita- 
tions of  ike  Ancient  Ballad,  prefixed  to  the  '1830  edition 
of  his  Border  Minstrelsy,  and  in  the  1830  introduction  to 
the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.  The  first  link  in  the  chain 
was  a  lecture  by  Henry  Mackenzie  on  German  literature, 
delivered  in  1788.  This  apprized  Scott,  who  was  then  a 
legal  apprentice  and  an  enthusiastic  student  of  French  and 
Italian-  romance,  that  there  was  a  fresh  development  of 
romantic  literature  in  German.  As  soon  as  he  had  the 
burden  of  preparation  for  the  bar  off  his  mind  he  learnt 
German,  and  was  profoundly  excited  to  find  a  new  school 
founded  on  the  serious  study  of  a  kind  of  literature  his 
'own  devotion  to  which  was  regarded  by  most  of  his  com- 
pr.nions  -with  wonder  and  ridicule.  We  must  remember 
always  that  Scott  quite  as  much  as  Wordsworth  created 
the  taste  by  which  he,was  enjoyed,  -and  that  in  his  early 
days  he  was  half-ashamed  of  his  romantic  studies,  and 
pursued  them  more  or  less  in  secret  -with  a  few  intimates. 
While  he  was  in  -the  height  of  his  enthusiasm  for  the  new 
Germ&ji  romance,  Mrs  Barbauld  visited  Edinb\u-gh,  and 
recited  an  English  translation  of  Burger's  Lenore.  Scott 
heard  of  it  from  a  friend,  who  was  able  to  repeat  two  lines — 
'■  Tramp,  tramp,  across  the  land  they  speed  ; 
Splash,  splash,  across  the  sea  ! " 
The  two  lines  were  enough  to  give  Scott  a  new  ambition. 
He  could  -write  such  poetry  himself !  The  impulse  was 
strengthened  by  his  reading  Lewis's  MonTc  and  the  ballads 
in  the  German  manner  interspersed  through  the  work. 
He  hastened  to  procare  a  copy  of  Burger,  at  once  executed 


SCOTT 


547 


translations  of  seteral.of  his  ballads,  published  two  of  them 
in  a  thin  quarto  in  1796  (his  ambition  being  perhaps 
quickened  by  the  unfortunate  issue  of  a  love  affair),  and 
was  much  encouraged  by  the  applause  of  his  friends.  Soon 
after  he  nj^t  Lewis  personally,  and  his  ambition  was  con- 
firmed, "  Finding  Lewis,"  he  .says,  "  in  possession  of  so 
much  reputation,  and  conceiving  that  if  I  fell  behind  him 
in  poetical  powers,  I  considerably  exceeded  him  in  general 
information,  I  suddenly  took  it  into  my  head  to  attempt 
the  style  of  poetry  by  which  he  had  raised  himself  to 
fame."  Accordingly,  he  composed  Glenfinlas,  The  Eve  of 
St  John,  and  the  Gray  Brother,  which  were  published  in 
Lewis's  collection  of  Tales  of  Wonder.  But  he  soon  be- 
came convinced  that  "  the  practice  of  ballad-writing  was 
out  of  fashion,  and  that  any  attempt  to  revive  it  or  to 
found  a  poetical  character  on  it  would  certainly  fail  of 
success."  His  study  of  Goethe's  Gbtz  von  Berlichingen,  of 
which  he  published  a  translation  in  IV  09,  ga-ve  him  Avider 
ideas.  Why  should  he  not  do  for  ancient  Border  manners 
what  Goethe  had  done  for  the  ancient  feudalism  of  the 
Rhine  ?  He  had  been  busy  since  his  boyhood  collecting 
Scottish  Border  ballads  and  studying  the  minutest  details 
of  Border  history.  He  began  to  cast  about  for  a  form 
which  should  have  the  advantage  of  novelty,  and  a  subject 
which  should  secure  unity  of  composition.  He  was  en- 
gaged at  the  time  preparing  a  collection  of  the  Minstrelsy 
of  the  Scottish  Border,  The  first  instalment  was  published 
in  1802  ;  it  was  followed  by  another  next  year,  and  by  an 
edition  and  continuation  of  the  old  romance  of  Sir  Tristram; 
and  Scott  was  still  hesitating  about  subject  and  form  for 
a  large  original  work.  It  seems  probable  from  a  conversa- 
tion recorded  by  Gillies  that  he  might  have  ended  by 
casting  his  meditated  picture  of  Border  manners  in  the 
form  of  a  prose  romance.  But  chance  at  last  threw  in  his 
way  both  a  suitable  subject  and  a  suitable  metrical  vehicle. 
He  had  engaged  all  his  friends  in  the  hunt  for  Border 
ballads  and  legends.  Among  others,  the  countess  of  Dal- 
keith, wife  of  the  heir-apparent  to  the  dukedom  of  Buccleuch, 
interested  herself  in  the  work.  Happening  to  hear  the 
legend  of  a  tricksy  hobgoblin  named  Gilpin  Horner,  she 
asked  Scott  to  write  a  ballad  about  it.  He  agreed  with 
delight,  and,  out  of  compliment  to  the  lady  who  had  given 
this  command  to  the  bard,  resolved  to  connect  it  with 
the  house  of  Buccleuch.  The  subject  grew  in  his  fertile 
imagination,  till  incidents  enough  had  gathered  round  the 
goblin  to  furnish  a  framework  for  his  long-designed  picture 
of  Border  manners.  Chance  also  furnished  him  with  a  hint 
for  a  novel  scheme  of  verse.  Coleridge's  fragment  of 
Christabel,  though  begun  in  1797 — when  he  and  Words- 
worth were  discussing  on  the  Quantock  Hills  the  prin- 
ciples of  such  ballads  as  Scott  at  the  same  time  was  recit- 
ing to  himself  in  his  gallops  on  Musselburgh  sands — was 
not  published  till  1816.  IJut  a  friend  of  Scott's,  Sir  John 
Stoddart,  had  met  Coleridge  in  Malta,  and  had  carried 
home  in  his  memory  enough  of  the  unfinished  poem  to 
convey  to  Scott  that  its  metre  was  the  very  metre  of  which 
he  had  been  in  search.  Scott  introduced  still  greater 
variety  into  the  four-beat  couplet ,  but  it  was  to  Christabel 
that  ho  owed  the  suggestion,  as  one  line  borrowed  whole 
and  many  imitated  rhythms  testify. 

The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  appeared  in  January.  1 805, 
and  at  once  became  widely  popular.  It  sold  more  rapidly 
than  poem  had  ever  sold  before.  Scott  was  astonished  at 
hia  own  success,  although  he  expected  that  "  the  attempt 
to  return  to  a  more  simple  and  natural  style  of  poetry  was 
likely  to  be  welcomed."  Many  things  contributed  to  the 
extraordinary  demand  for  the  Lay.  First  and  foremost, 
no  doubt,  wo  must  reckon  its  simplicity.  After  the 
abstract  themes  and  abstruse,  elaborately  allusive  style  of 
the  18th  century,   the  public  were  glad  of   verse  that 


could  be  read  with  ease  and  even  with  exhilaration,  verso 
in  which  a  simple  interesting  story  was  told  with  brillip.tit 
energy,  and  simple  feelings  were  treated  not  as  isolated 
themes  but  as  incidents  in  the  lives  of  individual  men 
and  women.  The  thougit  was  not  so  profound,  the  liua.'i 
were  not  so  polished,  as  in  The  Pleasures  of  Memory  or 
The  Pleasures  of  Hope,  but  the  "  light-horscnian  sort  of 
stanza "  carried  the  reader  briskly  over  a  much  mora 
diversified  country,  tlirough  boldly  outlined  and  strongly 
coloured  scenes.  No  stanza  required  a  second  reading ; 
you  had  not  to  keep  attention  on  the  stretch  or  pause 
and  construe  laboriously  before  you  could  grasp  the 
writer's  meaning  or  enter  into  his  art.fn)'y  condensed 
.sentiment.  To  remember  the  pedigrees  of  all  the  Scotts, 
or  the  names  of  all  the  famous  chiefs  and  hardy  retainers 
"  v.'hose  gathering  word  was  Bellenden,"  might  have  re- 
quired some  effort,  but  only  the  conscientious  reader  need 
care  to  make  it.  The  only  puzzle  in  the  Lay  was  the 
goblin  page,  and  the  general  reader  was  absolved  from  all 
trouble  about  him  by  the  unanimous  declaration  of  the 
critics,  led  by  Jeffrey  in  the  Editiburgh  Review,  that  ho 
was  a  grotesque  excrescence,  in  no  way  essential  to  the 
story.  It  is  commonly  taken  for  granted  that  Scott 
acquiesced  in  this  judgment,  his  politely  ironic  letter  to  . 
Miss  Seward  being  quoted  as  conclusive.  This  is  hardly 
fair  to  the  poor  goblin,  seeing  that  his  story  was  the 
germ  of  the  poem  and  determines  its  whole  structure ; 
but  it  is  a  tribute  to  the  lively  simplicity  of  tho  Lay  that 
few  people  should  be  willing  to  take  the  very  moderate 
amount  of  pains  necessary  to  see  the  goblin's  true  position 
in  the  action.  The  supernatural  element  was  Scott's  most 
risky  innovation.  For  the  rest,  he  was  a  cautious  and 
conservative  reformer,  careful  not  to  offend  established 
traditions.  He  was  far  from  raising  the  standard  of  re- 
bellion, as  Wordsworth  had  done,  against  the  great  artistic 
canon  of  the  classical  school 

"  True  art  is  nature  to  advantage  dressed." 

To  "engraft  modern  refinement  on  ancient  simplicity," 
to  preserve  the  energy  of  the  old  ballad  without  its  rudeness 
and  bareness  of  poetic  ornament,  was  Scott's  avowed  aim. 
He  adhered  to  the  poetic  diction  against  which  Words- 
vijorth  protested.  His  rough  Borderers  are  "  dressed  to 
advantage"  in  the  costume  of  romantic  chivalry.  Tlio 
baronial  magnificence  of  Branksome,  Deloraino's  "  shield 
and  jack  and  acton,"  the  elaborate  ceremony  of  the  com- 
bat between  the  pseudo-Deloraine  and  Musgrave,  are 
concessions  to  tho  taste  of  the  18th  century.  Further,  ha 
disarmed  criticism  by  putting  his  poem  into  the  mouth 
of  an  ancient  minstrel,  thus  pictorially  emphasizing  tho 
fact  that  it  was  an  imitation  of  antiquity,  and  pr&vid- 
ing  a  scapegoat  on  whose  back  might  be  laid  a,ny  remain- 
ing sins  of  rudeness  or  excessive  simplicity.  And,  while 
imitating  the  antique  romance,  he  was  caniful  not  to 
imitate  its  faults  of  rambling,  discursive,  disconnected 
structure.  He  was  scrupulously  attentive  to  the  classical 
unities  of  time,  place,  and  action.  Tho  scene  never 
changes  from  Branksome  and  its  neighbourhood  ;  the  timo 
occupied  by  the  action  (as  ho  pointed  out  in  his  preface) 
is  three  nights  and  three  days ;  and,  in  .spite  of  all  that 
critics  have  said  about  tho  superfluity  of  tho  goblin  pa^e, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  trace  unity  of  intention  and  regular 
progressive  development  in  the  incidents. 

The  success  of  tho  Lay  decided  finally,  if  it  'Wa-s  not 
decided  already,  that  literature  was  to  bo  the  main  busi- 
ness of  Scott's  life,  and  he  proceeded  to  arrange  his  affairs 
accordingly.  It  would  have  been  well  for  his  comfort,  if 
not  fer  his  fame,  had  ho  adhered  to  his  fiist  plan,  which 
was  to  buy  a  small  mountain-farm  near  Bowhill,  with  tho 
proceeds  of  some  property  left  to  him  b"  an  uncla,  and 


548 


SCOTT 


divide  liis  year  between  this  and  Edinburgh,  where  he 
had  good  hopes,  soon  afterwards  realized,  of  a  salaried 
appointment  in  the  Court  of  Session.  This  would  have 
given  him  ample  leisure  and  seclusion  for  literature, 
while  his  private  means  and  ofGcial  emoluments  secured 
him  against  dependence  on  his  pen.  He  would  have  been 
laird  as  well  as  sheriff  of  the  cairn  and  the  scaur,  and 
as  a  man  of  letters  his  own  master.  Since  his  marriage 
in  1797  with  Miss  Charpentier,  daughter  of  a  French 
refugee,  his  chief  residence  had  been  at  Lasswade,  about 
six  miles  from  Edinburgh.  But  on  a  hint  from  the  lord- 
lieutenant  that  the  sheriff  must  live  at  least  four  months 
in  the  year  within  his  county,  and  that  he  was  attending 
more  closely  to  his  duties  as  quartermaster  of  a  mounted 
company  of  volunteers  than  was  consistent  with  the 
proper  discharge  of  his  duties  as  sheriff,  he  had  moved 
his  household  in  1804  to  Ashestiel.  'When  his  uncle's 
bequest  fell  in,  he  determined  to  buy  a  small  property  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tweed  within  the  limits  of  his  sheriffdom. 
There,  within  sight  of  Newark  Castle  and  Bowhill,  he 
proposed  to  live  like  his  ancient  minstrel,  as  became  the 
bard  of  the  clan,  under  the  shadow  of  the  great  ducal 
head  of  the  Scotts.  But  this  plan  was  deranged  by  an 
accident.  It  so  happened  that  an  old  schoolfellow,  James 
Ballantyne,  a  printer  in  Kelso,  whom  he  had  already  be- 
friended, transplanted  to  Edinburgh,  and  furnished  with 
both  work  and  money,  applied  to  him  for  a  further  loan. 
Scott  declined  to  lend,  but  offered  to  join  him  as  sleeping 
partner.  Thus  the  intended  purchase  money  of  Broad- 
meadows  became  the  capital  of  a  printing  concern,  of 
which  by  degree*  the  man  of  letters  became  the  over- 
wrought slave,  mireh-cow,  and  victim. 

When  the  Lay  waa  off  his  hands,  Scott's  next  literary 
enterprise  was  a  prose  romance — a  confirmation  of  the 
argument  that  he  did  not  take  to  prose  after  BjTon  had 
"  bet  him,"  as  he  put  it,  in  verse,  but  that  romance  writing 
was  a  long-cherished  purpose.  He  began  Waverley,  but 
a  friend  to  whom  he  showed  the  first  chapters — which  do 
not  take  Waverley  out  of  England,  and  describe  an  educa- 
tion in  romantic  literature  very  much  like  Scott's  own — 
not  unnaturally  decided  that  the  work  was  deficient  in 
interest  and  unworthy  of  the  author  of  the  Lay.  Scott 
accordingly  laid  Waverley  aside.  We  may  fairly  conjec- 
ture that  he  would  not  have  been  so  easily  diverted  had 
he  not  been  occupied  at  the  time  with  other  heavy  publish- 
ing enterprises  calculated  to  bring  grist  to  the  printing 
establishment.  His  active  brain  was  full  of  projects  for 
big  editions,  which  he  undertook  to  carry  through  on  con- 
dition that  the  printing  was  done  by  Ballantyne  &  Co., 
the  "CoV  being  kept  a  profound  secret,  because  it  might 
have  injured  the  lawyer  and  poet  professionally  and  socially 
to  be  known  as  partner  in  a  commercial  concern.  Between 
1806  and  1812,  mainly  to  serve  the  interests  of  the  firm, 
though  of  course  the  work  was  not  in  itself  unattractive  to 
him,  Scott  produced  his  elaborate  editions  of  Dryden, 
Swift,  the  Somers  Tracts,  and  the  Sadler  State  papers. 
Incidentally  these  laborious  tasks  contributed  to  his  pre- 
paration for  the  main  work  of  his  life  by  extending  his 
knowledge  of  English  and  Scottish  history. 

Marmion,  begun  in  November  1806  and  published  in 
February  1808,  was  written  as  a  relief  to  "graver  cares," 
though  in  this  also  he  aimed  at  combining  with  a  romantic 
story  a  solid  picture  of  an  historical  period.  It  was  even 
more  popular  than  the  Lay.  Scott's  resuscitation  of 'the 
four-beat  measure  of  the  old  "gestours"  s.fforded  a  signal 
proof  of  the  justness  of  their  instinct  in  choosing  this 
vehicle  for  their  recitations.  The  four-beat  lines  of  Mar- 
mion took  possession  of  the  public  like  a  kind  of  madness  : 
they  not  only  clung  to  the  memory  but  they  would  not 
keep  off  the  tongue  :  people  could  not  help  spouting  them 


in  solitary  places  and  muttering  them  as  they  walked 
about  the  streets.  The  critics,  except  Jeft'rey,  who  may 
have  been  offended  by  the  pronounced  politics  of  the  poet, 
were  on  the  whole  better  pleased  than  with  the  Lay. 
Their  chief  complaint  was  with  the  "introductions"  to 
the  various  cantos,  which  were  objected  to  as  vexatiously 
breaking  the  current  of  the  story.' 

The  triumphant  success  of  Marmion,  establishing  him 
us  facile  princeps  among  living  poets,  gave  Scott  such  a 
liee:e,  to  use  his  own  words,  "as  almost  lifted  him  off  his 
feet."  He  touched  then  the  highest  point  of  prosperity 
and  happiness.  Presently  after,  he  was  irritated  ar.  I 
tempted  by  a  combination  of  little  circumstances  into  tl. ; 
great  blunder  of  his  life,  the  establishment  of  the  publish- 
ing house  of  John  Ballantyne  &  Co.  A  coolness  arose 
between  him  and  JefiVey,  chiefly  on  political  but  partly 
also  on  personal  grounds.  They  were  old  friends,  and 
Scott  had  written  many  articles  for  the  Review,  but  its 
political  attitude  at  this  time  was  intensely  unsatisfactory 
to  Scott.  .  To  complete  the  breach,  Jeffrey  reviewed  Mar- 
mion in  a  hostile  spirit.  A  quarrel  occurred  also  between 
Scott's  printing  firm  and  Constable,  the  publisher,  who 
had  been  the  principal  feeder  of  its  press.  Then  the 
tempter  appeared  in  the  shape  of  Murray,  the  London 
publisher,  anxious  to  secure  the  services  of  the  most  popular 
litterateur  of  the  day.  The  result  of  negotiations  was  that 
Scott  set  up,  in  opposition  to  Constable,  "  the  crafty,"  "  the 
grand  Napoleon  of  the  realms  of  print,"  the  publishing 
house  of  John  Ballantyne  &.  Co.,  to  be  m.inaged  by  a 
dissijmted  and  swaggering  little  tailor,  whom  he  nicknamed 
"  Rigdumfunnidos "  for  his  talents  as  a  mimic  and  low 
comedian.  Scott'  interested  himself  warmly  in  starting 
the  Quarterly  Revieiv,  and  in  return  Murray  constituted 
Ballantyne  &  Co.  his  Edinburgh  agents.  Scott's  trust 
in  Rigdumfunnidos  and  his  brother,  "  Aldiborontiphos- 
cophornio,"  and  in  his  own  power  to  supply  all  their  defi- 
ciencies, is  as  strange  a  piece  of  infatuation  as  any  that  ever 
formed  a  theme  for  romance  or  tragedy.  Their  cfevoted 
attachment  to  the  architect  of  their  fortunes  and  proud 
confidence  in  his  powers  helped  forward  to  the  catastrophe, 
for  whatever  Scott  recommended  they  agreed  to,  and  he 
was  too  immersed  in  multifarious  literary  work  and  pro- 
fessional and  social  engagements  to  have  time  for  cool 
examination  of  the  numerous  rash  speculative  ventures 
into  which  he  launched  the  firm. 

The  Lady  of  the  Lai e  {Hay  1810)  was  the  first  great 
publication  by  the  new  house.  It  was  received  with 
enthusiasm,  even  Jeffrey  joining  in  the  chorus  of  applause. 
It  made  the  Perthshire  Highlands  fashionable  for  tourists, 
and  raised  the  post-horse  duty  in  Scotland.  But  it  did 
not  make  up  to  Ballantyne  k,  Co.  for  their  heavy  invest- 
ments in  unsound  ventures.  The  Edinhurr/h  Annual 
Eer/ister,  meant  as  a  rival  to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  though 
Scott  engaged  Southey  to  write  for  it  and  wrote  for  it 
largely  himself,  proved  a  failure.  In  a  very  short  time 
the  warehouses  of  the  firm  were  filled  with  unsaleable 
stock.  By  the  end  of  three  years  Scott  began  to  writs  to 
his  partners  about  the  propriety  of  "  reefing  sails."  But 
apparently  he  was  too  much  occupied  to  look  into  the 
accounts  of  the  firm,  and,  so  far  from  understanding  the 
real  state  of  their  affairs,  he  considered  himself  rich  enough 
to  make  his  first  purchase  of  land  at  Abbotsford.  But  he 
had  hardly  settled  there  in  the  spring  of  1812,  and  begun 
his  schemes  for  building  and  planting  and  converting  a 
bare  moor  into  a  richly  v.-ooded  pleasaunce,  than  his  business 
troubles  began,  and  he  found  himself  harassed  by  fears  of 
bankruptcy.  ■  Rigdumfunnidos  concealed  the  situation  as 


*  See  Itr  Huttou.s  Scott,  in  English  Men  of  Letters  Series,  p.  56, 
for  a  good  defence  of  tliesa  introductions.  Scott  advertised  them 
originally  as  a  eepar.'xte  publication. 


SCOTT 


549 


long  as  he  could,  but  as  bill  after  bill  came  due  he  was 
obliged  to  make  urgent  application  to  Scott,  and  the  truth 
was  thus  forced  from  him  item  by  item.  He  had  by  no 
means  revealed  all  when  Scott,  who  behaved  with  admir- 
able good-nature,  was  provoked  into  remonstrating,  "  For 
heaven's  sake,  treat  me  as  a  man  and  not  as  a  milch-cow." 
The  proceeds  of  RoMtj  (January  1813)  and  of  other  labours 
of  Scott's  pen  were  'swallowed  up,  and  bankruptcy  was 
inevitable,  when  Constable,  still  eager  at  any  price  to  secure 
Scott's  services,  came  to  the  rescue.  With  his  help  three 
crises  were  tided  over  in  1813. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of,  these  ignoble  embarrassments 
that  Scott  opened  up  the  rich  new  vein  of  the  Waverley 
novels.  He  chanced  upon  the  manuscript  of  the  opening 
chapters  of  VTaverlei/,  and  reso!-.-ed  to  complete  the  story. 
Four  weeks  in  the  summer  of  1814  sufficed  for  the  work, 
and  Waverley  appeared  without  the  author's  name  in  July. 
Many  plausible  reasons  might  be  given  and  have  been 
given  for  Scott's  resolution  to  publish  anonymously.  The 
quaintest  reason,  and  possibly  the  main  one,  though  it  is 
hardly  intelligible  now,  is  that  given  by  Lockhart,  that  he 
considered  the  writing  of  novels  beneath  the  dignity  of  a 
grave  clerk  of  the  Court  of  Session.  Why  he  kept  up  the 
mystification,  though  the  secret  was  an  open  one  to  all  his 
Edinburgh  acquaintances,  is  more  easily  understood.  He 
enjoyed  it,  and  his  formally  initiated  coadjutors  enjoyed 
it ;  it  relieved  him  from  the  annoyances  of  foolish  compli- 
ment ;  and  it  was  not  unprofitable,— curiosity  about  "  the 
Great  Unknown  "  keeping  alive  the  interest  in  his  works. 
The  secret  was  so  well  kept  by  all  to  whom  it  was  de- 
finitely entrusted,  and  so  many  devices  were  used  to  throw 
conjecture  off  the  scent,  that  ewen  Scott's  friends,  who  were 
certain  of  the  authorship  from  internal  evidence,  were 
occasionally  puzzled.  He  kept  on  producing  in  his  own 
name  as  much  work  as  seemed  humanly  possible  for  an 
official  who  was  to  be  seen  every  day  at  his  post  an''  as 
often  in  society  as  the  most  fashionable  of  his  professional 
brethren.  His  treatises  on  chivalry,  romance,  and  the 
drama,  besides  an  elaborate  work  in  two  volumes  on  Border 
antiquities,  appeared  in  the  same  year  with  M'm'erley,  and 
his  edition  of  Swift  in  nineteen  volumes  in  the  same  week. 
The  Lord  of  the  Isles  was  published  in  January  1815  ;  Guy 
Mamuring,  written  in  "si.x  weeks  about  Christmas,"  in 
February ;  Paul's  Letters  to  his  Kinsfolk  and  The  Field  of 
Waterloo  in  the  .same  year.  Harold  the  Dauntless}  not  to 
mention  the  historical  part  of  the  Annual  Register,  appeared 
in  the  same  year  with  The  Anti'piary,  The  Blaek  Dwarf,  and 
Old  Mortality  (1816).  No  wonder  that  the  most  positive 
interpreters  of  internal  evidence  were  mystified.  It  was 
not  as  if  he  had  buried  himself  in  the  country  for  the 
summer  half  of  the  year.  On  the  contrary,  he  kept  open 
house  at  Abbotsford  in  the  fine  old  feudal  fashion  and 
was  seldom  without  visitors.  His  own  friends  and  many 
strangers  from  a  distance,  with  or  without  introductions, 
sought  him  there,  and  found  a  hearty  hospitable  country 
laird,  entirely  occupied  to  all  outward  appearance  with 
local  and  domestic  business  and  sport,  building  and  plant- 
ing, adding  wing  to  wing,  acre  to  acre,  plantation  to 
plantation,  with  just  leisure  enough  for  the  free-hearted 
entertainment  of  his  guests  and  the  cultivation  of  friendly 
relations  with  his  humble  neighbours.  How  could  such  a 
man  find  time  to  write  two  or  three  novels  a  year,  besides 
what  was  published  in  his  own  name?  Even  the  few 
intimates  who  knew  how  early  he  got  up  to  prepare  his 
packet  for  the  printer,  and  had  some  idea  of  the  extra- 
ordinary power  that  ho  had  acquired  of  commanding  his 
faculties  for  the  utilization  of  odd  moments,  must  have 

'  This  poem,  like  the  Bndnl  of  Tricymain,  did  uot  hoar  Iii-j  name 
on  the  title-p.ige,  but  tlie  autlionihip  was  an  open  secret,  altliougti  be 
,tr;od  to  encourage  the  idea  tliat  the  author  was  bis  frieud  Erskiuc. 


wondered  at  times  whether  he  had  not  inherited  tne  arts 
of  his  ancestral  relation  Michael  Scot,  and  kept  a  goblin 
in  some  retired  attic  or  vault. 

Scott's  fertility  is  not  absolutely  unparalleled  ;  the  lf>te 
Sir  TroUope  clairiied  to  have  surpassed  him  in  rate  as  well 
as  total  amount  of  production,  having  also  business  duties 
to  attend  to.  But  in  speed  of  production  combined  with 
variety  and  depth  of  interest  and  weight  and  accui'acy  of 
historical  substance  Scott  is  still  unrivalled.  On  his 
claims  as  a  serious  historian,  which  Carlyle  ignored  in  his 
curiously  narrow  and  splenetic  criticism,  he  was  alwaysj 
with  all  his  magnanimity,  peculiarly  sensitive.  A  certain 
feeling  that  his  antic(uarian  studies  were  undervalued  seems 
to  have  haunted  him  from  his  youth.  It  was  probably 
this  that  gave  the  sting  to  Jeffrey's  criticism  of  Marm-'on, 
and  that  tempted  him  to  the  somewhat  questionable  pro- 
ceeding of  reviewing  his  own  novels  in  the  Quarterly  upon 
the  appearance  of  Old  Mortality.  He  was  nettled  besides 
at  the  accusation  of  having  treated  the  Covenanters  yn- 
fau'ly,  and  wanted  to  justify  himself  by  the  production  of 
historical  documents.  In  this  criticism  of  himself  Scott 
replied  lightly  to  some  of  the  familiar  objections  to  his 
work,  such  as  the  feebleness  of  his  heroes,  Waverley,  Ber- 
tram, Lovel,  and  the  melodramatic  character  of  some  of 
his  scenes  and  characters.  But  he  .Tgued  more  seriously 
against  the  idea  that  historical  romances  are  the  enemies 
of  history,  and  he  rebutted  by  anticipation  Carlyle's  ob- 
jection that  he  wrote  only  to  amuse  idle  persons  who  like 
to  lie  on  their  backs  and  read  novels.  His  apologia  is 
worth  quoting.  Historical  romances,  ho  admits,  have 
always  been  failures,  but  the  failure  has  been  due  to  the 
imperfect  knowledge  of  the  writers  and  not  to  the  species 
of  composition.  If,  he  says,  anachronisms  in  manners 
can  be  avoided,  and  "the  features  of  an  age  gone  by  can 
be  recalled  in  a  spirit  of  delineation  at  once  faithful  and 
striking,  .  .  .  the  composition  itself  is  in  every  point  of 
view  dignified  and  improved ;  and  the  author,  leaving 
the  light  and  frivolous  associates  with  whom  a  careless 
observer  would  bo  disposed  to  ally  him,  takes  his  seat  on 
the  bench  of  the  historians  of  his  time  and  country.  In 
this  proud  assembly,  and  in  no  mean  place  of  it,  we  are 
disposed  to  rank  the  author  of  these  works.  At  once  a 
master  of  the  great  events  and  minute  incidents  of  history, 
and  of  the  manners  of  the  times  he  celebrates,  as  distin- 
guished from  those  which  now  prevail,  the  iitiraate  thus 
of  the  living  and  of  the  dead,  his  judgment  enables  him 
to  separate  those  traits  which  are  characteristic  from  those 
that  are  generic ;  and  his  imagination,  not  less  accurate 
and  discriminating  than  vigorous  and  vivid,  presents  to 
the  mind  of  the  reader  the  manners  of  the  times,  and  in- 
troduces to  his  familiar  acquaintance  the  individuals  of 
the  drama  as  they  thought  and  spoke  and  f.cted."  Thi.i 
defence  of  himself  shows  us  the  ideal  at  which  Scott 
aimed,  and  which  he  realized.  He  was  not  in  the  least 
uncou-scious  of  his  own  excellence.  He  did  not  hesitate 
in  this  review  to  compare  himself  with  Snakcspeare  in 
respect  of  truth  to  nature.  "The  volume  which  thi.s 
author  has  studied  is  the  great  book  of  nature.  He  has 
gone  abroad  into  the  world  in  quest  of  what  the  world 
will  certaiidy  and  abundantly  su])ply,  but  what  a  man  of 
gi-cat  discrimination  alone  will  find,  and  a  man  of  the  very 
highe.st  genius  will  alone  depict  after  he  hf.s  discovered  it. 
Tho  characters  of  Shakespeare  are  not  more  e.\clusivcly 
human,  not  more  perfectly  men  and  wonicn  as  they  live 
and  move,  than  those  of  this  mysterious  author." 

The  immense  strain  of  Scott's  double  or  quadruple  lif-e 
as  sheriff  and  clerk,  hospitable  laird,  poet,  novelist,  and  mi.s- 
cellaueous  man  of  letters,  publisher  and  printer,  thouj,'h 
tho  prosperous  excitement  sustained  him  for  a  time,  soon 
told  upon  his  health.     Early  in  1817  bccjan  a  series  of 


550 


SCOTT 


attacks  of  agonizing  cramp  of  the  stomach,  which  recurred 
at  short  intervals  during  more  than  two  years.  But  his 
appetite  and  capacity  for  work  remained  unbroken.  He 
made  his  first  attempt  at  play-writing '  as  he  was  recover- 
ing from  the  first  attack ;  before  the  year  was  out  he  had 
completed  Jiob  Roy,  and  within  sis  months  it  was  followed 
by  The  Heart  of  Midlothian,  which  by  .general  consent 
occupies  the  highest  rank  among  his  novels.  The  Bride 
of  Lammermoor,  The  Legend  of  Montrose,  and  Ivanhoe 
were  dictated  to  amanuenses,  through  fits  of  suffering  so 
acute  that  he  could  not  suppress  cries  of  agony.  Still  he 
would  not  give  up.  When  Laidlaw  begged  him  to  stop 
dictating  he  only  answered,  "  Nay,  Willie,  only  see  that 
the  doors  are  fast.  I  would  fain  keep  all  the  cry  as  well 
as  the  .tool  to  ourselves ;  but  as  to  giving  over  work,  that 
can  only  be  when  I  am  in  woollen." 
^Throughout  those  two  years  of  intermittent  ill-health, 
which  was  at  one  time  so  serious  that  his  life  was  despaired 
of -and  he  took  formal  leave  of  his  family,  Scott's  semi- 
pubUc  life  at  Abbotsford  continued  as  usual, — swarms  of 
visitors  coming  and  going,  and  the  rate  of  pro.duction  on 
the  whole  suffering  no  outward  and  visible  chect,  all  the 
world  wondering  at  the  novelist's  prodigious  fertility.  Mr 
Kuskin  lately  put  forward  the  opinion  that  there  is  a 
distinct  falling  off  in  the  quality  of  Scott's  work  traceable 
from  the  time  of  his  first  serious  illness,  arguing  as  a  proof 
of  the  healthiness  of  Scott's  organization  that  "  he  never 
gains  anything  by  sickness ;  the  whole  man  breathes  or 
faints  as  one  creature ;  the  ache  that  stiffens  a  limb  chills 
his  heart,  and  every  pang  of  the  stomach  paralyses  the 
brain."  Yet,  when  the  world  was  not  aware  of  the  state 
of  the  novelist's  health,  and  novel  after  novel  was  received 
without  any  abatement  of  enthusiasm,  but  rather  with 
growing  wonder  and  admiration,  no  critic  was  acute  enough 
to  detect  this,  and  it  is  somewhat  unfortunate  for  the 
theory^that  Mr  Ruskin  has  mistaken  the  date  of  Scott's 
first  illness  and  included  among  the  masterpieces  produced 
in  perfect  health  Rob  Roy  and  The  Heart  of  Midlothian, 
both  composed  through  recurrent  fits  of  intense  bodily 
pain.  The  first  of  the  series  concerning  which  there  were 
murmurs  of  dissatisfaction  was  The  Monastery,  which  was 
the  first  completed  after  the  re-estabUshment  of  the  author's 
bodily  vigour.  The  failure,  such  as  it  was,  was  due  rather 
to  the  subject  than  the  treatment,  and  The  Abbot,  in  which 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  is  introduced,  was  generally  hailed 
as"fully  sustaining  the  reputation  of  "the  Great  Unknown." 
Kenihoorth,  The  Pirate,  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Peveril  of 
the  Peak,  Quentin  Durward,  St  Ronan's  Well,  Redgauntlet, 
followed  in  quick  succession  in  the  course  of  three  years, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  last  two  were  reached  that  the  cry 
that  the  author  was  writing  too  fast  began  to  gather 
volume.  St  Ronan's  Well  was  very  severely  criticized  and 
condemned.  And  yet  Mr  Leslie  Stephen  tells  a  story  of 
a  dozen  modern  connoisseurs  in  the  Waverley  novels  who 
agreed  that  each  should  write  down  separately  the  name 
of  his  favourite  novel,  when  it  appeared'  that  each  had 
without  concert  named  St  Ronan's  Well.  There  is  this 
certainly  to  be  said  for  St  Ronan's,  that,  in  spite  of  the 
heaviness  of  some  of  the  scenes  at  the  "  hottle  "  and  the 
artificial  melodramatic  character  of  some  of  the  personages, 
none  of  Scott's  stories  is  of  more  absorbing  or  more  bril- 
liantly diversified  interest.  Contradictions  between  con- 
temporary popular  opinion  and  mature  critical  judgment, 
as  well  as.  diversities  of  view  among  critics  themselves, 
rather  shake  confidence  in  individual  judgment  on  the 


^  TlicDoomofDevorgoiZ.  This  and  his  subsequent  dramatic  sketches, 
Macdu^'s  Cross,  Halidon  Hill,  and  The  Ayrshire  Tragedy,  were  slight 
compositions,  dashed  off  in  a  few  days,  and  afford  no  measure  of  what 
gcdtt  might  have  done  as  a  dramatist  if  he  had  studied  the  conditions 
ef'stage  representation. 


vexed  but  not  particularly  wise  question  which  ia  the  beat 
of  Scott's  novels.  There  must,  of  course,  always  be  in- 
equalities in  a  series  so  prolonged.  The  author  cannot 
always  be  equally  happy  in  his  choice  of  subject,  situation, 
and  character.  Naturally  also  he  dealt  first  with  the 
subjects  01  w.'iich  his  mind  was  fullest.  But  any  theory 
of  falling  off  or  exhaustion  based  upon  plausible  general 
considerations  has  to  be  qualified  so  much  when  brought 
into  contact  with  the  facts  that  very  little  confidence  can 
be  reposed  in  its  accuracy.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel  comes 
comparatively  late  in  the  series  and  has  often  \)een  blamed 
for  its  looseness  of  construction.  Scott  himself  always 
spoke  slightingly  of  his  plots,  and  humorously  said  that 
he  proceeded  on  Mr  Bayes's  maxim,  "  What  the  deuce  ia 
a  plot  good  for  but  to  bring  in  good  things  I"  Yet  so  com- 
petent a  critic  as  Mr  Hutton  has  avowed  that  on  the  whole 
he  prefers  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel  to  any  other  of  Scott'a 
novels.  An  attempt  might  be  made  to  value  the  novel* 
according  to  the  so'irces  of  their  materials,  according  as 
they  are  based  on  personal  observation,  documentary 
history,  or  previous  imaginative  literature.  On  this  prin- 
ciple Ivanhoe  and  The  Tales  of  the  Crusaders  might  be 
adjudged  inferior  as  being  based  necessarily  on  previous 
romance.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  Scott's  romantic  char- 
acters are  vitalized,  clothed  with  a  verisimilitude  of  life, 
out  of  the  author's  deep,  wide,  aad  .discriminating  know- 
ledge of  realities,  and  his  observation  of  actual  life  was 
coloured  by  ideals  derived  from  romance.  He  wrote  aU 
his  novels  out  of  a  mind  richly  stored  with  learning  of  alJ 
kinds,  and  in  the  heat  of  composition  seems  to  have  drawn 
from  whatever  his  tenacious  memory  supplied  to  feed  the 
fire  of  imagination,  vrithout  pausing  to  reflect  upon  the 
source.  He  did  not  exhaust  his  accumulations  from  one 
source  first  and  then  turn  to  another,  but  from  first  to  last 
drew  from  all  as  the  needs  of  the  occasion  happened  to 
suggest. 

Towards  the  close  of  1825,  after  eleven  years  of  brilliant 
and  prosperous  labour,  encouraged  by  constant  tributes  of 
admiration,  homage,  and  affection  such  as  no  other  literary 
potentate  has  ever  enjoyed,  realizing  his  dreams  of  baroniaJ 
splendour  and  hospitality  on  a  scale  suited  to  his  large 
literary  revenues,  Scott  suddenly  discovered  that  the 
foundations  of  his  fortune  were  unsubstantial.  He  had 
imagined  himself  clear  of  all  embarrassments  in  1818, 
when  all  the  unsaleable  stock  of  John  Ballantyne  &  Co. 
was  bargained  off  by  Rigdum  to  Constable  for  Waverley 
copyrights,  and  the  'publishing  concern  was  wound  up. 
Apparently  he  never  irn'ormed  himself  accurately  of  the 
new  relations  of  mutual  accommodation  on  which  the  print- 
ing firm  then  entered  with  the  great  but  rashly  speculative 
publisher,  and  drew  liberally  for  his  own  expenditure 
against  the  undeniable  profits  of  his  novels  without  asking 
any  questions,  trusting  blindly  in  the  solvency  of  his  coni- 
mercial  henchmen.  Unfortunately,  "  lifted  off  their  feet " 
by  the  wonderful  triumphs  of  their  chief,  they  thought 
themselves  exempted  like  himself  from  the  troublesome 
duty  of  inspecting  ledgers  and  balancing  accounts,  till  the 
crash  came.  From  a  diary  which  Scott  began  a  few  days 
before  the  first  rumours  of  financial  difficulty  reached  him 
we  know  how  he  bore  from  day  to  day  the  rapidly  unfolded 
prospect  of  unsuspected  liabilities.  "  Thank  God,"  waa 
his  first  reflexion,  "  I  have  enough  to  pay  more  than  203. 
in  the  pound,  taking  matters  at  the  worst."  But  a  few 
weeks  revealed  the  unpleasant  truth  that,  owing  to  the 
way  in  which  Ballantyne  <fc  Co.  were  mixed  up  with  Con- 
stable &  Co.,  and  Constable  with  Hurst  &  Robinson,  the 
failure  of  the  London  house  threw  upon  him  personal 
responsibility  for  £130,000. 

How  Scott's  pride  rebelled  against  the  dishonour  of 
bankruptcy,  how  he  toiled  for  the  rest  of  his  life  to  clear 


y  c  o  — s  c  R 


551 


off  this  enormous  debt,  declining  all  offers  of  assistance 
and  asking  no  consideration  from  his  creditors  except  time, 
and  how  nearly  he  succeeded,  is  one  of  the  most  familiar 
chapters  in  literary  history,  and  would  be.  one  of  the 
saddest  were  it  not  for  the  heroism  of  the  enterprise.  His 
wife  died  soon  after  the  struggle  began,  and  he  suffered 
other  painful  bereavements ;  but,  though  sick  at  heart,  he 
toiled  on  indomit-ably,  and,  writing  for  honour,  exceeded 
even  his  happiest  days  in  industrious  speed.  If  he  could 
have  maintained  the  rate  of  the  first  three  years,  during 
which  he  completed  Woodstock,  three  Chronicles  of  the 
Canongate,  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  Anne  of  Geierstein, 
the  Life  of  Napoleon  (involving  much  research  and  equal 
in  amount  to  thirteen  novel  volumes),  part  of  his  History 
of  Scotland,  the  Scottish  series  of  Tales  of  a  Grandfather, 
besides  several  magazine  articles,  some  of  them  among  the 
most  brilliant  of  his  miscellaneous  writings,  and  prefaces 
and  notes  to  a  collected  edition  of  his  novels, — if  he  could 
have  continued  at  this  rate  he  might  soon  have  freed  him- 
8ek'  from  all  his  encumbrances.  The  result  of  his  exertions 
from  January  1826  to  January  1828  was  nearly  £40,000 
for  his  creditors.  But  the  terrific  labour  proved  too  much 
even  for  his  endurance.  Ugly  sjTuptoms  began  to  alarm 
his  family  in  1829,  and  in  February  of  1830  he  had 
his  first  stroke  of  paralysis.  Still  he  was  undaunted, 
and  not  all  the  persuasions  of  friends  and  physicians  could 
induce  him  to  take  rest.  "During  1830,"  Mr  Lockhart 
fc.iys,  "  he  covered  almost  as  many  sheets  with  his  MS.  as 
ia  1829,"  the  new  introductions  to  a  collected  edition  of 
his  poetry  and  the  Letters  on  Demonology  and  Witchcraft 
being  amongst  the  labours  of  the  year.  He  had  a  slight 
touch  of  apoplexy  in  November  and  a  distinct  stroke  of 
paralysis  in  the  following  April;  but,  in  spite  of  these 
warnings  and  of  other  bodily  ailments,  he  had  two  more 
novels.  Count  Robert  of  Paris  and  Castle  Dangerous,  ready 
for  the  press  by  the  autumn  of  1831.  He  would  not 
yield  to  the  solicitations  of  his  friends  and  consent  to  try 
rest  and  a  change  of  scene,  till  fortunately,  as  his  mental 
powers  failed,  he  became  possessed  of  the  idea  that  all  his 
debts  were  at  last  paid  and  that  he  was  once  more  a  free 
man.  In  this  belief  he  happily  remained  till  his  death. 
When  it  was  known  that  his  physicians  recommended  a 
sea  voyage  for  his  health,  a  Government  vessel  was  put  at 
his  disposal,  and  he  cruised  about  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  visited  places  of  interest  for  the  greater  part  of  a  year 
before  his  death.  But,  when  he  felt  that  the  end  was 
near,  he  insisted  on  being  carried  across  Europe  that  he 
might  die  on  his  beloved  Tweedside  at  Abbotsford,  where 
he  expired  on  21st  September  1832.  He  was  buried  at 
Dryburgh  Abbey  on  26th  September  following. 

A  complete  list  of  Scott's  works  is  given  in  the  Catalogue  of  Scott 
Exhibition,  2S71,  Edinburgh,  1872.  The  etaadarJ  biography  of 
Scott  is  tliat  by  Lockhart  referred  to  above  ;  see  also  AUau,  Life 
'<l/:  Scott,  Edinburgh,  1834.  .  (W.  M.) 

SCOTT,  William.     See  Stowell,  Lord. 

SCOTT,  Winfield  (1786-1866),  American  general, 
was  born  near  Petersburg,  Virginia,  13th  Juno  1786, 
the  grandson  of  a  Scottish  refugee  from  the  field  of 
CuUoden.  ■  He  was  a  student  at  William  and  !Mary 
College  in  1805,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Kich- 
mond,  Virginia,  in  1807.  One  of  the  sudden  war  excite- 
ment? of  the  time  changed  the  course  of  his  life,  and  he 
obtained  a  captain's  commission  in  the  United  States 
army  in  1808.  Ho  served  on  the  Niagara  frontier 
throughout  the  war  of  1812-1,'),  and  became  one  of  its 
leadi'ng  figures,  rising  rapidly  through  all  the  grades  of 
the  service  to  that  of  major-general,  which  was  then  the 
highest.  Among  other  curious  testimonials  to  his  valour 
and  conduct,  he  received  from  Princeton  College  in  1814 
the  honorary  dejree  of  doctor  of  laws,  a  distinction  on 


which  he  never  ceased  to  look  with  peculiar  satisfaction. 
In  1841  he  became  the  senior  major-general  of  the  army, 
and  in  1855,  after  he  had  passed  out  of  political  life,  the 
exceptional  grade  of  lieutenant-general  was  created  for 
him.  His  most  noteworthy  military  achievement  was 
his  conduct  of  the  main  campaign  against  Mexico  in  1847. 
Landing  (9th  March)  at  Vera  Cruz  with  12,000  men,  he 
fought  his  way  through  a  hostile  country  to  the  capital 
city  of  Mexico,  which  he  captured  14th  September,  thereby 
practically  ending  the  war.  His  service,  however,  was 
not  confimed  to  the  army ;  from  1815  until  1861  he  waa 
the  most  continuously  prominent  public  man  of  the 
country,  receiving  and  justifying  every  mark  of  public 
confidence  in  his  integrity,  tact,  and  reasonableness.  At 
a  time  (1823)  when  duelling  was  almost  an  imperative 
duty  of  an  officer,  he  resisted  successfully  the  persistent 
efforts  of  a  brother  officer  (Andrew  Jackson)  to  force  him 
into  a  combat ;  and  the  simple  rectitude  of  his  intentions 
waa  so  evident  that  he  lost  no  ground  in  public  estimation. 
In  1832,  when  ordered  to  Charleston  by  President  Jackson 
during  the  "nullification"  troubles,  he  secured  every  advan- 
tage for  the  Government,  while  his  skilful  and  judicious 
conduct  gave  no  occasion  to  South  Carolina  for  an  out- 
break. In  like  manner,  in  the  Black  Hawk  Indian 
troubles  of  1832-33,  in  the  Cafiadian  "Patriot  War"  of 
1837-38,  in  the  boundary  dispute  of  1838  between  Maine 
and  New  Brunswick,  in  the  San  Juan  diflSculty  in  1859, 
wherever  there  was  imminent  danger  of  war  and  a  strong 
desire  to  keep  the  peace,  all  thoughts  turned  instinctively 
to  Scott  as  a  fit  instrument  of  an  amicable  settlement, 
and  his  success  always  justified  the  choice.  Such  a  career 
seemed  a  gateway  to  political  preferment,  and  his  position 
was  strengthened  by  the  notorious  fact  that,  as  ho  was  a 
Whig,  the  Democratic  administration  had  persistently  tried 
to  subordinate  his  claims  to  those  of  officers  of  its  own 
party.  In  1852  his  party  nominated  him  for  the  presi- 
dency; but,  though  his  services  had  been  so  great  and 
his  capacity  and  integrity  were  beyond  question,  he  had 
other  qualities  which  counted  heavily  against  him.  He 
was  easily  betrayed  into  the  most  egregious  blunders  of 
speech  and  action,  which  drew  additional  zest  from  his 
portly  and  massive  form  and  a  somewhat  pompous  cere- 
moniousness  of  manner.  He  destroyed  his  chances  ci 
election  in  the  North.  The  Southern  'Whigs,  believing 
him  to  be  under  the  influence  of  the  Seward  or  anti-slavery 
wing  of  the  party,  cast  no  strong  vote  for  him,  and  he  waa 
overwhelmingly  defeated  in  both  sections,  completing  the 
final  overthrow  of  his  party.  In  1861  he  remained  at  the 
head  of  the  United  States  armies,  in  spite  of  the  secession 
of  his  State,  until  November,  when  he  retired  on  account 
of  old  age  and  infirmities.  After  travelling  for  a  time  ia 
Europe,  he  published  in  1864  his  autobiography,  a  work 
which  reveals  the  strong  and  weak  points  of  his  character, 
— his  integrity  and  complete  honesty  of  purpose,  his  inclina- 
tion to  personal  vanity,  his  rigid  precision  in  every  point  of 
military  precedent  and  etiquette,  and  his  laborious  affecta- 
tion of  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  belles  lettres.  He 
died  at  West  Point,  New  York,  29th  May  1866. 

The  Autohiojrapliy  of  LiciUcnant-Gcncral  Winfidd  Scott,  LL.D., 
in  two  Toluroes,  gives  the  facts  of  his  career  at  length.  For  hia 
defeat  in  18.12,  see  Von  Holst'.s  Constitutional  /Tistor;/,  voL  iv.  p. 
171  of  the  original,  p.  206  of  the  English  translation. 

SCOTUS.  See  Duns  Scotcs  and  ScnoLASxiasM, 
SCRANTON,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Lackawanna  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  a  plateau  at  the 
junction  of  the  Roaring  Brook  and  the  Lackawanna  river, 
162  miles  north  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
great  coal-mining  district  in  the  country  and  the  seat  of  a 
large  number  of  iron  and  steel  works,  rolling-mills,  blast- 
furnaces, ic.  and  extensive  factories  for  the  production  of 


552 


SCR  —  SCR 


rails,  locomotives,  mining  machinery,  steam-boilers,  stoves, 
carriages,  edge-tools,  &e.  A  public  library,  a  theatre, 
an  academy  of  music,  a  hospital,  a  public  hall,  a  driving 
park,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  home  for  the  friend- 
less, and  a  museum  of  Indian  stone  relics  are  among  the 
more  prominent  features  of  the  place.  The  population  was 
9223  in  IStO,  55,092  in  1870,  and  45,850  in  1880. 

Slocxim  Farm,  ad  the  site  was  called  subsequent  to  1798,  saw  its 
first  blast-fuinace  erected  in  18!0  by  George  and  Selden  Scranton, 
who  soon  added  a  rolling-mill  and  the  manufacture  of  rails.  The 
opening  of  the  railway  in  1856  gave  a  gi-eat  stimulus  to  the  new 
town  (1854),  which  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1866.  It  is  divided 
into  twenty-one  wards,  of  which  the  4th,  5th,  6th,  24th,  15th,  and 
18th  are  known  as  Hyde  Park,  the  1st,  2d,  and  3d  as  Providence. 

SCREAJMER,  a  bird  inhabiting  Guiana  and  the  Amazon 
valley,  so  called  in  1781  by  Pennant  {Gen.  Birch,  p.  37) 
"  from  the  violent  noise  it  makes," — the  Palamedea  cc  nuta 
of  Liunosus.  First  made  known  in  1648  by  Marcgrave 
under  the  name  of  "  Anhima,"  it  was  more  fully  described 
and  better  figured  by  Buffon  under  that  of  Kamichi,  still 
applied  to  it  by  French  writers.  Of  about,  the  size  of  a 
Turkey,  it  is  remarkable  for  the  curious  "  horn  "  or  slender 
caruncle,  more  than  three  inches  long,  it  bears  on  its  crown, 
the  two  sharp  spurs  with  which  each  wing  is  armed,  and 
its  elongated  toes.  Its  plumage  is  plain  in  colour,  being 
of  an  almost  uniform  grejdsh  black  above,  the  space  round 
the  eyes  and  a  ring  round  the  neck  being  variegated  with 
vhite,  and  a  patch  of  pale  rufous  appearing  above  the 
carpal  joint,  while  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  are  v/hite. 
Closely  related  to  this  bird  is  another  first  described  by 
Linnaeus  as  a  species  of  Parra  (Jac.vn.4,  vol.  xiii.  p.  531), 
to  which  group  it  certainly  does  not  belong,  but  separated 
therefrom  by  IlUger  to  form  the  genus  Chauna,  and  now 
known  as  C  chavaria,  very  generally  in  English  as  the 
"  Crested  Screamer,"  ^  a  name  which  was  first  bestowed  on 
the  Sekieji.i  {q.v.).  This  bird  inhabits  the  lagoons  and 
swamps  of  Paraguay  and  Southern  Brazil,  where  it  is  called 
"Chaji"  or  "Chaka,"and  is  smaller  than  the  preceding, 
wanting  its  "  horn,"  but  having  its  head  furnished  with  a 
dependent  crest  of  feathers.  Its  face  and  throat  are  white, 
to  which  sticceeds  a  blackish  ring,  and  the  rest  of  the 
lower  parts  are  white,  more  or  less  clouded  with  cinereous. 
According  to  Mr  Gibson  (Ibis,  1880,  pp.  165,  166),  its 
neat  is  a  light  construction  of  dry  rushes,  having  its  founda- 
tion in  the  water,  and  contains  as  many  as  six  eggs,  which 
are  white  tinged  with  buff.  The  young  are  covered  with 
down  of  a  yellowish  brown  colour.  A  most  singular  habit 
possessed  by  this  bird  is  that  of  rising  in  the  air  and  soar- 
ing there  in  circles  at  an  immense  altitude,  uttering  at 
intervals  the  very  loud  cry  of  which  its  local  name  is  an 
imitation.  From  a  dozen  to  a  score  may  be  seen  at  once 
so  occupying  themselves.  The  young  are  often  taken  from 
the  nest  and  reared  by  the  people  to  attend  upon  and  de- 
fend their  poultry,  a  duty  which  is  faithfully  -  and,  owing 
to  the  spurs  with  which  the  Chaka's  wings  are  armed, 
successfully  discharged.  Another  very  curious  property 
of  this  bird,  which  was  observed  by  Jacquin,  who  brought 
it  to  the  notice  of  Linnsus,^  is  its  emphysematous  condi- 
tion,— there  being  a  layer  of  air-cells  between  the  skin  and 
the  muscles,  so  that  on  any  part  of  the  body  being  pressed 
a  crackling  sound  is  heard.  In  Centra!  America  occurs 
another  species,  C.  derblana,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the 
darker  colour  of  its  plumage.  For  this  a  distinct  genus, 
Ischyrornis,  was  proposed,  but  apparently  without  neces- 
sity, by  Eeichenbach  (Syst.  Aviuvi,  p.  xxi.). 

The  taxonomic  position  of  the  Palamedeidm,  for  all  will 

^  Under  this  name  its  curious  habits  have  been  well  described  by 
K-:  W.  H.  Hudson  {Gentleman's  Magasine,  Sept.  1886,  pp.  280-287). 

^  Hence  Latham's  name  for  this  species  is  "Faithful  Jacana," — he 
•uppcsing  it  to  belong  to  the  genus  in  which  Linnsus  placed  it. 

^  "Tacta  manu  cutis,  sub  nennis  etiam  lanosa,  crepat  ubique  for- 
titer"  {Spat.  Nat.,  ed.  12.  i.  o.  230), 


allow  to  tne  Screamers  the  rank  of  a  Family  at  least,  has 
been  much  debated,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  fixed.  Their 
Auserine  relations  were  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Parker  in  the 
Zoological  Proceedings  for  -1863  (pp.  511-518),  and  in  the 
same  work  for  1S67  Prof.  Htxxley  placed  the  Family  among 
his  ChenomorjAx ;  but  this  view  was  contravened  iu  18Vu 
by  Garrod,  who  said,  "  The  Screamers  must  have  sprung 
from  the  primary  avian  stock  as  an  independent  offshoot 
at  much  the  same  time  as  did  most  of  the  other  important 
families."  Accordingly  in  1880  Mr  ^clater  regarded  them 
as  forming  a  distinct  "  Order,"  Palaraedese,  which  he,  how- 
ever, placed  next  to  the  true  Anseres,  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which,  as  has  been  already  stated  (Ornithology, 
vol.  xviii.  p.  47),  the  present  writer  thinks  the  Palamedeidca 
can  hardly  be  removed.  (a.  n.) 

SCREW.  The  screw  is  the  simplest  instrument  for 
converting  a  uniform  motion  of  rotation  into  a  uniform 
motion  of  translation  (see  Mechanics,  vol.  xv.  p.  754). 
Metal  screws  requiring  no  special  accuracy  are  generally 
cut  by  taps  and  dies.  A  tap  is  a  cylindrical  piece  of  stec! 
having  a  screw  on  its  exterior  ■nith  sharp  cutting  edges ; 
by  forcing  this  with  a  revolving  motion  into  a  hole  of  the 
proper  size,  a  screw  is  cut  on  its  interior  forminc;  what  is 
knc^vn  as  a  nut  or  female  screw.  The  die  is  a  nut  with 
sharp  cutting  edges  used  to  screw  upon  the,  outside  of 
round  pieces  of  metal  and  thus  produce  male  screws.  Mora 
ac^'urate  screws  are  cut  in  a  lathe  by  causing  the  carriago 
carrying  the  tool  to  move  uniformly  forward,  thus  a  coc- 
tinuous  spiral  line  is  cut  on  the  uniformly  revolving  cylinder 
Cxed  between  the  lathe  centres.  The  cutting  tool  may  be 
an  ordinary  form  of  lathe  tool  or  a  revolving  saw-Uke  disk. 
(See  M.ACHiNE  Tools,  vol.  xv.  p.  153.) 

Errors  of  Screws. — For  scientific  purposes  the  screw  must  \>e  so 
regular  that  it  moves  forward  in  its  nut  exactly  the  same  di^'auco 
for  each  c-iven  angular  rotation  around  its  axis.  As  the  mountings 
of  a  screw  introduce  many  errors,  the  final  and  exact  test  of  ila 
accuracy  can  only  be  made  when  it  is  finished  and  set  up  for  nsc. 
A  large  screw  can,  however,  be  roughly  examined  in  the  following 
manner.  (1)  Eeo  whether  the  surface  of  the  threads  has  a  perfT;! 
polish.  The  more  it  departs  from  this,  and  approaches  the  rough 
torn  surface  r^i  cut  by  the  lathe  tool,  the  worse  it  is.  A  perfect 
screw  has  a  perfect  polish.  (2)  Mount  upon  it  between  the  centrcj 
of  a  lathe  and  the  slip  a  short  nut  which  fits  perfectly.  If  the  nut 
moves  from  end  to  end  with  equal  friction,  the  screw  is  unifonn  in 
diameter.  If  the  nut  is  long,  unequal  resistance  may  be  due  to 
either  an  error  of  run  or  a  bend  in  the  screw.  (3)  Fix  a  microscope 
on  the  lathe  carrip^e  and  focus  its  single  cross-hair  on  the  edge  of 
the  screw  and  parallel  to  its  axis.  If  the  screw  runs  true  at  every 
point,  its  axis  is  straight.  (4)  Obseiwe  v;hcther  the  short  nut  runs 
from  end  to  end  of  the  screw  without  a  wabblif;  motion  when  the 
screw  is  turned  and  the  nut  kept  from  revolving.  If  it  wabbles 
tlfe  screw  is  said  to  be  drunk.  One  can  see  this  error  better  by 
fixing  a  long  pointer  to  the  nut,  or  by  attaching  to  it  a  mirror-  and 
observing  an  image  in  it  with  a  telescope.  The  following  experi- 
ment will  also  detect  this  error.  (5)  Put  upon  the  screw  two  well- 
fitting  and  rather  short  nuts,  which  are  kept  from  revolving  by 
arms  bearing  against  a  straight  edge  parallel  to  the  axis  of  tho 
screw.  Let  one  nut  carry  an  arm  which  supports  a  microscope 
focused  on  a  line  ruled  on  the  other  nut  Screw  this  combination 
to  different  parts  of  the  screw.  If  Hurinc  c-.c  ix^vululioa  Ida 
microscope  remains  in  focus,  the  screw  is  not  drunk  ;  and,  if  tho 
cross-hairs  bisect  the  line  in  every  position,  there  is  no  error  of  run. 

Making  Accurate  Screws. — To  produce  a  screw  of  a  foot  or  even 
a  y?.rd  long  with  errors  not  exceeding  yVrsth  of  an  inch  ia  not 
difficult.  Professor  "William  A.  Rogers  of  Harvard  observatory 
has  invented  a  process  in  which  tho  tool  of  the  lathe  while  cutting 
the  screw  is  moved  so  as  to  counteract  the  errors  of  the  latbo 
screw.  The  screw  is  then  partly  ground  to  get  lid  of  local 
errors.  But,  where  the  highest  accuracy  is  needed,  we  must  r^orfc 
in  the  case  of  screws,  as  in  all  other  cases,  to  grinding.  A  long  solid 
nut,  tightly  fitting  the  sc^ew  in  one  position,  cannot  bo  moved 
fresly  to  another  position  unless  the  screw  is  very  accurate.  If 
grinding  material  is  applied  and  the  nut  is  constantly  tightened, 
it  will  grind  out  all  errors  of  run,  drunkenness,  crookedness,  and 
uregularity  of  size.  The  condition  is  that  the  nut  must  Ns  Joas:. 
rigid,  and  capable  of  being  tightened  as  the  grinding  proc«''  Zj  ; 
also  the  screw  must  be  ground  longer  than  it  wiU  finally  w  -.i.-eded 
BO  that  the  imperfect  ends  may  be  recioved. 

The  foUowiiig  pr'-cosa  will  produce,, u,.i..;iew  smtaois ,  for  ruling 


S  C  R— S  G  R 


553- 


gratings  for  optical  purposc-s.  Supposo  it  is  our  purpose  to  produce 
a  screw  which  is  finally  to  be  9  inchfes  long,  not  including  bearings, 
and  1^  inches  in  diameter.  Select  a  bar  of  soft  Bessemer  steel, 
which  has  not  the  hard  spots  usually  found  in  cast  steel,  about  If 
inches  in  diameter  and  30  long.  Put  it  between  lathe  centres  and 
turn  it  down  to  1  inch  diameter  everywhere,  except  about  12  inches 
in  the  centre,  where  it  is  left  a  little  over  IJ  inches  in  diameter  for 
cutting  the  screw.  Kow  cut  the  screw  with  a  triangular  thread  a 
little  sharper  than  60°.  Above  all,  avoid  a  fine  screw,  using  about 
20  threads  to  the  inch. 

Th&' grinding  nut,  about  11  inches  long,  has  now  to  bo  made.    Fig. 
1  reoresenta  a  section  of  the  nut,  which  is  made  of  brass,  or  better 
d      d 


Fio.  1. — Section  of  grinding  nut. 

01  Bessemer  steel.  It  consists  of  four  segments, — a,  a,  which  can 
bs  dra^vn  about  the  screw  by  two  collars,  b,  b,  and  the  screw  c. 
Wedges  between  tho  segments  prevent  too  great  pressiu-e  on  the 
screw.  The  final  clamping  is  effected  by  the  rings  and  screws,  d, 
<l.  which  enclose  the  flanges,  e,  of  the  segments.  The  screw  is  now 
l)laced  in  a  laihe  and  surrounded  by  v.ater  whose  temperature  can 
be  kept  constant  to  1°  C,  and  the  nut  placed  on  it.  lu  order  that 
the  weight  of  the  nut  m.ay  not  make  the  ends  too  small,  it  must 
either  be  counterbalanced  by  weights  hung  from  a  rope  passing 
over  pulleys  in  the  ceiling,  or  the  screw  must  be  vertical  during 
the  whole  process.  Emery  and  oil  seem  to  be  the  only  available 
gi'inding  materials,  though  a  softer  silica  powder  might  be  used 
towards  the  end  of  the  operation  to  clean  off  the  emery  and  prevent 
future  wear.  Kow  ^rind  tha  screw  in  the  nut,  making  tho  nut 
pass  backwards  and  lorwards  over  the  screw,  its  whole  range  being 
nearly  20  inches  at  first  Turn  the  nut  end  for  end  every  ten 
minutes  and  continue  for  two  weeks,  finally  making  the  range 
of  the  nut  only  about  10  inches,  using  finer  washed  emery  and 
moving  the  lathe  slower  to  avoid  heating.  Finish  with  a  fine  silica 
powder  or  rouge.  During  tho  process,  if  the  thread  becomes  too 
blunt,  recut  the  nut  by  a  skori  tap  so  as  not  to  change  the  pitch  at 
any  point.  This  must  of  course  not  be  done  less  than  five  days 
before  the  finish.  Now  cut  to  tho  proper  length  ;  centre  again, in 
the  lathe  under  a  microscope  ;  and  turn  the  bearings.  A  screw  so 
grgund  has  less  errors  than  from  any  other  svstcm  of  mounting. 
The  periodic  error  especially  will  be  too  small  to  bo  discovered, 
though  the  mountings  and  graduation  and  centering  of  the  head 
■will  introduce  it;  it  must  therefore  finally  bo  corrected. 

Mounting  of  Screws.  —-The  mouuting  must  be  devised  most  care- 
fully, and  is  indeed  more  difficult  to  make  without  error  than  the 
screw  itself.  The  principle  which  should  be  adopted  is  that  no 
workmansliip  is  perfect ;  tho  design  must  make  up  for  its  imper- 
fections. Thus  the  screw  can  never  bo  made  to  run  truo  on  its 
bearings,  and  hence  the  device  of  resting  one  end  of  the  caniage 
on  tho  nut  must  be  rejected.  Also  all  rigid  connexion  between 
tho  nut  and  the  carriage  must  be  avoided,  as  tho  screw  can  never 
bo  adjusted  parallel  to  the  ways  on  which  tho  carriage  rests.  For 
many  purposes,  such  as  ruling  optical  gratings,  the  carriage  must 
mo'v'e  accurately  forward  in  a  straight  line  as  far  as  tho  horizontal 
plane  u  concerned,  while  a  littlo  curvature  in  tho  vertical  plane 
produces  very  littlo  effect.  These  conditions  can  be  satisfied  by 
making  the  ways  V-shaped  and  grinding  with  a  grinder  somewhat 
shorter  than  the  ways.  By  constant  reversals  and  by  lengthening 
or  shortening  tho  stroke,  they  vdW  finally  become  nearly  perfect. 
Tho  vertical  curvature  can  be  sufficiently  tested  ty  ^  short  carriage 
carrying  a  delicate  spirit  level.  Another  and  very  efficient  form 
of  ways  is  V-shapcd  with  a  flat  top  and  nearly  vertical  sides.  The 
carriage  rests  on  tho  flat  top  and  is  held  by  springs  against  one  of 
tho  nearly  vortical  sides.  To  determine  with  accuracy  whether 
tho  ways  are  straight,  fix  a  flat  piece  of  glass  on  tho  carriage  and 
rule  a  lino  on  it  by  moving  ii  under  a  diamond  ;  reversp  and  rule 
another  line  near  the  first,  and  measure  the  distance  apart  at  tho 
centre  and  at  tho  two  ends  by  a  micrometer.  If  tho  centre  measure- 
ment is  equal  to  tho  mean  of  the  two  end  ones,  tho  lino  is  straight. 
This  is  better  than  tho  method  witli  a  mirror  mounted  on  the 
can-iago  and  a  telescope.  The  screw  itself  must  rest  in  bearings, 
and  tho  end  motion  bo  prevented  by  a  point  bearing  against  its  flat 
end,  which  is  protected  by  hardened  steel  or  a  fiat  diamond.  Collar 
bearin4;3  introduce  periodic  errors.     The  secret  of  success  is  so  to 


WW 
00000- 


design  the  nut  and  its  connexions  as  to  eliminate  all  adjustments  of 
the  screw  and  indeed  all  imperfect  workmanship.  The  connexion 
must  also  be  such  as  to  give  means  of  correcting  any  residual 
periodic  errors  or  errors  of  run  which  may  be  introduced  in  the 
mountings  or  by  the  wear  of  the  machine. 

The  nut  is  shown  in  fig.  2.  It  is  made  in  two  halves,  of  ^\TOUght 
iron  filled  with  boxwood  or  lignum  vitce  plugs,  on  which  the  screw 
is  cut.  To  each  half  a  long  piece  of  sheet  steel  is  fixed  which  bears 
a"ainst  a  guiding 
edge,  to  be  described 
presently.  The  two 
halves  are  held  to  the 
screw  by  springs,  so 
that  each  moves  for- 
v/ard  almost  indepen- 
dently of  the  other. 
To  join  the  nut  to  tho 
carnage,  a  ring  is  attached  to  tho  latter, 
vertical  and  which  can  turn  round  a 
The  bars  fixed  midway  on  the  two  halves 
against  this  ring  at  points  90°  distant 
Hence  each  half  does  its  share  indcpend- 
other  in  moving  tho  carriage  forward, 
parallelism  between  the  screw  and  the 
tricity  in  tho  screw  mountings  thus 
the  forward  motion  of  the  carriage.  The 
which  the  steel  pieces  of  the  nut  rest  can 
form  as  to  correct  any  small  error  of  run 
tho  screw.  Also,  by  causing  it  to  move 
forwards  periodically,  the  periodic  error 
mountings  can  be  corrected. 

In  makir*  gratings  for  optical  purposes 
error  must  be  very  perfectly  eliniinated, 
odic  displacement  of  the  lines  only  one 


whose  plane  is 
vertical  axia 
of  the  nut  bear 
from  its  axis, 
ently  of  the 
Any  want  of 
ways  or  eccen- 
scarcely  affects 
guide  against 
be  made  ot  such 
due  to  wear  of 
backwards  and 
of  the  head  and 

the  periodic 
since  the  peri- 
millionth  of  an 
ducQ    "  ghosts  * 


inch  from  their  mean  position  will  pro- 

in  the  spectrum.*  Indeed  this  is  the  most  sensitive  method  of 
detecting  the  existence  of  this  error,  and  it  is  practically  irapoft- 
sible  to  mount  the  most  perfect  of  screws  withoxt  introducing  it. 
A  very  practical  method  of  determining  this  error  is  to  rule  a 
short  grating  with  very  long  lines  on  a  piece  of  common  thin 
plate  glass;  cut  it  in  two  with  a  diamond  and  superimpose  the 
two  halves  with  the  rulings  together  and  displaced  sideways  over 
each  other  one-half  the  pitch  of  the  screw.  On  now  looking  at 
the  plates  in  a  proper  light  so  as  to  have  the  spectral  colours 
show  through  it,  dark  lines  will  appear,  which  are  wavy  if  there 
is  a  periodic  error  and  strai"ht  if  there  is  none.  By  measuring  the 
comparative  amplitude  of  the  waves  and  tho  distance  apart  of  two 
lines,  the  amount  of  the  periodic  error  can  bo  determined.  The 
phase  of  the  periodic  error  is  best  found  by  a  series  of  trials  after 
setting  the  corrector  at  the  proper  amplitude  as  determined  above. 
A  machine  properly  made  as  above  and  kept  at  a  constant 
temperature  should  bo  able  to  make  a  scale  of  6  inches  in  length, 
with  errors  at  no  point  exceeding  T-oVsTnjth  of  an  inch.  "When, 
however,  a  grating  of  that  length  is  attempted  at  tho  rate  of  14,000 
lines  to  the  inch,  four  days  and  nights  are  required  and  the  result  is 
seldom  perfect,  possibly  on  account  of  the  wear  of  the  machine  oi 
changes  of  temperature.  Gratings,  however,  less  tlian  3  inches 
lon^  are  easy  to  make.  (H.  A.  R.)    ' 

SCRIBE,  AuGusTiN  EuotxE  (1791-1861),  the  most 
popular  playwright  of  France,  was  born  at  Paris  on  24th 
December  1791,  and  died  there  on  20th  February  1361. 
His  father  was  a  silk  merchant  and  he  was  well  educated, 
being  destined  for  the  bar.  But,  having  a  real  gift  for 
the  theatre  (a  gift  which  unfortunately  was  not  allied  with 
sufficient  literary  power  to  make  his  works  last),  be  very 
soon  broke  away  from  professional  study  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty  produced,  in  collaboration,  as  i^  common  in 
France,  the  first  of  a  series  of  dramas  which  continued  for 
fifty  years.  Xcs  Derms  (ISll)  is  usually  cited  as  the  first 
play  in  which  he  took  a  hand,  though,  as  for  some  time  he 
did  not  sign  his  work,  identification  is  somewhat  dJfKcult. 
He  achieved  no  distinct  success  till  1816,  when  Une  Kuii 
de  Garde  A'atioiurfe  made  him  in  a  way  famous.  Thence- 
forward his  fertility  was  unceasing  and  its  results  pro- 
digious. There  may  be  in  existence  a  complete  list  of 
Scribe's  works,  but  we  have  never  seen  any  that  pretended 
to  be  such.     He  wrote  every  kind  of  drama — vaudevilles, 

^  In  a  machine  made  by  tho  present  writer  for  rtding  gr.itings  the 
periodic  error  is  entirely  due  to  tho  giaduation  and  centering  of  the 
head.  The  wncorrectcd  periodic  error  from  this  cause  displaces  the 
lines  TnijWsth  of  an  inch,  which  is  suflicient  to  entirely  ruin  all  gratings 
made  without  correcting  it. 

XXI.  —   7o 


554 


S  C  R  — S  C  R 


comedies,  tragedies,  opera-libretti.  To  one  theatre  alone 
he  is  said  to  have  furnished  more  than  a  hundred  pieces. 
But  his  Life  was  entirely  uneventful,  and  his  election  to 
the  Academy  in  1834  is  almost  the  only  incident  which 
deserves  chronicling.  It  ought  to  be  said  to  Scribe's 
credit  that,  although  he  was  the  least  original  of  writers 
and  was  more  an  editor  of  dramas  than  a  dramatist, 
although  he  was  for  many  years  an  object  of  the  bitterest 
envy  to  impecunious  geniuses  owing  to  his  pecuniary 
success,  and  although  he  never  has  pleased  and  never  can 
please  any  critic  who  applies  purely  literary  tests,  his 
character  stands  very  high  for  literary  probity  and  indeed 
generosity.  He  is  said  in  some  cases  to  have  sent  sums  of 
money  for  "copyright  in  ideas"  to  men  who  not  only  had 
not  actually  collaborated  with  him  but  who  were  unaware 
that  he  had  taken  suggestions  from  their  work.  His 
industry  was  untiring  and  his  knowledge  both  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  stage  and  of  the  tastes  of  the  audience 
was  wonderful.  Nevertheless  he  hardly  deserves  a  place 
in  literature,  his  style  being  vulgar,  his  characters  common- 
place, even  his  plots  lacking  power  and  grasp.  He  wrote 
a  few  novels,  but  none  of  any  mark.  The  best  known  of 
Scribe's  pieces  after  his  first  successful  one  are  Uyie  Chaine 
(1842),  Le  Verre  d'Eau  {\&i2),Adrienne  Lecouvreiir  {IW:)), 
and  the  libretti  of  many  of  the  most  famous  operas  of 
the  middle  of  the  century,  especially  those  of  Auber  and 
Meyerbeer. 

SCRIBES.     S'^e  Iseael,  vol.  xiii.  p.  419. 

SCRIVENER'S  PALSY.     See  Ckamp,  vol.  vi.  p.  543. 

SCROFULA  or  Struma  (formerly  kno^Tn  in  England 
as  "  king's  evil,"  from  the  belief  that  the  touch  of  the 
sovereign  could  efi"ect  a  cure  •),  a  constitutional  morbid 
condition  generally  exhibiting  itself  in  early  life,  and 
characterized  mamly  by  defective  nutrition  of  the  tissues 
and  by  a  tendency  to  inflammatory  afi"ection3  of  a  low  type 
with  degenerative  changes  in  their  products.  The  subject 
has  been  considered  in  most  of  its  features  under  Patho- 
logy (vol.  xviii.  p.  405),  and  only  a  further  brief  reference 
is  here  necessary.  Scrofula  may  be  either  inherited  or 
acquired.  Heredity  is  of  all  causes  the  most  potent,  and 
naturally  operates  with  greater  certainty  Avhere  both  parents 
possess  the  taint.  As  in  all  hereditary  diseases,  however, 
the  liability  may  be  scarcely  perceptible  for  one  or  two 
generations,  but  may  then  reappear.  Other  causes  refer- 
able to  parentage  may  readily  produce  this  constitutional 
state  in  children,  as  weakness  or  ill  health  in  one  or  both 
parents,  and,  as  seems  probable,  marriages  of  consanguinity. 
But,  apart  altogether  from  hereditary  or  congenital  influ- 
ences, the  scrofulous  habit  is  frequently  developed,  especi- 
ally in  the  young,  by  such  unfavourable  hygienic  conditions 
as  result  from  overcrowded,  cold,  and  dark  dwellings,  in- 
sufficient and  improper  food,  exposure,  and  debauchery. 
Even  among  the  old  in  such  circumstances  the  evidences 
of  scrofula  may  be  seen  to  present  themselves  where  before 
they  had  been  absent. 

There  are  two  well-marKed  types  of  the  scrofulous  con- 
stitution to  be  often  observed,  especially  among  the  young. 
In  the  one  the  chief  features  are  a  fair  complexion  with 
delicate  thin  skin,  blue  eyes,  dilated  pupils,  long  eyelashes, 
soft  muscles,  and  activity  of  the  circulatory  and  nervous 
system ;  while  in  the  other  the  skin  is  dark,  the  features 
heavy,  the  figure  stunted,  and  all  the  functions,  physical 
and  mental,  inactive.  In  many  instances,  however,  it  will 
be  found  that  both  types  are  more  or  less  mixed  together 
in  one  individual.  The  manifestations  of  scrofula  generally 
appear  in  early  life,  and  are  often  exhibited   in  young 

'  This  superstition  can  be  traced  back  to  the  time  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  iu  England,  and  to  a  much  earlier  period  in  France.  5amuel 
Johnson  was  touched  by  Queen  Anne  in  1712,  and  the  same  pre- 
rogative of  royalty  was  exercised  by  Prince  Chtirles  Edward  in  1745. 


children  during  the  first  deniition  by  inflammatory  skin 
eruptions  of  obstinate  character  on  the  face  and  other 
parts ;  later  on  in  youth  there  appear  glandular  swellings 
cither  externally,  as  on  the  neck,  or  srfecting  the  gland 
structures  of  the  chest  or  abdomen,  while  at  the  same 
time  mucous  membranes  and  bones  may  become  implicated. 
The  distinctive  features  of  the  scrofulous  inflammatory 
affections  are  their  tendency  to  chronicity  and  to  suppurar 
tlve  and  degenerative  changes,  the  afl'eeted  parts  either 
healing  slowly  with  residting  disfigurement,  as  on  the  neck, 
or  continuing  to  retain  traces  of  the  products  of  the 
diseased  action,  which  may  set  up  serious  disturbance  of 
the  health  at  some  future  time.  Further,  the  scrofulous 
constitution  always  influences  the  duration  and  progress  of 
any  disease  from  which  the  individual  may  suffer,  as  well 
as  its  results.  Thus  in  pneumonia,  to  which  the  scrofulous 
would  seem  to  be  specially  liable,  the  products  of  the 
inflammation  are  not  readily  absorbed  as  in  previously 
healthy  persons,  but,  remaining  in  the  lung-tissues,  are 
apt  to  undergo  caseous  degenerative  changes,  which  may 
issue  in  phthisis  (see  Pneumonia  and  Phthisis).  The 
connexion  of  scrofula  with  tubercle  is  pointed  out  in  the 
article  Pathology  {loc.  cit.). 

Scrofula  may  under  favourable  circumstances  tend  to- 
improvement  as  age  advances,  and  it  occasionally  happens 
that  persons  who  in  early  life  showed  unmistakable  evi- 
dences of  this  condition  appear  ultimately  to  outgrow  it, 
and  become  in  all  respects  healthy  and  vigorous.  The 
treatment  is  essentially  similar  to  that  described  for 
rickets  or  phthisis,  and  is  partly  preventive  and  partly 
curative.  It  consists  mainly  in  hygienic  measures  to  pro- 
mote the  health  and  nutrition  of  the  young,  and  of  suitable 
diet,  tonics,  &c.,  where  evidences  of  the  disease  have 
declared  themselves.     See  Rickets,  Phthisis. 

SCRUB-BIRD,  the  name  (for  want  of  a  better,  since  it 
is  not  very  distinctive)  conferred  upon  the  members  of  an 
Australian  genus,  one  of  the  most  curious  ornithological 
types  of  the  many  furnished  by  that  country.  The  first 
examples  were  procured  by  the  late  Mr  Gilbert  between 
Perth  and  Augusta  in  West  Australia,  and  were  described 
by  Gould  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Proceedings  for  1844 
(pp.  1,  2)  as  forming  a  new  genus  and  species  under  the 
name  of  Atrichia  clamosa,  the  great  peculiarity  observed 
by  that  naturalist  being  the  absence  of  any  bristles  around 
the  gape,  in  which  respect  alone  it  seemed  to  dift'er  from 
the  already  known  genus  Sphenvra.  In  March  1866  Mr 
Wilcox  obtained  on  the  banks  of  the  Richmond  river  on 
the  eastern  side  of  Australia  some  other  examples,  which 
proved  the  existence  of  a  second  species,  described  by  Mr 
Ramsay  in  the  Proceedings  for  that  year  (pp.  438-440)  as 
A.  rufescens ;  but  still  no  saspicion  of  the  great  divergence 
of  the  genus  from  the  ordinary  Passerine  type  was  raised, 
and  it  was  generally  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Maluridx 
or  Australian  Warblers.  However,  the  peculiar  formation 
of  the  sternum  in  Atrichia  attracted  the  present  writer's 
attention  almost  as  soon  as  that  of  A.  clamosa  was  exhibited 
in  the  museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  and  at  his  re- 
quest Mr  P^amsay  a  little  later  sent  to  the  museum  of  the 
university  of  Cambridge  examples  m  spirit  of  A.  ru/escens, 
which  shewed  a  common  structure.  One  of  the  sterna! 
peculiarities  was  noticed  by  Mr  Sclater  {Ihis,  1874,  p.  19i, 
note);  and  in  the  present  work  (Bikds,  iii.  p.  741)  the 
Scrub- birds  were  declared  to  form  a  distinct  Family, 
Atrichiide:,  standing,  so  far  as  Was  known,  alone  with  the 
Lyre-birds  (see  vol.  xv.  p.  115)  as  "abnormal  Passeres." 
Much  the  same  view  was  also  taken  the  next  year  by  Garrod, 
who,  in  the  Proceedings  for  1876  (pp.  516,  518,  pi.  I'i. 
figs.  4-7),  further  dwelt  on  the  taxonomic  importance  of 
the  equally  remarkable  characters  of  the  syringeal  muscles 
exhibited  alike  by  Ifenura  and  Atrichia,  which  he  accord- 


s  c  u  —  s  u  u 


555 


ingly  placed  together  in  a  division  of  the  Acrqmyodian 
Fasseres,  differing  from  all  the  rest  and  since  recognized,  as 
has  been  said  (Ornithologv,  vol.  xviii.  .pp.  40,  41),  by  Mr 
Sclater  as  a  Sub-order  Fseudoscines.  A  detailed  anatomical 
description  of  Atrichia  has,  however,  yet  to  be  given,  and  a 
comparison  of  many  other  Australian  tj-pes  is  needed  i 
before  it  can  be  certainly  said  to  have  no  nearer  ally  than 
Mcnura.     Both  the  known  species  of  Scrub-bird  are  about 


West-Auslraliau  Scrub-bird  {Atrichia,  dainosa). 
the  size  of  a  small  Thrush — A.  clamosa  being  the  larger  of 
the  two.  This  species  is  brown  above,  each  feather 
barred  with  a  darker  shade ;  the  throat  and  belly  are 
reddish  white,  and  there  is  a  large  black  patch  on  the 
breast ;  while  the  flanks  are  brown  and  the  lower  tail- 
coverts  rufous.  A.  rufescejis  has  the  white  and  black  of 
the  fore-parts  replaced  by  brown,  barred  much  as  is  the 
upper  plumage.  Both  species  are  said  to  inhabit  the 
thickest  "  scrub  "  or  brushwood  forest ;  but  little  has  been 
ascertained  as  to  their  mode  of  life  e.xcept  that  the  males 
.".re  noisy,  imitative  of  the  notes  of  other  birds,  and  given 
to  violent  gesticulations.  The  nest  and  eggs  seem  never 
to  have  been  found,  and  indeed  no  example  of  the  female 
of  either  species  is  known  to  have  been  procured,  whence 
that  sex  may  be  inferred  to  escape  observation  by  its  in- 
conspicuous appearance  and  retiring  habits.  (a.  n.) 

SCUDERY  is  the  name  of  a  family  which  is  said  to 
have  been  of  Italian  origin  and  to  have  transferred  itself  to 
Provence,  but  which  is  only  k  'own  by  the  singular  brother 
and  sister  who  represented  it  during  the  17th  century. 

Georges  de  Scudf.ry  (1601-1667),  the  elder  of  the  pair, 
was  born  at  Havre,  whither  his  father  had  moved  from 
Provence,  in  1601.  He  served  in  the  army  for  some  time, 
and,  though  in  the  vein  of  gasconading  which  was  almost 
peculiar  to  him  he  no  doubt  exaggerated  his  services,  there 
seems  little  doubt  that  he  was  a  stout  soldier.  But  he  con- 
ceived a  fancy  for  literature  before  he  was  thirty,  and  during 
the  whole  of  the  middle  of  the  century  he  was  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  figures  of  Paris.  Despite  his  own  merit, 
which  was  not  inconsiderable,  and  his  sister's,  which  was 
more,  he  was  unlucky  in  his  suits  for  preferment.  Indeed 
from  some  stories  told  by  men  not  his  friends  he  seems  to 
have  hurt  his  ovm  chances  by  independence  of  spirit.  He 
received,  however,  the  governorship  of  (he  fortress  of  Notre 
Damede  la  Garde  near  Marseilles  in  1613,  and  in  1650 
wsis  elected  to  the  Academy.     Long  before  he  had  made 

'  Forbes  !,hcwe(l  that  OBTHONTJt  (vol.  xviii.  p.  .'52)  did  not  belong 
to  tl<<f  f^oup  03  at  one  time  suoDoscd. 


himself  conspieuous  by^a  letter  attacking  ComeiUe's  Cid, 
which  he  addressed  to  that  body.  He  was  himself  an 
industrious  dramatist,  L' Amour  Tyranniqxi.e  being  the  chief 
piece  which  (and  that  only  partially)  has  escaped  obli.-jn. 
His  other  most  famous  work  was  the  epic  of  Alaric  (16-54). 
He  lent  his  name  to  his  sister's  first  romances,  but  did  little 
beyond  correcting  the  proofs.  His  death  occurred  at  Paris 
on  14th  May  1667.  Scudery's  swashbuckler  affectations 
(he  terminates  Ms  introduction  to  the  works  of  Thcophile 
de  Viaud  by  somt.  ing  like  a  challenge  in  form  to  any  one 
who  does  not  admit  the  supremacy  of  the  deceased  poet), 
the  bombast  of  his  style.  \nd  his  various  oddities  have 
been  rather  exaggerated  by  literary  gossip  and  trsdition. 
Although  probably  not  quite  sane,  he  had  some  poetical 
power,  a  fervent  love  of  literature,  a  high  sense  of  honour 
and  of  friendship. 

His  sister  Madeleixe  (1607-1701),  born  al^o  at  Havre 
in  1607,  was  a  writer  of  much  more  ability  and  of  a  much 
better  regulated  character.  She  was  very  plain  and  had 
no  fortune,  but  her  abilities  were  great  and  she  was  very 
well  educated.  Establishing  herself  at  Paris  with  her 
brother,  she  was  at  once  admitted  to  the  Piambouillet  coterie, 
afterwards  established  a  salon  of  her  own  under  the  title 
of  thp  Societe  du  Samedi,  and  for  the  last  half  of  the  17th 
century,  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Sapho "  or  her  own 
name,  was  acknowledged  as  the  first  blue-stocking  of  Franco 
and  of  the  world.  Her  celebrated  novels,  Aiiameiu  on  le 
Grand  Cynts,  Clelie,  Ibrahim  ou  Vlllustre  Bassa,  Almahide, 
and  others  are  known  by  quotation  to  every  one,  and  were 
the  delight  of  all  Eui'ope,  including  persons  of  the  wit  and 
sense  of  Madame  de  Sevigne.  But  for  at. least  a  century 
and  a  half  they  have  lain  unread,  and  their  immense  length 
has  often  been  satirized  even  by  persons  well  read  in  letters 
with  the  terra  "folio,"  when  in  fact  they  were  originally 
issued  in  batches  of  small  octavos,  sometimes  (allowing  for 
two  parts  to  each  volume)  running  to  a  score  or  so. 
Neither  in  conception  nor  in  execution  will  they  bear 
criticism  as  wholes.  With  classical  or  Oriental  personages 
for  nominal  heroes  and  heroines,  the  whole  language  and 
action  are  taken  from  the  fashionable  ideas  of  the  time, 
and  the  personages  can  be  identified  either  really  or  colour- 
ably  with  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery's  contemporaries.  Tha 
interminable  length  of  the  stories  is  made  out  by  endless 
conversations  and,  as  far  as  incidents  go,  chiefly  by  suc- 
cessive abductions  of  the  heroines,  conceived  and  related 
in  the  most  decorous  spirit,  for  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery 
is  nothing  if  not  decorous.  Nevertheless,  although  the 
books  can  hardly  now  be  read  through,  it  is  still  ]K>ssible 
to  perceive  their  attraction  for  the  wits,  both  male  and 
female,  of  a  time  which  certainly  did  not  lack  wit.  In 
that  early  day  of  the  novel  prolixity  did  not  repeL 
"Sapho"  had  really  stddied  mankind  in  her  contempo- 
raries and  knew  how  to  analyse  and  describe  their  characters 
with  fidelity  and  point.  She  was  a  real  mistress  of  con- 
versation, a  thing  quite  new  to  the  age  at  least  as  far  as 
literature  was  concerned,  and  proportionately  welcome. 
She  could  moralize — a  favourite  emploj-ment  of  the  time — 
with  sense  and  propriety,  and  the  purely  literary  merits 
of  the  style  which  clothed  the  whole  were  considerable. 
Madeleine  survived  her  brother  more  than  thirty  years 
(scandal  says  that  she  was  not  sorry  to  bo  relieved  from 
his  humours)j  and  in  her  later  days  published  numerous 
volumes  of  conversations  (to  a  great  extent  extracted  from 
her  novels)  and  short  moral  writings.  Dryden  says  that  he 
had  heard  of  an  intention  on  her  part  to  translate  the 
Canterbury  Tales,  and  it  is  not  impossible.  She  never 
lost  either  her  renown  or  her  wits  or  her  good  sense,  and 
died  at  Paris  on  2d  June  1701.  It  is  unfortunate  and 
rather  surprising  that  no  one  has  recently  attempted  aa 
antholog}'  from  her  immense  work. 


556 


SCULPTURE 


Karljr 
firi-v 
tiaa. 


THE  present  article  is  confined  to  the  sculpture  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  modern  times ;  classical  sculpture 
has  been  already  treated  of  under  Aech.eolooy  (Class- 
ical), vol.  ii.  p.  343  S(j.,  and  in  the  articles  on  the  several 
individual  artists. 

In  the  4th  century  A.D.,  under  the  rule  of  Constantine's 
successors,  the  plastic  arts  in  the  Roman  world  reached 
the  lowest  point  of  degradation  to  which  they  ever  fell. 
Coarse  in  workmanshij),  intensely  feeble  in  design,  and 
utterly  without  expression  or  life,  the  pagan  sculpture  of 
that  time  is  nierely  a  dull  and  ignorant  imitation  of  the 
work  of  previous  centuries.  The  old  faith  was  dead,  and 
the  art  which  had  sprung 
from  it  died  with  it.  In 
the  same  century  a  large 
amount  of  sculpture  was 
produced  by  Christian 
workmen,  which,  though 
it  reached  no  very  high 
standard  of  merit,  was  at 
least  far  superior  to  the 
pagan  work.  Although 
it  shows  no  increase  of 
technical  skill  or  know- 
ledge of  the  human  form, 
yet  the  mere  fact  that  it 
was  inspired  and  its  sub- 
jects supplied  by  a  real 
living  faith  was  quite 
sufficient  to  give  it 
vigour  and  a  dramatic 
force  which  raise  it  a>s- 
thetically  far  above  the 
expiring  efforts  of  pagan- 
ism. Fig.  1  shows  a  very 
fine  Christian  relief  of 
the  4th  century,  with  a 
noble  figure  of  an  arch- 
angel holding  an  orb  and 
a  sceptre.  It  is  a  leaf  from 
an  ivory  consular  dip- 
tych, inscribed  at  the  top 
A.EXOY  HAPONTA  KAI 
MAGOJN  THN  AITIAN, 
"Iieeeive  these  presents 
and  having  learnt  the  oc- 
casion ..."  A  number 
of  large  marble  sarco- 
phagi are  the  chief  exist- 
ing specimens  of  this  early 
Chi'istian  c.alpture.  In 
general   design    they  are 


Fig.  1. — Relief  in  ivory  of  the  -ith 
century.     (British  Museunfc) 


close  copies  of  pagan  tombs,  and  are  richly  decorated 
outside  with  rehefs.  The  subjects  of  these  are  usually 
scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  From  the 
former  those  subjects  were  selected  which  were  supposed 
to  have  some  typical  ref-=rence  to  the  life  of  Christ  : 
the  Meeting  of  Abraham  and  Melchisedec,  the  Sacrifice 
of  Isaac,  Daniel  among  the  Lions,  Jonah  and  the  Whale, 
are  those  which  most  frequently  occur.  Among  the  New 
Testament  scenes  no  representations  occur  of  Christ's 
sufferings  ;>  the  subjects  chosen  illustrate  His  power  and 
beneficence :  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  Triumphal 
Enti-y    into   Jerusalem,   and  many  of   His  miracles   are 

'  A  partial  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  scene  of  Christ  before 
Pilate,  which  sometimes  occurs. 


frequently  repeated.  The  Vatican  and  Lateran  museums 
are  rich  in  examples  of  this  sort.  One  of  the  finest  in  the 
former  collection  was  taken  from  the  crypt  of  the  old 
basilica  of  St  Peter;  it  contained  the  body  of  a  certain 
Junius  Bassus,  and  dates  from  the  year  359.-  Many 
other  similar  sarcophagi  were  made  in  the  provinces  of 
Rome,  especially  Gaul ;  and  fine  specimens  exist  in  the 
museums  of  Aries,  ^larseilles,  and  Aix ;  those  found  in 
Britain  are  of  very  inferior  workmanship. 

In  the  5th  century  other  plastic  works  similar  in  style 
were  still  produced  in  Italy,  especially  reliefs  in  ivory 
(to  a  certain  extent  imitations  of  the  later  consular 
diptychs),  which  were  used  to  decorate  episcopal  thrones 
or  the  bindings  of  JISS.  of  the  Gospels.  The  so-called 
chair  of  St  Peter,  still  preserved  (though  hidden  from  sight) 
in  his  great  basilica,  is  the  finest  example  of  the  former 
class  ;  of  less  purely  classical  style,  dating  from  about  550, 
is  the  ivory  throne  of  Bishop  Maximianus  in  Ravenna 
cathedral  (see  fig.  2).     Another  very  -remarkable  work  of 

J I 


Flo.  2. — Keliefs  iu  ivory  of  tlie  Baptist  aud  the  Four  Evangelists  in 
front  of  the  episcopal  throue  of  JIa.ximianus  iu  Eaveuua  cathedral 

the  5tli  century  is  the  series  of  small  panel  reliefs  on  the 
doors  of  S.  Sabina  on  the  Aventine  Hill  at  Rome.  They 
are  scenes  from  Bible  history  carved 
in  wood,  and  in  them  much  of  the 
old  classic  style  survives.^ 

In  the  6th  century,  under  the  By- 
zantine influence  of  Justinian,  a  new 
class  of  decorative  sculpture  was  pro- 
duced, especially  at  Ravenna.     Sub- 
ject reliefs  do  not  often  occur,  but 
large  slabs  of  marble,  forming  screens, 
altars,    pulpits,    and   the    like,   were 
ornamented  in  a  very  skilful  and  ori- 
ginal way  with  low  reliefs  of  graceful 
vine- plants,  with  peacocks  and  other 
birds   drinking   out   of   chalices,   all 
treated  in   a  very  able  and   highly  Fio.  3.— Sixth-ceutury 
decorative   manner    (see    fig.   3   and     "1"'^'  f'"™  S.  Vitale 
the  upper  band  of  fig.   2).     Byzan-     "'  K^venua. 
tium,  however,  in  the  main,  became  the  birthplace  and 

-  See  Dionysius,  Sac.  Vat.  Das.  Cnjj/.,  and  Bimsen,  Besch.  it,  SladI 
Rom,  1840. 

^  Various  dates  have  been  assigned  to  these  interesting  reliefs  by 
different  arch.-eologists,  but  the  costumes  of  the  figures  are  stroug 
evidence  that  they  are  not  later  than  tlie  oth  century. 


BTZAJJTIXE.] 


SCULPTURE 


557 


I 


seat  of  all  the  medi.-Gval  arts  soon  after  the  transference 
thither  of  the  headquarters  of  the  empire.  The  plastic 
arts  of  Byzantium  were  for  a  while  dominated  by  the 
surviva!  of  the  diU  classic  art  of  the  extreme  decadence, 
but  soon  fresh  life  and  vigour  of  conception  were  gained 
by  ?  people  who  were  not  without  the  germinating  seeds 
of  a  new  £esthetio  development.  The  bronze  statue  of  St 
Peter  in  his  Roman  basilica  is  an  early  work  which  shows 
some  promise  of  what  was  to  come  in  the  far-off  future ; 
though  classical  in  its  main  lines  and  stiff  in  treatment, 
it  possesses  a  simple  dignity  and  force  which  were  far 
beyond  the  powers  of  any  mere  copyist  of  classic  sculp- 
ture.' Very  early  in  the  5th  or  6th  century  a  school  of 
decorative  sculpture  arose  at  Byzantium  which  produced 
work,  such  as  carved  foliage  on  capitals  and  bands  of  orna- 
Hient,  possessed  of  the  very  highest  decorative  power  and 
executed  with  unriv  Jled  spirit  and  vigour.  The  early 
Byzantine  treatment  of  the  acanthus  or  thistle,  as  seen  in 
the  capitals  of  S.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  the  Golden 
Gate  at  Jerusalem,  and  many  other  buildings  in  the  East, 
has  never  since  been  surpassed  in  any  purely  decorative 
sculpture ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  how  it  grew  out 
of  the  dull  and  lifeless  ornamentation  which  covers  the 
degraded  Corinthian  capital  used  so  largely  in  Roman 
buildings  of  the  time  of  Constantine  and  his  sons.  It 
was,  however,  especially  in  the  production  c(  Mj;t.\l-wokk 
{q.v.)  that  the  early  Byzantines  were  so  famous,  and  this 
notably  in  the  manipulation  of  the  precious  metals,  which 
were  then  used  in  the  most  lavish  way  to  decorate  and 
furnish  the  great  churches  of  the  empire.  This  extended 
use  of  gold  and  silver  strongly  influenced  their  sculpture, 
even  when  the  material  was  marble  or  bronze,  and  caused 
an  amount  of  delicate  surface-ornament  to  be  used  which 
was  sometimes  injurious  to  the  breadth  and  simplicity  of 
their  reliefs.  For  many  centuries  the  art  of  Byzantium, 
at  least  in  its  higher  forms,  made  little  or  no  progress, 
mainly  owing  to  the  tyrannical  influence  of  the  church  and 
its  growing  suspicion  of  anything  like  sensual  beauty.  A 
large  party  in  the  Eastern  Church  decided  that  all  repre- 
sentations of  Christ  must  be  "without  form  or  comeliness," 
and  that  it  was  impious  to  car\'e  or  paint  Him  with  any 
of  the  beauty  and  nobility  of  the  pagan  gods.  Moreover, 
the  artists  of  Byzantium  were  fettered  by  the  strictest  rules 
as  to  the  proper  way  in  which  to  jxirtray  each  sacred  figure: 
every  saint  had  to  be  represented  in  a  certain  attitude,  with 
one  fixed  cast  of  face  and  arrangement  of  drapery,  and  even 
in  certain  definitely  prescribed  colours.  No  deviation  from 
these  rules  was  permitted,  and  thus  stereotyped  patterns 
were  created  and  followed  in  the  most  rigid  and  conventional 
manner.  Hence  in  Byzantine  art  from  the  6th  to  the  12th 
century  a  miniature  paintii.^  in  an  illuminated  MS.  looks 
like  a  rediiced  copy  of  a  colossal  glass  mosaic ;  and  no 
design  had  much  special  relation  to  the  material  it  was 
to  be  executed  in  :  it  was  much  the  sime  whether  it  was 
intended  to  be  a  large  relief  sculptured  iu  stone  or  a  minute 
piece  of  silver-work  for  the  back  of  a  textus. 
Jnftnwico  Till  about  the  12th  century,  and  in  some  places  much 
•.[ B/ran- later,  the  art  of  Byzantium  dominated  that  of  t'u:  whole 
tine  IT  .  (;;hristian  world  in  a  very  remarkable  way.  From  Russia 
to  Ireland  ahd  from  Norway  to  Spain  any  given  work  of 
art  in  one  of  the  countries  of  Europe  might  almost  equally 
well  have  been  designed  in  any  other.  Little  or  no  local 
peculiarities  can  be  detected,  except  of  course  in  the  methods 
of  execution,  and  even  these  were  wonderfully  similar 
everywhere.  The  dogmatic  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church 
and  its  great  monastic  system,  with  constant  interchange 
of  mcnjiish  craftsmen  between  one  country  and  another, 

'  There  Is  no  ground  for  the  popul.nr  Impression  that  this  is  an 
intlqno  itatno  of  Jupiter  transformed  iuto  that  of  St  Peter  by  tho 
addition  of  the  keV9. 


were  tlie  chief  causes  of  this  widespread  monotony"  c£ 
style.  An  additional  reason  was  the  unrivalled  tcrhrirr.i 
skill  of  the  early  Byzantines,  which  made  thei.  city  wide!;)! 
resorted  to  by  the  artist-craftsmen  of  all  Europe, — tha 
great  school  for  learning  any  branch  of  tho  arts. 

The  extensive  use  of  the  precious  metals  for  the  chief 
works  of  plastic  art  in  this  early  period  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  so  few  examples  still  remain, — their  great  intrin-sn 
value  naturally  causing  their  destruction.  One  of  (lin 
mo=t  important  existing  e.xamples,  dating  from  the  8th 
century,  is  a  series  of  colossal  wall  reliefs  executed  in  hard 
stucco  in  the  church  of  Cividale  (Friuli)  not  far  from  Trier-fe. 
These  represent  rows  of  female  saints  bearing  jeweliod 
crosses,  crowns,  and  wreaths,  and  closely  resembling  in  cos- 
tume, attitude,  and  arrangement  the  gift-bearing  mosaic 
figures  of  Theodora  and  her  ladies  in  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna, 
It  is  a  striking  instance  of  tho  almost  petrified  state  of 
Byzantine  art  that  so  close  a  similarity  should  be  possible 
betv/een  works  executed  at  an  interval  of  fully  two  hundred 
years.  Some  very  interesting  small  plaques  of  ivory  in 
the  library  of  St  Gall  shov;-  a  still  later  survival  of  early 
forms.  The  central  relief  is  a  figure  of  Christ  in  Majesty, 
and  closely  resembles  those  in  the  colossal  apse  mosaic  of 
S.  ApoUinare  in  Classe  and  other  churches  of  Ravenna ; 
while  the  figures  below  the  Christ  are  survivals  of  a  still 
older  time,  dating  back  from  the  best  eras  of  classic  art- 
A  river-god  is  represented  as  an  old  man  holding  an  urn, 
from  which  a  stream  issues,  and  a  reclining  female  figure 
with  an  infant  and  a  cornucopia  is  the  old  Roman  Tellua 
or  Earth-goddess  with  her  ancient  attributes.- 

It  will  be  convenient  to  discuss  the  sculpture  of  the 
medieval  and  modern  periods  under  the  heads  of  the  chief 
countries  of  Europe. 

Enyland. — During  the  Saxon  period,  when  stone  build- 
ings were  rare  and  even  large  cathedrals  were  built  of 
wood,  the  plastic  arts  were  mostly  confined  to  the  usb  of 
gold,  silver,  and  gilt  copper.  The  earliest  existing  sped-  Oi'irch- 
mens  of  sculpture  in  stone  are  a  number  of  tall  duircJiyard  >"''' 
crosses,  mostly  in  the  northern  provinces  and  apparently  '^'^^'"• 
the  work  of  Scandinavian  sculptors.  One  very  rcmarkablo 
example  is  a  tall  monolithic  cross,  cut  in  sandstone,  in  tlio 
churchyard  of  Gcsforth  in  Cumberland.  It  is  covered 
with  rudely  carved  reliefs,  small  in  scale,  which  are  of 
special  interest  as  showing  a  transitional  state  from  tho 
worship  of  Odin  to  that  of  Clirist.  Some  of  the  old  Norse 
symbols  and  myths  sculptured  on  it  occur  modified  and 
altered  into  a  semi-Christian  form.  Though  ricli  in  decora- 
tive effect  and  with  a  graceful  outline,  this  sculptured  cross 
shows  a  very  primitive  state  of  artistic  development,  as  do 
tho  other  crosses  of  this  class  in  Cornwall,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland,  which  are  mainly  ornamented  with  those  ingeni- 
ously intricate  patterns  of  interlacing  knotwork  designed 
so  skilfully  by  both  the  early  Norse  and  tho  Celtic  races.' 
They  belong  to  a  class  of  art  which  is  not  Cliristian  in  its 
origin,  though  it  was  afterwards  largely  used  for  Christian 
purposes,  and  so  is  thoroughly  national  in  style,  quite  free 
from  the  usual  widespread  Byzantine  influence.  Of  special 
interest  from  their  early  date — probably  tho  11th  century 
— are  two  large  stone  reliefs  now  in  Chichester  cathedral, 
which  are  traditionally  said  to  have  come  from  tho  pre- 
Norman  church  at  Selsey.  They  are  thoroughly  Byzantino 
in  style,  but  evidently  the  work  of  somo  very  ignorant 
sculptor ;    they  represent  two  scenes  in    tha  Raising  of 

'  On  early  and  medieval  sculi-'tnre  in  ivory  consult  Gori,  Thesaurita 
Veientm  Diptychornm,  Florence,  1 759  ;  Wcstwootl,  JJi'jjli/cka  o/ ConavU^ 
London,  1862;  Didron,  Ima'jc3  ouvranta  du  Louvre^  Paris,  1871; 
Maakell,  Ivories  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  London,  187-  ; 
Wicseler,  Diftychon  Qitiriuianum  ztt  Brescia,  Gottingen,  1863  ; 
Wyatt  and  OldOeld,  Sciilflure  in  Ivory,  London,  1856. 

*  See  O'Neill,  Sculptured  Crosses  c/  Ireland,  London,  1857. 


558 


SCULPTURE 


[ENGLISH. 


Lazarus ' ;  the  figures  are  stiff,  attenuated,  and  ugly,,  the 
pose  very  awkward,  and  the  drapery  of  exaggerated 
Byzantine  character,  with  long  thin  folds.  To  repre- 
sent the  eyes  pieces  of  glass  or  coloured  enamel  were 
inserted ;  the  treatment  of  the  hair  in  long  ropelike 
twists  suggests  a  metal  rather  than  a  stone  design  (see 
%.  4). 


Fia.  i, — Kelief  of  Christ  at  the  tomb  of  Lazarus,  now  in  Chichester 
cathedral ;  11th  century,  Byzantine  style. 

Korman  During  the  Norman  period  sculpture  of  a  very  rude  sort 
period,  was  much  used,  especially  for  the  tympanum  reliefs  over 
the  doors  of  churches.  Christ  in  Majesty,  the  Harrowing 
of  Hell,  and  St  George  and  the  Dragon  occur  very  fre- 
quently. Beliefs  of  the  zodiacal  signs  were  a  common 
decoration  of  the  richly  sculptured  arches -of  the  12th 
century,  and  are  frequently  carved  with  much  power.  The 
later  Norman  sculptured  ornaments  are  very  rich  and 
spirited,  though  the  treatment  of  the  human  figure  is  still 
very  weak.^ 
Effigies.  The  best-preserved  examples  of  monumental  sculpture 
of  the  12th  century  are  a  number  of  effigies  of  knights- 
tgmplars  in  the  round  Temple  church  in  London.'  They 
are  laboriously  cut  in  hard  Purbeck  marble,  and  much  re- 
semble bronze  in  their  treatment ;  the  faces  are  clumsy, 
and  the  whole  figures  stiff  and  heavy  in  modelling ;  but 
they  are  valuable  examples  of  the  military  costume  of  the 
time,  the  armour  being  purely  chain-mail.  Another  effigy 
in  the  same  church  cut  in  stone,  once  decorated  with  paint- 
ing, is  a  much  finer  piece 'of  sculpture  of  about  a  century 
later.  The  head,  treated  in  an  ideal  way  with  wavy  ciu-ls, 
has  much  simple  beauty,  showing  a  great  artistic  advance. 
Another  of  the  most  remarkable  effigies  of  this  period  is 
that  of  Bobert,  duke  ef  Normandy  (d.  1134),  in  Gloucester 
cathedral,  carved  with  much  spirit  in  oak,  and  decorated 

*  One  of  these  reliefs  is  imperfect  and  has  been  clumsily  mended 
■with  a  fragment  of  a  third  relief,  now  lost. 

*  In  Norway  and  Denmark  during  the  11th  and  12th  centuries 
carved  ornament  of  the  very  highest  merit  was'  produced,  especially 
the  framework  round  the  doors  of  the  wooden  churches  ;  these  are 
formed  of  large  pine  planks,  sculptured  in  slight  relief  with  dragons 
and  interlacing  foliage  in  grand  sweeping  curves, — perfect  masterpieces 
of  decontive  art,  full  of  the  keenest  inventive  spirit  and  originality. 

*  See  Richardson,  Monumental  £^^e3  of  the  Temple  Church, 
London,  1843. 


with  painting  (fig.  5).  Most  rapid  progress  in  all  the 
arts,  especially  that  of  sculptiu'e,  was  made  in  England 
in  the  second 
half  of  the  13th 
and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th 
century,  large- 
ly under  the 
patronage  of  p-nj,  5._i;ihgy  m  oak  of  liuhcn,  duke  of  Nor- 
HenryllL, who  mandy,  in  Gloucester  cathedral;  once  painted 
employed     and     "nd  gilt. 

handsomely  rewarded 'a  large  number  of  English  artists, 
and  also  imported  others  from  Italy  and  Spain,  though 
these  foreigners  took  only  a  secondary  position  among 
the  painters  and  sculptors  of  England.  The  end  of 
the  13th  century  was  in  fact  the  culminating  period 
of  English  art,  and  at  this  time  a  very  high  degree  of 
excellence  waj  reached  by  purely  national  means,  quite 
equalling  and  even  surpassing  the  general  average  of  art 
on  the  Continent,  except  perhaps  in  France.  Even  Niccola 
Pisano  could  not  have  surpassed  the  beauty  and  technical 
excellence  of  the  two  bronze  effigies  in  Westminster  Abbey 
modelled  and  cast  by  William  Torell,  a  goldsmith  and  Wil'in 
citizen  of  London,  shortly  before  the  year  1300.  These '^'"'■- "• 
are  on  the  tombs  of  Henry  III.  and  Queen  Eleanor,  and, 
though  the  tomb  itself  of  the  former  is  an  Italian  work 
of  the  Cosmati  school,  there  is  no  trace  of  foreign  influence 
in  the  figures.  At  this  time  portrait  effigies  had  not  come 
into  general  use,  and  both  figures  are  treated  in  an  ideal 
way.''  The  crowned  head  of  Henry  III.,  with  noble  well- 
modelled  features  and  crisp  wavy  curls,  resembles  the  con- 
ventional royal  head  on  English  coins  of  this  and  the 
following  century,  while  the  head  of  Eleanor  is  of  re- 
markable, almost  classic,  beauty,  and  of  gxeat  interest  as 
showing  the  ideal  type  of  the  13th  century  (see  fig.  6)t 


Flo.  6. — Head  of  the  effigy  of  Queen  Eleanor  in  Westminster  Abbey  ; 
bronze  gilt,  by  William  Torell. 

In  both  cases  the  drapery  is  well  conceived  in  broad  sculp- 
turesque folds,  graceful  and  yet  simple  in  treatment.  The 
casting  of  these  figures,  which  was  effected  by  the  cire 
perdue  process,  is  technically  very  perfect.  The  gold  em- 
ployed for  the  gilding  was  got  from  Lucca  in  the  shape 
of  the  current  florins  of  that  time,  which  were  famed  for 
their  purity.  Torell  was  highly  paid  for  this,  as  well  aa 
for  two  other  bronze  statues  of  Queen  Eleanor,  probably 
of  the  same  design. 

Much  of  the  fine  13th-century  sculpture  was  used  toArehi- 
decoote  the  facades  of  churches.     The  grandest  example  t«i:tenl 
is  the  west  end  of  Wells  cathedral,  of  about  the  middle  of  ^^ ' 
the  century.     It  is  covered  with  more  than  600  figures  in 
the  round  or  in  relief,  arranged  in  tiers,  and  of  varying 
sizes.    The  tympana  of  the  doorways  are  filled  with  reliefs, 
and  above  them  stand  rows  of  colossal  statues  of  kings  and 
queens,  bishops  and  knights,  and  saints  both  male  and 

*  The  effigy  of  King  John  in  Worcester  cathedral  of  about  1216  ii 
a»  exception  to  this  rule  ;  though  rudely  esecuted,  the  head  appears 
to  be  a  portrait 


ENGLISH.] 


SCULPTURE 


559 


female,  all  treated  -very  skilfully  with  nobly  arranged 
drapery,  and  graceful  heads  designed  in  a  thoroiighly 
architectonic  way,  with  due  regard  to  the  main  lines  of 
the  building  they  are  meant  to  decorate.  In  this  respect 
the  early  mediaeval  sculptor  inherited  one  of  the  great 
merits  of  the  Greeks  of  the  best  period  :  his  figures  or 
reliefs  form  an  essential  part  of  the  design  of  the  building 
to  which  they  are  affixed,  and  are  treated  in  a  subordinate 
manner  to  their  architectural  surroundings — very  dififerent 
from  the  sculpture  on  modern  buildings,  which  usually 
looks  as  if  it  had  been  stuck  up  as  an  afterthought,  and 
frequently  by  its  violent  and  incongruous  lines  is  rather 
an  impertinent  excrescence  than  an  ornament.'  Peter- 
borough, Lichfield,  and  Salisbury  cathedrals  have  fine 
examples  of  the  sculpture  of  the  13th  century  :  in  the 
chapter-house  of  the  last  the  spandrels  of  the  wall-arcade 
ere  fiUed  with  sixty  reliefs  of  subjects  from  Bible  history, 
all  treated  wdth  much  grace  and  refinement.  To  the  end 
of  the  same  century  belong  the  celebrated  reliefs  of  angels 
in  the  spandrels  of  the  choir  arches  at  Lincoln,  carved  in 
a  large  massive  way  with  great  strength  of  decorative 
effect.  Other  fine  reliefs  of  angels,  executed  about  1260, 
exist  in  the  transepts  of  Westminster  Abbey;  being  high 
from  the  ground,  they  are  broadly  treated  without  any 
high  finish  in  the  details.^  • 
Ttih-  It  may  here  be  well  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  technical  methods 

iiioil  employed  ir  the  execution  of  medieval  sculpture,  which  in  the 

methods    main  were  very  similar  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.     "When 
imd  bronze  was  used — in  England  as  a  rule  only  for  the  effigies  of  royal 

inateriil?.  persons  or  the  richer  nobles — the  metal  was  cast  by  the  delicate 
cire  perdue  process,  and  the  whole  surface  of  the  figure  was  then 
thickly  gilded.  At  Limoges  in  France  a  large  number  of  sepulchral 
effigies  were  produced,  especially  between  1300  and  1400,  and  ex- 
ported to  distant  places.  These  were  not  cast,  but  were  made  of 
hammered  (repousse)  plates  of  copper,  nailed  on  a  wooden  core  and 
richly  decorated  with  champleve  enamels  in  various  bright  colours. 
Westminster  Abbey  possesses  a  fine  example,  executed  about  1300, 
in  the  effigy  of  William  of  Valence  (d.  1296).^  The  ground  on 
which  the  figure  lies,  the  shield,  the  border  of  the  tunic,  the  pillow, 
and  other  parts  are  decorated  with  these  enamels  very  minutely 
treated.  The  rest  of  the  copper  was  gilt,  and  the  helmet  was  sur- 
rounded with  a  coronet  set  with  jewels,  which  are  now  missing. 
One  royal  effigy  of  later  date  at  Westminster,  that  of  Henry  V.  (d. 
1422),  was  formed  of  beaten  silver  fi.\ed  to  an  oak  core,  with  the 
exception  of  the  head,  which  appears  to  have  been  cast.  The 
whole  of  the  silver  disappeared  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
nothing  now  remains  but  the  rough  wooden  core  ;  hence  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  silver  was  decorated  with  enamel  or  not ;  it 
was  probably  of  English  workmanship. 

In  most  cases  stone  was  used  for  all  sorts  of  sculpture,  being 
decorated  in  a  very  minute  and  elaborate  way  with  gold,  silver, 
ind  colours  applied  over  the  whole  surface.  In  order  to  give  addi- 
tional richness  to  this  colouring  the  surface  of  the  stone,  often 
tven  in  the  case  of  external  sculpture,  was  covered  with  a  thin 
skin  of  gesso  or  fine  plaster  mixed  with  size  ;  on  this,  while  still 
eoft,  and  over  the  drapery  and  other  accessories,  very  delicate  and 
minute  patterns  were  stamped  with  wooden  dies  (see  JIuRAL  De- 
cor.ATiox,  fig.  17),  and  upon  this  the  gold  and  colours  were  applied; 
thus  the  gaudiness  and  monotony  of  flat  smooth  surfaces  covered 
■with  gilding  or  bright  colours  were  avoided.*  In  addition  to  this 
the  borders  of  drapery  and  other  parts  of  stone  statues  were  fre- 
quently ornamented  with  crystals  and  false  jewels,  or,  in  a  more 
laborious  way,  with  holes  and  sinkings  filled  with  polished  metallic 
foil,  on  which  very  minute  patterns  were  painted  in  transparent 
varnish  colours  ;  the  whole  was  then  protected  from  the  air  by 
small  pieces  of  transparent  glass,  carefully  shaped  to  the  right  size 
and  fixed  over  the  foil  in  the  cavity  cut  in  the  .tone.    It  is  difficult 

The  sculpture  on  the  new  Paris  opera-house  is  a  striking  instance 
of  this ;  and  so,  in  a  sm.ill  way,  are  tlie  statues  in  the  new  reredos  of 
Westminster  Abbey  and  Gloucester  cathedral. 

On  the  whole,  Westminster  possesses  the  most  completely  repre- 
Kutative.  collection  of  English  mcdisval  sculpture  in  an  unbroken 
succession  from  the  13lh  to  the  16th  century. 

'  Other  effigies  from  Limoges  were  imported  into  England,  but  no 
other  example  now  exists  in  the  country. 

*  In  the  modern  attempts  to  reproduce  the  mcdixval  polychromy 
these  delicate  surface  reliefs  have  been  omitted ;  hence  the  painful  re- 
sults ot  iuch  colouriug  as  that  in  Notre  Dame  and  the  S.iinto  Chapellc 
1.1  Panj  and  many  ether  "  restored "  churches,  especially  in  France 
&ua  Germany. 


now  to  realize  the  extreme  splendour  of  this  gilt,  painted,  and 
jewelled  sculpture,  as  no  perfect  example  exists,  though  in  many 
cases  traces  remain  of  all  these  processes,  and  show  that  they  were 
once  very  widely  applied.'  The  architectural  surroundings  of  the 
figures  were  treated  in  the  same  elaborate  way.  In  the  14th  cen- 
tury in  England  alabaster  came  into  frequent  use  for  monumental 
sculpture ;  it  too  was  decorated  with  gold  and  colour,  though  iu 
some  cases  the  whole  surface  does  not  appear  to  have  been  so 
treated.  In  his  wide  use  of  coloured  decoration,  as  in  other  re- 
spects, the  mediaeval  sculptor  came  far  nearer  to  the  ancient  Greek 
than  do  any  modem  artists.  Even  the  use  of  inlay  of  coloured 
glass  was  common  at  Athens  during  the  5th  century  B.C.,— as, 
for  example,  in  the  plait-band  of  some  of  the  marble  bases  of  the 
Erechtheum.^and  bve  or  six  centuries  earlier  at  Tiiyns  and 
Mycente. 

Another  material  much  used  by  mcdiasval  sculptors  was  wood, 
though,  from  its  perishable  nature,  comparatively  few  early  ex- 
amples survive ; '  the  best  specimen  is  the  figure  of  Geoi-go  de 
Cantelupe  (d.  1273)  in  Abergavenny  church.  This  was  decorated 
with  gesso  reliefs,  gilt  and  coloured  in  the  same  v,ay  as  the  stone. 
The  tomb  of  Prince  John  of  Eltham  (d.  1334)  at  Westminster  is  a 
very  fine  example  of  the  early  use  of  alabaster,  both  for  the  re- 
cumbent effigy  and  also  for  a  number  of  small  figures  of  mournera 
all  round  the  arcading  of  the  tomb.  These  little  figures,  well  pre- 
served on  the  side  which  is  protected  by  the  screen,  are  of  very 
great  beauty  and  are  executed  with  the  most  delicate  minuteness ; 
some  of  the  heads  are  equal  to  the  best  contemporary  work  of  the 
son  and  pupils  of  Niccola  Pisano.  The  tomb  once  had  a  high 
stone  canopy  of  open  work — arches,  canopies,  and  pinnacles, — a  class 
of  architectural  sculpture  of  which  many  extremely  rich  examples 
exist,  a.s,  for  instance,  the  tomb  of  Edward  II.  at  Gloucester,  the 
De  Spencer  tomb  at  Tewkesbury,  and,  of  rather  later  style,  the 
tomb  of  Lady  Eleanor  de  Percy  at  Beverley.  This  last  is  remark- 
able for  the  great  i-ichness  and  beauty  of  its  sculptured  foliage, 
which  is  of  the  finest  Decorated  pei'ioii  and  stands  unrivalled  by 
any  Continental  exaniple. 

In  England  purely  decorative  carving  in  stone  reached  I  «.*■ 
its  highest  point  of  excellence  about  the  middle  of  the '  >«»'•> 
14th  century, — rather  later,  that  is,  than  the  best  period  "-'"'"^ 
of  figure  sculpture.     Wood-cakving  (r/.f.),  on  the  other 
hand,  reached  its  artistic  clima.x  a  full  century  later  under 
the  influence  of  the  fully  developed  Perpendicular  style. 

The  most  important  effigies  of  the  14th  century  are  those  ^gica. 
in  gilt  bronze  of  Edward  IIL  (d.  1377)  and  of  Richard 
II.  and  his  queen  (made  in  1395),  all  at  Westminster.  They 
are  all  portraits,  but  are  decidedly  inferior  to  the  earliei 
work  of  William  Torell.  The  effigies  of  Richard  11.  and 
Anne  of  Bohemia  were  the  work  of  Nicolas  Broker  and 
Godfred  Prest,  goldsmith  citizens  of  London.  Another 
fine  bronze  effigy  is  at  Canterbury  on  the  tomb  of  the 
Black  Prince  (d.  1376);  though  well  cast  and  with  care- 
fully modelled  armour,  it  is  treated  in  a  somewhat  dull 
and  conventional  way.  The  recumbent  stone  figure  of  Lady 
Arundel,  with  two  angels  at  her  head,  in  Chichester  cathe- 
dral is  remarkable  for  its  calm  peaceful  pose  and  the  beauty 
of  the  drapery.  A  very  fine  but  more  realistic  work  is 
the  tomb  figure  of  William  of  Wykeham  (d.  1404)  in  the 
cathedral  at  Winchester.  The  cathedrals  at  Rochester, 
Lichfield,  York,  Lincoln,  Exeter,  and  many  other  ecclesi- 
astical buildings  in  England  are  rich  in  examples  of  14th- 
century  sculpture,  used  occasionally  with  great  profusion 
and  richness  of  effect,  but  treated  in  strict  subordination 
to  the  architectural  background. 

The  finest  piece  of  bronze  sculpture  of  the  15th  century 
is  the  effigy  of  Richard  Beauchamp  (d.  1439)  in  his  family 
chapel  at  Warwick, — a  noble  portrait  figure,  richly  de- 
porated  with  engraved  ornaments.  The  modelling  and 
casting  were  done  by  William  Austen  of  London,  and  the 
gilding  and  engraving  by  a  Netherlands  goldsmith  who 


"  On  the  tomb  of  Aymer  de  Valence  (d.  1326)  at  Westminster  a 
good  deal  of  the  stamped  gesso  and  coloured  decoration  is  visible  on 
close  inspection.  One  of  the  cavities  of  the  base  retains  a  fragment  ot 
glass  covering  thd  painted  foil,  still  brilliant  and  jewel-like  in  effect. 

*  The  South  Kensington  Museum  possesses  a  magnificent  colossal 
wood  figure  of  an  angel,  not  English,  but  Italian  work  of  the  14th 
century.  A  l.-irge  atone  statue  of  about  the  same  date,  of  French  work- 
manship, in  the  snmc  museum  is  a  most  valuable  example  of  the  u&« 
of  stamped  gesso  and  inlay  of  painted  and  glazed  foil. 


:G0 


s  c  u 


L  P  T  U  R  E 


[ENGLISH. 


Sij- 

teenth 

reotiiry. 


lom- 


Stvcu- 
teentli 
tcDturj', 


had  settled  in  London,  named  Bartholomew  Larabespring, 
assisted  by  several  other  skilful  artists. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  sculpture  in  Eng- 
land was  entering  upon  a  period  of  rapid  decadence,  and 
to  some  extent  had  lost  its  nat've  individuality.  The 
finest  series  of  statues  of  this  period  are  those  of  life-size 
high  up  on  the  walls  of  Henry  Vll.'s  chapel  at  West;- 
minster  and  others  over  the  various  minor  altars.  These 
ninety-five  figui-es,  which  represent  saints  and  doctors  of 
the  church,  vary  very  much  in  merit :  some  show  German 
influence,  others  that  of  Italy,  while  a  third  class  are,  as 
it  were,  "archaistic  "  imitations  of  older  English  sculpture  i 
(see  fig.  7).  In  some  cases  the  heads 
and  general  pose  are  graceful,  and 
the  drapery  dignified,  but  in  the 
main  they  are  coarse  both  in  design 
and  in  workmanship  compared  with 
the  better  plastic  art  of  the  13th  and 
14th  centuries.  This  decadence  of 
English  sculpture  caused  Henry  VII. 
to  invite  the  Florentine  Torrigir.no 
(1472  M522)  to  come  to  England 
to  model  and  cast  the  bronze  figures 
for  his  own  magnificent  tomb,  which 
still  exist  in  almost  perfect  preserva- 
tion. The  recumbent  effigies  of 
Henry  VII.  and  his  cpiesn  are  fine 
specimens  of  Florentine  art,  well 
modelled  with  life-like  portrait  heads 
and  of  very  fine  technique  in  the 
casting.  The  altar-tomb  on  which 
the  effigies  lie  is  oi  black  marble, 
decorated  with  large  medallion  re- 
liefs in  gilt  bronze,  each  with  a  pair 
of  saints — the  patrons  of  Henry  and 
Elizabeth  of  York — of  very  graceful 
design.  The  altar  and  its  large  bal-  pio.  7._Statue  (life-size) 
dacchino  and  reredos  were  the  work  of  St  Thomas  of  Caoter- 
of  Torrigiano,  but  were  destroyed  tiiry  in  Heury  Vll.'s 
during  the  17th  century.  The 
reredos  had  a  large  relief  of  the 
Ilesurrection  of  Christ  executed  in  painted  terra-cotta,  aa 
were  also  a  life-sized  figure  of  the  dead  Christ  under  the 
;dtar-slab  and  four  angels  on  the  tojj  angles  of  the  bal- 
dacchino;  a  number  of  fragments  of  these  figures  have 
recently  been  found  in  the  "  pockets  "  of  the  nave  vaulting, 
where  they  had  been  thrown  after  the  destruction  of  the 
reredos.  Torrigiano's  bronze  effigy  of  Margaret  of  Rich- 
mond in  the  south  aisle  of  the  same  chapel  is  a  very 
skilful  but  too  realistic  portrait,  apparently  taken  from  a 
cast  of  the  dead  face  and  hands.  Another  terra-cotta  effigy 
in  the  Rolls  chapel  is  also,  from  internal  evidence,  attri- 
buted to  the  same  able  Florentine.  Another  talented 
Florentine  sculptor,  Benedetto  da  Maiano,  was  invited  to 
England  by  Cardinal  Wolsey  to  make  his  tomb;  of  this 
only  the  marble  sarcophagus  now  exists  and  has  been  used 
to  hold  the  body  of  Admiral  Nelson  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Another  member  of  the  same  family,  named  Giovanni,  was 
the  sculptor  of  the  colossal  terra-cotta  heads  of  the  Caesars 
affixed  to  the  walls  of  the  older  part  of  Hampton  Court 
Palace. 

During  the  troublous  times  of  the  Reformation  sculpture, 
like  the  other  arts,  continued  to  decline.  Of  17th-century 
monumental  effigies  that  of  Sir  Francis  Vere  (d.  1607)  in 
the  north  transept  at  Westminster  is  one  of  the  best, 
though  its  design — a  recumbent  effigy  overshadowed  by 
a  slab  covered  with  armour,  upborne  by  four  kneeling 


chapel,       Westminster, 
ouce  richly  coloured. 


^  There  were  once  no  less  than  107  statues  in  the  interior  of  this 
chapel,  besides  a  large  number  ou  the  exterior  ;  see  J.  T.  Micklethwaite 
in  ArrJisEologia,  vol.  ilvii.  pi.  x.-xiL 


figures  of  men-at-arms — is  almost  an  exact  copy  of  the 
tomb  of  Engelbert  II.  of  Vianden-Nassau.^  The  finest 
bronze  statues  of  this  century  are  those  of  George  '^illiers, 
duke  of  Buckingham  (d.  1628),  and  his  wife  at  the  north- 
east of  Henry  Vll.'s  chapel.  The  effigy  of  the  duke,  in 
rich  armour  of  the  time  of  Charles  I,  lies  with  folded 
hands  in  the  usual  mediaeval  pose.  The  face  is  fine  and 
well  modelled  and  the  casting  very  good.  The  allegorical 
figures  at  the  foot  are  caricatures  of  the  style  of  Michel- 
angelo, and  are  quite  devoid  of  merit,  but  the  kneeling 
statues  of  the  duke's  children  are  designed  \vith  grace  and 
pathos.  A  large  number  of  very  handsome  marble  and 
alabaster  tombs  were  erected  throughout  England  during 
the  17th  century.  The  efiigies  are  poor  and  coarse,  but 
the  rich  architectural  ornaments  are  effective,  and  often 
of  beautiful  materials,  alabaster  being  mixed  with  various 
richly  coloured  marbles  in  a  very  skilful  way.  Nicholas 
Stone  (d.  1647),  who  worked  luider  the  supervision  of  Inigo 
Jones,  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  English  sculptor  of 
his  time.  The  De  Vere  and  Villiers  monuments  are  usually 
attributed  to  him.''  One  of  the  best  public  monuments 
of  London  is  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  I.  at 
Charing  Cross,  which  was  overthrown  and  hidden  during 
the  protectorate  of  Cromwell,  but  replaced  at  the  Restora- 
tion in  1660.  It  is  very  ijobly  modelled  and  was  pro- 
duced under  Italian  influence  by  a  French  sculptor  called 
Hubert  Le  Sceur  (d.  1670).  The  standing  bronze  statue 
of  J  imes  II.  behind  the  ^Vhitehall  banqueting  room,  very 
poorly  designed  but  well  executed,  was  the  work  of  Grinling 
Gibbons  (1648-1721),  a  native  of  Holland,  who  was  chiefly 
famed  for  his  extraordinary  skill  in  carving  realistic  fruit 
and  flowers  in  pear  and  other  white  woods.  Many  rich 
and  elaborate  works  of  his  exist  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
at  Cambridge,  Chatsworth,  and  several  other  places  in' 
England.  In  the  early  part  of  the  18th  centurj-  he  worked 
for  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  car\ed  the  elaborate  friezes 
of  the  stalls  and  screens  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral  and  in 
other  London  churches. 

During  the  18th  century  English  sculpture  was  mostly  in  Eight- 
the  hands  of  Flemish'  and  other  foreign  artists,  of  whom  «^""' 
Roubiliac  (1695-1762),  Schcemakers  (1691-1773),  and"""^' 
Rysbrack  (1694-1770)  were  the  chief.  The  ridiculous 
custom  of  representing  Englishmen  of  the  18th  and  19th 
centuries  in  the  toga  or  in  the  armour  of  an  ancient 
Roman  was  fatal  alike  to  artistic  merit  and  eikonic  truth; 
and  when,  as  was  often  the  case,  the  periwig  of  the  Georgian 
period  was  added  to  the  costume  of  a  Roman  general  the 
effect  is  supremely  ludicrous.  NoUekens  (1737-1823),  a 
pupil  of  Scheemakers,  though  one  of  the  most  popular 
sculptors  of  the  18th  century,  was  a  man  of  very  little  real 
ability.*  John  Bacon  (1740-1799)  was  in  some  respects 
an  abler  sculptor.  John  Flaxman^  (1755-1826)  was  in 
England  the  chief  initiator  of  the  classical  revival.  For 
many  years  he  worked  for  Josiah  Wedgwood,  the  potter, 
and  designed  for  him  an  immense  number  of  vases  covered 
with  delicate  cameo-like  reliefs.  Many  of  these,  taken 
from  antique  gems  and  sculpture,  are  of  great  beauty, 
though  hardly  suited  to  the  sjiecial  necessities  of  fictile 
ware.  Flaxman's  large  pieces  of  sculpture  are  of  less 
merit,  but  some  of  his  marble  reliefs  are  designed  'with 
much  spirit  and  classic  purity.  His  illustrations  in  outline 
to  the  poems  of  Homer,  yEschylus,  and  Dante,  based  on 
drawings  on  Greek  vases,  have  been  greatly  admired,  but 

'  See  Areuilt,  Chdleau  de  Vianden,  Paris,  1S84. 
^  Tlie  Villiers  monument  is  evidently  the  work  of  two  sciUptors 
working  in  very  opposite  styles. 

*  An  interesting  nccount  of  many  English  sculptors  of  this  time  w 
given  by  Smith,  Kollekens  and  kis  Thiie,  London,  1820. 

*  See  Flaxman,  Lectures  at  the  Royal  Academy,  Loudon,  182^.  Els 
designs  on  a  small  scale  are  the  best  of  his  works, — as,  for  example,  tha 
stiver  shield  of  Achilles  covered  with  delicate  and  graceful  reliels. 


lEN'GLISn.l 


SCULPTURE 


561 


they  are  unfortunately  mucli  injured  by  the  use  of  a  thicker 
outline  on  one  side  of  the  figures, — an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  give  a  suggestion  of  shadow.  Flaxman's  best  pupil  was 
Baily  (178S-1867V,  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  nude  marble 
figure  of  Eve. 
Nine-  During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century  the  preva- 

tc«nth  ■  lence  of  a  cold  lifeless  pseudo-classic  style  was  fatal  to 
century,  jn^^ijuaj  talent,  and  robbed  the  sculpture  of  England  of 
all  real  vigour  and  spirit.  Francis  Chantrey  (1782-1841) 
produced  a  great  quantity  of  sculpture,  especially  sepulchral 
monuments,  which  were  much  admired  in  spite  of  their 
very  limited  merits.  Allan  Cunningham  and  Henry  Weekes 
.worked  in  some  cases  in  conjunction  T^-ith  Chantrey,  who 
was  not  wanting  in  technical  skQl,  as  is  sho'sra  by  his 
clever  marble  relief  of  two  dead  woodcocks.  John  Gibson 
(1790-1866)  was  perhaps  after  Flaxman  the  most  success- 
ful of  the  English  classic  school,  and  produced  some  works 
of  real  merit.  He  strove  eagerly  to  revive  the  polj'- 
chromatic  decoration  of  sculpture  in  imitation  of  the  cir- 
cumlitio  of  classical  times.  His  Venus  Victrix,  shown  at 
the  exhibition  in  London  of  1862  (a  work  of  about  six 
years  earlier),  was  the  first  of  his  coloured  statues  which 
attracted  much  attention.  The  prejudice,  however,  in 
favour  of  white  marble  was  too  strong,  and  both  the 
popular  verdict  and  thit  of  other  sculptors  were  strongly 
adverse  to  the  "  tinted  Venus."  The  fact  was  that  Gibson's 
colouring  was  timidly  applied  :  it  was  a  sort  of  compromise 
between  the  two  systems,  and  thus  his  sculpture  lost  the 
special  qualities  of  a  pure  marble  surface,  without  gaining 
the  richly  decorative  eflTect  of  the  polychromy  either  of  the 
Greeks  or  of  the  mediaeval  period.^  The  other  chief  sculp- 
tors of  the  same  very  inartistic  period  were  Banks,  the 
elder  Westmacott  (who  modelled  the  Achilles  in  Hyde  Park), 
R.  Wyatt  (who  cast  the  equestrian  statue  of  Wellington, 
lately  removed  from  London),  Macdowell,  Campbell.  Mar- 
shall, and  Bell. 

During  the  last  hundred  years  a  large  number  of  hono- 
rary statues  have  been  set  up  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament, 
Westminster  Hall  and  Abbey,  and  in  other  public  places  in 
London.  Most  of  these,  though  modelled  as  a  rule  with 
some  scholastic  accuracy,  are  quite  dull  and  spiritless, 
and,  whilst  free  from  the  violently  bad  taste  of  such  men 
as  Bernini  or  Roubiliac,  they  lack  the  force  and  vigorous 
originality  which  go  far  to  redeem  what  is  offensive  in  the 
sculpture  of  the  17th  and  ISth  centuries.  The  modern 
.  public  statues  of  London  and  elsewhere  are  as  a  rule 
tamely  respectable  and  quite  uninteresting.  One  brilliant 
exception  is  the  Wellington  monument  in  St  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, probably  the  finest  plastic  work  of  modern  times.  It 
Sterens.  was  the  work  of  Alfred  Stevens  (1817-1875),  a  sculptor  of 
the  highest  talent,  who  lived  and  died  almost  unrecognized 
by  the  British  public.  The  commission  for  this  monu- 
ment was  given  to  Stevens  after  a  public  competition ;  and 
he  agreed  to  carry  it  out  for  £20,000, — a  quite  inadequate 
sum,  as. it  afterwards  turned  out.  The  greater  part  of  his 
life  Stevens  devoted  to  this  grand  monument,  constantly 
harassed  and  finally  worn  out  by  the  interference  of 
Government,  want  of  money,  and  other  difficulties. 
Though  he  completed  the  model,  Stevens  did  not  live  to 
see  the  monument  sot  up, — perhaps  fortunately  for  him, 
as  it  has  been  placed  in  a  small  side  chapel,  where  the 
effect  of  the  whole  is  utterly  destroyed,  and  its  magnificent 
bronze  groups  hidden  from  view.  Tlie  monument  consists 
of  a  sarcophagus  supporting  a  recum.bent  bronze  effigy  of 
the  duke,  over  which  is  an  arched  marble  canopy  of  lata 
Renaissance  style  on  delicately  enriched  shafts.     At  each 

'  Gibson  bequeathed  bis  fortune  and  the  models  of  bio  chief  works 
to  the  Royal  Academy,  where  the  latter  are  now  crowded  In  an  upper 
room  adjoining  the  Diploma  Gallery.     Sea   Lady  Eastlakc,  Life  of 
Oibson,  London,  1870. 
•il— 21 


end  of  the  upper  part  of  the  canopy  is  a  large  bronze  group, 
one  representing  Truth  tearing  the  tongue  out  of  the  mouth 
of  Falsehood,  and  the  other  Valour  trampling  Cowardice 
under  foot  (see  fig.  8).     Tlie  two  virtues  are  represented 


/"-■ 


U4 


fio.  S.- 


-Bronze  group  by  Alfnd  Sttveui  from  tlie  Wellington 
niouunieut. " 


by  very  stately  female  figures  modelled  with  wonderful 
beauty  and  vigour ;  the  vices  are  two  nude  male  figures 
treated  in  a  very  massive  way  The  whole  is  composed 
with  great  skill  and  largeness  of  style  The  vigorous 
strength  and  sculpturesque  nobility  of  these  groups  recall 
the  style  of  Michelangelo,  but  they  are  far  from  being  a 
mere  imitation  of  him  or  any  other  master.  Stevens's 
work  throughout  is  original  and  has  a  very  distinct  char- 
acter of  its  own  He  also  designed  an  equestrian  statue 
of  the  duke  to  staiid  on  the  summit  of  the  monument,  but 
in  its  present  cramped  position  there  is  not  sufficient  room 
for  this.-  Owing  to  the  many  years  he  spent  on  this  one 
work  Stevens  did  not  produce  nuich  other  sculpture.  In 
Dorchester  House,  Park  Lane,  there  is  some  of  his  work, 
especially  a  very  noble  mantelpiece  supported  by  nude 
female  caryatids  in  a  crouching  attitude,  modelled  with 
great  largeness  of  style  He  also  designed  mosaics  to  fill 
the  spandrels  under  the  aorae  of  St  Paul's.  The  value  of 
Stevens's  work  is  all  the  more  conspicuous  from  the  feeble- 
ness of  most  of  the  sculpture  of  his  contemporaries. 

In  the  present  generation  there  are  some  signs  of  the 
development  of  a  better  state  of  the  plastic  arts.  A  bronze 
statue  of  an  Athlete  struggling  with  a  Python,  by  Sir 
Frederick    Leighton,   is  a  work    of   great   merit,   almost 


-  The  grc'Xt  merit  of  this  work  can  now  only  be  seen  at  the  South 
Kensington  JIuseum,  which  possesses  Stevens's  models  and  (on  a  umall 
scale)  bis  design  for  the  v/hole  monument. 

XXT.  —  71 


562 


SCULP  T  0   R  E 


[rRENCff. 


Cathe- 
dral 


worthy  to  riink  with  the  best  examples  of  any  period,  and 
remarkable  for  a  profovind  kr.o«-ledge  of  human  anatomy 
(see  fig.  9).  Unfortunately  the  real  cire  perdue  process 
for  metal  casting  is  seldom  practised  in  England,  and  this 


L..'. 


Fig.  9. — Bronze  statue  of  au  atlilete  :\)h\  pytlion,  by  Sir  Frederick 
Leighton,  P.K.A.,  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

status,  as  -n-ell  as  all  other  bronze  works  produced  in  Eng- 
land, suffers  much  from  the  disagreeable  .surface  tv-hich 
results'from  the  rude  method  of  forming  the  moulds  in 
sand.  The  colossal  bronze  Uons  in  Trafalgar  Square,  de- 
signed by  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  are  a  melancholy  example 
of  this.i 

France. — During  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  the  sculp- 
ture of  France  was,  on  the  whole,  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  was  there  used  in  the  greatest  profusion.  The  facades 
of  large  cathedrab  were  completely  covered  with  .sculptured 
reliefs  and  thick -set  rows  of  statues  in  niches.  The  whole 
of  the  front  was  frequently  one  huge  composition  of  statu- 
ary, with  only  sufiicient  purely  architectural  work  to  form 
a  background  and  frame  for  the  sculptured  figures.  A 
west  end  treated  like  that  of  Wells  cathedral,  which  is 
almost  unique  in  England,  is  not  uncommon  in  France. 
Even  the  shafts  of  the  doorways  and  other  architectural 
accessories  were  covered  with  minute  sculptured  decora- 
tion,— the  motives  of  which  Tere  often,  especially  during 
the  12th  century,  obviously  lierived  from  the  metal- work 
of  shrines  and  reliquaries  studded  with  rows  of  jewels.  The 
west  fai;ade  of  Poitiers  cathedral  is  one  of  the  richest  ex- 
amples ;  it  has  large  surfaces  covered  with  foliated  carving 


^  On  Eu.-^Ii^h  sculpture,  cee  Carter,  Specimens  of  Ancietrt  Sciilpficre, 
London,  17S0  ;  Aldis,  Sei'Iptin-e  of  n'orccsler  Cathrcha!,  Loudon,  1874  ; 
Cockerel!,  IconorirapJnj  of  Wells  CtithedraJ,  Cxford,  1851  ;  Stothard, 
Mojiiiniontal  £Ji[/ies  of  Britain,  London,  1817  ;  We^tmacott,  "Sculp- 
ture ill  Westminster  Abbey,"  in  Old  Lotidon  (pub.  by  Archaeological 
luslliute),  1866,  p.  159  s<]. ;  G.  G.  Scott,  Gleanings  from  WcstminsteTy 
London,  1862;  Colling  Art  Foliage.  London,  1865,  ivith  goocl  es- 
aiapleti  of  medieval  decorative  sculpture  ;  "W.  B.  Scott,  British  Fichool 
of  Sculpture,  London,  1872;  W.  M.  F,or,setti,  "British  Sculpture,"  in 
Fr,\sn-'s  Mag.,  Aprill861 ;  many  good  illustrations  of  English  mediteval 
sculpture  are  scattered  throughout  the  volumes  of  Archxologia,  the 
Archwological  Journal,  aud  other  societies'  "Proceedings.'' 


cathedral,  12th  century;  speci- 
ally designed  to  suit  vertical 
lines  of  columns  behind  ;  all 
once  covered  v.-ith  painting  and 
gold. 


and  rows  of  colossal  statues,  both  seated  and  standing, 
reaching  high  up  the  front  of  the  church.     Of  the  same 

century  (the  12th),  but  rather  later  in  date,  is  the  very 

noble  sculpture  on  the  three  western   doors  of  Chartres 

cathedral,  with  fine  tympanum 

reliefs    and    colossal    statues ; 

attached  to  the  jamb-shafts  " 

of  the  opemngs  (see  fig.  10). 

These  Jatter  figures,  with  their  '\ 

exaggerated    height   and    thu 

long    straight    folds    of    theit 

drapery,    are    designed    with  | 

great  skill  to  assist  and  not } 

to   break   the    main    upward  •: 

lines  of  the  doorways.      The  \ 

sculptors  have  willingly  sacri-  ; 

ficed  the  beauty  and  propor- 
tion of   each  separate  statue  \ 

for  the  sake  of  the  architec- 
tonic effect  of  the  whole  facade. 

The  heads,  however,  are  full 

of  nobility,  beauty,  and  even 

grace,    especially   those    that 

are  softened  by  the  addition 

of  long  wavy  curls,  which  give 

relief  to  the  general  stiffness^'"'  !«■ -Statues  °n  j»mb  of 
,.   ,,      f  ^rr.,  ,  -       central  ivest  door  of  Chartres 

ot  the  lorm.      ine  sculptured 

doors  of  the  uorth  and  south 

aisles  of  Bourges  cathedral  are 

fine  examples  of   the  end  of 

the  12th  century,  and  so  were 

the  west  doors  of  Notre   Dame  in  raris  till  they  were 

hopelessly  injured  by  "restoration."     Ths  early  sculpture 

at  Bourges  is  specially  interesting  from  the  existence  in 

many  parts  of  its  original  coloured  decoration. 

Li  France,  as  in  England,  the  13th  century  was  theThir- 
golden  age  of  sculpture ;  while  still  keeping  its  early  dignity  leeuth 
and  subordination  to  its  architectural  setting,  the  sculpture  ''""^^^Y- 
reached  a  very  high  degree  of  graceful  finish  and  even 
sensuous  beauty.  Nothing  could  surpass  the  loveliness 
of  the  angel  statues  round  the  Parisian  Sainte  Chapelle, 
and  even  the  earlier  work  on  the  facade  of  Laon  cathedral 
is  full  of  grace  and  delicacy.  Amiens  cathedral  is  especi- 
ally rich  in  sculpture  of  this  date, — as,  for  example,  the 
noble  and  majestic  statues  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  at 
the  west  end  ;  the  sculpture  on  the  south  transept  of  about 
1260-70,  of  more  developed  style,  is  remarkable  for  dignity 
combined  with  soft  beauty."  The  noble  row  of  kings  on 
the  west  end  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  has,  like  the  earlier 
sculpture,  been  ruined  by  "  restoration,"  which  has  robbed 
the  statues  of  both  their  spirit  and  their  vigour.  To  the 
latter  years  of  the  13th  century  belong  the  magnificent 
series  of  statues  and  reliefs  roimd  the  three  great  western 
doorways  of  the  same  church,  among  which  are  no  less 
than  thirty-four  life-sized  figures.  On  the  v.hole,  the  single 
statues  throughout  this  period  are  finer  than  the  reliefs 
with  many  figures.  Some  of  the  statites  of  the  Virgin  and 
Child  are  of  extraordinary  beauty,  in  spite  of  their  being 
often  treated  with  a  certain  mannerism^ — a  curved  pose 
of  the  body,  which  appears  to  have  been  copied  from  ivory 
statuettes  in  which  the  figure  followed  the  curve  of  the 
elephant's  tusk.  The  north  transept  at  Kheims  is  no  less 
rich  :  the  central  statue  of  Christ  is  a  work  of  much  grace 
and  nobility  of  form  ;  and  some  nude  figures — for  example, 
that  of  St  Sebastian — show  a  knowledge  of  the  human 
form  which  was  very  unusual  at  that  early  date.  Many 
of  these  Rheims  statues,  like  those  by  Torell  at  West- 
minster, are  quite  equal  to  the  best  work  of  Niccola  Pisano. 

'  See  Ruskin,  The  Bible  of  Aniens,  J878. 


FEENCH.] 


SCULPTURE 


5(53 


The  abbey  church  of  St  Denis  possesses  the  largest  collec- 
tion of  French  13th-century  monumental  effegies,  a  large 
i-umber  of  which,  with  supposed  portraits  of  the  early 
kings,  were  made  during  the  rebuilding  of  the  church  in 
1264;  some  of  them  appear  to  be  "archaistic"  copies 
of  older  contemporary  statues.' 

Pom-  In  the  l4th  century  French  sculpture  began  to  decline, 

(eei-th      though   much  beautiful  plastic  work  was  still   produced. 

century.  gQjjjg  of  the  reliefs  on  the  choir  screen  of  Notre  Dame  at 
Paris  belong  to  this  period,  as  does  also  much  fine  sculp- 
ture on  the  transepts  of  Rouen  cathedral  and  ihe  west  end 
of  Lyons.  At  the  end  of  this  century  an  able  sculptor 
from  the  Netherlands,  called  Claux  Sluter,  executed  much 
fine  work,  especially  at  Dijon,  under  the  patronage  of 
Philip  the"  Bold,  for  whose  newly  founded  Carthusian 
monastery  in  1399  he  sculptured  the  great  "Moses  foun- 
tain "  in  the  cloister,  with  sis  life-sized  statues  of  prophets 
in  stone,  painted  and  gilt  in  the  usual  mediaeval  fashion. 

Fifteenth  Not  long  before  his  death   in   1411   Sluter   completed   a 

century,  ygry  magnificent  altar  tomb  for  Philip  the  Bold,  now  in 
the  museum  at  Dijon.  It  is  of  white  marble,  surrounded 
with  arcading,  which  contains  about  forty  small  alabaster 
.Igures  representing  mourners  of  all  classes,  executed  with 
much  dramatic  power.  The  recumbent  portrt'it  eflSgy  of 
Philip  in  his  ducal  mantle  with  folded  hands  is  a  work 
of  great  power  and  delicacy  of  treatment. 
f-  The  latter  part  of  the  15th,  century  in  France  was  a 
time  of  transition  from  the  mediceval  style,  which  had 
gradually  been  deteriorating,  to  the  more  florid  and  real- 
istic taste  of  the  Eenaissance.  To  this  period  belong  a 
number  of  rich  reliefs  and  statues  on  the  choir-screen  of 
Chartres  cathedral.  Those  -on  the  screen  at  Amiens  are 
later  still,  and  exhibit  the  rapid  ad- 
vance of  the  new  style.  Fig.  11  shows 
a  statuette  in  the  costume  of  the  end 
of  the  15th  century,  a  chai-'cteristic 
example  of  the  later  mediaeval  method 
of  treating  saints  in  a  realistic  way. 

Sti,  oniih      In  the   16th   century  Italian  infJu- 

ceu  ..ij.  enee,  especially  that  of  Benvenuto  Cel- 
lini, was  paramount  in  France.  Jean 
Goujon  (d.  1572)  was  the  ablest  French 
sculptor  of  the  time ;  he  combined 
great  technical  skill  a;  1  refinement  of 
modelling  with  the  florid  and  affected 
style  of  the  age.  His  nude  figure  of 
Diftiia  reclining  by  a  Stag,  now  in  the 
Louv/e,  is  a  graceful  and  vigorous  piece 
of  work,  superior  in  sculpturesque 
breadth  to  the  somewhat  similar  bronze 
relief  of  a  nj-mph  by  Cellini.  Between 
1540  and  1552  Goujon  executed  the 

fine  monument  at  Rouen  to  Duke  Louis         

de  Brizi,  and  from  1555  to  1562  was  j.^^  jj  _(,,,(„„. (^  ^f 
mainlyoccupiedlnclecoratingthoLouvre  st  Mary  Magdalene, 
with  sculpture.  One  of  the  most  pleas-  late  15th  century; 
ing  and  graceful  works  of  this  period,  French  work,  painted 
.thoroughly  Italian  ii:  style,  is  the  marble  ""''  ^'"' 
group  of  the  Three  G/aces  bearing  on  their  heads  an  urn 
containing  the  heart  of  Henry  II.,  executed  in  1560  by 
Gertr.ain  Piloii  for  Catherine  de'  Medici.  The  monument 
of  Catherine  and  Henry  il.  at  St  Denis,  by  the  .same 
sculptor,  is  an  inferior  and  coarser  work.  Maitro  Ponce, 
probably  the  same  as  the  Italian  Ponce  Jacquio,  chiselled 
the  noble  monument  of  Alb.'it  of  Carpi  (1535),  now  in 
the  Louvre.  Another  very  fine  portrait  effigy  of  about 
1570,  a  recumbent  figure  in  full  armour  of  the  duUo  of 
Montmorency,  preserved  in  the  Louvre,  is  the  work   of 

*  See  Felibicu,  llistoire  de  VAtAiaye  de  Saitir-Denys,  Parw,  1700. 


Barth^lemy  Prieur.  Francois  Duquesnoy  of  Brussels 
(1594-1644),  usually  known  as  II  Flamingo,  was  a  clever 
sculptor,  thoroughly  French  in  style,  though  he  mostly 
worked  in  Italy.  His  large  statues  are  very  poor,  but  his 
reliefs  in  ivory  of  boys  and  cupids  are  modelled  with  won- 
derfully soft  realistic  power  and  graceful  fancy. 

No  sculptor  of  any  great  merit  appears  to  have  arisen  oe«n- 
in  France  during  the  17th  centurv,  though  some,  such  as  t"""" 
the  two  Coustous,  "  ""^'^ 

had  great  techni- 
cal skill.  Pierre 
Puget(I622-1694) 
produced  vigor- 
ous but  coarse  and 
tasteless  work, 
such  as  his  Milo  de- 
voured by  a  Lion. 
Other  sculptors 
of  the  time  were 
Simon  Guillain, 
rran9oi3  and  ]\Ii- 
chel  Anguier,  and 
Chas.  Ant.  Coyze- 
vox  (1640-1720), 
the  last  a  sculptor 
of  Lyons  who  pro 
duced  some  fine 
portrait  busts. 
Fig.  12  shows  a 
group  by  Clodion, 
whose  real  name 
was  Claude  Michel 
(c.  1745-1814). 
He  worked  largely 
in  terra-cotta,  and 
modelled  with 
great  spirit  and 
invention,  though 
in  the  sensual  unsculpturesque  manner  prevalent  in  hia 
time. 

In  the  following  century  Jean  Antoine  Houdon  (1740-  Eight 
1828),  a  sculptor  of  most  exceptional  power,  produced'^'"' 
some  works  of  the  highest  merit  at  a  time  when  the  plastic  '^^'' 
arts  had  reached  a  very  low  ebb.  His  standing  colossal 
statue  -of  S.  Bruno  in  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli  at  Bome  is 
a  most  noble  .and  .stately  piece  of  portraiture,  full  of 
commanding  dignity  and  expression.  His  seated  statue  of 
Voltaife  in  the  foyer  of  the  Theatre  Frani;ai»,  though 
sculpturesque  in  treatmeht,  is  a  most  striking  piece  of 
lifelike  realism.  Houdon  may  in  fact  oe  regarded  as  the 
precursor  of  the  modern  school  of  French  sculpture  of  the 
better  sort.  About  the  middle  of  tie  l?th  century  a 
revolution  was  brought  about  in  the  style  of  sculpture  by 
the  suddenly  revived  taste  for  antiqut  art.  A  period  of 
dull  pseudo-classicism  succeeded,  which  in  most  cases  stifled 
all  original  talent  and  reduced  the  plastic  arts  to  a  lifeless 
form  of  archaeology.  Regarded  eve'i  as  imitations  the 
works  of  this  period  are  very  unsuccessful :  the  sculptors 
■got  hold  merely  of  the  dry  bones  not  of  the  spirit  of  classic 
art ;  and  their  study  of  the  subject  was  so  -shallow  and 
unintelligent  that  they  mostly  picked  out  what  was  third- 
rate  for  special  admiration  and  ignored  the  glorious  beauty 
of  the  best  works  of  true  Hellenic  art.  Thus  in  sculpture, 
as  in  painting  and  architecture,  a  study  which  might  have 
been  stimulating  and  useful  in  the  highest  degree  became 
a  serious  hindrance  to  the  development  of  modern  art,  and 
this  not  only  in  France  but  in  the  other  countries  of 
Europe ;  in  France,  however,  the  victories  of  Napoleon  I 
and  his  arrogant  jjretension  to  create  a  Gaulish  empire  on 
I  the  model  of  that  of  ancient  Rome  caused  the  taste  fo' 


Fig.  12.- 


-Baccbaual  grc>up  by  Clodion  in 
terra-cotta. 


564 


SCULPTURE 


[GERMAN. 


MoCeiD 
Brn. 


^■jeiulo-Ivom.'in  art  to  bo  more  pronounced  than  elsewhere. 
Among  the  tirst  sculptors  of  this  school  were  Antoine 
Chaudet  (1703-1810)  and  Joseph  Bosio  (17G9-18-15). 
The  latter  was  largely  employed  by  Napoleon  I. :  he  exe- 
cuted with  some  ability  the  bronze  spiral  reliefs  round  the 
column  of  the  Place  Vendome  and  the  statue  of  Napoleon 
on  the  top,  and  also  modelled  the  classical  quadriga  on  the 
triumphal  arch  in  the  Place  du  Carrousel.  Jaccjues  Pradier 
of  Geneva  (1790-1852)  jnoduced  the  Chained  Prometheus 
of  the  Louvre  and  the  Niobe  group  (1S22).  He  possessed 
great  technical  ability,  but  aimed  in  most  of  his  works  at 
a  soft  sensuous  beauty  which  is  specially  unsuited  to 
tciilpture.  Francois  Kude  (1784-1855)  worked  in  a  style 
modelled  on  Gr.-eco-Fioman  sculpture  treated  with  some 
freedom.  His  bronze  Mercury  in  the  Louvre  is  a  clever 
work,  but  his  statues  of  Marshal  Ney  in  the  Luxembourg 
Gardens  and  of  General  Cavaignac  (lS-t7)  in  the  cemetery 
of  Moutmartre  are  conspicuously  bad.  The  reliefs  on  the 
pediment  of  the  Pantheon  are  by  Pierre  Jean  Da\id  of 
Angers  ,(1789-1856) ;  his  early  works  are  of  dull  classic 
style,  but  later  in  life  he  became  a  realist  and  produced 
the  most  unsculpturesque  results.  A  bronze  statue  of  a 
Dancing  Fisher-lad  modelled  by  Francois  Joseph  Duvet, 
now  in  the  Luxembourg  collection,  is  an  able  work  of  the 
paive  class.  Other  French  sculptors  who  wei'e  highly 
esteemed  in  their  time  were  Ottin,  Courtet,  Simart,  Etex, 
and  Carpeaux.i  The  last  was  an  artist  of  great  ability, 
and  produced  an  immense  number  of  clever  but  often  very 
offensive  statues.  He  obtained  the  highest  renown  in 
France,  and  was  a  typical  example  of  the  sad  degradation 
of  taste  which  prevailed  under  the  rule  of  Napoleon  III. 

The  existing  schools  of  French  sculpture  are  by  far  the 
most  important  in  the  world.  Technical  skill  and  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  liuman  form  are  possessed  by  several 
living  sculptors  of  France  to  a  degree  which  has  pirobably 
never  been  surpassed,  and  some  of  them  produce  works  of 
very  great  power,  beauty,  and  originality.  Many  of  their 
ivorks  have  a  similar  fault  to  that  of  one  class  of  French 
painters :  they  are  much  injured  by  an  excess  of  sensual 
realism;  in  many  cases  nude  statues  are  simply  life-studies 
with  all  the  faults  and  individual  peculiarities  of  one 
model!  Very  unsculpturesque  results  are  produced  by 
treating  a  statue  as  a  representation  of  a  naked  person, — 
one,  that  is,  who  is  obviously  in  the  habit  of  wearing 
clothes, — a  very  different  thing  from  the  purity  of  the 
ancient  Greek  treaJtment  of  the  nude. '  Thus  the  great 
ability  of  many  French  sculptors  is  degraded  to  suit  the 
taste  of  the  voluptuary.  An  extravagance  of  attitude  and 
an  undignified  arrangement  of -the  figures  do  much  to 
injure  some  of  the  large  groups  which  are  full  of  technical 
merit,  and  executed  with  marvellous  anatomical  knowledge. 
This  is  specially  the  case  with  much  of  the  sculpture  that 
is  intended  to  decorate  the  buildings  of  Paris.  ■  The  group 
of  nude  dancers  by  Carpeaux  outside  the  new  opera- 
Loiise  is  a  work  of  astonishing  skill  and  prurient  imagi- 
nation, utterly  unsculpturescpie  in  style  and  especially 
imfitted  to  decorate  the  comparatively  rigid  lines  of  a 
building.  The  egotism  of  modern  French  sculptors  will 
not  allow  them  to  accept  the  necessarily  subordinate 
reserve  which  is  so  necessary  for  architectonic  sculpture. 
Oiher  French  works,  on  the  other  hand,  err  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  sickly  sentimentalism,  or  a  petty  realism,  which 
is  fatal  to  sculpturesque  beauty.  The  real  power  and 
merits  of  the  modern  French  school  make  these  fardts  all 
the  more  conspicuous.- 

'  Se«  Cliesneau,  /.  B.  Cnrjicai'x;  sn  vU,  kc,  Paris,  1880. 

-  On  French  sculpture  see  Adams,  Rccneil  de  Sculptures  Gothiques, 
Paris,  1858  ;  Cerf,  Description  de  Kotre  Dame  de  Reims,  Kheims, 
1861;  fimetic-Daviil,  i'.l/i  Staluaire,  Paris,  1805,  ami  Hisloire  de 
\a  Sculpture  Ffaiifitise,  Paris,  1853  ;  Guilliebaud,  L' Arcliiieclure  et  la 


Germany. — Till  the  12th  century  sculpture  in  Germany 
continued  to  be  under  the  lifeless  influence  of  Byzantium, 
tempered  to  some  extent  by  an  attempt  to  return  to 
classical  models.  This  is  seen  in  the  bronze  pillar  reliefs 
and  other  works^produced  by  Bishop  Bernward  after  his 
visii  to  Kome  (see  Metal-work,  vol.  xvi.  p.  77).  Hiides- 
heim,  Cologne,  and  the  whole  of  the  Rhine  provinces 
were  the  most  active  seats  of  German  sculpture,  especially 
in  metal,  till  the  12th  century.  Many  remarkable  pieces 
of  bronze  sculpture  were  produced  at  the  end  of  that 
period,  of  which  _  several  specimens  exist.  The  bronze 
font  at  Li^ge,  with  figure- subjects  in  relief  of  various 
baptismal  scenes  from  the  New  Testament,  by  Lambert 
P;itras  of  Dinant,  cast  about  1112,  is  a  work  of  most 
wonderful  beauty  and  perfection  for  its  time ;  other  fonts 
in  Osriabriick  and  Hildesheim  cathedrals  are  surrounded  by 
spirited  reliefs,  fine  in  conception,  but  inferior  in  beauty 
to  those  on  the  Liege  font.  '  Fine  bronze  candelabra  exist 
in  the  abbey  church  of  Comburg  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
the  latter  of  about  1165.  IMerseburg  cathedral  has  a 
strange  realistic  sepulchral  figure  of  Rudolf  of  Swabia, 
executed  about  1100;  and  at  JIagdeburg  is  a  fine  effigy, 
also  in  bronze,  of  Bishop  Frederick  (d.  1152),  treated  in  a 
more  graceful  way.  The  last  figure  has  a  peculiarity 
which  is  not  uncommon  in  the  older  bronze  reliefs  of 
Germany :  the  body  is  treated  as  a  relief,  while  the  head 
sticks  out  and  is  quite  detached  from  the  ground  in  a 
very  awkward  way.  One  of  the  finest  plastic  works  of 
this  century  is  the  choir  screen  of  Hildesheim  cathedral, 
executed  in  hard  stucco,  once  rich  with  gold  and  colours  ; 
on  its  lower  part  is  a  series  of  large  reliefs  of  saints 
modelled  with  almost  classical  breadth  and  nobility,  with 
drapery  of  especial  excellence. 

Li  the  13th  century  German  sculpture  had  made  con- 
siderable artistic  progress,  but  it  did  not  reach  the  high 
standard  of  France.  One  of  the  best  examples  is  the 
"  golden  gate "  of  Freiburg  cathedral,  with  sculiJtured 
figures  on  the  jambs  after  the  French  fashion  The 
statues  of  the  apostles  on  the  nave  pillars,  and  especially 
one  of  the  Madonna  at  the  east  end  (1260-70),  possess 
great  beauty  and  sculpturesque  breadth  The  statues  botli 
inside  and  outside  Bamberg  cathedral,  of  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  are  nobly  designed;  and  an  equestrian 
statue  of  Conrad  III.  in  the  market-place  at  Bamberg, 
supported  by  a  foliated  corbel,  exhibits  startling  vigour 
and  originality,  and  is  designed  with  wonderful  largeness 
of  efi'ect,  though  small  in  scale.  The  statues  of  Henry  the 
Lion  and  Queen  Matilda  at  Brunswick,  of  about  the  samo 
period,  are  of  the  highest  beatify  and  dignity.of  expression. 
Strasburg  cathedral,  though  sadly  damaged  by  restoration, 
still  possesses  a  large  qu?  ''ty  of  the  finest  sculpture  of 
the  13th  century.  One  tjTnpanum  relief  of  the  Death  of 
the  Virgin,  surrounded  by  the  sorrowing  Apostles,  is  a 
work  of  the  very  highest  beauty,  worthy  to  rank  with  the 
best  Italian  sculpture  of  even  a  later  period.  Of  its  class 
nothing  can  surpass  the  purely  decorative  carving  at  Stras- 
burg, with  varied  realistic  foliage  studied  from  nature, 
evidently  with  the  keenest  interest  and  enjoyment. 

Nuremberg  is  rich  in  good  sculpture  of  the  14th  centiiry. 
The  church  of  St  Sebald,  the  Frauenkirche,  and  the  west 
facade  of  St  Lawrence  are  lavishly  decorated  with  reliefs 
and  statues,  very  rich  in  effect,  but  showing  the  germs  of 

Sculpture  du  Vme  au  XVIme  Steele,  Paris,  1851-59;  Mrnard,  Sculp- 
ture Antique  et  Moderne,  Paris,  1867  ;  Didron,  Annates  Archen- 
lof/irjues,  various  articles ;  Felibien,  Histoire  de  V A  rt  en  France, 
Paris,  1856  ;  Mi-s  Pattison,  R£naissan-ce  of  Art  in  France,  Londou, 
1879 ;  Moutfaucon,  Monumc^xs  de  la  Monarchic  Fran^aisc,  Paris, 
1729-33  ;  Jouy,  Sculptures  Modemes  du  Louvre,  Paris,  1865  ;  Reveil, 
CEuvre  de  Jean  Goi'jou,  Paris,  1868  ;  VioUet-le-Duc,  Dictionnaire  di 
V Architecture,  Vans,  1869,  art.  "Sculpture,"  vol  viii.  pp.  97-279; 
Claretit,  Peintrcs  et  SculjiUms  Contemooruins,  Paris,  in  progress. 


Bronx© 
work, 
12th 
centuiy. 


Thir- 

teeuth 

ceutuiy. 


Nurem- 
berg 
cchools. 


UEKMA.\.] 


SCULPTURE 


565 


Four- 
teentli 
century. 


that  mannerism  which  grew  so  strong  in  Germany  dui'ing 
the  loth  century.  Of  special  beauty  are  the  statuettes 
which  adorn  the  "beautiful  fountain,"  executed  by  Hein- 
fich  der  Balier  (1385-1396),  and  richly  decorated  with  gold 
and  colour  by  the  painter  Rudolf.'  A  number  of  colossal 
figures  were  executed  for  Cologne  cathedral  between  13i9 
and  1361,  but  they  are  of  ho  great  merit.  ■  Augsburg  pro- 
duced several  sculptors  of  ability  about  this  time ;  the 
museum  possesses  some  very  noble  wooden  statues  of  this 
school,  large  in  scale  and  dignified  in  treatment.  On  the 
exterior  of  the  choir  of  the  chm-ch  of  Marienburg  castle 
is  a  very  remarkable  colossal  figure  of  the  Virgin  of  about 
1340-50.  Like  the  Hildesheim  choir  screen,  it  is  made 
of  hard  stucco  and  is  decorated  with  glass  mosaics.  •  The 
equestrian  bronze  group  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon 
in  the  market-place  at  Prague  is  excellent  in  workmanship 
and  fidl  of  vigour,  though 
much  wanting  dignity  of 
style.  Another  fine  work  in 
bronze  of  about  the  same  date 
is  the  effigy  of  Archbishop 
Conrad  (d.  1261)  in  Cologne 
cathedral,  executed  many 
years  after  his  death.  The 
portrait  appears  truthful  and 
the  whole  figure  is  noble  in 
style.  The  military  effigies 
of  this  time  in  Germany  as 
elsewhere  were  almost  un- 
avoidably still  and  lifeless 
from  the  necessity  of  repre- 
senting them  in  plate  ar- 
mour ;  the  ecclesiastical 
chasuble,  in  which  priestly 
eflSgies  nearly  ahVays  ap- 
pear, is  also  a  thoroughly 
unsculpturesque  form  of 
drapery,  both  from  its  awk- 
ward shape  and  its  absence 
of  folds.  Fig.  13  shows  a 
characteristic  example  of 
these  sepulchral'  effigies  in 
slight  relief.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  compare  this  with  a 
somewhat  similarly  treated 
Florentine  effigy,  executed  in  F 
marble  at  the  beginning  of 
the  next  century,  but  of 
very  superior  grace  and  delicacy  of  treatment  (see  fig. 
16  below). 
Fifioentli  The  15th  century  was  one  of  groat  .activity  and  origin- 
ccDtiiry.  ality  in  the  sculpture  of  Germany  and  produced  many 
artists  of  very  high  ability.  One  speciality  of  the  time 
was  the  production  of  an  immense  number  of  wooden  altars 
and  reredoscs,  painted  and  gilt  in  the  most  gorgeous  way 
and  covered  with  subject-reliefs  and  statues,  the  former 
often  treated  in  a  very  pictorial  style. ^  Wooden  screens, 
stalls,  tabernacles,  and  other  church-fittings  of  the  greatest 
elaboration  and  clever  workmanship  were  largely  produced 
in  Germany  at  the  same  time,  and  on  into  the  16th  century.^ 
Jorg  Syrlin,  one  -of  the  most  able  of  these  sculptors  in 
wood,  executed  the  gorgeous  choir-stalls  in  Ulm  cathedral, 
richly  decorated  with  statuettes  and  canopied  work,  be- 
tween  1469  and  1474;  his  son  and  namesake  sculptured 


u.  13.- — Sepukliral  effigy  in  low 
relief  of  Gunther  of  Schwarzburg 
(d.  1349),  ia  Frankfort  cathedral. 


»  See  Baader,  Btitragc  zur  hunslgesch.  jVamlicrr/s  ;  and  Kcttberg, 
yumhergi  Kunitlehen,  Stuttgart,  1854. 

'  ThU  cUss  of  large  wooden  retablo  waamndi  imitated  in  Spain 
and  Scandinavia.  The  metropolitan  cathedral  of  Roskilie  in  Denmark 
posjewcs  a  very  large  and  magnificent  example  covered  with  subject 
lolUfj  enriched  with  gold  and  colours. 

•  8e&  Waieen,  KuHit  und  KinitUr  in  Df^tsck!.,  Leipslc.  1843-46, 


the  elaborate  stalls  in  Blaubeuren  church  of  1493  and  ths 
great  pulpit  in  Ulm  cathedral.  Veit  Stoss  of  Nuremberg, 
though  a  man  of  bad  character,  was  a  most  skilful  sculptor 
in  wood  ;  he  carved  the  high  altar,  tlie  tabernacle,  and  the 
stalls  of  the  Frauenkirche  at  Cracow,  between  1472  and 
1495.  One  of  his  finest  works  is  a  large  piece  of  wooden 
panelling,  nearly  6  feet  square,  carved  in  1495,  with  central 
reliefs  of  the  Doom  and  the  Heavenly  Host,  framed  by 
minute  reliefs  of  scenes  from  Bible  history.  It  is  now 
in  the  Nuremberg  town-hall.  AVohlt^emuth  (1434-1519), 
the  master  of  A.  Diirer,  wa3  not  only  a  painter  but  also  a 
clever  wood-carver,  as  was  also  Diirer  himself  (1471-1528), 
who  executed  a  tabernacle  for  the  Host  with  an  exquisitely 
carved  relief  of  Christ  in  Majesty  between  the  Virgin  an*d 
St  John,  which  still  exists  in  the  chapel  of  the  monastery 
of  Landau.  Diirer  also  produced  miniature  reliefs  cut  in 
boxwood  and  hone-stone,  of  which  the  British  Museum 
(print  room)  possesses  one  of  the  finest  examples.  Adam 
Krafft  (c.  1455-1507)  was  another  of  this  class  of  sculp- 
tors, but  he  worked  alsti  in  stone ;  he  produced  the  great 
Schreyer  monument  (1492)  for  St  Sebald's  at  Nuremberg, 
— a  very  skilful  though  mannered  piece  of  sculpture,  with 
very  realistic  figures  in  the  costume  of  the  time,  carved 
in  a  way  more  suited  to  wood  than  stone,  and  too  pictorial 
in  elTect.  He  also  made  the  great  tabernacle  for  the  Host, 
80  feet  high,  covered  with  statuettes,  in  Ulm  cathedral, 
and  the  very  spirited  "  Stations  of  the  Cross  "  on  the  road 
to  the  Nuremberg  cemetery. 

The  Vischer  family  of  Nuremberg  for  three  generations  "ischor, 
were  among  the  r blest  sculptors  in  bronze  during  the  15th  '  -nily.. 
and  16th  centuries.  Hermann  Vischer.  the  elder  worked 
mostly  between  1450  and  1505,  following  the  earlier 
mediaeval  traditions,  but  without  the  originality  of  his 
son.  Among  his  existing  works  the  chief  are  the  bronze 
font  at  Wittenberg  church  (1457)  and  four  episcoj,al 
effigies  in  relief,  dated  from  1475  to  1505,  in  Bamberg 
cathedral ;  this  church  also  contains  a  fine  series  of  bronze 
sepulchral  monuments  of  various  dates  throughout  the  15th 
and  16tL  centuries..  Hermann's  son  Peter.  Vischer  was 
the  chief  artist  of  the  family  ;  he  was  admitted  a  master 
in>  the  sculptor's  guild  in  1489,  and  passed  the  greater 
part  of 'his  life  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  died  in  1529.  In 
technique  few  bronze  sculptors  have  ever  equalled  him ; 
but  his  designs  are  marred  by  an  excess  of  mannered 
realism  and  a  too  exuberant  fancy.  His  chief  early  work 
was  the  tomb  of  Archbishop  Ernest  in  Magdeburg  cathedral 
(1495),  surrounded  with  fine  statuettes  of  the  apostles 
under  semi-Gothic  canopies ;  it  is  purer  in  style  than  his 
later  works,  such  as  the  magnificent  shrine  of  St  Sebald  at 
Nuremberg,  a  tall  canopied  bronze  structure,  crowded  with 
reliefs  and  statuettes  in  the  most  lavish  ivay.  The  gcnei'al 
form  of  the  shrine  is  Gothic,*  but  the  details  are  those  of 
the  16th-century  Italian  Renaissance  treated  with  much 
freedom  and  originality.  Some  of  the  s.tatuettcs  of  .saints 
attached  to  the  slender  columns  of  the  canopy  are  modelled 
with  much  grace  and  even  dignity  of  form.  A  small 
portrait  figure  of  Peter  himself,  intj'oduced  at  one  end  of 
the  base,  is  a  marvel  of  clevei^  realism  :  he  has  represented 
himself  as  a  stout,  bearded  rhan,  wearing  a  largo  leathern 
apron  and  holding  some  of  the  tools  of  his  craft.  In  this 
work,  executed  from  150S  to  1519,  Peter  was  assisted  by 
his  sons,  as  is  recorded  in  f.n  inscrijition  on  the  base — 
"  Petter  Vischer,  Purser  zu  Niirmbcrg,  machet  das  Werck 
mit  seinen  Sunnen,  und  ward  folbracht  im  Jar  mdxix  .  .  ." 
This  gorgeous  shrine  is  a  remarkable  example  of  the  un-- 
commercial  spirit  which  animated  the  artists  of  that  time, 

This  great  work  i3  really  a  canopied  pedestal  to  support  end  en- 
close the  shrine,  not  the  ahrino  itself,  v/htch  h  a  work  of  the  14th 
century,  having  the  gabled  form  commonly  v"i  In  the  Middle  Agei 
for  mc'al  r.-lic^uarioa. 


566 


SCULPTURE 


[GERMAN,  SPANISH 


and  of  the  evident  delight  which  they  took  in  their  work. 
Dragons,  grotesques,  and  little  figures  of  boys,  mixed  with 
graceful  scroll  foliage,  crowd  every  possible  part  of  the 
canopy  and  its  shafts,  designed  in  the  most  free  and  un- 
conventional way  and  executed  with  an  utter  disregard  of 
the  time  and  labour  which  were  lavished  on  them.  Other 
existing  works  by  Peter  Vischer  and  his  sons  are  the 
Entombment  relief,  signed  "P.  V.  1522,"  in  the  Aegidien- 
kirchs,  the  monument  of  Cardinal  Albert  (1525)  in  the 
church  at  Aschaft'enburg,  and  the  fine  tomb  of  Frederick 
the  Wise  (1527)  in  the  castle  chapel  at  Wittenberg. 
Inns-  Next  to  Nuremberg,  the  chief  centres  of  bronze  sculpture 

bruck.^,^ -(vere  Augsburg  and  Liibeck.  Innsbruck  possesses  one  of 
'  Lhe  finest  series  of  hmnze  statues  of  the  first  half  of  the 
16th  century,  namely  twenty-eight  colossal  figures  round 
the  tomb  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,,  which  .stands  in  the 
ceritre  of  the  nave, 
representing  a  suc- 
cession of  heroes  and 
ancestors  of  the  em- 
peror. The  first  of 
the  statues  which  was 
completed  cost  3000 
florins,  and  so  Maxi- 
milian invited  the 
help  of  Peter  Visch- 
er, whose  skill  was 
greater  and  whose 
work  less  expensive 
than  that  of  tlie  local 
craftsmen.  .  Most  of 
them,  however,  were 
executed  by  sculptors 
of  whom  little  is  now 
known.  They  differ 
much  in  style,  though 
all  are  of  great  techni- 
cal merit.  The  finest 
(see  fig.  H)  is  an  ideal 
statue  of  King  Arthur 
of  Britain,  in  plate 
armour  of  the  14tli 
or  early  15th  century, 
very  remarkable  for  Fig.  14 
the  nobility  of  the 
face  and  pose.  That  of  Theodoric  is  also  a  very  fine  con- 
ception. Some  of  the  portrait  figures  of  the  Hapsburgs 
are  almost  ludicrously  realistic,  and  are  disfigured  by  the 
ugly  German  armour  of  the  time, 
from'  In  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  the  influence  of 
sfxteentli  the  later  Italian  Benaissance  becomes  very  apparent,  and 
'^"''"'■'[,  many  e.iborate  works  in  bronze  were  produced,  especi- 
ally at  Augsburg,  where  Hubert  Gerhard  cast  the  fine 
^  ''Augustus  fountain"  in  1593,  and  Adrian  de  A'ries  made 
the  "Hercules  fountain  "  in  1599;  both  were  influenced 
by  the  style  of  Giovanni  di  Bologna,  as  shown  in  his 
magnificent  fountain  at  Bologna. 

In  the  following  century  Andreas  Schliiter  of  Hamburg 
(b.  about  1662)  produced  smaller  bronze  reliefs  and  acces- 
sories of  great  merit.  His  colossal  statue  of  Frederick 
III.  on  the  bridge  at  Berlin  is  less  successful.  On  the 
whole  the  17th  and  ISth  centuries  in  Germany,  as  in 
England,  were  periods  of  great  decadence  in  the  plastic 
art;  little  of  merit  was  produced,  except  some  portrait 
figures.  In  the  second  half  of  the  18th  century  there 
was  a  strong  revival  in  sculpture,  especially  in  the  classic 
style ;  and  since  then  Germany  has  produced  an  immense 
quantity  of  large  and  pretentious  sculpture,  mostly  dull 
in  design  and  «econd-rate  in  execution.  Johann  Gottfried 
of  Berlin  (1  704-1  ?50)  finished  a  number  of  portrait  figures. 


-Bruiize  btauic  ol'  Kill 
Innsbruck. 


some  of  which  are  ably  modelled,  as  did  also  Friedrich 
Ticck  (1776-1851)  and  Christian  Ranch  (1777-1857) ;  the 
works  of  Ranch  are,  however,  mostly  weak  and  sentimental 
in  style,  as,  for  example,  his  recumbent  statue  of  Queen 
Louisa   at    Charlottenburg    (1813)   and    his    statues   o 
Generals   Billow  and    Scharnhorst  at .  Berlin.     Friedricl 
Drake  was  the  ablest  of  Ranch's  pupils,  but  he  lived  at  a 
very  unhappy  period  for  the  Sculptor's  art.     His  chief 
work  is  perhaps  the  colossal  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
King  William  of  Prussia  at  Cologne.     Albert  Wolff  was  a 
so  Iptor  of  more  ability ;  he  executed  the  equestrian  por 
t'-ait  of  King  Ernest  Augustus  at  Hanover,  and  a  Horse- 
man attacked   by  a   Lion   now   in   the   Berlin   Museum. 
Augustus  Kiss  (1802-1865)  produced  the  companion  group 
to  this,  the  celebrated  Amazon  and  Panther  in  bronze,  as 
well  as  the  fine  group  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon  in  a 
courtyard  of  the  royal  palace  at  Berlin.     The  St  George 
and  hi.s  horse  are  of  bronze ;  the  dragon  is  formed  of  gilt 
plates  of  hammered  iron.     Kiss  worked  only  in   metal. 
The  bad  taste  of  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  is 
strongly  shown  by  many  of  the  works  of  Theodore  Kalidfe, 
whose   Bacchanal   sprawling  on  a    Panther's   Back   is  a 
marvel  of  awkwardness  of  pose  and  absence  of  any  feeling 
f'>r  beauty.    Rietschel  was  perhaps  the  best  German  sculp- 
tor of  this  period,  and  produced  work  superior  to  that  of 
his  contemporaries,  such  as  Haagen,  Wichmann,  Fischer, 
and  Hiedel.     Some  revival  of  a  better  style  is  shown  in 
some  sculpture,  especially  reliefs,  by  Hiihnel,  whose  chief 
works  ar»  at  Dresden.     Schwanthaler  (1802-1848),  who 
was  largely  patronized  by  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  studied 
at  Rome  and  was  At  first  a  feeble  imitator  of  antique  classic 
art,  but  later  in  life  he  developed  a  more  romantic  and 
pseudo-mediceval  style.     By  him  are  a  large  number  of 
reliefs  and  statues  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich  and  in 
the  Walhalla,  also  the  colossal  but  feeble  bronze  statue  of 
Bavaria,  in  point  of  size  one  of  the  most  ambitious  works 
of  modern  times.^     Since  the  beginning  of  the  second  half 
of  the  century  the  sculpture  of  Germany  has  made  visible 
progress,  and  several  living  artists  ha\e  produced  works 
of  merit  and  originality,  far  superior  to  the  feeble  imita- 
tions of  classic  art  wlxich  for  nearly  a  century  destroyed 
all  possible  vigour  and  individuality  in  the  plastic  pro- 
ductions of  most  Eu'-ouean  countries.^ 

Spain: — In  the  eariy  medieval  perioa  tne  sculpture  of 
northern  Spain  was  much  influenced  by  contemporary 
art  in  France.  From  the  12th  to  the  14th  century  many  Twelfth 
French  architects  and  sculptors  visited  and  worked  in  to  four- 
Spain.  The  cathedral  of  Santiago  de  Compostella  pos-*^™^^ 
sesses  one  of  the  grandest  existing  specimens  in  the  world 
of  late  12th-century  architectonic  sculpture;  this,  though 
the  work  of  a  native  artist,  Mastei  Mateo,^  is  tlioroughly 
French  in  style ;  as  recorded  by  an  inscription  on  the 
front,  it  was  completed  in  1188.  The  whole  of  t]io 
western  portal  with  its  three  doorways  is  covered  with 
statues  and  reliafs,  all  richly  decorated  with  colour,  part 
of  which  still  remains.  Round  the  central  arch  are  figures 
of  the  twenty-four  elders,  and  in  the  tympanum  a  very 
noble  relief  of  Christ  in  Majesty  between  Saints  and 
Angels.'  As  at  Chartres,  the  jamb-shafts  of  the  door-^vays 
are  decorated  with  standing  statues  of  saints, — St  James 
the  elder,  the  patron  of  the  church,  being  attached  to  the 

1  Id  size,  but  not  in  merit,  this  enormous  statue  has  recently  been 
surpassed  by  the  figure  of  America  made  in  Paris  and  now  (188G)  being 
erected  as  a  beacon  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbour  of  New  York  City. 

-  Ou  German  sculpture  see  Foerster,  Denkmale  dtutscher  Baukunsty 
Leipsic,  1855;  Wanderer,  Adam  Kmft  unci  his  School,  Nuiemberg, 
1868  ;  Rabe,  Das  Grahmol  des  J.  von  Brandfnhurg  .  .  .  von  P.  Vischer, 
Berlin,  1843;  Reindel,  Vischer's  Shrine  oj  SI  Sebaldus,  Nuremberg, 
1855  ;  Lubke,  Hisl.  of  Sculpt,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1872. 

•*  A  kneeling  portrait-statue  of  Mateo  is  iutroduced  at  tJie  back  of 
the  central  pier.  This  figure  is  now  much  revered  by  the  Spanish 
peasants,  and  the  head  is  partly  worn  awav  with  kisses. 


ITALUi^,] 


SCULPTURE 


567 


central  pillaj.  These  noblo  figures,  though  treated  in  a 
somewhat  rigid  manner,  are  thoroughly  subordinate  to  the 
main  lines  of  the  building.  Their  heads,  with  pointed 
besii-da  and  a  fized  mechaiiical  smile,  together  with  the 
stiff  drapery  arranged  in  long  narrow  folds,  recall  the 
iEginatan  pediment  sculpture  of  about  500  B.C.  This 
appears  strange  at  first  sight,  but  the  fact  is  that  ihe 
■works  of  the  early  Greek  and  the  mediasval  Spaniard  were 
both  produced  at  a  somewhat  similar  stage  in  two  far 
distant  periods  of  artistic  development.  In  both  cases 
plastic  art  was  freeing  itself  from  the  bonds  of  a  hieratic 
archaism,  tmd  had  reached  one  of  the  last  steps  in  a  de- 
velopment which  in  the  one  case  culminated  in  the  per- 
fection of  the  Phidian  a,ge,  and  in  the  other  led  to  the 
exquisitely  beautiful  yet  simple  and  reserved  art  of  the 
end  of  the  IStli  and  early  part  of  the  14th  century,— the 
golden  age  of  sculpture  in  France  and  England. 
four-  In  the  Hth  century  the  silversmiths  of  Spain  produced 

teenth      many  works  of  sculpture  of  great  size  and  technical  power. 
^^    .    One  of  the  finest,  by  a  Valencian  called  Peter  Bernec,  is  the 
<~.-:tnr-s.  gTcat  sUvcr  Tctable  at  Gerona  cathedral.     It  is  divided 
■  into  three  tiers  of  statuettes  and  reliefs,  richly  framed  in 
canopied   niches,    all   of   silver,    partly   cast    and   partly 
hammered. 

In  the  15th  century  an  infusion  of  German  influence 
was  mixed  with  that  of  France,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
very  rich  sculptural  decorations  which  adorn  the  main 
door  of  Salamanca  cathedral,  the  fa(;ade  of  S.  Juan  at 
Valladolid,  and  the  church  and  cloisters  of  S.  Juan  de  los 
Reyes  at  Toledo,  perhaps  the  most  go>'geous  examples  of 
architectural  sculpture  in  the  world.  The  carved  foliage 
of  this  period  is  of  especial  beauty  and  spirited  execution  ; 
realistic  forms  of  plant-growth  are  mingled  ^vith  other 
more  conventional  foliage  in  the  most  masterly  manner. 
The  very  noble  bronze  monument  of  Archdeacon  Pelayo 
(d.  1490)  in  Burgos  cathedral  was  probably  the  work  of 
Simon  of  Cologne,  who  was  also  architect  of  the  Certosa 
at  Miraflores,  2  miles  from  Burgos.  The  church  of  this 
monastery  contains  two  of  the  most  magnificently  rich 
monuments  in  the  world,  especially  the  altar-tomb  of  King 
John  II.  and  his  queen  by  Gil  de  Siloe, — a  jjerfect  marvel 
of  rich  alabaster  canopy-work  and  intricate  under-cutting. 
The  effigies  have  little  merit. 
Sixteenth  In  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century  a  strong  Italian 
'^"'"T-  influence  superseded  that  of  France  and  Germany,  partly 
owing  to  the  presence  in  Spain  of  the  Floicntine  Ton'i- 
pano  and  other  Italian  artiste.  The  magnificent  tomb  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  Granada  cathedral  is  a  fine 
specimen  of  Italian  Renaissance  sculpture,  somewhat  similar 
in  general  form  to  the  tomb  of  Sixtus  IV.  by  Ant.  PoUai- 
uolo  in  St  Peter's,  but  halt  a  century  later  in  the  style  of 
its  detail.  It  looks  as  if  it  had  been  executed  by  Torri- 
giano,  but  the  design  which  he  made  for  it  is  said  to  have 
been  rejected.  Some  of  the  work  of  this  period,  though 
purely  Italian  in  style,  was  produced  by  Spanish  sculp- 
tor*,— for  example,  the  choir  reliefs  at  Toledo  cathedral, 
anil  those  in  the  Colegio  ilayor  at  Salamanca  by  Alonso 
Berruguete,  who  obtained  his  artistic  training  in  Home 
and  Florence.  Esteban  Jordan,  Gregorio  Hernandez,  and 
other  Spanish  sculptors  produced  a  large  nvnnber  of  elabo- 
rate retables,  carved  in  wood  .with  subjects  in  relief  and 
richly  decorated  in  gold  and  colours.  These  sumptuoiw 
niasaes  of  polydiromatic  sculpture  resemble  the  15th- 
century  retables  of  Germany  more  than  any  Italian  ex- 
amiiles,  and  were  a  sort  of  survival  of  an  older  inedia;val 
style.  Alonso  C'ano  (1G00-1GC7),'  the  painter,  was  re- 
markable for  clever  realistic  sculpture,  very  highly 
coloured  and  religious  in  style.  Montanes,  who  died  in 
1614,  was  one  of  the  ablest  Spanish  sculptors  of  his 
lime.     His  finest  works  are  the  reliefs  of  the  Madonna 


and  Saints  on  an  altar  in  the-  university  church  of  Seville, 
and  in  the  cathedral,  in  the  chapel  of  St  Augustine,  a 
very  nobly  designed  Conception,  modelled  with  great  skill. 
In  later  times  Spain  has  produced  little  or  no  sculpture  of 
any  merit. 

Itali/. — Till  the  great  revival  of  plastic  art  took  place  Tlur- 
in  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  the  sculpture  of  Italy 'eeath 
was  decidedly  inferior  to  that  of  other :  more   northerr  -'?'^°""0 
countries.     Much  of  it  was  actually  the  work  of  northern 
sculptors, — as,  for  example,  the  very  rude  sculpture  on  the 
facade  of  S.  Andrea  at  Pistoia,  executed  about  118G  by 
Gruamons  and  his  brother  Adeodatus.'     Tirr.  15  shows  a 


flo    lo —Pellet  by  B     eJetti  Au  e  an  i  for  tl  e  j    Ij  t  of  Pai     i 
citlicdnl  in  117S  ,  Bi^  ntme  stjle 

relief  by  Antelami  of  Parma  of  the  year  1178.  Unlike  thu 
sculpture  of  the  Pisani  and  later  artists,  these  early  figures 
are  thoroughly  secondary  to  the  architecture  they  are  de- 
signed to  decorate ;  they  are  evidently  the  work  of  men  who 
were  architects  first  and  sculptors  in  a  secondary  degree. 
After  the  13th  century  the  reverse  was  usually  the  case,' 
and,  as  at  the  west  end  of  Orvieto  cathedi-al,  tlie  sculptured 
decorations  are  treated  as  being  of  primary  importance, 
— not  that  the  Italian  sculptor-architect  ever  allovved  his 
statues  or  reliefs  to  weaken  or  damage  their  architectural 
surroundings,  as  is  unfortunately  the  case  with  much 
modem  sculpture.  In  southern  Italy,  during  the  13th 
century,  there  existed  a  school  of  sculpture  resembling 
that  of  France,  owing  probably  to  the  Norman  occupa- 
tion. The  pulpit  in  the  cathedral  of  Ravello,  executed  by 
Nicolaus  d:  Bartolomeo  di  Foggia  in  127L>,  is  an  ii:;port- 
ant  work  of  this  class ;  it  is  enriched  with  very  noble 
sculpture,  especially  a  large  female  head  crowned  with  a 
richly  foliated  coronet,  and  combining  lifelike  vigour  with 
largeness  of  style  in  a  very  remarkable  way.  The  bronze 
doors  at  Monreale,  Pisa,  and  elsewhere,  which  aie  oinong 
the  chief  works  of  pln,stic  art  in  Italy  during  the  12th 
century,  are  described  in  Monre.ile  and  Met.il-work. 
The  history  of  Italian  .sculpture  of  the  best  period  is 
given  to  a  great  extent  in  the  separate  articles  on  the 
Pis.vxi  (<j.v.)  and  other  Italian  artists.  During  the  13tli 
century  Home  and  the  central  provinces  of  Italy  produced 
very  few  sculptors  of  ability,  aJmost  the  only  men  of  note 
being  die  Cosniati  (see  Rome,  vol.  xx.  p.  835). 

During  the  14th  century  Florence  and  the  neighbouring  ftm., 
cities  were  the  chief  centres  of  Italian  sculptiuo,  and  there  ".•oui- 
numerous  sculptors  of  successively  increasing  artistic  power  ="''"'■>■ 
lived  and  worked,  till  in  the  15th  century  Florence  had 
become   the  .-esthetic'  capital  of   the  world,  and  reached 
a  pitch  of  artistic  wealth  and  perfection  which   Athens 


^  The  otlier  tinest  example*!  of  this  early  li.iss  of  sculpture  exi!;t  .it 
Pis.i,  P.arm.n,  Modeu.n,  nn J  Vcrou,!  ;  in  most  of  tliem  the  olj  Byzcntinj 
iuJlueuce  is  very  etronff. 


568 


SCULPTURE 


[ttaHajt. 


alone  in  its  best  days  could  have  rivalled.  The  similarity 
between  the  plastic  arts  of  Athens  in  the  5th  or  4th  cen- 
tury B.C.  and  of  Florence  in  the  15th  century  is  not  one  of 
analogy  only.  Though'  free  from  any  touch  of  copy  ism, 
there  are  many  points  in  the  works  of  such  men  as  Don?.- 
tello,  Luca  della  Robbia,  and  Vittore  Pisanello  which 
strongly  recall  the  sculpture  of  ancient  Greece,  and  suggest 
that,  if  a  sculptor  of  the  later  Phidian  school  had  been 
surrounded  by  the  same  types  of  face  and  costume  as  those 
among  which  the  Italians  lived,  lie  would  have  produced 
plastic  works  closely  resembling  those  of  the  great  Floren- 
tine masters.  In  the  14th  century,  in  northern  Italy, 
various  schools  of  sculpture  existed,  especially  at  Verona 
and  Venice,  whose  art  differed  widely  from  the  contem- 
porary art  of  Tuscany  ;  but  Milan  and  Pavia,  on  the  other 
hand,  possessed  sculptors  who  followed  closely  the  style 
of  the  Pisani.  The  chief  examples  of  the  latter  class  are 
the  magnificent  shrine  of  St  Augustine  in  the  cathedral  of 
Pavia,  dated  1362,  and  the  somewhat  similar  shrine  of 
Peter  the  JIartyr  (1339),  by  Balduccio  of  Pisa,  in  the 
church  of  St  Eustorgio  at  Milan,  both  of  white  marble, 
decorated  in  the  most  lavish  way  "with  statuettes  and 
subject  reliefs.  Many  other  fine  pieces  of  the'PisaJi  school 
exist  in  Milan.  The  well-known  tombs  of  the  Scaliger 
family  at  Verona  show  a  more  native  styie  of  design,  and 
in  general  form,  though  not  in  detail,  suggest  the  influence 
of  transalpine  Gothic.  In 
Venice  the  northern  and 
almost  French  character 
of  muoh  of  tlie  early  1 5th 
century  sculpture  is  moi  e 
strongly  marked,  espcci 
ally  in  the  noble  figui 
in  high  relief  which  a 
corate  the  lower  stoiy  and 
angles  of  thedoge's  palace  ' 
these  are  mostly  the  woik 
of  a  Venetian  named  Bar 
tolomeo  Bon.  A  magni 
ficept  marble  tympanum 
relief  by  Bon  has  recently 
been  added  to  the  South 
Kensington  JIuseum ;  it 
has  a  noble  colossal  figure 
of  the  Madonna,  who  shel 
ters  under  her  mantle  a 
number  of  kneeling  wor 
shippers ;  the  background 
is  enriched  with  foliaf 
and  heads,  forming 
"  Jesse  tree,"  designe  ' 
with  greatdecorative  skill 
The  cathedral  of  Como 
built  at  the  very  end  of 
the  15th  century,  is  de 
corated  with  good  sculp 
t  ureof  almost  Gothic  style 
but  on  the  whole  rather 
diill  and  mechanical  in  de 
tail,like  much  of  the  sculp- 
ture in  the  extreme  north 
01  Italy.  A  large  quantity 
of  rich  sculpture  was  pro-  Fia-  16.— Florentine  morbk  effigy  in 

duced  in  Naples    during     ^°^^  ''^'''  '"*'iLf ''"■="   °^   "'" 
_  .  ,  ^  -  %      Certosa  near  ncrenco. 

tlie  14ta  century,  but  of 

no  great  merit  either  in  design  or  in  execution.  The 
lofty  monument  of  King  Robei-t  (1350),  behind  the  high 
altar  of  S.  Chiara,  and  other  tombs  in  the  same  church 

'  Seo  Ruskin,  StoKC3  of  Venice 
^ildh.  VmedigSt  Leipaic,  18i9. 


and  Slolhe.'s,  Gesch.  der  £auk,  «. 


S 
t 


are  the  most  conspicuous  works  of  this  period.  Very 
beautiful  sepulcliral  efligies  in  low  relief  were  produced  -.1 
many  parts  of  Italy,  especially  at  Florence.  The  tomb  of 
Lorenzo  Acciaioli  (see  fig.  1 6),  in  the  Certo-sa  near  Florence, 
is  a  fine  example  of  about 
the  year  1400,  which  has 
absurdly  been  attributed  to 
Donatello.  Rome  was  very 
remarkable  during  the  14th 
century  for  its  extraordinary 
poverty  in  the  production  of 
sculpture.  The  clumsy  efBgies 
at  the  north-east  of  S.  ilaria 
in  Trastevere  are  striking  ex- 
amples of  the  degradation  of 
the  plastic  art  there  about  the 
year  1 400 ;  and  it  was  not 
till  nearly  the  middle  of  the 
century  that  the  arrival  of 
able  Florentine  sculptors, 
such  as  Filarete,  Mino  da 
Fiesole,  and  the  Pollaiuoli, 
initiated  a  brilliant  era  of 
artistic  activity,  which,  how- 
ever, for  about'  a  century 
continued  to  depend  on  the 
presence  of  sculptors  from 
Tuscany  and  other  northern 
provinces.  It  was  not,  in  fact, 
till  the  period  of  full  decad- 
ence had  begun  that  Romi 
itself  produced  any  notable 
artists. 

For  the  great  sculptors  cl 
Florence  during  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries  we  refer  tht 
reader  to  the  separate  bio- 
graphical notices  on  the  sub-  Fio.  17.— :: 
ject.  The  Pisani  and  Arnolfo  Dou^tello,  cut 
del  Cambio  were  succeeded 
by  Orcagna  and  others,  who  carried  on  and  developed  the 


■'I 
I- 


Fifteent\ 

eiiturv. 


.       by 
.le  the  church  of 
Or  San  Michele  at  Florence. 


Fig.  18. — Bronze  colossal  status  of  Colleoui  at  Venice,  modelled  l-y 
Verrocchio  and  cast  by  Leopordi. 

great    lessons   these    pioneers   of   the    Eenaissance    had 
taught.     Ghiberti,  the  sculptor  of  the  world-famed  bap- 


[iTALIAX. 


SCULPTURE 


569 


Jlorence.  tistery  gates ;  Donatelio,  the  master  of  delicate  relief  and 
dignified  realism  (see  fig.  17);  Luca  della  Robbia,  with 
his  classic  purity  of  style  and  sweetness  of  expression, 
came  next  in  order.  Upsensual  beauty  elevated  by  reli- 
gious spirit  was  attained  in  the  highest  degree  by  ilino  da 
Fiesole,  the  two  Rossellini,  Benedetto  da  ilaiano,  and  other 
sculptors  of  Florence.  Two  of  the  noblest  equestrian  statues 
the  world  has  probably  ever  seen  are  the  Gattamelata  statue 
at  Padua  by  Donatelio  and  the  statue  of  CoUeoni  at  Venice 
by  Verroochio  and  Leopardf  (see  fig.  IS).  A  third,  which  was 
probably  of  equal  beauty,  was  modelled  in  clay  by  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  but  it  no  longer  exists.  Finally  came  >fichel- 
angelo,  who 
raised  the  sculp- 
ture of  the 
modern  world 
to  its  highest 
pitch  of  magni- 
ficence, a^d  at 
the  same  time 
sowed  the  seeds 
of  its  rapidly 
approaching  de- 
cline; the  head 
of  his  David  (sec 
fig.l9)is  awork 
of  unrivalled 
force  and  dig 
nity.   His  rivals 

I  and     imitators, 

Baccio  Bandi- 
nelli,  Giaeomo 
della  Porta,  Moutelupo, 
and  others,  copied  and 
possessing  a,  t-ouch  of  his  gigantic  genius.  In  other 
parts  of  Italy,  such  as  Pavia,  the  traditions  of  the  loth 
century  lasted  longer,  though  gradually  fading.  The 
statuary  and  reliefs  which  make  the  Certosa  near  Pavia 
one  of  the  most  gorgeous  buildings  in  the  world  are  free 
from  the  influence  of  Michelangelo,  which  at  Florence 
and  Rome  was  overwhelming.  Though  much  of  the  sculp- 
ture was  begun  in  the  second  half  of  the  loth  century, 
the  greater  i)art  was  not  executed  till  much  later.  The 
magnificent  tomb  of  the  founder,  Giovanni  Galeazzo  Vi.-;- 
conti,  was  not  completed  till  about  1-560,  and  is  a  gorgeous 
.example  of  the  style  of  the  Renaissance  grown  weak  from 
excess  of  richness  and  from  loss  of  the  simple  purity  of 
the  art  of  the  loth  century.  Everywhere  in  this  wonder- 
ful building  the  fault  is  the  same ;  and  the  growing  love 
of  luxury  and  display,  which  was  the  curse  of  the  time,  is 
reflected  in  the  plastic  decorations  of  the  whole  church. 
The  old  religious  spirit  had  died  out  and  was  succeeded 
by  unbelief  or  by  an  affected  revival  of  paganism.  Monu- 
ments to  ancient  Romans,  such  as  those  to  the  two  Plinys 
on  the  facade  of  Como  cathedral,  or  "heroa"  to  uusaintly 
mortals,  such  as  that  erected  at  Rimini  by  Sigismondo 
Pandolfo  in  honour  of  Isotta,'  grew  up  side  by  side  with 
shrines  and  churches  dedicated  to  the  saints.  We  have 
s?en  how  the  youthful  vigour  of  the  Christian  faith  vivified 
for  a  time  the  dry  bones  of  expiring  classic  ait,  and  now 
the  decay  of  this  same  belief  brought  with  it  the  destrac- 
lion  of  all  that  was  most  valuable  in  nredi.-eval  scidpture. 
Sculpture  like  the  other  arts  became  t!ie  bond-slave  of  the 
rich  and  ceased  to  be  the-  natural  expression  of  a  whole- 
people.  -  Though  for  a  long  time  in  Italy.great  technical 
skill  continued  to  exist,  the  vivif)-ing  spirit  was  dead,  ^d 
at  last  a  dull  scholasticism  or  a  riotous  extravagance  of 
design  became  the  leading  characteristics. 


Tig.  19. — Ile.id  of  tlie  colos^.-il  st.-itue  ol  I>.^^iil  by 
Jlichelaugelo  at  Florence. 

Ammanati,  Vincenzo  de'  Rossj, 
exaggerated   his  faults   without 


^  Si.o'Yriarte, 
itmiNi. 

21- 


liiijiini  ait  A' 1  ■«!£  >"iVc.'<-,  Paris,  1880;  also  tlie  arucle 
-21* 


The  16th  century  was  one  of  transition  to  this  state  of  Sixteeni 
degradation,  but  nevertheless  produced  many  sculptors  of  cpjtury 
gr^at  ability  who  were  not  wholly  crushed  by  the  declining ' 
taste  of  their  time.  ^    John  of  Douay  (1-521-1608),  usually 
known  as  Giovanni  da  Bologna,  one  of  the  ablest,  lived  and 
worked  almost  entirely  in  Italy.     His  bronze  statue  of 
Mercury  flying  upwards,  in  the  Uflizi,  one  of  liis  finest 
works,   is   full   of    life   and 
movement.     By  him  also  is 
the  Carrying  off  of  a  Sabine 
Woman   in  the    Loggia  de' 
Lanzi.     His   great  fountain 
at  Bologna,  with  two  tiers 
of  boys  and  mermaids,  sur- 
mounted by  a  colossal  statue 
of   Neptune,    a   very   noble 
work,  is  composed  of  archi- 
tectural   features   combined 
with  sculpture,  and  is  remark- 
able for  beauty  of  proportion. 
He  also  cast  the  fine  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  Cosimc 
de'  Medici  at  Florence  and 
the    very    richly    decorated 
west  door  of  Tisz.  cathedral, 
the  latter  much  injured   by 
the  over-crowding  of  its  orna- 
ments and  the  want  of  sculp- 
turesque dignity  in  the  fig- 
ures ;  it  is  a  feeble  eopy  of 
Ghiberti's  noble  production. 
One  of  Giovanni's  best  works, 
a  group  of  two  nude  figures 
fighting,  is  now  lost.     A  fine 
copy    in    lead    existed    till  f 'f-  -0- 
recently  in  the  front  quad- 
rangle   of     Brasenose     Col- 
lege, Oxford,  of  which  it  was  the  chief  ornament  (see  fig. 
20).     In  1881  it  was  sold  for  old  lead  by  the  priiicipal  and 
fellows  of  the  college,  and  was 
immediately  melted  down  by 
the  plumber  who  bought  it — 
a  quite  irreparable  loss,  as  the 
only   other   existing    copy    is 
very  inferior ;  the  destruction 
was  an  utterly  inexcusable  act 
of  vandalism.     The  sculpture 
on  the  western  facade  of  the 
church  at  Loreto  and  the  ela- 
borate   bronze    gates   of    ti 
Santa  Casa  are  works  of  grea' 
technical   merit    by  Girolamo 
Lombardo  and  his  sons,  about 
the  middle  of  the   16th   cen- 
tury. Benvenuto  Cellini  (1 500- 
1569),  though  in  the  main  a 
poor    sculptor,    produced    one 
work  of  great  beauty  and  dig- 
nity,—the  colossal  bronze  Per- 
seus at  Florence  (see  fig.  21). 
His  large  biJst  of  Cosimo  de' 
Medici  in  the  Bargello  is  mean 
and  petty  in  style.      A  num- 
ber of  very  clever  statues  and 
groups    in     terra- col ta    were  I-'io.  il 
modelled  by  Antonio  Begarelli 
of     Modena     (d.    1565),    and 
were  enthusiastically  admired 

by  Michelangelo ;  the  finest  are  a  PietH  in  S.  Maria  Pom- 
posa  and  a  large  Descent  from  the  Cross  in  S.  Francesco, 

XXI.    —    72 


I- 


Group  by  Giovanni  da  B(v» 
logua,  formerly  in  Brasenose  Col- 
lege, Oxford  ;  destroyed  in  1881. 


/A 


::m^. 


-Bronze  staUi^  of  Per- 
seus and  Mediiaa  by  Celluii,  in 
tlie  Loggia  de*  Lanzi  £t  Flor- 
ence. 


570 


S  C   U   L  r  T   U   K  Jt] 


[ITALIAN. 


Seven- 
teenth 

century. 


Eight- 
eenth 
centurv. 


botli  at  Modena.  The  colossal  bronze  seated  statue  of 
Juliiis  III.  at  Peruf,ia,  cast  in  1555  by  Vincenzo  Danti.  is 
one  of  the  best  portrait-figures  of  the  time. 

The  chief  sculptor  and  architect  of  the  17th  century  was 
the  Neapolitan  Bernini  (159S-16S0),  who,  with  the  aid  of 
a  large  school  of  assistants,  produced  an  almost  incredible 
quantity  of  sculpture  of  the  most  varying  degrees  of  merit 
and  hideousness.  His  chief  early  group,  the  Apollo  and 
Daphne  in  the  Borghese  casino,  is  a  work  of  wonderful 
technical  skill  and  delicate  high  finish,  combined  with  soft 
beauty  and  grace,  though  too  pictorial  in  style.  In  later 
life  Bernini  turned  out  work  of  brutal  coarseness,^  designed 
in  a  thoroughly  tmsculpturesque  spirit.  The  churches  of 
Eome,  the  colonnade  of  St  Peter'.s,  and  the  bridge  of  S. 
Angelo  are  crowded  with  his  clum.sy  colossal  figures,  half 
draped  in  .wildly  fluttering  garments, — perfect  models  of 
what  is  worst  in  the  plastic  art.  And  yet  his  works  re- 
ceived perhaps  more  praise  than  those  of  any  other  sculptor 
of  any  age,  and  after  his  death  a  scaffolding  was  erected 
outside  the  bridge  of  S.  Angelo  in  order  that  people  might 
walk  round  and  admire  his  rows  of  feeble  half- naked 
angels.  For  all  that,  Bernini  was  a  man  of  undoubted 
talent,  and  in  a  better  period  of  art  would  have  been  a 
sculptor  of  the  first  rank ;  many  of  his  portrait-busts  are 
works  of  great  vigour  and  dignity,  quite  free  from  the 
mannered  e.vtravagahce  of  his  larger  sculpture.  Stefano 
Maderna  (1571-1636)  was  the  able'st  of  his  contempo- 
raries; his  clever  and  much  admired  statue,  the  figure  of 
the  dead  S.  Cecilia  under  the  high  altar  of  her  basilica, 
is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  deathlike  pose  and  the  realistic 
treatment  of  the  drapery.  Another  clever  sculptor  was 
Alessandro  Algardi  of  Bologna  (1598  J-1654). 

In  the  next  century  at  Naples  Queirolo,  Corradini,  and 
Sammartino  produced  a  number  of  statues,  now  in  the 
chapel  of  S.  ]\Iaria  de'  Sangri,  which  are  extraordinary 
examples  of  wasted  labour  and  ignorance  of  the  simplest 
canons  of  plastic  art.  These  are  marble  statues  enmeshed 
in  nets  or  covered  with  thin  veils,  executed  with  almost 
deceptive  realism,  perhaps  the  lowest  stage  of  tricky  de- 
gradation into  which  the  sculptor's  art  could  possibly  fall.^ 
In  the  ISth  century  Italy  was  naturally  the  headquarters 
of  the  classical  revival,  which  spread  thence  throughout 
most  of  Europe.  Canova  (1757-1822),  a  Venetian  by 
birth,  who  spent  most  of  his  life  in  Home,  was  perhaps 
the  leading  spirit  of  this  movement,  and  became  the  most 
popular  sculptor  of  his  time.  His  work  is  very  unequal  in 
merit,  mostly  dull  and  uninteresting  in  style,  and  is  occa- 
sionally marred  by  a  meretricious  spirit  very  contrary  to 
the  true  classic  feeli.ig.  His  group  of  the  Three  Graces, 
the  Hebe,  and  the  very  popular  Dancing-Girls,  copies  of 
which  in  plaster  disfigure  the  stairs  of  countless  modern 
hotels  and  other  buildings  on  the  Continent,  are  typical 
examples  of  Canova's  worst  work.  Some  of  his  sculpture 
is  designed  with  far  more  of  the  purity  of  antique  art ; 
his  finest  work  is  the  colossal  group  of  Theseus  slaying  a 
Centaur  at  Vienna  (see  fig.  22).  Canova's  attempts  at 
Christian  sculpture  are  singularly  unsuccessful,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, his  pretentious  monument  to  Pope  Clement  XIII. 
in  St  Peter's  at  Rome, .  that  to  Titian  at  Venice,  and 
Alfieri's  tomb  in  the  Florentine  church  of  S.  Croce.  Fie.sole 
has  in  this  century  produced  one  sculptor  of  great  talent, 
named  Bastianini.  He  worked  in  the  style  of  the  great 
15th-century  Florentine  sculptors,  and  followed  especially  _ 
the  methods  of  his  distinguished  fellow-townsman  Mino  da 

*  The  Ludovisi  group  of  Pluto  carrying  off  Proseqiinc;  is  a  striking 
cijample,  and  shows  Bernini's  deterioration  of  style  in  later  life.  It  has 
nothing  in  common  with  the  Cain  and  Abel  or  tlie  Apollo  and  Daphne 
of  his  earlier  years. 

-  In  the  present  century  an  It.alian  sculptor  named  Monti  won  much 
popular  repute  by  similar  unworthy  tricks ;  some  veiled  statues  by  him 
in  the  London  Exhibition  of  1851  ■^^ere  greatly  admired. 


Fiesole.  Many  of  Bastianini's  works  are  hardly  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  genuine  sculpture  of  the  15th  centurj-, 
and  in  some  cases  enormous  prices  have  been  paid  for 


Fig.  22. — Colossal  marble  group  of  Tlie^eus  and  a  centaur,  by  Cf.uova. 
at  Vienna. 

them  under  the  supposition  that  they  were  mediaeval  pro- 
ductions. These  frauds  were,  however,  perpetrated  without 
Bastianini's  knowledge. 

Scandincfvia,  iLv. — By  far  the  greatest  sculptor  of  the 
classical  revival  ivas  Bertel  .Thorwaldsen  (1770-1844),  an 
Icelander  by  race,  whose  boyhood  was  spent  at  Copenhagen, 
and  who  settled  in  Rome  in  1797,  when  Canova's  fame  was 
at  its  highest  point.^  He  produced  an  immense  quantity 
of  groups,  single  statues,  and  reliefs,  chiefly  Gtpek  and 
Roman  deities,  many  of  which  show  more  of  the  true 
spirit  of  antique  art  than  has  been  attained  by  any  other 
modern  sculptor.  His  group  of  the  Three  Graces  is  for 
purity  of  form  and  sculpturesque  simplicity  far  superior 
to  that  of  the  same  subject  by  Canova.  No  sculptor's 
works  have  ever  been  exhibited  as  a  whole  in  so  perfect  a 
manner  as  Thorwaldsen's ;  they  are  collected  in  a  fine 
building  which  has  been  specially  erected  to  contain  them 
at  Copenhagen ;  he  is  buried  in  the  courtyard.  The 
Swedish  sculptors  Tobias  Sergell  and  Johann  Bystrom  be- 
longed to  the  classic  school ;  the  latter  followed  in  Thorwald- 
sen's footsteps.  Another  Swede  named  Fogelberg  was 
famed  chiefly  for  his  sculptured  subjects  taken  from  Norse 
mythology.  W.  Bissen  and  Jerichau  of  Denmark  have 
produced  some  able  works, — the  former  a  fine  equestrian 
statue  of  Frederick  VII.  at  Copenhagen,  and  the  latter  a 
very  spirited  and  w-idely  known  group  of  a  IMan  attacked 
by  a  Panther. 

Within  recent  j'ears  Russia,  Poland,  and  otner  countries 
have  produced  many  sculptors,  most  of  whom  belong  to 
the  modern  German  or  French  schools.  Rome  is  still  a 
favourite  place  of  residence  for  the  sculptors  of  all  coun^ 
tries,  but  can  hardly  be  said  to  possess  a  school  of  its  own. 
The  sculptors  of  America  almost  invariably  study  at  one 
of  the  great  European  centres  of  plastic  art,  especially 'in 
Paris.  Hiram  Powers  of  Cincinnati,  who  produced  one 
work  of  merit,  a  nude  female  fig'-re,  called  the  Greek 
Slave,  exhibited  in  London  in  1851,  lived  and  worked  in 
Florence.  A  number  of  living  American  sculptors  now 
reside  both  there  and  in  Rome.* 


Scandi. 
navian 
sculp- 
tors. 


America 

Russia, 

fee. 


'  See  Eug.  Plon,  Vie  dc  Thonmldscn,  Paris,  1867. 

^  On  Italian  and  Spanish  sculpture,  see  Vasari,  Truttato  della  Scul- 


SCULPTURE 


571 


V  5ro  per' 
dae. 

Clay . 
modeL 


Plaster 
cast 


We 


Technical  Methods  of  the  Scrxp-.oa. 

The  production  of  bronze  statues  by  the  circ  pcrdite  process  is 
described  in  the  article  Metal-work,  vol.  xvi.  p.  72  ;  thU  is  now 
but  little  practised  out  cf  Pans. 

For  the  execution  of  a  marble  statue  the  sculptor  first  models  a 
preliminary  sketch  on  a  small  scale  in  clay  or  "wax.  He  then,  in 
the  case  of  a  life-sized  or  colossal  statue,  has  a  sort  of  iron  skeleton 
set  up,  with  stout  bars  for  the  arms  and  legs,  fixed  in  the  pose  of 
the  futui'e  figure.  This  is  placed  on  a  stand  with  a  revolving  top, 
so  that  the  sculptor  can  easily  turn  the  whole  model  round  and 
thus  work  with  the  light  on  any  side  of  it.  Over  this  iron  skeleton 
well -.tempered  modelling-clay  is  bid  and  is  modelled  into  shape 
by  the  help  of  wood  and  bone  tools  ;  without  the  ironwork  a  soft 
clay  figure,  if  more  than  a  few  inches  high,  would  collapse  with 
its  o\vn  weight  and  squeeze  the  lower  part  out  of  shape-  While 
the  modelling  is  in  progi-ess  it  is  necessai-y  to  keep  the  clay  moist 
and  plastic,  by  squiiting  water  on  to  it  with  a  soit  of  garden  syringe 
capped  with  a  finely  perforated  rose.  "When  the  sculptor  is  not  at 
work  the  whole  figure  is  kept  wrapped  up  in  damp  cloths.  A 
modern  improvement  is  to  mix  the  modelling-clay,  not  with  water, 
but  with  stearin  and  glycerin  ;  this,  while  keeping  the  clay  soft 
and  plastic,  has  the  gi-eat  advantage  of  not  being  wet,  and  so  the 
sculptor  avoids  the  chill  and  consequent  risk  of  rheumatism  which 
follow  from  a  constant  manipulation  of  wet  clay.  When  the  clay 
model  is  finished  it  is  cast  in  plaster.  A  "  piece-mould  "  *  is  formed 
by  applying  patches  of  wet  plaster  of  Paris  all  over  the  clay  statue 
in  sucli  a  way  that  they  can  be  removed  piecemeal  from  the  model, 
and  then  be  fitted  together  again,  fonning  a  complete  hollow  mould. 
The  inside  is  then  rinsed  out  with  plaster  and  water  mixed  to  the 
consistency  of  cream  till  a  skin  of  plaster  is  formed  all  over  the 
inner  surface  of  the  mould,  and  thus  a  hjllow  cast  is  made  of  the 
whole  figure.  The  "piece-mould"  is  then  taken  to  pieces  and  the 
costing  set  free.  If  £kilfully  done  by  a  good /oriJia^orc  or  moulder 
the  plaster  cast  is  a  perfect  facsimile  of  the  original  clay,  very 
slightly  disfigured  by  a  series  of  lines  showing  the  joints  in  the 
piece-mould,  the  sections  of  whicli  cannot  be  made  to  fit  together 
with  absolute  precision.  Many  sculptors  hare  their  clay  model 
cr.st  in  plaster  before  tli£  modelling  is  quite  finished,  as  they  prefer 
to  put  the  finishing  touches  xin  the  plaster  cast, — good  plaster 
being  a  very  easy  and  pleasant  substance  to  work  on. 

Tlie  next  stage  is  to  copy  the  plaster  model  in  marble.  The 
model  is  set  on  a  large  block  called  a  "scale  stone,"  while  the 
marble  for  the  future  statue  is  set  upon  another  similar  block. 
The  plaster  model  is  then  covered  with  a  scries  of  marks,  placed 
on  all  the  most  salient  parts  of  the  body,  and  the  front  ot  each 
" ccale  stone"  is  covered  with  another  scries  of  points,  exactly  the 
same  on  both  stones.  An  ingenious  instrument  called  a  pointing 
machine,  whicli  has  arms  ending  in  metal  |toints  or  "needles"  that 
move  in  ball-socket  joints,  is  placed  between  the  model  and  the 
marble  block.  Two  of  its  arms  are  then  applied  to  the  model, 
one  touching  a  point  on  the  scale  stone  while  the  other  touches  a 
mark  on  the  figure.  The  arms  arc  fixed  by  screws  in  this  position, 
and  the  machine  is  then  revolved  to  the  marble-  block,  and  set 
'-»->tIi  its  lower  needle  touching  the  corresponding  point  on  the 
scale  stone.  The  upper  needle,  which  is  arranged  to  slide  back  on 
its  own  axis,  cannot  reach  the  corrcsjiondirg  point  on  tlie  statue 
because  the  marble  block  is  in  the  way  ;  a  hole  is  then  driilcd  into 
the  block  at  the  place  and  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  needle, 
till  the  latter  can  slide  forward  so  as  to  reach  a  point  sunk  in  the 
marble  block  exactly  corresponding  to  the  point  it  touched  on  the 
plaster  mould.  This  ])roccss  is  rcpc;itcd  both  on  the  model  and  on 
the  marble  block  till  the  latt-  •  is  drilled  with  a  number  of  holes, 
thg  bottoms  of  which  correspond  in  position  to  the  number  of 
marks  made  on  the  surface  of  the  model.     A  comparatively  un- 


/iiro.  Florence,  ISGS,  vol.  I.,  and  liis  VIU  del  Pittori,  <Cc.,  cd.  Miiaiicsi,  Florence, 
ISSO  ;  Ruiiiolir,  ludienlscfif  Forschuugen,  Lcinsic,  JS27-31 ;  Dohiiie,  Kinist  und 
JCu^tiUr  ItitUeas,  Ivciiwic,  1S79  ;  Perkins,  fuscati  Sculj>tors,  London  (1S65), 
Ilal inn  Sculptors  {ISOS),  aud  J/niirf-buofc  (if  Italian  Sculpturt  (1SS3)  ;  Robinson, 
JtitiinA  Sculpture,  London,  1S(>2 ;  Gruncr,  Mai^aor-tiUflicerke  dcr  risaner, 
Lcii^tc.lSJS;  Fcrreri,  L'Arcodi  S.  Asoitino,  PavLn.  1S32  ;  Sjnnonds,  Rena'tsxince 
in  lU'Jy,  London,  1877,  vol.  iii. ;  Crowe  and  Cavalcascllc,  hist,  of  Painting  iit 
Itny,  London,  1SC<J,  vol.  I, ;  Sclvatico,  Arch,  e  ScuUura  in  i'eiiezip,  Venice,  l'847  ; 
Biccl.  .<to.la  iitlV  Arch,  in  Italia,  >Io<lcn.-i,  1S57-C0  ;  Street  (Arundel  Society). 
Sfpuk'.ral  MontinuuU  of  Italy,  1S78  ;  Gozzini,  Moniimenti  Sfj>oIcrali  dclla 
T(iicr.:ia,  Florence,  ISIO;  Da  Slontault,  Ln  Sculi-tnre  Pidigisinc  a  R<ymt,  Rome. 
ISTO— a  French  edition  (with  improved  text)ofTosi  .ind  Bccchio,  Monuvienti 
S^cri  dl  RoTTia,  Rome,  1SI2 ;  Cavallucci  and  Molinier,  l^s  Dclla  P.ohhia,  Paris, 
JS&4;  Cicogiiara,  yionumenti  dl  r*nrrfo.  .VenIcc7^S3S.^0  ■  Bnrpcs  and  Didron, 
Irr>rtyjrcpHie  des  C'w^'ffatt*  dn  Palais  Ducal  d  Vtixtu,  Paris,  1S$7 ;  Richter, 
■  ticull»tu»e  of  S.  Marlc'a  at  Venice,"  MacmiVna's  ^Inn.,  Jnno  ISSO ;  Tcmanz.-i, 
rife  dcgli  s:^;ultori  I'cnezinn-t,  Venice.  1778 ;  Dicdo  and  Zanotto,  Monumentl  di 
I  t.iezin.  MlUn,  1S39  ;  SclmU,  Denkmaler  der  Kunst  in  Unter-Itali<n.  Dresden, 
ISOO;  Briiickiiunn.  DIt  ScvljMur  ton  B.  CtUiiii,  Lcipsic,  18*37;  Eu".  Plon, 
'<liini,  «i  yit,  Ac,  Paris,  1SS2  ;  Mo-t'-^ond  Cicognara.  Works  of  Cniiora,  London, 
it24.2S  ;  Piroll,  Fontina,  and  otlici^,  a  Bcrics  of  engraved  Plaits  cf  Canoca's 
irnrtf,  «.  l.eta.  :  Giiilllf.t.  /^  Anittfi  en  Kipofj-^e,  Pari«,  1S70 ;  Cardcroia  y 
Solano,  lcono(jrafia  Es)mncla,  Siglo  XI.-XVIL,  Madrid,  18o5-G4  ;  ^lonumentcs 
ArqnlUetonicot  dt  Esfa.'ia,  publi»licd  by  tlic  Spanish  Govcmnient,  1S:>9,  and 
^till  in  projrcsfl. 

I  MonVH  infl<tc  In  one  or  few  ptcccj,  from  which  tjie  cast  can  only  be  extracted 
by  destr'i.  .n-  tho  inonld,  are  called  "iipoil.moalUji."  A  Urge  D'JinWr  of  ca-sti 
can  be  inadc  from  »  "  plcca-niould,"  bui,  only  one  from  ft  "  spoil-niould." 


skilled  scnrpdU'.io  or  "chisel-man  "  then  sets  to  work  and  cuts  away 
the  marble  till  he  has  reached  the  bottoms  of  all  the  holes,  beyond 
which'lie  must  not  cut.  The  statue  is  thus  roughly  blocked  out, 
and  a  more  skilled  scarpdlino  begins  to  work.  Partly  by  eye  and  The  scr.>- 
partly  with  the  constant  help  of  the  pointing  machine,  which  is  pell  inc. 
used  to  give  any  required  measui-ements,  the  workman  almost  com- 
pletes the  marble  statue,  leaving  only  the  finishing  touches  to  be 
done  by  the  sculptor. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  and  in  the  medJceval  Polish  'j3 
period  It  was  the  custom  to  give  the  nude  parts  of  a  marble  statue  maibl.. 
a  considerable  degree  of  polish,  which  really  suggests  the  somewhat 
glossy  surface  of  the  human  skin  very  much  better  than  the  dull 
loaf -sugar -like  surface  which  is  left  on  the  marble  by  modern 
sculpt-irs.  This  high  polish  still  remains  in  parts  of  the  pcJimental 
figures  from  the  Parthenon,  where,  at  the  back,  they  have  been 
specially  protected  from  the  weather.  The  Hennes  of  the  Vatican 
Belvidere  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  preservation  of  this  polish. 
Michelangelo  can-ied  the  practice  further  still,  and  gave  certain 
parts  of  some  of  his  statues,  such  as  tho  JIoscs,  the  highest  possible 
polish  in  order  to  produce  high  lights  just  where  he  wanted  them  ; 
the  artistic  legitimacy  of  this  may  perhaps  be  doubted,  and  in 
weaker  hands  it  might  degenerate  into  mere  trickery.  It  is,  however, 
much  to  bo  desired  that  modem  sculptors  should  to  some  extent 
at  least  adopt  the  classical  practice,  and  by  a  slight  but  unifonn 
polish  remove  the  disagreeable  crystalline  giain  from  all  the  nude 
parts  of  the  marble. 

A  rougher  method  of  obtaining  fixed  points  to  measure  from  was 
occasionally  employed  by  Michelangelo  and  earlier  sculptors.  They 
immersed  the  model  in  a  tank  of  water,  the  water  being  gi'adually 
allowed  to  run  out,  and  thus  by  its  sinking  level  it  gave  a  series  of 
contour  lines  on  any  required  number  of  planes.  In  some  cases 
Michelangelo  appeai-s  to  have  cut  his  statue  out  of  the  marble  with- 
out previously  making  a  model — a  most  marvellous  feat  of  skill. 

In  modelling  bas-reliefs  the  modern  sculptor  usually  applies  the  Relief 
clay  to  a  slab  of  slate  on  which  the  design -is  sketched  ;  the  slate  sculp- 
forms  the  background  of  the  figures,  and  thijs  keeps  the  relief  ture. 
absolutely  true  to  one. plane.  This  method  is  one  of  the  causes  of 
the  ddlness  and  want  of  spirit  so  conspicuous  in  most  modern 
sculptured  reliefs.  In  the  best  Greek  exarjiples  there  is  no  ab- 
solutely fixed  plane  surface  for  the  backgrounds.  In  one  place, 
to  gain  an  effective  shadow^  the  Greek  sculptor  would  cut  belo\v 
the  average  surface  ;  in  anothei"  he  would  leave  the  ground  at  a 
higher  plane,  exactly  as  happened  to  suit  each  portion  of  his 
design.  Other  ditfn-ences  from  the  modera  mechanical  rules  can 
easily  be  seen  by  a  caroful  examination  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  and 
other  Greek  reheis.  Though  the  word  **  bas-relief"  is  now  often 
applied  to  reliefs  of  all  degi-ees  of  projection  fe-om  the  ground,  it 
should,  of  course,  only  be  used  for  those  in  which  the  projection  ia 
slight;  "basso,"  "mezzo,"  and  "altorilievo"  express  three  differenfl 
degi-ees  of  salience.  A^'erj-  low  relief  is  but  little  used  hy  modem 
sculptors,  mainly  because  it  is  much  easier  to  obtain  striking 
effects  ^\•ith  the  help  of  more  projection.  Donatello  and  other  15th- 
centmy  Italian  aitists  showed  the  most  wonderful  skill  in  their 
treatment  oi  very, low  relief.  One  not  altogether  legitimate 
method  of  gaining  effect  was  practised  by  some  medireval  sculptors: 
the  relief  itself  was  kept  very  low,  but  was  "stilted"  or  projected 
from  the  ground,  and  then  undercut  all  round  tht  outline.  A 
loth-century  tabernacle  for  the  host  in  the  Brera  at  Milan  is  a 
very  beautiful  example  of  this  method,  which  as  a  rule  is  nol 
pleasing  in  effect,  since  it  looks  rather  as  if  the  figures  were  cut 
out  in  cardboard  and  then  stuck  on. 

The  practice  of  most  modern  sculptors  is  to  do  very  little  to  the  Scnrp- 
marble  ^nth  their  own  hands;  some,  in  fact,  have  never  really  tors' as* 
learnt  how  to  caiTc,  and  thus  the  finished  statue  is  often  very  instants, 
dull  and  lifeless  in  comparison  with  the  clay  model.  Most  of  the 
gi-eat  sculptoi-s  of  the  Middle  Ages  left  little  or  nothing  to  be  done 
by  an  assistant ;  MicIielangcM  e-specially  did  the  whole  of  the 
cai-ving  with  his  own  hands,  and  when  beginning  on  a  block  of 
marble  attacked  it  with  such  vigorous  strokes  of  the  hammer  that 
large  pieces  of  marble  flew  about  in  every  direction.  But  skill  as 
a  carver,  though  very  desirable,  is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  a 
sculptor.  If  he  casts  in  bronze  by  the  cite  prnhcc  pwcess  he  may 
produce  the  most  perfect  plastic  works  without  touching  aiiytliing 
Iiardcr  than  the  modelling-wax.  The  sculptor  in  marble,  however, 
must  be  able  to  carve  a  hard  substance  if  ho  is  to  be  nia.sler  of  his 
art.  Unhappily  some  modern  sculptors  not  only  leave  all  mani- 
pulation of  the  marble  to  their  workmen,  but  llicy  also  employ 
men  to  do  their  modelling,  the  supposed  sculptor  supplying  littlo 
or  nothing  but  his  name  to  the  work.  In  somo  cases  sculptors 
who  are  neither  one  nor  the  other,  but  who  suffer  under  an  excess 
of  popularity,  arc  induced  to  employ  aid  of  this  kind  on  account  of 
their  undertaking  more  work  tnan  any  one  man  could  possibly 
accomplish, — a  state  of  things  which  is  necessarily  very  liostile  to 
the  interests  of  true  art.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  sculptor's  scar- 
pcllino,  though  he  may  and  often  does  attain  the  higlicst  skill  as 
a  carver  and  can  copy  almor:t  r  veiling  with  wonderful  fidel'ty, 
seldom  develops  into  an  original  artist     Tha  popular  admiration 


572 


13  C  U  — S  C  U 


for  pieces  of  clever  trickery  in  sculpture,  sucK  as  the  carving  of  the 
open  meshes  of  fi  fislierniau's  net,  or  a  chain  with  each  link  free 
and  movable,  would  perhaps  bo  diminished  if  it  were  known  that 
such  work  as  this  is  invariably  done,  not  by  the  sculptor,  but  by 
the  scarpclUno,  Unhappily  at  the  present  day  there  is,  especially  in 
Knglaud,  little  appreciation  of  what  is  valuable  in  plastic  art ;  there 
is  probably  no  other  civilized  country  where  the  state  does  so  little  to 
give  practical  support  to  the  advancement  of  monumental  and  deco- 
rative sculpture  on  a  large  scale — the  most  important  branch  of  the 
art — which  it  is  hardly  in  the  power  of  private  persons  to  further. 


Literature,— On  the  genera!  history  of  Christian  seulpture,  see  Agincourt, 
Histoire  de  VArt,  Paris,  1823 ;  Dn  Sonimerard,  Lei  Arta  an  Moyen-Age,  Paris. 
lS3ll-4t3 ;  Cicognara,  Storia  delta  Sciiltnra,  Prato,  1823-44  ;  Westmarott,  Hand- 
book of  Scntptnre,  Edinbiirgli,  1864;  Liibke,  Bislory  of  Sculplnre,  Eng.  irai^.. 
London,  1S72  ;  Ruskin,  Aratra  renlclici  (six  lectures  on  sculpture),  Lond*i, 
1872  :  Viardot,  Les  Merveiltes  de  la  Scnlj'tuTe,  Paris,  1869 ;  Araenne  and  Denis, 
Maiutel  .  .  .  du  Scidptenr,  Paris,  1853  ;  Clarac,  Mvsce  de  Scnlpl^n-e,  Paris, 
1820*53;  Demmin,  Encyclopklie  des  Beanx-Arts  plastiqnes,  Paris,  1872-75,  vol. 
iii.  ;  Didron,  (EuiTes  de  Bronze  du  Moyen-Age,  Palis,  1859  ;  Fortnum,  Bronzet 
■in  the  South  K ensington  Museum,  1877  ;  Finocliietti,  Scullura  in  Legno,  Florence, 
1S73  ;  Anon.,  Ornali  del  Coro  di  S.  Pietro  de'  Cassinesi  a  Perugia,  Rome,  1S45. 
See  also  the  lists  of  works  given  in  the  preceding  pages,  and  those  in  the 
articles  on  individual  sculptors  and  in  that  on  Metal-work.         (J.  H.  M.) 


SCURVY,  or  ScoKBUTUs,  a  morbid  condition  of  the 
blood,  manifesting  itself  by  marked  impairment  of  tlie 
nutritive  functions  and  by  tlie  occurrence  of  lia;morrliagic 
extravasations  in  tlie  tissues  of  tlie  body,  and  depending 
on  the  absence  of  certain  essential  ingredients  in  the  food. 

In  former  times  this  disease  was  extremely  common 
among  sailors,  and  gave  rise  to  a  frightful  amount  of 
mortality.  It  is  now,  however,  of  rare  occurrence  at  sea, 
its  cause  being 'well  understood  and  its  prevention  readily 
secured  by  simple  measures.  Scurvy  has  also  frequently 
broken  out  among  soldiers  on  camiiaign,  in  beleaguered 
cities,  as  well  as  among  communities  in  times  of  scarcity, 
and  in  prisons,  workhouses,  and  other  public  institutions. 
In  all  such  instances  it  ha.s  been  found  to  depend  closely 
upon  the  character  and  amount  of  the  food.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  a  too  limited  diet,  either  in  amount  or 
variety,  might  induce  the  disease ;  but  an  overwhelming 
weight  of  evidence  goes  to  prove  that  the  cause  resides  in 
the  inadequate  supply  or  the  entire  want  of  fresh  vegetable 
matter.  The  manner  in  which  this  produces  scurvy  is  not 
quite  clear.  Some  high  authorities  Lave  held  that  the 
insufficient  supply  of  potash  salts,  in  which  vegetables  are 
rich,  is  the  procuring  cause  ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  the 
mere  administration  of  these  salts  will  neither  prevent  nor 
cure  scurvy.  Hence,  while  it  is  probable  that  this  may 
be  one  of  the  factors  concerned  in  the  production  of  the 
disease,  the  want  of  other  vegetable  constituents,  especially 
vegetable  acids,  is  of  stiU  greater  importance.  Besides  this 
essential  defect,  a  diminution  in  the  total  amount  of  food, 
the  large  use  of  salted  meat  or  fish,  and  all  causes  of  a 
depressing  kind,  such  as  exposure,  anxiety,  bad  hygiene, 
ifcc,  will  powerfully  contribute  to  the  development  of  the 
disease.     See  Dietetics,  vol.  vii.  pp.  207-208. 

The  symptoms  of  scurvy  come  on  gradually,  and  its 
onset  is  not  marked  by  any  special  indications  beyond  a 
certain  failure  of  strength,  most  manifest  on  making  eflfort. 
Breathlessness  and  exhaustion  are  thus  easily  induced, 
and  there  exists  a  corresponding  mental  depression.  The 
countenance  acquires  a  sallow  or  dusky  hue ;  the  eyes  are 
sunken  ;  while  pains  in  the  muscles  of  the  body  and  limbs 
are  constantly  present.  The  appetite  and  digestion  may 
be  unimpaired  in  the  earlier  stages  and  the  tongue  com- 
paratively clean,  but  the  gums  are  tender  and  the  breath 
offensive  almost  from  the  firrf.  These  preliminary  symp- 
toms may  continue  for  weeks,  and  in  isolated  cases  may 
readily  escape  notice,  but  can  scarcely  fail  to  attract  atten- 
tion where  they  ailect  large  numbers  of  men.  In  the  further 
stages  of  the  disease  all  these  phenomena  are  aggravated 
in  a  high  degree  and  the  physical  and  mental  prostration 
soon  becomes  extreme.  The  face  looks  haggard ;  the  gums 
are  livid,  spongy,  ulcerating,  and  bleeding ;  the  teeth  are 
loosened  and  drop  out ;  and  the  breath  is  excessively  fetid. 
Extravasations  of  blood  now  take  place  in  the  skin  and 
other  textures.  These  may  be  small  like  the  petechial 
.spots  of  purpura  (see  Purpttka),  but  are  often  of  large 
amount  and  cause  swellings  of  the  muscles  in  which  they 
occur,  having  the  appearance  of  extensive  briuses  and 
tending  to  become  hard  and  brawny.  These  extravasa- 
tions are  most  common  in  the  muscles  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremities ;  but  they  m_ay  be  formed  anywhere,  and  may 


easily  be  produced  by  very  slight  pressure  upon  the  skin 
or  by  injuries  to  it.  In  addition,  there, are  bleedings  from 
mucous  membranes,  such  as  those  of  the  nose,  eyes,  and 
alimentary  or  respiratory  tracts,  while  effusions  of  blood- 
stained fluid  take  place  into  the  pleural,  pericardial,  or 
picritoneal  cavities.  Painful,  extensive,  and  destructive 
ulcers  are  also  apt  to  break  out  in  the  limbs.  Peculiar 
disorders  of  vision  have  been  noticed,  particularly  night- 
blindness  (nyctalopia),  but  they  are  not  invariably  present, 
nor  specially  characteristic  of  the  disease.  The  further 
progress  of  the  malady  is  marked  by  profound  exhaustion, 
with  a  tendency  to  syncope,  and  with  various  complications, 
such  as  diarrhoea  and  pulmonary  or  kidney  troubles,  any 
or  all  of  which  may  bring  about  a  fatal  result.  On  the 
other  hand,  even  in  desperate  eases,  recovery  may  be  hope- 
fully anticipated  when  the  appropriate  remedy  can  be 
obtained.  The  composition  of  the  blood  is  materially 
altered  in  scurvy,  particularly  as  regards  its  albumen  and 
its  red  corpuscles,  which  are  diminished,  while  the  fibrine 
is  increased. 

No  disease  is  more  amenable  to  treatment  both  as  re- 
gards prevention  and  cure  than  scurvy,  the  single  remedy 
of  fresh  vegetables  or  some  equivalent  securing  both  these 
ends.  Potatoes,  cabbages,  onions,  carrots,  turnips,  ifcc, 
and  most  fresh  fruits,  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  service 
for  this  purpose.  Lime  juice  and  lemon  juice  are  re- 
cognized as  equally  efficacious,  and  even  vinegar  in  the 
absence  of  the^e  will  be  of  some  assistance.  The  regulated 
administration  of  lime  juice  in  the  British  navy,  which  has 
been  practised  since  1795,  has  had  the  effect  of  virtually 
extinguishing  scurvy  in  the  service,  while  similar  regula- 
tions introduced  by  the  British  Board  of  Trade  in  1865 
have  had  a  like  beneficial  result  as  regards  the  mercantile 
marine.  It  is  only  when  these  regulations  have  not  been 
fully  carried  out,  or  when  the  supply  of  lime  juice  has 
become  exhausted,  that  scurvy  among  sailors  has  been 
noticed  in  recent  times.  Besides  the  administration  of 
lime  or  lemon  juice  and  the  use  of  fresh  meat,  milk,  <fec., 
which  are  valuable  adjuvants,  the  local  and  constitutional 
conditions  require  the  attention  of  the  physician.  The 
ulcers  of  the  gums  and  limbs  can  be  best  treated  by  stimu' 
lating  astringent  applications ;  the  hard  swellings,  which 
are  apt  to  continue  long,  may  be  alleviated  by  fomenta- 
tions and  frictions ;  while  the  anasmia  and  debility  are  best 
overcome  by  the  continued  administration  of  iron  tonics, 
aided  by  fresh  air  and  other  measures  calculated  to  pro- 
mote the  general  health. 

SCUTAGE  or  Escuage  was  one  of  the  forms  of  knight- 
service  (see  Knighthood,  Real  Estate).  It  was  prac- 
tically a  composition  for  personal  service.  When  levied 
on  a  knight's  fee  it  was  called  scutage  uncertain,  as  its 
amount  depended  upon  the  present  needs  of  the  crown. 
Scutage  certain  was  a  socage  tenure,  and  consisted  in  the 
paj-ment  of  a  sum  fixed  in  amount  and  payable  at  regular 
times.  Scutage  appears  to  have  been  first  imposed  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Toulouse  War  in  1159.  Magna  Charta 
(§  12)  forbade  the  levy  of  scutage  unless  per  commnne  con- 
silium regni.  It  appears  to  have  fallen  into  distise  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  II.,  and  was  finally  done  away  with  by 
the  Act  abolishing  feudal  tenures  (12  Car.  II.  c.  24). 


S  C  U  — S  C  Y 


573 


SCUTARI  (Turkish,  Usi-ikiai:),  anciently  Chrysopolis,  a 
seaport  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Bosphorus,  opposite  Constantinople  (see  plan,  vol.  vi. 
p.  305),  of  which  it  is  regarded  as  a  suburb.  Climbing 
the  slopes  of  several  hills  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre, 
its  houses  generally  painted  in  red,  distinguished  by  a 
number  of  mosques  adorned  with  numerous  minarets,  pos- 
sessing some  fine  bazaars  and  public  baths,  and  merging 
farther  inland  into  burying-grounds,  gardens,  and  villas, 
Scutari  presents  a  very  picturesque  appearance,  especially 
when  viewed  from  the  bridge  of  the  Golden  Horn  or  ap- 
proached from  the  Straits  of  Constantinople  right  in  front 
of  its  most  prominent  point.  The  inhabitants  are  largely 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  saddlery  and  silk,  muslin, 
and  cotton  stuffs ;  the  town  al^o  contains  granaries  and  is 
prized  as  a  fruit -market,  more  particularly  for  grapes, 
lemons,  and  figs.  The  population  is  estimated  at  60,000 
(entirely  Mohammedan,  with  the  exception  of  some  Jews). 
The  streets,  especially  the  main  street  leading  from  the  pier 
lO  the  barracks,  are  in  general  much  wider  than  those  of 
Constantinople.  The  city  iricludes  eight  mosques.  Behind 
the  landing-place  is  the  Biijiik  Jami  (great  mosque),  sur- 
mounted by  a  cupola  and  a  minaret  and  presenting  terraces 
mammillated  by  small  leaden  domes.  The  centre  of  the 
square  is  adorned  by  a  fountain  of  simple  arcliitecture. 
The  mosque  of  Selim  IIL,  farther  in  the  interior  of  the  city, 
is  likewise  flanked  by  two  minarets  and  surmounted  by  a 
cupola.  The  most  elegant  mosque,  however,  is  the  Valide 
Jami  or  mosque  of  the  dowager  sultana,  surmounted  by  two 
minarets,  built  in  1547  by  the  daughter  of  Solyman. 
Another  prominent  mosque,  on  the  right  of  the  main  street 
and  south  of  Biijiik  Jami,  is  Jeni  Jami  (new  mosque). 
Other  noticeable  buildings  are  the  barracks  built  by  Selim 
m.,  forming  a  handsome  and  vast  quadrangle  surmounted 
by  a  tower  at  each  angle,  and  whose  corridors,  &.C.,  are  calcu- 
lated to  have  an  aggregate  length  of  4  miles  ;  an  old  large 
red  building  now  used  as  a  military  hospital,  and  during 
the  Crimean  War  as  a  hospital  for  the  English  sick  and 
wounded ;  a  seraglio  of  the  sultans ;  a  convent  of  howling 
dervishes,  a  simpls  wooden  structure  of  two  stories  front- 
ing a  small  cemetery.  Other  business  quarters  of  the 
town  deserving  mention  are  Jeni  Mahalle  (new  quarter) 
and  the  Dohanjilar  Mejdani  (tobacco  merchants'  square). 
The  most  characteristfc  feature,  however,  of  Scutari  is  its 
immense  cemetery,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  all' 
the  cemeteries  in  and  around  Constantinople,  extending 
over  more  than  3  miles  of  undulating  plain  behind  the 
town.i  In  the  centre  of  the  ground  rises  the  magnificent 
dome,  supported  by  six  marble  pillars,  which  Sultan 
Mohammed  erected  in  memory  of  his  favourite  horse. 
Close  to  the  barracks,  on  the  Bosphorus,  the  scene  of 
Miss  Nightingale's  labours,  8000  English  dead  are  over- 
shadowed by  a  large  granite  obelisk.  Immediately  behind 
the  town  is  the  mountain  of  Bulgurlu  clad  in  evergreen 
savins  and  red  beeches,  one  of  the  plateaus  of  which  is  a 
favourite  holiday  resort.  Its  summit  commands  a  very 
extensive  view.  In  the  plain  of  Haidar  Pasha  close  by, 
between  the  cemetery  and  Kadikoi  (judge's  village, 
anciently  Chalcedon),  the  English  army  lay  encamped 
during  the  Crimean  War.     In  front  of  Scutari,  on  a  low- 


'  The  comctory  is  intersected  with  numerous  paved  alleys,  and  the 
tombstones  are  iiiscriUd  with  verses  of  the  Koran  gilded  ou  a  dark 
blue  ground  and  bearing  each  simjily  tile  name  of  the  deceased.  The 
nionaments  of  the  men  am.distiugnished  each  by  a  turban,  those  of 
the  women  each  by  a  loti^  leaf.  The  nature  of  the  carved  turban 
indicates  the  rank  of  the  deceased  and  the  fashion  of  the  time  to 
which  it  refers,  so  that  the  tombstones  present  the  sculptured  history 
of  the  Mohammedan  head-dress  from  the  date  of  the  Turkish  conquest. 
Each  coq)se  is  allowed  a  separate  grave,  never  desecrated  either  by 
axe  or  spade.  This  cemetery  lying  in  Asiatic  ground  is  on  that  account 
the  more  desired  as  a  burialplace  by  pious  Mahomracdans,  and  holds 
half  the  generations  of  Stamboul  (probably  some  3,000,000  persons). 


lying  rock  almost  level  with  the  water  and  about  a  cable's 
length  from  the  shore,  rises  a  white  tower  90  feet  high, 
now  used  as  a  lighthouse,  called  "  Leander's  Tower,"  aud 
by  the  Turks  Kiz-kulessi,  or  the  "  Maideji's  Tower."  The 
first  printing  press  in  Turkey  was  set  up  at  Scutari  in  1723. 

Its  ancient  name  Chrysopolis  most  probably  has  leference  to  the 
fact  that  there  the  Persian  tribute  was  collected  and  reposited,  as 
at  a  later  date  the  Athenians  levied  tliere  too  a  tenth  on  the  ships 
passing  from  the  Euxine.  Its  more  modern  name  of  UskUdar, 
signifying  a  coixrier  who  conveys  the  royal  orders  from  station  to 
station,  commemorates  the  fact  that  formerly  Scutari  was  the  post 
station  for  Asiatic  couriers,  as  it  is  still  the  great  rendezvous  and 
point  of  departure  of  caravans  arriving  from  and  destined  for  Syria, 
Persia,  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  and  tlie  spot  whence  all  travellers 
and  pilgrims  from  Constantinople  to  the  East  begin  their  journeys. 

SCUTARI  (Turkish,  Scodrc, ;  Slavic,  Slcadar),  the 
capital  of  North  Albania,  at  the  south  end  of  the  lake  of 
the  same  name,  with  a  population  of  24,500  in  ISSO 
(mostly  Mohammedans).  There  is  onlj'  one  street  with 
any  pretensions  to  regularity.  The  straggling  town  is 
built  on  the  low  fiat  promontory  formed  by  the  Bojana, 
which  takes  off  the  waters  of  the  lake  to  the  Adriatic,  and 
the  river  which  flows  into  the  lake  after  crossing  the  plain 
between  Scutari  and  the  mountains  of  Biskassi.  In  winter 
the  town  is  often  flooded  by  the  Bojana.  The  mosques  and 
minarets  are  insignificant ;  the  handsomest  of  the  churches 
is  the  Catholic  church  at  the  north-east  end.  In  the 
background  is  an  old  Venetian  fortress  perched  on  a  lofty 
rock.  The  town  is  favourably  situate  .for  commerce, 
being  connected  by  the  Bojana  \rith  the  Adriatic,  whence 
its  boats  carry  the  products  which  descend  by  the  Drina  to 
the  mountaineers  in  exchange  for  their  wool,  grain,  and 
dyeing  and  building  woods.  There  are  some  manufac- 
tures of  arms  and  of  cottoa  stuffs.  In  1SS4  330  ships 
of  123,923  tons  entered  the  port  and  325  ships  of  123,713 
tons  cleared. 

Livy  relates  that  Scodra  was  chosen  as  .apital  by  the  IlIjTian 
king  Gentius,  who  was  here  besieged  in  168  B.C.,  and  cari-ieij  cap- 
tive to  Rome.  In  the  7th  century  Scutaii  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Servians,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  the  Venetians,  and 
finally,  in  1479,  the  Turks  acquired  it  by  treaty.  Early  in  1SS5 
a  beginning  was  made  with  the  construction  of  a  highway  from 
the  roadstead  of  San  Giovanni  de'  Jledici  to  Scutari. 

SCYLAX  of  Caryanda  in  Caria  was  employed  by  Darius 
I.  to  explore  the  course  of  the  Indus.  He  started  from 
Afghanistan  and  is  said  by  Herodotus  (iv.  44)  to  have 
reached  the  sea  and  then  sailed  to  the  Gulf  of  Suez  (comp. 
Persu,  vol.  xviii.  p.  569).  Scylax  wrote  an  account  of 
his  explorations,  which  is  referred  to  by  Aiistotle  and  other 
ancient  writers,  but  must  have  been  lost  pretty  early,  and 
probably  also  a  history  of  the  Carian  hero  Heraclides, 
who  distinguished  himself  in  the  revolt  against  DariiLs.- 
But  Suidas,  who  mentions  the  second  woi-k,  confounds  the 
old  Scylax  with  a  much  later  author,  who  wrote  a  refuta- 
tion of  the  history  of  Polybius,  and  is  presumabjy  identical 
with  Scylax  of  Halicarnassus,  a  statesnifn  and  astrologer? 
the  friend  of  Pana;tius  spoken  of  by  CicerD  (De  Div.,  ii.  42). 
Neither  of  these,  however,  can  be  the  a  ithor  of  the  Pei-i- 
j}hts  of  the  ilediterranean,  which  has  come  down  to  us 
under  the  name  of  Scylax  of  Caryanda  in  several  JiSS.,  of 
which  the  archetype  is  at  Paris.  This  worli,  is  little  more 
than  a  .sailor's  handbook  of  places  and  distances  all  round 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  its  branches,  and  then 
along  the  outer  Libyan  coast  as  far  as  the  Carthaginians 
traded  ;  but  various  notices  of  towns  and  the  states  to 
which  they  belong  enable  us  to  fix  the  date  with  consider- 
able precision.  Niebuhr  gave  the  date  352-348  B.C.,  others 
bring  it  down  a  year  or  two  later,  and  C.  Miiller  as  late 
as  338-335,  which  is  only  possible  if  the  writer's;  informa- 
tion was  sometimes  rather  stale.  See  the  discussion  in 
Miiller's  edition  [Geog.  Gr.  Min.,  vol.  i.,  Paris,  1855),  and 
against  him  Unger,  in  Philologus,  1874,  p.  29  sq.,  who  con- 


'  See  A.  T.  Gutschmidt,  in  Rhein.  Miis.,  1854,  p.  141  sq. 


574 


Kj 


Y  — S  C  Y 


eludes  for.  the  year  347.     Tlic  latest  edition  is  that  of 
Fabricius  (Leijisic,  187S). 

SCYLLA  AND  CHARYBDIS.  In  Homer  (Oc!.,  xii.  73 
sq.)  Seylla  is  a  dreadful  sea-monster,  daughter  of  Crata;is, 
with  six  heads,  twelve  feet,  and  a  voice  like  the  yelp  of  a 
puppy.  She  dwelt  in  a  sea-cave  lookiuj;  to  the  west,  far 
up  the  face  cf  a  huge  clitf.  Out  of  her  cave  she  stuck  her 
heads,  fishing  for  marine  creatures  and  snatcnmg  the  sea- 
men out  of  passing  ships.  Within  a  bow'shot  of  this  cliff 
■was  another  lower  cliff  with  a  great  fig-tree  growing  on«it. 
Under  this  second  rock  dwelt  Charybdis,  who  thrice  a  day 
sucked  in  and  thrice  spouted  out  the  sea  water.  Between 
these  rocks  Ulysses  sailed,  and  Seylla  snatched  six  men. out 
of  his  ship.  In  later  classical  times  Seylla  and  Charybdis 
were  localized  in  the  Strait  of  Messina, — Seylla  on  the 
Italian,  Charybdis  on  the  Sicilian  side.  In  Ovid  (Mdam., 
xiv.  1-74)  Seylla  appears  as  a  beautiful  maiden  beloved  by 
tlie  sea-god  Cilaucus  and  changed  by  the  jealous  Circe  into 
a  sea -monster ;  afterwards  she  was  transformed  into  a 
rock  shunned  by  seamen.  There  are  various  other  ver- 
sions of  her  story.  According  to  a  late  legend  (Servius 
on  Virgil,  ^£n.,  iii.  420),  Charybdis  was  a ,  voracious 
woman  who  robbed  Hercules  of  his  cattle  and  was  there- 
fore cast  into  the  sea  by  Jupiter,  where  she  retained  her 
old  voracious  nature.     The  *ell-known  line 

''Incidis  in  .Scj-llani  cupicns  vitare  Chaiybdim" 
occurs  in  the  Alexniidn-is  of  Philip  Gualtier  (a  poet  of  the 
13th  century),  which  w-as  printed  at  Lyons  in  1558. 

Another  Sc3-lla,  confounded  by  Virgil  (Ei:,  vi.  74  sg.) 
with  the  sea-monster,  was  a  daughter  of  Nisus,  king  of 
Wegara.  AVhen  Jlegara  was  besieged  by  Jlinos,  Seylla, 
who  was  in  love  with  him,  cut  off  her  father's  [uirple  lock, 
on  which  his  life  depended.  But  Minos  drowned  the  un- 
dutiful  daughter  (.Eschylus,  Choejih.,  G13s</.;  Apollodorus, 
iii.  15,  8). 

SCYMM'US  of  Chios,  a  Greek  geographer  of  uncertain 
date,  known  to  us  only  by  a  few  references  in  later  writers, 
but  perhaps  identical  with  the  Scymnus  Chins  of  a  Delphic 
inscription  of  the  beginning  of  the  2d  century  B.c.,i  was 
commonly  taken  to  bs  the  author  of  an  imperfect  anony- 
mous FarajJn-asis  in  verse  describing  the  northeri}  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  which  in  the  first  edition  (^fiigsburg, 
1600)  was  ascribed  to  ^larcianus  of  Hevaclea.  Me^neke 
showed  conclusively  that  this  piece  cannot  be  by  Scymmis. 
It  is  dedicated  to  a  King  Nicomedes,  probably  Xicomedes 
III.  of  Bithynia,  and  so  would  date  from  the  beginning  of 
the  1st  century  B.C.  See  Midler,  6'foy.  Gi:  J/iii.,  vol.  i., 
where  the  poem  is  edited  with  smficient  prolegomena. 

SCYROS,  a  small  rocky  barren  island  in  the  JEge&n 
Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Thessaly,  containing  a  town  of  the 
sanio  name.  In  469  B.C.  it  was  cor..-)uered  by  the  Athe- 
nians under  Cimou,  and  it  was  probably  about  this  time 
•hat  the  legends  arose  which  connect  it  with  the  Attic  hero 
Theseus,  who  was  said  to  have  been  treacherously  slain 
and  buried  there.  A  mythic  claim  was  thus  formed  to 
justify  the  Athenian  attack,  and  Cimon  brought  back  the 
bones  of  Theseus  to  Athens  in  triumph.  The  inhabitants 
of  Scyros  before  the  Athenian  conquest  were  Dolopes 
(Thuc,  i.  9.S) ;  but  other  accounts  speak  of  Pelasgians  or 
Carians  as  the  earliest  inhabitants.  There  was  a  sanctuary 
of  Achilles  on  the  island,  and  numerous  traditions  connect 
Scyros  with  that  hero.  He  was  concealed,  di.sgnised  as  a 
woman,  in  the  palace  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  the  island, 
when  his  mother  wished  to  keep  him  back  from  the  Trojan 
War ;  he  was  discovered  there  by  Odysseus,  and  gladly 
accompanied  him  to  Troy.  An  entirely  different  cycle  of 
legends  relate  the  conquest  of  Scyros  by  Achilles.  The 
actual  worship  on  the  island  of  a  hero  or  god  named 

LSeo  Rhode,  in  Jihdii.  Miis.,  1879,  p.  153  ig. 


Achilles,  and  the  probable  kinship  of  its  inhabitants  with 
a  Thessalian  jieople,  whose  hero  Achilles  also  was,  form 
the  historical  foundation  of  the  legends.  Scyros  was  left, 
along  with  Lemnos  and  Imbros,  to  the  Athenians  by  the 
peace  of  Antalcidas  (387  B.C.).  It  was  taken  by  Philip, 
and  continued  under  JIacedonian  rule  till  196,  when  the 
Fiomans  restored  it  to  Athens,  in  whose  possession  it  re- 
mained throughout  the  Roman  period.  It  was  sacked  by 
an  army  of  Goths,  Heruli,  and  Peucini,  in  269  a.d.  The 
ancient  city  was  situated  on  a  lofty  rocky  peak,  on  the 
north-eastern  coast,  where  the  modern  town  of  St  George 
now  stands.  A  temple  of  Athena,  the  chief  goddess  of 
Scyros,  was  on  the  shore  near  the  town.  The  island  has 
a  small  stream,  called  in  ancient  times  Cephissus.  Strabo 
mentions  as  its  sole  products  its  excellent  goats  and  a 
species  of  variegated  marble — the  latter  in  great  favouB 
at  Rome. 

SCYTHE  AND  SICKLE. -^  Till  the  invention  of  the 
reaping  machine,  which  came  into  practical  use  only  about 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  scythes  and  sickles  were 
the  sole  reaping  implements.  The  scythe  is  worked  with 
two  hands  with  a  swinging  motjon,  while  the  sickle  or 
reaping  hook  is  held  in  one  hand  and  the  reaper  bends 
and  cuts  the  crop  with  a  shearing  or  hitting  motion.  Of 
the  two  the  sickle  is  the  more  antient,  and  indeed  there 
is  some  reason  to  conclude  that  its  use  is  coeval  with  the 
cultivation  of  grain  crops.  Among  the  remains  of  the 
later  Stone  period  in  Great  Britain  and  on  thp  European 
continent  curved  flint  knives  have  occasionally  been  found 
the  fonn  of  which  has  led  to  the  suggestion  that  they 'were 
used  as  sicMes.  _  Sickles  of  bronze  occur  quite  commonly^ 
among  remains  of  the  early,  inhabitants  of  Europe.  Some 
of  these  are  deeply  curved  hooks,  flat  on  the  under-side,' 
and  with  a  strengthening  ridge  or  back  on  the  upper 
surface,  while  others  are  small  curved  knives,  in  form  Like 
the  ordinary  hedge-bill.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians 
toothed  or  serrated  sickles  of  both  bronze  and  iron  were 
used.  Ancient  Roman  drawings  show  that  both  the 
scythe  and  tlie  sickle  were  known  to  that  peoi>le,  and 
Pliny  i.iakes  the  distinction  plain.-  ..  Although  both  imple- 
ments have  lost  much'  -.of  their ,  importance  since  the 
general  introduction  of  mowing  and  reaping  machinery, 
they  are  still  used  very  e.xtensively,  especially  in  those 
countries  where  small  agricultural  holdings  prevail.  "^  The 
princij.ial  modern  forms  are  the  toothed  hook,  the  scythe 
hook,  the  Hainault  scythe,  and  the  common  scythe.  -  TJhe 
toothed  hook,  which  was  in  general  use  tdl  towards  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century,  consists  of  a  narrow-bladed 
curved  hook,  having  on  its  cutting  edge  a  series  of  fine 
close-set  serratures  cut  like  file-teeth,  with  their  edges 
inclined  towards  the  heft  or  handle.  Such  sickles  were 
formerly  made  of  iron  edged  with  steel ;  but  in  recent 
times  they  came  to  be  made  of  cast  steel  entirely.  To- 
wards the  middle  of  the  century  the  toothed  hook  was 
gradually  supplanted  by  the  scythe  hook  or  smooth-edged 
sickle,  a  somewhat  heavier  and  broader-bladed  implement, 
having  an  ordinary  knife  edge.  Both  these  implements 
were  intended  for  "shearing"  handful  by  handful,  the 
crop  being  held  in  the  left  hand  and  cut  with  the  tool 
held  in  the  right.  A  heavy  smooth-edged  sickle  is  used 
for  "bagging"  or  "clouting," — an  operation  in  which  the 
hook  is  struck  against  the  straw,  the  left  hand  being  used 
to  gather  and  carry  along  the  cut  swath.  The  Hainault 
scythe  is  an  implement  intermediate  between  the  scythe  and 

-  "Of  the  sickle  there  are  two  varieties,  the  Italia^,  which  is  the 
Bhorter  and  can  be  handled  among  brushwood,  and  the  two-handed 
Gallic  sickle,  which  makes  quicker  work  of  it  when  employed  on  their 
[the  Gauls']  extensive  domains  ;  for  there  they  cut  their  grass  only  in 
the  middle,  and  pass  over  the  shorter  blades.  The  Italian  mower* 
cut  with  the  right  hand  only  "  (U.  JF.,  xviii.  67). 


S  C  Y  — IS  G  Y 


575 


tne  sicKie,  being  worked  with  one  hand,  and  the  motion  is 
entirely  a  swinging  or  bagging  one.  .  The  implement  con- 
sists of  a  short  scythe  blade  mounted  on  a  vertical  handle, 
and  in  using  it  the  reaper  collects  the  grain  with  a  crook, 
which  holds  the  straw  together  till  it  receives  the  cutting 
stroke  of  the  instrument.  The  Hainault  scythe  is  exten- 
sively used  in  Belgium.  The  common  hay  scythe  consists 
of  a  slightly  curved  broad  blade  varying  in  length  from 
28  to  46  inches,  mounted  on  a  bent,  or  sometimes  straight, 
wooden  sned  or  snathe,  to  which  two  handles  are  attached 
at  such  distances  as  enable  the  workman,  with  an  easy 
stoop,  to  swing  the  scythe  blade  along  the  ground,  the 
cutting  edge  being  slightly  elevated  to  keep  it  clear  of 
the  inequalities  of  the  surface.  The  grain-reaping  scythe  is 
similar,  but  provided  with  a  cradle  or  short  gathering  rake 
attached  to  the  heel  and  following  the  direction  of  the  blade 
for  about  12  inches.  The  object  of  this  attachment  is  to 
gather  the  stalks  as  they  are  cut  and  lay  them  in  regular 
swaths  against  the  line  of  still-standing  corn.  The  reap- 
ing scythe,  instead  of  a  long  sned,  has  frequently  two  helves, 
the  right  hand  branching  from  the  left  or  main  helve  and 
the  two  handles  placed  about  2  feet  apart.  The  best 
scythe  blades  are  made  from  rolled  sheets  of  steel,  riveted 
to  a  back  frame  of  iron,  which  gives  strength  and  rigidity 
to  the  blade.  On  the  Continent  it  is  stiU  cogimon  to 
mould  and  hammer  the  whole  blade  out  of  a  single  piece 
of  steel,  but  such  scythes  are  difficult  to  keep  keen  of 
edge., '-There  is  a  great  demand  for  scythes  in  Russia, 
chiefly  supplied  from  the  German  empire  and  Austria. 
.  The  principal  manufacturing  centre  of  scythes  and  sickles 
in  the  United  Kingdom  is  Sheffield. 

SCYTHIA,  SCYTHIANS.  ■  When  the  Greeks  began 
to  settle  the  north  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  about  the 
middle  of  the  7th  century  B.C.,  they  found  the  south 
Russian  steppe  in  the  hands  of  a  nomadic  race,  whom 
they  called  -Scythians.  An  exacter  form  of  the  name  was 
Scoloti.  The  inhabitants  of  the  steppe  roust  always  have 
been  nomads ;  but  the  life  of  all  nomads  is  so  much  alike 
that  we  csunot  tell  whether  the  Scythians  are  the  race 
alluded  to  in  //.,  xiii.  5  s^. 

The  name  is  first  found  in  Hesiod  (Strabo,  vii.  p.  300; 
about  SCO  B.C.,  and  about  689  (Herod.,  iv.  15)  Aristeas 
of  Proconnesus  knew  a  good  deal  about  them  in  connexion 
with  the  ancient  trade  route  leading  from  their  country  to 
Central  Asia.  From  the  passage  of  the  Tanais  (Don)  for 
fifteeTi  marches  north-east  through  the  steppe  the  country 
belonged  to  the  nomad  Sarmatians,  whose  speech  and  way 
of  life  resembled  those  of  .the  Scythians.  Then  came  the 
wooded  region  of  £he  Budini,  who  spread  far  inland  and 
were  probably  a  Finnish  race  of  hunters  with  filthy  habits.' 
In  this  region  lay  Gelonus,  the  Greek  emporium  of  the 
fur  trade,  round  which  lived  the  half-Grecian  Geloni,  prob- 
ably on  the  Volga  and  hardly  farther  south  than  Simbirsk. 
Seven  more  marches  in  the  same  line  ran  through  desert, 
and  then  in  the  country  of  the  Thyssageta;  the  road  turned 
south-east,  and  led  first  through  the  country  of  the  lyrcio, 
whose  way  of  hunting  (Herod.,  iv.  22)  indicates  that  they 
dwelt  between  the  steppe  and  the  forest,  but  belonged 
more  to  the  former ;  the  road  perhaps  crossed  the  river 
.Ural  near  Orenburg,  and  ascending  its  tributary  the  Ilek 
crossed  the  Mugojar  Mountains.  Beyond  tliis  in  the  steppe 
as  far  as  the  Sir-Darya  and  Amu-Darya  the  traveller  was 
again  anVbng  Scythians,  who  were  regarded  as  a  branch  of 
the  European  Scythians.  Next  came  a  long  tract  of  rocky 
soil,  till  tho'  bald-headed  Argippaei  were  reached,  a  race 
esteemed  holy  and  seemingly  Mongolian,  who  dwelt  on  tlie^ 
slopes  of  impassable  mountains,  probably  the  Belur-tagh, 

'  In  Htroil.,  iv.  \09,  tpOtiparpaytrnm  is  to  bo  taken  literally.  Plan 
dc  Cirpiii  relates  the  same  titiug  of  the  MoQftols. 


ar.  i  served  as  intermediaries  in  traae  with  the  remoter 
peoples  of  Central  Asia.  The  description  of  the  fruit  on 
which  they  subsisted  (Herod.,'  iv.  23)  suits  the  Eli^apriv.s 
hortensis,  indigenous  on  the  upper  Zerafshan.  Many 
notices  o£  ancient  writers  about  Scythia  {e.g.,  as  to  the 
eight  months  winter  and  the  rainy  summer)  suit  only  tho 
lands  on  the  first  part- of  this  trade  road;  moreover,  the 
Greeks  soon  began  to  extend  the  name  of  Scythians  to  all 
the  nations  beyond  in  a  northerly  or  north-easteriy  direc- 
tion. But  such  inaccuracy  is  not  common  till  the  fall  of 
the  Scythian  race,  when  their  name  became  a  favourite 
designation  of  more  remote  and  less  known  nations.  Our 
best  and  chief  informants,  Herodotus  and  Hippocrates, 
clearly  distinguish  the  Scolots  or  true  Scythians  from  all  , 
their  neighbours,  and  on  them  alone  this  article  is  based. ;, 

Tho  boundaries  of  Scythia  are,  broadly  speaking,  those 
of  the  steppe,  which  had  as  wide  a  range  i^  antiquity  as 
at  tlie  present  day,  cultivable  land  having  always  been 
confined  to  the  immediate  neighbourhood  qf  the  rivers. 
But  to  the  west  the  Scythians  went  beyond  the  steppe, 
and  held  Great  Wallachia  between  the  Aluta  and  the 
Danube  (Atlas  and  Ister).  Heie  their  northern  neigh- 
bours were  the  Agathyrsians  of  Transylvania,  who.  were 
perhaps  Aryans,  though  in  manners  they  resembled  the 
Thracians.  The'.pniester  was  Scythian  as  far  up  the 
stream  as  the  Greeks  knew  it.  On  the  Bug  were  found 
first  the  mi.xed  Graico-Scythian  Callipidte  and  Alazones  as 
facias  Examjjajus  (an  eastern  feeder  of  the  Bug),  then  agri- 
cultural Scythians  ('A/ioT7;/5c;),  who  grew  corn  for  export,' 
and  therefore  were  not  confined  to  the  steppe.  This  points, 
to  south-east  Podolia  as  their  dwelling-place.  Beyond  them 
on  the  upper  Bug  and  above  the  Dniester  were  the  Neuri, 
who  passed  for  were-wolves,  a  superstition  still  current 
in  Volhynia  and  about  Ivies'.  On  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dnieper  the  "forest-land"  ('YAa/a)  reached  as  far  as  the 
m.odern  Bereslaff;  then  came  the  Scythians  of  the  Dnieper 
(the  Eorysthenians),  who  tilled  the  soil  (of  course  only 
close  to  the  river),  and  extended  inland  to  the  Panticapes 
(Inguletz?)-  and  up  the  stream  to  the  district  of  Gerrhi 
(near  Alexandrovsk).  Herodotus  does  not  knoiv  the  falls 
of  the  Dnieper ;  beyond  Gerrhi  he  places  a  desert  which 
seems  to  occupy  the  rest  of  the  steppe.  Still  farther 
north  were  the  wandering  Androphagi  (Cannibals),  pre- 
sumably hunters  and  of  Mordvinian  race.'  The  nomadic 
Scythians  proper  succeeded  their  agricultural  brethren  to 
the  east  as  far  as  the  Gerrhus  (Konskaya),  and  their  land 
was  watered  by  the  Hypacyris  (Molotchnaya).''  The  royal 
horde  was  east  of  the  Gerrhus  and  extended  into  the 
Crimea  as  far  as  the  fosse  which  cut  off  Chersonesus 
Trachea  from  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  and  remains  of 
which  can  still  be  traced  east  of  Thoodosia.  .  The  southern 
neighbours  of  the  royal  Scythians  were  the  savage  Taurian 
mountaineers.  Along  the  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Azoff  the 
royal  horde  stretched  eastward  as  far  as  Cremni  (Tagan- 
rog) ;  fartlier  inland  their  eastern  border  was  the  Don. 
They  extended  inland  for  twenty  marches,  as  far  probably 
as  the  steppe  itself,  and  here  their  neighbours  were  the 
Melanchlaeni  (Black-cloaks). 

The  true  gcythians  led  the  usual  life  of  nomads,  moving 

-  Herodotus  (iv.  54^  makes  it  an  eastern  instead  of  a  western  feeder 
of  the  Dnieper. 

'  Tho  eastern  Jlordvinians  (El-3<ansl  still  pa-sscd  for  cannibals  in 
the  time  of  the  Arabian  travellei 

•*  Herodotus  (iv.  56)  represents  the  Gerrhus  as  a  branch  of  the 
Dnieper  flowing  into  the  Hypac.vris,  whicli  is  not  impossible  (Von  Baer,- 
Nistor.  /*r.,  p.  66).  But  Herodot'us  himself  never  travelled  beyoml 
Olbia,  and  what  he  there  leanied  about  the  rivers  was  necessarily 
vague,  except  for  the  jjarts  which  the  Eastern  trade  route  from  Olbia 
touched.  He  filled  up  this  imperfect  information  on  analog',  suppos- 
ing that  all  these  riv,er3  came  from  lakes,  as  the  Bug  did,  with  which 
he  know  a  lake  was  connected  called  "  mother  "  of  that  river  f  iv.  61,( 
52,  54,  55,  57). 


57G 


S  C   Y  T  H  i  A 


throngh  tlie  steppe  from  exhausted  to  frcsli  pasture- 
grounds,  their  women  in  waggons  roofed  with  felt  and 
(irawn  by  oxen,  the  men  on  horseback,  the  droves  of  cheep, 
cattle,  and  horses  following.  They  lived  on  boiled  flesh, 
mare's  milk,  and  cheese ;  they  never  washed,  but  enjoyed 
a  narcotic  intoxication  in  combination  with  a  vapour  bath 
by  shutting  themselves  up  within  curtains  of  felt  and  strew- 
ing hemp  seed  on  heated  stones.  The  women,  in  place  of 
■washing,  daubed  themselves  with  a  paste  containing  dust  of 
fragrant  woods  and  removed  it  on  the  second  day.  Like 
many  other  barbarians,  the  Scythians,  at  least  in  Hippo- 
crates's  time  (ed.  Littre,  ii,  72),  were  not  a  specially  hardy 
race ;  they  had  stout,  fleshy,  flabby  bodies,  the  joints  con- 
cealed by  fat,  their  countenances  somewhat  ruddy.  The 
'observation  of  Hippocrates  that  they  all  looked  alike  is  one 
'that  has  often  been  made  by  travellers  among  lower  races. 
They  were  liable  to  dysentery  and  rheumatism,  which  they 
treated  by  the  actual  cautery;  impotence  and  sterility  were 
■common,  and,  though  the  accounts  vary,  it  is  probable  that 
the  race  was  not  very  numerous  (Herod.,  iv.  81). 
A-  Hippocrates's  description  has  led  many  writers  to  view 
the  Scythians  as  Mongolian ;  but  the  life  of  the  steppe 
impresses  a  certain  common  stamp  on  all  its  nomad  in- 
habitants, and  the  features  described  are  not  sufficiently 
characteristic  to  justify  the  assumption  of  so  distant  a 
Mongol  migration.  What  remains  of  the  Scythian  lan- 
"ua^e,  on  the  other  hand,  furnished  Zeuss  with  clear 
proofs  that  they  were  Aryans  and  nearly  akin  to  the 
settled  Iranians.  The  most  decisive  evidence  is  found  in 
Herodotus  (iv.  117),  viz.,  that  Scythians  and  Sakmatians 
(q.v.)  were  of  cognate  speech;  for  the  latter  were  certainly 
Aryans,  as  even  the  ancients  observed,  supposing  them  to 
be"  a  Median  colony  (Diod.,  ii.  -13;  Pliny,  vi.  19).  The 
whole  steppe  lands  from  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes  to  the 
Hungarian  pusztas  seem  to  have  been  held  at  an.  early 
date  by  a  chain  of  Aryan  nomad  races. 

The  Scythian  deities  have  also  an  Aryan  complexion. 
The  highest  deity  was  Tahiti,  goddess  of  the  hearth; 
next  came  the  heaven-god  Papa^us,  with  Lis  wife  the 
earth-goddess  Apia ;  a  sun-god,  Oiltpsyrus ;  a  goddess  of 
fecuncTity,  Arippasa,  who  is  compared  with  the  Queen  of 
Heaven  at  Ascalon ;  and  two  gods  to  whom  Herodotus 
(iv.  59)  gives  the  Greek  names  of  Heracles  and  Ares. 
These  deities  were  common  to  all  Scythians.  .  The  royal 
horde  had  also  a  sea-god,  Thamimasadas.  -  -  In  true 
Iranian  fashion  the  gods  were  adored  without  images, 
altars,  or  temples,  save  only  that  Ares  had  as  his  symbol 
a  sabre  (Herod.,  iv.  62),  which  was  set  \ip  on  a  huge  altar 
piled  up  of  faggots  of  brushwood.  He  received  yearly 
sacrifices  of  sheep  and  oxen,  as  well  as  every  hundredth 
captive.  Ordinarily  victims  were  strangled.  Diviners  were 
common,  and  one  species  of  them,  who  came  only  from 
certain  families,  the  Enarians  or  Anarians,  were  held  in 
high  honour^  ■  These  supposed  their  race  to  have  offended 
the  goddess  of  heaven,  who  in  revenge  smote  them  w-ith 
impotence ;  they  assumed  the  dress  and  avocations  of 
women  and  spoke  with  a  woman's  voice.^  Divination  was 
practised  with  willow  withes  as  among  the  Old  Germans ; 
the  Enarians,  however,  used  lime-tree  bark.-  False  pro- 
phets were  tied  on  a  waggon  with  burning  brushwood,  and' 
the  fi'ightened  team  wasdriven  forth.  Oaths  were  sealed 
by  drinking  of  a  niixjure  of  wine  with  the  blood  of  the 
jiarties  into  which  they  had  dipped  their  weapons.  When 
the  king  was  sick  it  was  thought  that  some  one  had 
sworn  falsely  by  the  deities  of  his  hearth,=  and  the  man 

■  Ee'iieggs  in  1776  observed  tlie  same  symptoms,  mth  the  same 
con-seqiience  of  relegation  among  the  women,  in  certain  Nogai  Tatars 
on  tlie  l\uban. 

-  The  plural  (HeroJ.,  iv.  (jOjreminJs  us  of  the  Fravashi  of  the  king 
in  the  AvesU'.. 


was  beheaded  whom  the  diviners,  or  a  majority  of  them, 
pronounced  to  be  the  culprit.  When  the  king  commanded 
the  death  cf  a  man  all  hia  male  offspring  perished  with 
him  (for  fear  of  blood-revenge).  He  who  gained  a  suit 
before  the  king  had  the  right  to  make  a  drinking-cup  of 
his  adversary's  skull.  Actions  at  law  thus  stood  on  the 
same  footing  with  war,  for  this  is  what  one  did  after  slay- 
ing a  foe.  The  Scythians  fought  always  on  horseback 
with  bow  and  arrow,  and  the  warrior  drank  the  blood  of 
the  first  man  he  slew  in  battle,  jjrobably  deeming  that  hif; 
adversary's  prowess  thus  passed  into  him.  Ko  one  shared 
in  booty  who  liad  liot  brought  the  king  a  foeman's  head ; 
the  scalp  was  then  tanned  and  hung  on  the  bridle.  Cap- 
tive slaves  were  blinded  on  the  absurd  pretext  that  this 
kept  them  from  stealing  the  mare's-milk  butter  they  were 
employed  to  churn. 

'The  government  was  strictly  despotic,  as  appears  most 
plainly  in  the  hideous  customs  at  the  burial  of  kings.  The 
corpse  of  an  ordinary  Scythian  was  carried  about  among 
all  the  neighbours  for  forty  days,  and  a  funeral  feast  was 
given  by  every  friend  so  visited.  But  the  royal  corpse 
was  embalmed  and  passed  in  like  manner  from  tribe  to 
tribe,  and  the  people  of  each  tribe  joined  the  procession 
with  their  whole  bodies  disfigured  by  bloody  wounds,  till 
at  length  the  royal  tombs  at  Gerrhi  Avere  reached.  Then 
the  king  was  biuied  along  with  one  of  his  concubines,  his 
cupbearer,  cook,  groom,  chamberlain,  and  messenger,  all 
of  whom  were  slain.  Horses,  too,  and  golden  utensils  were 
buried  under  the  vast  barrow  that  was  raised  over  the  grave. 
!Many  such  tumuli  (called  in  Tatar  lurffan)  have  been  found ' 
between  the  Dnieper  and  the  sources  of  the  Tokmak,  a 
tributary  of  the  Molotchnaj'a.  Then,  on  the  first  anniver- 
sary, yet  fifty  horses  and  fifty  free-born  Scythian  servants 
of  the  king  were  slain,  and  the  latter  were  pinned  upright 
on  the  stuffed  horses  as  watchmen  over  the  dead. 

The  Scythians  deemed  themselves  autochthonous  ;  their 
patriarch  was  -Targitaus,  a  son  of  the  god  of  heaven  by  a 
daughter  of  the  river  Dnieper.  -  This  legend,  with  the 
site  of  the  royal  graves,  points  to  the  lower  Dnieper  as 
the  cradle  of  their  kingdom.  The  further  legend  (Herod., 
iv.  5)  of  the  golden  plough,  yoke,  battle-axe,  and  cup 
(tokens  of  sovereignty  over  husbandmen  and  warriors) 
that  fell  from  heaven,  and  burned  when  the  two  eldest 
sons  of  Targitaus  approached  them,  but  allowed  the 
youngest  son  to  take  them  and  become  king,  has  been 
well  compared  by  Duncker  with  the  Iranian  conception 
of  hvareiw,  the  halo  of  majesty,  which  refused  to  be 
grasped  by  the  Turanian  Franra^e,  but  attached  itself  to 
pious  kings  like  Tlira^ta6na.  The  eldest  brother,  Lipoxais, 
was  ancestor  of  the  Auchats; ;  the  second,  Arpoxais,  of 
the  Catiari  and  Traspians  ;  the  youngest,  Colaxais  (whose 
name  seems  to  be  mutilated),  was  father  of  the  royal 
tribe  of  Paralatje,  and  from  him,  too,  the  whole  nation 
had  the  name  of  Scolots.  Pliny  (H.A\,  iv.  SS)  places  the 
AuchatK  en  the  upper  Bug,  so  this  seems,  to  be  the  proper 
name  of  the  agricultural  Scythians ;  if  so,  the  Catiari  and 
Traspians  will  be  the  Eorysthenian  and  nomad  Scj^thians 
who  dwelt  between  the  husbandmen  and  the  royal  horde. 
Colaxais  divided  his  kingdom  among  his  three  sons,  the 
chief  kingdon;  being  that  in  which  the  golden  relics  were 
kept ;  and  these  three  sons  correspond  to  the  three  kings 
of  the  Scythians  in  the  time  of  Darlus's  invasjon,  viz., 
Scoptisis,  whose  realm  bordered  on  the  Sarmatians ;  Idan- 
thyrsus,  sovereign  of  tl.e  chief  kingdom  ;  and  Taxacis, — the 
last  two  being  neighbours  of  the  Budini  and  the  Geloni. 
According  to  the  Scythians,  Targitaus  lived  just  a  thousand 
years  before  the  year  51.3  B.C., — a  legend  wliich,  taken  with 
the  tradition  of  autochthonism,  indicates  a  much  earlier 
date  for  the  immigration  of  the  Scythians  than  we  should 
deduce  from  other  narratives. 


S  C  Y  T  H  I  A 


577 


Aristeas  of  Proconuesus  (Herod.,  iv.  13)  had  heard  of 
a  migration  of  the  Scythians  into  their  later  settlement. 
The  one-eyed  Arimaspians,  who,  a.9  neighbours  of  the 
gold-guarding  griffins,  may  be  sought  near  the  gold-fields 
of  the  Tibetan  plateau,  had  attacked  the  Issedones  (whom 
later  authors  are  probably  right  in  placing  in  the  region 
of  Kashgar  and  Khotan),  and  the  latter  in  turn  fell  on  the 
Scythians  and  drove  them  from  their  seats,  whereupon 
these  occupied  the  lands  held  till  then  by  the  Cimmerians. 
It  is  a  probable  conjecture  that  the  branch  of  the  royal 
Scythians  spoken  of  as  dwelling  north  of  the  Oxus  and 
Jaxartes  was  really  a  part  of  the  nation  that  remained  in 
their  ancient  home.  Aristeas's  story  has  much  internal 
probability  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  hold  that  the  Scythian 
migration  immediately  preceded  the  first  appearance  of 
the  expelled  Cimmerians  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Aristeas's  own 
days  (695  B.C.).  The  Scythians  must  have  seized  the 
steppe  as  far  as  the  Dnieper  centuries  before,  but  the 
older  inhabitants,  who  were  probably  of  one  race  with 
the  Thracians,  remained  their  neighbours  in  the  Crimea 
and  the  extreme  west  till  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century. 

Concerning  the  complete  expulsion  of  the  Cimmerians 
and  the  Scythian  invasion  of  Asia  that  followed,  Herodotus 
(iv.  ll.sij.,  i.  103-106,  iv.  1,  3  sq.)  gives  an  account, 
taken  from  several  sources,  which  is  intelligible  only  when 
we  put  aside  the  historian's  attempts  to  combine  these. 
A  barbarian  (i.e.,  Median)  account  was  that  the  Scythian 
nomads  of  Asia,  pressed  by  the  Massagefcs,  crossed  the 
Araxes  (by  which  Herodotus  here  and  in  other  places 
means  the  Amu-Darya)  and  fell  on  Media.  Taking  these 
Scythians  for  Scolots  and  assuming,  therefore,  that  the 
reference  was  to  their  first  migration,  Herodotus  had  to 
place  the  expulsion  of  the  Cimmerians  between  the  crossing 
of  the  Araxes  and  the  invasion  of  Media,  and  he  had  heard 
from  Greeks  (of  Pontus)  that  on  the  Dniester  was  the 
grave  of  the  Cimmerian  kings,  vrho  had  slain  each  other 
in  single  combat  rather  than  share  the  migration  of  their 
people.  This  local  tradition  implies  that  the  Cimmerians 
reached,  Asia  Minor  through  Thrace,  which,  indeed,  ia  the 
only  possible  route,  except  by  sea;  Herodotus,  however, 
is  led  by  his  false  presuppositions  to  conduct  them  east- 
wards from  the  Dniester  by  the  Crimea  (where  many  local 
names  preserved  their  memory),  and  so  along  the  Black 
Sea  coast,  and  then  westwards  from  the  Caucasus  to 
Asia  Minor.  The  Scythians,  he  thinks,  foUowed  them, 
but,  losing  the  trail,  weiii  east  from  tho  Caucasus,  and  so 
reached  Media.  This  ho  gives  only  as  his  own  inference 
from  two  things — (1)  that  the  Cimmerians  settled  on  the 
peninsula  of  Sinope,  from  which  their  forays  into  Asia 
Minor  seem  to  have  been  conducted,  and  (2)  that  the 
Scythians  invaded  Media.  The  Median  source  spoke 
further  of  a  great  victoiy  of  the  Scythians,  after  which 
they  overran  all  Asia,  and  held  it  for  twenty-eight  years 
(GSl-GOe),  levying  tribute  and  plundering  at  will,  till  at 
length  the  Medes,.  'under  Cj'axares,  destroyed  most  of 
them  after  making  them  drunk  at  a  banquet.^  Here  a 
third,  Egyptian,  account  comes  in,  viz.,  that  King  Psam- 
metichus  (d.  611)  bought  off  certain  northern  invaders 
who  had  advanced  as  far  as  Philistsea ;  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  these  are  the  Scythians  of  the  Median 
account.  Stiii  more  important  is  the  evidence  of  certain 
prophecies  of  Jeremiab  (comp.  iii.  6)  in  the  reign  of  Josiah 
(628-609),  describing  the  approach  from  the  north  of  an  all- 
destroying  nation  of  riders  anj  bowmen  (Jer.  iv.  6  sq.,  v. 
15  «<?.,  vi.  1  sq.,  22  sq.).-  Herodot.:s's  twenty-eight  years 
are  simply  the  period  between  the  accession  of  Cyaxares 

»  This  story  may  be  influenced  by  the  myth  i-bout  the  feast  of  tho 
Saciea  (Strabo,  xi.  p.  612).     Ctesias  has  it  that  piac-->  was  made. 

'  This  is  Hitzig's  discovery  and  must  be  sound.  Before  the  fall  of 
^'iuereh  tho  Cboldicans  could  not  be  &  source  of  danger. 


and  the  taking  of  Nineveh,  which  followed  dose  on  tl.o 
overthrow  of  the  Scythians ;  Justin,  on  the  other  hand, 
gives  the  Scythians  eight  years  of  sovereignty,  which  fits 
well  with  the  interval  between  the  first  and  the  second 
siege  of  Nineveh  (619-609):3 

A  fourth  account  in  Herodotus,  wliich  connects  tho 
6ij\iM  vdcros  of  the  Enarians  with  the  plundering  of  the 
temple  of  Astarte  at  Ascalon,  is  entirely  apocryphal,  and 
must  come  from  the  Greek  identification  of  this  Astarte 
with  the  Scythian  Arippasa.  Yet  it  seems  to  have  been 
chiefly  this  story  that  led  Herodotus  to  take  the  Scythians 
of  his  Median  source  for  Scolots.  He  is  refuted  by  another 
account  of  Iranian  origin  :  Ctesias  (in  Diod.,  ii.  3-1)  teUs  of 
a  long  war  between  the  Medes  and  the  Sacre,  occasioned  by 
the  defection  of  Parthian  subjects  of  Media  to  the  latter 
■nation  in  the  time  of  Astibaras  (Cyaxares) ;  so  that  the 
Scythian  conquerors  actually  came  from  the  east,  not 
from  the  north.  Herodotus's  Median  source  closed  vith 
Cyaxares  recovering  his  power ;  the  story  which  follows 
about  the  resistance  of  the  slaves  of  the  Scythians  to  their 
returning  lords,  who  cowed  them  by  using  whips  instead 
of  arms,  must  have  come  from  the  Pontic  Greeks,  and  is 
certainly  a  local  legend,''  which  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  wars  in  Asia,  and  indeed  is  connected  by  Callistratus 
(Steph.  Ijyz.,  s.v.  Td^pai)  witli  a  v.'ar  between  Scythians 
and  Thracians. 

From  the  expedition  of  Dari.-.s  upwards  Herodotus 
names  five  generations  of  Scytliian  kings,  Idanthyrsua, 
Saulius,  Gnm-us,  Lycus,  Spargapeithes ;  the  last  inay  be 
contemporary  with  the  foundo.tion  of  Olbia  (G-46  e.g.).*^ 
Under  Idanthyrsus  fcU  the  ir,\-asion  of  Darius  (513  B.C.). 
The  motive  for  thi."  invasion  cannot  possibly  have  been 
revenge  for  the  Scythian  invasion  of  Media.  It  is  possible 
that  a  popular  war  against  tho  chief  nation  of  the  nomads, 
who  are  so  hated  by  the  Iranian  peasants,  seemed  to 
Darius  a  good  way  of  stimulating  common  feeling  among 
his  scattered  subjects,  and  it  is  certain  that  he  had  quite 
false  ideas  of  the  wealth  cf  Scythia,  due  perhaps  to  exjiort 
of  grain  from  the  Grecian  cities  of  the  Scythian  coast. 
Herodotus's  account  of  the  campaign  is  made  up  in  a 
puzzling  way  of  several  distinct  narratives,  retouched  to 
smooth  away  contradictions.  Here  it  must  suifice  to  refer 
to  the  article  Peesia  (vol.  xviii.  p.  570),  and  to  add  that  the 
geographical  confusion  in  Herodotus  and  his  exaggerated 
idea  of  the  distance  to  which  the  Persians  advanced  seem 
to  be  due  partly  to  a  false  combination  between  a  Scythian 
account  of  the  campaign  and  certain  notices  about  the 
burning  of  Gelonus  by  enemies  and  about  fortresses  on 
the  river  Oarus  which  had  come  to  him  from  the  inland 
trade  route,  and  had  nothing  to  do  with  Darius,  partly  to 
a  confusion  between  the  desert  reached  by  the  Persians 
and  that  which  lay  between  the  Budini  and  Thycsagetre. 

While  tho  Persian  rule  in  the  newly  conquered  districts 
of  Europe  was  shaken  by  the  Ionic  revolt,  the  Scythians 
made 'plundering  expeditions  in  Thrace,  and  in  495  pene- 
trated into  the  Chersonesus,  whose  tyrant  'Jliltiades  8cd, 
but  was  restored  after  their  retreat  by  the  Dolonci  (Herod., 
vi.  40).  Darius  had  Abydus  and  the  othiir  cities  of  the 
Propontis  burned  lest  they  should  funii.sh  a  base  for  a  pro- 
jected Scythian  expedition  against  Asia  (Strabo,  xiii.  p.  591 ); 
this  agrees  with  the  fact  known  from  Herodotus  (v.  117), 


'  Eiisebius's  date  (834)  for  the  Scvthians  in  Palestine  is  dejuci;d 
from  Herodotus. 

'  It  is  meant  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  fosse  (Herod.,  iv.  3),  which 
the  slaves  were  said  to  have  dup,  and  of  a  subject-race  in  the  same 
district  (Pliny,  U.N.,  iv.  80),  the  Sindians  (Anim.  Mar.,  xxii.  8,  41  ; 
Val.  Flac,  vi,  86),  or  rather  perhapr;  the  Satarchrc. 

'  That  the  wi.so  A.ViCIIAltsis  (7.1.)  wos  brotiior  of  King  Saulius 
(Caduidas  of  Diog.  Lacrt.,  i.  101)  seems  to  be  a  mere  guess  of  Herod- 
otus's Scythian  informant  T'.ines.  Tiiy  story  of  Anacharsis's  fate  is 
coloured  by  that  of  the  later  king  Scjles. 

XXI.  —  7  3 


578 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


that  Abydus  had  been  retaken  by  Daurises  a  little  before. 
In  this  connexion  the  Scythian  embassy  to  King  Cleomenes 
at  Sparta  (Herod.,  vi.  81)  to  arrange  a  combined  attack  on 
Asia  becomes  credible  ;  for,  barbarians  though  they  were, 
the  Scythians  had  a  political  organization  and  many  con- 
nexions with  tTie  lonians  of  the  Pontic  colonies,  so  that 
their  envoys  may  well  have  reached  Sparta  at  the  same 
time  with  Aristagora3-(-t09)  and  served  as  decoys  for  Lis 
fantastic  schemes.' 

Our  accounts  of  the  Scythians  begin  to  fail  after  the 
time  of  King  Scyles,  who  affected  Grecian  habits  and  was  de- 
posed and  finally  slain  for  sharing  in  Bacchic  orgies  (Herod., 
iv.  78-80) ;  his  death  fell  a  little  before  Herodotus's  visit 
to  Olbia  (c.  456).  We  read  in  an  unclear  context  (Diod., 
ii.  43)  of  a  division  of  the  Scythians  into  two  great  tribes, 
the  Pali  and  the  Napre,  the  former  of  whom  crossed  the 
Don  from  the  east  and  destroyed  the  latter  and  also  the 
Tanaites."  These  events  seem  to  point  to  a  change  of 
dynasty  in  the  royal  horde. 

The  Feriphts  ascribed  to  Scylax  (346  B.C.)  knows  the 
Scythians  as  still  occupying  almost  exactly  the  same  limits 
as  in  Herodotus's  time  ;  only  in  the  east  there  is  a  small 
but  significant  change :  the  Sarmatians  have  already 
crossed  the  Don  (§  68).  King  Ateas  still  ruled  Scythia 
in  its  old  extent  (Strabo,  vii.  307),  but  all  that  we  know  of 
the  events  of  his  reign  took  place  south  of  the  Danube, — 
wars  with  the  Triballi  in  Servia,  with  Byzantium,  with  the 
king  of  the  Greek  city  of  Istrus,  and  finally  with  his  old 
ally  Philip  of  JIacedon.  Philip  defeated  and  slew  Ateas 
near  the  Danube  in  339  B.C.  He  was  then  over  ninet'"' 
years  old.^ 

The  Scythians  appear  once  more  in  the  region  oi 
Dobrudja  in  313,  when  they  helped  the  citizens  of  Callatis 
against  Lysimachus  and  were  defeated  by  hira  (Diod.,  xix. 
73).  All  this  points  to  a  considerable  advance  of  their 
frontier  southwards,  and  in  fact  Pseudo-Scymnus  (Ephorus) 
gives  Dionysopolis  (a  little  to  tne  west  of  the  modern  Bai- 
tchik)  as  the  place  where  the  Crobyzian  and  the  Scythian 
territories  met  in  his  time  (334  B.c.).^  This  apparent  ad- 
vance of  the  realm  contrasts  singularly  with  the  distress  to 
which  Ateas  was  reduced  by  the  king  of  the  insignificant 
town  of  Istrus,  an  evidence  that  the  Scythian  power  was 
really  much  decayed.  Ateas  indeed  is  sometimes  painted 
as  a  rude  barbarian  lord  of  a  poor  but  valiant  and  hardy 
rac(^  and  Ephorus,  who  mainly  follows  Herodotus  about 
Scythia,  yet  speaks  of  the  Scythians  iu  contrast  with  the 
fierce  Sarmatians  as  corresponding  to  Homer's  description 
of  a  just  and  poor  people  feeding  on  milk  (Strabo,  vii.  302). 
But  Aristotle,  on  the  contrary  {Eth.  Nic,  vii.  8),  speaks  of 
the  effeminacy  of  the  Scythian  monarchs  as  notorious  ;  and 
indeed  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Scythians  crossed 
the  Danube  and  settled  in  the  Dobrudja  under  pressuie 
of  the  Sarmatians  behind  them,  and  that  the  idyllic  picture 
drawn  by  Ephorus  presupposes  the  fall  of  their  political 
system.  Diodorus  (ii.  43)  tells  us  that  the  Sarmatians  ex- 
terminated the  inhabitants  of  most  part  of  Scythia,  and  this 
must  have  taken  place  in  the  later  years  of  Ateas,  between 
346  and  339. 

At  a  later  but  uncertain  date  the  great  inferiority  of  the 
Scythians  to  the  Sarmatians  is  illustrated  by  the  story  of 
Amage,  the  warlike  consort  of  a  debauched  Sarmatian  king, 
who  with  only  120  chosen  horsemen  delivered  Chersonesus 

^  King  Ariantas,  whose  primitive  census  is  mentioned  in  Herodotus 
{iv.  81),  seems  to  have  flourished  at  this  time. 

-  Pliny,  H.N.,  vi.  50  ;  comp.  vi.  22,  where  we  must  read  "Asam- 
patas;  Palos,  ab  his  Tanaitas  et  Napxos  *'  and,  below,  "  Satarchosos, 

Pal3203." 

^  For  Ateas,  see  Frontin.,  Stratcg.,  ii.  4,  20;  .Polysen.,  vii  44,  1  ; 
Ariatocritus,  in  Clem.  Al.,  Stroj7t,,  v.  p.  239  ;  Justin,  is.  2  ;  Lucian, 
MaCTdb.,  10;  .fischlues,  C.  Ctesiph.,  128,  p.  71. 

'  Comp.  Pliny,  £f.A'.,  iv.  44,  who  calls  the  Scythians  Aroteres. 


in  Tauns  from  the  neighbourm^  Scythian  king,  slew  him 
with  all  his  followers,  and  gave  the  kingdom  to  his  son 
(Polyoen.,  viii.  56).  It  is,  however,  not  quite  certain  whether 
these  were  a  remnant  of  the  old  Scythians  ;  and  it  is  still 
more  doubtful  whether  the  powerful  Scythian  kingdom  of 
Scilurus,  who  brought  the  Greek  cities  of  the  Crimea  to 
the  verge  of  ruin,  but  was  destroyed  by  Mithradates  Eupa- 
tor  (105),  was  really  a  kingdom  of  Scolots.  The  last  cer- 
tain trace  of  true  Scythians  occurs  about  100  B.C.  in  tlie 
Olbian  psephisma  in  honour  of  PrOtogenes.^  Here  thoy 
appear  as  a  small  nation  west  of  Olbia  between  the  Thisa- 
matoe  and  Saudaratce,  who  are  anxious  to  take  refuge  in 
Olbia  from  the  (Scofdiscian)  Galatians. 

^ouiCi-s.— Herodotus  (iv.  1-82,  97-142)  and  Hippocrates  {De  Acre, 
&c.,  c.  17-22,  in  Littrd's  ed.,  ii.  66-82)  are  alone  trustworthy,  because 
tliey  carefully  distinf^iish  the  Scythians  from  the  other  northern 
nations.  Ephorus  (in  Strabo,  vii.  p.  302  sq.,  and  Scymn.,  Pcricg., 
773-873),  Diodorus  (ii.  43  sq.),  and  TrOgus  (in  Justin,  ii.  1-3,  5, 
1-11,  and  Jordan.,  Od.,  v.-vi..  x.)  do  not  do  so,  and  must  be  used 
with  gi-eat  caution 

Helps. — Ukort,  Geog.  d.  Or.  inid  R'omcT,m.  2  (complete  collection 
of  materials  from  original  sources) ;  Niebuhr,  Kleme  Schri/ten,  vol. 
i.  (1828) ;  Zeuss,  Die  Dcutschen  jnid  die  Nachharstdmme  (1837) — an 
admirable  discussion,  which  established  the  Aryan  origin  of  the 
Scythians  ;  Boeckh,  in'C.  Iiisc.  Gr.,  ii.  81  sq.  ;  K.  Neumann,  ffel- 
h-7i€7i  hn  SkyLhenlandc  (1855) — the  best  book,  in  spite  of  certain 
fundamental  errors,  such  as  the  ideas  that  great  part  of  the  steppe 
was  once  wooded  and  that  the  Scythians  wore  Mongols  ;  Bltillenhotf, 
"Origin  and  Speech  of  the  Pontic  Scytliians  and  Sarmatians,"  in 
Monatsb.  d.  Bcrl.  Ak.  (1866).  The  best  account  of  the  trade  route 
wjhich  in  the  5th  century  U-C.  passed  through  a  great  part  of  what 
is  now  Russian  territory  is  by  K.  E.  v.  Baer,  Historische  Fragen,  &c, 
(1873)  ;  comp.  also  Grote,  Ifist.  of  Greece,  iii.  314  sq.  (1850),  and 
Duncker,  ii.  430  sq.  (5th  ed.).  There  is  a  class  of  mere  amateurs, 
especially  in  east  Germany,  who  absurdly  take  the  Scythians  to 
have  been  Slavs.  (A.  v.  G.) 

SEA.  Any  part  ot  tlie  ocean  marked  ofif  from  the 
general  mass  of  water  may  be  called  a  sea.  In  geography 
the  name  is  loosely  applied  :  for  instance,  the  Arabian  Sea 
is  an  open  bay,  Hudson's  Bay  is  an  enclosed  sea.  Seas 
proper  lie  within  the  transitional  area  which  divides  the 
permanent  continental  masses  from  the  permanent  ocean 
basins,  and  their  boundaries  are  consequently  subject  to 
geological  change,  and  to  alteration  by  subsidence  and 
elevation  occurring  in  historic  times 

Inland  Seas  are  seas  entirely  surrounded  by  land  (see 
Caspiajt  Sea,  Dead  Sea,  and,  for  general  discussion. 
Lake). 

Enclosed  Seas  have  communication  with  the  ocean  re- 
stricted to  one  opening,  which  may  take  the  form  of  one, 
two,  or  more  sti-aits  close  to  each  other.  The  best  known 
are  the  A\1iite  Sea  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  the  Baltic,  Zuyder 
Zee,  Hudson's  Bay,  Gulf  of  Jlexico,  and  Mediterranean, 
\T'th  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Sea,  of  the  Atlantic  ;  the  Red 
iZ  ;i  and  Persian  Gulf  of  the  Indian  Ocean;  and  the  Yellow 
Sea  and  Sea  of  Okhotsk  of  the  Pacific.''  They  are  all  cut 
otf  from  general  oceanic  circulation  and  very  largely  from 
tides,  but  the  result  is  not  stagnation.  The  Baltic  and 
Black  Sea  are  but  slightly  saline  on  account  of  the  number 
of  large  rivers  falling  into  them,  and  the  fresh  surface-water 
flows  out  as  a  regular  current,  liable  indeed  to  be  checked, 
and  even  reversed  for  a  time,  but  in  the  main  persistent ; 
while  the  salt  water  flows  in  uniformly  as  an  undercurrent. 
A  state  of  equilibrium  is  arrived  at,  .so  that  periodical 
fluctuations  of  salinity  do  not  affect  the  average  of  a  num- 
ber of  years.  The  water  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Red 
Sea  is  much  Salter  than  that  of  the  ocean,  which  therefore 
flows  in  as  a  surface-current,  while  the  dense  very  salt 
water  escapes  below.  In  the  case  of  the  Baltic  and  Black 
Sea  dilution  by  rivers,  in  that  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Red  Sea  concentration  by  evaporation  maintains  a  circu- 

°  C.  /.  Or.,  ii.  No.  2058  ;  comp.  Zippel,  Earn.  Herrscha/t  in  Ulyrien, 
p.  165. 
''  The  prevalence  of  colour  names  for  these  seas  ia  noteworthy. 


S  E  A  —  S  E  A 


>79 


[ 


lation.  Winds  and  differences  of  barometric  pressui^  .^rc, 
as  in  inland  seas,  great  factors  in  producing  variable 
currents.  (See  Baltic  Sea,  Black  Sea,  Meditef.eanean 
Sea,  Red  Sea,  <tc.) 

Partially  Enrloscd  Seas  may  be  (a)  comparatively  shallow 
irregular  channels  through  which  strong  tides  sweep,  or  (b) 
ocean  basins  cut  off  by  barriers  barely  rising  to  the  surface, 
or  remaining  permanently  submerged,  in  which  case  there 
may  be  no  break  of  continuity  in  the  ocean  surface  to  indi- 
cate the  sea.  Seas  of  the  first  description  are  related  to 
shallow  enclosed  seas,  but  are  much  affected  by  tides  and 
ocean  currents  ; .  the  principal  are  the  Kara  Sea  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  Baffin  Bay  and  North  Sea  of  the  Atlantic,  Behring 
Sea  and  Japan  Sea  of  the  Pacific.  They  are  subject  to 
considerable  temperature  changes  owing  to  their  proximity 
to  land.  Seas  coming  under  the  second  category  combine 
the  peculiarities  of  the  open  ocean  and  of  deep  inland  seas. 
The  Caribbean  Sea  of  the  Atlantic,  the  China  Sea,  Java 
Sea,  and  numerous  small  seas  of  the  eastern  archipelago 
of  the  Pacific  are  the  best  examples.  Their  chief  peculi- 
arity is  that  the  temperature  of  the  water  instead  of  falling 
uniformly  to  the  bottom  becomes  stationary  at  some  inter- 
mediate position  corresponding  to  the  top  of  the  barrier. 
They  are  usually  very  deep.  (See  Noeth  Sea,  Nokwegian 
Sea,  and  Pacific  Oce.in.) 

Other  Seas. — Coral  Sea,  Arabian  Sea,  Sea  of  Bengal,  are 
names,  now  dropping  out  of  use,  to  designate  parts  of  the 
ocean.  "  Sargasso  Sea "  is  an  expression  devoid  of  geo- 
graphical meaning  (see  Atlantic  Ocean,  vol.  iii.  p.  20). 

Firths  and  Estuaries. — A  river  entering  the  sea  by  a 
short  estuary  flows  over  the  surface,  freshening  it  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  and,  if  the  force  of  its  current  Ls  not  too 
great,  the  rising  tide  slowly  forces  a  wedge  of  sea  water  up 
between  river  and  river  bed,  withdrawing  it  rapidly  when 
ebb  sets  in.  In  a  firth  that  is  large  compared  with  the 
river  falling  into  it,  judging  from  results  recently  obtained 
in  the  Firth  of  Forth,'  a  state  of  equilibriuiii  is  arrived 
at,  the  water  increasing  in.  salinity  more  and  more  gradu- 
ally as  it  proceeds  seawards,  the  disturbing  influence  of  the 
tide  becoming  less  and  less,  and  the  vertical  distribution  of 
salinity  more  and  more  uniform  uptil  the  river  water  meets 
the  sea,  diffused  through  a  nearly  homogeneous  mass  with 
a  density  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  ocean.  Between  the 
extreme  cases  there  are  numerous  gradations  of  estuary 
depending  on  the  ratio  of  river  to  sea  inlet. 

Deposits. — All  seas  within  about  300  miles  of  eontinental 
land,  .whatever  may  be  their  depth,  are  paved  with  terrige- 
nous debris,  and  all  at  a  greater  distance  from  shore  are 
carpeted  with  true  pelagic  dejjosits  (see-  Pacific  Ocean). 

Marine  Fauna  and  Flora. — The  mixing  of  river  with 
sea  water  produces  a  marked  difference  in  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  seas.  Where  low  salinity  prevails  diatoms  abound, 
probably  on  account  of  the  greater  amount  of  silica  (dis- 
solved in  river  water,  and  they  form  food  for  minuto  pelagic 
animals  and  larvK,  which  are  in  turn  preyed  upon  by  larger 
creatures.  In  some  seas,  such  as  the  North  Sea,  there  are 
many  celebrated  fishing  beds  on  the  shallow  banks  of  which 
innumerable  invertebrate  animals  live  and  form  an  inex- 
haustible food-supply  for  edible  fishes.  Naturalists  have 
remarked  that  in  temperate  seas  enormous  shoals  of  i^la- 
tively  few  species  are  met  with,  while  in  tropical  seas  species 
are  very  numerous  and  individuals  comparatively  few. 
Organisms,  such  as  the  corals,  which  secrete  carbonate  of 
lime  a|ipear  to  flourish  more  luxul-iantly  in  warmer  and 
Salter  seas  than  in  those  which  are  colder  and  fresher. 

The  geological  and  dynamic  aspects  of  seas  are  treated  of 
in  Geology  (vol.  x.  p.  284  sj.)  and  Geography  (Physical)  ; 
and  in  Atlantic  Ocean,  Baltic  Sea,  Black  Sea,  Indian 

,1  Mill,  P/</c.  Roij.  Soc.  Ell.,  xiii.  29,  137,  ami  347. 


Ocean,  Meditekkanean  Sea,  Nokth  Sea,  Norwegian 
Sea,  Pacific  Ocean,  Polak  Regions,  and  Red  Sea  the 
general  geographical  and  physical  characters  of  oc  .ans  and 
seas  are  described.  In  JIeteorology  some  account  is 
given  of  the  influence  of  the  sea  on  climate,  and  chemical 
problems  connected  with  the  ocean  are  discussed  in  Sea 
Water. 

SEA-CAT.     See  Sea- Wolf,  infra. 

SEA-DEVIL.     See  Fishing-Frog,  vol.  ix.  p.  269. 

SEA-HORSE.  Sea-horses  {Uippocavijnna)  are  small 
marine  fishes  which,  together  with  pipe-fishes  {Spi- 
gnathina),  form  the  order  of  Lophobranchiate  fishes,  as 
already  noticed  in  Ichthyology,  vol.  xii.  p.  604.  The 
gills  of  the  members  of  this  order  are  not  arranged  in 
leaf-like  series  as  in  other  fishes,  but  form  a  convex  mass 
composed  of  small  rounded  lobes  attached  to  ths  branchial 
arches,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  (fig.  1)  of 
the  head  of  a  sea-horse, ,  in  which  the  gill-cover  has  been 
'pushed  aside  to  show  the  interior  of  the  gill-ca,\'ity.     Sea- 


-Gills  of  1-Iippoeampus  ahdominalis. 

horses  differ  from  pipe-fishes  by  having  a  preh3n3ile  and 
invariably  finless  tail ;  it  is  long,  slender,  tapering,  quad- 
rangular in  a  transverse  sectton,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the 
body,  encased  in  a  dermal  skeleton,  which  consists  of  horny 
segments,  allowing  of  ventral,  and  in  a  less  degree  of  lateral, 
but  not  of  dorsal,  flexion.  The  typical  sea-horse  (Ilipjyo- 
campns)  can  coil  up  a  great  portion  of  its  tail,  and  firmly 
attach  itself  by  it  to  the  stems  6f  sea-weeds  or  other 
similar  objects.  The  body  is  compressed  and  more  or 
less  elevated,  and  the  head  terminates  in  a  long  tubiform 
snout,  at  the  end  of  which  -the  small  mouth  is  situated. 
The  whole  configuration  of  the  fore  part  of  tho  body,  as 
well  as  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  thd  head  is  joined  to 
the  neck-like  part  of  the  trunk,  bears  a  striking  resem- 
blance  to  a  horse's  head  ;  hence  the  name  by  ■nhich  these 
fishes  are  generally  known.  ■  Sea-horses  are  bad  swinitners 
and  are  unable  to  resist  currents.     With  the  aid  of  their 


Fic.  2.—PhiiUo2:tcr!jx  cqiics. 
single  dorsal  fin,  which  is  placed  about  the  mi'ddle  of 
the  fish's  body  and  can  be  put  into  a  rapid  undulatory 
motion,  they  shift  from  time  to  timtf  to  some  other  object 
near  them,  remaining  stationary  among  vegetation  or  coral 
where  they  find  the  requisite  amount  of  fcod  and  sufficient 


580 


8  E  A  — S  E  A 


cover.  Their  coloration  and  the  tubercles  or  spines  on  the 
head  and  body,  sometimes  -n-ith  the  addition  of  skinny 
flaps  and  filaments,  closely  resemble  their  surroundings,  and 
constitute  the  means  by  which  these  defenceless  creatures 
escape  detection  by  their  enemies.  These  protective 
structures  are  most  developed  in  the  Australian  genus 
Phyllopteryx,  one  of  the  most  singular  types  of  littoral  fishes. 

Sea-horses  belong  to  the  tropics  and  do  not  extend  .so 
far  north  as  pipe-fishes.  They  are  abundant  at  suitable 
localities,  chiefly  on  the  coral -banks  of  the  Indo- Pacific 
Ocean.  Some  thirty  species  are  known,  of  which  tho 
majority  belong  to  the  genus  Hippocampus  proper.  Their 
size  varies  .from  2  to  12  inches  in  length;  but  in  China 
and  Australia  a  genus  {Solenognathus)  occurs  the  species 
of  which  attain  to  a  length  of  nearly  2  feet ;  they,  how- 
ever, in  form  resemble  pipe-fishes  rather  than  sea-horses. 
The  species  which  may  be  sometimes  seen  in  aquaria 
in  Great  Britain  is  Hippocampus  antiquomin,  from  the 
Jlediterrauean  and  the  coasts  of  Portugal  and  France. 
The  food  of  the  sea-horses  consists  probably  of  very  small 
invertebrates  and  the  frj'  of  other  fishes.  Like  the  other 
Lophobranchiat,es,  they  take  great  .care  of  their  progeny. 
The  male  Hipjiocampus  carries  the  ova  in  a  sac  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  tail,  in  which  they  are  hatched  ;  in  the  other 
genera  no  closed  pouch  is  developed,  and  the  ova  are 
embedded  in  the  soft  and  thickened  integument  of  either 
the  abdomen  or  the  tail. 

SEAL.  In  the  article  Mammalia  (vol.  xv.  p.  442)  will 
be  found  a  general  account  of  the  distinguishing  character- 
istics of  the  animals  constituting  the  sub-order  Pinnipedia 
of  the  order  Caruimra,  and  their  divisions  into  families 
and  genera.  It  only  remains  to  give  some  further  details 
respecting  those  members  of  the  group  to  which  the  terra 
"seal"  is  piroperly.  restricted  (the  sub- family  Phocinx), 
especially  those  which  Inhabit  the  British  coasts 

Although  seals  swim  and  dive  with  the  greatest  ease, 
often  remaining  as  much  as  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  more 
below  the  surface,  and  are  dependent  for  their  sustenance 
entirely  on  living  prey  captured  in  the  water,  all  the 
species  frequently  resort  to  sandy  beaches,  rocks,  or  ice- 
floes, either  to  sleep  or  to  bask  in  the  sun,  and  especially 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  forth  their  young.  The  latter 
appears  to  be  the  universal  habit,  and,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  the  young  seals — of  some  species  at  least — take  to 
the  water  at  first  very  reluctantly,  and  have  actually  to  bo 
taught  to  swim  by  their  parents.  The  number  of  young 
produced  is  usually  one  annually,  though  occasionally  two. 
They  are  at  first  covered  with  a  coat  of  very  thick,  soft, 
nearly  white  fur,  and  until  it  falls  oil  they  do  not  usually 
enter  the  water.  This  occurs  in  the  Greenland  and  grey 
seal  when  from  two  to  three  weeks  old,  but  in  the  common 
seal  apparently  much  earlier.  One  of  this  species  born  in 
the  London  Zoological  Gardens  had  shed  its  infantile 
woolly  coat  and  was  swimming  and  diving  about  in  its 
pond  within  three  hours  after  its  birth.  The  movements 
of  the  true  seals  upon  the  ground  or  ice  are  \&xy  different 
from  those  of  the  Otarix  or  eared  seals,  which  walk  and 
run  upon  all  four  feet,  the  body  being  raised  as  in  the  case 
of  ordinary  quadrupeds.  The  hinder  limbs  (by  which 
mainly  they  propel  themselves  through  the  water)  are  on 
land  always  perfectly  passive,  stretched  backwards,  with 
the  soles  of  the  feet  applied  to  each  other,  and  cften  raised 
to  avoid  contact  with  the  ground.  Sometimes  the  fore 
limbs  are  equally  passive,  being  placed  close,  to  the  sides 
of  the  body,  and  motion  is  then  effected  by  a  shuffling  or 
wriggling  action  produced  by  the  muscles  of  the  trunk. 
When,  howe\-er,  there  is  any  necessity  for  a  more  rapid 
mode  of  progression,  the  animals  use  the  fore  paws,  either 
alternately  or  simultaneously,  pressing  the  palmar  surface 
on  tne  ground  and  lifting  and  dragging  the  body  forwards 


in  a  succession  of  .short  jumps.  In  this  way  they  manage 
to  move  so  fast  that  a  man  lias  to  step  out  beyond  a  walk 
to  keep  up  with  them  ;  but  such  rapid  action  cOsts  con- 
siderable effort,  and  they  very  soon  become  heated  and 
exhausted.  These  various  modes  of  progression  appear  to 
be  common  to  all  species  as  far  as  has  been  observed. 

Most  kinds  of  seals  are  gregarious  and  congregate, 
especially  at  the  breeding  season,  in  immense  herds.  Such 
is  the  habit  of  the  Greenland  seal  (Phoca  grosnlandica), 
which  resorts  in  the  spring  to  the  ice-floes  of  the  North 
Sea,  around  Jan  Mayen  Island,  where  about  200,000  are 
killed  annually  by  the  crews  of  the  Scotch,  Dutch,  and 
Norwegian  sealing  vessels.  Others,  like  the  common  seel 
of  the  British  islands  (Phoca  vitulina),  though  havinor  r. 


liLi.  1. — Common  seal  (Phoca  vUulitta). 

wide  geographical  range,  are  never  met  with  in  such  large 
numbers  or  far  away  from  land.  This  species  is  stationary 
all  the  year  round,  but'  some  have,  a  regular  season  of 
migration,  moving  south  in  winter  and  north  in  summer. 
They  are  usually  harmless,  timid,  inoflensive  animals, 
though,  being  polygamous,  the  old  males  often  fight  des- 
perately with  each  other,  their  skins  bf^.ing  frequently 
found  covered  with  wounds  and  scars.  They  are  greatly 
attached  to  their  young,  and  remarkably  docile  and  easily 
trained  when  in  captivity ;  indeed,  although  there  would 
seem  little  in  the  structure  or  habits  of  the  seal  to  fit  it  by 
nature  to  be  a  companion  of  man,  there  is  perhaps  no 
wild  animal  which  attaches  itself  so  readily  to  the  person 
who  takes  care  of  and  feeds  it.  They  appear  to  have  much 
curiosity,  and  it  is  a  very  old  and  apparently  well-attested 
observation  that  they  are  strongly  attracted  by  musical 
sounds.  Their  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute,  and  their 
voice  varies  from  a  harsh  bnrk  or  grunt  to  a  plaintive  bleat. 
Seals  feed  chiefly  on  fish,  of  which  they  consume  enormous 
quantities ;  some,  however,  subsist  largely  on  crustaceans, 
especially  species  of  Gctm7nayus,  which  swarm  in  the 
northern  seas,  also  on  molluscs,  echinoderm?,  and  even 
occasionally  sea-birds,  which  they  seize  whe'^v  swimming 
or  floating  on  the  water. 

Although  the  true  seals  do  not  possess  the  beautiful 
under-fur  ("seal-skin  "  of  the  furriers)  which  makes  the 
skin  of  the  sea-bears  or  Otarix  so  precious,  their  hides  are 
still  sufficiently  valuable  as  articles  of  commerce,  together 
with  the  oil  yielded  by  their  fat,  to  subject  them  to  a 
devastating  persecution,  by  which  their  numbers  are  being 
continually  diminished  (see  below,  p.  581  sq.). 

Two  species  of  seals  only  are  met  with  regularly  on  the 
British  coasts,  the  common  seal  and  the  grey  seal.     The 


SEAL 


581 


"Common  seal  (Phoca  mtulina)  is  a  constant  resident  in  all 
suitable  localities  round  the  Scottish,  Irish,  and  English 
eoasts,  from  ivhich  it  has  not  been  driven  away  by  the 
molestations  of  man.  Although,  uaturaUy,  the  most  se- 
cluded and  out-of-the-way  spots  are  selected  as  their 
habitual  dwelling-places,  there  are  few  localities  where  they 


Fio.  2.  — SkuiI  of  commoa  seal,  showing  form  of  teeth. 

may  not  be  occasionally  met  with.  Within  the  writer's 
knowledge!,  one  was  seen  not  many  years  ago  lying  on  the 
shingly  beach  at  so  populous  a  place  as  Brighton,  and 
another  was  lately  caught  in  the  river  Welland,  near  Stam- 
ford, 30  miles  from  the  sea.  They  frequent  bays,  inlets, 
and  estuaries,  and  are  often  seen  on  sandbanks  or  jnud- 
flats  left  dry  at  low  tide,  and,  unlike  some  of  their  con- 
geners, are  not  found  on  the  ice-floes  of  the  open  sea,  nor, 
though  gregarious,  are  very  large  numbers  ever  seen  in 
one  spot.  The  young  are  produced  at  the  end  of  May  or 
beginning  of  June.  They  feed  chiefly  on  fish,  and  the 
destruction  they  occasion  among  salmon  is  well  known 
to  Scottish  fishermen.  The  common  seal  is  widely  distri-. 
buted,  being  found  cot  only  on  the  European  and  American 
coasts  bordering  the  Atlantic  Ocean  but  also  in  the  North 
Pacific.  It  is  from  4  to  5  feet  in  length,  and  variable  in 
colour,  though  usually  yellowish  grey,  with  irregular  spots 
of  dark  brown  or  black  above  and  yellowish  wliite  beneath. 
The  grey  seal  (Halichoiru^  arypus)  is  of  considerably  larger 
iize,  the  males  attaining  when  fully  adult  a  length  of  8  feet 
from  nose  to  end  of  hind  feet.  The  form  of  the  skull  and 
the  simple  characters  of  the  molar  teeth  distinguish  it 
genetically  from  the  common  seal.  It  is  of  a  yellowish 
grey  colour,  lighter  beneath,  and  with  dark  grey  spots  or 
blotches,  but,  like  most  other  seals,  is  liable  to  great  varia- 
tions of  colour  according  to  age.  The  grey  seal  appears 
to  be  restricted,  to  the  North  Atlantic,  having  been  rarely 
seen  on  the  American  coasts,  but  not  farther  south  than 
Nova  Scotia ;  it  is  chiefly  met  with  on  the  coasts  of  Ire- 
land, England,  Scotland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  including 
the  Baltic  and  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  Iceland,  though  it 
does  not  appear  to  range  farther  north.  It  is  apparently 
not  migratory,  amd  its  favourite  breeding  places  are  rocky 
islands,  the  young  being  bom  in  the  end  of  September  or 
beginning  of  October. 

Other  species  of  seals  inhabiting  the  northern  seas, 
of  which  stragglers  have  occasionally  visited  the  British' 
coasts,  are  the  small  ringed  seal  or  "  floe -rat  "  of  the 
sealers  (P/ioca  hispida),  the  Greenland  or  harp  seal  (Phoca 
grcenlandica),  the  hooded  or  bladder-nosed  seal  (Cyslo- 
phora  cristata),  and  possibly  the  Bearded  seal  (Phoca  bar- 
hata),  though  of  the  last  there  is  no  certain  evidence. 
The  general  characters  and  geographical  distribution  of 
the  remaining  species  of  the  group  are  indicated  in  the 
article  MAiuiAUA,  vol.  xv.  p.  442.  (\v.  h.  f.) 

Seal  Fisheries. 

From  a  coirmercial  point  of  view  seals  may  be  divided  icto  two 

groups,  — hair  seals  and  fur  seals.     The  former  are  valued  for  the 

oil  they  yield  and  for  their  skins,  which  sre  converted  into  leather, 

Lnd   the  latter  for  their  skins  alobe.     The  fur  seals  are  rrovided 


with  a  dense  soft  under-fxir  like  velvet  and  a  quantity  of  long  loose 
exterior  hair^  Tvhich  has  to  be  removed  in  dressing  the  hides.  Hair 
seals  are  either  entirely  without  under-fur  or  possess  it  in  too  small 
a  quantity  to  render  the  skins  of  much  commercial  value  as  furs. 
The  two  groups  correspond  to  the  two  diviiions  of  eared  seals  and 
earless  seals  described  above  (see  also  vol.  xv.  pp.  442-443).^ 

HaiT  Seals. — The  principal  hair  seal  fisheries  are  those  of  New- 
foundland and  Labrador  (area  about  200  miles),  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  Jaij  ilayen  and  the  adjacent  seas,  Kova  Zembla,  the 
White  Sea  and  Ai'ctic  Ocean,  the  Caspian,  and  the  North  and  South 
Pacific.  The  first-named  is  by  far  the  most  important  To  the 
immense  icefields  borne  past  these  shores  duiiiig  the  spring  months 
great  herds  of  seals  resort  for  the  purpose  of  Dringing  forth  and 
suckling  their  young.  These  are  usually  produced  in  the  last 
week  of  February  and  increase  rapidly  in  size.  Wheu  born  they 
weigh  about  5  tb  ;  in  four  weeks  the  fat  beneath  the  skin  has 
increased  to  a  depth  of  3  to  4  inches,  and  with  the  adhering  skin 
weighs  from  40  to  50  lb.  At  this  age  the  animals  are  in  the  best 
condition  for  being  taken,  as  the  oil  then  yielded  is  of  the  best 
quality.  They  remain  on  the  ico  attended  by  their  dams'for  about 
six  weeks,  when  they  begin  to  take  to  the  water,  and  it  becomes 
much  more  difficult  to  capture  them.  "SVhen  a  floe  containing 
young  seab  is  reached,  the  hunters  take  to  the  ice  armed  with  a 
pole  or  "gaff,"  having  a  hook  at  one  end  and  shod  with  iron  at  the 
other.  A  blow  on  the  nose  from  this  quickly  despatches  the  animal ; 
by  mean's  of  the  "  scalpin|;-knife  "  the  skin  with  the  fat  adhering  is 
then  rapidly  detached.  The  fat  and  skins  are  rolled  into  bundles 
and  dragged  to  the  ship.  When  the  ship  reaches  port  the  skins 
are  separated  from  the  fat  and  salted  for  export  to  Great  Britain, 
where  they  are  converted  into  leather.  Of  late  years  furriei-s  have 
succeeded  in  converting  a  few  of  the  finer  skins  into  ladies'  tippets. 
The  fat  was  formerly  thrown  into  huge  vats,  where  its  own  weight 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  extracted  the  oil,  but  in  the  improved 
modern  process  the  fat  is  ground  into  minute  pieces  by  machinery 
and  then  steamed  ;  the  oil,  after  being  exposed  for  a  time  in  glass- 
covered  tanks  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  is  barrelled  for  ex- 
portation. The  greater  part  of  it  goes  to  England,  where  it  is 
largely  employed  both  as  an  illuminant  and  as  a  lubricant.  It  is 
also  used  for  tanning  purposes  and  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finer 
kinds  pf  soap. 

From  SOOO  to  10,000  men  embark  annually  from  Newfoundland 
on  this  pursuit  The  steamers,  which  are  rapidly  superseding 
sailing  vessels,  are  stoutly  timbered,  sheathed  with  iron  and  wood, 
and  provided  with  iron-plated  stems  ;  they  carrj'  frora  150  to  300 
men  each,  and  make  two,  and  sometimes  when  very  successful  even 
three,  trips  in  the  season.  From  20  to  25  steamships  in  all  arc 
engaged  in  this  industry,  6  of  these  being  from  Dundee,  Scotland. 
The  Dundee  vessels  arrive  in  Newfoundland  in  February  and  there 
ship  their  crews  ;  at  the  close  of  the  sealing  season  they  proceed  to 
the  northern  whale  fishery  and  return  home  in  October.  A  "close 
time  "  for  seals  is  now  established  by  law.  Sailing  vessels  cannot 
clear  for  this  fishei-y  before  1st  March,  nor  can  steamere  before  10th 
JIarch.  After  the  young  seals  have  taken  to  the  water,  tl.e  steamers 
in  their  second  trips  engage  in  the  pursuit  of  the  old  breeding  seals 
till  the  middle  or  end  of  May.  These  are  taken  either  by  shooting 
them  or  clubbing  them  when  congregated  in  herds  on  the  ice. 
This  practice,  which  is  most  injurious  to  the  fishery,  has  of  late 
been  partially  abandoned,  by  an  agreement  among  the  owners  of 
vessels  not  to  continue  operations  beyond  30th  Apiil.  The  failui-es 
and  disappointments  of  the  voyage  are  numerous,  many  vessels  re- 
turning to  port  with  few  seals  or  even  with  none.  The  prizes, 
however,  are  so  enormous  that  there  is  no  hesitation  in  embarking 
capital  in  the  enterprise.  It  is  no  uncommon  event  for  a  steamer 
to  return  two  or  three  weeks  after  leaWng  port  laden  1o  the  gunwale 
with  seals.  As  many  as  42,000  have  been  brought  in  by  a  single 
steamer,  the  value  at  two  and  a  half  dollars  per  seal  being  $105,000 
(£21,875).  The  men  on  board  the  steamers  share  one-third  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  voyage  among  them  ;  the  remaind  ;r  goes  to  the 
owners  who  equip  and  provision  the  vessels.  In  sai.iiig  vessels  the 
men  get  one-half  the  proceeds.  The  number  of  seals  taken  annually 
ranges  from  350,000  to  500,000.  In  the  three  years  1877, 1878,  and 
1831  the  average  take  was  436,413,  valued  at  £213,937.  Between 
1881  and  1886  the  returns  fell  below  this  average  owing  to  the 
heavy  ice,  which  comparatively  few  vessels  succccder.  in  penetrating. 
The  large  number  of  young  seals  which  escaped  during  these  years 
'  ^vill  improve  the  fishery  in  the  future. 

In  the  seas  around  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  there  are  four 
species  of  seals, — the  bay  seal,  the  harp,  the  hood,  and  the  square 
flipper.  The  first  of  these  frequents  the  mouths  of  Tivcra  and 
harbours  and  is  never  found  on  the  ice.  The  haip,  so  called  from 
a  curved  lino  of  dark  spots  on  its  back  making  a  figure  somewhat 
resembling  an  ancient  Iiarp,  is  by  far  the  most  numerous,  and  i* 
par  excellence  the  seal  of  commerce.     The  hoods,  which  owe  their 


^  Some  naturalists  have  proposed  the  name  TrJJtop/ioeiTUB  for  the 
hair  seals  and  Oulophexinx  for  the  fur  seals,  in  allusion  to  the  different 
cban».cter  of  the  skin  in  the  two  groups. 


582 


ti   iii   A   JL 


name  to  a  Img  or  hood  on  the  nose  of  the  nmlos,  which  they  can 
inflate  at  pleasure  for  protection,  arc  nuicli  larger  than  the  harps, 
l)ut  their  oil  is  not  of  such  good  quality.  But  few  square  flippers 
are  taken;  they  are  largo  seals  from  12  to  16  feet  in  Icngth^and 
are  believed  to  be  identical  with  the  great  Greenland  seals.  The 
seals  frequenting  these  seas  are  migratory.  In  ilay,  attended  by 
their  young,  they  commence  their  northerly  movements  to  the 
Greenland  seas,  where  they  spend  two  or  three  months,  and  in 
September  be^in  their  southerly  migration,  moving  along  the  coast 
of  Labrador,  feeding  in  its  fiords  and  bays.  One  division  passes 
through  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  into  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  the 
other  along  the  east  coast  of  Newfoundland.  •  By  the  close  of  the 
year  they  reach  the  Great  Banks,  theii'  southern  headquarters, 
and  early  in  February  commence  their  northerly  movement  to  meet 
the  ice  on  which  their  young  are  to  be  brought  forth. 

The  Newfoundland  fishery  was  of  slight  importance  till  the  be- 
ginning of  tlie  19th  century.  At  first  the  seals  were  taken  in  nets ; 
the  ne.\t  method  was  shooting  them  from  large  boats,  which  left 
shore  about  the  middle  of  April.  Afterwards  small  schooners  were 
employed,  and  a  rapid  expansion  of  the  fishery  followed.  Over  100 
of  these  small  vessels  used  to  leave  the  port  of  St  John's,  and  as 
many  more  the  ports  of  Conception  Bay.  In  1795  the  whole  catch 
of  seals  was  but  5000.  In  1805  it  reached  81,000 ;  in  1815, 120,000  ; 
in  1S22,  306,983.  The  largest  catches  on  record  were  in  1830,  when 
538,942  seals  were  taken  ;  in  1831,  686,836  ;  1843,  651,3?0  ;  .and 
in  1844,  685,530.  The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  seals 
taken  in  some  recent  years 


Tears  No.  of  Seals. 

185G 361, .ll? 

1801  375,282 

1SG9 359,821 

ISTO 500,003 

ISSO ■ 223,793 


Tears.  No.  of  Seals. 

1831  447,903 

18S2 200,600 

1883 300,350 

1884 23S,5S7 


Of  late  years  an  increasing  number  of  steamers  from  St  John's 
have  resorted  to  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence  as  well  as  small  sailing 
vessels  from  the  southern  ports  of  Newfoundland.  A  few  residents 
of  the  Magdalen  Islands  also  pursue  the  seals  on  the  Gulf  ice,  and 
the  Canadians  carry  on  a  seal  fishery  along  the  shore  by  means  of 
nets  both  in  spring  and  autumn.  The  nets  are  made  of  strong 
hempen  cord,  some  of  them  very  large  and  costing  with  the  anchors 
and  gear  as  much  as  £1500  each.  This  fishery  is  carried  on  from 
Blanc  Juberlis  Bay  to  Cape  'Vhittle.  The  number  taken  averages 
about  70,000  to  80,000. 

Ne.xt  in  importance  is  the  seal  fishery  carried  on  between  Green- 
land, Spitzbergen,  and  the  island  of  Jan  JIayen, — between  68°  and 
74°  if.  lat.  and  3°  E.  and  17°  W.  long.  In  most  years,  however, 
the  seals  are  takc-n  mainly  in  the  vicinity  of  Jan  ilayen.  The 
fishery  is  carried  on  by  the  British,  Norwegians,  Swedes,  Danes, 
and  Germans.  The  number  taken  by  the  British  vessels  about 
equals  that  taken  by  all  the  others  together.  The  species  taken  are 
the  same  as  on  the  Newfoundland  coast,  the  harp  or  saddleback  and 
the  hood  or  bladder-nose.  The  breeding  season  is  about  three  weeks 
later  than  in  the  case  of  the  Newfoundland  seals,  the  young  being 
brought  forth  between  the  16th  and  the  22d  of  March.  The  method 
of  capture  is  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the  Newfoundland  hunters. 
Steamers  are  now  almost  exclusively  employed.     The  only  British 

Sorts  now  engaged  in  the  enterprise  are  Dundee  and  Peterhead, 
luring  the  twelve  years  187ito  1S85  the  number  of  British  vessels 
taking  part  in  it  was  from  14  to  21,  the  number  of  men  varying 
from  900  to  1200,  and  the  number  of  seals  taken  ranging  from  35,000 
to  75,000.  The  total  number  of  seals  taken  by  these  vessels  during 
the  ten  years  ending  1884  was  452,013.  Formerly,  from  1500  to 
2700  men  were  employed,  and  the  number  of  seals  taken  ranged 
from  50,000  to  125,000.  The  decline  has  been  largely  caused  by 
the  reckless  and  barbarous  way  in  which  the  fishery  has  been  con- 
ducted, the  practice  of  seal-hunters  of  all  nations  having  been  to 
reach  the  seals  soon  after  the  young  were  born,  and  then  to  watch 
for  the  mothers  as  they  came  to  suckle  them  and  shoot  them  with- 
out mercy,  leaving  the  young  to  die  in  thousands  of  starvation  on 
the  ice.  The  consequence  is  that  the  herds  are  not  now  a  twentieth 
part  of  their  former  si^e.  Newfoundland  hunters,  on  the  other 
hand,  do  not  disturb  the  seals  till  they  are  grown  and  about  to 
leave  their  mothers,  the  old  seals  not  being  killed  till  a  later  date. 
By  an  international  treaty  between  England  and  Norway — the  two 
lutious  most  interested — a  "  close  season  "  has  been  established  in 
the  Jan  JIayen  fishery.  The  Dundee  and  Peterhead  steamers  are 
chiefly  manned  by  Shetlandeis,  who  are  taken  on  board  at  Lerwick. 
The  vessels  make  the  ice  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  March  and 
commenco  the  chase  in  the  destructive  way  a'ready  described. 
They  follow  up  the  captcue  of  the  young  seals  in  April,  when 
they  are  better  worth  taking.  Then  they  proceed  to  separate  the 
skins  from  the  fat.  Tiie  fui  uier  are  salted  on  board,  and  the  fat  is 
stowed  in  tanks.  In  ilay  the  pursuit  of  the  old  seals  on  the  ice 
commences  and  continues  till  the  16th,  when  it  is  time  to  proceed- 
to  the  whale  fishery.  The  oil  is  not  manufactured  till  the  vessels 
reach  home  late  in  the  autumn.  As  the  blubber  undergoes  decay 
in  t]f  tanks,  the  oil  is  not  so  good  iu  quality  as  that  made  in  Ncw- 
io'.iudland  liom  the  fresh  fat. 


The  Jan  Mayen  fishery  commenced  in  1840.  In  that  year  13 
British  vessels  and  650  men  engaged  in  it,  and  17,300  seals  were 
taken.  The  Norwegians  and  other  nationalities  also  took  part  in 
it.  Steamers  were  introduced  in  1858.  The  following  table  showa 
the  growth  and  decline  of  the  fishery:— 


Tear. 

No.  of 
British 
Vessels. 

No.  of 
Men. 

Seals 
taken. 

Teai'. 

No.  of 
British 
Vessels. 

No.  of 
Men. 

Seals 
taken. 

ISJO 

13 

1350 

17,300 

1875 

20 

1200 

71,040 

IS  15. 

39 

1950 

94,830 

1880 

14 

810 

41,468 

1S50 

32 

ICOO 

74,058 

1881 

14 

840 

23,984 

1S5') 

54 

2700 

81,500 

1882 

IS 

900 

21,092 

1801 

96 

2300 

10,350 

18S3 

17 

1020 

49.S06 

1805 

26 

1300 

112,000 

1684 

20 

1200 

42,120 

ISTO 

22 

f320 

128,000 

The  Norwegian  vessels  are  all  steamers,  sheathed  with  wood  and 
iron,  the  crews  averaging  forty-six  men.  They  belong  principally 
to  Tonsberg,  but  Tromsd  also  sends  out  a  number  of  small  vessels 
to  hunt  adult  seals.  The  total  annual  product  has  reached 
§300,000.  Over  twenty  Norwegian  and  Swedish  steamers  are 
engaged  in  this  iishery.  Since  about  the  year  1873  or  1874  the 
Norwegians  and  Swedes  have  discovered  a  new  fishing-ground  for 
adult  seals  off  the  coast  of  Greenland  between  Iceland  and  Capo 
Farewell.  It  is  carried  on  in  the  mouths  of  June  and  July.  The 
seals  taken  are  all  of  the  hood  kind.  At  one  time  the  Jan  Mayen 
fishery  averaged  200, 000  seals  annually  among  all  the  nationalities 
engaged.     It  does  not  now  exceed  120,000  to  130,000. 

The  Danes,  the  Eskimo,  and  the  half-breeds  carry  on  a  seal- 
fishery  off  the  western  coast  of  Greenland  between  Cape  Farewell 
and  79°  N.  lat.  The  seals  taken  are  chiefly  the  floe  or  spotted  seal 
and  the  square  flipper.  Rink,  in  his  Greenland,  estimates  the 
annual  number  taken  at  89,000,  but  at  present  it  does  not  exceed 
50,000,  as  the  seals  are  becoming  scarcer.  The  oil  is  made  at  the 
Danish  settlements  on  the  coast,  and,  the  skins  are  dried,  not 
salted,  and  both  are  .shipped  to  Denmark. 

The  fisheries  of  Nova  Zeinbla;  once  productive,  have  declined  in 
value,  and  are  now  C2";ried  on  by  only  five  vessels,  wdiich  reach  the 
island  about  the  end  of  June.  The  fishermen  commence  with  hunt- 
ing the  seal  and  the  walrus  and  afterwards  fish  for  the  common 
trout.  Five  kinds  of  seals  are  found  here,  the  chief  being  the 
Fhoca  viliUina  and  the  Phoca  grcenlandica.  The  number  taken 
is  small. 

The  Russians  carry  on  a  seal-fishery-on  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts  of  the  'White  Sea,  in  the  bays  of  the  Dwina  and  the  MezcB 
and  on  the  coast  of  Kanin.  The  species  is  the  Phoca  gro:nlandica. 
These  seals  live  in  the  high  regions  of  the  polar  seas  from  May 
till  September,  and  appear  later  in  the  gulfs  and  bays  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  where  '-the  young  are  born  on  the  floating  ice  early  in 
February.  Soon  after  the  hunt  commences  and  lasts  tiU  the  end 
of  March.  On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  AVhite  Sea  the  chase  is 
pursued  over  a  space  of  230  miles.  Two  thousand  liunters  assemble 
at  Kedy,  near  Cape  VoronolT.  High  wooden  towers  are  erected 
along  the  shore,  whence  observers  watch  the  movements  of  the 
seals.  Hunting  sheds  for  the  men  are  also  erected.  When  a  herd 
of  seals  is  observed,  the  men  go  out  on  the  ice,  drawing  small  boats 
after  them,  and  kill  the  young  and  old  with  clubs  and  guns.  To 
approach  the  seals  without  being  discovered,  the  hunters  muffle 
themselves  in  long  white  shirts  and  advance  slowly  and  noiselessly 
over  the  snow.  They  are  often  exposed  to  the  gi-eatest  dangers, 
owing  to  the  sudden  movements  of  the  ice.  In  following  up  the 
chase  in  April  they  use  sailing  boats  22  feet  long,  with  an  iron- 
plated  bottom,  which  they  draw  up  on  the  ice,  where  a  vast  en- 
campment is  formed,  and  shooting- parties  search  for  the  seals. 
Oil  the  western  shore  of  the  White  Sea  the  seal-hunt  is  less  pro- 
ductive than  on  the  eastern.  The  hunters  meet  at  Devyatoe,  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  river  Ponoi.  About  500  men  engage  in  the 
chase.  The  Russians  take  eacli  year  in  the  Arctic  Occau  and  the 
AVhite  Sea  from  2,500^00  to  3,000,000  lb  of  seal  blubber.  Allow- 
ing an  average  of  40  lb  per  seal,  this  would  imply  the  capture  of 
65,000  to  75,000  seals.     The  skins  are  made  into  leather. 

The  most  extensive  and  valuable  seal-fishery  of  the  Russians  is 
in  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  the  seals  {PhO'-a  caspica)  are  plentiful. 
They  pass  the  summer  in  deep  water,  and  in  the  autumn  resort 
to  the  eastern  basin,  where  the  ice  forms  earliest  and  breaks  up 
latest.  Here  the  pairing  takes  place  on  Ihe  ice  in  December  and 
January.  The  seals  are  also  hunted  at  <ho  mouths  of  the  Volga 
and  the  Ural,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  sea,  on  the  islands 
of  the  Gulf  of  Apsheron.  There  are  three  methods  of  hunting  the 
seals, — killing  them  with  clubs  (the  commonest  and  most  successful 
way),  shooting  them  on  the  ice,  and  taking  them  in  net3.  From 
130,000  to  140,000  are  taken  annually. 

A  few  seals  are  taken  off  the  coast  of  California  and  Washington 
Tcrritoiy.  In  the  South  Pacific,  off  the  coast  of  Chili,  only  a  few 
are  now  taken  where  formerly  they  were  captured  by  the  thousand- 

The  elephant  seal  or  sea  elephant  (Macrorhmvs  Iconina)  was 
formerly  taken  in  great  numbers  at  various  places  for  the  sake  of 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


583 


its  oil.  This  fishery  is  now  almost  a  thing  of  the  past ;  since 
about  1875  it  has  been  carried  on  solely  from  New  London  in 
Connecticut,  the  fleet  numbering  only  four  or  five  vessels.  The 
yield  in  1830  was  42,000  gallons  of  oil,  worth  $21,420. 

The  average  number  of  hair  seals  taken  annually  may  be  esti- 
raaled  as  follows  : —  g^_^j^ 

Newfoundland,  including  Labrador  and  theGulf  of  St  Lawrence  400,000 

Canadian  net  fishery,  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence 75.000 

Jan  Mayen  and  the  adjacent  seas 130,000 

"Western  Greenland 50,000 

Nova  Zembla,  White  Sea,  and  Arctic  Ocean  76,000 

Caspian  Sea  140,000 

North  and  South  PaciSc  5,000 


Total  number  of  hair  seals    875,000 

Value  at  S2'50  per  seal  $2,187,500 

Fur  Seals. — The  fur  seals  occupy  two  distinct  areas.  None 
«iist  on  the  shores  of  the  North  Atlantic.  South  of  the  equator 
they  extend  from  near  the  tropics  to  the  region'  of  antarctic  ice. 
By  far  the  most  important  and  valuable  fur  seal  fisheries  are  those 
carried  on  at  St  Paul's  and  St  George's  Islands,  belonging  to  the 
Pribyloff  group,^  ofi"  the  coast  of  Alaska,  at  the  Commander  Islands 
in  the  Behring  Sea,  and  that  in  the  same  sea  700  miles  west  of  the 
Alaskan  seal  islets.  The  species  found  here  is  the  northern  fur 
seal  {Callorhinus  ursinus).  The  males  attain  mature  size  about 
the  eighth  year,  when  their  length  is  from  7  to  8  feet,  their  girth 
from  7  to' 8  feet,  and  their  weight,  when  in  full  flesh,  from  500  to 
700  lb.  The  females  are  full  grown  at  four  years  old,  when  they 
measure  4  feet  in  length,  2J  in  girth,  and  weigh  from  80  to  100  tb. 
The  yearlings  weigh  from  30  to  40  lb.  The  seals  resort  to  these 
islan'is  late  in  spring  chiefly  for  reproductive  purposes,  making 
their  appearance  from  the  southward.  The  number  annually 
visiting  bt  Paul's  and  St  George's  is  estimated  at  five  millions. 
About  the  middle  of  April  the  males  begin  to  arrive  and  take 
their  places  along  the  shore  in  "  the  rookeries, "  as  the  breeding- 
grounds  are  called.  The  younger  males  are  prevented  from  landing 
by  the  older,  and  are  compelled  either  to  stay  in  the  water  or  to 
go  to  the  uplands.  By  the  middle  of  June  all  the  males  have 
assembled,  and  then  the  females  begin  to  appear.  Each  old  male 
seal  collects  from  ten  to  fifteen  or  more  females,  whom  he  guards 
most  jealously.  The  males  fight  furiously,  "  so  that  night  and  day 
the  aggregated  sound  is  like  that  of  an  approaching  railway  train." 
By  the  middle  of  July  the  family  circle  is  complete.  Soon  after 
landing  the  female  gives  bbth  to  one  pup,  weighing  about  6  lb, 
which  she  nurses  at  wide  intervals  without  any  affection.  Pairing 
takes  place  soon  afterwards.  No  food  is  taken  by  the  breeding 
males  while  on  the  rocks, — a  period  of  three  to  four  months. 
'When  the  males  leave  after  this  long. fast,  they  are  reduced  to  half 
their  former  weight.  In  the  end  of  October  and  middle  of  November 
all  leave  the  island,  the  young  males  going  last  and  by  themselves. 

The  killing  of  the  seals  i",  carefully  regtilated.  No  females  are 
killed,  and  only  a  certain  number  of  young  "  bachelor  "  seals  whose 
skins  are  of  superior  quality.  These  younger  male  seals  are  spread 
out  on  the  slopes  above  the  rookeries  to  rest.  A  party  of  men 
armed  with  clubs  of  hard  wood  quietly  creep  between  them  and 
the  shore,  and  at  a  given  signal  start  up  with  a  shout  and  drive 
the  seals  inland.  "When  they  reach  the  killing-gi-ounds  near  the 
villages,  they  select  those  that  arc  two  or  three  years  old  and  seem 
likely  to  j-ield  the  most  valuable  fur.  These  they  despatch  with 
a  club.  The  skins  are  carefully  salted  for  exportation.  Besides 
the  skin  each  seal  yields  about  a  gallon  and  a  half  of  oil.  But 
it  is  not  used,  as  its  rank  odour  renders  refining  veiy  costly.  The 
value  of  the  skins  in  the  raw  state  varies  from  five  to  twenty-five 
dollars  each ;  at  times,  when  furs  are  specially  fashionable,  a 
liigher  price  is  obtained.  The  quality  of  the  Alaska  furs  is  superior, 
but  those  obtained  in  the  South  Shetland  and  antarctic  regions  are 
rited  best.  A  cloak  of  the  richest  fur  seal,  a  yard  deep  or  more. 
Will  cost  from  £25  to  £40.  The  roots  of  the  loose  exterior  hairs 
JSTnotrate  deeper  into  the  skin  than  those  of  the  fur  or  short  hair, 
and  can  readily  be  cut  by  parin"  on  the  fleshy  side,  without 
touching  the  roots  of  the  fur  ;  the  long  hairs  then  drop  off,  leaving 
the  valuable  fur  below  in  a  sheet  like  pmo  velvet.  The  number 
of  seals  killed  on  the  Pribyloff  Islands  is  limited  to  100,000  annu- 
ally, and  with  the  precautions  taken  they  increase  as  fast  as  if  left 
to  themselves,  "  for  when  the  number  of  males  is  in  excess,  the 
contiaual  fighting  ou  the  rookeries  dcstro5-8  many  of  both  females 
and  young,  which  get  trampled  to  death." 

Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia  by  the  United  States  in  1867. 
The  Pribyloff  Islands  were  leased  to  the  Alaska  Commercial  Ccm- 

•  The  sea.lion  {Eumclopias  stdleri)  is  a  characteristic  pinnii>ca  of 
the  Pribyloff  Islands  and  other  parts  of  Alaska.  It  h.i3  very  little 
commercial  value  ;  but  by  the  natives  along  the  Behring  .Sea  coast  of 
Alaska,  Kamchatka,  and  the  Kurilcs  it  is  higlily  prized.  From  the 
hide  IhBv  make  coverings  for  their  boats  ;  the  intestines  are  made 
into  garnients  j  the  stomach  walls  are  used  as  pouches  for  oil  ;  the 
(le.»h  is  dried  and  eaten  ;  and  the  whiskers  are  sold  to  the  Chmese, 
w'no  use  them  as  pickers  to  their  opium  pipes,  and  in  several  cere- 
monies in  their  joss  houses. 


pany  of  San  Francisco  for  twenty  years,  from  Ut  May  1S70,  under 
Act  of  Congress  approved  1st  July  1870.  Tlie  annual  rental  is 
$55,000  with  a  tax  of  $2-62  on  each  skin  taken,— making  the  total 
rental  §317,000  per  annum.  The  Alaska  Commercial  Company 
have  leased  the  Commander  Islands  from  the  Russian  Government. 
About  30,000  fur  seals  are  annually  taken  there. 

The  fishery  at  the  mouth  of  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca  and  its 
vicinity  is  canied  on  by  Americans  and  Canadians.  The  seals 
are  captured  in  the  waters,  the  largest  number  being  secured  at 
and  about  Cape  Flattery,  to  the  extent  of  15,000  annually.  The 
Lobos  Islands,  at  the  niouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  are  under 
the  protection  of  the  Government  of  Uruguay,  the  number  of  seals 
annually  taken  being  limited  to  about  12,000.  Some  of  the  numer- 
ous islands  about  Cape  Horn  are  the  breeding-places  of  fur  seals,  as 
are  also  the  South  Shetland  Islands  farther  south.  This  Cape  Horn 
region  is  visited  by  a  fleet  of  seven  to  ten  vessels  belonging  to  New 
London  and  Stonington,  Connecticut,  and  also  by  a  few  Chilian 
and  other  South  American  vessels.  Only  occasionally  does  a  vessel 
visit  the  South  Shetlands,  though  the  quality  of  skins  to  be  secured 
there  is  very  superior.  The  headquarters  for  the  fleet  between 
seasons  is  at  Punta  Arenas,  or  Sandy  Point,  in  the  Straits  of 
llagellan.  The  American  fleet  in  1880  numbered  nine  vessels  of 
1192tons.  Thei-esultof  the  fishery  was  9275  skins,  worth  §90,431. 
Early  in  the  19th  century  the  Falkland  Islands  abounded  in  fur 
seals,  but  they  have  been  exterminated.  The  number  now  (1886) 
annually  secured  there  does  not  average  more  than  500  j  in  some 
years  only  50  skins  are  taken. 

There  are  annually  received  at  London  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  about-  10,000  sealskins  taken  at  various  islands  in  the 
Southern  Indian  Ocean  and  along  the  south-west  coast  of  Africa. 
A  few  fur  seals  are  taken  in  the  Okhotsk  Sea. 

Nearly  all  the  fur-seal  skins  find  their  way  to  London,  where 
they  are  plucked,  dressed,  and  dyed.  A  few,  however,  are  prepared 
in  New  York.  At  the  seal  islands  they  are  salted  and  baled  with 
the  fur  inside,  and  in  this  manner  shipped  to  Loudon.  The  annual 
yield  of  the  fur-seal  fisheries  of  the  world  is  about  185,000. 

Seals, 

Pribyloff  Islands,  Alaska 100,000 

Commander  Islands    :iO,000 

Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca  aild  vicinity ,.,..  15,000 

Lobos  Islands,  inouth  of  Rio  de  la  Plata 12,000 

Patagonia,  including  South  Shetland  Islands  and  Straits  of 
Magellan  '  15,000 

Falkland  Islands 500 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  including  south-west  coast  of  Africa  and 

islands  in  Southern  Indian  Ocean  10,000 

Islands  belonging  to  Japan 2.500 

Total 185,000 

At  an  average  of  S7  per  skin  the  annual  value 

would  be  $1,205,000 

'Value  of  hair  seals  annually  .. . 2,187.500 


Total  value  of  hair  and  fur  seals §3,432,500 

See  Hatton  and  Har\-ey,  Kew/oitndlaiid,  1833;  RctiiTiis  of  n,e  Jan  Mayen 
Sml  FiskerUs,  by  Captain  Adams,  1SS5  ;  Ur.ited  Stc'fcs  Fish  Comynisiloti  He^orti 
for  1873-74  and  1S74-75  ;  J.  A  Allen,  Euird  Seals  :  Charles  Bryant,  Habils  of  ills 
Northern  Fur  Seal ;  H.  W.  Elliott,  Seal  hlands  of  Alaska.  (M.  H.) 

SEA  LA'WS,  a  title  which  came  into  use  amongst 
wi-iters  on  maritime  law  in  the  16th  century,  and  was 
applied  by  them  to  certain  medieval  collections  of  usages 
of  the  sea  which  had  been  recognized  as  having  the  force 
of  customary  law,  either  by  tho  judgments  of  a  maritime 
court  or  by  the  resolutions  of  a  congress  of  merchants  and 
shipmasters.  To  the  former  class  belong  the  sea  laws  of 
Oleron,  which  embody  the  usages  of  the  mariners  of  the 
Atlantic ;  under  the  latter  come  the  sea  laws  of  Wisby, 
which  reflect  the  customs  of  the  mariners  of  the  North 
Sea  and  of  the  Baltic. 

The  earliest  coUeclioii  of  such  usages  which  was  re- 
ceived in  England  is  described  in  tho  Jj/nc/c  Hook  of  the 
Admiralty  as  the  "Laws  of  OMron,"  whilst  tho  earliest 
known  text  is  contained  in  the  Liber  Memorandorum  oi 
the  corporation  of  the  City  of  London,  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  their  Guildhall.  These  laws  are  in  an  early 
handwriting  of  tho  14th  century,  and  tho  title  prefixed  to 
them  is  La  Chartc  dOUroun  dcs  Juyr/emcnti  de  la  Miei: 
How  and  in  what  manner  these  "Judgments  of  the  Sea" 
came  to  be  collected  is  not  altogether  certain.  Cleirac,  a 
learned  advocate  in  the  parliament  of  Bordeaux,  in  the 
introduction  to  his  work  on  Lts  Ua  et  Consttunes  de  la  Mer, 
first  printed  at  Bordeaux  in  1G47,  states  that  Eleanor, 
duchess  of  Guienne  (the  consort  of  Louis  VII.  of  France, 
but  subsequently  divorced  from  him  and  married  to  Henry 
II.  of  England),  havi,  g  observed  during  her  visit  to  the 


584 


SEA      LAWS 


Holv  Lar.J,  in  company  with  Louis,  that  the  collection  of  j 
customs  of  the  sea  contained  in  Tin  Bojk  of  tl't  Consulate  ■ 
of  the  Sea  (see  voL  vi.  p.  317)  was  held  in  high  repute  in 
the  Levant,  directed  on  her  return  that  a  record  i-hould 
be  made  of  the  judgraenta  of  the  maritime  court  of  the 
island  of  OMron  (at  that  time  a  peculiar  court  of  the  duchy 
of  Guienne),  in  order  that  th'.-y  might  serve  as-  law  amongst 
the  mariners  of  the  Western  Sea.  He  states  further  that 
Richard  I.  of  England,  on  his  return  from  the  Holy  Land, 
brought  back  with  him  a  roll  of  those  judgments,  whicb 
he  pubUshed  in  England  and  ordained  to  be  observed  as 
law.  It  is  probable  that  the~  general  outline  of  Cleirac's 
account  is  correct,  as  it  accords  with  a  raemorandum  on 
the  famous  roll  of  12  Edw.  IIL,  "Do  Superioritato  Maris 
AnglifB,"  which,  having  been  for  many  years  carefully 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  t,he  Tower  of  London,  is  now 
deposited  in  the  Public  Record  OfSce.  According  to  this 
memorandum,  the  king's  justiciaries  *vere  instructed  to 
declare  and  uphold  the  laws  and  statutes  made  by  the 
kings  of  England,  in  order  to  maintain  peace  and  justice 
amongst  the  people  of  every  nation  passing  through  the 
sea  of  England :  "  Quse  quidem  leges  et  statuta  per 
dominum  Kicardum,  quondam  regem  Anglice,  in  reditu  suo 
a  Terra  Sanc^a  correcta  fuerunt,  interpretata,  declarata,  et 
in  Insula  Oleron  publicata,  et  nominata  in  GaLlica  lingua 
La  Leye  Olyroun." 

The  earliest  version  of  these  Oleron  sea  laws,  which, 
according  to  the  memorandum  above  mentioned,  were  re- 
ceived in  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century, 
comprised  certain  customs  of  the  sea  wTiich  were  observed 
in  the  wine  and  the  oil  trade,  as  carried  on  between  the 
ports  of  Guienne  and  those  of  Briftany,  Normandy,  Eng- 
land, and  Flanders.  No  English  translation  seems  to  have 
been  mads  before  the  Eutter  of  the  Sea,  printed  in  London 
by  Thomas  Petyt  in  1536,  in  which  they  are  styled  "the 
Lawes  of  ye  Yle  of  Auleron  and  ye  Judgementes  of  ye  See," 
French  was,  in  fact,  a  tongue  familiar  to  the  English  High 
Court  of  Admiralty  down  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  A 
Flemish  text,  however,  appears  to  have  been  made  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  l-ith  century,  the  Purple  BooJ:  of  Bruges, 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  Bruges,  in  a  handwriting 
somewhat  later  than  that  of  the  Lihcr  Memoratidorum. 
Prefixed  to  this  Flemish  version  is  the  title,  "Dit  es  de 
Coppie  van  den  KoUen  van  Oleron  van  den  Vonnesse  van 
der  Zee."  Certain  changes,  however,  have  been  made  in 
the  Pmyh  Book  of  Bruges  in  the  names  of  the  ports 
mentioned  in  the  original  Gascon  text.  ■  For  instance, 
Sluys  is  in  several  places  substituted  for  Bordeaux,  just  as 
in  the  Butter  of  the  Sea  London  replaces  Bordeaux.  That 
these  sea  laws  were  administered  in  the  Flemish  maritime 
courts  may  be  inferred  from  two  facts.  First,  a  Flemish 
translation  of  them  was  made  for  the  use  of  the  maritime 
tribunal  of  Damme,  which  was  the  chief  Flemish  entrepot 
of  the  wine  trade  in  the  1 3th  century.  The  text  of  this 
translation  has  been  published  by  Adriaen  Verwer  under 
the  title  cf  the  Judgments  of  Damme.  In  the  second 
place,  there  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  senate  of 
Dantzic,  where  there  was  a  maritime  court  of  old,  famous 
for  the  equity  of  its  judgments,  an  early  manuscript  of  the 
15th  century,  which  contains  a  Flemish  reproduction  of 
the  Judgments  of  Oleron  headed  "  Dit  is  Twater  Recht 
in  Vlaenderen."  So  far  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Judgments  of  Oleron  were  received  as  sea  laws  in  Flanders 
as  well  ■  as  in  England  in  the  14th  century.  Further 
inquiry  enables  us  to  trace  them  as  they  followed  the 
course  of  the  wine  trade  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic 
Sea.  Eoxhorn,  in  his  Chronyh  van  Zeelande,  has  published 
a  Dutch  version  of  them,  which  Van  Leeuwen  has  repro- 
duced in  his  Batavia  IlUistrata,  untlcr  the  title  of  the 
\Laws  of  West-Capell  in  Zealand.     Verwer  has  also  pub- 


lished a  Dutch  text  of  them  in  his  Nedcrlatit' s  See-Reckten, 
accompanied  by  certain  customs  of  Amsterdam,  of  which 
other  MSS.  exist,  in  which  those  customs  are  described  as 
usages  of  Stavoren,  or  as  usages  of  Enkhuizen,  both  ports 
of  active  commerce  in  the  15th  century.  Of  these  customs 
of  Amsterdam,  or,  as  they  were  more  generally  styled, 
"Ordinances  of  Amsterdam,"  further  mention  is  made 
belo-v. 

A  new  and  enlarged  collection  ol  sea  laws,  purporting 
to  be  an  extract  of  the  ancient  laws  of  OWron,  made  its 
appearance  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century  in  Le 
Grant  Routisr  de  la  Mcr,  printed  al  Poitiers  in  France 
by  Jan  de  JIarnef,  at  the  sign  of  the  Pelican.  The  title- 
page  is  V.  ithout  a  date,  but  the  dedication,  v/hich  purports 
to  be  addressed  "o'^  its  author  Pierre  Garcia  alias  Ferranda 
to  his  godson,  is  dated  from  St  Gilles  on  the  last  day  of 
JMay  l-iS3.  It  contains  forty-seven  articles,  of  which  the 
first  twenty-two  are  identical  with  articles  of  the  "Judg- 
ments of  the  Sea,"  in  the  Liher  Ilemorandorum,  the  re- 
maining articles  being  evidently -of  more  recent  origin.  A 
black-letter  edition  of  this  work  in  French,  v/ithout  a  date, 
is  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  and  to  the 
last  article  this  colophon  is  appended:  "Ces  choses  pr^ 
c^dentes  sont  extraictes  du-  trfa  utille  et  profittable  Roolle 
Doloyron  par  le  diet  Pierre  Gircie  alias  Ferrande."  An 
English  translation  is  printed  in  the  appendix  to  A  View 
of  the  Admiral  Jurisdiction,  published  in  1651  by  Dr 
John  Godolphin,  in  which  the  laws  are  described  as  "  an 
Extract  of  the  Ancient  Laws  of  Oleron  rendered  into 
English  out  of  Garsias  alias  Ferrand."  Although  this 
new  text  had  the  recommendation  of  an  advocate  who 
had  filled  the  office  of  judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court  during 
the  Commonwealth  and  been  appointed  king's  advocate- 
general  by  Charles  II.,  it  seems  to  have  been  superseded 
in  a  short  time  by  Oleirac's  Us  et  Coustumes  de  la  3Ier,  to 
which  was  appended  the  following  clause  of  authentication : 
"  Tesmoin  le  Seel  de  I'lsle  d'Oleron,  estably  aux  contracts 
de  la  dite  Isle,  le  jour  du  Mardy  apres  la  Feste  Sainct 
Andrt5  I'au  inille  deux  cens  soixant-si-x."  Cleirac  does  not 
inform  us  from  what  source  or  under  what  circumstances 
he  procured  his  text,  nor  on  what  authority  he  has  adopted 
in  certain  articles  readings  at  variance  with  those  of  Garcie, 
whilst  he  retains  the  same  number  of  articles,  to  wit,  forty- 
seven.  The  clause  of  authentication  cannot  be  accepted 
as  a  warranty  above  suspicion,  as  the  identical  clause  of 
authentication  with  the  same  date  is  appended  to  the  early 
Norman  and  Breton  versions  of  the  rolls,  which  contain 
only  twenty-six  articles.  Cleirac's  version,  however,  owing 
probably  to  the  superior  style  in  which  it  was  edited,  and 
to  the  importance  of  the  other  treatises  on  maritime  matters 
which  Cleirac  had  brought  together  for  the  first  time  in  a 
single  volume,  seems  to  have  obtained  a  preference  in  Eng- 
land over  Garcie's  text,  as  it  was  received  in  the  High 
Court  of  Admiralty  during  the  judgeship  of  Sir  Leoline 
Jenkyns,  and  an  English  translation  of  it  was  introduced 
into  the  English  translation  of  the  Blaek  Book  of  the 
Admiral  ft/  made  by  John  Bedford,  the  deputy  registrar  of 
the  High  Court,  and  dedicated  to  Sir  Leoline  Jenkyns.. 
It  seems  to  have  been  Bedford's  intention  to  print  this 
translation  under  the  title  of  "  Sea  Laws  "  ;  but  the  manu- 
script passed  into  the  hands  of  Sir  Leoline  Jenkyns,  who 
gave  it  to  the  College  of  Advocates  in.  1685.  The  Jllack 
Book  itself,  which  was  missing  for  a  long  time  from  the 
Admiralty  registry,  has  recently  been  discovered  and  has 
been  replaced  in  the  archives  of  the  Admiralty  Court.  Of 
these  two  versions  of  the  sea  laws  of  Oleron  the  earlier 
obtain'^d  a  wide-world  reception,  for  it  was  translated  into 
Castilian  (Fuero  de  Layron)  by  order  of  King  Alphonso 
X.,  and  a  Gascon  text  of  it  is  still  preserved  in  the  archives 
of  Leghorn,  apparently  in  a  handwriting  of  the  15th"cen- 


SEA      LAWS 


585 


tury,  entitled  "Asso  es  la  copia  deus  RoUes  de  J-ieron  de 
jucgemens  de  mar." 

The  parent  stock  of  the  Wisby  sea  laws  would  appear 
to  have  been  a  code  preserved  in  the  chancery  of  Liibeck, 
drawn  up  in  the  Old  Saxon  tongue,  and  dated  1240.  This 
code  contains  amongst  many  others  certain  articles  on 
maritime  law  which  are  identical  with  articles  in  the 
Gothland  sea  laws,  Gothland  being  the  island  of  which 
Wisby  was  the  chief  port.  This  collection  comprises  sixty- 
six  articles,  and  it  is  nowplaced  beyond  a' doubt  by  recent 
researches,  especially  of  Professor  Schlyter  of  Lund,  that 
these  Gothland  sea  laws  are  a  compilation  derived  from 
three  distinct  sources, — a  Liibeck,  an  Oleron,  and  an  Am- 
sterdam source.  A  Saxon  or  Low  German  text  of  this 
collection  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in  1505  at  Copen- 
hagen by  Godfrey  de  Gemen,  a  native  of  Gouda  in  Holland, 
who  is  reputed  to  have  set  up. the  earliest  printing-press 
in  Copenhagen.  This  print  has  no  title-page,  and  in  this 
respect  resembles  the  earhest  knoAvn  print  of  The  Consztlate 
of  the  Sea  ;  but  upon  a  blank  leaf,  which  occupies  the  place 
of  a  frontispiece  in  one  of  two  copies  of  Godfrey  de  Gemen's 
text,  both  pieserved  in  the  royal  library  at  Copenhagen, 
there  has  been  inserted  with  a  pen  in  alternate  lines  of 
black  and  red  ink  the  title  "  Dat  hogheste  Gofclansche 
Water-Recht  gedrucket  to  Koppenhaven  Anno  Domini 
M.D.V.,"  and  there  has  also  been  inserted  on  the  first  page 
of  the  text  the  introductory  title  "  Her  beghynt  dat 
hogheste  Water-Eecht"  (hero  begins  the  supreme  sea  law). 
Professor  Schlyter  has  discovered  a  MS.  (No.  3123)  in  the 
royal  library  at  Copenhagen,  which  is  written  on  parchment 
in  a  hand  of  the  15th  century,  and  from  which  it  seems 
probable  that  Godfrey  de  Gemen  mainly  derived  his  text, 
as  it  comprises  the  same  number  of  articles,  containing  the 
same  matter  arranged  in  the  same  order,  with  this  minor 
difference,  that,  whilst  both  the  MS.  and  the  print  have 
the  simple  title  "  Water-P^echt  "  prefixed  to  the  first  article, 
•tlie  MS.  has  also  a  similar  title  prefixed  to  the  fifteenth. 
Further,  as  this  article  together  with  those  that  follow  it 
ia  the  MS.,  appears  to  be  in  a  handwriting  diSerent  from 
that  of  the  articles  that  precede,  the  fifteenth  article  may 
justly  be  considered  as  the  first  of  a  distinct  series,  more 
jiarticularly  as  they  are  numbered  in  Roman  characters, 
beginning  with  §  1,  and  such  characters  are  continued 
with  a  single  interruption  down  to  the  end  of  the  MS. 
Although,  however,  the  numeration  of  the  articles  of  this 
second  series  is  continuous  and  the  handwriting  of  the 
MS.  from  the  fifteenth  to  tlie  sixty-sixth  article  is  un- 
changed, the  text  of  the  series  is  not  continuous,  as  the 
fortieth  article  commences  with  an  introductory  clause — 
"  This  is  the  ordinance  which  the  skippers  and  merchants 
have  resolved  amongst  themselves  as  ship  law."  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  recognizing  the  first  division  of  this  second 
series  of  sea  laws  as  a  Low  German  version  of  the  Judg- 
ments of  Oleron,  transmitted  most  probably  through  a 
Flemish  text.  This  hypothesis  would  account  for  the  sub- 
stitution in  several  articles  of  Sluys  for  Bordeaux.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  introductory  clause  which  ushers  in 
the  fortieth  article  is  identical  with  the  title  that  is  gen- 
erally prefixed  to  MSS.  of  the  maritime  Ordinances  of 
Amsterdam,  and  the  text  of  this  and  of  the  following 
articles  down  to  the  sixty-fifth  inclusive  is  evidently  of 
Dutch  origin  and  more  or  less  identical  with  Verwer's 
text  of  the  usages  of  Amsterdam.  M.  Pardessus,  in  his 
valuable  .Collection  de  Lois  Jfaritimes,  published  in  Paris 
before  Professor  Sclijyter  made  known  the  result  of  his 
researches,  has  justly  remarkerd  that  the  provisions  of 
several  articles  of  this  last  division  of  the  sea  laws  are 
'inconsistent  with  the  theory  that  they  originated  at  Wisby. 
It  may  be  observed  that  the  sixty-sixth  article  of  the  MS. 
is  a  Liibeck  law  identical  with  the  first  article  of  the  first 


series,  which  is  of  Liibeck  origin.  '  No  colophon  is  ap- 
pended to  this  final  article  in  the  MS.  Nevertheless, 
Godfrey  de  Gemen's  edition  of  1505,  which  breaks  oif  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixty-sixth  article  of  the  MS.,  has  the 
following  colophon  : — '•  Here  end  the  Gothland  sea  laws, 
which  the  community  of  merchants  and  skippers  have'  or- 
dained and  made  at  Wisby,  that  all  men  may  regulate 
themselves  by  them.  Printed  at  Copenhagen,  a.d.  m.d.v.  " 
The  question  naturally  suggests  itself.  To  what  MS.  was 
Godfrey  de  Gemen  indebted  for  this  colophon,  or  is  the 
alternative  more  probable  that  he  devised  it  t  There  is 
no  known  JIS.  of  this  collection  of  an  earlier  date  to 
which  an  appeal  can  be  made  as  an  authority  for  this 
colophon ;  on  the  contrary,  the  only  known  MSS.  of 
which  the  date  is  earlier  than  Godfrey  de  Gemen's  print, 
both  of  which  are  in  the  library  of  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, are  without  this  colophon,  and  one  of  them,  which 
purports  to  have  bean  completed  at  Nykiiping  on  the  Eve 
of  the  Visitation  of  the  Virgin  in  1494,  concludes  with  a 
colophon  which  precludes  all  idea  that  anything  has  been 
om.itted  by  the  scribe,  viz.,  '■  Here  ends  this  book,  and 
may  God  send  us  his  grace.  Amen."  We  are  disposed  to 
think  that  Gemen  himself  devised  this  colophon.  He  was 
engaged  in  printing  for  the  first  time  other  collecfions  of 
laws  for  the  Danish  Government,  and,  as  Gothland  was  at 
that  time  a  possession  of  Denmark,  he  may  have  thus  dis- 
tinguished the  sea  laws  from  another  collection,  namely,  of 
land  laws.  Professor  Schlyter,  however,  believes  Gemen 
may  have  borrowed  it  from  a  MS.  which  is  lost,  or  at  all 
events  is  not  known.  There  is  some  support  to  this  view 
in  the  fact  that  in  the  archives  of  the  guildhall  of  Liibeck 
there  is  preserved  a  JiIS.  of  1533  which  contains  a  Low 
German  version  of  the  same  collection  of  sea  laws,  with  a 
rubric  prefixed  to  the  first  article  announcing  them  to  be 
"  the  water  law  or  sea  law,  which  is  the  oldest  and  highest 
law  of  Wisby,"  and  there  are  good  reasons  for  supposing 
that  the  scribe'  of  this  JIS.  copied  his  text  from  a  JIS. 
other  than  the  Copenhagen  JIS.  The  same  observation 
will  apjjly  to  a  second  JIS.  of  a  similar  character  preserved 
in  the  library  of  the  gymnasium  of  Liibeck,  which  pur- 
ports to  have  been  written  in  1537.  But  as  regards  the 
Wisby  sea  laws  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  such 
rubrics  or  colophons  as  proofs  of  the  facts  recited  in  them, 
though  they  may  be  valuable  as  evidence  of  the  reputed 
origin  of  the  sea  laws  at  the  time  when  the  scribe  com- 
pleted the  MS.  In  illustration  of  this  view  it  njay  be 
stated  that  in  the  same  year  in  which  the  more  recent  of 
these  two  JISS.  purports  to  have  been  co'.nplc-tcd — namely, 
1537 — there  was  printed  at  Liibeck  an  enlarged  edition  of 
the  sea  laws  consisting  of  seventy-two  articles,  being  a 
Low  German  translation  of  a  Dutch  text,  in  which  six 
additional  Dutch  laws  had  been  inserted  which  9  re  not 
found  in  the  Copenhagen  JIS.,  nor  have  a  place  in  Gemen's 
text,  yet  to  this  edition  is  prefixed  the  title,  "This  is  the 
highest  and  oldest  sea  law,  which  thj  comnmnity  of.  mer- 
chants and  shipmasters  have  ordained  and  made  at  Wis'oy, 
that  all  persons  who  would  be  secure  may  regulate  them- 
selves by  it."  Further,  it  has  an  introductory  clause  to  its 
thirty-seventh  article — "  This  is  the  ordinance  which  the 
community  of  .skippers  and  mcrchan's  have  resolved  upon 
amongst  themselves  as  ship  law,  which  the  men  of  Zea- 
land, Holland,  Flanders  h(jld,  and  with  the  law  of  Wisby, 
which  is  the  oldest  ship  law."  At  the  end  of  the  seventy- 
second  article  there  follows  this  colophon  :  "  Here  ends 
the  Gothland  sea  law,  which  the  community  of  merchants 
and  mariners  have  ordained  and  made  at  Wisby,  tuat 
each  may  regulate  himself  by  it.  All  honour  bo  to  God, 
jiDXXxvn."  Each  article  of  this  edition  has  prefixed  to  it 
after  its  partitular  number  the  word  "belevinge"  (judr;- 
ment).     It  would  thus  appear  that  the  Wisby  sea  laws 

XXI.  —  74 


P86 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


have  fared  like  tlio  Oloron  sea  laws :  they  have  gathered 
bulk  \%-ith  increasing  years. 

The  question  remains  to  be  answered,  How  did  this  col- 
lection of  sea  laws  acquire  the  title  of  the  "  Wisby  sea  laws" 
out:;ide  the  Baltic  1  for  under  such  title  they  were  received 
in  Scotland  in  the  16th  century,  as  may  bo  infervcd  from 
extracts  from  them  cited  in  Sir  James  Balfour's  System  of 
the  more  Ancient  Laws  of  Scotlaml,  which,  although  not 
printed  till  175-i,  was  completed  before  his  death  in  1583. 
The  text  of  the  Wisby  sea  laws  generally  current  in  Eng- 
land is  an  English  translation  of  a  French  text  which 
Cleirao  published  in  1641  in  his  Us  et  Coustumes  de  la 
Mer,  and  is  an  abbreviated,  and  in  many  respects  muti- 
lated, version  of  the  original  sea  laws.  This  inquiry,  how- 
ever, would  open  a  new  chapter  on  the  subject  of  the 
northern  sea  laws,  and  the  civilizing  influence  which  the 
merchants  of  Wisby  exercised  in  the  13th  century  through 
their  factories  at  Xovgorod,  linking  thereby  the  trade  of 
the  Baltic  to  that  of  the  Black  Sea. 

See  Pardcssus,  CoUcdion  dc  Lois  Mariiimes  ant^rieurcs  au  X  VIII. 
Slide  (6  vols.,  Palis,  1823-45) ;  Schlyter,  Wisby  Stadslag  och  Sjordtl, 
beiug  vol.  viii.  of  the  Corpus  Juris  Succo-Gotoritm  Antiqui  (Lund, 
1853) ;  and  The  Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty,  ed.  by  Su-  Tiavers 
Twiss  (4  vols.,  London,  1871-76).  (T.  T.)  _ 

SEALING  WAX.  In  mediaeval  times,  when  the  princi- 
pal use  of  sealing  wax  was  for  attaching  the  impression  of 
.seals  to  official  documents,  the  composition  used  consisted 
of  a  mixture  of  Venice  turpentine,  beeswax,  and  colouring 
matter,  usually  vermilion.  The  preparation  now  employed 
contains  no  wax.  Fine  red  stationery  sealing  wax  is  com- 
posed of  about  seven  parts  by  weight  of  shellac,  four  of 
Venice  turpentine,  and  three  to  four  of  vermilion.  The 
resins  are  melted  together  in  an  earthenware  pot  over  a 
moderate  fire,  and  the  colouring  matter  is  added  slowly 
with'  careful  stirring.  The  mass  when  taken  from  the  fire 
is  poured  iiito  oiled  tin  moulds  the  form  of  the  sticks 
required,  and  when  hard  the  sticks  are  polished  by  passing 
them  rapidly  over  a  charcoal  fire,  or  through  a  spirit  flame, 
which  melts  the  superficial  film.  For  the  brightest  equali- 
ties of  sealing  wax  bleached  lac  is  employed,  and  a  pro- 
portion of  perfuming  matter — storax  or  balsam  of  Peru — 
is  added.  In  the  commoner  qualities  considerable  admix- 
tures of  chalk,  carbonate  of  magnesia,  baryta  white,  or 
jther  earthy  matters  are  employed,  and  for  the  various 
colours  appropriate  mineral  pigments.  In  inferior  waxes 
ordinary  resin  takes  the  place  of  lac,  and  the  dragon  gum 
of  Australia  (from  Xanthorrluea  hastilis)  and  other  resins 
are  similarly  substituted."  Such  waxes,  used  for  bottling, 
parcelling,  and  other  coarser  ap-plications,  run  thin  when 
heated,  and  are  comparatively  brittle,  whereas  fiue  wax 
should  soften  slowly  and  is  tenacious  and  adhesive. 

SEALKOTE.'    SeeSiALKOT. 

SEALS  ^  (Gr.  o-<j>payt^,  Lat.  sigillmn).  During  the 
mediaeval  period  the  importance  of  seals  Was  very  great, 
as  they  were  considered  the  main  proofs  of  the  authenticity 
of  all  sorts  of  documents,  both  public  and  private.-  That 
is  mjich  less  the  case  now,  the  WTitten  signature  being 
■thought  a  safer  guarantee  of  genuineness.  In  order  to 
make  iUicit  use  or  imitation  of  a  seal  difficult,  the  seal 
itself  was  usually  locked  up  and  guarded  with  special  care, 
and  in  the  case  of  royal  personages  or  corporate  bodies 
wa-s  often  made  a  very  complicated  work  of  art,  which  it 
would  have  been  almost  impossible  to  copy  exactly.  One 
very  curious  precaution  that  was  adopted  is  still  in  use 
with  the  corporate  seal  of  the  monasteries  of  Jlount  Athos. 
The  circular  mfitrix  ^  is  divided  into  four  quarters,  each 

^  For  antique  seals,  see  Gems,  Jewellery,  and  Ring. 

^  In  some  cases,  in  the  presence  of  ^fitnesses,  a  seal  which  did  not 
belong  to  the  signer  of  a  document  v/as  used  when  the  right  matrix  was 
not  at  hand.     This  has  naturally  caus;;-J  many  arcbsological  puzzles. 

^  The  word  "  seal "  is  often  used  to  denote  both  the  impression  made 


of  which  is  kept  by  one  of  the  four  epislatai  or  ruling 
monks ;  the  four  pieces  are  joined  by  a  key-handle,  which 
remains  in  the  custody  of  the  secretary.  Thus  it  is  only 
when  all  five  guardians  of.  the  various  parts  of  the  matrix 
meet  together  that  the  complete  seal  can  be  stamped  on 
any  document.  The  device  on  the  Mount  Athos  seal  is 
a  half-length  figure  of  the  Madonna  and  Child,  and  tho 
imprint  is  made  by  blackening  the  matrix  in  the  flame  of 
a  lamp  and  then  jiressing  it  on  the  paper  or  vellum  itself. 
Mediaeval  seals  were  applied  in  two  difi'ereut  ways :  in 
one  the  stamp  was  impressed  in  wax  run  on  tlie  surface 
of  tho  dociiment  (Fr.  plaque  or  en  placard) ;  in  tho  other 
the  wax  impression  was  suspended  by  cord  or  strips  of 
parchment  (Fr.  pendant).  The  latter  method  was  neces- 
sarily used  with  metal  seals  or  bullai  (see  below). 

For  the  sake  of  greater  security  in  the  case  of  plaque 
seals,  it  was  a  common  practice  from  the  12th  century 
onv/ards,  or  even  earlier,  to  make  a  ci'oss  cut  in  the  vellum 
of  the  document,  the  corners  of  which  were  then  turned 
back,  thus  forming  a  square  opening,  over  which  the  wax 
seal  was  stamped ;  the  turned-up  corners  helped  to  hold 
the  wax  in  its  place,  and  the  aperture  allowed  a  second 
matrix  to  be  applied  at  the  back.  This  was  usually  a 
smaller  private  seal  called  a  secretum.  Thus,  for  example, 
an  abbot  would  use  on  the  front  of  a. document  the  large 
corporate  seal  of  his  community,  and  on  the  back  would 
stamp  his  personal  seal  as  a  secretion. 

Till  the  12th  century  pure  white  bee.swax  was  generally 
used,  after  that  wax  coloured  green  or  red.  The  use  of 
shellac  or  other  harder  materials,  such  as  modern  sealing- 
wax,  is  of  recent  date.  Thus  it  was  usual  to  protect  the 
soft  wax  seals  by  some  sort  of  "  fender,"  often  a  wreath  of 
rushes  or  plaited  strips  of  paper  twisted  round  it ;  another 
method  much  employed  in  the  15th  century  was  to  cover 
the  seal  with  leaves  of  oak,  bay,  or  beech.  Pendant  seals 
were  often  encased  in  boxes  of  wood  or  cuir  bonilli,  which 
in  some  cases  are  very  richly  decorated.  From  the  13th- 
to  the  15th  century  original  royal  documents  are  usually 
on  fine  vellum  and  have  green  seals  hung  by  many-coloured 
silk  and  gold  thread,  while  office  copies  are  on  coarser 
vellum  and  have  white  seals  hung  by  parchment  strips. 
In  England  an  important  official,  called  the  clerk  of  the 
chafe-wax,  an  office  which  still  exists,  was  entrusted  with 
the  duty  of  softeiyng  the  wax  for  state  seals  over  a 
ehafing-brazier.  Two  different  methods  of  sealing  docu- 
ments, either  closed  or  open  for  inspection,  are  recorded 
in  the  legal  terms  "  letters  secret "  and  "  letters  patent." 

Owing  to  the  enormous  number  of  mediiEval  seals  whicl: 
still  exist,  and  their  frequently  great  historical  and  artistic 
importance,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  some  method  of 
classification,  especially  for  large  collections,  such  as  that 
of  the  British  JIuseum,  which  contains  about  25,000 
specimens,  and  the  very  important  one  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.*  The  chief  classes  are  these: — (1)  Ecclesi- 
astical.— (a)  Seals  belonging  to  offices,  such  as  those  of 
popes,  bishops,  abbots,  deans,  &c. :  (6)  common  seals  of 
corporate  bodies,  such  as  chapters,  religious  colleges,  monas- 
teries, and  the  like ;  (c)  official  seals  without  the  name  of 
the  officer ;  (d)  personal  seals,  with  or  without  a  name. 
(2)  Xay. — (a)  Koyal  seals,  including  those  of  queens  and 
royal  princes ;  (6)  official  seals  in  the  name  of  the 
sovereign  or  a  state  oflicial ;  (c)  common  seals  of  corporate 
bodies,  such  as  towns,  universities,  guilds,  schools,  hospi- 
tals, ic. ;  (d)  personal  seals  (not  being  royal)  with  effigies, 
heraldry,  merchants'  marks,  or  other  devices,  with  or  with- 
out a  name,  or  with  name  only,  or  with  legend  only. 

and  the  object  that  makes  the  impress.  More  correctly  the  latter  19' 
called  the  "matri.x,"  and  only  the  impression  is  called  the  "seal." 

*  This  valuable  collection  has  been  arranged  and  catalogued  by  Dr, 
C.  S.  Percival,  the  best  modem  authority  on  English  seals. 


SEALS 


587 


French  Royal  Seals} — The  earliest  and  most  complete 
series  of  seals  is  that  of  the  French  kings.  The  Carlo- 
vingian  and  Merovingian  monarchs  mostly  used  antique 
gems  or  pastes, — portrait  heads  being  selected  and  a 
legend  added  in  the  metal  Setting  of  the  matrix.  Charle- 
magne used  a  head  of  Jupiter  Serapis,-  Pippin  the  Short 
that  of  the  Indian  Dionysus.  The  British  Museum  pos- 
sesses a, seal  of  Odo  or  Eudes,  king  of  France  (888-898), 
impressed  from  a  fine  Greek  gem  of  the  3d  century  B.C., 
with  a  portrait  of  Seleucus  TV.  The  oldest  existing  matrix 
is  that  of  Lothaire  I.  (c.  817),  now  preserved  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  attached  to  an  altar-cross.  It  is  an  oval  intaglio 
in  rock  crystal,  with  a  laureated  portrait  and  the  legend 
■{•  XPE .  ADrrvA .  HLOTHAEIVM .  KEG. ;  it  is  not  an  antique, 
but  is  of  contemporary  Byzantino-Rhenish  work.  TiU  the 
time  of  Louis  VI.  (1108-1137)  these  seals  were  plaque,  but 
he  introduced  pendant  seals  about  1108  ;  and  counter- 
seals  at  the  back  were  first  used  by  Louis  VII.  (1137-80). 
The  grand  series  of  round  seals  with  an  enthroned  figure 
of  the  king  begins  with  the  Capet  Henry  I.  (1031-60). 
The  king  holds  a  sceptre  in  one  hand  and  a  flov/er  in  the 
other.  Those  of  the  queens  are  frequently  of  a  pointed 
oval  form,  with  a  standing  portrait  figure  holding  a  flower 
in  each  hand.  In  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  the  French 
royal  seals  were  elaborate  works  of  art,  with  a  finely  draped 
figure  of  the  king  seated  under  a  rich  canopy  on  a  throne, 
decor^ed  with  lions'  or  eagles'  heads ;  the  king  holds  a 
sceptre  in  each  hand.  The  queens'  seals,  of  a  round  or 
pointed  ova!  form,  are  also  very  beautiful,  with  a  graceful 
figure  standing  between  two  shields  under  a  rich  canopy. 
After  the  15th  century  there  was  a  lapid  decadence  in  the 
ro3'al  seals,  and  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  they  were 
of  the  most  tasteless  style,  far  worse  than  those  used  in 
England  at  the  same  date. 

English  Royal  Seals. — This,  which  is  .on  the  whole  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  royal  series,  begins  with  the  seal 
of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor (sea  fig.  1).^ 
'.riie  great  seal  of  Will- 
iam the  Norman  and 
his  successors  was  not 
plaque,  like  the  earlier 
ones,  but  pendant ;  it 
has  on  one  side  an 
enthroned  figure  of 
a  king  copied  from 
contemporary  French 
seals,  and  on  the  re- 
verse the  king  on 
horseback  armed  with 
spear  and  shield. 
These  two  ways  of 
representing  the  sovereign  have  been  used  on  all  the  royal 
seals  of  England  down  to  the  present  day.  By  degrees 
greater  elaboration  of  ornament  was  introduced  into  the 
throne  and  its  canopy.  In  Edward  III.'s  time  niches  with 
minute  statuettes  of  saints  were  added  at  the  sides  of  the 
obverse.  The  climax  of  magnificence  was  reached  in  the 
reign  of  Honry  Y.     On  the  obverse  of  his  seal  the  king 

'  Seo  Wailly,  Ellmmis  de  PaUographie,  vol.  !i.,  pi.  A.  ;  by  various 
authors,  Tresor  de  Ifuvi.  a  de  Glyptiquc,  vol.  i.,  Paris,  1834  (which 
contains  also  plates  of  English  royal  seals) ;  Douet-d'Arcq,  Coll.  de 
Sceaux  del'  Empire,  Paris,  1863-68;  Bulletin  de  la  Society  de  Sphra/fis- 
tiqne,  Paris,  v.y.  ;  D'Aaisy,  Reciieil  de  Sceaux  A'ormands,  Caen,  18.35. 

^  The  monks  of  Durham  also  used  a  gem  with  a  head  of  Jupiter 
Serapis,  round  which  was  added  the  legend  —  CAPVT  .  SANCTI  . 
OSWALD!. 

'  The  English  kings  before  the  Conquest  signed  usually  with  a  cross 
only,  but  a  few,  such  aa  Offa,  Ethelwulf,  and  Ethtlrcd,  occasionally 
ascd  seals,  especially  on  documents  containing  grants  to  St  Denis 
and  other  French  abbeys,  on  which  they  followed  the  French  custom  of 
affixing  plaque  senls. 


Fig.  1. — Seal  of  Edward  the  Confes-sor. 


sits  holding  the  orb  and  sceptre ;  the  gorgeous  canopy 
contains  statuettes  of  the  Virgin  and  two  saints,  and  at 
each  side  are  three  rows  of  statuettes  in  minute  canopied 
niches,  each  row  two  tiers  high ;  about  fifteen  minute 
figures  of  saints  and  angels  are  introduced  into  the  design. 
On  the  reverse  is  the  king  on  horseback,  bearing  a  sword 
and  shield ;  the  horse,  going  at  full  speed,  is  clothed 
with  richly  embroidered  heraldic  drapery,  and  on  its  head 
and  on  the  king's  is  a  lion  crest.  After  Henry  V.  the 
seals  began  to  decrease  in  magnificence,  and  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  the  new  taste  of  the  Eenaissance  began  to 
supplant  the  pure  Gothic  of  the  earlier  seals.  In  the  time 
of  Philip  and  ilary  both  sovereigns  appear  together,  seated 
under  canopies,  or  riding  side  by  side.*  The  great  seal 
of  the  Commonwealth  is  a  marvel  of  ugliness.  On  the 
obverse  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  interior  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  on  the  reverse  a  majj  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  Cromwell's  seal  has  an  equestrian  portrait 
of  himself,  and  its  reverse  the  arms  of  the  Commonwealth 
between  a  lion  and  a  dragon  as  supporters.  Little  is 
noticeable  about  the  seals  of  succeeding  sovereigns ;  that 
of  Victoria  is  minutely  cut,  but  is  very  poor  as  a  work 
of  art. 

Other  English  Seals. — Gilt  bronze  was  tue  commonest 
material  for  large  seals,  but  other  metals  were  used,  such 
as  gold,  silver,  and  lead,  also  jet  and  ivory,  especially 
before  the  Norman  Conquest.  Rock  crystal,  carnelian, 
and  sard  were  the  favourites  among  the  hard  stones  cut 
for  matrices.  Large  seals  were  usually  either  round  or  of 
a  pointed  oval  form  (as  in  figs.  2  and  3) ;  the  small  secreta 
were  sometimes  square,  triangular,  or  hexagonal,  as  well 
as  round  or  oval.^  The  most  elaborate  and  beautiful  of 
all  were  those  of  religious  corporations,  such  as  the  chapter 
seals  of  monasteries.''  These  are  among  the  most  exquisite 
works  of  art  that  the  Middle  Ages  produced,  especially 
during  the  14th  century,  and  exceed  in  delicacy  of  work- 
manship and  elaboration  of  design  the  finest  seals  of  all 
other  classes,  not  excepting  those  of  the  sovereigns.  Fig. 
2  shows  the  common  seal  of 
Boxgrove  priory  (Sussex), 
the  matrix  of  which  is  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  On 
one  side  is  a  figure  of  the 
Virgin  enthroned,  and  on 
the  reverse  a  representation 
of  .the  west  front  of  the 
priory  church,  with  open 
tracery  and  niches  contain- 
ing minute  statuettes.  This 
elaborate  matrix  is  made 
up  of  four  distinct  pieces 
of  gilt  bronze,  and  to  form 
the  perfect  seal  must  have 
been  a  work  requiring  con- 
siderable skill  and  patience. 
The  reverse  was  formed  by 
two  stamps  used  on  two 
.separate  plaques  of  softened  Fio.  2. — FourUcutli  century  seal  of 
wax  :    one  of  these  formed  Boxgrove  priory  ;  reverse, 

the  background  with  the  various  statuettes,  and  the  second 
was  used  to  stamp  the  open  tracery  v.-ork  of  the  front  of 
the  church  :  the  latter  when  hard  was  fitted   on  to  the 


*  A  variety  of  dcsi^  is  introduced  on  the  reverse  of  one  of  Queei^ 
Elizabeth's  seals  :  she  is  represented  standing,  holding  the  orb  and 
sceptre,  and  wears  a  dress  with  enormous  hoops.  Her  other  seal  has 
the  usual  equestrian  portrait  on  the  reverse. 

'  As  a  rule,  from  tho  12th  to  the  15th  century,  ecclcsia-stical  seaLs 
and  those  of  females  were  of  the  pointed  oval  form,  most  others 
being  circular  ;  there  are,  however,  many  excentions  ^o  *.his  jule. 

"  A  special  English  office  for  *,he  dicssmg  of  seals  is  printed  by 
Maskcll,  Mon.  Miltytiia,  f8S2,  vol.  iiL 


588 


SEALS 


impression  of  the  background,  and  thuS  a  sort  of  miniature 
model  of  the  church  was  made,  with  its  statues  and  the 
inner  planes  of  the  fa5ade  seen  through  the  open  tracery 
work, — the  effect  being  extremely  rich  and  delicate. '  When 
the  finished  obverse  and  reverse  had  been  fitted  together, 
the  legend  was  added  on  their  edges  by  means  of  the  fourth 
piece  of  the  matrix, — a  strip  of  bronze  with  letters  cut 
into  it  on  both  its 
edges ;  first  one 
side  and  then  the 
other  of  this  strip 
was  pressed  against 
the  rim  of  the  wax 
seal,  which  thus 
received  the  im- 
pression of  the 
complete  legend 
all  round  its  edge. 
The  seal  of  South- 
wark  priory,  also 
of  the  14  th  cen- 
tury, is  even  more 
elaborate,  as  both 
sides  have  open 
tracery  separately 
applied,  and  thus 
the  matrix  consists 
of  five  distinct 
pieces.  Many  of 
the  bishops'  seals, 
though  less  com 
plicated  in  design, 
are  of  equal  beauty 
to  those  of  the 
chapters.  The  common  design  has  a  standing  figure 
under  a  richly  decorated  canopy.  Fig.  3  shows  a  very 
beautiful  example,  the  seal  of  Eichard,  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham. The  standing  figure  of  the  bishop  in  mass  vest- 
ments is  modelled  with  wonderful  skill  and  shows  ex- 
treme taste  in  the  treatment  of  the  drapery;  the  legend  is 

S[igillum]     KICAEDI  .  DEI  .  GRA  .  DVKELMENSIS  .  EPL        A 

great  variety  of  sacred  subjects  occur  on  ecclesiasfcica!  seals 


Fia.  3.— Seal  of  Richard  de  Bury,  late 
14th  century. 


Fig.  4. — Seal  of  King's  College,  Cambridge, 

in  addition  to  single  figures  of  patron  saints;  the  most 
frequent  were  perhaps  the  Crucifixion,  the  Annunciation, 
the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  Virgin  enthroned 
in  Heaven  ;  small  figures  of  kneeling  worshippers  were 


often  added.  Fig.  4  shows  one  of  the  most  magnifisent 
of  this  class,  with.  In  the  centre,  a  figure  of  the  Virgin  in 
glory,  between  St  Nicholas  and  Henry  VI.,  ^each  under  a 
very  rich  canopy ;  at  the  sides  are  shields  charged  with 
England  and  France,  and  France  (modern)  alone,  held  by 
two  monks.'  This  very  beautiful  work  of  art  dates  about 
the  year  1443.  In  the  15th  century  the  ecclesiastical 
seals  began  to  fall  ofi'  in  richness  and  beauty,  and  after 
the  Eeformation  were  of  little  artistic  value.  Very  hand- 
some seals  were  used  by  lay  corporations,  especially  the 
municipalities  of  towns.  These  last  frequently  have  a 
careful  representation  of  the  town  itself,  with  its  circuit 
of  walls  or  that  of  its  chief  castle  or  cathedral,  and  thus 
often  afford  valuable  evidence  as  to  the  form  of  its  de- 
fences and  principal 
buildings.  Fig.  5 
shows  a  fine  example, 
3  inches  in  diameter, 
— the  corporate  seal 
of  Rochester,  made 
in  the  13th  century; 
it  has  a  minute  re- 
presentation of  the 
keep  of  Rochester 
Castle,  surrounded 
by  an  outer  circuit 
wall  and  a  moat.  On 
one  of  the  turrets 
of  the  gateway  is  a 

sentinel    blowing    a       „      ,     „         ,       ,    .„    ,    . 

,  ,  ,    °    J         Fio.  0. — Corporate  seal  of  Eocl'ester. 

signal  norn ;  legend, 

SIGILLVM  .  civ'iVM  .  ROFENSis.     The  reverse  has  the  same 

legend  repeated  round  the  scene  of  the  Crucifixion  of  St 

Andrew.     Other  corporation  seals  are  covered  wHh  small 

figures  under  elaborate  canopy  work,  much  lika  those  of 

the  ecclesiastical  foundations. 

Seals  of  hospitals  are  often  designed  in  a  similar  way, 
with  a  representation  of  the  hospital  building  very  minutely 
treated.  In  the  15th  century  seals  began  to  be  designed 
in  a  rather  pictorial  style,  which,  though  very  graceful,  is 
inferior  to  the  earlier 
and  more  architect- 
onic class.  Very 
magnificent  '  seals 
were  used  by  state 
officials  :  those  of 
the  lord  high  ad-  , 
miral  of  England  are  I 
especially  fine,  from 
the  beautiful  form  of 
the  ship  on  the  ob- 
verse. Fig.  6  shows 
that  of  the  earl  of 
Huntingdon,  who 
was  lord  high  ad- 
miral in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  In 
design  it  resembles 
those  of  the  admirals  of  the  previous  century.  On  the 
sails  are  embroidered  the  royal  arms  of  England. 

Among  private  seals  tho.se  of  powerful  barons  are  often 
large  and  very  beautifully  cut.  Fig.  7  shows  a  silver 
matrix,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  which  is  remarkable 
for  the  great  beauty  of  its  workmanship.  Its  legend  is 
SIGILLVM  .  ROBERTi  .  FiLii .  WALTERi.  On  it  an  armed 
knight,  of  the  time  of  Henry  III.,  is  riding  over  a  dragon, 
whose  tail  ends  in  a  scroll  of  very  beautiful  conventional 
foliage,  modelled  with    the  greatest  spirit  and   delicacy. 


Fig.  6.— Seal  of  Lord  High  Admiral 
Huntiugdon. 


^  This  class  of  seal  is  often  a  sort  of  miniature  reuroduction  of  £ome 
magnificent  altar  retable,  as  in  fig.  4. 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


589 


A  common  and  graceful  form  of  private  seal  in  the  1 3th 
and  14th  centuries  has  simply  a  shield  with  the  owner's 
arms  on  a  diapered 
background,  the 

■whole  enclosed  with- 
in many-cusped  tra- 
cery. Fig.  8  shows 
an  example  of  a  fine 
GriEco-Roman  gem, 
— a  carneliah  en- 
gravetl  with  a  female 
head,  full  face.  The 
14th-century  owner 
of  this  has  added  a 
metal  setting  with 
the    words.  CAPVT  . 

MARIE  .  MAGDALENE, 

to  give  it  a  sacred 
meanins.      The    li 


Fia.  7.— Seal  of  Robert  Fitzwalter,  c.  1270. 


gends  of  private  seals  or  secreta  were  often  chosen  in  allu- 
sion to  their  use ;  common  phrases  are  "  clausa  secreta 
tego,"  or  "  lecta  lege,  tecta  tege."  Many 
ingenious  devices  were  practised  to  enable 
the  sam-;  inatrix  to  give  two  or  more  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  impression.  In  some 
.cases  the  border  with  the  legend  was  so 
contrived  as  to  slide  up  the  handle,  so 
that  the  seal  could  be  made  either  with  pn,,  g,  _  Antiqi 
or  without  an  inscription.  Others  had  gem  used  as  a 
the  border  made  to  revolve  on  a  swivel,  private  seal. 
BO  as  to  supply  two  different  legends  ;  and  the  magnificent 
monastic  seals  (as. that  shown  in  fig.  2)  were  arranged  so 
as  to  give  a  perfect  seal  without  the  use  of  the  ela- 
borate open  tracery.  In  the  15th  and  IGth  centuries  mer- 
chants and  handicraftsmen  frequently  employed  devices 
connected  with  their  trade — either  some  tool  or  badge  or 
an  arbitrcT,ry  sign  used  as  a  trade-mark  ;  or  a  rebus  of  the 
owner's  name  was  used,  such  as  a  bolt  and  a  tun  (cask)  for 
the  name  Bolton.  The  use  of  seals  by  the  humbler  classes 
was  more  common  in  England'  than  abroad ;  even  bonds- 
men sometimes  had  seals,  both  before  and  after  the  Nor- 
man Conquest.     Seals  of  other  countries  mostly  followed 


the  came  fashions  as  chose  of  England,  though  of  course 
varying  in  design  and  workmanship  with  each  country. 
On  the  whole,  the  English  seals  were  superior  during 
their  best  period  (the  14th  century)  to  those  of  any  other 
country,  though  matrices  of  great  beauty  were  produced 
in  both  Germany  and  France.  In  Italy  less  care  and  skill 
were  usually  spent  on  seals,  partly  owing  to  the  greater 
use  of  metal  buUte  for  important  charters. 

Metal  Bullei. — These  are  necessarily  not  plaque  but  pen- 
dant, and  are  held  usually  by  cords  passed  through  a  hole 
in  the  seal.  Lead  was  the  metal  most  commonly  used, 
but  some  sovereigns  had  bulla;  struck  in  silver  or  gold, 
either  as  a  mark  of  their  own  dignity  or  to  confer  special 
honour  on  the  recipient  of  a  charter.  An  e.xtont  letter 
from  Petrarch  to  Charles  IV.  thanks  that  emperor  for  a 
diploma  of  the  rank  of  count,  and  especially  for  the 
honour  shown  to  him  by  the  attachment  of  gold  bullae 
to  the  document.  Lead  bullae  were  also  used  by  various 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  from  patriarchs  to  bishops,  but 
were  rarely  used  by  ecclesiastics  of  lower  rank.  In  some 
cases,  however,  especially  in  Sicily  and  Byzantium,  bull;e 
were  used  by  laymen  of  very  moderate  rank.  A  large  num- 
ber of  fine  papal  buUaB^  exist  dating  from  the  7th  century 
onwards.2  Since  the  time  of  Pope  Paschal  II.  they  have 
borne  heads  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul ;  previously  they-had 
such  simple  devices  as  crosses  or  stars,  with  the  name  of 
the  pontifl".  Another  early  series  of  bullss  begins  in  the  8th 
century  with  the  bulUe  of  the  patriarchs  of  Byzantium. 
Those  of  the  doges  of  Venice  exist  in  large  numbers,  bear- 
ing figures  of  St  Mark,  and  the  reigning  doge  kneeling 
before  him.  Existing  bulla;  of  Charlemagne  have  a  rude 
profile  portrait  crowned  v.'ith  a  diadem,  and  on  the  reverse 
the  monogram  of  karolvs  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 


Consult,  in  addition  to  the  works  named  above,  Thulemariu.'i, 
Pc  JSiJla.  Aurea,  Frankfort,  1724  ;  Romar-Buchner,  Die  Sierjcl  da- 
dcutsci..  Kaiser,  Frankfort,  1851  ;  Vossbcrg,  Gesch.  der  prcttssischcii 
Sicgcl,  Berlin,  1843  ;  '^cWy,  Siegel-Kxindc  des  Mittelaliers,  Vienna, 
1846  ;  Hcineccius,  JDe  SigilHs,  Frankfort,  1709  ;  Lepsius,  S2>hragis- 
tische  Aph^rismen,  Halle,  1842-43  ;  Caulfieid,  Sirjilla  Eeelcsirs 
Hiberniex,  London,  1853  ;  and  moro  especially  various  articles  in 
the  Gaz.  des  Beaux-Arts,  Arclixologin,  Archaeological  Journal,  and 
Proceedings  of  Other  antiquarian  societies.  (J.  H.  M.) 


SEAMANSHIP 


S' 


I EAMANSHIP  is  the  art  of  sailing,  manceuvring,  and 
preserving  a  ship  or  a  boat  in  all  positions  and  under 
all  reasonable  circumstances,  and  thus  involves  a  sound 
practical  knowledge  of  all  the  forces  by  which  she  may  be 
actuated  and  the  means  at  command  to  assist  or  counter- 
act them  ;  it  is  a  branch  of  applied  mechanics  acquired  by 
experience  and  study.  The  former  can  only  be  obtained 
thoroughly  in  toany  years  spent  at  sea,  in  personal  con- 
nexion vyith  the  work  of  the  ship  and  her  boats  ;  that  such 
training  should  commence  at  an  early  age  is  Very  desir- 
able, if  not  even  imperative.  The  practical  knowledge  so 
gained  should  be  supplemented  and  improved  by  reading, 
conversation,  and  discussion,  as  the  casualties  which  befall 
ships  are  so  varied  that  a  man  may  pass  forty  years  in  sea- 
going vessels  without  experiencing  one-half  of  those  which 
might  occur.  Many  of  the  old  maxims  are  still  applicable 
to  every  class  of  vessel  and  must  always  remain  so. 
Steam  The  terms  "ship"  and  "vessel"  are  here  intendca  to 

«n.l  Bail-  embrace  all  classes,  though  "  ship  "  is  generally  applied  to 
ingenips.  jjj^  larger  without  reference  to  form  or  description  unless 
such  is  specified.  Though  the  use  of  sails  has  been  greatly 
superseded  by  the  introduction  of  steam-power  both  in  the 
navies  of  all  nations  and  in  the  mercantile  marine,  it  is 
still  generally  admitted  that  seamanship  is  best  acquired 


on  board  a  vessel  which  is  dependent  upon  her  sails.  The 
construction  and  equipment  of  sailing  ships  had  reached  a 
high  point  of  perfection  at  the  time  steam  came  into  general 
use.  The  power  derived  from  the  steam-sngine  does  not 
change  any  of  the  former  conditions,  but  simply  adds 
another  element,  confined  to  propulsion  directly  ahead  or 
fifStern  (except  with  revcr.;ib!e  wheels  or  twin  screws), 
which  when  combined  with  sails  renders  a  ship  much  more 
manageable  and  safe, — that  is  to  say,  assuming  all  the 
forces  at  command  to  be  properly  applied.  Hence  it  is  very 
desirable  that  all  ocean-going  steam  vessels  should  have 
sufficient  sail-power  to  turn  them  round  (wear)  or  to  enable 
them  to  sail  with  the  wind  abeam  without  steam,  especially 
when  fitted  with  single  screws  or  with  paddle  wheels  which 
do  not  work  separately.  Twin  screws,  of  course,  give  a 
double  chance  as  far  as  the  engine  is  concerned ;  but  even 
with  that  advantage  the  loss  of  the  rudder  would  leave  the 
.ship  in  a  helpless  condition  if  she  had  not  efficient  head 
and  after  sails  to  balance  her  on  the  desired  course. 

At  present  the  excessive  desire  to  make  quick  passages 
has  greatly  augmented  the  danger  unavoidably  attending  a 
sea  voyage,  the  risk  as  well  as  the  violence  of  a  collision 


*  Tao  term  "  bull  "  for  a  papal  charter  comes  from  its  lead  bulla. 
'  See  Ficoroni,  Piomli  Antichi,  Rome,  1745. 


590 


SEAMANSHIP 


at  high  speed  in  thick  weather  being  thereby  much  in- 
creased. Through  the  want  of  masts  and  sails  there  is  a 
probability  of  total  loss  by  drifting,  helplessly  on  a  lee 
shore  during  a  gale,  or  by  foundering  "  in  the  trough  of 
the  sea."  In  spite  of  her  monstrous  size  (22,000  tons), 
the  "Great  Eastern,"  in  1863  or  1864,  with  her  six  com- 
paratively small  masts  and  weak  sails  was,  after  the  loss 
of  her  rudder,  very  roughly  used  by  the  waves  striking 
her  full  on  the  side.  She  was  in  the  position  which  is 
expressed  by  the  common  sea-phrase  "  wallowing  in  the 
trough  of  the  sea,"  from  which  her  crew  had  no  power  to 
extricate  her.  A  smaller  vessel  deeply  laden  in  such  a 
position  would  most  probably  have  foutidered,  leaving  no 
one  to  tell  the  tale.  Too  much  stress  is  laid  upon  the  re- 
tardation causeii  by  masts  and  rigging  when  steaming 
head  to  wind ;  it  is  the  pitching  and  plunging  motion  of 
the  ship  into  a  succession  of  waves  that  principally  retards 
her  speed.  If  the  waves  are  approaching  at  the  rate  of  10 
miles  an  hour  and  the  ship  is  steaming  against  them  at  a 
similar  rate,  they  will  strike  the  bows  with  a  force  equal 
to  20  miles  ah  llour.  When  a  ship  is  steaming  through 
comparatively  smooth  water  (sheltered  by  land)  against  a 
gale  of  wind,  her  speed  is  but  little  reduced  by  the  force 
of  the  wind  alone,  when  other  circumstances  admit  of  her 
working  full  power.  Storm-sails  only  require  short  masts, 
but  these  and  the  canvas  they  support  should  be  strong, 
which  is  not  the  case  in  the  merchant  service  generally. 
Duties  o'.  Every  seaman  is  expected  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
a  sef  (vith  the  rigging  of  the  vessel  in  which  he  serves,  and^ 
'°*°  when  in  charge  he  should  frequeuMy  examine  every  part, 
to  see  that  it  is  efficiently  performing  the  duty  assigned  to 
it,  being  neither  too  taut  nor  too  slack,  nor  suffering  from 
chafing,  wet,  or  other  injury.  He  should  be  capable  of 
repairing  or  replacing  any  part  with  his  own  hand  if 
necessary  alid  of  teaching  others  how  to  do  so.  He  need 
not  necessarily  be  a  navigator,  though  a  good  navigator 
must  be  a  seaman  ;  nor  is,  it  necessary  that  a  seaman 
should  be  a  shipbuilder,  a  mast-maker,  a  rope-maker,  or  a 
sail-maker,  but  he  should  possess  a  general  knowledge  of 
each  art,  especially  the  last ;  every  able  seaman  should  be 
able  to  sew  a  seam  and  assist  the  ship's  sail-maker  in 
repairing  sails.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  various 
:ircumstance3  have  brought  about  such  a  change  in  the 
system  of  rigging  ships,  in  both  the  British  navy  and  the 
mercantile  marine,  that  those  who  sail  in  them  seldom  see 
it  done.  Young  officers  were  in  former  times  frequently 
sntrusted  with  the  charge  of  day  watches,  during  which 
they  would  give  the  necessary  orders  for  making,  shorten- 
ing, or  trimming  sails,  perhaps  even  tacking  and  wearing. 
That  practice  gave  confidence  and  quickened  the  desire  to 
learn  more ;  it  was  more  frecpently  done  in  small  than  in 
large  ships.  ■  The  general  adoption  of  the  steam-engine  in 
ships  has  not  only  diminished  the  value  of  sail-power  but 
af  seamanship  also,  and  has  produced  such  a  change  in 
the  rig  that  instead  of  masts  and  yards  we  find  only  two 
or  three  poles.  In  the  British  navy  so  many  new  sciences 
have 'been  introduced  that  seamanship  takes  but  a  low 
place  among  them  -at  the  examination  of  a  midshipman, 
who  has  had  but  little  boat  duty  and  probably  found  the 
discussion  of  seamanship  in  his  mess-place  conti-ary  to 
rule.  The  rapidity  with  which  all  sail. and  mast  drill  is 
executed,  combined  with  the  perfection  of  the  "  station 
bill,"  renders  it  worse  than  useless  as  a  means  of  teaching, 
as  it  gives  a  false  confidence  which  fails  in  the  hour  of 
necessity,  when  the  accustomed  routine  is  thrown  out  by  a 
sail  actually  splitting  to  pieces  or  a  spar  snapping.  The 
tact  that  the  same  men  perpetually  do  the  same  thing  must 
tend  greatly  to  render  each  evolution  quick  so  long  as 
every  one  is  in  his  accustomed  place,  but  sickness  or  the 
absence  of  a  party  from  duty  will  disorganize  the  ship  for 


some  time,  as  the  general  usefulness  of  the  men  has  been 
cramped."  Sail  drill  in  harbour  is  open  to  grave  objec- 
tions :  unless  in  a  tide-way,  the  ship  must  be  invariably 
head  to  wind ;  for  ree.lng  and  furling  the  yards  are  laid 
square,  consequently  flat  aback  ;  both  earings  are  hauled 
out  at  once,  and  as  it  is  only  for  exercise  they  are  only 
half  secured.  Even  v/hen  reefing  top-sails  at  sea  either  for 
exercise  or  of  necessity  in  company  with  other  sliips,  the 
yards  are  laid  square  to  enable  the  men  to  get  readily  on 
the  weather-side ;  therefore,  if  on  a  wind,  the  sail  must  re- 
main aback  or  the  ship  must  be  kept  away  till  the  wind  is 
on  the  beam  in  order  to  shake  the  sail. 

The  foundation  of  all  teaching  of  seamanship  must  be  a  Knots, 
knowledge  of  the  knots,  bends,  and  splices,  and  their  use  j"'<:^«a 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  rigging  and  equipment  of  a  ^^  "" 
ship.^    Some  knots,  bends,  and  hitches  are  intended  to  afford 
security  as  long  as  desired,  and  then  to  be  easily  disengaged. 
Other  knots,  splices,  and  seizings  are  of  a  more  permanent 
character,  generally  continuing  as  long  as  the  rope  will  last. 


Fig.  2. 

Fig.  3. 

Fig.  1.— 0%-eihancI  Knot. 

Fig.  3. 

Fio.  2.— Figure-of-Eight  Knot. 

Fia.  4. 

-  Bowline  on  a  Bight. 

Overhand  Knot. — Used  at  the  end  of  ropes  to  prevent  their  unreeving  and  as 
the  commencement  of  other  knots.  Fig.  1  represencs  an  overhand  knot  hauled 
tight ;  for  an  illustration  of  the  same  not  hauled  tight  see  Knot,  vol.  xiv.  p. 

12S,  fig.  7.  -  .     r 

Figure-of-Eifjht  Knot  (fig.  2). — Used  only  to  prevent  ropes  from  unreeving  ;  it 
forms  a  large  knob. 

Ttce/A'iiof  (see  Knot,  hc.cit.,  figs.  8  and9).— First  form  an  overhand  knot;  then 
take  the  end  a  over  the  end  b  and  through  the  bight.'-  Ihis  knot  is  so  named 
froir.  being  used  in  tying  the  reef  points  of  a  sail,  since  it  will  not  jam.-  If  the 
end  o  were  taken  under  the  en'd  b,  a  granny's  knot  would  be  formed. 

Sou-Uiie  Ku'bt. — Lay  the  end  of  a  rope  a  over  the  standing  part  b  ;  form  ■with 
b  a  bight  c  over  a ;  take  a  round  behind  6  and  down  tbrough  the  bight  c. 
This  is  a  very  useful  knot,  fonning  a  loop  which  will  not  slip.  Sunning  bow- 
lines are  formed  by  making  a  bowline  roind  its  own  standing  part^aboV'e  6. 
It  i3  the  most  common  and  convenient  'temporary  running  noose.  See  Knot. 
I.e.,  figs.  11  aud  12. 


Fig.  5.  Fig.  6.  Fig.  S. 

Fio.  5.— Two  Half-Hitclres.  Fic.  7.— Cat's-paw. 

FiQ.  6.— Double  Blackwall  Hit^h.  Fic.  8.— Marling-Spike  Hitcu. 

Bou-Jine  on  a  Bight  (fics.  3,  4).— The  first  part  is  made  simitar  to  the  aboW 
with  the  double  part  of  the  rope  ;  then  the  bight  a  is  pulled  through  sufficient* . 
to  allow  it  to  be  bent  over  past  d  and  come  up  in  the  position  shown  in  fig. 
It  makes  a  more  comfortable  sling  for  a  man  than  a  single  bight. 
Ha!f-Hit-A. —V^ss  the  end  o  round  the  standing  part  b  and  through'  the  bight. 
^  A  person  wishing  to  make  sailor's  knots  need  not  be  deterred  by 
Ihe  want  of  material.M  nearly  all  that  are  here  represenled  were  m.^de, 
for  the  purpose  of  sketching  thera,  with  the  lashing  of  a  packing  case. 
2  For  an  explanation  of  this  and  other  technical   terms' isT^ .the 
glossary  on  p.  fi03  below. 


SEAMANSHIP 


591 


This  hitch  by  itself  round  a  large  object  would  not  hold  and  round  a  small  oue 
"°^i'„^S?V-H"S«(fe  5).--?hrh'Jfe?c!i  i'epeated;  this  is  commonly  used 
and  i^  capable  of  resifting  to  the  full  strength  of  the  rope.  A  stop  from  a  to 
the  standin'^  part  wiil  prevent  it  jamming.  .  ,    .. 

Clc^emich-Pti%s  the  end  a  round  a  spar  or  rope  and  cross  it  over  6,  its 
.tanS^i  rart  ■  pass  it  round  again  and  put  the  end  t.  through  the  second  bight, 
wfa  Wtch  is  cenerllly  nsed  at  right  anglos  to  the  object  and  ,3  improved  by 
S^tUneahalf.hitch  with  the  end  <=  rouSd  6.  When  pulled  in  a  line  with  the 
Simr  ft  beeomes  simply  two  half-hitches.     An  illustration  la  given  m  Kmot, 

^'i^fik'mckwaU  Bitch  (fig.  G).-Pass  the  end  a  twice  round  the  hook  and 
under  the  standing  part  !,  at  the  last  cross.  The  ordinary  Blacl^vjiU  tatel,  onlj 
cictends  to  the  first  cross  at  6,  and  is  quickly  formed  by  P^'^nS  *';=  b°twec ' 
a  jigger  through  the  bight  of  a  rope  so  that  the  end  may  be  jamnied  between 
it  and  the  standing  part,  as  from  b  to  a.  Used  for  setting  up  top.gallant  rigging 
and  similar  light  work  when  a  slip  is  of  little  consequence.  ..  „^,.„„.  „,, 

CnCs-naio  (fi'  7)  —Twist  up  two  parts  of  a  lanyard  in  opposite  directions  and 
hook  th?  ackle  in  the  eyes  i,  i.  A  piece  of  wood  should  be  placed  between 
?he  parts  atT   A  large  llnyaJd  should  be  clove-hitched  round  a  large  toggle 

stanSi'rpart  6 ;  then  'pals  the  nilrliug-spike  through  over  both  parts  of  the 
bight  and  under  the  part  6.    Used  for  tightemug  each  turn  of  a  seizing. 


Fig.  9.  Fig.  10.  Fig.  II. 

Fio.  9.— Fisherman's  Bend.  Fio.  10.— Studding-Sail  Halyard  Bend. 

FlG.  11.— Timber  Hitch. 
FUkermail's  Bend  (fig.  !>).— T.ake  two  turns  round  a  spar,  then  a  half-hitch 
round  the  standing  part;  and  between  the  spar  ^,nd  the  turns,  lastly  a  half- 
hitch  round  the  standing  part. 

Stndding.Sail  Halyard  Bend  (fig.  10).— Similar  to  the  above,  except  that  the 
end  is  tucked  under  the  first  round  turn  ;  this  is  more  snug.  A  viagnrts  hitch 
h.as  two  round  turns  and  one  on  the  other  side  of  the  standing  part  with  the 
end  through  the  bight. 

Timber  Hitch  (fig.  11).— Take  the  end  a  of  a  r"pe  round  a  spar,  then  round 
tile  standing  part  b,  then  several  times  round  its  own  part  c,  against  the  lay 
iif  the  rope. 


Fig.  12.  Fig.  13. 

Fio.  12.— Snaking. 
Fio.  13.— Carrick  Bend. 


bight:  take  the  next  strand  i  round  the  end  of  a;  take  the  last  strand  « 
round  the  end  of  b  and  through  the  bijlit  made  by  a ;  haul  the  ends  taut. 
A  double  mall  against  the  lay  (not  crowned)  makes  a  good  stopper.  A  ivhtUt 
knot  is  similar,  but  made  with  the  lay.  Fig.  21  of  art.  Knot,  I.e. ,  represents  a 
single  wall  knot.    ■  „        ,  ,  ^  i,.         ,  „,.„. 

iiKdU  Wall  Crotcnfd.- Form  a  single  wall,  and  l.ij  one  of  the  ends  a,  o\-r 
the  knot ;  lay  b  over  a,  and  c  over  b  and  through  the  bight  of  a ;  haul  the 
ends  taut.     See  Knot,  I.e.,  fig.  22.  j     ,1        1  t  ti  • 

Douhh  Wall  and  Double  Croii.n.-Form  a  single  wall  crowned;  then  let  t he 
ends  follow  their  own  parts  round  until  all  tlio  parts  appear  double  :  put  t  le 
ends  down  through  the  knot  A  very  excellent  and  generally  used  cable- 
stopper.     See  Knot,  I.e.,  fig.  23.  ™  ,      ^,      «    ^    .       ,  , 

Matthrm  irn!;.fr.-^Unlay  the  end  of  a  rope.  Take  the  first  strand  round 
the  rope  and  through  its  own  bight :  tlie  second  strand  round  t  le  rope,  through 
the  biLht  of  the  first,  and  through  its  own  bight ;  the  third  tl, rough  all  three 
bights!  Haul  all  taut.  An  easily  made  and  useful  knot.  Illustrations  are 
given  in  Knot,  I.e..  figs.  24  and  25.  ,  i,       ,.      ,.  t  *ii  u 

Inside  Clinch  (fig.  14)  — Tne  end  is  bent  close  round  the  standing  pait  till  It 
forms  a  circle  and  a  half,  when  it  is  securely  seized  at  a,  b,  and  c,  thus  luak  ing  a 
running  eye  ;  when  taut  round  anything  it  jams  the  end.  It  isused  for  securing 
hemp  fables  to  ancliors,  the  standing  parts  of  topsail  sheets,  and  for  many 
other  purposes.  If  the  eye  were  formed  outside  the  bight  an  oulside  cUurh 
would  be  made,  depending  entirely  on  the  seizings,  but  more  ready  for  slippinR. 

;.fi*(ii»,iian's  Hilah  (lig.  1.5).— Take  two  round  turns  inside  the  biglit  t  e 
same  as  a  half-hitch  repeated  ;  stop  up  the  end  ;  or  let  another  half-lutcli  Ua 


taken  or  held  by  hand.     Used  for  hooking  a  tackle  for  a  temporary  purpose. 


n,;.  14.  Tig.  '.<■ 

Fin.  14.— Inside  Clinch. 
Flo.  15.— Miiishipinan's  Hitch. 

Siirttin^  (fig.  12). — This  consists  of  turns  and  crossings,  the  latter  taken 
diagonally  witii  a  marling  hitch  each  time.  Used  to  keep  wooldinrs  and  seiz- 
ings in  place.  Tlie  same  term  fs  applied  to  lines  between  the  backstays  to 
keep  a  broken  part  from  falling. 

Cttrrtcfc  Bend  (tig.  13).— Lay  the  end  of  one  hawser  over  its  own  part  to  form 
a  bight  as  f",  [» ;  pass  the  end  of  another  hawser  up  through  that  bight  near  h, 
going  out  over  the  first  end  at  c,  crossing  under  the  first  long  part  and  over  its 
cndatrf,  then  under  both  long  parts,  forming  the  loopn,  and  above  the  first 
short  part  at  b,  terminating  at  the  end  e",  in  the  opposite  direction  vertically 
and  horizontally  to  the  other  end.  The  ends  should  be  securely  stopped  to  their 
respective  standing  parts,  and  also  a  sto]i  put  on  tlie  becket  or  extreme  iiid  to 
prevent  It  catching  a  pipe  or  chock  ;  in  that  form  this  is  the  best  quick  means 
of  uniting  two  large  hawsers,  since  they  cannot  jam!  When  large  hawsers  have 
to  work  through  sinall  pipes,  gnod  srcurity  may  bo  obtained  either  by  passing 
ten  or  twelve  taut  racking  turns  with  a  suitable  strand  and  securing  each 
end  to  a  standing  part  of  the  hawstir,  or  by  taking  half  as  many  round  turns 
taut,  crossing  the  enrls  between  tlie  liawsers  over  the  seizing  and  reef.knotting 
the  cndB. .  Tliis  sliould  be  repeated  in  three  places  and  the  extreme  ends  well 
stopped.  ''Connecting  hawsers  by  bowline  knots  Is  very  objectionable,  as  tlie 
bend  Is  largo  and  the  knots  jam. 

Sheet  Tlfiirf.— Pans  the  end  of  one  rope  throngh  the  bight  of  another,  round 
both  parts  of  the  other,  and  under  its  own  standing  part.  Used  for  bending 
small  sheets  to  the  clews  of  sails,  which  present  bights  ready  for  the  hitch. 
An  ordinary  net  is  composed  of  a  series  of  sheet  bends,  ftec  Knot,  I.e.,  fig.  20. 
A  ipeaiKi-'i  knnt  is  made  like  a  sheet  bend. 

6'intfU  Walt  A'nof. — Unlay  the  end  cf  4  rope,  and  with  the  strand  a  fonn  a 


Fio.  16.— Turk's  Head.     Fio.  IV.— Spanish  Windlass. 


Fig.  18.-Slings. 


Turl's  Head  (fig.  16).— With  fine  line  (very  dry)  maks  a  clove  hitch  rouu  1 
the  rope ;  cross  the  bights  twice,  passing  an  eiul  tlie  reverse  way  (up  or  down) 
each  time  ;  then  keeping  the  whole  siiread  flat,  let  each  end  follow  its  own 
part  round  and  round  till  it  is  too  tight  to  receive  any  more.  U:cd  as  an 
ornament  variously  on  side-rones  and  foot-ropes  of  jibboonis.  It  may  also  be 
made  with  three  ends,  two  formed  by  the  same  piece  of  line  secured  through 
the  rope  and  one  single  piece.  Form  rvith  thein  a  diamond  knot ;  then  eacli 
end  crossed  over  its  neighbour  follows  its  cvn  part  as  above. 

Spanish  ll'iudfass  (fig.  I").— An  iron  bar  and  two  niarlir.g-spikes  are  taken ; 
two  parts  of  a  seizing  are  twisted  like  a  cat's-paw  (fig.  7),  passed  round  the 
bar,  and  hove  round  till  sufficiently  taut.  In  heaving  shrouds  together  to 
form  an  eye  two  round  turns  are  taken  with  a  strand  and  the  two  ends  hove 
upon.  Wlien  a  lever  is  placed  between  the  parts  of  a  long  lashing  or  frapping 
and  hove  round,  we  have  what  is  also  called  a  Spanish  windlass 

SlivffS  (hg.  18).— This  is  simply  the  bight  of  a  rope  turned  up  over  its  own 
part :  it  is  frequently -made  of  chain,  when  a  shackle  (bow  up)  tal;es  the  place 
of  the  bight  at  s  and  another  at  y,  connecting  the  two  ends  with  tlie  part  which 
goes  round  the  mast.head.  Used  to  sling  lower  yards.  For  boat's  yards  it 
should  be  a  grummet  with  a  thimble  seized  in  at  i,-.  As  the  tendency  of  all 
yards  is  to  cant  forward  with  the  wei-ilit  of  the  sail,  the  part  marked  by  an 
arrow  should  be  the  fore-side,— easily  illustrated  by  a  round  ruler  and  a  piece 
oftwiue. 


Fig.  20. 


Fio.  21.— Turning  in  a  Dcad-Ey« 
end  up. 


Fio.  19.— Sprit-Sail  Sheet  Knot 
Fio.  20.— Turning  fn  a  De.ad-Eye  Cutter- 
Stay  fashion. 

Spril.Sail  Sheet  Knot  (fig.  19).— This  knot  consists  of  a  double  wall  and  double 
crown  made  by  the  two  ends,  consequently  with  six  strands,— wifh  the  ends 
turncfl  down.  Used  formerly  in  the  clews  of  sails,  now  as  an  excellent  stopper, 
a  hashing  or  sh,ickle  being  placed  at  s,  and  a  lanyard  round  the  head  at  t. 

Turning  in  a  Dead-Eye  C'ii«ir..SIni/  fashion  (fig.  20). -A  bend  is  made  in  the 
stay  or  shroud  round  its  own  part  and  hove  togelher  with  a  bar  and  stninil ; 
two  or  three  seizings  diminishing  in  size  (one  round  and  One  or  two  either 
round  or  flat)  arc  hove  on  taut  and  snug,  the  end  being  at  the  side  of  the  fellow 
part.     Tlic  dead-eye  is  put  in  and  the  eye  driven  down  wltli  a  commander. 

Turning  in  a  Dead-Eye  end  up  (fig.  21).-Tho  shroud  is  measured  round  the 
dead.eye  and  marked  where  a  thloat.seizing  is  hove  on  ;  the  dead-eye  s  then 
forced  into  its  place,  or  it  may  be  put  in  first.  Tlic  end  beyond  a  is  taken  u]. 
taut  and  secured  with  a  round  seizing ;  higher  still  the  end  is  secured  by 
another  seizing.  As  it  is  important  that  the  lay  should  alw-ays  be  kept  in 
the  rope  as  much  as  possible,  these  eyes  should  be  formed  conformahy,  either 
rightdianded  or  left.handed.  It  is  easily  seen  which  way  a  rope  would  natur- 
ally kink  by  putting  a  little  extra  twist  into  it.  A  shroud  whose  dcad-cye  is 
tuiTied  in  end  up  will  boar  a  fairer  strain,  but  is  more  dependent  on  the  seizings  ; 
the  under  turns  of  the  throat  are  the  first  to  break  and  the  olliors  the  first  to 
Klin  With  the  cntterstay  fashion  the  standing  part  of  the  shroud  gives  way 
under  the  nip  of  the  eye.  A  rope  will  alford  the  greate-.t  rcsistam-o  to  strain 
when  secured  round  largo  thimbles  with  a  straight  end  and  a  sufliclent  number 
of  flat  or  racking  seizings.  To  splice  shrouds  rounil  deaibeycs  is  objfctionab. 
on  account  of  opening  the  Btrands  and  admitting  water,  thus  hastening  decay. 
I  In  small  vessels,  especially  yachts.  It  is  admissible  on  the  score  of  neat  iicss ;  10 


592 


SEAMANSHIP 


,  22.— Short 


Shroud  Knot. 


that  case  a  round  seizing  la  placed  between  the  dead-eye  and  the  eplice.  The 
dead-oye3  should  be  in  diameter  1 J  times  the  circumference  of  a  hemp  ishroud 
and  thnce  that  of  wire;  the  lanyard  should  be  half  the  nominal  size  of  hemp 
find  tlie  same  stze  as  wire;  thus,  henip-shroiid  12  inches,  wire  6  inches,  dead- 
eye  18,  lanyard  6  inches. 

Sliort  Splice. — T!ic  most  common"  description  of  splice  is  ivhen  a  rope  is 
lengthened  by  another  of  the  same  size,  or  neai-ly  so.  Fig.  22  represents  a  splice 
of  this  kmd :  the  strands 
have  been  unlaid,  married, 
and  passed  through  with 
the  assistance  of  a  mailing- 
spike,  over  ons  sti-and  an.l 
i.nder  the  next,  tuice  each 
way.  The  endsaie  then  cut 
off  close-  To  render  the 
splice  neater  the  strands 
should  have  been  halved  before  turnin_c;  them  in  a  second  time,  the  upper 
half  of  each  strand  only  being  turned  in ;  then  all  are  cut  off  smooth.  Jiye- 
SpHce.— Unlay  the  strands  and  place  them  upon  the  same  rnpe  spread  at 
such  a  distance  as  to  j^ive  the  si;:c  of  _thc  eye  ;  enter  tlic  centre  stiaud  (unlaid) 
luider  a  strand  of  the  rojie  (ns  abuve)  and  the  other  two  in  a  similar  manner  on 
their  respective  sides  of  the  Iti-st ;  taper  each  end  and  pass  tliein  throujju  again. 
If  neatness  is  desired,  reduce  the  ends  and  p.is3  tlieni  thvougli  once  more  ;  cut 
off  smooth  and  serve  the  part  disturbed  fightfj'  with  suitable  hard  line.  Uses 
too  numerous  to  mention.  CiU  Up! kc  — Ua.de  in  a  similar  manner  to  an  eye- 
splic^  biit  of  two  pieces  of  rojie,  therefore  with  two  splices.  Used  for  mast- 
head pendants,  jib-guys,  breast  backstays,  and  even  odd  shrouds,  to  keep  the 
eyes  of  the  rigging  lower  by  one  part.  It  is  not  so  strong  as  two  separate  eyes. 
Jlorse-Shoe  Sphce.—tila.de  similar  to  the  above,  but  one  part  much  shorter  than 
the  other,  or  another  piece  of  rope  is  spliced  across  an  eye,  forming  a  horse- 
shoe with  two  long  legs.  Used  for  b-ick-ropes  on  dolphin  striker,  backstays 
(one  on  each  side),  nnd  cutter's  runner  pendants.  Long  Splice.— The  strands 
must  be  tinlaid  about  three  times  as  much  as  for  a  short  splice  and  married, — 
care  being  taken  to  preserve  the  lay  or  slia  pe  of  each.  Unlay  one  of  the  strands 
still  further  and  f'">liow  up  the  vacant  space  with  the  corresponding  strand  of 
tlie  other  part,  fitting  it  firmly  into  the  rope  till  only  a  few  inches  remain. 
Treat  the  otlier  side  in  a  sinular  manner.  There  will  then  appe.ar  two  long 
strands  in  the  centre  and  a  long  and  a  short  one  on  e?.'-h  side.  The  splice  is 
I'ractically  divided  into  three  distinct  parts;  at  each  the  strands  are  divided 
and  the  corrcijponding  halves'  knotted  (as  shown  on  the  top  of  fig.  24)  and 
turned  in  twice.  Tl-.e  Inlf  strand  m.ay,  if  desired,  be  still  further  reduced 
bcrore  the  halves  arc  turned  in  for  the  si-uoud  tiuie.  Tliis  and  all  otlier  splices 
should  be  wtll  stretched  and  hammered  into  shape  before  the  ends  are  cut  off. 
Tlie  long  splice  alone  is  adapted  tn  running  ropes. 

Shroud  A'fior  (fig.  23). — Pass  a  stop  at  such  distance  from  each  end  of  the 
broken  shrond  as  to  afford  sufficient  length  of  strands,  when  it  is  unlaid,  to 
foiTU  a  single  wall  knot  on  each 
side  after  the  parts  have  been 
married ;  it  will  then  appear  as 
represented  in  tie  figure,  the 
strands  having  bf  en  well  tarred 
and  hove  taut  sc  ^aratcly.  The 
part  a  prondes  t  le  knot  on  the 
opposite  side  and  ti;e  ends  fe,  h ; 
tlic  part  c  provide  j  the  knot  and 
the  ends  t?,  d.  Alter  the  knot  has  been  well  stretched  the  ends  are  tapered, 
laid  smoothly  between  the  sti-ands  of  the  shroud,  and  firmly  served  over.  Tliis 
knot  is  used  when  shrouds  or  stays  are  Viokcu.  French  Shroud  Knot. — Marry 
the  parts  with  a  Similar  amount  of  en^^  ns  before  ;  stop  one  set  of  strands  t^ut 
up  on  the  shroud  (to  keep  the  parts  together) ;  and  turn  the  ends  back  on 
their  own  part,  fcrmiug  bights.  Make  a  sii'gle  wall  knot  with  the  other  three 
stiands  round  the  said  bights  and  shroud  ;  haul  the  knot  taut  first  and  stretch 
tlie  whole;  then  licave  down  the  bights  close:  it  will  lo.ik  like  the  ordinary 
shroud  knot.  It  is  very  liable  to  slip.  If  the  ends  by  which  the  wall  knot  are 
made  after  being  hove  were  passed  through  the  bights,  it  would  make  the 
knot  stronger.     Tlie  ends  would  be  tapcuM  and  served. 

Fiejnish  Eye  (fig.  24).— Secure  a  spar  or  toggle  twice  the  circumference  of  the 
rope  intended  to  oe  rove  through  the  eye  ;  imlay  the  rope  which  is  to  form  the 
eye  about  three  times  its  circumfcreucr,  at  ^ 

which  jiart  i>lace  i  strong  whipping.  Point 
the  rope  vertically  under  tl>e  eye,  and  bind 
it  taut  up  by  the  core  if  it  is  four-strandei 
rope,  otherwise  by  a  few  yarns.  While  doiit:^ 
so,  airange  six  or  twelve  pieces  of  spun-y.ii  ii 
at  equal  distances  on  tlie  wood  and  exactly 
halve  the  number  of  yarns  that  have  been 
xuilaid.  If  it  is  a  small  rope,  select  two  or 
three  yarns  from  each  side  near  the  centre  ; 
cross  tliein  over  the  top  at  a ;  and  half  knot 
them  tightly.  So  continue  till  all  are  ex- 
j>cnded  and  drawn  down  tightly  on  the  op- 
posite side  to  that  from  which  they  came, 
being  thoroughly  intermixed.  Tic  the  pieces 
of  spun-yain  which  wore  placed  under  the 
eye  tightly  round  various  jjarts  to  keep  the 
eye  in  shape  when  taken  off  the  spar,  tiU 

they  are  replaced  by  turns  of  marline  hove  on  .is  taut  as  possible,  the 
hitches  fonuing  a  central  line  outside  the  eye.  Heave  on  a  good  .<;cizing  of 
spun-yarn  clobC  below  the  spar  and  another  between  six  and  twelve  inches 
below  the  first ;  it  may  then  be  parcelled  and  served  ;  the  eye  is  served  over 
twice,  and  \vc\\  tarred  each  time.  As  large  rojies  are  composed  of  so  many 
yarns,  a  gi-oater  number  must  be  knotted  over  the  toggle  each  time  ;  a  4-incli 
rope  has  132  yarns,  which  would  require  22  knottings  of  six  each  time;  a 
10-tnch  rope  has  "834  yarns,  therefore,  if  ten  are  taken  from  each  side  eveiy 
tune,  about  twice  that  number  of  hitches  will  be  required;  sometimes  only 
half  the  yarns  are  hitched,  the  others  being  merely  passed  over.  The  chief 
Use  of  these  eyes  has  been  to  form  the  collare  of  stays,  the  whole  stay  in  each 
case  having  to  be  rove  through  it, — a  veiy  inconvenient  device.  It  is  almost 
superseded  for  that  purpose  by  a  leg  spliced  in  the  stay  and  lashing  eyes  abaft 
the  mast,  for  which  it  is  commonly  used  at  present.  This  eye  is  not  always 
called  by  the  same  name,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  cilHng  it 
ft  Flenush  eye,  Ropenvaktr's  Eye^  which  also  has  alternative  names,  is  formed  by 
taking  out  of  a  rope  one  strand  longer  by  G  inches  or  a  foot  than  the  required 
eye,  then  placing  the  ends  of  the  two  strands  a  similar  distance  below  the  dis- 
turbance of  the  one  strand,  that  is,  at  the  size  of  the  eye  ;  the  single  strand  is 
led  b.ick  through  the  vat-ant  space  it  left  till  it  anives  at  the  neck  of  the  eye, 
with  a  similar  length  of  sjure  end  to  the  other  two  strands.  They  are  all 
seized  together,  sci-aped,  tapered,  marled,  and  served.  The  principal  merit 
is  neatness. 

Mouse  on  a  Slati. — Formed  by  turns  nf  coarse  spun-yam  hove  taut  round  the 
stay,  over  parcelling  at  the  requisite  distance  from  the  eye  to  form  the  collar  ; 
assistance  is  given  by  a  padding  of  short  yarns  distributed  equally  round  the 


Fig.  2-i.— Flemish  Eye. 


Fioi  25.— Rolling  Hitch, 
J  part.     This  Is  very  useful,  as  it 


rope,  which,  after  being  firmly  secured,  especially  at  what  la  to  be  the  under 

part,  are  turned  back  over  the  first  layer  and  seized  do^Ti  again,  thus  making 

a  shoulder ;  sometimes  it  Is  formed  with 

parcelling  only.     In  either  case  it  is  finished 

by  marling,  followed  by  serving  or  grafting. 

The  use  is  to  prevent  the  Flemish  eye  in 

the  end  of  the  stay  from  slipping  up  any  , 

farther. 

lioUiiig  Hitch  (fig.  25).— Two  round  turns 
are  taken  round  a  spar  or  large  rope  in  the 
direction  in  which  it  is  to  be  hauled  and 
one  half-hitch  on  the  other  side  of  the  ha-ding 
can  bo  put  on  and  off  quickly. 

Koujid  Sdzing  (fig.  26). — So  named  when  the  rope  it  secures  does  not  cro.s« 
another  and  there  are  three  sets  of  turns.    Tlie  size  of  the  seizing  linfe  is  about 
one-sixth  (nominal)  that  of  the  ropes  to  be 
secured,  but  varies  according  to  the  number 
of  turns  to  be  taken.     An  eye  is  spliced  in  1 
the  line  and  the  end  rove  througli  it,  em- 
biacing  both  parts.     If  either  part  is  to  be  - 
spread  open,  commence  fartlicst  from  that 
part ;  place  taned  canvas  tuider  the  seizing  ; 
pass   the   line  round  as  many  times  (with 

much    slack)    as     it    is    intended    to    have  Fio.  2fi— Round  Seizing, 

nnder-turus  ;  and  pass  the  end  back  through 

them  all  and  tJirongh  the-eye.  Secure  the  eye  from  rendciing  round  by  the 
ends  of  its  splice  ;  licave  the  timis  on  with  a  inarling-spike  (see  fig.  ^,  i>erliafis 
seven  or  nine;  haul  the  end  through  taut;  and  commence  again  the  riding 
turns  iu  the  hollows  of  the  first.  If  the  end  is  not  taken  back  through  the  eye 
but  pushed  up  between  the  last  two  tiuns  (as  is  sometimes  recommended), 
the  riders  must  bo  passed  the  opposite  way  in  order  to  follow  the  directien 
of  the  under-turns,  which  are  always  one  more  in  number  than  the  riders. 
When  the  riders  are  complete,  the  end  is  forced  between  the  last  lower  turns- 
and  two  cross  turns  are  taken,  the  end  coming  up  where  it  went  down,  when 
a  waU  knot  is  made  with  the  strands  and  the  ends  cut  close  ;  or  the  end  may 
be  taken  once  round  ths  shroud.  TJu-oat  Snzing.—Two  ropes  or  parts  of  ropes 
are  laid  on  each  other  pai-allel  and  receive  a  seizing  similar  to  that  shown  in 
fig.  21,- that  is,  with  upper  and  riding,  but  np  cross  turns.  As  the  two  parts 
of  rope  are  intended  to  turn  up  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  they 
were  secured,  the  seizing  should  be  of  sto^iter  line  and  short,  not  excepd- 
ing  seven  lower  and  six  riding  turns.  The  end  is  better  secured  with  a  turn 
round  the  standing  part.  Used  for  turning  in  dead-eyes  and  variously.  Flat 
/firing.— Commenced  similarly  to  the  above,  but  it  has  neither  riding  nor 
cross  turns. 

Jiacking-Seizinfr  (fig.  27).— A  running  eye  having  been  spliced  round  one  part 
of  the  rope,  the  line  is  passed  entirely  round  the  other  part,  crossed  back  round 
the  first  part,  and  so  on  for  , 

ten  to  twenty  turns  accord-  t  _  _  _  _    _«.,5« 

ing  to  the  expected  strain,  -=7^ 
every  turn  being  hove  as  "^ 
tight  as  possible,  after 
which  round  turns  are 
passed  to  fill  the  spaces  at 
the  back  of  each  rope,  by 
taking  the  end  a  over  both 
parts  into  the  hollow  at  &, 
returning  at  c,  and  going 
over  to  d.  When  it  reaches 
e  a  turn  may  be  taken  round 
that  lope  only,  the  end  rove  under  it,  and  a  half-hitch  taken,  which  will  fonn. 
a  clove  hitch  ;  knot  the  end  and-  cut  it  close.  When  the  shrouds  ace  wire 
(which  is  lialf  the  size  of  hemp)  and  the  end  turned  up  round  a  dead-eye  of  any 
kind,  wii-e -seizings  are  pi-eferable.  It  appears  very  undesirable  to  have  wire 
rigging  combined  with  plates-or  screws  for  setting  it  up,  as  in  case  of  accident 
—such  .13  that  of  the  mast  going  over  the  side,  a  shot  or  collis.on  breaking  the 
ironwork — the  seamen  are  powerless. 

Diamond  Knot  (figs.  2S,  20).— Tlie  rope  must  be  unlaid  as  far  as  the  centra  If 
the  knot  is  required  there,  and  the  strands  ha:idled  with  gre.it  care  to  keep 
the  lay  in  them.     Three  bights  are  turned  ^ 

upas  in  fig.  2S,  and  the  eufl  of  «  is  t.^ken 
over  b  and  up  the  bight  c.  The  end  of  h  is 
taken  over  c  and  up  through  n.  The  eml 
c  is  taken  over  <i  and  through  6.  When 
hauled  taut  and  the  strands  are  laid  up 
again  it  will  appear  as  in  fig.  20.  Any 
number  of  knots  may  be  made  on  the  same 
rojie.  They  were  used  on  man-ropes,  the 
foot  -  ropes  on  the  jibboom,  and  similar 
places,  where  it  was  necessary  to  give  a 
good  hold  for  the  hands  or  feet.  Turk's 
lieads  are  now  generally  used.  Double  Dia- 
moTjd. — Made  by  the  ends  of  a  single  dia- 
mond following  their  own  pait  till  the 
knot  is  repeated.  Used  at  the  upper  end 
of  a  side  rope  as  an  ornamental  stopper- 
knot. 

Stn^pping-BhcTcs. — There  are  various  modes  of  securing  blocks  to  ropes  ;  the 
most  simple  is  to  splice  an  eye  at  the  end  of  the  rope  a  Uttle  longer  than  th« 
block  and  pass  a  round 
seizing  to  keep  it  ih  place  ; 
such  is  the  case  with  jib- 
pendants.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  parts  of  a  strop 
combined  should  possess 
greater  strength  than  the 
parts  of  the  fall  which  act 
again.st  it.  The  shell  of 
an  ordinary  block  should 
be  about  three  times  the 
circumference  of  the  rope 
which  is  to  reeve  through 
it,  as  a  9-inch  block  for  a 
3 -inch  rope;  but  Piuall 
ropesrequire  larger  blocks 
in  proportion,  as  a  4-inch 
Mock  for  a  1-inch  rope. 
When  the  work  to  be  done 
is  very  important  the 
blocks  are  much  larger: 
brace -blocks  are  more 
than  fi\e  times  the  nominal  size  of  the  brace.  Leading-blocks  and  sh  n\  f's  v 
racks  arc  generally  smaller  thaa  the  blocks  throush  which  the  ropes  jm  -..  fjiihet 


Racking  Seizing. 


Fics.  2S,  20. — Diamond  Knot. 


Fig.  30.~Gnininict-Strop. 


SEAMANSHIP 


593 


^ 


^ 


la 


Fio.  31.— Double 
Strop 


Bway,  which  appears  to  bq  a  mistake,  as  more  pnwtr  is  lost  by  friction.  A 
clamp-block  should  be  double  the  uominal  size  of  tho  rope.  A  single  strop 
may  be  made  by  joining  the  end:,  or  a  rope  of  sufficient  length  to  go  round  the 
block  and  thimble  by  a  common  short  splice,  which  resta  on  the  crown  of  the 
block  (the  opposite  end  to  the  thimble)  and  is  stretched  into  place  by  a  jigger; 
a  strand  is  then  passed  twice  round  the  space  between  the  block  and  the 
thimble  and  hove  tai-t  by  a  Spanish  windlass  to  cramp  the  parts  together  ready 
for  the  reception  of  a  small  round  seizing.  The  cramping  or  pinching  into 
shape  is  sometimes  done  by  machinery  invented  by  a  rigger  in  Portsiuouth 
dockj-ard.  The  strop  may  be  made  the  required  length  by  a  long  splice,  but 
It  would  not  possess  any  advantage. 
'  Gnimmet-Strop  (fig.  30).— Made  by  unlaying  a  piece  of  rope  of  the  desired  size 
about  a  foot  more  tban  three  times  the  length  required  for  the  strop.  Place 
the  centre  of  the  rope  round  the  block  «id  thimble ;  mark  with  chalk  where 
the  parts  cross ;  take  one  strand  out  of  the  rope  ;  bring  the  two  chalk  marks 
together ;  and  cross  the  strand  in  the  lay  on  both  side.%  continuing  round  and 
round  till  the  two  ends  meet  the  third  time ;  they  are  then  halved,  and  the 
upper  halves  half-knotted  and  passed  over  and  under  the  next  strands,  exactly 
as  one  part  of  a  long  splice.  A  piece  of  worn  or  well -stretched  rope  will  better 
rcUin  its  shape,  upon  which  success  entirely  depends.  The  object  is  neatness, 
and  if  three  or  multiples  of  three  strops  are  to  be  made  it  is  economical. 

'DoubU  Strop  (fig.  31).— Made  with  one  piece  of  rope,  the  splice  being  brought  / 
as  usual  to  the  crown  of  the  block,  (,  the  bights  fitting  into         —  — 

bcorea  some  inches  apart,  converging  to  the  upper  part, 
above  which  the  thimble  receives  the  bights  a,  o  ;  and  the 
four  parts  of  the  strap  are  secured  at  5,  s  by  a  round  seizing 
doubly  crossed.  If  the  block  be  not  then  on  the  right  slew 
(the  shell  horizontal  or  vertical)  a  union  thimble  is  used 
with  another  strop,  which  produces  the  desired  effect ; 
thus  the  fore  and  main  brace-blocks,  being  very  large  and 
thin,  are  required  (for  appearance)  to  lie  horizontally ;  a 
single  strop  round  the  j-ard  vertically  has  a  union  thimble 
between  it  and  the  double  strop  round  the  block.  The 
double  strop  is  used  for  large  blocks;  it  gives  more  sup- 
port to  the  shell  than  the  single  strop  and  admits  of 
Eiualler  rope  being  used.  Wir€  rope  is  much  used  for 
block-strops  ;  the  fitting  is  similar.  Metal  blocks  are  also 
used  in  fixed  positions ;  durability  is  their  chief  recom- 
mendation. Great  care  should  be  taken  that  they  do  not 
chafe  the  ropes  which  pass  by  them  as  well  as  those  which 
reeve  through. 

Selvagee  Strop. — Twine,  rope-yam,  or  rope  is  wcrped 
round  two  or  more  pegs  placed  at  the  desired  distance 
apart,  till  it  assumes  tlie  requisite  size  and  strength  ;  tha 
two  ends  are  then  knotted  or  spliced.  Temporary  firm 
Felzings  are  applied  in  several  places  to  bind  the  parts 
together  before  the  rope  or  twine  is  removed  from  the 
pegs,  after  which  it  Is  marled  with  suitable  material.  A 
large  strop  should  be  ^varped  round  four  or  six  p^s  in 
order  to  give  it  the  shape  in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  This 
description  of  strop  is  much  stronger  and  more  supple  than  rope  of  simtiar 
size.  Twine  strops  (covered  with  duck)  are  used  for  boats'  blocks  and  in 
similar  places  requiring  neatness.  Rope-yam  and  spun-yarn  strops  are  used 
for  attaching  lufl-tackles  to  shrouds  and  for  many  similar  purposes.  To  bring 
to  a  shroud  or  hawser  the  centre  of  the  strop  is  passed  round  the  rope  and  each 
part  crossed  three  or  foar  times  before  hooking  the  "luff"  ;  a  spun-yarn  stop 
nlwve  the  centre  will  prevent  slipping  and  is  very  nece>.ary  with  wire  rope. 
As  an  instance  of  a  large  eelvagee  block- strop  being  used,— when  the 
"Melville"  was  hove  down  at  Chusan  (ChinaX  the  main-purchase-block  was 
double  stropped  with  a  selvagee  containing  28  parts  of  a-inch  rope  ;  that  would 
produce  112  parts  in  the  neck,  equal  to  a  breaking  strain  of  280  tons,  which 
IS  more  than  four  parts  of  a  19-iuch  cable.  The  estimated  strain  it  bore  was 
80  tons. 

stoppers  for  ordinary  running  ropes  are  inade  by  splicing  a  piece  of  rope  to 
a  bolt  or  to  a  hook  and  thimble,  unlaying  3  or  4  feet,  tapering  it  by  cutting 
away  some  of  the  yams,  and  marling  it  down  secorcly,  with  a  good  whipping 
also  on  the  end.  It  is  usfd  by  taking  a  half-hitch  rouml  the  voire  which  is  to 
be  hauled  upon,  dogging  the  end  up  in  the  lay,  and  holding  it  by  hand.  The 
'ope  can  come  through  it  when  hauled,  but  cannot  go  back. 

tVhipping  and  Pcintinfj. — The  end  of  every  working;  ropo  should  at  least  be 
whipped  to  movent  it  lagging  out ;  in  ships  of  war  and  yachts  the^are  invari- 
ably pointed.  Whipping  is  done  by  placing  the  end  of  a  piece  of  tAvine  or 
kiiittle-stuff  on  a  rope  about  an  inch  from  the  end,  taking  three  or  four  turns 
taut  over  it  (working  to\vards  the  end);  the  twine  is  then  laid  on  the  rope  again 
lengthways  contrary  to  the  first,  learing  a  slack  bight  of  twine  ;  and  taut  turns 
are  repeatedly  passed  round  the  rope  over  the  first  end  and  over  the  bight,  till 
there  are  En  all  six  to  ten  tarns ;  then  haul  the  bight  taut  through  between  the 
turns  and  cut  it  close.  To  point  a  rope,  place  a  good  whijiping  a  few  inches 
from  the  end  according  to  size  ;  open  out  the  end  entirely  ;  select  all  the  outer 
yams  and  twist  them  into  knittles  either  singly  or  two  or  three  t  jgether ; 
scrape  down ;  and  taper  the  central  part,  marling  it  firmly.  Turn  evt  ry  alter- 
rdt«  knittle  and  secure  the  remainder  down  by  a  turn  of  twine  or  a  smooth 
>-am  hitched  close  up,  v.-hich  acts  as  the  weft  in  weaving.  The  kn  ttlea  are 
then  revcried  and  another  turn  of  the  weft  taken,  and  this  is  continu(  d  till  far 
enough  to  look  well.  At  the  last  turn  the  ends  of  the  knittles  which  are  laid 
l»ck  arc  led  forward  over  and  under  the  weft  and  hauled  througl  tightly, 
making  it  present  a  circle  of  small  bights,  level  with  which  the  core  is  cut  off 
smoothly.  Hawsers  and  large  roi>es  hav«  a  becket  formed  in  their  ends  during 
the  process  of  pointing.  A  piece  of  I  to  IJ-lnch  rope  about  Ij  to  2  f(et  long  is 
spliced  into  the  core  by  each  end  while  it  is  open :  from  four  to  seven  yams 
(equal  to  a  strand)  are  taken  at  a  time  and  twisted  up  ;  open  the  ends  of  the 
becket  only  sufRcient  to  marry  them  clone  in;  turn  in  the  twisted  yams  between 
the  Btrands  'as  splicing)  three  times ;  and  sU>p  it  above  and  bf-low.  Both  ends 
are  trcat<^d  alike  ;  when  the  pointing  is  completed  a  lo^p  a  few  inche-s  in  length 
wiU  protrude  from  the  end  of  the  rope.,  which  is  very  useful  for  rep'  ing  It.  A 
hauliog  line  or  reeving  line  should  only  bo  rov-i  throiii;h  the  bock*  t  as  a  fair 
le«d.  Grafti%g  bi  very  similar  to  pointing  and  frequently  done  the  whole 
length  of  a  rope,  as  a  side-rope.  Pieces  of  white  line  more  than  double  the 
length  of  the  rope,  sufflcient  in  number  to  encircle  it,  arc  made  up  in  hanks 
called  foxes  ;  the  centre  of  each  is  made  Cist  by  twine  and  the  weaving  process 
continued  as  In  pointing.  Block-strops  are  sometimes  so  covered  ;  b-'t,  as  It 
causesdecay  a  small  wove  mat  which  can  be  taken  off  occasionally  is  prerenble. 
i-Mep-Shank  (flg,  32).— Formed  by  making  a  long  bight  in  a  top-grdlant-back- 


Pio.  82.— Slieep-Shank. 


ttay.  or  any  rope  wliich  it  fs  desirable  to  shorten,  ahd  taking  a  half-hltch  near 
each  ba)d,  as  at  a,  a.    Rope-yarn  stopis  at  I,  h  are  desirable  to  keep  it  In  place 

21—22 


till  the  strain  is  brought  on  it  Wire  rope  cannot  be  so  treated,  and  it  is  in- 
jurious to  hemn  rope  that  is  large  and  stiff. 

Knotting  Yu.  ns  (fig.  33). — This  operation  becomes  necessary  when  a  com- 
paratively short  piece  of  c  ,/ 
junk  is  to  be  in?de  into 
spun-yam,  or  large  rope.** 
into  small,  which  is  called  ' 
twice  laid.     The  end  of 
each    j-am    is    divided, 
rubbed  smooth,  and  mar- 
ried   (as    for    splicing). 

Two  of  the  divided  parts,  „„-   oi     tt^^**?.,™  -v™™™ 

as  c,  c  and  d,  d.  are  ^Ji  ^'°-  33--Knottmg  Tarns, 

in  opposite  directions  round  all  the  other  parts  and  knotted.  The  ends  e  and 
/remain  passive.  The  figure  is  drawn  open,  but  the  forks  of  A  and  li  should 
be  pressed  close  together,  the  knot  hauled  taut,  and  the  ends  cut  off. 

Butt  Slings  (fig.  34). — Made  of  4-incb  rope,  each  pair  being  2G  feet  in  length, 
with  an  eye  spliced  in  one  end,  through  whicii  the  other  is  rove  before  bt-iu;; 
placed  over  one  end  of  the  cask ;  the  rope  is  then 
passed  round  the  opposite  side  of  the  ca.sk  and  two 
half-hitches  made  with  the  end,  forming"  another  run- 
ning eye,  both  of  which  are  beaten  down  taut  as  the 
tftckle  receives  the  weight.     Slings  for  smaller  casks  I 
requiring  care  should  be  of  this  description,  though  t 
of  smaller  rope,  as  the  cask  cannot  possibly  slip  out.  C 
Bc.le  SUiujs  are  made  by  splicing  the  ends  of  about  3  > 
fathoms  of  3-inch  rope  together,  which  then  looks        _^  _^_ 
like  a  long  strop,  similar  to  the  double  strop  repre-    -p       „.      nnffVin 
sented  in  fig.  31,— the  bights  /  being  placed  under  the    '  '°-  ^■^•-■'^"'^'^  ^'" 
cask  or  bale  and  one  of  the  bights  a,  a  rove  through  the  other  and  attached  to- 
the  whip  or  tackle. 

The  marks  on  the  lead-line  are  leather  at  2,  3,  and  10  fathoms,  white  at  5 
and  15,  red  at  7  and  17,  and  blue  at  13.  The  length  of  the  lead  is  not  usually 
included.  The  deep-sea  line  commences  with  2  knots  at  20,  another  knot  beiug 
added  for  every  10  fathoms,  and  a  single  knot  at  each  intermediate  5,  Log- 
lines  should  have  ample  stray  line  (distance  between  the  log-ship  and  the  first 
mark).  The  distance  of  47  feet  and  a  2S-second-glass  were  adopte<l  to  assimilate 
the  sea  furlong  to  the  shore  furlong,  which  was  absurd.  Fifty  feet  to  half  a 
minute  would  be  more  correct  and  more  convenient. 

Since  space  will  not  allow  of  a  full  description  of  mastiug  and  Masting 
rigging,  only  a  few  of  tho  more  important  points  will  be  noticed. 
The  masts  must  be  stepped  before  they  are  rigged  ;  accordingly 
We  will  first  describe  the  manner  in  which  they  are  put  on  board 
in  cases  where  the  assistance  of  shears  on  hulk  or  jetty  is  not 
available  ;  at  an  out-port  a  seaman  is  still  left  to  his  own  resources, 
just  as  he  was  in  former  times.  Fixing  the  masts  in  a  large  frigate, 
such  as  that  shown  in  fig.  3o  below,  is  a  serious  consideration,  as 
the  mainmast  weighs  about  twenty  tons. 

Two  suitable  spars  must  be  procured  about  three-fourths  the 
length  of  the  main-mast  and  about  two-thirds  its  diameter,- — the 
greater  the  housing  the  higlier  the  shears.  They  are  towed  along- 
side or  under  the  steni  with  the  thicker  ei.ds  forward,  and  par- 
buckled over  the  side  or  hoisted  in  through  thi  stern-ports  by  means 
of  a  derrick,  whichever  is  most  convenient.  The  smaller  ends  are 
rested  upon  a  spar  across  the  gunnel  or  the  break  of  the  poop, 
crossed,  and  lashed  with  stiong  well-stretched  rope  (about  Ah  or  5 
inches)  passed  figure-of-eight  fashion,  comnencing  at  the  centre, 
returning  \vith  riding  turns  as  a  racking  seizing,  and  crossed  again ; 
the  turns  at  the  extreme  ends  should  not  bs  so  taut  as  the  others. 
Care  must. be  taken  to  place  the  seizing  equidistant  from  each  heel 
after  they  have  been  trimmed  to  fit  fiat  upon  shoes  of  strong  oak 
planking  ;  they  v,-i[l  remain  within  their  full  spread  by  about  2 
feet  each  side  till  after  the  head  seizing  has  been  secured.  Lash  a 
threefold  purchase-block  to  the  horns  above  the  lashings,  to  hang 
down  clear  under  the  cross,  so  as  to  correspond  with  a  twofold 
block  to  be  lashed  to  the  mast  If  such  blocks  cannot  be  procured 
two  top-blocks  may  be  substituted  for  the  upper  block  and  one  on 
the  mast,  reserving  the  fourth  top-block  as  a  lead  secured  to  one 
of  the  shear  legs  or  near  it.^  Two  purchases  may  be  used  at  the 
same  time  with  advantage,  one  block  hanging  on  the  fore,  the 
other  on  the  after  side.  A  gird-line  is  also  placed  on  the  highest 
part  of  the  horns  to  assist  in  canting  the  mast,  and  another  for 
the  purpose  of  hoisting  up  a  man  should  anything  require  altera- 
tion. The  lashing  at  the  shear-head  must  be  well  protecled  witi» 
old  canvas  and  all  the  decks  must  be  shored  up  in  the  vicinity  ot 
the  places  where  the  shear-legs  stand  for  each  mast.  The  leg^ 
must  be  lashed  together  at  the  desired  spread  and  heel  tackles  led 
forward  and  aft  from  each.  To  form  the  four  head-guys  the  central 
parts  of  two  hawsers  are  clove-hit'-hcd  above  the  lashing  and  spread 
as  far  as  is  convenient  in  four  directions  and  set  up  by  tackles. 
When  all  is  ready  and  the  purcha.se  rove,  the  lower  block  should 
be  secured  forward  as  high  as  can  be  ;  and,  while  the  purchase  is 
being  hove  upon,  a  light  derrick  or  small  sliears  lifting  the  shear- 
head  will  greatly  assist  ;  of  course  the  after  heel  tackles  must  be 
well  secured.  After  the  shears  are  erect  and  the  heels  cleatcd  and 
lashed  to  the  shoes  they  can  be  scuffed  about  by  the  heel  tackles 
and  gu}'s  to  any  desired  position,  —  the  hole  for  the  mizzen-mast 
is  first  plumbed. 

The  mizzen-mast  should  be  brought  alongside  with  its  head  aft, 
and  a  sufficiently  strong  selvagee  strop  lashed  on  the  fore  side  if  it 

1  Top-blocks  in  large  ships  are  '20  inchei,  carrying  Oj-inch  rope,  the  br<  k- 
ing  strain  of  which  is  :;5  tons ;  by  taking  the  btanding  part  don-n  to  the  inastt 
there  are  three  parts  lifling,  equal  to  T3  tons, — a  aufflcicrit  margin  over  20  tons. 
Twenty-t^vo-inch  blocks  and  an  8-iDch  rope  would  break  at  54  tons.  Large 
ships  have  one  26-inch  and  one  24-inch  double  block  for  jeers,  which  would 
reeve  an  8-inch  rope.  The  sizo  of  a  blot;k  implies  the  length  of  the  shell,  of  a 
rope  Its  circumference,  and  of  a  cbala  cable  the  diameter  of  tho  iron. 

XXI.  —  7S 


594 


SEAMANSHIP 


Ja  to  he  lifted  by  one  purchase,  and  one  on  each  side  ii  two  are  useu, 
and  as  high  up  a3  the  shoals  will  allow,  the  limit  being  from  heel 
ito  lashing  6  or  8  feet  less  tliau  from  the  lower  side  of  the  purchase- 
block   to   the  deok.      Old   spars 
Laving  been  hung  over  the  side 
for  the  mast  to  nib  against  and 
the    purchase    fall   taken    round 
the    capstan,    the    mast  is   hovo 
up  till  the  head'comea  above  the 
gunnel  ;   then  two  single  blocks 
Adtii     long- tailed 
strops  are  secured 
round  it  with  tbfl 
gird-lines  of  about 
■i  inches  and  twice 
the  length  of  the 
mast   ready   rove. 
The  trestle-trees 

Si 


are  now  usually  t>oit<;a  on  in  the  mast-honse.     The  gird-lino  from 
the  shear-head  must  be  bent  to  the  head  of  the  mast  at  a  suitable 
height  to  act  as  a  topping-litt.     As  the  mast  ia  hove  up  by  the 
capstan   a   stout    rope    from    out- 
board    must     be     timber -hitched 
round  the  heel  so  as  to  ease  it  in 
as  it  clears  the  gunnel,  and  to  haul 
it  towards  the  pai-tners  (mast-hole); 
when  it  nas  been  lowered  to  within 
2  feet  of  the  step,  a  slew  rope  is 
passed     three     times 
round  the  mast  and 
a"  cat's-paw"  formed 
on  each  sidei  through 
the  eyes  of  which  a 
capstan  bar  is  passed 
ready  to   heave 
either    way    &a 


Bow. 

split. 


Tia.  35.— Tlrj  si^ra  and  rigging  of  a  frigate.T^  1,  the  bowsprit;  2,  bobstays,  three  pairs  ;  S,  sprit  -  sail  -  gaffs,  projecting  on  each  side  of  the  bows'prit, — the 
ropes  et  the  extremities  are  j!b-gu>3  and  flying-jib-guys;  4,  jibboora  ;  6,  martin  gale -stay,  and  below  it  the  flying-Jib-martingale  ;  6,  back-ropca ;  7, 
flying-jibboom  ;  6,  fore- royal -stay,  flying-jib- stay,  and  halyards;  S,  fore- top-gallant- stay,  jib-stay,  and  halyards;  10,  two  fore -top-mast- stays  and  forc- 
top-mast  stay-satl  halyards;  11,  the  fore-top-bowline-s,  stopped  into  the  top  and  two  fore-atays ;  12.  two  fore-tacka;  13,  fore-tmck  ;  11,  fore-royal-mast, 
yard,  and  lift;  15,  top-gallant-mast,  yard,  and  lift;  16,  fore -top-mast,  top-sail-yard,  lift,  and  reef-tackle;  17,  fore-top,  fore-lift,  and  top-sail-sheet  ;  18, 
fore-mast  and  fore^hrouds,  nine  paire ;  19,  fore-eheRts  ;  20,  fore-gaff ;  21,  fore-top-mast  back-atays  and  top-sail-tye  ;  22,  royal  and  top-gallant  back- 
stays; 23,  fore-royal-braces  and  main-royal-stay  ;  2-f,  fore-top-gallant -braces  and  main-top-gallant-stay;  25,  standing  parts  or  fore  top  sail- braces  and 
main-top-masb-etayB ;  2ij,  hauling  parts  of  fore -top- sail-braces  and  main-top-bowlines;  27,  four  parts  of  fore-braces;  28.  main-staya  ;  29.  main-tacks  ;  30, 
main-truck;  31,  main-royal-braces;  32,  mizzen-royal-ntay  and  mlzzen-royal-braces  ;  33,  main-top-gallant-braces  and  mizzen-top-gallant-braces ;  34,  standing 
parts  of  ma  in -top -sail- braces  and  mi  zzen- top*  mast- stay  ;  35,  mizzen -top -sail -braces  ;  36,  haaling  parts  of  main-top-sail-braces,  niizzen-top-bow  lines,  and  cross- 
jack-bracea  ;  37,  niain-brac«s  and  mizzen-stay  ;  SS,  standing  part  of  peak  halyards  ;  39,  vangs,  similar  on  each  gaff;  40,  ensign  staff;  41,  spanker-boom  ; 
42,  qaartei'-bcafs  daviU;  43,  one  of  the  davit  topping-lifts  and  wind-sail;  44,  main-yard-tackle;  45,  a  bull-rope. 


required  ;  in  the  meantime  both  the  heel  of  the  mast  and  the  step 

should  be  well  coated  with  white  lead  or  coal-tar.    Lower  and  slew 

according  to  directions  from  below  ;  when  the  mast  is  stepped,  and 

brought  to  the  desired 

position,      place     four 

temporary  wedges,  rig 

a  t:iangle,   trice  it  up 

bj  the  gird -lines,  un- 

lash    the   purchase   or 

strops,  overhaul  down, 

unrig  the  triangle,  and 

haul  the  gird-lines  taut 

on  each  side. 

The  shears  can  be 
transported  forward  in 
nearly  an  upright  posi- 
tion by  first  pulling  the 

heel  -  tackles  and  then  "^^^  _         _ 

the  guys,  shifting  the  p,j3g;3s^^„g~a^,i,^— l^  ^^^.^p^i^  ^i^l^  j^^^. 
guys  forward  one  at  a  tingaje  to  the  stem ;  2.  fore-top-mast-stay,  jib, 
time  as  nec-^ssary.    The     and  Btay-fore-sail ;  3,  fore -gaff- top-sail ;  4,  fore- 

main-mast      and    the     *^'>  *"VT''°*'H^^f'>LJ'  "^^-S^ff-toP-^U;  6, 

-  .  .   y         •        maln-sail ;  7,  end  or  booi.i. 

for^-mast  are  taken  in 

in  the  same  way  as  the  mizzen-mast,  described  above, — all  three 

abaft  the  shears  ;  but,  being  much  longer,  thejr  require  greater 

hoist  and  greater  care  generally. 

To  take  in  the  bowsprit  the  shears  are  again  moved  forward,  all 
the  heel-tackles  being  led  forward  and  extra  lashings  placed  on  the 
heels.  A  purchase  nearly  as  strong  as  that  to  be  used  in  lifting 
the  bowsprit  ehouM  be  secured  between  the  fore-mast-head  and  the 
shear-head,  or  two  parts  of  a  stout  hawser  may  be  use'^,  the  middl^ 
being  clove-hitched  over  the  horns  and  the  ends  taken  round 
beams  well  aft  on  either  side,  ready  for  veering  as  the  shears  are 
drooped  (to  an  angle  of  about  45°),  then  to  act  as  the  principal 
support ;  the  fore-guys  are  also  taken  aft  to  assist.  The  fore-mast 
must  be  wedg^  on  both  decks  and.  one  or  more  tackles  used  to 
keep  the  head  aft.  The  bowsprit  cap  is  invariably  bolted  on  in 
the  mast -house;  tlie  bowsprit  is  then  brought  under  the  bows 
■with  the  cap  end  forward  and  slung  for  the  main  purchase  a  little 

1  References  are  not  repeated  for  each  mast  where  the  names  and  functions 
ore  ideiitical. 


outside  the  housing,  whichT  is  generally  about  two -fifths  of  the 
whole  length.    The  main  purchase  should  plumb  nearly  the  length 
of  the  housing  outside  the  bows,  and  the  higher  the  shear-head 
the    greater    the    freedom     of 
motion.       The    outer    purchase 
attached  to  a  strop  through  the 
hole  in  the  cap  and  the-  guys 
from  the  cap  to  each  cat -head 
alike  tend  to  force  in  the  bow- 
sprit when  it  is  liigh  enough  ; 
besides  this,  a  heel  rope  is  put 
round   it   before   it   leaves    the 
water,  and  a  strop  with  a  tackle 
to  the  bitts  is  used  to  bowse  it 
into  the  hole  and  mortise.      It 
is  hoisted  to  about  an  angle  of 
45°  before  the  heel  is  entered. 
A  rough  sketch  made  to  scale 
will  greatly  facilitate  such  opera- 
tions and  ensure  success.    "W  hen 
a  bowsprit  is  put  in  by  shears  on 
a  hulk  or  jetty,  it  is  hoisted  up 
ahead  of  the  ship  nearly  hori- 
zontal, or  at  the  angle  (steeve)- 
which  it  is  intended  to  assume,  '"* 
and    the  ship  is  moved  ahead  _ 
towards  it,  till  the  bowsprit  en-  "-^ 
ters  in  the  desired  position.  yia.  ^- 

The  directions  for  masting  a 
large  ship  are  more  than  suffi- 
cient for  masting  a  small  one, 
which  is  so  much  easier- 
Gammoning  the  bowsprit 
the  most  important  point  : 
rigging  a  ship,  as  the  stays  of  the  fore-mast  and  main-top-mast  spnt- 
depend  for  security  on  tiie  bowsprit  In  large  ships  there  are  t\vo 
distinct  lashings  (of  either-new  stretched  rope  or  chain)  to  keep  the 
bowsprit  down  ;  they  are  passed  in  a  similar  manner  over  a  lonfj 
saddle-sliaped  piece  of  wood  called  a  gammoning  fish  and  through 
the  holes  in  the  head  knees,  the  outer  one  first.  One  end  is  clinched 
or  s>iackled  round  the  bowsprit  over  the  fore-part  of  the  bole  ;  t 


-Cutter  yacht.  1,  bow<;prit  and 
martingale  ;  2,  Jib,— behind  it  is  the 
fore-sau ;  3,  cross-trees  and  top-mast- 
shroud ;  4,  pennant  designating  the 
club  to  which  she  belongs ;  5.  gaff- 
top-sail ;   6,    peak   of  gaff,  hoisted  by  ^ 

peak  and    throat   halyards ;   7,  main-  Kig^ 
sail ;  6,  end  of  boom  and  topping-lift,    bow- 


SEAMANSHIP 


595 


fttLer,  being  rovQ  through  the  after-part  of  the  hole,  comes  up  on 
the  aft  side  of  the  first  turn  on  the  bowsprit  and  doA^Ti  Inside  that 
part  and  before  the  turns  in  the  hole,  thus  forming  a  double  cross 
with  the  first  tuma  outside.  Every  turn  is  set  up  as  passed  by 
means  of  a'  pendant  through  the  hawse-pipe  or  bow-port,  and  a 
block  is  secured  to  the  hole  for  the  bobstays,  -which  are  attached  to 
the  gammoning  by  a  selvagee  or  toggle,  and  held  while  the  next 
turn  is  being  passed  by  a  racking  seizing  if  rope  and  by  nails  driven 
through  the  links  into  the  fish  if  chain.  When  the  hole  is  full  of 
turns — eight  or  ten — the  whole  is  frapped  together  as  tightly  as 
possible,  commencing  at  the  lower  part. 

The  clothing  of  a  bowsprit  of  a  large  ship  consists  of  nine  strops 
for  its  own  security  and  the  fore-stays.  A  bobstay  collar  is  hove 
on  at  one-third  the  distance  between  the  night-heads  and  the  outer 
extremity,  and  close  outaide  it  two  bowsprit  shroud  collars  and  a 
/ore-stay  collar,  then  the  second  bobstay  collar,  two  bowsprit  shroud 
collars,  another  fore-stay  colhir,  and  the  third  bobstay  collar  ;  in 
addition  to  these  there  is  a  cap  bobstay,  which  sets  up  to  a  bolt 
close  inside  the  bowsprit  cap.  The  bobstay  and  bowsprit  shroud 
collars  are  hove  .on  at  right  angles  to  the  spar  and  usually  cleated 
in  that  position-  But  this  cleating  is  a  mistake  ;  as  the  strain 
comes  upon  each  pf  them  very  obliquely,  it  is  necessary  that  they 
should  yield  in  that  direction  before  the  cleats  are  nailed,  or  they 
will  give  way  and  slacken  the  rope  when  it  ia  most  required  to  be 
taut.  Bobstays  are  cut  to  the  required  length,  wormed  and  parcelled 
from  the  centre  towards  the  ends,  and  served  ;  they  are  rove  through 
their  respective  holes  in,  the  cutwater  before  being  spliced,  which 
splice  ifl  tapered,  parcelled,  and  served  over,  and  rests  on  the  head 
of  the  heart  when  it  is  seized  in.  '  The  bobstays  and  bowsprit 
shrouds  are  set  up  by  lanyaids  half  the  nominal  size  if  rope  and 
the  same  size  If  wire  ;  the  standing  parts  are  secured  by  running 
eyes  round  the  necks  of  the  collars  confining  the  hearts,  and  are 
set  up  by  two  luffs,  one  acting  upon  the  other. 
Gettinp  The  cross-trees  are  swayed  up  one  at  a  time  by  the  two  gird-lines, 
op  top_  whose  united  action  and  a  guy  on  deck  conduct  them  to  their  places, 
where  they  drop  into  recesses  and  are  bolted  to  the  trestle -trees. 
AVhen  a  whole  top  is  to  be  got  up  it  is  placed  abaft  the  mast  (except 
the  mizren)  with  the  lower  side  forward  and  the  fore  part  upper- 
.-nost  ;  the  gird-lines  are  passed  under  it,  that  is,  before  it,  each 
being  rove  up  through  the  second  hole  from  aft  for  the  futtock- 
p'ates  and  hitched  tightly  to  its  own  pait  as  it  passes  the  lubber's 
T.^le,  which  part  is  also  stopped  to  the  hole  at  the  fore  part  of  the 
tcp.  If  it  be  a  large  top  each  giid-line  may  be  takcji  down  the 
fore  (under)  side  (as  before),  rove  up  through  the  after-hole  for  the 
futtock-platc,  down  through  the  lubber's  hole,  taut  up  through 
th«  foremost  hole,  and  hitched  to  the  hoisting  part,  which  is 
fatOjjpeJ  firmly  to  the  fore  part,  where  a  gird-line  leading  from  the 
mayt  abaft  is  also  stopped  after  the  end  has  been  made  fast  to  the 
centre  bole  for  the  top-rail  ;  that  gird-line  is  to  keep  the  top  clear 
of  the  trestle-trees  as  it  goes  up  and  to  assist  in  placing  it.  There 
are  several  slightly  different  "ways  of  slinging  a  whole  top  ;  but  in 
.lU  cases  the  gird-line  blocks  (after  the  stop  is  cut)  hoist  the  fore 
part  higher  than  themselves,  till  it  falls  over  them  and  hangs  as 
nearly  horizontal  as  could  be  judged  iu  slinging  it.  Tlie  final  ad- 
justment of  it  in  its  place  is  done  by  hand,  and  then  it  is  bolted 
to  the  cross-trees.  The  mizzen-top  is  put  over  eitlicr  in  a  similar 
manner  with  a  guy  to  the  taffrail  or  sent  up  before  the  mast  with 
the  after  part  upjwrmost,  a  gird-line  from  the  main -mast -head 
keeping  it  clear  of  the  trestle-trees,  which  project  much  farther  ou 
the  fore  side.  Tops  are  taken  off  by  the  reverse  process  ;  but  it  is 
more  difficult  to  get  the  hole  back  over  the  mast-nead. 

Tops  are  now  very  seldom  made  in  one  part,  but  in  t\vo  halves, 
which  is  more  convenient  and  equally  serviceable.  Each  half  is 
sent  up  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  whole  top  ;  tlie  gird-linos  are 
bent  on  precisely  the  same  way,  but  one  half  at  a  time,  which  falls 
square  at  the  side  of  the  mast  when  the  stop  is  cut  instead  of  going 
over  the  top  of  the  mast.  After  the  top  is  bolted,  it  is  advisable 
to  hoist  np  the  lower  cap  into  the  top  while  the  whole  space  of  the 
'ubber's  hole  is  still  free,  but  not  to  put  it  on  till  aftt-r  the  lower 
tigging  is  fixed.  The  cap  being  placed  near  the  mast  with  the 
Vmlta  downwards  and  the  hole  for  the  top-mast  forward,  both  gird- 
lines  are  brought  down  tlirough  the  lubber's  hole  on  the  same  side  ; 
that  which  crossed  before  tiic  mast  is  bent  on  to  the  fore  part  of 
tl)c  cap,  and  that  which  belongs  to  the  side  on  which  the  cap  is 
l\ing  is  made  to  aling  the  after  part  faiily  and  is  then  stopped  to 
the  fore  purt,  so  that  this  last  Is  hoisted  up  by  both  gird-lines  end 
on  till  in  the  top,  when,  the  stop  at  the  fore  end  being  cut,  the 
cap  hangs  in  front  of  the  mast  and  the  round  hole  can  be  placed 
exactly  over  the  epace  bot^voen  the  trestle-trecs  where  tlie  top-ma-st 
will  come  np.  A  soft  piece  of  wood  called  a  ''bolster"  is  made  to  fit 
into  the  angle  formed  by  the  trestle-tree  and  the  mast  on  t;ich  side, 
aT(d  is  bolted  in  place  so  as  to  present  a  fcmooth  rounded  surface 
along  the  whole  distance  rerjuired  for  the  rigging  to  rest  ujwn,  and 
is  covered  by  a  padding  of  tarred  canvas  five  or  six  parts  thick, 
secured  by  a  row  of  flat-headed  nails  along  the  upper  side.  Each 
mast  is  similarly  provided. 

Trepantory  to  sending  up  the  lower  rigging  on  tho  masts  it  is 


necessary  to  rearrange  the  gird-lines,  as  it  is  obviously  inconvenient  Low^r 
to  hoist  the  eye  of  a  shroud  over  the  mast  and  allow  it  to  fall  down  rig^.v:? 
over  both  parts  of  a  heavy  rope  which  would  require  to  be  hauled 
up  from  the  deck  or  rerove  every  time  ;  therefore  they  are  lashed 
to  the  leads  in  the  trestk-trees  for  tlie  truss  falls,  and  a  small  gird- 
lino  is  lashed  high  up  abaft  the  mast  to  be  worked  in  the  top  for 
both  sets  of  rigging.  The  starboard  tackle- pendant  is  put  over 
first,  then  the  port  pair,  next  the  starboard  foremost  pair  of  shrouds 
followed  by  the  port  pair,  and  so  on  alternately  till  all  the  shrouds 
are  in  place,  ending  with  an  odd  one  called  a  swifter  on  each  side. 
Large  ships  have  four  pairs  of  shrouds  and  a  swifter  on  each  side. 
They  are  all  sent  up  in  a  similar  nfanner  :  the  large  gird-line  from 
the  trestle-tree  is  secured  to.the  pendant  at  the  extremity  and  td 
the  shrouds  more  than  the  length  of  the  mast-head  below  the  seizing 
by  means  of  a  strop  with  a  slip-rope,  toggle,  and  down-haul  ;  the 
eye  is  opened  to  the  shape  of  the  mast-head  and  the  after-port  ia 
stopped  to  the  gird-line,  which  sways  it  up  to  the  lubber's  hole» 
when  the  men  in  the  top  bend  the  eye  in  the  direction  it  is  to  go 
over  the  mast  and  make  fast  their  small  gird-line  a  fathom  or  two 
below  the  seizing,  with  a  stop  on  the  after  part  of  the  eye,  which 
is  cut  when  the  pendant  or  shroud  is  fair  for  going  over  the  masR 
head.  When  the  shroud  is  over,  each  cyo  is  hardened  down  by  a 
large  mallet  called  a  "  commander."  Ropes  should  be  rove  through 
the  thimbles  of  the  pendants  and  hauled  taut  when  they  are  being, 
driven  down  ;  then  the  "  up-and-douTi  "  tackles  should  be  hooked 
to  the  short  legs  (which  are  forward),  while  the  long  legs  are  being 
lashed  abaft  the  mast  and  the  runner-blocks  lashed  to  them  for' 
staying  the  mast  by  the  runners.  As  each  pair  of  shrouds  are  put 
over,  they  should  be  temporarily  set  up  by  the  dead-eyes  and  lan- 
yards, or  by  a  luff-tackle  on  each,  to  prevent  their  Epringing-'up 
before  another  pair  presses  upon  them.  It  is  of  very  great  import- 
ance to  keep  each  eye  taut  before  others  press  on  it  both  for  pre- 
ser\'ation  and  appearance  ;  many  an  eye  has  been  stripped  of  its 
service  and  parcelling  through  slipping  out  from  under  the  weight. 
A  piece  of  rounding  made  fiist  to  a  bolt  in  the  hounds  of  the  mast 
with  an  eye  in  the  other  end  is  verj'  useful  for  keeping  the  back  of 
the  eye  down  while  it  ia  being  made  taut,  by  reeving  the  short  eye 
end  up  through  the  eye  of  the  shroud  and  hooking  a  burton  fioiq 
the  deck  to  it,  which  is  polled  upon  at  the  same  time  that  the 
shroud  is  set  up  on  the  other  side  of  the  ship  ;  when  finished,  that 
piece  of  rope  will  be  jammed.  The  lower  stays,  after  they  have 
been  completely  fitted  and  the  hearts  have  been  turned  in,  are 
stopped  together  one  over  the  other  at  the  fork  of  the  collar,  at 
the  sides,  and  at  the  eyes.  The  gird-lines,  having  been  put  back 
to  the  mast-head,  are  sent  down  through  the  lubber's  hole,  one 
crossing  the  fore  side  of  the  mast,  and  are  bent  to  both  stays  below 
the  fork  of  collars  and  stopped  to  the  eyes  ;  tJicy  are  thus  swayed 
up  near  their  places,  the  respective  eyes  being  lashed  together  by 
rose -lashings  low  down  over  the  eyes  of  all  the  shromie.  The 
hearts  are  then  carried  forward,  the  fore  to  the  hearts  in  collars 
round  the  bowsprit  and  the  main  to  hearts  provided  for  the  purpose 
near  the  fore -partners,  while  the  collars  of  the  stays  are  suspended 
from  the  fore-part  of  the  top,  the  collars  being  eased  down  as  re- 
quired to  preserve  a  straight  line  between  the  lashing-eyes  and  the 
point  where  the  stay  is  set  up. 

The  following  is  the  method  employed  to  set  up  the  tigging  on  Setting 
the  masts.  It  is  first  drawn  forward  by  the  runners  and  tackles  up  eta*^ 
(lashed  to  the  long  legs  of  mast-head'  pendants,  which  are  lashed 
togeth^  abaft  the  masrt)  till  brought  before  the  position  it  is 
intended  to  stand  in,  as  the  strain  of  the  shrouds  will  draw  it  aft. 
JIany  seamen  recommend,  with  reason,  that  a  strain  should  bo 
brought  on  the  after. swiftcrs  while  it  is  being  stayed,  to  keep  it 
more  firm.  The  propriety  of  wedging  the  mat;t  befoj'o  the  rigging 
is  set  up  may  be  considered  an  open  gucstioi.  ;  it  was  considered 
lubberly  forty  years  ago,  but  is  now  the  common  practice.  The 
lanyards  of  the  stays  are  in  proportion  smalb^r  than  those  of  the 
shrouds,  since  many  more  turns  can  be  passed  throuj^h  hearts  than 
through  dead-eyes.  Ti^u  bLaiiding  parts  are  ninde  fast  round  the 
collar  or  strop  of  the  lower  heart  by  a  runriiigcye  ;  the  end  is 
rove  up  through  the  heart  in  tho  stay  and  down  through  the 
lower  one  twice  and  the  slack  hauled  -through  by  the  sail-tackle 
which  must  bo  previously  secured  for  that  purpose  round  the  lower 
mast-head  and  hung  over  the  fon;-T)art  of  tno  top  ;  or  the  two  top- 
burtons  may  be  used,  one  for  each  stay.  V.'lu-n  the  hhick  of  the 
lanyard  is  through  and  racked,  tlio  doujile  block  of  a  luff-tackle  is 
attached  by  turning  the  bight  back  over  a  toggle  or  glut,  as  slings 
are  represented  in  fig.  18.  Then  a  sclvagc)  strop  is  passed  twicq 
round  both  parts  below  the  bight  s  (when  the  figure  is  turned  up}, 
brought  np  on  the  side  of  the  arrow,  and  hooked  to  the  luff.  A 
cat's-paW,  as  shown  in  fig.  7,  may  bo  usorl  witli  a  glut  placed  at  g 
to  keep  the  ptuls  open,  otherwise  a  largo  lopo  would  oe  injured. 
The  single  block  of  the  luff  is  secured  to  the  stay  as  high  up  as, 


it  will  reach  by  a  long  double -tailed  Belvagee,  which  is  dogged' 
softly  at  first,  but  terminates  with  close-taut  turns  and  a  spun- 
yarn  scLEing.  Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  kinking  the  rope, 
esj>ecially  if  it  is  wire  ;  if  hemp,  it  should  be  parcelled  to  pro- 
tect the  outer  yarns.     The  fall  of  the,  luff  is  conncct'jd  v.'ith  the 


596 


S  E  A  M  A   N   b  H   i  P 


Bail-t.\-kle  {by  ono  of  tho  means  described)  and  the  sail-tnckle  fall 
led  ill  tlio  direction  of  tho  stay  ;  it  is  pidlcd  up  steadily,  the  nips 
of  tlic  lanyards  bavin;:;  been  \vcll  tairetl  to  mako  tliera  slip  tlirough 
the  hearts  while  they  are  also  shaken  up  by  levers.  "When  taut 
enough  tlie  lanyard  is  securely  seized  to  the  next  part,  another 
turn  rove,  set  up.  and  seized,  till  tlie  f^orcs  in  tho  hearts  are  full  ; 
then  riding  turns  arc  taken.  'Whilst  the  fir^t  riding  turn  still 
be-Ts  the  strain,  all  tho  seizings  on  tho  lanyanls  ehould  be  cut  ofT, 
and  others  put  on  when  each  part  has  taken  over  an  equal  strain. 
After  the  riding  turns  are  rompleted,  the  end  of  the  lanyard  is 
sec'.re<l  by  a  clove-hitch  and  a  stizing.  Where  there  is  not  a  sail- 
t/oklc  a  long  luff  may  be  used  in  a  similar  manner,  the  double 
■jlock  being  sccureil  ahove  the  single  block  of  the  other  luff.  It 
is  desirable  that  both  stays  on  the  masts  should  be  set  up  at  tho 
same  time,  but  it  is  not  imperative  ;  care  should  be  taken  that 
they  are  equally  taut. 
L»'.-  A  lanyard  for  rigging  with  dead-eyes  is  half  the  nominal  slzg  of 

y^rds.  rope  shrouds  and  tho  same  size  as  wire  rigging.  The  knot  is  inside 
under  the  end  of  the  shroud,  or  is  first  spliced  to  a  bolt  in  the 
chains  and  then  rove  through  that  hole  ;  it  is  rove  full  before 
commencing  to  set  up.  The  mast  having  been  stayed,  luffs  are 
placeii  on  the  shrouds  with  the  double  block  down  and  brought  to 
the  lanyard  as  above  described  ;  the  un-and-down  tackle  from  the 
mastdiead  pendant  is  secured  to  the  fall  of  the  luff  by  a  cat's-paw 
and  strop  and  pulled  up  till  taut  enough,  the  foremost  shroud  on 
the  starboard  side  first,  then  that  on  the  port  side,  and  so  on 
alternately  till  they  are  all  nearly  taut  alike  (the  after-swifters  not 
quite  so  taut  as  the  others),  which  is  best  ascertained  by  an 
experienced  man  shaking  them  ;  if  the  dead-eyes  are  not  eqnaro 
(even)  when  finished,  it  is  far  better  to  turn  them  in  afresh  than 
to  have  an  unequal  strain  on  the  shrouds.  If  a  pair  of  shrouds 
were  set  up  at  the  same  time  it  would  bo  better  for  the  eye  and 
the  seizing.  Tar  should  be  used  freely  on  the  lanyards  as  they 
enter  the  dead-eyes,  whether  they  are  of  iron  or  wood  ;  it  causes 
them  to  slip  quite  as  well  as  grease  and  preserves  the  rope,  while 
grease  causes  it  to  decay.  The  lanyards  are  seized  to  the  next 
part  till  a  clove  hitch  is  taken  above  the  dead-eye  and  the  end 
seized  down  ;  the  parts  of  the  lanyard  should  then  be  made  to 
bear  an  equal  strain,  and  afterwards  seized  together  lest  any  part 
should  be  injured.  The  runners  should  be  kept  taut  till  every- 
thing is  secured,  then  eased  up  gently,  to  avoid  straining  the 
ttiasL  Tvower  masts  generally  have  an  inclination  to  belly, — i.e., 
fbend  aft.  Space  will  not  admit  of  details  being  given  as  to  the 
various  parts  of  the  rigging  ;  the  main  principles  follow  the  lines 
of  that  w-hich  has  been  already  rather  fully  described  above. 
The  top-mast  stays  and  rigging  are  set  up  by  means  of  top-burtons 
and  jiggers,  the  top-gallant-rigging  and  that  of  all  small  vessels 
by  jiggers  and  light  appliances. 
^wer  The  lower  caps  were  supposed  to  have  been  swayed  up  by  the 

•ap  and    gird-lines  and  placed  in  position  to  receive  the  top-masts  before  the 
top-  lower  ringing  was  put  over.     To  fix  one  of  them  in  its  place,  let  a 

tnast.  top-block  be  hoisted  up  lashed  to  the  mast-head  .close  beloiv  the 
square  on  which  the  cap  is  to  rest,  on  the  side  suitable  to  the  sheave 
in  the  top-mast ;  through  the  block  reeve  a  suitable  hawser  (9  inches 
for  a  largo  ship)  ;  send  the  fore  end  down  through  the  square  holo 
between  the  trestle-trees  ;  lay  it  along  the  top-mast  (the  spare  one  if 
allowed  two) ;  reeve  it  through  the  live  sheave  in  the  heel ;  ami  hitch 
it  round  the  head  of  the  top-mast  and  hawser,  leaving  considerable 
end  ;  also  place  a  good  lashing  round  the  mast-head  and  the  hoist- 
ing-part of  the  hawser  and  seize  the  two  parts  of  the  hawser  together 
about  half-way  up,  strong  eiovigh  to  bear  tho  weight  of  the  mast. 
If  tho  top-mast  oe  much  longer  than  the  space  between  the  deck 
and  the  trestle-tree,  the  lashing  must  be  placed  low  enough  from 
the  head  of  the  mast  to  allow  it,  while  suspended,  to  project 
above  the  top  outside,  while  the  heel  is  guided  down  the  main 
hatchway  or  fore-scuttle.  The  capstan  is  used  to  heave  the  mast 
up ;  when  it  is  pointed  between  the  trestle-trees,  remove  the  lathing 
round  the  head,  and  if  landed — i.e.,  resting  its  weight  on  the  deck — 
make  the  end  of  the  hawser  fast  round  the  mast-head,  the  hitch 
being  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  block,  and  cast  off  the  racking 
lashing,  leaving  the  mast  ready  to  be  hove  up  by  the  two  parts  of 
the  hawser.  If  not  landed,  heave  up  3  or  4  feet  before  securing 
the  end  of  the  hawser,  so  that,  when  that  has  been  done  and  well 
seized,  the  capstan  may  be  moved  back  till  both  parts  bear  an  equal 
strain  ;  the  racking  can  then  be  taken  off  without  fear  of  a  jerk. 
After  the  head  of  the  top-nrast  has  been  huve  3  or  4  feet  through 
tlio  hole  in  tho  cap,  it  is  oeciirely  lashed,  commencing  with  a  clove- 
in'tc-h  round  the  mast,  the  ends  being  passed  through  the  bolts 
under  the  cap  on  one  side  and  repeated  on  the  other,  so  that  it 
will  be  sure  to  hr.ng  horizontally.  Heave  round  the  capstan  till 
the  cap  is  above  the  lower  mast-head  ;  then  steer  it  by  means  of  a 
handspike  or  capstan  bar  in  the  fid-hole,  while  men  in  the  top 
direct  the  head  of  the  top-mast  by  handspikes,  till  the  hole  in 
the  cap  is  exactly  over  the  square  of  tho  mast,  wfien  by  moving 
back  the  capstan  and  beating  the  cap  down  with  a  commander  it 
will  fit  firmly  in  its  place. 

If  the  heel  of  the  top-T^ast  rests  on  the  deck  before  the  head 


is  free  from  the  trestle-trees,  it  is  as  well  to  lower  it  do^^-n  to  t'  jt 
positior'  ;  but,  if  it  is  too  sbort  to  rest  there,  the  nj.-and-down 
tackles  must  bo  used  to  suspend  it  by  srtrops  through  the  fid-hole, 
while  the  top-block  is  being  unlashed  and  houked  to  th«^  r.fter- 
bolt  fixed  for  that  purpose  in  the  cap  and  the  fud  of  the  hawser 
secured  to  the  foremost  bolt  on  the  opposite  side.  In  large  ships 
a  shore  is  placed  under  tho  fore-part  of  the  cap  to  support  the 
weight  and  resist  a  possible  blow  from  the  top-sail-yard.  The  top- 
mast may  now  {unless  it  is  blowing  hard)  be  swayed  right  up  and 
fidded  to  prove  that  it  will  fit  wlicn  required  (an  allowance  being 
made  fur  tlic  wood  swelling  with  wet),  and  sent  on  deck  in  ex- 
change for  tho  othor  mast,  which  wlif^n  swayed  above  the  lower 
cap  will  have  a  gird-lino  lashed  round  the  head  and  then  bo  raised 
15  or  20  feet  more.  One  part  of  the  gird-lino  should  be  sent  down 
abaft  all  and  bent  on  to  the  fore-part  of  the  top-mast  cross-trees ; 
by  this,  assisted  by  a  guy,  they  can  be  ?;wayed  up  till  above  the 
lower  cap,  upon  which  the  after-part  will  rest,  securely  lashed  to 
the  bolt-s  to  prevent  it  slipping,  whiJe  the  fore -part  will  lean 
against  the  top-mast  at  such  a  distance  as  to  ensure  it  falling  in 
the  right  position  wdien  the  top-mast  is  lowered  and  to  receive  the 
head  of  tho  mast  between  the  trestle-trees  as  it  is  swayed  up  again 
to  a  convenient  position  for  receiving  the  rigging.  The  rigging  i? 
swayed  up  by  gird-lines  on  the  cross-trees,  and  put  over  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  low^r  rigging,  the  top-burton  pendants  first,  then 
the  shrouds  and  backstays  in  succession,  and  the  stays  arc  lashed. 
There  is  usually  a  chain  necklace  round  each  top-mast-head,  sunk 
in  the  bolsters  ;  one  leg  of  each  is  for  the  top-sail-tye  hanging-block 
to  shackle  to,  and  forward  there  are  two  other  legs  for  the  jib-hal- 
yards and  fore-top-mast  stay-sail-halyards.  After  the  rigging  has 
been  placed  over  the  top-mast-head,  the  cap  is  sent  up  by  two  gird- 
lines  lashed  as  high  as  possible  and  bent  to  the  foremost  part  of 
the  cap,  with  stops  to  the  after-bolts,  by  which  means  it  goes  U]> 
before  all,  with  the  under -side  towards  the  mast ;  when  it  is  high 
enough  the  after-stops  are  cut  and  it  slides  up  on  the  top  of  tlie 
mast,  assisted  hymen  at  the  mast-head,  who  get  it  over  the  square 
and  beat  it  down.  Directly  the  top-mast  is  in  position  to  receive 
the  rigging  the  top-rope  pendants  are  rove  and  the  tackles  secured, 
first  one  to  relieve  the  hawser  of  the  weight  and  then  the  other  in 
its  place.  Copper  funnels  are  sometimes  used  to  receive  the  top- 
mast rigging,  similar  to  those  for  top-gallant-masta. 

Top-gallant  and  royal  rigging  is  sometimes  stripped  of  the  service  Top-g:d- 
and  covered  with  canvas,  which  is  afterwards  painted,  foi  the  sake  laiit  and 
of  neatness  ;  but  the  durability  of  the  rope  is  thereby  gi-eatly  royal  rijrr- 
lessened.     Another  bad  practice  is  that  of  taking  off  one  of  the  top-  ging. 
gallant-backstays,  thereby  directly  diminishing  the  support.     But 
worse  still  is  the  trick  of  forming  the  eyes  of  rigging  and  backstays 
by  two  seizings,  the  ends  of  each  rope  going  to  different  sides  of 
the  ship  ;  this  gives  two  eyes  over  the  mast  instead  of  four,  and 
makes  everything  depend  oji  the  strength  of  the  seizings.    It  is  now  , 
a  very  common  practice  to  cross  the  top-gallant  rigging  and  set  it 
up  on  opposite  sides  of  the  top,  instead  of  reeving  it  through  the 
necklace  on  the  top-mast  and  setting  it  up  on  the  same  side. 
This  is  done  entirely  for  the  sake  of  saving  seconds  in  shifting 
tlie  spar?,  either  the  top-gallant-mast  or  the  top-mast.     Shrouds 
so  treated  give  no  support  to  the  mast  whatever  ;  probably  they 
act  in  the  reverse  way,  as  may  be  easily  sho^vn  by  drawing  a  strnight 
line  to  represent  the  masts  when  standing  upright  and  lines  in 
rough  proportion  at  right  angles  for  the  top  and  cross-trees.    Draw 
the  top-gallant  rigging  on  one  side  from  mast  to  cross-tree  and 
thence  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  top.     The  top-mast,  having  a 
little  play  in  the  cap  and  at  the  heel,  is  bound  to  go  over  some 
inches  at  the  head,  tubing  the  cross-tree  with  it ;  it  will  then  be 
seen  that  the  weather  side  of  the  cross-tree  has  approached  the  lee 
side  of  the  top,  slacking  the  weather  and  tightening  the  lee  top- 
gallant rigging. 

Getting  a  lower  yard  on  board  requires  gieat  care  to  avoid  injury  Lowei 
to  the  hammock  netting  and  otliej  things.  Spars  should  be  slung  yards- 
over  the  side  for  it  to  rub  against  and  slip-ropes  through  the  ports 
to  ease  it  over  the  gunnel.  If  it  is  to  be  hoisted  in  on  the  port- 
side,  th.e  starboard  yard-arm  is  towed  foremost.  A  hawser  may  bo 
rove  through  the  port  top-block  down  through  the  lubber's  nolo 
and  bent  round  the  centre  of  the  yard.  The  hatch  of  the  lubber's 
holr  must  be  open  and  a  strong  mat  provided.  Instead  of  the 
hawsLf  the  jeers  may  be  partially  rove,  the  standing  part  being 
secured  to  the  yard,  and  also  the  sail-tackle  from  the  top-mast- 
head to  the  lower  yard-arm  and  tho  starboard  up-and-down  tackle 
to  the  starboard  yard-arm,  also  a  burton  from  the  fore-mast  to  the 
main-yard,  or  from  the  bowsprit  if  it  is  a  fore-yard.  The  capstan 
and  jeers  will  heave  up  the  bulk  of  the  weight,  while  the  oilier 
tackles  cant  it  and  ease  it  across  the  gunnel.  A  derrick  is  some- 
times used  to  keep  it  off  the  ship's  side.  "When  a  ship  is  alongside 
a  jetty,  a  guy  from  a  strong-hold  on  shore  removes  all  difficulty, 
and  a  list  towards  the  side  at  which  the  yard  is  corning  in  is  desir- 
able. Lower  yards  are  usually  rigged  while  resting  across  the 
gunnel  ;  they  are  swayed  up  by  the  jeers,  and  slun^  with  strong 
chains — the  part  round  the  yard  being  connected  with  that  round 
tue  lower  mast-head  by  a,  tongue  and  slip.     The  yards  .nast  be 


SEAMANSHIP 


597 


prevented  from  canting  forward  with  the  "n-eight  and  drag  of  the  sail ; 
accordingly  the  slings,  either  chain  or  rope,  should  bo  ^.ut  on  with 
the  bight  coming  up  the  fore  side  (see  fig.  18,  where  the  arrow 
indicates  the  fore  side  and  the  direction  tne  bail  pulls)  ;  they  nre 
gcDerally  put  on  the  wrong  way.  Merchant  ships  are  invariabl/ 
titted  with  iron  trusses,  which  are  fixtures  on  the  mast,  holding 
the  yard.at  the  requisite  distance  and  acting  as  a  universal  joint. 
They  are  of  great  aJ. vantage  where  there  is  not  a  large  crew. 
Trim  and  "While  the  rigging  is  progressing  the  disposition  of  all  heavy 
stowage,  weights  is  worthy  of  serious  attention  ;  for  not  only  ought  the 
A-essel  to  be  brought  to  the  draught  and  trim  designed  by  the 
builder,  or  that  which  has  by  experience  been  found  the  best,  but 
there  must  not  be  too  much  strain  at  any  one  part,  especially  the 
extreraitiea.  In  ships  intended  for  sailing  or  steaming  rapidly 
this  is  of  vital  importance ;  the  bows  and  sterns  of  cutter  or 
schooner  yachts  should  be  empty.  Placing  the  weights  in  the 
■wings  of  the  hold  will  steady  the  rolling  motion  and  make  the 
intervals  longer ;  but  this  may  be  carried  too  far  for  stability, — 
especially  if  the  vessel  has  a  low  free-board.  Weights  low  down 
close  to  the  keel  will  increase  stahility  at  the  expense  of  a  quick 
uneasy  jerking  motion.  A  yacht  which  carries  much  ballast 
low  down  will  be  very  stiff  under  canvas  and  may  sail  well  in  the 
Solent,  but  would  be  unfit  to  go  outside  the  Isle  of  Wight.  When 
heavy  weights  are  carried  in  merchant  shipS  as  part  cargo,  they 
should  never  bo  placed  as  a  solid  mass  ;  railway  bars,  for  instance, 
may  be  stowed  gridiron  fashion  a  foot  apart,  by  which  means  they 
will  occupy  as  much  space  and  act  upon  the  ship  in  tho  same  way 
as  an  equal  weight  of  provision  casks. 
Bending  Before  bending  sails  all  the  ropes  are  rove  ready  for  use.  A  yacht's 
Bails.  sails  if  new  should  be  scrubbed,  to  take  the  stiffness  out  of  them. 
In  all  cases  they  should  be  set  when  bent  and  the  yards  braced 
each  way  (unless  it  is  blowing  too  hard),  or  there  is  a  risk  of  some- 
thing going  wrong  when  they  are  required  for  use.  In  setting 
them  care  should  betaken  that  no  part  is  stretched  or  girt  unduly. 
Cftble.  The  inner  end  of  a  chain  cable  is  usually  secured  by  a  tongue- 

slip  and  by  a  short  piece  of  cable  which  passes  round  the  mast  or  is 
shackled  to  the  keelson;  it  still  retains  the  name  of  *' clinch." 
Tlie  tongue  should  not  have  scope  enough  to  reach  th**  compressor, 
as  it  has  been  known  to  strip  back  the  ring  and  slip  the  cable.  It 
is  a  good  thing  to  trice  up  the  slip  before  the  cable  ia  stowed,  so 
that  it  will  be  accessible  at  all  times,  either  for  slipping,  shackling 
another  cable,  or  bending  a  hawser.  It  may  be  thought  that  a 
chain  cable  would  run  into  the  locker  and  stow  itself,  but  that  is  a 
mistake  ;  if  care  is  not  taken  to  spread  it  evenly,  it  will  form  a 
pyramid  with  turns  round  tho  base,  upon  ^\llich  the  upper  part 
will  fall  as  soon  as  the  shin  leans  over ;  it  will  then  be  necessary  to 
haul  up  several  small  bights  before  the  cable  will  run  clear, 
•^ingle  A  ship  should  never  lie  long  at  single  anchor  in  a  tide-way  or 

anchor,  during  variable  winds,  for  fear  of  fouling  her  anchor  and  thereby 
destroying  its  holding  power.  Frequently  space  is  wanted,  as  ship 
and  cable  range  over  a  large  circle,  with  liability  to  foul  other  ships 
or  tiieir  anchors.  A  long  scop^  of  cable  will  only  keep  a  ship  clear 
of  her  anchor  during  very  light  winds,  unless  assisted  by  close 
attention  ai>d  corrert  Judgment  on  the  part  of  the  seaman.  The 
direction  of  the  two  streams  of  tide  should  be  considered  in  con- 
nexion with  the  v.-ind  in  order  to  keep  the  ship  to  leeward  of  her 
anchor  each  time  she  passes  it.  A  strong  vana  blowing  across  the 
tlirctaon  of  the  tide  and  acting  on  the  hull  of  the  ship  will  secure 
that  effect ;  but,  when  the  directions  of  wind  and  tide  are  the  same 
or  nearly  so,  precaution  is  necessary  at  each  turn  of  the  tide  ;  it  is 
then  that  a  buoy  watching  over  the  anchor  is  of  great  service. 
When  the  wind  and  tide  are  in  the  same  direction  the  helm  should 
belvcpt  ov':!r  to  that  side  which  will  cause  the  r.hip's  head  to  point 
in  the  direction  on  which  she  haaireviously  passed  the  anchor,  as 
the  bight  of  the  cable  will  be  dragging  that  way.  The  force  of 
the  tide  alone  \\'ill  cause  her  to  shoot  over  considerably  ;  but  when 
she  is  assisted  by  the  fore-top-mast  stay-sail  (or  stay-forc*sail  in  a 
Email  vessel)  the  sheer  will  be  much  greater.  The  sheet  in  either 
case  is  better  to  windward  and  the  fore-topsail  braced  sharp  abox 
if  the  wind  is  light ;  but,  when  the  tide  commences  to  change,  tho 
sail  should  be  allowed  to  fill,  or  it  should  be  taken  in  aiid  the  helm 
placed  in  midships.  If  sufficient  effect  lias  not  been  produced  by 
nclm  and  head -sails  before  the  tide  ends,  the  mizzen-top-sail  should 
be  set  as  soon  as  the  ship  falls  head  to  wind,  first  braced  abox  to 
turn  her  stem  in  the  desired  direction  and  then  flat  nliack  so  as  to 
drag  the  cable  stiaight.  Cutters  and  schooners  have  not  that  ad- 
vantage ;  thev  must  depend  on  the  helm  and  lie.ad-s^iils.  At  the 
€nd  of  a  weather  tide  the  helm  and  stay-sail  will  guide  tho  vessel 
past  the  anchor.  If  a  ship  should  break  her  sheer  (pass  the  wrong 
way),  or  during  calms  and  variable  winds  should  approach  her 
anchor,  the  cable  should  be  liove  in,  and  if  there  is  reason  to  sus- 
pect the  clearness  of  the  anchor  it  should  be  si^dited,  since  it  will 
DC  of  no  use  aa  an  anchor  if  a  turn  of  cable  is  round  the  fhike. 
'When  anchoring,  the  state  of  the  tide  Jnust  be  'jonsjdered  in  con- 
ue^ion  with  the  dq>th  of  water  ;  a  vessel  was  once  left  high-and- 
dry  by  tho  ebb-tide  near  Dungeness,  and  a  large  u-c)n  ship  drove 
ier  own  anchor  through  her  bottom  in  the  Solent,  off  Lymington. 


The  avoidance  of  the  anchors  in  shallow  water  is  another  reason 
for  mooring. 

When  a  ship  is  in  an  exposed  position,  where  it  may  become 
necessary  to  let  go  two  or  three  anchors  through  stress  of  weather, 
in  any  part  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  bower  on  the  port  side 
should  be  used  first,  next  the  foremost  one  on  the  starboard  side, 
and  as  a  third  the  after  one  on  tho  starboard  side,  since  the  ordinary 
wind  veers  with  the  sun,  and  at  the  end  of  the  gale  the  cables  will 
be  clear  of  each  other.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  reverse 
order  holds  good. 

When  a  ship  is  likely  to  remain  many  days  at  an  anchorage  Mooring, 
where  there  is  a  tide  or  variable  winds  it  is  better  to  moor  at  once 
on  arrival,  with  a  scope  of  cable  each  way  six  or  eight  times  greater 
than  the  depth  of  water,  and  an  open  hawse  to\Vards  the  worst  wind. 
The  two  cables  combined  should  always  be  much  in  excess  of  the 
distance  between  the  anchors,  othenviso  they  will  possess  but  little 
strength  to  resist  a  rectangular  strain, — an  error  frequently  com- 
mitted. The  amount  of  support  which  cables  will  render  under 
such  circumstances  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  sine  of  the  angle 
contained  between  the  anchor  and  the  ship's  bow  and  a  line  from 
one  anchor  to  the  other.  Suppose,  for  example,  a  ship  moored  with 
anchors  east  and  west  of  each  other,  100  fathoms  apart  and  having 
55  fathoms  on  each  cable,  in  10  fathoms  of  water.  With  chain 
cables  the  hawse  pipes  would  not  be  more  than  53  fathoms  from 
each  anchor,  consequently  with  a  south  wind  the  support  given  to 
the  ship  by  each  cable  will  only  be  33  per  cent,  of  the  strain  on  the 
cable, — that  is,  say,  66  tons  combined  when  the  cables  are  strained 
up  to  100  tons  each.  The  support  increases  rapidly  as  the  cable 
is  veered  ;  an  addition  of  5  fathoms  each  way  will  (under  the  above 
circumstances)  give  101  tons,  and  a  scope  of  80  fathoms  each  way 
will  give  153  tons.  In  practice  the  cables  by  dragging  over  the  • 
ground,  especially  soft  mud,  assume  a  direction  more  ahead,  particu- 
larly when  each  cable  has  a  long  scope.  The  anchors  should  be 
placed  sufficiently  far  apart  to  prevent  fouling  with  the  ^lack  chain, 
but  not  farther,  unless  the  water  is  too  shallow  to  allow  the  ship 
to  pass  over  her  anchor  at  low  tide.  Such  an  anchorage  is  not 
suitable  for  very  long  ships  unless  special  moorings  are  provided, 
for  which  purpose  Parks's  mooring. blocks  are  very  suitable  and 
inexpensive  ;  they  are  commonly  used  in  Portsmouth  harbour. 
These  blocks  are  recommended  as  moorings  for  the  use  of  yachts 
and  small  craft,  as  being  trustworthy  and  less  likely  to  be  stolen 
than  anchoi-s  of  any  kind.  Should  a  ship  that  is  moored  with  a 
good  scope  or.  each  cable  have  the  misfortune  to  part  one  of  them, 
her  position  will  be  preferable  to  what  it  would  be  if  parted  fiom  a 
single  anchor,  as  the  bight  of  cable  dragging  over  the  ground  will 
retard  her  progress,  giving  more  time  for  another  anchor  to  be  let 
go.  In  all  cases  of  veering  cable  either  it  should  be  done  so  freely 
that  the  ship  will  fall  oft  broadside  to  the  wind,  when  it  may 
be  secured  while  drifting,  or  it  should  be  done  very  slowly,  a  few 
fathoms,  or  even  a  few  feet  at  a  time,  the  ship  not  being  allowed 
to  get  any  stern  way.  Veering  during  a  squall  should  be  avoided 
if  possible  ;  it  should  be  done  in  time,  before  the  violence  of  the 
squall  is  felt ;  but,  if  it  is  intended  to  pay  out  freely  till  broadside 
on,  the  head-yards  should  be  braced  abox  to  a.-isist  and  another 
anchor  should  be  teady.  A  cable  should  never  bo  secured  entirely 
by  the  bitts  or  windlass,  but  the  compressor  and  deck  stoppers 
should  participate  in  the  strain.  When  unmooring,  the  riding 
cable  should  be  veered  freely  to  allow  the  ship  to  get  directly  ovi-r 
the  lee  anchor  ;  if  it  is  embedded,  stopper  the  cable  while  verticitl 
and  heave  on  the  other,  which  must  break  it  o\it. 

The  laborious  operation  of  clearing  hawse  was  Dutigated  or  Clearing 
avOuled  by  the  introduction  of  cliain  cables  and  the  invention  ofhaw^ic, 
the  mooring  swivel.  As  the  cables  unshackle  at  every  12^  or  15 
fathoms,  the  end  to  be  dipped  round  the  other  cable  need  not  bo 
long.  There  are  two  general  methods  of  holding  the  weight  of  the 
lee  cable  while  the  turns  are  taken  out.  The  simplest  is  to  havo 
a  light  tongue  slip  to  take  the  flat  link,  but  only  about  one-tenth 
the  strength  of  the  cable  ;  in  a  large  ship  it  should  have  a  roller  at 
the  top,  so  that  the  cud  of  a  hawser  may  be  rove  and  form  a 
standing  part.  The  slip  being  fi.ted  on  tho -lee  cable  close  above 
the  turns  and  the  liawser  tout,  tho  nearest  phacklo  inboard  is  taken 
out,  and  the  short  end  thus  formed  is  hauled  out  of  the  hawse-pipo 
by  the  forc-boivline,  or  else  by  a  rope  from  th  :•  bees  of  the  bowsprit, 
a  hook-rope  being  also  attached  for  hauling  it  inboard  again.  A 
boat  should  bo  in  attendance  from  which  to  detach  the  hook-rope' 
from  the  end  of  the  cable,  pass  it  round  the  .-iding-cable,  and  mako 
it  fast  again  to  tho  end  of  the  cablo  (hanging  by  the  bowline)  for 
hauling  it  back  through  tho  hawsc-pipc  ;  thus  an  elbow  is  formed 
taut  round  tho  nding-cablo  in  thf.  reverse  ilirection  to  the  elbows 
and  turns  below  the  slip.  Tliat  operation  liust  bo  repeated  till  tho 
same  number  of  turns  is  formed  above  as  be'ow  the  slip,— ^observing 
that  a  cross  cannot  bo  removed,  but  the  lee  cable  can  be  brought 
under  the  other.  When  tlie  eable#3  taut  .u  and  shackled,  tho  slip 
is  knocked  off,  which  allows  the  turns  to  drop  L.iear.  The  cables 
will  then  be. as  they  were  when  moored,  Wilh  the  addition  of  one  or 
two  lathonis  on  the  lee  cable.  If  tho  fhorl  end  of  the  cable  is 
lowered  into  a  boat  and  lifted  by  the  bowline  only  for  each  turn,, 


598 


SEAMANSHIP 


tho  operation  can  be  performed  much  luicker.  The  second  method 
is  to  Lsh  the  two  cables  together  above  the  turns  with  a  piece  of  okl 
rope,  which  acts  as  the  slip  and  ii,  ci't  when  done  with.  In  louj^h 
wcatlipr  when  a  boat  cannot  Ho  inidcr  the  bows  the  lashing  must 
be  passed  by  a  man  on  the  cable  (if  it  is  not  high  enous:li,  heave  it 
wp),  after  which  both  cables  are  hove  into  the  same  hawso-pipe, 
wuence'they  are  easily  cleared  inboard  ;  if  there  are  many  turns  a 
small  lashing  will  suffice  in  moderately  deep  waici. 

One  of  the  objections  made  to  slack  mooring  is  that  turns  are 
fanned  below  water  where  they  are  not  visible.  To  meet  this 
objection  a  piece  of  paper  representing  a  ship  stuck  to  the  glass 
Cover  of  a  compass,  with  two  differently  coloured  threads  attached 
to  paper  anchors  or  inserted  into  cuts  at  the  edge  of  the  card, 
in  the  directions  the  anchors  actually  bear  from  each  other,  will 
represent  all  the  turns  which  the  ship  makes  with  tlie  cables. 
fttooriQEC-  There  are  various  ways  of  putting  on  a  mooring-swivel,  but 
swivel,  doing  it  inboard  appears  to  be  the  safest  and  easiest.  First  place 
it  in  the  riding-cable  by  shackling  the  two  short  legs  of  the  swivel ; 
leave  the  two  linked  ends  for  the  second  cable,  the  end  of  which 
being  hauled  out  of  tlie  hawse  by  the  bowline  is  hauled  into  the 
other  pipe  by  a  hook-rope  and  shackled  to  the  outer  long  leg  ;  the 
stopper  just  inside  the  hawse  (which  had  been  holding  the  weight 
outboard  of  the  lee  cable)  is  then  slipped  and  that  hawse-pipe  is 
left  clear  for  hauling  out  the  inner  end  of  the  lee  cable,  which  is 
hauled  in  the  other  side  and  shackled  to  the  inner  (upper)  long  leg 
of  the  swivel  ;  it  then  becomes  a  bridle.  There  are  thus  three 
parts  of  cable  in  that  hawse-pipe  ;  the  last,  having  no  weight,  should 
be  stopped  here  and  there  to  the  others  so  as  to  be  earned  out  as  the 
swivel  is  veered  towards  the  water's  edge  and  the  bridle  hove  up 
square.  Ships  constructed  as  rams  take  in  both  bridles  on  the 
same  side.  A  mooring-swivel  should  always  be  taken  off  by  fii-st 
•  Iieaving  it  inboard.  If  moored  very  slack,  turns  may  form  below 
the  swivel  during  a  calm  with  still  water,  but  they  will  disappear 
with  a  cross  strain  ;  and  if  the  ship  is  about  to  get  under  way  the 
8\vivel  and  turns  may  be  hove  in  together.  If  it  becomes  desirable 
to  put  on  a  mooring-swivel  when  tunis  are  in  the  cables,  let  it  be 
put  on  over  them  ;  they  will  soon  shake  out.  One  of  the  bridles  is 
sometimes  taken  otf  the  swivel  for  the  sake  of  clearing  that  side  of 
the  deck  ;  the  error  is  obvious  on  consideiing  that  the  strength  of 
the  remaining  part  is  not  equal  to  the  strain  which  may  come  upon 
the  span,  and  the  nip  in  the  hawse-pipe  is  always  the  part  most 
severely  tried.  The  importance  of  frequently  white-leading  and 
greasing  all  cable  shackles  and  s'nivels  is  obvious,  but,  being 
troublesome,  it  is  much  neglected.  The  bow  of  a  cable  shackle 
should  always  be  foa-ward  ;  if  the  reverse  is  the  case,  the  shoulder 
may  strike  the  side  of  the  hawse-pine  or  get  jammed  under  the 
corfipressor.  The  shape  of  a  shackle  ix)lt  should  be  such  as  to  pre- 
vent it  entering  the  wrong  way  ;  they  often  go  halfway  in  and  jam. 
Anchors.  It  is  desirable  that  every  vessel  should  carry  anchors  as  large  as 
she  can  stow  and  work  conveniently,  and  cables  to  correspond.  A 
wooden-stocked  anchor  is  lighter  when  under  water  than  an  iron- 
stocked  one  of  similar  holding  power,  and  the  wooden  stock  is  less 
liable  to  foul  when  let  go  ;  but  the  durability  of  iron  has  nearly 
rendered  the  wooden  stock  obsolete.  The  old-fashioned  anchor 
with  long  shank,  fluke,  and  stock  had  greater  holding  power  and 
certainty  of  gi'ip  than  the  more  compact  dumpy  anchor  now  in 
common  use.  Backing  large  anchors  by  smaller  ones  is  now 
seldom  practised,  except  when  veseels  are  on  shore  and  the  anchor 
is  laid  out  on  a  sandy  bottom  ;  it  is  generally  better  that  each 
anchor  should  liave  its  o^vn  cable  and  proportionate  strain.  Float- 
ing anchors  were  formerly  used  to  keep  ships'  bows  up  in  a  gale  ; 
they  were  made  of  iron  crossbars  and  three  or  four  thicknesses  of 
strong  canvas,  or  a  spar  with  a  heavily  weighted  sail,  spanaed 
with  a  stout  hawser  ;  such  a  contrivance  might  frequently  be  im- 
provised and  used  to  prevent  a  boat  or  small  vessel  from  foundering, 
t-ost  Should  an  anchor  be  lost  in  sand  or  soft  mud  after  having  borne 

ancliorA.  a  heavy  strain,  it  may  be  buried  entirely,  -when  it  can  only  be 
recovered  by  grappling  the  chain,  if  that  is  of  sufficient  length. 
This  is  best  done  by  a  small  anchor  with  a  bar  of  iron  to  assist  the 
stock  and  di-agged  by  a  long  scope  of  chain.  If  the  anchor  is  on 
ordinary  ground  and  only  sunk  as  far  as  the  shank  or  a  little  more, 
AM  shown  in  fig.  38,  it  is  easily  recovered  whether  there  is  any 
c»ble  on  it  cr  not.  The  full 
length  of  a  hawser  strong 
enough  to  weigh  the  anchor 
should  be  used  as  a  sweep, 
^vith  a  boat  at  each  end 
pulling  very  slowly  or  drop- 
ping with  the  tide,  in  the  p.  - 
reverse  direction  to  the  '^ 
strain  when  it  parted,  s^  as  to  catch  the  fluke  as  a  hook.  Towing 
a  hawser  against  the  tide  is  generally  waste  of  time,  and  a  chain 
fonns  too  narrow  a  bight,  unless  the  anchor  is  buoyed.  AVhen  the 
anchor  is  felt  both  boats  should  close  together  and  their  crews  pull 
with  all  their  strength  for  a  minute  or  two.  Then,  while  one  boat 
remains  stationary,  keeping  her  part  of  the  hawser  steady,  the 
other  should  cross  her  bows  with  a  slack  hawser,  which  thus  passes 


under  the  tauter  part  ;  this  second  boat,  by  continuing  in  a  circle 
round  the  anchor  and  returning  to  the  side  of  the  statioiian,-  one, 
will  cause  a  turn  to  be  formed  round  the  fluke,  as  rt  presented  in 
the  6gure.  Koth  crews  should  again  pull  hard  to  tighten  the  tarn 
round  the  fluke,  after  which,  both  parts  being  held  in  one  boat  d.nd 
made  equally  taut,  an  anchor  shackle  (buoyed)  is  placed  round  them 
and  shaken  down  by  a  veer-and-haul  pull  on  both  pa^ts  by  the  crew 
of  one  boat,  while  the  other  tows  ahead  to  keep  a  strain  on  the  hawser 
till  it  is  nearly  vertical,  when  the  anchor  is  secured.  The  ship  can 
then  take  in  the  two  parts  of  the  ha-.-ser  and  weigh  it. 

In  getting  a  ship  under  way  there  are  a  few  precautions  which  Getting 
should  necessarily  be  observed.  If  the  ship  is  moored,  the  first  under 
anchor  to  be  weighed  is  that  which  it  would  be  least  convenient  to  ■"  .y. 
sail  from.  At.  the  time  of  unmooring  the  direction  of  the  tide  is 
very  important  in  the  case  of  sailing  ships,  and  should  not  be  dis 
regarded  by  steamers.  The  hauling  part  of  the  cat-fall  is  always 
through  the  foremost  sheave,  to  prevent  the  tackle  from  fouling 
owing  to  the  ship's  motion*  through  the  water.  The  cable  on  the 
second  anchor  should  always  be  hove  short  before  making  saiL 
Should  there  be  plenty  of  room  and  the  wind  moderate,  there  is  no 
caution  necessary  beyond  placing  leadsmen  in  the  chains  with  newly 
marked  lines,  and  putting  the  helm  haYd  over  each  way  to  ensure  its 
being  clear.  The  after-yards  should  be  braced  up  on  one  tack  and 
the  head-yards  on  the  other,  to  pay  her  head  off";  in  cutters  and 
schooners  the  stay-fore-sail  is  used  for-  that  purpose.  If  another 
vessel  is  at  anchor  too  close  astern  to  ensure  gathering  way  while 
ahead  of  her,  it  should  not  be  attempted  ;  but,  by  squaring  the 
after-yards  as  soon  as  the  anchor  is  tripped,  the  ship's  head  will 
pay  off  till  it  becomes  safe  to  fill  all  the  sails  and  pass  under  the 
stern  of  the  other  vessel.  The  anchoi  should  havQ.  been  catted  and 
jierYia'ps ^skcd  also  during  the  internal  ;  much  way  should  never 
be  on  the  ship  till  the  anchor  is  secured,  for  fear  of  it  slipping  or  of 
a  man  falling  overboard.  Should  rocks  or  shallow  water  t<  incon- 
veniently close  astern  diff'erent  means  mi'st  be  adopted.  If  the 
wind  blows  directly  on  shore,  ofi"ering  no  choice  of  direction,  and 
a  current  runs  parallel  to  the  shore,  tiie  ship's  head  should  be  cast 
against  the  stream.  The  yards  should  be  braced  abox  sharp  up, 
with  as  much  sail  set  over  them  as  the  force  of  the  wind  will  allow, 
every  means  being  taken  to  heave  the  anchor  up  quickly  ;  and,  in 
a  well-manned  ship,  as  soon  as  it  is  out  of  the  ground,  haul  on 
board  the  main-tack  and  aft  with  the  sheet,  set  jib  and  spanker. 
The  helm  being  alee,  keep  it  so  as  long  as  is  required,  and  brace 
round  the  head-yards'  quickly;  the  ship  will  soon  spring  ahead. 
Then,  by  keeping  close  to  the  wind,  the  rate  of  movement  will  be 
retarded  till  the  anchor  is  secured  ;  then  set  the  fore-saiL 

The  above  is  applicable  in  moderate  weather  when  all  or  nearly  Slipping 
all  plain  sail  could  be  set.  But,  should  there  be  a  strong  wind  cable, 
and  a  rough  sea,  it  might  not  be  possible  to  weigh  the  anchor  or 
to  prevent  it  staving  the  bows  if  it  were  hove  up  ;  in  that  case  it 
must  be  sacrificed  for  the  safety  of  the  ship  by  passing  the  strongest 
hawser  from  the  after-port  (padded  with  mats)  to  the  cable,  making 
it  fast  by  a  rolling-hitch,  and  hauling  it  taut  ;  an  axe  and  block 
should  be  in  readiness,  also  guys,  to  prevent  the  spring  of  the 
hawser  breaking  men's  legs;  'The  courses  should  be  reefed  and  all 
ready  for  setting  ;  the  top-sails  (double  -or  treble  reefed)  should  be 
set  or  sheeted  home  ready  for  setting;  and  all  the  ysrds  should 
be  braced  up  on  the  tack  it  isintended  to  go  ofi"  on.  The  first 
opportunity  should  be  taken  when  the  ship  is  commencing  a  yaw 
in  the  desired  diiection  to  slip  the  cable,  set  the  fore -stay -sail  and 
fore-top-ma€t  stay-sail  ;  as  soon  as  the  top-sails  fill,  cut  the  spring, 
set  the  reefed  courses,  and  the  main-  and  mizzen-try-sails.  To  veer 
the  cable  previous  to  slipping  would  be  more  likely  to  break  the 
hawser.  The  expedient  of  losing  an  anchor  should  only  be  resorted 
to  when  there  is  too  much  wind  and  sea  to  admit  of  weighing  it 
and  not  too  nmch  to  prevent  the  ship,  of  whatever  description,  from 
gaining  something  to  windward  under  a  press  of  sail.  Otherwise 
her  condition  is  made  worse  by  the  loss  of  the  anchor  ;  it  would  be 
better  to  decide  upon  riding  the  gale  out,  letting  go  other  anchors, 
veering  all  the  cable  available,  striking  the  top-masfs,  and  bracing 
the  yards  nearly  fore-and-aft.  The  cutt:ng  away  of  the  lower- 
masts,  when  necessary,  must  always  be  done  with  great  care  to 
avoid  killing  people  or  bilging  the  ship  with  the  wreckage.  The 
lanyards  of  the  lower  rigging  on  one  side  should  be  cut  as  the  ship 
rolls  in  that  direction,  and  a  few  notches  made  in  th«  mast  on 
both  sides  3  or  4  feet  above  the  deck,  the  men  running  aft  out  of 
the  way  when  it  is  likely  to  fall,  for  which  operations  they  would 
have  from  eight  to  fourteen  seconds.  As  soon  as  the  mast  has 
fallen  the  lanyards  of  the  stays  should  be  cut  and  the  most 
strenuous  eff'oi-ts  made  to  cut  and  clear  every  rope  which  would 
still  hold  the  mast  to  the  ship. 

When  weighing  in  rough  weather  with  suSicient  room  to  drift, 
it  is  better  to  have  the  anchor  fully  secured  before  making  any 
sail  ;  or,  if  it  is  intended  to  run  before  the  wind,  the  ship  can  be  fiept 
on  her  course  by  the  jib  onlv  till  the  anchor  is  stowed.  Steaming 
up  to  an  anchor  against  strong  wind  or  tide  is  objectionable,  as  it 
requires  great  attention  and  judgment  to  avoid  jerks  ;  the  same 
applies  to  steaming  in  a  gak  :o  ease  the  strain  on  the  cable  ;  a  con. 


SEAMANSHIP 


599 


y.irnir; 


Etant  waUi  should  be  tept  to  prevent  the  cable  ever  becoming 
slack.  Fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels  have  much  less  difficulty  in 
getting  under  way  when  close  to  a  lee  shore,  as  their  main-sails  can 
be  fully  set  without  holding  wind,  and  directly  she  pays  off  all  the 
sails  draw, 
■  If  the  anchors  drag  and  the  ship  strikes  the  bottom,  especially  on 


o*i  shore,  rocks,  and  it  is  apprehended  that  she  may  go  to  pieces  or  founder 
in  comparatively  deep  water,  it  would  be  right  to  select  the  best 
place  on  shoi-e  (if  there  be  a  choice),  and  endeavour  to  thrust  her 
into  it  by  slipping^  or  breaking  all  the  cables  and  making  sail,  if 
there  is  still  the  means  of  doing  so,  with  the  view  of  driving  her  up 
as  iiigh  as  possible  and  so  saving  life  ;  let  it  also  be  at  the  top  of 
high  water,  if  that  can  be  waited  for.  "VVTien  there  is  a  heavy  strain 
on  ft  chain  cable  it  is  easily  broken  by  scratching  a  notch  'nith  a 
common  saw  on  a  link  that  rests  firmly  on  the  bitts  and  then  striking 
it  with  a  maul  or  sledge-hammer. 

Tha  usual  way  of  testing  whether  the  anchors  are  holding  or  not 
is  by  dropping  the  lead  over  the  side  and  leaving  the  line  slack  ;  but 
the  ship  is  Jiable  to  swing  over  it,  causing  it  to  be  disturbed.  A 
grapnel  over  the  bow  or  from  tho  bowsprit  is  preferable.  Also  by 
sitting  on  a  cable  before  the  bitts  a  tremulous  motion  is  felt  if  the 
anchor  ia  dragging. 

If  instead  of  a  dead  lee  shore  we  have  the  wind  oblique  with  the 
line  of  coast,  and  the  ship  from  some  cause  too  close  to  admit  of  a 
stem-board  towards  it,  the  head-yards  should  be  braced  abox  to 
cast  her  head  inshore,  while  the  after^yards  are  kept  sq^iare  ;  this 
wi.ll  cause  the  ship  to  make  a  long  stern-board  from  the  shore, 
which  will  not  terminate  till  the  wind  is  well  abaft  the  beam. 
The  helm  np  to  that  time  may  be  kept  in  midships,  as  there  is  no 
reason  to  diminish  the  curve.  As"  the  stem-way  is  lost  the  helm 
should  be  put  hard  up,  the  head-jards  squared,  and  the  mizzen- 
top-sail  kept  shivering  till  braced  up  on  the  desired  tack.  The 
main-top-sail  should  be  kept  full.  If  it  is  necessary  to  get  the 
ship  round  as  quickly  and  as  shortly  as  possible,  the  fore-yard, 
instead  of  being  squared  when  about  to  shake,  may  be  braced  entirely 
round  quickly  so  as  to  continue  paying  her  bow  off  till  the  wind 
comes  aft,  then  squared  to  allow"  her  to  come  to.  The  jib  or  the 
fore-top-mast  stay-sail  {according  to  the  weather)  may  be  hoisted 
when  the  anchor  is  tripped  or  not,  until  the  wind  is  before  the 
beam  on  the  desired  tack ;  if  at  the  former  time  the  sheets  should 
be  hauled,  to  windward  and  kept  so  till  the  ship  ia  before  the 
wind,  then  eased  off  till  the  wind  comes  bt;fore  the  beam.  The 
spanker  or  mizzen- try -sail  should  be  set  as  soon  as  it  will  draw  the 
right  way. 
^caring  What  has  been  said  about  trimming  the  sails  as  the  ship  is 
■bip.  turned  round  after  casting  with  her  head  inshore  is  equally  appli- 
cable to  a  case  of  ordinary  wearing  when  it  is  desirable  to  turn  the 
ship  Tivitli  a3  little  loss  of  ground  as  possible.  As  a  general  guide 
to  the  position  in  which  the  yards  should  be  placed,  it  may  be 
remembered  that  the  pressure  oji  the  sails  always  acts  at  right 
angles  to  the  yards.  This  may  be  exemplified  by  bracing  the  yards 
sharp  up  when  the  wind  is  two  or  three  points  abaft  the  beam.  As 
it  wUl  then  blow  directly  into  the  sails  they  will  certainly  receive 
greater  strain,  but  the  speed  of  the  ship  will  be  less  than  when 
the  yards  were  square  ;  and  it  may  be  observed  that  considerable 
leeway  will  be  caused  by  the  lateral  pressure.  In  wearing  ship  all 
the  fore-and-aft  sails  should  be  taken  in  except  the  head-sails,  aud 
when  the  helm  is  put  up  the  main-sail  should  be  taken  in  and 
the  mizzen-top-sail  shivered, — the  latter  continued  till  it  is  sharp 
up  for  the  new  tack.  A  fashion  has  been  adopted  of  leaving  the 
mizzen-top-sail  square  till  after  the  head-yards  have  been  squared  ; 
hence  everything"  depends  for  a  time  upon  the  action  of  the  rudder, 
and  the  ship  sails  a  considerable  distance  before  the  wind  and  loses 
so  ranch  ground.  The  operation  of  wearing  a  cutter  requires  much 
more  care  than  with  a  square-rigged  vessel  on  account  of  the  heavy 
boom.  A  schooner  is  treated  similarly,  but  the  spars  and  sails  are 
lighter  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  vessel.  Before  putting  the 
helm  np,  tne  tack  of  tho  main-sail  is  triced  up  (the  top-sail  clewed 
up),  and  the  peak  dropped  till  it  is  nearly  in  a  lino  with  the  boom 
topping-Uft3,  which  is  called  scandalizing  the  main-sail.  .  Both 
peal:  and  boom  are  secured  firmly  in  midships  by  means  of  the  down- 
haul  and  sheeta  Not  only  is  the  diminution  of  after-sail  necessary 
to  allow  the  vessel  to  pav  off  ouickly,  but  the  change  of  wind 
from  one  quarter  to  tho  otlier  ^ill  only  cause  a  gybe  which  is  per- 
fectly under  controL  The  jib  and  stay- fore -sail  are  gybed  by  haul- 
ing the  sheeta  flat  juat  before  the  wind  is  aft  so  as  to  diminish  the 
i'erK  as  much  as  possible.  The  peak  of  the  main-sail  is  easily  re* 
loistcd  while  the  tack  is  up  ana  tho  vessel  lufl"ed  np'to  the  wind. 
The  runners  and  weathor-boora  topping-lift  should  be  pulled  up 
while  the  ship  is  before  the  wind  and  the  top- sail -sheet  hauled  out 
as  soon  ss  •Kb  oeak  is  up, — tho  tack-tackle  being  shifted  to  wind- 
ward and  pulled  down.  In  wearing  during  fine  weather,  especially 
In  yachts  when  racing,  Bome  risk  may  be  preferable  to  the  loss  of 
time  and  the  main-sail  may  be  kept  set  As  the  main-sheet  is 
tisnally  rove  through  a  treble  block  on  the  boom,  a  douye  block  to 
move  along  the  horse,  and  a  single  block  on  each  quarter,  a  strong  . 
crew  can  man  each  part  at  the  same  time  and  haul  the  boom  ia 


midships  quickly,  belaying  the  part  which  was  at  the  Ice  side  and 
is  about  to  become  the  weather  side  directly  the  boom  is  over  the 
leading  block,  while  thd  other  part-iekept  in  hand  till  the  gyhe 
has  been  effected  to  lessen  th*  jerk. 

The  sails  of  all  vessels  are  most  effective  when  set  as  nearly  flat  Set  cf 
as  practicable,  and  also  each  sail,  as  well  as  each  part  of  a  sail,  sails, 
should  be  spread  at  the  same  angle  fionx  the  keel.  If  under  that 
condition  too  much  or  too  little  weather-helm  is  required,  the 
balance  should  be  established  by  changing  the  quantity  of  canvas 
at  either  end  or  by  altering  the  trim,  not  by  permanently  easing 
off  a  sheet,  for  that  is  aa  detrimental  as  dragging  the  rudder  at  a 
large  angle.  By  altering  the  stand  of  the  masts  materially  tlio 
angle  and  consequent  set  of  all  gaff-sails  are  thrown  out. 

To  tack  a  fore -and -aft- rigged  vessel"  is  very  simple  ;  by  easing  of;'  ra,cVir.g 
the  jib  and  fore-sheets  at  the  time  the  helm  is  eased  do^^n  ard 
hauling  over  the  main-sheet,  the  vessel  will  soon  run  up  to  the 
wind  ;  then  if  the  fore-sheet  is  hauled  flat  over  as  for  the  former 
tack  it  will  assist  to  pay  her  bow  off  the  right  way.  The  jib-sheet 
would  be  hauled  aft  while  shaking,  but  not  too  soon  to  ciuse  it  to 
take  the  wrong  way.  The  fore-sheet  ia  shifted  over  as  the  other 
sails  are  {ibout  to  fill,  according  to  the  speed  T\ith  which  the  vessel 
is  paying  off.  In  a  smart  vessel,  such  as  a  cutter-yacht  in  smooth 
water  and  with  a  good  breeze,  there  will  he  no  occasion  to  retain 
the  fore-sheet,  but  allow  it  to  shake  itself  over  similarly  to  the  jib. 
Returning  to  the  idea  of  tacking  with  difficulty, — the  helm  should 
be  put  hard  over  as  the  speed  decreases  and  reversed  directly  stern- 
way  commences;  this  remark  applies  to  vessels  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes,  as  will  also  the  advice  not  to  put  the  helm  over  to  a  larga 
angle  while  the  vessel  is  going  at  great  sj^eed.  At  an  angle  of  10 
degrees,  more  than  98  per  cent,  of  the  force  on  the  rudder  is 
applied  to  turning  the  vessel  and  17^  per  cent,  to  retard  her  ;  while 
at  30  degrees  one-half  the  force  would  retard  and  86^  per  cent, 
tend  to  turn.  Hence  we  see  the  reasons  for  recommending  closa 
fitting,  broad,  tapering  rudders.      .         ,  ■ 

"While  the  vessel  is  in  stays  the  weather-boom  topping-lift  should 
be  pulled  to  take  the  weight  of  the  boom,  the  mnner-and-tackle  on 
the  weather  side  set  up,  and  the  lee  one  slacked  as  soon  as  she  is 
round  ;  also  shift  the  main  tack-tackle  over  to  windward  and  set 
it  up  ;  get  a  ptill  of  the  gaff-top-sail  tack  if  necessary. 

The  jib  of  a  cutter,  yawl,  or  schooner  with  a  running  bowsprit  is 
a  difficult  sail  to  handle  when  the  vessel  is  under  way.  If  there 
is  sea-room  it  is  better  to  keep  the  yacht  away  before  the  wind  and 
let  go  the  outhaul,  when  the  traveller  will  ran  in,  or  pull  at  the 
same  time  on  the  inhaul,  whiA  should  he  fitted  with  a  span  to 
keep  it  square.  Haul  the  stay -fore -sail  sheet  over  to  make  room 
to  haul  in  the  jib  to  leeward  of  it.  Gather  in  the  slack  canvas 
smartly  to  keep  it  from  getting  overboard  ;  get  hold  of  the  luff  of 
the  sail  by  the  stay-rope,  while  some  hands  pull  on  the  downhaul. 
\\'}jen  the  sail  is  perfectly  under  control  ht  go  the  halyards  and 
continue  hauling  on  the  stay-rope  and  dowahauL  When  there  is 
not  room  to  run  before  the  wind,  it  is  beet  to  heave  to  with  fore- 
sheet  to  windward  while  taking  in  or  shifting  a  jib  ;  by  letting  go 
the  outhaul  the  traveller  will  run  in  and  the  sail  can  be  handled 
as  before,  a  good  hold  being  always  kept  of  the  weatlier  side,  that 
is,  the  luff  of  the  sail  If  another  jib  ia  to  be  bent  it  should  bo 
laid  along  the  weather  side  of  the  deck  in  readiness,  with  the  tack 
fon\-ard  and  the  head  aft.  The  sheets  are  thea  untoggled  from  the 
former  sail,  handed  across  outside  (to  windward)  of  the  fore-staj, 
and  toggled  to  the  second  jib  ;  also  take  the  tick  to  tne  traveller, 
hook  it,  and  run  it  out  Hook  the  halyards  and  hoist  the  jib  up 
by  them  ;  then  tauten  the  luff  by  the  purchase  while  the  sheet  is 
flowing,  -     ^ 

A  jib-headed  gaff-top-sail  is  preferable  for  use  on  a  ^ind  and  Gaff- '.a> 
commanding  breeze,  though  for  light  winds  a  long  yard  spreads  a  e.dL 
fine  sheet  of  canvas.  Such  a  yard  should  be  slung  at  one-third 
from  the  fore-end  {as  a  boat's  dipping  lug),  the  clew-line  block 
secured  at  the  length  of  the  leech  from  the  upper  end,  and  the 
standing  part  of  the  clew-line  made  fast  to  the  lower  end, — this  last 
to  keep  it  clear  of  the  cross  tree  when  being  hauled  do%vn,  which 
must  always  be  done  on  the  side  it  has  been  set,  a  tack  being  made 
if  necessary  to  bring  it  to  windward.  On  the  approach  of  a  squall 
tho  fore-sail  should  be  hauled  down  by  means  of  the  downhaul  and 
the  vessel  luffed  up^it  is  dangerous  to  attempt  bearing  up  at  such 
a  time  until  the  main-sail  has  been  scandalized  ;  the  effect  of  the 
water  on  the  rudder  aids  greatly  in  tripping  a  vessel  over. 

As  bad  weather  comes  on  the  main-sail  must  bo  reefed  (a  smaller  Rcefn*' 
jib  having  been  already  cot)  by  topping  up  the  boom,  easing  down  rails, 
the  peak  and  throat,  and  hauling  aown  the  reef  cringle  to  the  Loom 
by  the  reef-tackle  ;  lash  the  tack  and  tie  the  poiuts  without  rolling 
the  slack  canvas.  The  second  and  third  reefs  are  taken  in  as  the 
wind  increases  and  the  fore-sail  reefed  a^ain  or  stowed,  during 
which  time  the  jib-sheet  should  be  hauled  flat,  the  main-tack  triced 
up,  and  the  vessel  kept  close  to  the  wind  to  avoid  plunging  the  sea 
over  the  bow.  To  reef  the  bowsprit, — house  the  top-mast,  let  thd 
jib  run  iri,  slack  the  bobstays  and  bowsprit  shrouds,  take  out  the 
fid,  and  let  tho  bowsprit  run  in  one  or  two  reefs ;  then  refid  it,  set 
taut  the  gear,  and  set  a  small  jib.     It  is  ct  all  times  much  mora 


600 


SEAMANSHIP 


difficult  to  stoer  a  short  vessel  than  a  long  one,  but  especially  in 
a  heavy  sea,  when  the  mode  of  ti'eatment  must  be  entirely  different, 
A  Bmall  vessel  should  be  luffed  up  to  meet  every  large  wave  in 
order  to  bow  it  as  much  as  possible.  She  will  have  but  little  way 
on  at  the  time  of  meeting  it  and  will  drop  into  it  easily  ;  the  bow 
will  then  fall  off,  the  sails  fill,  and'a  run  be  made  parallel  to  the 
waves  till  she  is  luffed  up  again.  A  four-oared  gig  has  been  taken 
through  a  heavy  sea  under  oars  by  pulling  up  to  meet  every  danger- 
ous crest  which  could  not  be  dodged,  and  just  before  it  broke  over 
tlie  bow  backing  away  from  it.  The  smallest  amount  of  sail  which 
can  be  shown  by  a  main-sail  is  when  it  is  balance-reefed  ;  this  is 
accomplished  by  close-reefing  it  and  lowering  the  jaws  of  the  gaff 
close  down  to  the  boom,  whue  the  peak  stretches  up  that  part  of 
the  leech  above  the  clOse-reef  cringle.  The  plan  is  more  frequently 
adopted  by  fishing  smacks  than  by  yachts  or  other  well-found 
vessels  ;  tliey  have  a  try-sail  which,  being  laced  on  a  smaller  gnff, 
is  hoisted  by  the  same  peak  and  throat  halyards  as  the  larger  sail, 
and  has  its  sheet  secured  to  a  bolt  near  the  stern,  while  the  boom 
is  crutchcd  and  secured  with  the  main-sail  and  tho'large  gaff  lashed 
to  it  The  try-sail  admits  of  being  reefed  ;  it  is  a  safe  sail  either 
on  Or  off  the  wind  in  rough  weather.  The  greatest  care  is.nccessary 
when  running  before  the  wind  to  keep  the  vessel  on  her  course  and 
to  avoid  gybing.  A  vessel  should  never  get  under  way  without  a 
small  boat,  and  a  cutter  should  never  bo  without  her  legs  for  fear 
of  taking  the  ground  unexpectedly.  In  racing  to  windward,  if  the 
wind  is  varialjje,  keep  nearly  dead  to  leeward  of  the  mark  vessel, 
as  every  change  iu  the  direction  of  the  wind  will  then  be  an 
advantage  ;  unless  there  is  a  tidal  preference  for  one  direction  over 
the  other,  that  will  of  course  decide  it 
Tackia;-.  If  taken  aback  by  a  change  of  wind,  and  wishing  to  remain  on 
the  same  tack,  put  the  helm  up  and  haul  over  the  fore-sheet.  In  a 
ship  haul  over  the  head-sheets  and  brace  the  head-yards  abox. 
The  way  to  tack  a  ship  under  favourable  circumstances  may  here 
be  assumed  as  well  known,  and  only  a  few  hints  relative  to  doubt- 
ful cases  given.  A  few  minuter  pnor  to  the  attempt  set  all  suit- 
able sail,  keep  steadily  "rap-full  with  a  small  helm,  so  as  to  get 
as  much  way  as  possible.  If  tie  crew  is  large  enough  to  list  the 
ship,  send  them  over  to  leeward,  ease  down  the  helm  slowly,  haul 
the  boom  in  midships,  haul  down  the  head-sails,  ease  off  the  fore- 
ehcet,  let  go  the  head -bow  lines,  and  check  the  head-braces.  Directly 
the  wind  is  out  of  the  fore -top- sail,  brace  the  head-yards  sharp  up 
again  and  haul  the  bowlines.  When  the  wind  is  entirely  out  of  the 
main-top-sail,  let  go  the  top-gallant  bowlines  (if  those  sails  are  set) 
and  raise  tacks  and  sheets,  except  the  fore-tack,  which  should  be 
raised  after  the  main-yard  has  been  swung.  As  soon  as  the  vessel 
loses  her  way,  shift  the  helm  hard  over,  and  seud'the  men  to  their 
stations.  If  she  brhigs  the  wind  across  her  bow,  hoist  the  head- 
sails  with  the  sheets  on  tJie  same  side  as  before  ;  if  the  wind  takes 
them  well  and  the  ship  is  still  going  round,  give  the  order  "main- 
sail liaul,"  haul  down  the  main-tack,  aft  the  sheet,  shift  over  the 
head-sails,  haul  the  after-bowlines.  As  the  main-top-sail  fills,  or 
before,  according  to  the  rapidity  with  which  she  pays  off,  swing  the 
head-yards  to  the  order  of  "haul  off  alL" 
Missed  If  when  near  head  to  wind  it  is  found  that  the  bow  is  fallinj^ 

ptays.  back  and  stern-way  commencing,  it  is  evident  that  she  has  "  missed 
stays."  The  helm  in  that  case  should  not  be  shifted,  as  with 
steru-way  it  will  lielp  her  to  pay  her  bow  off  in  the  direction  it 
was  before.  The  head-sails  should  be  hoisted,  the  main-sail  and 
spanker  taken  in,  the  fore-sheet  hauled  aft,  the  after-yards  squared- 
As  the  wind  comes  abaft  the  beam  the  mizzen-top-sail  should  be 
kept  shivenng  and  the  main-top-sail  just  full  ;  shift  the  helm  as 
she  gathers  headway.  "When  before  the  wind  square  the  head- 
yards,  shift  over  the  head-sheets,  and  keep  them  flowing.  Set  tae 
spanker  when  it  will  take  the  right  way ;  complete  wearing  as  before 
described.  This  is  similar  to  "box-hauling";  it  is  not  necessary 
to  brace  the  head-yards  abox  if  she  will  fall  off  without.  The 
manoeuvre  of  putting  the  helm  down  and  letting  the  ship  shoot  up 
in  the  wind  before  wearing  is  sometimes  adopted  for  the  sake  of 
diminbhing  the  run  to  leeward.  Hauling  all  the  yards  at  once  is 
very  objectionable  ;  the  sails  are  longer  aback  and  have  to  be  hauled 
round  by  main  strength  against  the  pressure  of  the  wind. 
CioD-  "Club-hauling"  may  occasionally  save  a  ship  even  in  these  days 

haaling.  of  steam,  as  a  paddle-steamer  mil  not  turn  with  her  head  against 
a  strong  gale  and  a  heavy  sea,  nor  will  a  sailing-ship  with  an  auxi- 
liary screw-propeller.  It  may  be  done  when  the  ship  is  found  edging 
down  on  a  lee  shore,  too  close  to  wear,  and  having  a  depth  of  water 
not  exceeding  20  fathoms.  It  will  take  two  or  three  minutes  to 
open  the  hawse-pipe,  get  the  cable  clear,  and  procure  hammer  and 
punches  for  unshackling,  and  mauls  for  breaking  the  cable  if 
necessary.  Put  the  helm  down  and  act  as  in  ordinary  tacking  till 
she  ceases  to  turn  nearer  to  the  wind  ;  thenlet  go  the  anchor,  whether 
she  has  entirely  lost  her  way  or  not,  as  passing  the  anchor  a  little 
will  give  a  greater  swing  back  when  the  strain  comes  and  allow 
more  time  for  slipping  the  cable,  which  should  be  done  directly 
the  wind  has  crossed  the  bow  ;  at  the  same  time  swing  the  after- 
yards.  If  the  cable  has  been  slipped  successfully,  the  head-yards 
may  be  hauled  as  soon  asihe  after-yards  have  been  braced  uji,  as 


she  will  soon  be  oroadsida  on.  It  has  been  proposed  to  run  a 
spring  from  the  after-lee-port  tv^  the  anchor,  but  that  would  take 
too  much  time. 

"  Backing  and  filling  "  is  practised  in  a  tidal  channel  which  is  Backing 
too  narrow  to  allow  a  ship  to  gather  way  for  tacking.     One  top-sail,  and 
w  ith  the  jib  and  spanker  occasionally,  Ls  generally  Eufficient  to  give  filling, 
slight  head  or  stern  w-ay,  to  avoid  either  bank' or  another  vessel, 
while  the  tide  carries  her  broadside  against  the  wind  ;  the  leas  sail 
exposed  the  less  the  lee-way.    Fore-and-aft  vessels  having  less  power 
to  get  stem-way  should  have  a  boat  in  attendance  with  a  line  and 
a  small  anchor. 

"Kcdging"was  a  frequent  performance  oefore  steam-tugs  were 
introduced  ;  it  consisted  of  a  series  of  movements  from  one  small 
anchor  to  another,  previously  laid  out  by  boats.  For  a  similar 
purpose  harbours  that  wcie  much  frequented  were  fonnerly  fur- 
nished with  a  succession  of  warping  buoys.  The  large  ropes  used 
for  transporting  ships  arc  called  ha\.sci-s,  and  by  a  strange  anomaly 
were  formerly  cable-laid  nine-stranded.  Such  rope  is  hard  and  stiff 
to  handle  ;  it  al:)sorbs  more  wet  and  retains  it  longer,  therefore  ia  less 
durable  ;  when  new  the  streugtli  is  far  inferior  to  hawser-laid  rope 
of  similar  size.  Manila  and  coir  hawsers  float  on  the  water  and  are 
therefore  very  useful. 

Dropping  through  a  narrow  tidal  channel  by  means  of  an  anchor  Dredg- 
just  touching  the  bottom  is  called  "  dredging  "  or  clubbing  ;  it  can  ing. 
bo  practised  in  a  passage  wlucli  is  too  narrow  for  backing  and  fill- 
ing, such  as  the  upper  part  of  the  Thames,  where  it  is  done  every 
day.  The  vessel  swin^  to  her  anchor  and  points  her  stern  up  {or 
down)  the  stream  ;  by  lieaving  in  the  cable  (for  which  the  steam 
capstans  and  windlasses  afford  gieat  facility)  the  tide  takes  the 
ship  on  as  lUst  as  it  is  running  so  long  as  the  course  remains  clear. 
AVhen  it  is  dcsii-able  to  approach  either  side,  a  few  fathoms  of  cable 
paid  out  will  cause  it  to  hold  ;  the  helm  and  the  action  of  the  tide 
will  then  sheer  the  ship  as  desired,  and  by  heaving  in  cable  she  will 
go  on  again,  so  that  a  sailing-ship  should  go  up  at  half  the  rate  of 
the  tide  at  least  With  a  screw-steamer  it  is  far  easier,  as  the  screw 
will  straighten  her  as  well  as  the  tide,  and  when  fairly  pointed 
through  an  open  space  she  can  make  a  stern-board  at  five  knots  an 
^our  while  perfectly  under  control. 

A  few  words  may  be  said  about  making  and  shortening  sail  in  Making 
bad  weather.     One  point  holds  good  iu  all  cases  :  the  sails  should  and 
never  be  allowed  to  flap,  as  that  exposes  them  to  the  danger  ofshorten- 
splitting.     The  tack  or  luff  Is  invariably  secured  first,  wiule  the  ing  san. 
sheet  boars  a  steady  stmin  enough  to  keep  the  sail  from  shaking. 
Before  hoisting  foic-and-aft  sails  the  sheets  are  steadied  aft  ;  and, 
should  a  sheet  c-arry  away,  the  sail  is  hauled  down  or  brailod  up 
instantly.     Spankers  and  try-sails  should  be  taken  in  entirely  by 
the  lee-brails,  the  slack  only  of  the  weather -brails  being  at  fii^st 
taken  \J,o\mi-     A  practice  has  become  general  in  the  British  navy 
of  securing  the  top-sail  clew-line  blocks  to  the  lower  cap  instead  of 
round  the  yard,  for  the  sake  of  saving  time  when  shifting  to]>-sail- 
yards;  tlie  useof  the  clew-lines  for  hauling  the  yard  down  and  steady- 
ing it  is  thus  lost ;  this  is  one  of  many  objectionable  practices. 

There  has  been  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  mode  of  setting  Top-saii> 
and  taking  ii  top-sails  and  courses ;  but  the  same  rule  should  apply  and 
to  all  square  sails  alike  :  that  which  is  safest  for  one  will  be  safest  courses.  ^ 
for  the  others.      Ex[x:rience  and  the  babnce  of  opinion  favour  the 
hauling  home  of  the  weather  top-gallant-sheet,  top-sail-sheet,  and 
tack  of  the  fore-sail  or  main -sail  firet,  with  a  good  sti-ain  on  tho 
clew-lines,  clew-garnets,  and  bunt-lines,  to  avoid  flapping.     The  Ico 
sheet  jnay  then  be  hauled  and  eased  down  by  clew-line  and  bunt- 
line.      Each  bowline  shouM  also  be  steadied  taut  in  succession  to 
prevent  the  leech  from  flapping.     There  appeara  to  be  no  advan- 
tage in  first  hauling  the  lee-sheet  partially  down.     The  taking  iu 
of  these  sails  has  been  equally  a  matter  of  dispute,  and  many  ad- 
vocate taking  in  a  top-sail  iu  a  different  manner  from  that  which 
they  would  adopt  in  taking  in  a  course.     Falconer's  rule  was  oftca 
quoted  and  followed  in  former  times.     It  runs  thus — 

*'  And  he  who  strives  tlie  tompi.st  to  disarm, 
■Will  never  first  embrail  the  lee  yard-ana." 

It  must  bo  remembered  that  the  decision  there  supported  by  the 
sea-poet  was  then  a  novelty,  and  opposed  to  the  opinion  of  tha 
practical  seaman.  A  main -sail  had  been  split  by  "letting  Hy"tho 
sheet  ;  but  that  proves  notliing,  as  all  sails  will  split  if  the  clew 
flies  loose  in  a  gale.  The  lee  clew  of  an  eighty-gun  ship's  main- 
top-sail was  blown  over  the  yard-arm  in  consequence  of  the  weather- 
sheet  having  caiTied  away  ;  that  clew  was  hauled  up  first  It  might 
not  have  happened  had  the  bunt-lines  been  well  manned  and  had 
there  been  a  small  strain  on  the  lee  bowUue.  Either  plan  will 
answer  if  the  bunt -lines  arc  well  manned  and  the  sheets  eased 
steadily  ;  but  that  the  weather  clew  should  be  set  first  and  taken 
in  last  is  preferable. 

In  taking  in  lop -gallant -sails  before  the  wind  both  sheets  should 
be  kept  fast  till  the  yard  is  down.  WTien  a  top-sail  is  to  be  reefed 
tlie  yard  sjiould  be  pointed  to  the  wind  ;  and  for  tho  fii-st  reef  the 
top-gallant-sheets,  biintdine,  and  bowlines  should  be  hauled  taut, 
for  the  second  reef  the  top -gallant-sail  should  be  clewed  up,  to 
keep  the  shecta  ffom  knocking  the  men  at  the  yard-anus.     In  rougU 


SEAMANSHIP 


601 


weather  a  prepenier  parrel  and  rollmg-tackle  sliouKi  be  put  on 
In-Fore  the  men  go  on  the  yards.  For  a  fourth  reef  the  top-sail 
should  be  clewed  up  during  the  operation ;  it  will  then  be  performed 
with  less  difficulty.  The  long  reef-pointa  in  top-sails  and  courses 
have  generally  given  place  to  the  lighter  and  more  expeditious 
method  of  having  reef-lines  on  the  sails,  with  beckets  ajid  toggles 
on  the  jackstay.  The  whole  strain  of  the  sail  is  tV*is  thrown  on 
the  jackstay  and  small  eyebolts,  instead  of  the  points  being  firmly 
tied  round  the  yard  itself.  Also  the  slab  of  each  reef  is  usually 
allowed  to  hang  do^\'n  and  chafe  at  the  fold  ;  but  this  can  be  pre- 
vented by  fastening  three  or  four  small  slab-lines  on  each  side  of 
each  reef.  Cunningham's  invention  for  reeting  top-sails  is  very 
valuable  in  all  weakly  manned  ships,  but  it  requires  to  be  kei)t 


-  ape  ._  _       - 

pun-yarn,  with  the  reef-earings  and  bowline  bridles  showing  near 
the  ends  and  the  clews  and  bunt-line  toggles  near  the  centre,  where 
it  would  be  slung  by  a  slip  strop.  When  the  two  earings  are  taken 
into  the  centre  it  ^vill  form  four  parts,  and  the  weather  top-mast 
studding-sail  halyards  being  bent  round  it  will  cause  it  to  look  like 
a  large  bale.  In  that  state  it  is  hoisted  into  the  top  by  the  sail 
tackle,  at  the  same  time  being  steadied  by  the  studding-sail  hal- 
yards ;  there  all  the  ropes  are  bent,  clew-lines  and  bunt-lines  hauled 
np,  reef-tackles  hauled  out,  and  the  sail  bent  to  the  yard  before  the 
stops  are  slipped  or  cut ;  then  it  is  reefed  as  desired  before  tho 
weather  sheet  is  hauled  home.  A  fore-sail  or  main-sail  is  bent  in  a 
similar  manner,  except  that  the  various  ropes  employed  on  a  course 
are  bent  on  deck,  by  which  ropes  and  the  burtons  it  is  swayed  up. 
Studding-sails  are  very  useful  in  long  voyages  ;  their  disuse  on  the 
main-mast  is  to  be  regretted,  especially  in  long  shjps,  A  top-mast 
or  top-gallant  studding-sail  is  shifted  "before  all,"  by  a  man  on 
the  yard  gathering  in  the  sail  as  it  is  lowered  to  him  and  holding 
the  outer  leech  till  it  cants  the  right  way. 
Coasting.  During  a  coasting  voyage  the  vessel  must  be  within  a  moderate 
distance  of  the  shore,  therefore  the  person  in  charge  should  con- 
stantly be  ready  to  nin  for  shelter  when  necessary,  and  have  tho 
moral  courage  to  do  it  in  time.  In  yachting  voyages,  however  dis- 
tant, there  is  a  natural  desire  to  see  the  land  and  all  that  is  worth 
seeing,  and,  being  well  provided  with  charts,  such  vessels  can  enter 
any  harbour,  when  perhaps  a  pUot  is  not  able  to  get  out.  A  ship 
starting  on  a  foreign  voyage  sliould  seek  "blue  water'*  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  keep  a  safe  distance  from  all  land  which  is  liable  to 
become  a  lee  shore,  and  not  be  tempted  to  edge  in  because  a  certain 
tack  is  much  nearer  to  the  desired  course  than  the  other.  For  the 
choice  of  track  and  for  trade  winds,  see  Navigatiok. 
Heaving  To  heave  to  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  is  done  iri  a  cutter  by 
)o  easing  off  the  jib-sheet,  hauling  over  the  weather  fore-sheet,  and 

tricing  up  the  tack  of  the  main-sail.  A  schooner  is  treated  simi- 
lar'y  :  the  top-sail  (if  she  has  one)  is  backed  and  the  gaff-fore-sail  is 
taken  in.  A  ship  has  her  courses  hauled  up,  head-sheets  eased  off, 
and  either  the  main  or  fore  yard  squared.  Upon  the  latter  point 
opinions  differ.  If  two  ships  are  close  together,  the  one  to  wind- 
ward had  better  back  the  main-top-sail  and  the  ship  to  leeward  tho 
fore-top-sail ;  they  should  always  preserve  a  little  headway.  Boats 
invariably  board  ships  on  the  lee  side  ;  small  vessels,  when  drifting 
fast,  on  the  weather  side.  A  ship  at  anchor  in  a  tide-way  will 
always  present  a  lee  side  during  some  period  ;  but  a  "  weather  tide  " 
causes  a  dangerous  sea  for  boats.  A  boat's  oars  should  never  bo 
tossed  up  or  fonrard  when  there  is  danger  of  tlieir  fouling,  for  fear 
of  staving  the  boat  or  injuring  some  one  in  the  atto*-  part. 

"When  in  the  vicinity  of  a  lee  beach  and  landing  by  means  of  a  boat 
is  determined  on,  the  oars  should  be  manned  to  the  utmost  and  the 
waves  watched  (as  they  always  vary),  and  tlie  boat  forced  in  on  the 
top  of  the  third  largo  wave,  care  being  taken  to  keep  her  exactly 
end  on  to  the  sea.  At  the  instan,t  of  touching  the  gr(mnd  every 
man  should  jump  out  and  begin  to  haul  up  tho  boat,  if  she  is  of 
reasonable  weight  ;  tho  next  wave  will  probably  put  them  all  out 
of  danger.  By  holding  on  to  the  boat  they  give  and  receive  mutual 
support,  and  avoid  being  sucked  back  by  the  receding  water  or 
crushed  by  the  boat. 

The  term  "hove  to"  as  applied  to  a  vessel  in  a  gale  of  wind  is 
derived  from  the  desire  to  turn  her  bow  up  towards  the  wind  and 
sea  ;  this  under  all  circumstances  of  sail  shouhl  bo  the  point  aimed 
at,  since  then  the  seas  strike  the  side  obliquely  and  also  the  bow, 
which  is  the  strongr;st  part.  The  best  sails  to  keep  on  a  sliip  during 
a  violent  gale  arc  the  close-reefed  niain-top-sail,  main-  and  mizzcn- 
try-sails,  and  fore-stay-sail.  The  fore-try-sail  also  may  do  goud, 
and  is  far  preferable  to  a  main-stay-sail.  The  pressure  of  the  main- 
top-sail tends  greatly  to  mitigate  tlie  violent  motion  ;  also  by  heeling 
the  ship  she  prcscnU  a  higher  side  to  keep  the  sea  out  and  a  sloping 
deck  to  aid  the  water  in  running  off.  The  helm  should  be  aoout 
one  turn  "a-lcc,"  never  hard  down.  When  north  of  the  equator 
ebipa  should  heave  to  on  the  starboard  tack,  and  the  reverse  in 
Bouthcrn  latitudes.  More  sail  should  bo  made  as  soon  ns  tho  galo 
moderates,  to  steady  the  ship.  The  violent  rolling  motion  may 
■omvUmes  bo  diminished  by  alteriny  course,  so  that  the  period  be- 
•21  -22* 


tween  the  waves  reaching  tho  vessel  may  be  made  to  disaghec  t\ith 
her  own  period  of  oscillation,  or  when  running  before  the"  wind  by 
bracing  the  yards  up  in  opposite  directions.  Steamers  at  a  reduced 
speed  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  hove  to  ;  their  masts  and  sails 
are  too  weak  to  be  of  any  U'^c  in  a  gale  and  too  small  in  moderate 
winds  ;  they  make  the  rudder  do  all  tlie  work.  The  best  sail  to 
scud  under  is  close-reefed  main-top-sail,  re.^fed  fore-sail,  and  fore- 
top-mast  stay-sail. 

Three  contingencies  should  always  be  anticipated  by  the  captain 
and  officer  of  the  watch,  and  in  some  degi-eo  by  every  man  in  the 
crew,  so  that  the  alarm  should  lose  half  its.  dread  and  be  met  by 
prompt  action,  —  a  man  falling  overboard,  fire,  and  collision.  A 
boat's  crew  should  be  appointed  in  each  watch,  who  on  going  on 
deck  should  see  the  boat  ready  and  the  plug  in.  If  the  ship  he  on 
awind  and  capable  of  tacking,  on  the  cry  "A  man  overboard!"  tlu^  Maa 
helm  should  be  put  down  and  the  ship  steered  round  on  the  otlicr  over- 
tack,  with  either  the  fore  or  main  yard_3  left  square  and  tlitt  courses  board- 
un  ;  she  will  then  drift  down  towards  the  man,  while  the  boat, 
which  was  at  first  on  the  weather  side,  is  being  lowered  to  pick  him 
up.  If  the  ship  is  running  free  the  case  is  worse  ;  she  must  be 
brought  to  the  wind  instant.y  with  the  head -yards  square.  A'arioua 
plans  have,  been  devised  for  lowering  boats,  many  of  them  very 
good  when  executed  by  trustworthy  men  ;  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  old  system  with  plain  blocks  and  tackles  ;  practice  and  cool- 
ness will  render  either  successfuh 

"With  regard  to  fire,  prevention  is  better  than  cure  ;  lights  in  the  Fh-e, 
hold  should  never  be  without  a  protecting  lantern,  and  passengers' 
sleeping-cabins  should  be  lighted  by  lamps  fixed  in  the  bulkhead, 
inaccessible  from  the  inside.  Pumps  and  engines  for  extinguishing 
fire  should  be  on  the  upper  deck,  fur  fear  ol"  beitig  cut  otf  by  tho 
first  outbreak.  Fire  stations  and  exercise  should  be  frequent  even 
with  the  smallest  crew.  On  the  first  alarm  all  ports  and  ventilators 
should  be  closed,  wind-sails  hauled  up,  hatchways  closed  as  much 
as  practicable,  awnings' and  all  lower  sails  taken  in,  and  the  ship 
kept  before  the  wind,  unless  the  fire  is  in  the  after-part,  in  whicL 
case  the  boats  should  be  lowered  at  once.-  Many  other  things  will 
present  themselves  to  a  cool  he^d^  perhaps  the  first  order  should 
be  '*  Silence  !  " 

Collisions  may  be  reckoned  anloug  tBose.dangers  against  which  CoUisioiia 
no  man  can  guard  himself,  he  he,'  ever  so  wise  and  experienced  ;  it 
avails  not  tbat  one  ship  should  do  what  is  right,  unless  they  both 
do  so.  The  laws  upon  tho  subject  appear  to  be  all  that  can  bo 
desired  (see  "Rules  of  tho  Road,"Jimder  Navigation,  vol.  xvii.  p. 
277);  but  the  mode  of  enforcing  obedience  is  very  lax  and  lenient. 
A  purely  nautical  tribunal  is  greatly  needed,  and  every  unjustifiable 
deviation  should  be  severely  punished,  whether  followed  by  an  acci- 
dent or  not.  It  is  admitted  that  in  most  cases  of  collision  the  evi- 
dence is  so  conflicting  that  a  judge  must  be  puzzled  where  to  find 
the  truth..  Tho  great  increase  of  speed  diminishes  the  time  of 
approach  ;  the  increased  length  of  vessels  demands  a  larger  circlo 
to  turn  in  ;  the  want  of  sail  at  the  extremities  diminishes  thu 
power  of  turning,  throwing  all  the  work  on  the  rudder,  whicifc 
is  proportionately  much  smaller  than  it  was.  The  perpendicular 
stem  gives  a  deadly  blow  at  the  flat  side,  instead  of  first  cutting 
down  the  upper  works  by  the  sloping  cut-water,  and  probably  coming 
to  a  state  of  rest  before  reaching  the  water's  ed^c.  Sufficient  care 
is  not  taken  to  keep  all  lights  from  the  upper  deck  and  all  places 
where  tliey  may  disable  the  eyes  of  the  officer  in  charge  or  tho  look-* 
out  men.  Even  holes  have  been  made  at  the  back  of  the  bow-lighS 
box  to  enable  the  officer  of  the  watch  to  see  them  burning  ;  of 
course  his  eyes  are  thereby  rendered  unserviceable  for  seeing  distant 
objects.  Officers  in  the  merchant  service  aro  invariably  in  two 
watches,  which  docs  not  allow  them  sufficient  time  for  sleep,  especi- 
ally in  windy  weather.  If  immediate  action  is  not  taken  the  instant 
a  sail  or  a  light  is  reported,  the  officer  in  charge  should  take  bearings 
by  the  compass,  by  which  he  will  soon  know  if  the  other  vessel  is 
inclined  to  pass  ahead  or  astern.  If  it  remains  stationary  by  tho 
compass,  they  must  both  be  converging  on  the  same  spot. 

If  a  ship  should  spring  a  leak  at  sea  which  may  be  altributabh;  Loaka^ 
to  straining  and  is  sufficiently  serious,  she  should  bo  run  beforr 
tho  wind  and  sea  under  small  saih  If  tho  pun)i»s  then  clear  out 
tho  water,  she  may  run  for  a  port  or  rcs\;mc  licr  voyage  when  the 
gale  ceases.  If  the  leak  does  not  abate,  though  the  motion  of  the 
ship  is  easy,  it  will  be  evident  that,  a  butt  (end  of  a  plank)  has 
started  if  it  is  a  wooden  ship,  or  that  a  plate  has  given  way  if  an 
iron  ship.  In  that  casej  two  stout  hauling-lincs  should  be  placed 
under  tlio  bowsprit  and  head-gear,  and  the  cud  of  one  secured  to 
the  head-earing,  the  other  to  the  clew  of  a  spare  top-sail  or  course, 
also  two  similar  ropes  to  tho  other  side,  each  of  tho  four  ropeti  being 
marked  at  10  and  15  fathoms  from  the  sail.  Haifa  hundredweight 
of  iron  (shot  or  furnace  bars)  should  bo  attach(;d  to  ach  clew,  tho 
ship's  progress  completely  stopped,  tho  sail  thrown  overboard  and 
drawn  square  acros.s  the  bows  ;  the  liauling-lines  on  the  clews  being 
carried  aft  and  kept  square  by  the  marks,  while  t!ie  ropes  on  thoi 
head  of  the  sail  aro  veered,  the  sail  is  placed  like  a  largo  patc!» 
over  the  place  desired.  Should  tho  position  of  the  le;ik  not  be  dli' 
covertd,  it  might  be  well  to  place  the  sail  under  the  main-mast  jj 

XXJ.  —   76 


SEAMANSHIP 


602 

if  tliia  has  no  cflfect,  pUoa  acother  sail  under  the  fore-mast  and  the 
forufooL  Tbi3  aimp'iP  device  i.  no  doubt  very  ancient  and  was  prob- 
ably the  process  called  in  the  book  of  Acts  "undcrgirding  the  ship 
Sails  Imve  usually  been  thrummed  ;  but  that  requires  much  time, 
and  the  utility  is  questionable.  If  a  large  hole  has  been  mada  by 
collision  a  spread  sail  v,  ould  be  burst  by  the  pressure  ;  but,  such  a 
hole  bcin"  usually  at  the  side  and  partially  visible,  a  large  sad 
nearly  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  stowed,  having  the  stops  cut, 
should  be  thrown  over  before  the  hole  end  downwards,  and,  when 
sunk  below  the  supposed  depth  of  the  fissure,  bronght  towards  it 
till  the  biglit  of  the  sail  enters  the  vortex,  when  _  it  will  be  sucked 
in  violently  and  either  disappear  within  the  saip  or  block  the 
hole  ■  if  the  latter,  smaller  sails  can  be  spread  slack  over  the 
hole  to  be  sucked  in.  The  use  of  sails  for  the  above  purposes  has 
been  strangely  neglected  during  late  years,  though  much  more 
frequently  needed.  -ti    v       .     • 

A  leak  can  be  stopped  from  mboard  when  accessible  by  placing 
over  it  pads  of  oiled  or  tarred  canvas,  tarred  coal -sacks,  bags  of  white 
lead,  tallow,  paint,  clay,  or  any  material  which  fits  close  when 
pressed  by  boards  and  shored  down  firmly,  — that  or  something 
similar  could  bo-dono  when  a  ship  is  on  shore.  If  a  ship  is  on 
shore  with  a  large  hole  in  one  part  of  her  bottom,  she  might  be 
recovered,  especially  if  ebb-tide  recedes  many  feet,  by  building  a 
double  partition  with  a  space  of  about  2  feet  between  on  each  side 
of  thj  injured  part,  filling  the  space  with  clay,  and  shoring  it  well, 
—in  other  words,  by  improvising  two  water-tight  bulkheads  ;  the 
water  having  been  pumped  out  of  the  sound  parts  the  rising  tide 
would  float  her.  When  a  ship  is  on  shore  with  numerous  cracks 
in  her  bottom,  but  not  a  clear  hole,  she  may  be  floated  by  consUnt 
pumping,  even  though  at  first  the  expedient  should  fail  to  prevent 
the  tide  from  ebbing  and  flowing  in  the  hold.  By  maintaining  as 
much  as  possible  an  inward  flow  the  small  fissures  will  gradually 
choke  with  weed  and  sand,  till  the  inflow  is  so  reduced  as  to  be 
within  the  power  of  the  pumps ;  hay,  oakum,  or  dirt  of  any  kind 
should  be  thrown  over  where  it  can  bo  sucked  into  the  lealc  The 
ordinary  pumps  of  a  ship  may  be  supplemented  by  nailing  together 
four  common  deal  boards  and  fitting  two  square  valves  weighted 
with  lead,  hinged  and  lined  with  leather,  to  rest  on  seats  2  feet 
from  one  end,  which  must  be  weighted  on  the  outside  as  the  bottom. 
A  large  hole  near  the  top  should  be  provided  with  a  leather  lip  to 
8hoot°the  water  over  the  combings.  When  slung  in  the  bights  of 
two  ropes  four  men  jerk  it  up  and  down  j  the  force  with  which  it 
descends  through  the  water  will  send  a  sti-eam  up  the  tube  with 
Ie3.i  labour  than  baling  entails. 
Ship  on  Shins  on  shore  should  be  secured  from  driving  into  a  worse  posi- 
ehoi-e.  Hon  before  being  freed  from  any  weight.  Hard  substances  such  as 
^ns  and  shot  should  not  be  thrown  on  the  lee  side  or  where  the 
ship  in  hauling  off  might  strike  on  them.  Keep  sufiicient  fresh 
water  for  immediate  use.  An  anchor  is  usually  carriM  out  between 
two  boats,  the  flukes  being  hung  to  a  spar  across  the  boats  chocked 
up  from  the  thwarts,  while  the  stock  is  suspended  across  the  sterna 
of  the  boats.  The  boats  should  be  hauled  out  to  a  kedge  anchor, 
while  other  boats  support  short  bights  of  hemp  cable.  Good  axes 
should  be  used  for  letting  go  the  anchor.  ,     ,     .        . 

Btiddcrs.  A  wooden  rudder  when  immersed  is  very  little  heavier  than 
'  water  and  can  be  shipped  and  unshipped  by  seamen  with  ordinary 
apnl'ances  ;  but  iron  ships  have  metal  rudders  sometimes  weighing 
as'much  as  20  tons.  The  following  remarks  apply  to  wooden 
rudders  only.  To  unhang  a  rudder  remove  the  woodiock, — a  chock 
recessed  and  nailed  to  the  stern-post  close  above  the  upper  pintle,— 
the  ase  of  which  is  to  prevent  it  being  unhimg  by  accident.  From 
a  beam  or  chock  above  the  rudder-head,  cnspsnd  two  luff^.ckles, 
sinfle  blocks,  and  two  leads  up,  and  tie  double  blocks  down  to 
streps  through  the  tiller  hole."  A  few  men  on  each  luff- fall 
will  easily  lift  the  rudder  the  length  of  the  pintles  ;  and  as  they 
aie  drawn  from  the  gudgeons  it  will  swing  free  and  may  be  lowered 
between  two  boats  provided  with  spars  across  their  gunnels  ;  the 
bifht  of  a  rope  will  bring  the  heel  up  to  a  position  similar  to  that 
of^the  head,— nearly  horizontah  It  can  then  be  taken  under  tl.c 
main-yard  and  hoisted  in,  or  be  carried  for  repair  to  a  wharf  or  suit- 
able beach  at  high  water.  Before  a  rudder  is  taken  off  to  be  hnng, 
two  long  guys  s-re  rove  through  holes  for  the  purpose  at  the  fore-pait 
of  the  heel,  one  end  of  each  being  hitched  to  the  band  for  the  rudder- 
chains,  whila  the  other  is  in  readiness  to  hand  into  the  ship  half- 
way forward  and  low  down.  On  the  rudder-head  being  suspended 
by  the  'uff-tackles  a  "little  higher  than  its  position  when  shipped, 
the  guvs  will  haul  it  to  the  exact  line  with  the  stem-post ;  i.  is  then 
lowered  into  the  gudgeons,  the  guys  unrove  by  means  of  the  shcrt 
ends,  and  t-e  woodiock  replaced.  Smooth  water  is  desiraole  h>r 
that  oneration  ;  a  little  tide  is  a  line  with  the  keel  will  assist.  j.he 
tiller  should  be  tirmly  wedecd  or  secured  in  the  rudder-head  'so  as  to 
prevent  any  jerking  motion  ;  for  the  same  reason,'the  wheel  ropes 
should  bo  kept  moderately  taut ;  they  should  also  bo  rov°  m  two 
parts,  lashed  together  on  too  of  the  wheel,  for  convenience  m  shift- 
ing them  one  part  at  a  time"  The  rudder-chains  are  shackled  to  a 
band,  which  embraces  the  rudder  a  little  above  the  water,  and  are 
attached  to  a  stout  rope,  usually  stopped  up  round  the  counter  ready 


Fig.  S9. 


to  receive  tackles,  by  which  the  ship  may  ba  steered  imperfectly 
after  the  rudder-head  is  disabled. 

The  construction  of  a  temporary  rudder  has  always  beei  con- 
sidered an  into*-esting  and  highly  useful  piece  of  seamanship.  One 
easy  plan  in  to  pass  the  end  of  a  large  hemp  cable  out  of  the  rudder* 
hole  or  central  port,  haul  it  up  to  the  ship's  side,  lash  to  it  one  or 
more  large  spars,  sling  the  whole  bundle  about  the  centre  of  tho 
spars  with  stout  hawsers  as  guys,  throw  it  overboard,  and  heave  in 
a  part  of  the  cable,  leaving  the  part  with  the  spars  lashed  to  tho 
side  of  it  far  enough  away  not  to  bo  Ufted  out  of  the-water  witk 
the  pitch  of  the  ship.  The  guys  when  rove  through  blocks  on  tho 
spare  top-sail  yard-arms,  which  are  lashed  across  the  gunnel  for  the 
purpose,  are  taken  to  the  capstan  ;  by  this  means  tho  ship  may  bo 
steered  with  the  assistance  of  her  sails.  If  there  be  not  a  hemp 
cable  on  board,  the  largest  hawser  must  be  used  with  a  spare  top- 
mast or  the  largest  spar  available.  ^4 
Early  in  the  lyth  century  Captain  Edward  Pakenhani  contrived  an 
efficient  rudder  with  the  material  in  his  ship.  Part  of  a  top-mast 
lieel  up  formed  the  rudder-head  and  main-piece,  the  fia-nole  becom- 
ing the  tiller-hole.  The  main-piece  passed  through  the  round  hole  of 
the  lower  cap,  which  was  made  of  elm  and  lined  with  leather,  and 
which,  being  secured  by  a  collar  near  the  lower  part,  acted  for  pintles 
and  gudgeons,  and  was  drawn  into  place  by  two  hawsers  h,  A,  till 
it  embraced  the  stern-post  by  the  square  intended 
for  the  mast-head  (fig.  39).  There  should  be 
ropes  to  the  bolts  b,  b  to  keep  it  horizontal. 
Another  top -mast  was  cut,  which  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  first  made  four  parts  in  all,  flat- 
tened and  fitted  together,  woolded  and  bolted, 
and  so  forming  tho  required  width.  Three  pigs 
of  ballast  were  let  into  the  lower  part  and  the  /  -.,^ 
whole  planlced  over  and  secured  with  spike  nails.  *' 
Fine  weather  was  necessary  for  shipping  it  and  a 
collar  was  built  above  the  mdder-hole  to  confine 
the  morion  and  to  support  the  weight  The 
materials  carried  in  modern  ships  may  differ,  but 
a  fertile  mind  will  generally  find  substitutes. 
The  "Pique"  frigate,  commanded  by  the  Hon. 
H.  J.  Ecus,  steered  across  the  Atlantic  during 
sixteen  days  of  almost  continuous  gales,  a  dis- 
tance of  1600  miles,  by  means  of  a  cable  over  the 
stem  and  a  Pakenham  mdder  during  part  of  the  time.  She  had 
been  on  shore  in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence  ;  during  the  voyage  she 
was  making  20  inches  of  water  an  hour  and  she  had  also  two  masts 
sprung  ;  she  reached  St  Helens  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  on  the  13th 
of  October  1835. 

It  is  a  difficult  thing  to  get  a  lower  yard  from  the  deck  into  its  Eaisinj 
place  without  letting  go  either  stays  or  rigging,  and  this  the  fol-  maiu- 
lowing  instance  will  Ufustrato.     Tho  "Thunderer,"  an  eighty-four  yard. 
gun  ship,  broke  her  main-yard,  which  was  112  feet  long,  completely 
m  two,  5  feet  to  leeward  of  the  slings.     The  broken  parts  were  sent 
down,  and  a  main-top-sail-yard  crossed  instead,  while  a  reefed  top- 
sail did  duty  as  a  course  and  a  mizzen-top-sail  over  it  as  a  main-top- 
saiL    The  parts  of  the  main-yard  were  placed  together  on  deck ;  tho 
two  halves  of  a  spare  anchor  stock  were  let  in  on  the  fore  and  aft  sides 
and  an  oak  mast  fish  on  top,  with  some  studding-sail-booms  to  round 
it  off.    All  parts  were  bolted,  hooped,  and  woolded  together,  making 
it  as  strong  as  ever  it  was,  entirely  from  the  material  carried  in  the 
sliip.    The  sketch  (fig.  40) 
represents  the  time  of  dip- 
ping the  port   yard-arm 
under  the  main -stay:   y 
represents  the  jeers,  which 
bear  the  principal  weight 
(total,  5i  tons) ;  /the-iwo 
fore-tackles  lashed  to  the 
mast-head  pendants  ;  t  a 
top-burton;  5  a  sail-tackle 
to  the  top-mast-head ;  m,  ' 

m  main-tackles  from  the 

mast-head    pendants ;    /  v^    ir\ 

the  main-lift ;  y  a  yard-  ^'S-  *"• 

tackle  secured  to  an  upper-deck  beam.  The  main-yard  was  entirely 
rigged  before  being  crossed ;  the  blocks  are  not  shown.  In  a  long 
ship  the  operation  would  be  easier.  When  a  fore -yard  has  to  be 
got  across  from  the  deck,  time  and  trouble  can  be  saved  by  letting 
go,  half  at  a  time,  all  the  fore-rigging  and  back-stays  which  are  oa 
that  side. 

When  feeling  the  way  into  harbour  during  a  thick  fog,  let  a  boat 
pretend  to  tow  the  ship  with  the  deep-sea  lead-line  ;  by  this  means 
a  margin  of  100  fathoms  of  safety  will  be  securei  Cafe  should 
be  taken  that  every  running  rope  in  the  ship  be  slacked  previous 
to  rain  or  heavy  dew.  .  ,  ■  _<  ^ 

For  further  information  and  variety  of  opinions  see  Captain  Francis  Llardet, 
It-N.,  Points  0/  StamamMp  and  Discipline  ;  Robert  Kipping,  tiaslirtg,  Maat- 
makinj,  and  Bigainj  Ships  ;  Vanderdeclien,  The  Yacht  Sailor :  R.  H.  I)an». 
SMmait'*  Man\ial  (10th  ed.,  1867) ;  Captain  Alston,  SeamanAip ;  Charle* 
Bushe'.l,  Risga's  QL'.ie  ;  Ciotaln  Sir  Crorg:  3.  Ss:rC3,  SwrnansMp  (6th  el.). 


SEAMANSHIP 


603 


Cl-0"\T-,V.l 

A.B.,  "able-bodied,"  signifies  a  trained  .scaJiun.  Ahof.  (prtp.aiid  adv.),  rela- 
tively nearer  the  stem,  ^benm,  in  a  direction  abreast  the  ilup.  About  ship,  to 
tack  or  tnm  bead  to  ^\'ind.  Acrommodat ion-ladder,  a  flight  of  steps  over  the 
side,  suitable  for  ladies.  Adrift,  severed  from  all  security.  AJl,  towarcls-the 
stern.  Arming  the  IfoA,  placing  tallow  in  the  cavity  at  tho  end  to  bring  up 
speciraeas  from  the  tH'ttoiii.  Astern,  behind  ;  to  pass  astern  is  to  go  bchiml. 
AthAvart,  across;  as  acro^LS  the  bows.  Ai'ost  (as  iu  the  exprcsbioiis,  "  Av,tst 
there,"  "Avast  heading ').  stop. 

Back  and  fiU^  a.  mode  of  .Infling  safely  with  the  tide,  against  the  wintl.  rork 
«  sail,  to  let  the  vriud  press  it -the  reverse  way.  Backstay,  a  support  at  tiie 
side  and  abaft  an  upper  niast.  Bale-slujtjs,  a  long  strap  of  rope  for  hoisting 
packages.  Ballast,  anything  carried  for  the  sake  of  its  weight,  Baiujan-tlay, 
formerly  a  fast-day  on  which  oatmeal  was  issued  in  lien  of  meat,  Barepol/s,  at 
sea  without  any  sail  set.  Barrica,  a  small  cask  for  water  in  boats.  B,jlteri 
dotoTi;  to  cover  the  hatchways  '.nth  canvas  secured  with  battens,  in  order  t*5  ex- 
ttlude  the  sea.  B^avi,  the  extl'emo  width.  Beam-ends,  a  ship  is  on  her  bi^am- 
ends  when  inclining  over  at  a  right  angle.  Bear  a  hand,  make  haste.  Ban-  a  unzy 
land  bearup,  steer  farther  from  the  wind.  Bearing,  direction  ;  downto  her  biov' 
ings,  a  point  in  the  incliuation  of  a  good  ship  at  which  she  resists  going  further. 
Beckct,  a  rope  eye  to  receive  a  knot  or  toggle.  Bees,  strong  projections  bolted 
,en  each  side  the  bowsprit.     Belay,  to  secure  a  rope  by  turns  round  a  txhiying 

ipin  or  cleat.  Belik,  one  sound  is  made  for  each  half-hour  from  setti.ig  tho 
watch  (see  s' watch").  Belly,  in  a  mast,  a  curve  with  the  convex  side  afd. 
BeUy-batui,  a  broad  strip  of  canvas  across  the  middle  of  a  sail,  to  strengthen  it. 
Bdly-etay,  a  rope  from  the  centre  of  the  mast  led  forward.     Bend,  sails  arc  s iid 

!to  be  bent  to  the  yards  ;  a  kink  formed  in  a  hemp  cable  when  stowing  it ;  to 
make  fast  anything ;  to  bend  on.  Bentich  shrouds,  formerly  used  to  assist  the 
fattock  shrouds  and  set  up  on  deck.  Berth,  ttie  situation  ofa  ship  or  other  thing. 
BetXBCen  wind  and  water,  at  the  water's  edge.  Bight,  a  loop  formed  by  a  rope. 
Bilge,  a  gutter  nearly  the  length  of  the  bottom  of  the  ship  ;  hence  bilge- water. 
Binnad?,  a  boi  for  the  compass  Bite,  the  anchor  bites  when  it  hooks  the 
ground.  BUts,  a  rack  with  sheaves  and  pins  ;  cross  timbers  or  iron  to  secure 
the  cable.  Block,  a  shell  of  wood  or  metal  containing  one  or  more  sheaves. 
Bi  lie  uYiter,  clear  of  the  English  Channel ;  at^  distance  from  shore.  Bbi^,  broad, 
as  applied  to  the  bows.  Boarding-netting,  a  rope  net  to  exclude  an  enemy. 
JJobitays,  strong  ropes  or  chainS  to  keep  the  bowsprit  down.  Bold  shore,  that 
which  has  deep  water  close  to  it.  Bolsters,  soft  wood  and  canvas  under  the  eyes 
of  the  rigt;ing.  Bolt-rope,  a  supterior  description,  made  of  line  j-am,  used  for 
roping  sails.  Bonnet,  an  addition  to  a  trj'-sail  (or  other  sail),  attached  by  a 
row  of  becketa  rove  tlirongh  each  other.  Boom-irons,  support.?  for  studding- 
sail-booms.  Booms,  spare  spars  (indefinitely).  Both  sheets  aft,  running  before 
the  wind.  Bou-er  anchors,  the  two  principal  anchore  for  use,  Boivlim,  a  rope 
to  bow  the  leech  of  the  sail  forward  ;  T)oivli7ie-bridle,  a  span  for  the  same  ;  to 
sail  on  a  bowline,  to  sail  close  to  the  wind.  Botrse,  a  violent  polL  Box,  or 
braced  ahox,  the  head-yards  crossed  the  reverse  way  of  the  after- j'ards ;  box 
her  off,  to  force  her  bow  from  the  wind.  Box-hauling,  letting  the  ship  come  to 
the  wind,  hauling  round  all  the  yards,  making  a  stern-board,  and  wearing. 
Brace  to  or  by,  to  bring  the  yards  back  a  little,  to  make  them  shake  or  nearly 
so.  Brace  up,  to  place  the  yards  as  far  forward  as  they  will  go.  Braii  up.  to 
take  in  a  sail  by  means  of  brails.  Break  bulk,  to  commence  discharging  cargo. 
Brent  her  sheer,  to  pass  the  wrong  side  of  her  anchor.  Breast-fast,  a  security 
at  right  angles  to  the  side.  Bridle,  two  parts  of  cable  from  the  hawse  to  a 
mooring.  Bring  by  the  lee,  to  fall  off  till  the  wind,  after  crossing  the  steru, 
backs  Uic  sails.  Bring  to,  either  to  anchor  or  to  stop  by  backing  a  sail ;  to 
connect  the  cable  with  the  cajuLin,  or  a  tackle  to  a  rope.  Broncking  to, 
coming  to  the  wind  against  the  helm.  Broadside,  the  whole  side ;  the  dis- 
cliarge  of  every  gun  on  one  side.  Broailside  on,  the  flat  side  agaiust  anything. 
Broken-backed,  a  state  caused  by  weakness  or  strain,  when  the  centre  sinks  un- 
duly (see  "  hogged  ").'  Bucklers,  shutters  and  bars  to  secure  the  hawse-holes  at 
sea.  BvJk,  the  cargo  is  stowed  in  bulk  when  without  sacks  or  packages,  BuU- 
rope,  a  rope  from  the  jibboom  to  keep  a  buoy  or  boat  from  the  bows.  Bull's- 
eye,  a  wooden  fair  lead  or  a  round  thick  piece  of  glass.     Bumpkin,  a  short  spar 

[projecting  from  each  bow,  to  which  the  fore-tack  is  hauled  do^vn ;  it  is  sup- 

■  jyOTtcdhy  bumpkin  shrouds.  Bunt,  the  centre  part  ofa  square  sail  when  furled. 
' Bunt-tijies,  ropes  from  the  foot  of  a  sail  by  which  to  haul  it  up.     Buoy-rope, 

the  rope  between  the  crown  of  the  anchor  and  the  buoy.  Burton,  a  long 
purchase  with  a  double  and  a  single  block.  Bush  ofa  sJieaif,  the  brass  lining 
upon  which  the  pin  rests.  Butt,  the  end  ofa  plank.  Buit-slings,  strong  slings 
for  casks.  .By,  brace  the  yanls  by,  nearly  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  but 
not  so  as  to  shake.  By  tlic  board,  ovcrl?oard  entirely,  as  a  mast  going  over  the 
Bide.  By  the  head  or  sttni,  drawing  more  water  forwaixl  or  aft. 
f  CabU-thid,  the  designiition  of  nine-stranded  rope.  Caboose,  a  cook-house  on 
deck.  Cani,  to  turn  o'cr.  Qip,  a  large  piece  of  elm  Otted  on  the  top  ofa  mast 
I  by  a  square  hole,  wit  h  a  round  hole  for  an  upper  mast  to  slide  through  ;  with 
iron  maats  the  cap  is  of  iron.  Capskore,  a  support  to  the  fore-part  of  a  lower 
cap.  Capstan,  a  drum  on  a  vertical  spindle  for  heaving  heavy  weights.  Cara-a, 
to  heel  over  Iwttom  out  of  water  lov  repairs.  Cast  t)/,  to  let  go.  Cat-h!ocJ: 
and  cfit-fall,  usod  in  hoistiiig  the  anchor.  Catharpin  lege.,  short  ropes  connecting 
the  lower  parts  of  the  futtock  shrouds.  Cai-hiad,  timber-head  projecting  from 
I  the  bow  on  wliich  to  hang  the  anchor.  Cofs-yaw,  a  slight  puif  of  wind  ;  a  means 
lOf  hooking  a  rope.  Ctival,  a  lar^e  cleat  for  securing  ropes.  Chafing-mcits,  mats 
rto  protect  the  rigging.  Chain-plate,  an  iron  plate  securing  a  dead-eye.  Chain- 
\pump,  the  largest  hand-pump,  which  by  an  endless  chain  and  valves  protluccs 
a  continuous  now.  Channels  or  chains,  projections  from  the  ship's  side  to  spread 
1  the  ringing.  Ckoek-a-block  or  block  and  block,  when  the  blocks  of  a  tackle  meet 
[tosctlicr.  Choke-a-lnf,  to  pass  turns  of  spun-yarn  round  both  parts  of  the  fall 
|to  prevent  their  niovini?  when  let  go.  Cleat,  a  i>icce  of  beech  witli  two  horns 
for  belaying  rojK-a;  n  piece  of  wood  nailed  to  secure  a  thing  from  slipping. 

■  CKit^-jarjW,  for  haubng  up  the  clew  of  a  course.  Ckv^-Une,  the  rope  which 
ftauls  up  tlie  clew.  Clei<-  nf  a  zfiil,  the  corner  to  which  the  sheet  is  .itt.n<-hr.I. 
\Cuvis,  an  arrangement  of  ^niaU  lines  called  kniltlcs  for  hanging  cots  and  Iinm- 
iinocks.  ClinAh,  the  inner  end  of  a  cable;  also  a  mode  of  fa.stening  a  hemp 
^cable  to  an  anchor,  an<l  f.tr  other  purposes.  Clubbing,  dredging,  or  driviirg, 
each  word  implies  dropping  with  the  tide,  while  theship  is  governed  by  the 
Jiclm  and  an  anchor  scrapmc  the  bottom.  Club-haul,  to  tack  by  means  of 
jJettiiig  go  and  losing  an  anchor.     Coamings,  the  raised  frame  of  a  hatchway. 

CocA-6i//  when- the  anchor  hang:*  loose  from  the  cat-head.  Collars,  the  upper 
ijarfs  of  tbr  stays  and  large  straps  round  tlur  bowsprit.  Come  vp,  to  rciidrfr 
slack  or  let  go.  Coming  up,  when  the  ch.inge  of  wind  ajlows  a  nearer  apprn.i.-h 
to  the  courie.  Commander,  a  large  mallet  for  hammering  rope.  ComjMnimi, 
a  high  covenngover  a  hatchway,  Compre^w,  a  curved  bar  to  squeeze  tho 
Cham  cable  against  a  beam  as  a  stopper.  Co7inivg,  directing  tho  helmsman. 
Lounur,  the  angle  of  the  stem  on  cftherside.  Course,  foresail  and  main-sail  of 
a  sqnaro-ngged  vcsaeL  Crank,  unstable,  easily  turned  over.  Cringle,  an  iron 
ring  to  conrtnc  a  sail  to  a  stay  ;  an  eye  formed  by  a  strand  on  the  leech  of 
a  aaiL  Crosting  the.  bows,  passing  close  ahead.  Cross-trees,  spreaders  under 
the  tops  and  at  the  top-:.itutt  heads  to  support  the  top-galliint  rigging.  Crow't- 
foot,  several  span.n  of  small  rope  brought  to  a  common  centre.  Crow'$-nest,  a 
■eat  for  a  lookout  man  .it  the  top -gallant  maat-hea/1.  Crupper,  a  chain  to 
i  See  also  the  explanation  to  Ilg.  35  at  p.  Stf-i. 


keep  down  the  heel  of  the  jfbboom.  Cnitck,  an  Iron  ro5t  for  a  boom  ;  a  "letal 
swivel  for  an  oar  to  work  in.     Cut  and  run,  to  cut  the  cable  and  go  in  haiie. 

Davit,  a  derrick  of  wood  or  iron  to  lift  a  wright.  Denden  her  wa^i,  to  retanl 
progress.  Dead-eye,  a  clump  of  wood  with  three  holes,  ■ftilliout  sheaves  ;  an 
iron  frame  for  setting  up  rigging.  Derrick,  a  single  6|<»r  held  by  guys  to  lift  a 
weight.  Dog,  to  pass  the  tails  of  a  stopper  or  other  ropes  zigzag.  Dog's-ear, 
the  leech  of  tho  sail  between  the  reefs  when  allowed  to  stick  up.  Dog-van^, 
made  of  feathers  for  the  use  of  the  qit.irt'^rniast<>r.  rx^-iLKitch^  4  to  6  and  6  to 
S  P.M.  ;  ligiiLttivcly,  a  short  time.  Dowftr,  to  lo^\,•r  a"  sail;  put  out  a  light. 
Drn/},  ap|>lio-i  to  an  anchor  not  holding.  Dmnghl.  Hit;  d.-pth  of  water  required 
to  fl<i.it.  the  Rhip.  Drtni',  when  a  sail  takes  the  TMiid  pmporly.  Dredging,  see 
"cliibliing."  Drift,  floating  ^^lll^olIt  Kuidanoe.  Driving,  tlra;y^ing  the  anchor 
unavoidably  in  a  gale;  dropping  intentionally  with  tho  tide  and  very  little 
cable.  Drop  astern,  to  fall  iwliind.  Dmp  nf  n  nail,  thp  di'^Unr.;  tl>e  foot  ia 
from  the  yarfi.     Dunnage,  firewood  or  value!e<;s  things  pla.^ed  iindi-r  the  cargo. 

Earings,  the  upper -coniPrH  of  a  square  sail  ;  the  nrpeji  by  uhirli  they  ai-fl 
secured  to  the  yani.  Easf  hrr,  in  steatners,  go  slow.  />»«  n^.  In  slacken  a  rope. 
Ease  the  helrn-,  move  it  bark  towards  midships.  Edge  nn-ny,  to  steer  farthf^ 
from  the  wind,  or  obliquely  from  a  ship.  Edge  in  with,  to  steer  obliquely 
towards  something.  Elbow,  an  angle  formed  by  tworfthle.s  or  ropes.  EmbraiJ. 
to  brail  up  (obsolete).  E"dfoT  e"d,  changing  a  half  worn  r"'pe,  substituting  a 
strong  part  for  a  weaJc.  End  on,  in  a  direct  line  with  the  h-ngth  of  the  ship. 
Estivador  or  stei'edore,  a  man  who  stown  holds  but  does  noL  go  to  sea.  Eveor 
k-eel,  when  a  ship  draws  as  much  water  forward  an  aft^ 

Fag-end,  the  end  of  a  rope  nulaid  ;  refuse.  Fair-way,  the  free  passage  to  a 
harbour.  Fair  wind,  a  wind  which  allows  a  ship  to  steer  direct  for  her 
destination.  Fake,  one  circle  of  a  coil  of  rope.  FoLe  dnwn,  to  arrange  a  rope 
to  and  fro  clear  for  running.  Fall,  ofa  tackle,  the  part  which  is  hauled  upon. 
Falling  of .  when  the  change  of  wind  obliges  tlie  ship  to  deviate  farther  from 
her  course.  False  keel,  an  addition  to  the  main  keel,  not  vital  to  the  strength 
of  the  ship.  Fetch  way.  to  move  through  being  insecure.  Fiv\  a  piece  of  wood 
or  iron  to  key  an  a  mast  or  keep  out  a  cutter's  bowsprit ;  a  v/ooden  cone  used 
by  riggers.  Fill,  to  place  the  sails  to  the  wind  so  as  to  propel  the  ship  forward. 
Fish,  a  piece  of  wood  or  iron  secured  to  a  weak  mast  or  yard  to  strengthen  it. 
Fish-davit,  a  derrick  for  hoisting  the  flukes  of  an  anchor  ;  hence ^/t-h/oct, /s?i- 
hook,  fish-fall.  Flat  aft,  when  the  sheet  of  a  sail  is  as  taut  as  t  can  be  ;  flatten 
in  is  the  order  to  produce  that  effect.  Flaw  ofu-i}id,  wind  sudden  and  un- 
stable in  force  and  direction.  Fleet,  to  reaJrange  a  purchase  for  another  pull. 
Flemish  horse,  a  foot-rope  at  the  yard-arm  for  men  to  stand  on.  Flotilla,  a 
fleet  of  small  vessels.  Flowing  sheet,  the  sheet  eased  off  to  a  fair  wind.  Flush, 
leveL  Flush-decked,  having  neither  poop  nor  forecastle.  Foot-rojies,  ropes  on 
the  yards,  the  jibboom,  and  the  flying-jibboom  for  men  to  stand  upon.  Fore 
and  aft,  from  one  end  to  the  other  lengthways  of  the  ship.  Fore-and-aft  sails, 
those  not  set  on  yards,  therefore  capable  of  being  placed  in  a  lijie  with  the  keel. 
Forecastk,  the  front  part  of  the  upper  deck,  but  more  correctly  the  deck  built 
over  that  part ;  top-gallant  forecastle,  a  short  piece  of  deck  oftCL  beneath.  Fore 
peak,  under  tho  front  part  of  the  deck  ;  the  forward  extremif.y.  Fore  reach,  to 
sail  laster  through  the  water  than  another  when  on  a  wind,  though  not  gaining 
to  windward.  Forge  ahead,  the  ship  moving  ahead  slightly  when  hove  to,  or 
in  a  calm,  or  over  a  shoal.  Foul,  entangled  (of  a  rope) ;  contniry  (of  a  wind)  ; 
weedy  (of  the  bottom).  Foul  hawse,  when  the  cables  are  twisted.  Frapping. 
an  irregular  lashing  to  bind  things  together.  Freeboard,  that  part  which  Is 
above  water.  Freshen  the  nip,  to  veer  a  little  cable,  of  any  rnpe,  in  order  to 
relieve  tht  parts  strained.  Full  and  by,  to  steer  close  to  tlie  wind,  keeping  the 
sails  full.  Funnel,  a  copper  sheath  at  the  toi>-mast  or  top  gallant- mast  head. 
Furl,  to  roll  up  square  sails  ;  other  sqils  are  stowed.  Futtodc-shtouds,  short 
Topds  below  each  top. 

Cumntoning,  a  strong  lashing  of  rope  or  chain  to  secure  the  bowsprit  down 
to  the  head  knee.  Gangboard,  a  plank  with  battens  for  pcopl';  to  walk  upon. 
Gangway,  the  narrow  deck  between  the  quarter-deck  and  fori?castle  ;  the  en- 
trance to  a  ship  ;  any  passage  kept  clear.  Gaskets,  bands  of  platlod  rope-yarns 
to  secure  the  sails  when  furled.  Gird-lines,  ropes  which  are  on  a  mast  when  it 
is  hoisted  in  and  by  which  the  shrouds  are  triced  up.  Girt,  ulen  the  mooring 
cables  are  so  stretched  as  to  prevent  the  ship  swinging  freely.  Glut,  a  piece 
of  wood  which  keeps  a  knot  or  hitch  from  closing.  •Goose-neel ,  a  crooked  iron 
to  GUpport  a  Gtudding-sail-boom,  Goose-wiTigs,  the  parts  of  a  course  which 
are  exi>osed  to  the  wind  when  confined  by  clew-gamets  and  bunt-lines  only. 
Groft,  to  cover  a  rope  with  fine  line  in  an  ornamental  manner.  Iriping,  coming 
up  to  the  wind  against  the  helm.  Ground-tackle,  anrhors,  cable,  and  all  con- 
nected with  them.  Grow,  a  term  applied  to  the  direction  of  tin;  cable  when 
it  is  being  hove  in.  Grummet,  a  rope  ring  made  by  a  strand.  Gudgeon,  that 
part  of  the  hanging  of  a  rudder  which  is  bolted  to  the  stern-post.  Guess- 
warp,  a  rope  stretched  taut  to  haul  something  to  and  fro  n)ion.  Gunnel  or 
gunuKtle,  the  highest  part  of  the  bulwark.  Guys,  ropes  to  keeji  a  spar  or  other 
thing  in  the  desired  position.  Gybe,  to  let  a  fo]"e-and-aft  sail  sluft  ftom  one 
Bide  to  the  other  when  nearly  before  the  wind. 

llalyanis,  ropes  cxclnsively  for  hoisting  sails.  Unnd  orer  hand,  to  pnTl 
with  one  hand  after  the  other ;  figui-atively,  done  quickly,  llnndsomely.  an  in- 
junction signifying  slow  motion  ;  with  care.  Handy  btity,  a  s  nail  axe  kept  on 
deck.  Hard  down  and  hard-a-lec,  i>osition  of  the  hVliii,  the  reverse  of  hard-a- 
wcather  and  hard  up.  Haul  on  board,  the  usual  order  for  h.iuling  down  the 
main-tack.  Haul  vp,  altering  the  course  more  towards  the  wind.  L'awse-holes, 
the  openings  in  the  bows  through  which  the  cat>lrB  pass.— , lie  iron  lining  ii 
the  hawse-pipe  ;  a  largo  piece  of  wood  which  stops  the  hole  at  sea  is  the  hawse- 
plug  ;  open  hawse,  when  the  cables  are  cle.ir  of  each  other ;  i  cross,  when  the 
ship  has  swung  half  round  ;  an  elbow,  when  once  round  ;  a  -.vund  turn,  when 
twice  round  ;  in  the  haicse,  in  the  space  close  ahead.  Hnwsc;  a  large  rope  for 
moving  a  ship,  now  frequently  of  steel  wire.  ]{eadsails,  tlie  lying  jib.  jib,  and 
f<irL'-tap-mast  stay-sail  Head  sea,  when  the  waves  run  cont  -ary  to  the  course 
llumgh  the  wind  may  not  be  so.  lleaduxiy,  motion  in  thd  direction  of  the 
vo^sers  head.  Heart,  a  block  of  bard  wood,  which  takes  a  1  irge  rope  round  it 
and  many  turns  of  a  lanyard  through  it.  Heave  down,  to  <  arccn  for  repaira 
Heave  in  slays,  to  come  up  in  the  win<l  for  tacking.  Henve  jftjrf.  to  heave  in  the 
cable  to  a  short  scope.  Heave  Vie  lead,  to  cast  the  lead  to  a.c-erlain  the  depth. 
Hc-nc  the  lug,  to  throw  the  log  over  to  test  the  »i>p<'d.  Jlrrl,  the  lower  fart  of  a 
mast,  fipar.  "rnddc-r,  or  stem-post.  Heel  chain,  fmm  the  bo  vsprit  t-aj)  to  keep 
the  jib-lxi«in  out.  Helm's  a-lce,  a  word  of  comiiifliid  implyi  ig  that  llie  helm  is 
down.  Hog,  to  scrub  or  scrape  the  bottom.  Hogged,  appli>.l  to  a  vessel  when 
through  weakness  the  bow  and  stem  droop,  so  that  the  pro  lie  is  that  of  a  bog's 
back  (see  "  broken  Kicked  ").  Home,  whi-ri  sheets  are  clofp  down  to  the  yard 
they  arc  home;  when  an  anchor  is  hove  upon  and  drawa  'hrough  the  ^ound 
;t  js  said  to  come  home.  Hoops,  broad  wooden  bands  u.ird  with  galf-saUs  and 
wind-sails.  Horse,  a  bar  upon  which  the  fore  or  main  nlieet  blocks  of  small 
vessels  mn.  Hound*,  Lirgc  checks  on  a  mast  to  supprrt  tlio  trestle -trees. 
Housing,  of  a  mast,  the  part  below  tho  upper-deck.  Hot  to,  an  abbreviation 
'if  hove  to  the  wind,  to  bow  the  sea;  to  stop.  Hulk,  an  old  /csscl  without  masts. 
HidJ,  the  lx)dy  of  the  vessel  exclusive  of  jnasts  and  rigging.  Jlull-doum,  so  far 
distant  that  the  hull  is  below  the  horizon. 

Inboard,  any  place  within  the  whip.  In  irons,  when  *.he  «nils  arc  so  badly 
arranged  that  tiie  vessel  will  not  olwy  the  helm.  In  tic  t/'i<iJ,  too  close,  tho 
sails  Happing. 

Jack-stay,  a  light  rope  to  which  others  are  made  fast.    Jacob's  ladder,  a  rope 


604 


SEAMANSHIP 


bidder  with  wooden  steps.  Jaw-ropf,  to  confine  the  jaws  of  a  ga-tt  to  the  mast. 
Jers,  1  h«avy  puit:hase  for  swaying  up  the  fore  and  main  yards.  Jewtl-block, 
ac  the  extremity  of  a  yard  for  the  studding-sail  halyards.  Jew's  harp,  a  shackle 
ot  the  head  of  an  anchor.  Jigger,  a  small  handy  tack'.o  with  a  double  and  a 
single  hlock.  Junl:,  old  cable  or  hirge  rope,  used  for  making  swabs.  iL-ts,  spun- 
yarn,  &c.  Jxiry-\nasl,  jury-yard,  j^ry-ruddtT,  temporary  substitutes  for  mast,  &c. 
KeckU,  to  pass  old  rope  round  a  hemp  cable  to  protect  it  from  chafing. 
K^dging,  to  move  by  means  of  warps  and  kedge  anchors.  Keels^.^  a  timber 
inside  on  top  of  the  keel.  Keep  away,  steer  farther  from  the  wind.  Keep  her 
full,  the  helmsman  to  keep  the  sails  full  of  wind.  Keep  your  luf  and  keep  ta 
the  wind,  synonymous  eltpressions.  Kink,  a  knotty  twist  in  rope;  a  bend  in 
wire-rope  which  Is  difflcuft  to  straighten.  Knees,  angular  supports  of  iron  or 
wood.  Knillte-stuf,  small  line  made  by  hardening  two  or  three  rope-yams 
and  twisting  them  to<;ether.     Knot,  a  geographical  mile  (see  art.  Loo). 

Lacings,  small  lines  securing  sails  and  other  things.  Landfall,  finding  the 
land  as  expected.  Landlocked,  prxjtected  by  land  in  every  direction.  Lanyard, 
a  rope  for  tightening  larger  roues  ;  a  line  to  fasten  knives,  marling-spikes,  &c. 
Larboard,  the  old  name  for  the  left  side,  now  called  port.  Lash,  to  secure  two 
or  more  things  together  by  ropes.  Lay  to,  to  wait ;  to  heave  to.  Leuy-guy,  a 
rope  or  tackle  on  a  spanker-boora  or  main-boom  to  keep  it  steady.  Lead,  the 
weight  for  ascertaining  the  depth  of  water.  Lfod,  the  lead  of  a  rope  is  ita 
proper  direction  through  the  blocks.  Leech,  either  side  of  a  square  sail  and  the 
fee-side  of  all  others  (see  "  luff").  Leech-lines,  on  courses  only,  to  haul  the  leech 
of  the  sail  close  up  to  the  fore-side  of  the  yard.  Lee  lurch,  a  deep  roll  to  lee- 
warxl-  Lee  shor^,  a  shore  upon  which  the  wind  blows  directly  and  which  is 
unsheltered.  Lee  side,  the  side  farthest  from  the  wind,  either  inside  or  outside 
the  ship.  Under  the  lee,  a  ship  is  so  spoken  of  in  relation  to  the  land  by  which 
it  is  protected  ;  similarly  a  boat  may  be  said  to  be  "  under  the  lee"  of  a  ship. 
Lee-way,  the  distance  a  ship  drifts  out  of  her  course,  indicated  by  the  angle 
formed"  by  the  wake.  Leis,  spars  carried  by  cutters  to  keep  them  upright 
when  on  the  ground.  Li/r--lines,  small  ropes  to  steady  the  men  when  standing 
on  the  yards,  to  hold  by  when  being  lowered  in  boats,  and  for  similar  purposes. 
Lift,  a  rope  near  the  extremity  of  each  yard  to  top  it  up,  i.e.,  lift  it.  iimJcrs, 
boards  or  plates  to  keep  the  bilge  clear.  List,  to  lean  over  continuously. 
Lizard,  a  lanyard  with  a  thimble  to  confine  anotlier  rope  or  to  slip  at  pleasure, 
loose  Kiiis,  letting  them  fall  free  to  dry  or  for  use.  Luoier,  a  man  not  skilled 
in  seamanship.  Lubber's  hale,  an  open  space  in  the  top  near  the  eyes  of  the 
rigging,  through  which  a  man  can  crawl  instead  of  going  outside.  Luf,  an  • 
order  to  steer  closer  to  the  wind  ;  of  a  sail,  the  foie-part  of  a  stay-sail,  try-sail, 
or  jib,  and  the  weather-side  for  the  time  being  of  any  square  saih  Luff-tackle, 
is  formed  of  3-inch  or  4-inch  rope,  a  double  and  a  single  block,  and  is  used  for 
various  temporary  purposes. 

Make  sail,  to  set  sail.  Make  water,  \o  leak.  Manger,  a  tight  enclosure  to 
catch  the  water  from  the  hawse-pipes.  Man-rope,  placed  over  the  side  at  the 
gangway  for  people  to  climb  up  by,  and  at  other  places.  Man  yards,  men  to 
stand  in  a  row  on  each,  as  a  salute.  Marl,  to  secure  things  together  by  a  suc- 
cession of  half-hitches.  Marling,  soft-laid  whide  line  for  seeming  sails  to  the 
bolt-rope.  Marling-spike,  an  iron  or  copper  spike  used  by  sailmakers  and 
riggers.  Mamj,  to'flt  the  strands  together  ready  for  splicing.  Martingale,  a 
tadcle  to  keep  down  a  spar.  Maul,&  Urge  double-headed  hammer  used  by  riggers. 
Messenger,  an  endless  rope  or  chain  from  the  capstan  to  bring  in  the  cable.  Mid- 
ships, the  centre,  or,  when  applied  to  the  helm,  the  neutral  point.  Miss  stays,  to 
try  to  tack  and  fail.  Mooring-swlvel,  a  swivel  with  four  short  legs  to  meet  two 
cables  from  the  anchors  and  two  bridles  from  the  hawse.  Mouse,  a  swelling  or 
obstruction  i-aised  on  a  stay  ;  also  a  seizing  across  the  point  of  a  hook. 

J^eaped,  of  a  ship,  to  be  in  a  dock  or  on  shore  requiring  more  water  to  float 
than  neap-tides  aflord.  A'ear,  a  caution  to  the  helmsman  that  the  ship  is  too 
close  to  the  wind.  Necklace,  a  chain  or  band  round  a  lower  mast  for  the  futtock 
rigging  to  be  set  up  to,  or  round  the  top-mast  for  the  top.gallant  rigsing  to 
reev»  through.  Kip,  the  part  of  the  rope  which  beais  the  chief  strain  ;  to 
freshen  the  nip  is  to  veer  out  and  change  the  place.  Nipper,  a  selvagce,  rope, 
or  chain  for  binding  the  messenger  to  the  cable.  Korman,  a  block  of  wood 
placed  in  one  of  the  holes  of  a  capstan  for  veering  a  rope  by.  iYim-6i<oy,  a 
buoy  of  any  material  in  the  form  of  a  double  cone. 

O^ng,  a  distance  from  the  laud.  Of  the  wind,  not  so  close  as  she  might  be 
if  sailing  on  a  wind.  Open,  an  anchorage  is  open  when  exposed  to  the  sea ;  the 
hawse  when  the  cables  are  clear  of  each  other;  an  object  when  visible,  not 
obscured.  Orlop-deck,  the  lowest  in  large  ships.  Out  of  trim,  when  the  weights 
are  wrongly  placed.  Overhaul,  to  slacken  every  part  of  a  tackle  ;  to  overtake  ; 
to  examine. 

FainUr,  the  rope  by  which  boats  are  made  fast.  Parbuckle,  to  hoist  by  rolling 
a  thing  with  two  ropes.  Parcelling,  covering  a  rope  with  strips  of  tarred  canvas, 
/'arrets,  stout  ropes  covered  with  leather,  used  to  confine  an  upper  yard  to  the 
mast.  Parting,  breaking,  as  parting  the  cable.  Pay  a  seam,  filling  it  with 
pitch.  Pay  away  and  pay  out,  applied  to  slacking  hawsers  or  cables.  Pay 
down,  lowering  things,  as  the  cable  to  be  coiled  or  stowed.  Pay  off,  from  the 
wind,  as  by  hoisting  head-sail  or  putting  the  helm  up  ;  to  pay  and  dismiss  the 
crew.  Peat,  the  outer  part  of  a  gaff  and  of  a  gaff-saih  Pendant,  a  large  rope 
with  a  Ifackle  attached.  Pennant,  a  narrow  signal  flag  ;  a  long  strip  flown  by 
ships  of  war.  Pig.  one  part  of  iron  ballast ;  the  targest  is  3  cwt  Pintle,  a 
large  pin  bolted  to  the  rudder,  by  which  it  is  hinged.  Pitching  and  sending 
signifies  plunging  the  bow  into  one  wave  and  the  stem  into  another.  Plain 
sail,  all  except  studding-sails  and  stay-sails  between  the  masts.  Poinl,  a  plat- 
ting or  line  to  tie  up  a  reef ;  to  secure  the  end  of  a  rope  with  knittles.  Pooped, 
A  vessel  is  said  to  be  pooped  when  a  wave  breaks  over  the  stem.  Port,  the 
modem  word  for  left.  Press  of  sail,  very  much  sail.  Preventer -bract,  an 
additior\l  rope  to  support  the  yard  during  a  gale.  Priu,  to  move  by  a  lever 
or  asps    ;  a  lawful  capture.     Purchase,  a  tackle  or  lever. 

Quarter  the  part  of  the  side  near  the  stern,  hence  quarter-boat ;  also  the  part 
of  a  yard  between  the  centre  and  the  yard-arro. 

Rack,  a  frame  with  sheaves  and  belaying  pins.  Sake,  to  fire  through  a  ship 
from  end  to  end  ;  the  inclination  of  the  masts  aft.  Raxige  of  cable,  it  was  for- 
merly customary  to  h'lul  up  cable  equal  to  the  depth  of  water.  Bap-full,  the 
wind  acting  fuUyon  e/erysail.  PuUlins  ot  ratUxigs,  email  lines  as  steps  up  the 
rigging.  Razet,  a  ship  reduced  in  height  by  one  or  more  decks.  Reach,  the 
open  straight  part  of  a  river  between  twrfbends.  Reeidy  about,  read"  o'  ready, 
words  of  warning  preparatory  to  tacking.  Reef-tackles  end  Terf--pen...ants,  for 
hauling  up  the  leeches  of  top-sails  and  courses  ready  for  reefing ;  the  latter 
also  on  a  boom  for  reefing  a  saih  Reevin^-line,  a  small  rope  rove  through 
blocks  to  drag  a  larger  one  after  it.  Refit,  general  repair.  Relieving  tackles, 
placed  on  a  tiller  to  assist  the  wheel-ropes  during  a  gale.  Rendering,  slipping. 
not  holding  as  a  knot  or  fastening  shonld.  Ribs  and  trucks,  flat  boartis  and 
rollers  alternating;  used  forjaw.ropes  and  parrels.  Riding  betu-een  wind  and 
tide,  when  balanced  between  the  two.  Riding  cable,  the  cable  bearing  the 
strain.  Rigging  stoppers,  for  securing  the  standing  rigging  when  broken. 
Right  a  vessel,  to  recover  the  upright  position.  Right  the  helm,  to  relinquish 
the  posit- -a  the  helm  is  in  at  any  moment  and  place  it  in  midships.  Ring- 
ropes,  cable  stoppers  which  pass  through  the  ring-bolts.  Robands,  small  tyera 
to  fasten  a  top-sail  or  course  to  a  jack-stay.  Rogue's  yarn,  a  thread  of  worsted 
spun  in  ♦^e  rope  to  mark  it ;  each  British  royal  dockyard  formerly  used  a  differ- 
ent colour.  Rolling  tackle,  stretched  from  the  lee  quarter  of  a  yard  to  the  mast, 
to  relieve  the  parrel  or  truss  from  the  jerking  strain  of  the  lee  roU.    Ecping, 


the  bordering  of  every  sail.  Rovnd  dawn,  to  orerhaul.  to  slack  by  hand. 
Rounding,  old  3-inch  or  4-inoh  rope  for  hack  purposes.  Round  in  the  weather- 
braces,  the  wind  becoming  more  favourable,  to  bring  the  yards  nearer  to  square. 
Roundlif,  to  lower  or  veer  quickly.  Round  (Q,to  come  to  the  wind  and  heave 
to.  Round  turn,  a  double  twist  in  a  cable  ;  to  veer  a  rope  round  a  bit-bead  or 
cleat.  Hound  up,  to  shorten  up  a  tackle  ;  to  pull  up  a  shick  rope  through  a 
block.  Rouse  it  in,  as  hauling  a  hawser  by  hand  without  a  purchase.  Rowlock, 
an  opening  in  the  gunwale  of  a  boat  for  an  oar.  Rudder  chaijis  and  pendants 
are  shackled  to  a  band  on  the  rudder  ready  to  steer  the  ship  if  the  rudder-head 
gives  way.  Rudder  coat,  canvas  or  leather  round  the  aperture  and  rudder-head 
to  exclude  the  sea.  Runner  and  tackle,  a  long  pendant  and  tackle  for  staying 
lower  masts  ;  the  chief  support  aft  to  a  cutter's  mast.  Running  rigging,  that 
which  is  rove  through  blocks,  or  is  otherwisti, hauled  upon. 

Saddle,  a  woodes  rest  for  the  heel  of  the  jibboom  and  the  '-nd  of  the  spanker 
boom.    Sag  to  leeward,  to  make  more  leeway  than  headway,    ^lil  dose  to  the 
wind  to  sail  with  the  sails  barely  full.    Sail  large  or  free,  to  sail  off  the  wind, 
aa  "with  a  flowing  sheet"    Sail  tackle,  bom  the  top-mast-head  to  sway  up 
top-sails  and  top-sail-yards.     Samson-post,  a  strong  piece  of  elm  to  fit  against 
a  team  above  it  and  in  a  step  on  the  deck.    Seandcp.ize  a  boom  main-sail,  to 
trice  up  the  tack  and  drop  the  peak.    Scope  of  cable,  the  length  veered  out 
of  the  hawse.    Scotchman,  an  iron  plate  to  protect  a  partot  the  rigging  from 
chafln".    Scudding,  running  before  a  gale  either  with  or  without  sail :  the 
latter'is  described  as   "under  bare  poles."    Scull,   a  small  oar.     SeulUng, 
propellin"  a  boat  by  moving  the  flat  of  the  oar  over  the  stem  to  and  fro 
while  changing  the  angle.     Scupper,  a  passage  for  water  to  run  off  a  deck. 
Scuttle,  a  hole  in  the  side  to  admit  light  and  air ;  a  hole  made  in  the  side  or  deck 
to  let  water  flow  in.    Sea,  a  wave  ;  a  long  sea  or  a  short  sea  has  reference  to  the 
distance  between  the  waves.    &a-6oa(,  a  vessel  is  said  to  be  a  good  or  bad 
sea-boat  according  as  she  behaves  in  a  gale.    Sea-room,  free  from  land  or  shoals. 
Seizing,  a  small  lashing.    Selvagee,  a  strap  made  of  yams  or  small  rope  wound 
as  a  skein  and  marled  together.    Sending,  see  "  pitching."    Sennit,  a  platting 
of  three  or  more  rope-yarns.    Seniinj,  covering  a  rope  closely  with  spun-yam, 
hove  on  by  a  serving  mallet.    Set  -up,  applied  to  standing  rigging  to  rnake  it 
tight.     Setting-fid,  a  large  cone  of  wood  used  in  fitting  rigging.    Sewed,  to  be 
lifted  out  of  the  water,  as  by  running  on  a  ledge,  or  being  left  by  the  tide. 
Shackle,  a  curved  bar,  with  two  eyes  and  a  bolt,  for  joining  chains.    Shank- 
painter,  a  stopper  which  holds  up  the  fluke  of  an  anchor  at  the  bows.    Shapt 
a  course,  to  steer  in  the  desired  direction,  the  wind  favouring.     Shear-hulk, 
a  vessel  fitted  permanently  with  shears.    Shears,  two  largo  spars  with  tlieir 
heads  lashed  and  heels  spread,  for  masting  ships  and  lifting  heavy  wcigliu. 
Sheave,  a  wheel  of  brass  or  lignum  vita  for  ropes  to  travel  on ;  all  the  fakes  ol 
a  coU  of  rope  to  complete  a  layer.    Sheer,  to  swerve  from  the  course,  the  curve 
formed  by  the  bow  and  stem  being  higher  than  the  centre.    Sheer-batton,  » 
bar  of  iron  to  keep  the  dead-eyes  square.    Sheer  off,  to  edge  away.    »«(.  the 
rope  which  holds  the  lee  lower  comer  of  a  saiL    Sheet-anchor,  one  of  the  largest, 
and  the  third  for  use.    Sheet  home,  to  haul  the  sheets  of  square  sails  to  their 
positions.    Shift  the  helm,  put  it  over  the  other  way.    Shipped,  taken  on  hoard  ; 
anj-thing  fixed  in  its  place  for  use.    Shipshape,  in  a  proper  and  seamanhke 
manner.    Shiver  a  sail,  to  make  it  shake  and  render  it  nritral.    STioot,  to  go 
ahead  after  the  propulsion  has  ceased.    ShorUn  sail,  to  take  in  some  portion. 
Skid,  a  spar  for  something  to  rest  or  slide  upon.    Skin  of  a  .'ail,  the  part  ex- 
posed when  it  is  furled.    Skipper,  the  old  name  fdr  the  master  of  a  sinall 
vessel.    Slab  of  a  sail,  the  slack  part  which  hangs  down  after  the  leech-lines 
are  hauled  up.    Sleepers,  timbers  (n  the  hold  and  strengthening  pieces  m  the 
tops.     Slew,  to  turn  or  cant  over.    Slips,  ropes  with  toggles,  shackles,  and 
tongues,  and  various  contrivances  for  letting  go  quickly.    SmaU  helm,  w  hen 
the  sails  are  well  balanced  and  the  rudder  but  httle  used.    SmaU  sail,  and 
snug  sail    low  and  reduced,  ready  for  bad  weather.    Sound,  to  ascertain  the 
depth  nt  the  sea,  or  of  water  in  the  pump-well.     Span,  two  parts  of  a  rope 
spread  to  divide  the  strain,  or  for  making  a  point  secure  in  an  interoiediate 
place.    Spanish  windla.v,  a  bar  of  iron  and  two  marling-spikes  to  heave 
seizings  taut ;  tightening  ropes  by  twisting  them  together  by  a  lever.    Spell, 
a  turn  or  relief.    Spider,  a  smaU  iron  outrigger,  to  keep  the  main-brace  block 
clear  of  the  counter.    Spillins-lincs,  ropes  passed  round  a  part  of  a  sail  which, 
is  flapping,  to  confine  it.     Spitfire -jib,  a  small  storm -saU  used  m  cntters. 
Mice    to  join  two  ropes  by  entwining  the  strands.     Splice  the  mam-orace, 
to  give  a  glass  of  grog  to  every  man  after  some  unusual  fatigue,  or  on  some 
occasion  of  rejoicing.    Splicing-lails,  a  short  piece  of  chain  with  three  tapering 
tails,  for  splicing  to  a  hemp  cable.    Spring,  a  hawser  from  the  afterpart  to 
cant  the  ship.    Spring  a  leak,  to  cause  a  leak  by  straining.    Sprit-sail,  fi;rmerly 
set  on  the  sprit-sail-yard  ;  an  efflcient  four -sided  sail  for  boats  and  targes,  the 
peak  of  which  is  held  up  by  a  spar  called  a  sprit.    Sprung,  cracked,  fractured. 
Spua.yarn,  rope-yarns  laid  up  together  softly.    Square-rigged,  having  yards 
and  square  sails,  as  ships  and  brigs  have.    Square  sails,  those  set  upon  sucn 
yards  as  have  Ufts  and  braces,  regardless  of  their  proportions.    Square  -jaros, 
to  adjust  them  by  means  of  their  lifts  and  braces.     Stand  by  a  ropf.io  be  in 
readiness  to  let  it  go.    Standing  of  and  on,  sailing  to  and  fro,  as  off  a  port, 
ilundino pari,  the  fixed  end  of  arunning  rope.    aaiidiii5r>-ijf7in!;,suchas  shrouds 
and  stays.    Stand  on,  to  continue  the  same  progress  and  course.    £(ar!war<J, 
the  right-hand  side.    Starboard  and  port  tack  express  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
on  the  right  hand  and  on  the  left  respectively.    Stay. saiis,  any  sail  set  on  s 
stay,  except  the  jib,  flying-jib,  and  fore-sails  of  cutters  and  schooners.    Steady, 
to  the  helm  ;  to  keep  the  same  course.    Steadying -lines,  passed  from  eye-bol« 
in  the  gunnel  of  a  boat  to  the  slings  to  keep  it  upright.    Sleeve,  the  angle  which 
the  bowsprit  forms  with  the  horizon.    Stem  on,  striking  head  foremost  at  right 
angles,  the  reverse  of  stem  on.    Stern-board,  having  considerable  stern-way. 
Stevedore,  see  "estivador."    Stiffness,  stability  under  canvas.    Slirrup,  a  short 
rope  from  a  yard  to  support  a  foot-rope.    Stofi,  a  light  temporary  seizing. 
Slom-sails,  stay-saUs  and  try-sails  of  the  strongest  canv'as.    Stranded,  when 
one  strand  is  broken ;  wrecked  on  a  beach.     Stream-anchor,  about  one-third 
to  one-fourth  the  weight  of  a  bower  anchor.    Stream  the  buoy,  to  throw  over 
the  buoy  which  is  to  watch  over  the  anchor.    Sfrite,  to  send  down  from  aloB. 
Strike  colours,  a  token  of  submission.    Strike  soundings,  to  succeed  in  reaching 
the  bottom  with  the  lead.    Studding-sails,  Ught  four-sided  sails  set  only  with 
a  fair  wind.    Surge,  to  slack  back  quickly,  as  a  hawser  round  a  capstan,  to 
make  it  slip  np  to  its  place.    Swab,  a  large  bundle  of  rope-yams  for  SMkmg 
up  water  ;  a  drunkard.    Su'ay  away,  to  hoist  by  running  with  a  rope.    Sweep, 
a 'arce  oar ;  to  search  the  bottom  with  a  hawser  or  chain.    Swifter,  a  single 
shroud,  when  there  is  an  odd  one  ;  to  draw  rigging  together  ;  a  rope  or  bar  to 
keep  things  equidistant,  or  in  their  proper  places.    Swinging,  the  act  of  urn  ng 
to  the  change  of  wind  and  tide.    Swinging  boom,  a  large  spar  tor  spreadmg 
the  foot  of  the  lower  studding-sail ;  in  harbour  for  making  boats  fast. 

Tabernacle,  a  frame  for  receiving  the  heel  of  a  boats  jnast  to  make  't  higoer. 
Tack  the  lower  weather  comer  of  every  sail ;  to  change  course  by  bringing  tne 
wind  ahead  and  round  to  the  other  side.  Taken  otort-  applied  to  a  vessel 
when  the  wind  coming  ahead  reverses  the  action  of  all  the  sails,  iaknngxn 
sail,  clewing  it  up  and  perhaps  furling  it.  Taunt,  high  -jasts,  comwatively- 
Taut  (also  taught),  the  only  word  among  seamen  to  sign.iy  tight  lending  ui 
the  tide,  beginning  to  swing  to  the  change  of  tide  in  oppos.lion  to  the  wina. 
Thimile,  an  iron  ring  with  a  score  to  receive  a  rope;  union  """■'■  ;•'"» 
thimbles  welded  within  each  other.  Thole  pin,  a  peg  of  wood  on  the  ennwala 
cf  a  boat  to  confine  the  oar.    Thorough-foot,  the  faU  of  a  tackle  be:-';g  foul. 


S  E  A  — S  E.A 


605 


ttQtiiring  to  be  nnrove  or  the  block  f  uraed  over  between  the  parts.  Th  ree  cheets 
in  the  wind,  a  ship  too  close  to  tbe  wind  ;  a  man  half  drank.  Throat,  the  upper 
comer  of  a  gaff-s&il  nearest  the  mast.  Throat  halyards,  for  hoistiDg  the  end  of 
the  gaff  nearest  the  mast.  Tku-art,  across  ;  the  name  of  all  seats  which  cross 
a  boat.  Thwart  ships,  across  the  ship.  Tide-way,  an  anchorage  or  position 
affected  by  tide.  Tiller,  a  lever  which  moves  the  rudder.  Toggles,  pieces  of 
wood  varying  in  shape,  generally  secured  to  one  piece  of  rope  so  as  to  hold  the 
eye  of  another,  as  a  button.  Top,  a  large  platform  resting  on  the  cross-trees 
of  each  lower  mast ;  to  top  a  yard  is  to  raise  it  by  the  lift.  Tcp-rope,  a  large 
rope  rove  through  the  heel  of  the  top-mast.  Tow,  one  vessel  pulling  another 
in  any  relative  position.  Transport  a  ship,  to  move  her  in  a  harbour  by  ropes. 
Traveller,  an  iron  ring  covered  with  leather,  for  jibs,  royals,  and  boat  sails. 
Travelling  backstay^  a  support  to  the  top-mast  always  close  above  the  yard. 
Traverse,  to  make  several  tacks  ;  the  free  motion  of  a  sheave  or  rope.  Trestle- 
trees,  pieces  of  wood  which  rest  on  the  hounds  of  the  mast  and  support  the 
crosa-trees.  Tricing-line,  a  small  rope  used  for  hoisting  up  a  tackle  or  larger 
rope.  Trim  0/  the  ship,  neither  too  deep  nor  too  light,  and  having  the  right 
draught  of  water  forward  and  aft.  Trim  sails,  to  brace  the  yards  and  adjust 
the  Bfleets.  Trip,  the  anchor  is  tripped  when  the  shank  is  raised  and  the  flukes 
broken  out  of  the  ground.  Trough  0/  the  sea,  the  hollow  between  long  waves, 
which  are  generally  nearly  parallel.  Truck,  a  disk  of  wood  at  the  summit  of 
the  mast,  generally  having  sheaves  for  signal  halyards  ;  a  long  wooden  fair 
lead  seUed  to  the  shroud.  Trusses,  fitted  variously  to  conflne  the  centre  of  the 
lower  yards  to  the  mast.  Try-sail,  a  foiil-weather  galT-sail.  Try-sail-mast, 
a  smooth  spar.sb^/f  -^ich  mast  to  support  tbe  jaws  of  the  gaff  and  luff  of  the 
Bail  Tarnxng  in  a  tiead-eye,  fitting  the  shroud  or  stay  round  it.  Turning  to 
innirt^xii^  tackvog  frequently.  Twite  laid,  rope  that  has  been  unlaid  and  re- 
twisted  to  the  desired  size.  Trnddling-liiies,  for  securing  the-aheel  when  not 
in  aee.  Tivo  blocks,  signifying  that  the  two  ends  of  a  pui^Jfese  have  come 
together.     Tye,  a  large  rope  on  which  the  halyards  act  when  hoisting  a  yard. 

Under  foot,  said  of  an  anchor  when  dropped  without  veering  more  cable. 
Under  sail,  free  from  moorings  and  propelled  by  sa.  only.  Under  steam,  pro- 
pelled by  steam  only.     Under  way,  having  motion  ;  the  anchor  off  tlie  ground. 


Vangs,  ropes  to  steady  a  gaff.  Twr,  to  slack  out  cable,  haiwser,  or  tow-rope ; 
the  old  expression  for  "  wear. "  Veer  and  haul,  slacking  and  hauling  alternately, 
by  a  number  of  men  simultaneously,  so  as  to  gain  by  the  jerk. 

iraisf,  the  centre  part  of  the  ship  before  the  gangway  port.  Wake,  the  track 
left  in  the  water.  If'arp,  a  small  hawser  for  moving  the  ship ;  yarns  or  rope 
stretched  over  pins  for  making  straps.  Warping-b-uoys,  buoys  moored  in  suit- 
able positions  for  ships  to  warp  by,  now  rendered  nearly  obsolete  by  the  use 
of  steaio-tugs.  Watch,  sailors*  watches  comrrience  or  terminate  at  4,  8,  and  12 
o'clock,  also  at  6  p.si-  ;  a  buoy  over  an  anchor  is  said  ts  watch  while  it  floats 
and  can  be  seen.  Water-borne,  to  be  entirely  afloat.  Water-logged,  full  of 
water,  unmanageable.  Way,  motion,  as  under  way,  headway,  stemway. 
Wear  ship,  to  bring  the  wind  on  the  other  side  by  Itrst  running  before  it. 
Weather-bound,  detained  by  contrary  winds  or  bad  we.ither.  Weather-gage, 
being  to  windward  of  the  enemy.  Weatherly,  sailing  well,  without  much  lee- 
way. Weather-side,  that  on  which  the  wind  blows.  Wmther-tide,  the  stream 
running  contrary  to  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Wedging  a  tnast,  securing  it  in 
the  partners  or  frame  on  each  deck  by  wedges  made  to  fit.  Weigh,  to  heava 
up  the  anchor.  Whip,  a  single  rope  passing  through  a  block.  Whipping,  a 
light  seizing  of  twine  at  the  end  of  a  rope  to  prevent  fraying.  Whickers,  pro- 
jections from  the  cat-head  to  spread  the  jib-guys.  Wind  a  ship  or  boat,  to 
turn  her  head  where  her  stem  was.  To  take  the  tt-inrf  oh(  of  another's  sails, 
to  pass  close  to  windward,  as  yachts  sometimes  do.  Windlass,  a  macliine  for 
heaving  in  cable.  Wiyid-rodc,  being  head  to  wind  though  ijj  a  tide-way. 
Wind-sail,  a  canvas  ventilator.  Wood-lock,  a  chock  to  keep  the  rudder  in  its 
place.  Woolding,  a  stout  lashing  to  secure  sprang  or  fished  spars.  Work  a 
ship,  to  perform  every  manc^mTe.  Worm,  to  heave  small  line  between  the 
strands  of  a  rope  to  make  it  smooth. 

Yard,  a  spar  which  spreads  a  sail.  Yard-rope,  a  rope  by  which  a  top-gallant 
or  royal  yard  is  sent  up  from  the  deck,  and  afterwards  becomes  the  tye  and 
halyards.  Yard-tackles,  permanently  on  the  lower  yard-arms  of  large  ships 
for  hoisting  in  things  and  as  preventer  braces.  Yaw,  an  involuntary  deviation 
from  the  course.  Yoke,  &  bent  lever  across  the  ship  or  boat  which  acts  as  a 
tiller.i  (H.  A.  M.) 


SEAMEN,  L-4WS  relating  to.  In  most  legal  systems 
legislation  has  interfered  to  protect  the  seaman  from  the 
consequences  of  that  imprudence  -which  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  one  of  his  distinguishing  characteristics.  In 
the  United  Kingdom  there  has  been  a  very  large  amount 
of  legislation  dealing  with  the  interests  of  seamen  with 
unusual  fulness  of  detail,  proving  the  care  bestowed  by  a 
maritime  power  upon  those  to  whom  its  commercial  suc- 
cess is  so  largely  due.  How  far  fhis  legislation  has  had 
the  efficiency  which  was  expected  may  be  doubtful.  The 
loss  of  life  among  sailors  was  one  in  eighty  in  1871,  one 
in  aeventy-five  in  1882.  There  has  been  besides  a  steady 
diminution  in  the  number  of  British  seamen  employed  on 
British  ships,  nearly  one-eighth  being  foreigners  at  the 
present  time. 

For  legislative  purposes  seamen  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  seamen  in  the  royal  navy,  merchant  seamen, 
and  fishermen. 

Seanien  in  the  Royal  Navy. — It  is  still  lawful  to  impress  men  for 
the  naval  service,  subject  to  certain'  exemptions  (13  Geo.  II.  c. 
17).  Among  the  persons  exempt  are  seamen  in  the  merchant 
service.  In  cases  ol  emergency  officers  and  men  of  the  coastguard 
and  revenue  cruiserSj  seamen  riggers,  and  pensioners  may  be  re- 
quired to  serve  in  the  navy  (16  and  17  Vict.  c.  73).  There  appears 
to  be  no  other  instance  (now  that  balloting  for  the  militia  is  sus- 
pended) where  a  subject  may  be  forced  into  the  service  of  the  crown 
against  his  wilL  The  navy  is,  however,  at  the  present  day  wholly 
recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment.  The  navy  estimates  of  1885 
provided  for  59,000  men  (see  Navy).  Special  advantages  are 
afforded  by  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1854,  to  merchant  seamen 
enlisting  in  the  navy.    They  are  enabled  to  leave  their  ship  without 

Sunishment  or  forfeiture  in  order  to  join  the  naval  service.  The 
iscipUne  of  the  navy  is,  unlike  that  of  the  army,  for  which  an 
annual  Array  Act  is  necessary,  regulated  by  a  permanent  Act  of 
Parliament,  that  now  in  force  being  the  Naval  Discipline  Act,  1866. 
In  addition  to  numerous  hospitals  and  infirmaries  in  the  United 
Kingdom  and  abroad,  the  great  charity  of  Greenwich  Hospital  is 
a  mode  of  provi-sion  for  old  and  disabled  seamen  in  the  navy  (see 
Grckswicii).  At  present  such  seamen  are  out-pcnsioners  only; 
tlie  li09j)ital  has  be^n  for  some  years  used  as  the  Royal  Naval 
College  for  olTicer  students.  The  enactments  of  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act,  1854,  as  to  savings  banks  were  extended  to  seamen 
in  the  navy  by  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  91,  s.  17.  Enlistment  without 
tho  licence  of  the  crown  in  the  naval  service  of  a  foreipi  state  at 
war  with  another  foreign  state  tliat  is  at  peace  with  the  United 
Kingdom  is  an  offence  punishable  under  the  Foreign  Enlistment 
Act,  1370.  Any  person  buying  froni  a  seaman  or  enticing  a  sea- 
man to  sell  Government  property  is  liable  to  penalties  under  the 
Seamen's  Clothing  Act,  1869. 

Merchant  Seamen.— y[.o?,i  of  the  Acts  dealing  with  this  subject, 
commencing  with  8  'EXu'  c.  13,  wore  repealed  by  17  and  18  Vict, 
c.  120,  after  having  been  consolidated  and  extended  by  the  Mer- 
chant ohi^jpin^  Act,  1854  (17  and  18  Vict.  c.  104).  The  main  part 
of  the  legislation  affecting  seamen  in  the  merchant  service  occurs 
in  the  tliird  part  of  this  Act.     Since  1854  numerous  amending 


Acts  have  been  passed,  amounting  to  no  less  than  eleven  in  number. 
They  are  cited  collectively  as  "The  Merchant  Shipping  Acts,  1854 
to  1883."  The  enactment  of  a  new  consolidation  Act  is  urgently 
req^uired,  and  can  bo  only  a  question  of  time.  The  Merchant 
Shipping  Act,  1854,  defines  a  seaman  to  be  "  every  person  (except 
masters,  pilots,  and  apprentices  duly  indentured  and  registered) 
employed  or  engaged  in  any  capacity  on  board  any  ship"  (s.  2).  It 
should  be  noticed  that  most  of  the  enactments  relating  to  merchant 
seamen  do  not  affect  seamen  employed  on  foreign  vessels,  on  fishing 
boats  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  Kingdnm,  on  vessels  belonging  to 
the  Trinity  House,  the  Commissioners  of  Northern  Lighthouj;es,  and 
the  port  of  Dublin  corporation,  and  on  pleasure  yachts.  The  princi- 
pal provisions  of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts  dealing  with  seamen 
are  as  follows.  Where  no  other  reference  is  given,  the  Act  of  1S54  is 
intended.  An  elective  local  marine  board  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  Board  of  Trade  is  appointed  in  the  principal  ports  oi 
the  United  Kingdom.  One  of  the  duties  of  the  board  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  mercantile  marine  offices  under  superintendents  or 
deputy  superintendents.-  It  is  the  general  business  of  such  officers 
to  afford  facilities  for  engaging  seamen  by  keeping  registries  of  their 
names  and  characters,  to  superintend  and  facilitate  their  engage- 
ment and  discharge,  to  provide  means  for  securing  the  presence  on 
board  at  the  proper  times  of  men  who  are  so  engaged,  and  to  facili- 
tate the  making  of  apprenticeships  to  the  sea  service  (s.  124).  A 
seaman  must  be  hired  before  a  superintendent  or  deputy  superin- 
tendent, an  officer  of  customs,  or  a  consular  officer  on  a  form  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Board  of  Trade  (usually  called  the  shipping  articles) 
containing  the  following  particulars  : — (1)  the  nature  and,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  duration  of  the  intended  voyage  or  engagement,  or 
the  maximum  period  of  the  voyage  or  engagement,  and  the  places 
or  parts  of  the  world  (if  any)  to  which  the  voyage  or  en:'ageraent 
is  not  to  extend  ;  (2)  the  number  and  description  of  the  crew, 
specifying  how  man^  are  employed  as  sailors ;  (3)  the  time  at 
which  each  seaman  is  to  be  on  board  or  to  begin  work  ;  (4)  the 
capacity  in  which  each  seaman  is  to  servo  ;  (5)  the  amount  of 
wages  which  each  seaman  is  to  receive  ;  (6)  a  scalo  of  the  provi- 
sions which  are  to  be  furnished  to  each  seaman  ;  (7)  any  regulations 
as  to  conduct  on  board  and  as  to  fines,  short  allowance  of  provi- 
sions, or  other  lawful  punishments  for  misconduct,  which  have  been 
sanctioned  by  the  Board  of  Trade  as  regulations  prc])er  to  be  adopted, 
and  which  the  parties  agree  to  adopt.  Every  agrcemnnt  is  to  bo 
framed  so  as  to  admit  of  stipulations  as  to  allotment  of  wages,  and 
may  contain  any  other  stipulations  not  contrary  to  law  (s.  149,  as 
amended  by  the  Act  of  1873  and  the  Merchant  Seamen  Act,  1880). 
Among  illegal  stipulations  would  fall  any  agreement  by  a  seaman 
to  give  up  his  right  to  salvage,  to  forfeit  his  lien  on  the  shin,  or  to 
be  deprived  of  any  remedy  for  the  recovery  of  wages  to  which  he 
would  otherwise  have  been  entitled  (s.  182).  In  the  case  of  foreign- 
going  ships  the  following  rules  in  addition  must  bo  observed  :— (1) 
every  atn-eemcnt  made  in  the  United  Kingdom  (except  agreements 
with  siibstitutcs)  is  to  bo  signed  by  each  seaman  in  the  presence  of 
the  superintendent  of  a  mercantile  marine  office;  (2)  the  superin- 
tendent is  to  cause  the  agreement  to  bo  read  over  and  explained  to 

1  For  a  fuller  oxplanati'^n  of  some  of  these  terms,  spe  Vice- Admiral  W.  H. 
8myth,  The  Sailor's  Word  Book  of  Nautical  Tervti',  Falconer's  Marine  Diction- 
ary, enlarged  by  W.  Ilurney  ;  P.  L.  Bjeslauer,  lUustrated  Nautical  Polyglot  (six 
languages). 

-  These  omees  and  ofTleers  were  called  shipping  oraces  ond  shippinjj  masters 
in  tbe  Act  of  1854.  The  names  were  chaneed  to  the  longer  and  loss  cuavciiicnt 
0LC3  111  tUo  Itxt  by  the  Act  of  1802  ('.:5  aad  26  Vict.  c.  63,  s.  15). 


60G 


SEAMEN 


each  seaman,  or  olhci-wisc  t:  ascciiaia  that  each  seaman  nndcrstant^s 
tlie  same  before  lie  i>i^s  it,  and  is  to  attest  each  signature  j  (3) 
the  agreement  is  to  be  in  dnplicate,  one  part  to  bo  rotmiicd  by  the 
superintendent,  the  other  by  the  master;  (4)  in  the  c^se  of  sub- 
stitutes, they  aie  where  possible  to  bo  engaged  before  a  suporia- 
tendent,  in  other  cases  the  agreement  is  to  be  read  over  and  ex- 
plained to  the  seaman  by  the  master  and  signed  by  the  seaman  in 
the  presence  of  a  witness  (s.  150).  The  only  cases  where  no  agree- 
ment in  wi'iting  is  necessary  is  where  the  hiring  is  for  a  coaster  of 
less  than  eighty  tons  register  or  for  a  foreign  vessel.  In  the  case 
of  union  apprentices  tbe  indentiwes  must  bo  executed  in  the  pre- 
sence of  and  attested  by  two  justices.  No  stamp  duty  is  charge- 
able on  indentures  for  the  sea  sen'ice.  In  the  case  of  foreign- 
going  ships  making  voyages  averaging  less  than  six  months  in 
duration,  running  agreements  with  the  crew  may  be  made  (s.  151). 
No  person  unlicensed  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  other  than  a  master 
or  mate  or  agent  of  the  owner,  may  enggge  or  supply  seamen. 
The  discharge  of  a  seaman,  like  his  engagement,  must  take  place 
before  a  superintendent  or  an  otficer  of  equivalent  authority. 
The  seaman  is  entitled  to  receive  a  certificate  of  service  and  dis- 
charge. His  wages  must  be  paid  within  a  limited  time  from  his 
discharge,  varying  according  to  circumstances,  and  are  not  now 
dependent,  as  they  were  at  common  law,  upon  the  earning  of 
freight.  If  he  is  discharged  before  a  month's  wages  are  earned, 
he  is  entitled  to  a  month's  wages.  As  far  as  possible,  payment 
is  to  be  made  Injnoney  and  not  by  bill.  In  the  absence  of  special 
stipulations,  wages  are  not  generally  due  until  the  contract  of 
service  is  complete.  By  8  Geo.  I.  c.  24,  s.  7,  a  master  may  not 
advance  a  seaman  more  than  half  his  wages  while  abroad.  Sums 
recoverable  as  wages  are,  in  addition  to  wages  properly  so  called, 
the  expenses  of  subsistence  and  of  the  voyage  home  when  a  ship  is 
sold  or  transferred  abroad,  and  the  master  does  not  deposit  with  a 
consular  officer  a  sufficient  sum  for  the  seaman's  expenses  pursu- 
ant to  s.  205  ;  the  expenses  of  a  seaman  left  behind  or  discharged 
from  a  British  ship,  or  a  British  subject  from  a  foreign  ship, 
out  of  the  United  Kingdom  ;  allowance  for  short  or  bad  pro- 
visions ;  the  moneys  and  effects  of  a  deceased  seaman  who  has  been 
employed  on  a  British  ship  ;  expenses  caused  by  illness  from  want 
of  proper  food  and  accommodation  and  medicines  ;  and  double  pay 
for  every  day,  not  exceeding  ten,  during  which  payment  of  wages 
is  delayed  without  proper  cause.  "Wages  cannot  be  attached.  They 
may  be  f^feited  or  reduced  by  desertion,  wilful  disobedience, 
smuggling,  want  of  exertion  in  case  of  wreck,  illness  caused  by 
neglect  or  default  of  the  seaman,  and  misconduct  of  other  kinds. 
Advance  notes — that  is,  documents  promising  the  future  payment 
of  money*  on  account  of  a  seaman's  wages  conditionally  on  his  goin^ 
to  sea  and  made  before  the  wages  have  been  earned — are  void,  and 
no  money  paid  in  respect  of  an  advance  note  can  be  deducted  from 
the  wages  earned,  Merchant  Seamen  {Payment  of  "Wages  and  Rating) 
Act,  1880  (43  and  44  Vict  c.  16,  s.  2).  Allotment  notes  may  be 
made  in  the  form  sanctioned  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  may 
stipulate  for  the  allotment  of  not  more  than  half  the  seaman's 
■wages  in  favour  of  a  wife,  parent,  grandparent,  child,  grandchild, 
brother  or  sister  (s.  169),  or  of  a  savings  bank  (43  and  44  Vict. 
c.  16,  8.  3).  Seamen's  savings  banks  have  been  established  and  art 
administered  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  chiefly  under  the  powers  given 
by  the  Seamen's  Sa\'iiigs  Banks  Act,  1856.  If  during  the  abs:Dce 
of  a  seaman  on  a  voyage  his  wife  and  family  become  chargeible  to 
the  parish,  two-thirds  of  his  wages  at  the  most  are  all  that  can  be 
recovered  by  the  parish.  Careful  provision  is  made  for  tbe  custody 
of  a  deceased  seaman's  effects  and  wages,  and  their  delivery  to  his 
representatives.  The  possibility  of  a  seaman's  being  left  destitute 
abroad  is  provided  against  by  ss.  206,  207.  Consular  officers  abroad 
are  bound  to  send  home  any  distressed  or  ship'^\Tecked  seaman, 
the  expenses  being  chargeable  upon  the  mercantile  marine  fxmd. 
Compensation  is  Ho  be  made  for  insufficiency  or  bad  quality  of 
provisions  or  water  on  board.  If  a  complaint  of  the  quality  or 
sufficiency  be  frivolous,  the  persons  complaining  arc  liable  to  for- 
feit a  week's  wages.  All  foreign  -  ^oing  ships  are  to  carry  proper 
medicines  and  medical  stores.  Lime  and  lemon  juice  and  other 
antiscorbutics  are  to  be  provided  on  ships  bound  to  foreign  ports 
other  than  ports  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  North  America.  An 
ounce  a  day  of  lime  or  lemon  juioe  is  to  be  served  to  each  member 
of  the  crew  after  the  ship  has  been  at  sea  for  ten  days  (Act  of  1867, 
30  and  31  Vict.  c.  124,  s.  4).  A  foreign-going  ship  having  one 
hundred  persons  or  upwards  on  board  must  carry  a  qualified  medical 
man  (s.  130).  Each  seaman  or  apprentice  is  entitled  to  a  space  of 
not  less  than  72  cubic  feet,  the  place  to  "be  securely  constructed, 
jiroperly  lighted  and  ventilated,  and  properly  protected  from 
weather  and  sea,  and  as  far  as  possible  Irom  effluvium  caused  by 
cargo  or  bilge-water.  The  place  is  to  be  inspected  and  certified  by 
a  6urveyop-of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  to  be  kept  free  from  goods 
and  stores.  The  local  marine  board  (or  the  Board  of  Trad^  where 
there  is  no  local  marine  board)  may  appoint  a  medical  inspector 
of  seamen,  who  may  on  application  by  the  maste~  or  owner  report 
to  the  superintendent  of  the  mercantile  marine  office  as  to  whether 
M»y  seaman  is  fit  for  duty  (30  and  31  Vict   c.    124,  ss.   9,  10). 


Byc-law3  and  regulations  relating  to  seamen's  lodging-houses  may' 
bo  made  by  the  sanitarj'  authority  of  any  seaport  town  with  the 
sanction  ol  tlie  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Such  bye-laws 
and  regulations  arc  to  provide  for  th ;  licensing  of  seamen'^  h  Iging- 
houses,  the  inspection  of  tlie  same,  the  sanitary  conditioLs  of  the 
same,  the  publication  of  the  fact  of  a  house  being  license^,  the  duo 
execution  of  the  bye-laws  and  regulations  and  the  n  on -obstruction 
of  persons  engaged  in  securing  such  execution,  the  preventing  of 
persons  not  duly  licensed  holding  themselvca  out  as  keeping  or 
purporting  to  keep  licensed  houses,  and  the  exclusion  from  licenced 
houses  of  persons  of  improper  character  (46  and  47  Vict.  c.  41, 
a.  48).  Provision  is  made  ior  the  protestion  of  seamen  from  im- 
position by  crimps  and  lodging-house  keepers.  This  j  votectioa  may 
in  certain  gases  be  extended  by  order  iu  council  to  foreign  ships 
(s.  237,  and  43  and  44  Vict,  c  16,  ss.  5,  6).  At  tho  time  of  discharge 
of  the  crcv  in  the  United  Kingdom  a  list  in  the  form  sanctioned  by 
the  Board  of  Trade  is  to  be  made  out  and  delivered  to  a  superintend- 
ent of  a  mercantile  marine  office  containing,  inter  alia,  the  follow- 
ing particulars  : — (1)  the  number  and  date  of  the  ship's  register  and 
her  registerci  tonnage  ;  (2)  the  length  and  general  nature  of  tho 
voyag?  or  employment;  (3)  the  Christian  names,  surnames,  agc7,  and 
places  of  birth  of  all  the  crew,  including  the  master  and  apprentices, 
their  qualities  on  board,  their  last  ships  or  other  employments:,  and 
the  dates  and  places  of  their  joining  the  ship  ;  (.4)  the  names  cf  any 
members  of  the  crew  who  have  been  maimed  or  hurt,  with  tht  times, 
places,  causes,  and  circumstances  thereof;  (5)  the  wages  due  a.  the 
time  of  their  respective  deaths  to  any  of  the  crew  who  have  died  ; 
(6)  the  clothes  and  other  effects  belonging  to  any  of  the  crev;  who 
have  died,  with  a  statement  of  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been 
dealt  with,  and  tht' money  for  which  an^y  of  them  have  b?cu  cold 
(s.  273).  Every  bii'th  or  death  occuning  at  sea  is  to  be  recorded  in 
the  log-book  and  teported  on  arrival  at  any  port  in  the  United 
Kingdom  to  the  registrar-general  of  shipping  and  seamen,  who 
forwards  a  certified  copy  to  the  registrar -general  of  births  and 
deaths  (37  and  38  Vict.  c.  88,  s.  37).  An  official  log-book  in  a  form 
sanctioned  by  the  Board  of  Trade  is  to  be  kept  by  the  ma.'^ter  of 
every  ship  except  a  coaster.  It  must  contain,  inter  aiia,  (1) 
every  legal  conviction  of  any  member  of  his  crew  and  the  punish- 
ment inflicted  ;  (2)  every  offence  committed  by  any  member  of  his 
crew  for  which  it  is  intended  to  prosecute,  or  to  enforce  a  forfeitiire, 
or  to  exact  a  fine,  together  with  a  statement  concerning  the  reading 
over  of  such  entry  and  concerning  the  reply  (if  any)  made  to  the 
charge ;  (3)  every  offence  for  which  punishment  is  inflicted  on  board, 
and  the  punishment  inflicted  ;  (4)  a  statement  of  the  conduct, 
character,  and  qualifications  of  each  of  his  crew,  or  a  statement  that 
he  declines  to  give  an  opihion  on  such  particulai-s ;  (5)  every  case 
of  illness  or  injury  happening  to  any  m.embcr  of  the  crew,  with  the 
nature  thereof  and  the  medical  treatment  adopted  (if  any)  ;  (6)  the 
name  of  every  seaman  or  apprentice  who  ceases  to  be  a  member  of 
the  crew,  otherwise  than  by  death,  with  the  time,  place,  manner, 
and  cause  thereof;  (7)  the  amount  of  wages  due  to  any  seaman  who 
enters  Her  Majesty's  service  during  the  voyage  ;  (8)  the  wages  due 
to  any  seaman  or  apprentice  who  dies  during  the  voyage,  and  tho 
gross  amount  cf  CiU  deductions  to  be  made  therefrom  ;  {9)  the  sale 
of  the  eflects  of  any  seaman  or  apprentice  who  dies  during  the 
voyage,  including  ?,  statement  of  each  article  sold  and  of  the  sxmi 
rec-jived  for  it  (s.  282).  At  common  law  there  was  no  obligation 
of  the  owner  to  provide  a  seaworthy  ship,  but  by  the  Act  of  1876 
every  person  who  sends  or  attempts  to  send,  or  is  party  to  sending- 
or  attempting  to  send,  a  British  ship  to  sea  in  such  unseaworthy 
rtate  that  the  life  of  any  p^on  is  likely  to  be  thereby  endangered 
is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour,  unless  he  proves  that  he  used  all  reason- 
able means  to  insure  her  being  sent  to  sea  in  a  seaworthy  state,  or 
that  her  going  to  sea  in  such  unseaworthy  state  was  under  the 
circumstances  reasonable  and  justifiable.  A  master  knowingly 
taking  a  British  ship  to  sea  in  such  unseaworthy  state  that  the  Ufe 
of  any  person  is  likely  to  be  thereby  endangered  is  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanour. In  every  contract  of  service  between  the  owner  and  tho 
master  or  any  seaman  and  in  every  indenture  of  sea  apprenticeship, 
an  obligation  is  implied  that  the  owner,  master,  and  ageut  shall 
use  all  reasonable  means  to  insure  tht  seaworthiness  of  tho  ship 
(39  and  40  Vict.  c.  80,  ss.  4,  5).  A  retui-n  of  certain  particulars,  such 
as  lists  of  crews  and  of  distressed  seamen  sent  home  from  abroad, 
reports  on  discharge,  births  and  deaths  at  sea,  must  be  made  to  the 
registrar-general  of  shipping  and  seamen,  an  officer  of  tho  Board  of 
Trade.  The  seaman  is  privileged  in  the  matter  of  wills  (see  Will), 
and  is  exempt  from  serving  in  the  militia  (42  Geo.  III.  c.  90,  s.  43). 
Assaults  upon  seamen  with  intent  to  prevent  them  working  at  their 
occupation  are  punishable  summarily  by  24  and  25  Vi-^t.  c.  100,  s. 
40.  There  are  special  enactments  in  favour  of  Lascars  and  foreign 
seamen  on  British  ships  (see  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  80;  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  104, 
s,  544;  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  120,  s.  16;  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  91,  s.  16). 
In  addition  to  this  legislation  directly  in  his  interest,  the  seaman 
is  indirectly  protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Merchant  Shipping 
Acts  requiring  the  possession  of  certificates  of  competence  by  diips' 
officers,  the  periodical  survey  of  ships  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  and 
the  enactments  against  deck  cargoes  and  o^erluading,  as  wqll  as  by 


SEAMEN 


607 


btBer  Acts,  sucft  as  the  Chain  Cables  and  Anchors  Acts,  enforcing  a 
TnTnimnm  strength  of  cables  and  anchors,  and  the  Passenger  Acts, 
under  which  a  proper  supply  of  life-boats  and  life-buoys  must  be 
provided.  The  duties  of  the  seamen  appear  to  be  to  obey  the 
master  in  all  lawful  matters  relating  to  the  navigation  of  the  ship 
and  to  resist  enemies,  to  encourage  him  in  which  he  may  become 
entitled  to  prize  money  undo*  22  and  23  Car.  11.  c.  11  (see  Prize). 
Any  services  beyond  these  would  fall  under  the  head  of  salvage 
BervicQ  and  be  recompensed  accordingly.  There  are  certain  offences 
for  which  the  scrriian  is  liable  to  be  summarily  punished  under  the 
Act  of  1854.  They  comprise  desertion,  neglect  or  refusal  to  join 
hifl  ship  or  absence  without  leave,  quitting  the  ship  ?athout  leave 
before  she  is  placed  in  security,  wilful  disobedienca  to  a  lawful 
command,  either  on  one  occasion  or  continued,  assault  u^on  a 
master  or  mate,  combining  to  disobey  lawful  commands  or  to 
neglect  duty  or  to  impede  the  navigation  of  the  ship  or  the  progreGa 
of  the  voyage,  wilful  damage  to  the  ship,  or  embezzlement  of  or 
wilful  damage  to  her  stores  or  cargo,  and  smuggling.  The  punish- 
ment varies  from  forfeiture  of  all  or  part  ol  ah  wages  to  twelve 
weeks'  imprisonment  (a  243,  as  amended  by  the  Merchant  Seamen 
Act,  i-880).  A  master,  seaman,  or  apprsntice  who  by  wilful  breach 
-of  duly,  or  by  neglect  of  duty,  or  by  reason  of  drunkenness,  does 
any  act  tendi::^  to  the  immediate  loss,  destruction,  or  serious 
damage  of  the  shivi  or  to  immediately  endanger  the  life  or  limb  of 
any  person  belonging  to  or  on  board  of  the  ship,  or  who  by  wilful 
breach  of  duty,  or  by  neglect  of  duty,  or  by  reason  of  drunkenness 
refuses  or  omits  to  do  any  lawful  act  proper  and  requisite  to  be 
done  by  him  for  preserving  the  ship  from  immediate  loss;  destruc- 
tion, or  serious  damage,  or  for  preserving  any  person  belonging  to 
or  on  board  of  the  ship  from  immediate  danger  to  life  or  limb,  is 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanour  (s.  239).  A  seaman  la  also  piinishable  at 
common  law  for  piracy  and  by  statute  for  piracy  and  offences  against 
the  Slave  Trade  Acts.  A  riotous  assembly  of  sea.men  to  prevent 
the  loading  or  unloading  of  any  ship  or  to  prevent  others  from 
working  is  an  offence  under  33  Geo.  III.  c.  67  (see  Riot).  Deserters 
from  Portuguese  ships  are  punishable  by  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  25,  and 
from  any  foreign  ship  by  15  and  16  Vict.  c.  25,  of  course  by  virtue 
of  conventions  with  Portugal  and  other  foreign  powers.  The 
rating  of  seamen  is  ncT  regulated  by  the  Merchant  Seamen  Act, 
1880.  By  that  Act  a  seaman  is  not  entitled  to  the  rating  of  "  A.B." 
nnles"  he  has  served  four  years  before  the  mast,  or  three  years  or 
more  in  a  registered  decked  fishing  vessel  and  ono  year  at  sea  in  a 
trading  vessel  (43  and  44  Vict  c.  16,  b.  7).  The  Act  of  1854  enabled 
contributions  to  seamen's  refuges  and  hospitals  to  be  charged  upon 
the  mercantile  marine  fund.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  there 
appears  to  be  no  grant  in  support  of  seamen's  hospitals  out  of  any 
public  funds.  The  principal  seamen's  hospital  is  that  at  Grecn- 
Trich,  established  in  1821  and  incorporated  by  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c. 
9  under  the  name  of  "The  Seaman's  Hospital  Society."  Up  to 
1870  this  hospital  occupied  the  old  "Dreadnought"  at  Greenwich, 
but  in  that  year  it  obtained  tho  old  infirmary  of  Greenwich  Hospital 
from  the  admiralty  at  a  nominal  rent,  in  return  for  which  a  certain 
number  of  beds  are  to  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  admiralty.  The 
hospital  is  supported  by  voluntary  contributions,  including  those 
of  many  foreign  Governments,  and  has  between  its  foundation  and 
the  end  of  1884  relieved  no  less  than  253,629  seamen  of  all  nations. 
There  is  also  a  dispensary  for  seamen  at  the  London  Docks,  and  a 
floating  hospital  at  Cardiff,  equally  supported  by  voluntiry  con- 
tributions. At  one  time  there  was  an  enforced  contribution  of  six- 
pence a  month  from  the  pay  of  masters  and  seamen  towards  tho 
funds  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  levied  under  the  powers  of  some  of 
the  Greenwich  Hospital  Acts.  The  payment  of  these  contributions 
enabled  them  to  receive  annuities  from  the  funds  of  the  hospital. 
Thcso  "Greenwich  liospital  sixpences,"  however,  became  the  source 
of  very  considerable  irritation  and  have  now  been  di-continueJ. 
In  their  place  a  purely  volnnt;iry  seamen's  provident  fund  has  been 
estabhshed,  its  object  being  to  persuade  seamen  to  subsf.-ribe  six- 
pence a  month  towards  the  seamen's  hoapitaL 

•The  remedies  of  the  seaman  for  wages  are  an  ordinary  action  in 
the  Queen's  Bench  Division  or  plaint  in  a  county  court,  an  action 
in  rem  or  in  personam  in  the  Admiralty  Division  of  the  High  Court 
(in  Scotland  in  the  Court  of  Session),  a  Vice-Admiralty  Court,  or 
a  county  court  having  adraualty  jurisdiction,  or  summary  proceed- 
ings before  justicca,  naval  courts,  or  superintendents  of  mercantile 
marine  offices.  The  master  has  now  the  same  remedies  as  the  sea- 
man for  his  wages,  under  which  are  included  all  disbursements 
made  on  account  of  tho  ship.  At  common  law  he  had  only  a 
personal  action  against  tho  owner.  He  has  tho  additional  advan- 
tage of  being  able  to  insure  bis  wages,  which  a  ecaman  cannot  do. 
A  comr-.on  law  action  for  wages  is  seldom  brought,  tho  statutory 
rcmcdico  being  more  convenient.  By  the  Admiralty  Court  Act, 
1861,  tho  High  Court  of  Justice  (Admiralty  Division)  has  juris- 
diction over  any  claim  by  a  seaman  of  any  ship  for  wages  earned 
by  him  on  board  the  ship,  whether  the  ramo  be  due  under  a  special 
contract  or  otherwise  (21  Vict.  c.  10,  a.  10).  This  section  has  btjcn 
liberally  construed  and  held  to  apnly  to  such  peraons  as  a  surgeon, 
purser,   pilot,  carpcaLcr,  and  etcvrard.     The  court  can  entertain 


c'-:»^3  hy  foreign  Eeam^n  a^s-inst  a  foreign  ihip,  on  notice  being 
gf/.T.  to  tho  c-nral  of  tho  foreign  country.  If  bo  protest  tho 
court  hr.3  c  dizrrcticn  to  detcrmino  whether  the  acuon  shall'  pro- 
ceed  or  not.  A  claim  fcr  wagca  in  tho  HJ-h  Court  must  bo  ^roc-ht 
within  six  years  (4  and  5  Aniic,  c.  Z,  a.  17).  The  Vicc-Adttiirci':y 
Court  Act,  1863,  givr^  jurisdiction  in  claima  for  wages  iircspsctlra 
of  amount  to  vico-admiralty  courts.  A  county  court'^having  adm*:-- 
alty  jrrisdiction  may  entertain  claims  for  waj:3  whero  tho"amoun; 
claimed  docs  not  exceed  £150  (31  and  32  Vict  c.  71,  s.  3).  TLo 
jurisdiction  of  tho  inferior  court  is  protected  by  tho  proT'ico  tust 
if  tho  action  bo  brought  in  the  High  Court  for  a  claim  not  esro-il 
ing  £150,  tho  plaintiff  may  bo  condomnod  in  costs,  and  will  lot 
be  eniitlcd  to  costs  if  he  recover  Icsa  than  this  turn,  nnlc=3  Ihe 
judge  ccrtiiea  that  it  woa  a  proper  ca:;o  to  be  heard  in  tho  Hiffh 
Court  (a.  9).  In  actions  in  all  courts  of  admiralty  jurisdiction  tho 
Bcaman  has  a  maritime  lien  on  tho  ship  and  freight,  ranking  next 
after  claicaa  for  salvarjo  and  damage.  Tho  amount  recoVeraMo 
summarily  before  justices  is  limited  to  £50.  Ordera  may  bo  en- 
forced by  distress  of  tho  ship  and  her  tackle.  Proceedings  mast 
be  taken  within  six  months.  A  navol  court  on  a  forci^-n.  ct-.;*-oa 
may  determine  questions  as  to  wages  without  limit  cf  ct^^vut. 
As  a  rule  a  seaman  cannot  eue  abroad  for  wages  due  for  a  "cyaga 
to  terminata  in  tho  United  Kingdom,  The  superintendent  of  a 
mercantile  marine  oiEco  has  power  to  decide  any  question  whatever 
between  a  master  or  owner  and  any  of  his  crow  v-'hich  both  parties 
in  \7Titing  agree  to  submit  to  him.  Thcso  sumraai-y  remediea  are 
all  given  by  the  Act  of  1354.  Tho  Merchant  Seamen  x^ct,  1C80, 
further  provides  that,  where  a  question  as  to  wages  iz  raised  before 
a  superintendent,  if  the  amouut'in  question  does  not  exceed  .-"S, 
the  supeiintendcnt  may  adjudicate  finally,  unless  ho  is  of  opinion 
that  a  court  of  law  ought  to  decide  it.  Tho  same  Act  extenda  llie 
provisions  of  the  Employers  and  "Workmen  Act,  1875,  to  ceamcn. 
The  Act  of  1875  itself  specially  excluded  them.  A  county  court 
or  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  (the  latter  limited  to  claim::  not 
exceeding  £10)  may  under  the  Act  of  1875  determine  all  disputes 
between  an  employer  and  workman  arising  out  of  their  relaticn  cs 
such.  The  jurii:diction  of  courts  of  summary  jurisjiicticn  is  -rs- 
tectcd  by  tho  enactment  of  the  Act  of  1854  that  no  proceeding' Tor 
tho  recovery  of  wages  under  £50  is  to  bo  instituted  in  a  superior 
court  unless  either  the  owner  of  the  ship  is  bankrupt,  or  tho  ship 
is  under  arrest  or  sold  by  the  authority  of  such  court,  or  the  justices 
refer  the  case  to  such  court,  or  neither  owner  nor  master  is  or 
resides  within  20  miles  of  the  place  where  the  seaman  is  pnt  ashore 
(s.  189).  It  should  be  notiocd  that  claims  upon  allotment  notes 
may  bo  brought  in  all  county  courts  and  before  justices  without 
any  limit  as  to  amount  (s.  169).  In  Scotland  tha  sheriff  court  has 
concurrent  jurisdiction  with  justices  in  clai.'ns  for  wages  and  upon 
allotment  notes.  ^ 

Fishermen. — The  regulations  respecting  itshermen  are  containea 
chiefly  in  the  Sea  Fisheries  Acts,  1868  and  18S3,  and  in  the  Mer- 
chant Shipping  (Fishing-Boats)  Act,  1833.     The  Sea  Fisheries  Act 
of  1868  constituted  a  registry  of  fishing-boats,  and  that  of  1883 
gave  powers  of  enforcing  the  provisions  of  tho  Acts  to  sea-fishery 
officers.     Tho  Merchant  Shipping  {Fishini;-Boats)  Act  was  passed 
in  consequence  of  the  occurrence  of  some  cases  of  barbarous  treat- 
ment of  boys  by  the  skippers  of  North  Sea  trawlers.     The  Act  pro- 
vides, inter  alia,  that  indentures  of  apprenticeship  are  to  be  in  a  • 
certain  form  and  entered  into  before  a  superintendent  of  a  mercantilii 
marine  office,  that  no  boy  under  thirteen  is  to  be  employed  in  sea- 
fishery,  that  agreements  with  seamen  on  a  fishing-boat  are  to  con- 
tain the  same  particulars  as  those  with  merchant  seamen,   that 
running  agreements  may  be  made  in  tho  case  of  short  voyages,  that 
reports  of  the  names  of  tho  crew  are  to  bo  sent  to  a  superintendent 
of  a  mercantile  marine  office,  and  that  accounts  of  wages  and  ccr-' 
tificates  of  discharge  are  to  be  given  to  seamen.     No  fishing-boat 
is  to  go  to  sea  without  a  duly  certified  skipper.     Provision  is  also 
made  for  special  reports  of  cases  of  death,  injury,  ill-treatment,  or 
punishment  of  any  of  the  crew,  and  for  inquiry  into  tho  cause  of 
such  death,  kc.     Disputes  between  skipr-^rs  or  owners  and  seamen 
are  to  be  determined  at  request  of  any  cl  the  parties  concerned  by 
a  superintendent.     For  special  privileges  of  fishermen  in  the  use  of- 
the  seashore,  see  Riparian  Laws.     They  are  also  exempt  from 
Trinity  House  dues.     There  are  immerous  police  provisions  con-, 
tained  in  various  Acts  of  Parliament  dealing  with  tho  breach  of 
fishery  regulations.     These  provisions  act  as  an  indirect  protection 
to  honest  fishermen  in  their  cmplovraent.      The  rights  of  British 
fiahermen  in  foreign  waters  and  foreign  fishermen  in  British  waters 
are  in  many  cases  regulated  by  treaty,  generally  confirmed  in  the 
Uni^tod  Kingdom  by  Act  of  Parliament.     A  royal  fund  for  widows 
and  orphans  of  fishermen  has  recently  been  formed,  the  nucleus  of 
the  fund  being  part  of  tho  profits  of  the  Fisheries  Exhibition  held 
in  London  in  1883. 

United  Stales. — Tho  law  of  tho  United  States  is  in  general  accor^^  - 


'  Sec  tho  works  on  morchant  flhlpplng,  anch  aa  those  of  Abbott,  Maclachlan, 
Maado  ^.nd  Pollock  ;  Roacoo,  Admiralty  Imw  aitd  Practice ;  Williams  an^ 
Brace,  Admtrahp  FnKtia ;  alsoRoscoc,  Modem  Lea i$la(U)n /or  Seamen  and /or 
Safety  at  Sea,  18S6.  •  »  - 


608 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


anca  with  that  of  Englan4.  Tne  law  relating  to  seamen  m  the 
navy  will  bo  found  in  the  articles  for  the  eovernmont  of  the  n?.vy 
(,J!cvis<-d  Statuti-s,  s.  1624).  Legislation  iatho  inteicats. of  merchant 
seamen  dates  from  1790.  A  list  of  the  crew  must  be  delivered  to 
a  collector  of  customs.  The  shipping  articlea  are  the  same  as  those 
in  use  in  vho  United  Kingdom,  For  vessels  in  the  coasting  trade 
they  arc,  with  certain  exceptions,  to  be  in  wTiling  or  in  prlat. 
They  must  in  the  case  of  foreign-bound  sliipg  be  signed  before  a 
shipping  commissioner  appointed  by  the  circuit  court  or  a  collector 
of  customs,  or  (if  entered  mto  abroad)  a  consular  officer,  where  practi- 
cable, and  must  bo  acknowledged  by  his  signature  in  a  prescribed 
form.  One-third  of  a  seaman's  wage^  cained  up  to  that  time  is  due 
at  every  port  where  the  ship  unlades  and  delivers  her  cargo  before 
the  voyage  is  ended.  They  must  be  fully  paid  in  gold  or  its  equiva- 
]ent  within  twenty  daye  of  the  discharge  of  the  cargo.  Advance 
cotes  can  be  made  only  in  favour  of  the  seaman  hiniself  or  his  wife 
or  mother.  There  is  a  summary  remedy  for  wages  before  a  district 
court,  a  justic!'  of  tho  peace,  or  ^  commissioner  of  a  district  court. 
A  shipping  commissioner  may  act  as  arbitrator  by  written  consent 
of  the  parties.  Seaworthiness  is  an  implied  condition  of  the  hiring. 
There  may  be  an  examination  of  the  ship  on  tho  complaint  of  the 
mate  and  a  majority  of  the  crew.  The  expenses  of  an  unnecessary 
investigation  are  a  charge  upon  the  wages  of  those  who  complain- 
A  seaman  may  not  leave  his  ship  without  the  consent  of  the  master. 
For  foreign  -  bound  voyages  a  medicine-chest  and  antiscorbutics 
must  be  carried,  also  60  gallons  of  water,  100  It  of  salted  meat,  and 
100  lb  of  wholesome  bread  for  every  person  on  board,  and  for  every 
seaman  at  Ica^t  one  suit  of  woollen  clothing,  and  fuel  for  the  firs 
of  the  seaman's  room.  An  assessment  of  forty  cents  per  month  per 
seaman  is  levied  on  every  vessel  arriving  from  a  foreign  port  and 
on  every  registered  coasting  vessel  in  aid  of  the  fund  for  tne  relief 
of  sick  and  disabled  seamen.  In  the  navy  a  deduction  of  twenty 
cents  per  month  fi^^m  each  man's  pay  is  made  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  offences  and  punishments  are  similar  to  those  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  There  is  also  the  additional  offence  of  wearing  a  sheath 
knife  on  shipboard. '  (J.  Wt. ) 

SEAKCH,  Right  of.  "  The  right  of  visiting  and  search- 
ing ships  on  the  high  seas,"  says  Lord  Stowell,  "whatever 
be  the  ships,  whatever  be  the  cargoes,  whatever  be  the 
destinations,  is  an  incontestible  right  of  the  lawfully  com- 
missioned ship  of  a  belligerent  nation ;  because  till  they 
are  visited  and  seaxched  it  does  not  appear  what  the  ships 
or  the  cargoes  or  the  destinations  are ;  and  it  is  for  the ' 
purpose  of  ascertaining  these  points  that  the  necessity  of 
this  right  of  visitation  and  search  exists.  This  right  is  so 
clear  in  principle  that  no  man  can  deny  it  who  admits  the 
right  of  maritime  capture,  because  if  you  are  not  at  liberty 
to  ascertain  by  sufficient  enquiry  whether  there  is  property 
which  can  be  legally  captured,  it  is  impossible  to  capture  " 
("  The  Maria,"  1  C.  Robinson's  Ecporte,  36).  This  right  of 
search  or  visitation  and  search  has  not  been  at  all  times 
recognized.  The  second  armed  neutrality  of  the  Baltic 
powers  in  1800  attempted  to  withdraw  their  vessels  from 
the  right.  The  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  in  1801  was 
one  of  the  results  of  this  policy.  Since  the  convention 
vifhich  followed  that  event  the  right  has  been  regarded  as 
established  within  proper  limits,  and  is  often  reguiate;d  by 
treaty,  especially  as  to  the  search  of  vessels  suspected  of 
being  engaged  in  the  slave  trade.  Apart  from  treaty,  the 
main  rules  which  govern  the  right  are  these.  (1)  It  is  a 
belligerent  right,  and  can  be  exercised  only  in  time  of  war, 
unless  in  the  case  of  a  vessel  reasonably  suspected  of 
piracy  or  breach  of  revenue  regulations.  (2)  It  can  be 
exercised  only  by  a  ship  of  war  duly  commissioned  by  the 
sovereign  of  the  belligerent  power  and  only  in  the  case  of 
a  merchant  vessel,  whether  of  an  enemy  or  neutral  power. 
(3)  It  cannot  be  exercised  in  neutral  waters,  and  an 
attempt  to  exercise  it  in  such  waters  is  a  gross  violation 
of  neutrality.  (4)  It  can  be  exercised  only  for  certain 
purposes,  such  as  to  examine  the  ship's  papers  and  to  see 
whether  she  carries  any  contraband  goods.  (5)  After 
the  ship  of  war  has  raised  her  flag  an  affirming  gun  {covp 
(Tassurance)  loaded  with  blank  cartridge  must  be  fired  to 
bring  the  merchant  vessel  to.  (6)  In  case  of  reasonable 
i'aspicion  it  is  the  duty  of  the  ship  of  war  to  detain  the 

'  See  Jin>is!d  Statutes,  £3.  4501-4612;  Kent,  Comm.,  vol.  liL  177; 
Parsons,  Laio  of  Shi^j^ing,  voj,  ii.  32. 


merchant  vessel  for  the  decLiion  of  a  prize  court.  Resist- 
ance by  a  neutral  vessel,  whether  alone  or  in  convoy,  renders 
her  liable  to  capture  according  to  the  English  and  United 
k^tate3  doctrine.  But  most  Continental  authorities  lay 
down  that  the  declaration  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
convoy  i^  to  be  accepted,  and  that  a  refusal  to  accept  such 
declaration  may  justify  the  convoy  in  resisting  search. 
There  is  also  a  conflict  of  opinion  as  to'  whether  a  neutral 
loses  his  neutral  rights  by  loading  his  goods  on  board  an 
armed  ship  of  the  enemy.  It  has  been  held  in  England 
that  such  a  proceeding  is  a  violation  of  neutrality,  as  afford- 
ing a  presumption  of  resistance  to  search. 

The  right  of  search  is  historically  interesting,  as  on  two  occasions 
it  has  brought  Great  Britain  into  collision  with  the  United  States. 
One  of  the  causes  of  the  war  of  1812  was  the  right  then  claimed 
(but  since  abandoned)  by  Great  Britain  of  searching  vessels  of  the 
United  States  for  British  subjects  serving  in  them  as  seamen,  with 
a  view  to  impressing  tuem  for  the  royal  navy.  In  1861  the  British 
mail  steamer  * '  Trent "  was  stopped  on  the  high  eeas  by  a  United 
States  ship  of  war.  and  Messrs  SlideU  and  Mason,  two  commis- 
sioners of  tho  Confederate  States  proceeding  to  Europe,  were  taken 
out  of  her  and  afterwards  imprisoned  in  the  United  States.  Oa 
diplomatic  representations  being  made  at  Washington  by  the  am- 
bass.adors  of  Great  Britain  ana  other  -powers  the  commissioners 
were  released,  and  a  war  was  avoided. 

See  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  authoritiog  on  International  law,  Visitation 
and  Search,  by  W.  B.  Lawrence,  Boston,  U.S.,  1358. 

SEA-SERPENT.  The  belief  in  enormous  serpents, 
both  terrestrial  and  marine,  dates  from  very  early  times. 
Pliny  (H.N.,  viii.  14),  following  Livy  {Epit,  xviii.),  teUs 
us  of  a  land -serpent  120  feet  long,  which  Rsgulus  and 
his  army  besieged  with  balistse,  ps  though  it  had  been  a 
city,  and  this  story  is  repeated  Dy  several  other  writers 
(Floras,  ii.  2 ;  Val.  Max.,  i.  8 ;  Gellius,  vi.  3).  The  most 
prolific  in  accounts  of  the  sea-serpent,  however,  are  the 
early  Norse  writers,  to  whom  the  "  So-Orm  "  was  a  subject 
both  for  prose  and  verse.  Olaus  Magnus  (Hist.  Gent.  Sept., 
xxi.  24)  describes  it  as  200  feet  long  and  20  feet  round, 
and  states  that  it  not  only  ate  calves,  sheep,  and  swine,  • 
but  also  "  disturbs  ships,  rising  up  like  a  mast,  and  some- 
times snaps  some  of  the  men  from  the  deck,"  illustrating 
his  account  with  a  vivid  representation  of  the  animal  in 
the  very  act.  Pontoppidan,  in  his  Natural  History  (Eng. 
tr.,  1755,  p.  195  sq.),  says  that  its  existence  was  generally 
believed  in  by  the  sailors  and  fishermen  of  his  time,  and 
recounts  the  m'eans  they  adopt-ed  to  escape  it,  as  well  as 
many  details  regarding  the  habits  of  the  creature.  The 
more  circumstantial  records  of  comparatively  modern 
times  may  be  most  conveniently  grouped  according  to  the 
causes  which  presumably  gave  rise  to  the  phenomena  de- 
scribed. (1)  A  number  of  porpoises  swimming  one  behind 
another  may,  by  their  characteristic  mode  of  half  emerging 
from  and  then  re-entering  the  water  during  respiration, 
produce  the  appearance  of  a  single  animal  showing  a 
succession  of  snake-like  undulations.  The  figure  given  by 
Pontoppidan  was  very  likely  suggested  by  such  an  appear- 
ance, and  a  sketch  of  an  animal  seen  off  Llandudno  by 
.several  observers-  looks  as  though  it  might  have  had, a 
similar  origin,  notwithstanding  that  this  hypothesis  was 
rejected  by  them.  (2)  A  flight  of  sea-fowl  on  one  occasion 
recorded  by  Professor  Aldis  ^  produced  the  appearance  of 
a  snake  swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  (3)  A 
large  mass  of  seaweed  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  been 
cautiously  approached  and  even  harpooned  under  the  im- 
pression that  it  was  such  a  monster.*  (4)  A  pair  of  bask- 
ing sharks  (Selache  maxima)  furnish  an  explanation  of  some 
of  the  recorded  observations,  as  was  first  pointed  out  by 
Frank  Buckland.     These  fish  have  a  habit  of  swimming 


-  Mott,  NaiuTe,  xx\'ii.  pp.  293,  315,  338  ;  also  Land  and  Water, 
Septemiier  1872. 

*  Nature,  ibid. ;  also  Drew,  in  vol  xviii.  p.  ^89  ;  Bird,  to)n,  cit,,  p. 
519  ;  Ingleby,  torn,  cit.,  p.  541. 

*  F.  Smith,   Tillies,  February  1858  ;    Herriman,  quoted  by  Gosso, 
op.  at.  postca,  p.  338  ;  Pringle,  Xature,  xviii.  p.  £19,  1878. 


SEA-SERPENT 


609 


in  pairs,  one  following  the  other  with  the  dorsal  fin 
and  the  upper  lobe  of  vhe  tail  just  appearing  above  the 
water,  and,  as  each  animal  is  fully  30  feet  long,  the  effect 
of  a  body  of  60  or  more  feet  long  moving  tfiroagh  the 
water  is  readily  produced.  To  this  category  belongs  the 
famous  serpent  cast  up  on  Stronsay,  one  of  the  Orkneys, 
of  which  an  account  was  read  to  the  Wernerian  Society  of 
Edinburgh ' ;  some  of  its  vertebrae  were  preserved  in  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  London,  and  identified  as 
those  of  Selai-he  maxima  by  both  Home  and  Owen.-  There 
is  also  •evidence  to  show  that  sjjecimens  of  Cardiarodon 
must  have  existed  more  than  100  feet  long.^  (5)  Ribbon- 
fish  {Regalecus),  from  their  snake-like  form  and  great' length 
(.sometimes  as  much  a.s  20  feet),  have  been  suggested  as  the 
origin  of  so-called  "  sea-serpent.s,"  amongst  others  by  Dr 
Andrew  Wilson*;  but  Dr  Giinther,^  from  what  is  known 
regarding  the  habits  of  these  fish,  does  not  regard  the 
theory  as  tenable.  (6)  A  gigantic  squid  (Arcliiteuthus) 
was  most  likely  the  foundation  of  the  old  Norse  accounts,'' 
and  also  of  those  which  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th 
century  came  so  frequently  from  the  United  States  as 
to  gain  for  the  animal  the  sobriquet  of  "  American  sea- 
serpent."  '  These  stories  were  so  circumstantial  and  on 
the  whole  so  consistent,  and  vouched  for  by  persons  of 
such  eminence,  that  no  doubt  was  possible  (notwithstanding 
the  cavilling  of  Mitchell)  ^  as  to  the  e-vistence  of  a  strange 
marine  monster  of  very  definite  character  in  those  regions. 
The  description  commonly  given  of  it  has  been  summed 
up  by  Gosse  '  somewhat  thus : — (i. )  general  form  that  of  a 
serpent;  (ii.)  length  averaging  60  feet;  (iii.)  head  flattened, 
eye  generally  not  mentioned,  some  distinctly  stating  that  it 
was  not  seen  ;  (iv.)  neck  12  to  16  inches  in  diameter  ;  (v.) 
appendages  on  the  head,  neck,  or  back  (accounts  here 
variable);  (vi.)  colour  dark,  lighter  below;  (vii.)  swims  at 
the  surface,  head  thrown  forward  and  slightly  elevated ; 
(viii.)  progression  steady  and  uniform,  body  straight  but 
capable  of  being  bent ;  (ix.)  water  spouting  from  it ;  (x.) 
in  shape  like  a  "nun  buoy."  The  annexed  figure  (fig.  1) 
represents  one 
which  was  seen 
from  H.M.S. 
"Djedalus.'K'To 
show  the  reason- 
ableness of  this 
liyix)thesis,  it 
may  be  added 
that  gigantic  C^phalopods  are  not  iinfrequent  on  the 
shores  of  Newfoundland,"  and  are  occasionally  met  with 
on  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia,'-  Denmark,  and  the  British 
I.->les,"  that  their  extreme  size  seems  to  be  above  60  feet, 
and,  furthermare,  that  their  mode  of  progression  is  by 
means  of  a  jet  of  water  forcibly  expelled  froia  the  siphon, 
which  would  iurpart  that  equable  motion  to  which  several 


Fig.  1.- 


-Sea-serpeut,  as  seen  from  H.  M.  S. 
"  D.xdalus. " 


J  item.  Wcrii.  Soc.  Edin.,  vol.  i.  pp.  418-444,  pis.  ix.-xi.,  1811.  ' 
'  Aiit\.  Mag.  Xut.  Hist.,  ser.  2,  vol.  ii.  p.  461,  1848  ;  for  a  criticism 
of  tliese  views,  see  Traill,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Eclhi.,  vol.  iii.  n.  208,  1857. 
'  Owen,  oAontorjmphy,  p.  30. 

*  Leisure  Time  Studies,  p.  115,  London,  1879,  coutaininj  a  readable 
p«ay  on  the  subject;  Scotiman,  6th  Septemlier  1878  ;  Xulttre,  loc.  cit. 

'  Sliidy  of  Fishes,  p.  521,  Edinburgh,  1830. 
«  See  note  3  ;  also  Deinbolt,  quoted  in  XooloijU,  p.  1604,  1817. 
'  Bigelow,  Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  vol.  iL  pp.  147-165,  1820;  Warbiuton, 
■i.,  vol,  xii.  p.  375,  J823  ;  Zoolorjist,  p.  1714,  1847. 
'  Atner.  Journ.  Sci.,  vol.  xv.  p.  35' .  1829. 

•  Rnimnce  of  Xatural  Histm-y,  p.  345,  Ixjndon,  1859. 

>'  M'Quahsc,  Times,  October  1848  ;  III.  Load.  Kcus,  October  1848. 

"  Verrill,  frans.-  Connect.  Acad.,  vol.  v.  part  i.,  1880,  containing 
an  account  of  all  authenticated  specimens  of  gigantic  squids. 

"  Sleenstmp,  Forhamtl.  Skantt.  Xaturf,  7rfe  Mijde,  pp.  IS2-185, 
Christiania,  1857. 

"  Savillc  Kent,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Load.,  p.  178.  1874  ;  More, 
ZvJ<y,isl,  p.  4526,  1875  ;  also  Ann.  Slvj.  Sal.  Biil.,  set.  4,  vol.  vi. 
p.  123. 


Fig.  2. — Sea-serpent,  as  observed  by  H.ans 
Egede. 


),    was 


observers  allude  as  being  evidently  not  produced  by  any 
serpentine  bending  of  the  body.  A  very  interesting 
account  of  a  monster  almost  certainly  originating  in  one 
of  these  squids  is  that  of  Hans  Egede,'*  the  well-known  mis- 
sionary to  Green- 
land ;  the  drawing 
by  Bing,  given  in 
his  work,  is  repro- 
duced here  (fig.  2), 
along  with  a  sketch 
of  a  squid  in  the 
act  of  rearing  itself 
out  from  the  water 
(fig.  3),  an  action 
which  they  have 
been  observed  in 
aquaria  habitually 
to  perform.  Nu- 
merous other  ac- 
counts seem  to  be 
explicable  by  this 
hypothesis.'^  (7)  A 

sea -lion,  or  "Anson's  seal  "  (J/onraj/a  elephantina  _ 
suggested  by  Owen  '^  as  a  possible  explanation  of  the 
serpent  seen  from 
H.M.S."DiedaIus"; 
but  as  this  was 
afterwards  rejected 
by  Captain  M'Qua- 
hae,""  who  stated 
that  it  could  not 
have  been  any  ani- 
mal of  the  seal 
kind,  it  seems  bet- 
ter to  refer  the  ap- 
pearance to  a  squid 
as  above  stated. 
(8)  A  plesiosaurus, 
or  some  other  of 
the  huge  marine 
reptiles  usually  be- 
lieved to  be  extinct,  ^la  3 
might  certainly 
have  produced  the  phenomena  described,  granting  the 
possibility  of  one  having  survived  to  the  present  time. 
Newn.an  '^  and  Gosse  "•  have  both  supported  this  theory, 
the  former  citing  as  evidence  in  its  favour  the  rejtort  of 
a  creature  with  the  body  of  an  alligator,  a  long  neck,  and 
four  paddles  having  been  seen  by  Captain  Hope  of  H.M.S. 
"Fly"  in  the  Gulf  of  California.™  (9)  No  satisfactory 
explanation  has  yet  been  given  of  certain  descriptions  of 
the  sea-serpent ;  among  others  of  this  class  may  be  men- 
tioned the  huge  snake  seen  by  certain  of  the  crew-'  of 
the  "  Pauline "  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  which  was 
coiled  twice  round  a  large  sperm  whale,  and  then  towered 
up  many  feet  into  the  air,  and  finally  dragsjed  the  whale 
to  tlye  bottom.  Perhaps  tlio  most  remarkable,  however, 
is  Lfeutenant  Hayne's  --  account  of  a  creature  seen  from 
H.M.  yacht  "Osborne."  Two  different  a.spects  were  re- 
corded,— the  first  being  a  ridge,  30  feet  in  length,  of  tri- 

'*  JJet  gaitde  Gr'jnUaxds  nye  PcYlust ration,  Copenhagen,  1741 
(Eng.  trans.,  A  Dcscrijition  of  Greenland,  London,  1745,  pp.  86-89); 
also  Paul  Egede,  EfUrrelningcr  om  Griinland,  Copeuhagcn,  u.d.,  pp. 
45,  46. 

'^  L.  de  Ferry,  quoted  by  Pontoppidan,  op.  cit.  ;  Davidson  and 
Sandford,  quoted  in  Zoologist,  p.  2459,  1849  ;  Senior,  Graphic,  19th 
April  1879  ;  Barnett,  Nature,  vol.  x.\.  p.  289,  1879. 

'"  Ann.  Mug.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  2,  vol.  ii.  p.  461,  1848. 

"   Tinus,  21st  November  1848.  "  Zoologist,  p.  2.195. 

'•  Op.  cit.,  p.  358.  ■"  Zoologist,  p.  .2356,  1849. 

■'  P'.niiy,  III.  r.,md.  Xrus.  vol.  Ixvii.  p.  515,  20th  November  1875. 

--  Grcwhic,  30lh  June  1877. 

XXI.  -    77 


-Sqviid,  rearing  itself  out  of  the  water. 


GIO 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


angxilar  fins,  each  rising  5  to  6  feet  above  the  water, 
wiule  the  second  view  showed  i  large  round  head  6  feet 
in  diameter,  with  huge  flappers,  which  moved  like  those 
of  a  turtle.!  Jt  would  thus  appear  that,  while,  with  very 
few  exceptions,  all  the  so-called  "  sea-serpents "  can  be 
explained  by  reference  to  some  well-known  animal  or.  other 
natural  object,  there  is  still  a  residuum  sufficient  to  prevent 
modern  zoologists  from  denying  the  possibility  that  some 
such  creature  may  after  all  exist. 

Quite  distincfia  origin  from  the  stories  already  touched 
on  is  the  legend  of  the  sea-serpent  or  iinnin  among  the 
Arabs  (Mas'udi,  i.  266  sq.  ;  Kazwinl,  i.  132  sq. ;  Damiri, 
L  186  sq.),  which  is  described  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
no  doubt  that  the  waterspout  is  the  phenomenon  on  which 
the  fable  rests.  The  tinnin  is  the  Hebrew  tannin  (E.V. 
"  whale,"  "  dragon  "),  which  in  Ps.  cxlviii.  7  might  in  the 
context  be  appropriately  rendered  "  waterspout." 

In  addition  to  tlie  soiu'ces  already  cited,  the  reader  may  consult 
Blacktvood's  Mam:iuc,  vol.  iii.,  1S18  ;  Lee,  Sea  Monslcrs  Unmaslccd 
(International  Fisheries  Exhibition  Handbook)^  London,  1883  ; 
Cojrswell,  Zoologist,  pp.  1841,  1911  (1847);  and  Hoyle,  Proc.  Roy. 
Ph'js.  Sac.  Edin,.,  vol.  i.t.  (W.  E.  HO.) 

SEA-SICKNESS,  a  peculiar  set  of  symptoms  experi- 
enced by  many  persons  when  subjected  to  the  pitching 
and  rolling  motion  of  a  vessel  at  sea,  of  which  depression, 
giddiness,  nausea,  and  vomiting  are  the  most  prominent. 

Although  the  vast  majority  of  persons  appear  to  be 
liable  to  this  ailment  on  exposure  to  its  exciting  cause  (the 
instances  of  complete  and  constant  immunity  being  rare), 
they  do  not  all  suffer  alike.  Many  endure  distress  of  a 
most  acute  and  even  alarming  kind,  while  others  are 
simply  conscious  of  transient  feelings  of  nausea  and  dis- 
comfort. In  long  voyages,  while  many  are  affected  'n-ith 
sea-sickness  for  the  first  few  days  only,  others  are  tor- 
ineiited  with  it  during  the  entire  period,  especially  on  the 
occurrence  of  rough  weather.  In  short  voyages,  such  as 
across  the  English  Channel,  not  a  few  even  of  those  sus- 
ceptible escape,  while  others  suffer  in  an  extreme  degree, 
the  sickness  persisting  long  after  arrival  on  shore. 

The  symptoms  generally  show  themselves  soon  after  the 
vessel  has  begun  to  roll  by  the  onset  of  giddiness  and 
discomfort  in  the  head,  tos^etlier  with  a  sense  of  nausea 
ajid  sinking  at  the  stom'ach,  which  soon  develops  into 
intense  sickness  and  vomiting.  •  At  first  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  only  are  ejected;  but  thereafter  bilious  matter, 
and  occasionally  even  blood,  are  brought  up  by  the  violence 
of  the  retching.  The  vomiting  is  liable  to  exacerbations 
according  to  the  amount  of  oscillation  of  the  ship ;  but 
seasons  of  rest,  sometimes  admitting  of  sleep,  ^occasionally 
intervene.  Along  with  the  sickness  there  is  great  physical 
prostration,  as  shown  in  the  pallor  of  the  skin,  cold  sweats, 
and  feeble  pulse,  accompanied  with  mental  depression  and 
wretchedness.  In  almost  all  instances  the  attack  has  a 
favourable  termination,  and  it  is  extremely  rare  that  serious 
results  arise,  e.xcepfin  the  case  of  persons  weakened  by. 
other  diseases,  although  occasionally  the  symptoms  are  for 
a  time  sufficiently  alarming. 

The  causes  giving  rise  to  sea-sickness  have  long  been 
discussed,  and  a  vast  number  of  theories  have  been  pro- 
posed. The  conditions  concerned  in  the  production  of  the 
malady  are  apparent'y  of  complex  character,  embracing 
more  than  one  set  of  causes.  In  the  first  place,  the  rolling 
or  heaving  of  the  vessel  disturbs  that  feeling  of  the  relation 
of  the  body  to  surrounding  objects  upon  which  our  sense 
of  security  rests.  The  nervous  system  being  thus  sub- 
jected to  a  succession  of  shocks  or  surprises  fails  to  effect 
the  necessary  adjustments  for  equilibrium.  Giddiness  and 
with  it  nausea  and  vomiting  follow,  aided  probably  by  the 
profound   vaso-motor   disturbance  which   produces   such 

'  Dr  Andrew  Wilson  has  claimed  this  monster  as  a  ribbon-iish, 
Times,  15th  June  1877. 


manifest  depression  of  the  circulation.  Much  has  been 
made  by  some  of  the  effects  of  the  displacement  of  the 
abdominal  viscera,  especially  the  stomach,  by  the  rolling 
of  the  vessel ;  but,  while  this  may  possibly  operate  to 
some  extent,  it  can  only  be  as  an  accessory  cause.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  influence  of  the  changing  impres- 
sions made  upon  the  vision,  which  has  been  regarded  by 
some  as  so  powerful  in  the  matter,  since  attacks  of  sea- 
sickness occur  also  in  the  dark,  and  in  the  case  of'  blind 
persons.  Other  contributory  causes  may  be  mentioned, 
such  as  the  feeling  that  sickness  is  certain  to  come,  which 
may  bring  on  the  attack  in  some  persons  even  before  the 
vessel  has  begun  to  move ;  the-  sense  of  the  body  being  in 
a  liquid  or  yielding  medium  as  it  descends  with  the  vessel 
into  the  trough  of  the  sea,  the  varied  odours  to  be  met 
with  on  board  ship,  and  circumstances  of  a  like  nature 
tend  also  to  precipitate  or  aggravate  an  attack.  Dr  Chap- 
man's view  is  that  the  essential  cause  is  an  undue  afl[iux  of 
blood  to  the  spinal  cord.  But,  in  the  few  rare  instances 
where  sea-sickness  has  proved  fatal,  post-moi-lcm  appearances 
have  been  almost  entirely  negative,  and  only  such  as  are 
met  with  in  death  from  syncope. 

Innui^erable  preventives  and  icmedies  have  beon  proposed  ;  but 
most  of  them  fall  far  short  of  the  success  claimed  for  tliem.  No 
means  has  yet  been  discovered  which  can  altogether  prevent  the  oc- 
currence of  sea-sickness,  nor  is  it  likely  any  will  be  found,  since  it  is 
largely  due  to  the  pitching  movements  of  the  vessel,  which  cannot 
be  averted.  Swinging  couches  or  chambers  have  ]iot  proved  of  any 
l^ractical  ntilitj'.  No  doubt  there  is  less  risk  of  sickness  in  a  large 
and  well-ballasted  vessel  than  in  a  small  one  ;  but,  even  though 
the  rolling  may  be  considerably  modified,  the  ascending  and  de- 
scending movements  which  so  readily  produce  nausea  continue. 
None  of  the  mediciniU  agents  proposed  possess  infallible  ]iropertics : 
a  remed}-  which  suits  one  person  will  often  wholly  fail  with  another. 
There  appears  to  be  a  wide  concurrence  of  opinion  that  nerve  seda- 
tives are  among  the  most  potent  drugs  which  can  be  employed ; 
and  full  medicinal  doses  of  bromide  of  j-.ctassium,  chloral,  or  opium 
(the  last  two  only  under  strict  medical  direction)  taken  before  sail- 
ing appear  to  act  usefully  in  the  case  of  many  persons.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  high  authorities  have  recommended  the  employ, 
ment  of  nei-ve  stimulants,  such  as  a  small  cupful  of  very  strong 
coffee  to  be  taken  about  two  houi-s  before  sailing,  which  will  fre- 
quently prevent  or  mitigate  the  sickness.  When  the  vessel  is  in 
motion,  or  even  before  starting,  the  recumbent  position  with  the 
head  low  and  the  eyes  closed  should  be  assumed  by  those  at  all 
likely  to  suffer,  and,  should  the  weather  admit,  on  deck  rather 
than  below,  —  the  body,  especially  the  extremities,  being  well 
covered.  Mauy  persons,  however,  find  comfort  and  relief  from 
lying  down  in  their  bertlis  with  a  hot  bottle  to  the  feet,  by  which 
means  sleep  may  be  obtained,  and  with  it  a  temporaiy  abatement 
of  the  distressing  giddiness  and  nausea.  Should  sickness  supervene 
small  quantities  of  some  light  food,  such  as  thin  arrowroot,  grael, 
or  soup,  ought  to  be  swallowed  if  possible,  in  order  to  lessen  the 
sense  of  exhaustion,  which  is  often  extreme.  The  vomiting  may 
be  mitigated  by  saline  effervescing  drinks,  ice,  chloroform,  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  or  opium.  Alcohol,  although  occasionally  useful  in 
great  prostration,  is  not  generally  found  to  be  of  much  service, 
but  tends  rather  to  aggravate  the  sickness.  Dr  Chapman,  in 
accordance  with  his  view  of  the  cause  of  the  sickness,  introduced  a 
spinal  ice-bag,  which  has  been  extensively  employed  and  recom- 
mended ;  but,  like  every  other  plan  of  treatment,  it  has  only  occa- 
sional success.  The  more  recently  proposed  remedies,  such  as 
nitrite  of  amyl  and  cucaine,  do  not  seem  to  yield  any  better  results 
than  the  agents  already  mentioned. 

SEATTLE,  county  seat  of  King  county,  Washington 
Territory,  United  States,  on  Seattle  Bay,  east  side  of 
Puget  Sound,  with  Lake. Union,  3  miles  long,  on  the  north, 
and  Lake  Washington,  25  miles  long,  on  the  east,  is  the 
largest  city  of  the  Territory.  A  ship  canal  to  connect 
these  lakes  with  Puget  Sound  is  now  (1886)  in  course  of 
construction.  Seattle  has  shipyards,  foundries,  machii.e- 
shops,  sawmills,  lumber-yards,  breweries,  and  manufac- 
.tories  of  furniture,  carriages,  cigars,  crackers,  patent 
medicines,  boxes,  and  barrels.  It  possesses  the  Territorial 
university.  The  Columbia  and  Puget  Sound  and  the 
Puget  Sound  Shore  Railroads  have  their  terminus  here, 
whence  large  shipments  of  coal  take  place.  The  opulation 
iii  1880  was  3533,  and  in  1885  it  was  estimated  at  12,000.- 


SEA       W  A  T  E  K 


611 


SEA  WATER.'  Tlie  ocean  covers  very  nearly  eight- 
elevenths  of  the  total  area  of  the  globe  ;  its  average  depth 
may  be  estimated  as  2000  fathoms,  and  its  total  mass  at 
11-322  xlO'*  (i.e.,  1-3  million  million  millions)  tons.  Its 
general  configuration  must  be  assumed  to  have  been  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  it  is  now  lor  thousands  of  years; 
hence  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  absolute  composi- 
tion of  the  ocean  as  a  whole  is  constant  in  the  sense  of 
•being  only  subject  to  very  slow  progressive  millennial 
variation,  and  that,  taking  one  part  of  the  ocean  with 
another,  the  percentage  composition  of  the  fixed  part  of 
the  sohttum  can  oscillate  only  within  narrow  limits.  The 
composition  of  this  solutum  is  very  complex.  According 
to  Forchhammer,  ocean  salt  in  addition  to  the  chlorides 
and  sulphates  of  sodium,  magnesium,  potassium,  and  cal- 
cium— which  had  long  been  known  to  be  its  principal 
components — includes  silica,  boric  acid,  bromine,  iodine, 
fluorine  as  acid,  and  the  oxides  of  nickel,  cobalt,  manganese, 
aluminium,  zinc,  silver,  lead,  copper,  barium,'  and  strontium 
as  basic  components.  Arsenic,  gold,  lithium,  rubidium, 
ciEsium  have  been  discovered  since  Forchhammer  wrote. 
But  all  these  subsidiary  components,  as  that  investigator 
found,  amount  to  very  little, -^so  little  that  in  his  numerous 
quantitative  analyses  of  waters  which  he  had  procured 
from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  he  confined  himself  to  the 
determination  of  the  chlorine,  sulphuric  acid,  magnesia, 
lime,  potash,  and  soda.  The  soda,  however,  he  determined 
only  by  difference,  assuming  that  the  muriatic  and  Sul- 
phuric acids  are  united  with  the  bases  into  perfectly  neutral 
salts.  As  a  general  result  he  found  that,  in  the  open  ocean, 
the  ratio  to  one  another  of  the  several  acids  and  bases 
named  is  subject  to  only  slight  variations.  But  his  samples 
had  all  been  collected  at  the  surface  ;  the  potash  had  been 
determined  by  an  insufficiently  exact  method ;  and  the 
assumed  neutrality  of  the  total  salt  had  not  been  proved. 
With  the  view  primarily  of  supplementing  Forchhammer's 
work,  Dittmar  made  complete  analyses  of  77  of  the  samples 
brought  home  by  the  "  Challenger,"  so  selected  that  3-i  out 
of  the  77  represented  depths  of  1000  fathoms  or  more. 
His  analyses  brought  out  a  small  surplus  of  base,  prov- 
ing the  presence  of  carbonate  in  all  the  waters ;  but  the 
mimerioal  values  thus  found  for  the  "alkalinity,"  being 
charged  with  the  -observational  errors  of  the  whole  series 
of  determinations,  could  not  be  relied  on.  Dittmar  tiere- 
fore  subsequently  availed  himself  of  a  very  easy  and  yet 
exact  method  for  the  direct  determination  of  this  quantity, 
whiiih  meanwhile  had  been  discovered  by  Torniie,  and  ap- 
plied it  to  over  130  "Challenger"  samples.  He  be.sides 
made  a  special  inquiry  into  the  relation  between  the 
quantity  of  lime  and  the  depth  at  -n-hich  the  water  had 
been  collected,  and  la  similar  inquiry  in  regard  to  the 
bromine.  As  a  general  summary  he  gives  the  following 
three  tables.  The' total  salts  contained  in  ocean  water 
amount  on  an  average  to  about  3'5  per  cent.,  thus  leaving 
06'5  per  cent,  for  the  water  proper. 

*  All  our  knowleilge  of  tlie  subject  of  chemical  oceanography — a 
branch  of  physical  geography  which  has  only  lately  come  to  be  exten- 
sively cuUivutwl — is  derived  from  a  series  of  investigations  chiefly  em- 
bodied in  the  following  publications; — (1)  Forchhammer,  "On  the 
Composition  of  Sea  Water,"  tc,  in  I'hil.  Trans.,  i.  155,  pp.  203-202 
(1865);  (2)  Oscar  Jacobsen,  Ann.  d.  Chem.,  vol.  clxvii.  p.  1  sq. 
(1873);  (3)  Den,  Norske  Nordhavs  Expcdilion,  1S76-7S :  Chemi,  by 
Tomoe);  (4)  the  Jahresb^CcJUe  of  the  Kiel  committee  for  the  scien- 
tific investigation  of  the  German  Ocean,  1873-82  ;  (5)  Physics  and 
Chcmistrij  of  the  Voi/agt  of  II..V.S.  "Challenger" — I.  "Report  on 
Researches  into  tli«  Composition  of  Ocean  Water,"  &c.,  by  Prof.  W. 
Dittmar,  January  1834  ;  II.  "  Report  on  the  Specilic  Gravity  of 
samples  of  Ocean  Water,"  &c.,  by  J.  Y.  Buchanan,  January  1884  ; 
III.  "Report  on  Deep-sea  Temperature,"  &c.,"by  the  officei-s  of  the 
expedition.  A  shorter  and  more  popular  e-vposition  of  the  whole  is 
found  in — (6)  Xarralive  of  Ihe  Cruise  of  1T.M..S.  "Challenger"  {\i%f>). 
The  e?:cellent  Handbitch  der  Oceanographic  (Stuttj^art),  by  Prof.  *i. 
ion  Boguslawaki,  may  be  referred  to  as  being  almost  up  to  date. 


T.\BLE  1. — Average  CoT^iposiiion  of  Ccean.  JFater  Salts. 


Per  100  parts  of 
Total  ^;alts. 

Per  100  of  H.-ilngen  calculated 
ss  Chlorine. 

Dittinar. 

Dittinar. 

99-848 
0-340 

11-376 
0-274 
3-026 

11-212 
2-105 

74-462 

(-22-559) 

Forchhammer. 

Chlorine 

0-1S8)  = 
6-410 
0-152 
1-676 
6-209 
1-33-2 
41-234 

(-12-493) 

Not  determined. 
Not  determined. 

11-88 

Not  determined. 

2-93 

11-03 

1-93 

Not  determined. 

Sulphuric  acid,  SOj 
Carbonic  acid^,  COj 
Lime,  CaO 

Magnesia,  MgO 

Potash,  ICO  

Soda,  Na.0    

(Basic    oxygen,    equi- 
valent to  the  halo- 

Total  salts 

100-000 

180-584 

181-1 

Table  II. — Results  from  eomiining  Acids  and  £ascs  (Dittmar). 


Sulpliate  of  potash 2*465 

FItoniido  of  magfiesium  0-217 

Caibonato  of  lime    0-345 

Total  salts...  100  000 


Chloride  of  sodium 77-758 

Chloride  of. magnesiunr  ...10-878 
Sulphate  of  magnesium  ...  4*737 
Sulphate  of  lime 3-600 

Reducing  to  the  absolute  mass  of   the  ocean  as  given 
above,  -we  arrive  at  the  following  numbers : — 

Table  III. — Absolute  Composition  of  the  Salts  of  the  Ocean. 
Unit=l  million  million  =  10'-  tons. 
Chloride  of  sodium 35990 


Sul plia te  of  potash    114i 

Bromide  of  magnesium    ...     100 
Carbonate  of  linia— 160 


Chloride  of  magnesium  ...  5034 
Sulphate  of  magnesium  ...  2192 
Sulphate  of  lime  1666  46283 

Total  bromine     87*2    (Dittmar). 

Total  iodi  no     0*03  (Kottstorfer). 

Total  chloride  of  rubidium   25*0    (C.Schmidt). 

Of  the  several  quantities  recorded  in'  columns  2  or  3 
of  Table  I.  "carbonic  acid"  is  proved  to  be  subject  to 
variation ;  all  the  rest,  including  even  the  bromine,  are 
practically  constant.  This  shows  that  Forchhammer's 
proposition  holds  for  ocean  water  from  all  depths,  with 
one  important  qualification :  special  research  on  the  lime 
showed  that  its  Cjuantity  increases  slightly  but  appreciably 
■n'ith  the  depth.  Taking  s,  m,  d  as  representing  the  lime 
per  100  of  chlorine  in  shallow,  medium-dppth,  and  deep- 
sea  water  respectively,  Dittmar  found  as  meau  results  of 
analyses  A'hich  agreed  very  well  together — 

s  =  3*0175  m  =  3-0300  d  =  3-0308 

Probable  error,  ±0-0012  ±00014  ±0-0011. 

But  »«-«  =  0-0124  and  rf-«  =  0*0132.  One  explanation 
of  this  result  is  that  the  crustaceans,  foraminifera,  and 
molluscs  which  form  carbonate  of  lime  shells  live  chiefly  in 
surface  waters,  but  after  their  death  sink  to  the  bottom, 
where — especially  in  great  depths — their  carbonate  of  lime 
is  partially  redissolved. 

Oceanic  Carbonic  Acid. — It  is  well  known  that  not  only  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  actual  volcanoes  but  in  thousands  of  other  places 
on  the  dry  land  carbonic  acid  gas  is  constantly  streaming  fort.i  into 
the  atmosphere,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  now  that  this  supply 
of  telluric  carbonic  acid  amounts  to  more  than  all  that  is  furnislicd 
by  processes  of  combustion  and  respiration.  That  carbonic  acid 
springs  should  be  absent  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  is  too  absurd 
an  assumption  to  be  entertained  ;  hence,  supposing  even  the  water 
of  the  ocean  were  perfectly  neutral,  it  could  not  but  contain  dis- 
solved carbonic  acid.  But  such  carbonic  acid,  at  the  ocean  sinfaco 
at  least,  would  constantly  tend  to  assume,  and  in  general  |u-obably 
actually  wouhl  come  down  to,  the  small  limit  valuo  prescribed  to 
it  by  the  given  proportion  by  volume  of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the 
atmosphere  and  the  laws  of  gas -absorption.  This  proportion,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  modern  researches,  is  almost  constant,  every- 
where amonnting  to  very  nearly  0  0003  volume  per  unit  volume 
of  air.  The  coefficient  of  absorption  by  even  pure  water  is  1-8  at 
0°  and  1-0  at  15°  C.  Hence,  even  in  the  polar  regions,  tlio  surface 
water  could  not  hold  in  permanent  solution  more  than  about  0*54 
c.c,  or  say  one  milligramme  per  litre  of  w.ater.     Jacobsen,  in  lii-i 

'  Equal  conjointly  to  55-376  parts  of  chlorine,  which  accordingly  ij 
the  percentage  of  "halogen  reckoned  as  chlorine"  in  the  real  total  solid-:. 

*  Calculating  the  sur[>lus  base  as  normal  carbonate.  lu  Table  U 
this  carbou>'o  is  represented  as  ti  much  CaOCOj. 


SEA       WATER 


numerous  analyses  of  Xorth  Sea  rater,  found  from  90  to  100  milli- 
llnnunes  per  litre  ;  but  lie  nlso  observed  that  only  a  small  portion 
of'thc  carbonic  acid  is  eliminated  on  boiling  :  tl.e  rest  comes  ou 
only  when  the  water  is  distilled  to  dryness.     He  prosuraed  that 
The  «s  i-as  retained  cJ.cmieally  by  the  chloride  of  magnesium 
IcWn,  who  inquired  into  the  subject  sjmthetically,  ar4'ved  at 
c  conclusion  that  it  was  the  sulphates'. n  sea  ^vater  (y»a  su  - 
hates)  which   retained  the   carbonic  acid.      Accordingly  in  his 
,   merous  carbonic  acid  determinations  h«  ''berated,  the  gas  bj 
stUin"  the  water  down  witli  an  excess  of  chloride  of  bauum 
Torn'  e  was  the  first  to  prove  that  the  caAonic  acid  in  sea  water 
is  pres-nt  as  carbonate,  and  that,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Nortlr 
aSc  at  least,  the  tital  carbonic  acid,  while  considerably  greater 
Than   the  qSity  which  would  convert  the   surplus  base  into 
normal    fall  short  of  that  which  would  be  required  to  produce 

'"'^^;™"ut"To;iSe':'discovery  it  would  have  been  necessary 
to  t.d  the  true  interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  numerous 
cavbonic  acid  determinations  made  during  the  vo«go  of  the 
"ChaTlen^er "  by  Buchanan.  Dittraar  had  no  difficulty  in  prov- 
ing the  non-existence  of  the  alleged  affinity  of  sulphates  for  car- 
boTiic  acfd  and  naturally  concluded  that  the  chloride  of  barium 
used  in  the  processes  liberates  the  hose  part  of  the  carbonic  acid  by 
:!  ^X^e  -™^I -bonate  ^.  i.nc^p..g^a.  .. 

:  iS^^i  tleTi^aU^trime^rs^^^^^^^  that-fhis  is  s^ubstantially 
though  nrte-vactly,  con-cct.  It  Buchanan's  r,wd,:3  opcra,u{z  be 
■  Zo.  sly  fol  owed  the  carbonic  acid  obtained,  as  a  nile.  falls 
;omewhat  short  of  the  actual  amount  of  loose  carbonic  acid  present,, 
tS  on%.suming  the  distillation  after  addition  of  fresh  water  an 
annreciahle  part  of  fixed  carbonic  acid  passes  away  as  gas.  \et, 
B^ichanau's  ??  ults  being  of  great  value.  Dittmar  discussed  them 
fcorioTnth'  with  his  own  alkalinity  detevminations)  on  the  bas. 
of  the  assumption  that  they  afforded  a  fair  approximation  to  the 
moportions  of  loose  carbonic'acid  in  the  respective  waters.  His  gen- 
lrarconch.ions  are  as  follows.  Taking  "alkalinity-  as  meaning 
tlTo  ''wei"hf  of  the  carbonic  acid,  CO,,  in  the  nonnal  ca'bona  e 
;a?t  of  tlfe  Kirbonate  present  per  100  parts  of  total  solids,  the  alka- 
Hty  in  tl^  water  sLiples  ^analysej  (omitting  a  few  obviously 
abnormal  cases)  was  found  to  he  as  follows  (fable^j  —' 

N'lniiber 


R"Otl  +x)CO,  (where  x  is  less  than  1),  and  x  may  be  a  function  of 
temperature.  "  Dittmar  has  attempted  to  determine  tl.e  coui-se  of 
the  function  1  +x=At)  in  reference  to  natural  sea  w-ater  on  the  one 
hand  and  to  pure  air  (air  freed  of  its  carbonic  acid)  and  onlmary 
air  on  the  other.  One  sample  of  sea  water  containing  Us  surp.us 
base  as  practically  bicarbonate  served  for  all  the  experiments.  It 
was  shaken  again  and  again  at  a  fixed  temperature  (  mth  one  or 
the  other  kimd  of  air,  until  (after  "  ^  "  shakings,  always  with 
renewed  air)  the  stage  of  saiuration  appeared  to  have  become  con 
st-ant.  The  investigation  is  not  completed  yet ;  the  following 
table  (V. )  gives  the  results  -diicli  have  come  out  so  far.  The  final 
carbonate  was  R.,0.iiCOi. 


Alkalinity  ranges  from 


Number 
of  Cases. 


Alkalinity  ranges  from    |  „f  (.„s^^  j 


0-lWO  toOHM  

0-mo  „  0U79  

0  IISO  „  0-151!)  

01j20  ,,  0-1559  

0-1560  „  0  1500  

0-lCOO  „  O'lOiiO  


9 
3-1 

40 
19 
1-2 
4 


O-IGIO  loOlTlO 

All;.  =  0  1731 

„  =  0-lSSS 

.,  =  0~:0T9 

0-1400  to  0-2079 


1 
1 
1 

127 


Values  above  0-16  are  obviously  exceptional ;  hence  the  normal 

Tan"e  may  be  said  to.be  from  0-14  to  016.     The  most  f-'equen  'y 

occurrin/values  were  found  to  be  about  0-146  m  the  case  of  ™rface 

or  Shi  low  sea  water,  and  in  the  case  of  bottom  water  about  0  152 

hi  regard  to  the  loose  carbonic  acid  a  full  discussion  of  Buchanans 

-esuUsledto  the  following  conclusions  r-(l)  carbonic  acid  rarely 

occult  in  the  free  state  ;  as  a  rule  it  falls  short  of  the  quantity  which 

3d  produce  bicarbonate;   (2)  in  surface  wate,:s  it  is  relatively 

1  i°     where  the  natural  temperature  is  relatively  low,  rind  vice  versa ; 

31  Jthin  equal  ranges  of  temperature  it  seems  to  be  less  in  the 

i«fl?e  v^ater^of  the  P^.cific  than  it  is  in  that  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

o/ the  195  samples  of  sea  water  which  Buchanan  analysed  for 

ca-,-bonic  acid  on  y  22  contained  fully  saturated  bicarbonate,  and 

on  y  2  out  of  these  are  proved  by  the  analyses  to  have  contained 

fee  carbonic  acid  in  addition  to  bicarbonate.     In  all  tbe  remaining 

173  imples  the  "carbonic  acid  deficit"  (meaning  the  rroportion 

of  caVbouic  acid  which  was  wanted  to  completely  transform  tl  e 

carbonate  into  bicarbonate)  assumed  tangible  and  often  considerable 

values      \Ve  are  probably  safe  in  concluding  that  the  ocean  as  a 

wd  ok  wil    have  to  continue  taking  in  carbonic  acid  for  thousands 

of  yTai^b  fore  its  carbonic  acid  deficit  has  been  reduced  to  nothing. 

But  it  is  as  well  to  observe  that  at  its  surface  m  the  warmer  lati- 

nides  the  attainment  of  this  condition  is  a  physical  impossibility 

as  long  as  the  percentage  of  carbonic  acid  m  the  air  retains  its 

^'Tsluuirira  bicarbonate  wheA  shaken,  say  in  a  bottle,  with 
pure  air  (free  of  carbonic  acid)  at  summer  heat  gives  up  its  com- 
Ced  carbonic  acid  to  the  air  space  in -the  bottle  until  tne  partial 
t  nsion  of  the  acid  gas  there  has  come  np  to  a  limit  value  ;,,  which 
is  caUed  the  dissociation  tension  of  the  bicarbonate  at  the  prevail- 
nrtemperature  (.  General  experience  concerning  sue  i  phenomena 
wrrr»ntrthe  presumption  ,th/t,  up  to  a  certain  (low)  eni,.^rarure 
t  p  =  0,  and  thence  onwards,  2'  increases  with  (.  It  does  lot 
follow  that  the  bicarbonate  in  a  ^°}^^^'^°^ '^^^''^ 'Y^'^'oS^ .'''^^. 
D"ain  mth  even  pure,  air  tends  to  become  normal  carbonate  ,  foi 
r  Aht  we  know,  ke  elimination  of  carbonic  acid  may  stop  as  soon 
al  the  residual  carbonate  has  come  down  to  some  coniposition 
1  S^e  Geology,  vol.  -<■  P-  2~' 


Hence  we  see  that  even  at  the  highest  tenipei-ature,  and  with 
air  free  from  carbonic  acid,  the  carbonate  never  came  down  Mow 
the  state  of  sosquicarbonate, -while  with  ordinaiy  air.  even  at  32  0., 
it  never  fell  below  n  =  \-i.  At  2°  ii,  as  well  as  n.was  =2,  the 
4uie  characteristic  of  bicarbonate.  Now  Buchanan  reports  a  good 
number  of  cases  whei-e.  even  at  lower  temperature^  n  w-as  con- 
sXably  less  than  I'S'at  any  rate..  Hence  i^  us  numbe-  a^_e 
correct,  unless  the  atmosphere  acts  more  powerfully  than  the  air 
in  Dittmar's  bottle,  it  w-ould  appear  that  deep-sea  water  is  m 
general  below  even  the  stage  of  'caibonic  acid  saturation  which  it 
?ould  attain  at  the  surface  at  high  temperatures. 

In  any  mixed  solution  of  salts  every  base  is  combined  ^"th  every 
acid-  hence  the  " carbonate "  of  sea  water  is  strictly  speaking  a 
^mrfex  plural.     But  as  a  matter  of  probabi  ity  the  carbonic  acid 
h^  very  little  chance  of  uniting  with  any  of  the  potash  or  soda, 
^d  the^overwhelmingly  large  quantity  of  alkaline  ch  orule  wouW 
n^  doubt  convert  any  carbonate  of  magnesia  that  was  'ntrod  ic^ 
ito  double  chloride  of  magnesium  and  a  kali  metal;  h™ce    *  is 
Mr  to  assume  that  oceanic  carbonate  is  chiefly  carbonate  oline^ 
Now  immenso  quantities  of  this  compound  are  being  constanti; 
fntrodiiced  into^the  ocean  by  rivers.     Dumas  once  gave     /sh^ 
opiiiion  that  this  imported  carbonate  remains  dissolved  in  the  ocean 
"ron"  as  and  wherever  the  carbonate  there  is  at  the  bicarbonaU 
staie  -"but,  as  soon  as  part  of  the  loose  carbonic  acid  goes  off  into 
le'air  the  corresponding  weight  of  nomal  c.irbonate  ^parates  o»t 
as  an  addition,  ultimately,  to  the  solids  on  the  bottom.     Dittmar 
his  tried  to  test  this  notion  synthetically,  but  without  a.-i-.™g 
a    very  definite  results.     According  to  his  experiments  sea  water 
whlch^o  1  ains  free  carbonic  acid  dissolves  added  solid  carbonate 
of     me   and  more  largely  carbonate  of  magnesia  ;  sea  water  which 
con^  ns  M  y?or  alniSst  fully,  saturated  bicarbonate  disso  ves  car- 
bonSe  of  magnesia  very  appreciably.  »»' ^™f  J?  „^PP!^^ '°J„'e^ 
carbonate  of  Time  at  all.     But,  when  carbonate  of  lime  w  as  producea 
fnth^ water  bv  successive  additions  of  potential  calcium  carbonate 
n  the  fo  m  of  diiolved  sodium  carbonate  and  its  eqn.yalent  of 
Slchim  chToride,  the  original  carbonate  of  lime  could  be  increased 
Tei?  Ur'ey?w  th  fornfation  of  solurions  which  remained  clear 
durin  "a  long-continued  period  of  observation      As  a  set-off  against 
tMs  a°few  of  the  manv  hundred  samples  of  sea  water  which  he 
received  fwm  the  "  Challenger  "  deposited  in  the  course  of  a  number 
of  veaiS  c^^talline  crusts  of  carbonate  of  lime  on  the  sid«i  of  tie 
botUes     and  tie  mother -liquor  never  contained  more  than  the 
'frmal'qu^antity  of  lime  per^OO  parts  of  chlonn.  a  t"a  furSS 
this  oMstion  Dittmar  giQs  an  estimate,  based  on  data  lurnisnea 
bv  bH    rskr    work.^he  total  carbonate  of  lime  introduced 
iifto  the  oJean  annually  by  the  thirteen  principal  rivers  ;  and  by 
doubliii'X  quantity  he  estimates  the  carbonate  of  lime  inti-o- 
duced  by  a    rivers  as  equal  to  about  1-34  x  10=  tons.    Now  the  sun, 
total  of  carbonate  of  lime,  CaCO^  in  the  ocean  amounts  to  about 
160x10"  tons;  hence  it  would  take  1190  years  to  increase  the 
present  stock  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  ocean  by  one  per  cent,  of 

'""Itoricd  Oryge^^  ^^d  Nitrogen  in  Ocean  '^"'"--Af  »  "jf  ^^^^^J 
nhvsical  necessity  these  two  gases  must  be  present  in  the  water 
o    the  oceaii-ai  d  they  may  he  presumed  in  general  to  pervade  it 
?o  ite  ^reltest  dcpth-because  the  whole  of  the  surface  of  the  sea  is 
\:   onfunt  contS  wi.lUhe  atmosphere.    Our  kn°wledge^^garding 
their  distribution  in  tl.e  ocean  may  be  said  to  da'c  from  18  2 
when  Jacobsen  inquired  into  the  matter  in  a  ™°^'.™»^'"'^,^^'™*,^ 
in  connexion  with  the  German  No.tli  Sea  «l'^<i;^°";^,  ^'y  ^m. 
of  his  predecessors  possesses  no  scientific  value,  because  they  em 
ployed   inadequate   methods.      Unlike    them.    Jacobse"    did   no 
attempt  to  analyse  a  sample  of  sea. water  air  ou  board  ship,  he 
extracted  the  air  from  measured  samples  (by  an  excellent  method 
„fS    own)and  then  sealed  them  up  in  glass  tubes,  to  "cas", 
and  analyse  them  after  his  return  home.     Buchanan,  dnnng  the 


SEA      WATER 


613 


" Cliallengev "  cruise  adoitcd  Jacolr.scn's  methoa.  Of  the  164 
samples  wliich  lie  sealed  up  successfully  69  came  from  the  surface 
and  95  from  depths  varying  from  5  to  4575  fathoms.  A  good 
number  of  these  he  analysed  himself  after  his  return  ;  tlie  majority, 
however,  were  analysed  and  all  were  measured  by  Dittmar.  The 
latter,  in  order  to  be  able  to  iuterpret  the  results,  also  investigated 
the  absoi-ption  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  gas  from  air  ty  sea  water. 
Tlie  following  table '(VI.)  gives  the  result  of  his  investigations. 
One  litre  (1000  volumes)  of  ocean  water  when  saturated  with  con- 
stantly renewed  air  at  (°,  and  a  pressure  of  760  millimetres'  plus 
tension  of  steam  at  t°  C. ,  takes  up  the  following  volumes,  measured 
dry  at  C  C.  and  760  millimetres  pressure,'  of  the  pure  gases. 


'   Tempera- 

Dissolvetl  Nitrogen  and  Oxygen  in  Cubic 

Percentage  of 

Oxygen  in 
Dissolved  Gas. 

t:ne. 

Cenliiiictres  (volumes). 

C. 

Nitrogen. 

Oxygen. 

0* 

J5(iO 

s-is 

34-40 

5" 

13-86 

T-22 

34-24 

10' 

l«-47 

6-45 

34-09 

IS* 

11-34 

5-63 

33-03 

20" 

1041 

5-31 

33 -7S 

S5* 

S'C2 

4-sr 

33-62 

30- 

S-94 

4-iO 

33-47 

f-36 

4-17 

33-31 

The  method  used  for  obtaining  these  numbers  adapted  itself 
closely  to  the  one  which  Buchanan  had  employed  for  extracting 
the  gas  samples.  In  the  calculations  it  was  assumed  that  atmo- 
spheric air  contains  21-0  volumes  of  oxygen  for  79'0  volumes  of 
nitrogen,  the  slight  variation  in  this  ratio,  which  is  know-n  to 
occasionally  present  itself,  being  neglected.  From  the  table  we 
can  calculate  approximately  tlie  limits  between  which  the  propor- 
tions of  dissolved  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the  wate;-  of  the  ocean 
must  be  presumed  to  oscillate  in  nature.  The  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  at  t'..e  sea-level,  though  by  no  means  constant,  is  never 
far  removed  from  that  of  760  mm.  of  mercury.  The  temperature 
of  tlie  snrfaco  water  (with  rare  exceptions)  may  be  said  to  vary  from 
-  2*  C.  (in  the  liquid  part  of  the  ocean  in  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
regions)  to  about  30°  C.  (in  the  tropics).  The  ocean  receives  all  its 
dissolved  oxygen  and  nitrogen  from  the  surface ;  neither  gas  comes 
in  from  below,  except  perhaps  a  relatively  insignificant  quantity 
of  nitrogen  derived  fronr  the  decay  of  dead  organisms,  which  may 
safely  be  neglected.  .  Hence  the  ocean  can  contain  nowhere  more 
than  15'6  c.c.  of  nitrogen  or  more  than  S'lS  c.c.  of  oxygen  per  litre, 
and  the  nitrogen  will  never  fall  below  8-55  c.c.  We  cannot  make  a 
similar  assertion  in  reg-ard  to  the  oxygen,  because  its  theoretical 
minimum  of  4-30  c.c.  per  litre  is  liable  to  further  diminution  by 
processes  of  life  and  putrefaction  and  by  oxidation  generally.^ 

At  any  point  in  tno  surface  of  the  ocean  the  water  constantly 
tends  to  assume  the  composition  demanded  for  the  prevailing 
tcmpei-ature  by  the  laws  of  gas  absorption.  But  it  is  rarely  possible 
for  it  to  assume  this  composition,  owing  to  the  water  being  in  a 
continual  state  of  motion  ;  and,  supposing  a  "certain  area  of  the 
oc'?^n  surface  were  in  a  state  of  stagnation,  the  temperature  would 
vary  in  diurnal  cycles,  and  even  the  calculated  volume  of  nitrogen 
per  litre  would  be  a  periodic  function  of  time,  exhibiting  its  maxi- 
mum at  the  hour  of  minimum  tempcratute,  and  vice  versa.  The 
pi-ocss  of  absoi-ptiomctric  exchange,  however,  even  at  the  constantly 
oscillating  surface  of  the  ocean,  is  slow  ;  it  could  not  keep  pace 
v-ith  the  change  of  temper.ature,  and  the  actual  nitrogen  curve 
w-oiild  never  go  as  high  up  or  as  low  down  as  th^  theoretical  one. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  low-er  strata  of  the  water  constantly  add 
to,  or  take  away  from,  tlie  surface  nitrogen  by  diffusion  and 
occiisional  Intermixture.  All  this  holds  foi"  the  oxygon  likewise, 
except  that  it  is  liable  to  constant  diminution  by  oxidation.  On 
tlic  whole  we  may  assume  that  all  the  disturbing  iuHueuces  will 
-  only  modify,  not  efface,  the  course  of  events  as  prescribed  by  the 
laws  of  gas-absorption. 

In  regard  to  non-surface  water  we  have  to  confront  a  greater 
complexity  of  phenomena.  The  gas-contents  of  deep-sea  w-ater, 
of  course,  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  low  temperature  and  the 
high  pressure  which  in  general  prevail  there.  For  the  purpose  of 
a  preliminary  survey,  let  us  imagine  a  deep-sea  water  formed  from 
one  kind  of  surface  water,  which  took  up  its  air  at  a  constant 
temperature  (i),  and  then  sank  down  unmixed  with  other  waters. 
The  volumes  of  the  oxygen  and  nitrogen  per  litre  have  at  first  the 
values  assigned  to  them  by  the  laws  of  g.is  ab-sorption.  But,  while 
the  nitrogen  (as  long  as  the  water  remains  unmixed  with  other 
water)  remains  con.stant,  tlie  oxygen  will  become  less  and  less 
through  the  processes  of  oxidation  which  go  on  in  the  deep  with- 
out compensation.  Hence  if  there  were  absolute  stagnation  in  the 
ocean  anywhere  the  proportion  of  oxygen  there  might  be  reduced 
ultimately  to  nothing.  Among  the  many  "Challenger"  deep-sea 
specimens  which  were  analysed  for  their  gas-contents  none  was 

1  Theoretically  any  number  niay  be  substituted  for  7G0 ;  for  calculating  pur- 
poses read  "  1  milllTTittre." 

»  In  calculating  these  limit  vftluea  the  t«n.sion  of  the  \*apour  of  water  is  token 
Into  account ;  henct  the  appareat  uoa-agreemea(  with  the  entries  in  the  table. 


found  quite  free  from  absorbed  oxygen  ;  and  this  confirms  the 
conclusion  that  absolute  stagnation  exists  nowhere  in  the  ocean,  not 
even  at  its  greatest  depth.  Occasionally,  however,  the  o.xygcn  was 
found  to  have  sunk  down  to  very  little,  as  sh'iw-i  by  the  following 
two  examples: — 

No.  of  C.c.  per  Litre  of       C.c.  of  O^ygrn  c.-ilculated    Depth  in 

Sample.  Nitrogen.    Oxygen.  from  Nitrogen.  Fathoms. 

1001  15-03  0-0  8-21  2S75 

1645  13-3S  204  6-95  15C5 

There  must  have  been  an  approximation  to  absolute'rest  at  these, 
two  places  at  any  rate.  On  the  whole,  the  results  of  the  gas  analy- 
sis, as  interpreted  on  the  basis  of  Dittmar's  absorptiometric  deter- 
minations, agreed  fairly  well  with  the  inferences  which  we  have 
.just  been  deducing  from  physical  laws.  There  was  no  lack  of 
anomalous  results,  but  it  was  not  found  possible  to  trace  them  to 
natural  causes.  The  equilibrium  in  regard  to  the  absorbed  nitrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  ocean  is  maintained  by  the  atmosphere  ;  and, 
from  the  "fact  that  the  air  contained  in  surface  water  is  always 
richer  in  oxygen  than  is  atmospheric  air,  one  naturally  concludes, 
that  the  ocean  should  constantly  add  to  the  percentage  of  oxygen 
in  the  air  in  the  tropics  and  constantly  diminish  it  in  the  colder 
latitudes.  But  Rcgnault's  numerous  air-analyses  do  not  ccuftrra 
this.  Nor  need  this  be  w-ondered  at,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  even, 
tile  corresponding  influence  on  the  atmospheric  carbonic  acid  has 
so  far  defied  the  powers  of  chemical  analysis. 

Salinily  of  Ocean  Water. — Even  in  the  open  ocean  the  "salinity" 
— meaning  in  a  given  quantity  the  ratio  between  the  weight  of 
dissolved  salt  and  the  weight  or  volume  of  the  whole — is  subject 
to  considerable  variation  ;  and  it  obviously  is  one  of  the-  foremost 
duties  of  observing  oceanographers  to  collect  the  data  by  means  oC 
w-hich  it  may  be  possible  one  day  to  represent  that  quantity  mathe- 
matically as  a  function  of  geographic  position,  depth,  and  time- 
For  the  quantitative  determination  of  the  salinity  an  obvious,  easy, 
and  sufficient  method  is  to  determine  the  specific  gravity  S  at  a 
convenient  temperature  t ;  this  in  fact  is  the  method  which  has 
so  far  been  employed  by  all  observers  almost  to  the  exclusion  of 
every  other.  Buchanan  used  it  during  the  "Challenger"  cruise 
perhaps  more  extensively  than  any  of  his  predecessors  had  done. 
Of  the  arithmetical  relation  between  salinity  on  the  one  hani 
and  S  and  t  on  the  other  the  successive  researches  of  Ekman  (as 
supplemented  by  Tornoe),  Thorpe  and  Riicker,  Dittmar,  and  others 
have  given  us  a  practically  sufficient  knowledge.  According  to 
Dittmar  the  function  (within  the  limits  of  Buchanan's  values) 
coincides  practically  with  the  formula 

where  4S,  means  the  specific  gravity  at  f  C.  referred  to  that  of  pnre 
w-ater  of  -l-4°C.  as  equal  to  1000  ;  ,AV,  has  a  similar  meaning  iri 
reference  to  pure  water  ;  x  stands  for  the  weight  of  total  halogen 
calculated  as  chlorine,  per  1000  parts,  by  w-eight,  of  sea  water;  and 
a=l-45993,  6= -0-005592,  c= -(-0-0000649.  For  oceanographic 
purposes,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  back  to  x ;  it  suffices 
from  series  of  values  4S1  to  deduce  the  corresponding  values  ^^ 
for  a  convenient  standard  temperature,  and  to  reason  on  these 
reduced  numbers  as  if  they  measured  the  salinity,  just  as  we  take 
the  readings  of  a  thermometer  as  in  themselves  representing 
"  temperatures."  This,  in  fact,  is  always  done  ;  only  unfortunately 
different  standard  temperatures  have  been  chosen  by  different 
observers  ;  Buchanan  adopted  15°-56  C.  =60°  Fahr.  Before  going 
further,  let  us  observe  that  the  specific  gravity  of  sea  water, 
taking  it  as  it  is  in  situ,  has  an  important  oceanographic  signi- 
ficance, even  as  such.  But  this  quantity  in  the  case  of  deep-sea 
waters  is  influenced  very  largely^  by  the  pressure  of  the  super- 
incumbent layer  of  water — which  in  itself  is  a  complex  function  of 
the  successive  temperatures  and  salinities — and  nnfortunato'y  we 
still  lack  the  constants  and  formulae  for  making  the  necessary 
reductions  w-itli  adequate  exactitude.  Meanwhile  all  our  statistics 
of  sea  water  specific  gravities,  valuable  as  they  are.  constitute 
statistics  of  only  salinities  and  nothing  else. 

At  the  surface  of  the  ocean  the  salinity  is  liable  chiefly  to  three 
influences, — (1)  concentration  by  formation  of  ice  or  by  the  action 
of  dry  winds  ;  (2)  dilution  through  the  melting  of  ice  or  the  falling 
of  rain  ;  (3)  concentration  or  dilution  through  the  virtual  addition 
of  salt  or  water  by  inflowing  currents  of  saltcr  or  fresher  water 
respectively.  The  eflect  of  the  formation  or  melting  of  ice,  though 
great  within  the  arctic  circles,  docs  not  tell  much  on  the  non-polar 
seas.  More  important  in  regard  to  these  is  the  effect  of  the  south-east 
and  the  north-east  trade  winds,  which  in  the  Pacific  blow  between 
about  3°  and  21°  S.  lat.  aiuf  between  about  2°  and  20°  N.  lat.  rc- 
specrively,  leaving  between  the  two  a  belt  of  5°  of  a  region  of  calms 
(see  more  exactly.  Meteorology,  vol.  x\-i.  p.  144).  In  the  Atlantic 
the  limitinff  lines  of  both  trades  oscillate  annually,  ^o  that  the 

..."  .  p    .1   . .!_ i    i 1.    _i,:r*~    c ot'  ♦«  1-1* 


equatorial  boundary  of  the  north-east  trade  shifts  from 
N.  lat,  and  that  of  the  south-east  trade  from  about  1°  to 


3°  to  11° 
3°  K.  lat. 


3  According  to  Grassi's  experiments,  if  sea  water  under  the  pressure  of  one 
atmosphere  lias  the  specific  gravity  1020.  it  assumes  at  dcptlis=1000.  20'M, 
SOOO  fallioma  a  density  of  1020  -t- 1,  2,  3  times  7-8  unlt3=  1033-9, 1041:6,  1049-T 
respectively. 


614 


S  E  A  — S  E  B 


Both  trades  blowing  from  co'.dcr  into  w.inincr  ri-jions  absorb  water 
largely  and  tluis  raise  tlie  salinity  wiiliin  their  areas  of  action. 
The  western  anti-trades  which  blow  on  the  polar  sides  of  the  two 
trades,  passing  from  hotter  to  colder  regions,  should  dilute  the 
ocean  there  ;  but  tliey  do  not  seem  to  act  so  powerfully  in  this 
direction  as  might  be  expected.  In  the  hcit  of  cqu.atorial  calms 
between  the  two  trades  abundant  rains  fall  frequently  and  dilute 
the  water  very  perceptibly. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  about  the  distribution  of  surface 
salinity  applies  chiefly  to  the  Atlantic,  wliich  in  fact  is  far  more 
completely  known  in  this  respect  than  any  other  ocean.     The  ac- 


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Curves  showing  variation  of  iuilate  salinity  of  n< 
companying  diagram  shows  how  on  the  average  the  surface  salinity 
varies  there  with  the  latitude.  The  bolder  curve  is  drawn  aft^n-  a 
table  given  by  liuchanau  in  his  part  of  the  Narrative  of  the  Crinsr, 
of  the  "  ClMllcrrgcr"  the  other  after  a  more  extensive  table  given  by 
Boguslawski  as  embodying  the  mean  results  of  many  observations 
by  different  authorities  with  reference  to  standard  temperatures 
varying  from  15°  to  17°"5  C, — coast  waters  affected  by  the  influ.^: 
of  large  rivers  having  been  omitted.^  In  the  North  Atlantic  there 
is  an  area  of  ma.\in\ym  (surface)  salinity  {8  =  1028  "5)  between  25° 
and  35°  N.  lat  and  30°  and  20°  W.  long.  The  zone  of  minimum 
salinity  lies  between  15°  N.  lat.  and  the  equator.  In  the  South 
Atlaniic  (surface)  there  are  two  concentration  centres, — an  eastern 
about  St  Helena  and  between  that  island  and  Ascension,  and  a 
western  north  of  San  Trinidad, — both  nearer  the  equator  than  that 
of  the  North  Atlantic.  As  iiointcd  out  by  Buchanan,  a  relati'.ely 
high  salinity  (not  merely  on  the  surface)  is  quite  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  Atlantic,  and  in  its  northern  part  prevails  up  to  the 
high  latitudes  of  the  Norwegian  .Sea,  which  was  so  thoroughly  in- 
vestigated by  Swensden  (1876)  and  Tornoe  (1S77  and  1378)  during 
the  Norwegian  e.xi^ditions.  The  salt  (and  heat)  conveying  influ- 
ence of  th.e  Gulf  Stream  makes  itself  felt  up  to  Spitzbergen  (76°  N. 
lat).  On  both  sides  of  the  Faroe  Islands  the  sjweific  giavity 
175^17  9  comes  up  to  1027*0  ;  at  the  Bear  Islands  it  sinks  to  10267, 
aud  thence  farther  northwards  to  1026'1.  While  the  Gulf  Stream 
pushes  northwards,  a  current  of  relatively  fresh  polar  water  travels 
southwards  and,  creeping  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United 
States,  fomis  what  is  known  as  the  "cold  wall."  In  passing  from 
the  surface  to  the  depth  of  the  ocean  the  general  rule  (Buchanan) 
is  that  the  actual  .specific  gravity  in  situ  increases  with  the  depth  ; 
but  this  does  not  hold  for  the  salinity  (or  specific  gravity  reduced 
to  standard  temperature).  In  places  where  there  is  active  dilution 
at  the  surface  (c.j;.,  in  the  belt  of  equatorial  calms)  the  salinity  as 
a  nile  increases  down  to  some  50  or  100  fathoms  ;  but  thence  down- 
wards it  follows  the  general  rule,  that  is,  it  decreases  down  to  800 
or  1000  fathoms,  and  thence  increases  steadily  to  the  bottom.  In 
the  South  Atlantic  the  salinity  of  the  bottom  water  has  an  almost 
constant  value  (48,55  =  10257  to  1025'9) ;  but  northwards  it  in- 
creases to  from  1026-16  to  1026'32  at  2000  to  4000  fathoms 
(Buchanan). 

In  regard  to  the  Pacific  our  knowledge  is  far  less  complete.  A 
glance  at  the  curve  shows  that  the  (surface)  salinity  at  a  given 
latitude  is  less  there  than  it  is  in  the  Atlantic.  In  the  whole  of 
the  Pacific  there  is  only  one  concentration  centre,  which  lies 
about  the  Society  Islands,  with  a  maximum  salinity  coiTcsponding 
to  ,S„  5  =  1027-19.  (W.  D.) 

SEA-WOLF,  also  Sea-c.\t  and  Wolf-fish  (/tnarrlddias 
lupus),    a    marine    fish,    tlie   largest    kind    of    the    family 

*  For  the  s.ike  of  comparison  there  is  shown  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  diagram  the  surface  salinity  curve  for  the  Pacifie  drawn  after 
Buchanan's  summary  tabulation  of  his  results. 


Blenniidas  or  Blcnnies.  In  spite  of  its  large  size,  it  has 
retained  the  bodily  form  and  general  external  cliaiactet- 
istics  of  the  small  blennies,  which  are  so  abundant  on 
every  rocky  part  of  the  coast.  Its  body  is  long,  subcylin- 
drical  in  front,  compressed  in  the  caudal  jx>rtion,  smooth 
and  slippery,  the  rudimentary  .scales  being  embedded  and 
almost  hidden  in  the  skin.  An  even  dorsal  fin  exteiuU  along 
the  -whole  length  of  the  back,  and  a  similar  fin  from  the 
vent  to  the  caudal  fin,  as  in  blennies.     But  its  formidable 

dentition  distinguishes 
the  sea--wolf  from  all  the 
other  members  of  the 
family.  Both  jaws  are 
armed  in  front  with  strong 
conical  teeth,  aud  on  the 
sides  with  two  series  of 
large  tubercular  molars, 
a  bLserial  band  of  simi- 
lar molars  occupying  the 
middle  of  the  palate.  By 
these  teeth  the  sea-wolf 
is  able  to  crush  the  hard 
car.Tpaces  or  shells  of  the 
crustaceans  and  molluscs 
on  which  it  feeds ;  but 
whether  it  uses  the  teeth 
as  a  w-eapon  of  defence 
and  deserves  the  character 
an  -B-ith  latitude.  of  ferocity  generally  attri- 

buted to  it  would  appear  to  be  rather  queistionable  from 
observations  made  on  specimens  iu  the  aquarium  at. 
Hamburg,  which 
allowed  them- 
selves to  be 
handled  without 
in  any  way  re- 
senting the  loss 
of  their  liberty. 
It  must,  how- 
ever, be  added 
that  the  small 
blennies  bite  Teeth  of  the  lower  and  upper  jaws  of  the  sea-wolf. 

readily  when  caught.  Sea-wolves  are  inhabitant^  of  the 
northern  seas  of  both  hemispheres,  one  {A.  Ivpus)  being 
common  on  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia  and  North  Britain,' 
and  two  in  the  seas  round  Iceland  and  Greenland.  Twoj 
others  occur  in  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  the  North 
Pacific.  They  attain  to  a  length  exceeding  6  feet,  and  inl 
the  north  are  esUemed  as  food,  both  fresh  and  preserved.] 
The  oil  extracted  from  the  liver  is  said  to  be  in  quality^ 
equal  to  the  best  cod-liver  oil.  Of  late  years  small  num- 
bers have  reached  the  English  markets,  where,  however,' 
the  prejudice  which  attaches  to  all  scaleless  fishes,  parti- 
cularly such  as  possess  a  varied  pattern  of  coloration,) 
limits  their  tise  as  food. 

SEBASTE.     Se«  Sivas. 

SEBASTIAN,  Dom.  See  Portugal,  vol.  xix.  pp.  548-. 
547. 

SEBASTIAN,  St,  the  patron  .saint  against  plague  and' 
pestilence,  was  by  birth  a  Narbonese.  According  to  .the 
Roman  breviary  his  nobility  and  bravery  had  endeared' 
him  to  the  emperor  Diocletian,  who  made  him  captain  of 
the  first  cohort.  Having  secretly  become  a  Christian,  he 
was  wont  to  encourage  those  of  his  brethren  who  in  the 
hour  of  trial  seemed  wavering  in  their  profession.  This^ 
was  conspicuously  the  case  when  the  brothers  Marcus  and' 
JIarcellinus  were  being  led  forth  to  death  ;  by  his  exhorta- 
tions he  prevailed  on  them  toresist  the  entreaties  and  tears 
of  their  w-ives  and  children.  The  emperor  having  been 
informed  of  this  conduct  sent  for  him  and  earnestly  remon- 


S  E  B  — S  E  B 


615 


strated  with  him,  but,  finding  him  inflexible,  ordered  that 
he  should  be  be  und  to  a  stake  and  shot  to  death.  After 
the  archers  had  left  liim  for  dead  a  devout  woman,  Irene, 
came  by  night  to  take  his  body  away  for  burial,  but,  find- 
ing him  still  alive,  carried  him  to  her  house,  whi:re  his 
wounds  were  dressed.  No  sooner  had  he  wholly  recovered 
than  he  hastened  to  confront  the  emperor,  reproaching  him 
with  his  impiety  ;  Diocletian,  filled  with  astonishment, 
which  soon  changed' into  fury,  ordered  him  to  be  instantly 
carried  off  and  beaten  to  death  with  rods  (2SS).  The 
sentence  was  forthwith  executed,  his  body  being  thrown 
into  the  cloaca,  where,  however,  it  was  found  by  another 
pious  matron,  Lucina,  whom  Sebastian  visited  in  a  dream, 
directing  her  to  bury  him  in  the  Catacombs  under  the  site 
of  the  church  now  called  by  his  name.  He  is  celebrated 
by  the  Roman  Church  on  20th  January  (duplex).  His 
cult  is  chiefly  diffused  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Italy  and 
in  other  districts  liable  to  visitations  of  plague.  .  As  a 
young  and  beautiful  soldier,  he  is  a  favourite  subject  of 
.iacred  art,  being  most  generally  represented  as  undraped 
and  severely,  though  not  mortally,  wounded  with  arrows. 
SEBASTIANO  DEL  PIOMBO  (U85-1.547),  painter, 
was  born  at  Venice  in  1485,  and  belongs  to  the  A'enetian 
.school,  exceptionally  modified  by  the  Florentine  or  Homan. 
His  family  name  was  Luciani.  He  was  at  first  a  miLsician, 
chiefly  a  solo-player  on  the  lute,  and  was  in  great  request 
among  the  Venetian  nobility.  He  soon  showed  a  turn 
for  painting,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini  and 
afterwards  of  Giorgione.  His  first  painting  of  note  was 
done  for  the  church  of  St  John  Chrysostom  in  Venice, 
and  is  so  closely  modelled  on  the  style  of  Giorgione  that 
in  its  author's  time  it  often  passed  for  the  work  of  that 
master.  1|j It  represents  Chrysostom  reading  aloud  at  a 
desk,  a  grand  Magdalene  in  front,  and  two  other  female 
and  three  male  saints.  Towards  l.'5I2  Sebastiano  was 
invited  to  Rome  by  the  wealthy  Sienese  merchant  Agostino 
Chigi,  who  occupied  a  villa  by  the  Tiber,  since  named  the 
Farnesina ;  he  executed  some  frescos  here,  other  leading 
artists  being  employed  at  the  same  time.  The  Venetian 
mode  of  colour  was  then  a  startling  novelty  in  Rome. 
Michelangelo  saw  and  approved  the  work  of  Luciani, 
became  his  personal  friend,  and  entered  into  a  peculiar 
arrangement  with  him.  At  this  period  the  pictorial 
ability  of  Michelangelo  (apart  from  his  general  power  as 
an  artist,  regarding  which  there  arose  no  question)  was 
-somewhat  decried  in  Rome,  the  rival  faculty  of  Raphael 
being  invidiously  exalted  in  comparison  ;  in  especial  it 
was  contended  that  Buonarroti  fell  short  as  a  colourist. 
Ho  therefore  thought  that  lie  might  try  whether,  by 
f".rni.shing  designs  for  pictures  and  leaving  to  Seba.stiano 
the  execution  of  them  in  colour,  he  could  not  maintain  at 
its  highest  level  his  own  general  sui)remacy  in  the  art, 
leaving  Raphael  to  sustain  the  competition  as  he  best 
might.  In  this  there  seems  to  have  been  nothing  particu- 
larly unfair,  always  assuming  that  the  compact  was  not 
fraudulently  concealed ;  and  the  facts  are  so  openly  stated 
by  Michelangelo's  friend  Vasari  (not  to  s]ieak  of  other 
writers)  that  there  appears  to  have  been  little  or  no  dis- 
•  gi'.ise  in  the  matter.  Besides,  the  pictures  are  there  to 
speak  for  themselves;  and  connoisseui-s  '.ave  always  ac- 
k  0-  'ledged  that  the  quality  of  Michelangelo's  unmatched 
dv>ign  is  patent  on  the  face  of  them.  Of  late  years,  how- 
ever, some  writers,  unnecessarily  jealous  for  Buonarroti's 
personal  rectitude,  have  denied  that  his  liandiwork  is  to 
be  traced  in  the  pictures  bearing  the  name  of  Sebastiano. 
Four  leading  pictures  which  Sebastiano  painted  in  pursu- 
ance of  his  league  with  Buonarroti  are  the  PieUi  (earliest 
of  the  foiir),  in  the  church  of  the  Coiiventuali,  Vitcrbo  ; 
the  Transfiguration  and  the  Flagellation,  in  the  church  of 
S,  Pietro   in   Montorio,   Rome ;  and,  most  celebrated  of 


all,  the  Raising  of  Lazarus,  now  in  the  London  National 
Gallery.  This  grand  work — more  remarkable  for  general 
strength  of  pictorial  perception  than  for  qualities  of  de- 
tailed intellectual  or  emotional  expression — is  more  than 
12  by  9  feet  in  dimensions,  with  the  principal  figures  of 
the  natural  size ;  it  is  inscribed  "  Sebastianus  Venetus 
faciebat,"  and  was  transferred  from  wood  to  canvas  in 
1771.  •  It  was  painted  in  1.517-19  for  Giulio  de'  Medici, 
then  bishojj  of  Narbonne,  afterwards  Pope  Clement  VII.  ; 
and  it  remained  in  Narbonne  cathedral  until  purchased 
by  the  duke  of  Orleans  early  in  the  ISth  century, — coming 
to  England  with  the  Orleans  gallery  in  1792.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  design  of  Michelangelo  appears 
in  the  figure  of  Lazarus  and  of  those  who  are  busied 
about  him  (the  British  Museum  contains  two  sketches  of 
the  Lazarus  regarded  as  Michelangelo's  handiwork) ;  but 
whether  he  actually  touched  the  panel,  as  has  often  been 
said,  appears  more  than  doubtful,  as  he  left  Rome  about 
the  time  when  the  picture  was  commenced.  Raphael's 
Transfiguration  was  painted  for  the  same  patron  and  the 
same  destination.  Tlie  two  works  were  exhibited  together, 
and  some  admirers  did  not  scruple  to  give  the  preference 
to  Sebastiano's.  The  third  of  the  four  pictures  above 
mentioned,  the  Flagellation  of  Christ,  though  ordinarily 
termed  a  fresco,  is,  according  to  Vasari,  painted  in  oil 
upon  the  wall.  This  was  a  method  first  practLsad  by 
Domenico  Veneziano,  and  afterwards  by  some  other 
artists  ;  but  Sebastiano  alone  succeeded  in  preventing  the 
blackening  of  the  colours.  The  contour  of  the  figure  of 
Christ  in  this  picture  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  l^een 
supplied  by  Buonarroti's  own  hand.  Sebastiano,  always 
a  tardy  worker,  was  occui)icd  about  six  years  upon  this 
work,  along  with  its  companion  the  Transfiguration,  and 
the  allied  figures  of  .saints. 

After  tlie  elevation  of  Giulio  de'  Medici  to  the  [xintificate, 
the  office  of  the  "  jiiombo  "  or  leaden  seal — that  is,  the  office 
of  sealer  of  briefs  of  thcapostolic  chaml>er — became  vacant ; 
two  paintei-s  competed  for  it,  Sebastiano  Luciani,  hitherto 
a  comparatively  poor  man,  and  Giovanni  da  Udine.  Finally 
Sebastiano,  assuming  the  habit  of  a  friar,  secured  the  very 
lucrative  appointment, — with  the  proviso,  however,  that  he 
should  piay  out  of  his  emoluments  300  scudi  per  annum  to 
Giovanni.  If  he  had  heretofore  been  slow  in  painting,  he 
became  now  supine  and  indifferent  in  a  marked  degree. 
He  lived  on  the  fat  of  the  land,  cultivated  spright!)-  literary 
and  other  society,  to  which  he  contributed  iiis  own  full 
quota  of  amusement,  and  would  scarcely  handle  a  brush, 
saying  jocularly  that  he  benefited  the  profession  by  leav- 
ing all  the  more  work  for  other  artists  to  do.  Berni,  one 
of  his  intimates,  addressed  a  capilolo  to  him,  and  Sebastiano 
responded  in  like  versified  form.  One  of  the  few  subject- 
pictures  which  he  executed  after  taking  office  was  Christ 
carrying  the  Cross  for  the  patriarch  of  Aquileia,  also  a 
Madonna  with  the  body  of  Christ.  The  former  painting 
is  done  on  stone,  a  method  invented  by  Sebastiano  himself. 
He  likewise  painted  at  times  on  slate, — as  in  the  instance 
of  Christ  on  the  Cross,  now  in  the  Berlin  gallery,  where  tho 
slate,  constitutes  the  background.  In  the  same  method, 
and  also  in  the  .same  gallery,  is  the  Dead  Chri.st  supported 
by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  with  a  weeping  Magdalene, — 
colossal  half-length  figures.  Late  in  life  Sebastiano  had 
a  serious  disagreement  with  Michelangelo  with  reference 
to  the  Florentine's  great  picture  of  the  Last  Judgment. 
Sebastiano  encouraged  tho  pope  to  insist  tliat  this  picture 
should  be  executed  in  oil.  Michelangelo,  determined  from 
tho  first  upon  nothing  but  fresco,  tartly  replied  to  his 
holiness  that  oil  was  only  fit  for  women  and  for  sluggards 
like  Friar  Sebastian  ;  and  the  coolness  between  the  two 
painters  lasted  almost  up  'o  the  friar's  death.  This  event, 
consequent   upon  a   violent   fever  acting   raj. idly   "pon   a 


t)l(i 


S  E  B  — S  E  C 


very  sanguine  temperament,  took  place  at  Rome  in  1517. 
Sebastiano  directed  that  his  btirial,  in  the  church  of  S. 
Maria  del  Popolo,  should  be  conducted  without  ceremony 
of  priests,  friars,  or  lights,  and  that  the  cost  thus  saved 
should  go  to  tlie  poor  ;  in  this  he  was  obeyed. 

Numerous  pupils  sought  tiaiuiug  fi'onl  Sebastiano  de]  riombo  ; 
but,  owing  to  lus  dilatory  and  sell'-indulgent  habits,  tliey  learned 
little  fi-om  hijn,  with  the  exception  of  Tommaso  Laui'c-ti.  Sebas- 
tiano, conscious  of  his  deficiency  in  the  higher  sphci'e  of  invention, 
made  himself  especially  celebj-atcd  as  a  }iortrait  painter  :  the  like- 
ness of  Andrea  D^ria,  in  th«  Dorin  Palac«,  Rouie.  is  one  of  the 
most  renowned.  In  the  London  National  Gallei-y  are  two  fine 
specimens:  one  canvas  represents  tlie  fiiar  himself,  aluug  with 
t'ai'dinal  I]rpolito  de'  Medici  ;  Ihe  other,  a  portrait  of  a  lady  in  the 
character  of  St  Agatha,  used  to  be  identified  with  one  of  Sebastiajio's 
prime  works,  the  likeness  of  .lulia  Gonz.aga  (painted  for  her  lover, 
the  aforenamed  cai'dinal),  but  this  assnm)'tion  is  now  discredited. 
There  were  also  portraits  of  Marcantonio  Colonna,  Vittoria  Colouua, 
Ferdinand  marijuis  of  Peseara,  Pojies  Adi*ian  VI.,  Clement  VII. 
(Stlldj  Gallery,  Naples),  and  Paul  III.,  Saumicheli,  Anton  Fran- 
cesco dtrgli  AIbi27i,  and  Pietio  Aretino.  One  likeness  of  the  last- 
named  sitter  is  in  Arezzo  and  anothe]'  in  the  Berlin  galleiy. 

SEB.\STOPOL,  or  Sevastopol,  the  chief  naval  station 
of  Eus.'5ia  on  the  Black  Sea,  is  situated  in  the  south-west 
of  the  Crimea,  in  44°  37'  N  lat.  and  33°  31'  E.  long.,  935 
miles  from  Moscow,  with  which  it  is  connected'  by  rail  via 
KharkotT.  The  estuary,  which  is  one  of  the  best  roadsteads 
in  Europe  and  could  shelter  the  combined  fleets  of  Europe, 
is  a  deep  and  thoroughly  sheltered  indentation  among 
chalky  cliffs,  running  east  and  west  for  nearly  3|  miles, 
with  a  width  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  narrowing  to  930 
yards  at  the  entrance,  where  it  is  jjrotected  by  two  small 
promontories.  It  has  a  depth  of  from  6  to  10  fathoms, 
'with  a  goo  1  bottom,  and  large  ships  can  anchor  at  a 
cable's  length'  from  the  shore.  The  main  inlet  has  also 
four  smaller  indentations, — Quarantine  Bay  at  its  entrance, 
Yuzhnaya  (Southern)  Bay,  which  penetrates  more  than  a 
mile  to  the  south,  'with  a  depth  of  from  4  to  9  fathoms. 
Dockyard  Bay,  and  /.rtiUery  Bay.  A  small  river,  the 
Tchornaya,  enters  the  head  of  the  inlet.  The  main  part 
of  the  town,  'with  an  elevation  ranging  from  30  to  1 90  feet, 
stands  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  chief  inlet,  between 
Yuzhnaya  and  Artillery  Bays.  ■  To  the  east  are  situated 
the  barracks,  hospitals,  and  storehouses  ;  a  few  buildings 
on  the  other  shore  of  the  chief  bay  constitute  the  "northern 
side."  Before  the  Crimean  War  of  1S53-56  Sebastopol 
ivas  a  well-built  city,  beautified  by  garden,=,  and  had  43,000 
inhabitants ;  but  at  the  end  of  the  siege  it  had  not  more 
than  fourteen  buildings  which  had  not  been  badly  injured. 
After  the  war  many  privileges  'trere  granted  by  the  Govern- 
ment .in  order  to  attract  population  and  trade  to  the  town  ; 
but  both  increased  slowly,  and  at  the  end  of  seven  years 
its  population  numbered  only  5750.  The  railway  line 
connecting  Sebastopol  with  JIoscow  gave  some  animation 
to  trade,  and  it  was  Uiought  at  the  time  that  Sebastopol, 
although  precluded  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  from  reacquiring 
its  military  importance,  might  yet  become  a  commercial 
city.  In  November  1S70,  during  the  i'ranco-Gemian 
War,  the  Russian  Government  publicly  threw  off  the 
obligation  of  those  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  which 
related  to  the  Black  Sea  fleet  and  fortresses,  and  it  was 
decided  again  to  make  Sebastopol  a  naval  arsenal.  In 
18S2  Sebastopol  had  a  population  of  26,150  inhabitants, 
largely  military.  The  town  has  been  rebuilt  on  a  new 
plan,  and  a  fine  church  occupies  a  prominent  site.  There 
are  now  two  lyceums  and  a  zoological  marine  station. 
Although  belonging  to  the  government  of  Taiuida,  Sebas- 
topol and  its  environs  are  under  a  separate  military 
governor. 

The  peninsula  between  the  Bay  of  Sebastopol  and  the  Black  Sea 
became  known  in  the  7th  century  as  the  Heracleotic  Chersonese 
(see  vol.  vi.  p.  587).  In  the  5th  century  B.C.  a  Greek  colony  ^vas 
founded  here  and  remained  independei>t  for  three  centuiies,  when 
it  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  tho  Bo^phorus,  and  subsequently 


tributary  to  Kotne.  Under  the  B^'zantine  emperors  Chcrsor.f-us 
was  an  admiuisti-ative  centre  to  their  possessions  in  Tauiida.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Russian  annals,  Vladimir,  prince  of  Kiulf,  conquered 
Chersoncsus  (Korsnfi)  before  being  baptized  there,  and  res',  -red  it 
to  the  G leeks  on  marrying  the  princess  Anna.  ,Subseciuently  the 
Slavonians  were  cut  off  from  relations  with  Taurida  by  the  Moijgols, 
and  only  made  occasional  raids,  such  as  that  of  the  Lithuanian 
piince  Olgerd.  In  the  16th  eeaitury  a  new  inthi.x  of  colonizers, 
tlie  Tatars,  occupied  Chersoncsus  and  founded  a  settlement  nametl 
Akhtiar.  'lliis  village,  after  the  Russian  conquest  in  1783,  was 
selected  for  the  chief  naval  station  of  the  empire  in  the  Black  Sea 
and  received  ils  present  name  ("The  August  City").  In  1826 
strong  foitificatioiis  were  begun,  and  in  1S53  it  was  a  formida'ble 
turtress.  In  September  1854,  al"ter  liaving  defeated  the  Russians 
in  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  the  Anglo-French  laid  siege  to  the 
southern  portion  of  the  town,  and  on  17th  October  began  a  heavy 
bombardment  Sebastopol,  which  was  nearly  quite  ojien  from  the 
land,  was  strengthened  by  earthworks  thrown  up  under  the  fire 
of  the  besiegers,  and  sustained  a  memorable  eleven  months'  siege. 
On  8th  September  1855  it  was  evacuated  by  the  Russians,  who 
retired  to  the  north  side.  The  fortifications  were  blown  up  by  the 
allies,  and  by  the  Paris  treaty  the  Russians  were  bound  not  to 
restore  them. 

SEEENICO  {Sibenik),  a  town  of  Austrian  Dalmatia,  on 
the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  about  half-way  between  Zara  and 
Spalato,  is  situated  ou  an  irregular  basin  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Kerka,  connected  'n'ith  the  sea  by  a  winding  channel  3 
miles  long.  The  channel  is  defended  by  a  fort  designed 
by  Sanmicheli,  and  the  town  itself,  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  abrupt  slope  of  a  rocky  hill,  is  guarded  by  three 
old  castles,  now  dismantled.  There  is  also  a  wall  ou  the 
landward  side.  Sebenico  is  the  seal  of  a  bishop,  and  its 
Italian  Gothic  cathedral,  dating  from  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  is  considered  the  finest  church  in  Dalmatia. 
Its  excellent  harbour  and  its  situation  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Kerka  valley  combine  to  make  Sebenico  the  entrepot 
of  a  considerable  trade.  Fishing  is  carried  on  exten- 
sivel}'.  The  population  of  the  commune  in  1880  was 
18,104,  of  the  town  proper  about  8000. 

SECCHI,  Angelo  (1818-1878),  Italian  astronomer,  was 
born  on  29th  June  1818  at  Reggio  in  Lombardy,  and 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  an  early  age.  In  1849  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  observatory  of  the  Collegio 
Romano,  which  was  rebuilt  in  1 853  ;  there  he  devoted 
himself  with  great  perseverance  to  researches  in  physical 
astronomy  and  meteorology  tDl  his  death  at  Rome  on  26tli 
February  1878. 

The  results  of  Secchi's  observations  are  contained  in  a  great 
number  of  jjapei-s  and  memoirs.  From  about  1S64  he  occupied 
himself  almost  exclusively  with  spectium  analysis,  both  of  stars 
[Catalogo  dcllc  Stcllc  di  clii  tiie  deter  mi  nato  lo  SpcUro  Litininoso,  Paris, 

1867,  8vo  ;  "  Sngli  Spettri  Prismatici  delle  Stelle  Fissc,"  two  parts, 

1868,  in  the  Aiti  delta  Soc.  Itaf.)  and  of  the  sun  {Lc  Solcily  Palis, 
1870,  8vo  ;  2d  ed.  1877).  Though  his  publications  always  bear 
witness  of  his  indefatigable  zeal  and  euerg}',  they  are  often  uncritical 
and  wanting  in  accuracy. 

SECKENDORF,  Veit  Ludwio  von  (1626-1692),  a 
German  statesman  and  scholar  of  the  17th  century,  wa-s 
the  most  distinguished  member  of  an  ancient  and  wide- 
spread German  noble  family,  which  took  its  name  from 
the  village  Seckendorf  between  Nuremberg  and  Langen- 
zenn,  and  is  said  to  have  been  ennobled  by  the  emperor 
Otho  I.  in  950,  though  it  traces^  its  own  genealogy  no 
further  back  than  1262.  The  family  was  divided  into 
eleven  distinct  lines,  but  at  present  only  three  are  pre- 
served, widely  distributed  throughout  Prussia,  'Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  Bavaria.^  Veit  Ludwig  von  Seckendorf,  son 
of  Joachim  Ludwig,  of  the  Gudentine  line,  ■«as  born 
at  Herzogenaurach  (near  Erlangen)  in  Upper  Francoaia, 
20th  December  1626.  His  youth  fell  in  the  mid.st  of  tho 
Thirty   Years'   War,   in   which    his   father   was   actively 


'  Amongst  the  Seckendorfs  less  known  to  fame  than  Veit  Lndwlg 
are  his  nephew,  Friedrich  Heinrich  (1673-17631,  soldier  and  diplo- 
m.ntist  ;  Leo  (1773-]80^),  poet,  literary  man,  and  soldie'- ;  Ilie  brothera 
Chri.^tian  Adolf  (1767-1833)  and  Gustav  Aulou  fPatrik  Peale") 
(1775rl823J,  both  literary  men  of  some  note^.- 


S  E  C  — S  E  C 


61/ 


engaged.  But  his  talented  and  noble  motlier  carefully 
watched  over  his  education.  In  Coburg,  Miihlhausen, 
and  finally  in  Erfurt,  whither  his  mother  removed  in 
1636,  he  acquired  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  French  un- 
guages.  In  1639  he  returned  to  Coburg,  and  the  reign- 
ing duke,  Ernest  the  Pious,  made  him  his  protege.  Enter- 
ing the  university  of  Strasburg  in  1642,  he  devoted 
liimself  to  history  and  jurisprudence.  After  he  finished 
his  university  course  his  patron  gave  him  an  appointment 
in  his  court  at  Gotha,  with  the  charge  of  his  valuable 
library.  He  there  laid  the  foundation  of  his  great  collec- 
tion of  historical  materials  and  mastered  the  principal 
modern  languages.  In  1652  he  was  appointed  to  import- 
ant judicial  positions  and  sent  on  weighty  embassages. 
In  1656  he  was  made  judge  in  the  ducal  court  at  Jena, 
a  position  which  he  held  many  years  and  in  which  he 
took  the  leading  part  in  the  numerous  beneficent  reforms 
of  the  duke.  In  1664  he  resigned  office  under  Duke 
Ernest,  -who  had  just  made  him  chancellor  and  with  whom 
he  continued  on  excellent  terms,  and  entered  the  service 
of  Duke  Maurice  of  Zeitz  (Altejiburg),  with  the  view  of 
lightening  his  official  duties.  After  the  death  of  Maurice 
in  1681  he  retired  to  his  estate,  Meuselwitz  in  Altenburg, 
from  nearly  all  public  ofiices,  and  devoted  himself  to  his 
intellectual  labours.  Although  living  in  retirement,  he 
kejjt  up  a  correspondence  with  the  principal  learned  men 
of  the  day.  He  was  especially  interested  in  the  endeavours 
'  !  the  pietist  Spener  to  effect  a  practical  reform  of  the 
German  church,  although  he  was  hardly  himself  a  pietist. 
In  1692  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  new  university 
of  Halle,  but  died  a  few  weeks  afterwards,  on  the  18th  of 
December. 

Seckendorfs  principal  works  were  the  following: — -Deutscher 
FursUnstacU  (1656  ana  often  afterwards),  a  handbook  of  German 
public  law;  Dcr  Christenstaat  (1685),  partly  an  apology  for  Chris- 
tianity and  partly  suggestions  for  the  reformation  of  the  church, 
founded  on  Pascara  Fensies  and  embodying  the  fundamental  ideas 
of  Spener  ;  Comvientarius  kistoricivs  ct  apologeiiciis  de  Luth^ranismo 
iivc  de  Ee/ormatione  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1692)  occasioned  by  ^the 
Jesuit  Maimbourg's  Hisioire  du  Luth^ranisvu  (Paris,  1680),  his 
most  important  work,  and  still  indispensable  to  the  hi-storiap  '^f 
the  Reformation  as  a  rich  storehouse  of*authentic  matenals. 

See  D.  G.  Schreber'a  Historia  vitee  ac  meritorum  Viti  Ludovici  a  Secken~.Tf 
^Leipsic,  1733);  Schrbckh,  Lfhensbeschreibungen  beriihmter  Manner  (Leipsic, 
1790);  Naseraaon,  "Veit  Ludwig  von  8ecken3orf,"  in  Prtussische  Jahrbuclter 
{vol.  xli.,  1963,  p.  257  sq.);  W.  Roscher,  "Zwei  eSchsisclie  Staatswirthe  ira 
ISten  und  ITten  Jahrhtmdert,"  in  IFebtr's  Ardiiv  fur  die  eachsisehe  Gexhiehte 
(vol.  L,  1862);  and  Theodor  Kolde,  " Seckendorf,"  in  Herzog-PUtt's  Realen- 
eyktopddie  08S4X 

SECRETARY-BIRD,  a  very  singular  African  animal 
first  accurately  made  known,  from  an  example  living  in 
the  menagerie  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  in  1769  by  Vos- 
inaer,^  in  a  treatise  published  simultaneously  in  Dutch 
and  French,  and  afterwards  included  in  his  collected  works 
issued,  under  the  title  of  Regnum  Animale,  in  1804.  He 
was  told  that  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  this  bird  was 
known  as  the  "  Sagittarius "  or  Archer,  from  its  striding 
gait  being  thought  to  resemble  that  of  a  bowman  advanc- 
ing to  shoot,  but  that  this  name  had  been  corrupted  into 
that  of  "  Secretarius."  In  August  1770  Edwards  saw  an 
example  (apparently  alive,  and  the  survivor  of  a  pair -which 
had  been  brought  to  England)   in  the  possession  of  Mr 


Eaymond  near  Ilford  in  Esses;  and,  being  unacquainted 
with  Vosmaer's  work,  he  figured  and  described  it  as  "  of 
a  new  genus "  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  the 
following  ycar.(lxi.  pp.  55,  56,  pi.  ii.).  In  1776  Sonnerat 
(Voy.  Nouv.  Guinee,  n.  87,  pi.  50)  again  described  and 


'  La  Vaillant  {Sec.  Voy.  Afnqm,  ii.  p.  273)  truly  states  that  Kolben 
in  1719  (Co,p\d  Bonn  Spei  hodiernum,  p.  182,  French  version,  ii.  p.  198) 
had  mentioned  this  bird  under  its  local  name  of  "Snake-cater"  (Slangen- 
vreHer,  Dutch  translation,  L  p.  214)  ;  but  that  author,  who  was  a 
bad  naturalist,  thought  it  was  a  Pelican  and  also  confounded  it  with 
the  Spoonbill,  which  is  figured  to  illustrate  his  account  of  It.  Though 
he  doubtles?  had  seen,  and  perhaps  tried  to  describe,  the  Secretary- 
bird,  he  certainly  failed  to  convey  any  correct  idea  of  it.  Latham's 
saggostion  (loc.  iA/ra  eit.)  that  the  figure  of  the  "Grus  Capeusis 
Cauda  cristata"  in  Petivcr's  Oaznphylacium  (tab.  xii.  fig.  12)  wa-i 
•neant  for  this  bird  is  negatived  by  hU  description  of  it  (p.  20).  The 
figure  was  probably  copied  from  one  of  Shcrard's  paintings  and  is  more 
likely  to  have  had  its  origin  in  a  Crane  of  some  species.  Vosmaer's 
pbt8  is  lettered  "  Amerikaanischcu  Roof-Vogol,"  of  course  by  mistake 
fo«'  "  .UriJt'U'.ni;:':htn." 


^'^^»' 


Secretary-lilird. 
figured,  but  not  at  all  correctly,  the  species,  saying  (but 
no  doubt  wrongly)  that  he  found  it  in  1771  in  the 
Philippine  Islands.  A  better  representation  was  given  by 
D'Aubenton  in  the  Planches  Enluminees  (721) ;  in  1780 
Buffon  (Oi-seaux,  vii.  p.  330)  published  some  additional 
information  derived  from  Querhoent,  saying  also  that  it 
was  to  be  seen  in  some  English  menageries ;  and  the 
following  year  Latham  (St/nopsis,  i.  p.  20,  pi.  2)  described 
and  figured  it  froin  three  examples  which  he  had  seen 
alive  in  England.  None  of  these  authors,  however,  gave 
the  bird  c  scientific  name,  and  the  first  conferred  upon  it 
seems  to  have  been  that  of  Falco  serpentarius,  inscribed 
on  a  plate  bearing  data  1779,  by  John  Frederick  MiUer 
(III.  Nat.  History,  xxviii.),  which  plate  appears  also  in 
Shaw's  Cimelia  Physica  (No.  28)  and  is  a  misleading 
caricature.  In  1786  Scopoli  called  it  Otis  secretaritis — 
thus  referring  it  to  the  Bustards,"  and  Cuvier  in  1798 
designated  the  genus  to  which  it  belonged,  and  of  which 
it  still  remains  the  sole  representative,'  Serpentarius.  Suc- 
ceeding systematists  have,  however,  encumbered  it  with 
many  other  names,  among  which  the  generic  terms  Gypo- 
geranus  and  Ophiotheres,  and  the  specific  epithets  reptilt- 
varus  and  cristatus,  require  mention  here.''  The  Secretary- 
bird  is  of  remarkable  appearance,  standing  nearly  4  fcet  in 
height,  the  great  length  of  its  legs  giving  it  a  rfeserablance 
to  a  Crane  or  a  Heron ;  but  the  expert  will  at  onco  notice 
that,  unlike  th.ose  birds,  its  tibiaj  are  feathered  all  the  way 
down.  From  the  back  of  the  head  and  the  napo  hangs, 
loosely  and  in  pair.s,  a  series  of  black  elongated  feathers, 
capable  of  erection  and  dilation  in  periods  of  excitement.^ 

'  Curiously  enough,  Boddacrt  in  1783  omitted  to  give  it  a  scientific 
name. 

'  Ogilby's  attempt  to  distinguish  three  species  (Proc.  Zool.  Society, 
183,'),  pp.  104,  105)  has  met  with  no  encouragement ;  but  examples 
from  the  north  of  the  equator  are  somewliat  smaller  than  those  from 
ihe  south. 

*  The  scientific  sj-nonymy  of  the  species  is  givca  ai  great  length  by 
Drs  Finsch  and  Hartlaub  ( V6gd  Ost-A/rikaa,  p.  93)  and  by  Mr  Shar|>c 
(Cat.  B.  Erit.  Museum,  i.  p.  45);  but  each  list  has  some  errors  in 
comnion. 

'  It  is  from  the  fancied  resemblanco  of  these  feathers  to  the  pcn» 
ifhiob  a  clerk  is  supposed  to  stick  above  his  car  that  the  bird's  :  "« 
of  aecretarj-  is  really  derived. 

rXI.  —   78 


6ie 


S  E  C  — S  E  D 


The  skin  round  the  eyes  is  bare  and  of  an  orange  colour. 
The  iK-ad,  neck,  and  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  wing- 
coverts  are  bhiish-grey;  but  the  carpal  feathers,  including 
the  primaries,  are  black,  as  also  are  the  feathers  of  the 
vent  and  tibi;e. — the  last  being  in  some  examples  tipped 
with  white.  The  tail-quills  are  grey  for  the  greater  part 
of  their  length,  then  barred  with  black  and  tipped  with 
white ;  but  the  two  middle  feathers  are  more  than  twice 
as  long  as  those  next  to  them,  and  drooping  downwards 
present  a  very  unique  appearance. 

The  h.ibita  of  the  Secretary-bird  have  been  very  frequently 
described,  one  of  the  best  accounts  of  them  being  by  Verreau.t  in 
the  Zoological  Society's  Proceedings  for  1856  (pp.  348-332).  Its 
chief  prey  consists  of  insects  and  reptiles,  and  as  a  foe  to  snakes  it 
is  lield  in  high  esteem.  Making  every  allowance  for  exaggei-alion, 
it  seems  to  possess  a  strange  partiality  for  the  destruction  of  the 
latter,  and  successfully  attacks  the  most  venomous  species,  striking 
them  with  its  knobbed  wings  and  kicking  forwards  at  them  with 
its  feet,  until  they  are  rendered  incapable  of  oifence,  when  it 
swallows  them.  The  nest  is  a  huge  structure,  placed  in  a  bush  or 
tree,  and  in  it  bvo  white  eggs,  spotted  with  rust-colour,  are  laid. 
The  young  remain  in  the  nest  for  a  long  while,  and  even  when 
four  months  old  are  unable  to  stand  upright.  They  are  very 
frequently  brought  up  tame,  and  become  agreeable  not  to  say 
useful  pets  about  a  house,  the  chief  drawbacks  to  them  being  that 
when  hungiy  they  will  help  themselves  to  the  small  poultry,  and 
the  fragility  of  their  legs,  which  follows  on  any  sudden  alarm,  and 
ends  in  their  death.  The  Secretary-bird  is  found,  but  not  very 
abundantly  and  only  in  some  localities,  over  the  greater  part  of 
Africa,  especially  in  the  south,  extending  northwards  on  the  west 
to  the  Gambia  and  in  the  interior  to  Khartum,  where  Von  Heuglin 
observed  it  breeding. 

The  systematic  position  of  the  genus  Serjienfa-i-iiis  has  long  been 
a  matter  of  discussion,  and  is  still  one  of  much  interest,  though  of 
late'  classifiers  have  been  pretty  well  agreed  in  placing  it  in  the 
Order  Accipitres.  Most  of  them,  however,  have  shown  gi-eat 
want  of  perception  by  putting  it  in  the  Family  Falconidas.  No 
anatomist  can  doubt  its  forming  a  peculiar  Family,  Serpcntariid^e, 
differing  more  from  the  Falconidx  than  do  the  VuUuridx  ;  and 
the  fact  of  Prof.  A.  llilne- Edwards  having  recognized  in  the 
Miocene  of  the  Allier  the  fossil  bone  of  a  species  of  this  genus, 
S.  robicsbis  (Ois.  foss.  Fra>u^,  ii.  pp.  465-463,  pk  186,  figs.  1-6), 
proves  that  it  is  an  ancient  form,  one  possibly  carrying  on  a 
direct  and  not  much  modified  descent  from  a  generalized  form, 
whence  may  have  sprung  not  only  the  Falcanidm  but  perhaps  the 
progenitors  of  the  Ardeidx  and  C'iconiida:,  as  well  as  the  puzzling 
Cariamidx  (SebieIia,  q.v.).  (A.  N.) 

SECULAE  GABIES  were  celebrated  at  Rome  for  three 
days  and  nights  with  great  ceremony  to  mark  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  sxculum  or  generation.  Originally 
they  were  a  propitiatory  festival,  imported  from  Eiruria 
under  the  name  of  Ludi  Terentini,  and  held  at  irregular 
intervals,  in  view  of  extraordinary  prodigies  ;  but  in  249 
B.C.  it  was  decreed  that  they  should  be  celebrated  in  every 
hundredth  year  after  that  date.  This  decree  was  frequently 
disregarded,  partly  for  political  reasons  and  partly  because 
in  Augustus's  time  and  with  his  approval  the  quindecem- 
viri,  acting  under  Greek  influence,  sanctioned  the  longer 
period  of  110  years. 

The  dates  of  the  actual  celebrations  are  as  follows : — the  first  in 
609  B.C.,  the  second  in  348,  the  third  in  249,  the  fourth  in  146, 
the  fifth  by  Augustus  in  17  {for  thia  occasion  Horace  wrote  his 
Carmen  Smculare),  the  sbtth  by  Claudius  in  47  A.D.  =800  A.U.C, 
the  seventh  by  Domitian  in  88,  the  eighth  by  Antoninus  Pius  ia 
147  =  900  A.u.c,  the  ninth  by  Severus  in  204  (220  years  after  the 
Augustan  celebration),  the  tenth  by  Philip  in  248,  the  eleventh 
and  last  by  Gallienus  e.  262.  The  projected  celebration  of  Maxi- 
mian  in  304  did  not  take  place. 

Censortnus,  Z>e  Die  Natet}^,  c.  IT  :  Zosimus,  ii.  1  sg. ;  Yal.  Max.,  ii.  c.  5. 
The  dates  of  the  first  two  celebrations  appear  to  rest  only  on  the  authority  of 
Valerius  Aiitiaa ;  the  others  are  certain.  The  quindecemviral  books  assigned 
fictitious  dates  for  the  pre  -  Augustan  celebrations,  Comp.  Marquardt,  Dm 
rijmische  Slaaltvencallung,  iii.  p.  369  sq. 

SECUKDERABAD,  one  of  the  chief  British  mililary 
cantonments  in  India,  is  situated  in  the  native  state  of 
Haidaribid  (Hyderabad)  or  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  in 
:7°  26'  30"  X.  lat.  and  78°  33'  E.  long.,  1830  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  G  milej  north-a»^t  of  Haidaribdd 
city.  SecunderabAd  is  the  largest  militety  station  in  India 
and  forms  the  headquarters  of  the  EaidardbAd  subsidiary 


force,  which  constitutes  a  division  of  the  Madras  army.  Tlie 
strength  of  the  military  force  stationed  at  Secunderibid 
in  1883  was  5632,  European  troops  numbering  2276  arid 
native  troops  3356.  To  the  south-west  of  the  cantonment 
there  is  a  large  reservoir  or  tank,  known  as  the  Husain 
SAgar,  about  3  miles  in  circumference.  SecunderAbid 
town,  which  forms  the  cantonment  bazaar,  contains  a 
population  of  over  30,000.  Adjoining  this  cantonment  to 
the  north  is  the  BolAram  cantonment,  one  of  the  stations 
of  the  HaidarAbid  contingent,  under  the  immediate  com- 
mand of  the  nizam  ;  and  2  miles  to  the  south  of  Secunderi- 
bid  cantonment  are  the  lines  of  the  HaidarAbAd  reformed 
troops,  also  belonging  to  the  nizam.  During  the  mutiny 
(1857-58)  both  the  subsidiary  force  and  the  HaidarAbAd 
contingent  rendered  good  service. 

SECUNDUS,  Johannes,  or  Johann  Evebts  (1511- 
1536),  Latin  poet,  was  born  at  The  Hague  on  10th  No- 
vember 1511.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and 
honourable  famUy  in  the  Netherlands  ;  his  father,  Nicholas 
Everts,  or  Everard,  seems  to  have  been  high  in  the  favour 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  On  what  account  the  son  was 
called  Secundus  is  not  known.  His  father  intended  him 
for  the  law ;  but  though  he  took  his  degree  at  Bourges  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  devoted  much  time  to  legal  pur- 
suits." Poetry  and  the  sister  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture 
engaged  his  mind  at  a  very  early  period.  In  1533  he  went 
to  Spain,  and  soon  afterwards  became  secretary  to  the 
cardinal-archbishop  of  Toledo,  in  a  department  of  business 
which  required  no  other  qualification  than  that  which  he 
possessed  in  a  very  eminent  degree, — a  facility  in  writing 
with  elegance  the  Latin  language.  It  was  during  this 
period  that  he  composed  his  most  famous  work,  the  Basia, 
a  series  of  amatory  poems,  of  which  the  fifth,  seventh,  and 
ninth  Carniina  of  Catullus  seem  to  have  given  the  hint. 
In  1534  he  accompanied  Charles  V.  to  the  siege  of  Tunis, 
but  gained  few  laurels  as  a  soldier.  After  quitting  the 
service  of  the  archbishop,  Secundus  was  employed  as  sesre- 
tary  by  the  bishop  of  Utrecht ;  and  so  much  did  he  dis- 
tinguish himself  by  the  classical  elegance  of  his  composi- 
tions that  he  was  called  upon  to  fill  the  imjKirtant  post  of 
private  Latin  secretary  to  the  emperor,  who  was  then  in 
Italy.  But,  having  arrived  at  St  Amand,  near  Tournay, 
he  was  cut  off  by  a  violent  fever  on  8th  October  1536. 

SEDAINE,  Michel  Je,in  (1719-1797),  dramatist,  was 
bom  at  Paris  on  4th  July  1719.  Few  men  of  letters  have 
risen  from  a  lower  station.  Although  his  father  was  an 
architect,  he  died  when  Sedaine  was  quite  young,  leaving 
no  fortune,  and  the  boy  began  life  as  a  mason's  labourer. 
He  worked  himself  up  in  his  trade  and  was  at  last  taken 
as  pupil  and  partner  by  the  builder  who  employed  him. 
Meanwhile  he  had  done  his  best  to  repair  his  deficiencies 
of  education,  and  in  1753  he  published  a  volume  of  poems 
of  some  merit.  He  then  took  to  the  theatre  and  after 
composing  various  vaudevilles  and  operettas  attracted  the 
attention  of  Diderot,  and  had  two  remarkable  plays  ac- 
cepted and  performed  at  the  Theatre  Fron^ais.  The  first 
and  longest,  the  Philosojuhe  satis  le  Saxxnr,  was  acted  in 
1765;  the  second,  a  lively  one-act  piece.  La  Gageure  Im- 
prevue,  in  1768.  These  two  at  once  took  their  place  as 
stock  pieces  and  are  stUl  ranked  among  the  best  French 
plays,  each  of  its  class.  Sedaine  inclined  somewhat  to  the 
school  of  drame  or  tragedie  hourgeoise,  but  he  was  free 
from  the  e-xcessive  sentimentality  which  in  the  hands  of 
Diderot  and  others  marred  the  stvle,  and  he  had  a  vein 
of  singularly  natural' and  original  comedy.  Indeed  his 
originality  is  one  of  his  chief  points,  though  except  the 
two  pieces  mentioned  little  or  nothing<«of  his  has  kept  tho 
stage  or  the  shelves.  Sedaine,  who  became  a  member  of 
the  Academy,  secretary  for  architecture  of  the  fine  arts 
division,  and  a  prosperous  tnan  generally,  was  Dersonally 


S  E  D  — S  E  D 


dl9 


both  popular  and  respected.      He  lived  to  a  considerable 
age,  dying  at  Paris  on  17th  May  1797. 

SEDALIA,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  county  town 
of  Pettis  county,  Missouri,  lies  189  miles  west  of  St  Loui.s, 
on  the  highest  swell  of  a  rolling  prairie,  which  drains  by 
small  streams  north-east  to  the  Missouri.  It  is  a  railroad 
centre,  and,  besides  the  machine-shops  and  carriage- 
factories  of  two  railway  companies  (the  ilissouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas,  and  the  Missouri  Pacific,  Middle  Division),  it 
contains^foundries,  flour-mills,  and  establishments  for  the 
manufacture  of  furniture,  woollen  goods,  .soap,  beer,  A-c. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  two  opera-houses,  a  public 
library,  a  high  school,  and  a  gj-mnasium."  Founded  in 
1860  by  General  George  R.  Smith,  Sedalia  had  4560 
inhabitants  in  1870,  and  9561  in  1880. 

SEDAN,  a  town  of  France,  the  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Ardennes,  lies  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Meuse,  1.3  miles  east-south-east  of  Mezieres 
by  the  railway  to  Thionville  (Lorraine),  and  is  surrounded 
by  heights  of  about  1000  feet.  Since  its  fortifications 
were  declasscs,  a  process  of  embellishment  Itas  been  going 
on.  Placg  Turenne  takes  its  name  from  the  statue  of  the 
illustrious  marshal,  who  was  born  in  the  town  in  1611. 
The  public  buildings  include  a  Protestant  church,  a  syna- 
gogue, a  museum,  and  a  college.  The  manufacture  of  fine 
black  cloth  has  long  been,  and  still  continues  to  be,  tlie 
staple  industry,  employing  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood 
more  than  10,000  workmen,  and  producing  to  the  value  of 
40,000,000  francs  annually.  Several  spinning-mills  have 
been  erected  by  Alsatian  refugees  since  1871.  Consider- 
able activity  is  also  displayed  in  various  departments  of 
metal-working,  especially  in  the  surrounding  villages.  The 
population  was  13,807  in  1872,  and  19,240  in  1881 
■  (19,556  in  the  commute). 

Sedan  was  in  tlie  13th  century  a  dependency  of  the  abhey  of 
llouzon,  the  possession  of  whicll  was  disputed  hy  the  bishops  of 
Liege  and  Rheims.  United  to  the  crown  of  France  by  Charles  V., 
it  was  r-deJ  by  Charles  VI.  to  Guilhume  de  Braqnemont,  who 
sold  it  to  tlie  La  Marcks.  For  two  centuries  this  powerful  family 
niana<;ed  to  continue  masters  of  the  place  in  spite  of  the  bishops 
of  Liege  and  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Lorraine  ;  and  in  tlic 
person  of  Henri  Robert.they  adopted  the  title  "prince  of  Sed.on." 
In  the  16th  century  tlie  town  was  an  asylum  for  many  Protestant 
refugees,  wlio  laiil  the  basis  of  its  industrial  pros^Hrity,  and  it 
became  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  seminary.  The  last  heiress  of  the 
Iji  MarcK  family  brought  Sedan  and  the  duchy  of  Bouillon  to 
Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auven^ne,  viscount  of  Turenne.  When  the 
new  duke  attempted  to/naiutain  his  independence,  Henr)-  IV. 
captured  Sedan  in  three  Jays  ;  and  the  second  duke  (eldest  brother 
of  the  great  marshal),  kvho  had  several  limes  revolted  against 
Louis  XIII.,  was  at  last^'nfter  his  share  in  the  conspiracy  of  Cin(|- 
Ma  J,  obliged  to  surrender  liis  prin'cipality.  Sedan  thus  became 
|wrt  of  the  royal  domain  in  1C41.  On  1st  September  1870  the 
fortress  was  the  centre  of  the  most  disastrous  conflict  o(  the 
Franco-German  War.  Shut  in  by  the  Germans,  who  had  occuined 
the  surrounding  heights,  the  whole  French  army,  after  a  terrific 
contest,  was  obliged  to  capitulate, — the  emperor,  39  generals,  2-iO 
staff-officers,  2G0O  ofUcers,  and  83,000  men  becoming  prisoners  of 
war.  The  village  of  Bazeiiles  was  the  scene  of  the  heroic  standi 
made  by  the  marines  under  Martin  des  Pallieres.  It  noiv  contains 
the  great  ossuary,  and  a  monument. to  the  memor)'  of  the  marines  ; 
and  the  house  which  has  been  rendered  famous  by  Neuville's 
painting,  "  Les  Derni^res  Cartouches."  is  a  museum  of  objects 
found  on  the  battlefield. 

SEDDON,  Thomas  (1821-1856),  lanaseape  painter,  was 
lK)rn  in  London  on  28th  August  1821.  His  father  was  a 
cabinetmaker,  and  the  son  for  some  time  followed  the  same 
occupation;  but  in  1842  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study 
ornamental  aijt-  On  his  return  he  e.xccuted  designs  for 
furniture  for  hi.sfatlier,  and  in  1848  gained  a  silver  medal 
from  the  .Society  of  Arts.  In  the  following  year  he  made 
sketching  expeditions  in  Wales  and  f'rance,  and  in  1852 
ocgan  to  -exhibit  in  the  Royal  Academy,  sending  a  figure- 
piece,  Penelope,  and  afterwards  landscapes,  deriving  their 
siiojects  irora  Brittany.  In  the  end  of  1853  he  started  for 
the  East  and  joined  Mr  Holman  Hunt  at  Cairo.     He  worked 


for  a  year  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  oyccuting  views  which  Mr 
Raskin  has  pronounced  to  be  "the  rirst  landscapes  uniting 
perfect  artistical  skill  with  topographical  accuracy  :  b.  ing 
directed,  with  stern  self-restraint,  to  no  other  purpose  tlian 
that  pi  giving  to  persons  who  cannot  travel  trustworthy 
knowledge  of  the  scenes  which  ought  to  be  most  interest- 
ing to  them."  Seddon's  Eastern  subjects  were  exhibited  in 
Rerners  Street,  London,  in  1855,  and  in  Conduit  Street  in 
1856.  In  October  1856  Seddon  again  visited  Cairo,  where, 
after  a  very  brief  illness,  he  died  on  23d  Kovenilier.  In 
1857  his  works  were  collected  and  exhibited  in  the  rooms 
of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  his  important  and  elaViorately 
finished  picture,  Jerusalem  and  the  Valley  of  Jehosliapihat. 
was  purchased  by  subscription  and  presented  to  the  National 
Gallery.  A  memoir  of  Seddon,  by  his  brother,  -Has  jnib- 
lished  in  1859. 

SEDGWICK,  Adam  (1785-1873),  geologist,  was  born 
in  1785  at  Dent,  Yorkshire,  where  his  tatlier  was  vicar  of 
the  parish.  He  was  educated  at  Sedbergh  school  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  fifth 
wrangler  in  1808,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  in  1809.  For 
some  ye.trs  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  studies  and 
duties  of  academic  life,  but  gradually  he  accjuired  an  ab- 
sorbing interest  in  geology  and  natural  science,  which  was 
fostered  by  long  excursions  into  the  country,  rendered 
necessary  by  the  state  of  his  health.  In  1818  he  suc- 
ceeded Professor  Hailstone  in  the  Woodwardian  chair  of 
geology.  Among  his  principal  discoveries,  wliich  appeared 
for  the  most  part  in  the  Camhrulrj^  Trtin"iitinns  and  the 
Transactions  of  the  Ceuhr/itid  So'-ieli/,  were  those  of  the 
true  position  and  succession  of  the  Paheozoic  strata  oi 
Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  of  the  geological  relation  of 
the  beds  afterwards  named  Permian  in  the  north  and 
north-west  of  England,  and  of  the  general  structure  of 
North  W'ale.s, — a  subject  which  led  him  into  controversy 
with  Murchison.  In  1834  he  published  a  Discourse  on  llie 
Studies  of  the  Unicersity  of  Camhnd'jc,  which  reached  a 
fifth  edition.  By  his  generosity  and  energy  he  succeeded 
in  rendering  the  geological  collection  of  the  Woodwardian 
Museum  one  of  the  most  complete  in  the  kingdom.  He 
was  one  of  the  original  secretaries  of  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
sophical Society  established  in  1819,  and  was  president  of 
the  Geological  Society  of  London  from  1829  to  1831. 
Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  was  advanced  to  the  dignity 
of  canon  of  Norwich  cathedral,  and  foi  some  time  also  he 
was  vice-master  of  Trinity  College.  Sedgwick  died  at 
Cambridge  on  25th  January  1873. 

SEDITION  in  Roman  law  was  considered  as  mnjestas 
or  trea.son.  In  Engli.sh  law  it  is  a  very  elastic  term, 
including  offences  ranging  from  libel  to  The.^sox  (q.v.). 
It  is  rarely  iised  except  in  its  adjectival  form,  (V/.,  sedi- 
tious libel,  seditious  meeting,  or  seditious  conspiracy. 
"  As  to  sedition  itself,"  says  Jlr  Justice  Stephen,  "  I  do 
not  think  that  any  such  ofi"ence  is  known  to  Engli-h  law" 
(Hist.  Crim.  Laii;  vol.  ii.  chaj).  xxi?;.).i  The  same  high 
autliority  lays  down  the  law  in  the  following  terms,  whidi 
were  substantially  adopted  by  tlie  Draft  Criminal  Code 
Commissioners. 

■  "  Every  one  commits  a  misdemeanour  who  ixiblishcs  vi-iballv  or 
otherwise  any  words  or  any  document  with  a  .seditious  intention. 
If  the  matter  so  published  consists  of  words  spoken,  the  ofrencc  is 
called  the  speaking  of  .seditious  wolds.  If  the  matter  so  published 
is  contained  in  anything  capable  of  being  .i  libel,  the  olleiico  i» 
called  the  publication  of  a  seditious  libel.  Every  one  commits  a 
misdemeanour  who  agiees  with  any  other  person  or  persons  to  do 
any  act  for  the  furib'eranv?  of  any  seditious  intention  common  lo 
both  or  all  of  them.  Such  an  ofTcncc  is  called  a  seditious  conspiracv. 
A  seditious  intention  is  an  intention  to  bring  into  hatied  or  con- 
tempt or  to  excite  disalTection  against  the  person  of  Htr  .vlcjpsty  • 
her  heirs  and  successors,  or  the  Covernment  and  constitution  of  the 


•  The  word  "sedition"  occure,  howevei.  iu  JO  and   11  \"\eX.  c.  "); 
9.  40. 


620 


S  E  D  — S  E  D 


United  Kingdom,  ns  liy  law  established,  or  cither  House  of  Pa'"'*- 
luciit,  or  the  administration  of  justice,  or  to  excite  Her  JIajcsty's 
subjects  to  attempt  otherwise  than  by  lawful  means  the  alteration 
of  any  matter  in  church  or  state  by  law  established,  or  to  raise  dis- 
content or  disaffection  amongst  Her  JIajesty's  subjects,  or  to  pro- 
mote feelings  of  ill-will  and  hostility  between  ditferont  classes  of 
Her  Majesty's  subjects.  An  intention  to  show  that  Her  Majesty 
has  been  misled  or  mistaken  in  her  measures,  or  to  point  out 
errors  or  defects  in  the  Government  or  constitution  as  by  law 
■established,  with  a  view  to  tlieir  reformation,  or  to  excite  Her 
Majesty's  subjects  to  attempt  by  lawful  moans  the  alteration  of 
any  n>.attcr  in  church  or  state  by  law  established,  or  to  point  out, 
in 'order  to  their  removal,  nutters  which  are  producing  or  have  a 
tendency  to  produce  feelings  of  hatred  and  ill-will  between  different 
cJasses  of  Her  Majesty's  sulijects,  is  not  a  seditious  intention.  In 
determining  whether  the  intention  with  which  any  words  were 
spoken,  any  document  was  published,  or  any  agreement  was  made, 
Was  or  was  not  seditious,  every  person  must  be  deemed  to  intend 
the  consequences  which  would  naturally  follow  from  his  conduct  at 
the  time  and  under  the  circumstances  in  which  ho  so  conducted 
himself"  (Digest  of  the  Criminal  Law,  §§  91-94). 

The  principal  enactments  now  in  force  dealing  with 
seditious  offences  were  all  passed  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  They  are  37  Geo. 
III.  c.  123,  prohibiting  the  administering  or  taking  of 
unlawful  oatla  (see  Oath)  or  the  belonging  to  an  unlaw- 
ful confederacy  ;  60  Geo.  III.  and  1  Geo.  IV.  c.  1,  pro- 
hibiting unlawful  drilling  and  military  exercises ;  and  the 
Acts  for  the  suppression  of  corresponding  societies,  39 
Geo.  III.  c.  79  and  57  Geo.  III.  c.  19.  No  proceedings  can 
te  instituted  under  these  last  two  Acts  without  the  autho- 
rity of  the  law  officers  of  the  crown  (9  and  10  Vict.  c.  33). 
Under  the  head  of  statutes  aimed  at  seditious  offences  may 
also  be  classed  2  Ric.  II.  st.  I,  c.  5  and  12  Ric.  II.  c. 
11,  against  scandahim  mcif/natum  or  slander  of  great  men, 
such  as  peers,  judges,  or  great  officers  of  state,  whereby 
discord  may  arise"  within  the  realm,  and  13  Car.  II.  c.  5, 
against  tumultuous  petitioning  (see  Petition).  There 
has  been  no  prosecution  in  recent  times  for  seditious  words 
as  distinguished  from  seditious  libel,  but  such  words  have 
been  admitted  as  evidence  in  proceedings  for  seditious 
CoNSPiR.icY  (<?.«'.),  as  in  the  prosecution  of  O'Connell  in 
1S4-1  and  of  Mr  Parnell  and  others  in  1880  (see  Reg.  v. 
Parnell,  Cox's  Criminal  Cases,  vol.  xiv.  508).  By  the 
Prison  Act,  1877,  any  prisoner  under  sentence  for  sedition 
or  seditious  libel  is  to  be  treated  as  a  misdemeanant  of  the 
first  division  (10  and  41  Vict.  c.  21,  s.  40). 

Scotland.  —  "All  acts  by  which  tlie  minds  of  the  people  may  be 
incited  to  defeat  the  Government  or  control  legislation  by  violent 
or  unconstitutional  means  are  seditious"  (Macdonald,  Criminal 
Law,  229).  Sedition  is  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment  or 
both  (6  Geo.  IV.  c.  47).  A  very  large  number  of  Acts  of  the  Scot- 
tish Parliament  dealt  with  sedition,  beginning  as  early  as  1184 
with  the  assize  of  William  the  Lion,  c.  29..  Leasing-making  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  sedition,  as  it  attacked  only  the  sovereign 
individually,  not  the  Governmiint.  • 

United  Stall's. r— la  the  Acts  of  Congress  the  woi'd  "sedition" 
appears  to  occur  only  in  the  army  and  navy  articles.  A  soldier 
joining  any  sedition  or  wlio,  being  present  at  any  sedition,  does  not 
use  his  utmost  endea^'our  to  suppress  the  same  is  punishable  with 
death.  A  sailor  uttering  seditious  words  is  punishable  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  a  court-martial.  In  179S  an  Act  of  Congress  called  the 
Seditiop  Act  was  passed,  which  expired  by  effluxion  of  time  in  1801. 
Its  constitutionality  was  violently  assailed  at  the  time.  (See  Story 
on  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  §§  1293-4.)  Several 
prosecutions  under  the  Act  will  be  found  in  Wharton's  State  Trials. 
Sedition  is  also  dealt  witli  by  the  State  laws  mostly  in  a  very 
liberal  spirit.  Thus  the  Louisiana  Code,  §  394,  enacts  that  "there 
is  no  such  offence  known  to  our  law  as  defamation  of  the  Govern- 
ment or  either  of  its  branches,  either  under  the  name  of  libel, 
slander,  seditious  writing,  or  other  appellation."  By  §  111,  to  con- 
stitute the  offence  of  sedition  "there  must  be  not  only  a  design 
to  dismember  the  State,  or  to  subvert  or  change  its  coustitution, 
But  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  do  it  by  force." 

Continent  of  Europe. — The  Continental  codes  as  a  rule  are  little 
more  definite  than  English  law  in  their  treatment  of  sedition.  In 
"•ermany  a  distinction  is  drawn  between  Anjla.if,  the  remaining 
together  of  a  mob  after  the  authorities  have  thrice  bid  it  dispeioo, 
and  Aufrnhr  or  Aufstand,  an  organized  resistance  to  the  autho- 
rities ;  but  no  definition  is  given  of  the  terms.     The  Hungarian 


penal  coac  defines  Aufsland  to  be  an  armed  assembly  which  has 
the  intention  of  attacking  a  class  of  sitizens,  a  nationality,  or  a 
religious  body.  The  French  penal  code  recognizes  a  differenoo  be- 
tween sedition  and  riunimi  seditieuae.  If  carried  out  with  sufiicient 
numbers  and  sufiicient  force  sedition  becomes  rebellion.  Section  100 
exempts  from  the  penalties  of  sedition  tliose  wiio  have  merely  been 
present  at  a  seditious  meetuig  without  taking  any  active  part  there- 
in, and  have  dispersed  at  the  first  warning  of  the  militai-y  or  civil 
authorities. 

SEDLEY,  SiE  Charles  (1639-1701),  a  noted  "wit" 
and  patron  of  literature  in  the  Restoration  period,  the 
"  Lisideius  "  of  Dryden's  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy.  He 
was  born  in  1639,  the  son  of  Sir  John  Sedley  of  Aylesford 
in  Kent.  Like  many  other  men  of  r<-nk  and  fashion  at 
the  court  of  "  the  merry  monarch,"  Sedley  had  poetical  am- 
bition, and  wrote  comedies  and  songs.  His  most  famous 
song,  "phylli.5,"  is  much  more  widely  known  now  than  the 
author's  name.  His  first  comedy,  The  Mulberry  Garden, 
was  published  in  1668,  but  it  does  not  sustain  Sedley's 
contemporary  reputation  for  wit  in  conversation.  He  was 
probably  too  indolent  to  master  the  art  of  providing  con- 
tinuous opportunities  for  brilliant  sayings,  although  he 
continued  to  try,  wrote  two  more  comedies,  and  left  a 
comedy  and  two  tragedies  behind  him  to  be  published  after 
liis  death.  An  indecent  frolic  in  Bow  Street,  for  which 
he  was  heavily  fined,  made  him  notorious  in  his  youth,  but 
later  on  he  sobered  down,  entered  parhament  for  New 
Romney  (Kent),  and  took  an  active  part  in  politics.  A 
speech  of  his  on  the  civil  list  after  the  Revolution  is  cited 
by  Macaulay  as  a  proof  (which  his  plays  do  not  afford) 
that  his  reputation  as  a  man  of  wit  and  ability  was  de- 
served. His  ban  mot  at  the  expense  of  James  IL  is  another 
well-known  fragment  of  his  wit.  The  king  had  seduced  his 
daughter  and  created  her  countess  of  Dorchester,  where- 
upon Sedley  remarked  that  he  hated  ingratitude,  and,  as 
the  king  had  made  his  daughter  a  countes.s,  he  would  en- 
deavour to  make  the  king's  daughter  a  queen.  Sedley 
died  on  20th  August  1701. 

SEDUCTION.  The  action  for  seduction  of  an  unmarried 
woman  in  England  stands  in  a  somewhat  anomalous  posi- 
tion. The  theory  of  English  law  is  that  the  woman  hei-selt 
has  suffered  no  -nTong ;  the  wrong  has  been  suffered  by 
the  parent  or  person  in  loco  parentis,  who  must  sue  for  the 
damage  arising  from  the  loss  of  service  caused  by  the 
seduction  of  the  woman.  Some  evidence  of  service  must 
be  given,  but  very  slight  evidence  will  be  sufficient. 
Although  the  action  is  nominally  for  loss  of  service,  still 
exemplary  damages  may  be  given  for  the  dishonour  of  the 
plaintiff's  family  beyond  recompence  for  the  mere  loss  of 
service.  An  action  for  seduction  cannot  be  brought  in  the 
county  court  except  by  agreement  of  the  parties.  As  to 
seduction  of  a  married  woman,  the  old  action  for  criminal 
conver-satiou  was  abolished  by  the  Divorce  Act,  1857, 
which  substituted  for  it  a  claim  for  damages  against  the 
co-respondent  in  a  divorce  suit.  Seduction  in  England 
is  not  as  a  rule  a  criminal  offence.  But  a  coiispiracy  to 
seduce  is  indictable  at  common  law.  And  the  Criminal 
Law  Amendment  Act,  1885  (which  extends  to  the  United 
Kingdom),  makes  it  felony  to  seduce  a  girl  under  the  age 
of  thirteen,  and  misdemeanour  to  seduce  a  girl  between 
thirteen  and  sixteen  (48  and  49  Vict.  c.  69,  §§  4,  5).  The 
same  Act  also  deals  severely  with  the  cognate  offences  of 
procuration,  abduction,  and  unlawful  detention  with  the 
intent  to  seduce  a  woman  of  any  age.  In  Scotland  the 
seduced  woman  may  sue  on  her  own  account. 

United  Slates.— In  the  United  States  State  legislation  has  gener- 
ally modified  the  common  law.  In  some  States  the  father  brings 
the  action  as  the  representative  of  the  family  whost  purity  has 
been  invaded  ;  in  others  the  woman  herself  may  bring  the  action. 
In  many  States  there  is  a  criminal  as  well  as  a  civil  remedy.  The 
penal  codes  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Louisiana,  and  other  States 
make  it  a  crime  to  seduce  under  promise  of  marriage  an  unmarried 
woman  of  good  reputation.    Subsequent  intermarriage  of  the  partiua 


S  E  D  — S  E  G 


621 


IS  in  most  cases  a  bar  to  criminal  proceedings.  Massachusetts  goes 
still  further.  Bj'  the  law  of  that  State  if  a  man  commits  fornication 
with  a  single  woman,  each  of  them  shall  be  punished  by  imprison- 
ment not  exceeding  three  months,  or  by  fine  not  exceeding  S30. 
The  seduction  of  a  female  passenger  on  a  vessel  of  the  United  States 
is  an  offence  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment.  The  fine  may 
be  ordered  by  the  court  to  be  paid  to  the  person  seduced  or  her 
child  (Act  of  Congress  of  24th  March  1860).  The  State  kgislation 
of  *he  United  States  is  in  remarkable  opposition  to  the  rule  of  tlie 
canon  law,  by  which  the  seduction  of  a  woman  by  her  beti-othed 
was  not  punishable  on  account  of  the  inchoate  right  over  her  person 
given  by  the  betrothal. 

SEDULIUS,  CcELius,  a  Christian  poet  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury, was  the  autlior  of  an  abecedarian  Hymnns  de  Christo 
in  iambic  dimeters,  portions  of  which  maintain  their  ground 
in  the  offices  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  viz.,  in  the  Christmas 
'hymn  "A  solis  ortus  cardine,"  and  in  that  for  Epiphany 
(altered  from  "  Herodes  hostis  impie  ").  His  other  works 
are  Paschale  Carmtn  s.  Mirabilium  Divinonim  Libri  V., 
originally  in  four  or  five  books  in  hexameter  verse  and 
afterwards  enlarged  and  turned  into  prose,  and  Veteris  et 
Novi  Testamenti  CoUatio,  in  elegiac  verse.  De  Verli 
Incarnatione,  a  Virgilian  cento,  has  also  been  ascribed  to 
him,  but  on  insufficient  grounds.  Of  his  personal  history 
nothing  is  known,  except  that  he  is  called  a  presbyter  by 
Isidore  of  Seville  ;  by  some  other  writers  of  less  authority 
he  is  designated  "  antistes "  or  "  episcopus."  A  Scoto- 
Irish  origin  has  sometimes  been  claimed  for  him  ;  but  at 
all  events  he  must  not  be  confounded  with  Sedulius  the 
grammarian,  an  Irish  Scot  who  lived  in  the  9th  century. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Arevalus  (4to, 
!lorae,  1794). 

SEDUM.  About  120  species  are  enumerated  in  this 
genus  of  Crassulacese,  mostly  perenni».l  herbs  with  succulent 
leaves  of  varied  form,  but  never  compound.  The  indivi- 
dual flowers  are  usually  small  and  grouped  in. cymes.  In 
colour  they  range  from  white  and  yellow  to  pink.  They 
have  a  calyx  of  five  sepals,  as  many  petals,  usually  ten 
stamens,  and  five  distinct  carpels,  which  have  as  many 
glands  at  their  base  and  ripen  into  as  many  dry  seed-pods. 
Several  species  are  British,  including  some  with  tuberous 
roots  and  large  leaves  (I'elcphium),  and  others  of  smaller 
size,  chiefly  found  on  rocks,  walls,  and  dry  banks.  JIany 
are  cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers,  and  many 
are  remarkable  for  their  prolonged  vitality  under  adverse 
circumstances.  Sedums  are  very  closely  allied  to  Semper- 
vivums  (see  Hooseleek). 
SEELAND.     See  Ze.4lanb. 

SfiES,  a  town  of  France  and  a  bishop's  see,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Orne,  is  situated  ort  the  Orne,  4  miles  from 
its  source  and  13  miles  north  of  Alen^on  by  the  railway 
from  Le  Mans  to  Caen.  The  very  fine  cathedral,  dating  to 
a  large  extent  from  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  occupies 
the  site  of  churches  founded  in  440,  996,  and  1053.  The 
west  front  has  two  stately  spires  of  open  work  230  feet 
high,  which  have  been  restored  more  than  once  in  the  19th 
century.  The  nave,  built  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century,  was  remodelled  in  its  upper  portion  fifty  or  sixty 
years  after  its  erection;  the  choir,  built  about  1230  and 
restored  ifl  1260  after  a  great  fire,  is  remarkable  for  the 
lightness  of  its  construction, — the  inner  galleries  of  the 
presbytery  being  the  boldest  venture  ever  made  in  this 
kind.  In  the  choir  are  four  bas-reliefs  of  great  beauty  and 
delicacy  representing  scenes  in  the  life  of  the  Virgin  ;  and 
the  altar  is  adorned  with  another  depicting  the  removal 
of  the  relics  of  St  Gervais  and  St  Protais.  Most  of  the 
stained  windows  are  good.  Around  the  cathedral  are  the 
cloisters  of  the  canons  ;  the  episcopal  palace  (1778),  with  a 
pretty  chapel ;  the  great  seminary,  located  in  the  old  abbey 
of  St  ilartin  (supposed  to  be  one  of  the  fourteen  or  fifteen 
monasteries  founded  in  the  6th  century  by  St  Evroult) ; 
the  hotel  de  ville ;  and  the  statue  of  Contd,  a  member  of 


tire  Egyptian  expedition  of  179S.     The  population  of  Sees 
was  3483  in  1881,  and  that  of  the  commune  4687. 

The  fiist  bisliop  of  Sees  (Saghim)  was  St  Lain,  who  lived  at  the 
close  of  the  3d  or  beginning  of  the  4tll  century.  In  the  9th  century 
it  was  a  fortified  town  and  fell  a  prey  to  tlie  Normans  ;  and  the 
stones  from  its  mined  ramparts  were  used  for  the  erection  of  a 
church  in  the  close  of  the  10th  century.  In  the  12th  century 
Sees  belonged  to  the  count  of  Alenron  and  consisted  of  two  distinct 
parts,  separated  by  tlie  Orne, — the  bishop's  burgli,  and  to  the  soutli 
tlie  new  or  count's  burgh  {Bourg  le  Comtc).  Captured  in  1154  by 
Henry  II.  of  England,  it  was  recovered  in  the  following  year  by 
Guillaume  de  Belleme  ;  and  in  1136  it  was  partly  burned  by  tho 
count  of  Anjou.  After  being  taken  by  Philip  Augustus  it  enjoyed 
some  years  of  peace,  during  which  a  hospital  and  a  Franciscan  mon- 
astery were  built ;  but  it  was  one  of  the  fii-st  towns  of  Normandy 
to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  English  (1417),  who  Mtained  posses- 
sion until  their  final  expulsion  from  France.  Pillaged  by  the  Pro- 
testants during  tlie  'Wars  of  Religion,  Sees  attached  itself  to  the 
League  in  1589,  but  voluntaiily  surrendered  to  Henry  IV.  in  1590. 

SEETZEN,  Ulrich  Jasper  (1767-1811),  one  of  the 
nio.st  distinguished  of  modern  travellers  in  the  East,  'was 
born  the  son  of  a  yeoman,  in  tho  little  lordship  of  Je'.er  in 
German  Frisia,  on  30th  January  1767.  His  father,  who  was 
a  man  of  substance,  sent  him  to  the  university  of  Gottingen, 
where  he  graduated  in  medicine.  His  chief  interests,  how- 
ever, were  in  natural  history  and  technology  ;  he  wrote  a 
number  of  papers  on  both  those  subjects  which  gained  him 
some  reputation,  and  had  both  in  view  in  a  series  of 
journeys  which  he  made  from  time  to  time  through  various 
parts  of  Holland  and  Germany.  He  also  engaged  practi- 
cally in  various  small  manufactures,  and  in  1802  obtained 
a  Government  post  in  Jever.  In  1801,  however,  the  in- 
terest which  he  had  long  felt  in  geographical  exploration 
had  culminated  in  a  resolution  to  travel  by  Constantinople 
to  Syria  and  Acabia,  and  then,  when  familiarized  with 
Jlohammedan  ways,  to  try  to  penetrate  into  Central  Africa. 
He  relied  mainly  on  his  own  resources,  but  received  a  small 
subvention  from  Gotha,  where  also  he  learned  from  Zach 
to  make  astronomical  observations.  In  the  summer  of 
1802  he  started  down  the  Danube  with  a  companion 
Jacobsen,  who  bcoke  down  at  Smyrna  a  year  later,  plis 
journey  was  by  Constantinople,  where  he  stayed  six  months, 
thence  through  Asia  Minor  to  Smyrna,  then  again  through 
the  heart  of  Asia  Minor  to  Aleppo,  where  he  remained  from 
November  1803  to  April  1805,  and  made  himself  sufficiently 
at  home  with  Arabic  speech  and  ways  to  travel  as  a  native 
and  without  an  interpreter.  Now  began  the  part  of  his 
travels  of  ■n'hicli  a  full  journal  has  been  published  (April 
1805  to  March  1809),  a  series  of  most  instructive  journeys 
in  eastern  and  western  Palestine  and  the  wilderness  of 
Sinai,  and  so  on  to  Cairo  and  the  FayyClm.  His  chief  ex- 
ploit was  a  tour  round  the  Dead  Sea,  which  he  made  with 
out  a  companion  and  in  the  disguise  of  a  beggar.  From 
Egypt  he  "went  by  sea  to  Jcddah  and  reached  Mecca  as  o 
pilgrim  in  October  1809.  In  Arabia  he  made  extersivc 
journeys,  ranging  from  Medina  to  Lahak  and  returning  tc 
Mocha,  from  which  place  his  last  letters  to  Europe  were 
written  in  November  1810.  In  September  of  the  follow- 
ing year  he  left  Mocha  with  the  hope  of  reaching  Muscat, 
and  was  found  dead  two  days  later,  having,  it  is  believed, 
been  poisoned  by  the  commaitd  of  the  imam  of  Sana'a. 
For  the  parts  of  Seetzen's  journeys  not  covered  by  the 
published  journal  {Reisen,  ed.  Kru.se,  4  vols.,  Berlin,  1854) 
the  only  printed  records  are  a  series  of  letters  and  papers 
in  Zach's  Monatliche  Correspondni:  and  Hammer's  Fund- 
gruhen.  Many  papers  and  collections  were  lost  through 
his  death  or  never  reached  Europe.  The  collections  that 
were  saved  form  the  Oriental  museum  and  the  chief  part 
of  the  Oriental  MSS.  of  the  ducal  library  in  Gotha. 

SE-GAN  FOO,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Shen-se 
in  north-western  China,  is  situated  in  34°  17'  N.  lat.  and 
108°  58'  E.  iong.  Like  most  Chinese  cities,  Se-gan  Foo  has 
repeatedly  changed  ita  name  during  its  history,  which  date- 


622 


S  fi  G  — 8  E  G 


back  to  the  time  of  Che  Hwang-te  (246-210  b.c),  the  first 
universal  emperor,  whose  name  will  be  ever  notorious  as 
that  of  tlie  monarch  who  built  the  Great  Wall,  burnt  the 
books,  and  established  his  capital  at  Kwau-chung,  the  site 
of  the  modern  Se-gan  Foo.  Under  the  succeeding  Han 
dynasty  (206  B.C.-25  a.d.)  this  city  was  called  Wei-nan 
and  Nuy-she  :  under  the  Eastern  Han  (25-221  a.d.)  it 
was  known  as  Yung  Chow;  under  the  T'arig  (618-907) 
as  Kwan-nuy  ;  under  the  Sung  (9G0-1127)  as  Yung-hing ; 
under  the' Yuen  and  Ming  (1260-1644)  as  Gan-se ;  and 
under  the  present  dynasty  as  Se-gan.  During  the  Ts'in, 
Han,  and  T'ang  dynasties  it  was  the  capital  of  the  empire, 
and  is  at  the  present  time  second  only  to  Peking  in  size, 
liopiJation,  and  importance.  The  city,  which  is  a  square, 
measuring  10  Chinese  miles  each  way,  is  prettily  situated 
on  ground  rising  from  the  river  Wei,  and  includes  within 
its  limits  the  two  district  cities  of  Ch'ang-gan  and  Hien- 
iiing.  Its  walls  are  little  inferior  in  height- and  massive- 
ness  to  those  of  Peking,  while  its  gates  are  handsomer  and 
better  defended  than  any  of  which  the  capital  can  boast. 
The  population  is  said  to  be  1,000,000,  of  whom  50,000 
are  Mohammedans.  Situated  in  the  basin  of  the  Wei 
river,  along  which  runs  the  great  road  which  connects 
northern  China  with  Central  Asia,  at  a  point  where  the 
valley  opens  out  on  the  plains  of  China,  Se-gan  Foo 
occupies  a  strategical  position  of  great  importance,  and 
repeatedly  in  the  annals  of  the  empire  has  history  been 
made  around  and  within  its  walls.  During  tie  late 
Mohammedan  rebellion  it  was  besieged  by  the  rebels  for 
two  years  (1868-70),  but  owing  to  the  strength  of  the 
fortifications  it  defied  the  efforts  of  its  assailants.  From 
its  eastern  side  three  great  roads  radiate,  one  reaching  to 
Shan-se,  one  to  Ho-nan,  and  one  to  Hoo-pih ;  while  from 
it  runs  in  a  south-westerly  direction  the  great  highway 
into  Sze-cliuen.  It  is  thus  admirably  situated  as  a  trade 
centre  and  serves  as  a  depot  for  the  silk  from  Che-keang 
and  Sze-chuen,  the  tea  from  Hoo-pih  and  Ho-nan,  and  the 
sugar  from  Sze-chuen  destined  for  the  markets  of  Kan- 
suh,  Turkistan,  Hi,  and  Russia.  Marco  Polo  Biwaking  of 
Kenjanfu,  as  the  city  was  then  also  called,  says  tha*;  it 
was  a  place  "of  great  trade  and  industry.  They  have 
great  abundance  of  silk,  from  which  they  weave  cloths  of 
silk,  and  gold  of  divers  kinds,  and  they  also  manufacture 
all  sorts  of  equipments  for  an  army.  Thfey  have  every 
necessary  of  man's  life  very  cheap."  Many  of  the  temples 
and  public  buildings  are  very  fine,  and  not  a  few  historical 
monuments  are  Jound  within  and  about  the  walls.  Of 
these  the  most  notable  is  a  Nestorian  taUet,'  which  was 
accidentally  discovered  in  1625  in  the  Ch'ang-gan  suburb. 


^  Tlie  contents  of  this  Nestorian  inscription,  which  consists  of  1780 
characters,  may  be  described  as  follows.  (1)  An  abstract  of  Christian 
doctrine  of  a  v.igue  and  figurative  kind.  (2)  An  account  of  the  arrival 
o£.«Le  missionary  Olopuu  (probably  a  Chinese  form  of  Rabban  =  Monk), 
from  Tats'in  in  the  year  635,  bringing  sacred  books  and  images  ;  of  the 
translation  of  the  said  books  ;  of  the  imperial  approval  of  the  doctrine 
and  permission  to  teach  it  publicly.  Then  follows  a  decree  of  the 
emperor  (T'ait-sung,  a  very  famous  ^prince),  issued  in  633,  in  favour  of 
The  new  doctrine,  and  ordering  a  chiu^h  to  bo  built  in  the  square  of 
justice  and  peace  {Inmg  fang)  in  the  capital.  The  emperor's  portrait 
■^vaa  to  be  placed  in  this  church.  After  this  comes  a  description  of 
T.its'in,  and  tlien  some  account  of  the  fortunes  of  the  church  in  C^ina. 
Kaoutsung  (650-683,  the  devout  patron  also  of  the  Buddhist  traveller 
and  doctor,  Hwcn  Ts'ang),  it  is  added,  continued  to  favour  the  new 
faith.  In  the  end  of  the  century  Buddhism  got  the  upper  hand,  but 
under  Yuen-tsung  (713-755)  the  church  recovered  its  prestige,  and 
Kiho,  a  new  missionary,  arrived.  Under  Tih-tsung  (780-783)  the  monu- 
meut  was  erected,  and  this  part  of  the  inscription  ends  with  a  eulogy 
of  I-sze,  a  statesman  and  benefactor  of  the  church.  (3)  Then  follows 
a  recapitulation  of  the  .above  in  octosyllabic  verse.  The  Chinese  in- 
scription, which  concludes  with  the  date  of  erection,  viz.,  781,  is  fol- 
lowol  by  a  series  of  short  inscriptions  in  Syriac  and  the  EsirangeZo 
ch,imcter,  c:)ntniuing  the  date  of  the  erection,  the  name  of  the  reigning 
Xe^^torian  ]>atiiarch,  Mar  Hauan  Ishua,  that  of  Adam,  bishop  and  pope 
of  Cliina,  and  those  of  the  clerical  stalf  of  the  ccpit.il.     Tlien  follow 


The  stone  slab  which  bears  the  inscription  is  7J  feet  hi^ 
by  3  wide,  and  at  present  stands  embedded  in  a  brick 
wall,  which  forms  part  of  a  dilapidated  temple.^  From  a 
Chinese  point  of  view,  however,  the  Pel  Lin  or  "  forest  of 
tablets"  is  a  place  of  even  greater  interest  than  the  above- 
mentioned  temple.  For  there  ate  collected  tablets  of  the 
Han,  T'ang,  Sung,  Yuen,  and  Ming  dynasties,  some  of 
which  bear  historical  legends,  notably  a  set  of  stone  tablets 
having  the  thirteen  classics  inscribed  upon  them,  while 
others  are  symbolical  or  pictorial ;  among  these  last  is  a 
full-sized  likeness  of  Confucius.  As  might  be  expected  on 
a  site  which  has  played  so  prominent  a  part  in  Chinese 
history,  antiquities  are  constantly  being  discovered  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  city,  e.g.,  rich  stores  of  coins  and 
bronzer,  bearing  dates  ranging  from  200^  B.C.  onwards. 

SEGESTA,  a  very  ancient  city  near  the  northrwestern 
extremity  of  Sicily,  so  named  by  the  natives  and  by  the 
Romans,  while  the  Greeks  called  it  Egesta  or  .lEgesta.  Its 
origin  was  ascribed  by  tradition  sometimes  to  Trojan 
refugees  anr"  sometimes  to  Phocians,  followers  cf  Philo- 
ctetea ;  the  accounts  agree  only  in  making  Segesta  older 
than  the  Greek  colonization  of  Sicily  in  the  7th  century 
B.C.  A  tribe  named  Elymi,  distinct  from  both  the  Siculi 
and  the  Greeks,  occupied  the  country  round  the  city. 
The  scanty  references  to  the  history  of  Segesta  show  it  in 
continual  warfare  with  the  Greek  city  Selinus  from  the 
year  580  B.C.  downwards.  As  early  as  426  B.C.  it  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Athens;  and  in  416  a  great 
Athenian  fleet  sailed  to  Sicily,  ostensibly  to  aid  Segesta 
against  its  enemies  Selinus  and  Syracu.se,  but  really  to 
attempt  the  conquest  of  the  Island.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  Athenian  fleet  and'  army,  the  Segestans  turned  to 
the  Carthaginians.  But,  when  Hannibal  destroyed  Selinus 
(see  Selinus)  in  409  B.C.  and  Himera,  and  established  the 
Carthaginian  power  firmly  in  the  western  part  of  Sicily, 
Segesta  sank  to  the  position  of  a  dependent  ally.  In  397 
it  suffered  a  long  siege  from  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  but  at 
last  was  relieved  by  Himilco.  In  307,  however,  the  Greek 
arms  had  better  success ;  Agathocles  of  Syi-acuse  sold  the 
inhabitants  into  slavery,  after  massacring  10,000  men,  and 
changed  the  name  of  the  city  to  Dic«opo)ifl.  But  it  soon 
recovered  its  old  name  and  passed  again  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians. In  thp  beginning  of  the  First  Punic  War  the 
Segestans  murdered  the  Carthaginian  garrison  and  became 
allies  of  Rome.  Being  soon  after  besieged  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, they  were  relieved  by  the  great  naval  victory  of 
Duilius,  260  B.C.  Segesta  was  always  highly  favoured  by 
the  Romans,  both  on  account  of  its  early  adhesion  to  their 
cause  and  from  its  supposed  Trojan  origin.  Its  site  is  now 
deserted,  having  been  exposed  to  the  Saracen  depredations 
in  the  10th  century  ;  but  the  ruins  are  very  fine.  Segesta 
was  about  6  miles  from  the  sea,  and  the  modern  town  of 
Castellamare  probably  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
harbour.  The  Crimisus,  which  is  represented  on  coins  of 
Segesta,  is  probably  the  river  S.  Bartolommeo,  about  6 
miles  to  the  south.  There  were  hot  springs  and  baths  not 
far  from  the  city. 

SEGOVIA,  a  province  of  Spain,  formerly  part  of  Old 
Castile,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.E.  by  the  provinces 
of  Burgos  and  Soria,  on  the  S.E.  by  those  of  Guadalajara 
and  Madrid,  on  the  S.W.  by  Avila,  and  on  the  N.W.  by 
Valladolid.  It  has  an  area  of  2670  square  miles,  and  the 
population  in  1877  was  149,961.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  country  consists  of  a  dry  arable  tableland,  lifted  some 


sixty-seven  names  of  persons  in  Syriac  characters,  most  of  whom  are 
characterized  as  priests,  and  sixty-one  names  of  persona  in  Chinese, 
all  priests  but  one. 

^  See  Yule,  Marco  Polo,  London,  1875  ;  Williamson,  Journeys  in 
North  China,  London,  1870;  and  S:  Wells  Williams,  The  Middle 
Kingdom,  London,  1883. 


S  E  G  — S  E  i 


623 


5500  feet  atove  the  sea,  monotonous  enough  in  appear- 
ance, and  burnt  to  a  dull  brown  during  summer,  but  yet 
producing  some  of  the  finest  corn  in  the  Peninsula.  Along 
the  whole  south-eastern  boundary  the  Guadarrama  range 
of  moujitains  rises  up  suddenly,  like  a  huge  barrier,  sepa- 
rating Old  from  New  Castile  and  the  basin  of  the  Douro 
from  that  of  the  Tagus, — affording,  too,  among  its  ravines 
and  upon  its  slopes  some  remarkably  fine  scenery.  There 
are  two  well-known  passes  or  "  puertos  "  over  the  sierra, 
those  of  the  Nava  Cerrada  and  of  Somosiera.  The  former 
has  been,  until  quite  a  recent  date,  the  chief  means  of 
communication  with  the  outer  world,  save  when  blocked 
by  winter  snows.  It  winds  round  the  lower  southern 
slope  of  the  Pefialara  (8500  feet).  The  Puerto  de  Somo- 
siera lies  north  of  the  Penalara.  By  it  in  1808  Napoleon 
descended  upon  Madrid.  Though  to  the  eye  of  the  stranger 
almost  desert-like  in  appearance,  the  province  of  Segovia  is 
well  watered  by  the  streams  which  rise  in  the  Guadarrama 
range  and  flow  northwards  to  the  Douro,  and  by  careful 
methods  of  irrigation.  The  Eresma,  Cega,  Duraton,  and 
lluua  are  the  principal  watercourses.  With  the  e.xception 
of  Segovia  and  Sepulveda,  there  is  no  town  of  any  import- 
ance,— the  inhabitants  being  for  the  most  part  employed 
in  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits  and  backward  in 
civilization.  Since  the  completion  (1883)  of  the  railway 
from  Medina  del  Campo  to  the  city  of  Segovia,  however, 
the  towns  en  route  have  begun  to  show  signs  of  animation  ; 
and,  as  the  province  contains  monuments  of  deepest  inter- 
est to  the  historian  and  ecclesiologist,  it  bids  fair  to  receive 
its  due  measure  of  attention  and  enlightenment.  At  the 
foot  of  the  Nava  Cerrada  pass  lies  the  royal  demesne  and 
summer  residence  of  La  Granja,  or  San  Ildefonso,  one  of  the 
great  show  places  of  the  Peninsula.  The  chief  trades  and 
manufactures  formerly  carried  on  in  the  province — weaving, 
tanning,  making  of  earthenware,  itc. — have  been  drawn 
away  to  more  commercial  centres.  Paper-making  holds  its 
own  to  some  extent,  owing  to  the  excellence  of  the  water ; 
and  for  the  same  reason,  together  with  the  superior  quality 
of  the  breed  of  sheep,  the  picturesque  scenes  attendant 
upon  the  preparation  of  the  fleeces  may  still  be  witnessed. 
Such  prosperity,  however,  as  Segovia  retains  is  dependent 
uixin  its  agricultural  produce — wheat,  rye,  barley,  peas, 
hemp,  flax,  ic  — together  with  the  rearing  of  sh^ep,  cattle, 
mules,  and  pigs.  The  sierras  yield  e.vcellent  granite, 
marble,  and  limestone ;  but  hitherto  the  difficulty  of  trans- 
port has  prevented  any' development  of  mineral  wealth. 

SEGOVIA,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  clusters 
\ip'<n  a  narrow  ridge  of  rock  which  rises  in  the  valley  of  the 
Fresma,  where  this  river  is  joined  by  its  turbulent  little 
t'-ibutary  the'  Clamores,  and  is  one  of  the  best  specimens 
extant  of  the  Gotho-Castilian  cities.  Founded  originally 
as  a  Roman  pleasure  resort,  it  became  in  the  Middle  Ages 
a  great  royal  and  religious  centre,  and  was  surrounded  by 
Alphonso  VI.  with  the  walls  and  towers  which  still  give  to  it, 
even  in  their  dilapidation,  the  air  of  a  military  stronghold. 
The  streets  are  steep,  irregular,  and  narrow,  and  are  lined 
with  quaint  old-fashioned  houses  as  irregular  and  forbid- 
ding, built  for  the  most  part  of  granite  from  the  neighbour- 
ing sierra.  The  place  teems  with  records  and  monuments 
of  the  many  vicissitudes'  of  fortune  dnd  art  through  which 
it  has  passed,  foremost  among  the  latter  being  the  ancient 
Alcazar,  the  cathedral,  the  aqueduct  of  Trajan,  at-d  a 
notable  array  of  churches  and  other  ecclesiastical  edifices. 
The  AlcAzar  is  perchtJ  upon  the  western  tip  of  the  long 
tongue  of  rock  uiion  which  the  city  is  built,  and  which  at 
this  point  has  a  sheer  descent  upon  three  bides  into  the 
valley.  Of  the  original  Middle-Age  fortress  but  little  re- 
maiu.s  save  the  noble  facade, — the  building  having  been 
wantonly  fired  in  1862  by  the  students  of  the  artillery  school 
then  domiciled  within  its  walls,  and  all  but  destroyed.    It 


is  now  in  course  of  slow  but  praiseworthy  rrctoracion.  The 
work  is  Gotho-Moorish,  with  an  admixture  of  Kenaissance 
in  the  decoration.  Some  of  the  rooms  deserve  notice, 
especially  the  Sala  del  Trono  and  the  Sala  de  Recibimiento. 
The  views  obtained  over  the  outlying  rer/a  from  the  towers 
and  windows  are  superb.  The  loth -century  cathedral 
(1521-1577),  the  work  of  Juan  Gil  de  Ontafion  and  liia 
son  Rodrigo,  occupies  the  site  of  a  former  charch  of  the 
1 1th  century,  of  which  the  pi-esent  cloisters,  rebuilt  in  1 524, 
formed  part.  It  is  a  well-proportioned  and  delicate  piece 
of  Late  Gothic — the  latest  of  its  kind  in  Spain — 317  feet 
long  by  177  wide.  The  central  nave  rises  99  feet  and 
the  tower  330.  The  exterior  is  the  least  satisfactory 
portion,  at  once  bald  and  over-decoi'ated  ;  the  interior  is 
light  and  pure,  with  an  effectiveness  greatly  enhanced  by 
some  very  fine  stained  glass.  The  churches  of  Segovia 
are  legion,  though  many  of  them  are  closed  and  fast  fall- 
ing into  disrepair.  The  most  remarkable  are  those  of  La 
Vera  Cruz  (Knights  Templar,  Romanesque  of  the  early 
13th  century),  San  Millan  and  San  Juan  (both  Romanesque 
of  second  half  of  13th  century).  El  Parral  (Gothic'of  early 
16th  century),  and  Corpus  Christi,  an  ancient  Jewish 
sanctuary  and  an  interesting  specimen  of  Moorish  work. 
The  towers  and  external  cloistering,  or  corredores,  of  several 
of  the  later  churches — especially  those  of  San  Esteban  and 
San  Martin — are  fine.  The  great  aqueduct,  'however, 
called  El  Puente  del  Diablo,  raidvs  usually  as  the  glory  of 
Segovia,  and  is  remarkable  alike  for  its  colossal  proixir- 
tions,  its  history,  its  picturesqueness,  and  the  art  with 
which  it  is  put  together.  Erected  first,  according  to  fairly 
reliable  tradition,  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Trajan,  and 
several  times  barely  escaping  destruction,  it  is  now,  aftec 
nearly  eighteen  hundred  years,  in  perfect  working  order, 
bringing  the  pure  waters  of  the  Rio  Frio  down  from  the 
Sierra  Fonfria,  distant  10  miles  to  the  south.  The  bridg? 
portion  striding  across  the  valley  into  the  city  is  847  yards 
long,  and  consists  of  a  double  tier  of  superimposed  arches, 
built  of  rough-hewn  granite  blocks,  laid  without  lime  or 
cement.  The  tliree  centre  arches  are  102  feet  in  height. 
Segovia  finally  lost  its  ancient  prosperity  when  it  was  taken 
and  sacked  by  the  French  in  1808.  Soirie  insignificanC 
manufactories  of  cloth,  leather,  paper,  and  rude  earthen- 
ware still  exist  in  the  suburb  of  San  Lorenzo,  but  tlue  trade 
of  the  place  languishes  year  by  year.  The  city  is  the  see 
of  a  bLshop,  suffragan  to  Yalladolid.  The  population  in 
1877  was  11,318. 

SEIGNORY,  or  Seignioey,  is  the  relation  of  the  lord 
of  a  fee  or  a  manor  to  his  tenant.  There  is  no  land  in  Eng- 
land without  its  lord  :  "  NuUe  terre  sans  seigneur  "  is  the 
old  feudal  maxim.  Where  no  other  lord  can  be  discovered 
the  crown  is  lord  as  lord  paramount.  The  principal  inci- 
dents of  a  seignory  were  fealty  and  rent-service.  In  retura 
for  these  privileges  the  lord  was  liable  to  forfeit  his  rights 
if  he  neglected  to  protect  and  defend  the  tenant  or  did 
anything  injurious  to  the  feudal  relation.  Every  seignory 
now  existing  must  have  been  created  before  the  Statute  of 
Quia  Emptores,  which  forbade  the  future  creation  of  estates 
in  fee-simple  by  subinfeudation  (see  Rut  Estate).  The 
only  seignories  of  any  importance  at  jircscnt  are  tlie  lord- 
ships of  manors.  They  are  regarded  as  incorporeal  heredita- 
ments, and  are  either  appendant  or  in  gross.  A  seignory 
appendant  passes  with  the  grant  of  the  manor;  a  seignory 
in  gross — that  is,  a  seignory  which  has  been  severed  from 
the  demesne  lands  of  the  manor  to  which  it  was  originally 
appendant— must  be  specially  conveyed  by  deed  of  grant. 

SEINE.  This,  one  of  the  chief  rivers  of  France  (Lat. 
Scquana),  rises  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  plateau  of 
Langres,  18  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Dijon.  It  keep? 
the  same  general  direction  (north-westwards)  throughout 
its  intire  course,  but  has  numerous  windings  :  between  its 


624 


S  E  1  — S  E  I 


source  and  its  moutli  in  the  English  Channel  the  air  distance 
is  only  2  JO  miles,  but  that  actually  traversed  (through  the 
departments  of  COte-d'Or,  Aube,  Seine-et-Marne,  Seine-et 
Oise,  Seine,  Eure,  and  Seine-Inferieurc)  is  482.  Though 
shorter  than  the  Loire  and  inferior  in  volume  to  the  streams 
of  the  Rhone  system  when  these  are  at  their  fullest,  the 
►Seine  derives  an  exceptional  importance  from  the  regularity 
of  its  flow.  This  feature  is  due  to  tiie  geological  character 
of  its  basin,  an  area  of  19,400,000  acres,  entu-ely  belonging 
to  France  (with  the  exception  of  a  few  communes  in 
Belgium),  and  formed  in  three-fourths  of  its  extent  of  per- 
meable strata,  Avhioh  absorb  the  atmospheric  precipitation 
to  restore  it  gently  to  the  river  by  perennial  springs.  It 
is  believed  that  the  Seine  never  attains  a  volume  so  high 
as  90,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  Paris  its  average  per 
second  is  9000,  and  after  it  has  received  all  its  tributaries 
it  ranges  between  24,000  and  25,000  cubic  feet.  At  Paris 
it  falls  as  low  as  2650  cubic  feet  and  in  exceptional  droughts 
the  figure  of  1200  lias  been  reached.  During  the  flood  of 
187G,  which  lasted  fifty-five  days,  the  volume  between  the 
quays  at  Paris  rose  to  58,600  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Rising  at  a  height  of  1545  feet  above  sea-level,  at  the  base  of  the 
statue  of  a  nymph  erected  on  the  spot  by  the  city  of  Paris,  the  Seine 
is  at  first  such  an  insignificant  streamlet  that  it  is  often  diy  in 
summer  as  far  as  to  Chatillon  (722  feet).  At  Bar  (531  feet)  its 
waters  feed  the  Haute-Scine  Canal,  so  that  there  is  uiiintcrnipteil 
navi^'ation  from  this  point  to  the  sea  (395  miles).  At  Troyes  it 
has  descended  to  331  feet.  It  next  passes  Mery,  and  at  Marcilly 
receives  the  Aube  (right),  from  which  point  it  becomes  navigable  ; 
here  it  is  deflected  in  a  south-westerly  direction  by  the  heights  of 
La  Brie,  the  base  of  which  it  skirts  past  Nogent  and  Montereau,  at 
the  latter  point  receiving  the  Youue,  its  most  important;  left-hand 
tributary.  It  tlien  resumes  its  general  north-westerly  direction, 
receiving  the  Loing  (left)  at  Moret,  then  passing  Melun  (121  feet), 
being  joined  at  Corbeil  by  the  Essonne  (left),  and  after  its  junction 
with  the  Marne  (right),  a  tributary  longer  than  itself  by  31  miles, 
reaches  Paris.  From  this  point  to  the  sea  its  channel  has  been  so 
deepened  by  recent  works  that  vessels  of  9  to  10  feet  draught  can 
reach  the  capital.  The  river  then  winds  through  a  pleasant  cham- 
paign country  past  St  Cloud,  St  Denis,  Argenteuil,  St  Germain, 
Contlans  (where  it  is  joined  from  the  right  by  the  Oise,  56  feet  above 
the  sea),  Poissy,  Mantes,  Les  Andelys,  and  Poses,  where  the  tide 
first  begins  to  be  perceptible.  It  next  receives  the  Eure  (left),  and 
passes  Pont  de  TArclie,  Elbeuf,  and  Rouen,  where  the  sea  naviga- 
tion commences.  The  river  has  been  dyked  to  Rouen  so  as  to  admit 
vessels  of  20  feet  draught,  and  large  areas  have  thus  been  reclaimed 
for  cultivation.*  At  every  tide  there  is  a  "bore"  {barre  or  mas- 
carct),  ranging  usually  from  8  to  10  feet.  Between  Rouen  and  the 
sea  tliere  are  numerous  windings,  as  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris ; 
after  Caudebec  and  Quillebccuf  (where  the  Rille  is  received  from  the 
left)  the  estuary  begins,  set  with  extensive  sandbanks,  between 
which  flows  a  narrow  navigable  channel.  At  Tancai-ville  (right)  is 
the  commencement  of  a  canal  to  enable  river  boats  for  Havre  to  avoid 
the  sea  passage.  The  river  finally  falls  into  the  English  Channel 
between  Honfleur  on  the  left  and  Havre  on  the  right.  The  Marne 
brings  to  the  Seine  the  waters  of  the  Ornain,  the  Ourcq,  and  the 
Jlorin  ;  the  Oise  those  of  the  Aisne  ;  the  Yonne  those  of  the  Armau- 
^on.  The  low  elevation  of  the' bounding  hills  has  rendered  it  com- 
paratively easy  to  connect  tire  Seine  and  its  aftluents  with  adjoining 
river  basins  by  means  of  canals.  The  Oise  and  Sorame  are  connected 
by  the  Picardy  or  Crozat  Canal,  which  in  turn  is  continued  to  the 
Scheldt  by  means  of  the  St  Quentin  Canal  and  the  Oise,  and  to  the 
Sambre  by  that  of  Oise  and  Sambre.  Between  the  Aisne  and  the 
!Mcuse  is  the  Ardennes  Canal,  and  the  Aisne  and  the  Marne  are  united 
by  a  canal  which  passes  Rheims.  The  Marne  has  similar  communica- 
tion with  the  Mcuse  and  the  Rhine,  the  Yonne  with  the  Saone  (by  the 
Burgundy  Canal)  and  with  the  Loire  (by  that  of  Nivemais).  The 
Seine  itself  is  connected  with  the  Loire  by  the  Loing  Canal  dividing 
at  Montargis  into  two  branches,— those  of  Orleans  and  Briare. 

SEINE,  the  department  of  France  which  has  Paris  as 
its  chief  town,  was  formed  in  1790  of  part  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Ile-de-France.  It  lies  between  48"  44'  and  48" 
58'  N.  lat.  and  2'  10'  and  2°  34'  E.  long,  and  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  from  which 
it  is  separated  at  certain  parts  by  the  Seine,  the  Marne,  and 
the  Bievre.     The  area  of  the  department  is  only  118,306 

^  Comp.  River  Engineering,  vok  xx.  p.  579;  see  also  the  valuable 
paper  "  Tlie  River  Seine,"  ia  Ptoc.  Inst.  Civ.  Eng.,  vol.  Irxxiv.,  1SS6, 
by  L.  F.  Vernon-Harcourt. 


acres,  and  of  this  surface  a  seventh  or  a  sixth  is  occupied 
by  Paris  ;  the  suburban  villages  also  are  close  together  and 
very  populous.  In  actual  population  (2,799,329  in  1881) 
as  well  as  in  density  (237  persons  per  acre)  it  holds  the 
first  place.  Flowing  from  south-east  to  north-west  through 
the  department,  the  Seine  forms  three  links  :  on  the  right 
it  receives  above  Paris  the  Jlarne,  and  below  Paris  the 
Rouillon,  and  on  the  left  hand  the  Bievre  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  city.  The  left  bank  of  the  Seine  is  in  general 
higher  than  the  right  and  consists  of  the  Villejuif  and 
Chatillon  plateaus  separated  by  the  Bievre ;  the  highest 
l^oint  (568  feet)  is  above  Chatillon  and  the  lowest  (105) 
at  the  exit  of  the^Seine.  Below  Paris  the  river  flows  be- 
tween the  plain  of  Gennevilliers  and  Nanterre  (commanded 
by  Mont  Vali^rien)  on  the  left  and  the  plain  of  St  Denis  on 
the  right.  On  the  right  side,  to  the  east  of  Paris,  are  the 
heights  of  Avron  and  Vincennes  commanding  the  course 
of  the  ^larne.  Communication  is  further  facilitated  by 
various  canals  (see  Paki.s). 

Market  gardens  occupy  about  3700  acres  within  and  without  the 
city,  and  by  means  of  irrigation  and  manuring  are  made  to  yield, 
from  ten  to  eleven  crops  per  annum  (see  Paris).  Some  districts 
are  specially  celebrated, — Montreuil  for  its  peaches,  Fontenay-aux- 
looses  for  its  strawberries  and  roses,  and  other  places  for  flowers  and 
nurseries.  The  department  produced  in  188il  326,326  bushels  of 
wheat,  4042ofmcslin,  75,003  of  rye,  3415  of  barley,  337,837  of  oats, 
1,656,009  of  potatoes,  14,650  of  pulse,  and  15,400  tons  of  beetroot. 
Altogether,  60,000  persons  are  engaged  in  agiiculture.  The  live  stock 
in  1881  comprised  95,796  horses  (70,296  in  Paris),  4174  cattle,  280 
calves,  8159  sheep,  3626  pigs,  and  660  goats.  Vineyards,  producing 
366,748  gallons  of  wine  annually,  cover  2460  acres.  The  principal 
woods  (Boulogne  and  Vincennes)  belong  to  Paris.  It  is  partly 
owing  to  the  number  of  quarries  in  the  district  that  Paris  owes  its 
origin  :  Chatillon  and  Montrouge  in  the  south  yield  freestone,  and 
Cagneux  and  Clamart  in  the  south  and  Montreuil  and  Romahiville 
in  t)ie  east  possess  the  richest  plaster  qnanies  in  France.  Within 
the  circuit  of  Paris  are  certain  old  quanies  now  forming  the  cata- 
combs. Most  of  the  industrial  establishments  in  the  department 
arc  situated  in  Paris  or  at  St  Denis.  Pantin  (17,857  inhabitants  iu 
18S1)  on  the  Ourcq  Canal  is  the  seat  of  a  national  factory  of  tobacco, 
and  also  of  glass-works,  and  Aubervilliers  (19,437)  on  the  St  Denis 
Canal  is  the  seat  of  gi'cat  chemical  works.  A'long  the  Seii.e,  below 
Paris,  Boulogne  (25,615)  is  partly  occupied  by  laundry  establish- 
ments ;  Puteaux  (15,586)  manufactures  woollen  goods,  and  has  dye- 
works,  printing  works,  doth-dressing  works,  and  engineering  works 
of  considerable  irai>ortance  ;  CHchy  (24,320)  manufactures  crystal 
and  has  a'  large  gaswork,  &c.  Above  Paris,  Ivry  (18,442)  has 
iron -works  and  engineciing  works;  Choisy-le -Roi  (6978)  has 
factories  for  the  making  of  jiorcelain,  glass,  soda,  chemicals,  morocco, 
and  waxcloth;  Montreuil  (18,693),  near  Vincennes,  makes  patent 
leather,  porcelain,  kc.  The  department  is  of  course  traversed  by 
all  the  railway  lines  which  converge  in  Paris,  and  also  contains  the 
inner  circuit  railway  and  part  of  the  outer  circuit, — making  a  total 
oi  122  miles  of  railway,  to  which  are  to  be  added  numerous  tram- 
ways, 72  miles  of  national  roads,  and  458  of  other  roads.  There 
are  3  arrondisseraents  (Paris,  St  Denis,  and  Sceaux),  28  cantons 
(20  in  Paris),  and  72  communes.  The  department  forms  the  aichi- 
episcopal  diocese  of  Paris,  falls  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Paris 
court  of  appeal,  and  is  divided  between  the  four  coiys  d'armee  of 
Amiens,  Kouen,  Le  Mans,  and  Orleans.  Among  the  important  in- 
stitutions in  the  department  are  the  lyceums  of  Vanves  and  Sceaux, 
the  lunatic  asylum  atCharenton,  the  veterinary  college  of  Maisons- 
Alfort,  and  the  great  Bicetre  hospital  at  Gentilly. 

SEINE-ET-ilARNE,  a  department  of  northern  France, 
was  formed  in  1790  6i  almost  the  entire  district  of  Brie 
(half  of  which  belonged  to  Champagne  and  half  to  ile-de- 
France)  and  a  portion  of  Gatinais  (from  Ile-de-France  and 
Ori^anais).  Lying  between  48'  7'  and  49"  6'  N.  lat. 
and  2°  23'  and  3'  13'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
departments  of  Oise  and  Aisne,  E.  by  Marne  and  Aube, 
S.  by  Yonne  and  Loiret,  and  W.  by  Seine-et-Oise.  The 
whole  department  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  and 
is  drained  partly  by  that  river  and  partly  by  its  tributaries 
the  Yonne  and  the  Loing  from  the  left,  and  from  the  right 
the  Voulzie,  the  Teres,  and  the  Marne,  with  its  affluents 
the  Ourcq,  the  Petit  Morin,  and  the  Grand  Morin.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Loing,  flowing  from  south  to  north, 
r.!l  these  streams  cross  the  department  frorat  cast  to  west. 


S  E  I  — S  E  I 


625 


following  tLo  general  slope  of  the  surface,  whicb  is  broken 
up  into  several  plateaus  from  300  to  500  feet  in  height 
(highest  point,  in  the  north-east,  705  feet,  lowest  105), 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  valleys.  Most  of 
the  plateaus  belong  to  the  Brie,  a  fertile  and  well-wooded 
district  of  a  clayey  character.  In  the  south-west  lies  the 
dry  sandy  district  of  the  Fontainebleau  sandstones.  The 
climate  is  rather  more  "  continental "  than  that  of  Paris, 
— the  summers  warmer,  the  winters  colder ;  the  annual 
rainfall  does  not  e.xceed  1 6-  inches.  There  is  a  striking 
difference  between  the  south  of  the  department,  where  the 
famous  white  grape  (chasselas)  of  Fontainebleau  ripens,  and 
^he  country  to  the  north  of  the  Marne, — this  river  marking 
pretty  exactly  the  northern  limit  of  the  vine. 

With  a  total  area  of  1,417,534  acres,  Seine-et-Mame  had  in  1879 
261,074  under  wheat,  274,808  under  -ats,  53,362  under  beetroot, 
51,130  under  vines.  Besides  these,  meslin,  rye,  barley,  pulse, 
potatoes  are  the  principal  crops  grown.  In  1884  the  yield  was 
6,567,547  bushels  of  wheat,  231,959  of  meslin,  665,505  of  r}'e, 
471,251  of  barley,  9,104,254  of  oats,  3,035,167  of  potatoes,  924,210 
tons  of  beetroot,  and  401,427  tons  of  green  fodder  (lucerne,  clover, 
sainfoia,  &c.).  The  live  stock  in  1879  included  40,400  horses,  5190 
■  asses,  522,700  sheep  (173,290  superior  breed),  101,100  cattle,  16,840 
pigs,  3714  goats,  and  11,440  beehives  (75  tons  of  honey,  15  of 
wax).  Cereals  occupy  two-fifths  of  the  department  and  yield  an 
annual  value  of  £2,400,000,  while  all  other  products  of  the  soil  do 
not  reach  £1,600,000.  The  wheat  and  oats  of  Brie  are  especially 
esteemed,  as  are  also  the  white  grapes  of  Fontainebleau  and  the 
roses  of  Provins  (see  vol.  xix.  p.  886).  Thousands  of  the  well- 
known  Brie  cheeses  are  manufactured,  and  large  numbers  of  calves 
and  poultry  are  reared.  The  forests  (covering  a  fifth  of  the  surface) 
are  planted  with  oak,  beech,  chestnut,  hornbeam,  birch,  wild  cherry, 
linden,  willow,  poplar,  and  conifers.  Best  known  and  most  im- 
portant is  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau,  the  annual  product  of  which 
13  worth  £14,000.  E.tcellent  freestone  is  quarried  in  the  dejart- 
ment,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Loing,  mill-stones  at  La  Ferte- 
sous-Jouarre  ;  the  Fontainebleau  sandstone,  used  extensively  for 
pavements,  gives  emplo3Tnent  to  300  establishments,  and  the  white 
sand  which  la  found  along  with  it  is  in  great  request  for  the  manu- 
facture of  glass.  Along  the  Marne  are  numerous  plaster-quarries  ; 
lime-kilns  occur  throughout  the  department ;  and  peat  is  found 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Ourcq  and  the  Voulzie.  Beds  of  common 
clay  and  porcelain  clay  supply  the  potteries  of  Fontainebleau,  and 
especially  those  of  Montereau,  where  upwards  of  700  hands  are 
employed.  Other  industrial  establishments  are  the  numerous  large 
flour-mills,  the  sugar-factories,  beetroot  distilleries,  paper-mills  (the 
Marais  paper-mill  manufactures  bank-notes,  &c.,  both  for  France 
and  foreign  markets),  saw-mills,  foundries,  printing  works,  tanneries, 
tawing  works,  glove  factories,  chemical  works,  &c.  Most  of  the 
motive-power  used  in  these  establishments  is  supplied  by  the 
streams.  The  Seine,  the  Yonne,  the  llarne,  and  the  Grand  Morin 
ore  navigable,  and,  with  the  canals  of  the  Loing  and  the  Ourcq 
and  those  of  Chalifert,  Cornillon,  and  Chelles,  which  cut  off  the 
windings  of  the  ilarne,  form  a  total  waterway  of  219  miles.  There 
are  242  miles  of  railway.  With  its  348,991  iuhabitants  in  1881, 
Seine-et-Mame  is  in  density  of  population  slightly  below  the  aver- 
age of  France.  It  has  5  arrondissements,  29  cantons,  530  com- 
munes, forms  the  diocese  of  Meaux,  belongs  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Paris  court  o'  appeal,  aud  to  the  district  of  the  Orleans  cmjjs 
d'armte.  Among  the  places  of  note  in  the  department,  Montereau 
(7107  inhabitants  in  1881),  distinguished  as  JIontereau-faut-Yonne 
because  of  its  situation  at  the  conHuenco  of  the  Yonne  with  the 
Seine,  dwervcs  to  be  mentioned  not  only  for  its  porcelain  manu- 
facture but  also  as  a  great  railway  station  on  the  route  from  Paris 
to  Lyons  at  the  junction  of  the  Troyes  line,  as  the  scene  of  the 
assassination  of  John  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  as  one  of 
the  battlefields  of  Napoleon  I.  in  the  campaign  of  1814.  Its 
church  is  an  historical  monument  of  the  13th,  14th,  15th,  and  16th 
centuries.     A  statue  of  Na[)oleon  stands  between  the  two  bridges. 

SEINE-ET-OISE,  a  department  of  northern  France, 
formed  in  1790  of  part  of  the  old  province  of  !le-d©- 
France,  and  traversed  from  south-east  to  north-west  by 
the  Seine,  which  is  joined  by  the  Oise  from  the  right. 
Lying  between  48°  17'  and  49*  14'  N.  kt.  and  1°  27'  and 
2*  37'  E.  long.,  it  is  surrounded  by  the  departments  of 
Seine-et-Marne  on  the  east,  Loiret  on  the  south,  Eure-et- 
Loir  on  the  west,  Eure  on  the  north-west,  and  Oise  on  the 
nor'.h.  It  encloses  the  department  of  Seine.  The  Epte  on 
the  north-west  is  almost  the  only  natural  boundary  of  the 
department.     The  streams  (all  belonging  to  the  basin  of 


the  Seine)  are,  on  the  right  the  Teres,  the  Marne,  the  Oise, 
and  the  Epte,  and  on  the  left  the  Essonne  (joined  by  the 
Juine,  which  passes  by  ]!:tampes),  the  Orge,  the  Bi&vre, 
and  the  Mauldre.  Seine-et-Oise  belongs  in  part  to  the 
tableland  of  B^auce  in  the  south  and  to  that  of  Brie  in 
the  east.  In  the  centre  are  the  high  wooded  hiUs  which 
make  the  charm  of  Versailles,  Marly,  and  St  Germain. 
But  it  is  in  the  north-west,  in  the  Vexin,  that  the 
cubninating  point  of  690  feet  is  reached,  while  the  lowest 
point,  where  the  Seine  leaves  the  department,  is  hardly  40 
feet  above  the  sea.     The  mean  temperature  is  51°  Fahr. 

Of  the  1,384,695  acres  912,205  are  arable  soil,  50,330  meadows, 
42,852  vineyards,  and  199,804  woods.  In  1S81  the  live  stocic  com- 
prised 48,540  hurses,  5620  asses,  162  mules,  70,600  cattle,  341,600 
sheep  (wool-clip,  1110  tons),  16,200  pigs,  4500  goats,  and  13,500 
beehives.  Seine. et-Oise  is  a  great  agricultural  and  horticultural 
department.  The  crops  in  1883  were— wheat,  5,817,858  bushels  ; 
meslin,  353,127;  rj'e,  1,034,572;  barley,  641,894;  oats,  8,705,193; 
buckwheat,  3800  ;  potatoes,  6,479,000  ;  beetroot  for  sugar  206,645 
tons,  and  for  fodder  237,915  ;  colza  seed,  415  tons  ;  hay.  48,242  ; 
clover,13,605;  lucerne,140,354;  sainfoin, 57,283.  Oaks,  hornbeams, 
birch,  chestnuts  are  the  prevailing  trees  in  the  forasts,  most  of 
which  belrfng  to  the  state.  Building,  paving,  and  mill  stones  (1978 
v.'orkmen),  lime,  plaster,  marl,  chalk,  sand,  clay,  and  peat  (along 
the  Essonne)  are  aU  found  in  the  department.  At  Enghien  are 
cold  mineral  springs,  and  Forges  has  a  hydropathic  establishment, 
where  the  town  of  Paris  maintains  a  ho&pi,,al  for  scrolulous  children. 
The  most  important  industrial  establishments  are  the  national  por- 
celain factory  at  Sevres  ;  the  Government  powder-mills  of  Sevran 
and  Bouchet ;  the  paper-mills  and  cardboard  mills  (1570  workmen) 
of  Corbeil  (population  6566  in  1881),  Etampes  (7465),  and  Pontoise 
(6675),  but  by  far  the  largest  is  at  Essonne  (4999) ;  the  flax-spinning 
mills  (6368  spindlesX  cotton-mills  (17,830  spindles),  silk-mills  (5726), 
wool-mills  (8890)  ;  the  foundries  and  boat  and  bridge  building 
yards  at  Argenteuil  (10,167)  ;  the  engineering  and  railway  works 
at  Corbeil,  &c.  ;  the  agricultural  implement  factories  at  Dourdan 
(2819);  the  sugar-refineries  with  thousands  of  workmen;  distilleries 
on  most  of  the  large  farms  ;  starch-works,  laundries,  large  printing 
establishments  close  to  Paris ;  factories  Xor  chemical  products, 
caudles,  embroidery,  hosiery,  perfumery,  shoes,  and  buttons  ;  one 
of  the  finest  zinc -works  in  France;  saw- mills,  ic.  Besides  the 
navigation  of  the  Seine,  the  Marne,  the  Oise,  and  the  Canal 
d'Ourcq,  the  department  has  420  miles  of  raUroad,  457  of  national 
roads,  and  3958  of  other  roads.  Tlie  population  of  the  department 
in  1881  was  577,793  inhabitants  (one  and  a  half  times  the  average 
density  of  the  French  departments).  There  are  6  arrondissements, 
37  cantons,  and  686  communes  ;  the  department  forms  the  diocese 
of  Versailles,  is  divided  between  the  corps  d'annie  of  Amiens,  Rouen, 
Le  Mans,  and  Orleans,  and  has  its  court  of  appeal  at  Paris.  The 
commune  of  Argenteuil  (11,849  inhabitants)  is  not  only  important 
for  its  manufactures  but  also  for  its  market  gardens  (asparagus,  figs, 
grapes,  &c. );  and  its  church,  rebuilt  in  the  19th  century  in  the 
Romanesque  style,  is  a  fashionable  place  of  pilgiimage. 

SEINE  INFfiRIEURE,  a  department  of  the  north  of 
France,  formed  in  1790  of  four  districts  (Norman  Vexin, 
Bray,  Caux,  and  Roumois)  belonging  to  the  province  of 
Normandy.  Lying  between  49°  15'  and  50°  4'  N.  lat. 
and  1°  52'  and  0'  4'  E.  long.,,  it  is  bounded  N.W.  and  N. 
by  the  English  Channel  for  a  distance  of  80  miles,  N.E.  by 
Somme,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Bresle,  E.  by 
Oise,  S.  by  Eure  and  the  estuary  of  tlie  Seine,  which 
separates  the  department  from  Calvado.s.  It  is  divided 
almost  equally  betweep  the  basin  of  the  Seine  in  the  south 
and  the  basins  of  certain  coast  streams  in  the  north.  The 
Seine  receives  from  the  right  hand  before  it  reaches  the 
department  the  Epte  and  the  Andelie  from  the  Bray  dis- 
trict, and  then  the  Damital,  the  Cailly,  the  Austreberte, 
the  ik)lhec,  and  the  L6zarde.  The  main  coast  streams  are 
the  Bresle  (which  forms  the  ports  of  Eu  and  Trdport),  the 
Yfires,  the  Arques  or  Dieppe  stream  (formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Varennes,  the  Biithune,  and  the  Eaulne),  the  Scie, 
the  Saane,  the  Durdent.  As  a  whole  the  department  may 
be  described  as  an  elevated  plateau  culminating  towards 
the  east  in  a  point  807  feet  above  the  sea  and  terminating 
along  the  Seine  in  high  bluffs  and  towards  the  sea  in  steep 
chalk  cliffs  300  to  400  feet  high,  which  are  continually 
being  eaten  away  and  transformed  into  beds  of  shingle. 
There  is  no  striking  line  of  parting  between  the  basins  of 

XiL  —  79 


626 


S  E  I  — S  E  I 


the  Seine  and  the  Channel,  but  deep  valleys  have  been 
hollowed  out  by  the  streams.  The  Bray  district  in  the 
south-east  is  a  broad  valley  of  denudation  formed  by  the 
sea  as  it  retired,  and  it  is  traversed  by  smaller  valleys  and 
covered  with  excellent  pasture.  In  the  comparatively 
regular  outline  of  the  coast  there  are  a  few  breaks,  as  at 
Tr^port,  Dieppe,  St  Valepy-en-Caux,  Fecamp,  and  Havre, 
the  Cap  de  la  H^ve,  which  commands  this  last  port,  and 
Cape  Antifer,  12  or  13  miles  farther  north.  Tr^port, 
Dieppe,  Veules,  St  Valery,  Fecamp,  Yport,  Etretat,  and  Ste 
Adresse  (to  mention  only  the  more  important)  are  fashion- 
able watering-places  with  the  Parisians.  The  winters  are 
not  quite  so  cold  nor  is  the  summer  so  hot  as  in  Paris,  and 
tho  average  temperature  of  the  year  is  higher.  The  rain- 
fall is  24  inches  per  annum,  increasing  from  Eouen  to 
Dieppe  as  the  sea.  is  approached. 

"With  a  total  srea  of  1,491,458  acres,  Seine  Inferieuro  has 
811,938  acres  of  arable  ground,  151,125  of  wood,  99,703  grass, 
32,977  moorland  and  pasturage.  Out  of  a  total  population  of 
814,068  in  1881  those  dependent  on  agriculture  numbered  233,536. 
The  live  stock  in  the  same  year  comprised  81,561  horses  of  good 
breeds,  1421  asses,  125  mules,  236,493  cattle,  259,677  sheep  of 
ordinary  kinds  and  27,523  of  special  breeds  (wool-clip,  560  tons), 
78,186  pigs,  3341  goats,  13,202  beehives  (54  tons  of  honey  and  13  of 
wflx).  Milch  cows  are  kept  in  great  numbei-s,  and  Goumay  butter 
and  Goumay  and  Neufchatel  cheese  are  in  repute.  The  farms  of 
the  Caux  plateau  are  each  surrounded  by  an  earthen  dyke,  on  which 
are  planted  forest  trees,  generally  beech  and  oak.  "Within  the 
shelter  thus  provided  apple  and  pear  trees  grow,  which  produce  the 
cider  generally  drunk  by  the  inhabitants  (38,602,036  gallons  in 
1833).  The  other  crops  in  1883  were— wheat,  6,667,650  bushels  ; 
meslin,  59,960;  rye,  654,489;  barley,  443,751;  oats,  7,017,609; 
potatoes,  2,954,457  ;  pulse,  98,736  ;  beetroot  for  sugar  28,837  tons, 
and  for  fodder  118,099  ;  colza  seed,  29,076  tons ;  and  457,047  tons 
of  ordinary  fodder.  In  general  the  department  is  fertile  and  well 
cultivated.  Along  the  Seine  fine  meadow-land  has  been  reclaimed 
by  dyking  ;  and  sandy  and  barren  districts  have  been  planted  with 
trees,  mostly  with  oaks  and  beeches,  and  they  often  attain  magnifi- 
cent dimensions,  especially  in  the  forest  of  Arques  and  along  the 
railway  from  Rouen  to  Dieppe  ;  Finus  sylvc^tris  is  the  principal  com- 
ponent of  the  forest  of  Rouvray  opposite  Rouen.  With  the  exception 
of  a  little  peat  and  a  number  of  quarries,  employing  745  workmen, 
Seine  Inferieure  has  no  mineral  source  of  wealth  ;  but  manufactur- 
ing industry  is  well  developed.  Eouen  is  the  chief  centre  of  the 
cotton-trade,  v,iiich  is  in  the  depa.'tment  represented  by  190  spinning 
and  weaving  factories,  employing  22,947  hands,  1,400,000  spindles, 
14,000  power-looms,  and  4000  band-looms,  and  working  up  30,000 
tons  of  cotton  annually.  Hand-loom  weaving,  carried  on  throughout 
the  country  districts,  employs  18,000  looms  ;  in  the  branch  of  the 
cotton  trade  known  as  rouciinerie  190  manufacturers  are  employed, 
producing  to  the  value  of  £2,400,000  per  annum ;  in  that  of 
the  iTidicnncs  20  establishments  with  5000  workpeople  turn  out 
yearly  1,000,000  pieces  of  115  yards  each.  There  are  22  establish- 
ments for  dyeing  cotton  cloth  with  700  workmen,  and  for  dyeing 
cotton  yarn  32  establishments  with  1200  workmen.  The  woollen 
manufacture,  of  which  Elbeuf  is  the  centre,  employs  24,000  work- 
men and  produces  gooda  valued  at  about  £3,500,000,  with  raw 
material  valued  at  £1,720,000,  mainly  imported  from  Australia  and 
partly  from  the  La  Plata  ports.  The  wool-spinning  mills  (at  Elbeuf 
and  Darnetal)  have  92,000  spindles,  and  there  are  650  power-looms 
and  3800  hand-looms.  At  Elbeuf  (22,883  inhabitants  in  1881) 
there  are  17  dycworks,  50  twist  factories,  a  manufactory  of  carding 
machines,  and  45  cloth-dressing  factories.  About  18,000  spindles 
are  employed  in  flax-spinning,  an  industry  more  widely  distributed 
throughout  tho  department.  Engineering  works,  foundries,  and 
iron  shipbuilding  yards  occur  at  Havre  (population  105,540  in  1881) 
and  Rouen  (105,860).  Wooden  ships  are  also  built  at  Havre,  Rouen, 
Dieppe  (21,585),  and  Fecamp  (11,919).  Other  establishments  of 
importance  are  the  national  tobacco-factories  at  Dieppe  (1100  hands) 
and  Havre  (580  hands),  sugar-refineries  (£1,410,000  worth  of  sugar 
in  1881),  glass-works  (873  workmen),  soap-works,  chemical  works, 
candle-factories,  flour-mills,  oil-factories,  ivory-works,  lace-works, 
clock-factories,  &c.  The  total  number  of  industrial  establishments 
in  the  department  is  975  ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  305,460  persons 
depend  on  industrial  pursuits.  The  fisheries  are  a  great  resource 
for  the  inhabitants  of  the  seaboard.  Fecamp  sends  yearly  £100,000 
worth  of  cod  and  £30,000  worth  of  herrings,  maskerel,  &c.,  into  the 
market ;  Dieppe  has  the  supplying  of  Paris  with  fresh  fish  ;  St 
"Valery  sends  its  boats  as  far  as  Iceland.  The  principal  ports  for 
foreign  trade  are  Havre,  Rouen,  and  Dieppe.  There  are  364  miles 
of  railway,  370  of  national  roads,  €543  of  other  Voads,  98  of  Seine 
navigation,  and  the  Bresle  is  canalized  for  2  miles. .  In  population 
Seine  Infftieure  stands  fourth  in  the  list  of  French  departments  ; 


it  has  consequently  been  proposed  to  divide  it  into  the  two  depart- 
ments of  Seine  Inferieure  and  Seine  Maritime.  The  density  of 
population  is  double  the  average  of  France.  There  are  5  arrondisse- 
ments,  51  cantons  (of  which  3  are  in  Havre  and  6  in  Rouen),  and 
759  communes.  The  department  forms  the  archbishopric  of  Rouen  ; 
the  court  of  appeal  and  the  headquarters  of  the  corps  darinie  are 
also  in  that  city.  Places  of  importance  are  Elbeuf ;  Fecamp,  a 
fishing  port,  with  sea-bathing,  distilling,  &c.  ;  Bolbec  (10,226 
inhabitants),  with  weaving  and  spinning  factories;  and  Eu  (4827 
inhabitants),  with  a  celebrated  castle  belonging  to  Louis  Philippe 
and  tho  Orleans  family. 

SEISIN".  "  Seisin  of  the  freehold  may  be  defined  to 
be  the  possession  of  such  an  estate  in  land  as  was  anciently 
thought  worthy  to  be  held  by  a  free  man  "  (Williams,  On 
Seisin,  p.  2).  Seisin  is  now  confined  to  possession  of  the 
freehnld.  though  at  one  time  it  appears  to  have  been  used 
for  simple  possession  without  regard  to  the  estate  of  the 
possessor.  (See  Possession.)  Its  importance  is  consider- 
ably less  than  it  was  at  one  time  owing  to  the  old  form  of 
conveyance  by  feoffment  with  livery  of  seisin  having  been 
superseded  by  a  deed  of  grant  (see  Real  Estate),  and 
the  old  rule  of  descent  from  the  person  last  seised  having 
been  abolished  in  favour  of  descent  from  the  purchaser. 
(See  Inherit AifCE.)  At  one  time  the  right  of  the  wife  to 
dower  and  of  the  husband  to  an  estate  by  curtesy  depended 
upon  the  doctrine  of  seisin.  The  Dower  Act,  3  and  4 
"Will.  rV.  c.  105,  has,  however,  rendered  the  fact  of  the 
seisin  of  the  husband  of  no  importance,  and  the  Married 
"Women's  Property  Act,  1882,  appears  to  have  practically 
abolished  the  old  law  Of  cin-tesy.  In  the  case  of  a  convey- 
ance operating  under  the  Statute  of  "Uses,  seisin  is  deemed 
to  be  given  by  the  effect  of  the  statute.  This  constructive 
seisin  may  still  be  of  importance  where  the  question  arises 
how  long  a  person  has  been  in  actual  possession.  Thus  in 
Orme's  Case  (Law  Rep.,  8  Common  Pleas,  281)  the  right 
to  a  county  vote  depended  upon  the  forru  of  the  convey- 
ance of  a  rent-charge  to  the  voter.  ,11"  the  conveyance  had 
been  under  the  statute,  the  claimant  would  have  been 
seised  for  a  sufficient  time ;  the  court,  however,  held  that 
the  conveyance  was  a  common  law  grant,  and  that  the 
grantee  must  have  been  in  actual  receipt  of  the  rent  in 
order  to  entitle  him  to  be  registered. 

Primer  seisin  was  a  feudal  burden  at  one  tirne  incident 
to  the  king's  tenants  in  capite,  whether  by  knight  service 
or  in  socage.  It  was  the  right  of  the  crown  to  receive  of 
the  heir,  after  the  death  of  a  tenant  in  capite,  one  year's 
profits  of  lands  in  possession  and  half  a  year's  profits  of 
lands  in  reversion.  The  right  was  abandoned  by  the  Act 
abolishing  feudal  tenures  (12  Car.  II.  c.  2i). 

In  Scotch  law  the  corresponding  term  is  "sasine."  Like  seisin 
in  England,  sasine  has  become  of  little  legal  importance  owing  to 
recent  legislation.  By  8  and  9  "Vict.  c.  35  actual  sasine  on  the 
lands  was  m&de  unnecessary.  By  21  and  22  "Vict.  c.  76  the  instru- 
ment of  sasine  was  superseded  by  the  recording  of  the  conveyance 
with  a  warrant  of  registration  thereon.  For  the  register  of  sasines, 
see  Registration. 

SEISMOMETER.  This  name  was  originally  given  to 
instruments  designed  to  measure  the  movement  of  the 
ground  during  earthquakes.  Recent  observations  have 
shown  that,  in  addition  to  the  comparatively  great  and 
sudden  displacements  which  occur  in  earthquakes,  tho 
ground  is  subject  to  other  movements.  Some  of  these, 
which  may  be  called  "  earth- tremors,"  resemble  earthquakes 
in  the  rapidity  "with  which  they  occur,  but  differ  from 
earthquakes  in  being  imperceptible  (owing  to  the  small- 
ness  of  the  motion)  until  instrumental  means  are  used 
to  detect  them.  Others,  which  may  be  called  "  earth-tOt- 
ings,"  show  themselves  by  a  slow  bending  and  unbending 
of  the  surface,  so  that  a  post  stuck  in  the  ground,  ver- 
tical to  begin  with,  does  not  remain  vertical,  but  inclines 
now  to  one  side  and  now  to  another,  the  plane  of  the 
ground  in  which  it  stands  shifting  relatively  to  the  horizon.' 
No  sharp  distinction  can  be  drawn  between  these  classes 


SEISMOMETER 


627 


of  movements.  -  Earthquakes  and  earth-tremors  grade  into 
one  another,  and  in  almost  every  earthquake  there  is  some 
tilting  of  the  surface.  The  term  "  seismometer  "  may  con- 
veniently be  extended  (and  will  here  be  understood)  to 
cover  all  instruments  wMch  are  designed  to  measure  move- 
ments of  the  ground. 

Measurements  of  earth-movements  are  of  two  distinct 
types.  In  one  type,  which  is  applicable  to  ordinary 
earthquakes  and  earth-tremors,  the  thing  measured  is  the 
displacement  of  a  point  in  the  earth's  crust.  In  the 
second  type,  which  is  applicable  to  slow  tiltings,  the  thing 
measured  is  any  change  in  the  plane  of  the  earth's  surface 
relatively  to  the  vertical.  Under  Earthquake  mention 
is  made  of  instruments  designed  by  Palmieri  and  others 
to  register  the  occurrence  of  earthquakes,  and  in  some  cases 
to  give  a  general  idea  of  their  severity.  While  some  of 
those  instruments  act  well  as  seismoscopes,  none  of  them 
serve  to  determine  with  precision  the  character  or  the 
magnitude  of  the  motion.  ■  In  this  ai'ticle  notice  will  be 
taJcen  only  of  instruments  intended  for  exact  measurement. 

Earthquake  displacements  are  in  general  vertical  as  well 
as  horizontal.  For  the  purpose  of  measurement  it  is  con- 
venient to  treat  the  vertical  component  separately,  and  in 
some  cases  to  resolve  the  horizontal  motion  into  two  com- 
jonents  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

iTiertia  Method. — In  the  first  type  of  measurements  what  may  be 
;alled  the  *'  inertia  "  method  is  followed,  A  mass  is  suspended  with 
'Veedom  to  move  in  the  direction  of  that  component  of  the  earth's 
motion  which  is  to  be  measured.  When  an  impulse  occurs  the 
supports  move,  but  ,the  mass  is  prevented  by  its  inertia  from 
accompanying  them.  It  supplies  a  steady  point,  to  be  used  as  a 
standard  of  reference  in  determining  the  extent  through  which  the 
ground  has  moved  in  the  direction  in  question.  But,  in  order  that 
the  suspended  mass  shall  not  acquire  motion  when,  its.supports 
move,  one  essential  condition  must  be  satisfied.  Its  equilibrium 
must  be  neutral,  or 
nearly  so,  in  order  that, 
when  the  supports  are 
displaced,  little  or  no 
force  may  be  brought 
into  operation  tendLig 
to  bring  the  mass  into 
the  same  position  rela- 
tive to  the  supports  as 
it  occupied  before  dis- 
turbance. This  can  be 
made  plain  by  consider- 
ing the  case  of  a  common 
pendulum  hung  from  a 
Bupporl  which  is  rigidly  , 
fixed  to  the  erouno. 
When  the  ground  moves 
in  any  horizontal  direc- 
tion the  pendulum's 
iaertia  causes  a  certaiq 
point  in  it  (the  centra 
of  percussion)  to  remain 
for  the  instant  at  rest. 
But  tills  contrivance 
does  not  yield  a  steady 
point,  because  the  sta- 
mlity  of  the  pendulum 
makes  the  bob  smng 
down  to  recover  its  placo 
directly  under  the  sup- 
port ;  and  in  fact,  if  a 
succession  of  oscillations 
of  the  ground  occur,  the 
bob  acquires  a  motion 
often  much  greater  than 
the  motion  of  the  sup- 
port itself.  This  tend- 
ency may  be  corrected, 
and  the  pendulum  made 
fit  to  act  as  a  seismo- 
meter, by  any  contri- 
vance which  (without  --»,.,  ,  , 
introducing  friction)  ^^^-  l-— Duplex  pendulum  seismograph, 
will  reduce  its  stability  so  much  as  to  make  the  equilibrium  of  the 
Imb  vcn,'  nearly  neutral.  In  all  instruments  designed  to  furnish  a 
Kteady  point  the  suspended  ousa  must  have  some  s'mall  stability,. 


else  it  would  be  unmanageable ;  but  its'  period  of  free  oscillation 
must  be  much  greater  than  that  of  tlie  earth  quake -motions  which 
it  is  employed  to  measure.  Even  a  simple  pendulum  can, have  its 
stability  reduced  sufficiently  to  fit  it  for  seismometric  work  bj 
making  it  very  long.  The  same  result  is,  howev.er,  much  more  con- 
veniently achieved  by  combining  a  common  pendulum  with  an' 
inverted  pendulum  placed  just  beneath  it.  The'common  penduluin( 
being  stable  and  the  inverted  pendulum  unstable,  if  the  bobs  are' 
jointed  so  that  they  must  move  together,  the  combisiitiou  can  be 
made  as  nearly  astatic  as  may  be 
desired.*  Figs.  1  and  2  illustrate 
how  this  combination  is  applied 
in  seismometry.  The  stable  bob 
rt,  hung  from  a  fixed  support 
above  by  three  parallel  wires,  is 
connected  with  the  inverted  pen- 
dulum b  by  a  ball-and-tube  joint. 
A  lever  c,  carried  by  a  gimbal 
joint  in  the  fixed  bracket  d,  is 
geared  also  by  a  ball-and-tube 
joint  to  the  upper  bob.  Its  long 
arm  carries  a  jointed  index  e, 
which  projects  out  and  touches 
a  smoked-glpss  plate  /,  held  on 
a  fixed  shelf.  Anv  horizontal 
motion  of  the  ground  acts  on  the  ^^0.  2.— Duplex  pendulum 
lever    by    the    bracket    d^   and  shomng  details, 

causes  the  index  to  trace  a  magnified  record  on  the  smoked-glass 
plate.  Fig.  1  is  taken  from  a  photograph  of  an  instrument  of 
this  kind,  constructed  to  give  a  much  magnified  record  of  small 
movements.  When  large  earthquakes  are  to  be  recorded  the  mul- 
tiplying lever  is  dispensed  with,  and  the  index  is  att-ached  directly 
to  one  of  the  bobs.  Observations  with  instruments  of  this  class 
exhibit  well  the  very  complicated  motion  which  the  earth's  surface 
undergoes  during  an  earthquake.  In  small  earthquakes  {such  as 
are  only  slightly  or  not  at  all  destructive)  the  greatest  amplitude 
of  motion  is  often  less  than  a  millimetre,  and  rarely  more  than  a 
centimetre  ;  the  disturbafice  nevertheless  consists  of  a  multitude 
of  successive  movements,  quite  irregular  in  amplitude,  period,  and 
tliiection.  Fig.  3  is  a  facsimile  of  the  record  given 
by  a  duplex  pendulum  seismograph  during  one  of  j 
the  earthquakes  which  occur  frequently  in  the 
plain  of  Yedo,  Japan.  The  record,  as  engraved,  is 
three  and  a  half  times  the  earth's  actual  motion. 
Instead  of  two  pendulums,  a  single  inverted  pen-  _  "'T'__-r  _j 
dulura  has  been  used,  with  a  spring  stretched  f  '  -^i,  u 
between  it  and  a  fixed  suppoi-t  above.  By  ad-  °  .^^'^^  l'^  ® 
justing  the  spring  so  that  a  proper  proportion  of  '  °* 

the  weight  is  borne  by  it  and  the  remainder  by  the  rigid  "stem  of 
the  pendulum,  an  approach  to  neutral  equilibrium  can  be  made.* 
In  Forbes's  inverted  pendulum  seismometer^  a  somewhat  similar 
plan  was  adopted*  the  foot  of  the  pendulum  was  attached  to  an 
elastic  wire  which  tended  to  restore  it  to  its  normal  vertical 
position  when  displaced. 

Another  group  of  instruments  designed  to  furnish  two  degrees 
of  freedom  for  the  purpose  of  recording  all  motions  in  a  horizontal 
plane,  but  much  loss  satisfactory  on  account  of  their  friction,  is 
that  in  which  a  rolling  sphere  either  itself  supplies  inertia  or  forms 
a  support  for  a  second  inertia-giving  mass.  Probably  the  earliest 
was  one  used  in  Japan  by  Dr  G.  F.  Verbeck  in  1876  (see  fig.  4). 
On  a  marble  table,  ground 
plane  and  carefully  levelled, 
tour  balls  of  rock-crystal 
were  placed,  carrj'ing  s 
massive,  block  of  hard 
wood.  A  pencil,  sliding 
in  a  holt  in  the  block,  r 
gistered  the  relative  motion 
of  the  table  and  the  block 
on   a  sheet  of  paper  fixed 

below.      The  motion  regis-      p-j^^  4. —Rolling  sphere  seismograph, 
tcrcd    is   (or  would    be,   if 

there  were  no  friction)  somewhat  larger  than  the  true  motion  of 
the  table,  for  the  system  is  kineticnlly  equivalent  to  four  upright 
pieces  whose  centres  of  percussion  lie  in  a  plane  nearly,  but  not 
quite,  as  high  as  the  tops  of  the  balls.  This  forma  what  may  be 
called  the  steady  plane  ;  its  position  depends  on  the  relative  masses 
of  block  and  balls,  and  is  easily  calculated.  When  the  ground 
moves  in  any  direction  the  block  moves  through  a  short  distance 
in  the  opposite  direction,  and  the  record  is  magnified  in  a  fixed 
ratio.  Varioua  forms  of  rolling- sphere  seismometers  have  been 
■»  ,     ,  ■  ■ 

'  J.  A.  Ewing,  "A  Duplex  Pendulum  Seismometer,"  in  TransactioTis 
o/lhe  Scisinologiml  Society  o/ Japan,  vol.  v.,  1882,  p,'  89. 

-  Ewing.  "  A  Duplfx  Pendulu*"  with  a  Single  Bob,"  in  Trans.  Scis* 
Soc.  Jap.,  vol.  vi..  1883,  p.  19. 

»  HcpoH  of  Brit.  Aasoc,  1841,  p.  47,  or  Trans.  R.  S.  £.,  xv.  p.  21^ 


SEISMOMETER 


628 

centre  of  -ravity  a  little  under  the  centre  of  curvature.  1  he  umtre 
of  p  r™- '".  --<=-hat  higher  than  this,  .-ould  of  course  he  he 
steady  point,  and  a  multiElying  P"^-^*"  .""f '  '.  of  the  Tl  n° 
ither  from  it  or  from  any  other  "°y,™'™*;Pt'cylnders,  which 
l«ce     All  rolling  -'-^trTar  t  "e"f  e  ^oS  TusUuments,  to 

^.e  of  rolling  seismometers  unadvisable.  except  perhaps  for  the 
rouc'h  measurement  of  violent  earthquakes.  l,„,.i7ontal 

The  seismographs  which  have  been  described  draw  a  homontel 
nlan  of  the  p?th  pursued  during  an  earthquake  by  a  point  on  the 
plan      tue  p.       i  .        ^^  ^^^^  ^^j^^;^^  ^.  ^^,^  displaco- 


earth's  sui-face.    'They  take  no  note  of  the  relation  o.  uio  uisp 
ment  toTimc,-an  element  which  is  reouired  if  we  a-  to  form^y 
estimate  of  the  violence  of  an  earthqu.'ke  f™°>  *%"™lt-,    ^'^h, 
this  view^a  dilTerent  method  of  regis  ration  is  also  M  °^^ed       Ihe 
Uole  movement  is  resolved  into  rectilinear  components  and  thc.e 
are  separately  recorded  (by  single-freedom  seisraome  ers)  on  a  plate 
or  drum  which  is  kept  in  continuous  movement,  -^o  that  the  rtcord 
of  each  component  takes  the  form  of  an  undulatrng  line,  from  wh  cli 
the  number:  succession,  amplitude,  velocity,  and  acceleration  of  the 
comprent  movements' can'ba  deduced  and  the  resultant  motion 
determined      A  single  steady  mass  with  two  degrees  of  freedom 
may  ?«11  be  employed  to  record,  separately,  two  components  of 
Sontal  motion;  but  it  is  generalfy  preferabk  to  provide       o 
distinct  masses,  each  with  one  degree  of  freedom.     The  princip- 
rnstrument  of  ihh  class  is  the  horizontal  pendulurn  seismograph 
^hich  has  been  used  to  record  Japanese  earthquakes  since  IbSO 
Tt    onsists  of  two  horizontal  penlulums,  set  at  "S^^^l&ll'^J^^^ 
other    esch  supplying  a  steady  point  wita  respect  to  hoiizontal 
ItYnBtransvfryto-its  own  length      Each  pendulum  is  pvoted 
Siout  two  points,  on  an  axis  which  is  nearly  vertical    but  in- 
clined slightly  forwards  to  give  a  suitable  degree  of  stabihty.     In 
some  fo  ms  ot^he  instrument  the  pivoted  frame  ct  the  pendulum 
LTght,  and  the  inertia  is  practically  all  furnished  by  a  second 
pied  or  bob  pivoted  on  the  frame  about  a  vertical  axis  through 
?he  cenh-e  of  percussion  of  the  frame.     Tliis  construction  has  the 
advantage  of  compactness  and  of  making  the  position  of  the  stead, 
point  at  once  determinate.     But  a  simpler  construction  is  to  at- 
Lch  the  bob  rigidly  to  the  frame.     This  shift,  the  steady  point 
»  little  way  outwards  from  the  position  it  would  have  iX  the  bob 
were  pivoted.     In  either  construction  a  prolongaaon  of  the  pendu- 
lum beyond  the  bob  forms  a  convenient  multiplying  index,     iig. 


or  be  started  into  motion  by  an  electric  seismoscope  when  the 
SrUestindfcatlons  of  an  earthquake  are  felt.  The  former  plan  is 
nracticable  only  when  the  instrument  can  receive  careful  attend- 
ance and  where  earthquakes  occur  often.  It  has  the  drawback  that 
the  circle  which  is  drawn  by  each  pointer  as  the  plate  revolves 
be'ow  gradually  broadens,  plrtly  because  of  warping  and  tempera- 
toe  claf^es  in  the  supports  and  partly  because  of  actual  tilting  of 
"e  pound!  As  an  earthquake  generally  beS^- with  comparatively 
insi^nincant  movements,  there  is  not  much  to  object  to  in  hajing 
th„  iil'ite  at  rest  to  bcmn  with,  provided  a  sufficiently  sensitive 
startiit  setLotope  be  Ssed.  A  suitable  arrangement  for  this  pur- 
rose  \s°oned"e  to'l'almieri:  a  short  pendulum  hangs  over  a  cup  of 
pose  is  one  uu  depression  is  formed  by  an  iron 

mercury,  '°  **>  "°*'' °  'i^;!^/ than  the  surface  of  the  mercury. 
S  ^end'lum'  ends  ^"a  platinum  point,  which  stands  clear  in  the 
^^S^illi^f  ssion  Lton<^esthe«^^^ 

rXctr  -Itef  wSchlta'rL'  fte*ci:ck.\ln  the  most  recent 

HHiefei:v^r;i:^^=^^li^^^^?^ 
^-^^tnS^i^Sir:^^"^^^-^^ 

pendulum  in  show-  •      '  i      ■      . 


Flo.  5.— Horuontal  pendulum  seismograph. 


5  sho;^,  a  complete  horizontal  pendulum  '"'^"^'^^ ^^'^JZtlt 
bobs).  Two  Pcctangular  components  of  earthquake  ''>o.t'°"  ;™ 'J 
cord  d  radially  on  a  revolving  plate  of  smoked  g  ass.  ^^ich  rec  c 
ite  motion  thiough  a  friction  roller  from  a  clock  f^^'^^f  ^^'^^V; 
fluid-friction  centrifugal  governor.  The  '^  °^1^  T/^rau!  monieTt 
going  continuously,  in  expectation  of  an  earthquake  at  any  moment, 

1  Gray,  Phil.  Jfoj.,  September  ISSl.  v„,,„  irm 

:  Stev;„.o„,  Trais.  Boy.  Scot.  foe.  cfAyl:.  J^™^ /^-    jjo    210,  ISSl.  or 
•  Biting,  "  On  a  Xew  Si[smo^vh:    la  Pr«.  wy.  £«.,  '><>•  ''". 
IVanj.  &iJ  Sm.  cf  Japan,  Dooerabcr  ISSO. 


ing  that  earthquake 
motion  is  a  tangle 
of  waves  in  all  azi- 
muths. This  will 
bo  seen  by  reference 
to  fig.  6,which  shows 

a  small  .portioti  of        •  / 

an    earthquake    re-  j.^^    6.  — Kecord  of  cai-thquake  by  horizontal 
gistered  by  a  pair  of      pendulum  seismogr.nph  ;  one-thu-d  fjU  size. 
fr-^^ConteSpta-ry  parts  of  the  two  -cords  are  shown  together 
the  straight  radial  Unes  marking  seconus  of  time.     The  phases 
the   two   components   are   con- 
tinually   changing,    and    when 
the   two   are    compounded    tho 
result    is    a    path   having    tho 
same  characteristics  as  those  of 
the  diagram  in  fig.  3.     Fi^.  7 
gives  the  result  of  compounding 
the  records  of  tig.  6  during  threa 
seconds,  while  the  rangeof  move- 
ment was  a  maximum. 

To  register  the  vertical  dom- 
ponent  of  earthquake  motions 
we  require  to  suspend   a  mass  ^ 

with   vertical    freedom.      Most  ^.^^  7._Kesult  of  compoundmg  the 
ways    of   doing    this    give   too       '    '      jecord  of  fig.  6. 
much  stability,  as,  for  instance,  •  j  i, ,  .  !,«.-; 

-h:n  a  weigh^t  is  hung  -- a_s..al^sp^^^^^^ 

by  a  flexible  spring  ioiut.  This  l.-.st  is  ths 
vertical  motion  seis- 
mometer which  was 
used  by  the  British 
Association  Commit- 
tee at  Comrie  in  1 842. 
Another  form,  me- 
chanically equivalent 
to  this,  is  a  weighted 
horizontal  bar,  pivot- 
ed on  a  fixed  hori- 
zontal fulcrum,  and 
l-.eld  up  hj  a  spiral 
spring,  stretched 
from  a  point  near 
tho  fulcrum  to 
fixed  support  above. 
This  mode  of  suspen- 
sion is  still  too  stable. 

though  less  so  than  8.— Principle  "f 

if    the    spring   were      ^^_^.^^j        ^„u„^ 
directlr  loaded      To      ^.j^^         h. 
make    it    nearly    a- 
static   Jlr   T.    Gray*  proposed   tlif    use 
of  a  tube  containing  mercury,  connected  with  the  bar  m  such  a 
mann  r  that  when  tho  bar  goes  down  the  mercury;  "-nninj^    o- 
wards  one  end  of  the  tube,  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  ,^sh 
and  when  the  bar  goes  up  an  opposite  eS^cct  occurs.     Tins  plan  ^ 
open  to  the  objection  that  the  mercury  is  disturbed  by  hoiizontal 
n^vements  of  the  ground.      A  simpler  plan  is  ^^l^owu  in  fig.   S 
There  the  pull  of  the  spring  is  applied  at  a  short  distance  r  below 
the"  lane  of  the  bar.    Hence  wh^njheweight  goes  dox;-n  the  spnng. 

4  0r.iv,  Tmn,.  Sci:.  Sx.  Ji>p..  vol.  iil    p.  13T 

»  EKing,  Trans.  Stis.  Soc.Jup.,  vol.  Hi.  l>.  HO. 


I 


SEISMOMETER 


629 


Astatic  suspension. 


■which  then  pulls  Tvith  more  force,  pulls  with  a  smaller  leverage, 
and  it  is  easy  to  adjust  the  distance  v  so  that  the  moment  of  tlje 
pull  of  the  spring  remains  sensibly  equal  to  the  moment  of  the 
■weight, — tne  condition  necessary  to  make  the  bar  astatic     This  is 

secured  when  v  =  -r,h  being  the  horizontal  distance  from  the  ful- 
crum to  the  point  at  which  the  spring  acts,  and  I  the  length  by 
•which  the  spring  is  stretched  when  the  bar  is  undeflected.  Stability 
is  given  by  making  r  somewhat  less  than  this.  A  vertical -motion 
seismograph,  constructed  on  the  principle  which  fig.  8  illustrates 
diagrammatically,  is  arranged  to  trace  its  record  on  a  revolving  glass 
plate.  TMs,  along  with  a  pair  of  horizontal  pendulums  recording 
■on  the  same  plate,  completes  a  three-component  seismograph. 

An  interesting  mode  of  suspension,  by  which  a  mass  is  hung  m 
neutral  or  nearly  neutral  equilibrium,  with  one  degree  of  horizontal 
freedom,  is  shown  in  6g.  9.     It  ia  ^ 

based  on  the  approximate  straight 
line  linkwork  of  Tchebicheff.  When 
a  bar  is  hung  from  fixed  supports 
by  crossed  ties,  at  a  distance  below 
the  supports  equal  to  the  distance 
tetweeu  the  supports,  the  length  of 
the  bar  being  equal  to  half  that 
distance,  its  middle  point  moves  in 
very  nearly  a  straight  line.  By  fix- 
ing a  weight  at  the  centre  of  the 
bar  and  adding  a  suitable  recording 
apparatus,  we  have  a  very  friction- 
less  form  of  one -component  hori- 
zontal seismometer.^  Whfen  a  dis- 
placement of  the  ground  occurs  in  the  line  of  the  bar,  the  bar  is 
■tilted  through  an  angle  which  is  proportional  to  the  linear  displace- 
ment, and  the  centre  of  the  bar  consequently  shares,  in  a  small  and 
'definite  proportion,  the  motion  of  the  ground, — a  fact  which  is  to 
"be  borne  in  mind  in  estimating  the  degree  of  multiplication  given 
by  the  recording  apparatus. 

The  instruments  which  have  been  described  afford  complete  and 
satisfactory  means  of  determining  the  motion  which  a  point  of  the 
ground  undergoes  during  any  disturbance  which  would  be  recog- 
nized as  an  earthquake.  For  minute  earth -tremors,  however,  a 
Ltrger  multiplication  is  necessary,  and  the  absence  of  friction  is  of 
€ven  more  importance  than  in  the  measurement  of  earthquakes 
proper.  Optical  methods  of  magnifying  the  motion  are  accordingly 
rworted  to.  In  the  "  normal  tromometar  "  of  Bertelli,  used  in  Italy 
to  detect  earth -tremors,  the  bob  of  a  pendulum,  suspended  by  a  fine 
■wire  from  a  fixed  support,  is  viewed  through  a  reflecting  prism  and 
its  motion  in  any  azimuth  measured  by  a  micrometer  microscope. 
The  great  stability  of  the  pendulum,  which  is  only  \\  metres  long, 
prevents  it  from  behaving  as  a  steady-point  seismometer  ;  and,  if 
auccessivo  earth-movements  were  by  chance  to  occur  with  a  period 
equal  or  nearly  equal  to  its  own  free  period,  its  acquired  sv/ing 
would  altogether  mask  the  legitimate  indications.  This  kind  of 
action  has,  in  fact,  been  turned  to  account  as  a  means  of  detecting 
very   minute    earth  -  tremors  j     I 

by  Rossi,  who    has  devised  r — t_ 

a  micro-scismoscope,  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  pendu- 
lums of  various  lengths,  one 
or  other  of  which  is  likely 
to  be  set  swinging  when  the 
ground  shakes  to  and  fro  re- 
peatedly, through  even  tlie 
minutest  range.  To  measure 
tremors,  however,  the  instru- 
ments of  Bertelli  and  Rossi 
are  inappropriate ;  for  that 
purpose,  just  as  for  the  pur- 
pose of  measuring  larger 
motions,  the  suspended  mass 
must  bo  in  nearly  neutral 
enuilibridra.  To  find  a  mode 
of  suspension  which  is  at  once 
astatic  and  extremely  fric- 
tionlcEs  is  a  matter  of  some 
difficulty;  the  crossed-link 
suspension,  which  has  been 
already  described,  is  probably 
the  most  satisfactory  means  ^ 
hitherto  suggested.      It  has 

been  adopted  in  the  micro-  t<      in      ir-         •  * 

*,;<=™«™^;-.-    1    .  V  J  f""-'"  Fig.  10,— Microseismometer. 

seismometer  sketched  in  sec- 
tion in  fig.  10.     Two  bobs  are  separately  suspended,  in  the  manner 
ahown  by  fig.  9,  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  one  above  the  other, 
in  a  cast-iron  case.     A  microscope,  fixed  to  the  top  of  the  case  and 
furnished  with  a  micrometer  eye-p:ec?,  13  focused  on  a  hair,  which 

"»  Ewing,  "  Ou  ccrUJD  ilethoda  yf"A5Uvi(;  busiicnsi-.i  '{xTTrcns.  icicTSoc. 
Jap-t  voL  vl.  p.  25. 


is  stretched  transversely  across  a  vertical  tube  in  the  upper  bob  a. 
This  serves  to  measure  horizontal  motion  in  the  plane  of  the  dra-n-ing. 
Motion  at  right  angles  to  this  is  shewn  by  the  lower  bob  c  (draw-n 
in  section),  which  carries  a  similar  transverse  hair.  A  fixed  lens  6 
between  the  bobs  gives  an  image  of  the  lower  hair  in  the  plane  of 
the  upper  hair,  so  that  both  appear  crossed*  in  the  field  of  the 
microscope,  thereby  allowing  both  components  of  horizontal  motion 
to  be  observed  together. 

Equilihriuin  Method.  — In  observing  slow  earth -til  tings  an  entirely 
difierent  process  is  followed.  The  problem  then  is,  not  to  measure 
displacements  by  aid  of  the  inertia  of  a  body  which  tends  to  pre- 
serve its  original  position,  but  to  compare  the  direction  of  a  Une  or 
plane  fixed  to  the  earth  with  the  direction  of  the  vertical.  The 
earliest  observations  of  earth-tiltings  j^'ere  made' by  the  aid  of 
spirit-levels.  If  a  level  be  set  on  a  table  fixed  to  the 'rock,  its 
bubble,  watched  through  a  microscope,  will  be  seen  to  move  slowly 
now  to  one  side  and  now  to  another.  The  movements  are  so  slow 
that  the  inertia  of  the  fluid  is  unimportant.  Observatiooi  with 
pairs  of  levels,  set  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  have  been  carried 
on  systematically  for  some  years  by  M.  P.  Plantamour.^  This  is  the 
simplest  method  of  measming  earth-tiltings,  but  it  is  liable  to  errors 
which  are  not  easily  excluded.  Another  method  of  investigating 
changes  in  the  direction  of  the  vertical  was  initiated  in  1S68  by 
5L  A.  d'Abbadie,^  who  hdd  before  that  observed  the  movements  of 
level-bubbles.  Light  from  a  fixed  source  is  made  to  fall  on  a  reflect- 
ing basin  of  mercury  about  1 0  metres  below  it.  Above  the  basin  is  a 
larc;9  lens  of  long  focus;  which  brings  the  rays  into  parallelism  dur- 
ing their  passage  to  the  mercury,  and  causes  them  to  converge  after 
reflexion,  so  that  an  image  of  the  source  is  formed  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  it,  and  in  the  same  horizontal  plane.  The  interval 
between  the  source  and  the  image  is  measured  (in  amount  and 
azimuth)  at  least  twioo  a  day  by  a  micrometer  microscope.  The 
accuracy-of  the  method  depends  on  the  fixity  of  the  source  of  light 
relatively  to  the  lens  and  to  the  surface  of  the.  ground,  and  to 
secure  this  M.  d'Abhadie  built  a  massive  hollow  cone  of  concrete 
for  the  support  of  his  apparatus.  His  observations  have  shown 
that  the  earth's  surface  undergoes"  almost  incessant  slow  tilting 
through  angles  which,  in  tlio  course  of  a  year,  have  been  found  to 
range  over  four  seconds.  He  has  also  noticed  the  occurrence  of 
earth-tremors  by  the  occasional  blurring  of  the  image  thiough 
agitation  of  the  mercury.  An  improvement  on  his  apparatus  sug- 
gested by  M.  "Wolf^  is  shown  in  fig.  11. 
The  light,  instead  of  being  all  reflected 
from  the  free  surface  of  mercury  (a),  is 
partly  reflected  from  that  and  partly  from 
a  plane  mirror  (i)  fixed  to  the  rock.  Two 
images  are  therefore  formed,  whose  rela- 
tive position  measures  the  tilting  of  the 
surface.  The  advantage  of  this  is  that 
the  position  of  the  source  of  light  need 
no  longer  be  fixed,  and  the  accuracy  of 
the  method  depends  only  on  the  fixity 
of  the  mirror  b  with  respect  to  the  rock. 
Further,  to  avoid  having  the  source  and 

image  at  a  great  height  above  the  surface, 

M.   Wolf  allows  the  light  to  reach  and  ^^-^ 
leave  the  apparatus  horizontally,  in  the  ■^^^'  ^  ' 

manner  indicated  in  the  sketch,  by  using  a  plane  mirror  inclined 
at  45°  to  the  horizon.  Still  another  mode  of  investigating  slow 
changes  of  the  vertical  was  followed  (at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  William 
Thomson)  by  Messrs  G.  H.  and  H.  Darwin,  in"observations  made  by 
them  with  the  view  of  measuring  the  lunar  disturbance  of  gravity. 
The  Reports  of  the  British  A$sfoc:atiou  for  1881  and  1S82  contain  a 
full  account  of  their  apparatus,  as  well  as  notices  of  tlic  work  of  othci* 
observers  and  a  discussion  of  the  cause  of  earth-tilting.  Their  in- 
strument was  a  short  pendulum  hung  in  a  viscous  fluid,  from  a  fixed 
support,  by  two  wires  arraiiged  V-wise  to  leave  the  pendulum  only 
one  degree  of  freedom.  Below  the  bob  was  a  small  mirror  hung  by 
two  threads,  one  of  which  was  attached  to  the  pendulum  bob  and 
the  other  to  a  fixed  support.  The  pendulum  was  free  to  swing  at 
riglit  angles  to  the  pl.Tuc  of  the  threads,  and  any  movement  of  this 
kind  caused  the  mirror  to  rotate .  through  an  angle  which  was 
measured  in  tiio  usual  way  by  a  telescope  and  scale.  The  method 
13  susceptible  of  very  great  delicacy,  but  Messrs  Darwin  found 
that  when  the  instruracnt  was  adjusted  to  be  specially  sensitive  its 
manipulation  became  extremely  difficult.  "Wolrs  modification  of 
D'Abbadie's  method  appears  to  furnish,  on  the  whole,  the  most 
promising  apparatus  for  measurements  of  this  type.  The  ap- 
paratus represented  in  fig.  10  iz  also  applicable.  The  metliod 
of  measurement  employed  in  the  case  of  slow  tiltings  may  be  called 
the  equilibrium, method  in  contradistinction  to  the  inertia  method, 
which  is  used  to'mcasure  comparatively  sudden  displacements.    The- 

2  Plantamour,  ComjiUi  P^^ndus,  24th  Juno  1S78,  1st  December  1ST9,  &C. ;  and 
nomfrn'.]?  pnpers  :n  Ardiixa  da  5cifac?-t,  Gcncvr.,  1S78M. 

3  D'Abtr.il;c,  £tudes  sur  In  VerticaU  (Association  Fran^alse  pour  TAranco- 
ncDt  <lc3  bc;cncc5\  1S72,  p.  J59 ;  also  Ann.  dc  \a  Soc.  Scient.  de  Bruztllcs,  1S8U 

<  CompU:  i:',ndiis,  xcvii.  p.  £28. 


630 


S  E  I  — S  E  L 


two  methods  are  applicable  to  two  widely  different  classed  of  more 
raenta.  It  is  at  least  possible  that  between  these  classes  there  may  be 
other  modes  of  motion, — displaeements  which  are  too  slow  for  the 
inertia  method,  and  which  give  rise  to  too  little  change  of  slope  for 
th-^  equilibrium  method.  How  to  measure  them  is,  and  must  appar- 
ently remain,  an  unsolved  problem  in  seisraometry. 

Refrrenca.— The  Report  of  the  British  Aasociatioo  for  1858  contains  an 
account  by  Mallet  of  »ome  of  the  older  and  now  obsolete  fonua  of  seismometers 
{net  als(j  Earthqdake),  For  acconnta  of  modem  instnimenta  of  the  inertia 
class,  see  the  TranMctiom  of  the  Seismological  Society  of  Japan  from  1830,  also 
Prof.  Evring's  Mejnoir  on  Earthquake  Meas^irement,  published  by  the  university 
of  Tokio  (1SS3).  Beferences  to  papers  on  the  equilibrium  method  of  measure- 
ment have  l>een  made  in  the  text.  (J*  A.  E.} 

SEISTAN.     See  Sistan. 

SEJANUS,  ^uns  (executed  31  A.D.),  the  famous 
minister  of  Tiberius  {q.v.). 

SELBY,  a  market  town  of  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, England,  is  situated  on  the  navigable  river  Ouse 
and  on  the  main  line  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  15 
miles  south  of  Y'ork  and  20  east  of  Leeds.  Of  the  ancient 
abbey  for  Benedictines,  founded  by  Williari  the  Conqueror 
in  1069  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  mitred  abbey  by 
Pope  Alexander  11.,  there  still  remains  the  church  of  St 
Mary  and  St  German,  although  it  has  been  much  changed 
by  alterations  and  additions,  the  more  ancient  and  notable 
features  being  the  nave,  transept,  and  west  front.  The 
church  was  made  parochial  in  1618.  In  the  market-place 
there  is  a  modern  Gothic  market  cross.  Among  the  public 
buildings  are  the  drill  hall  and  the  mechanics'  institute 
and  public  rooms.  .  Flax- scutching,  seed-crushing,  brick 
and  tile  making,  boat^building,  tanning,  and  brewing  are 
the  principal  industries.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  potatoes, 
flax,  and  mustard,  and  a  considerable  cattle-market.  The 
town  receives  its  water-supply  from  artesian  wells.  A 
local  board  of  health  was  established  in  1851,  consisting 
of  nine  members.  The  population  of  the  urban  .sanitary 
district  (6193  in  1871),  extended  in  1881  from  514  to 
3760  acres,  was  in  that  year  6057. 

Henry  I.  of  England  was  born  in  the  abbey,  a  fact  which  prob- 
ably accounts  for  the  special  priWleges  conferred  on  it.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  Civil  War  it  was  held  by  the  Parliament,  and  after 
being  taken  by  the  Royalists  was  recaptured  by  Fairfax. 

SELDEN,  John  (1584-1654),  jurist,  legal  antiquary, 
and  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  on  16th  December  1584  at 
Salvington,  in  the  parish  of  Vv'est  Tarring,  near  Worthing, 
Sussex.  His  father,  also  named  John  Selden,  held  a  small 
farm,  and  seems  to  have  occasionally  added  to  his  liveli- 
hood by  his  labour  as  a  wheelwright  and  his  skill  as  a 
musician.  It  is  said  that  his  accomplishments  as  a  violin- 
player  gained  him  his  -ndfe,  whose  social  position  was 
somewhat  superior  to  his  own.  She  was  Margaret,  the 
only  child  of  Thomas  Baker  of  Rustington,  a  village  in 
the  vicinity  of  West  Tarring,  and  was  more  or  less  re- 
motely descended  from  a  knightly  family  of  the  same 
name  in  Kent.  John  Selden  commenced  his  education  at 
the  free  grammar -school- at  Chichester,  whence  he  pro- 
ceeded in  his  sixteenth  year  with  an  exhibition  to  Hart 
Hall  at  Oxford.  In  1603  he  was  admitted  a  member  of 
Clifford's  Inn,  London,  and  in  1604  migrated  to  the  Inner 
Temple,  and  in  due  course  he  was  called  to  the  bar. 
While  still  a  student  he  appears  to  have  been  on  terms  of 
friendship  with  Ben  Jonson,  Drayton,  and  Camden  ;  and 
among  his  more  intimate  companions  were  Edward  Little- 
ton, afterwards  lord  keeper  ;  Henry  Rolle,  afterwards 
lord  chief-justice ;  Edward  Herbert,  afterwards  solicitor- 
general  ;  and  Thomas  Gardener,  afterwards  recorder  of 
London.  His  earliest  patron  was  Sir  Robert  Cotton,  the 
antiquary,  by  whom  he  seems  to  have  been  employed  in 
copying  and  abridging  certain  of  the  parliamentary  records 
then  preserved  in  the  Tower.  For  some  reason  which  has 
not  been  explained,  Selden  never  went  into  court  as  an 
advocate,  save  on  rare  and  exceptional  occasions.  But  his 
practice  in  chambers  as  a  conveyancer  and  consulting 
counsel  is  'stated  to  have  been  large,  and,  if  we  may  judge 


from  the  considerable  fortune  he  accumulated,  it  must  also 
have  been  lucrative. 

It  was,  however,  as  a  scholar  and  writer  that  Selden  won 
his  reputation  both' amongst  his  contemporaries  and  with 
posterity.  His  first  work,  an  account  of  the  civil  adminis- 
tration of  England  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  is  said  to 
have  been  completed  when  he  was  only  two-  or  three-and- 
twenty  years  of  age.  But  if  this  was  the  Analedon  Anglo- 
Bi-itannicon,  as  is  generally  supposed,  he  withheld  it  from 
the  world  until  1615.  In  1610  appeared  his  Englan<rs 
Epinomis  and  Janus  Angloram,  Fades  Altera,  which  dealt 
with  the  progress  of  English  law  down  to  Henry  11.,  and 
The  Duello,  or  Single  Combat,  in  which  he  traced  the  his- 
tory of  trial  by  battle  in  England  from  the  Norman  Con- 
quest. In  1613  he  supplied  a  series  of  notes,  enriched  by 
an  immense  number  of  quotations  and  references,  to  the 
first  eighteen  cantos  of  Drayton's  Polyolbion.  In  1614  he 
published  Titles  of  Honour,  which,  in  spite  of  some  obvious 
defects  and  omissions,  has  remained  to  the  present  day 
the  most  comprehensive  and  trustworthy  work  of  its  kind 
that  we  possess ;  and  in  1616  his  notes  on  Fortescue's  Dt 
Laudibus  Legum  Anglic  and  Hengham's  Summx  Magna 
et  Parva.  In  1617  his  De  Diis  Syriis  was  issued  from 
the  press,  and  immediately  established  his  fame  as  an 
Oriental  scholar  among  the  learned  in  all  parts  of  Europe. 
After  two  centuries  and  a  half,  indeed,  it  is  still  not  only 
the  fundamental  but  also  in  many  respects  the  best  book . 
which  has  been  written  on  Semitic  mj-thology.  In  1618 
his  History  of  Tithes,  although  only  published  after  it  had 
been  submitted  to  the  censorship  and  duly  licensed,  never- 
theless aroused  the  apprehension  of  the  bishops  and  pro- 
vokw;  the  intervention  of  the  king.  The  author  was  sum- 
moned before  the  privy  council  and  compelled  to  retract 
his  opinions,  or  at  any  rate  what  were  held  to  be  his  opin- 
ions. Moreover,  his  work  was  suppressed  and  himself 
forbidden  to  reply  to  any  of  the  controversialists  who  had 
come  or  might  come  forward  to  answer  it. 

This  seems  to  have  introduced  Selden  to  the  practical 
side  of  political  affairs.  The  discontents  which  a  few  years 
later  broke  out  into  civil  war  were  already  forcing  them- 
selves on  public  attention,  and  it  is  pretty  certain  that, 
although  he  was  not  in  parliament,  he  was  the  instigator 
and  perhaps  the  draftsman  of  the  memorable  protestation 
on  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  House  afiirmed  by  the 
Commons  on  the  18th  of  December  1621.  He  was  with 
several  of  the  members  committed  to  prison,  at  first  in  the 
Tower  and  subsequently  under  the  charge  of  Sir  Robert 
Ducie,  sheriff  of  London.  During  his  detention,  which 
only  lasted  a  short  time,  he  occupied  himself  in  preparing 
an  edition  of  Eadmer's  History  from  a  manuscript  lent  to 
him  by  his  host  or  jailor,  which  he  published  two  years 
afterwards.  In  1623  he  was  returned  to  the  House  of 
Commons  for  the  borough  of  Lancaster,  and  sat  with  Coke, 
Noy,  and  Pym  on  Sergeant  GlanvUle's  election  committee. 
He  was  also  nominated  reader  of  Lyon's  Inn,  an  oflice 
which  he  declined  to  undertake.  For  this  the  benchers 
of  the  Inner  Temple,  by  whom  he  had  been  appointed, 
fined  him  £20  and  disqualified  him  from  being  chosen 
one  <Sf  their  number.  But  he  was  relieved  from  this  in- 
capacity after  a  few  years,  and  became  a  master  of  the 
bench.  In  the  first  parliament  of  Charles  I.  (1625),  it 
appears  from  the  "returns  of  members"  printed  in  1878 
that,  contrary  to  the  assertion  of  all  his  biographers,  ha 
had  no  seat.  In  Charles's  second  parliament  (1626)  be 
was  elected  for  Great  Bedwin  in  Wiltshire,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  impeachment  of  George  VUliers, 
duke  of  Buckingham.  In  the  following  year,  in  the 
"  benevolence "  ca^e,  he  was  counsel  for  Sir  Edmund 
Hampden  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  In  1628  ho  was 
returned  to  the  third  parliament  of  Charles  for  Ludgers- 


y  E  L  — S  E  L 


631 


hall  in  Wiltshire,  ancl  had  z  large  and  important  share  in 
drawing  up  and  carrying  the  Petition  of  Right.  In  the 
session  of  1629  he  was  one  of  the  members  mainly  respon- 
sible for  the  tumultuous  passage  in  the  House  of  Commons 
of  the  resolution  against  the  illegal  levy  of  tonnage  and 
poundage,  and,  along  with  Eliot,  Holies,  Long,  Valentine, 
Strode,  and  the  rest,  he  was  sent  once  more  to  the  Tower. 
There  he  remained  for  eight  months,  deprived  for  a  part 
of  the  time  of  the  use  o.f  books  and  writing  materials. 
He  was  then  removed,  under  less  rigorous  conditions,  to 
the  Marshalsea,  until  not  long  afterwards  owing  to  the 
good  OiSces  of  Archbishop  Laud  he  was  liberated.  Some 
years  before  he  had  been  appointed  steward  to  the  earl  of 
Kent,  to  whose  seat,  Wrest  in  Bedfordshire,  he  now  retired. 
In  162S  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton  he  had 
compiled,  with  the  assistance  of  tv/o  learned  coadjutors, 
Patrick  Young  and  Richard  James,  a  catalogue  of  the 
Arundel  marbles.  He  employed  his  leisure  at  Wrest  in 
writing  De  Successionibus  in  Bona  Defuncti  secundum  Le(jes 
Ebrxorum,  and  De  Sticcessione  in  Ponlificaium  Ebreeorum, 
published  in  163L  About  this  period  he  seems  to  have 
inclined  towards  the  court  rather  than  the  popular  party, 
and  even  to  have  secured  the  personal  favour  of  the  king. 
To  him  in  1635  he  dedicated  his  Mare  Clausura,  and  under 
the  royal  patronage  it  was  put  forth  as  a  kind  of  state 
paper.  It  had  been  written  sixteen  or  seventeen  years 
before;  but  James  I.  had  prohibited  ita  public.'.tion  for 
political  reasons  ;  hence  it  appeared  a  quarter  of  a  century 
after  Grotius's  Mare  Liberum,  to  which  it  was  intended 
to  be  a  rejoinder,  and  the  pretensions  advanced  in  which 
on  behalf  of  the  Dutch  fishermen  to  poach  in  the  waters 
off  the  British  coasts  it  was  its  purpose  tp  explode.  The 
fact  that  Selden  was  not  retained  in  the  great  case  of  ship 
money  in  1637  by  John  Hampden,  the  cousin  of  his  farmer 
client,  may  be  accepted  as  additional  evidence  that  his 
zeal  in  the  popular  cause  was  not  so  warm  and  unsuspected 
as  it  had  once  been.  During  the  progress  of  this  moment- 
ous constitutional  conflict,  indeed,  he  seems  to  have  been 
absorbed  in  his  Oriental  researches,  publishing  De  Jure 
Nalurali  et  Gentium  juxta  Disciplinam  Ebrxorum  in 
1640.  He  was  not  elected  to  the  Short  Parliament  of 
1640;4)ut  to  the  Long  Parliament,  summoned  in  the 
autumn,  he  was  returned  without  opposition  for  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  Immediately  after  the  opening  of  the 
session  he  was  nominated  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
twenty-four  appointed  to  draw  up  a  remonstrance  on  the 
state  of  the  nation.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittees entrusted  with  the  preliminary  arrangements  for 
the  impeachment  of  Strafford.  But  he  was  not  one  of  the 
managers  at  the  trial,  and  he  voted  against  the  Bill  for 
his  attainder.  He  was,  moreover,  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittees nominated  to  search  for  precedents  and  frame  the 
articles  of  irapeacliment  against  Archbishop  Laud,  although 
it  does  not  appear  that  he  was  implicated  in  the  later 
stages  of  the  prosecution  against  him.  Ho  opposed  the 
resolution  against  Episcopacy  which  led  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  bishops  from  the  House  of  Lords,  and  printed  an 
answer  to  the  arguments  used  by  Sir  Harbottle  Grimston 
on  that  occasion.  He  joined  in  the  protestation  of  the 
Commons  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Protestant  religion 
according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England,  the 
authority  of  the  crown,  and  the  liberty  of  the  subject. 
He  was  equally  opposed  to  the  court  on  the  question,  of 
the  commissions  of  lieutenancy  of  array  and  to  the  parlia- 
ment on  the  question  of  the  militia  ordinance.  In  1613, 
however,  ho  became  a  member  and  participated  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster,  and 
was  appointed  shortly  afterwards  keeper  of  the  rolls  and 
records  in  the  Tower.  In  1645  he  was  named  one  of  the 
parliamentary  commissioners  of  the  admiralty,  and  was 


elected  master  of  Trinity  Hall  in  Cambridge, — an  office 
bs  declined  to  accept.  In  1646  he  subscribed  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  and  in  1647  was  voted  .£5000  by 
the  parliament  as  compensation  for  his  sufferings  in  the 
evil  days  of  the  monarchy.  He  had  not,  however,  relaxed 
his  literary  exertions  during  these  year.^.  He  published 
in  1642  Privileges  of  the  Baronage  of  England  ■when  ihey 
sit  in  Parliament  and  Discourse  concerning  the  Rights  and 
Privileges  of  the  Subject;  in  1644  Disscrtatio  de  Anno 
Civili  et  Calendario  Peipublica:  Judaicse;  in  1646  his 
treatise  on  marriage  and  divorce  among  the  Jews  entitled 
Uxor  Ebraica ;  and  in  1647  the  earliest  printed  edition 
of  the  old  and  curious  English  law-book  Fteta.  What 
course  he  adopted  with  regard  to  the  trial  and  execution 
of  the  king  is  unknown  ;  but  it  is  said  that  he  refused  to 
answer  the  Eikon  Basilike,  altiiough  Cromwell  was  anxious 
"he  should  do  so,  the  task  which  he  declined  being  after-' 
wards  performed  by  Milton  in  his  Iconoclastes.  In  1650 
Selden  passed  the  first  part  of  De  Sgv.edriis  et  Prefecturis 
Juridicis  Veterum  Ebrxorum  through  the  press,  the  sfecond 
and  third  parts  being  severally  published  in  1653  and 
1655,  and  in  1652  he  wrote  a  preface  and  collated  some 
of  the  manuscripts  for  Sir  Roger  Twysden's  Historic 
Anglicx  Scriptores  Decern.  His  last  publication  was  a 
vindication  of  himself  from  certain  charges  advanced 
against  him  and  his  Mare  Clausum  in  1653  by  Theodore 
Graswinckel,  a  Dutch  jurist. 

After  the  death  of  the  earl  of  Kent  in  1639  Selden 
lived  permanently  under  the  same  roof  with  his  widov.-. 
It  is  believed  that  he  was  married  to  her,  although  their 
marriage  does  not  seem  to  have  ever  been  publicly  acknoiv- 
ledg^d.  He  died  at  Friary  Hous.e  in  A\Tiitefriar3  on  30t'i 
November  1654,  and  was  buried  in  the  Temple  Church, 
London.  Within  the  last  few  years  a  brass  tablet  has 
been  erected  to  his  memory  by  the  benchers  of  the  Inner 
Temple  in  the  parish  church  of  West  Tarring. 

Several  of  Selden's  minor  productious  ^-ere  printed  for  the  iirst 
time  after  his  death,  and  a  collective  edition  of  his  writings  was 
published  by  Archdeacon  Wilkina  in  3  vols,  folio  in  1725,  and  again 
in  1726.  His  Tahlc  Talk,  by  which  he  is  perhaps  best  known,  did 
not  appear  until  16S9.  It  was  edited  by  his  amanuensis,  Richard 
Jlilward,  who  affirms  that  "  the  sense  and  notion  is  wholly  Seldeu's," 
and  that  "most  of  the  words"  are  his  also.  Its  gennineness  has 
sometimes  been  questioned,  although  on  insufficient  grounds.  In 
Hallara's  opinion  it  "gives  perhaps  a  more  exalted  notion  of  Sel- 
den's natural  talents  than  any  of  his  learned  writings,"  and  in 
Coleridge's  it  contains  "more  weighty  bullion  sense''  than  ho  had 
"  ever  found  in  the  same  number  of  pages  of  any  uninspired  writer." 

See  Bliss.  Wood's  Alhsna!  Oxonienseo  (London,  1S17,  vol.  iv.) ;  Aikin,  LCrfi 
of  John  Seidell  and  Archbiehop  Usher  (London,  181^) ;  Johnson,  Mcntoirs  of  John 
SeUen,  ic.  (London,  1S35);  Singer,  Taile  T<dk  of  John  SehUn  (London,  1S47); 
and  Wilkins,  Johannis  Seldcni  Opera  Omnia,  &c.  (London,  lT2j).        (F.  DR.) 

SELECTION    AND    VARIATION.      See    V.tRiATiox 

AND  SEtECTION. 

SELENIUM  AND  TELLURIUM  ^  are  two  rather  rare 
chemical  elements  discovered,  the  latter  by  Jliillev  von 
Reichenstein  in  1782,  the  former  by  Berzelius  in  1817. 
Both  occur  only  in  the  mineral  kingdom  as  components  of 
very  rare  minerals,  most  of  which  are  compounds  of  one  or 
the  other  or  of  both  and  sulphur  with  silver,  lead,  bismuth, 
antimony,  gold,  and  other  metals. 

Elementary  Selenium. — This,  like  elementary  suipnur, 
exists  in  a  variety  of  forms,  which  are  conveniently  con- 
sidered as  modifications  of  the  two  genera  now  to  be 
described.  (1 )  Kon-metallic  selmium  includes  the  flocculent 
scarlet  precipitate  produced  by  the  reduction  of  solution 
of  selenium  by  sulphurous  acid  in  the  cold.  The  scarlet 
flocks  when  dried  without  the  aid  of  heat  assume  the 
form  of  a  brown-red  powder  of  sp.  gr.  4-26,  which  dissolves 
in  1000  ^iraes  its  weight  of  boiling  bisulphide  of  carbon 
(at  46°'6  C).  The  i-.olution  on  cooling  deposits  most  of  it^ 
-slenium  in  the  form  of  minute  monoclinio  crystals  of  sp. 

'  Come.  CHEiUSTRV,  vol.  V,  5p.  498,  499.  601-50?,  506,  608.' 


632 


S  E  L  — S  E  L 


gr.  4-5  (isomorphous  witli  inonoclinic  sulphur),  which  retain 
their  solubility  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  up  to  100°  C.  At 
110°  C.  or  higher  temperatures  they  pass  into  the  metallic 
modification  (see  below)  with  evolution  of  heat.  With 
the  amorphous  kind  a  similar  change  sets  in  at  or  above 
80°  C.  and  attains  its  maximum  of  rapidity  at  a  point  be- 
tween 125°  and  1 80°  C.  Fused  selenium  when  cooled  down 
suddenly  hardens  into  a  very  dark-coloured  glass  of  4-28 
sp.  gr.,  soluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon ;  on  gradual  cool- 
ing it  becomes  more  or  less  completely  "metallic."  (2) 
Metallic  selenium  is  a  dark  grey  or  black  solid  of  4-8  sp. 
gr. ;  it  exhibits  metallic  lustre,  stretches  perceptibly  imder 
'the  hammer,  and  its  fracture  is  similar  to  that  of  grey  cast 
iron.  It  is  insoluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  Its  fusing 
point  is  sharply  defined  and  Lies  at  217°  C.  At  the  ordi- 
nary temperature  it  conducts  electricity,  while  the  non- 
metallic  modification  does  not ;  at  higher  temperatures,  or 
after  temporary  exposure  to  higher  temperatures,  the  con- 
ductivity on  either  side  becomes  an  eminently  variable 
quantity.  According  to  Draper  and  Moss,  glassy  selenium 
begins  to  conduct  electricity  at  165°  to  175°  C,  and  the 
conductivity  increases  regularly  as  the  temperature  rises 
to  near  the  boiling-point.  With  metaUic  selenium,  which 
behaves  similarly,  the  increase  of  conductivity  ispropor- 
tional  to  the  increase  of  temperature  to  near  the  fusing 
point  (217°  C.) ;  but  from  this  point  upwards  it  decreases 
rapidly  and  attains  its  minimum  at  250°  C.  According 
to  W.  Siemens,  however,  selenium  by  long  exposure  to 
200°  C.  becomes  what  one  may  call  electrically  metallic ; 
the  conductivity  then  decreases  when  the  temperature 
rises,  just  as  it  does  with  ordinary  mstals.  But  this  electro- 
metallicity  is  not  permanent ;  on  continued  exposure  *3  a 
lower  temperature  it  vanishes  gradually,  until  the  propor- 
tion of  quasi-metal  has  fallen  to  a  limit-value  depending 
on  that  temperature.  Very  surprising  is  the  observation 
of  Sale  that  the  electric  conductivity  of  metallic  selenium 
increases  on  exposure  to  the  light ;  the  red  and  ultra-red 
rays,  as  he  found,  act  most  powerfully.  Tha  effect  of 
insolation  is  almost  instantaneous,  but  on  re-exposure  to 
darkness-the  original  condition  is  re-established  only  very 
gradually.  W.  Siemens ,  found  that  his  electro-metallic 
selenium  (as  produced  at  200°  C.)  is  more  sensitive  to 
light  iha,n  any  other  kind.  The  conductivity  of  such 
selenium  starting  from  darkness  is  raised  twofold  by  dif- 
fuse and  tenfold  by  direct  'sunlight.  The  specific  heat  of 
selenium,  according  to  Kegnault,  is  0'074€  both  in  the 
glassy  and  in  the  metallic  modification.  Selenium  (of  any 
kind)  boils  at  700°  C.  (Mitscherlich).  The  vapour  has 
an  intense  colour  intermediate  between  that  of  chlorine 
and  that  of  sulphur.  According  to  Deville  and  Troost, 
at  880°  C.  it  is  7-67  times,  and  at  1420"  is  5-68  times,  as 
heavy  as  air,;  theory,  for  Se,_,=  l  molecule,  demands  5"47. 
Elementary  Te'hirinm. — This,  the  compact  form,  is  a 
silver-white  re-splendent  metal  of  markedly  crystalline 
structure;  the  crystals  are  rhombohedra,  and  the  ingot 
consequently  is  very  brittle.  Specific  gravity  6'2.  The 
metal  fuses  at  about  500°  C,  and  is  distillable  at  very  high 
temperatures.  Its  vapour  is  golden  yellow  and  has  a  very 
brilliant  absorption-spectrum.  The  vapour  density,  accord- 
ing to  Deville  and  Troost,  is  9-08  at  1439°  C.  (air  =  l), 
correspdnding  to  Te,  =  1  molecule.  A  bar  of  tellurium  be- 
comes feebly  electrical  when  rubbed  with  a  wooUen  cloth. 
The  electric  conductivity,  like  that  of  selenium,  is  largely 
influenced  by  the  temperature  and  previous  exposure  to 
he?,t,  and  it  increases  after  exposure  to  light,  though  not 
to  the  same  extent  as  selenium  does.  Starting  from  the 
ordinary  temperature  the  conductivity  decreases  up  to  some 
point  between  90°  and  145°  C.  ;  it  then  increases  up  to 
200°  C.  (the  highest  temperature  tried) ;  on  cooling  it  de- 
creases steadily,  and  finally  is  only  one-fifth  or  one-sixth  of 


what  it  Was  at  200°.    The  ntunerical  value  at  200'  (silver  = 
100)  was  found  equal  to  0-0035  to  0-0031  (F.  Exner). 

Extraction  of  the  Elementary  Substances. — If  seleuiferous  sulphur 
or  pyrites  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  vitriol-by  the 
chamber  process,  most  of  the  selenium  accuraujates  aa  such  in  the. 
"chamber  mud,"  from  which  it  may  be  extracted  by  the  following 
method  of  Wbhler's.  The  mud,  after  having  been  thoroughly 
washed  and  dried,  is  fused  with  alkaline  nitrate  and  carbonate,  to 
convert  the  selenium  into  selenate  (SeOjKj  or  Naj),  which  is  ex- 
tracted by  means  of  water.  The  filtered  solution  is  boiled  with 
hydrochloric  acid  to  convert  the  seienic  into  selenium  acid  (SeOj 
-f2HCl  =  Cl2-HH„0  +  SeOj),  and  this  last  is  then  reduced  by  addi- 
tion of  sulphurous  acid  and  heatiug,  when  the  selenium  comes  dov/n 
as  a  red  precipitate  (SeO^  +  2SO3  =  2SO3  -h  Sej.  A  richer  material  than 
chamber  mud  is  seleuiferous  ore-smoke  as  produced  in  Mansfeld, 
which  likewise  contains  free  selenium.  Its  extraction,  according 
to  0.  Pettersen  and  F.  Nilson,  is  best  eifected  by  digestion  with  con- 
centrated solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  at  80°C.,  which  converts 
the  selenium  into  selenocyanide  (SeNCK),easily  extractable  by  water. 
The  filtered  solution  is  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  allowed 
to  stand,  when  the  selenium  (through  the  spontaneous  decomposi- 
tion of  the  SeNC.  H  into  NCH  and  Se)  comes  down  as  a  precipitate. 

Tellurium  is  generally  prepared  from  Transylvanian  gold  ore. 
TTie  powdered  ore  is  oxidized  by  means  of  hot  nitric  acid  and  the 
least  sufficiency  of  hydrochloric  acid,  the  ezccss  of  nitric  kcid  being 
chased  away  by  evaporation,  and  the  residue  mixed  with  sulphuric 
acid  (to  convert  the  lead  into  insoluble  sulphate),  and  with  some 
tartaric  acid  to  prevent  precipitation  of  tellurious  acid  (TeOj)  in 
the  subsequent  treatment  with  water.  From  the  filtered  aqneous 
solution  the  gold  is  removed  by  addition  of  ferrous  sulphate  and 
by  filtration.  The  filtrate  is  treated  with  sulphurous  acid  to  reduce 
the  tellurious  acid  to  tellurium,  which  separates  out  as  a  black 
precipitate.  The  precipitated  metal  is  fused  doivu  and  then  sublimed 
at  a  very  high  temperature,  in  a  porcelain  tube,  in  a  current  of 
hydrogen,  to  remove  non-volatile  impurities  and  eliminate  the  last 
trace  of  selenium  (SeH«). 

Ciiemical  Relations. — Selenium  and  tellurium  are  similar  in  their 
chemical  character  to  sulphur  ;  the  gradation  of  properties  within 
the  triad  is  in  the  order  of  the  atomic  weights,  which  are  S=  32'06, 
Se  =  79-07,  Te  =  128  (0  =  16).  In  oxygen  or  air  the  elementary  sub- 
stances burn  readily  into  (solid)  dioMides  (SeO;,  TeOj),  in  the  caso 
of  selenium  with  production  of  a  characteristic  stench  of  putrid 
radish,  owing  probably  to  the  formation  of  a  trace  of  hydride,  SeH;. 
Nitric  acid,  in  tlio  heat,  converts  sulphur  directly  into  sulphuric 
acid.  In  the  case  of  the  two  rare  elements  the  oxidation  stops  at 
the  stage  corresponding  to  sulphurous  acid.  The  ai^ids  SeOjH;  and 
TeOjH,  are  not  liable  to  further  oxidation  by  any  of  the  wet-way 
reagents  (HNO3,  H;0  and  CL,  Bro,  I^,  &c.)  which  convert  sulphur- 
ous into  sulphuric  acid. 

By  fusion  with  nitre  and  alkaline  carbonate  the  three  elements, 
in  their  elementarv  or  less  oxygenated  forms,  are  readily  converted 
into  salts,  RjSOj "(sulphates,  &c.,  2  =  S,  Se,  or  Te).  Seienic  and 
telluric  acids'(H;ZOji,  unlike  sulphuric,  when  boiled  with  aqueous 
hydrochloric  acid,  are  gradually  reduced  to  the  lower  adds  (Se  or 
Te)O.Hj,  -with  evolution  of  chlorine  ;  and  the  lower  acids  are  readily 
reduced  to  (precipitates  of)  elementary  selenium  and  tellurium  re- 
spectively by  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid  in  the  heat.  Chlorine 
combines  readily  with  elementary  selenium  and  tellurium  into 
dichloridcs  (Pe  or  Te)Cl.„  which,  however,  on  continued  chlorina- 
tion  are  at  last  completely  converted  into  the  tetrachlorides  (Se  or  • 
Te)Cl4.  These  last,  unlike  the  corresponding  sulphur  compound, 
are  distillable  without  decomposition.  Metals  capable  of  uniting 
directly  with  sulphur  as  a  rule  unite  also  with  selenium  and  tellurium 
into  corresponding  compounds.  Hydrogen  uliites  with  elementary 
selenium  and  tellurium  in  the  heat  into  gaseous  hydrides  (Se  or 
Te)H.  closely  similar  to  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  But,  as  these 
hydrides  are  liable  to  dissociation,  the  pure  compounds  must  bo 
prepared  by  the  decomposition  of  the  zino  compounds  ZnS  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  For  the  description  of  individual  compounds 
reference  must  bo  made  to  the  handbooks  of  chemistry.    (W.  D.) 

SELEUCIA,  or  Seleuceia  (ScAeuK-eia).  Of  the  numer- 
ous ancient  towns  of  this  name  the  most  famous  are — (1) 
the  great  city  on  the  Tigris  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  Nicator 
(see  vol.  xviii.  p.  587),  of  the  greatness  and  decay  of  which 
an  account  has  been  given  in  vol.  xviii.  p.  601  ;  (2)  a  city 
on  the  northern  frontier  of  Syria  towards  Cilicia,  some 
miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  also  founded 
by  Seleucus  I.,  and  forming  with  Antioch,  Apamea,  and 
Laodicea  the  Syrian  Tetrapolis.  It  served  as  the  port  of 
Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  4).  Consider6,ble  ruins  are  still  visible, 
especially  a  great  ctitting  through  solid  rock,  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  mile  long,  which  Polybius  speaks  of  as  the  road 
from  the  city  to  the  sea. 


S  E  L  — S  E  L 


633 


SELEUCIDS.  Sea  Macedoman  Empire,  vol  sv.  p. 
142,  and  Persia,  vol.  sviii.  p.  585  sq. 

SELIM  or  Salim,  the  title  borne  by  three  emperors  of 
the  Ottoman  Turks.  For  Selhi  I.,  emperor  from  1512 
to  1520,  see  Pep.sia_,  vol.  sriii.  pp.  635-636,  and  Tuekey. 
Selhi  II.,  srandsou  of  the  preceding,  was  sultan  from  1566 
to  157-t.  See  Tubket.  Selhi  HI.,  son  of  Sultan  Mus- 
tapba  in.,  succeeded  his  father  in  1789  and  was  deposed 
in  1807.     See  Txtkket. 

SELIMXIA.     See  Sliyen. 

SELINUS  (ZcXn-ovs),  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Sicily,  near  the  rivers  Hypsas  and  Selinus 
on  the  south-west  coast,  was  founded,  probably  about  628 
B.C.,  by  colonists  from  Megara  Hybkea  in  the  east  of  Sicily 
and  others  from  the  parent  city  of  Megara  on  the  Saronic 
Gulf  of  Greece  (see  Thuc,  vi.  i,  \u.  57,  and  Strabo,  tL  p. 
272).  The  name  of  the  city  and  the  little  river  ^see  H  in 
fig.)  on  which  it  stands  was  derived  from  the  wild  parsley 
^a-eXivov)  which  grew  there  in  abiindance  (comp.  vol.  xvii. 
p.  639).  Many  autonomous  coins  of  Selinus  exist,  dating 
from  the  5th  and  4th  centuries  B.C.  The  tetradrachms 
have  on  the  obverse  a  youth,  representing  the  river  Selinus, 
sacrificing  at  an  altar,^  and,  in  the  field,  a  parsley  leaf, — 
legend,  SEAIN02 ;  on  the  reverse,  Apollo  and  Artemis  in 
a  biga, — legend,  SEAINONTION  (retrograde).  Didrachms 
have  a  similar  obverse  with  the  river  Hypsas, — legend, 
HY*AS ;  reverse,  Heracles  slaying  a  bull,  —  legend, 
SEATNONTION.  As  early  as  580  B.C.  the  citizens  of 
Selinus  were  at  war  with  the  adjoining  people  of  Segesta, 
a  non-Hellenic  race  who  occupied  the  province  north  of 
Selinus ;  the  success  of  the  Segestans  on  this  occasion  was 
mainly  owing  to  aid  given  them  by  colonists  from  Rhodes 
and  Onidus.  Little  is  known  about  the  early  history  of 
Selinus ;  but  the  city  evidently  grew  rapidly  in  wealth  and 
importance,  and  soon  extended  its  borders  15  miles  west^ 
iWards  to  the  river  Mazarus  and  eastwards  as  far  as  the 
Halycus  (Diod.,  liiL  54  ;  Herod.,  v.  46).  Thucydides  {vi. 
20)  mentions  its  power  and  wealth  and  especially  the  rich 
treasures  in  its  temples.  From  its  early  oligarchical  form  of 
government  Selinus  passed  to  a  short-lived  despotism  under 
the  tyrant  Pithagoras,  who  was  deposed  soon  after  510  B.C. 
In  480  B.C.,  when  the  Carthaginian  Hamilcar  invaded  SicUy, 
the  city  took  his  side  against  their  fellow  Hellenes.  In  416 
B.C.  a  new  dispute  between  Selinus  and  Segesta  was  eventu- 
ally the  cause  of  the  fatal  Athenian  expedition  against  Sicily, 
the  Athenians  acting  as  allies  of  Segesta  and  the  Syracusana 
as  allies  of  Selinus.  The  conclusion  of  this  expedition  (see 
Syeacuse)  left  Segesta  at  the  mercy  of  the  Selinuntines, 
whose  rapacity  and  cruelty  soon  brought  about  their  own 
destruction,  through  the  aid  which  the  Segestans  obtained 
from  Carthage.  In  409  B.C.  Hannibal,  with  an  overwhelm- 
ing force,  took  and  destroyed  the  city,  the  walls  of  which 
.  were  razed  to  the  ground.  He  killed  about  16,000  of  the 
inhabitants,  took  5000  prisoners,  and  only  a  remnant  of 
2600  escaped  to  Agrigentum  (Diod.,  xiii.  54-59).  The  sur- 
vivors were  afterwards  allowed  to  return  and  to  rt  build 
Selinus  as  a  city  subject  to  the  Carthaginians,  under  whose 
yoke,  in  spite  of  their  attempts  to  regain  freedom,  the 
Selinuntines  remained  till  c.  250,  the  close  of  the  First 
Punic  War;  after  this  the  Carthaginians  transferred  the 
inhabitants  of  Selinus  to  Lilybaeum,  and  completely  de- 
stroyed the  city  (Diod.  xxiv.).  It  was  never  rebuilt,  and 
is  mentioned  by  Strabo  (vi.  p.  272)  as  being  one  of  the 
extinct  cities  of  Sicily.^ 


•  Sculptured  on  the  altar  is  a  cock,  in  allusion  to  the  aid  givea  by 
.fisculapiua  against  the  fever  which  was  caused  by  the  marshy  site. 
Drainage  works  directed  by  Empedoclcs  are  said  to  have  rendered  the 
Bite  healthy  (Diog.  Laer.,  viii.  2,  11). 

'  Roman  sulphur  baths  existed  under  the  name  Therms  SeLnnntise, 
bat  theaa  were  about  20  miles  east  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Selinua. 

ai— 23» 


The  ancient  city  occupied  two  elevated  plateaus  at  the  a\i^  of 
the  sea  and  als6  part  of  the  surrounding  plain.  The  v.-estern'  c? 
these  elevations  formed  the  acropolis ;  on  tne  other  was  the  agora. 
The  walls  of  the  acropolis  can  stiU  be  traced  round  the  whole  cir- 
cuit ;  the  only  entrance  was  on  the  north-east.  Remains  also  exist 
of  loug  walls  connecting  the  city  and  its  port.  The  chief  glory  of 
Selinus  was  its  double  group  of  great  temples, — three  on  the 
acropolis  and  three  in  the  agora,  one  of  which  was  the  largest 
peripteral  temple  in  the  worii  All  are  completely  ruined,  but 
the  materials  of  each  still  remain  almost  perfect,  though  scattered 
in  confused  heaps  of  stone  ;  the  cxti-aordiuary  completeness  of  these 
fragments  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  site  has  never  been  occupied 
since  the  iinal  transference  of  the  inhabitants  in  250  B.C.,  and  thus 
the  scattered  blocks  have  never  been  taken  as  materials  for  later 
structures.  Of  all  the  six  temples^  none  are  later  than  the  5th 
century  B.C.,  and  those  on  the  acropolis  probably  date  from  about 
€23  B.C.,  soon  after  the  first  settlement.  The  sculptured  metopes 
from  three  of  the  temples  are  among  the  most  important  examples 
of  early  Hellenic  art  (see  Aecil£0L0gy,  vol.  ii.  p.  349,  and  Beun- 
dorf,  3i€  Mdopcn  von  Sclinunt).  The  buildings  themselves  are  of 
the  highest  interest,  being  the  earliest  known  examples  of  the 
Doric  style,  and  differing  in  many  important  details  from  all  other 
examples,  even  such  early  ones  as  the  temples  at  Corinth  and 
Syracuse. 

The  three  temples  on  the  acropolis  (A,  C,  D  in  fig.)  stand  side  by 
side,  with  their  axes  north-west  to  south-east ;  all  aie  hexastyle  and 
peripteral,  with  either  thii'teen  or  fourteen  columns  on  the  sides. 
Their  stylobatcs  have  four 
high  steps  along  the  sides, 
with  an  easier  approach  of 
more  steps  at  the  north- 
west fronts.  To  the 
middle  one  of  the  three 
belong  the  very  archaic 
metopes  described  in  vol. 
ii.  p.  349.  AH  have  a 
rather  narrow  cella  with 
pronaos  and  opisthodo- 
mus.  Their  archaic  pecu- 
liarities are  the  rapid  di- 
minution of  the  columns, 
the  absence  of  entasis,  the 
narrow  mutules  over  the 
metopes,  and  especially  a 
curious  cavetto  or  neck- 
ing under  the  usual  hypo- 
trachelia.     No  other  ex-  Selinis. 

ample  of  this  feature  was  A,  C,  D.  Temples  on  acr^polia.     B,  Small  pro- 
known    till    1884,    when     style  tetrastyle  adlcult..     E,  F,  G,  Temples  on 
D.    o-T,l;„-„««n     ««.^     n..      eastern  hill.     a.  a^  Remains  of  buildings  out- 
r    Schhemann    and    Dr      ^,^^  a„opolis  walls.     H,  River  Selinus. 
Dorpfeld     discovered     a 

similar  Doric  capital  among  the  ruins  of  the  citidel  of  Tiryns,  The 
Tiryns  capital  dates  probably  from  a  Jittle  before  OOO  ac.  and  appeara 
to  be  nearly  contemporary  with  that  at  Selinus.  Between  temples 
A  and  C  are  rem,ain3  of  a  small  prostyle  tetrastyle  fedicula  (B)  of 
the  Doric  order.*  The  second  group  of  three  Doric  temples  (E,  F,  G) 
belongs  to  a  rather  later  date, — probably  500  to  440  ac.  The  first 
two  (E  and  F)  have  very  narrow  cells,  so  that  they  are  jiseudo- 
dipteral.  They  also  are  hexastyle,  with  fourteen  columns  on  the 
sides.  Though  still  early  in  Setail,  they  are  without  the  curious 
necking  of  the  acropolis  temples.  The  sculptured  metopes  of 
temple  E  are  of  extraordinary  beauty  a^d  interest,  and  appear  io 
date  from  the  finest  period  of  Greek  art — the  age  of  Phidias  or 
perhaps  that  of  Myron.  The  chief  subjects  are  Zeus  and  Hera  on 
Mount  Olympus,  Artemis  and  Actason,  and  Heracles  defeating  an 
Amazon.  They  are  of  the  noblest  style,  simple  and  highly  sculp- 
turesque in  treatment,  and  full  of  grace  and  expression.  One 
remarkable  peculiarity  in  theii  technique  is  that  the  nude  parts  of 
the  female  figures  (heads,  feet,  and  hands)  are  executed  in  white 
marble,  while  the  rest  of  the  reliefs  are  in  the  native  gi-ej  tufa, 
which  originally  was  covered  with  marble-dust  stucco  and  then 
painted.  The  w'hole  of  the  stonework  of  all  the  temples  was  treated 
in  a  similar  way,  and  gives  most  valuable  examples  of  early  Greek 
coloured  decoration.  Recent  excavations  at  Selinus  have  shown 
that  in  many  cases  the  cornices  and  other  architectural  features 
were  covered  with  moulded  slabs  of  terra  cotta,  all  richly  coloured 

'  The  stone  of  which  all  these  temples  were  built  came  from  a  quarry 
a  few  miles  north-west  of  Selinus  (mod.  Campobello).  The  ancient 
workings  are  very  visible,  and  unfinished  drums  of  columns  and  other 
blocks  still  exist  in  the  quarry.      It  is  a  brown  tufa-like  stone. 

*  Strange  to  say,  Hittorff  and  Zanth  {Architecture  Antique  de  SiciUf 
Paris,  1870),  in  their  elaborate  work  on  this  subject,  restore  this  Kdicula 
with  a  Doric  entablature  on  Ionic  columns  ;  a  good  many  other  similar 
absurdities  occur  in  this  richly  illustrated  work.  More  judgment  is 
shown  in  SemdiMco'3  Antica  Selinunlo  {Palermo,  1851-42),  tho'.igh 
it  ia  not  always  accurate  in  measurements. 

TXI.  —   80 


634 


S  E  L  — S  E  L' 


(see  Dbi'pfeld.  DU  Vcrwtndung  von  TerracoUen,  Berlin,  1S31,  and 
Terracotta).  The  great  temple  of  Zeus'  (G  iu  fig.)  was  the 
largest  penpteial  temple  of  the  whole  Hellenic  world,  being  almost 
exactly  tlie  same  size  as  the  enormous  pseudo  ■  peripterzil  Olym- 
pe.-eum  at  the  neighbouring  Agrigentum.  It  was  octastyle,  pseudo- 
dipteial,  with  seventeen  columns  on  the  sides,  and  measures  360 
by  162  feet;  the  columns  are  10  feet  7^  inches  at  the  V.se  and  were 
48  feet  7  inches  high.  This  gigantic  building  was  never  quite 
completed,  though  the  whole  of  the  main  structure  was  built. 
Slost  of  the  columns  still  remain  unflutcd.  In  spite  of  the  propor- 
tional narrowness  of  its  celh,  it  had  an  internal  range  of  columns, 
probably  two  orders  high,  like  those  within  tlie  cella  at  Pa}stum. 
The  a-xes  of  these  last  tlirce  temples  have  exactly  the  same  inclina- 
tion as  those  on  the  acropolis.  The  great  temple  of  Zeus  possesses 
some  of  the  curious  archaisms  of  the  acropolis  temples,  and,  though 
never  completed,  it  was  probably  designed  and  begun  at  an  earlier 
date  than  the  two  adjacent  buildings.  Tliese  peculiarities  are  the 
ungracefully  rapid  diminution  of  the  shaft  and  the  cavetto  under 
the  necking  of  tlie  capitals.  The  whole  of  these  six  massive  build- 
ings now  lie  in  a  complete  state  of  ruin,  a  work  of  evidently  wilful 
destruction  on  the  part  of  the  Carthaginians,  as  the  temple  at 
Segesta,  not  many  miles  distant,  has  still  every  column  and  its 
whole  entablature  quite  perfect ;  so  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that 
an  earthquake  was  the  cause  of  the  utter  ruin  at  Selinus.  Few  or 
no  marks  of  fire  are  visible  on  the  stone  blocks.  (J.  H.  M.) 

SELJIJKS  is  the  name  of  several  Turkish  dynasties, 
issued  from  one  family,  which  reigned  over  large  parts  of 
Asia  in  the  11th,  12th,  and  13th  centuries  of  our  era. 
The  history  of  the  Seljiiks  forms  the  first  part  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Turkish  empire.  Proceeding  from  the  deserts 
of  Turkestan,  the  Seljiiks  reached  the  Hellespont;  but  this 
Ijarrier  was  crossed  and  a  European  power  foimded  by  the 
Ottonjans  (Osmauli).  The  Seljiiks  inherited  the  traditions 
and  at  the  same  time  the  power  of  the  previous  Arabian 
empire,  of  which,  when  they  made  their  appearance,  only 
the  shadow  remained  in  the  person  of  the  'AbbAsid  caliph 
of  BaghdAd.  It  is  their  merit  from  a  Jlohammedan  point 
of  view  to  have  re-established  the  power  of  orthodox  Islam 
and  delivered  the  Moslem  world  from  the  "supremacy  of 
the  caliph's  Shi'ite  competitors,  the  FAtimites  of  Egypt, 
and  from  the  subversive  influence  of  ultra-Shi'ite  tenets, 
-which  constituted  a  serious  danger  to  the  duration  of  Islam 
itself.  Neither  had  civilization  anything  to  fear  from 
them,  since  they  represented  a  strong  neutral  power,  which 
made  the  intimate  union  of  Persian  and  Arabian  elements 
possible,  almost  at  the  expense  of  the' national  Turkish, — 
literary  monuments  in  that  language  being  during  the 
whole  period  of  the  Seljiik  rule  exceedingly  rare. 

The  first  Seljiik  rulers  were  Toghrul  Beg,  Chakir  Beg, 
and  Ibrahim  Xiyal,  the  sons  of  ^MikaU,  the  son  of  Seljiik, 
the. son  of  Tukik  (also  styled  TimiiryAlik,  '-iron  bow"). 
They  belonged  to  the  Turkish  tribe  of  the  Ghuzz  (Oi'foi  of 
Const.  Porphyr.  and  the  Byzantine  writers),  which  traced 
its  lineage  to  Oghuz,  the  famous  eponymic  hero  not  only 
of  this  but  of  aU  Turkish  tribes.  There  arose,  hoscever, 
at  some  undefined  epoch  a  strife  on  the  part  of  this  tribe 
and  some  others  with  the  rest  of  the  Turks,  because,  as 
the  latter  allege,  Ghuzz,  the  son  (or  grandson)  of  Yafeth 
(Japhet),  the  son  of  Niih  (Noah),  had  stolen  the  genuine 
rain-stone,  which  Turk,  also  a  son  of  Yafeth,  had  inherited 
from  his  father.  By  this  party,  as  appears  from  this 
tradition,  the  Ghuzz  were  not  considered  to  be  genuine 
Turks,  but  to  be  Turkmans  (that  is,  according  to  a  popular 
etjinolsgy,  resembling  Turks).  But  the  native  tradition' 
fit  the  Ghuzz  was  unquestionably  right,  as  they  spoke  a 
pure  Turkish  dialect.  The  fact,  however,  remains  that 
there  existed  a  certain  animosity  between  the  Ghuzz  and 
their  allies  and  the  rest  of  the  Turks,  which  increased  as 
the  former  became  converted  to  "Islam  (in  the  course  of 
the  4th  centiiry  of  the  Flight).'  The  Ghuzz  were  settled 
at  that  time  in  Transoxiana,  especially  at  Jand,  a  well- 

*  The  dedication  of  the  five  smaller  temples  is  imknown  ;  some  were 
probably  consecrated  to  Poseidon,  Apollo,  and  Artemis.  The  existing 
jiietopQ  reliefs  are  preserved  in  the  museum  at  Palermo. 


known  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Jaxartes,  not  far  from  ;|§ 
mouth.  Some  of  them  served  in  the  armies  of  the  Ghazna-. 
vids  Sebuktegin  and  Mahmiid  (997-1030);  but  the  Seljul^s, 
a  royal  family  among  them,  had  various  relations  with  the 
reigning  prmces  of  Transoxiana  and  Khirizm,  which  can- 
not be  narrated  here.^  But,  friends  or  foe3,»the  Ghuzz 
became  a  serious  danger  to  the  adjoining  Mohammedan 
provinces  from  their  predatory  habits  and  continual  raids, 
and  the  more  so  as  they  were  very  numerous.  It  may 
suflice  to  mention  that,  under  the  leadership  of  IsraU  or 
Pigu  ArslAn,  they  crossed  the  Oxus  and  spread  over  the 
eastern  provinces  of  Persia,  everywhere  plundering  and  de- 
stroying. The  imprisonment  of  this  chieftain  by  Mas'iid, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Mahmiid,  was  of  no  avail :  it  only 
furnished  his  nephews  with  a  ready  pretext  to  cross  the 
Oxus  likewise  in  arms  against  the  Ghaznavids.  We  pass 
over  their  first  conflicts  and  the  unsuccessful  agreements 
that  were  attempted,  to  mention  the  decisive  battle  near 
Merv  (1010),  in  which  Mas'iid  was  totally  defeated  and 
driven  back  to  Ghazna  (Ghazni).  Persia  now  lay  open 
to  the  victors,  who  proclaimed  themselves  independent  at 
Merv  (which  became  from  that  time  the  official  capital  of 
the  principal  branch  of  the  Seljiiks),  and  acknowledged 
Toghrul  Beg  as  chief  of  the  whole  family.  After  this 
victory  the  three  princes  Toglirul  Beg,  Chakir  Beg,  and 
Ibrahim  Niyal  separated  in  different  directions  and  con- 
quered the  Mohammedan  provinces  east  of  the  Tigris ;  the 
last-named,  after  conquering  Hamadan  and  the  province 
of  Jebel,  penetrated  as  early  as  1018,  with  fresh  Ghuzz 
troops,  into  Armenia  and  reached  Melazkerd,  Erzeriim 
(Erzeroum),  and  Trebizond.  This  excited  the  jealousy  of 
Toghrul  Beg,  who  summoned  him  to  give  up  HamadAn 
and  the  fortresses  of  Jebel ;  but  Ibrahim  refused,  and  the 
progress  of  the  Seljiikian  arms  was  for  some  time  checked 
by  internal  discord, — an  ever-recurring  event  in  their 
history.     Ibrahim  was,  however,  compelled  to  submit. 

At  this  time  the  power  of  the  'AbbAsid  caliph  of 
BaghdAd  (Al-KAim  bi-amr  illAh)  was  reduced  to  a  mere 
shadow,  as  the  Shi'ite  dynasty  of  the  Biiyids  and  after- 
wards his  more  formidable  FatLmite  rivals  had  left  him 
almost  wholly  destitute  of  authority.  The  real  ruler  at 
BaghdAd  was  a  Turk  named  Basasiri,  lieutenant  of  the  last 
Biiyid,  Al-Malik  ar-Eahim.  Nothing  could,  therefore,  be 
more  acceptable  to  the  caliph  than  the  protection  of  the 
orthodox  Toghrul  Beg,  whose  name  was  read  in  the  oflicial 
prayer  (khotba)  as  early  as  10150.  At  the  end  of  the  sams 
year  the  Seljiik  entered  the  city  and  after  a  tumult  seized 
the  person  of  Malik  ar-Ealiim.  BasAsiri  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  out  of  his  reach ;  after  acknowledging  the 
right  of  the  FAtimites,  he  gathered  fresh  troops  and'in- 
cited  Ibrahim  NiyAl  to  rebel  again,  and  he  succeeded 
so  far  that  he  re-entered  Baghdad  at  the  close  of  1058. 
The  next  year,  however,  Toghrul  Beg  got  rid  of  both  his 
antagonists,  Ibrahim  being  taken  prisoner  and  strangled 
with  the  bowstring,  while  BasAsiri  fell  in  battle.  Toghrul 
Beg  now- re-entered  BaghdAd,  re-established  the  caliph, 
and  was  betrothed  to  his  daughter,  but  died  before  the 
consummation  of  the  nuptials  (September  1063).  Alp 
-ArslAn,  the  son  of  Chakir  Beg,  succeeded  his  uncle  and 
extended  the  rule  of  his  family  beyond  the  former  frontiers. 
He  made  himself  master,  e.g.,  of  the  important  city  of 
Aleppo ;  and  during  his  reigu  a  Turkish  emir,  Atsiz, 
wrested  Palestine  and  Syria  from  the  hands  of  the  FAtim- 
ites. Nothing,  however,  added  more  to  his  fame  than  his 
successful  expeditions  against  the  Greeks,  especially  that 
of  1071,  in  which  the  Greek  emperor  Romanus  Diogenes 
was  taken  prisoner  and  forced  to  ransom  himself  for  a 

-  Comp.  Sachau,  "Zur  Geschichte  und  Chronologie  von  Kliwiriim," 
in  Sitzu>iasberichte  of  ths  YienuiuAcad.,  Ixxiv.  304  sq. 


S  E  L  J  U  K  S 


635 


large  BUffi.  Ths  foundatfon  of  the  Seljiilf  empire  of  Kiirn 
(Asia  Minor,  see  below)  was  the  immediate  result  of  this 
great  victory.  Alp  ArsUn  afterwards  undertook  an  ex- 
pedition against  Turkestan,  and  met  with  his  death  at  the 
hands  of  a  captured  chief,  Jusof  Barzami,  whom  he  had 
intended  to  shoot  with  his  own  hand. 

Malik  Shih,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alp  Arslin,  had  to 
encounter  his  uncle  KAwurd,  founder  of  the  Seljukiau  em- 
pire of  Kermdn  (see  below),  who  claimed  to  succeed  Alp 
ArsUn  in  accordance  with  the  Tui-kish  laws,  and  led  his 
troops  towards  Hamaddn.  However,  he  lost  the  battle 
that  ensued,  and  the  bowstring  put  an  end  to  his  life 
(1073).  Malik  Sh4h  regulated  also  the  affairs  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Syria,  conceding  the  latter  province  as  an  hereditary 
fief  to  his  brother  Tutush,  who  established  himself  at 
Damascus  and  killed  Atsiz.  He,  however,  like  his  father 
Alp  ArsLin,  was  indebted  for  his  greatest  fame  to  the 
■wise  and  salutary  measures  of  their  vizier,  NizAm  ai-Mulk. 
This  extraordinary  man,  associated  by  tradition  with  'Omar 
KH.iYYAM  (q.v.),  the  weU-known  mathematician  and  free- 
thinking  poet,  and  with  Hasan  b.  §abb4h,  afterwards  the 
founder  of  the  IsmaeUtes  or  Assassins,  was  a  renowned 
author  and  statesman  of  the  first  rank,  and  immortalized 
his  name  by  the  foundation  of  several  universities  (the 
NizAmiyah  at  Baghddd),  observatories,  mosques,  hospitals, 
and  other  institutions  of  public  utility.  At  his  instigation 
the  calendar  was  revised  and  a  new  era,  dating  from  the 
reign  of  Malik  ShAh  and  known  as  the  Jelalian,  was  in- 
troduced. Not  quite  forty  days  before  the  death  of  his 
master  this  great  man  was  murdered  by  the  Ismaelites. 
He  had  fallen  into  disfavour  shortly  before  because  of 
his  unwillingness  to  join  in  the  intrigues  of  the  princess 
Turkan  KhAtiin,  who  wished  to  secure  the  succession  to 
the  throne  for  her  infant  son  Mahmiid  at  the  expense  of 
the  elder  sons  of  Malik  ShAh. 

Consiiiuticn  and  Goijcrnment  of  the  Seljulc  Empire. — It  has  been 
already  observed  that  the  Seljuis  considered  themselves  the  de- 
fenders of  the  orthodox  faith  and  of  the  '.\bbasid  caliphate,  while 
they  on  their  side  represented  the  temporal  power  which  received 
its  titles  and  sanction  from  the  successor  of  the  Prophet.  All 
the  members  of  the  Seljiik  house  had  the  same  obligations  in  this 
respect,  but  they  had  not  the  same  rights,  as  one  of  them  occu- 
pied relatively  to  the  others  a  place  almost  analogous  to  that  of 
the  great  khan  of  the  Mongols  in  later  times.  This  position  was 
inherited  from  father  to  son,  though  the  old  Turkish  idea  of  the 
rights  of  the  elder  brother  often  caused  rebellions  and  violent  family 
disputes.  Aftel'  the  death  of  Malik  Shah  the  head  of  the  family 
Tvaa  not  strong  enough  to  enforce  obedience,  and  consequently  the 
central  government  broke  np  into  several  independent  dynasties. 
.Within  the  limits  of  these  minor  dynasties  the  same  rules  were  ob- 
served, and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  hereditary  fiefs  of  Turkish 
«rair3  not  btAonging  to  the  royal  family,  who  bore  ordinarily  the 
title  oi atahcJc  (properly  "father  bey"),  c.g.^  the  atabeks  of  Fars,  of 
Adharbaijan  (Azerbijan),  of  Syria,  ic.  The  title  was  first  given  to 
Nizam  al-Mulk  and  expressed  the  relation  in  which  he  stood  to  the 
prince, — as  lala,  "tutor."  The  affairs  of  state  were  managed  by  the 
civan  under  the  presidency  of  the  vizier  ;  but  in  the  empire  of  Rum 
its  authority  was  inferior  to  that  of  the  pcrvdneh,  whom  wo  may 
name  "lord  chancellor,"  In  Rum  the  feudal  system  was  extended 
to  Christian  princes,  who  were  acknowledged  by  the  sultan  on  con- 
<Iition  of  paying  tribute  and  serving  in  the  armies.  The  court 
dignitaries  and  their  titles  were  manifold  ;  not  less  manifold  were 
the  royal  prerogatives,  in  which  the  sultans  followed  the  example 
set  by  their  predecessors,  the  Buyids. 

Notwithstanding  the  intrigues  of  TurkAn  KhAtiin,  Malik 
ShAh  was  succeeded  by  his  elder  son  BarkiyArok  (1092- 
1104),  whose  short  reign  was  a  series  of  rebellions  and 
strange  adventures  such  as  one  may  imagine  in  the  story 
of  a  youth  who  is  by  turns  a  poTverful  prince  and  a  miser- 
able fugitive.'  Like  his  brother  Mohammed  (1104-1118), 
who  successfully  rebelled  j^gainst  him,  his  most  dangerous 
enemies  were  the  Ismaelites,  who  had  succeeded  in  taking 
the  fortress  of  Alamut  (north  of  Kaz\-fn)  and  become  a 

'  A  sketch  of  his  reign  has  been  given  by  Defrcmery,  Joum.  Alia- 
tlXut,  1853,  I  425  »;.,  ii.  217  sj. 


formidable  political  power  by  the  organization  of  bands  of 
Jiddivis,  who  were  always  ready,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of 
their  own  lives,  to  njurder  any  one  whom  they  were  com- 
manded to  slay  (see  Ass-^ssms). 

Mohammed  had  been  successful  by  the  aid  of  his  brother 
Sinjar,  v.-ho  frorn  the  year  1097  held  the  province  of 
Khorasan  with  the  capital  Merv.  After  the  death  of 
Mohammed  Sinjar  became  the  real  head  of  the  family, 
though  'IrAk  acknowledged  Mahmiid,  the  son  of  Mo- 
hammed. Thus  there  originated  a  separate  dynasty  -of 
'IrAk  with  its  capital  at  HamadAn  ;  but  Sinjar  during 
hb  long  reign  often  interfered  in  the  affairs  of  the  new 
dynasty,  and  every  occupant  of  the  throne  had  to  acknow- 
ledge his  supremacy.  In  1 1 1 7  he  led  an  expedition  against 
Ghazna  and  bestowed  the  throne  upon  BehrAm  ShAh,  who 
was  also  obliged  to  mention  Sinjar's  name  first  in  the 
official  prayer  at  the  Ghaznavid  capital, — a  prerogative 
that  neither  Alp  ArslAn  nor  MaUk  ShAh  had  attained.  In 
1134  Behrdm  ShAh  failed  in  this  obligation  and  brought  on 
himself  a.  fresh  invasion  by  Sinjar  in  the  midst  of  winter ; 
a  third  one  took  place  in  1152,  caused  by  the  doings  of 
the  Ghurids  (Hosain  JihAnsuz,  or  "  world-burner  ").  Other 
expeditious  were  undertaken  by  him  against  KhArizm  and 
Turkestan  ;  the  government  of  the  former  had  been  given 
by  BarkiyArok  to  Mohammed  b.  Anushtegin,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1128  by  his  son  Atsiz,  and  against  him  Sinjar 
marched  in  1138.  Though  victorious  in  this  war,  Sinjar 
could  not  hinder  Atsiz  from  afterwards  joining  the  gurkhAu 
(great  khAn)  of  the  then  rapidly  rising  empire  of  the  Kara^ 
chitai,  at  whose  hands  the  Seljiik  suffered  a  terrible  defeat 
at  Samarkand  in  1141.  By  the  invasion  of  these  hordes 
several  Turkish  tribes,  the  Ghuzz  and  others,  were  driven 
beyond  the  Oxus,  where  they  killed  the  Seljiik:  governor 
of  Balkh,  though  they  professed  to  be  loyal  to  Sinjar; 
Sinjar  resolved  to  punish  this  crime ;  but  his  troops  deserted 
and  he  himself  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Ghuzz,  who 
kept  him  in  strict  confinement  during  two  years  (1153-55),' 
though  treating  him  with  all  outward  marks  of  respect.' 
In  the  meantime. they  plundered  and  destroyed  the  flourish- 
ing cities  of  Merv  and  NishApiir ;  and  when  Sinjar,  after 
his  escape  from  captivity,  revisited  the  site  of  his  capital 
he  fell  sick  of  sorrow  and  grief  and  died  soon  afterwards 
(1157).  His  empire  fell  to  the  Karachitai  and  afterwards 
to  the  shAh  of  KhArizm.  Of  the  successors  of  Mohammed 
in  'IrAk  we  give  only  the  names  with  the  date  of  the  death 
of  each: — Mahmiid  (1131);  Toghrul,  son  of  Mohammed,' 
proclaimed  by  Sinjar  (1134);  Mas'iid  (1152);  Malik  ShAh 
and  Mohammed  (1159),  sons  of  Mahmiid  ;  SulaimAn  ShAh, 
their  brother  (1161);  ArslAn,  son  of  Toghrul  (1175);  and 
Toghrul,  son  of  ArslAn,  killed  in  1194  by  InAnej,  son  of 
his  atabek,  Mohammed,  who  was  in  confederation  with  the 
KhArizm  shAh  of  the  epoch,  Takash.  This  chief  inherited 
his  possessions ;  Toghriil  was  the  last  representative  of  the 
Seljiiljs  of  "IrAlf.    v 

The  province  of  KermAn  was  one  of  the  first  conquests 
of  the  Seljiiks,  and  became  the  hereditary  fief  of  KAwurd, 
the  son  of  Chaljir  Beg.  Jlention  has  been  made  of  his 
war  with  Malik  ShAh  and  of  his  ensuing  death  (1073). 
Nevertheless  his  descendants  were  left  in  possession  of 
their  ancestor's  dominions;  and  till  1170  KermAn,  to' 
which  belonged  also  the  opposite  coast  of  'OmAn,  enjoyed 
a  well-ordered  government,  except  for  a  short  interruption 
caused  by  the  deposition  of  IrAn  ShAh,  who  had  embraced 
the  tenets  of  the  Ismaelites,  and  was  put  to  death  (1101) 
in  accordance  with  a  fatwa  of  the  ulema.  But  after  the 
death  of  Toghrul  ShAh  (1170)  his  three  sons  disputed  with 
each  other  for  the  possession  of  the  throne,  and  implored 
foreign  assistance,  till  the  country  became  utterly  devas- 
tated and  fell  an  easy  prey  to  some  bands  of  Ghuzz,  who, 
under  the  leadership  of  MaUk  DinAr  (1185),  marched  intc 


636 


S  E  L  J  a  K  S 


KennAn  after  harassing  Sinjar'a  dominions.     Afterwards 
the  shihs  of  Khirizm  took  this  province.^ 

The  Seljukian  dynasty  of  Syria  came  to  an  end  after 
three  generations,  and  its  later  history  is  interwoven  with 
that  of  the  crusaders.  The  first  prince  was  Tutush,  men- 
tioned above,  who  perished,  after  a  reign  of  continuous 
fighting,  in  battle  against  Barkiy.irok  near  Rai  (1095).  Of 
hfs  two-  sons,  the  elder,  Ridhwin,  established  himself  afe 
Aleppo  (died  1113);  the  younger,  Dukak,  took  possession 
of  Damascus,  and  died  in  1103.  The  sons  of  the  former, 
Alp  Arslin  anjl  Sultin  Sh4h,  reigned  a  short  time  nomi- 
nally, though  the  real  power  was  exercised  by  Liilu  till  1 1 1 7. 
We  cannot,  however,  enter  here  into  the  very  complicated 
history  of  these  two  cities,  which  changed  their  masters 
almost  every  year  till  the  time  of  Zengi  and  Niir  ed-din. 

After  the  great  victory  of  Alp  ArsUn  in  which  the  Greek 
emperor  was  taken  prisoner  (1071),  Asia  Minor  lay  open  to 
the  inroads  of  the  Turks.  Hence  it  was  easy  for  Sulaimin, 
the  son  of  Kutulmish,-  the  son  of  Arslin  Pigu  (Israil),  to 
penetrate  as  fav  as  the  Hellespont,  the  more  so  as  after  the 
captivity  of  Romanus,  two  rivals,  Nicephorus  Bryennius  in 
Asia  and  another  Nicephorus  named  Botoniates  in  Europe, 
disputed  the  throne  with  one  another.  The  former  ap- 
pealed to  Sulaimin  for  assistance,  and  was  by  his  aid 
brought  to  Constantinople  and  seated  on  the  imperial 
throne.  But  the  possession  of  Asia  !Minor  was  insecure 
to  the  Seljiiks  as  long  as  the  important  city  of  Antioch 
belonged  to  the  Greeks,  so  that  we  may  date  the  real 
foimdation  of  this  Seljuk  empire  froin  the  taking  of  that 
city  by  the  treason  of  its  commander  Philaretus  in  1084, 
who  afterwards  became  a  vassal  of  the  Seljulfs.  The  con- 
quest involved  Sulaimiin  in  war  with  the  neighbouring 
Mohammedan  princes,  and  he  met  his  death  soon  after- 
wards (1086),  near  Shaizar,  in  a  battle  against  Tutush. 
Owing  to  these  family  discords  the  decision  of  Malik 
ShAh  was  necessary  to  settle  the  affairs  of  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria ;  he  kept  the  sons  of  SuIaimAn  in  captivity,  and 
committed  the  war  against  the  unbelieving  Greeks  to  his 
generals  Bursuk  (Upoa-ovx)  and  BuzAn  (Hovfai-os).  Barki- 
yirok,  however,  on  his  accession  (1092),  allowed  Kilig 
Arsl.^n,  the  son  of  SuIaimAn,  to  return  to  the  dominions  of 
his  father.  Acknowledged  by  the  Turkish  emirs  of  Asia 
Minor,  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Nicsea,  and  defeated  the 
first  bands  of  crusaders  under  Walter  the  Penniless  and 
others  (1096);  but,  on  the  arrival  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
and  his  companions,  he  was  prudent  enough  to  leave  his 
capital  in  order  to  attack  them  as  they  were  besieging 
Nicsea.  He  suffered,  however,  two  defeats  in  the  vicinity, 
^nd  Kicaea  surrendered  on  23d  June  1097.  As  the  cru- 
saders marched  by  way  of  Dorylxum  and  Iconium  towards 
Antioch,  the  Greeks  subdued  the  Turkish  emirs  resid- 
ing at  Sm}Tna,  Ephesus,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  Laodicea, 
Lampes,  and  Polybotus ;  ^  and  Kilig  Arslin,  with  his 
Turks,  retired  to  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Asia  Jlinor,  to 
act  with  the  Turkish  emirs  of  SivAs  (Sebaste),  known 
under  the  name  of  the  Danishmand. 

The  history  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Danishmand  is  still  very  ob- 
Ecure,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  ilordtmann,  Schlumberger, 
Karaba(;ek,  Sallet,  and  others  to  fix  some  chronological  details, 
and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  harmonize  the  different  statements 
of  the  Armenian,  Syriac,  Greek,  and  Western  chronicles  with  those 
of  the  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish.  The  coins  are  few  in  number, 
very  difficult  to  decipher,  and  often  ^^'ithout  date.  Tlie  founder 
of  the  dynasty  was  a  certain  Tailu,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a 
schoolmaster  (danishmand),  probably  because  he  understood  Arabic 
and  Persian.  His  descendants,  therefore,  took  the  stj'le  of  "  Ibn 
Danislimand,"  often  without  tlieir  own  name.     They  took  posses- 

^  .\n  outline  of  the  history  of  this  branch  of  the  Seljuks  is  given 
in  ir.i).jl/.(J.,  1SS5,  pp.  362-401. 

-  This  prince  rebelled  against  Alp  Ar:;lan  in  10G4,  and  was  found 
dead  after  a  I  .ttle. 

^  The  Turkmans  who  dwelt  in  these  western  parts  of  Asia  Minor, 
■n-hich  were  never  regained  by  the  Seljuks,  were  o-Ued  Utch  (Outsidei-s). 


sion  of  Sivas,  Tokit,  Nicsar,  Ablastan,  Malatieh,  probably  after 
the  death  of  Sulaintan,  though  they  may  have  established  them- 
selves in  one  or  more  of  these  cities  much  earlier,  perhaps  in  1071, 
after  the  defeat  of  Romanus  Diogenes.  Duiing  the  first  crusada 
the  reigning  prince  was  Kumusfilegin  (Ahtned  Ghazi),  who  defeated 
the  Franks  and  took  prisoner  the  prince  of  Antioch,  Bohemond, 
afterwards  ransomed.  He  died  probably  in  1106,  and  was  succeeded, 
by  his  son  Mohammed  (d.  1143),  after  whom  reigned  Jaghi  Basan  ; 
but  it  is  very  probable  that  other  members  of  the  same  dynasty 
reigned  at  the  same  time  in  the  cities  already  named,  and  in  sora© 
others,  e-g.,  KastamunL 

Afterwards  there  aiose  a  natural  rivalry  between  the 
Seljuks  and  the  Danishmand,  which  ended  with  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  latter  about  1175.  Kilig  Arslin  took 
possession  of  Mosul  in  1107,  and  declared  himself  independ- 
ent of  the  Seljuks  of  'Irdk ;  but  in  the  sanje  year  he  was 
drowned  in  the  Chaboras  through  the  treachery  of  his  own 
emirs,  and  the  dynasty  seemed  again  destined  to  decay,  as 
his  sons  were  in  the  power  of  his  enemies.  The  sultan 
Mohammed,  however,  set  at  liberty  his  eldest  son  Malik 
Shih,  who  reigned  for  some  time,  until  he  was  treacher- 
ously murdered  (it  is  not  quite  certain  by  whom),  being 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Mas'ud,  who  established  himself 
at  Konieh  (Iconium),  from  that  time  the  residence  of  the  . 
Seljuks  of  Rtim.  During  his  reign — he  died  in  1155 — 
the  Greek  emperors  undertook  various  expeditions  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Armenia  ;  but  the  Seljuk  was  cunning  enough 
to  profess  himself  their  ally  and  to  direct  them  against  hi» 
own  enemies.  Nevertheless  the  Seljukian  dominion  was 
petty  and  unimportant  and  did  not  rise  to  significance  till 
his  son  and  successor,  Kilig  ArsUn  II.,  had  subdued  the 
Danishmands  and  appropriated  their  possessions,  though, 
he  thereby  risked  the  wrath  of  the  powerful  atabek  of 
Syria,  Nur  ed-dln,  and  afterwards  that  of  the  still  more 
powerful  Saladin.  But  as  the  sultan  grew  old  his  numerous 
sons,  who  held  each  the  command  of  a  city  of  the  empire, 
embittered  his  old  age  by  their  mutual  rivalry,  and  the 
eldest,  Kotb  ed-din,  tyrannized  over  his  father  in  his  own 
capital,  exactly  at  the  time  that  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa) 
entered  his  dominions  on  his  way  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
(1190).  Konieh  itself  was  taken  and  the  sultan  forced  to 
provide,  guides  and  provisions  for  the  crusaders.  Kilig 
ArsUn  lived  two  years  longer,  finally  under  the  protection 
of  his  youngest  son,  Kaikhosrau,  who  held  the  capital 
after  him  (till  1199)  until  his  elder  brother,  Rokn  ed-din 
Sulaimin,  after  having  vanquished  his  other  brothers, 
ascended  the  throne  and  obliged  Kaikhosrau  to  seek  refuge 
at  the  Greek  emperor's  court.  This  valiant  prince  saved 
the  empire  from  destruction  and  conquered  Erzerum,  which 
had  been  ruled  during  a  considerable  time  by  a  separate 
dynasty,  and  was  now^j^ven  in  fief  to  his  brother,  Mughit 
ed-din  Toghrid  Sh.ih.  ""But,  marching  thence  against  the 
Georgians,  SulaimAn's  troops  sufl'ered  a  terrible  defeat ; 
after  this  Sulaimin  set  out  to  subdue  his  brother  Slas'iid 
Shah,  at  Angora,  who  was  finally  taken  prisoner  and 
treacherously  murdered.  This  crime  is  regarded  by  Orien- 
tal authors  as  the  reason  of  the  premature  death  of  the 
sultan  (in  1204);  but  it  is  more  probable  that  he  was 
murdered  because  he  displeased  the  Mohammedan  clergj', 
who  accused  him  of  atheism.  His  son,  Kilig  Arslin  III., 
was  soon  deposed  by  Kaikhosrau  (who  returned),  assisted 
by  the  Greek  Maurozomes,  whose  daughter  he  had  married 
in  exile.  He  ascended  the  throne  the  same  year  in  which 
the  Latin  empire  was  established  in  Constantinople,  a  cir- 
cumstance highly  favourable  to  the  Turks,  who  were  the 
natural  allies  of  the  Greeks  (Theodore  Lascaris)  and  the 
enemies  of  the  crusaders  and  their  allies,  the  Armenians. 
Kaikhosrau,  therefore,  took  in  1207  from  the  Italian 
Aldobrandini  the  important  harbour  of  Attalia  (Adalia)  ^ 
but  his  conquests  in  this  direction  were  put  an  end  to  by 
his  attack  upota  Lascaris,  for  in  the  battle  that  ensued  he 
perished  in  single  combat  with  his  royal  antagonist  (1211), 


S  E  L  J  U  K  S 


637 


Sis  son  and  successor,  KaikAvils,  made  peace  with  Lascaris 
and  extended  his  frontiers  to  the  Black  Sea  by  the  con- 
quest of  Sinope  (1214).  On  this  occasion  he  was  fortunate 
enough  to  take  prisoner  the  Comnenian  prince  (Alexis) 
who  ruled  the  independent  empire  of  Trebizond,  and  he 
compelled  him  to  .purchase  his  liberty  by  acknowledging 
the  supremacy  of  the  Seljiilfs,  by  paying  tribute,  and  by 
serving  in  the  armies  of  the  sultan.  Elated  by  this  great 
success  and  by  his  victories  over  the  Armenians,  Kaikivus 
was  induced  to  attempt  the  capture  of  the  important  city 
of  Aleppo,  at  this  time  governed  by  the  descendants  of 
Saladin  ;  but  the  affair  miscarried.  Soon  afterwards  the 
sultan  died  (1219)  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Mi, 
ed-din  Kaikobiid,  the  most  powerful  and  illustrious  prince 
of  this  branch  of  the  Seljiiks,  renowned  not  only  for  his 
successful  wars  but  also  for  his  magnificent  structures  at 
Konieh,  Alaja,  SivAs,  and  elsewhere,  which  belong  to  the 
best  specimens  of  Saracenic  architecture.  The  town  of 
Alaja  was  the  creation  of  this  sultan,  as  previously  there 
existed  on  that  site  only  the  fortress  of  Candelor,  at  that 
epoch  in  the  possession  of  an  Armenian  chief,  who  was 
expelled  by  Kaikobiid,  and  shared  the  fate  of  the  Armenian 
and  Frankish  knights  who  possessed  the  fortresses  along 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  as  far  as  Selefke  (Seleucia). 
Kaikobid  extended  his  rule  as  far  as  this  city,  and  desisted 
from  further  conquest  only  on  condition  that  the  Armenian 
princes  would  enter  into  the  same  kind  of  relation  to  the 
Seljiilfs  as  had  been  imposed  on  the  Comnenjans  of  Trebi- 
zond. But  his  greatest  military  fame  was  won  by  a  war 
which,  however  glorious,  was  to  prove  fatal  to  the  Seljiilj 
empire  in  the  future  :  in  conjunction  with  his  ally,  the 
Eyyilbid  prince  Al-Ashraf,  he  defeated  the  Khdrizm  shAh 
JeUl  ed-din  near  ArzengAn  (1230).  This  victory  removed 
the  only  barrier  that  checked  the  progress  of  the  Mongols. 
During  tils  war  KaikobAd  put  an  end  to  the  collateral 
dynasty  of  tlie  Seljuljs  of  Erzerilm  and  annexed  its  pos- 
sessions. He  also  gained  the  city  of  Kielit  with  depend- 
encies that  in  former  times  had  belonged  to  the  ShAh-i- 
Armen,  but  shortly  before  had  been  taken  by  Jelil  ed-din  ; 
this  aggression  was  the  cause  of  the  war  just  mentioned. 
The  acquisition  of  KheUt  led,  however,  to  a  new  war, 
as  Kaikobdd's  ally,  the  Eyyiihid  prince,  envied  him  this 
conquest.  Sixteen  Mohammedan  princes,  mostly  Eyyubids, 
of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  under  the  leadership  of  Al- 
Malik  al-K4mil,  prince  of  Egypt,  marched  with  considerable 
forces  into  Asia  Minor  against  him.  Happily  for  Kaiko- 
bAd, the  princes  mistrusted  the  power  of  the  Egyptian, 
and  it  proved  a  difficult  task  to  penetrate  through  the 
mountainous  well-fortified  accesses  to  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor,  so  that  the  adi&Etage  rested  with  KaikobAd,  who 
took  Kharput,  and  for  some  time  even  held  Harrin,  Ar- 
Koha,  and  RaVta  (1232).  The  latter  conquests  were, 
however,  soon  lost,  and  KaikobAd  himself  died  in  1234 
of  poison  administered  to  him  by  his  son  and  successor, 
GhiyAts  ed-din  Kaikhosrau  II.  This  unworthy  son  in- 
herited from  his  father  an  empire  embracing  almost  the 
whole  of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  exception  of  the  countries 
governed  by  Vatatzes  (Vataces)  and  the  Christian  princes 
of  Trebizond  and  Lesser  Armenia,  who,  however,  were 
bound  to  pay  tribute  and  to  serve  in  the  armies, — an 
empire  celebrated  by  contemporary  reports  for  its  wealth.' 
But  the  Turkish  soldiers  were  of  little  use  in  a  regular 
battle,  and  the  sultan  relied  mainly  on  his  Christian 
troops,  so  much  so  that  an  insurrection  of  dervishes  which 
occurred  at  this  period  could  only  be  put  down  by  their 
assistance.  It  was  at  this  epoch  also  that  there  flourished 
»t  Konieh  the  greatest  mystical  poet  of  Islam,  and  the 
founder  of  the  order  of  the  Mawlawis,  JelAl  ed-dfn  Riimf 

'  See  the  detaiU  in  Viocent  of  Beaurais,  Speculum  Uistoriale,  bk. 
\ii.  chaps.  143,  141. 


(d.  1273;  see  RiJinf),  and  that  the  dervish  fraternities 
spread  throughout  the  whole  country  and  became  power- 
ful bodies,  often  discontented  with  the  liberal  principles 
of  the  sultans,  who  granted  privileges  to  the  Christian 
merchants  and  held  frequent  intercourse  with  them.  Not- 
withstanding all  this,  the  strength  and  reputation  of  the 
empire  were  so  great  that  the  Mongols  hesitated  to  invade 
it,  although  standing  at  its  frontiers.  But,  as  they  crossed 
the  border,  Kaikhosrau  marched  against  them,  and  suffered 
a  formidable  defeat  at  Kuzadig  (between  Arzengdn  and 
Sivds)  in  1243,  which  forced  him  to  purchase  peace  by 
the  promise  of  a  heavy  tribute.  The  independence  of  the 
Seljiilfs  was  now  for  ever  lost.  The  Mongols  retired  for 
some  years;  but,  Kaikhosrau  dying  in  1245,  the  joint 
government  of  his  three  sons  gave  occasion  to  fresh  in- 
roads, till  one  of  them  died  and  Hulag'a  divided  the 
empire  between  the  other  two,  'Izz  ed-dln  ruling  the  dis- 
tricts west  of  the  Halys  a,nd  Rokn  ed-din  the  eastern 
provinces  (1259).  But  the  former,  intriguing  with  the 
Mameluke  sultans  of  Egypt  to  expel  his  brother  and  gain 
his  independence,  was  defeated  by  a  Mongol  army  and 
obliged  to  flee  to  the  imperial  court.  Here  he  v/a3  im- 
prisoned, but  afterwards  released  by  the  Tatars  of  the 
Crimea,  who  took  him  with  them  to  Sarai,  where  he  died. 
Rokn  ed-dir  was  only  a  nominal  ruler,  the  real  power 
being  ia  the  lands  of  his  pervAneh,  Muin  ed-din  Sulaimdn, 
who  in  1267  procured  an  order  of  the  Mongol  Khdn 
Abaka  for  his  e.xecution.  The  minister  raised  his  infant 
son,  GhiyAts  ed-din  Kaikhosrau  III.,  to  the  throne,  and 
governed  the  country  for  ten  years  longer,  till  he  was 
entangled  in  a  conspiracy  of  several  emirs,  who  proposed 
to  expel  the  Mongols  with  the  aid  of  the  Mameluke  sultan 
of  Egypt  (Beybars  or  Bibars).  The  latter  marched  into 
Asia  Minor  and  defeated  the  Mongols  in  the  bloody  battle 
of  Ablastin  (1277);  but,  when  he  advanced  farther  to 
Ccesarea,  the  pervineh  retired,  hesitating  to  join  him  at 
the  very  moment  of  action.  Beybars,  therefore,  in  his 
turn  fell  back,  leaving  the  pervdneh  to  the  vengeance  of 
the  khin,  who  soon  discovered  his  treason  and  ordered  a 
barbarous  execution.  GhiyAts  ed-din  continued  to  reign 
in  name  till  1284,  though  the  country  was  in  reality 
governed  by  a  Mongol  viceroy.  Mas'ild,  the  son  of  'Izz 
ed-din,  who  on  the  death  of  his  father  had  fled  from  the 
Crimea  to  the  Mongol  khAn  and  had  received  from  him 
the  government  of  SivAs,  ArzengAn,  and  Erzerilm  during 
the  lifetime  of  GhiyAts  ed-dln,  ascended  the  Seljiilj  throne 
on  the  death  of  GhiyAts.  But  his  authority  was  scarcely 
respected  in  his  own  residence,  for  several  Turkish  emirs 
assumed  independence  and  could  only  be  subdued  by 
Mongol  aid,  when  they  retired  to  the  mountains,  to  re- 
appear as  soon  as  the  Mongols  were  gone.  Mas'iid  fell, 
probably  about  1295,  a  victim  to  the  vengeance  of  one  of 
the  emirs,  whose  father  he  had  ordered  to  be  put  to  death. 
After  him  KaikobAd,  son  of  his  brother  FarAmarz,  entered 
Konieh  as  sultan  in  1298,  but  his  reign  is  so  obscure  that 
nothing  can  be  said  of  it ;  some  authors  as.sert  that  he 
governed  only  till  1300,  others  till  1315.  With  him  ended 
the  dynasty  of  the  Seljiilfs  ;  but  the  Turkish  empire  founded 
by  them  continued  to  exist  under  the  rising  dynasty  of  the 
Ottomans.     (See  Turkey.) 

Bibliography. — The  best,  though  iiisufBciciit,  account  of  the  Sel- 
jiiks is  still  De  Guigncs,  jlistoire  Gin^raU.  dcs  Suns,  bks.  x.-xii., 
from  whom  Gibbon  borrowed  his  dates.  Among  translations  from 
original  sources  (of  which  the  most  trnstworlhy  are  yet  unedited), 
comp.  Mirkhond's  Ocschichlc  dcr  Sctdschuicn  (cd.  Vullcrs),  Gicssen, 
1838;  Tarikh-i-Gutidch,  French  translation  by  Defremcry  in  the 
Journal  Asiatique,  184S,  i.  417  sq.,  ii.  259  sq.,  334  sq.  ;  Seid 
LocTnani  ex  Lihro  Turcica  qiu  Oghuxnainc  iti^crihiiKr  Exccrpta  (ed. 
J.  H.  W.  Lagus),  Hehsingfora,  1854  (on  the  Seljiiks  of  Asia  Minor 
cxclneivcly,   out  of  little  value).     Information  respecting  certain 

Sriods  is  given  incidentally  in  the  well-known  v^orks  of  Von 
ammor  and  D'Ohason.  iH.  T.  HJ 


638 


SELKIRK 


SELKIRK,  a  lowland  county  of  Scotland,  of  tortuous  I 
outline,  is  bounded  by  Midlothian  on  the  N.,  by  Peebles  on 
the  N.  and  W.,  by  Dumfries  on  the  S.,  and  by  Roxburgh 
on  the  E.  Its  extreme  length  from  south-west  to  north- 
cast  is  28  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  17, 
and  its  total  area  2G0  square  miles  or  lCG,52-t  acres,  of 
which  1997  are  water.  This  includes  two  detached  portions, 
one  to  the  north-w-est,  surrounded  by  Peebles,  and  another 
on  the  east,  the  estate  and  barony  of  Sinton,  separated  from 
Roxburgh  in  the  reign  of  William  the  Lion  on  the  appoint- 
ment of  Andrew  de  Synton  to  the  sheriffship  of  Selkirk. 
From  its  lowest  altitude  (300  feet)  at  the  junction  of  the 
<3ala  and  the  Tweed  the  surface  rises  to  2433  feet  at  Dun 
Rig,  a  wild  and  desolate  summit  on  th«  western  boundary. 
Level  haughs,  beds  of  ancient  lakes,  occur  iu  the  courses 
of  the  rivers  ;  but  the  county  is  otherwise  wholly  mountain- 
ous and  only  a  small  proportion  of  it  arable.  Of  its  prin- 
cipal summits,  Ettrick  Pen  (22C9),  Capel  Fell  (2223), 
Deer  Law  (20GI),  Herman  Law  (2014),  are  in  the  south, 
and  Windlestrae  Law  (2161)  in  the  north,  about  a  mile 
from  the  borders  of  Midlothian.  Broadly  speaking,  Selkirk 
may  be  said  to  consist  of.  the  two  entire  valleys  of  Ettrick 
and  Yarrow  and  a  section  of  the  valley  of  Tweed,  the  first 
two  sloping  from  the  south  until  they  merge  in  the  last, 
which  forms  the  northern  portion  of  the  county.  Besides 
St  Mary's  Loch  and  its  adjunct  the  Loch  of  the  Lowes, 
together  about  il  miles  long,  there  are  several  others  of 
considerable  size,  mostly  in  the  eastern  uplands  between 
Ettrick  and  Teviotdale — the  two  lochs  of  Shaws,  Clearburn 
Loch,  Ringside  Loch,  Hellmulr  Loch,  Alemuir  Loch,  and 
Akermuir  "Loch.  These,  with  the  larger  rivers  and  the 
mountain  "  burns,"  attract  anglers  to  Selkirk  from  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom. 

Geologically,  the  Selkirk  rocks  are  a  portion  of  that 
great  Silurian  mass  which  occupies  the  south  of  Scotland 
from  Wigtown  to  the  north-east  coast  of  Berwick.  At  no 
part  are  they  known  to  be  covered  by  rocks  of  later  forma- 
tion ;  but  here  and  there  (at  AVindlestrae  Law  and  Priest- 
hope,  for  example)  igneous  rocks  protrude  in  massive  out- 
crops, almost  granitic,  one  measuring  over  100  feet  in 
thickness.  The  hillsides  yield  inexhaustible  supplies  of 
blue-grey  whinstone,  suitable  for  building;  but  repeated 
efforts  to  establish  slate-cjuarries  and  lead-mines  have  ended 
in  failure.  According  to  records  of  the  IGth  century,  gold 
was  found  at  Mount  Benger,  Douglas  Craig,  and  Linglie 
Burn, — "  an  ingenious  gentlemaii  "  named  Bevis  Bulmer 
liaving  been  "  most  successful  upon  Henderland  Moor  in 
Ettrick  Forest,  where  he  got  the  greatest  gold — the  like 
to  itia  no  other  place  before  of  Scotland." 

Corresponding  with  the  high  average  altitude,  the  pre- 
vailing climate  is  cold  and  wet,  and,  as  the  soil  is  mostly 
thin,  over  a  close  subsoil  of  clayey  "till,"  agriculture  is 
carried  on  at  a  disadvantage.  About  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century  large  areas  of  virgin  soil  were  brought  under 
tillage ;  but  the  prudence  of  the  "  improvement "  is  now 
CTreatly  doubted,  in  regard  to  a  large  proportion  at  least, 
—  its  restoration  to  permanent  pasture  being  now  found 
almost  impracticable. 

In  18S4  23,263  acres,  or  nearly  a  seventh  of  the  whole,  were  under 
cultivation  .ind  3228  under  wood.  The  rotation  of  crops  most 
commonly  followed  is  a  six-course  shift  of  (1)  turnips,  (2)  barley 
or  oats,  (3),  (4),  (5)  grass  or  pasture,  and  (6)  oats.  Horses  in 
18S1  numbered  580,  cattle  2657,  sheep  165,061.  Till  about  a 
century  ago  the  upper  farms  of  the  county  were  stocked  exclusively 
with  sheep  of  th'!  blackfaced  breed,  and  in  high  heathery  tracts 
these  still  predominate.  But  as  altitude  diminishes  sheep  improve 
in  (quality,  from  pure  Cheviot  to  h.ilf-brcd  and  three-qnarters-brej 
Leicester-Cheviot.  Upwards  of  60,000  acres,  more  than  a  third  of 
the  county,  belong  to  the  duke  of  Buccleuch,  whose  title  is  derived 
from  an  ancient  possession  of  his  family  in  the  vale  of  Eankleburn. 
Other  principal  landownei-s  are  Mr  Maxwell -Stuart  of  Traquair 
(9765  acres)  and  Luard  Napier  and  Ettrick  (6988  acres). 

Manufactures. — So  early  as  the  h;einning  of  the  17th  century 


the  village  of  Galashiels  did  a  considerable  local  ^rade  in  wooUett 
cloth,  then  oi'  shortly  afterwards  known  as  "  Galashiels  grey,"  and 
towarus  the  end  of  the  18th  century  this  industry  was  greatly 
stimulated  by  judicious  grants  from  "the  equivalent"  paid  by 
England  at  the  Union.  About  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the 
lOtli  century  a  few  novelties  in  pattern  (mostl}'  accidental)  led  to 
the  opening  up  of  what  lias  now  become  a  vast  industry — the  Tweed 
trade,  wliicni  still  has  its  acknowledged  centre  in  Selkirk. 

Administration  and  Population.  —  Selkirkshire  with  Peeblesshire 
forms  one  parliamentary  constituency.  Of  entire  civil  paiishcs  it 
contains  only  two,  with  parts  of  nine  others  ;  there  are  also,  taken 
from  these,  thrcii  quoad  sacra  parishes  and  part  of  a  fourth.  The 
population,  4937  hi  1755  and  9S09  in  1851,  was  in  1881  returned  at 
25,564, — an  increase  partly  due  to  the  annexation  of  a  portion  of 
Galashiels  formerly  reckoned  in  Roxburgh.  Outside  the  two  towns 
of  Galashiels  (population  9140  in  1881)  and  Selkhk  population  haa 
been  almost  stationary  for  more  than  a  century,  that  of  the  landward 
parishes  in  1755  and  1881  being  respectively  as  follows  : — Ashkirk, 
200  and  138  ;  Innerleithen,  60  and  61 ;  Ettrick,  397  and  397 ;  Stow, 
260  and  441  ;  Yarrow,  1180  and  611  ;  Eoberton,  250  and  250. 

Antiquities  and  History. — The  shire  is  not  rich  in  antiquities, 
although  its  hillsides  here  and  there  reveal  earthen  enclosures 
known  as  "British  camps,"  as  well  as  tumuli  yiddhig  human 
remains  and  the  usual  fragments  of  rude  pottery.  A  mysterious 
ditch,  known  as  "the  Catrail,"  beginning  at  the  north  end  of  the 
county,  traverses  its  entire  extent  before  entering  Roxburgh  on 
its  way  to  the  English  border.  Besides  smaller  redoubts,  there 
is  on  its  line,  at  Rink  in  Galashiels  parish,  a  well-preserved  circular 
fort  of  formidable  strength  and  <limensions.  Near  Minchmoor  the 
Catrail  is  crossed  by  "Wallace's  trench,"  where,  according  to  an 
historical  document  recently  published,  the  Scottish  patriot  defied 
for  a  while  the  generals  of  Edward  I.  Close  by  is  tne  hill-track 
by  which  Montrose  escaped  from  the  disastrous  field  of  Philiphaugh 
in  1645.  Newark  Castle,  built  by  James  II.,  still  stands  in  fair 
preservation,  notable  enough  historically,  but  more  familiar  as  the 
rccital-liall  of  the  "last  minstrel's"  immortal  lay.  The  county  is 
dotted  over  with  other  towers  of  smaller  size,  in  various  stages  of 
decay.  Around  them  cluster  those  traditions  which,  sung  in 
ballads  full  of  simple  force  and  tenderness,  have  made  Selkirk 
the  poet's  chosen  haunt.  Yarrow,  "garlanded  with  rhyme,"  has, 
\\ithout  hyperbole,  been  termed  "  the  Tempe  of  the  "West."  Selkirk 
was  long  known  officially  as  the  "shire  of  the  Forest,"  an  appellation 
its  famous  shcrilT  Sir  Walter  Scott  loved  to  recall.  Except  the 
burgh  of  Selkirk,  its  lands,  and  a  large  tract  in  upper  Ettrick  be- 
longing to  Melrose  Abbey,  tlie  county  remained  long  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  forest  court,  and  its  forest-steadings  were  held  by 
tack  from  the  crown  till  the  time  of  Queen  Mai-y.  It  was  a  favourite 
hunting-gi'ound  of  Scottish  mouaichs  and  formed  the  dowry-land 
of  at  least  two  foreign  princesses  who  became  queens  of  Scotland. 

See  T.  Crais-Di-own,  Hist.  0/ Selkirkshire. 

SELKIRK,  the  county  town  of  Selkirkshire,  is  on  ihd 
river  Ettrick,  between  its  absorption  of  the  Yarrow  and 
its  junction  with  the  Tweed,  and  is  connected  by  a  branch 
railway  with  the  Waverley  line  from  Scotland  to  Eng- 
land. Although  almost  entirely  a  manufacturing  town, 
having  several  large  mills  for  woollen  cloth  and  yarn,  it 
is  not  without  importance  as  the  centre  of  an  extensive 
pastoral  area.  The  court^  offices  and  prison  excepted,  tha 
public  buildings  of  Selkirk  are  not  striking.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  burgh  was  1053  in  1735,  1800  in  1831,  and 
6090  in  1881. 

From  the  charter  by  which  David  I.,  while  jn-ince  of  North- 
umbria,  established  in  Selkirk  the  Benedictme  abbey  afterwards 
removed  to  Kelso,  it  appears  that  even  at  that  remote  period  (1119- 
24)  it  was  an  old  town  and  the  prince's  residence.  David's  castle 
continued  to  be  a  frequent  resort  of  his  successors  on  the  throlie, 
particularly  of  AVilliam  the  Lion,  many  of  whose  charters  were 
signed  ' '  in  plena  curia  apud  Scelchu  cham."  Enlarged  and  strength- 
ened by  Edward  I.,  the  fortress  was  captured  by  the  patriotic  party 
soon  after  AVallace's  return  from  France.  Nothing  now  remains  of 
it  but  green  mouuda  and  the  name  "Peel  Hill."  It  is  significant 
of  the  destruction  wrought  by  repeated  conquesta  and  reconqucsts 
that  Selkirk,  notwithstanding  its  antiquity  and  early  imjiortance, 
boasts  not  one  building  a  century  and  a  half  old.  As  its  early 
name  (Scheleschyrche)  implies,  it  w-as  originally  a  collection  o) 
forest  "  sliiels  "  beside  which  an  early  church  was  planted,  probably 
by  the  Culdecs  of  Old  Melrose.  Clear  light  is  thrown  upon  the 
manners  and  customs  of  old  border  towns  by  the  ancient  records  of 
this  burgh,  still  extant  (with  gaps)  from  1503.  A  minute  of  1513 
mentions  the  steps  taken  to  comply  with  the  king's  letter  ordering 
the  levy  before  Flodden,  where,  according  to  tradition,  the  burgesses 
of  Selkirk  fought  with  stubborn  valour.  James  V.  granted  the 
community  right  to  enclose  1000  acres  from  the  com.mon  and  gave 
them  leave  to  elect  a  provost,  the  first  to  fill  that  office  being  slain 


S  E  L  — S  E  M 


639 


in  defence  of  the  burgh  lands.  From  an  early  period  shoemakers 
were  a  numerous  eraft  in  Selkirk,  and  in  1715  and  1745  they  were 
forced  to  furnish  several  thousand  pairs  of  shoes  to  the  Jacobite 
armies.     "  Souters  of  Selkirk  "  is  still  a  synonym  for  the  inhabitants. 

SELKIRK,  or  Selceaig,  Alexandee  (1676-1723),  a 
sailor  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  prototype  of  Defoe's 
"  Kobinson  Crusoe,"  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker  and  tanner 
in  Largo,  Fifeshire,  and  was  bom  in  1676.  In  his  youth  he 
displayed  a  quarrelsome  and  unruly  disposition,  and,  hav- 
ing been  summoned  on  27th  August  1695  before  the  kirlc- 
session  for  his  indecent  behaviour  in  church,  "  did  not  corn- 
rear,  being  gone  away  to  the  seas."  At  an  early  period 
ie  was  engaged  in  buccaneer  expeditions  to  the  South 
Seas,  and  in  1703  joined  the  "  Cincjue  Ports"  galley  as 
sailing  master.  The  following  year  he  had  a  dispute  with 
the  captain,  and  at  his  own  request  was  in  October  put 
ashore  on  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  where,  after  a 
solitary  residen(!B  of  four  years  and  four  months,  he  was 
taken  off  by  Captain  Woods  Rogers,  commander  of  a 
privateer,  who  made  him  his  mate  and  afterwards  gave 
him  the  independent  command  of  one  of  his  prizes.  He 
returned  home  in  1712;  but  in  1717  he  eloped  with  a 
country  girl  and  again  went  to  sea.  He  died  in  1723 
while  lieutenant  on  board  the  royal  ship  "  Weymouth." 

See  Howell,  Lift  and  Adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk,  1829. 

SELJLA,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  in  Dallas  county, 
Alabama,  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  of  the 
Alabama  river,  occupies  a  plateau' on  the  bluff  of  the  right 
bank,  95  miles  below  ^Montgomery.  It  has  cotton  ware- 
houses, railroad  machine-shops,  and  varioas  factories. 
The  population  was  6484  (3660  coloured)  in  1870  and 
7529  (4184  coloured)  in  1880.  Selma,  which  was  strongly 
fortified  during  the  CivU  War  and  the  seat  of  a  Con- 
federate arsenal  (where  1800  men  were  employed),  was 
captured  by  the  Federal  major-general  J.  H.  Wilson  on 
2d  April  1865. 

SEfflPALATINSK,  an  extensive  province  (oblast)  of 
the  Russian  dominions  in  Central  Asia;  administratively 
it  forms  a  part  of  the  general-governorship  of  the  Steppes, 
although  its  northern  portions  really  belong  to  the  Irtish 
plains  of  West  Siberia.  It  has  an  area  of  188,300  square 
miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Tobolsk  and  Tomsk, 
on  the  S.E.  by  China,  on  the  S.  by  Semiryetchensk,  and 
on  the  W.  by  Akmolinsk.  As  regards  configuration,  it 
differs  widely  in  its  northern  and  southern  parts.  The 
snowclad  ridges  (9000  to  10,000  feet)  of  the  great  Altai 
and  Narym  enter  its  south-eastern  portion,  stretching 
southwards  to  Lake  Zaisan.  Another  complex  of  moun- 
tains, Kandygatai  and  Katbinsk,  rising  to  5000  and  6000 
feet  above  the  sea,  continues  them  towards  the  west;  a  broad 
valley  intervenes,  through  which  the  Irtish  finds  its  wf.y 
from  the  Zaisan  terrace  to  the  lowlands  of  Siberia.  Many 
extensions  of  these  mountains  and  subordinate  ridges 
stretch  towards  the  north.  The  still  lower  but  wild 
Jinghiz-tau  mountains  fill  the  south-western  part  of 
Semipalatinsk,  sending  out  their  rocky  spurs  into  the 
Steppe  region.  In  the  south,  the  Tarbagatai  (Marmots') 
range  (9000  to  10,000  feet)  separates  Semipalatinsk  from 
Semiryetchensk  and  the  Chinese  province  of  Jugutchak. 
Wide  steppes  fill  up  the  spaces  between  the  mountains  : 
such  are  the  Zaisan  steppe  (1200  to  1500  feet),  between 
the  Tarbagatai  and  the  Altai  ranges ;  the  plains  of  Lake 
Balkash,  some  300  feet  lower,  to  the  south  pf  the  Jinghiz- 
tau ;  and  the  plains  of  the  Irtish,  which  hardly  rise  600 
feet  above  the  sea.  All  kinds  of  crystalline  rocks— gran- 
ites, syenites,  diorites,  and  porphyries,  as  also  crystalline 
slates  of  all  descriptions — are  met  with  in  the  mountain 
tracts,  which  contain  also  rich  gold-bearing  sands,  silver 
and  lead  mines,  graphite,  coal,  and  the  less  valuable  pre- 
cious atones.     The  ceology  of  the  region  and  even  its 


topography  are  still  but  imperfectly  known.  Numerous 
boulders  widely  scattered  around  the  mountains  testify 
to  a  much  wider  extension  of  glaciers  in  former  times.  The 
chief  river  of  the  province,  the  Irtish,  which  issues  from 
Lake  Zaisan,  flows  north  and  north-west  and  waters  Semi- 
palatinsk for  more  than  760  miles.  Between  Bukhtarma 
and  Ust-Kamenogorsk  it  crosses  the  Altai  by  a  wild  gorge, 
with  dangerous  rapids,  through  which,  however,  boats  are 
.floated.  Lake  Zaisan,  80  miles  long  and  from  10  to  20  wide, 
has  depth  sufficient  for  steamboat  navigation;  steamers  tra- 
verse also  for  some  100  miles  the  lower  course  of  the  Black 
Irtish,  which  flows  from  Kuldja  to  Lake  Zaisan.  The 
Kurtchum,  the  Narym,  and  the  Bukhtarma  are  the  chief 
right-hand  tributaries  of  the  Irtish,  while  the  Bukon,  the 
KizQ-su,  and  many  smaller  ones  join  it  from  the  left; 
none  are  navigable,  neither  are  the  Kokbekty  and  Bugaz, 
which  enter  Lake  2aisan  on  the  west.  Lake  Balkash, 
which  borders  Semipalatinsk  in, the  south-west,  formerly 
received  several  tributaries  from  the  Jinghiz-tau.  Many 
smaller  lakes  (some  of  them  merely  temporary)  occur  on 
the  Irtish  plain,  and  yield  salt.  The  whole  of  the  country 
is  rapidly  drying  up.  The  climate  is  severe.  The  average 
yearly  temperature  reaches  43°  in  the  south  and  34°  in  the 
north ;  the  winter  is  very  cold,  and  frosts  of  —  44°  Fahr. 
are  not  uncommon,  while  heats  raising  the  thermometer 
to  122°  in  the  shade  are  experienced  in  the  summer.  The 
yearly  amount  of  rain  and  snow  is  trifling,  although  snow- 
storms are  very  common ;  strong  winds  prevail..  Forests 
are  plentiful  in  the  hilly  districts  and  on  the  Irtish  plain, 
the  flora  being  Siberian  in  the  north  and  more  Central 
Asiatic  towards  Lakes  Balkash  and  Zaisan. 

The  chief  inliabitauts  are  Kirgliiz-kazaks,  who  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  Russia  in  1732  and  may  number  now  (1886)  nearly 
half  a  million  (479,750  in  1875,  of  whom  10,950  were  settled  in 
towns).  The  Russian  population,  which  in  the  same  year  amounted 
to  nearly  50,000  Cossacks  ajid  peasants,  has  slowly  increased  since. 
The  aggregate  population  was  in  1882  estimated  at  538,400,  of 
whom  34,550  lived  in  towns.  The  Russians  are  chiefly  agi-icul- 
turists,  and  have  wealthy  settlements  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Irtish,  as  well  as  a  few  patches  in  the  south,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains.  The  Kirghizes  are  almost  exclusively  cattle-breeders 
and  keep  large  flocks  of  sheep,  horses,  and  horn*  d  cattle,  as  also 
camels.  Hunting  and  fishing  (in  Lake  Zaisan)  are  favourite  and 
profitable  occupations  mth  the  Cossacks  and  the  Ku'ghizes.  In- 
dustries are  of  course  insignificant,  except  that  of  mining, — gold 
being  obtained  within  the  province  to  the  amount  of  from  300  to  400 
tb  every  year  ;  the  extraction  of  silver  and  lead  is  very  limited. 
Trade  is  of  some  importance,  and  is  inci'easing, — Russian  manu- 
factured articles  being  exchanged  for  the  r^w  produce  (hides,  tallow, 
cattle)  of  the  region.  The  province  is  divided  into  four  districts, 
the  chief  towns  of  which  are  Semipalatinsk  (17,820  inhabitants 
in  1881),  Pavlodar  (2260),  Kokbekty  (3680),  and  Karkaraliusk 
(2030).  All  these  towns,  lost  amidst  the  sandy  steppes,  are  mere 
administrative  centres.  Bukhtarma  and  Ust-Kamenogorsk  (3400), 
among  the  mountains,  are  also  worthy  of  mention. 

SEMIPALATINSK,  capital  of  the  above  province,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irtish,  on  the  highway 
from  Central  Asia  to  northern  Europe.  At  the  end  of 
the  18th  century  it  began  to  be  a  centre  for  trade,  reach- 
ing its  greatest  development  in  1850-60.  Kazan  and 
Turkestan  Tatars  formed  the  bulk  of  its  population.  The 
town  still  remains,  however,  a  collection  of  old  wooden 
houses  scattered  among  unfenced  spaces  of  sand.  The 
Tatar  town  has  a  somewhat  better  aspect  than  the  Russian. 
The  inhabitants  (17,820  in  1881)  consist  of  officials,  mer- 
chants, and  agriculturists. 

SEMIRAMIS.  According  to  the  legend  which  the 
Greeks  received  from  Ctesias,  and  which  is  most  fully  pre- 
served by  Diodorus  (book  ii.)  in  a  form  that,  according  to 
the  researches  of  C.  jacoby  [Rkcin.  Museum,  1875,  p.  555 
sq.),  is  not  taken  direct  from  Otesias  but  comes  through 
Clitarchus,  and  has  been  modified  by  traits  borrowed  from 
the  history  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Assyrian  empire 
over  all  Asia  as  far  as  the  borders  of  India  was  created  by 


640 


S  E  M  — S  E  M 


Ninus,  th-j  founder  of  Nineveh,  and  his  greater  spouse 
Semirarais,  who  was  first  the  wife  of  his  captain,  Onnes, 
but  won  the  king's  love  by  an  heroic  exploit,  the  capture 
of  Bactra,  which  had  defied  the  royal  forces.  Ninus  died, 
and  Semiramis,  succeeding  to  his  power,  traversed  all  parts 
of  the  empire,  erecting  great  cities  (especially  Babylon)  and 
stupendous  monuments  or  opening  roads  through  savage 
mountains.  She  was  unsuccessful  only  in  an  attack  on 
India.  At  length,  after  a  reign  of  forty-two  years,  she. 
delivered  up  the  kingdom  to  her  son  Ninyas  and  dis- 
appeared, or,  according  to  what  seems  to  be  the  original 
form  of  the  stpry,  was  turned  into  a  dove  and  was  thence- 
forth worshipped  as  a  deity.  This  legend  is  certainly  not 
Assyrian  or  Babylonian ;  Ctesias  must  have  had  it  from 
Persians  or  Medes,  and  the  fulness  of  detail,  the  multi- 
tude of  proper  names,  favour  the  conjecture  that  Ninus 
and  Semiramis  were  celebrated  in  some  Median  epic  tale 
which  jyeut  on  to  tell  of  the  f ijl  of  Assyria  before  the 
JleJsa  (Dnhcker,  Gesch.  d.  Alt.,.  5th  ed.,  ii.  18  sq.).  In  this 
legend,  all.ihe  conquests  of  Assyria  were  crowded  together 
into  oiie  lifetime,  and  King  Ninurf  and  his  son  Ninyas  are 
mere  eponyms  of  Nineveh,  personifications  of  the  Assyrian 
monarchy.  But  it  is  round  the  figure  of  Semiramis  that 
all  the  real  interest  of  the  legend  gathers ;  nor  can  she  be 
the  arbitrary  creation  of  a  poet,  for  it  is  certain  that  her 
name  was  popularly  connected  with  many  famous  places 
and  monuments.  "  The  works  of  Semiramis,"  says  Strabo 
(xvi.  1,  a),  "are  pointed  out  through  almost  the  whole 
continent,  earthworks  bearing  her  name,  walls  and  strong- 
holds, aqueducts,  and  stair-lLke  roads  over  mountains, 
..canals,  roads,  and  bridges."  Ultimately  every  stupendous 
work  of  antiquity  by  the  Euphrates  or  in  Iran  seems  to 
have  been  ascribed  to  her, — even  the  Behistun  inscriptions 
of  Darius  (Diod.,  ii.  .13).  Of  this  we  already  have  evi- 
dence in  Herodotus,  who,  though  he  does  not  know  the 
legend  afterwards  told  by  Ctesia^,  ascribes  to  her  the 
banks  that  confined  the  Euphrates  (i.  184)  and  knows  her 
name  as  borne  by  a  gate  of  Babylon  (iii.  155).  Various 
places  in  Media  bore  the  name  of  Semiramis,  but  slightly 
changed,  even  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Hoffmann,  Syrische 
Alien,  p.  137),  and  the  old  name  of  Van  was  Shamirania- 
gerd,  Armenian  tradition  regarding  her  as  its  founder  (St 
Martin,  2fem.  sur  CArmenie,  L  138).  These  facts  are  to  be 
explained  by  observing  that  in  her  birth  as  well  as  in  her 
disappearance  from  earth  Semiramis  clearly  appears  not 
as  a  mere  woman  but  as  a  great  goddess.  In  Diodorus's 
account  she  is  the  daughter  of  the  Derceto  of  Ascalon 
and  miraculously  brought  up  by  doves,  and  again  she  is 
finally  transformed  into  a  dove,  and  therefore  the  Assyrians 
pay  divine  honours  to  this  bird.  Semiramis,  therefore,  is 
a  dove-goddess  associated  with  Derceto  the  fish-goddess. 
The  same  association  of  the  fish  and  dove  goddesses  appears 
at  Hierapolis  (Bambyce,  Mabbug),  the  great  temple  at 
which  according  to  one  legend  was  founded  by  Semi- 
ramis {De  Dea  Syria,  1 4),  and  where  her  statue  was  shown 
with  a  golden  dove  on  her  head  (ibid.,  33,  comp.  39).' 
But  the  Semitic  dove-goddess  is  Ishtar  or  Astarte,  the 
great  goddess  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  and  the  irresistible 
charms  of  Semiramis,  her  sexual  excesses  (see  especially 
Dinon  in  yElian,  T.H.,  vii.  1),  and  other  features  of  the 
legend  all  bear  out  the  view  that  she 'is  primarily  a- form 
of  Astarte,  and  so  fittingly  conceived  as  the  great  queen  of 
Assyria.  The  word  Semiramis  in  Semitic  form,  as  the 
Syrians  .write  it,  is  Shemlram  (Hoffmann,  id  supra),  an 
epithet  rather  than  a  proper  name,  which  may  be  rendered 
"the  highly  celebrated,"  or  perhaps  rather  "name  [mani- 
festation] of  [the  god]  Earn."  2      The  historical  inference 

'  It  is  noteworthy  in  this  connexion  that  Mabbug  ia  the  Ninus  vetus 
of  Ammianns  and  Philostratus.      . 

'  Cp.  the  Phcenician  "Astarte  JV3QB>"  (C.7.S,  L  1,  Ko.  3.  1.  IS). 


from  all  this  is  that  Semitic  worship  was  carried  by  the 
Assyrians  far  into  Media  and  Armenia. 

On  an  Assyrian  inscription  the  name  Sammuramat  appears  as 
borne  by  the  "lady  of  the  palace  "  of  Rammannivar {812-783  B.C.) ; 
see  Schrader,  K.A.  T.,  2d  ed.,  p.  366.  E.  Meyer  (ffcscA.  des  AltcHh., 
p.  409)  combines  this  with  the  statement  of  Herodotus  that  Semi- 
ramis lived  five  generations  before  Nitocris,  which  would  make  her 
date  766  B.C.  Possibly  Herodotus  identified  the  two  names,  but  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  they  are  really  connected.  Shemiramoth 
(1  Chron.  xv.  18)  perhaps  means  "statues  of  Semiramis,"  and,  if 
so,  was  originally  a  place-name  (Ewald,  a.L). 

SEMIRYETCHENSK,  a  province  of  Eussian  Turkestan,' 
including  the  steppes  south  of  Lake  Balkash  and  parts 
of  the  Tian-Shan  Mountains  around  Lake  Issik-kul.  It 
has  an  area  of  155,300  square  miles  and  is  bounded  by 
Semipalatinsk  on  the  N.,  by  China  (Jugutchak,  Kuldja, 
Aksu,  and  Kashgaria)  on  the  E.  and  S.,  and  by  the  Eussian 
provinces  of  Eerganah,  Syr-Daria,  and  Akmolinsk  on  the 
W.  It  owes  its  name  (Jity-su,  Semi-ryetchie,  i.e.,  "  Seven 
Eivera  ")  to  the  rivers  which  flow  from  the  south-east  into 
Lake  Balkash.  The  Jungarian  Ala-tau,  which  separates  it 
from  north-western  Kuldja,  penetrates  into  its  central  por- 
tions, extending  south-west  towards  the  river  Hi,  with  an 
average  height  of  G009  feet  above  the  sea,  several  isolated 
snow-clad  peaks  reaching  about  12,000  feet.  In  the  south 
Semiryetchensk  embraces  the  intricate  systems  of  the  Trans- 
Ih  Ada-tau  and  the  Tian-Shan  (see  Turkestan).  Two 
ranges  of  the  former,  connected  about  their  middle  by  a 
single  mountain-mass,  extend  east-north-eastwards  along 
the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Issik-kul,  both  ranging  from 
10,000  to  about  15,000  feet  and  both  partially  snow-clad. 
To  the  south  of  the  lake  two  immense  ranges  of  the  Tian- 
Shan,  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Naryn,  stretch  in  the 
same  direction,  raising  their  icy  peaks  to  above  15,000  and 
16,000  feet ;  while  westwards  from  the  lake  the  vast  walls 
of  the  Alexandrovskiy  ridge,  9000  to  10,000  feet  high, 
with  peaks  rising  some  2000  feet  higher,  extend  to  th^ 
province  of  Syr-Daria.  Another  mountain  complex  of  much 
lower  elevation  runs  north-westwards  from  the  Trans-Ilian 
Ala-tau  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Balkash. 
In  the  north,  where  the  province  borders  Semipalatinsk, 
it  includes  the  western  parts  of  the  Tarbagatai  range,  the 
summits  of  which  (10,000  feet)  do  not  reach  the  limit  of 
perpetual  snow.  The  remainder  of  the  province  consists 
of  a  rich  steppe  in  the  north-east  (Serghiopol),  and  vast 
uninhabitable  sand-steppes  on  the  south-east  of  Lake  Bal- 
kash. Southwards  from  the  last-named,  however,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  and  at  the  entrance  to  the  valleys, 
there  are  rich  areas  of  fertile  land,  which  are  rapidly  being 
colonized  by  Eussian  immigrants,  who  have  also  spread  into 
the  Tian-Shan,  to  the  east  of  Lake  Issik-kul.  The  climate  is 
relatively  temperate  (average  yearly  temperature  44°  Fahr. 
at  Vyernyi,  2500  feet  above  the  sea)  and  the  vegetation  rich. 

The  chief  river  is  the  Hi,  which  enters  the  province  from  Kuldja, 
makes  its  way  through  the  spurs  of  the  Trans-Ilian  Ala-tau,  flows 
north-west  in  a  bed  varying  from  200  to  1000  yards  in  width,  and 
waters  the  province  for  260  miles  before  it  enters  Lake  Balkash 
by  several  mouths  forming  a  wide  delta.  Its  tributaries  from  the 
left  sre  the  Karyn,  the  Tchilik,  and  the  Kurtu  ;  several  others 
hecoma  lost  in  the  sands.  The  Karatal,  the  Aksu,  and  the  Lepsa 
likewise  fall  into  Lake  Balkash.  The  Tchu  rises  in  the  Tian-Shan 
Mountains  and  flows  north-westwards  to  Lake  Saumal-kul ;  and 
the  Naryn  flows  south-westwards  along  a  longitudinal  valley  of  the 
Tian-Shan,  and  enters  Ferganah  to  join  the  Syr-Daria.  The  province 
contains  several  important  lakes.  Lake  Balkash,  or  Denghiz,  in 
the  north  (8880  square  miles),  is  crescent-shaped,  400  miles  long 
and  55  wide  in  it^  iiroader  part ;  but  its  area  is  much  less  than  it  for- 
merly was,  and  it  is  rapidly  drying  up, — notably  since  1863.  Lake 
Ala-kul,  which  was  connected  with  Balkash  in  the  Post-Pliocene 
period,  now  stands  some  hundred  feet  higher,  and  is  connected  by 
a  chaiii  of  smaller  lakes  with  Sisik-kul.  Lake  Issik-kul  (226C 
sr.uare  miles)  is  a  de.ip  mountain  lake,  120  miles  long  and  37  wide, 
5500  feet  above  the  sea.  The  alpine  lakes  Son-kul  (9400  feet)  and 
Tchatyr-kul  (11,1C(0)  lie  southwest  of  Issik-kuk 

The  ggpulation,  which  was  estimated  at  748,800  by  II.  Koetenkc 
in  1830  (139,660  being  in  the  Kuldja  region),  has  since  increased 


S  E  M  — S  E  M 


641 


tlie  latest  official  figures '(1882)  giving  685,950  for  the  province, 
exclusive  of  the  Kuldja  region.  Of  these  Russians  numbered,  ac- 
cording to  Kostenko,  44,5S5,  20,640  being  Cossacks,  v.-ho  are  very 
poor  as  compared  with  the  free  Russian  emigi-ants.  The  majority 
of  the  population  are  Kirt^hiz  (595,237)  ;  next  come  Tarantchis 
(36,265),  Kalmucks  (about  25,000),  Mongols  and  Manchurians 
(22,000),  and  Dungans  (19,657),  these  last  two  mostly  in  Kuldja  ; 
while  Tatars  and  Sarts  are  each  represented  by  some  3000  oi 
3500  (all  the  foregoing  figures  include  those  foi   Kuldja).     Tlit 


province  is  subdivided  mio  nve  districts  ;  Vycmyi  (18,423  inhabit- 
ants in  1879,  of  whom  3586  were  militaiy),  the  chief  town  of  the 
piovince,  formerly  Almaty,  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Trans-Ilian 
Ala-tau,  and  has  a  mixed  population  of  Russians,  Tatars,  Sarts, 
Kirghiz,  Kalmucks,  and  Jews  ;  its  trade  with  Kuldja  and  Kashgar 
is  increasing  rapidly,  and  it  has  i.ow  two  lyceums,  for  boys  aiid 
girls,  and  several  other  schools.  The  other  towns— Kopal  (5450 
inhabitants),  Serghiopol  (1045),  Tokmak  (1770),  and  Karakol  (2780) 
— are  merely  administrative  centres. 


SEMITIC     LANGUAGES 


THE  name  "  Semitic  languages  "  is  used  to  designate  a 
group  of  Asiatic  and  African  languages,  some  living 
and  some  dead,  namely,  Hebrew  and  Plioenician,  Aramaic, 
Assyrian,  Arabic,  Ethiopic  (Geez  and  Amharic).  The  name, 
which  was  introduced  by  Eiclihorn,'  is  derived  from  the 
fact  that  most  nations  which  speak  or  spoke  these  lan- 
guages are  descended,  according  to  Genesis,  from  Shem, 
son  of  Noah.  But  the  classification  of  nations  in  Genesis 
X.  is  founded  neither  upon  linguistic  nor  upon  ethno- 
graphical principles :  it  is  determined  rather  by  geograph- 
ical and.  political  considerations.  For  this  r?ason  Elam 
and  Lud  are  also  included  among  the  children  of  Shem  ; 
but  neither  the  Elamites  (in  Susiana)  nor  the  Lydians 
appear  to  have  spoken  a  language  connected  with  Hebrew. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Phoenicians  (Canaanites),  whose 
dialect  closely  resembled  that  of  Israel,  are  not  counted  as 
children  of  Shem.  Moreover,  the  compiler  of  the  list  in 
Genesis  x.  had  no  clear  conceptions  about  the  peoples  of 
south  Arabia  and  Ethiopia.  Nevertheless  it  would  be 
tmdesirable  to  give  up  the  universally  received  terms 
"Semites"  and  "Semitic."  There  exist  large  groups  of 
languages  and  peoples  which  bear  no  natural  collective 
appellations,  because  the  peoples  grew  up  unconscious  of 
their  mutual  relationship ;  so  science  must  needs  give 
them  artificial  designations,  a«d  it  would  be  well  if  all 
such  terms  were  as  short  and  ^tcise  as  "  Semitic." 
Mutual  The  connexion  of  the  Semitic  languages  with  one 
con  another  is  somewhat  close,  in  any  case  closer  than  that  of 
oeiion.  jjjg  Indo-European  languages.  The  more  ancient  Semitic 
tongues  differ  from  one  another  scarcely  more  than  do  the 
various  Teutonic  dialects.  Hence  even  in  the  17th  century 
such  learned  Orientalists  as  Hottinger,  Bochart,  Castell, 
and  Ludolf  had  a  tolerably  clear  notion  of  the  relationship 
between  the  different  Semitic  languages  with  which  they 
were  acquainted ;  indeed  the  same  may  be  said  of  some 
Jewish  scholars  who  lived  many  centuries  earlier,  as,  for 
instance,  Jehuda  ben  Koraish.  It  is  not  difficult  to  point 
out  a  series  of  characteristic  marks  common  to  these  lan- 
guages,— the  predominance  of  triconsonantal  roots,  or  of 
toots  formed  after  the  analogy  of  such,  similarity  in  the 
formation  of  nominal  and  verbal  stems,  a  great  resemblance 
in  the  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns  and  in  their  use  for 
the  purpose  of  rerbal  inflexion,  the  two  principal  tenses, 
the  importance  attached  to  the  change  of  vowels  in  the 
interior  of  words,  and  lastly  considerable  agreement  with 
regard  to  order  and  the  construction  of  sentences.  Yet 
even  so  ancient  a  Semitic  language  as  the  Assyrian  ap- 
pears to  lack  some  of  these  features,  and  in  certain  modern 
dialects,  such  as  New  Syriac,  Mahri,  and  more  particularly 
Amharic,  many  of  the  characteristics  of  older  Semitic 
speech  have  disappeared.  But  the  resemblance  in  voca- 
bulary generally  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  modern- 
ness  of  the  dialects.  Still  we  can  trace  the  connexion 
between  the  modem  and  the  ancient  dialects,  and  s'low, 
at  least  approximately,  how  the  former  were  developed 
out  of  the  latter.  Where  a  development  of  this  kind  can 
ibe  proved  to  haye  taken  place,  there  a  relationship  must 

'  EMeilung  in  d<i$A.T.,  2d  cd.,  L  15  (Lcipdc,  1787). 


exist,  however  much  the  individual  features  may  have 
been  effaced.  The  question  here  is  not  of  logical  categories 
but  of  organic  groups. 

All  these  languages  are  descendants  of  a  primitive  Pri^i- 
Semitic  stock  which  has  long  been  extinct.  Many  of  its  w^e 
most  important  features  may  be  reconstructed  with  atp*™'''° 
least  tolerable  certainty,  but  we  must  beware  of  attempt-  '"'^° 
ing  too  much  in  this  respect.  When  the  various  cognate 
languages  of  a  group  diverge  in  essential  points,  it  is 
by  no  means  always  possible  to  determine  which  of  them 
has  retained  the  more  primitive  form.  The  history  of  the 
development  of  these  tongues  during  the  period  anterior 
to  the  documents  which  we  possess  is  often  extremely 
obscure  in  its  details.  Even  when  several  Semitic  lan- 
guages agree  in  important  points  of  grammar  we  cannot 
always  be  sure  that  in  these  particulars  we  have  what  is 
primitive,  since  in  many  cases  analogous  changes  have 
taken  place  independently.  To  one  who  should  assert  the 
complete  reconstruction  of  the  primitive  Semitic  language 
to  be  possible,  we  might  put  the  question.  Would  the  man 
who  is  best  acquainted  with  all  the  Romance  languages 
be  in  a  position  to  reconstruct  their  common  mother, 
Latin,  if  the  knowledge  of  it  were  lost  1  And  yet  there 
are  but  few  Semitic  languages  which  we  can  know  as 
accurately  as.  the  Romance  languages  are  known.  As  far 
as  the  vocabulary  is  concerned,  we  may  indeed  maintain 
with  certainty  that  a  considerable  number  of  v.-ords  which 
have  in  various  Semitic  languages  the  form  proper  to  each 
were  a  part  of  primitive  Semitic  speech.  Nevertheless 
even  then  we  are  apt  to  be  misled  by  independent  but 
analogous  formations  and  by  words  borrowed  at  a  very 
remote  period.-  Each  Semitic  language  or  group  of  lan- 
guages has,  however,  many  words  which  we  cannot  point 
out  in  the  others.  Of  such  words  a  great  number  no 
doubt  belonged  to  primitive  Semitic  speech,  and  either 
disappeared  in  some  of  these  languages  or  else  remained 
in  use,  but  not  so  as  to  be  recognizable  by  us.  Yet  many 
isolated  words  and  roots  may  in  very  early  times  have 
been  borrowed  by  the  Hebrew,  the  Aramaic,  the  Ethiopic, 
&c.,  perhaps  from  wholly  different  languages,  of  which  no 
trace  is  left. 

The  question  which  of  the  known  Semitic  dialects  n»st 
resembles  the  primitive  Semitic  language  is  less  important 
than  one  might  at  first  suppose,  since  the  question  is 
one  not  of  absolute  but  only  of  relative  priority.  After 
scholars  had  given  up  the  notion  (which,  however,  was 
not  the  fruit  of  scientific  research)  that  all  Semitic  lan- 
guages, and  indeed  all  the  languages  in  the  worlds  were  de- 
scendants of  Hebrew  or  of  Aramaic,  it  was  long  the  fashion 
to  maintain  that  Arabic  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
primitive  Semitic  language.^  But,  just  as  it  is  now  recog- 
nized with  ever-increasing  clearness  that  Sanskrit  is  far 
from  having  retained  in  such  a  degree  as  was  even  lately 
supposed  tlie  characteristics  of  primitive  Indo-European 

-  The  more  ahkc  two  langu.ages  are  the  more  difficult  it  usually  is 
to  detect,  as  borrowed  elements,  those  words  which  have  passed  fVoni 
one  language  into  the  other. 

^  Tliis  theory  is  carried  to  its  extreme  limit  in  Ol.shausen's  very 
valuable  Hereto  Uramnior  (Brunswick,  1861). 

XXI.  —  8 1 


642 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


speech,  so  in  the  domain  of  the  Semitic  tongues  we  can 
assign  to  Arabic  only  a  relative  antiquity.  It  is  true  that 
in  Arabic  very  many  features  are  preserved  more  faithfully 
than  in  the  cognate  language's, — for  instance,  nearly  all 
the  original  abundance  of  consonants,  the  short  vowels  in 
open  syllables,  particularly  in  the  interior  of  words,  and 
many  grammatical  distinctions  which  in  the  other  lan- 
guages are  more  or  less  obscured.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
Arabic  has  coined,  simply  from  analogy,  a  great  number 
of  forms  which,  owing  to  their  extreme  simplicity,  seem 
at  the  first  glance  to  be  primitive,  but  which  nevertheless 
are  only  modifications  of  the  primitive  forms ;  whilst  per- 
haps the  other  Semitic  languages  exhibit  modifications  of 
a  different  kind.  In  spite  of  its  great  wealth,  Arabic  is 
characterized  by  a  certain  monotony,  which  can  scarcely 
have  existed  from  the  beginning.  Both  Hebrew  and 
Aramaic  are  in  many  respects  more  ancient  than  Arabic. 
This  would  no  doubt  be  far  more  apparent  if  wo  knew 
Hebrew  more  completely  and  according  to  the  original 
pronunciation  of  its  vowels,  and  if  we  could  discover  how 
Aramaic  was  pronounced  about  the  13th  centiury  before 
our  era.  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  are 
far  more  fully  and  accurately  acquainted  with  Arabic  than 
with  the  other  Semitic  languages  of  antiquity.  The  opin- 
ion sometimes  maintained  by  certain  over-zealous  Assyrio- 
logists,  that  Assyrian  is  the  "Sanskrit  of  the  Semitic 
world,"  has  not  met  with  the  approval  even  of  the  Assyrio- 
logists  themselves,  arid  is  unworthy  of  a  serious  refutation. 
A  comparative  grammar  of  the  Semitic  languages  must 
of  course  be  based  upon  Arabic,  but  must  in  every  matter 
of  detail  take  into  consideration  all  the  cognate  languages, 
as  far  as  they  are  kuo\vn  to  us.  In  the  reconstruction  of 
the  primitive  Semitic  tongue  Hebrew  might  perhaps  afibrd 
more  assistance  than  Ethlopic ;  but  Aramaic,  Assyrian, 
and  even  the  less  known  and  the  more  modern  dialects 
might  furnish  valuable  materials. 
Charac-  It  is  not  a  formidable  undertaking  to  describe  in  general 
<»  of  terms  the  character  of  the  Semitic  mind,  as  has  been  done, 
Semitic  f^j.  gxample,  by  Lassen  {Indische  AltertkumsJcunde,  i.  414 
sg.)  and  by  Renan  in  the  introduction  to  his  Uistoire 
des  Lang  ties  Semitiques.  But  still  there  is  a  danger  of 
assuming  that  the  most  important  characteristics  of  particu- 
lar Semitic  peoples,  especially  of  the  Israelites  and  of  the 
Arabs,  are  common  to  all  Semites,  and  of  ascribing  to  the 
influence  of  race  certain  striking  features  which  are  the 
result  of  the  external  conditions  of  life,  and  which,  under 
similar  circumstances,  are  also  developed  among  non- 
Semitic  races.  And,  though  it  is  said,  not  without  reason, 
that  the  Semites  possess  but  little  talent  for  political  and 
military  organization  on  a  large  scale,  yet  we  have  in  the 
Phoenicians,  especially  the  Carthaginians,  in  Hamilcar  and 
in  Hannibal,  a  proof  that  under  altered  conditions  the 
Semites  are  not  incapable  of  distinguishing  themselves  in 
these  domains.  It  is  a  poor  evasion  to  deny  that  the  Phce- 
nicians  are  genuine  Semites,  since  even  our  scanty  source? 
of  information  suffice  to  show  that  in  the  matter  of  reli- 
gion, which  among  Semites  is  of  such  supreme  importance, 
they  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  and 
Aramaeans.  In  general  descriptions  of  this  kind  it  is  easy 
to  go  too  far.  But  to  give  in  general  terms  a  correct  idea 
of  the  Semitic  languages  is  a  task  of  very  much  greater 
difficulty.  Kenan's  brilliant  and  most  interesting  sketch  is 
in  many  respects  open  to  serious  criticism.  He  cites,  for 
example,  as  characteristic  of  the  Semitic  tongues,  that  they 
still  retain  the  practice  of  expressing  psychological  pro- 
cesses by  means  of  distinct  imagery.  In  saying  this  he  is 
taking  scarcely  any  language  but  Hebrew  into  account. 
But  the  feature  to  which  he  here  alludes  is  owing  to  the 
particular  stage  of  intellectual  development  that  had  been 
reached  by  the  Israelites,  is  in  part  peculiaJ:  to  the  poetical 


style,  and  is  to  be  found  in  like  manner  among  wholly 
different  races.  That  the  Semitic  languages  are  far  from 
possessing  the  fixity  which  Renan  attributes  to  them  we 
shall  see  below.  But,  however  this  may  be,  certain  gram- 
matical peculiarities  of  the  Semitic  languages — above  all, 
the  predominance  of  triliteral  roots— are  so  marked  that 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  doubt  whether  any  language  with 
which  we  are  tolerably  well  acquainted  is  or  is  not  Semitic. 
Only  when  a  Semitic  language  has  been  strongly  influenced 
not  only  in  vocabulary  but  also  in  grammar  by  some  non- 
Semitic  speech,  as  is  the  case  with  A.mhanc,  can  such  a 
doubt  be  for  a  moment  entertained. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made,  sometimes  in  a  very  Rela- 
superficial  fashion  and  sometimes  by  the  use  of  scientific  i'^oas 
methods,  to  establish  a  relationship  between  the  Semitic  ^"' 
languages  and  the  Indo-European.     It  was  very  natural  families 
to  suppose  that  the  tongues  of  the  two  races  which,  with  ofppeech 
the  single  exceptions  of  the  Egyjitians  and  the  Chinese, 
have  formed  and  moulded  human  civilization,  who  have 
been  near  neighbours  from  the  earliest  times,  and  who, 
moreover,  seem  to  bear  a  great  physical  resemblance  to 
one  another  can  be  nothing  else  than  two  descendants  of 
the  same  parent' speech.     But  all  these  endeavours  have 
wholly  failed.     It  is  indeed  probable  that  the  languages, 
not  only  of  the  Semites  and  of  the  Indo-Europeans,  but 
also  those  of  other  races,  are  derived  from  the  same  stock, 
but  the  separation  must  have  taken  place  at  so  remote  a 
period  that  the  changes  which  these  languages  underwent 
in  prehistoric  times  have  completely  eS'aced  what  features 
they  possessed  in  common ;  if  such  features  have  some- 
times been  preserved,  they  are  no  longer  recognizable.     It 
must  be  remembered  that  it  is  only  in  exceptionally  favour- 
able circumstances  that  cognate  languages  are  so  preserved 
during  long  periods  as  to  render  it  possible  for  scientific 
analysis  to  prove  their  relationship  with  one  another.' 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Semitic  languages  bear  so 
striking  a  resemblance  in  some  respects  to  certain  lan- 
guages of  northern  Africa  that  we  are  forced  to  assume  the 
existence  of  a  tolerably  close  relationship  between  the 
two  groups.  We  allude  to  the  family  of  languages  known 
in  modern  times  as  the  "  Hamitic,"  and  composed  of  the 
Egyptian,  Berber,  Beja  (Bishiri,  ic),  and  a  nimiber  of 
tongues  spoken  in  Abyssinia  and  the  neighbouring  countries 
(Agaw,  Galla,  Dankali,  &c.).  It  is  remarkable  that  some 
of  the  most  indispensable  words  in  the  Semitic  vocabulary 
(as,  for  instance,  "water,"  "mouth,"  and  certain  numerals) 
are  found  in  Hamitic  also,  and  that  these  ^^•ords  happen 
to  be  such  as  cannot  well  be  derived  from  triliteral  Semitic 
roots,  and  are  more  or  less  independent  of  the  ordinary 
grammatical  rules.  Wo  notice,  too,  important  resem- 
blances in  grammar, — for  example,  the  formation  of  the 
feminine  by  means  of  a  i  prefixed  or  affixed,  that  of  the 
causative  by  means  of  s,  similarity  in  the  suflixes  and  pre- 
fixes of  the  verbal  tenses,  and,  generally,  similarity  in  the 
personal  pronouns,  &c.  It  must  bo  admitted  tliat  there  is 
also  much  disagreement, — for  instance,  the  widest  diver- 
gence in  the  ruass  of  the  vocabulary ;  and  this  applic-:  to 
the  Semitic  languages  as  compared  not  only  with  tlioso 
Hamitic  languages  that  are  gradually  becoming  knov.n  to 
us  at  the  present  (\oy  but  with  the  Egyptian,  of  which  wo 
possess  documents  dating  from  the  fourth  millennium 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  question  is  here  involved 
in  great  difficulties.  Some  isolated  resemblances  may, 
improbable  as  it  appears,  have  been  produced  by  the  bor- 

^  The  following  is  an  instance  of  the  manner  in  which  we  may  be 
deceived  by  isoLited  cases.  **Si.x"  is  in  Hebrew  s^m^,  almost  exactly 
like  the  Sanskrit  and  modern  Persian  shask,  the  Latin  sex,  kc.  But 
the  Indo-European  root  is  stvcks,  or  perhaps  even  ksireks,  whereas  the 
Semitic  root  is  shidih,  so  that  the  resemblance  is  a  purely  accidental' 
one,  produced  by  phonetic  change. 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


643 


rowing  of  -words.  Uncivilized  races,  as  has  been  pi  wed 
with  certainty,  sometimes  borrow  from  others  elements  of 
speech  in  cases  Where  we  should  deem  such  a  thing  im- 
possible,— for  example,  numerals  and  even  personal  suiiixes. 
But  the  great  resemblances  in  grammatical  formation  can- 
not be  reasonably  explained  as  due  to  borrowing  on  the 
part  of  the  Hamites,  more  especially  as  these  points  of 
agreement  are  also  found  in  the  language  of  the  Berbers, 
who  are  scattered  over  an  enormous  territory,  and  whose 
speech  must  have  acquired  its  character  long  before  they 
came  into  contact  with  the  Semites.  We  are  even  now 
but  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  Hamitic  languages ; 
it  is  not  yet  certain  into  what  groups  they  fall ;  and  the 
relation  in  which  Egyptian  stands  to  Berber  on  the  one 
hand  and  to  the  south  Hamitic  languages  on  the  other  re- 
quires further  elucidation.  The  attempt  to  write  a  com- 
parative grammar  of  the  Semitic  and  Hamitic  languages 
would  be,  to  say  the  least,  very  premature.' 
Original  The  connexion  between  the  Semitic  languages  and  the 
icat  of  Hamitic  appears  to  indicate  that  the  primitive  seat  of 
Semites,  jjjg  Semites  is  to  be  sought  in  Africa ;  for  it  can  scarcely 
be  supposed  that  the  Hamites,  amongst  whom  there  are 
gradual  transitions  from  an  almost  purely  European  type 
to  that  of  the  Negroes,  are  the  children  of  any  other  land 
than  "  the  dark  continent."  There  seems,  moreover,  to  be 
a  considerable  physical  resemblance  between  the  Hamites 
and  the  Semites,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  southern 
Arabs ;  we  need  mention  only  the  slight  development  of 
the  calf  of  the  leg,  and  the  sporadic  appearance  amongst 
Semites  of  woolly  hair  and  prominent  jaws.-  But  both 
Semites  and  Hamites  have  been  mingled  to  a  large  extent 
with  foreign  races,  which  process  must  have  diminished 
their  mutual  similarity.  All  this,  however,  is  offered  not 
as  a  definite  theory  but  as  a  modest  hypothesis. 

It  was  once  the  custom  to  maintain  that  the  Semites 
came  originally  from  certain  districts  in  Armenia.  This 
supposition  was  founded  on  the  book  of  Genesis,  accord- 
ing to  which  several  of  the  Semitic  nations  are  descended 
from  Arphachsad,  i.e.,  the  eponyra  of  the  district  of 
Arrapachitis,  now  called  Albak,  on  the  borders  of  Armenia 
and  Kurdistan.  It  was  also  thought  that  this  region  was 
inhabited  by  the  primitive  race  from  which  both  the 
Semites  and  the  Indo- Europeans  derived  their  origin. 
But,  as  we  saw  above,  this  ancient  relationship  is  a  matter 
of  some  doubt ;  in  any  case,  the  separation  does  not  date 
from  a  period  so  recent  that  the  Semites  can  be  supposed 
to  have  possessed  any  historical  tradition  concerning  it. 
There  cannot  be  a  greater  mistake  than  to  imagine  that 
nations  have  been  able  to  preserve  during  long  ages  their 
recollection  of  the  country  whence  their  supposed  ancestors 
are  said  to  have  emigrated.  The  fantastic  notion  once  in 
vogue  as  to  the  permanence  of  historical  memories  among 
uncivilized  races  must  be  wholly  abandoned.  The  period 
in  which  the  Hebrews,  the  Arabs,  and  the  other  Semitic 
nations  together  formed  a  single  people  is  so  distant  that 
none  of  them  can  possibly  have  retained  any  tradition  of 
it.  The  opinion  that  the  Hebrews  and  the  tribes  most 
closely  related  to  them  were  descendants  of  Arphachsad 
is  apparently  due  to  the  legend  that  Noah's  ark  landed 
near  this  district.  The  notion  has  therefore  a  purely 
mythical  origin.  Moreover,  in  Genesis  itself  we  find  a 
totally  different  atcount  of  the  matter,  derived  from  another 
source,  which  represents  all  nations,  and  therefore  the 
Semites   among    them,    as   having    come   from    Babylon. 

^  This  of  coune  applies  yet  more  strongly  to  Benfey's  work,  Ucher 
ia*  VerhfiUniss  dcr  Ogyptixken  Spraclte  zum  $emiti£chen  Sinanhstamm 
(Leipsic,  1844)  ;  but  his  book  has  the  permanent  merit  of  having  for 
\b6  finrt  lime  examined  this  relationship  in  a  scientific  manner. 

'  Comp.  G.  Gerland,  AUat  der  EOtnographic  (Leipsic,  1876),  p.  40 
«t  *«  v\at. 


Scarcely  any  man  of  scienre  now  believes  in  the  northern 
origin  of  the  Semites. 

Others,  as  Sprenger  and  Schrader,'  consider  the  birth- 
place of  the.  Semitic  race  to  have  been  in  Arabia.  There 
is  much  that  appears  to  support  this  theory.  History 
proves  that  from  a  very  early  period  tribes  from  the 
deserts  of  Arabia  settled  on  the  cultivable  lands  which 
border  them  and  adopted  a  purely  agricultural  mode  of 
life.  Various  traces  in  the  language  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  Hebrews  and  the  Aramaeans  were  originally 
nomads,  and  Arabia  with  its  northern  prolongation  (the 
Syrian  desert)  is  the  true  home  of  nomadic  peoples.  The 
Arabs  are  also  supposed  to  display  the  Semitic  character 
in  its  purest  form,  and  their  language  is,  on  the  whole, 
nearer  the  original  Semitic  than  are  the  languages  of  the 
cognate  races.  To  this  last  circumstance  we  should.  Low- 
ever,  attach  little  importance.  It  is  by  no  means  always 
the  case  that  a  language  is  most  faithfully  preser\'ed  in 
the  country  where  it  originated.  The  Lithuanians  'speak 
the  most  ancient  of  all  living  Indo-European  languages, 
and  they  are  certainly  not  autochthones  of  Lithuania  ;  the 
Romance  dialect  spoken  in  the  south  of  Sardinia  is  far 
more  primitive  than  that  spoken  at  Rome;  and  of  all  living 
Teutonic  languages  the  most  ancient  is  the  Icelandic.  It 
is  even  doubtful  whether  the  ordinary  assumption  be  cor- 
rect, that  the  most  primitive  of  modern  Arabic  dialects 
are  those  spoken  in  Arabia.  Besides,  we  cannot  unre- 
servedly admit  that  the  Arabs  display  the  Semitic  char- 
acter in  its  purest  form ;  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
that,  under  the  infiuenca  of  a  country  indescribably  mono- 
tonous and  of  a  life  ever'  changing  yet  ever  the  same,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Arabian  deserts  have  developed  most 
exclusively  certain  of  the  principal  traits  of  the  Semitic 
race.  All  these  considerations  are  indecisive ;  but  we  wiU- 
ingly  admit  that  the  theory  which  regards  Arabia  as  the 
primitive  seat  of  all  Semites  is  by  no  means  untenable. 

Finally,  One  of  the  most  eminent  of  contemporary  Orien- 
talists, Ignazio  Guidi,*  has  attempted  to  prove  that  the 
home  of  the  Semites  is  on  the  lower  Euphrates.  He 
contends  that  the  geographical,  botanical,  and  zoological 
conceptions  which  are  expressed  in  the  various  Semitic 
languages  by  the  same  words,  preserved  from  the  time  of 
the  dispersion,  correspond  to  the  natural  characteristics  of 
no  country  but  the  above-mentioned.  Great  as  are  the 
ingenuity  and  the  caution  which  he  displays,  it  is  difficult 
to  accept  his  conc'usions.  Several  terms  might  be  men- 
tioned which  are  part  of  the  common  heritage  of  the 
northern  and  the  southern  Semites,  but  which  can  scarcely 
have  been  formed  in  the  region  of  the  Euphrates.  More- 
over, the  vocabulary  of  most  Semitic  languages  is  but 
very  imperfectly  known,  and  each  dialect  has  lost  many 
primitive  words  in  the  course  of  time.  It  is  therefore 
very  unsafe  to  draw  conclusions  from  the  fact  that  the 
various  Semitic  tongues  have  no  one  common  designation 
for  many  important  local  conceptions,  such  as  "mountain." 
The  ordinary  words  for  "man,"  "old  man,"  "boy,"  "  tent," 
are  quite  different  in  the  various  Semitic  languages,  and 
yet  all  these  are  ideas  for  which  the  primitive  Semites 
must  have  had  names. 

'We  must  therefore  for  the  present  confess  our  inability 
to  make  any  positive  statement  with  regard  to  the  primitive 
seat  of  the  original  Semitic  race. 

It  is  not  very  easy  to  settle  what  is  the  precipe  con-Ct.  . 
nexion  between  the  various  Semitic  languages,  considered  jJ^J^"*'^ 
individually.      In  this  matter  one  may  easily  be  kd  to  j^^*^" 
hasty  conclusions  by  i.solatcd  peculiarities  in  vocabulary  or  nic  lan- 

: ( 

»  The  former  has  maintained  this  view  in  several  of  his  works,  the 

latter  in  Z.D.it.G.,  xivii.  i\~  sq. 

*  "  Delia  Sedo  Primitiva  dci  Popoli  Semitici,"  in  i^M  PncOdings  of. 

the  Accadcroia  dei  Lincei,  1878-79. 


■gnages." 


644 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


North- 
ern 

aud 

south  em 
groups. 


grammar.  Eacli  of  the.  older  Semitic  languages  occasion- 
ally agrees  in  grammatical  points  with  some  other  to  which 
in  me-it  respects  it  l)ears  no  very  close  resemblance,  while 
dialects  much  more  nearly  related  to  it  are  found  to  exhibit 
different  formations.  Each  Semitic  tongue  also  possesses 
features  peculiar  to  itself.  For  instance,  the  Hebrew- 
Phcenician  group  and  the  Arabic  have  a  prefixed  definite 
article  (the  etymological  identity  of  which  is,  however,  not 
quite  certain) ;  the  dialect  nearest  to  Arabic,  the  Sabcean, 
expresses  the  article  by  means  of  a  suffixed  n;  the  Aramaic, 
which  in  general  more  closely  resembles  Hebrew  than  does 
the  Arabic  grou[),  expresses  it  by  means  of  a  suffixed  d ; 
whereas  the  Assyiian  in  the  north  and  the  Ethiopic  in  the 
south  have  no  article  at  all.  Of  this  termination  n  for 
the  definite  article  there  ia  no  trace  in  either  Arabic  or 
Hebrew;  the  Sabajan,  the  Ethiopic,  and  the  Aramaic 
employ  it  to  give  emphasis  to  demonstrative  pronouns ; 
and  the  very  same  usage  has  been  detected  in  a  single 
Phffinician  inscription. ^  In  this  case,  therefore,  Hebrew 
and  Arabic  have,  independently  of  one  another,  lost  some- 
thing which  the  languages  most  nearly  related  to  "them 
have  preserved.  In  like  manner,  the  .strengthening  of  the 
pronoun  of  the  third  person  by  means  of  t  (or  tu)  is  only 
found  in  Ethiopic,  Saba^an,  and  Phoenician.  Aramaic 
alone  has  no  certain  trace  of  the  reflexive  conjugation 
formed  with  prefixed  »;  Hebrew  alone  has  no  certain 
trace  of  the  causative  with  slm?  In  several  of  the  Semitic 
languages  we  can  see  how  the  formation  of  the  passive  by 
means  of  internal  vocal  change  (as  hidlima,  "  he  was  ad- 
dressed," as  distinguished  from  laltama,  "  he  addressed  ") 
gradually  dropped  out  of  use  ;  in  Ethiopic  this  process, 
was  already  complete  when  the  language  first  became 
literary  ;  but  in  Aramaic  it  was  not  wholly  so.  In  a  few 
cases  phonetic  resemblances  have  been  the  result  of  later 
growth.  For  example,  the  termination  of  the  plural 
niascuUne  of  nouns  is  in  Hebrew  im,  in  Aramaic  in,  as  in 
Arabic.  But  we  know  that  Aramaic  also  originally  had 
m,  vi-hereas  the  ancient  Arabic  forms  have  after  the  n  an 
a,  which  appears  to  have  been  originally  a  long  d  {una, 
ina) ;  in*  this  latter  ]X).sitiou  (that  is,  between  two  vowels) 
the  change  of  m  into  n  is  very  improbable.  These  two 
similar  terminations  were  therefore  originally  distinct. 
We  must  indeed  be  very  cautious  in  drawing  conclusions 
from  points  of  agreement  between  the  vocabularies  of  the 
various  Semitic  tongues.  The  Ethiopians  and  the  Hebrews 
have  the  same  word  for  many  objects  which  the  other 
Semites  caU  by  other  names,  —  for  instance,  "stone," 
"tree,"  "enemy,"  "enter,"  "go  out";  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  Hebrew  as  compared  with  Sabtean.  But  to 
build  theories  upon  such  facts  would  be  unsafe,  since  the 
words  cited  are  either  found,  though  with  some  change  of 
meaning,  in  at  least  one  of  the  cognate  languages,  or  actu- 
allj'  occur,  perhaps  quite  exceptionally  and  in  archaic 
writings,  with  the  same  signification.  The  sedentary 
habits  of  the  Ethiopians  and  the  Sabieans  may  possibly 
have  rendered  it  easier  for  them  to  retain  in  their  vocabiu 
lary  certain  words  which  were  used  by  the  civilized  Semites 
»f  the  north,  but  >vliich  became  obsolete  amongst  the 
Arabian  nomads.  To  the  same  cause  we  may  attiibute 
the  fact  that  in  religion  the  Sabceans  resemble  the  noi  them 
Semites  more  closely  than  do  the  tribes  of  central  Arabia  ; 
but  these  considerations  prove  nothing  in  favour  of  a 
nearer  linguistic  affinity 

One  thing  at  least  is  certain,  that  Arabic  (with  Sabaean) 
and  Ethiopic  stand  in  a  comparatively  close  relationship 
to  one  another,  and  compose  a  group  by  themselves,  as 
contrasted  with  the  other  Semitic  languages,  Hebra;o- 
Phoinieian,  Aramaic,  and  Assyrian,   which   constitute   the 

*  Viz.,  the  great  iuscrii»tion  of  B}l)lus,  C./.5.,  fasc.  i.  No.  1. 
^  Shalhcbeih,  "  flauie, "  is  borrowed  from  Aramaic. 


northern  group.  Only  ip  these  southern  dialects  uo  wo 
find,  and  that  under  forms' substantially  identical,  the  im- 
portant innovation  known  as  the  "broken  plurals."  They 
agree,  moreover,  in  employing  a  peculiar  development  of 
the  verbal  root,  formed  by  inserting  an  d  between  the  first 
and  second  radicals  (kdtala,  tahdtala),  in  using  the  vowel 
a  before  the  third  radical  in  all  active  perfects — for 
example,  lli)aldala,  kaitala,.  instead  of  the  liaklil,  kattil  of 
the  northern  dialects — and  in  many  other  grammatical 
phenomena.  This  is  not  at  all  contradicted  by  the  fact 
that  certain  aspirated  dentals. of  Arabic  (th,  dh,  th)  are 
replaced  in  Ethiopic,  as  in  Hebrew  and  Assyrian,  by  pure 
sibilants — that  is,  .s  (Hebrew  and  Assyrian  sh),  z,  f — 
whereas  in  Ai'amaic  they  are  rejJlaced  by  simple  dentals 
{t,  d,  t),  which  seem  to  come  closer  to  the  Arabic  sounds. 
After  the  separation  of  the  northern  and  the  southern 
groups,  the  Semitic  languages  pos.sesse4  all  these  sounds, 
as  the  Arabic  does,  but  afterwards  simplified  them,  for 
the  most  jjart,  in  one  direction  or  the  other.  Hence  there 
resulted,  as  it  were  by  chance,  occasional  .similaritie's. 
Even  in  modern  Arabic  dialects  th,  dh  have  become  some- 
times t,  d,  and  sometimes  s,  z.  Ethiopic,  moreover,  has 
kept  d,  the  most  peculiar  of  Arabic  sounds,  distinct  from 
C  whereas  Aramaic  has  confounded  it  with  the  guttural 
'oi'n,  and  Hebrew  and  Assyrian  with  f.  It  is  therefore 
evident  that  all  Uiese  languages  once  pcBsessed  the  con- 
sonant in  question  as  a  distinct  one.  One  sound,  sin, 
appears  only  in. Hebrew,  in  Phcenician,  and  in  the  older 
Aramaic.  It  mast  originally  have  ,been  pronounced  very 
like  sh,  since  it  is  represented  in  writing  by  the  same 
character ;  in  later  times  it  was  changed  into  an  ordinary 
s.  Assyiian  does  not  distinguish  it  from  s/i.^  The  division 
of  the  Semitic  languages  into  the  northern  group  and  the 
southern  is  therefore  justified  by  facts.  Even  if  we  were 
to  discover  really  important  grammatical  phenomena  m 
which  one  of  the  southern  dialects  agreed  with  the  northenr, 
or  vice  versa,  and  that  in  cases  where  such  phenomena 
could  not  be  regarded  either  as  remnants  of  primitive 
Semitic  u.sage  or  as  instances  of  parallel  but  independent 
development,  we  ought  to  remember  that  the  division  of 
the  two  gi-oups  was  not  necessarily  a  sudden  and  instan- 
taneous occurrence,  that  even  after  the  separation  inter- 
course may  have  been  carried  on  between  the  various  tribes 
who  spoke  kindred  dialects  and  were  therefore  still  able 
to  understand  one  another,  and  that  intermediate  dialects 
may  once  have  existed,  [wrhaps  such  as  were  in  use 
amongst  tribes  who  came  into  contact  sometimes  with  the 
agricultural  population  of  the  north  and  sometimes  with 
the  nomads  of  the  south  (see  below).  All  this  is  purely 
hypothetical,  whereas  the  division  between  the  northern 
and  the  southern  Semitic  languages  is  a  recognized  fact. 

Although  we  cannot  deny  that  there  may  formerly  have  Lost 
existed  Semitic  languages  quite  distinct  from  those  with  ■^n"t"= 
which  we  are  acquainted,  yet  -that  such  was  actually  the  j_jjj_j 
case  cannot  be  proved.      Nor  is  there  any  reason  to  think 
that  the  domain  of  the  Semitic  languages  ever  extended 
very  far  beyond  its  present  limits.     Some  time  ago  many 
scholars  believed  that  they  were  once  spoken  in  Asia  Minor 
and  even  in  Europe,  but,  except  in  the  Phcenician  colonies, 
this   notion   rested   upon   no   solid  proof.      It   cannot   be 
argued  with  any  great  degree  of  pilausibility  that  even  the 
Cilicians,    who   from    a   very   early   period   held   constant 
intercourse  with  the  Syrians  and  the  Phcenicians,  spoke 
a  Semitic  language. 

3  It  is  not  quite  certain  ^^]lether  aU  the  Semitic  languages  originally 
had  the  hardest  of  the  guttnrals  ijh  anil  W  iu  e.x.actly  tlie  same  i>lace:> 
that  they  occupy  in  Arabic.  In  the  case  of  kh — ^vheve  Ethioi)ic  agl-ee» 
with  Arabic — this  is  .at  least  probable,  since  tliere  seem  to  be  trace* 
of  it  in  As.syrian.  But  it  would  appear  thrtt  in  Hebiew  and  Aramaic 
the  distinction  between  gh  anil  'ayhi,  betweeu  Ui  and  h,  was  ofteu 
diflereut  from  what  it  is  iu  Arabic. 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


645 


Hebrew.  Hebrew. — Hebrew  and  Phoenician  are  cut  dialects  of  one 
'and  the  same  language.  It  is  only  as  the  language  of  the 
people  of  Israel  that  Hebrew  can  be  known  with  any  pre- 
cision. Since  in  the  Old  Testament  a  few  of  the  neigh- 
bouring peoples  are  represented  as  being  descended  from 
Eber,*the  eponym  of  the  Hebrews;  that  is,  are  regarded  as 
nearly  related  to  the  latter,  it  was  .natural  to  suppose  that 
they  likewise  spoke  Hebrew, — a  supposition  which,  at  least 
in  the  case  of  the  Moabites,  has  been  fully  confirmed  by 
the  discoverj'of  the  Mesha  inscription  (date,  soon  after  900 
B.C.).  The  language  of  this  inscription  scarcely  differs  from 
that  of  the  Old  Testament ;  the  only  important  distinction 
is  the  occurrence  of  a  reflexive  form  (with  t  after  the  first 
radical),  which  appears  nowhere  eke  but  in  Aiabic.  We 
may  remark  in  passing  that  the  style  of  this  inscription  is 
quite  that  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  enables  us  to  maintain 
■with  certainty  that  a  similar  historicr.l  literature  existed 
amongst  the  Moabites.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
ancient  Semitic  inscriptions  exhibit,  in  a  sense,  nothing 
but  the  skeleton  of  the  language,  since  they  do  not  express 
the  vowels  at  all,  or  do  so  only  in  certain  cases  ;  still  less 
do  they  indicate  other  phonetic  modifications,  such  as  the 
doubling  of  consonants,  kc.  It  is  therefore  very  possible 
that  to  the  ear  the  language  of  Moab  seemed  to  differ 
considerably  from  that  of  the  Judfeans. 
Ancient  The  Mesha  inscription  is  the  only  non-Israelite  source 
^-  from  which  any  knowledge  of  ancient  Hebrew  can  be 
^°*^"  obtained,  (See  Hebrew  Langu.-ige  and  Liteeatctre.) 
Some  fragments  in  the  Old  Testament" belong  to  the 
second  millennium  before  our  era, — particularly  the  song  of 
Peborah  (Judges  v.),  a  document  which,  in  spite  of  its 
foany  obscurities  in  matters  of  detail,  throws  much  light 
en  the  condition  of  the  Israelites  at  the  time  when  the 
Canaanites  were  still  contending  with  them  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  country.  The  first  rise  of  an  historical  litera- 
ture may  very  probably  date  from  before  the  establishment 
of  the  monarchy.  Various  portions  of  the  Old  Testament 
belong  to  the  time  of  the  earlier  kings ;  but  it  was  under 
the  later  kings  that  a  great  part  of  extant  Hebrew  litera- 
ture came  into  shape.  To  this  age  also  belong  the  Siloam 
inscription  and  a  few  seals  and  gems  bearing  the  names 
of  Israelites.  The  Hebrew  language  is  thus  known  to  us- 
Pronnn  from  a  very  ancient  period.  But  we  are  far  from  being 
rialioa.  acquainted  with  its  real  phonetic  condition  in  the  time  of 
David  or  Isa'ah.  For,  much  as  we  owe  to  the  labours  of 
the  later  Jewish  schools,  which  with  infinite  care  fixed  the 
pronunciation  of  the  sacred  text  by  adding  vowels  and 
other  signs,  it  is  evident  that  even  at  the  best  they  could 
only  represent  the  pronunciation  of  the  language  in  its 
latest  stage,  not  that  of  very  early  ages.  Besides,  their 
object  was  not  to  exhibit  Hebrew  simply  as  it  was,  but  to 
show  how  it  should  be  read  in  the  solemn  chant  of  the 
synagogue.  Accordingly,  the  pronunciation  of  the  older 
period  may  have  differed  considerably  from  that  repre- 
sented by  the  punctuation.  Such  differences  are  now  and 
then  indicated  by  the  customary  spelling  of  the  ancient 
texts,'  and  somttimes  the  orthography  is  directly  at  vari- 
ance.with  the  punctuation.^  In  a  few  rare  cases  we  may 
derive  help  from  the  somewhat  older  tradition  contained 
in  the  representation  of  Hebrew  words  and  proper  names 
by  Greek?  Ietter.s,  especially  in  the  ancient  Alexandrine 
translation  of  the  Bible  (the  so-called  Septuagint).  It  is 
of  particular  importance  to  remark'  that  this  older  tradi- 
tion still  retains  an  original  a  in  many  cases  where  the 

^  For  example,  wo  may  conclude  with  tolerable  certainty,  froin  the 
presence  and  absence  of  the  vowcl.-letters  y  and  i«,  that  in  older  times 
the  accented  e  and  o  were  not  pronounced  lonp,  and  that,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  diphthongs  aii  and  ai  were  used  for  the  later  6  and  e. 

*  Tlie  very  first  word  of  the  Bible  contains  an  Aleph  {spiritiis  lenis), 
■which  ia  required  by  etymology  and  was  once  audible,  but  which  the 
pronunciation  represented  by  the  roint-system  ignores. 


punctuation  has  the  later  i  or  e.  We  have  exami'ned  this 
point  somewhat  in  detail,  in  order  to  contradict  the  false 
but  ever -recurring  notion  that  the  ordinary  test  of  the 
Bible  represents  without  any  essential  modification  the 
pronunciation  of  ancient  Hebrew,  whereas  in  reality  it  ex- 
presses (in  a  very  instructive  and  careful  manner  it  is 
true)  only  its  latest  developrosnt,  and  that  for  the  purpose  • 

of  solemn  public  recitation.  A  clear  trace  of  dialecti:al 
differences  within  Israel  is  found  in  Judges  xii.  6,  whj. 
shows  that  the  ancient  Ephraimites  pronounced  «  insteid 
of  s^. 

The  destruction  of  the  Judaean  kingdom  dealt  a  heavy  Peri  of 
blow  to  the  Hebrew  langua.ge.  But  it  is  going  too  far  to  e'-iloin 
suppose  that  it  was  altogether  banished  from  ordinary  life  ^^'^J'''"^ 
at  the  time  of  the  exile,  and  that  Aramaic  came  into  iise 
among  all  the  Jews.  In  the  East  even  small  communities, 
especially  if  they  form  a  religious  body,  often  cling  per- 
sistently to  their  mother-tongue,  though  they  may  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  population  of  alien  speech ;  and  such  was 
probably  the  case  with  the  Jews  in  Babylonia.  See 
Hebrew  Language,  vol.  xi.  p.  597.  Even  so  late  as  the 
time  of  Ezra  Hebrew  was  in  all  probability  the  ordinary 
language  of  the  new  community.  In  Neh.  xLii.  2i  we  find 
a  complaint  that  the  children  of  Jews  by  wives  from  Asiidod 
and  other  places  spoke  half  ip  the  "  Jewish "  language 
and  half  in  the  language  of  Ashdod,  or  whatever  else  may 
have  been  the  tongue  of  their  mothers.  No  one  can  sup- 
pose that  Nehemiah  would  have  been  particularly  zealous 
that  the  children  of  Jews  should  speak  an  Aramaic  dialect 
■with  correctness.  He  no  doubt  refers  to  Hebrew  as  it 
was  then  spoken, — a  stage  in  its  development  of  which 
Nehemiah's  o^wn  work  gives  a  very  fair  i''ea.  And,  more- 
over, the  inliabitants  of  Ashdod  spoke  Hebrew.  G.  Hoff- 
mann^ has  deciphered  inscriptions  (written  in  Greek  letters, 
but,  after  the  Hebrew  fashion,  from  right  to  left)  on  two 
coins  struck  about  150  years  after  Nehemiah,  which  are 
in  pure  Hebrew*;  nor  does  the  language  seem  to  diverge 
at  all  from  that  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  therefore 
probable  that  Nehemiah  alludes  only  to  a  slightly  different 
local  dialect.  If  the  Philistines  of  Ashdod  still  continued 
to  speak  Hebrew  about  the  year  300  B.C.,  it  cannot  be 
supposed  that  the  Jews  had  given  up  this  their  own  lan- 
guage nearly  three  centuries  earlier.  We  may  also  con- 
clude that  the  Philistines  from  the  earliest  period  spoke 
the  same  language  as  their  eastern  neighbours,  with  whom 
they  had  so  often  been  at  war.  but  had  also  lived  in  close 
pacific  intercourse. 

After  the  time  of  Alexander  largo  bodies  of  the  Jewish  Hebrew 
population  were  settled  in  Alexandria  and  other  western  '"JP" 
cities,  and  were  very  rapidly  Hellenized.     Meanwhile  the  T  "" 
principal  language  of  Syria  and  the  neighbouring  countries,  Aramaic. 
Aramaic,  the  influence  of  ■which  may  be  perceived  even  in 
some  pre-exilic  writings,  began  to  spread  more  and  more 
among  the  Jews.     Hebrew  gradually  ceased  to  be  the  lan- 
guage of  the  people  and  became  that  of  religion  and  the 
schools.     The  book  of  Daniel,  wTitten  in  167  or  1G6  B.C., 
begins  in  Hebrew,  then  suddenly  passes  into  Aramaic,  and 
ends  again  in  Hebrew.     Similarly  the  redactor  of  Ezra  (or 
more  correctly  of  the  Chronicles,  of  which  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah form  the  conclusion)  borrows  large  portions  from  an 
Aramaic  work,  in  most  caset  without  translating  them  into 
Hebrew.     No  reason  can  be  assigned  for  the  use  of  Aramaic 
in  Jewish  works  intended  primarily  for  Jerusalem,  unless 
it  were  already  the  dominant  speech,  whilst,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  was  very  natural  for  a  pious  Jew  to  write  in  the 

3  See  Ballet's  Zcitachrifl  fi.r  Numisnmlik,  1882  (Berlin). 

*  The  inscriptions,  short  as  they  are,  exhibit  the  exclusively  Hebrew 
word  ir  ('ir),  "  to\vn,"  and  the  feminine  asiiia  {Jias^naK),  *'  the  strong," 
with  the  termination  ah  (not  at  ius  in  Phoenician).  Had  the  A.shdodites 
been  acc\istonied  to  use  a  de^d  lungu.lgo  on  tlijcir  coins  they  would 
certainly  have  enujloycd  the  native  Semitic  writiiifj. 


346 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


"Hebrew 
«r  the 
schools. 


Medi- 

'eval 

Hebrew. 


Char- 
acter of 
mcient 
Hebrew. 


mcient  "  holy  "  language  even  after  it  hajj  ceased  to  be 
'.poken.  Esther,  Ecclesiastes,  and  a  few  Psalms,  which  be- 
3ng  to  the  3d  and  2d  centuries  before  our  era,  are  indefed 
vritten  in  Hebrgw,  but  are  so  strongly  tinctured  by  the 
.Vraraaic  influence  as  to  prove  that  the  writers  usually 
spoke  Aramaic.  We  are  not  likely  to  be  far  wrong  in 
aying  that  in  the ,  >raccab£Ban  age  Hebrew  had  died  out 
imong  the  Jews,  and  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  it  siu-- 
vived  longer  amongst  any  of  the  neighbouring  peoples. 

But  in  the  last  period  of  the  hi.story  of  Jerusalem,  and 
still  more  after  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  Titus,  the 
Jewish  schools  played  so  important  a  part  that  the  life  of 
the  Hebrew  language  was  in  a  manner  prolonged.  The 
lectures  and  discussions  of  the  learned  were  carried  on  in 
that  tongue.  -  We  have  very  extensive  specimens  of  this 
more  modern  Hebrew  in  the  Mishnah  and  other  works, 
and  scattered  pieces  throughout  both  Talmuds.  But,  just 
as  the  "  classical "  Sanskrit,  which  has  been  spoken  and 
written  by  the  Brahmans  during  the  last  twenty-five  cen- 
turies, differs  considerably  from  the  language  which  was 
once  in  use  among  the  people,  so' this  "language  of  the 
learned "  diverges  in  many  respects  from  the  "  holy  lan- 
guage " ;  and  this  distinction  is  one  of  which  the  rabbis 
were  perfectly  conscious  The  "  language  of  the  learned  " 
borrows  a  gr;at  part  of  its  vocabulary  from  Aramaic,^ 
and  this  exercises  a  strong  influence  upon  the  gram- 
matical forms.  The  grammar  is  perceptibly  modified  by 
the  peculiar  stye  of  these  writings,  which  for  the  most 
part  treat  of  legal  and  ritual  questions  in  a  strangely 
laconic  and  pointed  manner.  But,  large  as  is  the  propor- 
tion of  foreign  words  and  artificial  as  this  language  is,  it 
contains  a  considerable  number  of  purely  Hebrew  elements 
which  do  not  appear  in  the  Old  Testament.  Although 
we  may  generally  assume,  in  the  case  of  a  word  occurring 
in  the  Jlishnah  but  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  that 
it  is  borrowed  from  Aramaic,  there  are  several  words 'of 
this  class  which,  by  their  radical  consonants,  prove  them- 
selves to  be  genuine  Hebrew.  And  even  some  gram- 
matical phenomena  of  this  language  are  to  be  regarded 
as  a  genuine  develojiment  of  Hebrew,  though  they  are 
unknown  to  earlier  Hebrew  speech. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  down  to  our 
own  times  the  Jews  have  produced  an  enormous  mass  of 
writings  in  Hebrew,  sometimes  closely  following  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Bible,  sometimes  that  of  the  Jlishnah,  some- 
times introducing  in  a  perfectly  inorganic  manner  a  great 
quantity  of  Aramaic  forms,  and  occasionally  imitating  the 
Arabic  style.  The  study  of  these  variations  has  but  little 
interest  for  the  linguist,  since  they  are  nothing  but  a  piu-ely 
artificial  imitation,  dependent  upon  the  greater  or  less  skill 
of  the  individual.  The  language  of  tlie  Mishnah, stands  iu 
much  closer  connexion  ■with  real  life,  and  has  a  definite 
raison  itctre ;  all  later  Hebrew  is  to  be  classed  with  medi- 
Eeval  and  modern  Latin.  JIuch  Hebrew  also  was  written 
in  the  Middle  Ages  by  the  hostile  brethren  of  the  Jews,  the 
Samaritans ;  but  for  the  student  of  language  these  produc- 
tions have,  at  the  most,  the  charm  attaching  to  curiosities. 

The  ancient  Hebrew  language,  especially  in  the  matter 
of  syntax,  has  an  essentially  primitive  character.  Para- 
taxis of  sentences  prevails  over  hypotaxis  to  a  greater 
extent  than  in  any  other  literary  Semitic  language  with 
which  we  are  well  acquainted.  The  favourite  method  is 
to  link  sentences  together  by  means  of  a  simple  "  and." 
There  is  a  great  lack  of  particles  to  express  with  clearness 
the  more  subtle  connexion  of  ideas.  The  use  of  the  verbal 
tenses  is  in  a  great  measure  determined  by.  the  imagination, 


*  It  is  a  characteristic  feature  tlmt  "  my  father  "  and  "  my  mother  " 
are  here  expressed  by  purely  Aramaic  forms.  Even  the  learned  did 
not  ■wi.^h  to  call  their  '*  papas  "  and  "  mammas  "  by  any  other  names 
4han  those  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  in  infancy. 


which  regards  things  unaccomplished  as  accomplished  and! 
tlie  past  as  still  present.  There  are  but  few  words  or 
inflexions  to  indicate  slight  modifications  of  meaning, 
though  in  ancient  times  the  language  may  perhaps  have 
distinguished  certain  moods  of  the  verb  somewhat  more 
plainly  than  the  present  punctuation  does.  But  in  any 
case  this  language  was  far  less  suited  for  the  definite  ex- 
pression of  studied  thought,  and  less  suited  still  for  the 
treatment  of  abstract  subjects,  than  for  poetry.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  as  long  as  Hebrew  was  a  living 
language  it  never  had  to  be  used  for  the  expression  of  the 
abstract.  Had  it  lived  somewhat  longer  it  might  very 
possibly  have  learnt  to  adapt  itself  better  to  the  formulat- 
ing of  systematic  conceptions.  The  only  book  in  the  Old 
Testament  which  attempts  -to  grapple  with  an  abstract 
subject  in  plain  prose — namely,  Ecclesiastes — dates  from 
a  time  when  Hebrew  was  dying  out  or  was  already  dead. 
That  the  gifted  author  does  not  always  succeed  in  giving 
clear  expression  to  his  ideas  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  language  had  never  been  employed  for  any  scientific 
purposes  whatsoever.  With  regard  to  grammatical  formaj 
Hebrew  has  lost  much  that  is  still  preserved  in  Arabic  j 
but  the  greater  richness  of  Arabic  is  in  part  the  result  ol 
later  development. 

The  vocabulary  of  the  Hebrew  language  is,  as  we  have  Vocsbu- 
said,  known  but  imperfectly.  The  Old  Testament  is  no  ^'^■ 
very  large  work ;  it  contains,  moreover,  many  repetitions, 
and  a  great  nimiber  of  pieces  which  are  of  little  use  to  the 
lexicographer.  On  the  other  hand,  much  may  be  derived 
from  certain  poetical  books,  such  as  Job.  The  numerous 
a-a^  Aeyoyuci'tt  are  a  suflScient  proof  that  many  more  words 
existed  than  appear  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  writers 
of  w-hich  never  had  occasion  to  use  them.  Were  we  in 
possession  of  the  whole  Hebrew  vocabulary  in  the  tinie 
of  Jeremiah,  for  example,  we  should  be  far  better  able 
to  determine  the  relation  in  which  Hebrew  stands  to  the 
other  Semitic  languages,  the  Old  Testament  would  be  far 
more  intelligible  to  us,  and  it  would  be  very  much  easier 
to  detect  the  numerous  corrupt  passages  in  our  text. 

Phoenician. — This  dialect  closely  resembles  Hebrew,  and  PhcenW 
is  known  to  us  from  only  one  authentic  source,  namely,  ""*• 
inscriptions,  some  of  which  date  from  about  600  B.C.  or 
earlier ;  but  the  great  mass  of  them  begin  with  the  4th 
century  before  our  era.  These  inscriptions-  we  owe  to 
the  Phcenicians  of  the  mother-country  and  the  neighbour- 
ing regions  (Cyprus,  Egypt,  and  Greece),  as  well  as  to  the 
Phcenicians  of  Africa,  especially  Carthage.  Inscriptions 
are,  however,  a  very  insufficient .  means  for  obtaining  thd 
knowledge  of  a  language.  The  number  of  subjects  treated 
in  them  is  not  large ;  many  of  the  most  important  gram- 
matical forms  and  many  of  the  words' most  used  in  ordi- 
nary life  do  not  occur.  Moreover,  the  "lapidary  style"  is 
often  very  hard  to  understand.  The  repetition  of  obscure 
pihrases,  in  the  same  connexion,  in  several  inscriptions 
does  not  help  to  make  them  more  intelligible.  Of  what 
use  is  it  to  us  that,  for  instance,  thousands  of  Carthaginian 
inscriptions  begin  with  the  very  same  incomprehensible 
dedication  to  two  divinities  ?  The  difficulty  of  interpreta 
tion  is  greatly  increased  by  the  fact  that  single  words  are) 
very  seldom  separated  from  one  another,  and  that  vowel' 
letters  are  used  extremely  sparingly.  We  therefore  comsj 
but  too  often  upon  very  ambiguous  groups  of  letttrs.  Iq 
spite  of  this,  our  knowledge  of  Phoenician  has  made  con- 
siderable progress  of  late.  Some  assistance  is  also  got 
from  Greek  and  L*tin  writers,  who  cite  not  only  many 
Phcenician  proper  names  but  single  Phoenician  words  : 
Plautus  in  particular  inserts  in  the  Pwnulus  whole  p.i^-- 
ages  in  Punic,  some  of  which  are  accompanied  by  a  Lat  "■ 

-  Ti'.n  scattered  materials  are  being  collected  in  the  Corjjiw  Inscri^ 
*ionuiit  ScinUicariaii  of  the  Paris  Academy. 


SEMirrC       LANGUAGES 


647 


translation.  Thia  source  o£  information  must,  however, 
be  used  with  great  caution.  It  was  not  the  object  of 
Plautus  to  exhibit  the  Punic  language  with  precision,  a 
task  for  which  the  Latin  alphabet  is  but  ill  adapted,  but 
only  to  make  the  populace  laugh  at  the  jai'gon  of  the  hated 
Carthaginians.  Moreover,  he  had  to  force  the  Punic  words 
into  Latin  senarii;  and  finally  the  text,  being  unintelligible 
to  copyists,  is  terribly  corrupt.  Much  ingenuity  has  been 
wasted  on  the  Punic  of  Plautus ;  but  the  passage  yields 
valuable  results. to  cautious  investigation  which  does  not 
try  to  explain  too  much.^  In  its  grammar  Phcenician 
closely  resembles  Hebrew.  In  both  dialects  the  consonants 
are  the  same,  often  in  contrast  to  Aramaic  and  other 
cognate  languages.-  As  to  vowels,  Phcenician  seems  to 
diverge  rather  more  from  Hebrew.  The  connecting  of 
clai\ses  is  scarcely  carried  further  in  the  fovmer  language 
than  in  the  latter.  A  slight  attempt  to  define  the  tenses 
more  sharply  appears  once  at  least  in  the  joining  of  Mn 
(fuit)  with  a  perfect,  to  express  complete  accomplishment 
(or  the  pluperfect).^  One  important  difference  is  that  the 
use  of  wdxo  conversive  with  the  imperfect — so  common 
in  Hebrew  and  in  tke  inscription  of  Mesha — is  wanting 
in  Phoenician.  The  vocabulary  of  the  language  is  very 
like  that  of  Heorew,  but  words  rare  in  Eebrsw  are 
often  common  in  Phcenician.  For  instance,  "  to  do  "  is  in 
Phcenician  not  'as(?  but  paal  (the  Arabic  fa'ala),  which 
in  Hebrew  occurs  only  in  poetry  and  elevated  language. 
"  Gold  "  is  not  zahab  (as  in  most  Semitic  languages)  but 
hariif  (Assyrian  hurdi;),  which  is  used  occasionally  in 
Hebrew  poetry.  Traces  of  dialectical  distinctions  have 
been  found  in  the  great  inscription  of  Byblus,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  which  seem  to  be  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
Phoenicians  in  Josh.  xiii.  5  (and  1  Kings  v.  321  [A. V.  v.  18]). 
It  is  probable  that  various  ditferences  between  the  language 
of  the  mother-country  and  that  of  the  African  colonies  arose 
iat  an  early  date,  but  our  materials  do  not  enable  us  to 
'come  to  anj'  definite  conclusion  on  this  point.  In  the  later 
African  inscriptions  there  appear  certain  phonetic  changes, 
especially  in  consequence  of  the  softening  of  the  gutturals, 
— changes  which  show  themselves  yet  more  plainly  in  the 
so-called  Neo-Punic  inscriptions  (beginning  with  the  1st, 
if  not  the  2d,  century  before  our  era).  In  these  the 
gutturals,  which  had  lost  their  real  sound,  are  frequently 
interchanged  in  writing  ;  and  other  modifications  may  also 
be  perceived.  L'^nfortunately  the  Neo-Punic  inscriptions 
are  written  in  such  a  debased  indistinct  character  that  it 
is  often  impossible  to  discover  with  certainty  the  real  form 
of  the  words.  This  dialect  was  still  siiokcn  about  400, 
and  perhaps  long  afterwards,  in  those  districts  of  North 
Africa  which  had  once  belonged  to  Carthage.  It  would 
-  seem  that  in  the  mother-country  the  Phoenician  language 
withstood  the  encroachment  of  Greek  on  the  one  hand  and 
of  .\ramaic  on  the  other  somewhat  longer  than  Hebrew  did. 
Geo-  Aramaic. — Aramaic  is  nearly  related  to  Hebraio-Phctni- 

e"-V^-     cian  ;  but  there  is  nevettheless  a  sharp  lino  of  demarcation 
tent  of    '^'^'ween  the  two  groups.     Of  its  original  home  nothing 
Aramaic,  certain  i.^  known.     In  the  Old  Testament  "Aram  "  appears 
at  an  early  period  as  a  designation  of  certain  districts  in 
Syria  ("Aram  of  Damascus,"  Ac.)  and  in  Mesopotamia 
("Aram   of   the  Two  Rivers").      The    language  of   the 

u 

'    *  See  Gildemeister,  in  Ritschl's  Plautua  {vol.  ii.  fasc.  v.,  Leipaic, 
1884). 

*  At  oo  early  period  the  Phcpnician  pronunciation  may  bave  distin- 
guished a  greater  number  of  original  consonants  than  are  distinguished 
in  writing.  It  Ls  at  least  remarkable  that  the  Greeks  render  the  name 
of  the  city  of  fur  (Hebrew  Qir],  which  must  origin,ally  have  been  pro- 
aoonced  Thurr,  with  a  t  (TiJpos),  and  the  name  of  Cidon,  where  the 
f  runs  through  all  the  Semitic  languages,  with  a  <r  (2t3iji').  Distinctions 
Hi  this  kind,  justified  by  etymology,  have  perhaps  been  obscured  in 
Hebrew  by  the  imperfection  of  the  alphabet.  In  the  case  of  sin  and 
jAtn  this  can  be  positively  provetl. 

*  JLin  nadar,  "had  vowed,"  Idal.  5  (C.I.S.,  Phoen.,  No.  93). 


Aram^ans  gradually  spread  far  and  wide,  and  occupied 
all  Syria,  both  those  regions  which  were  before  in  the 
possession  of  the  Kheta,  probably  a  non-Semitic  people, 
and  those  which  were  most  likely  inhabited  by  Canaanite 
tribes  ;  last  of  all,  Palestine  became  Aramaized.  Towards 
the  east  this  language  was  spoken  on  the  Euphrates,  and 
throughout  the  districts  of  the  Tigris  south  and  west  of 
the  Armenian  and  Kurdish  mountains ;  the  province  ift 
which  the  capitals  of  the  Arsacides  and  the  Sdsdnians' 
were  situated  was  called  "  the  country  of  the  Aramjeans." 
In  Babylonia  and  Assyria  a  large,  or  perhaps  the  larger; 
portion  of  the  population  were  most  probably  Aramaeans] 
even  at  a  very  early  date,  whilst  Assyrian  was  the  languasre 
of  the  Government. 

The  oldest  extant  Aramaic  documents  consist  of  inscrip 
tions  on  monuments  and  on  seals  and  gems.  In  the  Persiat 
period  Aramaic  was  the  official  language  of  the  pro\incea 
west  of  the  Euphrates ;  and  this  explains  the  fact  that 
coins  which  were  struck  by  governors  and  vassal  princes 
in  Asia  Jlinor,  and  of  which  the  stamp  was  in  some  cases 
the  work  of  skilled  Greek  artists,  bear  Aramaic  inscrip- 
tions, whilst  those  of  other  coins  are  Greek.  This,  of 
course,  does  not  prove  that  Aramaic  was  ever  spoken  inr 
Asia  Minor  and  as  far  north  as  Sinope  and  the  Helles- 
pont. In  Egypt  Ai'amaic  inscriptions  have  been  found 
of  the  Persian  period,  one  bearing  the  date  of  the  fourth 
year  of  Xerxes  (4S2  B.C.)* ;  we  have  also  official  documents 
on  papyrus,  unfortunately  in  a  very  tattered  condition 
for  the  most  part,  which  prove  that  the  Persians  preferred 
using  this  convenient  language  to  mastering  the  difficulties 
of  the  Egyptian  sj'stems  of  writing.  It  is,  further,  very 
possible  that  at  that  time  there  were  considerable  numbers 
of  Aramaeans  in  Egypt,  just  as  there  were  of  Phajnicians, 
Greeks,  and  Jews.  But  probably  this  preference  for 
Aramaic  originated  under  the  Assyrian  empire,  in  which 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  population  spoke  Aramaic, 
and  in  which  this  language  would  naturally  occujjy  a 
more  important  position  than  it  did  under  the  Persians. 
We  therefore  understand  why  it  was  taken  for  granted  that 
a  great  Assyrian  oflicial  could  speak  Aramaic  (2  Kings  xviii. 
26;  Isa.  xxxvi.  11),  and  for  the  same  reason  the  digni- 
taries of  Judah  appear  to  have  learned  the  language  {ibid.)i 
namelj',  in  order  to  communicate  with  the  Assyrians.^ 
The  short  dominion  of  the  ChakU-eans  very  probably 
strengthened  this  preponderance  of  Aramaic.  A  few 
ancient  Aramaic  inscriptions  have  lately  been  discovered 
far  within  the  limits  of  Arabia,  in  the  palm  oasis  of  Teima 
(in  the  north  of  the  HijAz)  ;  the  oldest  and  by  far  the 
most  important  of  these  was  very  likely  made  before  the 
Persian  period.  We  may  presume  that  Aramaic  was  in- 
troduced into  the  district  by  a  mercantile  colony,  which 
settled  in  this  ancient  seat  of  commerce,  and  in  ronse-' 
quence  of  which  Aramaic  may  have  remained  for  some  ti.ne 
the  literary  language  of  the  neighbouring  Arabs.  All  thesa 
older  Aramaic  monuments  exhibit  a  language  which  is 
almost  absolutely  identical.  One  peculiarity  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  later  Aramaic  is  that  in  the  relative  and 
demonstrative  pronoun  the  sound  originally  pronoimced 
dh  is  changed  into  z,  as  in  Hebrew,  not  into  rf,  as  ia 
required  by  a  rule  universal  in  the  Aramaic  dialects.*"  The 
Egyptian  monuments  at  least  bear  marks  of  Hebrew,  or 
more  correctly  Phoenician,  influence. 

The  Aramaic  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  show  us  Biblical 
the  form  of  the  language  which  was  in  use  among  the  Aramaij 
Jews  of  Palestine.      Isolated   passages  in  Ezra  perhaps 

*  See  the  Palieographical  Society's  Oriental  Series,  plate  IxiiL 

*  We  possess  certain  small  documents  in  Semitic  writing  which 
date  from  the  Assyrian  period,  but  of  which  the  linguistic  character  h 
still  very  obscure  ;  they  contain  Aramaic,  Phceuiciac,  and  probably 
AssjTian  forms.     See  Z.D.^f.G.,  xxxiii.  .'i21. 

^  Some  traces  of  this  pbcuomeuou  are  found  later. 


648 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


■belong  to  tlio  Persian  period,  \)XA  }iavo  certainly  been  re- 
modelled by  a  later  writer.'  Yet  in  Ezra  we  find  a  few 
antique  forms  which  do  not  occur  in  Daniel.  The  Aramaic 
pieces  contained  in  the  Bible  have  the  great  advantage  of 
being  furnished  with  vowels  and  other  orthographical 
signs,  though  these  were  not  inserted  until  long  after  the 
composition  of  the  books,  and  are  sometimes  at  variance 
with  the  te.xt  itself.  But,  since  Aramaic  was  still  a  living 
language  when  the  punctuation  came  into  existence,  and 
since  the  lapse  of  time  was  not  so  very  great,  the  tradition 
ran  less  risk  of  corruption  than  in  the  case  of  Hebrew. 
Its  general  correctness  is  further  attested  by  the  innumer- 
able points  of  resemblance  between  this  language  and 
Syriac,  with  which  we  are  accurately  acquainted.  The 
Aramaic  of  the  Bible  exhibits  various  antique  features 
Hvhich  afterwards  disappeared, — for  example,  the  formation 
of  the  passive  by  means  of  internal  vowel-change,  and  the 
causative  with  ha  instead  of  with  a, — phenomena  whicli 
have  been  falsely  explained  as  Hebraisms.  Biblical  Aramaic 
agrees  in  all  essential  points  with  the  language  used  in 
the  numerous  inscriptions  of  Palmyra  (beginning  soon 
before  the  Christian  era  and  extending  to  about  the  end 
of  the  3d  century)  and  on  the  Nabatisan  coins  and  stone 
monuments  (concluding  about  the  year  100).  Aramaic 
was  the  language  of  Palmyra,  the  aristocracy  of  which 
•were  to  a  great  extent  of  Arabian  extraction.  In  the 
•northern  portion  of  the  Nabatjean  kingdom  (not  far  from 
'Damascus)  there  was  probably  a  large  Aramaic  population, 
tut  farther  south  Arabic  was  spoken.  At  that  time,  how- 
ever, Aramaic  was  highly  esteemed  as  a  cultivated  lan- 
guage, for  which  reason  the  Arabs  in  question  made  use 
of  it,  as  their  own  language  was  not  reduced  to  writing, 
just  as  in  those  ages  Greek  inscriptions  were  set  up  in 
many  districts  where  no  one  spoke  Greek.  That  the 
Nabatjeans  were  Arabs  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact 
that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  Greek  names,  almost  all 
the  numerous  names  which  occur  in  the  Nabatajan  inscrip- 
tions are  Arabic,  in  many  cases  with  distinctly  Arabic 
terminations.  A  further  proof  of  this  is  that  in  the  great 
inscriptions  over  the  tombs  of  Hejr  (not  far  from  Teim.i) 
the  native  Arabic  continually  shows  through  the  foreign 
disguise, — for  instance,  in  the  use  of  Arabic  words  when- 
ever the  writer  does  not  happen  to  remember  the  corre- 
sponding Aramaic  ternls,  in  the  use  of  the  Arabic  particle 
fa,  of  the  Arabic  ghair,  "  other  than,"  and  in  several 
syntactic  features.  The  great  inscriptions  cease  with  the 
overthrow  of  the  Nabatrean  kingdom  by  Trajan  (105) ;  but 
the  Arabian  nomads  iu  thoso  countries,  especially  in  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  often  scratched  their  names  on  the 
ivcks  down  to  a  later  period,  adding  'some 'benedictory 
formula  in  Aramaic.  The  fact  that  several  centuries  after- 
wards the  name  of  "Nabatsean"  was  used  by  the  Arabs  as 
synonymous  with  "  Aram«an "  was  probably  due  to  the 
gradual  spread  of  Aramaic  over  a  great  part  of  what  had 
once  been  the  country  of  the  Nabataeans.  In  any  case 
Aramaic  then  exercised  an  immense  influence.  This  is 
also  proved  by  the  place  which  it  occupies  in  the  strange 
Pahlavi  writing,  various  branches  of  which  date  from  the 
time  of  the  Parthian  empire  (see  Pahlavi).  Biblical 
Aramaic,  as  also  the  language  of  the  Palmyrene  and 
Nabataean  inscriptibns,  may  be  described  as  an  older  form 
of  Western  Aramaic.  The  opinion  that  the  Palestinian 
Uews  brought  their  Aramaic  dialect  direct  from  Babylon 
—whence  the  incorrect  name  "  Chaldee  " — is  altogether 
juiteuable. 

Aramaic       We  may  now  trace  somewhat  further  the  development 
of  Tar-     q{  Western  Aramaic  in  Palestine  ;  but  unhappily  few  of 


gnma,&c. 


The  decree  which  is  said  to  have  been  sent  by  §zra  is  ux  its  present 
Jonu  a  comparatively  late  production. 


the  sources  from  which  we  derive  our  information  cafi  Ha 
thoroughly  trusted.  In  the  synagogues  it  was  necessary 
that  the  reading  of  the  Bible  should  be  followed  by  an 
oral  "  targum  "  or  translation  into  Aramaic,  the  language 
of  the  people.  The  Targum  was  at  a  later  period  fixed  ire 
writing,  but  the  officially  sanctioned  form  of  the  Targum 
to  the  Pentateuch  (the  so-called  Targum  of  Onkelos)  and 
of  that  to  the  prophets  (the  so-called  Jonathan)  was  not 
finally  settled  till  the  4  th  or  5th  century,  and  not  in/ 
Palestine  but  in  Babylonia.  The  redactors  of  the  Targum 
preserved  on  the  whole  the  older  Palestinian  dialect ;  yet 
that  of  Babylon,  which  differed  considerably  from  the 
former,  exercised  a  vitiating  influence.  The  punctuation, 
which  was  added  later,  first  in  Babylonia,  is  far  less  trust- 
worthy than  that  of  the  Aramaic  pieces  in  the  Bible.  The 
language  of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  differs  but  little  from 
Biblical  Aramaic.  The  language  spoken  some  time  after- 
wards by  the  Palestinian  Jews,  especially  in  Galilee,  is 
exhibited  in  a  series  of  rabbinical  works,  the  so-called  Jeru- 
salem Targums  (of  which,  however,  those  on  the  Hagio- 
grapha  are  in  some  cases  of  later  date),  a  few  Jlidrashic 
works,  and  the  Jerusalem  Talmud.  Unfortunately  all 
these  books,  of  which  the  Midrashim  and  the  Talmud 
contain  much  Hebrew  as  well  as  Aramaic,  have  not  been 
handed  down  with  care,  and  require  to  be  used  with  great 
caution  for  linguistic  pui  poses.  Moreover,  the  influence 
of  the  older  language  and  orthography  has  in  part  ob- 
scured the  characteristics  of  these  popular  dialects ;  for 
example,  various  gutturals  are  still  written,  although  they 
are  no  longer  pronounced.  The  adaptation  of  the  spelling 
to  the  real  pronunciation  is  carried  furthest  in  the  Jeru- 
salem Talmud,  but  not  in  a  consistent  manner.  Besides, 
all  these  books  are  without  vowel-points  ;  but  the  frequent 
use  of  vowel-letters  in  the  later  Jewish  works  renders  this 
defect  less  sensible. 

Not  only  the  Jews  but  also  the  Christians  of  Palestine 
retained  their  native  dialect  for  some  time  as  an  ecclesi- 
astical and  literary  language.  We  possess  translation;?  of 
the  Gospels  and  fragments  of  other  works  in  this  dialect 
by  the  Palestinian  Christians  dating  from  about  the  5th 
century,  accompanied  by  a  punctuation  which  was  not 
added  till  some  time  later.  This  dialect  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  Palestinian  Jews,  as  was  to  be  expected  from 
the  fact  that  those  who  spoke  it  were  of  Jewish  origin. 

Finally,  the  Samaritans,  among  the  inhabitants  of  Saniari- 
Palestine,  translated  their  only  sacred  book,  the  Pentateuch,  tan 
into  their  own  dialect.  The  critical  study  of  this  trans-  "dialect 
lation  proves  that  the  language  which  lies  at  its  base  was 
very  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  neighbouring  Jews. 
Perhaps,  indeed,  the  Samaritans  may  have  carried  the 
softening  of  the  gutturals  a  little  further  than  the  Jews  of 
Galilee.  Their  absurd  attempt  to  embellish  the  language 
of  the  translation  by  arbitrarily  introducing  forms  borrowed 
from  the  Hebrew  original-has  given  rise  to  the  false  notion 
that  Samaritan  is  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  and  Aramaic.  The 
introduction  of  Hebrew  and  even  of  Arabic  words  and 
forms  was  practised  in  Samaria  on  a  still  larger  scale  by 
copyists  who  lived  after  Aramaic  had  become  extinct.  The 
later  works  written  in  the  Samaritan  dialect  are,  from  a 
linguistic  point  of  view,  as  worthless  as  the  compositions 
of  Samaritans  in  Hebrew  ;  the  writers,  who  spoke  Arabic, 
endeavoured  to  write  in  languages  with  which  they  wera 
but  half  acquainted. 

All  these  Western  Aramaic  dialects,  incluamg  that  of 
the  oldest  inscrii5tions,  have  this  feature  among  others 
in  common,  that  they  form  the  third  person  singular 
masculine  and  the  third  person  plural  masculine  and 
feminine  in  the  imperfect  by  prefixing  y,  as  do  the  other 
Semitic  languages.  And  in  these  dialects  the  termina- 
tion d  (the  so-called  "  status  emphaticus  ")  still  retained 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


649 


the  meaning  of  a  definite  article  down  to  a  tolerably  late 
period. 

As  early  as  tie  7tli  century  the  conquest^  of  the  Moslems 
greatly  circumscribed  the  domain  of 'Aramaic  and  a  few 
centuries  later  it  was  almost  completely  supplanted  in  the 
west  by  Arabic.  For  the  Christians  of  those  countries, 
who,  like  every  one  else,  spoke  Arabic,  the  Palestinian 
dialect  was  no  longer  of  importance,  and  they  adopted 
as  their  ecclesiastical  language  the  dialect  of  the  other 
Aramaean  Christians,  the  Syriac  (or  Edessene).  The  only 
localities  where  a  Western  Aramaic  dialect  still  survives 
are  a  few  villages  in  Anti-Libanus.  Our  information  upon 
this  subject  is  but  slight  and  fragmentary ;  but  it  is  hoped 
that  Professors  Prym  and  Socin  will  soon  be  able  to  furnish 
more  ample  details. 
aabylon-  The  popular  Aramaic  dialect  of  Babj'lonia  from,  the 
isn  and  4t]i  to  the  6th  century  of  our  era  is  exhibited  in  the 
''"""  Babylonian  Talmud,  in  which,  however,  as  in  the  Jeru- 
dialecti  salem  Talmud,  there  is  a  constant  mingling  of  Aramaic 
and  Hebrew  passages.  To  a  soonswhat  later  period,  and 
probably  not  to  exactly  the  same  district  of  Babylonia, 
belong  the  writings  of  the  Mand.eans  (?.v.),  a  strange 
eect,  half  Christian  and  half  heathen,  who  from  a  linguistic 
point  of  ■i'iew  possess  the  peculiar  advantage  of  having 
remained  almost  entirely  free  from  the  influence  of  Hnbrew, 
■which  is  so  perceptible  in  the  Aramaic  writings  of  Jews 
as  well  as  of  Christians.  The  orthography  of  the  Man- 
daeans  comes  nearer  than  that  of  the  Talmud  to  the  real 
pronunciation,  and  in  it  the  softening  of  the  gutturals  is 
most  clearly  seen.  In  other  respects  there  is  a  close  resem- 
blance between  Mand^an  and  the  language  of  the  Babylon- 
ian Talmud.  The  forms  of  the  imperfect  which  we  have 
enumerated  above  take  in  these  dialects  n  or  l.^  In 
Babylonia,  as  ia  Syria,  the  language  of  the  Arabic  con- 
querors rapidly  drove  out  that  of  the  country.  The  latter 
has  long  been  totally  extinct,  unless  possibly  a  few  surviv- 
ing Mandsans  still  speak  among  themselves  a_  more  modern 
form  of  their  dialect. 
3ypiM  or  At  Edessa,  in  the  west  of  Mesopotamia,  the  native 
Edessan  j;-jig(,t  Jl-^(J  already  been  used  for  some  time  as  a  literary 
language,  and  had  been  reduced  to  rule  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  schools  (as  is  proved  by  the  fixity  of  the  grammar 
and  orthography)  even  before  Christianity  acquired  power 
in  the  country  in  the  2d  century.  At  an  early  period  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  were  here  translated,  with  the 
help  of  Jewish  tradition.  This  version  (the  so-called 
Peahltta  or  Peshito)  became  the  Bible  of  Aramaean  Chris- 
tendom, and  Edessa  became  its  capital.  Thus  the  Aramrean 
Christians  of  the  neighbouring  countries,  even  those  who 
were  subjects  of  the  Persian  empire;  adopted  the  Edessan 
dialfct  as  the  language  of  the  church,  of  literature,  and- 
of  cultivated  intercourse.  Since  the  ancient  name  of  the 
inhabitants,  "  Aramseans,"  just  like  that  of 'EAXiji-cs,  had 
acquired  in  the  minds  of  Jews  and  Christians  the  un- 
pleasant signification  of  •  "  heathens,"  it  was  generally 
avoided,  and  in  its  place  the  Greek  terms  "Syrions"  and 
"Syriac"  were  used.  But  "Syriac"  was  also  the  name 
given  by  the  Jews' and  Christians  of  Palestine  to  their  own 
language,  and  both  Greeks  and  Persians  designated  the 
Aramaeans  of  Babylonia  as  "Syrians."  It  is  therefore, 
properly  speaking,  incorrect  to  employ  the  word  "Syriac" 
as  meaning  the  language  of  Edessa  alone ;  but,  since  it 
was  the  most  important  of  these  dialects,  it  has  the  best 
claim  to  this  generally  received  appellation.  It  has,  as  we 
have  said,  a  shape  very  definitely  fixed ;  and  in  it  the 
above-mentioned  forms  of  the  imperfect  take  an  n.  As. 
in  the  Babylonian  dialects,  the  termination  d  has. become 
so  completely  a  part  of  the '  substantive  to  which  it  is 
added  that  it  has  wholly  lost  the  meaning  of  the  definite 
\  iit:e  Noldekc,  Mandaischf  Qramwatik  (UaJle,  Xh'iay 


Ajam&iir 


article,  whereby  the  clearness  of  the  language  is  perceptibly 
impaired.  The  influence  exercised  by  Greek  is  very  appa- 
rent in  Syriac.  From  the  3d  to  the  7  th  century  an  exten- 
sive literature  was  produced  in  this  language,  consisting 
chiefly,  but  not  entirely,  of  ecclesiastical  works.  In  the 
development  of  this  literature  the  S}Tian3  of  the  Persian 
empire  took  an  eager  part.  In  the  Eastern  Roman  empire 
Syriac  was,  after  Greek,  by  far  the  most  important,  lan- 
guage J  and  under  the  Persian  kings  it  virtually  o(:cupied 
a  more  prominent  position  as  an  organ  of  cidture  than  the 
Persian  language  itself.  The  conquests  of  the  Arabs  totally 
changed  this  state  of  things.  But  meanwhile,  even  in 
Edessa,  a  considerable  difference  had  arisen  between  thi 
written  language  and  the  popular  speech,  in  whi  jh  the  pro- 
cess of  modification  was  stiU  going  on.  About  the  year 
700  it  became  a  matter  of  absolute  necessity  to  systematize 
tlie  grammar  of  the  language  and  to  ititroduce  some  means 
of  clearly  expressing  the  vowels.  The  principal  object 
aimed  at  was  that  the  text  of  the  Syriac  Bible  should  be 
recited  in  a  correct  manner.  But,  as  it  happened,  the 
eastern  pronunciation  differed  in  many  respects  from  that 
of  the  west.  The  local  dialects  had  to  some  extent  exer- 
cised an  influence  over  the  pronunciation  of  the  literary 
tongue ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  political  separation 
between  Rome  and  Persia,  and  yet  more  the  ecclesiastical 
schism — since  the  SjTians  of  the  east  were  mostly  Xesto- 
rians,  those  of  the  west  Monophysites  and  Catholics — had 
produced  divergencies  between  the  traditions  of  the  various 
schools.  Starting,  therefore,  from  a  common  source,  two 
distinct  systems  of  punctuation  were  formed,  of  i  /hich  the 
western  is  the  more  convenient,  but  the  eastern  the  more 
exact  and  generally  the  more  in  accordance  with  the 
ancient  pronunciation ;  it  has,  for  example,  «  in  jilace 
of  the  western  6,  and  6  in  many  cases  where  the  western 
Syrians  pronounce  tj.  In  later  times  the  two  systems 
have  been  intermingled  in  various  ways. 

Arabic  everywhere  put  a  speedy  end  to  the  predomi- 
nance of  Aramaic — a  predominance  which  had  lasted  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years — and  scon  began  to  drive 
Syriac  out  of  use.  At  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century 
the  learned  metropolitan  of  Kisibis,  Zlias  bar  ShinndyA, 
wrote  his.  books  intended  for  Christians  either  entirely  in 
Arabic  or  in  Arabic  and  Syriac  arranged  in  parallel  columns, 
that  is,  in  the  spoken  and  in  the  learned  language.  Thus, 
too,  it  became  necessary  to  have  Syriac--A.rabic  glossaries. 
Up  to  the  present  day  S}Tiac  has  remained  in  use  for 
literary  and  ecclesiastical  purposes,  and  may  perhaps  be 
even  spoken  in  some  monasteries  and  schools ;  but  it  has 
long  been  a  dead  language,  ^^^len  Syriac  became  ex- 
tinct in  Edessa  and  its  neighbouihood  is  not  known  with 
certainty. 

This  language,  called  Syi'iac  par  excellence,  is  nob  the  Xe» 
immediate  source  whence  are  derived  the  Aram.aic  dialects  ^V^^ 
still  .surviving  in  the  northern  districts.  In  the  mountains 
known  as  the  Tiu-  'Abdin  in  Mesopotamia,  in  certain 
districts  east  and  north  of  Mosul,  in  the  neighbouring 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  again  beyond  them  on  the 
western  coast  of  Lake  Urmia,  Aramaic  dialects  are  spoken 
by  Christians  and  occasionally  by  Jews,  and  some  of  these 
dialects  we  know  with  tolerable  precision.  The  dialect  of 
Tur  'Abdin  seems  to  differ  considerably  from  all  the  rest ; 
the  country  beyond  the  Tigris  is,  however,  divided,  as 
regards  language,  amongst  a  multitude  of  local  dialects. 
Among  these,  that  of  Urmia  has  become  the  most  import- 
ant, since  American  missionaries  have  formed  a  new  literary 
language  out  of  it.  Moreover,  the  Roman  Propaganda  has 
printed  books  in  two  of  the  Neo-S3'riac  dialects.  All  these 
dialects  exhibit  a  complete  transforjnation  of  the  ansient 
type,  to  a  degree  incomparably  greater  than  is  the  case, 
for  example,  with  Mandsean.     In  particular,  the  anciant 

XXI...—  82 


dklecta. 


650 


SEMITIC       LAI^IGUAGES 


veAal  tenses  have  almost  entirely  disappeared,  but  have 
been  successfully  replaced  by  new  forms  derived  from  parti- 
ciples. There  are  also  other  praiseworthy  innovations. 
The  dialect  of  Tiir  "Abdin  has,  for  instance,  again  coined 
a  definite  article.  By  means  of  violent  contractions  and 
phonetic  changes  some  of  these  dialects,  particularly  that 
of  Urmia,  have  acquired  a  euphony  scarcely  known  in  any 
other  of  the  Semitic  languages,  with  their  "stridentia 
anhelantiaque  verba"  (Jerome).  These  Aramfeans  have 
all  adopted  a  motley  crowd  of  foreign  words,  from  the 
Arabs,  Kurds,  and  Turks,  on  whose  borders  they  live  and 
of  whose  languages  they  can  often  speak  at  least  one. 
Jhftrac-  Aramaic  is  frequently  described  as  a  poor  language.  This 
eristics  jg  ^„  opinion  which  wo  are  unable  to  share.  It  is  quite 
F,  .  possible,  even  now,  to  extract  a  very  large  vocabulary  from 
'  the  more  ancient  Aramaic  writings,  and  yet  in  this  pre- 
dominantly theological  literature  a  part  only  of  the  words 
Aat  existed  in  the  language  have  been  preserved.  It  is 
true  that  Aramaic,  having  from  the  earliest  times  come  into 
;lose  contact  with  foreign  languages,  has  borrowed  many 
words  from  them,  in  particular  from  Persian  and  Greek ; 
Cut,  if  we  leave  out  of  considei-ation  the  fact  that  many 
Syrian  authors  are  in  the  habit  of  using,  as  ornaments  or 
for  convenience  (especially  in  translations),  a  great  number 
ol  Greek  words,  some  of  which  were  unintelligible  to  their 
readers,  we  shall  find  that  the  proportion  of  really  foreign 
words  in  older  Aramaic  books  is  not  larger,  perhaps  even 
smaller,  than  the  proportion  of  Romance  words  in  German 
,or  Dutch.  The  influence  of  Greek  upon  the  syntax  and 
j)hraseology  of  Syriac  is  not  so  great  as  that  which  it  has 
exercised,  through  the  medium  of  Latin,  upon  the  literary 
languages  of  modern  Europe.  With  regard  to  sounds, 
c^ie  most  charactei-istic  feature  of  Aramaic  (besides  its 
j)eculiar  treatment  of  the  dentals)  is  that  it  is  poorer  in 
-vowels  than  Hebrew,  not  to  speak  of  Arabic,  since  nearly 
all  short  vowels  in  open  syllables  either  wholly  disappear  or 
leave  but  a  slight  trace  behind  them  (the  so-called  .shewa). 
In  this  respect  the  punctuation  of  Biblical  Aramaic  agrees 
:vith  Syriac,  in  wliich  we  are  able  to  observe  from  very 
^arly  times  the  number  of  vowels  by  examining  the  metri- 
M,I  pieces  constructed  according  to  the  number  of  syllables, 
ind.with  the  Mandsan,  which  expresses  every  vowel  by 
neans  of  a  vowel-letter.  When  several  distinct  dialects 
io  agree,  the  phenomenon  in  question  must  be  of  great 
mtiquity.  There  are  nevertheless  traces  which  prove  that 
the  language  once  possessed  more  vowels,  and  the  Ara- 
mjeans,  for  instance,  with  wh  )ra  David  fought  may  have 
pronounced  many  vowels  which  afterwards  disappear  ;d. 
Another  peculiarity  of  Aramaic  is  that  it  lends  itself  far 
more  readily  to  the  linking  together  of  sentences  than 
Hebrew  and  Arabic.  It  possesses  many  conjunctions  and 
adverbs  to  express  slight  modifications  of  mexning.  It  is 
also  very  free  as  regards  the  order  of  words.  That  this 
quality,  which  renders  it  suitable  for  a  clear  and  limpid 
prose  style,  is  not  the  result  of  Greek  influence  may  be 
seen  by  the  MandiBan,  on  which  Greek  has  left  no  mark. 
In  its  attempts  to  express  everything  clearly  Aramaic 
often  becomes  prolix, — for  example,  by  using  additional 
personal  and  demonstrative  pronouns.  The  contrast  be- 
tween Aramaic  as  the  language  of  prose  and  Hebrew  as 
the  language  of  poetry  is  one  which  naturally  strikes  us, 
but  we  must  beware  of  carrying  it  too  far.  Even  the 
Arama?an3  were  not  wholly  destitute  of  poetical  talent. 
Although  the  religious  poetry  of  the  Syrians  has  but  little 
charm  for  us,  yet  real  poetry  occurs  in  the  few  extant  frag- 
ments of  Gnostic  hymns.  Moreover,  in  the  modern  dialects 
popular  songs  have  been  discovered  which,  though  very 
simple,  are  fresh  and  full  of  feeling.^     It  is  therefore  by  no 

*  See  Socin,  Die  iicK-aramdUchcn  Dialckte  von   Urmia  "bi^  2/osui, 
TuWugen,  18S2  ;  corop.  Z.D.M.G.,  zx.\vi.  679  sq. 


means  improbable  that  in  ancient  times  Aramaic  was  used 
in  poems  which,  being  contrary  to  the  theological  tendency 
of  Syrian  civilization,  were  doomed  to  total  oblivion. 

Assyrian. — Long  before  Aramaic  another  Semitic  Ian- Assyriw 
guage  flourished  in  the  regions  of  the  Tigris  and  on  the  lower 
Euphrates  which  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions.  It  is  usually  called  the  Assyrian,  after  the 
name  of  the  country  where  the  first  and  most  important 
excavations  were  made  ;  but  the  term  "Babylonian"  would 
be  more  correct,  as  Babylon  was  the  birthplace  of  this  lan- 
guage and  of  the  civilization  to  which  it  belonged.  Certain 
Babylonian  inscriptions  appear  to  go  back  to  the  fourth 
millennium  before  our  era ;  but  the  great  mass  of  these 
cuneiform  inscriptions  date  from  between  1000  and  500 
B.C.  Assyrian  seems  to  be  more  nearly  related  to  Hebrew 
than  to  Aramaic ;  we  may  cite,  for  example,  the  relative 
particle  ska,  which  is  also  used  as  a  sign  of  the  genitive, 
and  is  identical  with  the  Phcenician  ash  and  the  Hebrew 
usher  {she,  sha),  also  the  similarity  between  Assyrian  and 
Hebrew  in  the  treatment  of  the  aspirated  dentals.  On  the 
other  hand,  Assyrian  diff'ers  in  many-xespects  from  all  tho 
cognate  languages.  The  ancient  perfect  has  wholly  dis- 
appeared, or  left  but  few  traces,  and>the  gutturals,  with 
the  exceptlcFn  of  the  hard  ih,  have  been  smoothed  down  to 
a  degree  which  is  only  paralleled  in  the  modern  Aramaic 
dialects.  So  at  least  it  v.-ould  appear  from  the  writing,  oB 
rather  from  the  manner  in  which  Assyriologists  transcribe 
it.  The  Babylonian  form  bel  (occurring  in  Isa.  xlvi.  1  ; 
Jer.  1.  2  and  li.  44, — passages  all  belonging  to  the  £lli 
century  B.C.),  the  name  of  the  god  who  was  originally 
called  ba'l,  is  a  confirmation  of  this;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  name  of  the  country  where  Babylon  was  situated, 
viz.,  Shin'ar,  and  that  of  a  Babylonian  god,  'Anammelekh 
(2  Kings  xvii.  31),  as  well  as  those  of  the  tribes  Shii'a 
and  Ko'a  (Ezek.  xxiii.  23)  who  inhabited  the  Assyrio- 
Babylonian  territory,  seem  to  militate  against  this  theory, 
as  they  are  spelt  in  the  Old  Testament  with  'aiti.  The 
Assj'riau  system  of  writing  is  so  complicated,  and,  in  spite 
of  its  vast  apparatus,  is  so  imperfect  an  instrument  for  the 
accurate  representation  of  sounds,  that  we  are  hardly  yet 
bound  to  regard  the  transcriptions  of  contemporary  Assyrio- 
logists as  being  in  all  points  of  detail  the  final  dictum  of 
science.  It  is,  for  e.xarnple,  very  doubtful  whether  the 
vowels  at  the  end  of  words  and  the  appended  vi  were 
really  pronounced  in  all  cases,  as  this  would  presuppose 
a  complete  confusion  in  the  grammar  of  the  language. 
However  this  may  be,  the  present  writer  does  not  feel 
able  to  speak  at  greater  length  upon  Assyrian,  not  being 
an  Assyriologist  himself  nor  yet  capable  of  satisfactorily 
distinguishing  the  certain  from  the  uncertain  results  of 
Assyriological  inquiry. 

The  native  cuneiform  -writing  was,  used  in  Babylonia 
not  only  under  the  Persian  empire  but  also  in  the  Greek 
period,  as  the  discovery  of  isolated  specimens  proves.  It 
does  not  of  course  necessarily  follow  from  this  that  Assyrian 
was  still  spoken  at  that  time.  Indeed,  this  language  may 
possibly  hajve  been  banished  from  ordinary  life  long  before 
the  destruction  of  Kineveh,  surviving  only  as  the  oflScial 
and  sacerdotal  tongue.  These  inscriptions,  in  any  case, 
were  intended  for  none  but  a  narrow  circle  of  learned 
persons. 

Arabic. — The  southern  group  of  Semitic  languages  con- 
sists of  Arabic  and  Ethiopic.     Arabic,  again,  is  subdivided 
into  the  dialects  of  the  larger  portion  of  Arabia  and  those       • 
of  the  extreme  south  (the  Sab^an,  ifcc).     At  a  very  much 
earlier  time  than  we  were  but  lately  justified  in  supposing, 
some  of  the  northern  Arabs  reduced  their  language  to 
writing.     For  travellers  have  quite  recently  discovered  in  ^^^^ 
the  northern  parts  of  the  HijAz  inscriptions  in -a  strange  in«crii>- 
character.  which  seem  to  have  been  written  long  before  outtJHje. 


SEJillTIC       LANGUAGES 


651 


era.  The  character  resembles  the  Sabaean,  but  perhaps  re- 
presents an  earlier  stage  of  graphical  development.  These 
inscriptions  have  been  called  "Thamudie,"  because  they 
were  found  in  the  country  of  the  Thamud  ;  but  this  desig- 
nation is  scarcely  a  suitable  one,  because  during  the  period 
when  the  power  of  the  Tham\ld  was  at  its  height,  and 
when  the  buQdings  mentioned  in  the  Koran  were  hewn  in 
the  rocks,  the  language  of  this  country  was  Nabataean  (see 
above).  Unfortunately  the  inscriptions  hitherto  discovered 
are  all  short  i  and  for  the  most  part  fragmentary,  and  con- 
sequently furnish  but  little  material  to  the  student  of  lan- 
guages. But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  written 
in  an  Arabic  dialect.  The  treatment  of  the  dentals, 
among  other  things,  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  this.  At  least 
in  one  point  they  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  Hebrew : 
they  have,  the  article  ha  (not  hal,  as  we  might  expect).  It 
is  possible  that  the  tribes  living  on  Arabian  soil  which  are 
regarded  in  the  Old  Testament  as  nearly  related  to  Israel, 
that  is,  the  Ishmaelites,  the  Midianites,  and  even  the 
Edomites,  may  have  spoken  dialects  occupying  a  middle 
position  between  Arabic  and  Hebrew.  They  are  perhaps 
traces  of  some  such  intermediate  link  that  have  been  pre- 
served to  us  in  these  inscriptions. 
A  «•'  •*  The  numerous  inscriptions  scattered  over  the  north-west 
>i  ibic  of  Arabia,  especially  over  the  wild  and  rocky  district  of 
iri;up-  gafi^  near  Damascus,  probably  date  from  a  later  period. 
*"*■  They  are  written  in  peculiar  characters,  which,  it  would 
seem,  are  likewrise  related  to  those  used  by  the  Sabseans. 
They  are  all  of  them  short  and  indistinct,  scratched  hurriedly. 
and  irregularly  upon  unhewn  stone.  'WTiat  we  at  present 
nnderstajid  of  them — they  consist  almost  entirely  of  proper 
names — is  owing  in  nearly  every  case  to  the  ingenuity  of 
HiJ^vy.*  In  matters  of  detail,  however,  much  still  remains 
uncertain.  To  decipher  them  with  absolute  certainty  will 
no  doubt  always  be  impossible  on  account  of  their  careless 
execution.  These  inscriptions  are  probably  the  work  of 
Arab  emigrants  from  the  iouth. 

The  Arabs  who  inhabited  the  Nabatasan 'kingdom  wrote 
in  Aramaic,  but,  as  has  been  remarked  above,  theii  native 
language,  Arabic,  often  shows  through  the  foreign  disguise. 
We  are  thus  able  to  satisfy  ourselves  that  these  Arabs,  who 
lived  a  little  before  and  a  little  after  Christ,  spoke  a  dialect 
closely  resembling  the  later  classical  Arabic.  The  nomi- 
pative  of  the  so-caUed  "  triptote  "  nouns  has,  as  in  classical 
Arabic,  the  termination  u ;  the  genitive  has  i  (the  accusa- 
tive therefore  probably  ended  in  a),  but  without  the  addi- 
tion of  n.  Generally  speaking,  those  proper  names  which 
in  classical  Arabic  are  "  diptotes  "  are  here  devoid  of  any 
inflexional  termination.  The  u  of  the  nominative  appears 
also  in  Arabic  proper  names  belonging  to  more  northern 
districts,  as,  for  example.  Palmyra  and  Edessa.  All  these 
Arabs  were  probably  of  the  same  race.  It  is  possible  that 
the  two  oldest  known  specimens  of  distinctively  Arabic 
writing — namely,  the  Arabic  portion  of  the  trilingual  in- 
scription of  Zabad,  south-east  of  Haleb  (Aleppo),  written 
In  Syiiac,  Greek,  and  Arabic,  and  dating  from  512  or  513 
A.D.,  ^  and  that  of  the  bilingual  inscription  of  Harran, 
south  of  Damascus,''  written  in  Greek  and  Arabic,  of  568 
— represent  nothing  but  a  somewhat  more  modern  form 
of  this  dialect.  In  both  these  in.':criptions  proper  names 
take  in  the  genitive  the  termination  u,  which  shows  that 
the  meaning  of  such  inflexions  was  no  longer  felt.  Tliese 
two  inscriptions,  especially  that  of  Zabad,  which  is  badly 


*  The  decipherment  of  the.sc  inscriptions  was  begun  by  Haltvy,  who 
followed  the  drawings  of  Doughty,  The  subject  is  now  being  further 
investigated  by  D.  H.  SliiUer  of  Vienna  from  Euting's  copies. 

'  "Essai  sur  les  Inscriptions  dn  Safa,"  from  the  Journal  Asiatique 
(Paris,  1882). 

'  Sachaa,  Monaisberichi  der  Berliner  Akademii  der  Wistenscha/tenf 
10th  February  1881,  and  Z.D.M.O.,  xxxvi.  3-)5  sq. 

«  Le  Bas  and  Waddington,  No.  2461,  and  Z.D.M.O.,  xxiviii.  S30. 


written,  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  interpreted  in  all 
their  details. 

During  the  whole  period  of  the  preponderance  of  Aramaic 
this  language  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  Arabs.  The  more  carefully  we  investigate  the 
more  clearly  does  it  appear  that  numerous  .cVrabic  words, 
used  for  ideas  or  objects  which  presuppose  a  certain  degree 
of  civilization,  are  borrowed  from  the  Aramaeans.  Hence 
the  civilizing  influence  of  their  northern  neighbours  must 
have  been  very  strongly  felt  by  the  Arabs,  and  contributed 
in  no  small  ineasure  to  prepare  them  for  playing  so  import- 
ant a  part  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

In  the  6th  century  the  inhabitants  of  the  greater  part  Classical 
of  Arabia  proper  spoke  everywhere  essentially  the  same  Arabic 
language,  which,  as  being  by  far  the  most  important  of  all 
Arabic  dialects,  is  known  simply  as  the  Arabic  language. 
Arabic  poetry,  at  that  time  cultivated  throughout  the 
whole  of  central  and  northern  Arabia  as  far  as  the  lower' 
Euphrates  and  even  beyond  it,  employed  one  language 
only.  The  extant  Arabic  poems  belonging,  to  the  heathen 
period  were  not  indeed  written  down  till  much  later,  and 
meanwhile  underwent  considerable  alterations ' ;  but  the 
absolute  regularity  of  the  metre  and  rhyme  is  a  sufiicient 
proof  that  on  the  whole  these  poems  all  obeyed  the  same 
laws  of  language.  It  is  indeed  highly  probable  that  the 
rhapsodists  and  the  grammarians  have  effaced  many  slight 
dialectical  peculiarities ;  in  a  great  number  of  passages,  for 
example,  the  poets  may  have  used,  in  accordance  with  the 
fashion  of  their  respective  tribes,  some  other  case  than  that 
prescribed  by  the  grammarians,  and  a  thing  of  this  kind 
may  afterwards  have  been  altered,  unless  it  happened  to 
occur  in  rhyme ;  but  such  alterations  cannot  have  extended 
very  far.  A  dialect  that  diverged  in  any  great  measure 
from  the  Arabic  of  the  grammarians  could  not  possibly 
have  been  made  to  fit  into  the  metres.  Moreover,  the 
Arabic  philologists  recognize  the  existence  of  various  small 
distinctions  between  the  dialects  of  individual  tribes  and  of 
their  poets,  and  the  traditions  of  the  more  ancient  schools  . 
of  Koran  readers  exhibit  very  many  dialectical  nuances. 
It  might  indeed  be  conjectured  that  for  the  majority  of 
the  Arabs  the  language  of  poetry  was  an  artificial  one, — 
the  speech  of  certain  tribes  having  been  adopted  by  all  the 
rest  as  a  dialedus  poetica.  And  this  might  -be  possible  in 
the  case  of  wandering  minstrels  whose  art  gained  them 
their  livelihood,  such  as  Ndbigha  and  A'shd.  But,  when 
we  find  that  the  Bedouin  goat-herds,  for  instance,  in  the 
mountainous  district  near  Mecca  composed  poems  in  this 
very  same  language  upon  their  insignificant  feuds  and  per 
sonal  quarrels,  that  in  it  the  proud  chiefs  of  the  Taghli- 
bites  and  the  Bekrites  addressed  defiant  verses  to  the  king 
of  HIra  (on  the  Euphrates),  that  a  Christian  inhabitant  of 
Hira,  Adi  b.  Zaid,  used  this  language  in  his  serious  pogms, 
— when  we  reflect  that,  as  far  as  the  Arabic  poetry  of  the 
heathen  period  extends,  there  is  nowhere  a  trace  of  any 
important  linguistic  difference,  it  would  surely  be  a  para^ 
dox  to  assume  that  all  these  Arabs,  who  for  the  most  part 
were  quite  illiterate  and  yet  extremely  jealous  of  the  honour 
of  their  tribes,  could  have  taken  the  trouble  to  clothe  their 
ideas  and  feelings  in  a  foreign,  or  even  a  perfectly  arti- 
ficial, language.  The  Arabic  philologists  also  invariably 
regarded  the  language  of  the  poets  as  being  that  of  the 
Arabs  in  general.  Even  at  the  end  of  the  2d  century 
after  Mohammed  the  Bedouins  of  Arabia  proper,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  outlying  districts,  were  considered  as 
being  in  possession  of  this  pure  Arabic.  The  most  learned 
grammarians  were  in  the  habit  of  appealing  to  any  unedu- 
cated man  who  happened  to  have  just  arrived  with  his 
cameb  from  the  desert,  though  he  did  not  know  by  heart 
twenty  verses  of  the  Koran,  and  had  no  conception  of  theo- 
*  Comp.  the  article  Mo'allak^t. 


652 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


retical  grammar,  in  ordsr  that 'he  might  decido  whether  in 
Arabic  it  were  allowable  or  necessa"y  to  express  oneself  iu 
ihis  or  that  manner.  It  is  evident  that  these  profound 
scholars  knew  of  only  one  classical  language,  which  was  still 
spoken  by  the  Bedouins.  The  tribes  which  produced  the 
principal  poets  of  the  earlier  period  belonged  for  the  most 
part  to  portions  of  the  HijAz*  to  Nejd  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, and  to  the  region  which  stretches  thence  towards  the 
Euphrates.  A  great  part  of  the  HijAz,_on  the  other  hand, 
plays  a  very  unimportant  part  in  this  poetry,  and  the 
Arabs  of  the  north-west,  who  were  under  the  Roman 
dominion,  have  no  share  whatever  in  it.  The  dialects  of 
these  latter  tribes  probably  diverged  further  from  the 
ordinary  language.  The  fact  that  they  were  Christians 
does  not  explain  thir,  since  the  Taghlibites  and  other  tribes 
■who  jiroduced  eminent  poets  also  professed  Christianity. 
Jlorcover,  poets  from  the  interior  were  gladly  welcomed 
at  the  court  of  the  Ghassanian  princes,  who  were  Christian 
vassals  of  the  emperor  residing  near  Damascus ;  in  this 
district,  therefore,  their  language  was  at  least  understood. 
It  may  be  added  that  most  of  the  tribes  which  cultivated 
poetry  appear  to  have  been  near  neighbours  at  an  epoch 
not  very  far  removed  from  that  in  question,  and  afterwards 
to  have  been  scattered  in  large  bands  over  a  much  wider 
extent  of  country.  And  nearly  all  those  who  were  not 
Christians  paid  respect  to  the  sanctuary  of  Mecca.  It  is 
a  total  mistake,  but  one  frequently  made  by  Europeans, 
Oialect  to  designate  the  Arabic  language  as  "  the  Koraishite  dia- 
of  tlie  Icct."  This  expression  never  occurs  in  any  Arabic  author, 
iioraish.  rj.j.,jg^  ;„  ^  f^^y  f-^^e  cases  we  do  read  of  the  dialect  of  the 
Koraish,  by  which  is  meant  the  peculiar  local  tinge  that 
distinguished  the  speech  of  Mecca;  but  to  describe  the 
Arabic  language  as  "  Koraishite  "  is  as  absurd  as  it  would 
be  to  speak  of  English  as  the  dialect  of  London  or  of 
Oxford.  This  unfortunate  designation  has  been  made  the 
basis  of  a  theory  very  often  repeated  in  modern  times, — 
namely,  that  classical  Arabic  is  nothing  else  but  the  dialect 
of  Mecca,  which  the  Koran  first  brought  into  fashion.  So 
far  from  this  being  the  case,  it  is  certain  that  the  speech 
of  the  towns  in  the  Hijaz  did  not  agree  in  every  point  with 
the  language  of  the  poets,  and,  as  it  happens,  the  Koran 
itself  contains  some  remarkable  deviations  from  the  rules 
of  the  classical  language.  This  would  be  still  more  evident 
if  the  punctuation,  which  was  introduced  at  a«lcter  time, 
did  not  obscure  many  details.  The  traditions  which  re- 
present the  Koraish  as  speaking  the  purest  of  all  Arabic 
dialects  are  partly  the  work  of  the  imaginrtion  and  partly 
compliments  paid  to  the  rulers  descended  from  the  Koraish, 
but  are  no  doubt  at  variance  with  the  ordinary  opinion  of 
the  Arabs  themselves  in  earlier  days.  In  the  Koran  Mo- 
hammed has  imitated  the  poets,  though,  generally  speaking, 
with  little  success ;  the  poets,  on  the  other  hand,  never 
imitated  him.  Thus  the  Koran  and  its  language  exercised 
but  very  little  influence  upon  the  poetry  of  the  following 
centuryand  upon  that  of  later  times,  whereas  this  poetry 
closely  and  slavishly  copied  the  productions  of  the  old 
heathen  period.  The  fact  that  the  poetical  literature  of 
the  early  Moslenis  has  been  preserved  in  a  much  more 
authentic;  form  than  the  works  of  the  heathen  poets 
jjroves  that  our  idea  of  the  ancient  poetry"  is  on  the 
whole  just. 
Changes  The  Koran  and  Islam  raised  Arabic  to  the  position  of 
ill  one  of  the  principal  languages  of  ihe  world.     Under  the 

Arabk^  leadership  of  the  Koraish  the  Bedouins  subjected  half  the 
world  to  both  their  dominion  and  their  faith.  Thus 
Arabic  acquired  the  additional  character  of  a  sacred  lan- 
guage. But  soon  it  became  evident  that  not  nearly  all 
the  Arabs  spoke  a  language  precisely  identical  with  the 
classical  Arabic  of  the  poets.  The  north-western  Arabs 
played  a  particularly  important  part  during  the  period  of 


the  OmayyaUs.  The  ordinary  speech  of  Mecca  and 
Medina  was,  eis  we  have  seen,  no  longeT  quite  so  primitiva 
as  that  of  the  desert.  To  this  may  be  added  that  the 
military  expeditions  brought  those  Arabs  who  spoke  the 
classical  language  into  contact  with  tribes  from  out-of-the- 
way  districts,  such  as  'Omin,  Bahrain  (Bahrem),  a'"d 
particularly  the  north  of  Yemen.  The  fact  that  numbers 
of  foreigners,  on  passing  over  to  Islam,  became  ra^udly 
Arabized  was  also  little  calculated  to  preserve  the  iiiuty  of 
the  language.  Finally,  the  violent  internal  and  external 
commotions  which  were  produced  by  the  great  even's  of 
that  time,  and  stirred  the  whole  nation,  probably  acceler- 
ated linguistic  change.  •  In  any  case,  we  know  from  good 
tradition  that  even  in  the  1st  century  of  the  Flight  the 
distinction  between  correct  and  incorrect  speech  was  quite 
perceptible.  About  the  ehd  of  the  2d  century  the  sj-stem 
of  Arabic  grammar  was  constructed,  and  never  underwent 
any  essential  modification  in  later  times.  The  theory  as 
to  how  one  should  express  oneself  was  now  definitely 
fixed.  The  majority  of  those  Arabs  who  lived  beyond  the 
limits  of  Arabia  already  diverged  far  from  this  standard  ; 
and  in  particular  the  final  vowels  which  serve  to  indicate 
cases  and  moods  were  no  longer  pronounced.  This  change, 
by  which  Arabic  lost  one  of  its  principal  advantages,  was 
no  doubt  hastened  l5y  the  fact  that  even  in  the  classical 
style  such  terminations  were  omitted  whenever  the  word 
stood  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  (in  pause);  and  in  the  liv'ng 
language  of  the  Arabs  this  dividing  of  sentences  is  very 
frequent.  ■  Hence  people  were  already  quite  accustomed 
to  forms  without  grammatical  terminations. 

Through  the  industry  of  Arabic  philologists  we  are  able  Vocabn- 
to  make  ourselves  intimately  acquainted  with  the  system,  l^T. 
and  still  more  \vith  the  vocabulary  of  the  language, 
although  they  have  not  always  performed  their  -task  in  a 
critical  manner.  ~  We  should  be  all  the  more  disposed  to 
admire  the  richness  of  the  ancient  Arabic  vocabulary  when 
we  remember  how  simple  are  the  conditions  of  life  amongst 
the  Arabs,  how  painfully  monotonous  their  country,  and 
consequently  how  limited  the  range  of  their  ideas  must 
be.  Within  this  range,,  however,  the  slightest  modification 
is  expressed  by  a  particular  word.  It  must  be  confessed 
that  the  Arabic  lexicon  has  been  greatly  augmented  by 
the  habit  of  citing  as  words  by  themselves  such  rhetorical 
phrases  as  an  individual  poet  has  used  to  describe  an  ob- 
ject :  for  example,  if  one  poet  calls  the  lion  the  "tearer" 
and  another  calls  him  the  "  mangier,"  each  of  these  term^ 
is  explained  by  the  lexicographers  as  equivalent  to  "  lion." 
One  branch  of  literature  in  particular,  namely,  lampoons 
and  satirical  poems,  which  for  the  most  part  have  perished, 
no  doubt  introduced  into  tf?  lexicon  many  expressions 
coined  in  an  arbitraiy  and  sometimes  in  a  very  strange 
manner.  Moreover,  Arabic  philologists  have  greatly  under- 
rated the  number  of  words  which,  though  they  occur  now 
and  then  in  poems,  vrere  never  iu  general  use  except  among 
particular  tribes.  But  in  spite  of  these  qualifications  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  vocabulary  is  surprisingly  rich, 
and  the  Arabic  dictionary  will  always  remain  the  principal 
resource  fqr  the  elucidation  of  obscure  expressions  in  all 
the  other  Semitic  tongues.  This  method,  if  pursued  with 
the  necessary  caution,  is  a  perfectly  legitimate  one. 

Poems  seldom  enable  us  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  lan- 
guage of  ordinary  life,  and  Arabic  poetry  happens  to  have 
been  distinguished  from  the  very  beginning  by  a  certain 
tendency  to  artificiality  and  mannerism.  Still  less  does 
the  Koran  exhibit  the  language  in  its  spoken  form.  This 
office  is  performed  by  the  prose  of  the  ancient  traditions 
(Hadith).  The  genuine  accounts  of  the  deeds  of  the 
Prophet  and  of  his  companions,  and  not  less  the  stories 
concerning  the  battles  and  adventures  of  the  Bedouins  iu 
the  heathen  period  ar.d  in  the  earlier  days  of  Islam,  are 


SEMITIC      LANGUAGES 


653 


excellent  rcodels  of  a  prose  style,  although  in  some  cases 
their  redaction  dates  from  a  later  time. 
Gram-  Classical  Arabic  is  rich  not  only  in  words  but  in  gram- 

matical matical  forms.  The  wonderful  development  of  the  broken 
'°T^i  plurals,  and  sometimes  of  the  verbal  nouns  must  be  re- 
andrules.  ^^^.^^^  ^^.  ^^  gxcessl  of  "Nvsalth.  The  sparing  use  of  tlie 
ancient  terminations  which  mark  the  plural  has  somewhat 
obscured  tho  distinction  between  plurals,  collectives,  ab- 
stract nouns,  and  feminines  in  general.  In  its  manner  of 
employing  the  verbal  tenses  genuine  Arabic  still  exhibits 
traces  of  that  poetical  freedom  which  we  see  in  Hebrew ; 
this  characteristic  disappears  in  the  later  literary  language. 
Tn  connecting  sentences  Arabic  can  go  much  further  than 
Hebrew,  but  the  simple  parataxis  is  by  far  the  most  Usual 
construction.  Arabic  has,  however,  this  great  advantage, 
that  it  scarcely  ever  leaves  us  in  doubt  as  to  where  the 
apodosis  begins.  The  attempts  to  define  the  tenses  more 
clearly  by  the  addition  of  adverbs  and  auxiliary  verbs  lead 
to  no  very  positive  result  (as  is  the  case  in  other  Semitic 
languages  also),  since  they  are  not  carried  out  in  a  system- 
atic manner.  The  arrangement  of  words  in  a  sentence  is 
governed  by  very  strict  rules.  As  the  subject  and  object, 
at  least  in  ordinary  cases,  occupy  fixed  positions,  and  as  the 
genitive  is  invariably  placed  after  the  noun  that  governs 
jt,  the  use  of  case-endings  loses  much  of  its  significance, 
irabicof  This  language  of  the  Bedouins  had  now,  as  we  have 
•!<Juc,-ited  seen,  become  that  of  religion,  courts,  and  polished  society. 
^ae'y-  In  the  streets  of  the  to\yns  the  language  already  diverged 
considerably  from  this,  but  the  upper  classes  took  pains  to 
speak  "  Arabic."  The  poets  and  the  beaux  esprits  never 
ventured  to  employ  any  but  the  classical  language,  and 
Ihe  "Atticists,"  with  pedantic  seriousness,  convicted  the 
most  celebrated  among  the  later  poets  (for  instance  Motan- 
abbl)  of  occasional  deviations  from  the  standard  of  correct 
speech.  At  the  same  time,  however,  classical  Arabic  was 
the  language  of  business  and  of  science,  and  at  the  present 
■day  still  holds  this  position.  There  are,  of  course,  many 
gradations  between  the  pedantry  of  purists  and  the  use  of 
what  is  simply  a  vulgar  dialect.  Sensible  writers  employ 
a  land  of  Koiv^'i,  which  does  not  aim  at  being  strictly  cor- 
rect and  calls  modem  things  by  modern  names,  but  wliich, 
nevertheless,  avoids  coarse  vulgarisms,  aiming  principally 
at  making  itself  intelligible  to  all  educated  men.  The 
reader  may  pronounce  or  omit  the  ancient  terminations  as 
be  chooses.'  This  language  lived  on,  in  a  sense,  through 
the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages,  owing  chiefly  to  the  lact 
that  it  was  intended  for  educated  persons  in  general  and 
not  only  for  the  learned,  whereas  the  poetical  schools 
-strove  to  make  use  of  the  long  extinct  language  of  the 
'Bedouins,  As  might  be  expected,  this  kowi'i,  like  the  kou-'j 
of  the  Greeks,  has  a  comparatively  limited  vocabulary, 
since  its  principle  is  to  retain  only  those  expressions  from 
the  ancient  language  which  were  generally  understood,  and 
it  does  not  borrow  much  new  material  from  the  vulgar 
dialects. 

It  is  entirely  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  Arabic  is  un- 
'Suited  for  the  treatment  of  abstract  subjects.  On  the 
contrary,  scarcely  any  language  is  so  well  adapted  to  bo 
the  organ  of  scholasticism  in  all  its  branches.  Even  the 
tongue  of  the  ancient  Bedouins  had  a  strong  preference  for 
the  use  of  abstract  verbal  nouns  (in  striking  contrast  to 
the  Latin,  for  example) ;  thus  they  oftener  said  "  Needful 
ia  thy  sitting  "  than  "  It  is  needful  that  thou  shouldest  sit." 
This  tendency  was  very  advantageous  to  philosophical 
phraseology.  The  strict  rules  as  to  tlie  order  of  words, 
though  very  unfavourable  to  the  development  of  a  truly 
eloquent  style,  render  it  all  the  easier  to  express  ideas  in 
a  rigidly  scientific  form, 

n  the  meantune  Arabic,  like  eveiy  other  widely  spread  language, 
a£p^^iriiv  bega:^  to  uj^dergo  modification  and  to  split  up  iuto 


dialects.  The  Arabs  are  mistaken  in  attributing  this  development  Minor 
to  the  influence  of  thos?  foreign  languages  -with  which  Arabic  carao  Arabic 
into  contact.  Such  influences  can  have  had  but  little  to  do  witli  dialeota.  ' 
the  matter  ;  for  were  it  otherwise  tlio  language  of  tlie  interior  of 
Arabia  must  have  remained  unchanged,  yet  even  in  this  region  the 
inhabitants  are  very  far  from  speaking  as  they  did  a  thousand  years 
hack.  A  person  who  in  Arabia  or  elsewlicrc  should  trust  to  his 
knowledge  of  classical  Arabic  only  would  resemble  those  travellers 
from  the  nortli  who  endeavour  to  make  tliemselves  understood  by 
Italian  waiters  through  tlie  medium  of  a  kind  of  Latin.  The 
written  language  has,  it  is  true,  greatly  retarded  the  development 
of  the  dialects,  livery  good  Moslr">i  repeats  at  least  a  fev/  short 
suras  several  times  a  day  in  his  players,  besides  being  minutely 
acquainted  with  the  sacred  book  ;  and  this  must  have  had  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  speech  of  the  people  at  large.  But  never- 
theless dialects  have  formed  themselves  and  have  diverged  con- 
siderably fiom  one  another.  Of  these  /tliere  are  indeed  but  few 
with  which  we  are  tolerably  well  acquainted  ;  that  of  Egypt  alone 
is  known  with -real  accuracy.^  Altiiough  the  French  have  occupied 
Algeria  for  about  fifty  years,  wc  still  possess  but  imperfect  informa- 
tion with  respect  to  the  language  of  that  country.  It  is  closely 
connected  with  that  of  JIoiocco  on  the  one  hand  and  with  that  of 
Tunis  on  the  other.  Arabic  has  long  been  banished  from  Spain  ; 
but  we  possess  a  few  literary  works  written  in  Spanish  Arabic,  and. 
just  before  it  became  too  late  Pedro  de  Alcala  composed  a  grammar 
and  a  lexicon  of  that  dialect.-  We  have  also  a  few  ancient  speci- 
mens of  the  Arabic  which  was  once  spoken  in  Sicily.  To  thg 
western  group  of  dialects  belongs  the  language  of  Malta,  whichj, 
cut  olf  as  it  is  from  other  Arabic  dialects  aiid  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Italian,  has  developed  itself  in  a  very  strange  manner ;  im 
it  a  considerable  number  of  books  have  already  been  printed,  butJ 
with  Latin  characters.  The  dialects  of  Arabia,  Syria,  and  the  other 
Eastern  provinces,  in  spite  of  many  valuable  works,  are  not  yet 
sulficiejitly  well  known  to  admit  of  being  definitely  classified. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  development  of  these  dialects  is 
in  part  the  result  of  older  dialectical  variations  which  were  already 
in  existence  in  the  time  of  the  Prophet.  The  histories  of  dialects 
which  differ  completely  from  one  another  often  pursue  an  ana- 
logous course.  In  genera],  the  Arabic  dialects  still  resemble  one 
another  more  than  wc  might  expect  when  we  take  into  considera- 
tion the  great  extent  of  country  over  which  they  are  spoken  and 
the  veiy  considerable  geographical  obstacles  that  stand  in  the  way 
of  communication.  But  we  must  Hot  suppose  that  people,  for 
instance,  from  Mosul,.  Morocco,  San'd,  and  the  interior  of  Arabia 
would  be  able  to  understand  one  another  without  difficulty.  It  is 
a  total  error  to  regard  tho  diiference  between  the  Arabic  dialects 
and  the  ancient  language  as  a  trifling  one,  or  to  represent  the 
development  of  these  dialects  as  something  wholly  unlike  tho 
development  of  the  Romance  languages.  No  living  Arabic  dialect 
diverges  from  classical  Arabic  so  much  as  French  or  Kouman  from 
Latin  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  no  Arabic  dialect  resembles  the 
classical  language  so  closely  as  the  Lugodoric  dialect,  which  is  still 
spoken  in  Sardinia,  resembles  its  parent  speech,  and  yet  the  lapse 
of  time  is  very  much'  greater  in  the  case  of  the  latter. 

Sabsan. — Long  before  Jlohammed,  a  jjeculiar  and  highly  Sabteai 
developed  form  of  civilization  had  flourished  in  the  table-  inscrip- 
land  to  the  south-west  of  Arabia.  The  more  we  become  '■""'^' 
acijuainted  with  the  country  of  the  ancient  Saba;ans  and 
with  its  colossal  edifices,  and  the  better  we  are  able  to 
decipher  its  inscriptions,  which  are  being  discovered  in 
ever-incrfeasing  numbers,  the  ea.'vier  it  is  for  us  to  account 
for  the  haze  of  mythical  glory  wherewith  the  Sabasans 
were  once  invested.  The  Saba-an  inscriptions  (which  till 
lately  were  more  often  called  by  the  less  correct  name  of 
"  Himyaritic  ")  begin  long  before  our  era  and  continue  till 
about  the  4th  century.  Tho  somewhat  stiff  character  is 
always  very  distinct ;  and  the  habit  of  regularly  dividing 
the  words  from  one  another  render')  decipherment  easier, 
which,  however,  has  not  j'et  been  performed  in  a  very 
satisfactory  manner,  owing  in- part  to  tho  fact  that  the 
vast  majority  of  tho  documents  in  question  consist  of  ro- 
ligious  votive  tablets  with  peculiar  sacerdotal  expressions, 
or  of  architectural  notices  aliounding  in  technical  terms. 
These  inscriptions  fall  info  two  classes,  distinguished  partly 
by  grammatical  peculiarities  and  partly  by  peculiarities 
of  phraseology.  One  dialect,  which  forms  the  causative 
with  ha,  like  Hebrew  and  others,  and  employs,  like  nearly 

*  W.  Spitta-Bey,  Grammaiik  des  arabiscken  Vulgiirdiaiecia  ron 
Aegypten  (Leipsic,  ]«80).  ■, 

^  They  were  pubbshed  in  1505;  reprinted  by  Lagarde  {Petri  Sispo/M 
de  Lingua  Arabica  Libri  duo,  Gottingen,  1883> 


654 


E  M  i  T  1  C       LANGUAGES 


all  the  Semitic  languages,  the  termination  h  (hii)  as  the 
suffix  of  the  third  person  singular,  is  the  Sabaean  properly 
speaking.  The  other,  which  expresses  the  causative  by 
sa  (corresponding  to  the  Shaphel  of  the  Aramaeans  and 
others),  and  for  the  suffix  uses  s  (like  the  Assyrian  sk),  is 
the  Jlinaic.  To  this  latter  branch  belong  the  numerous 
South  Arabic  inscriptions  recently  found  in  the  north  of 
the  HijAz,  near  Hejr,  where  the  Min;eans  must  have  had 
a  commercial  settlement.  The  difference  between  the  two 
classes  of  inscriptions  is  no  doubt  ultimately  based  upon 
a  real  divergence  of  dialect.  But  the  singular  manner  in 
which  tlistricts  containing  Sabzean  inscriptions  and  those 
containing  Jlinaic  alternate  with  one  another  seems  to 
point  in  part  to  a  mere  hieratic  practice  of  clinging  to 
ancient  m.odes  of  expression.  Indeed  it  is  very  probably 
due  to  conscious  literary  conservatism  that  the  language 
of  the  inscriptions  remains  almost  entirely  unchanged 
through  many  centuries.  A  few  inscriptions  from  districts 
rather  more  to  the  east  exhibit  certain  linguistic  peculiar- 
ities, which,  however,  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  the 
supposition  that  the  wTiters  did  not,  as  a  rule,  speak  this 
dialect,  and  therefore  were  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  it. 
Gram-  As  the  Sabaean  writing  seldom  indicates  the  vowels,  our 

tnaticaj  knowledge  of  the  language  is  necessarily  very  incomplete ; 
'°""''  and  the  unvarying  style  of  the  inscriptions  excludes  a  great 
number  of  the  commonest  grammatical  forms.  Not  a 
single  occurrence  of  the  first  or  second  person  has  yet  been 
detected,  with  the  possible  exception  of  one  proper  name, 
in  which  "  our  god  "  apparently  occurs.  But  the  know- 
ledge which  we  already  possess  amply  suffices  to  prove  that 
Sabsan  is  closely  related  to  Arabic  as  we  are  acquainted 
with  it.  The  former  language  possesses  the  same  phonetic 
elements  as  the  latter,  except  that  it  has  at  least  one  addi- 
tional sibilant,  which  appears  to  have  been  lost  in  Arabic. 
It  possesses  the  broken  plural,  a  dual  form  resembling 
that  used  in  Arabic,  &c.  It  is  especially  important  to 
notiee  that  Sab^an  e.xpresses  the  idea  of  indefiniteness  by 
means  of  an  appended  m,  just  as  Arabic  expresses  it  by 
means  of  an  n,  which  in  all  probability  is  a  modification 
of  the  former  sound.  Both  in  this  point  and  in  some 
others  Sab^an  appears  more  primitive  than  Arabic,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  earlier  date  of  its  monuments. 
The  article  is  formed  by  appending  an  n.  In  its  vocabularj- 
also  Sabasan  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  ArabiCj  although, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  often  approaches  more  nearly  to  the 
northern  Semitic  languages  in  this  respect :  and  it  possesses 
much  that  is  peculiar  to  itself.' 

Soon  after  the  Christian  era  Sab^an  civilization  began 
to  decline,  and  completely  perished  in  the  wars  with  the 
Abyssinians,  who  several  times  occupied  the  country,  and 
in  the  6th  century  remained  in  possession  of  it  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  .In-  that  age  the  language  of  central 
Arabia  was  already  penetrating  into  the  Sabaean  domain. 
It  is  further  possible  that  many  tribes  which  dwelt  not  far 
to  the  north  of  the  civilized  districts  had  always  spoken 
dialects  resembling  central  Arabic  rather  than  Sabsan. 
About  the  yfear  600  "  Arabic  "  was  the  language  of  all 
Yemen,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  a  few  isolated  dis- 
tricts, and  this  process  of  assimilation  continued  in  later 
times.  Several  centuries  after  Jlohammed  learned  Yemen- 
ites were  acquainted  with  the  characters  of  the  inscriptions 
which  abounded  in  their  country  ;  they  ■n-ere  also  able  to 
decipher  the  proper  names  and  a  small  number  of  Sabasan 
words  the  meaning  of  which  was  stiU  known  to  them,  but 
Ihey   could   no   longer    understand   the   inscriptions   as   a 


^  Tlie  literature  relating  to  tliese  inscriptions  is  widely  scattered. 
Before  the  Parisiaa  Corpus  sujiplies  U3  with  the  collected  materials, 
•KB  may  hope  to  3»^  the  Saljaan  grammar  of  D.  H.  Miiller,  who,  with 
Halevj',  hasl.-itiiv  -cndereJ  the  gie.lt'^t  carvif^^s  in  this  dep.irtment. 


whole.  Being  zealous  local  patriots,  they  discovered  in 
those  inscriptions  which  they  imagined  themselves  to  be 
capable  of  deciphering  many  fabulous  stories  respecting 
the  glory  of  the  ancient  Yemenites. 

Heitlier  to  the  east,  in  the  sea-coast  districts  of  Shihr  and  Jlahra,  Dialects 
up  to  the  borders  of  the  barren  desert  of  the  interior,  and  also,  we  akiu  to 
are  told,  in  the  island  of  Socotra,  dialects  very  unlike  Aiabic  are  Saba;on. 
still  spoken.  Allusions  to  this  fact  are  found  in  Arabic  WTiters  of 
the  10th  century.  These  dialects  depart  widely  from  the  ancient 
Semitic  type,  but  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  Sabrean,  although 
they  caunot  be  regarded  as  actually  descended  fromithe  latter. 
One  feature  which  they  have  in  common  with  Sabjean  is  the  habit 
of  appending  an  n  to  the  imperfect.  Like  the  Etbiopic,  and  prob- 
ably also  the  Sabfean,  they  use  k  (instead  of  i)  in  the  terminations 
of  the  first  person  singular  and  the  second  person  singular  and 
plural  of  the  perfect  tense.  In  the  suffixes  of  the  thiid  pen^oa 
there  appears,  at  least  in  the  feminine,  an  s,  as  in  the  Minaic. 
Unfortunately  the  information  which  we  have  hitherto  possessed 
respecting  these  dialects  is  meagre  and  inexact,  in  part  very  in- 
exact- It  is  much  to  be  wished  that  soon  they  may  all  be  inves- 
tigated as  carefully  as  possible,  the  more  so  as  there  is  danger  in 
delay,  for  Arabic  is  gradually  supplanting  them. 

Ethiopic. — In  Abyssinia,  too,  and  in  the  neighbouring  Geez,  or 
countries  we  find  languages  which  bear  a  certain  resem-  Ethiopia 
blance  to  Arabic.  The  Geez  or  Ethiopic  '  proper,  the  Ian-  P"*?"* 
guage  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Aksum,  was  reduced  to 
writing  at  an  early  date.  To  judge  by  the  few  passages 
;ommunicated  by  Salt,  the  back  of  the  inscription  of 
Aeizanas,  king  of  Aksum  about  350,  exhibits  writing  in 
the  Sabaean  language,  which  appears  to  prove  that  the 
development  of  the  Geez  character  out  of  the  Sabsean,  and 
the  elevation  of  Geez  to  the  rank  of  a  literary  language, 
must  have  taken  place  after  the  year  350.  The  oldest 
monuments  of  this  language  whicE  are  known  with-  cer- 
tainty are  the  two  great  inscriptions  of  TazenA,  a  heathen 
king  of  Aksum,  dating  from  about  500.  Hitherto  our 
acquaintance  with  these  inscriptions  has  been  derived  from 
very  imperfect  drawings^ ;  but  they  amply  suffice  to  show 
tliat  we  have  here  the  same  language'  as  that  in  which 
the  Ethiopic  Bible  is  written,  with  the  very  same  exact 
indication  of  the  vowels, — a  point  in  which  Ethiopic  has 
an  advantage  over  all  other  Semitic  characters.  Who  in-] 
troduced  this  vocalization  is  unknown.  When  the  above^; 
mentioned  inscriptions  were  made  the  Bible  had  probabljsj 
been  already  translated  into  Geez  from  the  Greek,  perhaps 
in  part  by  Jews ;  for  Jews  and  Christians  were  at  thati 
time  actively  competing  with  one  another,  bothjn  Arabia, 
and  in  Abyssinia ;  nor  were  the  former  unsuccessful  ini 
making  proselytes.  The  missionaries  who  gave  the  Biblei 
to  the  Abyssinians  must,  at  least  in  some  cases,  have! 
spoken  Aramaic  as  their  motlS'-tongue,  for  this  alone  can- 
explain  the  fact  that  in  the  Ethiopic  Bible  certain  religious 
conceptions  are  expressed  by  Aramaic  words.  During  the 
following  centuries  various  works  were  produced  by  the 
Abyssinians  in  this  language ;  they  were  all,  so  far  as  we 
are  able  to  judge,  of  a  more  or  less  theological  character, 
almost  invariably  translations  from  the  Greek.  We  cannot 
say  with  certainty  when  Geez  ceased  to  be  the  language 
of  the  people,  but  it  was  probably  about  a  thousand  years 
ago.  From  the  time  when  the  Abyssinian  kingdom  was 
reconstituted,  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  by 
the  so-called  Solomonian  dynasty  (which  was  of  southern 
origin),  the  language  of  the  court  and  of  the  Government 
was  Amharic ;  but  Geez  remained  the  ecclesiastical  and 
literary  language,  and  Geez  literature  even  showed  a  certain 

2  See  especially  Maltzan,  in  Z.D.M.Q.,  vols.  xiv.  and  xxvii, 

3  This  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Abyssinians,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  false  erudition,  applied  the  name  AldioTrla  to  their  own 
kingdom. 

*  The  authorities  of  the  library  of  Frankfort  have  kindly  enabled 
the  present  wiiter  to  consult  Riippell's  copies,  which  are  more  accurate 
than  the  lithographs  in  his  book.  The  English  in  1968  did  not  seiao 
the  opportunity  to  e::amine  thoroughly  the  antiquities  of  Aksiim,  and 
since  then  no  traveller  has  taken  the  trouble  to  procure  accurate  copies 
of  these  extremely  important  monuments. 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


655 


Wtivity  in  numeroiis  translations  from  those  Arabic  and 
Coptic  works  wliich  were  in  use  amongst  the  Christians  of 
Egypt ;  besides  these  a  few  original  writings  were  com- 
posed, namely,  lives  of  saints,  hymns,  &c.  This  literary 
con'dition  lasted  till  modern  times.  The  language,  which 
had  long  become,  extinct,  was  by  no  means  invariably 
written  in  a  pure  form ;  indeed  even  in  manuscripts  of 
more  ancient  works  we  find  many  linguistic  corruptions, 
which  have  crept  in  partly  through  mere  carelessness  and 
ignorance,  partly  through  the  influence  of  the  later  dialects. 
On  points  of  detail  we  are  still  sometimes  left  in  doubt, 
as  we  possess  no  manuscripts  belonging  to  the  older  period. 
This  renders  it  all  the  more  important  that  the  ancient 
and  authentic  inscriptions  upon  the  monuments  of  Aksun 
should  be  accurately  published. 
Charac-.  Geez  is  more  nearly  related  to  Sabsean  than  to  Arabic, 
tenstics  though  scarcely  to  such  a  degree  as  we  might  expect. 
The  historical  intercourse  between  the  Sabseans  and  the 
people  of  Aksiim  does  not,  however,  prove  that  those  w'ho 
spoke  Geez  were  simply  a  colony  from  Sabasa;  the  lan- 
guage may  be  descended  from  an  extinct  cognate  dialect 
of  south  Arabia,  or  may  have  arisen  from  a  mingling  of 
several  such  dialects.  And  this  colonization  in  Africa 
probably  began  much  sooner  than  is  usually  supposed. 
In  certain  respects  Geez  represents  a  more  modern  stage 
of  development  than  Arabic ;  we  may  cite  as  instances  the 
loss  of  some  infle.xional  terminations  and  of  the  ancient 
passive,  the  change  of  the  aspirated  dentals  into  sibilants, 
&c.  In  the  manuscripts,  especially  those  of  later  date, 
many  letters  are  confounded,  namely,  h,  h,  and  l-h,  s  and 
sli,  c  -andv^;  this,  however, -is  no  doubt  due  only  to  the 
influence  of  the  modern  dialects.  To  this  same  influence, 
and  indirectly  perhaps  to  that  of  the  Hamitic  languages, 
we  may  ascribe  the  very  hard  sound  now  given  to  certain 
letters,  h,  t,  f,  and  d,  in  the  reading  of  Geez.  The  last 
two  are  at  present  pronounced  something  like  ts  and  ts 
(the  German  2).  A  peculiar  advantage  possessed  by  Geez 
and  by  all  Ethiopic  languages  is  the  sharp  distinction 
between  the  imperfect  and  the  subjunctive :  in  the  former 
a  vowel  is  inserted  after  the  first  radical, — a  formation  of 
which  there  seem  to  be  traces  in  the  dialect  of  Mahra,  and 
•which  is  also  believed  to  have  existed  in  Assyrian.  Geez 
has  no  definite  article,  but  is  very  rich  in  particles.  In 
the  ease  with  which  it  joins  sentences  together  and  in  its 
Ireedom  as  to  the  order  of  words  it  resembles  Araniaic. 
The  vocabulary  is  but  imperfectly  known,  as  the  theologi- 
cal literature,  which  is  for  the  most  part  very  arid,  supplies 
(is  with  comparatively  few  expressions  that  do  not  occur 
in  the  Bible,  whereas  the  more  modern  works  borrow  their 
phraseology  in  part  from  the  spoken  dialects,  particularly 
Amharic.  With  regard  to  the  vocabulary,  Geez  has  much 
in  common  with  the  other  Semitic  tongues,  but  at  the  same 
time  possesses  many  words  peculiar  to  itself ;  of  these  a 
considerable  proportion  may  be  of  Hamitic  origin.  Even 
some  grammatical  phenomena  seem  to  indicate  Hamitic 
influence  ;  for  instance,  the  very  frequent  use  of  the  gerun- 
dive, a  feature  which  has  become  still  more  prominent  in 
the  modern  dialects,  placed  as  they  are  in  yet  closer  contact 
with  the  Hamitic.  Wo  must  not -.suppose  that  the  ancient 
inliabitanta  of  Aksura  were  of  pure  Semitic  blood.  The 
immigration  of  the  Semites  from  Arabia  was  in  all  prob- 
ability a  slow  process,  and  under  such  circumstances  there 
is  every  reason  to  assume  that  they  largely  intermingled 
with  the  aborigines.  This  opinion  seems  to  be  confirmed 
by  anthropological  facts. 
Tigri-inrt  Not  only  in  what  is  properly  tho  territory  of  Aksuin  (namely, 
TigriiJa.  Tigre,  north-eastern  Abjs  inia),  but  also  in  the  countries  bordering 
ujjon  it  to  tho  north,  including  tho  islands  of  Dahlak,  dialpcts  .no 
itill  spoken  which  are  bnt  more  modern  forms  of  the  linguistic 
typo  clearly  eihiliitcd  in  Goez.  Tho  two  principal  of  these  are 
tiit  spoken  in  Tigrij  proper  and  that  of  tho  neighbouring  countries. 


In  reality,  the  nanie  of  Tigrti  belongs  to  both,  and  it  would  bo 
desirable  to  distinguish  them  from  one  anotlicr  as  Northern  and 
Southern  Tigre.  But  it  is  the  custom  to  call  the  noj-thern  dialect 
Tigre  simply,  whilst  that  spoken  in  Tigi'e  ilself  bears  the  name  of 
Tigrina,  v.'ith  an  Amhaiic  termination.  It  is  generally  assumed 
that  Tigre  bears  a  closer  resemblance  to  Geez  than  does  Tigriiia, 
although  the  latter  is  spoken  in  the  country  where  Geez  was  formed  ; 
and  this  may  very  possibly  bo  tho  case,  for  Tigrina  has  during 
several  centuries  been  very  strongly  influenced  by  Amharic,  which 
has  not  been  the  case  with  Tigre,  which  is  spoken  partly  \>y  nomads. 
Of  Tigre,  which  appears  to  bo  divided  into  numerous  dialects,  wo 
have  several  glossaiies  ;  but  of  its  grammar  we  as  yet  know  but 
little.  Written  specimens  of  this  language  are  almost  entirely 
wanting.  AVith  Tigrina  we  are  somewhat  better  acquainted,^  but 
only  as  it  is  spoken  in  the  centre  of  the  country,  near  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Aksum,  where  Amharic  happens  to  be  particulaily 
strong, — above  all,  amongst  tho  more  educated  classes.  In  Tigriria 
tho  older  grammatical  forms  are  often  s\ibjected  to  violent  altera- 
tions ;  foreign  elements  creep  in  ;  but  the  kernel  remains  Semitic. 

Very  diti'erent  is  the  case  with  Amharic,  a  language  of  A-nhani 
which  the  domain  extends  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Takkaze  into  regions  far  to  the  south.  Although  by  no 
means  the  only  language  spoken  in  these  countries,  it 
always  tends  to  displace  those  foreign  tongues  which  sur- 
round it  and  with  which  it  is  inter.sjiersed.  We  here  refer 
especially  to  the  Agaw  dialects.  Although  Amharic  has 
been  driven  back  by  the  invasions  of  the  Galla  tribes,  it 
has  already  compensated  itself  to  some  extent  for  this  los.s, 
as  the  Yedju  and  WoUo  Gallas,  who  penetrated  into  eastero 
Abyesinia,  have  adopted  it  as  their  language.  With  the 
exception,  of  course,  of  Arabic,  no  Semitic  tongue  is  spoken 
by  so  large  a  number  of  human,  beings  as  Amharic.  The 
very  fact  that  the  Agaw  languages  are  being  gradually, 
and,  as  it  were,  before  our  own  eyes,  absm-bed  by  Amharic  ^ 
makes  it  appear  probable  that  this  language  must  be 
spoken  chiefly  by  people  who  are  nbt  of  Semitic  race. 
This  supposition  is  confirmed  by  a  study  of  the  language 
itself.  Amharic  has  diverged  from  the  ancient  Semitic 
type  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  any  of  the  dialects  which 
we  have  hitherto  enumerated.  Mr.ny  of  the  old  forma- 
tions  preserved  in  Geez  are  completely  modified  in  Amharic. 
Of  the  feminine  forms  there  remain  but  a  few  traces ;  and 
that -is  the  case  also  with  the  anciiint  pjlural  of  the  noun. 
The  strangest  innovations  occur  in  the  personal  pronouns. 
And  certainly  not  more  than  half  the  vocabulary  can  with- 
out improbalaility  be  made  to  correspond  with  that  of  tho 
other  Semitic  languages.  In  this,  as  also  in  the  grammar, 
we  must  leave  out  of  account  all  tliat  is  borrowed  from 
Geez,  which,  as  being  the  ecclesiastical  tongue,  exercises 
a  great  influence  everywhere  in  Abyssinia.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  must  make  allowance  for  the  fact  that  in  this 
language  the  very  considerable  phonetic  modifications  often 
produce  a  total  change  of  form,  so  that  many  words  which 
at  first  have  a  thoroughly  foreign  appearance  prove  on 
further  examination  to  be  but  the  regular  development  of 
words  with  which  we  are  already  acquainted.''  But  the 
most  striking  deviations  occur  in  the  syntax.  Things 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  usual  or  even  uni- 
versal in  the  Semitic  languages,  such  as  the  placing  of  the 
verb  before  the  subject,  of  the  governing  noun  before  the 
genitive,  and  of  the  attributive  relative  clause  after  its 
substantive,  are  here  totally  reversed.  Words  which  art 
marked  as  genitives  liy  the  prefixing  of  the  relative  particle, 
and  even  whole  relative  clauses,  are  treated  as  one  word, 
and  are  capable  of  having  the  objective  suffix  added  to 
them.     It  is  scarcely  going  too  far  to  say  that  a  person 

*  Franz  Fraetorius,  Oranwmfik  (lev  Tifjfriuasjirachc,  Hallo,  1872. 
Tlie  present  writer  was  also  permitted  to  use  the  manuscript  grammar 
of  a  Belgian  missionary,  who  .-.pent  a  long  time  in  the  country. 

*  Only  an  ad^'ancecl  guard  of  the  Agaw  languages,  the  Biliu  or 
dialect  of  the  Bogos,  is  being  siiniharly  absorbed  by  the  Tigre. 

^  Praetorius,  however,  in  his  very  valuable  grammar.  Die  amharische 
Sprache  (Halle,  1879),  has  gone  much  too  Jar  iu  his  attempts  to  oeimeclr 
Amharic  words  and  gi-ammatical  phenomena  with  those  that  occur  iu 
Geez. 


656 


S  E  M  — S  E  M 


,who  has  learnt  no  Semitic  language  would  have  less  diffi- 
culty in  -mastering  the  Amharic  construction  than  one  to 
whom  the  Semitic  syntax  is  familiar.  What  hero  appears 
contrary  to  Semitic  analogy  is  sometimes  the  rule  in  Agaw. 
Hence  it  is  probable  that  in  this  case  tribes  originally 
Hamitic  retained  their  former  modes  of  thought  and  expres- 
sion after  they  had  adopted  a  Semitic  speech,  and  that 
they  modiSed  their  new  language  accorilingly.  And  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  partial  Semitization  of  the  southern  dis- 
tricts of  Abyssinia  (which  had  scarcely  any  connexion  with 
the  civilization  of  Aksiim  during  its  best  period)  was  en- 
tirely or  even  principaliy  due  to  influences  from  the  north. 
In  spite  of  its  dominant  position,  Amharic  did  not  for 
several  centuries  show  any  signs  of  becoming  a  literary 
language.  The  oldest  documents  which  we  possess  are  a 
few  songs  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  which  were  not, 
however,  written  down  till  a  later  time,  and  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  interpret.  There  are  also  a  few  Geez-Amhario  gloss- 
aries, which  may  be  tolerably  old.  Since  the  17th  century 
various  attempts  have  been  made,  sometimes  by  European 
missionaries,  to  write  in  Amharic,  and  in  modern  times 
this  language  has  to  a  considerable  extent  been  employed 
for  literary  purposes ;  cor  is  this  to  be  ascribed  exclu- 
sively to  foreign  influence.  A  literary  language,  fixed  in  a 
suflicient  measure,  has  thus  been  formed.  Books  belonging 
to  a  somewhat  earlier  period  contain  tolerably  clear  proofs  of 
dialectical  differences.     Scattered  notices  by  travellers'seem 


to  indicate  that  in  some  districts  the  language  diverges  ia 
a  vsry  much  greater  degree  from  the  recognized  type. 

'I'he  Abyssinian  chronicles  have  for  centuries  been  written 
in  Geez,  largely  intermingled  with  Amhai'ic  elements. 
This  "  language  of  the  chronicles,"  in  itself  a  dreary  chaos, 
often  enables  us  to  discover  what  were  the  older  forms  of 
Amharic  words.  A  similar  mixture  of  Geez  and  Amharic 
is  exemplified  in  various  other  books,  especially  such  t.. 
refer  to  the  affairs  of  the  Government  and  of  the  court. 

The  languages  spoken  still  farther  to  the  south,  that  of  Guidgu^  Guragu^ 
(south  of  Shoa)  and  that  of  Harar,  arc  perhaps  move  fitly  described  and 
as  languages  akin  to  Asibario  than  as  Amharic  dialects.     Until  Harart 
we  possess  more  precise  information  lespectiug  them,  and  in  general 
respecting  the  linguistic  anil  ethnographical   condition  of  these 
countries,  it  would  not  be  so.fe  to  liazard  even  a  conjecture  as  to 
the  origin  of  these  languages,  which,  corrupt  as  they  may  be,  and 
surrounded  by  tongues  of  a  wholly  ditferent  class,  must  still  be 
regarded  as  Semitic.     It  is  enough  to  repeat  that  tlie  immigration 
of  the  Semites  iuto  these  parts  of  Africa  was  probably  no  one  single 
act,  that  it  may  have  taken  place  at  diiferent  times,  that  the  immi- 
grants perhaps  belonged  to  different  tribes  and  to  different  districts 
of  Arabia,  and  that  very  heterogeneous  peoples  and  languages  appear 
to  have  been  variously  mingled  together  in  these  regions. 

The  clever  and  brilliant  work  of  Renan,  Histoire  generate  des  langues  Siini'- 
tiqvcs  (1st  ej.,  Paris,'  1855),  could  not  fail  to  produce  much  elTect  at  the  time, 
in  spite  of  its  one-sided  cliaracter  and  the  actual  mistakes  that  it  contains. 
Even  at  the  present  day  a  scholar  may  read  it  with  great  interest  and  profit ; 
but  as  a  whole  it  has  been  superseded  by  the  discoveries  of  the  last  twenty 
or  thirty  years.  The  remarks  of  Ewald,  in  the  introduction  to  his  Hebrevf 
grammar,  upon  the  mutual  relationship  of  the  Semitic  languages  are  still 
worthy  of  perusal,  much  as  they  provoke  contradiction.  A  work  upon  the 
subject  which  realises  for  the  present  state  of  science  what  Kenan  endeavoured 
to  realise  for  his  own  time  unfortunately  does  not  exist.  (TH.  N.) 


SEMLER,  JoHANN  Saiomo  (1725-1791),  ecclesiastical 
historian  and  critic,  sometimes  called  "the  -father  of 
German  rationalism "  (see  Rationaxism),  was  bora  at 
Saalfeld  in  Thuringia  on  18th  December  1725.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  clergyman  in  poor  circumstances,  and  had 
to  fight  his  way  in  the  world  solely  by  his  own  talents. 
He  grew  up,  amidst  Pi?tistic  smrrouudings,  which  power- 
fully influenced  him  his  life  through,  though  he  was  never 
spiritually  or  intellectually  a  Pietist.  As  a  boy  he  showed 
the  omnivprous  appetite  for  books  which  was  characteristic 
of  his  later  life.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  entered  the 
university  of  Halle,  where  he  became  the  disciple,  after- 
awards  the  assistant,  and  at  last  the  literary  executor  of  the 
orthodox  rationalistic  Professor  Bauragarten.  In  1749  he 
accepted  the  position  of  editor,  with  the  title  of  professor, 
of  the  Coburg  ofiicial  Gazette,  with  leisure  to  pursue  his- 
Jorical  and  scientific  studies.  But  the  next  year  he  was 
invited  to  Altdorf  as  professor  of  philology  and  history, 
and  six  months  later  became  a  professor  of  theology  in 
'Halle.  After  the  death  of  Baumgarten  (1757)  Semler  be- 
'came  the  bead  of  the  theological  faculty  gf  his  university, 
End  the  fierce  opposition  which  his  writings  and  lectures 
provoked  only  helped  to  increase  his  fame  as  a  professor. 
His  popularity  continued  undiminished  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  until  1779.  In  that  year  he  came  forward 
with  a  reply  tothe  Wolfenhiltiel  Fragments  (see  Reim.ikus) 
and  to  Eahrdt's  confession  of  faith,  a  step  which  was  inter- 
preted by  the  extreme  rationalists  as  a  revocation  of  bis 
o:.vn  rationalistic  position.  Even  the  Prussian  (government, 
which  favoured  Bahrdt,  made  Semler  painfully  feel  its  di.s- 
pTeasure  at  this  new  but  really  not  ineom^istent  aspect  of 
his  position.  But,  though  Semler  was  really  not  incon- 
sistent with  himself  in  attacking  the  views  of  Reimarus 
and  Bahrdt,  as  a  comparison  of  his  works  prior  and  subse- 
quent to  1779  with  those  in  question  shows,  hb  popularity 
began  from  that  year  to  decline,  and  towards  the  end  of 
his  life  he  felt  painfully  the  necessity  of  emphasizing  the 
apologetic  and  conservative  value  of  true  historical  inquiry. 
With  more  justification,  perhaps,  might  his  defence  of  the 
notorious  edict  of  WoUner  (1788),  the  -cultus  minister,  be 
cited  as  a  sign  of  the  decline  of  his  powers  and  of  an  un- 
faithfulness to  his  prmciples.      He  died  at  Halle  on  14th 


March  1791,  worn  out  by  his  prodigious  labours,  embittered 
by  his  desertion,  and  disappointed  at  the  issue  of  his  work. 

Semler's  importance  in  the  history  of  theology  and  the  human 
mind  is  that  of  a  critic  of  Biblical  and  ecclesiastical  documents  and 
of  the  history  of  dogmas. '  He  was  not  a  philosophical  thinker  or 
theologian,  though  he  insisted,  more  or  less  confusedly,  and  yet 
with  an  energy  and  persistency  before  unknown,  on  certain  distinc- 
tions cf  great  importance  when  properly  worked  out  and  applied, 
c.g.^  the  distinction  between  religion  and  theology,  that  between 
private  personal  beliefs  and  public  historical  creeds,  and  that  between 
tlie  local  and  temporal  and  the  permanent  elements  of  historical  reli- 
gion. His  great  work  was  that  of  the  critic.  He  was  the  first  to  reject 
with  sufficient  proof  the  equal  value  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ments, the  uniform  authority  of  all  parts  of  the  Bible,  the  divine 
authority  of  the  traditional  canon  of  Scripture,  the  inspiration  and 
supposed  correctness  of  the  text  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
and,  generally,  the  identification  of  revelation  with  Scripture. 
Though  to  some  extent  anticipated  by  the  English  deist  Thomas 
51  organ,  Semler  was  the  first  to  take  due  note  of  and  use  for  critical 
purposes  the  opposition  between  the  Judaic  and  anti-Judaic  parties 
of  the  early  church.  Ho  led  the  way  in  the  task  of  discovering  the 
origin  of  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
the  Apoca'ynse.  He  revived  previous  doubts  as  to  the  direct 
Paulino  origin  of  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  called  in  question 
Peter's  authorship  of  the  first  epistle,  and  referred  the  second  epistle 
to  the  end  of  the  2d  century.  He  wished  to  remove  the  Apocalypse 
altofjether  from  the  canon.  In  textual  criticism  Semler  pursued 
further  the  principle  of  classifying  MSS.  in  families,  adopted  by  R. 
Simon  and  Bengel.  Though  he  lacked  almost  every  qualification 
of  the  true  church  histori.in,  Semler  did  the  work  of  a  pioneer  in 
many  jjeriods  and  in  several  departments  of  ecclesiastical  history. 
Tholuck  pronounces  him  '*the  father  of  the  history  of  doctrines" 
and  Baur  "  tho  first  to  deal  with  that  history  from  the  true  critical 
Standpoint,"  At  the  same  time,  it  is  admitted  by  all  that  he  v,as 
nowhere  more  than  a  pioneer.  Baur's  description  of  his  woik  in 
one  department  of  ecclesiastical  history  is  true  of  his  work  geuerally. 
"  His  writings  on  the  history  of  dogma  resemble  a  faliow-lidM  wait- 
ing to  be  cultivated  or  a  building-site  on  which,  underneath  refu;;© 
and  ruins,  lie  the  materials  in  chaotic  confusion  for  a  new  eJif.c-,:. 
The  consequence  was  that  as  he  was  always  occupied  in  prelimina:y 
labours,  he  brought  nothing  to  even  partial  completion;  and,  thon^'i 
his  general  critical  standpoint  was  correct,  in  its  application  ta 
details  his  criticism  could  only  be  regai'ded  as  extremely  bold  r.ad 
arbitrary." 

.  Tholuck  gives  171  as  the  naraber  of  Semler's  works,  of  which 
only  two  reached  a  second  edition,  and  none  is  now  read  for  it3 
own  sake.  Amongst  the  chief  are — De  demcniacis  {KoWi:,  1760, 
4th  ed.  1779),  Sclccta  capita  historim  ecclesiastics  (3  vols,,  Halle, 
1767-69),-  Fan  freicT  Vntersuchung  des  Kanm  (Halle,  1771-72), 
Afparalus  ad  liheralem  N.  T.  intcrpretationem  (1757;  ad  V.  T., 
1773),  InsiitiUio  ad  dodrinam  Christ,  liberaliler  discemlam  (Hallo, 


S  E  M  — S  E  N 


657 


iTTi),  Uflcrliistorischf,  gesdhchtiftlieh:,  und  moraVsche  Religion  dcr 
Christen  (1786),  and  his  autobiography,  Scmler's  Lebc7isbcschreibung, 
mn  iAm  sclhst  i-hqefasst  (Ifalle,  1781-82). 

For  estimate?  of  Semler's  laboars,  see  Gass,  Geach  dfr  prot.  Dogmatik  (Berlin, 
1S54-(>T);  Domer.  Gcsch.  der  prol.  Theol.  (Munich,  18«37) ;  Tholuck.  art.  in 
Herzog's  Keal-EncyUopadU  \  Hilgenfeld,  Einleitvnfj  tn  das  Xtue  T^rf.' (Leipsic. 
18757:  Baur.  Epocfurt  dfr  l.<r(hlicken  CescklchtBcJireibuny  (1852);  and  SiUcUi, 
6'^s^^^.  de3  Pi^lismits  (Bonn,  ISSO-Si). 

SEMLIN  (Hung.  Zimony ;  Servian,  Semun),  a  town  of 
Austria-Hungary,  the  easternmost  in  the  Military  Frontier 
district,  stands  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  on  a 
tongue  of  land  between  that  river  and  the  Save.  It  is 
the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  has  a  reaj  school  of  lower 
pade,  five  Roman  Catholic  and  tyo  Greek  churches,  a 
synagogue,  a  theatre,  and  a  custom-house.  The  population 
(10,046)  consists  mostly  of  Servians,  with  a  few  Germans, 
Greeks,  Illyrians,  Croats,  Gipsies,  and  Jews.  Semlin  has 
recently  undergone  improvement  in  its  streets  and  build- 
fugs  ;  but  its  suburb  Franzenthal  near  the  Danube  consists 
:r.ostly  of  mud.  huts  thatched  with  reeds.  The  town  is 
surrounded  by  a  stockade.  On  the  top  of  Zigeunerberg 
are  the  remains  of  the  castle  of  John  Hunyadi,  who  died 
here  in  1456.  SSmlin  has  a  considerable  trade,  sending 
woollen  clotb,  jxircelain,  and'glass  to  Turkey,  and  obtain- 
ing in  return  yam,  leather,  skins,  honey,  and  meerschaum 
pipes.  It  js  a  principal  quarantine  station  for  travellers 
from  Turkey.  Steam  ferry  boats  cross  to  Belgrade  several 
times  a  dayj  and  larger  vessels  run  up  the  Save  as  far  as 
to  Sissek. 

SEMPER,  GoTTTEiED  (,1S03-1879>,  German  architect 
and  writer  on  art,  TCas  born  at  Altona  on  29th  November 
1803.  'His  father  intended  him  for  the  law,  but  irresist- 
ible Impulse  carried  him  over  to  art.  His  early  mastery 
of  classical  literature  led  him  to  the  study  of  classic  monu- 
ments in  classic  lands,  while  his  equally  conspicuous  talent 
for  mathematics  ga^;e  him  the  laws  of  form  and  proportion 
in  architectural  design.  "<!'\Miile  a  studtnt  of  law  at  the 
university  of  GOttingen  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  K. 
Oi  Miiller,  and  in  after  years  followed  closely  in  his  foot- 
steps. Semper's  architectural  education  ■nas  carried  out 
successively  in  Hamburg,  Berlin,  Dresckn,  in  Paris  under 
Gau ,  and  in  Munich  under  Gartner ;  afterwards  he  visited 
Italy  and  Greece.  In  1834  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
architecture  in  Dr6S(Jfen,  and  during  fifteen  years  received 
many  important  commissions  from  the  Saxon  court.  He 
built  the  opera-house,  which  made  his  fame,  the  new 
museum  and  picture  gallery,  likewise  a  synagogue.  In 
1848  his  turbulent  spirit  led  him  to  side  with  tjie  revolu- 
tion against  his  royal  jiatron ;  he  furnished  the  rebels 
with  military  plans,  and  was  eventually  driven  into  esile> 
Semper  came  to  London  at  the  time  of  the  Great  Exhibition 
of- 1851,  and  the  prince  consort  found  him  an  able  ally  in 
carrying  out  his  plans.  He  was  apijointed  teacher  of  the 
principles  of  decoration ;  and  his  lectures  in  manuscript, 
preserved  in  the  art  library,  Soutlj  Kensington,  deserve  to 
be  better  known.  He  was  also  employed  by  the  prince 
consort  to  prejiare  a  design  for  the  Kensington  Museum; 
he  like\\'ise  made  the  drawings  for  the  Wellington  funeral 
car.  In  1 853  Semper  left  London  for  Zurich  on  his  appoint- 
ment as  professor  of  architecture,  and  with  a  commission 
to  build  in  that  town  the  polyt8chnic  school,  the  hospital, 
il-c.  In  1870  he  was  called  to  Vienna  to  assist  in  the  great 
architectural  projects  since  carried  out  round  the  Ring. 
.\  year  later,  after  an  exile  of  over  twenty  years,  he  received 
a  summons  to  Dre.sden,  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  first  opeia- 
house,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire  in  1869 ;  his  second 
design  was  a  modification  of  the  first.  The  closing  years 
of  his  life  were  passed  in-  comparative  tranquillity  bc-tween 
Venice  and  Rome,  aad  in  thfi  latter  city  he  died  on  loth 
May  1879 

Seinp«r:s  style  was  a  ^owth  from  the  classic  orders  through  the 
r.i'lian  CSiique  Qento,  He  forsook  the  base  and  rococo  forms  ho 
found  rooted  ID  Germany,  and,  reverting  to  the  best  historic  ex- 
21— •24 


amples,  fashioned  a  purer  Renaissance.  He  stands  as  a  leader  in 
the  practice  of  polychrome,  since  widely  diffused,  and  by  his  writings 
and  example  did  much  to  reinstate  the  ancient  union  between  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  and  painting.  Among  his  numerous  literary 
works  are  VcU,-  Polycitroinie  u.  ihrcn  Urspruu^y  (1851),  i?w  An- 
wcfidung  der  Farlcn  in  dcr  Architcktur  u.  Plastik  bci  den  Allen,  Dcr 
Stil  in  den  Icchnischcn  u.  tektoiiisclun  KiXnslcn  (1860-63).  His 
Xotes  of  Lectures-  on  Practical  Art  in  Mctnls  and  Hard  llatcruxh  : 
its  Technology,  History,  and  Style,  remains  in  JIS.  His  teachin:;3 
are  sometimes  encumbered  by  speculations  reaching  far  beyond  tie 
domain  of  his  art. 

SEXAAR  (Sejwaar,  properly  Sennap.),  a  country  of 
east  Central  Africa,  commonly  identified  with  the  "Island 
of  Mcroa "  of  the  ancients,  and  included  in  the  central 
division  of  Egyptian  (Eastern)  Siidan,  as  reorganized  in  the 
year  18S2.  By  European  writers  the  term  is  often  appliec 
to  the  whole  region  lying  between  the  Atbrlra  (Takazze'' 
and  the  AVhite  Nile,  but  by  native  usage  is  restricted  to 
the  district  confined  between  the  latter  river  and  the  Eahr- 
el-Azrak  (Blue  Nile),  and  its  eastern  tributaries,  the  Rahad 
and  the  Dender.  It  is  bordered  north  and  north-east  by 
Upper  Nubia,  east  by  Abyssinia,  west  by  the  White  Nile 
(Bahr-el-Abiacl),  separating  it  from  Kordofdn,  and  stretches 
from  the  confluence  of  the  two  Niles  at  Kliartiini  soutji- 
wards,  in  the  direction  of  the  Berta  hi-'hlands  in  the  east 
and  the  Biiriin  and  Dinka  plains  in  the  west.  As  thus  de- 
fined, Senndr  extends  across  five  degrees  of  latitude  (16' 
to  11°  N.),  with  a  total  length  of  about  350  miles,  a  mean 
breadth  of  120  miles,  an  area  of  40,000  square  miles,  anc 
an  approximate  populatiorJ  of  S&O.OOO.  It  comprises  twr 
physically  distinct  tracts,  the  densely  wooded  and  well 
watered  Jezirat  el-Jesirat  ("Isle  of  Isles")  between  the 
Rahad  and  the  Blue  Nile, and  the  "island"  of  Sennar  proper 
a  nearly  level  steppe  land  confined  between  the  two  mair 
streams.  This  western  and  much  larger  division,  whid' 
has  a  fiiean  elevation  of  under  2000  feet  above  sea-level, 
consists  mainly  of  alluvial  and  sandy  matter,  resting  on  z 
bed  of  granite  and  porphyritic  granite,  which  first  crops  oiA 
some  ten  clays'  journey  south  of  Khartum,  in  the  Jebel  es- 
Segati  and  the  Jebel  el-Moye,  neir  the  town  of  Sennar  on 
the  Bahr-el-Azrak.  Between  these  two  groups  the  plain  i^ 
dotted  over  with  isolated  slate  hills  containing  iron  and 
silver  ores.  But  beyond  SennAr  the  boundless  steppe,  eithe< 
under  a  tall  coarse  grass,  or  overgrown  with  mimosa  scrub, 
or  else  absolutely  waste,  again  stretches  uninterruptedly  for 
another  ten  or  eleven  days' journey  to  the  Roseres  (Rosaires) 
district,  where  the  isolated  Okelnii  and  Keduss  Hills,  con- 
taining quartz  with  copper  ore,  rise  1000  feet  above  the 
right  bank  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  3000  above  tlie  sea. 
Here  the  plain  is  furrowed  by  deep  gullies  flushed  during 
the  rainy  season  ;  and  farther  south  the  land,  hitherto 
gently  sloping  towards  the  north-west,  begins  to  rise 
rapidly,  breaking  into  hills  and  ridges  4000  feet  high  in  the 
Fazogl  district,  and  farther  on  merging  in  the  Berta  high- 
lands with  an  extreme  altitude  of  9000  to  10,000  feet. 
Li  these  metalliferous  uplands,  recently  explored  by  Marno 
and  Schuver,'  rises  the  Tumat,  which  is  washed  for  gold, 
and  which  after  a  northerly  course  of  nearly  100  miles 
joins  the  left  bank  of  the  Blue  Nile  near  Fazogl  and 
Famaka.  South  of  and  parallel  with  the  Tumat  flows  the 
still  unexplored  Jabus  (Yabus),  on  which  stands  Fadasi, 
southernmost  of  the  now  abandoned  Egyptian  stations  in 
the"Balir-el-Azrak  basin.  This  point  also  marks  the  present 
limit  of  geographical  exploration  in  the  direction  of  the 
conterminous  Galla  country,  Schuver  being  the  only 
European  traveller  who  has  hitherto  succeeded  "in  pene- 
trating to  any  distance  south  of  the  Jabus. 

Sennar  lies  within  the  northern  limits  of  the  tropical  rain3,'\fhich 
reach  to  Khartum,  and  fall  between  June  and  September.  In  this 
part  of  its  course  tlie  Blue  Kile  rises  from  Slay  to  Jgust,  when 
the  norfhem  and  wcsteni  winds  provail,  nearly  coinc'  ing  wnth  the 
cool  and  healthy  season.  But  they  are  followed  by  th  aot  khamiisin 
from  the  south  or  the  samum  (simoom)  from  the  no-    i-west  charged 


658 


SEN 


SEN 


with  fine  sand  from  the  Libyan  Desert.  Still  more  dreaded  are  the 
miasmatic  exhalations  caused  by  the  glowing  sun  playin"  on  stag- 
nant waters  after  the  floods  and  giving  risn  to  the  "Sennar  fever," 
wliich  drives  the  natives  themselves  from  the  plains  to  the  southern 
nplands.  The  temiioraturo,  which  rises  at  times  to  over  120°  Fahr., 
is  also  very  changeable,  often  sinking  from  100°  Fahr.  during  the 
day  to  under  60°  Fahr.  at  night. 

The  soil. niainlynlluviiil, is  naturally  fertile,  and  wherever  water 
and  hands  are  available  yields  bounteous  crops  of  liiaize.  pulse, 
cotton,  tobacco,  se.^ame,  and  especial  ly  durra,  of  which  as  many  as 
twenty  varieties  are  said  to  be  <'ultivaled.    The  fore.-it  vceetation, 
mainly  confined  to  the  "  Islo  of  Isles  "  and  the  southern  uplands, 
includes  the  Adan^oniu  (baobab),  which  in  the  Fazngl  district  at- 
tains gigantic  size,  tlu-  tamarind,  of  whicli  bread  is  made,  the 
dcleb  pain],  several  valuable  gum  trees  (whence  tlie  term  Sennari 
often  applied  in  Egypt  to  gum  arable),  some  dyewoods,  ebony,  iron- 
wood,  and  many  varieties  of  acacia.     These  forests  are  haunted  by 
the  two-horned  rhinoceros,  the  elephant,  lion,  panther,  numerous 
apes  and  antelopes,  wh.ilo  the  crocodile  and  hippopotamus  frequent 
all  the  rivers.     The  cluef  domestic  animals  are  the  camel,  horse, 
ass,  ox,  bulfalo  (used  both  as  a  beast  of  burden  and  for  riding),  sheep 
with  a  short  silky  fleece,  the  goat,  cat,. dog,  ind  pig,  which  last 
l)ero  reaches  its  southernmost  limit.     Tlie  tsetse  fly  appears  to  be 
absent,  but  is  replaced  in  some  districts   by  a  species  of  wasp, 
whose  sting  is  said  to  be  fatal  to  the  camel  in  the  rainy  season. 

The  "African  Mesopotamia"  is  occupied  by  a  partly  settled 
partly  still  nomad  population  of  an  extremely  mixed  character, 
including  representatives  of  nearly  all  the  chief  ethnical  divisions 
pf  the  continent.  But  the  great  plain  of  Sennar  is  mainly  occupied 
by  Hassanieh  Arabs  in  the  north,  by  Abu-Rof  (Rufaya)  Hamites 
of  Beja  stock  (Robert  Hartmann)  in  the  east  as  far  as  Fazogl,  and 
elsewhere  by  the  Funj  (Fung,  Funglieh),  traditionally  from  beyond 
the  White  Nile,  and  affiliated  by  some  to  the  Kordofan  Nubas,  by 
others  more  probably  to  the  Nilotic  Negro  Shilliiks.  These  Funj, 
who  have  been  the  dominant  rcoc  since  the  15th  century,  have 
become  almost  everywhere  assimilated  in  speech,  religion,  and 
habits  to  the  Arabs.  Nevertheless  on  their  sacred  Mount  Guleh 
the  traveller  Pruyssenaere  found  them  still  performing  pagan  rites, 
while  according  to  Slarno  the'  Buruns,  the  southernmost  branch  of 
the  race  betv/cen  the  Berta  highlauders  and  the  Nilotic  Denkas, 
aro  addicted  to  cannibalism.  The  Berta  highlanders  themselves 
(Jebalain,  as  the  Ai'abs  collectively  call  them)  are  of  more  or  less 
pure  Negro  stock  and  number  about  80,000,  grouped  in  several 
semi-independent  principalities.  The  "no-man's-land"  stretching 
north  of  Daf-Berta  and  east  of  tho  Tumat  valley  is  also  occupied 
by  distinct  nationalities,  such  as  the  Kadalos  in  the  extreme  north, 
the  Sienerjos  and  G'imus  in  the  cast,  hero  bordering  on  the  Abys- 
sinian Agaws,  the  Jabus  and  Ganti  in  the  south.  Most  .of  these 
appear  to  be  of  Negro  or  Negroid  stock  ;  but  the  Sienetjos,  said 
to  be  a  surviving  remnant  of  the  primitive  population  of  the  whole 
country,  are  doubtless  akin  to  the  Sienetjos  of  Damot  and  Gojam  iu 
Abyssinia.  They  are  certainly  not  blacks,  and  have  a  yellow  or 
fair  complexion,  lighter  than  that  of  southern  Europeans. 

The  Sennari  people  cultivate  a  few  industries,  such  as  cotton- 
Keaving,  pottery,  gold,  silver,  and  iron  work,  matting,  and  leather 
work  (camel  saddles,  sandals,  &c.),  noted  throughout  Sudan.  But 
their  chief  pursuits  are  stock-breeding,  agriculture,  and  trade,— 
exporting  to  Egypt  and  Abyssinia  gold,  hides,  durra,  sesame,  gums, 
ivory,  horses,  and  slaves.  The  chief  centres  of  population,  ail  on 
the  Bahr-el-Azrak,  are  Fazogl  (Fazoklo),  now  replaced  by  Famaka, 
at  the  Tumat  confluence;  Koseres,  formerly  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent state  ;  Sennar,  also  an  old  capital,  which  gives  its  name  to 
the  whole  region  ;  AVod-Medineh  at  the  Rahad  confluence  ;  and 
Khartum,  just  above  the  junction  of  the  two  Niles.  A  few  miles 
above  Khartum  are  the  extensive  ruins  of  Soba,  former  capital  of 
the  Funj  empire,  which  at  one  time  stretched  from  "Wady  Haifa 
to  Dar-Berta  and  from  Suakin  to  beyond  Kordofan,  but  which  was 
overthrown  by  Ismail  Pasha  in  the  year  1822.  (A.  H.  K.) 

Sl^NANCOUR,  foiENHB  PivEET  DE  (1770-1846), 
French  man-of-letters,  was  born  at  Paris  in  November 
1770.  His  family  was  noble  and  not  poor,  but  its  fortunes 
were  ruined  by  the  Revolution.  Before  that  event,  how- 
ever, S6nancour  had  met  with  mishap.  He  was  a  sickly 
youth  and  was  destined  for  the  church,  but  ran  away  from 
home  and  established  himself  in  Switzerland.  Here  he 
married  and  spent  some  years ;  his  wife  died,  and  he  re- 
turned to  Paris  about  the  end  of  the  century.  In  1804 
he  published  the  singular  book  entitled  Obermann,  which 
has  continued  to  be  in  a  fashion  popvilar  ta  the  present 
day,  and  the  next  year  a  treatise  De  I' Amour,  which  had 
even  more  vogue  at  first,  but  is  now  little  read.  Ohertnann, 
which  is  to  a  great  extent  inspired  by  Eousseau,  which 
attracted  the  admiration  of  George  Sand,  and  wliich  had 


n  ('oiisidiTabli'   inlbu'uct'  over  llii;  last   };i'Mi'nitioii  in 
Franoo  unci  Kn^'land,  is  a  wrii's  of  letters  supiiosed  to 
bo  written  by  a  solitary  and  melanelioly  person,  whose 
headquarters  were  in  a  valli'y  of  the  Jura,  but  wlio 
writes   also  from   divers  otlier  places.    The  style  is 
ineritoi'ions,  the  descriptive  power  very  considera,b|e, 
the  tliouslit  sometimes  original,  and  the  e.xpressionof 
a  certain  form  of  the  m.-ihidic  ilii  sUnle  effective  and 
strikiiin'.     F.iit,  viewed  from  (lie  strictly  critical  iioint 
of  vieWjiliere  is  perhayis  ii  certain  tinrealit.v  nlioiit  the 
book.     Its  idiosyncrasy  in  tlie  large  el.-iss  of  .Werdu'- 
rian-l'.yroiiic  literature  has  justly  enous'h  been  said  to 
betliat  the  liero,  instead  of  feelinj>;  the  vanity  of  things, 
reeognizps  his   own  inability  to  do  what  he  wislies. 
S(^nancour  is  tinned  somewhat  with  the  older  jiliihs- 
oplie  form  of  freetliinUiiig,  and  expresses  less  revolt 
from  the  IStli  century  than  Chateaubriand.    H.aving 
no  resources  but  his  pen,  Senancour  during  the  half-century 
which  elapsed  between  his  return  to  France  and  his  death 
at  St  Cloud  iii  February  1846  was  driven  to  literary  hack 
work,  and  even  his  more  independent  productions  have 
none  of  the  attraction  of  Obermann.     V/hen  George  Sand 
and  Sainte-Beuve  revived  interest  in  this  latter,  Thiers  and 
Villemain  successively  obtained  for  the  author  from  Louis 
Philippe  pensions  which  enabled  him  to  pass  bis  last  days 
in  comfort.     He  committed  the  usiial  mistake  of  writing 
late  in  life  a  continuation  to  Obermann,  entitled  Isabelle 
(1833),  but  it  has  been  wisely  forgotten. 

SENEBIER,  Jean  (1742-1809),  a  Swiss  pastor  and 
voluminous  writer  on  vegetable  physiology,  was  born  at 
Geneva  on  6th  May  1742.  He  is  remembered  on  account 
of  his  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  influence  of 
light  on  vegetation.  Though  Malpighi  and  Hales  had 
shown  that  a  great  part  of  the  substance  of  plants  must 
be  obtained  from  the  atmosphere,  no  progress  was  made 
until  more  than  a  century  later,  when  Bonnet  observed  on 
leaves  plunged  in  aerated  water  bubbles  of  gas,  which 
Priestley  recognized  as  oxygen.  Ingenhousz  proved  the 
contemporaneous  disappearance  of  carbonic  acid ;  but  it 
was  Senebier  who  clearly  showed  that  this  activity  was 
confined  to  the  green  parts,  and  to  these  only  iu  sunlight, 
and  first  gave  a  connected  view  of  the  whole  process  of 
vegetable  nutrition  in  strictly  chemical  terms,  so  prepar- 
ing the  way  for  the  quantitative  researches  of  N.  T.  de 
Saussure.     Senebier  died  at  Geneva  on  22d  July  1809. 

See  Sachs,  Geschichte  d.  Botanik,  and  Arbeiten,  vol.  ii. 

SENECA,  Lucius  Annjjus  (c.  3  B.C.-65  a.d.),  the  most 
brilliant  figure  of  his  time,  was  the  second  son  of  the  rhe- 
torician Marcus  Annsus  Seneca,  and,  like  him,  a  native  of 
Corduba  in  Hispania.  From  his  infancy  of  a  delicate  con- 
stitution, he  devoted  himself  with  intense  ardour  to  rhetor- 
ical and  philosophical  studies  and  early  won  a  reputation 
at  the  bar.  Caligula  threatened  his  life,  and  tmder  Claudius 
his  political  career  received  a  sudden  check,  for  the  influ- 
ence of  Messalina  having  effected  the  ruin  of  Julia,  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Germanicus,  Seneca,  who  was  com- 
promised by  her  downfall,  was  banished  to  Corsica,  41  a.d. 
There  eight  weary  yeans  of  waiting  were  relieved  by  study 
and  authorship,  with  occasional  attempts  to  procure  his 
return  by  such  gross  flattery  of  Claudius  as  is  foimd  in  the 
■work  Ad  Polybium  de  Consolalione  or  the  panegyric  on 
Messalina  which  he  afterwards  suppressed.  At  length  the 
tide  turned  ;  the  next  empress,  Agrippina,  had  him  recalled, 
appointed  prtetor,  and  entrusted  with  the  education  of  her 
son  Nero,  then  (48)  eleven  years  old.  Seneca  became  in 
fact  Agrippina's  confidential  adviser ;  and  his  pupil's  acces- 
sion increased  his  power.  He  was  consul  in  57,  and  during 
the  first  bright  years  of  the  new  reign,  the  incomparable 
quinquennmm,  Neronis,  he  shared  the  actual  administration 
of  afl'airs  with  the  worthy  Burrus,  the  praetorian  prajfect 
The  government  in  the  '.lands  of  these  men  of  remarkable 


S  E  N  — S  E  N 


659 


insight  and  energy  was  ■wise  and  humane ;  their  influence 
over  Nero,  while  it  lasted,  was  salutary,  though  sometimes 
maintained  by  doubtful  means.  When  there  came  the 
inevitable  rupture  between  mother  and  son  they  sided  with 
thelattPr;  and  Seneca,  who  drew  up  all  Xero'.s  state 
papers,  was  called  upon  to  write  a  defence  of  iiiatrioide. 
We  must,  however,  regard  the  general  tendency  of  his 
measures ;  to  judge  him  as  a  Stoic  philosopher  by  the 
counsels  of  perfection  laid  down  in  his  writings  would  be 
r4uch  the  same  thing  as  to  apply  the  standard  of  New 
Testament  morality  to  the  career  of  a  Wolsey  or  Mazarin. 
He  is  the  type  of  the  man  of  letters  who  as  courtier  and 
minister  rises  into  favour  by  talent  and  suppleness  (coinitas 
honesta),  and  is  entitled  as  such  to  the  rare  credit  of  a 
beneficent  rule.  In  course  of  time  Nero  got  to  dislike 
him  more  and  moroj  the  death  of  Burrus  in  62  gave  a 
shock  to  his  position.  In  vain  did  he  petition  for  permis- 
sion to  retire,  offering  to  Nero  at  the  same  time  his  enor- 
mous fortune.  Even  when  he  had  sought,  privacy  on  the 
plea  of  ill  health  he  could  not  avert  his  doom  ;  on  a  charge 
of  being  concerned  in  Piso's  conspiracy  he  was  forced  to 
commit  suicide.  His  manly  end  might  bo  held  in  some 
measure  to  redeem  the  weakness  of  his  life  but  for  the 
testimony  it  bears  to  his  constant  study  of  effect  and 
ostentatious  self-compl.icency  ("  conversus  ad  amicos,  ima- 
ginem  vits  sua  relinquere  testatur  "). 

Seneca  is  at  once  the  most  eminent  among  the  Latin  writers  of 
the  Silver  Age  and  in  a  special  sense  their  representative,  not  least 
because  he  was  the  originator  of  a  false  style.  The  affected  and 
sentimental  manner  which  gradually  grew  up  in  the  first  century 
A.C.  became  ingrained  in  him,  and  appears  equally  in  everything 
which  he  wrote,  whether  poetry  or  pror-,  as  the  most  finished  pro- 
duct of  ingenuity  concentrated  up*^"  ieclamatory  exercises,  sub- 
stance being  sacrificed  to  form  and  thuUght  to  point.  Every  variety 
of  rhetorical  conceit  in  turn  contributes  to  the  dazzling  effect,  now 
tinsel  and  omameut,  now  novelty  and  Versatility  of  treatment,  or 
affected  simplicity  and  studied  absence  of  plan.  But  the  chief 
weaj)on  is  the  epigram  (sciiieiUia),  summing  up  in  terse  incisive 
antitb'.jTs  the  gist  of  a  whole  period.  "  Seneca  is  a  man  of  real 
gcni'.i,"  writes  Kiebuhr,  " which  is  after  all  the  main  thing;  not 
to  be  unjust  to  him,  one  must  know  the  whole  range  of  that  litera- 
tn'e  <'  which  ho  belonged  and  realize  how  well  lie  understood  tho 
an.  of  making  something  even  of  what  was  most  absurd."  His 
works  were  upon  various  subjects.  (1)  His  Orations,  probably  the 
speeches  whicn  Nero  delivered,  arc  lost,  as  also  a  biography  of  his 
father,  and  (2)  \ns  earlier  scientific  works,  such  as  tho  monographs 
describing  India  and  Eg)-pt  and  one  upoa  earthqu.^.kes  {Kat.  Qu., 
vi.  4,  2).  The  seven  extant  books  oi  Fhijdcal  In^€slirjaiior:s  {Kalur- 
ales  Qici^ioncs)  treat  in  a  popular  manner  of  meteorology  and 
astronomy  ;  tha  work  has  little  ^ientific  merit,  yet  here  and  there 
Seneca,  or  his  authority,  has  a  shrewd  guess,  e.g.,  that  there  is  a 
connexion  betv.-een  cartnqualics  and  volcanoes,  and  that  comets  are 
bodies  like  the  planeti  revolving  in  fixed  orbits.  (3)  The  Saiire  mi 
ike  DccUh  (and  deification)  of  Claudius  is  a  specimen  of  the  "satira 
Menippca  "  or  medley  of  prose  and  verse.  The  writer's  spite  against 
tho  dead  emperor  before  whom  he  had  cringed  sen-ilcly  shows  in  a 
sorry  fashion  when  he  fastens  on  the  wise  and  liberal  measure  of 
conferring  the  franchise  upon  Gaul  as  a  theme  for  abuse.  (4)  The 
remaining  prose  works  are  of  the  nature  of  moral  essays,  bearing 
various  titles,— twelve  so-called  Dtnlcgiics,  three  books  On  Clcmaicy 
dedicated  to  Nero,  seven  On  Benefits,  twenty  books  of  LcUcrs  to 
Lucilius.  They  are  all  alike  in  discussing  practical  questions  and 
in  addressing  a  single  reader  in  a  tone  of  familiar  conversation,  tho 
objections  ho  is  supposed  to  make  being  occasionally  cited  and 
answered.  Seneca  had  the  wit  to  discover  that  conduct,  which  is 
after  all  "three-fourths  of  life,"  could  fumbh  inexhaustible  topics 
of  abiding  nnivcrsal  interest  far  superior  to  the  imaginary  .themes 
set  in  the  schools  and  abundantly  analysed  in  his  father's  CoiUro- 
tersite  and  Suasorim,  such  as  poisoning  cases,  or  tyrannicide,  or 
even  historical  persons  like  Hannibal  and  Sulla.  The  innovation 
took  the  public  taste,— plain  matters  of  urgent  personal  concern 
sometimes  treated  casuistically,  sometimes  m  a  liberal  vein  with 
(erious  divergence  from  tho  orthodox  standards,  but  always  with 
an  earnestness  which  aimed  directly  at  the  reader's  edification,  prp- 
gress  towards  virtue,  and  general  moral  improvement.  The  essays 
are  in  fact  Stoic  sermons  j  for  tho  creed  of  the  later  Stoics  had  be- 
come less  of  a  philosophical  system  and  more  of  a  religion,  cspccblly 
at  Rome,  where  moral  and  theological  doctrines  alone  attracted 
lively  interest.  The  school  is  remarkable  for  its  anticipation  of 
modem  etluc.%1  conceptions,  for  the  lofty  morality  of  its  exhorta- 


tions to  forgive  injuries  and  overcome  evil  with  good  ;  the  obligation 
to  universal  benevolence  had  been  deduced  from  the  cosmopolitan 
r^ncipla  that  all  men  are  brethren.  In  Seneca,  in  addition  to  all ' 
this,  there  is  a  distinctively  religious  temperament,  which  finds  ex- 
pression in  phrases  curiously  suggestive  of  tho  spiritual  doctrme? 
of  Chriftiauiey.  Yet  the  vcrli.il  c-aincid.-nce  is  sometimes  a  mere 
accident,  as  when  he  uses  sucr  siuriim.-  and  in  the  snuie  writings 
he  sometimes  advocates  what  is  wholly  repulsive  to  Christian 
feeling,  as  the  duty  and  privilege  of  suicide. 

Eight  of  the  tragedies  which  bear  Seneca's  name  are  undoubtedly 
genuine.  In  them  the  defects  of  his  prose  stylo  are  cxa^-gcratcd  : 
as  specimens  of  pompous  rant  they  are  probably  unequalled  ;  and 
the  rhythra  is  unpleasant  owing  to  the  monotonous  structure  ol 
the  iambics  and  the  neglect  of  synapheia  in  the  anapistic  sys- 
tems. The  ptfetexta  Ociavia,  also  ascribed  to  him,  contains  plain 
allusions  to  Nero's  end,  and  must  therefore  bo  tho  product  of  a 
later  hand. 

Our  materi.ils  for  a  lino-.vlctlgc  of  Seneca  are  ample,  and  are  variously  pre. 
ecDtci  iD  such  v/orka  as  Mcrivalc's  Romans  under  ihe  Empire,  cc.  52-&4  ;  Zelfer's 
Crt.-k  Pkilcsajihy  (Eng.  tr.  EcUcticisrt,  pp.  ;02-245);  and  the  histories  of  Roman 
literature  by  Bcrnhardy,  Toutfcl  (§§  2S2.2S5),  and  Simcox(il.  pp.  1.27,  London, 
1SS3).  H;3  elder  brother  Annipus  Seneca  Novatus,  afterwards  adopted  by  a 
Junius  GalUo,  was  the  proconsul  of  Achaia  liefore  whom  St  Paul  pl-.adcd  (.\ct3 
x\iii.  12).  The  date  of  Seneca's  birth  must  be  approxiraately  inferred  from 
iVa,'.  Qn.,  i  1,  3;  Ep.,  lOS,  22.  His  mother's  name  was  Helvia ;  her  sister 
brought  him  33  a  child  to  Rome  and  nursed  him  tenderly.  His  teachers  were 
Altalus,  a  Stoic,  and  Sotion,  a  pupQ  of  the  SextiL  In  his  youth  he  was  a 
vegetarian  and  a  v/atcr-drinkcr,  but  hia  fatlier  checked  his  indulgence  in  aiseeti- 
CTsm.  Before  his  exile  he  had  scr\'ed  as  qusstor,  was  married,  and  had  two 
children  bora.  Caligula  said  his  style  was  mere  mosaic  icommissurxts  mcras)  or 
"sand  without  lime,"  and  would  have  put  him  to  death,  had  he  not  beer. 
assured  tliat  so  consumptive  a  subject  could  not  last  long  (Suet,  Calig.,  (13 ;  Uio 
Cassius,  Ux.  19,  7).  Upon  a  Pompeian  fresco  a  butterfly  appears  as  eharioieer  of 
a  dragon, — Seneca  and  Xcro.  His  second  wife  was  Pomp^ia  Paulina,  of  noble 
family  ;  she  attempted  to  die  with  him.  His  enormous  wealth  was  estimated 
at  300  millions  of  sesterces.  He  had  600  ivory  tables  inlaid  with  citron  wo  d 
(Dio,  Ixi.  10,  tdi.  2).  The  Judgment  of  Tacitns  {Ann.,  xiil.  4,  13,  42  !,;.,  siv. 
&2-£6,  XV.  60  sq.)  is  more  favoui-able  than  that  of  Dio,  who  may  possibly  deriv-. 
his  account  from  the  slandei-s  of  some  personal  enemy  like  Suilius.  Su-nCfi 
has  found  many  champions— Lipsius  (the  introduction  to  his  cd.);  Diderot, 
Essai  sur  les  Sixines  ds  Ciatiau  e!  de  Neron'(uL  1-407,  Paris,  1S75) ;  Volquardser, 
Enrenni'.jng  (Hadersleben,  1S39);  Martha,  Lea  iIora:UUs  cc-ii  C Empire  Bxymaiw 
(2d  ed..  Pans,  1S66).  For  the  dates  of  his  works,  see  H.  Lcamann,  in  PUloUyiv^ 
viii.  p.  300  ;  F.  Jonas,  De  ordinc  lihrorum  Sen.  (Berlin,  1S70) ;  A.  Martens,  De'Scr.. 
Vita  (Altona,  1S71) ;  also  R.  Volkmann,  in  Mager's  Pddagcg,  Revue,  xviii.  pp. 
2o9-27S  (1S67>  At  least  eighteen  prose  works  have  been  lost,  among  them  Ds 
s:iper$:itione,  an  attack  upon  the  popular  conceptions  of  the  gods,  and  !>', 
matrimor.io,  which,  to  judge  by  the  extant  fragments,  must  have  been  interest 
ing  reading.  Since  Gellius  (lii.  2,  3)  cites  a  book  xxii.  of  the  Lelteri  to  L^cili  iis, 
EO'me  of  these  hive  been  lost.  His  style  is  elaborately  criticized  by  Quintillaa 
(Inst.,  X.  ],  12J.131),  also  by  Pronto  (p.  155  sq.;  Gellius,  xil.  2,  1).  The  doubt 
S3  to  his  a-jthorship  of  the  tragedies  is  due  to  a  blunder  of  Sidonius  ApoUinaris 
(ix.  229-231);  against  it  must  be  set  Quintilian's  teatiraony  ("ut  Medea  apud 
Scnccam,"  ix.  2,  8).  .  Some  of  the  Fathers,  probably  in  admiration  of  his  cthic-s 
reckoned  Seneca  among  the  (Christians ;  this  assumption  in  its  turn  led  to  the 
forgery  of  a  coil-cspondenco  between  Bt  Paul  and  Seneca,  which  w.is  known 
to  Jerome  (comp.  Augustin,  Ep.,  153:  "Scnoca  .  .  .  cujus  etiain  ad  Paulum 
apostoluni  legnntur  epistolae").  This  has  given  rise  to  an  intaresting  historical 
problem,  most  thoroughly  discussed  in  the  comnrentary  on  tho  Ep.  to  the 
rlitippians  by  Dr  Ljghtfoot,  bishop  of  Dmham  (London,  new  ed.,  JIS79,  pp. 
SiM-Saa),  who  cites  (p.  273  note)  among  earlier  authorities  A-  Fleury,  St  p'vd 
ct  Scntque  (Paris,  lS-i3) ;  C.  Aubertiu,  Elttde  (1S53).  also  new  ed.  SirMiw,  il  St 
PaiU  (Paris,  1870) ;  P.  C.  Baur  (1S58),  republished  in  Brd  AWiandl:in-;er.  (Ltlp. 
sic,  lS7e) ;  P.  W.  Farrar,  SeeJUrs  afier  God  (London,  b-t.) ;  and  0.  Eoissiir  In 
the  Bevae  den  Deia  Mondes,  xcii.,  1871,  pp.  40-71.  Add  tho  articles  by  F.  X- 
Kraus  in  Theolog.  Quartalichriji,  vol.  xlLx.  pp.  600-024  (Tubingen,  lSt;7)  and  by 
A.  Hamack  in  Theolog.  Lit..Zeitunj,  ISSl,  pp.  444-449,  the  latter  being  a  revVw 
of  E,  Westerburg,  Untersuehung  der  Sage,  dass  Seneca  Christ  geu;ese:i  sei  (Ber- 
lin, ISSl). 

The  best  text  of  the  prose  works,  th,it  of  Ilaase  in  Teubncr'g  series  (135^) 
was  .-o-cdltcd  in  1872-74;  he  followed  the  critical  labours  oF  Fickert  (Berlin, 
3  vols.,  1342-15).  Jlcre  recently  Gertz  has  revised  the  text  oFXtjTi  de  teiwrteiis 
el  de  e!.:,nenlia  (Berlin,  1S7C)  and  H.  A.  Koch  that  of  tho  Diatogorum  libri  'X!l. 
(completed  by  Vahlen,  Jena,  1879).  There  is  no  complete  exegetlcal  comment- 
ary, either  English  or  German.  Bllcheler's  edition  of  tho  'ATrOKoXoKOVTuaK 
may  be  found  to  SymiotaphU'il.  ISimnens.,  I.  (1804),  pp.  31.89.  Little  has  been 
done  systematically  since  the  liotea  of  Lipsius  and  (jl-onoviua.  Tliere  is,  how- 
ever, Buhkopfs  ed.  with  Latin  notes,  f.  vols.  (Lcipsie,  1797.1S1IX  and  Lemalre's 
variorum  ed.  (Paris,  1827.22,  8  vols.,  prose  and  verse);  The  text  of  the  tragedies 
was  edited  by  Peipcr  and  Kichter  for  Tfibr.er's  scries  (1SC7X  and  more  recently 
by  F.  I..'olB,-rliii,2vol«.  ,lK7>*-;;i).      NInard.  ■•  Ktndes  <ie  intPura  et  .li- crlri.ni,  «ur 

lC8  pml.  n  fl(-  In  <1.  .?:i,l(  niu-  Hill  t-'l..  Parin.  18-«1.  has  crillsiseil  Ih in  d,l.,il.     of 

som..-  -liO  mt.Ijii-.rai.hs  ctiuiiier;itr-«l  in  Knselnn.nn-  may  be  lacolioneii,  in  a.lilltir.o 
to  tlic  atiov,-.  (;,H<.issi<r.  '■I,estr»Ke(Iit-^(le.^eii<--fine  nnt  ilsc!-  rcprps-ole^?' (I'nrin. 
Iwn  ;  A.  llorrfiia,  ••  .->eni  c.  difciilinie  inoraliH  onm  AutCDioi.ina  compiiraMo" 
(Leip^tc.  t(-5T);  K.  V.  fJelphc.  *•  I>e  S.iieo.  vita  <-t  moribtls  "  ( iiern.  ISIt-):  Hrtl^Iitrr, 
"  Der  Phiionopli  .«,-n<ca"  (KaHtadi,  l.S,'.M>.  R.  d,  u, 

SE.NECA  F.MJ.S,  a  post  villago  and  towiisliip  of 
the  United  States,  in  Scnwa  county,  New  York,  41 
miles  soutli-west  of  Syrncui-ie  by  the  .Viiburii  division 
of  th(^  New  York  f'entral  Railroad,  oroiipit^s  a  beautiful 
situation  on  Seueca  river,  the  outlet  of  Seneca  Lake. 
It  tmijs  the  water-power  of  the  falls  to  micount  in  the 
maiHifactnre  of  Kteam  fire  enj^ines,  lire  extinguishing 
apparatus,  ))uinps,  machinery,  kn't  goods,  flour, 
yeast,  &.c.  Tlie  population  ol  tuo  village  was  5880  in 
188()  aiifl  of  the  township  (!H.5.S, 

SI;.\i;fi;|,I)I';|{,  .\loi8.    See  Lithography,  vol.  xiv 

pp.  <;!i--oua 


660 


SENEGAL 


SENEGAL"  a  river  of  Tvepftern  Africa,  wliicli  falls  into 
'the  Atlantic  about  16"  N.  lat.,  0  or  10  miles  below  St 
Louis.  It  is  formed  at  Baf ulabe  ^  (13°  50'  N.  lat.  and 
10"  50'  W.  long.)  by  the  junction  of  the  Ba-fing  or  Black 
River  and  the  Ba-k.hoy  or  White  River.  The  Ba-fing, 
which  has  a  width  at  the  confluence  oi  1475  feet,  descends 
from  the  highlands  of  Futa-Jallon  by  a  Tiorthward  course  of 
about  350  miles,  during  which  it  passes  by  a  series  of 
rapids  from  the  altitude  of  2460  feet,  at  which  it  takes  its 
rise,  to  that  of  300  feet,  and  receives  from  the  right  the 
Nunkolo  and  the  Funkumah  (with  its  tributary  the  Boki). 
The  Ba-khoy,  800  feet  wide  at  the  confluence,  has  been 
previously  flowing  from  east  to  west  and  gives  that  general 
direction  to  tlie  Senegal,  but  its  source  is  away  in  the 
south-east  behind  the  country  of  Bure.  That  of  its  prin- 
cipal tributary,  the  Ba-ule  (Red  River),  is  more  to  the^  east 
and  lies  within  a  few  miles  of  the  course  of  the  Niger  in 
the  ^landingo  plateau..  Below  Bafulab6  the  Senegal,  flow- 
ing north-west,  passes  a  succession  of  falls — those  of  Guina 
(160  feet)  and  of  Felu  (50  or  60) — and  arrives  at  Medine, 
after  having  accomplished  440  of  its  total  course  of  1000 
miles.  It  receives  only  two  important  affluents, — from  the 
right  the  "marigot "  of  Kulu,  which  comes  from  Kuniakhary, 
draining  the  slopes  of  the  Kaarta  plateau,  and  from  the 
left  the  Falem^,  which  rises  in  the  Futa-Jallon  between 
Labe  and  Timbo  and  flows  north-west  in  a  permanent 
stream.  Below  Medine  the  Senegal  presents  a  series  of 
great  reaches,  wtiich  become  more  and  more  navigable  as 
they  approach  the  sea. 

From  the  1st  of  August  to  the  1st  of  October  it  is  open  as  far  as 
Medine  to  vessels  not  drawing  more  than  8  feet.  Bet^veen  Medine 
and  Bakel  (85  miles)  there  are  twenty-seven  "narrows,"  of  which 
several,  such  as  that  at  Kayes,  are  dilhcult  ;  it  is  on  this  account 
that  a  railway  has  been  projected  between  Kayes  and  the  Niger. 
At  Bakel  below  the  confluence  of  the  Faleme  the  river  is  navigable 
till  the  1st  of  December,  from  Bakel  to  SalJe  between  the  15th  of 
July  and  the  15th  of  December,  and  lastly  from  !Mafu  to  the  sea 
for  a  distance  of  215  miles  it  is  navigable  all  the  year  round. 
Outside  the  limits  indicated  navigation  between  Mafu  and  Medine 
is  often  precarious  even  for  barges  drawing  little  over  a  foot,  and 
above  Mt'dine,  though  some  reaches  are  deep  enough,  troublesome 
transhipments  are  necessary  between  reach  and  reach.  Between 
llafu  and  SalJe  the  Senegal  change*  its  direction  from  north-west 
to  west,"  and  shortly  before  reaching  the  sea  to  south-west.  The 
bar  at  the  mouth  can  usually  be  crossed  by  vessels  not  drawing 
more  than  10  feet,  or  at  high  tides  a  little  more.  Below  Bakel 
the  river  becomes  tortuous  and  encloses  the  great  island  of  Morfil, 
110  miles  long,  and  a  series  of  other  islands,  of  which  one  is  occupied 
by  St  Louis.  At  this  point  tiie  right  branch  of  the  river  is  only 
500  feet  from  the  sea,  but  the  dunes  along  the  coast  turn  it  south 
for  other  9  miles.  The  scantiness  of  its  sources,  the  steepness  of 
its  upper  course,  and  the  rapid  evaporation  which  takes  place  after 
the  short  rainy  season  would  soon  dry  up  the  river-system  of  the 
Senegal,  especially  in  the  upper  regions  ;  but  natural  dams  cross 
the  channel  at  intervals  and  the  water  accumulates  behind  them  in 
deep  reaches,  which  thus  act  as  reservoirs.  In  the  rainy  season  the 
barriers  are  submerged  in  succession,  beginning  with  the  farthest 
up,  the  reaches  are  filled,  and  the  plains  of  the  lower  Senegal  aie 
changed  into  immense  marshes.  Like  Lake  Mceris  in  antiquity 
on  the  Nile  and  the  lake  of  Cambodia  at  the  present  tmio  on  the 
Me-kong,  Lake  Cayor  on  the  right  side  of  the  lower  Senegal  and 
Lake  Panieful  on  the  left  constitute  reserve  basins,  receiving  the 
sm-plus  waters  of  the  river  during  flood  and  restoring  them  in  the 
dry  season.  For  months  together  the  latter  forms  the  only  drink- 
ing pond  for  the  wild  beasts  of  the  surrounding  country, — lions, 
elephants,  leopards,  panthers,  oimces,  cheetahs,  hyrenas,  lynxes, 
giralFcs,  antelopes,  gazelles,  monkeys,  jackals  visiting  it  in  crowds. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  river  the  reservoirs  are  successively  emptied 
to  the  level  of  the  dams  and  receive  no  more  water  except  from  the. 
permanent  springs  ;  but  they  are  partially  protected  by  curtains 
of  verdure  from  the  eflccts  of  the  evaporation  which  makes  itsplf 
so  severely  felt  on  the  treeless  seaboard.  Owing  to  these  natural 
"locks,"  similar  to  those  of  an  artificial  canal,  the  Senegal  river 
never  discharges  less  thau  1700  or  1800  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
lower  Senegal  foi-ms  the  boundary  between  the  dry  and  barren 
Sahara  and  the  rich  and  productive  region  of  the  western  Sudan  ; 
tlie  line  of  its  inundations  is  an  ethnographic  march  between  the 
nomadic  Moor  and  the  settled  Kegio. 

*  Ba/idabS  is  a  native  word  for  "  confluence." 


SENEGAL,-  a  French  colony  of  ■western  Africa,  com- 
posed of  lines  of  fortified  posts  and  a  loose  agglomeration 
of  states  and  territories  in  various  degrees  of  subjugation. 
The  forts  extend  (a)  from  St  Louis  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal  to  Bammako  on  the  Niger,^  (6)  along  tho  coast  of 
the  Atlantic  between  St  Louis  and  the  mouth  of  the  Salam 
to  the  south  of  Capo  Verd,  and  (c)  along  the  so-called  rivers 
of  the  south  which  fall  into  the  ocean  between  the  Gam- 
bia and  Sierra  Leone  (q.v.).  French  influence  is  fully 
dominant  along  those  lines  either  in  the  form  of  actual 
territorial  possession  or  of  a  recognized  protectorate.^ 

The  colony  is  ruled  by  a  governor,  sends  a  deputy  to  the  Trench 
legislature,  and  elects  a  general  council  of  sixteen  members,  ten  for 
tlie  electoral  district  of  St  Louis,  four  for  that  of  Goree-Dakar,  and 
two  for.  that  of  Riifisque.  The  three  communes  just  named  have 
each  its  municipal  council.  The  population  of  those  French  pos- 
sessions was  in  1SS4  197,64y,  — 46,364  urban,  143,200  rural,  8O80 
*'  floating."  In  the  whole  number  there  were  only  1474  Europeans, 
of  whom  ]  461  were  French.  The  population  of  the  protected 
countries  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  most  Important  places  in  the 
colony  are  St  Louis  (18,924  inhabitants  in  18S3),  Dagana  (5375), 
Rufisque  (4244),  IK-dine  (3000),  Joal  (2372),  Goree  and  Dakar  (each 
2000).  Tiie  colony  has  only  a  single  true  port,  that  of  Dakar  to 
tlie  east  of  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Verd,  since  1885  connected  with 
St  Louis  by  a  railroad,  163  miles  long,  and  visited  by  Atlantic 
steamers  on  their  way  from  France  to  South  America.  Rufisque 
and  Goree  have  open  roadsteads,  where  vessels  anchor  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  shore.  The  port  of  St  Louis  in  the  Senegal  is  diffi- 
cult of  access  owing  to  the-  bar,  but  it  is  the  only  place  where 
vessels  can  repair  serious  damages.  The  principal  commercial 
centres  are  St  Louis  (imports  and  exports),  Goree  (exports),  and 
Ruiisque  (exports).  The  upper  Senegal  sends  ground-nuts  (known, 
as  Galam  nute),  gum,  millet,  leather,  and  receives  in  exchange 
blue  calico  (guinee)  from  India,  England,  and  Belgium,  various  other 
cotton  stufls,  cotton  yaru,  guns  and  ammunition,  tobacco,  crushed 
rice,  sugar  (raw  and  refined),  molasses,  biscuits,  tinsmiths'  wares, 
kc.  The  colony  also  imports  Swedish  iion,  which  is  manu- 
factured by  the  native  blacksmiths  into  agricultural  implements, 
knives,  daggers,  and  spearheads.  Cayor  sells  its  giound-nuts  for 
money.  The  rivers  of  the  south  district  export  ground-nuts,  palm 
kernels,  india-rubber,  leather,  coiTce,  in  return  for  English  and  Bel- 
gian blue  calico,  Hamburg  brandy,  English  gunpowder,  English 
and  Belgian  guns,  and  American  tobacco.  An  English  firm  haa 
twenty-three  factories  on  the  Rio  Nuliez,  and  others  on  the  Rio 
Pongo  and  the  Mellacoree.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  and 
imports  of  the  colony  was  £1.325,711  in  1879,  £1,774,089  in  1880, 
and  £1,888,657  in  1SS3,  the  imports  slightly  preponderating  over 
the  exports.  The  value  of  the  ground-nuts  exported  in  1883  was 
£700,000,  that  of  the  gums  only  £120,000  ;  and  the  ground-nut 
trade  is  still  rapidly  developing.      The  imports  comprise  French 


-  For  the  physical  geograi-hy,  &c.,  see  SenegaMBIa. 

5  Along  this  line  lie  Richard  Toll,  Dagana  (founded  in  1821),  Podor 
(1743  and  1854),  Salde  (1859),  Matam  (1857),  Bakel  (1820),  Kayes, 
Medine  (1855),  and  Bafulabe  (1879)  on  the  Senegal,  and  between  this 
river  and  the  Niger  the  forts  of  Bpdumbe  and  Tukota  on  the  Ba-khoy, 
Kita  (1881),  Kondu  (1S82),  Niagassola  (1884-85),  and  lastly  Bam- 
mako (1883)  or  Eammaku,  on  the  Niger. 

*  Arrondissemest  I. — On  the  circle  of  Bal-d  defend  the  post  of 
Matam,  the  protected  countries  of  Damga  (1859),  Gnoy,  Kapiera, 
Guidimakha,  Bondu,  and  Banibuk  ;  on  the  circle  of  Medine,  Khasso, 
Logo,  and  Natiaga  ;  on  the  circle  of  Ba/ulabe,  Barinta,  Jlakadugu, 
Beteadugu,  Farimbula,  Bafiug ;  on  the  circle  of  Kila,  the  province  of 
Kita  and  Fuladugu ;  on  the  circle  of  B'amviako,  Birgo  and  Little 
Beledugn.  This  arrondissement  is  under  the  command  of  a  superior 
officer  resident  at  Kayes.  AnsoNDissEMENTS  II.,  III. —  These  ai-e 
formed  by  Lao  and  Tore  (1863),  protected  countries  attached  to  the 
circle  6f  SuldS ;  the  circle  of  Podor,  which  comprises  the  French  portion 
of  Toro  and  a  fragment  of  Dimar ;  the  circle  of  Dapana,  on  which 
depend  the  other  portion  of  Dimar  and  a  portion  of  Walo  ;  the  sub- 
urban district  of  St  Louis,  including  the  other  jxjrtion  of  Walo,  Ross, 
Merinaghen,  the  cantons  of  Gandiole,  M'pal,  Khattet,  Gondu,  Diala- 
khar,  N'diago,  and  TuK'  ;  N'diambor  and  Jlerina  N'guick,  separated 
from  Cayor  and  placed  under  French  protection,  as  well  as  the  king- 
doms of  Cayor  and  Baol  ;  the  suburb  of  Dakar  with  the  island  of 
Goree,  the  cantons  of  Rufisque  and  the  circles  of  J/'6yem,  Tkies, 
Portudal,  and  Joal.  Arrondissement  IV. — The  Rivers  of  the  Soutk 
district  constitutes  the  fourth  an'ondissenient  under  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  comprt.':es  the  circle  of  Kaolack  or  S(dvm  ;  those  of 
Carabane  and  Seiihiic  on  the  Cazamance,  with  the  protected  countries 
of  Pakao,  Balinadu,  Suraa,  Yacine,  Firdu  ;  the  circle  of  Rio  NuHei 
formed  by  the  Nalus  and  Lauduman  tribes  ;  the  circle  of  the  Hie 
Pongo  with  the  country  of  the  Susus  ;  the  circle  of  Mellacoree  with 
the  protected  countries  of  Sanio,  K  aback,  Kabita,  Kalum,  Tabussu, 
Maneah,  CoiTcra,  and  the  island  of  Tombo. 


\ 


S  E  IV  —  S  E  IN" 


661 


goods  £360,000,  goods  ftassmg  as  French  £200,000,  foreign  goods 
^40,000,  of  which  £240,000  represent  English,  £200,000  Belgian, 
^£120, 000  German,  £80,000  American  articles.  In  1882  946  vessels 
entered  and  960  cleared  The  budget  for  the  colony  in  1884  was 
f  100,320,  for  the  communal  expenses  £14.560,  and  for  the  expenses 
of  the  capital  £250,000. 

History. — The  navigators  of  Dieppe  are  said  to  have  discovered  the 
Senegal  about  1360.  The  Portuguese  had  some  establishments  on  ita 
banks  ih  the  15th  century  ;  and  the  first  French  settlements  were 
probably  formed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  or  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  Between  1664,  when  these  French  settlements  were 
assigned  to  Colbert's  West  India  Company,  and  1758,  when  the 
colony  was  seized  by  the  English,  Senegal  had  passed  under  the 
administration  of  no  fewer  than  seven  different  companies,  none  of 
which  attained  any  great  success,  though  from  1694  to  1724  affairs 
were  conducted  by  a  really  able  governor,  Andre  Brue.  In  1677 
the  French  captured  from  the  Dutch  Rufiscjue,  Portudal,  Joal,  and 
Goree,  and  they  were  confirmed  in  possession  of  these  places  by  the 
treaty  of  Nimeguen  (1678).  In  1717  they  acquired  Portcndic  and 
in  1724  Arguin  on  the  coast  of  the  Sahara,  which  still  belong  to 
the  colony.  Goree  and  the  district  of  Cape  Verd  were  surrendered 
by  the  English  to  the  French  in  1763,  and  by  the  treaty  of  peace 
in  1783  the  whole  of  the  Ser-gal  was  also  restored  ;  but  the  English 
again  captured  the  colony  in  the  wars  of  the  first  empire  (Goree 
1800,  St  Louis  1809),  and,  though  the  treaty  of  Paris  authori2ed  a 
complete  restitution,  the  French  authorities  did  not  enter  into  pos- 
session till  1817.  Between  that  date  and  1854  little  was  effected  by 
the  thirty  .seven  governors  who  succeeded  each  other  at  St  Louis;  but 
in  this  year  the  appointment  of  General  Faidherbe  proved  the  turn- 
ing-point in  the  history  of  Senegal.  He  at  once  set  about  subduing 
the  Moorish  (Berber)  tribes  of  the  Trarzas,  Braiinas,  and  Duaish, 
whose  "kings,"  especially  the  king  of  the  Trarzas,  had  subjected 
the  French  settlers  and  traders  to  the  most  grievous  and  arbitrary 
exactions  ;  and  he  bound  them  by  treaty  to  confine  their  authority 
to  the  north  bank  of  the  Senegah  In  1855  he  annexed  the  country 
of  Walo  and  erected  the  fort  of  Medine  in  the  country  of  Khasso. 
This  last  was  a  bold  stroke  for  the  purpose  of  stemming  the  ad- 
vancing tide  of  Moslem  invasion,  which  under  Omar  al-Hadji 
(Alegui)  threatened  the  safety  of  the  colony.  In  1857  iledine  was 
brilliantly  defended  by  the  mulatto  Paul  Holle  against  Omar,  who 
with  his  army  of  20,000  men  had  to  retire  before  the  advance  of 
General  Faidherbe  and  turn  his  attention  to  the  conquest  of  the 
native  states  of  the  Sudan.  By  treaty  of  1860  Omar  recognized  the 
French  claim  to  half  of  Bambuk,  half  of  Khasso,  Bondu,  Kamera, 
Guoy,  Guidimakha,  Damga,  Futa-Toro,  Dimar,  &c.  Since  then 
annexations  and  protectorates  have  followed  lit  rapid  succession 
under  the  governorships  of  Jaureguiberry,  Faidherbe,  ard  Briere 
de  risle.  It  is  sufiicient  to  mention  the  treaties  of  1881  and  1885 
by  which  the  confederation  of  Futa-Jallon  and  Bure  respectively 
recognized  a  French  protectorate. 

See  Jaanequin  de  Rochefort,  Voyage  de  Libye  ail  roj/aunw  de  SSniga,  1643 ; 
Adanson,  Histoire  naturcl  du  SirUgal,  1757 ;  MoUien,  Voyage  dans  I'lnUrienr 
de  VA/ri/jue  fait  auz  sources  du  Senegal  et  de  ta  Gambie  en  tSlS-lS20  ;  Tardieu, 
Sinigambie  et  Guinee,  1847;  Faidherbe  oa  "Populations  noires  des  bassins  du 
8^Q£gal  et  du  NiRer,"  in  Bull.  Soc.  de  Giogr.,  Paris,  1834  ;  Sinegal  et  Niger^  la 
France  dans  VA/ri'iue  Occt(i<:Ji(a>,  1879.83,  published  by  the  Ministry  of 
Marine,  1884  ;  Faidherbe,  Le  Soudan  fran^ais,  Lille,  1881-85  ;  Notices  Coloniales 
pub.  A  I'occnsion  de  I'Exposition  d^Anvers,  1885 ;  Annales  Sin/galaises  de  1S5U  a 
1SS5,  suivies  d£^  traites  passes  avec  Us  indigenes.  1836  ;  and  Rambaud,  *'Seu6gal 
et  Soudan  Fruiitjais,"  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  1885. 

SENEG.'MIBIA,  a  country  in  tlie  west  of  equatorial 
Africa,  comprising,  as  the  name  indicates,  the  regions 
Bound-  watered  by  the  Senegal  and  the>Gambia.  It  lies  between 
"ies.  9°  and  17°  N.  lat.  and  6°  and  17°  30'  \V.  long.,  being 
bounded'  on  the  N.  by  the  Sahara,  W.  by  the  Atlantic, 
S.  by  Sierra  Leone,  and  E.  by  the  Joliba  or  upper  Niger. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  about  400,000  square  miles. 
Accepting  the  course  of  the  Senegal  and  its  right  hand 
affluent  the  Ba-ule  as  the  boundary  towards  the  Sahara, 
the  Joliba  as  the  frontier  towards  Segu  and  Upper  Guinea, 
and  the  watershed  between  the  Mellacorce  (Jlellicoury) 
and  the  Great  Scarcies  as  that  betw-een  Senegambia  and 
Sierra  Leone,  we  have  only  for  short  distances  to  fall 
back  on  a  mere  conventional  delirfiitation, — in  the  north 
between  Sidian  on  the  Ba-ule  and  S^iisanding  on  the 
Niger  via  Murdia ;  in  the  south-east,  from  Sansanding  to 
a  point  above  Nyamina ;  and  finally  between  the  Joliba 
COiA.  and  the  sources  of  the  Great  Scarcies.  The  Senegambian 
coast  extends  south-south-west  almost  in  a  straight  lino 
from  the  N'diadier  or  Mosquito  lagoon  (Jlarigot  des  Ma- 
ringouins),  formerly  the  northern  mouth  of  the  Senegal,  to 
Cape  Verd,  the  most  western  point  of  the  African  con- 
tinent; then  it  bends  south  as  far  as  Cape  Koxo;  and 


afterwards  south-east  as  far  as  the  Mellacoree.  With  the 
exception  of  the  two  great  capes  just  mentioned,  the  only 
headlands  of  any  importance  are  Cape  St  Mary,  forming 
the  south  side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Gambia ;  Cape  Verga, 
between  Rio  Nunez  and  Rio  Pongo  ;  and  Konakry  Point, 
opposite  the  Los  (or  Idolos)  Islands.  The  only  gulf  on  the 
whole  coast  is  that  which  lies  to  the  south  of  Cape  Verd 
and  contains  the  island  of  GoRiE  (q.v.);  the  other  inlets, 
such  as  the  bay  of  Sangareah,  are  mere  estuaries  or  river 
mouths.  Apart  from  the  island  in  the  Senegal  on  which 
St  Louis  is  built  and  those  formed  by  the  deltas  of  the 
rivers,  the  only  islands  along  the  coast  are  Gor^e,  the 
Bi^sagos  (or  Bijug)  Archipelago,  the  Los  Islands,  and  the 


„rr^ 


,.^^^^^\^^ 


vA"S.'- 


Map  of  Senegambia. 
little  island  of  Matakong.  The  coast  in  the  northern  part 
has  the  same  appearance  as  that  of  the  Sahara, — low,  arid, 
desolate,  and  dune-skirted,  its  monotony  relieved  only  here 
and  there  by  cliffs  and  plateaus.  Farther  south  it  be- 
comes low,  marshy,  and  clothed  with  huxuriant  vegetation. 
Behind  the  low  flat  seaboard  the  country  rises  into  a  vast  Interior^ 
plateau  terminating  eastwards  in  a  mountainous  region. 
Though  of  no  great  height,  these  rriountains  cover  a  largo 
area  and  have  numerous  ramifications.  Farther  to  the 
east  they  sink  abruptly  towards  the  Niger  valley,  whilo 
southwards  they  are  prolonged  towards  Sierra  Leone  and 
the  interior  of  Upper  Guinea,  perhaps  forniiiig  those  Kong 
Mountains  which  are  said  to  exist  between  the  ocean  and 
the  Niger  basin.  Under  the  name  of  Mounts  Badet, 
Yandi,  Mat(5,  Kissi  (of  which  the  first  foim  the  "Alps" 
of  Futa-Jallon)  they  descend  on  the  west  by  a  series  of 
terraces  to  the  plains  of  Senegambia,  anil  on  the  north 
they  extend  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Senegal  and  even 
throw  out  some  spurs  into  the  desert  beyond.  The  moun- 
ts.in  region  is  cut  by  numerous  erosion  valleys.  As  to  the 
general  altitude  nothing  is  accurately  known,  but  the  fol- 
lowing points  have  been  determined — Mount  Daro,  4068 
feet;  Kuruworo,  38C8 ;  Warnani,  3799;  Yenkina,  3560; 
Bogoma,  3524  ;  Pampaya,  3290.  The  jirincipal  rivers  are 
the  Senegal,  the  SalUm,  the  Yomba,",  the  Gambia,  tha 
Casamance,  the  Cacheo,  the  Geba,  the  Rio  Grande,  the 


362 


SENEGA  MBIxi 


Cassini,  tlio  Comi)ony,  tlio  Rio  Nuuez,  the  Rio  Pongo,  the 
l;ubre];a  or  Konakry,  the  Forecareah,  and  the  Mellacoree. 
They  all  ;rise  in  the  mountains  of  the  interior  or  at  the 
foot  of  tlie  highlands  and  fall  into  tbo  Atlantic.  Their 
general  direction  is  from  cast  to  west  with  a  south-west 
deflexion,  v/hich  becomes  always  more  pronounced  as  we 
advance  southwards.  Unlike  these  rivers,  the  Joiiba  or 
NiGF-R  {q.v.)f  fiovsniig  north  and  north-east,  soon  passes 
beyond  Senegainbia.  Lagoons  and  backwaters  are  com- 
mon; but  there  are  no  true  lakes  of  any  importance. 
Geolog>-.  Ths  rcological  conslitution  of  the  coimtry  is  as  yet  very  imper- 
fectly laiown,  especially  iu  the  interior.  The  low  region  of  the 
seaboard  has  a  very  unifoi-ra  character.  It  consists  of  sandstones  or 
clay  rocks  and  Icoso  beds  of  reddish  soil  containing  marine  shelis. 
At  certain  points,  such  as  Cape  Verd  and  Caps  Koso,  the  sand- 
stones crop  out ;  it  is  the  red  colour  of  the  sandstone  in  fact  which 
•  has  given  Capo  Euzo  or  Cap  Rouge  its  name.      Clay  slates  also 

occur,  and  at  intervals  these  sedimentary  strata  are  interrupted  by 
basaltic  amygdaloid  and  volcanic  rocks.  For  instance,  the  island 
of  Goree  is  basaltic  ;  the  Bissagos  (Bissao)  Islands  are  composed  of 
scoria  and  other  volcanic  products  ;  and  a  gieat  part  of  the  coast 
to  the  north  of  Rio  Nunez  consists  of  basaltic  and  amygdaloid  rocks. 
The  base  of  the  mpuntaios  is  formed  in  certain  places  of  clay  slate, 
but  more  generally  of  granite,  porphyry,  syenite,  or  trachyte.  In 
those  districts  inica  schists  and  iron  ores  occur.  Iron  and  gold  are 
found  in  the  mountains  and  the  alluvial  deposits.  The  streams  also 
caiVy  do-.Tn  gold  dust,  ilany  of  the  valleys  are  covered  with  fertUe 
soils  and  there  is  generally  a  fertile  belt  along  ths  river  sides;  but 
the  rest  cf  the  country  is  rather  arid  and  sterile. 
Climate.  The  climate  is  far  from  being  so  unhealthy  as  is  frequently 
asserted.  Except  when  yellow  fever  is  raging,  Europeans  may  live 
there  as  satisfactorily  as  at  home.  There  are  two  seasons,  the  dry 
season  and  the  rainy  season  or  winter,  the  latter  contemporaneous 
with  our  summer.  Along  the  seaboard  the  dry  season  is  cool  and 
agreeable ;  in  the  intsrior  it  is  mild  only  fcr  the  three  months 
which  coiTespond  to  our  winter,. and  then  it  becomes  a  time  of  in- 
tolerable heat.  The  annual  temperature  increases  as  we  advance 
south  and  more  rapidly  as  we  advance  east  into  the  interior,  except, 
of  course,  where  an  ascent  is  made  to  higher  altitudes.  To  the 
south  of  C^^-'  Vr-il  the  changes  of  temperature  become  less  and 
lc::3  ma;'.  Las  a  more  equable  climate  than  Goree.    East- 

wards L-.  ngo  of  the  thermometer  becomes  more  exten- 

sive.    '}.'.  .  readings,  which  are  exceptional  at  St  Louis, 

become  rule  at  Bakel  on,  the  upper  Senegal  and  at 

llacCari  .;  ' :  imbia.     In  the  north,  on  the  banks  of  the 

Senegal,  the  north-east  trade-winds  blow  for  eight  months  of  the- 
year,  the  daily  land  and  sea  breezes  which  cool  the  atmosphere 
along  the  seaboard  not  being  felt  far  inland.  ■  During  the  other 
four  mont'us  there  prevails  a  gentle  south-west  monston  accom- 
panied with  frequent  calms,  storms,  tornadoes,  and  rains.  South- 
wai  5.S  along  the  coast  the  trade-winds  gradually  decrease  in  both 
stiength  »nd  duration,  while  the  south-west  monsoon  becomes 
more  powerfurand  persistent.  The  rainy  season  begins  at  Goree 
between  27th  June  and  13th  July,  ou  the  Gambia  about  20th.  June, 
on  the  Casaraance  about  the  end  of  May,  at  the  Bissagos  Archipelago 
about  the  middle  of  May,  and  on  \he  Rio  ITuaez  at  the  end  of 
April.  During  this  season  ScncLjr.i".;  ia,  drenched  by  heavy  i-ains  ' 
brought  fromihs  ocean,  has  everyv. iicrs  one  unifonn  appearance.' 
The  mc?.n  temperature  is  thvcughor.t  very  clc33  on  SI**  Fahr.  ^nd 
the-  range  of  the  thermometer  is  extremely  limited.  The  rivers 
overflow  and  f!ood  the  lowlands.  Storms  are  frequent.  Vegetation 
displays  its  fullest  energy.  The  fever  exhalation:^  are  anfortunatejy 
also  ai-  their  worst.  At  St  Louis,  Goree,  Dajana,  and  all  along 
the  Senefj.d  there  are  S5  days  of  rain,  a  slight  increase  beir.g 
app^;>nt  in  the  upper  course  of  the  river.  At  St  Llary's,  Bathurst, 
'  there  atJ  -13  dayc,  at  Sedhiu  84,  at  Bissao  111,  at  Boke  137,— a  £:teady 
increacG  as  we  apprvach  the  equator.  The  number  of  storms  foilov.'s 
almost  the  same  ratio  o."  increase,  and  showe.s  which  :;  "t  t^o  or 
three  hours  at  St  Louis  give  place  to  whole  days  of  rain  on  the 
Casamanca  and  the  Rio  Nuiiez. 
Elora;  ^  The  king  of  the  Senegambian  trees  is  the  baobab  {Adcnsonia 
digii-cUa),  v.-hich  sometimes  at  the  height  of  24  feet  has  &  diameter 
of  34  feet  and  a  circuitiference  of  104.  Acacias  are  very  numerous, 
one  species,  A.  Adansonia^  being  indeed  the  commonest  of  all  Sene- 
gambian trees  and  valuable  for  its  ship-timber.  Among  the  palm- 
trees  tii3  Tonier  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  as  the  wood  resists 
moisture  and  the  attacks  of  insects  ;  in  some  places,  as  in  Cayor, 
it  forms  magnificent  forests.  The  wood  of  the  cailcedra  (Khaya 
scncgyknsii:),  a  tall  tree,  is  used  in  joiner's  work  and  inlapng,  and 
its  bark  furnishes  a  bitter  tonic.  The  mampatas  grows  sometimes 
100  feet  high,  its  branches  beginning  only  at  a  height  of  about  25 
feet.    The  tree  producing  the  famous  kola-nut^  grows  on  the  banks 

^  A  very  complete  account  of  this  nut  will  bs  found  in  Isachtig  1, 
t^^aJtara  und  Sudart 


of  the  southern  streams.  It  is  almosi,  needless  to  mention  the 
m'bilor,  the  gonat,  the  mimosa,  fig-trees,  orange -trees,  cocoa-palms, 
mango-trees,  pomegranates,  sycamores,  and  so  on.  The  dimb,  * 
the  netern,  the  tiamanoi,  tho  diLibguton,  the  gologne,  the  n'tabo 
yield  edible  fruits.  The  culti/atcd  plants  are  millet,  rice, 
tobacco,  haricots,  ground-nuts,  ir.ligo  (wild  indigo  is  also  abun- 
dant}, cotton  (also  found  v.'ild),  maize,  sugar-cane,  and  the  butter- 
tree  or  karite: 

The  Senegambian  lion  is  quite  different  from  tho  Barbary  lion  :  Faima, 
its  colour  is  a  deeper  and  brighter  yellow,  and  its  mane  is  neither 
£0  thick  nor  so  long.  Other  beasts  of  prey  aia  the  leopard,  the 
wild  cat,  the  cheetah,  the  civet,  and  the  liyccna.  The  wild  bear  is 
clumsier  than  the  European  variety.  Antelopes  and  gazelles  occur, 
in  large  herds  all  through  upper  Senegambiaj  the  giratl^  is  common 
in  tho  region  of  the  upper  Senegal ;  the  elephant  is  rare  ;  the 
hippopotamus  is  gradually  disappearing.  Crocodiles  swarm  .both 
in  tne  upper  Senegal  and  the  upper  Nigfir.  Monkeys  and  apes  of 
different  species  (the  chimpanzee,  the  colobus,  the  cynocephalus, 
^:c.),  the  squirrel,  rat,  and  mouse  abound.  The  hedgehog,  marmot, 
porcupine,  nare,  rabbit,  &c.,  arc  also  met  with.  Among  the  more 
noteworthy  birds  are  the  ostrichj  which  migrates  to  the 'Sahara; 
the  bustard,  occurring  in  desert  and  uncultivated  distiicts  ;  the 
marr.hout,  a  kind  of  Stork,  with  its  beak  black  in  the  middle  and 
red  at  the  point,  which  frequents  the  moist  meadow-lands  and  the 
lagoons  ;  the  brown  partridge,  the  rock  partridge,  and  the  quail  in 
the  plains  and  on  the  mountain  sides ;  and  the  guinea-fowl  in  the 
thickets  and  brushwood.  Along  the  coast  are  caught  the  sperm 
v,'ha}e,  the  manatee,  and  the  Cod-fish.  The  domestic  animals  are 
the  horse,  ass,  ox,  sheep,  goat,  dog,  ana  cameh 

The  population  of  Senega  mbia  cannot  be  ascertained  with  any  Ponul^ 
approach  to  accuracy,  but  it  maj'  be  roughly  stated  at  from  ten  to  tion, 
twelve  millions.  It  comprises  three  distinct  races, — the  Moor, 
the  Negro,  and  the  European.  The  Moors,  or  rather  Berbers 
(TrarzaS,  Bral:nas,  and  Duaish),  belong  strictly  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Senegal  and  appear  iu  Scnegambja  only  exceptionally. 
Tha  Negroes  form,  the  bulk  of  the  population.  They  are  divided 
into  PcuIe  (Fouls,  Pulbe,  Fulah,  or-  reliatah),  Toucouleurs,  Man- 
dingoeS;  Sarakoies,  Wolofs,  Sereres,  Diolas,  Bambaras,  Balantes, 
Biaiares,  Papels,  Nalus,  Landumans,  Bagas,  and  Susus.  The 
Fouls  inhabit  Futa,  Damga,  Eondu,  and  Futa-Jallon  ;  thoy  have  a 
reddi::h  complexion  and  almost  straight  hair,  their  bodj--  fairly 
stout,  but  their  limbs  slim.  They  are  gentle  and  hospitable,  but 
addic.sd  to  theft.  The  Toucouleurs,  Foul  half-breeds,  belonging 
originally  to  Futa-Jallon,  are  similar  to  tho  Negro  proper  ;  they  are 
treacherous,  warlike,  fond  of  plunder,  and  fanatical  in  \eir  Moham, 
medanism.  The  Mandingoes  or  Malinkes  inhabit  tt  basino  cf  the 
upper  Niger  and  the  upper  Senegal  and  the  we3tOi.11  slope  of  the 
mountains  of  Futa-Jallon.  They  comprise  the  Mandingo  proper, 
occupying  Manding,  and  the  Malinkes  and  Soninkes,  scattered 
about  Bambuk,  Bure,  and  ^liladugu.  Under  the  name  of  "Wakore 
or  Wangara  they  are  also  foimd  in  all  the  immense  tract  which 
extends  to  the  north  of  tho  Song  I-Iountains.  They  are  tall  of 
statare  and  of  great  mv.scular  streng.h.  TliC  Sarakoies  are  ona  ol 
the  branches  of  the  Bambara  race  produced  by  crossing  with  the 
Pouls.  Their  character  is  mild  and  pacihc.  Scattered  about  in 
GuoT,  Eamei-a,  and  Guidimakha,  they  are  fond  of  trade  and  engage 
in  it  with  actiT:*,y.  The  Wolcfs  ana  the  Sererc-s  inhabit  the  sea- 
board from  St  Louis  tc  Cape  Verd  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Senegal 
from  its  mouth  to  Richard  T6U  and  Dagana.  They  are  tall  and 
robust,  with  black  and  glocsy  skin.  Most  of  them  are  fctis'iists. 
The  Biolas  ha-,  s  flat  coses,  thi  ;k  lins,  har^h  featurer,  and  a  promi- 
nent belly;  the  body  is  tattocci.  The  Eambiraj,  wlio  have  invaded 
Kaarta  and  Khasso,  have  a  coppery  black  complexion  and  frizzly 
hair ;  their  cheeks  ara  marl:ed  with  deep  •^ars.  The  Ealaiitea 
inhabit  the  left  bank  of  the  Casamance  ;  th:;y  are  as  cru^l  and  as 
fond  of  pillage  0  3  the  Slandingocc,  hut  aro  mere  generous  towards 
the  vanquished.  The  Biafares  live  on  the  banks  cf  the  Rio  Grande 
and  the  Papels  in  the  valley  of  the  Cacheo  and  the  Geba,  Tho 
Nalus  and  the  Land^amans  are  tributary  to  the  Fre-ach  ports  of  tho 
Rio  Nuiiez  and  the  Rio  Pongo.  Islam  is  gradually  detaching  them 
from  fetishism.  The  Bagas  occupy  the  coast  between  the  Rio 
Nuiiez  and  the  Rio  Pongo.  The  Susus  formerly  dvrelt  on  .the 
upper  Niger,  but  they  were  expelled  by  the  invasion  of  the  Tloham-  ' 
medans  a^d  are  at  the  present  time  settled  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio 
Pongo.  The  principal  languages  of  Sencgcmbia  are  "NVolof,  Poul, 
Sereres,  Mandlngo,  and  Arabic,  "uolof  iz  spoken  in  a  largs  part 
of  Ecncgambia,  in  VTolof,  Walo,  Cayor,  Dakar,  Eaol,  Sine,  Salum, 
and  iu  the  towns  of  StXouis  and  Goree.  The  river  Senegal  mark3 
the  line  of  separation  between  ^Yolof  and  Arabic.  Pcul  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Fouls  and  the  Touconlcurs ;  Mandlngo  comprises 
several  dialects, — Malinke,  Soninke,  Bambara.  The  fiw  Europeans 
are  mainly  civil  and  military  oflicials  or  traders.  White  planters 
are  rare.  The  natives  of  Senegambia  are  generally  divided  into 
two  q^uite  distinct  classes,  — freemen  and  slaves.  The  griots  are  a 
kind  of  bards  or  trouveres  who  live  at  the  expense  of  those  whose 
praises  they  sing.  Polygamy  is  generally  practised-  Circumcision, 
of  the  aduU"  of  bcth  sexes  is  a  rite  accompanied  with  superstiilsas. 


S  E  N  — S  E  N 


663 


observances.  Every  canton,  every  village  in  independent  Sene- 
gambia  is  governed  eitber  by  a  chief  {"  king  ")  or  by  an  "  almamy  " 
elected  by  a  group  of  villagers. 
History.  Senegambia  is  divided  into  French  Senegambia  (with  the  terri- 
tories placed  under  French  protection),  English  Senegambia,  Portu- 
guese Senegambia,  and  independent  Senegambia,  comprising  the 
native  states  not  under  the  protection  of  a  European  power. 
French  Senegambia  is  called  the  colony  of  Senegal  (q.v.).  English 
Senegambia  comprises  the  establishments  of  the  Gambia  (,q,v.)  and 
the  islands  of  Los.  Portuguese  Senegambia  consisted  till  quite 
recently  of  Bissagos  Archipela™  and  the  "  factories  "  of  Zighinchor 
on  the  Casanoance,  Cachso  and  Farim  on  the  Rio  Cachco,  and  Geba 
on  the  Gebx  By  an  arrangement  effected  in  1886  Portugal  ceded 
Zighinchor  to  France  in  exchange  for  Massabe  on  the  Loango  coast. 
Germany,  which  seemed  at  one  time  disposed  to  place  various 
territories  of  Dubreka,  Koba,  and  Kabitai  under  its  protection,  has 
formally  abandoned  the  plan.  The  independent  statexare  not  very 
numerous,  but  for  the  most  part  they  are  more  extensive  than  the 
protected  countries.  .They  were  quite  recently — Jolof,  lying  be- 
tween the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia  in  one  direction  and  between 
the  Faleme  and  the  oc;;a  in  the  other;  Bure  iu  the  Mandingo 
region,  a  territory  abounding  in  gold  ;  Guidimakha  iu  Gangara,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Senegal  There  still  remain  among  the  more 
important  Kaarta,  the  country  of  Segu,  and  Futa-Jalion. 
Con-  Several  lines  of  English,  French,  and  German  packets  call  at  the 

munlca-  Senegambian  ports,  and  small  steamers  ascend  the  navigable  por- 
tion, tions  of  the  rivers.  A  railway  unites  St  Louis  and  Dakar,  and 
another  line  is  being  constructed  from  Kayes  to  Bafuiabe  (on  the 
upper  Senegal),  with  a  projected  extension  to  Bammako.  There 
is  telegraphic  communication  between  Dakar  and  St  Louis,  and  z 
second  line  puts  aU  the  ports  of  the  upper  Niger  and  the  left  bank 
of  the  Senegal  into  connexion  with  St  Louis,  which  h?^  touch  of 
Europe  by  means  of  a  submarine  cable  passing  by  way  of  the 
Trtde.  Canary  Islands  to  Cadi2.  The  foreign  trade  of  Senegambia  consists 
in  the  exportation  of  gums,  ground-nuts,  sesame,  oil,  india-rubber, 
birds'  feathers,  hides,  wax,  and  ivory,  coffee  from  the  Rio  Nuncj, 
and  rice  from  the  Casamance,  and  the  importation  of  iron,  alcoholic 
liquors,  firearms,  ammanition,  coral,  beads,  tobacco,  preserved  foods, 
and  blue  calico  (guinee).  (D.  K*.) 

SENIOR,  Nassau  William  (1790-1864),  English 
political  economist,  was  born  at  Compton,  Berks,  on  26tli 
September  1790,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Senior, 
"  vicar  of  Durnford,  Wilts.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford ;  at  the  university  he  was  a 
private  pupil  of  Richard  'VMiately,  afterwards  archbishop 
of  Dublin,  with  whom  he  remained  connected  by  tie.s  of 
lifelong  friendship.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1811, 
was  called  to  the  bar. in  1819,  and  in  1836,  during  the 
chancellorship  of  Lord  Cottenham,  was  appointed  a  master 
in  chancery.  On  the  foundation  of  the  professorship  of 
political  economy  at  Oxford  in  1825,  Senior  was  elected 
to  fill  the  chair,  which  he  occupied  till  1830,  and  again 
from  1847  to  1852.  In  1830  he  was  requested  by  Lord 
Melbourne  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  combinstioiis  and 
strikes,  to  report  on  the  state  of  the  law,  ogest 

improvements  in  it.     He  -waa  a  member  <  ■  Law 

Inquiry  Commission  of  1832,  and  of  the  Handloora 
"Weavers  Commission  of  1837 ;  the  report  of  the  latter, 
published  in  1841,  was  drawn  up  by  him,  and  ho  embodied 
in  it  the  substance  of  the  report  he  had  prepared  some 
years  before  on  combinations  and  strikes.  He  was  also 
ona  of  the  commissioners  appointed  in  1861  to  inquire 
into  popular  education  in  England.  In  the  later  years 
of  his  life,  dtuing  his  visits  to  foreign  countries,  he  studied 
with  much  care  the  political  and  social  phenomena  they 
exhibited.  Several  volumes  of  his  journals  have  been  pub- 
lished, which  contain  much  interesting  matter  on  these 
topics,  though  the  author  probably  rated  too  highly  the 
value  01  this  sort  of  social  study.  Senior  was  for  many 
years  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Edinhurgh,  Quarterhj, 
London,  and  Jf/'orth  British  Reviews,  dealing  in  their  pages 
(vithliterary  as  well  as  with  economic  and  political  sub- 
ject".    V-  -i:-d  at  Kensington  on  4th  June  1864. 

r  1  economic  theory  consisted  of  an  article  in  the 

^''-■'i,   \  - -'"''•I'poii'ano,  afterwards  senaratcly  published  as  .^a 

Ouiiinc  of  the  Scicnee  of  Political  EcoTU>my(,lS3i,  3d  cd.  1854),  and 
his  lectures  delivered  at  Oxford.  Of  the  latter  the  foIlov,-;ng  were 
printed— ^n  Inlroductory  Ltcture  (1827,  8d  ed.  1631) ;  Two  Ltc- 


ticres  on  Population,  with  a  correspondence  between  the  author  and 
ilalthus  (1831);  Three  Lectures  ok  the  Transmission  of  the  Precious 
Mctsls  from  Country  to  Country,  and  the  Mercantile  Theory  of 
IFeallh  {182B) ;  Three  Lectures  on  the  Cost  of  obtaining  Honey  and 
on  some  Effects  of  Private  and  Govermnent  Paper  Money  (1830) ; 
Three  Lectures  -on  Wages  and  on  Oie  EJfce'.s  of  Absenteeism,  Machin- 
ery, and  War,  with  a  Preface  on  the  Causes  and  Remedies  of  the 
Present  Disturbances  (1S30,  2i  ed.  1831) ;  A  Lecture  on  the  Produc- 
tion cf  Wca'J.h  (1847) ;  and  Pour  hitrcductory  Lectures  on  Political 
Economy  (1352).  Several  of  his  lectures  were  translated  into 
French  by  M.  Arrivabene  under  the  title  of  Princiipes  Fondamentaux 
d'Econmnie  Politique  (1835).  Senior  also  wrote  on  administrative 
and  social  questions — A  Letter  to  Lord  Hoxcich  oti,  a  Legal  Prevision 
for  the  Irish  Poor,  Commutation  of  Tithes,  and  a  P---ocisim  for'the 
Irish  Pom.an  Catholic  Clergy  (1831,  Sd  ed.  1832,  with  i.  preface 
containing  suggestions  as  to  the  measures  to  be  adopted  in'  the 
"  present  emergency  ") ;  Statement  of  the  Provision  for  the  Poor  rnd 
of  the  Condition  of  the  Labouring  Classes  in  a  considerable  poriiur- 
of  America  and  Europe,  Ici^ig  the  Preface  to  the  Foreign  Communi- 
cations in  the  Appendix  to  the  Poor  Lavj  Report  (1835) ;  On  National 
Properly,  and  on  the  Prospects  cf  the  Present  Administration  and  of 
their  Successors  (anon.  ;  1835) ;  Letters  on  the  Factory  AM,  as  it 
affects  the  Cotton  Manufacture  {IS37) ;  Suggestions  on  Popular  Edu- 
cation (1861) ;  American  Slavery  (in  part  a  reprint  from  the  Edin- 
burgh Scvicto;  1SC2) ;  An  Address  on  Education  delivered  to  the 
Social  Science  Association  (1863).  His  contributions  to  the  reviews 
were  collected  in  volumes  entitled  Essays  en  Fiction  (1864) ;  Bio- 
graphical Sketches  (1S65,  chiefly  of  noted  lawyers) ;  and  Historical 
and  Philosophical  Essays  (1S65).  In  1659  appeared  his  Journal 
kept  in  Turkey  and  Greece  in  the  Autumn  of  lSi7  and  the  Beginning 
cf  1S-5S;  and  the  following  were  edited  after  his  death'by  his 
daughter — Journals,  Conversations,  and  Essays  relating  to  Ireland 
(1868) ;  Journals  kept  in  France  and  Italy  from  JS4S  to  1S52,  with 
a  Sketch  cf  the  Revolution  of  1S4,S(IS71) ;  Convert  is  with  Thiers, 
Guizot,  and  othj:r  Distinguished  Persmis  during  tue  Second  Empire 
(1878) ;  Conversations  with  Distinguished  Persons  during  the  Second 
Empire,  from  ISGO  to  1S63  (1880) ;  Conversations  and  Journals  in 
Egypt  and  Malta  (,1S&2) ;  also  in  1872  Corres2jomlcnce  and  Conver- 
sations uHth  Alexis  dc  Tocqueville from  2S34  to  1S59. 

Senior's  literary  criticisms  do  not  seem  to  have  ever  won  the 
favour  of  the  public ;  they  are,  indeed,  somewhat  formal  and 
academic  in  spirit.  The  author,  while  he  had  both  good  sonse 
and  ri.glit  feeling,  appears  to  have  wanted  the  deeper  insight,  the 
geniality,  and  the  cathulic  tastes  \yhioh  aro  necessary  to  make  a 
critic  of  a  high  order,  especially  in  the  field  he  chose, — that,  namely, 
of  imaginative  literature.  His  tracts  on  practical  politics,  though 
the  theses  they  supported  were  sometimes  questionable,  were  ably 
written  and  are  still  worth  reading,  but  cannot  be  said  to  be  of 
much  permanent  interest.  But  his  name  will  continue  to  hold 
an  honourable,  though  secondary,  place  in  the  history  of  political 
economy.  Senior  regards  political  economy  as  a  purely  deductive 
science,  all  the  truths  of  which  are  inferences  from  four  elementary 
propositions.  It  is,  in  his  opinion,  wrongly  supposed  by  J.  f  ~lill 
and  others  to  be  a  hypothetic  science, — founded,  that  is  to  s_/,  on 
,  postulates  not  corresponding  with  social  realities.  The  premises  from 
which  it  sets  out  arc,  according  to  him,  not  assumptions  but  facts. 
It  concerns  itself,  hor;cvcr,  with  wealth  only,  and  can  therefore 
give  no  practical  counsel  as  to  political  action  :  it  can  only  suggest 
considerations  v.'hich  the  politician  should  keep  in  view  as  elements 
in  the  study  of  the  questions  with  which  ho  has  to  deal.  The  con- 
ception of  economics  as  altogether  deductive  is  ccrtiiuly  erroneous, 
and  puts  the  science  from  the  outliet  on  a  f::lse  path.  But  de- 
duction has  a  real,  thor^h  ]:mit-d,  sphere  within  it.  Hence,  though 
the  chief  1  are  not  of  a  logical  kind,  yet 

accurate  luition,   and  rigorous  reasoniiig 

are  of  gi'.;-.  ..  .; ^ .^<;  Senior  has  given  special  atten- 
tion, and,  notwithstanding  occasional  pedantries,  with  very  useful 
results.  He  b?.'^  in  several  instances  improved  the  forms  in  which 
acr  ,  '  '  ;  10  habitually  stated.  YiO  has  also  done  ex- 
cel!                                 :ing  out  the  arbitrary  novelties  and  frequent 

inc.: .     _    _..ininology  which   deface   Ricardo's  principal 

work, — as,  for  example,  his  use  of  *' value"  in  the  sense  of  "cost 
of  production,"  and  of  "high  "  and  "  low  "  wages  in  the  sense  of  a 
cerl                    '         '  '  duct  as  distinguished  from  an  absolute 

an:  .ployment  of  the  epithets  "fixed"  and 

",  .  )   i.iijitah     Ho   ."!'n\,  :,    t.Hj,    tliat  in 

numevuu  assumed  1  "^  false. 

Thus  he  :  ent  depent'.  ;  cnce  of 

fertility  01  n-  "  '■■'  ■■■-•-  .  liiat  the 

labourer  alway  what  custom 

lcad=;  l;'i'n  to  ^  ,   .s  wealth  and 

pn:    ■  ;r.;l  laLu;:;  ai.d  less  pro- 

pr,.  ■;  that  th:  re  cf  the  pro- 

du(..  I..- .. '.  .^1  and  the  l.iL^..._.  i,.^...,  :onstintly  in- 
crease, wliilst  that  taken  by  the  capitalist  must  constantly  diminish ; 
and  he  denies  the  truth  of  all  these  propositions.  Besides  adopting 
some  terms,  such  as  that  of  "natural  agents,"  from  Say,  Senior 


664 


S  E  N  — S  E  N 


Introduced  the  ■n-ovd  "  abstinence  " — which,  though  obviously  not 
free  from  objection,  is  for  some  purposes  useful — to  express  the 
conduct  of  the  capitalist  which  is  remunerated  by  interest ;  but  in 
defir-ng  "cost  of  production  "  as  the  sum  of  labour  and  abstinence 
necessary  to  production  he  does  not  seem  to  see  that  an  amount 
of  labour  and  an  amount  of  abstinence  are  disparate,  and  do  not 
admit  of  reduction  to  a  common  quantitative  standard.  He  has 
added  some  important  considerations  to  what  had  been  said  by 
Smith  on  the  diWsion  of  labour.  He  distinguishes  usefully  between 
the  rate  of  wages  and  the  price  of  labour.  But  in  seeking  to  deter- 
mine the  law  of  wages  he  falls  into  the  error  of  assuming  a  deter- 
minate wage-fund,  and  states  as  an  economic  truth  what  is  only 
an  identical  proposition  in  arithmetic.  "Whilst  entertaining  such 
an  exaggerated  estimate  of  the  services  of  Malthus  that  he  extra- 
vagantly pronounces  him  "as  a  benefactor  of  mankind  on  a  level 
with  Adam  Smith,"  he  yet  shows  that  he  modified  his  opinions 
on  population  considerably  in  the  cotii"se  of  his  career,  regards  his 
statements  of  the  doctrine  with  which  his  name  is  associated  as 
vague  and  ambiguous,  and  asserts  that,  "  in  the  absence  of  disturb- 
ing causes,  subsistence  may  be  expected  to  increase  in  a  greater  ratio 
than  population."  It  is  urged  by  Perin,  and  must,  we  think,  be 
admitted,  that  by  his  isolation  of  economics  from  morals,  and  his 
assumption  of  the  desire  of  wealth  as  the  sole  motive-force  in  the 
economic  domain,  Senior  has,  in  common  with  most  of  the  other 
followers  of  Smith,  tended  to  set  up  egoism  as  the  legitimate  ruler 
and  guide  of  practical  life.  It  is  no  sufficient  answer  to  this  charge 
that  he  makes  formal  reserve  in  favour  of  higher  ends.  From  the 
scientific  side,  Cliffe  Leslie  has  abundantly  proved  the  unsubstantial 
nature  of  the  abstraction  implied  in  the  phrase  "  desire  of  wealth," 
and  the  inadequacy  of  such  a  principle  for  the  explanation  of 
economic  phenomena.  (J.  K,  I. ) 

SENLIS,  a  t<)\Tn  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Oise, 
Jies  on  the  rifht  side  of  the  Nonette,  a  left-hand  affluent 
of  the  Ois'  -■+  miles  north-north-east  of  Paris  by  the 
Northern  Railway  on  the  branch , line '(Chantilly-Crepy) 
connecting  the  Paris-Creil  and  Paris-Soissons  lines.  In 
1881  it  had  only  6870  inhabitants;  but  its  antiquity,  its 
historical  monuments,  and  its  situation  in  a  beautiful  valley, 
in  the  midst  of  tlie  three  great  forests  of  Hallatte,  Chantilly, 
and  Ermenonville,  render  it  interesting.  Its  Gallo-Roman 
walls,  23  feet  high  and  13  feet  thick,  are,  -with  those  of  St 
Lizier  (Ariege)  and  Bourges,  the  most  perfect  in  France. 
They  enclose  an  oval  area  1024  feet  long  from  east  to 
Tvest  and  794  feet  vride  from  north  to  south.  At  each  of 
the  angles  formed  by  the  broken  lines  of  which  the  circuit 
of  2756  feet  is  composed  stands  or  stood  a  tower ;  number- 
ing originally  twenty-eight,  and  now  only  sixteen,  'hey  are 
semicircular  in  plan,  and  up  to  the  height  of  the  wall  are 
nnpierced.  The  Roman  city  had  only  two  gates ;  the 
present  number  is  five.  The  site  of  the  prastorium  was 
afterwards  occupied  by  a  castle  occasionally  inhabited  by 
the  kings  of  France  from  Clovis  to  Henry  IV.  and  still 
represented  by  ruins  dating  from  the  11th,  13th,  and  16th 
centuries.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Senlis  the  foundations 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  138  feet  by  10.5,  have  also  been 
discovered.  The  old  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  (12th,  13th, 
and  16th  centitries)  was  begun  in  11.55  on  a  vast  scale; 
but  owing  to  the  limited  resources  of  the  diocese  progress 
was  slow  and  the  transept  was  finished  only  under  Francis  I. 
The  total  length  is  269  feet,  but  the  nave  (98  feet  high) 
is  shorter  than  the  choir.  At  the  west  front  there  are  three 
doors  and  two  bell  towers.  The  right-hand  tower  (256 
feet  high)  is  very  striking :  it  consists,  above  the  belfry 
stage,  of  a  very  slender  octagonal  drum  with  open-work 
turrets  and  a  spire  with  eight  dormer  windows.  The  left- 
hand  tower,  altered  in  the  16th  century,  is  crowned  by  a 
balustrade  and  a  sharp  roof.  In  the  side  portals,  especi- 
ally in  the  southern,  the  flamboyant  Gothic  is  displayed 
in  all  its  delicacy.  Externally  the  choir  is  extremely  simple. 
In  the  interior  the  sacristy  pQlars  with  capitals  of  the  10th 
century  are  noteworthy.  The.  episcopal  palace,  now  an 
archseological  museum,  dates  from  the  13th  century;  the 
old  collegiate  church  of  St  Frambourg  was  rebuilt  in  the 
12th  century  in  the  style  whii;a  became  characteristic  of 
the  "  saintes  chapelles  "  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries;  St 
Pierre,  though  enclosed  by  cavalry  barracks,  has  preserved 


its  two  towers.  The  ecclesiastical  college  of  St  Vincent, 
occupying  the  old  abbey  of  this  name,  has  a  very  elegant 
church,  the  date  of  which  has  been  greatly  disputed  by 
archa;ologists,  who  sometimes  wrongly  refer  it  to  Queen 
Anne  of  Russia.  The  town-house  and  several  private 
houses  are  also  of  architectural  interest, 

Senlis  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Gallo-Roman  township  of  the 
Silvanectes  which  afterwards  became  Augustomagus.  Christianity 
was  introduced  by  St  Rieul  at  the  close  of  the  3d  century.  During 
the  first  two  dynasties  of  France  Senlis  was  a  royal  residence. 
After  the  dismemberment  of  the  Carlovingian  empire  it  belonged 
to  the  counts  of  Vermandois  and  then  to  the  royal  domain,  and 
obtained  a  communal  charter  in  1173.  Its  bishop,  Guerin,  elected 
in  1214,  signalized  himself  at  the  battle  of  Bouvines.  The  burgesses 
took  part  in  the  Jacquerie  of  the  14th  century,  then  sided  with  the 
Burgimdians  and  the  English,  whom,  however,  they  afterwards 
expelled.  The  Leaguers  were  there  beaten  by  the  duke  of  Longue- 
ville  and  La  Noue.  In  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  the  local  manufac- 
tures employed  200  masters  and  4000  men,  but  all  industrial  activity 
has  now  disappeared.  The  bishopric  w-aa  suppressed  at  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  this  suppression  was  confirmed  by  the  Concordat. 

SENNA  (Arab,  sand),  a  popular  purgative,  consisting 
of  the  leaves  of  two  species  of  Cassia,  viz.,  C.  acnti/olia, 
Del.,  and  C.  angtistifolia,  Vahl.  C.  acutifolia  Ls  a  native 
of  many  districts  of  Nubia,  e.g.,  Dongola,  Berber,  Kcrdofan, 
and  Senaar,  but  is  grown  also  in  Timbuctoo  and  Sokoto. 
The  leaflets  are  collected  twice  a  year  by  the  natives,  the 
principal  crop  being  gathered  in  September  after  the  rainy 
season  and  a  smaller  quantity  in  April.  The  leaves  are 
dried  in  the  simplest  manner  by  cutting  down  the  shrubs 
and  exposing  them  on  the  rocks  to  the  burning  sun  until 
quite  dry.  The  leaflets  then  readily  fall  ofl"  and  are  packed 
in  large  bags  made  of  palm  leaves,  and  holding  about  a 
quintal  each.  These  packages  are  conveyed  by  camels  to 
Assouan  and  Darao  and  thence  to  Cairo  and  Alexandria, 
or  by  ship  by  way  of  Massowah  and  Suakim.  The  leaflets 
form  the  Alexandrian  senna  of  commerce.  Formerly  this 
variety  of  senna  was  much  adulterated  with  the  leaves  of 
Solenostetjima  Argel,  Hayne,  which,  however,  are  readily 
distinguishable  by  their  minutely  wrinkled  surface.  Of 
late  years  Alexandrian  senna  has  been  shipped  of  much 
better  quality.  Occasionally  a  few  leaves  of  C.  ohovata, 
Coll.,  may  be  found  mixed  with  it„  C.  ungastifolia  affords 
the  Bombay,  East  Indian,  Arabian,  or  Mecca  senna  of 
commerce.  This  plant  grows  wild  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Yemen  and  Hadramaut  in  the  south  of  Arabia,  in  Somali 
Land,  and  in  Sind  and  the  Punjab  in  India.  The  leaves 
are  chiefly  shipped  from  Mocha,  Aden,  Jeddah,  and  other 
Red  Sea  ports  to  Bombay  and  thence  to  Europe,  the 
average  imports  into  Bombay  amounting  to  about  250  tons 
annually,  of  which  one-half  is  re-exported.  Bombay  senna 
is  very  inferior  in  appearance  to  the  Alexandrian,  as  it 
frequently  contains  many  brown  and  decayed  leaflets  and 
is  mixed  with  leaf-stalks,  <fcc.  C.  angustifolia  is  also 
cultivated  in  the  extreme  south  of  India,  and  there  affords 
larger  leaves,  which  are  kno'ivn  in  commerce  as  Tinnevelly 
senna.  This  variety  is  carefvdly  collected,  and  consists 
almost  exclusively  of  leaves  of  a  fine  green  colour,  withoi^t 
any  admixture  of  stalks.     It  is  exported  from  Tuticorin. 

Senna  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  about  the 
9th  century  by  Arabian  physicians,  by  whom,  however,  the  pods 
seem  to  have  been  preferred  to  the  leaves.  The  medicinal  activity 
of  senna  leaves  appears  to  be  due  to  a  very  unstable  colloid  glucosidc 
to  which  the  name  of  cathartic  acid  has  been  given.  It  is  readily 
decomposed  by  a  ♦emperature  much  below  100°  Fahr.  {Phann. 
Jour.  Trans.,  [3],  x\  p.  704),  and  hence  cold  preparations  of  senna- 
are  the  most  active.  In  the  .free  state  it  is  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol 
and  in  water,  formin.  ■  a  bro\vn  solution,  but  is  almost  insoluble  in 
strong  alcohol  and  entirely  so  in  ether  and  chloroform.  Combined 
with  ammonia  it  forms  an  active  purgative.  Two  bitter  principles 
named  sennacrol  and  senna-picrin  have  been  extracted  from  senna 
by  Ludwig  ;  the  foi-mer  is  soluble  and  the  latter  insoluble  in  ether. 
A  yellow  colouring  matter  has  also  been  obtained  from  senna,  but 
it  appears  probable  that  it  is  only  a  decomposition  product  of  cathar- 
tic acid.  Senna  must  be  included  among  the  irritant  purgatives, 
since  cathartic  acid  has  no  aperient  effect  when  injected  into  th» 


!S  E  K  — S  E  O 


665 


blood.  Owing  to  its  colloid  character,  it  is  absorbed  witb  difficulty, 
and  its  action  ia  thus  exerted  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
intestinal  canal. 

SENNACHERIB.  See  Babyxonia,  vol.  iii.  p.  187, 
and  laEAEL,  vol.  xiii.  p.  413  sj. 

SENNAr.     See  Senaab, 

SENS,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  Yonne,  lies  on  the  right  side  of  the 
Yonne  near  its  confluence  with  the  Vaune,  and  on  the 
railway  from  Paris  to  Lyons,  70  miles  south-east  of  the 
former  city  at  the  intersection  of  the  line  from  Orleans  to 
Troyea.  It  derives  its  importance  from  its  antiquity  and 
its  archiepiscopal  see.  The  cathedral  of  St  fitienne  occu- 
pies the  site  of  an  ancient  temple  on  which  St  Savinian  is 
said  to  have  built,  at  the  close  of  the  3d  century,  a  little 
church  consecrated  to  the  Virgin.  The  present  Gothic 
cathedral,  erected  between  1122  and  1168,  subsequently 
underwent  alteration  in  the  13th  century  and  again  under 
Louis  XTT,  The  west  front  measures  154  feet  in  breadth ; 
the  middle  portal  has  good  sculptures,  representing  the 
parable  of  the  virgins  and  the  story  of  St  Stephen.  The 
right-hand  portal  contains  twenty-two  remarkable  statuettes 
of  the  prophets,  which  have  suffered  considerable  injuries. 
Above  this  portal  rises  the  stone  tower,  decorated  with 
armorial  bearings  and  with  statues  representing  the  prin- 
cipal benefactors  of  the  church.  The  bells  in  the  cam- 
panile, by  which  the  tower  is  surmounted,  enjoyed  immense 
reputation  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  the  two  which  still  remain. 
La  Savinienne  and  La  Potentienne,  weigh  respectively 
15  tons  7  cwts  and  13  tons  13  cwts.  The  left  portal  is 
adorned  with  two  bas-reliefs,  Liberality  and  Avarice,  as 
well  as  with  the  story  of  John  the  Baptist.  The  portal 
on  the  north  side  of  the  cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  French  1 6th-century  sculpture.  Glass  windows 
of  the  12th  to  the  16th  century  are  preserved,  some  of 
them  representing  the  legend  of  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury. 
Among  the  interior  adornments  are  an  altarpiece  finely 
carved  in  stone,  the  tomb  of  the  dauphin  (son  of  Louis 
Xy.)  and  his  consort,  Marie  Josfephe  of  Saxony,  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  Coustou,  and  bas-reliefs  from  the  mausoleum 
of  Cardinal  Duprat.  The  treasury  contains  a  fragment  of 
the  true  cross  presented  by  Charlemagne,  and  the  vestments 
of  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury.  It  was  in  the  cathedral  of 
Sens  that  St  Louis,  in  1234,  married  Marguerite  of  Pro- 
vence, and  five  years  later  deposited  the  crown  of  thorns. 
The  official  buildings  of  the  cathedral,  dating  from  the  13tii 
century,  have  been  restored  by  Viollet^le-Duc.  The  old 
judgment-hall  and  the  dungeons  had  remained  intact;  in 
the  first  story  is  the  synod  hall,  vaulted  with  stone  and 
lighted  by  beautiful  grisaille  windows.  A  Renaissance 
structure  connects  the  buildings  with  the  archiepiscopal 
palace,  which  also  dates  from  that  period.  The  oldest  of 
the  other  churches  of  Sens  is  St  Savinian,  the  foundation 
of  which  dates  from  the  3d  century,  while  the  crypt  is  of 
the  early  part  of  the  11th,  and  the  upper  portions  of  the 
bell-tower  of  the  first  years  of  the  13th.  The  contents  of 
the  museum  of  sculptured  stones  have  been  mainly  derived 
from  the  old  fortifications,  which  were  themselves  con- 
structed during  barbarian  invasion  from  the  ruins  of  public 
monuments.  The  only  town  gate  still  preserved  is  that 
known  as  the  dauphin's  (1777).  In  the  public  library  are 
a  number  of  MSS.  and  a  famous  jnissal  with  ivory  covers. 
The  chemist  Thenard  has  his  statue  in  the  town.  Tlie 
population  in  1881  numbered  13,440. 

Sens,  when  the  capital  of  the  Senones,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
peoples  of  Gaul,  boro  the  name  of  Agenticum.  It  was  not  finally 
subdued  by  the  Romans  till  after  the  defeat  of  Vercingctorii.  On 
the  division  of  Gaul  into  seventeen  provinces  under  the  emperor 
Valcns,  Agenticum  became  the  metropolis  of  the  4th  Lugduncnsis. 
Theatres,  circuses,  amphitheatres,  triumphal  arches,  and  aqueducts 
were  all  built  in  the  town  by  the  Romans.  It  was  the  meeting 
point  of  six  great  highways.  The  inhabitants,  converted  to  Chris. 
■>]—->i* 


tianity  by  the  martyrs  Savinian  and  Potentian,  held  out  against  tho 
Alemanni  and  the  Franks  in  356,  against  the  Saracens* in  731  or 
738,  and  finally  against  the  Kormans  in  886, — the  last  having  be- 
sieged the  town  for  six  months.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
feudal  period  Sens  was  governed  by  counts,  who  had  become  here- 
ditary towards  the  middle  of  the  10th  century ;  and  the  contests 
of  these  counts  with  the  archbishops  or  with  their  feudal  superiors 
often  led  to  much  bloodshed  and  disaster.  Several  councils  were 
held  at  Sens,  notably  that  at  which  St  Bernard  and  Abelard  met. 
The  burgesses  in  the  middle  of  the  12th  century  formed  a  defensive 
association  which  carried  on  war  against  the  clergy,  and  Philip 
Augustus  restored  the  commone.  In  the  ardour  of  its  Catholicism 
Sens  massacred  the  Protestants  in  1562,  and  it  was  one  of  tho  first 
towns  to  join  the  League.  Henry  IV.  did  not  effect  his  entr.-'.nce 
till  1594,  and  he  then  deprived  the  town  of  its  privileges.  In  1G-I2 
Paris,  hitherto  suffragan  to  Sens,  was  made  an  archbishopric^  and 
the  bishoprics  of  Chartres,  Orleans,  and  Meaux  were  transferred  to 
the  new  jurisdiction.  In  1791  the  archbishopric  was  reduced'  to  a 
bishopric  of  the  department  of  Yonne.  Suppressed  in  1801',  the 
see  was  restored  in  1807  with  the  rank  of  archbishopric*  Tho  zoxfu 
was  occupied  by  the  invaders  in  1814  and  1870-71. 

SENSITIVE  PLANT.  See  Mimosa;  comp.  Physic- 
LOOY,  vol.  six.  p.  62. 

SEONI,  or  Seonee,  a  British  district  of  India,  in  tin 
Central  Provinces,  lying  between  21°  36'  and  22°  58'  1". 
lat.  and  79°  14'  and  80°  19'  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  32-i  .' 
square  miles,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Jabalpur,  on  the  E. 
by  Mandla  and  BAUghAt,  on  the  S.  by  NAgpur  and  Bhati- 
ddra,  and  on  the  AV.  by  Narsinhpur  and  Chhindwara. 
Seoni  is  a  portion  of  the  upland  tract  formed  by  the. 
SAtpura  HiUs  which  extend  along  the  south  bank  of  the 
NarbadA  (Nerbudda)  from  the  plains  of  Broach  on  the 
west  to  the  Maikal  range  in  the  east ;  and  it  is  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  the  fertility  of  its  valleys. 
The  northern  and  western  portions  of  tho  district  include 
the  plateaus  of  LakhnAdon  and  Seoni ;  the  eastern  section 
consists  of  the  watershed  and  elevated  basin  of  the  Wain- 
ganga ;  and  in  the  south-west  is  a  narrow  strip  of  rocky 
land  known  as  DongartAl.  The  plateaus  of  Seoni  and 
Lakhnddon  vary  in  height  from  1800  to  2000  feet;  they 
are  well  cultivated,  clear  of  jungle,  and  their  temperature 
is  always  moderate  and  healthy.  Geologically  the  north 
part  of  Seoni  consists  of  trap  hills  and  the  south  of  crystal- 
line rock.  The  soil  of  the  plateaus  is  the  i  ich  black  cotton 
soil  formed  by  disintegrated  trap,  of  which  about  two-thirds 
of  the  district  are  said  to  consist,  but  toi/ards  the  south, 
where  cUffs  of  gneiss  and  other  primitive  formations  occur, 
the  soil  is  sUicious  and  contains  a  large  proportion  of  clay. 
Seoni  is  hilly  throughout,  the  hills  for  the  most  part  being 
clothed  vrith  small  stunted  trees ;  but  in  the  valleys  and 
on  the  plateaus  forest  trees  are  very  thinly  scattered  and 
are  seldom  of  largo  size.  The  chief  river  of  the  district 
is  the  Wainganga,  with  its  affluents  the  Hirf,  SAgar,  Theli, 
BijnA,  and  ThAnwar ;  other  streams  are  tho  Tlmar  and  tho 
Sher,  affluents  of  the  NarbadA.  The  average  annual  rain- 
fall is  about  50  inches. 

Tho  census  of  1881  returned  the  population  of  Seoni  district  at 
334,733  (males  167,925,  females  166,808);  of  these  179,705  wero 
Hindus,  13,442  Mohammedans,  99  Christians,  and  139,444  abori- 
ginals. Seoni  (q.v.)  is  the  only  town  with  a  population  exceeding 
10,000.  Of  the  total  district  area  of  3247  square  miles  only  1098 
are  cultivated,  and  of  the  portion  lying  waste  613  are  returned  as 
cultivable.  Wheat  forms  the  staple  crop ;  rice  and  other  food-grains 
are  also  extensively  grown  ;  and  among  miscellaneous  products  are 
cotton,  fibres,  and  sugar-cane.  In  1883-84  the  gross  revenue  of 
Seoni  amounted  to  £35,419,  of  which  the  land-tax  yielded  £15,379. 
Trade  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  markets  in  the  towns. 
Manufactures  consist  of  coarse  cloth  and  some  pottery  of  superior 
quality  made  at  K;inhiw;ira.  At  Khawasa,  in  the  midst  of  the 
forest,  leather  is  beautifully  tanned.  The  only  means  of  communi- 
cation is  by  road,  the  aggregate  length  of  which  is  estimated  at  90 
miles.  Seoni  came  unctcr  British  rule  early  in  the  19th  century, 
on  the  downfall  of  the  Nagpiir  power,  and  it  was  formed  into  i". 
separate  district  in  1861. 

SEONI,  principal  town  and  administrative  headquarter: 
of  the  above  district,  is  situated  in  22°  5'  30"  N.  lat-  an,  • 
79°  35'  E.  long.,  midway  between  NAgpur  and  Jabaip-J 


66G 


S,  E  P  —  SEP 


It  was  founded  in  1774  by  Mohammed  Amln  KiSn,  and 
contains  largo  public  gardens,  a  fine  market-place,  and  a 
handsome  tank.     In  1881  the  population  was  10,203, 

SEPIA  is  a  valuable  and  much  used  deep  brown  pig- 
ment obtained  from  the  ink -sacs  of  various  species  of 
CoTTLE-FisH  (q.v.)  ;  that  from  which  it  is  pnncipally  ob- 
tained is  Sepia  officinalis,  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  especially  abundant  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  Adriatic, 
where  it  is  a  prized  article  of  food.  To  obtain  sopia  the 
ink-sac  is,  immediately  on  the  capture  of  the  animal,  ex- 
tracted from  the  ibody  and  speedily  dried  to  prevent  putre- 
faction. The  contents  are  subscque"t;y  powdered,  dissolved 
in  caustic  alkali,  and  precipitate,  .rom  the  solution  by 
neutralizing  with  acid.  The  precipitate  after  washing  with 
water  is  ready  to  make  up  into  any  form  reqiured  for  use. 

Scpni'bojic  or  mUlc-lionc  consists  of  tlie  internal  "shell"  or 
skeleton  of  Sqria  ojicitialis  and  other  allied  species.  It  is  a?  oblong 
convex  structure  froni  4  to  10  inches  in  length  and  1  to  3  inches 
in  greatest  width,  consisting  internally  of  a  highly  porous  cellular 
mass  of  carbonate  of  Itmc  with  some  animal  matters  covered  by 
a  hard  thin  glassy  layer.  It  is  used  principally  as  a  polishing 
maiJjrial  and  lor  tooth  powder,  and  also  as  a  moulding  material  for 
fine  castings  in  precious  met.^.ls. 

SEPOY,  the  usual  English  spelling  of  sipdM,  the  Persian 
and  Urdu  term  for  a  soldier  of  any  kind.  The  word  sipdh, 
"army,"  from  which  sipdhl,  "soldier,"  is  derived,  corre- 
sponds to  the  Zend  cpddha,  Old  Persian  ^pdda,  and  has 
.also  found  a  home  in  the  Turkish,  Kurdish,  and  Pashto 
(Pushtu)  languages  (see  Justi,  Handbuch  der  Zendsprache, 
p.  303,  6),  while  its  derivative  is  used  in  all  Indian  verna- 
culars, including  Tamil  and  Burmese,  to  denote  a  native 
soldier,  in  contradistinction  to  gord,  "  a  fair-complexioned 
(European)  soldier."  Towards  the  middle  of  the  ISth 
century  efibrts  were  made  by  the  East  India  Company  to 
train  natives  of  good  caste,  both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans, 
for  military  service  under  the  company.  Though  they 
vrere  made  to  use  the  musket,  they  remained  for  some  time 
chiefly  armed  in  the  fashion  of  the  country,  with  sword  and 
target ;  they  wore  the  Indian  dress — the  turban^  vest,  and 
long  drawers — and  were  provided  with  native  officers  under 
English  superior  command.  'Under  their  European  leaders 
they  were  found  to  do  good  sei-vice  and  to  face  danger 
v/ith  constancy  and  firmness.  In  the  progress  of  time  a 
considerable  change  took  place,  and  natives  of  every  de- 
scription were  enrolled  in  the  service.  Though  s.ome  corps 
that  were  almost  entirely  formed  of  the  lowest  classes 
achieved  considerable  reputation  for  valour  in  the  field,  it 
was  not  considered  safe  to  encourage  the  system ;  and  the 
company  reverted  to  their  practice  of  recruiting  from  none 
but  the  most  respectable  classes  of  native  society.  It  is 
on  record  that  a  corps  of  100  sepoys  from  Bombay  and 
400  from  Tellicherry  joined  the  army  at  Madras  in  1747, 
that  the  regular  sepoys  at  Madras  were  employed  in  the 
defence  of  Arcot  (1751),  and  that  a  company  of  Bombay 
sepoys  were  present  at  the  victory  of  Plassey. 

For  instances  of  the  early  occun-enco  of  the  word  see  Burnell  and 
Yule's  Glossary  cf  AiifjU-Indirm  Terms,  s.  v.  On  the  history  of  the 
sepoys  compare  Captain  Williams's  Historical  Account  of  the  TJse 
and  Progress  of  the  Bengal  Infantry  (London,  1S17) ;  Captain 
Broome's  History  of  the  Itise  and.  Progress  of  the  Bengal'  Army 
(Calcutta,  1850) ;  Colonel  Wilson's  History  of  the  lladras  Army 
(London,  18S2-S5,  in  3  volumies) ;  No.  zxxvi.  of  the  Quarterly 
Bevicw;  and  the  military  histories  of  India  generally. 

SEPTEMBER,  the  seventh  month  of  the  old  Eoman 
year,  had  thirty  days  assigned  to  it.  By  the  Julian 
arrangement,  while  retaining  its  former  name  and  number 
of  days,  it  became  the  ninth  month.  The  Ludi  IMagni 
( Ludi  Eoniani)  in  honour  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva 
began  on  the  4th  oi  September.  The  principal  ecclesias- 
tical feasts  falling  within  the  month  are — the  Nativity  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  on  the  8th,  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy 
Cross  on  the  14th,  St  JIatthew  the  Apostle  on  the  21st, 
and  St  Michael  the  Archangel  on  the  29th.     September 


was  called  "  harvest  month "  in  Charlemagne's  calendar, 
and  it  corresponds  partly  to  the  Fructidor  and  partly  to 
the  Vendemiaire  of  the  first  French  republic. 

SEPTICEMIA.  After  a  wound,  whether  the  result  of 
accident  or  of  operation  by  the  surgeon,  blood-poisoning 
may  occur,  ^epsis  or  putrefaction  in  the  wound  is  the 
most  evident  local  condition  which  has  been  associated  by 
clinical  observers  with  blood-poisoning,  and  hence  the  term 
"  septicaemia."  Within  recent  years  the  relation  of  micro- 
organisms to  the  difi'erent  forms  of  ■  blood-poisoning  has 
come  prominently  into  notice;  putrefaction  is  now  known 
to  be  only  one  of  the  fermentative  changes  due  to  the 
presence  of  certain  micro-organisms  in  a  wound,  and  it  is 
admitted  that  there  are  many  organisms  whici,  when  they 
enter  a  wound,  may  give  rise  there  to  fermentative  changes 
that  are  non  putrefactive.     (See  Schizomycetes.) 

Organisms  have  recently  been  divided  into  two  great 
groups, — those  which  can  only  grow  in  dead  or  decaying 
matter  and  those  which  can  grow  in  the  living  tissues 
and  in  the  blood,  which  in  this  relation  must  be  looked 
upon  as  a  tissue.  The  first  group  has  been  termed  "  sapro- 
phytic." The  second  group  may  be  termed  "pathogenic,"  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  saprophytic  variety.  But  no 
distinct  line  of  demarcation  can  yet  be  drawn  between 
these  two  groups,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  some  patho- 
genic organisms  may  equally  with  the  saprophytic  find  a 
pabulum  in  dead  and  decaying  matter.  Yet  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  more  common  varieties  of  septic  organisms 
or  saprophytes  can  only  grow  in  dead  or  decaying  matter, 
and  that  the  living  tissues,  mora  especially  when  their 
power  of  vitality  is  great,  are  able  to  resist  and  destroy 
the  saprophytes.  There  are  also  some  orgauism.s  which, 
as  far  as  is  known  at  present,  may  be  innocuous  and 
give  rise  to  no  symptoms,  local  or  general,  when  they  are 
implanted  in  the  human  body.  When  an  organism  finds 
in  the  tissues  a  fit  pabulum  for  its  growth  and  devel- 
opment, the  elements  in  the  tissue  are  broken  up,  and 
the  products  are  termed  a  "ptomaine"  (ji-rw/ia).  This 
ptomaine  may  irritate  the  wound  and  prevent  healing  ;  it 
may  also  be  absorbed-  into  the  blood  and  poison  it,  hence 
the  term  "ptomaine  poisoning."  Both  the  saprophytic 
and  the  pathogenic  organism  may  form  a  ptomaine  ic  the 
wound.  AVhen  the  wound  is  due  to  a  saprophyte  the 
absorption  of  the  ptomaine  ha-s  been  termed  "  .sapneraia  " ; 
the  ptomaine  of  the  saprophyte  has  been  called  "  sepsin." 
No  special  name  has  yet  been  given  to  the  ptomaine 
formed  in  the  wound  by  the  pathogenic  organism ;  nor 
has  any  name  been  given  to  the  condition  due  to  the 
absorption  of  the  ptomaine  formed  by  the  pathogenic 
organism.  Our  knowledge  is  not  yet  sufficient  to  enable 
us  to  separate  these  two  varieties  of  ptomaine  poisoning. 
There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  they  do  exist  as 
separate  conditions,  and  a.-.o  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
in  some  instances  both  forms  of  poisoning  may  be  present 
at  one  and  the  same  time. 

The  pathogenic  organism,  however,  has  another  power 
which  gives  rise  to  an  entirely  separate  condition.  Not 
only  may  it  form  its  ptomaine  in  the  wound,  but  the 
organism  itself  can  enter  into  and  be  carried  by  the  blood- 
stream and  lymph-stream  to  distant  parts.  It  can  live  in 
the  blood  or  lymph-stream  and  can  grow  there :  it  may  be 
arrested  in  the  capillaries  of  the  blood-vessels,  or  in  the 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  Ijonph-vessels,  and  in  these  situa- 
tions may  form,  so  to  speak,  a  colony  of  organisms  which 
develop  and  form  ptomaines ;  and  the  ptomaines,  passing 
into  the  blood,  may  still  further  poison  the  patient.  This 
power  of  the  pathogenic  organism  is  infective,  and  the 
term  "  infection  "  has  been  applied  to  the  process.  These 
colonies  or  secondary  foci  of  infection  often  go  on  to  sup- 
puration ;  hence   the  term   "  secondary "  applied  to  the 


S  E  P  — S  E  P 


0/ 


abscesses  which  have  long  been  observed  in  some  forms 
of  blood-poisoning.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  the 
pus-cells  in  the  original  wound  passed  into  the  blood,  and, 
being  caught  in  the  capillaries,  were  the  cause  of  the 
abscess-formation  in  the  parts  distant  from  the  wound ; 
hence  the  term  "  pyiemia  "  or  pus  in  the  blood.  The  pus- 
ceils  may  enter  the  blood-stream ;  it  is  not,  however,  the 
cellular  element  that  is  the  essence  of  the  condition,  but 
the  orgaiusm  which  the  cellular  element  may  carry  along 
with  it.  The  hectic  condition  observed  in  a  case  of  long- 
continued  suppuration  is  in  all  probability  a  chronic  form 
of  blood-poisoning.  In  very  acute  cases,  in  which  the 
poison  is  either  concentrated,  virulent,  or  in  large  quantity, 
death  may  occur  within  a  very  few  hours.  In  other  cases 
the  condition  may  become  chronic,  and  if  the  strength  of 
the  patient  can  be  kept  up  by  stimulants  recovery  often 
takes  place.  The  chances  of  recovery  are  much  greater 
when  the  condition  is  not  truly  an  infective  one.  When 
the  manufactory  of  the  ptomaine  is  only  in  the  wound, 
the  organism  may  be  there  destroyed  by  the  use  of  power- 
f;il  antiseptics  or  antifennentatives.  The  primary  cause 
being  removed,  the  patient  may  then  be  saved.  When, 
however,  the  pathogenic  organism  gets  into  the  blood- 
stream and  distant  foci  of  infection  are  formed,  the  chances 
of  ultimate  recovery  are  greatly  diminished.  Various  na- 
successful  attempts  have  been  made  by  the  internal  admi- 
nistration of  antifermentatives  so  to  alter  the  blood  that 
the  micro-organism  cannot  find  in  it  or  the  tissues  a  fit 
nidus.  The  point  to  attend  to  is  to  prevent  organismal 
fermentation  in  wounds  by  careful  antiseptic  or  rather 
antifermentative  precautions.  Just  as  the  word  "  septic- 
semia "  has  a  more  general  application  than  can  now  be 
strictly  allowed  if  we  look  to  the  derivation  of  the  word 
and  the  present  state  of  cur  knowledge,  so  the  word 
"antiseptic"  is  applied  to  all  substances  which  prevent 
organismal  fermentation,  although  many  of  these  organisms 
are  undoubtedly  non-septic  in  their  character. 

StPTUAGIXT.  The  Septuagint  {ol  6,  LXX.)  or  Alex- 
andrian version  of  the  Old  Testament  seams  to  be  named 
from  the  legend  .of  its  composition  by  seventy,  or  more 
exactly  seventy-two,  translators.  In  the  Letter  of  Aristeas 
(Aristaeus)^  this  legend  is  recounted  as  follows.  i>emetrius 
Phalereus,  keeper  of  the  Alexandrian  library,  proposed  to 
King  Ptolemy  11.  Philadelphus  to  have  a  Greek  translation 
of  the  Jewish  law  made  for  the  library.  The  king  con- 
sented and  sent  an  embassy,  of  which  the  author  of  the 
letter  wa^  a  member,  to  the  high  priest  Eleazar  at  Jeru- 
salem asking  him  to  send  six  ancient,  worthy,  and  learned 
men  from  each  of  the  twelve  tribes  to  translate  the  law 
for  him  at  Alexandria.  Elexzar  readily  consented  and  sent 
the  seventy-two  men  with  a  precious  roll  of  the  law.  They 
we're  most  honourably  received  at  the  com't  of  Alexandria 
and  conducted  to  the  island  (Pharos),  tliat  they  might  work 
undisturbed  and  isolated.  When  they  had  come  to  an  agree- 
ment upon  a  section  Demetrius  wrote  dowTi  their  version ; 
the  whole  translation  was  finished  in  seventy-two  days.  The 
Jewish  .community  of  Alc.'candria  was  allowed  to  have  a 
copy,  and  accepted  the  version  ofiicially, — indeed  a  curse 
was  laid  upon  the  introduction  of  any  ckangeis  in  it. 

There  is  no  cjuestion  that  this  Letter  is  spurious.- 
Aristeas  is  represented  as  a  heathen,  but  the  real  writer 
must  have  been  a  Jew  and  no  heathen.  Aristoas  is  repre- 
sented as  himself  a  member  of  the  embassy  to  Eleazar ; 
but  the  author  of  the  Letter  cannot  have  been  a  contem- 
porary of  the  events  he  records,  else  he  would  have  known 


'  Edited  by  S.  Scliard  (Frankfort,  1610),  by  l^i.-.rercamp  (in  hi3 
Joscphtui),  and  by  M.  Schmidt  (in  Merx's  Archii;  1808).  Comp.  Lum- 
broao,  in  the  Transactions  of  tlic  Turin  Academy,  1869. 

'  Scaliger,  In  E'js.  Chron.  animadv.,  No.  1734  ;  H.  Hody,  DeJjibli- 
cfrun  Texlibus  Ori'T^naiibus. 


that  Demetrius  fell  out  of  favour  at  the  Tery  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Philadelphus,  being  said  to  have  intri.c  ued 
against  his  succession  to  the  throne.^  Nor  could  a  gen  .tine 
honest  -n-itness  have  fallen  into  the  absurd  mistak,  ot" 
making  delegates  from  JeriLsalem  the  authors  of  the  iiex- 
andrian  version.  The  forgery,  however,  is  a  very  early  one; 
"  There  is  not  a:  court-title,  an  institution,  a  law,  a  magis- 
tracy, an  oifice,  a  technical  term,  a  formula,  a  peculiar 
phrase  in  this  letter  which  is  not  found  on  papyri  or  in- 
scriptions and  confirmed  by  them."  *  That  in  itseU  would 
not  necessarily  imply  a  very  early  date  for  the  piece ;  but 
what  is  decisive  is  that  the  author  Limits  canonicity  to  the 
law  and  knows  of  no  other  holy  book  already  translated 
into  Greek.  Further,  hat  he  tells  about  Judiea  and  Jeru- 
salem is  throughout  i.;vlicable  to  the  period  when  the 
Ptolemies  bore  sway  there  and  gives  not  the  slightest  sug- 
gestion of  the  immense  changes  that  followed  the  conquest 
of  Palestine  by  the  Seleucids.  Thus,  too,  it  is  probable  that 
the  Jewish  philosopher  Aristobulus,  who  lived  under  Pto-' 
lemy  Philometor(180-145),  derived  his  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  LXX.  from  this  Letter,  with  which  it  corresponds.^ 
If  now  the  Letter  is  so  old,  it  is  incredible  that  it  should 
contain  no  elements  derived  from  actual  tradition  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  LXX.,  and  we  must  try  to  separate  these 
from  the  merely  fabulous.  To  this  end  we  must  consider 
what  is  the  main  aim  and  object  of  the  forgery.  The  chief 
thing  iu  .the  Letter  is  the  description  of  a  seven  days' 
symposium  of  the  seventy  translators  at  rhe  Alexandrian 
court,  durhig  which  each  of  them  has  a  question  to  ansv.er, 
and  raises  the  admiration  of  the  king  for  the  wisdom 
produced  among  the  Jews  by  their  knowledge  of  the 
law.  Further,  very  gTeat  weight  is  laid  on  the  point  that 
the  LXX.  is  the  ofiicial  and  authoritative  Bible  of  the 
Hellenistic  Jews,  having  been  ngt  only  forrcaUy  accepted 
by  the  .synagogue  at  .Alexandria  but  authorized  by  the 
high  priest  at  Jerusaleiri  and  the  seventy  elders  who  are 
in  fact  its  authors.  Other  matters  receive  no  special 
emphasis,  and  the  presumption  is  that  what  is  said  about 
them  is  not  deliberate  fiction  and  in  part  at  least  is  true. 
Th'os  it  has  always  been  taken  as  a  fact  that  the  version 
originated  at  Alexandria,  that  the  law  was  translated  first, 
and  that  this  took  place  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  11.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  thought  dilEcult  to  believe  that  the 
scholarly  tastes  of  the  Alexandrians,  personified  in  Deme- 
trius Phalereus  as  the  presiding  genius  of  the  Alexandrian 
librarj',  could  have  furnished  the  stimulus  to  reduce  the 
translation  to  writing.  One  can  hardly  call  this  intrinsic- 
ally improbable  in  view  of  the  miscellaneous  literarj'  t".:tes 
of  the  court  of  the  Ptolemies.  But  it  has  been  thought 
much  more  likely  that  the  Septuagint  was  written  down 
to  satisfy  the  religious  needs  of  the  Jews  by  a  translated 
Torah,  since  in  fact  the  version  is  fitted  for  Je^^and  coidd 
have  been  intelligible  only  to  them,  and  indeecraievei'  came 
to  be  circulated  and  known  outside  of  their  circ  es.  Here, 
however,  we  must  distinguish  between  WTitten  and  oral 
interpretation.  If  interpretation  was  needea  ui  the  sj'na- 
gogue  service,  it  was  an  oral  interpretation  that  was  given. 
It  was  not  a  natural  thing  for  the  Jews  to  write  the  trans- 
lation,— indeed  they  had  religious  scruples  against  su^;h  a 
course.  Only  "  Scripture  "  Vi-as  to  be  written,  and  to  put 
the  contents  of  Scripture  in  'OTiting  in  any  other  than  the 
old  hply  form  was  deemed  almost  a  profanation, — a  feeling 
of  which  there  is  evidence  in  the  Letter  itself."     It  is  well 


'  Hermippus  Caliimachius,  ap.  Dio^.  Laert.,  v.  78. 

*  G.  Lumbroso,  lio'hcrchcs  sur  t^Econ,  Pol.  dc  V^gyptc  sotts  les 
Lagidcs  (Turin,  1870),  p.  xiii. 

"  Clem.  Alex.,  Strom.,  i.  p.  342,  ed.  Sylb.;  EiKcb.,  Prop.  Ev.,  ix.  6, 
p.  410  sq.  ;  o>-  ^'  '  ■  .or,  Diatribe  dc  Arislobuto,  Leyden,  ISOtJ, 
reprinted  in  (J  '  ■  the  Priep,  Ev, 

*  In  what  i,  uithors  Theopoiipo3  and  nicodcc'.".".  v  "n 
Tcntnriid  to  aisti  t  ewUiu  vlun£3  out  of  the  lav;  ia  their  prof.'.ue  v.-^il>. 


668 


SEPTUAGIKT 


known  how  in  Palestine  the  Targum  w.-i3  handed  down 
orally  for  centuries  before  it  was  at  last  reiLiccd  to  writing; 
and,  if,  on  the  contrary,  at  Alexandria  a  written  version 
came  into  existence  so  early,  it  is  far  from  improbable  that 
this  was  due  to  some  influence  from  \iT.thout.  That  the 
work  is  purely  Jewish  in  character  is  only  v.-hat  was  in- 
evitable in  any  case.  The  translators  were  necessarily 
Jews  and  v,-ere  necessarily  and  entirely  guided  by  the  Uving 
tradition  which  had  its  focus  in  the  synagogal  lessons. 
And  hence  it  is  easily  understood  that  the  version  was 
ignored  by  the  Greeks,  who  must  have  found  it  barbarous 
a'nd  unintelligible,  but  obtained  speedy  acceptance  with 
the  Jews,  first  in  private  use  and  at  length  also  in  the 
synagogue  service. 

The  ne.vt  direct  evidence  whit.!  ..  e  have  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  LXX.  is  the  prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus,  from  which 
it  appears  that  about  1 30  B.C.  not  only  the  law  but  "  the 
prophets  and  the  other  books"  were  extant  in  Greek. 
■  With  this  it  agrees  that  the  most  ancient  relics  of  Jewish- 
Greek  literatui-e,  preserved  in  the  extracts  made  by  Alex- 
ander Polyhistor  (Eu.s.,  Prmp.  Ev.,  ix.),  all  show  acquaint- 
ance with  the  LXX.  .  These  later  translations  too  were 
not  made  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  synagogue,  but  express 
a  literary  movement  among  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  stimulated 
by  the  favourable  reception  given  to  the  Greek  Pentateuch, 
which  enabled  the  translators  to  count  on  finding  an  inter- 
ested public.  If  a  translation  was  well  received  by  reading 
circles  amongst  the  Jews,  it  gradually  acquired  public  ac- 
knowledgment and  was  finally  used  also  in  the  synagogue, 
so  far  as  lessons  from  other  books  than  the  Pentateuch 
were  used  at  all.  But  originally  the  translations  were 
mere  private  enterprises,  as  appears  from  the  prologue  to 
Ecclesiasticus  and  the  colophon  to  Esther.  It  appears 
also  that  it  was  long  before  the  whole  Seftuagint  was 
finished  and  treated  as  a  complete  v/ork. 

As  the  work  of  translation  went  on  so  gradually  and 
new  books  were  always  added  to  the  collection  the  compass 
of  the  Greek  Bible  came  to  be  somewhat  indefinite.  The 
law  always  maintained  its  pre-eminence  as  the  basis  of 
tile  canon  ;  but  the  prophetic  collection  changed  its  as- 
pect by  having  various  Hagiographa  incorporated  with  it 
according  to  an  arbitrary  arrangement  by  subjects.  The 
distinction  made  in  Palestine  between  Hagiographa  and 
Apocrypha  was  never  properly  established  among  the  Hel- 
lenists. In  some  books  the  translators  took  the  liberty 
to  make  considerable  additions  to  the  original,  and  these 
additions — e.p.,  those  to  Daniel — became  a  part  of  the 
Septuagint.  Nevertheless  learned  Hellenists  were  quite 
well  aware  of  the  limits  of  the  canon  and  respected  them. 
Philo  can  be  shown  to  have  known  the  Apocrypha,  but  he 
never  cites  them,  much  less  allegorizes  them  or  uses  them 
in  proof  of  his  tenets.  And  in  some  measure  the  widening 
of  the  Old  Testament  canon  in  the  Septuagint  must  be  laid 
to  the  account  of  Christians.  As  regards  the  character  of 
the  version,  it  is  a  first  attempt,  and  so  is  memorable  and 
worthy  of  respect,  but  at  the  same  time  displays  all  the 
weaknesses  of  a  first  attempt.  Though  the  influence  of 
contemporary  ideas  is  sometimes  perceptible,  the  Septuagint 
is  no  paraphrase,  but  in  general  closely  follows  the  Hebrew, 
— so  closely  indeed  that  we  can  hardly  understand  it  with- 
out a  process  of  retroversion,  and  that  a  true  Greek  could 
not  have  found  any  satisfaction  in  it.  The  same  Greek  word 
is  forced  to  assume  the  whol»  range  of  senses  which  belongs 
in  Semitic  speech  to  the  derivatives  of  a  single  root;  a 
Hebrew  expression  which  has  various  Greek  equivalents 
according  to  the  context  is  constantly  rendered  in  one  way  ; 
the  aorist,  like  the  Hebrew  perfect,  is  employed  as  an  in- 
choative with  a  much  wider  range  of  application  than 
is  tolerated  in  classical  Greek."  At  the  same  time,  many 
passages  are  freely  rendered  and  turned  where  there  is  no 


particular  need  to  do  so,  and  that  even  in  books  Uke  the 
Prophetoe  Prion's,  in  which  the  rendering  is  generally  quite 
stiff.  The  literalness  of  the  version  is  therefore  due  not  to 
scrupulousness  but  to  want  of  skill,  and  probably  in  part 
also  to  accommodation  to  a  kind  of  Jewish  Greek  jargon 
which  had  already  developed  in  the  mouths  of  the  people 
and  was  really  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  in  disguise.  This  Jewish 
dialect  in  turn  found  its  standard  in  the  Septuagint. 

As  the  version  is  the  work  of  many  hands,  it  is  naturally 
not  of  uniform  character  throughout  all  its  parts, — indeed 
considerable  varieties  of  character  sometimes  appear  in  one 
and  the  same  book.  The  older  i;onstituents  of  the  canon 
have  an  unmistakable  family  likeness  as  contrasted  with 
the  later  books  ;  this  one  may  see  by  comparing  Kings  with 
Chronicles  or  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  with  Daniel.  The 
Pentateuch  is  considered  to  be  particularly  well  done  and 
Isaiah  to  be  particularly  unhappy.  Some  of  the  Hagio- 
grapha (Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Chronicles)  are  reproduced 
with  verbal  closeness;  others,  on  the  contrary  (Job,  Esdras, 
Esther,  Daniel),  are  marked  by  a  very  free  treatment  of 
the  text,  or  even  by  considerable  additions.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, always  easy  to  tell  whether  a  Septuagint  addition  is 
entirely  due  to  the  translator  or  belongs  to  the  original 
text,  which  lay  before  him  in  a  recension  divergent  from 
the  Massoretio.  The  chief  impulse  in  recent  times  to 
thorough  investigation  of  the  character  of  the  several  parts 
of  the  Septuagint  was  given'  by  Lagarde  in  his  Anmerh 
miyen  sur  griechischen  TJeherselzung  der  Proverbien,  Leipsic, 
1863. 

The  Septuagint  came  into  general  use  with  the  Grecian 
Jews  even  in  the  synagogue.  PhUo  and  Josephus  use  it,  and 
so  do  the  New  Testament  writers.  But  very  early  small 
corrections  seem  to  have  been  introduced,  especially  by  such 
Palestinians  as  had  occasion  to  use  the  LXX.,  in  consequence 
part!/  of  divergent  interpretation,  partly  of  differences  of 
text  or  of  pronunciation  (particularly  of  proper  names). 
The  Old  Testament  passages  cited  by  authors  of  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  especially  those  in  the  Apo- 
calypse, show  many  such  variations  from  the  Septuagint, 
and,  curiously  enough,  these  often  correspond  with  the  later 
versions  (particularly  with  Theodcrtion),  so  that  the  latter 
seem  to  rest  on  a  fixed  tradition.  Corrections  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  proper  names  so  as  to  come  closer  to  the 
Massoretic  pronunciation  are  especially  frequent  in  Jose- 
phus. Finally  a  reaction  against  the  use  of  the  Septuagint 
set  in  among  the  Jews  after  the  destruction  of  the  temple, 
— a  movement  which  was  connected  with  the  strict  defini- 
tion of  the  canon  and  the  fixing  of  an  authoritative  text 
by  the  rabbins  of  Pal-stine.  But  long  usage  had  made 
it  impossible  for  the  Jews  to  do  without  a  Greek  Bible, 
and  to  meet  this  want  a  new  version  was  prepared  corre- 
sponding accurately  with  the  canon  and  text  of  the  Phari- 
sees. This  was  the  version  of  Aquila,  which  took  the 
place  of  the  Septuagint  in  the  synagogues,  and  long  con- 
tinued in  use  there.^  A  little  later  other  translations 
were  made  by  Jews  or  Jewish  Christians,  which  also 
followed  the  ofiicial  Jewish  canon  and  text,  but  were  not 
such  slavish  reproductions  as  Aquila's  version ;  two  of 
these  were  Greek  (Theodotion,  Symmachus)  and  one  Syriao 
(Pesaito). 

Meantime  the  Greek  and  Latin  Christians  kept  to  the 
old  version,  which  now  became  the  official  Bible  of  the 
catholic  church.  Yet  here  also,  in  process  of  time,  a 
certain  distrust  of  the  beptuagint  began  to  be  felt,  as  its 
divergence  from  the  Jewish  text  was  observed  through, 
comparison  of  the  younger  versions  based  on  that  text,, 
or  came  into  notice  through  the  frequent  discussions  be- 
tween Jews  and  Christians  as  to  the  Messianig  prophecies-. 

*  Corpus  Juris  Civ.,  Nov,  {jItL 


SEPTUAGINT 


669 


On  the  whole  the  Christians  were  disposed  to  charge 
the  Jews  mt'-  falsifying  their  Scriptures  out  of  hatred  to 
Christianity, -^a  charge  which  has  left  its  echoes  even  in 
the  Koran.  But  some  less  prejudiced  scholars  did  not 
share  this  current  view,  and  went  so  far  in  the  other 
direction  as  simply  to  identify  the  Jewish  text  with  the 
authentic  original.  Thus  they  fell  into  the  mistake  of 
holding  that  the  later  Jewish  text  was  that  from  which 
the  Septuagint  translators  worked,  and  by  which  their 
TTork  was  to  be  tested  and  measured.  On  these  critical 
principles  Origen  prepared  his  famous  Hexapla,  in  which 
he  placed  alongside  of  the  Septuagint,  in  six  parallel 
columns,  the  three  younger  versions  and  the  Hebrew 
text  in  Hebrew  and  in  Greek  characters.  The  Septuagint 
text  he  corrected  after  the  younger  versions,  marking  the 
additions  of  the  LXX.  with  a  prefixed  obelus  (  — ,  -r),  as 
a  sign  that  they  should  be  deleted,  and  supplying  omis- 
sions, generally  from  Theodotion,  with  a  prefixed  a'^terisk 
(«).  The  end  of  the  passage  to  which  the  obelus  or 
asterisk  applied  was  marked  with  a  metobelus  (■< ). 
The  same  signs  were  used  for  various  readings,  the  read- 
ing of  the  LXX.  being  obelized,  and  the  variant,  from 
another  version  corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  text,  follow- 
ing it  with  an  asterisk.  It  was  only  in  simpler  cases, 
however,  that  this  plan  could  be  carried  through  without 
making  the  text  quite  unreadable ;  the  more  complicated 
variations  were  either  tacitly  corrected  or  left  untoushed, 
the  reader  being  left  to  judge  of  them  by  comparing  the 
parallel  columns.  Origen  made  most  change  in  the  proper 
names,  which  he  emended  in  conformity  with  the  Jewish 
pronunciation  of  the  period,  and  in  the  order  of  the  text, 
which,  to  preserve  the  parallelism  in  the  columns,  he  made 
to  follow  the  Hebrew.! 

Origen's  critical  labours  had  a  very  great  influence  in- 
shaping  the  text  of  the  Septuagint,  though  in  quite  another 
direction  than  he  designed.  Even  before  his  time  .the 
Septuagint  was  largely  contaminated  by  admixture  from 
the  other  versions,  but  such  alterations  now  began  to  be 
made  systematically.  Thus  he  intensified  a  mischief  which 
to  be  sure  had  begun  before  him,  and  even  before  the 
labours  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  and  Symmachus.  The  most 
significant  evidence  of  this  contamination  of  the  text  lies 
in  the  conflate  readings,  where  the  same  Hebrew  words 
are  translated  twice,  or  sometimes  even  thrice,  or  where 
two  Hebrew  readings  of  the  same  passage  are  represented, 
sometimes  by  simple  juxtaposition  of  renderings  that 
differ  but  slightly,  at  other  times  by  a  complicating  inter- 
lacing of  very  different  forms  of  the  Greek.  These  con- 
flate readings,  however,  in  which  the  true  reading  survives 
along  with  the  false,  are  th.o  least  fatal  corruptions ;  in 
many  cases  the  genuine  text  has  disappeared  altogether 
before  the  correction,  as  can  bo  seen  by  comparing  different 
MSS.  A  faithful  picture  of  the  corruption  of  the  text  of 
the  Septuagint  as  it  has  come  down  to  us  is  given  in 
the  apparatus  to  tbo  great  Oxford  edition  of  Holmes  and 
Parsons  (5  vols.,  O.-cford,  1798-1827). 

Not  long  after  Origen  there  arose  almost  contemporane- 
ously three  recensions  of  the  Septuagint,  which  became 
established  in  three  regions  of  the  Greek  Church.  "  Alex- 
andria et  .iEgyptus  in  Septuaginta  suis  Hesychium  laudat 
auctorem,  Constantinopolia  usque  Antiochiam  Luciani 
martyris  exemplaria  probat,  mediic  inter  has  provinciae 
Palestine  codices  legunt,  quos  ab  Origene  elaborates 
Eusebius  et  Pamphilus  vulgavorunt ;  totusque  orbis  hac 
iiUer  se  trifaria  varietate  compUgnat,"  says  Jerome  in  the 
PriBf.  in  Paralip.  ad  (^hromatium.  According  to  this  the 
text  of  Eusebius  is  that  of  Origen,  i.e.,  a  separate  edition 
of  the  fifth  column  of  the  Hexapla,  which  contained  the 

'  The  best  collection  of  the  fragments  of  the  Hexapla  is  that  of 
Field,  Origmia  Sexaplorum  qua  auperaunt.  Oxford,  1875. 


Septuagint  with  asterisks  and  obeli.  The  text  of  Hesychius 
has  not  yet  been  identified  with  certainty  =  ;  that  of  Lucian 
is,  according  to  Field  and  Lagarde,  most  probably  given  in 
Codd.  Holmes.,  19,  82,  93,  108,  and  another  series  of  MSS. 
for  the  prophets.  It  is  by  no  means  the  case,  however, 
that  all  our  MSS.  can  be  arranged  in  three  families  ;  many 
belong  to  none  of  the  three  recensions,  and  among  these 
are  such  important  codices  as  the  Alexandrian  (A)  and 
the  Vatican  (B). 

The  divergences  of  the  LXX.  from  the  Hebrew  are 
particularly  great  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings, 
also  in  the  prophets,  especially  in  Ezekiel,  and  still  more 
in  Jeremiah,  and  finally  also  in  Job  and  Proverbs.  In 
Jeremiah  the  differences  extend  to  the  order  of  the 
chapters  in  the  second  half  of  the  book,  and  therefore 
have  always  attracted  special  attention.  In  Proverbs 
too  the  individual  proverbs  are  differently  arranged  in 
the  LXX.,  and  similar  differences  can  be  traced  in  the 
versions  of  Ecclesiasticus.  In  the  Pentateuch  there  are 
considerable  variations  only  in  the  last  part  of  Exodus. 
The  text  of  the  genuine  Septuagint  is  generally  shorter 
than  the  Massoretic  text. 

The  chief  editions  of  the  Septuagint  are — (1)  the  Complutensis, 
1514-ir  ;  (2)  the  Aldine,  1516  ;  (3)  the  SLxtine,  1587  ;  (4)  tlie  first 
Oxford  edition  by  Grabe,  1707-20  ;  (5)  the  second  Oxford  edition  by 
Holmes  and  Parsons,  1798-1827;  (G)  Lagarde's  edition  of  Lucian, 
vol.  i.,  Gottingcn,  1S83. 

The  LXX.  is  of  great  importance  in  more  than  one 
respect :  it  is  probably  the  oldest  translation  of  consider- 
able extent  that  ever  was  written,  and  at  any  rate  it  is 
the  starting-point  for  the  history  of  Jewish  interpretatiot 
and  the  Jewish  view  of  Scripture.  And  from  this  its  im- 
portance as  a  document  of  exegetical  tradition,  especially 
in  lexical  matters,  may  be  easily  understood.  It  was  in 
great  part  composed  before  the  close  of  the  canon — nay, 
before  some  of  the  Hagiographa  were  written — and  in  it 
alone  are  preserved  a  number  of  important  ancient  Jewish 
books  that  were  not  admitted  into  the  canon.-  As  the 
book  which  created  or  at  least  codified  the  dialect  of  Bib- 
lical Greek,  it  is  also  the  key  to  the  New  Testament  and  all 
th  i  literature  connected  with  it.  But  its  chief  value  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only  independent  witness  for 
the  text  of  the  Old  Testament  which  we  have  to  compare 
with  the  Massoretic  text.  Now  it  may  seem  that  the 
critical  value  of  the  LXX.  is  greatly  impaired,  if  not 
entirely  cancelled,  by  the  corrupt  state  of  the  text.  If  we 
have  not  the  version  itself  in  authentic  form  we  cannot 
reconstruct  with  certainty  the  Hebrew  text  from  which  it 
was  made,  and  so  cannot  get  at  various  readings  which 
can  be  confidently  confronted  with  the  Massoretic  text ; 
and  it  may  be  a  long  time  before  we  possess  a  satisfactory 
edition  of  the  genuine  Septuagint.  But  fortunately  in 
this  case  sound  results  in  detail  must  precede  and  not 
follow  the  establishment  of  a  text  sound  throughout.  The 
value  of  a  Septuagint  reading  must  bo  separatcjy  deter- 
mined in  each  particular  case,  and  the  proof  that  a  read- 
ing is  good  is  simply  that  it  necessarily  carries  us  back  to 
a  Hebrew  variant,  and  cannot  be  explained  by  looseness 
of  translation.  It  is  therefore  our  business  to  collect  as 
many  Greek  passages  as  possible  which  point  to  a  various 


•  See,  however,  Ceriani's  note  on  the  recensions  of  LXX.  in  the 
Rt-ndiconti  of  the  R.  Instituto  Lombardo  for  18th  February  1886, 
where  it  is  shown  that  the  Codex  rescriptus  Dubiincnsis,  Holmes,  viii., 
edited  at  Dublin,  18S0),  and  other  MSS.  written  in  Egypt,  which 
Ceriani  had  already  cited  in  his  Momnnenta  (vol.  iiL  p.  xx.)  present 
many  features  of  corrcRpondence  with  the  Coptic  versions  and  w?,'h 
the  readings  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  "  AU  these  documents  at  any 
rate  present  the  character  of  the  Hcsychian  recension,  being  all  Egyp- 
tian testimonies  contemporary  with  or  little  later  than  Jerome."  Mo:;t 
of  their  characteristic  readings  appear  also  in  MS.  Holmes,  106,  to 
which  MSS.  26,  33,  86,  97,  198,  206  arc  also  aVin.  For  an  attei-,,)t 
to  determine  the  MSS.  containing  or  akin  to  the  Hcsychian  roceusion 
in  Ezckiel,  iee  CorniU,  Das  Bitch  Ezechnl,  Leipsic,  1886,  p.  GQ  sii. 


670 


S  B 


P' 


reading  in  tlia  Helirew  text  cf  the  translators  as  compsired 
with  the  Masaorotic  text.  And  for  this  wo  E;ust  not  con- 
fine ourselves  to  one  recension  biit  use  all  recensions 
that  our  MSS.  ofTcr.  For,  though  one  recension  may  be 
bettor  than  another,  none  of  them  has  been  er.eaipt  from 
the  influences  under  which  the  genuine  Septuagint  was 
brought  into  conformity  with  the  received  Hebrew  test, 
and  those  influenced  have  'afiecl.ed  each  recension  in  a 
diCerent  way,  and  even  differently  in  the  different  books. 
In  this  process,  as  indeed  in  all  te.-ctual  criticism,  much  of 
course  must  be  dependent  on  individual  judgment.  But 
that  it  should  be  so  appears  to  have  been  the  design  of  pro- 
vidence, which  has  permitted  the  Old  Testament  text  to 
reach  us  in  a  form  that  is  often  so  corrupt  as  to  sin  against 
both  the  laws  of  logic  and  of  grammar — of  rhetorical  and 
poetiaal  foi-m.  (j.  v.-b.) 

SEPULCHRE,  Canohs  SEOiTLiJR  of  the  Holy,  an 
order  foundsd  in  1114  by  Arnold,  patriarch  of' Jerusalem 
(or  according  to  another  account  in  1099  by  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon),  on  the  rule  of  St  Augustine.  It  admitted 
women  as  well  as  msn  and  soon  spread  rapidiy  over  Europe. 
In  the  17th  century  it  received  a  new  rule  from  Urban 
Tin.  Shortly  after  this  the  canons  became  estinct ;  but 
the  canonesses  are  still  to  be  found  in  France,  Baden,  and 
the  Netherlands.  They  live  a  strictly  monastic  life  and 
devote  themselves  mainly  to  the  work  of  education. 

SEPULCHRE,  Knights  op  the  Eoly,  an  English 
military  order  which  was  said  to  date  from  the  12  th 
century  and  which  became  extinct  at  the  Reformation.  A 
similar  order,  founded  in  France,  lasted  from  the  end  of 
the  15ih  century  till  the  time  of  the  Revolution;  it  was 
resuscitated  by  Louis  X-\T[n.  in  1814,  but  again  became 
extinct  in  1830. 

SEPULCHRE,  The  Holy,  the  rook-cut  tomb  in  which, 
after  His  crucifixion,  the  body  of  our  Lord  was  placed. 
Few  questions  of  topography  have  been  '  debated  with 
greater  -persistence  or,  in  many  cases,  with  greater  bitter- 
ness than  that  of  the  site  of  this  tomb.  Only  a  brief 
sketch  of  the  leading  features  of  the  controversy  can  be 
given  here. 

The  only  information  on  the  subject  to  be  gained  from 
the  New  Testament  is  that- the  tomb  was  in- a  garden  "in 
the  place  where  Christ  was  crucified"  (John  xix.  41), 
which  again  was  "near  the  city"  (John  xix.  20)  and 
"without  the  gate"  (Heb.  xiii.  12),  and  that  the  watch, 
proceeding  from  the  sepulchre  to  the  chief  priest's,  "  came 
into  the  city"  (Matt,  sxviii.  11).  The  first  requisite, 
therefore,  of  any  locality  professing  to  be  that  of  the 
Sepulchre  is  that'  it  should,  at  the  date  of  the  crucifixion, 
have  been  without  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.^ 

The  existing  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which  is 
admitted  en  all  hands  to  have  occupied  the  same  site  for 
the  last  800  years,  is  in  the  heart  of  the  present  town, 
300  yards  from  the  neraest  point  of  the  existing  v.-all  and 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  bazaars.  Saev.TiLf,"  -writ- 
ing in  1102,  Hildebi-and  of  Oldenburg^  in  1211,  and 
Jacobus  de  'Vitriaco^  in  1220,  assert  that  -up  to  the  time 
of  Hadrian  the  site  was  still  without  the  citcuit  of  the 
walls.  BrocardUj*  in  1230  states  that  the  modern  walls 
included  more  in  breadth  than  they  did  at  the  time  of 


'  The  revised  ts.xt  of  John  xix.  20  reads  on  ^yyijs  -Tjv  rijs  7r6Xews  6 
T6:ros  Brov  IffTavptliOi^  6  lf](fovs  i  hut  the  best  accredited  reading  is -on 
^77t>?  -?i'  6  tAttos  t^s  7r6\ew!.  Mr  Buckton,  in  I^otes  and  Queries  {2d 
Bevic<:,  ii.  97),  argues  that  according  to  the  latter  reading  Calvary  must 
have  been  -prithin  the  city.  He  -would  explain  Heb.  xiii.  12  as  spoken 
"  for  the  allegorical  purpose  of  the  writers  "  of  the  temple,  but  offers 
no  explanation  of  Matt,  xxviii.  11. 

2  Recueil  de  Voijctges  (Societo  de  Geog.),  iv.  81,  Pans,  1839. 

2  Leo  Allatius,  'ZiitiUKra,  p.  146,  Cologne,  1653. 

*  Oesla  Hei  i^er  Francos,  p.  1079,  Hanover,  1611. 

'  Canisius,  Thesaurus,  iv.  17,  21,  Antwerp,  1735. 


Christ,  and  that  there  were  even  some  who  refused  to  be- 
lieve that  the  present  site  was  the  true  one.     Oruericus* 
in  1320  and  William  de  EaldejiseU  in  1336  corroborated 
Saewulf ;  but  Baldensel  adds  that  the  sepulchre  then  shown 
was  no  longer  the  one  in  which  the  body  of  Christ  had 
been  laid,  for  that  had  been  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock, 
'While  the  other  was  formed  out  of  stones  cemented  to- 
gether.    Gretser^  in  1598  and  Qua;rcsimus'  in  1616-25 
refer  to  tiie  clyections  started  in  their  time  by  some  whf-- 
the  latter  calis  "  misty  Western  heretics,"  and  the  difEgultv 
v.'as  broadly  enunciated  by  Moucouys-"  in  1647.     It  was 
not,  hov.-over,  until  1741  that  the  site  was  openly  declared 
to  be  false  by  Korte."     The  attack  of  the  latter  writer 
was  followed  up  in  greater  detail  by  Flessing^-  in  1789, 
and  in  EngUnd  by  Dr  Edward  darkens  in  1810;  but 
until   the   appearance  of   the  Biblical   Researches  of  Dr 
Robinson  of  New  York  in  1841"  the  attention  of  inquirers 
in  England  and  i^jnerica  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been 
seriously  drawn  to  the  subject.     This  elaborate  work  ca.Ued 
forth    energetic    replies    from    Cardinal    Newman '^   and 
Williams,'''  the  latter  of  whom  subsequently  republished 
his  work  in  two  large  volumes  In  1849,  which,  to  the  up- 
holders of   tradition,   may  be  said  to  occupy  the  same 
position  as  those  of  the  American  author   to  its  oppo- 
nents.   Since  that  date  the  writers  on  both  sides  have  been 
numerous;  among  them  may  be  specially  noted,  as  im- 
pugning the  accui-aoy  of  tradition,  Fergusson,  Tobler,  tha 
author  of  an  elaborate  essay  in  the  Museam  of  ClassiccU 
Antiquities  for   1853,  Barclay,  Bonar,  Schwartz,'  Sandie, 
and  Conder ;  and  on  the  other  side  Lord  Nugent,  Schutz, 
Krafi't,  Schaffte-f,  De  Saulcy,  Abb6  Slichon,  Thrupp,  De 
Vogu6,  Lev,-in,  Pierotti,  Caspari,  and  Sir  Charles  Warren. 
The  main  question  on  which  the  dispute  has  turned  is 
the  circuit  of  the  walls  at  the  time  of  Christ.     The  city 
at  that  dat-e  was  surrounded  by  two  v.'alls.     The  first  or 
oldest  began,  accordiug  to  Josephus,  "  in  the  north,  at  the 
tower  called  Hippicus,  and  extended  to  what 'was  termed 
the  Xystus ;  it  then  formed  a  junction  with  the  council 
house,  and  terminated  at  the  western  colonnade  of  the 
temple.""     By  almost  all  the  writers  on  either  side  this 
northern  portion   of   the  first  T.'all  is  traced    along  the 
southern  side  of  the  depression,  which  extends  from  the 
central  valley  eastwards  to  the  Jafia  gate.'*  ■  From  some 
point  in  that  northern  Hue  of  wall  the  second  wall  took 
its  departure,  and  of  it  all  we  are  told  by  Josephus  is  that 
"  it  had  its  beginning  at  the  gate  called  Gennath,  belonging 
to  the  first  wall,  and  reached  to  the  Antonia,  encircling 
only  the  western  quarter  of  the  city."     If  this  Gennath 
gate  was  near  Hippicusptha  Hue  of  the  second  wall,  in 
order  to  exclude  the  present  site,  must>'be  dra-mi  along  a 
route  curiously  unsuited,  from  the  slope  of  the  hill,  for 
defensive  purposes ;  and  that  it  was  near  Hippicus  seems 

®  Pcregrinatores  Mcdii  ^vi  quaiuor,  ed.  Laurent,  p.  149,  Leipsic, 
1SG4.  "  Canisius,  Tkaaurits,  iv.  343-3-19. 

8  De  Cruee  Chrisli,  bit.  i.  chap.  17,  Ingolstaat,  1693. 

'  Terrae  Suncls  Elucidatia,  ii.  515,  Antwerp,  1639. 

>»  Voyages,  Pari.s,  1665-66,  4to,  i.  307. 

■>'  Rcise  r.ach  dem  geloblcn  Laiide,  Altona,  1741. 

^  Ucber  Golgotha  mid  Chrisli  Grab,  Halle,  1739. 

"  Travels,  Cambridge,  1310-23. 

^*  London,  1841,  afterwards  re-issued  vith  a  supplemental  journey 
in  1856. 

^^  "  Essay  on  the  Miracles  recorded  in  Bccles.  History,"  preSxed  to 
trjinslation  of  Fleury's  Eccles.  Hist:  to  end  o/4th  Century,  Oxford,  1842. 

>'  The  Holy  City,  London,  1845.  i'  Bell.  Jud.,  v.  4,  2. 

^^  Fergusson  and  Sandie  place  Hippicus  at  the  north-western  angle 
of  the  modem  wall,  and  thus  include  the  existing  church  of  the  sepul- 
chre within  the  first  wall  itself,  "out  they  have  overlooked  the  assertion 
of  the  Jewish  historian,  that  from  the  ravines  which  surrounded  the 
latter  it  was  almost  impregnable.  -  Bonar,  while  placing  Hippicus  some- 
where near  the  same  spot,  does  not  define  the  locality,  and  Schwartz 
seeks  to  identify  it  with  "  a  high  rocky  hill  north  of  the  so-called  Grotto 
oi  Jeremiah  "  and  far  beyond  the  uorthera  limits  of  the  modern  city. 


SEP  U  L  0  il  i?  E.     ii  O  L  \: 


671 


demonstrable  from  the  declaration  of  Josephus  that  the 
city  in  his  time  was  "  fortified  by  three  walls  except  where 
''  was.  encompassed  by  impassable  ravines^;,  from  the 
absence  of  any  record  of  an  attack  on  the  first  wall  till 
the  second  had  been  taken ;  from  a  variety  of  incidental 
references  in  the  siege  by  Titus ;  from  the  apparent  neces- 
sity of  including  -n-ithiu  its  circuit  the  pool  Amygdalon, 
now  known  as  Hezekiah's  Pool  or  Birket  Hamman  el- 
Batrak-;  and  from  the  remarkably  small  area  which  would 
otherwise  be  included  by  it. 

Writers  on  both  sides  have  pressed  into  their  service 
the  remains  of  ancient  buildings  found  in  the  districts 
traversed  by  the  second  wall  according  to  their  respect- 
ive theories.  It  seemed  doubtful,  till  quite  recently,  if 
any. sound  argument  could  be  based  on  these,  the  ruins 
being  too  fragmentary  and  occurring  in  too  many  different 
quarters  to  warrant  any  positive  identification  with  a  line 
of  fortification  as  distinguished  from  other  edifices.^  But 
in  the  summer  of  1S85  a  stretch  of  ancient  wall  40  or  50 
yards  in  length  was  disinterred,  rimning  northwards  from 
the  open  space  within  the  Jaffa  gate  to  the  west  of  Heze- 
kiah's pool,  which  certainly,  as  figured  in  the  January 
number  of  the  Quarterly  Eeporis  of  the  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund,  seems  to  go  a  long  way  to  settle  the  question 
against  the  genuineness  of  the  existing  site. 

Considerable  stress  has  been  laid  by  some  writers  on  the 
existence  of  ancient  Jewish  sepulchres,  of  a  date  apparently 
anterior  to  the  Christian  era,  in  the  rock  on  which  the 
present  church  is  buUt,  as  proving  that  that  rock  could 
not  have  been  within  the  circuit  of  the  v,'alls,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  alleged  "  the  Jews  never  buriad  within  their  towns."  ■* 
There  is,  however,  no  trace  in  the  historical  books  of  the 
Bible  of  any  aversion  on  the  part  of  the  Jews  to  intra- 
mural interment.  'UTiatever  v.-idth  of  interjjretation  may 
be  given  to  the  recorded  burial  of  eleven  of  the  kings  of 
Judah  "  in  the  city  of  David,"  the  phrase  can  hardly  be 
held  to  prove  that  such  burial-place  was  without  the  walls ; 
while  2  Chron.  xrviii.  27  and  xxxiii.  20  seem  to  point 
very  strongly  in  the  opposite  direction.  Joab  also,  wo  are 
told,  was  buried  "  in  his  own  house  in  the  wilderness,"  ^ 
and  Samue!  "in  his  house  at  Eamah.""  But  the  most 
striking  case  of  aU  is  Hebron,  where  in  the  midst  of  the 
city  are  found  the  jealously  guarded  walls  which  enclose 
the  cave  of  Machiielah.  If,  then,  these  tombs  are  older 
than  the  time  of  Christ,  there  seems  little  difficulty  in 
crediting  that  they  might  have  been  included  within  the 
second  wall.  We  know  for  a  certainty  that  they  were 
within  the  third.  The  curious  point  rather  is  that  their 
exbtence  in  the  rock  may  be  used  as  a  strong  argument 
against  the  site,  for,  speaking  of  the  disinterment  of  the 
rock  of  the  sepulchre  from  the  accumulated  soil  heaped 
over  it  by  the  Eomans,  Eusebius ''  impresses  oa  us  the  fact 


»  Bi!l.  Jwd.,  V.  4,  1. 

*  It  is  of  course  quite  possible  to  draw  a  line,  as  Lcwin  does,  whicli, 
t  hile  it  includes  this  pool,  will  yet  exclude  the  existing  church,  lut 
fcll  probability  seems  opposed  to  such  a  route. 

'  PicTotti  gives  a  detailed  plan  of  the  whole  district  in  which  Ihe 
Ti'mains  which  he  seelu;  to  identify  with  the  second  wall  occur  {Jcru- 
fxlan  Explored,  pi.  xxx.).  But  from  this  it  would  seem  extremely 
doubtful  whether  any  of  those  ruins  can  be  identified  with  a  city  wall, 
or  should  not  merely  be  regarded  as  portions  of  detached  buildings, 
Ihe  walls  of  which  project,  now  to  the  east,  now  to  the  west,  of  the 
imagined  lino. 

^  *  Lord  Nugent,  Laitda  Classiad  and  Sa/^cd,  London,  1S45,  iL  47. 
i  bese  tomba  have  been  described  by  Hepworth  DLxon,  in  GeiitlanMS 
Magaanc,  March  1877,  and  more  fully  by  Clcmiont-Ganneau  in  Qmr- 
tnly  Report  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  1877,  p.  76.  In  1885 
l»-o  additional  sepulchral  charabcre  were  discovered  in  the  same  rock  a 
little  to  the  south-east  of  the  present  chiu-ch,  of  wbich  a  plan  and 
notices  are  given  by  Schick  in  Zcittchri/t  dea  deutschen  Palacadim- 
Vereina,  1884,  vol.  TiiL  p.  171. 

'  1  Kings  ii.  34.  '  1  Samuel  iit.  1. 

'  Tifopliania,  Lee's  translation,  p.  ISd. 


that  there  was  •  oniy  cue  cave  within  it,  lest,  had  there 
been  many,  the  miracle  of  TTim  -n-ho  overthrew  death 
should  have  been  obscured." 

One  argument  remained  which,  at  least  up  to  1847,  it 
seemed  difficult  for  the  impugners  of  the  orthodox  site  to 
meet,  namely, — Was  it  at  all  probable  that  Constantine 
should  have  been  deceived,  either  by  erroneous  inference 
or  by  wilful  misrepresentation,  when  in  325  he  erected 
a  monumental  church  over  what  was  then  believed  to  be 
the  holy  tomb  'i  Apart  from  the  consideration  that  of  all 
localities  this  seemed  to  be  the  leasf  likely  to  pass  from 
the  memory  of  the  Christian  church,^  its  exact  position 
had  been  in  a  manner  identified  by  the  existence  on  the 
rock  of  Golgotha  of  a  temple  or  statue  of  Venus,  and  on 
the  site  of  the  resurrection  of  a  statue  of  Jupiter  erected 
by  Hadrian  in  the  2d  century ;  and  the  fact  remains  that 
on  the  superincumbent  rubbish  being  cleared  away  by  the 
orders  of  Constantine  a  cave  was  discovered,  which  it  seems 
difficult,  even  were  we  willing  with  Taylor  ^  to  impute 
deUberate  fraud  to  the  existing  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  to 
believe  could  have  been  previously  prepared  beneath  a 
heathen  shrine,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  population  of  nagans 
and  of  Jews.'" 

In  1847  Fergusson,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Topo- 
graphy of  Jerusalem,  attempted  to  show  that  Constantine 
had  built  his  memorial  church  on  another  site  altogether, 
ahd  that  it  was  still  existing  under  another  name.  On 
the  easterii  hill  of  the  city,  in  the  sacred  Jlohammedan 
enclosure  of  the  Harim-es-Sherif,  and  on  a  spot  generally 
considered  to  have  formed  part  of  the  temple  area,  stands 
the  magnificent  octagonal  building  called  the  Dome  of 
the  Reck,  usually  but  erroneously  believed  to  have  been 
erected  by  the  caliph  'Omar,  and  so  popularly  known  as 
the  mosque  of  'Omar.  The  jealousy  of  the  Jfoslems  had, 
■n-ith  rare  exceptions,  prevented  up  to  quite  recent  times 
the  intrusion  of  Christians  within  its  sacred  precincts,  but 
it  was  known  to  have  been  erected  over  a  large  mass  of 
native  rock  rising  above  the  surface  of  the  groimd  and 
having  a  cave  within  it.  A  section  of  the  building,  very 
roughly  executed,  was  given  in  the  Travels  of  AH  Bey, 
published  in  1816  (vol.  ii.  p.  74);  but  in  1S33  Mr.  Cother- 
wood,  under  the  pretext  of  being  a  civil  engineer  in  the 
employment  of  Mehemet  Ali,  and  of  examining  into  the 
structural  condition  of  the  building  with  .  a  view  to  its 
repair,  spent  three  weeks  in  examining  it  and  its  sur- 
roundings, of  which  he  made  elaborate  drawings  and 
sections.  A  general  account  of  his  investigations  and 
their  results,  publi.«hed  in  W.  H.  Bartlett's  Walls  ahoitt  the 
City  and  Environs  of  Jerusalem  (p.  148),  led  to  Fergusson's 
getting  access  to  those  drawings,  which  confirmed  him  in 
the  belief  he  had  already  begun  to  entertain  from  other 
sources,  that  the  Dom.e  of  the  Rock  was  originally  a  Chris- 
tian edifice ;  and  in  the  essay  referred  to  he  argued  at 
great  length  and  'with  much  vigour  on  both  arcliitcotural 
and  historical  grounds  that  it  and  the  Golden  Gateway — 
a  walled-up  entrance  to  the  Hardm  from  the  east — were 
built  in  the  time  of  Constantine ;  that  the  former  was  the 
church  of  the  Anastasis,  erected  by  that  emperor  over  tiie 
tomb  of  our  Lord,  and  tlie  latter  the  entrance  to  the 
atrium  of  the  great  basilica  described  by  Eusebius''  as 


'  Origcn  {C'onl.  Ceh.,  i.  51)  speaks  of  Calvary  os  of  a  spot  well 
known  in  his  day  (185-254). 

•  Ancimt  Christia:iity,  4th  cd.,  London,  1844,  ii.  277. 

w  Finlay  {Gro:ce  under  Ote  Romans,  p.  561)  has  argued  th.it  exact 
identification  would  be  easy  from  the  minute  retiistration  of  pro]>erty 
which  prevailed  in  the  P.oninn  cnH'ire  and  extended  to  the  provinces, 
by  which  the  jjosition  of  Golgotha  and  the  property  of  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  might  easily  have  been  traced.  ,  But  he  seems  to  press  his 
point  too  far  (see  Fallmerayer,  Golaotha  und  das  heilige  ijrah,  4ta 
Munich,  1852,  p.  8). 

"  Vila  Const.,  iii.  39 


672 


SEPULCHRE,     HOLY 


immediately  adjoining ;  and  that  tlio  transference  of  the 
site  from  the  eastern  to  t!ia  western  hill  took  place  somer 
where  about  the  commencement  of  the  11th  century, 
when,  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of  the  Turks,  the 
Christians  were  driven  from  the  former  hill  for  a  time. 
This  work  was  followed  up  by  his  article  "  Jerusalem  "  in 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  by  several  minor  pub- 
lications ^ ;  and  the  whole  question  was,  with  some  modifi- 
cations, re-argued  by  him  at  great  length  in  The  Temples 
of  the  Jews  and  the  other  Buildin'js  in  the  Haram  Area  at 
Jerusalem  in  187S. 

Though  at  first  Fergussdn's  essay  seemed  to  fall  dead, 
it  inaugurated  a  discussion  which  has  within  the  last 
twenty  years  been  carried  on  with  much  keenness.  His 
views  have  been  supported  on  architectural  grounds  by 
Unger,-  and  on  general  grounds  by  Sandie,^  Smith,'*  and 
Langlois,^  while  among  the  multitucle  of  his  opponents  may 
be  specially  noted  Williams,^  Lewin,^  the  Abb6  Michon,^ 
De  Vogue,'  Pierotti,^"  Sir  Charles  Warren,^i  and  Captain 
Oonder.i2 

The  architectural  arguments  in  favour  of  Fergusson's 
theory  have  forced  Le^^•in,  one  of  his  most  strenuous 
opponents,  to  argue  that  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  may  have 
Deen'  a  temple  to  Jupiter  erected  by  Hadrian,  which  he 
imagines  may  have  been  restored  or  rebuilt  by  ilasimin 
Daza,  the  successor  of  Diocletian. '^  But  they  must  be 
studied  in  Fergusson's  own  works  or  in  that  of  Unger 
above  referred  to.  The  topographical  objections  are  mainly 
founded  on  the  necessity  of  restricting  the  Jewish  temple 
to  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  Haram,  the  site,  how- 
ever, assigned  to  it  by  Lewin  himself  and  Thrupp,"  and 
on  the  difiiculty  of  supposing  a  place  of  interment  so  near 
the  sacred  building.  But  Josephus,  at  the  time  of  the 
siege,  speaks  of  "tne  monuments  of  King  Alexander," 
whatever  that  may  mean,  existing  just  over  against  or  in 
front  of  the  north  colonnade  of  the  temple.^^ 

As  regards  the  historical  argument,  it  would  certainly 
appear  that  up  to  the  close  of  the  6th  century  the  balance 
of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  eastern  site.  The  narrative 
of  the  Pilgrim  of  Bordeaux  ^'^  may  perhaps  be  read  as  sup- 
porting either  view.  But  Antoninus  Martyr'"  and  Theo- 
dosius  '^  can  hardly  be  reconciled  with  the  existing  location ; 
in  two  manuscripts  of  the  latter  ^'^  the  writer  believed  that 
tlio  acme  hill  witnessed  in  succession  the  offering  of  Isaac, 
the  vision  of  the  angel  at  Araunah's  threshing-floor,  the 
building  of  the  temple,  and  the  death  and  resurrection  of 

^  NoU:s  on  the  Site  of  the  Uoly  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  Loudon, 
1861,  aud  Tht  Holy  Sepulchre  ani  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  London, 
1865. 
.  -  Vie  Bauten  Constantin^s  am  heiligen  Grabe,  Gottingen,  1863. 

**  Horeb  and  Jerusalem,  Edinburgli,  1S6-1. 

*  The  Temple  and  the  Sepulchre,  London,  1S65. 

'■   Uii  CImpitre  ineJit  de  la  Question  des  Lieux  Saints,  Paris,  1861. 

«  The  Eobj  City,  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  London,  1849. 

'  The  Siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  &c.,  London,  1863. 

'   Voyage  religieux  en  Orient,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1854. 

i'  Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem,  fol.,  Paris,  1861-65. 

'"  Jerusalem  Explored,  2  vols,  fol.,  London,  1861. 

"  The  Temple  and  the  Tomb,  London,  1880. 

"  Various-  papers  in  the  Quarterly  Statement  of  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund. 

13  Archsologia,  sK.  p.  157.  Scpp  las  latterly  tried  to  show  that  it 
was  built  Ly  Justinian — Die  Felsenkuppel,  eine  Justinianische  Sophien- 
liircAe,  und  die  Uirigen  Tempel  Jerusalems,  Munich,  1882. 

^*  Ancient  Jerusalem,  Cambridge,  1855. 

"  Bel.  Jud.,  v.  5  §  3.  Sandie's  attempt  {Horeb  and  Jerusalem,  p. 
259)  to  minimize  this  difficulty  by  supposing  a  rocky  valley  to  have 
run  up  from  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  westwards  at  this  point,  and 
so  to  have  divided  the  temple  from  the  tomb,  seems  inadmissible. 
Modem  investigation  shows  that  such  a  valley,  or  rather  depression, 
did  e^ist,  b\it  north,  not  south,  of  the  Dome  of  the  Rock. 

'"  Itina-a  Latina  (Soc.  de  I'Or.  Lat.),  Geneva,  1879,  i.  pp.  16-18. 

"  lb.,  pp.  100-106.  >8  lb.,  pp.  63-66. 

^  The  Louv.-in  and  British  Museum  MSS..  see  JV'ofes  and  Queries, 
27th  January  1877. 


our  Lord.  Many  more  pas.sage.?  might  ue.  quoted  from 
writers  of  this  period  testifying  to  the  belief  that  tlio  hill 
that  witnessed  the  oflfering,  of  Isaac  witnessed  also  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  and  many  others  identifying  the 
scene  of  the  oflering  of  Isaac  with  the  hill  on  which  the 
temple  was  built.  Perhaps  the  strongest  point  in  this 
connexion  against  Fergusson  is  that  so  striking  a  fact  as 
the  identity  of  the  hill  of  the  Passion  with  that  on  part  of 
which  the  temple  stood  should  only  be  directly  spoken  to 
by  a  single  writer.  After  the  9th  century  the  historical 
evidence  becomes  more  difficult  to  interpret.  I'ergusson 
would  date  the  transference  of  the  site  about  1000  ;  but  it 
seems  clear  from  Istakhri  (978)  20  and  Mokaddasi  (987),  =' 
both  of  whom  were  unknown  to  him,  that  before  their  days 
the  Dome  of  the  Rock  was  a  Mohammedan  place  of  worship, 
and  the  latter  expressly  states  that  it  was  suggested  by  a 
great  Christian  church.-"  The  natural  date  to  assign  for 
such  a  transference  would  be  about  614,  when  the  city 
was  captured  by  the  Persians,  and,  to  quote  the  carefully 
guarded  narrative  of  Gibbon,  "  the  sepulchre  of  Christ  and 
the  stately  churches  of  Helena  and  Constantino  were  con- 
sumed, or  at  least  damaged,  by  the  fiames."  The  buildings 
were  repaired  or  rebuilt  by  Modestus  a  few  years  later,  and 
their  praises  are  sung  by  Sophronius,  his  successor  in  the 
patriarchate,  but  in  terms  which  give  little  topographical 
information.  Sophronius  lived  to  see  the  capture  of  the 
city  by  'Omar  in  636,  the  earliest  records  of  whose  doings 
as  yet  available  are  the  brief  one  of  Theophanes  (818)  and 
the  more  lengthened  one  of  Eutj-chius  (937).  From  both 
of  these  it  seems  clear  that  the  caliph  confirmed  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  possession  of  the  sites  (whatever  these  might 
be)  which  he  found  in  their  hands.  In  or  about  676  the 
French  bishop  Arculph  visited  Jerusalem,  and  under  the 
hand  of  Adamnanus  we  have  a  detailed  account  taken  down 
from  his  lips,-^  and  a  plan  of  the  church  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion as  he  saw  it,  which  strikingly  corresponds  to  the  Dome 
of  the  Rock, — as,  however,  it  necessarily  would  correspond 
with  any  church  v/hich  had  been  erected  in  close  imitation 
of  that  building.-*  There  are  passages,  however,  in  Arculph 
descriptive  of  the  city  very  difficult  to  understand  unless 
on  the  assumption  that  the  transference  of  Sion,  which  had 
hitherto  (see  Jerusalem)  been  identified  with  the  eastern 
hill,  had  already  in  his  time  taken  place.  Tte  next  pil- 
grim who  has  left  us  a  record  is  Willibald,-^  who  visited  the 
cit}'  early  in  the  8th  century,  and  whose  description  applies 
on  the  whole  better  to  the  western  than  the  eastern  site ; 

-°  BiM.  Oeog.  Arab.,  ed.  De  Goeje,  Leyden,  1870-71,  1.  p.  56  sq. 

=1  lb.,  iii.  p.  165  sq.  '^  lb.,  ui.  p.  159. 

=3  liin.  Lat.  (Soc.  de  I'Or.  Lat.),  1879,  L  pp.  141-202. 

*'  The  view  that  at  the  time  when  Arculph  wrote  the  Dome  of  the 
Rock  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans  seems  strengthened  by 
the  well-known  Cu5c  inscription  which  still  runs  round  the  colonnade 
of  that  building,  and  a  complete  translation  of  which  by  the  late 
Professor  Palmer  will  be  found  in  tho  Quarterly  Report  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  (1871,  p.  164)  and  Fergusson's  Temples  of  the  Jews 
(p.  269).  In  it  the  construction  of  the  dome  of  the  building  is  dated 
72  A.H.  (691),  but  the  name  of  the  builder,  which  clearly  was  Abd-el- 
Melek  in  the  original,  has  been  erased  and  that  of  Abdallah  el-Mamun 
(198  A.H. ;  813)  fraudulently  substituted,  '*the  short-sighted  forger," 
as  Palmer  calls  him,  having  omitted  to  change  the  date  as  well  as  the 
name.  In  this  inscription  there  is  very  special  mention  made  of  our 
Saviour,  and  in  a  way  which  seems  inexplicable  unless  the  building  on 
which  it -was  inscribed  had  been,  in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  associated 
in  some  important  respects  with  the  history  of  Jesus.  And  the  tradi- 
tion that  it  was  so  continued  long  after  ;  for  we  find  Theoderic  so  late 
as  1176  writing  of  it,  "Hoc  templum,  quod  nunc  videtur,  ad  honorem 
Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi  ejusque  pis  genetricis  ab  Helena  regina  et 
ejus  filio,  imperatore  Constantino,  constructum  est "  (ed.  Tobler,  St 
Gall,  1865,  p.  46).  Fergusson  believes  this  inscription  to  have  beeu 
written  in  the  12tr  eutury,  but  is  obliged  to  admit  that  the  alphabet 
employed  is  ideuti^\-  with  that  found  on  the  coins  of  Abd-el-Melek 
(Temples  of  the  Jcum,  p.  24).  A  facsimile  of  the  sentence  containing 
the  date  and  the  fo.gjiy  will  be  found  in  the  Rev.  Isaac  Taylor's  Th6 
Alphabet  (London,  1883,  i.  p.  322). 

»  Ilin.  Lat.  (Soc.  de  I'Or.  Lat.),  1879,  i.  pp.  244-297. 


S  E  Q  — S  E  Q 


673 


but,  on  the  other  hand,  that  of  Bernard,^  who  travelled 
about  870,  applies  better  to  the  eastern  than  to  the  western. 
If  the  transference  can  be  supposed  to  have  taken  place  at 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  one  of  the  main  difficul- 
ties in  the  adoption  of  Fergusson's  theory  will  be  greatly 
lessened,  for  the  intervening  period  of  more  than  450  years 
would  go  far  to  explajji  how  the  crusaders,  on  gaining 
possession  of  the  city  in  1099,  failed  to  make  it  their  first 
business  to  revert  to  the  original  site.  On  the  whole,  the 
question  is  one  which  can  hardly  be  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined until  the  Arabic  authorities  on  the  subject  have 
been  duly  scrutinized,  and  as  yet  we  have  practically  access 
to  none  earlier  than  the  tjvo  above  referred  to.^ 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  third  locality  has  been  sug- 
gested. In  1S78  Captain  Conder,  in  his  Tent  Work  in 
Palestine  (i.  pp.  372-376),  expressed  a  strong  conviction  that 
the  real  site  was  to  be  found  on  a  rocky  knoll  outside  the 
northern  wall,  and  close  to  the  cave  known  as  "  Jeremiah's 
Grotto."  He  argued  that  not  only  did  this  locality  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  Gospel  narratives,  being  outside 
the  city  and  near  one  of  the  great  roads  leading  from  the 
country,  but  that  in  this  direction  lay  "  the  great  ceme- 
tery of  Jewish  times "  as  testified  by  "  the  sepulchre  of 
Simon  the  Just  preserved  by  Jewish  tradition,"  and  the 
monument  of  Helena  "fitted  with  a  rolling  stone  such 
as  closed  the  mouth  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre."  Here  also 
by  early  Christian  tradition  had  been  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Stephen,  which  doubtless  occurred  at  the 
place  of  public  execution,  and  to  this  day,  according  to  Dr 
Chaplin,  the  Jews  designate  the  knoU  "by  the  name  Beth 
has-Sekilali,  '  the  place  of  stoning '  (domus  lapidationis), 
and  state  it  to  be  the  ancient  place  of  public  execution 
mentioned  in  the  Mishnah."  The  hill  itself  appears  to 
present  a  striking  resemblance  to  a  human  skull,  and  so  to 
associate  itself  with  the  word  "  Golgotha."  The  adoption 
of  this  site  by  Dr  Chaplin,  the  Rev.  S.  Merrill,  Schick,  and 
perhaps  especially  the  late  General  Gordon,^  has  aided 
in  giving  it  a  considerable  popularity.  It  is,  however,  a 
purely  conjectural  locatiou,  and  involves  the  assumption 
that  all  the  Christian  writers  from  the  4  th  century  down- 
wards, as  well  as  the  mother  of  Constantino,  were  in  error 
as  to  the  real  site.  (a.  b.  m'g.) 

SEQUESTRATION.     See  Bajjkeuptcy. 

SEQUOIA,  J  genus  of  conifers,  allied  to  Taxodium  and 
Cryptomeria,  forming  one  of  several  surviving  links  between 
the  firs  and  the  cypresses.  The  two  species  usually  placed 
in  this  group  are  evergreen  trees  of  large  size,  indigenous 
to  the  west  coast  of  North  America.  Both  bear  their  round 
or  ovoid  male  catkins  at  the  ends  of  the  slender  terminal 
branchlets;  the  ovoid  cones,  either  terminal  or  on  short 
lateral  twigs,  have  thick  woody  scales  dilated  at  the  extrem- 
ity, -with  a  broad  disk  depressed  in  the  centre  and  usually 
furnished  with  a  short  spine ;  at  the  base  of  the  scales  are 
from  three  to  seven  ovules,  which  become  reversed  or 
partially  so  by  compression,  ripening  into  small  angular 
seeds  with  a  narrow  wing-like  expansion. 

The  redwood  of  the  Californian  woodsmen,  S.  semper- 
virens,  which  may  be  regaided  as  the  typical  form,  abounds 
on  the  Coast  Range  from  the  southern  borders  of  the  State 
northwards  into  Oregon,  and,  according  to  De  CandoUe,  as 
far  as  Nootka  Sound.    It  grows  to  a  gigantic  size :  a  trunk 

■  hin.  I.at.  (Soc  dc  I'Or.  baf.).  1879.  i.  pp.  .•?0t>-320. 

'  Cnlincr.  in  thr  "hnpfr  '■ontribufcd  hy  him  'nininly  from  .Ara- 
bic -ionrcfs)  ffi  JrriiimUvi,  ll"  fitij  of  IJr-roil  and  Sn>nil!ii  On  W. 
Besaiitand  E  H.  PaliniT.  I,on<lon,  1871).  Ims  failed  t"  eive.  with 
rarocxpcptions.  any  cluctn  thp  dale  of  thi'  lyritcrs  wlitsc  state- 
ments h<-  'mbodifi 

^  Reflfiimif  in  I'akniini,  London,  1884,  pp.  1-3.  See  also  Qunr- 
trrfv  Rrporf  01  P.'iIcHtinr  Exidoratir.n  Fund  ("t  1h«.1.  p.  fiO:  ji'  d  Sir 
•  '  W  Dnwsf.n'f  Kniipl  nml  Suria.  Thrir  Phv-irnl  Fenlur-K  in  lie- 
'liiinn  to  tlihlt  ffii'inrii.  I.onilon,  1885.  pp  c.Vft^.  where  two  illus- 
criKionfiof  (III  hill  an*  (fi\«n. 


has  been  recorded  270  feet  in  length,  and  a  greater  height 
is  said  to  be  occasionally  reached,  while  a  diameter  of  from 
12  to  15  feet  is  sometimes  attained  at  the  base.     In  old 


Sequoia  scmjicrvirens — a,  green  cones  and  calkin  ;  b,  section  of  cone ; 
c,  scale  of  cone. 

age  the  huge  coliimnar  trunk  rises  to  a  great  height  bare 
of  boughs,  while  on  the  upper  part  the  branches  are  short 
and  irregular.  The  bark  is  red,  liko  that  of  the  Scotch 
fir,  deeply  furrowed,  with  the  ridges  often  much  curved 
and  twisted.  When  young  the  tree  is  one  of  the  most 
graceful  of  the  conifers  :  the  stem  rises  straight  and  taper- 
ing, with  somewhat  irregular  whorls  of  drooping  branches, 
the  lower  ones  sweeping  the  ground, — giving  an  elegant 
conical  outline.  The  twigs  are  densely  clothed  with  flat 
spreading  linear  leaves  of  a  fine  glo.ssy  green  above  and 
glaucous  beneath ;  iu  the  old  trees  they  become  shorter 
and  more  rigid  and  partly  lose  their  distichous  habit. 
The  globular  brown  catkins  appear  early  in  June ;  the 
cones,  from  1  to  2  inches  long,  are  at  first  of  a  bluish 
green  colour,  but  when  mature  change  to  a  reddish  brown  ; 
the  scales  are  very  small  at  the  base,  dilating  into  a  broad 
thick  head,  with  a  short  curved  spine  below  the  deep  trans- 
verse depression.  The  redwood  forms  woods  of  large 
extent  on  the  seaward  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  and  occurs 
in  i.solated  groups  farther  inland.  From  the  great  size  of 
the  trunk  and  the  even  grain  of  the  red  cedar-like  wood 
it  is  a  valuable  tree  to  the  farmer  and  carpenter :  it  splits 
readily  and  evenly,  and  planes  and  polislics  well ;  cut 
radially,  the  medullary  plates  give  the  wood  a  fine  satiny 
lustre  ;  it  is  strong  and  durable,  but  not  so  elastic  as  many 
of  the  western  pines  and  firs.  In  England  the  tree  grows 
well  in  warm  situations,  but  suflfers  much  in  severe  winters, 
— its  graceful  form  rendering  it  ornamental  in  the  park  or 
garden,  where  it  sometimes  grows  30  or  40  feet  in  height ; 
its  succe.s3  as  a  timber  tree  would  be  doubtful.  In  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  United  States  it  does  not  flourisli. 
Discovered  by  Menzies  in  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  it 
has  long  been  known  in  British  nurseries  under  the  name 
of  Tnxodium  sempe.rvirens. 

The  only  other  member  of  the  genus  is  the  giant  tree 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  S.  gigantea,  the  largest  of  known 
conifers ;  it  is  confined  to  the  western  portion  of  the  great 
Californian  range,  occurring  chiefly  in  detached  groups 

"  XXI.  —  85 


674 


S  E  R  —  S  E  R 


locally  called  "  groves,"  at  an  altitude  cf  frcrn  -ICOO  to  5000 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  awl- 
shaped,  short  and  rigid,  with  pointed  apex  j  closely  ad- 
prcssed,  they  completely  cover  the  tranchlets.  The  male 
catkins  are  small,  solitary,  and  are  borne  at  the  ends  of 
the  twigs;  the  cones  are  from  li  to  3  inches  long,  ovoid, 
with  scales  thicker  at  the  base  tilau  those  of  the  redwood, 
and  bearing  below  the  depression  a  slender  prickle.  The 
young  tree  is  more  formal  and  rigid  in  growth  than  S. 
simpenirei'.s,  but  when  old  the  outline  of  the  head  becomes 
t^liiidrical,  with  short  branches  sparsely  clad  v.ith  foliage 
^rays.  The  bark,  of  nearly  the  same  tint  as  that  of  the 
-dwood,  is  extremely  thick  and  is  channelled  towards  the 
1.  2se  with  vertical  farrov.-s ;  at  the  root  the  ridges  oftfen 
,^and  out  in  buttress-like  projections.  Some  of  these  vast 
vegetable  columns  p--  Upwards  of  30  feet  in  diameter  and 
a  few  have  attained  a  height  of  400  feel  or  more. 

The  famous  group  known  as  the  Mammoth  Grove  of  Calaveras 
m  California,  containing  above  ninety  lai'ge  trees,  stands  in  33"  K. 
lit,  about  ^.370  feat  above  the  sea,  betvcon  the  San  A;itonio  and 
Stanislaus  rivers.  According  to  Vischer,  it  was  discovcrci  by  a 
hunter  in  pursuit  of  a  bear  in  1S52,  but  had  apparently  been 
visited  before,  as  the  date  1S50  is  cut  on  oue  of  the  trees.  The 
hark  of  one  of  the  finest  trunks  was  foolishly  stripped  o.T  to  the 
I'.eight  of  115  feet,  and  exhibited  in  Kew  Yori;  and  London ;  it 
!!ow  stands  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham.  The  tree,  iinown  as 
the  "mother  of  the  forest,"  soon  died;  at  the  base  it  measured 
90  feet  in  gii'th,  and  the  dead  tree  was  321  feet  high  ;  a  prostrate 
trunk  in  the  neighbourhood  is  18  feet  in  diameter  300  feet  from 
the  base.  .Some  trees  in  the  Mariposa  grove  rival  thess  in  size: 
one  measures  101  feet  round  the  root,  and  a  cut  stump  is  31  feet  in 
diameter.  Gigantic  as  these  trees  are  ai'd  imposing  from  their 
vast  columnar  truuk-s,  they  have  little  beauty,  owing  to  the  scanty 
foliage  of  the  short  rounded  boughs ;  some  of  the  trees  stand  very 
tlose  together ;  they  are  said  to  be  about  400  tn  number.  Somo 
are  of  vast  age,  perhaps  3000  years  or  mora ;  they  appear  to  be 
the  remains  of  extensive  woods  belonging  to  a  past  epoch,  and 
probably  have  been  in  distant  time  much  injured  by  forest  ires. 
The  growth  of  the  "mammoth  tree"  is  fast  when  young,  but  old 
trees  increase  with  erlreme  slowness.  The  timber  "is  not  of  groat 
value,  but  the  heartwood  is  dense  and  of  deeper  colour  than  that 
of  S.  scmjKrvirens,  varjdng  from  brownish  red  to  very  deep  brown  ; 
oiled  and  varnished,  it  has  been  used  in  cabinet  work.  S.  giganlca 
was  brought  to  England  by  Jjobb  in  ISSS,  and  received  from  Dr 
Lind"tey  the  name  of  Wdliiuifonia,  by  which  it  is  still  popularly 
known,  thoagh  its  affinity  to  the  redwood  is  too  marked  to  admit  of 
generic  distinction.  lu  America  it  is  sometimes  called  JFashing- 
tonia.  In  the  Atlantic  States  it  docs  not  succeed ;  and,  though 
nearly  hardy  in  Great  Britain,  it  is  planted  only  as  an  ornament  of 
the  lawn  or  paddock.  It  is  never  likely  to  acquire  any  economic 
importance  in  Europe.  (C  p.  J.) 

SERAIEVO.     Sea  Bos^ta  Seeai. 

SEPiAING,  a  town  of  Belgium,  stretching  nearly  a  mile 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse,  across  which  a  sus- 
pension bridge  connects  it  with  Jemeppe,  3  miles  south- 
west of  Liege.  It  has  one  of  the  largest  manufactories  of 
machinery  on  the  Continent,  founded  by  John  Gockerill, 
an  Englishman,  in  1817,  on  the  site  of  the  former  palace 
of  the  prince-bishops  of  Li^ge.  Including  oHces,  the  works 
extend  over  270-acre3,  employ  11,000  hands,  and  the  annual- 
value  of  their  products  is  more  than  45,000,000  francs. 
Do-\vn  to  1S82  they  had  turned  out  52,600  engines  or 
pieces  of  macMnsry,  including  the  first  locomotive  engine 
built  on  the  Continent  (1835).  After  C'ockerill's  death  in 
1840,  the  works  were  purchased  by  "La  John  Cockerill 
Societe."  A'  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in 
1871.  The  population,  which  numbered  but  2226  in  1827, 
amounted  to  24,315  in  1877,  and  is  now  HSSG)  estimated 
at  about  27,500. 

SEE/V1.1PUR,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  Hugli 
(Hocghly)  district,  Bengal,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Huali  river,  13  nJIes  by  rail  north  of  Calcutta,  ia  22° 
45'  26""^.  lat.  and  88°  23'  10"  E.  long.  It  was  formerly 
a  Danish  settlement,  and  remained  so  until  1845,  when 
all  the  Danish  possessions  in  India  were  ceded  by  treaty 
to  the  East  India  Company.     Serampur  is  famed  as  the 


residence  of  a  body  of  Protestjint  Baptist  missionaries,  who 
made  it  the  centre  of  their  Christianizing  efforts.  At  the 
census  of  1S81  the  population  of  the  town  was  25.559 
(13,137  males  and  12,422  females). 

SERAPHIM.  In  the  vision  of  Isaiah  vi.  the  throne 
of  God  is  surrounded  by  seraphim, — figures  apparently 
human  (ver.  6),  but  v/ith  six  wings,  which  constantly  pro- 
claim the  irisagion.  The  seraphim  are  not  again  mentioned 
in  the  Bible;  but  in  later  Jewish  theology  they  are  taken 
to  be  a  class  of  angels.  As  the  whole  vision  of  Isaiah  is 
symbolical,  the  seraphim  also  are  in  this  connexion  symbol- 
ical figures,  aiding  the  delineation  of  Jehovah's  awful 
holiness.  But  the  imagery  is  probably  borrowed  from  some 
popular  conception  analogous  to  that  of  the  CHEP.rrEiM 
{q.v.).  The  name  is  sometimes  explained  to  mean  "  lofty 
ones,"  after  the  Arabic  skarufa  (Gesenius) ;  but  if  it  has 
a  Hebrew  etj-mology  it  must  signify  "burning  ones" 
("consuming,"  not  "fiery"),  so  that  in  Isaiah's  vision  the 
seraphim  will  mean  the  same  thing  as  the  "devouring 
fire"  of  God's  holiness  (Isa.  xxxiii.  14).  But  this,  again, 
is  a  spiritual  interpretation  of  the  old  Hebrew  conception 
that  Jehovah  appears  in  the  thvmderstorm  (Judges  v.  4 ; 
Ps.  sviii.,  xxix.)  escorted  by  thunderbolts  (resheph,  Hab. 
iii.  5).  Among  the  Phoenicians  Resheph  is  a  god  (C.I.S., 
i.  38),  probably  identical  with  the  Arabian  divine  archer 
Kozah,  who  shoots  lightnings.  In  prophetic  monotheism 
such  mythological  conceptions  could  only  survive  as  personi- 
fications of  the  natural  phenomena  attending  a  theophany. 

In  Num.  xxi.  6  sj.  the  word  "seraphira"is  used  of  a  kind  of  serpents, 
not  "  fieiy  serpents  "  (A.V.)  but  burning,  i.e.,  poisonous  ones  (comp. 
hSr.iah,  "glowing heat,"  "  venom  ").  In  Isa.  xiv.  29  and x::x.  6  the^ 
lingular  saraph  occurs  with  the  epithet "  flying,"  and  from  the  second 
passage  we  see  that  such  Hying  serpents  were  sqpposed  to  inhabit  the 
desert  between  Palestine  and  Egypt ;  comp.  Herod,  ii.  75  and  the 
white  ilj-ing  serpents  in  an  Arabian  legend  {Agh. ,  xx.  135,  30^. 

SER/iPIS,  or  Saeatis,  in  the  Leyden  papjTus'Ocropan-is, 
i.e.,  Osiris-Apis,  apparently  meaning  the  dead  Apis  wor- 
shipped as  Osiris  (see  Apis),  and  so  as  lord  of  the  under- 
world, vas  the  name  under  which  the  Egyptian  priists 
constilted  by  Ptolemy  Sot'er  incorporated  with  the  old 
religion  the  Greek  worship'of  Hades.  The  statue  with  the  ' 
attributes  of  Hades  which  they  professed  to  identify  as 
Serapis  (a  name  which  had  tiU  then  played  no  prominent  ■ 
part  in  Egyptian  religion)  was  brought  by  the  king  from 
Sinope  to  Alexandria  in  consequence,  it  was  given  out,  of 
a  revelation  granted  to  him  ia  a  dream  (Plut.,  Is.  ei  Os., 
28).  The  real  object  of  Ptolemy  was  to  provide  a  mixed 
Greek  and  Egyptian  religion  for  his  mixed  subjects,  especi- 
ally in  Alexandria ;  the  true  Egyptians  disliked  the  inno- 
vation, and  no  Serapeum  or  Serapis  temple  was  admitted 
within  the  Trails  of  Egyptian  cities  (Macrob.,  i.  7,  14), 
Th\is  the  gi-eat  Serapeum  at  Memphis  lay  outside  the  town 
(Strabo,  xvii.  1,  32),  where  its  ruins  wera  laid  bare  by 
Mariette  in  1850.  From  papvTi  found  on  the  spot  it  is 
known  that  a  sort  cf  monastery  was  connected  with  this 
and  other  Serapea.  The  so-called  Egyptian  Serapeum  or 
series  of  Apis  graves  excavated  in  the  rock  near  the  Greek 
Serapeum  is  distinct  and  belongs  to  the  old  religion,  though 
the  old  Osiris  worship  was  gradually  transferred  to  Serapis. 
The  cult  of  Serapis  also  spread  largely  in  the  Grsco-Roman 
"world.  Egyptian  monasticism  seems  to  have  borrowed 
something  from  the  monks  of  Serapis,  and  the  Egyptian 
Christians  were  accused  cf  worshipping  Serapis  as  well  as 
Christ  (  Vita  Saiundai,  8),  perhaps  because  they  identified 
the  god  who  is  represented  bearing  a  corn-measure  on  his 
head  with  the  Biblical  Joseph;  see  Eirmicua  ''^aternus, 
c.  13,  and  Suidas,  s.v.  'Zdpa-iri^. 

SERENA,  a  city  of  C!hili,  capital  of  the  provmce  of 
Coquimbo,  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain  on  the  south 
side  of  the  river  Coquimbo,  about  5  nules  from  the  sea, 
in  29°  54'  S.  lat.  and  71°  13' W.  long.     The  original  town. 


15  E  E  — S  E  Jrt 


C75 


■was  founded  by  Juan  Bohon  in  1544,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river,  and  called  by  him  Serena,  after  the  tomi  of 
that  name  in  Spanish  Estremadura,  the  birthplace  of  his 
chief,  Pedro  de  Valdivia.  Being  shortly  after  destroyed 
by  the  Indiar.5,  it  was  rebuilt  on  its  present  site  by  Fran- 
cisco de  Aguirre  in  1549.  Serena  is  the  seat  of  a,  bishopric 
embracing  the  ■nhole  of  Cliili  to  the  north,  and  of  a  court 
of  appeal  the  jurisdiction  of  which  extends  to  the  province 
of  Atacama.  The  town  is  well  supplied  with  water.  The 
principal  edifice  is  the  cathedral  (1844-60),  built  of  a  light 
porous  stone,  216  feet  long  and  66  broad.  The  town  con- 
tains eight  other  churches,  an  excellent  lyceum,  a  theatre, 
an  episcopal  ■  palace,  and  several  convents  and  charitable 
institutions.  .  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  its  port  9  miles 
to  the  south-west,  and  with  the  Tamaya  copper-mines.  A 
narrow-gauge  line  up  the  Elqui  valley  was  opened  in 
1883.  Brewing  has  recently  become  an  important  industry. 
The  population  of  Serena  was  12,293  in  1875,  or,  including 
the  suburbs  of  the  Pampa  (Alta  and  Baja),  14;403. 

SEREJTUS  OP  Antissa,  an  ancient  Greek  geometer, 
the  author  of  two  treat  bos -—/)«  Sections  Cylindri  et  Coni, 
libri  duo — which  Halley  has  published  in  Greek  and  Latin 
along  with  his  edition  of  the  Conies  of  Apollonius  of  Perga.' 
Great  difference  of  opinion  has  existc  1  as  to  his  date : 
Halley  says  in  his  preface  to  the  Conies,  "Wo  know 
nothing  of  Serenus  except  that  he  waa  born  at  Antissa,  a 
town  in  the  island  of  Lesbos ;  and  that,  besides  his  book 
On  the  Section  of  the  Cylinder,  and  another  On  the  Section 
of  the  Cone,  ho  wrote  commentaries  on  Apollonius ;  and 
that  he  lived  before  Marinus — the  pupil  of  Proclus — as 
appears  from  the  preface  of  Marinus  to  the  Dataoi  Euclid." 
Montucla  says  vaguely  that  Serenus  lived  withiji  the  first 
four  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  Chasles  places  him 
about  the  same  time  as  Pappiis.  Bretschneider  pointed 
out  that  Antissa  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  Puomans 
in  167  B.C.,  and  inferred  thenca  that  Sorcnus  lived  c.  220- 
180  B.o.  To  this  inference  it  has  been  fairly  objected  by 
Cantor,  after  F.  Blass,  that  the  name  Serenus  is  Latin  and 
that  Antissa  had  been  rebuilt  at  the  time  of  Strabo.  The 
Btatement  of  Halley  that  "  he  lived  before  ilarinus "  has 
been  since  repeated  by  many  writers ;  but  Heiberg  has 
pointed  out  {Rev.  Crit.  iPHist.  el  de  Litt.,  1881,  p.  SSI) 
that  the  passage  referred  to  in  support  of  this  statement 
is  faulty,  and  that  the  name  of  Serenus  is  certainly  not  to 
bo  found  in  it.  Th.  H.  Martin,  in  his  edition  of  the 
Astronomy  of  Theon  of  SmjTna  (Paris,  1849),  has  pub- 
lished a  fragment  which  in  the  MS.  follows  the  text  of 
Theon  and  is  headed  From  the  Lemmas  of  the  Philosopher 
Seremts.  This  is  unquestionably  the  same  as  Serenus  of 
Antissa,  to  whom  this  appellation  "philosopher"  is  given  in 
the  titles  of  the  two  treatises  edited  by  Halley.  No  con- 
clusion, however,  can  be  drawn  from  this  as  to  the  date 
of  Serenus,  for  the  extract  is  not  given  by  Theon  but  by  an 
anonymous  scholiast.  !M.  Paul  Tannery  in  an  elaborate 
{)aper  {Bull,  des  Sc.  Math,  et  Astron.,  2d  series,  vii.,  1883) 
has  shown  from  the  character  of  Sercnus's  writings  tha,t  he 
lived  long  after  the  brilliant  period  of  Greek  mathonaatlcs, 
and  that  he  must  be  placed  chronologically  between  Pappus 
and  Hypatia,  consequently  in  the  4th  century.  This 
determination  of  the  date  of  Serenus  is  accepted  by  Cantor 
{Zeilschrifl  fur  Math,  mid  I'hys.,  August  1885,  p.  124). 

In  the  trcatHO  On  tht  Seelion,  of  the  Cone,  which  is  tlio  l.-sa  im- 
portant of  the  two  books,  Serenus,  as  ho  tells  us  in  ihc  preface,  ■nr.is 
tlie  first  to  take  up  the  particiilar  branch  of  that  subject  with 
which  ho  deals,  h  it  he  treats  of  the  a-rte.  of-  a  trianfjlo  formed 
by  cutting  a  cone,  right  or  scalene,  on  a  circiilar  base  by  a  piano 
tiirough  tbo  vertex,  ila  shows  how  "to  cut  a  right  cone  whoso 
axis  is  not  less  tba"n  the  semi-diameter  of  the  base  by  a  plane 


0  put  a  given  scalcuo  cone  by  a  piano  through  the  vertex  so  as 


to  form  an  isosceles  triangle"  (Prop.  21),  and  shows  tll.^t,  "of  the 
ti-iangles  which  are  formed  by  cutting  a  scalene  cone  tlaough  tlio 
axis,  the  greatest  is  the  isosceles,  the  least  that  which  is  at  right 
angles  to  tlie  base  of  the  cone  ;  of  the  rest,  however,  that  which  is 
nearer  the  greatest  is  greater  than  one  more  remote  "  (Prop.  22). 
The  general  questions  for  a  scalene  cone,  corresponding  to  the 
problems  for  the  right  cone  (Props.  8  and  13),  and  which  depend 
on  solid  loci  for  their  solution,  are  not  attempted.  These  liavc 
been  solved  by  Halley  in  his  edition  of  Serenus,  p.  03  i:q. 

In  his  preface  to  the  treatise  On  the  Section  of  iU  CijUnder, 
Serenus  tells  us  that  many  geometers  of  his  time  supposed  thrti  the 
transverse  sections  of  a  cylinder  weredih'ereut  from  the  elliptic 
sections  of  a  cone,  that  he  thought  it.riglit  to  refute  this  error  and 
to  prove  that  these  sections  were  of  the  same  kind.  '  Having  estab- 
lished this  in  a  series  of  theorems  ending  with  Prop.  18,  lie  sliows 
in  Prop.  29  that  "it  is  possible  to  exhibit  a  cone  and  a  cylinder 
cutting  one  another  in  one  and  the  same  ellipse."  He  then  solves 
problems  such  as— "given  a  cone  (cylinder)  and  an  ellipse  on  it, 
to  find  the  cylinder  (cone)  which  is  cut  iii'the  same  ellipse  i\s  the 
cone  (cylinder)"  (Props.  20,  21) ;  "given  a  cone  (cylinder),  to  find 
a  cylinder  (cone),  and  to  cut  both  by  one  and  the  same,  plane  so 
that  the  sections  thus  formed  shall  be  similar  ellipses  "  (Props.  22, 
23);  "given  a  cyliudor  cut  in  an  ellipse,  to  construct  a  cone 
having  the  samo  base  and  altitude  as  the  cylinder,  so  that  the 
section  of  it  by  the  same  plane  is  an  ellipse  similar  to  the  ellipse  of 
the  cylinder"  (Prop.  25).  In  Props.  26-29  he  shows  liow  to  cut  a 
scalene  cylinder  or  cono  in  an  infinite  nuniber  of  ways  by  two 
planes— which  are  r.ot  parallel — so  as  to  form  similar  ellipses 
(subcontrary  sections).  He  then  gives  some  thcorcuis  :  "all  the 
straight  Ihies  drawn  from  the  same  point  to  touch  a  cylindrical 
surface,  on  both  sides,  have  their  points  of  contact  on  tlie  sides  of 
a  single  parallelogram"  (i'rop.  31);  "oil  the  straight  lines  drawn 
from  the  same  point  to  touch  ?.  conical  surface,  on  both  sides,  have 
their  points  of  contact  oij  tlso  sides  of  a  single  triangle"  (Prop. 
34).  This  last  is  proved  by  means  of  Prop.  33,  where  we  find, 
indirectly  stated,  the  property  of  an  harmonic  pencil. 

SERES,  Serees,  or  Sir.os,  a  tov/n  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
now  at  the  head  of  a  sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of  Saloniki,  is 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Strymon  (Karasu),  in  a  district 
so  fertile  as  to  bear  among  the  Tarks  the  name  of  Altin 
Ovassi  or  Golden  Plain,  and  so  thickly  studded  with  vill- 
ages as  to  have,  when  seen  from  thfe  heights  of  Rhodope, 
the  appearance  of  a  griiat  city  with  extensive  gardens. 
Tlio  principal  buildings  are  the  Greek  arcliiepiscopal  palace, 
the  Orack  cathedral,  restored  since  the  great  fire  of  1879, 
by  v/hich  it  was  robbed  of  its  magniucent  mo.saios  and 
woo4"Ork,  the  Greek  gymnasium  and  hospital  (the  former 
built  of  marble),  the  richly  ehdowed  Eski  Jami,  and  the 
ruit>.,5  of  the  onoe  no  less  flourishing  Ahmed  Pasha  or 
Aghia  Sophia  mosque,  whose  revenues  used  to  bo  derived 
from  the  Crimea.  On  a  hill  above  the  town  are  the  ruins 
of  a  fortress  described  in  a  Greek  inscription  as  a  "  tower 
built  by  Helen  in  the  mocntainous  region."  Cloth-factories 
and  tanneries  arc  the  chkf  industrial  establishments  and 
lignite  mines  are  worked  i'h  the  neighbourhood  v/ith  some 
success.     The  population  is  30,000. 

Sores  is  the  ancient  Seris,  Sira;,  or  .Sirrlire,  mentioned  by'IIcrod- 
oUis  in  connexion  with  XerMcs's  retrrat;  and  by  Livy  as  the  i)laco 
v.'hcre  yEmilius  I'aulus  received  a  deputation  from  Perseus.  In  the 
34th  century,  when  Stephen  Dushan  of  Scrvia  assumed  tiio  titia 
emperor  of  Ser\*ia,  f:c.,  he  cho^e  Sirrhrc  as  his  cai>ital  ;  and  it 
rciaained  in  the  hands  cf  the  Servians  till  its  capt'jre  by  Sultan 
Murad.  In  1396  Bayazid  sunmioned  his  Christian  vassals  to  hu 
camp  at  Sirrhie. 

SERFDOJI.    See  Si.."-.vi:ry. 

SERGHIEVSKIY  POSAD,  or  Tro-tze-Sergihev.sk,  a 
town  of  Ru-ssia,  ifl  the  government  of  Moscow,  which  has 
grov/n  up  round  th©  monastery  of  Troitze-Scrgliievskaya 
Lavra,  44  miles  by  rail  to  the  north-cast  of  Moiicow.  It 
is  situated  in  a  beautiful  country,  intersected  by  pleasant 
little  valleys  and  varied  with  woods,  the  buildings  extend- 
ing partly  over  the  hill  occupied  by  the  monastery  and 
partly  over  the  valley  below.  Including  the  extensive 
Kukuevsk  suburb.s,  it  had  in  1884  31,400  inhabitants. 
There  are  several  lower-grade  whools,  an  infirmary  for  old 
women,  and  a  school  for  girls.  •JSTumerons  inns  and  hotels, 
some  maintained  by  the  monastery  and  others  a  rich 
source  of  revenue  to  it.  accommodate  the  numerous  pilgrims. 


676 


S  E  B  — S  E  R 


Serghievsk  has  long  been  renowned  for  its  manufactures 
of  holy  pictures  (painted  and  carved),  spoons,  and  a  variety 
of  other  articles  carved  in  wood,  especially  toys,  sold  "to 
pilgrims.  Within  the  last  twenty  years  this  industry  has 
greatly  developed ;  separate  parts  of  certain  toys  are  made 
elsewhere  and  brought  to  Serghievsk,  where  no  fewer  than 
330  workshops,  employing  1055  hands,  ^vith  an  annual 
production  valued  at  more  than  £30,000,  supply  the 
finished  article.  Several  other  petty  industries  are  carried 
on  both  in  the  town  and  in  the  neighbouring  -sillages. 

The  Troitsk  monastery  is  the  most  sacred  place  in  middle  Russia, 
tte  Great  Russians  regarding  it  with  mo'e  veneration  than  even 
the  cathedrals  and  relics  of  the  Kremlin  of  Moscow.  It  occupies  a 
picturesque  site  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  protected  on  two  sides  I  y  deep 
ravines  and  steep  slopes.  The  walls,  25  to  50  feet  in  height,  are 
fortified  by  nine  towers,  one  of  which,  the  Pj'atnitsk,  has  been 
for  some  time  a  prison  for  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  offenders. 
Eleven  churches,  including  the  Troitskiy  (Trinity)  and  Uspenskiy 
cathedrals,  a  lofty  bell-tower,  a  theological  academy,  various 
buildings  for  monks  and  rilgrims,  and  a  hospital  stand  within  the 
precincts,  which  are  nearly  two-thirds  of  a  mile  in  circuit.  A  small 
wooden  church,  erected  by  the  monk  Sergius,  and  afterwards  burned 
by  the  Tatars,  stood  on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  cathedral  of 
the  Trinity,  which  was  built  in  1-122,  and  contains  the  relics  of 
Sergius,  as  well  as  a  holy  picture  which  has  frequently  been  brought 
into  requisition  in  Russian  campaigns.  The  Uspenskiy  cathedral 
was  erected  in  1585  ;  close  beside  it  are  the  graves  of  Boris  Godanoff 
and  his  family.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  ftionasteiy  is  the 
church  of  Sergius,  beneath  which  are  spacious  rooms  where  200,000 
dinners  are  distributed  gratis  every  year  to  the  pilgrims.  The 
beU-tower,  290  feet  high,  has  a  bell  weighing  ISTJ  tons.  Several 
monasteries  of  less  importance  occur  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
site  now  occupied  by  tie  Troitsk  monastery  wa?  in  the  14th 
century  covered  v;ith  impmetrable  forests.  In  1337  two  brothers, 
Barthelemy  and  Stefan,  sons  of  a  Rostofi  boiar,  erected  a  church 
on  the  spot.  The  elder  (bom  in  1314)  took  monastic  orders  under 
the  name  of  Sergius,  erected  cells  by  the  church,  and  became  widely 
famous  among  the  peasants  around*  The  Moscow  princes  also 
showed  great  respect  for  the  chief  of  the  new  monastery. ,  Dmitri 
Joannovich  Donskoi  received  the  benediction  of  Sergius'  before 
setting  out  on  the  Tatar  expedition  which  terminated  in  the  victory 
of  Kulikovo,  and  afterwards  accepted  the  advice  and  help  of  the 
monk  in  his  dealings  with  the  prince  of  Ryazan.  Sergius  lived  a 
life  of  diligence  and  simplicity,  and  declined  to  accept  the  office  of 
metropolitan  of  Moscow.  His  monastery  acquired  great  fame  and 
became  the  wealthiest  in  middle  Russia.  Ivan  the  Terrible  in  1561 
made  it  the  centre  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Moscow. 
During  the  Polish  invasion  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century 
It  organized  the  national  resistance,  and  supplied  the  combatants 
\nHi  money  and  food.  In  160S-9  it  -withstood  a  sixteen  months' 
siege  by  the  Poles  ;  at  a  later  date  the  monks  took  a  lively  part 
in  the  organization  of  the  army  which  crushed  the  outbreak  of  the 
peasants.  In  1683  and  1689  Peter  I.  took  refuge  here  from  the 
revolted  streltzi.  The  theological  seminary,  founded  in  1744  and 
transformed  in  1814  into  an  academy,  reckons  Platon  and  Philarete 
among  its  pupils. 

SERGIUS  I.,  pope  from  687- to  701,  came  of  an  An- 
tiochene  family  which  had  settled  at  Palermo,  and  owed 
his  election  as  Conon's  successor  to  skilful  intrigues  against 
PaschaUs  and  Theodoras,  the  other  candidates.  In  the 
second  year  of  his  pontificate  he  baptized  King  Ceadwalla 
of  Wessex  at  Rome.  For  rejecting  certain  canons  of  the 
TruUan'  (Quinisext)  council  of  692,  Justinian  U.  com- 
manded jiis  arrest  and  transportation  to  Constantinople, 
but  the  militia  of  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis  forced  the 
imperial  protospatharius  to  abandon  the  attempt  to  carry 
out  his  orders.     Sergius  was  followed  by  John  YI.  as  pope. 

SERGIUS  XL,  pope  from  84-i  to  847,  a  Roman  of 
noble  birth,  elected  by  the*  clergy  and  people  to  succeed 
Gregory  lY.,  was  forthwith  consecrated  without  waiting 
for  the  sanction  of  the  emperor  Lothair,  who  accordingly 
sent  his  son  Louis  with  an  army  to  punish  the  breach  of 
faith.  A  pacific  arrangement  was  ultimately  made,  and 
Louis  w  as  crowned  king  of  Lombardy  by  Sergius.  In  this 
pontificate  Rome  was  ravaged,  and  the  churches  of  St 
Peter  and  St  Paul  robbed,  by  Saracens  CAugust  8461. 
Sergius  was  succeeded  by  Leo  IV. 

SERGIUS  TIL  succeeded  Pope  Christopher  in  904,  and 
reigned  till  911.     His  pontificate,  so  far  as  is  known,  was 


remarkable  for  nothing  but  the  rise  of  the  "pomocracy"* 
of  Theodora  and  her  daughters.  Sergius  restored  the' 
Lateran  palace,  which  had  been  shattered  by  an  earthc^uake. 
After  him  Anastasius  HI.  sat  on  the  pontifical  throne. 

SERGIUS  IV.,  pope  from  1009  to  1012,  originally  bore 
the  name  of  Peter,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
change  his  name  on  accession  to  the  pontificate.  He  was 
a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of-  the  feudal  nobility  of  the  citj 
(see  Rome);  he  was  succeeded  by  Benedict  VIII. 

SERGIUS,  St.  The  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
celebrate  the  martyrs  Sergius  and  Bacchus,  Roman  officer? 
who  suffered  under  Maximian,  on  7th  October.  Both  were 
martyred  in  Syria,  Sergius  at  Rosafa  (Rasiftd,  Ros4fat 
Hish.im)  near  Rakka^  Sergius  was  a  very  famous  saint 
in  Syria  and  Christian  Arabia  (comp.  what  is  related  of 
Chosroes  II.  in  vol.  xviii.  p.  614) ;  and  Rosdfa,  which  became 
a  bishop's  see  (Le  Quien,  Or.  Chr.,  ii.  951),  took  the  name 
of  Sergiopolis,  and  preserved  his  relics  in  a  fortified  basilica. 
The  church  was  adorned  and  the  place  further  strengthened 
by  Justinian  (Procopins,  .£d.,  ii.  9). 

SEREEMA,  or  Cakiama,'  a  South-American  bird,  sufli- 
ciently  well  described  and  figureO.  in  Marcgrave's  work 
\EisU  Her.  Nat.  Brasilix,  p.  203),  posthumously  published 
by  De  Laet  in  1648,  to  be  recognized  by  succeeding  orni- 
thologists, among  whom  Brisson  in  1760  acknowledged  it  as 
forming  a  distinct  genua  Carianf^,  while  Linnaeus  regarded 
it  as  a  second  species  of  Palamedsa  (see  Screamer,  voL 
xxi.  p.  552),  under  the  name  of  P.  cristata,  EnglLshed  by 
Latham  in  1785  (Synopsis,  v.  p.  20)  the  "Crested 
Screamer," — an  appellation,  as  already  observed,  since, 
transferred  to  a  wholly  different  bird.  Nothing  more 
seems  to  have  been  known  of  it  in  Europe  tiU  1803,  when 
Azara  published  at  Madrid  his  observations  on  the  birds 


Seriema. 


of  Paraguay  (Apuntamientos,  Ko.  340),  wherein  he  gavi 
an  account  of  it  under  the  name  of  "  Saria,"  which  it  bora 
among  the  Guaranis, — that  of  "Cariama"  being  applied  to 
It  by  the  Portuguese  settlers,  and  both  expressive  of  its 
ordinary  cry.^  It  was  not,  however,  until  1809  that  this 
very  remarkable  form  came  to  be  autoptically  described 
scientifically.      This  was  done  by  the  elder  Geoffrey  St- 

1  In  this  word  the  initial  C,  as  is  usual  in  Portuguese,  is  pronounced 
soft,  and  the  accent  laid  upon  the  last  syllable. 

-  Yet  Forbes  states  {His,  1881,  p.  358)  that  Seriema  comes  from- 
Sin,  "  a  diminutive  of  Indian  extraction,"  and  .ff77i<i,  the  Portuguese- 
name  for  the  Pihca  (comp.  ElIEO,  vol.  N-iii.  p.  171),  the  whole  that 
meaning  "  Little  Rhea." 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


677 


Hilaira  (Ann.  du  Museum,  siii.  pp.  362-370,  pi.  26),  who 
had  seen  a  specimen  in  the  Lisbon  museum  ;  and,  though 
knowing  it  had  already  been  received  into  scientific  nomen- 
clature, he  called  it  anew  Mkr-odadylus  marcgravii.  In 
1811  Illiger,  without  having  seen  an  example,  renamed 
the  genus  Dicholophus — a  term  which,  aa  before  stated 
{Oknithology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  46,  note  1),  has  sinco  been 
frequently  applied  to  it— pla,cing  it  in  the  curious  con- 
<»erie3  of  forms  having  little  affinity  which  ho  called  Alec- 
torides.  In  the  course  of  his.travels  in  Brazil  (1815-17), 
Prince  Max  of  Wied  met  with  this  bird,  and  in  1823 
there  appeared  from  his  pen  {IT.  Act.  Acad.  L.-C.  Nat. 
Curiosontm,  xi.  pt.  2,  pp.  341-350,  tab.  xlv.)  a  very  good 
•contribution  to  its"  history,  embellished  by  a  faithful 
iife-sized  figure  of  its  head.  The  same  year  Temminck 
•figured  it  in  the  Planches  Ccloriees  (No.  237).  It  is  not 
-easy  to  say  when  any  example  of  the  bird  first  came  under 
the  eyes  of  British  ornithologists ;  but  in  the  Zoological 
J'rocc'sdings  for  1836  (pp.  29-32)  Martin  described  the 
visceral  and  osteological  anatomy  of  One  which  had  been 
received  alive  the  preceding  year.^ 

The  Seriema,  owing  to  its  long  legs  and  neck,  stands  some  two 
feet  or  more  in  height,  and  in  menageries  bears  itself  wiih  a  stately 
deportment.  Its  bright  rod  beak,  the  bare  greenish  blue  skin 
-sorroundingits  large  yellow  eyes,  and  the  tufts  of  elongated  feathers 
fr,ringing  vertically  from  its  lores,  give  it  a  pleasing  and  animated 
expression  ;  but  its  plumage  gei*rally  is  of  an  inconspicuous 
ochreous  grey  above  and  duU  white  beneath,- — the  feathers  of  the 
upper'  parts,  which  on  the  neck  and  throat  are  Ion"  and  loose,  being 
barred  Dy  fine  zigzag  fliarkings  of  dark  brown,  while  those  of  the 
lower  parts  are  more  or  less  striped.  The  wing-quills  are  brownish 
black,  banded  with  mottled  white,  and  those  of  the  tail,  except  the 
■jjiiddle  pair,  which  are  wholly  greyish  brown,  are  banded  with 
mottled  white  at  the  base  and  the  tip,  but  dark  brown  for  the  rest 
■of  their  length.  The  legs  are  red.  The  Seriema  inhabits  the 
^•ampos  or  elevated  open  parts  of  Brazil,  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Ycrnambuco  to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  extending  inland  as  far  aa 
Jlatto  Grosso  (long.  60°),  and  occurring  also,  though  sparsely,  in 
Paraguay.  It  lives  in  the  high  grass,  running  away  in  a  stooping 
■posture  to  avoid  discovery  on  being  approached,  and  taking  tlight 
only  at  the  utmost  need.  Yet  it  builds  its  nest  in  thick  bushes  or 
trees  at  about  a  man's  height  from  the  ground,  therein  laying  two 
eggs,  which  Prof.  Burraeister  likens  to  those  of  the  Land-Rail  in 
colour.^  The  young  are  hatched  fully  covered  with  grey  down, 
relieved  by  brown,  and  remain  for  some  time  in  the  nest.  The  food 
-of  the  adult  is  almost  exclusively  animal, — insects,  especially  large 
ants,  snails,  lizards,  and  snakes  ;  but  it  also  eats  certain  large  red 
terries. 

Until  1860  the  Seriema  was  believed  to  be  without  any  near 
relative  in  the  living  world  of  birds';  but  in'  the  Zoological  fro- 
^■idings  for  that  year  (pp.  334-336)  Dr  Hartlaub  described  an  allied 
species  discovered  by  Prof.  Eurmeister  in  the  territ^jry  of  the 
Argentine  RepubUc*  This  bird,  which  has  since  been  regarded  as 
-entitled  to  generic  division  under  the  name  of  Chunga  burm^istcri 
iP.Z.S.,  1870,  p.  466,  ph  xxxvi.),  and  seems  to  be  known  in  its 
native  country  as  the  "Chunnia,"  differs  from  the  Seriema  by  fre- 
<juenting  forest  or  at  least,  bushy  districts.  It  is  also  darker  in 
colour,  has  less  of  the  frontal  crest,  shorter  legs,  a  longer  tail,  and 
the  markings  beneath  take  the  form  of  bars  rather  than  stripes. 
In  other  respects  the  difference  between  the  two  birds  seems  to  be 
immaterial. 

There  are  few  birds  which  have  more  exercised  the  tax- 
onomer  than  this,  and  the  reason  seems  to  be  plain.  The 
Seriema  must  be  regarded  as  the  not  greatly  modified  heir 
of  some  very  old  type,  such  as  one  may  fairly  imagine  to 
have  lived  before  many  of  the  existing  groups  of  birds  had 


^  The  akelotoji  has  been  briefly  described  and  figured  by  Eyton 
(Olleol.  Avium,  p.  190,  pis.  3,  K,  and  28  bis,  fig.  1). 

^  This  distinguished  author  twice  cites  the  figure  given  by  Thiene- 
jnann  {FoHpJlanziingsgesch.  gesammt.  Viigel,  pi.  Ixxii.  fig.  14)  ia 
t'orngh  taken  from  a  genuine  specimen  ;  but  little  that' can  be  called 
ilalline  in  nh.iracter  is  observable  therein.  The  same  i.-)  to  be  said  of 
an  egg  laid  in  captivity  at  Paris  ;  but  a  specimen  in  Mr  Walter's  pos- 
session undeniably  sho'ws  it  (cf.  Ptoc.  Zool.  Society,  1881,  p.  2). 

*  A  supposed  fossil  Cariama  from  the  caves  of  Brazil,  mentioned  by 
Bonaparte  (C.Ji.,  xliii.  p.  779)  and  others,  has  since  been  shown  by 
r,cinhardt  (/Wj,  1882,  pp.  321-332)  to  rest  upon  the  misinterpretation 
of  certain  bones,  which  the  Intter  considers  to  have  been  those  ois.  Hhen. 

*  Kear  Tucuman  and  Ccitimarca  (Burmeistcr,  Jicisc  durch  die  La 
£lata  Stiuxtm,  li.  p.  508). 


beooma  difi'erentiated.  Looking  at  it  in  this  light,  we  may 
be  prepared  to  deal  gently  '\vith  the  systematists  who, 
having  only  the  present  before  their  eye^,  have  relegated 
it  positively  to  this,  that,  or  the  other  Order,  Family,  or 
ocher  group  of  birds.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  some  of 
its  habits  point  to  an  alliance  with  the  Bustard  (vol.  iv. 
p.  578)  or  perhaps  certain  Plovers  (see  Plover,  vol.  xix. 
p.  227),  while  its  digestive  organs  are  essentially,  if  not 
absolutely,  those  of  the  Heron  (vol.  xi.  p.  7G0).  Its  general 
appearance  recalls  that  of  the  Secretary -Bird  (supra, 
p.  617) ;  but  this,  it  must  be  admitted,  may  be  merely  an 
analogy  and  may  indicate  •  no  affinity  whatever.  On  the 
one  hand  we  have  authorities,  starting  from  bases  so  op- 
posed as  Prof.  Parker  (P.Z.S.,  1863,  p.  516)  and  Sundevall, 
placing  it  among  the  Accipitres,^  while  on  the  other  we 
have  Nitzsch,  Prof.  Burmeister,'  Martin  (ut  supra),  and 
Dr  Ga,dow  (Jowrn.  f.  Omithologie,  1876,  pp.  44.5,  446) 
declaring  in  e2"ect  that  this  view  of  its  affinities  cannot  be 
taken.  Prof.  Huxley  has  expressed  himself  more  cautiously, 
and,  while  remarking  (P.Z.S.,  1867,  p.  455)  that  in  its 
skull  "  the  internasal  septum  is  ossified  to  a  very  slight 
extent,  and  the  maxillo-palatine  processes  may  meet  in  the 
middle  Hue,  in  both  of  which  respects  it  approaches  the 
birds  of  prey,"  adds  that, "the  ossified  part  of  the  nasal 
septum  does  not  unite  below  with  the  maxillo-palatiaes," 
and  that  in  this  respect  it  is  unlike  the  Accipitres ;  finally 
he  declares  (p.  457)  that,  as  Otis  connects  the  Geranamorphee 
with  the  Ckaradriomorphse,  so  Cariama  connects  the  former 
■with  the  Aetomorphx,  "but  it  is  a  question  whether  these 
two  genera  may  be  better  included  in  "  the  Geranoraorjih^, 
"  or  made  types  of  separate  groups."  (a.  n.) 

SERIES.  A  series  is  a  set  of  terms  considered  as 
arranged  in  order.  Usually  the  terms  are  or  represent 
numerical  magnitudes,  and  we  are  concerned  with  the  sum 
of  the  series.  The  number  of  terras  may  be  limited  or 
without  limit ;  and  we  have  thus  the  two  theories,  finite 
_series  and  infinite  series.  The  notions  of  convergency  and 
divergency  present  themselves  only  in  the  latter  theory. 

Finite  Series. 

1 .  Taking  the  terms  to  be  numerical  magnitudes,  or  say 
numbers,  if  there  be  a  definite  number  of  terms,  then  the 
sum  of  the  series  is  nothing  else  than  the  number  ob- 
tained by  the  addition  of  the  terms  ;  e.g.,  4-1-9-1-10  =  23, 
l-l-2-l-4-f8  =  15.  In  the  first  example  there  is  no 
apparent  law  for  the  successive  terms ;  in  the  second 
example  there  is  an  apparent  law.  But  it  is  important  to 
notice  that  in  neither  case  is  there  a  determinate  law  : 
we  can  in  an  infinity  of  ways  form  series  beginning  'witli 
the  apparently  irregular  succession  of  terms  4,  9,  10,  or 
■with  the  apparently  regular  succession  of  terms  1,  2,  4,  8. 
For  instance,  in  the  latter  case  we  may  have  a  series  with 
the  general  term  2" ,  when  for  n  =  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  . .  the  series 
will  be  1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  . . ;  or  a  series  with  the  general 

»  The  author  of  vol.  i.  of  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  of  Birds 
even  refers  it  to  the  Family  Falconidm  and  sub-Family  Polyborina, 
though  he  regards  the  Ospret  (vol.  xviii.  p.  56)  as  the  type  of  a  dis- 
tinct sub-Order,  thereby  showing  a  want  of  peuctratioa  which  it  is 
difficult  to  excuse.  Here  it  needs  only  bo  said  that,  wlicreas  in  a  few 
points  Pandion  differs  from  the  normal  Falconidte,  Cariama  diverged 
in  characters  too  numerous  to  mention.  The  suggestion  th,at  the  Order 
^ccipV^res  might  be  justifiably  enlarged  so  as  to  include  the  Seriema 
has  before  (OENrTHOLOOT,  vol.  xviiL  pp.  45,  46)  met  with  conditional 
approval  ;  but  that  this  remarkable  and  pccultar  form  should  be  treated 
in  the  ■way  ju.st  described  indicates  an  amount  of  neglect  of  evidence 
hardly  to  be  expected  at  the  present  day. 

•  Nitzsch;  as  Prof.  Burmoi.iter  statoain  his  masterly  contribution  to 
the  natural  history  of  this  bird  i^Mlandl.  raturf.  Oescllsch.  Ualle,  i.  pp. 
1-68,  pis.  1,  2),  in  1834  saw  a  defective  skeleton  sent  to  Munich  by  the 
Brazilian  travellers  Spix  and  Martins.  His  description  of  it  was  not, 
however,  published  until  1853.  To  it  is  appended  a  description  by 
Dr  Creplin  of  some  Hhitowa  found  in  the  Seriema,  but  this  unfortu- 
uteiy  seems  to  give  no  help  aa  to  the  systematic  position  of  the  bird. 


678 


SERIES 


term  -(»'  +  5»  +  6),  where  for  the  same  values  of  n  the  series 
t> 

will  be  1,  2,  4,  8,  15,  26, . .  The  series  may  contain  nega- 
tive terms,  and  in  forming  the  sum  each  term  is  of  course 
to  be  taken  with  the  proper  sign. 

2.  But  we  may  have  a  given  law,  such  as  either  of  those 
jost  mentioned,  and  the  question  then  arises,  to  find  the 
sum  of  an  indefinite  number  of  terms,  or  say  of  n  terms 
{n  standing  for  any  positive  integer  number  at  pleasure) 
of  the  series.  The  e.'cpression .  for  the  sum  cannot  in  this 
case  be  obtained  by  actual  addition ;  the  formation  by 
addition  of  the  sum  of  two  terms,  of  three  terms,  &c., 
•will,  it  may  be,  .suggest  (but  it  cannot  do  mors  than  suggest) 
the  crpression  for  the  sum  of  re  terms  of  the  series.  For 
iiLstance,  for  the  series  c^  odd  munbera  1  +  S  +  5  +  7  +  ..., 
\!-e  have  1  =  1,  l  +  Z  =  -t-,  1  +  3  +  5  =  9,  &e.  These  results 
at  once  suggest  the  law,  1  +  3  -[-  5 . . .  +  (2?f  —  i)  =  n^,  which 
is  in  fsjct  the  true  expression  for  the  sum  of  n  terms  of 
the  scries ;  and  this  general  expression,  once  obtained,  can 
afterwards  be  verified. 

3.  We  have  here  the  theory  of  finite  series  :  the  general 
problem  is,  v-r,  being  a  given  function  of  the  positive 
integer  n,  to  determine  as  a  function  of  n  the  sura 
"o  +  "i  +  «2  •  •  •  +  "n>  °''!  ^°  order  to  have  re  instead  of  »  + 1 
terms,  say  the  siini.  v.^  -)-  jij  +  «,..  +  lir.-i. 

Simple  cases  arc  the  three  which  follow. 
(i.)  The  ai'ithmetic  series, 

o  +  {a  +  i)  +  (a  +  25)..  +  (a-rre-i;i; 
writing  here  the  terms  in  the  reverse  order,  it  at  once 
appears  that-  tvrice  the  sum  is  =  2a  +  »  -  1  i  taken  n  times  : 
that  is,  the  .yam  =  na  +  ^n{n  -  1)5.     In  particular  we  have 
an  expression  for  the  sum  of  the  natural  numbers 
1  +  2  +  3... +  a=-n(n  +  l), 

and  an  expression  for  the  sum  of  the  odd  numbers 
1  +  3  +  5. .■+(2K-l)  =  r.=. 
(ii.)  The  geometric  series, 

a  +  ar-t-ar^...-i-ar''-'-  ; 
here  the  difference  between   the   sum  and  r  times  the 
sum  is  at  once  seen  to  bo  =  a  — or",  and  the  sum  is  thus 

1  -  ?•"    .  . 

=  0.  _     ;  m  particular  the  sum  of  the  series 


l  +  r  +  r=. 


(iii.)  But  the  harmonic  series. 


l-T" 


a  — a    a  +  ib"'  '  c.-r{n-iyo' 


dm^it  of  summation ; 
wliT-h  is  equal  to  the 


or  say  j  +  ^  +  j.... +  -,  docs  not 

there  is  no  algebraical  function  of  ;• 
sum  of  the  series. 

4.  If  the  general  term  be  a  g'.  . ._  j/ion  a„,  and  wo 
can  find  Vr,  a  function  of  ti  such  that  v-r.+i-vn^Un,  then 
we  have  «„  =  »i  -  %  k^  =  ^2  -  v^,  u.2  =  v^-  v^ . .  Ur:=  v„+i  -  ?;„ ; 
and  hence  v.^  +  u-^  +  v..^.  .-rUTi  =  Vn+\  - 1'^, — an  expression 
for  the  required  sum.  This  is  in  fact  an  application  of 
the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differences.  In  the  notation  of 
this  calcidus  v-+\  -  v^  is  written  A^v ;  and  the  general 
inverse  problem,  or  problem  of  integration,  is  from  the 
equation  of  differences  Ava  =  «,!  (where  ti^  is  a  given  func- 
tion of  n)  to  find  v,,_.  The  general  solution  contains  an 
arbitrary  constant,  »•„  =  Vn  +  C ;  but  this  disappears  in  the 
difference  i-iij-j  -  v^.     As  an  example  consider  the  series 

«i+«i...  +  a„=0  +  l  +  3..+^(n  +  l); 
here,  obseiiving  that 
7!(!:  +  l)i'!;-;,2)-(B-l)B(n  +  l)  =  K(»  +  l)(jj  +  2-n^),  =  3n(re  +  i;, 
we  have  i)„+i  =  g?i(«+l)()t+2); 


and  hence      1  +  3  +  6 


.+5>i;n  +  l)=jM(BH 


as  may  be  at  once  verified  for  any  particular  value  of  ». 

Similarly,  when  the  general  term  is  a  factorial  of  the 
order  r,  we  have 


1  + 


r  +  1  ;i(n  +  l)  ..(m  +  r-l)_n(m  +  l)..   (n  +  r) 


1    ■""  ■      1.2     ..         r         ^      1;2     ..  (r-i 
5.  If  the  general  term  «„  be  any  rational  and  integral 
function  of  «,  we  have 


fAKo  + 


<n-l) 


A%, 


.2..P 


where  the  series  is  continued  only  up  to  the  term  depend- 
ing on  p,  the  degree  of  the  function  «„,  for  all  the  f.ubse- 
quent  terms  vanish.  The  series  is  thus  decomposed  into 
a  set  of  series  which  have,  each  a  factorial  for  the  general 
term,  and  which  can  be  svjarned  by  the  last  formula ;  thus 
we  obtain 

,    ,  ,,      ,  (r.+ivi 
Uj  +  Cii. . .  +a„  =  (n  +  l/.^+— j-j- Atij  . . 


.(± 


-IJn'n-l).  .  (n-B  +  l).p 
1.2.3..0,  +  lf        ^'-^ 


which  is  a  fyncti'^n  of  the  degree  ^+  1. 

Thus  for  the  before-mentioned  series  1  +  2  +  4  +  8  -!•  . . , 
if  it  be  assumed  that  the  general  term  Kn  is  a  cubic  function 
of  n,  and  writing  down  the  given  terms  and  forming  the 
diiierences,  1,  2,  4,  8 ;  1,  2,  4 ;  1,  2  ;  1,  we  have 

„  _i  "<«-!)  <"-i::3-2)  (i, 

»     ^  +  1+    1.2     +      1.2.3  l~6' 

and  the  sum  t^  -{-  Mj  . .  +  «„ 


'  +  571  +  6),  as  above 


.„+i+(."+i>+fe--n>':"- 


1.2 


1.2.3 


2^    (^  +  lXn-lX«-2) 


1.2.3.4 


=  g;^«4  +  2;i=  +  ll«-  +  34n  +  24). 

As  particular  cases  we  have  expressions  for  the  sums 
of  the  powers  of  the  natural  numbers — 


1= 


;-2=...+r!==^!t(n  +  l)(2n  +  l);  ls  +  2»..  +7v'  =  \h\:i  +  V? 

O  4 


(observe  that  this  =  (1  +  2  . . .  +  a)-) ;  and  so  on. 

6.  We  may,  from  the  expression  for  the  ■sum  of  the 
geometric  series,  obtain  by  differentiation  other  results : 

thus  1  +  r+r- ...  +3 


.1-r"- 


l  +  2r+37--.  .  +(rt-i;r" 


_d_l^ 
'  dr  1- 


gives 
l-Kr''-l  +  (n-l)r- 


and  we  might  in  this  way  find  the  sum  u^  +  «,r . . .  +  Vts', 
where  v„,  is  any  rational  and  integial  function  of  «. 

7.  The  expression  for  the. sum  a^  +  Jij ...+«,  of  an  in- 
definite number'  of  terms  wiU  in  many  cases  le\d  to  the 


sum  of  the  infinite  series  «» +  w. 


but  the  theory  of 


infinite  series  requires  to  be  considered  separately.  Oftea 
in  dealing  apparently  with  an  infinite  series  «j  +  «j  +  ... 
we  consider  rather  an  indefinite  than  an  infinite  serie.s, 
and  are  not  in  any  wise  reaUy  concerned  with  the  sum  of 
the  series  or  the  question  of  its  convergency :  thus  the 
equation 


l+m«  + 


7n{m,-\). 
1.  2 


=  l+(m  +  n)j:  + 


-)C 


1  +  '/la:  -r 


'i{-h-  XL 


{m''r'ii)[in-\-n~\) 


1.2 


really  means  the  series  of  identities 


.2^^+^ 


-1) 


••) 


ic, 


1.2  1.2  111.2 

obtained  by.  multiplying  ■  together  the  two  series  of  the 
left-hand  side.  Again,  in  the  method  of  generating  fymc- 
tions  we  are  concerned  with  an  equarion  <^(<)  =  A^  +  A-^t . . . 
+  Ant'^+  ..,  where  the  function  <^(<)  is  used  only  to  ex- 
press the  Kw  of  formation  of  the  successive  coefiicients. 

It  is  an  obvious  remark  that,  although  according  to  the 
original  definition  of  a  series  the  terms  are  considered  as 
arranged  in  a  determinate  order,  yet  in  a  finite  series 


SERIES 


679 


(whether  the  number  of  terms  be  definite  or  indefinite)  the 
sum  is  independent  of  the  order  of  arrangement. 

Infinite  Series. 

8.  We  consider  an  infinite  series  «o  +  !(j  +  «5+  ...  of 
terms'  proceeding  accoTding  to  a  given  law,  that  is,  the 
general  term  u,i  is  given,  as  a  function  of  n.  To  fix  the 
ideas  the  terms  may  be  taken  to  be  positive  numerical 
magnitudes,  or  say  numbers  continually  diminishing  to 
zero;  that  is,  «„>«„+],  and  u^'is,  moreover,  such  a  function 
of  n  that  by  taldng  »  sufficiently  large  Un  can  be  made 
as  small  as  we  please. 

Forming  the  successive  sums  S^  —  «oi  "^i  ~  ''o  +  %>  "^2 
=  «ij  +  «i  +  «2)  •  •  these  suras  ;S'u,  S-^,  S.^.  . .  will  be  a  series 
of  continually  increasing  terms,  and  if  they  increase  up 
to  a  determinate  finite  limit  S  (that  is,  if  there  exists  a 
determinate  numerical  magnitude  S  such  that,  by  taking 
n  sufficiently  large  we  can  make  S  -  Sn  as  small  as  wo 
please)  S  is  said  to  be  the  sum  of  the  infinite  series.  To 
show  that  we  can  actually  have  an  infinite  series  with  a 
given  sum  S,  take  «„  any  number  less  than  S,  then  »S'  -  ??(, 
is  positive,  and  taking  «j  any  numerical  magnitude  less 
than  S  -  ?((,,  then  S-it^-  Wj  is  positive.  And  going  on 
continually  in  this  manner  we  obtain  a  series  «u  +  «j 
+  «2+  •  •  •  such" that  for  any  value  of  n  however  large 
I?  -!((,-  Mj .. .  -u,i  is  positive  ;  and  if  as  n  increases  this 
diffi^rence  diminishes  to  zero,  wo  have  «„  +.«i  + 1!.,  +  .  .  .  , 
— an  infinite  series  having  S  for  its  sum.     Thus,  it  j?  =  2, 

and  we  take  «q<2,'  say  «„=  1;  «i<2  -  1,  say  "1  =  5;  "2'^2 

-  1  -  5,  say  «2  =  7;  and  so  on,  we  have  l+^  +  j-i-  ...  =2; 
or,  more  generally,  if  r  be  any  positive  number  less  than 
1,  then  l  +  r  +  y^+  ...  =1-37.,  that  is,  the  infinite  geo- 
metric series  with  the  first  term  =  1,  and  with  a  ratio 

r<l,  has  the  finite  svmi  r: .     Thia  in  fact  follows  from 

1  -r  _ 

1  -  »■'' 
\ ;  .■  expression  1+r  +  r^ . . ,  +  r" - 1  =  = for  the  sum  of 

the  Jinite  series;  taking  r<l,  then  as  ?j  increases  r"  de- 
creases to  zero,  and  the  sum  becomes  more  and  more 

,  1 

nearly  = :; 

•'       i  -r 

9.  An  infinite  series  of  positive  numbers  can,  it  i,?  clear, 
have  a  sum  only  if  the  terms  continually  diminish  to  zero ; 
but  it  is  not  conversely  true  that,  if  this  condition  be  satis- 
fied, there  will  be  a  sum.     For  instance,  in  the  case  of  the 

harmonic  series  1  -(-  5  +  „■  -r  . . .  il  can  be  shovm  that  by  tak- 
ing a  sufficient  number  of  terms  the  sum  of  the  finite  series 
may  be  made  as  large  as  we  please.    For,  writing  the  series 

in  the  form  1-^1  + (1+1)  +  (l  +  l  +  ^  +  l)  +    .   .  ,  the 

number  of  terms  in  the  brackets  being  doubled  at  each 
successive  step,  it  is  clear  that  the  sum  of  the  terms  in 

any  bracket  is  always  >-;  hence  by  sufficiently  increas- 
ing the  number  of  brackets  the  sum  may  be  made  as  large 
as  wo  please.    In  the  foregoing  series,  by  grouping  the  terms 

in  a  different  manner  1  +  ('l  +  l^  +  ('i  +  1  +  l  +  l^  + 

the  sum  of  the  terms  in  any  bracket  is  always  <  1 ;  we  thus 
arrive  at  the  result  that  (n  =  3  at  least)  the  sum  of  2''-  terms 
of  the  series  is  >  1  +  Iji  and  <  re. 

10.  An  infinite  series  may  contain  negative  terms  ;  sup- 
pose in  the  first  instance  that  the  terms  are  alternately 
positive  Rtid  negative.  Here  the  absolute  magnitudes  of 
the  tern:.-  must  aecrease  down  to  zero,  but  this  is  a  suffi- 


cient condition  in  order  that  the  series  may  have  a  scm. 
The  case  in  question  is  that  of  a  series  v^  -  v^^  +  v^-  .  . , 
where  v^,  v^,  i\,  .  .  are  all  positive  and  decrease  dcv/n  to 
zero.  Here,  forming  the  successive  sums  ;?„  =  j)g,  S-^  =  v^  —  ?',, 
S^  =  Vf^-Vj^  +  v„,..  (Sj,  (Sj,  (S,,  .  .  .  are  all  positive,  and  we 
have  S^  >  S-^,  S-^  <  S„,  iS,  >  S^,  .  .  and  ^„j,i  -  S,,  tends'  con- 
tinually to  zero.  Hence  the  sums  <?(,,  <S'j,  S^  . .  tend  con- 
tinual!;? to  a  positive  limit  ,5^  in  such  wise  that  jS'^,  S„, 


S,, 


are   each  of  them  greater  and  »S'j,  S^,  S^,  . .  are 


each  of  them  less  than  S ;  and  we  thus  have  /S'  as  the  sum 


of  the  series. 


The  series  1  -  5  +  tt 


1 


will  serve  as 


an  example.  The  case  just  considered  includes  the  appar- 
ently more  general  one  where  the  series  consists  of  alternate 
groups  of  positive  and  negative  terms  respectively;  the 
terms  of  the  same  group  may  be  united  into  a  single  term 
±  v„,  and  the  original  series  will  have  a  sum  only  if  the 
resulting  series  v^^-v^  +  Vo. .  .  has  a  sum,  that  is,  if  the 
positive  prjtial  sums  v^,  v^,  f„  .  .  decrease  down  to  zero. 

The  terms  at  the  beginning  of  a  series  may  be  irregular 
as  regards  their  signs ;  but,  when  this  is  so,  all  the  term.s  in 
question  (assumed  to  be  finite  in  number)  may  be  united 
into  a  single  term,  which  is  of  course  finite,  and  instead  0^ 
the  original  series  only  the  remaining  terms  of  the  series 
need  be  considered.  Every  infinite  series  jvhatever  is  thus 
substantially  included  under  the  two  forms, — terms  all  posi- 
tive and  terms  alternately  positive  and  negative. 

11.  In  brief,  the  sura  (if  any)  of  the  infinite  series 
Kg -t- «j -1- «2 -t-  .  .  is  the  finite  limit  (if  any)  of  the  succes- 
sive sums  «(,,  «j -!-«[,  M^-f-Mj-f  Kji  •  •  •  j  if  there  is  no  such 
limit,  then  there  is  no  sum.  Observe  that  the  assumed 
order  m^,  Wj,  «j  .  .  .  of  the  tei-ms  is  part  of  and  essential 
to  the  definition;  the  terms  in  any  other  order  may  have 
a  different  sum,  or  may  have  no  sum.  A  series  having  a 
sum  is  said  to  be  "convergent";  a  series  which  has  no 
sum  is  "  divergent." 

If  a  scries  of  positive  terms  be  convergent,  the  terms 
cannot,  it  is  clear,  continually  increase,  nor  can  they  tend 
to  a  fixed  limit. :  the  series  1  +  1  -l- 1  +  . .  is  divergent.  For 
the  convergency  of  the  series  it  is  necessary  (but,  as  has 
been  shown,  not  sufficient)  that  the  terms  shall  decrease 
to  zero.  So,  if  a  series  with  alternately  positive  and  nega- 
tive terms  be  convergent,  the  absolute  magnitudes  cannot, 
it  is  clear,  continually  increase.  In  reference  to  such  a  scries 
Abel  remarks,  "  Peut-on  imaginer  rien  de  plus  horrible 
que  de  debitor  0  =  l"-2"-f3"- 4"-h,  etc.,  oil  re  est  un 
nombre  entier  positifl"  Neither  is  it^allowable  that  the 
absolute  magnitudes  shall  tend  to  a  fixed  limit.  The  so- . 
called  "  neutral "  series  1  -  1  -1- 1  -  1  . .  is  divergent :  the 
successive  sums  do  not  tend  to  a  determinate  limit,  but 
are  alternately  + 1  and  0 ;  it  is  necessary  (and  also  suflV 
cient)  that  the  absolute  magnitudes  shall  decrease  to 
zero. 

In  the  so-called  semi-convergent  series  we  have  an  equa- 
tion of  the  form  S --^  Uf,  -  U-^  -^U^-  . .  . ,  where  the  positive 
values  t/j,  U^,  U„,  .  .  .  decrease  to  a  minimum  value,  suppose 
Uf,  and  afterwards  increase;  the  series  is  divergent  and 
has  no  sum,  and  thus  S  is  not  the  sum  of  the  series.  S 
is  only  a  number  or  function  calculable  approsimoiely  by 
means  of  the  series  regarded  as  a  finite  series  terminating 
with  the  term  ±  Up.  The  successive  sums  U^,  l/j  -  &'.,, 
I/'d  -  i/j  -I-  Co,  .  .  up  to  that  containing  ±  Uf,  give  alter- 
nately superior  and  inferior  limits  of  the  number  or 
function  S. 

12.  The  condition  of  convergency  may  be  presented 
under  a  different  form:  let  the  series  «,,-(- Mj +  «o  +  .  .  be 
convergent,  then,  taking  m  sumciently  large,  the  sum  is 
the  limit  not  only  of  m^  +  «i  + . .  H-  "m  but  also  of  «j  -)-  «j . . . 
-I-  «™4.r.  wl'ovp,  r  is  any  number  as  hrga  as  we  please.  The 
diU'erei-'i;  .i   lU:- j  two  exprcseions  must  therefore  be  in- 


680 


SERIES 


-  + . .  is  convergent,  but  the 


1     1 


definitely  small ;  by  taking  m  sufficiently  large  the  sum 
«m+i  +  «m+2  ■  .  •  •  +  Wm-i-r  (where  r  is  any  number  how- 
ever large)  can  be  made  as  small  as  we  please ;  or,  as 
this  may  also,  be  stated,  the  sum  of  the  infinite  series 
"rji+i  +  «in+2  +  .  .  .  can  be  made  as  small  as  we  please. 
If  the  terms  are  all  positive  (but  not  otherwise),  we  may 
take,  instead  of  the  entire  series  «mi-i  +  «m+2+ .  .,  any 
set  of  terms  (not  of  necessity  consecutive  terms)  subse- 
quent to  Kre;  that  is,  for  a  convergent  series  of  positive 
terms  the  sum  of  any  set  of  terms  subsequent  to  «m  can, 
ly  taking  m  sufficiently  large,  be  made  as  small  as  we 
p'.'T-ase. 

13.  It  follows  that  in  a  convergent  series  of  positive 
terms  the  terms  may  be  grouped  together  in  any  manner 
so  as  to  form  a  finite  number  of  partial  series  which  will 
be  each  of  them  convergent,  and  such  that  the  sum  of  their 
sums  will  be  the  sum  of  the  given  series.  For  instance, 
if  the  given  series  be  Mq  +  «j  4-  «2  + . .  . ,  then  the  two  series 
«(,  +  II.,  +  71^  +  ,..  and  «[  -1-  a^  -t- .  .  will  each  be  convergent 
and  the  sura  of  their  sums  will  be  the  sum  of  the  original 
series. 

14.  Obviously  the  conclusion  does  not  hold  good  m 
general  for  series  of  positive  and  negative  terms :  for  in- 
stance, the  series  1-5-1 

two  series  1  -i-  -  -t,  ^  + .  .  and  -  ^  -  7  -  .  .  are  each  diver- 
ts    0        ,  2     4 

gent,  and  thus  without  a  sum.  In  order  that  the  conclusion 
may  be  applicable  to  a  series  of  positive  and  negative 
terms  the  series  must  be  "  absolutely  convergent,"  that  is, 
it  must  be  convergent  when  all  the  terms  are  made  posi- 
tive. This  implies  that  the  positive  terms  taken  by  them- 
selves are  a  convergent  series,  and  also  that  the  negative 
terms  taken  by  themselves  are  a  convergent  series.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  a  convergent  series  of 
positive  terms  is  absolutely  convergent.  The  question  of 
the  convergency  or  divergency  of  a  series  of  positive  and 
negative  terms  is  of  less  importance  than  the  question 
whether  it  is  or  is  not  absolutely  convergent.  But  in  this 
latter  question  we  regard  the  terms  as  all  positive,  and 
the  question  in  effect  relates  to  series  containing  positive 
terms  only. 

15.  Consider,  then,  a  series  of  positive  terms  u^  +  ii^ 
+  iir,  +  .  .;  if  they  are  increasing — that  is,  if  in  the  liinit 
^n+i/tin  be  greater  than  1 — the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 
less  thah  1  the  series  is  convergent.  This  may  be  called 
a  first  criterion ;  but  there  is  the  doubtful  case  where  the 
limit  ,=  1.  A  second  criterion  was  given  by  Cauchy  and 
R-aabe ;  but  there  is  here  again  a  doubtful  case  when  the 
limit  considered  =1.  A  succession  of  criteria  was  estab- 
lished by  De  Morgan,  which  it  seems  proper  to  give  in 
the  original  form ;  but  the  equivalent  criteria  established  by 
Bertrand  are  somewhat  there  convenient.  In  what  follows 
Ix  is  for  shortness  written  to  denote  the  logarithm  of  x,  no 
matter  to  what  base.     De  Morgan's  form  is  as  follows  : — 

Writing  «„  =  tt^,  put  p^  =  -r^  ;  if  for  x  =  00  the  limit  a^ 

of  p^  be  greater  than  1  the  series  is  convergent,  but  if  less 
than  1  it  is  divergent.  If  the  limit  a,^  =  1,  seek  for  the 
limit  of/)j,  =  (pu-  l)lx;  if  this  limit  Oj  be  greater  than  1 
the  series  is  convergent,  but  if  less  than  1  it  is  divergent. 
If  the  limit  «!  =  1,  seek  for  the  limit  p.^,  =  (p^  -  \)llx  ;  if 
this  limit  a„  be  greater  than  1  the  series  is  convergent,  but 
if  less  than  1  it  is  divergent.     And  sp  on  indefinitely. 

1 6.  Bertrand's  form  is : — If,  in  the  limit  for  re  =  00, 1 —  In 
De  negative  or  less  than  1  the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 
greater  than  1  it  is  convergent.  If  it  =  1,  then  if  I —  lln- 
be  negative  or  less  than  1  the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 


1 


greater-  than  1  it  is  convergent.  '  If  it  =1,  then  if  / — j-/lltn 

be  negative  or  less  than  1  the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 
greater  than  1  it  is  convergent.     And  so  on  indefinitely. 

The    last -mentioned  criteria  follow  at  once  from   the 
theorem  that  the  several  series  having  the  general  terms 

111  1 

— ;,     ,,  .„!     ,  ,„  ,„.     ,  „  ,,,,  V.,; . .  respectively  are  each 

of  them  convergent  if  a  be  greater  than  1,  but  divergent 
if  a  be  negative  or  less  than  1  or  =1.     In  the  simplest 

case,  series  with  the  general  term  — >  the  theorem  may  be 

proved  nearly  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  shown  above  (cf. 
§  9)  that  the  harmonic  series  is  divergent. 

17.  Two  or  more  absolutely  convergent  series  may  be 


added  together,  { u^  -f  u^  -f  Kj  •  •}  +  {*'o  +  ''i  +  ''2  •  • 


■"0) 


+  (kj  -H  fj) .  .  ;  that  is,  the  resulting  series  is  absolutely  con- 
vergent and  has  for  lis  sum  the  sum  of  the  two  sums. 
And  similarly  two  or  more  absolutely  convergent  series  may 
be  multiplied  together  {u^  +  v^  +  u„. .)  x  {v^  -t-  j)j  -f  r,  .  . } 

=  Vo  +  ("o^'i  +  "i^'o)  +  iVi  +  ''i^i  +  "2''())  +  •  • ;  that  is,  the 
resulting  series  is  absolutely  convergent  and  has  for  its 
sum  the  product  of  the  two  sums.     But  more  properly  the 
multiplication  gives  rise  to  a  doubly  infinite  series — 
«o%  "o"!,  "o'^a  •  •  • 

MjD,,    Hifj,    lij^j 

— which  is  a  kind  of  series  which  will  be  presently  con- 
sidered. 

18.  But  it  is  in  the  first  instance  proper  to  consider  a 
single  series  extending  backwards  and  forwards  to  infinity, 
or  say  a  back-and-forwards  infinite  series  .  .  .  i«-,-t-M-i 
+  it^  +  u^  +  ii^.  . . ;  such  a  series  may  be  absolutely  con- 
vergent, and  the  sum  is  then  independent  of  the  order  of 
the  terms,  and  in  fact  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  sums  of 
the  two  series  «u  +  !< j  -1-  «2  •  •  ^"^^  «  - 1  -I- )( -  2  +  «  -  3  .  ■ 
respectively.  But,  if  not  absolutely  convergent,  the  ex- 
pression has  no  definite  meaning  until  it  is  explained  in 
what  manner  the  terms  are  intended  to  be  grouped 
together ;  for  instance,  the  expression  may  be  u^ed  to 
denote  the  foregoing  sum  of  two  series,  or  to  denote  the 
series  w^-l- (mj-)-?<-i)  4-()(2  +  "-!)+  ••  ^id  the  sum  may 
have  diflerent  values,  or  there  may  be  no  sum,  accordingly. 

Thus,  if  the  series  be  .  .  -  i  -  j  H-  0  -I-  j  -!- 1  -H  .  .  ,  in  the 

former  meaning  the  two  series  0  -I-  ^  +  5  +  •  •  and  -  r  -  5  -  •  • 

are  each  divergent,  and  there  is  not  any  sum.  But  in  the 
latter  meaning  the  series  is  0  -I-  0  -f  0  -I- .  .  ,  which  has  a 
sum  =  0.  So,  if  the  series  be  take.,  to  denote  the  limit  of 
(mj -H Ml -t- a,  •  •  +«i>i)  +  («-i  +  «-2  ■  .  •  +«-,„•),  where  m, 
m  are  each  of  them  ultimately  infinite,  there  may  be  a 
sum  depending  on  the  ratio  m :  m,  which  sum  conse- 
quently acquires  a  determinate  value  only  when  this  ratio 
is  given. 

19.  In  a  singly  infinite  series  we  have  a  general  term 
Un,  where  n  is  an  integer  positive  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary 
series,  and  positive  or  negative  in  the  case  of  a  back-and- 
forwards  series.  Similarly  for  a  doubly  infinite  series  we 
have  a  general  term  Um,n,  where  m,  n  are  integers  which 
may  be  each  of  them  positive,  and  the  form  of  the  series 
is  then 

«i.o .  Wl.l  .  «1,S 

or  they  may  be  each  of  them  positive  or  negative.  The 
latter  is  the  more  general  supposition,  and  includes  the 
former,  since  ?(„^„  may  =  0  for  m  or  n  each  or  either  of 
them  negative.  To  put  a  definite  meaning  on  the  notion 
of  a  sum,  we  may  regard  m,  n  as  the  rectangular  coordi- 
nates of  a  pouit  in  a  plane  ;  that  is,  if  m,  n  are  each  of 


SERIES 


681 


tfiem  positive  we  attend  only  to  tte  positive  quadrant  of 
the  plane,  but  otherwise  to  the  whole  plane ;  and  we  have 
thus  a  doubly  infinite  system  or  lattice-work  of  points. 
We  may  imagine  a  boundary  depending  on  a  parameter^  T 
which  for  I*  =00  is  at  every  point  thereof  at  an  infinite 
distance  from  the  origin  ;  for  instance,  the  boundary  may 
be  the  circle  x-  +  j^^  =  T,  or  the  four  sides  of  a  rectangle, 
«=  iar,  y=±(iT.  Suppose  the  form  is  given  and  the 
value  of  T,  and  let  the  sum  ~Um,  n  be  understood  to  denote 
the  sum  of  those  terms  «„,„  which  correspond  to  points 
within  the  boundary,  then,  if  as  T  increases  without  limit 
the  sum  in  question  continually  approaches  a  determinate 
limit  (dependent,  it  may  be,  on  the  form  of  the  boundary), 
for  such  form  0/  boundary  the  series  is  said  to  be  conver- 
gent, and  the  simi  of  the  doubly  infinite  series  is  the  afore- 
said limit  of  the  sum  Sw^.n.  The  condition  of  convergency 
may  be  otherwise  stated :  it  must  be  possible  to  take  T 
so  large  that  the  sum  lum.n  for  aU  terms  «„,  ^  which 
correspond  to  points  outside  the  boundary  shall  be  as 
small  as  we  please. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that,  if  the  terms  «„,  n  be  all  of  them 
positive,  and  the  series  be  convergent  for  any  particular 
form  of  boundary,  it  will  be  convergent  for  any  other  form 
of  boundary,  and  the  sura  will  be  the  same  in  each  case. 
Thus,  let  the  boundary  be  in  the  first  instance  the  circle 
x'  +  y'^^T;  by  taking  7  sulnciently  large  the  sum  Swm,  u 
for  points  outside  the  circle  may  be  made  as  small  as  we 
please.  Consider  any  other  form  of  boundary — for  in- 
stance, an  ellipse  of  given  eccentricity, — and  let  such  an 
ellipse  be  drawn  including  within  it  the  circle  x-  +  y-  =  T. 
Then  the  sum  2!<„,„  for  terms  «m,7i  corresponding  to 
points  outside  the  ellipse  will  be  smaller  than  the  sum  for 
points  outside  the  circle,  and  the  difference  of  the  two  sums 
— that  is,  the  sum  for  points  outside  the  circle  and  inside 
the  ellipse — will  also  be  less  than  that  for  points  outside 
the  circle,  and  can  thus  be  made  as  small  as  we  please. 
Hence  finally  the  sum  2k„^„,  whether  restricted  to  terms 
Un,  n  corresponding  to  points  inside  the  circle  or  to  terms 
corresponding  to  points  inside  the  ellipse,  will  have  the 
same  value,  or  the  sum  of  the  series  is  independent  of 
the  form  of  the  boundary.  Such  a  series,  viz.,  a  doubly 
infinite  convergent  series  of  positive  terms,  is  said  to  be 
absolutely  convergent ;  and  similarly  a  doubly  infinite 
series  of  positive  and  negative  terms  which  is  convergent 
when  the  terms  are  all  taken  as  positive  is  absolu,tely 
convergent. 

20.  We  have  in  the  preceding  theory  the  foundation  of 
the  theorem  (§  17)  as  to  the  product  of  two  absolutely 
convergent  series.  The  product  is  in  the  first  instance 
expressed  as  a  doubly  infinite  series ;  and,  if  we  sum  this 
for  the  boundary  x  +  y=T,  this  is  in  effect  a  summation 
of  the  series  u^v,,  +  (m^Vj  +  u^v^)  + . .  ,  which  is  the  product 
of  the  two  series.  It  may  be  further  remarki;d  that, 
starting  with  the  doubly  infinite  series  and  sumning  for 
the  rectangular  boundary  x  =  aj',  y  =  pT,  we  obtain  the 
sum  as  the  product  of  the  sums  of  the  two  single  series. 
For  series  not  absolutely  convergent  the  theorem  is  not 
true.     A  striking  instance  is  given  by  Cauchy  :  the  series 

1 72.'^  '73~  772'^  •  •  '^  convergent  and  has  a  calcul- 
able sum,  but  it  caa  be  shown  without   difficulty  that 

,  ,        2       /  2       1\ 

its    square,    viz..    the    series    1  - '/o  +  ("73  +  5/ ~  •  •  ' 
is  divergent  V  v        - 

21.  The  case  where  the  lerms  of  a  series  are  imaginary 
comes  under  that  where  they  are  real.  Suppose  the  general 
term  is  />,  +  qj,  then  the  series  ■n-ill  have  a  sum,  or  will 
be  convergent,  if  and  only  if  the  series  having  for  its  general 
terra  p,  and  the  series  having  for  its  general  terra  q^  be 
each  convergent ;  then  the  sum  =  sum  of  first  series  +  i 
into  sum  of  second  series.     The  notion  of  absolute  conver- 


gence will  of  course  apply  to  each  of  the  series  separately ; 
further,  if  the  series  having  for  its  general  term  the  modulus 
iJp'n  +  2"n  be  convergent  (that  is,  absolutely  convergent, 
since  the  terms  are  all  positive),  each  of  the  component 
series  will  be  absolutely  convergent ;  but  the  condition  is  not 
necessary  for  the  convergence,' or  the  absolute  convergence, 
of  the  two  component  series  respectively. 

22.  In  the  series  thus  far  considered  the  terms  are 
actual  numbers,  or  are  at  least  regarded  as  constant ;  but 
we  may  have  a  series  m^  -)-  «j  -I-  «2  +  •  •  where  the  successive 
terms  are  functions  of  a  parameter  z ;  in  particular  we  may 
have  a  series  Ojj  +  a^z  +  a^~  .  .  arranged  in  powers  of  j.  It 
is  in  view  of  a  complete  theory  necessary  to  consider  z  as 
having  the  imaginary  value  x  +  iy  =  r(cos  4>  +  i  sin  i^).  The 
two  component  series  will  then  have  the  general  terms 
a^r^  cos  n4>  and  a^r"  sin  n4>  respectively ;  accordingly  each 
of  these  series  will  be  absolutely  convergent  for  any  value 
whatever  of  <f>,  provided  the  series  vntb  the  general  term 
a,!?-"  be  absolutely  convergent.  Moreover,  the  series,  if  thus 
absolutely  convergent  for  any  particular  value  H  of  r,  will 
be  absolutely  convergent  for  any  smaller  value  of  r,  that  is, 
for  any  value  ot  x  +  iy  having  a  modulus  not  exceeding  R ; 
or,  representing  as  usual  x  +  iy  by  the  point  whoso  rect- 
angular coordinates  are  x,  y,  the  series  will  be  absolutely  con- 
vergent for  any  point  whatever  inside  or  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  circle  having  the  origin  for  centre  and  its  radius 
=  i?.  The  origin  is  of  course  an  arbitrary  point.  Or,  what 
is  the  sime  thing,  instead  of  a  series  in  powers  of  z,  we 
may  consider  a  series  in  powers  of  ;  -  c  (where  c  is  a  given 
imaginary  value  =  a  -f  /?t).  Starting  from  the  series,  we 
may  within  the  aforesaid  limit  of  absolute  convergency  cori- 
sider  the  series  as  the  definition  of  a  function  of  the  vari- 
able 3 ;  in  particular  the  series  may  be  absolutely  conver- 
gent for  every  finite  value  of  the  modulus,  and  we  have  then 
a  function  defined  for  every  finite  value  whatever  x  +  iy  of 
the  variable.  Conversely,  starting  from  a  given  function 
of  the  variable,  we  may  inquire  undev  what  conditions  it 
admits  of  expansion  in  a  series  of  powers  of  3  (or  z  -  c), 
and  seek  to  determine  the  expansion  of  the  function  in  a 
series  of  this  form.  But  in  all  this,  however,  we  are  tra-| 
veiling  out  of  the  theory  of  series  into  th'e  general  theory 
of  functions. 

23.  Considering  the  modulus  t-  as  a  given  quantity  and  the 
several  powers  of  r  as  included  in  the  coefficients,  the  com- 
ponent series  are  of  the  forms  a^  +  a^cos  <j>  +  a,cos  2'j>  +  .  . 
and  a^sm4>  +  a^sin24>  +  .  .  respectively.'  The  theory  of 
these  trigonometrical  or  multiple  sine  and  cosine  series, 
and  of  the  development,  under  proper  conditions,  of  an 
arbitrary  function  in  series  of  these  forms,  constitutes  an 
important  and  interesting  branch  of  analysis.' 

2-1.  In  the  case  of  a  real  variable  z,  wo  may  have  a  series 
flj -1- a^i  +  a„z- . . ,  where  the  series  a,j  +  a-^  +  a„..  is  a,  diver- 
gent series  of  decreasing  positive  terms  (or  as  a  limiting  case 
where  this  series  is  1  -f  1  -f  1  . .).  For  a  value  of  z  inferior 
but  indefinitely  near  to  ±1,  say  0=  ±(1  -£),  where  c  is 
indefinitely  small  and  positive,  the  series  will  be  convergent 
and  have  a  determinate  sum  (jj{z),  and  wc  may  write  <^(  ±  1) 
to  denote  the  limit  of  <^(  ±  (1  -  f) )  as  c  diminishes  to  zero  ; 
but  unless  the  series  be  convergent  for  the  value  z=  ±1 
it  cannot  for  this  valuQ  have  a  sum.  nor  consequently  a 

sum  =<^(±1).    Fo^instance.,lettheseriesbe^-^■2■^-^Vv. 

which  for  value.i  of  z  between  the  limits  ±1  (both 
limits  excluded)  -  -  log(l  -  z).  FoT!=  +1  the  series  is 
divergent  and  has  no  sum;,  but  for  3=1- e  as  e  dimi- 
nishes to  zero  we  nave"-Ioif,£  and  {I  -  e)  + -^(1  tij)- ; . . , 
each  positive  and  increasing  without  limit;  for'i=  -1 
the  series  1  -  5  +  ^  -  5  •  •  "  convergent,  and  we  ^ave  < 

7CXI.  —  86 


682 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


iJie  limit  log  2  =  1--  +  -_1.,.     M  a  second  example, 

consider  the  series  l+z  +  z'^.,,  which  for  values  of  z  be- 

t-.veen  the  limits  ±  1  (both  limits  excluded)  =-r^,'     For 

-'  =  -1- 1,  the  series  is  divergent  and  has  no  sum ;  but  for 

I  =  1  -  e  as  £  diminishes  to  zero  we  have  -  and  1  +  (1  -  «) 

+  (1  -t)-.  . ,  each  positive  and  increasing  without  limit; 
for  s  =  - 1    the  series  is   divergent  and  has  no  sum ; 

the  equation  -j-—  =  1  -  (1  -  e)  +  (1  -  c)- . . .  is  true  for  any 

positive  value  of  c  however  smaU,  but  not  for  the  value 
e=0..' 

Tho  following  memoirs  and  works  may  be  consulted  : — Canchy, 
Cours  d'Anaiysc  dc  VJ^colc  Polyt£chniqi{c-^T^3.\t  i.,  Analyse 
Alfjcbriquc,  8vo,  Pans,  1S21 ;  Abel,   "Untersucbungen  iiber  die 

Ro!hel  +  --a;  +  -    ■,    „    x- .  .  ,'  m  Crelles  Joiirr..  dc  .■/ath.,  vol  i. 

(lS26)pp.  211-239,  and  ffiKravs  (French  trans.),  vol.  i. ;  DeMorgan, 
Treatise  on  the  DitTcrcniial  and  Iiilcgral  Calculus,  8vo,  London, 
1842;  Id.,  "On  Divergent  Series  and  various  Points  of  Analysis 
connected  with  them"  (184 J),  in  Cnmb.  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  viii. 
(1849),  and  other  memoii-s  in  Camb.  Phil.  Trans.  ;  Bertrand, 
"  Regies  sur  la  Couvevgence  des  Series,"  in  Liouv.  Journ.  de  Math,, 
vol.  vii.  (1842)  pp.  S5-54;  Cayley,  "On  the  Inverse  Elliptic 
Functions,"  Camb.  Math.  Joarn.,  vol.  iv.  (1845)  pp.  257-277,  *and 
"Memoire  sur  les  Fonctions  doublement  periodiques,"  in  Liouv. 
Journ,  de  Math.,  vol.  x.  (1845)  pp.  385-420  (as  to  the  boundary 
for  a  doubly  infinite  scries) ;  Kiemann,  "  Ueber  die  Darstellbarkeit 
ciLCi*  Function  durcli  eine  trigonometrische  Reihe,"  in  Goit.  Abh., 
vol.  siii.  (1654),  and  IFcrlce,  Leipsic,  1876,  pp.  213-253  (contains 
an  account  of  preceding  researches  by  Euler,  D'Alembert,  Fourier, 
Lejeune-Duichlet,  &c. ) ;  Catalan,  I'raiU  Ek'tnentaire  des  Series, 
Svo,  Paris,  1860  ;  Boole,  Treatise  on  the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differ- 
inccs,  2d  ed.  by  Moulton,  Svo,  London,  1872.  (A.  C.) 

SEEINGAPATAM,  formerly  the  capital  of  Mysore, 
India,  is  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Kaveri  (Cauvery)  river  in  12°  25'  33"  N.  lat.  and  76°  43' 
S  '  E.  long.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  fortress,  which 
figured  so  prominently  in  Indian  history  at  the  close  of  the 
18th  century.  This  formidable  strongliold  of  Tipu  Sultan 
thrice  sustained  a  siege  from  the  British,  but  it  was  finally 
stormed  in  17S9  ;  and  after  its  capture  the  island  was 
ceded  to  the  British.  The  island  of  Seringapatam  is  about 
3  nules  in  length  from  east  to  west  and  1  in  breadth, 
and  yields  valuable  crops  of  rice  and  sugar-cane.  The 
fort  occupies  the  western  side  of  the  island,  immediately 
overhanging  the  river.  Seringapatam  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  in  l-i54  by  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  local 
officers  appointed  by  EamAnuja,  the  Yishnuite  apostle, 
vAo  named  it  .the  city  of  Sri  Ranga  or  Vishnu.  At  the 
ejitem  or  lower  end  of  the  island  is  the  Lai  Bagh  or  "  red 
garden,"  containing  tho  mausoleum  built  by  Tipu  Sultan 
lor  his  father  Hyder  Ali,  in  which  Tipu  himself  also  lies. 
In  1881  the  population  of  the  town  of  Seringapatam  w-as 
11,734  (males  5579,  females  6155). 

SEEJEANT-AT-LAW  is  the  name  given  to  one  who 
holds  an  ancient  and  honcm-able  rank  at  the"  English  or 
Irish  bar.  The  word  is  a  corruption  of  serviens  ad  Icycm, 
as  distinguished  from  appreniicius  ad  legem,  or  utter 
barrister,  who  probably  originally  obtained  his  knowledge 
of  law  by  serving  a  kind  of  apprenticeship  to  a  Serjeant. 
AYhen  the  order  of  Serjeants  was  instituted  is  unknown, 
but  it  certainly  dates  from  a  very  remote  i^eriod.  The 
authority  of  serjeant  counters  or  counters  {i.e.,  pleaders, 
those  who  frame  counts  ia  pleading)  is  treated  in  the 
Mirror  oii  Justices,  and  they  are  named  in  3  Edw.  I.  c.  29. 
They  mc/?  por,sibly  have  been  the  representatives  of  the 
ronieurs  irientioned  in  the'  great  customary  of  Normandy. 
The  posirion  of  the  serjeant  had  become  assured  when 
Chancer  ■,-.ioto.  One  of  the  characters  in  the  Canterhury 
Talcs  is 


"  A  seijcant  of  the  law,  wary  and  wise, 
That  often  had  y-been  at  the  parvis."' 

Serjeants  (except  king's  Serjeants)  were  created  by  writ  of 
summons  under  the  great  seal,  and  wore  a  special  and  dis- 
tinctive dr-ess,  the  chief  feature  of  which  was  the  coif,  a 
white  lawn  or  silk  skull-cap,  now  represented  by  a  rount' 
piece  of  black  silk  at  the  top  of  the  wig.  They  enjoyea 
a  social  precedence  after  knights  bachelors  and  before 
ccmpanions  of  the  Bath  and  other  orders.  In  this  they 
differed  from  queen's  counsel,  who  have  simply  professional 
as  distinguished  from  social  rank.  Socially  the  serjeant 
had  precedence,  professionally  the  qaeen's  counsel,  rmless 
indeed,  as  was  often  the  case,  a  patent  of  precedence  wai 
granted  to  the  former.  Till  past  the  middle  of  the  19th 
ceatury,  a  limited  number  of  the  Serjeants  were  called 
"king's  (queen's)  Serjeants."  They  were  appointed  by 
patent  and  summoned  to  parliament.  Until  1814  the  two 
senior  king's  Serjeants  had  precedence  of  even  the  attorney- 
general  and  solicitor-general.  It  was  the  custom  for 
Serjeants  on  their  appointment  to  give  gold  rings  with 
mottoes  to  their  colleagates.  Down  to  1845  the  order  en- 
joyed a  very  valuable  monopoly  of  practice.  The  Serjeants 
had  the  right  of  exclusive '  audience  as  leading  counsel  in 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  In  1834  a  royal  nandati 
of  William  T\'.  attempted  to  abolish  this  privilege,  but  in 
1840  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council  declared 
the  mandate  informal  and  invalid.  The  monopoly  was 
finally  abolished  in  1845  by  Act  of  Parliament  (9  and  10 
Vict.  c.  54).  For  at  least  600  y6ars  the  judges  of  the 
superior  courts  of  common  law  were  always  Serjeants.  If 
a  judge  was  appointed  who  was  not  a  serjeant  at  the  time 
of  his  appointment,  he  was  formally  created  one  immedi- 
ately Ijefore  his  elevation  to  the  bench.  By  the  Judicature 
Act,  1873,  sect.  8,  no  person  appointed  a  judge  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice  or  the  Court  of  Appeal  is  required  to  take 
or  have  taken  the  degree  of  serjeant-at-law.  The  Serjeants 
had  their  own  inn  of  cotrrt  down  to  a  very  recent  date. 
Serjeants'  Inn  was  formerly  in  two  divisions,  one  in  Fleet 
Street  and  one  in  Chancery  Lane.  In  1758  the  members 
of  the  former  joined  the  latter.  In  1877  the  latter  was 
dissolved,  the  inn  sold  to  one  of  the  members,  and  the 
proceeds  divided  among  the  existing  Serjeants,  The  extinc- 
tion of  the  order  is  now  onh'  a  cpiestiou  of  time,  no  serjeant 
having  been  created  since  1868.  It  is,  however,  stUl  with- 
in the  discretion  of  the  crown  to  create  fresh  Serjeants  if 
ever  it  should  be  deemed  advisable  to  do  so.  In  Ireland 
the  order  still  exists.  The  three  Serjeants  at  the  Irish  bar 
have  precedence  next  after  the  law  officers  of  the  crown. 

See  Scriiens  ad  Legem,  by  Mr  Seijeant  JIanning  ;  The  Order  o] 
the  Coif,  by  Mr.  Serjeant  Pulling. 

SEEJEAICTY,  a  form  of  tenure.     See  Eeal  Estate. 

SEEPEXT,  a  musical -instrument.  See  OmicLEiDE, 
vol.  xvii.  p.  778. 

SERPEN'TIIn'E,  a  compa-^t  crj-pto-crystalline  or  fibrous 
mineral  substance,  occurring  in  rock-masses  which  com- 
monly present  dark  green  colours,  variously  mottled  and 
fancifully  compared  to  the  markings  on  certain  serpents, 
whence  the  name  "serpentine."  For  a  like  reason  it  is  some- 
times called  "  ophite,"  while  Italian  sculptors  have  termed 
it  "ranocchia,"  in  allusion  to  its  resemblance  to  the  skin  of  a 
frog.  In  consequence  of  its  variegated  tints,  the  stone  is 
frequently  cut  and  polished  for  ornamental  purposes,  and 
is  hence  popularly  called  a  marble.  From  true  marble, 
however,  it  differs  in  chemical  composition,  being  essen- 
tially a  hydrated  silicate  of  magnesium,  usually  associated 
with  certain  metallic  oxides  (such  as  those  of  iron,  nickel, 
and  chromium)  which  confer  npon  the  stone  its  chai-acter- 
istic   tints.      In   some   localities  serpentine  is  found   in 


^  The  parvis  was  the  porch  of  old  St  Paul's,  where  each  serjeant 
had  his  particular  pillar  at  which  he  held  ints-views  with  his  clients. 


S  E  R  — S  E  li 


683 


.■nasses  which  are  evidently  intrusive  among  otner  rocks, 
n-iiile  elsewhere  it  occurs  interbedded,  usually  in  lenticular 
masses,  associated  with  gneiss  and  crystalline  schists.  _  It 
is  noteworthy  that  the  serpentine  is  frequently  cruslied 
and  brecciated,  exhibiting  polished  slip-faces  which  are 
sometimes  striated.  The  surface  of  an  e.xposed  mass  of 
serpentine  is  generally  barren,  whence  bosses  of  the  rock 
are  known  in  the  Alps  as  "  laonts  morts."  The  origin  of 
serpentine  has  been  a  subject  of  much  dispute.  It  was 
pointed  out  by  Sandberger  and  Tschermak  that  the  altera- 
tion of  olivine  may  give  rise  to  this  product,  and  pseudo- 
morphs  of  serpentine  after  chrysolite  are  well  known  to 
mineralogists.  Professor  Bonney  and  many  other  geo- 
logists regard  serpentine  as  being  generally  an  altered 
eruptive  rock,  due  to  the  hydration  of  peridotitsg,  such  as 
Iherzolite ;  probably  it  may  also  result  from  the  decom- 
position of  olivine-gabbro  and  other  rocks  rich  in  mag- 
nesian  silicates.  Augite  and  hornblende  may  become 
altered  to  serpentine.  On  the  contrary,  Dr  Sterry  Hunt 
and  certain  other  chemical  geologists  believe  that  serpentine 
has  generally  been  formed  as  an  aqueous  sediment,  prob- 
ably precipitated  by  the  reaction  of  .sulphate  or  chloride 
of  magnesium  upon  the  silicate  of  lime  or  alkaline  silicates 
derived  from  the  disintegration  of  crystalline  rocks  and 
iciund  in  solution  in  many  nal-oxal  waters.  Serpentine  is 
a  rock  of  rather  limited  occurrence.  Its  principal  localities 
in  England  are  Cornwall,  especially  in  the  Lizard  district, 
where  it  occupies  a  considerable  area.  The  famous  scenery 
of  Kynance  Cove  owes  much  of  its  beauty  to  the  vivid 
colours  and  brilliant  surface  of  the  serpentine.  The  rock 
is  worked  into  vases,  columns,  mantelpieces,  <i;c.,  and  of 
late  years  has  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  the  deco- 
ration of  shop-fronts  in  L  wdon.  The  beauty  of  the  Lizard 
rock  is  heightened  by  the  white  veins  of  steatite  which 
traverse  it,  and  in  some  cases  by  disseminated  crystals  of 
b  .stite,  which  glisten  with  metallic  lustre.  !Mucli  of  the 
Lizard  serpentine!  is  of  ricli  red  and  brown  colour.  Green 
^^rpentine  is  found  near  Holyhead  in  Anglcsea.  A  singu- 
larly beautiful  variety  of  mottled  red  and  green  tints,  with 
\e;ins  of  steatite,  occurs  near  Portsoy  in  BanlTshire,  Scot- 
'  '.nd.  .It  is  also  found  with  chrome  iron  ore  in  the  Shetland 
;lands.  The  green  serpentine  of  Galway  occurs  in  inti- 
aate  association  with  crystalline  limestone,  forming  the  rock 
known  as  "ophicalcite"  or  "serpentinous  marble."  Such  an 
association  is  by  no  means  uncommon ;  but,  though  the 
beautSfiel  the  serpentine  may  thus  be  enhanced,  its  dura- 
bility seems  to  be  impaired.  On  ercposure  to  the  weather 
the  carbonate  of  calcium  decomposes  more  readily  than  the 
silicate  of  magnesium,  and  hence  the.  stone  soon  presents 
a  rojigh  eroded  surface.  The  Galway  rock  comes  into  the 
market  under  the  name  of  "  Irish  green  "  or  "  Connemara 
marble."  Ophicalcites  also  occur  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
and  in  various  parts  of  the  Scottish  Highlands;  and  the 
green  peVoles  found  in  lona  belong  to  this  type  of  rock. 

On  the  Continent  serpentines  are  largely  worked  at 
Ziiblitz  and  at  Waldheim  in  Saxony.  The  famous  rock 
of  Ziiblitz,  mentioned  by  Agricola,  is  known  to  have  been 
wrought  for  between  three  and  four  centuries,  and  is  still 
extensively  explored  by  open  quarries  and  by  subterranean 
galleries.  The  rock  usually  presents  various  shades  of 
green  and  brown,  red  being  very  rare ;  bsi  its  most  in- 
teresting feature  is  the  frequent  presence  of  pyrope,  or 
Bohemian  garnet,  which  occurs  scattered  through  the  rock 
in  dark  red  grains,  that  decompose  on  weathering  to  a  green 
chloritic  product.  Very  little  of  tlu;  Zoblitz  sei-pentine 
comes  to  England,  but  it  is  common  throughout  G'-rmany, 
and  a  good  deal  is  sent  to  Russia  and  even  to  the  LTr.ited 
States.  It  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of  the  mauso- 
leum of  Prince  Albert  at  Frogmore,  and  for  Abraham  Lin- 
coln's Bconument  at  Springfield,  Illinois.     The  best  known 


of  the  Italian  serpentines  is  the  "verde  Prato,"  which 
has  been  quarried  for  centuries  at  Montcferrato,  near 
Prato  in  Tuscany.  According  to  Capacci  this  serpentine 
is  probably  of  Eocene  age.  It  has  been  largely  used  as  a 
decorative  stone  in  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  Prato, 
Pistoia,  and  Florence.  A  good  deal  of  serpentine  is  found 
near  Genoa  and  Levanto.  The  "  verdo  di  Pegli "  is  ob- 
tained from  Pegli,  not  far  from  Genoa,  while  the  "  verde 
di  Genova "  is  a  brecciated  serpentinous  limestone  from 
Pietra  Lavezzara.  Serpentine  also  occurs  at  various  other 
points  of  the  Apennines,  in  Elba,  and  in  Corsica.  The 
term  "  ophiolite  "  has  been  vaguely  used  to  include  not  only 
serpentines  but  many  of  the  rocks  associated  with  the 
Italian  serpentines.  In  like  manner  the  term  "gabbro," 
derived  from  a  locality  near  Leghorn,  was  at  one  time  used 
as  a  general  name  for  serpentine  and  its  associates,  though 
uov/  usually  restricted  to  a  rock  composed  essentially  of 
plagioclase  and  diallage.  It  is  notable  that  this  true  gab- 
bro is  often  found  in  company  v.-ith  serpentine. 

Serpentine  is  found  in  numerous  localities  in  the  Alps 
and  in  France.  An  elegant  variety  is  quarried  at  Epinal 
in  the  Vosges,  and  a  beautiful  ophicalcite  is  worked  at  St 
V^ran  and  Maurins,  in  the  department  of  Hautes-Alces. 
The  serpentine  of  the  Ronda  Mountains  in  Spain  has 
been  described  by  Mr  J.  Macpherson.  In  North  America 
serpentine  is  so  extensively  distributed  that  only  a  few 
localities  can  be  mentioned.  It  is  found  at  Syracuse  in 
New  York;  on  Manhattan  and  Staten  Islands;  at  Hobo- 
ken  in  New  Jersey  ;  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island  ;  at  New- 
buryport,  Massachusetts ;  at  Westchester,  Chester  county, 
and  at  Texas,  Lancaster  county,  in  Pennsylvania.  It  also 
occurs  between  Clear  Lake  and  New  Idrea  in  California. 
A  fine  ophicalcite  has  been  obtained  from  near  T.Iilford  and 
New  Haven  in  Connecticut,  and  a  beautiful  variety  has  been 
worked  at  Port  Henry,  Esses  county.  New  York  (Dana). 
The  Canadian  eozoon  occurs  in  a  serpentinous  limestone. 

See  Geology,  vol.  x.  pp.  22S,  2S2 ;  JIakele,  vol.  xv.  p.  528  ;  and 
MiNiir.ALOcY,  vol.  xvi.  p.  414.  Tho  literature  of  the  Italian  and 
Saxoi!  serpentines  is  rather  voluminous.  Of  recent  Etfjjiisli  wriMngs 
on  serpentine  reference  may  be  made  to  Bonney,  in  Quart.  Jov/ni. 
Gcol.  &'oo.,  London,  xxxuL  p.  881,  xxxiv.  p.  769,  xxx^ni.  p.  40, 
xxxix.  p.  21,  and  in  Ocol.  Mag.,  [2]  vi.  p.  362,  [3]  L  p.  40S  ; 
and  to  Collins,  Quart.  Joum.  Geo!..  Soc,  xl.  p.  458,  and  Gcol. 
Mag.,  [3]  ii.  p.  293.  tSterry  Hunt  has  written  an  elaborate  paper 
in  Proc.  J!og.  Soc.  CaKadn.,  1883,  sect.  iv.  pp.  165-215.  See  also 
Tcall,  British  Petrography,  18S6,  and  Becker,  in  Amcr.  Joum.  of 
Science,  Jlay  1880.  (F.  W.  E*.) 

SERPENTS.     See  Snakes. 

SERPUKHOFF,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Moscow,  61  miles  south  of  the  city  of  I'loscow,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  Built  on  high  cliffs  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Nara,  3  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Oka,  Serpukhoff  has  of  late  become  an  important 
manvifacturing  and  commercial  town.  Tho  aggregate  pro- 
duction, of  its  manufactories  (cotton  and  v/oollen  stuffs, 
paper,  leather),  which  employ  about  4000  hands,  in  ISSO 
was  valued  at  about  £300,000.  The  surrounding  district 
has  several  large  cotton  and  woollen  factories,  with  a 
yearly  output  worth  about  £1,000,000.  Petty  trades 
are  also  much  developed  in  the  neighbourhood, — textile 
fabrics,  furniture,  and  earthenware  and  porcelain  being 
produced  by  the  peasantry.  Tlie  manufactured  goods  of 
Serpukhoff  are  sent — mostly  by  rail — to  the  fairs  of  Nijni- 
Novgorod  and  the  Ukraine,  while  largo  amounts  of  grain, 
liemp,  and  timber,  brought  from  the  cast  on  the  Oka,  are 
discharged  at  Serpukhoff  and  sent  on  to  JIoscow  and  Sfc 
Petersburg.  The  good.5  traffic  by  rail  and  river  showed 
in  1880  an  aggregate  of  5,400,000  cwts.  (exclusive  of 
timber  floated  down  the  Oka).  Notwithstanding  its  recent 
prosperity  and  the  sums  bequeathed  to  the  municipality 
by  wealthy  mcrclianis,  Serpukhoff  improves  but  slowly. 
The  cathedral  (13S0)  was  rebuilt  in  the  18th  century;  of 


684 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


the  old  fortress,  situated  on  a  promontory  formed  by  a  bend 
of  the  Nara,  a  few  heaps  of  stones  are  the  only  remains. 
The  population  in  18S4  was  22,420. 

Scrpukhoff  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  fho  principality  of 
Moscow  ;  it  is  montionfd  in  the  will  of  Ivan  Daislovich  (1328), 
at  which  time  it  was  a  nearly  independent  principality  under  the 
protectorate  of  Moscow.  Its  fortress,  protecting  Moscow  on  the 
Bouth,  was  often  attacked  by  the  Tatars  ;  Toktamish  plundered  it 
in  1382,  and  the  Lithuanian  prince  Svidrigaito  in  1410.  In  1556 
tlie  town  was  strongly  fortified,  so  that  fifteen  years  later  it  was  able 
to  resist  the  Mongol  invasion.  Its  commercial  importance  dates 
from  the  18th  century. 

SERTORIUS,  QcriNTUs.  The  life  and  career  of  the 
Roman  Sertorius,  a  man  of  remarkable  genius  both  as  a 
general  and  as  a  statesman,  may  be  said  to  be  comprised 
between  the  years  105  and  72  B.C.,  a  period  of  civil  war 
and  revolution  in  the  Roman  world,  when  every  man  of 
any  mark  had  to  be  an  adherent  either  of  Sulla  or  of 
Marius.  Sertorius,  who  came  from  a  little  Sabine  village 
under  the  Apennines  and  was  a  self-made  man,  attached 
himself  to  the  party  of  the  latter,  and  served  under  him 
in  102  B.C.  at  the  great  battle  of  Aqute  Sextia;  (Aix),  in 
which  the  Teutones  were  decisively  defeated.  Three  years 
before  he  had  witnecsed  the  rout  of  a  Roman  army  bythe 
Cimbri  on  the  Rhone.  In  97  he  was  serving  in  Spain  and 
thus  had  a  good  opportunity  of  making  himself  acquainted 
with  the  country  with  which  his  fame  is  chiefly  associated. 
In  91  he  was  qua;stor  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  on  his  return 
to  Rome  he  met  with  such  a  hearty  welcome  that  he  would 
have  been  elected  to  the  tribuneship  but  for  the  decided 
opposition  of  Sulla.  He  now  declared  himself  for  Marius 
and  the  democratic  party,  though  of  Marius  himself  as  a 
man  he  had  the  worst  opinion.  He  must  have  been  a  con- 
senting party  to  those  hideous  massacres  of  Marius  and 
Cinna  in  87,  though  he  seems  to  have  done  what  he  could 
to  mitigate  their  horrors  by  putting  a  stop  to  the  outrages 
perpetrated  by  the  scum  of  Marius's  soldiery.  On  Sulla's 
return  from  the  East  and  the  war  with  Mithradates  in  83, 
Sertorius  left  Rome  for  Spain,  where  he  represented  the 
Marian  or  democratic  party,  but,  it  would  appear,  without 
receiving  any  definite  commission  or  appointment.  Here 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  with  the  exception 
of  some  cruises  in  the  Mediterranean  in  conjunction  with 
Cilician  pirates,  and  of  a  campaign  in  Mauretania,  in  which 
lie  defeated  one  of  Sulla's  generals  and  captured  Tingis 
(Tangier).  This  success  recommended  him  to  the  Spaniards, 
more  particularly  to  the  Lusitanian  tribes  in  the  west,  whom 
Roman  generals  and  governors  of  Sulla's  party  had  plun- 
dered and  oppressed.  Brave  and  kindly  and  gifted  with 
a  rough  telling  eloquence,  Sertorius  was  just  the  man  to 
impress  Spaniards  favourably,  and  the  native  militia,  which 
he  organized,  spoke  of  him  as  the  "new  Hannibal."  Many 
Roman  refugees  and  deserters  joined  him,  and  with  these 
and  his  Spanish  volunteers  he  completely  defeated  one  of 
Sulla's  generals  and  drove  Metellus,  who  had  been  specially 
sent  against  him  from  Rome,  out  of  Lusitania,  or  Further 
Spain  as  the  Romans  called  it.  Sertorius  owed  much  of 
his  success  to  his  statesmanlike  ability,  and  it  seems  that 
he  aspired  to  be  in  Spain  what  the  great  Agricola  after- 
wards was  in  Britain.  His  object  was  to  build  up  a  stable 
government  in  the  country  with  the  consent  and  co-opera- 
tion of"  the  people,  whom  he  wished  to  civilize  after  the 
Latin  model  He -established  a  senate  of  300  members, 
drawn  from  Roman  emigrants,  with  probably  a  sprinkling 
of  the  best  Spaniards.  For  the  children  of  the  chief  native 
f.aiuilies  he  provided  a  school  at  Osca  (Huesca),  where  they 
received  a  Roman  education  and  even  adopted  the  dress 
of  Roman  youths.  Strict  and  severe  as  he  was  with  his 
soldiers,  ho  was  particularly  considerate  to  the  people 
generally  and  made  tlieir  burdens  as  light  as  possible.  It 
seems  clear  that  he  had  a  peculiar  gift  for  evoking  the 


enthusiasm  of  rude  tribes,  and  we  can  well  understand 
how  the  famous  white  fawn,  which  was  his  constant  com- 
panion, may  have  promoted  his  popularity.  For  six  years 
he  may  be  said  to  have  really  ruled  Spain.  In  77  he  was 
joined  by  Perpenna,  one  of  the  officers  of  Lepidus,  from 
Rome,  with  a  following  of  Roman  nobles,  and  in  the  same 
year  the  great  Pompey,  then  quite  a  young  man  and  merely 
a  knight,  was  sent  by  the  senate  to  take  the  command  in 
Spain  and  with  Metellus  to  crush  Sertorius.  The  war  was 
waged  with  varying  success,  but  on  the  whole  Sertorius- 
proved  himself  more  than  a  match  for  his  adversaries,, 
utterly  defeating  their  united  forces  on  one  occasion  near 
Saguntum.  Pompey  wrote  to  Rome  for  reinforcement?,, 
without  which,  he  said,  he  and  Metellus  would  be  driven 
out  of  Spain.  Rome's  position  was  very  critical,  the  more: 
so  as  Sertorius  was  in  league  with  the  pirates  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, was  negotiating  with  the  formidable  Mithradates, 
and  was  in  communication  with  the  insurgent  slaves  in 
Italy.  But  owing  to  jealousies  among  the  Roman  officers 
who  served  under  him  and  the  Spaniards  of  higher  rank 
he  could  not  maintain  his  position,  and  his  influence  over 
the  native  tribes  slipped  away  from  him,  though  he  won  vic- 
tories to  the  last.  In  72  he  was  assassinated  at  a  banquet, 
Perpenna,  it  seems,  being  the  chief  instigator  of  the  deed. 

AVhat  we  know  of  Sertorius  is  mainly  drawn  from  Plutarch's 
ZivcSt  from  Appian,  and  from  the  fragments  of  Sallust.  There  is 
a  good  life  of  him  by  G.  Long  in  Smith's  Class.  Did. 

SERVANT.     See  M.i.sTER  asb  Servant. 

SERVETUS,  Michael,  or  MtcuelServeto(1511-1553}, 
physician  and  polemic,  was  born  in  1511^  at  Tudela  in 
Navarre  (according  to  his  Vienna  deposition),  his  father 
being  Hernando  Villanueva,  a  notary  of  good  family  in 
Aragon.  His  surname  is  given  by  himself  as  Serveto  in 
his  earliest  works,  "  per  Michaelem  Serueto,  alias  Reues." 
Later  he  Latinized  it  into  Servetus,  and  even  when  writing 
in  French  (1553)  he  signs  "Michel  Seruetus."-  It  is  not 
certain  that  he  was  related  to  his  contemporary  Andris 
Serveto  of  Aninon,  the  Bologna  jurist ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  he  was  of  the  same  family  as  the  Spanish  ecclesiastic 
Marco  Antonio  Serveto  de  Reves  (d.  1598),  born  at  Villa- 
nueva de  Sigena  in  the  diocese  of  Huesca  (Latassa,  BMio- 
teca  Nueva,  1798,  i.  G09).  Servetus,  who  at  Geneva  makes. 
"  Villeneufve  "  his  birthplace,  fixes  it  in  the  adjoining  dio- 
cese of  Lerida,  in  which  there  are  three  villages  named 
Vilanova.  Having  apparently  had  his  early  training  at  the 
university  of  Saragossa,  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  study 
law  at  Toulouse,  where  he  first  became  acquainted  with  the 
Bible  (1528).  From  1525  he  had  found  a  patron  in  Juan 
de  Quintaua  (d.  1534),  a  Franciscan  promoted  in  1530  to 
be  confessor  to  Charles  V.  In  the  train'  of  Quintana  he 
witnessed  at  Bologna  the  coronation  of  Charles  in  February 
1 530,  visited  Augsburg,  and  perhaps  saw  Luther  at  Cobvu-g. 
The  spec'acle  of  the  adoration  of  the  pope  at  Bologna  had 
strongly  impressed  his  mind  in  an  anti-papal  direction. 
He  left  QoEitana,  and,  after  visiting  Lyons  and  Geneva, 
repaired  to  Qicolampadius  at  Basel,  whence  he  pushed  ob 
to  Bucer  and  Capito  at  Strasburg.  A  crude,  but  very 
original  and  earnest,  theological  essay,  De  Tnniiatis  Errori- 
bus,  printed  at  Hagenau  in  1531,  attracted  considerable 
attention;  Melanchthon  writes  "Servetum  multum_  lego." 
It  was  followed  in  1532  by  a  revised  presentation'  of  its 
argument.  We  next  find  Servetus  at  Lyons,  iu  1535,  as 
an  editor  of  scientific  works  for  the  printing  firm  of  Trechsel, 
under  the  name  of  Michel  de  Villeneufve  or  Michael  Villa- 
novanus,  which  he  used  without  interruption  till  the  year 

1  This  date  rests  iipon  his  own  testimony  as  to  his  age  (both  at 
Vienne  and  Geneva)  and  that  of  Calvin.  An  isolated  passage  of  his 
Geneva  testimony  may  be  adduced  in  support  of  1509. 

'  The  form  "  Servet "  first  appears  in  a  letter  of  CEcolampadius  tooths 
senate  of  Easel  (1531),  and  is  never  used  hy  himself.  "  Servede  "  k- 
an  imaginary  form. 


SEP.VETUS 


685 


•of  his  death.  Here  he  found  a  friend  in  Dr  Symphorien 
Champier  (Campegius)  (1472-1539),  whose  profession  he 
resolved  to  follow.  Accordingly  he  went  (1536)  to  Paris, 
-where  he  studied  medicine  under  Johann  Giinther,  Jacques 
Dubois,  and  Jean  Fernel.  It  was  in  1536,  when  Calvin 
•was  on  a  hurried  and  final  visit  to  France,  that  he  first 
met  Servetus  at  Paris,  and,  as  he  himself  says,  proposed 
to  set  him  right  in  theological  matters.'  As  assistant  to 
Giinther,  Seirvetus  succeeded  the  famous  anatomist  Ves- 
alius  ;  Giinther,  who  pays  the  highest  tribute  to  his  general 
■culture,  describes  him  as  specially  skilled  in  dissection  and 
"  vix  ulli  secundus  "  in  knowledge  of  Galen.  He  gradu- 
ated in  arts  and  asserts  that  he  also  graduated  in  medicine, 
published  a  set  uf  lectures  on  syrups  (the  most  popular  of 
iiis  works),  lectured  on  geometry  and  astrology,  and  de- 
fended by  counsel  a  suit  brought  against  him  (March  1538) 
by  the  medical  faculty  on  the  ground  of  his  astrological 
lectures.  In  June  1538  we  find  him  at  the  university  of 
Lo-ivain  (where  "he  was  inscribed  on  the  roll  of  students  as 
Michael  Villanova  on  14th  December  1537),  studying 
theology  and  Hebrew,  explaining  to  his  father  (then  resi- 
dent at  Saa  Gil)  his  removal  from  Paris,  early  in  Septem- 
ber 1537,  as  a  consequence  of  the  death  (8th  August)  of 
his  master  (el  seiior  mi  maestro),  and  proposing  to  return 
to  Paris  as  .="ion  as  peace  was  proclaimed.  After  this  he 
practised  medicine  fcr  c  short  time  at  Avignon,  and  for  a 
longer  period  at  Charlieu  (where  he  contemplated  marriage, 
but  was  deterred  by  a  physical  impediment).  In  Septem- 
ber 1540  he  entered  himself  for  further  study  in  the  medi- 
cal school  at  Montpellier.  In  1541  he  resumed  editorial 
work  for  the  Lyons  booksellers,  to  whose  neighbourhood 
he  had  returned. 

Among  the  attendants  upon  his  Paris  lectures  had  been 
a  distinguished  ecclesiastic,  Pierre  Paulmier,  since  1528 
archbishop  of  Vienne.  Paulmier  invited  Serve.tus  to  Vienne 
as  his  confidential  physician.  He  acted  in  this  capacity  for 
twelve  years  (1541-53),  and  made  money.  Outwardly  he 
conformed  to  Roman  Catholic  worship  ;  in  private  he  pur- 
sued hLs  theological  speculations.  It  ia  probable  that  in 
1541  he  had  been  rebaptized.  He  opened  a  correspondence 
■with  Calvin,  and  late  in  1545,  or  very  early  in  1546,  he 
forwarded  to  Calvin  the  manuscript  of  a  revised  and  en- 
larged edition  of  his  theological  tracts,  and  expressed  a 
wi.sh  to  visit  hira  at  Geneva.  Calvin  replied  on  23d  Febru- 
ary 1546,  in  a  letter  which  is  lost,  but  in  which,  he  says, 
he  expressed  himself  "  plus  durement  que  ma  coustume 
ne  porte."  On  the  same  day  he  wrote  to  Guillaume 
Farel,  "si  venerit;  modo  valeat  mea  autoritas,  vivum  exire 
nunquam  patiar,"  and  to  Pierre  Viret  in  the  same  terms. 
Servetus  had  fair  warning  that  if  he  went  to  Geneva  it 
was  at  his  peril.  In  his  letter  to  Abel  Pouppin  (in  or 
about  1547),  after  stating  that  he  had  failed  to  recover  his 
manuscript  from  Calvin,  he  says,  "mihi  ob  earn  rem  mori- 
endum  esse  certo  scio."  The  volume  of  theological  tracts, 
again  recast,  was  declined  by  a  Basel  publisher  in  April 
1552,  but  an  edition  of  1000  copies  was  secretly  printed 
at  Vienne.  It  was  finished  on  3d  January  1553;  the 
bulk  of  the  impression  was  privately  consigned  to  Lyons 
and  Frankfort,  for  the  Easter  market.  But  on  26th 
February  a  letter,  enclosing  a  sheet  of  the  printed  book, 
and  revealing  the  secret  of  its  authorship,  was  written  from 
Geneva  by  Guillaume  H.  C.  de  Trye,  formerly  ichevin  of 
Lyons,  to  his  cousin  Antoine  Arneys  in  that  city.  This 
letter  bears  no  sign  of  dictation  by  Calvin  ;  the  history  of 
De  Trye  shows  that  it  may  have  been  instigated  in  part  by 
persona!  ill-feeling  towards  the  Lyons  booksellers.  But 
Calvin  furnished  (reluctantly,  according  to  De  Trye)  the 
samples  of  Servetus's  handwriting  enclosed  in  a  subsequent 
letter,  for  tha  express  purpose  of  securing  his  conviction. 
'  Beza  iacotT«ctl]r  makea  Serretua  the  cfaallenger  and  the  data  15347 


The  inquisitor-general  at  Lyons,  Matthieu  Ory,  set  to 
work  on  12th  March  ;  Servetus  was  interrogated  on  16th 
March  and  arrested  on  4th  April.  Under  examination 
his  defence  was  that,  in  correspondence  with  Calvin,  he 
had  assumed  the  character  of  Servetus  for  purposes  of  dis- 
cussion. At  4  A.M.  on  7th  April  he  escaped  from  his 
prison,  evidently  by  connivance.  He  took  the  road  for 
Spain,  but  turned  back  in  fear  of  arrest.  How  he  spen't 
the  next  four  months  is  not  known ;  Calvin  believed  he 
was  wandering  in  Italy ;  the  idea  that  he  lay  concealed 
in  Geneva  was  first  started  by  Spon.  On  Saturday  1 2th 
August  he  rode  into  Louyset,  a  village  on  the  French  side 
of  Geneva.  Next  morning  he  walked  into  Geneva,  and 
ordered  a  boat,  to  take  him  towards  Zurich  on  his  way 
for  Naples.  He  was  recognized  that  day  at  church  and 
immediately  arrested.  The  process  against  him  lasted 
from  14th  August  to  26th  October,  when  sentence  "estra 
brusle  tout  vyfz  "  was  passed,  and  carried  out  next  day  at 
Champel  (27th  October  1553).  Calvin  would  have  had 
him  beheaded.  Meanwhile  the  civil  tribunal  at  Vienne 
had  ordered  (17th  June)  that  he  be  fined  and  burned  alive ; 
the  sentence  of  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  at  Vienne  was 
delayed  till  23d  December.  Jacques  Charmier,  a  priest 
in  Servetus's  confidence,  was  condemned  to  three  years' 
imprisonment  at  Vienne.  The  life  of  Servetus  is  full  of 
puzzles  ;  his  writings  give  the  impression  not  only  of  quick 
genius  but  also  of  transparent  sincerity ;  they  throw,  how- 
ever, little  light  on  the  mysterious  parts  of  his  story.  Don 
Pedro  Gonzalez  de  Velasco  (see  his  Miguel  Servet,  1880) 
has  placed  a  statue  of  Servetus  in  the  porch  of  the  Insti- 
tuto  Antropologico  at  Madrid. 

The  opinions  of  Servetus,  marked  by  strong  individuality,  are 
not  easily  described  in  the  terms  of  any  current  system.  His  ana- 
baptism,  with  his  denial  of  the  tripersonality  of  the  Godhead  and 
of  the  eternity  of  the  Son,  made  his  views  abhorrent  to  Catholics 
and  Protestants  alike  ;  while  his  intense  Biblicism,  his  passionate 
devotion  to  the  person  of  Christ,"  and  the  essentially  Christocentric 
character  of  his  view  of  the  universe  give  him  an  almost  unique 
place  in  the  history  oT  religious  thought.  He  is  sometimes  classed 
with  the  Arians  ;  but  he  endorses  in  his  own  way  the  homoousian 
formula,  and  speaks  contemptuously  of  Arius  as  "C^risti  gloriae 
incapacissimus. "  He  has  had  many  critics,  some  apologists  {e.g.^ 
Posteland  Lincurius),  and  few  followers.  The  fifteen  condemnatory 
clauses,  introducing  the  sentence  of  Servetus  at  Geneva,  set  forth 
in  detail  that  he  had  been  found  guilty  of  heresies,  expressed  in 
blasphemous  language,  against  the  true  foundation  of  the  Christian 
religion.  It  is  curious  that  one  instance  of  his  injurious  language 
is  his  employment  of  the  term  "trinitaires"  to  denote  "ceux  qui 
croyent  en  la  Trinite. "  No  law,  current  in  Geneva,  has  ever  been 
adduced  as  enacting  the  capital  sentence.  Claude  Rigot,  the  pn- 
cureur-general,  examined  Servetus  with  a  view  to  show  that  his 
legal  education  must  have  familiarized  him  with  the  provisions  of 
the  code  of  Justinian  to  this'effect ;  but  in  1535  all  the  old  laws  on 
the  subject  of  religion  had  been  set  aside  at  Geneva  ;  the  only  civil 
penalty  for  religion,  retained  by  the  edicts  of  1543,  was  banish- 
ment. The  Sw-iss  churches,  while  agreeing  to  condemn  Servetus, 
give  no  bint  of  capital  punishment  in  their  letters  of  advice.  The 
extinct  law  seems  to  have  been  arbitrarily  revived  for  the  occasion. 
A  valuable  controversy  followed,  on  the  question  of  executing  here- 
tics, in  which  Beza  (for),  Mino  Celsi  (against),  and  several  caustic 
anonymous  writers  took  part. 

The  works  of  Servetus  are  not  so  rare  as  is  often  supposed,  but 
the  most  common  are  his  earliest,  in  which  he  approaches  nearer 
to  the  position  afterwards  taken  by  F.  Socinus  than  he  does  in  his 
more  matured  publications.  The  following  is  an  enumeration  of 
them  in  the  order  of  their  appearance,  (il)  De  Trinitatis  Erroribtis 
Li/rri  Scpiem,  1531,  15mo.  (2)  Dialogorum  de  Trinitate  Libri  Duo, 
1532,  16mo  ;  four  chapters  are  added  on  justification  and  kindred 
topics.  These  two  books  have  been  twice  reprinted  aYid  manuscript 
copies  are  common  ;  a  Dutch  version,  by  Reynicr  Telle,  was  pub- 
lished in  1620.  (3)  Claudii  Ftolommi  AUxandrini  Geographic^ 
Enarrationis  Libri  Octo :  ex  Bilibaldi  Pirckhtymtri  Iraiislationc, 
sed  ad  Orseca  et  prisea  exemplaria  a  Michacle  Villmwmno  jam 
priiiinm  recogniti.  Adjecta  insuper  ab  eodem  scholia,  &c.,  Lyons, 
(Molchior  &  Caspar  Trechsol),  1535,  fol.  ;  2d  cd.,  Lyons  (Hugo  k 
PorU),  1541,  i.e.,  1542;  printed  by  Caspar  Trechsel  at  Vieune, 
fol. ;  on  this  work  Tollin  founds  his  high  estimate  of  Servetus  as  a 
compf-ative  geographer  ;  thc-passago  incriminated  on  his  trial  aa 
attacking  the  authority  of  Moses  is  an  extract  from  Lorenz  Friew. 


686 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


(•1)  Brevissima  Apologia  pro  Symphorinw,  Cimpegto  in  Lconnrdum 
FucUsium,  1536,  12mo ;  no  extaiit  copy  is  known  j  ToUin  has 
rcpriiitcii  an  cstract  from  it.  (&)  Si/niyoriim,  Uniicrsa  Ratio,  &c. , 
Tavis,  1537,  l(iino;  there  wfre  four  subsequent  editions,  the  last 
being  Venice,  154S  (six  lectures  on  digestion,  the  composition  and 
use  of  syrups  being  treated  in  the  lifth  lecture).  (6)  In  qmndam 
Mcdiciaii  Apologclica  Discepinlio  pro  Astrologia,  Paris,  1538,  16mo  ; 
reprinted,  Berlin,  18S0  ;  the  mcilicus  is  Jean  Tagault,  who  had  in- 
teiri'.pted  tlie  lectures  of  Scrvetus  on  astronomy,  under  which  he 
included  meteorology.  (7)  Biblia  Sacra  ex  Sanlis  Pagnini  Trala- 
tio:ie  .  .  .  rccognita,  el  schoUis  illustrala,  kc,  Lyons  (Hugo  a  Porta), 
1512,  fol.,  remarkable  for  its  theory  of  prophecy,  explained  in  the 
■preface  and  illustrated  in  the  notes.  (S)  D'Aitigny  says  that 
Sei-vctus  "  fit  Ics  arguniens  "  to  a  Spanish  version  of  the  Sumyna 
6(  Aquinas ;  but  nothing  is  known  of  tliis  or  of  the  "  divere  traites 
do  grammairo  "  which  ho  translated  from  Latin  into  Spanish.  (9) 
Ckristi<:ni3mi  Restiluiio,  kc,  1553,  Svo  (perfect  copies  in  Vienna 
and  Paris,  an  imperfect  copy-  in  Edinburgh),  partly  reprinted, 
London,  1723;  4to  (copies  in  London  and  Paris),  reprinted  1790; 
Svo,  by  Ran  at  Kuremberg  for  De  Murr,  from  the  Vienna-  copy  ; 
manuscript  copies  are  rare  ;  the  Paris  library  has  a  manuscript 
copy  of  an  earlier  recension  of  several  books,  including  the  often- 
qnoted  description  of  tlio  pulmonary  circulation.  This  -n-ork  is 
often  called  anonymous,  but  the  initials  JL  S.  V.  are  given  at  the 
end  and  the  full  name  at  p.  199  ;  the  volume  is  not  a  single  treatise 
but  an  assemblage  of  theological  ti-acts  wi-itten  in  a  nervous  and 
epigrammatic  style  and  with  great  command  of  very  various  leaiji- 
iug  ;  the  Apologia  addresse'cl  to  Melanchthon,  Tilth  which  it  con- 
<3udes,  is  in  the  writer's  best  manner.  Two  treatises,  Vcsickrins 
(ajite  1542)  and  De  Tribus  Impostoribus  (1598),  have  been  enoneously 
assigned  to  Servetus.  Of  his  ievf  remaining  lettei-3  most-srill  be 
found  in  Mosheim. 

T!ie  litei-ature  relating  to  Seivetus  is  very  large,  'out  the  following  are  some 
of  the  most  iiiii>ort'ilit  !-i'---<--s.  Calvin's  Dffcnsio  (hthodox^  FUhi,  ire.,  15M, 
kto  (also  in  French,  Dcclnratioji  pour  mainUnir,  kc,  16mo,  same  date),  is  the 
source  of  many  pve\iilcnt  misconceptions  respecting  the  opinions  of  Servetiis 
and  his  attitude  on  his  tri.il.  De  la  Roche's  Historical  Account,  &c.,  in  .Ucin. 
o/ii(.,  1711-12  (reprodi:ced  in  French,  mWalh.  Angl.,  Amstei-dani,  1717,  ISmo), 
was  followed  by  An  Jvtparlinl  Histonj,  &c.,  17C-1,  Svo  (said  to  be  by  >'ath.tniel 
Hodges,  a  Baptist  minister,  afterv.-ards  knighted).  Allwoerxlen's  Historic,  &c., 
17-2S,  4to  (materLils  furnished  by  Mosbeini),  is  superseded  by  Mosheim's  Aitder' 
Keitifisr  Versiich,  '&c.,  174S,  4to,  with  its  appendix,  Kew  Kcchyichlai,  1750,  4to, 
issned  after  the  publication  of  the  i-ecords-cf  the  Vienne  tvi.al  by  D'Artigtiy,  in 
Kovica;ix  Mimcira  d'Hisl.,  &.<:.,  vol.  ii.,  1749,  lauo.  Cha«fepie's  valuable 
article  in  ^'oifi*.  Diet.  Hisloriqui,  vol.  iv.,  17oG,  fol.  (translated  separately  by 
Rev.  James  1'ail-,  1771,  Svo),  makes  no  use  of  Mosheim's  later  resc.irchcs. 
Trechscl,  in  Die  prot.  Anti'.rinitarier  yor  F.  Socin,  &e.,  bk.  I.,  1S39,  Svo.  uses 
all  available  materials  up  to  (late.  Since  then  the  investigations  of  H.  Tollln 
(published  in  a  series  of  some  forty  separate  articles  in  various  journals  from 
1S74  to  1SS5)  have  thrown  light  on  evei-y  portion  of  the  subject.  The  records 
of  the  Geneva  trial,  first  publtilied  by  De  la  Roche,  and  reproduced  in  Eillicfs 
Edaliaii,  ic,  1S44,  Svo,  and  els^vhere,  are  best  given  in  vol.  viii.  (iS70)  of 
the  edition  of  Calvin's  works  by  Baum,  Cnnitz,  and  Rcuss  ;  Rogst,  in  His!,  du 
Peititle  dc  Gcitcve,  vol.  iv.,  1S77,  has  a  good  account  of  both  trials.  The  p:issase 
describing  tiie  pnlnlonavy  circulation  is  fii-st  noticed  by  "W.  Wotton,  in  E/f.cdions 
:-por.  Ancient  and  Mod.  Lcc.fnin.j,  liK't,  and  has  given  rise  to  a  literature 
.tf  its  o^vn;— see  especially  Tollin's  Die  Eiildtci^ung  des  Blutkreislav/s,  &e., 
IS7<i,  Huxley,  in  FoitiiigiMy  F.fv.,  February  1S7S;  and  Tollin's  Krilisclu  Btmer- 
lnii(jC7i  iicci-  Harvey  utid  .vitie  Vi>rejdit<jfr,  1SS2.  Other  physiological  speculations 
of  Servetiis  arc  noted  by  Signioud  {The  Unnoticed  Theories  of  Scrietlis,  1S20); 
but  it  has  escaped  Sigmoiul  that  Servetus  had  an  idea  of  the  composition  of 
water  and  of  air.  Asa  Ihioker,  Servetus  is  claimed  on  superficial  grouudd  by 
Unitarians  (see  "Wallace,  Aiititrin.  Biog.,  ISoO,  i.  i'lO),  who  have  wTitten  several 
accounts  or  him,  of  which  R.  Wright's  Ayciogy,  Ac,  1S07,  Svo,  is  the  worst, 
and  J.  S.  Porter's  Scri-cti(S  <tnd  C'tthin,  &c.,  1SJ4.  Svo,  perhaps  the  best. 
Saisiet,  in  Bci:  dcs  Deux  Sondes,  1S4S,  treats  Servetus  as  a  pantheist ;  he  is 
followed  by  Willis,  in  his  Serveins  and  Calvin,  1S77,  Svo,  a  most  unsatisfactory 
book  (coiiip.  Thed.  Fev.,  April  and  July  1S7S).  Tollin's  Das  Lehrsysleu  MicliaH 
Scrref's,  3  vols.,  lS7tS-7S,  Svo,  and  Purijer's  compendious  De  Michaelis  Seneti 
Doctrina,  te.,  lS7t>.  Svo,  are  valuable  digests  of  his  opinions,  from  different 
points  of  I'iew.  Of  Servetus's  personal  clu-iracter  the  best  vindication  is  Tollin's 
Characteybild  KicJtaet  Servefs,  lS7li,  Svo  (in  Fi'ench  w-;th  additions  by  Dardicr, 
Portrait  Caracleyc,  lS7ii,  Svo).  His  story  has  been  dramatized  by  Mas  Ring, 
Die  Genfer  (1S50),  by  Jose  Echcgaray,  Ln  M:tcrte  en  los  Lnbios  (ISSO),  and  by 
Albert  Hamaun,  Sei-vet  (ISSl).  The  recent  discovery  at  the  Record  Office, 
London,  (U.  140)ond  the  British  Museum  (Cotton  MSS.,  Galba  B.  x.)ot  inter- 
cepted letters  from  Servetus  at  Louvain  in  1533  adds  considerably  to  our  in- 
fonnation  about  his  family  and  eaily  friends,  but  introduces  new  problems  as 
to  the  details  of  his  fitful  career.  (A.  GO.) 

-\\U  I.  SER'\TA,  a  kingdom  belonging  to  tlie  Balkan  peninsula 
of  Europe,  lying  between  Bosnia  on  the  -svest"  and  Bulgaria 
and  Eoumania  on  the  east,  and  bettveen  the  Turkish  pro- 
Tince  of  Albania  on  the  south  and  the  Austrian  Military 
Frontier  on  the  north.  From  Bosnia  it  is  separated  by 
the  Drina,  from  Austrian  and  Roumanian  territory  by  th.e 
Danube  and  the  Save,  and  from  Bulgaria  partly  by  tha 
Timok.  Some  parts  of  the  southern  frontier  are  indicated 
by  mountains,  but  elsewhere  there  are  no  natural  bound- 
aries. In  shape  Servia  is  an  irregular  trapezium,  situated 
between  about  42°  30'  and  45°  Klat.  and  19°  and  22°  30' 
E.  long.  The  area  is  about  18,760  square  miles,  and  the 
population  (1,667,159  in  1874)  -was  estimated  at  the  end 
of  lfiS4  to  be  1,902,419,  thus  giving  a  density  of  about 


100  to  the  square  mile.  This  low  density,  only  about  one- 
third  of  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  explained  by  the 
nature  of  the  surface,  the  inland  position,  the  defective 
communications  'with  the  e.xterior,  and  the  absence  of 
manufacturing  industries. 

The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous  or  hilly,  Oro- 
though  there  are  no  well-defined  mountain  ranges  of  any  Z^v'^i 
extent.  The  highest  summits  lie  near  the  middle  of  the 
southern  frontier,  where  Mount  Kopaonik  attains  the 
height  of  nearly  7000  feet.  Towards  the  Bosnian  frontier 
the  mountains  are  pretty  closely  massed  together,  and  some 
of  the  summits  approach  4000  feet ;  Vah  height  is  ex- 
ceeded on  the  eastern  side  of  the  country,  v.here  the  moun- 
tains, forming  a  continuation  of  the  Carpathians,  are  in 
many  places  more  rugged  and  precipitous  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  kingdom.  The  Kudnik  Mountains,  which 
begin  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Servian  Morava, 
have  their  highest  parts  in  the  south  and  gradually  sink 
to'tt'ards  the  north  from  nearly  3000  to  less  than  2000 
feet.  Still  lower  are  the  elevations  in  the  provinces  in 
the  extreme  south  acquired  in  1S78  under  the  treaty  of 
Berlin.  Asa  general  rule  the  Servian  highlands  consist  of 
detached  groups  of  mountains  and  conical  hills  with  gentle 
slopes  rising  from  verdant  valleys,  and  they  are  mostly 
covered  to  the  top  with  forests,  chiefly  of  oak  and  beech, 
tho  higher  summits  in  the  south  also  with  conifers.  But 
the  plains,  though  numerous,  are  of  no  great  extent,  and 
occur  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Apart  from 
frontier  rivers,  the  most  important  stream  is  the  Morava, 
which,  rising  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Kara  Dagh,  a 
little  beyond  the  Servian  frontier,  enters  the  country  With 
a  north-easterly  course  near  the  extreme  south-east,  and 
then  turns  north-north-west  and  flows  almost  in  a  straight 
line  through  the  heart  of  the  kingdom  to  tl(e  Danube.  In 
the  upper  part  of  its  course  it  is  known  as  the  Bulgarian 
Morava,  and  only  after  receiving  the  Servian  Morava  on 
tho  left  is  it  known  as  the  !Morava  simply  or  as  the  Great 
Morava.  The  Only  other  important  tributary  is  the  Nishava, 
which  it  receives  from  the  right  at  Nish.  The  valleys  of 
all  these  rivers,  especially  those  of  the  Bulgarian  and  the 
Great  Morava,  and  of  the  Kishava,  contain  considerable 
areas  of  level  or  low-lying  country  well  suited  for  the 
growth  of  corn,  and  the -low  grounds  along  the  Save  and 
the  Danube  from  the  Drina  to  the  ilorava  are  also  well 
adapted  for  agrictilture,  though  for  the  most  part  devoted 
only  to  pasture.  Altogether  no  more  than  one-sixth  of 
the  surface  is  estimated  to  be  occupied  by  cultivated  fields 
and  vineyards,  -while  one-fifth  is  estimated  to  form  pasture 
land  and  about  an  equal  area  livoodland.  Nearly  one-half 
of  the  entire  area  is  believed,  to  be  unproductive. 

Besides  the  frontier  streaiiis  on  the  north  and  -u-est,  the 
only  river  of  any  importance  for  navigation  is  the  Morava, 
'R'hioh  is  navigable  for  steamers  of  light  draught  as  high 
as  Tiupriia  about  60  miles  from  its  mouth,  but  its  valley 
is  important  as  the  main  highway  of  the  country,  and  all 
the  more  since  the  introduction  of  railways.  Eail'n'ays  Kail- 
boih  to  Constantinop^le  and  to  Salonica  are  now  (1886)  in  ^'"^^ 
course  of  construction  under  a  convention  concluded  ■with 
Austria-in  ?.Sf  T  ,'  The  section  common  to  the  two  systems, 
that  from  Belgrade  to  Nish,  152  miles  in  length,  "was 
opened  for  traflic  in  September  1884,  and  the  line  (76 
miles)  from  Nish  to  Vranja  was  completed  in  March  18S6, 
but  the  connexion  with  the  Turkish  railway  from  Salonica 
remains  to  be  completed.  At  present,  in  consequence  of 
the  unsatisfactory  communication  vs-ith  the  south,  only 
about  7  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  Ser'vian  imports  enter  by  the 
southern  frontier,  85  per  cent,  coming  through  Austria- 
Hungary.  In  the  beginning  of  1886  work  had  been  begun 
on  only  one-half  of  vLe  line  from  Nish  to  Pirot,  on  the 
other  system. 


S  E  R  VIA 


687' 


MinenilB. 


Geology.      The  geological  structure  of  Servia  is  varied.    In  the 
south  and  west  the  sediuieutavy  rocks  most  largely 
developed  are  of  ancient,  pre-Carboniferous  date,  iiiter- 
ruj)ted  by  considerable  patches  of  gi-anite,  serpentine, 
and  other  crystalline  rocks.     Beyond  this  belt  there 
ap|>ear  in  the  north-west  Mesozoic  limestones,  such  as 
occupy  so  extensive  an  area  in  the  north-west  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula  generaJly,  and  tlie  valley's  ojiening 
in  that  quarter  to  the  Drina  have  the  same  desolate 
aspeiit  as  belongs  to  these  rocks  in  the  rest  of  that 
region.      In  the  extreme   north-east  the  crystalline 
schists  of  the  Carpathians  e.xteiid  to  the  south  side  of 
the  Danube,  and  sti'etcli  parallel  to  the  Morava  in  a 
band  along  its  right  bank.    Elsewhere  east  of  the 
Morava  the  prevailing  rocks  belong  to  the  Cretaceous 
series,  which  enters  Servia  from  Bulgaria.     The  heart 
of  theconntry — tlieShuuiadia,, as  itiscalled — is maisiiy 
occupied  by  rocks  of  Tertiary  age,  with   interveiiing 
patches  of  "older  strata;  and  the  Uudnik   Mountains 
are  traversed  by  metalliferous  veins  of  syenite.     The 
mineral  wenltli  of  Servia  is  considernble  and  varied, 
though  far  from  being  adequately  develoiied.     (iold, 
silver,  iron,  and  lead  are  said  to  have  been  worked  in 
the  time  of  the  Roinaus.    Heaps  of  ancient  slag  from 
lead  mines  stillexistiu  theneighbnurhoodof  Belgrade, 
and  other  old  lead   mines  occur  in  the  vall(;y  of  the 
Toi)litza.    Gold  dust  is  washed  down  by  h<>avy  i-ains 
in  the  valley  of  the  Tiniok,  where  it  is  gatheiTd  by  the 
peasants.     In  the  syenite  veins  of  the  Rudnik  iVloun- 
tains  ores  of  lead,  zinc,  coi)per,  sulphur,  and  arsenic 
are  present,  but  are  ntit  worked,  and  from  the  mines  of 
Krupani  in  the-  north-west  ;irgentiferous  lead,  anti- 
mony, and  other  ores  have  been  'obtainKJ.    Tlie  prin- 
cipal mining  centre  east  of  the  Morava  is  Maidanpek  in 
the  north,  where  there  is  a  large  iron-smi'lting  estab- 
lishment ojierated  by  an  Kngli.sh  company.    Coal  or 
lignite  is  met  with  in  many  places,  ijir-luding  a  number 
of  points  on  the  Servian  railway.    The  largest  deposit 
lies   round   Tiupriia,   and   lueasuros   about    19    miles   in 
length  by  7i  in  breadth.     All  the  minerals  belong  to  the 
state,  but  permission  to  work  them  can  be  obtained  on 
payment  of  a  moderate  roj'alty. 
Climate.       The  climala  of  Servia  is  on  the   ivhole  mild,  though 
subject  to  the  extremes  characteristic  of  inland  Eastern 
countrier.     In  summer  the  temperatuj-e  may  rise  as  high 
as  106°  fahr.,  while  in  winter  it  often  sinks  to  13°  or 
even  sometimes  20°  below  zero.     The  high-lying  valleys 
in  the  south  are  colder  than  the  rest  of  the  country,  not 
only  on  account  of  their  greater  elevation   but  also  be- 
cause of  their  being  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  from  the 
north  and  north-east.     Accordingly,  the  chief  [iroducts  of 
the  soil  are  such  as  thrive  under  a  warm  suiiiiuer  and  are 
unaffected  by  a  cold  winter.     Both  maize  and  wine  are 
grown,  but  the  olive  is  excluded  by  tlie  severity  of  the 
cold  sea-son. 
products,     JIaizo  is  the  principal  object  of  agriculture,  the  average  annual 
crop  being  estimated  at  upwards  of  5,000,000   busljela,    \Yheat 
coming  next  with  an  average  crop  of  less  than  4,000,000  bushoLs. 
Besides    cereals,   flax,    hemp,    and    tobacco  are  grown,    but    the 
attempts  made  to  cultivate  cotton  have  proved  unsuccessful.     Tlio 
chief  wine-growing  locality  is  in  the  nortli-cast  round  Ncgotiii. 
InefBeient  as  are  the  implements  and  backward  the  methods  of 
agriculture,  grain  makes  up  a  considerable  portion  of  tlie  exports, 
owing  to  the  scantiness  of  the  population  and  the  deficiency  of 
other  industries,  and  it  is  ex])ccted  that  this  export  v.-ill  bo  greatly 
increased  on  the  completion  of  the  railway  system  to  the  southeru 
Exports    seaports.     The  grain  chiefly  exported  is  wheat, — niai/o  supplying, 
and  as  among  all  the  Slavs  of  the  IJalkan  peninsula,  the  chief  food  of 

Imroils.  the  people.  Hitherto  live-stock  has  formed  the  largest  item  in  tlio 
exports,  sometimes  amounting  to  over  one-half.  Among  these  pigs, 
which  are  fed  in  immense  numbers  on  the  mast  of  the  forests, 
take  the  first  place.  Of  lata  ycsrs  their  number  has  greatly 
declined,  largely  in  consequence  of  American  competition  ;  but 
relatively  to  population  Servia  still  maintains  a  mucli  frreater 
jimnber  than  any  other  country  of  Europe  ;  and  the  same  i;  true 
of  sheep,  which  ore  here  relatively  more  than  twice  as  numerous 


as  in  Spain.  Cattle  ah'iO  are  numerous,  but  are  renred  solely  as 
beasts  of  draujiht  and  for  exijort.  Bees  are  very  grnerallv  kept. — 
the  honey  being  consumed  in  the  eotnilry.the  wax  exported.  The 
rearingnf  silkv.-orms  is  spreading,  especially  since eoeonns  and  eggs 
have  bei^'un  to  be  exported  lo  Italy.  Orchards  are  very  exten- 
sive, and  all  kinds  of  fruit  belonging  to  centra,]  Europe  are  grown 
in  abundanee. — above  all.  the  plum,  from  whii-h  is  distilled  the 
fMvourifenational  spirit,  sUvoril:,a  The  avenige  annual  valueof 
tho  exp"rts  is  a  little  over  £1  per  head  of  population.  AftiM-  live 
animals  and  grain  citne  hities  and  prunes.  Among  the  inip'uts 
the  chief  items  are  sugar,  salt  (wholly  absent  in  Servia),  cotton, 
goods,  and  other  textiles.  Import  duties  being  high,  a  consider- 
able amount  must  always  be  allowed  for  smuggled  goods.  Though 
tho  great  bulk  of  the  imports  enter  the  country  by  the  Austrian 
frontier,  an  increasingly  large  proportion  comes  originally  frun» 
beyond  Austria-Hungary.  Thus  iu  1S79,  of  the  total  quantity  fk 
imports  across  the  Austrian  frontier,  76  p>?r  cent,  were  of  Austrian- 
Hungarian  ouigin,  in.  18S0  73  per  cent.,  in  18S1  05  per  cent.,  leaving 
24,  27,  and  35  per  cent,  respectively  for  coimtries  beyond.  Among 
the  latter  Germany  comes  next  after  Austria-Hungary  and  then 
England.  Colonial  wares  (sugar,  coffee,  &c.)  are  nov/  imnorted 
cheaper  by  way  of  Hamburg  than  by  way  of  Trieste. 

Tho  natural  increase  of  population  in  Servia  is  pretty  rapid,  the  Pops 
annual  birth-rate  being  among  the  highest  in  Eurojie,  while  the  lation- 
death-rate,  though  higli,  is  exceeded  in  several  other  couutri'-s. 
During  the  years  1879-81  the  average  annual  number  of  bii-ths  was 
76,9G2,  of  deaths  47,181,  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  29,781, 
^lich  figures  compared  \vith  a  total  population  intermediate  between 
that  at  tho  end  of  1874  and  t}\at  at  the  end  of  1834  give  a  bii-th-rate 
of  upwards  of  43  per  thousand,  ..  death-rate  of  less  than  27  per  thou- 
sand, and  an  annual  excess  of  births  over  deaths  of  nearly  17  per 
thousand.  The  average  proportion  ff  male  to  female  births  is 
100:100.  Tlie  people  are  mainly  Serbs,  though  the  proportions 
have  been  modified  by  the  increase  of  territory  xnider  the  treaty  of 
Berlin.  This  territory,  at  one  time  occupied  by  Servians,  had  been 
to  a  large  extent  deserted  by  them  in  consequence  of  the  oppressive 
Turkish  yoke,  and  their  place  had  been  taken  by  Mohammedan 
Albanians  west  of  the  Morava  and  by  Bulgarians  in  the  valley  of 
the  Nishava.  Most  of  the  Albanians,  however,  quitted  their  homes 
at  tho  time  of  anuexation,  and  Servians  are  now  returning  to  thciT 
former  scats.  Previous  to  the  treaty  of  Berlin  the  principal  element 
of  the  population  next  after  the  Servians  consisted  of  Koumanians. 
of  whom  there  were  about  130,000.  Tho  Servian  Church  forms  i. 
branch  of  tho  Oriental  Gr-fk  Church  with  a  perfectly  inde}>enilcni 
administration.  The  highest  ecclesiastical  authority  is  exercised 
by  the  nation,al  synod.  Elementary  education  is  in  a  very  backward 
state,  but  recently  a  haw  has  been  pas-sed  to  remedy  this  defect,  by 
making  education  obligatory  on  all  children  between  six  and  thirteen 
and  laying  the  duty  of  providing  accommodation,  books,  and 
teachers  upon  school  districts.  At  Belgrade  there  is  a  high  school 
or  university  with  facultiew  of  philosophy,  law,  and  technics. 

Tho  agricultur.al  poiialatioa  are  .scattered  among  a  great'nuniber 
of  villages,  most  of  which  consist  of  single  isolated  homesteads. 
Knell  honn-stead  is  oeeiipied  by  a  group  of  families  c<innected  liy 
blood  and  iieknowledging  one  hea'l,  \\\c  t^furcihina,  who  is  usually 
tile  patriarch  of  the  conimuuiiy.  but  is  olte,t  cliDsen  by  the  rest  of 
the  nienibrrs  on  aeivumt  of  his  prudenc  ■and  ability.  I  lei  igulati;f 
tho  work  and  distributes  ih  ■  pioe.  eds  (»f  the  labour  of  the  entire 
homestead,  and  his  ruling  is  followed  without  question.  Th^  land 
cultivated  by  a  family  or  group  of  families  is  always  their  owr 
liroperty.  The  buildings  belonging  to  tlie  lioincsteads  are  enclosed 
within  an  imnicnse  p.-ilisiKh',  in  ide  which  a  largeexiianse  of  fields 
is  mostly  planted  with  plum,  dams'ui,  nn<l  oihor  fruit-trees,  sur- 
rounding the  hous<  sof  the  occupiers.  In  the  midst  of  these  is  the 
house  of  the  stareshina,  w  hieh  contains  the  cot^mou  kitchen, eaiing 
hall,  and  family  hall  of  the  entire  homestead.  In  this  last  all  the 
members  nsai  niblcin  th.*  evening  fi  rcouvorsa.fioii  .""'d  neinseinont. 
tho  women  spinning,  while  the  children  pl.ay.  Tho  people  take 
delight  in  listening  to  the  recitation  of  the  poetical  rhapsodies  in 
which  the  Servian  literature  is  reniarkalily  rich.  The  houses  are 
mostly  very  small  wooden  structures,  serving  for  liti;le  else  but 
sleeping  places.  But  that  of  the  stareshina  is  often  of  brick,  and 
is  invariably  of  better  construction  than  tho  rest. 

Since  Cth  March  1882  the  government  has  been  a  constitutional  Go\-«rD 
monarchy.  Tho  Icgislacive  body  is  called  the  shipshciiia,  and  in  meat. 
1884  consisted  of  173  mcmbors,  three-fourths  of  wliom  are  elected 
by  tho  people,  the  remainder  being  nominated  by  tho  king.  A  ne-.\' 
skupshtina  is  elected  every  three  years.  For  the  settlement  of 
special  questions  of  great  moment  an  extraordinary  skupshtina  or 
great  national  assembly  is  elected,  iu  which  there  are  foul'  times  as 
many  members,  all  elected,  as  in  the  ordinary  skupshtina.  There  is 
also  a  permanent  council  of  state  of  15  members,  who  have  tho 
task  of  drawing  up  proposals  ^br  legislation,  hearing  complaints 
regarding  tho  decisions  of  ministers,  and  perfomiing  other  functions. 
For  administrative  tMirposcs  the  kingdom  is  divided  into  twenty- 
two  circles,  besides  tlio  city  of  Belgrade.  In  the  budget  for  If  33- 
84  tho  revenue  aud  expenditure  were  each  catiinatcd  at  ucoxJj' 


688 


S  E  R  V  I  A 


Army. 


■ment  of 
oerbs  in 


£1  500  000,  and  for  1884-85  at  about  £1,840,000.  The  national 
debt  at  the  end  of  1884  was  about  £7,000,000.  An  additional 
debt  of  about  £1,000,000  was  contracted  during  the  Servo-Bulganaa 
war  of  1885-861 

The  Servian  army  is  divided  into  three  classes.  The  first  class, 
embracing  men  between  25  and  30  years  of  age,  constitutes  the 
standing  army,  which  numbers  18,000  on  a  peace  footing  and  about 
100,000  on  a  war  footing.  The  first  two  years  are  served  with  the 
colours  and  tlie  remainder  of  the  term  in  the  reserve.  The  second 
class  contains  men  between  30  and  37  who  have  served  in  the 
standing  army.  The  third  class,  which  is  only  called  out  in  extra- 
ordinary emergencies,  is  composed  of  men  between  37  and  50.  The 
total  military  strength  of  Servia  for  cases  of  emergency  is  estimated 
to  be  about  210,000  men.  ,    >     r,       i. 

The  capital  of  Servia  is  Belgi-ade,  at  the  junction  of  the  Danube 
and  the  Save.  It  is  the  only  town  with  more  than  15,000  inhabit- 
ants. Next  in  size  is  Nisli,  in  the  territory  added  by  the  treaty 
of  Berlin,  where  the  valley  of  the  Nishava  opens  into  that  of  the 
Bulgarian  Morava.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Kragushevatz  in  the 
centre  of  the  Shumadia,  the  former  capital  of  the  country,  Shabatz 
on  the  Save,  Semcndria  on  the  Danube,  Krushevatz,  Alexinatz  (the 
centre  of  the  flax  and  hemp  growing  district),  Ushitze,  Posharevatz, 
Trania,  and  Leskovatz. 

See  Rev  W  Denton.  Servia  and  ttie  Servians,  London,  1S62  ;  Kamtz,  Serbun: 
hislorische-ethnographisclK  EeUatudien,  Leipsic,  1868;  Balme,  La  Prmcipautl 
Ik  Serbie,  Paris,  18S0.  t"-  ^-  ■-) 

History. 
The  original  home  of  the  Croats  mi  Serbs,  who  are  identical  in 
race  and  language,  was  the  country  adjoining  the  Carpathian  range. 
Their  speech  shows  them  to  belong  to  the  eastern  division  of  the 
Slavonic  family  (see  Slavs).  The  generally  accepted  derivation 
of  the  name  Chrohat,  Croat,  is  from  the  original  designation  of  the 
Carpathians,  Chrbcl,  "a  ridge,"  an  opinion  supported  by  Schafarik 
and  Professor  Ljubi<5,  author  of  a  Croatian  history.  This  view  is 
rejected  by  Perwolf '  and  also  by  Penka,=  but  apparently  on  insuffi- 
cient grounds.  The  last-named  connects  the  word  with  the  same 
root  as  that  from  which  "Slav"  is  derived  [sJu-ti,  kin,  kru)  and 
makes  it  signify  the  "vassals,"  those  who  follow  a  chief.  The 
derivation  suggested  by  Schafarik  for  "Serb"  is  the  root  su,  "to 
produce";  thus  the  name  would  come  to  mean  the  people,  just  as 
deulsch  is  from  diot,  "people."  He  considers  i*  to  have  been  the 
original  appellation  of  all  the  Slavs.  This  must  be  accepted  as  the 
best  explanation  hither-to  given,  though  not  altogether  satisfactory. 
We  find  the  name  S^p/Soi  in  Ptolemy  and  Sirbi  in  Pliny. 

The  Serbs  and  Croats  have  no  history  till  the  year  638  A.D.,  at 
■which  period  they  left  their  original  settlements  and  migrated  into 
the  ancient  Illyricum  and  part  of  Mcesia.  Whether  any  of  this 
people  had  previously  taken  up  their  abode  in  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula is  by  no  means  clear,  and  very  dih'erent  opinions  have  been 
lield  on  the  subject.  The  most  probable  account  is  that  small 
Slavonic  colonies  were  settled  here  and  there  as  early  as  the  2d  and 
3d  centuries,  consisting  mainly  of  prisoners  taken  in  war  ;  and  we 
hear  of  two  tribes,  the  Karpi  and  the  Kostoboki,  who  are  claimed 
by  Schafarik  with  good  reason  as  Slavs.  Jirccek  considers  that  for 
two  hundred  years  before  the  Slavs  are  heard  of  in  history  south 
of  the  Danube  they  were  scattered  as  colonists  in  Mcesia,  Tlirace, 
Dardania,  and  Macedonia.  Professor  Drinoff  finds  mention  of  Slav- 
onic colonies  in  Thrace  in  tbc  Itinerarium  Bierosolymitanum  and 
Ilincrarium  Antonini ;  and,  even  if  we  do  not  give  a  complete 
adhesion  to  his  views,  there  are  many  names  of  towns  in  Procopius 
(in  the  first  half  of  the  6th  century)  which  are  undoubtedly  Slavonic. 
The  traces  of  the  original  inhabitants  have  disappeared,  except  in 
so  far  as  the  Albanians  represent  these  peoples.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  the  word  mcropch  or  neropch,  signifying  a  slave,  -found 
in  the  Zakonik  of  Dushan,  refers  to  the  Noropians,  an  old  Thracian 
tribe.  „ 

Our  authority  for  the  Servian  migration  in  the  middle  of  the  /th 
century  is  the  emperor  Constantino  Porphyrogenitus.  According 
rto  the  story,  five  Croatian  princes,  the  brothers  Clucas,  Lobelus, 
Cosentzis,  Mnchlo,  and  Chrobatus,  and  two  sisters,  Tuga  and  Buga 
{i.e..  Calamity  and  Prospcrity\  came  at  this  period  from  northern 
or  Belo-Chrobatia,  as  it  was  called,  the  original  home  of  the  Croats 
in  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  The  descendants  of  their  people  who 
remained  in  the  territory  are  lost  among  the  surrounding  popula- 
tion. The  services  of  these  Croats  were  made  use  of  by  the  emperor 
Heraclius,  and  they  became  a  barrier  against  the  Avars,  whom 
they  drove  out  of  the  country  in  which  they  settled.  The  territory 
which  they  occupied  was  d'ivided  by  them  into  eleven  lupas  or 
gauen.  The  people  who  inhal)ited  the  western  portion  kept  the 
name  of  Croat,  those  in  the  eastern  were  called  Serbs.  T^'e  must 
now  leave  the  Croats,  as  in  this  article  we  have  only  to  do  with  the 
Serbs  properly  so  called.  The  Croatian  branch  of  the  family,  after 
being  ruled  by  petty  bam  (a  word  said  to  be  of  Avar  origin),  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  and  after  the  16th  century 
followed  the  fortunes  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 


For  five  centuries  after  their  arrival  in  their  new  territories  we  Earl} 
hear  nothing  of  the  Serbs  save  an  occasional  very  brief  mention  in  contens 
the  Byzantine  chroniclers.    The  native  annalists  do  not  begin  earlier  witl- 
than  the  12th  century.     As  in  Croatia  so  among  the  Serbs,  the  Greeks, 
smaller  Supans^  gradually  became  merged  into  two  or  three  great 
ones.     The  head  zupan  of  Servia,  who  resided  in  Desnica,  called 
by  Constantine  Destinica,  was  at  first  the  suzerain  of  all  the  other 
Servian  zupans,  with  the  exception  of  the  Pagani,  concerning  whoso 
Latin  name  the  emperor  Constantine  makes  the  very  strange  remark 
— Kal  yap  Ylayavol  Kara  ttjp  tQiv   2«\d^tu;'  y\(jiTaav  apdTTTtfTTOi  ep/J-r]- 
yevoPTat.     After  the  land  was  harried  by  the  Bulgarians  we  find  the 
great  2upan  of  Dioclea  (Doclea)  supreme  ;  he  acquired  the  title  of 
king,  and  received  his  insignia  from  the  pope.    Finally,  Nemanya, 
the  descendant  of  a  zupan  family  of  Dioclea,  founded  a  new  dynasty 
in  Rasa  (mod.  Novibazar),  and  united  Servia  and  Bosnia  into  one 
strong  empire.     The  names  of  the  earlier  princes,  who  are  insignifi- 
cant and  do  not  help  us  to  follow  the  thread  of  Servian  history, 
need  not  bo  mentioned.     We  find  them  sometimes  tributary  to  tho 
Greek  emperors  and  sometimes  independent.     They  appear,  more- 
over, to  have  been  engaged  in  constant  wars  with  the  Bulgarianp^._ 
About  1015  Vladimir  was  reigning  ;  but  he  was  assassinated  by 
the  Bulgarian  czar  John,  who  got  possession  of  Servia,  but  died 
two  years  afterwards  on  an  expedition  against  the  Greeks.     To- 
gether with  Bulgaria,  Servia  fell  under  the  power  of  the  emperor, 
and  its  affairs  were  managed  by  a  Greek  governor.    Stephen  Voyislaff 
made  an  insurrection  in  1040,  expelled  the  governor,  Theophilua 
Eroticns,  and  defeated  the  Greeks  in  1043.     His  son  and  successor, 
Michael  (1050-80),  at  first  lived  in  peace  with  the  Byzantines,  bnt 
afterwards  entered  into  diplomatic  relations  with  the  West,  took 
the  title  of  king  (irx),  and  received  his  insignia  from  the  pope 
(1078).     He  conquered  Durazzo  (Drai<)  in  1079,  and  reigned  thirty 
years.      His  son,    Constantine   Bodin,   subjugated   the  zupans  of 
Bosnia  and  Rasa.     About  1122  Ourosh,  surnamed  Bela,  zupan  of 
Rasa,  ascended  the  throne.      From  this  time  dates  the  power  ot 
Servia.     His  wife  Anna  was  a  German  princess.     Omitting  three 
insignificant  rulers,  we  come  to  the  famous  Stephen  Nemanya  (1169- 
95),  whose  life  has  been  written  by  his  son  Sava.     He  reigned 
thirty-sU  years,  and  was  many  times  successful  against  the  Greeks, 
but  was  not  able  to  take  Ragusa.     He  abandoned  the  government 
to  his  son  Stephen  in  1195  and  became  a  monk  under  the  name  of 
Simeon,  dying  in  1200  in  the  monastery  of  Chilander  on  Mount 
Athos.     Stephen  was  crowned  by  his  youngest  brother  Sava,  first 
archbishop  of  tho  country,  with  a  crown  which  had  been  conse- 
crated by  the  pope  ;  hence  his  title  Prvovycncliani,    "  the  first- 
crowned," — that  is  to  say  of  the  new  dynasty,  for  the  iupans  of 
Dioclea  were  already  kings.     He  died  in  1224  and  was  followed  by 
his  sons  Radoslaff  and  Vladislafi'  in  succession.     The  latter  made 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Ragusa.     He  employed 
Germans  to  work  the  Servian  mines  ;  and  we  find  them  repeatedly 
mentioned  in  Servian  documents  under  the  name  of  Saxons,  especi- 
ally in  the  Zakonik  of  Stephen  Dushan.     No  traces,  however,  can 
be  found  of  them  at  the  present  day.     Vladislafi's  court  is  said  to 
have  been  very  luxurious.     He  died  childless  about  1237  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Stephen  Urosh,  whose  territories  were 
devastated  in  1241   by  the   Mongols,      He  was  afterwards  driven 
from  his  throne  by  his  son  Dragutin  and  died  in  1272.    The  latter, 
however,  stung  by  conscience,  abandoned  the  crown  to  his  brother 
Milutin  and   contented  himself  with   Syrniia,    where  he  died  in 
1317.     The  reign  of  Milutin  was  chiefly  occupied  with  struggles 
against  the  Greeks  ;  he  was  generally  successful  in  his  campaigns. 
But  his  domestic  life  was  unhappy  :  he  divorced  three  wives  and 
caused  his  only  son  Stephen  to  be  blinded  from  suspicion  of  his 
treachery.      The  operation,  however,  was  imperfectly  performed, 
and  tho  youth  recovered  his  sight.     In  1314  Jlilutin  fought  on  tho 
side  of  the  emperor  Andronicus  against  the  Turks,  and  m  the  samo 
year  forced  the  Ragusans  to  pay  him  tribute.     After  his  brother 
Dragutin's  death  he  seized  his  heredit.ary  dominions,  and  recalling 
his  son  Stephen,  whom  he  had  banished  to  Constantinople,  gave 
him  Dioclea.      In  1319  the  Hungarians  deprived  him  of  Bosnia; 
two  years  later  he  died.      His  son  Stephen  was  engaged  in  perpetual 
wars.     In  1330  he  defeated  the  Bulgarians  at  the  brook  Kamencha 
near' Velbuzhd,  when  the  Bulgarian  czar  Michael  was  slain.     It     . 
was  on   this   occasion  that   his  son  called  Stephen    Dushan  first  Stepbei' 
distinguished  himself.     In  spite  of  the  king's  successes  against  tlie  DusUan. 
Greeks,  he  was  destined  to  close  his  reign  in  the  most  lamentable 
manner  :  he  was  imprisoned  and  strangled  by  order  of  his  own  son 
at  Zvechan  in  1336.     It  is  from  this  crime  that  Dushan  gained  his 
surname  {dnshili,  "to  sufi'ocate").      Concerning  this  prince,  we  are 
told  by  the  ancient  chroniclers  that  he  was  gigantic  in  stature  and 
terrible  in  appearance.      He  conducted  thirteen  campaigns  against 
the  Greeks.      In  1337  he  took  Strumitza  and  subjugated  all  Mace- 
donia and  Albania  to  Thessalonica,  Kostur,  and  Janina,  threatened 
Byzantium,  and  concluded  a  peace  with  the  emperor  Andronicus, 


1  Archiv  fur  slavische  Philolosie,  vii.  591. 
1  Orijina  Ariaae,  p.  128,  Vienna,  1883.' 


3  The  following  rules  for  the  pronunciation  of  the  Croatian  letters  \nll  he 
found  useful  ■.-c  =  ts;  c  =  a  sound  between  (s  and  c»,  something  like  lie  in  the 
English  word  ■■  il.iintier  ■  :  c-o^as  in  " church  ":  i  =  V  as  m  " young  ;  S-SM 
lt=iK  or  J  in  the  French  "jour."' 


"church  "  ;  J  =  y  as  ia  "yoJing 


fe  E  R  \    I  A 


689 


who  was  shuz  up  in  Thcssalonioa.  He  uow  divide  liis  hin^jJom 
into  eight  districts  and  arra-nged  everything  on  tfea  Byzantine 
model.  He  conquered  the  whole  of  Macedonia,  and  carped  himself 
to  be  crowned  emperor  of  Servia,  his  son  Urosh  as  king(/M'rt^,  rt-A-), 
anL'.  the  archbishop  of  the  country  as  patriarch.  In  1349,  at  a  diet, 
he  published  his  celebrated  Zakonik  or  "  Boolc  of  Laws"  (see  be- 
tJontests  low).  In  1356  ho  began  a  new  campaign  against  the  Greeks,  his 
with  object  being  to  seize  Constantinople,  to  place  the  Greek  crov,-n  upon 
^urts,  his  head,  and  drive  the  Turks  out  of  Europe  ;  but  in  the  midst  of  his 
schemes  ho  died  at  Denbolis  in  Albania  on  18th  December  1356. 
His  son  UposTi  was  then  but  nineteen  years  of  age,  and,  being  sickly 
in  body  and  weak  in  mind,  he  was  unable  to  struggle  against  the 
revolted  governors  of  his"  provinces,  some  of  whom  wished  to  make 
themselves  independent.  He  was  killed  in  a  conflict  with  one  of 
them  in  1367,  who  ascended  the  throne  nnderthe  name  of  Vukashin. 
This  monarch  was  at  first  successful  against  the  Turks,  now  already 
masters  of  considerable  portions  of  the  Byzantine  empire  ;  but  he 
lost  the  decisive  battle  of  Taenarus,  andwith.it  his  life,  in  1371. 
According  to  the  chroniclers,  the  Serbs  were  surprised  and  many 
slain  while  sleeping.  Many  also  were  drowned  in  the  waters  of 
the  Maritza,  "and  there  their  bones  lay  and  were  never  buried." 
The  fate  of  Vukashin  and  of  his  brother  Goiko  was  uncertain.  The 
empire  of  Dushan  now  began  to, fall  to  pieces  and  Servia  was  again 
without  a  ruler.  Marco,  the  son  of  Vukashin,  declared  himself 
the  successor  of  his  father  ;  but  the  line  was  unpopular  with  the 
Serbs,  and  at  a  diet  at  Pec  (Ipek)  in  1374  they  elected  a  young 
noble.  Lazar  Greblianovich,  a  connexion  of  the  old  princely  house. 
He  did  not,  however,  take  the  title  of  either  em.peror  or  king,  but 
only  of  Jcncz  or  prince.  Bosnia  was  separated  from  Servia  and  fell 
under  the  rule  of  a  noble  named  Tvcrtko.  Sultan  Murad  had 
already  conquered  the  Bulgarian  sovereign  Shishmau  and  now 
marched  against  Servia.  On  the  15th  of  June  1389  the  Serbs  were 
T^attle  of  completely  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Kosovo,  the  "litdd  of  hlack- 
^osovo.  birds."  .No  event  has  been  so  much  celebrated  in  the  national 
songs  as  this.  Many  are  the  lays  which  tell  of  the  treachery  of 
Vuk  Brankovich  and  the  glorious  self-immolation  of  Milosh  Obilich, 
who  stabbed  the  conqueror  on  the  battlefield.  The  silken  shroud, 
embroidered  with  gold,  with  which  his  wife  Militza  covered  the 
body  of  her  Imsband  is  still  preserved  in  the  monastery  of  Vrdnik 
in  Syrmia,  and  a  tree  which  she  planted  is  shown  to  travellers  at 
Zupa.  According  to  one  account  Lazar  was  killed  in  the  battle  ; 
according  to  others  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed  before  the 
eyes  of  the  dying  Murad.  The  bones  of  Lazar  now  rest  at  Ravanitia 
6erria  on  the  Frushka  Gora  in  Syrmia.  We  hear  no  more  of  independent 
tributary  Serb  princes;  the  country  was  now  tributary  to  Turkey,  and  its 
to  rulers  were  styled  despots.    Stephen,  the  son  of  Lazar,  was  confirmed 

(Tm^ey.  in. this  title  by  Bajazid,  the  successor  of  Murad.  Militza  died  in 
a  convent  in  1406.  Stephen  died  in  1427  childless,  andwas  suc- 
ceeded by  George  Brankovich,  a  nran  sixty  years  of  age,  whose  reign 
was  a  troubled  one.  In  1437  ho  was  compelled  to  fly  to  Hungary 
to  avoid  the  wrath  of  Murad  IL,  and  did  not  recover  his  territory 
till  Hunyadi  and  Scanderbeg  drove  back  the.Turks  in  1444.  George 
fell,  in  the  ninety-first  year  of  his  ago,  in  battle  with  a  Hungarian 
magnate  named  Michael  Szilagyi  on  24tU  December  1457.  His 
youngest  son  Lazar  succeeded  him  after  c6mmitting  many  crimes, 
but  only  survived  his  father  five  weeks. "  His  widow,  Helena  Tala:- 
ologus,  gave  the  country  to  the  pope  in  order  to  secure  bis  assist- 
ance against  the  Turks.  Upon  this  the  sultan  ravaged  Servia  in 
the  most  pitiless  manner,  burnt  the  churches  and  monasteries, 
iand  carried  off  200,000  persons  into  captivity.  Servia  became  in 
all  respects  a  Turkish  province,  althougli  \vc  occasionally  find  the 
empty  title  of  "despot"  borne  by  some  of  the  descendants  of  its 
princes...  Great  numbers  of  the  Serbs  subsequently  migrated  to 
Hungary.  In  1639  some  thousands  under  the  command  of  the 
'despot  George  Brankovich  entered  the  imperial  (German)  army. 
In  1691  tho  Servian  patriarch,  Arsenius  Chernoyevich,  led  about 
36,000  families  to  settle  in  various  parts  of  Hungary,  chiefly  in 
Syrmia  and  Slavonia.  These  zadriiga^,  as  they  are  called,  arc  not 
families  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  consisting  of  parents  and  rhildrcn, 
Ijut  communities  of  families  according  to  the  custom  still  fAiMul 
among  the  Croats  of  the  Military  Frontier.  The  number  of  the- 
emigrants-  at  that  time  would  probably  amount  to  400,000  or 
500,000  persons.  Others  follo*vcd  them  in  1733  and  1738.  These 
Serbs  have  kept  their  religion  and  langunge  in  spite  of  the  desperate 
efforts  of  the  Government  to  Magyarize  them.  Tlie  last  despot 
of  Scrvi^  was  George  Br.anUovich,  who  di^d  in  captivity  in  Austria 
in  1711.  '        '  - 

',  In  consequence  of  fll^  splendid  victories  of  Prince  Eugciie,  Austria 
acquired  the  greater  part  of  Servia  by  the  trcatv  of  Posharevat-t  in 
1718,  but  the  Turks  reg.ained  it  by  the  peace  of  Belgrade  in  1739. 
For  npwanls  of  four  centuries  the  Serbs  groaned  under  the  Turkish 
■yoke,  until,  in  180t,  unable  to  endure  tlie  oppression  ^f  the  Turkish 
dahis,  they  broke  out  into  rebellion 'under  George  Petrovieh,  snr- 
nanied  Tsrni,  or  "  Black  George  "  (in.  Turkish  Kccra).  Kara  George 
VMS  born  at  Topola  (Tapolja)  in  1767  ;  at  first  he  mrrcly  aimed  "at 
conquering  the  dahis,  but  afterwards  he  attempted  to  drivo  the 
Tiuksout  ojr,Servia.  Tliis  be  succeeded  in  doing  after  many  failures. 
21—25 


In  1S13,  howe%-er,  they  reconquered  the  country,  and  George  with 
his  adherents  v.as  compelled  to  jly  to  Au.itria.  He  returned  in  1817, 
but  was  treacherously  murdered  by  order  of  Milosh  Ob^enovich,  who 
had  now  become  the  Servian  leader.  'We  have  no  bpace  here  to  Straggly 
sketch  the  struggles  of  Milosh  to  secure  the  independence  of  Servia.  for  indei 
He  was  himself  of  peasant  origin  and  in  his  youth  had  been  a  swine-  peiid- 
herd.  The  Turks  had  contrived  to  kill  or  drive  out  of  the  country  ence. 
all  the  Servian  aristocracy,  leaving  only  peas;i.its  to  till  the  ground, 
feed  swine  (one  of  the  great  industries  of  the  country),  and  pay  the 
harack.  Milosh  was  declared  prince  by  the  national  assembly,  and 
in  1830  secured  the  consent  of  the  Porte  to  his  enjoyment  of  Jio 
title  with  the  succession  reserved  to  his  family.  Turkey  allowed 
Servia  a  quasi-independence,  but  held  and  garrisonetl  several  for- 
tresses. Milosh  had  so  little  forgotten  his  Turkish  training  that 
he  ijiade  himself  obnoxious  to  his  subjects  by  his  despotic  acts. 
He  was  a  man  of  simple,  even  coarse  habits,  as  many  of  the  anec- 
dotes told  of  him  testify.  He  was  coinpellcd  to  abdicate  in  183-> 
in  favour  of  his  son  Milan,  who,  however,  was  of  too  feeble  a  con- 
stitution to  direct  the  government,  and,  dying  so'>r4  aftcwards,  W35 
succeeded  by  his  younger  brother  Michael.  He  also  abdica'icd  in, 
IS'12  and  the  Serbs  then  elected  Alexander,  the  ^on  of  Tsrni  (Jeorgc, 
or,  to  give  him  his  Servian  patronymic,  Karagcorgcvich.  His  rule 
lasted  seventeen  years  ;  he  was  compelled  to  resign  in  1851),  and 
Milosh,  now  very  old,  was  invited  to  come  from  Bucharest.  He 
lived,  however,  only  one  year,  dying  in  ISGO,  and  left  the  throu's 
to  his  son  Michael,  then  aged  forty,  who  was  thus  a  second  timo 
elected  prince  of  Servia.  Jtichael  was  a  man  of  refinement  antl. 
had  learned  much  during  his  exile.  The  condition  of  the  country 
improved  during  his  reign,  and  in  1SG2  lie  succeedtd  in  getting 
the  Turkish  garrisons  removed  from  Belgrade.  The  Moslem  iu-J 
habitants  have  gradually  withdrawn  from  the  country,  so  that  the^j 
are  now  represented  by  a  very  few  families.  Of  the  two  mosque^ 
still  remaining  in  Belgrade,  one  is  devoted  to  their  use,  the  othcc 
having  been  turned  into  a  gas-work.  While  walking  in  his  park^ 
called  Koshutniak  or  Topshidcre,  near  Belgrade,  JVIichuel  was 
assassinated  by  the  emissaries  of  Ah.'vander  Karagcorgevich  on  lOtl! 
June  1868.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  second  cousin,  Milan,  gi'and^ 
son  of  Ycphrem,  a  brother  of  Jlilosh.  Jlilan  was  born  in  IS^t  s 
he  became  prince  of  Servia  in  1872.  In  1875  he  married  a  Russian 
lady,  Natalie  de  Keczko.  In  1S78  the  Sorbs  declared  \^'ar  against 
Turkey,  but  their  arms  were'unsucccssful,  and  they  were  only  .■^ave^^ 
by  the  intervention  of  Russia.  By  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  July  1870.' 
the  country  received  a  large  accession  of  territory,  and  the  prince 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king.  Peace  continued  till  the 
year  1885,  and  during  this  period  the  Serbs  seemed  to  make  con- 
siderable progress  as  a  nation,  in  spite  of  the  bitterness  of  political 
faction.  In  1885,  ho^^ever,  Servia  made  an  ill-judged  and  selfish 
attack  upon  Bulgaria,  which  was  ignominiously  beaten  off. 

LlTEKATUnE. 
For  some  account  of  the  Servian  language,  see  Sl.ws, 
Under  Servian   literature   the    Dalmatian   and   Croatian   in   tha 
limited  sense  of  the  term  must  be  included.     Tho  latter,  however, 
is  somewhat  meagre.    This  litcratuic  is  divided  into  three  periods — 

(1)  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  fall  of  Servian  independence  at 
the  battle  of  Kosovo,  1339;  (2)  from  the  rise  of  the  importance  of 
RagUKi  in  the  15th-century  till  its  decay  towards  the  end  of  tho 
17th  ;  (3)  from- the  time  of  Dositei  Obradovich  to  the  present  day. 

First  Pc/'i'oc?.^— The  earliest  composition  which  has  come  down  to  Earl]^ 
us  in  the  Servian  or  Illyrinn  language,  to  use  a  term  in  which  wc  chrowi* 
may  include  the  Dalmatian  Slavs,  who  are  essentially  the  same  cles, 
people,  is  the  production  of^an  unknown  priest  of  Dioclea  (Doclca.\ 
now  Duklyn,  a  hc.np  of  ruins,  but  I'oimerly  a  city  of  consiilcrablc 
importance  on  the  river  .Moralza.  His  title  in  Latin  is  "  Anonymus 
Presbyter  Diocleus,"  or  in  Slavonic  "Pop  Dukljnnin. "  He  mu?t 
/have  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  us  the  chrouido 
compiled  by  hiin  extcnils  to  the  year  1161.  It  is  a  ted'ous  pro- 
duction, and  possesses  only  antiquarian  interest  ;  iJ;  is  printed  bv 
Kukuljcvic  Sakciiiski'  in  the  Arkiv  za  Povcstnicu  Jufjoshivcnshic 
(Agram,  1851).  The  oldest  documents  of  the  Servian  language  in 
the  narrower  sense  of  the  term  arc  a  letter  of  Kulin,  the  ban  of 
Bosnia  in  IISO,  and  the  Icttev  of  Simeon  or  Stephen  Kemauya  to 
tho  monastery  of  Chilandcr  on  Mount  Athos.  These  productions 
are  simply  PaK-roslavonic  with  a  mixture  of  Scrbisms,  The  history 
of  early  Servian  literature  has  been  thoroughly  investigated  by 
Schafarik  in  his  Scrblschc  Lcsckorucr  (Pcsth,  1S53).  AVe  have  only 
space  to  mention  the  ninrc  important  productions.  (1)  The  Life  of  Ht 
Si/neon  by  his  son  St  Sabbas  or  Sava,  the  first  archbishop  of  Scrvioy 
was  written  about  1210.  The  cnrly  manuscripts  have  been  lost 
and  the  oldest  cojiy  known-only  dates  from  the  17th  century.) 
Besides  this  work,  Sava  also  compiled  a  ;i;;;X-"or  collection  of  staxuteS 
for  the, monaster)'  of  Studenitza,  of  which  he  was  hegoumca  or 
abbot.      He  was  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  Chilandei  monastcryj 

(2)  The  History  of  St  Simeon  and  SI  Subbas  by  Domctian  w.j  coni.^ 
piled  in  1264,  and  is  presen'od  in  a  manuscript  of  the  l^th  century. 

1  Id  citing  the  nameH  of  those  members  of  the  St-rvo- Croatian  raco_\\]io  ^lf3i 
Latin  k-ttcra  the  original  ortUogiapIiy  is  preserved.  ,  ^     -" 

XXI. -^  ^ 


690 


S  E  R  V  I  A 


There  is  a  good  edition  l)y  Banichich,  to  wliom  wc  arc  indebted  foi- 
a  valuable  lexicon  of  Old  Servian,  (3)  The  Hoi^oshrf  or  Lives  of 
Servian  kings  and  archbishops,  compiletTby  Archbishop  Duniel 
(died  133S),  contains  the  lives  of  Kings  SadoslaiT,  Vladislalf,  Urosli, 
Dragutin,  Queen  Helena,  Jlilutin,  &c.  After  his  death  the  vork 
ivas  continued  by  an  anonymous  ^vritcr.  The  stvle  of  these  pio- 
duclions  is  dry  and  tasteless.  They  are  ivritten  "in  I'alwoshvonic 
mixed  with  Serbisms.  Hilferuing  has  commented  with  great 
severity  on  tht-ir  bombastic  and  panegyrical  style,— the  most  com- 
plimentary cpithet3  being  apjilicd  to  many  sovereigns  whose  careers 
were  stained  with  crimes.  (4)  The  Life  of  Slcjyhen,  surnamed  "De- 
chanski,"  from  the  monastery  Dechani  which  he  founded,  written 
by  Gregory  Tzamblak,  ftegoumen  of  the  same  monastery.  (5)  lu 
1?d9  we  have  the  Code  of  Laws  {Zakonik)  of  Stephen  Dushan, 
vhich  has  been  previously  mentioned  ;  it  is  the  earliest  specimen 
of  Servian  legislation,  and  has  come  down  in  several  manuscripts, 
being  first  publislied  by  Kaich  in  his  History  at  the  close  of  the 
ISth  century.  Since  that  time  other  editions  have  appeared,  the 
two  most  important  being  those  of  SUklcsich  and  Novakovich. 
Second  Period. — To  this  epoch,  which  may  be  said  to  commence 
,     <7iv-i  the  15th  century,  belong  some  of  the  Servian  chronicles,  the 

Servian    "Xy'^'opis  Kopri vnichki  o.nd  others, — dry  and  tedious  comiiilalions  ; 

baliada.  the  loth  century  saw  also  the  outburst  of  the  literature  of  Ragusa 
(see  below).  The  Servian  ballads  have  obtained  a  European  celebrity, 
and  must  have  existed  from  very  early  times.  Nicephorns  Gregoras, 
who  in  1325-26  came  to  Stephen  Urosh  IV.  as  ambassador  from  the 
Byzantine- emperor  Andronicus,  noticed  that  some  Serbs  attached 
to  his  suite  sang  tragic  songs  celebrating  tlie  great  exploits  of  their 
national  heroes.  As  JL  Pipin  remarks  in  his  History  of  Slavonic 
Literature,  this  shows  the  existence  of  a  national  epic  among  the 
Serbs  before  the  battle  of  Kosovo.  In  the  description  of  an  embassy 
sent  from  Vienna  to  Constantinople  in  1551  a  certain  Kuripeshich, 
by  birth,  a  Slovene,  speaks  of  hearing  songs  sung  in  honour  of 
iiilosh  who  slew  Sultan  Murad.  The  first  attempt  at  collecting 
them  was  made  by  the  Franciscan  monk  Andrew  Kacic-iliolic,  a 
Dalmatian,  who  died  in  1785.  His  work  was  published  at  Venice 
in  1756  under  the  title  of  Razgovor  Uyodni  JS'aroda  Sloviiiskoga 
(Recreations  of  the  Slavonic  People).  Some  of  the  pieces  included 
an  this  volume  were  written  by  Mioeid  himself,  and  he  made  many 
^.Iterations  in  the  old  ones.  Tliis,  however,  was  quite  in  the  spirit 
»f  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  AVe  find  extracts  from  Servian 
ballads  in  some  of  the  Dalmatian  poets  of  the  16th  century.  In 
1794  they  were  alluded  to  in  the  Travels  of  the  abbe  Fortis,  and 
were  finally  collected  by  Yuk  Stephanovich  Karajich  and  published 
at  Leipsic  in  1824  under  the  title  Karodne  Srpskc  Pycsme  (Popular 
Servian  Songs).  Some  of  them  were  afterwards  trans]ated  into 
German  by  Theresa  von  Jacob  and  into  English  by  Bowriiig  and 
Lord  Lytton.  The  versions  of  the  last  two  possess  but  little  merit. 
It  would  be  impossible  in  a  short  notice  like  the  present  to  discuss 
the  contents  of  these  remarkable  ballads.  To  the  majority  of  readers 
the  cycle  which  treats  of  Knez  Lazar  and  his  fate  at  the  battle  of 
Kosovo  will  prove  the  most  interesting.  Besides  historical  persons 
introduced  in  the  ballads,  there  is  the  half-raythical  hero  JIarco 
;Kralevich,  who,  like  the  Russian  Ilya  Murometz,  has  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  a  supernatural  being.  His  victories,  chiefly  over 
Turks  and  Magj'ars,  are  narrated  in  the  most  bombastic  phraseology'. 
At  last  he  dies  in  battle ;  but  the  belief  prevails  that  he  remains 
concealed  till  he  shall  appear  on  some  future  occasion  to  rescue  his 
people  from  their  oppressors.  Almost  as  mysterious  as  the  liero 
biniself  is  his  horse  Sharatz,  who  was  presented  to  him  by  a  riJa 
or  fairy.  After  the  death  of  Vuk  Stephanovich '{1S64)_  a  supple- 
mentary volume  was  published  by  his  widow,  which  her  husband 
had  left  prepared  for  the  press  Srpskc  2\'arodnc  Pycsyiic  iz  Hrrzc- 
^ovinc  (Popular  Servian  Songs  from  Herzegovina,  Vienna,  1866). 
A  good  collection  of  songs  of  the  JMontenegrins  (Tsrnogortzi)  was 
edited  at  Leipsic  in  1857  by  ililutinovich.  There  has  also  appeared 
a  little  volume  of  Servian  national  songs  from  Bosnia,  collected  by 
Bogolub  Petranovich  in  1867.  Since  then  volumes  of  Servian 
popular  poetry  by  Rayachevich  and  Eistich  have  appeared. 

r^'^usan       During  this  period  Slavonic  literature  reached  a  high  pitch  of 

(.....  culture  in  the  little  city  of  Ragusa,  called  in  Slavonic  Dubro^mik. 

During  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries  this  city,  now  in  a  state 
of  decay,  was  a  kind  of  Slavonic  Athens.  To  the  influence  of 
Italian  literature  was  added  the  culture  introduced  by  the  crowds 
of  learned  Greeks, — Chalcocondylas,  Lascaris,  and  others, — who 
found  refuge  within  its  walls  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 
Lyrics  and  the  lyric  drama  seem  to  have  been  the  general  pro- 
ductions of  the  more  noteworthy  authors.  The  influence  of 
Italian  is  perceptible  throughout  The  first  writer  of  eminence 
was  Hannibal  Lucie,  a  verj'  popular  poet  in  his  day,  author  of  love- 
songs,  a  drama  Pobinja  (The  Female  Slave),  and  translations  pub- 
lished first  by  his  son  Anthony  at  Venice  in  1556,  and  reprinted 
by  Dr  Gaj  at  Agram  in  1S47.  A  very  interesting  poem  by  this 
author  is  his  Eulogy  of  the  city  of  Dubro\*nik  (Ragusa).  Another 
■n'riter  of  considerable  reputation  was  Nicholas  Vetranic-Cavfic 
(X432-1576),  who  afterwards  became  a  monk  and  lived  as  a  hermit 
on  one  of  the  islands  on  the  Dalmatian  coast.     He  has  left  several 


plays  and,  besides  translating  the  Hecuba  of  Euripides,  wrole^ 
huvcial  mysteries,  in  the  style  of  the  religious  plays  once  so  popular 
throughout  Kurope  ;  of  these  the  Sacrifcc  of  Abraham  is  the  oest. 
His  poem  entitled  Italy  is  remarkable  for  the  warm  affection  it 
expresses  for  the  couut;y  of  his  education.  Peter  Hektorevic  (1436- 
1572)  was  a  rich  proprietor  of  the  island  of  Zara,  and  is  worth 
mentioning  as  liaving  siiown  a  taste  for  the  national  poetry  of  his 
country.  He  has  introduced  some  songs  in  his  JUlatijc  i  Rtbarsko 
Prigovoraiijc  (Fishing  and  a  Dialogue  of  Fishermen).  ^Very  cele- 
brated in  its  time  was  the  Jcgjupka  or  Gi}>sy  of  Andrew  CubranoviiS 
(1500-1559),  who  was  originally  a  silversmith.  His  pOL^m  of  the 
Gipsy  is  said  to  have  been  evoked  in  the  following  manner, 
Cubranovic  was  on  one  occasion  following  a  young  lady  and  urging 
his  suit  when  she  turned  round  and  said  scornfully  in  Italian  to  her 
attendant,  in  the  hearing  of  the  poet,  "  Che  vuole-da  me  qucsto 
Zingaro  ?"  ("AVhat  does  this  Gipsy  want  with  me  ?").  The  despised 
lover  took  up  the  word  of  reproach  and  wrote  a  poem  in  which  lie 
introduced  a  Gipsy  prophesying  to  a  company  of  ladies  their  various 
fortunes  and  concluding  with  an  expostulation  to  the  hard-hearted 
beauty  for  her  obduracy.  Schafarik  speaks  of  this  j>icce  with  great 
enthusiasm  and  calls  it  "a  truly  splendid  flower  in  the  garden  of 
the  Ulyrian  Muses."  The  Russian  critic  Pipin  supposes,  with  great 
probability,  that  tlie  poem  was  written  as  a  sort  oJ  masquerade  for 
the  carnival.  It  enjoyed  considerable  popularity  and  was  frequently 
imitated.  A  similar  story  is  said  to  have  suggested  the  Dcrvise 
(Dervish)  of  Stjcpo  Guuctic,  in  which  the  author  represents  himself 
as  a  Turkish  dervish.  These  two  pieces  are  elegant  productions  in 
the  Italian  manner. 

Nicholas  Naljeskovic  (1510-15S7)  was  a  native  of  Ragusa  and 
author  of  several  pastoral  plays  in  the  style  then  so  much  in  vogue 
throughout  Europe.  Of  the  same  description  are  the  productions  *- 
of  Slarino  Dr2ic  (1520-15S0),  of  whom  his  contemporaries  praised 
'*il  puro,  vago,  e  dolce  canto."  Mention  may  also  be  made  of 
Dinko  Ranjina  and  Mauro  Orbini  (d.  1614).  Another  celebrated 
poet  was  Dominco  Zlataric  (1556-1607),  who,  besides  translating  the 
Elccira  of  Sophocles,  produced  a  version  of  the  Aviinta  of  Tasso 
and  has  left  several  minor  pieces.  The  chief  of  the  Ragusan  poets, 
however,  was  Ivan  Gunduiic  (sometimes  called  by  his  Italian  name 
of  Gondola).  Very  few  facts  are  known  of  his  life  ;  but  he  died 
in  165S  aged  fifty,  liaving  discharged  several  important  public  odices. 
His  death,  says  Schafarik,  was  not  too  early  for  his  iamc  but  too 
early  for  literature  and  the  glory  and  prosperity  of  his  country. 
He  himself  published  but  little,  and  many  of  his  writings  perished 
in  the  earthquake  in  1667,  after  which  Ragusa  never  regained  her 
former  prosperity.  The  so-called  Petrarchan  school  of  Illyriaa 
poetry  languished  after  this  and  wasted  its  energy  on  elegant 
trifles.  Dalmatian  poets  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  have  not 
made  any  considerable  figure.  The  Osvian  of  Gunduiic,  on  which 
his  fame  rests,  is  an  epic  in  twelve  books,  and  was  written  to  cele- 
brate the  victory  of  the  Poles  under  Chodkiewicz  over  the  Turks 
and  Tatars  in  1622  at  Chociai  (Khotin).  Schafarik  praises  Gundulid 
for  the  richness  of  his  imaMnation,  the  lofty  tone  of  his  verse,  and 
its  perfectly  constructed  rhythm.  AVe  are  willing  to  allow  that 
Osman  possesses  considerable  spirit  and  that  the  versification  is 
melodious,  but  on  the  whole  it  seems  a  tedious  poem.  The  short 
quatrains  in  which  it  is  w  litten  lack  the  true  epic  dignity.  Leaving 
the  Dalmatians,  the  only  writer  worthy  of  mention  among  the 
Serbs  is  George  Pjrankovich  (1645-1711),  the  last  despot,  who  coni- 
]'iled  a  History  of  Scrvia  till  the  end  of  the  17th  Century,  whicli  has 
been  edited  by  Chedomil  Miyatovieh,  ambassador  from  the  court  of 
Scrvia  to  St  James's  (1886).  From  this  period  till  the  close  of  the 
IStli  century  there  is  no  Servian  literature  :  the  spirit  of  the  pcoplo 
seems  to  have  been  crushed  out  of  them  by  Austrian  persecutors  ou 
the  one  hand  and  by  Turkish  on  the  otiier.  Till  the  reign  of  Milosh 
Obrcnovich  in  tlie  19th  century  hardly  a  Servian  printed  book  was 
to  be  seen.  The  works  of  Vuii  Kriiihanich,  who,  although  a  Serb, 
wrote  in  Jlussian,  are  mentioned  under  Russia  (p.  105). 

Third  Period  (Jroin  1750). — The  spark  of  nationality  was  still 
bui'uing  among  tlie  Serbs,  in  spite  of  their  degradation,  and  men 
were  found  to  fan  it.  Such  a  man  was  Raich  (1720-lSOl),  a  Ralf 
thorough  patriot.  He  was  born  in  Slavonia,  a  province  of  Austria 
inhabited  by  Serbs,  the  son  of  poor  parents,  but  he  had  all  the 
enthusiasm  for  learning  that  animated  the  Russian  Lomonosoff, 
whom  he  very  much  resembled.  Thus  we  find  hi-m  making  his 
way  on  foot  from  his  native  town  to  Kieff,  where  he  was  received 
into  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  and  devoted  himself  to  theology. 
After  spending  three  years  at  KietT,  he  betook,  himself  to  Moscow, 
Jleeting,  on  his  return  to  his  native  country,  with  a  cold  receptiou 
from  those  whom  he  had  expected  to  foster  his  studies,  he  went 
back  to  Russia,  and  while  at  Kieff"  resolved  to  write  the  history  of 
the  Servian  nation.  Knowing  that  the  Slavonic  monasteries  in 
European  Turkey  contained  many  unpublished  manuscripts  (num- 
bers of  which  have  since  perished  in  the  wars  which  have  devastated 
the  country  or  have  been  de^,troyed  by  the  Greeks),  he  visited  Con- 
stantinople and  many  other  parts  of  that  empire  in  order  to  collect 
materials.  On  his  return  to  Austria  he  took  up  his  abode  at 
Neusatz  on  the  Danube  (also  long  the  headquarters  of  Schafarik), 


^by  himself.      Ho  was  a  mnn   .r       °   f  f  '^""?"  '^'^  ''''^"  ^"'"'^n 
translations  is  considerable      Acti°  nn   ?^  '"^.™"iP|'^t.>on3  and 

above..  Vuk  wa,  ,n  ilLTt  ™,'  "'°",  °'  ^""S^  ^'as  mentioned 
time  tl^e  Servian  Ian. ualt'f^  '''"''?''  "'"^  P^'"<"-  Till  his 
concerned.   s?;7,;''rj\S,Xr,,,  L"  ^AV:™?"^^"^"--,^ 

was'  he  forbiddcf  to  enter  Servia  but  hf  Wu'"'  '"  ">?'  ""'  ""^J" 
tl.e  coi,ntry.  He  died  a  4e  beginning  of  isefb',;"''^'"'''''-  ''°"' 
make  use  of  his  innovations  was  not  riv!n  till  r'  '  P<=™>'=siou  to 
A  complete  enumera'ion  rr  th.^  ■  '  '^?"''  >"<■='«  afterwards. 
t).e  19th^centur;ru  i  S  f.ceed  Hie'Ifmir""' .^i?''"™  '^""'"^^  °f 
Jlatthias  Anthony  Re  kov  /(m>  179S  I  "'  *'"'  ''•'■"'^'''-  B"' 
1.=  wrote  in  a  diallct  brl\  little  art"ivie]vr"th'"Sr''*'°"'  ''^^^"^^ 
restricted  sense,  as  annlie,)  f„  t),„  a  *  ■'  '  '  .°  Slavonian  111  the 
He  published  „  1761  a  ,,n.f  f  "''.•'^"  P™""'^'=  "f  "'-^t  "ame. 
C^..W.-  (Sath-e  o\^h  C,e«"  r,  att";,:,';""^^'''^''-  '''''  ^'^' 
of  which  marks  a  de.lnito  feature  of  frr'  *^  '^'"  """"='=•  ^''<='> 
Lncian  Mushit^ki  fl777  1  s-  ?  ,  •  '"'  '''"=>t"™.  must  suffice. 

of  Carlovvit  was     igh  y  est  ™  ed''b;hr''"'%='""™'''=  "^''"P 
■His  odes  are  full  of  .fat  fotic  fee  Inl    ^'.l  '^™'^'T;";"  ="  "■  P""'' 

Avrote  under  the  no,i,?.;w:nnioshsl  "eh     r^^ 

was  an  ai.(l,r„.;t„  ;,.  o.........   ,..     ^\"™li  t.\  etich.    For  some  time  ho 


SERVIA 


691 


Vuk 

Stephan 

ovich. 


Jlinor 
Svriters. 


"•oati.in 
litera- 
ture 


vas  i>ul>li.hed  at  Leipsic   n  I80B      W    ,  '"" ■''•'"  '"  "1'      It 

his  collection  of  mSo'",,  L„.s  T  ??  P?"°r'^ '''l!'''"'^  '" 
tragedy  on  Milosh  ObilichrwhoTewSultan  I. td  XTr"'  ^^.'^ 
who  was  a  liosni.in,  died  in  povrrtv  n  fi47  v  ^'''"*f"'"=l', 
(1806.1856),  a  uativj  of  the  bS  4  a  wr  teV  o^^nn"l  '"T"'^'' 
and  merit,  and  ".lined  -i  rnn„i  1,,.  1 1  writer  ot  much  imlustry 

subjects  of  whLr" ""ro  Vken  tm  Serr,u'u  r^  '"I  l''^>'^'  "'» 
^pon  the  stage  with  consi,leral>l     effe  t      W  u  oS  h"^  '™™  P"' 

andcoiUaiiisi^ny  valuabe^a^^^  ""=  P''^''^"'  «»><^ 

Schafarik  had  t-revious  ffound'ed  ,t  K     '''f '',^t''''?'-*'  ^"''  'it'^'-^'-c 

(bornTniaU),  is  »afl  frh^'folmr  aifehe^S  '^  "■^''"™>'^ 
.ing  their  hatred  of  the  Turk  tha  f  b?  1  °  *^'?"'';'''^.  »'  >^timulat. 
Hate."  Ismiil  was  tho  des.'enda  ,  '  f  a^oM  r'**'  V"  ^'^'"^  "^ 
had  turned  Mussulmans  to  keen  t  Lii  eJ,  1  '"I',^''  '^"'""j'  "■'"> 
l.rst  invaded.  These  reiieS  !'  -.'b.  V  ""  f'-'try  was 
fanatical  than  the  Turks  tliemelves  *>  ,  '  "f-?'"'''  ''''  '"<"» 
directed  against  the  Uskoks  and  the  Mol.  '•'°"'  ^'^  '^''■<'ny 
composed  in  the  same  metre  1,  tbVf  „r  .1  =  ''^■""'-  ^Lo  poem  is 
by  Vuk.  It  is  spiriterbut  la  a  « uv„™  "T  ^'"  ''"'■'  '""''^"^ 
^3:^!!li^!::e^cribed;  the  t:  boTr  w^rr^oTl^nVS!?:;:;; 


London  phy.lciin  of  the  tlmo:"^"  So,Uhco  ObS,l''^.''''/'i''''^"^''' ""  ""'"'"<■ 


Jh  only  ncccss.iry  to 


,  vlro  Unguis 


slain  Agha  is  brought  to  the  hermft   ,r^'  '"''"''  ?"  ■'"'^y  "^  «>a. 

The  four  most  celebrated  Se?vnr;    .  ''■'^^'"^''■ly  coir.eived. 
Preradovic,  Yovanovieh    and   R^il^  1    * '■'■'?  P"°''  "^  «t»"'-o  ^'ravScTo. 
ISM)  was 'by  biXfsWe  efht'tin;'' how-v'''  ^-=,  "*l«-'So-.- 
movement  under  Ljudevit  Gaj  and  used  the  ie  JV''^"'y™"  P°''y- 
giiage.     The  attempt  of  Gai  to  form  /ll      Servo-Croatian  Ian- 
under  the  name  of  Illyrian  byfusin"  t^„V      T"  ^"'"''^'y  l='ng"age 
ish  languages  was  not's^ceesIfuT    llrliaS'e'^H  *'"'^  tbcsfoveS, 
been  persevered  in,  would  have  been  tSte%.^  '■'™'''  '^  ''  ''^* 
become  completely  Germanfeed    a,  "'f  *'=\?'°™<=s  would  hava 

would  not  hive  b^en  unTeS  by  the'^  ptsants  '"r''^-.'^''S"^8'' 
graceful  Kt  cs,  Vraz  also  TmH,-<,L^  u  peasants.  Besides  many 
Some  of  his  shorter  pfeces  are  v^'^  '°\'t^on,  of  national  songs, 
colouring.  Peter  PrSovidfls/s  1 179,  ^"'^  ^^^'  \  "*  Oriental 
Frontier  and  a  genera   in  the  A,,i  •      '   ''  ^  •'"'™  "^  ">''  Jlilitary 

graceful  l.vrics,'Sy  ifo  vf  t  uSu^S'  an'\°  ''""'°'-  "^  "^^"^ 
regions.     Acomuleteeditini^lfi,-        T  "'  ""   Servian -speakintr 

Yo%anovich  (brn   n  IS  l)™s  ti^e'\u?['''  ^W''''^  '"  ""•     P^'^?, 
But  no  one  of  the  "atcx  ii.r.r        r"?  °'-  '"="'y  P°P"'"  Po™s- 
such  a  reputation  as  BiSo  R  ?r  f*^  •""=";  """'"■■''  ^as  gainej 
Austrian  Banat  in  IS'54  »^  1     5="^'?'."="<--n.  who  was  born  ?u  the, 
His  popullrity  r  "ts  upon  ?he'^  t"^  ^,-'  '^7'  "^^  =^*  V'-^-"-^  i"  18^3? 
their  spiiited  ton       Tor  It^tf^""^  ''^"™  in  his  writings  .nd 
worke/s  in  the  iieUs  of  lis  ory  and  !wZ      'V'''^''^  '"P"''^"* 
be  mentioned  Dyuro  DaSch   fls"-;  I?!?;     A™°nS  «'«==«  musi. 
partly  at  Pesth  an.l  partly  at  Veiiiaa'.^th ''lJt°  "'"•'  "^^'''"^ 
coming  the  pupil  of  Mildokdi.He  first  made  h  ml  r''''''-^  '''■ 
by  espousing  the  cause  of  Vuk  st„„i,  ^'^^'.°:^?.«  himself  conspicuous* 
about  Servian  orthography      leylef''"'^'''''j''■'^  "'  thedispute 
to  the  Glasmk.  he  wS  tho^-a,,tbm  „f    ™","'^"t'"S  valuable  papers 
great  service  to  students      led  ted  a"s  ^^  ^'T""  '"<="°""y  "^ 
memorials  of  Old  Servian  ifterSu'e  '  'j  Pf^'^.'^^'y  mentioned,  the 
was  engaged  upon  a  eiTMf  wf^         A.  .he  time  of  his  death  ha 
it  is  toVhopeTv^lfb^contru^n'     "  '^'■''T''^-  ^  ""'k  which, 
Gaj  (1809.1872),Vho  llL  ahead vl?n\''^  '"1  P^P'''^'     ^"^'^"K 
laboured  to  briit.  aboutr^i   ol',  ^^fS'^IlS  '  ''"^''  '^^ 
able  as  an  editor  of  th"  Old  n-ilm^t  ,„    1      '     ^"I'^^s  were  invalu- 
living)  has  written  a  good  his"orv  of  the  n'T'"' r    ^^i™'"  ^''"'"^  (^«'l 
at  one  time  minister''of  ™!l  •    ■-  ^'°y*''.' ^ovakovich  (born  1842); 
valuable  articTerintho  (?£  A  haf  nutr';-  ^'''""^^  contributing 
toniathy  of  the  Servian  W,  nt".  ,^  ,  ^       ,*"''  ^°  historical  chres- 
Stephen  Dushan.     Anothe^wofker   i^l?  "'"'°^'>f '•>«  Zakonik  of 
Miyatovich,  pvevio,fs"y  m^^t  „"  ed      O  '/  f'^    ''"^  ^'.''^^  Clhedomil 
and  patriotic  of  modem  Croat?^n.  1    i       ■    t""^  """''  indcfatigabla 
cinslii,  who  has  cditd?  £sid  rnia,  v  !a?l'>^  P™^•^"''^"'J>"■'^  «='k- 
works,  an  admirable  Arkiv-aPnr^F-       /  ^i-oatian  and  Servian 
of  Documentrfor  Souft  Skvlt  H    r'™,'^Tf'?'r"*^"«  (Collection 
have  appeared  -a  ve,  it,M      f     History),  of  which  several  volumes 

logy,  aTmiture  ''n'has  fotdlif ''"^?"'^  '"=""^^'  ^^^^°- 
Francis  Racki  (born  1829)   aLn"!       ^-^f^"' coadjutor  in  Dr 

rjs..o  sio„jA-o  (slfvoL'Trfti^g,"!:™*^  isTn'^o'Sr''''"^-'' 

Observer)'^andS  (Labour)  "'"  "'  ^''°  J°"'"^'=  i>««- (Tho 

si^™LiS;;;!;'^!;:s^ji^tStr'''^v"  *'>f  '^^'''  ^f^'^-* 

(born  1830),  formerly  a  profesor  at  B^^n   Mf"''  ^^"'"^''^'I'  -f-gic  litera. 
chair  of  Slavonic  philosophy  at  I  V         ^  "  "°"'  ".""'^'"'^  "'=  *>■«■ 
Srcznev^ki.     He  has  miwKberl  I       I'=";"sbure,   ">  the  ,,lacc  ofgeneA 
philology,  such  as  (n  ufT)a%2Z}trl'X''°'r'  on  Slavonic  fuy, 
also  a  reading.book  with  si  ocimr,  fn^f  "^  f'vo-Croat,a7i  Literature, 
^yo,■W  iPriJlri  « Jolm'  S2  >.-  /  "[^  Glagolitic  and  Cyrillic 
of  the  oldest  Slavon^codic  s  Tri     f^-   Jl"^''  f'""  '^''"«'  '»•» 
over,  in  1875  he  fo.  ndoT  he  well  l^         ^rid  Zographensis.     Morc- 
togie,  which  ho  st  inedits  w  th  ite  e?  ^'■'■'".''/«'-/te.»-/,. /7,.7o. 

Simo  Ljubic  is  another  worl-cr  in'  hfield'o^r  ''^"■"!^'  ^^'''"''■ 
literature.     To  the  exoe  lp,,f  1;  ■        °f  ^l^vomc  hi.<;lory  and' 

may  bo  added  tira^rl'n,,r  f'T  •'?";"■'''  "^''^'^y  "'^tioned 
have  been  wi  tt  n  by  Pa  h.  t  '*°-  ■"'  ^*^",'''""-  ^■^'"''-'^'°  «"■'<* 
of  the  southeii  ,Sh™  and  wl%  °^''"^  "'"  '><"'^^-™'"'uunities 
have  been  made  ,1  rof  by'q  I'v,^'''""?;^'^'''^™^''-'^^         "i-^  labour, 

litet   i","thf  dcS';V:S  ''"",™t  ^'-f -^.i"  Mstry  .„.  Mont,. 

"1^  '^^BS^Bt^?--  i^ptl:^^-f!;i-- 

-n  a„i  successor  retlieT  0  Venic:  and  MonJ'eT''""'^'    ^'' ''''  '''^^ 
by  a  national  assembly  and  a  via  ik'aTn  ini^    1   "'i"  '''^':  S°-""''>i 

;h:^::'b:-!rdit;tfr"?lv-: '--yS 

OH.inally  the  ccclcsia^S  a;a':i;;irte^j;:^-™'clSt 


692 


E  Ft  —  B  E  R 


the  person  of  the  vliilika,  hut  they  wore  wpnr;i',od  cii  Ihe  il^-'i-  of 
Peter  II.  in  1851.  The  latter  was  the  author  of  so:iij  iioeins  ii:  the 
Servian  lan^iage,  the  most  celebrated  being  Loucha  Mikro]co~ma 
(The  Light  of  the  Microcosm),  which  appcarej  at  Belgrade  in  1815. 
He  was  tRcceeded  by  his  son  Daniel,  first  prince  of  Montenegro,  who, 
dying  in  1S60,  was  followed  by  his  nephew  Nicholas,  the  most  memor- 
able events  of  whose  reign  have  been  the  war  with  Turkey  anrl  the 
increase  of  his  territory  by  the  treaty  of  Berliq.*  (W.  E.  M.) 

SERVITES  (Servi  Beatie  Maria;  Virginis).  This  reli- 
gious order  owes  its  origin  to  Bonfiglio  !Monaldi,  a  Floren- 
tine, who  in  1233  withdrew  along  with  six  of  his  comrades 
to  the  Cainpo  Marzo  near  the  city  for  prayer  and  ascetic 
exercises  in  honour  of  the  Virgin.  Three  years  afterwards 
they  removed  to  Jlonte  Senario,  where  their  numbers  were 
considerably  increased.  The  order  at  a  very  early  period 
received  from  Bishop  Ardingus  of  Florence  the  rule  of  St 
Augustine,  but  did  not  obtain  papal  sanction  until  1255. 
It  rapidly  sjiread  into  France,  Germany,  the  Low  Countries, 
Poland,  and  Hungary,  and  from  Martin  V.  it  received  in 
1424  the  privileges  of  the  mendicant  orders.  The  Servite 
Tertiaries  were  founded  about  the  same  time  by  Giuliano 
Falconieri.  Under  Bernardino  de  Ricciolini  arose  the 
Hermit  Servites  (1593).  The  members  of  the  order  (Ob- 
servants and  Conventuals)  are  now  found  chiefly  in  Italy, 
Hungary,  Austria,  and  Bavaria. 

SERVIUS,  the  commentator  on  Virgil,  is  all  but  un- 
knoTi-n  to  us,  so  far  as  personal  information  goes.  From 
notices  in  the  Saturnalia  of  Macrobius,  where  he  appears 
as  an  interlocutor,  we  may  infer  that  in  or  about  380, 
though  stUl  quite  young,  he  was  already  distinguished  as 
a  "  grammaticus,"  that  is,  as  an  expert  in  the  criticism, 
explanation,  and  teaching  of  the  classical  literature  of 
Rome.  Servius  therefore  belongs  to  the  latter  half  of  the 
4th  and  the  earlier  years  of  the  5th  century,  to  the  age 
of  Symmachus  and  Claudian,  of  Jerome  and  Augustine. 
The.  allusions  of  Macrobius  and  a  short  letter  from  Sym- 
machus to  Servius  leave  no  doubt  that  the  grammarian 
formed  one  of  that  band  of  cultivated  men,  led  by  Sym- 
machu!!,  whose  eyes  were  turned  towards  the  pagan  past 
and  away  from  the  Christian  future,  and  who  breathed 
into  pagan  culture  its  last  transient  sparks  of  life  and 
vigour.  The  race  of  "  grammatici "  to  which  Servius 
belonged,  and  which  had  now  run  at  Rome  a  course*  of 
some  500  years,  had  done  much  evil  to  literature,  had 
helped  to  corrupt,  falsify,  encumber,  and  even  in '  some 
instances  by  abbreviations  upon  abbreviations  to  kill  out 
the  texts  .on  which  they  worked  ;  but  on  the  whole  they 
had  done  more  good.  They  had  helped  to  save  what  could 
be  cved  of  education,  culture,  and  history,  and  so  had 
in  the  main  contributed  to  the  preservation  of  the  ancient 
literature  that  has  como  down  to  us.  Of  all  the  "  gram- 
matici "  none  bears  on  his  front  more  of  the  virtues  and 
fewer  of  the  vices  of  the  race  than  Servius.  But  it  must 
be  noted  that  much  which  passes  under  the ,  name  of 
Servius  in  modern  editions,  and  in  modern  quotations, 
most  certainly  did  not  proceed  from  his  hand.  The 
comments  on  Virgil  to  which  his  name  has  been  attached 
come  from  three  different  sources.  One  class  of  MSS. 
contains  a  comparatively  short  commentary,  definitely 
attributed  to  Servius.  A  second  class  (all  going  back  to 
the  10th  or  11th  century)  presents  a  much  expanded  com- 
mentary, in  which  the  first  is  embedded ;  but  these  MSS. 
differ  very  much  in  the  amount  and  character  of  the  addi- 
tions they  make  to  the  original,  and  none  of  them  bear 
Ihe  name  of  Servius.  The  added,  matter  is  undoubtedly 
indent,  dating  from  a  time  but  little  removed  from  that  of 
Servius,  and  is  founded  to  a  large  extent  on  historical  and 
antiquarian  literature  which  is  now  lost.  The  third  class  of 
MSS.,  written  for  the  most  part  in  Italy  and  of  late  da+e, 
repeats  the  text  of  the  first  class,  witli  numerou-  interpolated 
'cholia  of  quite  recent  origin  and  little  or  no  value. 


Tiic  real  Servian  commentary  (for  so  we  musi,  designate- 
the  text  that  we  find  in  the  first  class  of  MSS.)  practically 
gives  the  only  complete  extant  edition  of  a  classic  author 
written  before  the  destruction  of  the  empire.  It  is  con- 
structed very  much  on  the  principle  of  a  modern  edition, 
but  with  Very  different  ideas  both  as  to  the  relative  and  the 
absolute  value  of  the  matters  treated.  Owi"g  to  the  delicacy 
and  originality  of  his  veiled  style,  to  the  innumerable 
threads  of  ancient  history,  mythology,  and  antiquities  shot 
through  the  texture  of  his  poems,  owing  above  all  to  the 
firm  hold  he  early  gained  upon  the  Latin  schools,  Virgil  had 
a  contiiuious  line  of  expounders  stretching  almost  from  his 
death  to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  government  of  the 
West.  Servius  built  his  edition  in  part  on  the  extensive 
Virgilian  literature  of  preceding  times,  much  of  which  is 
known  only  from  the  fragments  and  facts  he  has  preserved. 
The  notices  of  Virgil's  text,  though  seldom  or  never 
authoritative,  in  face  of  the  existing  MSS.,  which  go  back 
to,  or  even  beyond,  the  times  of  Servius,  yet  supply  valuable 
information  concerning  the  ancient  recensions  and  textual 
criticism  of  Virgil.  Jn  the  grammatical  interpretation  of 
his  author's  language,  Servius  docs  not  rise  above  the  stiff 
and  overwrought  subtleties  of  that  day  ;  while  his  etymo- 
logies, as  is  natural,  violate  every  law  of  sound  and  sense. 
As  a  literary  critic  the  shortcomings  of  Servius  are  great,, 
if  we  judge  him  by  a  modern  standard,  but  he  shines 
if  compared  with  his  contemporaries.  In  particular,  he 
deserves  credit  for  setting  his  face  against  the  prevalent 
allegorical  methods  of  exposition.  But  the  abiding  valua 
of  his  work  lies  in  his  preservation  of  facts  in  Roman 
history,  religion,  antiquities,  and  language  which  but  for 
him  might  have  perished.  Not  a  little  of  the  laborious 
erudition  of  Varro  and  other  ancient  scholars,  to  whom 
time  has  proved  unkind,  has  survived  in  Servius's  pages. 
The  older  MSS.  sometimes  add  to  the  name  Servius  that 
of  Magister  (given  to  other  distinguished  grammarians  at 
different  times)  ;  the  later  Italian  MSS.  in  some  cases  giva 
his  name  as  Maurus  Servius  Honoratus.  Besides  tha 
Virgilian  conmientary,  we  have  other  works  of  Servius, — 
a  collection  of  notes' on  the  grammar  [Ars)  of  Donatus  ;  a 
treatise  on  metrical  endings  ;  the  tract  De  Centum  MeierU 
or  Centimeter. 

The  most  noted  editions  of  ^)ciQ  Virgilian  commentary  are  by 
Fabricius  (1551);  P.  Daniel,  who  first  publisTred  the  enlarged 
commentary  (1600) ;  and  by  Thilo  and  Hagen  (Leipsic,  1878-84). 
The  Essai  sur  Servius  by  E.  Thomas  (Paris,  1880)  is  an  elaborate 
and  valuable  examination  of  all  matters  connected  with  Servius  j 
many  points  are  treated  also  by  Ribbcck  in  his  ''Prolegomena"  to 
Virgil,  and  by  Thilo  and  Hagen  as  above.  The  smaller  works  of 
Servius  are  printed  in  Keil's  Grammatici  Latini. 

B,ERVrUS  TULLIUS,  the  sixth  king  of  Rome,  described 
in  one  account  as  originally  a  slave,  is  said  to  have  married 
a  daughter  of  Tarquin,  and  to  have  gained,  the  throne  by 
the  contrivance  of  Tanaquil,  his  mother-in-law.  Another 
legend  represented  him  as  a  soldier  of  fortune  originally 
named  Mastarna,  from  Etruria,  who  attadlied  himself  ta 
Cieles  A'^ibenna,  the  founder  of  an  Etruscan  city  on  the 
Cselian  Hill.  Servius  included  within  one  circuit  the  five 
separately  fortified  hills  which  were  then  inhabited  and 
added  two  more,  thus  completing  the  "  Septimontium  "  ; 
the  space  thus  inclosed  he  divided  into  four  "  reg.iones,"  the 
Suburana,  Esquilina,  CoUina,  and  Palatina  (see  Rome,  vol. 
XX.  p.  813).  For  his  contributions  to  Roman  lavi  see 
Roman  Law,  vol.  xx.  p.  669  sq.,  and  for  his  reforms  of 
the  constitution  see  Rome,  vol  xx.  pp.  734-735.  His 
legislation  was  extremely  distasteful  to  the  patrician  order, 
and  his  reign  of  forty-four  years  was  brought  to  a  close 
by  a  fconspiracy  headed  by  his  son-in-law  Tarquiuius 
Superbu-s.  The  street  \a  which  TuUia  drove  her  car  over 
her  father's  body  ever  after  bore  tlie  name  of  the  "  VicuSi 
Sceleratus." 


S  E  S—S  E  T 


693 


SESAME,  the  most  important  plaut  of  the  genus 
Sesamum  (nat.  ord.  Pedalinem),  is  that  which  is  used 
throughout  India  and  other  tropical  countries  for  the  sake 
of  the  oil  expressed  from  its  seeds.  S.  indicum  is  an  herb 
2  to  4  feet  high,  with  the  lower  leaves  on  long  stalks,  broad, 
coarsely  toothed  or  lobed.  The  upper  leaves  are  opposite, 
lanceolate,  and  bear  in  their  axils  curved,  tubular,  two- 
lipped  flowers,  each  about  |  inch  long,  and  pinkish  or 
yellowish  in  colour.  The  four  stamens  are  of  unequal 
length,  with  a  trace  of  a  fifth  stamen,  and  the  two-celled 
ovary  ripens  into  a  two-valved  pod  with  numerous  seeds. 
The  plant  ha?  been  cultivated  in  the  tropics  from  time 
immemorial,  and  is  supposed  on  philological  grounds  to 
have  been  disseminated  from  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  but  at  present  it  is  not  known  with  certainty 
in  a  wild  state.  The  plant  varies  in  the  colour  of  the 
flower,  and  especially  in  that  of  the  seeds,  which  range  from 
light  yellow  or  whitish  to  black.  Sesame  oil,  otherwise 
known  as  gicgelly  or  til  (not  to  be  confounded  with  that 
■derived  from  Guizolia  oleifera,  kaown  under  the  same 
vernacular  name),  is  very  largely  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  olive  oil,  and,  although  less  widely  known  by 
name,  is  commercially  a  much  more  important  oil ;  thus, 
fipart  from  the  almost  universal  use  of  the  oil  in  India, 
from  50  to  80  millions  of  kilogrammes  of  the  seed  are  stated 
to  have  been  introduced  annually  into  France  in  1870- 
1872.  The  seed  is  also  largely  exported  from  Zanzibar 
and  Formosa.  The  seeds  and  leaves  also  are  used  by  the 
natives  as  demulcents  and  for  other  medicinal  purposes. 
The  soot  obtained  in  burning  the  oil  is  said  to  constitute 
cne  of  the  ingredients  in  India  or  Chinese  ink.  The 
plant  might  be  cultivated  with  advantage  in  almost  all 
the  tropical  and  semi-tropical  colonies  of  Britain,  but  will 
not  succeed  in  any  part  of  Europe. 

SESOSTRIS  (Se'o-uoTpi?,  so  Herodotus  ;  Diodorus  writes 
Sesoosis ;  other  forms  are  SesonchosU,  SesosU,  Seaolkis, 
<tc.)  is  according  to  Greek  historians  the  name  of  a  king 
of  Egypt  who  conquered  the  whole  world,  even  Scythia, 
the  lands  of  the  Ganges,  and  .^^thiopia,  which  were  not 
subject  to  any  of  the  later  great  empires.  The  conqueror 
in  whoSe  exploits  these  extravagant  legends  took  their  rise 
■was  Ramses  IL  (see  Egypt,  vol.  vii.  p.  739) ;  but  the 
Greek  accounts  unite  in  his  person  all  the  greatest  deeds  of 
the  ancient  Pharaohs,  and  add  much  that  U  purely  imagin- 
ary. In  Manetho's  lists  Sesostria  is  identified  with  a  much 
older  king,  Usertesen  II.,  perhaps  because  authentic  tradi- 
tion made  him  the  conqueror  of  /Ethiopia  (see  vol.  vii.  p. 
734).  When  Herodotus  says  that  he  himself  saw  monu- 
ments of  Sesostris  in  Palestine,  he  has  been  thought  to  refer 
to  the  figures  of  Ramses  IL  hewn  in  the  rocks  of  Nahr  al- 
Kalb,  near  Beirut,  but  they  do  not  agree  well  with  his 
description  (Ildt,  ii.  102-106),  which  seems  to  point  rather 
to  Astarte  pillars  {Aslierim).  The  monuments  in  Ionia  of 
which  he  speaks  still  exist  in  the  Karabel  Pass.  They  are 
not  Egyptian  but  so-called  "  Hittite,"  i.e.,  probably  Cappa- 
docian       See  Wright,  Empire  of  the  llittites,  last  plate. 

SESSA,  a  town  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  province  of 
Terra  di  Lavoro,  siiuated  among  hills  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Sueua  Aurunca,  on  a  small  affluent  of  the  Gari- 
gliano,  is  17  miles  east  of  Gaeta  and  half  a  mile  from 
Sant'  A^ta.  The  hill  on  which  Sessa  is  situated  is  a  mass 
of  volcanic  tufa,  in  which  have  been  discovered  painted 
chambers  erroneously  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  a 
city  covered  by  a  volcanic  eruption.  Tlio  town  contains 
many  ancient  remains,  particularly  the  ruins  of  Punte 
Auruuca  and  of  an  amphitheatre.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
has  an  interesting  basilica  with  three  naves,  a  gymnasiutr, 
a  technical  school,  and  a  seminary. ,  The  cathedral  contains 
inscriptions,  a  mosaic  pavement,  and  a  good  ambo  decorated 
with  moaoicii  .^tin;;  on  columns.     In  the  principal  street 


are  memorial  stones  with  inscriptions  in  honour  of  Charles 
v.,  surmounted  by  an  old  crucifix  with  a  mosaic  cross. 
Exclusive  of  the  environs,  the  town  has  a  population  of 
6130.  The  hills  of  Sessa  are  celebrated  for  their  vines, 
the  "Ager  Falernus  "  of  the  Romans. 

SESSION,  Court  of.     See  Scotland,  p.  535  mpra. 

SETTLE,  Elkanah  (1.648-1723),  a  minor  poet  enu 
playwright  of  the  Restoration  period,  immortalized  by  the 
ridicule  of  Dryden  and  Pope,  was  born  at  Dunstable  in 
1648.  He  is  the  "Doeg"  of  the  second  part  of  Absalom 
and  Ackitophel,  and  is  treated  by  the  satirist  wiih  some- 
what more  good-humoured  contempt  than  his  compai-ion 
in  the  pillory — Shadwell. 

Doeg,  though  without  knowing  how  or  why,     ' 
Made  still  a  blundering  kind  of  melody; 
Epurr'd  boldly  on,,  and  dash'd  through  thick  and  Ibiu, 
Through  sense  and  nonsense,  never  out  nor  in. 

Dryden  treats  him  as  a  sort  of  harmless  fool,  who 
"  rhymed  and  rattled  "  along,  in  perfect  satisfaction  with 
himself.  For  some  time  also  he  was  taken  by  the  ^^ublio 
at  his  own  valuation.  At  college  he  seems  to  havo  been 
regarded  as  a  prodigy,  and  his  juvenile  verse  was  preferred 
to  Dryden's.  Coming  to  London,  ho  began  to  produce 
tragedies.  His  Empress  of  Morocco  (acted  in  1673,  v.hen 
the  author  was  twenty-five)  was  a  signal- success  on  the 
stage,  and  is  said  by  Dennis  to  have  been  "  the  first  play 
that  was  ever  sold  in  England  for  two  shillings,  and  the 
first  that  was  ever  printed  with  cuts."  PufEed  up  by  this 
success.  Settle  made  haughty  allusions  in  hi.s  preface, 
which  excited  the  ire  of  his  contemporaries ;  and  Dryden 
co-operated  with  Crowno  and  Shadwell  in  writing  sarcastic 
notes  on  Tin  Empress.  Settle's  next  collision  with 
Dryden  was  also  provoked  by  himself.  He  attempted  a 
counterblast  to  Drj'den's  great  satire  in  Absalom  Senior, 
and  was  contemptuously  demolished  in  return.  Settle  waa 
then  comparatively  a  young  man,  his  ago  being  thirty-five, 
but  he  had  touched  the  height  of  his  fame,  and  the  remain- 
ing forty  years  of  his  lifa  were  not  so  successful.  Dryden 
mockingly  said  of  him  that  his  ambition  was  to  be  "  the 
master  of  a  puppet-show,"  alluding  to  his  duties  in  the  offico 
of  city  poet,  in  which  he  was  one  of  the  successors  of  Lodge, 
Middleton,  Jonson,  and  Quarles ;  and  to  this  he  was  Uterally 
reduced  in  his  old  age,  keeping  a  booth  at  Bartholomew 
Fair,  where  he  is  said  to  have  played  the  part  of  the  dragon 
in  green  leather.     Ho  died  in  the  Charterhouse  in  1723. 

SETTLEMENT,  in  law,  is  a  mutual  arrangement 
between  Uving  persons  for  regulating  the  present  or  future 
enjoyment  of  property.  It  also  denotes  the  instrument  by 
which  such  enjoyment  is  regulated.  The  prevaiUng  notion 
of  a  settlement  is  the  deaUng  with  property  in  a  manner 
different  from  that  in  which  the  law  would  have  dealt  with 
it  apart  from  the  settlement.  Definitions  of  settlement  fo: 
the  purposes  of  the  Acts  are  contained  in  the  Acts  of  1856, 
1677,  and  1882  (see  below).  They  are,  however,  scarcely 
sufficient  for  a  general  definition.  On  the  one  hand  they 
are  too  extensive,  and  include  wills  ;  on  the  other  they  are 
not  comprehensive  enough,  as  they  apply  only  to  real  estate. 
They  also  include  only  cases  of  successive  limitations,  but 
the  idea  of  succession  does  not  in  itself  seem  a  necessary 
part  of  the  conception  of  settlement,  although  no  doubt 
most  settlements  contemplate  successive  enjoyment.  Settle- 
ments may  be  either  for  valuable  consideration  or  not :  the 
latter  are  usually  called  voluntary,  and  are  in  law  to  some 
extent  in  the  same  position  as  revocable  gifts  ;  the  former 
are  really  contracts,  and  in  general  their  validity  depends 
upon  the  kw  of  contract.  They  may  accordingly  contain 
any  provisions  not  contrary  to  law  or  public  policy."- 

'  In  thi»  Engliih  law  allows  greater  freodom  than  French.  By 
8  791  of  tho  Code  NapoWoi,  In  ».  contract  of  marriaco  tha  nicceosion  to 
a  living'  person  cjul-I  be  r»i:.cu:ic«id. 


(394 


S  E  T  T  L  E  ]\I  E  N  T 


The  elements  of  the  modern  settlement  are  to  bo  found 
in  Roman  law.  Tlio  vulpari^,  pupiltaris,  or  exemplaris 
tniostitutio  (consisting  in  the  appointment  of  successive 
heirs  in  case  of  the  death,  incapacity,  or  refusal  of  the 
heir  first  nominated)  may  have  suggested  the  modern 
mode  of  giving  enjoyment  of  property  in  succession. 
Such  a  suhstitutio  could,  hov.'ever. only  have  been  made  by 
will,  while  the  settlement  of  English  law  is,  in  the  general 
acceptation  of  the  term,  exclusively  an  instrument  iniei- 
vieos.  The  dos  or  donatio  propter  nuptial  corresponds  to  a 
considerable  extent  with  the  marriage  settlement,  the 
instrument  itself  being  represented  by  the  dutale  insti-u- 
vienlimi  or  pacta  ilotalia.  In  the  earliest  period  of  Roman 
law  no  provision  for  the  wife  was  required,  for  she  passed 
under  manus  ot  her  husband,  and  became  in  law  his 
daughter,  entitled  as  such  to  a  share  of  his  property  at  his 
death.  In  course  of  time  the  plebeian  form  of  marriage 
by  usus,  according  to  which  the  wife  did  not  become  sub- 
ject to  mamis,  gradually  superseded  the  older  form,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  make  a  provision  for  the  wife  by 
contract.  Such  provision  from  the  wife's  side  was  made 
by  the  dos,  the  property  contributed  by  the  wife  or  some 
one  on  her  behalf  towards  the  e.xpenses  of  the  new  house- 
hold. Dos  might  be  given  before  or  after  marriage,  or 
might  be  increased  after  marriage.  It  was  a  duty  cuforced 
by  legislation  to  provide  dos  where  the  father  possessed  a 
sufficient  fortune.  Z>os  was  of  three  kinds  ; — profeciitia, 
contributed  by  the  father  or  other  ascendant  on  the  male 
side  ;  adventitia,  by  the  wife  herself  or  any  person  other 
than  those  who  contributed  dos  pro/ectitia ;  receptilia,  by 
any  person  who  contributed  dos  admndtia,  subject  to  the 
stipulation  that  the  property  was  to  be  returned  to  the 
person  advancing  it  on  dissolution  of  the  marriage.  The 
jiosition  of  the  husband  gradually  changed  for  ths  worse. 
From  being  owner,  subject  to  an  obligation  to  return  the 
dos  if  the  wife  predeceased  him,  he  became  a  trustee  of 
the  corpus  of  the  property  for  the  wife's  family,  retainrng 
only  the  enjoyment  of  the  income  as  long  as  the  marriage 
continued.  The  contribution  by  the  husband  was  called 
donatio  propter  niiptias.''-  The  most  striking  point  of  dif- 
ference between  the  Roman  and  the  English  law  is  that 
under  the  former  the  children  took  no  interest  in  the  con- 
aiburions  made  by  the  parents.  Other  modes  of  settling 
property  in  Roman  law  were  the  life  interest  or  vsiis,  the 
)ideicootmissum,  ■  B.nd  the  prohibition  of  alienation  of  a 
l^ffatiiiii. 

\  The  oldest  form  of  settlement  in  England  was  perhaps 
She  gift  in  frankmarriage  to  the  donees  in  frankmarriage. 
and  the  heirs  between  them  two  begotten  (Littleton,  §  17). 
Tliis  was  simply  a  form  of  gift  in  special  tail,  which 
jecame  up  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  the  most  usual 
kind  of  settlement.  The  time  at  which  the  modern  form 
Oi  settlement  of  real  estate  came  into  use  seems  to  be 
doubtful.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  trace  of  a 
limitation  of  an  estate  to  an  unborn  child  prior  to  155G. 
'In  an  instrument  of  that  year  such  a  limitation  was 
eflected  by  means  of  a  feoffment  to  uses.  The  plan  of 
granting  the  freehold  to  trustees  to  preserve  coutingcnt 
remainders-  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Lord  Keeper 
"Pridgman  in  the  17th  century,  the  object  being  to  preserve 
ihe  estate  from  forfeiture  for  treason  during  the  Common- 
wealth.^ The  settlement  of  chattels  is  no  doubt  of  consider- 
ably later  origin,  and  the  principles  were  adopted  by  courts 
of  equity  from  the  corresponding  law  as  to  real  estate. 

'  See  Huiitev,  Jioman  Law,  p.  150  ;  Maine,  Earli/  Jlistory  of  Iiisli- 
jtttions,  lect.  xi. 

2  Tlie  .ippointraent  of  such  trustees  has  been  rendered  unacccsaary 
by  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  106  and  40  and  41  Vict.  c.  33. 

'  Tliis  sketch  of  the  history  of  settlement  is  al-r'dged  from  a  paper 
by  the  late  Mr  .Joshua  Williams,  Papers  of  the  Juridical  Socieltj,  vol. 
/.  p.  IZ: 


At  the  pre.-cnt  time  the  settlement  in  England  is,  bO  far- 
as  regards  real  estate,  used  for  two  inconsistent  purposes, 
— to  "  make  an  eldest  son,"  as  it  is  called,  and  to  avoid 
the  resijlts  of  the  right  of  succession  to  real  property  of  the 
eldest  son  by  making  provision  for  the  younger  children. 
The  first  result  is  ge  '^ifally  obtained  by  a  strict  settlement, 
the  latter  by  a  mariTlge  settlement,  which  is  for  valuable 
consideration  if  ante-nuptial,  voluntary  if  piost-nuptial.  At 
the  same  time  it  should  be  remembered  that  these  two 
kinds  of  settlement  are  not  mutually  exclu.sive  :  a  marriage 
settlement  m.ay  often  take  the  form  of  a  strict  settlement 
and  be  in  substance  a  resettlement  of  the  family  estate. 

There  are  tlu'ce  possible  varieties  of  the  marriage  settlement  :^ 
(1)  the  dotal  system  {regime  dotal),  under  which  the  Inisbapd 
generally  lias  the  usufruct  but  not  the  property  in  tlie  dos  ;  this  is' 
the  system  generally  followed  in  countries  whci-e  the  Roman  law 
prevails  ;  (2)  tlie  system  of  community  of  goods  {communauti  dc 
bicns),  by  which  the  wife  becomes  a  kind  of  partner  of  the  husband  ; 
this  system,  said  to  have  been  originally  the  custom  of  ancient 
Germany,  is  in  vogue  in  France  and  Louisiana  ;  (3)  the  system  of 
separate  property,  by  which  (subject  to  contract)  the  wife's  pro- 
perty is  free  from  the  control  of  her  husband  ;  this  system  prevails 
in  tlie  United  Kingilom  and  tlio  United  States.  An  ordinary 
Englisli  marriage  settlement  of  personalty  is  a  deed  to  whicli  tlie 
parties  are  tlie  intended  husband  and  wife  and  trustees  nominated 
on  their  behalf.  It  generally  contains  the  following  clauses  : — a. 
power  to  vary  the  investments  of  the  settled  property  within 
limits  ;  trusts  of  the  income  for  tlio  benefit  of  the  hnsl'and  and 
wife  during  their  lives;  trusts  for  the  issue,  usually  according  to 
the  appointment  of  the  husband  and  wife  or  the  survivor,  and  in 
default  for  sons  attaining  t\\eiity-oue  and  for  daughters  attaining, 
that  ago  or  marrying,  equally,  subject  to  a  "hotchpot"  clause^ 
charging  the  childleii  v.ith  the  amount  of  any  previous  appoint- 
ments ;  a  power  of  advancement  of  the  portions  of  children  in 
anticipation  ;  a  trust  for  the  maintenance  of  infant  children  after 
the  death  of  the  paients,  with  a  direction  for  the  accumulation  of 
surplus  income  ;  ultimate  trusts  fixing  the  destination-  of  the- 
sottled  property  in  default  of  issue.  The  receipt  and  trustee- 
clauses,  at  one  timo  usual,  have  been  rendered  unnecessary  by 
recent  legislation.  The  Conveyancing  Act,  ISSl,  superseding 
Lord  St  Leonard's  Act  of  1859  and  Lord  Craitworth's  Act  of  1860, 
gives  jiowcr  to  appoint  new  trustees,  and  malces  a  trustee's  receijit 
a  sufficient  di:-chnrge.  Trustees  were  fornierl)'  much  restricted 
in  their  investments,  but  various  Acts  of  rarlianirnt  have  now 
increased  their  powers  of  choice  of  investment  (see  Titusr).  The 
settlement  of  real  estate  is  still  a  matter  of  greater  difhculty  than 
that  of  personalty,  though  it  has  been  considerabiy  siniplilicil  by 
recent  legislation.  A  short  statutory  form  of  settlement  of  rcaf 
estate  is  provided  by  the  Conveyancing  Act,  ISSl  (Fourth  Schedule, 
Form  iv.).  The  Act  further  enacts  that  a  covenant  by'the  settlor 
for  further  assurance  is  to  be  implied.  Tliis  takes  the  place  of 
tiiose  covenants  usually  inserted  in  settlcnicnts  before  the  Act, 
which  were  the  ordinary  covenants  for  title.  (Sec  Rf.al  Estate.) 
The  Settled  Land  Act,  ISS'2,  gives  statutory  authority  to  certain 
provisions  generally  inserted  by  conveyancers.  The  clauses  must, 
however,  still  vary  inhuitely  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
particular  cases.  Where  the  settlement  is  of  copyliolds,  the  usual- 
course  is  to  surrender  them  to  the  use  of  trustees  as  joint  tenants- 
in  fee  upon  such  trusts  as  will  effect  the  desii-ed  devolution  of  thc- 
property. 

A  strict  settlement  of  real  estate  usually  takes  place  on  the- 
coining  of  age  or  marriage  of  the  eldest  son,  if  it  be  tile  intcntioa 
of  the  jiartics  that  the  estate  should  continue  undivided.  Th& 
consideration  for  tl:e  settlement  in  the  fiist  case  is  usually  an 
immediate  allowance  made  to  the  son,  in  the  second  the  marriage 
itself,  a  valuable  consideration.  It  will  appear  on  referring- to 
the  articles  Entail  and  Keal  Estate  that  an  estate  cannot  bo 
entailed  for  a  ]icriod  exceeding  a  fixed  number  of  existing  lives  and 
an  additional  term  of  twenty-one  years,  but  that  if  it  be  sought  to 
bar  the  entail  within  that  period  the  consent  of  tlic  protector  of 
the  settlement  niust  be  obtained.  The  jiroccss  of  resettlement  is; 
thus  described  by  Lord  St  Leonnriis  :  "  Where  there  arc  younger 
children,  the  father  is  always  anxious  to  have  the  estate  rescttlcdi 
on  them  and  their  issue,  in  case  of  failure  of  iisuc  of  the  first  son. 
This  he  cannot  accomplish  without  the  concurrence  of  the  son  ; 
and,  as  the  son,  upon  liis  establishment  in  life  in  his  fatjicr's  life- 
time, requires  an  immediate  provis-ion,  the  father  generally,  secures, 
to  him  a  provision  during  their  joint  lives  as  a  considc-ratioa  for 
the  resettlement  of  the  estate  in  remainder  upon  the  younger  sons."' 
The  settlement  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  life  tstato  for  the  father, 
followed  by  a  life  estate  for  the  son,  with  remainder  iu  tail  to  the 
unborn  child  of  the  son,  the  continuance  or'  the  estate  in  the 
family  being  'urthcr  secured  t>y  a  sfrics  of  cross-remainders.  There 
IS  often  a  ni'.me  and  arms  clause,  under  ivl.iich,, bv  means   of  a. 


SETTLEMENT 


695 


shifting  vise  (sec  Tr.u.-,T),  every  person  succeeding  to  the  settled 
estate  as  tenant  m  tail  is  forced  to  assume  the  name  and  arms  of 
the  sett.or  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  Ifis  estate.  Certain  parts 
of  the  personalty  of  the  settlor  are  often  settled  upon  trusts  to 
devolve  with  the  real  estate.  In  order  to  attain  this  end,  the 
chattels  are  not  simply  subjected  to  the  same  limitations  as  the 
real  estate.  II  so  subjected,  they  would  vest  absolutely  in  the 
first  tenant  in  succession,  as  no  estate  can  be  limited  in  personalty 
(see  Pkkson.^l  Estate).  A  declaration  is  added  that  they  shall 
not  vest  absolutely  in  any  tenant  until  he  shall  attain  twenty-one, 
and  in  case  he  should  die  under  that  age  that  they  shall  devolve 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  way  as  the  lands.  Bv  means  of 
strict  settlement  the  actual  possessor  of  a  settled  estate  at  any 
given  time  is  in  general  only  a  tenant  for  life.  It  is  a  rule  of  law 
that  in  a  settlement  of  this  nature  there  should  be  a  full  and  com- 
plete communication  of  all  material  circumstances  by  the  one 
party  to  the  other. 

It  is  only  within  a  comparatively  recent  period  that  any  dis- 
satisfaction at  the  system  of  settlement  has  been  felt.  In  1829 
the  Real  Prope'rty  Commissioners  saw  no  reason  to  recommend  any 
alteration  of  the  law  as  it  then  existed.  To  use  the  words  of  the 
First  Report,  p.  6,  "  Settlements  bestow  upon  the  present  possessor 
of  an  estate  the  benefits  of  ownership,  and  secure  the  property 
to  his  posterity.  The  existing  rule  respecting  perpetuities  has 
happily  nit  the  medium  between  the  strict  entails  which  prevail 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  and  by  which  the  property 
ent-.ilod  IS  for  ever  abstracted  from  commerce,' Slid  the  total  pro- 
h-.Diiion  of  substitutions^  and  the  e.xcessive  restriction  of  the 
pow-er  of  uevisings  est.iblished  in  some  countries  on  tlie  Continent 
of  Europe.  In  England  families  are  preserved,  and  pnrchasers 
ahyays  find  a  supply  of  land  in  the  market."  This  optimistic  view 
It  IS  scarcely  necessary  to  say,  is  "ot  the  one  generally  accented -at 
present.  The  inconveniences  inseparable  in  an  economical  point 
of  view  from  the  settlement  of  land  have  been  proposed  to  be  met 
in  two  ways,— (1)  by  a  total  prohibition  of  the  creation  of  life 
estates  (see  Land),  and  (2)  by  an  extension  of  the  powers  of  the 
limited  owner.  The  latter  is  the  one  which  has  hitherto  com- 
mended Itself  to  the  legislature  of  the  United  Kin<7dom 

Up  to  thirty  years  ag6  a  settled  estate  in  En|land'  or  Ireland 
could  be  sold  or  leased  only  under  the  authority  of  a  private  Act 
of  Parliament.  The  dealings  of  the  limited  owner  with  his  property 
were  practically  confined  to  certain  powers  of  raisin-^  money  for 
draining  conferred  by  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  66  and  the  Public°and  Private 
Drainage  Acts  (now  repealed).  The  first  general  Act  was  the 
Le.ises  and  Sale  of  Settled  Estates  Act,  1856,  which  proceeded  on 
the  principles  generally  followed  in  the  private  Acts.  The  Act 
allowed  the  tenant  for  life,  to  demise  the  premises  (except  the 
principal  mansion  house)  for  various  terms,  and  to  sell  with  tlie 
appioval  of  the  court.  Several  amending  Acts  were  passed  and 
ftiially  the  law  was  consolidated  and  amended  by  the  Settled 
Estates  Act,  1877  (40  and  41  Vict.  c.  18).  Meanwhile  the  Improve- 
ment of  Land  Act,  1864  (which  applies  to  the  United  Kin<.dom) 
and  the  Limited  Owners'  Residence  Acts,  1870  and  1871,  had  been 
passed.  The  Act  of  1864  allowed  the  owner  of  a  settled  estate  to 
charg.  spon  the  land,  by  way  of  rent-charge,  the  expenses  of  certain 
improvsments,  such  as  drainage,  irrigation,  inclosing,  reclamation 
clearing,  erection  of  labourers'  cottages  and  farmhouse  build 
planting   for  shelter,   construction   of 


-,,         ,         ,    ,      ,      ,  """y   buildings   which   will 

increase  the  value  of  the  land  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  con- 
struction of  jetties  or  landing-places  on  the  sea-coast  or  n.avi^a'Dlc 
rivers  and  lakes.  This  list  of  improvements  has  been  lince 
extended  by  tlio  Settled  Land  Act,  1882.  The  Act  of  1 870  enabled 
the  owners  of  settled  estates  to  charge  such  estates  with  the  expense 
or  building  mansions  as  residences.  The  building  of  such  man- 
^'f°rt.'I  Fl\\t^  of  1871  an  improvement  within  the  meaning 
of  the  Act  of  1864.  The  Settled  Estates  Act,  1877  (40  and  41  Vict 
c.  18),  allowed  the  tenant  for  life,  or  for  a  greater  estate,  of  a  settled 
estate,  to  demise  settled  land  on  an  agricultural  lease  for  a  term 
not  exceeding  tiventy-one  years  (in  Ireland  thirty-five  years).  The 
lease  must  not  be  without  impeachment  of  waste.  This  is  the  only 
I^JV!'^  the  powers  of  the  Act  may  be  exercised  without  the 
leave  of  the  court.  The  court  may  authori;^e  leases  of  any  settled 
^^tl  "k  ?/  '.f'"'  or  privileges  over  or  affecting  any  settled 
estates,  subject  to  the  conditions  that-(l)  the  lease  be  ma<le  to  take 
effect  in  rosses.,ion  at  or  within  one  year  next  after  the  making 
and  bo  for  a  term  for  an  agricultural  lease  as  above,  for  a  minin/' 
lease  not  exceeding  forty  years,  a  repairing  lease  sixty  year.s,  a 
building  lease  mnety-nn^^eajs^with^power  for  the  court  to  grant 
ol'imiic^irMT"'"'"  "''°""'  '''""-ards  .llcrcd  by  thTliiSi^torVAcl 
.'.'^.^V^'S'^.':  '••»PoWo„,  I  80C.    By  }  808  ,uh,Wutl<m,  vuJyalr,,  »r 


limltlnfT  thfl   authority  of  tlio   settlor. 
{Famithen-Fideic 
Civil  Code,  5  CI9, 
*  In  Franco  Ih 
estate,  according  t»  tlic  numbc'rof  Fiis'chiilldren. 


p,  how- 

ftOinning 

sctilcmcnt 

R  tlircctlnn  of 


'J"  i'"r",.'!;°..''.7P*'°':"'»''.?r')'.«?^l«  half,  a  tl'ird,  or  a  qua::c:  c'  1,... 


for  a  Icnger  term  if  i:i  accordance  with  the  custom  of  tlie  district, 
and   beneficial   to   the   inheritance  ;    (2)   the   best   rent   must   be 
reserved;  (3)  in  a  mineral  lease  tliri-c-fourths  of  the  rent  is  to  be 
invested  (one-fourth  where  the  limited  owner  is  entitled  to  work 
the  minerals  for  his  own  benefit)  •  (4)  the  lease  is  not  to  authorize 
lelling  of  trees  except  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  for  biiildlnf     (5) 
tlie  lease  is  to  be  by  deed,  and  is  to  contain  a  condition  for  re- 
entry on  non-payment  of  rent  foi  twenty-eight  days.     The  court 
may  also    authorize  sales   of  settled   estates    and  of    timber,   and 
dedication  for  streets,   roads,  squares,  gardens,  sewers,   and  'other 
works.      The  application  to  the  court  (which  in  England  Is  the 
Chauceiy  Division  or  the  Chancery  of  Lancashire,  in  Ireland  tha 
Chancery  Division)  is   by  petition   in  a   summary  way  vith  tho 
consent   of  the  persons   having   any   beneficial  estate  uisder  t'lo 
settlement,   and  all  trustees  having  any  estate  on  behalf  of  any 
unborn    child.       The    court    may    dispense   with    consent    und- r 
certain  circumstances.       No  application   is  to   be  granted    by  tho 
rourt  where  a  similar  application  has  been  refused  by  pailiament. 
Money  received  on  sale  under  the  Act  is  to  be  invested  as  the  Act 
directs  for  the  benefit  of  the  settled  estate.    InlS82the  powers  of  tho 
hmUed  owner  were  still  further  increased.     In  that  year  was  rasped 
the  Settled  Land  Act,  1SS2  (45  and  46  Viet.  c.  38),  since  amended  by 
47  .tlid  4S  Vict.  c.  19.      For  this  very  valuable  Act  tho  statute  book 
IS  indebted  to  the  late  Earl  Cairns.     It  does  not  repeal  the  Act  of 
lS/7,  but  gives  cumul.itive  powers.     Tho  Act  of  1877  must  still 
be  brought  into  action  in  certain  cases  to  which  the  Act  of  1652 
does  not  apply.     The  broad  distinction  between  the  two  Acts  is 
that  the  powers  given  by  the  Act  of  1S77  aie  based  entirely,  except 
in  agricultural  leases,  on  judicial  pmccedings,  while  those  given 
by  the  Act  of  1SS2  may  be  e.wrcised  by  the  tenant  for  life  at  his 
option,  generally  without   the   consent  of  trustees   or  the  court 
The  powers  are  those  usually  inserted  in  settlements  of  real  estate 
and  are  conferred  upon  every  tenant  for  life  beu.diciallv  entitled  ti 
possession.     This  includes  a  tenant  in  tail  by  Act  of  Parliamenf 
restrained  from  defeating  an  estate  tail,  but  not  a  tenant  in  tail' 
where  the  land  in  respect  of  which  he  is  restrained  was  purchase" 
with   money   provided   by   parliament,''  a    tenant   in    fee    simple 
suliject  to  an  executory  limitation,  a  person  entitled  to  a  base  fee 
a  tenant  lor  years  determinable  on  a  life,  a  tenant  ^hj-  autre  vie  a 
tenant  in  tail  after  possibility  of  issue  extinct,  a  tenant  by  the 
curtesy,  &c.     A  married  woman  mav  exercise  the  powers  given  by 
the  Act  in  spite  of  any  restraint  on  anticipation  contained  in  the 
settlement.     The  Act  does  not  apply  to  corporations,  whether  sole 
or  aggregate.     The  chicl  powers  given  by  the  Act  are  those  of  sell. 
irig  and  leasing.     A  tenant  for  life  may  sell  settled  land  or  any  part 
ol  It,  or  any  easement,  right,  or  privilege  over  it,  or  the  seifnoi  y  of 
a  manor    and  may  make  exchange  cr  partition.     A  sale  ?nust  be 
lor  the  best  price,  and  an  exchange  or  partition  for  the  best  con- 
sideration ;  the  sale  may  be  in  one  lot  or  several,  and  by  auction  or 
private   contract.     A   reservation   as  to  user  or  as  to  mines   and 
minerals  may  be  imposed.     Settled  land  in  England  may  not  be 
exchanged  for  land  out  of  England.     A  lease  is  not  to  exceed  for 
building  ninety-nino  years,  mining  sixty,  any  other  kind  twenty 
one       Uie  regulations  as  to  leases  arc  in  general  correspondcnco 
wuth  those  of  the  Act  of  1877.     The  time  for  which  non-payment 
of  rent  gives  a  right  of  re-entry  is  thirty  instead  of  tweuty-oi.dit 
days,  and   there   are   additional  regulations   as   to   buildiii"   tni 
mining  leases.     ■Where  the  tenant  for  life  is  in.pcachable  for^vaste 
m  respect  of  mines,  three-fourths  of  the  mining  rent  is  to  be  set 
aside  as  capital  money,  in  other  cases  one-fourth.     The  tenant  for 
lie   may  surrender   and  regrant   leases.     Tho  principal  mansion 
Jiouse  and  the  demesnes  thereof,  and  other  lands  usually  occui.icd 
t.ierewith,  cannot   be   sold   or  leased  without  the  consent  of  the 
trustees  of  the  settlement  or  the  order  of  the  court.     The  Act  pro- 
vides for  three  kinds  of  sale :— (1)  by  the  tenant  for  life  mero  mcU 
the  ordinary  case  ;  (2)  with  consent  of  trustees  or  the  court,  as  in 
tlio  case  ol  the  principal  mansion  and  of  the  application  of  money 
paid  for  a  lease  or  reversion  ;  (3)  by  order  of  the  court,  as  in  tho 
case  of  the  variation  of  a  building  or  mining  lease  according  to  the  ' 
circumstances  of  tho  district,  of  parliamentary  oiiposition  for  tho 
protection  or  recovery  of  settled  land,  and  of  the  sale  cr  purcli 
of  chattels  .as  heirlooms  to  devolve  with  land."     Land  ecnui'cd 
purchase,  exchange,  or  partition  is  to  be  settled  as  far  as  iiossibfe, 
on  the  same  trusts  as  the  other  settled  property.     Capital  money 
IS  to  ho  applied  as  tho  Act  directs,  generally  for   tho   benefit  of 
the  settled  property.     Tho  tenant  for  life  may  enter  into  a  contmot 
tor  carrying  into  cllect  the  purposes  of  tho  Act.     A  contract  not  to 
exercise  the  powers  of  the  Act  is  void.     As  to  procedure,  an  ap- 
plication  to  tho   Chancery  Division  is   to  be   made   by  petition" 
or  summon.^      Jurisdiction  is   conferred  upon  county  courts  (in 
Ireland  civil  bill  courts)  in  respect  to   land  or  personal  chattel.^ 
settled  or  to  bo  settled,  not  exceeding  in  capital  value  £500  or  in 


ase 
by 


<  That  la  to  say,  tlic  Act  would  apply  to  the  estates  tall  of  tlio  marquis  of 
AbciBavcnny  or  ll,c  cuil  of  .Sim-.vsljiiry,  but  not  lo  Illenhrira  or  Strathdeldsaye 
F:°Ai!"rsTA"i')    ""  "'°"°^'        "'°  """"  °'  •^■"'"""''"'Sli  and  Wclllnftloa  (sei 


SETTLEMENT 


G96 

annual  valu-^  £30.  EhUs  of  o  -rt  havo  hem  framed  for  tho^pur- 
poso  of  carrying  into  effect  tlie  i>rovisions  of  tlie  Acts  of  18/7  and 
1882.  For  more  minute  infornii:tion  than  can  bo  given  m  tins 
plaf.o  the  Acts  and  rules  themselves  must  bo  consulted.^ 

The  necessity  for  a  settlement,  as  far  as  the  wife  s  interests  are 
concerned,  has  been  diminished  by  the  Married  Women  s  Property 
Aot  1882 (IS  and  46  Vict.  c.  76).    It  is  still,  however,  usual  to  havo 
a  settlement  on  marriage,  especially  where  there  is  property  of  any 
considerablo  value.     The  Act  contains  a  saving  of  existing  settle- 
mcnts  and  a  power  to  m.ako  future  settlements  with  or  without 
restriction  against  anticipation  (not  to  bo  valid  against  a  married 
woman's  ante-nuptial  debts).     No  settlement  or  agreement  for  a 
settlement  is  to  have  greater  validity  against  a  married  woman  s 
creditors   than   such   settlement   or  agreement  would  have  when 
made  or  entered  into  by  a  man.     A  future  or  reversionary  interest 
in  settled  personalty   is  specially  excepted  from  the  operation,  of 
Malins's  Act  (20  and  21  Vict.  c.  5),  under  which  a  married  woman 
mny  by  deed  acknowledged  dispose  of  her  future  or  reversionary 
interest  in  unsettled  personalty.      The  former  law  as  to  c^ntyto 
a  seUkment  seems  to  have  been  rendered  obsolete  by  the  Married 
Women's  Property  Act.     The  doctrine  of  eciuity  formerly  was  m 
■aceordanco  with   the   maxim,    "He   who   seeks   equity   must, do 
cniutv  "—  that,  where  a  husband  was  forced  to  ootain  the  assistance 
of  a  c'ourt  of  equity  to  reach  property  to  which  he  was  entitled  m 
ri^lvt  of  his  wife,  equity  would  only  aid  him  on  condition  ot  his 
settliuT  a  certain  portion  on  his  wife.     Now  that  a  husband  cannot 
succeed  to  any  property  in  right  of  Ws  wife  during  her  liie.:me, 
the   reason   for   tho   doctrine  ot  equity  to  a  settlement  has   dis- 
appeared. ,     ,       ■  i        i„„ 
As  a  rale  a  settlement  can  only  bo  made  by  a  person  not  under 
disability, -therefore  apMt  from  statute  not  by  a  lunatic,  or  a  bank- 
rupt, and  generally  not  by  an  infant.     Bat  by  the  Infants  Settle- 
ment Act  (18  and  19  Vict.  c.  43)  infant  m.ilcs  of  twenty  or  over 
or  infant  females  of  seventeen  or  over  may  with  the  approbation  ot 
the  Chancery  Division  obtained  by  petition  make  a  valid  settle- 
ment or  contract  for  a  settlement  of  all  or  any  part  of  their  pro- 
T,ertv      By  the  Acts  of  1877  and  1882  the  powers  of  the  Acts  may 
In  certain  cases  be  exercised  by  trustees  of  a  settlement,  trustees 
in  bankruptcy,  committees  of  lunatics,  and  guardians  of  infants. 

Where  the  parties  are  not  in  a  position  to  make  an  immediate 
setllemont,  articles  for  a  settlement  are  sometimes  entered  into, 
but  more  rarely  than  formerly  on  account  of  the  facilities  ofle  ed 
by  the  Infants'  Settlement  Act.  The  court  will  enforce  the 
execution  of  a  settlement  in  accordance  with  the  articles,  and  will 
reform  one  already  made  if  not  in  accordance  with  tliem.  ihe 
court  will  also  enforce  the  specific  performance  of  any  contiact  on 
the  faith  of  which  a  marriage  has  taken  place,  m  smte  of  the  pro- 
visions of  §  4  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds  (see  Fr.Uid).>  It  should  be 
noticed  that  marria-e  itself  is  not  such  a  part  performance  of  a 
contract  as  to  give  the  court  jurisdiction.  An  imperfect  obligation 
nrisin"  from  an'  informal  antc-naptial  agreement  can  be  made 
binding  as  between  the  parties  by  a  post-nuptial  settlement ;  but 
this  will  not  protect  such  a  settlement  from  being  treated  as  a 
voluntary  settlement  against  creditors.  .,      ..        f 

■  A  settlement  or  contract  for  settlement  made  in  consideration  ol 
marriage  or  for  other  valuable  consideration  is  as  a  rule  irrevocabte 
by  the"scttlor  and  good  against  creditors.     The  only  exception  or 
apparent  exception  is  tho  provision  in  the  Bankruptcy  Act,  ]S»i 
(46  and  47  Vict.   c.  62,  §  47  (2)),  that  any  covenant  or  contract 
made  in  consideration  of  marriage  for  the  future  settlement  on  or 
for  the  settlor's  wife  or  children  of  any  money  o^propcrty  wherein 
he  had  not  at  the  date  of  his  marriage  any  estate  or  interest   and 
not  being  money  or  property  of  or  in  riglit  of  his  wife,  sliall,  on 
his  becoming  bankrupt  before  the  property  or  money  shall  havo 
b"on  actually  transferred  or  paid,  be  void  against  the  tnistes  m 
bankruptcy.     With  regard  to  voluntary  settlements,  13  Lliz.  c.  5 
avoids  as  a.'.ainst  creditors  conveyances  of  lands  or  chattels  con- 
trived   to  delay,  hinder,  or  defraud  creditors   or   others,  witti  a 
moviso  protecting  estates  or  interests  conveyed  on  good  considera- 
tion  and  6o„«^rfc  to  pei-sons  not  having  notice  of  fraud.      4fa  and 
47  Vict  c  52    §  47  (1),  enacts  that  any  settlement  of  property,  not 
htin"  a  settlement  made  before  and  in  consideration  of  marriage 
or  made  in  favour  of  a  purchaser  or  incumbrancer  in  good  laith 
and  for  valuable  consideration,  or  a  settlement  made  on  or  lor  the 
wife  or  children  of  tho  settlor  of  property  which  has  accrued  to  the 
settlor   after   marriage  in  right  of  ills  wife    shall,  if  the   settlor 
becomes  bankrupt  within  two  years  after  the  date  of  the  settle- 
ment, he  void  against  the  trustee  in  the  bankruptcy,  and  shall    it 
the  settlor  becomes  bankrupt  within  ten  years,  be  void  against  the 
trustee  unless  the  parties  claiming  under  the  settlement  c^an  prove 
that  the  settlor  was  at  tho  time  of  making  the  settlement  able  to 
pay  all  hii  debts  without  the  aid  of  the  settled  property,  and  that 


1  At  one  time  tho  ecclMla»(lcal  court,  went  faillier,  and  '■"'"'■'^f  ^P^^'"'  P"; 
formanoe  of  the  ceremony,  of  marrlaee  Itself.  Alter  a  <■<'"'""' "'XTi^lieht 
rcr6<i  do  pr-i.nfi  or  pf  t'f.hi  *  /ulurc.  a  cclehration  in  /<i<ie  iccleux  mi>,rit 
hare  ^ertorced.  Thia  JnrisJiclioa  of  tho  ecclesiastical  courts  vas  finally 
Jtollsteil  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  76. 


*he  interest  of  tho  settlor  in  such  property  had  passed  to  thu 
trustee  of  the  settlement  on  the  execution  thereof.  2/  l-ll2.  c.  4 
was  passed  for  the  benefit  of  purchasers,  as  13  El.z.  c  5  was 
for  that  of  creditors,  but  refers  to  real  estate  and  chattels  real 
onlv  It  enacts  that  every  conveyance  of  lands  with  intent  to 
defr.-ind  purchasers  shall  be  void  as  against  such  purchaseis  only, 
and  that  conveyances  with  power  of  revocation  shall  bo  vo.  I  against 
subsequent  purchasers.  The  Act  has  been  construed  to  mean  that 
a  voluntary  conveyance  of  real  estate  is  void  as  ^g"'"^.'  ^  ™^- 
sequent  purchaser,  mortgagee,  or  lessee  for  value.  With  these 
exceptions  a  volu.itary  settlement  is  good  as  between  the  Settlor 
and  the  objects  of  tho  settlement,  and  as  between  them  and  third 
persons  So  far  is  this  the  case  that  the  court  will  not  ass  st  a 
settlor  to  destroy  the  effect  of  a  voluntary  settlement  by  co.npel  ing 
specific  performance  against  a  subsequent  purchaser.  0" Jho  otner 
hand  the  court  will  not  enforce  specific  performance  of  a  voluntary 
settlement,  in  spite  of  its  being  a  contract  under  seal  Such  an 
instrument,  however,  creates  a  debt  and  will  bo  admitted  to  ptoof 
in  a  creditors'  suit.-  *  .  .  i,-„„ 

Scotland.— A  disposiliov,  and  scUlemeiit  is  a  mode  of  providing 
for  the  devolution  of  property  after  death,  and  so  corresponds 
rather  to  the  English  will  than  the  English  settlement  The 
Euplish  marriage  settlement  is  represented  m  Scotland  by  the 
co'Mract  of  marriaqc,  which,  like  the  English  settlement,  may  be 
ante-  or  post-nuptial.  The  main  difi-erence  between  the  ante-  and 
the  post-iinptial  contract  is  the  extent  to  which  tho  propei_ty  the 
subieot  of  the  contract  may  bo  withdrawn  from  creaitors.  In  the 
former  case  a  preference  or  jus  crcditi  is  according  to  circumstances 
conferred  on  the  wife  or  children  ;  in  the  latter  cast!  -1»=  «;f«  »' 
children  cannot  compete  with  the  creditors.  A  post-nuptial  con- 
tract is  also  liable  to  revocation  by  the  husband  or  wile  'Tho 
Married  Women's  Property  Act,  1881,  while  it  makes  the  wife 
complete  mistress  of  her  property,  at  the  same  tinu;  d<>=^  n°t 
exclude  or  abridge  tho  power  of  settlement  by  ante-nuptial  contract 

"'TcoXact   of  marriage  .may   be   made   with   or  without  tho 
creation  of  trustees,  the  latter  being  the  more  usiialform      If  the 
contract  settle  heritable  property,  it  generally  contains  a  "a    ative 
or  inductive  clause,  containing  the  names  of  the  l«f'"=%!;'*.:th 
obligation  to  celebrate  the  marriage,  a  disposition  ot  ^^^^V^f  \'"; 
its  destination,  provisions  as  to  tli.  ^vife  and  y^^Ser  cliddren  and 
a  declaration  that  these  provisions  shall  be  in  full  of  tte.l  legal 
claims-a  conveyance  by  the  wife  other  whole  means  and  estate  to 
he    husband  or^the  trustees,  an  appointment  o    trustees    osecuie 
implement  of  provisions  to  the  wife  and  children,  a  ''''g'f  ^  '°'* 
clause,  and  a  tkting  clause.      If  the  contiact  settle  ■""-^^^^^.^^  ''- 
,„ulais  m:,.tandis,  in  much  the  same  fftrm,  with  the  addition  o  1^  a 
clause  excluding  the  jus  mariiiot  a    uture  h"^^f!<l  °f  t^e  w  fe 
(see  Juridical  Styles,  vol.-i.  p.  174,  vol,  ii.  p.  498).     The  Ruther 
ford    Act    (11    and    12    Vict.    c.    36)   and    the    Entail    Act,    1882 
45   and    46  Vict.  c.  63),  specially  provide   that   sett  ements  by 
marriage    contract  are  not  to    be  disappointed- untd  the  birth  of 
a  child!  who  by  himself  or  his  guardian  consents  tt>  J>'^'="^"1.  " 
until   the   marriage  is    dissolved,  unless  with  the  consent  of  the 
trustees  of  the  contract.      Improvements  by  limited  "Wnci.  «e.e 
allowed  by  law  much  earlier  tlian  in  England.     10  Geo.  111.  c.   SI 
:„abled  hdrs  of  entail  to  charge  the  entailed  estates  with  th,  sums 
of  money  laid  out  by  them  in  building  mansions.    Jhis  piincip  o 
was  expressly  adopted  for  England    as  ti^"  P^i'."!^' ^1  e  Rutlter- 
shows,  by  the  Limited  Owners'  Residence  Act,  18-0.     The  Ruther- 
ford Act  and  other  Acts  empowered  heirs  of  entail  to  excamb     o 
feu,  to  lease,  to  charge  by  bond  and  disi.osition  insect  rity    to  sell 
to  irant  family  provisions,  and  to  erect  labourers    cottages,      llie 
SetUed  Estate^ct  and  Settled  Land  Act  do  ""VrJ-'V^^meitar; 
Substitution,  as  in  Roman  law,  can  only  he  made  by  t^f^^n^^^r^ 
or  mortis  caus(c  disposition.     Tlie  Ri.therford  Act  and  the  Entail 
Amendment  Act,  1868  (31  and  32   \.ct.   '^/f  ).',";°^„'^- f  "\' ^''^"fi 
the    law  of   England  against  perpetuities    forbid  the   cr<^a ton  of 
a  life-rent  interest  in  heritables  or  movables  except  m  favour  of  a 
paity  in  life  at  the  date  of  the  deed  creating  such  interest. 

Umlcd  .yWM.— Marriage  settlements  are  not  in  as  common  use 
as  in  England,  no  doubt  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  principle  of 
?he  Marned  Women's  Property  Act  was  tho  law  of  mos  of  the 
States  of  the  Union  long  before  its  adoption  by  England.  In 
Louisiana,  in  the  absence  of  stipuktion  to  the  contrary,  immunity 
of  goods  is  the  rule.  Settlements  other  than  marriage  settlements, 
are  practically  unknown  in  the  United  States.  Property  cannot,  as, 
a  te^nera  ru  e,  be  tied  up  to  anything  like  the  extent  s  ill  adm«-, 
sible  in  EngUnd.  In  {hose  States  where  entail  is  al  owed  the 
entail  may  be  barred  by  simple  means  of  alienation.       (J.  WT.;^ 

SETTLEMENT,  Act  of.  By  this  Act,  12  &  13  Will.! 
Ill  G  2  passed  in  1701  (followed  by  tbe  parliament  o£ 
Sct^tland  in  the  Act  of  Union,  1707,  e.  7),Jh^;cTownwas 


.:i^?^'^s^tLf^vr!rs!^n^T:rfcr^?-;^"--rs^Si 

The  Statutes  relating/  to  Scttied  F.staies. 


\i  E  'I'  —  S  E  V 


697 


settled  upnn  the  Princess  Sopnia,  electress  and  duchess 
dowager  of  Hanover,  granddaughter  of  James  I.,  and  the 
heirs  of  her  body,  being  Protestants.  The  Act  contained 
in  addition  some  important  constitutional  provisions. 
Those  which  are  still  law  are  as  follows  : — (1)  that  whoso- 
ever shall  hereafter  come  to  the  possession  of  this  crown 
shall  join  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  England  as 
by  law  established;  (2)  that  in  case  the  crown  of  this 
realm  shaU  hereafter  come  to  any  person  not  being  a 
native  of  this  kingdom  of  England,  this  nation  bo  not 
obliged  to  engage  in  any  war  for  the  defence  of  any 
dominions  or  territories  which  do  not  belong  to  the  crown 
of  England  without  the  consent  of  parliament ;  (3)  that 
after  the  limitation  shall  take  effect  no  person  born  out  of 
the  kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  or  Ireland,  or  the 
dominions  thereunto  belonging,  although  he  be  naturalized 
or  made  a  denizen  (except  such  as  are  born  of  English 
parents),  shall  be  capable  to  be  of  the  privy  council  or  a 
member  of  either  House  of  Parliament,  or  enjoy  any  office 
or  place  of  trust,  either  civil  or  military,  or  to  have  any 
grant  of  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments  from  the 
crown  to  himself,  or  to  any  other  or  others  in  trust  for 
him ;'  (4)  that  after  the  limitation  shall  take  effect  judges' 
commissions  bo  made  quamdiu  se  bene  gesscrinl,-  and  tljeir 
salaries  ascertained  and  established,  but  upon  the  addi-ess 
of  both  Houses  of  Parliament  it  may  be  !av/ful  to  remove 
them  ;  (5)  that  no  pardon  under  the  great  seal  of  England 
be- pleadable  to  an  impeachment  by  the  Commons  in  parlia- 
ment. The  importance  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  appears 
from  the  fact  that  ia  all  the  Regency  Acts  it  is  specially 
mentioned  as  one  of  those  Acts  v.hich  the  regent  may  not 
assent  to  repeal  (see  Regent).  To  maintain  or  affirm  the 
right  of  any  person  to  the  crown,  contrary  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Act  of  Settlement,  is  treason  by  6th  Anae,  c.  7. 

SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  POOR.     See  Poop.  Laws. 

SSTUBAL,  called  by  the  English  St  Ubes,  a  port  and 
commercial  town  in  the  province  of  Estremadura,  Portugal, 
nearly  20  miles  south-east  of  Lisbon,  lining  for  about 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  the  north  shore  of  a  harbour  of 
the  same  name,  3  leagues  long  by  half  a  league  broad  and 
inferior  only  to  that  of  Lisbon,  at  the  end  of  a  fertile 
valley  of  6  miles  long  from  Palmella,  where  the  Sabo  river 
dbcharges  into  the  Bay  of  Setubal,  and  on  the  Portuguese 
railway  (Lisbon-Barroiro-Setubal).  It  is  overtopped  on  the 
west  by  the  great  red  treeless  range  of  Arrabida.  In  the 
sandhills  of  a  low-lying  promontorj'  in  the  bay,  over  against 
Setubal,  are. the  ruins  of  "Troia,"  uncovered  in  part  bj- 
heavy  rains  in  18H,  and  again  in  1850  by  an  antiquarian 
society.  These  ruins  of  "  Troia,"  among  which  have  been 
brought  to  view  a  beautiful  Roman  house  and  some  1600 
Roman  coins,  refer,  beyond  almost  all  dispute,  to  Cetobriga, 
which  flourished  300-400  A.D.  In  the  neighbourhood,  on 
a  mountain  1700  feet  high,  is  the  cloister  Arrabida,  with 
strdaotite  cavern,  whither  pious  pilgrimages  are  made. 
There  are  five  forts  for  the  defence  of  the  harbour,  and  that 
of  St  Philip,  built  by  Philip  III.,  commands  the  town. 
Setubal  is  an  emporium  of  the  Portuguese  salt  trade  carried 
on  principally  with  Scandinavian  ports,  the  salt  being 
deemed  the  finest  for  curing  meat  and  fish.  By  reason 
of  this  advantage  and  the  excellence  of  its  oranges,  the 
best  in  Portugal,  and  of  its  iluscatel  grapes,  it  has  much 
ccpmmercial  importance,  and  is  the  fourth  city  in  the  king- 
dom. It  also  manufactures  leather  and  does  a  considerable 
fishing  trade.  There  are  five  churches,  several  convents,  a 
theatre,  a  monument  of  the  poet  Bocage,  who  was  born  here, 

'  This  claase  is  virtuatly  repealed  by  the  Naturalization  Act,  1870 
(33  Jc  34  Vict.  c.  14,  §  7),  aa  to  persons  obtaining  a  certificate  of 
naturalisation. 

'  Their  cominiuions  had  previously  bcsn  made  durante  bene 
p!cc-:to.  ^,_a.-,. 


and  an  arsenal.  Among  its  other  public  buildings  are  the 
Stapal,  the  Bomfin,  which  has  a  handsome  fountain,  tlie 
Fonte  Nova,  and  the  Annunciata.  Setubal  suffered 
severely,  along  with  Lisbon,  from  the  earthquake  of  1755. 
The  population  wr.s  14,798  in  1S7S. 

SEVEXOAKS,  a  market  to-.vn  of  Kent,  England,  situated 
on  high  ground  about  a  mile  from  the  railway  station,  25 
miles  south-east  of  London  by  the  London,  Chatham,  and 
Dover  Railway,  and  20  by  the  South-Eastern  Railway.  It 
consists  principally  of  two  streets  which  converge  at  the 
south  end,  near  v.'hich  is  the  church  of  St  Nichols.?,  of  the 
13th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries,  restored  in  1S78,  and  con- 
taining, monum.ents  of  the  .'^mherst  family  and  a  tablet  to 
William  Lamtarde,  the  "  Perambulator"  of  Kent  (d.  1601), 
removed  from  the  old  parish  church  of  Greenwich  v.-hen 
that  was  demolished.  At  the  grammar  school  founded  in 
1418  by  Sir  William  Sevenoke,  lord  mayor  of  London, 
George  Grote  received  his  education.  There  is  also  a  school 
founded  by  Lady  Margaret  BosweU,  wife  pf  Sir  Wiliis,:n 
Boswell,  ambassador  to  Charles  I.  at  The  Hague,  and  alms- 
houses founded  by  Sir  William  Sevenoke  in  connexion 
■with  his  school.  The  Walthamstow  Hall  for  100  children, 
daughters  of  Christian  missionaries,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
£22,000,  was  opened  in  1882.  Close  to  Sevenoaks  is  Kn.olo 
Park,one  of  the  finest  old  residences  in  England,  which  in  the 
time  of  King  John  was  possessed  by  the  earl  of  Pembroke, 
and  after  passing  to  various  owners  was  bought  by  Arch- 
bishop Bourchier  (d.  1486),  v.'ho  rebuilt  the  house.  He  left 
the  property  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  about  the  timo 
of  the  dissolution  it  was  given  up  by  Cranmer  to  Henry 
VIII.  By  Elizabeth  it  was  conferred  first  on  the  ear!  of 
Leicester  and  afterwards  on  Thomas  Sackville,  earl  of 
Dorset,  by  whom  it  was  in  great  part  rebuilt  and  fitted 
up  in  regard  to  decoration  and  furniture  .very  much  as  it 
at  present  exists.  In  the  time  of  Elizabeth  county  assizes 
were  held  in  the  town.  Of  late  years  Sevenoaks  has 
very  much  increased  by  the  addition  of  viUa  residences 
for  persons  having  their  business  in  London.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  2023  acres)  in 
1871  was  4118,  and  in  IbSl  it  was  6296. 

SEVEN  SLEEPERS  OF  EPHESUS,  Tee,  according 
to  the  most  common  form  of  an  old  legend  of  Syrian 
origin,  first  referred  to  in  Western  literature  by  Gregory  of 
Tours  (De  Gloi:  Mali.,  c.  95),  were  seven  Christian  youths 
of  Ephesus,  who,  to  escape  the  rage  of  Deciui;,  lived  for 
some  time  in  concealment  in  a  cave.  The  enemy  at  last, 
however,  discovered  their  hiding  place,  and  caused  great 
stones  to  be  rolled  to  its  mouth  that  they  might  die  cf 
hunger.  The  hiartyrs  fell  asleep  in  a  mutual  embrace. 
The  occurrence  had  long  been  forgotten,  when  it  fell 
out,  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  Theodosius  II.,  196  yer.rs 
afterwards,  that  a  certain  inhabitant  of  Ephesus,  seelcing 
shelter  for  his  cattle,  rediscovered  the  cave  on  Mount 
Coelian,  and,  letting  in  the  light,  awoke  the  inmates,  who 
sent  one  of  their  number  down  to  buy  food.  Cautiously 
approaching  the  city,  the  lad  was  greatly  astonished  to 
find  the  cross  displayed  over  the  gates,  and  on  entering  to 
hear  the  name  of  Christ  openly  pronounced.  By  tendering 
coin  of  the  time  of  Decius  at  a  baker's  shop  he  roused 
suspicion,  and  in  his  confusion  being  unable  to  explain 
how  he  had  come  by  the  money  he  was  taken  before  the 
authorities  as  a  dishonest  finder  of  hidden  treasure.  He 
was  easily  able  to  confirm  the  strange  story  he  now  had  to 
tell  by  actually  leading  his  accusers  to  the  cavern  where 
his  six  companions  were  found,  youthful  and  rosy  and 
beaming  with  a  holy  radiance.  Theodosius,  hearing  whet 
had  happened,  hastened  to  the  spot  in  time  to  hear  frcp> 
♦he-r  lips  that  God  had  wrought  this  wonder  to  confirm  his 
faith  ia  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  This  message  once 
delivered,  they  again  fell  asleep. 

YZll.  —  88 


698 


S  E  V  —  b  E  V 


Gregory  says  lio  had  the  legend  from  iho  interpretation  of  "a 
certain  Syrian "  ;  in  point  of  fact  the  story  is  very  common  in 
Syriao  sources.  It  forms  the  subject  of  a  homily  of  Jacob  of  Sarug 
{ob.  621  A.D.),  which  is  given  in  tho  Ada  Smictoruvi.  Another 
Syriac  version  is  printed  in  Land's  Jnccdota,  iii.  87  sq.  ;  see  also 
Barhebrreus,  Chr&n,  Ecclcs.,  i.  142  5^.,  and  compare  Assemani, 
Bib.  Or.f  L  335  sq.  Some  forms  of  tho  legend  give,  eight  sleepers, — ■ 
c.<7.,  an  ancient  MS.  of  tho  Sth  century  now  in  the  British  Museum 
(Vat.  Sf/r.  MSS.,  p.  lODO).  There  are  considerable  variations  as  to 
their  names.  Tho  legend  rapidly  attained  a  ^-ide  diffusion  through- 
out Christendom  ;  its  currency  in  tho  East  is  testified  by  its  accept- 
ance by  Mohammed  (sur.  xviii.),  who  calls  them  Aslulb  al-ICa/t/, 
"tho  men  of  the  c?ve."  According  to  Al-Biruni  {C'hronolo(jy,Xi:. 
hy  Sachau,  p.  236}  certain  undccayed  "corpses  of  monks  were  shown 
in  a  cave  as  the  sleepers  of  Ephesus  in  the  5th  century.  The  seven 
sleepers  are  a  favourite  subject  in  early  medifeval  art. 

SEVERN,  The,  next  to  the  Thames  in  length  among 
the  river.-i  of  England,  rises  at  Jlacs  Hafren  on  tlie  eastern 
side  of  Plinlimraon,  on  the  south-south-west  borders  of 
Montgomeryshire,  and  fiovvs  in  a  nearly  semicircular 
course  of  about  200  miles  to  the  sea ;  the  direct  distance 
ffora  its  source  to  its  mouth  in  the  Bristol  Channel  is 
about  80  miles.  By  the  Britons  it  was  called  Halfren, 
and  its  old  Latin  name  was  Sahrina.  Through  Mont- 
gomeryshire its  course  is  at  first  in  a  south-easterly  direc- 
tion, .and  for  the  first  15  miles  it  flows  over  a  rough 
precipitous  bed.  At  Llanidloes,  where  the  valley  widens 
to  a  breadth  of  one  or  two  miles  and  assumes  a  more 
fertile  appearance,  it  bends  towards  tlie  north-east,  passing 
Kewtowa  and  Welshpool.  On  the  borders  of  Shropshire  it 
receives  the  Vyrnwy,  tnd  then  turning  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  enters  the  broad  rich  plain  of  Siirewsbury,  after 
which  it  bends  southward  past  Ironbridge  and  Bridg- 
north to  Bewdley  in  Worcestershire.  In  Shropshire  it 
receives  a  number  of  tributaries  (see  SHsorsniKE).  Still 
continuing  its  southerly  course  through  Worcestershire  it 
passes  Stourport,  where  it  receives  the  Stour  (left),  and 
\Vorcester,  shortly  after  wliich  it  receives  tlie  Tcme  (right). 
It  enters  Gloucester.shire  at  Tewkesbury,  where  it  receives 
the  Avon  (left),  after  wh'ch,  bending  in  a  south-westerly 
direction,  it  passes  the  town  of  Gloucester,  18  miles  below 
which  the  estuary  widens  out  into  t)ae  Bristol  Channel,  at 
the  point  where  it  receives  from  the  left  the  Lower  Avon 
or  Bristol  river,  and  from  the  right  the  Wye. 

From  Newtown  its  f;dl  is  463  feet,  the  avera:;o  fall  per  mile  being 
about  2  feet  3  inches,  but  from  Ironbndge  to  Gloucester,  a'distance 
of  about  70  miles,  tho  fall  is  only  about  103  feet.  Between  Stour- 
port and  Gloucester  the  breadth  is  150  feet,  but  below  that  town 
the  breadth  rapidly  increases  and  the  hanks  become  bolder  and 
more  picturesque.  Owing  to  the  gradual  decrease  in  the  width 
and  depth  of  tho  Bristol  Channel  the  tide  enters  with  great  force, 
forming  a  tid.al  wave  or  bore  about  9  feet  in  height,  which  at  cer- 
tain times  causes  great  destruction,  among  tlie  more  serious  inun- 
dations being  those  of  1606,  1687,  1703,  and  1883.  The  total  area 
drained  by  the  Severn  is  about  4500  square  miles.  Its  navigation 
extends  to  about  150  miles  above  its  m^^utli  ,  barges  can  ascend  as 
far  as  Stourport,  and  large  vessels  to  Gloucester.  Owing  to  tlie  dilfi- 
cuities  of  the  navigation  the  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  Ship  Canal,  18 
miles  in  length,  was  constructed,  admitting  vessels  of  350  tons  to 
Gloucester,  the  river  only  admitting  vessels  of  150  tons.  Tho  only 
other  important  port  is  Bristol,  but  there  are  a  few  smaller  jjorts 
and  fishing  towns,  while  by  means  of  canals  the  Severn  has  con- 
nexion with  some  of  the  principal  towns  of  England.  AVith  the 
Thames  it  is  connected  by  the  Stroud  water  and  Thames  and  Severn 
Canals  ;  by  varions  canals  it  has  communication  with  tiie  Trent 
p.nd  tho  rivers  of  the  north  ;  and  tht  Hereford  and  Glouccst/r  Canal 
connects  those  two  cities.  The  Severn  is  a  good  salmon  river,  and 
is  specially  famous  for  its  lampreys. 

SEVEPiN,  Joseph  (1793-1879),  portrait  and  subject 
painter,  was  born  in  1793.  During  his  earlier  years  he 
practised  portraiture  as  a  miniaturist ;  and,  having  studied 
va  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy,  he  exhibited  his 
first  work  in  oil,  Hermia  and  Helena,  a  subject  from  the 
Midsummer  Nir;hl's  Dream,  in  the  Royal  Academy  Exhibi- 
tion of  1819.  In  1820  he  gained  the  gold  medal  and  a 
thrc3  years'  travelling  studentship  for  his  Una  and  the 
Ecd  C.u.s  Jicight  in  the  Cave  of  Despair,  a  painting  now 


in  the  possessior.  of  the  representatives  of  tho  late  lyord 
Houghton.  Ke  accompanied  hio  iriend  Keats  the  poet  ta 
Italy,  and  nursed  him  till  his  death  in  1821.  In  ISGl  ha 
was  appointed  British  consul  at  Rome,  a  post  which  he 
held  till  1872,  and  during  a  great  part  of  the  time  he  also 
acted  as  Italian  consul.  His  most  remarkable  work  is  the 
Spectre  Ship  from  the  Ancient  Mariner.  He  painted 
Cordelia  Watching  'by  the  Bed  of  Lear,  tho  Iloman 
Beggar,  Ariel,  the  Fountain,  and  Rienzi,  executed  a  large 
altarpieco  for  -the  church  of  St  Paid  at  Rome,  a  "d  pro- 
duced many  portraits,  including  one  of  Baron  Bunsen  and 
several  of  Keats.     He  died  at  Rome  August  3,  1879. 

SEVERUS,  Lucius  Septimius,  the  twenty-first  emperor 
of  Rome,  reigned  from  193  to  211  a.d.  He  was  born  in 
146  at  Leptis  Magna,  an  African  coast  town  in  the 
district  of  Syrtes,  whose  ancient  prosperity  is  still  attested 
by  its  extensive  ruins.  In  this  region  of  Africa,  dospite 
its  long  possession  by  the  Romans,  the  Punic  tongue  v,-aa 
still  spoken  by  tho  people  in  general.  Severus  had  to 
acquire  Latin  as  a  foreign  language,  and  is  said  to  have 
spoken  it  to  the  end  of  his  days  with  a  strong  African 
accent.  After  he  had  arrived  at  the  throne  he  dismissed 
abruptly  from  Rome  a  sister  who  had  come  to  visit  him, 
because  he  felt  shame  at  her  abominable  Latin.  Yet 
Severus  and  his  dynasty  were  almost  the  only  emperors 
of  provincial  descent  who  frankly  cherished  tho  province 
of  their  origin,  while  the  province  showed  true  loyalty  to 
the  only  Roman  emperor  ever  born  on  African  soil,  and 
to  the  successors  who  derived  their  title  from  him. 

Of  the  origin  of  the  Severi  nothing  is  known  :  it  is  a 
natural  but  very  doubtful  conjecture  that  the  L.  Septimius 
Severus,  a  native  of  Africa,  addressed  by  the  poet  Statius, 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  emperor  who  bore  the  same  name. 
The  father  of  Severus  was  a  Roman  citizen  of  equestrian 
rank,  and  it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  the  family  held 
a  poor  position  when  he  was  born,  but  had  rison  in 
importance  by  tho  time  he  reached  manhood.  Two  of 
his  uncles  attained  to  consular  rank.  Fulvius  Pius,  the 
maternal  grandfather  of  Severus,  is  often  identified  with 
the  man  of  that  name  who  was  governor  of  Africa,  and, 
after  being  condemned  for  corruption  by  Pertinax,  was 
highly  honoured  by  Didius  Julianus ;  but  dates  are 
strongly  against  the  identification.  Of  the  future  emperor's 
education  we  learn  nothing  but  its  results.  Spartianus 
declares  him  to  have  been  "  very  learned  in  Latin  and 
Greek  literature,"  to  have  had  a  genuine  zeal  for  study, 
and  to  have  been  fond  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  But 
the  learning  of  rulers  is  often  seen  through  a  magnifying 
medium,  and  we  may  better  accept  tue  statement  of  Dio 
Cassius  that  in  tho  pursuit  of  education  his  eagerness  v.as 
greater  than  his  success,  and  that  he  was  rather  shrewd 
than  facile.  No  doubt  in  his  early  years  he  acquired  that 
love  for  jurisprudence  which  distinguished  him  as  emperor. 
Of  his  youth  we  know  only  that  it  was  entirely  spent  at 
Leptis.  Beyond  that  there  is  merely  one  anecdotal  fabri- 
cation giving  an  account  of  youthful  wildness. 

The  removal  of  Severus  from  Leptis  to  Itonie  is  attri- 
Ijuted  by  his  biographer  to  the  desire  for  higher  education, 
but  was  also  no  doubt  due  in  some  degree  to  ambition. 
From  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurolius  he  early  obtained,  by 
intercession  of  a  consular  uncle,  tho  distinction  of  the 
broad  purple  stripe.  At  twenty-six,  that  is,  almost  at  the 
earliest  age  allowed  by  law,  Severus  attained  the  qua'stor- 
ship  and  a  seat  in  tho  senate,  and  proceeded  as  quaestor 
:uilitar{s  to  the  senatorial  province  of  Ba'tica,  in  the 
Peninsula.  While  Severus  was  temporarily  absent  in 
Africa  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  hi^  father,  the 
province  if  Bjetica,  disordered  by  invasion  and  internal 
commotion,  was  taken  ovc;r  by  the  emperor,  'who  gave  tho 
senate  Sardinia  in  exchange.     On   this   Se^■e^u3    became 


S  E  ^"  E  K  U  S 


699 


military  qujestor  of  Sardinia.  Hi?  next  office,  probably 
in  174,  was  that  of  legate  to  the  proconsul  of  Africa,  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  tribune  of  the  plebs.  This 
magistracy,  though  far  different  from  what  it  had  been  in 
the  days  of  the  republic,  was  still  one  of  dignity,  and 
brought  with  it  promotion  to  a  higher  grade  in  the  senate. 
During  the  tribunate  he  married  his  first  wife  Jilarcia, 
A'hose  name  he  passed  over  in  his  autobiography,  though 
he  erected  statues  of  her  after  he  became  emperor.  In 
17S  Severus  became  praetor,  not  by  favour  of  the  emperor, 
but  by  competition  for  the  suffrages  of  the  senators. 
Then,  probably  in  the  same  year,  he  went  to  Spain  as 
legato;  after  that  (179)  he  commanded  a  legion  in  Syria. 
The  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius  seems  in  some  way  to  have 
interrupted  his  career ;  he  was  unemployed  for  several 
Tears,  and  devoted  great  part  of  his  leisure  to  the  study 
of  literature,  religion,  and  antiquities  (so  says  Spartianus) 
at  Athens.  The  year  of  Severus's  first  consulship  cannot 
be  determined  with,  precision,  but  it  falls  within  the  space 
between  185  and  190.  In  this  time  also  falls  the  marriage 
with  Juiia,  afterwards  famous  as  Julia  Domna,  whose 
acquaintance  he  had  no  doubt  made  when  an  officer  in 
Syria.  Her  two  sons  Bassianus  (known  as  Caracalla)  and 
C.'^ta  were  probably  born  in  188  and  189.  Severus  was 
governor  in  succession  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  Sicily,  and 
Pannonia  Superior.  He  was  in  command  of  tl.ree  legions 
at  Carnuntum,  the  capital  of  the  province  last  named,  when 
news  reached  him  that  Commodus  had  been  murdered  by 
hif  favourite  concubine  and  his  most  trusted  servants. 

Up  to  this  moment  the  career  of  Severus  had  been 
ordinary  in  its  character.  He  had  not  raised  himself  above 
the  usual  official  level.  He  had  achieved  no  military  dis- 
tinction,— had  indeed  seen  no  warfare  beyond  the  petty 
border  frays  of  a  frontier  province.  But  the  storm  that 
now  tried  all  official  spirits  found  his  alone  powerful  enough 
to  brave  it.  Three  imperial  dynasties  had  now  been  ended 
by  assassination.  The  Flavian  line  had  enjoyed  much 
shorter  duration  and  much  less  prestige  than  the  other  two, 
and  the  circumstances  of  its  fall  had  been  peculiar  in  that 
it  was  probably  planned  in  the  interest  of  the  .senate  and 
the  senate  certainly  reaped  the  immediate  fruits.  But  the 
crisis  which  arose  on  the  death  of  Nero  and  the  crisis  which 
arose  on  the  death  of  Commodus  were  strikingly  alike.  In 
both  cases  it  was  left  to  the  army  to  determine  by  a  struggle 
which  of  the  divisional  commanders  should  succeed  to  the 
command-in-chief,  that  is,  to  the  imperial  throne.  In  each 
case  the  contest  began  with  an  impulsion  given  to  the  com- 
manders by  the  legionaries  themselves.  The  soldiers  of 
the  great  commands  competed  keenly  for  the  honour  and 
the  material  advantages  to  be  ■Vvo.  Jjy  placing  their  general 
ill  the  seat  of  empire.  The  officer  >vlio  refused  to  lead 
vould  have  been  deemed  a  traitor  to  his  troops,  and  would 
liave  suffered  the  punishment  of  his  treason. 

There  is  a  widespread  impression  that  the  Praetorian 
guards  at  all  times  held  the  Iloman  empire  in  their  hands, 
but  its  erroneousness  is  demonstrated  by  the  events  of  the 
year  193.  For  the  first  time  in  the  cour.se  of  imperial 
history  the  Pru^torians  presumed  to  nominate  as  emperor 
a  man  vho  had  no  legions  at  his  back.  This  was  Pcrtinax, 
who  has  been  well  styled  the  Galba  of  his  time — upright 
and  honourable  to  severity,  and  zealous  for  good  govern- 
ment, but  blindly  optimist  about  the  po.-^sibilities  of 
reform  in  a  feeble  and  corrupt  age.  After  a  three  months' 
rule  he  was  destroyed  by  thy  power  that  lifte<i  him  up. 
According  to  the  well-known  story,  true  rather  \n  its  out- 
line than  in  its  details,  the  Prjetorians  sold  the  throne  to 
Didius  Julianus.  !?ut  at  the  end  of  two  months  both  the 
rra:torian8  and  their  nominee  Wore  swept  away  by  the 
ival  dispoaers  of  Rcm:>n  rule,  the  provincial  legions.  Four 
gi'>up3  of  legions  at  the  time  M-ere  etrong  enough  to  aspire 


to  determine  the  destiny  of  the  empire, — those  quartered 
in  Britain,  in  Germany,  m  Paunonia,  in  Syria.  Three  of 
the  groups  actually  took  the  decisive  step,  and  Severus  ill] 
Pannonia,  Pescennius  Niger  in  Syria,  Clodius  Albinas  in 
Britain,  received  from  their  troops  the  title  of  Augustus.) 
Severus  far  outdid  his  rivals  in  promptness  and  decision.' 
By  what  means  we  do  not  know,  he  secured  the  aid  of 
the  legions  in  Germany  and  of  those  in  lUyria.  These, 
with  the  forces  in  Pannonia,  wade  a  combination  suffi- 
ciently formidable  to  overawe  Albinns  for  the  moment. 
He  probably  deemed  that  his  best  chance  lay  in  the 
e.xhaustion  of  his  competitors  by  an  internecine  struggle. 
At  all  events  he  received  v.-ith  submission  an  offer  mado  by 
Severus,  no  doubt  well  understood  by  both  to  be  politic, 
insincere,  and  temporary.  Severus  sent  a  trusted  officer, 
who  confirmed  Albinus  in  his  power  and  bestowed  upon 
him  the  title  of  Csesar,  making  him  the  nominal  hoir- 
apparent  to  the  throne. 

Before  the  action  of  Severus  was  known  in  Rome,  tha 
senate  and  people  had  shown  signs  of  turning  to  Petcen- 
nius  Ni.ger,  that  he  might  deliver  them  from  the  poor 
puppet  Didius  Julianus  o,ud  avenge  on  the  Praetorians  the 
murder  of  Pertinax.  Having  secured  the  co-operation  or 
neutrality  of  all  the  forces  in  the  western  part  of  tha 
empire,  Severus  hastened  to  Rome,  To  win  the  .sympathy 
of  the  capital  he  posed  as  the  avenger  and  successor  of 
Pertinax,  whose  name  he  even  added  to  his  own,  and  uted 
to  the  end  of  his  reign.  The  feeble  defences  of  Julianus 
were  broken  down  and  the  Praetorians  disarmed  and  dis- 
banded, without  a  blow  being  struck.  A  new  body  of 
household  troops  was  enrolled  and  organized  on  quite 
different  principles  from  the  old.  In  face  of  the  senate, 
as  Dio  tells  us,'  Severus  acted  for  the  moment  like  "  one 
of  the  good  emperors  in  the  olden  days."  After  a  magni- 
ficent entry  into  the  city  he  joined  the  senate  in  execrat- 
ing the  memory  of  Commodus,  and  in  punishing  the 
murde'-ers  of  Pertinax,  whom  he  honoured  with  the  most 
splendid  funeral  rites.  He  also  e)"couraged  the  senate  to 
pass  a  decree  directing  that  any  emperor  or  subordinate 
of  an  emperor  who  should  put  a  senator  to  death  should 
be  treated  as  a  public  enemy.  But  he  ominously  refrained 
from  asking  the  senate  to  san^'ticn  bjs  accession  to  the 
throne. 

The  rest  of  Severus's  reign,  as  it  is  read  in  the  aucient 
histories,  is  in  the  main  occupied  with  wars,  over  which 
we  shall  rapidly  pass.  The  power  wielded  by  Pescennius 
Niger,  who  called  himself  emperor,  and  was  supposed  to 
control  one  half  of  the  Roman  world,  proved  to  h^.  more 
imposing  than  substantial.  The  magnificent  promises  of 
Oriental  princes  were  falsified  as  usual  in  the  hour  of  need. 
Niger  himself,  as  described  by  Dio,  was  the  very  type  of 
mediocrity,  conspicuous  for  no  faculties,  good  or  bad. 
This  very  character  had  no  doubt  commended  him  to 
Commodus  as  suited  for  the  imjiortant  command  in  Syria, 
which  might  have  proved  a  source  of  danger  in  abler 
hands.  The  contest  between  Severus  and  Niger  was 
practically  decided  after  two  or  three  engagements,  fought 
by  Severus's  officers.  The  last  battle,  which  took  place 
at  Issus,  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  Niger  (194). 
After  this  the  emperor  spent  two  years  in  successful 
attacks  upon  the  peoples  bordering  on  Syria,  particularly 
in  Adiabene  and  Osrhoene.  Byzantium,  the  first  of  Kiger'n 
possessions  to  be  attacked,  was  tiic  last  to  fall,  after  a 
glorious  defence. 

Late  in  1 96  Severus  turned  westward,  to  reckon  with 
Albinus,  who  was  well  aware  tliat  tlie  reckoning  was 
inevitable.  He  was  better  bc-rn  and  better  educated  than 
Severus.  but  in  capacity  far  inferior.  As  Severus  was 
Hearing  Italy  he  received  the  ii';ws  that  Albinus  had  been 
declared  emperor  by  his  soldiers,     'f  he  first  counter  stroke 


700 


S  E  V  E  R  U  S 


of  Soverns  was  to  affiliate  himself  and  his  elder  son  to  the 
Antonines  by  a  sort  of  spurious  and  posthumous  adop- 
tioa.  The  prestige  of  the  old  namo,  even  when  gained  in 
this  illegitimate  way,  was  probably  worth  a  good  deal. 
Ba^aianus,  the  elder  son.  of  Severus,  thereafter  known  as 
Aurelius  Antoninus,  was  named  Ca;sar  in  place  of  Albinus, 
and  was  thus  marked  out  as  successor  to  his  father.  With- 
out interrupting  the  march  of  his  forces,  Severus  con- 
trived to  make  an  excursion  to  Bome.  Here  he  availed 
himself  with  much  subtlety  of  the  sympathy  many  senators 
■were  known  to  have  felt  for  Niger.  Though  he  was  so- 
far  faithful  to  the  decree  passed  by  his  own  advice  that 
he  put  no  senator  to  death,  yet  he  banished  and 
impoverished  many  whose  presence  or  influence  seemed 
dangerous  or  inconvenient  to  his  prospects.  Of  the 
sufferers  probably  few  had  ever  seen  or  communicated 
■with  Kiger. 

The  collision  between  the  forces  of  Severus  and  Albinus 
was  the  most  violent  that  had  taken  place  between  Roman 
troops  since  the  mighty  contest  at  Philippi.  The  decisive 
engagement  was  fought  in  February  of  the  year  197  on 
the  plain  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Saone,  to  the  north 
of  Lyons.  Dio  tells  us  that  150,000  men  fought  on  each 
side.  The  fortunes  of  Severus  were,  to  all  appearance,  at 
one  stage  of  the  battle  as  hopeless  as  those  of  J  ulius  Csesar 
•were  for  some  hours  during  the  battle  of  jMunda.  The 
tide  was  turned  by  the  same  means  in  both  cases — by  the 
personal  conduct  and  bravery  of  the  commander. 

By  this  c-owning  victory  Severus  was  released  from  all 
need  for  disguise,  and  "  poured  forth  on  the  civil  popula- 
tion all  the  wTath  which  he  had  been  storing  up.  for  a  long 
time  "'  (Dio).  He  particularly  frightened  the  senate  by 
calling  himsilf  the  son  of  ilarcus  and  brother  of  Commodus, 
whom  he  had  before  insulted.  And  he  read  a  speech  in 
which  ho  declared  that  the  severity  and  cruelty  of  Sulla, 
Marlu",  and  Augustus  had  proved  to  be  safer  policy  than 
the  clemency  of  Pompey  and  Julius  Crosar,  which  had 
wrought  their  ruin.  He  ended  w-ith  an  apology  for  Com- 
modus and  bitter  reproaches  against  the  senate  for  their 
sympathy  with  his  assassins.  Over  sixty  senators  were 
Burested,  on  a  charge  of  ha^^ng  adhered  to  Albinu.s,  and  half 
of  them  were  put  to  death.  In  most  instances  the  charge 
was  merely  a  pretence  to  enable  the  emperor  to  crush  out 
the  forward  and  dangerous  spirits  in  the  senate.  The 
murderers  of  Commodus  were  punished;  Commodus  himself 
was  deified  ;  and  on  the  monuments  from  this  time  onward 
Severus  figures  as  the  brother  of  that  reproduction  of  all 
the  vice  and  cruelty  of  Koro  with  the  refinement  left  out. 

The  nest  years  (1S7-202)  were  devoted  by  Severus  to 
one  of  the  dominant  ideas  of  the  empire  from  its  earliest 
days — war  against  the  Parthians.  The  results  to  which 
Trajan  and  Vcrus  had  aspired  were  now  fuUy  attained,  and 
Me.'opotamia  was  definitely  established  as  a  Eoman  pro- 
vince. Part  of  the  time  T>'a3  spent  in  the  exploration  of 
Egypt,  in  respect  of  which  Dio  takes  opportunity  to  say  that 
Severus  was  not  the  maa  to  leave  anything  human  or  divine 
uninvestigated.  The  emperor  returned  to  enjoy  a  well- 
earned  triumph,  commemorated  to  this  day  by  the  arch  in 
Rome  which  bears  his  name.  During  the  six  years  which 
followed  (202-208)  Severus  re.sided  at  Rome  and  gave  his 
attention  to  the  organization  of  the  empire.  No  doubt  his 
vigorous  influence  was  felt  to  its  remotest  corners',  but  cur 
historians  desert  us  at  this  point  and  leave  us  for  the  most 
part  to  the  important  but  dim  and  defective  conclusions  to 
be  drawn  from  the  abundant  monumental  records  of  the 
reign.  Only  two  or  three  events  in  the  civil  history  of  this 
period  are  fully  narrated  by  the  ancient  writers.  -The  first 
of  these  is  the  festival  of  the  Decennalia,  or  rejoicings  in 
the  tenth  year  of  the  emperor's  reign.  Contemporaneous 
with  this  festival  was  the  marriage  of  Aurelius  Antoninus' 


(Caracalh)  with  Plautilla,  the  daughter  of  PLautianus,  com- 
mander of  the  reorganized  Prsetoriau  guards.  This  officer 
holds  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  ancient  accounts  of  the 
reign,  yet  it  is  all  but  impossible  to  believe  a  good  deal 
that  we  are  told  concerning  him.  Nevertheless,  without  a 
clear  view  of  the  career  of  Plautianus,  it  is  difficult  to 
grasp  definitely  some  important  features  in  *he  character 
of  Severus,  or  to  appreciate  exactly  the  nature  of  his 
government.  According  to  Dio  and  Herodian,  Plautianus 
was  allowed  for  years  to  exercise  and  abuse  the  whole 
power  of  the  emperor,  so  far  as  it  did  not  relate  to  the 
actual  conduct  of  war.  He  was  cruel,  arrogant,  ar.d 
corrupt;  and  the  whole  empire  groaned  under  his  eriic- 
tions.  Geta,'  the  brother  of  Severus,  tried  to  open  the 
emperor's  eyes,  but  the  licence  of  Plautianus  was  merely 
restricted  for  a_  moment,  to  be  bestowed  again  in  full. 
Finally,  in  203  this  second  Sejanus  fell  a  victim  to  an 
intrigue  set  on  foot  by  his  own  son-in-law  Antoninus 
(Caracalla),  the  details  of  which  were  not  clearly  known 
even  to  contemporary  writers.  It  is  hard  to  .see  in  what 
way  we  ai-e  to  reconcile  this  history  with  the  known  facts 
of  Severus's  character  and  career,  unless  we  assume  that 
Plautianus  was  really  the  in.strument  of  his  master  for  the 
execution  of  his  new  policy  towards  the  senate  and  ihe 
senatorial  provinces.  That  Plautianus  abused  his  authority 
and  brought  about  his  ovm  faU  is  probable  enough, — also 
that  Severus  had  destined  him  at  one  time  for  the  guardian- 
ship of  his  sons.  Plautianus  was  succeeded  in  his  office 
by.  two  men,  one  of  whom  was  the  celebrated  jurist 
Pcpiniau. 

Severus  spent  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  (208-211) 
in  Britain,  amidst  constant  and  not  very  successful  war- 
fare, which  he  is  said  to  have  provoked  partly  to  strengthen 
the  discipline  and  powers  of  the  legions,  partly  to  wean 
his  sons  from  their  evil  courses  by  hard  military  service. 
He  died  at  York  in  February  of  the  year  211.  There  are 
vague  traditions  that  his  death  was  in  some  way  hastened 
by  Caracalla.  This  prince  had  been,  since  abost  1'j7, 
nominally  joint  emperor  with  his  father,  so  that  no 
cej'emony  was  needed  for  his  recognition  as  monarch. 

The  natural  gifts  of  Severus  were  of  no  higli  or  unusual  orjor. 
He  liad  a  clear  head,  promptitude,  resoIutioQ,  tenacity,  and  great 
organizing  power,  but  no  touch  of  genius.  That  ho  was  cruel 
cannot  be  questioned,  but  his  cruelty  was  of  the  calculating  kind, 
and  always  clearly  directed  to  some  end.  He  threw  the  head'  of 
Niger  over  the  ramparts  of  Byzantium,  but  merel}'  as  the  best 
means  of  procuring  a  surrender  of  the  stubbornly  defended  fortress. 
The  head  of  Albinus  he  exhibited  at  Rome,  but  only  as  a  warning; 
to  tho  capital  to  tamper  no  more  with  preteiwlers.  The  children 
of  Niger  were  held  as  hostages  and  kindiy  treated  so  long  as  they 
might  possibly  afford  a  useful  basis  for  negotiation  with  their 
fatiicr  ;  when  he  was  defeated  they  were  killed,  lest  from  among 
thorn  should  arise  a  claimant  for  the  imperial  power.  Stem  and 
barbarous  punishment  was  always  meted  out  by  Severus  to  the: 
conquered  foe,  buf  terror  was  deeoied  the  best  guarantee  for  peace. 
He  felt  no  scruples  of  conscience  or  honour  if  he  thought  his  interest 
at  stake,  but  he  was  not  wont  to  take  an  e:icited  or  exaggerated 
view  of  what  his  interest  required.  He  used  or  destroyed  men  and 
institutions  alike  with  cool  judgment  and  a  single  eye  to  the  main 
purpose  of  his  life,  the  secure  establishment  of  his  dynasty.  The 
few  traces  of  aimless  savagery  wliich  we  find  in  the  ancient  narra- 
tives are  probably  tho  result  of  fear  working  on  the  imagination  of 
the  time 

As  a  soldier  Severus  was  personally  brave,  but  he  can  hardly  he 
called  a  general,  in  spite  of  his  successful  campaigns.  He  was 
rather  the  organizer  of  victory  than  tho  actual  author  of  it.  The 
operations  against  Niger  were  earned  oiit  entirely  by  his  officers. 
Dio  even  declares  that  the  final  battle  with  Albinus  was  the  first 
at  wliich  Severus  had  ever  been  actually  present.  "When  a  war 
was  going  on  he  was  constantly  travelling  over  the  acene  of  it, 
pla^ming  it  and  instilling  into  the  array  his  own  pertinacioua 
spirit,  but  the  actual  fighting  was  usually  left  to  others.  His  treat- 
ment ot^the  army  is  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  his  reign> 
He  frankly  broke  with  the  decent  conventions  of  the  Augusp-_ 
constituticn,  ignored  the  senate,  and  candidly  based  his  rule  upi'? 
fi.vce.  The  only  title  lie  ever  laid  to  tho  throne  was  the  promtna  a - 
r.'.xnto  (if  the  legions,  v.'hose  adherence  to  his  cause  he  commemorated 


S  E  Y  E  R,  U  S 


roi 


-even  on  the  coinage  of  the  rtJalm.  The  lemons  voted  him 'the  ! 
adopted  son  of  Marcus  Aurelias  ;  the  legions  associated  with  him 
Caracalla  in  the  government  of  the  empire.  Severus  strove  earnestly 
to  wed  the  army  as  a  vrhole  to  the  support  of  his  dynasty.  He 
increased  enormously  the  material  gains  and  the  honorary  distinc- 
tions of  the  service,  so  that  he  was  charged  with  corrupting  the 
troops.  Yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  all  things  considered,  he 
left  the  ai-my  of  the  empire  more  efficient  than  he  found  it.  He 
increased  the .  strength  of  it  by  three  legions,  and  turned  the 
Praatorians,  heretofore  a-  flabby  body  without  military  experience 
or  instinct,  into  a  chosen  corps  of  veterans.  Their  ranks  were 
filled  by  promotion  from  all  the  legions  on  service,  whereas  pre- 
V'ously  there  had  been  special  enlistment  from  Italy  and  one  or 
two  of  the  neighbouring  provinces.  It  was  hoped  that  these 
picked  men  would  form  a  force  on  which  an  emperor  could  rely  in 
an  emergency.  But  to  meet  the  possibility  of  a  legionaiy  revolt 
in  the  provinces,  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Augustan 
empire  was  abrogated  :  Italy  became  a  province,  and  troops  of  the 
regnlar  army  were  quartered  in  it  under  the  direct  command  of 
the  emperor.  Further  to  obviate  the  risk  of  revolution,  the  great 
commands  in  the  provinces  were  broken  up.  so  that,  excepting  on 
the  turbulent  eastern  frontier,  it  was  not  possible  for  a  commander 
to  dispose  of  troops  numerous  enough  to  render  him  dangerous  to 
the  government. 

But,  while  the  policy  of  Sevenis  was  primarily  a  family  policy, 
he  was  by  no  means  careless  of  the  general  security  and  welfare  of 
the  empire.  Only  in  one  instance,  the  destruction  of  Byzantium, 
did  he  weaken  its  defences  for  his  own  private  ends — an  error  fur 
which  his  successors  paid  dearly,  when  the  Goths  came  to  domiifhte 
the  Euxine.  The  constantly  troublesome  Danubian  regions  re- 
ceived the  special  attention  of  the  emperor,  but  all  over  the  realm 
the  status  and  privileges  of  communities  and  districts  were  recast 
in  the  way  that  seemed  likely  to  conduce  to  their  prosperity.  The 
administration  acquired  more  and  more  of  a  military  character,  in 
Italy  as  well  as  in  the  provinces.  Retired  military  officers  now 
filled  many  of  the  posts  formerly  reserved  for  civilians  of  equestrian 
rank.  The  praefect  of  the  Pnetorians  received  large  civil  and  judi- 
cial powers,  so  that  the  investment  of  Papinian  with  the  office  was 
less  unnatural  than  it  at  first  sight  seems.  The  alliance  between 
Severus  and  the  jurisconsults  had  important  consequences.  While 
he  gave  them  new  importance  in  the  body  politic,  and  co-operated 
with  them  in  the  work  of  legal  reform,  they  did  him  material  service 
by  working  an  absolutist  view  of  the  government  into  the  texture  of 
Roman  law.  Of  the  legal  changes  of  the  reign,  important  as  they 
were,  'wq  can  only  mention  a  few  details.  The  emperor  himself  was 
a  devoted  and  upright  judge,  but  he  struck  a  great  blow  at  the 
purity  of  the  law  by  transferring  the  exercise  of  imperial  jurisdic- 
tion from  the  forum  to  the  palace.  He  sharpened  in  many  respects 
the  law  of  treason,  put  an  end  to  the  time-honoured  quacstiones 
perpduae,  altered  largely  that  important  section  of  the  law  ■vi/hich 
defined  the  rights  of  the  fiscus,  and  developed  further  the  social 
policy  which  Augustus  had  embodied  in  the  lex  Julia  de  adulteriis 
and  the  lex  Papia  Poppaca. 

Severus  boldly  adopted  as  an  official  desigiiation  the  autocratic 
title  of  dominus,  which  the  better  of  his  predecessors  had  renounced, 
and  with  which  the  worse  had  only  toyed,  as  Domitian,  whom 
Martial  did  not  hesitate  to  call  "his  lord^nd  his  god."  During 
Sevcms's  reign  the  senate  was  absolutely  powerless  ;  he  took  all 
initiative  into  his  hands.  He  broke  down  the  distinction  between 
the  servants  of  the  senate  and  the  servants  of  the  emperor.  All 
nominations^a  office  or  function  passed  under  his  scrutiny.  The 
estimation  of  the  old  consular  and  other  republican  titles  was 
diminished.  The  growth  of  cajjacity  in  the  senate  was  eflcctually 
checked  by  cutting  off  the  tallest  of  the  poppy-heads  early  in  the 
reign.  The  senate  became  a  mere^  registration  office  for  tlic 
imperial  determinations,  and  its  members,  as  has  been  well  said, 
a  choir  for  drawling  conventional  hymns  of  praise  in  honour  of 
the  monarch.  Even  the  nominal  restoration  of  the  senate's  power 
pt  the  time  of  Alexander  Severus,  and  the  accession  of  so-called 
"senatorial  emperors"  later  on,  did  not  efface  the  work  of 
Septimitis  Severus,  which  was  resumed  and  carried  to  its  fulGl- 
raent  by  Diocletian.  ,  :. 

It  only  remains  to  say  a  few  words  of  the  emperor's  attitude 
towards  literature,  art,  and  religion.  No  period  in  the  history  of 
Latin  literature  is  so  barren  as  the  reign  of  Severus,  JIany  later 
period-s — the  age  of  Stilicho,  for  example— shine  brilliantly  by  com* 
parison.  The  only  ^n^at  Latin  writers  are  the  Christians  TertulHan^ 
and  Cyprian.  The  Greek  literature  of  the  period  is  richer,  but  not 
owing  to  any  patronage  of  the  emperor,  except  perhaps  in  the  case 
of  Dio  Cossius,  who,  though  no  admirer  of  Severus,  attributes  to 
encouragement  received  from  him  the  execution  of  the  great  his- 
torical work  which  has  come  down  to  our  time.  The  numerous 
restorations  of  ancient  buildings  and  the  many  new  constructions 
carried  out  by  Severus  show  that  ho  was  not  insensible  to  the  artip.tic 
glories  of  the  past  ;  and  he  is  known  to  have  paid  much  attention 
to  works  of  art  in  foreign  countries  where  his  duties  took  him.  But 
ho  was  in  no  sense  a  patron  or  connoisseur  of  art.     As  to  religion, 


if  we  may  trust  Dfo,  one  of  the  most  snpcrstirions  of  historians 
Severus  was  one  of  the  most  superstitious  of  monarchs.  IJut  apart 
from  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  was  his  influence  on  the  rcli-'aous 
currents  of  the  time.  He  probably  did  a  good  deal  to  strcni;ihen 
and  extend  the  official  cult  of  the  imperial  family,  which  had  been 
greatly  developed  dm-ing  the  prosperous  tinjes  of  the  Autoniues. 
But  what  he  thought  of  Christianity,  Judaism,  or  the  Oriental 
mysticism  to  which  his  wife  Julia  Domna  gave  such  an  impulse  in 
the  succeeding  reign,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  ^Ve  may  best  conclude 
that  his  religious  sympatliies  were  wide,  since  tradition  hiMt  not 
painted  him  as  the  partisan  of  any  one  form  of  woi-suin. 

The  energy  and  dominance  of  Scverus's  charactti-  and  his  capacity 
for  rule  may  be  deemed,  witliout  fancifulness,  to  be  taaccaulo  in 
the  numerous  represeutations  of  his  features  which  have  smvived 
to  our  days. 

Tlie  authorities  for  thia  emperor's  rcipn  are  fairly  full  and  sritisfactmy.  con- 
sidering the  central  scantiness  of  the  inijierial  vucords.  Scvenis  himself  wroto 
an  aatobicgraphy  whicli  was  regnrdfd  as  cnntlid  .ind  trustwortlij"  on  the  wliolo. 
The  events  of  the  reign  were  recorded  by  scv^r.il  contempomnes.  The  first  pljce 
among  these  must  be  given  to  Dio  Ciissins,  who  stands  to  the  empire  in  much 
the  same  relation  as  Li\'v  to  the  republic.  He  became  a  senator  in  the  year 
when  Marcus  Anrelius  died  (IbO)  and  retained  that  dignity  for  more  Oian  "tifty 
years.  He  was  well  acquainted  wirh  Severus,  and  was  near  enough  the  centre 
of  affairs  to  know  the  re:d  nature  of  events,  wjtliout  being  great  enough  to  have 
personal  motives  for  warping  tlie  record.  Though  this  portion  of  Dio's  histoiy 
no  longer  exists  in  its  original  form,  we  have  copious  exli-acts  from  it,  made  by 
Xiphiiinus,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  11th  century.  The  faults  which  have  irrpuireJ 
the  credit  of  Dio's  great  work  in  its  earlier  portions, — his  lack  of  the  ciitical 
faculty,  his  inexact  knowledge  of  the  earlier  Romnn  institutions,  his  passion  foi 
sifiis  from  heaven, — could  do  little  injury  to  the  narrative  of  an  eye-witness;  and 
he  must  here  make  upon  the  attentive  reader  the  impression  of  unusual  freedom 
from  the  commonest  vices  of  Jiistory, — passion,  prejudice,  and  insincerity.  His 
Greek,  too,  stands  in  agreeable  contrast  to  the  debased  Latin  of  the  "acriptores 
historiae  Augustae."  The  Gieek  writer  Herodian  was  also  a  contemporary  of 
Sevenis,  btfS  Che  mere  fact  that  we  know  nothing  of  his  life  is  in  itself  enough  to 
shovi"  that  his  opportunities  wcie  not  so  great  as  those  of  Dio.  The  reputation  of 
Herodian,  who  was  used  as  the  main  aulhrhty  for  the  times  of  Scvtrus  by 
Tillemont  and  Gibbon,  has  not  been  proof  agairsi  the  criticism  of  recent  scholars. 
His  laults  are  those  of  rhetoric  and  exaggeration.  His  narrative  is  piobably 
in  many  places  not  independent  of  Dio.  The  'rriters  known  as  the  '•Siriptorea 
historiae  Augustae"  are  also  of  considerable  importance, — particularly  in  the  livca 
of  Didius  Julianus,  Severus  I'esccnnius  Niger,  and  Caracalla,  attiibutcd  to  ^Elius 
Spartianns ;  those  of  Clodius  Albinus  and  Opilius  Macrinus  to  Julius  Capitolinus; 
those  of  Anton inua  Diadumcnus,  Antoninus  Heliogabalus,  and  Alexander 
Severus  to  Lampridius.  The  pergonal  history  of  Sevoru*  and  his  family  is  kno^^^l 
to  us  mainly  through  these  writers.  Their  principal  authority  was  most  probably 
L.  Marina  Maximus.  a  younger  contemporary  of  Septiniius  Severus,  who  wrote, 
in  continuation  of  the  work  of  Suetonius,  the  lives  of  eleven  emperors  from 
Trajan  to  Heliogabalus  inclusive.  If  we  may  believe  a  few  words  about  liim 
dropped  by  Ammianus  Marccilinus,  he  was  a  kind  'of  prose  Juvenal,  whose 
uniformly  dark  pigments  can  hardly  have  sufficed  to  paint  a  true  picture  even 
of  his  own  times.  The  very  numerous  inscriptions  belonging  to  the  age  of 
Eeptimiiis  Severus  enable  us  to  control  at  many  points  and  largely  to  supplement 
the  literary  records  of  his  reign,  particulaily  as  regards  the  details  of  liis 
administration.  The  juridical  works  of  Justinian's  epoch  embody  much  that 
throws  light  on  the  government  of  Severus. 

The  principal  modem  woiks  relating  to  this  emperor,  aftei"  Tillemont  and 
Gibbon,  are — J.  J.  Schulte,  De  Jmperntore  L.  Septimio  Severo,  Mijnster,  1SC7 ; 
Hufner,  Untersuchungtn  zur  Gmscliichte  des  Ka'sers  L.  Septimius  Sccerus^ 
Gicsscn,  1875;  Untersuchungen  zur  romiichm  Kaisergescnchie,  ed.  by  M. 
Budinger;  H.  Schiller,  Geschichte  der  rvmisdien  Kaiserzei(,  Gothn,  1SS0-S3;  Da 
Ceulcneer,  E?sai  sur  la  Tie  et  7^  Re-jne  de  Septime  Severe,  Brussels,  ISSO; 
R^viUe,  la  Religion  a  Rome  sous  les  Siireres,  Paris,  ISSG.  Controversy  about  the 
many  disputed  matters  pertaining  to  Severus  has  been  intentionally  avoided  in 
what  has  been  said  above.  (J.  S.  K.) 

SEVERUS,  Maectjs  AmiELrus  Alexaxdee,  Roman 
emperor  from  222  to  235,  was  of  Syrian  parentage,  and  was 
born  at  Area  near  the  Syrian  Tripolis  (now  'Irka ;  YAkiit, 
iii.  G53  ;  cf.  Gen.  x.  17),  probably  in  the  year  205.  His 
father  Gessius  Marcianus  held  office  more  than  once  as  an 
imperial  procurator ;  his  mother  Julia  Mamcea  was  the 
daughter  of  Julia  ^ra:sa,  the  scheming  and  ambitious 
lady  of  Emesa  who  had  succeeded  in  raising  her  grand- 
son El-agabalus  to  the  throne  of  the  Ccesars ;  see  the 
genealogical  table  in  Helioc-vbalus.  His  original  name 
was  Alexius  Bassianus,  but  he  changed  it  in  221,  when 
^laesa  persuaded  Elagabalus  to  adopt  his  cousin  as  suc- 
cessor and  create  him  Ca2sar.  In  tlie  next  year  Elagabalus 
was  murdered,  and  Alexander  was  proclaimed  by  the 
Praetorians  and  accepted  by  the  senate.  He  was  then  a 
mere  lad,  amiable,  well-mcanihg,  but  somewhat  weak,  and 
entirely  under  the  dominion  of  his  mother,  a  woman  of 
many  virtues,  who  surrounded  her  son  with  wise  counsel- 
lors, watched  over  the  development  of  liis  character,  and 
improved  the  tone  of  the  administration,  but  on  the  other 
hand  was  inordinately  jealous  of  her  influence,  and  alien- 
ated the  army  by  extreme  parsimonj^  while  neither  she. 
nor  her  son  had  a  strong  enough  hand  to  keep  tight  the 
reins  of  military  discipline.  Mutinies  became  frequent  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire  :  to  one  of  them  the  life  of  the 
praetorian  prajfect  Ulpian  was  sacrificed  ;  another  compelled 


7Q2 


S  E  V  E  R  U  S 


the  retirement  of  Dion  Cassius  from  liis  command  (kog 
Dion).  On  tlio  \vhole,  liowcvor,  the  reign  ci  Alexander 
Soverus  -was  prosperous  ,tiU  he  was  summoned  to  the  East 
to  face  the  new  power  of  the  S;lsdnians  (see  Persia,  vol. 
sviii.  p.  ,G07).  Of  the  war  tha't  followed  we  have  vfery 
various  accounts;  Mommseu  (vol.  v.  p.  420  sq.)  leans  to 
that  which  is  least  favourable  to  the  Romans,  At  all 
events,  though  the  Persians  were  checked  for  the  time, 
the  conduct  of  the  Roman  army  showed  an  extraordinary 
lack  of  discipline.  The  emperor  returned  to  Rome  and 
celebrated  a  triumph  (233),  but  next  year  he  was  called 
to  face  German  invaders  in  Gaul,  and  there  was  slain 
with  his  mother  in  a  mutiny  which  was  probably  led  by 
Maximinus,  and  at  any  rate  purcliased  him  the  throne. 
Whatever  the  personal  virtues  of,  Alexander  were,  and 
they  have  not  lost  by  contract  with  his  successor's  brutal 
tyranny,  he  was  not  of  the  stuif  to  rule  a  military  empire. 
SEVEKUS,  SuLPicius  (c.  3G5-c.  425),  early  Christian 
writer.  A  native  of  Aquitania,  he  was  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  culture  of  his  country  and  time.  The  seven 
southern  provinces  of  Gaul,  between  the  Alps  and  the 
Loire,  had  long  been  completely  Romanized.  The  ver}'' 
name  "  Gaul "  was  repudiated  by  the  inhabitants  and 
confined  to  the  natives  of  the  ruder  northern  districts. 
The  lifetime  of  Severus  exactly  coincided  with  the  period 
of  greatest  literary  development  in  Aquitania,  then  the 
truest  or  only  true  home  of  Latin  letters  and  learning — • 
their  last  place  of  refuge,  from  which  Severua  saw  them 
driven  before  he  closed  his  eyes  on  the  world.  Almost  all 
that  we  know  of  his  life  comes  from  a  few  allusions  in  his 
own  v/ritings,  and  some  passages  in  the  letters  of  his 
friend  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola.  In  his  early  days  he 
was  famous  as  a  pleader  in  the  courts,  and  his  knowledge 
of  Roman  law  is  reflected  in  parts  of  his  writings.  He 
married  a  w'ealthy  lady  belonging  to  a  consular  family, 
who  died  young,  leaving  him  no  children.  At  this  time 
Severus  came  under  the  powerful  influence  of  St  Martin, 
bishop  of  Tours,  by  whom  he  was  Jed  to  devote  his  wealth 
to  the  Christian  poor,  and  his  own  powers  to  a  life  of  good 
works  and  meditation.  To  use  the  words  of  his  friend 
Paulinus,  he  broke  with  his  father,-  followed  Christ,  and  set 
the  teachings  of  the  "  tishermen"  far  above  all  his  "  Tullian 
learning."  He  rose  to  no  higher  rank  in  the  church  than, 
that  of  presbyter.  His  time  was  passed  chiefly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Toulouse,  and  such  literary  efforts  as  he 
permitted  to  himself  were  made  in  the  interests  of 
Christianity.  In  many  respects  no  two  men  could  "be 
more  unlike  than  Severus,  the  scholar  and  orator,  well 
versed  in  the  ways  of  the  world,  and  Martin,  the  rough 
Pannonian  bishop  of  Tours,  ignorant  of  learning,  sus- 
picious of  culture,  the  champion  of  the  monastic  life,  the 
seer  of  visions,  and  the  worker  of  miracles.  Yet  the  spirit 
of  the  rugged  saint  subdued  that  of  the  polished  scholar, 
and  "the  works  of  Severus  would  have  little  importance 
now  did  they  not  reflect  the  ideas,  influence,  and  aspira- 
tions of  Martin,  the  foremost  ecclesiastic  of  Gaul,  and  one 
of  the  most  striking  figures  in  the  church  of  his  day. 
■  The  chief  work  of  Severus  is  tlie  Chj-onica,  a  summary  of  sacred 
history  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  his  own  times,  with 
the  omission  of  the  events  recorded  iu  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts, 
"lest  the  form  of  his  brief  work  should  detract  from  'the  honour 
due  to  those  events."  The  book  was  in  fact  a  text-book,  and  was 
actually  used  as  such  in  the  schools  of  Europe  for  about  a  century 
and  a  half  after  the  cditio  princeps  was  published  by  Flacius 
lUyricus  in  1556.  Severus  nowhere  clearly  points  to,  tho  class  of 
readers  for  whom  his  book  is  designed.  He  disclaims  the'  inten- 
tion of  making  his  ^vork  a  substitute  for  the  actual  narrative 
contained  in  the  Bible.  "Worldly  historians"  had  been  used 
by  him,  he  says,  to  make  clear  the  dates  and  the  connexion  of 
events  and  for  supplementing  the  sacred  sources,  and  with  the 
intent  at  one  and  the  same  time  to  instruct  tho  unlearned  and  to 
*'  convini^fa  "  tho  learned.  Probably  the  "  unharncd  "  are  the  mass 
uf  ChrisUaas    and  the  learned  arc  the.  cultivated  Christians  and 


y:'/-\'\z  r.lik?,  to  whom  the  rud-^  language;  of  the  sacred  textsj. 
vJici::cr  i:\  their  GrL-t-k  or  their  Latin  form,  would  be  distasteful. 
TiiD  lii-eiary  structure  of  tho  narrative  itself  shows  that  Severus 
had  in  his  mind  piincipally  readers  on  the  same  level  of  culture 
with  himself.  Ho  was  anxious  to  show  that  sacred  history 
might  be  presented  in  a  form  which  lovers  of  Sallust  and  Tacitus 
could  appreciate  and  enjoy.  The  style  is  lucid  and  almost 
classical.  Though  phrases  and  even  sentences  from  many  classical 
authors  are  inwoven  here  and  there,  the  narrative  flows  on  easily, 
with  no  trace  of  the  jolts  and  jerks  which  olfcud  us  iu  almost 
every  line  of  a  patchwork  imitator  of  the  classics  like  Sidouius. 
In  order  that  his  work  niiglit  fairly  stand  beside  that  of  the  old 
Latin  writers,  Severus  boldly  ignored  the  allegorical  methods  of 
interpreting  sacred  history  to  which  the  heretics  and  the  orthodox 
of  the  ago  were  alike  wedded.  Possibly  lie  was  not  unshaken  in 
his  adhercnte  to  tho  peculiar  reading  which  nearly  all  men  then 
gave  to  the  maxim  that  "  the  letter  killeth  but  the  spirit  niaketh 
alive, " 

As  an  authority  for  times  antecedent  to  his  own,  Severus  is  of 
little  moment.  At  only  a  few  points  does  he  enable  us  to  correct 
or  supplement  other  records.  Bernays  has  shown  that  he  based 
Ins  narrative  of  the  destiniction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  on  the 
account  given  by  Tacitus  in  his  "Histories,"  a  portion  of  which 
has  been  lost.  We  are  enabled  thus  to  contrast  Tacitus  with 
Josephus,  who  warped  his  narrative  to  do  honour  to  Titus.  In 
his  allusions  to  the  Gentile  rulers  with  whom  the  Jews  came  into 
contact  from  the  time,  of  the  Maccabees  onwards,  Severus  dls- 
olo^ies  ^ome  points  which  are  not  without  importance.  But  the 
real  interest  of  his  work  lies,  first,  in  the  incidental  glimpses  it 
affords  all  through  of  tho  history  of  his  dwn  time,  next  and  mora 
particularly,  in  tho  information  he  has  preserved  concerning  the 
struggle  over  the  Priscillianist  heresy,  which  disorganized  and 
degraded  the  churclies  of  Spain  and  Gaul,  and  particularly  affected 
Aquitaine.  The  sympathies  here  betrayed  by  Severus  are  wholly 
those  of  St  Slartin.  The  stout  bishop  had  withstood  to  his  face 
ilaximus,  who  ruled  for  some  years  a  large  part  of  the  western 
portion  of  the  empire,  though  he  never  conquered  Italy.  He  had 
rei)roachcd  him  with  attacking  ond  overthrowing  his  predecessors 
on  the  throne,  and  for  his  dealings  with  the  church.  Severus  lose* 
no  opportunity  presented  by  his  narrative  for  laying  stress  on  the- 
crimes  and  follies  of  rulers,  and  on  tl\eir  cruelty,  though  he  once 
declares  that,  cruel  as  rulers  could  be,  priests  could  bo  crueller  still. 
This  last  statement  has  reference  to  the  bishops  who  had  left 
^Maximus  no  peace  till  he  had  stained  his  hands  with  the  blood  of 
PrisciUian  and  his  followers.  Maitin,  too,  had  denounced  ihe 
worldliness  and  greed  ot  the  Gaulish  bishops  and  clergy.  Accord- 
ingly wo  find  that  Severus,  in  narrating  the  division  of  Canaan 
among  tho  tribes,  calls  tlio  special  attention  of  ecclesiastics  to  the 
fact  that  no  portion  of  the,  land  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
lest  they  should  be  hindered  in  their  service  of  God.  "  Our  clergy 
seem,"  he  says,  "not  merely  forgetful  of  the  lesson  but  ignorant  of  it, 
such  a  passion  for  ^possessions  has  in  our  days  fastened  like  a  pesti- 
lence on  their  souls.  They  are  greedy  of  property,  and  tend  tlicir 
estates  and  hoard  their  gold,  and  buy  and  sell  and  give  their  minds 
to  gain.  Those  of  them  who  are  reputed  to  be  of  better  principles, 
who  neither  hold  property  nor  barter,  sit  and  wait  for  gifts,  and 
pollute  all  the  grace  of  tlieir  lives  by  taking  fees,  while  they  almost 
make  market  of  their  holiness  ;  but  I  have  digressed  farther  than  I 
intended,  through  vexation  and  weariness  of  the  present  age."  We 
here  catch  an  interesting  glimpse  of  the  circumstances  which  were 
winning  over  good  men  to  monasticism  in  the  West,  though  the  evi- 
dence of  an  enthusiastic  votary  of  the  solitary  life,  such  as  Severus 
was,  is  probably  not  free  from  exnggeratiou.  Severus  also  fully 
sympathized  with  the  action  of  St  Martin  touching  Prisciliianiam. 
This  mysterious  Western  onshoot  of  Gnosticism  had  no  single 
feature  about  it  which  could  soften  the  hostility  of  a  character 
such  as  Martin's  was,  but  he  staunchly  resisted  the  introduction  of 
secular  punishment  for  evil  doctrine,  and  v/ithdrew  from  communion 
with  those  bishops  in  Gaul,  a  large  majority,  who  invoked  the  aid 
of  Maximus  against  their  erring  brethren.  In  this  connexion  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  account  given  by  Severus  of  the  synod  held 
at  Rimini  in  359,  where  tho  question  arose  whether  the  bishops 
attending  the  assembly  might  lawfully  receive  money  from  the 
imperial  treasury  to  recoup  their  travelling  and  other  expenses. 
Severus  evidently  approves  tho  action  of  the  British  and  Gaulish 
bishops,  who  deemed  it  unbecoming  that  they  should  lie  under 
pecuniary  obligation  to  the  emperor.  His  ideal  of  the  church 
required  that  it  should  stand  clear  of  and  above  the  state. 

After  the  Chronica  the  chief  work  of  Severus  is  his  ZJ/( 
MoTtin,  a  contribution  to  pjopular  Christian  literature  whicJ 
did  much  to  establish  t'^'i  great  reputation  which  that  wondcr- 
w^orkiug  saint  maintained  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The  book 
is  not  properly  a  biography,  but  a  catalogue  of  miracles,  told  iu  all 
the  simplicity  of  absolute  belief.  The  power  to  work  miraculous^ 
signs  is  assumed  to  be  in  direct  proportion  to  holiness,  and  is  byi 
Severus  valued  merely  as  an  evidence  of  holiness,  which  he  \9 
persuaded  can  only  be  attained  through  a  life  of  isolation  from  thel 


S  E  V  — S  E  V 


703 


world.  In  the  first  of  his  dialogncs  Sererns  puts  into  the  month 
of  an  interlocutor  a  most  pleasing  description  of  the  life  of 
coetiobit«s  and  solitaries  in  tiie  deserts  bordering  on  Egypt.  The 
main  evidence  of  the  virtue  attained  by  them  lies  in  the  voluntary 
subjection  to  them  of  the  savage  beasts  among  which  they  lived. 
But  Severus  was  no  indiscriminating  adherent  of  monasticism. 
The  same  dialogue  shows  him  to  be  alive  to  its  dangers  and  defects. 
The  second  dialogue  is  a  large  appendix  to  the  Life  of  Martin,  and 
nally  supplies  more  information  of  his  life  as  bishop  and  of  his 
views  than  the  work  which  bears  the  title  Vila  S.  3/artiui.'  The 
two  dialogues  occasionally  make  interesting  references  to  personages 
of  the  epoch.  In  Dial  1,  cc.  6,  7,  we  have  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
controversies  which  raged  at  Alexandria  over  the  works  of  Origen. 
The  judgment  of  Severus  himself  is  no  doubt  that  which  he  puts 
in  the  mouth  of  his  interlocutor  Postuminniis  :  "  I  am  astonished 
that  one  and  the  same  man  could  have  so  far  differed  from  himself 
that  in  the  approved  portion  of  his  works  ho  has  no  equal  since 
the  apostles,  while  in  that  portion  for  which  he  is  justly  blamed 
it  is  proved  that  no  man  hr.s  committed  more  unseemly  errors." 
Thrte  epistles  complete  the  list  of  Sevcnis's  genuine  works.  He 
is  said  to  havtf  been  led  away  in  his  old  age  by  Pelagianism,  but 
to  have  repented  and  inflicted  long-enduring  penance  on  himself. 

The  text  of  the  Chronica  rests  on  a  single  MS.,  one  of  the  Palatine  collection 
now  in  the  Vatican;  of  the  other  works  SISS.  are  abuntljint.  Some  spurious 
letters  bear  the  name  of  Severus ;  also  in  a  MS.  at  Madrid  is  a  work  falsely 
professing  to  l>e  an  epitome  of  the  Chronica  of  Severus,  and  going  dOM-n  to 
611.  The  chief  editions  of  the  complete  woiks  of  Suvtrus  are  those  by  Do  Piato 
(Verona,  17il)  and  by  Halm  (fonniug  vol.  i.  of  the  Corpus  Scrtptoruni 
Eccitsioiiicorum  Latinorum,  Vienna,  1S66).  Tliero  Is  a  most  admii-able  mono- 
graph on  the  Chronica  by  Bemays  (Berlin,  1S61).  (J.  S.  K.) 

SfiVIGKfi,  Maeie  de  Eabutlx-Ch.ls-tal,  Marquise 
HE  (1626-1C96),  the  most  charming  of  all  letter-writers 
in  all  languages,  was  born  at  Paris  on  February  6,  1626, 
and  died  at  the  chateau  of  Grignan  (Drunie),  on  April  18, 
1096.  The  family  of  Eabutin  (if  not  so  illustrious  as  Bussy, 
JIadame  de  Scvigne's  notorious  cousin,  afTected  to  consider 
it)  was  one  of  great  age  and  distinction  in  Burgundy.  It 
was  traceable  in  documents  to  the  12th  century,  and  the 
castle  which  gave  it  name  still  existed,  though  in  ruins,  in 
Madame  de  Se\ngne's  time.  The  family  h^d  been  "  gens 
d'ep^e"  for  the  most  part,  though  Francois  de  Rabutin, 
the  author  of  valuable  memoirs  on  the  sixth  decade  of  the 
16th  century,  undoubtedly  belonged  to  it.  It  is  said  that 
Bussy's  silly  vanity  led  him  to  exclude  tliis  Frangois  from 
the  genealogy  of  his  house  because  he  had  not  occupied 
any  high  position.  ^Marie's  father,  Celse  Benigae  de 
Rabutin,  Baron  de  Chantal,  was  the  son  of  the  celebrated 
"  Saints "_  Chantal,  friend  and  disciple  of  St  Francis  of 
Sales ;  her  mother  was  Marie  do  Coulanges.  Celse  de 
Rabutin  shared  to  the  full  the  mania  for  duelling  which 
was  the  curse  of  the  gentlemen  of  Franco  during  the  first 
half  of  the  17th  century,  and  was  frequently  in  danger  both 
directly  from  his  adversaries  and  indirectly  from  the  law. 
He  died,  however,  in  a  more  legitimate  manner,  being 
killed  during  the  English  descent  on  the  Isle  of  Ehe  in 
July  1627.  His  wife  did  not  survive  liim  many  years,  and 
Marie  was  left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  seven  yeare  and  a 
few  months.  She  then  passed  into  the  care  of  her  grand- 
parents on  the  mother's  side ;  but  they  were  both  aged, 
and  the  survivor  of  them,  Philippe  de  Coulanges,  died  in 
1636,  !Marie  being  then  ten  years  old.  According  to  Frencj 
custom  a  family  council  was  held  to  select  a  guardian  of 
tlie  young  heiress,  for  such  she  was  to  some  extent.  Her 
uncle  Christophe  de  Coulanges,  Abbe  de  Livrj',  was  chosen. 
He  was  somewhat  young  for  the  guardianship  of  a  girl, 
being  only  twenty-nine,  but  readers  of  his  niece's  letters 
know  how  well  "  Le  Bien  Bon  " — for  such  is  his  name  in 
Madame  de  S(ivign6's  little  language — acquitted  himself 
of  the  trust.  He  lived  till  within  ten  years  of  his  ward's 
death,  and  long  after  his  nominal  functions  were  ended  he 
was  in  all  matters  of  business  the  good  angel  of  the  family, 
v/hile  for  half  a  century  his  abbacy  of  Livry  was  the 
favourite  residence,  both  of  his  niece  and  her  daughter. 
Coulanges  was  much  more  of  a  man  of  business  than  of 
a  man  of  letters,  but  either  choice  or  the  fashion  of  the 
time  induced  him  t«  make  of  his  niece  a  learned  lady. 
Chapelain   and  Menage  are   specially   mentioned  as   her 


tutors,  and  Menage  at  least  fell  in  love  with  her,  in  which 
point  he  resembled  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  was  constant 
to  his  own  habits  in  regard  to  his  jHipils.  Tallemant  des 
Reaux  gives  more  than  one  instance  of  the  ooo!  and  good- 
humoured  raillery  with  which  she  received  his  i>assion, 
and  the  earliest  letters  of  hers  that  we  possess  are 
addressed  to  Menage.  Another  literary  friend  of  her 
youth  was  the.  poet  Saint- Pavin.  Among  her  own  sex  she 
was  intimate  with  all  the  coterie  of  the  Hotel  Rambouillet, 
and  her  special  ally  was  Mademoiselle  de  la  Vergne,  after- 
wards iladame  de  la  Fayette.  In  person  she  was  extremely 
attractive,  tuough  the  minutfe  critics  of  the  time  (which 
was  the  palmy  day  of  portraits  in  words)  objected 'to  her 
divers  deviations  from  strictly  regular  beauty,  such  as  eyes 
of  different  colours  and  sizes,  a  "  square-ended  "  nose,  and 
a  somewhat  heavy  jaw.  Her  beautiful  hair  and  com- 
plexion, however,  were  admitted  even  by  these  censors,  as 
well  as  the  extraordinary  spirit  and  liveliness '  of  her 
expression.  Her  long  minority,  under  so  careful  a 
guardian  as  Coulanges,  had  also  raised  her  fortune  to  .the 
amount  of  100,000  crowns — a  large  sum  for  the  time,  and 
one  which  with  her  birth  and  beauty  might  have  allowed 
her  to  expect  a  very  brilliant  marriage.  That  which  she 
finally  made  was  certainly  one  of  atJection  on  her  side 
rather  than  of  .interest.  There  had  been  some  talk  of  her 
cousin  Bussy,  but  very  fortunately  for  her  this  came  to 
nothing.  She  actually  married  Henri,  Marquis  de  Sevigne,, 
a  Breton  gentleman  of  a  good  family,  and  allied  to  the 
oldest  houses  of  that  province,  but  of  no  great  estate. 
The  marriage  took  place  on  August  4,  1644,  and  the  pair 
went  almost  immediately  to  Scvigne's  manor-house  of  Les 
Rochers,  near  Vitrij,  a  place  which  Madame  de  SevignS 
was  in  future  years  to  immortalize.  It  was  an  unfortified 
chateau  of  no  very  great  size,  but  picturesque  enough,  with 
the  peaked  turrets  common  in  French  architecture,  and 
surrounded  by  a  park  and  grounds  of  no  large  extent,  but 
thickly  wooded  and  communicating  with  other  woods. 
The  abundance  of  trees  gave  it  the  repute  c.f  being  damp 
and  somewhat  gloomy.  Fond,  however,  as  JIadame  de 
Sevigne  'was  of  society,  it  may  be  suspected  that  the 
happiest  days  of  her  brief  married  life  were  spent  there. 
For  tliere  at  any  rate  her  husband  had  lei-s  opportunityj 
than  in  Paris  of  neglecting  her,  and  of  wasting  her  money 
and  his  own.  Very  little  good  is  said  of  Henri  de 
Sevigne  by  any  of  his  contemporaries.  He  was  one  of 
the  innumerable  •  lovers  of  JSTinon  de  I'Enclos,  and  made 
himself  even  more  conspicuous  with  a  certain  Madame  de 
Gondran,  known  in  the  nickname  slang  of  the  time  as 
"  La  Belle  Lolo."  He  was  wildly  extravagant.  That  his 
wife  loved  him  and  that  he' did  not  love  her  was  generally 
admitted,  and  the  frank  if  somewhat  coxcomb-like  accounts 
whicli  Bussy  Rabutin  gives  of  his  own  attempt  and  failure 
to  persuade  her  to  retaliate  on  her  husband  are  decisive 
as  to  her  virtue.  At  last  Se'^'igne's  pleasant  vices  came 
home  to  him.  He  quarrelled  with  the  Chevalier  d'Albrct 
about  Madame  de  Gondran,  fought  with  him  and  was 
mortally  wounded  on  the  4th  of  February  1651  ;  he  died 
two  days  afterwards.  There  is  no  reasonable  doubt  that 
his  wife  regretted  him  a  great  deal  more  than  he  deserved. 
On  two  different  occasions  she  is  said  to  have  fainted  in 
public  at  the  sight  once  of  his  adversary  and  once  of  his 
second  in  the  fatal  duel ;  and  whatever  Jladanio  do 
Sevigne  was  (and  she  had  several  faults)  she  was  certainly 
not  a  hypocrite.  Her  husband  had  when  living  accused 
her  of  coldness, — the  common  excuse  of  libertine  husbands, 
— but  even  he  seems  to  have  found  fault  only  with  her 
temperament,  not  with  her  heart.  To  close  this  part  of 
the  subject  it  may  be  said  that  though  only  six  and 
twenty,  and  more  beautiful  than  ever,  she  never  married 
again  despite  frequent  ofifers,  and  thar  no  aspertiian  was. 


704 


S  E  V  I  G  N  E 


ever  thrown  save  in  one  instance  on  her  fame.  For  the 
rest  of  her  life,  which  \ra3  long,  she  gave  herself  up  to  her 
children.  These  were  two  in  number,  and  they  divided 
their  mother's  affections  by  no  means  equally.  The  eldest 
was  a  daughter,  Fran^oise  Marguerite  de  Sevigne,  who 
was  born  on  October  10,  1046,  whether  at  Les  Eochers 
or  in  Paris  is  not  absolutely  certain.  The  second,  a  son, 
Cliarles  de  Sevigne,  was  born  at  Les  Rochers  in  the  spring 
of  164S.  To  him  Madame  de  Sevign^  was  an  indulgent, 
a  generous  (though  not  altogether  just),  and  in  a  n-ay  an 
aftectionate  mother.  'Her  daughter,  the  future  Madame  de 
Grignan,  she  worshipped  with  an  almost  insane  affection, 
which  only  its  charming  literary  results  and  the  delightful 
qualities  which  accompanied  it  in  the  worshipper,  though 
not  in  the  worshipped,  save  from  being  ludicrous  if  not 
revolting.  As  it  is,  not  one  in  a  hundred  of  Madame  de 
Sevigne's  readers  can  find  in  his  heart  to  be  angry  with 
her  for  her  devotion  to  a  very  undivine  divinity. 

After  her  husband's  death  Madame  de  Sevigne  passed 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  1651  in  retirement  at  Les 
Rochers.  She  had,  however,  no  intention  of  renouncing 
the  world,  and  she  returned  to  Paris  in  JTovember  of  that 
year,  her  affairs  having  been  put  in  such  order  as  Sevigne's 
extravagance  permitted  by  the  faithful  Coulanges.  For 
nearly  ten  years  little  of  importance  occmred  in  her  life, 
which  was  passed  at  Paris  in  a  house  she  occupied  in  the 
Place  Eoyale  (not  as  yet  in  the  famous  Hotel  Carnavalet), 
at  Les  Rochers,  at  Llvry,  or  at  her  own  estate  of  Bourbilly 
in  the  Maconnais.  She  had,  however,  in  1658  a  quarrel 
with  her  cousin  Bussy,  which  had  not  unimportant  results, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  time  mentioned  above  she  narrowly 
escaped  being  compromised  in  reputation,  though  not  poli- 
tically, at  I'ouquet's  downfall.  ISTotwithstaudrng  Bussy's 
unamiable  character  and  the  early  atfair  of  the  proposed 
marriage,  and  notwithstanding  also  Ws  libertine  conduct 
towards  her,  the  cousins  had  always  been  friends ;  and 
the  most  amusing  and  characteristic  part  of  Madame  de 
Sevigne's  correspondence,  before  the  date  of  her  daughter's 
marriage,  is  addressed  to  him.  She  had  a  very  strong 
belief  in  family  ties ;  she  recognized  in  Bussy  a  kindred 
spirit,  and  she  excused  his  faults  as  Rabutinades  and 
JiafnUinages — the  terms  she  uses  in  alluding  to  the  rather 
excitable  and  humorist  temper  of  the  house.  But  in 
165S  a  misunderstanding  about  money  brought  about  a 
quarrel,  which  in  its  turn  had  a  long  sequel,  and  results 
not  unimportant  in  literature.  Bussy  and  his  cousin  had 
jointly  come  in  for  a  considerable  legacy,  and  he  asked  her 
for  a  loan.  If  this  was  not  positively  refused,  there  was  a 
difficulty  made  about  it,  and  Bussy  was  deeply  oSended. 
A  year  later,  at  the  escapade  of  Eoissy  (see  Rabutin), 
according  to  his  own  account,  he  improvised  (according 
to  probability  he  had  long  before  written  it)  the  famous 
portrait  of  Madame  de  Sevigne  which  appears  in  his 
notorious  Histoire  Amoureiise,  and  which  is  a  triumph  of 
malice.  Circulated  at  first  in  manuscript  and  afterwards 
in  print,  this  caused  Madame  de  Sevigne  the  deepest  pain 
and  indignation,  and  the  quarrel  between  the  cousins  was 
not  fully  made  up  for  years,  if  indeed  it  was  ever  fully 
niade  up.  This  portrait,  however,  was  more  wounding 
to  self-love  than  in  any  way  really  dangerous,  for,  read 
between  the  lines,  it  is  in  effect  a  testimonial  of  character. 
The  Fouquet  matter  was  more  serious.  The  superin- 
tendent was  a  famous  lady-killer,  but  Madame  de  Sevign^, 
tiiough  he  was  her  friend,  and  though  she  had  been 
ardently  courted  by  him  as  by  others  (one  quarrel  in  her 
presence  between  the  Duke  de  Rohan  and  the  Marquis  de 
Tenquedec  had  beCome  notorious),  had  hitherto  escaped 
ficandal.  At  Fouquet's  downfall  in  1651  it  was  announced 
on  indubitable  authority  that  communications  from  her 
had  been  found  in  the  cofer  v/hers  Fouquet  kept  his  lo've 


letters.  She  protested  that  the  notes  in  question  were  of 
friendship  merely,  and  Bussy  (one  of  the  not  very  numerous 
good  actions  of  h's  life)  obtained  from  Le  Tellier,  who  as 
minister  had  examined  the  letters,  a  corroboration  of  tha 
protest.  But  the  letters  were  never  published,  and  there 
have  always  been  those  who  held  that  iladarae  de  S6vign6 
regarded  Fouquet  with  at  least  a  very  warm  kind  of 
friendship.  It  is  certain  that  her  letters  to  Pomponne 
describing  his  trial  are  among  her  masterpiocea  of 
unaffected,  vivid,  and  sympathetic  narration. 

During  these  earlier  years,  besides  the  circumstances 
already  mentioned,  Madame  de  Seviga6  conceived,  like 
most  of  the  better  and  more  thoughtful  among  Frenchmen 
and  Frenchwomen,  a  great  affection  for  the  establishment 
of  Port  Royal,  which  was  not  withcut  its  effect  on  her 
literary  work.  That  work,  however  (if  writing  than  which 
certainly  none  was  ever  less  carried  out  in  a  spirit  of 
mere  workmanship  can  be  so  called),  dates  in  its  bulk  and 
really  important  part  almost  entirely  from  the  last  t'nirty 
years  of  her  life.  Her  letters  before  the  marriage  of  her 
daughter,  though  by  themselves  they  would  suffice  to  give 
her  a  very  high  rank  among  letter-writers,  would  not  do 
more  than  fill  one  moderate-sized  volume.  Those  after 
that  marriage  fill  nearly  ten  large  volumes  in  the  latest 
and  best  edition.  We  do  not  hear  very  much  of  Made- 
moiselle de  Sevigne's  early  youth.  For  a  short  time,  at  a 
rather  uncertain  date,  she  was  placed  at  school  with  the 
nuns  of  St  Marie  at  Nantes.  But  for  the  most  part  her 
mother  brought  her  up  herself,  assisted  by  the  Abbe  de  la 
ilousse,  a  faithful  friend,  and  for  a  time  one  of  her  most 
constant  companions.  La  Mousse  was  a  great  Cartesian, 
and  he  made  Mademoiselle  de  Sevigne  also  a  devotee  of 
the  bold  soldier  of  Touraine  to  a  degree  which  even  in  that 
century  of  blue  stockings  excited  surprise  and  some  ridi- 
cule. Bat  Mademoiselle  de  Sevigne  was  bent  on  more 
mundane  triumphs  than  philosophy  had  to  offer.  Her 
beauty  is  all  the  more  incontestable  that  she  was  by  no 
means  generally  liked.  Bussy,  a  critical  and  not  too  bene- 
volent judge,  called  her  "la  plus  jolie  fiUe  de  France," 
and  it  seems  to  be  agreed  that  she  resembled  her  mother, 
with  the  advantage  of  more  regular  features.  She  was 
introduced  at  court  early,  and  as  she  danced  well  she 
figured  frequently  in  the  ballets  which  were  the  chief 
amusement  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  in  its  early  days. 
If,  however,  she  was  more  regularly  beautiful  than  her 
mother  she  had  little  or  nothing  of  her  attraction,  and 
like  iriany  other  beauties  who  have  entered  society  with 
similar  expectations  she  did  not  immediately  find  a 
husband.  Various  projected  alliances  fell  through  for  one 
reason  or  another,  and  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  16G8 
that  her  destiny  was  settled.  On  January  29  in  the  next 
year  she  married  Frangois  Adhemar,  Comte  de  Grignan, 
a  Provencal,  of  one, of  the  noblest  families  of  France,  and 
a  man  of  amiable  and  honourable  character,  but  neither 
young  nor  handsome,  nor  in  reality  rich.  He  had  been 
twice  married  and  his  great  estates  were  heavily  .encum- 
bered. Neither  did  the  large  dowry  (300,000  livTes) 
which  Madame  de  Sevign<5,  somewhat  unfairly  to  her  son, 
bestowed  upon  her  daughter,  suffice  to  clear  encumbrances, 
which  were  constantly  increased  in  the  sequel  by  the 
extravagance  of  Madame  de  Grignan  as  well  as  of  her 
husband. 

Charles  de  Sevign^  was  by  this  time  twenty  years  old, 
but  he  had  no  doubt  already  learnt  that  he  was  not  the 
person  of  chief  importance  in  the  family.  He  never, 
throughout  his  life,  appears  to  have  resented  his  mother's 
preference  of  his  sister ;  but,  though  thoroughly  amiable, 
he  was  not  (at  any  rate  in  his  youth)  a  model  character. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  education,  tut  just  tefore  his 
sister's  marrisge  he  vclunte.ered  for  a  rather  hairbrsined 


S  E  V  X  a  N  E 


705 


■expedition  to  Crete  agaiust  the  Turks,  and  serverl.  with 
credit.  Then  his  mother  bought  him  the  coramissior.  of 
guidon  (a  kind  of  sub-cornet)  in  the  Gendarmes  Dauphin, 
in  "which  regiment  he  served  for  some  years,  and  after 
long  complaining  of  the  slowness  of  promotion  rather 
rapidly  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain,  when  he  sold  out. 
But  though  he  always  fought  well  he  was  not  an  enthusi- 
astic soldier,  and  was  constantly  and  not  often  fortunately 
in  love.  He  followed  his  father  into  the  nets  of  Ninon 
de  I'Enclos,  and  was  Racine's  rival  with  Mademoiselle 
Charcpmesle.  The  way  ia  which  his  mother  was  made 
confidante  of  these,  discreditable  and  not  very  successful 
loves  is  characteristic  both  of  the  time  and  of  the  country. 
In  1669  M.  de  Grignan,  who  had  previously  been  lieu- 
ten  in  t-governor  of  Languedoc,  was  transferred  to  Provence. 
The  governor-in-chief  was  the  young  duke  of  VendOme. 
But  at  this  thne  he  was  a  boy,  and  he  never  really  took 
up  the  government,  so  that  Grignan  for  more  than  forty 
years  was  in  effect  viceroy  of  this  important  province. 
Hb  wife  rejoiced  greatly  in  the  part  of  vice-queen ;  but 
their  peculiar  situation  threw  on  them  the  expenses 
without  the  emoluments  of  the  office,  and  those  expenses 
were  increased  by  the  extravagance  of  both,  so  that  the 
Grignan  money  affairs  hold  a  larger  place  in  Madame  de 
Sevigne's  lettei-s  than  might  perhaps  be  wished. 

In  1S71  Madame  de  Sevigne  with  her  son  paid  a  visit 
to  Les  Rochers,  which  is  memorable  in  her  history  and  in 
literature.  The  states  of  Brittany  were  convoked  that 
jcar  at  Vitr^.  This  town  being  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  Les  Rochers,  jSIadame  de  Sevigne's  usually 
quiet  life  at  her  country  house  was  diversified  by  the 
necessity  of  entertaining  the  governor,  the  Due  de 
Chaulnes,  of  appearing  at  his  receptions,  and  so  forth. 
All  these  matters  are  duly  consigned  to  record  in  her 
letters,  together  with  much  good-natured  raillery  (it  must 
be  admitted  that  it  is  sometimes  almost  on  the  verge  of 
being  ill-natured,  though  never  quite  over  it)  on  the 
country  ladies  of  the  neighbourhood  and  their  waj's.  She 
remained  at  Les  Rochers  during  the  whole  summer  and 
autumn  of  1671,  and  did  not  return  to  Paris  till  late  in 
November.  The  country  news  is  then  succeeded  by  news 
of  the  court.  At  the  end  of  the  next  year,  1672,  one 
great  wish  of  her  heart  was  gratified  by  paying  a  visit  to 
ner  daughter  in  her  vice-royalty  of  Provence.  Madame 
de  Grignan  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  anxious  for 
this  visit, — perhaps  because,  as  the  letters  show  in  many 
cases,  the  exacting  affection  of  her  mother  was  somewhat 
too  strong  for  her  own  colder  nature,  perhaps  because  she 
feared  such  a  witness  of  the  ruinous  extravagance  which 
characterized  the  Grignan  household.  But  her  mother 
remained  with  her  for  nearly  a  year,  and  did  not  return  to 
Paris  till  the  end  of  1673.  During  this  time  we  have  (as 
is  usually  the  case  during  these  Provencal  visits  and  the 
■visits  of  Madame  de  Grignan  to  Paris)  some  letters 
addressed  to  Madame  de  Sevigne,  but  comparatively  few 
frcn  her.  A  visit  of  the  second  class  was  the  chief  event 
of  1674,  and  the  references  to  this,  such  as  they  are,  is 
the  6hief  evidence  that  mother  and  daughter  wei-e  on  the 
whole  better  apart.  1675  brought  with  it  the  death  of 
Turenne  (of  which  Madame  de  S^vign6  has  given  a  very 
noteworthy  account,  characteristic  of  her  more  ambitious 
but  not  perhaps  her  more  successful  manner),  and  also 
serious  disturbances  in  Brittany.  Notwithstanding  these, 
it  was  necessary  for  Madame  do  Sevignd  to  make  her 
periodical  visit  to  Les  Rochers.  She  reached  the  houfe  in 
safety,'  and  the  friendship  of  Chaulnes  protected  her  '^oth 
from  violence  and  ff.om  the  exactions  which  the  miserable 
province  underwent  as  a  punishment  for  its  resistance  to 
excessive  and  unconstitutional  taxation.  No  small  part 
of  her  letters  is  occupied  by  these  affairs. 


The  year  1676  saw  several  things  important  in  Madame 
de  Sevigne's  life.  For  the  first  time  she  was  seriously  ill, 
— it  would  appear  with  rheumatic,  fever, — and  she  did  not 
thoroughly  recover  till  she  had  visited  Vichy.  Her  letters 
from  this  plac  are  among  her  very  best,  and  picture  Life 
at  a  17th-century  watering-place  with  unsurpassed  vivid- 
ness. In  this  year,  too,  took  place  the-trial  and  execution 
of  Madame  de  BrinvUliers.  This  event  figures  in  the 
letters,  and  the  references  to  it  are  among  those  v.-hich 
have  given  occasion  to  unfavourable  comments  on  Madame 
de  Sevigne's  character — comments  "whiclJ,  with  others  of 
the  kind,  will  be  more  conveniently  treated  together. 
In  the  next  year,  1677,  she  moved  into  the  Hotel  Curaa- 
valet,  a  house  which  still  remains  and  is  inseparably 
connected  with'  her  memory,  and  she  had  the  pleasure 
of  welcoming  th^  whole  Grignan  k.mily  to  it.  They 
remained  there  a  long  time  ;  indeed  nearly  two  years 
seem  to  have  been  spent  by  Madame  de  Grignan  partly 
in  Paris  and -partly  at  Livry.  The  return  to  Provence 
took  place  in  October  1078,  and  next  year  Madame  de 
Sevigne  had  the  grief  of  losing  La  Rochefoucauld,  the 
most  eminent  and  one  of  the  most  intimate  of  her  close 
personal  friends  and  constant  associates.  In' 1680  she 
again  visited  Brittany,  but  the  close  of  that  year  saw  her 
back  ia  Paris  to  receive  another  and  even  longer  visit 
from  her  daughter,  who  remained  in  Paris  for  four  years. 
Before  the  end  of  the  last  year  of  this  stay  (in  February 
1684)  Charles  de  Sevigne,  after  all  his  wandering  loves, 
and  after  more  than  one  talked-of  alliance,  was  married 
to  a  young  Breton  lady,  Jeanne  Marguerite  de  Mauron, 
who  had  a  considerable  fortune.  In  the  arrangements  for 
this  marriage  Madame  de  Sevigmi  practically  divided  all 
her  fortune  between  her  children  (Madame  de  Grignan  of 
course  receiving  an  unduly  large  share),  and  reserved  only 
part  of  the  life  interest.  The  greed  of  Madame  do 
Grignan  nearly  broke  her  brother's  marriage,  but  it  was 
finally  concluded  and  proved  a  very  happy  one  in  a  some- 
what singular  fashion.  Both  Sevigne  and  his  wife  became 
deeply  religious,  and  at  first  Madame  de  Sevign^  found 
their  household  (for  she  gave  up  Les  Rochers  to  them) 
not  at  all  lively.  But  by  degrees  she  grew  fond  of  her 
laughter-in-law.  During  this  year  she  spent  a  consider- 
able time  in  Brittany,  first  on  business,  afterwards  on  a 
visit  to  her  son,  and  partly  it  would  appear  for  motives 
of  economy.  But  Madame  de  Grignan  still  continued 
with  only  short  absences  to  inhabit  Paris,  and  the  mother 
and  daughter  were  practically  in  each  other's  company 
until  1688.  The  proportion  of  letters  therefore  that  we 
have  for  the  decade  1677-1687  is  much  smaller  than 
that  which  represents  the  decade  preceding  it ;  indeed  the 
earlier  period  contains  the  great  bulk  of  the  whole  corre- 
spondence. In  1687  the  Abbe  de  Coulangcs,  Madame  de 
Scvignd's  uncle  and  good  angel,  died,  and  in  the  following 
year  the  whole  family  were  greatly  excited  by  the  first 
campaign  of  the  young  Marquis  de  Grignab,  Madame  do 
Grignan's  only  son,  who  was  sent  splendidly  equipped  to 
the  siege  of  Philippsbourg.  In  the  same  year  Madame  de 
Sevigne  was  present  at  the  St  Cyr  performance  of  Esther, 
and  some  of  her  most  amusing  descriptions  of  court  cere- 
monies and  experiences  date  from  this  time.  1689  and 
1690  were  almost  entirely  spent  by  her  at  Les  Rochers 
with  her  son ;  and  on  leaving  him  she  went  across  Franco 
to  Provence,. .  There  was  some  excitement  during  her 
■Breton  stay,  owing  to  the  rumour  of  an  English  descent, 
on  which  occasion  the  Breton  militia  was  called  out,  and 
Charles  do  S<5vigne  appeared  for  the  last  time  as  a  soldier  ; 
'lut  it  came  to  nothing.  1691  was  passed  at  Grignan  and 
other  places  in  the  south,  but  at  the  end  of  it  Madame  de 
Sevign6  returned  to  Paris, .  brifaging  the  Grignans  with 
her;  and  her  daughter  stayed  with  her  till  1694.     The 

XXL  —  .8q 


706 


S  E  V  I  G  N  E 


year  1693  saw  the  less  of  two  of  her  oldest  friends, — Bu£sy 
liabutin,  her  faithless  and  troublesome  but  in  his  own  way 
affectionate  cousin,  and  Madame  de  la  Fayette,  her  life- 
long companion,  and  on  the  \vhoie  perhaps  her  best  and 
wisest  friend.  Another  friend  almost  as  intimate,  Madame 
de  Lavardln,  followed  in  1G94.  Madame  de  St^vign^ 
spent  but  a  few  months  of  this  latter  year  alone,  and 
followed  her  daughter  to  Provence.  She  never  revisited 
Brittany  after  1691.  Two  important  marriages  with 
their  preparations  occupied  most  of  her  thoughts  during 
1694-1G95.  The  young  Marquis  de  Grignan  married  the 
drughtcr  of  Saiat-Amant,  an  immei^scly  rich  financier; 
but  his  mother's  prido,  ill-nature,  and  bad  taste  (she  is 
said  to  have  remarked  in  full  court  that  it  was  necessary 
now  and  then  to  "  manure  the  best  lands,"  referring  to 
Saint-Amant's  wealth,  low  birth,  and  the  Gr ignan's  nobility) 
made  the  marriage  not  a  very  happy  one.  His  sister 
Pauline,  who,  in  the  impossibility  of  dowering  her  jichly, 
had  a  narrow  escape  of  the  cloister,  made  a  marriage  of 
affection  with  M.  de  Simiane,  and  eventually  became  the 
sole  representative  and  coutinuator  of  the  families  of 
Grignan  and  Sevign^. 

Madame  de  Sevigne  survived  these  alliances  but  a  very 
short  time.  During  an  illness  of  her  daughter  she  herself 
was  attacked  by  smallpox  in  April  1696,  and  she  died  on 
the  17th  of  that  month  at  Grignan,  and  was  buried  there. 
Her  idolized  daughter  was  not  present  during  any  time  of 
her  illness ;  it  has  been  charitably  hoped  that  she  was  too 
ill  herself.  Her  known  attention  to  her  ovv"n  good  looks, 
and  the  terror  of  the  smallpox  which  then  prevailed, 
supply  perhaps  a  less  charitable  but  sufficient  explanation. 
But  in  her  will  Madame  de  Sevign6  still  showed  her  prefer- 
ence for  this  not  too  grateful  child,  and  Charles  de  SevigntS 
accepted  his  mother's  wishes  in  a  letter  showing  the  good- 
nature which  he  had  never  lacked,  and  the  good  sense 
which,  after  his  early  follies,  and  even  in  a  way  during 
them,  he  had  also  shown.  But  the  two  families  were, 
except  as  has  been  said  for  !Madame  de  Simiane  and  her 
posterity,  to  be  rapidly  broken  up.  Charles  de  Sevign^ 
and  his  wife  had  no  children,  and  he  himself,  after  occupy- 
ing some  public  posts  (he  was  king's  lieutenant  in  Brittany 
in.  1697),  went  with  his  ^ife  into  religious  retiremsnt  at 
Paris  in  1703,  and  after  a  time  sequestered  himself  still 
more  in  the  seminary  of  Sainte-Magloire,  where  he  died  on 
March  26,  1713.  His  widov/  survived  him  twenty  years. 
Madame  de  Grignan  had  died  on  August  16,  1705,  at  a 
country  house  near  Marseilles,  of  the  very  disease  which 
she  had  tried  to  escape  by  not  visiting'  her  dying  mother. 
Her  son,  who  had  fought  at  Blenheim,  had  died  of  the 
same  malady  at  Thionville  the  year  before.  Marie 
Blanche,  her  eldest  daughter,  was  in  a  convent,  and,  as  all 
the  Comte  de  Grignan's  brothers  had  either  entered  the 
church  or  died  unmarried,  the  family,  already  bankrupt 
in  fortune,  was  extinguished  in  the  male  line  by  Grignan's 
own  death  in  1714,  at  a  very  great  age.  Madame  de 
Simiane,  whose  connexion  with  the  history  of  the  letters 
is  important,  died  in  1737. 

The  chief  subjects  of  public  interest  and  the  principal  family 
events  of  importance  which  are  noticed  in  the  letters  of  Madame 
de  Sevigne  nave  been  indicated  already.  But,  as  will  readily  be 
understood,  neither  the  whole  nor  even  the  chisf  interest  of  her 
correspondence  is  confined  to  such  things.  In  the  latest  edition . 
the  letters  extend  to  sixteen  or  seventeen  hundred,  of  which,  how- 
ever, a  considerable  number '(perhaps  a  third)  are  replies  of  other 
■persons  or  letters  addressed  to  her,  or  letttrs  of  her  family  and 
friends  having  more  or  less  connexion  with  the  subjects  of  her  cor- 
respondence. As  a  iiile  her  own  letters,  especially  those  to  her 
daughter,  are  of  great  length.  Writing  as  she  did  in  a  time  when 
newspapers  were  not,  or  at  least  were  scanty  and  jejune,  gossip  of 
all  sorts  appears  among  her  subjects,  and  some  of  her  most  famous 
letters  are  pure  reportage  (to  use  a  modern  French  slang  term), 
v/hile  others  de::l  with  strictly  private  subjects.  Thus  one  of  her 
best  known  pieces  has  for  subject  the  famous  suicide  of  the  great 


cook  Yatel  owing  to  a  misunderatanding  as  to  the  provision  of  fish 
for  an  cnter*!ilnnAcnt  given  to  the  king  by  Condc  at  Chantilly. 
Another  (ono  of  the  most  characteristic  of  all)  deals  wiLh  the 
projected  m,''-Tiage  of^Lauzun  and  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensicr ; 
another  with  the  refusal  of  ono  of  her  own  footmen  to  turn  hay- 
maker when  it  was  important  to  get  the  crop  in  at  Les  Kochers  ; 
another  with  the  fixe  v/hich  burnt  out  her  neighbour's  house  it. 
Paris.  At  one  moment  she  tells  how  a  forward  lady  of  honour 
was  disconcerted  in  offering  certain  services  at  Mademoiselle's 
Icvce  ;  at  another  how  ill  a  courtier's  clothes  became  him.  Shs 
enters,  as  has  been  said,  at  great  length  into  the  pecuniary 
difficiuties  of  her  daughter;  she  tells ^tha  most  extraordinary 
stories  of  the  fashion  in  which  Charles  de  Sevigne  sowed  his  wild 
oats  ;  she  takes  an  almost  ferocious  interest  and  side  in  hci 
daughter's  quarrels  \vith  rival  beauties  or  great  officials  in  Provence 
who  tlirov.-  difficulties  in  the  way  of  government. 

Almost  all  writers  of  literary  letters  since  Madame  de  Sevigne's 
days,  or  rather  since  the  publication  of  her  correspond 3nce,  have 
unitated  her  "jore  or  less  directly,  more  or  less  consciously,  and  it 
is  therefore  only  by  applying  that  historic  estimate  upon  which 
all  trao  criticism  rests  that  her  full  value  can  be  discerned.  TIk- 
charm  of  her  work  is,  however,  so  irresistible  that,  read  even  with- 
out any  historical  knowledge  and  in  the  comparatively  adulterated 
editions  in  which  it  is  generally  met  with,  that  charm  can  hardly 
be  missed.  Madame  de  Sevignd  was  a  member  of  the  strong  and 
original  group  of  writers — Retz»  La  Rochefoucauld,  Comeille,  Pascal, 
St  Evremond,  Descartes,  and  the  rest — who  escaped  the  finical  and 
weakening  reforms  of  the  later  17th  century,  while  for  the  most  part 
they  had  profited  by  tliose  earher  reforms  which  succeeded' the 
classicizing  of  the  Pleiade  and  the  imitation  of  Spanish  and  Italian 
which  marred  some  e;?.riy  v.'ork  of  Louis  XUI.'s  time.  According  to 
the  strictest  standard  of  the  Academy  her  phraseology  is  sometimes 
incorrect,  and  it  occasionally  shov.-s  traces  of  the  quaint  and  affected 
stylo  of  'C^^  Predcuscs  ;  but  these  things  only  add  to  its  savour  and 
piquancy.  In  lively  narration  few  writers  have  excelled  her,  and 
in  the  natural  expression  of  domestic  affection  and  maternal 
alTectiou  none.  She  had  an  all-observant  eye  for  trifles  and  the 
keenest  possible  appreciation  of  the  ludicrous,  together  with  a 
hearty  relish  for  all  sorts  of  amusements,  pageants,  and  diversions, 
and  a  deep  though  not  voluble  or  over-sensitive  sense  of  the 
beauties  c:v  ature.  But  with  all  this  she  had  an  understanding  as 
solid  as  her  temper  was  gay.  UnUke  her  daughter  she  was  not  a 
professed  blue-stocking  or  philosophess.  But  she  had  a  str'ong 
affection  for  theology,  in  which  she  inclined  (like  the  great  majority 
of  the  religious  and  intelligent  laity  of  her  time  in  France)  to  tlio 
Jansenist  side.  Her  favourite  author  in  this  class  was  Nicole. 
She  has  been  reproached  with  her  fondness  for  the  romances  of 
ilile.  de  Scudcry  and  the  rest  of  her  school.  But  probably  many 
persons  who  make  that  reproach  have  themselves  never  read  the 
worl'is  they  despise,  and  are  ignorant  how  much  merit  there  is  in 
books  whose  chief  faults  are  that  they  arc  wri^en  in  a  strongly 
marked  and  now  obsolete  fashion,  and  that  their  length  (which, 
however,  scarcely  if  at  all  exceeds  that  of  Clarissa)  is  preposterous. 
In  purely  literary  criticism  Madame  de  Sevigne,  few  as  were  the 
airs  she  gave  herself,  was  no  mean  expert.  Her  preference  for 
Corneille  over  Racine  has  much  more  in  it  than  the  fact  that  the 
elder  poet  had  b^en  her  favourite  before  the  younger  began  to 
write  ;  and  her  remarks  on  La  Fontaine  and  some  other  authors 
are  both  judicious  and  independent.  Nor  is  she  wanting  in 
original  reflexions  of  no  ordinary  merit.  All  these  things,  added 
to  her  abundance  of  amusing  matter  and  the  charm  of  her  bright 
and  ceaselessly  flowing  style,  fully  account  for  the  unchanged  and 
undiminished  delight  which  half  a  dozen  generations  have  tai:en 
in  lier  work.  But  it  cannot  be  repeated  too  often  that  to  enjoy 
that  work  in  its  most  enjoyable  point — the  combination  of  fluent 
and  easy  style  with  quaint  archaisms  and  tricks  of  phrase — it  must 
be  read  as  she  wrote  it,  and  not  in  the  trimmed  and  corrected  version 
of  Pen-in  and  Madame  de  Simiane. 

There  can,  moreover,  be  no  one,  however  wedded  he  may  be  to 
the  plan  of  criticising  literature  as  Hteraturo,  who  will  not  admit 
that  great  part  of  the  interest  and  value  of  these  remarkable  works 
lies  in  the  picture  of  character  which  they  present.  Indeed,  great 
part  of  their  purely  literary  merit  lies  in  the  extraordinary  vivid- 
ness of  this  very  presentation.  Madame  de  Sevigne's  character, 
however,  has  not  united  quite  such  a  unanimity  of  suffrage  as  her 
ability  in  writing.  In  her  own  time  there  were  not  wanting 
enemies  (indeed  her  unsparing  partisanship  on  her  daughter's 
side  could  not  fail  to  provoke  such)  who  maintained  that  her 
letters  were  written  for  effect,  and  that  her  affection  for  her 
daughter  was  ostentatious  and  unreLl.  But  few  modern  critics 
have  followed  these  detractors,  and  it  may  be  said  confidently  that 
no  competent  judge  of  character,  after  patiently  reading  the  letters, 
can  for  a  moment  admit  their  view.  But  this  tiud  of  enemy  has 
been  followed  by  another,  who,  not  overshooting  his  mark  go  con- 
spicuously, has  been  somewhat  more  successful  in  persuading 
spectators  that  h^  has  hit  it.  Her  excessive  affection  for  iljdame 
de  Grignan  {the  almost  importunato  character  of  which  seema  to 


S  E  Y- 

but  her  d?a'^rf^.'°f?' '.','"' "".''''"'''^"g  blindness  to  ^nvtliing 
Du.nerdaaghters  interest  manifested  especially  in  the  part  "he 
I'rLLTf^  unjustifiablo  attempts  of  Madame  de  GnWlo 
onvcnt)  h  r^c°n'':f  n'n  ^'^''''  •)-?  '"  f°^«  themselvef"n?o  a 
tho  one  hand  ^^f'^/,;''  *°'"'*'''^?  f  ^^'  ^""'^  y^'^ful  follies  on 
matters  be  twin  V  °  "i"'^?''  ^'''"'"^"  ™''^^  ^^"^  I^<=!d  i-^  -"oney 
HitTwitl  wll^  .'""'^  '"?  '"'/■■ .°°  ''^^  °^^'"'  *"  apparent 
BrinvUlTers  oTin^  '^,°  ^P^'^'P"'^  '5"=  offerings  of  Madame  do 
o7Wua"e  wM?f  1^  "'1  °^  *?'  P^^^'"'*^?.  &<>•  i  and  the  freedom 
a"  been  cSc  ,^,  ^  '■"  ?T  ''"'4^'  and  tolerates  from  others, -hare 
e^iraate  s^ffirLfi""?-  ^'^-  ^"'^  '^«  before-mentioned  historic 
esumate  sufficiently  disposes  of  some  of  the  objections    a   l-'ttln 

o°"ZcVw:f°  "?'="■  ''"i'  ""  ^'^y  ^'"'0  charufof  the'rest  tf 
certSnh  Mad,mi  dJI-"^"*"  ^^'^'^'  "  '^='"S''-'^  be  a  fault,  then 
tw  ^  J^^adame  de  Sevigno  was  one  of  the  most  oifcndin^  souls 
that  ever  lived  ;  but  it  will  hardly,  even  with  the  injn  t ico^wlS 
Indeed  '■:''''"^^^ff°-'^  "  brought  in  its  train,  bo  hold  damn  .cT 
Indeed,  tae  guilty  lady  was  evidently  quite  aware  of  her  weakneS 
n  this  respec  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  things  of  he? 
h  erary  capacity  that  excessive  as  the  weakness  is,  ft  does'not  di" 

Ts/v  r/rTceiVe^f  ™  ^  '"'"  ""^^i"  ^™fi"™=-  which  M^damo 
oe  o.  vigns  received  from  her  son  and  transmitted  to  her  daushtor 

En"  and      tLv'  ^'^T*  -^"^  ^'  '"^  ^"'^"^■"2  in  France  tlmn  in 
th^fme'  of    he^^te^^^'"  "'?i''"=°'  '"^^'"''"^  *°  "^^  manners  of 

-^^|cf  Se:^  ^s^Ho^lt^vtf  ?c:^s 


B  V 


70^ 


nr,-T.,^iH   c-i '"eience  10  tne  immediately  k 

i-ir   eW'vTtrih°'''ff^ 

lug,  e.peciauy  with   the  sufferings  of  the  people    it  is  esnr.(--illv 

£w^:nit^c!i^n?r.^^i:^tii.^f'S;/-r^ 

mldZ   lii    R  d"'''-  ■^'•°''  ^'"'  ''"^"■■'f  ''ad  already  reached 

^5t^^^«jr;iS'tIn^S.^K;l^£ 

M-'^-t^f:;--:I,,IJ-w-.p.^ 

uretons.  It  IS  viry  far  from  true,  though  her  incurable  hil.if  nf 


iH.Uht^r  ♦„„    •'  '■     .' ,"'""",'^'^<=  t"°  one  pecoadil  0  of  iovin"  her 


Tn'Jh;=!      /        f  li'''- to  c^tprcssions  alarming  to  orthodozv 
In    he  second,  scruples  partly  having  to  do  with  the  susceptib  litie; 
of  I  ving  persons,  partly  concerning  Jansenist  and  other  pre  ud  ces 
made  her  insist  on  numerous  omissions      Thir,1K.   o„,i'i:''  ?       ' 
fortunately   the  change  of  taste  seems  to  have  reqired  s«n  morJ 
numerous  alteraHons  of  style  and  lanniaae  sucK  th„  .  >.  T, 
tionof  "Ma  Fille "  for  Madame  de  slvt^ni'!^!^! ^t^  ^^       ■"' 
" Ma  Bonne,"  and  many  others.     Pern„°folIowed    I,        '"'""'"S 
in  i;51  with  a  volnme^f  supplemru    ^yttTerf  no^^^^^^^^ 
Madame  de  Grignan,  and  in  l/L  pubhsh^ed  his    a?t  edS'o   the 
V  hole,  w-hich  was  long  the  standard  {8  vols. ,  Pari.).    Dur  ncnhe  la  t 
hr.U  of  the    8tb  century  numerous  editions  of  the  who?e%r  pa? L 
Z'lZ,  ^^y-}  ™P°'''?"t  additions,  such  as  that  of  1766,  gh"nl 
H    ^    ?,,''fi'™''  ""=  '^""^  *"  Pomponne  on  tho  Fouquet  tr'  P 
hat  of  1773,  g:ving  letters  to  Moulceau  ;  that  of  1775   Mv  n^f,  r' 
imnorT  V"",,*''!  '^"'^fy .^^"^^^  '"Parate  from  his  memd'rsf&c"  / 
important  collected  edition  of  all  these  fragn,ents,  by  the  Abbe  de 
Welles,  appeared  in  ISOl  (Paris,  An  ix!)  in  10  voi  ;  fiVe  veau 
later  Gouve!  e    Pans,  1S06,  8  vols.)  introduced  the  iiLprovem.n? 
of  chronological  order  ;  this  was  reprinted  in  12  vols.  (FarTs    1^191 
with  some  more  unpublished  letters  which  h.ad  separate  y  appeared 
^.eanwhile._    in  the  same  year  appeared  the  first  edttfon  cf  M    da 
idonmerque.     From  that  date  continual  additions  of  unpubHshcd 
etters  were  made,  in  great  part  by  the  same  editor,  ard  afla  f  he 
whole  was  remodelled  on  manuscript  copies  (the  oH^-iin's  unfo't 
tnnate  y  are  available  for  but  few)  in  the  idition  called  DesGraids 
icrivains  which  M.  de  Monraerqne  began,  but  wh4li  owS-X  1-7^ 
death   had    to  be  finished  by  MM.  Kcgnier    Paul  Me!, -?,,    „   .^ 
Sommer  (Paris    1862-1SC8).  ^his,  whifh  TitL^  s^^  rstdi  aU 
others  (even  a  handsomo  ed  t ba  Eubtis-ied  diiriT,,,  iio  ,^ 

by  M.SUvestre  de  Sacy),  consists  ^ort;:SV;\tmfson^e?, Tor 
&c.,  two  volumes  of  lexicon,  and  an  album  of  nlatro  If  „„  *  ■  ' 
a  1  the  published  letters  to  and  from  Mada'me  dfs  vign"  :  «  "hi 
retdies  where  they  exist,  with  aU  those  letters  to  and  from  Mad-ma 
de  Sim..,ne  (many  of  which  had  been  added  to  theZin  bol .) 
that  contain  any  interest.  The  sole  .--ault  to  be  found  wfthths 
excellent  edition  is  the  omission  to  add  to  each  voiume  T table  of 
con teutsgivingeachletterasit  comes  with  a  brief  abliractoi?! 
contents.  To  it,  however,  must  be  .^dded  two  volume  printed 
uniformly)  of.  Z.«.«  IncdiUs.  published  by  M.  Ch.  W pn  a  n 
18  6  and  conta.ning  uumerous  variants  and  additions  fron  a  MS 
CO)  y  discovered  m  an  old  curiosity  shop  at  Dijon.  Of  less  elaborate 
and  costly  editions  that  in  the  collection  Didot  (6  vol  .Pa  is  vd  I 

i?^£^?i^?:^S'.i^r^-.:l^,Sa?^Si--^"'^ 

(G.  SA.) 


SEVILLE,  a  Spanish  provrace— one  of  the  eight  into 
which  Andalusia  is  divided-ancl  formerly  one.of  the  foir 
Moonsh  kingdom    IS  bounded  on  the  S.  by  Malaga  and 
Cadiz,  on  tho  W.  bv  Huelva,  on  the  N.  by  Badaio.   n4 
on  the  E.  by  Cordova.     Tne  superficial  area  is  5429  squrro 
Kilcs  and  m  1877  tho  population   numbered   505  2i)i 
Northwards  the  province  is  broken  up  by  low  sr.urs  of  the 
bierra  Morena,  the  summits  of  which  in  the  ext'emo  norlH 
rise  to   a  considerable  height;  but  in  the  southern  aiul 
larger   half  the   ground  is  flat  and  fertile,  and  tho  only 
mountainous  part  is  the  frontier  line  formed  %  the  Sierra 
cte  Konda.     Tne  Guadalquivir  traverses  tho  brovince  from 
north-east   to  south-west  antl  receives  in  its   course  tVo 
waters  of  several  streams,  the  chief  being  tho  Genii  and 
■the  Guadaira  on  the  left,  and  the  Guadalimar  to  tho  ri^dit 
Iho  province  is  one  of  the  most  productive  and  fiourishinc; 
m   Spam,  and  grows  all  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables" 
UU   and  wine,  oranges  and  olives,  are  among  its   chief 
exports    whilo  tobacco,  leather,  paper,  spirits,   chocolate, 
textile  fabrics  of  silk  and  wool,  soap,  glass,  and  earthen- 
ware are   amongst   its  nianuraclures.     Sheep  and   osen 
liorses  and  asses,  are  reared  on  its  pastures ;  and  in  tho 
mountainous  districts  there  are  copper,  silver,  lead    iron 
coal,  and  salt  mines,  and  quarries  of  chalk  and  marble' 
Commerce  has  made  great  strides  of  late  years  owin^  to 
the_  opemng  up  of  tlic  country  by  railwavs,  and  forSyn 
capital  Las  developed  tho  natural  resources  of  the  district 
1  ho  province  is  divided  lor  administrative  purpo.sci  intJ 
founoeu  partidosjudicialos  and  ninety-eight  ayuntamV-Dtos 


708 


SEVILLE 


and  is  represented  in  the  corles  by  four  senators  and 
hvelve  deputies.  The  following  towns  have  a  population 
of  more  than  10,000  within  the  municipal  boundaries: — 
Seville  (see  below),  Carmona  (17,426),  Constantina 
(10,988),  Ecija  (24,955),  Lebrija  (12,864),  Marchena 
(13,708),  Moron  de  la  Frontera  (14,879),  Osuna  (17,211), 
and  Utrera  (15,093). 

SEVILLE  (Span.  Scvilla,  Latin  Jsjyah's,  Arabic  Ishlt- 
lii/a),  capital  of  the  above  province  and  the  seat  of  an 
archbishopric,  with  a  population  of  133,938  in  1877,  is 
situated  in  37°  22'  K.  lat.  and 
5°  58'  W.  long.,  62  miles 
(95  by  rail)  north-north-east 
of  Cadiz  and  355  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Jladrid,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, which  here  flows 
through  a  level  country  as 
productive  as  a  garden.  The 
river  is  navigable  up  to  the 
city,  which  is  highly  pictur- 
esLjvie  in  its  combination  of 
ancient  buildings  with  busy 
commerce.  From  the  earliest 
times  the  port  has  been  a 
cliief  outlet  for  the  wealth  of 
Spain.  Under  the  Komana 
the  city  was  made  the  capital 
of  Bxtica,  and  became  a 
favourite  resort  for  wealthy 
Komans.  The  emperors 
Hadrian,  Trajan,  and  'Iheo- 
dosius  were  born  in  the 
neighbourhood  at  Italica 
(now  Santiponce)  where  are 
the  remains  of  a  considerable 
amphitheatre.  The  chief 
existing  monument  of  the 
Romans  in  Seville  itself  is  the 
aqueduct,  on  four  hundred 
and  ten  arches,  by  which  the 
water  from  AlcalA  do  TJua- 
dairacontinued until  recently 
to  be  supplied  to  the  town. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  5th 
century  the  Silingi  Vandals 
made  Seville  the  seat  of  their 
empire,  until  it  passed  in  531 
under  the  Goths,  who  chose 
Toledo  for  their  capital. 
After  the  defeat  of  Don 
Roderick  at  Guadalete  in 
712  the  Arabs  took  posses- 
sion of  the  city  after  a  siege 
of  some  months.  Under  the 
Arabs  Seville  continued  to 
flourish.  Edrisi  speaks  in 
particular  of  its  great  export 
trade  in  the  oil  of  Aljarafe. 
The  district  was  in  great 
part    occupied     by    Syrian 

Arabs  from  Emesa,  part  of  the  troops  that  entered  Spain 
with  Balj  in  7-11  at  the  time  of  the  revolt  of  the  Berbers.  It 
was  a  scion  of  one  of  these  Emesan  families,  Abii  '1-KAsim 
Mohammed,  cadi  of  Seville,  who  on  the  fall  of  the  Spanish 
caliphate  headed  the  revolt  of  his  townsmen  against  their 
Berber  masters  (1023)  and  became  the  founder  of  the 
AbbAdid  dynasty,  of  which  Seville  was  capital,  and  which 
lasted  under  his  son  Mo'tadid  (1042-1069)  and  grandson 
Mo'tamid  0009-1091^   tiil  the  citv  was  taken   bv  the 


Alraoravids.  The  later  years  of  the  Almoravid  rule  were 
very  oppressive  to  the  Moslems  of  Spain;  in  1133  the 
people  of  Seville  were  prepared  to  welcome  the  victorious 
arms  of  Alphonso  VIL,  and  eleven  years  later  Andalusia 
broke  out  in  general  rebellion.  Almohade  troops  now 
passed  over  into  Spain  and  took  Seville  in  1147.  Under 
the  Almohades  Seville  was  the  seat  of  government  and 
enjoyed  great  prosperity ;  the  great  mosque  was  com- 
menced by  Yusuf  I.  and  completed  by  his  son  the  famous 
Almanzor.     In  the  decline  of  the  dynasty  between  1228 


Plan  of  Seville. 


T  p.^Vp^^rt-F-i'^  T^r^ 


and  1248  Seville  underwent  various  revolutions,  and  ulti- 
mately acknowledged  the  Hafsite  prince,  who,  however, 
was  unable  to  save  the  city  from  Ferdinand  III.,  who 
restored  it  to  Christendom  in  1248.  The  aspect  of  the 
town  even  now  is  essentially  Moorish,  with  its  narrow  tortu- 
ous streets  and  fine  inner  courUyards  to  the  houses.  Many 
of  these  date  frem  before  the  Christian  conquest,  and  the 
walls  and  towers  which  until  recently  encircled  the  city  for 
a  length  of  5  miles  have  a  similar  origin.    The  victorjjif 


S  E  V  I  L  Ji  E 


70d 


Firdiaand  brought  temporary  ruin  on  the  city,  for  it 
IS  said  that  400,000  of  the  inhabitants  went  into  volun- 
tary exile,  and  some  time  elapsed  before  Seville  recovered 
from  the  loss.  But  its  position  was  too  favourable 
for  trade  for  it  to  fall  into  permanent  decay,  and  by 
the  15th  century  it  was  again  in  a  position  to  derive 
full  benefit  from  the  discovery  of  America.  After  the 
reign  of  Philip  11.  its  prosperity  gradually  waned  with 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  Peninsula;  yet  even  in  1700  its 
silk  factories  gave  employment  to  thousands  of  work- 
people ;  their  numbers,  however,  -by  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  had  fallen  to  four  hundred.  In  1800  an  out- 
break of  yellow  fever  carried  off  30,000  of  the  inhab- 
itants, and  in  1810  the  city  suffered  severely  from  the 
French  under  Soult,  who  plundered  to  the  extent  of 
six  millions  sterling.  Since  that  time  it  has  gradually 
recovered  prosperity,  and  is  pow  one  of  the  most  busy 
and  active  centres  of  trade  iu  the  peninsula.  Politically 
Seville  has  ahvays  had  the  reputation  of  peculiar  loyalty 
to  the  throne  from  the  time  when,  on  the  death  of 
Ferdinand  III.,  it  was  the  only  city  which  remained 
faithful  to  his  son  Alphonso  the  Wise.  It  was  conse- 
quently, much  favoured  by  the  monarchs,  and  frequently  a 
seat  of  the  court.  In  1729  the  treaty  between  England, 
Franco,  and  Spain  was  signed  in  the  city;  in  1808  the 
central  junta  was  formed  here  and  removed  in  1810  to 
Cadiz;  in  1823  the  cortes  brought  the  king  with  them 
from  Madrid;  and  in  18-13  Seville  combined  with  Malaga 
and  Granada  against  Espartero,  who  bombarded  tha 
city  but  fled  on  the  return  of  Queen  Maria  Christina 
to  Madrid. 

Seville  contains  treasures  of  art  and  architecture  which  make  it 
one  of  the  most  interesting  cities  in  Europe.  The  cathedral,  dedi- 
cated to  Santa  Maria  de  la  Sede,  ranks  in  size  only  after  St  Peter's 
at  Rome,  beinj  4-15  f^et  long,  298  feet  wide,  and  160  feet  high  to 
the  roof  of  the  nave.  Tho  west  front  is  approached  by  a  high 
flight  of  steps,  and  the  platform  on  wliich  the  cathedral  stands  is 
surrounded  by  a  hundred  shafts  of  columns  from  the  mosque  v;hich 
formerly  occupied  tho  site.  The  work  of  building  began  in  1 403 
ard  was  finished  in  1519,  so  that  tho  one  style  of  Spanish  Pointed 
Gothic  is  fairly  preserved  throughout  the  interior,  however  much 
the  exterior  is  spoiled  by  later  additions.  Unforlanately  the  west 
front  remained  unfinished^  until  1S27,  when  the  central  doorway 
was  completed  in  a  very  inferior  manner  ;  but  this  has  now  been 
renewed  in  a  purer  style.  At  tlio  east  end  arc  two  fine  Gothic 
doorways  with  good  sculpture  in  the  tympany ;  and  on  tho  north 
side  the  Pucrta  del  Perdon,  as  it  is  called,  has  some  very  exquisite 
detail  over  tho  horse-shoo  arch,  and  a  pair  of  fine  bronze  doors.  The 
exterior  of  the  cathedral  may  bo  disappointing,  but  the  interior 
leaves  little  to  bo  desired.  It  forms  a  parallelogram  containing 
a  n.ive  and  four  aisles  with  surrounding  chapels,  a  central  dome 
171  feet  high  inside,  and  at  the  east  end  a  royal  sepulchral  chapel, 
whicli  was  an  addition  of  tho  16th  century.  Tho  thirty-two 
immense  clustered  columns,  the  ninety-three  windows,  mostly  filled 
with  the  finest  glass  by  Flemish  artists  of  the  16th  century,  and 
tho  profusion  of  art  work  of  various  kinds  displayed  on  all  sides 
produce  an  unsurpassed  effect  of  magnificence  and  grandeur.  Tho 
reredos  i-i  an  enormous  Gotliic  work  containing  forty-four  panels 
of  gilt  and  coloured  wood  carvings  by  Dancart,  dating  from  1482, 
and  a  silver  statue  of  tho  Virgin  by  Francisco  Alfaro  of  1590. 
Tho  archbishop's  tlirone  and  tho  choir-stalls  (1475-1548)  are  fino 
pieces  of  carving,  and  amongst  tho  notable  metal-work  are  the  rail- 
ings (1519)  by  Sancho  NuTioz,  and  the  lectern  by  Bartolomii  Morel 
of  the  same  period.  The  brohzo  candelabrum  for  tcnebrx,  23  feet 
in  height,  is  a  splendid  work  by  Morel.  In  tho  Sacristia  Alta  is  a 
silver  repoussiS  reliquary  presented  by  Alphonso  tho  AViso  iu  the  13th 
century  ;  and  in  the  Sacristia  Mayor,  which  is  a  good  plateresquo 
addition  by  Diego  do  Riafto  in  1530,  is  a  magnificent  collection  of 
church  plate  and  vestments.  At  thowcst  end  of  the  nave  is  the  grave 
of  Ferdinand,  tho  son  of  Columbus,  and  at  tho  east  end,  in  tho  royal 
chapel,  lies  tho  body  of  St  Ferdinand,  which  is  exposed  three  times 
'n  the  year.  This  chapel  also  contains  a  curious  life-size  imago  of 
tho  Vir^-in,  which  waa  presented  to  tho  royjil  saint  by  St  Louis  of 
Franco  in  tho  13th  century.  It  is  in  carved  wood  with  movable 
arms,  seated  on  a  silver  throne  and  with  hair  of  spun  gold.  The  chief 
pictures  in  the  cathedral  ard  the  Guardian  Angel  and  tho  St  Anthony 
of  Murillo,  tho  Holy  Family  of  Tobar,  tho  Nativity  and  I-  Genera- 
tion of  Luis  do  Vargas,  Valdes  Loal's  Marriage  f  the  Virgin,  and 
Giindilu;^''!  Desc.in*  f'nr)   tho  Cross.     In  tho  S.acristia  Alta  aro 


thrcf.  Hnn  paintings  by  A'exo  Toruan-Jcz,  and  in  the  Si'.x  Capi'u'ar 
are  a  CoucepKon  by  Murill-)  and  a  St  Ferdinand  by  Pacheco.  Tho 
organ  is  one  of  the  largest  in  th.^  '\  Dr.'d  ,  if  contains  o^*er  5300 
pipes.  A  curious  and  unique  ritual  i.^  observed  by  :he  :hoir  boys 
on  the  fcstiv.nis  of  Coipus  Chri.=^ti  and  the  Immaculate  Conccntion, 
— a  solemn  dance  with  'astanets  being  performed  by  l!iem  before 
tlie  altar:  tlie  custom  is  an  old  one  but  its  origin  is  obscur-*. 
The  Sagrario  on  the  north  of  the  cathedral  is  a  Renaissance  addition 
by  Miguel  do  Zumarraga,  which  serves  as  the  parish  church.  -*,: 
the  north-east  corner  of  tho  cathedral  stands  the  Girald'i.  a  bell 
tower  of  Moorish  origiu,  275  feet  in  height.  The  Io\*er  part  of  the 
tower,  or  about  185  feet,  was  built  in  the  latter  half  of  the  12th 
century  by  Abu  Yusuf  Yakub  ;  the  upper  part  and  tho  belfry, 
which  is  surmounted  by  a  vane  formed  of  a  bronze  figure  14  feet 
high  representing  Tlie  Faith,  were  added  by  Fernando  Ruiz  in  156?. 
Tho  ascent  is  made  by  a  series  of  inclined  planes.  Tfte  exterior  is 
encrusted  with  delicate  Moorish  detail,  and  the  tower  is  altogether 
the  finest  specimen  of  its  kind  in  Europe.  At  the  base  lies  tho 
Court  of  Or.anges,  of  which  only  two  sideii  now  remain ;  the  original 
Moorish  fountain,  however,  is  still  preserved.  But  the  chief  ralic  of 
the  Arab  dominion  in  Seville  is  tho  Alcazar,  a  palace  excelled  in 
interest  and  beauty  only  by  tho  Alharabra  of  Granada,  It  was 
begun  iu  1181  by  Jalubi  during  the  best  period  of  tlie  Almohades, 
ami  was  surrounded  by  walls  and  towers  of  which  the  Torre  del 
Or.-j,  a  decagonal  tower  on  the  river  side,  is  now  the  principal 
survival.  Pedro  tho  Cruel  made  considerable  alterations  and 
additions  in  the  14th  century,  ?,nd  worse  havoc  was  afterwards 
wi'ought  by  Charles  V.  Restorations  have  been  elTcctcd  as  far  as 
possible,  and  tha  palace  is  now  an  extremely  beautiful  example 
of  Moorish  work.  The  facade,  tho  hall  of  ambassadors,  and  tho 
Patio  do  las  Muiiecas  are  the  most  striking  portions,  after  which 
may  bo  ranked  the  Patio  de  las  Doncellas  .and  the  chapel  of  Isabella. 
Among  other  Moorish  remains  in  Seville  may  be  mentioned  tho 
Casa  O'Shea,  which  is  somewhat  spoiled  by  v/hitewash,  and  the  Casa 
de  las  Duerlas,  with  eleven  court-yards  and  nine  fountains.  The 
Casa  de  Pilatos  is  in  a  pseudo-Moorish  stylo  of  tho  15th  century, 
and,  in  addition  to  its  elegant  court-yard  surrounded  by  a  marble 
colonnade,  contains  some  fine  decorative  work.  Tho  Casa  do  los 
Abades  is  in  the  Sevillian  platereaque  stylo,  which  is  strongly 
tinged  with  Moorish  feeling.  Tho  following  are  the  most  notablo 
churches  in  Seville  :— Santa  Maria  la  Blanca,  an  old  Jewish  syna- 
gogue ;  San  Marcos,  badly  restored,  but  with  a  remarkable  mudejar 
portal ;  Omnium  Sanctorum,  erected  upon  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
temple;  San  Juan  de  la  Palma :  S.an  Julian;  Santa  Catalina;  San 
Miguel;  San  Clemente  el  Real;  the  church  of  La  Sangre  Hospital ; 
tho  Gothic  Parrcquia  of  Santa  Ana,  in  tho  Triana  suburb ;  and  La 
Caridad.  The  last-named  belongs  to  a  well-conducted  almshouse 
founded  by  the  Sevillian  Don  Juan,  Miguel  do  Manara.  It  pos- 
sesses sL'C  masterpieces  by  Murillo,  and  two  by  Valdes  Leal.  Tho 
other  churches,  though  generally  deficient  in  architectural  interest, 
are  enriclied  by  the  products  of  the  brush  or  chisel  of  Pacheco, 
Montaiies,  Alonso  Cano,  Valdis  Leal,  Roelas,  CampaBa,  Monales, 
Vargas,  and  Zurbaran.  The  museum  was  formerly  the  cliurch  and 
convent  of  La  Merced.  It  now  contains  priceless  examples  of  the 
Seville  school  of  pahiting,  which  flourished  during  the  16tli  a-id 
17th  centuries.  Among  tho  masters  represented  aro  Velazquez  and 
Murillo  (both  natives  of  Seville),  Zurbaran,  Eoclas,  Herrera  tho 
Elder,  Pacheco,  Juan  de  Castillo,  Alonso  Cano,  Cespedes,  Boca- 
negra,  Valdes  Leal,  Goya,  and  Martin  de  Vos.  Tlie  university 
was  founded  in  1502,  and  its  present  buildings  were  originally  .a 
convent  built  in  1567  from  designs  by  Herrera,  but  devoted  to  its 
present  use  in  1767  on  tho  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  'Iho  Casa  del 
Ayuntamiento,  in  the  cinqueceiito  stylo,  was  begun  in  1E45,  and 
has  a  fino  staircase  and  luall  and  handsome  carved  doors.  The 
Lonja,  or  exchange,  was  built  by  Herrera  in  15S5  in  his  severo 
Doric  and  Ionic  stylo  ;  the  brown  and  red  marble  Staircase  which 
leads  to  the  Archivo  de  Indias  is  the  best  part  of  tlio  design.  The 
archives  contain  30,000  volumes  relating  to  tho  voyages  of  Siranish 
'iiscoverers,  many  of  which  are  still  unexaniiued.  The  archbishop's 
palace  dates  from  1697  ;  tho  most  notablo  features  aro  tho  Churri- 
gucresque  doorw.iy  and  staircase.  The  roy.il  cigar  factory  is  an  im- 
mense building  602  feet  long  by  524  feet  wide,  and  contains  twenty- 
eight  court-yards.  Employment  is  givc-U  in  it  to  4500  hands,  who 
work  up  2,000,000  pounds  of  tobacco  yearly.  The  palaco  of  San 
Telmo,  now  occupied  by  tho  duko  of  Montponsier,  was  formerly  the 
seat  of  a  naval  college  originally  founded  by  tho  son  of  Columbus. 
The  immense  doorway  is  the  principal  architectural  feature,  'the 
picture  gallery  is  interesting  and  important.  Tho  i^hief  squares  i.i 
Seville  aro  the  Plaza  Nueva,  the  Plaza  do  la  Constiti.cion,  tho  Plr.za 
del  Duquc,  and  tho  Plaza  del  Triiinfo.  The  bull-ring  accommodates 
18,000  spectators,  and  is  the  next  in  size  to  that'  at  Madrid.  Tlioro 
aro  several  beautiful  promenades,  the  principal  being  Las  Delicias, 
along  the  river  bank  below  tho  town.  Tho  city  also  contains  soveral 
theatres.  Acros.i  the  river,  and  connected  with  the  city  by  a  bridge, 
is  tho  Gipsy  quarter  of  the  Trian.a.  The  navigation  of  tho  livor  has 
been  improved  of  late  years  so  that  vessels  of  largo  draught  can  now 
asccu'l  the  stream.     Tho  results  aro  shewn  in  a  l.-.rgor  trade,  and  in 


710 


S  E  Y  —  S  E  W 


18SS  the  aggrcgato  burtiien  of 'vessels  cleared  nc.ounted  to  35C,P41 
tons  (iJ5,321  British).  The  ir..porl3  were  valued  at  £1,879,522,  and 
the  exjioits  p-t  £1,190,625.  In  the  latter  wcr;  included  3110  tuns 
of  olivQoil  shipped  to  the  Unitod  Kingdom,  and  1610  tons  of  quick- 
silver fro"i  tho  Almadcn  mines,  which  had  formerly  sent  their 
produce  vza  Lisbon.  In  addition  to  f^lrictly  local  industries  the 
chief  factories  of  the  city  are  tho  Lci)ac;jo  factory,  tho  cannon 
foundry,  and  tho  small-arms  factory.  There  are  also  a  petroleum 
refinery,  some  soap  works,  iron  foundries,  artificial  ice  and 
marmalade  factories,  and  several  potteries.  The  ancient  sources  of 
water  supply  having  proved  insuflicient,  a  new  system  of  waterTv-orks 
was  designed,  and  was  brought  to  a  successful  completion  in  1SS3 
by  a  firm  of  Englisii  engineers.  (H.  B.  B.) 

SEVRES,  a  town  of  France,  in  tl:e  department  of 
Ssine-et-Oise,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  midway 
between  Paris  and  Versailles,  with  a  population  of  C768 
in  1881,  owes  its  celebrity  to  the  Government  poro^ain 
manufactory,  which  dates  from  1756.  In  1876  a  new 
building  was  erected  at  tho  end  of  the  park  of  St  Cloud  to 
replace  the  older  structures,  which  were  in  a  dangerous 
state,  but  have  since  been  transformed  into  a  normal  school 
for  girls.  In  the  niuseum  connected  with  the  works  are 
preserved  specimens  of  the  different  kinds  of  ware  manu- 
factured in  all  ages  and  countries,  and  the  whole  series  of 
models  employed  at  Sevres  from  the  commencement  of 
the  manufacture,  for  an  account  of  which  see  vol.  xis. 
pp.  637-38.  A  technical  school  of  mosaic  was  established 
at  S^vrc3  in  1875. 

SEVKES,  ■  Deux,  a  department  of  western  France, 
formed  in  1790  mainly  of  the  districts  of  Thouars, 
GStinais,  and  Niortais,  which  constituted  about  one-fourth 
et'  Poitcu,  and  to  a  small  extent  of  a  portion  of  Basse- 
kj'iintonge  and  Angoumois,  and  a  very  small  fragment  of 
A'juis.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  Sevre  of  Niort, 
which  flows  across  the  south  of  the  department  from  east  to 
west,  and  the  Sevre  of  Nantes,  which  drains  the  north-west. 
Lying  between  45°  58'  and  47°  7'  N.  lat.  and  between 
0°  56'  W.  and  0°  13'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  (for  the  most 
part  conventionally)  N.  by  Maine-et-Loire,  E.  by  Vienne, 
S.E.  by  Charente,  S.  by  Lower  Charente,  and  W.  by  La 
Vendee.  Part  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Loire,  part 
to  that  of  tha  Sevres  of  Niort,  and  part  to  that  of  the 
Chareat?.  There  are  three  regions, — the  Gatine,  the 
"  Plain,"  and  the  "Marsh," — distinguished  by  their  geo- 
logical character  and  their  general  physical  appearance. 
The  Gitiao,  formed  of  primitive  rocks  (granite  and 
Echists),  is  tho  continuation  of  the  "  Bocage "  of  La 
Vendee  aiid  JIaine-et-Loire.  It  is  a  poor  district  with 
an  irregular  surface,  covered  with  hedges  and  clumps  of 
v7ood  or  forests.  The  Plain,  resting  on  Oolitic  lime- 
stone or  the  "white  rock"  (pic-re  blanche),  is  a  fertile 
grain  country.  The  Marsh,  occupying  only  a  small  part 
of  the  department  to  the  south-west,  consists  of  alluvial 
clays  which  also  are  exixeracly  productive  when  pro- 
perly drained.  The  highest  point  in  the  department  (892 
feet  above  tho  sea)  is  to  the  east  of  Parthenay ;  the 
lowest  lies  only  10  feet  above  sea-level.  The  climate  is 
mild,  the  annual  temperature  at  Niort  being  54°  Fahr., 
and  the  rainfall  a  little  more  than  24  inches.  The  winters 
are  colder  in  the  Gatine,  the  summers  warmer  in  the 
Plain ;  and  the  Marsh  is  the  moistest  and  mildest  of  the 
ihreo  districts. 

AViih  ".  total  area  of  1,452,655  acres,  the  department  contains 
1,01-3,752  acres  of  arable  ground,  125,534  acres  of  meadows,  49,125 
of  vineyards,  10C,222  of  forests,  20,429  of  he.ath.  The  live  stock 
in  18S0  comprised  36,150  horses,  12,800  mules,  2012  "sses,  21jj,935 
cattle,  18,405  sheep  (wool  clip  102  tons)  78,930  pigs,  50,321  goats, 
18,345  beehives  (55  tons  of  honey).  The  horses  are  a  strong  breed, 
and  the  department  raises  mules  for  Spain,  the  Alps,  Auvergne, 
and  Provence.  In  1883  there  were  produced— wheat,  3,909,260 
bushels;  mcslin,  466,909;  rve,  673,920;  and  in  1880  barlev  pro- 
duced 1,293,600  bushels;  buckwheat,  133,650;  maize  and  millet, 
503,0C2  ;  oats,  2,744.500 ;  potatoes,  4,312,000;  pulse,  192,500 
imshels  ;  beetroot,  123,429  tons  ;  hemp,  945  tons  ;  flax,  245  tons  ; 
f  alza  seed,  75,900  bushels  (610  tuns  of  oilj.     The  wine  and  cider 


amounted  in  1882  to  2,859,912  and  210,914  gallons  respectively. 
Vtgetables  (artichokes,  asparagus,  cabbage,  pease,  onions) aro largely 
cultivated.  Oaks,  chestnuts,  and  beeches  are  the  most  important 
trees.  Tho  .apple-trees  of  the  Gatine  and  the  walnut-trees  of  tho 
Plain  are  also  of  considerable  value.  Coal  (200  miners,  and  21,  .187 
tons  in  1832)  and  peat  are  worked ;  iron-ore,  argentiferous  lead,  and 
antimony  e.^.ist  but  are  not  worked  ;  and  freestone,  both  herd  and 
soft,  is  very  extensively  quarried.  There  are  several  sulphurous 
mineral  waters  in  the  department.  The  most  important  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  cloth — serges,  druggets,  linen,  handkerchiefs, 
flannels,  swan-skins,  and  knitted  goods.  Wool  and  cottf'n-spin- 
ning,  tanning,  ?nd  currying,  glove,  brush,  and  hat  making,  distil- 
ling, brewing,  flour-milling,  and  oil-refining  are  also  carried  on. 
In  74Q  establishments  water-power  is  used  to  tho  extent  of  3000 
horse-power^  and  301  stationary  and  165  movable  steam-engines 
represent  respectively  1895  and  677  horse-|WJ\ver.  Tho  commerce 
of  tho  department,  which  supplies  mules,  cattlo,  and  ^ro  /isions  for 
Paris  and  the  neighbouring  great  towns,  is  facilitated  by  21  miles 
of  waterway  (the  Sevro  and  its  left-hand  tributary  the  Mignon), 
239  miles  of  national  roads,  3535  of  other  roads,  and  '.^32  miles  of 
railway.  In  density  of  population  (350,103  in  1831)'  the  depart- 
ment is  below  the  average  of  ^France.  It  contains  38,000  Pro- 
testants, especially  in  the  south-east,  there  being  only  three  French 
departments — Card,  Ardeche,  and  Drome— which  surpass  it  in 
this  respect.  The  foiu"  arrondissements  are  Niort,  Bressuire  (3549 
inh.abitants  in  the  town),  Melle  (2433),  and  Parthenay  (4S42) ; 
th3  cantons  number  31,  and  the  communes  356.  It  is  part  of  the 
diocese  of  Poitiers,  where  also  is  the  court  of  appeal  ;  its  rnilitary 
headquarters  are  at  Tours.  St  Maixent  (4790)  has  an  infantry 
school. 

SEWAGE.     See  Sewerage. 

SEWARD,  WiLLiAK  Hexp-y  (1801-1872),  American 
statesman,  was  born  May  16,  1801,  in  thi  town  of  Florida, 
Orange  county,  N.Y.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  College 
in  1820,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  three  years  after 
in  the  town  of  Auburn,  which  became  his  home  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  Several  of  his  cases  brought  him 
reputation  as  a  lawyer,  but  he  soon  drifted  into  the  more 
congenial  field  of  politics.  After  ho  had  served  for  four 
years  in  the  State  senate,  the  Whig  party  of  New  York 
nominated  him  for  governor  of  the  State  in  1834.  Though 
then  defeated,  he  was  nominated  again  in  1838  and 
elected,  serving  until  1842.  He  then  returned  to  his  law 
practice,  retaining,  however,  the  recognized  leadership  of 
the  Whig  party  in  the  most  important  State  of  the  Union. 
During  the  next  seveti  years  slavery  became  the  burning 
question  of  American  politics.  The  purely  ethical  and  the 
philanthropic  sides  of  the  anti-slavery  struggle  are  repre- 
sented by  Garrison  and  Greeley  (q.v.).  Seward  was 
the  first  to  develop  that  purely  political  side,  with  an 
economic  basis,  which  probably  best  met  the  desires  and 
prejudices  of  the  great  mass  of  those  who  took  part,  will- 
ing or  unwilling,  in  the  struggle.  The  keynote  of  his 
theory  was  struck  in  1848  in  a  speech  at  Cleveland : — 
"The  party  of  slavery  upholds  an  aristocracy,  founded  on 
the  huviiliation  of  labour,  as  necessary  to  the  existence  of 
a  chivalrous  republic."  The  absurdity  of  the  conception 
of  a  civilized  nation  which,  in  flat  opposition  to  historical 
development,  should  tolerate  for  ever  a  systematic  humilia- 
tion of  labour  was  only  his  starting  point.  His  theory 
culminated  naturally  in  his  famous  Rochester  speech  of 
1S5S,  in  which  he  enumerated  the  inevitable  direct  aad 
indirect  consequences  of  a  free-labour  and  a  slave-labour 
system  respectively,  showed  the  two  to  be  absolutely 
irreconcilable  and  yet  steadily  increasing  their  interferences 
with  one  another,  and  drew  this  pregnant  inference  : — there 
is  here  "an  irrepressible  confiict  between  opposing  and 
enduring  forces,  and  it  means  that  the  United  States  must 
and  will,  sooner  or  later,  become  either  entirely  a  slave- 
holding  nation  or  entirely  a  free-labour  nation."  But  the 
germ  of  the  "  irrepressible  conflict  "  of  1858  lay  clearly  in 
the  utterances  of  1848,  and  Seward  was  even  then  most 
widely  known  as  its  exponent.  When,  therefore,  the  New 
York  WTiigs,  who  in  1849  controlled  the  State  legislature, 
which  elects  United  States  senators,  sent  Seward  to  the 
Ecnate  v.-ith  hardly  a  show  of  opposition,  their  defiance  of 


S  E 


\  V 


«  E  W 


711 


•the  Ecatiiern  wing  of  their  party  was  a  premonition  of  the 
general  break-up  of  parties  three  years  afterwards.  In  the 
senate  Seward  had  at  first  but  tv.'o  pronounced  anti-slavery 
associates.  As  anti-slavery  feeling  increased,  and  the 
Kepublican  party  jvas  organized  in  1855-56,  he  went  into 
it  naturally,  for  it  was  to  him  only  an  anti-slavery  Whig 
party,  and  his  pre-eminent  ability  made  him  at  once  its 
recognized  leader.  In  the  Republican  convention  of  18G0 
he  was  the  leading  candidate  for  the  nomination  for 
president ;  and  it  was  only  by  a  sudden  union  of  all  the 
elements  of  opposition  to  him  that  the  nomination  was 
finally  given  to  Abraham  Lincoln,  whose  name  was  then 
hardly  'knowa  outside  of  Illinois.  It  has  been  an  almost 
invariable  rule  that  American  presidents  have  found  their 
most  irritating  difficulties  in  dealing  with  the  New  York 
leaders  of  their  respective  parties ;  Lincoln  when  elected 
removed  any  such  po.^sibiiity  by  ofieriog  Seward  the  chief 
position  in  his  cabinet,  that  of  secretary  of  state.  Here, 
for  at  least  four  years,  Seward  did  the  great  work  of  his 
life.  His  errors,  whether  of  constitutional  law,  inter- 
national law,  or  policy,  are  more  clearly  seen  now  than 
they  were  then.  In  spite  of  them  all  the  estimate  of  the 
value  of  his  work  must  be  very  high,  if  we  consider  the 
chances  in  favour  of  foreign  intervention  at  some  time 
during  a  four  years'  war,  and  his  unbroken  success  in  in- 
culcating on  other  Governments  the  propriety  and  wisdoni 
of  neutrality.  Much  of  this  success  was  due  to  circum- 
stances which  he  did  not  create,  to  his  ability  to  rely 
solidly  on  the  cordial  friendship  of  the  "  plain  people  "  (to 
use  Lincoln's  common  phrase)  of  Great  Britain  and 
France,  and  particularly  to  the  change  of  policy  induced 
by  the  emancipation  proclamations  of  ld62-63;  but  much 
is  still  left  to,  the  credit  of  the  secretary,  whose  zeal, 
acuteness,  and  efficiency  brought  the  ship  safely  through 
the  intricacies  of  international  relations  while  the  crew 
were  putting  out  the  fire  in  her  hold.  In  the  process 
of  reconstruction  which  immediately  followed  the  war 
Seward  sided  heartily  with  President  Johnson  and  shared 
his  defeat.  The  AVhig  element  had  been  burned  out  of 
the  Kepublican  party  by  the  war ;  a  new  party  had  grown 
up,  not  limited  by  utile  bellum  notions,  and  it  rapidly 
came  to  look  upon  Seward,  its  once  trusted  leader,  rpcit  only 
as  a  traitor  but  as  the  main  intellectual  force  which 
supported  Johnson's  clumsy  attempts  at  treason.  At 
the  end  of  his  second  term  as  secretary  of  state  in  1869 
he  retired  to  his  home  at  Auburn,  broken  by  loss  of  health, 
by  loss  of  political  standing,  and  by  'the  death  of  his  wife 
and  daughter.  Ho  spent  the  next  two  years  in  foreign 
travel,  and  died  at  Auburn,  October  10,  1872. 

Of  SowarJ'.i  I.ifc  ami  Works,  in  5  vols.,  edited  by  George, E. 
iJakcr,  tlie  last  volume  deals  v.'ith  his  career  during  his  first  term 
as  secretary  of  sUte. 

SE^VERAGE  is  the  process  of  systematically  collect- 
ing and  removing  refuse  from  (iwellings.  The  matter  to 
be  dealt  with  may  conveniently  be  cla.ssificd  as  made  up 
■of  four  parts: — (1)  dust,  ashes,  kitchen  waste,  and 
solid  matters  generally,  other  than  solid  excreta ;  (2) 
excreta,  consisting  of  urine  and  fsces ;  (3)  slop-water,  or 
tlie  discharge  from  sinks,  basins,  baths,  &c.,  and  the  waste 
water  of  industrial  processes ;  (4)  surface  water  due  to 
rainfall.  Before  the  use  of  underground  conduits  became 
geaeral,  the  third  and  fourth  constituents  were  commonly 
allowed  to  sink  into  the  neighbouring  ground,  or  to  find 
their  way  by  surface  channels  to  a  watercourse  or  to  the 
sea.  The  first  and  second  constituents  were  conserved  in 
middens  or  pits,  either  together  or  separately,  and  were 
carried  away  from  time  to  time  to  be  applied  as  manure  to 
the  land  In  more  modern  times  the  pits  in  which  excre- 
cut  was  collected  took  the  form  of  covered  tanks  called 
Maspcfcls,  r.cd  -.ulh  this  modification  the  primitive  system 


of  conservancy,  with  occasional  removal  by  carts,  is  still 
to  be  found  in  many  tow.is.  Even  where  the  plan  of 
removing  excrement  by  sevvers-.Las  been  adopted,  the  first 
kind  of  refuse  named  above  is  still  treated  by  coll;;cting  it 
in  pails  or  bins,  whose  contents  are  removed  ly  carts 
eith*r  daily  or  at  longer  intervals.  It  therefore  forms  no 
part  of  the  nearly  liquid  sewage  which  the  other  con- 
stituents unite  to  form. 

The  second  constituent  is  from  an  agricultural  point  of 
view  the  most  valuable,  and  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view 
the  most  dangerous,  element  of  sewage.  Even  healthy 
e:-:creta  decompose,  if  kept  for  a  short  time  after  they 
are  produced,  and  give  rise  to  noxious  gases ;  but  a  more 
serious  danger  proceeds  from  the  fact  that  in  certain  cases 
of  sickness  these  products  are  charged  with  specific  germs 
of  disease.  Speedy  removal  or  destruction  of  excremental 
sewage  is  therefore  imperative.  It  may  be  removed  in  an 
unmixed  state,  either  in  pails  or  tanks  or  (with  the  aid 
of  pneumatic  pressure)  by  pipes ;  or  it  may  bo  defecated 
by  mixture  with  dry  cartli  or  ashes ;  or,  finally,  it  may  be 
conveyed  away  in  sewers  by  gravitation,  after  the  addition 
of  a  relatively  large  volume  of  water.  This  la.st  mode  of 
disposal  is  termed  the  water-carriage  system  of  sewerage. 
It  is  the  plan  now  usually  adopted  in  towns  whicli  have  a 
sufficient  water  supply,  and  it  is  probably  the  mode  which 
best  meets  tlie  needs  of  any  large  community.  The  sewers 
which  carry  the  diluted  excreta  serve  also  to  take  slop- 
water,  and  may  or  may  not  be  used  to  remove  the  surface 
water  due  to  rainfall.  The  water-carriage  system  has 
the  disadvantage  that  much  of  the  agricultural  value  of 
sewage  is  lost  by  its  dilution,  while  the  volume  of  foul 
matter  to  be  disposed  of  is  greatly  increased.  But  it  has 
been  found  that,  even  when  the  excrement  of  a  community 
is  kept  out  of  the  sewers,  and  subjected  to  distinct  treat- 
ment, the  contents  of  the  sewers  are  still  so  foul  that 
their  discharge  into  streams  is  Scarcely  less  objectionable 
than  when  the  water-carriage  system  is  adopted ;  and, 
further,  it  appears  diflicult  if  not  impossible  to  realize  the 
agricultural  value  of  excrement  by  any  process  of  sejiarate 
treatment  that  is  -not  offensive  or  dangerous  or  inappli- 
cable to  towns. 

When,  in  the  water-carriage  system,  the  same  sewers 
carry  foul  sewage  and  surface-water  duo  to  rainfall,  ^the 
sewerage  is  said  to  be  "combined";  the  ".separate" 
system,  on  the  other  hand,  is  that  in  which  a  distinct  set 
of  sewers  is  provided  to  carry  off  rainfall.  Each  plan  has 
its  advantages.  In  the  separate  system  the  foul-water 
sewers  need  be  large  enough  to  take  only  the  normal  flow  ; 
they  may  thus  be  made  self-cleansing  much  moio  readily 
than  if  their  size  were  sufficient  to  carry  the  immensely 
greater  volume  to  which  (on  the  combined  plan)  sewage 
may  be  swollen  during  heavy  rain.  The  amount  of 
dangerously  foul  matter  is  also  much  reduced.  On  the 
other  hand,  tlie  contents  of  the  rain-water  sewers  are  still 
too  much  tainted  by  the  filth  of  the  streets  to  render  theii 
discharge  into  rivers  or  lakes  desirable ;  and  the  comphca,- 
tion  of  two  sets  of  mains  and  branches  is  a  serious  draw- 
back. Where  old  sowers  are  giving  place,  to  new  ones  it 
is  not  unusual  to  retain  the  old  sswers  for  the  carriage  oi 
surface-water  ;  but  in  new  works  a  single  system  of  sewerr, 
provided  with  storm-overflows  to  relieve  them  of  part  of 
the  rainfall  during  exceptionally  heavy  showers,  would 
probably  be  preferred  in  nearly  every  case."  Since  sewers 
should,  in  all  cases,  be  water-tight,  they  do  not  form 
suitable  collectors  of  subsoil  water. 

'  An  cxcejition  to  this  remark  may  he  made  in  the  case  of  London, 
where  tlio  enormous  area  to  be  drained,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  of 
disposing  of  the  foul  sewage  on  account  of  its  lar^e  volume,  has  led 
the  Commissioners  on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Discharge  to  .advise  (in 
their  Report  of  1884)  that  "in  new  drainage  works  the  sewage  Bho;ild 
be,  M  far  as  possible,  separated  from  the  raiufall. " 


Character 
of  excre- 
mental 
sewage. 


Water- 
cirriage 
system. 


Combined 
and  * 
separate 
systems 
of  water- 
carriage. 


712 


S  E  W  E  K  A  G  E 


Heads 
'  treat- 


Disposal 
of  water- 
cnrried 
c.  If  jge. 


bewage 
[arms. 


bischargft 
pto  the 


Broad 
irrigation. 


Irto 

Mitten', 

flUratii-n 

tlirougl; 

■ami 


The  water-carriage  system  of  sewerage  wl'l  be  noticed 
iiore  under  ils  three  aspects : — (1)  tlio  ultimate  disposal  of 
sewage ;  (2)  the  system  of  common  sewers  by  which 
sewage  is  conveyed  to  its  destination  ;  (3)  the  domestic 
arrangements  for  the  collection  of  sewage.  ; 

I.  T.HE  Ultim.\te  Disposal  op  Water-cakeiej  Sew- 
age.— In  tha  water-carriage  system  of  sewerage  the  fertilize 
ing  elements  are  so  largely  dilrtted  that  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  difBculty  to  turn  them  to  profitable  account. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  every  ton  of  London  sewage 
contains  ingredients  whose  value  as  manure .  is  rather 
more  than  2d.,i  a  value  which,  could  it  be  realized,  would 
make  the  sewage  of  the  metropolis  worth  a  million  and 
three  quarters  sterling  per  annum.  Sewage  farming, 
however,  docs  not  pay.  After  mnch  costly  experiment . 
the  conviction  is  gaining  ground  that,  neither  by  applying 
sewage  directly  to  land,  nor  by  any  process  of  chemical 
treatment  that  has  yet  been  proposed,  can  sewage  be  made 
to  yield  a  return  as  manure  which  will  cover  the  cost  of  its 
transport,  treatment,  and  distribution,  except  perhaps  in  a 
few  cases  where  the  circumstances  are  peculiarly  favourable. 
At  the  same  time,  sewage  farming  does  afford  one  satis- 
factory solution  of  the  problem  of  how  to  dispose  of 
sewage  without  creating  a  nuisance — a  jjroblem  in  which 
any  questicm  of  profit  or  loss  is  of  secondary  importance. 
A  very  early  instance  of  irrigation  by  sewage  ic  that  of 
tlie  Craigentinny  Meadows,  a  sandy  tract  of  400  acres,  on 
which  part  of  the  sewage  of  Edinburgh  has  been  dis- 
charged during  certain  seasons  for  nearly  a  century. 
There,  owing  to  favourable  conditions,  and  to  the  fact  that 
complete  purification  of  the  sewage  is  not  attempted,  the 
process  yields  a  profit ;  but  no  suoli  result  could  be  looked 
for  if  the  sea  were  not  at  hand  to  receive  the  imperfectly 
cleansed  sewage  and  the  wholly  uncleansed  surplus. 
Germany  furnishes  a  still  older  example  of  irrigation 
in  the  sewage  farm  of  the  tov^n  of  Bunzlau,  which  has 
been  in  existence  for  more  than  three  hundred  years. 

Five  methods  of  treating  sewage  may  be  named,  of 
which  two  or  more  are  often  found  in  combination. 

Discharge  into  the  Sm  or  into  a  larr;o  watercourse  is  in  general 
the  least  costly  means  by  wliich  a  coiamunity  can  rid  itseU'  of  its 
sewage.  Much  care  iu  the  choice  of  outlets  is  necessary  to  make 
this  plan  efFGCtive  in  avoiding  nuisance.  Some  towns  make  use  cf 
tanks  or  outlet  sewers  of  large  capacity,  from  ■which  tlie  discharge 
is  allowed  to  occur  only  when  the  tide  is  ebljing.  "When  the  volume 
of  sewage  is  very  large,  even  this  precaution  does  not  wholly  pro- 
tect the  neighbouring  coast  from  foul  dejiosits.  A  striking  instance 
is  luruislied  i]y  the  case  of  London,  whicli  discharges  its  sewage 
into  the  tiJal  estuary  of  tho  Thames  at  Barking  and  Crossness 
during  only  some  three  or  four  hours  from  the  time  of  each  higli 
tide.  It  is  foujid  that  tlie  discharged  matter  is  washed  up  and 
down  the  river  with  every  tide,  occasionally  reaching  as  far  up  as 
Teddington,  and  that  tire  portion  which  is  not  dopositeu  iiuthe 
form  of  mud  banks  only  very  slowly  works  its  way  to  the  sea. 

Jjroad  Irri(jation, — By  this  is  meant  tho  usi?  of  sewago  to  irrigate 
a  comparatively  largo  tract  of  cultivated  land,  in  tlio  proportion  of 
about  1  aero  (or  more)  of  land  to  every  120  persons  in  the  sewage- 
contributing  population.  This  system  is  now  largely  and  succcss- 
fuU}'  used,  especially  where  the  soil  is  a  porous  sandy  loam.  Pears 
that  tho  farms  would  prove  dangerous  to  tho  health  of  the  neighbour- 
ing district,  and  that  the  crops  and  vegetables  grown  on  them 
would  be  unwholesome,  have  proved  groundless.  When  tho  farm  is 
properly  laid  out'and  carefully  managed  the  effluent  water  is  pure 
enough  to  be  admitted  to  a  clear  stream  from  which  water-sn]>ply 
is  drawn.  Broad  inigation  is  practised  at  Croydon,  Cheltenham, 
Blackburn,  and  many  other  English  towns ;  and  it  has  recently  been 
applied,  on  a  very  large  scale,  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  of  Berlin. 

Intermittent  Downward  Filtration. — This  is  another  mode  of 
v.urifying  sewage  by  applying  it  to  land,  which  differs  from  broad 
irrigation  in  requiring  a  much  smaller  area  iu  proportion  to  tlie 
oC'-age  dealt  with.  In  1S70  Dr  Frankland-  drew  attention  to  the 
fact  that  if  sewago  were  passed  through  porous  soil,  not  continu- 
ously but  at  intervals  long  enougji  to  let  the  soil  become  aerated, 
rapid  purit^cotiou  took  place  through  the  o.xidizing  action  of  the 

^  ^  HcSman.t   and   Witt,    R^^Pirt   to   the   Government   Rc/erecs  on 
Metropolitan  Drainage,  1857. 

^  Rcijort  oj  the  Rivers  Polli'-tion  Co^nniissioners,  1870. 


air  whicli  the  soil  held  in  its  pores.  Ho  estJmater'  'h.nt  an  aori 
oi'  si'itablo  ground,  well  furnislicd  with  subsoil  drains  to  romovo 
til-'  woter  after  percolation,  could  in  this  way  take  the  sewago  cf 
2000  persons.  Tliis  estimate  is  now  considered  exccc-,ivc,  and 
1000  persons  to  the  acre  is  a  more  recent  limit.  Mr  J.  Bailey- 
Denton  at  onco  took  up  Dr  Prankland's  suggestion,  and  in  liis 
hands  the  system  of  intermittent  hltration  through  land  has  been 
BUceesSfully  applied  to  the  sewage  of  many  towns.'  Tlie  land 
which  constitutes  tho  filter  is  used  to  grow  vegetables  and  oih-r 
crops.  Clay  soils  are,  as  far  as  possible,  avoided,  and  the  land  is 
thoroughly  undcrdrained  at  a  aepih  of  about  6  feet.  The  scvage  is 
distributed  over  tho  surface  in  open  channels,  the  proper  laying  out 
of  whicli  is  an  important  item  in  tho  cost  of  tlio  system-,  but  is  essen-^ 
tial  to  ils  success.  When  tho  number  of  persons  exceeds  500  per  acre 
it  is  advisable  to  precipitate  the  solid  matter  that  is  held  in  sus- 
pension before  tho  liquid  is  applied  to  the  land,  in  order  to  prevent  ■ 
the  surface  of  the  ground  from  ijecoming  clogged  v/ith  sewage  sludge.! 
Mr  Bailey-Denton  has  pointed  out  tho  advantage  which  the  systeni 
of  internrittent  filtration  offers  as  a  supplement  to  broad  irrigation, 
where  tliat  is  carried  out.  A  serious  objection  to  the  disposal  of 
sewago  by  in-igation  is  tho  fact  that  the  farmer  must  take  the 
sewage  always, — at  times  when  it  hurts  the  land  as  well  as  at  times  . 
when  the  land  wan  ts  it.  But  by  laying  out  a  portion  of  the  land  CoHibin^i 
as  a  filter  bed  the  sewage  may  be  thrown  on  that  whenever  its  tion  of 

Sresence  on  the  remainder  would  do  harm  rather  than  good.     Jlr  inter- 
enton  has  applied  this  combined  systeni  in  several  instances,  and  mittent 
insists,  apparently  with  much  reason,  that  such   a  combination  filtratio;; 
offers  a  better  prospect  of  profit  than  any  other  efficient  mode  of  with 
purifying  sewage.     The  system  of  intermittent  filtration  through  broad 
land  has  been  recommended  by  tho  Koyal  Commission  of  1882-84  Irrigatior 
as  a  mode  of  treating  London  sewage. 

Filtration  through  Artificial  Fillers  of  sand,  gravel,  ashes,  char-  Artifici;.; 
coal,  coke,  peat,  &o.,  though  often  experimented  on,  can  scarcely  bo  filters, 
described  as  an  actual  system.  It  is  attended  by  the  difficulty  that 
the  filter  becomes  speedily  choked  by  the  deposit  of  sludge.  The 
intermittent  use  of  a  suitable  artificial  filter  will,  however,  servo 
efficiently  to  oxidize  and  therefore  purify  tlio  liquid  portion  of 
sewage  from  which  the  sludge  has  been  previously  precipitated, 
and  filtration  through  coke  is  used  in  some  instances  as  a  supple- 
ment to  the  process  which  is  next  to  bo  described. 

Chemical  Treatment,  or  Frecipitation. — When  sewago  is  allowed  Chetnicsi 
to  stand,  or  to  flow  very  slowly  through  a  large  tank,  a  gradual  treat- 
subsidence  of  the  solid  particles  takes  place.  The  subsidence  is,  ment 
however,  much  too  slow  to  be  complete  before  decomposition  sets  in. 
But  it  may  be  very  greatly  accelerated  by  the  addition  of  certain 
reagents,  with  the  object  of  producing  a  precipitate  which,  in  fall- 
ing, will  can'y  down  with  it  the  minute  particles  of  solid  matter 
that  aro  susjMnded  throughout  the  mass.  Lime  is  tho  substance  Lima 
most  usually  employed.  It  is  introduced  in  the  form  of  milk  of  process, 
lima,  and  in  the  proportioii  of  about  one  ton  of  lime  to  one  million 
gallons  of  sewage."  When  thoroughly  mixed,  the  liquid  is  left  at 
rest,  and  a  rapid  separation  of  tho  sewago  follows,  into  a  compara- 
tively clear  suponiatant  liquid  and  a  glutinous  precipitate  or 
"sludge."  The  sludge  has  little  value  as  manure,  for  tho  best 
agricultural  constituents  of  sewage  are  contained  in  solution,  and 
very  litllo  of  tho  soluble  matter  is  carried  down  in  the  deposit. 
The  sludge  is  dried  by  being  strained  over  beds  of  slag,  pressed  into 
blocks  for  transport,  and  got  rid  of  by  being  burnt  or  dug  into 
the  ground  or  thrown  into  the  sea.  It  has  been  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  bricks  and  of  cement  (Scott's  process),  hut  in  general 
it  can  be  disposed  of  only  at  a  loss.  The  clarified  effluent  still  con- 
tains dissolved  organic  matter,  and  may  be  admitted  into  running 
streams  only  when  a  high  standard  oi  purity  is  not  compulsory. 
When,  however,  tlio  volume  of  the  running  water  which  it  enters 
is  relatively  very  large  a  quick  piurification  takes  place  by  means 
of  tl.  J  oxygon  which  the  water  carries  in  solution. 

The  lime  process  is  practised,  without  further  purification  oB 
the  effluent  water,  at  Leeds  and  at  Burnley.  At  Bradford,  after 
precipitation  by  lime,  the  effluent  is'  filtered  through  beds  of  coko- 
breeze.  At  Birmingham  the  sewage  of  600,000  people,  aftar  clari- 
fication by  lime  (which  also  serves  to  neutralize  the  acid  contri- 
buted by  manufactories),  is  used  to  irrigate  a  farm  of  1200  acres. 

Very  many  patents  have  been  obtained  for  the  precipitation  of 
sewago  by  other  chemicals  in  placo  of  or  in  ddition  to  lime.  Ir. 
Hille's  process  lime  is  tho  chief  ingredient,  with  tar  and  chloride 
of  magnesium  or  calcium  added.  At  Coventry  the  precipitanta  aro 
sulphate  of  alumina,  protosulphate  of  iron,  and  lime,  and"  tho 
efiluent  is  afterwards  filtered  through  land,  in  the  proportion  of  1 
acre  to  5000  of  the  population. 

Sillar's  "  ABC "   process,  worked   by  the  Native   Guano  Com-  The  ABC 
paiiy  at  Aylesbury,   differs   from   others   in   producing   a  sludge  proceas, 
which   has  considerable  valiu3  as  manure.     An  emulsion  of  clay 
and  carbon  with  a  little  blood  is  first  mixed  with  the  sewage  ;  a 
precipitating  solution  of  alum  is   then  added,  and  the   mi:Uuro 

*  J.  Bailey-Denton,  Intermittent  Downward  Filtration,  with  notes  on 
the  Practice  and  Results  of  Sewage  Farming,  1st  ed.  1880.  'm.  ed,  IZIt- ' 


IS  E   VV  E  R  A  (x  ii: 


713 


Eclative 

merits 
of  tho 
-systems. 


■Convey- 
ance of 
sewage. 

Pipe 
<ewers. 


Built 
tewers. 


Hb  allowed  to  settle.  The  process  gives  s,  remarkably  clear  effluect ; 
practically  the  whole  of  the  ir.soluljle  constituents  of  the  se^\-age 
and  a  portion  of  the  dissolved  impurities  are  carried  down  in  the 
precipitate,  which,  when  dried  and  ground  along  with  some 
sulphate  of  magnesia,  is  sold  under  the  name  of  native  guano.  The 
ABC  process  has  been  in  successful  use  for  nine  years  at  Aylesbury, 
where  the  "guano'"  finds  a  sale  at  70s.  per  ton.  In  1870  the 
Rivers  Pollution  C'^mmissioners  reported  unfavourably  on  the  pro- 
cess, a  fact  which  may  have  prevented  its  adoption  by  other  towns, 
but  it  has  since  then  received  the  approval  of  many  specialists. 
A  recent  protracted  investigation  by  Dr  C.  M.  Tidy  and  Prof. 
Dewar  showed  that  the  percentage  of  oxidizable  organic  matter 
removed  by  the  process  ranges  from  75  to  86 — a  result,  in  their 
judgment,  satisfactory.  At  Leeds,  where  the  process  was  tried  for 
a  time,  it  was  given  up  because  the  effluent  was  purer  than  the 
i'iver  into  which  it  ran,  and  the  simple  lime-process,  which  costs 
less  but  gives  a  less  clear  effluent,  was  adopted  in  its  place. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  still  exists  as  to  tho  relative  merits 
of  broad  irrigation,  filtration  through  land,  and  chemical  treat- 
ment, as  means  of  disposing  of  sewage.  That  either  of  the  two 
iirst  plans  or  a  combination  of  them  both  can  be  made  to  yield  a 
satisfactory  solution  of  the  sew.Tge  problem,  from  a  hygienic  point 
of  view,  seems  unquestionable.  That  chemical  treatment,  espe- 
cially if  supplemented  by  filtration  through  land,  will  also  purify 
well,  is  generally  admitted.  No  process  of  ciTectivo  purification  is 
now  expected  to  yield  a  profit ;  but  the  question  of  cost,  on  which 
tho  choice  of  a  system  principally  turns,  is  too  extensive  to  bo 
touched  in  this  article 

II.  The  Conveyance  of  Sewage. — For  small  sewers, 
circular  pipes  of  glazed  earthenware  or  fire-clay  or  of 
moulded  cement  are  used,  from  6  indies  to  18  inches 
and  even  20  inches  in  diameter.  ■  The  pipes  areomado  in 
short  lengths,  and  are  usually  jointed  by  passing  the 
end  or  spigot  of  one  into  the  socket  or  faucet  of  the 
next.  Into  the  space  between  the  spigot  and  faucet  a 
ring  of  gasket  or  tarred  hemp  should  be  forced,  and  the 
res';  of  the  space  filled  up  with  cement,  not  clay.  The 
gasket  prevents  the  cement  from  entering  the  pipe,  and  so 
obstructing  the  flow ;  at  the  same  time  it  forms  an  elastic 
packing  which  serves  to  keep  the  successive  lengtks  of 
pipe  concentric,  even  if  the  cement  should  fail.  The 
pipes  are  laid  with  the  spigot  ends  pointing  in  the  direction 
of  the  flow,  with  a  uniform  gradient,  and,  where  practi- 
cable, \a  straight  lines.  In  special  positions,  such  as 
under  the  bed  of  a  stream,  cast-iron  pipes  are  used  for 
the  conveyance  of  sewage.  Where  the  capacity  of  an 
18-inch  circular  pipe  would  be  insufficient,  built  sewers 
are  used  in  place  of  earthenware  pipes.  These  are  some- 
times circular  or  oval,  but  more  commonly  of  an  egg- 
shaped  section,  the  invert  or  lower  side  of  the  sewer  being 
a  curve  of  shorter  radius  than  the  arch  or  upper  side. 
The  advantage  of  this  form  lies  in  the  fact  that  great 
variations  in  the  volume  of  flow  must  be  expected,  and 
the  egg-section  present.'i  for  the  small  or  dry-weather  flow 
a  narrower  channel  than  would  be  presented  by  a  circular 
sewer  of  the  .'rame  total  capacity.     Figs.   1  and  2  show 


rig.  1.  Fig.  J. 

Flea.  1,  2. — Forma  of  Sewers. 

two  common  forms  of  egg-sections,  with  dimensions  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  the  diameter  of  the  arcli.  Fig.  2  is 
the  more  modern  form,  and  has  the  advantage  of  a 
sharper  invert,     '''he  ratio  of  width  to  height  is.  2  to  3. 

Built  Eowcr.=!  are  most  commonly  made  of  bricks, 
moulded  to  Ejit  the  curved  Btructure  of  which  they  are  to 
form  part.  Separate  invert  blocks  of  glazed  earthcnwa.c, 
terra-cotta,  or  fire-clay  are  often  used  in  combination  wnli 


brickv/ork.  The  bricks  ar^  kid  over  a  templet  made  to 
the  section  of  the  sewer,  and  are  grouted  with  cement. 
An  e;^!r-shaped  sewer,  made  with  two  thicknesses  of  brick, 
an  invert  block,  and 
a  conci'ete,  setting, 
is  illustrated  in  fig. 
3.  Concrete  is  now 
very  largely  used 
in  the  construction 
of  sewers,  either  in 
combination  with 
brickwork  or  alone. 
For  this  purpose 
the  concrete  con- 
sists of  from  5  to 
7  parts  of  sand  and 
gravel  or  broken 
stone  to  1  of  Port- 
land cement.  It 
may  be  used  as  a 
cradle  for  or  as  a 
backing  to  a  brick 
ring,  or  as  the  solo  ^"'-  =-'^"'''  ='='^""- 

material  of  construction  by  running  it  into  position  round 
a  mould  which  is  removed  when  tlie  concrete  is  sufficiently 
set,  the  inner  surface  of  the  sewer  being  in  this  case  coated 
with  a  thin  layer  of  cement. 

In  determining  the  dimensions  of  sewers,  the  amount  of  sewage  Dimen* 
proper  may  be  taken  as  equal  to  the  water  supply  (generally  about  sions  o: 
30  gallons  per  head  per  diem),  and  to  this  must  be  added  an  allow-  sewers 
ance  for  the  surface  water  duo  to  rainfall.  The  latter,  whi,.h  i-, 
generally  by  far  the  larger  consLitueut,  is  to  be  estimated  from  tho 
maximum  rate  of  rainfall  for  the  disirict  and  from  the  area  and 
character  of  tlie  surface.  In  tlie  sewerage  of  Berlin,  foi-  example, 
(one  of  the  most  recent  instances  of  the  combined  water-caniage 
system  applied  on  a  large  scale),  the  maximum  rainfall  allowed  for 
is  I  of  an  inch  per  hour,  of  which  one-third  is  supposed  to  cut^.r 
the  sewers.  In  any  estimate  of  the  size  of  sewers  based  on 
rainfiU  account  must  of  course  be  taken  of  the  relief  provided  by 
storm-overflows,  and  also  of  the'  capacity  of  the  sewers  to  become 
simply  charged  with  water  during  the  short  time  to  which  very 
heavy  showers  are  invariably  limited.  Rainfall  at  the  rate  of  6  or 
6  inches  per  hour  has  been  known  to  occur  for  a  few  minutes,  but 
it  is  altogether  unnecessary  to  provide  (even  above  storm-overllows) 
sewers  capable  of  discharging  any  such  amount  as  this ;  the  timo 
taken  by  sewers  of  more  moderate  si2e  to  fill  would  of  itself  preven'; 
the  discharge  from  them  from  reaching  a  condition  of  steady  flow  ; 
and,  apart  from  this,  the  risk  of  damage  by  such  an  exceptional 
fall  would  not  warrant  so  great  an  initial  expenditure.  Engineers 
diff'er  widely  in  their  estimates  of  the  allowance  to  be  made  for 
the  discharge  of  surface  water,  and  no  rule  can  be  laid  down 
which  would  be  of  general  application. 

In  order  that  sewers  should  be  self-cleansing,  the  mean  velocity  Velocil 
of  flow  should  be  not  less  than  2^  feet  per  second.     The  gradient  of  dis- 
necessary  to  secure  this  is  calculated  on  principles  which  have  been  charge, 
stated  in  the  article  Hydromecuanics  [q.v.).    The  velocity  of  flow, 
V,is  -,         ,.— 

V  =■  cv"«, 

where  i  is  the  inclination,  or  ratio  of  vertical  to  horizontal  distance  ; 
m  is  the  "  hydraulic  mean  depth,"  or  the  ratio  of  area  of  section  of 
the  stream  to  the  wetted  perimeter  ;  and  c  is  a  coefficient  dcjiond- 
ing  on  the  dimensions  and  the  roughness  of  the  channel  and  the 
depth  of  the  stream.  A  table  of  values  of  c  will  bo  found  in  §  9ii" 
of  the  article  referred  to.  This  velocity  multiplied  by  the  area  41 
the  stream  gives  tho  rate  of  discharge.  Tables  to  facilitate  th» 
determination  of  velocity  and  discharge  in  sewer?  of  various 
dimensions,  forms,  and  gradients  will  bo  found  in  jlr  Latham's 
and  otlier  practical  treatises. 

Where  the  contour  of  the  ground  does  not  admit  of  a  sufficient  Inter- 
gradient  from  the  gathering  ground  to  the  place  of  destination,  tho  ception 
sewage  must  be  pumped  to  a  higher  level  at  one  or  more  points  in  sewers, 
its  course.     To  niinimize  this  necessity,  and  also  for  other  reasons, 
it  is  frccnently  desirable  not  to  gather  sewage  from  the  whole  area 
into  a  single  main,  but  to  collect  the  sewage  of  liighcr  portions  of 
the  town  by  a  separate  high-level  or  interception  sewer. 

Se'ver  pas  is  a  term  applied  to  the  air,  fouled  by  mixture  with  Sewer 
gi.ses  which  are  formed  by  the  decompc«ition  of  sewage,  and  by  r^ 
the  organic   germs  which  it  carries   in  suspension,  that  fills  th>. 
sewer  in  tht  vaiiablo  space  above  the  liquid  stream.     It  is  uni- 
versally re'ogn'zed  that  sewer  gas  is  a  medium  for  tho  convi.yanco 

xxr,  —  n- 


714 


SEWERAGE 


of  disease,  and  in  all  well-designed  aystcms  "of  sewerage  stringent 
precautions  (which  will  be  ])rcscntly  described)  are  taken  to  keep  it 
out  of  houses.     It  is  equally  certain  that  the  dangerous  character 
of  sower  gas  is  reduced,  if  not  entirely  removed,  by  free  admixture 
with  tlio  oxygen  of  fresh  air.     Sowers  should  be  liberally  venti- 
lated, not  only  for  this  reason,  but  to  prevent  the  air  within  tliera 
from  over  having  its  pressure  raised  (by  sudden  influx  of  water)  so 
considerably  as  to  force  the  "  trajis "  which  separate  it  from  the 
Ventila-  atmosphere   of    dwellings.     The   i)lan   of    ventilation    now   most 
tion  of     approved  is  the  very  simple  one  of  making  openings  Aom  the  sower 
sowers,     to  the  surface  of  the  street  at  short  distances, — generally  slufts  built 
of  brick  and  cement,— and  covering  tlicse  with  metallic  gratings. 
Under   each   grating  it  is  usual  to  hang  a  box  or   tray  to  catch 
any  stones  or  dirt  that  may  fall  through  from  the  street,  but  the 
passage  of  air  to  and  from  the  sewer  is  left  as  free  as  possible.     The 
Man-        openings  to  the  street  are  frequently  made  large  enough  to  allow  a 
aoles.       man  to  go  down  to  examine  or  clean  the  sewers,  and  are  then  called 
"manholes."     Smaller  openings,  largo  enough  to  allow  a  lamp  to 
be  lowered  for  purposes  of  inspection,  are  i:  ailed  "  lampholes, "  and 
are  often  built  up  of  vertical  lengths  of  drain-pipe. 


To  facilitato  inspection  and  cleaidng,  sewers  are,  as  far  as 
possible,  laid  in  straight  lines  of  uniform  gradient,  with  a  manholt? 
or  lampholc  at  each  change  of  direction  or  of  slope  and  at  each 
junction  of  mains  with  one  another  or  with  branches.  The  sewers 
m.ay  advantageously  bo  stepped  hero  and  there  at  manholes.  Sir 
R.  Kawlinson  has  pointed  out  that  a  difference  of  level  between 
tiio  entrance  and  exit  pipes  tends  to  prevent  continuous  flow  of 
sewer  gas  towards  the  higher  parts  of  tlie  system,  and  makes  the 
ventilation  of  each  section  more  independent  atid  thorough. 
When  the  gradient  is  slight,  and  the  dry-weather  flow  very  small, 
occasional  Hushing  must  bo  resorted  to.  Flap  valves  or  sliding  Flushing 
penstocks  are  introduced  at  manholes;  by  closing  these  for  aofsc^en 
short  time  sewage  (or  clean  water  introduced  for  the  purpose)  is 
dammed  up  behind  the  valve  either  in  higher  parts  of  the  sewer  or 
in  a  special  flushing  chamber,  and  is  then  allowed  to  advance  with  a 
rush.  JIany  self-acting  arrangements  for  flushing  have  been  devised 
which  act  by  allowing  a  continuous  stream  of  comparatively  small 
volume  to  accumulate  in  a  tank  that  discharges  itself  suddenly 
when  full.  A  very  v,aluable  contrivance  of  this  kind  is  Jlr  Kogcrs 
Field's  siphon  flush  tank,  shown  in  fig.  4.     When'  the  liquid  in 


■  iewer- 

Primary 
f'jqui- 
.:os. 


Fio.  <.— Field's  Sililioii  Flush  Tonk. 


Traps. 


Comraon 
irap 


the  tank  accumulates  so  that  it  reaches  the  top  of  the  annular 
siphon,  and  begins  to  flow  over  the  lip,  it  carries  with  it  enough 
air  to  juoduce  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  tube.  The  siphon  then 
bursts  into  action,  and  a  rapid  discharge  takes  place,  which  con- 
tinues till  the  water  level  sinks  to  the  foot  of  the  bell-shaped  cover. 

III.  Domestic  Sewerage. — In  the  water-carriage 
sjstom  each  house  has  its  own  network  of  drain-pipes, 
soii-plpes,  and  waste-pipes,  whicii  lead  from  the  basins, 
."iin'.is,  c!o.5ets,  and  gullies  within  and  about  the  house 
to  the  common  sewer.  These  must  be  planned  to 
.•ev.iove  sewage  from  the  house  and  its  precincts  quickly 
and  without  leakage  or  deposit  by  the  way ;  the  air 
within  thera  must  be  kept  out  of  the  dwelling,  by 
placing  a  water-trap  at  every  opening  through  which 
sewage  is  to  enter  the  pipes,  and  by  making  all  internal 
pipes  gas-tight ;  tiie  pipes  must  be  freely  ventilated  by  a 
current  of  fresh  air,  in  order  to  oxidize  any  deposited  filth 
and  to  dilute  any  noxious  gas  they  may  contain  ;  finally — 
and  this  is  of  prime  importance — the  air  of  the  common 
sev.er  must  be  rigorously  shut  out  from  all  drains  and  pipes 
within  the  hor^e.  To  disconnect  the  pipes  of  each  indi- 
vidual house  from  the  atmosphere  of  the  common  sewer 
is  the  first  principle  of  sound  domestic  sanitation.  When 
this  is  done  the  house  is  safe  from  contagion  from  without, 
so  far  as  contagion  can  come  through  sewer  gas;  and,  how- 
ever faulty  in  other  respects  the  internal  fittings  may  be, 
the  house  can  suffer  no  other  risk  than  that  which  arises 
from  its  own  sewage. 

Protection  against  the  passage  of  gas  through  open- 
ings which  admit  of  the  entry  of  water  is  secured  by  the 
familiar  device  known  as  the  water-trap. 

The  sipiplest  and  in  many  respects  the  best  form  of  trap  is  a 
bent  I'ipD  or  inverted  siphon  (fig.  &)  which  is  sealed  by  water  lying 
in  the  bend.  The  amount  of  the  seal  (measured  by  tho  vertical 
distance  between  tho  lines  a  and  J)  varies  in  practice  from  about  i 
-a  inch  to  3  inches.     If  the  pressure  of  air  within  the  pipe,  iclow 


tho  trap,  is  greater  than  that  of  tho  air  above  the  trap  by  an  amc  ant 
exceeding  the  pressure  due  to  a  column  of  water  equal  in  heigh.;  to 
the  seal,  the  trap  will  be  forced  and  air  will  bubble  through.     This  Possible 
is  one  way  in  which  a  trap  may  fail,  but  this  may  bo  prevented  by  causes  ^ 
sufficient  ventilation  of  thp  pipe  below  the  trap.     Other  t — 1  failure. 

])ossibilities  of  failure  are,  however,  only  too  numerous. 
If  the  pipe  is  disused  for  some  time,  the  water  may  eva- 
porate so  considerably  as  to  break  the  seal.     Tho  pipe, 
if  of  lead,  may  bend  out  of  shape,  or  it  may  even  be  so 
badly  set  in  the  first  instance  as  to  make  the  trap  in- 
operative.      The    seal    may    be 
broken  by  the  capillary  action  of 
a  thread  or  strip  of  clotli,  hang- 
ing over  the  lip  of  the  trap  and 
causing  the  water  to  drain  away. 
A  rush  of  water  down  the  pipe, 
suddenly  arrested,  may  pass  the 
trap  with  such  momentum  as  to 
leave  it  wholly  or  partly  empty. 
Another  and  a  common  cause  of 
failure  can  be  explained  by  re- 
ference to  fig.  5.     Let  a  column 
of  water  rush  down  the  soil-pipe 
c  from  a  closet  or   sink  winch 
discharges  into  it  at  some  higher  point.     As  the  w 
passes  the  junction  with  the  brancli  d  it  will  produi 
partial  vacuum  in  the  branch,  and  so  tend  to  suck  over  the  contents 
of  the  trap.     This  process,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  siphon.ago 
of  traps,  can  be  guarded  against  by  ventilating  tho  branch,  cither 
by  a  separate  ventilating  pipe  leading  to  the  open  air  or  by  a  pipec 
(shown  by  dotted  lines)  connecting  the  top  of  the  branch  d  wiih  a 
point  sufiiciontly  far  up  on  the  soil-pipe  to  be  above  the  column  of 
water  which  is  passing  the  junction.    One  more  imperfectim  in  traps 
may  be  named.     The  experiments  of  Dr  Fergus  have  shown  that 
the  water  in  traps  will  allow  gases  to  pass  through  by  absorbing  the 
gas  on  one  surface  and  giving  it  off  at  the  other.     It  is  improb- 
able that  this  action  occurs  to  such  an  extent  as  to  bo  dangerous 
by  pcrmittrng  the  transfer  of  disease  germs  from  one  to  the  other 
side.     Apart  from  any  risk  of  this  kind,  however,  it  is  clear  that  a 
trap  is  open  to  so  many  possibilities  of  failure  as  to  form  a  very  in- 
sufticieui  barrier  between  tUe  air  of  a  room  and  tho  foul  air  of  a  sewer. 
Nevertheless  the  practice  was  until  very  lately  almost  universal^ 
and  is  btUl  far  from  uncommon,  of  connecting  closets,  sinks,  au« 


-Common 
Trap. 


l^iscon- 
nectiog 
trap  on 
noase- 
^  ain.  ' 


/   tfO   OPtK   fotk 

•T        "EftTlLATiON   , 


^V^''^\'"^  ""^  °"'"  ''°«  °f  defence.  Any 
accidental  leakage  of  sewer  gas  through  it  then 
does  no  more  than  cause  a  comparativdy  si  gh 

and  ifTh°^*''°  '''^,"''*'°  '^'  house-draL 
and  If  these  are  well  ventilated  the  effects  of 

^ftl'^  «»'f""""-  At  each  individual  basin 
or  other  fitting  a  trap  is  still  required,  but  its 
function  is  now  merely  to  shut  out  the  air  of 

J;r„f?>f'"^''^'°'J"P*'"=  '■°°">^.  a°d.  »3  the 
air  of  the  house-drains  is  no  longer  polluted 

lailuj-e  of  this  function  is  a  matter  of  com- 
paratively small  moment.     Further,  the  dis- 
connecting trap  on  the  house-drain  furnishes 
a  convenient  place  of  access  for  fresli  air;  and 
the  ventilation  is,  completed  by  carrying  the 
highest  point  of  each  soil-pipe^or  waste%ipe 
up  to  the  evel  of  the  roof  aid  leavingYto^^n 
there      This  arrangement  will  be  understood 
by  reference  to  fig.  6,  which  shows  a  soil-pipe, 
open   at   its   upper  end,  discharging  into   a  I 
house-drain  m  which  there  is  a  disco°nncctin" 
...      '"P  provided  with  ar.  open  gratin<^  for  th? 
Ventik-   Mtryof.air.,   The  soiLpip'^,  is  Ventilated  b    a 
tion  of     current  of  air  which  (LUy  if  not  ahva  s) 

i  1,  T?"^'-  ^"i''  ""'  °"ly  dilutes  any 
gases  that  are  produced  in  the  pipe,  but 
quickly  oxjdizes  any  foul  matter  hat  may 
adhere  to  the  sides.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  having  tho  upper  end  of  tl 
near  windows  or  under  eaves.     1 


S  E  Y\^  E  R  A  G  E 


715 


'"Iny  sfSeT|''f:;ei?,';tho1™^n''l'^f  '™P  '^  "''"'^^'^'' '"  "«■  DoabM 
'  th.e  iipper  tnp  and  w^Il     *''P  "'■"'  "'^ ''''"  ^  ^™  kept  back  m^Z 

necting 
trap. 


soil 
pipes 


by  tlie  upper  trap  and  will 
escape  by  a  grating  or  open 
ventilating      shaft      whirh 
enters   at   A,    while   air  to 
ventilate    tho    house-draiu 
enters  the  upper  trap  from 
the  manhole.    This  arrange- 
ment no  doubt  gives  more 
absolute  protection  than  a 
single  trap  or  the  kind  al- 
ready  described,   but  it  is 
probabb    that    (except    in 
cases  wliere  the  sewers  are 
very   foul   and   liable 
frequent  excess    of 
pressure)    the    ad- 
vantage is  so  slight 
as  to  bo  more  than 
counterbalanced  by 
the  greater  liabil- 
ity    to    accidental 


Fio.  8.— Double  Disconnecting-Ti-ap. 


-:-:u>^//,^}.'Si'^ 


Ruclian 
trap. 


tho    branch    leading   to   a 

water-closet  is  ventilated  by 

a  pipe  carried  into  an  upper 

part  of  the  soil-pipe  ;    this 

13  scarcely  necessary  if  the 

branch  bo  short.     Another 

construction  is  to    carry  a    *'5coN'^■tcrlNo 

distinct  veiftilating  pipe  up  '""" 

from  the  top  of  tho  branch  ^'°"  ^--Honse-Dniin  properly  disconnected 

to  a  point  r.bove  the  roof-  '"ra 'wtr,  and  vtntUatcd. 

latterarrangomcnt  _  "  '""^  ''"•     ^'^  cxamulo  of  tho 

is  shown  in  tig.  lo. 

The  form  of  dis. 

connecting      trap 

shown    in    fig.    G 

is     that    of    Mr 

W.  P.   Cnchan  of 

Glasgow,   vho  has 

done  excellent  ser- 
vice to  tho  cauEO 

of     sanitary     re- 
form by  practisin" 
and      advocatin" 
tho    disconnexion 
and  ventilation  of 
house-drains   and 
soil-pipns.      The  same  trap  is 
shown  to  a  larger  scale  in  fio. 
7,  where  it  appears  inibeJdSl 
in  concrete  and  covered  by  a 
built  manhole,  which  gives  ac- 
cess to  the  trap  in  case  of  its     , 
becoming  choked.     The  man-  "' 
Iiole  may  have  an  open  grating 
at  the  top ;  or  tho  top  may  bo 
closed   by  a  solid  plate  (if  a    - 

grating  there  be  for  any  reason         "  '•-""^'"'n  Trap  and  Manhole,  with 
inadmissible),  in  wliich  case  a  "nuiallns  grating  in  wall. 

vertically- in  arirbourinfwalf '"«A*°"e^"'^'"''''='>  ^ 
disconnecting  tnp,'^moro  "fi:;,  iiko  S  °-^'"  ^"i?'^  '"'"''  "' 
madoof  Weaver'.,  Potts™,  and  lie  jcr?'  °'"'^'°°  """^  ^' 


stoppage  and  greater  complexity  which  this  arrangement  entails 

most  dangerous  taint  should  dTseas3 Tccu?  wi    in  ti,„  V,   '  '°  *''?  =='"'''' 
andsinT"s™'^'''"°f"?"^  ^"™=e  "-""r tm* tsinT^'atTs'  *'• 

by  the  ns:  of  a  complete  doubl'e  system  of  house  drri^pfpes  Tl^  ' 
S?^X.'JnrH'"'-T  '^^^™^<';  '•o  reasonable  objeS  can  bl 
fr^^Tl  f  r  *'"  «'f '>ar»o  into  a  water-closet  soil-pipe  of  water 
from  a  bath  or  washhand  basin  in  the  same  room    except  nrrhan^ 

from  the  sewer  by  a  disconnecting  trap  of  its  own  with  a  era  tin  ^ 
Ss'°that  aS  oftc"n  T^  ^'V^'  ^°^=°  '"  «''  ^^^  bedroom 
^otM  ;t*urbep:  d!n  Lus  t^^lj^  -I^JS^mTny  '^^^'^'• 

risk  as  great  as  possible  by  placing  eaih  in  dir  ct  communifatkn 
h  ough  an  ordinary  trap  with  the  soil-pipe,  itself  perhaps Tnven 

when  the  d^'-'"^'''  "■',"'■'"'  discoDne,xion  from  the  sewer.  Cn 
he    ewe-  .^^  .°''  ""'",?'P'  ''■  «"«l'it<=<!  and  disconnect  d  from 

!  L,Tf '  r    ^'='3™°™  1"'^'"  Should,  under  any  circumstance     b^ 

al  owed  to  discharge  into  it  without  first  passing  a  semrate  open 

saff  by"  L'ad^r'  r''  "  '^"""^  ^^-i '-ay  i  maSo^poSy 

waste  -  p\p3      ( trapped  _ esA t  ,  n  e 

under  the  basin  in  tho 

usual     way)     into     an  ,.      y  "f 

open-air  channel  which  '^^ivL-  J 
Communicates  with  the      JT-!  ■  ' 
scwcr  by  a  surface-trap      ph  > 
or    gully    outside    the  ' 

house  (fig,  S),  Similar 
treatment  should  be 
adopted  in  tho  case  of 
pantry  and  scullery 
sinks.  Under  most 
plumbing  fixtures  it  is 

usual  to  place  a  sa.fe-tray  to  recc.vo  any  water  accidentally  spilt.  Safe- 
The  disehar^.e  r,,pes  from  these  trays  an!  sometimes,  but  very  ob   trav. 
.lectionably,  ie.rin  o  the  waste-pipe  or  soil-pipe  below  the  fi.xLro      ^ 
J  he  proper  method  of  providing  for  thedischarge  of  water  spilt  into 
the  safe-tray  IS  to  learfa  ,,ipo  from  it  through'  the  wall  aid  allow 
t  to  end  m  the  open  air  (lig,  10,  where  eacli  of  the  safe-tray  drains 

.     ,  ^'^  I  'T^'-WO  •) ;  a  flap  valve  fixed  on  the  end  will  s  rve! 
11  need  be,  to  keep  out  draught, 

Ied°  ^,'"17"''''"'  '''■"'"  •''"•"",'  """^  '■°"  '^''"^"^''^  P"T<'-''<'3  should  be  Cistern 
led,  in  the  same  way,  into  tho  open  air  and  not- into  soil-pipe,  or  nv-rrftL. 
waste-pipes  ( ,g,  10).     Trap,,  on  thorn  cannot  bo  depend  V'^'n^^' °^"«<"^' 
remain  sea  ed,  and  any  connexion  of  an  overflow-pipe  witn  a  soil 
p.po  would  result   m  allowing  foul  air  from  the'  pip,,  to  diffuse 
Itself  over  the  surface  of  water  in  the  cistern-a  itito  of  tlincs 
peculiarly  Idcely  to  cause  pollution  of  the  water.     When  a  cis  efa 
.3  used  only  for  water-cIos.t  service,  its  ovcrfiow-pipo  may  properl- 
bo  led  into  the  basin  of  tho  closet;  '"i'"-"^ 

Rain-pipes,  extending  as  they  do  to  the  voof,  are  somctimea  used 


Open  Trap. 


71G 


SEWERAGE 


Rain-       to  servo  as  ventilating  continuations  of  soil-pipes  ano  waste-pipes, 
pipes.       The  practice  is  open  to  serious  objection,  for  it  discharges  the  drain 
air  just  under  tbo  eaves,   at  a  place  whero  air  is  generally  bcin;:; 
drawn  into  the  house.     The  ventilating  fud  of  a  soil-|»ipe  should 
■   be  carried  to  a  higher  level,  as  in  fig.  6,  clear  of  the  lower  edge  of 
the  rcof.     It   is   jetter  to  restrict  rain-pipes   to  tlieir   legitimate 
function  of  taking  surface  water  from  the  roof,  or  at  most  to  allow 
them  to  receive  slop-water  from  sinks  and   basins,  and  to  make 
them  terminate  in  or  over  open  trips  from  wluch'a  connexion  is 
taken  to  the  house-drain  or  sewer  (fig.  9). 
Complete      In  figs.  10  and  11  the  sanitary  fittings  of  a  small  house  are  shown 
system      by  diagrams,  whicli  should  be  carefully  studied 
for  a        as  exemplifying  a  wcU-arr.anged  system.     Two       «« 
i>mall         closets,  and  a  bath  and  basin  in  the  closet  apart-     g  ^5 
touse.       ment,  discharge  into  a  soiI*i)ipe  on  the  right,  and    |  ;  S 
'the  branches  (except  that  of  tiie  basin)  are  veuti-    °  >  J 
latcd  by  pipes  leading  to  a  sepa-  ^  ;  = 

rate  air  pipe,  whicli,   like   the  •  t  H 

soil-pipe,  is  carried  above  the  ?•       «      o?*'> 

roof.  The  overflow  of  a  cistern  o'?^!  -J"  il«^ 
which  supplies  balh,  basin,  and 
boiler  is  carried  out  to  the  open 
air,  and  so  are  the  waste-pipes  of 
the  leaden  safe-trays.  A  sepa- 
rate cistern  supplies  each  water- 
closet,  and  its  overflow  opens 
.into  the  closet  basin.  A  rain- 
pipe  (in  the  middle  of  the  figure) 


House- 
draioa. 


SoU- 
pipea. 


'jLy,lAOEa  a*J"2  T^AT 


Fio.  10.— Diagram  Section  of  t^o  Drains  and  Fittrnja  Of  a  Small  Hoasc 

receives  a  bedroom  b2,s:n  waste,  and 
leads  by  a  4-inch  drain  to  a  venti- 
lated   grease-box,    into    which    the 
scullery    sink 
and         wash- 
tubs   and   an- 
other rain-pipe 
also  discharge. 
Finally,      tho 
whole   system 
is  protected  by 
a   Bachap   tran   in 
grating. 

House-drains,  that  id  to  say,  those  parts  of  the  domestic  system 
of  drainage  which  extend  from  the  soil-pipes  and  waste-pipes  to 


Fig,  11.— rian  ol  t!ie  Drains  in  ng.  lu. 
built   manhole,   which   is  covered   with 


the  sewer,  are  made  of  glazed  fireclay  pipes,  generally  6'  Inches 
but  sometimes  only  4  inches  in  ^iameter.  A  larger  size  than  6 
inches  is  rarely  if  ever  desirable.  The  pipes  are  spigot-and-faucet- 
jointed,  and  the  jnints  should  be  made  with  cement  in  the  manner 
already  described  for  sewers.  ^V■hen,  as  is  often  unavoidable,  the 
house-drain  has  to  pass  under  a  part  of  tho  house,  or  to  come 
from  back  to  front,  iron  pipes  jointed  with  lead  and  coated  with 
an  anti-corrosive  compound  are  preferred  to  fireclay  pipes,  as 
giving  a  better  security  against  the  proihiction  of  leaks  by  the 
s.:ttling  of  the  soil  and  other  causes.  Soil-pipes,  when  carried 
down  inside  the  house,  are  of  either  lead  or  iron  :  when  outside  the 
house  they  are  usually  of  iron.  An  outside  soil-pipe  is  obviously 
preferableto  an  inside  one  ;  if  the  arrangement  of  the  building 
mikes  an  inside  soil-pipe  necessary,  care  must  be  taken  that  it  shall 
be  easily  accessible  for  inspection  at  all  parts  of  its  length.  The 
usual  diameter  is  4  inches.  For  the  sake  of  good  ventilation  it  is 
desirable  to  continue  the  soil-pipe  to  a  point  above  the  roof  without 
reduction  of  diameter  rather  than  apply  a  smaller  ventilating  pipe. 
Amongst  reasons  for  ventilation  one  remains  to  be  mentioned,— 
that,  owing  to  tho  corrosive  action  of  sewer  gas,  the  life  of  the  soil- 
pipe  is  greatly  shortened  if  provision  for  the  free  circulation  of  air 
be  wanting  or  insuflScient.  A  closed  soil-pipe  becomes  in  time 
pitted  with  holes,  especially  in  the  upper  parts  of  its  length. 

Defective  joints  in  soil-pipes  and  v.aste-pipes,  particularly  v. here 

ofl«aks.  they  connect  with  drains,  closet-basins,  sinks,  &c.,  are   another 

frequent   cause  of  leakage.     Any  want  of  air-tiqhtness  in  drains 

or  soil-pipes  within  a  dwelling  leads  to  the  pollution  of  the  air,  not 


Danger 


mcrcl)  by  diffusion,  but  by  ai:  actual  in-draught,  for  generally  the 
air  of  tho  house  has  its  pressure  reduced  by  chimney  draughts  tc 
a  value  slightly  lower  than  tliat  of  the  air  outside.  The  house,  in 
fact,  ventilates  itself  by  drawing  in  air  from  the  pipe  at  any  hole, 
a  fact  which  may  easily  be  demonstrated  by  holding  the  flame  of 
a  taper  near  the  hole. 

Various  experimental  methods  are  usea  of  detecting  such  'eaks  S^mOiia 
as  would  admit  foul  air  to  the  dwelling.     Of  these  the  best  u  the  lest 
"smoke   test."    It  consists  of   filling  the  house-drain,  soil-pipes, 
and  waste-pipes  with  a  dense  and  pungent  smoke,  any  escape  of 
which  into  the   house   is  readily  observed  by  eye  and   nose.     A 
quantity  of  cotton-waste  soaked   in  oil  is  lighted,  and  its  fumes 
are  blown  into  tho  house-drain  by  a  revolving  fan,  at  tho  ventilat- 
ing cover  of  the  disconnecting  trap,  or  at  any  other  convenient 
opening.     Smoke  soon  fills  the  pipes,  and  begins  to  escape  at  the 
roof.     The  upper  ends  of  tho  pipes  arc  then  closed,  and  the  housa 
is   searched   for  smoke.  ^     Another   test,  especially   applicable   to 
those  parts  of  drains  that  are  laid  under  houses,  is  the  hydi-aulic  Hyd/aulic 
test,  which   consists  in  stopping  up  the  lower  end  of  the  pipe,  te^t. 
filling  it  with  water  so  as  to  produce  a  moderate  pressure,  and 
then  observing  v.diether  the  level  of  the  water  falls.     This  test, 
however,  is  too  severe  for  any  but  new  and  very  well  constmcted 
drains. 

Every  basin,  sink,  or  other  fitting  should  be  separately  trapped  Trap*  on 


C  RATING 


Fio.  12.— Grease  Trap. 


by  a  bend  on- the  waste 
pipe  or  some  other  form 
of  trap.  A  brass  cap, 
screwed  on  a  ferule  which 
is  itt  into  the  pipe  on  the 
bend,  facilitates  cleaning 
(fig.  5).  The  warm  waste- 
water from  pantry  and 
scullery  sinks  contains 
much  grease,  and  should 
be  discharged  into  a 
grease  box  (fig.  1'2)  where 
the  water  becomes  cool 
and  deposits  its  greaso 
before    overflowing    into 

the  drain.      To  collect  surface  water  from  laundry  floors, 
court-yards,  kc,  an  open  trap  or  gully  u  used.     Fi, 
simple  and  good  form  of  open 
trap ;  but  if  the  water  is  liable 
to  carry  dov/n  sand  or  earth 
a  gully  (fig.  13)  is  more  suit- 
ame.      Even    in  this   simple 
fittingaremarkable  ingenuity 
of  error  has  been  displayed,  fc^ 
Many  of  the  forms    favoured    by 
builders  are  bad  cither  because  of 
an  insecure  seal,  a  narrow  outlet, 
or  a  tendency  to  gather  filth.     One 
in     particular,     the     well-known 
"  Bell "    trap,    is    an    example    of 
nearly  everything  a   trap  should 
not  be. 

Water-closets  used  to  be  almost 
invariably  of  the  "  pan  "  type,  but 


ir  dividual 

ii  lungs. 


areas, 
9  shows  a  Open 

traps  and 
golliea. 


Fia.  13.— Gally-Trap. 


wherever  sanitary  reform  has  been 

preached  to  any  purpose  the  pan  closet  is  giving  place  to  cleaner 

and  wholesomer  patterns.     The  evils  of  the  pan  closet  will  be  evi-  Fan 

dent  from  an  inspection  of  fig.         _  __  closet. 

14,     At  each  use  of  the  closet 

the  hinged  pan  a  is  tilted  down 

so  that  it  discharges  its  contents 

into  the  container  b.     The  sides 

of  the  container  are  inaccessible 

for   cleaning,    and    their    upper 

portions  are  out  of  reach  of  the 

flushing  action  of  the  pan.    They 

gradually  become  coated  with  a 

foul  deposit.     A  gust  of  tainted 

air  escapes  at  every  use  of  the 

closet ;    and   it   rarely   happens   that  the 

container  is  air-tight,  and  that  ihe  filth  it 

has  gathered  does  not  cause  a  smell  even  ' 

in  intervals  of  disuse.     To  make  matters 

worse,  many  of  the  older  pan  closets  are 

provided  J^'ith  the  kind  of  trap  shown  in  ^^^  i7!!:][^Watcr.CloaeL 

the   sketch,  called  the    D    trap,  which  13 

also  liable  to  become  a  gathering  place  for  filth.     Even  with  an 

ordinary  trap,  however,  the  pan  closet  remains  so  bad  that  its  use 

is  to  be  strongly  condemned. 

A  much  better  closet  is  the  valve  or  Bramah  closet,  an  excellent  Valre 
cloaet& 

1  A  novel  plan  of  malting  the  smoke  test  litis  lately  been  ]ntrO'luced,.in  which 
smoke  is  given  off  by  a  "smoke  rocket"  or  cuke  of  elowly  combustible  compound 
^vtllch  le  I:gliCc(>  acU  plai.ca  ia  tUe  draiQ. 


!S  E  W  E  R  A  G  ii. 


717 


-Ifashcv. 
Jktael. 


example  ct  which  by  Frew  of  Perth  is  shown  in  fig.  15.  The 
basin  is  kept  partly  full  of  water  l»y  a  ground  g-m-uictal  valve 
tightly  pressed  up 
against  a  conical  scat 
at  the  basin's  foot. 
The  chamber  below  is 
only  largo  enough  to 
allow  the~  valve  to 
turn  down ;  it  cannot 
collect  much  foul  mat- 
ter and  may  be  venti- 
lated by  a  separate 
pipe.  A  trapped  over- 
flow prevents  the  basin 
from  being  overfilled. 
The  whole  closet  is 
trapped  by  an  ordinary 
bend  on  the  soil-pine, 
which  is  not  shoi\Ti  in 
the  figure.  The  volume 
of  water  in  the  basin  is 
much  greater  than  in 

pan  closets,  where  the  r<.    ■,.    ^       ..  n.  .    /-n     • 

t  ■  vi.  •   1-     -t   IV   ii  «  Fio.  15. — Bramah  Water-Closet. 

height  IS  limited  by  the 

overflow  which  occurs  round  the  lip  of  the  pan.  In  some  closets 
^f  this  kind  the  valve  is  placed  at  the  side,  and,  when  closed,  lies 
nearly  vertical  In  another  type  of  valve  closet  (Jennings's)  the 
valve  is  a  conical  plug,  pressed  vertically  down  on  a  seat  at  the  side. 
Valve  closets  can  be  made  fairly  effective  and  satisfactory  from 
»  sanitary  point  of  view ;  but  a  much  ch:  aper  and  certainly  not 
less  exceiicnt  typo  of  closet  is  the  "washout,"  "an  example  of 
which  (the  "National")  is  shown  in  fig.  IG.  (Another  wash- 
out closet,  by  Doulton,  appears  in  fig.  C.)  These  are  now  made 
in  a  great  variety  of  good  forms,  sometimes  of  a  single  piece  of 
white  stoneware.  They  combine  cheapness  and  simplicity  with  a 
degree  of  sanitary  perfection  that  is  probably  not  reached  by 
the  most  expensive  closets  of  the  kinds  already  named.  They 
have  no  working  parts  ;  the  closet  is  cleansed  after  use  simply  by 
the  flush  of  water,  which  sweeps  everything  before  it.  The  flush 
must  of  course  be  good :  a  1  |-inch  service  pipe  from  a  cistern 
not  less  than  5  feet  above  the  closet  will  do  well.  In  some  recent 
designs  the  cistern  is  a  box  at  the  hack  of  the  seat  with  a  wide 


f  10. 16.— Wiuhont  Water-Closet  Pio.  17.— Hopper  Qoset. 

oval  mouth  leading  from  it  to  the  flushing  rim  of  the  pan :  this 
gives  a  good  flush  although  tho  cistern  is  low.     A  feature  of  con- 
struction which  may  bo  strongly  recommended  is  to  leave  tho 
closet  entirely  open  for  inspectioji  and.  cleaning,  instead  of  con- 
cealing it  in  a  wooden  case.     Tho  seat  then  generally  rests  on  iron 
brackets  projecting  from  the,  wall,  and  can  bo  raised  on  hinges  at 
the  .back,  so  that  tho  pan  nir  »  ha  used  as  a  nrinal  or  slop-sink 
without  the  risk  of  fouling.     Another  good  typo  of  closet,  sharing 
with  the  washout  the  advantage  of  h.aving  no  mechanical  parts,  is 
Hopper    tho  "hopper,"  illustrated  in  figi  1"  (Dodd's  Hopper).     In  all  these. 
closet,      closets  the  horn  marked  V  is  for  attaching  a  ventilating  pipe. 
^rvice        ^^^  ^^^'^  supply  of  water  to  a  closet  a  separate  cistern  is  desirable, 
dstems    especially  when  water  for  dietetic  purposes  is  liable  to  bo  drawn 
for  from  the  main  cistern  (instead  of  being  taken  direct  from  the  water 

closets,  service  pipe,  which  is  better).  It  would  seem  needless  to  add, 
wcro  it  not  that  such  faults  are 
common,  that  no  cistern — unless 
it  bo  exclusively  used  for  water- 
closet  supply — should  bo  placed  in 
tho  same  room  with  or  just  under 
a  water-closet,  and  that  the  room 
itself  should  bo  well  lighted,  well 
ventilated,  and  well  shut  off  from 
Iwdrooms.  To  prevent  flushing 
of  closets  from  being  imperfect 
through  carelessness,  many  plans 
have  been  devised  for  ensuring  that  Fio.  18.— Wntcr-Clnsct  Cistern 
once  the  flo.v  of  water  is  started  it  *'"'  ^'Phon  '■'"s'l- 

will  continue  until  a  given  volume  has  been  discharged.     Ono  of 
Auto-       the  best  of  these  is  tho  arrangement  of  siphon  flush  .sketched  in 
matic       fig.  18  :  when  tho  valve  a  is  opened  the  downrusli  of  water  starts 
flush.        the  siphon  b  into  aetion,  and  even  should  a  be  then  closed  tho 
flow  poutinues  until  the  water-level  falls  to  c,  when  air  is  admitted 


and  the  siphon  ceases  to  act.     The  air-pipe  c  ia  cut  to  give  the 

desired  volun^o. 

As  regards  house-drainago  generally,  the  points  of  chief  Suimnarj 
importance  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows  : — (1)  tho 
use  of  one  or  more  disconnecting  traps  to  shut  off  eewer 
gas  from  the  whola  system  of  house-drains  and  pipes; 
(2)  the  thorcfugh  ventilation  of  house-drains,  soil-pipes, 
and  branches,  by  providing  openings  througli  v.hich  air 
can  enter  at  the  foot  and  escape  at  the  top ;  (3)  the  dis- 
charge of  all  sinks,  basins,  &c.,  other  than  water-closet 
fittings,  and  especially  of  fixed  bedroom  basin.5,  into  open 
traps  in  the  open  air ;  (4)  the  direct  discharge  of  ci'<tern 
overflows  and  safe-trays  into  the  open  air ;  (5)  the  use  of 
clsanly  and  well-designed  closets,  basins,  &c.,  each  sealed 
by  an  ordinary  bent  trap ;  (6)  the  use  of  separate  service 
tistcrns  for  water-closets. 

It  may  seem  r.upei-fluous  to  add  that  the  system  of  Actual 
pipes  must  provide  a  rapid  and  effective  carriage  of  all  ^^»-^^  «f 
sewage  to   the  sewer,  and  must  bo  water-tight  arid  air-  Lo^'^o"' 
tight.     During  tho  last  five  years,  however,  it  has  been 
proved,  by  examination  of   the  best  houses  in  I^ondon, 
that  it  is  no  uncommon  case  for  a  house  to  be  so  completely 
without  efieotive  connexion  with  the  sewer  that  aU  its  own 
sewage  sinks  into  the  soil  under  the  basement ;  and  about 
76  per  cent,  of  the  houses  inspected  have  failed  to  pass 
the  "  smoke  test." 

In   this   connexion   mention   should    be  made   of   the  Co-opera> 
system  of  co-operative  house-inspection  originated  by  the  '•'"'° 
late  Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin.      The   Edinburgh   Sanitary  "^^I^J'' 
Protection  Association  was.  founded  by  him  in  1878  to  Lnapec- 
carry  out  the  idea  that  the  sanitary  fittings  of  a  house  tion. 
should  be  periodically  submitted  to  examination  by  an 
expert,  and  that  householders  should  combine  to  secure 
for  this  purpose  the   continuous  service   of   an  engineer 
able   to   detect   flaws,   to   advise   Improvements,  and   to 
superintend  alterations.     The  Edinburgh  association  soon 
justified  its  existence  by  discovering,  in  the  houses  of  its 
members,  a  state  of  things  even  worse  than  students  of 
sanitary  science  had  imagined  possible.     Similar  associa- 
tions are  now  doing  excellent  work  in  Loudon,  Glasgow, 
and  many,  other  largo  towns. 

Space  admits  of  only  a  very  brief  mention  of  those  tsystcms  of 
sewerage  in  which  excreta  are  not  removed  by  tho  aid  of  water.    The 
dry-earth  system,  introduced  by  the  Kev.  H.  JIoulo,  takes  advan-  Dry- 
tage  of  the  oxidizing  effect  which  a  porous  substance  such  as  dry  earth' 
earth  exerts  by  bringing  any  sewage  with  which  it  is  mbxd  into  i^yaievS^ 
intimate  contact  with  tho  air  contained  in  its  pores.     A  discharge 
of  urine  and  faces  is  quickly  ^nd  completely  deodorized  and  absorbed 
when  covered  with  a  small  quantity  of  dry  earth  ;  and  the  same 
soil,  if  exposed  to  tho  air  and  allowed  to  dry,  may  bo  used  over  arid 
over  again  for  tho  same  purpose.     Even  after  soil  has  been  scvcr.il 
times  used,  however,  its  value  aj  manure  is  not  so  great  as  to  pay 
for  its  transport  to  any  considerable  distance  ;  and  for  this  reason, 
as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  it  leaves  other  constituents  of  5-^\vago 
to  be  dealt  with  by  other  moans,  the  system  is  of  rather  liniiteil 
application.     So  far  as  it  goes  it  is  excellent,  and  wiiere  there  is 
no  general  system  of  water-can  iage  sewerage,  or  where  the  water- 
supply  is  small  or  uncertain,  an  earth -closet  will,  in  careful  hands,  Earth- 
give  perfect  satisfaction.    Numerous  forms  of  carth-closct  are  sold  in  'jlosets, 
which  a  suitable  quantity  of  earth  is  automatically  thrown  into  the 
pan  at  cacli  time  of  use.     Arrangements  of  tiiis  kind  arc,  howjv.^r, 
not  necessary  to  tho  success  of  the  system  ;  a  box  filled  witli  drj 
earth  and  a  hand  scoop  will  answer  the  purpose  not  less  eirectivcly 
A.shc3  are  sometimes  substituted  for  or  mixed  with  the  dry  earth, 
and  powdered  charcoal  is  also  used. 

The  most  primitive  method  of  dealing  systcraatically  with  P"l 
excreta  is  to  collect  tho  discharges  directly  in  a  vessel  which  i* ayitOBlA 
either  itself  carried  to  the  country,  and  its  contents  applied  to  the 
land,  or  is  emptied  into  a  more  portable  vessel  for  that  purpose. 
In  Japan,  for  example,  in  spite  of  the  difficulty  of  transport  over  bad 
roads  and  by  human  labour,  tho  latter  plan  is  universally  followed  : 
the  land  and  tho  people  have  in  fact  performed  far  centuries  what 
may  be  called  a  complete  cycle  of  operations.  Tho  agricultural 
return  is  so  j'ood  that  farmers  pay  for  leave  to  remove  excrement, 
and  houscliolders  look  to  their  discharges  as  a  source  of  income. 
The  pkn,  although  carried  out  in  tho  roughest  maimer,  appears 
to  involve  fewer  sanitary  drawbacks  than  might  be  (.^pcttcu ;  lu'.< 


'718 


S  E  W  — S  E  W 


K-''  the  smells  from  privies  and  carts,  aud,  above  all,  from  tho  prt:csj 

"  of  emptying  by  ladle,  are  a  nuisance  whicli  no  Western  community 

would   tolerate.     A   simple   pail  system,  in  -svluch  the  sewage  is 
collected  and  removed  in  the  same  vessel,  has  been  used  at  Roch- 
dale ;  another,  with  an  absorbent  lining  in  tlio  pails,  at  Halifax. 
jPnen-       A  plan  mucli  used  in  Continental  cities  is  to  collect  e.xerement  in 
niatic       tight  vaults,  which  are  emptied  at  intervals  into  a  tank  cart  by  a 
^sterns,  suction   pump   or  injector      A  more  recent  pneumatic  system  is 
that  of  Licrnur,  applied  at  Amsterdam,  where  sewage  reservoirs  at 
.    individual  houses  are  permanently  connected  with  a  central  reservoir 
by  pipes,  throngli  which  the  contents  of  the  former  are  sucked  by 
exhausting  air  from  tho  reservoir  at  the  central  station.     A  similar 
plan  has  been  tried  at  Lyons  and  Paris  by  M.  Berlier. 

He/erencgs.—The  blue-book  literature  of  sewaf^e  disposnl  is  very  voluminous. 
Special  reference  should  be  made  to  the  Reports  of  the  Rivers  Foltution  Com- 
misnoners,  from  ISCG  ;  Kepori  of  the  Referees  on  Metropolitan  Main  Prainagc, 
IS^T;  heoorts  of  the  Commission  on  the  Seieago  of  Towns,  1S53-1SCJ  ;  Reports  of 
Sele:t  Committees  of  tha  Jfouse  of  Commons,  18C2  and  lSr>4 ;  Reports  of  the 
British  Association  Contmittee  on  the  Treatment  arid  Vtitiztition  of  Setaage, 
1SG9-187C:  Report  of  the  Birmingham  Setcage  Inguirt:  Comm.ttee,  1S71 ;  Reports 
cf  t':e  Local  Qoveniri'^.;  Board;  Reports  of  tlte Royal  Commisstonon  Metropolitan 
Seisag^  Discharge,  1SS4  (the  second  and  tinal  report  contains  a  valuabiehislorica! 
r^sum-i  of  the  subject).  Sec  also  the  following  books  : — Corfield,  Treatment  and 
Vtitization  of  Seteage,  1S71;  Burke,  Handbook  of  Seteage  Utilisation,  1S73; 
Rcolnson  and  Melliss,  Purijieation  of  Water-carried  Sewage,  1S77  ;  Robinson, 
Scu^tge  Dirposcl,  1SS2;  J.  Eailey-Denton.  Intermittent  Bcwnward  Filtration, 
2d  cd.,  1SS5.  Enjiineerhig  details  of  sewerage  aro  given  In  Baldwin  Latham's 
Sanitary  Engineering,  2d  ed.,  1S78 ;  and  particulars  of  the  drainage  pf  Individual 
towns  will  be  found  in  numei'ous  papers  in  the  Minutes  of  Proceedings  of  tlie 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  The  domestic  aspect  of  sewerage  has  been  treated 
by  K.  iialley-Denton,  Hcndbocl:  of  House  Sanitation,  16S2  ;  W.  P.  Buclian, 
Ptu:noiK.j  and  House  Draincgf,  4th  ed.,  1SS3;  V/  Eassie,  Healthy  Houses,  1S7G; 
Gerhai:),  House  Drainage,  New  York,  18S2 ;  Waring,  Sanitary  Drainage  of 
Houses  and  Toums,  Boston,  4th  ed..  1633 ;  F.  Jcakin,  JJealtht/  Houses,  1S7S  ;  and 
»Tjany  other  writers.  (J.  A.  E.) 

SEWIN,  or  Se'wtsjt.     See  Saliionid.e,  vol  xxi.  p.  222. 

SEWING  MACPIINES.  The  sewing  machine,  as  is 
the  case  with  most  mechanical  inventions,  is  the  result  o£ 
tho  elibrts  of  maa^  Ingenious  persons,  although  it  would 
appear  that  the  most  meritorious  of  these  worked  in  entire 
ignorance  of  the  labours  and  successes  of  others  in  tho 
Earns  field.  Many  of  the  early  attempts  to  sew  by 
machinery  went  on  the  lines  of  imitating  ordinary  hand- 
sewing,  and  all  such  inventions  proved  conspicuous 
failures.  The  method  of  hand-sewing  is  of  necessity  slow 
and  intermittent,  seeing  that  only  ■  a  definite .  length  of 
thread  is  used,  v/hich  passes  its  full  extent  through  tho 
cioth  at  every  stitch,  thus  causing  the  working  arm,  human 
or  otherwise,  to  travel  a  great  length  for  every  stitch 
made,  and  demanding  frequent  renewals  of  thread.  TJie 
foundation  of  machine-sewing  was  laid  by  the  invention 
of  a  double-pointed  needle,  with  the  eye  in  the  centre, 
patented  by  Charles  F.  Weisenthal  in  1 755.  This  device 
•was  intended  to  obviate  the  necessity  for  inverting  the 
needle  in  sewing  or  embroidering,  aud  it  was  subsequently 
utilized  in  Heilnian's  well-known  embroidery  machine. 

Many  of  the  features  of  the  sewing  machine  are  dis- 
tinctly specified  in  a  patent  secured  in  England  by  Thomas 
Saint  in  1790,  in  which  he,  inter  alia,  describes  a  machine 
for  stitching,  quilting,  or  sewing.  Saint's  machine,  which 
appears  to  huvu  been  intended  principally  for  leather  work, 
was  fitted  witli  an  av/l  which,  working  vertically,  pierced 
a  liolo  for  the  thread.  A  spindle  and  projection  laid  the 
thread  over  tiis  hole,  and  a  descending  forked  needle 
jiressed  a  loop  of  thread  through  it.  The  loop  was  caught 
on  the  under  side  by  a  reciprocating  hook ;  a  feed  moved 
tho  work  forward  the  extent  of  one  stitch ;  and  a  second 
loop  was  formtd  by  the  same  motions  as  the  first.  It, 
iiovrever,  descended  within  the  first,  which  was  thrown  o3 
by  the  hook  aii  it  caught  the  second,  and  being  thus 
.secured  and  tightened  up  an  ordinary  tambour  or  chain 
stitch  was  formed.  Had  Saint  hit  on  the  idea  of  the  eye- 
pointed  needle  hi.)  machine  would  have  been  a  complete 
anticipation  of  the  modern  chain-stitch  machine. 

The  inventor  w.\o  first  devised  a  real  working  machine 
was  a  poor  tailor,  Viarthi^lemy  Thimonier,  of  St  Etienne, 
who  obtained  letter?  patent  in  France  in  1830.  In  Thi- 
monier's  apparatus  tllq  needle  was  crocheted,  and  descend- 
ing through  the  clot^x  it  brought  up  with  it  a  loop  of 
.ihread  which  it  carried  Mivough  the  previously  made  loopi 


and  thus  it  formed  a  ctiain  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
fabric.  The  machine  was  a  rather  clumsy  affair,  made 
principally  of  wood,  notwithstanding  which  as  many  as 
e'ghty  were  being  worked  in  Pans  in  1841,  making  army 
clothing,  when  an  ignorant  and  furious  crowd  wrecked 
the  establishment  and  nearly  murdered  the  unfortunate 
inventor.  Thimonier,  however,  was  not  discouraged,  for 
in  18i5  he  twice  patented  improvements  on  it,  and  in 
1S4S  he  obtained  both  in  France  and  the  United  Kingdom 
patents  for  further  improvements.  The  machine  was  then 
made  entirely  of  metal,  and  vastly  improved  on  the  first 
model  But  the  troubles  of  1848  blasted  the  prospects 
of  the  resolute  inventor.  His  patent  rights  for  Great 
Britain  were  sold ;  a  machine  shown  in  the  Great  Exhi- 
bition of  1851  attracted  no  attention,  and  Thimonier  died 
in  1857  unfriended  and  unrewarded. 

The  most  important  ideas  of  an  eye-pointed  needle  and 
a  double  threa-^  or  lock-stitch  are  strictly  of  American 
origin,  and  that  combination  was  first  conceived  by 
Walter  Hunt  of  New  York  about  1832-34.  Hunt  reaped 
nothing  of  the  enormous  pecuniary  reward  which  has 
been  shared  among  the  introducers  of  the  sewing  machine, 
and  it  is  therefore  all  the  more  necessary  that  his  great 
merit  as  an  inventor  should  be  insisted  on.  He  constructed 
a  machine  having  a  vibrating  arm,  at  the  extremity  of 
which  he  fixed  a  curved  needle  with  an  eye  near  its  point. 
By  this  needle  a  loop  of  thread  was  formed  under  the 
cloth  to  be  sown,  and  througli  that  loop  a  thread  carried 
in  an  oscillating  shuttle  was  passed,  thus  making  the  lock- 
stitch of  all  ordinary  two-thread  machines.  Hunt's  inven- 
tion was  purchased  by  a  blacksmith  named  Arrowsmith, 
and  a  good  deal  was  done  towards  improving  its  mechanical 
details,  but  no  patent  was  sought,  nor  was  any  serious 
attempt  made  to  draw  attention  to  the  invention.  After 
the  success  of  machines  based  on  his  two  devices  was 
fully  established.  Hunt  in  1853  applied  for  a  patent;  but 
his  claim  was  disallowed  on  the  ground  of  abandonment. 
The  most  important  feature  in  Hunt's  invention — the  eye- 
pointed  needle — was  first  patented  in  the  United  Ivingdcrm 
by  Newton  and  ArchCold  in  1841,  in  connexion  with 
glove-stJtching. 

Apparently  quite  unconscious  of  the  i.iventionof  Walter 
Hunt,  the  attention  of  Elias  Howe,  a  native  of  Spencer, 
Mass.,  was  di- 
rected to  machine- 
sewing  about  the 
year  1843.  In 
1844  he  com- 
pleted a  rough, 
model,  and  in 
1846  he  patented 
his  sewing  ma- 
chine (fig.  1). 
Howe  was  thus 
the  first  to  patent 
a  lock-stitch  ma-  / 
chine,  but  his  in- 
vention had  the  ' 
two  essential  feat- 
ures— the  curved 
eye-pointed  needle 
and  the  under- 
thread  shuttle — 
which  undoubted- 
ly were  invented 
by   AValter   Hunt  _  Fro.  l.-Hewe  .  original  Machine. 

twelve  years  previously.  Howe's  inviention  was  sold  in 
England  to  William  Thomas  of  Cheapside,  London,  a  corset 
manufacturer,  for  £250.  Thomas  secured  in  December 
1846  the  English  patent  in  bis  own  name,  and  engaged 


B SWING      MACHINES 


719-» 


Hawa  on  weekly  wages  to  adapt  the  machino  for  Kis  nraiu- 
facturing  purposes.  The  career  of  the  inventor  in  Loudon 
was  chequered  and  unsuccessful ;  and,  having  pa^vned  his 
American  patent  rights  in  England,  he  returned  in  April 
18-J9  in  deep  poverty  to  America.  There  in  the  mean- 
time the  sewing  machine  was  beginning  to  excite  public 
curiosity,  and  various  persons  were  making  machines 
which  Howe  found  to  trench  on  his  patent  right.?.  The 
most  prominent  of  the  manufacturers,  if  not  of  inventors, 
nltirao.tely  appeared  in  the  person  of  Isaac  Merritt  Singer, 
who  in  ISSl  secured  a  patent  for  his  machine  (fig.  2), 
and  immediately 
Hevoted  himself 
with  immense  en- 
fergy  to  push  the 
fortunes  of  the 
infant  industry. 
Howe  now  became 
alert  to  vindicate 
his  rights,  and, 
after  regaining 
possession  of  his 
pawned      patent, 

he  instituted  suits "    /'  -—v/m    V  JiM 

against     the    in- 

f  .  ,  Fic. -. — Singer's  original  iiacblno, 

frmgers.  An  enor- 
mous atDount  of  litigation  ensued,  in  which  Singer  figured 
as  a  most  obstinate  defendant,  but  ultimately  all  makers 
becama  tributary  to  Eliaa  Howe.  It  is  calculated  that 
Hcwo  received  in  the  form  of  royalties  on  machines  made 
up  to  the  period  of  the  expiry  of  his  extended  patent — 
September  18GT — which  was  also  the  month  of  his  death, 
a  sum  of  not  less  than  two  millions  of  dollars. 

The  practicability  of  machine-sewing  being  demonstrated, 
inventions  of  considerable  originality  and  merit  followed 
in  quick  succession.  One  of  the  most  ingenious  of  aU 
the  inventors — who  worked  al.?o  without  knowledge  of 
previous  efforts — was  Jlr  Allan  E.  y\'il3on.  In  1S49  he 
devised  the  rotary  hook  and  bobbin  combination,  which 
now,  forms  the  special  feature  of  the  Wheeler  &  Wilson 
machine.  Mr  Wilson  obtained  a  patent  for  his  machine, 
which  included  the  important  and  etfoctive  four-motion 
feed,  in  November  18.50.  In  February  1851  Mr  William 
O.  Grover,  tailor,  of  Boston,  patented  his  double  chain- 
stitch  action,  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  Grover  &, 
Baker  machine.  At  a  later  date,  in  1856,  Mr  James  A.  E. 
Gibb.->,  a  Virginia  farmer,  devised  the  improved  chain- 
stitch  machine  nov/  popularly  knovm  as  tho  Willcox  & 
Gibbs.  These  together — all  American  inventions — form 
the  types  of  the  various  machines  now  in  common  use. 
Several  thousands  of  patents  have  been  issued  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  covering  improvements  in  tho 
sswing  machine ;  but,  although  the  efficiency  of  tho  machine 
has  been  greatly  increased  by  numerous  accessories  and 
attachments,  the  main  principles  of  the  various  machines 
have  not  been  affected  thereby. 

In  niachino  somng  theio  are  three  v.arioties  of  stitch  made, — (1) 
the  simple  chain  or  tambour  stitch,  (2)  tiio  double  chain  stitch, 
and  (3)  tho  look  etitcli.  In  tho  first  variety  the  machine  works 
with  a  single  thread  ;  tho  other  forms  uso  two,  an  upper  and  an 
under  thread. 

Tiie  straoture  of  th5  cliim  stitch  is  shown  in  fig.  3.  Tho  needle 
first  descends  through  tho  cioth,  then  as  it  begins  to  ascend  tho 
friction  of  the  thread 
against  the  fabric  is  suf- 
ficient to  form  a  small 
loop  into  which  the 
point  of  a  hook  operat- 
ing under  tho  cloth 
plate  cntci-3,  expanding 
and  holding  the  loop 
'.vhilo  the  needle  rises  to  its  full  height.  The  feed  then  moves  tho 
^btio  forward  one  stitch  length,  tho  hook  with  its  loop  is  also 


Fio.  3. — Chain  Stitch. 


projected  so  that  when  next  the  needle  descends  its  loop  is  formed 
■.-.•ithin  the  previous  loop.  The  hook  then  releases  loop  No.  1,  seizes 
and  expands  loop  No.  2,  and  in  so  doing  drav/s  up  llio  previous  loop 
into  a  stitrh,  chain-like  on  the  under  side  but  plain  on  tho  upi'wr 
surface  of  the  fabric.  The  seam  so  made  is  firm  and  elastic,  but 
easily  undone,  for  if  at  any  point  a  thread  is  broken  tho  whole  of 
the  sowing  can  bo  readily  run  out  backwards  by  pulling  the  thread, 
just  as  iu  crochet  work.  To  a  certain  extent  tliis  imperfection 
in  the  chain-stitch  machine  is  overcome  in  the  Willcox  &  Gibhs 
machine,  iu  which  each  loop  is,  by  means  of  a  rotating  hock, 
twisted  half  a  revolution  after  it  has  uasscd  through  its  pre- 
decessor. 

Tho  double  chain  stitch* is  mcdo  by  machines  associated  with 
the  name  of  Grover  k  Baker.  Tho  spmewhat  complicated  course 
of  the  threads  in  this  stitch 
is  shown  in  ti^.  4.  The 
under  thread  in  this  machino 
is  supplied  from  an  ordinary 
bobbin  and  is  threaded  • 
through  a  circular  needle  of 
peculiar  form.  The  machino 
is  wasteful  of  thread,  and  tlio 
sewing  forms  a  knotted  ridge  on  tho  under  side  of  tlie  fabric. 
E.^eept  for  special  manufacturing  and  ornamental  purposes  tho 
machino  is  now  in  httle  use. 

The  lock  stitch  is  tliat  made  hy  oil  ordinary  two-thread  sewing 
machines,  and  is  a  stitch  peculiar  to  machme  jewing.     Its  structure 


Fia.  4.— Double  Chain  Stltcli, 


i.s,  as  shown  in  fig.  5,  vcr 
the  threadsinterlock  with- 
in the  work  the  stitch 
shows  the  same  on  both 
sides  and  is  very  scciiro. 
"When,  however,  the  ten- 
sion on  tho  upper  thread 
is  weak,  the  under  thread 
runs  along  the  surface  as  at  b, 
upper  loops. 


simple,  and  when  by  proper  tension 


Fig.  5.— Luck  Stitch, 


held  more  or  less  tightly  by  tho 
It  will  bo  seen,  t'lat  to  make  tl,e  chain  stitch  tho 
under  thread  has  to  be  passed  quite  throu<;h  the  loop  of  the  upper 
tlrread.  That  is  done  in  two  principal  ways.  By  the  fii-st  plan  a 
small  metal  shuttle,  holdirrg  within  it  a  bobbin  of  thread,  h  carried 
backward  and  forward  under  tho  cloth  plate,  and  at  each  forward 
movement  it  passes  through  tho  upper  threed  loop  formed  by  each 
succeeding  stroke  of  the  needle.  Such  is  the  principle  devised  by 
Hunt,  introduced  by  Howe,  and  improved  by  Singer  and  many 
others.  The  second  principal  method  of  fonning  the  lock  stitch 
consists  in  seizing  the  loop  of  the  upper  thiead  by  a  rotating  hook, 
expanding  the  loop  and  passing  it  around  a  stationary  bobbin 
within  which  is  wound  the  under  thread.  The  method  is  the 
invention  of  Mr  A.  B.  Wilson,  and  is  known  generally  as  the 
■Wheeler  &  "Wilson  principle.  The  rotary  hook  seen  at  b,  fig.  6, 
is  so  bevelled  and  notclied  that  it  opens  and  expands  tho  upper 
thread  loop,  causing  it  quito  to  enclose  the  bobbin  of  under  thread, 
after  which  it  throws  it  off  and  the  so-formed  lock  stitch  is  pulled 
up  and  tightened  either  by  an  independent  take-up  motion  as  in 
rc^rufc  machines,  or  by  the  expansion  of  the  next  loop  as  in  the 
older  forms.     The  bobbin  A,  lenticular  in  form,  aud  its  case  B, 


Fio.  e.— Rotary  Hook,  Bobbin,  .ind  EobbIa.Casa  (Whcclcr  <t  Wilson 
Mucbinc). 

fig.  6,  fit  easily  into  a  circular  depression  within  tho  hook,  against! 
which  they  are  held  by  tho  bobbin  holder  c,  fig.  6. 

Intci-mcdiato  between  tho  shuttle  and  tho  rotary-hook  machines 
is  tho  new  oscillating-shuttlo  machino  introduced  by  tho  Singer 
Co.  The  shuttle  is  hook-formed,  not  unlike  the  Wilson  hook, 
and  it  carries  within  it  a  capacious  circular  bobbin  of  thread  /t, 
fig.  7.  This  shuttle  is  driven  by  an  o.scillating  driver  do  within 
an  annular  raceway  a  a,  and,  instead  of  revolving  completely 
liko  the  'Wilion  hook,  it  only  oscillates  iu  an  arc  of  150^  so  far 
as  serves  to  catch  and  clear  tho  tipper  thread.     Tho  oscillatina-, 


720 


S  E  X  — S  E  X 


Ra-  shuttle  and  rctiry-hsok  machines  work  with  grcit  c^octhECsn 

and  rapidity. 


Fig.  T.— Singer's  OscHIatlD^-ShutUe  Machine, 
Ti'.ere  are  numcvoiis  special  serving  machines  adapted  for  leather 
work,  glove-sewijig,  «c.,  socae  of  which  will  bo  alluueJ  to  under 
Shoes.  .  (J.  PA.) 

SEX.  Since  th3  article  Repeoduction  (q.i.)  inclade.s 
not  only  some  account  of  the  reprcdactivc  processes  but 
an  outline  of  tlio  comparative  anatomy  of  the  reproductiTO 
organs,  and  even  a  somewhat  detailed  description  of  the 
essential  sexual  element.;,  it  only  remains  here  to  make  a 
brief  survey  of  the  more  important  groups  with  respect  to 
the  absence,  union,  or  distinction  of  the  seses  and  to  the 
associated  "secondary  sexual  characters"  which  distinctly 
male  and  female  organisms  so  frequently  and  strikingly 
present,  and  to  follow  up  that  outline  of  the  morphological 
facts  ■svith  a  brief  discussion  of  the  nature  and  origin  of 
the  sexes  and  of  the  theory  of  reproduction. 

Characters  of  the  Sexes. — Starting  with  the  Protozoa,  we 
find  indeed  that  union  or  conjugation  of  two  or  more 
individuals  is  of  frequent  if  not  universrJ  occurrence ;  yet, 
since,  at  any  rate  with  rare  and  slight  exceptions,  no 
permanent  morphological  difference  can  be  made  out  which 
would  entitle  us  to  speak  of  males  or  females,  the  group  is 
generally  defined  as  characterized  by  the  absence  of  sexual 
rsproduction.  ^Vithout  at  present  accepting  or  rejecting 
this  view,  it  is  convenient  to  postpone  its  discussion  until 
the  origin  of  sex  come.s  to  be  considered. 

Passing  to  the  CccJcntcra,  v,'e  find  among  the  HydromedusES 
the  Eexc3  usually  distinct,  and  this  distinction  of  the  sexes  has 
lately  been  traced  back  to  the  apparently  asexual  colonies  fi'om 
which  the  gonophores  arise.  Exceptions,  however,  occur, — e.g., 
Tuiidaria,  which  is  monoecious.  The  higher  Mcdusee  are  also 
usually  unisexual,  and  occasionally  even  show  secondary  sexual 
differences,  as  in  the  foi-m  and  length  of  the  prehensile  filaments 
(jntrelia).  Chnjsaora,  however,  is  hermaphrodite.  The  Siphono- 
plwra  usually  present  both  sexes  within  a  single  colony, — the  gono- 
phores themselves  being,  however,  unisexual.  In  a  few  case^ 
{ApoUmia  uvaria,  Diphycs  aaimiitata)  the  colony  itself  is  entirely 
male  or  female.  The  CtcnopJwra  are  invariably  hermaphrodite; 
and  among  the  Hexaciinia  this  is  frequently  though  not  generally 
the  case,  completely  diojcious  colonies  even  occurring  (Gerardia). 
Among  the  Odaciinia  the  sexes  are  usually  distinct,  even  so  far 
as  the  colonies  are  concerned,  yet  there  are  many  exceptions,  e.g., 
Coralliuvi,  which  has  male,  female,  and  hermaphrodite  polyps  on 
the  same  stock.     See  Hydkozoa,  Coeals,  &c. 

The  Echinodcrmata  are  very  rarely  hermaphrodite  {Synapta, 
Amphiura  sqiiamata),  bat  secondary  sexual  characters  are  almost 
unknown.  ThyoTie,  however,  has  tha  male  orifice  on  a  small  pro- 
tuberance.     See  ECHINODERMATA. 

Probably  no  invertebrate  group  presents  so  varied  and  interest- 
ing a  series  of  sexual  phenomena  as  the  Vermes.  Thus  the 
Polyzofs  exhibit  that  remarkable  ass  elation  of  hermaphroditism 
with  asexual  reproduction  which  so  frcq^uently  recurs  in  organisms 
of  vegetative  habit.  The  Brachiopods  also  are  hermaphrodite,  as 
a'iso  are  the  Oligochstes  ;  the  Potychsta  only  exceptionally  so  ; 
some  {Kercidm)  exhibit  secondary  sexual  characters  so  well  marked 
as  to  have  been  mistaken  for  specific  or  even  generic  ones.  The 
PlcUyhclmiTiihes    with    few   exceptions   are  hermaphrodite  ;    the 


Ni'n-.crteann  (except  Borlasia)  ere  uniFi-mal  and  occasionally 
exhibit  secondary  sexual  differences.  The  iNomatodes  are  very 
rirc'.y  hermaphrodite  {Ascaris,  Pdcdytcs),  but  present  very  marked 
pexual  diflerences,  tl'.o  male  being  usually  recognizable  by  smaller 
size  and  caudal  curvature.  Spicules  or  claspers  for  copulation 
.arc  abo  present.  In  S/rongylus  the  female  is  canied  by  the  male 
■ji  a  ventral  furrow.  The  aberrant  nematoid  Echinorhynchus  is 
also  dicecious.  (Sagn^ta  is  hermarphrodite ;  .ffaZa7iO(??055Ms  unisexual, 
but  v.ithout  secondary  sexual  difference.  Some  of  the  moz\. 
striking  cases  of  sexual  dimorphism  are  presented  by  the  Pxtifira, 
where  the  male  is  often  a  fallen-  representative  of  the  specific 
type  presented  by  the  female,  having  not  only  greatly  diminished 
in  size  but  having  undergone  thorough  degeneration  in  structure, 
the  alimentary  canal  especially  becoming  represented  by  a  mere 
imperforate  thread  of  cells.  Nor  are  such  cases  of  male  degener- 
ation by  any  means  confined  to  this  group :  a  yet  moro  striking 
instance  is  presented  by  the  Gephyrean  Bonellia,  in  r.-hieh  the 
oviduct  of  the  large  and  well-grown  female  contains  a  number 
of  almost  microscopic  ciliated  Turbellarian -looking  parasites,  which 
have  been  shov.  u  to  he  the  degenerate  males.  The  other  Gcphyrca 
present  no  such  extraordinary  dimorphism,  while  the  ■Disccphcra 
£,re  hermaphrodite.     See  PoLTiOA,  Eeachiopoda,  AjraELiDA,  Ne- 

MEUTEANS,  PlANAEIANS,  TaPEVi'OKK,  SagITTA,  LeECH,  &C. 

Among  Crustaceans  the  males  are  frequently  smaller  or  relatively 
dwarfish,  sometimes  attached  parasitically  to  the  female,  and  the 
sexes  are  generally  distinguishable  at  least  by  differences  in  tho 
structure  of  some  of  the  appendages, — generally,  however,  in  evident 
relation  to  their  respective  functions.  Amonj;  tho  Copepods  the 
sexes  are  separate,  and  a  marked  tendency  to  dimorphism  is 
manifested,  even  among  the  free-living  forms.  This  is  sometimes 
manifested  in  a  way  which  suggests  the  sexual  magnificence  of 
the  highest  animals  ;  thra,  for  instance,  the  male  Sapphirina  has 
the  brillianofi  of  a  gem.  T>'ith  tho  appearance  of  parasitism  in 
tho  group  the  reproductive  relations. become  profaundly  modified  ; 
thus  't  is  the  always  less  active  female  which  fiist  becomes  sessile 
and  parasitic  ;  the  male  occasionally  permanently  retains  freedom, 
as  in  the  common  Nicothoe  of  the  lobster's  gill ;  more  usually,  how- 
ever, he  settles  down  beside  or  even  upon  the  female  and  becomes 
moro  or  less  completely  epi-parasitic,  undergoing  a  more  thorough 
degeneration  than  the  female  herself.  The  analogous  series  froin 
free  to  parasitic  forms  furnished  by  the  Ostracoda  and  Clrrtpcdia 
are  yet  more  remarkable  in  their  sexual  degeneretion,  since  not 
only  does  hermaphroditism  become  the  rule,  but  "  complementary 
males "  (most  frequently  two  to  one  female)  appear.  These  are 
utterly  degenerate  in  size  and  structure,  in  fact  often  quite 
unrecognizable  as  Cirripedes  at  all,  much  less  as  members  of  tha 
same  species,  save  for  their  developmental  history  and  the  existence 
of  a  few  intermediate  degrees  of  degeneration  between  the  normal 
and  the  lost  Qirripede  organization,  e.g.,  Ibla  or  Scalpelhim,  where 
the  males  of  some  species  still  retain  cirri  and  buccal  pieces.  In 
some  cases  at  least  their  male  reproductive  function  seems  to  be  ■ 
discharged  early  in  larval  life,  before  the  exchange  of  free  for 
sessile  habits,  their  subsequent  life  apparently  even  sinking  below 
the  level  of  reproductive  activity.  A  reversal  of  sex  has  actually 
been  alleged  in  some  cases,  the  males  having  been  said  to  become 
female.  In  the  Phyllopods  the  sexes  are  separate,  but  partheno- 
genesis very  frequently  occurs,  as  in  Daphnia,  Apiis,  &c.,  and 
even  in  Apits  tends  to  replace  sexual  reproduction  very  completely. 
Von  Siebold  examined  thousands  of  specimens  dming  t".velve  years 
without  finding  a  single  male ;  in  other  years,  however,  from 
10  to  45  per  cent,  of  males  have  since  been  found.  Besides 
the  usual  copulatory  modifications  of  appendages  the  males  of  some 
Phyllopods  have  more  olfactory  filaments  en  the  antennae.  In 
Aniphipods  similar  differences  have  been  noted  ;  in  Isopods  these 
often  become  much  more  marked, — sometimes,  as  in  the  classical 
case  of  PranizOr  and  Awcns,  reaching  a  degree  of  dimorphism  with- 
out degeneration  which  is  hardly  exceeded  in  the  animal  kingdom, 
and  which  quite  naturally  led  to  the  separation  of  the  sexes  into 
distinct  genera.  In  the  parasitic  forms  {Bopyridae)  the  females 
degenerate  much  more  thoroughly  than  the  small  and  active  males. 
Tha  Schizopods  exhibit  considerable  sexual  .differences.  Thus 
among  the  males  the  antennse  bear  larger  olfactory  comb-like 
structures  and  larger  abdominal  members  ;  copulatory  appendages 
may  also  be  specialized  ;  while  the  females,  as  in  many  Isopods,  &c., 
have  a  brood-pouch  formed  of  overlapping  ventral  lamells.  The 
different  position  of  the  sex-openings  and  the  characteristic  forms 
of  the  limbs  render  the  sexes  easily  distinguishable  among  the 
Decapods  ;  the  crabs  have  an  obviously  broader  abdomen  in  tha 
female  (see  Crustacea).  Among,  the  Arachnida,  the  archaic 
king-crabs  already  show  slight  external  sex-differences  >  among 
the  spiders  the  maloi  have  a  maxillary  palp  specially  modified  for  a 
copulatory  organ,  an  adaptation  which,  associated  with  their 
often  extremely  small  size,  is  of  great  import.arice  in  aiding  their 
escape  from  their  larger  and  ferocious  mates.  Some  species  of 
Thcridium  have  a  stridulating  apparatus.  Tho  male  scorpions 
on  the  other  hand  seem  to  possess  a  rather  stronger  development ; 
in  the  Acarinx  the  smaller  males  ere  more  distinctly  segmented. 


SEX 


possess  appendages  modified  for  attachment^  and  sometimes  retain 
a  free  liabit  of  Uf^  as  distinguished,  from  the  parasitic  females. 
See  Arachnida-. 

Among  Insects  the  sexes  are  disfeiuguished  by  varying  modifica- 
tions  of  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  differences  in  general  form 
and  in  colour  are  frequent.  The  males  are*  generally  active  and 
more  beautiful,  and  seem  better  endowed  with  sense  organs,  though 
usually  smaller  than  the  females.  The  males  have  also  a  pre- 
eminence or  even  monopoly  in  producing  sounds,  and  it  is  perliaps 
in  relation  to  this  that  the  psychology  of  sex  can  first  be  said  to 
come  withi^  the  rsjige  of  observation.  Tluis  the  field-cricket  is 
said  to  lower  the  tone  of  his  song  while  caressing  the  female  with 
his  antenns.  In  the  parasitic  forms  dimorphism,  as  might  be 
expected,  becomes  very  marked  ;  in  Strepsipiera  the  males  are  free 
and  winged,  while  the  females  are  blind  and  wingless,  in  fact, 
permanently  larfral.  Similar  cases  occur  in  other  orders,  the  glow- 
worm being  probably  the  most  familiar  instance.  In  parasitic  or 
abundantly  nourished  forms  parthenogenesis  very  frequently 
appears,  the  extreme  case  being  presented  hy  .Cccidomyia,  a  fly 
wnich  exhibits  rapid  parthenogenetic  reproduction  in  the  larval 
state.  The  dimorphism  of  many  beetles,  in  which  the  male 
fi^quently  acquires  the  most  extraordinary  specializations  of 
external  form,  has  received  especial  attention  from  Darwin,  whose 
Ii>escent  of  Man  includes  the  fullest  details.  Here  it  is  enough  to 
mention  that  Reichenau  has  recently  pointed  out  the  coexistence 
of  the  larger  siio  and  relative  inactivity  of  the  male  with  the 
presence  of  these  functionless  outgrowths.  The  beautiful  sexual 
dimorphism  so  common  among  the  Lepidoptera  need  not  be  more 
than  mentioned  at  present ;  while  the  very  remarkable  sexual 
differentiation  of  Hynunoptera  (bees,  ants,  sawflies,  &c. )  may  also 
Iw  assumed  to  be  sufficiently  familiar.  See  Insects,  Anps,  Bees. 
In  several  orders  {Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  Coleoptera)  cases  of  dimor- 
phism occur  among  the  females  themselves,  or  even  among  the 
Btales  ;  as  many  as  three  forms  of  females  have  been  described  in 
certain  butterflies. 

The  MoUuscan  series  opens  with  the  normally  dicecious  Lamelli- 
branchs,  of  which  some  genera  (most  species  of  Osirea^  Pecten,  kc. ) 
are,  however,  hermaphrodite.  The  Pteropods,  Pulmonates,  and 
•pisthobranchs  are  hermaphrodite  ;  the  Prosobranchs,  Heteropods, 
and  Cephalopods  unisexual.  Though  slight  differences  have  oeen 
described  even  in  Lamellibranch  shells  {(/nio),  and  though  the 
internal  anatomy  of  the  essential  and  accessory  organs  is  of  very 
high  complexity,  the  extraordinary  phenomena  associated  with 
■'  hectocotylizatiou  "  among  the  Cephalopod  are  the  only  marked 
outward  manifestations  of  that  sexual  dimorphism  which  reaches  its 
climax  in  the  Argonaut  {See  Mollusca,  Ccttle-fish.)  The 
Tunicates  are  usually  hermaphrodite;  Amphioxus,  however,  is 
unisexual  (see  Tunicata). 

Among  Fishes  hermaphroditism  is  extremely  rare  {Serra7ius). 
The  males  are  sometimes  char^terized  by  the  modification  of  the 
pelvic  limbs  as  claspers,  &c.,  and  are  at  the  reproductive  period 
often  readily  distinguishable  from  the  females  by  their  brighter 
colour  or  other  cutaneous  changes,  such  as  ruffling  of  the  skin, 
Male  and  female  rays  are  readily  also  distinguishable  by  their  teeth 
and  dermal  defences.  The  hooked  jaw  of  the  male  salmon  gives 
him  a  characteristic  physiognomy  during  the  breeding  season.  The 
carp  undergoes  a  sort  of  epidermic  eruption  at  the  same  period  ; 
male  and  female  eels,  too,  are  said  often  to  become  distinguishable 
both  in  colour  and  shape.  Stridulating  apparatus  may  be  present, 
notably  in  the  Siluroids.  (See  Ichthyology.)  Among  Amphi- 
bians the  bright  dorsal  crest  of  the  male  newt  is  perhaps  the  most 
striking  of  sex  distinctions,  but  many  male  frogs  and  toads  have 
v»cal  air  sacs,  epidermal  callosities,  and  some  {Culiripes,  Pclohates) 
possess  a  gland  under  the  fore-limb.     (See  Amphibia.) 

Among  the  Ophidians  the  males  are  smaller,  and  have  longer  and 
ipore  slender  tails;  the  sexes,  too,  differ  sometimes  in  colour  and 
markings.  Male  Chelonians,  too,  have  sometimes  longer  tails  and 
claws  and  may  even  give  voice.  The  submaxillary  musk-gland 
of  the  crocodile  is  especially  active  in  the  breeding  season  ;  the 
lizards  have  remarkable  throat-pouches  and  crests,  which  may  bo 
epidermic  or  even  correspond  to  cranial  outgrowths,  as  in  the 
chameleon. 

But  it  is  among  Birds  and  Mammals  tnat  the  observer  of  sexual 
characters  finds  abundant  and  remarkable  differences  extending  to 
the  minutest  details,  and  showing  how  the  higher  evolution  of 
parental  care  which  the  inevitably  prolonged  embryonic  life  in- 
volves and  the  wider  range  of  sexual  selection  havo  co-operated  in 
modifying  the  whole  organism.  As  might  be  expected,  the  low^r 
mammals  show  least  or  this  ;  but  as  we  •ascend  the  adult  males 

ccome  differentiated  from  the  females  by  the  acquirement  of 
secondary  sexual  characters  which  are  mainly  either  offensive  and 
defensive  aids  for  battle  with  each  otlier,  or  which  assist  in  gaining 
the  admiration  of  the  females  ;  and  these  may  coexist  or  coincide  in 
very  various  degrees.  Thus  scent-glands  are  of  common  occurrence 
from  the  Inseclivura  (perhaps  even  from  OriiUkorhynchxis)  upwards. 
Greater  beauty  of  markings  or  more  vivid  colours  nro  acquired, — 
in  many  AnthropUlee  (baboons,  kc.)  the  latter  being  of  peculiarly 

21—20 


723 


crude  ma^ificence.  Abundant  local  growths  of  hair  often  i 
most  notably  in  the  lion  and  in  many  Anlhropidas.  The  devi.-,„_i 
ment  of  tusks  and  horns  is  also  too  familiar  to  need  more  thai, 
passing  mention. 

But  it  is  unquestionable  that  in  this  as  in  not  a  few  other 
respects  the  birds,  rather  than  the  mammals,  hare  reached  the 
higliest  stages  of  evolution.  For  here  sexual  characters  no  longer 
seem  merely  superadded  or  supplementary  to  the  apparatus  of 
individual  life,  but  habits  and  organization  alike  become  thor- 
oughly adapted  to  these — the  sex-dilferences  and  the  reproductive 
■functions  as  it  were  saturating  the  whole  life,  and  producing  so 
many  and  marvellous  results,  in  habits  and  character,  in  beauty 
and  song,  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  descriptive 
labours  of  tlie  professed  ornithologist  have  constantly  risen  into 
those  of  the  artist  and  even  the  poet.  See  Birds,  and  Darwin's 
Descent  of  Man. 

Nature  and  Determination  of  Sex. — It  is  not  here  pro- 
posed to  enter  upon  tLe  task  of  historical  review  and 
criticism  of  the  various  theories  of  sex — which  were  esti- 
mated at  so  many  as  five  hundred  at  the  beginning  of  the 
last  century,  or  even  to  attempt  any  sketch  of  the  present 
very  conflicting  state  of  opinion  on  the  subject.^ 

Although  our  theories  of  sex  may  be  still  vague  enough,  ' 
the  greatest  step  to  the  solution  has  been  made  in  the 
general  abandonment  by  scientific  men  of  the  doubtless 
still  popular  explanation — in  terms  of  a  "  natural  tend- 
ency "  for  the  production  of  an  excess  of  males  or  the  like. 
It  is  now  held  that  "  quality  and  quantity  of  food,  elevation 
of  abode,  coruiitions  of  temperature,  relative  ige  of  parents, 
their  mode  of  life,  habits,  rank,  ic.,  are  all  factors  which 
have  to  be  considered."  The  idea  that  the  problem  of  the 
nature  of  sex  is  capable  of  being  approached  by  empirical 
observation  of  the  numbers  of  different  sexes  produced 
under  known  sets  of  conditions,  and  the  obvious  practical 
corollary  of  this,  viz.,  that  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  must 
therefore  be  capable  of  being  experimentally  modified  and 
regulated,  are  conceptions  which  have  steadily  been  acquir- 
ing prominence,  especially  of  late.  In  short,  if  we  can' 
find  how  sex  is  determined,  we  shall  have  gone  far  to 
investigate  sex  itself. 

One  of  the  most  crude  attempts  has  been  that  of 
Canestrini,  who  ascribes  the  determination  of  sex  to  the 
number  of  sperms  entering  the  ovum,  but  this  view  has 
been  already  demolished  by  Fol  and  Pfliiger.  The  time  of 
fertilization  has  also  and  apparently  with  greater  weight 
been  insisted  upon  ;  thus  Thury,  followed  by  DUsing,  holds 
that  the  sex  of  the  offspring  depends  on  the  period  of  fer- 
tilization :  an  ovum  fertilized  soon  after  liberation  produces 
a  female,  while  the  fertilization  of  an  older  ovum  produces  a 
ma'.a.  This  view  has  been  carried  a  step  farther  by  Hensen, 
who  suggests  that  the  same  should  probably  hold  true  of 
the  spermatozoa,  and  thus  the  fertilization  of  a  young  ovum 
by  a  fresh  sperm  would  have  a  double  likelihood  of  result- 
ing in  a  female.  There  are  some  observations  which 
support  this :  thus  Thury  and  other  cattle-breeders  have 
claimed  to-  determine  the  sex  of  cattle  on  this  principle, 
and  Girou  long  ago  alleged  that  female  flowers,  fcrtilized 
as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  receive  pollen,  produced  a 
distinct  excess  of  female  offspring. 

Great  weight  has  also  been  laid  on  the  relative  ago  of 
the  parents.  Thus  Hof acker,  so  long  ago  as  1828,  and 
Sadler  a  couple  of  years  later,  independently  published  a 
body  of  statistics  (each  of  about  2000  births)  in  favour  of 
the  generalization  (since  known  as  Hofacker's  and  Sadler's 
law)  that  when  the  male  parent  is  the  elder  the  offspring 
are  preponderatingly  male  :  while,  if  the  parents  bo  of  the 
same   age,  or  a  fortiori  if  the  male  parent  be  younger, 


^  As  for  reproduction  in  general,  so  for  sex,  the  most  convenient 
starting-point  is  the  work  of  Hensen  ("Die  Zengung,"  in  Hermanns 
Ildb.  d.  Physiologie),  while  other  dissertations  are  to  he  found  in  the 
leading  manuals  of  zoology  and  botany,  especially,  Iiowcver,  in  special 
papers  too  numerous  to  mention.  See  also  Reproduction,  and  for 
fuller  hibliograpliical  details  see  Oeddes,  "  On  the  Theory  of  Growtiv 
Reproduction,  Sei,  and  Heredity,"  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin.,  1886, 

XXI    —  oi 


720 


■SEX 


jspnng  appear  in  increasing  majorit}'.  This  view 
,^,-  shi:'-Sn  confirmed  by  Goelilei-t,  Boulanger,  Legoyt,  and 

jers ;  some  breeders  of  hbrses,  cattle,  and  pigeons  have 
also  accepted  it.  Other  breeders,  however,  deny  it  alto- 
gether ;  moreover,  the  recent  statistics  of  Stieda  and  of 
Berner  (taken  independently  from  Alsace-Lorraine  and 
Scandinavia)  seem  to  stand  in  irreconcilable  contradiction- 
At  any  rate  at  present  we  do  not  seem  justified  in  ascribing 
greater  importance  to  the  relative  age  of  parents  than  as  a 
secondary  factor,  which  '•:ay  probably  take  its  place  among 
those  causes  influencing  nourishment  discussed  below, 

That  good  nourishment  appears  to  produce  a  distinct 
preponderance  of  females  is  perhaps  the  single  result 
which  can  at  present  be  regarded  as  clearly  proven  and 
generally  accepted.  Yet  it  would  be  too  much  to  say  that 
unanimity  is  even  here  complete  ;  thus,  among  plants,  the 
experiments  of  Girou  (1823),  Haberlandt  (1869),  and 
others  gave  no  certain  result;  those  of  Heyer  (1883) 
have  led  him  to  dispute  the  validity  of  the  generalization 
altogether,  while  Haberlandt  (1877)  brought  evidence  for 
regarding  the  excess  of  females  as  largely  due  to  the  greater 
mortality  of  the  males.  The  investigations  of  agricultural 
observers,  especially  Meehan  (1878),  which  are  essentially 
corroborated  by  Diising  (18S3),  however,  leave  little  doubt 
that  abundant  moisture  and  nourishment  tend  to  produce 
females.  Some  of  Meehan's  points  are  extremely  instruc- 
tive. Thus  old  branches  of  Conifers  overgrown  and  shaded 
by  younger  ones  produce  only  male  inflorescences,  a  fact 
■which  may  be  taken  in  connexion  with  Sadebeck's  obser- 
vation that  some  fern  prothallia,  under  unfavourable  con- 
ditions, can  still  form  antheridia  but  not  archegonia.  The 
formation  of  female  flowers  on  male  heads  of  maize  is 
ascribed  by  Knop  to  better  nutrition  consequent  on  abund- 
ant moisture.  The  only  seriously  contradictory  observa- 
tions are  thus  those  of  Heyer,  and  it  is  therefore  reassuring 
when  a  detailed  scrutiny  of  his  paper  shows  his  ill-con- 
ducted experiments  (which  land  him  in  the  conclusion  that 
the  organism  is  not  modifiable  by  its  environment  at  all) 
to  be  largely  capable  of  a  reversed  interpretation.  The 
agency  of  temperature  is  also  of  considerable  importance. 
Thus  Meehan  finds  that  the  male  plants  of  hazel  grow 
more  actively  in  heat  than  the  female,  and  Ascherson 
states  that  Straiiotes  aloides  bears  only  female  flowers 
north  of  52°  lat,  and  from  50°  southwards  only  male  ones. 
Other  instances  miglit  be  given. 

Passing  to  the  animal  kingdom  we  find  the  case  of 
insects  peculiarly  clear  ;  thus  Mrs  Treat  showed  that  if 
caterpillars  were  starved  before  entering  the  chrysalis 
state  the  resultant  butterflies  or  moths  were  males,  while 
others  of  the  same  brood  highly  nourished  came  out 
females.  Gentry  too  has  shown  for  moths  that  innntri- 
tious  or  diseased  food  produced  males ;  hence  perhaps  a 
partial  explanation  of  the  excess  of  male  insects  in  autumn, 
although  temperature  is  probably  more  important.  The 
recent  experiments  of  Yung  on  tadpoles  are  also  very 
conclusive.  Thus  he  raised  the  percentage  of  females  in 
one  brood  from  56  in  those  unfed  to  78  in  those  fed  with 
beef,  and  in  another  supply  from  01  to  81  per  cent  by 
feeding  with  fish ;  while,  when  ihe  especially  nutritious 
flesh  of  frogs  was  supplied,  the  percentage  rose  from  54 
to  92.  Among  mammals  the  diflScuIties  of  proof  are 
greater,  but  evidence  is  by  no  means  wanting.  Thus  an 
important  experiment  was  long  ago  made  by  Girou,  who 
divided  a  flock  of  300  ewes  into  equal  parts,  of  which  the 
one  half  were  extremely  well  fed  and  served  by  two  young 
rams,  while  the  other  was  served  by  two  mature  rams  and 
poorly  fed.  The  proportion  of  ewe  lambs  in  the  two  cases 
was  respectively  60  and  40  per  cent.  Diising  also  states 
that  it  is  usually  the  heavier  ewes  which  bring  forth  ewe 
lambs 


Nor  aoes  sex  m  the  human  species  appear  to  bu 
independent  of  differences  of  nutrition.  After  a  cholera 
epidemic  or  a  war  more  boys  are  said  to  be  born,  and 
Dusing  also  points  out  that  in  females  with  small  placenta 
and  little  menstruation  more  boys  are  found,  and  even 
afiirms  that  the  number  of  male  children  varies  with  the 
rise  in  prices.  In  towns  aud  in  prosperous  families  there 
are  also  more  females,  while  males  are  more  numerous  in 
the  country  and  among  the  poor.  The  influence  of  tem- 
perature is  also  marked  :  more  males  are  born  during  the 
colder  months,  a  fact  noted  also  by  Schlechter  for  horses. 

The  best  known  and  probably  still  most  influential 
theory  is  that  systematized  by  Girou  and  known  as  that  of 
"compiarative  vigour."  This  makes  sex  of  offspring  depend 
on  that  of  the  more  vigorous  parent.  But  to  this  view 
there  are  serious  difficulties  :  thus  consumptive  mothers 
produce  a  great  excess  of  daughters,  not  sons  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  Superior  health  of  the  father;  Still  less 
weight  can  be  attached  to  that  form  of  the  hy[X)thesi.i 
which  would  make  sex  follow  "genital  superiority"  or 
"  relative  ardency  "  alone.  Any  new  theory  has  thus  to 
reconcile  the  arguments  in  favour  of  each  of  the  preceding 
views,  and  meet  the  difficulties  which  beset  all.  As 
Starkweather  puts  it,  it  must  at  once  account  for  such 
facts  as  "  the  preponderance  of  male  births  in  Europe,  of 
females  among  mulattos  and  other  hybrid  races,  as  also 
among  polygamous  animals,  and  for  the  equality  among 
other  animals.  More  especially  it  must  suggest  some 
principle  of  self-adjustment  by  which  not  only  is  the 
balance  of  the  sexes  nearly  preserved  on  the  whole,  but  by 
which  also  in-  cases  of  special  disturbance  the  balance 
tends  to  readjust  itself."  Starkweather  proceeds'  to 
attempt  this,  and  his  argument  may  be  briefly  summarized. 
While  few  maintain  any  essential  equality  of  the  sexes, 
and  still  fewer  any  superiority  of  the  female,  the  weight  of 
authority  has  been  from  the  earliest  times  in  favour  of  the 
doctrine  of  male  superiority.  From  the  earliest  ages 
philosophers  have  contended  that  woman  is  but  an  unde- 
veloped man  ;  Darwin's  theory  of  sexual  selection  presup- 
poses a  superiority  in  the  male  line  and  entailed  on  that 
sex ;  for  Spencer  the  development  of  woman  is  early 
arrested  by  procreative  functions  :  in  short,  Darwin's  man 
is  as  it  were  an  evolved  woman,  and  Spencer's  woman  an 
arrested  man.  On  such  grounds  we  have  a  number  of 
theories  of  sex.  Hough  thinks  males  are  born  when  the 
system  is  at  its  best,  more  females  when  occupied  in 
growth,  reparation,  or  disease.  So,  too,  Tiedman  and 
others  regard  every  embryo  as  originally  female  and 
remaining  female  if  errested,  while  Velpau  conversely 
regards  embryos  as  all  naturally  male,  but  frequently 
degenerating  to  the  female  state.  Starkweather  points  out 
some  of  the  difficulties  to  the  view  of  female  inferiority, 
and  lays  it  down  as  the  foundation  of  his  work  that 
"neither  sex  is  physically  the  superior,  but  both  are  essen- 
tially equal  in  a  physiological  sense."  But,  while  this  is 
true  of  the  average,  there  are  many  grades  of  individual 
differences  and  deficiencies  in' detail,  involving  a  greater  or 
less  degree  of  superiority  in  one  or  other  of  every  pair.' 
Starkweather's  theory  then  is  "  that  ev;X  is  determined  by 
the  superior  parent,  also  that  the  superior  parent  produces 
the  opposite  sex."  The  arguments  adduced  in  favour  of 
this  view,  however,  are  scarcely  worthy  of  it,  since,  save  a 
chapter  of  pseudo-physiological  discussion  of  vital  forces 
and  polarities,  of  superiority, — nervous,  electrical,  etc., — 
they  rest  mainly  on  the  vague  and  shifting  grounds  of 
physiognomy  and  temperament.  And  when  superiority  is 
analysed  into  its  factors, — cerebral  development  and  activ- 
ity, temperament,  state  of  health,  of  nutrition,  drc, — soon 
we  find  under  the  appearance  of  simplicity  a  law  has  been 
obtained  not  by  discovering  ans  real  unity  under  the  many 


a-Bmed  reversal^f  L  whi.hN  m°"?'' ^'^'°  "^  '^' 
authorities  moreover  wholly  de„vD>  !^'  °"^^^ 
<Hier  faults  and  {^Unv^.th  ,   ^"  •  ^'P'""   '^^=«   and 

-g.estiv,  ::aSz't;t  z:z:oIt^  -^'^.-^ 

P;...n  but  its  sanguine  .r^os^^Z ^Jf::^ 

-    the  prop^rtiorofr":x;;'Vnt"'atu\'2;^""^ 

«x,  he  empl,asizk'tl,o  LpitSncf  of  del!ve7l  f  ^f"'"""'/  »'  one 
>i'g  It  as  a  fact  tl.at  females  late  frrtili,   I   ,   '^^"'^"''^alion,  accept- 

animals).      He  notes  that  tl.e  fii-sthn™    '"'Vf  .^"'""S   the  lower 
a  male,  especially  amon"  older   n!.°       '^'"''^  'f  """^  frequently 
arterawarSvIientheTiTawantof  r!"f'  ""'^  "'"^  '^-''Tlains  how 
l»rn.     Ho  ascites  importance  ?o  t^L      '"'■  '"°.''  ">"'''  '^'"W'-en  are 
Thus,  snp,,ose  a  mi"o^.i  ^'^Tfeml  es     S  f  fr"''''-"''"™"'-- 
o^'cur  more   frc^uentlv,    and    t  us7ii-  I         ^"t.luat.on  fends  to 
<:'rrect)  fhey  shmild   p^duce  a   mail,.;/      f  "u'?'   ^t='t™ent   bo 
si-nilarly  with   males.     This  is%Sr^  °v,'    *^V'   own  sex ;    or 
b.eedi„g,  and   it  is   interpreted  X,  If  ^^  f'^f^^nce  to  cattle- 
J-uung  spermatozoa  prodncTa  maio  itV    f  ^'.    '^  *"   ""°^''''   "'•-'' 
irajority  ofn,ales:  the  chancers.  Lrt'lh-  ^"PPose  a  great 
J>c  of  course  great,    but   e^^    ferti  Vefff '°"  ?"*>"  ^^"""'^^ 
females..  Or  sf.ppo^e  conve°rSlv  a   ir.,f    ^•:"''>'. '^nd   to   produce 
chances   of  earlf  fertilization   ire   sS      h'n?'",^>  "^  """'^^  •'  «>« 
Foduce  males,  and  either  excess  will  th„.K     °'''  ^^^    tend   to 
Or  again,  the   more    decided  the   n   n„w         f  "'"^  compensated, 
ft-iquent  the  sexual  actTvity  of  its  Hd?    V'  f  "?!  '''^  "'«  ■""o 
se.nal  elements,  and  conseqLntly  tl  e tor  ?„  t'  "f  'T^S^^  t''^'"' 
aie  produced.     Dusin"  m-r/  t,i.  ^  ?^  individuals  of  that  sex 

to  a  minority  of  kd  ?iduals  L?  "''«'''  ''■■'"  "^^^^  equivalent 
T'ont  copula'lion  ove;^^S„s~h  °S;'„r"'"*VT'  J"''  ^  f- 
may  arise  from  the  deficient  nuWt,?no^th5"\'  **""  ^'"°  "■""" 
fc.l  cow  yields  a  female  tea  weU  /ed  bull  ,n  I  "'""  '  ^"""  ^"  *"• 
a/re^i  the  nearer  either  paren  is  to  the"  i"''? '■"■""'  (*)«Iatire 
tive  capacity  the  less,  l^e  thinks  I  a  hif.h  f  .f  S""''^'  reproduc 
'  As  factors  affecting  both  pare; t^  ho  f  ."•""'  '"  '"''"'''We. 
nutrition;  although  means  of  subsi,7.n  ''"'^"^cs  variations  in 

fi'st  no  decrease  iS  the  «"mber  if  ^r  "'"'J; decrease,  there  is  at 

<i;5tingnish  the  reproi,"  on  of  Thi^  r"^-r  ^"'  ''  '^  "'"==■"•?  to 
fo  that  in  defective  nut'S,     1  olT"?''    ''°"!  "'  "'"'tipHcation, 

i^^.  it  will  permanently'm;u;;''nf  X^s  "h'''°'^^1-~^ 
"-  —  in  that  the  rBnrn,l„„.;,.„  ...[.'     ■'^   ''^*^-     He   agrees  with 


SEX 


723 


-,   ..    ....  j.ciiiiaiiently    mult  n  v  ninch    Io»„       li 'i""iiucu 

Dar«in  that  the  reproductive  svs  L   !„„  »  ^.^   ^Sr-^"^  «'th 

of  nutrition;  gives  cases  sowi^r  I?  '"^""f  t^^isitive  to  changes 
OD  reprx>ductife  actW  y,  tu^ ll  iif  >?'  "^  f'T^'"'  ""tri.ron 
&c.  and  contrasts  organisms  of  h  lb  w  t"'=^' "^ '^'""■-"e,  function, 
Wth  parasites.  The  m^,  itil„  %  ,  ^  "^'  '''"  ''"'''=  =">>!  injects 
contrasted;  since  femak  '  have  toTve^'Jo  ,f  "■^  ^"^'  "'  <"- 
tho  male,  they  are  much  moro  aJT,  .  "°  V"^'y°  '"°'-'=  than 
t  eir  rcproduciEivo  capacity^a^d  K:'tl''L'°°'' /°'-  ^'5°"  "f 
their  size,  kc.  Furthermore  Im-mr  the  frequent  contrast  of 
their  conditions  of  nutrTtio^  "  "foo  l''h' 'V'' T'''"P''"tion  to 
inere&se  in  the  number  o  C^lcs  and  fb  ?'»""'-V't  there  is  an 
in  number,  of  individuals  of  e  spec  L  "7  ri' /""'"^  '""'"^^ 
^carco  the  more  male,  are  produce!  „«!  .'i  ','  ''°>"»-".   be  too 

tend,,  to  diminish.  Jlenco  thi  "  ,  •  '?  "'""''"  "^  the  species 
i..orease  of  children  (trciIny7emaTe'sTif?"  "-.tioned  hefween 
B"pd  harvest,  and  the  risin^nronoH-ii  f'  '°'1'''';''>'  ""''  "f"'  a 
pices.  Similarly  for  anima Is"-  «,?»  r  °{  ";°>''  ''"""■?  '^  "sr  of 
the  more  rapidl/the  sped.L  ;crease?°'thlT^  ""  '1'°',"  ^""'^''-  =""' 
n'ld  the  less  rapid  the  inereas"  11;',  i  '  '°°''  ""=  "'"^^  "'ales, 
more  female  (livers  and  mo,:  JcT^ul^Trr, '^"^^  '"'^  >"■<"»"« 
lad  soil  male  flowers  nrenonde,,7„  "'"  .P'of't  to  the  .species;  on 
tends  to  disappear.  I'^'rexreZ;  l^  ^'"'''^-  "'"'  '''=  ^Pccies 
to  produce  n^r'mal  par  hV^^e  ,-,T?h  T'/T""?.  "'""'-■' ^end" 
females,  different  In  cause  and  onl,  h-  ""=>tokic  "  ,  yielding  only 
re^ii^,  from  tU.CZ  o?laTs7>t:^:rhle.V:"''"°^'°"'' 


Theory  of  Riprod^iction  and  Sex  ~M  ^o 

to  reach  a  rational  standpoint  from  whLt/'"'^  "'''■"?' 

compare  the  innumerable  emprTcTi  1         r  """"^^  ^nd 

much  more  if  we  seek  a  firiT^bTs k  fortb'^   °'''  °^  '''-"•- 

a    really  comprehensive  thTory -It  °    .  '  ^'f 'T''°°  °^ 

a  theory  must  be  addressed  T^t  me    h'to  thl     '' T'' 

concerned  with  problems  of  reprodiS  and  it    ?'""''"' 

bi;t,  while  embracin.:'  detaih  \SZ       v        development, 

factory   alike  to    the  irarLnT'?    •''  "^"^^  "^^  ^'^"^ 

Jogist.     ^Ve  must  therefore  have  be  or.   °'l  '"'^   ^^^''^^ 

of  the  main  lines  of  thougtr  ,  Sh  oVth''  """^^''°° 

account  of  general  form ^and  appearance  of  hnhV'^'''! 
temperaments,  which  made  un  tb.  .^  '  •  ^^''^  ^""^ 
history  of  the  past    the  ttn  J^  descriptive  natural 

distinct,  are  w^Tol '  Parairi  Tb"''  t  T^'"'''  '''°"g'^ 
brilliant  and  synthetic^  expStionof"tl"fr  ^"''"^bed^ 
one  side  of  their  generaTas,  ect  r  "^."^^/"^st  view,  while 
thehandsofLinnfus-to   nnf    T"i  ''^''''  Precision  at 

hands  of  his  Physiolojieal'r  t^  LSLf  xt  ■^''^°  ^'  .*'^? 
advance  of  Cuvier  isrnnllsl  ,  'P^'^aries.      ihe  anatomical 

functions  of   the  or^LT  tt"e  ^^'  «tudy  of  the 

Bichat  lay  in  piercinf  Mow  /b  ^''*'   "'^P  "^ade  by 

and  its  functi'on  aT^^Uiire  anVin'^'  ""^  ^'  '^'  -gan 
both   by  reference  to  VbT  ''''''^"'S  to  interpret 

theory  of  Schwannl/b  ^°"'P°°ent  tissues.  The  cell- 
a  step'farther  4  ,  the  iL"  t^rr,"^'^'"''  *^-  "^^s 
all  structure  ultimatelv  to  the  K.  '"''P'^'  ''^^^y''^'  ^^fers 
a.Kl  similarly  cSs  ^e.  p  ^f  ^  fr^r^"^^  .^-'-P'a^ni, 
the  construction  and  destructTon  T  '"  '"™^  °f 
anabolismandkatabolismSs    'se'^PHv'  ''^'  '?f'^'^'^' 

PLASM,   .MOKPHOLOGY-  ^^6  PHYSIOLOGY,  PeoTO- 

the^^ift  rer:£fij'ti:r/''^-^'°'°^'-'  ^-'  - 

evident  that  we  have  here  the  r!f  I'"'  ^^^'^gories,  it  is 
of  reproduction  and  sex  The  oTr  '^^-f'"'  °^  '^^°"es 
i3  meant  by  male  o  LalelSr  ?^ '^'' '^  ^"'•^■''^='' 
ofanswei,.'  The  first  and  el  Ji  stTin  f^'r'^t'  ^^"'^^ 
aspect,  temperament,  and  hab  t  ;i!i  ?,  f  °^  S^^^ral 
Pirical,  and  superficia  ft  lack^ni.  '  ^^°"^^  ""'^e,  em- 
At  thi.  plane'are  not' on  J  „„',"''' °"  ""'"'"'=^^- 
many  theories  like  that  ofT.rl'^^  f  conceptions  but 
[mentioned  as  the  most  ,tnThf"\"'^"''^  '"^>'  ^'^ 
'  himself  with  the  reco  Jtion  nf  «    anatomist  contents 

most  with  a  similarlvfn  '?rl  '^"'^'  "'"'^^  °^  ^«,  or  at 
.while  the  emb3ist  ^nT.rr''  °^  ^f^^ir  functions  ; 
tented  without  seekfn'  to  rS  1  "^'^  ^'"  °°'  ^^st  con- 
of  which  theylTi'^^^fedl:^*  ,;-j -sans  '°  '^,«  '-"- 
spring,  and  even  reaches  snT]  T^  -u  \'  ^''°'"  "'''"^'^  they 
elemel^ts  essentia  totx  -  the  oT'  ''  '^  ""™^'«  ^^llular 
parallel  physiolo4al  tt'.Trl^  °.vum  and  spermatozoon.    A 

and  at  this^oinf  appeal  1^0'-        "  " 

mann  and  others    ^  ^  P°'''"'^=  *^  '^ese  of  ^Vcis- 

fe^hi; rics  :iS:'5seKiJr  °^  ^■^'^'^  ^^^■ 

enough;  and,  each  once  chssifcd  T ''^r'"'' '"'''''«'b'« 

?^=ii^;£im:?^r-^--^^: 
?:^i:£'t~^----Si;:;^: 

ieck  for  itn)n  the  o.ehan7fl"'°'"S  .''^'^'^'-^  ^'^'^"  ^™ 
such  an  e.XTlanati  n  rst  ,  tr  :,;tTh't'°='"l"^I'^^'  "^ 
in  terms  of  those  of  ce lis  in  I' '  V^"  °™=  "^  ^"  cells 
structural  properties  of  r!rn    ^>  •'  "\'^  '"  '^rms  of  tho 

difficult  y  t  mi  satisWn^^  r -''r'  '•  '"^^^  ''= '»°'-« 
express  the  myZi^,3  Jiffl'  '^■"?'°^'?'''   ^■''P='='    "">=^' 


724 


»  ii]  X  — S  E  X 


that  is  to  eay,  of  anabolism  and  katabolism.  "Were  these 
steps  made  a  new  synthesis  would  be  reached,  and  from 
this  point  it  should  even  next  be  possible  to  retrace  the 
progress  of  the  science,  and  interpret  the  forms  and  the 
functions  of  tissues  and  organs,  nay,  even  of  the  facts  of 
aspect,  habit,  and  temperament,  so  furnishing  the  deductive 
rationale  of  each  hitherto  merely  empirical  order  of  ob- 
served fact  and  connecting  theory. 

While  this  conception  does  not  admit  of  development  within 
the  present  limits,^  a  brief  abstract  of  such  an  interpretatiou  of 
reproduction  -and  of  sex  in  terras  of  anabolisni  and  kataoolism  may 
be  of  interest  to  the  reader.  The  theory  of  reproduction,  iu 
general  principle  at  least,  is  simple  enough.  A  continued  surplus 
of  anabolisni  involves  growth,  and  the  setting  in  of  reproduction 
when  growth  stops  implies  a  relative  katabolism.  This  iu  short 
b  merely  a  more  precise  restatement  of  the  familiar  antithesis 
between  nutrition  and  reproduction.  At  first  this  disintegration 
and  reintegration  entirely  exhaust  the  organism  and  conclude  its 
individual  existence,  but  as  we  ascend  the  process  becomes  a  more 
and  more  localized  one.  The  origin  of  this  localization  of  the 
reproductive  function  may  best  be  understood  if  we  figure  to 
ourselves  a  fragment  of  the  genealogical  tree  of  the  evolutionist  in 
greater  detail,  and  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  made  up  of  a  con- 
tinuous alternate  series  of  sex-cell  and  organism,  the  organism,  too, 
becoming  less  and  less  distinguished  from  its  parent  cell  until  the 
two  practically  coincide  in  the  Protozoa,  which  should  be  defined  not 
60  much  as  '*  organisms  devoid  of  sexual  reproduction  "  but  rather 
as  undifferentiated  reproductive  cells  (protosperms  or  protova,  as 
they  might  in  fact  be  called),  which  have  not  built  up  round  them- 
selves a  body.  .  We  should  note,  too,  how  the  continuous  immortal 
stream  of  Pro'ozo.m  Hie  (see  Protozoa)  is  continued  by  that  of 
ordinary  reproductive  cells  among  the  higher  animals,  for  the  mor- 
tality of  these  does  not  affect  this  continuity  any  more  than  the 
fall  of  leaves  does  the  continued  life  of  the  tree.  The  interpreta- 
tion of  sex  is  thus  less  difticult  than  might  at  first  sight  appear. 
For  anabolism  and  katabolism  cannot  and  do  not  absolutely  bal- 
ance, as  all  the  facts  of  rest  and  motion,  nutrition  and  reproduc- 
tion, variation  and  di.iease,  in  short  of  life  and  death,  clearly  show. 
During  life  neither  process  can  completely  stop,  but  their  algebraic 
sum  keeps  varying  within  the  widest  limits.  Let  us  note  the  result, 
starting  from  the  undifferentiated  amceboid  cell.  A  surplus  of  ana- 
bolism over  katabolism  involves  not  only  a  growth  in  size  but  a 
reduction  in  kinetic  and  a  gain  in  potential  energy,  i.e.,  a  diminu- 
tion of  movement.  Irregularities  thus  tend  to  disappear;  surface 
tension  too  may  aid  ;  and  the  cell  acquires  a  spheroidal  form.  The 
large  and  quiescent  ovum  is  thus  intelligible  enough.  Again  starting 
from  the  amceboiJ  cell,  if  katabolism  be  in  increasing  preponderance 
the  increasing  liberation  of  kinetic  energy  thus  implied  must  find 
its  outward  expression  in  increased  activity  of  movement  and  in 
diminished  size;  the  more  active  cell  becomes  modified  in  form 
by  passage  through  its  fluid  environment,  and  the  flagellate  form 
of  the  spermatozoon  is  thus  natural  enough.  It  is  noteworthy,  too, 
that  these  physiologically  normal  results  of  the  rhythm  of  cellular 
life,  the  resting,  amceboid,  and  ciliate  forms,  are  precisely  those 
which  we  empirically  reach  on  morphological  grounds  alone  fsee 
Morphology,  vol.  xvi.  p.  841). 

Given,  then,  the  conception  of  the  cellular  life  rhythm  as  capable 
of  thus  passing  into  a  distinctly  anabolic  or  kataboHc  habit  or 
diathesis,  the  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  reproduction  becomes 
only  a  special  fit^ld  withm  a  more  general  view  of  structure  and 
function,  nay  even  of  variation,  normal  and  pathological.  Thus 
the  generality,  use,  and  nature  of  the  process  of  fertilization  become 
readily  intelligible.  The  profound  chemical  difference  surmised  by 
*io  many  authors  becomes  intelligible  as  the  outcome  of  anabolism 
and  katabolism  respectively,  and  the  union  of  their  products  as 
restoring  the  normal  balance  and  rhythm  of  the  renewed  cellular  life. 
Without  discussing  the  details  of  this,  farther  than  to  note  how 
it  resumes  the  speculations  of  Rolph  and  others  as  to  the  origin 
of  fertilization  from  mutual  digestion,  of  the  reproductive  from  the 
nutritive  function,  we  may  note  how  they  illustrateon  this  view  that 
origin  of  fertilization  from  conjugation  which  is  the  central  prpblem 
of  the  ontogeny  and  phylogeny  of  sex.  The  formation  of  polar 
vesicles  seems  thus  an  extrusion  of  katabolic  (or  male)  elements, 
and  conversely  its  analogues  in  spermatogenesis  (see  Reproduc- 
riON)^  Passing  over  such  tempting  applications  as  that  to  the 
explanation  of  segmentation  and  even  subsequent  developmental 
changes,  it  must  suffice  to  note  that  the  constant  insistance  of 
erabryologists  upon  the  physiological  importance  of  the  embryonic 
layers  bears  essentially  upon  their  respective  predominance  of  ana- 
bolism and  katabolism.  The  passage  from  ordinary  growth  to  that 
discontinuous  growth  which  we  term  asexual  reproduction,  and  from 
this  again  to  sexuality  or  the  frequent  reverse  progress,  is  capable 
of  rational  interpretation  iu  like  manner :  the  "  alternation  of  gene- 


^  See  paper  by  Geddes  already  mentioned  at  p,  721,  footnota. 


rations"  is  but  a  rhythm  between  a  relatively  anabolic  aild  kataholic 
preponderance;  a  parthencgenetic  ovum  is  an  incompletely  differ, 
entiated  ovum  whrch  retains  a  measure  oPkatabolic  (male)  products, 
and  thus  does  not  need  fertilization ;  while  hermaphroditism  is  due 
to  the  local  preponderances  of  anabolism  or  katabolism  in  one  set 
of  reproductive  cells  or  in  one  period  of  their  life.  The  reversion 
of  unisexual  forms  to  hermaphrodite  ones,  or  of-these  to  asexual 
ones,  which  we  have  seen  in  such  constant  association  with  high 
nutrition  and  low  expenditure, -  is  no  longer  inexplicable.  The 
female  sex  being  thus  preponde:atingly  anabolic,  the  importance  of 
good  nutrition  in  determining  it  is  explained  :  menstruation  is  seen 
to  be  the  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  anabolic  surplus  in  abseiu-e 
of  its  fcetal  consumption,  while  the  higher  temperature  and  greater 
activities  of  the  male  sex  express  its  katabolic  diathesis.  The 
phenomena  of  sex,  then,  are  no  isolated  ones,  but  express  the 
highest  outcome  of  the  whole  activities  of  the  organism — the  literal 
blossoming  of  the  individual  life. 

SEXTANT,  an  instrifment  for  measuring  angles  on  the 
celestial  sphere.  The  name  (indicating  that  the  instru- 
ment is  furnished  with  a  graduated  arc  equal  to  a  sixth 
part  of  a  circle)  is  now  only  used  to  designate  an  instru- 
ment employing  reflexion  to  measure  an  angle ;  but 
originally  it  was  introduced  by  Tycho  Brahe,  who  con- 
structed several  sextants  with  two  sights,  one  on  a  fixed, 
the  other  on  a  movable  radius,  which  the  observer  pointed 
to  the  two  objects  of  which  the  angular  distance  was  to 
be  measured. 

In  the  article  Navigatiox  the  instruments  are  described 
which  were  in  use  before  the  invention  of  the  reflecting 
sextant.  Their  imperfections  were  so  evident  that  the 
idea  of  employing  reflexion  to  remove  them  occurred 
independently  to  several  minds.  Hooke  contrived  two 
reflecting  instruments.  The  first  is  described  in  his  Post- 
humo7is  Works  (p.  503) ;  it  had  only  one  mirror,  which 
reflected  the  light  from  one  object  into  a  telescope  which 
is  pointed  directly  at  the  other.  Hooke's  second  plan 
employed  two  single  reflexions,  whereby  an  eye  placed  at 
the  side  of  a  quadrant  could  at  the  same  time  see  the 
images  formed  in  two  telescopes,  the  axes  of  which  were 
radii  of  the  quadrant  and  which  were  pointed  at  the  two 
objects  to  be  measured.  This  plan  is  described  in  Hooke's 
Animadversions  to  the  Jfachina  Calcsiis  of  Jlevelius,  pub- 
lished in  1674,  while' the  first  one  seems  to  have  been 
communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  in  166G.  Newton 
had  also  his  attention  turned  to  this  subject,  but  nothing 
was  known  about  his  ideas  till  1742,  when  a  description 
in  his  own  handwriting  of  an  instrument  devised  by  him 
was  found  among  Halley's  papers  and  printed  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  (No.  465).  It  consists  of  a 
sector  of  brass,  the  arc  of  which,  though  only  equal  to 
one-eighth  part  of  a  circle,  is  divided  into  90°.  A  tele- 
scope is  fixed  along  a  radius  of  the  sector,  the  object  glass 
being  close  to  the  centre  and  having  outside  it  a  plane 
mirror  inclined  45"  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  and 
intercepting  half  the  light  which  would  otherwise  fall  on 
the  object  glass.  One  object  is  seen  through  the  tele- 
scope, while  a  movable  radius,  carrying  a  second  mirror 
close  to  the  first,  is  turned  round  the  centre  until  the 
second  object  by  double  reflexion  is  seen  in  the  telescope 
to  coincide  with  the  first. 

But  long  before  this  plan  of  Newton's  saw  the  light 
the  sextant  in  its  present  form  had  been  invented  and  had 
come  into  practical  use.  On  May  13,  1731,  John  Hadley 
gave  an  account  of  an  *' octant,"  employing  double  re- 
flexion, and  a  fortnight  later  he  exhibited  the  instrument* 

-  Thus  Marshall  Ward  has  lately  drawn  attention  to  the  association 
of  parasitism  with  the  disappearance  of  sexual  reproduction  in  Fungi 
{Quart.  Jour.  Micr.  $ci.,  xxiv.). 

^  Hadley  described  two  different  constructions  :  in  one  the  telescope 
was  fixed  along  a  radius  as  in  Ne^-ton's  form,  in  the  other  it  was 
placed  in  the  way  afterwards  universally  adopted ;  an  octant  of  the 
first  construction  was  made  as  early  as  the  summer  of  1730,  according 
t'l^  a  statement  made  to  the  Koyal  Society  by  Hadley's  brother  George 
on  Feb.  7,  1734. 


S  E  X  — S  E  Y 


725 


On  the  20th  May  Halley  stated  to  the  society  that 
Newton  had  invented  an  instrument  founded  on  the  same 
principle,  and  had  communicated  an  account  of  it  to  the 
society  in  1699,  but  on  search  being  made  in  the  minutes 
it  was  only  found  that  Ne%vton  had  showed  a  new  instru- 
ment "  for  observing  the  moon  and  stars  for  the  longitude 
at  sea,  being  the  old  instrument  mended  of  some  faults," 
but  nothing  whatever  was  found  in  the  minutes  concerning 
the  principle  of  the  construction.  Halley  had  evidently 
only  a  very  dim  recollection  of  Xewton's  plan,  and  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  on  December  16,  1731,  he 
declared  himself  satisfied  that  Hadley's  idea  was  quite 
different  from  Newton's.  The  ney  instrument  was  already 
in  Augost  1732  tried  on  board  the  "Chatham"  yacht  by 
order  of  the  Admiralty,  and  was  found  satisfactory,  but 
otherwise  it  does  not  seem  to  have  superseded  the  older 
instruments  for  at  least  twenty  years.  As  constructed 
by  Hadley  the  instrument  could  only  measure  angles  up 
to  90°;  but  in  1757  Captain  Campbell  of  the  navy,  one 
of  the  first  to  use  it  assiduously,  proposed  to  enlarge  it  so 
as  to  measure  angles  up  to  120°,  in  which  form  it  is  now 
generally  employed. 

Quite  independently  of  Hadley  and  Newton  the  sextant 
was  invented  by  Thomas  Godfrey,  a  poor  glazier  in  Phila- 
delphia. In  May  1732  Mr  James  Logan  of  .that  city 
wrote  to  Halley  that  Godfrey  had  about  eighteen  months 
previously  showed  him  a  common  sea  quadrant  "  to 
which  he  had  fitted  two  pieces  of  looking-glass  in  such  a 
manner  as  brought  two  stars  at  almost  any  distance  to 
coincide."  The  letter  gave  a  full  description  of  the  instru- 
ment ;  the  principle  was  the  same  as  that  of  Hadley's  first 
octant  which  had  the  telescope  along  a  radius.  At  the 
meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  on  January  31,  1734,  two 
affidavits  sworn  before  the  mayor  of  Philadelphia  were 
read,  proving  that  Godfrey's  quadrant  was  made  about 
November  1730,  that  on  the"  28th  November  it  was 
brought  by  G.  Stewart,  mate,  on  board  a  sloop,  the 
"  Truman,"  John  Cox,  master,  bound  for  Jamaica,  and 
that  in  August  1731  it  was  used  by  the  same  persons  on 
a  voyage  to  Newfoundland.  There  can  thus  be  no  doubt 
that  Godfrey  invented  the  instrument  independently ;  but 
the  statement  of  several  modern  writers  that  a  brother  of 
Godfrey,  a  captain  in  the'  West  India  trade,  sold  the 
quadrant  at  Jamaica  to  a  Captain  or  Lieutenant  Hadley 
of  the  British  navy,  who  brought  it  to  London  to  his 
brother,  an  instrument  maker  in  the  Strand,  has  been 
proved  to  be  devoid  of  all  foundation.  Not  only  i^  this 
totally  at  variance  with  all  the  particulars  given  in  the 
affidavits,  but  between  1719  and  1743  there  was  no  officer 
in  the  British  navy  of  the  name  of  Hadley,  and  John 
Hadley  cannot  possibly  have  been  in  the  West  Indies  at 
that  time,  as  he  was  present  at  many  meetings  of  the 
Royal  Society  between  November  1730  and  Jlay  1731  ; 
besides,  neither  Hadley  nor  his  brothers  were  professional 
instrument  makers.  A  detailed  discussion  of  this  question 
by  Prof.  Rigaud  is  found  in  the  Nautical  Magazine,  Vol 
it.  No.  21.1 

The  annexed  figure  gives  an  idea  of  the  construction  of  the 
sextant  ABC  is  a  light  framework  of  brass  in  the  shape  of  a 
sector  of  60°,  the  limb  AB  having  a  graduated  arc  of  silver  (some- 
times of  gold)  mhid  in  the  brass.  It  is  held  in  the  hand  by  a 
small  handle  at  the  back,  either  vertically  to  measure  the  altitude 
of  an  object,  or  in  the  piano'  passing  through  two  objects  the 
angular  distance  of  which  is  to  be  found.  CD  is  a  radius  movable 
round  C,  where  a  small  plane  mirror  of  silvered  plate-glass  is  fixed 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  scxtint  and  in  the  line  CD.  At 
D  is  a  vernier  rcad.through  asmall  lens,  also  a  clamp  and  a  tangent 

'  John  Hadley  was  a  country  gentleman  of  independent  means,  and 
the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  to  bring  the  construction  of  reflecting 
telescopes  to  any  pprfection  has  made  many  authors  of  astronomical 
books  believe  that  he  was  a  professional  iustrument  maker.  His 
brot'aer  George,  who  assisted  him  in  his  pursuits,  was  a  barrister. 


screw  which  enable  the  observer  to  give  the  arm  CD  a  very  slow 
motioji  within  certain  limits.  At  E  is  another  mirror  "  the  horizon 
glass,  also  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  tha  sextant  and  parallel 
toCB.     F  is  a  small  telescope     ,9^ 

\ 


fixed  across  CB,  parallel  to 
the  plane  CAB  and  pointed 
tothemirrorE.  Darkglassen 
can  be  placed  outside  E  and 
between  E  and  C  when  ob- 
serving the  sun.  A%  on!y 
the  lower  half  of  £  'ssilvered, 
the  observer  can  see  the  hori- 
zon in  the  telescope  t^hrough 
the  unsilvered  half,  while 
the  Ught  fiom  the  sun  or  a 
star  S  may  be  reflected  from 
the  "index  glass"  C  to  the 
silvered  half  of  E  and  thence 
through  F  to  the  observer's 
eyeJ  If  CD  has  been  moved 
so  as  to /make  the  image  of  a 
star  or  of  the  limb  of  the 
sun  coincide  with  that  of  the 
horizon,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  angle  SCH  (the  altitude 
of  the  star  or  solar  limb)  is 
equal  to  twice  the  angle 
BCD.     The  limb  AB  is  al- 


3^ 


Sextant. 


ways  graduated  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  doubling  the  mea- 
sured angle,  a  space  marked  as  a  degree  on  the  limb  b.;iDg  in 
reality  only  30'.  The  vernier  should  point  to  0°  0'  0"  when  tha 
two  mirrors  are  parallel,  or  in  other  words,  when  the  direct  and 
reflected  images  of  a  very  distant  object  are  seen  to  coincide.  For 
the  methods  of  adjusting  the  mirrors  and  finding  the  index  error 
see  Navigation  (vol.  xvii.  p.  26S). 

If  the  sextant  is  employed  on  land,  an  artificial  horizon  has  to 
be  used.  This  is  generally  a  basin  of  mercury  protected  from  the 
wind  by  a  roof  of  plate-glass  with  perfectly  parallel  faces  ;  some- 
times a  glass  plate  is  used  (with  the  lower  surface  blackened), 
which  can  be  levelled  on  three  screws  by  a  circular  level.  The 
telescope  is  directed  to  the  image  of  the  celestial  object  reflected 
from  the  artificial  horizon, -and  this  image  is  made  to  coincide 
with  that  reflected  from  the  index-glass.  In  this  case  the  angle 
BCD  will  be  double  the  altitude  of  the  star.  ■  Towards  the  end  of 
last  and  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  sextant  was  much  used 
on  land  for  determining  latitudes,  but,  though  in  the  hands  of  a 
skilful  observer  it  can  give  results  far  superior  to  what  one  might 
expect  from  a  small  instrument  held  in  the  hand  (or  attached  to  a 
small  stand),  it  has  on  shore  been  quite  superseded  by  the  portable 
altazimuth  or  theodolite,  while  at  sea  it  continues  to  be  indis- 
pensable. 

The  principle  of  the  sextant  has  been  applied  to  the  construc- 
tion of  reflecting  circles,  on  which  the  index  arm  is  a  diameter 
with  a  vernier  at  each  end  to  eliminate  the  error  of  eccentricity. 
The  circles  constructed  by  Pistor  and  Martins  of  Berlin  have  a 
glass  prism  instead  of  the  horizon  glass  and  are  extremely  con- 
-enient.  (J.  L.  E.  D.) 

SEXTUS  EMPIRICUS.     See  Scepticism. 

SEYCHELLES,  an  archipelago  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
consisting  of  eighty  islands — several  of  thetn  mere  islets — 
situated  between  3°  38'  and  5°  45'  S.  lat.  and  52°  55'  and 
53°  50'  E.  long.,  about  1400  miles  south-east  of  Aden  and 
1000  miles  east  of  Zanzibar.  They  are  the  only  small 
tropical  oceanic  islands  of  granitic  structure,  and  rise 
steeply  out  of  the  sea,  culminating  in  the  island  of  Mahd, 
at  an  elevation  of  2998  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 
most  northerly  island  is  Bird,  A  by  J  mile ;  the  most 
southerly,  Plate;  the  most  pasterly,  Fregatcs;  the  most 
westerly.  Silhouette.  Mahi!,  the  largest  island  of  the 
group,  3  by  li  miles,  is  very  nearly  central,  GO  miles  south 
of  Bird,  and  having  to  the  north  and  north-east  of  it  La 
Digne,  Felicite,  Praslin,  and  Curieuse.  Only  a  few— 
Mahe,  Praslin,  La  Digne,  Denis,  and  Bird — are  inhabited. 
The  total  area  is  about  50,120  acres,  of  which  Mahe  alone 
comprises  34,749.  The  beaches  of  glistening  calcareous 
sand  are  begirt  by  coral  reefs  which  form  a  wall  round  the 
islands.  The  valleys  and  easier  slopes  are  overlaid  with  a 
very  fertile  soil,  and  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant.  Though 
the  climate  is  tropical,  the  heat  is  tempered  and  rendered 
uniform  by  the  sea  breezes,  and  probably  this  accounts  for 
epidemic  diseases  and  endemic  fever  being  of  uncommon 


726 


S  E  Y  — S  H  A 


occurrence.  T^cm  ?r<5  rivmiroci,?  bro'-k'?  -ind  torrents, 
making  their  way  to  ilio  zca  ootiveen  blocks  of  frninite. 
The  Lslands  are  green  aifl  fresh  at  sM  times,  paiiicularly 
during  the  -wet  eeason  from  yove.rr.ber  to  May.  The  total 
rainfall  for  1381  wis  113'50  inches.  The  extreme  range 
of  the  thermoras'er  '1.1  ;'.8Si  and  18S2  ivas  only  22° 
(minimum  71",  maximum  ilT).  Tcie  heat  is  seldom  sultry 
and  oppressi'^.^,.  Aiie  Seyche'.'es  lie  too  far  to  the  north 
to  receive  t'le  iiurricani-s  whicii  occasionally  sweep  over 
Bourbon  and  Mauritius,  and  even  thunder-storms  are  rare. 
Tho  i;opulati:>n  at?  t^he  census  of  IJySl  was  14,081  (7179 
male-,  and  6902  femahs) — ?00  white  (mostly  French 
Creoles),  ll,.5i)0  black,  and  2000  coolies.  Since  1S81  the 
population  has  considerably  increased  in  consequence  of  a 
tide  ol  immigration  from  Mauritius.  Men  aud  women  of 
exceptionally  great  age  are  frequently  met  with,  and  the 
death-rate  for  ISSO  am'ounted  to  only  13-1  per  1000.  The 
prevailing  language  is  a  French  patois,  but  English  is 
.taught  in  the  schools. 

Tliese   islands  were  discovered    ,-it  the   beginning  of  the    IGtli 
cyitnry,   but  never   occuincj,  by   the   Portuguese.     In  1742   tlio 
[French  took    possession  of   tliein,   callmg   them  at    first    lli'S  dcs 
Laboiir.lonnnis,  but  afterwards  tlio  Seychelles,  from  Count  Herault 
do  Seychelles,  an  officer  of  the  East  Indian  fleet.     The  first  settlu- 
ment  was  made  in  1763  at  JIalie,  now  Poi-t  Victoria.     In  1794  the 
English  wrested  them    from    the  Frencli  along    with    Mauritius, 
and  they  are  now  ruled  by  a  board  of  si.^  civil  commissioners,  as  a 
dependency  under  the  governor  of  Mauritius.     In  1S34  slavery 
was  abolislied,   and  since  tlien  the    plantations   have  been   in  a 
declining  state.      In  18S4  there  were  in  the  islands  20  piimary 
schools  aided  by  Government  grants  and  attended  by  1620  children. 
There  are  16   churches  belonging  to  the   Roman   Catholics  (the 
dominant  faith)  and  11  to  the  Church  of  England.       The  main 
product  is  the  cocoa-nu-t,  but   tobacco,   cofl'ee,  rice,  maize,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  manioc  are  raised  for  home  consumption,  while  cotton,   I 
pei)per,  cinnamon,  and  other  spices  grow  wild.     Many  of  the  trees 
display  simultaneously  blossoms  and  unripo  and  ripe  fruit.     The 
so-called  sea  or  Slaldive  double  cocoa-nut,  "coco  de  uier,"  the  fruit 
of  the  palm-tree  Lodoueci  ScchcUarum,  is  peculiar  to  certain  of 
these  islands.     It  was  long  known  only  from  sea-borne  specimens 
cast  up  on  the  M,aldive  and  other  coasts,  was  thought  to  grow  on 
a  submarine  palm,  and,  being  esteemed  a  sovereign  antidote  to 
poisons  (Lusiad,  x.  136),  commanded  exorbitant  prices  in  the  East. 
This  palm  will  grow  to  a  height  of  100  feet,  and  shows  fern-like 
leaves  .of  enormous  size.      Sensitive  j^lnnts  from  America  sjn'ead 
like  lawns  over  the  soil  and  quake  at  every  step  taken  over  them. 
The  cocoa-nut  palm  flourishes   in  the  gardens,   overtopping  the 
houses  and  most  other  trees,   lining  the  shore,  climbing  high  up 
t.he   mountains,  and   in  many  jdaces   forming   extensive  forests. 
There  are  no  native  mammal's,  aud  domestic  animals  are  scarce. 
The  birds  comprise  gannets,  terns   in  great  numbers,  and  white 
egrets.     Tortoises  are  common, — among  them  the  gigantic  turtle 
and  black  turtle,   whose  flesh  is  exported.       The  sea  abounds  in 
fish,  many  of  them  distinguished  by  splendid  coloui-s,  and  yields 
the  inhabitants  not  only  a  large  part  of  their  animal  food  but  also 
material  for  building  their  houses, — a   species  of  massive  coral, 
Porites  gaimardi,  being  hewn  into  square  building  blocks  which 
at  a  distance  glisten  like  white  marble. 

The  principal  harbour  is  Port  "Victoria,  situated  on  Make  island. 
The  total  value  of  imports  here  in  1884,  including  Rs.27,097  specie, 
was  Ks.428,6n5,  and  of  die  exports,  including  Rs.21,5S2  specie, 
Ps.392,175.  The  chief  imports  were  coffee  and  cotton  manufac- 
tures :  the  chief  exports,  cocoa-nut,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  sjicrm  oil. 
The  fiscal  receipts  for  1884  amounted  to  Ks.130,047.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  cocoa  is  progressing  favourably;  but  the  same  cannot  bo 
said  of  the  vanilla  aud  clove  plantations,  which  sufFcr  from  want 
of  regular  labour,  attributable  to  the  widespread  share  system, 
which  the  negioes  prefer  to  regular  work.  The  leaf  disease  affect- 
ing colTee  has  done  great  injury,  and  cocoa-nut  plantations  have 
suffered  from  the  ravages  '^f  an  insect,  but  no  effort  seems  to  have 
,yet  been  made  by  weeding  the  plantations  to  stamp  out  the  disease. 
Of  the  34,749  acres  of  land  making  up  Mahe,  12,000  acres  arc  laid 
out  in  cocoa-nut,  500  in  vanilla,  coffee,  and  cloves,  and  1500  are  in 
forest ;  of  the  uncultivated  land  8000  acres  are  well  suited  for 
Tanilla,  cocoa,  and  coffee  plantations. 

SEYMOUR,  Edward.  See  Sojierset,  Duke  of. 
SEYNE,  L.4,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Var,  5  miles  south-west  of  Toulon,  with  a  population  of 
9788  in  18817  It  owes  its  importance  mainly  to  its  shi)>- 
building,  the  Soci^te  des  Forges  et  Chantiers  <le  la_Medi- 
terranee  having  here  one  of  the  finest  building  yards  in 


Europe,  in  which  more  than  2000  workmen  are  employed  j 
contracts  are  e.xecuted  for  private  shipowners,  for  the  great 
Mes.sageries  Maritimes  Company,  and  for  various  Govern- 
ments. The  port,  which  has  communication  by  steamer 
and  omnibus  with  that  of  Toulon,  is  6  acres  in  extent,  and 
admits  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage. 

SFAX,  a  city  of  Tunis,  second  in  importance  only  to 
the  capital,  is  situated  116  miles  south  of  Mahadia,  on 
tlie  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  (Syrtis  Minor)  opposite  the 
Kerkenah  Islands.  It  consists  of  three  distinct  portions  : 
— the  new  European  quarter  to  the  south,  with  roads, 
piers,  and  otlier  improvements  carried  out  by  the  muni- 
cipality; the  Arab  town  in  the  middle  with  its.  tower- 
fJankcd  walls  entered  by  only  two  gates ;  and  to  the  north: 
the  French  camp.  Eound  the  town  for  5  or  6  miles  to 
the  north  and  west  stretch  orchards  and  gardens  and 
country  houses,  where  most  of  the  Sfax  families  have  their 
summer  quarters.  Dates,  almonds,  grapes,  figs,  peachfes, 
apricots,  olives,  and  in  rainy  years  melons  and  cucumbers, 
grow  there  in  great  abundance  without  irrigation.  -  Two- 
enormous  cisterns  maintained  by  public  charitable  trusts 
supply  the  town  with  water  in  dry  seasons.  Sfax  was 
formerly  the  terminus  of  a  caravan  route  to  Central  Africa, 
but  its  inland  trade  now  extends  only  to  Gafsa.  .The 
export  trade  (esparto  grass,  oil,  almonds,  pistachio  nuts, 
sponges,  wool,  ic.)  has  attained  considerable  dimensions. 
Fifty-one  English  vessels  (34,757  tons)  visited  the  port  in 
1SS4.  The  anchorage  is  2  miles  from  the  shore,  and 
there  is  a  rise  and  fall  of  5  feet  at  spring  tides  (a  rare 
phenomenon  in  the  Mediterranean).  In  ISSl  the  popula- 
tion was  said  to  be  about  15,000  (including  1200  Arabs, 
1500  Tunisian  Jews,  1000  Maltese,  ic,  500  Europeans);, 
in  1886  it  is  stated  at  32,000  (1200  Maltese,  ICOO  Euro- 
peans). 

Sfax  (the  Arabic  Asfakis  or  Safakus,  sometimes  called  the  City  of 
Cucumbers)  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Taphrura:  In  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  famous  for  its  vast  export  of  olive  oil.  The 
Sicilians  took  Sfax  under  Roger  the  Norman  in  the  12th  centurj',. 
and  the  Spaniards  occuiiied  it  for  a  brief  period  in  the  16th  century. 
The  bombardment  of  the  town  in  1881  was  one  of  the  principal 
events  of  the  French  conquest  of  Tunis  ;  it  was  pillaged  by  the 
soldiers  on  July  16th  and  the  inhabitants  had  afterwards  to  pay  a 
war  indemnity  of  £2»0,000. 

SFOEZA,  House  of.  See  Milan,  vol.  xvi.  p.  293, 
and  Italy,  voL  xiii.  p.  479. 

SHAD  is  the  name  given  to  certain  migratory  species- 
of  Herrings  (Clupea),  which  are  distinguished  from  the- 
herrings  proper  by  the  total  absence  of  teeth  in  the  jaws. 
Two  species  occur  in  Europe,  much  resembling  each  other, 
— one  commonly  called  AUis  Shad  (Clupea  alosa),  and  tha 
other  known  as  Twaite  Shad  [Clupcafinta).  Both  are,  liks 
the  majority  of  herrings,  greenish  on  the  back  and  bright 
silvery  on  the  sides,  but  they  are  distinguished  from  the 
other  European  species  of  Clnpea  by  the  presence  of  a 
large  yackish  blotch  behind  the  gill-opening,  which  is 
succeeded  by  a  series  of  several  other  similar  spots  alotig 
the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  body.  So  closely  allied  are 
these  two  fishes  that  their  distinctness  can  be  proved  onJy 
by  an  examination  of  the  gill-apparatus,  the  allis  shad 
hiving  from  Sixty  to  eighty  very  fine  and  long  gill-rakers 
along  the  concave  edge  of  the  first  branchial  arch,  whilst 
the  *waite  shad  possesses  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-seven 
stout  i.nd  stiff  gill-rakers  only.  In  their  habits  and  geo- 
graphic=i.l  distribution  also  the  two  shads  are  very  similar. 
They  inh-abit  the  coasts  of  temperate  Europe,  the  twaite 
shad  being  more  numerous  in  the  Mediterranean.  While 
they  are  in  'salt  water  they  live  singly  or  in  very  small 
companies,  bu*  during  May  (ihe  twaite  shad  some  weeks- 
later)  they  congregate,  and  in  great  numbers  ascend  large 
rivers,  such  as  the  Severn  (and  formerly  the  Thames),  the 
Seine,  the  Rhine,  the  Nile,  ic,  in  order  to  deposit  their 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


727 


I  spawn, — sometimes  traversiag  hundreds  of  miles,  until 
their  progress  is  arrested  by  some  natural  obstruction.  A 
few  weeks  after  they  may  be  observed  dropping  down  the 
river,  lean  and  thoroughly  exhausted,  numbers  floating 
dead  on  the  surface,  so  that  only  a  small  proportion,  seem 
to  regain  the  sea.  .'  Although  millions  of  ova  must  be  de- 
posited by  them  in  the  upper  reaches  of  a  river,  the  fry 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  actually  observed  in  fresh 
water,  so  that  it  seems  probable  that  the  young  fish  travel 
to  the  sea  long  before  they  have  attained  to  any  size. 

On  rivers  in  which  these  fishes  make  their  periodical 
appearance  they  have  become  the  _ object  of  a  regular 
fishery,  and  their  value  increases  in  proportion  to  the 
distance  from  the  sea  at  which  they  are  caught.  Thus 
they  are  much  esteemed  on  the  middle  Rhine,  where  they 
are  generally  known  as  "Maifiach";  those  caught  on  their 
return  journey  are  worthless  and  uneatable.  The  allis 
shad  is  caught  at  a  size  from  15  to  2i  inches,  and  is  con- 
sidered to  be  better  flavoured  than  the  twaite  shad,  which 
generally  remains  within  smaller  dimensions. 

Other,  but  closely  allied  species,  occur  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
North  America,  all  surpassing  the  European  species  in  importance 
as  food-fishes  and  economic  value^,  viz.,  the  American  Shad  {Ghipca 
sapidissima),  the  Gaspereau  or  Ale-wi^e  (C.  maitowocca),  and  the 
Menhaden  (£7.  menJuidm).     See  Menhade.v. 

SHADDOCK  {Citrus  decumana)  is  a  tree  allied  to  the 
orange  and  the  lemon,  presumably  native  to  the  Malay 
and  Polynesian  islands,  but  generally  cultivated  through- 
out the  tropics.  The  leaves  are  like  those  of  the  orange, 
but  downy  on  the  under  surface,  as  are  also  the  young 
shoots.  The  flowers  are  large  and  white,  and  are  succeeded 
by  very  large  globose  or  pear-shaped  fruits  like  oranges,  but 
paler  in  colour,  and  with  less  flavour.  The  name  Shad- 
dock is  asserted  to  be  that  of  a  captain  who  introduced 
the  tree  to  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  is  also  known 
under  the  name  of  pommeloes  and  "forbidden  fruit." 
There  are  two  varieties  commonly  met  with,  one  with  Dale 
and  the  other  with  red  pulp. 

SHADWELL,  Thomas  (1640-1692V,  a  playwright  and 
miscellaneous  versifier  of  the  Restoration  period,  Dryden's 
successor  in  the  laureateship,  is  remembered" now,  not  by 
his  works,  though  he  was  a  prolific  writer  of  comedies 
highly  successful  in  their  day,  but  as  the  subject  of 
Dryden's  satirical  portraits  "  MacFlecknoe "  and  "Og." 
He  was  a  native  of  Norfolk — not  an  Irishman,  as  he 
retorted  with  significant  imbecility  when  Dryden's  satire 
appeared, — went  through  the  forms  of  study  at  Cambridge 
and  the  Inner  Temple,  travelled  abroad  for  a  little, 
returned  to  London,  cultivated  the  literary  society  of 
coffee-houses  and  taverns,  and  in  1GG8,  at  the  age  of  28, 
gained  the  ear  of  the  stage  with  a  comedy  The  Sullen 
Lovers.  For  fourteen  years  afterwards,  till  his  memorable 
Encounter  with  Dryden  lie  continued  regularly  to  produce 
a  comedy  nearly  every  year,  showing  considerable  clever- 
ness in  caricaturing  the  odditieS  of  the  time.  Ben  Jonson 
was  his  model,  but  he  drew  his  materials  largely  from  con- 
temporary life.  He  also  acquired  standing  among  the  wits 
M  a  talker.  In  the  quarrel  with  Dryden  he  was  the  aggres- 
sor. They  had  been  good  enough  friends,  and  Dryden  in 
1679  had  furnished  him  with  a  prologue  for  his  Tnic 
Widow.  But  when  Dryden  threw  in  his  lo*  with  the  court, 
tnd  satirized  the  opposition  in  Absalom  and  AchiUiphel  and 
The  Medal,  Shadwell  was  rash  enough  tocon.stitutc  himself 
the  champion  of  the  true-blue  Protestants  and  wrote  a 
grossly  personal  and  scurrilous  attack  on  the  poet,  entitled 
The  Medal  of  John  Bayes.  Dryden  immediately  retorted 
in  M-aeFlechnoe,  the  most  powerful  and  contemptuously 
Bcornful  personal  satire  in  our  language,  adding  ne.xt  month 
a  few  more  rough  touches  of  supercilious  mockery  in  the 
BScond  part  of  Absalom  and  Achitophtl,  where  Shadwell 
6gure3  as  "  Og  ": — 


Og  from  a  treason-tavern  rolling  home, 
Kound  as  a  globe,  and  liquored  .^yery  chink  ; 
Goodly' and  great  ho  sails  behiniliis  link. 

Dryden  may  not  be  strictly  fair  when  he  addresses  his 
enemy  as  "  thou  last  great  prophet  of  tautology,"  and 
makes  Flecknoe  extol  him  because  "he  never  deviates 
into  sense,"  but  Shadwell  had  fairly  earued  his  chastise- 
ment, the  sting  of  which  lay  in  its  substantial  truth.  He 
survived  till  1692,  and  on  Dryden's  resignation  of  the 
laureateship  in  1688  was  promoted  to  the  otTice,  a  sign  of 
the  poverty  of  the  Whig  side  at  the  time  in  literary  men, 
and  part  of  the  explanation  of  their  anxiety  in  the  next 
generation  to  secure  literary  talent. 

A  complete  edition  of  Shadwell's  works  was  published  in  1720, 
in  4  vols.  12mo.  His  dramafic  works  are — Tlie  Sullen  Lovers, 
1C6S  ;  The  llmjal  Slmpherdess,  1669  ;  The  Humorist,  1671  ;  Ths 
Miser,  1672;  Epsom  Wells,  1673;  Psyehe,  1675;  The  Libertine, 
1676  ;  The  Firiuoso,  1676  ;  Timou  of  Athens,  1678 ;  A  True 
Widow,  1679 ;  The  Woman  Captain,  1680 ;  The  Laneashirt 
Witches,  1682  ;  The  Squire  of  Alsatia,  1683  ;  Bury  Fair,  1689  ; 
The  Amorous  Biijot,  1690 ;  The  Scou-erers,  1691  ;  and  The 
P'oluntecrs,  1693. 

SHAF1,  SHAF'iTES.     See  Sunnites. 

SHAFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  First 
Earl  of  (1G21-16S3),  was  the  son  of  Sir  John  Cooper  of 
',  Rockbourne  in  Hampshire,  and  of  Anne,  the  only  child  of 
Sir  Anthony  Ashley,  Bart.,  and  was  born  at  Wimborne  St 
Giles,  Dorset,  on  July  22,  1G21.  His  parents  died  before 
he  was  ten  years  of  age,  and  he  inherited  extensive  estates 
in  Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  Dorsetshire,  and  Somersetshire, 
much  reduced,  however,  by  litigation  in  Chancery.  He 
lived  for  some  time  with  Sir  Daniel  Norton,  one  of  his 
trustees,  at  Southwick,  and  upon  his  death  in  163.5  with 
Mr  Tooker,  an  uncle  by  marriage,  at  Salisbury.  In  1637 
he  went  as  a  gentleraan-coramoner  to  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  remained  about  a  year.  No  record  of  his 
studies  is  to  be  found,  but  he  has  left  an  amusing  account 
of  his  part  in  the  wilder  doings  of  the  university  life  of  that 
day,  in  which,  in  spite  of  bis  small  stature,  he  was  recogr 
nized  by  his  fellows  as  their  leader.  At  the  age  of  eighteen, 
on  February  25,  1039,  lie  married  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Lord  Coventry,  with  whom  he  and  his  wife  lived  at  Durham 
House  in  the  Strand,  and  at  Canonbury  House  in  Isling- 
ton. In  March  1640,  though  still  a -minor,  he  was  elected 
for  Tewkesbury,  and  sat  in  the  parliament  which  met  on 
April  13,  but  appears  to  have  taken  no  active  part  in  its 
proceedings.  In  1640  Lord  Coventry  died,  and  Cooper 
then  lived  with  his  brother-in-law  at  Dorchester  House  in 
Covent  Garden.  For  the  Long  Parliament,  which  met  on 
November  3,  1640,  he  was  elected  for  Downton  in  Wilt-^ 
shire,  but  the  return  was  disputed,  and  he  did  not  take 
his  seat, — his  election  not  being  declared  valid  until  the 
last  days  of  the  Rump.  He  was  present  as  a  spectator  at 
the  setting  up  of  the  king's  standard  at  Nottingham  on 
August  25,  1642;  and  in  1643  he  appean^d  openly  on 
Charles's  side  in  Dorsetshire,  where  he  raised  at  his  own 
expense  a  regiment  of  foot  and  a  troop  of  horse  of  both  of 
which  he  took  the  command.  He  was  also  appointed 
governor  of  Weymouth,  sheriff  of  Dorsetsbire  for  the  king, 
and  president  of  the  king's  council  of  war  in  the  county. 
In  the  beginning  of  January  1644,  however,  for  reasons 
which  are  variously  reported  by  himself  and  Clarendon, 
he  resigned  his  governor.ship  and  commissions  and  went 
over  to  the  Parliament.  He  appeared  on  March  6  before 
the  standing  committee  of  the  two  Houses  to  explain  his 
conduct,  when  ho  stated  that  bo  had  come  over  because  he 
saw  danger  to  the  Protestant  religion  in  the  king's  service, 
and  expressed-  his  willingness  to  take  the  Covenant.  In 
July  1644  he  went  to  Dorsetshire  on  military  service,  and 
on  Augu.st  3  received  a  commission  as  field-marshal  general. 
He  assisted  at  the  taking  of  Warcham,  and  shortly  after- 
wards compounded  for  bis  estates  by  a  fine  of  £5C0  from 


/ 


7^y 


H  H  A  F  T  E  IS  B  U  r.   ? 


■which,  however,  he  v/as  afterwards  relieved  by  Cromwell. 
On  October  25  he  was  made  commandar-in-chief  in  Dorset- 
shire;  and  in  November  he  took  by  storm  Abbotsbury,  the 
house  of  Sir  John  Strangways, — an  affair  in  which  he 
appears  to  have  shown  considerable  personal  gallantry. 
In  December  he  relieved  Taunton.  His  military  service 
terminated  at  the  time  of  the  Self-denying  Ordinance  in 
1645;  he  had  associated  himself  with  the  Presbyteriatr 
faction,  and  naturally  enough  was  not  included  in  the 
New  Model.  For  the  next  seven  or  eight  years  he  lived 
in  comparative  privacy.  He  was  high  sheriff  of  Wiltshire 
luring  1647,  and  displayed  much  vigour  in  this  office. 
[Jpon  the  execution  of  Charles,  Cooper  took  the  Engage- 
ment, and  was  a  commissioner  to  administer  it  in  Dorset- 
shire. On  April  25,  1650,  he  married  Lady  Frances 
Cecil,  sister  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  his  first  wife  having  died 
in  the  previous  year  leaving  no  family.  In  1651  a  son 
was  born  to  him,  who  died  in  childhood,  and  on  January 

16,  1652,  another  son,  named  after  himself,  who  was  his 
heir.  On  January  17  he  was  named  on  the  commission 
for  law  reform,  of  which  Hale  was  the  chief;  and  on  March 

17,  1653,  he  was  pardoned  of  all  delinquency,  and  thus  at 
last  made  capable  of  sitting  in  parliament.  He  sat  for 
Wiltshire  in  the  Barebones  parliament,  of  which  he  was  a 
leading  member,  and  where  he  zealously  and  prudently 
supported  Cromwell's  views  against  the  extreme  section. 
He  was  at  once  appointed  on  the  council  of  thirty.  •  On 
the  resignation  of  this  parliament  he  became  a  member  of 
the  council  of  state  named  in  the  "  Instrument."  In  the 
first  parliament  elected  under  this  "  Instrument "  he  sat 
for  Wiltshire,  having  been  elected  also  for  Poole  and 
Tewkesbury,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the 
ejection  of  unworthy  ministers.  After  December  28,  165-t, 
for  reasons  which  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  with  clear- 
ness, he  left  the  privy  council,  and  henceforward  is  found 
with  the  Presbyterians  and  Republicans,  in  opposition  to 
Cromwell.  His  second  wife  had  died  during  this  year ; 
in  1656  he  married  a  third,  who  survived  him,  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Lord  Spencer,  niece  of  the  earl  of  Southampton, 
'and  sister  of  the  earl  of  Sujiderland,  who  died  at  Newbury. 
Py  his  three  marriages  he  was  thus  connected  with  many 
of  the  leading  politicians  of  Charles  II. 's  reign. 

Cooper  was  again  elected  for  Wiltshire  for  the  parlia- 
jnent  of  1656,  but  Cromwell  refused  to  allow  him,  with 
inany  others  of  his  opponents,  to  sit.  He  signed  a  letter 
of  complaint,  with  sixty-five  excluded  members,  to  the 
speaker,  as  also  a  "Remonstrance"  addressed  to  the 
people.  In  the  parliament  which  met  on  January  20, 
1658,  he  took  his  seat,  and  was  active  in  opposition  to 
ihe  new  constitution  of  the  two  Houses.  He  was  also  a 
leader  of  the  opposition  in  Richard  Cromwell's  parliament, 
especially  on  the  matter  of  the  limitation  of  the  power  of 
the  Protector,  and  against  the  House  of  Lords.  He  was 
throughout  these  delaates  celebrated  for  the  "  nervous  and 
subtle  oratory"  which  made  him  so  formidable  in  after 
days  :  he  had  "his  tongue  well  hung,  and  words  at  will." 

Upon  the  replacing  of  the  Rump  by  the  army,  after  the 
breaking  up  of  Richard's  parliament.  Cooper  endeavoured 
unsuccessfully  to  take  his  seat  on  the  ground  of  his  former 
disputed  election  for  Downton.  He  was,  however,  elected 
on  the  council  of  state,  and  was  the  only  Presbyterian  in 
if;  he  was  at  once  accused  by  Scot,  along  with  'WTiite- 
locke,  of  corresponding  with  Hyde.  This  he  solemnly 
denied.  After  the  rising  in  Cheshire  Cooper  was  arrested 
in  Dorsetshire  on  a  charge  of  correspondence  with  its 
leader  Booth,  but  on  the  matter  being  investigated  by  the 
council  he  was  unanimously  acquitted.  In  the  disputes 
between  Lambert  at  the  head  of  the  military  party  and 
the  Ptump  in  union  with  the  council  of  state,  he  supported 
the  latter,  and  upon  the  temporary  sucremacy  of  Lambert's 


party  worked  indefatigably  to  restore  the  Rump.  »Vii2; 
Monk's  commissioners  he,  with  Haselrig,  had  a  fruitless 
conference,  but  he  assured  Monk  of  his  co-operation,  and 
joined  with  eight  others  of  ih.e  overthrown  council  of  state 
in  naming  him  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.  He  was  instrumental  in  securing  the 
Tower  for  the  Parliament,  and  in  obtaining  the  adhesion 
of  Admiral  Lawson  and  the  fleet.  Upon  the  restoration 
of  the  Parliament  on  December  26  Cooper  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  command  the  army,  and  on  January  2 
was  vasAe  one  of  the  new  council  of  state.  On  January  7 
he  took  his  seat  on  his  election  for  Dbwnton  in  1640,  and 
was  made  colonel  of  Fleetwood's  regiment  of  horse.  Ha 
speedily  secured  the  admission  of  tbe  secluded  members, 
having  meanwhile  been  in  continual  communication  with 
Monk,  was  again  one  of  the  fresh  council  of  state,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  friends  of  the  Restoration,  and  accepted 
from  Monk  a  commission  to  be  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight  and  captain  of  a  company  of  foot.  He  now 
steadily  pursued  the  design  of  the  Restoration,  but  with- 
out holding  any  private  correspondence  with  the  king, 
and  Only  on  terms  similar  to  those  proposed  in  1648  t* 
Charles  I.  at  the  Isle  of  Wight.  In  the  Convention 
Parliament  he  sat  for  Wiltshire.  Monk  cut  short  these 
deliberations  and  forced  on  the  Restoration  without  con- 
dition. Cooper  was  one  of  the  twelve  commissioners  who 
went  to  Charles  at  Breda  to  invite  him  to  return.  On  his 
journey  he  was  upset  from  his  carriage,  and  the  accident 
caused  an  internal  abscess  which  was  never  cured. 

Cooper  was  at  once  placed  on  the  privy  council,  receiv- 
ing also  a  formal  pardon  for  former  delinquencies.  His 
first  duty  was  to  examine  the  Anabaptist  prisoners  in  the 
Tower.  In  the  prolonged  discussions  regarding  the  Bill 
of  Indemnity  he  was  instrumental  in  saving  the  life  of 
Haselrig,  and  opposed  the  clause  compelling  all  ofiicers  who 
had  served  under  Cromwell  to  refund  their  salaries,  he 
himself  never  having  had  any.  He  showed  indeed  none  of 
the  grasping  and  avaricious  temper  so  common  among  the 
])oliticians  of  the  time.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  conducting  the  trials  of  the  regicides,  but  was  himself 
vehemently  "fallen  upon"  by  Prynne  for  having  acted 
with  Cromwell.  He  was  named  on  the  council  of  planta- 
tions and  on  that  of  trade.  In  the  debate  abolishing  the 
court  of  wards  he  spoke,  like  most  landed  proprietors,  in 
favour  of  laying  the  burden  on  the  excise  instead  of  on 
the  land,  and  on  the  question  of  the  restoration  of  the 
bishops  carried  in  the  interests  of  the  court  an  adjourn 
ment  of  the  debate  for  three  months.  At  the  coronation  in 
April  1661  Cooper  had  been  made  a  peer,  as  Baron  Ashley 
of  Wimborue  St  Giles,  in  express  recognition  of  his  services 
at  the  Restoration  ;  and  on  the  meeting  of  the  new  parlia- 
ment in  May  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
and  under-treasurer,  aided  no  doubt  by  his  connexion 
with  Southampton.  He  vehemently  opposed  the  perse- 
cuting Acts  now  passed, —  the  Corporation  Act,  the  Uni- 
formity Bill,  against  which  he  is  said  to  have  spoken  three 
hundred  times,  and  the  Militia  Act.  He  is  stated  also  to 
have  influenced  the  king  in  issuing  his  dispensing  declara- 
tion of  December  26,  1662,  and  he  zealously  supported  a 
bill  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  the  declara- 
tion, rising  thereby  in  favour  and  influence  with  Charles. 
He  was  himself  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  tolerance.  He 
was  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  chief  opponents  of 
Clarendon  and  the  High  Anglican  policy.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Dutch  War'in  1664  he  was  made  treasure* 
of  the  prizes,  being  accountable  to  the  king  alone  for  all 
sums  received  or  spent.  He  was  also  one  of  the. grantees 
of  the  province  of  Carolina  and  took  a  leading  part  in  its 
management;  it  was  at  his  request  that  Locke  in  1669 
drew  up  a  constitution  for  thf.  new  colony.  _  In  Septembei 


SHAFTESBURY 


729 


1665  the  king  unexpectedly  paid  him  a  yisit  at  Wim- 
borne.  He  opposed  unsuccessfully  the  appropriation  pro- 
viso introduced  into  the  supply  bill  as  hindering  the  due 
administration  of  finance,  and  this  opposition  seems  to 
have  brought  about  a  reconciliation  with  Clarendon.  In 
1668,  however,  he  supported  a  bill  to  appoint  commis- 
sioners to  examine  the  accounts  of  the  Dutch  War,  though 
in  the  previous  year  he  had  opposed  it.  In  accordance 
with  his  former  action  on  all  questions  of  religious  tolera- 
tion he  strongly  opposed  the  shameful  Five  Mile  Act  of 
1665.  In  1667  he  eagerly  supported  the  bill  for  prohibit- 
ing the  importation  of  Irish  cattle  on  the  ground  that  it 
would  lead  to  a  great  fall  of  rents  in  England.  Ashley 
was  himself  a  large  landowner,  and  moreover  was  opposed 
to  Ormonde  who  would  have  greatly  benefited  by  the  im- 
portation. In  all  other  questions  of  this  kind  he  shows 
himself  far  in  advance  of'  the  economic  fallacies  of  the  day. 
His  action  led  to  an  altercation  with  Ossory,  the  son  of 
Ormonde,  in  which  Ossory  used  language  for  which  he  was 
'compelltd  to  apologize.  On  the  death  of  Southampton, 
Ashley  was  placed  on  the  commission  of  the  treasury, 
Clifford  and  William  Coventry  being  his  principal  col- 
leagues. He  appears  to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  attempt 
to  impeach  Clarendon  on  a  general  charge  of  treason. 

The  new  administration  was  headed  by  Buckingham,  in 
whose  toleration  and  comprehension  principles  Ashley 
shared  to  the  full. .  A  most  able  paper  written  by  him  to 
the  king  in  support  of  these  principles,  on  the  ground 
especially  of  their  advantage  to  trade,  has  been  preserved. 
He  excepts,  however,  from  toleration  Roman  Catholics  and 
Fifth  Monarchy  men.  His  attention  to  all  trade  questions 
was  close  and  constant ;  he  was  a  member  of  the  council 
•f  trade  and  plantations  appointed  in  1670,  and  was  its 
president  from  1672  to  1676.  The  difficulty  of  the  suc- 
cession also  occupied  him,  and  he  co-operated  thus  early 
in  the  design  of  legitimizing  Monmouth  as  a  rival  to  James. 
In  the  intrigues  which  led  to  the  infamous  treaty  of 
Dover  he  had  no  part.  That  treaty  contained  a  clause  by 
which  Charles  was  bound  to  declare  himself  a  Catholic, 
and  with  the  knowledge  of  this  Ashley,  as  a  staunch 
Protestant,  could  not  be  trusted.  In  order  to  blind  him 
and  the  other  Protestant  members  of  the  Cabal  a  sham 
treaty  was  arranged  in  which  this  clause  did  not  appear, 
and  it  was  not  until  a  considerable  while  afterwards  that 
he  found  out  that  he  had  been  duped.  Under  this 
misunderstanding  he  signed  the  sham  Dover  treaty  on 
December  31,  1670.  This  treaty,  however,  was  carefully 
kept  from  public  knowledge,  and  Ashley  did  not  hesitate 
to  help  Charles  to  hoodwink  parliament  by  signing  a 
similar  treaty  on  February  2,  1673,  which  was  then  laid 
before  them  as  the  only  one  in  existence.  This  is  one  of 
the  proved  dishonourable  actions  of  his  life.  His  approval 
of  the  attempt  of  the  Lords  to  alter  a  money  bill  led  to 
the  loss  of  the  supply  to  Charles  and  to  the  consequent 
displeasure  of  the  king.  His  support  of  the  Lord  Roos 
Act,  ascribed  generally  to  his  desire  to  ingratiate  himself 
with  Charles,  was  no  doubt  duo  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
his  son  had  married  Lord  Roos's  sister.  It  is,  too,  neces- 
sar_,  to  notice  that,  so  far  from  advising  the  "  Stop  of  the 
Exchequer,"  he  actively  opposed  this  bad  measure;  the 
reasons  which  he  left  with  the  king  for  his  opposition  are 
extant.  The  responsibility  rests  with  Clifford  alone.  In 
the  other  great  measure  of  the  Cabal  ministry,  Charles's 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  he  cordially  concurred.  He 
was  now  rewarded  by  being  made  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  and 
Barou  Cooper  of  Pawlett  by  a  patent  dated  April  23,  1672. 
It  is  stated  too  that  he  was  offered,  but  refused,  the  lord 
treasurership.  On  November  17,  1672,  however,  ho 
became  lord  chancellor,  Eridgman  having  been  compelled 
to  resign  the  ?eat.  As  chancellor  he  issued  writs  for  the 
■21— 2(;* 


election  of  thirty-six  new  members  to  fill  vacancies  caused 
during  the  long  recess ;  this,  though  grounded  upon  pre- 
cedent, was  certainly  open  to  the  gravest  suspicion  as  aa 
attempt  to  fortify  Charles,  and  was  vehemently  attacked 
by  an  angry  House  of  Commons  which  met  on  Fobruaiy 
4,  1673.  The  writs  were  cancelled,  and  the  principb  was 
established  that  the  issuing  of  writs  rested  with  the  House 
itself.  It  was  at  the  opening  of  parliament  that  Shaftes- 
bury made  his  celebrated'  "  delenda  est  Carthago  "  speech 
against  Holland,  in  which  he  urged  the  Second  Ijutch  War, 
on  the  ground  of  the  necessity  of  destroying  so  formidable 
a  commercial  rival  to  England,  excused  the  Stop  of  the 
Exchequer  which  he  had  opposed,  and  vindicated  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  On  March  8  he  announced  to 
parliament  that  the  declaration  had  been  cancelled,  though 
he  did  his  best  to  induce  Charles  to  remain  firm.  For 
affixing  the  great  seal  to  this  declaration  he  was  threatened 
wita  impeachment  by  the  Commons.  The  Test  Act  was 
now  brought  forward,  and  Shaftesbury,  who  appears  to 
have  heard  how  he  had  been  duped  in  1670,  warmly  sup- 
ported it,  with  the  object  probably  of  thereby  getting  rid 
of  Clifford.  He  now  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
upholder  of  Protestantism  in  the  ministry;  he  rapidly  lost 
favour  with  Charles,  and  on  Sunday,  September  9,  1673, 
was  dismissed  from  the  chancellorship.  Among  the  reasons 
for  this  dismissal  is  probably  the  undoubted  fact  that  he 
opposed  reckless  grants  to  the  king's  mistresses.  He  haa 
been  accused  of  much  vanity  and  ostentation  in  his  office, 
but  his  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity  as  a  judge  was 
high  even  with  his  enemies. 

Charles  soon  regretted  the  loss  of  Shaftesbury,  and 
endeavoured,  as  did  also  Louis,  to  induce  him  to  return, 
but  in  vain.  He  preferred  now  to  become  the  great 
popular  leader  against  all  the  measures  of  the  court,  and 
may  bo  regarded  as  the  intellectual  chief  of  the  opposition. 
At  the  meeting  of  parliament  on  January  8,  1674,  he 
carried  a  motion  for  a  proclamation  banishing  Catholics 
to  a  distance  of  ten  miles  from  London.  During  the 
whole  session  he  organized  and  directed  the  opposition  in 
their  attacks  on  the  king's  ministers.  On  May  19  he 
was  dismissed  the  privy  council  and  ordered  to  leave 
London.  He  hereupon  retired  to  Wimborne,  from  whence 
he  urged  upon  his  parliamentary  followers  the  necessity 
of  securing  a  new  parliament.  He  was  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  however,  in  1675,  when  Danby  brought  forward 
his  famous  Non-resisting  Test  Bill,  and  headed  the  opposi- 
tion which  was  carried  on  for  seventeen  days,  distinguish- 
ing himself,  says  Burnet,  more  in  this  session  than  ever 
ho  had  done  before.  The  bill  was  finally  shelved,  a  pro- 
rogation having  taken  place  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel 
between  the  two  Houses,  supposed  to  have  been  purposely 
got  up  by  Shaftesbury,  in  which  he  vigorously  supported 
the  right  of  the  Lords  to  hear  appeal  cases,  even  where 
the  defendant  was  a  member  of  the  Lower  House.  Parlia- 
ment was  prorogued  for  fifteen  months  until  February  15, 
1677,  and  it  was  determined  by  the  opposition  to  attack 
its  existence  on  the  ground  that  a  prorogation  for  moro 
than  a  year  was  illegal.  In  this  matter  the  opposition 
were  clearly  in  the  wrong,  and  by  attacking  the  parliament 
discredited  themselves.  The  immediate  result  was  that 
Shaftesbury,  Buckingham,  Wharton,  and  Salisbury  were 
sent  to  the  Tower.  In  Juno  Shaftesbury  applied  for  a 
writ  of  habeas  corpus,  but  could  get  no  release  until 
February  26,  1678,  after  his  letter  and  three  petitions  to 
the  king.  Being  brought  before  the  bar  of  the  House  of 
Lords  ho  at  length  made  a  complete  submission  as  to  his 
conduct  in  declaring  parliament  dissolved  by  the  proroga- 
tion, and  in  violating  the  Lords'  privileges  by  bringing  a 
habeas  cnrpus  in  the  King's  Bench. 

The  breaking  out  of  the  Popish  Terror  in  1678  marko 

XXL   —  q2 


.730 


SHAFTESBURY 


tne  worst  part  of  Shaftesbury's  career.  That  so  clear- 
headed a  man  could  have  really  credited  the  extravagant 
lies  of  Gates  and  the  other  perjurers  is  beyond  belief  ;  and 
the  manner  in  which  by  incessant  agitation  he  excited  the 
most  baseless  alarms,  and  encouraged  the  wildest  excesses 
of  fanatic  cruelty,  for  nothing  but  party  advantage,  is 
utterly  without  excuse.  On  November  2  he  opened 
the  great  attack  by  proposing  an  address  declaring 
the  necessity  for  the  king's  dismissing  James  from  his 
council.  Under  his  advice  the  opposition  now  made  an 
alliance  with  Louis  whereby  the  French  king  promised  to 
help  them  to  ruin  Danby  on  condition  that  they  would 
compel  Charles,  by  stopping  the  supplies,  to  make  peace 
■with  France,  doing  thus  a  grave  injury  to  Protestantism 
abroad  for  the  sake  of  a  temporary  party  advantage  at 
home.  Upon  the  refusal  in  November  of  the  Lords  to 
concur  in  the  address  of  the  Commons  requesting  the 
removal  of  the  queen  from  court,  he  joined  in  a  protest 
against  the  refusal,  and  was  foremost  in  all  the  violent  acts 
of  the  session.  He  urged  on  the  bill  by  which  Catholics 
•were  prohibited  from  sitting  in  either  House  of  Parliament, 
and  was  bitter  in  his  expressions  of  disappointment  when 
the  Commons  passed  a  proviso  excepting  James,  against 
whom  the  bill  was  especially  aimed,  from  its  operation.  A 
new  parliament  met  on  March  6,  1679.  Shaftesbury  had 
meanwhile  ineffectually  Warned  the  king  that  unless  he 
followed  his  advice  there  would  be  no  peace  with  the  people. 
On  March  25  he  made  a  striking  speech  upon  the  state  of 
the  nation,  especially  upon  the  dangers  to  Protestantism  and 
the  misgovernment  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  He  was,  too, 
suspected  of  doing  all  in  his  power  to  bring  about  a  revolt 
in  Scotland.  By  the  advice  of  Temple,  Charles  now  tried 
the  experiment  of  forming  a  new  privy  council  in  which 
the  chief  members  of  the  opposition  were  included,  and 
Shaftesbury  was  made  president,  with  a  salary  of  £4000, 
being  also  a  member  of  the  committee  for  foreign  affairs. 
He  did  not,  however,  in  any  way  change  either  his  opinions 
or  his  action.  He  vigorously  opposed  the  compelling  of 
Protestant  Nonconformists  to  take  the.  oath  required  of 
Koman  Catholics.  That  indeed,  as  Ranke  says,  which 
makes  him  memorable  in  English  history  is  that  he 
opposed  the  establishment  of  an  Anglican  and  Pioyalist 
organization  with  decisive  success.  The  question  of  the 
succession  was  now  again  prominent,  and  Shaftesbury,  in 
opposition  to  Halifax,  committed  the  error,  which  really 
brought  about  his  fall,  of  putting  forward  Monmouth  as 
his  nominee,  thus  alienating  a  large  number  of  his  sup- 
porters ;  he  encouraged,  too,  the  belief  that  this  was  agree- 
able to  the  king.  He  pressed  on  the  Exclusion  Bill  %vith 
all  his  power,  and,  when  that  and  the  inquiry  into  the 
payments  for  secret  service  and  the  trial  of  the  five  peers, 
for  which  too  he  had  been  eager,  were  brought  to  an  end 
by  a  sudden  prorogation,  he  is  reported  to  have  declared 
aloud  that  he  would  have  the  heads  of  those  who  were  the 
king's  advisers  to  this  course.  Before  the  prorogation, 
however,  he  saw  the  invaluable  Act  of  Habeas  Corpus, 
which  he  had  carried  through  parliament,  receive  the 
royal  assent.  In  pursuance  of  his  patronage  of  Mon- 
mouth, Shaftesbury  now  secured  for  him  the  command  of 
the  army  sent  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in  Scotland, 
which  he  is  supposed  to  have  fomented.  In  October 
I  1679,  the  circumstances  which  led  Charles  to  desire  to 
conciliate  the  opposition  having  ceased,  Shaftesbury  was 
dismissed  from  his  presidency  and  from  the  privy  council ; 
when  applied  to  by  Sunderland  to  return  to  office  he  made 
as  conditions  the  divorce  of  the  queen  and  the  exclusion 
of  James.  With  nine  other  peers  he  presented  a  petition 
to  the  king  in  November,  praying  for  the  meeting  of 
parliament,  of  which  Charles  took  no  notice.  In  April, 
upon  the  king's  declaration  that  he  was  resolved  to  send 


for  James  from  Scotland,  Shaftesbury  strongly  advised- 
the  popular  leaders  at  once  to  leave  the  council,  and  they 
followed  his  advice.  In  March  we  find  him  unscrupulously 
eager  in  the  prosecution  of  the  alleged  Irish  Catholic  plot. 
Upon  the  king's  illness  in  May  he  held  frequent  meetings 
of  Monmouth's  friends  at  his  house  to  consider  how  best  to 
act  for  the  security  of  the  Protestant  religion.  On  June  26, 
accompanied  by  fourteen  others,  he  presented  to  the  grand 
jury  of  Westminster  an  indictment  of  the  duke  of  York 
as  a  Popish  recusant.  In  the  middle  of  September  he 
was  seriously  ill.  On  November  15  the  Exclusion  Bill, 
having  passed  the  Commons,  was  brought  up  to  the 
Lords,  and  an  historic  debate  took  place,  in  which  Halifax 
and  Shaftesbury  were  the  leaders  on  opposite  sides.  The 
bill  was  thrown  out,  and  Shaftesbury  signed  the  protest 
against  its  rejection.  The  next  day  he  urged  upon  the 
House  the  divorce  of  the  queen.  On  December  7,  to  his 
lasting  dishonour,  he  voted  for  the  condemnation  of  Lord 
Stafford.  On  the  23d  he  again  spoke  vehemently  for 
exclusion,  and  his  speech  was  immediately  printed.  All 
opposition  was,  however,  checked  by  the  dissolution  on 
January  18.  A  new  parliament  was  called  to  meet  at 
Oxford,  to  avoid  the  influences  of  the  city  of  London, 
where  Shaftesbury  had  taken  the  greatest  pains  to  make 
himself  popular.  Shaftesbury,  with  fifteen  other  peers,  at 
once  petitioned  the  king  that  it  might  as  usual  be  held  in 
the  capital.  He  prepared,  too,  inslructions  to  be  handed 
by  constituencies  to  their  members  upon  election,  in  which 
exclusion,  disbanding,  the  limitation  of  the  prerogative  in 
proroguing  and  dissolving  parliament,  and  security  against 
Popery  and  arbitrary  power  were  insisted  on.  At  this 
parliament,  which  lasted  but  a  few  days,  he  again  made  a 
personal  appeal  to  Charles,  which  was  curtly  rejected,  to 
permit  the  legitimizing  of  Jlonmouth.  The  king's  advisers 
now  urged  him  to  arrest  Shaftesbury ;  he  was  seized  on 
July  2,  ICSl,  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  the  judges 
refusing  his  petition  to  be  tried  or  admitted  to  bail.  This 
refusal  was  twice  repeated  in  September  and  October,  the 
court  hoping  to  obtain  evidence  sufficient  to  ensure  his  ruin. 
In  October  he  wrote  ofi'ering  to  retire  to  Carolina  if  he 
were  released.  On  November  24  he  was  indicted  for 
high  treason  at  the  Old  Bailey,  the  chief  ground  being  a 
paper  of  association  for  the  defence  of  the  Protestant 
religion,  which,  though  among  his  papers,  was  not  in 
his  handwriting ;  but  the  grand  jury  ignored  the  bilL 
lie  was  released  on  bail  on  December  1.  In  1682,  how- 
ever, Charles  secured  the  appointment  of  Tory  sheriffs  for 
London ;  and,  as  the  juries  were  chosen  by  the  sheriffs, 
Shaftesbury  felt  that  he  was  no  longer  safe  from  the 
vengeance  of  the  court.  Failing  health  and  the  dis- 
appointment of  his  political  pilans  led  him  now  into  violent 
courses.  He  appears  to  have  entered  into  cofisultation  of 
a  treasonable  kind  with  Monmouth  and  others ;  he  him- 
self had,  he  declared,  ten  thousand  brisk  boys  in  London 
ready  to  rise  at  his  bidding.  For  some  weeks  he  was 
concealed  in  the  city  and  in  Wapping ;  but,  finding  the 
schemes  for  a  rising  hang  fire,  he  determined  to  flee.  He 
went  to  Harwich,  disguised  as  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and 
after  a  week's  delay,  during  which  he  was  in  imminent  risk 
of  discovery,  if  indeed,  as  is  very  probable,  his  escape  was 
not  winked  at  by  the  Government,  he  sailed  to  Holland  on 
November  28,  1(382,  and  reached  Amsterdam  in  the  begin- 
ning of  December.  Here  he  was  welcomed  with  the  jest, 
referring  to  his  famous  speech  against  the  Dutch,  "  non- 
dum  deleta  Carthago."  He  was  made  a  citizen  of  Amster- 
dam, but  died  there  of  gout  in  the  stomach  on  January 
21,  1683.  His  body  was  sent  in  February  to  Poole,  in 
Dorset,  and  was  buried  at  Wimborne  St  Gilci: 

"Few  politicians  have  been  the  mark  of  sucli  unsjiaring  abuse 
as  Shaftesbury.     Dryden.  while  compelled  to  honour  him  as  an 


SHAFTESBURY 


731 


upright  jinS^v^  overwhelmed  his  memory  vrith  scathing,, if  venal, 
satire;  acd  JJryden's  satire  has  been  accepted  as  truth  by  later 
historians.  Macaulay  in  especial  has  exerted  all  his  art,  though 
iu  iiagrant  contradiction  of  probability  and  fact,  to  deepen  still 
further  the  shade  which  rests 'upon  his  reputation.  Mr  Christie, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  possession  of  later  sources  of  information, 
and  with  more  honest  purpose,  has  done  much  to  rehabilitate  him. 
Occasionally,  however,  he  appears  to  hold  a  brief  for  the  defence, 
and,  though  his  picture  is  comparatively  a  true  one,  should  be  read 
with  caution.  Finally,  in  his  monograph  in  the  series  of  "  English 
"Worthies,"  MrH.  D.  Traill  professes  to  hold  the  scales  equally. 
He  makes  an  interesting  addition  to  our  conception  of  Shaftes- 
bury's place  in  English  politics,  by  insisting  on  Ms  position  as  the 
first  great  party  leader  in  the  modern  sense,  and  as  the  founder 
of  modern  parliamentary  oratory.  In  other  respects  his  book  is 
derived  almost  entirely  from  Christie,  iluch  of  Shaftesbury's 
career,  increasingly  so  as  it  came  near  its  close,  is  incapable  of 
defence  ;  but  it  has  escaped  his  critics  that  his  life  up  to  the  Rer 
storation,  apparently  full  of  inconsistencies,  was  evidently  guided 
by  one  leading  principle,  the  determination  to  uphold  the  supremacy 
of  parliament,  a  principle  which,  however  obscured  by  self-interest, 
appears  also  to  have  underlain  his  whole  political  career.  He  was, 
ioo,  ever  the  friend  of  religious  freedom  and  of  an  enlightened 
policy  in  all  trade  questions.  And,  above  all,  it  should  not  be 
forgotten,  in  justice  to  Shaftesbury's  memory,  that  "during  his 
long  political  career,  in  an  age  of  general  corruption,  he  was  ever 
incorrupt,  and  never  grasped  either  money  or  land.  In  the  days 
of  the  Commonwealth  he  never  obtained  or  bjught  grants  of 
forfeited  estates.  In  the  days  of  the  restored  monarchy  ho  never 
profited  by  t'le  king's  favour  for  aught  beyond  the  legal  emolu- 
ments of  office,  and  in  office  or  out  of  ofBoe  spurned  all  and  many 
offers  of  bribes  from  the  French  king."  (O.  A.) 

SH.'VFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley  Coopee,  Thied 
Earl  OF  (167 1-1 7 13),  was  born  at  E.'ceter  Souse  in  London, 
February  26,  1670-71.  He  was  grandson  of  the  first  and 
son  of  the  second  earl.  His  mother  was  Lady  Dorothy 
Manners,  daughter  of  John,  earl  of  Rutland.  According 
to  a  curious  story,-  told  by  the  third  earl  himself,  the 
marriage  between  his  father  and  mother  was  negotiated 
by  John  Locke,  who  was  a  trusted  friend  of  the  first  earl. 
The  second  Lord  Shaftesbury  appears  to  have  been  a  poor 
creature,  both  physically  and  mentally, — "  bom  a  shapeless 
lump,  like  anarchy,"  according  to  what  is  doubtless  the 
exaggerated  metaphor  of  Dryden.  At  the  early  age  of 
three  his  son  was  made  over  to  the  formal  guardianship 
of  his  grandfather.  Locke,  who  in  his  capacity  of 
medical  attendant  to  the  Ashley  household  had  already 
assisted  in  bringing  the  boy  into  the  world,  though  not 
his  instructor,  was  entrusted  with  the  superintendence  of 
his  education.  This  was  conducted  according  to  the 
principles  enunciated  in  Locke's  Thoughts  concerning 
Education,  and  the  method  of  teaching  Latin  and  Greek 
conversationally  was  pursued  with  such  success  by  his 
instructress,  Mrs  Elizabeth  Birch,  tiat  at  the  age  of  eleven, 
it  is  said,  young  Ashley  could  read  both  languages  with 
ease.  In  November  1G8.3,  some  months  after  the  death 
of  the  first  earl,  his  father  entered  him  at  Winchester  as 
a  warden's  boarder.  Being  a  shy,  retiring  boy,  and  being 
moreover  constantly  taunted  with  the  opinions  and  fate  of 
his  grandfather,  he  appears  to  have  been  rendered  miserable 
by  the  rough  manners  of  his  schoolfellows,  and  to  have 
left  Winchester  in  1686  for  a  course  of  foreign  travel. 
By  this  change  he  was  brought  into  direct  contact  with 
those  artistic  and  classical  associations  which  afterwards 
exercised  so  marked  an  influence  on  his  character  and 
opinions.  On  his  travels  he  did  not,  we  are  told  by  the 
fourth  earl,  "  greatly  seek  the  conversation  of  other  English 
young  gentlemen  on  their  travels,"  but  rather  that  of  their 
tutors,  with  whom  he  could  converse  on  congenial  topics. 

In  1689,  the  year  after  the  Revolution,  Lord  Ashley 
returned  to  England,  and  for  nearly  five  years  from  this 
time  ho  appears  to  have  led  a  quiet,  uneventful,  and 
studious  life.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  greater, 
part  of  his  attention  was  directed  to  the  perusal  of  those 
classical  authors,  and  to  the  attempt  to  realize  the  true 
spirit  of    that    classical   antiquity,   for   wtich    he    had 


conceived  so  araent  a  passion.  He  had  no  intention, 
however,  of  becoming  a  recluse,  or  of  permanently  holding 
himself  aloof  from  public  life.  Accordingly,  he  became  a 
candidate  for  the  borough  of  Poole,  and  was  returned 
May  21,  1695.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  a 
speech,  which  excited  great  attention  at  the  time,  in 
support  of  the  Bill  for  Regulating  Trials  in  Cases  of 
Treason,  one  provision  of  which  was  what  seems  to  us  the 
obviously  reasonable  one  that  a  person  indicted  for  treason 
or  misprision  of  treason  should  be  allowed  the  assistance 
of  counsel.  In  connexion  with  this  speech  a  story, is  told 
of  Shaftesbury  which  is  also  told,  though  with  less 
verisimilitude,  of  Halifax,  that,  being  overcome  by 
shyness,  and  unable  to  continue  his  speech,  ha  simply 
said,  before  sitting  down :  "  If  I,  sir,  who  rise  only  to 
speak  my  opinion  on  the  bill  now  depending,  am  so 
confoimded  that  I  am  unable  to  express  the  least  of  what  I 
proposed  to  say,  what  must  the  condition  of  that  man  be 
who  is  pleading  for  his  life  without  any  assistance  and 
under  apprehensions  of  being  deprived  of  it!"  "The 
sudden  turn  of  thought,"  says  his  son,  the  fourth  earl, 
"  pleased  tha  House  extremely,  and,  it  is  generally 
believed,  carried  a  greater  weight  than  any  of  the  argu- 
ments which  were  offered  in  favour  of  the  bilL"  But, 
'though  a  Whig,  alike  by  descent,  by  education,  and  by 
conviction,  Ashley  could  by  no  means  be  depended  on  to 
give  a  party  vote ;  he  was  always  ready  to  support  any 
propositions,  from  whatever  quarter  they  came,  that 
appeared  to  him  to  promote  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
and  the  independence  of  parliament.  Unfortunately,  his 
health  was  so  treacherous  that,  on  the  dissolution  of  Jidy 
1698,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  parliamentary  life. 
He  EuflFered  much  from  .asthma,  a  complaint  v.'hich  was 
aggravated  by  the  London  smoke. 

Lord  Ashley  now  retired  into  Holland,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Le  Clerc,  Bayle,  Benjamin  Furly,  the 
English  Quaker  merchant,  at  whose  house  Locke  had 
resided  during  his  stay  at  Rotterdam,  and  probably 
Limborch  and  the  rest  of  the  literary  circle  of  which 
Locke  had  been  a  cherished  and  honoured  member  nine 
or  ten  years  before.  To  Lord  Ashley  this  society  was 
probably  far  more  congenial  than  Ms  surroundings  in 
England.  Unrestrained  conversation  on  the  topics  which 
most  interested  him — philosophy,  politics,  morals,  religion 
— was  at  this  time  to  be  had  in  Holland  with  less  danger 
and  in  greater  abundance  than  in  any  other  country  in 
the  world.  To  the  period  of  this  sojourn  in  Holland  must 
probably  be  referred  the  surreptitious  impression  or 
publication  of  an  imperfect  edition  of  the  Inquiry  concern^ 
ing  Virtue,  from  a  rough  draught,  sketched  when  he  was 
only  twenty  years  of  age.  This  liberty  was  taken,  during 
his  absence,  by  Toland.  __ 

.  After  an  absence  of  over  a  twelvemonth,'  Ashley 
returned  to  England,  and  soon  succeeded  his  father  as  earl 
of  Shaftesbury.  He  took  an  active  part,  oa  the  V\'hig 
side,  in  the  general  election  of  1700-1,  and  again,  'nith 
more  success,  in  that  of  the  autumn  of  1701.  It  is  said 
that  William  III.  showed  his  appreciation  of  Shaftesbury's 
services  on  this  latter  occasion  by  offering  him  a  secretary- 
ship of  state,  which,  however,  his  declining  health 
compelled  him  to  decline.  Had  the  king's  life  continued, 
Shaftesbury's  influence  at  court  would  probably  have 
been  considerable.  After  the  first  few  weeks  of  Anne's 
reign,  Shafte-sburj',  who  had  been  deprived  of  the  vice- 
admiralty  of  Dorset,  returned  to  his  retired  mode  of 
life,  but  his  letters  to  Furly  .show  that  ho  still  retained  a 
keen  interest  in  politics.  In  August  17C3  he  again  settlcti 
in  Holland,  in  the  air  of  which  he  seems,  like  Locke,  to  have 
had  great  faith.  At  Rotterdam  he  lived,  he  says  in  a  letter 
to  his  steward  Wleelock,  at  the  rate  of  less  than  £200  a 


VOi 


SHAFTESBURY 


year,  and  yet  had  inuch  "  to  dispose  of  and  spend  beyond 
convenient  living."  He  returned  to  England,  much 
impioved  in  health.,  in  August  1704.  '  But,  though  he 
had  received  immediate  benefit  from  his  stay  abroad, 
symptoms  of  consumption  W'ere  constantly  alarming  him, 
and  h6  gradually  became  a  confirmed  invalid.  His  occu- 
pations were  now  almost  exclusively  literary,  and  from 
this  timii  forward  he  was  probably  engaged  in  writing, 
fcompleting,  or  revising  the  treatises  which  were  afterwards 
included  in  the  Characteristics.  He  still  continued,  how- 
ever, to  take  a  warm  interest  in  politics,  both  home  and 
foreign,  and  especially  in  the  war  against  France,  of  which 
he  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter. 

Shaftesbury  was  nearly  forty  before  he  married,  and 
even  then  he  appears  to  have  taken  this  step  at  the 
Urgent  instigation  of  his  friends,  mainly  to  supply  a  suc- 
cessor to  the  title.  The  object  of  his  choice  (or  rather  of 
bis  second  choice,  for  an  earlier  project  of  marriage  had 
Siortly  before  fallen  through)  was  a  Miss  Jane  Ewer,  the 
daughter  of  a  gentleman  in  Hertfordshire.  The  marriage 
took  place  in  the  autumn  of  1709,  and  on  February  9, 
1710-11,  was  born  at  his  house  at  Reigate,  in  Surrey,  his 
obly  child  and  heir,  the  fourth  earl,  to  whose  manuscript 
accounts  we  are  in  great  part  indebted  for  the  details  of 
his  father's  life.  The  match  appears  to  have  been  a  happy 
one,  though  Shaftesbury  neither  had  nor  pretended  to 
have  much  sentiment  on  th&  subject  of  married  life. 
'  With  the  exception  of  a  Preface  to  ike  Sermons  of  Dr 
Whichcote,  one  of  the  Cambridge  Platonists  or  latitudin- 
arians,  published  in  1698,  Shaftesbury  appears  to  have 
printed  nothing  himself  till  the  year  1708.  About  this 
time  the  French  prophets,  as  they  were  called,  attracted 
much  attention  by  the  extravagances  and  follies  of  which 
they  were  guilty.  Various  remedies  of  the  repressive 
kind  were  proposed,  but  Shaftesbury  maintained  that  their 
fanaticism  was  best  encountered  by  '"  raillery  "  and  "  good- 
humour."  In  support  of  this  view  he  WTote  a  letter  to 
Lord  Somers,  dated  September  1707  which  was  published 
anonymously  in  the  following  year,  and  provoked  several 
replies.  In  May  1709  he  returned^  to  the  subject,  and 
printed  another  letter,  entitled  SensKS  Communis,  an 
Essay  on  the  Fi-eedom  of  Wit  and  Humour.  In  the  same 
year  he  also  published  The  Moralists,  a  Philosophical 
Rhapsody,  and  in  the  following  year  Soliloquy,  or  Advice 
to  an  Author.  None  of  these  pieces  seem  to  have  been 
printed  either  with  his  name  or  his  initials.  In  1711 
appeared  the  Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners,  Opinions, 
Times,  in  three  volumes,  also  without  any  name  or  initials 
on  the  title-page,  and  without  even  the  name  of  a  printer. 
These  three  handsome  volumes  contain  in  addition  to  the 
four  treatises  already  mentioned.  Miscellaneous  Reflections, 
Eow  first  printed,  and  the  Inquiry  concerning  Virtue  or 
Merit,  described  as  "  formerly  printed  from  an  impe.rfect 
copy,  now  corrected  and  published  intire,"  and  as  "  printed 
first  in  the  year  1699." 

The  declining  state  of  Shaftesbury's  health  rendered  it 
necessary  for  him  to  seek  a  warmer  climate,  and  in  July 
1711  ho  set  out  for  Italy.  He  settled  at  Naples  in 
November,  and  lived  there  considerably  over  a  year.  His 
principal  occupation  at  this  time  must  have  consisted  in 
preparing  for  the  press  a  second  edition  of  the  Charader- 
istics,  which  appeared  in  1713,  soon  after  his  death.  The 
copy,  most  carefully  corrected  in  his  own  handwriting,  is 
still  preserved  in  the  British  ^Museum.  He  was  also 
engaged,  during  his  stay  at  Naples,  in  writing  the 
little  treatise  (afterwards  included  in  the  Characteristics) 
entitled  A  Notion  of  the  Historical  Draught  or  Tablature 
of  the  Judgment  of  Hercules,  and  the  letter  concerning 
Design.  A  little  before  his  death  he  had  also  formed  a 
echesue  of  writing  a  Discourse  on  the  Arts  of  Painting, 


Sculpture,  Etching,  <tc.,  but  when  he  died  he  had  mada 
but  little  progress  with  it.  "Medals,  and  pictures,  and 
antiquities,"  ho  writes  to  Furly,  "are  our  chief  entertain- 
ments here."  His  conversation  was  with  men  of  art  and 
science,  "  the  virtuosi  of  this  place." 

The  events  pireceding  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  which  he 
regarded  as  preparing  the  way  for  a  base  desertion  of  our 
allies,-  greatly  troubled  the  last  months  of  Shaftesbury's 
life.  He  did  not,  however,  live  to  see  the  actual  conclu- 
sion of  the  treaty  (March  31,  1713),  as  he  died  the  month 
before,  February  4,  1712-13.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  had  not  yet  completed  his  forty-second  year.  His 
body  was  brought  back  by  sea  to  England  and  buried  at 
St  Giles's,  the  family  seat  in  Dorsetshire.  Though  he  died 
so  long  ago,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  English 
moralists,  his  descendant,  the  celebrated  philanthropist, 
who  died  so  recently  as  1885,  was  only  his  great-grandson. 

Shaftesbury's  amiability  of  character  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  his  principal  characteristics.  All  accounts 
concur  in  representing  him  as  full  of  sweetness  and 
kindliness  towards  others,  though  he  may  sometimes  him- 
self have  been  the  victim  of  melancholy  and  despondency. 
Like  Locke  he  had  a  peculiar  pleasure  in  bringing  forward 
young  men.  Amongst  these  may  be  especially  mentioned 
Michael  Ainsworth,  a  native  of  Wimborne  St  Giles,  the 
young  man  who  was  the  recipient  of  the  Letters  addressed 
to  a  student  at  the  imiversity,  and  who  was  maintained 
by  him  at  University  College,  Oxford.  The  keen  interest 
which  Shaftesbury  took  in  his  studies,  and  the  desire  that 
he  should  be  specially  fitted  for  the  profession  which  he 
had  selected,  that  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, are  marked  features  of  the  letters.  Other  proteges 
were  Grell,  a  young  Pole,  the  two  young  Furlys,  and 
Harry  Wilkinson,  a  boy  who  was  sent  into  Furly's  office 
at  Rotterdam,  and  to  whom  several  of  the  letters  still 
extant  in  the  Record  Ofiice  are  addressed. 

In  the  popular  mind,  Shaftesbury  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  writer  hostile  to  religion.  But,  however  short  his 
orthodoxy  might  fall  if  tried  by  the  standards  of  any 
particular  church,  his  temperament  was  pre-eminently  a 
religious  one.  This  fact  is  shown  conspicuously  in  his 
letters,  where  he  had  no  reason  for  making  any  secret  of 
his  opinions.  The  belief  in  a  God,  all-wise,  aU-just,  and 
all-merciful,  governing  the  world  providentially  for  the 
best,  pervades  all  his  works,  his  correspondence,  and  his 
life.  Nor  had  he  -any  wish  to  undermine  established 
beliefs,  except  where  he  conceived  that  they  conflicted 
with  a  truer  "religion  and  a  purer  morality. 

To  the  public  ordinances  of  the  church  he  scrupulously 
conformed.  But,  unfortunately,  there  were  many  things 
both  in  the  teaching  and  the  practice  of  the  ecclesiastics 
of  that  day  which  were  calculated  to  repel  men  of  sober 
judgment  and  high  principle.  These  evil  tendencies  in 
the  popular  presentation  of  Christianity  undoubtedly 
begot  in  Shaftesbury's  mind  a  certain  amount  of  repug- 
nance and  contempt  to  some  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
itself ;  and,  cultivating,  almost  of  set  purpose,  his  sense  of 
the  ridiculous,  he  was  too  apt  to  assume  towards  such 
doctrines  and  their  teachers  a  tone  of  raillery  and  banter, 
which  sometimes  even  approaches  grimace. 

But,  whatever  might  be  Shaftesbury's  speculative 
opinions  or  his  mode,  of  expressing  them,  all  witnesses 
concur  in  bearing  testimony  to  the  elevation  and  purity  of 
his  life  and  aims.  Molesworth,  who  had  no  special  reason 
for  flattering  him,  speaks  of  him  as  "possessing  right 
reason  in  a  more  eminent  degree  than  the  rest  of  man- 
kind," and  of  his  character  as  "  the  highest  that  the  per- 
fection of  human  nature  is  capable  of."  Even  Warburton, 
in  his  dedication  of  the  Divine  Legation  to  the  free- 
thinkers, is  compelled  to  "own  that  this  lord  had  many 


S  H  A  F  T-E  S  B  U  R  Y 


733 


etcellent  qualities,  both  as  a  man  and  a  writer,     fle  was 
temperate,  chaste,  honest,  and  a  lover  of  his  country." 

As  an  earoest  student,  an  ardent  lover  of  liberty,  an  en- 
thusiast in  the  cause  of  virtue,  and  a  man  of  unblemished 
life  and  untiring  beneficence,  Shaftesbury  probably  had  no 
superior  in  his  generation.  His  character  and  pursuits  are 
the  more  remarkable,  considering  the  rank  of  life  in  which 
he  was  born  and  the  circumstances  under  which,  he  was 
brought  up.  In  many  respects  he  reminds  us  of  the  impe- 
rial philosopher  Marcus  Aurelius,  whose  works  we  know 
him  to  have  studied  with  avidity,  and  whose  influence  is 
unmistakably  stamped  upon  his  own  productions. 

Jlost  of  Shaftesbury's  writings  have  been  already  mentioned. 
5n  addition  to  these  there  have  been  published  fourteen  letters 
from  Shaftesbury  to  Molesworth,  edited  by  Toland  in  1721  ; 
soma  letters  to  Benjamin  Furly,  his  sons,  and  his  clerk  Harry 
"Wilkinson,  included  in  a  volume  entitled  Original  Letters  of 
Jjocke,  Sidney,  and  Shaftcsburfj,  which  was  published  by  Mr  T. 
Forster  in  1830,  and  again  in  an  enlarged  form  in  1847  ;  three 
letters,  written  respectively  to  Stringer,  Lord  Oxford,  and  Lord 
Godolphin,  which  appeared,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  General 
DictioTiary;  and  lastly  a  letter  to  Le  Clerc,  in  his  recollections  of 
Locke,  first  published  in  Notes' and  Queries,  Feb.  8,  1851.  The 
Letters  to  a  Young  Man  at  the  University  [Michael  Ainsworth], 
already  mentioned,  were  first  published  in  1716,  it  being  uncertain 
by  whom.  Tue  Letter  on  Design  was  first  published  in  the  edition 
of  the  Characterislics  issued  in  1732.  Besides  the  published  wTit- 
ings,  there  are  still  to  be  found  several  memoranda,  letters,  rough 
drafts,  &c.,  in  the  Shaftesbury  papers  in  the  Record  Office. 

Shaftesbury,  it  is  plain,  took  great  pains  in  the  elaboration  of  hJs 
style,  and  he  succeeded  so  far  as  to  mnke  hi3  meaning  trans- 
parent. The  thought  is  always  clear.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
aid  not  equally  succeed  in  attaining  elegance,  an  object  at  which 
he  seems  equally  to  have  aimed.  There  is  a  curious  affectation 
about  his  style, — a  falsetto  note, — which,  notwithstanding  all  his 
elforts  to  please,  is  often  irritating  to  the  reader.  Its  main 
characteristic  is  perhaps  best  hit  oft'  by  Charles  Lamb  when  he 
calls  it  **  genteel.  '  He  poses  too  much  as  a  fine  gentleman,  and  is 
so  anxious  not  to  be  taken  for  a  pedant  of  the  vulgar  bcholastic 
kind  that  he  falls  into  the  hardly  more  attractive  pedantry  of 
the  aesthete  and  virtuoso.  But,  notwithstanding  these  defects,  he 
possesses  the  great  merits  of  being  easily  read  and  easily  under- 
:Stood.  Hence,  probably,  the  wide  popularity  which  his  works 
enjoyed  in  the  last  century  ;  and  hence,  undoubtedly,  the  agreeable 
feeling  with  which,  notwithstanding  all  their  false  taste  and  their 
tiresome  digressions,  they  still  impress  the  modem  reader. 

It  is  mainly  as  a  moralist  that  Shaftesbury  has  a  claim  to  a 
place  in  the  history  of  literature  and  philosophy.  Like  most  of 
tho  ethical  writers  of  his  time  his  first  impulse  to  speculation,  or 
at  least  to  publication,  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  a  desire  to 
combat  the  still  fashionable  paradoxes  of  Hobbes,  and  to  arrest  the 
progress  of  doctrines  at  which  society  still  continued  to  be  seriously 
aJarmed.  Hence  it  became  his  main  concern  to  assert  the  reality 
and  independence  of  our  benevolent  affections,  and  to  show  that 
these  and.  the  acts  which  result  from  them  are  what  mainly  elicit 
the  feeling  of  moral  approbation.  This  work  he  appears  to  have 
conceived  it  his  special  mission  to  undertake,  not  as  a  "pedant" 
era  "Schoolman,"  but  as  a  "man  of  ~^iste. "  It  was  probably 
in  accordance  with  this  conception  that  he  refrained  from  using 
the  language  about  the  "laws  of  nature"  which  had  hitherto 
been  current  in  ethical  treatises,  and  that  he  preferred  to  represent 
morality  as  a  matter  of  "taste,"  "sentiment,"  or  "affection," 
rather  than  as  dictated  simply  by  reason. 

The  leading  ideas  in  Shaftesbury's  ethical  theory  are  those  of  a 
system,  or  the  relation  of  parts  to  a  whole,  benevolence,  moral 
teauty,  and  a  moral  sense. 

The  indiWdual  man  himself  is  a  system  consisting  of  various 
appetites,  passions,  and  affectiona^  all  united  under  the  supremo 
control  of  reason.  Of  this  system  the  parts  are  so  nicely  adjusted 
to  each  other  that  any  disarrangement  or  disproportion,  however 
slight,  may  mar  and  disfigure  the  whole.  "Whoever  is  in  the  least 
versed  in  this  moral  kind  of  architecture  will  find  the  inward  fabric 
80  adjusted,  and  the  whole  so  nicely  built,  that  the  barely  extending 
of  a  single  passion  a  little  too  far,  or  tho  continuance  of  it  too  long, 
is  able  to  bring  irrecoverable  ruin  and  misery." 

But  morality  and  human  nature  cannot  be  adequately  studied 
iu  the  system  of  the  individual  man.  There  are  parts  in  that 
fvstem  both  mental  and  bodily,  which  have  an  evident  respect  to 
pomcthing  outside  it.  Neither  man  nor  any  other  animal,  though 
ever  so  complete  a  system  of  parts  as  to  all  within,  can  be  allowed 
in  the  same  manner  complete  as  to  all  without ;  ho  must  be  con- 
siJered  as  having  a  further  relatiou  abroad  to  tho  system  of  his 
kind.  So  even  this  system  of  his  kind  to  the  animal  system; 
Tthis  to  the  world  (our  earth) ;  and  this  again  to  the  bigger' world 


and  to  the  universe.  No  being  can  properly  be  called  good  or  ill 
except  in  reference  to  the  systems  of  which  he  is  a  part,  "  When, 
in  general,  all  the  affections  or  passions  are  suited  to  the  public 
good  or  end  of  tbe  species,  then  la  the  natural  temper  entirely 
good.  If,  on  the  contrary,  any  requisite  passion  'oe  wanting,  or 
if  there  be  any  one  supernumerary  or  weak,  or  anywise  dis serviceable 
or  contrary  to  that  main  end,  then  is  the  natural  temper,  and 
consequently  the  creature  himself,  in  some  measury  corrupt  and 
ilL"  Hence  it  follows  that  benevolence,  if  not  the  sole,  is  at 
least  the  principal  moral  virtue. 

The  idea  of  a  moral  and  social  system,  the  parts  of  which  are  in 
a  constant  proportion  to  each  other,  and  so  nicely  adjusted  that 
the  slightest  disarrangement  would  mar  the  unity  of  design, 
almost  necessarily  suggests  an  analogy  between  morality  and  art;. 
As  the  beauty  of  an  external  object  consists  in  a  certain  pro- 
portion between  its  parts,  or  in  a  certain  harmony  of  colouring,  so 
the  beauty  of  a  virtuous  character  consists  in  a  certain  proportion 
between  the  various  affections,  or  in  a  certain  harmonious  blending 
of  the  various  springs  of  action  as  they  contribute  to  promote  the 
great  ends  of  our  being.  And  similarly,  we  may  suppose,  the 
beauty  of  a  virtuous  action  would  be  explained  as  consisting  in  its 
relation  to  the  virtuous  character  in  which  it  has  its  source,  or  to 
the  other  acts  of  a  virtuous  life,  or  to  the  general  condition  of  a 
virtuous  state  of  society.  This  analogy  between-art  and  morality, 
or,  as  it  may  otherwise  be  expressed,  between  the  beauty  of 
external  objects  and  the  beauty  of  actions  or  characters,  is  never 
long  absent  from  Shaftesbury's  mind.  Closely  connected  with  it 
is  the  idea  that  morals,  no  less  than  art,  is  a  matter  of  taste  or 
relish. 

Tliis  idea  leads  us  to  the  last  of  the  distinctive  features  in 
Shaftesbury's  ethical  philosophy.  Tho  faculty  which  approves  of 
right  and  disapproves  of  wrong  actions  is  with  him  a  sense,  and 
more  than  once  he  anticipates  Hutchcson  by  calling  it  a  "moral 
sense,"  an  expression,  indeed,  which  he  may  be  said  to  have 
contributed  to  the  English  language.  This  "sense  of  right  and 
wrong"  is  "  as  natural  to  us  as  natiiral  affection  itself,"  and  "a 
first  principle  in  our  constitution  and  make."  At  tho  same  time 
it  includes  a  certain  amount  of  judgment  or  reflexion,  that  is  to 
say,  a  rational  element.  Shaftesbury's  doctrine  on  this  head  may, 
perhaps,  briefly  be  summed  up  as  follows.  Each  man  has  from 
the  first  a  natural  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  a  "  moral  sense  "  or 
"conscience"  (all  which  expressions  he  employs  as  synonymous). 
This  sense  is,  in  its  natural  condition,  wholly  or  mainly  emotional, 
but,  as  it  admits  of  constant  education  and  improvement,  the 
rational  or  reflective  element  in  it  gradually  becomes  more  pro- 
minent. Its  decisions  are  generally  described  as  if  they  were 
immediate,  .and,  beyond  the  occasional  recognition  of  a  rational 
as  well  as  an  emotional  element,  little  or  no  attempt  is  made  to 
analyse  it.  It  was  reserved  for  Hume  properly  to  discriminate 
between  these  two  ^elements,  and  to  point  out  that,  while  tho 
feeling  of  moral  approbation  or  disapprobation  is  instantaneous, 
the  moral  judgment  which  precedes  it  is  often  the  result  of  aU 
intellectual  process  of  considerable  length  and  perplexity. 

It  may  be  sufficient  to  supplement  this  brief  survey  of  Shaftes- 
bury's system  by  a  still  briefer  summary  of  the  answers,  so  far  as 
they  can  be  collected  from  his  works,  which  ho  would  have  given 
to  the  principal  questions  of  ethics  as  they  are  now  usually  pro- 
pounded. His  answers  to  these  questions  are,  as  it  appears  to  the 
present  writer,  that  our  moral  ideas — the  distinctions  of  virtue 
and  vice,  right  and  wrong — are  to  be  found  in  the  very  make  and 
constitution  of  our  nature  ;  that  morality  is  independent  of 
theology,  actions  being  denominated  good  or  just,  not  by  the 
arbitrary  will  of  God  (as  had  recently  been  maintained  by  Locke), 
but  in  virtue  of  some  quality  existing  in  themselves  ;  that  the 
ultimate  test  of  a  right  action  is  its  tendency  to  promote  the 
general  welfare  ;  that  we  have  a  jieculiar  organ,  the  moral  sense, 
analogous  to  taste  in  art,  by  which  we  discriminate  between 
characters  and  actions  as  good  or  bad  ;  that  the  higher  natures 
among  mankind  are  impelled  to  right  action,  and  deterred  from 
wrong  action,  partly  by  tlie  moral  sense.  p^iT-tly  by  the  love  and 
Tfiverenco  of  a  just  and  good  God,  while  the  lower  natures  arc 
mainly  influenced  by  the  Opinions  of  others,  or  by  the  hope  of 
reward  and  the  fear  of  punishment  ;  that  appetite  and  reason 
both  concur  in  tho  determination  of  action  ;  lastly,  that  the 
question  whether  the  will  does  or  does  not  possess  any  freedom  oi 
choice,  irrespectively  of  character  and  motives,  is  one  (at  least  so 
we  may  gatlier  from  Shaftesbury's  reticence)  which  it  does  not 
concern  tho  moralist  to  solve. 

The  close  resemblance  of  Hutcheson's  speculations  to  those  ot 
Shaftesbury,  amounting  sometimes  to  identity,  will  be  apparent  on 
reference  to  the  account  of  that  philosopher  (vol.  xiL  pp.  409-11). 
Next  to  Hobbes,  tlie  moralist  with  whoso  views  Shaftesbury's  stand 
in  most  direct  antagonism  is  Locke,  who 'not  only  maintained 
that  moral  distinctions  depend  solely  on  the  arbitrary  will  of  God, 
but  that  the  sanctions  by  which  they  are  mainly  enforced  a:j  th& 
hope  of  future  reward  and  the  fear  of  future  punishment.  "By 
the  Cau.U  is  the  rod.  and  with  tho  transgression  a  firo  roadr  ta 


734 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


punish  it. "  Shaftesbury's  was  in  reality,  thouj:;h  perhaps  not  in 
at)pGaranco,  a  more  truly  religious  philosophy.  For  with  him 
the  incentives  to  wcll-Joing  and  the  deterrents  from  evil-doin^  iire 
to  be  sought  not  solely,  or  even  mainly,  in  tho  opinion  of  man- 
kind, or  in  the  rewards  and  punishments  of  tho  magistrate,  or  in 
tho  hopes  and  terrors  of  a  future  world,  but  in  tho  answer  of  a 
good  eonscicuco  approving  virtue  and  disapproving  vice,  and  in 
the  love  of  a  God,  who,  by  His  infinite  wisdom  and  His  all- 
embracing  beneficence,  is  worthy  of  the  lovo  and  admiration  of 
His  creatures. 

Tho  main  object  of  the  Moralists  is  to  propound  a  system  of 
natural  theology,  and  to  vindicate,  so  far  as  natural  religion  iL 
concerned,  the  ways  of  God  to  man.  The  articles  of  Shaf'-'isbury's 
religious  creed  were  few  and  simple,  but  these  he  entertained 
with  a  conviction  amounting  to  enthusiasm.  They  may  briefly  bo 
summed  up  as  a  belief  in  one  God  whose  most  characteristic 
attribute  is  universal  benevolence,  in  the  moral  government  of 
tho  universe,  and  in  a  future  state  of  man  making  up  for  tho 
imperfections  and  repairing  tho  inequalities  of  the  present  life. 
Shaftesbury  is  emphatically  an  optimist,  but  there  is  a  passage  in 
the  Moralists  {\\t.  ii.  sect.  4)  which  would  lead  us  to  suppose 
that  he  regarded  matter  as  an  inJifterent  principle,  co-existcut  and 
co-eternal  with  God,  limiting  His  operations,  and  the  cause  of  the 
evil  and  imperfection  which,  notwithstanding  tho  benevolence  of 
the  Creator,  is  still  to  be  found  in  His  work.  If  this  view  of  his 
optimism  bo  correct,  Shaftesbury,  as  Mill  says  of  Leibnitz,  must 
be  regarded  as  maintaining,  not  that  this  is  the  best  of  all 
imaginable  but  only  of  all  possible  worlds.  This  brief  notice  of 
Shaftesbury's  schema  of  natural  religion  would  be  conspicuously 
imperfect  unless  it  were  added  that  it  is  popularized  in  Pope's  Essay 
on  Man,  several  lines  of  which,  especially  of  the  first  epistle,  are 
simply  statements  from  the  Moralists  done  into  verse,  \yhether, 
however,  these  were  taken  immediately  by  Pope  from  Shaftesbury, 
or  whether  they  came  to  him  through  the  papers  which  Boling- 
broke  had  prepared  for  his  use,  we  have  no  means  of  determining. 

Shaftesbury's  philosophical  activity  was  confined  to  ethics, 
ffisthetics,  and  religion.  For  metaphysics,  properly  so  called,  and 
even  psychology,  except  so  far  as  it  atforded  a  basis  for  ethics,  he 
evidently  had  no  taste.  Logic  he  probably  despised  as  merely  an 
instrument  of  pedants, — a  judgmeat  for  which,  in  his  day,  and 
especially  at  the  universities,  there  was  only  too  much  ground. 

The  influence  of  Shaftesbury's  writings  was  very  considerable 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  His  ethical  system  was  roproduced, 
though  in  a  more  precise  and  philosophical  form,  by  Hutcheson, 
and  from  him  descended,  with  certain  variations,  to  Hume  and 
Adam  Smith.  Nor  was  it  without  its  effect  even  on  the  specula- 
tions of  Butler.  Of  the  so-called  deists  Shaftesbury  was  probably 
the  most  important,  as  he  was  certainly  the  most  plausible  and 
the  most  respectable.  No  sooner  had  tlie  C lux rad^ri sties  appeared 
than  they  were  welcomed,  in  terms  of  warm  commendation,  by  Le 
Clerc  and  Leibnitz.  In  1745  Diderot  adapted  or  reproduced  the 
Inquiry  concerning  Virtue  iu  what  was  afterwards  known  as  his 
Essai  siir  le  Meritc  et  la  Vcrtu.  In  1769  a  French  translation  of 
the  whole  of  Shaftesbury's  works,  including  the  Letters,  was 
published  at  Geneva.  Translations  of  separate  treatises  into 
German  began  to  bo  made  in  1738,  and  in  1776-1779  there 
appeared  a  complete  German  translation  of  the  Characteristics. 
Hermann  H'ittner  says  that  not  only  Leibnitz,  Voltaire,  and 
Diderot,  but  Lessing,  Mendelssohn,  Wieland,  and  Herder,  drew 
tho  most  stimulating  nutriment  from  Shaftesbury.  "  His  charms," 
he  adds,  "are  ever  fresh,  A  new-born  Hellenism,  or  divine  cultus 
of  beauty  presented  itself  before  his  inspired  soul."  Herder  is 
especially  eulogistic.  In  the  Adrastca  he  pronounces  tho  Moralists 
to  be  a  composition  in  form  well-nigh  worthy  of  Grecian  antiquity, 
and  in  its  contents  almost  superior  to  it.  The  interest  fe'ltby  Ger- 
man literary  men  in  Shaftesbury  has  been  recently  revived  by  the 
publication  of  two  excellent  monographs,  one  dealing  with  him 
mainly  from  the  theological  side  by  Dr  Gideon  Spicker  (Freiburg 
in  Baden,  1S72),  the  other  dealing  with  him  mainly  from  the  philo- 
sophical side  by  Dr  Georg  ^^)n  Glzycki  (Leipsic,  1876). 

In  the  foregoinff  article  the  ■writer  has  made  free  use  of  his  raonograph  on 
Shaftesbury  and  Hutcheson  ia  tho  series  of  "English  philosophers"  (1852), 
published  by  Sampson  Low  &  Co.  In  that  woik  he  was  able  laigely  to  sup- 
plement the  printed  materials  for  the  Life  by  extmcta  from  tho  Shaftesbury 
papers  now  deposited  in  tho  Record  Office.  These  include,  besides  many  letters 
and  memoranda,  two  lives  of  him,  composed  by  his  son,  the  fourth  earl,  one  of 
which  is  evidently  the  original,  though  it  is  by  no  means  always  dosely  followed, 
of  the  Life  contributed  by  Dr  Dirch  to  the  General  l>kUonary.  For  a  descrip- 
tion and  criticism  of  Sbafte^bu^y■3  philosophy  reference  may  also  be  made  to 
Mackintosh's  Pro'/ress  of  Ethical  Philosophy,  Whewell's  History  of  Moral 
Philosophy  in  England,  Jouffroy'a  Introduction  iO  Ethics  (Channinff's  transla- 
tion), Leslie  Stephen's  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Martineau's 
Types  of  Ethical  Theory,  and  the  article  Ethics  in  the  present  work  (%'ol.  viii. 
pp.  599,  600).  For  his  relation  to  the  religious  and  theological  controversies  of 
his*  day,  see,  in  addition  to  somE  of  the  above  works,  L'^land's  View  of  the 
Principal  Dristical  Writers,  Lechler's  Qeschichc'e  des  Englischm  Deismut,  Hunt's 
lieliffious  Thought  in  England,  Abbey  and  Overton's  English  Church  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  and  A.  S.  Farrar's  Bampton  Lectures.  (T.  F.) 

SHAFTESBURY,  A_nthont  Ashley  Coopek,  Seventh 
Eakl  of  (1§01-1S86).  was  the  son  of  Cropley,  sixth  earl, 


and  Anne,  daughter  of  the  third  duke  of  Marlborough,  and 
was  born  2Sth  April  1801.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  obtajined  a  first  class 
in  classics  in  1822,  and  graduated  M.A.  in  1832..  In 
1841  he  received  ^roni  his  university  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
He  entered  parliament  as  member  for  the  pocket  borough 
of  Woodstock  in  182G;  in  1830  he  was  returned  for 
Dorchester:  from  1831  till  February  IS-IG  he  represented 
the  county  of  Dorset ;  and  he  was  member  for  Bath  from 
18-47  till  (having  previously  borne  the  courtesy  title 
Lord  Ashley)  he  succeeded  his  father  as  earl  in  1851. 
Although  giving  a  general  support  to  the  Conservatives, 
his  parliamentary  conduct  was  greatly  modified  by  his- 
intense  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the  social  Condition 
of  the  working  classes,  his  isflorts  in  behalf  of  whom  have 
made  his  name  a  household  word.  He  opposed  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1832,  but  was  a  supporter  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, and  his  objection  to  the  contin-uance  of  resistance  to 
the  abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws  led  him  to  resign  his  seat 
for  Dorset  in  184G.  In  parliament  his  name,  more  than 
any  other,  is  associated  with  the  factory  legislation  (see 
Factory  Acts,  vol.  viii.  p.  S4:5).  He  was  a  lord  of  the 
admiralty  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  (1834-35),  but  on  being 
invited  to  join  Peel's  administration  in  1841  refused, 
having  been  unable  to  obtain  Peel's  support  for  the  Ten 
Hours'  Bill.  Chiefly  by  his  persistent  efforts  a  Ten  Hours' 
Bill  was  carried  in  1847,  but  its  operation  was  impeded 
by  legal  difficulties,  which  were  only  removed  by  successive 
Acts,  instigated  chiefly  by  him,  until  legislation  reached 
a  final  stage  in  the  Factory  Act  of  1874.  The  part  which 
he  took  in  the  legislation  bearing  on  coal  mines  was  equally 
prominent.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  his  efforts  in 
behalf  of  the  practical  welfare  of  the  working  classes  were 
guided  by  his  own  personal  knowledge  of  their  circum- 
stances and  wants.  Thus  in  184G  he  took  advantage  of 
his  leisure  after  the  resigmation  of  his  seat  for  Dorset  to 
explore  the  slums  of  the  metropolis,  and  by  the  informa- 
tion he  obtained  not  only  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  move- 
ment for  the  establishment  of  ragged  schools,  but  was  able 
to  make  it  more  widely  beneficial.  For  over  forty  years 
he  was  president  of  the  Ragged  School  Union,  Ho  was 
also  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  reformatory  and 
refuge  unions,  young  men's  Christian  associations,  and 
working  men's  institutes.  He  took  an  active  interest  in 
foreign  missions,  and  was  president  of  several  of  the  most 
important  philanthropic  and  religious  societies  of  London. 
He  died  1st  October  1885.  By  his  marriage  to  Lady 
Emily,  daughter  of  the  fifth  Earl  Cowper,  he  left  a  large 
family,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Anthony,  who 
committed  suicide  shortly  afterwards. 

SHAGREEN.  See  Leather,  vol.  siv.  p.  390,  and 
Shaek. 

SHAHA-BaD,  a  British  district  in  the  Patna  division 
of  the  lieuienant-governorship  of  Bengal,  India,  between 
24^  31'  and  25"  43'  N.  lat.  and  between  83'  23'  and 
84°  55'  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  4365  square  miles.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  district  of  Ghazipur  in  the 
North-Western  Provinces  and  by  Saran,  on  the  E.  by 
Patna  and  Gayd  districts,  on  the  S.  by  Lohardaga,  and 
on  the  W.  by  >Iirzapur,  Benares,  and  Ghazipur  districts 
of  the  North- Western  Provinces.  About  three-fourths  of 
the  whole  area  lying  to  the  north  is  an  alluvial  flat,  wholly 
under  cultivation,  and  fairly  planted  with  mangoes,  bam- 
boos, and  other  trees ;  while  the  southern  portion  of  the 
district  is  occupied  by  the  Kaimur  Hills,  a  branch  of  the 
great  Vindhyan  range,  and  is  a  densely  wooded  tract. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Ganges  and  the  Son,  which  unite 
in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  ShdhAbdd.  A  series  of  canals 
on  the  Son  are  reported  to  have  secured  for  the  district 
immunity  from  future  famine.     In  the  southern  portion 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


735 


of  the  district  large  game  abounds,  including  the  tiger, 
bear,  leopard,  and  several  varieties  of  deer ;  and  among 
other  animals  met  ■with  are  the  ^vild  boar,  hy«na,  jackal, 
and  fox.  The  nylghau  is  seen  on  the  Kaimur  Hills.  The 
climate  is  very  sultry,  and  the  rains  heavy.  The  East  Indian 
Railway  traverses  the  north  of  the  district  for  60  miles, 
and  the  aggregate  length  of  roads  is  about  1000  mUes. 

The  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  population  of  1,964,909  (males 
950,230,  females  1,014,659);  Hindus  numbered  1,317,881,  Moham- 
medans 146,732,  and  Christians  274.  Four  towns  contain  a 
population  e.T;ceediiig  10^000,  viz.,  Arrah  42,998,  Dumraon 
17,429,  Baxar  16,498,  and  Jagdispur  12,568.  The  administrative 
headquarters  of  the  district  are  at  Arrah.  The  chief  staple  of 
Shahabad  is  rice,  which  produces  three  crops  during'  the  year  ; 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  cereals,  and  various  other  plants  are  also 
grown.  The  principal  manufactures  of  the  district  are  sugar, 
paper,  saltpetre,  blankets,  coarse  cotton  cloth,  and  brass  utensils. 
Its  trade  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  permanent  markets  in 
the  town  and  at  fairs.  The  principal  exports  are  rice,  wheat, 
barley,  pulses,  grain,  oats,  linseed,  carraway  seed,  paper,  and  spices ; 
imports  consist  of  cleaned  rice,  betel-nut,  tobacco,  sugar,  molasses, 
salt,  pepper,  cotton,  iron,  brass,  zinc,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  betel- 
leaf.  The  revenue  of  Shahabad  district  in  1883-84  amounted  to 
£253,542,  of  which  the  land  yielded  £171,263.  The  southern 
part  of  the  district  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  Shah  Alum, 
emperor  of  Delhi  in  1765,  and  the  northern  part  by  Azuf-ud- 
Dowlah,  vizier  of  Oudh,  ten  years  later. 

SHAH  JAHi-X,  Mogul  emperor  from  1627  to  1658. 
See  India,  vol.  xii.  p.  795. 

SHAhJAHANPUR,  the  easternmost  district  of  the 
Rohilkhand  division  in  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the 
North-Western  Provinces  of  British  India,  lying  between 
27°  36'  and  28°  29'  N.  lat.  and  between  79°  23'  and 
80°  26'  E.  long.  It  has  an  area  of  1746  square  miles,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.W.  by  Pilibhit,  on  the  E.  by 
Hardoi  and  Kheri,  on  the  S.  by  the  Ganges,  separating  it 
from  Farukhabad,  and  on  the  W.  by  Budaun  and  Bar- 
eilly.  The  district  consists  of  a  long  and  narrow  tract 
running  up  from  the  Ganges  towards  the  Himalayas,  and 
is  for  the  most  part  level  and  without  any  hills  or 
considerable  undulations.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Gumti,  Khanaut,  Garai,  and  Rimganga.  The  last-named 
is  the  main  waterway  of  the  district,  and  is  navigable 
as  far  as  Kola  Ghat  near  JaUlAbM,  whence  grain  is 
shipped  for  the  Ganges  ports.  To  the  north-east  beyond 
Gumti  the  country  resembles  the  tarai  in  the  preponder- 
ance of  waste  and  forest  over  cultivated  land,  in  the  sparse- 
ness  of  population,  and  in  general  unhealthiness.  Between 
the  Gumti  and  the  Khanaut  the  country  varies  from  a 
rather  wild  and  unhealthy  northern  region  to  a  densely 
inhabited  tract  in  the  south,  with  a  productive  soil  well 
cultivated  with  sugar-cane  and  other  remunerative  crf)ps. 
The  section  between  the  Deoba  and  Garii  comprises 
much  marshy  land  ;  but  south  of  the  GarAi,  and  bet\yeen 
it  and  the  Rdmganga,  the  soil  is  mostly  of  a  sandy  nature. 
From  Riimganga  to  the  Ganges  in  the  south  is  a  continuous 
low  country  of  marshy  patches  alternating  with  a  hard 
clayey  soil  requiring  much  irrigation  in  parts.  ShAh- 
jahdnpur  contains  a  number  of  jhils  or  lakes,  which  afford 
irrigation  for  the  spring  crops  in  their  neighbourhood. 
The  Oudh  and  Kohilkhand  Railway  traverses  the  district 
c  distance  of  39  miles.  The  climate  of  the  district  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  most  parts  of  Oudh  and  Rohil- 
khand,  but  raoister  than  that  of  the  Doab.  E.xcept  in  May 
and  June,  the  country  has  a  fresh  and  green  appearance. 
Its  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  38  inches." 

In  J831  the  population  of  Sbahjatanpur  numbered  856,946 
(males  460,064,  females  596,882),  of  whom  735,244  were  Hindus 
and  120,214  were  Itohammodans.  The  district  contains  only  two 
towns  with  a  population  exceeding  10,000,  viz.,  SiiAUiAii.i.si'iK 
(}.r. )  and  Tilhar  (15,351).  Of  the  total  area  of  1746  square  miles 
1090  were  under  cultivation  in  1883-84,  and  464  were  returned  as 
cultivable.  The  chief  agricultural  products  arc  wheat  and  gram 
in  spring,  and  in  the  autumn  sugar-cane,  rice,  joar,  and  bajra,  and 


several  kinds  of  pulses.  Exports  are  chiefly  sugar,  grain  of  all 
kinds,  pulses,  indigo,  cotton,  and  timber,  and  the  imports  are 
mainly  European  goods,  metals,  aud  salt.  The  gross  revenue 
raised  in  the  district  in  1883-84  amounted  to  £186,162,  of  which 
the  land  contributed  £118,633.  The  onl^  manufactures  of  any 
importance  under  European  supervision  are  those  of  sugar  and 
rum  and  of  indigo.  Shahjahanpur  was  ceded  fa  the  English  by 
treaty  in  1801.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857  it  became  the  scen& 
of  open  rebellion.  The  Europeans  were  attacked  when  in  church  ; 
three  were  shot  down,  but  the  remainder,  aided  by  a  hiuidred 
faithful  sepoys,  escaped.  The  force  under  Lord  Clyde  put  a  stop 
to  the  anarchy  in  April  1858,  and  shortly  afterwards  peace  and 
authority  were  restored. 

SHAHJAHA-NTUR,  municipal  town  and  administra- 
tive headquarters  of  the  above  district,  lies  in  27°  53'  41" 
N.  lat.  and  79°  57'  30"  E.  long.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Deoha.  It  is  a  large  place,  with  some  stately  old  mosques 
and  a  castle  now  in  ruins.  The  city  was  founded  in 
1647  during  the  reign  of  Shah  Jahin,  whose' name  it  bears, 
by  NawAb  BahAdur  KhAn,  a  PathAn.  It  has  a  considerable 
export  trade  in  cereals,  pulses,  and  sugar.  In  1881  the 
population  was  74,830  (36,810  males,  and  37,990  females). 
'  SHAHPUR,  the  southernmost  district  of  the  Rawal 
Pindi  division  in  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the 
Punjab,  India,  between  31°  32'  and  32°  42'  N.  lat.  and 
between  71°  37'  and  73°  24'  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of 
4691  square  miles.  The  district  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Jhelum  district,  on  the  E.  by  GujrAt  and  the  Chenab, 
on  the  S.  by  Jhang,  and  on  the  W.  and  N.AY.  by  Dera 
Ismail  Khan  and  Bannu.  On  both  sides  of  the  Jhelum 
stretch  wide  upland  plains,  utterly  barren  ot  covered  only 
with  brushwood  ;  a  considerable  portion  of  this  ar.ea,  how- 
ever, is  composed  of  good  soil,  only  requiring  irrigation  to 
make  it  productive.  The  most  important  physical  sub- 
divisions of  the  district  are  the  Salt,  range  in  the  north, 
the  valleys  of  the  ChenAb  and  Jhelum,  and  the  plains 
between  those  rivers  and  between  the  Jhelum  and  the 
Salt  range.  The  characteristics  ot  those  two  plains  ara 
widely  different :  the  desert  portion  of  the  southern  plain 
is  termed  the  har ;  the  corresponding  tract  north  of  the 
Jhelum-  is  known  as  the  thai.  That  part  of  ShAhpur  to 
the  north  of  the  Jhelum  is  by  far  the  most  interesting, 
containing  as  it  does  such  varieties  of  scenery  and  climate, 
such  contrasts  of  soil,  vegetation,  and  natural  capabilities. 
Communications  are  carried  on  by  well-made  roads,  by 
the  Jhelum,  which  is  navigable  for  country  craft  through- 
out its  course  within  the  district,  and  by  52  miles  of  the 
Salt  branch  of  the  Punjab  Northern  State  Railway.  The 
climate  of  the  plains  is  hot  and  dry,  but  in  the  Salt 
range  it  is  much  cooler ;  the  average  annual  rainfall  is 
about  15  inches.  Tigers,  leopards,  and  wolves  are  found 
in  the  Salt  range,  while  small  game  and  antelope  abound 
among  the  thick  jungle  of  the  ha: 

The  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  population  of '421,508  (males 
221,676,  females  199,832) ;  of  these  59,026  were  Hindus  and 
357,742  were  Mohammedans.  Tlie  only  town  in  the  district  with 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants  is  Bhera,  with  15,165  ;  but  Jho 
administrative  headquarters  of  the  district  are  at  tlie  small  town 
of  Sbahpur  on  the  Jhelum  river,  the  population  of  which  in  18S1 
was  5424.  Of  the  total  area  only  871  square  miles  were  under 
cultivation  in  1883-84,  and  3053  square  miles  were  returned  C3 
cultivable.  'WTjeat  is  the  chief  staple,  and  covers  nearly  a  half  of 
the  cultivated  area  ;  bajra  and  cotton  are  the  next  most  c.^:tensive)y 
grown  cro]>s  ;  among  other  crops  ore  sugar-cane  and  opium.  The 
commercial  importance  of  the  district  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
its  connexion  with  the  Salt  range,  salt  being  found  throughout 
.these  hills.  The  revenue  derived  from  this  product,  however, 
though  collected  in  the  Shahpur  district,  cannot  nroporiy  bo 
credited  to  it,  as  tlio  mineral,  though  abundant  in  the  Shahpur 
portion  of  the  range,  is  worked  chiefly  in  that  part  of  it  which  lies 
in  the  Jhelum  district.  The  chief  exports  are  grain,  rice,  cotton, 
wool,  ghi,  and  saltpetre  ;  the  imports  sugar,  English  piece-goods, 
and  metals.  Its  manufactures  consist  of  silk  and  cotton  scarfs, 
toys,  and  fcltand  blankets.  The  gross  revenue  in  1883-84  amounted 
to  £55,290,  of  which  the  land  contributed  £39,020. 

Shahpur  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  English  along  with  tho 
rest  of  tlie  Punjab  on  tho  suppression  of  the  ilultan  rebellion  in 


736 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


1849.  During  tlie  inaiiuy  of  1857  tho  district  remained  tranquil, 
and  though  (ho  villages  of  tho  bar  gave  cause  for  alarm  no  outbreak 
of  sppoys  occurred.  Since  annexation  the  limits  and  constitution 
of  tho  district  have  undergone  many  changes. 

SHAHRASTANI  (10S6-1 153).  Abu'1-FatL  Mohammed 
ibn  "Abd  al-Karlm,  called  al-Shahrast4nl,  a  native  of 
ShahrastAn  (SlieliristAn)  in  IChorAsAn,  Persia,  was  noted  as 
a  jurisconsult  and  theologian  of  tho  Ash'arite- school.  Ho 
■went  to  Baghdad  in  1116  and  stayed  there  three  years,  but 
afterwards  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  died. 
Sam'Ani,  the  famous  historian  of  Baghdad,  was  one  of  his 
hearers,  and  to  him  Ibn  KhallikAn  (No.  622,  Eng.  tr.  ii. 
675  sq.)  mainly  owes  the  little  that  is  known  of  Shahra- 
staui's  life. 

Ho  wrote  various  works,  of  which  several  still  exist  ;  that  which 
gives  him  a  claim  to  notice  jiero  is  the  interesting  Kitdb  al-MUal 
wmi-Nihal,  or  "  Account  cif  Religious  Sects  and  riiilosophical 
Schools,''  published  by  Cureton  in  1846  and  translated  into  German 
by  Haarbriicker  (Hallo,  185CI-51).  The  book  was  already  used  by 
Pocock  for  his  account  of  the  ancient  Arabs  and  haa  been  much 
referred  to  since,  but  has  to  be  read  with  caution,  as  the  author  is 
often  very  uncritical.  It  treats  successively  of  the  Mohammedan 
sects,  of  other  religious  bodies  (Jews,  Samaritans,  Christians, 
Magians,  Manichseaus,  &c. ),  of  philosophical  schools  (including  the 
Greeks),  and  of  the  ancient  Arabs  and  Indians,  and  contains  a 
great  deal  of  curious  and  valuable  matter. 

SHAIRP,  John  Campbell  (1819-1885),  principal  of 
the  United  College,  St  Andrews,  and  professor  of  poetry 
at  Oxford,  was  born  at  Houstoun  House,  Linlithgowshire, 
on   July    30,    1819.      Ho  was  the  third    son    of    Major 
Norman  Shairp  of  Houstoun  and  E.  Binning,  daughter  of 
J.  Campbell  of  Kildaloig,  Argyllshire.      He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  Academy  and  Gla";gow  University,  where  he 
gained  the  Snell  exhibition,  and  entered  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  in   1840.     While  a  student  at  Glasgow  and  an 
undergraduate  at   Oxford  it   was  his  privilege   to  make 
many  warm   friends  and   to  be  very  widely  loved.     At 
Glasgow  began  his  lifelong  friendship  v.-ith  Dr  Norman 
M'Leod,  while   among   those  with    whom   he  was    most 
intimate  at  Oxford  were  the  names  of  Bradley,  Coleridge, 
Temple,  Cloagh,  Walrond,  Riddell,  Prichard,  and  Edwin 
Palmer.     In  1842  he  gained  tho  Newdigate  prize  for  a 
poem  on  Charles  XII.,  and  in  1814  took  his  degree  with 
second  class  honours.     During  these  years  the  "  Oxford 
movement "  was  at  its   height.     Shairp's  earnest   nature 
was  greatly  stirred  by  Newman's  sermons,  while  Keble's 
poetry  spoke  home  to  his  heart ;  but,  though  full  of  warm 
sympathy  for   many  High    Church  ■'iows,    he    remained 
faithful  to  his  Presbyterian   upbringing.     After    leaving 
Oxford  he  took  a  mastership  at  Rugby  under  Dr  Tait ; 
here  ho  sought  loyally  to  develop  Dr  Arnold's  system  by 
appealing  to  the  better  feelings  of  his  pupils  and  by  giving 
them  wide  views  of  culture  and  education.     And  in  this  he 
was  successful,  making  among  his  pupils  warm  and  lasting 
friends.     In  1857  he  became  assistant  to  tho  professor  of 
humanity  in  the  university  of  St  Andrews,  and  in  1861  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  that  chair.     In  1853  he  married 
Eliza,  daughter  of    Henry  Alexander  Douglas,    Kilhead, 
Dumfriesshire,  and  had  one  surviving  son,  John  Campbell, 
who  became  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar.     Shairp  was 
highly  respected  by  the  more  earnest  students,  and  much 
loved  by  some  whose  spiritual  as  well  as  mental  nature  he 
helped  to  quicken.      In  1864  he  published  Kilmahoe,  a 
Hiijhlaiid  Pastoral ;  in  this  his  devotion  to  the  scenery  and 
the  people  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  where  he  always  spent 
his  vacations,  found  vent.     In   this   poem   there  was   a 
directness,  simplicity,  and  moral  earnestness  which  showed 
the  true  poet.     In  1868  he  republished  some  articles  under 
the  name  of  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philosophy  ;  this  book 
showed  him  to  be  one  of  the  foremost  critics  of  his  day  ;  the 
chief  subjects  it  discussed  were  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and 
Keble.     He  insisted  strongly  on  the  high  spiritual  teach- 
ing and  the  deep  poetical  power  of  the  great  lake  bard. 


While  hot  blind  to  hia  many  faul'ts  of  style,  his  occasional 
puerility,  and  his  prosincss,  he  urged  his  claims  as  a 
unique  interpreter  of  Nature  and  a  spuritual  philosopher. 
Coleridge  interested  him  as  a  poet,  but  much  more  as  a 
religious  teacher;  the  Aids  to  Reflection  was  a  favourite 
present  to  his  young  friends,  and  often  gave  a  text  for  hia 
deeper  conversations.  The  most  popular  essay  was  that 
on  Keble,  in  which  he  gave  a  vivid  sketch  of  Newman's 
influence  in  Oxford,  while  he  spoke  of  tho  author  of  The 
Christian  Year  with  enthusiasm  as  a  Christian  teacher, 
and  with  discerning  criticism  as  a  poet.  In  1868  he  was 
presented  "to  the  principalship  of  tho  United  College,  vacant 
by  the  death  of  J.  D.  Forbes ;  he  discharged  the  duties  of 
this  office  with  conscientious  zeal  and  interest,  and  also  con- 
tinued to  lecture  from  time  to  time  on  literary  and  ethical 
subjects.  A  course  of  the  lectures,  published  in  1870, 
Culture  and  Religion,  is  one  of  his  most  popular  works. 
In  1873  he  helped  to  edit  the  life  of  Principal  Forbes, 
and  in  1874  ho  edited  Dorothy  Wordsworth's  charming 
Recollections  of  a  Tour  in  Scotland  in  ISOS.  In  1877  he 
was  elected  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  succession  to 
Sir  F.  H.  Doyle.  Of  his  lectures  from  this  chair  tho  best 
were  published  in  1880  as  Aspects  of  Poetry.  In  1877  he 
had  published  The  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature,  in  which 
ho  enters  fully  into  the  "  old  quarrel,"  as  Plato  calls  it, 
between  scie-;ce  and  poetry,  and  traces  with  great  clear- 
ness aud  literary  acumen  the  ideas  of  nature  in  all  the 
chief  Hebrew,  classical,  and  English  poets.  In  1879 -he 
published  a  short  life  of  Robert  Burns.  Such  were  Shairp's 
chief  literary  works,  though  many  uncollected  magazine 
articles  and  a  few  poems  show  the  versatility  of  his  mind_; 
attention  may  be  specially  called  to  his  article  Keble  in 
this  Encyclopssdia  as  an  example  of  his  critical  power._  lii 
1682  he  was  re-elected  to  the  poetry  chair  and  discharged 
his  duties  there  and  at  St  Andrews  till  tho  end  of  1884  ; 
but  his  health  had  been  frail  for  some  time,  and  in  March 
1885  he  sought  a  change  of  air  in  tho  Riviera.  He  returned 
in  June  somewhat  benefited,  but  he  caught  a  chill  in  the 
autumn,  and,  after  a  short  illness,  died  at  Ormsary,  Argyll- 
shire, on  September  18,  1885. 

SHAKERS  is  the  name  commonly  applied  to  and  not 
rejected  by  a  religious  denomination  of  which  the  official 
title  is  "Tho  United  Society  of  Believers  in  Christ's 
Second  Appearing."  The  foundress  was  Ann  Lee,  who 
was  born  in  Toad  Lane,  Manchester,  29th  February  1736, 
but  only  privately  baptized  1st  June  1742.  Her  father 
was  a  blacksmith,  and  at  an  early  age  she  found  employ- 
ment, being  at  one  time  a  cutter  of  hatter's  fur,  and  at 
another  cook  in  the  infirmaTy  of  her  native  town.  She 
was  a  quiet  child  of  a  somewhat  visionary  temperament, 
and  in  1758  joined  a  small  religious  body,  a  remnant  of 
tho  French  Prophets.  Tho  leader  was  Jane  Wardley, 
who  ■n-as  regarded  by  her  followers  as  the  "spirit  of  John 
the  Baptist  operating  in  the  female  Une."  'These  people 
were  called  Shakers  because,  like  the  early  Quakers,  they 
were  seized  with  violent  tremblings  and  shakings  when 
under  the  influence  of  strong  religious  emotion.  Ann  Lee 
in  1762  married  a  blacksmith  whoso  character  was  not 
very  good.  Their  four  children  died  in  infancy.  She 
became  "a  seeker  after  salvation,"  and  her  conversion  was 
followed  by  her  taking  the  lead  in  the  Shaker  Society,  to 
which  she  promulgated  a  doctrine  of  celibacy.  Their 
previous  training  had  led  them  to  expect  that  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  would  be  in  the  form  of  a  woman ;  as 
Eve  was  the  mother  of  all  living,  so  in  their  new  leader 
the  (Shakers  recognized  "  the  first  mother  or  spiritual 
parent  in  the  lino  of  the  female."  With  their  new-born 
zeal  aflame,  they  preached  their  doctrine  in  season  and  out 
of  season,  and  suffered  something  from  mob  violence  and 
from  the  intolerance  of  the  constituted  authorities.     Ja 


S  H  A  —  S  H  A 


737 


1774  Ann  the  Word  and  eight  of  her  disciples  emigrated 
to  America,  and  landed  at  New  York  on  August  1st  of 
that  year.  Abraham  Stanley,  not  relishing  his  wife's 
celibate  creed,  abandoned  her  for  another  woman.  The 
"  Believers  "  settled  at  Neuskenna,  now  called  Watervliet, 
and  were  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath,  for 
which  reason  they  were  suspected  of  being  unfavourable 
to  the  cause  of  the  Revolution.  On  being  released  they 
preached  their  creed  and  gradually  gained  converts.  Ann 
Lee  died  at  Watervliet  8th  September  1780.  She  was 
succeeded  by  James  Whittaker,  who  died  in  1788,  when 
Joseph  Meacham  succeeded  to  the  leadership  and  organized 
the  society  on  that  communistic  basis  which  now  distin- 
guishes it.  In  the  early  history  of  the  Shakers  various 
charges  were  brought  against  them,  including  flagellation 
»nd  naked  dancing,  but  they  have  outlived  these  scandals 
and  are  now  generally  respected.  There  is  an  interesting 
sketch  of  a  Shaker  community  in  Howell's  Undiscovered 
Country.  They  all  work  ;  they  are  capital  agriculturists  ; 
they  have  a  widespread  reputation  for  thoroughness,  fru- 
gality, and  temperance.  They 'believe  in  the  reality  of 
constant  intercourse  with  the  world  of  spirits.  There  are 
"  poems  "  by  Mother  Ann  which  it  is  claimed  have  been 
dictated  by  her  from  the  spirit  world.     They  claim  from 


time  to  time  the  exercise  of  the  gift  of  tongues  and  tha 
gift  of  healing.  The  theological  ideas  of  the  Shakers  are 
set  forth  in  the  Testimony/  of  Christ's  Second  Appealing 
exemplified  by  the  Principle  and  Practice  of  the  True  Church 
of  Christ,  of  which  a  fourth  edition,  printed  in  185,6,  was 
extensively  circulated,"  A  compacter  statement  is  that  in 
F.  W.  Evans's  Shakers'  CdnipendiAim,  which  was  printed 
at  New  Lebanon  in  1859.  Elder  Evans,  who  is  the  best- 
known  representative  of  Shakerism,  is  of  English  birth, 
and  has  published  an  autobiography.  In  1870  there  were 
eighteen  distinct  Shaker  communities,  with  eighteen  church 
buildings  capable  of  seating  8850  persons,  and  possessing 
property  valued  at  $86,900.  These  socialist  villages  are  ia 
Connecticut,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Ohio. 

The  best  known  of  the  settlements  is  that  at  New  Lebanon,  where 
tliere  are  three  separate  societies  in  view  of  each  other.  The  North 
Family,  the  Church  Family,  and  the  Second  Family  are  distinct 
(groups,  whose  members  live  together  and  have  a  common  right  to 
land,  house,  hats,  tools,  books,  and  all  that  there  is.  The.  only 
form  of  government  is  that  supplied  by  the  public  opinion  of  tha 
community,  as  expressed  in  its  social  meetings  for  mutual  con- 
fession, counsel,  and  criticism.  Jlr  Hcpworth  Dixon's  New  America 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  their  communistic  methods.' 

Theie  Is  an  extensive  literature  respectinj;  tlie  Shakers ;  a  bibllOb'rapJiy  la 
appended  to  W.  E.  A.  .^on's  Biographical  notice  of  Ann  Lee,  Liverpool.  1876. 


SHAKESPEARE 


TTTILLIAMSHAKESPEAIIE{15G4-1616),  the  national 
V  Y  poet  of  England,  the  greatest  dramatist  that  modern 
Europe  has  produced,  was  born  in  April,  in  the  year  1564, 
at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  in  the  county  of  Warwick.  The 
known  facts  of  the  poet's  personal  history  are  compara- 
tively few,  and  before  giving  them  in  order  we  purpose 
considering  in  some  detail  the  larger  educational  influences 
which  helped  to  stimulate  his  latent  powers,  to  evoke  and 
strengthen  his  poetical  and  patriotic  sympathies,  and  thus 
prepare  and  qualify  him  for  his  future  work.  In  dealing 
■with  these  influences  we  are  on  Arm  and  fruitful  ground. 
We  know,  for  example,  that  Shakespeare  was  born  and  lived 
for  twenty  years  at  Stratford-upon-Avon ;  and  we  can  say 
therefore  with  certainty  that  all  the  physical  and  moral 
influences  of  that  picturesque  and  richly-storied  Jlidland 
district  melted  as  years  went  by  into  the  full  current  of 
his  ardent  blood,  became  indeed  the  vital  element,  the 
Tery  breath  of  life  his  expanding  spirit  breathed.  We 
know  a  good  deal  about  his  home,  his  parents,  and  his 
domestic  surroundings ;  and  these  powerful  factors  in  the 
development  of  any  mind  gifted  with  insight  and  sensibility 
must  have  acted  with  redoubled  force  on  a  nature  so  richly 
and  harmoniously  endowed  as  that  of  the  Stratford  poet. 
It  would  be  difficult  indeed- to  overestimate  the  combined 
effect  of  these  vital  elements  on  his  capacious  and  retentive 
mind,  a  mind  in  which  the  receptive  and  creative  powers 
■were  so  equally  poised  and  of  such  unrivalled  strength. 
This  review  of  the  larger  influences  operating  with  con- 
centrated force  during  the  critical  years  of  youth  and  early 
manhood  will  help  to  connect  and  interpret  the  few  and 
scattered  particulars  of  Shakespeare's  personal  history. 
These  particulars  mu.st  indeed  be  to  some  extent  connected 
and  interpreted  in  order  to  be  clearly  understood,  and  any 
intelligible  account  of  Shakespeare's  Hfe  must  therefore 
take  the  shape  of  a  biographical  essay,  rather  than  of  a 
biography  proper.  We  may  add  that  the  sketch  will  be 
confined  to  the  points  connected  ■with  Shakespeare's  local 
surroundings  and  personal  history.  The  largo  literary 
questions  connected  •n-ith  his  works,  such  as  the  classifica- 
tion, the  chronology,  and  analysis  of  the  plays,  could  not  of 
course  be  adequately  dealt  with  in  such  a  sketcL     It  is 


the  less  necessary  that  this  wider  tasK  should  De  attempted 
as  the  main  points  it  embraces  have  recently  been  well 
handled  by  competent  Shakespearian  scholars.  The  best 
and  most  convenient  manuals  embodying  the  results  of 
recent  criticism  and  research  will  be  referred  to  at  the 
close  of  the  article.  Meanwhile  we  have  first  to  look  at 
the  locality  of  Shakespeare's  birth,  both  in  its  material  and 
moral  aspects. 

Warwickshire  was  known  to  Shakespeare's  contem-  'War- 
poraries  as  the  central  county  or  heart  of  England.  It  ■w'ck- 
•was  the  middle  shire  of  the  Midlands,  where  the  two  great  "^ 
Roman  roads  crossing  the  island  from  east  to  west  and 
west  to  east  met, — forming  at  their  point  of  junction  the 
centre  of  an  irregular  St  Andrew's  cross,  of  which  the  arms 
extended  from  Dover  to  Chester  on  the  one  side  and  from 
Totnes  to  Lincoln  and  the  north  on  the  other.  The  centra 
in  which  these  roads — Watling  Street  and  the  Fosse  Way 
— thus  met  was  early  known  from  this  circumstance  as  tha 
High  Cross.  Being  the  most  important  Midland  position 
during  the  Roman  occupation  of  the  country,  several 
Roman  stations  were  formed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this 
venerable  Quatre  Bras.  Of  these  Camden  specifies  the 
ancient  and  flourishing  city  of  Clychester,  represented  in 
part  by  the  modern  Clybrook,  and  Manduessidum,  the 
memory  of  which  is  probably  retained  in  the  modern  Man- 
cettar.  Important  Roman  remains  have  also  been  found 
within  a  few  miles  of  Stratford,  at  Alcester,  a  central 
station  on  the  third  great  Roman  road,  Ricknild  Street, 
which  runs  from  south  to  north  across  the  ■western  side  of 
the  county.  In  later  times,  when  means  of  communication 
were  multiplied,  the   great  roads  to  the  north-west  still 

^  There  is  considerable  similarity  betv.-cen  the  .\merican  disciples  of 
Ann  Leo  and  the  English  Shakers  of  the  New  Forest,  who  came  into 
public  fiotice  in  1S74.  One  of  their  members  had  bought  31  acres  of 
land,  which  they  cultivated  under  the  direction  of  "  Jlothcr"  Marj'  Ann 
Girling,  who  w.a3  at  once  their  foundress  and  prophetess.  As  the  result 
of  some  litigation  the  Shakers  "were  ejected  in  1874,  and,  after  having 
shelter  for  a  time  on  a  farm  belonging  to  the  Hon.  Auberon  Herbert, 
they  then  became  a  tent  community.  Charges  were  made  against  them 
■  of  naked  dancing  in  the  course  of  their  religious  ecstasies.  They 
believe  in  the  second  advent,  regard  Mrs  Girling  as  the  woman  Messiah^ 
havo  all  property  in  common,  and  preach  the  doctrine  of  celibacy. 

XXI.  —  oj 


738 


SHAKESPEARE 


passed  through  the  county,  and  one  of  them,  the  mail 
road  from  London  through  Oxford  to  Eirniingham,  Stafford, 
and-Chester,  was  the  "strecto"  or  public  way  that  crossed 
the  Avon  at  the  celebrated  ford  spanned  in  1483  by  Sir 
Hugh  Clopton'S  magnificent  bridge  of  fourteen  arches. 
Immediately  beyond  the  bridge  rose  the  homely  gables  and 
wide  thoroughfares  of  Shakespeare's  native  place. 
rha  In  Shakespeare's  time  Warwickshire  was  divided  by  the 

Arden  irregular  line  of  the  Avon  into  two  unequal  but  well-marked 
Oivision.  ^yjsJQQg^  known  respectively,  from  their  main  character- 
istics, as  the  woodland  and  the  open  country,  or  more 
technically  as  the  districts  of  Arden  and  Feldon.  The 
former  included  the  thickly- wooded  region  north  of  the 
Avon,  of  which  the  celebrated  forest  of  Arden  was  the 
centre,  and  the  latter  the  champaign  country,  the  rich  and 
fertile  pasture-lands  between  the  Avon  and  the  line  of  hills 
separating  Warwick  from  the  shires  of  Oxford  and  North- 
ampton. Shakespeare  himself  was  of  course  familiar  with 
this  division  of  his  native  shire,  and  he  has  well  expressed 
it  in  Lear's  description  of  the  section  of  the  kingdom 
assigned  to  his  eldest  daughter  Goneril, — 

"Of  all  these  bounds, — even  from  this  line  to  this, 
"With  shadowy  forests  and  with  charapains  rich'd. 
With  plenteous  rivers  and  wide-skirted  meads, — 
"We  make  thee  lady." 

No  better  general  description  of  Warwickshire  could 
indeed  be  given  than  is  contained  in  these  lines.  Taking 
the  Koman  roads,  Watling  and  Ricknild  Streets,  as 
boundaries,  they  vividly  depict  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  county,  including  its  plenteous  rivers  and  wide- 
skirted  meads.  The  old  and  central  division  of  Arden 
and  Feldon  is  clearly  embodied  in  the  second  line, 
"  with  shadowy  forests  and  with  "champains  rich'd." 
This  distinction,  practically  effaced  in  modern  times  by 
agricultural  and  mining  progress,  was  partially  affected  by 
these  causes  even  in  Shakespeare's  own  day.  The  wide 
Arden,  or  belt  of  forest  territory  which  had  once  extended 
not  only  across  the  county  but  from  the  Trent  to  the 
Severn,  was  then  very  much  restricted  to  the  centre  of  the 
shire,  the  line  of  low  hills  and  undulating  country  which 
stretched  away  for  upwards  of  twenty  miles  to  the  north 
of  Stratford.  The  whole  of  the  northern  district  was,  it  is 
true,  still  densely  wooded,  but  the  intervening  patches  of 
arable-  and  pasture  land  gradually  encroached  more  and 
more  upon  the  bracken  and  brushwood,  and  every  year 
larger  areas  were  cleared  and  prepared  for  tillage  by  the 
axe  and  the  plough.  In  the  second  half  of  the  16th 
century,  however,  the  Arden  district  still  retained  enough 
of  its  primitive  character  to  fill  the  poet's  imagination  with 
the  exhilarating  breadth  and  sweetness  of  woodland  haunts, 
the  beauty,  variety,  and  freedom  of  sylvan  life,  and  thus  to 
impart  to  the  scenery  of  As  You  Like  It  the  vivid  fresh- 
ness and  reality  of  a  living  experience.  In  this  delightful 
comedy  the  details  of  forest-life  are  touched  with  so  light 
but  at  the  same  time  bo  sure  a  hatid  as  to  prove  the 
writer's  familiarity  with  the  whole  art  of  venery,  his 
thorough  knowledge  of  that  "highest  franchise  of  noble 
and  princely  pleasure  "  which  the  royal  demesnes  of  wood 
and  park  afforded.  In  referring  to  the  marches  or  wide 
margins  on  ihe  outskirts  of  the  forest,  legally  known  as 
purlieus,  Shakespeare  indeed  displays  a  minute  technical 
accuracy  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  in  his  early 
rambles  about  the  forest  and  casual  talks  with  its  keepers 
and  woodmen  he  had  picked  up  the  legal  incidents  of 
sylvan  economy,  as  well  as  enjoyed  the  freedom  and  charm 
of  forest-life.  Throughout  the  purlieus,  for  instance,  the 
forest  laws  were  only  partially  in  force,  while  the  more 
important  rights  of  individual  owners  were  fully  recognized 
and  established.  Hence  it  happened  that  Coriu's  master, 
dwelling,  as  Kosalind  puts  it  in  a  quaint  but  characteristic 


simile  that  betrays  her  sex,  "here  in  tho  skirts  of  the 
forest,  like  fringe  upon  a  petticoat,"  could  sell  "  his  cote,  his 
flock,  and  bounds  of  feed,"  and  that  Ceiia  and  Rosalind 
were  able  to  purchase  "  the  cottage,  the  pasture,  and  the 
flock."  It  may  be  noted,  too,  that,  in  exchange  for  the 
independence  the  dwellers  in  the  purlieus  acquired  as 
private  owners,  they  had  to  relinquish  their  common 
right  or  customary  privilege  of  pasturing  their  cattle  in  the 
forest.  Sheep,  indeed,  were  not  usually  included  in  this 
right  of  common,  their  presence  in  the  forest  being  regarded 
as  inimical  to  the  deer.  When  kept  in  the  purlieus,  there- 
fore, they  had  to  be  strictly  limited  to<their  bounds  of  feed, 
shepherded  during  the  day  and  carefully  folded  every 
night,  and  these  points  are  faithfully  reflected  by  Shake- 
speare. Again,  only  those  specially  privileged  could  hunt 
venison  within  the  forest.  But  if  the  deer  strayed  beyond 
the  forest  bounds  they  could  be  freely  followed  by  the 
dwellers  in  the  purlieus,  and  these  happy  hunting  grounds 
outside  the  forest  precincts  were  in  many  cases  spacious  and 
Extensive.  The  special  office  of  a  forest  ranger  was 
indeed  to  drive  back  the  deer  straying  in  the  purlieus.  The 
banished  duke  evidently  has  this  in  mind  when,  as  a 
casual  denizen  of  the  forest,  he  proposes  to  make  war  iJi 
its  native  citizens  : — 

"Come,  shall  we  go  and  kill  us  venison  ? 
And  yet  it  irks  me,  the  poor  dappled  fools, 
Beinff  native  burghers  of  this  desert  city, 
Should,  in  their  own  confines,  with  forked  heads. 
Have  their  round  haunches  gor'd." 

And  the  melancholy  Jaques,  refining  as  usual  with  cynical 
sentimentaJism  on  every  way  of  Ufe  and  every  kind  of 
action,  thinks  it  would  be  a  special  outrage 

"  To  fright  the  animals,  and  to  kill  them  up, 
In  their  assign'd  and  native  dwelling  place." 

Not  only  in  .4s  You  Like  It,  but  in  Love's  Labour 's  Lost, 
in  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  in  the  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  and  indeed  throughout  his  dramatic  works, 
Shakespeare  displays  the  most  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
aspects  and  incidents  of  forest  life  ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
in  the  first  instance  this  knowledge  must  have  been  gained 
from  his  early  familiarity  with  the  Arden  district.  This, 
as  we  have  seen,  stretched  to  the  north  of  Stratford  in  all 
its  amplitude  and  variety  of  hill  and  dale,  leafy  covert  and 
sunny  glade,  giant  oaks  and  tangled  thickets, — the  wood- 
land stillness  being  broken  at  intervals  not  only  by  the 
noise  of  brawling  brooks  below  and  of  feathered  outcries 
and  fiutterings  overhead,  but  by  dappled  herds  sweeping 
across  the  open  lawns  or  twinkling  in  the  shadowy  bracken, 
as  well  as  by  scattered  groups  of  timid  conies  feeding,  at 
matins  and  vespers,  on  the  tender  shoots  and  sweet 
herbage  of  the  forest  side.  The  deer-stealing  tradition  is 
sufficient  evidence  of  the  popular  belief  in  the  poet's  love 
of  daring  exploits  in  the  regions  of  vert  and  venison, 
and  of  his  devotion,  although  in  a  somewhat  irregulaf  way 
perhaps,  to  the  attractive  woodcraft  of  the  park,  the 
warren,  and  the  chase.  The  traditional  scene  of  this 
adventure  was  Charlecote  Park,  a  few  miles  north-east  of 
Stratford ;  but  the  poet's  early  wanderings  in  Arden 
extended,  no  doubt,  much  further  afield.  Stirred  by  the 
natural  desire  of  visiting  at  leisure  the  more  celebrated 
places  of  his  native  district,  he  would  pass  from  Stratford 
to  Henley  and  Hampton,  to  Wroxall  Priory  and  Kenilworth 
Castle,  to  Stoneleigh  Abbey  and  Leamington  Priors,  to 
Warwick  Keep  and  Guy's  ClifEe.  The  remarkable  beauty 
of  this  last  storied  spot  stirs  the  learned  and  tranquil  pens 
of  the  antiquaries  Camden  and  Dugdale  to  an  unwonted 
effort  of  description,  even  in  the  pre-descriptive  era. 
"  LTnder  this  hill,"  says  Camden,  "  hard  by  the  river  Avon, 
standeth  Guy-cli2e,  others  call  it  Gib-cIiiTe.  the  dwelling 
house  at  this  day  of  Sir  Thomas  Beau-foe,  descended  from 


SHAKE^JfEARE 


739 


the  ancient  Normans  line,  and  the  very  seate  itselfe  of 
pleasantnesse.  There  have  yee  a  shady  little  wood,  cleere 
and  cristaU'  springs,  mossy  bottomes  and  caves,  medovves 
alwaies  fresh  and  greene,  the  river  rumbling  here  and 
there  among  the  stones  with  his  stream  making  a  milde 
noise  and  gentle  whispering,  and  besides  all  this,  solitary 
and  still  quietnesse,  things  most  grateful  to  the  Mnses.'" 
But  the  whole  of  the  circuit  was  richly  wooded,  the 
towns,  as  the  names  indicate,  being  forest  towns, — Henley- 
in-Arden,  Hampton-in-Arden, — while  the  castles  and 
secularized  religious  houses  were  paled  off  within  their 
own  parks  and  bounds  from  the  sylvan  wilderness  around 
them.  Some,  like  the  celebrated  castle  of  the  Mountfords, 
called  from  its  pleasant  situation  amongst  the  woods 
Beaudesert,  having  been  dismantled  during  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  were  already  abandoned,  and  had  in  Shake- 
speare's day  relapsed  from  the  stately  revelry  that  once 
filled  their  halls  into  the  silence  of  the  surrounding  woods. 
At  every  point  of  the  journey,  indeed,  as  the  poet's  eager 
and  meditative  eye  embraced  new  vistas,  it  might  be  said, 
•■'Towers  and  battlements  it  sees- 
Bosomed  high  in  tufted  trees." 
On  the  southern  margin  of  the  Arden  division,  towards  the 
Avon,  small  farms  were  indeed  already  numerous,  and 
cultivation  had  become  tolerably  general.  But  the  region 
as  a  whole  still  retained  its  distinctive  character  as  the 
Arden  or  wooded  division  of  the  county.  Even  now, 
indeed,  it  includes  probably  more  woods  and  parks  than 
are  to  be  found  over  the  same  area  in  any  other  English 
shire. 
Wie  vVhile   parts  of  the  Arden   district  were  in   this  way 

reldon     under   cultivation,    it    must    not    be    supposed    that    the 
myision.  jijampaign  or  open  country  to  the  south  of  the  Avon,  the 
Feldon  division  of  the  county,  was  destitute  of  wood ;  on  the 
contrary  its  extensive  pastures  were  not  only  well  watered 
by   local    streams    overshadowed    by   willow   and   alder, 
but  well  wooded  at  intervals  by  groups  of  more  stately 
trees.     The    numerous    flocks    and    herds    that    grazed 
throughout  the  valley  of  the  Red  Horse  found  welcome 
shelter  from  the  noonday  heat  and  the  driving  wind  under 
the  green  roofs  and  leafy  screens  that  lined  and  dotted 
their    bounds  of  feed.     And,  although  even  the  grazing 
farms  were  comparatively  small,  almost  every  homestead 
had  its   group  of  protecting  elms,  its  outlying  patch  of 
hanging  beech   and  ash,  or  straggling  copse,  of  oak  and 
hazel.     This  is  still  reflected  in  such  local  names  as  Wood 
Park,  Shrub  Lands,  Ockley  Wood,  Furze  Hill,  Oakham, 
Ashborne,    A.lcott   Wood,   Berecote  Wood,    and    Radland 
Goree.     These  features  gave  interest  and  variety  to  the 
Feldon    district,    and  justified   the   characteristic   epithet 
which  for  centuries  was  popularly  applied  to  the  county  as 
a  whole,  that  of  "  woody  Warwickshire."  And  Shakespeare, 
in   passing  out    of  the  county  on  his    London  journeys, 
would  quickly  feel  the  difference,  as  beyond  its  borders  he 
came  upon  stretches  of  less  clothed  and  cultivated  scenery. 
As  his  stout  gelding  mounted  Edgehill,  and  he  turned  in 
the  saddle  to  take  a.  parting  look  at  the  familiar  landscape 
he    was   leaving,    ho   would    behold   what    Speed,  in  his 
enthusiasm,    calls  "another  Eden,    as   Lot    the  plain   of 
Jordan."     While  the  general  aspect  would  be  that  of  green 
pastures  and  grassy  levels,  there  would  be  at  the  same  time 
the  picturesque  intermingling  of  wood  and  water,  of  mill 
and  grange  and  manor  house,  which  gives  light  and  shade, 
colour  and  movement,  interest  and  animation,  to  the  plainer 
sweeps  and, more  monotonous  objects  of  [lastoral  scenery. 
History.        On    the     historical    side    Warwickshire    has    points    of 
interest  as  striking  and  distinctive  as  its  physical  features. 
During  the  Roman  occupation  of  the  country  it  was,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  site  of  several  central  Roman  stations,  of 
which,  besides  those  already  noticed,  the  fortified  camps  of 


Tripontium  and  PrEesidium  on  the  line  of  the  Avon  were 
the  most  important.     A  Roman  road  crossed  the  Avon  at 
Stratford,  and  radiating  north   and  south   soon   reached 
some  of  the  larger   Romau  towns   of  the  west,  such   as 
Uriconium   and   C'orinium.     Between    these   towns  wera 
country  villas  or  mansions,  many  of  them  being,  like  that 
at  Woodchester,   "magnificent  palaces  covering  as  much 
ground  as  a  whole  town."     The  entire  district    must  in 
this   w-ay  have  been   powerfully   affected    by  the  higher 
forms    of   social  life  and    material   splendour   which  the 
wealthier    provincials   had   introduced.       The   immediate 
effect  of  this  Roman  influence  on  the  native  populations 
was,  as  we  know,  to    divide  them  into  opposed    groups 
whose  conflicts  helped  directly  to  produce  the  disastrous 
results  which  followed  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans  from 
the  island.     But  the  more  permanent  and  more  important 
effect  is  probably  to  be  traced  in  the  far  less  obstinate 
resistance  offered  by  the  Celtic  tribes  of  Mid  Britain  to 
the   invading   Angles  from   the  north    and  Saxons  from 
the  south,  by  whom  themselves   and  their  district  were 
eventually  absorbed.     Instead  of  the  fierce  conflicts  and 
wrathful    withdrawal  or  extermination  of    the  conquered 
Britons    which  prevailed    further    east,    and    for   a   time 
perhaps  further  west  also,  the  intervening  tribes  appear  to 
have  accepted  the  overlordship  of  their  Teutonic  neighbours 
and  united  with  them  in  the  cultivation  and  defence  of  their 
common  territory.     The  fact  thp.t  no  record  of  any  early  Early 
Angle  conquest  remains  seems   to  indicate  that,  after  at  union  of 
most  a  brief  resistance,  there  was  a  gradual  coalescence  of  •-'^"■'° 
the  invading  with  the  native  tribes  rather  than  any  fierce  Teutonic 
or  memorable  struggle    between   them.      Even    the    more  races, 
independent  and  warlike  tribes  about  the  Severn  repeatedly 
joined  the  Saxon  Hwiccas,  whose  northern  frontier  was  the 
forest  of  Arden,  in  resisting  the  advance  of  Wessex  from 
the  south.     And  for  rflftro  than  a  hundred  years  after  the 
establishment  of  the  central  kingdom  of  the  Angles,  the 
neighbouring  Welsh  princes  are  found  acting  in  friendly 
alliance  with,  the  Mercian  rulers.     It  was  thus  the  very 
district  where  from  an  early  period  the  two  race  elements 
that  have  gone  to  the  making  of  the  nation  were  most 
nearly  balanced  and  most  completely  blended.     The  union 
of  a  strong  Celtic  element  with  the  dominant  Angles  is  still 
reflected  in  the  local  nomenclature,  sot  only  in  the  names 
of  the  chief  natural  features,  such  as  rivers  and  heights, 
— Arden  and  Avon,   Lickey,  Alne,   and  Thame, — but  in 
the  numerous  coinhes  and  cotes  or  cots,  as  in  the  reduplica- 
tive Cotswold,  in  the  duns,  dons,  and  dens,  and  in  such 
distinctively  Celtic  elements  as  man,  pot,  try,  in  names 
of  places  scattered  through  the  district.     The  cotes  are,  it 
is  true,  ambiguous,  being  in  a  majority  of  cases  perhapa 
Saxon  rather  than  Celtic,  but  in  a  forest  country  near  tlia 
old  Welsh  marches  many  must  still  ref  resent  the  Celtic 
coet  or  cold,  and  in  some  cases  this  is  clear  from  the  word 
itself,  as  in  Kingscot,  a  variation  of  Kingswood,  and  even 
Charlecote  exists  in  the  alternative  form  of  Charlewood. 
This  union  of  the  two  races,  combined  with   the  stirring 
conditions  of  life  in  a  wild  and  picturesque  border  country, 
gave  a  vigorous  impulse  and  distinctive  character  to  the 
population,  the  influence  of  which  may  be  clearly  traced  in 
the  subsequent  literary  as  well  as  in  the  political  history 
of  the  country.     As  early  as  the  9th  century,  when  the 
ravages  of  the  Danes  had  desolated  the  homes  and  scattered 
the  representatives  of  learning  in  Wes.'ox,  it  was  to  western 
Mercia  that  King  Alfred  .sent  for  scholars  and  churchmen 
to  unite  with  him  in  helping  to  restore  the  fallen  fortunes 
of  religion  and   letters.     And  after  the  long  blank  in  tho 
native  literature  produced  by  the  Norman  Conquest  the 
authentic  signs  of  its  indestructible  vitality  first  appeared 
otj  the  banks  of  the  Severn.     Layamon's  spirited  pocin 
dealing  with  the  legendary  history  of  BriJ^iin,  and  written 


740 


SHAKESPEARE 


at  Redstone  near  Arley,  within  sight  of  the  river's  majestic 
Bwcep  amidst  its  bordering  woods  and  hills,  is  by  far  the 
most  important  literary  monument  of  semi-Saxon.  And, 
while  the  poem  as  a  whole  displays  a  Saxon  tenacity  of 
purpose  in  working  out  a  comprehensive  scheme  of 
memorial  verse,  its  more  original  parts  have  touches  of 
passion  and  picturesqueness,  as  well  as  of  dramatic 
vivacity,  that  recall  the  patriotic  fire  of  the  Celtic  bards. 
A  hundred  and  fifty  years  later  the  first  great  period  of 
English  literature  was  inaugurated  by  another  poem  of 
marked  originality  and  power,  written  under  the  shadow 
of  the  Malvern  Hills.  The  writer  of  the  striking  series  of 
allegories  known  as  Piei^s  Ploivman^s  Visions  was  a  Shrop- 
shire man,  and,  notwithstanding  his  occasional  visits  to 
London  and  official  employments  there,  appears  to  have 
spent  his  best  and  most  productive  years  on  the  western 
border  between  the  Severn  and  the  Malvern  Hilk.  In 
many  points  both  of  substance  and  form  the  poem  may, 
it  is  true,  be  described  as  almost  typically  Saxon.  But  it 
has  at  the  same  time  a  power  of  vivid  portraiture,  a  sense 
of  colour,  with  an  intense  and  penetrating  if  not  exag- 
gerated feeling  for  local  grievances  which  are  probably 
due  to  the  strain  of  Celtic  blood  in  the  writer's  veins. 
Two  centuries  later,  from  the  same  district,  from  a  small 
town  on  an  aSluent  of  the  Severn,  a  few  miles  to  the  west 
of  the  river,  came  the  national  poet,  who  not  only  inherited 
the  patriotic  fire  and  keen  sensibility  of  Layamo^  and 
Langland,  but  who  combined  in  the  most  perfect  form  and 
carried  to  the  highest  point  of  development  the  best 
qualities  of  the  two  great  races  represented  in  the  blood 
and  history  of  the  English  nation.  Mr  J.  R.  Green,  in 
referring  to  the  moral  effects  arising  from  the  mixture  of 
races  in  the  Midland  district,  has  noted  this  fact  in  one 
of  those  sagacious  side-glances  that  make  his  history  so 
instructive.  *'  It  is  not  without  significance,"  he  says, 
"  that  the  highest  type  of  the  race,  the  one  Englishman  who 
has  combined  in  their  largest  measure  the  mobility  and 
fancy  of  the  Celt  with  the  depth  and  energy  of  the  Teutonic 
temper,  was  born  on  the  old  "Welsh  and  English  borderland, 
in  the  forest  of  Arden."  And  from  the  purely  critical 
side  Mr  Matthew  Arnold  has  clearly  brought  out  the  same 
point  He  traces  some  of  the  finest  qualities  of  Shake- 
speare's poetry  to  the  Celtic  spirit  which  touched  his 
imagination  as  with  an  enchanter's  wand,  and  thus  helped 
to  brighten  and  enrich  the  profounder  elements  of  his 
creative  genius. 

The  history  of  "Warwickshire  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  is  identified 
with  the'kingdom  of  llercia,  which,  under  a  series  of  able  rulers, 
was  for  a  time  the  dominant  power  of  the  country.  In  later  times, 
from  its  central  position,  the  county  was  liable  to  be  crossed  by 
military  forces  if  rebellion  made  head  iu  the  north  or  west,  as  well 
as  to  be  traversed  and  occupied  by  the  rival  armies  during  the 
"Wara  periods  of  civil  war.  The  most  important  events,  indeed,  con- 
ofthe  nected  with  the  shire  before  Shakespeare's  t:rae  occurred  during 
Jloaes.  the  two  greatest  civil  conflicts  iu  the  earlier  national  annals — 
the  Barons'  "War  in  the  13th  century,  and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  in 
the  15th.  The  decisive  battles  that  closed  these  long  and  bitter 
struggles,  and  thus  became  turning  points  in  our  constitutional 
history,  were  both  fought  on  the  borders  of  Warwickshire, — the 
battle  of  Evesham  on  the. south- western  and  the  battle  ofBosworth 
Field  on  the  north-eastern  boundary.  The  great  leaders  in  each 
conflict — the  founder  of  the  Commons  House  of  Parliament  and  the 
,  "  setter  up  and  puller  down  of  kings" — were  directly  connected  with 
"Warwickshire.  Kcnilworth  belonged  to  Simon  de  Montfort,  and 
its  siege  and  surrender  constituted  the  last  act  in  the  Barons'  War. 
During  the  Wars  of  the  Koses  the  county  was  naturally  promi- 
nent in  public  affairs,  as  its  local  earl,  the  last  and  gi'catest  of 
the  lawless,  prodigal,  and  ambitious  barons  of  mediieval  times,  was 
for  more  than  twenty  years  the  leading  figure  in  the  struggle. 
But  notwithstanding  this  powerful  influence  the  county  was,  like 
the  country  itself,  v6ry  much  divided  in  its  political  sympathies 
and  activities.  The  weakness  and  vacillation  of  Henry  VI.  had 
stimulated  the  rival  house  of  Vork  to  assert  its  claims,  and,  as  the 
trading  and  mercantile  classes  were  always  in  favour  of  a  strong 
government,  London,  with  the  eastern  counties  and  the  chief  ports 
end  commercial  towns,  favoured  the  house  of  York.     On  ihe  other 


hand,  South  "Wales,  some  of  the  Midland  and  most  of  the  western 
shires,  under  the  leadership  of  the  Beauforts,  and  the  northern 
counties,  under  the  leadership  of  Clifford  and  Northumberland, 
supported  the  house  of  Lancaster.  Political  feeling  in  the  Princi-. 
pality  itself  was  a  good  deal  divided.  The  duke  of  York  still 
possessed  Ludlow  Castle,  and,  the  Welsh  of  the  northern  border 
being  devoted  to  the  houses  of  March  and  Mortimer,  Princo 
Edward,  the  young  earl  of  March,  after  the  defeat  and  death  of  his 
father  at  Wakefield,  was  able  to  rally  on  the  border  a  '"  mighty 
power  of  marchmen,"  and,  after  uniting  his  forces  with  those  of 
Warwick,  to  secure  the  decisive  victory  of  Towton  which  placed 
him  securely  on  the  throne.  Still,  during  the  earlier  stages  of  tho 
struggle  the  Beauforts,  with  the  earls  of  Pembroke,  Devon,  and 
Wiltshire,  were  able  to  muster  in  the  south  and  west  forces  sufficient 
to  keep  the  Yorkists  iu  check.  And  when  the  final  struggle  camo, 
—when  Henry  of  Richmond  landed  at  Milford  Haven, — the  AVelsu 
blood  in  his  veins  rallied  to  his  standard  so  powerful  a  contingent 
of  the  southern  marchmen  that  he  was  able  at  once  to  cross  the 
Severn,  and,  traversing  north  Warwickshire,  to  confront  the  forces 
of  Richard,  with  the  assurance  that  in  the  hour  of  need  he  would 
be  supported  by  Stanley  and  Northumberland,  Wanvickshire  itself 
was,  as  already  intimated,  considerably  divided  even  in  the  more 
active  stages  of  the  conlUct,  Coventry  being  strongly  in  favour  of 
the  Red  Rose,  while  Warwick,  under  the  influence  of  the  earl,  was 
for  a  while  devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  White  Rose.  Kenilworth 
was  still  held  by  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  Henry  VI.  at  the 
outset  of  the  conflict  had  more  than  once  taken  refuge  there.  Ob 
the  other  hand  Edward  IV.  and  Richard  III.  both  "visited  Warwick, 
the  latter  being  so  interested  in  the  castle  that  he  is  said  to  havo 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  and  "mighty  fa^Te"  tower  on  the 
north  side,  afterwards  known  as  the  Bears  Tower.  Edward  IV.,  in 
harmony  with  his  strong  instinct  for  popularity,  and  command  of 
the  arts  that  secure  it,  tried  to  conciliate  the  people  of  Coventry  by 
visiting  the  town  and  witnessing  its  celebrated  pageants  mo];e  than 
once — at  Christmas  iu  1465  and  at  the  festival  of  St  George  in 
1474.  Although  ho  was  accompanied  by  his  queen  the  efforts  to 
win  the  town  from  its  attachment  to  the  rival  house  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  very  successful.  Under  Edward's  rule  the  manifesta- 
tion of  active  partisanship  was  naturally  in  abeyance,  and  no  doubt 
the  feeling  may  to  some  extent  have  declined.  Indeed,  in  the  later 
atages  of  the  struggle  Warwickshire,  like,  so  many  other  counties, 
was  comparatively  weary  and  quiescent.  When  Richard  III, 
advanced  to  the  north  the  sheriff  of  the  shire  had,  it  is  true,  ia 
obedience  to  the  royal  mandate  levied  a  force  on  behalf  of  the  king, 
but  as  this  force  never  actually  joined  the  royal  standard  it  i3 
naturally  assumed  tKat  it  was  either  intercepted  by  Henry  on  his 
march  to  Bosworth  Field  or  had  voluntarily  joined  him  on  che  eve 
of  the  battle.  In  view  of  the  strong  Lancasterian  sympathies  in 
the  north  and  east  of  the  shire  the  latter  is  by  far  the  more 
probable  supposition.  In  this  case,  or  indeed  on  either  alternatlvo, 
it  may  be  true,  as  asserted  in  the  patent  of  arms  subsequently 
.granted  to  Shakespeare's  father,  that  his  ancestors  had  fought  on 
behalf  of  Henry  VII.  in  the  great  battle  that  placed  the  crown  on 
his  head.  Many  families  bearing  the  name  of  Shakespeare  were 
scattered  through  "Warwickshire  in  the  15th  century,  and  it  is 
therefore  not  at  all  unlikely  that  some  of  their  members  had 
wielded  a  spear  with  effect  in  the  battle  that,  to  the  immense 
rchef  of  the  country,  happily  closed  the  most  miserable  civil 
conflict  in  its  annals. 

But,  whether  any  of  his  ancestors  fought  at  Bosworth  Field  Influency 
or  not,  Shakespeare  would  be  sure  in  his  youth  to  hear,  almost  of  looa^ 
at  first  hand,  a  multitude  of  exciting  stories  and  stirring  inci-  tradi- 
dents  connected  with  so  memorable  and  far-reaching  a  victory,  tions. 
After  the  battle  Henry  VII.  had.  slept  at  Coventiy,  and  was 
entertained  by  the  citizens  and  presented  with  handsome  gifts. 
He  seems  there  also  to  have  fii-st  exercised  his  royal  power  by  con- 
ferring knighthood  on  the  mayor  of  the  town.  The  battle  was 
fdught  only  eighty  years  before  Sh^espeace's  birth,  and  public 
events  of  importance  are  vividly  transmitted  by  local  tradition  for 
more  than  double  that  length  of  time.  At  this  hour  the  quiet 
farmsteads  of  Mid  Somerset  abound  with  stories  and  traditions  of 
Monmouth  and  his  soldiers,  and  of  the  events  that  preceded  and 
foUowed  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor.  And  a  century  ea/lier  local 
traditions  possessed  still  more  vitality  and  p'^wer.  In  the  16th 
century,  indeed,  the  great  events  of  the  nation's  life,  as  well  as 
more  important  local  incidents,  were  popularly  preserved  Und 
transmitted  by  means  of  oral  tradition  and  scenic  display.  Only 
a  small  and  cultured  class  could  acquire  their  knowledge  of  them 
through  literary  chronicles  and  learned  records.  The  popular 
mind  was  of  necessity  largely  fed  and  stimuhted  by  the  spoken 
nan-atives  of  the  rustic  festival  and  the  winter  fireside.  And  a 
quiet  settled  neighbourhood  like  Stratford,  out  of  tho  crush,  but 
near  the  great  centres  of  national  activity,  would  be  peculiarly  rich 
in  these  stored-up  materials  of  unwritten  history.  The  very  fact 
that  within  eight  miles  of  Shakespeare's  birthplace  arose  from 
their  cedared  slopes  the  halls  and  towers  of  the  great  earl  who 
for   more   than  a   quarter  of  a  century  wielded  a  political  and 


SHAKESPEARE 


741 


military  power  mightier  than  any  sul^'ect  had  wielded  before 
would  give  the  district  an  exceptional  prominence  in  the  national 
annals,  which  would  be  locally  reflected  in  an  answering  wealth  of 
historic  tradition.  In  Shakespeare's  day  AVarwicksliire  thus  sup- 
plied (the  materials  of  a  liberal  elementary  training  in  the  heroic 
annals  of  the  past,  and  especially  in  the  great  events  of  tl.e  recent 
past  that  had  established  the  Tudors  on  the  throne,  consolidated 
the  permanent  interests  of  the  Government  and  the  country,  and 
helped  directly  to  promote  the  growing  unity  and  strength,  pro- 
sperity and  renown,  of  the  kingdom.  The  special  ^  value  of 
Shakespeare's  dramatic  interpretation  of  this  period,  arising  from 
his  eaily  familiarity  with  the  rich  and  pregnant  materials  of 
unwritten  history,  has  recently  been  insisted  on  afresh  by  one  of 
«ur  most  careful  and  learned  authorities.  In  the  preface  to  his 
work  on  The  Souses  of  Lancaster  and  Toric,  Mr  James  Gairdner 
says: — "  For  this  period  of  English  history  we  are  fortunate  in  pos- 
sessing an  unrivalled  interpreter  in  our  great  dramatic  poet 
Shakespeare.  A  regular  eequence  of  historical  plays  exhibits  to  us, 
not  only  the  general  character  of  each  successive  reign,  but  nearly 
the  whole  chain  of  leading  events  from  the  days  of  Kichard  II. 
to  the  death  of  Richard  III.  at  Bosworth.  Following  the  guidance 
of  such  a  master  mind,  we  realise  for  ourselves  the  men  and  actions 
of  the  period  in  a  way  wo  cannot  do  in  any  other  epoch.  And 
this  is  the  more  important  as  the  age  itself,  especially  towards 
the  close,  is  one  of  the  most  obscure  in  English  history.  During 
the  period  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  we  have,  compamtivcly  speak- 
ing, very  few  contemporary  narratives  of  what  took  .place,  and 
anything  like  a  general  history  of  the  times  was  not  WTitten  till  a 
much  later  date.  But  the  doings  of  that  stormy  ago, — tha  sad 
calamities  endured  by  kings — the  sudden  changes  of  fortune  in 
great  men — the  glitter  of  chivalry  and  the  horrors  of  civil  war, — 
all  left  a  deep  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the  nation,  which  ivas 
kept  alive  by  vivid  traditions  of  the  past  at  the  time  that  our  great 
dramatist  wrote.  Hence,  notwithstanding  the  .'scantiness  of  records 
and  the  meagreness  of  ancient  chronicles,  we  have  singularly  little 
difficulty  in  understanding  the  spirit  and  character  of  the  times." 
Familiar  as  he  must  have  been  in  his  youth  with  the  materials 
that  enabled  him  to  interpret  so  stirring  a  period,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  even  amidst  the  quiet  hedgerows  and  meadows  of  Strat- 
ford Shakespeare's  pulse  shouhl  have  beat  high  with  })atriotic 
enthusiasm,  or  that  when  launched  on  his  new  career  in  the 
Hietropolis  he  should  have  sympathized  to  the  full  extent  on  his 
larger  powers  with  the  glow  of  loyul  feeling  that,  under  Elizabeth's 
rule,  and  especially  in  the  conflict  \rith  Spain,  thrilled  the  nation's 
heart  with  an  exulting  sense  of  full  political  life,  realized  national 
power,  and  gathering  European  fame. 

In  the  interval  that  elapsed  between  the  battle  of  Bosworth 
Field  and  the  birth  of  Shakespeare  Warwickshire  continued  to  be 
visited  by  the  reigning  monarch  and  members  of  the  royal  family. 
The  year  after  his  accession  to  the  crown  Henry  VIII.,  with  Queen 
Catherine,  visited  Coventry  in  state,  and  witnessed  there  a  scries 
of  magnificent  pageants.  In  1525  th^  Princess  Mary  spent  trfo 
Aays  at  the  priory,  being  entertained  with  the  usual  sports  and 
shows,  and  presented  by  the  citizens  on  her  departure  with  hand- 
some presents.  The  year  after  Shakespeare's  birth  Queen  Elizabeth 
Blade  a  state  visit  to  Coventry,  Kenilworth,  and  Warwick,  the 
young  queen  being  received  at  every  point  of  her  progress  with 
unusually  spltndid  demonstrations  of  loyalty  and  devotion.  And 
Bine  years  before  Shakespeare's  birth  King  Edward  VI.,  in  the  last 
(inonihs  of  his  reign,  had  specially  interested  himself  in  the  re- 
'establishment  by  royal  charter  of  the  free  grammar  school  of  the 
{^".lild  at  Stratford,  which  had  been  suppressed  at  the  dissolution 
pf  religious  houses  during  his  father's  reign, 
irori  The  town  of  Stratford  lies  on  tlio  north  bank  of  the 
Avon,  at  a  point  about  midway  in  its  course  from  its  ri.so 
in  Northamptonshire  hills  to  its  junction  with  the  Severn 
at  Tewkesbury.  On  entering  the  town,  across  Sir  Hugh 
Clopton'a  ■  noble  bridge,  the  road  from  tlio  south-east  fans 
out  in  three  main  directions,— on  the  riglit  to  Warwick  and 
Coventry,  on  the  left  to  Alcester,  while  between  runs  the 
central  street,  the  modern  representative  of  the  old  Roman 
way  to  Birmingham,  Chester,  and  the  north.  Further  to 
tht  left  a  fourth  and  less  important  road  leaves  the  town 
beyond  the  church,  and,  keeping  in  the  main  the  line  of 
the  river,  goes  to  Bidford,  Salford  Priors,  and  Eve.sham. 
It  is  a  picturesque  country  road  connecting  a  string  of 
undulating  village.?  and  hamlets  with  .Stratford.  The 
lown  itself  consisted  in  the  16th  century  of  the  low  gable- 
roofed  wood-and-plaster  houjes  dotted  at  intervals  along 
these  roads  and  down  the  cross  streets  that  connected 
them  with  each  other  and  with  the  river.  Most  of  the 
houses  in  Shakespeare's  time  had  gardens  at  the  bacV 


and  many  at  the  sides  also ;  and  the  space  between  the 
houses,  combined  with  the  unusual  width  of  the  streets, 
gave  the  town  an  open  cheerful  look  which  enabled  it  to 
retain  pleasant  touches  of  its  earlier  rural  state.  As  its 
prosperity  increased  the  scattered  dwellings  naturally 
tended  to  close  up  their  ranks,  and  present  a  more  united 
front  of  e.\posed  wares  and  convenient  hostolrios  to  the 
yeomen  and  graziers,  who  with  their  wives  and  families 
frequented  the  place  on  fair  and  market  days.  But  in 
Shakespeare's  time  the  irregular  line  of  gables  and  porches, 
of  penthouse  walls  and  garden  palings,  with  patches  of 
flowers  and  overarching  foliage  between,  still  varied  the 
view  and  refreshed  the  eye  in  looking  down  the  leading 
thoroughfares.  These  thoroughfares  took  the  shape  of  a 
central  cross,  of  which  Church,  Chapel,  and  High  Streets, 
running  in  a  continuous  line  north  and  south,  constituted 
the  shaft  or  stem,  while  Bridge  and  Wood  Streets,  running 
in  another  line  east  and  west,  were  the  transverse  beam 
or  bar.  At  the  point  of  intersection  stood  the  High  Cross, 
a  solid  stone  building  with  steps  below  and  open  arches 
above,  from  which  public  proclamations  were  made,  and, 
as  in  London  and  other  largo  towns,  sermons  sometimes 
delivered.  The  open  si^ace  around  the  High  Cross  was 
the  centre  of  trade  and  merchandise  on  market  days,  and 
from  the  force  of  custom  it  naturally  became  the  site  on 
which  at  a  later  period  the  market-house  was  built.  Oppo- 
site the  High  Cross  the  main  road,  carried  over  Sir  Hugh 
Clopton's  arches  and  along  Bridge  Street,  turns  to  the  left 
through  Henley  Street  on  its  way  to  Henley-in-Ardcn 
and  the  more  distant  northerly  towns.  At  the  western 
end  of  Wood  Street  was  a  large  and  open  space  called 
Bother  Market,  whence  Bother  Street  running  parallel 
with  High  Street  led  through  narrower  lanes  into  the 
Evesham  Road. 

This  open  ground  was,  as  the  name  indicates,  the  great  cattle  The 
market  of  Stratford,  one   of  the  most  important   features  of  its  Rother 
Industrial  history   from  very  early   times.     In   the   later  Middle  Market 
Ages  most  of  the  wealthier  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  farmin" 
operations,  and  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  ]ilace  resulted 
from  its  position  as  a  market  town  in  the  midst  of  an  agricultural 
and  grazing  district.     In  the  13th  century  a  number  of  charters 
were  obtained  from  the  early  Plantagenct  kings,  empowering  the 
town  to  hold  a  weekly  market  and  no  fewer  than  five  annual  fairs, 
four  of  which  were  mainly  for  cattle.     In  later  times  a  scries  of 
great  cattle  markets,   one  for  each  month  in  the  year,  was  added 
to  the  list.     Tlie  name  of  the  Stratford  cattle  market  embodies 
this  feature  of  its  history,  "rother"  being  a  good  Saxon  word  for 
horned  cattle,  a  word  freely  employed  in  £arly  English,  both  alone 
and  in  composition.     In  the  liJth  century  it  was  still  in  familiar 
use,  not  only  in  literature  but  in  official  documents  and  especirilly 
in  statutes  o"f  the  realm.     Thus  Cowell,  in  Ids  law  dictionary,  under 
the  heading  "Rother-beasts,"  explains  that  "the  name  compre- 
hends oxen,  cows,    steers,   heifers,   and  such  like  horned  beasts," 
and  refers  to  statutes  of  Elizabeth  and  James  in  sui.port  of  tho 
usage.     And  Arthur  Golding  in  1507  translates  Ovid's  lines — 
"  Mllle  prcgcs  t)]i  tolidcraquc  armenta  pci'  hcrbaa 
Errabant — " 

"  A  thousand  flocks  of  sheep, 
A  IhouSiinJ  holds  of  rothcr-bMits,  he  In  Ills  Holds  did  keep." 
The  word  seems  to  have  been  longer  retained  and  more  freely 
used  in  tho  Jlidland  counties  than  elsewhere,  and  Shakcspcaro 
himself  employs  it  with  colloquial  precision  in  the  restored  line  of 
Timon  of  Athens  :  "  It  is  the  pasture  lards  the  rother's  sides. 
Slany  a  time,  no  doubt,  as  a  boy,  during  tho  spring  and  summci 
fairs,  he  had  risen  with  the  sun,  arid,  making  Ids  way  from  Hcnlej 
Street  to  the  bridge,  watched  tho  first  arrivals  of  tlie  "large-eyed 
kine  "  slowly  driven  in  from  tho  rich  pastures  of  the  Ee<i  Horso 
Valley."  There  would  bo  some  variety  and  excitement  in  tho  spcc- 
taclo  as  tho  droves  of  meditative  oxen  were  invaded  from  time  to 
time  by  groups  of  Ilorefordshiro  cows  lowing  anxiously  after  then 
skittish  calves,  as  well  as  by  tho  presence  and  disconcerting  octivitj 
of  still  smaller  deer.  And  tho  boy  would  be  sure  to  follow  the 
crowdin<'  cattle  to  tho  Rother  Market  and  observe  at  leisure  tho 
humours  of  tho  ploughmen  and  drovers  from  tho  FcMon  district, 
whose  heavy  interniittciit  talk  woul.l  bo  in  perfect  keeping  with  tho 
bovine  stolidity  of  the  steers  and  heifers  around  them.  There  was 
a  market-cross  at  tho  head  of  the  Rother  expanse,  and  this  w.is  tho 
chief  gathering  place  for  tho  cattle-dealers,  as  tlio  Higli  Cross  waa 
tho  rallying  point  of  tho  dealers  in  com  and  country  produce.     In 


742 


SHAKESPEARE 


modem  Strntford  Rother  ^rarket  retains  its  placo  as  tho  biisit'^t 
centre  at  the  anmml  fairs,  during  one  of  whicli  it  is  still  custmnary 
to  roast  an  ox  iu  the  open  street,  often  amidst  a  good  deal  of 
popular  excitement  and  convivial  uproar. 
Chief  The  cross  ways  going  from  Rother  Street  to  the  river  side,  which 

streets       cut  the  central  line,  dividing  it  into  three  sections,  are  Ely  Street 
and  and  Sheep  Street  in  a  continuous  line,  and  Scholar's  Lane  andChapel 

suburbs.  Lane  in  another  line.  They  run  parallel  with  the  head  lino  of 
Bridge  and  Wood  Streets,  and  like  them  traverse  from  east  to  west 
the  northern  shaft  of  the  cross  that  constituted  the  ground  plan  of 
the  town.  Starting  down  this  li  o  from  tho  market  house  at  the 
top,  the  first  division,  tho  High  Street,  is  now,  as  it  was  in  Shake- 
speare's day,  the  busiest  part  for  shops* and  shopping,  the  solid 
building  at  the  further  corner  to  the  left  being  the  Corn  Exchange. 
At  the  fii-st  corner  of  the  second  division,  called  Chapel  Street, 
stands  the  town-hall,  while  at  the  further  corner  are  the  site  and 
railed-it  gardens  of  New  Place,  the  largo  mansion  purchased  by 
Shakespeare  in  1597.  Opposite  New  Place,  at  the  corner  of  the 
third  and  last  division,  known  as  Church  Street,  is  the  grey  mass 
of  Gothic  buildings  belonging  to  the  guild  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and 
consisting  of  the  cliapel,  the  hall,  the  grammar  school,  and  the 
almshouses  of  tho  ancient  guild.  Turning  to  the  left  at  the  bottom 
of  Church  Street,  you  enter  upon  what  was  in  Shakespeare's 
day  a  well-wooded  suburb,  with  a  few  good  houses  scattered  among 
the  ancient  elms,  and  surromided  by  ornainental  gardens  and 
extensive  private  grounds.  In  one  of  these  houses,  with  a  sunny 
expanse  of  lawn  and  slirubbery,  lived  iu  the  early  years  of  the  I7tli 
century  Shakespeare's  eldest  daughter  Susanna  with  her  husband, 
Dr  John  Hall,  and  here  m  spring  mornings  and  summer  afternoons 
the  great  poet  must  have  often  strolled,  either  alone  or  accom- 
panied by  his  favourite  daughter,  realizing*to  the  full  the  quiet 
enjoyment  of  the  sylvan  scene  and  its  social  surroundings.  This 
pleasant  suburb,  called  then  as  now  Old  Town,  leads  directly  to  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  near  the  river  side.  The  church,  a  fine 
specimen  of  Decorated  and  Perpendicular  Gothic  with  a  lofty  spire, 
is  approached  on  the  northern  side  through  an  avenue  of  limes, 
and  sheltered  on  the  east  and  south  by  an  irregular  but  massive 
group  of  elms  towering  above  the  churchway  path  between  the 
transepts,  the  chancel,  and  the  river.  Below  the  church,  on  tho 
i.iargin  of  the  river,  were  the  mill,  the  mill-bridge,  and  the  weir, 
half  hidden  by  grey  willows,  green  alders,  and  tall  beds  of  rustling 
sedge.  And,  beyond  the  church,  the  college,  and  the  line  of  streets 
already  described,  the  suburbs  stretched  away  into  gardens, 
orchards,  meadows,  and  cultivated  fields,  divided  by  rustic  lanes 
with  mossy  banks,  flowering  hedgerows,  and  luminous  vistas  of 
bewildering  beauty.  These  cross  and  country  roads  Were  dotted 
at  intervals  with  cott.ige  homesteads,  isolated  farms,  and  the 
small  groups  of  both  which,  constituted  the  villages  and  hamlets 
included  withiu  the  wide  sweep  of  old  Stratford  parish.  Amongst 
these  were  tlie  villages  and  hamlets  of  "Welcombe,  Ingon,  Drayton, 
Shottery,  Luddington,  Little  "Wilracote,  and  Bishopston.  The 
town  was  thus  girdled  in  the  spring  by  daisied  meadow?  and  blos- 
soming orchards,  and  enriched  during  the  later  months  by  the 
orange  and  gold  of  harvest  fields  and  autumn  foliage,  mingled 
•with  the  coral  and  purple  clusters  of  elder,  hawthorn,  and  moun- 
tain ash,  and,  around  the  farms  and  cottages,  with  the  glow  of 
^jipeniug  fruit  for  the  winter's  store, 
f  oresi  But   perhaps   the    most   characteristic   feature    of .  the 

survivols.  scenery  in  the  neigkbourbood  of  Stratford  is  to  be  found 
in  the  union  of  this  rich  and  varied  cultivation  vith 
picturesque  survivals  of  the  primeval  forest  territory.  The 
low  hills  that  rise  at  intervals  above  the  well-turned  soil 
still  carry  on  their  serrated  crests  the  lingering  glories  of 
the  ancient  woodland.  Though  the  once  mighty  forest  of 
Arden  has  disappeared,  the  after-glow  of  its  sylvan  beauty 
rests  on  the  neighbouring  heights  formerly  enclosed  ^nthin 
its  ample  margin.  These  traces  of  the  forest  wildness  and 
freedom  were  of  course  far  more  striking  and  abundant  in 
Shakespeare's  day  than  now.  At  that  time  many  of  the 
farms  had  only  recently  been  reclaimed  from  the  forest, 
and  most  of  them  still  had  their  bosky  acres  *'  of  tooth'd 
briar?;,  shasp  furzes,  pricking  gosa  and  thorns,"  their 
broom  groves,  hazel  copses,  and  outlying  patches 'of 
unshrubbed  do^-n.  And  the  hills  that  rose  above  the 
chief  villages  of  the  neighbourhood  were  still  clothed  and 
cro'wned  with  tho  green  and  mystic  mantle  of  the  leafy 
Arden.  But,  though  much  of  the  ancient  woodland  has 
disappeared  since  Shakespeare's  day,  many  traces  of  it 
still  remain.  Any  of  the  roads  out  of  Stratford  will  soon 
bring  the  pedestrian  to  some  of  these  picturesque  soir- 
■?lval3    of    the    old    forest    wilderness.      On   the  Warwick 


road,  at  the  distance  of  about  a  mile  from  the  town,  there 
are  on  the  left  the  Welcoinbo  Woods,  and  just  beyond  tho 
woods  the  well-known  L)ingle3,  a  belt  of  straggling  ash 
and  hawthorn  winding  irregularly  through  blue-bell  depths 
and  briery  hollows  from  the  pathway  below  to  the  crest 
of  the  hill  above,  while  immediately  around  rise  the 
Welcombe  Hills,  from  the  top  of  which  is  obtained  the 
finest  local  view  of  Stratford  and  the  adjacent  country. 
Looking  south-west  and  facing  the  central  line  of  the 
town,  you  see  below  you,  above  the  mass  of  roofs,  the 
square  tower  of  the  guild  chapel,  the  graceful  spire  of  the 
more  distant  church,  the  sweep  of  the  winding  river,  and 
beyond  the  river  the  undulating  valley  of  the  Bed  Horse 
shut  in  by  the  blue  range  of  the  Cotswold  Hills.  A 
couple  of  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Welcombe  Hills  is  the 
village  of  Snitterfield,  where  Shakespeare's  grandfather, 
Richard  Shakespeare,  lived  and  cultivated  to  the  end  of 
his  days  the  acres  around  his  rustic  dwelling.  Beyond 
the  village  on  its  western  side  there  is  an  tipland  reach  of 
M'ild'  less  in  the  shape  of  a  hill,  covered  with  shrub  and 
copsL^ood,  and  known  as  the  Snitterfield  Bushes.  Here 
Shakespeare  as  a  boy  must  have  often  rambled,  enjoying 
the  freedom  of  the  unfenced  downs,  and  enlarging  his 
knowledge  of  nature's  exuberant  vitality.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  town,  about  a  mile  on  the  Evesham 
road,  or  rather  between  the  Evesham  and  Alcester  roads, 
lies  the  hamlet  of  Shottery,  half  concealed  by  ancestral 
elms  and  nestling  amongst  its  homestead  fruits  and 
flowers.  From  one  of  these  homesteads  Sbakespeare 
obtained  his  'bride  Anne  Hathaway.  A  mile  or  two  on 
the  central  road,  passing  out  of  the  town  through  Henley 
Street,  is  the  village  of  Bearley,  and  aJbove  the  village 
another  sweep  of  wooded  upland  known  as  Bearley 
Bushes.  And  at  various  more  distant  points  between 
these  roads  the  marl  and  sandstone  heights,  fringed  with 
woods  or  covered  with  wilding  growths,  still  bear  eloquent 
testimony  to  the  time  when  Guy  of  Warn^ick  and  his 
tutor  in  chivalry,  Heraud  of  Arden,  still  roamed  the  forest 
in  search  of  the  wild  ox  and  savaga  boar  that  frayed  the 
infrequent  travellers  and  devastated  af  intervals  the 
slender  cultivation  of  the  district.  The  subtle  power  of 
this  order  of  scenery,  arising  from  the  union  of  all  that  is 
rich  and  careful  in  cultivation  with  all  that  is  ■wild  and 
free  in  natural  beauty,  is  exactly  of  the  kind  best  fitted  to 
attract  and  delight  imaginative  and  emotional  miiids.  It 
possesses  the  peculiar  charm  that  in  character  arises  from 
the  union  of  refined  culture  with  the  bright  and  exhilarating 
spontaneity  of  a  free  and  gen-erous  nature. 

On  its  moral  side  such  scenery  has  an  expanding  illuminating  Jloral 
power  which  links  it  to  the  wider  and  deeper  interests  of  humanity  iuflu- 
as  a  whole.  Kature  seems  to  put  forth  her  vital  energies  expressly  ence?  of 
for  the  relief  of  man's  estate,  appearing  as  his  friend  and  helper  scenaiy. 
and  consoler.  Instead  of  being  absorbed  in  her  own  inaccessible 
grandeui-s  and  solitary  sublimities,  she  exerts  licr  benign  influences 
cxjuessly  as  it  were  for  his  good,  to  cheer  and  brighten,  his 
evanescent  days,  and  beautify  his  temporary  home.  Bolder  and 
more  rugged  landscapes,  gloomy  glens,  and  thunder-scarred  peaks 
may  excite  more  passionate  feelings,  may  rouse  and  strengthen  by 
reaction  the  individualistic  elements  of  mind  and  character,  and 
thus  produce  tho  hardy,  daring  type  of  mountaineer,  the  intense 
self-centred  and  defiant  local  j^atriot  or  hero,  the  chieftain  and 
his  clansmen,  contra  viundum.  No  doubt  it  is  also  true  that  the 
vaster  and  loftier  mountain  ranges  havo  a  unique  power  of  e.-^citing 
in  susceptible  minds  the  emotions  of  awe,  wonder,  and  sublimity. 
But  the  very  power  and  permanence  of  these  mighty  solitudes,  tho 
grandeur  and  immobility  of  their  measureless  strength  and  in)pcrial 
repose,  dwarf  by  comparison  all  merely  human  interests  ;  and  to 
the  meditative  inind  swept  by  the  spirit  of  such  immensities  the 
moments  of  our  nioi'tal  life  seem  to  melt  as  dew-drops  into  tho 
silence  of  their  eternal  years.  The  feelings  thus  excited,  being  in 
themselves  of  the  essence  of  poetry,  may  indeed  find  expression  in 
verse  and  in  verso  of  a  noble  kind,  but  the  poetiy  will  be  lyricaj) 
and  reflective,  not  dramatic,  or  if  dramatic  in  form  it  will  be  lyrical 
in  substance.  As  Mr  Ruskin  has  pointed  out,  the  overmastering 
effect  of  mountain   eceuery   tends   to   absorb  and  preoccupy  the 


SHAKESPEARE 


743" 


onind,  and  thus  to  disturb  the  impartial  view,  the  uuiversal  vision 
of  nature  and  human  nature  as  a  complex  whole,  or  rather  of  nature 
as  the  theatre,  and  scene  of  human  life,  which  the  dramatist  must 
preserve  in  order  to  secure  success  in  his  higher  work.  Mountain 
scenery  is,  however,  not  only  rare  and  exacting  in  the  range  and 
intensity  of  feeling  it  excites,  but  locally  remote  in  its  separation 
from  the  interests  and  occupations  of  men.  It  is  thus  removed 
from  the  vital  element  in  which  the  dramatist  works,  if  not  in  its 
higher  influence  antagonistic  to  that  element,  llr  Hamerton, 
who  discusses  the  question  on  a  wider  basis  of  knowledge  and 
experience  than  perhaps  any  living  authority  except  Mr  Ruskin, 
supports  this  view.  "As  a  general  rule,"  he  says,  "I_ should  say 
there  is  an  antagonism  between  the  love  of  mountains  and  the 
knowledge  of  mankind,  that  the  lever  of  mountains  will  often  be 
satisfied  with  their  appearances  of  power  and  passion,  their  splendour 
and  gloom,  their  seeming  cheerfulness  or  melancholy,  when  a 
mind  indifferent  to  this  class  of  scenery  might  study  the  analogous 
phases  of  human  character."  Where,  indeed,  the  influence  of 
nature  is  overpowering,  as  in  the  East,  wonder,  — the  wonder  excited 
by  mere  physical  vastness,  power,  and  intinitude,: — takes  the  place 
of  intelligent  interest  in  individual  life  and  character. 

But  the  dramatic  poet  has  to  deal  primarily  with  human 
power  and  passion ;  and  not  for  him  therefore  is  the  life  of 
lonely  raptures  and  awful  delights  realized  by  the  moun- 
tain wanderer  or  the  Alp-inspired  bard.     His  work  lies 
nearer   the   homes   and  ways  of   men,   and   his  choicest 
scenery  will  be  found  in  the  forms  of  natural  beauty  most 
directly   associated  with-  their   habitual   activities,  '  most 
completely   blended    with    their    more   vivid    emotional 
experiences.-    A  wooded  undulating  country,  watered  by 
memorable   streams,   its   ruder  features   relieved   by   the 
graces  of  cultivation,  and  its  whole  circuit  rich  in  histori- 
cal  remains   and  associations,   is  outside  the    domain  of 
cities,  the  natural  stage  and  theatre  of  the  dramatist  and 
story-teller.     This  was  the  kind  of  scenery  that  fascinated 
Scott's   imagination,    amidst    which   he  fixed   his  chosen 
home,  and  where  he  sleeps  his  last  sleep.     It  is  a  border 
country  of  grey  waving  hills,  divided  by  streams  renowned 
in  song,    and  enriched  by  the  monuments  of  the  piety, 
splendour,  and  martial  power  of  the  leaders  whose  fierce 
raids  and  patriotic  conflicts  filled  with  romantic  tale  and 
minstrelsy  the  whole  district  from  the  Lamniermoors  to 
the  Cheviots,  and  from  the  Leader  and  the  Tweed  to  the 
The  old   Solway  Firth.     In  earlier  times  Shakespeare's  own   dis- 
Welsh      trict  bad   been   \'irtually.  a   border   country   also.       The 
.border,     mgdueval  tide  of  intermittent  but  savage  warfare,  between 
the  unsubdued  Welsh  and  the  Anglo-Normans  under  the 
feudal  lords  of  the  marches,  ebbed  and  flowed  across  the 
Severn,  inundating  at  times  the  whole  of  Powis-land,  and 
sweeping  on  to  the  very  verge  of  Warwickshire.     In  the 
12th    and    13th    centuries    the    policy   of   intermarriage 
between  their  own  families  and   the  Welsh  princes  was 
tried  by  the  English  monarch?,  and  Iving  John,  on  betroth- 
ing his  daughter  Joan  to  the  Welsh  prince  Llewelyn,  gave 
the  mano-'of  Bidford,  six  miles  from  Stratford-on-Avon,  as 
part   of  her  dower.     The    fact  of  this   English    princess 
being  thus  identified  with  South  Warwickshire  may  help 
to  explain  the  prevalence  of  the  name  Joan  in  the  county, 
tut  the  early  impulse  towards  the  giving  of  this  royal  name 
would  no  doubt  be  strengthened  by  the   knowledge  that 
John  of  Gaunt's  daughter,  the  mother  of  the  great  earl 
of   Warwick,    had  also  borne  the  favourite   local  name. 
Shakespeare  himself  it  will  be  remembered  had  two  sisters 
of  this  name,  the  elder  Joan,  born  some  time  before  him, 
the, firstborn  of  the  family  indeed,  who  died  in  infancy, 
and  the  younger  Joan,  who  survived  him.     But  the  local 
popularity   of    a    name,    familiarly   associated   with    the 
kitchen  and  the  scullery  rather  than  with  the  court  or  the 
palace,    is   no   doubt   due   to   one   of  the   more  striking 
incidents  of  the  long  conflict  between  the  English  and  the 
Wel.sh  on  the  western  border.     As  we  have  seen,  during 
the  Barons'  War  and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  the  western 
Vjorder  was  the  scene  of  active  conftict,  each  party  seeking 
Welsh  support,  and  each  being  able  in  turn  to   rally  a 


power  of  hardy  marchmen  to  its  banner.  And  that  the 
insurgent  Welsh  were  not  idle  during  the  interval  between 
these  civil  conflicts  we  have  the  emphatic  testimony  fef 
Glendower : — • 

"  Three  times  hath  Henry  Bolingbroolce  made  head 
Against  my  power  :  thrice  from  the  banks  of  Wyo 
And  sedgy-bottoraed  Severn  have  I  sent  him 
Bootless  home,  and  weather-beaten  back." 

The  Hotspur  and  Mortimer  revolt  against  Henry  lY. 
well  illustrates,  indeed,  the  kind  of  support  which  English 
disaffection  found  for  centuries  in  the  Welsh  marches.  A 
rich  heritage  of  stirring  border  life  and  heroic  martial 
story  was  thus  transmitted  from  the  storn^y  ages  of  faith 
and  feudalism  to  the  more  settled  Tudor  times.  Ajiart 
from  the  border  warfare  there  were  also  the  multiplied 
associations  connected  with  the  struggles  between  the 
nobles  and  the  crown,  and  the  rise  of  the  Commons  as  a 
distinctive  power  in  the  country.  The  whole  local  record 
of  great  names  and  signal  deeds  was  in  Shakespeare's  day 
so  far.  withdrawn  into  the  past  and  mellowed  by  secular 
distance  as  to  be  capable  of  exerting  its  full  enchantment 
over  the  feelings  and  the  imagination.  The  historical 
associations  thus  connected  with  the  hills  and  streams,  the 
abbeys  and  castles,  of  Warwickshire  added  elements  of 
striking  moral  interest  to  the  natural  beauty  of  the 
scenery.  To  the  penetrating  imagination  of  poetic 
natures  these  elements  reflected  the  continuity  of  national 
life  as  well  as  the  greatness  and  splendour  of  the  per- 
sonalities and  achievements  by  which  it  was  developed 
from  age  to  age.  They  also  helped  to  kindle  within  them  a 
genuine  enthusiasm  for  the  fortunes  and  the  fi^me  of  their 
native  land.  And  scenery  beautiful  in  itself  acquired  a 
tenfold  charm  from  the  power  it  thus  possessed  of  bring- 
ing vividly  before  the  mind  the  wide  and  moving  panoramOr 
of  the  heroic  fiast.  The  facts  sufficiently  prove  that 
scenery  endowed  with  this  multiplied  charm  .takes,  if  a 
calmer,  still  a  deeper  and  firmer  hold  of  the  affections 
than  any  isolated  and  remote  natural  features,  however 
beautiful  and  sublime,  have  power  ta  do  This  general 
truth  is  illustrated  with  even  exceptional  force  in  the  lives 
of  Scott  and  Shakespeare.  Both  were  passionately  attached, 
to  their  native  district,  and  the  memorable  scenes  amidst 
which  their  early  years  were  passed.  So  intense  wa3 
Scott's  feeling  that  he  told  Washington  Irving  that  if  he 
did  not  see  the  grey  hills  and  the  heather  once  a  year  he 
thought  he  should  die.  And  one  of  the  few  traditions 
preserved  of  Shakespeare  is  that  even  in  the  most  active 
period  of  his  London  career  he  always  visited  Stratford 
at  least  once  every  year.  We  know  indeed  from  other, 
sources  that  during  his  absence  Shakespeare  continued  to' 
take  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  affairs  of  his  native  place,- 
and  that,  although  London  was  for  some  years  his  profes- 
sional residence,  he  never  ceased  to  regard  Stratford  as  his 
home. 

Amongst  other  illustrations  of  this  strong  feeling  of 
local  attachment  that  might  be  given  therb  is  one  that 
has  recently  excited  a  good  deal  of  attention  and  is  worth 
noticing  in  some  detail.  Mr  Ilallam,  in  a  well-known 
passage,  has  stated  that  "no  letter  of  Shakespeare's  writ-' 
ing,  no  record  of  his  conversation,  has  been  preserved." 
But  we  certainly  have  at  least  one  conversation  r,eported 
at  first  hand,  and  it  turns  directly  on  the  point  in  question. 
It  relates  to  a  proposal  made  in  lGl-1  by  some  of  the  local 
proprietors  for  the  enclosure  of  certain  common  lands  at 
Welcombe  and  Old  Stratford.  The  corporation  of  Strati 
ford  strongly  opposed  the  project  on  the  ground  that  i^ 
would  bo  a  hardship  to  the  poorer  members  of  the  com- 
munity, and  their  clerk  Mr  Thomas  Greene,  ^vho  was 
related  to  Sliakc'spcare,  was  in  London  about  the  business 
in  November  of  the  same  year.     Under  date  November 


,-  cejing 
of  local 
attach- 
ment. 


744 


SHAKESPEARE 


17th  Greene  says,  in  notes  whicli  still  exist,  "My  cosen 
Shakespear  comyng  yesterdy  to  town,  I  -nent  to  see  him 
how  he  did.  Ho  told  me  that  they  assured  him  they 
ment  to  inclose  no  further  than  to  Gospell  Bush,  and  so 
upp  straight  (leavyng  out  part  of  the  Dyngles  to  the 
ffield)  to  the  gate  in  Clopton  hedg,  and  take  in  Salis- 
buryes  peece  ;  and  that  they  mean  in  Aprill  to  survey  the 
land,  and  then  to  gyve  satisfaction,  and  not  before ;  and 
he  and  Mr  Hall  say  they  think  ther  will  be  nothyng  done 
at  all."  This  proves  that  the  agents  of  the  scheme  had 
seen  Shakespeare  on  the  subject,  that  he  had  gone  care- 
fully into  the  details  of  their  plan,  consulted  his  son-in- 
law  Dr  John  Hall  about  them,  and  arrived  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  for  the  present  they  need  take  no  decided  action 
in  the  matter.  There  is  evidently  on  Shakespeare's  part 
a  strong  feeling  against  the  proposed  enclosure,  and  the 
agents  of  the  scheme  had  clearly  done  their  best  to  remove 
his  objections,  promising  amongst  other  things  that  if  it 
went  forward  he  should  suffer  no  pecuniary  loss,  a  pro- 
mise already  confirmed  by  a  legal  instrument.  But  nine 
mouths  later,  when  the  local  proprietors  seemed  bent  on 
pushing  the  scheme,  Shakespeare  takes  a  more  decided 
stand,  and  pronounces  strongly  against  the  whole  business. 
We  have  a  notice,  dated  September  1,  1615,  to  the 
effect  that  Mr  Shakespeare  had  on  that  day  told  the  agent 
of  the  corporation  "  that  he  was  not  able  to  bear  the 
enclosing  of  Welcombe."  As  his  proprietary  rights  and 
pecuniary  interests  were  not  to  be  affected  by  the  pro- 
posed enclosure,  this  strong  expression  of  feeling  must 
refer  to  the  public  advantages  of  the  Welcombe  common 
fields,  and  especially  to  what  in  Scotland  would  be  called 
their  "  amenity,"  the  element  of  value  arising  from  their  , 
freedom  and  beauty,  their  local  history  and  associations. 
Welcombe,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  most  picturesque 
suburb  of  Stratford.  The  hills  divided  by  the  leafy 
Dingles  afforded  the  finest  panoramic  view  of  the  whole 
neighbourhood.  On  their  eastern  slope  they  led  to  Ful- 
broke  Park,  the  probable  scene  of  the  deer-stealing  adven- 
ture, and  towards  the  north-west  to  the  village  of  Snitter- 
field  with  its  wooded  sweep  of  upland  "  bushes."  Every 
acre  of  the  ground  was  associated  with  the  happiest  days 
of  Shakespeare's  youth.  In  his  boyish  holidays  he  had 
repeatedly  crossed  and  recrossed  the  unfenced  fields  at 
the  foot  of  the  Welcombe  Hills  on  his  ways  to  the  rustic 
scenes  and  occupations  of  his  uncle  Henry's  farm  in  the 
outlying  forest  village.  He  knew  by  heart  every  boundary 
tree  and  stone  and  bank,  every  pond  and  sheep-pool, 
every  barn  and  cattle-shed,  throughout  the  whole  well- 
frequented  circuit.  And  in  his  later  years,  when  after 
the  turmoil  and  excitement  of  his  London  life  he  came  to 
reside  at  Stratford,  and  could  visit  at  leisure  the  scenes  of 
his  youth,  it  was  perfectly  natural  that  he  should  shrink 
from  the  prospect  of  having  these  scenes  partially  destroyed 
and  their  associations  broken  up  by  the  rash  hand  of 
needless  innovation.  In  his  own  emphatic  language,  "  he 
could  not  bear  the  enclosing  of  AVelcombe,"  and  the  only 
authoritative  fragment  of  his  conversation  preserved  to 
us  thus  brings  vividly  out  one  of  the  best  known  and 
most  distinctive  features  of  his  personal  character  and 
history — his  deep  and  life-long  attachment  to  his  native 
place.  Another  illustration  of  the  same  feeling,  common 
both  to  Scott  and  Shakespeare,  is  supplied  by  the  prudence 
and  foresight  they  both  displayed  in  husbanding  their 
aarly  gains  in  order  to  provide,  amidst  the  scenery  they 
loved,  a  permanent  home  for  themselves  and  their  families. 
Shakespeare,  the  more  careful  and  sharp-sighted  of  the 
two,  ran  no  such  risks  and  experienced  no  such  reverses  of 
fortune  as  those  which  saddened  Scott's  later  days.  Both, 
•-oweVcr,  spent  the  last  years  of  their  lives  in  the  home 
which  their  energy  and  affection  had  provided,  and  both 


sleep  their  last  sleep  under  the  changing  skies  and  amidife 
the  fields  and  streams  that  gave  light  and  musia  to  their 
earliest  years.  Hence,  of  ajl  great  authors,  they  are  the 
two  most  habitually  thought  of  in  connexion  with  their 
native  haunts  and  homesteads.  Even  to  his  contempo- 
raries Shakespeare  was  known  as  the  Swan  of  Avon.  The 
two  spots  on  British  ground  most  completely  identified 
with  the  noblest  energies  of  genius,  consecrated  by  life- 
long associations,  and  hallowed  by  sacred  dust  are  the 
banks  of  the  Tweed  from  Abbotsford  to  Dryburgh  Abbey, 
and  the  sweep  of  the  Avon  from  Charlecot^e  Park  to  Strat- 
ford church.  To  all  lovers  of  literature,  to  all  whose 
spirits  have  been  touched  to  finer  issues  by  its  regenerating 
influence,  those  spots,  and  above  all  the  abbey  grave  and 
the  chancel  tomb,  are  holy  ground, — are  national  shrines 
visited  by  pilgrims  from  every  land,  who  breathe  with 
pride  and  gratitude  and  affection  the  household  names  of 
Shakespeare  and  of  Scott. 

The  name  Shakespeare  is  found  in  the  Midland  counties 
two  centuries  before  the  birth  of  the  poet,  scattered  so 
widely  that  it  is  not  easy  at  first  sight  to  fix  the  locality 
of  its  rise  or  trace  the  lines  of  its  progress.  Several  facts, 
however,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  those  who  first  bore 
it  entered  Warwickshire  from  the  north  and  west,  and  may 
therefore  have  migrated  in  early  times  from  the  neighbour- 
ing marches.  •  The  name  itself  is  of  course  thoroughly 
English,  and  it  is  given  by  Camden  and  Yer.stegan  as  an 
illustration  of  the  way  in  which  surnames  were  fabricated 
when  first  introduced  into  England  in  the  13th  century. 
But  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  some  hardy 
borderers  who  had  fought  successfully  in  the  English 
ranks  may  have  received  or  assumed  a  significant  and 
sounding  designation  that  would  help  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  their  martial  prowess.  We  have  indeed  a 
distinct  and  authoritative  assertion  that  some  of  Shake- 
speare's ancestors  had  served  their  country  in  this  way. 
However  this  may  be,  families  bearing  the  name  are 
found  during  the  15th  and  IGth  centuries  in  the  Arden 
district,  especially  at  Wroxhall  and  Kdwington, — some 
being  connected  with  the  priory  of  Wroxhall,  while 
during  the  15th  century  the  names  of  more  than  twenty 
are  enumerated  as  belonging  to  the  guild  of  St  Ann,  at 
Knoll  near  Eowington.  In  the  roll  of  this  guild  or  college 
are  also  found  the  representatives  of  some  of  the  best 
families  in  the  county,  such  as  the  Ferrerses  of  Tamworth 
and  the  Clintons  of  ColeshiU.  Among  the  members  of 
the  guild  the  poet's  ancestors  are  to  be  looked  for,  and  it 
is  not  improbable,  as  Mr  French  suggests,  that  John  and 
Joan  Shakespeare,  entered  on  the  Knoll  register  in  1527, 
may  have  been  the  parents  of  jBichard  Shakespeare  of 
Snitterfield,  whose  sons  gave  each  to  his  children  the 
favourite  family  names.  Richard  Shakespeare,  the  poet's 
grandfather,  occupied  a  substantial  dwelling  and  culti- 
vated a  forest  farm  at  Snitterfield,  between  3  and  4  miles 
from  Stratford.  He  was  the  tenant  of  Robert  Arden  of 
Wilmcote,  ""a  gentleman  of  worship,"  who  farmed  his  own 
estate,  situated  a  few  miles  to  the  west  of  Snitterfield. 
Richard  Shakespeare  was  settled  at  the  latter  hamlet  and 
doing  well  as  early  as  1543,  Thomas  Atwood  of  Stratford 
having  in  that  year  bequeathed  to  him  four  oxen  which 
were  then  in  his  keeping ;  and  he  continued  to  reside 
there  certainly  till  1560,  and  probably  till  his  death.  He 
appears  to  have  had  two  sons,  John  and  Henry,  of  whom 
John,  the  eldest,  early  broke  through  the  contracted  circle 
of  rustic  life  at  Snitterfield,  made  his  way  to  Stratford,  and 
established  himself  as  a  trader  in  one  of  the  leading 
thoroughfares  of  the  town.  This  movement  to  the  town 
probably  took  place  in  1551,  as  in  1552  John  Shakespeare 
is  described  in  an  official  document  as  residing  in  Henley 
Street,  where  the  poet  was  subsequently  born.     As  to  the 


SKalie- 
6pear<» 
BOir?  aa& 
family. 


SHAKESPEARE 


■45 


precise  nature  of  his  occupation,  the  Kind  of  wares  in 
•which  he  principally  dealt,  there  are  various  and  conflict- 
ing statements  tbat  have  given  rise  to  a  good  deal  of  dis- 
cussion. Thft  earliest  official  statement  on  the  subject 
occurs  in  the  register  of  the  bailiff's  court  for  the  year 
1356.  He  is  there  described  as  a  "glover,"  which, 
according  to  the  verbal  usage  of  the  time,  included  deal- 
ing in  skins,  as  well  as  in  the  various  leather-made 
articles  of  farming  gear,  such  as  rough  gauntlets  and_ 
leggings  for  hedging  and  ditching,  white  leather  gloves  for 
chopping  wood,  and  the  like.  But  in  addition  to  the 
trade  of  glover  and  fell-monger  tradition  assigns  to  John 
Shakespeare  the  functions  of  butcher,  wool-stapler,  corn- 
dealer,  and  timber-merchifnt.  These  occupations  are  not 
incompatible,  and  together  they  represent  the  main  lines 
some  of  which  at  least  a  young  farmer  going  into  the 
town  for  trading  purposes  would  be  likely  to  pursue. 
He  would  naturally  deal  with  the  things  he  knew  most 
about,  such  as  corn,  wool,  timber,  skins,  and  leather-made 
f.iticlcs  used  in  farm  work — in  a  word,  he  would  deal  in 
farm  conveniences  and  farm  products.  In  a  town  that 
was  the  centre  and  chief  market  of  an  agricultural  and 
grazing  district,  and  as  the  member  of  a  family  whose 
wide  connexions  were  nearly  all  engaged  in  farming 
operations,  his  prospects  were  certainly  rather  favourable 
than  otherwise.  And  he  soon  began  to  turn  his  country 
,  connexion  to  account.  There  is  distinct  evidence  that  he 
early  dealt  in  corn  and  wood  as  well  as  gloves  and  leather, 
for  in  1556  he  sues  a  neighbour  for  eighteen  quarters  of 
barley,  and  a  few  years  later  is  paid  three  shillings  by  the 
corporation  for  a  load  of  timber. 
The  The  poet's  father  was  evidently  a  man  of  energy,  ambition, 

p<w;'s  and  public  spirit,  with  the  knowledge  and  ability  requisite 
fBther.  {qj.  pusiiing  his  fortune  with  fair  success  in  his  new  career. 
His  youthful  vigour  and  intelligence  soon  told  in  Ms  favour, 
and  in  a  short  time  we  find  him  taking  an  active  part  in 
public  affairs.  He  made  way  so  rapidly  indeed  amongst 
his  fellow-townsmen,  that  within  five  years  after  entering 
Stratford  he  is  recognized  as  a  fitting  recipient  of  municipal 
honours  -^  and  his  official  appointments  steadily  rise  in 
dignity  and  value  through  the  various  gradations  of  leet- 
juror,  ale-taster,  constable,  afieeror,  burgess,  chamberlain, 
and  alderman,  until  in  15CS  he  gains  the  most  distinguished 
post  of  official  dignity,  that  of  high-bailiff  or  mayor  of 
the  town.  Within  twenty  years  after  starting  in  business 
in  Henley  Street  he  thus  rises  to  the  highest  place  in  the 
direction  of  municipal  affairs,  presiding  as  their  head  over 
the  deliberations  of  his  fellow  aldermen  and  burgesses, 
and  as  chief  magistrate  over  the  local  court  of  record. 
Three  years  later,  in  1571,  he  was  again  elected  as  chief 
alderman.  There  is  ample  evidence,  too,  that  during 
those  years  he  advanced  in  material  jirosperity  as  well  as 
in  municipal  dignities  and  honours.  As  early  as  1556  he 
had  means  at  his  command  which  enabled  him  to  purchase 
two  houses  in  the  town,  one  in  Henley  Street  with  a 
considerable  garden,  and  another  in  Greenhill  Street  with 
Eafly  c.  garden  and  croft  attached  to  it.  In  the  following  year 
I*"'  he  married  an  heiress  of  gentle  birth,  Mary  Arden  of  the 
~  Asbies,  who  had  recently  inherited  under  her  father's  will 

a  substantial  sum  of  ready  money,  an  estate  at  Wilmcotc, 
consisting  of  nearly  60  acres  of  land  with  two  or  three 
houses,  and  a  reversionary  interest  in  houses  and  lands  at 
Snitterfield,  including  the  farm  tenanted  by  Richard 
Shakespeare,  her  husband's  father.  Being  now  a-  landed 
proprietor  and  a  man  of  rising  position  and  influence,  John 
Shakespeare  would  be  able  to  extend  his  business  opera- 
tions, and  it  is  clear  that  he  did  so,  though  whether 
always  with  due  pmidence  and  foresight  may  bo  fairly 
questioned.  To  a  man  of  his  sanguine  and  somewhat 
impetuous   temper  the   sudden   increase   of   wealth   was 


probably  by  no  means  an  unmixed  good.  But  for  some 
years,  at  all  events,  he  was  able  to  maintain  his  more 
prosperous  state,  and  his  new  ventures  appear  for  a  time 
to  have  turned  out  well.  He  is  designated  in  official 
documents  as  yeoman,  freeholder,  and  gentleman,  and  has 
the  epithet  "  master "  prefixed  to  his  name ;  this,  being 
equivalent  to  esquire,  was  rarely  used  except  in  relation 
to  men  of  means  and  station,  possessing  landed  property 
of  their  own.  In  a  note  to  another  official  document  it 
is  stated  that  about  the  time  of  his  becoming  chief  magis- 
trate of  Stratford  John  Shakespeare  had  "  lands  and  tene- 
ments of  good  worth  and  substance  "  estimated  in  value 
at  X500,  and  though  there  may  be  some  exaggeration  in 
this  estimate  his  property  from  various  sources  must  have 
been  worth  nearly  that  sum.  And  in  1575  he  increased  the 
total  amount  by  purchasing  two  houses  in  Henley  Street, 
the  two  that  stiU  remain  identified  with  the  name  and  are 
consecrated  by  tradition  as  the  birthplace  of  the  poet.  .  But 
this  was  his  last  purchase,  the  tide  of  his  hitherto  pro- 
sperous fortunes  being  but  too  clearly  already  on  the  turn. 
Having  passed  the  highest  point  of  social  and  commercial 
success,  he  was  now  facing  the  downward  slope,  and  the 
descent  once  begun  was  for  some  years  continuous,  and  at 
times  alarmingly  and  almost  inscrutably  rapid. 

It  seems  clear  indeed  from  tlje  facts  of  tlie  case  thai,  jiotwith-  Reverse  0! 
standing  John  Shakespeare's  intelligence,  activity,  a-nd  early  fortune, 
success,  there  was  some  defect  of  character  which  introduced  an 
element  of  instability  into  his  career,  and  in  the  end  very  mvich 
neutralized  the  working  of  his  nobler  powers.  Faintly  discernible 
perhaps  from  the  first,  and  overpowered  only  for  a  time  by  the 
access  of  prosperity  that  followed  nis  fortunate  marriage,  this  vital 
flaw  ultimately  produced  its  natural  fruit  in  tlie  serious  embarrass- 
ments that  clouded  his  later  years.  The  precise  nature  of  the 
defect  can  only  be  indicated  in  general  terms,  but  it  seems  to 
have  consisted  very  much  in  a  want  of  measure  and  balance,  of 
adequate  care  and  foresight,  in  his  business  dealings  and  calcula- 
tions. He  seems  to  have  possessed  the  eager  sanguine  tempera- 
ment which,  absorbed  in  the  immediate  object  of  pursuit,  overlooks 
difficulties  and  neglects  the  wider  considerations  on  which  lasting 
success  depends.  Even  in  his  early  years  at  Stratford  there  are 
signs  of  this  ardent,  impatient,  somewhat  unheedful  temper.  He 
is  not  only  active  and  pushing,  but  too  restless  and  excitable  to 
pay  proper  attention  to  necessary  details,  or  discharge  with 
punctuality  the  minor  duties  of  his  position.  The  first  recorded 
fact  in  his  local  history  illustrates  this  feature  of  his  character.  In 
April  1552  John  Shakespeare  is  fined  twelve  pence,  equal  to  between 
eight  and  ten  shillings  of  our  English  money  now,  for  not  remov- 
ing the  heap  of  household  dirt  and  refuse  that  had  accumulated  in 
front  of  his  own  door.  Another  illustration  of  his  want  of  thorough 
method  and  system  in  the  management  of  his  aiTairs  is  supplied 
by  the  fact  that  in  the  years  1556-57  he  allowed  himself  to  be  sued 
in  the  baililTs  court  for  comparatively  small  debts.  This  could  not 
have  arisen  from  any  want  of  means,  as  during  the  same  period,  in 
October  1556,  he  made  the  purchase  already  referred  to  of  two 
houses  with  extensive  gardens.  The  actions  for  debt  must  there- 
fore hate  been  the  ■  result  of  negligence  or  temper  on  John 
Shakespeare's  part,  and, either  alternative  tells  almost  equally 
against  his  habits  of  business  coolness  and  regularity.  Another 
illustration  of  his  restless,  ill-considered,  and  unbalanced  energy 
may  be  found  in  the  number  and  variety  of  occupations  which  he 
seems  to  have  added  to  his  early  trade  of  glover  and  leather-dealer. 
As  his  prospects  improved  he  aiqiears  to  have  seized  on  fresh 
branches  of  business,  until  ho  had  included  within  his  grasp  the 
whole  circle  of  agricultural  products  that  could  in  any  way  be 
brought  to  market.  It  would  seem  also  that  he  added  farming, 
to  a  not  inconsiderable  e.\tent,  to  his  expanding  retail  business  in 
Stratford.  But  it  is  equally  clear  that  he  lacked  the  orderly 
method,  the  comprehensive  outlook,  and  th,.  vigilant  care  for 
details  essential  for  holding  well  in  hand  the  threads  of  so  com- 
plicated a  commercial  web.  Otlier  disturbing  forces  may  probably 
DO  discovered  in  the  pride  and  ambition,  the  love  of  socia.'  excite- 
ment and  display,  which  appear  to  bo  among  the  ground  notes  of 
John  Shakespeare's  character  so  far  as  it  is  revealed  to  us  in  tlia 
few  facts  of  his  history.  His  strong  soci.al  feeling  and  love  of 
pleasurable  excitement  are  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  during  tho 
year  of  his  mayoralty  he  brought  companies  of  players  into  th<; 
town,  and  inaugurated  dramatic  performances  in  tho  giiild  hall. 
It  is  during  the  year  of  his  filling  the  post  of  high-baililf  that  we 
first  hear  of  stage  plays  at  Stratford,  and  the  jilaycrs  must  have 
visited  the  town,  if  mjt,  as  is  most  likely,  at  the  invitation  and 
desiro  of  tho  poet's  father,  at  least  with  his  sanction  and  sunport. 

XXI.  —   Q4 


746 


S  11  A  K  E  fc5  i'  E  A  11  E 


In  such  c:\ses  tlio  players  coulj  not  ai-t  at  all  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  mayor  and  council,  and  tlicir  first  pcrfoimancc  was 
usually  a  free  entertainment,  patronized  and  paid  for  by  the  corpora- 
tion; and  called  the  mayor's  play.  In  all  this  John  Shakespeare 
took  the  initiatire,  and  in  so  doing  probably  helped  to  decide  the 
future  career  of  his  sun.  The  notes  of  personal  prido  and  social 
ambition  are  erjually  apparent.  It  is  on  record,  for  example,  that 
soon  after  reacliing  the  liighest'  post  of  municipal  distinction  the 
poet's  father  applied  to  the  heralds'  college  for  a  grant  of  aims. 
This  application  ivas  Hot  at  the  time  successful,  but  it  seems  to 
have  been  so  far  seriously  entertained  that  onicinl  inquiries  were 
made  into  the  family  history  and  social  standing  of  the  Shake- 
speares.  But  the  remarkable  fact  is  that  such  an  application 
should  have  been  made  at  all  by  a  Stratford  buigess  wliose  position 
and  prospects  were  so  unstable  and  precarious  as  tlie  events  of  the 
next  few  years  showed  those  of  John  Shakespeare  to  be.  At  the 
time  of  the  application  his  increasing  family  must  haro  enlarged 
his  household  expenses,  while  his  ofhcial  position,  couibined  with 
his  o])cn  and  generous  nature,  his  love  of  social  sympathy,  distinc- 
tion, and  suppoit,  would  probably  have  led  liim  into  habits  of  fiee- 
handcd  hospitality  and  inconsiderate  expenditure.  All  this  must 
have  helloed  to  introduce  a  scale  of  lavish  domestic  outlay  that 
would  tend  directly  to  hasten  the  financial  collapse  in  his  affairs 
that  sjicedily  followed.  And  on  finding  things  going  against  him 
John  Shakespeare  was  just  the  man  to  discouirt  his  available 
resources,  and,  as  the  pressure  increased,  mortgage  his  future  and 
adopt  any  possible  expedient  for  maintaining  tlio  increased  port 
and  social  consequence  ho  had  imprudently  assumed. 
Jtloral  This  seems  to  have  been  the  course  actually  pursued  when  pccu- 

elTects,  niary  dilficulties  arose.  During  the  three  years  that  elapsed  af ti-T  his 
last  purchase  of  house  property  his  affairs  became  so  seriously  embar- 
rassed that  it  was  found  necessary,  if  not  to  sacrifice,  at  least  to  jeo- 
pardize the  most  cherjshed  future  of  the  family  in  crder  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  the  moment.  In  1578  John  and  Jlary  Sliakespeare 
mortgaged  for  forty  pounds  their  most  considerable  piece  of  landed 
property,  the  estate  of  the  Asbies.  The  mortgagee  was  a  family 
connexion  of  their  cwn,  Edmund  Lambert,  who  had  married  ilary 
Shakespeare's  sister  Joan.  The  subsequent  history  of  this  transac- 
tion shows  how  bitler  must  have  been  the  need  that  induced  thg 
Shakespeares  to  surrender,  even  for  a  time,  their  full  control  over 
the  ancestral  estate.  The  next  year,  bouevei',  the  pressure,  instead 
of  being  relieved  by  the  sacrifice,  had  become  still  more  uigent, 
and  the  only  outlying  property  that  remained  to  meet  it  was  the 
leversionary  interest  in  the  Suitterlicld  estate.  Under  a  family 
settlement  Jlary  S"iakesneare,  on  the  death  of  her  stepmother, 
would  come  into  the  possession  of  houses  and  land  at  Snittcrfield 
almost  equal  in  value  to  the  Asbies  estate.  But  in  1579  the 
Shakespeares  ■  found  it  neccssaiy  to  dispose  altogether  of  this 
reversionary  interest.  In  that  year  it  was  sold  to  Robert  Webb 
for  the  sum  of  forty  pounds.  The  buyer  was  a  nephtw  of  Mary 
Shakespeare,  being  the  son  of  Alexander  "Webb,  who  had  married 
her  sister  Margaret.  In  thus  applying  to  relatives  or  family  con- 
nexions in  their  need,  and  disposing  of  their  property  to  them,  the 
Shakespeares  may  have  hoped  it  would  be  moia  easily  regained 
should  times  of  pro-.qieilcv  return.  The  saciifice  of  the  remaining 
interests  in  the  Snittcifield  property  afforded,  however,  only  a 
temporary  relief,  quite  insufficient  to  remove  the  accumulating 
burden  of  debt  and  difficulty  which  now  weighed  the  Shakespeares 
down.  The  notes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Stratford  corporation 
and  of  the  local  court  of  record  snfiiciently  show  that  John  Shake- 
e[)eare's  adverse  fortune  continued  through  a  scries  of  years^and  they 
also  enable  us  in  part  to  understand  how  he  bore  himself  under  the 
changes  in  his  social  jiosition  that  followed.  These  changes  begin 
ia  the  critical  year  157S.  In  January  of  that  year,  when  his 
brother  aldermen  were  called  upon  to  pay  a  considerable  sum 
each  as  a  contribution  to  the  military  equipment  to  be  pronded 
by  the  town,  John  Shakespeare  is  so  far  relieved  that  only  one 
half  the  amount  is  required  from  him.  Later  in  the  year  wo  find 
him  wholly  exempted  from  the  weekly  tux  paid  by  his  foUchv- 
aldermen  for  the  relief  of  tho  poor.  In  tiie  spring  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  on  a  further  tax  for  military  purposes  being  laid  on  the 
town,  he  is  unable  to  contribute  anything,  and  is  accordingly 
reported  as  a  defaulter.  A  few  years  later,  in  an  action  for  a  debt, 
a  verdict  is  recorded  against  him,  with  the  official  rcpoj't  that  he  had 
no  goods  on  which  distraint  could  be  made.  About  tho  same  time 
he  appears  to  have  been  under  some  restraint,  if  not  actually 
imprisoned  for  debt.  And  as  late  as  1592  it  is  olHcially  stated,  as 
a  result  of  an  inquiry  into  the  number  who  fail  to  attend  the 
rliurch  service  once  a  month  according  to  the  statutory  require- 
ment, that  John  Shakespeare  with  some  others,  two  of  whom, 
curiously  enough,  are  named  Fluellen  and  Bardolpli,  "como  not  to 
church'  for  fear  of  proccsi^  for  debt."  In  the  year  15S6  another 
alderman  had  at  length  been  chosen  in  his  place,  the  reason  given 
being  expressly  because  '*  John  Shakespeare  doth  not  come  to  the 
halles  when  they  are  warned,  nor  hath  not  done  for  a  long  time." 
From  this  brief  official  record  it  would  seem  that  under  his  reverse 
of  fortuue  he  was  treated  with  marked  sympathy  and  consideration 


by  his  fellow  townsmen.  For  at  least  swsd  ye?^s  after  his 
troubles  first  began  his  fellow-burgesses  persist  in  keeping  hii 
name  in  its  place  of  honour  on  their  roll,  partly  no  doubt  as  a 
mark  of  respect  for  his  character  and  past  services,  and  partly  it 
may  be  in  the  hope  that  his  fortunes  might  improve  and  prosperous 
day  J  return.  And,  when  at  length  he  is  superseded  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  another  in  liis  place;  this  is  done,  not  on  the  ground  of 
his  reduced  circumstances,  but  simply  because  he  voluntarily 
absents  himself  from  the  council,  never  attends  its  meetings  or 
takes  any  part  in  its  affairs.  This  is  a  noteworthy  fact  illustrating 
still  further  John  Shaliespcare's  character.  The  statement  clearly 
indicates  the  kind  of  moral  collapse  that  had  followed  the  con- 
tinuous pressure  of  material  reverses.  The  eager  sanguine  nattue 
that  had  so  genially  expanded  in  prosperity  was,  it  is  clear,  sooely 
chilled  and  depressed  by  adversity.  He  abandons  the  usual  places 
of  resort,  withdraws  himself  from  the  meetings  of  the  corporation, 
and  ceases  to  associate  with,  his  fellow-burgesses.  And,  what  is 
perhaps  still  more  noticeable,  he  gives  up  attending  church,  and  no 
longer  even  worships  with  his  fellow-townsmen.  All  this  is  the 
more  significant  because  his  circumstance^,  though  seriously 
embarrassed,  and  for  some  years  much  reduced,  were  never  so 
desperate  as  to  compel  him  to  ])art  with  his  freehold  property  in 
Henley  Street.  In  the  darkest  houis  of  his  clouded  fortune  he 
still  retailed  the  now  world-famous  houses  associated  with  the 
poet's  birth  and  early  years.  'J'here  was  no  adequate  reason  there- 
fore why  John  Shakespeare  should  have  so  completely  forsaken  the 
usual  haunts  and  regular  assemblies  of  his  fellow-townsmen  and 
friends.  But  it  seems  clear,  as  already  intimated,  that,  while 
gifted  with  a  good  deal  of  native  energy  and  intelligence,  and 
possessing  a  temper  that  was  proud,  sensitive,  and  even  passionate, 
John  Shakespeare  lacked  the  kind  of  fortitude  and  moral  courage 
which  enables  men  to  meet  serious  reverses  of  fortune  with  dignity 
and  reserve,  if  not  with  cheerfulness  and  hope.  "With  the  instincts 
of  a  wounded  animal  he  seems  to  have  left  the  prosperous  herd  and 
retired  apart  to  bear  his  pain  and  loss  in  solitude  and  alone.  Nor 
apparently  did  ho  hold  up  his  head  again  until  the  efficient  support 
of  his  prosperous  son  enabled  him  to  take  active  measures  tor  the 
recovery  of  his  alienated  estate  and  lost  position  in  the  town.  By 
the  middle  of  the  last  decade  of  tlic  16th  century  tho  poet's  success 
in  his  profession  was  thoroughly  assured,  and  he  was  on  the  high 
road  to  wealth  and  fame.  As  actor,  dramatist,  and  probably  also 
as  sliaier  in  the  Blackfriars  theatre,  he  was  m  the  receipt  of  a 
large  income,  and  according  to  tradition  received  a  considerable 
sunr  from  the  young  carl  of  Southampton,  fo  whom  his  poems 
were  dedicated.  The  son  was  now  therefore  as  able  as  he  had 
always  been  willing  to  help  his  father  to  regain  the  position  of 
comfort  and  dignity  he  had  formerly  occupied.  We  find  accord- 
ingly that  in  1597  John  and  Mary  Shakespeare  filed  a  bill  in 
Chancery  against  John  Lambert  for  the  recovery  of  tho  Asbies 
estate,  which  had  been  mortgaged  to  his  father  nearly  twenty 
years  before.  There  had  indeed  been  some  movement  in  the 
matter  ten  years  earlier,  on  the  death  of  Edward  Lambert  the 
mortgagee.  His  son  John  being  apparently  anxious  to  settle  the 
dispute,  it  was  proposed  that  he  should  pay  an  additional  sum  of 
-twenty  pounds  in  order  to  convert  the  mortgage  into  a  sale,  and 
that  he  should  then  receive  from  the  Shakespeares  an  absolute  title 
to  the  estate.  The  arrangement  wns  not,  however,  carried  out, 
and  in  15S9  John  Shakespeare  brought  a  bill  of  complaint  against 
Lambert  in  tho  Court  of  Queen's  Bench.  Nothing  further,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  been  done,  probably  because  Lambert  may 
have  felt  that  in  the  low  state  of  the  Shakespeares'  fortune  the 
action  could  not  be  pressed.  In  i597,  however,  thero  was  a 
change  in  the  relative  position  of  the  litigants,  John  Shakespeare 
having  now  the  purse  of  his  sou  at  his  command,  and  a  bill  in 
Chancery  was  accordingly  filed  against  John  La  .bort.  The  plea 
in  support  of  the  Shakespeares'  claim  was  that  the  original  con- 
ditions of  the  mortgage  had  been  fulfilled,  the  money  in  discharge 
having  bt?en  offered  to  Edward  Lambert  at  the  proper  date,  but 
refused  by  him  on  the  ground  that  other  sums  were  owing  which 
must  also" be  icpaid  at  the  same  time.  To  this  plea  John  Lambert 
replied,  and  there  is  a  still  further  "replication"  on  the  part  of 
the  Shakespeares.  How  tho  matter  was  eventually  decided  is  not 
known,  no  decree  of  the  court  in  the  case  having  been  discovered. 
But  the  probabilities  are  that  it  was  settled  out  of  court,  and,  as 
the  estate  did  not  return  to  the  Shakespeares,  probably  on  the 
basis  of  the  proposal  already  made,— that  of  the  payment  of  an 
additional  sum  by  John  Lambert.  About  tlie  same  date,  or  rather 
earlier,  in  1596,  John  Shakespeare  also  renewed  his  application  to 
the  heralds*  college  for  a  grant  of  arms,  and  this  time  with  success. 
The  grant  was  nmdc  on  the  ground  that  tho  history  and  position 
of  the  Shakespeare  and  Arden  families  fully  entitled  the  applicant 
to  receive  coat  armour.  Thero  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  means 
required  for  supporting  these  a]iplications  were  supplied  by  the 
poet,  and  he  would  be  well  rewarded  by  the  knowledge  that  '  \  the 
evening  of  his  days  his  father  had  at  length  realized  the  desire  of 
his  heart,  being  officially  recognized  as  a  "gentleman  of  worship." 
And,  what  would  now  perhaps  please   his  father  still  better,  he- 


SHAKESPEARE 


747 


.vould  be  able  to  hand  on  the  distinction  to  his  son,  whose  pro- 
fession prevented  him  at  tlie  time  from  gaining  it  on  liis  own 
account.  John  Shakespeare  died  in  IGOl,  having  througli  the 
affectionilte  care  of  liis  son  spent  the  last  y^ars  of  his  life  in  the 
ease  and  comfort  befitting  one  who  had  not  only  been  a  prosperous 
burgess,  but  chief  alderman  and  mayor  of  Stratford. 
Phe  Of  Mary  Arden,    the  poet's   motlier,  we   know   little, 

leet's  hardly  anything  directly  indeed ;  but  the  little  known  is 
"  ■  'yhoUy  in  her  favour.  From  the  provisions  of  her  father's 
will  it  is  clear  that  of  his  seven  daughters  she  was  his  favour- 
ite; and  the  links  cf  evidence  are  now  complete  connecting 
her  father  Robert  Arden  with  the  great  Warwickshire  family 
of  Arden,  whose  members  had  more  than  once  filled  the 
posts  of  high-sheriff  and  lord-lieutenant  of  the  county. 
She  was  thus  descended  from  an  old  county  family,  the 
oldeit  in  Warwickshire,  and  had  inherited  the  traditions  of 
gentle  birth  and  good  breeding.  Her  ancestors  are  traced 
back,  not  only  to  Norman,  but  to  Anglo-Saxon  times, 
Fomiiy  of  Ahvin,  an  early  representative  of  the  family,  and  himself 
&*^e">  connected  with  the  royal  house  of  Athelstane,  having  been 
vice-comes  or  sheriff  of  Warwickshire  in  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.  His  son  Turchill  retained  his  extensive 
possessions  under  the  Conqueror ;  aind,  when  they  were 
divided  on  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Jtargaret  to  a 
Norman  noble  created  by  William  Rufus  earl  of  Warwick, 
Turchill  betook  himself  to  his  numerous  lordships  in  the 
Arden  district  of  the  county,  and  assumed  the  name  of  De 
Ardern  or  Arden.  His  descendants,  who  retained  the  name, 
multiplied  in  the  shire,  and  were  united  in  marriage  from 
time  to  time  witli  the  best  Norman  blood  of  the  kingdom. 
The  family  of  Arden  thus  ;-epresented  the  union,  under 
somewhat  rare  conditions  of  original  distinction  and 
equality,  of  the  two  great  race  elements  that  have  gone  to 
tlio  making  of  the  typical  modern  Englishman.  The 
immediate  ancestors  of  Mary  Shakespeare  were  the  Ardens 
of  I'arkhal!,  near  Aston  in  the  north-western  part  of  the 
shire.  During  tlie  Wars  of  the  Roses  Robert  Arden  of 
•  Parkhall,  being  at  the  outset  of  the  quarrel  a  devoted 
Yorkist,  was  seized  by  the  Lancastrians,  attached  for  high 
treason,  and  executed  at  Ludlow  in  lio2.  He  left  an  only 
son,  Walter  Arden,  wlio  was  restored  by  Edward  IV.  to  his 
position  in  the  country,  and  received  back  his  hereditary 
forciships  and  lands.  At  his  death  jn  1502  he  was  buried 
with  great  state  in  Aston  church,  where  three  separate 
monuments  were  erected  to  his  memory.  He  had  married 
Eleanor,  second  daughter  of  John  Hampden  of  Bucks,  and 
by  her  had  eight  children,  six  sons  and  two  daughters. 
The  eldest  son.  Sir  John  At  en  of  Parkhall,  having  been 
for  some  years  esquire  of  tlie  body  of  Henry  VIL,  was 
knighted  and  rewarded  by  that  monarch.  Sir  John  was 
the  great-uncle  of  Mary  Shakespeare, — his  brother  Tliomas, 
the  second  son  of  Walter  Arden,  being  her  grandfather. 
Thomas  Arden  is  found  residing  at  Aston  Cantlowe  during 
the  first  half  of  tho  ICth  century,  and  in  the  year  l.'iOl  he 
united  with  his  son  Robert  Arden,  Mary  Shakespeare's 
father,  in  the  purcha.so  of  tlie  Snitterfield  estate.  JIary 
ShaJccspeare  was  thus  directly  connected  by  birth  and 
lineage  with  tho.se  who  had  taken,,  and  were  to  take,  a 
foremost  part  in  the  great  conflicts  which  constitute  turning- 
points  in  tlie  history  of  tlie  country.  On  her  father's  side 
she  was  related  to  Robert  Ardert,  who  in  the  loth  century 
lost  his  life  while  engaged  in  rallying  local  forces  on  behalf 
of  the  White  Rose,  and  on  her  mother's  side  to  John 
Hampden,  who  took  a  still  more  distinguished  part  in  tlio 
momentous  civil  struggles  of  the  17th  century. 

A  very  needless  and  abortive  attempt  has  beoirmade  t& 
call  in  question  Robert  Arden'.s  social  and  family  position 
on  the  ground  that  in  a  contemporary  deed  he  i.s  called  a 
husbandman  {<iffncolfi),-^t\ic  assumption  being  that  a 
husbandman  is  simply  a  farm-labourer.  But  the  term 
husbandman  was  often  used  in  Shakespeare's  day  to  desig- 


nate a  landed  proprietor  who  farmed  one  of  his  own  estates. 
The  fact  of  his  being  spoken  of  in  official  documents  as 
a  husbandman  does  not  therefore  in  the  least  affcci  Robert 
Arden's  social  position,  or  his  relation  to  the  great  house 
of  Arden,  which  is  now  established  on  the  clearest  evidence. 
He  was,  however,  a  younger  member  of  the  house,  and 
would  naturally  share  in  the  diminished  fortune  and 
obscurer  career  of  such  a  position.  But,  even  as  a  cadet 
of  so  old  and  distinguished  a  family,  he'would  tenaciously 
preserve  the  generous  traditions  of  birth  and  breeding  ho 
had  inherited.  Mary  Arden  was  thus  a  gentlewoman  in  Mary 
the  truest  sense  of  the  terui,  and  she  would  bring  into  her  Arden— 
husband's  household  elements  of  character  and  culture  '^^^''^'='^'' 
that  would  be  of  priceless  value  to  the  /amily,  and  espe-  inCujnce 
cially  to  the  eldest  son,  who  naturaily  had  the  first  place 
in  her  care  and  love.  A  good  mother  is  to  an  imagina- 
tive boy  his  earliest  ideal  of  womanhood,  and  in  her  for 
him  are  gathered  up,  in  all  their  vital  fulness,  the  ten- 
derness, sympathy,  and  truth,  the  infinite  love,  patieui 
watchfulness,  and  self-abnegation  of  the  whole  sex.  And 
the  experience  of  his  mother's  bearing  and  example  during 
the  vicissitudes  of  their  home  life  must  have  been  for  tho 
future  dramatist  a  vivid  revelation  of  the  more  sprightly 
and  gracious,  as  well  as  of  the  profounder  elements,  of 
female  character.  In  tho  earlier  and  prosperous  days  at 
Stratford,  when  all  within  the  home  circle  was  bright  and 
happy,  and  in  her  intercourse  with  her  boy  Mary  Shaks^ 
speare  could  freely  unfold  the  attractive  qualities  that  had 
so  endeared  her  to  her  father's  heart,  the  delightful  image 
of  the  young  mother  would  melt  unconsciously  into  the 
boy's  mind,- fill  his  imagination,  and  become  a  storehouse 
whence  in  after  years  he  would  draw  some  of  the  finest 
lines  in  his  matchless  portraiture  of  women.  •  In  the  darker 
days  that'  followed  he  would  learn  something  of  the  vast 
possibilities  of  suffering,  personal  and  sympathetic,  be- 
longing to  a  deep  and  sensitive  nature,  and  as  the  trouble.'* 
made  head  he  would  gain  some  insight  into  the  quiet 
courage  and  self-ixissession,  the  unwearied  fortitude,  sweet- 
ne.ss,  and  dignity  which  such  a  nature  reveals  when  stirred 
to  its  depths  by  adversity,  and  rallying  all  lis  resources 
to  meet  the  inevitable  storms  of  fate.  These  storms  were 
not  simply  the  ever-deepening  pecuniary  embarrassments 
Snd  consequent  loss  of  social  position.  In  the  very  crisis 
of  tho  troubles,  in  the  spring  of  1579,  death  entered  the 
straitened  household,  carrying  off  Ann,  the  younger  of  the 
only  two  remaining  daughters  of  John  and  Mary  Shake- 
speare. A  characteristic  trait  of  the  father's  grief  and 
pride  is  afforded  by  the  entry  in  the  church  books  that  a 
somewhat  excessive  sum  was  paid  on  this  occasion  for  tho 
tolling  of  the  bell.  Even  with  ruin  staring  him  in  the 
face  John  Shakespeare  would  forego  no  point  of  customary 
respect  nor  abate  one  jot  of  the  ceremonial  usage  proper 
.to  the  family  of  an  eminent  burgess,  although  the  observ- 
ance might  involve  a  very  needless  outlay.  In  passing 
through  these  chequered  domestic  scenes  and  vividly 
realizing  the  alternations  of  grief  and  hope,  the  eldest  son, 
even  in  his  early  years,  would  gain  a  fund  of  memorable, 
experiences.  From  his  native  sensibility  and  strong 
family  affection  he  would  passionately  .sympathize  with 
his  parents  in  their  apparently  hopeless  .struggle  against 
the  slings  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune.  Above  all 
he  would  cherish  the  memory  of  his  mother's  noble  bear- 
ing alike  under  serene  and  clouded  skies,  and  learn  to 
estimate  at  their  true  worth  tho  refined  strength  of 
inherited  courage,  tho  dignified  grace  and  silent  helpful- 
ness of  inherited  courtesy  and  genuine  kindness  of  heart. 
These  recollections  were  vitalized  in  the  sprightly  intelli- 
gence, quick  .sympathy,  and  loving  truthfulness  belonging 
to  the  female  characters  of  his  early  comedies,  as  well  as 
in  the  profounder  notes  of  womanly  grief  and  suffering. 


748 


SHAKES?  E  ARE 


struck  with  bo  sure  a  hand  and  with  such  depth  and 
intensity  of  tone,  in  the  early  tragedies. 
Jualities  But  in  addition  to  her  constant  influence  and  example  the 
nhorited  pogf  ■^y^3  ]n'obably  indebted  to  his  mother  for  certain  ele- 
Q^otl  er"  ments  of  his  own  mind  and  character  directly  inherited  from 
her.  This  position  may  be  maintained  without  accepting  the 
vague  and  comparatively  empty  dictum  that  Shakespeare 
derived  his  genius  from  his  mother,  as  many  eminent  men 
are  loosely  said  to  have  done.  The  sacred  gift  of  genius 
has  ever  been,  and  perhaps  always  will  be,  inexplicable. 
No  analysis,'  however  complete,  of  the  forces  acting  on 
t!ie  individual  mind  can  avail  ti?Te.xtract  this  vital  secret. 
The  elements  of  race,  country,  parentage,  and  education, 
though  all  powerful  factors  in  its  development,  fail  ade- 
quately to  account  for  the  mystery  involved  in  pre-eminent 
poetical  genius.  Like  the  unseen  wind  from  heaven  it 
bloweth  where  it  listeth,  and  the  inspired  voice  is  gladly 
heard  of  men,  but  none  can  tell  whence  it  cometh  or 
whither  it  goeth.  While,  however,  genius  is  thus  without 
ancestry  or  lineage,  there  are  elements  of  character  and 
qualities  of  mind  that,  like  the  features  of  the  countenance 
and  the  lines  of  the  bodily  frame,  appear  to  be  clearly 
transmissible  from  parent  to  child.  Shakespeare  not 
iinfrequently  recognizes  this  general  truth,  especially  in 
relation  to  moral  qualities ;  and  it  is  mainly  qualities  of 
this  kind  that  he  himself  appears  to  have  inherited  from 
his  gently  born  and  nurtured  mother,  Mary  Arden  of 
the  Asbies.  At  least  it  is  hardly  fanciful  to  say  that 
iu  the  life  and  character  of  the  poet  we  may  trace  ele- 
ments of  higher  feeling  and  conduct  derived  from  the 
hereditary  culture  and  courtesy,  the  social  insight  and 
refinement,  of  the  Ardens.  Amongst  such  elements  may 
bo  reckoned  his  strong  sense  of  independence  and  self- 
respect,  his  delicate  feeling  of  honour,  his  habitual  con- 
sideration for  others,  and,  above  all  perhaps,  his  deep 
instinctive  regard  for  all  family  interests  and  relationships, 
for  everything  indeed  connected  with  family  character 
and  position.  ■  The  two  epithets  which  those  who  knew 
Shakespeare  personally  most  habitually  applied  to  hira 
appear  to  embody  some  of  these  characteristics.  They 
unite  in  describing  hira  as  "gentle"  and  "honest"  in 
character,  and  of  an  open  and  free,  a  frank  and  generous 
disposition.  The  epithet  "gentle  "  may  be  taken  to  repre- 
sent the  innate  courtesy,  the  delicate  consideration  for  the 
feelings  of  otliers,  which  belongs  in  a  marked  degree  to 
the  best  representatives  of  gentle  birth,  although  happily 
it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  them.  The  second  epithet, 
•"honest,"  which  in  the  usage  of  the  time  meant  honourable, 
may  be  taken  to  e.xpress  the  high  spirit  of  independence 
and  self-respect  which  carefully  respects  the  just  claims 
and  rights  of  others.  One  point  of  the  truest  gentle 
breeding,  which,  if  not  inherited  from  his  mother,  must 
have  been  derived  from  her  teaching  and  example,  is  the 
cardinal  maxim,  which  Shakespeare  seems  to  have  faith- 
fully observed,  as  to  nice  exactness  in  money  matters-o- 
the  maxim  not  lightly  to  incur  pecuniary  obligations,  .ind 
if  incurred  to  meet  them  with  scrupulous  precision  and 
punctuality.  This  he  could  not  have  learnt  from  his 
father,  who,  though  an  honest  man  enough,  was  too  eager 
and  careless  to  be  very  particular  on  the  point.  Indeed, 
carelessness  in  money  matters  seems  rather  to  have 
belonged  to  the  Snitterfield  family,  the  poet's  uncle  Henry 
having  been  often  in  the  courts  for  debt,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  this  was  true  of  his  father  also.  But,  while  his 
father  was  often  prosecuted  for  debt,  no  trace  of  any  such 
action  against  the  poet  himself,  for  any  amount  however 
small,  has  been  discovered.  He  sued  others  for  money 
due  to  him  and  at  times  for  sums  comparatively  small, 
but  he  never  appears  as  a  debtor  himself.  Indeed,  his 
whole  life  contradicts  the  cupposition  that  he  would 'ever 


have  rendered  himself  liable  to  such  a  humiliation.  The 
family  troubles  must  have  very  early  developed  and 
strengthened  the  high  feeling  of  honour  on  this  vital 
point  he  had  inherited.  He  must  obviously  have  taken 
to  heart  the  lesson  his  father's  imprudence  could  hardly 
fail  to  impress  on  a  mind  so  capacious  and  reflective. 
John  Shakespeare  was  no  doubt  a  warm-hearted  lovable 
man,  who  would  carry  the  sympathy  and  affection  of  his 
family  with  him  through  all  his  troubles,  but  his  eldest 
son,  who  early  understood  the  secret  springs  as  well  as  the 
open  issues  of  life,  must  have  realized  vividly  the  rock  on 
which  their  domestic  prosperity  had  been  wrecked,  and 
before  he  left  home  he  liad  evidently  formed  an  invincible 
resolution  to  avoid  it  at  all  hazards.  This  helps  to  explaia 
what  has  often  excited  surprise  in  relation  to  his  future 
career — his  business  industry,  financial  skill,  and  steady 
progress  to  what  may  be  called  worldly  success.  Few 
things  are  more  remarkable  in  Shakespeare's  personal 
history  than  the  resolute  spirit  of  independence  he  seems 
to  have  displayed  from  the  moment  he  left  his  straitened 
household  to  seek  his  fortunes  in  the  world  to  the  time 
when  he  returned  to  live  at  Stratford  as  a  man  of  wealth 
and  position  in  the  town.  While  many  of  his  fellow 
dramatists  were  spendthrifts,  in  constant  difficulties,  lead- 
ing disorderly  lives,  and  sinking  into  unhonoured  graves, 
he  must  have  husbanded  his  early  resources  with  a  rare 
amount  of  quiet  firmness  and  self-control.  Cliettle's  testi- 
mony as  to  Shakespeare's  character  and  standing  during 
his  first  years  in  London  is  decisive  on  this  head.  Having 
published  a  posthumous  work  by  Greene,  in  which  Mar- 
lowe and  Shakespeare  were  somewhat  sharply  referred  to, 
Chettle  expressed  his  regret  in  a  preface  to  a  work  of  his 
own  issued  a  few  m.onths  later,  in  December  1592;  he 
intimates  that  at  the  tim.e  of  publishing  Greene's  Groats- 
worth  of  Wit  he  knew  neither  JIarlowe  nor  Shakespeare, 
and  that  he  does  not  care  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
former.  But  having  made  Shakespeare's  acquaintance 
in  the  interval  he  expresses  his  regret  that  he  should, 
even  as  editor,  have  published  a  word  to  his  disparage- 
ment, adding  this  remarkable  testimony  :  "Because  myself 
have  seen  his  demeanour,  no  less  civil  than  he  excellent 
in  the  qualities  he  professes ;  besides,  divers  of  worship 
have  reported  his  uprightness  of  dealing,  which  argues 
his  honesty,  and  his  facetious  grace  in  writing,'  which 
approves  his  art.^  So  that  Shakespeare,  during  his 
earliest,  and  most  anxious  years. in  London,  had  not  only 
kept  himself  out  of  debt  and  difficulty,  but  had  estab- 
lished a  reputation  of  strictly  honourable  conduct,  "  divers 
of  worship,"  i.e.,  men  of  position  and  authority  entitled 
to  speak  on  such  a  point,  "  having  reported  his  upright- 
ness of  dealing,  which  argued  his  honesty."  Now,  consider- 
ing 'the  poet's  associates,  occupations,  and  surround- 
ings, this  is  significant  testimony,  and  conclusively  proves 
that,  although  fond  of  .social  life  and  its  enjoyments, 
and  without  a  touch  of  harshness  or  severity  in  his  temper, 
he  yet  held  himself  thoroughly  in  hand,  that  amidst 
the  ocean  of  new  experiences  and  desires  on  which  he 
was  suddenly  launched'  he  never  abandoned  the  helm, 
never  lost  command  over  his  course,  never  sacrifiped  the 
larger  interests  of  the  future  to  the  clamorous  or  excessive 
demands  of  the  hour.  And  this  no  doubt  indicates  the 
direction  iu  which  he  was  most  indebted  to  his  mother. 
From  his  father  he  might  have  derived  ambitious  desires, 
energetic  impulses,  and  an  excitable  temper  :  capable  of 
rushing  to  the  verge  of  passionate  excess,  but,  if  so,  it  is 
clear  that  he  inherited  from  his  mother  the  firmness  of 
nerve  and  fibre  as  well  as  the  ethical  strength  required  for 
regulating  these  violent  and  explosive  elements.  If  he 
received  as  a  paternal  heritage  a  very  tempest  and  whirl- 
wind of  passion,   the  maternal  gift  of  temperance  and 


S  H  A  K  E  S  P  E  A  K  iJ 


749 


measure  would  help  to  give  it  smoothness  and  finish  in 
the  working,  would  supply  in  some  degree  at  least  the 
power  of  concentration  and  self-control  indispensable  for 
moulding  the  extremes  of  exuberant  sensibility  and  pas- 
eionate  impulse  into  forms  of  intense  and  varied  dramatic 
■oortraiture ;  and  of   course   all  the    finer  and   regulative 
elements   of  character  and  disposition  derived  from  the 
spindle  side  of  the  house  would,  throughout  the   poet's 
early  years,  be  strengthened  and  developed  by  his  mother's 
constant  presence,  influence,  and  example, 
stairss-        John  and  Mary  Shakespeare  had  eight  children,  four 
spcare's   gons  and   four  daughters.     Of  the  latter,  two,   the  first 
''""'■      Joan  and  Margaret,  died  in  infancy,   before  the  birth  of 
the  poet,  and  a  third,  Anne,  in  early  childhood.     In  addition 
to  the  poet,  three  sons,  Gilbert,  Richard,  and  Edmund, 
and  one  daughter,   the  second  Joan,   lived  to   maturity 
and   will   be   referred   to   again.      WiUiam    Shakespeare 
was  christened  in  Stratford  church  on  April  26,    1564, 
having  most  probably  been  born,  according  to  tradition, 
on  the    23d.     In  July  of  the  same  year   the  town  was 
visited  by  a  severe  outbreak  of  the  plague,  which  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months  carried  off  one-sixth  of  the  inhab- 
itants.    Fortunately,  however,  the  family  of  the   Shake-  • 
speares   wholly  escaped   the    contagion,   their   exemption 
■     being  probably   due   to  the  fact   that  they  lived  in  the 
healthiest  part  of  the  town,  away  from  the  river  side,  on  a 
dry  and  porous  soil.     At  the  back  of  Henley  Street,  indeed, 
were  the  gravel  pits  of  the  guild,  which  were  in  frequent 
use  for  repairing  the  inundated  pathways  near  the  river 
after  its  periodical  overflows.     For  two  years  and  a  half 
William,  their  first-born  son,  remained  the  only  child  of 
his  parents,  and  all  his  mother's  love  and   care   would 
naturally  be  lavished  upon  him.     A  special  bond  would 
in  this  way  be  established  between  mother  and  child,  and, 
his  father's  affairs  being  at  the  time  in  a  highly  prosperous 
state,  Mary  Shakespeare  would  see  to  it  that  the  boy  had 
all  the  pleasures  and  advantages  suitable  to  his  age,  and 
which  the  family  of  a  foremost  Stratford  burgess  could 
Early       easily  command.     Healthy  outdoor  enjoyment  is  not  the 
life.         least  valuable  part  of  a  boy's  education,   and  the   chief 
recreations   available   for  the   future  dramatist  in    those 
early  years  would  be  the  sports  and  pastimes,  the  recur- 
ring festivals,  spectacles,  and  festivities,  of  the  town  and 
neighbourhood,    especially   the    varying   round    of   rural 
occupations  and  the  celebration  in  the  forest  farms  and 
villages  of   the   chief  incidents  of  the  agricultural  year. 
Seed  time  and  harvest,  summer  and  winter,  each  brought 
its  own  group  of   picturesque  merry-makings,    including 
some  more  important  festivals  that  evoked  a  good  deal  of 
rustic  pride,  enthusiasm,  and  display.     There  were,  during 
these  years,  at  least  throe  of  the  forest  farms  where  the 
poet's  parents  would  be  always  welcome,  and  where  the 
boy  must  have  spent  many  a  happy  day  amidst  the  free- 
Raral      dom  and  delights  of  outdoor  country  life.     At  Snitterfield 
spoita      his   grandfather   would   be  proud  enough   of  the   curly- 
*"    ,       headed  youngster  with  the  fine  hazel  eyes,  and  his  uncle 
rnmblvs.  Henry  would  be  charmed  at  the  boy's  interest  in  all  he 
saw  and  heard  as  he  trotted  with  him  through  the  byres 
and  barns,  the  poultry  yard  and  steading,  or,  from  a  safe 
nook  on  the  bushy  margin  of  the  pool,  enjoyed  the  fun 
and  excjtement  of  sheep- washing,  or  later  sn  watcbid  the 
mysteries  of  the  shearing  and  ss  -v  the  heavy  fleece  fall 
from  the  sides  of  the  p^lpflating  victim  before  the  sure 
and  rapid  furrov.-ing  of  the  shears.     He  would  no  doubt 
also  be  present  at  the  shearing  feast  and  see  the  queen  of 
yi-A  festival  receive  her  rustic  guests  and  distribute  amongst 
-ip.m  her  flornl  giTis.     At  Wilmecote,  in  the  solid  oak- 
tipjV^red  dwelling  of   the   Asbies,  with    its  well-stocked 
garden  and  orchard,  the  boy  would  be  received  with  cordial 
hospitality,  as  well  as  with  the  attention  and  respect  due 


to  his  parents  as  the  proprietors  and  to  himself  as  the  heir 
of  the  maternal  estate.  At  Shottery  the  welcome  of  tho 
Shakespeares  would  not  be  less  cordial  or  friendly,  as 
there  is  evidence  to  show  that  as  early  as  1566  the 
families  were  known  to  each  other,  John  Shakespeare 
having  in  that  year  rendered  Richard  Hathaway  an  im- 
portant personal  service.  Here  the  poet  met  his  future 
bride,  Anne  Hathaway,  in  all  the  charm  of  her  sunny  girl- 
hood, and  they  may  be  said  to  have  grown  up  together, 
except  that  from  the  difference  of  their  ciges  she  would 
reach  early  womanhood  while  he  was  yet  a  stripling.  In 
his  later  youthful  years  he  would  thus  be  far  more  fre- 
quently at  the  Hathaway  farm  than  at  Snitterfield  or  the 
Asbies.  There  were,  however,  family  connexions  of  tho 
Shakespeares  occupying  farms  further  afield,- — Hills  and 
Webbs  at  Bearley  and  Lamberts  at  Barton-on-the-Heath. 
There  was  thus  an  exceptionally  wide  circle  of  country 
life  open  to  the  poet  during  his  growing  years.  And  in 
those  years  he  must  have  repeatedly  gone  the  whole 
picturesque  round  with  the  fresh  senses  and  eager  feeling, 
the  observant  eye  and  open  mind,  that  left  every  detail, 
from  the  scarlet  hips  by  the  wayside  to  the  proud  tops  of 
the  eastern  pines,  imprinted  indelibly  upon  his  he'  t  and 
brain.  Hence  the  apt  and  vivid  references  to  the  scenes 
and  scenery  of  his  youth,  the  intense  and  penetrating 
glances  at  the  most  vital  aspects  as  well  as  the  minutest 
beauties  of  nature,  with  which  his  dramas  abound.  These 
glances  are  so  penetrating,  the  result  of  such  intimate 
knowledge  and  enjoyment,  that  they  often  seem  to  reveal 
in  a  moment,  and  by  a  single  touch  as  it  were,  all  the 
loveliness  and  charm  of  the  objects  thus  rapidly  flashed  on 
the  inward  eye.  In  relation  to  the  scenes  of  his  youth 
what  fresh  and  delightful  hours  at  the  farms  are  reflected 
in  the  full  summer  beauty  and  motley  humours  of  a 
sheep-shearing  festival  in  the  Winter's  Tah  ;  in  the  autumn 
glow  of  the  "  sun-burnt  sicklemcn  and  sedge-crowned 
nymphs"  of  the  masque  in  the  Tempest;  and  in  the  vivid 
pictures  of  rural  sights  and  sounds  in  spring  and  winter 
so  musically  rendered  in  the  owl  and  cuckoo  songs  of 
Love's  Labour's  Lost\  But,  in  addition  to  the  festivities 
and  merry-makings  of  the  forest  farms,  it  is  clear  that,  in 
his  early  years,  the  poet  had  some  experience  of  country 
sports  proper,  such  as  hunting,  hawking,  coursing,  wild- 
duck  shooting,  and  the  like.  Many  of  these  sports  were 
pursued  by  the  local  gentry  and  the  yeomen  together,  and 
the  poet,  as  the  son  of  a  well-connected  burgess  of  Strat- 
ford, who  had  recently  been  mayor  of  the  town  and 
possessed  estates  in  the  county,  would  be  well  entitled  to 
share  in  them,  while  his  handsome  presence  and  courteous 
bearing  would'  be  likely  to  ensure  him  a  hearty  welcome. 
If  any  of  the  stiffer  local  magnates  looked  coldly  upon  the 
high-spirited  youth,  or  resented  in  any  way  his  presence 
amongst  them,  their  conduct  would  be  likely  enough  to 
provoke  the  kind  of  sportive  retaliations  that  might 
naturally  culminate  in  the  deer-stealing  adventure.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  is  clear  from  internal  evidence  that 
the  poet  was  practically  familiar  with  the  field  sports  of 
his  day. 

In  the  town  tne  cnief  hoiiaay  spectacles  and  entertain- 
ments were  those  connected  with  tho  Christmas,  New 
Year,  and  Easter  festivals,  the  May-day  rites  and  games, 
the  pageants  of  delight  of  Whitsuntide,  the  beating  of  the 
bounds  during  Rogation  week,  and  the  occasional  repre- 
sentation of  mysteries,  moralities,  and  stage-plays.  In 
relation  to  the  main  bent  of  the  poet's  mind,  and  the 
future  development  of  his  powers,  the  latter  constituted 
probably  the  most  important  educational  influence  and 
stimulus  which  the  social  activities  and  public  entertain- 
ments of  the  place  could  have  supplied.  Jlost  of  these 
recurring   celebrations  involved,    it  is   true,   a   dramatic 


Holiui-y 
spectacioa 
and 
restivitic  . 


750 


SHAKESPEARE 


element, — some  hero  or  exploit,  some  emblem  or  allegory, 
being  represented  by  means  of  costumed  personations, 
pantomime,  and  dumb  show,  while  in  many  cases  songs, 
dances,  and  brief  dialogues  were  interposed  as  part  of  a 
performance.  There  were  masques  and  morris-dancing 
on  May-day,  as  well  as  mummers  and  waits  at  Christmas. 
lu  a  number  of  towns  and  villages  the  exploits  of  Robin 
Hood  and  his  associates  were  also  celebrated  on  May-day, 
often  amidst  a  picturesque  confusion  of  floral  emblems 
and  forestr}'  devices.  In  Sliakespeare's  time  the  May-day 
rites  and  games  thus  included  a  variety  of  elements  charged 
with  legendary,  historical,  and  emblematical  significance. 
But,  notwithstanding  this  mi.xture  of  festive  elements,  the 
celebration  as  a  whole  retained  its  leading  character  and 
purpose.  It  was  still  the  spontaneous  meeting  of  town  and 
country  to  welcome  the  fresh  beauty  of  the  spring,  the 
welcome  being  reflected  in  the  open  spaces  of  the  sports 
by  tall  painted  masts  decked  with  garlands,  streamers, 
and  flowery  crowns,  and  in  the  public  thoroughfares  by 
the  leafy  screens  and  arches,  the  bright  diffused  blossoms 
and  fragiant  spoils  brought  from  the  forest  by  rejoicing 
youths  and  maidens  at  the  dawn.  May-day  was  thus 
well  fitted  to  be  used,  as  it  often  is  by  Shakespeare,  as 
the  comprehensive  symbol  of  all  that  is  delightful  and 
exhilarating  in  the  renewed  life  and  vernal  freshness  of 
the  opening  year. 
.Vhit-  After  May-day,  Whitsuntide  was  at  Stratford  perhaps 

.-siiDtiJe.  tlie  most  important  season  of  festive  pageantry  and  scenic 
display.  In  addition  to  the  procession  of  the  guild  and 
trades  and  the  usual  holiday  ales  and  sports,  it  involved  a 
distinct  and  somewhat  noteworthy  element  of  dramatic 
representation.  And,  as  in  the  case  of  the  regular  stage- 
plays,  the  high-bailiff  and  council  appear  to  have  patron- 
ized and  sui)ported  the  performances.  We  find  in  the 
chamberlain's  accounts  entries  of  sums  paid  "  for  exhibit- 
ing a  pastyme  ^t  ^^^litsuntide."  Shakespeare  himself 
refers  to  these  dramatic  features  of  the  celebration,  and  in 
a  manner  that  almost  suggests  he  may  in  his  youth  have 
taken  part  in  them.  However  this  may  be,  the  popular 
celebrations  of  Shakespeare's  youth  must  have  supplied  a 
kind  of  training  in  the  simpler  forms  of  poetry  and 
dramatic  art,  and  have  afforded  some  scope  for  the  early 
exercise  of  his  own  powers  in  botli  directions.  This  view 
is  indirectly  confirmed  by  a  passage  in  the  early  scenes  of 
I'he  Return  from  Parnassus,  where  the  academic  spankers 
sneer  at  the  poets  who  come  up  from  the  country  without 
any  university  training.  The  sneer  is  evidently  the  more 
bitter  as  it  implies  that  some  of  these  poets  had  been 
successful, — more  successful  than  the  college-bred  wits. 
The  academic  critics  suggest  that  tlie  nurseries  of  these 
poets  were  the  country  ale-house  and  the  country  green, 
— the  special  stimulus  to  their  powers  being  the  May-day 
celebrations,  the  morris-dances,  the  hobby-horse,  and  the 
like. 
Inter-  But  the  moralities,  interludes,  and  stage-plays   proper 

lude3  afforded  the  most  direct  and  varied  dramatic  instiuc- 
sta-e-  *'°"  available  in  Shakespeare's  youth.  '  The  earliest 
plays.  popular  form  of  the  drama  was  the  mystery  or  miracle 
play,  dealing  :r/,  the  main  with  Biblical  subjects ;  and, 
Coventry  being  one  of  the  chief  centres  for  the  production 
and  exhibition  of  the  mysteries,  Shakespeare  had  ample 
opportunities  of  becoming  well  acquainted  with  them. 
Some  of  the  acting  companies  formed  from  the  numerous 
trade  guilds  of  the  "shire-town"  were  moreover  in  the 
habit  of  visiting  the  neighbouring  cities  for  the  purpose 
of  exhibiting  their  plays  and  pageants.  There  is  evidence 
of  their  having  performed  at  Leicester  and  Bristol  in 
Shakespeare's  youth,  and  on  returning  from  the  latter 
city  they  would  most  probably  have  stopped  at  Stratford 
and  given  some  performances  there.     And   in  any  case. 


Coventry  -being  so  near  to  Stratford,  the  fame  of  the 
multiplied  pageants  presented  during  the  holiday  weeks  of 
Easter  and  AVhitsuntide,  and  especially  of  the  brilliant 
concourse  that  came  to  witness  the  grand  series  of  Corpus 
Christi  plays,  would  have  early  attracted  the  young  poet ; 
and  he  must  have  become  familiar  with  the  precincts  of 
the  Grey  Friars  at  Coventry  during  the  celebration  of 
these  great  ecclesiastical  festivals.  The  indirect  evidenca 
of  this  is  supplied  by  Shakespeare's  references  to  the  well- 
known  characters  of  the  mysteries,  such  as  Herod  and 
Pilate,  Cain  and  Judas,  Termagaunt  with  his  turbaned 
Turks  and  infidels,  black-burning  souls,  grim  and  gaping 
hell,  and  the  like.  The  moralities  and  interludes  that 
gradually  took  the  place  of  the  Biblical  mystwies  were 
also  acted  by  companies  of  strolling  players  over  a  wide 
area  in  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  Midland  and  western 
counties.  Malone  gives  from  an  eye-witness  a  detailed 
and  graphic  account  of  the  public  acting  of  one  of  these 
companies  at  Gloucester  in  15C9,  the  year  during  which 
the  poet's  father  as  high-bailiff  had  brought  the  stage- 
players  into  Stratford  and  inaugurated  a  series  of  per- 
formances in  the  guild  hall.  The  play  acted  at  Gloucester 
,was  The  Cradle  of  Secttrity,  one  of  the  most  striking  and 
popular  of  the  early  moralities  or  interludes.  Willis,  the 
Writer  o"f  the  account,  was  just  Shakespeare's  age,  having 
been  born  in  156-i.  As  a  boy  of  five  years  old  be  had 
been  taken  by  his  father  to  see  the  play,  and,  standing 
between  his  father's  knees,  watched  the  whole  performance 
with  such  intense  interest  that,  writing  about  it  seventy 
years  afterwards,  he  says,  "  the  subject  took  such  an  im- 
pression upon  me  that  when  I  came  afterwards  towards 
mail's  estate  it  was  as  fresh  in  my  memory  as  if  I  had 
seen  it  newly  enacted."  In  proof  of  this  he  gives  a  clear 
and  detailed  outline  of  the  play.  Willis  was  evidently  a 
man  of  no  special  gifts,  and,  if  the  witnessing  a  play  when 
,".  child  could  produce  on  an  ordinary  mind  so  memorable 
an  impression,  we  may  imagine  what  the  effect  would  be 
on  the  mind  of  the  marvellous  boy  who,  about  the  same 
time  and  under  like  circumstances,  was  taken  by  his 
father  to  see  the  performances  at  Stratford.  The  com- 
pany that  first  visited  Stratford  being  a  distinguished  one, 
their  plays  were  probably  of  a  higher  type  and  better 
acted  than  The  Cradle  of  Security  at  Gloucester  ;  and  their 
effect  on  the  young  poet  would  be  the  more  vivid  and 
stimulating  from  the  keener  sensibilities  and  latent 
dramatic  power  to  which  in  his  case  they  appealed. 
These  early  impressions  would  be  renewed  and  deepened 
with  the  boy's  advancing  years.  During  the  decade  of 
Shakespeare's  active  youth  from  1573  to  1584:  the  best 
companies  in  the  kin^dorrtOconstantly  visited  Stratford, 
and  be  would  thus  have  the  advantage  of  seeing  the  finest 
dramas  yet  produced  acted  by  the  best  players  of  the  time. 
This  would  be  for  him  a  rich  and  fruitful  experience  of  the 
flexible  and  impressive  form  of  art  which  at  a  moment  of 
exuberant  national  vitality  was  attracting  to  itself  the 
scattered  forces  of  poetic  genius,  and  soon  gained  a  position 
of  unrivalled  supremacy.  As  he  watched  the  performance 
in  turn  of  "the  various  kinds  of  interlude,  comedy,  and 
pastoral,  of  chronicle  and  biographical  pjjiys,  of  historical, 
domestic,  or  realistic  tragedy,  he  would  gain  in  instructive 
insight  into  the  wide  scope  and  vast  resources  of  the  rising 
drama.  And  he  would  have  opportunities  of  acquiring 
some  knowledge  of  stage  business,  management,  and 
effects,  as  well  as  of  dramatic  form.  Amongst  the  com- 
panies that  visited  Stratford  were  those  of  the  powerful 
local  earls  of  Leicester,  Warwick,  and  Worcester,  whosa 
members  were  largely  recruited  from  the  Midland  counties. 
The  earl  of  Leicester's  company,  the  most  eminent  of  all, 
included  several  Warwickshire  men,  while  some  of  the 
leading  members,  like  the  elder  Burbage,  appear  to  havo 


SHAKESPEARE 


151 


been  natives  of  Stratford  or  the  immediate  ueighbourliood. 
And  the  poet's  father  being,  as  we  ha^  e  seen,  so  great  a 
friend  of  the  players,  and  during  his  most  prosperous  years 
inconstant  communication  with  them,  his  son  would  Lave 
every  facility  for  studying  their  art.  Curiosity  and  in- 
terest alike  would  prompt  him  to  find  out  all  he  could 
about  the  use  of  the  stage  "  books,"  the  dibtribution  of 
the  parts,  the  cues  and  exits,  the  management  o^  voice  and 
gesture,  the  graduated  passion  and  controlled  power  of 
the  leading  actors  in  the  play,  the  just  subordination  of 
•the  less  important  parts,  and  the  measure  and  finish  of 
each  on  which  the  success  of  the  whold.60  largely  depended. 
It  is  not  improbable,  too,  that  in  connexion  with  some  of 
the  companies  Shakespeare  may  have  tried  his  hand  both 
as  poet  and  actor  even  before  leaving  Stratford.  His 
poetical  powers  could  hardly  be  unknown,  and  he  may 
have  written  scenes  and  passages  to  fill  out  an  imperfect  or 
complete  a  defective  play ;  and  from  his  known  interest 
in  their  work  he  may  have  been  pressed  by  the  actors  to 
appear  in  some  secondary  part  on  the  stage.  In  any  case 
he  would  be  acquainted  with  some  of  the  leading  players 
in  the  best  companies,  so  that  when  he  decided  to  adopt 
their  profession  he  might  reasonably  hope  on  going  to 
London  to  find  occupation  amongst  them  without  much 
difficulty  or  delay, 
scnool  Shakespeare  received  the  technical  part  or  scholastic 
edttca-  elements  of  his  education  in  the  grammar  school  of  his 
*°°-  native  town.  The  school  was  aii  old  foundation  dating 
from  the  second  half  of  the  15th  century  and  connected 
with  the  guild  of  the  Holy  Cross.  But,  having  shared  the 
fate  of  the  guild  at  the  suppression  of  religious  houses',  it 
was  restored  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553,  a  few  weeks  before 
his  death.  The  "King's  New  Sehool,"  as  it  was  now 
called,  thus  represented  the  fresh  impulse  given  to  educa- 
tion throughout  the  kingdom  during  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII. 's  earnest-minded  son,  and  well  sustained  under  the 
enlightened  rule  of  his  sister,  the  learned  virgin  queen. 
What  the  course  of  instruction  was  in  these  country 
schools  .during  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century  has 
recently  been  ascertained  by  special  research,^  and  may  be 
SLated,  at  least  in  outline,  with  some  degree  of  certainty 
and  precision.  As  might  have  been  expected,  Latin  v.as  the 
chief  scholastic  drill,  the  thorough  teaching  of  the  Roman 
tongue  being,  as  the  name  implies,  the  very  purpose  for 
which  the  grammar  schools  were  originally  founded.  The 
regular  teaching  of  Greek  was  indeed  hardly  introduced 
into  the  country  schools  until  a  somewhat  later  period. 
But  the  knowledge  of  Latin,  as  the  language  of  all  the 
learned  professions,  still  largely  used  in  literature,  was 
regarded  as  quite  indispensable.  Whatever  else  might 
be  neglected,  the  business  of  "  gerund-grinding "  was 
vigorously  carried  on,  and  the  methods  of  teaching,  the 
expedients  and  helps  devised  for  enabling  the  pupils  to 
read,  write,  and  talk  Latin,  if  rather  complex  and  operose, 
were  at  the  same  time  ingenious  and  effective.  As  a  rule 
the  pupil  entered  the  grammar  school  at  seven  years  old. 
Laving  already  acquired  either  at  home  or  at  the  petty 
school  the  rudiments  of  reading  and  writing.  During  the 
first  year  the  pupils  were  occupied  with  the  elements  of 
Latin  grammar,  the  accidence,  and  lists  of  common  words 
which  were  committed  to  memory  and  repeated  two  or 
three  times  a  week,  as  well  as  further  impressed  upon  their 
minds  by  varied  exercises.  In  the  second  year  the 
grammar  was  fully  mastered,  and  the  boys  were  drilled  in 
short  phrase-books,  such  as  the  SentnUix  Pueriles,  to 
increase  their  familiarity  with  the  structure  and  idioms  of 
the  language.  In  the  third  year  the  books  used  were 
iEsop's  Fables,  Cato'a  Maxima,  and  some  good  manual  of 

'  "What  Shakeapcoro  leamt  at  School,"  Fraser't  Magcaine,  Nov. 
1879.  Jan.  and  May,  1880. 


school  conversation,  such  as  the  Confahnlaiiones  Pttei-ihs. 
The  most  popular  of  these  manuals  in  Shakespeare's  dav 
was  that  by  the  eminent  scholar  and  still  more  eminent 
teacher  Corderius.  His  celebrated  Colloquies  were  prob- 
ably used  in  almost  every  school  in  the  kingdom ;  and 
Hoole,  writing  in  1652,  says  that  the  worth  of  tlie  book 
had  been  proved  "  by  scores  if  not  hundreds  of  impressions 
in  this  and  foreign  countries."  Bayle,  indeed,  says  that 
from  its  universal  use  in  Ihe  school^  the  editions  of  the 
book  might  be  counted  b}'  thousands.  Tliis  helps  ia 
illustrate  the  colloquial  use  of  Latin,  which  was  so  essential 
a  feature  of  grammar  school  discipline  in  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  The  evidence  of  Brinsley,  who  was 
Shakespeare's  contemporary,  conclusively  proves  that  the 
constant  speaking  of  Latin  by  all  the  boys  of  the  more 
advanced  forms  was  indispensable  even  in  the  smallest  and 
poorest  of  the  country  grammar  schools.  The  same  holds 
true  of  letter-writing  in  Latin  ;  and  this,  as  we  know  from 
the  result,  was  diligently  and  successfully  practised  in  the 
Stratford  grammar  school.  During  his  school  days,  there- 
fore, Shakespeare  would  be  thoroughly  trained  in  the 
conversational  and  epistolary  use  of  Latin,  and  several  well- 
known  passages  in  his  dramas  show  that  he  did  not  forget 
this  early  experience,  but  that  like  everything  else  he 
acquired  it  turned  to  fruitful  uses  in  his  hands.  The 
books  read  in  the  more  advanced  forms  of  the  school  were 
the  Eclogues  of  JIantuanus,  the  Tristia  and  Metamorphoses 
of  Ovid,  Cicero's  OJires,  Orations,  and  Epistles,  the 
Geoi-gics  and  jEneid  of  Virgil,  and  in  the  highest  form 
parts  of  Juvenal,  of  the  comedies  of  Terence  and  Plautus, 
and  of  the  tragedies  of  Seneca.  Shakespeare,  having 
remained  at  school  for  at  least  six  y'ears,  must  have  gone 
through  a  greater  part  of  this  course^nd,  being  a  pupil  of 
unusual  quickness  and  ability,  endowed  with  rare  strength 
of  mental  grip  and  firmness  of  moral  purpose,  he  must 
during  those  years  have  acquired  a  fair  mastery  of  Latin, 
both  colloquial  and  classicah  After  the  difficulties  of  the 
grammar  had  been  overcome,  his  early  intellectual  cravings 
and  poetic  sensibilities  would  be  alike  quickened  and 
gratified  by  the  new  world  of  heroic  life  and  adventure 
opened  to  him  in  reading  such  authors  as  Ovid  and  Virgil. 
Unless  the  teaching  at  Stratford  was  very  exceptionally 
poor  he  must  have  become  so  far  familiar  with  the  favourite 
school  authors,  such  as  Ovid,  Tully,  and  Virgil,  as  to  read 
them  intelligently  and  with  comparative  ease. 

And  there  is  no  reason  whatever  for  suppoauig  that  the  instmc- 
fion  at  the  Stratford  grammar  school  was  less  cthcient  than  in  the 
grammar  schools  of  other  provincial  towns  of  about  the  same  size. 
There  is  abiuidant  evidence  to  show  that,  with  the  fresh  impulse 
given -to  education  under  energetic  Protestant  auspices  in  the 
second  half  of  the  16th  century,  the  teaching  even  in  the  country 
grammar  schools  was  as  a  rule  painstaking,  intelligent,  and  fruitful. 
Brinsley  himself  was  for  many  years  an  eminent  and  successful 
teacher  in  the  grammar  school  of  Asliby-dc-la-Zouche,  a  small 
town  on  the  borders  of  Warwickshire,  only  a  few  miles  indeed  from 
Coventry  ;  and  in  his  Ludiis  Lilcrarius,  referring  to  a  book  of 
exercises  on  the  Latin  accidence  and  grammar  he  had  prepared,  he 
says  that  he  had  chiefly  followed  the  order  of  the  questions  "of 
that  ancient  schoolmaster  JIaster  P.runsword  of  Maxficld  (Maccles- 
field) in  Cheshire,  so  much  commended  for  his  order  and  schollers  ; 
who,  of  all  other,  commeth  therein  the  necrcst  unto  the  marke.'* 
Another  provincial  schoolnuaster,  ilr  Itobcrt  Doughty,  a  contem- 
porary of  Shakespeare,  wlio  was  for  nearly  fifty  years  at  the  head  of 
the  Wakefield  grammar  school,  is  celebrated  by  Hoole,  not  only  as 
an  eminent  teacher  who  had  constantly  sent  out  good  scholars, 
but  as  one  who  had  produced  a  class  of  teachers  emulating  his  own 
educational  zeal  and  intelligence.  The  masters, of  the  Stratford 
grammar  school  in  Shakcsiware's  lime  seem  to  have  been  men  of 
a  similar  stamp.  One  of  them,  John  iJrunsword,  who  held  the  post 
for  three  years  during  the  poet's  childhood,  was  almost  certainly  a 
relative,  probably  a  son,  of  the  eminent  Ulacclesfield  master  whose 
character  and  work  Brinsley  praises  so  highly.  At  least,  Bruna- 
word  being  an  uncommon  name,  when  wo  tind  it  borne  by  two 
grammar-school  masters  in  neighbouriag  counties  who  flourished 
either  together  or  in  close  succession  to  each  other,  it  is  natural  to 
conclude    tliat  there  must  have    been  some   relationship  between- 


752 


SHAKESPEARE 


them,  and  if  so  wo  may  be  sure  that  the  Stratford  master,  who 
was  evidently  the  younger  man, .had  been  well  trained  and  must 
have  proved  au  efllcient  tenclier.  The  masters  who  followed 
Brunsword  were  university  men  of  at  least  avera<;e  attainments 
and  ability,  as  they  rapidly  gained  promotion  in  the  cliurch. 
Thomas  Hunt,  who  was  head-master  auring  the  most  important 
years  of  Shakespeare's  school  course,  became  incumbent  of  the 
neighbouring  village  of  Luddington  ;  and,  if  there  is  any  truth  in 
tho  tradition  that  the  poet's  marriage  was  celebrated  there,  it  is 
not  improbable  that,  from  having  been  a  favourite  pupil,  he  may 
have  become  the  personal  friend  of  his  fouiier  master.  In  any 
case,  during  the  years  of  his  school  attendance  tlie  poet  must  have 
gained  sufficient  knowledge  of  Latin  to  read  for  his  own  instruc- 
tion and  delight  the  authors  included  in  the  school  curriculum 
who  had  struck  his  fancy  and  stimulated  his  awakenin,'^  poweis. 
While  his  writings  supply  clear  evidence  in  support  of  this  general 
position,  they  also  bring  out  vividly  the  fact  that  Ovid  was  a 
special  favourite  with  Shakespeare  at  the  outset  of  his  career.  The 
influence  of  this  romantic  and  elegiac  Roman  poet  is  indeed 
strongly  marked  and  clearly  traceable  in  the  poems  as  well  as  in 
the  early  play 
Home  According  to  Rowe's  account,  Shakespeare   T?a3  with- 

life  on  drawn  from  .school  about  1578,  a  year  or  two  before  he  had 
eavng  {ompleted  the  usual  course  for  boys  going  into  business  or 
passing  on  to  the  universities.  The  immediate  cause  of 
the  withdrawal  seems  to  have  been  the  growing  embarrass- 
ments of  John  Shakespeare's  affairs,  the  boy  being  wanted 
at  home  to  help  in  the  various  departments  of  his  father's 
business.  The  poet  had  just  entered  on  his  fifteenth  year, 
and  his  school  attainments  and  turn  for  affairs,  no  less 
than  his  native  CHiergy  and  ability,  fitted  liim  for  efficient 
action  in  almost  any  fairly  open  career.  But  open  careers 
were  not  numerous  at  Stratford,  and  John  Shakespeare's 
once  prosperous  way  of  life  was  now  hampered  by  actual 
and  threatening  difficulties  which  the  zeal  and  affection  of 
his  son  were  powerless  to  remove  or  avert.  No  doubt 
the  boy  did  his  best,  trying  to  understand  his  father's 
position,  and  discharging  with  prompt  alacrity  any  duties 
that  came  to  be  done.  But  he  would  soon  discover  how 
hopeless  such  efforts  were,  and  with  this  deepening 
conviction  there  would  come  upon  him  the  reaction  of 
weariness  and  disappointment,  which  is  the  true  inferno 
of  ardent  youthful  minds.  His  father's  difficulties  were 
evidently  of  the  chronic  and  complicated  kind  against 
which  the  generous  and  impulsive  forces  of  youth  and 
inexperience  are  of  little  avail.  And,  after  his  son  had 
done  his  utmost  to  relieve  the  sinking  fcrtuncii  of  the 
family,  the  ai,hing  sense  of  failure  would  be  among  the 
bitterest  experiences  of  his  early  years,  would  be  indeed 
a  sharp  awakening  to  the  realities  and  responsibilities 
of  life.  Within  the  narrow  circle  of  his  own  domestic 
relationships  and  dearest  interests  he  would  feel  with 
Hamlet  that  the  times  were  out  of  joint,  and  in  his  gloomier 
moods  be  ready  to  curse  the  destiny  that  seemed  to  lay 
upon  him,  iii  part  at  least,  the  burden  of  setting  the 
obstinately  crooked  straight.  As  a  relief  from  such 
moods  and  a  distraction  from  the  fruitless  toils  of  home 
affairs,  he  would  naturally  plunge  with  keener  zest  into 
such  outlets  for  youthful  energy  and  adventure  as  the 
town  and  neighbourhood  afforded.  What  tho  young 
poet's  actual  occupations  were  during  the  four  years 
and  a  half  that  elapsed  between  his  leaving  school  and  his 
marriage  we  have  no  adequate  materials  for  deciding  in 
any  detaih  But  the  local  traditions  on  the  subject  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  after  the  adverse  turn  in  his  fortunes 
John  Shakespeare  had  con.siderably  contracted  the  area  of 
his  commercial  transactions.  Having  virtually  alienated 
his  wife's  patrimony  by  the  mortgage  of  the  Asbies  and 
the  disposal  of  all  interest  in  the  Snitterfield  property,  he 
s'eems  to  have  given  up  the  agricultural  branches  of  his 
business,  retaining  only  his  original  occupation  of  dealer 
in  leather,  skins,  and  sometimes  carcases  as  well.  His 
wider  speculations  had  probably  turned  out  ill,  and  having 
no  longer  any  land  of  his  own  he  apparently  relinquished 


the  corn  and  timber  business,  restricting  himself  to  the 
town  trades  of  fellmonger,  wool-stapler,  and  butcher. 
Aubrey  at  least  had  heard  that  Shakespeare  after  leaving 
school  assisted  his  father  in  these  branches, — and  at  times 
w-ith  a  deal  of  youthful  extravagance  indicative  of  irre- 
pressible energy  and  spirit.  Aubrey  also  reports,  on 
the  authority  of  Beeston,  and  as  incidentally  proving  he 
knew  Latin  fairly  well,  that  for  a  time  the  poet  was  a 
teacher  in  a  country  school ;  while  Malone  believed  from 
the  internal  evidence  of  his  writings  that  he  had  spent 
two  or  three  years  in  a  lawyer's  office.  These  stories  may 
be  taken  to  indicate,  what  is  no  doubt  true,  that  at  a  time 
of  domestic  need  the  poet  was  ready  to  turn  his  hand  to 
anything  that  offered.  It  is  no  doubt  also  true  that  he 
would  prefer  the  comparative  retirement  and  regularity  of 
teaching  or  clerk's  work  to  the  intermitt«nt  drudgery  and 
indolence  of  a  retail  shop  in  a  small  market-town.  There 
is,  however,  no  direct  evidence  in  favour  of  eithe  supposi- 
tion ;  and  the  indirect  evidence  for  the  lawyer's  office 
theory  which  has  found  favour  with  several  recent  critics 
is  by  no  means  decisive.  ANTiether  engaged  in  a  lawyer's 
office  or  not,  we  may  be  quite  sure  that  during  the  years 
of  adolescence  he  was  actively  occupied  in  work  of  some 
kind  or  other.  He  was  far  too  sensible  and  energetic  to 
remain  without  employment ;  shapeless  idleness  had  no 
attraction  for  his  healthy  nature,  and  his  strong  family 
feeling  is  certainly  in  favour  of  the  tradition  that  for  a  time 
he  did  his  best  to  help  his  father  in  his  business. 

But,  however  he  may  have  been  employed,  this  interval 
of  home  life  was  for  the  poet  a  time  of  active  growth  and 
development,  and  no  kind  of  business  routine  could  avail 
to  absorb  his  expanding  powers  or  repress  the  exuberant 
vitality  of  his  nature.  l)uring  these  critical  years,  to  a 
vigorous  and  healthy  mind  such  as  Shakespeare  possessed, 
action — action  of  an  adventurous  and  recreative  kind,  in 
which  the  spirit  is  quickenod  and  refreshed  by  new 
experiences — must  have  become  an  absolute  necessity  of 
existence.  The  necessity  was  all  the  more  urgent  in 
Shakespeare's  case  from  the  narrower  circle  within  which 
the  once  prosperous  and  expanding  home  life  was  now 
confined.  We  have  seen  that  the  poet  occasionally  shared 
the  orthodox  field  sports  organized  by  the  country  gentle- 
men, where  landlords  and  tenants,  yeomen  and  squires, 
animated  by  a  kindre'd  sentiment,  meet  to  a  certain  extent 
on  common  ground.  But  this  long-drawn  pursuit  of 
pleasure  as  an  isolated  unit  in  a  iocal  crowd  would  hardly 
satisfy  the  tlii^t  for  passionate  excitement  and  personal 
adventure  whicli  is  so  dominant  an  impulse  in  the  hey-day 
of  youthful  blood.  It  is  doubtful,  too,  whether  in  the 
decline  of  his  father's  fortunes  Shakespeare  would  have 
cared  to  join  the  prosperous  concourse  of  local  sportsmen. 
He  would  probably  be  thrown  a  good  deal  amongst  a 
somewhat  lower,  though  no  doubt  energetic  and  intelli- 
gent, class  of  town  companions.  And  they  would  devise 
together  exploits  which,  if  somewhat  irregular,  possessed 
the  inspiring  charm  of  freedom  and  novelty,  and  would 
thus  be  congenial  to  an  ardent  nature  with  a  passionate 
interest  in  life  and  action.  Such  a  nature  would  eagerly 
welcome  enterprises  with  a  dash  of  hazard  and  daring  in 
them,  fitted  to  bring  the  more  resolute  virtues  into  play, 
and  develop  in  moments  of  emergency  the  manly  qualities 
of  vigilance  and  promptitude,  courage  and  endurance, 
dexterity  and  skill.  It  would  seem  indeed  at  first  sight 
as  though  a  quiet  neighbourhood  like  Stratford  could 
afford  little  scope  for  such  adventures.  But  even  at 
Stratford  there  were  always  the  forest  and  the  river,  tho 
outlying  farms  with  adjacent  parks  and  manor  houses,  the 
wide  circle  of  picturesque  towns  and  villages  with  their 
guilds  and  clubs,  their  local  Shallows  and  Slenders, 
l>ogberries  and  Verges ;  and   in   the  most   quiet   neigh- 


SHAKESPEARE 


753 


bourhoods  it  still  remaias  true  that  adventures  are  to  tne 
adventurous.  That  this  dictum  was  verified  in  Shake- 
speare's experience  seems  clear  alike  from  the  internal 
evidence  of  his  writings  aud  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
local  tradition.  In  its  modern  form  the  story  of  the 
Bidford  challenge  exploit  may  indeed  be  little  better  than 
a  myth.  But  in  substance  it  is  by  no  means  incredible, 
and  if  we  knew  all  about  the  incident  we  should  probably 
find  there  were  other  points  to  be  tested  between  the 
rival  companies  besides  strength  of  head  to  resist  the 
effects  of  the  well-known  Bidford  beer.  The  prompt  re- 
fusal to  return  with  his  companions  and  renew  the 
contest  on  the  following  day, — a  decision  playfully  ex- 
pressed and  emphasized  in  the  well-known  doggrel  lines, — 
implies  that  in  Shakespeare's  view  such  forms  of  good 
fellowship  were  to  be  accepted  on  social  not  self-indulgent 
grounds,  that  they  were  not  to  be  resorted  to  for  the  sake 
of  the  lower  accessories  only,  or  allowed  to  grow  into  evil 
habits  from  being  unduly  repeated  or  prolonged.  It  is 
clear  that  this  general  principle  of  recreative  and  adventur- 
ous enterprise,  announced  more  than  once  in  his  writings, 
guided  his  own  conduct  even  in  the  excitable  and  impulsive 
season  of  youth  and  early  manhood.  If  he  let  himself  go, 
as  he  no  doubt  sometimes  did,  it  was  only  as  a  good  rider 
on  coming  to  the  turf  gives  the  horse  his  head  in  order  to 
enjoy  the  exhilaration  of  a  gallop,  having  the  bridle  well 
in  hand  the  while,  and  able  to  rein  in  the  excited  steed 
at  a  moment's  notice.  It  may  be  said  of  Shakespeare  at 
>uch  seasons,  as  of  his  own  Prince  Hal,  that  he— 

''  Obscur'd  his  contemplation 
Under  the  veil  of  wildness  ;  which,  no  doubt, 
Grew  like  the  summer  grass,  fastest  by  night, 
Unseen,  yet  crescive  in  his  faculty." 

The  deer-stealing  tradition  illustrates  the  same  point ; 
a.nd  though  belonging  perhaps  to  a  rather  later  period  it 
■  may  be  conveniently  noticed  here.  This  fragment  of 
Shakespeare's  personal  history  rests  on  a  much  surer  basis 
than  the  Bidford  incident,  being  supported  not  only  by 
early  multiplied  and  constant  traditions,  but  by  evidence 
which  the  poet  himself  has  supplied.  Rowe's  somewhat 
formal  version  of  the  narrative  is  to  the  effect  that  Shake- 
speare in  his  youth  was  guilty  of  an  extravagance  which, 
though  unfortunate  at  the  time,  had  the  happy  result  of 
helping  to  develop  his  dramatic  genius.  This  misfortune 
was  that  of  being  engaged  with  some  of  his  companions 
more  than  once  in  robbing  a  park  belonging  to  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy  of  Charlecote.  Sir  Thomas,  it  "is  said,  prosecuted 
Lim  sharply  for  the  offence,  and  in  retaliation  he  wrote  a 
satirical  ballad  upon  him,  which  so  incensed  the  baronet 
that  Shakespeare  thought  it  prudent  to  leave  Stratford 
and  join  his  old  friends  and  associates  the  players  in 
London.  Other  versions  of  the  tradition  exist  giving  fresh 
details,  some  of  which  are  on  the  face  of  them  later 
additions  of  a  fictitious  and  fanciful  kind.  But  it  would 
be  useless  to  discuss  the  accretions  incident  to  any  narrative, 
however  true,  orally  transmitted  through  two  or  three 
generations  before  being  reduced  to  a  written  shape.  All 
that  can  bo  required  or  expected  of  such  traditions  is  that 
they  should  contain  a  kernel  of  biographical  fact,  and  bo 
true  in  substance  although  possibly  not  in  form.  And 
tried  by  this  test  the  tradition  in  question  must  certainly 
be  accepted  as  a  genuine  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  poet's  early  years.  Indeed  it  could  hardly  have  been 
repeated  again  and  again  by  inhabitants  of  Stratford 
■within  a  few  years  of  Shakespeare's  death  if  it  did  not 
embody  a  characteristic  feature  of  his  early  life  which  was 
■well  kno^N-n  in  the  town.  This  feature  was  no  doubt  the 
poet's  love  of  woodland  life,  and  the  woodland  sports 
through  which  it  is  realized  in  the  most  animated  and 
■"ieorouB  form.    •>]■  -"J 7 


The  HGiglibOurhood  of  Stratford  in  Shaliespe.ire's  day  afi'oraea 
considerable  scope  for  thi?  kind  of  healthy  recreation.  Tlicro  was 
the  remnant  of  the  old  Ardcn  forest,  which,  though  still  nominally 
a  royal  domain,  was  virtually  free  for  many  kinds  of  sport.  Indeed, 
the  observance  of  the  forest  laws  had  fallen  into  such  neglect  in 
the  early  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  that  even  unlicensed  deer- 
hunting  in  the  royal  domains  was  common  enough.  And  hardly 
any  attempt  was  made  to  prevent  the  puisuit  of  the  smaller  gam] 
belonging  to  the  warren  and  the  chase.  Then,  three  or  four  mil  i 
to  the  cast  of  Stratford,  between  the  "Warwick  road  and  the  rive  , 
stretched  the  romantic  park  of  Fulbroke,  whicli,  as  the  property  01* 
an  attainted  exile,  sequestered  though  not  seized  by  the  crown, 
was  virtually  open  to  all  comers.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
when  Shakespeare  and  his  companions  wished  a  day's  outing  in  the 
woods  they  usually  resorted  to  some  part  of  tlio  Ardcn  forest  still 
available  for  sporting  purposes.  But  sometimes,  probably  on 
account  of  its  greater  convenience,  they  seem  to  have  changed  the 
venue  to  Fulbroke  Park,  and  there  they  might  easily  come  into 
collision  with  Sir  Thomas  Lucy's  keepers.  There  has  been  a  good 
deal  of  discussion  as  to  the  scene  of  the  traditional  adventure,  but 
the  probabilities  of  the  case  are  strongly  in  favour  of  Fulbroke. 
When  Sir  Walter  Scott  visited  Sir  Tliomas  Lucy  at  Cliarlecote  in 
1828,  Sir  Thomas  told  liinr  tliat  the  park  from  which  Shakespeare 
stole  the  deer  was  not  Charlecote,  but  one  belonging  to  a  mansion 
at  some  distance,  the  context  indicating  Fulbroke  as  the  scene  of 
the  exploit.  And  Mr  Bracebridgc,  in  his  interesting  pamphlet 
Shakesiiearc  no  Dccr-SUalcr,  has  thrown  fresh  light  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  made  the  whole  incident  more  intelligible  by  marshalling 
the  reasons  in  favour  of  this  view.  The  park  had,  it  seems,  been 
held  by  the  Lucys  under  the  crown  in  the  time  of  Henry  YIIL,  but 
was  afterwards  gi-anted  by  Qutfen  Slary  to  one  of  her  privy  council- 
lors,— Sir  Francis  Engelheld.  Being  a  devoted  Romanist,  he  fled 
to  Spain  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  and  was  subsequently  ad- 
judged a  traitor,  the  Fulbroke  estate  being  sequestered  though  not 
administered  by  the  crown.  The  park  being  thus  without  a  legal 
custodian  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  became  disparked^ 
the  palings  having  fallen  into  decay  and  tlie  fences  being  in  many 
places  broken  down.  The  deer  with  which  it  abounded  were  thus 
left  without  any  legal  pr,otection,  and  might  be  hunted  at  will 
by  enterprising  sportsmen.  The  only  person  likely  to  check  this 
freedom  or  to  attempt  to  do  so  was  Sir  Thomas  Lucy,  whose  own 
park  of  Charlecote  ran  for  a  mile  along  the  other  side  of  the  river 
just  below  Fulbroke.  As  the  nearest  large  landed  proprietor, 
liaving  a  direct  interest  in  the  state  of  the  neighbouring  park,  he 
might  naturally  think  himself  entitled  to  act  as  a  kind  of  ad 
interim  custodian  of  Fulbroke.  And  with  his  aristocratic  feeling, 
his  severe  and  exacting  temper,  he  would  be  likely  enough  to  push 
his  temporary  guardianship  of  custom  or  courtesy  into  an  exclusiva 
right,  at  least  so  far  as  the  venison  of  the  park  was  concerned.  In 
any  case  Sir  Thonras's  keepers  would  occasionally  perambulate 
Fulbroke  Park  as  a  protection  to  Charlecote,  and  in  doing  so  they 
probably  came  upon  Shakespeare  ^nd  his  companions  after  they 
Iiad  brought  down  a  buck  and  were  about  to  break  it  up  for 
removal.  Or  the  hunted  deer  may  have  crossed  the  river  at  the 
shallow  ford  bct\Yeen  the  two  parks,  and^  pursued  by  the  eager 
sportsmen,  have  been  brought  down  within  the  Charlecote 
grounds.  In  either  case  the  keepers  would  denoirnce  the  trespass, 
and  possibly  with  menacing  and  abusive  words  demand  the  buck 
for  their  master.  On  being  treated  in  this  insulting  way,  Shake- 
speare, who  had  pride  an<l  personal  dignity  as  well  as  courage, 
would  deny  any  intentional  or  actual  trespass,  refuse  to  give  up 
the  venison,  and  plainly  tell  the  keepers  that  they  might  report 
the  matter  to  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  and  ho  would  answer  for  himself 
and  his  companions.  On  finding  what  had  happened.  Sir  Thomas 
would  be  all  the  more  incensed  and  indignant  from  the  conscious- 
ness that  he  had  pushed  his  claims  beyond  the  point  at  which 
they  could  legally  bo  enforced.  And,  being  to  some  extent  in  a 
false  position,  he  would  be  proportionately  wrathful  and  vindictive 
against  the  youthful  si)ortsmen,  and  especially  against  their  leader 
who  h.ad  dared  to  resist  and  defy  his  authority.  Sir  Thomas  was 
the  great  man  of  Stratford,  who  camo  periodically  to  the  town  oa 
magistrate's  business,  was  appealed  to  as  arbitrator  in  special  cases, 
and  entertained  by  the  corporation  during  his  visits.  In  character 
he  seems  to  have  combined  aristocratic  pride  ami  narrowness  with 
the  harshness  and  severity  of  the  Puritan  temper.  As  a  landed 
proprietor  and  local  magnate  he  was  exacting  and  exclusive,  looking 
with  a  kind  of  Puritanical  sourness  on  all  youthful  frolics,_  merri- 
ment, and  recreation.  Ho  would  thus  have  a  natural  nn'tipathy 
to  young  .Sirakespearc's  free,  generous,  and  enjoyiirg  nature,  and 
would  resent  as  an  unpardonable  outrage  his  high-spirited  conduct 
in  attempting  to  resist  any  claims  he  chose  to  make.  SirThoma* 
would  no  doubt  vent  his  indignation  to  the  authorities  at  Strat- 
ford, and  try  to  set  the  law  in  motion,  and  failing  in  this  ipieht 
havo  threatened,  as  Justice  Shallow  docs,  to  make  a  Star-Chamoer 
matter  of  it.  This  was  the  kind  of  extreme  course  which  a  man 
in  his  position  might  take  where  there  was  no  available  local 
•  i-dress  for  any  wrong  ho  iiuagiued  himself  to  liav3  suffered.     And 


754 


S  ?I  A  K  E  S  P  E  A  R  E 


the  Stratford  authorities,  being  naturally  anxious  to  propitiate  tho 
creat  man,  may  have  suggested  that  it  would  be  well  if  young 
Shakespeare  could  be  out  of  the  way  for  a  time.  This  woul-' 
lielp  him  to  decide  on  the  adoption  of  a  plan  already  seriously 
entertained  of  going  to  London  to  push  his  fortune  among  the 
players. 

There  is,  however,  another  aspect  in  which  this  traditional 
incident  may  be  looked  at,  which  seems  at  least  worthy 
3ir  of  consideration.     It  is  possible  that  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  may 

rhomaj  have  been  prejudiced  against  the  Shakespeares  on  religious 
-'"'^'  grounds,  and  that  this  feeling  may  have  prompted  him 
to  a  display  of  e.-cceptional  severity  against  their  eldest 
son.  As  we  have  seen,  he  was  a  narrow  and  e.xtreme,  a 
persecuting  and  almost  fanatical  Protestant,  and  several 
events  had  recently  happened  calculated  to  intensify  his 
bitterness  against  the  Romanists.  In  particular,  Mary 
Shakespeare's  family  connexions — the  Ardens  of  Parkhall 
— had  been  convicted  of  conspiracy  against  the  queen's 
life.  The  son-in-law  of  Edward  Arden,  John  Somerville, 
a  rash  and  "hot-spirited  young  gentleman,"  instigated 
by  Hall,  the  family  priest,  had  formed  the  design  of 
going  to  London  and  assassinating  Queen  Elizabeth  with 
his  own  hand.  He  .started  on  his  journey  in  November 
1583,  but  talked  so  incautiously  by  the  way  that  he  was 
arrested,  conveyed  to  the  Tower,  and  under  a  threat  of  the 
rack  confessed  everything,  accusing  his  father-in-law  as  an 
accomplice  and  the  priest  as  the  instigator  of  the  crime. 
All  three  were  tried  and  convicted,  their  fate  being 
probably  hastened,  as  Dugdale  states,  by  the  animosity 
of  Leicester  against  the  Ardens.  Somerville  strangled 
himself  in  prison,  and  Edward  Arden  was  hanged  at 
Tyburn.  These  events  produced  a  deep  impression  in 
Warwickshire,  and  no  one  in  the  locality  would  be  more 
excited  by  them  than  Sir  Thomas  Lucy.  His  intensely 
vindictive  feeling  against  the  Romanists  was  exemplified 
a  little  later  by  his  bringing  forward  a  motion  in  parlia- 
ment in  favour  of  devising  some  new  and  lingering 
tortures  for  the  execution  of  the  Romanist  conspirator 
Parry.  As  Mr  Fronde  puts  it,  "  Sir  Thomas  Lucy, — 
Shakespeare's  Lucy,  the  original  perhaps  of  Justice  Shallow, 
with  an  English  fierceness  at  the  bottom  of  his  stupid 
nature, — having  studied  the  details  of  the  execution  of 
Gerard,  proposed  in  the  Hou-se  of  Commons  'that  some 
new  law  should  be  devised  for  Parry's  execution,  such  as 
might  be  thought  fittest  for  his  extraordinary  and  horrible 
treason.' "  The  Ardens  were  devoted  Romanists ;  the 
terrible  calamity  that  had  befallen  the  family  occurred  only 
a  short  time  before  the  deer-stealing  adventure  ;  and  the 
Shakespeares  themselves,  so  far  from  being  Puritans,  were 
suspected  by  many  of  being  but  inditferent  Protestants. 
John  Shakespeare  was  an  irregular  attendant  at  church, 
and  soon  ceased  to  appear  there  at  all,  so  that  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy  probably  regarded  him  as  little  better  than  a 
recusant.  In  any  case  Sir  Thomas  would  be  likely  to 
resent  tlfe  elder  Shakespeare's  convivial  turn  and  profuse 
ho.spitality  as  alderman  and  bailiff,  and  especially  his 
official  patronage  of  the  players  and  active  encouragement 
of  their  dramatic  representations  in  the  guild  hall.  The 
Puritans  had  a  rooted  antipathy  to  the  stage,  and  to  the 
jaundiced  eye  of  the  local  justice  the  reverses  of  the 
Shakespeares  would  probably  appear  as  a  judgment  on 
their  way  of  life.  He  would  all  the  more  eagerly  seize 
an}'  chaace  of  humiliating  their  eldest  son,  who  still  held 
up  his  head  and  dared  to  look  upon  life  as  a  scene  of 
cheerful  activity  and  occasional  enjoyment.  The  young 
poet,  indeed,  embodied  the  very  characteristics  most 
opposed  to  Sir  Thomas's  dark  and  narrow  conceptions  of 
life  and  duty.  His  notions  of  public  duty  were  very  much 
restricted  to  persecuting  the  Romanists  and  preserving  the 
game  on  Protestant  estates.  And  Shakespeare  probably 
took  no  pains  to  conceal  his  want  of  sympathy  with  these 


supreme  objects  of  aristocratic  and  Puritanical  zeal.  And 
Sir  Thomas,  having  at  length  caught  him,  as  he  imagined, 
in  a  technical  trespass,  would  be  sure  to  pursue  the  culprit 
with  the  unrelenting  rigour  of  his  hard  and  gloomy  nature. 
But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  actual  or  aggravating 
circumstances  of  the  original  offence,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  an  element  of  truth  is  contained  in  the  deer- 
stealing  tradition.  The  substantial  facts  in  the  story  are 
that  Shakespeare  in  his  youth  was  fond  of  woodland  sport, 
and  that  in  one  of  his  hunting  adventures  he  came  into 
collision  with  Sir  Thomas  Lucy's  keepers,  and  fell  under 
the  severe  ban  of  that  local  potentate.  The  latter  point  is 
indirectly  confirmed  by  Shakespeare's  inimitable  sketch  of 
the  formal  country  justice  in  the  Second  Part  of  Henri/ 
IV.  and  the  iferry  Wives  of  Windsor, — Robert  Shallow, 
Esq.,  being  sufficiently  identified  with  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  by 
the  pointed  allusion  to  the  coat  of  arms,  as  well  as  by 
other  allusions  of  a  more  indirect  but  hardly  less  decisive 
kind.  To  talk  of  the  sketch  as  an  act  of  revenge  is  to 
treat  it  too  seriously,  or  rather  in  too  didactic  and 
pedestrian  a  spirit.  Having  been  brought  into  close 
relations  with  the  justice,  Shakespeare  could  hardly  be 
expected  to  resist  the  temptation  of  turning  to  dramatic 
account  se  admirable  a  subject  for  humorous  portraiture. 
The  other  point  of  the  tradition,  Shakespeare's  fondness 
for  woodland  life,  is  supported  by  the  internal  evidence  of 
his  writings,  and  especially  by  the  numerous  allusions  to  the 
subject  in  his  poems  and  earlier  plays.  The  many  refer- 
ences to  woods  and  sports  in  the  poems  are  well  known ; 
and  in  the  early  plays  the  allusions  are  not  less  frequent 
and  in  some  respects  even  more  striking.  Having  no  space, 
however,  to  give  these  in  detail,  a  general  reference  must 
suffice.  The  entire  action  of  Love's  Labour  's  Lost  takes 
place  in  a  royal  park,  while  the  scene  of  the  most  critical 
events  of  the  2'wo  Gentlemen  of  Verona  is  a  forest  inhabited 
by  generous  outlaws  whose  offences  appear  to  have  been 
youthful  follies,  and  who  on  being  pardoned  by  the  duke 
become  his  loyal  followers.  In  these  early  plays  it  seems 
as  though  Shakespeare  could  hardly  conceive 'of  a  royal 
palace  or  capital  city  without  a  forest  close  at  hand  as  the 
scene  of  princely  sport,  criminal  intrigue,  or  fairy  enchants 
ment.  Outside  the  gates  of  Athens  swept  over  hill  and 
dale  the  wonderful  forest  which  is  the  scene  of  the 
Midsummer  Kight's  Dream;  and  in  Tiiiis  Andronicus 
imperial  Rome  seems  to  be  almost  surrounded  by  the 
brightness  and  terror,  the  inspiring  charm  and  sombre 
shades  of  rolling  forest  lawns  and  ravines,  the  "ruthless, 
vast,  and  gloomy  woods." 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  during  the  years  ."jh 
of  home  life  at  'Stratford  Shakespeare  was  often  in  the 
forest.  But  in  the  latter  part  of  the  time  he  would  be 
found  still  more  frequently  hastening  through  the  fields 
to  Shottery,  paying  long  visits  at  the  Hathaway  farm, 
followed  by  late  and  reluctant  leave-takings.  For  the 
next  important  fact  in  Shakespeare's  history  is  his 
marriage  with  Autre  Hathaway.  This  event,  or  rather 
the  formal  and  ecclesiastical  part  of  it,  took  place  in  the 
end  of  November  1582,  the  bond  for  the  licence  from  the 
consistory  court  being  dated  on  the  2SLu  of  the  month, 
ilr  Halliwell-Phillipps  has,  however,  sufficiently  proved  by 
detailed  instances  that  the  formal  and  public  part  of  the 
ceremony  would,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  time,  have 
been  preceded  some  months  earlier  by  the  betrothal  or 
pre-contract,  which  was  in  itself  of  legal  validity.  Shake- 
speare's marriage  may  therefore  be  dated  from  the  summer 
of  1582,  he  being  then  in  his  nineteenth  year,  while  his 
bride  was  between  seven  and  eight  years  older.  Many  of 
the  poet's  biographers  have  assumed  that  the  marriage 
was  a  hasty,  unsuitable,  and  in  its  results  an  unhappy  one. 
Ii   is    necessary    therefore   to    repeat   with   all    possible 


pea?'  - 
mamar,'^ 


SHAKESPEARE 


755 


emphasis  the  well-founded  statement  of  Mr  Halliwcll- 
PLiUipps  that  "  there  is  not  a  particle  of  direct  evidence  " 
for  either  of  these  suppositions.  The  marriage  could 
hardly  have  been  a  hasty  one,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
two  families  had  been  intimate  for  fifteen  years,  and 
Shakespeare  had  known  Anne  Hathaway  from  his  early 
boyhood.  As  to  whether  it  was  suitable  or  not  Shake- 
speare himself  was  the  best  and  only  adequate  judge,  and 
there  is  not,  in  the  whole  literature  of  the  subject,  even  the 
shadow  of  a  successful  appeal  against  his  decision.  And, 
80  far  from  the  marriage  having  been  unhappy,  all  tlio 
evidence  within  our  reach  goes  to  show  that  it  was  not 
only  a  union  of  mutual  affection  but  a  most  fortunate 
■event  for  the.  poet  himself,  as  well  as  for  the  wife  and 
XQother  who  remained  at  the  head  of  his  family,  venerated 
and  loved  by  her  children,  and  a  devoted  helpmate  to  her 
husband  to  the  very  end.  Looking  at  the  matter  in  its 
wider  aspects,  and  especially  in  relation  to  his  future 
career,  it  may  be  said  tliat  Shakespeare's  early  marriage 
gave  him  at  the  most  emotional  and  unsettled  period  of 
life  a  fixed  centre  of  affection  and  a  supreme  motive 
to  prompt  and  fruitful  exertion.  This  would  have  a 
salutary 'and  steadying  effect  on  a  nature  so  richly  en- 
dowed with  plastic  fancy  and  passionate  impulse,  com- 
bined with  rare  powers  of  reflective  foresight  and  self- 
control.  If  Shakespeare's  range  and  -depth  of  emotional 
and  imaginative  genius  had  not  been  combined  with 
unusual  force  of  character  and  strength  of  ethical  and 
artistic  purpose,  and  these  elements  had  not  been  early 
stimulated  to  sustained  activity,  lie  could  never  have  had 
so  great  and  uninterrupted  a  career.  And  nothing  perhaps 
is  a  more  direct  proof  Of  Shakespeare's  UMuly  character 
than  the  prompt  and  serious  way  in  which,  from  the  first, 
he  assumed  the  full  responsibility  of  his  acts,  and  unflinch- 
ingly faced  the  ^^•ider  range  of  duties  they  entailed.  He 
himself  has  told  us  that 

"  Love  is  too  young  to  know  what  conscience  is  : 
Yet  who  knows  not  cons'jience  is  born  of  love  ? " 

and  it  remains  true  that  conscience,  courage,  simplicity, 
and  nobleness  of  conduct  are  all,  in  generous  natures, 
evoked  and  strengthened  by  the  vital  touch  of  that 
regenerating  power.  Shakespeare's  whole  course  was 
changed  by  the  new  influence  ;  and  with  his  growing 
responsibilities  his  character  seems  to  have  rapidly  matured, 
and  his  powers  to  have  found  fresh  and  more  effective 
development.  His  first  child  Su.sanna  was  born  in  May 
1583,  and,  as  she  was  baptized  on  the  26th,  the  day  of  her 
birth  may  have  been  the  23d,  which  would  bo  exactly  a 
month  after  her  father  completed  his  nineteenth  year.  In 
February  1585  ths  family  was  unexpectedly  enlarged  by 
the  birth  of  twins,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who  were  named  re- 
spectively Hamnet  and  Judith,  after  Hamnet  and  Judith 
Sldler,  inhabitants  of  Stratford,  who  were  lifelong  friends 
of  Shakespeare.  Before  he  had  attained  his  majority  the 
poet  had  thus  a  wife  and  three  children  dependent  upon 
him,  witli  little  opportunity  or  means  apparently  of  ad- 
vancing his  fortunes  in  Stratford.  The  .situation  was  in 
itself  Bufliciently  serious.  But  it  was  complicated  by  his 
father's  increasing  embarrassments  and  multiplied  family 
claims.  Four  children  still  remained  in  Ilenlcy  Street  to 
be  provided  for, — the  youngest,  Edmund,  born  in  May 
1580,  being  scarcely  five  years  old.  John  Shakespeare, 
too,  was  being  sued  by  various  creditors,  and  apparently 
in  some  danger  of  bein^'  arrested  for  debt.  All  this  wns 
enough  to  make  a  much  older  man  than  the  poet  look 
anxiously  about  him.  But,  with  the  unfailing  sense  and 
sagacity  ho  displayed  in  practical  affairs,  he  seems  to  have 
formed  a  sober  and  just  estimate  of  his  own  powers,  and 
made  a  careful  survey  of  the  various  fields  available  for 
their  remunerative  exercise.     As  the  result  of  h.    delibera- 


tions he  decided  in  favour  of  trying  the  metropolitan  stago 
and  theatre.  He  had  already  tested  his  faculty  of  acting 
by  occasional  essays  on  the  provincial  stage  ;  and,  onca 
in  London  amongst  the  players,  wlicru  new  pieces  were 
constantly  required,  he  would  have  full  scope  ioc  the 
exercise  of  his  higher  powers  as  a  dramatic  poet.  At  the 
outset  he  could  indeed  only  expect  to  discharge  the  lovi'er 
function,  but,  with  the  growing  popular  demand  for 
dramatic  representations,  the  actor's  calling,  thoui^h  n3t 
without  its  social  drawbacks,  was  in  the  closing  decadoB  of 
the  16th  century  a  lucrative  one.  Greene,  in  his  autobio- 
graphical sketch  Kei'er  Too  Lale,  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing of  his  prose  tracts,  illustrates  this  point  in  the  account 
he  gives  of  his  early  dealings  with  the  players  and 
ex]>eriences  as  a  writer  for  the  .stage.  Speaking  through 
his  hero  Francesco,  he  says  that  •'  when  his  fortunes  were 
at  the  lowest  ebb  he  fell  in  amongst  a  company  of  players 
who  persuaded  him  to  try  his  wit  in  writing  of  comedies, 
tragedies,  or  pastorals,  and  if  he  could  perform  anything 
worth  the  stage,  then  they  would  largely  reward  him  for 
his  pains."  Succeeding  in  the  work,  he  was  so  well  paid 
that  he  soon  became  comparatively  wealthy,  and  went 
about  with  a  well-filled  purse.  Although  writing  from  the 
author's  rather  than  the  actor's  point  of  view,  Greene 
intimates  that  the  players  grew  rapidly  rich  and  were 
entitled  both,  to  praise  and  profit  so  long  as  they  were 
"  neither  covetous  nor  insolent."  In  the  Return  from 
Parnassus  (1601)  the  large  sums,  fortunes  indeed,  realized 
by  good  actors  are  referred  to  as  matter  of  notoriety.  One 
of  the  disappointed  academic  scholars,  indeed,  moralizing 
on  the  fact  with  some  bitterness,  exclaims, — • 
"  Enjjland  affords  those  glorious  va^'abonds, 
That  carried  erst  their  fardlcs  on  tiieir  backs. 
Coursers  to  ride  on  through  the  gazing  streets, 
Sweeping  it  in  their  glaring  tatin  suits, 
And  pages  to  attend  their  masterships  : 
With  mouthing  words  that  better  wits  have  framed 
They  purchase  lands,  and  now  esquires  are  made." 
And  in  a  humorous  sketch  entitled  I^atsais  Glwst,  and 
published  in  the  first  decade  of  the  1 7th  century,  an 
apparent  reference  to  Shakespeare  himself  brings  out  the 
same  point.  The  hero  of  the  tract,  llat.sey,  a  highwayman, 
having  compelled  a  set  of  strolling  players  to  act  before 
him,  advised  their  leader  to  leave  the  country  and  get  to 
London,  where,  having  a  good  jirescncc  for  the  stage  and  a 
turn  for  the  work,  he  would- soon  fill  his  pockets,  adding, 
'•'  When  thou  feelest  thy  purse  well-lined,  buy  thee  some 
place  of  lordship  ii_'  the  country,  that,  growing  weary  of 
playing,  thy  money  may  bring  thee  dignity  and  reputa- 
tion. '  The  player,  thanking  him  for  his  advice,  replies, 
"I  have  heard  indeed  of  .'--onie  that  have  gone  to  London 
very  meanly,  who  have  in  time  become  exceedingly 
wealthy."  The  movement  to  the  London  stage  was  there- 
fore from  a  worldly  point  of  view  a  prudent  one,  and  for 
the  higher  purposes  of  Shakespeare's  life  it  was  equally 
wise  and  necessary.  For  besides  the  economic  and  pirai:ti- 
cal  considerations  in  favour  of  the  step  there  must  Invo 
pressed  ou  the  poet's  mind  the  importance  of  a  ".■idc- 
sphere  of  life  alid  action  for  the  enlargement  of  his  i.  ivar^' 
horizon,  and  the  effective  development  of  his  poetierl  0x4 
dramatic  gifts. 

The  exact  date  if  I'lii.-^  event — of  Shakespeare's  l:"-ying 
Stratford  for  London — cannot  bo  fixed  with  any  cercaiuty. 
All  the  probabilities  of  the  case,  however,  indicate  that  it 
mu.st  have  taken  place  between  the  spring  of  158.5  and  iht 
autumn  of  1 587.  In  the  latter  year  three  of  the  leading 
companies  visited  Stratford,  those  belonging  to  the  queen, 
Lord  Leicester,  and  Lord  Essex;  and,  as  Lord  Leicester's 
included  three  of  Shakespeare's  fellow  townsmen, — Bur- 
liagc,  Hcniinge,  and  Greene, — it  is  not  imi>robable  that  he 
i  may  then  have  decided  on  trying  his  fortune  in  London. 


756 


S  H  A  K  E  S  P  E  A  R 


At  the  same  time  it  is  quite  possible,  and  on  some  grounds 
even  likely,  that  the  step  may  have  been  taken  somewhat 
earlier.  But  for  the  iive  years  between  1587  and  1592 
we  have  no  direct  knowledge  of  Shakespeare's  movements 
at  all,  the  period  being  a  complete  biographical  blank, 
dimly  illuminated  at  the  outset  by  one  or  two  doubtful 
traditions.  We  have  indeed  the  assurance  that  after  leav- 
ing Stratford  he  continued  to  visit  his  native  town  at  least 
once  every  year;  and  if  he  had  left  in  1586  we  may  con- 
fidently assume  that  he  returned  the  next  year  for  the 
purpose,  amongst  others,  of  consulting  with  his  father  and 
mother  about  the  Asbies  mortgage  and  of  taking  part 
with  them  in  their  action  against  John  Lambert.  His 
uniting  with  them  iu  this  action  deserves  special  notice,  as 
showing  that  he  continued  to  take  the  keenest  personal 
interest  in  all  home  affairs,  and,  although  living  mainly  in 
London,  was  still  looked  upon,  not  only  as  the  eldest  son, 
but  as  the  adviser  and  friend  of  the  family.  The  anec- 
dotes of  Shakespeare's  occupations  on  going  to  London 
are,  that  at  first  he  was  employed  in  a  comparatively 
humble  capacity  about  the  theatre,  and  that  for  a  time  he 
took  charge  c«J.-  the  horses  of  those  who  rode  to  see  the 
plays,  and  was  so  successful  in  this  work  that  he  soon 
had  a  number  of  juvenile  assistants  who  were  known 
as  Shakespeare's  boj's.  Even  in  their  crude  form  these 
traditions  embody  a  tribute  to  Shakespeare's  business 
promptitude  and  skill  If  there  is  any  truth  in  them 
they  may  be  taken  to  indicate  that  while  filling  some 
subordinate  post  in  the  theatre  Shakespeare  perceived  a 
defective  point  in  the  local  arrangements,  or  heard  the 
complaints  of  the  mounted  gallants  as  to  the  difficulty  of 
putting  up  their  horses.  His  provisions  for  meeting  the 
difficulty  seem  to  have  been  compiletely  and  even  notori- 
ously successful.  There  were  open  sheds  or  temporary 
stables  in  connexion  with  the  theatre  in  Shoreditch,  and 
Shakespeare's  boys,  if  the  tradition  is  true,  probably  each 
took  charge  of  a  horse  in  these  stables  while  its  owner 
■was  at  the  play.  But  in  any  case  this  would  be  simply  a 
brief  episode  in  Shakespeare's  multifarious  employments 
when  he  first  reached  the  scene  of  his  active  labours  in 
London.  He  must  soon  have  had  more  serious  and 
absorbing  professional  occupations  in  the  green  room,  on 
the  stage,  and  in  the  laboratory  of  his  own  teeming  brain, 
"the  quick  forge  and  working  house  of  thought." 
rostm""  But  his  leisure  hours  during  his  first  years  in  London 
*i-B  pd'i-  "sould  naturally  be  devoted  to  continuing  his  education 
.md  equipping  himself  as  fully  as  possible  for  his  future 
work.  It  was  probably  during  this  time,  as  Mr  Halliwell- 
Phillipps  suggests,  that  he  acquired  the  working  knowledge 
of  French  and  Italian  that  his  writings  show  he  must  have 
possessed.  And  it  is  perhaps  now  possible  to  point  out 
the  sources  whence  his  knowledge  of  these  languages  was 
derived,  or  at  least  the  master  under  whom  he  chiefly 
studied  them.  The  most  celebrated  and  accomplished 
teacher  of  French  and  Italian  in  Shakespeare's  day  was 
the  resolute  John  Florio;  who,  after  leaving  Magdalen 
Cfllege,  Oxford,  lived  for  years  in  London,  engaged  in 
tutorial  and  literary  work  and  intimately  associated  with 
eminent  men  of  letters  and  their  iwble  patrons.  After 
the  accession  of  James  I.,  Florio  was  made  tutor  to  Prince 
Henry,  received  an  appointment  about  the  court,  became 
the  friend  and  personal  favourite  of  Queen  Anne  (to 
whom  he  dedicated  the  second  edition  of  his  Italian 
flictionary,  entitled  the  World  of  Words),  and  died  full  of 
years  and  honours  in  1C25,  having  survived  Shakespeare 
nine  years.  Florio  had  married  the  sister  of  Daniel  the 
poet,  and  Ben  Jonson  presented  a  copy  of  The  Fox  to 
him,  with  the  inscription,  "  To  his  loving  father  and  worthy 
friend  Master  John  Florio,  Ben  Jonson  seals  this  testi- 
mony of  his  friendship  and  love."     Daniel  writes  a  poem 


of  some  length  in  praise  of  his  translation  of  Montaigne, 
while  other  contemporary  poets  contribute  commendatory 
verses  which  are  prefixed  to  his  other  publications.  There  Con- 
are  substantial  reasons  for  believing  that  ShaV.espeare  was  n^iioB 
also  one  of  Florio's  friends,  and  that  during  his  ea,rly  ™  !^- 
years  in  London  he  evinced  his  friendship  by  yielding 
for  once  to  the  fashion  of  writing  this  kind  of  eulogistic 
verse.  Prefixed  to  Florio's  Second  Fridts,  Prof.  Minto 
discovered  a  sonnet  so  superior  and  characteristic  that  he 
was  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  Shakespeare  must 
have  written  it.  The  internal  evidence  is  in  favour  of  this 
conclusion,  while  Mr  Minto's  critical  analysis  and  com- 
parison of  its  thought  and  diction  with  Shakespeare's  early 
work  tends  strongly  to  support  the  reality  and  value  of 
the  discovery.  In  his  next  work,  produced  four  years 
later,  Florio  claims  the  sonnet  as  the  work  of  a  friend 
"  who  loved  better  to  be  a  poet  than  to  be  called  one," 
and  vindicates  it  from  the  indirect  attack  of  a  hostile 
critic,  H.  S.,  who  had  also  disparaged  the  work  in  which 
it  appeared.  There  are  other  points  of  connexion  between 
Florio  and  Shakespeare.  The  only  known  volume  that 
certainly  belonged  to  Shakespeare  and  contains  his  auto- 
graph is  Florio's  version  of  Montaigne's  Essays  in  the 
British  Museum ;  and  critics  have  from  time  to  time 
produced  evidence  to  show  that  Shakespeare  must  have 
read  it  carefully  and"  was  well  acquainted  with  its  con- 
tents. Victor  Hugo  in  a  powerful  critical  passage 
strongly  supports  this  view.  The  most  striking  single 
proof  of  the  point  is  Gonzalo's  ideal  republic  in  the 
Tempest,  which  is  simply  a  passage  from  Florio's  version 
turned  into  blank  verse.  Florio  and  Shakespeare  were 
both,  moreover,  intimate  personal  friends  of  the  young 
earl  of  Southampton,  who,  in  harmony  with  his  generous 
character  and  strong  literary  tastes,  was  the  munificent 
patron  of  each.  Shakespeare,  it  wiU  be  remembered,  dedi- 
cated his  Venus  and  Adonis  and  his  Lncrece  to  this  young 
nobleman  ;  and  three  years  later,  in  1598,  Florio  dedicated 
the  first  edition  of  his  Italian  dictionary  to  the  earl  in 
terms  that  almost  recall  Shakespeare's  words.  Shake- 
speare had  said  in  addressing  the  earl,  "  'What  I  have  done 
is  yours,  what  I  have'  to  do  is  yours,  being  part  in  aU  I 
have  devoted  yours."  And  Florio  says,  "In  truth  I  ac- 
knowledge an  entire  debt,  not  only  of  my  best  knowledge, 
but  of  all,  yea  of  more  than  I  know  or  can  to  your  bounte- 
ous lordship,  most  noble,  most  virtuous,  and  most  honour- 
able earl  of  Southampton,  in  whose  pay  and  patronage 
I  have  lived  some  years,  to  whom  I  owe  and  vow  the 
years  I  have  to  live."  Shakespeare  was  also  familiar  with 
Florio's  earlier  works,  his  First  Fruits  and  Second  Fruits, 
which  were  simply  carefully  prepared  manuals  for  the 
study  of  Italian,  containing  an  outline  of  the  grammar, 
a  selection  of  dialogues  in  parallel  columns  of  ItaUan  and 
English,  and  longer  extracts  from  classical  Italian  writers 
in  prose  and  verse.  We  have  collected  various  points  of 
indirect  evidence  showing  Shakespearels  familiarity  with 
these  manuals,  but  these  being  numerous  and  minute 
cannot  be  given  here.  It  must  suffice  to  refer  in  illustra- 
tion of  this  point  to  a  single  instance — the  lines  in  praise 
of  Venice  which  Holofernes  gives  forth  with  so  much 
unction  in  Love's  Labour 's  Lost.  ■  The  First  Fruits  was 
published  in  1578,  and  was  for  some  years  the  most 
popular  manual  for  the  study  of  ItaUan.  •  It  is  the  book 
that  Shakespeare  would  naturally  have  used  in  attempting 
to  acquire  a  knowleL'..,'e  of  the  language  after  his  arrival 
in  London  ;  and  on  finding  that  the  author  was  the  friend 
of  some  of  his  literary  associates  he  would  probably  have 
sought  his  acquaintance  and  secured  his  personal  help. 
As  Florio  was  also  a  French  scholar  and  habitually  taught 
both  languages,  Shakespeare  probably  owed  to  him  his 
knowledge  of  Fren  ;h  as  well  as  of  ItaUaa.     If  the  sonnet 


SHAKESPEARE 


75-; 


is  accepted  as  Shakespeare's  work  he  must  have  made 
Florio's  acquaintance  within  a  year  or  two  after  going  to 
London,  as  in  1591  he  appears  in  the  character  of  a 
personal  friend  and  well-wisher.  In  any  case  Shakespeare 
■would  almost  certainly  have  met  Florio  a  ievr  years  later 
at  the  house  of  Lord  Southampton,  ■nith  whom  the  Italian 
scholar  seems  to  have  occasionally  resided.  It  also  appears 
that  he  was  in  the  habit  of  visiting  at  several  titled  houses, 
amongst  others  those' of  the  earl  of  Bedford  and  Sir  John 
Harrington.  It  seems  also  probable  that  he  may  have 
assisted  Harrington  in  his  translation  of  Ariosto.  Another 
and  perhaps  even  more  direct  link  connecting  Shakespeare 
with  Florio  during  his  early  years  in  London  is  found  in 
their  common  relation  to  the  family  of  Lord  Derby.  In  the 
year  1585  Florio  translated  a  letter  of  news  from  Rome, 
giving  an  account  of  the  sudden  death  of  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  and  the  election  of  his  successor.  This  translation, 
published  in  July  1585,  was  dedicated  "To  the  Right 
Excellent  and  Honourable  Lord,  Henry  Earl  of  Derby," 
in  terms  expressive  of  Florio's  strong  personal  obligations 
to  the  earl  and  devotion  to  his  service.  Three  years  later, 
on  the  death  of  Leicester  in  1588,  Lord  Derby's  eldest  son 
Ferdinando  Lord  Strange  became  the  patron  of  Leicester's 
company  of  players,  which  Shakespeare  had  recently  joined. 
The  new  patron  must  have  taken  special  interest  in  the 
company,  as  they  soon  became  (chiefly  through  his  influ- 
ence) great  favourites  at  court,  superseding  the  Queen's 
players,  and  enjoying  something  like  a  practical  monopoly 
of  royal  representations.  Shakespeare  would  thus  have  the 
opportunity  of  making  Florio's  acquaintance  at  the  outset 
of  his  London  career,  and  everything  tends  to  show  that 
he  did  not  miss  the  chance  of  numbering  amongst  his 
personal  friends  so  accomplished  a  scholar,  so  alert,  ener- 
{jetic,  and  original  a  man  of  letters,  as  the  resolute  John 
Florio.  Warburton,  it  is  well-known,  had  coupled  tlorio's 
name  with  Shakespeare  in  the  last  century.  He  sug- 
gested, or  rather  asserted,  that  Florio  was  the  original 
of  Holofernes  in  Love's  Labour  's  Lost.  Of  all  Warburton's 
arbitrary  conjectures  and  dogmatic  assumptions  this  is 
perhaps  the  most  infelicitous.  That  a  scholar  and  man  of 
the  world  like  Florio,  with  marked  literary  powers  of  his 
•wn,  the  intimate  friend  and  associate  of  some  of  the 
most  eminent  poets  of  the  day,  living  in  princely  and 
noble  circles,  honoured  by  royal  personages  and  welcomed 
at  noble  houses,— that  such  a  man  should  be  selected  as 
the  original  of  a  rustic  pedant  and  dominie  like  Holofernes, 
is  surely  the  climax  of  reckless  guesswork  and  absurd 
suggestion.  There  is,  it  is  true,  a  distant  connexion 
between  Holofernes  and  Italy — the  pedant  being  a  well- 
known  figure  in  the  Italian  comedies  that  obviously  affected 
Shakespeare's  early  work.  This  usage  calls  forth  a  kind 
of  sigh  from  the  easy-going  and  tolerant  Montaigne  as 
he  thinks  of  his  early  tutors  and  youthful  interest  in 
knowledge.  "I  have  in  my  youth,"  he  tells  us,  "often- 
times been  vexed  to  see  a- pedant  brought  in  in  most  of 
Italian  comedies  for  a  vice  or  sport-maker,  and  the  nick- 
name of  magister  (dominie)  to  be  of  no  better  significa- 
tion amongst  us."  We  may  be  sure  that,  if  Shakespeare 
knew  Florio  before  he  produced  Love's  Lahour's  Lost,  it 
\»a3  not  as  a  sport-maker  to  be  mocked  at,  but  as  a  friend 
and  literary  as.sociate  to  whom  he  felt  personally  indebted. 
But,  whatever  his  actual  relation  to  the  Italian  scholar 
may  have  been,  Shakespeare,  on  reaching  London  and 
beginning  to  breathe  its  literary  atmosphere,  would  nat- 
urally betake  himself  to  the  study  of  Italian.  At  various 
altitudes  the  English  Parnassus  was  at  that  time  fanned 
by  soft  airs,  swept  by  invigorating  breezes,  or  darkened 
by  gloomy  and  infected  vapours  from  the  south.  In 
other  words,  the  influence  of  Italian  literature,  so  dominant 
»n  Ed  "land  durinf  the  second  half  of  the   ICth  century. 


may  be  said  to  have  reached  its  highest  point  at  the  very 
time  when  Shakespeare  entered  on  his  poetic  an<d  dramatic 
labours.  This  influence  was  in  part  a  revival  of  the 
strong  impulse  communicated  to  English  literature  from 
Italy  in  Chaucer's  day.  The  note  of  the  revival  was 
struck  in  the  title  of  'Thomas's  excellent  Italian  manual, 
"  Principal  rules  of  Italian  grammar,  with  a  dictionarie  for 
the  better  understandyng  of  Boccace,  Petrarchi,  and  Dante  " 
(1550).  The  first  fruits  of  the  revival  were  the  lyrical 
poems  of  Surrey  and  'W3-att,  written  somewhat  earlier,  but 
published  for  the  first  time  in  Tottle's  Miscdlaiuj  (1557)..' 
The  sonnets  of  these  poets — the  first  ever  written  in' 
English — produced  in  a  few  years  the  whole  musical  choir 
of  Elizabethan  sonneteers.  Surrey  and  Wyatt  were  sym-' 
pathetic  students  of  Petrarch,  and,  as  Puttenham  says,' 
reproduced  in  their  sonnets  and  love  poems  miich  of  the 
musical  sweetness,  the  tender  and  refined  sentiment,  of  the 
Petrarchian  lyric.  This  perhaps  can  hardly  in  strictness 
of  speech  be  called  a  revival,  for,  strong  as  was  the  influ- 
ence of  Boccaccio,  and  in  a  less  degree  of  Dante,  during 
the  first  period  of  English  literature,  the  lyrical  poetry  of 
the  south,  as  represented  by  Petrarch,  afl'ected  English 
poetry  almost  for  the  first  time  in  the  IGth  century.  This 
influence,  as  subsequently  developed  by  Lyly  in  his  prose 
comedies  and  romances,  indirectly  affected  the  drama,  and 
clear  traces  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  Shakespeare's  own 
work.  Surrey,  however,  rendered  the  Elizabethans  a  still 
greater  service  by  introducing  from  Italy  the  unrhymed 
verse,  which,  with  the  truest  instinct,  was  adopted  by  the 
great  dramatists  as  the  metrical  vehicle  best  fitted  to  meet 
,  the  requirements  of  the  most  flexible  and  expressfve  form 
of  the  poetic  art.  But,  although  in  part  thei,  revival  of  a 
previous  impulse,  the  Italian  literature  that  most  power- 
fully afl'ected  English  poetry  during  the  Elizabethan  period 
was  in  the  main  new.  During  the  interval  the  prolific 
genius  of  the  south  had  put  forth  fre-sh  efforts  which 
combined,  in  new  and  characteristic  products,  the  forms 
of  classical  poetry  and  the  substance  of  southern  thought 
and  feeling  with  the  spirit  of  media?val  romance.  The 
chivalrous  and  martial  epics  of  Ariosto  and  Tasso  repre- 
sented a  new  school  of  poetry  which  embraced  within 
its  expanding-  range  every  department  of  imaginative 
activity.  There  appeared  in  rapid  succession  romantic 
pastorals,  romantic  elegies,  romantic  satires,  and  romantic 
dramas,  as  well  as  'romantic  epics.  The  epics  were 
occupied  with  marvels  of  knightly  daring  and  chivalrous 
adventure,  expressed  in  flowing  and  melodious  numbers ; 
while  the  literature  as  a  whole  dealt  largely  in  the  favourite 
elements  of  ideal  sentiment,  learned  allusion,  and  elaborate 
ornament,  and  wa^  brightened  at  intervals  by  grave  and 
sportive,  by  highjy  wrought  but  fanciful,  pictures  of 
courtly  and  Arcadian  life.  While  Sidney  and  Spenser 
represented  in  England  the  new  school  of  allegorical  and 
romantic  jjastoral  and  epic,  Shakespeare  and  his  associates 
betook  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  romantic  drama 
and  the  whole  dramatic  element  in  recent  .and  contempor- 
ary southern  literature.  The  Italian  drama  projier,  so  far 
as  it  affected  the  form  adopted  by  English  playwrights,! 
had  indeed  virtually  done  its  work  before  any  of  Shake- 
speare's characteristic  pieces  were  produced.  His  imme- 
diate predecessors,  Greene,  Peele,  and  Lodge,  Nash,  Kyd, 
and  JIarlowe,  had  all  jirobably  studied  Italian  models 
more  carefully  than  Shakespeare  himself  ever  did ;  and 
the  result  is  seen  in  the  ajipearance  among  these  later 
Elizabethans  of  the  romantic  drama,  which  united  the 
better  elements  of  the  English  academic  and  popular  play? 
with  features  of  diction  and  fancy,  incident  and  structure, 
that  were  virtually  new.  Many  members  of  this  dramatic 
group'  were,  like  Greene,  good  Italian  scholar?,  had  them- 
selves travelled  in  Italy,  knew  the  Italian  BlOi;o  .it  firrt 


758 


SHAKESPEARE 


hand,  and,  as  their  ivritings  show,  -were  well  acquainted 
■with  recent  Italian  literature.  But  the  dramatic  element 
in  that  literature  extended  far  beyond  the  circle  of  regular 
plays,  whether  tragedies,  comedies,  or  pastorals.  It  in- 
cluded the  collections  of  short  proso  stories  which  appeared, 
or  were  published  for  the  first  time,  in  such  numbers  during 
the  16th  century,  the  novels  or  novelettes  of  Ser  Giovanni, 
Cinthio,  Bandello,  and  their  associates.  These  stories, 
consisting  of  the  humorous  and  tragic  incidents  of  actual 
life,  told  in  a  vivid  and  direct  way,  naturally  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  dramatists.  We  know  from  the 
result  that  Shake.speare  must  have  studied  them  with 
some  care,  as  he  derived  irom  this  source  the  plots  and 
incidents  of  at  least  a  dozen  of  his  plays.  Many  of  the 
stories,  it  is  true,  had  already  been  translated,  either 
directly  from  the  Italian,  or  indirectly  from  French  and 
Latin  versions.  Of  Cinthio's  hundred  tales,  however, 
only  tv/o  or  three  are  known  to  have  been  rendered  into 
English ;  and  Shakespcai-fe  derived  the  story  of  Othello 
from  the  untranslated  part  of  this  collection.-  Many  of 
the  Italian  stories  touched  on  dark,er  crimes  or  more  aggra- 
vated forms  of  violence  than  those  naturally  prompted  by 
jealousy  and  revenge,  and  are  indeed  revolting  from  the 
liiiocities  of  savage  cruelty  and  lust  related  so  calmly  as 
to  betray  a  kind  of  cynical  insensibility  to  their  true 
character.  Shakespeare,  however,  with  the  sound  judg- 
ment and  strong  ethical  sense  that  guided  the  working  of 
his  dramatic  genius,  chose  the  better  and  healthier  materials 
of  this  literature,  leaving  the  morbid  e.xcesses  of  criminal 
passion  to  Webster  and  Ford.  But  the  Italian  influence 
on  Shakespeare's  work  is  not  to  be  estimated  merely  by 
the  outlines  of  plot  and  incident  he  borrowed  from 
southern  sources  and  used  as  a  kind  of  canvas  for  his 
matchless  portraiture  of  human  character  and  action.  It 
is  apparent  also  in  points  of  structure  and  diction,  in 
types  of  character  and  shades  of  local  colouring,  which 
realize  and  express  in  a  concentrated  form  the  bright  and 
lurid,  the  brilliant  and  passionate,  features  of  southern  life. 
The  gVeat  majority  of  the  di-amalispersonse  in  his  comedies, 
as  well  as  in  some  of  the  tragedies,  have  Italian  names, 
and  many  of  them,  such  as  Mercutio  and  Gratiano  on  the 
cne  hand,  lachimo  and  lago  on  the  other,  are  as  Italian  in 
nature  as  in  name.  The  moonlight  scene  in  the  Merchant 
of  Venice  is  Southern  in  fevery  detail  and  incident.  And, 
^s  M.  Philartte  Chaslcs  justly  points  out,  Romeo  and 
Juliet  is  Italian  throughout,  alike  in  colouring,  incident, 
and  passion.  The  distinctive  influence  is  further  traceable 
in  Shakespeare's  use  of  Italian  words,  phrases,  and  pro- 
verbs, some  of  which,  such  as  "  tranect "  (from"  tranare),  or 
possibly,  as  Kowe  suggested,  "traject"  {iraghetto),  are  of 
special  local  significance.  In  the  person  of  Hamlet 
Shakespeare  even  appears  as  a  critic  of  Italian  style. 
Referring  to  the  murderer  who  in  the  players'  tragedy 
poisons  the  sleeping  duke,  Hamlet  exclaims,  "  He  poisons 
him  in  the  garden  for  his  estate.  His  name  's  Gonzago  ; 
the  story  is  extant  and  written  in  very  choice  Italian." 
In  further  illustration  of  this  point  Mr  Grant  White  has 
noted  5ome  striking  turns  of  thought  and  phrase  which 
;'eem  to  show  that  Shakespeare  must  have  read  parts  of 
Berni  and  Ariosto  in  the  original.  No  doubt  in  the  case 
of  Italian  poets,  as  in  the  case  of  Latin  authors  like 
Ovid,  whose  works  he  was  familiar  with  in  the  original, 
Shakespeare  would  also  diligently  read  the  translations, 
especially  the  translations  into  English  verse.  For  in 
reading  such  works  as  Golding's  Ovid,  Harrington's  Ariosto, 
and  Fairfax's  Tasso,  he  would  be  increasing  his  command 
over  the  elements  of  expressive  phrase  and  diction  which 
were  the  verbal  instruments,  the  material  vehicle,  of  his 
art.  But,  besides  studying  the  translations  of  the  Italian 
poets  and  prose  writers  made  available  for  English  readers. 


he  would  naturally  desire  to  possess,  and  no  doubt 
acquired  for  himself,  the  key  that  would  unlock  the  whole 
treasure-house  of  Italian  literature.  The  evidence  of 
Shakespeare's  knowledge  of  French  is  more  abundant  and 
decisive,  so  much  so  as  hardly  to  need  express  illustration. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  therefore  that,  during  his  early 
years  in  London,  he  acquired  a  fair  knowledge  both  of 
French  and  Italian. 

But,  while  pursuing  these  collateral  aids  to  his  higher  Early 
work,  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  Shakespeare  also  ''jl^.""^ 
devoted  himself  ^o  that  work  itself.  As  early  as  1592  he''"" 
is  publicly  recognized,  not  only  as  an  actor  of  distinction, 
but  as  a  dramatist  whose, work  had  excited  the  envy  and 
indignation  of  his  contemporaries,  and  especially  of  one  so 
accomplished  and  su  eminent,  so  good  a  scholar  and  master 
of  the  playwright's  craft,  as  Robert  Greene.  Greene  had, 
it  is  true,  a  good  deal  of  the  irritability  and  excitable 
temper  often  found  in  the  subordinate  ranks  of  poetical 
genius,  and  he  often  talks  of  himself,  his  doings,  and 
associates  in  a  highly -coloured  and  extravagant  way.  But 
his  reference  to  Shakespeare  is  specially  deliberate,  being 
in  the  form  of  a  solemn  and  last  appeal  to  his  friends 
amongst  the  scholarly  dramatists  to  relinquish  their 
connexion  with  the  presumptuous  and  ungrateful  stage. 
In  his  Groatsuovth  of  VTit,  published  by  his  friend  Chettle 
a  few  weeks  after  his  death,  Greeiie  urges  three  of  his 
friends,  apparently  Marlowe,  Lodge,  and  Peele,  to  give  up 
writing  for  the  players.  "  Base-minded  men,  all  three  of 
you,  it  by  my  misery  ye  be  not  warned  ;  for  unto  none  of 
you  like  me  sought  those  burs  to  cleave  ;  those  puppets,  I 
mean,  who  sjioak  from  our  mouths,  those  anticks  garnisht 
in  our  colours.  Is  it  not  strange  that  I,  to  whom  they 
have  all  been  beholding ;  is  it  not  like  that  you,  to  whon 
they  have  all  been  beholding,  shall  (were  ye  in  that  cas 
that  I  am  now)  be  both  of  them  at  once  forsaken  1  Yes, 
tru.st  them  not ;  for  there  is  an  upstart  Crow,  beautified 
in  our  feathers,  that,  with  his  tiger's  heart  wrapt  in  a 
pl'iycr's  hide,  supposes  he  is  as  well  able  to  bombast  out  a 
blank  verse  as  the  best  of  you,  and,  being  an  absolute 
Johannes  fac  totum,  -is,  in  his  own  conceit,  the  only 
Shakescene  in  a  country.  Oh  that  I  might  intreat  your 
rare  wits  to  be  employed  in  more  profitable  courses,  and  let 
these  apes  imitate  your  past  excellence,  and  never  more 
acquaint  them  with  your  admired  inventions."  This  curious 
passage  tells  us  indirectly  a  good  deal  about  Shakespeare. 
It  bears  decisive  testimony  to  his  assured  position  and  rapid 
advance  in  his  profession.  The  very  term  of  reproach 
a]iplied  to  him,  "Johannes  Factotum,"  is  a  tribute  to 
Shakespeare's  industry  and  practical  ability.  From  the 
beginning  of  his  career  he  must  have  been  in  the  wiae;.fc 
and  best  sense  a  utility  man,  ready  to  do  any  work  con- 
nected with  the  theatre  and  stage,  and  eminently  successful 
in  anything  he  undertook.  In  the  first  instance  he  had 
evidently  made  his  mark  as  an  actor,  as  it  is  in  that 
character  he  is  referred  to  by  Greene,  and  denounced  for 
going  beyond  his  province  and  usurping  the  functions  of 
the  dramatist.  Greeuc's  words  imply  that  Shakespeare 
not  only  held  a  foremost  place  as  an  actor,  but  that  ho 
was  already  distinguished  by  his  dramatic  success  in 
revising  and  rewriting  existing  plays.  This  is  confirmed 
by  the  parodied  line  from  the  Third  Part  of  Henry  VI., 
recently  revised  if  not  originally  wxitten  by  Shakespeare. 
This  must  have  been  produced  before  Greene's  death, 
which  took  place  in  September  1592.  Indeed,  all  the 
three  parts  of  Henri/  VI.  in  the  revised  form  appear  to 
have  been  acted  during  the  spring  and  summer  of  that 
year.  It  is  not  improbable  that  two  or  three  of  Shake- 
speare's early  comedies  may  also  have  been  produced 
before  Greene's  death.  And  if  so,  his  resentment,  as  an 
academic  scholar,  against  the  country  actor  who  had  not 


S  H  A  K  E  h  P  Jli  A  K  r. 


759 


.only  become  a  dramatist  but  had  excelled  Greene  himself 
in  hi3  chosen  field  of  romantic  comedy  becomes  intelligible 
enough.  Even  in  his  wrath,  however,  Greene  bears 
eloquent  witness  to  Shakespeare's  diligence,  ability,  and 
marked  success,  both  as  actor  and  playwright.  All  this 
is  fully  confirmed  by  the  more  deliberate  and  detailed 
language  of  Chettle's  apology,  already  quoted.  Of  Shake- 
speare's amazing  industry  and  conspicuous  success  the 
next  few  years  supply  ample  evidence.  Within  six  or 
■seven  years  he  not  only  produced  the  brilliant  reflective 
and  descriptive  poems  of  Venus  and  Adotiis  and  Lucrece, 
but  at  least  fifteen  of  his  dramas,  including  tragedies, 
comedies,  and  historical  plays.  Having  found  his  true 
vocation,  Shakespeare  works  during  these  years  as  a 
master,  having  fufl  command  over  the  materials  and 
resources  of  his  art.  The  dramas  produced  have  a  fulness 
of  life  and  a  richness  of  imagery,  a  sense  of  joyotisness 
and  power,  that  speak  of  the  wTiter's  exultant  absorption 
and  conscious  triumph  in  his  chosen  work.  The  sparkling 
comedies  and  great  historical  plays  belonging  to  this 
period  evince  the  ease  and  delight  of  an  exuberant  mind 
realizing  its  matured  creations. 
'on-  Nor  after  all  is  this  result  so  very  surprising.     Shake- 

itions  speare  entered  on  his  London  career  at  the  very  moment 
■le  to'  ^^^  fi"^''  ^°^  *^^  ^""  development  of  his  dramatic 
•acce:-:.  genius.  From  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  all  the  domi- 
nant impulses  and  leading  events  of  her  reign  had  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  splendid  triumph  of  policy  and 
arms  that  closed  its  third  decade,  and  for  the  yet  more 
splendid  literary  triumph  of  the  fuU-orbcd  drama  that 
followed.  After  the  gloom  and  terror  of  Mary's  reign 
the  coming  of  Elizabeth  to  the  crown  was  hailed  with 
exultation  by  the  people,  and  seemed  in  itself  to  open 
a  new  and  brigliter  page  of  the  nation's  history. 
Elizabeth's  personal  charms  and  mental  gifts,  her  high 
spirit  and  dauntless  courage,  her  unfailing  political  tact 
and  judgment,  her  frank  bearing  and. popular  address, 
combined  with  her  unaffected  love  for  her  people  and 
devotion  to  their  interests,  awakened  the  strongest  feelings 
of  personal  loyalty,  and  kindled  into  passionate  ardour 
the  spirit  of  national  pride  and  patriotism  that  made  the 
whole  kingdom  one.  The  most  powerful  movements  of 
the  time  directly  tended  to  reinforce  and  concentrate  these 
awakened  energies.  While  the  Reformation  and  Renais- 
sance impulses  had  liberalized  men's  minds  and  enlarged 
their  moral  horizon,  the  effect  of  both  was  at  first  of  a 
political  and  practical  rather  than  of  a  purely  religious  or 
literary  kind.  The  strong  and  exhilarating  sense  of  civil 
and  religious  freedom  realized  through  the  Reformation 
was  inseparably  associated  with  the  exultant  spirit  of 
nationality  it  helped  to  stimulate  and  diffuse.  The  pope, 
and  his  emissaries  the  Jesuits,  were  looked  upon  far  more 
as  foreign  enemies  menacing  the  independence  of  the 
kingdom  than  as  religious  foes  and  firebrands  seeking  to 
destroy  the  newly  established  faith.  The  conspiracies, 
fomented  from  abroad,  that  gathered  around  the  captive 
qneen  of  Scots,  the  plots  successively  formed  for  the 
assassination  of  Elizabeth,  were  regarded  as  murderous 
assaults  on  the  nation's  life,  and  the  Englishmen  who 
organized  them  abroad  or  aided  them  at  homo  were 
denounced  and  prosecuted  with  pitiless  severity  as  traitors 
to  their  country.  Protestantism  thus  came  to  bo  largely 
identified  with  patriotism,  and  all  the  active  forces  of  the 
kingdom,  its  rising  wealth,  energ}',  and  intelligence,  were 
concentrated  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  liberated  empire 
against  the  assaults  of  despotic  Europe  represented  by 
Rome  ,and  Spain.  These  forces  gained  volume  and 
impetus  as  the  nation  was  thrilled  by  the  details  of  Alva's 
ruthless  butcheries,  and  the  awful  massacre  of  St  Bar- 
tholomew, until  at  length  they  were  organized  and  hurled 


with  resistless  effect  against  the  grandest  naval  and  military 
armament  ever  equipped  by  a  Continental  power, — an  arma- 
ment that  had  been  sent  forth  with  the  assurance  of  victorj' 
by  the  wealthiest,  most  absolute,  and  most  determined 
monarch  of  the  time.  There  was  a  vigorous  moral  element 
in  that  national  struggle  and  triumph.  It  was  the  spirit 
of  freedom,  of  the  energies  liberated  by  the  revolt  from 
Rome,  and  illumiViated  by  the  fair  humanities  of  Greece 
and  Italy,  that  nerved  the  arm  of  that  happy  breed  of 
men  in  the  day  of  battle,  and  enabled  them  to  strike  with 
fatal  effect  against  the  abettors  of  aespotic  rule  in  church 
and  state.  The  material  results  of  the  victory  were  ax. 
once  apparent.  England  became  mistress  of  the  seas,  and 
rose  to  an  assured  position  in  Europe  as  a  political  and 
maritime  power  of  the  first  order.  The  literary  results 
at  home  were  equally  striking.  The  whole  conflict  reacted 
powerfully  on  the  genius  of  the  race,  quickening  into  life 
its  latent  seeds  of  reflective  knowledge  and  wisdom,  of 
poetical  and  dramatic  art. 

Of  these  effects  the  rapid  growth  and  develop-  Grr.rth 
ment  of  the  national  drama  was  the  most  brilliant  of  the 
and  characteristic.  There  was  indeed  at  the  time  a  Jj.;':^'^ 
unique  stimulus  in  this  direction.  The  greater  num-  "'"'" 
ber  of  the  eager  excited  listeners  who  crowded  the 
rude  theatres  from  floor  to  roof  had  shared  in  the 
adventurous  exploits  of  the  age,  while  all  felt  the  keenest 
interest  in  life  and  action.  And  the  stage  represented 
with  admirable  breadth  and  fidelity  the  struggling  forces, 
the  mingled  elements,  humorous  and  tragic,  the  passionate 
hopes,  deep-rooted  animosities,  and  fitful  misgivings  of 
those  eventful  years.  The  spirit  of  the  time  had  made 
personal  daring  a  common  heritage  :  with  noble  and 
commoner,  gentle  and  simple,  alike,  love  of  queen  and 
country  was  a  romantic  passion,  and  heroic  self-devotion 
at  the  call  of  either  a  beaten  way  of  ordinary  life.  To 
act  with  energy  and  decision  in  the  face  of  danger, 
to  strike  at  once  against  any  odds  in  the  cause  of 
freedom  and  independence,  was  the  desire  and  ambition 
of  all.  This  complete  unity  of  national  sentiment 
and  action  became  the  great  characteristic  of  the  time. 
The  dangers  threatening  the  newly  liberated  kingdom  were 
too  real  and  pressing  to  admit  of  anything  like  seriously 
divided  councils,  or  bitterly  hostile  parties  within  the 
realm.  Everything  thus  conspired  to  give  an  extraordinary 
degree  of  concentration  and  brilliancy  to  the  national  life. 
For  the  twenty  years  that  followed  the  destruction  of  the 
Armada  London  was  the  centre  and  focus  of  that  life. 
Here  gathered  the  soldiers  and  officers  who  had  fought 
against  Spain  in  the  Low  Countries,  against  France  in 
Scotland,  and  against  Rome  in  Ireland.  Along  the  river 
side,  and  in  noble  houses  about  the  Strand,  were  the  hardy 
mariners  and  adventurous  sea  captains,  such  as  Drake, 
Hawkins,  and  Frobisher,  who  had  driven  their  dauntless 
keels  into  unknown  seas,  who  had  visited  strange  lands 
and  alien  races  in  order  to  enlarge  the  knowledge,  increase 
the  dominions,  and  augment  the  wealth  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen.  Here  assembled  the  noble  councillors, 
scholars,  and  cavaliers  whose  foresight  and  skill  guided  the 
helm  of  state,  whose  accomplishment  in  letters  and  arms 
gave  refinement  and  distinction  to  court  pageants  and 
ceremonials,  and  whose  patronage  and  support  of  the 
rising  drama  helped  to  make  the  metropolitan  theatre 
the  great  centre  of  genius  and  art,  the  great  school  of 
historical  teaching,  the  great  mirror  of  human  nature  in 
all  the  breadth  and  emphasis  of  its  interests,  convictions, 
and  activities.  The  theatre  was  indeed  the  living  organ 
through  which  all  the  marvellous  and  mingled  experiences 
of  a  time  incomparably  rich  in  vital  elements  found 
eipressioD.  There  was  no  other,  no  organized  or  adequate 
means,  of  popular  expression  at  all.     Books  were  a  solitary 


7Gt' 


^  H  A  K   1<:  ^  1'  E  A  K  E 


entertainment  in  tlie  hands  of  few ;  newspapers  did  not 
exist ;  and  the  modern  relief  of  incessant  public  meetings 
was,  fortunately  perhaps,  an  unknown  luxury.  And  yet, 
amidst  the  plenitude  of  national  life  centred  in  London, 
the  need  for  some  common  organ  of  expression  was  never 
more  urgent  or  imjierious.  New  and  almost  inexhaustible 
springs  from  the  well-heads  of  intellectual  life  had  for 
years  been  gradually  fertilizing  the  productive  English 
mind.  The  heroic  life  of  the  past,  in  clear  outline  and 
stately  movement,  had  been  revealed  in  the  recovered 
masterpieces  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  stores  of  more 
recent  wisdom  and  knowledge,  discovery  and  invention, 
science  and  art,  were  poured  continually  into  the  literary 
exchequer  of  the  nation,  and  widely  diffused  amongst 
eager  and  open-minded  recipients.  Under  this  combined 
stimulus  the  national  intellect  and  imagination  had 
already  reacted  fruitfully  in  ways  that  were  full  of  higher 
promise.  The  material  results  of  these  nevi'Iy  awakened 
energies  were,  as  we  have  seen,  not  less  signal  or 
momentous.  The  number,  variety,  and  power  of  the  new 
forces  thus  acting  on  society  effected  in  a  short  period  a 
jComplete  moral  revolution.  The  barriers  against  the 
spread  of  knowledge  and  the  spirit  of  free  inquiry  erected 
and  long  maintained  by  medieval  ignorance  and  pre- 
judice were  now  thrown  down.  The  bonds  of  feudal 
authority  and  Romish  domination  that  had  hitherto 
forcibly  repressed  the  expandin'g  national  life  were  effectu- 
ally broken.  Men  opened  their  eyes  upon  a  new  world 
which  it  was  an  ibsorbing  interest  and  endless  delight 
to  explore, — a  new  world  physically,  where  the  old  geo- 
graphical limits  had  melted  into  the  blue  haze  of  distant 
horizons — a  new  world  morally,  where  the  abolition  of 
alien  dogma  and  priestly  rule  gave  free  play  to  fresh  and 
vigorous  social  energies ;  and,  above  all,  more  surprising 
and  mysterious  than  all,  they  opened  their  eyes  with  a 
strange  sense  of  wonder  and  exultation  on  the  new  world 
«£  the  emancipated  human  spirit.  At  no  previous  period 
had  the  popular  curiosity  aVjout  human  life  and  human 
affairs  been  so  vivid  and  intense.  In  an  age  of  deeds  so 
•neraorable,  man  naturally  became  the  centre  of  interest, 
and  the  whole  world  of  human  action  and  passion, 
character  and  conduct,  was  invested  with  irresistible 
attraction.  All  ranks  and  classes  had  the  keenest  desire 
to  penetrate  the  mysterious  depths,  explore  the  unknown 
regions,  and  realize  as  fully  as  might  be  the  actual 
achievements  and  ideal  possibilities  of  the  nature  throbbing 
■with  so  full  a  pulse  within  themselves  and  reflected  so 
powerfully  in  the  world  around  them.  Human  nature, 
released  from  the  oppression  and  darkness  of  the  ages,  and 
emerging  with  all  its  infinite  faculties  and  latent  powers 
into  the  radiant  light  of  a  secular  day,  was  the  new  world 
that  excited  an  admiration  more  profound  and  hopes  far 
more  ardent  than  any  recently  discovered  lands  beyond 
the  sinking  suu.  At  the  critical  moment  Shakespeare 
appeared  as  the  Columbus  of  that  new  world.  Pioneers 
had  indeed  gone  before  and  in  a  measure  prepared  the 
.way,  but  Shakespeare  still  remains  the  great  discoverer, 
c^cupying  a  position  of  almost  lonely  grandeur  in  the 
isolation  and  completeness  of  his  work. 
Cho  Neverbefore,  except  perhaps  in  the  Athens  of  Pericles,  had 

tiiiatrt-.  all  the  elements  and  conditions  of  a  great  national  drama 
met  in  such  perfect  union.  As  we  have  seen,  the  popular 
conditions  supplied  by  the  stir  of  great  public  events  and 
the  stimulus  of  an  appreciative  audience  were  present  in 
exceptional  force.  With  regard  to  the  stage  conditions, — 
the  means  of  adequate  dramatic  representation, — public 
theatres  had  for  the  first  time  been  recently  established  in 
London  on  a  permanent  basis.  In  1.574  a  royal  licence 
had  been  granted  by  the  queen  to  the  carl  of  Leicester's 
company  "  to  use,  exercise,  and  occupy  the  art  and  facr.lty 


of  playing  Comedies,  Tragedies,  Interludes,  and  Stage  Plays, 
and  such  other  like  as  they  have  been  already  used  and 
studied,  as  well  for  the  recreation  of  our  loving  subjects  as 
for  our  solafie  and  pleasure  when  we  .shall  think  good  to 
see  them  "  ;  and,  although  the  civil  authorities  resisted  the 
attempt  to  establish  a  public  theatre  within  the  city,  twtf 
or  three  were  speedily  erected  just  outside  its  boundaries, 
in  the  most  convenient  and  accessible  suburbs, — the' 
Curtain  and  the  Theatre  in  Shoreditch,  beyond  the  northern 
boundary,  and  the  Blackfriars  theatre  within  the  precincts 
of  the  dissolved  monastery,  just  beyond  the  civic  jurisdic- 
tion on  the  western  side.  A  few  years  later  other  houses 
were  built  on  the  southern  side  of  the  river, — the  Rose' 
near  the  foot  of  London  Bridge,  and  the  Hope  and  Swan 
further  afield.  There  was  also  at  Newingtou  Butts  a  placff 
of  recreation  and  entertainmerrt  for  the  archers  and  holiday 
people,  with  a  central  building  which,  like  the  circus  at 
Paris  Garden,  was  used  during  the  summer  months  iorf 
dramatic  purposes.  These  theatres  were  occupied  by 
different  companies  in  turn,  and  Shakespeare  during 
his  early  years  in  Ivondon  appears  to  have  acted  at 
several  of  them.  But  from  his  first  coming  up  it 
seems  clear  that  he  was  more  identified  with  the  earl 
of  Leicester's  players,  of  whom  his  energetic  fellow 
townsman,  James  Burbage,  was  the  head,  than  with 
any  other  group  of  actors.  To  Burbage  indeed  be- 
longs the  distinction  of  having  first  established  public 
theatres  as  a  characteristic  feature  of  metropolitan  life. 
His  spirit  and  enterprise  first  relieved  the  leading  com- 
panies from  the  stigma  of  being  strolling  players,  and 
transferred  their  dramatic  exhibitions,  hitherto  restricted 
to  temporary  scaffolds  in  the  court-yards  of  inns  and 
hostelries,  to  the  more  reputable  stage  and  convenient 
appliances  of  a  permanent  theatre.  In  1575  Burbage, 
having  secured  the  lease  of  a  piece  of  land  at  Shoreditch, 
erected  there  the  house  which  proved  so  successful,  and 
was  known  for  twenty  years  as  the  Theatre,  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  the  first  ever  erected  in  the  metropolis.  He 
seems  also  to  have  been  concerned  in  the  erection  of  a 
second  theatre  in  the  same  locality  called  the  Curtain ; 
and  later  on,  in  spite  of  many  difficulties,  and  a  great 
deal  of  local  opposition,  he  provided  the  more  celebrated 
home  of  the  rising  drama  known  as  the  Blackfriars 
theatre.  When  Shakespeare  went  to  London  there  were 
thus  theatres  on  both  sides  of  the  water — the  outlying 
houses  being  chiefly  used  during  the  summer  and  autumn 
months,  while  the  Blackfriars,  being  roofed  in  and  pro- 
tected from  the  weather,  was  specially  used  for  perform- 
ances during  the  winter  season.  In  spite  of  the  persistent 
opposition  of  the  lord  mayor  and  city  aldermen,  tha 
denunciations  of  Puritan  preachers  and  their  allies  in  tha 
press,  and  difficulties  arising  from  intermittent  attacks  of 
the  plague  and  the  occasional  intervention  of  the  court 
authorities,  the  theatres  had  now  taken  firm  root  in  the 
metropolis;  and,  strong  in  royal  favour,  in  noble  patron- 
age, and  above  all  in  popular  support,  the  stage  had 
already  begun  to  assume  its  higher  functions  as  the  living 
organ  of  the  national  voice,  the  many-coloured  mirror  and 
reflexion  of  the  national  life.  A  few  years  later  the  com- 
panies of  players  and  the  theatres  they  occupied  were 
consolidated  and  placed  on  a  still  firmer  public  basis. 
For  some  years  past,  in  addition  to  the  actors  really  or 
nominally  attached  to  noble  houses,  there  had  existed  a 
body  of  twelve  performers,  selected  by  royal  authority 
(in  1583)  from  different  companies  and  known  as  the 
Queen's  players.  The  earl  of  Leicester's,  being  the  leading 
company,  had  naturally  furnished  a  number  of  recruits  to 
the  Queen's  players,  whose  duty  it  was  to  act  at  special 
seasons  before  Her  Majesty  and  the  court.  But  within  a 
few  years  after  Shakespeare  ariived  in  London  Ihe  chief 


SHAKESPEARE 


7(31 


groups  of  actors  were  divided  into  two  great  companies, 
specially  licensed  and  belonging  respectively  to  the  Lord 
Chamberlain  and  the  Lord  Admiral.  Under  the  new 
arrangement  the  earl  of  Leicester's  actors  (who,  as  already 
stated,  after  the  earl's  death  in  1588  found  for  a  time  a  new 
patron  in  Lord  Straage')  became  the  servants  of  the  Lord 
Chamberlain.  James  Burbage  had  ah.ady  retired  from 
the  company,  his  place  being  taken  by  his  more  cele- 
brated son  Richard  Burbage,  the  Garrick  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan stage,  who  acted  with  so  much  distinction  and 
success  all  the  great  parts  in  Shakespeare's  leading 
plays.  In  order  that  the  Lord  Chamberlain's  company 
might  have  houses  of  their  own  both  for  summer  and 
winter  use,  Richard  Burbage,  his  brother  Cuthbert,  and 
their  associates,  including  Shakespeare,  undertook  in  1590 
to  build  a  new  theatre  on  the  bank  side,  not  far  from  the 
old  Paris  Garden  circus.  We  know  from  a  subsequent 
document,  which  refers  incidentally  to  the  building  of 
this  theatre,  that  the  Burbages  had  originally  introduced 
Shakespeare  to  the  Blackfriars  company.  He  had  indeed 
proved  himself  so  useful,  both  as  actor  and  poet,  that 
they  were  evidently  glad  to  secure  his  future  services  by 
giving  him  a  share  as  part  proprietor  in  the  Blackfriars 
property.  The  new  theatre  now  built  by  the  company 
was  that  known  as  the  Globe,  and  it  was  for  fifteen 
years,  during  the  summer  and  autumn  months,  the 
popular  and  highly  successful  home  of  the  Shakesi^earian 
drama.  Three  years  earlier  Richard  Burbage  and  his 
associates  had  rebuilt  the  Blackfriars  theatre  on  a  more 
extended  scale ;  and  this  well-known  house  divided 
with  the  GJobe  the  honour  of  producing  Shakespeare's 
later  and  more  important  plays.  Shakespeare's  position 
indeed  of  actor  and  dramatist  is  identified  with  these 
houses  and  with  the  Lord  Chamberlain's  company  to 
which  they  belonged.  On  the  accession  of  James  I.,  this 
company,  being  specially  favoured  by  the  new  monarch, 
received  a  fresh  royal  charter,  and  the  members  of  it  were 
henceforth  known  as  the  King's  servants.  In  the  early 
years  of  Shakespeare's  career  the  national  drama  had  thus 
a  permanent  home  in  theatres  conveniently  central  on 
either  side  of  the  river,  and  crowded  during  the  summer 
and  winter  months  by  eager  and  excited  audiences. 
Even  before  the  building  of  the  Globe,  the  house  at  New- 
ington  where  three  of  JIarlowe's  most  important  plays  and 
some  of  Shakespeare's  early  tragedies  were  produced  was 
often  crowded  to  the  doors.  In  the  summer  of  1592, 
when  the  First  Part  of  Henry  VI.,  as  revised  by  Shake- 
speare, was  acted,  the  performance  was  so  popular  that,,  we 
are  told  by  Xash,  ten  thousand  spectators  witnessed  it  in 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  It  is  true  that  even  in  the  best 
theatres  the  appliances  in  the  way  of  scenes  and  stage 
machinery  were  of  the  simplest  description,  change  of  scene 
being  often  indicated  by  the  primitive  device  of  a  board 
with  the  name  painted  upon  it.  But  players  and  play- 
wrights, both  arts  being  often  combined  in  the  same  person, 
knew  their  business  thoroughly  well,  and  justly  relied  for 
success  on  the  more  vital  attractions  of  powerful  acting, 
vigorous  writing,  and  practised  skill  in  the  construction  of 
their  pieces.  In  the  presence  of  strong  passions  expressed 
in  kindling  words  and  powerfully  realized  in  living  action, 
gesture,  and  incident,  the  absence  of  canvas  sunlight  and 
painted  gloom  was  hardly  felt.  Or,  as  the  stirring 
choruses  in  Uenry  V.  show,  the  want  of  more  elaborate  and 
realistic  scenery  was  abundantly  supplied  by  the  excited 
fancy,  active  imagination,  and  concentrated  interest  of  the 
spectators. 

*  This  is  maintained  by  ^^^  Fleay  in  his  recent  Life  and  Work  of 
Shaktiptart.  But  the  history  of  the  early  dramatic  companies  is  so 
obficure  that  it  b  difficult  to  trace  their  chaDging  fortunes  ^vith  absolute 
cortainty, 

■21—27* 


The  dramatic  conditions  of  a  national  theatre  were  New 
indeed,  at  the  outset  of  Shakespeare's  career,  more  com-  schoc!  of 
plete,  or  rather  in  a  more  advanced  state  of  development,  '-'■^•"° 
than  the  playhouses  themselves  or  their  stage  accessories. 
If  Shakespeare  was  fortunate  in  entering  on  his  London 
work  amidst  the  full  tide  of  awakeued  patriotism  and 
public  spirit,  he  was  equally  fortunate  in  finding  ready  to 
his  hand  the  forms  of  art  In  which  the  rich  and  complex 
life  of  the  time  could  be  adequately  expressed.  During 
the  decade  in  which  Shakespeare  left  Stratford  the  play- 
wright's art  had  undergone  changes  sa  important  as  to 
constitute  a  revolution  in  the  form  and  spirit  of  the 
national  drama.  For  twenty  years  after  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  the  two  roots  whence  the  English  drama 
sprung — the  academic  or  classical,  and  the  popular,  devel- 
oped spontaneously  in  the  line  of  mysteries,  moralities, 
and  interludes — continued  to  exist  apart,  and  to  produce 
their  accustomed  fruit  independently  of  each  other.  The 
popular  drama,  it  is  true,  becoming  more  secular  and 
realistic,  enlarged  its  area  by  collecting  its  materials  from 
all  sources, — from  novels,  tales,  ballads,  and  histories,  as 
well  as  from  fairy  mythology,  local  superstitions,  and  folk- 
lore. But  the  incongruous  materials  were,  for  the  most 
part,  handled  in  a  crude  and  semi-barbarous  way,  with 
just  sufficient  art  to  satisfy  the  cravings  and  clamours  of 
unlettered  audiences.  The  academic  plays,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  written  by  scholars  for  courtly  ancj  cultivated 
circles,  were  acted  at  the  universities,  the  inns  of  court, 
and  at  special  public  ceremonials,  and  followed  for  the 
most  part  the  recognized  and  restricted  rules  of  the  classic 
drama.  But  in  the  third  decade  of  Elizabeth's  reign 
another  dramatic  school  arose  intermediate  between  the 
two  elder  ones,  which  sought  to  combine  in  a  newer  and 
higher  form  the  best  elements  of  both.  The  main  impulse 
guiding  the  efforts  of  the  new  school  may  be  traced  in- 
directly to  a  classical  source.  It  was  due,  not  immediately 
to  the  masterpieces  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but  to  the  form 
which  classical  art  had  assumed  in  the  contemporary  drama 
of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  especially  of  Italy,  which 
was  that  earliest  developed  and  best  known  to  the  new 
school  of  poets  and  dramatists.  This  southern  drama, 
while  academic  in  its  leading  features,  had  nevertheless 
modern  elements  blended  with  the  ancient  form.  As  the 
Italian  epics,  following  in  the  main  the  older  examples, 
were  still  charged  with  romantic  and  realistic  elements 
unknown  to  the  classical  epic,  so  the  Italian  drama,  con- 
structed on  the  lines  of  Seneca  and  Plautus,  blended  with 
the  severer  form  essentially  romantic  features.  With  the 
choice  of  heroic  subjects,  the  orderly  development  of  the 
plot,  the  free  use  of  the  chorus,  the  observance  of  the 
unities,  and  constant  substitution  of  narrative  for  action 
were  united  the  vivid  colouring  of  poetic  fancy  and 
diction,  and  the  use  of  materials  and  incidents  derived 
from  recent  history  and  contemporary  life.  The  influence 
of  the  Italian  drama  on  the  new  school  of  English  play- 
wrights was,  however,  very^fiuch  restricted  to  points  of 
style  and  diction  of  rhetorical  and  poetical  effect.  It 
helped  to  produce  among  them  the  sense  of  artistic  treat- 
ment, the  conscious  effort  after  higher  and  more  elaborate 
forms  and  vehicles  of  imaginative  and  passionate  expres- 
sion. For  the  rest,  the  rising  English  drama,  in  spite  of 
the  efforts  made  by  academic  critics  to  narrow  its  ranga 

■  and  limit  its  interests,  retained  and  thoroughly  vindicated 
its  freedom  and  independence.  The  central  character- 
istics of  the  new  school  are  sufficiently  explained  by  the 

I  fact  that  its  leading  representatives  were  all  of  them 
scholars  and  poets,  living  by  their  wits  and  gaining  a 
somewhat  precarious  livelihood  amidst  the  stir  and  bustle, 

j  the  temptations  and  excitement,  of  concentrated  London 

I  life.     The  distinctive  note  of  tteir  woj-k  is  the  reflex  of 

XXL  —  o6 


762 


SHAKESPEARE 


their  position  as  academic  sdiolai's  working  under  poetic 
and  popular  impulses  for  tlic  public  theatres.  The  new 
md  striking  combination  in  their  dramas  of  elements 
hitherto  wholly  separated  is  but  the  natural  result  of  their 
attainments  and  literary  activities.-  From  their  univer- 
sity training  and  knowledge  of  the  ancients  they  would 
be  familiar  with  the  technical  requirements  of  dramatic 
art,  the  deliberate  handling  of  plot,  incident,  and  char- 
icter,  and  the  due  subordination  of  parts  essential  for 
producing  thfe  effect  of  an  artistic  whole.  Their  imagina- 
tive and  emotional  sensibility,  stimulated  by  their  studies 
in  Southern  literature,  would  naturally  prompt  them  to 
combine  features  of  poetic  beauty  and  rhetorical  finish 
with  the  evolution  of  character  and  action;  while  from 
the  popular  native  drama  they  derived  the  breadth  of 
sympathy,  sense  of  humour,  and  vivid  contact  with  actual 
life  which  gave  reality  and  power  to  their  representations. 
ileadingV  The  leading  members  of  this  group  or  school  were  Kyd, 
Diembers  Greene,  Lodge,  Nash,  Peele,  and  Marlowe,  of  whom,  in 
-^'."rt^'  relation  to  the  future  development  of  the  drama,  Greene, 
Peele,  and  Marlowe  are  the  most  important  and  influential. 
They  were  almost  the  first  poets  and  men  of  genius  who 
devoted  themselves  to  the  production  of  dramatic  pieces 
for  the  public  theatres.-  But  they  all  helped  to  redeem 
Ihe  common  stages  from  the  reproach  their  rude  and 
boisterous  'pieces  had  brought  upon  them,  and  make  the 
ilays  represented  poetical  and  artistic  as  well  as  lively, 
bustling,  and  popular.  Some  did  this  rather  from  a 
necessity  of  nature  and  stress  of  circumstance  than  from 
iny  higher  aim  or  deliberately  formed  resolve.  But 
Marlowe,  the  greatest  of  them,  avowed  the  redemption  of 
^  the  common  stage  as  the  settled  purpose  of  his  labours  at 

the  outset  of  his  dramatic  career.  And  during  his  brief 
and  stormy  life  he  nobly  discharged  the  self-imposed  task. 
His  first  play,  Tanburline  the  Great,  struck  the  authentic 
cote  of  artistic  and  romantic  tragedy.  With  all  its  extra- 
vagance, and  over-straining  after  vocal  and  rhetorical 
effects,  the  play  throbs  with  true  passion  and  true  poetry, 
md  has  throughout  the  stamp  of  emotional  intensity  and 
intellectual  power.  His  later  tragedies,  while  marked  by 
the  same  features,  bring  into  fuller  relief  the  higher 
characteristics  of  his  passionate  and  poetical  genius. 
Alike  in  the  choice  of  subject  and  method  of  treatment 
.Marlowe  is  thoroughly  independent,  deriving  little,  except 
in  the  way  of  general  stimulus,  either  from  the  classical  or 
Dopular  drama  of  his  day.  The  signal  and  far-reaching 
•eform  he  effected  in  dramatic  metre  by  the  introduction 
)f  modulated  blank  verse  illustrates  the  striving  originality 
)f  his  genius.  Gifted  with  a  fine  ear  for  the  music  of 
English  numbers,  and  impatient  of  "  the  gigging  veins  of 
rhyming  mother  wits,"  he  introduced  the  noble  metre 
which  was  at  once  adopted  by  his  contemporaries  and 
became  the  vehicle  of  the  great  Elizabethan  drama.  The 
new  metre  quickly  abolished  the  rhyming  couplets  and 
stanzas  that  had  hitherto  prevailed  on  the  popular  stage. 
The  rapidity  and  completeness  of  this  metrical  revolution 
s  in  itself  a  powerful  tribute  to  JIarlowe's  rare  insight 
md  feeling  as  a,  master  of  musical  expression.  The 
)riginality  and  importance  of  Marlowe's  innovation  are  not 
materially  affected  by  the  fact  that  one  or  two  classical 
Dlays,  such  as  Gorboduc  and  Jocasta,  had  been  already 
ivrittea  in  unrhymed  verse.  In  any  case  these  were 
private  plays,  and  the  monotony  of  cadence  and  structure 
m  the  .verse  excludes  them  from  anything  like  serious 
comparison  with  the  richness  and  variety  of  vocal  effect 
produced  by  the  skilful  pauses  and  musical  interlinking  of 
Marlowe's  heroic  metre.  Greene  and  Peele  did  almost  as 
much  for  romantic  comedy  as  Marlowe  had  done  for 
tomantic  tragedy.  Greene's  ease  and  lightness  of  touch, 
bis  freshness  of  feeling  and  play  of  fancy,  his  vivid  sense 


of  the  pathos  and  beauty  of  homely  scenes  and  thorough 
enjoyment  of  English  rural  life,  give  to  his  dramatic 
sketches  the  blended  charm  of  romance  and  reality  hardly 
to  be  found  elsewhere  except  in  Shakespeare's  early 
comedies.  In  special  points  ot^  lyrical  beauty  and  dramatic 
portraiture,  such  as  his  sketches  of  pure  and  devoted 
women  -and  of  witty  and  amusing  clowns,  Greene 
anticipated  some  of  the  more  delightful  and  characteristic 
features  of  Shakespearian  comedy.  Peele's  lighter  pieces 
and  Lyly's  pro.se  comedies  helped  in  the  same  direction. 
Although  not  written  for  the  public  stage,  Lyly's  court 
comedies  were  very  popular,  and  Shakespeare  evidently 
gained  from  their  light  and  easy  if  somewhat  artificial 
tone,  their  constant  play  of  witty  banter  and  spark- 
ling repartee,  valuable  hints  for  the  prose  of  his  own 
comedies.  JIarlowe  again  prepared  the  way  for  another 
characteristic  developm.ent  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  art. 
His  Edward  II.  marks  the  rise  of  the  historical  drama,  as 
distinguished  from  the  older  chronicle  play,  in  which  the 
annals  of  a  reign  or  period  were  thrown  into  a  series  of 
loose  and  irregular  metrical  scenes.  Peele's  Edward  /., 
Marlowe's  Edward  II.,  and  the  fine  .anonymous  play  of 
Edward  III.,  in  which  many  critics  think  Shakespeare's 
hand  may  bo  traced,  show  how  thoroughly  the  new  school 
had  felt  the  rising  national  pulse,  and  how  promptly  it 
responded  to  the  popular  demand  for  the  dramatic  treat- 
ment of  history.  The  greatness  of  contemporary  events 
had  created  a  new  sense  of  the  grandeur  and  continuity  of 
the  nation's  life,  and  excited  amongst  all  classes  a  vivid 
interest  in  the  leading  personalities  and  critical  struggles 
that  had  marked  its  progress.  There  was  a  strong  and 
general  feeling  in  favour  of  historical  subjects,  and 
especially  historical  subjects  having  in  them  elements  of 
tragical  depth  and  intensity.  Shakespeare's  own  early 
plays — dealing  with  the  distracted  reign  of  King  John,  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  the  tragical  lives  of  Pilchard  II 
and  Richard  IIL — illustrate  this  bent  of  popular  feeling 
The  demand  being  met  by  men  of  poetical  and  dramati- 
genius  reacted  powerfully  on  the  spirit  of  the  age,  helping 
in  turn  to  illuminate  and  strengthen  its  loyal  and  patriotic 
sympathies. 

This  is  in  fact  the  key-note  of  the  English  stage 
in  the  great  period  of  its  development.  It  was  its 
breadth  of  national  interest  and  intensity  of  tragic  power 
that  made  the  English  drama  so  immeasurably  superior  to 
every  other  contemporary  drama  in  Europe.  The  Italian 
drama  languished  because,  though  carefully  elaborated  in 
point  of  form,  it  had  no  fulness  of  national  life,  no  common 
elements  of  ethical  conviction  or  aspiration,  to  'vitalize 
and  ennoble  it.  Even  tragedy,  in  the  hands  of  Italian 
dramatists,  had  no  depth  of  human  passion,  no  energy  of 
heroic  purpose,  to  give  higher  meaning  and  power  to  its 
evolution.  In  Spain  the  dominant  courtly  and  ecclesi- 
astical influences  limited  the  development  of  the  national 
-drama,  while  in  France  it  remained  from  the  outset  under 
the  artificial  restrictions  of  classical  and  pseudo-classical 
traditions.  Shakespeare's  predecessors  and  contemporaries, 
in  elevating  the  common  stages,  and  filling  tliem  with 
poetry,  music,  and  pofsion,  had  attracted  to  the  theatre  all 
classes,  including  tlie  more  cultivated  and  refined  ;  and 
the  intelligent  interest,  energetic  patriotism,  and  robust 
life  of  so  representative  an  English  audience  supplied  the 
strongest  stimulus  to  the  more  perfect  development  of  the 
great  organ  of  national  expression.  The  forms  of  dramatic 
art,  in  the  three  main  departments  of  comedy,  tragedy, 
and  historical  drama,  had  been,  as  we  have  seen,  cldtrly 
discriminated  and  evolved  in  their  earlier  stages.  '  iPwas 
a  moment  of  supreme  promise  and  expectation,  and  in  the 
accidents  of  earth,  or,  as  we  may  more  appropriately  and 
gratefully  say,  in  the  ordinancaa  of  heaven,  the  supreme 


ij'uper*- 
ority 
0.'  the 
Englis': 
'..tafe. 


SHAKESPEARE 


763 


peet  and  draitiatist   appeared   to   more   than   fulfil   the 
utmost   promise    of    the   time.     By    right    of    imperial 
command  over   all  the  resources  of  imaginative  insight 
and  expression  Shakespeare  combined  the  rich  dramatic 
materials  already  prepared  into  more  perfect  forms,  and 
carried  them  to  the  highest  point  of  ideal  development. 
He   quickly  surpassed   Marlowe   in    passion,  music,   and 
intellectual  power ;  Greene  in  lyrical  beauty,  elegiac  grace, 
and  narrative  interest ;  Peele   in  picturesque   touch   and 
pastoral   sweetness ;   and   Lyly  in  bright   and   sparkling 
dialogue.     And  having  distanced  the  utmost  efforts  of  his 
predecessors  and  contemporaries  he  took  his  own  higher 
way,  and  reigned  to  the  end  without  a  rival  in  the  new 
world  of  supreme  dramatic  art  he  had  created.     It  is  a 
new  world,  because  Shakespeare's  work  alone  can  be  said 
to  possess  the  organic  strength  and  infinite  variety,  the 
throbbing  fulness,  vital  complexity,  and  breathing  truth, 
of  nature   herself.      In   points   of   artistic    resource  and 
technical  ability — such  as  copious  and  expressive  diction, 
freshness   and  pregnancy   of  verbal   combination,  •  richly 
modulated  verse,   and    structural   skill   in    the   handling 
of    incident    and    action — Shakespeare's     supremacy    is 
indeed    sufficiently    assured.      But,   after    all,    it   is    of 
course  in  the  spirit  and  substance  of  his  .work,  his  power 
of  piercing  to  the  hidden  centres  of  character,  of  touch- 
ing the  deepest  springs  of  impulse-  and    passion,  out  of 
which  are  the  issues  of  life,  and  of  evolving  those  issues 
dramatically  with  a  flawless  strength,  subtlety,  and  truth, 
which  raises  him  so  immensely  above  and  beyond  not  only 
the  best  of  the  playwrights  who  went  before  him,  but  the 
whole  line  of  illustrious  dramatists  that  came  after  him. 
It   is   Shakespeare's   unique   distinction  that  he  has   an 
absolute  command  over  all  the  complexities  of  thought  and 
feeding  that  prompt  to  action  and  bring  out  the  dividing 
lines  of  character.     He  sweeps  with  the  hand  of  a  master 
the  whole  gamut  of  human  experience,  from  the  lowest 
note  to  the  very  top  of   its  compass,  from  the   sportive 
childish  treble  of  Slamilius  and  the  pleading  boyish  tones 
of   Prince  Arthur,  up  to  t'ue  spectre-haunted   terrors   of 
Macbeth,  the   tropical  passion  of  Othello,   the  agonized 
sense  and  torturfed  spirit  of  Hamlet,  the  sustained  elemental 
grandeur,  the  Titanic  fcrce  and  utterly  tragical  pathos,  of 
Lear. 
ShaKe-         Shakespeare's  active  dramatic  career  in  London  lasted 
spwresi  'ibout   twenty   years,    and   may   be   divided    into    three 
career—  tolerably  symmetrical  ])eriods.     The  first  extends  from  the 
Grst         year  1587  to  about  1593-94;  the  second  from  this  date  to 
period,     the  end  of  the  century  ;  a:  -.  the  third  from  1600  to  about 
1608,  soon  after  which  time  Shakespeare  ceased  to  write 
regularly  for  the  stage,  was  less  in  London  and  more  and 
more  at  Stratford.     Some  modern  critics  add  to  these  a 
fourth  period,  including  the  few  plays  which  from  internal 
as  well  as  external  evidence  must  have  been  among  the 
poet's  latest   productions.     As   the  exact  dates  of   these 
plays  are  unknown,  this  period  may  be  taken  to  extend 
from  1C08  to  about  1612.     The  three  dramas  produced 
during  these  years  are,   however,   hardly  entitled   to   be 
ranked  as  a  separate  period.     They  may  rather  be  regarded 
as  supplementary  to  the  gi-and  series  of  dramas  belonging 
to  the  third   and  greatest   epoch   of   Shakespeare's    pro- 
ductive power.     To  the  first  period  belong  Shakespeare's 
early  tentative  efforts  in  revising  and  jiartially  rewriting 
plays  produced  by  others  that  already  had  possession  of 
the  stage.     These  efforts  are  illustrated  in  the  three  parts 
of  Ilenrij  VI.,  especially  the  second  and  third  parts,  which 
bear  decisive  marks  of  Shakespeare's  hand,  and  were  to  a 
great   extent  recast   and  rewritten  by   him.     It  is  clear 
from  the  internal  evidence  thus  supplied  that  Shakespeare 
■was  at  first    powerfully  affected    by  *'  Marlowe's    mighty 
line.".  This  influence  is  so  marked  i)i.the  revised  second 


and  third  parts  of  Hairy  VI.  as  to  induce  some  critics  to 
believe  Marlowe  must  have  had  a  hand  in  the  revision. 
These  passages  are,  however,  sufficiently  explained  by  the 
fact  of  Marlowe's  influence  during  the  first  period  of 
Shakespeare's  career.  To  the  same  period  also  belong  the 
earliest  tragedy,  that  of  Titns  Andronicus,  and  the  three 
comedies — Love's  Labour  's  Lost,  The  Comedy  of  Ei-rors, 
and  the  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona.  These  dramas  are  all 
marked  by  the  dominant  literary  influences  of  the  time. 
They  present  features  obviously  due  to  the  revived  and 
widespread  knowledge  of  classical  literature,  as  well  as  to 
the  active  interest  in  the  literature  of  Italy  and  the  South. 
Titus  Andronicus,  in  many  of  its  characteristic  features, 
reflects  the  form  of  Roman  tragedy  almost  universally 
accepted  and  followed  in  the  earlier  period  of  the  drama. 
This  form  was  supplied  by  the  Latin  plays  of  Seneca, 
their  darker  colours  being  deepened  by  the  moral  effect  of 
the  judicial  tragedies  and  military  conflicts  of  the  time. 
The  execution  of  the  Scottish  queen  and  the  Catholic  con- 
spirators who  had  acted  in  her  name,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  Spanish  Armada,  had  given  an  impulse  to  tragic 
representations  of  an  extreme  type.  This  was  undoubtedly 
rather  fostered  than  otherwise  by  the  favourite  exemplars 
'of  Pioman  tragedy.  The  Medea  and  Thyestes  of  Seneca  are 
crowded  with  pagan  horrors  of  the  most  revolting  kind. 
It  is  true  these  horrors  are  usually  related,  not  represented, 
although  in  the  Medea  the  maddened  heroine  kills  her 
children  on  the  stage.  But  from  these  tragediss  the 
conception  of  the  physically  horrible  as  an  element  of 
tragedy  was  imported  into  the  early  English  drama,  and 
intensified  by  the  realistic  tendency  which  the  events  of  the 
time  and  the  taste  of  their  ruder  audiences  had  impressed 
upon  the  common  stages.  This  tendency  is  exemplified 
in  Titus  Andronicus,  obviously  a  very  early  work,  the 
signs  of  youthful  eff'ort  being  apparent  not  only  in  the 
acceptance  of  so  coarse  a  type  of  tragedy  but  in  the  crude 
handling  of  character  and  motive,  and  the  want  of  har- 
mony in  working  out  the  details  of  the  dramatic  concep- 
tion. Kyd  was  the  most  popular  contemporary  repre- 
sentative of  the  bloody  school,  and  in  the  leading  motives 
of  treachery,  concealment,  and  revenge  there  are  points 
of  likeness  between  Titus  Andronicus  and  the  Spanish 
Trarjedy.  But  how  promptly  and  completely  Shake- 
speare's nobler  nature  turned  from  this  lower  type  is 
apparent  from  the  fact  that  he  not  only  never  reverted  to  • 
it  but  indirectly  ridicules  the  piled-up  horrors  and  extra- 
vagant language  of  Kyd's  plays. 

The  early  comedies  in  the  same  way  are  marked  by  the 
dominant  literary  influences  of  the  time,  partly  classic 
partly  Italian.  In  the  Comedy  of  Errors,  for  example, 
Shakespeare  attempted  a  humorous  play  of  the  old  classi- 
cal type,  the  general  plan  and  many  details  being  derived 
directly  from  Plautus.  In  Love's  Labour  's  Lost  man)- 
characteristic  features  of  Italian  comedy  are  freely  intro- 
duced :  the  pedant  Holofernes,  the  curate  Sir  Nathaniel,  the 
fantastic  braggadoeio  soldier  Armado,  are  all  well-known 
characters  of  the  contemporary  Italian  drama.  Of  this 
comedy,  indeed,  Gervinus  .says,  "  the  tone  of  the  Italian^ 
school  prevails  here  more  than  in  any  other  play.  TUe 
redundance  of  wit  is  only  to  be  compared  with  a  similar 
redundance  of  conceit  in  Shakespeare's  narrative  poems, 
and  with  the  Italian  style  which  he  had  early  adojited." 
These  comedies  display  another  sign  of  early  work  in  the 
mechanical  exactness  of  the  plan  and  a  studied  symmetry 
in  the  grouping  of  the  chief  personages  of  the  drama.  In 
the  Tivo  Gentlemen  of  VeroTfa,  as  Prof.  Dowden  points  out, 
"  Proteus  the  fickle  is  set  against  Valentine  the  faithful, 
Silvia  the  light  and  intellectual  against  Julia  the  ardent 
and  tender,  Lance  the  humourist  against  Speed  the  wit." 
So  in  Love's  Labour  'j  Lost,  the  king  and  his  three  fellow- 


764 


SHAKESPEARE 


students  balance  the  princess  and  her  three  ladies,  and 
there  is  a  symmetirical  play  of  incident  between  the  two 
groups.  '  The  arrangement  is  obviously  more  artificial 
than  spontaneous,  more  mechanical  than  vital  and  organic. 
But  towards  the  close  of  the  first  period  Shakespeare  had 
fully  realized  his  own  power  and  was  able  to  dispen.se 
with  these  artificial  supports.  Indeed,  having  rapidly 
gained  knowledge  and  experience,  he  had  before  the  close 
written  plays  of  a  far  higher  character  than  any  which 
even  the  ablest  of  his  contemporaries  had  produced.  He 
had  firmly  laid  the  foundation  of  his  future  fame  in  the 
direction  both  of  comedy  and  tragedy,  for,  besides  the 
comedies  already  referred  to,  the  first  sketches  of  Hmiilet 
and  Romeo  and  Juliet,  and  the  tragedy  of  Richard  III., 
may  probably  be  referred  to  this  period. 

Another  mark  of  early  work  belonging  to  tliese  dramas 
is  the  lyrical  and  elegiac  tone  and  treatment  associated 
with  the  use  of  rhyme,  of  rhyming  couplets  and  stanzas. 
Spenser's  musical  verse  had  for  the  time  elevated  the 
character  of  rhyming  metres  by  identifying  them  with  the 
highest  kinds  of  poetry,  and  Shakespeare  was  evidently  at 
first  affected  by  this  powerful  impulse.  He  rhymed  with 
great  facility,  and  delighted  in  the  gratification  of  his 
lyrical  fancy  and  feeling  which  the  more  musical  rhyming 
metres  afforded.  Rhyme  accordingly  has  a  considerable 
and  not  .•  inappropriate  -place  in  the  earlier  romantic 
comedies.  ':".The  Comedy  of  Errors  has  indeed  been  de- 
Bcribed  as  a  kind  of  lyrical  farce  in  which  the  opposite 
qualities -of  elegiac  beauty  and  comic  effect  are  happily 
blended.  Rhyme,  however,  at  this  period  of  the  poet's 
work  is  not  restricted  to  the  comedies.  It  is  largely  used 
in  the  tragedies  and  histories  as  well,  and  plays  even  an 
important  part  in  historical  drama  so  late  as  Richard  II. 
Shakespeare  appears,  however,  to  have  worked  out  this 
favourite  vein,  and  very  much  taken  leave  of  it, -by  the 
publication  of  his  descriptive  and  narrative  poems,  the 
Venus  and  Admits  and  the  Lucrece,  although  the  enormous 
popularity  of  these  poems  might  almost  have  tempted  him 
to  return  again  to  the  abandoned  metrical  form.  The 
only  considerable  exception  to  the  disuse  of  rhyming 
metres  and  lyrical  treatment  is  supplied  by  the  Sonnets, 
which,  though  not  published  till  1609,  were  probably 
begun  early,  i.oon  after  the  poems,  and  written  at  intervals 
during  eight  or  ten  of  the  intervening  years.  Into  the 
many  vexed  questions  connected  with  the  history  and 
meaning  of  these  poems  it  is  impossible  to  enter.  The 
attempts  recently  made  by  the  Rev.  W.  A.  Harrison  and  Mr 
T.  Tyler  to  identify  the  "  dark  lady  "  of  the  later  sonnets, 
■while  of  some  historical  interest,  cannot  be  regarded  as 
successful.  And  the  identification,  even  if  rendered  more 
^  probable  by  the  discovery  of  fresh  evidence,  would  not  clear 
up  the  difEculti"^,  biographical,  literary,  and  historical,  con- 
nected with  the -3  exquisite  poems.  It  is  perhaps  enough 
to  say  with  Prof.  Dowden  that  in  Shakespeare's  case  the 
most  natural  interpretation  is  the  best,  and  that,  so  far  as 
they  throw  light  on  his  personal  character,  the  sonnets 
show  that  "he  was  capable  of  measureless  personal  devotion; 
that  he  w^a  tenderly  sensitive,  sensitive  above  all  to  every 
diminution  or  alteration  of  that  love  his  heart  so  eagerly 
craved  j^and  that,  when  wronged,  although  he  suffered 
anguish,  he  transcended  his  private  injury  and  learned  to 
forgive.' 
aecond  «Thatever  question  may  be  raised  with  regard  to  the 
penoo,  superiority  of  some  of  the  plays  belonging  to  the  first 
leriod  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  career,  there  can  be  no 
I  lestion  at  all  as  to  any  of  the  pieces  belonging  to  the 
■-.:^ond  period,  which  extends  to  the  end  of  the  century. 
During  these  years  Shakespeare  works  as  a  master,  having 
comp-.le  command  over  the  materials  and  resources  of  the 
jnest  mature  and  flexible  dramatic  art.     "  To  this  stag?.^" 


says  Mr  Swinburne,  "  belongs  the  special  faculty  of  fault- 
less, joyous,  facile  command  upon  each  faculty  required  of 
the  presiding  genius  for  service  or  for  sport.  It  is  in  the 
middle  period  of  his  work  that  the  language  of  Shake 
speare  is  most  limpid  in  its  fulness,  the  stylo  most  pure, 
the  thought  most  transparent  through  the  close  and 
luminous  raiment  of  perfect  expression."  This  period 
includes  the  magnificent  series  of  historical  plays — Richard 
II.,  the  two  parts  of  Henry  IV.,  and  Henry  V. — and  a 
double  series  of  brilliant  comedies.  The  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,  All  's  Well  that  ends  Well,  and  the  Mer- 
chant of  Venice  were  produced  before  1598,  and  during 
the  next  three  years  there  appeared  a  still  more  complete 
and  characteristic  group'  including  Much  ado  about  No- 
thing, As  you  Lihe  it,  and  Twelfth  Night.  These  comedies 
and  historical  plays  are  all  marked  by  a  rare  harmony  of 
reflective  and  imaginative  insight,  perfection  of  creative 
art,, and  completeness  of  dramatic  effect.^  Before  the  close 
of  this  period,  in  1598,  Francis  Meres  paid  hi.s  cele- 
brated tribute  to  Shakespeare's  superiority  in  lyrical, 
descriptive,  and  dramatic  poetry,  „  emphasizing  his  un- 
rivalled distinction  in  the  three  main'  departments  oi  the 
drama, — comedy,  tragedy,  and  historical  play.  And  from 
this  time  onwards  the^  contemporary  recognitions  of 
Shakespeare's  eminence  as  a  poet  and  dramatist  rapidly 
multiply,  the  critics,  and  eulogists  being  in  most  cases 
well  entitled  to  speak  with  authority  on  the  subject. 

In  the  third  period  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  career  Thiri 
years  had  evidently  brought «  enlarged -.v vision,  wider  F"^"^' 
thoughts,  and  deeper  experiences. .,  "While  the"  old  mastery 
of  art  remains,  the  works  belonging  to  this  period  seem  to 
bear  traces  of  more  intense  moral  struggles,  larger  and  j^ss 
joyous  views  of  human  life,  more  troubled,  complex,  and 
profound  conceptions  and  emotions.  Comparatively  !'ew/ 
marks  of  the  lightness  and  animation  of  the  earlier  w.jrks 
remain,  but  at  the  same  time  the  dramas  of  this  period 
display  an  unrivalled  >.  power  of  piercing  the  deepest 
mysteries  and  sounding  the  most  tremendous  and  perplex- 
ing problems  of  human  life  and  human  destiny.  To  this 
period  belong  the  four  great  tragedies — Hamlet,  Macheth, 
Othello,  Lear  ;  the  three  Roman  plays— ^Corw/areMs,  Julius 
Cxsar,  Anthony  and  -Pleopatra ;  the  two  singular  piays 
whose  scene  and  personages  are  Greek  but  whose  aciion 
and  meaning  are  wider  and  deeper,  than  either  Greek  or 
Roman  life — Troilus  and  Cressida  and  Timon  of  Athens  ; 
and  one  comedy — Measure  for  Measure,  which  is  almost 
tragic  in  the  depth  and  intensity  of  its  characters  and 
incidents.  The  four  great  tragedies  represent  the.  highest 
reach  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  power,  and  they  sufiiciently 
illustrate  the  range  and  complexity  of  the  deeper  problems 
that  now  occupied  his  mind.  Timon  and  Measure  for 
Measure,  however,  exemplify  the  same  tendency  to  brood 
with  meditative  intensity  over  the  wrongs  and  miseries 
that  afflict  humanity.  These  works  sufiiciently  prove  ihat 
during  this  period  Shakespeare  gained- a  disturbing  insight 
into  the  deeper  evils  of  the  world,  arising  from  the  darker 
passions,  such  as  treachery  and  revenge.  But  -it  is  also 
clear  that,  with  the  larger  vision  of  a  noble,  well-poised 
nature,  he  at  the  same  time  gained  a  fuller  perception  of 
the  deeper  springs  of  goodness  in  human  nature,  of  the 
great  virtues  of  invincible  fidelity  and  unwearied  love, 
and  he  evidently  received  not  only  consolation  and  calm 
but  new  stimulus  and  power  from  the  fuller  realization  of 
these  virtues.  The  typical  plays  of  this  period  thus 
embody  Shakespeare's  ripest  experience  of  the  great  issues 
of  life.  In  the  four  grand  tragedies  the  central  problem  is 
a  profoundly  moral  one.  It  is  the  supreme  internal  conflict 
of  good  and  evil  amongst  the  central  forces  and  higher 
elements  of  human  nature,  as  appealed  to  and  developed 
by  sudden  and  powerful  temptation,  smitten  by  aocumu^ 


SHAKESPEARE 


765 


lated  wrongs,  or  plunged  in  overwhelming  calamities.  As 
the  result,  we  learn  that  there  is  something  infinitely  more 
precious  in  life  than  social  ease  or  worldly  success— noble- 
ness of  soul,  fidelity  to  truth  and  honour,  human  love  and 
loyalty,  strength  and  tenderness,  and  trust  to  the  very 
end.  In  the  most  tragic  e.fperiences  this  fidelity  to  all 
that  is  best  in  life  is  only  possible  through  the  loss  of  life 
itself.  But  when  Desdemona  expires  with  a  sigh  and 
Cordelia's  loving  eyes  are  closed,  when  Hamlet  no  more 
draws  his  breath  in  pain  and  the  tempest-tossed  Lear  is  at 
last  liberated  from  the  rack  of  this  tough  world,  we  feel 
that,  death  having  set  his  sacred  seal  on  their  great  sorrows 
and  greater  love,  they  remain  with  us  as  possessions  for 
ever.  In  the  three  dramas  belonging  to  Shakespeare's  last 
period,  or  rather  which  may  be  said  to  close  his  dramatic 
career,  the  same  feeling  of  severe  but  consolatory  calm  is 
Btill  more  apparent.  If  the  deeper  discords  of  life  are  not 
finally  resolved,  the  virtues  which  soothe  their  perplexities 
and  give  us  courage  and  endurance  to. wait,  as  well  as 
confidence  to  trust  the  final  issues, — the  virtues  of  forgive- 
ness and  generosity,  of  forbearance  and  self-control, — are 
largely  illustrated.  This  is  a  characteristic  feature  in  each 
of  these  closing  dramas,  in  the  Winter'x  Tale,  Cyinbeline, 
and  the  Tempest.  The  Tempest  is  mpposed,  on  tolerably 
good  grounds,  to  be  Shakespeare's  last  work,  and  in  it  we 
see  the  great  magician,  having  gained  by  the  wonderful 
experience  of  life,  and  the  no  less  wonderful  practice  of  his 
art,  serene  wisdom,  clear  and  enlarged  vision,  and  beneficent 
self-control,  break  his  magical  wand  and  retire  from  the 
scene  of  his  triumphs  to  the  home  he  had  chosen  amidst 
the  woods  and  meadows  of  the  Avon,  and  surrounded  by 
the  family  and  friends  he  loved. 
Later  We   must  now  briefly   summarize   the  few  remaining 

persona,  facts  of  the  poet's  personal  history.  The  year  lo96  was 
>-'i-oij-  jjjar]je(j  by  considerable  family  losses.  In  August  Shake- 
speare's only  son  Hamnet  died  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his 
age.  With  his  strong  domestic  affections  and  cherished 
iopes  of  founding  a  family,  the  early  death  of  his  only  boy 
must  have  been  for  his  father  a  severe  blow.  It  was  followed 
in  December  by  the  death  of  Shakespeare's  nncle  Henry, 
the  friend  of  his  childhopd  and  youth,  the  protector  and 
oncourager  of  his  boyish  sports  and  enterprises  at  Bearley, 
Snitterfield,  and  Fulbroke.  A  few  months  later  the  Shake- 
speare household  at  Snitterfield,  so  intimately  associated 
for  more  than  half  a  century  with  the  family  in  Henley 
Street,  was  finally  broken  up  b;-  l:he  death  of  the  poet's  aunt 
Margaret,  his  uncle  Henry's  widow.  Although  the  death 
of  his  son  and  heir  had  diminished  the  poet's  hope  of 
founding  a  family,  he  did  -ot  in  any  way  relax  his  efforts 
to  secure  a  permanent  and  comfortable  home  for  his  wife 
and  daughters  at  Stratford.  As  rar'y  ^s  1597,  when  he 
had  pursued  his  London  career  for  little  more  than  ten  years, 
he  had  saved  enough  to  purcha.se  the  considerable  dwelling- 
house  in  New  Place,  Stratford,  to  which  he  afterwards 
retired.  This  house,  originally  built  by  Sir  Hugh  Clop- 
ton  and  called  the  "Great  Hou.se,"  was  one  of  the  largest 
mansions  in  the  town,  and  the  fact  of  Shake.spieare  having 
lacquired  such  a  place  as  his  family  residence  would  at  once 
increase  his  local  importance.  From  time  to  time  ho 
made  additional  purchases  of  land  about  the  house  and 
in  the  neighbourhood.  In  1602  he  largely  increased 
the  property  by  acquiring  107  acres  of  arable  land,  and 
later  on  he  added  to  this  20  acres  of  pasture  land,  with 
&  convenient  cottage  and  garden  in  Chapel  Lane,  oppo- 
site the  lower  grounds  of  the  house.  Within  a  few  years 
his  property  thus  comprised  a  substantial  dwclling-houso 
with  large  garden  and  extensive  outbuildings,  a  cottage 
fronting  the  lower  road,  and  about  137  acres  of  arable 
and  pasture  lanH.  During  these  yejrs  Shakespeare  made 
another  impor'ant  purchase  that  added  considerably  to  his 


income.  From  the  letter  of  a  Stratford  Imrgess  to  a  friend 
in  London,  it  appears  that  as  early  as  1597  Shakespeare 
had  been  making  inquiry  about  the  purchase  of  tithes  in 
the  town  and  neighbourhood.  And  in  1605  he  bought  the 
unexpired  lease  of  tithes,  great  and*niall,  in  Stratford  and 
two  adjoining  hamlets,  the  lease  having  still  thirty  years 
to  run.  This  purchase  yielded  him  an  annual  income  of 
£33  a  year,  equal  to  upwai-ds  of  £350  a  year  of  our 
present  money.  The  last  purchase  of  property  made  by 
Shakespeare  of  which  we  have  any  definite  record  is  at 
once  so  interesting  and  .so  perplexing  as  to  have  stimulated 
various  conjectures  on  the  part  of  his  biographers.  This 
purchase  carries  us  away  from  Stratford  back  to  London, 
to  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic 
labours  and  triumphs.  It  seems  that  in  March  1613  he 
bought  a  house  with  a  piece  of  ground  attached  to  it  a 
little  to  the  south-west  of  St  Paul's  cathedral,  and  not  far 
from  the  Blackfriars  theatre.  The  purchase  of  this  house 
in  London  after  he  had  been  for  some  years  settled  at 
Stratford  has  led  some  critics  to  suppose  that  Shakespeare 
had  not  given  up  all  thought  of  returning  to  the 
metropolis,  or  at  least  of  spending  part  of  the  year  there 
with  his  family  in  the  neighbourhood  he  best  knew  and 
where  he  was  best  known.  The  ground  of  this  supposition 
is,  however,  a  good  deal  destroyed  by  the  fact  that  soon 
after  acquiring  this  town  house  Shakespeare  let  it  for  a 
lease  of  ten  years.  He  may  possibly  have  bought  the 
property  as  a  convenience  to  some  of  his  old  friends  who 
were  associated  with  him  in  the  purchase.  In  view  of 
future  contingencies  it  would  obviously  be  an  advantage  to 
have  a  substantial  dwelling  so  near  the  theatre  in  the 
hands  of  a  friend.  It  was  indeed  by  means  of  a  similar 
purchase  that  James  Burbage  had  originally  started  and 
established  the  Blackfriars  theatre.  ' 

The  year  1607-8  would  be  noted  in  Shakespeife's 
family  calendar  as  one  of  vivid  and  chequered  domestic 
experiences.  On  the  5th  of  June  his  eldest  daughter 
Susanna,  who  seems  to  have  inherited  something  of  her 
father's  genius,  was  married  to  Dr  John  Hall,  a  medical 
man  of  more  than  average  knowledge  and  ability, .who  had 
a  considerable  practice  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stratford, 
and  who  was  deservedly  held  in  high  repute.  The  newly 
married  couple  settled  in  one  of  the  picturesque  houses  of 
the  wooded  suburb  between  the  town  and  the  church 
known  as  Old  Stratford.  •  But  before  the  end  of  the  year 
the  midsummer  marriage  bells  had  changed  to  sadder 
music.  In  December  Shakespeare  lost  his  youngest 
brother,  Edmund,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-seven.  He 
had  become  an  actor,  most  probably  through  his  brother's 
help  and  influence,  and  was,  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
living  in  London.  He  was  buried  at  Southwark  on  the 
last  day  of  the  year.  Two  months  later  there  was.  family 
rejoicing  in  Dr  Hall's  house  at  the  birth  of  a  daughter, 
christened  Elizabeth,  the  only  offspring  of  the  union,  and 
the  only  grandchild  Shakespeare  lived  to  see.  The 
rejoicing  at  this  event  would  be  fully  shared  by  the  house- 
hold in  New  Place,  and  esiicci.ally  by  Shakespeare  himself, 
whose  cherished  family  hopes  would  thus  be  strongth<'ued 
and  renewed.  Six  months  later  in  this  eventful  year, 
fortune  again  turned  her  wheel.  Early  in  Septembei 
Shakespeare's  mother,  Mary  Arden  of  the  Asbies,  died, 
having  lived  long  enough  to  see  and  fl-olcomo  her  great- 
grandchild as  a  fresh  bond  of  family  life.  She  was  buried 
at  Stratford  on  the  9th  of  September,  having  survived 
her  husband,  who  was  buried  on  the  8th  of  September 
1601,  exactly  seven  years.  Mary  Shakespeare  died  full  of 
years  and  honour  and  coveted  rewards.  For  more  than 
a  decade  she  had  witnessed  and  shared  the  growing  pro- 
sperity of  her  eldest  son,  and  felt  the  mother's  thrill  of  joy 
and  pride  in  the  success  that  had  crowned  his  brilliant 


766 


S  H  AKESPEARE 


career.  The  loss  of  his  mother  ■would  be  deeply  felt  by 
Ler  favourite  son,  but  there  was  no  bitterness 'in  the  bereave- 
ment, and  it  even  seems  to  have  exerted  a  tranquillizing, 
elevating  effect  on  the  poet's  mind  and  character.  As  ho 
laid''her  in  the  grave  he  would  recall  and  realize  afresh  the 
early  years  during  which  her  loving  presence  and  influence 
■were  the  light  and  guide  of  his  boyish  life.  With  these 
vivid  and  varied  family  e.vpericnccs  a  strong  wave  of  home- 
yearning  seems  to  have  set  in,  which  gradually  drew  the 
poet  wholly  back  to  Stratford.  During  the  autumn  visit 
connected  with  his  mother's  death  Shakespeare  must  have 
remained  several  weeks  at  the  New  Tlace,  for  ou  the  IGth 
of  October  he  acted  as  godfather  to  the  infant  son  of  an 
old  personal  friend,  Henry  Walker,  who  was  an  alderman 
cf  the  borough.  The  child  was  called  William  after  his 
godfather,  and  the  poet  must  have  taken  a  special  interest 
•p  the  boy,  as  he  remembered  him  in  his  will. 
Hsiirc,  ^  It  seems  most  probable  that  soon  after  the  chequered 
tf'.rafi)!.;  domestic  "events  of  this  year,  as  soon  as  he  could  con- 
venient'y  terminate  his  London  engagements,  Shake- 
speare decided  on  retiring  to  his  native  place.  He  had 
gained  all  he  cared  for  in  the  way  of  wealth  and  fame, 
and  his  strongest  interests,  personal  and  relative,  were 
tiow  centred  in  Stratford.  But  on  retiring  to  settle  in  his 
native  ■town  he  had  nothing  of  the  dreamer,  the  sentiment- 
alist, Jr  the  recluse  about  him.  His  healthy  natural 
feeling  was  far  too  strong,  his  character  too  rbanly  and 
well- balanced,  tg  admit  of  any  of  the  so-called  eccentricities 
oi  genius.  He  retired  as  a  successful  professional  man 
who  had  gained  a  competence  by  his  own  exertions  and 
wished  to  enjoy  it  at  leisure  in  a  simple,  social,  rational 
way.'  He  knew  that  the  competence  he  had  gained,  the 
lands  snd  wealth  he  possessed,  could  only  be  preserved, 
like  other  valuable  possessions,  by  good  management  and 
careful  hu.sbandry.-  And,-  taught  by  the  sad  experience  of 
dis  earlier  years,  he  evidently  guided  the  business  details 
of  his  property  with  a  firm  and  skilful  hand,  was  vigilant 
•ind  scrupulously  just  in  his  dealings,  respecting  the  rights 
of  others,  and,  if  need  be,  enforcing  his  oivn.  He  sued 
bis  careless  and  negligent  debtors  in  the  local  court  of 
record,  had  various  commercial  transactions  with  the 
corporation,  and  took  an  active  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
the  borough.  And  he  went  now  and  then  to  London, 
partly  on  business  connected  with  the  town,  partly  no 
doubt  to  look  after  the  administration  and  ultimate  dis- 
posal of  his  own  theatrical  property,  and  partly  it  may  be 
assumed  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  his  old  friends  and 
fellow  dramatists.  Even  at  Stratford,  however,  Shake- 
speare was  not  entirely  cut  off  from  his  old  associates  in 
arts  and  Utters,  his  hospitable  board  being  brightened  at 
intervals  by  the  presence,  and  animated  by  the  wit, 
humour,  and  kindly  gossip,  of  one  or  more  of  his  chosen 
'riends.  Two  amongst  the  most  cherished  of  his  com- 
panions and  fellow  poets,  Drayton  and  Ben  Jonson,  had 
paid  a  visit  of  this  kind  to  Stratford,  ar\ii.  been  entertained 
by  Shakespeare  only  a  few  days  before  his  death,  which 
bccurred  almost  .suddenly  on  the  23d  of  April  1616. 
'After  three  days'  illness  the  great  poet  was  carried  off  by  a 
sharp  attack  of  fever,  at  that  time  one  of  the  commonest 
scourge.s,  even  of  country  towns,  and  often  arising  then 
ai  now,  only  more  frequently  then  than  now,  from  the, 
neglect  of  proper  sanitary  precautions.  According  to 
tradition  the  23d  of  April  was  Shakespeare's  birthday,  so 
that  he  died  on  the  completion  of 'the  52d  year  of  his  age. 
riiree  days  later  he  was  laid  in  the  chancel  of  Stratford 
church,  on  the  north  wall  of  which  his  monument,  contain- 
ing his  bust  and  epitaph,  was  soon  afterwards  placed,  most 
probably  by  the  poet's  son-in-law,  Dr  John  Hall.  Shake- 
speare's widow,  the  Anne  Hathaway  of  his  youth,  died  in 
1623,  having  ,surviied  the  poet  seven  years,  exactl'y  the 


same  length  of  time  that  his  mother  Mary  Arden  had  out- 
lived her  husband.  Elizabeth  Hall,  the  poet's  grandchild, 
was  married  twice,  first  to  Mr  Thos.  Nash  of  Stratford, 
and  in  1649,  when  she  had  been  two  years  a  widow,  to 
Mr  afterwards  Sir  John  Barnard  of  Abington  in  North- 
amptonshire. Lady  Barnard  had  no  family  by  either 
husband,  and  the  three  children  of  the  poet's  second 
daughter  Judith  (who  had  married  Richard  Quiney  of 
Stratford,  two  months  before  her  father's  death)  all  died 
comparatively  young.  At  Lady  Barnard's  death  in  1670 
the  family  of  the  poet  thus  become  extinct.  By  his  will 
made  a  few  weeks  before  his  death  Shakespeare  left  his 
landed  property,  the  whole  of  his  real  estate  indeed,  to  his 
eldest  daughter  Mrs  Susanna  Hall,  under  strict  entail  to 
her  heirs.  He  left  also  a  substantial  legacy  to  his  second 
daughter  and  only  remaining  child  Mrs  Judith  Quiney, 
and  a  remembrance  to  several  of  his  friends,  including  his 
old  associates  at  the  Blackfriars  theatre,  Burbage,  Heminge, 
and  Condell, — the  two  latter  of  whom  edited  the  first  col 
lection  of  his  dramas  published  in  1623.  The  will  also 
included  a  bequest  to  the  poor  of  Stratford. 

From  this  short  sketch  it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  best 
known  facts  of  Shakespeare's  peisonal  history  bring  into 
vivid  relief  the  simplicity  and  naturalness  of  his  ta;:tes, 
his  love  of  the  country,  the  strength  of  his  domestic  auec- 
tions,  and  the  singularly  firm  hold  wliich  the  conception 
of  family  life  had  upon  his  imagination,  his  sympathies, 
and  his  schemes  of  active  labour.  He  had  loved  the 
country  with  ardent  enthusiasm  'a  his  youth,  when  all 
nature  was  lighted  .with  the  daw-n  of  rising  passion  and 
kindled  imagination ;  and  after  his  varied  London  expcri^ 
ence  we  may  well  believe  that  he  loved  it  still  more  with 
a  deeper  and  calmer  love  of  one  who  had  looked  through, 
and  through  the  brilliant  forms  of  wealthy  display,  public 
magnificence,  and  courtly  ceremonial,  who  had  scanned 
the  heights-  and  sounded  the  depths  of  existence,  and  who 
felt  that  for  the  king  and  beggar  alike  this  little  life  of 
feverish  joys  and  sorrows  is  soothed  by  natural  influences, 
chgered  by  sunlight  and  green  shadows,  softened  by  the 
perennial  charm  of  hill  and  dale  and  rippling  stream,  and 
when  the  sjjring  returns  no  more  is  -ounded  with  a  sleep. 
In  the  more  intimate  circle  of  -human  relationships  he 
seems  clearly  to  have  realized  that  the  sovereign  elixir 
against  the  ill.?  of  life,  the  one  antidote  of  its  struggles 
and  difticulties,  its  emptiness  and  unrest,  is  vigilant 
charity,  faithful  love  in  all  its  forms,,  love  of  home,  love 
of  kindred,  love  of  friends,  love  of  everything  simple, 
just,  and  trne.  The  larger  and  more  sacred  group  of  those 
serene  and  abiding  influences  flowing  from  well-centred 
affections  was  naturally  identified  with  family  ties,  and  it 
is  clear  that  the  unity  and  continuity  of  family  life  pos- 
sessed Shakespeare's  imagination  with  the  strength  of  a 
dominant  passion  and  largely  determined  the  scope  and 
direction  of  his  practical  activities.  As  we  have  seen,  he 
displayed  from  the  fi-rst  the  utmost  prudence  and  foresight 
in  securing  a  comfortable  home  for  his  family,  and  provid- 
ing for  the  future  welfare  of  his  children.  Th?  desire  of 
his  heart  evidently  was  to  take  a  good  position  and  found 
a  family  in  his  native  place.  And  if  this  was  a  weakness 
he  shares  it  with  other  eminent  names  in  the  republic  of 
letters.  In  Shakespeare's  case  the  desire  may  have  been 
inherited,  not  only  from  his  father,  who  had  pride, .energy, 
and  ambition,  but  especially  from  his  gently  descended 
mother,  Mary  Arden  of  the  Asbies.  But,  whatever  its 
source,  the  evidence  in  favour  of  this  cherished  desire  is 
unusually  full,  clear,  and  decisive.  While  the  poet  had 
no  doubt  previously  assisted  his  fa. her  to  retrie^ve  his 
position  in  the  world,  the  first  importa  it  step  in  building 
up  the  family  name  was  the  grant  of  a-ras  or  armorial 
bearings   to  John  Shakespeare  in  the   year    1596.     The 


Sammap; 
of  U'v  r::i 


iSHAKESPEARE 


767 


''ther.  it  may  be  assumed,  had  applied  to  the  heralds' 
jaege  for  the  grant  at  the  instance  and  by  the  help  of 
his  ;..6n.  In  this  document,  the  draft  of  which  is  still 
preserved,  the  grounds  on  which  the  arms  are  given  are 
.';tated  as  two  : — (1)  because  John  Shakespeare's  ancestors 
had  rendered  valuable  services  to  Henry  VIL ;  and  (2) 
that  he  had  married  Mary,  daughter  and  one  of  the  heirs 
of  Robert  Arden  oi  Wilmcote,  in  the  said  county,  gentle- 
man. In  the  legal  conveyances  of  property  to  Shake- 
speare himself  after  the  gi-ant  of  arms  he  is  uniformly 
described  as  "^Yilliam  Shakespeare  of  Stratford-upon- 
Avon,  gentleman."  He  is  so  described  in  the  midst  of 
his  London  career,  and  this  suiBciently  indicates  that 
Stratford  was  even  then  regarded  as  his  permanent  resid- 
ence or  home.  In  the  following  year  another  important 
step  was  taken  towards  establishing  the  position  of  the 
family.  This  was  an  application  by  John  and  Mary 
Shakespeare  to  the  Court  of  Chancery  for  the  recovery  of 
the  estate  of  the  Asbies,  which,  under  the  pressure  of 
family  difficulties,  had  been  mortgaged  in  1578  to  Edward 
Lambert.  The  issue  of  the  suit  is  not  known,  but,  as  wo 
have  seen,  the  pleadings  on  either  side  occupy  a  consider- 
able space  and  show  how  resolutely  John  Shakespeare  was 
bent  on  reoo^-ering  his  wife's  family  estate. 

Turning  to  the  poet  himself,  we  have  the  significant  fact 
that  during  the  next  ten  years  he  continued,  with  steady 
persistency,  to  build  up  the  family  fortunes  by  investing 
all  his  savings  in  real  property, — in  houses  and  land  at 
Stratford.  While  many  of  his  associates  and  partners  in 
the  Blackfriars  company  remained  on  in  London,  living  and 
dying  there,-  Shakespeare  seems  to  have  early  realized  his 
theatrical  property  for  the  sake  of  increasing  the  acreage  of 
his  arable  and  pasture  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Strat- 
ford. In  1598,  the  year  after  the  purchase  of  New  Place, 
his  family  are  not  only  settled  there,  but  he  is  publicly 
ranked  among  the  most  prosperous  and  well-to-do  citizens 
of  Stratford.  In  that  year,  there  being  some  anticipation 
of  a  scarcity  of  corn,  an  oflBcial  statement  was  drawn  up  as 
to  the  amount  of  wheat  in  the  town.  From  the  list  con- 
tained in  this  document  of  the  chief  householders  in 
Chapel  Ward,  where  New  Place  was  situated,  we  find 
that  out  of  twenty  holders  of  corn  enumerated  only  two 
have  more  in  stock  than  William  Shakespeare.  Other 
facts  belonging  to  the  same  year,  such  as  the  successful 
appeal  of  a  fellow-townsman  for  important  pecuniary  help, 
and  the  suggestion  from  an  alderman  of  the  borough  that, 
for  the  sake  of  securing  certain  private  and  public  benefits, 
he  should  be  encouraged  to  complete  a  contemplated 
purchase  of  land  at  Shottery,  show  that  Shakespeare  was 
now  recognized  as  a  local  proprietor  of  wealth  and  influence, 
and  that  he  had  so  far  realized  his  early  desire  of  taking  a 
good  position  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood.  It  will  be 
noted,  too,  that  all  the  leading  provisions  of  Shakespeare's 
will  embody  the  same  cherished  family  purpose.  Instead 
of  dividing  his  property  between  his  two  dau'jhters,  he  left, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  whole  of  his  estate,  the  whole  of  his 
real  property  indeed,  to  his  eldest  daughter  Mrs  Susanna 
Hall,  with  a  strict  entail  to  the  heirs  of  her  body. 
This  indicates  in  the  strongest  manner  the  fi.xed  desire  of 
his  heart  to  take  a  permanent  position  in  the  locality, 
and,  if  possible,  strike  the  family  roots  deeply  into  their 
native  soil  That  this  purpose  was  realized  in  his  own 
case  seems  clear  from  the  special  respect  paid  to  his 
memory.  Ho  was  buried,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  chancel 
of  the  parish  church,  where  as  a  rule  Jy  persons  of 
family  and  position  could  be  interred.  His  monument, 
one  of  the  most  considerable  in  the  church,  holds  a  place 
of  honour  on  the  north  wall  of  the  chancel,  just  above  the 
iltar  railing.  Whild  this  tribute  of  marked  official  respect 
may  be  due  in  part,  as   the  epitaph  intimates,   to  hia 


eminence  as  a  poet,  it  was  no  doubt,  in  a  country  district; 
like  Stratford,  due  still  more  to  his  local  importance  as  a 
landed  proprietor  of  wealth  and  position.  Indeed,  as  a 
holder  of  the  great  tithes  he  was  by  custom  and  courtesy 
entitled  to  burial  in  the  chancel. 

If  there  is  truth  in  the  early  tradition  that  Shakespeare 
originally  left  Stratford  in  consequence  of  the  sharp  prose- 
cution of  Sir  Thomas  Lucy,  who  resented  with  narrow 
bitterness  and  pride  the  presumption  and  audacity  of  the 
high-spirited  youth  found  trespassing  on  his  grounds,  the 
victim  of  his  petty  wratK  was  in  the  end  amply  avenged. 
After  a  career  of  une-xampled  success  in  London  Shake- 
speare returned  to  his  native  town  crowned  with  wealth 
and  honours,  and,  having  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in 
cordial  intercourse  with  his  old  friends  and  fellow  towns- 
men, was  followed  to  tht,  grave  with  the  affectionate 
respect  and  regret  of  the  whole  Stratford  community. 
This  feeling  was  indeed,  we  may  justly  assume,  fully  shared 
by  all  who  had  ever  known  the  great  poet.  His  con- 
temporaries and  associates  unanimously  bear  witness  to 
Shakespeare's  frank,  honourable,  loving  nature.  Perhaps 
the  most  striking  expression  of  this  common  feeling  comes 
from  one  who  in  character,  disposition,  and  culture  was 
so  different  from  Shakespeare  as  his  friend  and  fellow- 
dramatist  Ben  Jonson.  Even  his  rough  and  cynical 
temper  could  not  resist  the  charm  of  Shakespeare's  genial 
character  and  gracious;  ways.  "  I  loved  the  man, "  he 
says,  "and  do  honour  his  memory  on  this  side  idolatry 
as  much  as  any.  He  was  indeed  honest,  and  of  an  open 
and  free  nature,  had  an  excellent  phantasy,  brave  notions^ 
and  gentle  expressions."  As  the  genius  of  Shakespeare 
united  the  most  opposite  gifts,  so  amongst  his  friends  are 
found  the  widest  diversity  of  character,  endowment,  and 
disposition.  This  is  only  another  way  of  indicating  the 
breadth  of  hi.s  sympathies,  the  variety  of  his  interests,  the 
largeness  and  exuberant  vitality  of  his  whole  nature.  He 
touched  life  at  so  many  points,  and  responded  so  in- 
stinctively to  every  movement  in  the  complex  web  of  its 
throbbing  activities,  that  nothing  affecting  humanity  was 
alien  either  to  his  heart  or  brain.  To  one  so  gifted  with 
the  power  of  looking  below  the  surface  of  custom  and  con- 
vention, and  perceiving,  not  only  the  deeper  elements  of 
rapture  and  anguish  to  which  ordinary  eyes  are  blind, 
but  the  picturesque,  humorous,  or  pathetic  varieties  of  the 
common  lot,  every  form  of  human  experience,  every  type 
of  character,  would  have  an  attraction  of  its  own.  In  tlia 
view  of  such  a  mind  nothing  would  be  common  or  unclean. 
To  Shakespeare  all  aspects  of  life,  even  the  humblest,  had 
points  of  contact  with  his  own.  He  could  talk  simply 
and  naturally  without  a  touch  of  patronage  or  condescen- 
sion to  a  hodman  on  his  ladder,  a  costermonger  at  his 
stall,  the  tailor  on  his  board,  the  cobbler  in  his  combe,  the 
hen-wife  in  her  poultry-yard,  the  ploughman  in  hfs  furrow, 
or  the  base  mechanicals  at  the  wayside  country  inn.  He 
could  watch  with  full  and  humorous  appreciation  the 
various  forms  of  brief  authority  and  petty  officialism,  the 
bovine  stolidity  and  empty  consequence  of  fljo  local 
Dogberries  and  Shallows,  the  strange  oaths  and  martial 
swagger  of  a  Pistol,  a  Bardolph,  or  a  Parolles,  the  pedantic 
talk  of  a  Holofernes,  the  pragmatical  saws  of  a  Polonius, 
or  the  solemn  absurdities  of  a  self-conceited  Malvolio. 
On  the  other  hand  he  could  seize  from  the  inner  side  by 
links  of  vital  affinity  every  form  of  higher  character,  pas- 
sionate, reflective,  or  executive, — lover  and  prince,  duke 
and  captain,  legislator  and  judge,  counsellor  and  king, — 
and  portray  with  almost  equal  ease  and  with  vivid  truth- 
fulness men  and  women  of  distant  ages,  of  difl"erent  races, 
and  widely  sundered  nationalities. 

As  in  his  dramatic  world  ho  embraces  the  widest  variety 
of  human  experience,  so  in  hiB  personal  character  he  may 


768 


SHAKESPEARE 


be  said  to  have  combined  in  harmonious  union  the  widest 
range  of  qualities,  including  some  api-iarcutly  the  most 
opposed.  He  was  a  vigilant  and  acute  man  of  business,  of 
great  executive  abilit;,',  with  a  power  of  looking  into  affairs 
which  incUided  a  thorough  mastery  of  tedious  legal  details. 
But  with  all  his  worldly  prudence  and  foresight  he  was  at 
the  same  time  the  most  generous  and  affectionate  of  men, 
honoured  and  loved  by  all  who  knew  him,  with  the  irre- 
sistible charm  that  belongs  to  simplicity  and  directness  of 
character,  combined  with  thoughtful  sympathy  and  real 
kindness  of  heart.  And,  while  displaying  unrivalled  skill, 
sagacity,  and  firmness  in  business  transactions  and  practical 
affairs,  he  could  promptly  throw  the  whole  burden  aside,  and 
in  the  exercise  of  his  uoble  art  pierce  with  an  eagle's  wing 
the  very  highest  heaven  of  invention.  That  indeed  was  his 
native  air,  his  true  home,  his  permanent  sphere,  where  he 
still  rules  with  undisputed  sway.  He  occupies  a  throne 
apart  in  the  ideal  and  immortal  kingdom  of  supreme  creative 
art,  poetical  genius,  and  dramatic  truth.  (t.  s.  b.) 

niBLlOr.RAPHY.l 

I.    rniN''H'.VI)    COLLFCTIVE   EDITIONS, 


1602 

1663.  64 

16S5 

1709 

1723-25 

1733 

1743.44 

1747 

1705 

1767 

1773 

1T73-7 

1790 

1793 

1795-96 

1799- I 

1801    1 

1802 

1805 

1807 

ISIS 

1821 

1825 

1826 

1629 

1830 

1532-34 

1838-43 

1839-43 

l«41-44 

1S42-44 

1«44 

1847 

1851 

1852 

1852-57 

1853 
1853-65 
1854-65 
18.50 
1857 
1857-60 
1S58-60 

1860 
1863-06 

I    1864 
1865-69 


Editors,  Publishers,  Ac. 


1872-74 

?, 

I872io, 

P 

1373itc 

"■■i 

1874 

«•, 

1875 

W. 

1870 

w. 

1877 

w 

1878 

w. 

1881 

w 

1SS3 

p. 

1884 

w. 

1st  folio.  J.  HeminRc  and  H.  Condell  (JaRgard  £i  Blount)  [reprinted 
by  J.  Wnght  (1S07,  folio)  and  by  h.  Booth  (18ii2-4,  3  vols.  4to). 
plioto-litliographic  facsimile  by  H.  Staunton  (1866,  foUo), 
reduced  by  J.  0.  Halliweli  Phillipps,  1876,  8vo]. 

2d  folio  (Cotes). 

3d  folio  (Clietwinde). 

4Lh  folio, 

1st  8vo,  Rowe  (Tonson),  7  vols.,  plates. 

A.  Pope  (Tonson),  7  vols.  -Ito. 

I..  Theobald  (Tonson),  7  vols.  8vo,  plates. 

.Sir  T.  Haiimei  (Oxford),  C  vols.  4to,  plates.' 

Up.  Warbuiton,  8  vols.  8vo 

i  >r  S.  Johnson    Tonson),  8  vols.  8vo. 

i;,  Cnpfll  (Tonson),  10  vols.  sm.  8vo. 

I  ohnson  and  G.  Steevens,  10  vols.  Bvo. 

"  Stage  ed."  (Bell).  8  vols.  12nio,  plates. 

r..  ilalone  {Baldwin),  first  "  Varioi-um  cd.,"  10  vols.  em.  Svo. 

Johnson  and  Steevcns'a  4th  ed.,  by  I.  Heed,  16  vols.  8vo. 

1st  American  ed.,  S.  Johnson  (Philtidelphia),  8  vols.  12mo. 

1st  ContinL-ntiil  cil.  (Brunswick),  8  vols.  8vo ;  repr.  of  1793  ed.  at 
Basel,  1790-!8()-:,  23  vols.  8vo. 

lloydell's  illus,  ed.  (Biilmer),  9  vnls.  fol.,  plates,  and  2  additional  vols. 

A.  Chalmers,  9  vols.  8vo,  Fiiseli's  plates. 
Heath's  engravings,  6  vols,  imp.  4to.' 

T.  Bo'wdlci's  "  Fi^.ily  cd.,"  cmnplete,  10  vols.  18mo. 

1".  Malone,  by  J.  Boswell,  "Waiioium  ed.,"  21  vols.  8vo. 

Rev.  W.  Hain»s9,  8  vols.  8vo. 

S.  W.  SinRcr  (PiclcoiinK),  10  vols.  18mo   woodcuts. 

1st  French  ed.  (Baudryj,  8vo. 

L.  Tieck  (Leipsic),  roy.  8vo. 

J,  Valpy,  "  Ciil)inct  rictoriol  ed.,"  15  vols,  am.  8vo. 

C  Kniftlit,  "  Pictorial  ed.,"  8  vols.  imp.  Svo. 

B,  Cornwall,  3  vols.  imp.  8vo,  woodcuts  by  Kenny  Meadows. 
V.  P.  Collier,  8  vols.  Svo. 

0.  Knipht,  "  Library  ed.,"  12  vols.  Svo,  woodcuts 

0.  \V.  Peabody  (Boston,  U.S.),  7  vols.  Svo. 

Dr  G.  C,  Verplunck  (X.Y,),  3  vols.  icy.  8vo,  woodCCtS; 

^^^  Hazlitt,  4  vols.  12mo. 

"  Lansdowne  cd.,"  (White),  8vo. 

Rev.  H.  N.  Hudson  (Boston,  U.S.),  11  vols.  12mo. 

J.  P.  Collier  (see  Pame  Collier  Controversy,  p.  lit),  8f& 

J.  0.  Halliweli,  10  vols,  folio,  pl.itcs, 

N,  Delius(Elbeifeld),  8  voU.  Svo. 

Singerand  \V.  W.  Lloyd  (Bell).  10  vols.  12mo.  * 

Pev.  A.  Dyce  (Jloxon),  6  vols.  Svo,  2d  ed.,  1864-67. 

K.  G.  White  (Boston^  U.S.),  12  vols.  cr.  Svo. 

H.  Staunton,  3  vols.  roy.  8vo,  illustrated  by  Sir  J.  Gilbert. 

Mrs  Cowden  Clarke  (N.Y.),  2  vols.  roy.  Svo. 

W.  G.  Clark,  J.  Glover,  and  W.  A.  Wright,  "  Cambiidga  ed.,' 

vols.  8vo. 
J,  B.  Marsh,  "  Reference  ed,,"  large  8vo. 
C.  and  >L  C.  Clarke  (Cassell),  illustrated  by  H.  C.  Selous,  3  vols. 

la.  8vo. 
C.  Knight,  "  Imperial,"  4  vols,  imp.  4to,  plates. 
A.  A.  Paton,  •'  Humnet  ed.,"  Svo,  in  progress  (1886). 
H.  H.  Fuvness,  "  Vuriomm  cd."  (Phil.),  vols.  1-6,  Svo,  in  progicss 

(1SS6). 
W   G.  Claik  and  W.  A.  Wright,  "  Globe,"  sm.  Svo. 
S,  Neil,  "  Libiary  Shakespeare,"  (Mackenzie),  3  vols.  4to,  Ulus. 
G,  L.  Duy.  kinck  (Phil.),  largo  Svo,  ilhis. 
N.  Leliud  (F.  J.  Furniv.ill),  "Leopold"  Shakespeare,  4to, 
J.  S.  Hart,  "  Avon  ed,"  (Phil.),  laige  Svo,  poi  traits. 
Kcv,  H.  X.  HuHson,  '*  Harvard  cd.  "  (Boston,  U.S  ),  20  vols.  l2n\D. 
C.  AVords^rorIh,  "  Historical  Play^,"  3  vols.  sm.  Svo. 
Rolfea  "  Friendly  ed,,"  20  vols,  Ifimo  (X.Y.). 
[G.    Steevens,    Tivenltt  «f  the  Plaij!^,  1706,   4   vols.  8t'o,  contains 
reprints  of  the  early  editions.     48  vols,  of  the  quuiios  were 
facsimiled  by  E.  W.  Ashbce  (lSGG-71),  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Hajliwxll ;  photo-IithoRraphic  reproductions  of  eaiiy 
editions  by    Griges   and  Prjctorins,    with    introductions   by 
Furnivall,  A;c..  1878,  &c.,  arc  now  being  published;  28  out  of 
38  vols.  4to  have  been  iasucd.] 


>  T-\\a  l3  an  attempt  to  supply  the  want  of  a  select  classified  bibliography  of 
-he  meratore  connected  with  Shakespeare.    Great  compression  has  bceu 


II.  Sr.LECTIONS  AITD  READINaS. 
J.  U'  Pitman.  The  School  S.,  1822,  Svo  ;  B.  H.  Smart,  S.  Readings,  1839, 
12mo  ;  Howell,  Select  Plays,  184S,  12mo,  Human  Catholic  ;  0.  Keau,  SelertioTie, 
as  at  the  Princess'  Theatre,  1800,  2  Tols.  sin.  Svo  ;  T.  and  Rev.  S.  G.  Bul- 
flnch,  5.  adapted  for  ReadUig  Ciagses  and  the  Family,  Buston,  ie«r.,  12rao  ; 
W.  A.  Wright,  Select  Plays,  18G9-SG.  14  vols.  sm.  Svo  ;  R.  J.  Lane  (editor),  C. 
Kcmblc'sS.  Rtadinj$,lS70,am.  8vo;  K.  Paiighan. /'/o(/s.  Abridged  and  lievised 
/or  (Jn-ls.  1871,  Svo  ;  IL  N.  lludsun.  Plays,  s-l>'<'tcd,  Boston,  1872.  3  vols.  sm. 
8vo;  3.  Brandram,  Selected  Plays,  abrid>jpd/or  the  Young,  1882,  em.  Svo. 

III.  Pjiinch'al  Translations  of  Works. 
German.— C.  JI.  "Wielan.!,  17(T2-6,  8  vols.  Svo;  J.  J.  Eschenburg.  1775-82, 
13  vols.  Svo ;  A.  W.  v.  Schlpjiel,  1797-1810,  9  vols.  Svo  ;  J.  H.  and  H.  and  A. 
Voss,  lSlS-29,  9  vols.  8vo;  J.  W.  O.  Benda,  18-3-6,  19  vols.  lOnio ;  J.  Meyer 
ami  )I.  Inuring.  1824-34,  fi2  pts.  18mo;  Schlegel-Tieck,  1825-33,  9  vols.  12mo  ;  P. 
K.Tiifmann.  1830-6,  4  vols.  12mn;  E.  Ortlepp,  1^38-9,  16  vols.  12mo;  Schlegel- 
Tieck  Llrici,  1S67-71,  12  vols.  8vo ;  F.  Bodenstedt,  1867-71,  38  vols.  sm.  Svo ; 
Si;li!egeLTieck-Eernays,  1871-3,  12  vols.  Bm  Svo.  i^cuc/i. —Letuuciieur, 
1776-82,  20  vols.  Svo ;  Letoiirncnr-Guiznt.  1821,  13  vols.  Svo;  B.  Laroche, 
183S-y,  2  vols.  roy.  Svo;  Francisque-Michel,  1839-40,  3  vols.  roy.  Svo;  F, 
Victor  Hugo  flls,  1859-62,  12  vols.  Svo;  E.  Mont^gut,  1863-73,  10  vols.  12mo. 
/((litan.— M.  Leoni,  1814-5,  8  vols.  8vo  ;  C.  Rusconi.  1851,  Svo;  C.  Pasqualigo, 
1370,  Ac.  SpnTzi.sft.— Marqu(4s  de  Dos  Ilermancis,  1872-7,  3  vols.  Svo.  Dutch. 
— B.  Bniuius,  *tc.,  1778-82,  5  vols.  Svo;  A.  S.  Kok,  1872-80,  7  vols.  Svo. 
DnnisA.— Foersom  and  P.  F.  WulfY,  1S07-25.  Swedish.~~C.  A.  Hagberg, 
1847*51,  12  vols,  Svo.  Bohrmian.—b'.  Doucha,  &c.,  18^5-66,  5  vols.  sm.  Svo. 
//»yM7r(riaJi.— Dobrentei,  1S24.  Svo;  Lemouton,  1S45,  &c.  Polish.— I.  Kefa- 
linski  and  J.  v.  Placyd.  1S39-47.  3  vols,  Svo ;  S.  Kosmiana,  1866,  &C. 
Russidn.—ii .  Ketschera.  1841-50,  5  vols,  12mo. 

IV.  Criticism.  Illustration,  and  Comment. 

A.— General  Works. 
T.  Rymer,  The  Tragedies  o/  the  last  Age,  1678,  Svo,  and  A  Short  View  qf 
Tragedy.  1093,  Svo  ;  C.  Gildoii,  "  Some  Retiectious  on  Mr  Rymer"  (in  Miscel- 
laneous Le-cturea,  1094,  8vo) ;  J.  Dennis,  The  Impartial  Critic,  1692,  4to,  and 
£ssa7i  on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of  S.,  1712,  Svo  ;  Z.  Grey,  Word  or  Two 
of  Advice  to  IK.  Warhurton,  1740,  8vo,  Free  and  Familiar  Letter  to  IF.  Tl'nr- 
burton.  1750,  Svo,  Remarks  on  [Warbnrlon'^]  Edition,  1751,  Svo,  and  Critical, 
Historical,  a7id  Expla?iatoni  J^'utes,  1754,  Sd  ed.  1755,  2  vols.  Svo  ;  S.  Johnson, 
Proposal  /or  a  ^\•^D  Edition  (1746),  folio,  1765,  Svo;  E.  Capell,  Ifotes 
and  Various  Readings  to  S.,  1759,  4to  (1779-80),  3  vols.  4to  ;  P.  Nichols,  The 
Castrated  Letter  of  Sir  T.  llanuur,  17G3,  Svo  ;  Pre/aces  by  Dr  Johnson,  Popt, 
Theobald,  <i;c.,  1765,  Svo  ;  W.  Kc-nrick,  Review  o/  JJr  Johnson's  A'ew  Edition, 
1765,  Svo,  and  Dc/enec,  1766;  G.  Steevens,  Proposals  /or  Printing  a  New 
Edition,  1766,  Svo;  ilrs  Eliz.  Montagu,  Essay  on  Writings  and  Genius  o/ 
S.,  1769,  Svo,  frequently  reprinted;  W.  Kenrick,  Introduction  to  the  School  o/ 
S.,  1773,  Svo ;  Mrs  Eliz.  Griffith,  Morality  o/  S.'e  Drama,  1775,  Svo  ;  Voltaire, 
Lettre  a  I'Aeadthnie,  1776,  Svo,  ou  Letourneur's  translation;  J.  Baretti, 
Discours  sur  S.  et  Voltaire,  1777,  Svo ;  E.  Jlalone,  Supplement  to  the  Edition 
of  177S,  17S0,  2  vols,  Svo,  Second  Appendix,  17i?3,  Svo  ^  J.  Ritson,  Remarks  on 
the  Text  and  Notes  o/  [Stfcvens's  177S]  edition,  17S3,  Svo;  T.  Da\ies,  Dramatic 
N iaceltanfes,  1783-4,  3  vols.  Svo  ;  J.  "SI.  Mason,  Comuu-ntson  the  Last  Edition, 
1785,  Svo;  1.  Whately,  Remarks  on  some  of  the  Characters,  1785,  Svo,  new 
edition  by  Archbishop  Whately,  1639,  Kmo  ;  J.  J.  Eschenburg,  Versuch  li. 
S.,  Leipsic,  1787.  Svo ;  J.  Ritson,  The  Quip  Modest,  17S8,  Svo ;  S.  Felton,  Inf 
pcr/cct  Hints  towards  a  Neio  Edition  qf  S.,  17S7-8,  2  pts.  4to ;  A.  Eccles, 
Illustrationa  and  Variorum  Coimngiits  on  Lear,  Cymbeline,  and  Merchant 
of  Venice,  1792-1805,  3  vols,  12nio ;  E,  .Malone,  Letter  to  It  Farmer,  1792, 
Svo;  J.  Ritson,  Cursory  Criticism  on  Malone's  Edition,  1792,  Svo;  E. 
Malone,  Prospectits  o/  an  Edition  in  16  vols.  roy.  Svo,  1792,  4to  ;  Bishop 
Percy,  Origin  o/  the  English  Stage,  1793,  Svo  ;  E.  "Malone,  I'roposals  /or  an 
Intended  Edition  in  Co'vols.  roy.  Svo,  1795,  folio;  W.  Richardson,  Esiiftys 
on  some  o/  S.'s  Dramatic  Characters,  1797,  1812,  Svo,  reprint  of  separate 
piecei ;  Lord  Chedworth.  Notes- on  some  Obscure  Passages,  1S05,  &vo,  pri- 
vately printed  ;  E.  H.  Seymour,  Re}narks  07i  the  Playa  o/S.,  1805.  2  vol3,  Svo  ; 
F.  Douce,  lllvstrations  o/S,  and  Ancient  Manners,  1807,  2  vols.  Svo,  new 
edition  1839,  Svo;  H.  J.  Pye,  Comments  on  the  Coimnentators,  1807,  SVo ;  J. 
M.  Mason,  Comments  on  the  several  Editions,  1807,  Svo  ;  C,  (and  M.)  Lamb, 
Tates/rom  S.,  1807.  2  vols.  12mo,  plates,  freciuently  translated  and  reprinted ; 
A,  Becket,  S.  himsel/ again,  1915,  2  vols.  Svo;  W.  Hazlitt,  Characters  o/  S.'m 
Plays,  1817,  Svo,  new  edition  1873  ;  N.  Drake,  S.  and  his  Times,  1S17,  2  vols. 
4to,  and  MeinoriaU  of  S.,  1828 ;  Z.  Jackson.  S.'s  G<iiius  Jiisti/i&d,  Example* 
of  701^  Errors  in  his  Playe,  1819,  Svo  ;■[  Variorum]  Annotations  lilustratire  qf 
the  Plays  of  S.,  1819,  2  vols.  12:no,  published  \wth  Scholey's  edition;  W. 
Hazlitt,  Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Literature  of  the  Age  o/  Elizabeth,  1820, 
svo ;  H.  Beyle,  Racine  et  S.,  182:1-5,  2  pts.  Svo  ;  T.  Bowdler,  Letter  to  Editor 
of  British  Critic,  1S23.  Svo,  defends  omissions;  T.  P.  Courtenay,  Commen- 
taries upon  the  Historical  Plav  o/S.,  1840,  2  vols,  sm.  Svo;  K.  Sybrandi, 
Verhandeling  over  Vondcl  en  S.,  Haarlem.  1S41,  4to  ;  Rev.  A.  Dyce,  Remarks 
on  Collier's  and  Knight's  Editions,  1844,  Svo;  J.  Hunter,  New  Jlhutrations 
o/  S.,  1845,  2  vols.  Svo  ;  G.  Fletcher,  Studii:s  o/  S.,  lSi7,  Svo  ;  L.  Tieck,  Dra- 
maturgtuche  Bl'itter,'2(\  ed.  1848-52,  3  vols.  Svo;  H.  N.  Hudson  /.cciurcs  on  S., 
N.  v.,  1848,  2  vols.  Svo ;  C.  Kniglit,  Studies  o/  S.,  1S49,  Svo ;  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
Notes  and  Lectures  vpon  S..  d'C,  1849,  2  vols.  sm.  8vo,  and  Lectures  o«rf  Notet 
on  S..  by  T.  Ashe,  lStf3,  sm.  fcvo  ;  J.  Britton,  Essay  on  the  Merit  and  Char- 
uct-;ristics  o/  S.'s  Writings,  1849,  roy.  Svo  ;  K.  Simrock,  Remarks  on  the  Plott 
of  S.'s  Plai/^  (Shakespeare  Society),  1850,  Svo  ;  Rev.  T,  Grinfield,  Moral  Influ- 
encofS.'s  Plaf/s,  1S50,  8vo  ;  V.  L.  P.  Chaslej.  Etudes  s^ir  W.S..  Marie  Stuart, 
et  lArttin,  1851,  ISmo  ;  F.  A.  T.  Kreyssig,  Vorlesiwyen  u.  S.,  185S-60.  3  vols., 
2d  (d.  1874,  2  vols.  Svo,  and  S.  Fragcn,  Leipsic,  1871,  8vo ;  (O'Connell),  New 
Exegesis  of  S.,  1859,  Svo ;  S,  Jcrvis,  Pr02>oscd  J-'meiidations  o/S.,  2d  ed.  1S61, 
Svo ;  R.  Cartwright,  The  Footsteps  o/S.,  1862,  Svo,  New  Rcadijigs  in  S.,  lS6a, 
Svo,  and  Papers  on  S.,  1S77,  Svo  ;  G.  G.  Gervinus.  S.  Coinmentatjes  translated, 
1S03,  2  vols.,  new  edition  revised  1875,  Svo  ;  S.  Bailey,  The  received  Text  of  S,'$ 
Dramatic  Writings,  1362-6,  2  vols.  Svo;  C.  C.  Clarke,  S.  Characters,  chiefly 
those  Subordinate.  1803,  Svo;  U.  S'arggrafT,  IV,  S.  als  Lehrer  der  Menschheit, 
Leipsic,  1SG4, 16nio  ;  J.  H.  Hackett,  Notes  and  Comments,  N.  Y..  lsC4,  sm.  Svo; 
A.  Meziferes.  S.,  scs  oeuvres  et  ses  critigncs,  1SC5,  Svo;  H.  Wellesley,  Stray 
Notes  on  the  7\-xt  ofS.,  1865,  4to ;  A.  M.  L.  dc  Laniartine.  S.  ct  son'  oeuvre, 
1S05,  Svo ;  W.  L.  Rusliton,  5.  Illustrated  by  old  Atithors,  1S67-S,  2  pts.  Svo ; 
T.  Kcightley,  The S.  Expositor,  1S67,  sm.Svo;  B.  Tschischwitz,  S.  I'orscltungen, 
1SG8,  3  vols.  Svo ;  G.  R.  French,  Shalre spear eana  Genealogiea.  1809,  Svo  ;  F. 
Jacux,  S,  Diversions,  1875-7,  2  vols.  Svo;  H.  v.  Friesen,  Das  Buch:  S.  v. 
Gervinus,  Leipsic,  1S69,  Svo,  S.  Stndien.  Vienna,  1874-6,  2  volp,  Svo,  and  K. 
Elzc's  W.  S.,  Leipsic.  1876.  Svo;  H.  T.  Hall,  Shakespearian  Fly  Leaves,  ls74, 
Svo;  K.  R.  Proel^s,  Erlauterungen,  Leipsic,  1S74-8,  pts,  1-6.  sm.  Svo,  iuclud- 

necessary.  Articles  in  pcriodicajs  not  issued  separately,  and  mi^dern  critical 
editions  of  single  plays,  are  not  included  ;  and  only  those  of  the  plays  U5Ually 
contained  in  the  collective  edition?  arc  noticed.  The  name,  in  its  varioti' 
spellings  (Shakespeare,  Shakspcaie,  Sliakespcar,  Shaiisper^,  lic.)^  is  usualijr 
represented  by  the  iiiilial  S. 


SHAKESPEARE 


769 


InsHamlut.  Jnlius  Ca;s:ii-,  Jterchant  of  Venice,  Much  Ado,  i-c,  Kicliard  II . 
Romeo  and  Juliet ;  C.  W.  U.  G  v.  Rumeliu,  S.  Sliirf.cn,  2d  cd  ,  Stutt".,  1874 
'r?  'c-  •  •  ?•  ^'y^i^'  ')"/«"'-'<•  "''■  S.,  M  ed.,  Bern,  1S74,  Svo  ;  F.  J.  Funiivall, 
JHe  biicccssionrif  S.  s  II  uiAs  and  the  Uses  of  Mrlrieal  Tests  1S74  Svo  •  O 
J  !■'=;  ^■Sl'i'licn,  1S74,  Svo ;  E.  Dowden,  S.:  a  Critical  Study  of  his  Mind 
andArt.mo,  Svo;  C.  11.  Inglcby,  S. //«niiciici<(i«,  1875,  4to:  S.,  the  Man 
and  the  Book,  iS77-Sl.  2  pts.  4to,  and  Occasional  Papers  on  S.,  1S81,  so. 
;  ."?',„-  •  ^'^'i;  ^''''a'xH'tnijen  m  S..  1877,  Svo,  and  £ssaus  on  S.,  trans- 
,  '"^''l.^'^'^™;  E-  Hermann.  Drci  S.  Slndicn,  Erlangen,  1877-9,  4  pts.  sni. 
i-yo,  nclcie l;c<lra<;e,  ib.,  ISSl,  sm.  Svo  ;  H.  D.  Vaughan,  iTew  Readings  and 
yew  Hendenngs  of  S:s  Traijedits,  1673-SC,  3  vols.  Svo;  F.  G.  FIcay,  S.  .Vaiiira; 
Joi;'  !:^:  ^\°  '•  •'"■  °-  nalliivcU  riiillipps,  notes  and  Memoranda  [on  4  Plays]' 
ISbS-SO,  4  pts.,  Svo,  and  Memoranda  (on  1-2  PKays],  1S79-SO.  7  pis.  a\-o  ;  .i  C 
»wml)ume,  A  Studi/  of  S.,  ISSC,  Svo;  D.V.  Snider,  Si/stem  of  S.'s  Dramas. 
new  edition,  ISSO,  Svo;  F.  A.  Kenible,  Soles  on  some  of  S.'s  Plays  lSS-2 
Svo :  a.  Giles,  Hnman  Li/c  in  S.,  Boston,  ISS2,  12nio  ;  B.  G.  Kinnear,  Ciiices 
i^hatespeananir,  18S3,  sni.  Svo  •  C.  C.  Bense.  S.  Studicn,  Halle.  ISSs'  Svo ; 
■?■  ,o?,'  '^™""i.S.  Thoughts  on  S:t  Historical  Plays,  1884,  Svo ;  Hew  Studxi  qf 
4.,  18S4,  Svo;  J.  W.  Hales,  Holes  and  Essays  <mS.,  1884,  sm.  Svo;  J.  Feis.' 
4.  Olid  Montaigne,  1SS4,  sm.  Svo ;  Sir  P.  Perring,  Uard  Knots  in  S  1SS5 
J™,;  E.,Eossi,  Sludien  idi.  S.  i(.  d.  Moderne  Theater,  1SS5,  Svo-  F.  A  Leo' 
h-,-?'"^^^'  ^'■'°  •  "•  ^-  ''^'''"'Iton,  S.  as  a  Dramatic  Artist,  1S8S,  Svo :  E.  G. 
n  lute.  Studies  m  S.,  Boston,  1SS5,  Svo. 

B.—Sjiecial  Works  on  Separate  Plays,  i-c,  with  Dates  tif  Early  Quartos. 
ail-sWell  that  £xps  Well  (lat  ed.  in  F.l,  1623):  H.  v.  nagcn,  Ueb. 
dK  altjranzos.  Vorstt^le  des  Liistspicles,  Halle,  1S79,  Svo.  Antoni  AND 
'^LEOPATEA  (1st  ed.  in  F.I).  As  Vou  Like  It  (1st  ed.  in  F.l):  \Y.  Whiter 
iS^'T'i,"^,?  ComiiioKar;/,  1794,  Svo  ;  A.  O.  Kellogg,  Jacques,  Utica,  1S65 
T-no'  C-  Sheldon.  JVotes  1S77,  Svo ;  T.  Stothard,  S.'s  Seven  Ages  Ilhisiratcd, 
1.99,  folio ;  J.  Evans,  S.s  Seven  Ages,  3d  ed.  1831,  12mo;  J.  W.  Jones 
''•■igin  o/theDivmon  qf  Man's  Life  into  Stages,  ISGl,  4to.  CoMEBY  op 
Er.Roits  (1st  ed.  in  F.l).  CORIOLANCS  (1st  ed.  in  F.l):  F.  A.  Leo  Die. 
JJelim i.che  Ausgabe  Imtisch  bcleuchtet,  Berlin,  1861,  Svo.    CrMljELl.\-E  (1st  ed 

'n  1 .  n,  ?A-,'-^T  'Si'' ^''"? '•  '^•2.  ■«>* :  Q-'.  1605 ;  Q.4, loos ;  Q.s.  ion ;  Q.e,' 

nU  Q,7,  1C3.):  L.  Iheohald,  S.  Restored,  172a,  4to,  devoted  to  Hamlet ;  Sir 
I-  uanmer  Some  Remarks  on  Hamlet,  1736,  Svo,  reprinted  1803,  sm  S'^ •  J 
1  .nmptre,  Oftsermlioiis  on  Hamlet,  and  Appendix,  1790-7,  2  pts  Svo  •  /  if 
^ctmnM,  Sammlttng  der  besten  Urtheile  uber  Hamlet,  Queil.,  1S08  s'vo-' A 
sJ,,  .«?"$?■  £'"■  ?""''„"'.'  "-*■  s™  ;  P.  Macdonnell,  Essay  on  Hamlet,  IMs! 
MO  ,  Sir  E  Strachey,  S.S  Hamlet,  1343,  Svo;  H.  K.  S.  CuustoD,  Essay  on  Mr 
f«;Z^r^\r  "rnmoorf,  1851  Svo  ;  L.  Noiri!,  Hamlet,  zwei  Vortrage,  Mainz,  1S50, 
i™»'„J  Z;  ^l^y,;.''?"""'':''' ft  Edition  (1603),  1S5C,  Svo;  S.S  Hamlet. 


I't-.''  S-''lf'r''H  V^T'  "•  *■'■  9'','^.'"hcr,  Defence  of  S.S  nomco  and  Juliet, 
18.0,  b\o,  K.  Gericke,  ylomeoK.  c/ii/.d  nncAS.'s.US  1=:S0  Svo  1  vivo  n» 
»"'wr;  'Ij-o'" SvS  -'e  \ra?;?'"f  <'r-  =^-  '»  ^«^J  Ho™-,  2';f.rA?  e' 
rf  ricci  1S08  J  "  „7°'<.f\-Y°''?r^'='/"'-''*"''''.fr'''"  "■'"■■''  s.s  Tempest  was 
dj-nved,  1803-9,  2  pts.  Svo;  G.  Chalmers,  Another  Account  ic  1815  Svo  • 
Pev.  J.  Hunter,  D.sqmsition  on  the  Temrcst,  1S39,  Svo  ;  P  iilacdonncn' 
Essay  on  the  Tempest.  1640,  Svo;  Notes  of  Slvdies  on  the  TaminTof  the 
Shrew.  S.  Society  of  Philadelphia.lSCO.  4to.  uitl,  bildiogr.ipl,y  of  ti^eTemies  ■ 
J.  JIoBsner,  Untersuehungen  ub.  S.S  Sturm.  Dessau,  1872,  svo  D  Wilson' 
Cahban,  the  M.ssmg  Link,  1873,  Svo;  c.  c.  llen^e.  Das  Antike  ilss 
J)ramen:D  Sturm,  1879,  Svo.  TiMoN  cF  Athens  (1st  ed  taFll-  A 
-Mueller  pier  die  Quellcn  aus  denen  S.  dm  Timon  v.  Athen  entmmmenhal' 
iT\lT(^'  %°-  ^""^  AM.RO.VICUS  (Q.l,  1594,  no  copy  kno"  i";  Q  2  iSi  ' 
^i,L  ''/.  TR0ILU3  AND  CRESSIDA  (Q.l,  (j.2,  \m<i)V Annotaiio;^bT^S 
A  i  y,'  ?■  ■S'«""is,  ic,  upon  Troilus  and  Cressida,  1787,  12iiio  •  L  Bani.rc 
neb.fabula  qux  Troiluset  Cressida  inseribitnr,  1370,  Svo.  Twelfth  Mght 
first  p?in?ed'in'*F''fi''™  "^  ^'"'°'"-  »»<i  ^"'^  Winter's  Tale  (alf  threj 
So.-JN-ETS  (Q.I,  1C09):  J.  Boaden,  On  the  Sonnets  of  S..  1S37  Svo-  C  A 
^''"'^•I'S.s.Aulobiographieat  Poems.  183S,  Svo;  1.  Donnelly,  The  Somieis  01 
rU-l  •  ^,°'-P''  '^^'■"''"rtf.  -'^"J  '0  S.S  Sonnets,  translated.  1862,  Svo;  B. 
Sonc'snA'  Kv"",'J-^,^o'  '™S  *^°'  "=•  ^-  "it'l'<:'«^kl.  Remarks  on' the 
io.i;.((|  ofS.,  >.l  ISOo,  12mo;  E.  Simpson,  Introduction  to  the  Philosophy 
o/S.s  f<"""c(s  1563,  Svo  ;  H.  Brown,  The  Sonnets  of  S.  solved,  1870,  Svof  C^ 
M.  Ingleb.v,  The  Smile anayed.  Sonnet  eilvi.,  1S72,  Svo ;  G.  Massey,  The  Secret 
fqTmf-  O?  S'.'^.'i  "i^'ti:  *1„'„''-.  J5?..'>™--   VENUS    /iDipoNTs 


,-.„■„  ^en  ...■  ,■ — (editor).  Was  Hamlet  Mad  . 

ReA?o{£,  i''T\^^l}'  1"°-  °i,^-  .S'edefeld,  Hamlet  ein  Tendenzdrama, 
ThePl„3!  ,  J  ^  -Meadows,  27amlc(.-  an  Essay.  1871,  Svo;  E.  G.  Latham, 
1  he  Hamlet  of  Saxo  Gra.nmaticus  and  S.,  1872,  §vo;  F.  A.  Marshall  Sfjid.i 

fsTf^s™' 'h''p'  '™'J-n"-  ''iT"'?'  '"""^''  ^i''^  CharakterstZie\<4mZ 
i  ,  '  TV.  ^-  E^'^gtirt,  Die  Hamlet  TragHdie  u.  ihre.Krilik,  Konigsb.,  1877 
n^:,J:  ?J-fr'  •^t,",","','';'  ^<"'  'J""'''  "n.  svo;  a.  UUctner,  Hamlet  le 
nanm,,  ls,8,  Svo;  V  M„Iike,  S.'s  Hun.^cl  «„<■««,,  1881,  Svo;  E  P.  Vining 
The  Mystery  of  Hamlet.  Philad.,  1681,  sm.  Svo  IHamlet  a  womanl ;  H.  Besser 
/ur Hamlet Frane,  lSs2,  Svo ;  B.  Stenger, Dcr  Hamlet  Charakter,  1883,  Svo  ■  a' 
ft,!  „"■  some  famous  Hamlets,  1SS4,  Svo.  Henry  IV-  (Pt  i  ■  0  1  1698  -  6  ■> 
1599;  Q-3,1C04:  Q.4,  1008;  Q.5,'l613     Q.0,  1622;  Q.7,  leS-H  qVs  1639     Pt.  ii"' 

',y..'^i  i)-^:^T\-e^  -i-  ^"■"^^'  ■^"^■"'  ^"^  «-•»  ^^ftrv  IV,  Kiel,  1S51,  4to 
.    (Q.I,    ICOO ;  Q.  ^     inrio.    no      i/,no\.    ^      .      .,   •  ,.  '„  ' 

K.,  1"      - 


1867,  Svo,  dissertation. 


J. 


^■nl}fr  i-il  «•  ^'°"'l;.True  Stanrlard  of  H7f,  with  Character  of  Sir 
i^i  i'r.-'^'  ?w'  ■  »"^1'»«'»°".  •^.-■»";/«  »"  CAamcfc-  vf  Sir  J.  Falstaff. 
iS.o,  '  t--  *'°'ean,  Assay  0,1  s„- J.  i^c/sta/,  1777,  new  edition  1825,  Sv4 
vindicates  his  courage  ;  J.  ILHackelt,  Falstaff.  1840,  Svo ;  J.  O.  Haliwel 
Phdiipps,  On  the  Character  of  Falstaff  inHenrifiv.,  l'841,Svo;  E  Schueller 
Don  Quixote  und  Falstaff  Berlin,  IS58,  Svo;  G.  W.  Ensdcn  Character  at 
Falsttiff,  Uemoume,  1870,  Svo.  Female  CnAItACTERs:  W.  Richardson 
0<i  S.S  Female  Characters,  <f-c.,  1788,  Svo  ;  A.  M.  Jameson.  Characteristic  oi 


.Vnist. . 
Beitruge  zur  Ei 


T  H,  1 7  ™,^r  r5-\  ;.  V,V  '^•^-o--  ii-uMeii,  me  True  Macbeth,  ISTi, 
cblikef]^,lT,;-^^V'^"J-''''^^'"'""'-  '8".  Svo;  A.  Horst,^o„,j 
ed  In  vn  vt'f.^f.  "'''■  """>«"•  'S76,  lemo.  Meascee  for  Measure 
p.    '"  *•!  •    il'="<^"ANT  OP  Venice  Q.l.  Q.2,  ICOO  ;  Q.3,  1037  ;  Q  4  1652)  ■ 


Si'   fivn'    tiS;    lo»t''T;  ?'"'^i^°^?■  •'""'''  "'•>»i''':'i<'<i  "■  Julius  C^sar, 
1S31    8vo.     KINO   John  (1st  authentic  ed.    in  F.l.    Troublesome  Raiane 

cfT{T<.  ^■'\''-'"  '  Vir'^H  ■  H-  '"'">■  KINO  i.EAR  (Q  i  Q  2  Q-fS'; 
V',;,  A  '•-•  Je™e"'l.  A-1.W  Lear  Vindicated.  1772.  Svo  ;  ff.  Neumann  Cr£6°; 
X7>?„  ,  "'  B;^""".  1^6,  Svo  ;  J.  E.  Seeley,  W.  YcJung,  and  £  A  B^, 

U)ST  (Q-1,  1598;  Q.2,  1031).     Macbeth  (1st  ed.  In  F.l):  (Dr  S    JohnsonI 

']''"f^""yO^/"'-''''<'''^'^  Macbeth.  Ui-=.  12mo;  J.  P.  Kemb  e  CX(X 

.iiirf /iicAard///.,  1317,  svo;  C.  W    Op.oomer,  Aanteekeningen  op' .iaebeth, 

.;.,,'  F  i)  S'     1,    ","•  P&ehotogy  qf  Macbeth,  I8C9,  Svo;  J.  G.  Eitter 

r     ,    -u     [  K'-L  "",  ■"'"■»'■"'.  leer,  1871,  2  pts.  4to  ;  V.  Kaiser  Macbeth  und 

(Vo-^  hII'  r-Pnt'^k-V^'^^/rV  E-B-  Russell,  The  True  Macbeth,  mt, 
^vo ,  I.  Hali  Came    itifhnrii  ttt  nt^ii  tr^^i^.n.    iot>.  n.._  .    .     -.,       .    '-         ' 

Macbi 
(1st 

G.  -....V.,,,  ^Bouy  t,/(  ortwiocrtr,  isaa.  Bvo  ;  J-'.  V-.  Hugo.  Comm^^ntaru  on  thf 
X^l^o-'i  'pVr., '"■->'«<',  1863,  8vi;  H.  GraeU  Sh^l^kinVlage, 
5vo  ,  I,,  u.  {..  Plath,  S.  s  Kaufmann  >.  K,  lss2  Svo  Merry  Wrvr<!  np 
»J r»y?noJn'5/',*^?'.'-"i;  ''■'■  '"=»'=  ■'■°-  """'well  rimupp,  ;;.f„,°^ 
rO  1  O  2  iSlV  V  •?•  iff-'  ■^Z,'!-'"'  1S4'.  S*"-  MirsUMMER  NIOHT-S  DREAM 
lQ-1,  Q--I,  1000) .  >.  J.  Halpm,  OberonS  Vision  and  LiilieS  Endumion  (Shike 
•peare  Society),  1^3,  Svo;  J.  O.  UalUwell  Phillipp,  >',,,r,£  ^  oV'»  .Virf 
simi^r  XightS  Dream.  1841,  Svo,  and  IlliKtratlns  of  the  FaiyMiithotoau 

mlZ\rV7 ^t,:^-'  ''TP'''-  "'"'  *<"^'««-  ed.  Ilazlitt,  1875,  Svo  ;  E.  Her- 

oT^he  Circes  oA\\''7'^'"'  ^^'''li?.'  t  P"'  ™-  ^"'  ■  ^-  ''"  ^-  I'roescholdt, 
""'"'..y'"""'  "J  S.  '  f  idsummer  XightS  Dream  1873  Svo  Mlth  Ann 
^Tl^.^™""  <«;1.,1«»)  ■■  W.  W.  Lloyd.  Muchl'dl  ie.^l^ai  essay  itS^ 

Macgregor,  OtMloS  Character.  1852,  Svo;  J.  E.  Taylor.  He  SooreV  Venice 
k'?'^i°j:  ^a''  ""''  *■  "  r™i"<*!'.  1855,  Svo.  PERICLES  (Q  1  iPaWer  n  d  1  •  O  2 
Q  3,  1609 ;  Q.4,  1611 ;  Q.6,  1619 ;  Q.6.  1030 ;  Q.7, 1635):  it  Boy  o  O  "l?;  ttiWs 
Share  .n  Pericle,.  188^;  Svo.  ElCHARD  II  (Q.l,  1597  -  Q "  I59s"  O  3  oil 
i?'^'  '^•?vi!"=^=  9-6.  lOH):  Rlechelm,,nn,  ZukchardllsTHoUnshcd: 
Plaucn,  ISCO,  Svo.'  RICHARD  III.  (Q.l,  1597  •  Q  2  1593  •  0  3  1>0'  -  O  4  imf'- 
Q.5,  1612;  Q.O,  1022;  Q.7,  1624;  Q.8.  1029;  O  9  k'l) -'jf  Beale'' '/^rfl.rfon' 
^'•^I'.^i' "„"lf_'?l'//,%*-''l^>-.  lSH.Vv'ofl!*F."cKe','" 


^^::^^,t.^s.iSe«sy^^^EEiiSS 


ITom.,.  1832,2voIs.  12mo'illukVare'dTc'  5cath,''Me"«:',-o,7cro/s"ris' 
large  4  o,  ill"strated,  and  The  S.  (Jallcry,  containing  the  Principal  Female 
CaliV,''"^  v^°;o'-?Sf  svo,  plates  reproduced  in  n.  L.  Palmer^  Stratford 
fR5(lJ''l  ?;iV'»J?  'n^'if  ■  *™i."-,.'-;  '■]?'■'"'■  "iVHcod  of  S.S  Heroines, 
1850-2,  3  vols.  8vo;  H.  Heme,  Englisehe  Franmente  und  S.S  Mudchenund 

.!^T-"t"'x?''°'^Dl'  '*?'i.™,;  ^'"'J  ''•  '^^  I-"^"'  •S-'»  ^™., -..idcnff,  Halle,  1868 
svo    l.  M.  T.  Bodenstedt,  S.'s  Frauencharakleie,  2d  ed.,  Berlin    1876  Svo  ■ 
M.  Summer,  Les  Heroines  de  Kalidasa  et  Ics  Heroines  de  S.,  1S79  sm'  Svo  ' 
rn  '',»    o""^   °?  '"""'  ''''  *•■»  -f"""'!:  Characters,   V'-ib,  Svo;  Mrs  M    l' 
Elliott,  S.  s  (Jn.-rfen  of  Oirls,  1885,  Svo.     HUMonR :  J.  i.\'eiss,  Wit,  Humour 
and  S.,  Boston,  1S76,  lOrao  ;  J.  E.  Ehrlich,  Dcr  Humor  SS,  Vieuna|  1878,  Svo.' 
V.  Lanqcaoe,  incllt)1ng  Grammars  and  Glossaries. 
T    Edwards  Supplement  to  Mr  Warburloifs  Edition,  being  the  Canons  n, 
Ciidf.si.i  and  Glossary,  174S,   Svo,  7th  ed.    1765;  E.  ^^■a^ner,  it«er  on  a 
Glossary  toS.,l,C.S,  Svo;  E.  Xares.  Glossary,  1S22,  4»o,  new  edition  1859  2 
vols  8vo  ;  J.  51.  Jost,  Lrkl.  Worterbuch,  Berlin,  1830,  sm.  Svo  ;  J.  O.  Halliwell 
Phillipps,  ZJ.ffjoimri/ c/.jrcAoic  onrf  Prorijicia;  K'orrfs    lS4.:-7  "vols    Svo 
and  Hand-Book  Index  to  the  Works.  1866,  Svo,  phrases,  manner's  &c  -'j    L 
lUlgera.Sind  nieht  in  S.  noch  manche  Verse  uiederhe.-zustellen  in' Prisai 
Aix- a-Chapelle,  1852,  4to;   N.  Delius,  S.  Lexikon.  Bona    1852    Svo-   W    S 
U  alker,  S.S  I  ersification,  1854,  Svo,  and  Examination  of  the  Text  of's    uilh 
Remarks  on  his  Language,  1S60,  8  vols.  Svo  ;  C.  Bathurst',  S.S  Versification  at 
,'Si'Vl   ^%"°A\^^^'' "T-  S^o;  S    Jervis,  Dictionary  of  the  Language  of  S., 
Jr^'  n"  V*^-  ,'**>'?■  Pi;  E^al'sh  Adjective  in  S.  Bremen,  1863;  Svo;  A   J 
Ellis  On  rar/y  English  Pron'mciation,  1869-75,  4  vols.  Svo;  W.  L  Rushton 
S  s  Euphuism,  1S71,  Svo  :  D.  Eohde,  Die  Hulfszeituorl  "To  do"  bei  S    GOttin- 
gen,  18(2,  Svo;  E.  A.  Abbott,  Shakespearian  Grammar,  new  edition  1873 
l,'?„*^°i.^-  ^"'^'  ■°''*  Alliteration  im  Engl,  ror  u.  bti  S.,  1S75    4to  -  f' 
Pfcifer,  Cic  ^nredrpronomina  bei  S.,  1877,  8vo. ;  P.  A.  Brooisch,  Daineuiral'e 
Possessivproiwm  bei  S.,  1878,  Svo;  O.  W.  f.  Lohmann,  ilie  Auslassung  des 
Relativpronomem,  ie.,  1879,  Svo ;  A.  Dyce,  Glossary,  new  edition   1880  Svo  ■ 
t.   Deutschbeln,  S.  Grammatik  f.   Deutsche,   I6S2,   Svo    A.  Lummerf.  Die 
Orthopraphie  der  erslen  Folioausgabe,  1883,  Svo ;  C,  Mackay,  Obscure  Words 

1  ersification.  Boston,  ;&S4, 
Vn^Qj:  des  Engl.  Verbums, 

„„„  „„-,   ,    •     ,.  -   ,  .  Shakespearian  Referee,  Washington,  ISSO, 

fivo,  encyclopffidic  glossary.  o      ,         , 

VI.  QUOTATIONS. 

C.  C,\\ion,Shakespeariana,  in  his  Complete  Art  of  Poetry,  1718,  12nio,the 
first  of  the  class  ;  Dr  W.  Dodd,  rAe.B,vn((.Vso/S.,  1752,  2vols.  12mo,  reprinted 
(in  various  forms)  more  frequently  than  any  similar  work ;  C.  Lollt,  Aphorisms 
frohiS.,  1812  I2mo;  T.  Dolby,  The  Shakespearian  Dietionani.  1832,  Svo  and 
A  I housand  Shakespearian  Mottoes.  1856, 32mo ;  Mrs  M.  C.  Cla'rke,  S  Proverbs 
184, ,  sm.  Svo,  reprinted  ;  J.  B.  .Marsh,  Familiar,  Proverbial,  and  Select  Say- 
tngifromS.,  1364,  Svo;  E.  Eoutledge,  Quotations  from  S.,  1867,  Svo;  C  W 
hte.ama.  The  S.  Treasury,  N.Y.,  1869,  12mo ;  Cajit.  A.  F.  P.  Harconrt  The  S 
Argosy,  1874,  sm.  Svo;  O.  .S.  Bellamy,  New  Shakespearian  Dictionarv,  1877 
Svo  ;  A  A.  Morgan,  The  Mind  of  S.,  1880,  Svo,  quotations  in  alphabetical 
order;  C.  Arnold,  Index  to  Sht^kespearian  Thought,  1S80,  Svo 
VII.  Concordances. 

A.  Eecket,  Concordance,  1787,  Svo,  the  earliest ;  S.  Ayscough.  Index,  1790 
largo  Svo,  2d  ed.  cnlargc.l,  1327,  useful ;  F.  Tniss,  Complete  Verbal  Index 
1805,  2  vols.  Svo  ;  M.  Cowden  Clarke,  Complete  Concordance,  1S44,  8vo,  deals 
only  with  the  plays  (no  c.implete  one  exists) ;  Mrs  H.  H.  I-'umes»,  Concord- 
ance to  Poems,  J'hiladelphla,  1874,  Svo,  completing  Mrs  C.  Clarke's;  A. 
Schmidt,  S.  Lcxikr.n,  Berlin,  1374-5,  2  vols,  largo  Svo,  In  English,  both 
concordance  and  dictionary ;  C.  and  M.  C.  Clarke,  The  S.  Ken,  1S79,  Svo 
companion  to  the  Concordance;  J.  Bartlctt,  The  S.  Phrase  Book,  1881  Svo ' 
W.  H.  D.  Adams,  Concordance  to  Plays,  1SS6,  Svo. 

VIII.  PBOnABLE  SOURCES. 
Mrs  C.  Lennox,  S.  /(;i(s(ra(c<f,11753-4,  3  vol.t.  12nio,  dedication  by  Johnson, 
many  of  the  observati'.ns  also  said  to  be  by  him  ;  T.  Hawkins,  The  Origin  oi 
the  Englir.KJJratna,  1773,  3  vols.  Svo ;  J.  .Nichols,  The  Six  Old  Plays  on  uhic'h 
S.  founded  Measure  for  Measure,  ic.,  1779.  2  vols.  12mo ;  T.  Echlcrmeycr 
L.  nenschcl,  and  K.  Sinirock,  Quellen  d/s  S.,  Berlin,  1831,  3  vols.  ICmo  -  L 
Tieck.  S.S  Vorschule,  Lcipslc,  1323-9,  2  vols.  Svo;  J.  P.  Collier,  S.S  Libr'arii 
(16421,  2  vols.  Svo,  2d  cd.  [by  W.  C.  Ilaililt)  1875.  6  vols.  Svo ;  W.  C.  Hazlitt, 
5.<!  Jisl  Dovki,  1864,  3  vols.  Svo ;  W.  W,  Skeal,  S.S  Plutarch,  1S75,  Svo  •  F. 

XXI.  _  97 


and  Phrases  in  S  ,  1334,  Svo ;  G.  H.  Browne,  S.S  Ve 
12mo,  Includes  bibliography;  L.  Kelluer  Zur  S>in 
Vienna,  1S85,  Svo;  J.  H.  Siddons,  Shakespearian  Re 


770 

K.  Leo,  Four  Chapters  of  North' t  Plutarch,  1S7S.  folio;  R.  Simpson,  The 
School  <ifS.,  1873,  2  vols.  Svo. 

IX.  Special  Knowleme. 
ANOLIKQ:  H.  N.  EUacombe,  5.  as  an  Annler,  1S83,  Svo.  Bible  :  T.  R. 
Baton.  S.  aixd  the  Bible,  1S5S,  Svo  ;  J.  Bro\vil,  BibU  Truths  leith  Shakespearian 
Parallels  3d  eJ.  1S72.  bvq  ;  J.  R«C3,  S.  a>id  the  Bible,  Phil..  1S76,  6m.  Svo ;  Bp. 
C.  Wonisworth,  S:t  KnowUdge  and  Cue  qf  the  Bible,  lSe4  Svo ;  C.  Bullock, 
S.'8  Debt  to  the  BUfle,  lS7fl,  Svo.  BoTASr  :  J.  E.  Giraud,  Flowers  ofS.,lS4i, 
4to,  plates;  S.  Beisly,  S.'s  Garden,  U64.  Svo;  H.  K.  EUacombe,  PtonMora 
and  Gayde7i-er<^ft  qfS.,  2d  ed.  18S4,  am.  Svo;  L.  H.  Grindon  S. «  FZora,  lSb3, 
Svo.  Emblems:  H.  Green,  S.  and  the  Emblem  irn/er«,  1S70,  4to.  ^lk- 
LORE  :  \V.  Bell,  S.'s  Puck  and  his  Folks-lore,  18o2-6i,  3  vols.  sm.  Svo ;  W.  J. 
Tlioms  "The  Folk-lore  of  Shakespeare,"  in  Three  ^otelets,  ISOo,  svo,  re- 
prii:?e<i  from  Athentenm,  1347  ;  B.  Tschiachwitz.  NachklangeQennanischcr 
Mvthe  in  S..  Halle,  1S6S,  Svo;  [W.  C.  Hazlitt,  editor],  Fatry  Tales  Legends, 
ajid  Romances  Ulustrating  S.,  d-c,  1S75,  Svo;  T-  F.  T.  Dyer,  Folk-hre  ofS 
1SS4.  Svo.  LearninO:  p.  Whalley,  Enquiry  into  the  Learning  of  tS.,  174a, 
Svo;  R.  Fanner,  Essay  on  the  LearniiH  <>/ S.,  1"67.  Svo,  repnnted  an  the 
variorum  (1S21)  and  other  editions,  critiL-ized  by  \V.  Jlagmn,  see  S.  Papers, 
annotated  by  S.  Mackenzie,  -VY.,  1S56.  sm.  Svo;  [K.  Prescot],  Essay  on  the 
Learning  qfS  1774,  410;  E,  Capcll.  The  School  of  S..  1780,  4to  (vol.  m.  of  hia 
Notes  and  Varions  Brfulings  to  S.,  I779-S3,  3  vols.  4to) ;  P.  Stapfer,  S. 
et  I'antiquite,  Paris,  1S7':),  Svo,  translated  ISSO,  Svo.  LEGAL :  W.  L.  Ruahton, 
S.  a  Lawyer,  1S6S,  Svo,  S/i  Legal  Maxims,  1850,  Svo,  S.S  Testamentary 
Language,  ld6i»,  Svo,  and  S.  illustrated  by  the  Lex  Scripta,  1S70,  8vo ;  Lord 
Campbell,  S.'s  Lenal  Acquirements,  1859,  Svo;  H.  T.,  Was  S.  a  Lawyer?  1S71, 
Svo  •  J  Kohler,  ^.  vor  dcm  Porum  der  Jurisprudeni,  vnd  Ha^hicort,  1883-4, 
"  pt?  Svo;  F.  F.  Heard,  S.  as  a  Lawyer,  Boston,  18S4,  IGmo ;  C.  K.  Davis, 
The  Law  in  S.,  St  Paul,  U.S.,  1S34,  Svo.  MEDICINE:  G.  Farren.  Essays  on 
Mania  exhibited  in  Hamlet.  Ophelia,  Ac..  1S33,  Svo;  J.  C.  Bucknill,  The 
Medical  Knowledge  o/ S.,  1860,  Svo,  and  The  Mad  Folk  o/S.,  1S6T,  sm.  Svo; 
C.  V,^  Steams,  S.'s  Medical  Knowledge,  N.Y.,  1S65,  am.  Svo;  G.  Cless, 
Medicinische  Blttm-enlese  atis  S.,  Stuttgart,  1S65,  Svo  ;  A.  0.  Kellogg.  S.'s 
Dclineatiiym  of  Insanitii,  d-c,  N.Y.,  1366.  IGmo ;  H.  R.  Aubert,  S.  (da 
Mcdiciner,  Rostock,  1873,  Svo ;  J.  P.  Chesney,  S.  as  a  Physician,  St  Louis, 
1SS4,  8vo;  B.  R.  Field,  Medical  Thoughts  of  S.,  2d  ed.,  Easton,  U.S.,  1885, 
Svo.  StlLlTARr:  V/.  J.  Tlioms  "  Was  S.  ever  a  Soldier?"  in  his  Three 
Notelets,  1S65,  Svo.  NATURAL  History  :  R.  Patterson,  Insects  mentioried 
in  S.'s  Plays,  1S3S,  Svo;  J.  H.  Fennell,  S.  Cyclopedia,  1S62,  Svn,  pt.  L 
Zoolo;^'-  ifan  (all  published);  J.  E.  Harting,  Ornithology  o/S.,  1S71,  Svo; 
C.  R.  Smith,  The  Rural  Life  <.fS..  1374,  Svo;  J.  Walter,  S.'s  Home  and  Rural 
Life.  1S74,  4to,  illustrated;  B.  Mayou,  Natural  History  of  S.,  1S77,  Svo, 
quotations;  E.  Phipson,  Animal  Lore  of  S.'s  Time,  1833,  sra.  Svo.  PniLO- 
SOPHT:  W.  J.  Birch,  Philosophy  aiid  Religion  of  S.,  1S48,  sm.  Svo; 
V.  Knauer,  W.  S.,  der  Philosoph,  Innsbruck,  1879,  Svo.  Printing:  W. 
Blades,  S.  and  Typography,  1872,  Svo.  Psychologt  :  J.  C.  Bucknill,  The 
Psychology  of  S.,  '859,  Svo ;  E.  Ouimus,  La  Psychologie  dans  les  Drantes  de 
S.,  1876,  Svo.    Sea  :  J.  Schuemann,  See  u.  Seefahrt  in  S.'s  Dramen,  1S76,  4to. 

X.  Peeiodicals. 
S.  Museum^  edited  by  M.  L.  Moltke,  Leipsic,  23d  April  1870  to  23d  February 
1874,  20  No3.  (all  published);  Shakespeariana,  1883,  sm.  Svo,  in  progress. 
From  the  commencement  of  Notes  and  Queries  in  1S5S,  a  special  Shakespeare 
department  (see  Indexes)  has  been  carried  on.  See  also  W.  F.  Poole's  Index 
to  Periodical  Literature,  Boston,  18S2,  and  supplements. 

XI.  Shaeespeaee  Societies  and  their  Publications. 
Proccedinns  of  the  Shcffidd  8.  Club  (1S19-29),  1S29,  Svo;  Shakespeare 
Society,  various  publicatijna,  IS-ll-SS,  iS  vols.  Svo ;  New  Shakspere  Society, 
Transactions  end  other  publications,  reprints  of  quartos,  &c.,  1374,  &c.,  Svo, 
in  progress;  Deutsche  S.  Gesellschaft,  Jakrbuch,  Weimar,  1865,  &c.,  in  pro- 
gress.   The  3.  Societies  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  publish  tranaactionst 

XIL  Music. 

W.  Linley,  S.'s  Dramatic  Sojigs,  n.   d.,  2  vols,  folio;  The  S.  Album,  or 

Warwickshire  Garland  (C.  Lonsdale),  1S62,  folio ;  G.  G.  Gervinns,  Handel  u. 

S.,  Leipsic,  1868,  Svo  ;  H.  Lavoix,  Les  Tradxtcteurs  de  S.  en  Miisigue,  1S69,  Svo  ; 

A.  Eoffe,  Handbook  of  S.  Music,  1873,  4to  ;  List  of  Sungs  and  Passages  set  to 
Music  (N.  3.  Soc),  1384,  Svo.  See  also  the  musical  works  of  J.  Addison,  T.  A. 
Arae.  C.  H.  Berlioz,  Sir  H.  E.  Bishop,  C.  Dibdin,  W.  Linley.  51.  Locke,  G.  A. 
Alacfarren,  F.  Mendelssohn- Bartholdy,  H.  Purcell,  G.  Verdi,  &c. 

XIII.  PicTOELAL  Illustrations. 
C.  Taylor,  Picturesque  Beauties  of  S.,  after  Smirke,  Stothard,  &c.,  17S3-7, 
2  vols.  4to;  W.  H.  Bunbury,  Series  of  Prints  Illustrative  of  S.,  1792-G, 
oblong  folio ;  S.  Harding,  5-  Illustrated,  1793,  4to ;  S.  Ireland,  Picturesque 
Scenes  upon  (Ac  Avon,  1795,  Svo  ;  J.  and  J.  Boydell,  Collection  of  Prints 
from  Pictures  Illustrating  the  Dramatic  Works  o/S.,  1&02-3,  2  vols,  atlas 
folio,  100  plates,  forms  supplement  to  Boydell's  edition;  reproduced  by 
photography,  1364,  4to,  reduced,  and  edited  by  J.  P.  Norris,  Philadelphia, 
1S74,  4to;  S.  Portfolio,  1621-9,  roy.  Svo;  Stothard,  Illustrations  of  S.,  1S26, 
Svo ;  F.  A.  M.  Retzsch,  Gallerie  zu  S.'s  draviat.  Warkcn  in  Vntrissen,  Leipsic, 
ISi-^-ie,  8  vols.,  obi.  4to ;  J,  Thurston,  IU}istratio7is  o/S.,  1S30,  Svo;  F. 
Howard,  The  Spirit  of  the  Plays  ofS.,  1833,  5  vols.  Svo;  L.  S.  Ruhl,  Skizzen 
zu  S.'s  dram.  Wcrken,  Frankfort,  1827-31,  Cassel,  1S3S-40,  6  vols,  oblong 
folio;  G.  F.  Sargent,  S.  Illustrated  in  a  Series  of  Landscape  and  Archi- 
tectural Designs,  1342,  Svo,  reproduced  as  The  Book  of  S.  Gems,  1346,  Svo ; 
W.  V.  Kaulbach,  S.  Gallerie,  Berlin,  1357-8,  3  pts.  folio ;  P.  Konewka,  E!n 
Sommemachtstraum,  Heidclb.,  1868,  4to,  and  Falstafu.  seine  Gescllcn,  Strns- 
bui'g,  1S72,  Svo  ;  E.  Dowdcn,  5.  Scenes  and  Characters,  1876,  4to,  illustration* 
from  A.  F.  Pecht's  S.  Gallerie,  Leipsic,  IS76,  4to ;  J.  O.  Halliwell  Phillipps, 
HondList  qf  Drawings  and  Engravings  Illustratice  of  the  Life  ofS.,  1SS4,  Svo. 

XIV.  Biography. 

A. — General  Works. 
N.  Eowe,  The  Life  of  Mr  W.  S.,  1743.  Svo.  the  first  separate  life  ;  N.  Drake 

B.  and  his  Times,  1817,  2  vols.  4to ;  J.  Eiitton.  Remarks  on  the  Life  ana 
Writings  qf  S.,  revised  edition,  1813,  am.  Svo;  A.  Skottowe,  Life  of  S.,  1324, 
2  vols.  8vo ;  J.  P.  Collier,  New  Facts,  1S35.  Svo,  New  Particulars,  1336,  Svo, 
Further  Particulars,  1839,  Svo,  and  Traditionary  Anecdotes  of  S.  collected  in 
1GT3.  1S3S,  Svo;  T.  Campbell,  Life  and  Writings  of  W.  S.,  1333,  Svo;  C. 
£night,  S.,a  Biograph>i,  1813,  Svo.  reprinted  in  Studies,  1850,  2  vols.  Svo; 
J.  0.  Halliwell  Phillipps.  The  Life  of  W.  S.,  1843,  Svo,  S.  Facsimiles,  1863, 
Eolio,  Illustrations  of  the  Life  o/S.,  1874,  folio,  and  Outlines  of  the  Life  ofS., 
1881,  Svo,  6th  ed.  18S6.  2  vols.  Svo  ;  F.  P.  G.  Guizot,  S.  et  son  temps,  1852,  Svo, 
translated  into  English,  1852.  Svo;  G.  M.  Tweddell,  S.,  his  Times  and  Con- 
iemporarics.  1S52,  12mo,  2d  ed.  1S61-3,  unfinished;  W.  W.  Lloyd,  Essays  on 
Life  and  Plays  ofS.,  1858,  Svo ;  S.  Neil,  S.,  a  Critical  Biography,  1861,  Svo ; 
r.  De  Quincey,  S.,  a  Biography,  1864,  Svo;  T.  Kenny,  Life  and  Genius  qf  S., 
1864,  Svo;  W.  Bekk.  W.  S.,  cine  biogr.  Studie,  Munich.  1864,  sm.  Svo;  S.  W. 
Fullom,  The  Uutory  qf  W.  S.,  2d  ed.  1S64,  Svo  ;  Victor  M.  Hugo,  W.  5.,  1864, 


SHAKES  TEARE 


8vo,— trnn-slntcd  into  Dutch,  German,  and  English;  H..0.  Bohn,  Siography. 
and  Bibliography  qf  S.  (I'hilobiblon  Soc.  1363),  Svo,  illustrations:  J.  Jordan, 
Orirfi'i^ii  Collecttom  on  S.  ciui  Stratford,  1780.  edited  by  J.  O.  U-alliwull 
Phillipps,  1864,  4to ;  J.  A.  Heraud,  S.'s  inner  Life  as  intimated  in  hia  Workii, 
1S05,  Sv()>  R.  G.  White,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  qf  W.  S.,  Bostnn,  1SC5,  Svo; 
3.  A.  Allil>one.  Biography  of  S.  (hi  Dictionary,  vol.  2,  1370);  H.  N.  Hudson. 
S.—his  Life,  Art,  and  Characters,  Boston.  1372,  4th  ed.  1383,  2  vols.  12mo; 
R.  Geu^e.'S.,  sein  Leben  u.  a.  Wcrke,  Ilildbnrghausen,  1872,  Svo ;  F.  K.  Elzc, 
W.  S.,  Ualle,  1876,  large  &vo;  G.  H.  Calvert,  S.— a  Biographic,  JCstkctic 
Studu.  Boston,  1S79,  ICmo ;  W.  Tegg,  S.  and  his  Contcmporai-ics,  1879,  Svo; 
W.  lleuty,  S..  with  some  Notes  on  his  early  Biography,  1882,  sm.  Svo ;  E. 
Hermann,  Ergamungen  u.  Beriehtigungen  der  herfjcbrachtcn  S.  Bi^^graph., 
Erl..  13Si,  2  vols.  Svo;  F.  G.  Fleay,  Chronicle  History  of  the  Life  aTid 
Work^q/'  W.  S.,  IS&C,  svo. 

B, — Special  WorkSa 
ACToaEAPH ;  Sir  F.  Madden.  Autograph  and  Qrthogr&phy  of  S..  1337,  4lo  ; 
S.'s  Autograph,  copied  and  enlarged  by  J.  liarris,  &c.  (Rodil),  1S13;  J.  O. 
H.-illiweli  Phillipps,  S.'s  Will,  1S51,  4to ;  H.  Staunton,  Memorials  of  S. 
Photographed,  1364,  folio;  J.  H.  Friswell,  Photogr.  Reprod.  of  S.'s  WiU.  1SC4, 
4to.  "birthday  :  B.  Comey,  Argument  on  the  Ass^aned  liirthday,  1364,  Svo. 
Bones  :  C.  M.  Ingleby,  S.'s  Bones,  1SS3,  sm.  4to ;  W.  Hal',  S.'s  Grave,  Notes 
of  Traditions,  ISS4,  Svo.  CRAB  TREE  :  C.  F.  Green,  Legend  of  S.'s  Crab  Tree, 
1857,  4to,  illustrated.  Deer  Stealing  :  C.  fl.  Eracebridgo,  5.  no  Deer 
Stealer,  1SG2,  Svo,  illustrated.  Gene.ilOGY  :  J.  Jordan,  Pedigree  qf  the 
Family  of  S.,  1796,  in  voL  iii.  of  R.  Ryan's  Dramatic  Table  Talk,  1325-30,  3 
vols.  Svo ;  Memoirs  of  the  Families  of  S.  and  Hart,  1790,  ed.  Halliwell,  1865, 
4to;  G.  R.  French,  Shakspearcana  Gcnealogiea.  1S69,  Svo;  J.  O.  Halliwell 
Phillipps,  Entries  respecting  S.,  his  Family  and  Connexions,  18G4,  4to. 
GHOST-l'.ELirF :  A.  Rolfe,  The  Ghost  Relief  of  S..  1S51,  Svo ;  T.  A.  Spalding. 
Elizabethan  Demonologii,  1880,  Svo.  NAME  :  J."  O.  Halliwell  Phillipps,  Ncu> 
Lamps  or  Old?  lS3a','Svo,  advocates  "Shakespeare."  Occni'ATiON:  seo 
Special  Knowledge,  above.  PvELIGION ;  F.  Fritzart,  War  S.  ein  Christ  f 
Heidelberg,  1332,  Svo;  W.  J.  Birch,  Philosophy  and  Rcligicn  ofS.,  1843,  sm. 
Svo,  thinks  him  a  sceptic;  E.  Vehse,  S.  als  Protestant,  Poliliier,  psyeholog, 
u.  Dichter,  Hamburg,  1351,  2  vols.  sm.  Svo ;  J.  J.  Rietmann,  Uebcr  5.'* 
religiose  u.  ethiache  Bcdeutuiig,  St  Gallen,  1853,  12mo ;  A.  F.  Rio,  S.,  18C4, 
Svo  (S.  Roman  Catholic);  W.  Koenig,  5.  als  Dichter,  Weltweiser,  u.  Christ, 
Leipsic,  1873,  Svo;  A.  Gilman.  S.'s  Morals,  N.Y.,  1S80,  Svo;  J.  M.  Enich,  S.'s 
Stellung  zitr  Kathol.  Religion,  1334,  Svo.  StraTFORD-UPON-Avon  :  R.  B. 
Wheler,  History  and  Antiquities  of  Strafford,  1306,  8vo.  Account  of  the  Birth' 
place,  new  edition  1SG3,  Svo,  and  Collect a^iea,  1S65,  4to ;  F.  W.  Fairholt,  The 
Home  qf  S.,  1847,  Svo,  entiravings  reproduced  in  S.  Neil's  Home  of  S.,  1871, 
Svo ;  J.  O.  Halliwell  Phillipps,  New  Bole  about  S.  and  Strafford,  1850,  4to, 
Br-icf  Hand  List  of  the  Borough  Records.  1302,  Svo,  Descriptive  Calendar, 
1S63,  folio.  Brief  Guide  to  the  Gardens.  1S63,  Svo,  Historical  Aecomit  qf  the 
New  Place,  1SG4,  folio  illustrated,  and  Stratford  in  the  Times  of  the  S.s,  18f>t, 
folio;  E.  Lees,  Stratford  as  connected  with  S.,  1854,  Svo  ;  J.  R.  Wise,  S.,  his 
Birthplace  and  its  Neighbourhood,  1861,  Svo;  J.  C.  M.  Bellew,  S.'s  Home  at 
New  Place,  1803,  sra.  Svo,  illustrated,  with  pedigi-ees ;  R.  E.  Hunter,  S.  and' 
Stratford,  1864,  Svo;  J.  jVI.  Jephson,  S.,  his  Birthplace,  Home,  and  Grave, 
1864,  4to,  illustrated;  J,  Walter,  S.'s  Home  and  Rural  Life,  1874,  4to, 
illustrative  of  localities;  C.  AL  Ingleby,  S.  and  the  Wcleombc  Enclosxires, 
1SS3,  folio;  8.  L.  Lee,  Stra(ford-07i-Avoji,  1S34,  folio,  illustrated. 

XV.   POETEAITS. 

G.  Steevens,  Proposals  for  Pubtishiitg  the  Fclton  Portrait,  1794,  Svo ;  J. 
Britton,  On  the  Monumental  Bust,  1316.  Svo;  J.  Boaden,  Authenticity  of 
Various  Pictures  and  'Prints  offered  as  J'ortraits  of  S.,  1821,  4to ;  A  Wirell, 
The  Mo}iumental  Bust,  1327,  bvo,  and  Inquiry  into  the  S.  Portraila,  1S40. 
Svo  ;  H.  Rodd,  The  Cha}ido3  Portrait  [1S19].  Svo ;  R.  H.  Forster.  Remarks  on 
the  Chandos  Portrait,  1849,  Svd  ;  J.  P.  Collier,  Dissertation  upon  the  Imputed 
Portraits,  1851,  Svo;  J.  H.  Friswell,  Life  Pmtraits  of  W.  S.,  1864,  Svo  ;  G. 
Scharf,  On  the  Principal  Portraits  of  S.,  1S64,  12mo  ;  E.  T.  Craig.  S.  and  his 
Portraits,  Bust,  and  Monument,  2d  ed.  1S&4,  Svo,  and  S.'s  Portraits  phreno- 
logically  considered,  Philadelphia,  1375,  Svo ;  G.  Harrison,  The  Stratford  Bust, 
Brooklyn,  1805,  4to;  W.  Page,  Study  of  S.'s  Portraits,  1876,  sm.  4to ;  J.  P. 
Norris,  Bibliography  of  Works  on  the  Portraits  o/S.,  Philadelphia,  1379.  Svo, 
44  title9.  The  Death  Mask  c/S.,  1334,  and  The  Portraits  qf  S.,  Phil.,  1SS5,  4to, 
with  bibliography  of  111  references, and  illustrations.  An  elaborate  account 
by  A.  M,  Knapp  of  the  portraits  in  the  Barton  collection,  Boston  Public 
Library,  may  be  found  in  the  S.  Catalogue,  18S0,  large  Svo. 

XVI.  Literary  and  Deasiatic  History. 

E.  Malone.  Historical  Account  of  the  English  Stage.  1790,  enlarged  In 
Boswell's  edition,  1821 ;  J.  P.  Collier,  History  of  English  Dramatic  Poetry, 
1331,  new  ed.  Ib79,  3  vols.  Svo,  Memoirs  of  Edw.  All«yne  (Shakespeare 
Society),  1841.  Svo,  The  AlUyne  Papers  (Shakespeare  Society).  1S43,  Svo  [see 
G.  F.  Warner's  catalogue  of  the  Dulvnch  .MS3.,  1331,  Svo],  and  Memoirs  of  the 
Principal  Actors  in  the  Plays  of  S.  (Shakespeare  Society),  1340,  Svo  ;  N.  J. 
Halpin,  The  Dramatic  Unities  ofS.,  1349,  Svo,  ed.  by  C.  M.  Ingleby  (X.S.  Soc., 
series  i.,  1S75-0);  N.  Delins.  Ucber  da-^  Englische  Thcaterwescn  zu  S.'s  Zeit, 
Bremen,  1853,  Svo;  A.  Mezicres,  Predecesscur$  et  Contcmi^orains  de  S.,  1SG3, 
3d  etl.  1331,  Svo,  and  Contcmporains  et  succcsscurs  dc  S.,  3d  ed.  ISSl ;  Rev.  W. 
R.  Arrowsmith,  S.'s  Editors  and  Commentators,  1SG5,  Svo  ;  W.  Kelly.  Notices- 
of  the  Drama  and  Popular  Aninseme>its  of  the  ICth  and  17th  Centuries,  1865, 
Svo  ;  C.  M.  Ingleby,  Traces  of  the  Authorship  of  the  Works  attributed  to  $., 
1SG8,  Svo,  S.'s  Centurie  qf  Prayse,  culled  from  Wnters  of  the  First  Century 
after  his  Rise.  1874,  4to  (enlarged  by  Miss  Toulmiu  Smith  for  N.  S.  Soc, 
1879),  and  S.  Allu.-,ion,  Books{S.  S.  Soc),  1374  ;  H.  I.  Ruggles,  The  Method  qfS. 
as  a7i  Artist,  N.Y.,  1870,  Svo;  A.  H.  Paget,  S.'s  Plays,  a  Chapter  of  Stage 
History,  1375,  Svo  ;  H.  Ulrici,  S.'s  Dramatic  Art,  translated  by  L.  D.  Schniitz. 
1376,  2  vols.  Svo ;  H.  P.  Stokes,  The  Chronological  Order  of  S.'s  Plays,  1S73, 
Svo;  C.  Knortz,  S.  in  Amerika,  Berlin,  1832,  Svo;  C.  3Iucrer,  Synehronist. 
Zusammcnstelluny  der  tdcktigsten  Notizen  ub.  S.'s  Lehcn  u.  Wcrke,  1SS2,  4to; 
J.  A.  Symonds,  S.'s  Predecessors  in  the  English  Drama,  1884,  Svo;  A.  R. 
Frey,  5.  and  the  alleged  Spanish  Prototypes,  N.Y.,  1336,  sm.  4to. 

Germany  :  S.'s  Sehauspiele  crUiutert  von  F.  Horn,  Leipsic,  1823-31,  5  vols. 
&v(T;  £,  A.  Hagcn,  S.'s  erstes  Erschcinen  auf  den  Buhnen  Detitschlands, 
Kiinigs.,  1832,  Svo ;  K,  Assman,  S.  find  seine  deutschcn  Uebersctzer.  Liegnitz, 
1S43.  4to  ;  N.  DcHus,  Die  Schlcgel-Tieckxehc  S.  Uehcrsctz.,  Bonn,  1S46,  i2mo; 
F.  K.  EIze,  Die  Englisehe  Spracke  in  Deutschland,  Dresilen,  1364,  12mo;  F. 
A.  T.  Kreyssig.  S.  Cultus,  Elbinp.  1S64,  Svo;  L.  G.  [.emcke.  S.  in  seinem 
Verhaltnisse  zu  Dcuttchl/ind,  Leipsic,  1364,  Svo ;  W.  J.  Thorns,  "  S.  in 
Gcnnany,"  in  Three  Notclcts,  lS65,Svo;  A.  Cohn,  S.  in  Germany  in  the  ICth 
and  17th  Centuries,  1S65.  4to  ;  C.  Humbert,  Moliirc,  S.,  und  d.  dentsche  Kriti}(, 
Leipsic,  1SC9,  Svo ;  W.  Oechelhiiuser,  Die  Wnrdigung  S.'s  in  Engl.  u.  Dcutsch. 
lami,  1869,  8vo ;  R.  Genee,  Gcschichte  d.  S.'schen  Dramcn  in  Dcutschlam., 
Leipsic,  1870,  Svo;  M.  Bemavs,  Znr  Entstehungxgeschichte  des  Schlcgelschcn 
S  .  Leipsic,  1S72.  Svo  ;  R.  J.  Leiiedix,  Die  S.omanic,  Stuttgart,  1373,  Svo ;  W. 
Wagner,  S.  und  die  ncucstc  Kritilc,  Hamburg,  1374,  Svo:  J.  Mcissaer,  Di4S 
engiiechen  Comodiantcn  in  Ocstcncich,  Vicuna,  1SS4,  Sva  - 


S  H  A  —  S  H  A 


771 


France  :  J.  B.  M.  A.  Lacrolx,  Bistoire  d&  I'inptence  dc  S.  sur  U  On^.Vre 
fran^ais,  Brussels,  1S56,  Svo ;  W.  Reymond,  Corneitte,  S.,  et  Oocthe,  Berlin, 
ISOJ,  8vo ;  A.  Schmidt,  Voltaire's  Vcrdienste  urn  die  Einfiihrung  S^  18C4,  4to. 
XVII.  SBAKESPEAKE  JOBn.EE3. 

Essay  on  the  Jubilee  at  Stratford,  1769,  Svo ;  S.'s  Oarland,  17C0,  Svo. 
second  edition  1826,  Svo  ;  CancUe  Account  of  Garriek's  Jubilee,  17G9,  and 
the  Festivals  of  1S27  and  JSSO,  1S30.  8vo ;  Descriptive  Account  0/ the  Second 
Oala,  1S30,  Svo ;  K.  P.  Outzltow,  Bine  S.  Feicr  an  der  Ilm,  Leipsic,  1864, 
Svo;  P.  H.  A.  Mobius,  Dio  Deutsche  S.  Feicr,  Leipsic,  1804,  Svo;  Tcr- 
centenary  Celebration  by  the  New  England  Historic-Genealogical  Society  at 
Boston,  1S&4,  Svo;  O^icial  Programme  at  the  TercenterMry  Festival  at 
Strafford,  with  Life,  Guide,  ic,  iS6i,  Svo. 

XV^I1.   IREIAND  COXTRO\-EKST. 

HfisceUaneous  Papers  and  Legal  Instruments  under  the  Band  and  Seal  qf 
W.  S.,  1795,  imp.  folio,  2i  ed.  179e,  Svo  (W.  H.  Ireland's  forgeriis) ; 
Vortwem,  an  Historical  Tragedy,  170v.  sm.  Svo,  2d  ed.  Iy32,  Svo  (iorgery) ; 
E.  i^oae,  Inquiry  into  the  Authenticity  of  Certain  Papers  and  Legal 
Instruments,  1796,  Svo;  W.  H.  Ireland,  Authentic  Account  of  the  Shake- 
spearian MSS.,  1796,  Svo ;  S.  Ireland,  Investigation  of  Mr  Malonc,  1797,  Svo  ; 
J.  J.  Eschenburg,  Ucber  den  vorgeblichcn  Fund  S.schen  Bandschriften, 
Leipsic,  1797,  sra.  Svo ;  G.  Chalmers,  Apology  /or  the  Believers  in  the  S- 
Papers,  •te.,  1797-1800.  S  pts.  Svo ;  [0.  Hardinge),  Chalrneriana,  1800,  Svo-; 
v.'.  H.  Ireland,  Confessions,  1805,  em.  Svo,  new  edition,  v/ith  introduction  by 
E.  O.  White,  1874,  12mo. 

XIX.  Payne  Collies  Costhovebst. 

J.  P.  CollieT,  New  Facts  regarding  the  Life  of  S.,  1835,  Svo,  Kew  Particu- 
lars, 1836,  Svo,  Further  Particulars,  1839.  Svo,  Reasons  for  a  New  Editic^n 
of  S.'s  Works,  1S41,  2d  ed.  1342,  Svo,  and  Notes  and  Emendations  to  the  Text 
(Shakespeare  Society),  3S52,  2d  ed.  1S53,  8vo,  translated  into  German  by 
Dr  Leo,  1853,  also  in  J.  Frese'a  Erganzungsband  zit  S.'a  Dramen,  1853,  Svo ; 
S.  W.  Singer,  The  Text  of  S.  Vindicated,  1863,  Svo  (anti-Collier) ;  J.  O. 
Halliwell  Phillipps,  Curiosities  of  Modern  Shakespearian  Criticism,  1853.  Svo 
(anti-Collier).  Observations  on  the  3IS.  Emendations,  1S53,  Svo  (anti-Collier), 
and  Observations  on  the  Shakespearian  Forgeries  at  Bridgeicutcr  House,  1S53, 
4to  (anti-Collier);  C.  Knight,  Old  Lamps  or  New!  1853,  12mo  (pro-ColIicr) ; 
Rev.  A.  Dyce,  A  Few  Notes  on  S.,  1863,  Svo ;  N.  Delius,  Collier's  aitc  handschr. 
Mmendationen,  Bonn,  1S53,  Svo  (anti-Collier) ;  F.  A.  Leo,  Die  Delius'sche 
Kritik,  Berlin,  1853.  Svo  (pro-Collier);  R.  O.  \Vlilte,  S.'s  Scholar,  1854,  Svo 
(anti-Collier)';  J.  T.  Mommacn,  Der  PerHr-s  S.,  Berlin,  1854,  8vo  (anti-Collier) ; 
A.  E..  Brae,  Literary  Cookery,  1S55,  Svo  (anti-CoUier),  and  Collier,  Coleridge, 
and  S.,  1860,  Svo,  disputes  authenticity  of  following  lectures ;  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
Seven  Lectures  on  S.  and  Slilton,  edited  by  J.  P.  Collier,  1856 ;  Kev.  A.  Dyce, 
Strictures  on  Mr  Collier's  New  Edition  [18BS],  1859,  Svo  (anti-Collier); 
C.  M.  Ingleby,  The  S.  Fabrications,  1859,  sm.  Svo,  and  Complete  View  of 
Vie  S.  Controversy,  IFf.l,  with  bibliography  (auti-ColUer)  ;  N.  E.  S.  A. 
Hamilton,  Inquiry  into  the  Genuineness  of  the  MS.  Corrcet:o;zs,  I860,  4to 
(anti-Collier);  Coflier's  Jteply  to  Hamilton,  18C0,  svo;  Sir  T.  D.  Hardy, 
Review  qf  the  Present  Slate  of  the  S.  Controversy,  1860,  Svo ;  J.  P.  Collier, 
Trilogy:  Conversations,  1874,  3  pts.  4to. 

XX.  SHAKESPEAP.E-BAOON  CONTItOVEnST. 
J.  0.  Hapt,  The  Romance  of  Yachlir.g,  N.Y.,  ISli,  I2mo,  first  work  con- 
taining doubt  of  &hakc3pcai'e'a  authorship ;  \V.  H.  S.'nli.h,  Was  Bacon  the 


Author  of  S.'s  Plays!  1868,  Svo,— extended  as  Bacon  and  S.,  1867, 12mo  (antl- 
Shakespeare) ;  D.  Bacon,  The  Philosophy  of  the  Plans  ofS.  u7\folded,  1857,  Cv,-) 
(auti-Shakcspeare) ;  N.  Holmes,  Authorship  of  S.,  i866.  new  ed.  18S6,  2  vols. 
12n5o  (anti-Shakespeare);  liacoa'a /"ro)/!!/*,  edited  by  Mrs  H  Pelt,  1SS3.  Svo 
(antl-Sha'Kespearc);  W.  H.  'Wyman,  Bibliography  qf  the  Eaeon-S.  Centra- 
versy,  Cincinnati,  1S34,  Svo,  255  entries  (of  which  117  pro-f'iakespeare,  73 
anti-,  and  65  unclassified). 

XXI.   BlBLIOOBAPHT. 

F.  Meres,  Palladis  Taw^'  :  Witts  Treasury,  1593,  12mo,  contains  ilio 
earliest  list  of  Shakespeare's  works  ;  J.  "Wilson,  Shalrcpeariana, — Catalog.u 
of  all  the  Books,  Ac.,  relating  to  S.,  1S27,  sm.  Svo ;  \V.'  T.  Lowndes.  S.  ar.d 
his  Com:nen:ators,  1831,  Svo,  reprinted  from  the  Manual;  J.  O.  Ha!';:w',  11 
Pl.illipp^,  Shnkespcariana :  Catalogue  of  Early  Editions,  Commejitaries,  t£.r., 
1841,  Svo,  Some  Account  of  Antiq.  Books,  MSS.,  &'c.,  illust.  qf  S.,  in  his 
possession,  1852,  4to,  illustrated,  Garland  cf  Shakespeartana,  1854,  4to,  Early 
Editions  qf  S.,  1857,  Svo  (notices  of  14  early  quartos),  Brief  Hi ,.nd  List  of 
Books,  Ac.,  illustrative  of  S.,  1S59,  Svo,  Skeleton  Band  List  qf  the  Early 
Quartos,  1860,  Svo,  Baml  List  of  SlMkespeariana,  1802,  Svo,  .List  qf  Works 
Illustrative  qf  S.  18C7,  Svo,  Catalogue  of  the  S.  Library  and  Museum  et 
Stratford-on-Avon,  1868,  8vo,  Hc:.nd  List  cf  Early  Editiom,  1807,  Svo,  Cata- 
logue qf  Warehouse  Library,  1S76,  Svo,  Bri^  Hand  List  qf  Selected  Parcclz, 
1S70,  and  Catalogue  qfS.  .Study  Books,  1876,  Svo ;  J.  Moulin,  Onttrckken  eener 
algcim'^nc  Literatuur  over  W.S.,  Kampen,  1345,  Svo  (only  part  2  publi-iheil); 
S.  Literatur  in  Deutschlaml ,  176i:-lS:'l,  by  P.  H.,  Cassel,  i£52,  sm.  Svo ; 
P.  E.  Sillig,  Die  S.  Literatur  bis  Mitte  lS5/„  cingi;fuhrt  v.  B.  Ui.Ici 
Leipsic,  1854,  Svo;  L[enox],  S.'s  Plays  in  Foliu,  1801,  4to,  biblicgraph;.;al 
notice ;  H.  G.  Bohn,  Biography  and  Bibliography  qfS.,  Philobiblon  Soc^,  lf63, 
am.  Svo,  bibliography  with  some  additions  from  his  edition  of  Lowndes ; 
Shakespcareana:  Verzeichni3S,\\€:nxU3k,  ISCvl,  Svo  ;  P.  Thimm,  Shukcspenriana 
from  U-Glt^  2d  edition  containing  the  literature  to  1871,  187?,  Svo, 
continued  In  Transactions  of  >'.  S.  9oc. ;  bibliogr.iphiea  of  Humiet, 
Lear.  Macbeth,  Romeo  and  Jaliet,  Othello,  may  be  found  in  H.  H.  FiuncE:i'l' 
Kew  Variorum  edition,  Philadelphia,  1373,  &c.  ;  Catalogue  qf  the  S.  Memorial 
Librant  at  the  Cambridge  Free  Public  Li'urary,  18S1,  nearly  all  presented  by 
H.  T.  Hall;  3.  A.  Allibone,  Siiakespcr.re  Bibliography  (see  his  Dictioiwry, 
V.  2,  1870),  based  on  Bohn  with  additional  An.ericana;  A.  Cohn,  S.  Bibho- 
graphic,  1S71,  &c.,  contributed  to  S.  Jahrbuch;  H.  T.  Hall,  Shakespearian 
Statistics,  new  edition  1874,  Svn,';  J.  D.  MulKns,  Catalogue  qf  the  S.  Memorial 
Library,  Linninnham  Free  Ifibraries,  1872-6,  3  pts.  Svo,  a  nifignificent  col- 
lection of  7C00  vols,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1879,  now  fully  replaced  ;  Ka'.atog 
d.  B:lliothck  der  Deutechen  3.  Gcs.,  Weimar,  1876,  Svo;  K.  Kiiorti,  An 
American  S.  Bibliography,  1S76,  l'2mo ;  J.  Winsor,  Bibliography  of  tin 
Original  Quartos  and  Folios,  Cambridge,  U.S.,  lS76,'.4to  (with  facrimiies),  and 
S.'s  Poems,  a  Bibliography  o'  the  Earhi  Editions,  1879,  Svo  ;  Cataloquc  qf  Works 
of,  and  relating  to,  W.  S.,  Barton  Coll.,  Boston  Pub.  Lib.,  by  J.  M.  Hub'„:ird, 
1878-80,  2  vols.  la.  Svo,  the  largest  'nllectiGn  in  U.S. ;  H.  H.  Morgsn, 
A.  Morgan,  Topical  Shnkespcariana,  ft-,  anged  under  Beadings,  .St  Louis, 
1379,  Svo;  Topical  Index  Shakespearear,^.  {sic)  in  Shakespeariana,  1SS3-C, 
pts.  xv.-.'>:xii.,  repr.  as  Digest  S'nakrspeareanpe  (sic),  pt.  1  (A-F),  N.Y.,  1838, 
Svo ;  'T.  J.  I.  Arnold,  S,  Bihti'^graphy  in  the  Isethcrlands,  The  Hague,  18V9, 
sm.  Svo  ;  L.  Uallud,  Die  S.  Literalm  in  Dcutschland,  1880,  Svo  ;  H.  T.  Hall, 
The  Separate  Editions  cf  S.'s  Plays,  wil-K  the.  Alterations  by  vaiious  Bands, 
1830,  Svo  ;  J.  Jeremi.ih,  Aid  to  Shakespearean  Study,  1880,  Svo ;  S.  Timmins, 
Books  on  S.,  1S85,  sm.  Svo.  (H.  E.  T.) 


SHALLOT.     See  HoETictrtTtrRE,  vol.  xn.  p.  288. 

SHAMANIS^M  is  tlie  name  commonly  given  to  the 
type  of  religion  which  once  prevailed  among  all  the  L^ral- 
Altaic  peoples, — Tungus,  Mongol,  and  Turkish, — and  which 
still  lives  in  various  parts  of  northern  Asia  i'n  spite  of  the 
progress  of  Mohammedanism,  Buddhism,  and  Christianity. 
The  shaman  himself  (in  Turkish,  iam)  is  a  wizard-priest, 
closely  akin  to  the  medicine-men  of  savage  tribes  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  Outsiders  often  describe  Shamanism 
as  pure  devil-worship,  but  in  reality  the  shaman  or  katii 
deals  with  good  as  well  as  with  evil  spirits,  especially 
with  the  good  spirits  of  ancestors  (cf.  Religion,  vol.  xx. 
p.  363).  Among  the  Altaians,  for  example,  the  practices 
of  the  sorcerers  rest  on  an  elaborate  cosmogony  and  a 
developed  doctrine  of  good  and  evil  powers,  the  friends 
and  enemies  of  man.  The  kam  has  the  power  of  influen- 
cing these  by  magic  ritual,  arid  his  gift  is  hereditary, — his 
own  ancestors,  now  good  spirits,  being  the  great  assistants 
of  his  work.  His  two  chief  functions  are  to  perform  sacri- 
fice, with  which  is  conjoined  the  procuring  of  oracles,  and 
to  purify  houses  after  a  death,  preventing  the  dead  man 
from  continuing  his  injurious  presence  among  the  living ; 
see  the  full  accounts  of  RadloiT,  Aus  Siberien,  1884,  vol.  ii. 
In  his  magical  apparatus  a  drum  (tune/ur)  holds  the  chief 
place.  The  ceremonies  have  a  dramatic  character,  the 
wizard  acting  an  a.scent  to  the  heavens  or  a  descent  to  the 
under-world,  and  holding  colloquy  with  their  denizens  in 
scenes  of  great  excitement  ending  in  ecstasy  and  physical 
collapse.  The  epithet  of  devil-worship  as  applied  to  the 
Altaian  Shamanism  is  so  far  justified  that  the  great  enemy 
of  man,  Erlik,  the  king  of  the  lower  world,,  from  whom 
death  and  all  evils  come,  is  much  courted,  addressed  as 
father  and  guide,  and  propitiated  with  offerings.     He  is 


not,  however,  a  power  co-ovJinate  with  the  highest  good 
god  Kaira  Kan,  but  is  the  creature  of  the  latter,  who 
banished  him  ucderground  for  his  evil  deeds. 

SHAMMAI,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  sometimes  called  \p]\f, 
"the  eldar,"  was  the  contemporary  of  Hillel  (q.v.)  and 
the  head  of  a  rival  school.  The  pair  are  twelfth  in  order 
in  the  Pirie  Aboth,  where  we  are  informed  that  Sharniiiai 
enjoined  his  disciples  to  make  a  special  business  of  the 
study  of  the  law,  to  promise  little  and  perform  mu(;h,  and 
to  receive  every  one  in  a  friendly  spirit.  Of  his  perronal 
history  nothing  is  known.  The  tendency  of  Shammai 
and  his  school  is  represented  as  having  been  towards  a 
more  scrupulously  and  burdensomely  literal  construction 
of  the  law  than  Vas  thought  necessary  by  Hillel ;  but 
their  differences  bo  far  as  known  turned  upon  very  trilling 
minutiie.  One  exam[)le  of  his  rigour  wUl  suffice.  It  is 
related  of  him  in  the  Mishnah  that  a  grand.son  having 
been  born  to  him  during  the  feast  of  tabernacles  he  caused 
the  ceiling  to  be  removed  and  the  bed  to  be  canopied  with 
branches,  in  order  that  the  child  also  might  observe  the 
solemnity  according  to  the  law. 

SHAMOKIN,  a  post  borough  of  the  United  States,  in 
Northumberland  county,  Pennsylvania,  20  miles  south- 
east of  Sunbury,  is  a  great  centre  of  the  coal-trade,  and 
had  a  population  in  1881  of  8181. 

SHANGHAI,  a  city  of  China.  The  native  city  of 
Shanghai  is  situated  in  31°  15'  N.  lat.  and  121°  27'  E.  long., 
and  stands  on  the  left  or  western  bank  of  the  Hwang-p'u 
river,  about  twelve  miles  from  the  point  where  that  rivor 
empties  itself  into  the  estuary  of  the  Yang-tsze-kiong. 
The  walls  which  surround  it  arc  about  3i  milc:s  in  circum- 
ference, and  are  pierced  by  seven  gates.  The  streets  and 
thoroughfares   may  be  said  to   illustrate   all   the   worse 


772 


SHANGHAI 


Shanghai. 


featuies  of  Chinese  cities — dirt,  closeness,  and  absence  of 
-.11  sanitary  arrangements ;  while  the  want  of  any  build- 
ing of  architectural  or  antiquarian  interest  robs  the  city 
C'f  any  redeeming  traits.  On  the  eastern  face  of  the  city, 
between  the  walls  and  the  river,  stands  the  Jirincipal 
suburb,  off  which  the  native  ship[iing  lies  anchored.  The 
native  town  lias  thus  nothing  to  recommend  it  except  its 
geographical  position.  Situated  in  the  e.xtreme  eastern 
portion  of  the  province  of 
Kiang-soo,  and  possessing 
a  good  and  commodious 
anchorage,  as  well  as  an 
easy  access  to  the  ocean, 
it  forms  the  principal 
port  of  central  China. 
From  the  western  wall 
of  the  city  there  stretches 
.away  a  rich  alluvial  plain 
extending  over  45,000 
square  miles,  which  is 
intersected  by  numerous 
waterways  and  great 
chains  of  lakes.  The 
products  of  this  fertile 
district,  as  well  as  the 
teas  and  silks  of  more 
distant  regions,  find 
their  natural  outlet  at 
Shanghai.  The  looms 
■of  Soochow  and  the  tea 
plantations  of  Gan-hwuy, 
together  with  the  rice 
of  this  "garden  of  China,"  have  for  many  years  before 
treaty  days  supplied  the  Shanghai  junks  with  their 
richest  freight.  But  though  thus  favourably  situated 
as  an  emporium  of  trade  Shanghai  did  not  attract  the 
attention  of  foreign  diplomatists  until  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  of  1841,  when  the  inhabitants  purchased  protec- 
tion from  the  bombarding  propensities  of  Admiral  Parker 
by  the  payment  of  a  ransom  of  one  million  taels.  In  the 
Nanking  treaty,  which  w-as  signed  in  the  following  year, 
Shanghai  was  included  among  the  four  new  ports  which 
were  thrown  open  to  trade  by  the  terms  of  that  document. 
In  1843  Sir  George  Balfour,  then  Captain  Balfour,  was 
appointed  British  consul,  and  it  was  on  Ws  motion  that  the 
site  of  the  present  English  settlement,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Soochow  creek,  on  the  south  by  the 
Yang-king  canal,  and  on  the  east  by  the  river,  was  chosen. 
Tlie  site,  thus  defined  on  its  three  sides  (on  the  west  no 
boundary  was  marked  out),  is  three-fifths  of  a  mile  in 
length,  and  was  separated  from  the  native  city  by  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  which  was  subsequently  selected  as 
the  site  of  the  French  settlement.  Later  again  the 
Americans  established  themselves  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Soochow  creek,  on  a  piece  of  land  fronting  on  the  river, 
which  there  makes  a  sharp  turn  in  an  easterly  direction. 
At  first  merchants  appeared  disinclined  to  take  advantage 
of  the  opportunities  ofl'ered  them  at  Shanghai.  "  At  the 
end  of  the  first  year  of  its  history  as  an  open  port  Shanghai 
could  count  only  23  foreign  residents  and  families,  1 
consular  flag,  1 1  merchants'  houses,  and  2  Protestant 
missionaries.  Only  forty-four  foreign  vessels  had  arrived 
during  the  same  jieriod."'  By  degrees,  however,  the 
manifold  advantages  as  a  port  of  trade  possessed  by 
Shanghai  attracted  merchants  of  all  nationalities ;  and 
from  the  banks  of  the  Hwang-p'u  arose  lines  of  hongs 
and  handsome  dwelling-houses,  wliich  have  converted  a 
reed-covered  swamp  into  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  the  East. 


The  Treutv  Ports  of  rhina  and  Jarjar.,  by  W.  F.  Mayer. 


Ilie  number  of  foreigners,  other  than  English,  who 
took  up  their  abode  in  the  English  settlement  at  Shanghai 
made  it  soon  necessary  to  adopt  some  more  catholic  form 
of  government  than  that  supplied  by  an  English  consul 
who  had  control  only  over  British  subjects,  and  by  com- 
mon agreement  a  committee  of  residents,  consisting  of  a 
chairman  and  six  members,  was  elected  by  the  renters 
of  land  for  the  purposes  of  general  municipal  administra- 
tion. It  was  expected  when  the  council  was  formed  that 
the  three  settlements — the  British,  French,  and  Americans 
■ — would  have  Iseen  incorporated  into  one  municipality, 
but  international  jealousy  prevented  the  fulfilment  of  the 
scheme,  and  it  was  not  until  1863  that  the  Americans 
threw  in  their  lot  with  the  British.  In  1853  the  pro- 
sperity of  the  settlements  received  a  severe  check  in  con- 
sequence of  the  capture  of  the  native  city  by  a  band  of 
insurgents,  who  held  possession  of  the  walls  from  September 
in  that  year  to  February  1855.  This  incident,  though  in 
many  ways  disastrous,  was  the  exciting  cause  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  foreign  customs  service,  which  has  proved 
of  such  inestimable  advantage  to  the  Chinese  Government. 
The  confusion  into  which  the  customs  system  was  thrown 
by  the  occupation  of  the  city  by  the  rebels  induced  the 
Chinese  authorities  to  request  the  consuls  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  the  United  States  to  nominate  three 
officers  to  superintend  the  collection  of  the  revenue.  This 
arrangement  was  found  to  work  so  well  that  on  the  re- 
occupation  of  the  city  the  native  authorities  proposed  that 
it  should  be  made  permanent,  and  Mr  H.  N.  Lay,  of  H.M.'s 
consular  service,  was  in  consequence  appointed  inspector 
of  the  Shanghai  customs.  The  results  of  Mr  Lay's  ad- 
ministration proved  so  successful  that  when  arranging  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  1858  the  Chinese  willingly  a.ssented 
to  the  application  of  the  same  system  to  all  the  treaty  ports, 
and  Mr  Lay  was  thereupon  appointed  inspector-general  of 
maritime  customs.  On  the  retirement  of  Mr  Lay  in  1862 
Sir  Robert  Hart  was  appointed  to  the  post,  which  he  still 
n886)  occupies. 

During  the  period  from  1S56  to  1864  the  tmde  of  Shanghai 
increased  by  leaps  and  by  bounds,  and  its  prosperity  culminated 
between  1860  and  1S64,  wlion,  in  .addition  to  the  ordinary  commerce, 
the  influx  of  Chinoso  into  tlie  foreign  settlement  in  consequence  of 
tlie  advance  eastward  of  the  T'ai-p'ing  rebels  added  enormously  to 
the  value  of  land  and  to  the  profits  of  the  leaseholders.  Both  in 
1860  and  .again  in  1861  the  rebels  advanced  to  the  walls  of  Shanghai, 
and  on  both  oceasione  were  driven  back  in  confusion  by  the  British 
troops  and  volunteers,  aided  by  the  naval  forces  of  England  and 
France.  It  was  in  connexion  with  this  resistance  to  the  rebels  at 
Shanghai  that  General  Gordon  assumed  the  command  of  the  Chinese 
force,  which  under  his  dhection  gave  a  meaning  and  reality  to  the 
hitherto  somewhat  boastful  title  of  "ever-victorious  army  '  it  had 
assumed  under  the  generalship  of  the  two  American  adventurers 
Ward  and  Burgevine.  To  Shanghai  the  successful  operations  of 
Gordon  against  the  rebels  brought  temporarily  disastrous  conse- 
quences. AVith  the  disappearance  of  the  T'ai-p'ings  the  refugees 
who  had  so\ight  safety  in  the  foreign  settlements  returned  to  their 
homes,  leaving  whole  streets  and  quarters  deserted  and  empty.  The 
loss  thus  inflicted  on  the  niunicipality  was  very  considerable,  and 
was  intensified  by  a  commercial  crisis  in  the  markets  of  cotton  and 
tea,  in  both  of  which  articles  there  had  been  a  great  deal  of  o^er- 
speculation.  But,  though  the  abnormal  jirospcrity  produced  by 
extraordinary  circumstances  was  thus  suddenly  brought  to  i\n  end, 
the  genuine  trade  of  the  port  has  steadily  advanced,  subject  of 
course  to  occasional  fluctuations.  For  example,  between  the  years 
1878  and  1881  the  gross  value  of  the  trade  increased  from  110,956,274 
tacls  to  141,291,357  tael.s.  In  1883,  however,  this  amount  fell  to 
110,433,531  taels,  while  in  1884  it  rose  again  to  113,215,520  tacls, 
although  at  this  time,  as  will  be  remembered,  hostilities  w:re  being 
carried  on  between  France  and  China.  In  the  same  yt'T  53,562 
bales  of  silk  were  exported,  as  against  47,807  bales  in  1883,  and 
27,084,675  lb  of  green  tea,  as  against  25,336,041  lb  in  1883. 
In  black  tea  there  was  a  falling  off.  the  respective  figures  being 
43,813,058  and  48,251,637  lb.  'The  total  burthen  of  foreign  steamers 
which  entered  and  cleared  at  Shanghai  during  1884  was  3,145,242 
tons.  Of  this  amount  2,238,433  tons  were  British,  600,222  were 
.American,  188,484  were  Japanese,  93,226  were  German,  88,983 
were  Frcncli,  24,572  were  Kussian,  and  11,322  were  Danish. 

According  to  the   latest  estimate  the  native  population  of  ihs 


8  Jri  A  —  b   ri  A 


773 


city  and  Euburbs  of  Shanghai  amounts  to  156,000.  'When  to  this 
number  the  boat  population;  amounting  to  11,000,  and  tlio  mixed 
inhabitants  of  tlie  foreign  settlements,  numbering  145,600,  are 
added,  a  total  is  reached  of  312,500  souls. 

The  vastncss  of  English  intefests  in  China  and  the  largo  British 
population  at  .Shanghai  gave  rise  in  1865  to  tho  establishment  of  a 
British  supreme  court  for  China  and  Japan, — Sir  Edmund  Hornby, 
who  was  then  the  judge  of  the  British  court  at  Constantinople,  being 
tho  first  judge  appointed  to  the  new  oflice.  The  court  thus  consti- 
tuted not  only  exercises  jurisdiction  over  tho  British  subjects  at 
Shanghai  but  acts  as  a  court  of  appeal  from  all  British  consular 
courts  in  China  and  Japan.  All  charges  against  Chinamen  within 
the  settlement  are  tried  before  a  nii.xcd  court,  which  sits  daily, 
presided  over  by  a  Chinese  official  and  an  officer  of  the  consular 
service.  During  the  year  1SS4  2,304  criminal  cases  were  tried 
before  this  tribunal,  and  99  civil  cases,— in  85  of  which  cases  no 
less  a  sura  than  £60,000  was  involved. 

A  handsome  bund  runs  along  the  river  frontage  of  the  three 
foreign  settlements,  and  the  public  buildings,  especially  in  the 
British  settlement,  are  large  and  fine.  The  cathedral,  which  is 
built  in  the  Gothic  style,  is  a  notable  example  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott's 
skill  as  an  architect,  and  tho  municipal  offices,  club-house,  and 
hospitals  are  all  admirable  in  their  way.  Shanghai  is  now  con- 
nected with  Peking  by  a  telegraph,  which  will  doubtless  before 
long  be  supplemented  by  a  railway.  Some  years  ago  a  short 
railway  was  laid  down  between  Shanghai  and  Woosung  by  some 
foreigners  who  wished  to  force  tho  pace  at  which  China  was  pro- 
gr^'ssing.  But  the  time  had  not  come  when  such  a  step  would 
be  .adopted  by  tho  Chinese,  and  after  a  few  weeks'  existence  the 
plant  was  bought  by  the  native  authorities  and  shipped  to  Formosa, 
where  it  has  since  been  allowed  to  rust  and  rot.  The  climate  of 
Shanghai  is  essentially  unhealthy.  It  lies  low,  and,  though  the 
early  winter  is  enjoyable,  snow  and  ice  being  occasionally  seen, 
the  summer  months  are  swcltcringly  hot.  Fever,  dysentery,  and 
cholera  are  unfortunately  common  complaints,  and  it  is  only  by 
frequent  trips  to  Japan  and  Chefoo  that  tho  residents  are  able  to 
preserve  health  and  strength.  But,  notwithstanding  every  dis- 
advantage, the  position  occupied  by  Shanghai  as  a  centre  of  tr.ade, 
situated  as  it  is  at  tho  mouth  of  the  Yang-lsze-kiang,  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  richest  silk  and  tea  districts,  and 
in  proximity  to  Japan  and  the  newly-opened  ports  of  Corca, 
insures  for  it  an  increasing  volume  of  commerce  and  a  widening 
prosperity  in  tho  future.  (R.  K.  D.) 

SHANNON.    See  Ireland,  vol.  xiii.  p.  216. 

SHANS.  This  name  is  applied  to  a  number  of  for 
the  most  part  semi-independent  communities  occupying  a 
"egion  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Burmah  and  Assam,  N.  and 
N.E.  by  the  Chinese  province  ot  Yun-nan,  E.  by  Tong- 
king,  and  S.  by  Siam  (see  Plate  IX.).  Ethnologically 
tlie  race  has  a  much  wider  extension,  including  the 
Siamese  (see  Siam),  and  also,  according  to  Gamier  and 
Colquhoun,  the  hill  tribes  around  the  Tong-king  delta 
and  various  tfibes  of  Kwang-tung  and  K\vang-se,  and 
extending  across  tho  north  of  Burmah  into  Assam.  It 
is  also  widely  diffused  through  south-western  Yun-nan. 
Terrien  de  Lacouperie  considers  it  allied  to  the  Mon,  the 
Mung,  and  tho  Pa,  and  places  its  early  home  iu  the 
mountains  north  of  Sze-chuen,  whence,  not  having  amal- 
gamated with  the  growing  Chinese  empire,  it  was  gradually 
forced  southwards.  Although  tho  level  of  civilization  and 
tho  purity  of  their  Buddhism  vary  considerably  among  the 
different  branches  of  the  race,  there  is  everywhere  a 
remarkable  resemblance  in  appearance,  manners,  customs, 
and  polity.  The  traditions  current  of  their  origin,  too, 
though  localized  by  each  in  its  own  habitat,  are  closely 
similar.  This  great  homogeneity  seems  the  more  remark- 
able in  that  the  race  is  found  not  only  living  under  many 
different  political  systems, — i.e.,  cither  independent,  or 
subject  to  Burmah,  China,  or  Siam, — but  often  in  com- 
munities isolated  by  mountain  ranges,  inhabited  by  ti;ibes 
ot  different  race  and  character.  All  this  seems  to  point  to 
a  political  unity  in  earlier  times. 

Tho  Shans  probably  appeared  on  tho  upper  Irawadi 
nearly  two  thousand  years  ago,  but  Burmese  and  Shan 
traditions  agree  that  they  were  established  some  centuries 
earlier  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Shwcli  and  on  the 
Salwln  and  adjacent  valleys  on  the  south-west  frontiers 
of  Yun-nan.     Here,  at  all  events,  in  the  7th  and  8th  cen- 


turies, we  hear  of  the  growth  of  that  po'wer  .which, 
temporarily  broken  by  Burmah  in  the  11th  century, 
reached  its  highest  development  in  the  13th.  This  Shan 
empire,  known  by  the  classical  Indian  name  of  Kausambi,, 
— corrupted  after  tho  punning  Chinese  fashion  into  Ko- 
shan-pyi,  i.e.,  nine  Shan  states, — was  a  confederacy  o!' 
about  ten  states,  known  among  themselves  by  the  name 
of  the  most  powerful  member,  Man,  or  Muang  Man.  A. 
great  leader,  Sam  Lung  Pha,  brother  of  the  king  of  Mau, 
overran  and  conquered  Upper  Assam  from  the  Satiyas  in 
1229,  the  dynasty  lasting  until  the  British  annexation 
These  Ahoms  still  inhabit  the  Assam  districts  of  Sihsagar 
and  south  and  east  Lakhimpur,  though  pressed  on  from 
the  south-west  by  tho  Bengalis,  whom  they  despise  as  a 
black  and  inferior  race,  preferring  to  associate  with  the 
Chinese,  whom  they  regard  as  congeners,  and  as  the 
greatest  race  in  the  world. 

This  13th  and  the  following  century  also  sav/  Tall  to 
the  east  and  Arakan  to  the  west  invaded,  Burmah  being 
then  weakened  by  the  Mongol  invasion ;  Chieng  Mai  and 
other  southern  Shan  states  were  also  annexed,  and 
"  Ayuthia"  (i.e.,  Siam),  Cambodia,  and  Tavoy  arc  claimed 
by  the  Shan  historians  as  among  their  conquests,  the 
Shan  influence  being  felt  even  in  Java.  From  the  14th  to 
tho  ICth  century  wars  with  both  Burmah  and  China  were 
frequent,  and  Shan  dynasties  ruled  at  times  iu  Burmah ; 
but  in  IS.'jG-Ci  the  Burmese  conquered  Mogaung,  the 
chief  province  of  Mau,  when  Buddhism  is  recorded  to 
have  been  introduced  :  probably  only  a  reform  of  religion 
is  meant.  In  1604  the  districts  now  known  as  the  Chinese 
Shan  States,  i.e.,  the  heart  of  the  Mau  empire,  lying 
chiefly  in  the  Ta-peng  basin,  east  of  Bamo, — a  town  whose 
population  also  is  mainly  Shan, — were  finally  conquered 
by  China,  Mogaung  remaining  independent  on  sufferance 
till  absorijed  by  Burmah  in  179G. 

Zimmi5  or  Chieng  Mai  (including  Kiang  Hai,  Kiang  Sen, 
Lagong,  and  Lapong),  whose  capital  is  now  an  important 
and  well-built  tov^Ti,  and  Vien  Chang  on  the  east  of  tho 
Me-kong,  were  both  great  Shan  centres,  warring,  with 
various  fortunes,  with  Burmah  and  Cambodia  and  with 
each  other,  till  subjected  by  the  growing  power  of  Siam 
late  in  the  last  century. 

The  Burmese  Shan  States,  especially  those  more  remote 
from  Mandalay,  have  latterly  become  practically  inde- 
pendent; and,  tho  tyranny  which  led  to  extensive  south- 
ward migration  having  thus  ceased,  the  stream  is  partly 
returning  northwards.  Descendants,  too,  of  the  popula- 
tion deported  by  Siam  from  Kiang  Sen  about  a  hundred 
years  ago  aro  now  by  the  king's  permission  returning  to 
people  that  fertile  territory.  Tho  Burmese  p'.an  with  the 
Shans  was  to  govern  by  fostering  internal  dissensions,  and 
they  are  bitterly  hated,  while  the  Chinese  arc  in  an  equal 
degree  liked  and  respected.  Tho  great  Sban  state  of 
Kiang  Hung  has  now  accepted  tho  dictation  of  China,  to 
whom  in  fact,  like  some  of  its  lesser  neighbours,  it  ha.s 
always  paid  certain  taxes,  while  acknowledging  the  supre- 
macy of  Burmah.  Kiang  Tung  to  the  south,  which  has 
boon  Burmese  for  over  a  century,  has  latc'y  made  over- 
tures to  Siam,  though  not  forgetting  tho  injuries  inflicted 
by  that  power  iu  1854.  The  numerous  ruins  of  great 
icitics  over  the  whole  region  from  Chieng  Mai  to  Kiang  Tung 
testify  to  former  wealth  and  prosperity,  though  they  may 
not  have  all  existed  contemporaneously.  In  Luang  Pra- 
bang  in  the  north-east,  on  the  other  hand,  tribes  of  a  partly 
Chinese  race  are  pressing  southwards.  I~^  is  remarkable 
how  many  of  tho  conquering  irruptions  of  south-east  Asia 
wore  due  mainly  to  the  eviction  of  such  conquerors  by 
some  stronger  power.  Incessant  wars  ajd  vast  deporta- 
tions havo  tended  to  ftssiinilatc  the  various  populations  of- 
nll  this  region. 


774 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


Each  Shan  state  is  governed  by  a  tsolwa  {chao  p'hya),  or  supreme 
chief,  aided  by  a  council,  and  often  by  a  coadjutor.  Where  the 
Shans  are  in.  immediate  contact  with  one  of  their  groat  neighbours 
their  habits  and  customs  are  necessarily  modified ;  otherwise, 
spe-iliing  generally,  civilization  increases  southwards.  Religion 
is  nominally  Buddhist,  and  the  priests,  though  their  lives  are 
usuiUy  far  from  correct,  have  great  influence  ;  temples,  caves,  and 
other  localities  sacred  to  Buddha  are  thronged  with  worshippers 
liberal  with  their  offerings  ;  but  the  practical  exercise  of  religtoa 
consists  chiefly  in  elTorta  to  propitiate  or  avert  the  evil  influence 
c:  the  nids  or  p'hccs,  demons  and  spirits  everywhere  present,  to 
whom  all  accidenta  and  illnesses  are  attributed.  Along  with  the 
Buddha,  various  images,  among  which  the  horse  is  not  uncommon, 
are  adored  (though  there  are  temples  in  which  these  are  not  found) ; 
and  fetiches — natural  objects  of  special  form,  e.g.,  of  some  part  of 
the  body — are  kept  in  the  house  to  avert  disease.  Medical  treat- 
ment consists  largely  in  magical  practices,  and  individuals  de- 
nounced by  the  sick  as  the  cause  of  their  illness  frequently  have 
their  Aonses  burned  and  are  themselves  deported  to  a  distance. 
Thus,  too,  ordeals  have  a  prominent  place  in  legal  practice.  The 
Shanshave  no  Buddhist  prejudices  against  killing  poultry  or  cattle 
for  food,  but  like  other  Indo-Clnnese  and  the  Malays  do  not  use  milk. 
Slavery  is  general ;  the  supply  is  recruited  partly  by  raids  on 
neighbouring  hill  tribes  ;  the  Indo-Chinese  practice  of  slavery  for 
debt  also  prevails.  The  slaves  are  not  ilJ-treated,  and  are  chiefly 
employed  in  field  labour  by  the  chaos,  who  own  great  numbers. 
In  appearance  the  North  Shans  are  sallow,  but  hardly  darker  than 
South  Europeans,  and  are  characterized  by  a  short  broad  fiat  face, 
more  elojigated  and  nearer  the  Tartar  type  in  the  upper  classes  j 
they  have  red  cheeks,  brown  eyes  hardly  oblique,  black  hair, 
nose  almost  aquiline,  and  are  of  medium  height.  The  Chinese 
Shans  are  much  smaller,  with  squat  figures,  prominent  cheek-bones, 
and  oblique  eyes. 

The  practice  of  tattooing  prevails  in  some  districts,  down  to  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Me-nam,  and  it  occurs  also  among  the  Laos  in 
the  south-east,  the  tattooed  being  known  as  the  black-bellied,  the 
Don-tattooed  as  the  white-bellied.  The  Shans  are  all  hardier  and 
more  manly  than  their  congeners  the  Siamese,  and  they  are  also 
more  sedate  and  more  self-possessed  than  the  Burmese.  Most 
travellers  apeak  of  them  as  brave,  friendly,  social,  and  hospitable, 
but  a  good  deal  of  the  oppression  and  cruelty  natural  to  a  semi- 
barbarous  condition  prevails.  They  are  cleanly  and  fond  of 
bathing,  the  towns  and  villages  being  supplied  with  bamboo 
aqueducts.  Drunkenness,  except  at  festivals,  is  rare.  Gambling 
is  common,  whole  families  being  sold  into  slavery  to  pay  debts 
thus  contracted.  Public  gaming  and  the  sale  of  spirits  and 
opium  are  monopolies.  They  show  much  artistic  taste  in  tho 
beautiful  colours  of  their  textile  fabrics,  the  needlework  and 
embroidery  of  the  women,  and  the  designing  and  execution  of  the 
silver  ornaments  which  are  worn  in  profusion.  They  show  great 
aptitude  for  trade,  and  are  said  by  Mr  Holt  Hallett  to  welcome 
the  prospect  of  the  railway  intended  to  connect  their  country  with 
Maulmein,  crossing  thence  to  Raheng  or  some  neighboui'ing  point 
on  the  Me-nam,  and  on  through  the  fertile  valleys  and  plateaus  on 
its  upper  tributaries  to  the  Chinese  frontier. 

Tea  is  found,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  from  Zimm6  to  Kiang 
Tung.  Opium  is  exported  to  Mandalay  and  to  China.  Indian 
-corn,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are  grown  in  the  low  grounds,  and 
excellent  cotton  and  indigo  (which  aho  grows  wild  in  the  hills), 
''^eak  has  long  been  Worked  by  Anglo-Burmese  in  the  eastera 
affluents  of  the  Toong-yen  and  neighbouring  valleys,  and  has 
become  comparatively  scared  west  of  the  Me-ping  ;  hut  it  grows 
freely  in  the  hills  and  valleys  around  Kiang  Sen  and  Lagong,  and 
in  the  hiU  region  of  eastern  Siam,  where,  however,  it  is  of  inferior 
quality.  Silk  is  produced,  and  iron,  copper,  and  silver-lead 
'galena)  ores  are  worked. 

The  Shan  languages  are  classified  by  Dr  Gushing  as  follows  : — 
Ahom  (Assam),  extinct ;  Khamti,  on  the  upper  Irawadi  and  other 
valleys  on  the  extreme  north  of  Burraah  ;  the  Chinese  (Mau)  Shans, 
east  from  Bamo  ;  Shans  proper,  between  the  mountains  which 
bound  the  Burmese  plains  in  the  east  and  the  Me-kong,  and  between 
23°  and  19°  N.  lat. ;  Laos  to  the  south  of  this,  from  19°  north  to  the 
frontiers  of  Siam  ;  and  lastly,  Siamese.  The  last  two,  as  spoken, 
differ  but  little,  and  the  three  others  may  be  grouped  together. 
All  have  separate  alphabets  (related,  however,  in  form),  except  the 
Siamese  ;  and,  the  spelling  being  phonetic,  the  orthography  is 
tolerably  fixed.  But  it  is  a  tonal  language,  and  the  vowel  signs 
are  few,  so  that  some  have  two  or  threa  values  assigned  them." 
There  are  a  good  many  Pali  words  due  to  Buddhism,  many  Bur- 
mese words  in  the  districts  under  Burmese  influence,  and  a  large 
foreign  element  in  the  Chinese  Shan  state  of  Ho-tha,  where  the 
race  is  perhaps  not  fundamentally  Shan. 

See  Ney  Ellas,  Introductory  Sketch  of  the  ffistory  of  the  Bhant  in  Upper 
Burmahand  IFeg(  Fun-nan,  Calcutta,  1S7C  ;  Yule,  Olossary  of  Anglo-Indian  Wordt 
aaJPhraiei  (18.^6),  and  l/arralive  of  the  Miiuon  to  Ava  (1S:>S)  ;  Anierson.  from 
Uandalay  to  Momten ;  Colqahoun,  Among  the  Shans  ;  Cuflhing,  Shan  Dictionaru 
rintrodactioD);  Bock.  Templet  and  Elephantt;  Sir  A.  Pbayre,  Bialory  of 
avrmah.  (C  T  ) 


SHAEK.  The  Bystematic  position  of  the  group  of 
Sharks  or  Selachoidei  in  the  class  of  Fishes,  their  classifica- 
tion, and  their  general  external  and  anatomical  character- 
istics have  been  already  sufficiently  noticed  under  Ichthy- 
oLooy  (vol.  xi'..  pp.  630  sq.),  and  we  have  here  to  supplement 
that  article  only  by  a  fuller  reference  to  the  natural  history 
of  the  more  common  and  more  important  types  of  the 
group. 

Sharks  are  almost  exclusively  inhabitants  of  the  eea, 
but  some  species  freely  enter  the  mouths  of  large  rivers, 
and  one  species  {Carcharias  gangetkus)  occurs  frequently 
high  lyo  in  the  large  rivers  of  India,  and  in  the  Tigris 
about  Baghdad,  at  a  distance  of  350  miles  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  in  a  straight  line,  and  has  even  been  reported  from 
a  lake  in  Viti  Levu  (Fiji  Islands)  which  is  shut  off  from 
the  sea  by  a  cataract.  Sharks  are  found  in  all  seas  ;  most 
numerous  between  the  tropics,  they  become  scarcer  beyond, 
a  few  only  reaching  the  Arctic  circle  ;  it  is  not  known  how 
far  they  advance  southwards  in  the  Antarctic  region.  Alto- 
gether some  hundred  and  fifty  different  species  have  been 
described. 

With  regard  to  their  habits  many  are  littoral  species, 
the  majority  pelagic,  and  a  few  are  known  to  belong  to 
the  bathybial  fauna,  having  hitherto  been  obtained  down 
to  a  depth  of  500  fathoms. 

Littoral  Sharks. — The  littoral  forms  are  of  smaU  size, 
and  generally  known  under  the  name  '^f  "  dog-fishes," 
"hounds,"  &c.  Some  pelagic  sharks  of  larger  Size  also 
live  near  the  shore  on  certain  parts  of  a  coast,  but  they 
are  attracted  to  it  by  the  abundance  of  food,  and  are  as 
frequently  found  in  the  open  sea,  which  is  their  birth- 
place ;  therefore  we  shall  refer  to  them  when  we  speak  of 
the  pelagic  kinds. 

The  majority  of  the  littoral  species  Uve  on  the  bottom, 
sometimes  close  inshore,  and  feed  on  small  marine  animals 
or  on  any  animal  substance.  The  following  are  deserving 
of  special  notice. 

The  Tope  (Galeus)  is  common  on  the  coasts  not  only  of 
England,  Ireland,  and  of  the  more  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  but  also  of  South  Africa,  California,  Tasmania, 
and  New  Zealand.   ■  Its  teeth  are  equal  in  both  o 

jaws,  of  rather  small  size,  flat,  triangular,  with 
the  point  directed  towards  the  one  side,  and 
with  a  notch  and  denticulations  on  the  shorter 
side  (fig.  1).  It  is  of  a  uniform  slaty-grey 
colour,  and  attains  to  a  length  of  6  feet.  The 
female  brings  forth  some  thirty  living  young  at 
one  birth  in  May.  It  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
very  destructive  fish,  but  becomes  troublesome  ^'°j 
at  times  to  fishermen  by  taking  their  bait  and  uppci'i.iow^ 
driving  away  other  fish  they  desire  to  catch.         "•  *^   •' 

The  Hounds  proper  (Mustelus)  possess  a  very  different 
dentition,  the  teeth  being  small,  obtuse,  numerous,  arranged 
in  several  row^  like  pavement  (fig.  2).  Five  or  six  species 
are  known  from  the  shores  of  the 
various  temperate  and  subtropical 
seas,  one  (M.  vulgaris)  being  common 
on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  on  the  Pacific  as  well  as 
the  Atlantic  side.  It  is  of  a  uniform 
grey  colour,  or  sparingly  spotted  with  ^'°-  ^-''""'  "'  *""""■ 
white,  and  attains  to  a  length  of  3  or  4  feet.  The  young, 
about  twelve  in  number,  are  brought  forth  alive  in  Nov- 
ember. It  is  a  comparatively  harmless  fish,  which  feeds 
on  shells,  crustaceans,  and  decomposing  animal  substances. 

Of  the  Dog-Fishes  proper  (Scyllium,  Chiloscyllium,  ic.) 
some  twenty  species  are  known,  which  are  spread  over  nearly 
aj]  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas.  Their  teeth  are  small, 
in  several  series,  with  a  longer  pointed  cusp  in  th4  middle, 
and  generally  one  or  two  smaller  ones  on  each  side  (("Sfs. 


SHARK 


775 


■3  and  5)."   They  are  all  oviparous,  their  oblong  egg-shells 

being  produced  at  each  corner  into  a  long  thread  by  which  the 

egg  is  fastened  to  some  fixed  object.     Some  of  the  tropical 

species  are  ornamented  witli 

a  pretty  pattern  of  coloration. 

The  two  British  species,  the  "W^^i^^^^^^^i 

Lesser  and  theLargerSpotted 

Dog-Fish  {Sc.   canicula  and 

.SV.   calulus),  belong   to   tho 

most  common   fishes  of  the  V*P    Tt)    -a 

coast,    and   are    often    con-  \f      IT     ' 

founded    with    each    other. 

-r>^,i      r  •    n      1      ijii      Fio.  3. — TePth  of  Scvltium  canicula. 

But  the  former  js  finely  dotted 

with  brown  above,  the  latter  having  the  same  parts  covered 

with  larger  rounded  brown  spots,  some  of  which  are  neaily 


Fio.  i.—ChtloietjUium  i'^npecutarc. 

as  largo  as  the  eye.     As  regards  size,  tho  latter   exceeds 
somewhat  the  other  species,  attaining  to  a  length  of  4  feet. 
Dogfishes    may    become 
extremely      troublesome  iC^J> 
by  the  largo  numbers  in      v 
which  they  congregate  al 
fishing  stations  ;   nor  do 
they  compensate  for  the 
injury     they     cause     to 
fishermen,      being      but 
rarely  used  as  food,  ex- 
cept  at   certain    seasons 
by    tho     poorer    classes 
of     the      Mediterranean 
countries,  in   China  and 
Japan,  and  in  the  Ork- 
neys, where  they  are  dried  ^^o-  5.— Conflacnt  Naaal  and  Buccal  Cavities 
f  ,  ^ .  of  the  same  fleh. 

for    home    consumption. 

The  Black-mouthed  Dog-Fish  (Pristittnis  melanostomus)  is 
another  European  species  which  is  rarely  caught  on  the 
British  coasts,  and  is  recognized  by  a  series  of  small,  fiat 
-spines  with  which  each  side  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  caudal 
fin  is  armed. 

The  Tiger-Shark  {Sterjostoma  tir/rinum)  is  one  of  the 
commonest  and  hundsomest  sharks  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
The  groundcolour  is  a  brownish-yellow,  and  the  whole  fish 
is  ornamented  with  black  or  brown  transverse  bands  or 
rounded  spots.  It  is  a  littoral  species,  but  adult  specimens, 
which  are  from  10  to  l!)  feet  long,  are  not  rarely  met  far 
from  land.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its  enormously  long 
bladelike  tail,  which  is  half  as  long  as  the  whole  fish.  The 
teeth  are  small,  trilobed,  in  many  series.  The  fourth  and 
fifth  gill-openings  are  close  together. 

Tlio  genus  Crosswliinun,  of  which  throo  species  are  known 
from  tho  coasts  of  Australia  and  Japan,  is  remarkable  as 
the  only  instance  in  this  group  of  fishes  in  which  the  in- 
teguments give  these  inactive  ground-sharks,  whilst  they  lie 
concealed  watching  for  their  prey,  what  may  be  called  a 
"  celativo  "  rather  than  a  "  protective"  resemblance  to  their 
surroundings.  Skinny  frond-like  appendages  are  developed 
near  the  angle  of  tho  mouth,  or  form  a  wreath  round  tho 
side  of  tho  head,  and  tho  irregular  and  varied  coloration  of 
the  whole  body  closely  assimilates  that  of  a  rock  covered 
with  short  vegetable  and  coralline  growth.  This  peculiar 
development  reminds  ns  of  tho  similar  condition  in  tho  sea- 
devil  {Lojihitu),  where  it  serves  also  to  conceal  the  fish  from 
its  prey,  rather  than  to  protect  it  from  its  enemies.  The 
apecics  of  Crouarhinut  sjrow  to  a  length  of  10  feet. 


The  so-called  Port  Jaekson  Shark  {Cesiracion)  is  likewise 
a  littoral  form.     Besides  the  common  species  (C.  phUippi), 


Fig.  6. — CcUracion  galmius. 

three  other  closely  allied  kinds  from  the  Indo-Pacific  arc 
known.  This  genus,  which  is  the  only  existing  typo  of  a 
separate  family,  is  one  of  special  interest,  as  similar  forms 
occur  in  Primary  and  Secondary  strata.  The  jaws  are 
armed  with  small  obtuse  teeth  in  front,  which  in  young 
individuals  are  pointed,  and  provided  with  from  three  to 
five  cusps.  Tho  lateral  teeth  are  larger,  pad  like,  twice  as 
broad  as  long  and  arranged  in  oblique  series  (fig.  7), — an 


Fio.  7.— Upper  Jaw  of  Port  Jackeon  Shark  {Ceitracion  philippi).    (x  i-) 

arrangement  admirably  adapted  for  tho  prehension  and 
mastication  of  crustaceans  and  hard-shelled  animals.  The 
fossil  forms  far  exceeded  in  size  the  living,  which  scarcely 
attain  to  a  length  of  5  feet'.  The  shells  of  their  eggs  are 
not  rare  in  collections,  being  found  thrown  ashore  like  those 
of  our  dog-fishes.  The  shell  is  pyriform,  with  two  broad 
lamellar  ridges  each  wound  edgewise  five  times  round  it 
(fig.  8). 

The  Spiny  or  Piked  Dog-Fish  (Acant/iias)  inhabits,  like 
the  majority  of  littoral  genera  of  sharks,  the  temperate 
seas  of  both  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  For 
some  part  of  the  year  it  lives  in  deeper  water  than  the 
sharks  already  noticed,  but  at  uncertain  irregular  times  it 
appears  at  the  surface  and  clo.se  inshore  in  almost  incredible 
numbers.  Couch  says  that  ho  has  heard  of  20,000  having 
been  taken  in  a  scan  at  one  time  ;  and  in  March  1858  tho 
newspapers  reported  a  prodigious  shoal  reaching  westward 
to  Uig,  whence  it  extended  from  20  to  30  miles  seaward, 
and  in  an  unbroken  phalanx  eastward  to  Moray,  Banff,  and 
Aberdeen.  In  the  deep  fjords  of  Norway,  and  indeed 
at  every  station  of  which  a  shoal  of  these  fishes  has  taken 
temporary  po.ssession,  line-fishing  has  to  bo  suspended 
daring  tho  time  of  their  visit,  as  they  cut  tho  lines  with 
their  scLssors-like ,  t^eth.     ^Vs  expressed  by  tho  name,  these 


776 


SHARK 


fishes   ace  distinguished   from   the  other   British  littoral 
sharks  by  each  of  the  two  dorsal  fins  being  armed  in  front 


Flc.  8. — Egg-shcU  of  same  fish  (x  i).    I.,  cxtcinal  view;  II.,  section  ;  a  and  b, 
the  two  spiral  ridges ;  c,  cavity  for  the  ovum. 

by  an  acute    spine.     They  do  not    possess  an   anal   fin. 

Their  teeth  are  rather  small,  placed  in  a  single  series,  with 

;hc  point  so  much  turned  aside  that  the  inner  margin  of 

the  tooth  forms  the  cutting  edge  (fig.  9).     The  spiny  dog- 

3sh  are  of  a  greyish  colour,  with  some 

whitish  spots  in  young  specimens,  and 

ittain  to  a  length  of  2  or  3  feet.    They 

ire  viviparous,   the  young  being  pro- 

luced  throughout  the  summer  months. 

ft  is  stated  that  in  the  northern  islands 

jf   Great   Britain  they  are  dried   for 

food,  and  that  their  livers  yield  a  large 

quantity  of  oil.  f,o.  3,_Tcah  ,a  Acm- 

Finally,  we  have  to  notice  among  ""■'-'  '"'i""""- 
the  littoral  sharks  the  "Angel-Fish"  or  "Monk-Fish" 
[Rhina  squatina),  which,  by  its  broad  flat  head  and  ex- 
panded pectoral  fins  approaches  in  general  appearance  the 
rays.  It  occurs  in  the  temperate  seas  of  the  southern  as 
well  as  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  is  not  uncommon  on 
sandy  parts  of  the  coast  of  England  and  Ireland.  It  does 
not  seem  to  exceed  a  length  of  5  feet,  is  not  used  as  food, 
and  is  too  rare  to  do  any  perceptible  injury  to  other  fish. 
It  is  said  to  produce  about  twenty  young  at  a  birth. 

Pelagic  Sharks. — All  these  are  of  large  size,  and  some 
ire  surpassed  in  bulk  and^  length  only  by  the  larger  kinds 
Df  cetaceans.  Those  armed  with  powerful  cutting  teeth 
ire  the  most  formidable  tyrants  of  the  ocean  and  dangerous 
to  man,  whilst  others,  which  are  provided  with  numerous 
but  very  small  teeth,  feed  on  small  fishes  only  or  marine 
invertebrates,  and  are  otherwise  almost  harmless  and  of  a 
timid  disposition,  which  causes  them  to  retire  into  the 
solitudes  of  the  open  sea.  On  this  account  we  know  very 
Little  of  their  life ;  indeed,  some  are  known  from  a  few 
.ndividuals  only  which  have  accidentally  come  ashore.  All 
pelagic  sharks  have  a  wide  geographical  range,  and  many 
ire  found  in  all  seas  within  the  limits  of  the  equatorial 
zone, — some  being  almost  cosmopolitan.  All  seem  to  be 
viviparous. 

Of  the  more  remarkable  forms  which  we  propose  to 
ootice  here  the  genus  most  abundantly  represented  in 
species  and  individuals  is  Cairharias.  Perhaps  nine-tenths 
of  tha  sharks  of  Thich  we  read  in  books  of  travel  belonr 


to  this  genus.  Between  thirty  and  forty  species  have 
been  distinguished,  all  of  which  are  found  in  tropical  seas. 
They  are  the  sharks  which  so  readily  attach  themselves  to 
sailing  vessels,  following  them  for  weeks,  and  thus  exhibit- 
ing an  endurance  of  muscular  power  scarcely  found  in  any 
other  class  of  animals.  Others  affect  more  tho  neighbour- 
hood of  la;ad,  congregating  at  localities  where  nature  or  the 
vicinity  of  man  provides  them  with  an  abundant  supply  of 
food.  One  of  the  most  common  species,  and  one  of  those 
which  extend  far  into  the  temperate  zones,  is  the  Blue 
Shark  (Cdrcharias  glaiicns},  of  which  small  specimens  (i 
to  6  feet  long)  are  frequently  caught  on  the  south  eoasts 
of  England  and  Ireland.  Other  species  of  CarchaHas 
attain  a  length  of  25  feet.  The  mouth  of  all  is  armed 
with  a  series  of  large  flat  triangular  teeth,  which  have  3 
sharp,  smooth,  or  serrated  edge  (fig.  10). 


Fig.  10. — Dentition  of  the  Blue  Sharlv  {Cfircharias  gtaucus).     The  Single  tectft 
are  of  the  natural  size. 

Galeocerdo  is  likewise  a  large  shark  very  dangerous  to 
man,-  differing  from  the  preceding  chiefly  by  having  the 
outer  side  of  its  teeth  deeply  notched.  It  has  long  been 
known  to  occur  in  the  North  Atlantic,  close  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  {G.  arcticus),  but  its  existence  in  other  parts  has 
been  ascertained  within  a  recent  period ;  in  fact,  it  seems 
to  be  one  of  the  most  common  and  dangerous  sharks  of 
the  Indo-Pacific,  the  British  Museum  having  obtained 
specimens  from  Mauritius,  Kurrachee,  Madras,  and  the 
west  coast  of  Australia. 

Hammerheaded  Sharks  {Zygxna)  are  sharks  in  which 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  head  is  produced  into  a  lobe  on 
each  side,  the  extremity  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  eye. 
The  relation  of  this  unique  configuration  of  the  head  to  the 
economy  of  the  fish  is  unknown.  Otherwise  these  sharks 
resemble  Carcharias,  and  are  equally  formidable,  but  seem 
to  be  more  stationary  in  their  habits.  They  occur  in  all 
tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  even  in  the  Slediterranean, 
where  Z.  malleus  is  by  no  means  rare.  In  the  Indian 
Ocean  it  is  common,  and  Cantor  states  that  soecimens  of 
this  species  may  be  often  seen  ascending 
from  the  clear  blue  depths  of  the  ocean 
like  a  great  cloud. 

The  Porbeagles  (Lamna)  differ  from 
the  preceding  sharks  in  their  dentition 
(fig.  11),  the  teeth  being  large,  lancecv- 
late  in  shape,  not  adapted  for  cutting, 
but  rather  for  seizing  and  holding  the  prey,  which  consists 
chiefly  in  fish.     These  sharks  are  therefore  not  dangerous 


Fio.  11.— Teeth  of 
Lamna. 


S  H 

to  man ;  at  least,  theio  is  no  instance  known  of  a  person 
having  been  attacked  by  the  species  common  on  tlie  British 
coast  {L.  cornuhica).  It  grows  to  a  length  of  10  feet,  and 
ranges  to  New  Zealand  and  Japan.  See  vol.  six.  p.  518. 
To  the  genus  Carcharodon  particvdar  interest  is  attached, 
because  the  single  still  existing  species  is  the  most  form- 
idable of  all  Sharks,  as  were  those  which  preceded  it  in 
Tertiary  times.  The  existing  species  (C.  rondeldii)  oqcurs 
in  almost  all  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  but  seems  to  be 
y«rging  towards  exiiaction.  It  is  known  to  attain  to  a 
lecgth  of  40  feet  The  tooth  figured  here  of  the  natural 
size  (fig.  12)  is  taken  from  a  jaw  much  shrunk  in  drying, 
but  still  20  inches  wide 
in  ita  transverse  dia- 
meter, and  taken  from 
a  specimen  36i  feet 
long.  The  extinct  spe- 
cies must  have  been 
still  more  gigantic  in 
bulk,  as  we  may  j'odge 
from'  teeth  which  are 
found  in  the  crag  or 
which  have  been 
dredged '  up  from  the 
bottom  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  by  the  naturalists 
of  the  "Challenger" 
expedition,  and  which 
are  4  inches  wide  at  the 
base  and  5  inches  long 
measured    along    their 

lateral      marffin  In     ^^*^*  ^^* — ^o^'**  ^^  Carcharcdon  rondcUta. 

some  Tertiary  strata  these  teeth  are  extremely  abundant,  so 
much  so  that — for  instance,  in  Florida — the  strata  in  which 
they  occur  are  quarried  to  obtain  the  fossil  remains  for  ex- 
port to  England,  where  they  are  con 
verted  into  artificial  manure. 

The  Fox-Shark  or  Thxe&hei {Alopecias 
vidoes),  of  which  every  year  snecimeas 


A  R 


K 


777 


Fig.  13.— Basking  Bhark 


frequently  seen  during  the  summer  months,  generally  m 
companies,  at  a  distance  of  from  three  to  a  hundred  miles 
off  the  shore,  it  is  chased  by  the  more  courageous  of  the 
fishermen  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  which  is  extracted  from 
the  liver,  one  fish  yielding  from  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half. 
Ita  capture  is  not  unattended  with  danger,  as  one  blow 
from  the  enormously  strong  tail  is  sufficient  to  stave  in 
the  sides  of  a  largo  boat.  The  simple  method  used  at 
present  of  harpooning  the  fish  entails  much  patience  and 
loss  of  time  upon  the  captors,  as  the  fish  generally  sinks  to 
the  bottom  and  sulks  for  many  hours  before  it  rises  again 
in  a  more  or  less  exhausted  condition  ;  and  the  use  of  more 
modern  appliances  could  not  fail  of  securing  more  speedy 
and  better  success.  The  basking  shark  is  gregarious, 
and  many  individuals  may  be  seen  in  calm  weather  lying 


are  captured  on  the  British  coast,  but  which  is  common 
in  all  the  temperate  seas  of  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres,  is  readily  recognized  by  its  extremely  slender 
tail,  the  length  of  wiich  exceeds  that  of  the  remainder  of 
the  body.  Its  teeth  are  small,  flat,  triangular,  and  without 
serrature  (fig.  13  ;  the  single  tooth  is  of  the  natural  size). 
It  follows  the  shoals  of  herrings,  pilchards,  and  sprats  in 
their  migrations,  destroying  incredible  numbers  and  fre- 
quently injuring  the  nets  by  getting  entangled  in  them. 
When  feeding  it  uses  the  long  tail  in  splashing  the  surface 
of  the  water,  whilst  it  swims  in  gradually  decreasing 
circles  round  a  shoal  of  fishes  which  are  thu3_  kept  crov/ded 
together,  falling  an  easy  prey  to  their  enemy.  Sometimes 
two  threshers  may  be  seen  working  together.  Statements 
that  it  has  been  seen  to  attack  whales  and  other  large  ceta- 
ceans rest  upon  erroneous  observations ;  its  dentition  is 
much  too  weak  to  bite  -through  their  skin,  although,  as 
Couch  says,  by  one  splash  of  its  tail  on  the  water  it  may  put 
a  herd  of  dolphins  or  porpoises  to  flight  like  so  many  hares. 
The  same  effect  may  bo  produced  by  the  splash  of  an  oar. 
The  thresher  attains  to  a  length  of  15  feet,  the  tail  included. 
The  Basking  Shark  (Selache  majeima),  sometimes  erro- 
neously called  "  Sun-Fish,"  is  the  largest  fish  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  growing  to  a  length  of  more  than  30  feet.  It  is 
one  of  the  few  types  of  sharks  which  up  to  a  very  recent- 
time  were  considered'^o  be  peculiar  to  the  North-Atlantic 
fauna ;  but  Prof.  F.  M'Coy  has  just  recorded  ite  occur- 
rence on  the  Australian  coast,  a  specimen  30  feet  long 
having  b';en  captured  in  November  1883  at  Portland,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Victoria.  The  mouth  is  of  an  extra^ 
ordinary  width,  and,  like  the  gill-cavity,  capable  of  great 
expansion,  so  as  to  enable  the  fish  to  take  at  one  gulp  an 
enormous  quantity  of  the  small  fish,  and  other  marine 
creatures  on  which  it  subsists.  Also  the  gill-openings  are 
of  great  width.  The  teeth  are  very  small,  numerous, 
arranged  in  several  series,  conical,  and  probably  without 
use  in  feeding.  This  shark  is  therefore  quite  harmless  if 
not  attacked.     On  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  where  it  is 


'■^fiSir.,, 


togeilier  motionless,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  back  raised 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  a  habit  which  it  has  in 
common  with  the  true  sun-fish  (Orthagoriseiis)^  and  from 
which  it  has  derived  its  name. 

A  shark  similar  in  many  points  to  the  basking  shark 
(which  it  exceeds  in  size),  and  an  inhabitant  of  the  indo- 
Pacific  Ocean,  is  Rhinodon  iypicns.  In  fact,  so  far  as  our 
present  knowledge  goes,  it  is  the  largest  of  all  sharks,  as  it 
is  known  to  exceed  a  length  of  50  feet,  but  it  is  stated  to 
attain  that  of  70.  The  captures  of  only  a  few  specimens 
are  on  record,  viz.,  one  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  one  or 
two  near  the  Seychelles,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "chagrin," 
one  on  the  coast  of  California,  and  one  (quite  recently)  on 
the  coast  of  Peru.  The  snout  is  extremely  short,  broad, 
and  flat,  witli  the  mouth  and  nostrils  placed  at  its  extrem- 
ity ;  the  gill-openings  very  wide,  and  the  eye  very  Email. 
The  teeth  are,  as  in  the  basking  shark,  extremely  small 
and  numerous,  conical  in  shape.  No  opportunity  should 
be  lest  of  obtaining  exact  information  on  this  shark. 

The  Greenland  Shark  (Lxmargus  lorealis)  belongs  to  tho 

XXI.  —  qS 


778 


SHARK 


same  family  as  the  spiked  dog-fish,  but  grows  to  a  much 
arger  size,  specimens  15  feet  lopg  being  frequently  met 


Fio.  15.— Dentitiou  of  Greenland  Shark. 


Fio.  14. — Greenland  Sliark  {Lxmar^ui  borcatii). 

^ith.  The  two  dorsal  fins  are  small  and  destitute  of 
spines.  The  teeth  (fig.  11)  in  the  upper  jaw  are  small, 
narrow,  conical  in  shape  ;  those  of  the  lower  fiat,  arranged 
in  several  series,  one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  so  that  only 
the  uppermost  forms  the  sharp  dental  edge  of  the  jaw. 
The  points  of 
these  lower 
teeth  are  so 
much  turned 
aside  that  the 
inner  margin- 
(Jnlyeutersthe 
dental  edge. 
The  Green- 
land shark  is 
an  inhabitant 
of  the  Arctic 
regions,  some- 
times straying 
to  the  lati- 
tudes of  Great 
Britain  and  of 
Cape  Cod   in 

the  western  Atlantic  ;  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of 
the  whale,  which  is  often  found  with  large  pieces  bitten 
out  of  the  tail  by  this  shark.  Its  voracity  is  so  great  that, 
as  Scoresby  teUs  us,  it  is  absolutely  fearless  in  the  presence 
of  man  whilst  engaged  in  feeding  on  the  carcase  of  a 
whale,  and  that  it  will  allow  itself- to  be  stabbe*^  -with  a 
lance  or  knife  without  being  driven  away. 

The  Spinous  Shark  (Echinorhinus  spinosiis)  is  readily  re- 
cognized by  f-iie  short  bulky  form  of  its  body,  its  short  tail, 
and  the  largo  round  bony  tubercles  which  are  scattered  all 
over  its  body,  each  of  which  is  raised  in  the  middle  into  a 
pointed  conical  spine.  More  frequent  in  the  Mediterranean,- 
it  has  been  found  also  not  very  rarely  on  the  English  coasts 
and  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  always  living  on 
the  ground,  and  probably  descends  to  some  depth.  It  docs 
not  seem  to  exceed  a  length  of  10  feet. 

Bathyhial  Sharks.' — Sharks  do  not  appear  to  have  yet 
reached  the  greatest  depths  of  the  ocean  ;  and  so  far  as  we 
know  at  present  we  have  to  fix  the  limit  of  their  vertical 
distribution  at  500  fathoms.  Those  which  we  find  to  have 
reached  or  to  pass  the  100  fathoms  line  belong  to  generic 
types  which,  if  they  include  littoral  species,  are  ground- 
sharks, — as  we  generally  find  the  bottom-feeders  of  our 
littoral  fauna  much  more  strongly  represented  in  the  deep 
sea  than  the  surface  swimmers.  All  belong  to  two  families 
only, 'the  ScyUiirtse  and  Spinacida:,  the  littoral  members  of 
which  live  for  the  greater  part  habitually  on  the  bottom 
and  probably  frequently  reach  to  the  100  fathoms  line. 
Distinctly  bathybial  species  are  two  8m.all  dog-fishes, — 
Spinax  granulatus  from  130  fathoms,  and  Scyllium 
canescens  from  400  fathoms,  both  on  the  south-west  coast 
of  South  America  ;  also  Centrosci/'lium  granulatum  from 
245  fathoms  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  whose  congener  from 
the  coast  of  Greenland  probably  descends  to  a  similar 
depth.  The  sharks  which  reach  the  greatest  depth 
recorded  hitherto  belong  to  the  genus  Ceniroplwrus,  of 
which  some  ten  species  are  known,  all  from  deep  water  in 
the  North  AtUntic,  Mediterranean,  the  Molucca  and 
Japanese  seas.     The  Japanese  species  were  discovered  by 


the  naturalists  of  the  "  Challenger "  on  the  Hyalonema 
ground  off  Inosima  in  345  fathoms.  Dr  E.  P.  Wright 
found  C.  ccelolepis  at  a  still  greater  depth  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal.  The  fishermen  of  S^tubal  fish  for  these  sharks 
in  400  or  500  fathoms,  with  a  line  of  some  600  fathoms 
in  length.  "  The  sharks  caught  were  from  3  to  4  feet  long, 
and  when  they  were  hauled  into  the  boat  fell  down  into 
it  like  so  many  dead  pigs";  in  fact,  on  being  rapidly 
withdrawn  from  the  great  pressure  under  which  they 
lived  they  were  killed,  like  other  deep-sea  fishes  linder 
similar  circumstances.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  orgaii'lz- 
atiou  of  none  of  these  deep-sea  sharks  has  undergone 
such  a  modification  as  would  lead  us  to  infer  that  they 

are  inhabitants  of 
great  depths 

One  (fi  the 
most  intere.'iting 
types  of  the  di-^i- 
sion  of  sharks  is 
the  small  family 
of  Notickmidx, 
which  is  external- 
ly distinguished 
by  the  presence 
of  a  single  dorsal 
fin  only,  without 
spine  and  oppo- 
site to  th^  anal, 
and  by  having 
six  or  seven  wide 
branchial  open- 
ings. They  repre- 
sent an  ancient 
tvpe,  the  presence 
ot  which  in  Ju- 
rassic formations 
IS  shown  by  teeth 
nxtrem.ely  similar 
lO  those  of  the 
aving  species. 
Their  skeleton 
It,  -•  tochordal, 
di^  four  species 
are  known,  of 
which  one  {Noli- 
danvs  griseus)hza 
now  and  then 
strayed  north- 
wards    to      the 


Fjo.  lG.~Cftlamj/doselachus  anyuir.cus. 


English  coast.  A  member  of  this  family  has  been  re- 
cently discovered  in  Japan,  and  is  so  scarce  that  only 
two  specimens  are  known — one  in  the  museum  at  Cam- 
bridge, U.S.,  and  the  other  in  the  British  Museum.  It 
was  named  by  its  first  dcscriber,  S.  Garman,  Chla:ny- 
doselachus  anguineus  (fig.  IG).  It  resembles  somewha^ 
in  shape  a  conger,  and  diflers  from  the  Noiidani  proper 
by  its  elongate  body,  wide  lateral  and  terminal  mouth, 
extremely  wide  gill-openings,  and  peculiarly  formed  teeth. 
The  teeth  are  Eimiiu,i  in  both  jaws,  each  composed  of 
three _ slender  curved  cusps  separated  by  a  pair  of  rudi- 
mentary points,  and  with  a  broad  base  directed  back- 
wards. These  teeth  resemble  sqme  fossils  of  the  Midd!3 
Tjevoaiaa.   il;;st:;ibfi  an   Cfadodus,  and   North-American. 


S  H  A  —  S  H  A 


779 


oaturalists  regard,  therefore,  this  fish  as  "  the  oldest 
living  type  of  verteb.-ate."  The  Kutid(jni  are  very  pro- 
bably ground-sharks,  perhaps  descending  into  deep  water ; 
and,  although  nothing  positive  is  known  at  present  of 
the  habits  of  Chlaidi/doselaehus,  the  fact  that  this  singu- 
lar type  has  escaped  so  long  the  observation  of  the 
numerous  collectors  in  Japan  renders  it  probable  that 
it  inhabits  depths  the  exploration  of  which  has  been 
initiated  only  recently. 

A  few  words  have  to  be  added  with  reference  to  the  economic 
uses  of  this  group  of  fishes.  Their  utility  to  man  is  insignificant 
in  comparison  with  the  havoc  tliey  commit  among  food-fishes  and 
at  fisheries,  and  with  the  loss  of  life  which  is  caused  by  the  larger 
kinds.  As  mentioned  above,  some  of  the  smaller  dog-fishes  are 
eaten  at  certain  seasons  by  the  eaptors,  and  by  tlie  poorer  classes 
of  the  population.  An  inferior  kind  of  oil,  chiefly  used  for  tho 
adulteration  of  cod-liver  oil,  is  extracted  on  some  of  the  northern 
fishing-stations  from  the  liver  of  the  spiked  dog-fishes,  and  occa- 
sionally of  the  larger  sharks.  Cabinet-makers  make  extensive  uso 
of  shark's-skin  under  the  name  of  "  shagreen  "  for  smoothing  or 
polishing  wood.  This  shagreen  is  obtained  from  species  (such  as 
our  dog-fishes)  whose  skin  is  covered  with  small,  pointed,  closely- 
set,  calcified  papilla,  whilst  very  rougli  skins,  in  which  tlic  j)apill« 
are  large  or  blunt,  are  useless  for  this  purpose.  Tho  diied  fins  of 
sharks  (and  of  rays)  form  in  India  and  China  an  important  article 
of  trade,  the  Chinese  preparing  gelatin  from  them,  and  usiiy^ 
the  better  sort  far  culinary  purposes.  Tney  are  assorted  in  two 
kirids,  viz.,  "  white  "  and  "  black.  '  The  former  consists  exclusively 
of  tho  dorsal  fins,  which  are  on  both  sides  of  tliu  same  light  colour, 
and  reputed  to  yield  more  gelatin  than  the  other  fins.  Tho 
pectoral,  ventral,  and  anal  fins  constitute  the  "black"  sort;  the 
caudal  are  not  used.  One  of  the  principal  places  where  shark 
fishing  is  practised  as  a  profession  is  Kurrachce,  and  tho  principal 
kinds  of  sharks  caught  tnere  are  species  of  Carcharias,  GakoccrdQ, 
and  Zijgasna.  Dr  Buist,  writing  in  1850,  states  that  there  are 
tliirtccu  large  boats,  with  crews  of  twelve  men  each,  constantly 
employed  in  this  pursuit,  that  the  value  of  the  fins  sent  to  th.e 
market  varies  from  15,000  to  18,000  rupees,  that  a  boat  will 
capture  sometimes  at  a  draught  as  many  as  a  hundred  sharks  of 
various  sizes,  and  that  the  number  of  sharks  captured  annually 
amounts  probably  to  not  less  than  40,000.  Largo  quantities 
are  imported  from  the  African  coast  and  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and 
various  ports  on  the  coast  of  India.  In  the  year  1S45-4G  8770  cwt. 
of  sharks'  fins  were  exported  from  Bombay  to  China.     (A.  C.  G.) 

SHARON,  a  borougli  of  the  United  States,  in  Mercer 
County,  Pennsylvania,  14  miles  west  of  Mercer,  is  the  seat 
of  considerable  iron  manufacture,  with  blast  furnaces, 
rolling  mili.s,  foundrie.s,  and  nail  factories,  and  had  in  1880 
a  population  of  5684. 

SHARP,  James  (1618-1679),  archbishop  of  St 
Andrews,  was  the  son  of  William  Sharp,  sheriff-clerk  of 
Banffshire,  and  of  Isabel  Leslie,  daughter  of  Leslie  of 
Kininvie,  of  the  family  of  Halyburtons  of  Pitcur  in 
Angu.s,  and  was  born  in  Castle  Banff  on  May  4,  1618. 
He  was  a.  clever  boy,  and  his  early  disposition  for  the 
church  led  to  his  being  called  in  jest  "  the  young 
minister."  In  1633  he  went  to  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  graduated  in  1637.  He  there  studied  divinity  for  one 
or  two  years,  and  probably  derived  his  Episcopal  tendencies 
from  the  "Aberdeen  doctors,"  Aberdeen  being  at  that  tir.ie 
tho  home  of  Episcopal  sentiment.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Covenanting  war  he  went  to  England  (1639)  and  visited 
Oxford  and  perhaps  Cambridge,  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  principal  English  divines.  Upon  his  return  he  was 
chosen  in  1643  through  the  influence  of  Lord  Rothes  to  bo 
one  of  tho  "  regents  "  of  philosophy  in  St  Leonard's  College, 
St  Andrews.  Ho  appears  to  have  continually  risen  in 
reputation  until  in  December  1647  ho  went  through  his 
ordinary  trials  for  the  ministerial  ollicc  before  the  presby- 
tery of  St  Andrews,  and  was  appointed  mini.ster  of  Crail 
in  Fifeshire,  on  the  presentation  of  the  earl  of  Crawford,  on 
January  27,  1648.  In  the  great  schism  of  Kesolutionera 
and  Protestors,  he,  with  tho  largo  majority  of  educated 
men,  took  active  part  with  the  former;  he  was  tho  friend 
of  Baillie,  Douglas,  Dickson,  Wood,  Blair,  and  others,  and 
us  early  as  March  1651  was  recognized  aa  one  of  the  lead- 


ing men  of  the  party.  His  first  public  employment  was 
in  1G56,  when  he  went  to  London  on  their  behalf  to 
endeavour  to  counteract  with  the  Protector  the  influence 
of  Warriston,  who  was  acting  for  the  Protestors.  Here  he 
became  acquainted  with  Calamy,  Ash,  and  other  leading 
London  Presbyterian  ministers,  and  letters  i>assed  between 
him  and  Lauderdale,  then  prisoner  in  tho  Tower.  •  He 
displayed  all  his  undoubted  talents  for  potty  diplomacy 
and  considerable  subtlety  in  argument  while  on  this  service, 
and  his  mission  was  decidedly  successful.  He  returned  to 
Scotland  in  1659,  but  upon  Monk's  march  to  London  was 
again,  in  February  1660,  sent  by  the  Ilcsolutioners  to  watch 
over  their  interests  in  London,  where  he  arrived  on 
February  13.  He  was  most  favourably  received  by  Monk, 
to  whom  it  was  of  great  importance  to  remain  on  good 
terms  with  the  donynant  party  in  Scotland.  His  letters 
to  Douglas  and  others  during  this  period,  if  they  may  be 
trusted,  are  useful  towards  following  the  intrigues  of  the 
time  day  by  day.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that 
there  is  good  reason  for  thinking  that  Sharp  had  already 
made  up  his  mind  not  to  throw  away  the  chances  he  might 
have  of  prominent  employment  under  the  Restoration. 
In  the  beginning  of  Jilay  he  was  despatched  by  Jilonk  to 
the  king  at  Breda  "  to  deal  that  he  may  be  sent  with  a 
letter  to  the  London  Presbyterian  ministers,  showing  his 
resolution  to  own  the  godly  sober  party."  His  letters  on 
this  occasion,  to  Douglas  show  that  he  regarded  himself 
equally  as  the  emis.sary  of  the  Scottish  kirk.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  that  he  was  also  tho  bearer  of  a  secret  letter  from 
Lauderdale  to  tho  king.  Ho  was  in  fact  playing  a  game 
admirably  suited  to  his  peculiar  capacity  for  dark  and 
crooked  ways  of  dealing.  There  can  bo  little  doubt  that 
while  on  this  mission  he  was  finally  corrujited  by  Charles 
and  Clarendon,  not  indeed  so  far  as  to  make  up  his  mind 
to  betray  tho  kirk,  but  at  any  rate  to  decide  in  no  way  to 
imperil  his  own  chances  by  too  firm  an  integrity.  The 
first  thing  that  aroused  the  jealousy  of  his  brethren,  who, 
as  Baillie  says,  had  trusted  him  as  their  own  souls,  was 
his  writing  from  Holland  in  commendation  of  Clarendon. 
This  jealousy  was  increased  on  his  return  to  London 
(May  26)  by  his  plausible  endeavours  to  stop  all  coming 
of  Presbyterian  commissioners  from  Scotland' and  Ireland, 
though  he  professed  to  desire  the  presence  of  Douglas 
and  Dickson,  by  his  urgent  advice  that  tho  Scots  should 
not  interfere  in  the  restoration  of  Episcopacy  in  England, 
and  by  his  endeavours  to  frustrate  the  proposed  union 
of  Resolutioners  and  Protestors.  He  informed  them  that 
Presbyterianism  was  a  lost  cause  in  England,  but  as  late  as 
August  11  he  intimated  that,  though  there  had  been  great 
danger  for  tho  Scottish  kirk  as  well,  this  danger  had  been 
constantly  and  successfully  warded  off  by  his  efforts.  He 
returned  to  Scotland  in  this  month,  and  busied  him.sclf  in 
endeavouring  to  remove  all  suspicions  of  his  loyalty  to  the 
kirk  ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  successfully  stopped  all  peti- 
tions from  Scottish  ministers  to  king,  parliament,  or  council. 
His  letters  to  Drummond,  a  Presbyterian  minister  in 
London,  and  to  Lajuderdale,  without  absolutely  committing 
him,  show  clearly  that  he  was  certain  that  Episcopacy  was 
about  to  bo  set  up.  How  far  ho  was  actively  a  traitor  in 
tho  matter  had  always  been  fairly  disputed  until  tho  ques- 
tion was  at  last  set  at  rest  by  tho  discovery  of  his  letter, 
dated  Jlay  21,  from  London,  whither  ho  went  in  April 
1661,  to  Middleton,  the  High  Commissioner,  whoso  chap- 
lain ho  now  was,  from  which  it  is  proved  that  ho  was  in 
confidential  communication  with  Clarendon  and  the  English 
bishops,  that  he  was  earnestly  and  eagerly  co-operating  in 
the  restoration  of  Epi.scojiacy  in  Scotland,  that  he'  had 
before  leaving  Scotland  held  frequent  conferences  with 
Middleton  on  the  subject  (a  fact  which  he  had  explicitly  and 
vehemently  denied)  and  was  aware   that  Middleton  had 


780 


SHARP 


all  along  intended  it,  and  that  ho  drew  up  and  was 
directly  responsible  for  the  quibbling  proclamation  of  June 
10,  the  sole  purpose  of  which  was  "  the  disposing  of  minds 
to  acquiesce  in  the  king's  pleasure."  The  original  of  this 
letter  (which  is  printed  in  the  Lauderdale  Papers  and  in 
the  Scottish  Review)  is  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  Edinburgh.  It  should  bo  noticed 
that  as  late  as  the  end  of  April,  on  the  eve  of  starting 
on  his  mission  to  court  with  Eothcs  and  Glencairne,  he 
declared  to  Baillie  that  no  change  in  the  kirk  was  intended. 
The  mask  was  at  length  dropped  in  August,  when  Epis- 
copacy was  restored,  and  Sharp  was  appointed  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews.  He  and  Leighton,  Fairfoul,  and  Hamilton 
"were  dubbed,  first  preaching  deacons,  then  presbyters, 
and  then  consecrated  bishops  in  one  day,  by  Dr  Sheldon 
and  a  few  others."  On  April  8th  the  ^ev/  prelates  entered 
Scotland,  and  on  the  forenoon  of  April  20,  1662,  Sharp 
preached  his  first  sermon  at  St  Andrews. 

Sharp  had  carefully  kept  on  good  terms  with  Lauder- 
dale, and  when  the  Billeting  Plot  was  concocted  in  Septem- 
ber 1662  against  the  latter  by  Middleton,  he  managed 
to  avoid  acting  against  him ;  indeed  it  is  probable  that, 
after  being  appointed  under  an  oath  of  secrecy  to  be  one 
of  the  scrutineers  of  the  billets,  he,  in  violation  of  the  oath, 
was  the  cause  of  Lauderdale  receiving  timely  informa- 
tion of  the  decision  against  him  ;  and  yet  he  shortly  went 
up  to  London  to  explain  the  whole  affair  in  Middleton's 
interest.  When  Lauderdale's  supremacy  was  established 
he  readily  co-operated  in  passing  the  National  Synod  Act 
in  1663,  the  first  step  in  the  intended  subjection  of  the 
church  to  the  crown.  In  1664  he  was  again  in  London, 
returning  in  April,  having  secured  the  grant  of  a  new 
church  commission.  His  vanity  also  had  been  gratified 
by  his  being  allowed  to  take  precedence  of  the  chan- 
cellor  at  the  council.  He  harassed  the  ministers  who  were 
with  his  old  friend  James  Wood  when  he  signed  his 
well-known  deathbed  confession  ;  he  cited  and  fined  others, 
as  well  OS  laymen,  for  withdrawing  from  the  churches ;  he 
urged  the  thorough  prosecution  of  the  arbitrary  powers 
granted  to  the  commission,  and  complained  of  the  slackness 
of  his  fellow  commissioners.  Se  oppressive  was  his  con- 
duct and  that  of  others  of  the  bishops  that  it  called  forth 
a  written  protest  from  Gilbert  Burnet.  Sharp  at  once 
summoned  him  before  the  bishops  and  endeavoured  to 
obtain  a  sentence  of  deprivation  and  excommunication 
against  him,  but  was  overruled  by  his  brethren.  On  the 
death  of  Glencairne,  the  chancellor's  greatest  efforts  were 
made  to  secure  the  vacant  office  for  Sharp,  and  he  was  not 
inactive  in  his  own  interest ,  the  place  was  not,  however, 
filled  up  until  1667,  and  then  by  the  appointment  of  Rothes. 
He  was  in  strict  alliance  with  Rothes,  Hamilton,  and  Dal- 
yell,  and  the  other  leaders  of  oppression,  and  now  placed 
himself  in  opposition  to  the  influence  of  Lauderdale, 
attacking  his  friends,  and  especially  the  earl  of  Kincardine, 
[n  1665  he  was  again  in  Lopdon,  where,  through  his  own 
folly  and  mendacity,  he  suffered  a  complete  humiliation  at 
the  hands  of  Lauderdale,  well  described  by  the  historian 
Burnet.  With .  Rothes  he  now  in  great  part  governed 
Scotland,  and  the*  result  of  their  system  of  violence  and 
6L:tortion  was  the  rising  of  the  Covenanters,  during  which, 
being  in  temporary  charge  during  Rothes's  absence,  he 
.  showed,  according  to  Bellenden,  the  utmost  fear,  equalled 
only  by  his  cruelty  to  the  prisoners  after  the  rout  of  Pent- 
land.  When  the  convention  of  estates  met  in  January 
1667  he  received  his  first  rebuff,  Hamilton  being  substi- 
tuted for  him  as  president.  He  now  tried  to  curry  favour, 
with  Lauderdale,  to  whom  he  wrote  letters  of  the  most 
whining  contrition,  and  who  extended  him  a  careless  recon- 
ciliation. The  expressions  of  contempt  for  him  which  occur 
at  this  time,  as  previously,  in  the  Iptters  of  Robert  Moray, 


Argyll,  and  others  of  Lauderdale's  correspondents,  are 
frequent  and  very  amusing.  For  a  time  he  made  himself 
actively  useful,  and  was  instrumental-  in  restraining  his 
brethren  from  writing  to  London  to  complain  of  the  con- 
ciliation policy  which  for  a  while  Lauderdale  carried  out,  a 
transaction  in  which  he  displayed  the  utmost  effrontery  of 
lying ;  and,  witli  slight  attempts  to  free  himself,  he  con- 
tinued faithful  in  his  new  service.  .On  July  10,  1668,  an 
attempt  was  made  vpon  his  life  by  Robert  Mitchell,  who 
fired  a  pistol  at  him  while  driving  through  the  streets  of 
Edinburgh.  The  shot,  however,  missed  Sharp,  though  his 
companion  the  bishop  of  Orkney  was  wounded  by  it,  and 
Mitchell  for  the  time  escaped.  In  August  Sharp  went  up 
to  London,  returning  in  December,  and  with  his  assistance, 
nominally  indeed  at  his  suggestion,  Tweeddale's  tolerant 
proposals  for  filling  the  vacant  parishes  with  some  of  the 
"  outed  "  ministers  were  carried  out.  In  the  debates  on 
the  Supremacy  Act,  by  which  Lauderdale  destroyed  the 
autonomy  of  the  church,  he  at  first  showed  reluctance  to 
put  in  motion  the  desired  policy,  but  gave  way  upon  the 
first  pressure.  When,  however,  Leighton,  as  archbishop 
of  Glasgow,  endeavoured  to  carry  out  a  comprehension 
scheme,  Sharp  actively  opposed  him,  and  expressed  his  joy 
at  the  failure  of-sthe  attempt.  From  this  time  he  was 
completely  subservient  to  Lauderdale,  who  had  now  finally 
determined  upon  a  career  of  oppression,  and  in  1674  he 
was  again  in  London  to  support  this  policy.  In  this  year 
also  Mitchell,  who  had  shot  at  him  six  years  before,  was 
arrested.  Sharp  himself  having  recognized  him,  and,  upon 
Sharp's  promise  to  obtain  a  pardon,  privately  made  a  full 
confession.  When  brought  into  the  justiciary  court,  how- 
ever, he  refused  to  repeat  the  confession,  whereupon  the 
promise  of  pardon  was  recalled ;  the  prisoner  was  sent  to 
the  Bass,  and  was  not  brought  to  trial  for  four  years.  In 
1678,  however,  the  country  being  again  in  great  disorder, 
he  was  tried  on  his  own  confession,  which,  not  having 
been  made  before  judges,  could  not  legally  be  brought 
against  him.  This  plea  being  overruled,  he  claimed  the 
promise  of  pardon.  Sharp,  however,  basely  denied  that 
any  svuch.  promise  had  been  given.  His  falsehood  was 
proved  by  the  entry  of  the  act  in  the  records  of  the  court. 
Mitchell  was  finally  condemned,  but  the  condemnation  was 
so  evidently  unfair  and  contrary  to  solemn  promise  that  a 
reprieve  would  have  been  granted  had  not  Sharp  himself 
insisted  on  his  death.  This,  perhaps  the  basest  action  of 
his  base  life,  was  speedily  avenged.  On  May  3,  1679,  as 
he  was  driving  with  his  daughter  Isabel  to  St  Andrews, 
he  was  set  upon  by  nine  men,  who  were  looking  for  one 
of  the  instruments  of  his^yuelty,  and,  in  spite  of  unmanly 
beseechings  and  of  the  appeals  of  his  daughter,  was  cruelly 
murdered.  The  place  of  the  murder,  on  Magus  Muir, 
now  covered  with  fir  trees,  is  marked  by  a  monument 
erected  by  Dean  Stanley,  with  a  Latin  inscription  record- 
ing the  deed.  It  is  only  right,  while  recording  a  career  of 
cold-blooded  cruelty  and  almost  unexampled  political  base- 
ness, to  remember  that  no  charge  that  can  be  seriously 
maintained  has  ever  been  brought  against  the  morality 
of  Sharp's  private  life. 

Unless  otherwise  mentioned,  the  proofs  of  the  statements  in  this 
article  witl  be  found  in  vols.  i.  and  ii.  of  the  Lauderdale  Papers 
(Camden  Society)  and  iu  two  articles  in  the  Scottish  Ecvicw,  July 
1S84  and  January  1885.  'O.  A.) 

SHARP,  William  (1749-1824),  an  eminent  line- 
engraver,  was  born  at  London  on  the  29th  of  January 
1749.  He  was  originally  apprenticed  to  what  is  called  a 
bright  engraver,  and  practised  as  a  writing  engraver,  but, 
gradually  becoming  inspired  by  the  higher  branches  of  the 
engraver's  art,  he  exercised  his  gifts  with  surprising  success 
on  works  of  the  old  masters.  Among  his  earlier  plates 
are  some   illustrations,   after  Stothard,  for  the  Novelists' 


S  H  A 


p.  li  E 


781 


Magazine.  He  engraved  the  Doctors  Disputing  on  the 
Immaculateness  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Ecce  Homo  of 
Guido  Reni,  the  St  Cecilia  of  Domenichino,  the  Virgin 
and  Child -of  Dolci,  and  the  portrait  of  John  Hunter  of 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  His  style  of  engraving  is  thoroughly 
masterly  and  original,  excellent  in  its  play  of  lino  and 
rendering  of  half-tints  and  of  "colour."  He  died  at 
Chiswick  on  the  25th  July  1824.  In  his  youth  Sharp 
was  a  violent  republican,  and,  owing  to  his  hotly  expressed 
adherence  to  the  politics  of  Paine  and  Home  Tooke,  he 
was  examined  by  the  privy  council  on  a  charge  of  treason. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  greatest  visionaries  in  matters 
pertaining  to  religion.  No  irriposture  was  too  gross  for 
him  to  accept,  no  deception  too  glaring  for  his  eyes  to 
admire.  The  dreams  of  Mesmer  and  the  rhapsodies  of 
Brothers  found  in  Sharp  a  staunch  believer ;  and  for  long 
he  maintained  Joanna  Southcott  at  his  own  expense.  As 
an  engraver  he  achieved  a  European  reputation,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  he  enjoyed  the  honour  of  being  a  member 
of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna  and  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Munich. 

SHAWL,  a  square  or  oblong  article  of  dress  worn  in 
various  ways  dependent  from  the  shoulders.  The  term  is 
of  Persian  origin  (shdl),  and  the  article  itself  is  most 
characteristic  and  important  in  the  dress  of  the  natives  of 
north-western  India  and  Central  Asia;  but  in  various 
forms,  and  under  different  names,  dssentially  th^  same 
piece  of  clothing  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  The 
shawls  made  in  Kashmir  occupy  a  pre-eminent  place  among 
textile  products ;  and  it  is  lo  them  and  to  their  imitations 
from  Western  looms  that  specific  importance  attaches. 
The  Kashmir  shawl  is  characterized  by  the  great  elabora- 
tion and  minute  detaU  of  its  design,  in  which  the  "cone" 
pattern  is  a  prominent  feature,  and  by  the  glowing 
harmony,  brilliance,  depth,  and  enduring  qualities  of  its 
colours.  The  basis  of  these  excellences  is  found  in  the 
raw  material  of  the  shawl  manufacture,  which  consists  of 
the  very  fine,  soft,  short,  flossy  under-wool,  called  pashm  or 
pashraina,  Isund  on  the  shawl-goat,  a  variety  of  Capra 
hircus  inhabiting  the  elevated  regions  of  Tibet.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  pashm,  according  to  the  districts  in 
which  it  is  produced,  but  the  finest  is  a  strict  monopoly 
of  the  maharaja  of  Kashmir,  through  whose  territory  it 
comes.  Inferior  pashm  and  Kirman  wool — a  fine  soft 
Persian  sheep's  wool — are  used  for  shawl  weaving  at 
Amritsar  and  other  places  in  the  Punjab,  where  colonies  of 
Kashmiri  weavers  ^re.  established ;  but  just  in  proportion 
to  the  quality  of  the  pashm  used  are  the  beauty  and  value 
of  the  resulting  shawl.  In  Kashmir  the  shawl  wool  is 
sorted  with  patient  care  by  hand,  and  spun  into  a  fine 
thread,  a  work  of  so  much  delicacy,  owing  to  the  shortness 
of  the  fibre,  that  a  pound  of  undyed  thread  may  be 
worth  £.'2,  10s.  The  various  eolours,  costly  and  perma- 
nent, are  dyed  in  the  yarn.  The  subsequent  weaving  or 
embroidering  is  a  work  of  groat  labour,  and  a  fine  shawl 
will  occupy  the  whole  labour  of  three  men  not  less  than  a 
year.  Thus  a  first-rate  shawl  weighing  about  7  It)  may 
cost  at  the  place  of  its  production  £300,  made  up  thus : — 
material  £30,  labour  £150,  duty  £70,  miscellaneous 
expenses,  £50.  In  shawl  cloth  many  varieties  of  dress 
articles  arc  made ;  but  of  shawls  themselves,  apart  from 
shape  and  pattern,  there  are  only  two  princii>al  classes : — 
(1)  loom- woven  shawls  called  tiliwalla,  tilikdr  or  k.ini 
kdr, — sometimes  woven  in  one  piece,  but  more  often 
in  small  segments  which  are  sown  together  with  such. 
precision  and  neatness  that  the  sewing  is  quite  impercept- 
ible (such  loom-woven  shawls  have  borders  of  silk,  the 
weight  and  stiffness  of  which  serve  to  stretch  the  shawl 
and  make  it  set  properly) ;  and  (2)  embroidered  shawls — 
amlikir, — in  which  over  a  ground  of  plain  pashmina  is 


worked  oy  needle  a  minute  and  elaborate  pattern.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Srinagar,  the  capital 
of  Kashmir,  are  engaged  in  the  shawl  industry ;  and  there 
are  numerous  colonies  of  Kashmiri  weavers  settled  at 
Amritsar,  Ludianah,  Nurpur,  and  other  towns  in  the 
Punjab.  Amritsar  is  now  the  principal  entrepot  of  the 
shawl  trade  between  India  and  Europe.  Imitation  Kashmir 
shav/Is  are  made  at  Lyons,  Nimes,  Norwich,  and  Paisley, 
and  some  of  the  products  of  these  localities  are  little 
inferior  in  beauty  and  elaboration  to  Oriental  shawls ;  but 
owing  to  the  fluctuations  of  fashion  there  has  been  little 
demand  for  the  finer  products  of  European  looms  for  many 
years.     See  also  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  626. 

SHEA  BUTTER.     See  Oils,  vol.  svii.  p.  747. 

SHEARWATER,  the  name  of  a  bird  first  published  in 
Willughby's  Ornithohgia  (p.  252),  as  made  known  to  hira 
by  Sir  T.  Browne,  who  sent  a  picture  of  it  with  an  account 
that  is  given  more  fully  in  Ray's  translation  of  that  work 
(p.  334),  stating  that  it  is  "  a  Sea-fowl,  which  fishermen 
observe  to  resort  to  their  Vessels  in  some  numbers,  swim- 
ming' swiftly  to  and  fro,  backward,  forward,  and  about 
them,  and  doth  as  it  were  radere  aquam,  shear  the  water, 
from  whence  perhaps  it  had  its  name."-  Ray's  mistaking 
young  birds  of  this  kind  obtained  in  the  Isle  of  Man  for 
the  young  of  the  Coulterneb,  now  usually  called  Puffin, 
has  already  been  mentioned  under  that  heading  (vol.  xx. 
p.  102) ;  and  not  only  has  his  name  Pvffimts  anglornm 
hence  become  attached  to  this  species,  commonly  described 
in  English  books  as  the  Manx  Puffin  or  Manx  Shearwater, 
but  the  barbarous  and  misapplied  word  Puffin-its  has  come 
into  regular  use  as  the  generic  term  for  all  birds  thereto 
allied,  forming  a  well-marked  group  of  the  Family  Procel- 
lariidse  (cf.  Peteel,  vol.  xviii.  p.  711),  distinguished 
chiefly  by  their  elongated  bill,  and  numbering  some  twenty 
species,  if  not  more — the  discrimination  of  which,  owing 
partly  to  the  general  similarity  of  some  of  them,  and  partly 
to  the  change  of  plumage  which  others  through  age  are 
believed  to  undergo,  has  ta^ed  in  no  common  degree  the 
ingenuity  of  those  ornithologists  who  have  ventured  on 
the  difiicult  task  of  determining  their  characters.  Shear- 
waters are  found  in  nearly  all  the  seas  and  oceans  of  the 
world,^  generally  within  no  great  distance  from  the  land, 
though  rarely  resorting  thereto,  except  in  the  breeding- 
season.  But  they  also  penetrate  to  waters  which  may  be 
termed  inland,  as  the  Bosphorus,  where  they  have  Icrlg 
attracted  attention  by  their  daily  passage  up  and  down 
the  strait,  in  numerous  flocks,  hardly  ever  alighting  on  the 
surface,  and  from  this  restless  habit  they  are  known  to  the 
French-speaking  part  of  the  population  afe  drnes  damnces, 
it  being  held  by  the  Turks  that  they  are  animated  by 
condemned  human  souls.  Four  species  of  Puffimts  are 
recorded  as  visiting  the  coasts  of  the  United  Kingdom ; 
but  the  Manx  Shearwater  aforesaid  is  the  only  one  that  at 
all  commonly  occurs  or  breeds  in  the  British  Islands.  It 
is  a  very  plain-looking  bird,  black  above  and  white  beneath, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  Pigeon.     Some  other  species  are 

^  By  mistake,  nodoubt,  for  flying  or  "hovering,"  the  latter  the 
word  used  by  Browne  in  his  Account  of  Birds  found  in  Korfolk  (Mug. 
Brit.  MS.  Sloano,  1830,  fol.  5.  22  and  31),  written  in  or  about  1662. 
Edwards  {-Gleanings^  iii.  p.  315)  speaks  of  comparing  his  own  drawing 
"  with  Brown's  old  draught  of  it,  still  preserved  in  the  British 
Musoum,"  and  thus  identifies  the  lattcr's  "Shearwater"  with  the 
"Puffin  of  the  Lsle  of  Man." 

•  Lyric  ai)poais  to  bo  the  most  common  local  nanjo  for  this  bird 
in  Orkney  and  Slietland ;  but  Scraib  and  Scrnhcr  are  also  used  in 
Scotland.  Tli'o.se  are  from  the  Scandinavian  Skraape  or  Skrofa,  and 
considering  Prof  Skcat's  remarks  (Etym.  Dictionary,  p.  640)  m  to 
the  alliance  between  the  words  s!iear  and  icrape  it  may  be  that 
Browne's  hesitation  as  to  the  dcrivotion  of  "Shearwater"  had  more 
ground  than  at  lir.sl  appears. 

"  The  cliief  exception  would  eeera  to  bo  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and 
thence  throughout  the  wcstoni  part  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  where^ 
thuugli  they  may  occur,  they  are  w^rtaiiily  uucomiron. 


782 


S  H  E  —  S  H  E 


considerably  larger,  while  some  are  smaller,  and  of  the 
former  several  are  almost  whole-coloured,  being  of  a  sooty 
or  dark  cinereous  hue  both  above  and  below.  All  over  the 
■world  Shearwaters  seem  to  have  precisely  the  same  habits, 
laying  their  single  purely  white  egg  in  a  hole  under  ground. 
The  young  are  thickly  clothed  with  long  down,  and  are  ex- 
tremely fat.  In  this  condition  they  are  thought  to  be  good 
eating,  and  enormous  numbers  aro  caught  for  this  purpose 
in  some  localities,  especially  of  a  species,  the  P.  brcvicavxbts 
of  Gould,  which  frequents  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, where  it  is  commonly  known  as  the  "  Mutton-bird." 
For  works  treating  of  the  Shearwaters,  see  those  cited 
under  Petrel  (vol.  xviii.  p.  712).  (a.  n.) 

SHEATHBILL,  &  bird  so-called  by  Pennajit  in  1781 
{Gen.  Birds,  ed.  2,  p.  43)  from  the  horny  case'  which 
ensheaths  the  ba.«ial  part  of  its  bill.  It  was  first  made 
known  from  having  been  met  with  on  New- Year  Island,  off 
ihe  coast  of  Staten  Land,  where  Cook  anchored  on  New 
Year's  eve  1774.-  A  few  days  later  he  discovered  the 
islands  that  now  bear  the  name  of  South  Georgia,  and 
there  the  bird  was  again  found, — in  both  localities 
frequenting  the  rocky  shores.  On  his  third  voyage,  while 
.seeking  some  Jand  reported  to  have  been  found  by  Ker- 
guelen,  Cook  in  December  177G  reached  the  cluster  of 
desolate  islands  now  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the 
French  explorer,  and  here,  among  many  other  kind^  of 
birds,  was  a  Sheathbill,  which  for  a  long  while  no  one 
suspected  to  be  otherwise  than  specifically  identical  with 
that  of  the  western  Antarctic  Ocean  ;  but,  as  will  be  seen, 
its  distinctness  has  been  subsequently  admitted. 

The  Sheathbill,  so  soon  as  it  was  brought  to  the  notice  of 
naturalists,  was  recognized  as  belonging  to  a  genus  hitherto 
nnknown,  and  the  elder  Forster  in  1788  {Enchiridion,  p.  37)  con- 
ferred upon  it,  from  its  snowy  plumage,  the  name  Chionis,  which 
has  most  properly  received  general  acceptance,  though  in  the  s.ime 
year  the  compiler  Gmolin  termed  the  genua  Vaijinalis,  as  a  render- 
ing of  Pennant'a  English  name,  and  the  species  alha.  It  has  thus 
become  the  Chionis  alba  of  ornithology.  It  is  about  the  size  of  and 
has  much  the  aspect  of  a  Pigeon  ;^  its  plumage  is  pure  white,  its  bill 
somewhat  yellow  at  the  base,  passing  into  pale  pink  towards  the  tip. 
Round  the  eyes  the  skin  is  bare,  and  beset  with  cream-coloured 
papillae,  whilo  the  legs  are  bluish-grey.  The  second  or  eastern 
species,  first  discriminated  by  Dr  Hurtlaub  [Rev.  Zoologiqiic,  1841, 
p.  5  ;  18-12,  p.  402,  pL  2)*  as  C,  minor,  is  smaller  in  size,  with 
jdumagejust  as  white,  but  having  the  bill  and  bare  skin  of  the  face 
black  and  the  legs  much  darker.  The  form  of  the  bill's  "  sheath  " 
in  the  two  species  is  also  quite  difFereut,  for  in  0.  alba  it  is  almost 
level  throughout,  while  in  C.  minor  it  rises  in  front  like  the  pom- 
mel of  a  saddle.  Of  the  habits  of  the  western  and  larger  species 
not  much  has  been  recorded.  It  gathers  its  food,  consisting  chiefly, 
as  Darwin  and  others  have  told  us,  of  sea-weeds  and  shell-fish,  on 
rocks  at  low  water  ;  but  it  is  also  known  to  eat  birds'  eggs.  There 
is  some  curiously  conflicting  evidence  as  to  the  flavour  of  its  flesh, 
some  asserting  that  it  is  wholly  uneatable,  and  others  that  it  is 
palatable, — a  dilTerence  which  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  previous 
diet  of  the  particular  eyamph   tasted,  to  the  skill  of  the  cook,  or 


^  A  strange  fallacy  arose  early,  and  of  course  has  been  repeated  late, 
that  this  case  or  sheath  was  movable.     It  is  absolutely  fixed. 

-  Doubtless  some  of  the  earlier  voyagers  had  encountered  it,  as 
Forster  suggests  (Descr.  Animalium,  p.  330)  and  Lesson  asserts 
[Man.  d'Ornitholoffie,  ii.  p.  343)  ;  but  for  all  practical  purposes  we 
certainly  owe  its  discovery  to  the  naturalists  of  Cook's  second  voyage. 
By  -some  error,  probably  of  transcription,  New  Zealand,  instead  of 
New- Year  Island,  appears  in  many  works  as  the  place  of  its  discovei-y, 
while  not  a  few  writers  have  added  thereto  New  Holland.  Hitherto 
there  is  no  real  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  a  Sheathbill  in  the  waters 
of  Australia  or  New  Zealand. 

^  In  the  Falkland  Islea  it  is  called  the  "  Kelp- Pigeon,"  and  by 
some  of  the  earlier  French  navigators  the  "  Pigeon  blanc  antarctique." 
The  cognate  species  of  Kerguelen  Land  is  named  by  the  sealers 
"Sore-eyed  Pigeon,"  from  its  prominent  fleshy  orbits,  as  well  as 
"Paddy-bird" — the  last  doubtless  from  its  white  plumage  calling  to 
mind  that  of  some  of  the  smaller  Egrets,  so-called  by  the  English  in 
India  and  elsewhere.  ' 

*  Lesson  {loc.  cit. )  cites  a  brief  but  correct  indication  of  this 
species  as  observed  by  Lesquin  (Lyc^e  Armoricain,  x.  p.  36)  on 
Crozet  Island,  and,  not  suspecting  it  to  be  distinct,  was  at  a  loss 
to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  of  the  latter 's  description  with  that 
£iven  of  the  other  species  by  earlier  authors. 


the  need  of  the  taster.  Though  most  abundant  as  a  shore-bird,  it 
is  frequently  met  with  far  out  at  sea,  and  its  most  northern  recorded 
limit  is  by  Fleurieu  (IV'.  de  Marchand,  i.  p.  19),  in  lat.  ii"  S., 
some  260  miles  from  the  eastern  coast  of  Patagonia.  It  ia  not 
uncommon  on  the  Falkland  Isles,  where  it  is  said  to  breed  {Ibis, 
186J,  p.  154),  though  confirmation  of  the  report  is  as  yet  wanting, 
and  from  thence  is  found  at  both  extremities  of  the  Strait  of 
M.agellan,  and  southward  to  Louis-Philippe  Land  in  lat.  60°  S. 
On  the  other  hand,  thanks  to  the  naturalists  of  the  British  and 
United  States  expeditions  to  Kerguelen'  Land  for  the  observation 
of  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1874,  especially  Mr  Eaton  (rhilos.IS-atts. 
aciions,  clxviii.  pp.  103-105)  and  Dr  Lidde'-  {Bull.  U.  S.  Natiminl 
Miiscum,  1875,  No.  2,  p.  1-4),  much  more  h.is  been  recorded  of  the 
eastern  and  smaller  species,  which  had  already  been  ascertained  by 
Mr  Layard  {Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1871,  p.  57,  pL  iv.  fig.  7)  I  breed 
on  the  Crozet  Islands,'  and  was  found  to  do  so  still  more  numer- 
ously on  Kerguelen,  -while  it  probably  frequents  Prince  Edward's 
Islands  for  the  same  purpose.  The  eggs,  of  which  a  considerable 
number  have  now  been  obtained,  though  of  peculiar  appearance, 
bear  an  unmistakable  likeness  to  those  of  some  Plovers,  while 
occ-asionally  exhibiting  a  resemblance — of  little  significance,  ho^T- 
ever — to  those  of  the  Tropic-birds. 

The  systematic  position  of  the  Sheathbills  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  hesitation — almost  useless  since  1836,  when 
De  Blainville  (Ann.  Sc.  NaturdUs,  ser.  2,  vi.  p.  97)  mad» 
known  certain  anatomical  facts  proving  their  affinity  to  the 
Oyster-catchers  (vol.  xvii.  p.  Ill),  though  pointing  also 
to  a  more  distant  relationship  with  the  Gulls  (vol.  xi.  p. 
274).  These  he  afterwards  described  more  fidly  {7oy. 
"£on)'te,"  Zoolorjie,  i.  pt.  3,  pp.  107-132,  pi.  9),  so  as  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  Chionis  was  a  form  intermediate  be- 
tween those  groups.  Yet  some  writers  continued  to  refer 
it  to  the  Gallinx  and  others  to  the  Coltimbee.  The  matter 
may  now  be  regarded  as  settled  for  ever.  In  1876  Dr 
Reichenow  in  Germany  (Jour.  f.  Oni.,  1876,  pp.  84-89) 
and  in  America  Drs  Kidder  and  Coues  {Bull.  U.  S.  liat. 
Museum,  No.  3,  pp.  85-116)  published  elaborate  accounts 
of  the  anatomy  of  C.  minor,  the  fii-st  wholly  confirming 
the  view  of  De  Blainville,  the  last  two"  agreeing  with 
him  in  the  main,  but  concluding  that  the  Sheathbills 
formed  a  distinct  group  ChionomorpJue,  in  rank  equal  to 
the  C<:comorphx  and  Charadriomorpha:  of  Prof.  Huxley 
(which  are,  to  speak  roughly,  the  Gavise  and  Limicolse  of 
older  systematists),  and-  regarding  this  group  as  being 
"  still  nearer  the  common  ancestral  stock  of  both."  These 
authors  also  wish  to  separate  the  two  species  generically; 
but  their  proposals  are  considered  needless  by  Garrod  {P. 
Z.  S.,  1877,  p.  417)  and  M.  AlpL  Milne-Edwards  {Ann. 
Sc.  JVaturelles,  ser.  6,  xiii.  art.  4-,  p.  24).  The  opinions 
of  De  Blainville  and  Dr  Reichenow  are  borne  out  by  the 
observations  of  Jlr  Eaton  {loc.  cit.),  and  no  one  knowing 
the  habits  of  an  Oyster-catcher  can  read  his  remarks 
without  seeing  how  nearly  related  the  two  forms  are. 
Their  differences  may  perhaps  justify  the  separation  of 
each  form  into  what  is  vaguely  called  a  "Family,"  but 
the  differences  will  be  seen  by  the  comparative  anatomist 
to  be  of  slight  importance,  and  the  intimate  affinity  of  the 
Gamx  and  Limicolx,  already  recognized  by  Prof.  Parker 
and  some  of  the  best  taxonoraers  {cf.  Ornithology,  vol. 
xviii.  p.  45)  is  placed  beyond  dispute."  (a.  x.) 

SHEB.\.     See  Yemen. 

SHEBOYGAN^  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Sheboygan  county,  Wisconsin,  stands  on  Lake  Michigan, 

*  A  previous  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  its  egg  {Ibis,  1867, 
p.  458)  was  premature,  the  specimen,  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
present  writer,  proving  to  be  that  of  a  Gull — a  fact  unknown  to  the 
American  writer  named  above. 

^  In  some  details  their  memoir  is  unfortunately  inaccurate*. 

^  The  little  group  of  very  curious  birds,  having  no  English  name, 
of  the  genera  Thinocorys  and  Attcfjis,  whicli  are  peculiar  to  certain 
localities  in  South  America  and  its  islands,  are  by  some  systematists 
placed  in  the  Family  Chionididx  and  by  others  in  a  distinct  Family 
Thinocoridw  (more  correctly  Thinocorythidx).  They  are  undoubtedly 
Limicoline,  though  having  much  the  aspect  of  Sand-Grouse,  but  their 
precise  position  and  rank  remain  at  present  uncertain.  Cf.  Garrod 
{ut  sitjjra]  and  Prof.  Paiker  (Trans.  2ool.  Soc,  i.  pp.  301  sj.). 


S  H  E  —  S  H  E' 


783 


at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  43  miles  east 
of  Fond  du  Lac  and  52  miles  north  of  Milwaukee.  It  pos- 
sesses a  good  harbour,  and,  being  surrounded  by  very 
productive  agricultural  land,  exports  annually  a  large 
quantity  of  grain.  The  manufactures  include  farming 
implements,  enamelled  hollow-ware,  and  stone-ware ;  there 
are  a  number  of  tanneries  and  breweries ;  and  mineral  water 
is  exported.  Settled  in  1836,  the  city  had  in  1880  a 
population  of  7314. 

SHEC'HEM,  now  N.\bulus,  a  city  of  Palestine.  Eleven 
hours  from  Jerusalem  on  the  great  north  road  the  traveller 
finds  himself  in  the  broad  upland  plain  of  Makhna  (1500 
feet  above  the  sea),  with  Mount  Gerizim  on  his  left,  and, 
skirting  the  base  of  the  mountain,  reaches  the  traditional 
well  of  Jacob  (John  iv.  5,  6  ;  cf.  Gen.  xxxiii.  19),  a  deep 
cistern  with  the  ruins  of  an  old  church  beside  it.  Here 
the  road  divides:  the  caravan  route  to  Damascus  continues 
northward  by  the  village  of  "Asker  (Sychar  of  John  iv. 
5  V),  and  so  to  BeisAn  (Beth-shan)  and  Tiberias ;  but  the 
way  to  Samaria  turns  westward  into  a  fertile  and  well- 
watered  side  valley  between  Gerizim  (2849  feet)  on  the 
south  and  Ebal  (3077  feet)  on  the  north.  This  is  the 
Vale  of  Shechem  or  NAbulus ;  it  is  in  fact  an  easy  pass 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  Jordan  basins,  and  at  the 
watershed  (1870  feet),  where  the  city  stands,  1;^  miles  from 
Jacob's  Well,  is  not  more  than  100  yards  wide.  Thus 
Shechem  commands  both  branches  of  the  great  north  road, 
and  several  routes  from  the  coast  also  converge  here  and 
connect  with  the  ancient  road  from  Shechem  eastward  to 
Keriwd  (Archelais)  and  Al-Salt,  the  capital  of  the  BelkA. 
The  name  of  Shechem  (shoulder,  back)  accords  with  tho 
position  of  the  town  on  the  watershed,  and  the  native 
name  in  Josephus's  time  (Mabortha,  B.  J.,  iv.  8.  1  ;  Pliny 
has  Mamortha)  means  simply  "  the  pass."  The  situation 
of  Shechem  at  the  crossing  of  so  many  great  roads  must 
have  given  it  importance  at  a  very  early  date,  and  it  is 
still  a  busy  town  of  20,000  inhabitants,  with  soap  manu- 
factures and  considerable  trade.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
position  is  equally  favourable  for  brigandage,  to  which, 
under  weak  governments,  the  Shechemites  were  addicted 
of  old  (Judges  ix.  25  ;  Hosea  vi.  9,  where  "for  consent" 
read  "  to  Shechem "),  and  tho  district  is  still  a  law- 
less one. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Shecliem  were  tlic  Bne  Hamor,  a 
Canaanite  clan,  who  were  not  expelled  on  the  first  conquest  of 
Canaan  but  remained  in  posaesaiou  till  the  events  recorded  in 
Judges  ix.  From  tho  narrative  of  Gen.  xxxiv.,  which  haa  been 
spoken  of  in  the  article  Levi,  it  would  seem  that  they  entered  into 
friendly  relations  with  the  invaders,  and  that  an  attack  made  on 
fhem  by  Simeon  and  Levi  was  repudiated  by  Israel  and  led  to  the 
dispersion  of  these  two  tribes.  In  Judges  ix.  the  "freemen  of 
Shechem"  (□3tJ'  'Sy3)  appear  as  a  turbulent  but  cowardly  race, 
who,  in  spito  of  their  numbers  and  wealth,  had  become  vassals  of 
Gideon  for  the  sake  of  protection  against  tlie  Midianites,  and 
would  have  continued  to  serve  his  sons  'jut  for  the  enterprise  of 
Abimelech,  whose  mother  was  of  their  race.  With  the  aid  of 
mercenaries  hired  with  the  treasure  of  the  sanctuary  of  BaalBerith 
or  El-Berith,  the  god  of  the  town,  Abimelech  destroyed  the  sons 
of  Gideon,  was  crowned  king  of  Shechem,  and  for  three  years  held 
«way  also  over  tho  surrouncjing  Israelites.  A  revolt  was  led  by 
Gaal,  an  Israelite  who  scorned  to  be  subject  to  the  creature  of  the 
despised  Canaanites,'  and,  the  Shechemites  having  fallen  out  with 
Abimelech  about  their  practice  of  brigandage,  Gaal  made  a  dash  at 
tho  city  in  the  absence  of  the  king,  and  the  tickle  inhabitants 
received  him  with  open  arms.  Abimelech,  however,  with  his 
mercenaries  proved  too  strong  for  his  adversaries,  and  Canaanite 
Shechem  was  Utterly  destroyed.  Its  place  was  taken  by  a  HcbreV 
city,  and  the  Canaanite  sanctuary  of  EI-Borith  was  transformed  into 

'  In  Judges  ix.  28  for  nay  read  ITHV  (Wellhausen  after  M.S3. 
of  LXX. ),  and  translate  "  Who  is  Abimelech  or  who  are  the  Shechemites 
(hie  supportem)  that  we  should  be  his  slaves !  By  all  means  let  tho 
son  of  Jerubbaal  and  Zebitl  his  officer  enslave  the  men  of  Hamor 
father  of  Shechem;  but  wliy  should  we  (Hebrews)  be  liis  slaves?" 
Theso  words  cannot  have  been  spoken  after  the  Sliechemitcs  had 
renounced  Abimelech  ;  vv.  29,  30  ought  to  stand  imuiedi.itely  after 
»er.  22.     Stt  W.  I'_  STuith,  in  TKeol.  Tijdschri/l,  1888,  p.  Iil5  sq. 


a  Hebrew  holy  place  of  El  the  God  of  Israel,  of  which  the  founda- 
tion was  afterwards  referred  to  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxiiL  20)  or  even  to 
Abraham  {Gen.  xii.  7).  Tho  great  stone  under  the  famous  sacred 
tree  at  the  sanctuary  (the  "  tree  of  the  revealer  "  or  "tree  of  the 
soothsayers,"  E.V.  "plain  of  Moreh  "  or  "of  Meonenim  "  ;  Gen. 
xii.  6,  XXXV.  4  ■,^  Deut.  xi.  SO;  Jud.  ix.  6,  37)  was  said  to  have 
been  set  up  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xxiv.  26),  and  Joseph's  grave  was 
shown  there.'  All  this  indicates  that  Shechem  was  once  the  chief 
sanctuary  of  Joseph,  and  so  we  understand  why  Rehoboam  went  to 
Shechem  to  be  crowned  king  of  Northern  Israel  and  why  Jeroboam 
at  first  made  it  his  residence  (1  Kings  xii.  25).  Politically  Shechem 
was  soon  supplanted  by  Tirzah  and  Samaria,  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  stiU  a  sanctuary  in  the  time  of  Hosea.  It  survived  the 
fall  of  Ephraim  (Jer.  xii.  5)  and  ultimately  became  the  religions 
centre  of  tho  Samaritans  (q.v.).  The  Greek  name  Neapolis, 
known  tg  Josephus,  indicates  the  building  of  a  new  town,  which, 
according  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  was  a  little  way  from  the  old 
Shechem,  or  at  least  did  not  include  the  traditional  holy  sites. 
The  coins  give  the  form  Flavia  Neapolis.  Neapolis  was  the  birth- 
place of  Justin  Martyr,  and  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  Five 
Christian  churches  destroyed  by  the  Samaritans  in  the  time  of 
Anastasius  were  rebuilt  by  Justinian  (Pi-ocop. ,  De  j£d.,  v.  7). 
Remains  of  one  of  these  seem  still  to  exist  in  the  crusaders'  church 
of  the  Passion  and  Resurrection  CU67),  now  the  great  mosque. 
Neapolis  had  much  to  suffer  in  the  crusades  ;  it  was  finally  lost  to 
the  Christians  soon  after  Saladin's  great  victory  at  Hittin.  ■ 

A  map  of  the  Shechem  valley,  with  topogiaphical  details,  &c., 
will  be  found  in  the  Memoirs  of  Pal.  Expl.  Soc,  voL  ii. 

SHEE,  Sir  Marti.v  Akcher  (1770-1850),  portrait- 
painter,  and  president  of  the  Royal  Academy,  was  born  in 
Dublin  on  the  23d  of  December  1770.  He  was  sprung 
from  an  old  Irish  family,  and  his  father,  while  he  exercised 
the  trade  of  a  merchant,  regarded  the  profession  of  a 
painter  as  in  no  sense  a  fit  occupation  for  a  descendant  of 
the  Shees.  Young  Shee  became,  nevertheless,  a  student 
of  art  in  tho  Dublin  Society,  and  came  early  to  London, 
where  he  was,  ia  i788,  introduced  by'Burke  to  Reynolds, 
by  whose  advice  he  studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  In  1789  he  exhibited  his  first  two  pictures, 
the  Head  of  an  Old  Man  and  Portrait  of  a  Gentleman. 
During  the  next  ten  years  he  steadily  increased  in  practice, 
and  gradually  gained  ground  among  the  aristocracy,  with 
whom  his  suavity  and  good  manners  were  great  recom- 
mendations. He  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1798,  shortly  after  the  iilu.strious  Flaxman, 
and  in  1800  he  was  made  a  Royal  Academician.  In  the 
former  year  he  had  marr'.ed,  removed  to  Romney's  house 
in  Cavendish  Square,  and  set  up  as  the  legitimate  successor 
of  that  artist.  Shee  continued  to  paint  with  great 
readiness  of  hand  and  fertility  of  invention,  although  his 
portraits  were  eclipsed  by  more  than  one  of  his  contem- 
poraries, and  especially  by  Lawrence,  Hoppner,  Phillips, 
Jackson,  and  Raeburn.  In  addition  to  his  portraits  he 
executed  various  subjects  and  historical  works,  such  as 
Lavinia,  Belisarius,  his  diploma  picture  Prospero  and 
Miranda,  and  the  Daughter  of  Jephthah.  '  In  1805  ho 
published  a  poem  consisting  of  Rhi/mes  on  Art,  and  it  was 
succeeded  by  a  second  part  in  1809.  Although  Byron 
spoke  well  of  it  in  his  Enplish  Bards  and  Scotrh  lievieivers, 
and  invoked  a  pllace  for  "Shee  and  genius"  in  the  temple 
of  fame,  yet,  as  nature  had  not  originally  conjoined  these' 
two,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  even  a  poet's  invocation  could 
not  materially  affect  their  relation.s.  Shee  published 
another  small  volume  of  verses  in  1814,  entitled  The 
Commemoration  of  Sir  Joshua  Reyimlds,  and  other  Poems, 
but  this  effort  did  not  greatly  increase  his  fame.  He  now 
produced  a  tragedy  called  Alasco,  of  which  the  scene  was 
laid  in  Poland.     The  play  was  accepted  at  Covent  Garden, 

'  Eusebius  gives  the  tree  (terebinthus)  of  Gen.  xxxv.  4  a  place  in 
his  Onomasticon  ;  and  from  it  prob.ibly  tho  bishop  Terebinthitis  in 
Procop. ,  De  J!d. ,  v.  7,  had  his  name. 

*  The  Canaanite  sanctuary  was  represented  as  a  mere  temporary 
usurpation  by  tho  tradition  (in  the  Elohistic  narrative)  that  Jacob  had 
bought  the  site  of  his  altar  from  the  Hamorites  and  bequeathed  it  to 
Joseph  (Gen.  xxxiii.  19,  Josh.  xxiv.  32  :  in  the  latter  passage  road 

with  L.x.\.  njn'i  for  vn'i). 


784 


S  H  E  — S  K  H 


and  in  the  fertile  faucy  of  tlio  poet  the  play  had  already 
gained  for  him  a  great  dramatic  fame,  when  Colman,  the 
licenser,  refused  it  his  sanction,  on  the  plea  of  its  containing 
certain  treasonable  allusions,  and  Shee,  in  great  wrath,  re- 
solved to-  make  his  appeal  to  the  public.  This  violent 
threat  he  carried  out  in  1S2'1,  but  unfortunately  the  pubUc 
found  other  business  to  mind,  and  Alasco  is  still  on  the 
list  of  unacted  dramas.  On  the  death  of  Lawrence  in 
1S30,  Shee  was  chosen  president  of  the  Eoyal  Academy, 
and  shortly  afterwards  he  received  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. He  was  excellently  qualified  by  his  gentlemanly 
manners,  business  habits,  and  fluent  speech  for  the  position; 
and  in  the  disf-ute  regarding  the  use  of  rooms  to  be  pro- 
vided by  Government,  and  in  his  examination  before  the 
parliamentary  committee  of  1836,  he  ably  defended  the 
rights  of  the  Academy.  He  continued  to  paint  till  ISIS, 
and  died  on  the  13th  of  August  1850  in  his  eightieth  year. 

The  earlier  portraits  of  the  artist  are  carefully  finished,  easy  in 
action,  with  good  drawing  and  excellent  discrimination  of  character. 
They  show  an  undue  tendency  to  redness  in  the  flesh  painting, — a 
defect  which  is  still  more  apparent  in  his  later  works,  in  which  the 
handling  is  less  "square,"  crisp,  and  forcible. 

SHEEP.  The  animals  commonly  designated  by  this 
name  constitute  the  genus  Ovis  of  zoologists,  a  group 
belonging  to  the  Artiodactyle  or  paired-toed  section  of 
the  Ungxdafa  or  hoofed  mammals  (see  Mammalia,  vol.  xv. 
p.  432).  They  are  ruminants,  and  belong  to  the  hollow- 
horned  section,  i.e.,  those  having  persistent  horns  composed 
of  conical  epidermic  sheaths,  encasing  and  supported  by 
processes  of  the  frontal  bone.  This  section  includes  the 
various  species  of  Oxen,  Goats,  and  Antelopes,  as  well  as 
the  Sheep,  animals  all  so  closely  related  structurally  that 
it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  define  the  differences  between 
them. 

In  nearly  all  wild  sheep  the  horns  are  present  in  both 
sexes,  though  smaller  in  the  female.  They  are  trigonal  in 
section,  having  always  three  more  or  less  distinctly  marked 
surfaces,  divided  by  edges  running  longitudinally  to  the 
axis  of  the  horn,  sometimes  sharply  prominent  and  some- 
times rounded  off.  They  are  also  marked  by  numerous 
transverse  ridges  and  constrictions,  and  present  a  strong 
more  or  less  spiral  curve,  which  varies  in  direction  in 
different  species.  The  teeth  resemble  generally  those  of 
the  other  Bovidee.  The  upper  incisors  and  canines  are 
entirely  wanting,  their  place  being  taken  by  a  callous  pad 
against  which  the  lower  front  teeth  bite.'  These  are  eight 
in  number,  all  much  alike  and  in  close  contact ;  the  outer 
pair  represent  the  canines,  the  rest  the  incisors.  On  each 
side  of  the  mouth  above  and  below  are  six  teeth  close 
together,  three  of  which  are  premolars  (replacing  milk 
teeth)  and  three  true  molars,  all  markedly  selenodont  (the 
grinding  surfaces  presenting  crescent-like  patterns)  and 
iypsodont,  or  with  long  crowns  and  small  jroots.  The 
leutal  formula  is  thus — incisors  §,  canines  f,  premolars  |, 


molars   ^, 


total  of   both  sides  32.     The  vertebral 


ormula  is — cervical  7,  dorsal  13,  lumbar  6  or  7,  sacral  4, 
taudal  variable.  In  the  feet  the  hoofs  of  the  two  middle 
toes  (third  and  fourth)  only  reach  the  ground,  and  are 
equally  developed.  The  outer  toes  (second  and  fifth)  are 
very  rudimentary,  represented  only  by  small  hoofs,  without 
bony  phalanges,  and  by  the  proximal  or  upper  ends  of 
the  slender  splint-like  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones. 
Between  the  two  middle  toes,  in  most  species,  is  lodged  a 
deep  sac,  having  the  form,  of  a  retort  and  with  a  small 
external  orifice,  which  secretes  an  unctuous  and  odorous 
substance.  This,  tainting  the  herbage  or  stones  over 
which  the  animal  walks,  affords  the  means  by  which, 
through  the  powerfully  developed  sense  of  smell,  the 
neighbourhood  of  other  individuals  of  the  species  is  recog- 
nized. The  crumen  or  suborbital  gland,  which  is,  so  largely 
developed  and  probably  performs  the  same  office  in  some 


antelopes  and  deer,  is  present,  but  in  a  comparatively 
rudimentary  form,  though  varying  in  different  spccica.  The 
tail,  though  long  in  many  varieties  of  domestic  sheep,  is 
short  in  all  the  wild  species,  in  which  also  the  external 
covering  of  the  body  is  in  the  main  hairy, — the  fine  fleecy 
coats  of  wool,  or  hair  so  modified  as  to  have  the  property 
of  "felting"  or  adhering  together  under  pressure,  which 
give  such  value  to  many  breeds,  having  been  especially 
cultivated  by  selective  breeding. 

The  sheep  was  a  domestic  animal  in  Asia  and  Europe 
before  the  dawn  of  history,  though  quite  unknown  as  such 
in  the  New  World  until  after  the  Spanish  conquest.  It 
has  now  been  introduced  by  man  into  almost  all  parts  of 
the  world  where  settled  agricultural  operations  are  carried 
on,  but  flourishes  especially  in  the  temperate  regions  of 
both  hemispheres.  Whether  our  well-known  and  useful 
animal  is  derived  from  any  one  of  the  existing  wild  species, 
or  from  the  crossing  of  several,  or  from  some  now  extinct 
species,  is  quite  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The  variations  of 
external  characters  seen  in  the  different  domestic  breeds 


Moufflon  {Ovis  musimon).     From  a  living  animal  ia  the  London 
Zoological  Gardens. 

are  very  great.  They  are  chiefly  manifested  in  the  form 
and  number  of  the  horns,  which  may  be  increased  from 
the  normal  two  to  four  or  even  eight,  or  may  be  altogether 
absent  in  the  female  alone  or  in  both  sexes ;  in  the  form 
and  length  of  the  ears,  which  often  hang  pendent  by  the 
side  of  the  head ;  in  the  peculiar  elevation  or  arching  of 
the  nasal  bones  in  some  Eastern  races ;  in  the  length  of 
the  tail,  and  the  development  of  great  masses  of  fat  at  each 
side  of  its  root  or  in  the  tail  itself ;  and  in  the  colour  and 
quality  of  the  fleece.     See  AGEictrLTtrEE. 

The  distinction  of  the  various  permanent  modifications 
under  which, wild  sheep  occur  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
difliculty.  Trivial  characters,  such  as  size,  slight  variations 
in  colour,  and  especially  the  form  and  curvature  of  the 
horns,  are  relied  upon  by  different  zoologists  who  have 
given  attention  to  the  subject  in  the  discrimination  of 
species,  but  no  complete  accord  has  yet  been  established. 
The  most  generally  recognized  forms  are  enumerated  below. 
The  geographical  distribution  of  wild  sheep  ia  interesting.  Tho 
immense  mountain  ranges  of  Central  Asia,  the  Pamir  and  Thian 
Shan  of  Turkestan,  may  bo  looked  upon  as  the  centre  of  their 
habitat  Hero,  at  on  elevation  of  16,000  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
is  the  home  of  the  magnificent  Ovispoli^  named  after  tho  celebrated 
Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo,  who  met  with  it  in  his  adventnroas 
travels  through  this  region  in  the  13th  century.  It  ia  remark- 
able for  the  great  size  of  the  horns  of  the  old  rama  and  tho 
wide  open  sweep  of  their  curve,  so  that  the  points  stand  boldly 


S  H  E  —  S  H  E 


785 


out  on  each  side,  far  away  from  the  animal's  Lead,  instead  of  curl- 
ing round  nearly  in  the  sama  plane,  as  in  most  of  the  allied  species. 
A  very  simuar  if  not  identical  species  from  the  same  origin,  in 
which  the  horns  retain  their  more  normal  development,  has 
received  the  name  of  0.  karclini.  Eastward  and  northward  is 
found  the  argali  {0.  ammcm)^  with  a  wide  and  not  very  ^vell 
determined  range.  Still  further  north,  in  the  Stanovoi  Mountains 
and  Kamchatka,  is  0,  nivicola^  and  away  on  the  other  side  of 
Behring's  Strait,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  adjacent  high  lands 
of  western  North  America,  is  the  "  bighorn  "  or  mountain  sheep 
{0,  iii07itana),  the  only  one  of  the  genus  found  in  that  continent 
and  indeed — except  the  hison_,the  musk-ox  {Ovibos),  mountain  goat 
{Aploceras),  and  the  prcngbuck  {Antilocapra) — the  only  hollow- 
horned  ruminant,  being  like  the^rest  obviously  a  straggler  from  tlie 
cradle  of  its  race.  Turning  southward  from  the  point  from  which 
we  started,  and  still  a  little  to  the  east,  in  Nepal  and  Little  Tibet, 
is  0.  hodgsoni,  a  species  with  large  and  strongly  curved  horns, 
and  another  with  smaller  and  more  spreading  horns,  the  burrhel, 
0.  rifihoor.  Passing  in  a  south-westerly  direction  we  iind  a  series 
of  smaller  forms,  0.  vigtui  of  Ladak,  0,  a/cloceros  of  northern 
India,  Persia,  and  Baluchistan.  0.  gmeUni  of  Asia  Minor,  0.  ophion, 
confined  to  the  elevated  pine-clad  Troodos  Mountains  of  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  and  said  at  the  time  of  the  British  occupation 
in  1878  to  have  been  reduced  to  a  flock  of  about  twenty-five 
individuals,  and  0.  inxisivion^  the  moufflon  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia 
(see  figure),  believed  to  have  been  formerly  also  a  native  of  Spain. 
Lastly,  we  have  the  somewhat  aberrant,  goat-like  aoudad,  0. 
tragelapkus,  of  the  great  mountain  ranges  of  North  Africa. 

We  thus  find  that  sheep  are  essentially  inhabitants  of  high 
mountainous  parts  of  the  world,  for  dwelling'among  which  their 
wonderful  powers  of  climbing  and  leaping  give  them  special 
advantages.  No  species  frequent  by  choice  either  level  deserts, 
open  plains,  dense  forests,  or  swamps.  Ey  far  the  greater  number 
of  species  are  inhabitants  of  the  continent  of  Asia,  one  or  perhaps 
two  extending  into  North  America,  one  into  Soutliem  Kurope, 
and  one  into  North  Africa.  No  wild  sheep  occurs  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  unless  the  so  called  musk-ox  (Ovibos  moscliatus) 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  the  nearest  existing  ally  to  the  true  sheep, 
inay  be  considered  as  one.  Geologically  speaking,  sheep  appear 
to  be  very  modern  animals,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  safer  to  say 
that  no  remains  that  can  be  with  certainty  referred  to  the  genus 
have  been  met  with  in  the  hitherto  explored  true  Tertiary  beds, 
which  have  yielded  such  abundant  modifications  of  antelopes 
and  deer,  ^hey  are  apparently  not  indigenous  in  the  British  Isles, 
but  were  probably  introduced  by  man  from  the  East  in  prehistoric 
ti7ncs.  (W.  H.  F.) 

SHEEPSHEAD  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  largest 
species  of  the  genus  Sargus,  marine  fishes  known  on  the 
coasts  of  southern  Europe  as  "  sargo  "  or  "  saragu."  These 
fishes  possess  two  kinds  of  teeth  : — one,  broad  and  flat,  like 
incisors,  occupying  in  a  single  series  the  front  of  the  jaws ; 


Sheepshcad. 
the  other,  aemiglobular  and  moiar-like,  arranged  in  several 
series  on  the  sides  of  the  jaws.  For  the  .systematic  posi- 
tion of  the  genus,  see'  vol.  xii.  p.  689.  The  sheepshcad, 
Sdrgua  ovis,  occurs  in  abundance  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
the  United  States,  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  valued  food-fishes  of  North  America.  It  is 
said  to  attain  to  a  length  of  30  inches  and  a  weight  of  15 

21—28 


pounds.""  Its  food  consists  of  shellfish,  which  it  detaches 
with  its  incisors  from  the  base  to  which  they  are  fixsd, 
crushing  them  with  its  powerful  molars.  It  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  some  other  allied  species  occiirring  in  the 
same  seas  by  the  presence  of  seven  or  eight  dark  cross- 
bands  traversing  the  body,  by  a  recumbent  spine  in  front 
of  the  dorsal  fin,  by  twelve  spines  and  as  many  rays  of 
the  dorsal  and  ten  rays  of  the  anal  fin,  and  by  forty-six 
scales  along  the  lateral  line.  The  term  "  shecpshead  "  is 
also  given  in  some  parts  of  North  America  to  a  very 
different  fish,  a  freshwater  SciiEDoid,  Corvina  oscula,  which 
is  much  less  esteemed  for  the  table. 

SHEERNESS-ON-SEA,  a  seaport,  watering-place,  naval 
establishment,  and  garrison  town  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey, 
Kent,  is  situated  on  the  Thames  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mcd- 
way,  on  the  Sittingbourne  branch  of  the  London,  Chatham, 
and  Dover  Railway,  52  miles  east  of  London,  and  17 
north-east  of  Maidstone.  The  older  part  of  Sheernesa, 
containing  the  dockyard,  is  called  Blue  Town,  the  later 
additions  being  known  as  Miletown,  Bankstown,  and 
Marinetown.  Marinetown  consists  chiefly  of  houses  occu- 
pied by  summer  visitors,  but  although  there  is  a  good 
beach  for  bathing  the  presence  of  the  dockyard  with  its 
surroundings  has  militated  against  the  success  of  the  town 
as  a  watering-place.  The  dockyard,  erected  by  the  admi- 
ralty about  1830,  was  seriously  damaged  by  fire  in  ISBL 
The  naval  establishment  is  only  of  the  second-class,  the 
basins  being  too  small  to  admit  vessels  of  the  lar>xest  size. 
The  dockyard  is  60  acres  in  extent,  and  contains  naval 
barracks  with  accommodation  for  1000  men.  A  fort  was 
built  at  Sheerness  by  Charles  II.,  which  on  the  10th  July 
1667  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  fleet  under  De  Ruyter. 
After  this  mishap  it  was  strengthened  aad  a  dockyard 
was  formed.  The  fortifications  are  now  of  great  strength, 
.£100,000  having  been  spent  in  adapting  them  to  modern 
necessities.  The  town  is  in  the*  fiarish  of  Minster,  which 
possesses  the  most  ancient  abbey  church  in  England.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  938  acres) 
in  1871  was  13,956,  and  in  1881  it  was  14,286. 

SHEFFIELD,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  next  to  Leeds  the 
largest  town  in  the  county,  and  the  ehief  seat  of  the 
cutlery  trade  in  England,  is  situated  on  somewhat  hlUy 
ground  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Pennine  range,  on 
several  rivers  and  streams,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
Don,  the  Sheaf,  the  Porter,  the  Rlvelin,  and  the  Lesley, 
and  on  the  Midland,  Great  Northern,  and  various  branch 
railway  lines,  39  miles  south  of.  Leeds,  37  south-eaji  of 
JIanchester,  172  north  of  London  by  the  Midland 
Railway,  and  162  by  the  Great  Northern.  The  borough 
of  Sheflield  is  coextensive  with  the  parish,  and  embraces 
a  district  10  miles  :n 'length  by  3  or  4  miles  in  breadth. 
It  includes  the  town.'hips  of  Sheffield,  Brlghtslde  Blerlow,; 
Attercllffe-cum-Darnall,  Nether  Hallam,  Heeley,  Eccles- 
all  Blerlow,  and  Upper  Hallam,  the  last  two  districts 
being  in  great  part  rural,  but  occupied  also  by  the 
southern  and  western  suburbs  of  the  borough.  The  older 
portions  of  the  town  are  somewhat  irregularly  built,  and 
in  some  districts  den.sely  populated,  but  much  has  been 
done  of  late  years  to  widen  and  otherwise  improve  the 
streets  in  the  central  districts  by  the  operation  of  an  Ac'; 
pas.sed  in  1875,  the  expense  amounting  in  all  to  aboi  i 
£1,000,000.  The  suburbs  contain  a  large  number  of 
beautiful  terraces  and  mansions,  picturesquely  situated  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  fine  natural  scenery.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  them  is  occupied  by  workmen's  cottages, 
many  of  which  are  surrounded  by  well-kept  gardens. 

Sheffield  In  1845  was  divided  into  twenty-five  parochial 
districts,  'which  have  been  gradually  added  to  In  succes<;lve 
years,  and  in  1855  it  was  constituted  a  deanery.     The 

XXI.  —  09 


786 


SHEFFIELD 


only  ecclesiastical  buv'Aiflg  of  special  interest  is  the  old 
parish  church  of  St  l-eter,  chiefly  in  the  Perpendicular 
style,  originally  cruciform,  but  by  various  additions  now 
rectangular.  The  old  Norman  building  is  supposed  to 
have  been  burned  down  during  the  wars  of  Edward  III. 
,with  the  barons,  and  the  most  ancient  part  of  the  present 
structure  is  the  tower,  dating  from  the  14th  century. 
The  church  has  lately  been  restored  at  the  cost  of  about 
£20,000.  It  contains  a  large  number  of  interesting  mural 
monuments. 

The  free  grammar  school  was  founded  inl503'through 
a  bequest  of  Thomas  Snuth,  a  native  of  Sheffield,  practis- 
ing as  an  attorney  at  Crowland,  Lincolnshire,  and  it  re- 
ceived' the  sanction  of  King  James  I.  in  1604;  '^ith  the 
title  "The  Free  Grammar  School  of  King  James  of 
England."  The  grammar  school  building  of  stone  in  the 
Tudor  style,  erected  in  1824,  is  now  (1SS6)  used  as  a 
technical  school,  the  grammar  school  trustees  having  pur- 
chased the  collegiate  school  at  Broomhall  Park.  The 
other  principal  educational  institutions  are  the  free  writ- 
ing school  (1715,  rebuilt  in  1S27),  the 
boys'  charity  school  (founded  1706), 
the  girls'  charity  schqpl  (1786),  the 
Roman  Catholic  reformatory  (1861), 
the  Church  of  England  educational 
institute,  the  Firth  College,  erected  by 
Mark  Firth  at  a  cost  of  £20,000,  for 
lectures  and  classes  in  connexion  with 
the  extension  of  university  education, 
the  Wesley  College,  associated  with 
London  University,  Eanmoor  College, 
for  training  young  men  for  the 
ministry  in  the  Methodist  New  Con- 
nexion, the  mechanics'  institute,  the 
school  of  art,  and  the  St  George's 
Museum,  founded  by  Mr  Euskin,  and 
including  a  picture  gallery,  a  library, 
and  a  mineral,  a  natural  history,  and 
a  botanical  collection,  the  special  pur- 
pose of  the  institution  being  the  train- 
ing of  art  students.  The  school  board 
was  first  elected  in  1870,  and  carries 
on  its  operations  with  great  energy 
and  success. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  town-hall,  including  the  police 
offices  and  rooms  for  the  quarter  ses- 
sions and  other  courts,  erected  in 
1808,  enlarged  in  1833,  and  lately 
extensively  remodelled  at  a  cost  of 
over  £10,000;  the  council  hall  and  municipal  buildmgs, 
originally  used  for  the  mechanics'  institute,  but  purchased 
by  the  corporation  in  1864  ;  the  cutlers'  hall,  built  in  1832 
at  a  cost  of  £6500,  and  enlarged  in  1857  by  the  addition 
of  a  magnificent  banqueting  hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
£9000  ;  the  general  post  office,  in  the  Doric  style,  opened 
in  1874;  the  fine  new  corn  .exchange,  in  the  Tudor  style, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  £60,000  ;  the  Albert  Hall,  opened  in 
1873  by  a  joint-stock  company  for  concerts  and  public 
meetings  ;  the  music  hall,  erected  in  1823  ;  the  freemasons' 
hall,  opened  in  1877;  the  temperance  halls,  1856;  the 
Norfolk  rnarket  hall,  opened  in  1857  at  a  cost  of  £40,000  ; 
the  theatre  royal,  originally  erected  in  1793,  rebuilt  in 
1880  at  a  cost  of  £8000;  the  Alexandra  theatre,  erected 
1836-7  at  a  cost  of  £8000  ;  the  barracks,  having  accom- 
modation for  a  cavalry  and  an  infantry  regiment  and 
surrounded  by  grounds  25  acres  in  extent ;  and  the 
volunteer  artillery  drill  hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of  £9000. 
The  literary  and  social  institutions  include  the  Athenaeum, 
established  in  1847,  with  a  newsroom  and  library;  the 


literary  and  philosophical  society,  1822  ;  the  Sheffield  club, 
1862;  the  Sheffield  library,  commenced  in  1777,  and  con- 
taining 80,000  volumes ;  and  the  free  library,  founded  in 
1856,  with  various  branches  opened  in  subsequent  years. 
Among  the  medical  or  benevolent  institutions  may  be 
mentioned  the  general  infirmary,  opened  in  1797,  and 
successively  enlarged  and  improved  as  requirements  de- 
manded ;  the  public  hospital,  erected  in  1858  (in  connexion 
with  the  Sheffield  med-cal  school  established  in  1792)  and 
extended  in  1869  ;  the  hospital  for  women,  originally  estab- 
lished in  1864,  but  transferred  in  1878  to  a  new  building 
erected  at  the  expense  of  Thomas  Jessop,'  and  now  called 
the  Jessop  hospital  for  women ;  the  hospital  for  diseases 
of  the  skin,  1880  ;  the  ear  and  throat  hospital,  1880  ;  the 
fever  hospital,  erected  by  the  Town  Council  at  a  cost  of 
about  £25,000  ;  the  school  and  manufactory  for  the  blind', 
1879;  the  South  Yorkshire  lunatic  asylum,'  1872;  tha 
Shrewsbury  hospital  for  twenty  men  and  twenty  women, 
originally  founded  by  the  seventh  earl  of  Shrev.-sbury,  who 
died  In  1616,  but  since  greatly   enlarged  by  succKssive 


Plan  of  Sheffield. 

benefactions;  the  Hollis  hospital,  established  in  1700  for 
widows  of  cutlers,  ic. ;  the  Firth  almshouses,  erected  and 
endowed  in  1869  by  Mark  Firth  of  Oakbrook  at  a  cost 
of  £30,000;  the  licensed  victuallers'  asjlum,  1878;  the 
Deakin  institution,  1849;  Hanby's  charity,  1766;  and 
Hadfield's  charity,  1860. 

The  public  monuments  are  neither  numerous  nor  im- 
portant, the  principal  being  the  Montgomery  statue,  erected 
to  James  Montgomery  the  poet  in  1861,  chiefly  by  the 
Sunday  school  teachers  of  the  town,  the  Ebenezer  Elliot 
monument,  erected  in  the  market-place  in  1854,  and 
removed  to  Weston  Park  in  1875,  the  column  to  Godfrey 
Sykes  the  artist,  erected  in  Weston  Park  in  1871,  the 
cholera  monument  1S34-5,  and  the  Crimean  monument 
to  the  natives  of  Sheffield  who  died  in  the  C-rimean  War. 

The  town  is  comparatively  well  supplied  with  parks 
and  public  gardens.  In  three  of  the  more  populous  dis- 
tricts the  duke  of  Norfolk,  lord  of  the  manor,  presented 
plots  of  ground  amounting  ia  all  to  26  acres,  to  be  used 
as  recreation   grounds.      In  the  western   suburbs  is  the 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


787 


Weston  Pais  and' Museum,  occupying  ine  grounds  and 
mansion  house  of  Weston  Hall,  which  the  town  council 
purchased  in  1873.  The  grounds  are  about  13  acres  in 
extent,  and  the  museum  includes — in  addition  to  the 
Mappin  Art  Gallery,  now  (1886)  being  erected  from  the 
bequest  of  John  Newton  Mappin — a  picture  gallery,  a 
natural  history  collection,  and  an  extensive  collection  of 
British  antiquities.  The  Fjrth  Park,  on  the  north-east  of 
the  town,  36  acres  in  extent,  was  purchased  by  Mark  Firth, 
and  presented  to  the  town,  the  opening  ceremony  by  the 
prince  and  princess  of  AVales  taking  place  16th  August 
1875.  The  Norfolk  Park,  60  acres  in  extent,  is  granted 
by  the  duke  of  Norfolk  for  the  use  of  the  town,  but  remains 
his  property.  The  botanical  gardens,  18  acres  in  extent, 
situated  in  the  western  suburbs,  are  the  property  of  a  com- 
pany, but  on  certain  days  they  are  open  to  the  public  at  a 
small  charge.  The  Bramall  Lane  cricket  ground  is  the 
scene  of  most  of  the  Yorkshire  county  cricket  matches. 

The  prosperity  of  Sheffield  is  chiefly  dependent  on  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  and  the  application  of  it  to  its  various  uses.  The 
smelting  of  iron  in  the  district  is  supposed  to  date  from  Roman 
times,  and  there  is  distinct  proof  carrying  it  back  as  far  as  tlio 
Norman  Conquest.  The  town  had  become  famed  for  its  cutlery 
by  the  14th  century,  as  is  shown  by  allusions  in  Chaucer.  There 
was  an  important  trade  carried  on  in  knives  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, and  the  Cutlers'  Company  was  incorporated  in  1624.  In  early 
times  cutlery  was  made  of  blister  or  bar  steel ;  afterwards  shear 
steel  was  introduced  for  the  same  purpose  ;  but  in  1740  Benjamin 
Huntsman  of  Handsworth  introduced  the  mauufacture  of  cast  steel, 
and  up  to  the  present  time  Sheffield  retains  its  supremacy  in  steel 
manufacture,  notwithstanding  foreign  competition,  especially  that 
of  Germany  and  the  United  States,  its  trade  in  heavy  stceL  having 
kept  pace  with  that  in  the  other  branches.  It  was  with  the  aid 
of  Sheffield  capital  that  Henry  Bessemer  founded  his  pioneer  works 
to  develop  the  manufactui-e  of  his  invention,  and  a  large  quantity 
of  Bessemer  steel  is  still  made  in  Sheffield.  The  heavy  branch  of 
the  steel  manufacture  includes  armour  plates,  rails,  tyres,  axles, 
large  castings  for  engines,  steel  shot,  and  steel  for  rifles.  The 
cutlery  trade  embraces  almost  every  variety  of  instrument  and 
tool, — spring  and  table  knives,  razors,  scissors,  surgical  instru- 
ments, mathematical  instruments,  edge  tools,  saws,  scythes, 
sickles,  spades,  shovels,  engineering  tools,  hammers,  vices,  &c. 
The  manufacture  of  engines  and  machinery  is  also  largely  carried 
on,  as  well  as  that  of  stoves  and  grates.  The  art  of  silver  plating 
was  introduced  by  Thomas  Bolsover  in  1742,  and  the  manufacture 
is  still  of  importance.  Among  the  miner  industi'ies  of  the  town 
are  tanning,  confectionery,  cabinetmaking,  bicycle-making,  iron 
and  brass  founding,  silver  refining,  aud  the  manufacture  of 
brushes  and  combs  and  of  optical  instruments.  On  account  of 
various  outrages  peroetratcd  by  artisans  in  workshops  against  per- 
sons obuo.^ious  to  them,  a  Government  commission  was  in  1867 
appointed  to  make  inquiries,  the  result  being  the  exposure  and 
suppression  of  copfederacies  in  connexioii  with  various  workmen's 
uiiions. 

The  town  trast  for  the  administration  of  property  belonging  to 
the  town  dates  from  the  14th  century,  and  in  1G81  the  number 
and  manner  of  election  of  the  "  town  trustees  "  was  definitely 
settled  by  a  decree  of  the  Court  of  Chanceiy.  Additional  powers 
were  conferred  on  tlie  trustees  by  an  Act  passed  in  1874.  The 
annual  income  of  the  trust  property  now  amounts  to  about  £5000. 
SheflTield  obtained  municipal  government  in  1843,  and  is  divided 
into  nine  wards.  The  number  of  aldermen  is  sixteen.  Since  1864 
the  town  council  have  had  control  of  the  police,  of  the  maintenance 
of  the  streets,  and  of  the  drainage  awd  sanitary  arrangements,  but 
the  supplies  of  water  and  gas  are  in  the  hands  of  private  companies. 
The  markets  belong  to  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  lord  of  the  manor. 
The  town  first  returned  members  to  parliament  in  1832.  In  1885 
the  reiTesentation  was  increased  from  two  to  five  members,  the 
parliamentary  divisions  being  Attercliffe,  Brightsicle,  Central, 
Ecclesall,  and  Hallam..  The  area  of  the  municipal  and  parliament- 
ary borough  is  19,651  acres.  From  45,755  in  1801  the  population 
had  increased  Uy  1841  to  110,891,  by  1871  to  239,947,  and  by  1881 
to  284,508  (141,298  males,  143,210  fem.alcs). 

Sheffield  was  the  capital  of  Hallamshire  from  tho  Norman  Con- 
quest, and  it  is  supposed  that  tho  "aula"  of  tho  Saxon  Lord 
AValthcOf  mentioned  in  Domesday  was  on  the  Castle  Hill.  After 
the  execution  of  Walthcof  for  a  conspiracy  against  the  Conqueror 
in  1075  the  manor  for  some  time  remained  in  the  hands  of  his 
countess,  but  in  1080  was  (wssesscd  by  Roger  de  Busli.  After- 
wards it  passed  to  the  De  Lovetots,  barons  of  Huntingdonshire,  one 
of  whom  had  a  castle  at  Sheffield.  A  number  of  people,  workers 
in  iron,  gathered  round  the  castle  and  formed  tho  nucleus  of  the 


town.  Through  an  heiress  of  the  Do  Lovetots  it  passed  in  the 
reign  of  Richard  I.  to  the  De  Furnivals,  one  of  whom,  Thomas  de 
Furnival,  strengthened  and  completed  the  castle,  and  obtained 
from  Edward  I.  a  charter  under  the  great  seal  for  a  market  and 
annual  fair.  After  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  Furnivals 
in  1406,  the  manor  passed  to  the  Talbots,  of  whom  John,  referred 
to  in  Shakespeare's  Henry  VL,  was  created  earl  of  Shrewsbury  in 
1442.  Cardinal'Wolsey,duringhis  disgrace,  was  for  some  time  placed 
in  Sheffield  Castle  under  the  charge  of  George,  fourth  earl  of  Shrews- 
bury ;  and  Queen  Mary  remai:>ed  a  prisoner  in  it  under  the  care  of 
George,  sixth  earl,  from  the  autumn  of  1570  to  the  autumn  of  1584. 
During  the  Civil  "Wars  the  castle  was  seized  in  1642  by  the 
Parliamentary  party,  who  garrisoned  it  and  threw  up  entrench- 
ments round  the  town,  but  after  the  capture  of  Rotherham  in 
April  1643  they,  on  the  approach  of  the  earl  of  Newcastle,  left  it 
in  panic  and  fled  to  Derbyshire.  It  was,  however,  recaptured  by 
the  party  in  tho  following  year,  and  was  subsequently  demolished. 
In  1654  the  estate  passed  by  marriage  to  tho  Howards,  dukes  of 
Norfolk. 

See  Ilunlci'a  Ilattamshire,  IS19,  new  cd.  by  A.  Gat^y.  1S69  ;  Leader. 
Shejield  Caslle  and  Manj  Qiitm  0/  Seals,  1SC9  ;  Gutty,  She^eld  Past  and 
Pre^^nt,  1873  ;  W.  dc  Giay  Birch,  Original  Documents  icladng  to  Sffjntld,  1874  ; 
Leailer,  Reminiscences  0/  Otd  SItcJield,  1S75  ;  Taylor,  Pictorial  Guide  to 
SheJIdd,  1879. 

SHEFFIELD,  JonN.     See  BncKiNOHAMSHrRE,  Duke 

OF. 

SHEIL,  Richard  L.\lor  (1791-1851),  Irish  political 
orator,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Edward  Shell,  an  Irishman 
who  had  acquired  considerable  wealth  in  Spain,  and  after 
the  passing  of  the  Act  permitting  Catholics  in  Ireland  to 
purchase  and  transmit  property  in  fee  had  returned  to 
Ireland,  where  he  purchased  the  estate  of  Bellevue, 
Tipperary.  The  son  was  born  17th  August  1791,  at 
Drumdowney,  Tipperary.  He  received  instruction  Li 
French  and  Latin  from  the  khh&  de  Grimeau,  a.  French 
refugee,  and  afterwards  at  Kensington  House  school, 
London,  presided  over  by  a  French  nobleman,  the  Prince 
de  Broglie.  In  October  1804  he  was  removed  to  the 
college  at  Stoneyhurst,  Lancashire,  and  in  November 
1807  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  specially 
distinguished  himself  in  the  debates  of  the  Historical 
Society.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  July  1811,  and  on 
13th  November  of  the  same  year  entered  Lincoln's  Inn, 
preparatory  to  being  called  to  the  Irish  bar.  He  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Irish  bar  at  the  Hilary  term 
1814,  and  meanwhile  resolved  to  support  himself  by 
writing  plays.  His  play  of  Adelaide,  or  the  Emvp-ants,  was 
played  at  the  Crow  Street  theatre,  Dublin,  19th  February 
1814,  with  complete  success,  and  on  the  23d  May  1810 
was  performed  at  Covent  Garden.  The  Apostate,  produced 
at  the  latter  theatre  on  3d  May  1817,  firmly  established 
his  reputation,  and  encouraged  him  to  continue  his 
dramatic  efforts  till  his  legal  and  political  duties  absorbed 
the  greater  part  of  his  leisure.  His  principal  other  plays 
are  JSe/lamira  (written  in  1818),  Evadne  (1819),  Huguenot, 
(1819),  and  Montini  {\^-20).  In  1822  he  began,  along  with 
W.  H.  Curran,  to  contribute  to  the  Keio  Monthly  Magazim 
a  series  of  papers  entitled  Sketches  of  the  Irish  Bar,  whicb 
attracted  considerable  attention  by  their  raciness  and 
graphic  vigour.  Those  written  by  Shell  were  published 
in  1855  in  two  volumes,  with  a  sketch  of  his  life.  Sheil 
was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the  Catholic  Associa- 
tion in  1823,  and  drew  up  the  petition  for  inquiry  into 
the  mode  of  administering  the  laws  in  Ireland,  which  was 
presented  in  the  same  year  to  botli  Houses  of  Parliament. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Catholic  Relief  BiUin  1825  he 
suggested  the  formation  of  the  New  Catholic  Association, 
and,  along  with  O'Connell,  was  the  principal  leader  of  the 
agitation  persistently  carried  on  till  Catholic  emancipation 
was  granted  in  1829.  In  the  same  year  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  for  Melbourne  Port,  and  in  1831  for  Louth. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  all  the  debates  relating  to 
Ireland,  and  his  brilliant  eloquence  gradually  captivated 
the  admiration  of  the  House.  In  August  1839  ho  became 
vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade  in  Lord  Melbourne'3 


788 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


ministry.  After  the  accession  of  Lord  John  Russell  to 
power  in  18-lG  he  was  appointed  master  of  the  mint. 
Being  desirous,  on  account  of  his  wife's  health,  to  obtain 
diplomatic  employment  abroad,  he  was  in  1850  appointed 
minister  at  the  court  of  Tuscany.  He  died  somewhat 
suddenly  of  gout  at  Florence  on  Iilay  23,  1851. 

See  Mivwirs  of  Richard  Lalor  Sheil,  by  W.  Torrens  M'CuIlagh 
(2  vols.,  1855). 

SHEKEL.  In  the  system  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
weights  the  talent  (called  in  Heb.  13?,  kikkar)  consisted  of 
60  mana  (Heb.  •"•r?^?,  maneh)  or  minas,  and  tie  latter  again 
of  sixty  shekels  (B.ehy\?S).  For  the  values  of  these 
weights  see  Numis.matics,  vol.  xvii.  p.  631,  where  it  is 
also  explained  that  the  Phoenicians  and  Hebrews  modified 
the  system  and  reckoned  only  50  shekels  to  the  maneh,  at 
all  events  in  applying  the  names  to  money,  i.e.,  to  the 
precious  metals,'  and  that  the  weight  of  their  silver  shekel 
was  also  probably  modified  for  convenience  of  interchange 
between  the  gold  and  silver  standard.  The  silver  shekels 
of  the  Maccabees  (Numismatics,  p.  650)  have  a  maximum 
weight  of  about  224  grains,  and  correspond  to  the  PhcE- 
nician  tctradrachm  (four  drams).  Hence  in  Matt.  xvii.  24 
the  temple  tax  of  half  a  shekel  is  called  the  didrachm  (2 
drams).  In  2  Sam.  xiv.  26  we  read  of  shekels  "  after  the 
king's  weight,"  i.e.,  according  to  the  Assyrian  standard, 
which  is  called  ''  royal "  on  weights  found  at  Nineveh. 
The  ilebrews  divided  the  shekel  into  twenty  parts,  each  of 
which  was  a  gerah  ('^l}). 

SHELBURNE,  Earl  of.  See  Lansdowne,  Marquis 
of. 

SHELD-DRAKE,  or,  as  commonly  spelt  in  its  con- 
tracted form.  Sheldrake,  a  word  whose  derivation  ^  has 
been  much  discussed,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  birds  of 
the  Duck  tribe,  Anatidx,  called,  however,  in  many  parts  of 
England  the  "  Burrow-Duck  "  from  its  habits  presently 
to  be  mentioned,  and  in  some  districts  by  the  almost  obso- 
lete name  of  "  Bergander"  (Dutch,  Berg-eende,  Gtxm.  Berg- 
ente),  a  word  used  by  Turner  in  1544. 

The  Sheldrake  is  the  Anas  iador-na  ^  of  Linnseus.  and  the 
Tadorna  comuta  or  T,  milpatiser  of  modem  ornithology,  a  bird 
somewhat  larger  and  of  more  upright  stature  than  an  ordinary 
Duck,  having  its  bill,  with  a  basal  fleshy  protuberance  (whence  the 
specific  term  cornuta),  pale  red,  the  head  and  upper  neck  very  dark 
glossy  green,  and  beneath  that  a  broad  white  collar,  succeeded  by 
a  still  broader  belt  of  bright  bay  extending  from  the  upper  back 
across  the  upper  breast.  The  outer  scapulars,  the  primaries,  a 
median  abdominal  stripe,  which  dilates  at  the  vent,  and  a  bar  at 
the  tip  of  the  middle  tail-quills  are  black  ;  the  inner  secondaries 
and  the  lower  tail-coverts  are  grey  ;  and  the  speculum  or  wing-spot 
is  a  rich  bronzed-green.  The  rest  of  the  plumage  is  pure  white, 
and  the  legs  are  flesh-coloured.  There  is  little'  external  diffcrenco 
between  the  sexes,  the  female  being  only  somewhat  smaller  and 
lois  brightly  coloured.  The  Sheldrake  frequents  the  sandy  coasts 
of  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  and  North  Africa,  extending  across 
Asia  to  India,  China,  and  Japan,  generally  keeping  in  pairs  and 
sometimes  penetrating  to  favonrahle  inland  localities.  The  nest 
Is  always  made  under  cover,  usually  in  a  rabbit-hole  among  sand- 
hills, and  in  the  Frisian  Islands  the  people  supply  this  bird  with 
artificial  burrows,  taking  large  toll  of  it  in  eggs  and  down.  Barbary, 
south-eastern  Europe,  and  Central  Asia  are  inhabited  by  an  allied 

'  See  Eiod.  xxxviii,  25,  wf,?re  there  are  3000  shekels  in  the  talent. 

'  Kay  in  1C74  (Engl.  Words,  p.  76)  gave  it  from  the  local  "  sheld  " 
(  =  particoloured),  which,  applied  to  animals,  as  a  horse  or  a  cat,  still 
survives  ia  East  Anglia.  This  opinion  is  not  only  suitable  but  is 
confirmed  by  the  bird's  Old  Norsk  name  Skjoldungr,  from  Skjoldr, 
primarily  a  patch,  and  now  commonly  bestowed  on  a  piebald  horse, 
just  as  Skjalda  (Cleasby's  Icel.  Diet.,  sub  voce),  from  the  same  source, 
is  a  particoloured  cow.  But  some  scholars  interpret  SkjblduTigr  by 
the  secondary  meaning  Of  Skjbldr,  a  shield,  asserting  that  it  refers 
to  "the  shield-like  band  across  the  breast"  of  the  bird.  If  they  be 
right  the  proper  spelling  of  the  English  word  would  be  "  Shield-drake," 
as  some  indeed  have  it.  A  third  suggested  meaning,  from  the  Old  Norsk 
SkjCl,  shelter,  is  philologically  to  be  rejected,  but,  if  true,  would  refer 
to  the  bird's  habit,  described  in  the  text,  of  breeding  under  cover. 

'  This  is  the  Latinized  form  of  the  French  Tadome,  first  published 
bv  Belon  (1555),  a  word  on  which  Littre  throws  no  light  except  to 
eut«  that  it  baa  a  soathem  voriaot  Tardotu. 


species  of  more  inland  range  and  very  different  coloration,  the 
T.  casarca  or  Casarca*  ndila  of  ornithologists,  the  Ruddy 
Sheldrake  of  English  authors — for  it  has  several  times  strayed  to 
tho  British  Islands, — and  the  "  Brahminy  Duck"  of  Anglo- 
Indians,  who  find  it  resorting  in  winter,  whether  by  pairs  or  by 
thousands,  to  their  inland  waters.  This  species  is  of  an  almost 
uniform  bay  colour  all  over,  except  the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings 
and  tail,  and  (in  the  male)  a  ring  round  tho  neck,  which  are  black, 
while  the  wing-coverts  are  white  and  the  speculum  shines  with 
green  and  purple  ;  the  bill  and  legs  are  dark-coloured.*  A  species 
closely  rese.nbling  the  last,  but  with  a  grey  head,  T.  cana,  inhabits 
South  Africa,  while  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Australia,  thefe  is  a  fourt'a 
species,  T.  radjah,  which  almost  equals  the  true  Sheldrake  in  its 
brightly  contrasted  plumage,  but  yet  wants  some  of  the  lively 
colours  the  latter  displays— its  head,  for  instance,  being  white 
instead  of  dark  green.  Further  to  the  southward  in  Australia 
occurs  another  species  of  more  sc  bre  colours,  the  T.  fadomoidcs; 
and  New  Zealand  is  the  home  of  a  sixth  species,  T.  variegaia, 
still  less  distinguished  by  bright  hues.  In  the  last  two  the 
plumage  of  the  sexes  differs  not  inconsiderably,  but  all  are  believed 
to  have  essentially  the  same  habits  as  the  T.  comuta.^ 

It  is  not  without  a  purpose  that  these  different  species 
are  here  particularized.  Sheldrakes  will,  if  attention  be  paid 
to  their  wants,  breed  freely  in  captivity,  crossing  if  oppor- 
tunity be  given  them  with  other  species,  and  an  incident 
therewith  connected  possesses  an  importance  hardly  to  be 
overrated  by  the  philosophical  naturalist,  though  it  seems 
not  to  have  met  with  the  attention  it  deserves.  In  the 
Zoological  Society's  gardens  in  the  spring  of  1859  a  male  of 
T.  comuta  mated  with  a  female  of  T.  cana,  and,  as  will  have 
been  inferred  from  what  has  been  before  stated,  these  two 
species  differ  greatly  in  the  colouring  of  their  plumage. 
The  young  of  their  union,  however,  presented  an  appear- 
ance wholly  unlike  that  of  either  parent,  and  ^n  appearance 
which  can  hardly  be  said,  as  has  been  said  {P.  Z.  S.,  1859, 
p.  442),  to  be  "a  curious  combination  of  the  colours  of  the 
two."  Both  sexes  of  this  hybrid  have  been  admirably  por- 
trayed by  Mr  Wolf  {torn,  cii.,  Aves,  pi.  158) ;  and,  strange 
to  say,  when  these  figures  are  compared  with  equally  faith- 
ful portraits  by  the  same  master  (op.  cii.,  1864,  pis.  18,  19) 
of  the  Australian  and  New  Zealand  species,  T.  (adomoides 
and  T.  variegaia,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that  the  hybrids 
present  an  appsarancs  almost  midway  between  the  two 
species  last  named — species  which  certainly  had  nothing 
to  do-  with  their  production.  The  only  explanation  of  this 
astounding  fact  seems  to  be  that  aff'orded  by  the  principle 
of  "  reversion,"  as  set  forth  by  Mr  Darwin,  and  illustrated 
by  him  from  examples  of  certain  breeds  of  Doves,  domes- 
tic Fowls,  and  Ducks  {Anim.  and  PI.  under  Domestication, 
i.  pp.  197-200,  ii.  p.  40),  as  well  as,  in  the  matter  of 
domestic  Fowls,  by  Mr  Cambridge  Phillips  {Zoologist, 
1884,  p.  331).  It  is  a  perfectly  fair  hypothesis  that  the 
existing  animals  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia  retain 
more  of  their  ancestral  character  than  do  those  of  countries 
in  which  we  may  suppose  the  struggle  for  lif^  to  have 
been  fiercer  and  th6  action  of  natural  selection  stronger. 
Why  it  is  so  we  cannot  say,  yet  experiment  proves  that 
the  most  widely  different  breeds  of  Pigeons  and  other 
poultry,  when  crossed,  produce  offspring  that  more  re- 
sembles the  ancestral  wild  species  from  which  the  domestic- 
ated forms  have  sprung  than  it  resembles  either  of  the 
immediate  parents.     This  mysterious  agency  is  known  as 

*  Bonaparte  was  pleased  in  1S3S  to  separate  this  species  from  the 
genus  Tadorna,  but  neither  he  nor  any  of  his  successors  has  shewn 
any  good  reason  for  doing  so. 

'  Jerdon  [B.  India,  in.  p.  793)  tells  of  a  Hindu  belief  that  once 
upon  a  time  two  lovers  were  transformed  into  birds  of  this  species, 
and  that  they  or  their  descendants  are  condemned  to  pass  the  night 
on  the  opposite  banks  of  a  river,  whence  they  unceasingly  call  to  one 
another:  *'Charkwa,  shall  I  come?"  "No,  Charkwi."  "  Charkwi, 
shall  I  come  ?  "  "No,  Charkwa."  As  to  how,  under  these  circum- 
stances, the  race  is  perpetuated  the  legend  is  silent. 

•  The  Anas  scutellaia  of  the  Indo-Malay  countries  ij  by  several 
nnthoviticD  considsrsd  to  bo  a  Tadorna,  bnt  this  vk;;  is  denlsd  by 
Dthei8..aiuosg.tben-^7  iIi-Huiuc.(SL0i_5'<:a<A<r«_jiii.  p.  1£S), 


S  H  E  —  s  n  E 


789 


Ihe  principle  of  "  reversion,"  and  tne  example  just  cited 
proves  that  the  same  effect  is  produced  in  species  as  well 
as  in  "races," — indicating  the  essential  identity  of  both, 
— the  only  real  difference  being  that  "  species  "  are  more 
difierentiated  than  are  "races,"  or  that  the  distinction 
bet'.veen  them,  instead  of  being  (as  many  writers,  some 
of  the  first  repute,  have  maintained)  qualitative,  is  merely 
qur.ntitative,  or  one  of  degree.^ 

The  genus  Tadorna,  as  shewn  by  its  tracheal  characters, 
seems  to  be  most  nearly  related  to  Chenalopex,  containing 
ti.e  bird  so  well  known  as  the  Egyptian  Goose,  C.  sgyptiaca, 
and  an  allied  species,  C.  jubata,  from  South  America.  For 
the  same  reason '  the  genus  P/erfrbjoto-Ms,  composed  of  the 
Spur- winged  Geese' of  Africa,  and  perhaps  the  Australian 
Anscranas  and  the  Indian  and  Ethiopian  Sarcidiornis, 
also  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  group,  which  should  be 
reckoned  rather  to  the  Anatine  than  to  the  Anserine 
section  of  the  Anatids.  (a.  n.) 

SHELLEY,  Mary  Wollstonecraft  (1797-1851),  the 
second  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley  (q.v.),  born  in  London, 
August  30,  1797  (see  vol.  x.  j).  717),  deserves  some 
notice  on  her  own  account,  as  a  writer  of  romance,  chiefly 
imaginative.  When  she  was  in  Switzerland  with  Shelley 
and  Byron  in  1816  (see  below),  a  proposal  was  made 
that  various  members  of  the  party  should  write  a  romance 
or  tale  dealing  with  the  supernatural;  The  result  of  this 
project  was  that  Mrs  Shelley  .wrote  Frankenstein,  Byron 
the  beginning  of  a  narrative  about  a  vampyre,  and  Dr 
Polidori,  Byron's  physician,  a  tale  named  7'he  Vampyre, 
the  authorship  of  which  used  frequently  in  past  years 
to  be  attributed  to  Byron  himself.  Frankenstein,  pub- 
lished in  ISIS,' when  Mrs  Shelley  was  at  the  utmost 
twenty-one  .years  old,  is  a  very  remarkable  performance 
for  so  young  and  inexperienced  a  writer ;  its  main  idea  is 
that  of  the  formation  and  vitalization,  by  a  deep  student 
of  the  secrets  of  nature,  of  an  adult  man,  who,  entering  the 
world  thus  under  unnatural  conditions,  becomes  the  terror 
of  his  species,  a  half-involuntary  criminal,  and  finally  an 
outcast  whose  sole  resource  is  self-immolation.  This 
romance  was  followed  by  others:  Valperga,  or  the  Life  and 
Adventures  of  Castruccio,  Prince  of  Lucca  (1823),  an  his- 
torical tale  written  with  a  good  deal  of  spirit,  and  readable 
enough  even  now;  The  Last  Man  (1826),  a  fiction  of  the 
final  agonies  of  human  society  owing  to  the  universal 
spread  of  a  pestilence, — this  is  written  in  a  very  stilted  style, 
but  bears  some  traces  of  the  imagination  which  fashioned 
Frankenstein;  The  Fortunes  of  Perkin  Warbech  (1830); 
Xotiore  (1835) ;  and  i^attnfr  (1837).  Besides  these  novels 
there  was  the  Journal  of  a  Six  Weeks'  Tour  (the  tour 
of  181').  mentioned  below),  which  is  published  in  con- 
junction with  Shelley's  prose-writings ;  also  Jiambles  in 
Germary  and  Italy  in  1840-42-43  (which  shows  an 
observant  spirit,  capable  of  making  some  true  forecasts  of 
the  future),  and  various  miEcellaneous  writings.  After 
the  death  of  Shelley,  for  whom  she  had  a  deep  and  even 
enthusia.stic  affection,  marred  at  times  by  defects  of 
temper,  Mrs  Shelley  in  the  autumn  of  1823  returned  to 
Iiondon.  At  first  the  earnings  of  her  pen  were  her  only 
sustenance ;  but  after  a  while  Sir  Timothy  Shelley  made 
her  an  allowance,  which  would  have  been  withdrawn  if 
she  ha-l  persisted  in  a  project  of  writing  a  full  biography 
of  her  husband.  She  was  a  loving  and  careful  mother, 
and  shared  the  prosperous  fortunes  of  her  son,  when, 
upon  tlte  death  of  Sir  Timothy  in  1844,  he  succeeded  to 
the  batonetcy.     She  died  in  February  1851. 

SHELLEY,  Percy  Bysshe  (1792-1822),  was  born  on 

'  It  is  .'urther  worthy  of  remark  that  tho  yonng  of  T.  variegata 
T,-"hen  firat'  h.itohed  closejy  resemble  tho.'io  of  T.  casarca,  and  when. 
tho  former  assume  their  firat  plumage  they  rcacrablo  their  father  more 
thaa  their  mother  (P.  Z.S.,  1  "^gV  5"  l^OJ. 


4th  August  1792,  at  Field  Place,  near,  Horsham,  Sussex. 
He  was  the  eldest  child  of  Timothy  Shelley,  M.P.  for 
Shoreham,  hy  his  wife  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Charles 
Pilfold,  of  Effingham,  Surrey.  Mr  Timothy  Shelley  be- 
came in  1815  Sir  Timothy  Shelley,  Bart,  upon  the  decease 
of  his  father  Bysshe,  who  was  created  a  baronet  in 
1806.  This  Bysshe  Shelley  was  born  in  Christ  Church, 
Newark,  North  America,  and  married  two  heiresses,  the 
former,  the  mother  of  Timothy,  being  Mary  Catherine,' 
heiress '  of  the  Rev.  Theobald  Michel!,  of  Horsham.  He 
was  a  handsome  man  of  enterprising  and  remarkable 
character,  accumulated  a  vast  fortune,  built  Castle  Goring, 
and  lived  in  silllen  and  penurious  retirement  in  his  closing 
years.  None  of  his  talent  seems  to  have  descended  to 
Timothy,  who,  except  for  being  of  a  rather  oddly  self-asser- 
tive character,  was  uudistinguishable  from  the  ordinary 
run  of  commonplace  country  squires.  The  mother  of  the 
poet  is  described  as  beautiful,  and  a  woman  of  good  abili- 
ties, but  not  with  any  literary  turn  ;  she  was  an  agreeable 
letter-writer.  The  branch  of  the  Shelley  family  to  which 
the  poet  Percy  Bysshe  belonged  traces  its  pedigree  to 
Henry  Shelley,  of  Worminghurst,  Sussex,  who  died  in 
1623.  Beyond  that  point  the  genealogical  record  is  not 
clear;  yet  no  substantial  doubt  exists  that  these  Worm- 
inghurst or  Castle  Goring  Shelleys  are  of  the  same  stock 
as  the  Michelgrove  Shelleys,  who  trace  up  to  Sir  Williani 
Shelley,  judge  of  the  common  pleas  under  Henry  VII., 
thence  to  a  member  of  parliament  in  1415,  and  to  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.,  or  even  to  the  epoch  of  the  Norman 
Conquest.  The  Worminghurst  branch  was  a  family  of 
credit,  but  not  of  distinction,  until  its  fortunes  curminate4 
under  the  above-named  Sir  Bysshe. 

In  the  character  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  three  qualities 
become  early  manifest,  and  may  be  regarded  as  innate  : 
impressionableness  or  extreme  susceptibility  to  external 
and  internal  impulses  of  feeling ;  a  lively  imagination  or 
erratic  fancy,  blurring  a  sound  estimate  of  solid  facts  ;  and 
a  resolute  repudiation  of  outer  authority  or  the  despotism 
of  custom.  These  qualities  were  h'ighly  developed  in  his 
earliest  manhood,  'were  active  in  his  boyhood,  and  no 
doubt  made  some  show  even  on  the  borderland  between 
childhood  and  infancy.  •■  At  the  age  of  six  he  was  sent  to 
a  day  school  at  Warnham,  kept  by  the  Rev.  Jlr  Edwards ; 
at  ten  to  Sion  House  School,  Brentford,  of  which  the 
principal  was  Dr  Greenlaw,  while  the  pupils  were  mostly 
sons  of  local  tradesrrien  ;  at  twelve  (or  immediately  before 
that  age,  29th  July  1804)  to  Eton.  The  headmaster  of 
Eton,  up  to  nearly  the  close  of  Shelley's  sojourn  in  the 
school,  was  Dr  Goodall,  a  mild  disciplinarian ;  it  is  there- 
fore a  mistake  to  suppose  that  Percy  (unless  during  his 
very  brief  stay  in  the  lower  school)  was  frequently 
flagellated  by  the  formidable  Dr  Keate,  who  only  became 
headmaster  after  Goodall.  Shelley  was  a  shy,  sensitive, 
mopish  sort  of  boy  from  one  point  of  view, — from  another 
a  very  unruly  one,  having  his  own  notions  of  justice,  inde- 
pendence, and  mental  freedom ;  by  nature  gentle,  kindly, 
and  retiring, — under  provocation  dangerously  violent. 
Ho  resisted  the  odious  fagging  system,  exerted  himself 
little  in  the  routine  of  school-learning,  and  wa.s  known 
both  as  "  Mad  Shelley "  and  as  "  Shelley  tho  Atheist." 
Some  writers  try  to  show  that  an  Eton  boy  would  bo 
termed  atheist  without  exhibiting  any  propensity  to 
atheism,  but  .solely  on  the  ground  of  his  being  mutinom;. 
However,  as  Shelley  was  a  declared  atheist  a  good  while 
before  attaining  his  majority,  a  shrewd  suspicion  arises 
that,  if  Etonians  dubbed  him  atheist,  they  had  somo 
relevant  reason  for  doing  so. 

Shelley  entered  University  College,  Oxford,  in  April 
1810,  returned  thence  to  Eton,  and  finally  quitted  the 
school  at  midsummer,  and  commenced  residence  in  Oxford 


790 


SHELLEY 


in  October.  Hero  bo  met  a  young  Durham  man,  Thomas 
IJeflarson  Hogg,  who  had  preceded  hira  ia  the  university 
[by  a  couple  of  months ;  the  two  youths  at  once  struck  up 
a  warm  and  intimate  friendship.  Shelley  had  at  this 
time'  a  love  for  chemical  experiment,  as  well  as  for  poetry, 
philosophy,  and  classical  study,  and  was  in  all  his  tastes 
and  bearing  an  enthusiast.  Hogg  was  not  in  the  least  an 
enthusiast,  rather  a  cynic,  but  he  also  was  a  steady  and 
well-read  classical  student.  In  religious  matters  both 
were  sceptics,  or  indeed  decided  anti-Christians ;  whether 
feogg,  as  the  senior  and  more  informed  disputant, 
pioneered  Shelley  into  strict  atheism,  or  whether  Shelley, 
as  the  more  impassioned  and  unflinching  speculator, 
outran  the  easy-going-jeering  Hogg,  is  a  moot  point;  we 
incline  to  the  latter  opinion.  Certain  it  is  that  each  egged 
on  the  other  by  perpetual  disquisition  on  abstruse  sub- 
jects, conducted  partly  for  the  sake  of  truth  and  partly 
for  that  of  mental  exercitation,  without  on  either  side  any 
disposition  to  bow  to  authority  or  stop  short  of  extreme 
conclusions.  The  upshot  of  this  habit  was  that  Shelley 
and  Hogg,  at  the  close  of  some  five  months  of  happy  and 
uneventful  academic  life,  got  expelled  from  the  university. 
Shelley — for  he  alone  figures  as  the  writer  of  the  "little 
syllabus,"  although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Hogg  was 
his  confidant  and  coadjutor  throughout — published  anouy- 
mously  a  pamphlet  or  flysheet  entitled  The  A^eaessifi/  of 
^.theism,  which  he  sent  round,  or  intended  to  send  round, 
to  all  sorts  of  people  as  an  invitation  or  challenge  to  dis- 
cussion. It  amounted  to  saying  that  neither  reason  nor 
testimony  is  adequate  to  establish  the  existence  of  a 
deity,  and  that  nothing  short  of  a  personal  individua,l  .self- 
revelation  of  the  deity  would  be  sufficient.  The  college 
authorities  heard  of  the  pamphlet,  somehow  identified 
Shelley  as  its  author,  and  summoned  him  before  them — ■ 
"our  master,  and  two  or  three  of  the  fellows."  The 
pamphlet  was  produced,  and  Shelley  was  required  to  say 
whether  he  had  written  it  or  not.  The  youth  declined  to 
answer  the  question,  and  was  expelled  by  a  written 
sentence,  ready  drawh  up.  Hogg  was  next  summoned, 
with  a  result  practically  the  same.  Tlie  precise  details  of 
this  transaction  have  been  much  controverted ;  the  best 
evidence  is  that  which  appears  on  the  college  records, 
showing  that  both  Hogg  and  Shelley  (Hogg  is  there 
named  first)  were  expelled  for  "  contumaciously  refusing  to 
answer  questions,"  and  for  "  repeatedly  declining  to  dis- 
avow "  the  authorship.  Thus  they  were  dismissed  as  being 
mutineers  against  academic  authority,  in  a  case  pregnant 
with  the  suspicion — not  the  proof — of  atheism  ;'  but 
how  the  authorities  could  know  beforehand  that  the  two 
undergraduates  would  be  (jontumacious  and  stiff  against 
disavowal,  so  as  to  give  warrant  for  written  sentences 
ready  drawn  up,  is  nowhere  explained.  Possibly  the 
sentences  were  worded  without  ground  assigned,  and 
would  only  have  been  produced  in  terrorevi  had  the 
young  meu  proved  more  malleable.  The  date  of  this 
incident  was  25tli  March  1811. 

Shelley  and  Hogg  came  up  to  London,  where  Shelley 
was  soon  left  alone,  as  his  friend  went  to  York  to  siudy 
conveyancing.  Percy  and  his  incensed  father  did  not  at 
once  come  to  terms,  and  for  a  while  he  had  no  resource 
beyond  pocket-money  saved  up  by  his  sisters  (four  in 
number  altogether)  and  sent  round  to  him,  sometimes  by 
the  hand  of  a  singularly-pretty  school-fellow.  Miss  Harr-'et 
\yestbrook,  daughter  of  a  retired  and  moderately  opulent 
hotel-keeper.  Shelley,  especially  in  early  youth,  had  a 
somewhat  "priggish"  turn  for  moralizing  and  argumenta- 
tion, and  a  decided  mania  for  proselytizing ;  his  school- 
girl sisters,  and  their  little  Methodist  friend  Jliss  West- 
brook,  aged  between  fifteen  and  sixteen,  must  all  be 
enlightened  and  converted  to  anti-Christianity.     He  there- 


fore cultivated  the  eociety  of  Harriet,  calling  at  the  house 
of  her  father,  and  being  encouraged  in  his  assiduity  by 
her   much   older    sister    Eliza.     Harriet   not^  unnaturally 
fell  in  love  with  him ;  and  he,  though  not  it  would  seem 
at  any  time  ardently  in  love  with  her,  dallied  along  the 
flowery  pathway  which  leads  to  sentiment  and  a  definite 
courtship.     This  was  not  his  first  love-affair ;  for  he  had 
but  a  very  few  months  before  been  courting  his  cousin 
Miss   Harriet  Grovo,   who,   alarmed   at  his  heterodo.x-ies, 
finally  broke  off  -vith  him — to  his  no  small  grief  and  per- 
turbation at  the  time.     It  is  averred,  and  seemingly  with 
truth,  that  Shelley  'jever  indulged  in  any  sensual  or  dis- 
sipated amour ;   a,nd,  as  he  advances  in  life,  it  becomes 
apparent  that,  though  capable  of  the  passion  of  love,  and 
unusually  prone  to  regisrd  with  much  effusion  of  sentiment 
women    who  interested    his    mind    and    heart,  the    mere 
attraction  of  a  pretty  face  or  an  alluring  figure  left  him 
unenthralled.     Aftur  a  while  Percy  was  reconciled  to  his 
father,  revisited  his  family  in  Sussex,  and  then  stayed  with 
a  cousin  in  Wales.     Plence  he  was  recalled  to  London  by 
Miss  Harriet  Westbrook,  who  wrote  complaining   of  hei 
father's  resolve  to  send  her  back  to  her  school,  in  which 
she  was  now  regarded  with  repulsion  as  having  become  too 
apt  a  pupil  of  the  atheist  Shelley.     He  replied  counselling 
resistance.     "  She  wrote  to  say  "  (these  are  the  words  of 
Shelley  in  a  letter  to   Hogg,  dating  towards  the  end  of 
July   1811)  "that  resistance  was   useless,   but  that  she 
would  fly  with  me,  and  threw  herself  upon  my  protection." 
Shelley  therefore  returned    to    London,  where  he   found. 
Harriet   agitated   and   wavering ;  finally  they  agreed   to 
elope,  travelled  in  haste  to  Edinburgh,  and  there,  according 
to  the  law  of  Scotland,  became  husband  and  wife  on  28th 
August.     Shelley,  it  should  be  understood,  had  by  this 
time  openly  broken,  not  only  with  the  dogmas  and  conven- 
tions of  Christian  religion,  but  with-many  of  the  institu- 
tions of    Christian  polity,  and   in  especial  with  such  as 
enforce  and  regulate  marriage ;  he   held — with   William 
Godwin  and  some  other  theorists — that  marriage  ought  to 
be    simply  a    voluntary    relation   between   a  man  and  a 
woman,  to  be  assumed  at  joint  option  and  terminated  at 
the  after-option  of  either  party.     If  therefore  he  had  acted 
upon  his  personal  conviction  of  the  right,  he  would  never 
have  wedded  Harriet,  whether  by  Scotch,  English,  or  any 
other  law ;  but  he  waived  hi*  own  theory  in  favour  of  the 
consideration  that   in  such   an  experiment  ihe  woman's 
stake,  and  the  disadvantages  accruing  to  her,  are  out  of 
all   comparison  with  the   man's.      His   conduct   therefore 
was  so  far  entirely  honourable  ;  and,  if  it  derogated  from 
a  principle  of  his   own   (a  principle  which,  however  con- 
trary to  the   morality  of  other  people,  was  and  always 
remained  matter  of  genuine  conviction  on  his  individual 
part),  this  was  only  in  deference  to  a  higher  and  more 
imperious  standard  of  right. 

Harriet  Shelley  was  not  only  beautiful  ;  she  was 
amiable,  accommodating,  adequately  well  educated  and 
well  bred.  She  liked  reading,  and  hei'  reading  was  not 
strictly  frivolous.  But  she  could  not  (as  Shelley  said  at  a 
later  date)  "  feel  poetry  and  understand  philosophy."  Her 
attractions  were  all  on  the  surface  ;  there  was  (to  use  a 
common  phrase)  "  nothing  particular  in  her."  For  nearly 
three  years  Shelley  and  she  led  a  shifting  sort  of  life  upon 
an  income  of  £100  a  year,  one-half  of  which  was  allowed 
(after  his  first  severe  indignation  at  the  mesalliance  was 
past)  by  Mr  Timothy  Shelley,  and  the  other  half  by  Mr 
Westbrook.  The  spouses  left  Edinburgh  for  York  and 
the  society  of  Hogg  ;  broke  with  him  upon  a  charge  made 
by  Harriet,  and  evidently  fully  believed  by  Shelley  at  the 
time,  that,  during  a  tem]  lorary  absence  of  his  upon  business 
in  Sussex,  Hogg  had  tri  d  to  seduce  her  (this  quarrel  was 
entirely  made  up  at  the  ',nd  -'fcr  abc  ut  a  year)  ;  moved  off 


SHELLEY 


791 


to  Keswict  in  Cumberland,  coupled  with  tlio  company  of 
Southey,  and  some  hospitality  from  the  duke  of  Norfolk, 
who,  aa  chief  magnate  in  the  Shoreham  region  of  Sussex, 
was  at  pains  to  reconcile  the  father  and  his  too  unfilial 
heir ;  Sailed  thence  to  Dublin,  where  Shelley  was  eager, 
and  in  some  degree  prominent,  in  the  good  cause  of 
Catholic  emancipation,  conjoined  with  repeal  of  the- union  ; 
crossed.to  Wales,  and  lived  at  Nant-Gwillt,  near  Rhayader, 
then  at  Lynmouth  in  Devonshire,  then  at  Tanyrallt  in 
Carnarvonshire.  All  this  was  between  September  1811 
and  February  1813.  At  Lynmouth  an  Irish  servant  of 
Shelley's  was  sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment  for 
distributing  and  posting  up  printed  papers,  bearing  no 
printer's  name,  of  an  inflammatory  or  seditious  tendency 
— being  a  Declaration  of  Eights  composed  by  the  youthful 
reformer,  and  some  verses  of  his  named  The  Devil's  ]Yalh. 
At  Tanyrallt  Shelley  was  (to  trust  his  own  and  Harriet's 
account,  confirmed  by  the  evidence  of  Miss  Westbrook, 
the  elder  sister,  who  continued  an  inmate  in  most  of  their 
homes)  attacked  on  the  night  of  26th  February  by  an 
assassin  who  fired  three  pistol-shots.  The  motive  of  the 
attack  was  undefined  ;  the  fact  of  its  occurrence  was 
generally  disbelieved,  both  at  the  time  and  by  subsequent 
inquirers.  To  analyse  the  possibilities  and  probabilities  of 
the  case  would  lead  us  too  far ;  we  can  only  say  that  wo 
rank  with  the  decided  sceptics.  Shelley  was  full  of  wild 
impractical  notions ;  he  dosed  himself  with  laudanum  as 
a  palliative  to  spasmodic  pains ;  he  was  given  to  strange 
assertions  and  romancing  narratives  (several  of  which 
might  properly  be  specified  here  but  for  want  of  space), 
and  was  not  incapuble  of  conscious  fibbing.  His  mind  no 
doubt  oscillated  at  times  along  the  line  which  divides  sanity 
from  insane  delusion.  It  is  difiicult  to  suppose  that  he 
eimply  invented  such  a  monstrous  story  to  serve  a  purpose. 
The  very  enormity  of  the  story  tends  to  dissuade  us  from 
thinking  so,  and  the  purpose  alleged  seems  disproportion- 
ately small — that  of  decamping  from  Tanyrallt  ere  creditors 
should  become  too  pressing.  Indeed,  we  decisively  reject 
this  supposed  motive.  On  the  other  hand,  nothing  could 
be  traced  to  corroborate  Shelley's  assertion.  This  was  at 
any  rate  the  break-up  of  the  residence  at  Tanyrallt ;  the 
Shelleys  revisited  Ireland,  and  then  settled  for  a  while  in 
London.  Here,  in  June  1813,  Harriet  gave  birth  to  her 
daughter  lanthe  Eliza  (she  married  a  Mr  Esdaile,  and  died 
in  1876).  Here  also  Shelley  brought  out  his  first  poem  of 
any  importance.  Queen  3Iah;  it  was  privately  printed,  as 
its  exceedingly  aggressive  tone  in  matters  of  religion  and 
mfipals  would  not  allow  of  publication. 
■  The  speculative  sage  whom  Shelley  especially  reverenced 
was  William  Godwin,  the  author  of  Political  Justice  arid 
of  the  romance  Caleb  Williams  ;  in  1796  he  had  married 
Mary  Wollstonecraft,  authoress  of  The  Rights  of  Woman, 
who  died  shortly  after  giving  birth,  on  30th  August  1797, 
to  a  daughter  Mary.  With  Godwin  Shelley  had  opened 
a  volunteered  correspondence  late  in  1811,  and  he  had 
known  him  personally  since  the  winter  which  closed  1812. 
Godwin  was  then  a  bookseller,  living  with  his  second  wife, 
who  had  been  a  Mrs  Clairmont ;  there  were  four  other 
inmates  of  the  household,  two  of  whom  call  for  some 
mention  here — Fanny  Wollstonecraft,  the  daughter  of  the 
authoress  and  Mr  Imlay,  and  Claire,  the  daughter  of  Mrs 
Clairmont.  Fanny  committed  suicide  in  October  1816, 
being,  according  to  some  accounts  which  remain  unverified, 
h6pelessly  in  love  with  Shelley ;  Claire  was  closely 
associated  with  all  his  subsequent  career.  It  was  towards 
May  1814  that  Shelley  first  saw  Mary  Wollstonecraft 
Godwin  as  a  grown-up  girl  (she  was  well  on  towards 
seventeen);  he  instantly  fell  in  love  with  her,  and  she  with 
him.  Just  before  this,  2-tth  ^[arch,  Shelley  had  remarried 
Harrie!    in   London,  though   with   no   obviously   cogent 


motive  for  doing  so ;  but,  on  becoming  enamoured  of  Mary, 
he  seems  to  have  rapidly  made  up  his  mind  that  Harriet 
should  not  stand  in  the  way.  She  .was  at  Bath  while  he 
was  in  London,  and  for  a  while  she  heard  nothing  of  him. 
They  had,  however,  met  again  in  London  and  come  to 
some  sort  of  understanding  before  the  final  crisis  arrived, — 
Harriet  remonstrating  and  indignant,  but  incapable  of 
effective  resistance, — Shelley  sick  of  her  companionship, 
and  bent  upon  gratifying  his  own  wishes,  v/hich  as  we 
have  already  seen  were  not  at  odds  with  his  avowed 
principles  of  conduct.  For  some  months  past  there  had 
been  bickerings  and  misunderstandings  between  him  and 
Harriet,  aggravated  by  the  now  detested  presence  of  Miss 
Westbrook  in  the  house  ;  more  than  this  cannot  be  said,  for 
no  more  is  at  present  known.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
evidence  exists  which,  while  not  plainly  proving  any 
grave  wrongdoing  on  Harriet's  part,  exculpates  Shelley 
from  the  charge  of  having  separated  from  her  without 
what  appeared  to  himself  sufficient  cause.  The  upshot 
came  on  28th  July,  when  Shelley  aided  Mary  to  elope  from 
her  father's  house,  Claire  Clairmont  deciding  to  accompany 
them.  They  crossed  to  Calais,  and  proceeded  across 
France  into  Switzerland.  Godwin  and  his  wife  were 
greatly  incensed.  Though  he  and  Mary  Wollstonecraft 
had  entertained  and  avowed  bold  opinions  regarding  the 
marriage-bond,  similar  to  Shelley's  own,  and  had  in  their 
time  acted  upon  these  opinions,  it  is  not  clearly  made  out 
that  Mary  Godwin  had  ever  been  encouraged  by  paternal, 
influence  to  think  or  do  the  like.  Shelley  and  she  chose 
to  act  upon  their  own  likings  and  responsibility, — he 
disregarding  any  claim  which  Harriet  had  upon  him,  and 
Mary  setting  at  nought  her  father'^  authority.  Both  Wjcre 
prepared  to  ignore  the  law  of  the  land  and  the  rules  of 
society. 

The  three  young  people  returned  to  London  in 
September.  In  the  following  January  Sir  Bysshe  Shelley 
died,  and  Percy  became  the  immediate  heir  to  the  entailed 
property  inherited  by  his  father  Sir  Timothy.  This 
entailed  property  seems  to  have  been  worth  £6000  per 
annum,  or  little  less.  There  was  another  very  much 
larger  property  which  Percy  might  shortly  before  have 
secured  to  himself,  contingently  upon  his  father's  death,  if 
he  would  have  consented  to  put  it  upon  the  same  footing 
of  entail ;  but  this  he  resolutely  refused  to  do,  on  the_  pro- 
fessed ground  of  his  being  opposed  upon  principle  to  the 
system  of  entail ;  therefore,  on  his  grandfather's  death 
the  larger  property  passed  wholly  away  from  any  interest 
which  Percy  might  have  had  in  it,  in  use  or  in  expectancy. 
He  now  came  to  an  understanding  with  his  father  as  to 
the  remaining  entailed  property ;  and,  giving  up  certain 
future  advantages,  he  received  henceforth. a  regular  income 
of  XIOOO  a  year.  Out  of  this  he  assigned  £200  a  year 
to  Harriet,  who  had  given  birlli  in  November  to  a  son, 
Charles  Bysshe  (he  died  in  1826).  Shelley,  and  ilary  as 
well,  were  on  moderately  good  terms  with  Harriet,  seeing 
her  from  time  to  time.  '  His  i)cculiar  views  as  to  the  rela- 
tions of  the  sexes  appear  markedly  again  in  his  having  (so 
it  is  alleged)  invited  Harriet  to  return  to  his  and  Mary's 
house  as  a  domicile ;  of  course  this  curious  arrangement 
did  not  take  effect.  Shelley  and  Mary  (who  was  naturally 
always  called  Mrs  Shelley)  now  settled  at  Bishopgate,  near 
Wind.sor  Forest ;  hero  he  produced  his  first  excellent  poem, 
Alastor,  or  the  Spirit  of  Solitude,  which  was  published  soon 
afterwards  along  with  a  few  others.  In  May  1816  the  pair 
left  England  for  Switzerland,  together  with  Miss  Clairmont, 
and  their  own  infant  son  William.  They  went  straight  to 
Siicheron,  near  Geneva;  Lord  Byron,  whose  separation  from 
his  wife  had  just  then  taken  place,  arrived  there  immediately 
afterwards.  A  great  deal  of  controversy  has  lately  arise'n 
as  to  the  motives  and  incidents  of  this  foreien  spjourn. 


792 


SHELLEY 


The  clear  fuct  is  that  Miss  Clairmont,  who  had  a  fine  voice 
and  some  inclination  for  the  stage,  had  seen  Byron,  as 
connected  with  the  management  of  Drury  Lane  theatre, 
early  in  the  year,  and  an  amorous  intrigue  had  begun 
between  them  in  London.  Prima  facie  it  seems  quite 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  she  had  explained  the  facts  to 
Sbelley  or  to  Mary,  or  to  both,  and  had  induced  them  to 
convoy  her  to  the  society  of  Byron  abroad ;  were  this 
finally  established  as  the  fact,  it  would  show  no  incon- 
sistency of  conduct,  or  breach  of  his  own  code  of  sexual 
morals,  on  Shelley's  part.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  asserted 
that  documentary  evidence  of  an  irrefragable  kind  exists 
showing  that  Shelley  and  Mary  were  totally  ignorant  of 
the  amour  shortly  before  they  went  abroad.  Whether  or 
not  they  knew  of  it  while  they  and  Claire  were  in  daily 
intercourse  with  Byron,  and  housed  close  by  him  on  the 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  may  be  left  unargued.  The 
three  returned  to  London  in  September  1816,  Byron 
remaining  abroad;  and  in  January  1817  Miss  Clairmont 
gave  birth  to  his  daughter  named  Allegra.  The  return  of 
the  Shelleys  was  closely  followed  by  two  suicides, — first 
that  of  Fanny  Wollstonecraft  (already  referred  to),  and 
second  that  of  Harriet  Shelley,  who  on  9th  November 
drowned  herself  in  the  Serpentine.  The  latest  stages  of 
the  lovely  and  ill-starred  Harriet's  career  have  never  been 
very  explicitly  recorded.  It  seems  that  she  formed  a  con- 
nexion with  some  gentleman  from  whom  circumstances  or 
desertion  -separated  her,  that  her  habits  became  intemper- 
ate, and  that  she  was  treated  with  contumelious  harshness 
by  her  sister  during  an  illness  of  their  father.  She  had 
always  had  a  propensity  (often  laughed  at  in.  earlier  and 
happier  days)  to  the  idea  of  suicide,  and  she  now  carried 
it  out  in  act — possibly  without  anything  W'hich  could  be 
regarded  as  an  extremely  cogent  predisposing  motive, 
although  the  total  weight  of  her  distresses,  accumulating 
within  the  past  two  years  and  a  half,  was  beyond  question 
heavy  to  bear.  Shelley,  then  at  Bath,  hurried  up  to 
London  when  he  heard  of  Harriet's  death,  giving  manifest 
signs  of  the  shock  which  so  terrible  a  catastrophe  had  pro- 
duced on  him.  Some  self-reproach  must  no  doubt  have 
mingled  with  his  affliction  and  dismay ;  yet  he  does  not 
appear  to  have  considered  himself  gravely  in  the  wrong  at 
any  stage  in  the  transaction,  and  it  is  established  that  in 
the  train  of  quite  recent  events  which  immediately  led  up 
to  Harriet's  suicide  he  had  borne  no  part. 

This  was  the  time  when  Shelley  began  to  see  a  great 
deal  of  Leigh  Hunt,  the  poet  and  essayist,  editor  of  The 
Examiner ;  they  were  close  friends,  and  Hunt  did  some- 
thing (hardly  perhaps  so  much  as  might  have  been  antici- 
pated) to  uphold  the  reputation  of  Shelley  as  a  poet — 
which,  we  may  here  say  once  for  all,  scarcely  obtained  any 
public  acceptance  or  solidity  during  his  brief  lifetime. 
The  death  of  Harriet  having  removed  the  only  obstacle  to 
a  marriage  with  Mary  Godwin,  the  wedding  ensued  on 
30th  December  1816,  and  the  married  couple  settled  down 
at  Great  Marlow  in  Buckinghamshire.  Their  tranquillity 
was  shortly  disturbed  by  a  Chancery  suit  set  in  motion 
by  Mr  Westbrook,  who  asked  for  the  custody  of  his  two 
grandchildren,  on  the  ground  that  Shelley  had  deserted 
bis  wife  and  intended  to  bring  up  his  offspring  in  his  own 
atheistic  and  anti-social  opinions.  Lord  Chancellor  Eldon 
delivered  judgment  towards  26th  March  1817.  He  held 
that  Shelley,  having  avowed  condemnable  principles  of 
conduct,  and  having  fashioned  his  own  conduct  to  corre- 
spond, and  being  likely  to  inculcate  the  same  principles 
upon  his  children,  was  unfit  to  have  the  charge  of  them. 
He  therefore  assigned  this  charge  to  Mr  and  Miss  West- 
L.-ook,  and  appointed  as  their  immediate  curator  Dr 
H'-rae,  an  orthodox  army-physician,  who  was  Shelley's 
9W2  ucajiD-oe,     The  poet  had  to  pay  for  the  maintenance 


of  the  children  a  sum  which  stood  eventually  at  £\  iO  pt-/ 
annum  ;  if  it  was  at  first  (as  generally  stated)  ^200,  thut 
was  no  more  than  what  he  had  previously  allowed  to 
Harriet.  This  is  the  last  incident  of  marked  importance 
in  the  perturbed  career  of  Shelley;  the  rest  relates  to  the 
history  of  his  mind,  the  poems  which  he  produced  and 
published,  and  his  changes  of  locality  in  travelling.  In 
March  1818,  after  an  illness  which  he  regarded  (rightly  or 
WTongly)  as  a  dangerous  pulmonary  attack,  Shelley,  with  his 
wife,  their  two  infants  William  and  Clara,  and  Miss  Clair- 
mont and  her  baby  Allegra,  went  off  to  Italy,  in  which 
country  the  whole  short  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed. 
Allegra  was  soon  sent  on  to  Venice,  to  her  father  Byron, 
who,  ever  since  parting  from  Miss  Clairmont  in  Switzer- 
land, showed  a  callous  and  unfeeling  determination  to  see 
and  know  no  more  about  her.  In  1818  the  Shelleys — 
mostly,  not  always,  with  Jliss  Clairmont  in  their  company 
— were  in  Milan,  Leghorn,  the  Bagni  di  Lucca,  'Venice  and 
its  neighbourhood,  Rome,  and  Naples;  in  1819  in  Borne, 
the  vicinity  of  Leghorn,  and  Florence  (both  their  infants 
were  now  dead,  but  a  third  was  born  late  in  1819,  the 
present  baronet,  Sir  Percy  Florence  Shelley);  in  1820  in 
Pisa,  the  Bagni  di  Pisa  (or  di  San  Giuliano),  and  Leghorn ; 
in  1821  in  Pisa  and  with  Byron  in  Kavenna;  in  1822  in 
Pisa  and  on  the  Bay  of  Spezia,  between  Lerici  and  San 
Terenzio.  The  incidents  of  this  period  are  but  few,  and 
of  no  great  importance  apart  from  their  bearing  upon 
the  poet's  writings.  In  Leghorn  he'  knew  Mr  and  Mrs 
Gisborne,  the  latter  a  once  intimate  friend  of  Godwin  ;  she 
taught  Shelley  Spanish,  and  he  was  eager  to  promote  a 
project  for  a  steamer  to  be  built  by  her  son  by  a  former 
marriage,  the  young  engineer  Henry  Eeveley ;  it  would 
have  been  the  first  steamer  to  navigate  the  Gulf  of  Lyons. 
In  Pisa  he  formed  a  sentimental  intimacy  v.'ith  the 
Contessina  Emilia  Viviani,  a  girl  who  was  pining  in  a 
convent  pending  her  father's  choice  of  a  husband  for  her; 
this  impassioned  but  vague  and  fanciful  attachment — 
which  soon  came  to  an  end,  as  Emilia's  character  developed 
less  favourably  in  the  eyes  of  her  Platonic  adorer — 
produced  the  transcendental  love-poem  of  Epipsychidion 
in  1821.  In  Ravenna  the  scheme  of  the  quarterly 
magazine  The  Liberal  was  concerted  by  Byron  and  Shelley, 
the  latter  being  principally  interested  in  it  with  a  view  to 
benefiting  Leigh  Hunt  by  such  an  association  with  Byron. 
In  Pisa  Byron  and  Shelley  were  very  coostantly  together, 
having  in  their  company  at  one  time  or  another  Captain 
Medwin  (cousin  and  schoolfellow  of  Shelley,  and  one  of 
his  biographers),  Lieutenant  and  Mrs  Williams,  to  both  of 
whom  our  poet  was  very  warmly  attached,  and  Captain 
Trelawny,  the  adventurous  and  romantic-natured  seaman 
who  has  left  important  and  interesting  reminiscences  of 
this  period.  Byron  admired  very  highly  the  generous, 
unworldly,  and  enthusiastic  character  of  Shelley,  and  set 
some  value  on  his  writings ;  Shelley  half-worshipped 
Byron  as  a  poet,  and  was  anxious,  but  in  some  conjunctures 
by  no  means  able,  to  respect  hira  as  a  man.  In  Pisa  he 
knew  also  Prince  Alexander  Mavrocordato,  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  Grecian  insurrection  and  freedom  ;  the  glorious 
cause  fired  Shelley,  and  he  wrote  the  drama  of  IleUas 
(1821). 

The  last  residence  of  Shelley  was  the  Casa  Magni,  a 
bare  and  exposed  dwelling  on  the  Gulf  of  Spezia.  He  and 
his  wife,  with  the  Williamses,  went  there  at  the  end  of 
April  1822,  ti  spend  the  summer,  which  proved  an  arid 
and  scorching  one.  Shelley  and  Williams,  both  of  them 
insatiably  fonc  of  boating,  had  a  small  schooner  named  the 
"  Don  Juan  "  'juilt  at  Genoa  after  a  design  which  WilUams 
had  procureci  from  a  naval  friend,  and  which  vvas  the 
reverse  of  sa'e.  They  received  her  on  12th  May,  found, 
her  rapid  and  alert,  and  on  1st  July  started  in  her  to 


SHELLEY 


793 


Legkorn,  to  meat  Leigh  Hunt,  whose  arrival  in  Italy  had 
just  been  notified.  After  doing  his  best  to  set  things  going 
comfortably  between  Byron  and  Hunt,  Shelley  returned  on 
board  with  Williams  on  8th  July.  It  was  a  day  of  darlc, 
louring,  stifling  heat.  Trelawny  took  laava  of  his  two 
friends,  and  about  half-past  six  in  the  evening  found  him- 
self startled  from  a  doze  by  a  frightful  turmoil  of  storm. 
The  "  Don  Juan  "  had  by  this  time  made  Via  Reggio  ;  she 
was  not  to  be  seen,  though  other  vessels  which  had  sailed 
about  the  same  time  were  still  discernible.  Shelley, 
Williams,  and  their  only  companion,  a  sailor-boy,  perished 
in  the  squall.  The  exact  nature  of  the  catastrophe  was 
from  the  first  regarded  as  somewhat  disputable,  but  it  is 
only  of  late  years  (1875)  that  it  has  been  keenly  debated. 
The  condition  of  the  "Don  Juan"  when  recovered  did  not 
favour  any  assumption  that  she  had  capsized  itf  a  heavy 
sea — rather  that  she  had  been  run  down  by  some  other 
vessel,  a  felucca  or  fishing-smack.  In  the  absence  of  any 
counter-evidence  this  would  be  supposed  to  have  occurred 
by  accident ;  but  a  rumour,  not  strictly  verified  and 
certainly  not  refuted,  exists  that  an  aged  Italian  seaman 
on  his  deathbed  confessed  that  he  had  been  one  of  the  crew 
of  the  fatal  felucca,  and 'that  the  collision  was  intentional, 
as  the  men  had  plotted  to  steal  a  sum  of  money  supposed 
to  be  on  the  "  Don  Juan,"  in  charge  of  Lord  Byron.  In  fact 
there  was  a  moderate  sum  there,  but  Byron  had  neither 
embarked  nor  intended  to  embark.  This  may  perhaps  be 
the  true  account  of  the  tragedy;  at  any  rate  Trelawny,  the 
best  possible  authority  on  the  subject,  accepted  it  as  true. 
He  it  was  who  laboriously  tracked  out  the  shore-washed 
corpses  of  Shelley  and  Williams,  and  who  undertook  the 
burning  of  them,  after  the  ancient  Greek  fashion,  on  the 
shore  near  Via  Rejggio,  on  the  15th  and  16th  of  August. 
The  great  poet's  ashes  were  then  collected,  and  lyiried  in 
the  new  Protestant  cemetery  in  Eome.  He  was,  at  the 
time  of  his  untimely  death,  within  a  month  of  completing 
the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age — a  surprising  example  of  rich 
poetic  achievement  for  so  young  a  man 

The  character  o£  Shelley  can  be  considered  according  to  two 
different  standards  of  estimation.  "We  can  estimate  tlie  original 
motive  forces  in  his  character  ;  or  we  can  form  an  opinion  of  his 
actions,  and  thence  put  a  certain  construction  upon  his  personal 

Sualities.  AYo  will  first  try  the  lattei'  metiiod.  It  cannot  be 
enied  by  his  admirers  and  eulogists,  and  is  abundantly  clear  to 
his  censors,  that  his  actions  were  in  some  considerable  degree 
abnormal,  dangerous  to  the  settled  basis  of  society,  and  marked 
by  headstrong  and  undutiful  presumption.  But  it  is  remarkable 
th^t,  even  among  the  censors  of  his  conduct,  many  persons  are 
none  the  less  impressed  by  the  beauty  of  his  character ;  and  this 
leads  us  back  to  our  first  point — the  ovigiual  motive  forces  in  tliat. 
Here  we  find  enthusiasm,  fervour,  courage  (moral  and  physical), 
an  unbounded  readiness  to  act  upon  what  ho  considered  right 
principle,  however  inronvenieut  or  disastrous  the  consequences  to 
himself,  sweetness  and  indulgence  towards  others,  extreme  gener- 
osity, and  the  principle  of  love  for  humankind  in  abundance  and 
superabundance.  He  respected  the  truth,  such  as  'he'  conceived  ij; 
to  be,  in  spiritual  or  specalaiive  matters,  and  respected  no  con- 
struction of  the  truth  which  came  to  him  recommended  by  hum.m 
authority.  No  man  had  more  hatred  or  contempt  of  custom  and 
prescription  ;  no  one  had  a  more  authentic  or  vivid  sense  of  u  li- 
vereal  ch.irity.  The  same  radiant  enthusiasm  which  appeared  in 
his  poetry  as  idealism  stamped  his  speculation  with  the  conception 
of  perfectibility  and  his  character  with  loving  emotion. 

In  person  Shelley  was  attractive,  winning,  and  almost  beautiful, 
but  not  to  bo  called  handsome.  His  heigiit  was  nearly  6  feet  11 ; 
he  was  slim,  agile,  and  strong,  with  something  of  a  stoop  ;  his 
complexion  brilliant,  his  hair  abundant  and  wavy,  dark -brown  but 
early  beginning  to  grizzle  ;  the  eyes,  deep-blue  in  tint,  have  been 
termed  '' stng-eyes  " — large,  fixed,  and  beaming.  His  voice  was 
wanting  in  richness  and  su.avity— high-pitched,  and  tending  to  the 
screechy ;  his  general  aspect,  though  extremely  variable  according 
as  his  mood  of  mind  aua  his  expression  shifted,  was  on  the  whole 
nncommonly  juvenile. 

From  this  necessarily  very  slight  account  of  the  life  of  Shelley 
we  pass  to  a  consideration — and  this  too  muat  be  equally  slender 
'—of  his  works  in  poetry.  If  we  except  Goethe  (and  for  convenience' 
lake  leaving  out  of  count  any  living  wrii^re,  jjhose  ultimate  value 


cannot  at  present  be  assessed),  we  consider  Shelley  to  be  the 
supreme  poet  of  the  new  era  which,  beginning  with  the  French 
Revolution,  remains  continuous  iuto  our  own  day.  Lord  Byron 
and  Victor  Hugo  come  the  nearest  to  Shelley  in  poetic  stature, 
and  each  of  them  might  for  certain  reasons  he  even  preferred  to  him  ; 
Wordsworth  also  has  his  numerous  champions.  The  grounds  on 
which  we  set  Shelley  highest  of  all  are  mainly  three.  He  excels 
all  his  competitors  in  ideality,  he  excels  them  in  music,  and  he 
excels  them  in  importance.  By  importance  we  here  mean  the 
direct  import  of  the  work  performed,  its  controlliug  power  over  the 
reader's  thought  and  feeling,  the  contagious  fire  of  its  white-hot 
intellectual  passion,  and  the  long  reverberation,  of  its  appeal, 
Shelley  is  emphatically  the  poet  of  the  future.  In  his  own  day  an 
alien  in  the  world  of  mind  and  invention,  and  in  our  day  scarcely 
yet  a  denizen  of  it,  he  appears  destined  to  become,  in  the  long  vist^ 
of  years,  an  informing  presence  in  the  innermost  shrine  of  human 
thought,  Shelley  appeared  at  the  time  when  the  sublime  frenzies 
of  the  French  revolutionary  movement  had  exhausted  the  elas- 
ticity of  men's  thought— at  least  in  England— and  had  left  them 
flaccid  aud  stolid  ;  but  that  movement  prepared  another  in  which 
revolution  was  to  assume  the  milder  guise  of  reform,  conquering 
and  to  conquer.  Shelley  was  its  prophet.  As  an  iconoclast  and 
an  idealist  he  took  the  only  position  in  which  a  poet  could 
advantageously  work  as  a  reformer.  To  outrage  his  contemporaries 
was  the  condition  of  leading  his  successors  to  triumph  and  of 
personally  triumphing  in  their  victories,  Shelley  had  the  temper  of 
an  innovator  and  a  martyr  ;  and  in  an  intellect  wondrously  poetical 
he  united  speculative  keenness  and  huinauitarian  zeal  in  a  degree 
for  which  we  might  vainly  seek  his  precursor.  We  have  already 
named  ideality  as  one  of  his  leading  excellences.  This  Shelleian 
quality  combines,  as  its  constituents,  sublimity,  beauty,  and  the 
abstract  passion  for  goud.  It  should  be  acknowledged  that,  while 
this  great  quality  forms  the  cliief  and  most  admirable  factor  in 
Shelley's  poetry,  the  defects'  which  go  along  with  it  mar  his  work 
too  often — producing  at  times  vagueness,  unreality,  and  a  pomp 
of  glittering  indistinctness,  in  which  excess  of  sentiment  welters 
amid  excess  of  words.  This  blemish  affects  the  long  poems  much 
more  than  the  pure  lyrics  ;  in  the  latter  the  rapture,  the  music, 
and  the  emotion  are  in  exquisite  balance,  and  the  work  has 
often  as  much  of  delicate  simplicity  as  of  fragile  and  flower- 
like  perfection. 

In  the  course  of  our  biographical  narrative  we  have  men- 
tioned a  few,  but  only  a  few,  of  Shelley's  writings  ;  we  must 
now  give  some  curt  account  of  others.  Of  his  early  work  prior 
to  Qusen  Mab—sixch  romances  as  Zastrc:zi  and  SI  Irvyne,  such 
verse  as  the  Fragments  of  Margaret  Nicholson — we  can  only 
here  say  that  they  are  rubbish,  Alaslor  was  succeeded  (1817)  ' 
by  The  Revolt  of  Islam,  a  poem  of  no  ctomon  length  in  the 
Spenserian  stanza,  preaching  bloodless  revolution  .  it  is  amazingly 
fine  in  parts,  but  as  a  whole  somewhat  long-drav/n  and  exhaust- 
ing. This  transcendental  epic  (for  such  it  may  be  termed) 
was  at  first  named  Laon  and  Cijthna,  or  Vie  devolution  of  the 
Golden  City,  and  the  lovers  of  the  story  were  then  brother  and 
sister  as  well  as  lovers— an  experiment  upon  British  endurance 
which  the  publishers  would  not  connive  at.  The  year  1818 
produced  Rosalind  and  Helen,  a  comparatively  weak  poem,  and 
Julian  axd  Maddalo,  a  very  strong  one— demonstrating  in  Shelley 
a  singular  power  of  seeing  ordinary  things  with  directness,  and  at 
once  figuring  them  as  reality  ami  transfiguring  t.iein  into  poetry, 
'f  lie  n&xt  year,  1819,  was  his  cuhniii.ition,  producing  as  it  did  the 
grand  tragedy  of  The  Cenci  and  the  sublime  ideal  drama  Promelhcus 
L'nbouml,  which  we  have  no  hesitation  in  calling  his  masterpiece. 
It  embodies,  in  formi  of  surpassing  imagination  and  beauty, 
Shelley's  deefiest  and  most  daring  conceptions.  Prometheus,  the 
human  mind,  has  invested  with  the  powers  proper  to  himself 
Jupiter  the  god  of  heaven,  who  thereupon  chains  and  torments 
Prometheus  and  oppresses  mankind  ;  in  other  words,  the  anthropo- 
morphic god  of  religion  i^  a  creation  of  the  human  mind,  and 
both  the  mind  of  man  aud  man  himself  are  enslaved  as  long  as  this 
god  exercises  his  delegated  but  now  absolute  power.  Prometheus, 
who  is  from  of  old  wedded  to  Asia,  or  Nature,  protests  against 
and  anathematizes  the  usurper  enthroned  by  himself.  At  last  the 
anathema  takes  effect.  Eternity,  Dcmogorgon,  dismisses  Jupiter 
to  unending  nothingness.  Prometheus  is  at  once  unbound, 
the  human  mind  is  free  ;  he  is  reunited  to  his  spouse  Nature,' 
and  the  world  of*nian  passes  from  thraldom  and  its  degradation 
iuto  limitless  progression,  or  (as  the  phrase  goes)  perfectibility, 
moral  and  material.-  This  wo  regard  as  in  brief  the  argument  of 
Prometheus  Unbound.  R  is  closely  analogous  to  the  argument 
of  the  juvenile  poem  Queen  Mai,  but  so  raised  in  form  and  creative 
touch  that,  whereas  to  wnie  Queen  Mai  was  only  to  be  an  ambitious 
and  ebullient  tyro,  to  invent  Prometheus  Unbound  was  to  be  the  poet 
of  the  future.  The  intch  of  Atlas  (1820)  appears  to  us  the  most 
perfect  work  among  all  Shelley's  longer  poems,  though  it  is  neith'or 
the  deepest  nor  the  most  interesting.  It  may  be  rated  as  a  pure 
exercise  of  roving  imagination — guided,  however,  by  an  iutenso 
sense  of  beauty,  and  by  its  author's  exceeding  fineness  of  nature. 

XXL  —  loo 


794 


S  H  E  —  S  TI  E 


The  poem  has  often  boeu  decried  as  practically  unmeaning  ;  we  do 
not  BuUscribe  to  thia  opinion.  The  "  witch  "  of  this  subtle  and 
magical  invention  seems  to  represent  that  faculty  -which  we  term 
"the  fancy  ";  using  this  assumption  as  a  clue,  we  find  plenty  of 
meaning  in  the  poem,  but  necessarily  it  is  fanciful  or  volatile 
meaning.  The  elegy  on  Keats,  Adonais,  followed  in  1821  ;  the 
Triumph  of  Li/e^  a  mystical  and  mnsKimpiessive  allegory,  con- 
sti-uctetl  upon  lines  marked  out  by  Dante  and  by  Petrarch,  was 
occupying  the  poet  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  The  stately 
fragment  which  remains  is  probably  hut  a  small  portion  of  the 
projected  whole.  The  translations — chiefly  from  Homer,  Euripides^ 
Calderon,  and  Goethe— date  from  1819  to  1822,  and  testify  to  the 
poetic  endowment  of  Shelley  not  less  absolutely  than  his  own  original 
compositions.  From  this  list  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  Shelley 
was  not  only  a  prolific  but  also  a  versatile  poet.  "Works  so  various 
in  faculty  and  in  form  as  The  Revolt  of  Islam,  Julian  and  Maddalo^ 
The  Cenci,  Prometheics  Unbound^  Epipsychidion,  and  the  grotesque 
eflfusions  of  which  Peter  Bell  the  Third  is  the  prime  example,  added 
to  the  consummate  array  of  lyrics,  have  seldom  to  be  credited  to  a 
single  writer — one,  moreover,  who  died  before  he  was  thirty  years 
of  age.  In  prose  Shelley  could  be  ns  admirable  as  in  poetry  ; 
of  lata  years  it  has  even  beeu  pretended — but  we  regard  this 
proposition  as  worthy  of  summary  rejection — that  his  best  and 
most  enduring  work  is  in  the  prose  form.  His  letters  to  Thomas 
Love  Peacock  and  others,  and  \\\sVi\icom\\Gi&^  Defence  of  Podryy 
are  the  chief  monnraents  of  his^mastery  in  prose  ;  and  certainly  no 
more  beautiful  prose — having  much  of  the  spirit  and  the  aroma 
of  poetry,  yet  without  being  distorted  out  of  its  proper  essence — is 
to  be  found  in  the  English  janguagB. 

The  chief  origlral  authorities  for  tJie  life  of  Shelley  (apart  from  his  own 
wiltingg,  which  contain  a  good  deal  of  autobiography,  if  heeOfuliy  sifted  and 
collated)  arc — (I)  the  notices  by  Mrs  Shelley  interspersed  in  her  edition  of  the 
Poems ;  (2)  Hogg's  amusing,  discerning,  and  authentic,  although  In  some 
respects  ex&gc^erated,  book  ;  (3)  Tiela-wny'B  Records ;  (4)  the  Life  by  Medwin ; 
nnd  (5)  the  articles  written  by  Peacock.  Soroe  other  writers,  especially  Leigh 
Hunt,  might  be  mentioned,  but  they  come  less  close  to  the  facts.  Among 
biographical  works, produced  siivce  Sheiley's  death,  by  authors  who  did  not  know 
him  personally,  much  the  largest  Is  The  Real  Shelley,  by  J.  C.  Jeaffreson  (1835)  ; 
it  is  controvcislai  in  method  and  decidedly  hostile  in  tendency,  and  tries  a  man 
of  genius  by  tests  far  from  well  adapted  (in  our  opinion)  to  bring  outa  right 
result;  it  coiitaina,  iiowever,  an  ample  share  of  solid  information  and  sharp 
disquisition.  The  memoir  by  W.  M.  Rossetti,  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Shelley's 
Poems  in  two  forms  of  publicr-t'on,  1870  and  1878,  was  an  endeavour  to  formulate 
In  brief  space,  ont  of  the  then  confused  and  conflicting  records,  an  accurate 
account  of  Shelley — admivinp,  hit  not  uncandidly  one-sided.  There  is  valuable 
material  in  Lady  Shelley's  Shelley  Jlfemorials,  and  in  Dr  Gamett's  Relies  of 
Shelley ;  and  the  memoir  written  by  Mr  Symonds,  in  the  series  English  Men  of 
Letters,  is  very  agreeably  and  skilfully  dono.  While  we  write  (Kovember  1885) 
Prof.  i)ov.-dco  is  engaged  upon  n  life  of  Shelley,  which  may  be  expected  to 
distance  allits predecessors  in  authority  and  completeness.  (W.  M.  R.) 

SHELOMOH  IBN  GEBIROL.     See  AvicEBSoif. 

SHEM.     See  Noah.     Compare  Semitic  Languagus. 

SHEMAHA,  a  formerly  important  but  now  'insignifi- 
cant town  in  Transcaucasia,  in  40°  38'  N.  lat.  and  66°  19' 
E.  long.,  on  the  ZagoloTai,  an  affluent  of  the  Peerssagat, 
which  falls  into  the  Caspian.  It  is  situated  in  a  moun- 
tainous, Tery  picturesque  country,  covered  with  luxuriant 
vegetation,  at  about  2230  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Black  Sea.  In  1S73  it  had  25,087  inhabitants,  of  whom 
18,680  were  Tartars  and  Shachsevans,  5177  Armenians, 
and  1230  Russians.  Some  300  Armenian  families  now  jiro- 
fess  Lntheranism — the  result  of  a  mission  first  established 
at  Shemaha  about  twenty  years  ago.  Shemaha  was  the 
capital  of  the  khanate  of  ShirvAn,  and  was  known  to  Ptolemy 
as  Kamachia.  Situated  as  it  was  on  the  high  road  from 
Europe  to  India,  this  old  town  must  at  one  time  have 
possessed  very  considerable  importance,  and  evidence  of  the 
fact  is  found  in  the  numerous  ruins  of  large  caravansarais, 
churches,  and  public  builditig-s.  About  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century  it  was  the  seat  of  an  English  commercial 
factory,  under  the  well-known  traveller  Jenkinson  (com- 
pare Russia,  vol.  s;ci.  p.  93),  afterwards  envoy  extra- 
ordinary of  the  khan  of  Sliirv.in  to  Ivan  the  Terrible.  In 
1742  Shemaha  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Nadir  Sh^."';, 
who,  to  punish  the  inhabitants  for  their  Sunnite  creed, 
built  a  new  town  under  the  same  name  about  16  miles  to 
the  west,  at  the  foot  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  new  Sheiiiaha  was  at  different  times  p,  residence  of  the 
khan  of  ShirvAn,  but  it  was  finally  abandoned,  and  in  its 
place  there  stands  now  only  a  village  called  Akhsu,  whilst 
the  old- town  was  rebuilt,  and  under  the  Russians  became 
capital  of  the  government  of  Shemaha.  In  recent  times 
_8temaha  has  suffered  great^v  from  earthquakes;  in  1859 


it  was  shaken  to  its  foundations,  and  in  consequenc&  the 
seat  of  the  governor  was  removed  to  Baku ;  in  1872  (16th 
January)  there  occurred  a  still  more  terrible  shock,  from 
which  the  town  has  never  recovered.  Silk  manufacture 
is  the  principal  industry  in  Shemaha.  In  1873  there 
were  one  hundred  and  thirty  silk-winding  establishments, 
owned  mostly  by  Armenians.  The  industry  has,  however, 
since  1864, considerably  declined. 

The  district  of  Shemaha  (4426  square  miles),  corresponding  to 
the  ancient  khanate  of  Shirvdn,  lies  along  the  southern  slope  of 
the  main  chain  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus.  It  contains  a  popula- 
tion of  97,801  inhabitants  (1873),  of  wliom  8493  are  Russians. 
14,838  Armenians,  73,124  Tartars,  633  Jats  (old  Persian  tribe), 
and  708  Jews.  As  everywhere  in  Transcaucasia,  the  ni;mber  of 
males  is  considerably  in  excess  over  the  females  (IOC  to  81). 
The  district  occupies  a  sparsely-wooded  mountainous  region,  com- 
pletely shut  up  on  the  north,  and  open  to  the  dr}',  large,  and 
mostly  desolate  valley  of  Kura  on  -the  south.  The  climate  is 
generally  healthy,  rather  dry  and  moderately  warm  ;  in  the  lower 
parts  the  people  sufler  from  malarious  fever.  The  annual  rain- 
fall in  Shemaha  is  14'52  inches,  the  mean  summer  temperatura 
73°  Falir.,  winter  37°.  The  soil,  mostly  of  the  T*?rtiary  forma- 
tion, is  very  rich  and  of  considerable  variety.  This  district  occu- 
pies in  Transcaucasia  a  foremost  place  in  vipe-growing  and  iu 
the  silk  industry.  The  vine  region,  in  the  south-west  of  the 
district,  is  a  lon»  strip  of  land  of  breadth  varying  from  4  to  20 
miles.  The  highest  level  of  the  vine  is  about  2600  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  plant  is  left  unprotected  in  winter,  and  owing 
to  the  abundance  of  water  occasioned  by  the  melting  snows  and 
the  heavy  rains  in  spring,  there  is  no  need  of  irrigation.  Accord- 
ing io  a  general  survey  made  in  1875  there  are  in  the  district  3098 
vineyards,  occupying  a  total  of  1754  acres.^  The  other  products 
are  principally  wheat,  cotton,  and  rice.  In  1875  the  annual 
vintage  at  Shemaha  was  calculated  at  about  62.160  gallons.  The 
best  wine  is  that  of  Matrassy.  The  province  of  Sbirvan,  now  the 
district  of  Shemaha,  has  been  frequently  the  theatre  of  terrible 
struggles  and  bloodshed.  It  w-as  conquered  by  the  Persians  in 
1501  under  Sliah  Ismail  I.,  and  it  continued  with  brief  interrup- 
tions to  be  a  part  of  the  Persian  dominions  until  the  fall  of  the 
Safawi  dynasty. 

Shemaha,  the  capital  of  Shirvan,  was  sacked  in  1712  by  the 
Lesghians;  eight  years  later  the  tow-n  and  the  whole  province  were 
devastated  by  a  certain  Daghestani,  Ala  ud-Daulah,  who  was 
later  recognized  by  Persia  as  the  khan  of  Shirvan.  In  1724  the 
khanate  was  taken  by  Turkey,  but  ten  years  later  Nadir  Shah  of 
Persia  reconquered  it  after  terrible  ravages.  On  the  departure  of 
Nadir  Shah  soon  afterwards  5hiiTan  enjoyed  independence  under 
the  rule  of  Mahmud  Seyyid,  who  rebuilt  Shemaha.  The  Russians 
entered  Shirvap  first  in  1723,  but  soon  retired.  In  1795  they 
captured  Shemaha  as  well  as  Baku  ;  but  the  conquest  was  once  more 
abandoned,  and  Shirvan  was  not  finally  annexed  to  Russia  until 
November  1803  after  the  voluntary  submission  of  its  last  khan 
Mustapha. 

SHENANDOAH,  a  borough  of  the  United  States,  in 
Schuylkill  county,  Pennsylvania,  12  miles  north  of  Potts- 
ville,  is  the  centre  of  a  great  coal  district,  more  than  half 
the  total  yield  of  the  Schuylkill  region  being  produced 
within  3  miles  of  the  town.  Among  its  buildings  are 
fifteen  churches,  a  theatre,  and  two  public  halls.  It  was 
founded  in  1863,  and  its  population  (partly  Welsh  and 
German),  which  increased  from  2951  iu  1870  to  10,148 
iu  1880,  is  estimated  at  over  15,000  in  1886. 

Shenandoah  is  also  the  name  of  a  well-known  tributary 
of  the  Potomac. 

SHENDY,  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  about 
130  miles  south  of  Berber  and  100  north  of  Khartum, 
which,  while  its  present  population  does  not  exceed  2500, 
was  previous  to  its  destruction  by  the  Egyptians  in  1822 
a  place  of  some  50,000  inhabitants  and  a  station  on  the 
great  caravan  route  between  Sennar  and  Egj'pt  and 
Mecca.  The  terrible  massacre  perpetrated  by  the  Egyptians 
was  in  revenge  for  the  treacherous  assassination  by  the 
native  chiefs  at  Shendy  of  Ismail  Pasha  and  his  suite,  who 
were  first  drugged  and  then  burned  to  ashes  with  their 
huts.  Shendy  was  the  capital  of  a  considerable  district, 
and  lies  only  20  miles  south  of  the  ruins  of  Meroe. 

SHENSTONE,  Willi.a.m  (1714-1763),  is  one  of  the 
best-known  minor  poets  of  the  18th  century.     Ho  owes 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


795 


X  .A  distinction  as  he  has  at  least  as  much  to  his  choice 
OS.  subjects  and  to  the  peculiarity  of  his  life  as  to  the , 
felicity  of  his  verse.  Coming  after  a  generation  whose 
leading  poets  wrote  for  fashionable  society,  he  shut  him- 
self up  in  the  country,  tried  to  follow  the  life  Arcadian, 
and  wrote  in  the  spirit  of  a  recluse.  He  inherited  the 
small  estate  of  Leasowes,  in  the  parish  of  Hales-Owen, 
Worcestershire.  He  was  born  at  Leasowes  in  1\714,  and 
after  passing  through  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  retired 
there  torealizo  PopeV  ideal  in  the  Ode  to  Solitude,  turned 
his  paternal  estate  into  an  elaborate  landscape  garden,  and 
lived  there  till  his  death  in  17G3.  From  the  time  that 
the  management  of  the  estate  fell  into  his  own  hands, 
"he  began,"  Johnson  says,  "to  point  his  prospects,  to 
diversify  his  surface,  to  entangle  his  walks,  and  to  wind  his 
waters, — which  he  did  with  such  judgment  and  such  fancy 
as  to  make  his  little  domain  the  envy  of  the  great  and  the 
admiration  of  the  skilful."  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that 
he  did  not  anticipate  late  sentiment  in  his  love  of  natural 
scenery ;  he  was  a  true  child  of  the  Queen  Anne  time  in 
his  liking  for  "Nature  to  advantage  dressed."  And  it 
would  appear  from  his  letters  that  he  was  not  a  contented 
recluse,  but  was  weakly  desirous  of  the  notice  of  the  world 
in  his  Arcadian  retreat.  Still  there  is  a  certain  air  of 
sincerity  ia  his  references  to  natural  beauty  and  grandeur. 
Burns  wrote  of  him  iu  the  preface  to  his  first  issue  of 
poems  as  a  poet  "  whose  divine  elegies  do  honour  to  our 
language."  Shenstone  practised  the  elegiac  form  assidu- 
ously, and  tome  of  his  elegies  are  not  without  a  certain 
imposing  pomp  and  dignity  of  language,  but  we  may 
safely  suppose  that  it  was  the  sentiments  rather  than  the 
expression  that  captivated  the  peasant  poet.  His  Pastoral 
Ballads  in  Four  Parts,  one  of  his  earliest  compositions,  is 
also  one  of  his  best,  and  from  its  use  in  selections  of 
poetry  for  the  young  is  much  more  generally  known. 
The  triple  rhythm  and  the  simplicity  of  the  language  are 
happily  suited  to  the  pastoral  fancy,  and  there  is  not  too 
much  (ji  the  artificial  diction  and  imagery^of  such  poetry. 
guch  lines  js — 

Yet  time  may  diminish  the  pain  ; 

The  flower,  and  the  shrub,  and  the  tree 
Which  I  rear'd  for  her  pleasure  iu  vain 

In  time  may  have  comfort  for  me — ■ 


■comTneafer  Wordsworth's  ideal  of  poetic  diction  than  was 
common  in  the  serious  poetry  of  Shenstone's  time.  But 
his  Schoolmistress,  in  the  Spenserian  stanza  (published  in 
1742,  and  so  relieved  from  any  suspicion  of  being  an 
imitation  of  Thomson),  is  the  poem  by  which  he  keeps  a 
place  in  literature. 

SHEPTON  MALLET,  a  market-town  of  Somersetshire, 
England,  is  situated  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Jfcndip 
Hills,  on  the  Somerset  and  Devon  and  the  East  Somerset 
Railways,  5  miles  east  of  Wells  and  20  south  of  Bristol. 
The  church  of  Sts  Peter  and  Paul,  consisting  of  chancel, 
clerestoried  nave,  and  aisles,  is  specially  worthy  of  notice 
for  its  richly  carved  wooden  r»of  and  the  ancient  monu- 
ments of  the  Mallets  and  Gournays,  formerly  possessors  of 
the  manor.  The  grammar  school  was  founded  in  1G77, 
and  there  are  also  a  science  and  art  school  in  conne.'cion 
with  South  Kensington,  a  literary  institute,  and  a 
mechanics'  institute.  The  principal  public  buildings 
are  the  court-house  (1857),  the  masonic  hall  (18G1),  the 
prison,  and  the  district  hospital  (1880).  The  market  cross, 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  county,  51  feet  in  height,  erected 
by  Agnes!  and  Thomas  Buokland  in  1500,  was  restored  in 
1841.  About  the  end  of  last  century  Shepton  Wallet  had 
important  cloth  manufactures,  and  stocking-knitting  was 
also  largely  carried  on.  The  brewing  of  ale  and  porter  is 
now  one  of  its  principal  industries,  and  it  has  also  rope- 
works  and  brick  and  tile  works.     In  the  vicinity  there  are 


granite  quarries  and  marble,  asphalt,  and  lime  works. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area,  3572 
acres)  iu  1871  was  5149,  and  in  ISSl  it  was  5322. 

Shepton,  previous  to  the  Conquest  called  Sepeton,  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  abbots  of  Glastonbury  for  four  hundred  years 
before  it  passed  to  Roger  de  Courcelle.  Afterwards  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  barons  Malet  or  Mallet,  one  of  whom  was 
fined  for  rebellion  in  the  reign  of  King  John.  From  the  Mallets 
it  went  to  the  Gournays,  but  in  1536  it  reverted  to  the  crown,  and 
it  is  now  included  in  t^o  duchy  of  Cornwall.  The  town  received 
the  grant  of  a  market  from  Edward  II. 

SHERBORNE,  an  ancient  market-town  of  Dorsetshire, 
England,  on  the  borders  of  Somersetshire,  is  situated 
on  the  southern  slope  of.  a  hill  overlooking  the  river  Yeo, 
on  the  South-Western  Railway,  6  miles  east  from  Yeovil 
and  118  south-west  from  London  by  rail.  In  705  Sher- 
borne was  made  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  which  in  1078  was  removed  to  Old 
Sarum  (Salisbury).  Previous  to  its  removal  a  great  Bene- 
dictine abbey  had  been  founded  by  Bishop  Roger.  The 
piinster  or  ahbey  church  of  St  Mary  possesses  a  Norman 
tower,  much  altered  by  later  additions,  and  transepts  also 
originally  Norman,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  building  is 
Perpendicular.  It  was  restored  in  1848-58  at  an  expense 
of  over  £32,000,  chiefly  contributed  by  JMr  W.  Digby  and 
Lord  Digby.  Ethelbald  and  Ethelbert,  elder  brothers  of 
Alfred,  were  buried  behind  the  high  altar  of  the  church, 
which  contains  a  number  of  interesting  tombs  and  monu- 
ments. Near  the  minster  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle, 
originally  the  palace  of  the  bishops.  It  was  besieged 
during  the  wars  between  Stephen  and  Maud,  and  also 
during  those  of  the  Commonwealth,  when  it  was  held  for 
the  king  in  1G42  by  the  marquis  of  Hertford,  and  resisted 
a  five  days'  siege  by  the  earl  of  Bedford,  but  was  in  1G45 
taken  by  Fairfax,  when  it  was  dismantled  and  reduced  to 
ruins.  The  older  portion  of  the  modern  mansion  was  built 
by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Sherborne  grammar  school,  occupy- 
ing the  site  of  the  abbey,  was  founded  by  Edward  VI.  in 
1550,  and  holds  a  high  rank  among  the  public  schools  of 
England.  Near  the  abbey  close  is  the  hospital  of  St  John, 
dating  from  the  15th  century.  A  literary  institution, 
now  called  the  Macre?.dy  Institution,  was  established  in 
1850.  The  manor  of  Sherborne  went  with  the  bishop's 
see,  till  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  it  was  conferred  on  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  After  his  attainder  it  was  bestowed  by 
James  I.  on  his  favourite  Carr,  after  which  it  passed  tc 
the  Digbys,  the  present  owners.  The  peculation  of  the 
urban  sanitary  district  (area  411  acres)  in  1871  was 
5545,  and  in  18S1  it  was  5053. 

SHERIDAN,  the  name  of  an  Anglo-Irish  family,  mads 
illnstrious  by  the  dramatist  Richard  Brinsley,  but  promi- 
nently connected  with  literature  in  more  than  one 
generation  before  and  after  his.  We  take  the  family  in 
chronological  order. 

1.  Thomas  Sheridan,  D.D.  (1684-1738),  grandfather 
of  the Tlramatist,  was  the  first  to  connect  the  family  with 
literature.  He  is  chictly  known  as  the  favourite  com- 
panion and  confidant  of  Swift  during  his  later  residence 
in  Ireland.  But  enough  is  left  of  his  writing  to  enable 
us  to  understand  the  secret  of  his  attraction  for  a  ojaii 
not  easily  pleased.  His  correspondence  with  Swift  and 
his  whimsical  treatise  on  the  Art  of  Punniiui'^  make 
perfectly  clear  from  whom  his  grandson  derived  his  high 
spirits  and  delight  in  practical  joking.  The  Art  of  Pmi' 
niny  might  have  been  written  by  the  author  of  The  Critic. 
Swift  had  a  high  opinion  of  his  scholarship,  and  that  it 
was  not  contemptible  is  attested  by  an  edition  of  the 
Satires  of  Persius,  printed  at  Dublin  in  1728.  vWhcn 
Swift  came  to  Dublin  as  dean  of  St  Patrick's,  Sheridan 
was    established    there   as   a   schoolmaster  of  very  high 

*  Publi.hcd  in  Nichols's  Supplement  to  the  works  of  Swift,  1779. 


796 


SHERIDAN 


repute, — a  fashionable  schoolmaster,  with  a  small  landed 
patrimony  in  Cavan,  and  a  bishop  in  the  family  two 
generations  back.  Ho  so  won  upon  the  dean  with  his 
mirthfulness,  wit,  scholarship,  good-nature,  and  honesty 
that  in  a  short  time  no  party  made  for  the  dean's  enter- 
tainment was  considered  complete  without  Sheridan. 
Sheridan  was  his  confidant  in  the  affair  of  Urapier's 
Letters ;  it  was  at  Quilca,'  Sheridan's  country  cottage  in 
Cavau,  that  Gulliver's  Travels  was  prepared  for^  the  press ; 
and  this  favoured  friend  was  from  an  early  period  in  their 
acquaintance  one  of  his  most  confidential  correspondents 
when  at  a  distance.  .  Through  Swift's  influence  he  obtained 
a  living  near  Cork,  but  damaged  his  prospects  of  further 
preferment  by  a  feat  of  unlucky  absence  of  mind.  Having 
to  preach  at  Cork  on  the  anniversary  of  Queen  Anne's 
death  he  hurriedly  chose  a  sermon  with  the  text,  "  Suffi- 
cient unto  the  day  is  the  evil  thereof,"  and  was  at  once 
struck  off  the  list  of  chaplains  to  the  lord-lieutenant  and 
forbidden  the  castle.  In  spite  of  this  mishap,  for  which 
the  archdeacon  of  Cork  made  amends  by  the  present  of  a 
lease  worth  £250  per  annum,  he  "still  remained,"  accord- 
ing to  Lord  Orrery,  "  a  punster,  a  quibbler,  a  fiddler,  and 
a  wit,"  the  only  person  in  whose  genial  presence  Swift 
relaxed  his  habitual  gloom.  His  latter  days  were  not 
prosperous,  probably  owing  to  his  having  "a  better  know- 
ledge of  books  than  of  men  or  of  the  value  of  money," 
and  he  died  in  poverty  and  ill-health  in  1738.  The 
biographers  of  Brinsley  Sheridan  are  disposed  to  dwell 
chiefly  on  the  eccentricities  of  his  ancestors,  but  both  his 
grandfather  and  his  father  gave  ample  proof  of  more 
solid  qualities  than  improvidence  and  wit.  The  original 
source  of  information  about  the  schoolmaster  grandfather 
is  the  father's  Life  of  Sioift  (pp.  369-395),  where  his 
scholarship  is  dwelt  upon  as  much  as  his  improvident 
conviviality  and  simple  kindliness  of  nature. 
Xiiomas  2.  Thomas  Sheridan  (1721-1788),  son  of  the  above, 
Bheridan.  born  at  Quilca  in  1721,  had  a  more  conspicuous  career 
than  his  father.  This  ambitious  father  sent  him  to  an 
English  school,  Westminster ;  but  he  was  forced  by  stress 
of  circumstances  to  return  to  Dublin  and  complete  his 
education  at  Trinity  College.  Then  he  went  on  the  stage, 
and  at  once  made  a  local  reputation.  There  is  a  tradition 
that  on  his  f5rst  appearance  in  London  he  was  set  up  as  a 
rival  to  Garrick,  and  Moore  countenances  the  idea  that 
Garrick  remained  jealous  of  him  to  the  end."  For  this 
tradition  there  is  little  foundation.  Sheridan's  first 
appearance  in  London  was  at  Covent  Garden  in  March 
174-1,  when,  heralded  in  advance  as  the  brilliant  Irish 
comedian,  he  acted  for  three  weeks  in  a  succession  of 
leading  parts,  Hamlet  being  the  first.  He  did  not  appear 
in  London  again  till  ten  years  afterMjards,  when  he  was 
the  leading  actor  for  a  season  at  the  same  theatre.  In 
the  interval  he  had  been  manager  of  a  theatre  in  Dublin, 
had  married  a  highly  accomplished  and  well-born  lady 
(see  next  notice),  and  had  been  driven  from  Dublin  as  a 
result  of  taking  the  unpopular  side  in  politics.  After  his 
season  in  London  he  tried  Dublirk  again,  but  after  two 
years  more  of  unremuneratlve  management,  he  left  for 
England  finally  in  1758.  By  this  time  he  had  con- 
ceived his  scheme  of  British  education,  and  it  was  to 
push  this  rather  than  his  connexion  with  the  stage  that  he 
crossed  St  George's  Channel.  He  lectured  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  received  honorary  degrees  from  both 
universities  in  1753  and  1759.  But  the  scheme  did  not 
make  way,  and  we  find  him  in  1760  acting  under  Garrick 
at  Drury  Lane.  His  merits  as  an  actor  may  be  judged 
from  the  description  of  him  in  the  Rosciad  (1.  987)  at  this 
period.     He  is  placed  in  the  second  rank,  next  to  Garrick, 

'  Spelt  Qiulea,  it  may  be  noted,  in  the  second  T.  Sheridan's  Life  of. 
S'Jii/t. 


but  there  is  no  nint  of  possible  rivalry.  Churchill  de- 
scribes him  as  an  actor  whose  conceptions  were  superior 
to  his  powers  of  execution,  whose  action  was  always  forc- 
ible but  too  mechanically  calculated,  and  who  in  spite  of 
all  his  defects  rose '  to  greatness  in  occasional  scenes. 
Churchill  never  erred  on  the  side, of  praising  too  much, 
and  his  description  may  be  accepted  as  correct,  supported 
as  it  is  by  the  fact  that  the  actor  eked  out  his  inccnja 
by  giving  lessons  in  elocution.  Boswell  has  some'  amus- 
ing remarks  on  his  success  with  a'  distinguished  Scotch 
pupil,  who  used  his  influence  to  -get  a  pension  for  him 
from  Lord  Bute.  Sheridan,  however,  attracted  attention 
chiefly  by  his  enthusiastic  advocacy,  in  piiblic  lectures  and 
books,  of  his  scheme  of  education,  in  which  oratory  w-as 
to  play  a  principal  part.  It  is  generally  said  that  he 
traced  all  the  evils  and  perils  of  the  Commonwealth  to 
the  neglect  of  oratory.  But  this  is  a  caricature.  There 
was  more  serious  substance  in  his  indictment  of  the  estab- 
lished system-  of  education.  His  main  count  was  that  it 
did  not  fit  the  higher  classes  for  their  duties  in  life,  that 
it  was  uniform  for  all  and  profitable  for  none ;  and  he 
urged  as  a  matter  of  vital  national  concern  that  special 
training  should  be  given  for .  the  various  professions. 
Oratory  came  in  as  part  of  the  special  training  of  men 
intended  for  public  affairs,  but  his  main  contention  was 
one  very  familiar  now, — that  more  time  should  be  given  in 
schools  to  the  study  Of  the  English  language.  He  rode 
his  hobby  with  great  enthusiasm,  published  an  elaborate 
and  eloquent  treatise  on  education,  and  lectured  on  the 
subject  in  London,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Edinburgh,  and 
other  towns.  In  1769,  after  a  residence  of  some  years  in 
France,  partly  for  economy,  partly  for  his  wife's  health, 
partly  to  study  the  system  of  education  there,  he  published 
a  matured  Plan  of  Edvcation,  with  a  letter  to  the  king, 
in  which  he  offered  to  devote  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the 
execution  of  his  theories  on  condition  of  receiving  a 
pension  equivalent  to  the  sacrifice  of  his  professional 
income.  His  offer  was  not  accepted ;  but  Sheridan,  still 
enthusiastic,  retired  to  Bath,  and  prepared  a  pronouncing 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  with  a  prosodial 
grammar.  After  his  son's  brilliant  success  he  assisted  in 
the  management  of  Drury  Lane,  and  occasionally  acted.  . 
His  Life  of  Swift,  a  very  entertaining  book  in  spite  of  its 
incompleteness  as  a  biography,  was  published  in  1784. 
He  died  at  Margate  in  1788.  The  year  before  his  death 
he  had  a  prospect  of  realizing  his  scheme  of  education  in 
Ireland,  but  the  high  official  who  had  sought  his  advice 
died  just  as  the  old  man  eagerly  reached  Dublin,  and  his 
hopes  were  disappointed. 

3.  Frances  Sheridan  (1724-176G),  wife  of  the  above,  Ifrs 
and  mother  of  the  dramatist,  wrote  two  novels  of  high  ^'*°"'_ 
repute  in  their  day,  Sidney  Biddnlph  and  Nonrjahad,  and  ' 
two  plays.  The  Discovery  and  The  Dii-pe.  We  have  it  on 
the  authority  of  Moore  that,  when  The  Rivals  and  Th^ 
Duenna  were  running  at  Covent  Garden,  Garrick  revived 
The  Discovery  at  Drury  Lane,  as  a  counter-attraction,  "  to 
play  the  mother  off  against  the  son,  taking  on  himself  to 
act  the  principal  part  in  it."  But  the  statement,  intrinsi- 
cally absurd,  is  inaccurate.  The  Discovery  was  not  an 
old  play  at  the  time,  but  one  of  Garrick's  stock  pieces, 
and  Anthony  Bromville  was  one  of  his  favourite  characters. 
It  was  first  produced  in  1763.  So  far  from  being  jealous 
of  the  elder  Sheridan,  Garrick  seems  to  have  been  a  most 
useful  friend  to  the  family,  accepting  his  wife's  play — 
which  he  declared  to  be  "  one  of  the  best  comedies  he 
ever  read  " — and  giving  the  husband  several  engagements. 
Mrs  Sheridan's  novels  and  plays  were  all  written  in  the 
last  six  years  of  her  life.  She  died  at  Blois  in  1706. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Chamberlaine.  Her  father  was  a 
dignitary  in  the  Irish  Church,  her  jrr.ndiather  an  E::gUih 


I  Sheridan. 


SHERIDAN 


/97 


baronet.  Her  aiarriage  with  the  actor  was  the  result  ot 
romantic  circumstances,  fully  detailed  in  the  Memoirs  of 
Mrs  Frances  uheridan,  mentioned  below. 

4.  RicHASD  Brinsley  Butler  Sheridan  (1751- 
Ricbard  1816),  second  son  of  Thomas  and  Frances  Sheridan,  was 
Sheridan  ^"■''i  "in  Dublin  in  September  1751.  Moore  records  for 
'  the  encouragement  of  slow  boys  that  the  future  drama- 
tist was  "  by  common  consent  of  parent  and  preceptor 
pronounced  an  impenetrable /dunce."  The  plain  fact  is 
that  the  expression  occurs  in  a  smart  letter  about  him  and 
his  sister,  written  by  his  mother  to  a  schoolmaster.  Mrs 
Sheridan  wrote  that  she  had  been  the  only  instructoi'  of 
her  children  hitherto,  and  that  they  would  exercise  the 
schoolmaster' in  the  quality  of  patience,  "for  two  such 
impenetrable  dunces  she  had  never  met  with."  One  of 
the  children  thus  humorously  described  was  Richard 
Brinsley,  and  the  age  of  the  "impenetrable  dunce"  at  the 
time  was  seven.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  was  sent  to 
Harrow.  There,  to  please  orthodox  biographers,  he  gave 
no  such  sign  of  future  eminence  as  is  implied  in  taliing 
a  high  place  in  school.  Dr  Parr,  who  was  one  of  his 
masters,  "saw  in  him  vestiges  of  a  superior  intellect,"  but, 
though  he  "did  not  fail  to  probe  and  tease  him,"  by  no 
harassing  or  tormenting  process  could  he  incite  the 
indolent  boy  to  greater  industry  than  was  "just  sufficient 
to  save  him  from  disgrace."  But  these  facts  about  young 
Sheridan's  determined  indolence  in  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek  should  be  taken  in  connexion  with  his  father's 
peculiar  theories  on  the  subject  of  English  education. 
The  father's  theories  possibly  did  not  encourage  the  son 
to  learn  I,atin  and  Greek.  Why,  with  his  views  on  the 
unprofitableness  of  those  studies,  he  sent  his  younger  son 
to  Harrow,  is  not  obvious ;  but  it  was  probably  as  much 
for  social  as  for  educational  reasons.  If  so,  the  purpose 
was  answered,  for  Sheridan  was  .extremely  popular  at 
school,  winning  somehow,  Dr  Parr  confesses,  "  the  esteem 
and  even  admiration  of  all  his  schoolfellows,"  and  giving 
a.  foretaste  of  his  mysterious  power.s  of  getting  things 
done  for  him  by  making  the  younger  boys  steal  apples  for 
his  own  private  store  and  good-humouredly  defying  the 
masters  to  trace  the  theft  home  to  him. 

Sheridan  left  Harrow  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  having 
impressed  his  schoolfellows  at  least,  who  are  sometimes 
betten^udges  than  their  ma.sters,  with  a  vivid  sense  of  his 
powers.  It  was  probably  his  father's  design  to  send  hjm 
afterwards  to  Oxford,  but  the  family  circumstances  were 
too  straitened  to. permit  of  it,  and  the  educationist,  who 
had  just  then  returned  from  Franco,  and  was  about  to 
launch  his  appeal  to  the  king  on  behalf  of  his  now  plan  of 
education,  took  his  son  home  and  himself  directed  and 
superintended  his  studies.  What  his  plans  were  for  his 
brilliant  son's  future  .ve  have  no  means  of  knowing, 
but  the  probability  is  that,  if  tho  projected  academy  liad 
become  an  accomplished  fact,  he  would  have  tried  to  make 
Richard  Brinsley  an  upper  master  in  some  one  of  its 
numerous  departments.  There  arc  traces  of  method  in 
the  superficially  harum-scarum  Irishman's  courses,  and  it 
looks  as  if  ho  had  intended  both  of  his  sons  to  help  him  in 
the  magnificent  project  from  which  his  sanguine  tempera- 
ment expected  such  great  things, — tho  elder,  who  had  been 
with  him  in  France,  in  what  would  now  be  called  the 
modem  side,  and  tiio  classically  educated  younger  in  the 
ancient  side.  Meantime,  pending  His  Majesty's  resolution 
on  the  projector's  offer,  Brinsley,  besides  being  trained  by 
his  father  daily  in  elocution,  and  [lut  through  a  course  of 
English  reading  in  accordance  with  the  system,  received 
the  accomplishments  of  a  young  man  of  fashion,  had 
fencing  and  riding  lessons  at  Angelo's,  and  began  to  eat 
terms  at  the  Middle  Temple.  His  destination  apparently 
■was  the  bar,  if  fortune  should  deny  him  the  more  glorious 


career  of  lieutenant  in  the  new  academy,  through  which 
young  England  was  to  be  regenerated. 

As  to  how  young  Sheridan,  with  a  cooler  head  to 
regulate  his  hot  Irish  blood,  looked  at  his  father's  grand 
schemes,  we  have  no  record.  But  it  is  of  importance  to 
remember  those  schemes,  and  the  exact  stage  they  had 
now  reached,  in  connexion  with  tho  accepted  view  of 
Sheridan's  behaviour  at  this  time,  which  represents  him  as 
a  mere  idler,  hanging  on  at  home  like  an  ordinary  ne'er- 
do-well,  too  indolent  to  work  for  any  profession,  simply 
enjoying  himself  and  trusting  recklessly  to  chance  for  .some 
means  of  livelihood.  The  fact  would  .seem  to  be  that  over 
and  above  whatever  he  did  in  the  way  of  cjualifyiug  him- 
self for  a  regular  career — which  possibly  was  little  enough 
— he  began  from  this  time  with  fundamentally  steady 
purpose  to  follow  the  bent  of  his  genius.  After  leaving 
Harrow  he  kept  up  a  correspondence  with  a  school  friend 
who  had  gone  to  Oxford.  With  this  youth,  whose  name 
was  Halhed,  ho  had  not  competed  for  school  honours ;  but 
both  had  dreams  of  higher  things ;  and  now,  they  concocted 
together  various  literary  plans,  and  between  them  actually 
executed  and  published  metrical  translations  of  Aristai-netus 
—an  obscure  Greek  or  pseudo-Greek  author  brought  to 
light  or  invented  at  the  Renaissance,  a  writer  of  imaginary 
amorous  epistles.  The  two  literary  partners  translated 
his  prose  into  verse  which  has  the  qualities  of  lightness, 
neatness,  and  wit,  and  is  in  no  respect  unworthy  of  being 
the  apprentice-work  of  Sheridan. 

In  conjunction  with  the  same  young  friend  he  began 
a  farce  entitled  Jupiter.  It  was  not  completed,  but  the 
fragment  is  of  interest  as  containing  the  same  device  of  a 
rehearsal  which  was  afterwards  worked  out  with  such 
brilliant  effect  in  The  Critic.  Some  of  the  dialogue  is  very 
mucli  in  Sheridan's  mature  manner.-  It  would  seem  indeed 
that  at  this  time,  idle  as  he  appeared,  Sheridan  was 
deliberately  exercising  his  powers  and  preparing  himself 
for  future  triumphs.  Moore's  theory  is  that  his  seeming 
indolence  was  but  a  mask  ;  and  extracts  given  from  papers 
written  in  the  seven  years  between  his  leaving  Harrow 
and  the  appearance  of  77te  Rivals — sketches  of  unfinished 
plays,  poems,  political  letters,  and  pamphlets — show  that 
he  was  far  from  idle.  He  was  never  much  of  a  reader  ;  he 
preferred,  as  he  said,  to  sit  and  think — a  process  more 
favourable  to  originality  than  always  having  a  book  in  his 
hand  ;  but  we  may  well  believe  that  he  kept  his  eyes  open, 
and  his  father's  connexion  with  fashionable  society  gave 
him  abundant  opportunities.  The  removal  of  the  family 
to  Bath  in  1771'  extended  his  field  of  observation. 
Anstey's  New  Bath  6'?«'(/c' had  just  been  published  and  had 
greatly  stimulated  interest  in  the  comedy  of  life  at  this 
fashionable  watering-iilace. 

Presently,  too,  already  a  favourite  in  Jath  society  from 
his  charming  manners  and  his  skill  as  /.  writer  of  graceful 
and  witty  verses,  tho  youth  played  a  part  in  the  living 
comedy  which  at  onca  made  him  a  marked  man.  There 
was  in  Bath  a  celebrated  rnusicai  family — "'a  nest  of 
nightingales," — the  daughters  ol  the  composer  Linley/ 
the  head  of  his  profession  in  tho  fashionable  town.  The 
eldest  daughter,  a  girl  ot  sixteen,  tho  prima  donna  of  her 
father's  concerts,  was  exceedingly  beautiful,  and  very  much 
run  after  by  suitors,  young  and  old,  honourable  and  dis- 
honourable. In  the  latter  class  was  a  Captain  Mathews, 
a  married  man;  in  the  former,  young  Sheridan.  .'Mathews 
had  artfully  won  the  girl's  affections,  and  per.sccuted  her 
with  his  importunities,  threatening  to  destroy  himself  if 
she  refused  him.  To  protect  her  from  this  scoundrel's 
designs  the  younger  lover,  who  seems  to  have  acted  at  first 

^  Mifi.s  I.efaiiu  corrects  Moore's  date  of  1770,  oonsideriDg- the 
difTcrence  important  as  bearing  on  Sheridan's  tTducation  [Memoirs^ 
p.  348). 


798 


S  H  E  R  I  D  AN 


only  as  a  confidential  friend,  conceived  the  romantic  plan 
of  escorting  Miss  Linlcy  to  a  nunnery  in  France.^  After 
performing  this  chivalrous  duty  ho  returned  and  fought 
two  duels  with  Mathews,  which  made  a  considerable 
sensation  at  the  time.  The  youthful  pair  had  gone 
through  the  ceremony  of  marriage  in  the  course  of  their 
flight,  but  Sheridan  chivalrously  did  not  claim  his  wife, 
kept  the  marriage  secret,  and  was  sternly  denied  access 
to  J\Iiss  Linley  by  her  father,  who  did  not  consider  the 
professionless  young  man  an  eligible  suitor.  Ultimately, 
after  a  courtship  romantic  enough  to  have  satisfied  Lydia 
Languish,  they  were  openly  married  in  April  1773. 

Sheridan's  daring  start  in  life  after  this,  happy  marriage 
showed  a  confidence  in  his  genius  which  was  justified  by 
its  success.  Although  he  had  no  income,  and  no  capital 
beyond  a  few  thousand  pounds  brought  by  his  wife,  he 
took  a  house  in  Orchard  Street,  Portmau  Square,  furnished 
it  "in  the  most  costly  style,"  and  proceeded  to  return  on 
something  like  an  equal  footing  the  hospitalities  of  the 
fashionable'  world.  His  wife — "  the  celebrated  Miss 
liinley" — was, a  most  popular  singer,  but  he  would  not 
allow  her  to  appear  in  public.  She  was  to  be  heard  only 
at  private  concerts  in  their  own  house,  and  her  beauty  and 
accomplishments  combined  with  her  husband's  wit  to  draw 
crowds  of  fashionable  people  to  their  etitertainments. 
Sheridan's  conduct  may  have  been  youthful  pride  and 
recklessness,  the  thoughtless  magnificence  of  a  strong  and 
confident  nature ;  all  the  same,  it  answered  the  purpose  of 
deep-laid  and  daring  policy.  When  remonstrated  with  by 
a  friend,  and  asked  how  he  found  the  means  of  supporting 
such  a  costly  establishment,  he  is  said  to  have  answered — 
"  My  dear  friend,  it  is  my  means."  And  so  it  proved,  for 
his  social  standing  and  popularity  helped  to  get  a  favour- 
able start  for  his  first  comedy.  The  Rivals,  produced  at 
Covent  Garden  on  the  17th  January  1775. 

The  Rivals  is  said  to  have  been  not  so  favourably 
received  on  its  first  night,  owing  to  its  length  and  to  the 
bad  playing  of  the  part  of  Sir  Lucius  O'Trigger.  But  the 
defects  were  remedied  before  the  second  performance,  and 
the  piece  at  once  took  that  place  on  the  stage  which  it  has 
never  lost.  It  was  the  last  'season  but  one  of  Garrick's 
long  career,  and  the  current  story  preserved  by  Moore  is 
that  the  run  upon  Covent  Garden  was  such  as'  to  alarm  the 
Veteran  of  Drury  Lane  and  drive  him  to  extraordinary 
exertions  to  counterbalance  the  attractions  of  the  new 
jplay.  This  seems  to  be  a  myth,  natural  enough  in  the 
circumstances,  but  unfounded  in  fact,  for  we  have  contem- 
porary testimony  -  that  Drury  Lane  was  never  more  crowded 
than  during  the  last  years  of  Garrick's  management,  when 
it  was  known  that  he  intended  to  retire  from  the  stage. 
There  were  crowded  houses  at  both  theatres.  Sheridan, 
though  bearing  his  brilliant  success  lightly,  proceeded  at 
once  to  take  the  tide  at  the  flood.  St  Patrick's  Day^  or  the 
Scheming  Lieutenant,  a  Lively  farce,  written  it  is  said  at  the 
request  of  Clinch,  in  gratitude  for  his  coming  to  the  rescue 
of  Sir  Lucius,  was  produced  in  May.  In  the  course  of  the 
year,  with  the  assistance  of  his  musical  father-in-law,  he 
wrote  the  comic  opera  of  The  Duenna  ;  and  by  the  end  of 
the  year,  with  an  eye  to  the  profits  of  theatrical  manage- 
ment, he  was  in  negotiation  with  Garrick  for  the  purchase 
of  his  share  of  Drury  Lane.  The  Duenna  was  the  great 
theatrical  success  of  tha  winter  of  1775-76;  it  ran  even 
longer  than  The  Beggar's  Opera  had  done — up  to  that  time 
the  longest  run  on.  record.  The  bargain  with  Garrick  was 
completed  in  June  1776.  The  Sum  paid  for  the  half-share 
was   £35,000;    of  this   Sheridan   contributed   .£10,000. 

^  The  letter  from  Miss  Linley  to  a  female  friend,  gi\ing  a  minute 
BCCOiHlt  of  her  persecution  by  Mathews  and  deliverance  by  Sheridan, 
is  declared  by  Mrs  Norton  to  be  a  "foolish  forgery." — Macmillan's 
^(ajaajie,  Ui.  178.  '  See  BlackwooSs  Magazine,  vol.  ii.  p.  26. 


None  of  his  letters  show  where  the  money  came  from,  and 
much  wonder  has  been  expressed  on  the  subject ;  but  aftei 
all  it  is  not  so  very  mysterious  that  the  most  brilliant 
dramatist  of  his_  time,  in  alt  the  credit  of  unparalleled 
success,  should  have  been  able  to  borrow  such  a  sum  as 
this  with  the  best  theatrical  property  to  offer  as  security. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  Garrick  advanced  the  money  or 
let  it  lie  at  interest ;  anyhow,  the  loan  could  not  have 
appeared  at  the  time  a  very  risky  speculation.  Two  years 
afterwards  Sheridan  and  his  friends  bought  the  other  half 
of  the  property  for  £45,000. 

From  the  first  the  direction  of  the  theatre  would  seem 
to  have  been  mainly  in  Sheridan's  hands,     ft  was  opened 
under  the   new  management  in  February  1777,  with  a 
purified  version  of  Vanbrugh's  Relajise,  under  the  title  of 
A  Trip  to  Scarborough.     This  is  printed  among  Sheridan's 
works,  but  he  has  no  more  title  to  the  authorship  than 
CoUey  Cibber  to  that  of   Richard  III.     His  chief  task 
was  to  remove  indecencies ;  he  added  very  little  to  the 
dialogue.     Astonishment  has  been  expressed  that  he  should 
have  fallen  back  on  an  old  play  instead  of  writing  a  new 
one.     The  fact  ^s  quoted  among  the  proofs  of  his  indolence. 
But  the  new  manager,  apart  from  the  engagements  of  a 
popular  man  of  fashion,  probably  found  work  and  worry  in 
his  novel  task  of  organization  sufficient  to  leave  him  little 
leisure  for  composition.     Vanbrugh's  play  was   probably 
chosen  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  suited  his  company. 
Possibly  also   he  wished   to   make  trial  of  their "  powers 
before   entrusting   them  with  a   play  of   his   own.     The 
School  for  Scandal  was  produced  httle   more   than   two 
months  afterwards.     Mrs  Abington,  who  had  played  Miss 
Hoyden  in  the  Trip,  played  Lady  Teazle,  who   may  be 
regarded  as  a  Miss   Hoyden  developed   by   six   months' 
experience  of  marriage  and  town  life.     The  actors  who 
played  the  brothers  Surface  had  been  tried  in  the  Trip  in 
opposite  characters,  Charles  playing  Townley,  while  Joseph 
played  Tom  Fashion.     It  looks  as  if  shrewd  managerial 
caution  was  responsible  for  the  delay  quite  as  much  as 
indolence.     The   former    may    at    least    have    been    in 
Sheridan's  mind  the  plausible  excuse  for  the  latter.     There 
are  tales  of  the  haste  with  which  the  conclusion  of  The 
School  for  Scandal -Kns  v,-nttea,  of  a  stratagem  by  which 
the  last  act  was  got  out  of  him  by  the  anxious  corrfpany, 
and  of  the  fervent  "  Amen  "  yritten  on  the  last  page  of 
the   copy  by   the  prompter,  in  response  to  the  author's 
"Finished   at   last,    thank   God!"      But,   although   tta 
conception  was  thus  hurriedly  completed,  we  know  froa 
Sheridan's  sister  that  ine  idea  of  a  "  scandalous  college  " 
had  occurred  to  him  five  years  before  in   connexion  wit'S 
his  own  experiences  at  Bath.     His  difiiculty  was  to  find  £t 
story  sufficiently  dramatic  in  its  incidents  to  form  a  sul^isi*- 
for  the  machinations  of  the  character-slayers.     He  seems  (to 
have  tried  more  than  one  plot,  and  in  the  end  to  have 
desperately  forced  two  separate  conceptions  together.  "^^^ 
dialogue  is  so  brilliant  throughout,  and  the  auction  scene 
.  and  the  screen   scene  so  effective,  that  nObody  cares  to 
examine  the  construction  of  the  comedy  except  as  a  matter 
of  critical  duty.     But  a  study  of  the  construction  brings 
to  light  the  difficulties  that  must  have  worried  the  author 
in  WTiting  the  play,  and  explains  why  he  was  so  thankful 
to  have  it  finished  and  done  with  at  last.     After  all,  he 
worried  himself  in  vain,  for  The  School  for  Scandal,  though 
it  has  not  the  unity  of  The  Rivals,  nor  the  same  wealth  of 
broadly   humorous    incident,    is   universally   regarded   as 
Sheridan's  masterpiece.     He  might  have  settled  the  doubts 
and  worries  of  authorship  with  Pufi's  reflexion  "  What  i« 
the  use  of  a  good  plot  except  to  bring  in  gebi  things  1" 
The  vitahty  of  a  play  depends  mainly  on  its  good  things 
in  the  way  of  character,  incident,  and  happy  saying,  and  to 
a  very  limited  estent  on  their  relevancp  to  any  central  plii&' 


SHERIDAN 


799 


The  third  and  last  of  Sheridan's  great  comedies,  The 
Critic,  was  produced  in  1779,  The  School  for  Scandal 
meantime  continuing  to  draw  larger  houses  than  any  other 
play  every  time  it  was  put  on  the  stage.  The  Critic  is 
perhaps  the  highest  proof  of  Sheridan's  skill  as  a  dramatist, 
for  in  it  he  has  worked  out,  with  perfect  success  for  all 
time,  a  theme  which,  often  as  it  has  been  attempted,  no 
other  dramatist  has  ever  succeeded  in  redeeming  from 
tedious  circumstantiality  and  ephemeral  personalities.  The 
laughable  infirmities  of  all  classes  connected  with  the  stage, 
■ — aiithors,  actoro,  patrons,  and  audience, — are  touched  oft 
with  the  lightest  of  hands ;  the  fun  is  directed,  not  at 
individuals,  but  at  absurdities  that  grow  out  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  stage  as  naturally  and  inevitably  as  weeds 
in  a  garden.  It  seems  that  he  had  accumulated  notes,  as 
his  habit  was,  for  another  comedy  to  be  called  Afectation. 
But  apparently  he  failed  to  hit  upon  any  story  that  would 
enable  him  to  present  his  various  types  of  affectation  in 
dramatic  interaction.  The  similar  difficulty  in  his  satire 
against  scandal,  of  finding  sufficiently  interesting  materials 
for  the  scandal-mongers,  he  had  surmounted  with  a  violent 
effort.  This  other  difficulty  he  might  have  surmounted 
too,  if  he  had  had  leisure  to  "  sit  and  think  "  till  the  happy 
thought  came.  But  his  energies  were  now  called  off  in  a 
different  direction.  His  only  dramatic  composition  during 
the  remaining  thirty-six  years  of  his  life  was  Pimrro,  pro- 
duced in  1799 — a  tragedy  in  which  he  made  liberal  use  of 
some  of  the  arts  ridiculed  in  the  person  of  Mr  Puff.  He 
is  said  also  to  have  written  more  of  The  Stranger  than  he 
was  willing  to  acknowledge. 

He  entered  parliament  for  Stafford  in  1780.  It  was  not 
a  sudden  ambition  to  shine  on  a  wider  stage  after  having 
gained  the  highest  honours  of  the  theatre.  Ever  since 
leaving  Harrow  he  had  dabbled  a  little  in  politics,  had 
sketched  letters  in  the  manner  of  Junius,  and  begun  an 
answer  to  .lohnson's  Taxation  no  Tyranny.  But  he  had 
not  made  any  public  appearance  as  a  politician  until  his 
acquaintance  with  Fox  led  to  his  appearing  on  a  West- 
minster platform  with  the  great  leader  of  opposition. 
Apparently  ho  owed  his  election  for  Stafi'ord  to  more 
substantial  persuasives  than  the  charms  of  his  eloquence. 
He  paid  the  burgesses  five  guineas  each  for  the  honour  of 
representing  them.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  time.  His 
first  speech  in  parliament,  like  the  first  speech  of  a  great 
parliamentarian  of  this  century,  between  whose  career  and 
Sheridan's  there  are  many  striking  points  of  resemblance 
and  contrast,  was  a  failure.  But  he  persevered,  spoke 
little  for  a  time  and  chiefly  on  financial  questions,  soon 
took  a  place  among  the  best  speakers  in  the  House,  and 
under  the  wing  of  Fox  filled  subordinate  offices  in  the 
short-lived  ministries  of  1782  and  1783.  He  was  under- 
secretary for  foreign  affairs  in  the  Rockingham  ministry, 
and  a  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  Coalition  ministry. 
This  was  rapid  promotion  for  a  man  who  owed  everything 
to  his  own  talents,  and  yet  not  an  excessive  recognition  of 
the  services  of  such  a  speaker  as  ho  is  described  as  having 
proved  himself  at  this  exciting  period.  In  debate  he  had 
the  keenest  of  eyes  for  the  weak  places  in  an  opponent's 
argument,  and  the  happy  art  of  putting  them  in  an 
irresistibly  ludicrous  light  without  losing  his  good  temper 
or  his  presence  of  mind.  In  those  heated  days  of  parlia- 
mentary strife  he  was  almost  the  only  man  of  mark  that 
waa  never  called  out,  and  yet  ho  had  not  his  match  in  the 
weapon  of  ridicule. 

The  occasion  that  gave  Sheridan  a  chance  of  rising  above 
the  reputation  of  an  extremely  effective  and  brilliant 
debater  into  the  ranks  of  great  parliamentary  orators  was 
the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings.  His  speeches  in 
that  proceeding  were  by  the  unanimous  acknowledgment 
of  his  contemporaries  among  the  greatest  delivered  in  that 


generation  of  great  orators.  The  first  was  in  1787,  on 
Burke's  proposal  that  Hastings  should  be  impeached. 
Sheridan  spoke  for  three  hours,  and  the  effect  of  his  oratory 
was  such  that  it  was  unanimou.sly  agreed  to  adjourn  and 
postpone  the  final  decision  till  the  House  should  be  in  a 
calmer  mood.  Of  this,  and  of  his  last  great  speech  on 
the  subject  in  1794,  only  brief  abstracts  have  been 
preserved ;  but  with  the  second,  the  four  days'  speech 
in  Westminster  Hall,  on  the  occasion  so  brilliantly  described 
by  llacaulay,  posterity  has  been  more  fortunate.  The 
reader  should,  however,  be  cautioned  against  accepting 
the  version  given  in  a  collection  of  Sheridan's  speeches 
published  by  a  friend  after  his  death.  This  long  passed 
current  as  a  genuine  specimen  of  Sheridan's  eloquence  at 
its  best,  in  spite  of  Jloore's  protest  that  he  had  in  his 
possession  a  !opy  of  a  shorthand  writer's  report,  and  that 
the  two  did  not  correspond.  But  Gurney's  verbatim 
reports  of  the  speeches  on  both  sides  at  the  trial  were 
published  at  Sir  G.  Cornewall  Lewis's  instigation  in  1859, 
and  from  them  we  are  able  to  form  an  idea  of  Sheridan's 
power  as  an  orator.  There  are  passages  here  and  there 
of  gaudily  figurative  rhetoric,  loose  ornament,  and  decla- 
matory hyperbole  such  as  form  the  bulk  of  the  incorrect 
version;  but  the  strong  common  sense,  close  argumentative 
force,  and  masterly  presentation  of  telling  facts  enable  us 
to  understand  the  impression  produced  by  the  speech  at 
the  time.i 

Sheridan's  long  parliamentary  career  terminated  in  1812. 
He  could  not  help  being  to  the  last  a  conspicuous  figure 
both  in  society  and  in  parliament,  but  from  the  time  of 
the  break-up  of  the  Whig  party  on  the  secession  of  Burke 
he  was  more  or  less  an  "  independent  member,"  and  his 
isolation  was  complete  after  the  death  of  Fox.  The  Begum 
speech  remained  his  highest  oratorical  achie^-ement.  By 
it  he  is  fixed  in  the  tradition  of  the  House  as  one  of  its 
greatest  names.  But  his  opinions  on  other  great  questions 
were  given  with  a  force  and  eloquence  worthy  of  hie 
position.  When  Burke  denounced  the  French  Revolution, 
Sheridan  joined  with  Fox  in  vindicating  the  principle  of 
non-intervention.  He  maintained  that  thj  F-rench  people 
should  be  allowed  to  settle  their  constitution  and  manage 
their  afiairs  in  their  own  way.  But  wlien  the  republic 
was  succeeded  by  the  empire,  and  it  became  apparent  that 
France  under  Napoleon  would  interfere  with  the  affairs  of 
its  neighbours,  he  employed  his  eloquence  in  denouncing 
Napoleon  and  urging  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  One  of 
his  most  celebrated  speeches  was  delivered  in  support  of 
strong  measures  against  the  mutineers  at  the  Nore.  When 
the  Whigs  camo  into  power  in  1806  Sheridan  was 
appointed  treasurer  of  the  navy,  but  was  denied  the  honour 
of  admission  to  the  cabinet.  After  Fox's  death  he  suc- 
ceeded his  chief  in  the  representation  of  Westminster,  and 
aspired  to  succeed  him  as  leader  of  the  party,  but  this 
claim  was  not  allowed,  and  thenceforward  Sheridan  fought 
for  his  own  hand.  When  the  prince  became  regent  in 
1811  Sheridan's  private  influence  with  him  helped  to 
exclude  the  Whigs  from  power.  For  his  interference  on 
this  occasion  between  the  regent  and  his  constitutional 
advisers  Sheridan  was  severely  blamed.  To  judge  fairly 
as  to  how  far  he  was  justified  in  his  conduct  as  a  matter 
of  private  ethics  we  must  take  into  account  his  previous 
relations  with  the  leaders  of  his  party,  a  point  on  which 
Moore,  one  of  the  disappointed  placemen,  is  somewhat 
reticent.  Throughout  his  parliamentary  career  Sheridan 
was  one  of  the  boon  companions  of  the  prince,  and  his 
champion  'in  parliament  in  some  dubious  matters  of  pay- 
ment of  debts.     But  he  always  resented  any  imputation 

^  For  a  comparison  of  tho  two  versions  of  tbe  speech  and  an  able 
exposition  of  the  qualities  of  Sheridan's  oratory  see  Mr  W,  Frascrj 
Rao'a_U'iVA«,  HKeridtxiit  and  Vox,  1874. 


800 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


khat  he  was  the  princo' s  confidential  adviser  or  mouthpiece. 
A  certain  proud  and  sensitive  independence  was  one  of  the 
most  marked  features  in  Sheridan's  parliamentary  career. 
After  a  coolness  arose  between  him  and  his  Whig  allies  he 
refused  a  place  for  his  son  from  the  Government,  lest  there 
should  be  any  suspicion  in  the  public  mind  that  his  support 
bad  been  bought. 

His  last  yfcars  were  harassed  by  debt  and  disappoint- 
ment. At  the  general  election  of  1812  he  stood  for 
Westminster  and  was  defeated,  and  turned  in  vain  to  his 
»ld  constituency  of  Stafford.  He  could  not  raise  money 
Enough  to  win  back  their  confidence.  As  a  member  of 
parliament  he  liad  been  safe  against  arrest  for  debt,  but 
now  that  this  protection  was  lost  his  creditors  closed  in 
upon  him,  and  from  this  time  till  his  death  in  1816  the 
life  of  Sheridan,  broken  in  health  and  fortufle,  discredited 
in  reputation,  slighted  by  old  associates,  so  enfeebled  and 
low-spirited  as  to  burst  into  tears  at  a  compliment,  yet  at 
times  vindicating  his  reputation  as  the  wittiest  of  boon 
companions,  is  one  of  the  most  painful  passages  in  the 
biograpihy  of  great  men.  Doubtless,  in  any  attempt  to 
judge  of  Sheridan  as  he  was  apart  from  his  works,  we 
must  make  considerable  deductions  from  the  mass  of 
floating  anecdotes  that  have  gathered  round  his  name.  It 
was  not  without  reason  that  his  granddaughter  ^Mrs 
Norton  denounced  the  unfairness  of  judging  of  the  real 
man  from  unauthenticated  stories  about  his  indolent 
procrastination,  his  recklessness  in  money  matters,  his 
drunken  feats  and  sallies,  his  wild  gambling,  his  ingenious 
but  discreditable  shifts  in  evading  and  duping  creditors. 
The  real  Sheridan  was  not  a  pattern  of  decorous  respect- 
ability, but  we  may  fairly  believe  that  he  was  very  far 
from  being  as  disreputable  as  the  Sheridan  of  vulgar 
legend.  Against  the  sto/ies  about  his  reckl  ss  management 
of  his  affairs  we  must  set  the  broad  facts  that  he  had  no 
source  of  income  but  Drury  Lane  theatre,  that  ho  bore 
from  it  for  thirty  years  all  the  expenses  of  a  fashionable 
life,  and  that  the  theatre  wa.i  twice  burnt  to  the  ground 
during  his  proprietorship.  Enough  was  lost  in  those  fires 
to  account  ten  times  over  for  all  his  debts.  His  bio- 
graphers always  speak  of  his  means  of  living  as  a  mystery. 
Seeing  that  he  started  with  borrowed  capital,  it  is  possible 
that  the  mystery  is  that  he  applied  much  more  of  his 
powers  to  plain  matters  of  business  than  he  aftected  or  got 
credit  for.  The  records  of  his  wild  bets  in  the  betting 
book  of  Brook's  Club  date  in  the  years  after  the  loss  of 
his  first  wife,  to  whom  he  was  devotedly  attached.  The 
reminiscences  of  his  son's  tutor,  Mr  Smyth,  show  anxious 
and  fidgetty  family  habits,  curiously  at  variance  with  the 
accepted  tradition  of  his  imperturbable  recklessness.  Many 
of  the  tricks  which  are  made  to  appear  as  the  unscrupulous 
devices  of  a  hunted  and  reckless  debtor  get  a  softer  light 
upon  them  if  we  ascribe  them  to  a  whimsical,  boyish, 
ungovernable  love  of  fun,  which  is  a  well-attested  feature 
of  his  character.  But  the  real  Sheridan,  as  he  was  in 
private  life,  is  irrecoverably  gone.  Even  ISIoore,  writing 
80  soon  after  his  death,  had  to  lament  that  he  could  "  find 
out  nothing  about  him."  Moore  seems  to  have  made  an 
imperfect  use  of  the  family  piapers,  arid  it  is  on  record  that 
Lord  Melbourne,  who  had  undertaken  to  write  Sheridan's 
life,  always  regretted  having  handed  over  his  materials  to 
the  professional  biographer.  He  died  on  the  7lh  of  July 
1816,  and  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  Westminster 
A'obey. 

There  is,  uiifortnnitely,  no  complete  authoritative  bingrapliy 
of  Slieriilan.  Mrs  Norton,  his  granddaugliler,  questioned  tlie 
accuracy  of  iloore's  Zi/l-  in  many  particulars,  and  aniiounceJ  her 
intention  of  wrhing  a  history  of  the  Shcridans  from  the  family 
jxipers,  of  which  Moore  had  made  very  partial  use.  But  she  n'Bver 
carried  out  the  project.  The  current  statements  about  the  father 
and  grandfather  of  the  diamalisL  aio  iuaccarate  .and  misleadina  in 


several  important  respects.  Tlie  best  account  ol  them — making 
allowance  for  a  slight  bias  of  family  pride — is  to  be  fouii'i  m  the 
Memoirs  of  Mrs  Frances  Sheridan,  by  her  granddaughter,  the 
dramatist's  niece,  Miss  Lefanu,  There  is  an  excellent  sketch  of 
Sheridan's  political  career  in  Mr  AV.  Fraser  Rae's  Wilkes,  Sheridan, 
and  Fvx,  and  ilrs  Oliphant's  Sheridan,  in  the  "  English  Men  of 
Letters"  series,  interprets  his  character  with  the  luminous  breadth 
and  sympathy  always  to  be  expected  from  her  (W.   M. ) 

SHERlF,  or  Shekeef.     See  ilECCA,  vol.  xv.  jj^  672. 

SHERIFF.  For  the  office  of  sheriff  in  England,  see 
County.  For  his  jurisdiction  in  the  revision  of  voters,  see 
Reoistration.  The  position  of  the  sheriff  as  an  executive 
officer  in  the  IJnited  States  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
English  sheriff.  He  is  usually  appemted  by  popular 
election.  The  marshals  of  the  United  States  and  their 
deputies  have  in  each  State  the  same  powers  irr  executing 
the  laws  of  the  United  States  as  the  sheriffs  and  their 
deputies  have  in  executing  the  laws  of  the  State. 

So  far  as  is  known  the  sheriff,  notwithstanding  the  Saxon 
etymology  of  his  name  (shire  grieve  or  reeve),  did  not  er'st 
in  Scotland  before  the  beginning  of  the  Norman  period. 
In  the  feudal  system  he  became  the  centre  of  the  local 
administration  of  justice,  the  representative  of  the  crown 
in  executive  as  well  as  judicial  business,  and  was  always  a 
royal  officer  appointed  by  and  directly  responsible  to  the 
king.  The  earliest  sheriffs  on  record  belong  to  the  reigns 
of  Alexander  I.  and  David  I.,  and  the  office  was  common 
before  "the  death  of  Alexander  III.  In  many  cases  it  had 
become  hereditary,  the_  most  remarkable  instance  being 
that  of  Selkirk,  where  a  De  Sinton  held  it  from  1265  to 
1305.  The  ordinance  of  Edward  I.  in  1305  recognized 
most  of  the  existing  officers,  but  rejected  the  hereditary 
character  of  the  olhce  by  a  declaration  that  the  sheriffs 
were  to  be  appointed  and  removable  at  the  discretion  of 
the  king's  lieutenant  and  the  chamberlain.  The  inveterate 
tendency  of  feudalism  reasserted  itself,  however,  notwith- 
standing various  attempts  to  check  it,  and  an  Act  of 
Janics  II.  shows  that  the  office  had  again  become  here- 
ditary. 

One  of  the  consequences  was  that  sheriffs  ignorant  of 
law  required  deputes  to  discharge  their  judicial  duties.  In 
the  course  of  succeeding  reigns,  down  to  that  of  James 
VI.,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sheriffs  came  to  be  much  limited 
by  grants  of  baronies  and  regalities  which  gave  the  grantees 
tlie  right  to  hold  both  civil  and  criminal  courts  of  less  or 
greater  jurisdiction  to  the  exclusion  of  the  sheriff. 

The  civil  jurisdiction  of  the  sheriff  was  originally  of 
very  wide  extent,  and  was  deemed  specially  applicable  to 
questions  relating  to  the  land  within  the  shire,  but  after 
the  institution  of  the  court  of  session  in  1532  it  became 
restricted,  and  all  causes  relating  to  property  in, land,  as 
well  as  those  requiring  the  action  called  declarator  for 
establishing  ultimate -right,  and  most  of  those  requiring 
equitable  reniedies,  were  withdrawn  from  it.  Nor  did 
it  possess  any  consistorial  jurisdiction,  as  its  subjects 
(marriage,  legitimacy,  and  wills)  belonged  to  the  officials 
of  the  bishop  after  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  commissary  courts,  and  at  a  later  period 
to  the  court  of  session.  Practically,  therefore,  the  civil 
jurisdiction  of  the  sheriff  fell  under  the  head  of  actions 
concluding  for  payment  of  money  and  actions  to  regulate 
the  possession  of  land.  The  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the 
sheriff  was  in  like  manner  in  its  origin  of  almost  universal 
extent.  But  this  was  first  limited  to  cases  where  the 
offenders  were  caught  in  or  shortly  after  the  act,  after- 
wards to  cases  in  which  the  trial  could  be  held  within 
forty  days,  and  subsequently  further  restricted  as  the 
business  of  the  justiciary  court  became  more  organized. 
The  punishment  of  death,  having  by  long  disuse  como 
to  be  held  beyond  the  jjower  of  the  sheriff,  and  the  sti-. 
tutory  pnnishments  of  tr.insportation  or  penaj  servitude 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


801 


never  having  been  entrusted  to  him,  tia  jurisdiction  as 
regards  crimes  was  usually  said  to  be  limited  to  those 
punishable  arbitrarily,  that  is,  by  imprisonment,  fine,  or 
admonition. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  supj^ession  of  the  Jacobite 
rising  of  1745,  after  1st  March  174S  all  heritable 
sheriffships  were  extinguished,  and  no  sheriffship  was  to  be 
thereafter  granted  either  heritably  or  for  life,  or  for  any 
certain  term  exceeding  one  year,  but  this  provision  was 
not  taken  advantage  of,  and  the  office  of  sheriff-principal 
practically  ceased,  though  that  name  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  sheriff-depute,  20  Geo.  II.  c.  43.  The  Act  declared 
that  there  should  be  but  one  sheriff-depute  or  stewart- 
depute  in  every  shire  or  stewartry,  who  was  to  be  an 
advocate  of  three  years'  standing,  appointed  by  the  crown, 
with  such  continuance  as  His  Majesty  should  think  fit  for 
the  next  seven  years,  and  after  that  period  ad  vitam  aut 
culpam.  This  period  was  extended  by  28  Geo.  11.  t;.  7 
for  fifteen  years,  and  thereafter  (since  1769)  the  sheriff- 
depute  has  held  his  office  ad  vilam  avt  culpam.  Power 
was  given  to  him  by  20  Geo.  II.  c.  43  to  appoint  one  or 
more  persons  as  substitutes  during  his  pleasure,  for  whom 
he  should  be  answerable.  At  first  no  legal  qualification 
was  necessary  and  no  salary  paid,  but  gradually  the 
sheriff-depute  delegated  more  legal  business  to  the  sub- 
stitute, and  before  1761  it  had  become  customary  for  the 
sheriff-depute  to  give  him  some  allowance.  In  1787  he 
was  placed  on  the  civil  establishment  and  paid  by  the 
cro\vn;  in  1825  a  qualification  of  three  years'  standing 
(now  five  years  by  40  and  41  Vict.  c.  50)  as  an  advocate 
or  procurator  before  a  sheriff  court  was  required  (6  Geo. 
rV.  c.  23)  ;  in  1838  he  was  made  removable  by  the  sheriff- 
depute,  only  -svith  the  consent  of  the  lord  president  and 
lord  justice  clerk,  and  it  was  made  coinpnlsory  that  he 
should  reside  in  the  sheriffdom,  the  provision  of  20  Geo. 
II.  c.  43,  which  required  the  sheriff-depute  so  to  reside 
for  four  months  of  each  year,  being  repealed  (1  and  2  Vict. 
c.  119);  and  in  1W7  the  right  of  appointment  of  the 
substitutes  was  transferred  from  the  sheriff-depute  to 
the  crown  (40  and  41  Vict.  c.  50). 

While  the  sheriff-depute  has  still  power  to  hear  cases  in 
the  first  instance,  and  is  required  to  hold  a  certain  number 
of  sittings  in  each  place  where  the  sheriff-substitute  holds 
courts,  and  also  once  a  year  a  small-debt  court  in  every 
place  where  a  circuit  small-debt  court  is  appointed  to  be 
held,  the  ordinary  course  of  civil  procedure  is  that  the 
sheriff-substitute  acts  as  judge  of  first  instance,  with  an 
appeal  under  certain  restrictions  from  his  decision  to  the 
sheriff-depute,  and  from  him  to  the  court  of  session  in  all 
causes  exceeding  £25  in  value.  An  appeal  direct  from  the 
eheriff-substitute  to  the  court  of  session  is  competent,  but 
is  not  often  resorted  to. 

As  regards  criminal  proceedings,  summary  trials  are 
Usually  conducted  by  the  sheriff-substitute ;  trials  with  a 
jury  either  by  him  or,  in  important  cases,  by  the  sheriff- 
depute.  The  sheriff-substitute  also  has  charge  of  the  pre- 
liminary investigation  into  crime,  the  evidence  in  which, 
called  a  precognition,  is  laid  before  him,  and  if  necessary 
taken  before  him  on  oath  at  the  instance  of  his  procurator- 
fiscal,  the  local  crown  prosecutor. 

The  duties  of  the  sheriff-depute  are  now  divided  into  ministerial  or 
administrative  and  judicial.  The  mini.sterial  are  the  supervision 
of  the  accouuta  of  the  inferior  officers  of  the  sheriffdom  ;  the 
superintendence  of  parliamentary  elections  ;  the  holding  by  him- 
self or  his  substitutes  of  the  courts  for  registration  of  electors  ; 
the  preparation  of  the  list  of  persons  liable  to  serve  both  on 
criminal  and  civil  juries;  the  appointment  of  sherilf  ofiicers  and 
supervision  of  the  execution  of  judicial  writs  by  them  ;  and  the 
striking  of  the  "  fiars."  He  has  also  to  attend  the  judges  of  justi- 
ciary at  the  circuit  courts  for  the  county  or  counties  over  which  his 
j'lrisdiction  extends.  Ho  is  generally  responsible  for  the  peace  of 
the  county,  and  supervises  the  poUcc  establishment  He  is  a  o^icio 
21—29 


a  justice  of  the  peace  and  commissioner  of  snpp  J.  In  addition 
to  those  general  duties  of  sheriffs-depute,  particulai  sheriffs  ara 
attached  to  the  Board  of  Supervision  for  the  Kelief  of  the  Poor,  the 
Prison  Board  of  Scotland,  the  Board  of  Northern  Lighthouse 
Commissioners,  and  the  Scottish  Fishery  Board. 

The  judicial  duties  of  the  sheriff-depute  are,  as  regards  crimes, 
the  trial  of  all  causes  remitted  by  the  counsel  of  the  crown  for  the 
trial  by  sheriff  and  jury,  as  well  as  summary  trials  if  he  chooses 
to  take  them.  This  now  means  most  crimes  for  which  a  mxximum 
of  two  years'  imprisonment  (in  practice  eighteen  months  is  the 
longest  sentence  imposed)  is  deemed  sufficient,  and  which  axe  not  by 
statute  reserved  for  the  justiciary  court.  His  civil  jurisdicfton 
is  regulated  by  several  statutes  too  technical  for  detail,  but  may  be 
said  generally  to  extend  to  all  suits  which  conclude  for  payment  of 
money,  whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  action,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  where  the  payment  depends  on  status,  all  actions  with 
reference  to  the  possession  of  land  or  right  in  land,  and  actions 
relative  to  the  right  of  succession  to  movable  property.  In 
bankruptcy  he  has  a  cumulative  and  alternative  jurisdiction  with 
the  court  of  session,  and  in  the  sen'ice  of  heirs  with  the  sheriff  of 
chancery.  Formerly  thB  jurisdiction  of  tlco  sheriff  was  absolutely 
excluded  after  the  institution  of  the  cocit  of  session  in  four 
important  classes  of  action— (1)  relative  to  property  in  lands  or 
rights  in  lands  ;  (2)  requiring  the  use  of  peculiar  forms  of  action, 
e,g.,  declarator,  reduction,  and  suspension ;  (3)  involving  the 
exercise  of  the  nobile  oJ/iciLnn,  a  suprem.e  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the 
court  of  session  ;  and  (4)  for  the  determination  of  rights  of  status, 
as  well  as  in  many  cases  in  which  the  proceedings  rest  on  special 
statutes  which  gave  an  exclusive  jurisdiction  to  the  court  of 
session.  But  large  exceptions  have  been  made  by  recent  legisla- 
tion from  this  exclusion.  By  another  series  of  statutes,  for  the 
most  part  connected  with  local  administration,  as  the  Road,  Burial 
Grounds,  Lunacy,  Public-houses,  and  G-^neral  Police  and  Education 
Acts,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  of  sess.ion  is  excluded  either  as 
an  original  court  or  a  court  of  review,  and  the  sheriff  court  has 
exclusive  jurisdiction. 

The  courts  which  the  sheriff  holds  are  (1)  the  criminal  court; 
{2)  the  ordinary  civil  court ;  (3)  the  small-debt  court  for  cases 
under  £12  in  value  (6  Geo.  IV;  c.  4S) ;  (4)  the  debts  recovei'y  court 
for  cases  above  £12  and  under  £50  in  value  (30  and  31  Vict.  c.  96) ! 
and  (5)  the  registration  court.  His  judgment  in  the  criminal  court 
is  subject  to  review  by  the  court  of  justiciary,  and  in  '.he  ordinary 
civil  court  and  the  debts  recovery  court  by  the  court  of  session.  In 
the  small  debt  court  it  is  final,  except  in  certain  cases  where  an 
appeal  lies  to  the  next  circuit  court  of  justiciary.  The  sheriff- 
substitute  may  competently  exercise  all  the  judicial  jurisdiction  of 
the  sheriff,  subject  to  appeal  in  civil  cases  other  than  small-debt 
cases.  As  regards  his  administrative  functions  he  assists  the 
sheriff  generally,  and  may  act  for  him  in  the  registration  and  fiars 
court,  and  he  superintends  the  preliminary  stage  of  criminal 
inquiries,  consulting  with  the  sheriff  if  necessary  ;  but  the  other 
administrative  duties  of  the  office  are  conducted  by  the  sheriff- 
depute  in  person.  The  salaries  of  sheriffs-depute  vary  from  £2000 
to  £500  a  year,  those  of  sheriffs-substitute  from  £1400  to  £500. 

There  is  a  principal  sheriff-clerk  appointed  by  the  crown  for  each 
county,  who  has  depute  clerks  under  him  in  the  principal  towns, 
and  a  procurator-fiscal  for  the  conduct  of  criminal  pi-osecutions  for 
each  county  and  district  of  a  county,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
sheriff  with  the  sanction  of  the  homo  secret.ary. 

Besides  the  sheriffs  of  counties,  there  is  a  sheriff  of  chancery 
appointed  by  the  crown,  whose  duties  are  confined  to  the  service  of 
heirs,  with  a  salary  of  £500.  (jE.  M.) 

SHERLOCK,  Thomas  (1678-17G1),  bishop  of  London, 
the  son  of  Dr  William  Sherlock,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  London  in  1678.  He  was  educated  at  Catherine  Hall, 
Cambridge,  and  in  1704  succeeded  his  father  as  master  of 
(he  Temple.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Bangorian 
controversy  against  Hoadly,  whom  he  succeeded  as  bishop 
of  Bangor  in  1728;  he  was  afterwards  translated  to 
Salisbury  iii  1734,  and  to  London  in  1738.  He  pub- 
lished against  CoUins's  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Chris- 
tian Reiirjion  a  volume  of  sermons  entitled  The  Use  and 
Intent  of  Prophecy  in  the  Seeeral  Ages  of  the  World  (1725); 
and  in  reply  to  Woolston's  Discourses  on  the  Miracles  he 
wrote  a  volume  entitled  The  Trial  of  the  Witnesses  of  the 
Resurrection  of  Jesus  (1729),  which  in  a  very  short  time 
ran  through  fourteen  edition.s.  His  Pastoral  Letter  (1750) 
on  "the  late  earthquakes"  had  a  circulation  of  many 
thousands,  and  four  volumes  of  Sermons  which  he  pub- 
lished in  his  later  years  (1754-58)  were  also  at  one  time 
highly  esteemed.  He  died  in  1761.  A  collected  edition 
of  his  works  in  5  vols.  8vo,  by  Hughes,  appeared  in  1830. 

XXL  —  'OT 


802 


S  H  E  — S  H I 


SHERLOCK,  WiLLrAM(l641-1707),  doan  of  St  Paul's, 
was  born  at  Southwark  in  1641,  and  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Cambridge  (Peterhouse).  In  1G69  he  became 
rector  of  St  George,  Botolph  Lane,  London,  and  in  1681 
he  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  St  Paul's.  In  1684  he 
published  The  Case  of  RcsUtancc  of  the  Sxiprcme  Towers 
staled  and  resolved  accordwu;  to  the  Docirine  of  the  Holy 
^Scriptures,  an  ably  written  treatise,  in  which  ho  drew  tlie 
'distinction  between  active  and  passive  obedience  which 
[was  at  that  time  generally  accepted  by  the  high  church 
clergy ;  in  the  same  year  he  was  made  master  of  the 
Temple.  In  168Gihe  was  reproved  for  preaching  against 
popery  and  his  pension  stopped.  After  the  Revolution  he 
was  suspended  for  refusing  the  oaths  to  Vt'illiam  and 
Mary,  but  before  his  final  deprivation  he  yielded,  justify- 
ing his  change  of  attitude  in  The  Caseof  the  Allegiance 
due  to  Sovereign  Pou'crs  stated  and  resolved  according  to 
Script-lire  and  Reason  and  the  Principles  of  the  Church  of 
England  (1691).  During  the  period  of  his  suspension 
he  wrote  a  Practical  Discourse  concerning  Death,  which 
became,  very  popular  and  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  In  1G90  and  1693  he  published  volumes  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  whicli  involved  him  in  a  warm 
controversy  with  .South  and  others.  He  became  dean  of 
St  Paul's  in  1691,  and  died  at  Hampstead  in  1707. 

SHERMAN,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  in  Grayson 
county,  Tei^s,  73  miles  north  of  ItaJIas,  is  a  substantially 
built  and  flourishing  place,  with  a  court-house  and  a  college. 
Its  population,  only  1439  in  1870,  was  6093  in  1880  and 
'has  since  increased  to  about  8000.  The  surrounding 
.country  is  a  cotton  and  grain  district. 

SHERWIN,  John  Keyse  (1751-1790),  engraver  and 
history-painter,  was  born  in  1751  at  East  Dean  in  Sussex. 
His  father  was  a  wood-cutter  employed  in  shaping  bolts  for 
shipbuilders,  and  the  son  followed  the  same  occupation  till 
his  seventeenth  year,  when,  having  shown  an  aptitude  for 
art  by  copying  some  miniatures  with  exceptional  accuracy, 
he  was  befriended  by  Mr  William  Mitford,  upon  whose 
estate  the  elder  Shenvin  worked,  and  was  sent  to  study  in 
London,  first  under  John  Astley,  and  then  for  three  years 
under  Bartolozzi — for  whom  he  is  believed  to  have 
executed  a  large  jiortion  of  the  plate  of  Clytie,  after 
Annibal  Caracci,  published  as  the  work  of  his  master.  He 
was  entered  as  a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
gained  a  silver  medal,  and  in  1772  a  gold  medal  for  his 
painting  of  Coriolanps  Taking  Leave  of  his  Family. 
From  1774  till  1780  he  was  an  exhibitor  of  chalk 
drawings  and  of  engravings  in  the  Royal  Academy. 
Establishing  himself  in  St  James's  Street  as  a  painter, 
designer,  and  engraver,  he  speedily  attained  popularity, 
and  began  to  mix  in  fashionable  society.  His  drawing  of 
the  Finding  of  Moses,  a  work  of  but  slight  artistic  merit, 
which  int-roduced  portraits  of  the  princess  royal  of  England 
and  other  leading  ladies  of  the  aristocracy,  hit  the  public 
taste,  and,  as  reproduced  by  his  burin,  sold  largely.  In 
1785  he  succeeded  Woollett  as  engraver  to  the  king,  and 
he  also  held  the  appointment  of  engraver  to  the  prince  of 
Wales.  His  professional  income  rose  to  about  £12,000  a 
year  ;  but  he  was  constantly  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  for  he 
was  shiftless,  indolent,  and  without  method,  open-handed 
and  even  prodigal  in  his  benefactions, — and  prodigal,  too,  in 
Jess  reputable  directions,  for  he  became  a  reckless  gambler, 
and  habits  of  intemperance  grew  upon  him.  He  died  in 
extreme  penury  on  the  24th  of  September  1790, — accord- 
ing to  Steevens,  the  editor  of  Shakespeare,  at  "  The  Hog 
in  the  Pound,"  an  obscure  alehouse  in  Swallow  Street,  or, 
as  stated  by  his  pupil  J.  T.  Smith,  in  the  house  of  Robert 
Wilkinson,  a  printseller  in  CojnhiU.' 

It  is-aa  an  engraver  that  Sherwin  is  most  esteemed  ;  and  it  may 
be. noted  that  he  was  ambidexterous^  working  indifferently  with 


either  hand  upon  his  plates.  His  drawing  is  correct,  liisllue  ex- 
cellent, and  his  textures  are.  varied  and  inteUigent  in  expression. 
Such  of  his  plates  as  the  Holy  F.-imily  after  Nicholas  Poussin,  Christ 
Bearing  the  Cross  after  Murillo,  the  portrait  of  the  Marquis  of 
Buckingham  after  Gainsborough,  and  that  of  Pitt  occupy  a  high 
place  among  the  productions  of  the  English  school  of  line-engraviirs. 
He  also  worked  after  Fine,  Dance,  and  Kauffman. 

SHETLAND  ISLANDS.    See  Orkney  and  Shetland. 

SHIELD.     See  Arms  and  Armour,  and  Heraldry. 

SHIELD,  William  (1748-1829),  composer  of  English 
operas,  was  born  at  Swalwell,  near  Newcastle,  in  1748. 
His  father  began  to  teach  him  singing  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  sixth  year,  but  died  three  years  later,  leaving 
him  in  cliarge  of  guardians  who  made  no  provision  what- 
ever for  continuing  his  musical  education,  for  which  he  was 
thenceforward  dependent  entirely  upon  his  own  aptitudfe 
for  learning,  aided  Iiy  a  few  lessons  in  thoroughbass  which 
he  received  from  Charles  Avison.  Notwithstanding  the 
diSiculties  inseparable  from  this  imperfect  training;  he 
obtained  admission  into  the  opera  band  in  1772,  at  fir^t 
as  a  second  violin,  and  afterwards  as  principal  viola ;  and 
this  engagement  he  retained  for  eighteen  years.  In  the 
meantime  he  turned  his  serious  attention  to  composition,' 
and  iVi  1778  produced  his  first  comic  opera,  2'he  Flitch  of 
Bacon,  at  the  Little  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  with  so 
great  success,  that  he  was  immediately  engaged  as  com- 
poser to  Covent  Garden  theatre,  for  which  he  continued 
to  produce  English  operas  and  other  dramatic  pieces,  in 
quick  succession,  until  1797,  when  he  resigned  his  office, 
and  devoted  himself  to  compositions  of  a  different  class, 
producing  a  great  number  of  very  beautiful  glees,  some 
instrumental  chamber  mu.sic,  and  other  miscellaneous  com- 
positions. He  died  in  London  'January  25,  1629,  and  was 
buried  in  the  south  cloister  at  Westminster  Abbey. 

Shield's  most  successful  dramatic  compositions  were  Mosina, 
The  Mysteries  of  the  Castle,  TJic  Lock  and  Key,  and  The  Castle  oj 
Andahisia.  As  a  composer  of  songs  he  was  in  no  degree  inferior 
to  his  great  contemporary  Charles  Dibdin.  Indeed  The  Arcth^tsa, 
The  Heaving  of  the  Lead,  and  The  Post  Captain  are  as  little  likely 
to  be  forgotten  as  Dibdin's  Tom  Bowling  ovSaturday  Night  at  Sea. 
His  vein  of  melody  was  inexh.iustible,  thoroughly  English  in 
chafacter,  and  always  conceived  in  the  purest  and  most  delicate 
taste;  and  hence  it  is  that'many  of  his  airs  are  still  sung  at  con- 
certs, though  the  operas  for  which  they  were  written  have  long 
been  banished  from  the  stage.  His  Introduction  to  Harmony  {17£>4 
and  ISOOi  contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  ;  and  h«  also 
published  a  useful  treatise,  The  Jiudimciits of  Thoroughbase. 

SHIELDS,  North.  See  Tynemouth,  within  which 
borough  the  port  is  included. 

SHIELDS.  South,  a  seaport,  market-town,  and  muni- 
cipal and  parliamentary  borough  of  Durham,  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tyne,  at  its  mouth,  immediately 
opposite  North  Shields  and  Tyrtemouth,  and  on  the  North- 
Eastern  Railway,  18  miles  north-east  of  Durham  and  9 
east  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  It  is  connected  with  North 
Shields  and  Tynemouth  by  steam  ferries.  The  town 
possesses  a  spacious  market-place,  and  some  of  the  newer 
streets  are  wide  and  handsome,  but  the  old  street  running 
along  tho  shore  is  narrow  and  mean.  Formerly  salt  was 
largely  manufactured,  but  the  principal  industries  now  are 
the  manufacture  of  glass  and  chemicals,  and  shipbuilding 
and  ship  refitting  and  repairing,  for  which  therp  are  docks 
capable  of  receiving  the  largest  vessels.  The  North- 
Eastern  Railway  Company  possesses  extensive  docks,  and 
the  port  has  a  large  trade  in  coal ;  but,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  in  the  shipping  returns  of  the  United  Kingdom  it  is 
included  Under  the  general  title  "  Tyne  Ports,"  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  an  accurate  statement  regarding  the  number 
and  tonnage  of  vessels.  The  number  of  fishing  vessels 
connected  with  the  port  in  1884  was  15,  of  204  ton?  aijd 
employing  98  men.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  there 
is  a  pier  about  a  mile  in  length.  A  townsman  of  South 
Shields,  William  Wouldhave,  was  the  inventor  of  the  life- 


S  H  I— S  H  I 


803 


■boat,  and  tho  first  lifeboat  was  built  there  by  Henry 
Greathead,  and  first  used  in  a  storm  in  1789.  TIio  prin- 
cipal public  buildings  are  tlie  church  of  St  Hilda,  with 
a  picturesque'  old  tower;  the  town-hall  in  the  marlcet- 
place ;  the  exchange ;  the  custom-house ;  the  mercantile 
marine  offices ;  the  public  library  and  museum,-  which 
includes  a  large  hall  for  public  meetings  and  a  school  of 
science  and  art  in  connexion  with  South,  Kensington ;  the 
high  school,  the  grammar  school,  the  marine  school,  the 
master-mariner^'  asylum,  the  Ingham  infirmary,  and  the 
union  workhouse.'  There  is  a  pleasant  marine  pai  -  near 
the  pier.  On  elevated  ground  near  the  harbour  arc  the 
remains  of  a  Koman  station,  where  numerous  coins, 
portions  of  an  altar,  and  several  sculptured  memorial 
stones  have  been  dug  up.  The  site  of  the  old  station 
was  afterwards  occupied  by  a  fort  of  considerable 
strength,  which  was  captured  by  the  Scots  under  Colonel 
Stewart  20th  March  1644.  The  town  was  founded  by 
the  convent  of  Durham  about  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century,  but  on  account  of  the  complaints  of  the  bur- 
gesses of  -Newcastle  an  order  was  made  in  the  43d 
year  of  Henry  III.,  stipulating  that  no  ships  should  bo 
laden  .or  unladen  at  Shields,  and  that  no  "shears"  or 
quays  should  be  built  there.  This  early  check  seems  to 
have  been  long  injurious  to  its  prosperity,  for  until  the 
present  century  it  was  little  more  than  a  fishing  station. 
It  received  a  charter  of  incorporation  in  1850,  and  is 
divided  into  three  wards,  governed  by  a.  mayor,  eight 
aldermen,  and  twenty-four  councillors.  In  1832  it  received 
the  privilege  of  returning  a  member  to  parliament.  The 
corporation  act  as  the  urban  sanitary  authority,  and  the 
town  has  a  specially  good  water  supply  from  reservoirs  at 
Cleadon.  The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  (area  1839  acres)  was  45,336  in  1871, 
and  in  1881  it  was  56,875. 

SHIITES.     See  Sunnites  and  Shi'ites. 

SHIKAIIPUE,  a  British  district  in  the  province  of  Sind, 
Bombay  presidency,  India,  with  an  area  of  10,000  square 
miles,  lying  between  27°  apd  29°  K.  lat.  and  between 
67°  and  70°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Khelat, 
Upper  Sind  Frontier  district,  and  the  river  Indus ;  on  the 
E.  by  the  native  states  of  Bahawalpur  and  Jaisalmir ;  on 
the  S.  by  Khairpur  state ;  and  on  tho  W.  by  the  Khirthar 
Mountains.  Shikirpur  is  a  vast  alluvial  plain,  broken 
qnly  at  Sukkur  and  Eohri  by  limestone  hills.  The 
Khirthar'  range  attains  an  elevation  of  7000  feet,  and 
forms  a  natural  boundary  between  the  district  and  Baluch- 
istan. Extensive  patches  of  salt  land,  known  as  hilar, 
are  frequently  met  with,  especially  in  the-  -upper  portion 
of  Shikdrpur,  and  towards  the  Jacobabad  frontier  barren 
tracts  of  clay  land  and  ridges  of  sand-hills,  covered  with 
caper  and  thorn  jungle,  form  a  poor  but  distinctive  feature 
in  tho  landscape.  The  desert  portion  of  llohri  subdivision, 
known  as  the  Registh.'in,  is  very  extensive.  The  forests 
(207  square  miles)  are  situated  on  tho  banks  of  the  Indus, 
mostly  in  the  Rohri  and  ShikArpur  subdivisions.  The 
Indus  Valley  State  Railway  runs  through  the  district,  and 
the  Kandahar  railway  also  goes  through  a  part  of  it. 

In  1881  the  population  numbered  852,980  (males  401,033,  fcnialoa 
391,953),  of  whom  93,341  were  Hindus,  084,275  Jlohammudans, 
and  730  Christiana.  Tho  chief  townd  are  Shikurpur,  Sukkur 
(ijppulation  27,389),  Larkhana  (13,188),  and  Kohii  (10,224).  Tlio 
cultivated  land  in  1882-83  amounted  to  764,488  acrca  of  which 
108,636  wero  twice  croppud.  Cereals — chiefly  rice,  joar  (millet), 
and  wheat — form  the  principal  crops  ; .  but  a  considoiable  area  is 
also  under  pulses  and  oil-seeds.  The  chief  manufactures  are  carpets 
and  coanw  cotton  cloths.  The  total  revenue  raised  in  1882-83 
amounted  to  £234,792,  of  which  the  land  contributed  £189,869. 
Passin;;  from  tho  dominion  of  the  caliphs,  Shikarpur  was  oveiruu 
by  ilaUmud  of  Ghazni  in  1025,  and  a  little  later  was  governed  by 
the  Sumras,  the  Sammas,  and  tho  Arj^huns  in  Rucccssion.  Tho 
Kalhora  dynasty  caino  into  prominence  in  tho  18th  century,  and  was 
followed  by  the  Tdlpur  nurs,  who  annexed  a  part  of  tlio  Durani 


territory  and  incorporated  it  in  tho  district.  In  1843  Shikarpur 
passed  to  the  British,  and  in  1852  the  greater  part  of  the  Koliri 
subdivision  was  resumed  from  the  mir  of  Khairpur,  who  had 
acquired  it  by  fraud. 

SHIKARPUR,  the  chief  town  of  the  above  district, 
is  situated  18  miles  west  of  the  Indus,  in  a  tract  of  low- 
lying  country  annually  flooded  by  the  canals  from  that 
river.  It  is  a  great  entrepot  for  transit  trade  between  the 
Bolan  Pass^and  Karachi.  The  popidation  in  18S1  num« 
l!>ered  42,496  (males  22,889,  females  19,607). 

SHILOH,  a  town  of  Ephraim,  wljere  the  sanctuary  of 
the  ark  was,  under  the  priesthood  of  the  house  of  Eli. 
According  to  1  Sam.  iii.  3,  15,  this  sanctuary  was  not  a 
tabernacle  but  a  temple,  with  doors.  But  the  lariestly 
narrator  of  Josh,  xviii.  1  has  it  that  the  tabernacle  was 
set  up  there  by  Joshua  after  the  conquest.  In  Judges 
x.xi.  19  sij^  the  yearly  feast  at  Shiloh  appears  as  of  merely 
local  character.  Shdoh  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  by 
the  Philistines  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ebenezer ;  cf, 
Jeremiah  vii.  12  sq.  The  position  described  in  Judges, 
loc.  cit.  (cf.  Onomastica,  ed.  Lagarde,  p.  152),  gives  cer- 
tainty to  the  identification  with  the  modern  SeilQn  lying 
some  2  miles  east-south-east  of  Lubb'm  (Lebonah),  on 
the  road  from  Bethel  to  Shechem..  Hero  there  is  a  ruined 
village,  with  a  fiat  double-topped  hill  behind  it,  offering  a 
strong  position,  whicl)  suggests  that  the  place  was  a  strong- 
hold as  well  as  a  sanctuary.  A  smiling  and  fertile  land- 
scape surrounds  the  hill.  The  name  Seililn  corresponds  to 
SiXoCi-  in  Josephus.  LXX.  has  SvjXw,  2>;A.iu;u.  The  forms 
given  in  .the  Hebrew  Bible  (n^>t^,  l^'C')  have  dropped  tho 
final  consonant,  which  reappears  in  the  adjective  'Jiii'C. 
On  Shiloh  in  Gen.  xlix.  10  see  j0D.\ir. 
___  SHIMOGA,  or  Sheemoga,  a  district  in  the  north-west 
of  the  native  state  of  Mysore,'  Southern  India.  It  forms 
a  part  of  the  Nagar  division,  and  is  situated  between 
13°  30'  and  14°  38'  N.  lat.  and  between  74°  44'  and 
76°  5'  E.  long.  It  has  an  area  of  3797  square  miles,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  tho  Bombay  districts  of 
Dh.-irwiir  and  N.  KAnara,  and  E.  and  S.  by  the  districts 
of  Chitaldroog  and  Kadur.  Its  river  system  is  twofold ; 
in  the  east  the  Tungra,  Ehadra,  and  Varada  unite  to 
form  the  Tungabhadra,  which  ultimately  falls  into  the 
Kistna  and  so  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  while  in  the  west 
a  few  minor  streams  flow  to  the  Shiriivati,  which  near 
the  north-western  frontier  bursts  through  tho  Western 
Ghdts  by  the  celebrated  Falls  of  Gersoppaf,  said  to  be 
the  grandest  cataract  in  India.  Flowing  over  a  rocky 
bed  250  yards  wide,  the  river  here  throws  itself  in  four 
distinct  falls  down  a  tremendous  chasm  960  feet  deep. 

The  western  half  of  the  district  is  very  mountainous  and  covered 
with  magnificent  forest,  and  is  known  as  the  Malndd  or  hill 
'country,  some  of  the  peaks  being  4000  feet  above  sea-level.  Tho 
general  elevation  of  Sliimoga  is  about  2000  feet ;  and  towards  the 
east  it  opens  out  into  the  Maidan  or  plain  country,  wliiah  forms 
jiart  of  the  general  plateau  of  Mysore.  Tho  Jlaln-id  region  is  Xory 
picturesque,  its  scenery  abountliiig  with  every  cliarm  of  tropical 
forests  and  mountain  wilds  ;  on  tlie  other  hand  tho  features  of  tho 
Maidan  country  are  for  tlio  most  jiart  comparatively  tame.  Tliu 
mineral  products  of  the  district  includo  iron-ore  and  latcrite.  On 
the  summits  of  the  Ghats  stones  possessing  magnc  ic  qualities  are 
occasionally  found.  The  soil  is  loose  and  sandy  in  the  valleys  of 
tho  Malnad,  and  in  tho  north-east  tho  black  cottoi  soil  prevails. 
Bison  are  common  in  tho  taldk  of  Sagar,  where  also  wild  elephanlii 
aro  occasionally  seen ;  while  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  wild  hogs, 
sdmhhar  and  chitdl  deer,  and  jungle  sheep  aro  numerous  in  tho 
wooded  tracts  of  the  west.  Shimoga  presents  much  variety  of 
climate.  The  south-west  monsoon  is  felt  in  full  force  for  about 
25  ndles  from  the  Gh.ats,  bringing  an  annual  rainfall  of  more  than 
150  inches,  but  tho  rainfall  gradually  diminishes  to  31  inches  at 
Shimoga  station  and  to  25  inches  or  less  at  Chennagiri.  There  is 
no  railroad  in  tho  district,  but  it  contains  225  miles  of  roads. 

The  population  iu  1881  was  499,728  (males  259,296,  females 
240,432);  Hindus  numbered  470,678,  Mohammedans  27,574,  and 
Christians  1476.  Tho  only  place  with  more  than  10,000  inhabit- 
ants is  .Shimoga  town,  the  capital  and  headquarters,  which  is 
situated  on  the  Tunga  river,  with  a  population  of  12,040.     Kico 


804 


S  H  1  — S  H  1 


is  the  staple  food-crop  of  tlio  distvict;  tlio  next  in  importance  is 
sugar-cauo  ;  arcca-nuts  are  also  extonsivoly  grown  ;  and  misccV- 
laneous  crops  include  oil-seeds,  vegetables,  fruits,  pepper,  and 
cardamoms.  Of  the  total  area  of  3797  square  miks  only  699  arc 
returned  as  cultivated  and  702  as  cultivahle.  The  chief  manu- 
factures aro  coarse  cotton  cloths,  rough  country  "blankets  or 
kamblis,  iron  implements,  brass  and  copper  wares,  pottery,  and 
jaggery.  The  district  is  also  noted  for  its  beautiful  sandal»wood 
carving. 

During  the  Mohammedan  usurpation  of  Mysore  from  1761  to 
1 799,  unceasing  warfare  kept  the  whole  country  in  constant  turmoil. 
After  the  restoration  of  the  Hindu  dynasty  Shimoga  district 
repeatedly  became  the  scene  of  disturbances  caused  by  the  mal- 
administration of  the  Desk.asta  Brahmans,  who  had  seized  upon 
every  office  and  made  themselves  thoroughly  obnoxious. .  These 
disturbances  culminated  in  the  insurrection  of  1830,  which  led  to 
the  direct  assumption  of  the  entire  state  by  the  British. 

SHINTO.  See  Japan,  vol.  xiii.  p.  581. 
SHIP.  The  generic  name  (A.  S.  scip,  Ger.  Sckif,  Gr. 
a-K'i<f>o^,  from  the  root  skap,  c.f.  "  scoop  ")  for  the  invention 
by  which  man  has  contrived  to  convey  himself  and-his 
goods  upon  water  points  in  its  derivation  to  the  fun- 
damental conception  by  which,  when  realized,  a  means 
of  flotation  was  obtained  superior  to  the  raft,  which 
we  may  consider  the  earliest  and  most  elementai-y  form 
of  vessel.  The  trunk  of  a  tree  hollowed  out,  whether 
by  fire  or  by  such  primitive  tools  as  are  fashioned  and 
used  with  singular  patience  and  de.-sfterity  by  savage 
races,  represents  the  first  effort  to  obtain  flotation  depend- 
ing on  something  other  than  the  mere  buoyancy  of 
the  material.  The  poets,  with  characteristic  insight, 
have  fastened  upon  these  points.  Homer's  hero  Ulysses 
is  instructed  to  make  a  raft  with  a  raised  platform  upon 
it,  and  selects  trees  "  withered  of  old,  exceeding  dry, 
that  might  float  lightly  for  him  "  (Od.,  v.  240).  Virgil, 
glorifying  the  dawn  and  early  progress  of  the  arts,  tells  us, 
"EiveTs  then  first  the  hollowed  alders  felt"  [Georg.,  i.  136, 
ii.  451).  Alder  is  a  heavy  wood  and  not  fit  for  rafts. 
Bat  to  make  for  the  first  time  a  dug-out  canoe  of  alder, 
and  so  to  secure  its  flotation,  would  be  a  triumph  of 
primitive  art,  and  thus  the  poet's  expression  represents  a 
great  step  in  the  history  of  the  invention  of  the  ship. 

Primitive  efforts  in  this  direction  may  be  classified  in 
the  following  order:  (1)  rafts^fioating  logs,  or  bundles 
of  brushwood  or  reeds  or  rushes  tied  together ;  (2)  dug- 
outs-^hoUowed  trees;  (3)  canoes  of  bark,  or  of  skin 
stretched  on  framework  or  inflated  skins  (balsas) ;  (4) 
canoes  or  boats  of  pieces  of  wood_stltched  or  fastened 
together  wjth  sinews  or  thongs  or  fibres  of  vegetable 
growth  ;  (5)  vessels  of  planks,  stitched  or  bolted  together 
with  inserted  ribs  and  decks  or  half  docks  ;  (6)  vessels  of 
which  the  framework  is  first  set  up,  and  the  planking  of 
the  hull  nailed  on  to  them  subsequently.  All  these  in 
their  primitive  forms  have  survived,  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  with  different  modifications  marking  progress 
ia  civilization.  Climatic  influences  and  racial  peculiarities 
have  imparted  to  them  their  specific  characteristics,  and, 
combined  with  the  available  choice  of  materials,  have 
determined  the  particular  type  in  use  in  each  locality. 
Thus  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Australia  is  found  the 
single  log  of  buoyant  wood,  not  hollowed  out  but  pointed 
at  the  ends.  Safts  of '  rpeds  are  also  found  on  the 
Australian  coast.  In  Nev7  Guinea  catamarans  of  three 
or  more  logs  lashed  together  with  rattan  are  the  com- 
monest vessel,  and  similar  forms  appear  on  the  Madras 
coast  and  throughout  the  Asiatic  islands.  On  the  coast 
of  Peru  rafts  made  of  a  very  buoyant  wood,  are  in  use, 
some  of  them  as  much  as  70  feet  long  and  20  feet  broad ; 
these  are  navigated  with  a  sail,  and,  by  an  ingenious 
system  of  centre  boards,  let  down  either  fore  or  aft 
between  the  lines  of  the  timbers,  can  be  made  to  tack. 
The  sea-going  raft  is  often  fitted  with  a  platform  so  as  to 
grotect  the  goods  and  persons  carried  from  the  wash  of 


the  sea.  Upright  timbers  fixed  upon  tho  logs  forming 
the  raft  support  a  kind  of  deck,  Which  in  turn  is  itself 
fenced  in  and  covered  over.^  Thus  the  idea  of  a  deck,  and 
that  of  side  planking  to  raise  the  freight  above  the  level  of 
the  water  and  to  save  it  from  getting  wet,  aro  among  the 
earliest  typical  expedients  which  have  found  their  develop- 
ment in  the  progress  of  the  art  of  shipbuilding. 

Whether  the  observation  of  shells  floating  on  the  water, 
or  of  split  reeds,  or,  as  some  have  fancied,  the  nautilus, 
first  suggested  the  idea  of  hollowing  out  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  the  practice  ascends  to  a  very  remote  antiquity  in 
the  history  of  man.  Dug-out  canoes  of  a  single  tree  have 
been  found  associated  with  objects  of^  the  Stone  Age 
among  the  ancient  Swiss  lake  dwellings  ;  nor  are  specimens 
of  the  same  class  wanting  from  the  bogs  of  Ireland  and 
the  estuaries  of  England  and  Scotland,  some  obtained 
from  the  depth  of  25  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  hollowed  trunk  itself  may  have  suggested  tho  use  of 
the  bark  as  a  means  of  flotation.  But,  whatever  may 
have  been  the  origin  of  the  bark  ,canoe,  its  construction 
is  a  step  onwards  in  the  art  of  shipbuilding:  For  the 
lightness  and  pliability  of  the  material  nece.ssitated  the 
invention  of  some  internal  framework,  so  as  to  keep  the 
sides  apart,  and  to  give  the  stiffness  required  both  for 
purposes  of  propulsion  and  the  carrying  of  its  freight. 
Similarly,  in  countries  where  suitable  timber  was  not  to 
be  found,  the  use  of  skins  or  other  water-tight  material, 
such  as  felt  or  canvas,  covered  with  pitch,  giving  flota- 
tion, demanded  also  a  framework  to  keep  them  distended 
and  to  bear  the  weight  they  had  to  carry.  In  the  frame- 
work we  have  tho  rudimentary  ship,  with  longitudinal 
bottom  timbers,  and  ribs,  and  cross-pieces,  imparting  the 
requisite  stiffness  to  tho  covering  material.  Bark  canoes 
are  found  in  Australia,  but  the  American  continent  is  their 
true  home.  In  northern  regions  skin  or  woven-  material 
made  water-tight  supplies  the  place  of  bark. 

The  next  step  in  the  construction  of  vessels  was  the 
building  up  of  canoes  or  boats  by  fastening  pieces  of  wood 
togethsr  in  a.  suitable  form.  Some  of  these  canoes,  and 
probably  the  earliest  in  type,  are  tied  or  stitched  together 
with  thongs  or  cords.  The  JIadras  surf  boats  are  perhaps 
the  most  familiar  e.xample  of  this  type,  which,  however,  is 
found  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  in  Ccutral  Africa 
(on  the  Victoria  Nyanza),  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  iu 
many  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Some  of  these  canoes  show  a 
great  advance  in  the  art  of  construction,  being  built  up 
of  pieces  fitted  together  with  ridges  on  their  inner  sides, 
through  which  the  fastenings  are  passed.-  These  canoes 
have  the  advantage  of  elasticity,  which  gives  them  ease  in 
a  seaway,  and  a  comparative  immunity  where  ordinary 
boats  would  not  hold  together.  In  these  cases  the  body 
of  the  canoe  is  constructed  first  and  built  to  the  shape 
intended,  the  ribs  being  inserted  afterwards,  and  attached 
to  the  sides,  and  having  for  their  main  function  the 
uniting  of  tlie  deck  and  cross  pieces  with  the  body  of  the 
canoe.  Vessels  thus  stitched  together,  and  with  an  inserted 
framework,  have  from  a  very  early  time  been  constructed 
in  the  Eastern  seas  far  exceeding  in  size  anything  that 
would  be  called  a  canoe,  and  in  some  cases  attaining  to 
200  tons  burthen. 

From  the  stitched  form  the  next  step  onwards  is  to 
fasten  the  materials  out  of  which  the  hull  is  built  up 
by  pegs  or  treenails ;  and  of  this  system  early  types 
appear  among  the  Polynesian  islands  and  in  the  Nile  boats 
described  by  Herodotus  (ii.  96),  the  prototype  of  the 
modern    "nuggur."     The  raft   of   Ulysses   described   by 


'  The  raft  of  Ulysses  described  in  Homer  {Od.,  v.)  musS  have  been 
of  this  class. 

-  See  Capt.  Cook's  account  of  the  Friendly  Islands,  La  Peiouse  on 
Easter  Island,  and  Williams  on  the  P'iji  Islands. 


SHIP 


805 


Homer  presents  the  same  detail  of  construction.  It  is 
remarkable  that  some  o£  the  early  types  of  boats  belong- 
ing to  the  North  Sea  present  au  internfediate  method,  in 
which  the  planks  are  fastened  together  with  pins  or  trenails, 
but  are  attached  to  the  ribs  by  cords  passing  through 
holes  in  the  ribs  and  corresponding  holes  bored  through 
ledges  cut  on  the  inner  side  of  each  plank. 
I  We  thus  arrive,  in  tracing  primitive  efforts  in  the  art  of 
ship  construction,  at  a  stage  from  which  the  transition  to 
the  practice  of  setting  up  the  framework  of  ribs  fastened 
to  a  timber  keel  laid  lengthwise,  and  subsequently  attach- 
ing the  planking  of  the  hull,  was  comparatively  simple. 
The  keel  of  the  modern  vessel  may  be  said  to  have  its 
prototype  in  the  single  log  which  was  the  parent  of  the 
dug-out.  The  side  planking  of  the  vessel,  which  has  an 
earlier  parentage  than  the  ribs,  may  be  traced  to  the 
attempt  to  fence  in  the  platforms  upon  the  sea-going  rafts, 
and  to  the  planks  fastened  on  to  the  sides  of  dug-out 
canoes  so  as  to  give  them  a  raised  gunwale.'  The  ribs  of 
the  modern  vessel  are  the  development  of  the  framework 
originally  inserted  after  the  completion  of  the  hull  of  the 
canoe  or  built-up  boat,  but  with  the  difference  that  they 
are  now  prior  in  the  order  of  fabrication.  In  a  word,  the 
skeleton  of  the  hull  is  now  first  built  up,  and  the  skin, 
<tc.,  adjusted  to  it ;  whereas  in  the  earlier  types  of  wooden 
vessels  the  outside  hull  was  first  constructed,  and  the 
ribs,  &c.,  added  afterwards.  -  It  is  noticeable  that  the 
inventfon  of  the  outrigger  and  weather  platform,  the  use 
of  which  is  at  the  present  time  distributed  from  the 
Andaman  Islands  eastward  throughout  the  v.-hole  of  the 
South  Pacific,  has  never  made  its  way  into  the  Western 
seas.  It  is  strange  that  Egyptian  enterprise,  which 
seems  at  a  very  early  period  to  have  penetrated  eastward 
down  the  Red  Sea  and  round  the  coasts  of  Arabia  towards 
India,  should  not  have  brought  it  to  the  Nile,  and  that 
the  Phoenicians,  who,  if  the  legend  of  their  migration  from 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  coast  of  Canaan 
be, accepted,  would  in  all  probability,  in  their  maritime 
expeditions,  have  had  opportunities  of  seeing  it,  did  not 
idtroduce  it  to  the  Mediterranean.  That  they  did  not 
do  so,  if  they  saw  it  at  all,  would  tend  to  prove  that  even 
in  that  remote  antiquity  both  nations  possessed  the  art 
of  constructing  vessels  of  a  type  superior  to  the  out- 
rigger canoes,  both  in  speed  and  in  carrjing  power. 

The  earliest  representations  that  we  have  as  yet  of 
Egyptian  vessels  carry  us  back,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  to  a  period  little  short  of  30U0  years  before 
Christ.  Some  of  these  are  of  considerable  size,  as  is 
shown  by  the  number  of  rowers,  and  by  the  cargo  consist- 
ing in  many  cases  of  cattle.  The  earliest  of  all  presents 
us  with  the  peculiar  mast  of  two  pieces,  stepped  apart  but 
joined  at  the  top.  In  some  the  masts  are  shown  lowered 
and  laid  along  a  high  spar-deck.  The  larger  vessels  show 
on  oue  side  as  many  as  twenty-one  or  twenty-two  and 
in  one  case  twenty-six  oars,  besides  four  or  five  steering. 
They  show  considerable  camber,  the  two  ends  rising  in  a 
curved  line  which  in  some  instances  ends  in  a  point,  and  in 
others  is  curved  back  and  over  at  the  stern  and  terminate? 
in  an  ornamentation,  very  frequently  of  the  familiar  lotus 
pattern.  At  the  bow  the  stem  is  sometimes  seen  to  ri.se 
perpendicularly,  forming  a  kind  of  forecastle,  .sometimes 
to  curve  backward  and  then  forward  again  like  a  neck, 
which  is  often  finished  into  a  figure-head  representing 
some  bird  or  beast  or  Egyptian  god.  On  the  war  galleys 
there  is  frequently  shown  a  projecting  bow  with  a  metal 
head  attached,  but  well'  above  the  water.  ■  Thi.s,  though 
no  doubt  used  as  a  ram,  is  not  identical  with  the  beak  cl 
fleur  d'eau,  which  we  shall  meet  with  in  Phrenician  and 
.'  Compare  the  planks  upon  the  Egyptian  war  galleys,  added  so  as 
to  protect  the  rowers  from  the  missiles  of  the  enemy. 


Greek  galleys.  It  is  more  on  a  level  with  the  proem- 
bolion  of  the  latter. 

The  impression  as  regards  the  build  created  by  the 
drawings  of  the  larger  galleys  is  that  of  a  long  and  some- 
what wall-sided  vessel  with  th^  stem  and  stern  highly 
raised.  The  tendencies  of  the  vessel  to  "  hog,"  or  rise 
amidships,  owing  to  the  great  weight  fore  and  aft  unsup- 
ported by  the  water,  is  corrected  by  a  strong  truss  passing 
from  stem  to  stern  over  crutches.  The  double  mast  of 
the  earlier  period  seems  in  time  to  have  given  place  to 
the  single  mast  furnished  with  bars  or  rollers  at  the 
upper  part,  for  the  purpose  apparently  of  raising  or  lower- 
ing the  yard  according  to  the  amount  of  sail  required. 
The  sail  in  some  of  the  galleys  is  shown  with  a  Iwttom  as 
well  as  a  top  yard.  In  the  war  galleys  during  action  it  is 
shown  rolled  up  like  a  curtain  with  loops  to  the  upper 
yard.  The  steering  was  effected  by  paddles,  sometimes 
four  or  five  in  number,  but  generally  one  or  two  fastened 
either  at  the  end  of  the  stern  or  at  the  side,  and  above 
attached  to  an  upright  post  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the 
paddle  to  be  worked  by  a  tiller. 

There  are  many  remarkable  details  to  be  observed  in 
the  Egyptian  vessels  figured  in  Duemichen's  Fleet  of  an 
Egyptia7i  Queen,  and  in  Lepsius's  Denkmcilcr.  The  Egyptiap 
ship,  as  represented  from  time  to  time  in  the  period  be- 
tween 3000  and  1000  B.C.,  presents  to  us  a  ship  proper 
as  distinct  from  a  large  canoe  or  boat.  It  is  the  earliest 
ship  of  which  we  have  cognizance.  But  there  is  a  notice- 
able fact  in  connexion  with  Egypt  which  we  gather  from 
the  tomb  paintings  to  which  we  owe  our  knowledge  of 
the  Egyptian  ship.  It  is  evident  from  these  records  that 
there  were  at  that  same  early  period,  inhabiting  the 
littoral  of  the  Mediterranean,  nations  who  were  possessed 
of  sea-going  vessels  which  visited  the  coasts  of  Egypt 
for  plunder  as  well  as  for  commerce,  and  that  sea-fights 
were  even  then  not  uncommon.  Occasionally  the  com- 
bination of  these  peoples  for  the  purpose  of  attack  assumed 
serious  proportions,  and  we  find  the  Pharaohs  recording 
naval  victories  over  combined  Dardanians,  Teucrians,  and 
Mysians,  and,  if  we  accept  the  explanations  of  Egypto- 
logists, over  Pelasgians,  Daunians,  Oscans,  and  Sicilians. 
The  Greeks,  as  they  became  familiar  with  the  sea,  followed 
in  the  same  track.  The  .legend  of  Helen  in  Egypt,  as 
well  as  the  numerous  references  in  the  Odyssey,  point 
not  only  to  the  attraction  that  Egypt  had  for  the  mari- 
time peoples,  but  also  to  long-established  habits  of  navi- 
gation and  the  possession  of^an  art  of  shipbuilding 
equal  to  the  construction  of  sea-going  craft  capable  of 
carrying  a  large  number  of  men  and  a  considerable  cargo 
besides. 

But  the  development  of  the  sliip  and  of  the  act  of 
navigation  clearly  belongs:  to  the  Phoenicians.  It  is 
tantalizing  to  find  that  the  earliest  and  almost  the  only 
evidence  that  we  have  of  this  development  is  to  be 
gathered  from  Assyrian  rci)resentations.  The  Assyrians 
were  an  inland  people,  and  tho  navigation  with  which 
they  were  familiar  was  that  of  tho  two  great  rivers,  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  After  the  conquest  of  Pha-nicia  they 
had  knowledge  of  Phoenician  naval  enterprise,  and 
accordingly  wg  find  tho  war  ge.Uoy  of  the  Phrenicians 
represented  on  the  walls  of  the  palaces  unearthed  by 
Layard  and  his  followers  in  Assyrian  discovery.  But  tho 
date  docs  not  carry  us  to  an  earlier  period  than  900-800 
B.C.  Tho  vessel  rejiresented  is  a  biremo  war  galley  which 
is  "aphract,"  that  is  to  say,  has  the  upper  tier  of  rowers 
unprotected  and  cx[ioscd  to  view.  The  apertures  for  tlio 
lower  oars  are  of  tho  same  character  as  those  which  appear 
in  Egyptian  s'-ips  of  a  much  earlier  date,  but  without 
oars.  The  ai'tist  has  shown  the  characteristic  details, 
though  somewhat  conventionally.     Tho  fish-like  snou'.  ol 


806 


SH  IP 


the  beak,  the  line  of  the  parodus  or  outside  gangway,  the 
wickerwork  cancelli,'  the  shields  ranged  in  order  along  the 
side  of  the  bulwark,  and  the  heads  of  a  typical  crew  on 
deck  (the  Trpuiptv^  looking  out  in  front  in  the  forecastle,  an 
imPdrri^,  two  chiefs  by  the  mast,  and,  aft,  the  Kt\cvcrTi]% 
and  Kvfiepi-r)n]';).  The  supporting  timbers  of  the  deck 
are  just  indicated.  The  mast  and  yard  and  fore  and 
back  stays,  with  the  double  steering  paddle,  complete  the 
picture. 

But,  although  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
Phcenicians,  after  the  Egyptians,  led  the  way  in  the 
development  of  the  shipwright's  art,  yet  the  informa- 
tion that  wo  can  gather  concerning  them  is  so  meagre 
that  we  must  go  to  other  sources  for  the  description  of 
the  ancient  ship.  The  Phcenicians  at  an  early  date  con- 
structed merchant  vessels  capable  of  carrying  large  car- 
■  goes,  and  of  traversing  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
Mediterranean,  perhaps  even  of  trading  to  the  far  Cassi- 
terides  and  of  '  circumnavigating  Africa.  They  in  all 
probability  (if  not  the  Egyptians)  invented  the  bireme 
and  trireme,  solving  the  problem  by  which  increased  oar- 
power  and  consequently  speed  could  be  obtained  without 
any  great  increase  in  the  length  of  the  vessel. 

If  is,  however,  to  the  Greeks  that  we  must  turn  for  any 
detailed  account  of  these  inventions.  The  Homeric  vessels 
were  aphract  and  not  even  decked  throughout  their  entire 
length.  They  carried  crews  averaging  from  fifty  to  a 
hundred  and  twenty  men,  who,  we  are  expressly  told  by 
Thucydides,  all  took  part  in  the  labour  of  rowing,  except 
perhaps  the  chiefs.  The  galleys  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  armed  as  yet  with  the  beak,  though  later  poets  attri- 
bute this  feature  to  the  Homeric  vessel.  But  they  had 
great  poles  used  in  fighting,  and  the  term  employed  to 
describe  these  {vav/xayp.)  implies  a  knowledge  of  naval 
warfare.  The  general  characteristics  are  indicated  by  the 
epithets  in  use  throughout  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.. 
The  Homeric  ship  is  sharp  (for;)  and  swift  (wKoa);  it  is 
hollow  (koiAtJ,  yXa<f>vpij,  /xEya/oJrrj?),  black,  vermilion-cheeked 
(fiLXTOTrdprjo^),  dark-prowed  {KvavoTrpwpos),  curved  [Kopuivi^, 
aix<j>U\ia-(Ta),  well-timbered  ((v'o-o-tA/io;),  with  many  thwarts 
{TToXv^vyo-;,  cxarofuyos).  The  stems  and  sterns  are  high, 
upraised,  and  resemble  the  horns  of  oxen  {opOoKpaipai). 
They  present  a  type  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  shipping 
of  the  Mediterranean  with  that  of  the  vikings'  vessels  of 
the  North  Sea. 

On  the  vases,  the  earliest  of  which  may  date  between 
700  and  COO  B.C.,  we  find  the  bireme  with  the  bows  finished 
off  into  a  beak  shaped  as  the  head  of  some  sea  monster, 
and  an  elevat-ed- forecastle  with  a  bulwark  evidently  as  a 
means  of  defence.  The  craft  portrayed  in  some  instances 
are  evidently  pirate  vessels,  and  exhibit  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  trader,  the  broad  ship  of  burden  (c^opri's  iipua), 
which  they  are  overhauling.  The  trireme,  which  was 
developed  from  the  bireme  and  became  the  Greek  ship 
of  war  (the  long  ship,  rals  p.o.Kpa,  navis  longa,  par  excel- 
lence), dates,  so  far  as  Greek  use  is  concerned,  from  about 
700  B.C.  according  to  Thucydides,  having  been  first  built 
at  Corinth  by  Aminocles.  The  earliest  sea-fight  that  the 
same  author  knew  of  he  places  at  a  somewhat  later  date, 
— 66i  B.C.,  more  than  ten  centuries  later  than  some  of 
those  portrayed  in  the  Egyptian  tomb  paintings. 

The  trireme  was  the  war  ship  of  Athens  during  her 
prime,  and,  though  succeeded  and  in  a  measure  superseded 
by  the  larger  rates, — quadrireme,  quinquereme,  and  so  on, 
up  to  vessels  of  sixteen  banks  of  oars  (inhabilis  prope 
maffnitudinis), — yet,  as  containing  in  itself  the  principle  of 
which  the  larger  rates  merely  exhibited  an  expansion,  a 
difference  in  degree  and  not  in  kind,  has,  ever  since  the 
revival  of  letters,  concentrated  upon  itself  the  attention  of 
^  See  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Monarchies,  vol.  ii  p.  176. 


the  learned  who  were  interested  in  such  matters.  The 
literature  connected  with  the  question  of  ancient  ships,  if 
collected,  would  fill  a  small  library,  and  the  greater  part 
of  it  turns  upon  the  construction  of  the  trireme  and  the 
disposition  of  the  rowers  therein. 

During  the  present  centnry  much  ligut  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  disputed  points  by  the  discovery  (183-1)  at  the 
Pirajus  of  some  records  of  the  Athenian  dockyard  super- 
intendents, which  have  been  published  and  admirably 
elucidated  by  Boeckh.  Further  researches,  carried  out  by 
his  pupil  Dr  Graser,  who  united  a  practical  knowledge 
of  ships  and  shipbuilding  with  all  the  scholarship  and 
industry  and  acumen  necessary  for  such  a  task,,  have 
cleared  up  most  of  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  problem, 
and  enable  us  to  describe  with  tolerable  certainty  the 
details  of  construction  and  the  disposition  of  the  rowers  in 
the  ancient  ship  of  war. 

One  point  it  is  necessary  to  insist  on  at  the  outset,  because  upon 
it  depej><ls  the  rfght  unjerstanding  of  the  problem  to  be  solved. 
The  ancients  did  not  eraploy  more  than  one  man  to  an  oar.  The 
nicthod  employed  in  raediieval  g.iUeys  is  entirely  alien  to  the  ancient 
system.  JI.  Jal,  Admiral  Fincati,  Admiral  Jurien  de.la  Graviere, 
.xnd  a  host  p^  other  authorities  have  all  been  led  to  erroneous  views 
by  neglect  of  the  ancient  texts  which  overwhelmingly  establish  this 
as  an  a.xioni  of  the  ancient  marine — **  one  oar  one  man," 

The  distinction  between  ''ajihract"  and  "cataphract"  vessels 
must  not  be  overlooked  in  a  description  of  the  ancient  vessels. 
Tho  words,  meaning  "  unfenced "  and  "fenced,"  refer  to  the 
bulwarks  which  covered  the  upper  tier  of  rowers  from  attack.  In 
the  aphract  vessels  these  side  plankings  were  absent  and  the  xipper 
tier  of  rowers  was  exposed  to  view  from  the  side.  Both  classes  of 
%"essels  had  upper  and  lower  decks,  but  the  aphract  class  carried 
their  decks  on  a  lower  level  than  the  cataphract.  The  system  of 
side  planking  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  the  rowers  dates  from 
a  very  early  period,  as  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the  Egyptian  repre- 
sentations, but  among  the  Greeks  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
adoDtcd  till  long  after  the  Homeric  period.  The  Thasians  are 
credited  with  tho  introduction  of  the  improvement. 

In  describing  the  trireme  it  will  be  convenient  to  deal  'first  with 
the  disposition  of  iho  rowei-s  and  subsequently  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  vessel  itself.  The  object  of  arranging  the  oars  in 
banks  was  to  economize  horizontal  space  and  to  obtain  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  oars  without  having  to  lengthen  the  vessel. 
\Ve  know  from  Vitruvius  that  the  *'interscalmiura,"  or  space 
horizontally  measured  from  oar  to  oar,  was  2  cubits.  This  is 
exactly  borne  out  by  the  proportions  of  an  Attic  aphract  trireme, 
as  shown  on  a  fragment  of  a  bas-relief  found  in  the  Acropolis. 
The  rowers  in  all  classes  of  banked  vessels  sat  in  the  same  vertical 
plane,  the  seats  ascending  in  a  line  obliquely  towards  the  stern  of 
the  vessel.  Tlhjs  in  a  trireme  the  thranite,  or  oarsman  of  the 
highest  bank,  was  nearest  the  stern  of  the  set  of  three  to  which 
he  belonged.  Next  behind  him  and  somewhat  below  him  sat  bis 
zygite,  or  oarsman  of  the  second  bank ;  and  next  below  and 
behind  the  zygite  sat  the  thalamite,  or  oarsman  of  the  lowest 
bank.  The  vertical  distance  between  these  seats  was  2  feet,  the 
horizontal  distance  about  1  foot.  The  horizontal  distance,  it  is 
well  to  repeat,  .between  each  seat  in  the  same  bank  was  3  feet 
{the  seat  itself  about  9  inches  broad).  Each  man  had  a  resting 
])lace  for  his  feet,  somewhat  wide  ap.irt,  fixed  to  the  bench  of  tho 
man  on  the  row  ne."?t  below  and  in  front  of  him.  In  rowing,  the 
upper  hand,  as  is  shown  in  most  of  the  representations  which 
remain,  was  held  \#th  the  palm  turned  inwards  towards  the  body. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  the  angle  at  which  the  oar  was  worked. 
The  lowest  rank  used  the  shortest  oars,  and  tho  dilTerence  of  the 
length  of  the  oars  on  board  was  caused  by  the  curvature  of  the 
ship's  side.  Thus,  looked  at  from  within,  the  rowers  amidahip 
seemed  to  be  using  the  longest  oars,  but  outside  the  vessel,  a?  we 
are  expressly  told,  all  the  oar-blades  of  the  same  bank  took  the  rtater 
in  the  same  longitudinal  line.  The  lowest  or  thalamite  car-ports 
were  3  feet,  the  zygite  4^  feet,  the  thranite  5^  feet  above  the  water. 
Each  oar-port  was  protected  by  an  ascoma  or  leather  ba/;,  which  fitted 
over  the  oar,  closing  the  aperture  against  the  wash  of  the  sea  with- 
out impeding  the  action  of  the  oar.  The  oar  was  tied  by  a  thong, 
against  which  it  was  jirobably  rowed,  which  itself  was  attached  to 
a  thowl  ((TKaX^os).  The  port-hole  was  probably  oval  in  shape  (the 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  pictures  show  -an  oblong).  "We  know  that 
it  was  large  enough  for  a  man's  he-.-d  to  be  thrust  through  it. 

The  benches  on  which  the  rowers  sat  ran  from  the  vessel's 
side  to  timbers  which,  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  6-1"  towards 
the  ship's  stern,  reached  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  deck. 
These  timbers  were, -according  to  Graser,  called  the  diaphragmata. 
In  the  -t-nreme  each  diaphragma  supported  three,  in  tho  qnin- 
qKireme  live,  in  the  octireme  eight,  and  in  the  famous  tessera- 


SKIP 


807 


c6ntere9  forty  seats  of  rowers,  who  all  belonged  to  tlio  same 
** complexes,"  though  each  to  a  dilFerent  bank.  In  cffoct,  when 
once  the  principle  of  construction  had  been  established  in  tho 
trireme,  the  increase  to  larger  rates  was  effected,  so  far  as  the 
motive  power  was  concerned,  by  lengthening  the  diaphragmata 
upwards,  while  the  increase  in  the  length  of  the  vessel  gave  a 
greater  number  of  rowers  to  each  bank.  The  upper  tiers  of  oars- 
men exceeded  in  number  those  below,  as  the  contraction  of  tho 
sides  of  the  vessel  left  less  available  space  towards  the  bows. 

Of  the  length  of  the  oars  in  the  tiireme  we  have  an  indication  in 
the  fact  that  the  length  of  supernumerary  oars  (xepfr «i^')  rowed  from 
the  gangway  above  the  thranites,  and  therefore  probably  slightly 
exceeding  the  thranitic  bars  in  length,  is  given  in  the  Attic  tables 
as  14  feet  3  inches.  The  thranites  were  probably  about  14  feet. 
The  zygite,  in  proportion  to  the  measurement,  must  have  been  10^, 
the  thalamite  7-^  feet  long.  Comparing  modern  oars  with  these, 
we  iind  that  the  longest  oars  used  in  the  British  navy  are  18  feet. 
Tho  university  race  is  rowed  with  oars  12  feet  9  inches.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  loom  inboard  was  about  one  third,  but  the  oars  of 
the  rowers  amidship  must  have  been  somewhat  longer  inboar^p 
The  size  of  the  loom  inboard  preserved  the  necessary  equilibrium. 
The  long  oars  of  the  larger  rates  were  weighted  inboard  with  lead. 
Thus  the  topmost  oars  of  the  tesseraconteres,  of  which  the  length 
was  53  feet,  were  exactly  balanced  at  the  rowlock. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  construction  of  the  vessel  itself.  In 
the  cataphract  class  the  lower  deck  was  1  foot  above  the  water- 
line.  Below  this  deck  was  the  hold,  which  contained  a  certain 
amount  of  ballast,  and  through  an  aperture  in  this  deck  the 
buckets  for  baling  were  worked,  entailing  a  labour  which  was 
constant  and  severe  on  board  an  ancient  ship  at  sea.  The  keel 
(rpStris)  appears  to  have  had  considerable  camber.  Under  it  was 
a  strong  false  keel  (xeAuo-jita),  very  necessary  for  vessels  that  were 
constantly  drawn  up  on  tho  shore.  Above  the  keel  was  the  kelson 
{Spvoxov),  Under  which  the  ribs  were  fastened.  These  were  so 
arranged  as  to  give  the  necessary  intervals  for  the  oar-ports  above. 
Above  the  kelson  lay  the  upper  false  keel,  into  which  the  mast 
was  stepped.  The  stem  {a-T^Tpa)  rose  from  the  keel  at  an  angle  of 
about  70"  to  the  water.  "Within  was  an  apron  {4>dKKis),  which 
was  a  strong  piece  of  timber  curved  and  fitting  to  tho  end  of  the 
keel  and  beginning  of  the  stern-post  and  firmly  bolted  into  both, 
thus  giTing  solidity  to  the  bows,  which  had  to  bear  the  beak  and 
sustain  the  shock  of  ramming.  The  stem  was  carried  upwards 
and  curved' generally  backwards  towards  the  forecastle  and  rising 
above  it,  and  then  curving  forwards  again  terminated  in  an 
ornament  which  was  called  the  acrostolion.  The  stern-post  was 
carried  up  at  d  similar  angle  to  tho  bow,  and,  rising  high  over  tho 
poop,  was  curved  round  into  an  ornament  which  was  called 
"aplnstre"  {&(p\a<Trov).  But,  inasmuch  as  the  steering  was 
effected  by  means  of  two  rudders  {Tn}Sd\ia),  one  on  either  side, 
there  was  no  need  to  carry  out  the  stern  into  a  rudder  post  as 
with  modern  ships,  and  the  stern  was  left  therefore  much  more 
.  free,  an  advantage  in  respect  of  the  manceuvring  of  the  ancient 
Greek  man-of-war,  the  weapon  being  the  beak  or  rostrum,  and  tlic 
power  of  turning  quickly  being  of  the  highest  importance. 

Behind  the  "aplustre,"  and  curving  backwards,  was  the 
"cheniscus"  (x'?>''0'«os),  or  goose-head,  symbolizing  tbe  floating 
poxvers  of  the  vessel.  After  the  ribs  had  been  set  up  and  covered 
in  on  both  sides  with  planking,  tho  sides  of  the  vessel  were  further 
strengthened  by  waling-pieces  carried  from  stern  to  stem  and 
meeting  in  front  of  the  stern-post.  These  were  further  strengthened 
with  additional  balks  of  timber,  tho  lower  waling-pieces  meeting 
about  the  water-level  and  prolonged  into  a  sharp  three-toothed  spur, 
of  which  the  middle  tooth  was  the  longest.  This  was  covered  with 
hard  meWl  (generally  bronze)  and  formed  the  beak.  Tlic  whole 
structure  of  ihe  beak  proiected  about  10  feet  beyond  the  stern- 
post.  Above  it,  but  projecting  much  less  beyond  the  steni-post, 
was  tho  "procmbolion  "  {■TrpoffiQdKtoi'),  or  second  beak,  in  which 
the  prolongation  of  the  upper  set  of  waling-pieces  met  This  was 
generally  fashioned  into  the  figure  of  a  raru's  head,  also  covered 
with  metal ;  and  sometimes  again  between  tins  and  the  beak  the 
second  lino  of  waling-pieces  met  in  another  metal  boss  called  the 
Trpo«fi$o\ts.  These  bosses,  when  a  vessel  was  rammed,  completed 
the  work  of  destruction  begun  by  the  sharp  beak  at  the  water-level, 
giving  a  racking  blow  which  caused  it  to  heel  over  and  so  cased  it 
off  the  beak,  and  releasing  the  latter  before  tho  weight  of  tho 
finking  vessel  could  come  upon  it.  At  tho  point  where  the  pro- 
longation of  the  second  and  third  waling-pieces  began  to  converge 
inwards  towards  tho  stem  on  either  side  of  the  vessel  stout  catheads 
{ivuriSti)  projected,  which  were  of  use,  not  only  as  supports  for 
tho  anchors,  but  also  as  a  means  of  inflicting  damnge  on  tiio  upper 
part  of  an  enemy's  vessel,  while  protecting  tho  side  gangways  of 
ita  own  and  tho  banks  of  oars  that  worked  under  them.  The 
catheads  were  strengthened  by  strong  balks  of  timber,  which  were 
firmly  bolted  to  them  under  either  extremity  and  both  within  and 
without,  and  ran  to  tho  ship's  side.  Above  the  curvature  of  tho 
upper  waling-pieces  into  the  vporfi$6\toy  were  the  cheeks  of  tho 
Teasel-  cencrallv  jiainted  red,  and  in  tho  upper  part  of  these  the 


eyes  {u(f>Oa\fioi),  answering  to  our  hawso  holes,  through  which  ran 
the  cables  for  tlie  anchors.  On  either  side  the  trireme,  at  about 
the  level  of  the  thranitic  benches,  projected  a  gangway  {wdpoSos) 
supported  by  brackets  {0iaxa)  springing  from  the  upper  waling- 
piece,  and  resting  against  the  ribs  of  the  .vessel.  This  projection 
was  of  about  18  to  24  inches,  which  gavo  a  space,  increased  to 
about  3  feet  by  the  inward  curve  of  the  prolongation  of  the  ribs  to 
form  supports  for  the  deck,  for  a  passage  on  either  side  of  tlie 
vessel.  This  gangway  was  planked  in  along  its  outer  side  so  as  to 
afford  protection  to  the  seamen  and  marines,  who  could  pass  along 
its  whole  length  without  impeding  the  rowers.  Here,  in  action, 
the  sailors  wtre  posted  as  light-armed  troops,  and  when  needed 
could  use  the  long  supernumerary  oai-s  {vcpd'ecf)  mentioned  above. 
The  ribs,  prolonged  upwards  upon  an  inward  curve,  supported  on 
their  upper  ends  the  cross  beauis  (o-Tpwriipfs)  which  tied  the  two 
sides  of  the  vessel  together  and  earned  the  deck.  In  the  rataphrnct 
class  these  took  the  place  of  the  thwarts  (^(^70)  which  in  the  earlier 
vessels,  at  a  lower  level,  yoked  together  the  sides  of  tho  vesscd, 
and  formed  also  benches  for  the  rowers  to  sit  on,  from  which  tlio 
latter  had  their  name  {(vy'iTat),  having  been  the  uppermost  tier  of 
oaiTimen  in  the  bireme  ;  while  thopo  who  sat  behind  and  below 
them  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  v/ere  called  da\aiJ,7Tat  or  6a\dp.aKfs 
(from  edXaijios).  In  the  trireme  the  additional  upper  tier  was 
named  from  the  elevated  bench  {Opavos)  on  which  they  were  placed 
{dpav'trat).  On  the  deck  were  stationed  the  marines  (i-m^tiTai), 
fighting  men  in  heavy  armour,  few  in  number  in  the  Attic  triremo 
in  ibs  palmy  days,  but  many  in  the  Roman  quinquercme,  when  tho 
ramming  tactics  were  antiquated,  and  wherever,  as  in  the  great 
battles  in  the  harbour  at  Syracuse,  land  tactics  took  the  place  of 
the  maritime  skill  which  gave  victory  to  the  ram  in  the  open  sen. 
The  space  occupied  by  the  rowers  was  tern)ed  tyKwirov.  Beyond 
this,  fore  and  aft,  were  the  irape^eipeVmi,  or  parts  outside  tho 
rowers.  These  occupied  11  feet  of  the  bows  and  14  feet  in  the 
stern.  lu  the  fore  part  was  the  forecastle,  with  its  raised  deck,  on 
which  was  stationed  tho  -irpupcvs  with  his  men.  In  the  stern  the 
decks  (f/cpia)  rose  in  two  or  thren  gradations,  upon  which  was  a 
kind  of  deck-house  for  tho  captain  and  a  scat  for  the  steerer 
(Ki'j3fpi'77TTjs),  who  steered  by  means  of  ropes  attached  to  the  tillers 
fixed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  paddles,  which,  in  later  times  at 
least,  ran  over  wheels  (rpoxi^fGi),  giving  him  the  power  of  changing 
his  vessel's  course  with  great  rapidity.  Behind  the  deck-house 
rose  the  flagstaff,  on  which  was  hoisted  -tho  pennant,  and  from 
which  probably  signals  were  given  in  the  case  of  an  admiral's  ship. 
On  eitlier  side  of  the  deck  ran  a  balustrade  {cajicdii),  which  was 
covered  for  protection  during  action  with  felt  {cillciinn,  Trapappv/iara 
rpixii'd)  or  canvas  (t.  Kcvko.).  Above  was  stretched  a  strong 
awning  of  hide  {KaTd^Xtjfia),  as  a  protection  against  grappling 
irons  and  missiles  of  all  kinds.  In  Romaii  vessels  towers  were 
carried  up  fore  and  aft  from  which  darts  could  be  showered  on  the 
enemy's  dock  ;  the  heavy  corvus  or  boarding  bridge  swung  sus- 
pended by  a  chain  near  the  bows  ;  and  the  ponderous  5fAij)is  hung 
at  tlic  ends  of  the  yards  ready  to  fall  on  a  vessel  that  came  near 
enough  alongside.  But  these  were  later  inventions  and  for  larger 
ships.  The  Attic  trireme  was  built  light  for  speed  and  for  ramming 
purposes.  Her  dimensions,  so  far  as  we  can  gather  them  from  the 
scattered  notices  of  antiquity,  were  probably  approximately  as 
follows  : — length  of  rowing  space  (fyKuirov)  93  feet;  bows  11  feet; 
stern  U  feet;  total  118  feet;  add  10  feet  for  the  beak.  The 
breadth  at  the  water-line  is  calculated  at  14  feet,  and  abo\e  at  the 
broadest  part  18  feet,  exclusive  of  the  gangways  ;  the  space  between 
the  diaphragmata  mentioned  above  was  7  fi-et.  The  deck  was.  11 
feet  above  the  water-line  and  the  draught  about  8  to  9  feet.  All 
the  Attic  triremes  appear  to  have  been  built  upon  the  sumc  model, 
and  their  gear  was  interchangeable.  The  Athenians  liad  a  peculiar 
system  of  girding  the  ships  with  long  cables  {vTro(ix>tiara),  each 
trireme  having  two  or  more,  which,  passing  through  eyeholes  in 
front  of  the  stern-post,  ran  all  round  the  vessel  lengtliwise  immedi- 
ately under  tlie  waling-pieces.  They  were  fastened  at  the  stern 
and  tightened  up  with  levers.  These  cables,  by  shrinking  as  soon 
as  they  were  wet,  tightened  the  whole  fabric  of  the  vessel,  and  in 
action,  in  all  probability,  relieved  the  hull  from  part  of  the  shock 
of  ramming,  tho  strain  of  which  would  be  sustained  by  the  waling- 
pieces  convergent  in  the  beaks.  These  rope-girdles  arc  not  to  bo 
confused  with  tho  process  of  undergirding  or  frapping,  such  as  is 
narrated  of  tlie  vessel  iu  wliich  Kt  I'aul  was  being  carried  to-  Italy. 
The  trireme  appears  to  have  had  tliree  masts.  The  mainmast  carried 
square  sails,  probably  two  in  number.  The  foremast  and  the  mizcn 
carried  lateen  sails.  In  action  the  Greeks  did  not  use  sails,  and 
everything  tliat  could  be  lowered  was  stowed  below.  The  mainmasts 
and  larger  sa'hs  were  often  left  ashore  if  a  conflict  was  expected. 

The  crew  of  the  Attic  trireme  consisted  of  from  200  to  225  men 
in  all.  Of  these  174  wcro  rowers,— 54  on  the  lower  bank 
(thalamites),  58  on  tho  middle  hank  (zygites),  and  C2  on  the 
upper  bank  (thranites),— tho  upper  oars  being  more  numerous 
because  of  the  contraction  of  the  snace  available  for  the  lower  tiers 
near  tlic  bow  and  stem.  Besides  tnc  rowers  were  about  10  marines 
{iiTifiJiTat)  and  20  seamen.     Tho  oUiccrs  were  the  trierorchand  next 


808 


SHIP 


to  him  the  helmsman  (kvP'"vIitjis),'  wh»  was  the  navigating  officer 
of  the  trireme.  Each  tier  ■'  rowers  had  its  captain  (irToixopx''^)- 
There  were  also  the  cajitain  of  the  forecastle  {npuipcL's),  the 
"keleustes  "  wlio  gave  the  time  to  the  rowers,  and  the  ship's  piper 
(TpijipauAiis}.  The  rowers  descended  into  the  seven-foot  space 
between  the  diaphragniata  and  took  their  places  in  regular  order, 
beginning  with  the  thalamites.  The  economy  of  space  was  such 
that,  as  Cicero  remarks,  there  was  not  room  for  one  man  more. 

The  improvement  made  in  the  build  of  their  vesaels  by 
the  Corinthian  and  Syracu.san  shipwrights,  by  which  the 
bows  were  so  much  strengthened  that  they  were  able  to 
meet  the  Athenian  attack  stem  on  {irpoa-fioXij),  caused 
a  change  of  tactics,  and  gave  an  impetus  to  the  building 
of  larger  vessels — quadriremes  and  quinqueremes — in  which 
increased  oar-power  was  available  for  the  propulsion  of  the 
heavier  weights. 

In  principle  these  vessels  were  only  expansions  of  the 
trireme,  so  far  as  the  disposition  of  the  rowers  was 
concerned,  but  the  speed  could  not  have  increased  in  pro- 
jxjrtion  to  the  weight,  and  hence  arose  the  variety  of 
contrivances  which  superseded  the  ramming  tactics  of  the 
days  of  Phorniio.  In  the  century  that  succeeded  the 
alose  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  the  fashion  of  building 
big  vessels  became  prevalent.  We  hear  of  various 
numbers  of  banks  of  oars  up  to  sixteen  (eKxaiScK^p/;?) 
— the  big  vessel  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  The  famous 
tesseraconteres  or  forty-banked  vessel  of  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator  was  in  reality  nothing  more  than  a  costly  and 
ingenious  toy,  and  never  of  any  practical  use.  The  fact, 
however,  of  its  construction  shows  the  extent  to  which 
the  shipwi'ight's  art  had  been  developed  among  the 
ancients. 

The  Romans,  who  developed  their  naval  power  during 
the  First  Punic  War,  were  deficient  in  naval  construction 
till  they  learnt  the  art  from  their  enemies  the  Cartha- 
ginians. They  copied  a  quinquereme  which  had  drifted 
on  to  the  coast,  and,  with  crews  taught  to  row  on  frames 
set  up  on  dry  land,  manned  a  fleet  which  we  are  told  was 
built  in  sixty  days  from  the  time  the  trees  were  cut  down. 
After  the  Punic  War,  in  which  the  use  of  boarding  tactics 
gave  the  Romans  command  of  the  sea,  the  larger  rates 
■ — quinqueremes,  hexiremfs,  octiremes — continued  in  use 
until  at  Actium  the  fate  of  the  big  vessels  was  sealed  by 
the  victory  of  the  light  Liburnian  galleys.  The  larger 
classes,  though  still  employed  as  guardslups  for  some  time, 
fell  into  disuse,  and  the  art  of  building  them  and  the 
knowledge  of  their  interior  arrangements  were  lost. 
Tabic  of  Mcasurcincnts,  .cCr. ,  after  Grascr.' 


Length,  exclusive  of  beak. 

Beam,  gi-eatest 

Passage  between  Staippdy- 

tiara 

Draught 

Tons  measurement 

Number  of  rowers 

Crew,  total  compleuieht .. 


(?)  149  It.' 
18  „ 


81,, 
(?)  232 
174 
225 


luinquereme.  Tesseraconteres. 


108  ft. 
2«  ., 

11  „ 

11»„ 
534 
310 
375 


420  ft. 

'■s  „ 

49  „ 

20  „ 

11,320  (?) 

4,054 

7,500 


iledixval  Ships. — It  is  not  at  present  possible  to  trace  in 
its  successive  stages  the  transition  from  the  ancient  ship 
of  war  to  the  medissval  galley.  The  sailing  vessels  of  the 
time  of  the  early  Roman  empire,  such  as  that  in  which 
St  Paul  suffered  shipwreck  or  the  great  merchantman 
described  by  Lucian,  were  the  direct  precursors,  not  only 
of  the  mediceval  merchant  vessels,  but  also  of  the  large 
sailing  vessels  which,  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder, 
and  the  consequent  necessity  of  carrying  marine  artillery, 
superseded  the  long  low  galleys  propelled  by  oars.  The 
battle  of  Actium  gave  the  death-blow  to  the  ancient 
type  of  vessel  with  its  many  banks  of  oars.     The  light 

1  Taking  the  interscalmium  at  4  feet ;  but  this  doesnot  agree  with  Vitruvius, 
Who  gives  2  cubits. 


Liburnian  galleys  which,  though  fuUy  decked,  were 
aphract,  and,  according  to  Lucan's  testimony  (bk.  iii.), 

Ordin»  contentoe  gemino  crevisse  Liburate, 

had  only  two  banks  of  oars,  were  biremes.  This  appar- 
ently became  the  type  of  Roman  war  galleys  ;  and,  though 
the  old  name  triremo  survived,  its  meaning  became  simply 
"  man  of  war,"  and  did  not  any  longer  imply  three  banks 
of  oars.  Light  vessels  were  in  vogue,  and  galleys  vdtL 
single  banks  of  oars  are  common  iij  the  representations 
on  coins  and  in  such  frescos  as  survive,  but  trireme  and 
Cjuinquereme,  itc,  havg  vanished. 

A  cloud  of  obscurity  rests  on  these,  the  dark  ages  of 
naval  history.  We  know  nothing  of  the  character  and 
composition  of  the  'fleet  in  which  Ricimer  defeated  the 
Vandals  in  the  5th  century  of  our  era.  Nor  have  we  any 
details  of  the  fleets  of  the  Byzantine  empire  until  the  end 
of  the  9th  century,  when  a  light  is  thrown  upon  the 
subject  by  the  Tactiai  of  the  emperor  Leo.  This  emperor, 
in  giving  his  directions  as  to  the  cotstitution  of  bis  fleet, 
prescribes  that  dromones  (Spoftiuvcs) — that  is,  triremes — ■ 
are  to  be  got  ready  in  the  dockyards  with  a  view  to  a 
naval  engagement.  _  The  vessels  are  not  to  be  too  light  or 
too  heavy.  They  are  to  be  armed  with  siphons  for  the 
projection  of  Greek  fire.  They  are  to  have  two  banks  of 
oars,  with  twenty-five  rowers  a-piece,  on  each  side.  Some 
of  the  vessels  are  to  be  large  enough  to  carry  two  hundred 
men ;  others  are  to  be  smaller,  like  those  called  galleys  or 
one-banked  vessels,  swift  and  light  (cAarroi;?  Spo/itKWTaTous 
otoi'et  yaAat'as  rj  jxovTjpei'i  Xeyo/xeVou?  ra^ivov^;  koX  eXac^pou?). 
Here  we  have  the  name  galleys  distinctively  attached  to 
vessels  with  one  bank  of  oars.  This  passage  should  have 
saved  much  of  the  labour  that  has  been  thrown  away  in 
attempting  to  prove  that  the  distribution  of  rowers  in  the 
mediaeval  g,alleys  was  upon  the  same  principle  as  that 
observed  in  the  ancient  biremes  or  triremes. 

The  light  thrown  by  the  philosophic  Byzantine  on  the 
naval  construction  and  equipment  of  his  time  is  but  a 
passing  flash.  After  the  9th  century  there  is  darkness 
again  until  the  11th  and  12th  centuries,  when  the  features 
of  the  mediaeval  galley  first  begin  to  be  visible.  And  here 
perhaps  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  say  that  it  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  between  those  imaginary  representations 
of  the  antique  in  which  painters,  such  as  Tintoret,  give 
fanciful  arrangement  to  the  oars  of  their  galleys,  so  as  to 
meet  their  ideas  of  biremlf  or  trireme,  from  those  that  are 
historically  faithful  and  figure,  perhaps  in  an  ungainly 
and  inartistic  manner,  the  galleys  of  Venice  and  Genoa  as 
they  appeared  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  would  exceed  the 
space  at  our  disposal  here  to  enter  into  details  which 
can  be  gathered  from  Jal's  Archeologie  Kavak  and  the 
Glossaire  Nmitique  of  the  same  author,  or  the  later  works 
of  Admiral  .lurien  de  la  Gravicre  and  Admiral  Fincati. 
It  must  suflice  to  indicate  here  a  few  of  the  main  charac- 
teristics in  which  the  mediajval  galley  differs  from  the 
ancient,  and  exhibits  the  last  development  of  man-power 
as  applied  to  motion  in  vessels  larger  than  the  boats  of 
the  present  day. 

These  characteristics  may  be  sketched  briefly.  Upon 
the  mediseval  galley,  which  was  essentially  a  one-banked. 
galley  (jiovuKporov),  the  use  of  the  longer  oar  or  sweep 
took  the  place  of  the  small  paddling  oars  of  the  ancient 
vessel.  The  incr'^ased  length  of  the  oar  requiring  for  its 
efliciency  greater  power  than  one  man  could  employ  led  to 
the  use  of  more  than  one  man  to  an  oar.  The  necessity 
therefore  arose  of  placing  the  weight  (or  point  at  which 
the  oar,  used  as  a  lever,  worked  against  the  thowl,  and  so 
pressed  against  the  water,  which  is  the  fulcrum)  at  a 
greater  distance  from  the  .force  or  man  who  moved  the 
lever.     This  was  gained  by  the  invention  of  the  ipostis. 


S  H  I-S  H  T 


809 


Upon  the  hull  of  the  mediaeval  galley  was  laia  a  frame- 
work which  stood  out  on  either  side  from  it,  givinj^  on 
either  side  a  strong  external  timber,  running  j..-';allel  to 
the  axis  of  the  vessel,  in  which  the  thowls  were  fixed 
against  which  the  oars  were  rowed.  It  will  be  readily 
understood  how  this  arrangement  ga.ve  a  greater  length 
inboard  for  the  oar  as  compared  with  that  of  the  ancient 
vessels,  where  the  .thowl  stood  in  the  aperture  of  the 
vessel's  side  or  port-hole.  On  the  inner  side,  rising  inwards 
towards  the  centre  line  ef  the  decks  and  inclining  upwards, 
■were  the  banks  or  benches  for  the  rowers,  arranged  ci  la 
iscaloccio,  who  could  each  grasp  the  handle  of  the  oar, 
moving  forward  as  they  depressed  it  for  the  feather,  and 
backward  for  the  stroke  as  they  raised  their  hands  for  the 


immersion  of  the  blade.  The  stroke  no  doubt  was  slower 
than  that  of  the  ancient  galleys,  but  much  more  powerfuL 
For  the  rest  we  must  refer  to  the  works  above  mentioned, 
where  the  reader  will  find  minute  descriptions  of  the  build 
and  the  equipment  of  mediteval  vessels,  such  as  those 
which  fought  at  Lepanto  or  carried  the  proud  ensign  of 
the  Genoese  republic. 

Literature. — 1.  For  Ancient  Shipa  : — Daemichen,  Ftc^t  of  an  Egyptian  Quatir', 
Chabns,  Eludes  sur  I'Arttiqttite  Jlistorique;  Rawhnson,  A^tc^e^tt  MonaiThias- 
SchcEfer,  De  Militia  Navati  Veteruni;  Boeckh,  Urkuuden  uAt-r  das  Sseiressn  des 
Attiscficn  Staates  ;  B.  Gl-aser,  De  Re  A'avalt  Velerum;  Id,.  Das  Model  eiries  Alhen- 
ischen  Fiin/reihensehiJ)'es  iPenlere)  aus  derZeii  Alexanders  d^s  Grosseil  im  £ontg- 
Hefien  Museum  zu  Beriin  ;  Id.,  Dii  Gemmen  des  Koniglicben  Museums  lu  Berlin 
viit  Darstelluvgeii  aittiker  Schiffe\  Id.,  Die  dltesien  Schiffsdarstetlungen  auf 
arttiken  Milmeri^  A.  Cartauld,  La  Triere  Atfic'iiienne;  Breusinc.  Die  Kautik  der 
AlteTt;  Smith,  Voyage  aitd  Shipioreck  of  St  Paul.  2.  For  Mediffival  Shippinp  ; — 
A.  Jal,  Arclieologie  jfavale  antX  Glossaire  NoMtique;  Juricn  de  la  Giavitrc,  Der- 
niers  Jours  de  id  Marine  a  Rames,  Paris,  1S85  ;  Fincati,  Le  Tiiremi.    (E.  WA.) 


SHIPBUILDING 


TTTITHIN  the  memory  of  the  present  generation  ship- 


The  art 

ol'  ship-  Y  y  buiWing,  like  many  other  arts,  has  lost  dignity  by 
imildini.  jjjg  extended  use  of  machinery  and  ^by  the  subdivision  of 
labour.  Forty  years  ago  it  was  still  a  "  mystery  "  and  a 
"  craft."  The  well-instructed  shipbuilder  had  a  store  of 
experience  on  which  he  based  his  successful  practice. 
He  gained  such  advantages  in  the  form  and  trim  and  rig 
of  his  vessels  by  small  improvements,  suggested  by  his 
own  observation  or  by  the  traditions  of  his  teachers,  that 
men  endeavoured  to  imitate  him,  neither  he  nor  they 
knowing  the  natural  laws  on  w-hich  siiccess  depended.  He 
had  also  a  good  eye  for  form,  and  knew  how  to  put  his 
materials  together  so  as  to  avoid  all  irregularity  of  shape 
on  the  outer  surfaces,  and  how  to  form  the  outlines  and 
bounding  curves  of  the  ship  so  that  the  eye  might  be  com- 
pelled to  rest  lovingly  upon  them.  He  was  skilled  also  in 
the  qualities  of  timber.  He  knew  what  was  likely  to  be 
free  from  "rends"  and  "shakes"  and  "cups"  which 
would  cause  leakage,  and  which  would  be  liable  to  split 
when  the  bolts  and  treenails  were  driven  through  it.  He 
knew  what  timber  would  bear  the  heat  of  tropical  suns 
■without  imdue  shrinking,  and  how  to  improve  its  qualities 
by  seasoning.  He  could  foretell  where  and  under  what 
cii-cumstances  premature  decay  might  be  expected,  and  ho 
could  choose  the  material  and  adjust  the  surroundings  so 
as  to  prevent  it.  He  knew  what  wood  was  best  able  to 
endure  rubbing  and  tearing  oa  hard  ground,  and  how  it 
ought  to  bo  formed  so  that  the  ship  might  have  a  chance 
of  getting  ofE.  securely  when  she  accidentally  took  the 
ground  or  got  on  shore.  Such  men  ■were  to  be  found  on 
all  the  sea-coasts  of  Europe  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  in  America. 

A  great  change  came  over  the  art  when  steam  was  intro- 
duced. The  old  proportions  and  forms  so  well  suited  for 
the  speeds  of  the  ships  and  for  the  forces  impressed  upon 
them  were  ill  adapted  for  propulsion  by  the  paddle,  and 
still  less  so  for  propulsion  by  the  screw.  Experience  had 
to  bo  slowly  gained  afresh,  for  the  lamp  of  science 
burned  dimly.  .  -It  needed  to  bo  fed  by  results,  by  long 
records  of  successes  and  failures,  before  it  was  able  to 
direct  advancing  feet.  The  further  change  from  wood 
to  iron  and  then  to  steel  almost  displaced  the  shipwright. 
Ships  for  commercial  purposes  may  be  said  to  be  built 
BOW,  so  far  as  their  external  hulls  are  concerned,  by 
draftsmen  and  boilcrmakers.  Tlie  centres  of  the  ship- 
building^ industry  have  changed.  The  port?  where  oaks 
(Italian,  English,  and  Dantzic),  pines  from  America  and 
the  north  of  Europe,  teak  from  Moulmein,  and  elm  from 
Canada  were  most  accessible, — these  marked  the  suitable 
places  for  shipbuilding.  The  Thames  was  alive  with  the 
industry  from  Xorthtleet  to  the  Pool.  I^  still  lingers, 
b'at    it    is    elowly    dying    out.      Travellers    aio'ia    the 


Mediterranean  shores  from  Nice  to  Genoa  mark  the 
completeness  of  the  change  which  a  few  years  have  made. 
The  Tyne  and  the  Clyde  and  the  Mersey  have  become  the 
principal  centres  of  the  trade.  ,  It  has  been  drawn  there 
because  the  iron  and  the  coal  are  near. 

But,  while  the  art  of  shipbuilding  has  lost  dignity,  the  The 
science  of  naval  construction  has  increased  in  importance,  science 
English  art  is  of  an  eminently  practical  character.  It  jgOf"^^"-! 
shy  of  experiment,  as  being  costly  in  itself  and  likely  to  j™^  ™°" 
lead  to  delays  and  changes  of  system  and  of  plant.  It 
loves  large  orders  and  rapid  production.  It  practif-es 
great  subdivision  of  the  details  in  order  to  cheapen  pro- 
duction, and  it  stereotypes  modes  of  ■work.  There  is  no 
lack  of  boldness  and  enterprise;  but  the  patient  continuous 
inquiry  and  the  slow  but  sure  building  up  of  theory  upon 
research, — this  is  the  exception.  Naval  construction  in 
England  hr,^  had  the  good  fortune  during  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  to  have  not  only  a  thriving  industry  but  a 
home  for  research.  Twenty-five  years  ago,  when  the  high- 
press^jre  condensing  engine  was  in  its  infancy,  when  ship- 
building steel  was  not,  and  armour-'^jlated  ships  had  not 
yet  displaced  the  wooden  line-of-battle  ship,  this  home 
was  founded.  The  Institution  of  Naval  Architects  may  be 
fairly  called  the  home  for  research  in  naval  construction. 
It  owes  its  establishment  mainly  to  four  well-known  men — 
John  Scott  Kussell,  Dr  Joseph  WooUey,  Lord  Hampton, 
for  many  years  its  honoured  president,  and  Sir  Edward 
Reed,  its  first  secretary.  "  It  has  published  every  year  a 
volume  of  Transactions  recording  the  experience  of  all  the 
shipbuilders  and  marine  engineers  in  England.  These 
Transactions  contain  also  valuable  contributions  from 
French,  Italian,  German,  and  other  eminent  constructors 
and  engineers. 

Shortly  after  the  foundation  of  tlio  Institution  one  of  its  mem-  Ad- 
bcrs,  Jlr  William  Froude,  set  up  an  e.^pcrimcntal  cstablislinient  miralty 
at   Torquay,  under  the  aus]>ices  and  with  the  assi.stanco   of  the  experi- 
Adniiralty.     Tlie   object   ^fa.s    to    submit   to   e.xperiment  various  nienta  on 
proportions  and  forms  of  shiiis  in  model  in  order  to  compare  the  fluid  re- 
relative  resistances  in  the  same  model  at  various  speeds,  and  in  sisLinco, 
different  forms  and  proportions  at  equal  speed.s.     There  uas  some  &c, 
reason  to  doubt  the  po.ssibi]ity  of  inferring  from    a  model  on   a 
scale  of  ^  of  an  inch  to  a  foot  what  would  happen  in  a  sliip  of 
corres|ionding  form  and  proi)ortions.     In  order  to  establish  satis- 
factorily  tlie   relations    Ijetwecn    tlio  real   and  the  model   sliip  a 
series  of  experiments  was  desirable  upon  a  real  ship  in  which  the 
resistances  could  be  measured  by  a  dynamometer  at  various  speeds 
and  compared  with  those  indicated  by  (he  model.     Up  to  tlio  dato 
of  this  trial  the  "scale  of  comparison  "  which  had  been  employed 
by  Mr  Fronde  was  based  upon  prima  facie  theoretical  truth,  and  it 
had  some  experimental  justification.     It  may  bo  stated  as  follows, 
as  (,'iven  by  Jlr  Froude  in  the  volume  for  1874  of  the  Transactions 
of  tlie  Institutioij  of  N.ival  Architccta  : — 

Jf  a  ship  be  D times  the  " dinicnsion,*' a^  it  istermcd^  oftlicmodclf 
and  if  at  the  speeds  K„    K,,    V,  .  .  .  the  measured  resistances  of 
the  moilel  are  H,,   Ji.,  Jt,   .    .    .    .,    then  for  speeds  T>*F„  TfiV, 
Z>tr..    .    .    .    of  the  ship,  the  resistances  will  be  S^lii,   LfRj 

XXI.    102 


bio 


SHIPBUILDING 


/)'/i3 ...  To  tlio  speeds  of  motlcl  and  sl\ip  thus  related  it  is  conven- 
ient to  apply  the  term  "  corresponding  speeds. "  For  example,  sup- 
pose two  siniil.ir  sliips,  the  length,  breadtli,  depth,  kc.  ,of  which  weio 
double  one  of  the  other..  Then,  if  at  a  given  speed  (say  10  knots) 
the  resistance  of  the  smaller  ship  were  ascertained,  we  may  infer 
that  at  a  speed  of  V-x  10  =  14'14  knots  in  the  larger  ship  there 
would  be  a  resistance  8  times  as  great  as  in  the  smaller  vessel. 

This  law  is  in  accordance  with  the  old  rule  that  the  resistapco 
varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocity,  and  also  as  the  area  of  the 
surface  exposed  to  resistance.  It  takes  into  account  both  the 
resistance  dne  to  surface  fiiction  (subject  to  some  correction)  and 
the  formation  of  deadwatcr  eddies.  Tlie  passage  of  the  ship 
through  the  water  creates  waves  which  are  dependent  for  their 
character  upon  the  proportions  and  form  of  the  ship.  These  con- 
stitute also  an  element  of  resistance.  They  are  due  to  differences 
of  hydrodynamic  pressure  inherent  in  the  system  of  stream-lines 
which  the  passage  of  the  ship  creates.  These  wave-configurations 
should  be  precisely  similar  when  the  originating  forms  are  similar 
and  are  travelling  at  speeds  ]iroportional  to  the  square  roots  of 
their  respective  dimensions,  because  the  resulting  forces  will  be 
in  that  case  as  the  square  of  the  speeds.  For  e.vamplo,  if  the 
surface  of  the  water  surrounding  a  ship  160  feet  long,  travelling 
at  10  knots  an  hour,  were  modelled  together  with  the  ship,  on 
any  scale,  the  model  would  equally  represent,  ou  half  that  scale, 
the  water  surface  surrounding  a  ship  of  similar  form  320  feet 
long,  travelling  at  14'14  knots  an  hour;  or  again,  on  16  times 
that  scale,  the  water  surface  surrounding  a  model  of  the  ship  10 
feet  long,  travelling  at  2i  knots.  E.vperunent  has  abundantly  con- 
firmed this  proportion  as  to  the  similarity  of  waves  caused  by 
similar  forms  travelling  at  corresponding  speeds.  The  resistance 
caused  to  these  forms  respectively  by  the  development  of  the 
waves  would  therefore  also  be  proportionate  to  the  cubes,  of  the 
dimensions  of  the  forms  and  would  follow  the  law  of  comparison 
stated  above.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe  that,  in  dealing 
with  surfaces  having  so  great  a  disparity  in  length  and  speed  as 
those  of  a  model  and  of  a  .ship,  a  very  tangible  correction  is 
necessary  in  regard  to  surface  frii'tion. 

The  vessel  tiied  by  Jlr  Froud(!  for  confirming  the  law  of  com- 
parison was  H.M.S.  "  Greyhound,"  of  1157  tons.  She  was  towed 
by  H.M.S.  "  Active,"  of  3078  tons,  from  the  end  of  a  boom  45  feet 
long,  so  as  to  avoid  interferences  of  "  wake."  It  was  foirnJ  to  be 
possible  to  tow  up  to  a  speed  of  neariy  13  knots.  -The  actual 
amount  of  towing  strain  for  the  "Greyhound"  was  approximately 
as  follows:— at  4  knots,  0-6  ton  ;  at  6,  1 '4  tons;  at  8,  2-5  tons; 
at  10,  47  tons;  and  at  12,  90  tons. 

Comparing  the  indicated  horse-power  of  the  "  Greyhound  "  when 
on  her  steam  trials  and  the  resistance  of  the  ship  as  determined 
by  the  dynamometer,  it  ajjpears  that,  making  allowance  for  the 
slip  of  the  screw,  which  is  a  legitilnate  expenditure  of  power, 
only  about  45  per  cent,  of  the  power  exerted  by  the  steam  is 
usefully  employed  in  propelling  the  ship,  and  that  the  remainder  is 
wasted  in  friction  of  engines  and  screw  and  in  the  detrimental 
reaction  of  the  propeller  on  tHe  stream  lines  of  the  water  closijig 
in  around  the  stern  of  the  vessel. 

We  may  describe  in  Jlr  Fronde's  own  words  the  system  of  ex- 
periment now  regularly  carried  out  for  the  Admiralty,  a  system 
which  has  been  successfully  copied  in  other  countries  and  also  by  a 
private  shipbuilding  firm,  Messrs  Denny  of  Dumbarton: — 

"That  system  of  experiments  involves  the  construction  of 
models  of  various  forms  (they  are  really  fair-sized  boats  of  from 
10  to  25  feet  in  length),  and  the  testing  by  a  dynamometer  of  the 
resistances  they  experienced  when  running  at  various  assigned 
appropri.ito  speeds.  The  system  may  bo  described  as  that  of 
determining  tlio  scale  of  resistance  of  a  moilel  of  any  given  form, 
and  from  that  the  resistance  of  a  ship  of  any  given  form,  rather 
than  as  that  of  searching  for  the  best  form,  and  this  method  was 
preferred  as  the  more  general,  and  because  the  form  which  is  best 
adapted  to  any  given  circumstances  comes  out  incidentally  from  a 
comparison  of  the  various  results.  AVe  drive  each  model  through 
the  water  at  the  successive  assigned  appr-opriate  speeds  by  an 
extremely  sensitive  dynamometrical  apparatus,  which  gives  us  in 
every  case  an  accurate  automatic  record  of  the  model's  resistance, 
as  well  as  a  record  of  the  speed.  Wo  thus  obtain  lor  each  model 
a  series  of  speeds  and  the  corresponding  resistances  ;  and,  to  render 
these  results  as  intelligible  as  possible,  wo  represent  them  graphic- 
ally in  each  case  in  a  form  which  we  call  the  'curve  of  the 
resistance'  for  the  particular  mo<lel.  On  a  straight  base  line 
which  represents  speed  to  scale  wo  mark  off  the  series  of  points 
denoting  the  several  speeds  employed  in  the  experiments,  and  at 
each  of  these  points  we  plant  an  orilinate  which  represents  to  scale 
the  coiTesponding  resistance.  Through  the  points  defined  by 
these  ordinates  we  draw  a  fair  curved  line,  and  this  curve  con- 
stitutes what  I  have  called  the  curve  of  resistance.  This  curve, 
whatever  be  its  features,  expresses  for  the  model  of  that  particular 
form  what  is  in  fact  and  apart  fiom  all  theory  the  law  of  its 
resistance  in  terms  of  its  speed  ;  and  what  we  have  to  do  is  if 
possible  to  find  a  rational  interpretation  of  the  law.     Now  we  can 


at  once  carry  the  interpretation  a  considerable  way  ;  for  wo  kno\7 
that  the  model  has  so  many  square  feet  of  skin  in  its  surface,  and' 
wo  know  by  independent  experiments  how  much  force  it  takes  to 
draw  a  square  foot  of  such  skin  through  the  water  at  each  indi- 
vidual speed.  The  law  is  very  nearly — and  for  present  convenienco 
wo  may  speak  as  if  it  were  exactly — that  skin  resistance  is  as  the 
area  simply,  and  as  the  square  of  the  .speed.  Now,  we  have  so 
many  square  feet  of  immersed  skin  in  the  model,  and  the  total 
skin  resistance  is  a  certain  known  multiple  of  the  product  of  that 
number  of  square  feet  and  of  the  square  of  the  speed.  Now, 
when  we  lay  olF  on  the  curve  of  resistance  a  second  curve  which 
represents  that  essential  and  primaiy  portion  of  the  resistance, 
then  we  find  this  to  be  the  result  :  the  curve  of  skin  resistance 
when  drawn  is  found  to  be  almost  identical  with  the  curve  of 
total  resistance  at  the  lower  speeds  ;  but  as  the  ^eed  is  incre.ised 
tho  curve  of  total  resistance  is  found  to  ascend  more  or  less,  and  in 
some  cases  to  ascend  very  much  above  the  curve  of  skin  resistance. 
The  identity  of  the  two  curves  at  the  lower  speeds  is  the  practical 
representation  of  a  proposition  which  tho  highest  mathepiatieians 
have  long  been  aware  of,  and  which  I  have  lately  endeavoured  to 
draw  the  public  attention  to,  and  to  render  popularly  intelligible, 
n,amely,  that  when  a  ship  of  tolerably  tine  lines  is  moving  at  a 
moderate  speed  tho  whole  resistance  consists  of  surface  friction. 
The  old  idea  that  the  resistance  of  a  ship  consists  essentially  of 
the  force  employed  in  driving  the  water  out  of  her  w-ay,  and 
closing  it  up  behind  her,  or,  as  it  has  sometimes  been  expressed, 
in  excavating  a  channel  through  the  track  of  water  which  sho 
traverses, — this  old  idea  has  ceased  to  be  tenable  as  a  real  proposi- 
tion, though  pvhna/acle  we  know  that  it  was  an  extremely  natural 
one.  We  n6w  know  that,  at  small  speeds,  practically  the  wdiole 
l-psistance  consists  of  surface  friction,  and  some  derivative  effects 
of  surface  friction,  namely,  the  formation  of  frictional  eddies, 
wdiich  is  due  to  the  thickness  of  tho  stem  and  of  the  sternpost  ; 
but  this  collateral  form  of  frictional  action  is  insignificant  in  its 
amount  unless  the  features  of  the  ship  in  which  it  originates  are 
so  abruptly  shaped  as  to  constitute  a  depaiture  from  that  necessary 
fineness  of  lines  which  I  have  described  ;  and  we  do  not  attempt  to 
take  an  exact  se]>arate  account  of  it.  Thus  we  divide  the  forces 
represented  by  the  curve  of  resistance  into  two  elements, — one 
'skin  resistance,'  the  other  which  only  comes  into  existence  as 
the  speed  is  increased,  and  which  we  may  term  '  residuary  resist- 
ance. And  w-e  have  next  to  seek  for  the  cause  and  governing 
laws  of  this  latter  element.  Now  when  the  passage  of  the  model 
along  the  surface  of  tho  water  is  carefully  studied,  we  observe  that 
the  special  additional  circumstance  which  becomes  apparent  as  the 
speed  is  increased  is  the  train  of  waves  which  she  puts  in  motion  ; 
and  indeed  it  has  long  been  known  that  this  circumstance  has 
important  bearings  on  the  growth  of  resistance.  It  is  in  fact 
certain  that  tho  constant  formation  of  a  given  series  involves  the 
operation  of  a  constant  force,  and  the  expenditure  of  a  definite 
amount  of  power,  depending  on  the  magnitude  of  those  wayes  and 
the  speed  of  tho  model  ;  and,  as  we  thus  naturally  conclude  that 
the  excess  of  resistance  beyond  that  due  to  the  surface  friction 
consists  of  the  force  employed  in  wave-making,  we  in  a  rough  way 
call  that  residuary  resistance  'wave-making  resistance.' 

"  Perhaps  I  had  better  say  a  few  words  more  about  the  nature 
and  character  of  these  waves.  The  ineritably  widening  form  of 
the  ship  at  her  'entrance'  throws  ofl"  on  each  side  a  local  obbque 
wave  of  gi-eater  or  hss  si;^e  according  to  the  sjieed  and  to  the  obtuse- 
ness  of  the  wedge,  and  these  waves  form  themselves  into  a  series  of 
diverging  crests,  such  as  we  are  all  familiar  with.  These  waves 
have  peculiar  properties.  They  retain  their  identical  size  for  a 
very  great  distance  with  but  little  reduction  in  magnitude.  F.ut 
the  main  point  is  that  they  become  at  once  dissociated  from  tho 
model,  and  after  becoming  fully  formed  at  the  bow,  they  pass 
clear  away  into  the  distant  water  and  produce  no  further  efiect  ou 
her  resistance.  But,  besides  those  diverging  waves,  there  is  pro- 
duced by  the  motion  of  the  model  another  notable  series  of  waves 
which  carry  their  crests  transversely  to  her  line  of  motion.  Thoso 
waves,  when  carefully  observed,  prove  to  have  the  form  shown  in 
detail  in  fig.  1.  In  the  figure  there  is  shown  the  form  of  a  model 
which  has  a  long  parallel  middle  body  accompanied  by  the  series 
of  these  transverse  waves  as  they  appear  at  some  One  particular 
speed  with  the  profile  of  the  series  defined  against  the  side  of 
the  model  ;  only  I  should  mention  that  for  the  sake  of  distinctness 
the  vertical  scale  of  the  waves  has  been  made  double  the  horizontal 
scale,  so  that  they  appear  relatively  to  the  model  abont  twice  us 
high  as  they  reaUy  are.  The  profile  is  drawn  from  exact  and 
careful  measurements  of  the  actual  wave  features  as  seen  against 
the  side  of  tho  model.  It  is  seen  that  the  wave  is  largest  whero 
its  crest  first  appears  at  the  bow,  and  it  reappears  again  and  again 
as  we  proceed  stern  wards  along  the  straiglrt  side  of  the  model,  -but 
with  successively  reduced  dimensions  at  each  reappearance.  That 
reduction  arises  thus  : — in  proportion  as  each  individual  wave  ha3 
been  longer  in  existence,  its  cuter  end  lias  spread  itself  farther  into 
tlio  undisturbcd,water  on  either  side,  and,  as  tho  total  energies  of 
the  wave  remain  the  same,  the  local  energy  is  less  and  less,  and 


SHIPBUILDING 


811 


the  wave-crest,  as  vibWed  against  the  side  of  the  ship,  is  constniitly 
diminisliing.  We  see  the  wave-crest  is  almost  at  right  angles  to 
the  ship,  but  the  outer  end  is  slightly  deflected  sternward  from  the 


/Fig.  1. 

circumstance  that  when  a  wave  is  entering  undisturbed  water  its 
jirogress  is  a  little  retarded,  and  it  has  to  deflect  itself  into  an 
obhquo  position,  so  that  its  oblique  progress  shall  enable  it  exactly 
to  keep  pace  with  the  ship.  The  whole  wave-making  resistance  is 
the  resistance  expended  in  geneiating  first  the  diverging  bow  waves, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  cease  to  act  on  the  ship  when  once  they 
have  rolled  clear  of  the  bow  ;  secondly,  these  transverse  waves,  the 
crests  of  which  remain  in  contact  with  the  ship's  si<le  ;  and  thirdly,- 
the  terminal  wave,  .whic^  appears  independently  at  tlio  stern  of  the 
ship.  This  latter  wave  arises  from  causes  similar  to  those  which 
create  the  bow  wave,  namely,  the  pressure  of  the  streams  which, 
forced  into  divergence  then,  here  converge  under  tiio  run  if  the 
vessel,  and  re-establish  an  excess  of  pressure  at  their  nieetinf. 
The  term  '  wave-making  resistance '  represents,  then,  the  excess  of 
resistance  beyond  that  due  to  surface  friction,  and  that  excess  we 
know  to  be  chiefly  due  to  this  formation  of  waves  by  the  ship." 

Pui-suing  these  experiments  it  was  found  that  not  only  was  there 
a  certain  length  of  form  necessary  in  a  ship  designed  to  attain  a 
certain  speed  economically,— a  fact  which  Mr  Scott  Russell  did. 
much  to  establish,— but  that  there  was  also  a  considerable  increase 
in  wave-making  resistance  dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  after- 
body or  run  of  the  ship  with  reference  to  the  wave-system  left  by 
the  bow.     Stating  this  again  in  Mr  Froude's  words  : 

"The  waves  generated  by  the  ship  in  passing  through  the 
water  origiujte  in  the  local  differences  of  pressure  caused  in  the 
surrounding  water  by  the  vessel  passing  through  it ;  Ictus  suppose, 
then,,  that  the  features  of  a  particular  form  are  such  that  these 
differences  of  pressure  tend  to  produce  a  variation  in  the  water 
level  shaped  just  like  a  natural  wave,  or  like  portions  of  'a  natural 
wave  of  a  certain  length. 

"Now  an  ocean  wave  of  a  certain  length  has  a  certain  appropriate 
speed  at  which  only  it  naturally  travels,  just  as  a  pendulum  of  a 
certain  lcn.gth  has  a  certain  appropriate  period  of  swing  natural  to 
it.  And,  just  as  a  small  force  recurring  at  intervals  corresponding 
to  the  natural  period  of  swiug  of  a  pendulum  will  sustain  a  very 
large  oscillation,  so,  when  a  ship  is  travelling  at  the  speed  naturally 
appropriate  to  the  waves  which  its  features  tend  to  form,  the 
stream  line  forces  will  sustain  a  very  Inrge  wave.  The  result  of 
this  phenomenon  is,  that  as  a  ship  approaches  this  speed  the  waves 
become  of  exaggerated  size,  and  run  away  with  a  proportionately 
exaggerated  amount  of  power,  causing  corresponding  resistance. 
This  is  the  cause  of  that  very  disproportionate  increase  of  resistance 
experienced  with  a  small  increase  of  speed  when  once  a  certain 
speed  is  reached. 

''  We  thus  sec  mat  the  speed  at  which  the  rapid  growth  of 
resistance  will  commence  is  a  speed  somewhat  less  than  that 
appropriate  to  the  length  of  the  wave  which  tlie  ship  tends  to  form. 
Now,  the  greater  the  length  of  a  wavo  is  the  higher  is  the  speed 
appropriate  to  ic ;  therefore  the  gicatcr  the  length  of  the  waves 
which  the  ship  tends  to  form  the  higher  will  bo  the  speed  at 
which  the  wavo-m.iking  rcsisbiiu-o  begins  to  become  formidable. 
We  may  therefore  accept  it  as  an  approximate  principle  tliat  the 
longer  aro  the  features  of  a  ship  which  tend  to  make  waves  the 
higher  will  bo  the  speed  she  will  be  able  to  go  before  she  k-gins  to 
experience  great  wave-making  resistance,  and  the  less  will  bo  her 
wave-making  resistance  at  any  given  speed.  This  principle  is  tlie 
explanation  of  the  extreme  importance  of  having  at  least  a  certain 
length  of  form  in  a  ship  intended  to  attain  a  certain  speed  ;  for 
It  13  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  great  wave-making  resistance, 
that  the  'wave  features,'  as  we  m.ay  term  them,  should  be  long  in 
comparison  with  the  length  of  the  wave  which  would  naturally 
travel  at  the  speed  intended  for  the  slip. 


^  This  view  of  the  matter,  then,  recognizes  the  tendency  of  a 
slap,  when  the  speed  bears  a  ccrtaiu  relation  to  the  length  of  her 
wave-making  features,  to  make  largE  waves  and  to  incur  correspond- 
ing wave-making  resistance.  But  it  does  not  take  account  of  the 
possibility  of  the  waves  made  by  oue  feature  of  the  form  so  placing 
themselves  with  reference  to  other  features  as,  by  the  didercnces 
of  pressure  essential  to  their  existence,  either  to  cause  an  additional 
resistance,  or  on  the  other  hand  to  cause  a  forward  force  which 
partly  counterbalances  tlie  resistance  originally  due  to  their 
creation.  The  way  in  which  this  may  occur  we  have  seen 
strikingly  exhibited  in  the  results  of  the  experiments  I  have  been 
describing.  We  see  that  in  the  very  long  parallel-sided  form  (he 
sternmost  of  the  train  of  waves  left  by  the  bow  has  become  so 
small  that  its  effect  on  the  stern  is  almost  insensible  ;  and  here 
wo  find,  consequently,  the  united  resistance  due  simply  to  the 
generation  of  a  separate  wave-system  by  each  end  of  the  ship.  As 
we  gradually  reduce  the  length  of  middle-body,  the  stem  is  brought 
within  the  reach  of  waves  large  enough  to  produce  a  sensible  effect, 
and  according  as  it  is  brought  into  conjunction  with  a  crest  or 
Iiollow,  the  total  wave-making  resistance  becoming  least  of  all 
(except  at  the  very  highest  speed)  when  the  iniddle-body  is  reduced 
to  nothing." 

The_  variations  in  residuary  resistance  duo  to  these  transverse 
wave-formations  are  variations  of  quasi-hydrostatic  pressure  against 
the  after-body,  corresponding  with  the  changes  in  its  position  with 
reference  to  the  phases  of  the  train  of  waves,  there  being  a  com- 
parative excess  of  pressure  (causing  a  forward  force  or  diminution 
of  resistance)  when  the  after-body  is  opposite  a  crest,  and  the 
reverse  when  it  is  opposite  a  trough. 

_  It  may  be  proper  to  introduce  here  some  remarks  as  to  the  stream 
lines  which  have  been  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  considerations. 
The  statement  of  the  case  as  given  by  Mr  Froude,  and  derived 
by  him  mainly  from  tho  investigations  of  Prof.  Kankine.  is  as 
follows  : — 

"By  a  'perfect  fluid'  is  meant  one  the  aisplacemcnts  of  which  Stream 
are  governed  solely  by  the  laws  expressed  in  the  equation  of  fluid  lines, 
motion,  the  particles  of  which  therefore  are  without  viscosity,  and 
are  capable  of  gliding  lectilinearly  along  a  perfectly  smooth  surf.ace 
or  past  each  other  without  frictional  interference.  By  an  imperfect 
fluid  is  meant  one  in  which,  as  in  water,  as  well  as  those  with 
which  we  aro  practically  acquainted,  such  frictional  interference  is 
inevitable. 

"Dealing  first,  then,  with  the  case  of  steady  rectilinear  motion 
in  a  perfect  incompressible  fluid,  infinitely  extended  in  all  directions, 
it  is  plain  that  the  motion  will  create  differences  of  pressure,  and 
therefore  changes  of  velocity,  in  the  particles  of  the  surrounding 
fluid,  which  thus  move  in  what  are  called  'stream  lines."  At  the 
commencement  of  the  motion  of  tho  body  the  particles  of  the  fluid 
undergo  acceleration  in  their  respective  stream-line  paths,  and 
these  accelerations  imply  a  resistance  experienced  by  the  body  ; 
but  after  tho  motion  has  become  established  tho  differences  of 
pressure  satisfy  themselves  by' keeping  up  the  stream-line  con- 
figuration ;  the  energy  which  the  p.articlcs  receive  from  the  body 
while  they  are  being  pushed  aside  by  it  along  their  stream-line 
paths  is  finally  redelivered  by  them  to  it  as  they  collapse  arouud 
it,  and  come  to  rest  after  its  passage,  and  the  integrals  of  tho  -1- 
and  -  pressures  on  the  body  are  exactly  equal  at  every  moment. 
The  manner  in  which  this  is  effected  is  governed  by  the  general 
laws  of  fluid  motion,  as  expressed  by  the  well-known  equations  ; 
and,  since  these  equations  contain  no  term  which'  implies  a  loss  of 
energy,  the  energy  existing  in  the  body,  as  well  as  in  the  stream- 
line system,  remains  unaltered  ;  so  tha"t,  if  the  motion  is  stcadyi 
or  without  acceleration  or  retardation,  the  body  passes  through 
this  theoretically  perfect  fluid  obsolutcly  without  resistance.  Not 
must  it  be  thought  a  paradox  (for  it  is  unqucFtionable)  that  even 
a  plane  moving  steadily  at  right  angles  to  it-self  through  a  perfect 
fluid  would  in  the  manner  described  experience  no  resistance.  But 
if  the  fluid,  instead  of  being  infinite  in  all  directions,  bo  bounded 
by  a  definite  free  surLace  parallel  to  the  lino  o.'  motion,  such  as  a 
water  level,  the  existence  of  this  surface  cuts  off  the  reactions  of 
all  those  particles  wdiich  would  have  existed  beyond  the  surface 
had  the  fluid  been  unlimited  alike  in  all  directions,  and  widen 
would  have  given  back  in  the  manner  described  the  energy  imparted 
to'  them.  By  the  absence  of  these  reactions  the  stream-line 
motions  which  would  have  existed  in  the  infinite  fluid  aro  modified, 
and  the  differences  of  pressure  involve  corresponding  local  eleva. 
tions  of  the  surface  of  the  wat*'r  iii  the  vicinity  of  the  moving  body. 
And  since,  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  gravitation  (tho  forct 
which  controls  the  surface),  a  water  protuberance  seeks  immediately 
to  disperse  itself  into  the  surrounding  fluid  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  wave  motion,  the  local  elevation  partly  discharges  itscli 
along  the  surface  by  waves  which  carry  with  them  the  amount  oi 
energy  embodied  in  their  pro<luction,  TiiLs  energy  is,  in  fact, 
part  of  the  aggregate  energy  which  was  imparted  to  the  particles 
uf  fluid  while  they  were  being  pushed  a.s.dc,  and  which,  in  the 
infinitely  extended  fluid,  would  have  been  wholly  restored  to  tho 
body  during  their  collapse  after  its  passage,  but  is  now,  in  fact. 


812 


SHIPBUIL.DING 


diaaipated.  Tho  exact  equality  between  the  +  and  -  pressures  no 
longer  exists,  and  tho  body  experiencoa  a  definite  resistance  which 
it  would  not  do  if  the  fluid  were  infinite  in  all  directions.  _ 

"It  is  clear,  moreover,  that  the  nearer  the  moving  body 
approaches  tho  surface  the  greater  are  the  differences  of  pressure  to 
be  satisfied,  the  greater  will  be  the  waves  formed,  and  tho  gixater 
tho  dissipation  ot  energy.  Thus,  for  example,  a  fish  will  experi- 
ence an  increase  of  resistance  as  its  path  lies  nearer  to  the  surface, 
tho  train  of  waves  -it  creates  becoming  then  a  visible  accompani- 
ment of  its  progress.  A  fortioj-i,  when  the  body  moves  along  the 
surface  as  a  ship  does  on  water,  those  differences  of  pressure  which 
would  exist  during  the  motion  if  tho  fluid  were  infinite  in  all 
directions  satisfy  themselves  in  still  larger  waves,  whicli,  in  fact, 
are  the  waves  which  accompany  tho  body  in  its  motion.  The 
waves  which  thus  visibly  accompany  a  vessel  in  transitu  form 
a  marked  phenomenon  in  river  steaming.  Thus  we  see  how, 
although  in  a  perfect  fluid  extended  infinitely  in  all  directions,  a 
body,  when  once  put  in  motion,  would  move  absolutely  without 
resistance,  yet,  when  the  fluid  is  bounded  by  a  gravitating  surface 
at  or  near  the  line  of  motion,  the  body  will  experience  resistance 
by  the  formation  of  waves,  notwithstanding  that  the  fluid  is  a 
perfect  one. 

"If  the  fluid  is  again  supposed  to  be  infinite  in  all  directions,  but 
imperfect,  the  phenomena  previously  described  undergo  appropriate 
modifications,  and  the  moving  body  will  also  sutler  a  specific 
resistance, — in  the  first  place  by  it-a  having  to  overcome  the  friction 
and  viscosity  of  those  particles  of  tho  fluid  with  which  it  is  iu 
contact,  and  next  because  the  friction  of  the  surrounding  particles 
i'lUcr  sc  destroys  that  orderly  arrangement  of  tho  stream-line  con- 
figuration which  allows  of  "the  energy  imparted  to  tlie  particles 
being  returned  without  loss.  If  the  supposed  imperfect  fluid  is 
bounded  by  a  free  surface,  as  already  described,  and  the  body- 
moves  at  or  near  this  surface,  it  will  experience  resistances  depend- 
ing on  fluid  friction,  almost  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  if  the 
fluid  were  infinite  in  all  directions.  It  will  also  experience  very 
nearly  the  same  resistance  iu  virtue  of  the  wave-making  action  as 
in  the  perfect  fluid  ;  and  we  here  see  the  two  sources  of  resistance 
"xisting  independently  of  each  other,  and  due  to  totally  difl"ereut 
.  .ses. 
Stabilit'  Important  as  the  question  is  as  to  the  efi'ect  of  form  upon  resist- 
ince,  that  of  its  effect  upon  stability  or  steadiness  at  sea  is  even  more 
aO.  Before  tho  use  of  steam  for  the  propulsion  of  ships  the  speed 
^vhich  could  be  attained  in  seagoing  ships  by  sail  power  was  largely 
a  question  of  stability  or  power  to  cany  a  large  spread  of  canvas 
without  inclining  or  "  heeling  "  too  greatly.  Small  diffej-euces  in  the 
form  of  the  transverse  sections  of  the  ship  in  the  rsgion  of  the  load 
water-line  aiid  under  water  were  influential  iu  this  respect,  and 
naval  constructors  occupied  themselves  greatly  with  such  ques- 
tions. The  form  of  the  problem  completely  changes  when  tho  pro- 
pelling power  is  no  longer  an  upsetting  force.  The  important 
questions  in  steam  ships  are  the  proportions  of  length,  breadth,  and 
■depth  ;  the  form  of  "entrance  '  and  "run"  ;  the  construtction  of 
propelling  machinery  within  the  ship  ;  and  the  proportions,  form, 
and  number  of  revolutions  of  the  propeller.  But,  .while  this  is  so, 
the  effect  of  the  stability  of  the  steamship  nnon,  her  behaviour  at 
sea,  as  a  question  ofrolfing  or  "labouring,  remains  very  great. 
There  are,  moreover,  a  very  large  number  of  seagoing  ships  still 
dependent  upon  sails  for  their  propulsion,  and  the  question  of 
sailing  power  is  very  important  in  vessels  employed  on  our  coasts 
for  commerce  and  for  pleasure.  The  latest  and  most  complete  in- 
vestigation of  questions  of  stability  is  to  be  found  in  Sir  Edward  J. 
Reed's  recently  published  work,  fJic  Stability  of  Ships.  There  is  a 
more  popular  exposition  of  the  subject  by  Mr  W,  H.  White,  director 
of  naval  construction,  in  his  Manwxl  of  Naval  ATchitccture  (1877, 
2d  ed.  1882),  of  which  use  has  been  made  in  the  following  pages. 

A  ship  floating  freely  and  at  rest  in  still  water  displaces  a  volume 
of  water  exactly  equal  in  weight  to  her  own  weight.  The  circum- 
Btances  of  the  water  in  which  she  floats  are  in  fact  the  same 
■whether  the  cavity  made  in  the  water  by  tlie  ship  is  filled  by  the 
ship  as  in  fig.  2,  or  by  a  volume  of  water  having  the  same  weight 
as  the  ship  (fig.  3). 
When  the  ship  OC' 
cupies  the  cavity 
the  whole  of  her 
weight  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  con- 
centrated at  her 
centre  of  gravity, 
G,  fig.  2,  and  to  act  vertically  downwards. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


When  the  cavity  is 
filled  with  water  its  weight,  called  in  relation  to  the  ship  tho 
"displacement,"  may  be  supposed  to  bo  concentrated  at  B,  hg.  3, 
which  is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  "displacement"  or  of  the 
displaced  water.  This  centre  of  gravity  is  usually  known  iu 
relation  to  the  ship  as  the  "centre  of  buoyancy."  The  weight  of 
this  water  may  be  supposed  to  be  concentrated  at  B,  and  to  act 
vertically  downwards.  As  this  water  would  remain  in  the  cavity 
at  rest,  its  downward  pressure  must  be  balanced  by  equal  upward 


Fig  4. 


pressures,  that  la  by  the  buoyancy  of  the  surrounding  water. 
These  upward  pressures  must  act  in  tho  same  way  as  if  there  were 
a  single  pressure  equal  and  opposite  to  the  weight  of  tho  water, 
and  acting  through  the  "centre  of  buoyancy."  Iu  iig.  2  a  ship  is 
represented  floating  freely  and  at  rest  in  still  water.  Her  total 
weight  may  be  supposed  to  act  vertically  downward.i  through  tlie 
centre  of  gravity  G,  and  the  buoyancy  vertically  upwards  through 
the  centre  of  buoyancy.  The  second  condition  which  the  ship 
floating  freely  and  at  rest  in  still  water  will  always  satisfy  is  there- 
fore said  to  be  that  her  centre  of  gravity  will  lie  in  the  same 
vertical  line  with  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  volume  of  water 
which  she  displaces.  So  long  as  the  ship  rests  under  the  action  of 
these  opposing  and  balanced  forces  the  line  joining  the  centres  B 
and  G  is  vertical  and  represents  the  common  line  of  action  of  tho 
weight  and  buoyancy.  There  are  of  course  horizontal  fluid  pres- 
sures acting  upon  her,  but  these  are  balanced  among  themselves. 

The  ship  may  be  floating  at  rest,  but  under  constraint,  and  not 
freely.  There  may  be  the  pressure  of  wind  on  the  sails,  or  tho 
ctrain  of  a  rope  holding  her  iu  a  position  of  rest  although  the 
centres  B  and  G  are  no  longer  in  the  same  vertical  line.  i'ig.  4 
representssuch  a  case. 
Tlie  vessel  is  at  rest, 
but  there  is  some  ex- 
ternal force  operating 
other  than  that  of 
buoyancy ;  and  tho 
equal  and  opposite 
forces  of  the  weight 
and  buoyancy  act  in 
different  vertical  lines, 
and  no  longer  balauce 
each  other.  They 
form  a  mechanical 
"couple,"  tending  to 
move  the  ship  from 
the  position  of  con- 
strained rest  in  which 
she  is  sho^vn.  If  W 
represents  the  total 
weight  of  the  ship  (in 
tons),  and  d  the  per- 
pendicular distance  between  the  parallel  lines  of  action  of  tho  weight 
and  buoyancy  (iu  feet),  then  the  operative  moment  of  tho  "couple" 
is  represented  by  the  product  of  the  two  quantities  W  and  d,  mea- 
sured in  foot-tons.  If  tlie  constraint  is  removed,  and  the  vessel  is 
freed  from  all  external  forces  save  those  of  the  fluid  in  which  she 
floats,  she  will  move  under  the  operation  of  the  "  couple  "  towards 
the  upright  position  imtil  the  consequent  alteration  in  tho  form  of 
the  cavity  of  the  displacement  brings  the  centre  of  buoyancy  into  the 
same  vertical  with  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship.  What  has  been 
illustrated  by  reference  to  transverse  inclination  of  tho  ship  is 
equally  true  of  oblique  or  longitudinal  inclinations.  If  the  position 
ot  the  weights  in  the  ship  remains  unaltered  under  such  changes  of 
inclination  the  centre  of  gravity  remains  unaltered.  In  all  calcula- 
tions it  has  to  be  assumed  that  tlie  centre  of  gravity  is  a  fixed  point 
in  the  ship,  and  that  movable  weights  will  be  secured  in  the  siiip. 
With  this  assumption  the  position  of  tho  centre  of  gravity  of  a  ship 
can  be  correctly  assigned  by  calculation,  small  disturbances  caused 
by  movements  of  men,  &c.,  not  being  large  enough  to  be  ap]:)reciable. 

The  statical  stability  of  a  ship  may  be  defined  as  the  eflbrt  which 
she  makes  when  inclined  steadily  by  external  forces  to  overcome 
the  constraint  and  return  to  the  position  in  which  she  floats  freely, 
at  or  near  the  upright.  This  effort,  as  already  explained,  depends 
upon  the  position  of  the  centre  .of  buoyancy  B,  or  the  distance 
from  the  vertical  line  through  G  which  the  altered  form  of  tho 
cavity  of  the  displacement  lias  caused  it  to  assume.  It  may  always 
be  measured  by  the  product  of  the  two  quantities  W  (in  tons)  and 
d  (in  feet)  (see  fig.  4).  This  product  in  foot-tons  is  known  as  the 
"moment  of  statical  stability  "  for  the  particular  angle  of  inclina- 
tion and  corresponding  position  of  B  which  are  assumed.  A  littlo 
reflexion  will  show  that  when  large  angles  of  inclination  are  reached 
the  centre  B  ceases  to  recede  from  the  vertical  through  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  ship,  but  will,  as  the'inclination  increases,  approach 
this  vertical  line,  and  eventually  pass  to  tlte  other  side  of  it. 

Tho  moment  of  statical  stability  is  at  its  maximum  when  the 
distance  d  is  greatest.  The  angle  which  the  ship  has^  reached 
when  the  centre  B  has  reached  this  point  is  called  tlm  angle  of 
maximum  stability."  As  the  centre  B  travels  backwards  from 
this  position  with  the  increasing  inclination  of  tho  ship  tho  dis- 
tance d  decreases  and  the  righting  power  of  the  ship  decreases  pro- 
portionately.  When  B  passes  the  vertical  lino  through  G  tho 
moment  of  stability  changes  its  character  and  becomes  an  upset- 
tin^  force,  which  will  continue  to  act  until  the  ship  reaches  a  new 
position  of  rest,  usually  bottom  upwards.  Tlie  angle  which  the 
ship  reaches  before  this  change  takes  place,  i.e.,  when  B  ]>asses  tc 
the  other  side  of  the  vertical  line  through  G,  is  called  the  "  angle 
of  vanishing   stability"   and  it  indicates  the   ship's    "range  of 


SHIPBUILDING 


813 


•8CiU(\- 

iOUS. 


Stability."  The  change  may  occur  at  very  small  angles  if  the  ship 
is  cramc  and  her  sides  are  low  in  Ihe  water.  It  may  not  and 
sometimes  does  not  occur,  on  the  other  hand,  until  the  ship  is 
lying  on  her  beam  ends. 

If  a  curve  is  plotted  out  showing  these  positions  and  indicating 
also  how  d  first  increases  and  then  decreases  as  the  ship  is  inclined 
more  and  more  from  the  upright,  the  curve  is  known  as  the  curve  of 
stability".  A** stiff 
ship"  is  one  which 
opposes  great  resist- 
ance to  inclination 
from  the  upright 
when  under  sail  or 
acted  upon  by  ex- 
ternal forces.  A 
"crauk  ship"  is  one 
very  easily  inclined, 
the  sea  being  sup- 
posed to  be  smooth 
andstiil,  A  "steady 
ship  "  is  one  which  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  waves  keeps  nearly 
upright.  Crank  ships  are  usually  the  steadiest  ships.  Changes  in 
the  height  of  the  point  of  intersection  SI  (fig.  4)  above  the  centre 
of  gravity  indicate  corresponding  changes  in  thestiffuess  of  a  ship. 
Speaking  generally,  the  stiffness  of  the  ship  may  be  considered  to 
vary  with  the  height  of  M  above  G.  The  lino  BM  does  not  cut 
GM  in  the  same  point  at  considerable  inclinations  as  it  does  at  a 
very  small  inclination.  The  point  of  intersection  at  the  smallest 
conceivable  inclination  receives  a  definite  name.  It  is  known  as 
the  metacentre,  and  the  distance  GM  is  in  this  condition  called  the 
metacentric  height     See  Htduomechanics. 

The  following  table  contains  particulars  of  the  metacentric 
Dcights  of  different  kinds  of  vessels  of  war,  and  the  corresponding 
time  of  an  oscillation  in  still  water  : — 


Fio.  5.— Curve  of  btabllity  of  a  high-sided  Bhip,  having 
small  metaccntiic  height.  The  vertical  line  to  left 
shows  the  various  lengths  of  d,  and  the  hoilzontal 
line  the  angles  of  Inclioation  (in  degvccs). 


Names  of  Ships. 

Metacentric 
Hciglit. 

Period  of  a 
Double  Soil. 

H.M.S.  "Sultan," 

Feet 
2-5 
2-8 
3-7 

14-0 

7-65 

Seconds. 
8-9 
8-0 
6-76 
2-7 

10-7 

H.M.S.  "  IncoQstant,"  

H.M.S.  "Devastation," 

American  monitor  {shallow  draft), 

"Inflexible,"    when    rolled    in    still) 
water  in  Suda  Bay \ 

Generally  speaking,  decrease  in  metacentric  height  is  accompanied 
by  a  lengthening  of  the  period  of  an  oscillation.  Tlje  ship  swings- 
more  slowly  as  she  loses  stiffness. 

There  is  no  sensible  difference  in  the  time  occupied  by  a  ship  in 
a  swing  or  roll  from  side  to  side,  whether  she  rolls  through  only 
threo  or'four  degrees  on  either  side  of  the  upright  or  twelve  or 
fifteen  degrees.     For  larger  angles  there  would  be  email  differences. 

The  tables  which  have  been  given  show  some  remarkable 
changes  in  the  stability  conditions  in  ships  of  war  within  recent 
years.  Sailing  ships  were  formerly  made  with  so  little  deviation 
from  existing  types  that  it  was  not  found  to  be  necessary  to  ascertain 
their  e\act  measure  of  stability  or  to  lay  down  rules  for  regulating 
it  The  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  was  modified  by  ballast, 
and  as  much  as  nine  or  ten  per  cent,  of  the  displacement  was 
allowed  for  this.  Heavy  rolling  and  great  uneasiness  of  ship  from 
excessive  stability  had  often  to  be  endured.  In  other  cases  crank- 
iiess  or  inability  to  carry  sail  had  to  bo  accepted.  "When  armoured 
ships  were  first  introduct:d  they  had  about  the  same  metacentric 
height  (6  feet)  as  is  to  he  found  in  the  earlier  sailing  frigates. 
The  "Normandie"  in  the  French  navy  and  the  "  Princo  Consort" 
in  the  English  navy  had  from  6  to  7  feet,  and  they  were  exceed- 
ingly uneasy  and  deep-rolling  ships.  It  was  soon  discovered 
that  a  reduction  in  metacentric  height  would  cure  this  evil.  The 
later  shijis  in  both  navies  were  accordingly  designed  to  have  a 
metacentric  height  of  about  3  feet.  The  "  Magenta  "  had  3^  feet 
and  the.  "Hercules"  3  feet.  This  change  altered  the  period 
during  which  the  ship  made  a  double  oscillation,  i.e.,  from  star- 
board back  to  starboard,  to  14  to  16  seconds  instead  of  10  to  11 
seconds,  as  it.  had  been  in  the  "Norniandio  "  and  "Prince  Con- 
sort." The  effect  on  the  behaviour  of  t!io  ship  in  a  seaway  was 
most  remarkable.  These  shiita  with  email  metacentric  hciglit 
might  be  put  into  the  trough  of  a  sea,  ami  as  tho  waves  crossed 
them  they  steadily  roso  and  fell,  hardly  inclining  their  masts.  The 
effect  on  gunnery  practice  was  ulso  valuable,  but  there  is  always  a 
peril  attending  steadiness  obtained  by  such  iftcans  :  vessels  having 
small  metacentric  height  require  careful  handling  under  sail  or 
thoy  may  be  overset  and  lost.  There  is  another  di;fcct  in  this 
eystom,  viz.,  that  wounds  in  action  will  cause  the  ship  to  incline 
sooner  and  more  considerably,  and  tliey  become  more  dangerous 
than  they  would  bo  in  a  atiffer  ship.  Bilge-keeU  and  ^ater- 
chambers  are  now  employed  in  the  Lnglish  navy,  together  with, 
and  03  opposing  iofli^eDcea  to.  muc'-    "catcr  metacentric  height. 


These  devices  were  introduced  into  the  "Inflexible"  in  order  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  a  metacentric  height  of  8  feet  which 
was  designedly  given  to  her.  They  have  proved  very  effective, 
but  tliere  is  another  feature  in  this  vessel  which  has  tended, to 
prevent  uneasiness  and  heavy  rolling.  The  time  of  an  oscillation, 
or  quickness  of  rolling,  depends  not  only  upon  tho  metacentric 
height  but  upon  tho  moment  of  inertia  about  a  longitudinal  axis. 
The  time  of  an   oscillation  from  starboard  to  starboard  may  be 

written  thus  : —  

2T  =  l-lv'l'^7'", 
where  T  is  the  ship's  period  in  seconds  for  a  single  roll,  7n  is  tho 
metacentric  height,  or  height  of  metacentre  above  the  centre  of 
gravity  in  feet,  and  K  is  the  radius  of  gyration  iu  feet.  Tho 
moment  of  inertia  is  increased  by  widening  tlie  ship,  putting 
heavy  armour  on  her  sides,  and  placing  the  turrets  and  guus 
out  towards  the  sides  of  the  ship.  It  was  seen  that  these  features 
in  tho  "Inflexible,"  which  were  elements  in  her  design,  would 
favour  her  and  tend  to  counteract  the  great  metacentric  height. 
The  event  has  shown  that,  while  a  metacentric  hciglit  of  6  feet  in 
the  "Normandie"  gave  10  seconds  to  11  seconds  period,  8  feet  in 
the  "  Inflexible"  only  gives  11  seconds  as  a  period,  corresponding 
with  a  radius  of  gyration  of  28  feet.  The  feeling  expressed  that 
"in  order  to  provide  ngainst  the  impossible  contingency  of  tho 
loss  of  stability  by  complete  waterlogging  of  the  ends  we  had 
made  an  intolerable  ship  was  not  justified.  The  ship  is  now  so 
stiff  that  when  the  ends  are  waterlogged  the  running  in  and  out 
of  all  her  guns  on  one  side  only  inclines  her  2^  degrees,  while  iu 
the  "  llonarch  "  when  intact  and  light  the  same  operation  inclines 
the  ship  5  degrees. 

The  resistance  offered  by  tho  water  to  tho  rolling  of  the  ship 
consists  of  three  parts  : — (1)  that  duo  to  the  rubbing  of  the  water 
against  tho  bottom  of  the  ship  as  she  rolls  ;  (2)  that  duo  to  the 
flat  surfaces  which  arc  carried  through  the  water,  sucli  as  outside 
keels  and  dcadwood  ;  (3)  the  creation  of  waves  by  the  rolling 
ship  to  replace  those  which  move  away  from  the  ship.  The 
creation  of  these  surface  waves  expends  energy  and  checks  tho 
motion  of  the  ship  which  makes  the  creative  effort. 

Mr  White,  giving  briefly  the  results  of  some  of  the  experiments 
of  Mr  Fronde  made  for  the  Admiralty,  says  ; — 

**  Experiments  have  been  made  by  Mr  Froude  to  show  how 
rapidly  the  rate  of  extinction  may  be  increased  by  deepening  bilge-  Bi;::a- 
keels.  A  model  of  the  'Devastation'  was  used  for  this  purpose,  Ucc's. 
and  fitted  with  bilge-keels,  which,  on  the  full-si;:ed  ships,  would 
represent  tho  various  depths  given  .in  the  following  table.  The 
model  was  one  thirty-sixth  of  tho  full  size  of  the  ship,  and  was 
weighted  so  as  to  float  at  the  proper  water-line,  to  have  its  centre 
of  gravity  in  the  same  relative  position  as  that  of  the  ship,  and  to 
oscillate  in  a  period  proportional  to  the  period  of  the  ship.  In 
smobth  water  it  was  heeled  to  an  angle  of  8^  degrees,  and  was  then 
set  free,  and  allowed  to  oscillate  until  it  came  practically  to  rest, 
the  number  of  oscillations  and  their  period  being  observed.  The 
following  results  were  obtained  : — 


Model  fitted  with 


No  bilge- pieces 

A  single  21-inch  bilge-keel  on  each  side 

„      36-iuch         „  ,, 

Two  36-inch  ,,  ,, 

A  single  72-ineh         ,,  ,, 


Nuirrber  of  Double  pi,ii„(]  of 

Holla  before  Model  poyijiu 

vra3  practically  UuU, 
at  lest.            j 


31i 
124 


Seconds, 

1-77 

I'D 

1-9 

1  irj 
Mid 


"  Not  content  with  obtaining  tho  aggregate  value  of  the  resistances 
for  ships,  Mr  Froude  has  separated  them  into  their  component 
parts,  assigning  values  to  frictioual  and  keel  resistances  .as  well  as 
to  surface  disturbance.  In  doing  so,  he  has  been  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  surface  disturbance  is  by  far  tho  most  iin]iortant  part 
of  tho  resistance  •offered  to  rolling,  as  tho  following  ligures  given 
by  him  for  a  few  ships  will  show  : — 


Sliips. 

Frictional. 

Keel.  Dilgo-licel, 
and  Ucudivood. 

Total 
Itcslstuncc. 

Suifnco 
Dlslmbiuicc 

354 

140 

90 

120 

6,036 

4,060 

2,944 

700 

20,000 

21,  MO 

14,100 

4,700 

14,610 

17,300 

11,060 

3,880 

Inconstant 

Greyhound 

Frictional  and  bilgo-kcol  resistances  iu  this  table  have  been 
obtained  by  calculation  from  tho  drawings  of  the  ship,  Mr  Froujlo 
making  use  of  data  as  to  cocdicients  for  friction  and  for  head 
resistance  which  ho  had  previously  obtained  by  independent 
experiments,  and  which  mav  therefore  bo  regarded  as  leading  to 
thorout'hly  trustwortliy  results.  It  will  bo  noticed  that  in  no  cr-o 
does  the  sum  of  tho  frictional  and  keel  resistances  much  exceed 


814 


SHIPBUILDING 


one-iburth  of  the  total  resistance,  while  it  is  mucli  less  than  ofle* 
fourth  in  other  cases.  Tlio  consequence  is  that  surface  disturbance 
must  be  credited  with  the  contribution  of  three-fourths  or  there- 
ftbouts  of  the  total  resistance,  a  result  which  could  scarcely  have 
been  predicted.  \Vave3  are  constantly  being  created  as  the  vessel 
rolls,  and  as  constantly  moving  away,  and  the  mechanical  work 
done  in  this  ^\'ay  reacts  m  a  reduction  of  the  amplitude  of  successive 
oscillations.  Very  low  waves,  so  low  as  to  be  almost  impercept- 
ible, owing  to  their  great  length  in  proportion  to  their  height, 
would  suffice  to  account  even  for  this  largo  proportionate  eJiect. 
For  example,  ilr  Froude  estimates  that  a  wave  3*20,feet  long  and 
only  1|  inches  in  height  would  fully  account  for  all  the  work 
credited  to  surface  disturbance  in  the  fourth  case  of  the  preceding 
table. 

"Another  important  deduction  from  the  figures  in  the  table  is 
the  large  proportionate  effect  of  'keel'  resistance  as  compared 
with  frictional  resistance,  thus  establishing  the  advantages  of  deep 
bilge-keels.  Ships  of  the  Royal  Navy  recently  constructed  have 
been  furnished  with  much  deeper  bilge-keels  than  were  formerly 
in  use,  but  a  limit  to  the  depths  that  can  be  fitted  is  often 
reached,  because  of  the  necessity  for  compliance  with  certain  con- 
ditions and  e,v:treme  dimensions,  in  order  that  the  vessels  may  be 
able  to  enter  existing  docks." 
Water  lu  the  Royal  Navy  advantage  has  also  been  taken  of  the  power 

cham-  of  loose  water  within  a  ship  to  quell  motion.  .  It  was  first  employed 
bers.  in  the  "  Inflexible  "  in  a  part  of  the  ship  lying  above  the  bomb- 
proof deck,  and  at  the  level  of  the  water-line.  Its  use  re.iulted  from 
a  discussion,  when  the  "  Infle.^tible  "  was  designed,  of  the  probable 
efTect  of  water  entering  this  region  of  the  ship  through  shot  holes. 
The  matter  has  since  been  thoroughly  established  by  experiment, 
and  affords  a  new  and  valuable  means  of  preventing  heavy  rolling 
in  ships  having  large  initial  stability.  There  is  now  no  hesitation 
in  giving  a  metacentric  height  of  6  feet,  and  obtaining  all  the 
security  against  upsetting  which  this  ensures,  because  it  is  felt 
that  the  violent  rolling  formerly  inseparable  from  stiffness  can  be 
prevented.  The  investigation  into  this  matter  has  been  conducted 
b^  Mr  Philip  T^^atts,  Mr  R.  E.  Froude,  and  Mr  W.  E,  Smith, 
acting  for  the  Admiralty. 

The  accompanying  memorandum,  preparedl)y  the  preseht  writer 
in  1834,  gives  the  general  results  :— 

**ln  investigating  the  phenomena  attending  the  use  of  water  as 
a  means  of  quelling  the  motion  of  ships,  Mr  Froude  has  not  only 
taken  advantage  oi'  the  experiments  made  in  the  'Edinburgh'  by 
running  men  across  the  decks,  but  he  has  also  studied  similar 
phenomena  in  a  model  water-chamber,  mounted,  rot  on  a  model  of 
a  ship,  but  on  a  large  pendulum  weighted  to  the  required  'period,' 
the  relative  level  of  the  model  chamber  and  the  axis  of  rotation 
being  made  to  correspond  approximately  to  scale  with  that  in  the 
ship. 

'  The  conclusions,  stated  in  the  form  of  a  comparison  between  the 
quelling  effects  of  bilge-keels  and  of  moving  water,  are  as  follows:— 
(1)  There  is  a  certain  depth  of  water  in  the  chamber  which  gives 
the  maximum  effect ;  this  is  dependent  upon  the  width  of  the 
chamber  and  the  period  of  the  ship.  (2)  "With  this  depth  of  water 
the  growth  of  resistance  to  rolling  commences  almost  at  zero  cf 
angle,  whereas  with  either  a  greater  or  less  depth  there  is  practically 
no  resistance  at  all  due  to  the  water  up  to  a  certain  angle,  which, 
angle  increases  with  increase  of  departure  from  the  proper  depth. 
(3)  At  larger  angles  of  roll  the  disadvantage  of  departure  irom 
the  proper  depth  of  water  is  not  marked.  (4)  The  resistance  of 
water  in  a  chamber  does  not  increase  at  all  uniformly  with  increase 
of  angle  of  roll,  but  increases  rapidly  at  first  and  at  the  larger 
angles  becomes  more  nearly  constant  for  all  angles.  (5)  The  best 
quantity  of  water  for  the  original  chamber  in  the  *  Edinburgh ' 
was  43  tons  ;  the  best  for  the  chamber  enlarged  by  removal  of  cork 
walls  was  79  tons  ;  and  the  best  for  the  chamber  extending  to  the 
sides  of  the  ship  would  be  100  tons.  The  first-named  extension 
improved  the  resistance  at  10"  by  21  per  cent.,  and  the  further 
extension  by  another  22  per  cent. 

"  As  compared  with  bilge-keels  the  matter  is  stated  as  follows  : — 
while  2  feet  addition  to  the  breadth  of  the  bilge-keels  adds  in 
round  numbers  two-thirds  to  the  existing  extinguishing  power  of 
Lull  and  bilge-keels  on  the  'Edinburgh'  at  all  angles  of  rolling, 
the  fully  extended  water-chamber  adds  at  3"  of  roll  about  six  times, 
and  at  5°  about  three  times  that  power  ;  at  12°  the  chamber  adds 
no  more  than  2  feet  of  bilge-keel,  while  at  18°  it  only  adds  half  as 
much.  It  is  therefore  e\  ident  that,  while  both  are  valuable,  the 
■water-chamber  is  for  most  kinds  of  service  much  the  more  valuable 
of  the  two. 

"  Explaining  the  cause  of  the  phenomena,  Mr  Froude  says  : — 
"  'The  extin^ishing  or  quelling  effect  of  water  depends,  of  course,  ceteris 
paribus,  upon  the  value  of  the  moment  represented  by  the  transference 
of  water  from  side  to  side,  i.e.,  with  a  given  quantity  of  water,  upon  the 
distance  moved  by  its  centre  of  gravity.  This  distance  increases  with 
increase  of  angle  of  roll,  and  consequently  the  extinction  similarly  increases 
up  to  a  certain  point,  where  we  appear  to  have  approximately  reached  the 
maxinium  possible  transference  of  water,  and  consequently  the  maximum 
extinction  of  which  the  quantity  of  water  is  capable  with  the  dimensions  of 
tho  ctiambcr,     Thiet  point  occurs  aenerally  at  a  moderate  angle,  and  above 


thia  angle  the  extinction  becomes  practically  constant.  But  the  extingulah* 
ing  effect  of  the  water  of  course  largely  depends  also  upon  the  timing  of  Its 
motion  from  Bido  to  side, — tho  extinction  being  greatest  when  that  motion 
takes  place  most  nearly  at  the  time  of  extreme  angle  of  ship,  i.e.,  in  such  a 
manner  as  that  the  water  may  be  as  much  as  possible  running  downhill 
when  it  is  moving  across,  and  as  much  as  possible  upon  the  rising  side  of 
the  ship  when  it  is  stationary.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  motion  of  tho 
water  across  were  to  take  place  when  the  ship  is  quite  upright,  the  e«tinction 
would  be  Jiit.  It  is  therefore  conceivable  that  lor  the  same  total  degree  of 
motion  or  transference  of  water  we  may  have  a  very  different  degree 
of  extinction,  according  to  the  timing  of  that  motion.  In  tlie  motion  of 
the  water  energy  is  necessarily  wasted,  and  it  is  clear  that,  if  we  are  dealing 
with  a  permanent  condition  of  things,  i.e.,  if  the  ship  is  being  steadily 
maintained  at  a  constant  angle  of  roll,  this  waste"  of  energy  in  each  run  of 
water  from  side  to  side  must  be  exactly  equal  to  the  energy  taken  ont  of  tho 
ship  in  each  swing  by  the  extinction.  The  motion  of  Ihe  water  may  bo  and 
generally  is  of  a  type  very  wasteful  of  enerjiy,  the  water  either  rushing 
across  in  a  mass,  and  consuming  its  energy  by  breaking  with  great  violence 
against  the  opposite  side,  as  it  does  at  the  larger  angles  of  rolling,  or,  at 
more  moderate  angles,  running  across  in  a  breaking  wave  or  bore  which 
consumes  its  energy  as  it  goes  in  its  own  internal  resistance;  ana  under 
these  circumstances  the  timing  of  the  motion  appears  invariably'  to  approach 
pretty  nearly  to  that  giving  tlie  maximum  extinction  for  the  degree  of 
motion.  But  tho  motion  of  the  water  sometimes  takes  the  form  qf  a  mero 
alternating  slope  of  surface,  or  tidal  swing  from  side  to  side,  and  here  there 
is  very  little  waste  of  energy,  the  energy  of  motion  of  the  flow  of  water  in 
one  direction  being  converted  into  potential  energy  in  the  shape  of  riae  ot 
water  at  the  side,  and  then  given  out  again  to  the  water  flowing  back  to  the 
other  side,  and  so  on.  The  waste  ot  energy  in  this  form  of  motion  being 
almost  nil,  the  timing  is  almost  exactly  that  appropriate  to  no  extinction, 
the  water  being  in  the  middle  of  its  passage  across  and  the  surface  being 
level  when  the  ship  is  upright.' 

"The  value  of  the  chamber  of  course  increases  as  its  length  in 
the  direction  of  the  keel  of  the  ship  increases.  The  actual  size  ol 
the  chamber  we  adopted  appears  to  give  valuable  results,  although 
its  extent  was  necessarily  limited." 

Tabular  Statement  of  Residts  of  the  Above  Experiinents. 


Empty 

Chamber. 

Existing 

Bilge-keels. 

Fully 
Extended 
Chamber. 

Emptj-  Chamber. 
Two  Feet  addi- 
tional Width  of 
Bilge-keel. 

Wave 
Slope. 

steady  ro'JinR    In    co-J 

•5 
10 
15 

20 

•5 

10 
15 
20 

■9 
3-8 
10'5 
lC-6 

1-3 
4-5 
10-7 
IC-S 

S-8 
7-5 
11-1 
147 

41 

7-7 
112 
14  8 

■39 
1-22 
263 
4  59 

•47 
1-32 
2-67 
4'G4 

IiTegular  rolling  repre-^ 
sented  by  angle  aecu- 
mulated  from  rest  in  > 
five     succe3aive     co- 

In  some  lectures  recently  delivered  Mr  Smith,  assistant  con 
structor  of  the  navy,  illustrated  the  UoQ  of  water  in  quelling; 
motion  by  models  as  shown  below. 


Fig.  6. 

"  The  models  represented  the  midship  sections  of  the  '  Admiral '  class,  and 
were  both  of  the  game  weight  and  size.  Each  model  was  mounted  on 
trunnions,  marked  T,  and  both  oscillated  freely  on  these  trunniona  Ui 
exactly  the  same  time.  The  models  were  placed  one  behind  the  other,  so 
that  the  parallelism  of  the  masts  was  evident  to  the  aadience.  The  model 
in  fig.  7  was  provided  with  a  glass  tube  into  which  varj'ing  quantities  of 
water  could  be  put.  An  amount  of  water  representing  ^i^n  of  the  tota^ 
weight  of  the  model,  t'.^.,  100  tons  in  a  10,000-ton  ship,  was  now  placed  in 
the  tube,  the  models  were  started  from  the  same  angle  as  befpre,  and  the 
model  with  the  loose  water,  instead  of  keeping  up  exactly  with  the  other, 
or  rolling  more  violently,  came  almost  instantaneously  to  rest. 

"  The  tube  was  filled  with  varying  quantities  of  water,  and  the  effect  waa 
always  to  stop  the  model  much  sooner  than  the  model  with  no  weights  free 
to  move.  The  two  models  were  always  started  from  the  same  angle,  so  that 
their  relative  behaviour  could  be  easily  seen.  "When  the  tube  was  quite 
full  there  was  practically  no  effect.  The  two  models  rolled  almost  together. 
The  Game  effect  resulted  from  the  motion  of  a  marbl^e  representing  in 
weight  100  tons  in  a  ship  of  10,000  tons.  The  same  reduction  must  always 
occur  in  a  rollicg  ship  il  we  have  a  loose  weight  oJ  any  kind,  wh****^"'*  tho 


SHIPBUILDING 


815 


weight  be  water  or  a  gun.  If  this  reduction  did  not  take  place  wo  should 
iiave  something  to  explain  wliich  wouM  be  qmte  incxpUcaltlc.  For  suppose 
we  have  two  sliips  alike  in  all  respects  as  regards  size,  shape,  weight,  time 
ot  oscillation,  Ac,  and  situated  on  precisely  the  same  seas,  but  one  havinj; 
fill  her  weights  properly  secured,  and  the  other  with  a  weight  capable  of 
traversing  the  deck  every  time  the  ship  rolls.  If  the  two  vessels  were  to 
roll  to  exactly  the  same  extent  we  should  hove  the  sea  not  only  rolling  tlie 
aliip  with  the  loose  weight  to  the  same  extent  as  the  ship  with  all  her 


rig.  7. 

weights  fixed,  but  the  sea  would,  in  addition,  be  doing  all  the  work  involved 
in  the  traversing  of  the  heavy  weight  across  the  deck,  which  is  quite 
impossible  under  the  circumstances  of  perfect  similarity  we  have  supposed. 
The  sea  can  only  do  the  same  work  on  both.  In  the  one  case  that  work 
consists  entirely  in  rulling  the  vessel,  in  the  other  it  consists  partly  of 
rolling  the  ship  and  partly  in  dashing  the  weight  about.  Tlie  rolling  in  the 
latter  must  therefore  inevitably  be  less  than  in  the  former  case." 
Djiiami-  Dynamical  stability  is  the  "work"  done  or  energy  expended  in 
cal  heeling  the  ship  from  the  upright  to  any  inclined  position.     The 

stability,  unit  oi  "  work  "  employed  in  measuring  dynamical  stability  is  a  foot- 
ton.  When  the  vessel  is  gradually  inclined  the  forces  inclining 
hor  must  do  work  depending  upon  the  amount  of  the  statical 
stability  at  the  successive  instantaneous  inclinations  passed  through, 
and  these  are  given  by  the  curve  of  stability  already  described. 
Dynamical  stability  is  of  value  as  a  means  of  comparing  the 
resistance  of  ships  to  upsetting  under  the  action  of  suddenly 
applied  forces,  such  as  squalls  of  wind.  Illustrating  ihis 
ilr  White  says  : — 

"Roughly  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  a  force  of  wind  which, 
steadily  and  continuously  applied,  will  heel  a  ship  of  ordinary  form 
to  a  certain  angle  will,  if  it  strikes  her  suddenly  when  she  is 
upright,  drive  her  over  to  about  twice  that  inclination,  or  in  some 
cases  further  still.  A  parallel  case  is  that  of  a  spiral  spring  ;  if  a 
weight  be  suddenly  brought  to-bear  upon  it,  the  extension  will  be 
about  twice  as  great  as  that  to  which  the  same  weight  hanging 
steadily  will  stretch  the  spring.  The  explanation  is  simple. 
When  the  whole  weight  is  suddenly  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
spring,  the  resistance  which  the  spring  can  olTer  at  each  instant, 
up  to  the  time  when  its  extension  supplies  a  force  equal  to  the 
weight,  is  always  loss  than  the  weight ;  and  this  unbalanced  force 
ston'S  up  work  which  carries  the  weight  onwards,  and  about 
doubles  the  extension  of  the  spring  corresponding  to  that  weight 
whenat  rest." 

Structure. 

The  changes  which  have  come  about  in  materials  and  modes  of 
construction  within  the  last  50  years  have  been  most  remarkable. 
The  first  steamer  built  expressly  for  regular  voyapes  between 
Europe  and  America  was  not  built  until  1837.  Dr  Lardner  stated 
at  about  this  date  :  "  We  have  as  an  extreme  limit  of  a  steamer's 
practicable  voyage,  without  receiving  a  relay  of  coals,  a  run  of  about 
2000  miles."  The  "  Great  Western,"  built  by  Patterson  of  Bristol 
and  engined  by  Maudslay  of  London  under  the  superintendence  of 
Sir  I.  K.  Brunei,  was  the  first  euch  ship,  and  she  was  launched  July 
19,  1837.  She  was  -212  feet  long  between  the  perpendiculars,  35 
feet  4  inches  broad,  and  had  a  displacement  of  liSOO  tons.  Siie  was 
propelled  by  paddles.  Iron  vessels  were  built  early  in  tlic  present 
century  for  canal  service,  then  for  river  ser\'ice,  and  later  for  packet 
service  on  the  coast*!.  In  about  the  year  1838  iron  vessels  of  small 
dimensions  were  built  for  ocean  service.  The  largest  iron  vessel 
l)uiit  up  to  1841  was  less  than  200  feet  long.  In  1813  we  get  for 
the  first  time  the  ocean-going  steamship  in  its  present  form,  built 
of  iron,  and  propelled  by  the  screw.  This  wa.s  the  "Great 
Britain,"  286  feet  long,  projected  and  designed  by  Brunei.  Time 
ha.«)  abundantly  justified  these  bold  entcnjrises  on  the  part  of 
Brunei,  which  ho  had  to  carry  through  in  tno  face  of  gi-cat  opposi- 
tion. Ho  entered  with  equal  boldness  on  another  innovation  in 
1850,  viz.,  tho  use  of  very  large"  dimensions  on  the  ground  of 
economy  of  power.     It  was  not  until  1852  that  he  had  the  oppor- 


Great 

Britain. 


tunity  to  put  these  views  forward  in  a  way  to  satisfy  him.  The 
dillcrent  sizes  of  vessels  discussed  before  the  design  was  finally 
settled  for  the  "  Great  Eastern  "  wer^  as  follows  : —  Great 

Eastern. 


Ko. 

Length. 

Brcndtli. 

Midship  Section. 

Draught. 

1 
2 

3 
4 

6G3 
63-( 
609 
730 

79-9 
76-39 
73-5 
87 

1,646 
1,640 
1,G39 
2,090 

2.1 
25 
26 
28 

The  dimensions  eventually  settled  were — length.,  680  feet ; 
beam,  S3  feet;  mean  draught,  about  25  feet;  screw  engine, 
indicated  horse-power,  4,000,  and  nominal  horse-power,  1600 ; 
paddle,  indicated  horse-power,  2,600,  and  nominal  horse-power, 
1,000  ;  to  work  with  steam  15  lb  to  25  lb  ;  speed  of  screw,  45  to 
55  revolutions;  paddle,  10  to  12. 

The  "Great  Eastern,"  produced  by  the  joint  skill  of  Brun-^l 
and  Scott  Russell,  remains  in  advance  of  present  practice,  although 
she  has  served  as  a  model  for  tho  best  of  it.  Her  great  size  rend- 
ered it  possible  to  give  to  her  an  amount  of  security  against  fatal 
injury  to  her  hull  which  cannot  bo  attained  in  smaller  ships.  It 
is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  large  ships  are  less  secure  thau  small 
ones.  The  large  ship  can  receive  without  inconvenience  a  wound 
which  would  be  fatal  to  a  small  one,  and  the  possibilities  of 
obtaining  high  speed  increase  with  the  size.  Had  a  higher  speed 
been  aimed  at  in  the  "Great  Eastern,"  it  might  have  altered  tho 
whole  current  of  her  history,  and  chauged  also  the  history  of  ship* 
building  itself. 

The  question  of  bulkheads,  on  which  Brunei  insisted  so  much  in  Bulk- 
this  ship,  is  one  which  underlies  all  questions  of  construction.  If  head.s. 
the  number  of  bulkheads  in  ships  were  increased  as  they  ought  io 
be,  the  numbers  and  sizes  of  the  ribs  or  frames  of  the  ship  would 
be  modified,  and  the  system  of  construction  generally  would  bo 
changed,  and  become  more  like  that  of  the  "Great  Eastern."  The 
question  is  therefore  one  which  justifies  some  further  consideration, 
so  that  it  may  be  popularly  understood. 

Iron  ships  are  commonly  made  with  less  than  half  their  bulk 
out  of  water.  If  water  enters  such  a  .ship,  and  the  amount  which 
enters  does  not  exceed  in  bulk  that  portion  of  the  bulk  of  the  ship 
which  is  out  of  the  water,  and  u-hich  j"ill,  ulicn  iimaerscd,  exclude 
the  water,  then  the  ship,  if  she  does  not  turn  over,  will  still  float. 
If,  however,  the  inflow  cannot  be  stopped,  but  continues,  Uie  ship 
soon  sinks. 

Let  us  suppose  the  case  of  a  ship  50  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and 
10  feet  deep,  divided  into  five  equal  parts  by  four  watertight  par- 
titions, and  floating  in  water  with  half  its  bulk  immersed  (fig.  8). 
Suppose  now  that  a 
hole  is  made  in  the 
middle  of  this  ship 
under  the  water,  so  I 
that  water  can  Itov.- 
freely  in,  then  the 
part  of  the  ship 
which     is     shaded 


Fig.  8. 


ceases  to  have  floating  power.  The  water  in  this  shaded  place  is  no 
longer  displaced,  but  is  admitted,  andifthe  ship  is  to  continue  afloat, 
the  other  parts  of  the  ship  must  displace  water  to  the  amount  by 
which  this  shaded  part  has  ceased  to  do  so.  As  it  is  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  immersed  bulk  which  is  lost,  the  remaining  four  compart- 
ments must  sink,  so  as  each  to  support  one-fourth  of  the  whole, 
instead  of  one-fifth,  as  before;  i.e.,  the  draught  of  water,  or  im- 
mersion of  the  whole  ship,  will  be  increased,  and  the  ship  will,  il 
she  has  stability  enough  to  keep  upright,  finally  float  at  rest  again 
at.this  deeper  immension.  The  water  will  rise  in  tho  centre  com- 
partment to  the  level  of  tlie  water  outside,  and  will  then  coase  to 
(low  in.  The  additional  immer.si;)n  will  be  only  one  and  a  f[uartcr 
feet,  but  in  an  ordinary  ship,  divided  into  compartments  of  equal 
length,  there  would  be  a  greater  increase  of  immersion  by  the  injury 
of  a  centre  compartment,  because  tho  end  compartments  are  narrow, 
and  must  sink  deeper  in  order  to  bear  their  share  of  the  burden 
imposed  by  the  loss  of  the  buoyancy  of  the  centre  division. 

Or  it  may  be  other  thau  a  central  compartment  which  is 
damaged,  and  in  that  case  the  ship  tips,  and  find.s  a  new  floating 
line,  with  tho  end  towards  which  tho  i  damaged  division  lies 
depressed  more  than  the  other  end. 

If  it  should  happen  that  tho  divisional  partitions,  or  bulkheads 
as  they  are  called,  rise  only  a  few  inches  above  tlie  water  level 
which  the  ship  float-s  at  when  undamaged,  then,  on  the  occur- 
rence of  a  bad  leak  filling  one  compartment,  the  tops  of  the  bulk- 
iieads  arc  brought,  by  tho  increased  immersion  of  tlie  .'^hip,  beneath 
the  water-level,  the  water  \vill  rise  through  tho  hatches,  or  open- 
ings in  tlio  deck,  in  the  damaged  compartment,  will  flow  over  tho 
entire  deck,  and  the  ship  will  bo  lost,  cither  by  tho  filling  of  otlicr 
compartments  by  tho  wat(?r  passing  down  into  them,  or  by  tho 
capsizing  of  tho  ship.  This  latter  event  will  generally  happen, 
although  only  one  compartment  is  full,  if  tho  sea  has  free  access  to 


816 


SHIPBUILDING 


:\ecom- 

nenrta- 

t-ions 

of  the 

CouucU, 

of  the 

institu- 

Mon  of 

Navr.1 

Arehi- 


%he  deck  from  end  to  efld  of  the  ship,  and  it  becomes  wholly 
fmmersed. 

In  1S66  tho  president  of  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects 
Said  :  "The  circumstances  of  the  sad  event  of  the  loss  of  the 
'London,*  accompanied  as  it  was  by  the  simultaneous  loss  of 
iinother  ship  of  still  larger  size,  and  of  a  hiL,'her  reputed  character" 
(tho  "Amalia,"),  "was,  I  think,  an  event  so  remarkable  that  I 
should. be  very  sorry  indeed  if  this  annual  meeting  of  this  Institu- 
tion were  to  pass  hy  without  some  notice  being  taken  of  the  extra- 
ordinary circumstances  of  the  loss  of  that  ship,  and  without  some 
discussion  upon  what  wc  suppose  to  be  the  causes  of  the  loss,  and 
the  faults,  if  any,  of  the  construction  of  those  ships."  "The 
passengers  who  pass  to  and  fro  are  not  judges  of  the  question  ; 
they  can  take  no  precaution  for  their  own  safety;  it  is  to  the  skill 
and  science  of  those  who  build  tliese  ships  that  tho  passenger 
trusts,  and  to  the  care  which  the  legislature  and  the  Government 
are  bound  to  take  of  their  fL-Uow-subjects." 

Subsequently  the  council  of  the  Institution  arrived  at  tlie  follow- 
■^ing  conclusions  and  oiTered  them  as  recommendations  to  ship- 
builders and  shipowners : — 

"  1.  No  general  rule  can  be  safely  laid  down  for  regulating  the  proportions 
of  length  and  depth  to  the  breadth  of  a  ship,  and  a  great  variety  of  propor- 
tions of  length  and  depth  to  breadth  may  be  safely  adopted,  and  the  ship 
made  sound  and  seaworthy,  by  judicious  form,  construction,  and  lading. 

"2.  The  construction  load-water-line  of  every  ship,  and  her  scale  of  dis- 
plicement  from  light  to  load-water-line,  should  be  appended  to  every 
design  of  a  ship,  showing  the  extreme  draught  to  which  she  should  be  laden ; 
and  measures  should  be  taken  to  ensure  tliat  this  information  be  recorded 
on  the  ship's  papers.  It  is  desirable  also  that  along  with  a  sliip's  papers,  in 
the  possession  of  the  captain,  there  sliould  always  be  carried  a  scale  of 
displacement,  a  sail  draft,  and  a  set  of  outline  plans  of  the  ship,  comprising 
a  longitudinal  section,  and  at  least  four  cross  sections  of  the  ship.  On  these 
plans  should  be  marked  the  capacity,  in  tons  of  40  cubic  feet,  of  each  com- 
partment of  the  hold.  The  surplus  buoyancy  of  each  compartment  up  to 
the  load-water-line,  or  its  power  to  carry  deadweight,  should  be  given  in 
tons  deadweight.  These  papers  should  always  accompany  the  ship's 
register,  and  a  copy  of  them  should  be  lodged  in  the  custom  house  of  the 
port  from  which  the  ship  hails. 

"3.  There    is  a  minimum  height  of    freeboard  which  cannot  be   safely 
reduced  in  sea-going  ships  of  ordinary  fitment ;  and  it  is  desirable  to  fix  this 
niinimum  height.    Freeboard  should  be  understood  to  be  the  vertical  heiglit 
of  the  upper  surface  of  ^he  upper  deck  (not  Epar-dcck)at  the  side,  amidships, 
above  the  load-H-ater-Ime.      The  proportiuu  of  freeboard  should  increase 
with  the  length.      Oiie-eighth   of  the  beam   is  a    minimum  freeboard   for 
ordinary  sea-going   ships  of   not  aiore   than  five   breadths  to   tlie   length, 
'and  j",  of  the  beam  should    further  be   added  to   the  freeboard  for  each 
additional  breadth  in  the  length  of  the  ship  ;  this  would  give —     , 
For  a  ship  of  32  feet  beam  and  160  feet  long,  4  feet  freeboard  ; 
For  a  length  of  19^  feet,  6  feet  freeboard  ; 
For  a  length  of  22i  feet,  6  feet  ^reeboard  ; 

For  a  lengtli  of  2G6  feet,  7  feet  freeboard  ;— ttie  beam  remaining  the  same. 
But,  as  the  addition  of  a  spar-deck  on  long  vessels  may  be  considered  an 
equivalent  or  substitute  for  the*  increased  freeboard  required  for  extra 
length,  a  complete  spar-deck  would  leave  the  freeboard  of  these  extra  lengths 
at  the  original  height  of  4  feet. 

"  4.  It  is  not  considered  desirable  to  offer  any  recommendations  with 
regard  to  poops  and  forecastles.  It  must  depend  entirely  upon  the  pro- 
fessional judgment  of  the  designer  of  a  sliip,  whether,  looking  to  her  pro- 
portions, form,  and  purpose,  the  additions  of  poop  and  forecastle  are 
expedient  and  safe.  In  general,  where  poops  and  forecastles  are  adopted, 
th^  should  be  closed  ami  seaworthy,  but  their  weight  may  be  inexpedient 
in  long  fine  ships ;  and  there  are  cases  where  alight  top-gallant  forecastle 
(i.*".,  an  open  forecastle  raised  above  the  level  of  the  upper  deck)  may  be 
Useful  in  keeping  heavy  seas  out  of  the  ship.  In  general,  spar-decks  in  long 
ships  are  pref&rable  to  poop  and  forecastle,  and  uo  diminution  of  freeboard 
should  be  allowed  for  a  poop  or  forecastle. 

"  5.  It  would  add  much  to  the  strength  and  security  of  steamships  if 
transverse  and  longitudinal  bulkheads,  coal  bunkers,  iron  lower  decks,  and 
screw  alley  were  all  so  connected  with  tlie  hull  of  the  ship  and  Mith  each 
other  as  to  form  independent  cellular  compartments,  watertight,  and 
having  all  their  communications  with  the  decks  ajid  each  other  hy  water- 
tight doors  worked  from  tlie  deck.  In  proportioning  the  compartments  of 
a  ship  (and  especially  of  ships  devoted  to  passengers)  it  is  very  desirable  eo 
to  arrange  them  that  if  any  two  adjacent  compartments  be  filled,  or  placed 
in  free  communication  with  the  sea,  the  remaining  compartments  wiW  float 
the  ship.  It  is  considered  that  no  iron  passenger  ship  is  well  constructed 
unless  her  compartments  be  so  proportioned  tliat  slie  would  float  safely  were 
any  one  of  them  to  fill  with  water,  or  be  placed  in  free  communication  with 
the  sea.  Double  bottoms  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  great  element,  both  of 
Bafety  and  strength,  in  the  struciure  of  a  large  iron  ship. 

"  6.  It  is  very  desirable  that  sufticient  ventilation  should  always  be  pro- 
vided in  passenger  ships  to  admit  of  closing  all  side  stWttles  and  battening 
down,  or  otherwise  enclosing,  all  hutches  in  bad  weather. 

"  7.  In  regard  to  hatchways  and  openings  in  the  deck  no  limits  can  be  set 
to  their  size  ;  but  it  is  desirable  to  carry  the  beams  of  the  ship  across  them 
■without  interruption  wherever  practicable  ;  they  may  also  be  made  remov- 
able where  required,  being  replaced  on  going  to  sea.  All  coamings  over 
engine  and  boiier  rooms  in  passenger  ships  should  bo  as  high  a^ practicable, 
of  u-on,  and  riveted  to  the  beams  and  carlings.  Openings  in  the  deck  may 
be  fitted  with  solid  coverings,  hinged  in  place  ao  as  to  be  readily  closed. 

"  8.  It  being  considered  that  all  openings  in  the  sides  or  ends  of  vessels 
are  subject  to  accidents  that  endanger  the  safety  of  ships,  it  is  desirable  that 
the  side  and  stern  windows  should,  iu  addition  to  the  glass  lights,  have 
hinged  dead-lights,  with  a  view  to  their  being  always  in  place,  and  that  all 
cargo  ports  should  be  strongly  secured  by  iron  cross  bars. 

"  9.  It  is  believed  that  all  openings  from  and  communications  with  the 
sea  from  engine-room  and  pipes  should  be  protected  by  conical,  or  Kingston, 
or  sluice  valves,  and  similar  precautions  should  be  taken  for  all  opeuings 
through  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  where  damage  to  pipes  or  ship  would 
admit  water  into  the  holds. 

"  10.  It  is  considered  that  all  steam  vessels,  if  of  iron,  should  have  a  brass- 
barrelled  hand-pump  to  every  compartroeut  except  the  forward  and  after 
ones  (the  former  to  have  a  sluice  cock),  or  that,  as  a  substitute  for  these 
pumps,  there  should  be  patent  pumps  having  independent  connexions  to 
this  extent.  They  should  also  have  a  donkey  engine  and  pump  capable  of 
pumping  from  the  bilge  and  from  the  sea^  of  feeding  the  boilers,  and  of 


throwuig  water  oh  deck.  All  vessels  should  have  one  or  more  bilge-pumps, 
worked  by  the  large  engines,  with  bilge  injection  pipes  if  the  engines  havo 
condensers.  In  large  vessels  the  donkey  engines  should  have  *  separate 
boiler  high  above  tho  water-line,  and  also  communication  with  the  main 
boilers.  All  vessels  should  have  a  set  of  bilge  pipes  connecting  every  hold 
and  the  engine  compartments  with  these  pumps.  As  a  security  against  fire 
there  should  be  pumps  on  the  upper  deck,  fitted  as  force  pumps,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  sutticient  length  ol  hose  (with  the  necessary  copper  delivery 
jets)  to  reach  eiUier  extremity  of  the  vessel,  and  also  provided  with  suction 
hope  or  pipes  from  the  sea.  The  cocks  by  which  the  working  of  the  pumps 
is  regulated  should  be  carefully  arranged  and  marked,  and  great  care  should 
be  taken  that  both  cocks  and  pipes  aro  accessible.  A  plan  of  the  whole 
should  accompany  the  ship's  papers,  and  the  crew  should  be  periodically 
exercised  in  their  use. 

"  11.  The  stowage  of  a  ship,  whether  done  by  contract  or  not,  should  be 
done  under  inspection  of  the  captain  of  the  ship,  and  should  be  conducted 
under  his  own  orders  only  ;  and  he  alone  should  be  held  responsible  for  tUa 
good  stowage  of  his  ship.  Ships  are  often  very  badly  stowed,  the  weights 
being  sometimes  too  low,  thus  causing  tliem  to  roll  with  such  rapid  and 
violent  motions  as  to  carry  away  the  spars,  and  otherwise  endanger  the 
safety  of  the  ship,  and' at  other  times  too  high,  thus  making  the  ships  crank, 
and  liable  to  turn  over.  A  ship  may,  however,  generally,  whatever  licr 
form,  be  so  stowed  as  to  avoid  both  dangers.  As  the  character  of  the  Ebip 
in  tliese  respects  varies,  so  does  the  number  of  oscillations  she  would  maka 
per  minute  if  she  were  set  rolling  in  still  water,  by  men  running  across  her 
deck,  or  other  means,  and  then.allowed  to  come  to  rest;  that  is,  if  the  ship 
be  crank  the  number  of  oscillations  per  minute  will  be  few,  and  if  she  bo 
too  stiff  they  will  be  numerous  ;  but,  under  the  same  conditions  of  stowage, 
the  number  will  always  be  very  nearly  the  same,  whatever  the  amount  of  t!ie 
impulse  to  set  her  rolling  may  be.  Although  tliis  peculiarity  has  long  been 
known  to  scientific  men,  no  such  observations  have  been  made  in  merchant 
sliips  as  would  justify  any  specific  rule  on  tiie  subject.  It  is,  however, 
most  desirable  tlmt  information  should  be  collected  upon  it,  and  that  the 
attention  of  the  owners  and  captains  of  vessels  should  be  called  to  it.  i 

"  12.  It  is  believed  that  the  present  rules  of  the  Board  of  Trade  regarding; 
boats,  life-boats,  and  their  tackle  are  good  in  principle.  The  responsibility 
for  keeping  all  boats  in  constant  readiness  an(t  efficiency  obviously  rests  on 
the  captain,  and  must  fix  on  him  the  blame  for  all  neglect  and  its 
consequences.  Every  open  boat  built  of  iron  or  steel  should  be  fitted  with 
sufficient  watertight  spaces  to  float  her. 

"  13.  The  system  of  proportioning  anchors  and  cables  by  Lloyd's,  and  of 
proving  under  licence  of  the  Board  of  Trade  by  Act  of  Parliament  is  so  far 
satisfactory  ;  but,  as  the  proof-test  alone  cannot  cstiiblish  the  excellence  of 
the  cable,  tlie  reputation  of  the  makers  must  be  rclieil  upon. 

"  14.  In  order  to  provide  for  the  rapid  clearance  of  tlie  upper  deck  from 
water  which  may  break  over  the  ship,  flap-boards  should  bo  fitted  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  bulwarks,  sufficient  in  number  and  in  area  to  admit  of  the 
rapid  escape  of  the  water. 

"  15.  Water-closets  on  decks  below  or  near  the  water-line  may  be  the 
means  of  gradually  and  imperceptibly  flooding  the  ship,  and-endangering 
her  safety,  unless  the  pipes  and  valves  are  strong  and  are  carefully  fitted." 

It  is  in  the  directions  indicated  in  tliese  recommendations  that 
the  honesty  and  skilfulness  of  the  modern  builder  of  steam  and 
sailing  ships  of  war  come  into  play,  and  some  judgment  may  bo 
formed  by  the  general  public  of  the  character  of  the  ship  by 
inquiring  into  matters  upon  wliich  the  council  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  make  such  recommendations.  Tlie  guarantee  which  the 
public  have  of  the  fitness  of  passenger  ships  for  service,  as  a 
question  of  proper  construction  and  state  of  efficiency,  is  the  sur- 
vey and  certificrtcs  of  the  Board  of  Trade.     The  law  runs  thus  : — 

The  OAvner  of  every  steam  vessel  constructed  or  intended  to  carry  passengers  Board  of 
(except  vessels  which  fall  within  the  definition  of  foreign-going  ships  con-  f^Jo 
tained  in  the  .Mercantile  IMarine  Act,  1859,  and  are  employed  in  the  convey-  ■'■^^^*' 
aiice  of  the  royal  public  mails  or  despatches  untVer  contract  with  and  under  Surveys. 
the  superintendence  "Of  the  lord  high  admiral  or  the  comnnssioners  for 
executing  the  office  of  lord  liigh  admiral)  shall  cause  such  steam  vessel  tu 
be  surveyed  twice  at  least  in  every  year,  at  the  times  hereinafter  directed, 
by  a  shipwright  surveyor  and  by  an  engineer  surveyor  appointed  for  the 
purposes  of  this  Act  by  the  lords  of  tlie  said  committee,  such  shipwright 
surveyor  in  the  case  of  an  iron  steam  vessel  being  a  person  properly  qualified 
to  survey  iron  steam  vessels,  and  shaU  obtain  a  declaration  of  the  siifficiency 
and  good  condition  of  the  hull  of  such  steamer,  aud  of  the  boats  and  other 
equipments  thereof,  required  by  this  Act ;  and  also,  if  the  lords  of  the  said  • 
committee  so  re  ;\ii*c,  a  statement  of  the  number  of  passengers  (whether 
deck  passengers  or  other  passengers)  which  such  vessel  is  conslructed  to 
carry,  under  tlie  hand  of  such  shipwright  surveyor,  and  a  declaration  of  the 
sufficiency  and  gooil  condition  of  the  machinery  of  such  steamer  under  tho. 
hand  itf  such  engineer  surveyor;  and  iu  such  declarations  it  shall  be  dis- 
tinguished wlietlier  sucli  vessel  is  in  construction  and  equipments  adapted 
for  sea  service  as  •noil  as  for  river  or  lake  service,  or  for  river  or  lake  service 
only;  such  declaration  shall  state  the  local  limits  within  wliicJi  such  vessel 
is,  in  the  jud:;ment  of  the  surveyor,  adapted  for  plying;  and  in  the  case  of 
seagoing  vessels  the  declaration  of  one  of  the  surveyors  shall  contain  a 
statement  that  be  is  satisfied  tliat  the  compasses  have  been  properly  examined 
and  adjusted  ;  and  such  owner  shr"  transmit  such  dcclaratiuns  to  the  lords 
of  the  said  committee  within  fourteen  days  after  the  dates  thereof  respect- 
ively. 

As  to  the  fifth  recommcUdation  of  the  council  of  tho  Institu- 
tion of  Naval  Architects,  it  must  be  observed  that  there  is  at 
present  no  law  relating  to  the  subdivision  of  steamships.  There 
was  a  clause  (No.  300)  in  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1854, 
which  was  virtually  a  reproduction  of  clause  20  of  tho  Steam 
Navigation  Act  of  1851,  and  which  read  as  follows  : — 

"1.  Every  steamship  built  of  iron  of  100  tons  or  upwards,  the  building  of 
which  commenced  after  the  2Sth  day  of  August  1846,  and  every  steamship 
built  of  iron  of  less  burden  than  100  tons,  the  building  of  which  commenced 
after  the  7th  August  1851  (except  ships  used  solely  as  steam  tugs),  shall  bt 
divided  by  substantial  transverse  watertight  partitions,  so  that  the  fore  part 
of  the  ship  shall  be  separated  from  the  engine-room  by  one  of  such  partitions, 
and  so  that  the  after  part  of  such  ship  shall  be  separated  from  the  engine- 
room  by  another  of  such  partitions. 

"  2.  Every  steamship  built  of  iron,  the  building  of  which  commences  after 
the  passing  of  this  Act,  shall  be  divided  by  such  partitions  as  aforesaid  into 
not  less  than  three  equal  parts,  or  as  nearly  so  as  circumstances  permit. 

"3-  In  such  last-mentioned  ships  each  such  partition  as  aforesaid  shal'  b( 
of  equal  strength  with  the  eide  plates  of  the  siiip  with  which  it  is  U. 
contort. 


SHIPBUILDING 


817 


•  4.  Every  ecrew  steamship  built  of  iron,  the  building  ot  which  commencca 
MieT  the  passiug  of  litis  Act.  shall,  in  artditio;!  to  the  above  partillons,  be  fitted 
with  a  flmall  watertight  compartment  inclosing  tho  alter  extremity  ot  the 
shaft." 

The  above  law  was  repealed  by  the  Act  dated  29th  July  1862/ 
and  oil  the  28th  August  1863  tho  Admiralty  applied  to  the  Board 
of  Trade  to  know  whether  the  Board  of  Trade  officers  were  em- 
jTowered  under  any  circumstances  to  insist  on  iron  vessels  having 
Watertight  compartments  when  employed  in  conveyance  of  mails 
and  passengers,  observing  that  the  Admiralty  were  stiU  of  opinion 
that  the  regwlations  in  force  prior  to  the  Amendment  Act  of  1862 
in  respect  of  contract  packets  should  not  have  been  relaxed. 
They  considered  such  vessels  should  have  compartments  so  arranged 
that  if  any  one  of  them  became  filled  with  water  the  loss  of 
buoyancy  thereby  occasioned  should  not  endanger  the-  safety  of 
the  ships,  as  recommended. by  them  in  their  communication  of  the 
i-7th  December  1860.  To  this  the  Board  of  Trade  replied  (3d  Sep- 
tember 1863)  that  their  surveyors  no  longer  had  any  power  to 
fe^iuire  given  watertight. partitions  to  be  fitted  in  passenger  steara- 
8hip3 — though  they  agreed  with  the  Admiralty  in  thinking  that 
steam  vessels  carrying  passengers  and  mails  should  be  provided 
with  a  sufficient  number  of  watertight  partitions, — and  had  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  tho  Admiralty  woujd  not  insist  on  such 
partitions  being  fitted  in  all  steamships  employed  in  conveyance  of 
mails.  They  further  say  that  the  enactments  in  the  Act  of  1854 
were  repealed,  not  because  of  any  -doubts  as  to  the  necessity  of 
proper  and  sufficient  watertight  partitions,  but  because  those 
enactments  which  required  only  two  of  such  partitions  for  all  sizes 
and  classes  of  ships  had  become  practically  useless  or  mischievous. 
It  was  found  that  in  large  vessels  more  partitions  than  the  Act 
required  were  necessary  to  secure  the  safety  of  the  ship,  and  it  was 
thought  better  to  leave  builders  and  designers  unfettered  in  pro- 
viding extia  strength  and  security  to  meet  the  various  forms, 
sizes,  and  descriptions  of  ships  than  to  tie  them  down  by  general 
statutory  regulations  which  could  not  be  so  framed  as  to  meet  the 
"arying  want3  and  circumstances  of  the  shipbuilding  trade. 

In  a  return  by  the  Board  of  Trade  to  the  House  of  Commo»*s, 
dated  11th  August  1875,  setting  forth  the  instructions  issued  to 
their  surveyors  under  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts,  1854  to  1873, 
clause  26  reads — 

"  Surveyors  should  not  refuse  to  grant  a  declaration  for  a  vessel  solely  on 
the  ground  that  bulkheads  are  not  fitted,  that  the  ordinary  bulkheads  are  not 
watertight,  or  that  the  bulkheads  fitted  are  otherwise  defective,  unless  they 
are  of  opinion  that  the  want  of,  or  th#  defective  state  of,  the  bulkheads 
renders  the  ship  unseaworthy,  in  which  case  they  are  fully  justified  in 
refusing  to  grant  a  declaration.  They  should,  in  all  cases  in  which  they 
refuse  tci^grant  a  declaration  for  a  vessel  In  conaequeoce  of  defects  relative 
to  bulkheach,  forward  to  the  Boar4  of  Trade  a  full  statement  of  their  reasons 
for  thInkingShat  those  defects  render  the  hull  of  the  vessel  unseaworthy. 
Collision  watertight  bulkheads,  at  least,  must  be  fitted  in  all  seagoing 
steamers.  The  surveyors  are  also  to  pee  that  an  after  watertight  compart- 
ment is  fitted  to  cover  the  fitem-tu>Td  of  the  screw-shaft,  both  in  old  and  in 
uew  vessels." 
(oeffi-  This  regulation  has  her^n  reissued  in  the  latest  instructions  to 

cient        Board  of  Trade  surveyors,  dated  1884.     It  thus  comes  about  that 
subdivi-   the  number  of  bulkheads  forming  watertight  compartments,  the 
sion  of     number  of  doors  in  them,  and  how  they  are  fastened,  are  made  the 
iron  and  subject  of  consideration  by  tho  Board  of  Trade  at  their  inspections  ; 
steel         but  the  fact  is  that  the  great   majority  of  ocean-going   steamers 
abipa.       lira  not  divided   \nto   watertight  compartments   in   any  efficient 
manner,  and  many  losses  in  collision,  grounding,  and  swamping  are 
due  to  this.     Although  all  steamships  have  some  bulkheads,  and 
some  have  many  bulkheads,  they  are  as  a  rule  distributed  in  such 
a  way,  or  are  so  stopped  below  the  water-level  ^^hat  for  flotation 
purposes    after    perforation    those    lying   between    tho    foremost 
collision  bulkhead  and  the  after  bulkhead  through  which  the  screw 
chaft  passes  are  practically  useless. 

Witn  the  exception  of  som"-  four  hundred  ships,  there  are  no  iron 
Btcamslnps  afloat  which  would  continue  to  float  were  a  hole  made 
in  tlio  bottom  plating  anywhere  abaft  the  collision  bulkhead  and 
oulsiue  the  engine-room,  or  which  would  not  founder  were  water 
ftdmitti-d  through  breaches  made  by  the  sea  in  weak  superstructures 
and  deck  openings.  Of  the  four  hundred  ships  referred  to  as 
liaving  properly  designed  bulkheads  .two  hundred  are  essentially 
cargo-carriers.  They  are  generally  built  with  five  subdivisions, 
the  machinery  space  being  one."  Iron  sailing  ships  are  without 
(zcrpiion  undividal  into  compartmenls.  They  have  by  law  a 
coilision  bulkhead  near  the  bow,  and  that  is  ftl!.  Between  June 
1S8I  rind  February  1883  there  were  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
iron  steamships  lost,  of  speeds  of  nine  to  twelve  knots,  not  one  of 
which  was' well  constructed  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  council 
of  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects. 

.  It  may  be  said  that  wooden  ships  wer^  not  divided  into  water- 
tight compartments,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  a  wooden 
ehip  there  is  far  more  local  resistance  to  a  blow  either  in  collision 
or  oy  grounding,  and  that  a  wooden  ship  takes  a  much  longer 
time  to  settle  down  in  tho  water  and  sink.  Also,-  when  -wood  was 
employed  for  passenger  and  trading  ships  speeds  were  much  lower 
and  traffic  and  -risks  of  collision  very  much  less. 
The  shipbuilding  registries  prescribe  rules  for  tho  government 
21— 3J 


of  the  builder  who  desires  to  have  their  certificate,  and  these  rules 
have  been  so  carefully  framed  and  so  honestly  enforced  that  English- 
built  ships  are  as  a  rule  well  and  solidly  constructed.  The  recent 
(8th  June  1882)  rule  of  the  London  Lloyd's  register  as  to  the 
important  subject  of  division  into,  compartments  is  as  follows,  and 
it  may  be  hoped  that  it  will  be  eff'ectivc.: — ■ 

"  Screw-propelled  vessels,  In  addition  to  the  engine-room  bulkheads,  to  have 
a  watertight  bulkhead  built  at  a  reasonable  distance  from  each  end  of  tha 
vessel.  In  steamers  2S0  feet  long  and  above  an  additional  bulkhead  is  to 
be  fitted  in  the  main  hold,  extending  to  the  main  or  upper  deck,  about 
midway  between  the  collision  and  engine-room  bulkheads  ;  and  in  eteampTv 
of  330  feet  long  and  above  an  additional  bulkhead  is  to  be  fitted  in  the  aftei 
hold,  extending  to  the  same  height." 

"  The  foremost  or  collision  bulkhead  in  aU  cases  to  extend  from  the  floor 
plates  to  the  upper  deck.  .  .  .  The  engine-roora  bulkheads  to  extend  from 
the  floor  plates  to  the  upper  deck  in  vessels  with  one,  two,  or  three  decks, 
and  to  the  main  deck  in  spar-  and  awning-decked  vessels.  The  aftermost 
bulkhead  will  be  required  to  extend  to  the  upper  deck  unVess  the  arrange- 
ment of  bulkheads  be  submitted  to  and  approved  by  the  committee.  .  .  , 
In  sailing  vessels  the  foremost  or  collision  bulkhead  only  will  be  requiicd." 

It  is  not  intended  by  the  foregoing  remarks,  serious  as  they  are, 
to  blot  the  splendid  record  of  shipbuilding  achievement  in  Great 
Britain  during  the  last  twenty  years.  The  shipowners,  ship- 
builders,  marine  engineers,,  Lloyd's  surveyors,  and  the  Board  of 
Trade  have  all  shared  in  a  development  of  shi])ping  which,  ia 
amount  and  in  general  efficiency,  is  not  only  without  parallel  in 
the  history  of  tho  world,  but,  as  it  still  appears  to  us  who  have 
witnessed  it,  almost  incredible.  It  still  is  to  be  regretted  that 
expansion  has  been  thought  of  and  sought  more  ardently  than 
greater  security  and  elficiency.  The  men  who  have  studied  to 
improve  their  structural  arrangements  because  of  their  love  of 
true  and  good  work,  and  with  no  prospect  of  recognition  or  reward, 
have  been  comparatively  very  few. 

There  is,  perliaps,  no  structure  exposed  to  a  greater  variety  of  Straiiu 
strains  than  a  ship,  and  none  in  which  greater  risks  of  life  and  to  whicU 
property  are  incurred.       A  thorough  practfcal  knowledge  of  the  ships  arr 
disturbing  forces  in  action  either  to  injure  or  destroy  the  several  3ubj*'ct 
combinations  embraced  in  its  structure  is  therefore  most  import- 
ant.    Some  of  these  forces  always  act,  whether  the  bhip  be  at  rest 
or  in  motion.     She  may  be  at  rest  floating  in  still  water,  and  will  be 
at  rest  if  cast  on  shore  ;  and,  when  tJiere,  she  may  be  resting  on  her 
keel  as  a  continuous  bearing,  with  a  support  from  a  portion  of  'her 
side,  or  she  may  be  supported  in  the  middle  only,  with  both  ends  for 
a  greater  or  less  length  of  her  body  left  wholly  unsupported,  or  she 
may  be  resting  on  the  ends  with  the  middle  unsupported,  or  under 
,any  other  modification  of  these  circumstances  ;  and  under  all  these 
the  strains  will  vary  in  their  direction  and  in  their  intensity. 

If  the  ship  be  in  motion  the  same  disturbing  forces  may  still  be 
in  action,  with  others  in  addition  which  are  produced  by  a  state  of 
motion.  "When  a  ship  is  at  rest  in  still  water,  although  the  upward 
pressure  of  the  water  upon  its  body  is  equal  to  the  total  weight  of 
the  ship,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  weight  of  every 
portion  of  the  vessel  will  be  equal  to  the  upward  pressure  of  that 
portion  of  the  water  directly  beneath  it,  and  acting  upon  it ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  shape  of  the  body  is  such  that  their  weights  and 
pressures  are  very  unequal. 

If  the  vessel  be  supposed  to  be  divided  into  a  number  of  laminae 
of  equal  tluckness,  and  all  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  longi- 
tudinal section,  it  is  evident  that  the  after  laminffi  comprised  in 
the  overhanging  stern  above  water,  and  the  fore  laminae  comprised 
in  the  projecting'  head  also  above  water,  cannot  be  supported  by 
any  upward  pressure  from  the  fluid,  but  their  weight  must  bo 
wholly  siistained  by  their  connexion  with  the  supported  parts  of 
the  ship.  Tho  lamina:  towards  each  extremity  immediately  con- 
tiguous to  these  can  evidently  derive  only  a  very  small  portion  of 
their  support  from  the  water,  whilst  towards  the  midtflo  of  the 
ship's  length  a  greater  proportionate  bulk  is  immersed,  and  tlia 
upward  pressure  of  the  water  is  increased. 

A  ship  floating  at  rest  under  the  view  just  taken  of  tho  relative 
displacement  of  dilTerent  portions  of  the  body,  if  the  weights  on 
board  are  not  distributed  so  that  tho  dilTerent  lamiiui.'  may  Iw 
supjxjrted  by  the  upward  j)res3ure  beneath  thorn  as  equally  as 
possible,  may  be  supposed  to  be  in  the  position  of  a  l>cam  supported 
at  two  points  in  its  length  at  some  distance  from  the  centre,  and 
with  an  excess  of  weight  at  each  extremity.  At  sea  it  would  be 
exposed  to  the  same  strain  ;  and  if  sujiported  on  two  waves  whoso 
crests  were  so  far  apart  that  they  left  the  centre  and  ends  com- 
paratively unsupported,  the  degree  of  tliis  strain  would  be  mucli 
increased.  The  more  the.so  two  points  of  support  approach  each 
other,  or  if  they  come  so  near  each  other  that  tho  vessel  may  be 
looked  upon  as  supported  on  one  wave,  or  on  one  point  only  in 
tho  middle  of  her  length,  the  greater  will  be  the  tensile  strain  on 
the  upper  portion,  and  the  crushing  strain  on  the  lower  portion  of 
the  faoric  of  tho  ship.  A  vessel  whose  weights  and  displacements 
are  so  disposed  as  to  render  her  subject  to  a  strain  of  this  kind 
beyond  what  tho  strength  of  her  upperworks  will  enablo  her  to 
bear,  will  tend  to  assume  a  curved  form. 

The  centre  may  curve  upwards  b^  the  excess  of  the  pressure 
beneath  it,  and  the  ends  drop,  nroducing  what  is  called  "  hogging." 
The  main  remedy  for  these  evils  ia  in  tho  strength  of  the  deck  and 

XXI.  —   loi 


818 


SHIPBUILDING 


npperworks,  and  thoir  power  to  resist  a  tetisile  strain.  There  is 
seldom  a  want  of  sufficient  strcngih  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
vessel  to  resist  the  crushing  or  compressing  force  to  which  it  is 
subjected.  The  decks  of  vessels  should  not,  therefore,  be  too  much 
cut  up  by  broad  hatchways  ;  and  care  should  bo  taken  to  preserve 
entire  as  many  strarkes  of  the  deck  as  possible.  The  tensile  .strength 
of  iron  can  be  brought  to  bear  most  beneticially  in  this  respect. 

Though  these  are  tlio  strains  to  which  a  ship  is  most  likely  to 
be  exposeJ,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  there  are  no  circumstances 
under  wliich  strains  of  the  directly  opposite  tendency,  when  pitch- 
ing, or  otherwise,  may  be  brought  by  recoil  to  act  upon  the  parts. 
The  wciglits  themselves  in  the  centre  of  the  ship  may  be  so  great 
that  thoy  may  have  a  tendency  to  give  a  hollow  curvature  to  tho 
form,  and  it  is  therefore  equally  necessary  to  guard  against  this 
6vih  "When  ihis  occurs,  ."the  vessel  is  technically  said  to  be 
"sagged,"  in  distinction  to  tho  contrary  or  opposite  change  of 
form  by  being  hogged.  The  weight  of  machinery  in  a  wooden 
steam-vessel,  or  the  weight  or  undue  setting  up  of  the  main-mast, 
will  sometimes  jiroduco  sagging.  Tho  introduction  of  additional 
keelsons  tended  to  lessen  tliis  evil,  by  giving  great  additional 
strength  to  the  bottom,  enabling  it  to  resist  exti^nsion,  to  which, 
under  such  circumstances,  it  became  liable  ;  and,  as  the  strain  upon 
the  deck  and  npperworks  becomes  changed  at  the  same  time,  they 
are  then  called  U]iou  to  resist  conipression. 

When  the  ship  is  on  a  wind,  the  lee-side  is  subjected  to  a  series 
of  shocks  from  tho  waves,  the  violence  of  which  may  be  imagined 
from  the  effects  they  sometimes  produce  in  destroying  the  bul- 
TVarks,  tearing  away  the  channels,  kc.  The  Ice-sido  is  also  sub- 
jected to  an  excess  of  hydrostatic  pressure  ever  that  upon  the 
weather  side,  rcjsulting  from  the  accumulation  of  the  waves  as  they 
I'ise  against  the  obstruction  offered  to  their  free  passage.  These 
'c,rce=  *rnd  in  part  to  produce  lateral  curvature.  "When  in  this 
inclined  position,  the  forces  which  tend  to  produce  hogging  when 
Bhc  is  upright  also  contribute  to  produce  this  lateral  curvature. 

The  strain  fi-ora  the  tension  of  the  rigging  on  tho  weather  side 
when  the  ship  is  much  inclined  is  so  great  as  frequently  to  cause 
Wyrking  in  the  topsides,  and  sometimes  even  to  break  the  timbers 
on  which  the  channels  are  placed.  Additional  strength  ought 
therefore  to  be  given  to  the  sides  of  the  ship  at  this  place  ;  and,  in 
order  to  keep  them  apart,  the  beams  ought  to  be  increased  in 
strength  in  comparison  with  the  beams  at  other  parts  of  the  ship. 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  disturbing  forces  to  which  the 
fabric  of  a  ship  is  subjected  ;  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
some  of  these  are  in  almost  constant  activity  to  destroy  the  con- 
nexion between  the  several  parts.  Whenever  any  motion  or 
working  is  produced  by  their  operation  between  two  parts,  which  ' 
ought  to  be  united  in  a  fixed  or  firm  manner,  the  evil  will  «;oon 
increase,  because  the  disruption  of  the  close  connexion  between 
these  paHs  admits  an  increased  momentum  in  their  action  on 
each  other,  and  the  destruction  proceeds  with  an  accelerated  pro- 
gression. This  is  soon  followed  by  the  admission  of  damp,  and 
tho  unavoidable  accumulation  of  dirt,  and  these  then  generate 
fermentation  and  decay.  To  make  a  ship  strong,  therefore,  is  at 
the  same  time  to  make  her  durable,  both  in  reference  to  the  wear- 
and  tear  of  service  and  the  decay  of  materials.  It  is  evident  from 
the  foregoing  remarks  that  the  disturbing  influences  which  cause 
"hogging"  are  in  constant  operation  from  the  moment  of  launch- 
ing the  ship.  As  this  curvature  can  only  take  place  by  the  com- 
pcession  of  the  materials  composing  the  lower  paits  of  tli^  ship  and 
the  extension  of  those  composing  the  upper  parts;  the  importance 
of  preparing  these  separate  parts  with  an  especial  view  to  withstand 
the  forces  to  which  they  are  each  to  be  subjected  cannot  be  over- 
rated by  the  practical  builder. 
Can*es  of  In  hia  Mamutl  of  Naval  Architecture,  Mr  W.  H.  White  gives  illus- 
etrains.  trations  of  tho 
still-water  strains 
upon  two  ar- 
moured ships  in 
the  British  navy 
I.M.S,  the  *'  Minotaur  " 
*Mino-  and  the  "Devas- 
taur.**       tation." 

In  these  diagrams  tho  curves  B  represent  the  distribution  of  the 
buoyancy.  The  ordinates  of  the  curve  are  proportionate  to  tho 
displacement  of  ad- 
jacent transverse 
sections  of  the 
ships.  The  curves 
"W  represent  the 
distribution  of  the 
weight  of  the  ships 
and  their  lading. 
The  curves  L  repre- 
sent   the    excesses 

and  defects  of  buoy-  PI     j^ 

ancy  obtained  from 
the  two  curves  B  and  W  and  set  off  from  a  new  baso  line.     The 


Fig.  IL 


Fig.  12. 


'Minotaur"  and 


excess  of  buoyancy  above  the  line  is  exactly  eqi?al  to  the  defect  of 
buoyancy  below  it.     Tho  curves  M  indicate  the  bending  moments. 
The  ordinates  of  the  curve  lying  above   the  base   are   obtained 
by  summing  ali  the  moments, 
whether  upwards  or  downwards, 
about  the  point  in  the  length  of 
the  ship  where  the  ordinate  is 
taken.     It  may  happen,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  "Devastation," 
that  tlio  moments  will  tend  to 
cause  hogging  for  a  portion  of 
the  length  and  will  then  change 
their  character,  and  at  other  por- 
tions of  the  length  will  tend  to 

cause  sagging.     Where  the  curve  M  crosses  the  base  lino  there  13 
no  strain  of  either  hogging  or  sagging  tending  to  bend  the  ship 
there.      In  the  '*  Minotaur" 
there  is  a  hogging  tendency 
throughout.     The  amount  at 
the  midship  section  is  very 
great,   being  r*^'presonted  by 
the  moment  4 -5  feet  xlU'690 
tons.    After  Sir  Edward  Reed 
left  the  Admiralty  ho  strongly 
expressed  his  fears  that  this 
strain  was  too  considerable  for  safety  in  the 
"Agincourt." 

Designing. 

The  principal  plans  of  a  ship  are  the  "sheer  "  plan,  giving  in. 
outline  the  longitudinal  elevation  of  the  ship;  the  "body"  i)Ian, 
giving  the  shape  of  the  vertical  transverse  sections  ;  and  tha 
"half-breadth"  plan,  giving  the  projections  of  transverse  longi- 
tudinal sections.  In  addition  to  these  the  builder  is  furnished  by 
the  designer  with  elevations,  plans,  and  sections  of  the  interior 
parts  of  the  ship,  and  of  the  framing  and  plating  or  plunking. 

The  thicknesses  or  weights  of  all  the  component  parts  are  specified 
in  a  detailed  specification,  in  order  that  the  ship  when  completed 
may  have  the  precise  weightfcnd  position  of  centre  of  gravity  con- 
templated by  the  designer.  In  the  case  of  ships  built  for  the  British 
navy  all  the  building  materials  are  carefully  weighed  by  an  agent 
of  the  designer  before  they  are  put  into  place  by  the  builder.  As 
each  section  of  the  work  is  completed,  the  weight  is  compared  with 
the  designer's  estimate  in  the  designing  office.  As  soon  as  tho 
incomplete  hull  is  floated  the  actual  displacement  is  measured,  and 
compared  with  the  weights  recorded  as  having  gone  into  the  ship. 
It  is  also  +he  practice  in  the  Royal  Navy  to  calculate  the  position 
of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  incomplete  hull,  and  its  draught  of 
water  before  it  is  floated,  in  order  to  avoid  all  risk  of  upsetting 
from  dencienry  in  stability  at  that  stage  of-construction.  The  ship 
is'usually  found  to  float  in'  precise  accordance  with  the  estimate. 
When  completed  ships  float  at  a  deeper  draught  than  was  intended, 
or  are  found  to  be  more  or  less  stable  than  was  wished,  this*  is 
nearly  always  due  to  additions  and  alterations  made  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  design.  Where  the  designer  is  at  liberty  to  completa 
the  ship  in  accordance  with  the  original  intention  there  ought  to 
be  precise  correspondence  between  the  design  and  the  ship. 

In  designing  a  ship  of  novel  type  the  designer  has  to  pass  all 
the  building  details  through  his  mind  and  assign  them  their  just 
weights  and  proportions  and  positions.  Every  i>Iate  and  angle  bar 
and  plank,  every  bar  and  rod  and  casting  and  forging,  and  every 
article  of  equipment  has  to  be  conceived  in  detail  and  its  effect 
estimated. 

Building. 

The  term  "  laying  off"  is  applied  to  the  operation  of  transferring  Laying 
to  the  mould  loft  floor  those  designs  and  general  proportions  of  a  off. 
ship  which  have  been  drawn  on  paper,  and  from  which  all  the 
preliminary  calculations  have  been  made  and  the  form  decided. 
The  lines  "<?f  the  ship,  and  exact  representations  of  many  of  the 
parts  of  which  it  is  to  be  composed,  are  to  be  delineated  there  to 
their  fuH  size,  or  the  actual  or  real  dimensions,  in  order  that 
moulds  or  skeleton  outlines  may  be  made  from  them  for  the 
guidance  of  the  workmen. 

A   ship   is  generally  spoken  of  as  divided  into  fore  and  after  Fore  a^d 
bodies,  and  these  combined  constitute  the  whole  of  the  ship  ;  they  after 
are  supposed  to  be  separated  by  an  imaginary  athwartship  section  bodies 
at  the  widest  part  of  the  ship,  called  the  midship  section  or  dead- 
flat.     Tlie  midship  body  is  a  term  ajiplied  to  an  indefinite  length  of 
the  middle  part  of  a  ship  longitudinally,  including  a  portion  of 
the  fore-body  and  of  the  after-body.     It  is  not  necessaiily  parallel 
or  of  the  same  form  for  its  whole  length. 

Those  portions  of  a  wooden  ship  which  are  termed  the  square 
and  cant  bodies  may  be  considered  as  subdivisions  of  the  fore-bodies 
and  after-bodies.  Tliere  is  a  square  fore-body  and  a  square  aftei'- 
body  towards  the  middle  of  the  ship,  and  a  cant  fore-body  and  a 
cant  after-body  at  the  two  ends.  In  tho  square  body  the  sides  of 
the  frames  are  square  to  theJiBe  of  the  keel,  and  are  athwarlshiff 


Timbers, 


Keel. 


Floors. 


^"[^r^a  d  in  ?he1a  J  bol;  ''"*  ^I^ ^''"f  f,  -,  ^e  fore-bodj- 
/*       '■"!'  axter-Doay.      I'll©  reason  for  the  frampq  in  tlipc^j 

t^e^Zleta^h'"  '"^PiA'^S  canted  h  that  iVth^se  parts  o 
the  ship,  the  tamber  would  be  too  much  cut  away  on  account  of 
^^he'Ttb"  ^'  ^"gl^fonned  between  an  ath^wartsh%  pLe 
Mri  the  oath^e  or  water-line  of  the  ship.  The  timber  il  tLre! 
^ai^he'rf   Part.aUy  round  till  the  outside  face  coincides  neaX 

01  a  trame  m  the  cant  fore-body  is  made  to  point  aft.  and  in  the 
cant  after-body  to  point  forward  !■      !■  <»",  ana  m  tne 

In  wooden  ships  the  term  "timbers"  is  sometimes  applied  to 

.nsed  m  the  construction.  Timbers,  when  comb/ned  together  to 
form  an  athwartship  outline  of  the  body  of  a  ship,  are  technically 
called  frames,  and  sometimes  ribs  "i'-nuicaiiy 

ofli™  ''''''  '°  t^^U-iited  Kingdom  at  least,  is  generally  made 
of  elm  on  account  of  its  toughness,  and  from  its  not  beir2  liable 
to  sp  It  If  the  ship  should  take  the  ground,  ihough  piS  in  all 
directions  by  the  numerous  fastenings  passing  through  Tt      It    s 

S  oth^erT^r''-"^  r,'°"=  ^t""'^  ^^  be°obtainet  United  to 
each  other  by  horizontal  scarphs.     The  rabbet  of  the  keel  is  an 

on  eacn  side  ol  it.  The  keel  is  connected  forward  to  the  stem  hv  » 
^rph,  sometimes  called  the  bo.xing  scarph,  and  aft  to  the    te™ 

^i'  sfdeTf  tT  f^  ''"T-  ^^'  "P™"  ^  Wed  or  fitt  d  to  the 
fhTl  ?  "  "T'  """^  "  intended  to  give  shift  to  its  scarnhs 

ite  oTtTni'i;!^"'''.''  '°  'he  "J-dwood.  f  he  keelson  is  an  fnt  ?nS 
keel  tV»  fl  ?^  "^  T"  "■'  '"«i4^of  the  floors  directly  over  the 
nso I's  to  «  %,f' "r'  t''"^  «"'fi"<-<l  between  it  and  the  keel.  Ita 
keel  and  ^?,"'  '  ^f'""..^'"*  '»  S*™  -'"ft  to  the  scarphs  ^f  tlS 
ways  and  to  nrfv?J  r"^.'*'  '°  *'"'  '""P  '"  '"'^'  ^^"='>-'°''  !™gth 

the^kecUon  scSs  o  t'h  F"'^  "  't?"/"?"  "^'"^  f°^^"'°='  ^"^  of 
to  tvL!        r    P  ."*  stenison,  which  is  intended  to  crive  shift 

to  the  scarphs  connecting  the  stem  and  keel.     The  framed  orris 

V"r'"'-'"A''V''^°"S"'  ^-"i  '"°^'  '^'"■-ble  timb  r  obiioab le 
Thefloors  in  the  Goyernment  service  were  carried  across  the  k-el 


SHIPBUILDING 


819 


shi^fo?rptp^Zf.tstg%r  ^tothTf  *^l^'-  °^^  ^  - 

decks  ;  they 'are  called  shelved  and  Talftl     ^""Y^f.^^^  several 
not  only  for  this  purpose,  buT'also  as  lonlitudrf'.-"  ^f"'*^'^'^. 

The  beams  of  a^hip  prevent  the  a^^effrotir'  ""^  ''",''•  'b 
the  same  time  caiTy  the  decks.     The  beams  a^e  ^^T^'  1°/    "'  ^'^ 
scantUng  settled  upon,  according  to  tlTstrenXr?„,'-'^\'"l"^ ' 

Sw^-a--^-xStil?-- 

aocordin|  to  the  numblr  of  pi^es  of  timber  of  which  thev,^' 

liipliiiliiis 

Jt  rests  ,  and  the  under  surface 'o?  the  wat^eiway  plank  wMchHc^ 
upon  It  IS  sometimes  dowelled  into  it.     These  dowel,    thLv  f 

js^^^i  t^  g^wti^  ^:  ti^  ilS 

on  a  wind  or  before  it-that  is,  either  incfined  or  rollTng.     The 


^^     ,  ,  ""  "'='°  >-^i lieu  across  tne  Koel     on  a  wind  or  hefm-A  it     »i,,i-  •     •  .  -— -  r"f;  "  uuuer  sail, 

>  i(S>-^s-«^^A,^SrSl     il     H — H — U — LLLli    !■  °  ^:      I     ■'      ^'     ■ U — s — I-tJ — ILJJ     H     ji     ii     ii     a  ^ 


*!l)fll   n/'fi/in   rtf    ♦!.....«    <■ .•_   .  ,.  ..  _      -  ''S.13, 


Pl.-.nk 
J";;. 


«do  of  the  ship  and  all  connected  with  it,  and  of  the  decTs  and 
V^rZiT^  T""  '¥"■;  ""  ^™"  '•^  "'o  "P^"'-d  pressure  of  t^e  water 
'IbetwitTd"'  *'"'  ^"^'.^  "^'^°  bV  the 'beam  and  the  Xy; 
Jh„l  T!   "•.  ^nJ  f  n^^quont.y  increase  the  angle  made  between 

.idTA  ".^  ■  ^^  ^""■"y  '=«■'=='  i»  produce!  on  the  weather 
opo°A  That  belo;tt"     I^.r  V°  ''°^'  f  ^  """'^  ^■^o^"  "">  '^-^-'1 

Th  tl  "■""=  °"«*"  '"  •«  "«  f"  '■'■'"n  the  side  as  is  coSn? 
in.!::a(:'irof";at"u',°Ih!:res:°s«  of/.tr-  't  r*^"''  ^"'^ 

rr.^^^£:l -^i£SI -^  ^^rn^r:;!^ 

interoally  to  support  the  coTnexion  ol %„  b""^"'  °  ,P°f'"'  '""^ 
and  at  tlio  sanio  time  form  »  I  -^  i-  ■  '""""'  "'"'  the  sides 
of  plank,  or  asL'cmb^  g^s  of  eit^fn  1  Znk''°-  ''\  T''^  ''^"^'^ 
■^.tnUce.     The  "trakea^etJee^nr  LSV;;;:^tons:  bt^^" 


clr'the™  Lk^'strfkf  °  Vn^'l'^  ab;  t^thTSn^d  7,1 

seanist  'Sll  "  ' V""'"",' ""  "'  two  strakVs,  so  that  aUen Z 
seams  are  parallel.     There  are  two  methods  of  workinc  these  cnm 

I  "rn    "5  r?.°f  *i;*  ''^  ^^"^"l  ""'-bor  stock?"  and  thcoth"; 
'  Th/n",?'^  butt."     The  difference  will  be  best  shown  by  fiV  13 

Los/,  r""'."  "■!  'V'°.""°"  '^  '"•■"  ">  the  method  of  woTkin; 
two  st.akes  anchor-s  ock  fashion,  the  narrowest  part  of  one  strakf 
alwajs  occurs  opnosite  to  the  widest  part  of  the  other  stiako  a,,,! 
consequently  the  least  possible  sudden  intcrruptioro  Ion  dtu'dNml 
fibre,  ansing    ro,n  the  abutment,  is  obtained^     Tl.i    del",- ption 

n    1     ■  >"    '■  f'^"?  "  f "'  *■""■"  ''^'-^Sth  is  especially  desirable' 
In  top  and  butt  s  rakes  the  intention  is,  by  having  a  wide  end  ad  » 
narrow  end  >„  each  j.lank,  toappro.ximate  tb  the  g^rowth  of  he  t  eo 
and  to  dimm.sh  the  difhcultv  of  procuring  the  plank.     Whon  tT;.' 
plankmg  is  looked  upon  as  a  tongitudinal  tVe,  the  advant.Je  of  U.ose 
edges  bomg,  aa  it  were,  imbedded  into  each  other  is  apnirefl     aH' 
elongation  by  one  edge  sliding  upon  the  other  being  t^h,«  pScd 
The  shift  of  plank  ,s  the  manner  of  arranging  the  bu  t!  of  th« 
sevoras  rakes.      n  the  ships  of  the  British  nfv/tho  butt^  were  nt? 
allowed  to  occur  m  the  same  vcrticol  linn   nr  i„  n,  "i^ie  not 

Without  the  intervention  of  tb™hole"rkerbet:ert\c';f"> 


620 


SHIPBUILDING 


Of  the  internal  j'laiikiMp  the  lowest  strako,  or  combination  of 
strakcs,  in  the  holii,  is  ralkil  tho  limber-strake.  A  limber  is  a 
passage  for  water,  of  wliich  thcro  is  ouo  throughout  the  length  of 
the  ship,  on  each  side  of  the  keelson,  in  order  that  any  leakage 
may  find  its  way  to  the  pumps. 

The  whole  of  the  plank  in  the  hold  is  called  the  ceiling.     Those 
stiukcs  which  come  over  tho  heads  and  heels  of  the  timbers  are 
worked  thicker  than  the  general  thickness  of  the  ceiling,  and  are 
tlistinguishcd  as  tlie  thick  strakcs  over  the  severa}  heads.     The 
Rtraktjs  under  the  ends  of  tho  beamK  of  the  different  decks  in  a 
man-of-war,  and  down  to  the  ports  of  tho  deck  below,  if  there  were 
any  ports,  were  called  the  clamps  of  tho  particular  decks  to  the 
beams  of. which  they  are  the  support— as  the  gun-deck  clamps,  tho 
middle-deck  clamps,  &c.     The  strakcs  which  work  up  to  the  sills 
of  the  ports  of  the  several  decks  were  called  the   spirketting  of 
'  those  decks— as  gun-dtck  sjiiiketting,  upper-deck  spirketting,  kc 
iPusten-         The  fastening  of  the  plank  is  either  "  single,"  by  which  is  meant 
105.  one   fastening  only  in  each   strake   as   it   passes  each   timber   or 

frame  ;  or  it  may  be  "double,"  that  is,  with  two  fastenings  into 
each  frame  which  it  crosses  ;  or,  again,  the  fastenings  may  be 
*'doublL'  and  single,"  meaning  that  the  fastenings  arc  double  and 
single  alternately  in  the  frames  as  they  cross  them.  The  fastenings 
of  planks  consist  generally  either  of  nails  or  treenails,  excepting 
at  the  butts,  \'vhich  are  secured  by  bolts.  Several  other  bolts 
ou^ht  to  be  driven  in  each  shift  of  plank  as  additional  security. 
Bolts  whicli  are  required  to  pass  through  the  timbers  as  securities 
to  the  shelf,  waterway,  knees,  &c.,  should  be  taken  advantage  of 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  regular  fastening  of  the  plank,  not  only 
for  the  sake  of  economy,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  avoiding  unneces- 
sarily wounding  the  limbers. 
Decks.  The  decks  of  a  wooden  ship  must  not  be  considered  merely  os 

platforms,  but  must  be  regarded  as  i>erforming  an  important  part 
towards  the  general  strength  of  the  whole  fabric.  They  are 
generally  laid  in  a  longitudinal  direction  only,  and  are  then  use- 
ful as  a  tie  to  resist  extension,  or  as  a  strut  to  resist  compression. 
The  miter  strakes  of  decks  at  tho  sides  of  the  ship  are  generally  of 
hard  wood,  and  of  greater  thickness  than  the  deck  itself  ;  they  are 
called  the  waterway  planks,  and  are  sometimes  dowelled  to  the 
upjer  surface  of  eacli  beam.  Their  rigidity  and  strength  is  of 
great  importance,  and  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  them,  and 
eare  taken  that  their  scarphs  are  well  secured  by  throufVbolts, 
and  that  tliere  is  a  proper  shift  bctweca  their  p'ti.^.ns  and  tliP 
scarphs  of  the  shelf.  "  '  .  ,^  .  .  * 

AVhen  the  decks  are  considered  ^s  a.  tie,  the  importance  of  keep- 
ing as  many  strakes  as  possible  entire  for  the  whole  length  of  the 
>hip  must  be  evident;  and  a  continuous  strake  of  iron  or  steel 
J^lates  beneath  tlie  decks  is  of  great  value  in  this  respect.  The 
straightcr  the  deck,  or  the  less  the  sheer  or  upward  curvature  at 
t]ie  ends  that  may  be  given  to  it,  the  less  liable  will  it  be  to  any 
alteration  of  length,  and  the  stronger  will  it  be.  The  ends  of  the 
^Utferent  planks  forming  one  strake  were  made  to  butt  on  one  beam, 
and,  as  the  fastenings  are  driven  close  to  the  ends,  they  did  not 
possess  much  strength  to  resist  being  torn  out.  The  shifts  of  the 
Dutts,  therefore,  of  the  diflerent  strakes  required  great  attention, 
because  tlio  transference  of  the  longitudinal  strength  of  the  deck 
from  one  plank  to  andther  was  thus  made  by  means  of  the  fasten- 
ings to  the  beams,  the  strakes  not  being  united  to  each  other 
auleways.  The  introduction  of  iron  decks  or  partial  dfcks  under 
the  wood  has  modified  this. 
Oaulfe-  Tliese  fastenings  have  also  to  withstand  the  -strain  during  the 
(«S.  process  of  caulking,   which  has  a  tendency  to  force  the  pLanks 

sideways  from  the  seam  ;  and,  as  the  edges  of  planks  of  hard  wood 
will  be  less  crushed  or  compressed  than  those  of  soft  wood  when 
acted  on  by  the  caullcing-iron,  the  strain  to  open  the  seam  between 
them  to  receive  the  caulking  will  be  greater  than  with  planks  of 
^softer  wood,  and  will  require  more  secure  fastenings  to  resist  it. 
It  may  also  be  remarked  that  the  quantity  of  fastenings  should 
/increase  with  the  thickness  of  the  plank  which  is  to  be  secured, 
for  the  set  of  the  oakum  in  caulking  will  have  the  greater  mechani- 
cal effect  the  thicker  the  edge. 

When  the  planks  are  fastened,  the  seams  or  tho  intervals 
Ijctween  the  edges  of  the  strakes  are  filled  with  oakum,  and  this  is 
beaten  in  or  caulked  with  such  care  find  force  that  the  oakum, 
(while  undisturbed,  is  almost  as  hard  as  the  plank  itself.  If  the 
feptnings  of  the  seam  were  of  equal  widths  throughout  their  depth 
between  tho  planks,  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  the  caulking 
feulficiently  compact  to  resist  the  water.  At  the  bottom  edges  of 
the  seams  the  planks  should  be  in  contact  throughout  their  length, 
and  from  this  contact  they  should  gradually  open  upwards,  so 
that,  at'the  o\Uer  edge  of  a  plank  10  inches  thick,  the  spacfe  should 
he  about  {^  of  an  inch,  that  is,  about  ■x\  of  an  inch  open  for  every 
inch  of  thickness.  It  will  hence  be  seen  that,  if  the  edges  of  the 
planks  are  so  prepared  that  when  laid  they  fit  closely  for  their 
■whole  thickness,  the  force  required  to  compress  the  outer  edge  by 
driving  the  caulking-iron  into  the  seams,  to  open  them  sufficiently, 
ijuust  be  very  great,  and  tho  fastenings  of  the  planks  must  be  such 
&3  to  be  able  to  resist  it.     Bad  carlking  ia  very  injurious  in  ovei7 


way,  as  leading  to  leakage  and  to  the  rotting  of  the  planks  them- 
selves at  their  edges. 

Ships  are  generally  built  on  blocks  which  are  laid  at  a  declivity  Launck' 
of  about  I  inch  to  a  foot.  This  is  for  the  facility  of  launching  ing. 
them.  Tho  inclined  plane  or  sliding  plank  on  which  they  are 
launched  has  rather  more  inclination,  or  about  |  inch  to  the  foot 
for  large  ships,  and  a  slight  increase  for  smaller  vessels.  This 
inclination  will,  however,  in  some  measure,  depend  upon  the  depth 
of  water  into  which  the  ship  is  to  bo  launched. 

While  a  ship  is  in  progress  of  being  built  her  weight  is  partly 
supported  by  her  keel  on  the  blocks  and  partly  by  shores.  In 
order  to  launch  her  the  weight  must  be  taken  off  these  supports 
and  transferred  to  a  movable  base  ;  and  a  platform  must  be  erected 
for  the  mova])le  base  to  slide  on.  This  platform  must  not  only  be  ' 
laid  at  the  necessary  inclination,  but  must  be  of  sufficient  height 
to  enable  the  ship  to  be  water-borne  and  to  preserve  her  from 
striking  the  ground  when  she  arrives  at  the  end  of  the  ways. 
For  this  purpose  an  inclined  plane  a,  a  (fig.  14),  purposely  left 
unplaned  to  diminish  the  adhesion,  is  laid  on  each  side  the  keel, 
and  at  about  one-sixth  the  breadth  of  the  vessel  distant  from 
it,  and  firmly  secured  on  blocks  fastened  in  tlie  slipway.    This 


Fig.  u. 

inclined  plane  is  called  the  sliding-plank.  A  long  timber,  called  a 
bilgeway  &,  6,  with  a  smooth  undcr-surface,  is  laid  upon  this 
plane  ;  and  upon  this  timber,  ns  a  base,  a  temporary  frame-work 
of  shores  c,  c,  called  "poppets,"  is  erected  to  reach  from  the  bilge- 
way  to  the  ship.  The  upper  part  of  this  frame-work  abuts  against 
a  plank  d.  temporarily  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  and 
f.rmJy  cleated  by  cleats  c,  e,  also  temporarily  secured  to  the 
bottom.  "When  it  is  all  in  place,  and  the  sliding-plank  and  under 
side  of  the  bilgeway  finally  greased  with  tallow,  soft  soap,  and  oil, 
the  whole  framing  is  set  close  up  to  the  bottom,"  and  down  on  the 
sliding  plank,  by  wedges  /,  /,  called  slivers  or  slices,  by  which 
means  the  ship"^  weight  is  brought  upon  the  "launch  "  or  cradle. 

\Vhen  the  launch  is  thus  fitted,  the  ship  may  be  said  to  have 
three  keels,  two  of  which  are  temporary,  and  ai-e  secured  under  her 
bilge.  In  consequence  of  this  width  of  support,  all  the  shores  may 
be  safely  taken  away.  This  being  done,  the  blocks  on  which  the 
ship  was  built,  excepting  a  few,  according  to  the  size  of  the  ship, 
under  the  foremost  en^  of  the  keel,  are  gradually  taken  from  under 
her  as  the  tide  rises,  and  her  weight  is  then  transferred  to  the  two 
temporary  keels,  or  the  launch,  the  bottom  of  which  launch  13 
formed  by  the  bilgeways,  resting  on  the  well-greased  inclined 
planes.  The  only  preventive  now  to  the  launching- of  the  ship 
13  a  short  shore,  called  a  dog-shore  on  each  side,  with  ita  hea 
firmly  cleated  on  the  immovable  platform  or  sliding-plank,  and  its 
head  abutting  against  a  cleat  secured  to  the  bilgeway,  or  base 
of  the  movable  part  of  the  launch.'  Consequently,  when  this  shore 
is  removed,  the  ship  is  free  to  move,  and  her  weight  forces  her 
d.own  the  inclined  piano  to  the  water.  To  prevent  her  running 
out  of  her  straight  course,  two  ribands  are  secured  on  the  sliding- 
plank,  and  strongly  shored.  Should  the  ship  not  move  when  the 
dog-shore  is  knocked  down,  the  blocks  remaining  under  tho  fore 
part  of  her  keel  must  be  consecutively  removed,  until  her  weight 
overcomes  the  adhesion,  or  until  the  action  of  a  screw  against  her 
fore-foot  forces  her  off. 

A  different  mode  of  launching  is  sometimes  practised  in  Briti^ 
merchant-yards,  and  has  been  long  in  use  in  tho  French  dockyard^ 


Fig.  15. 

allowing  the  keel   to  take  the  entire  weight  of  tho  vessel.     The 
two  pieces  a,  a,  which  are  shown  in  fig.  15  as  being  socurod  to  the 


SHTPBUILDING 


821 


ship's  bottom,  are  tho  only  pieces  whicli  need  be  prepared  according 
to  this  system  for  each  ship,  the  whole  of.  the  remainder  beini^ 
available  for  every  launch.  A  space  of  about  half  an  inch  is  left 
between  them  and  the  balk  timber  placed  beneath  them,  as  it 
is  not  intended  that  the  ship  should  bear  on  these  balk  timbers  in 
launching,  but  merely  be  supported  by  them  in  the  event  of  her 
heeling  over.  The  ship,  therefore,  is  launched  wholly  on  the 
aliding-plank  c,  fitted  under  the  keel. 

If  a  ship  is  coppered  before  launching,  so  that  putting  her  into 
a  dry-dock  for  that  purpose  becomes  unnecessary,  it  is  tlien  desir- 
able that  she  should  be  launched  without  any  cleats  attached  to  her 
bottom.  The  two  sides  of  the  cradle  are  prevented  from  being  forced 
apart  when  tho  weight  of  the  ship  is  brought  upon  them  by  chains 
passing  under  the  keel.  Each  portion  of  frame-work  composing 
the  launch  has  two  of  these  chains  attached  to  it,"  and  brought 
under  the  keel  to  a  bolt  which  passes  slackly  through  one  of  tho 
poppets,  and  is  secured  by  a  long  forelock,  with  an  iron  haudlf, 
reaching  above  tho  water-line,  so  that  when' the  ship  is  afloat  it 
mr.y  be  drawn  out  of  the  bolt.  The  chain  then  dcaws  the  bolt,  and' 
in  falling  trips  the  cradle  from  under  the  bottom.  There  should 
be  at  least  two  chains  on  each  side  secured  to  the  fore-poppets, 
two  on  each  side  secured  to  the  after-poppets,  and  two  on  each  side 
to  the  stopping-up,.  and  this  only  for  the  launch  of  a  small  ship  ; 
in  larger  ships  th-5  number  will  necessarily  be  increased  according 
to  the  weight  of  the  vessel  and  tho  tendency  that  she  may  have, 
according  to  her  form,  to  separate  the  bilgewaya.  This  tendency 
on  tho  part  of  a  sharp  ship  by  a  rising  floor,  or  by  her  wedge- 
shaped  form  in. the  fore  and  after  bodies,  is  great,  but  there  is  not 
much  probability  of  a  ship  heeling  over  to  one  side  or  the  other. 
J^)f  The  importance  of  the  work  of  the  designer  cannot  be  too  highly 

irodi  estimated.  Unfortunately  thero  is,  as  has  been  said,  "slop  work'* 
in  designing  as  well  as  in  putting  the  structure  together.  There 
'A  often  an  absence  of  any  attempt  at  precautions  where  multiplied 
accidents  have  shown  them  to  be  necessary,  as  vrell  as  inconceivable 
•arelessness  in  the  details  rendering  provisions  for  security,  where 
Ibey  exist  in  principle,  useless  in  practice. 

In  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Unseaworthy  Ships, 
dated  September  22,  1873,"we  read  as  follows  : — "  Comnetent  wit- 
nesses state  that  many  merchant  ships  are  built  with  bad  iron,  that 
they  are  ill  put  together,  and  sent  to  sea  in  a  defective  condition. 
It  is  aUo  said  that  they  are  frequently  lengthened  without  addi- 
tional strength,  and  are  consequently  weak  ships.  The  number 
of  iron  steamers  which  have  been  lost  in  the  last  few  years, 
Eaany  of  them  having  been  surveyed  and  classed  under  the  London 
ftr  Liverpool  registers,  raises  a  question  whether  the  regulations 
»f  these  registers  are  sufficiently  stringent  to  insure  good  ship- 
building. The  directors  of  the  Bureau  Veritas  have  deemed  it 
necessary  to  revise  the  rules  of  their  register,  and  to  increase  the 
9ca.itling.  In  the  race  of  competition  among  shipbuilders  it  is 
probable  that  inferior  mateiiala  and  bad  workmanship  are  ad- 
mitted into  ships."" 

The  Commissioners  on  TTnseaworthy  Ships,  referring  to  the 
proposal  that  the  Board  of  Trade  should  superintend  the  con- 
struction, the  periodical  inspection,  the  repair, -and  the  loading 
»f  all  British  merchant  ships,  said:  "We  consider  it  to  be  a 
question  worthy  of  serious  consideration,  whether,  in  the  case 
•f  ■passcnget'  ships,  the  certificate  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  so  far 
as  regards  specific  approval,  should  not  be  expressly  confined  to 
the  number  of  passengers  to  be  allowed  and  to  the  accommodation 
for  their  health,  comfort,  and  general  security, — all  questions  of 
Btseaworthinr^ss  of  hull,  machinery,  and  equipment  being  left 
ko  tho   owners,    subject  only  to  a  general   puwer  of  interference 


in  case  of  danger  sufficiently  apparent  to  justify  special    inter- 
vention." 

"Where  ships  have  to  meet  tho  stress  of  battle  as  well  as  that  of  tho 
sea  faithfulness  of  work  is  even  more  imperative.  It  is  not  only 
necessary  to  have  perfect  work,  but  there  must  also  bo  multiplied 
safeguards  and  provisions  against  damage  by  shot,  shell,  ram,  and 
torpedo  as  well  as  against  tho  enemies  which  are  common  to  all 
ships.  In  the  article  Navy  the  peculiarities  of  tho  ship  of  war  aro 
described.  Regarding  them  here  simply  as  ships,  they  may  be  said 
to  be  distinguislied  npither  by  size  nor  speed.  They  "have  been  far 
outstripped  in  size,  the  longest  English  ship  of  war  built  within 
the  last  twenty  years  being  only  325  feet  in  lencrth,  while  there 
are  Atlantic  passenger  ships  200  feet  longer.  They  have  also 
been  outstripped  in  speed.  Tlio  highest  speedr  ever  attained  in  a. 
vessel  of  war  is  that  of  the  "Iris"  and  "Mercury";  and  as  they 
are  only  300  feet  long  it  is  easier  in  vessels  of  greater  length  to  get 
higher  speeds  with  less  engine  power,  and  easy  also  to  maintain  it 
in  a  seaway  both  as  a  question  of  form  and  power,  and  also  as  a 
matter  of  coal  endurance.  The  following  tnble  gives  the  relativo 
dimensions  of  large  14-knot  shi[}s  :  — 


Ship's  Name. 

LenKth  divided 
by  lircadtli  (on 
,    VValcr  Line). 

I.H.P. 

Dispt.  In 
Tons. 

(Displ.)? 

ft.  In. 

^-l^^  10-45 

'"'•"^     4-39 

7.5  0  *  •^- 
3010  r.,,, 
CO  10-     ^" 

3,600 
8,000 
8,600 
8,000 
8,500 

8,250- 
10,836 

9,286 
11,500 

9,063 

408-3 
491-2 
■441-8 
609-5 
434-7 

(White  Slav  Lino)      ( 
H.M.S.  "Dreadnought," 

H.M.S.  "Sultan," 

H.M.S.  "Inflexible," 

H.M.S.  "Neptune,"       j 
late  "Independencia,"  \ 

The  differences  between  the  amount  and  complexity  of  fitting  Cogj^ 
in  the  shipof  war  and  the  merchant  ship  are  represented  by  the 
greatly  increased  cost  per  ton  weight  of  hull.  It  must,  however, 
be  premised  that  the  "war  ship  has  tho  weight  of  hull  kept  dowa 
to  a  very  low  standard  to  enable  her  to  carry  her  oiTensive  and 
defensive  equipment, — far  lower  than  is  usual  in  the  merchant 
ship.  The  first-class  merchant  ship  costs  i'28  per  ton  weight  of 
hull  and  about  £13  per  -indicated  horse-power  for  the  engines. 
The  ship  of  war  built  by  the  same  builders  under  contract  with 
the  Government  costs  from  £60  to  £65  per  ton  weight  of  hull 
for  unarmoured  ships,  and  from  £70  to  £75  or  mere  for  armoured 
ships.  la  the  case  of  an  unarmoured  vessel,  having  a  protecting 
deck  over  machinery  apd  magazines,  recently  ordered,  the  prices 
were  as  follows  : — 


General  average £60  10 

Average  of  three  London  firms ,     ^^     0 
Accepted  tender .-..     57     6     0 

The  engines  for  the  same  "vessel  were : — 

General  average £15 

Average  of  three  London  firms 17 

Accepted  tender 11 

In  the  case  of  a  larger  armoured  ship  the  rates  w-ero  ; — 

Average  price  per  ton  weight  of  hull. i £81 

Accepted  tender 71 

Aver.age  price  per  L IL  P.  of  engines* 11 

Accepted  tender 10 


0  per  ton  weight  of  hull. 
0 


8    0  per  LH.P. 
5    0 
8     0 


JHstrdtUion  of  Makriah  and  Cost  in  Various  Types  of  Ships. 


Length  in  feet 

Displacement  at  load  draft  (in  tons) 

Weight  (in  tons)  of  hull,  excluding  armour 

,,  ,,  armour 

,,  ,,  propelling  machinery 

,,  I,  gun9,mounting,andammunition 

,,  I,  fuel,  at  usual  draft 

Cost  of  hull  per  ton  of  its  weight 

„      propelling  macUinory,  per  ton  of  its  weight 


First. 

Class 
Passenger 
Steamers. 


450 
9550 
3800 

13  io 

IMO 
£32 
£60 


Carpo 
Steamers. 


390 
6800 
1960 

240 

600 

£20 

£50-55 


Armoured 
Battle  - 
Slilps 

(Barbette). 


325 

10,000 

3,520 

3,100 

1,060 

840 

900 

£81-2 

£105 


Protected 
17-Knot  Ships. 

Unarmoured, 
Unmasted,  and 

Unsheatbed. 


300 

3630 

2000 

218 

485 

285 

500 

£56 

£111 


Protected 
1.3-Knot  Ships, 
Unannoured, 
Masted,  and 

Sheathed. 


225 
2420 
1270 

152 

342 

154 

270 

£67-25' 
£85' 


Protected 

10  to  12  Knots. 

Unarmoured, 

Malted,  and 

Sheathed, 


170 

1153 

610 

135 

77 

130 

£60 
£90 


Torpedo 
Boats, 

19  to  20 
Knots. 


86 
31-3 


11-0 

2-7! 
3- 

£280 
£373 


The  use  of  heavy  ordnance  in  recent  times  as  tho  sole  weapon 
for  naval  warfare  bronght  about  a  marked  distinction  between 
the  merchant  ves-sel  and  the  war  ship,  which  had  not  previously 
eiUted.  Tho  revival  of  the  ram  ana  the  adoption  of  tho  torpedo 
tend  to  abolish  this  distinction  and  to  bring  about  .in  approxima~ 
tion  again. 

It  in  diflicalt  to  &iy  vliat,  in  tho  very  near  future  will  bo  the 


distinguishing  characteristics  of  tho  ship  of  war.     They  will  not  Cliarae- 
be  speed  or  Size  or  coal  endurance,  or  the  power  of  striking  with  tcristics 
the  ram,  tho  torpedo,  or  tho  gun.     It  will  bo  quite  easy  to  arm  of  v.ar 
merchant    ships   witli   these  weapons,    a»d  some  of  these    ships  ships. 

'  I'Jie  Indicated  horse-power  rcfciTcd  to  Iicro  Is  1  lat  obui'ncd  by  nntur.il  tlraft 
*  (If  l!r.:i  the  vertical  onnour  (coslinif  before  It  Is  worked  up,  £70  to  £'^0  per 
ton)  le  uearly  2000  Urns.  '  Aroraco  of  six  TCdads  built  by  £U*cr. 


822 


SHIPBUILDING 


[Changes 
needed  , 
in  nier- 
|Chaut 


Jinaour. 


Com- 
Inittee  on 


already  outstrip  the  war  vessel  in  tho  importwt  advantages  of 
size  aud  fleetneas  and  carrying  power.  It  is  apparently  in  pro- 
tective advantaf^cs  that  the  essential  ditlerence  will  lie. 

The  merchant  sliip  is  badly  provided  against  fatal  damage  by 
collision,  or  by  a  blow  dclivorud  in  any  manner  by  which  water  is 
admitted  into  tlio  ship.  The  pixipelling  machinery  of  these  ships 
and  their  steering  apparatus  are  also  dangerously  exposed  to 
artillery  fire.  Excepting  torpedo  boats,  the  ship  of  war  of  any 
size  has  its  propelling  machinery  either  uuder  water  or  under 
cover  of  armour,  and  in  a  great  number  of  cases  there  is  either 
protection  for  the  steei*ing  apparatus  or  there  are  two  propellers. 
The  approximation  towards  war-ship  aiTangements  which  is  needed 
in  the  merchant  ship  is  tho  adoption  of  more  than  one  screw  and  of 
greater  breadth  of  •hip,  so  that  defences  round  machinery  may  be 
created  in  time  of  war.  Both  these  changes  in  merchant-ship 
practice  are  demanded  also  by  mercantile  interests.  The  increase  in 
breadth  amidships  would  greatly  reduce  the  risk  of  foundering  in 
collisions  and  give  more  .spacious  accommodation  amidships.  Such 
increase  when  accompanied  by  fine  ends  is  also  favourable  to  speed. 

The  use  of  two  screws  is  economical  of  power,  and  is  a  much- 
needed  security  against  the  evil  results  of  an' accident  to  an  engine, 
a  shaft,  or  a  propeller.  The  time  will  doubtless  come  when  a 
single  propeller  in  a  large  palssenger  ship  will  be  regarded  as  an 
unpardonable  fault,  and  when  the  division  into  compartments  now 
common  will  be  held  to  bo  no  better  than  a  delusion  and  a  snare. 

The  protection  given  to  the  regular  ships-of-war  by  side  armour, 
or  by  a  protecting  deck,  at  or  near  the  water-line,  will  probably 
become  a  definite  and  indispensable  feature  in  thera,  and  may, 
perhaps,  be  their  only  distinguisliing  characteristic,  apart  from 
their  outfit  and  equipment. 

If  this  should  prove  to  be  the  issue  of  events,  their  course  will 
have  been  very  indirect.  In  the  ships-of-war  of  the  last  century 
no  attempt  was  made  to  employ  armour  on  the  sides  or  to  prevent 
tho  passage  of  projectiles  and  water  into  the  holds  by  means  of  a 
protecting  deck.  There  was  adeck  just  below  tho  water-line,  but 
It  had  no  protective  qualities.  It  served,  among  other  thing:?,  to 
furnish  passage  ways  in  action  for  the  carpenter  and  his  crew  to 
get  at  the  inner  side  of  the  wooden  walls  of  the  ship  at  and  near 
the  water-line,  so  that  when  shot  entered  tliure  the  holes  might  be 
immediately  plugged.  AVhen  screw  propulsion  was  introduced  into 
these  ships,  and  it  was  found  practicable  to  keep  the  engines  and 
boilers  under  water,  it  would  nave  been  possible  to  place  a  deck 
over  the  machinery  and  beneath  the  w^er,  which  would  have 
/^eatly  added  to  the  security  of  the  engines,  boilers,  and  magazines. 
The  space  above  this  deck  might  also  have  beeu  so  subdivided  into 
compartments  as  to  have  protected  the  buoyancy  and  stability  of 
tho  ship  against  tho  immediately  fatal  results  of  the  invasion  of 
water.  The  protection  of  the  buoyancy  and  stability  by  these 
means  would  not  have  been  absolute,  in  the  sense  of  making  tho 
ship  safe,  but  it  would  have  been  of  the  utmost  value  as  compaied 
with  ships,  otherwise  similar,  but  having  no  such  protection. 

Thirty  years  passed  between  the  date  when  screw-propeller  engiues 
tvcre  placed  beneath  the  water-level  in  ships  of  war  and  that  at  which 
a  committee  on  designs,  under  the  presidency  of  Lord  Duffcrin,  pro- 
'  uosed  to  place  such  a  covering  deck  over  tliem,  or  to  construct  a 
water-line  raft-body.  The  proposal  of  the  main  body  of  the  com- 
mittee was  to  associate  such  a  raft-deck  for  the  protection  of  tho 
buoyancy  and  stability  of  the  ship  against  artillery  with  a  central 
armoured  citadel.  That  of  the  minority  was  to  suppress  the  armour 
in  the  region  of  tho  water-Uno  entirely,  and  to  protect  buoyancy, 
stability,  machinery,  and  magazines  by  a  raft-deck  alone.  In  1S73 
the  plan  as  indicated  by  the  main  body  of  the  committee  was  put 
into  practice  nearly  e-imultaneously  in  the  "  Duilio"  and  "  Dandolo" 
in  Itiily  and  in  the  "  Inflexible  "  in  England.  In  1878  the  system 
!as  conceived  in  princi|>le  by  the  minority  of  tho  committee  of  1S71, 
(although  not  in  the  manner  they  recommended,  was  adopted  rw 
much  smaller  vessels  in  the  British  navj'.  A  raft-deck  was  intro- 
duced iir^o  the  "Comns"  class  of  corvettes  of  2,3S0  tons  displaco- 
»ient,  a  class  which  was  regarded  as  unarmourcd.  Since  that  date 
the  raft-deck  has  been  adopted  in  a  more  or  less  complete  form  in 
"nearly  all  classes  of  unarmourcd  ships  in  the  English  navy.  So  it 
li;is  come  about  that,  out  of  some  S50  unarmtxired  ships  o-f  war  built 
and  building  in  Europe.  47  have  such  protecting  raft-decks.  Of 
these  32  are  English.  Tliere  can  bo  no  doubt  that  all  unaimoured 
ships  of  war  will  evwitnally  ke  protected  in  this  manner.  The  num- 
Jber  of  so-called  ironclads  bnilt  and  buiWing  in  Europe  is  270.  Of 
thpse,  34  are  based  ou  the  recommendation  of  tho  committee  on 
designs  ;  18  of  them  are  English.  There  are  six  other  Englieh  ships 
■with  central  citadels  and  under-water  prot^jctirfg  decks,  built  more 
than  twenty  years  ago,  but  the  raft-body  principle  is  absent  in  them. 
..  If  tlie  passage  from  the  steam  line-of-battle  ship  of  1840-1860  to 
jthe  "Admiral"  class  of  1884  had  been  made  under  the  guidance  of 
the  principles  of  tho  committee  of  1871,  European  nations  would 
fnot  find  themselves  possessed  of  large  tighting  ships  covered  from 
lend  to  end,  or  over  large  areas  of  their  sides,  with  thin  armour, 
(penetrable  to  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  guns  brought  against 
them.     But  the  sailors  of  i«n4-18(50  did  not  take  the  view  that' 


buoyancy  and  stability,  and  machinery  and  magazines,  were  th« 
vital  parts,  needing  defence  by  armour  or  by  a  raft-deck.  TJiey 
dreaded  the  effects  of  shell  exploding  between  decks,  setting  fire 
to  the  ships,  and  converting  the  decks,  crowded  with  men,  iato 
slaughter-houses.  Their  demand  was,  "Keep  out  the  shells. "  So 
it  came  about  that  iron  armour-plates,  thick  enough  to  keep  out  the 
most  powerful  shell  of  the  time,  were  worked  upon  the  sides  of  tho 
ships,  and  the  guns  were  fought  tlirough  ports  cut  in  this  armour. 
Tliis  fet'ling  was  so  strong  that  the  English  Admiralty  built  the 
**Hector"  and  "  Valiant  "  with  armoured  batteries  overlapping  by 
many  feet  at  each  end  the  armour  beneath  them,  which  protected 
the  buoyancy,  stability,  machinery,  and  magazines.  Guns  in- 
creased in  power,  and  the  armour  was  gradually  thickened  to  resist 
them,  until  from  4^  inches  of  armour,  through  which  broadside 
ports  wore  cut,  9  inches  and  10  inches  were  reached.  But  this 
thickening  of  the  armour  had  so  reduced  tho  possible  number  o/  the 
guns  in  a  ship  of  moderate  size,  and  the  guns  required  for  breaching 
such  armour  had  so  increased  in  weight,  that  the  broadside  ship 
had  to  give  way  to  the  turret  or  barbette  ship,  in  which  about  four 
such  guns  were  all  that  could  be  carried,  and  these  hadto  be  worked 
ou  turn-tables  in  or  near  the  central  line  of  tho  ship. 

The  point  now  reached  in  all  navies  is  that  the  broadside  iron- 
clad with  ports  cut  through  an  armoured  side,  as  invented  in. 
France  by  H.  Dupuy  de  Lome,  and  copied  by  evefy  power,  ut 
obsolete.  Guns  must  be  worked  singly  or  in  pairs  on  revolving 
turn-tables,  each  turn-table  being  surrounded  by  an  armoured 
tower,  forming  the  loading  chamber  or  protecting  the  mechanism. 
The  side  armour  protecting  the  buoyancy,  stability,  machinery,  and 
magazines,  although  not  introduced  for  that  purpose  originally,  is 
retained  in  France  for  very  large  ships,  is  given  up  in  Italy  in 
favour  of  a  raft-body,  and  is  retained  partially  in  England  and 
Germany  in  conjunction  with  a  raft-body. 

The  use  of  armour  has  arrested  the  development  of  the  shell.  But 
it  is  not  inconceivalile  that  its  abandonment  in  front  of  the  long 
batteries  of  guns  in  the  French  and  Italian  ships  will  invite  slieU 
attack,  and  make  existence  in  such  batteries,  if  they  are  at  al£ 
crowded,  once  more  intolerable.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  ia 
that  case  exposure  will  be  accepted,  or  a  new  demand  made  for 
armour,  at  least  against  the  niagazine  gun  and  the  quick-firing  gun. 
If  exposure  is  accepted,  it  will  bo  on  the  ground  that  the  number 
of  men  at  the  guns  is  now  very  few,  that  the  gun  positions  ai-e 
numerous  and  tjie  fire  rapid,  and  that,  if  tho  guns  had  onco  more 
to  bo  fought  through  ports  in  armour,  the  number  of  gun  positiona 
would  bo  reduced,  and  the  fragments  of  their  own  walls,  whcu 
struck  by  heavy  projectiles,  would  be  more  damaging  than  the 
projectiles  of  the  enemy. 

Internal  armour  for  tlie  protection  of  the  heavy  annour- breach- 
ing guns  must  be  retained  so  long  as  such  guns  are  used,  and  if 
they  were  abandoned  an  enemy  could  cover  himself  witii  armour 
invulnerable  to  light  artillery.  This  the  French  attempted  to  do 
in  inaugurating  the  system.  Tliey  have  been  driven  from  it  by 
the  growth  of  the  gun.  Abandon  the  heavy  gun,  and  complete 
armour-plating  might  again  bo  adopted. 

We  must  conclude  that  the  buoyancy,  stability,  machinery,  and 
magazines  must  be  protected  as  far  as  possible  against  fatal 
damage  from  a  single  blow  of  these  armour-breaching  guns.  Tho 
tendency  will  be  to  came  to  the  lightest  form  of  such  protection." 
That  lightest  form  appears  to  be  a  protecting  deck  a  little  abovo 
the  water-level  throughout  the  greatest  part  of  its  surface,  but 
sloping  down  at  the  sides  and  at  the  ends,  so  as  to  meet  the  sido 
walls  of  the  ship  under  the  water-line.  However  the  armour  is 
arranged  (apart  from  a  complete  covering  with  invulneiable  plat- 
ing), — whether  as  a  belt  with  its  upper  edge  3  feet  out,  of  the  water, 
as  in  the  French  ships  ;  as  a  central  armoured  citadel  and  a  raft- 
body  at  the  ends,  like  tlie  English  and  German  ships  ;  or  as  a  raft- 
body  throughout,  like  the  Italian  ships, — shot  holes  in  action  will 
admit  water  and  gradually  reduce  the  necessary  stability  of  the 
ship.  In  the  French  ships  the  assistance  of  the  unarmourcd  upper 
parts  is  as  necessary  to  prevent  tliem  from  upsetting  in  auything 
but  smooth  water  as  is  the  assistance  of  the  unarmourcd  raft  ends, 
in  the  English  and  German  ships.  In  the  intact  condition  the 
English  ships  liave  far  greater  stability  than  those  of  France.  In  the 
English  ships  a  reserve  of  stability  is  provided,  against  the  con-' 
tingency  of  loss  by  injuries  in  action.  In  the  French  sliips  no  more 
is  provided  than  is  required  for  the  intact  condition.  The  Frcnch 
have  not  accepted  the  position  taken  up  in  England  that  muclt 
greater  initial  stability  may  be  given  to  heavily-armoured  broad 
ships  than  is  usually  given,  witJiout  causing  heavy  rolling.  Nor 
have  they  accepted  the  further  incontrovertible  truth  tliat  the  free 
passage  of  water  in  the  raft-body  from  side  to  side  of  the  ship  in 
railing  is  rapidly  effective  in  q^uelling  the  motiou  and  bringing  the 
ship  to  rest  in  the  upright  position. 

Fropulsion. 
The   propulsion   of    ships  by  sails  differs   from  the  drifting  of 
bodies  in  the  air  before  the  wind  in  a  most  important  respect. 
Shipg  may  drift  or  sail  in  the  direct  course  of  the  wind,  and  tkCL 


SHIPBUILDING 


823 


Jirill  Aen  differ  from  air-borne  bodies  only  in  the  comparative  ' 
felowness  imposed  by  the  resistance  of  the  water.  Ships  having 
'the  same  length  as  breadth,  or  rather  opposing  the  same  form  and 
area  to  side  progress  as  to  forward  progress  could  never  do  other 
than  sail  befOtV  the  wind.  No  disposition  of  canvas  could  make 
them  deviate  to  the  right^or  left  of  their  course  to  leewaid.  But 
by  an  alteration  of  form  giving  them  greater  length  than  breadth, 
and  greater  resistance  to  motion  sideways  than  to  motion  endwise, 
they  came  to  possess  the  power  of  being  able  not  only  to  sail  to  the 
right  or  left  of  the  course  of  the  wind,  before  the  wind,  but  also  to 
sail  towards  the  wind.  The  wind  can  be  made  to  impel  them 
towards  the  point  from  which  it  is  blowing  by  means  of  the 
lengthened  form  acted  on  by  the  resistance  of  tbe  water. 

Motion  directly  towards  the  wind  cannot  be  maintained,  but  by 
sailing  obliquely  towards  it  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  th£  otlier 
progress  is  made  in  advance,  and  the  Vessel  "  beats  to  windward." 
'file  action  is  like  that  which  would  be  required  to  blow  a  railway 
car  to  the  eastward  by  the  action  of  an  easterly  wind.  If  the  line 
of  rails  were  dne  east  an-1  west,  and  the  wind  were  always  direct 
fi-om  the  east,  the  thing  could  not  bo  done.  But  with  a  wint],  to 
the  south  or  north  of  cast,  by  setting  a  sail  in  the  car  so  that  its 
eulface  lies  between  the  course  of  the  wind  and  the  direction  of  the 
Tails,  it  wo^ld  then  receive  the  impulse  of  tlie  wind  on  its  back  and 
would  drive  the  car  forwards.  There  would  be  a  large  part  of  the 
force  of  the  wind  ineffective  because  of  the  obliquity  of  the  sail ; 
and  of  the  part  which  is  ellectivo  a  largo  portion  would  be  tending 
to  force  the  car  a;;ainst  the  rails  sideways,  but  there  would  bo 
progicssion  to  windward.  In  the  case  of  the  ship  the  resistance 
to  side  motion  is  due  to  the  unsuitability  of  the  proportions  and 
form  for  process  in  that  direction  as  compared  with  progress 
Ahrad,  but  still  there  is  motion  transversely  to  the  line  of  keel. 
This  motion  is  called  leeway.  As  the  ship  moves  to  leeward  and 
ahead  simultaneously  there  is  a  point  of  balance  of  the  forces  of 
the  fluid  against  the  immersed  body — a  centre  of  fluid  pressure. 
The  object  of  the  constructor  is  to  place  the  masts  in  the  ship  in 
such  positions  that  the  centre  of  pressure  of  wind  upon  the  sails 
shall  fall  a  little  behind  or  astcin  of  this  centre  of  resistance  of 
the  Huid.  In  that  case  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  ship  to  turn 
round  under  the  action  of  these  two  forces,  and  to  turn  with  her 
head  towards  the  wind.  This  tendency  is  corrected  by  the  action 
of  the  rudder.  If  the  'tendency  to  tura  were  the  other  way, 
although  that  could  also  be  corrected  by  the  rudder,  yet  tlicrc 
would  be  danger  of  the  wind  overcoming  tho  rudder  action  iu 
squalls,  and  the  ship  would  then  come  broadside  to  the  wind. 
In  that  case,  while  she  might  have  been  quite  capable  of  bearing 
the  pressure  of  the  wind  blowing  obliquely  upon  her  sails,  she 
might  have  her  sails  blown  away,  or  her  masts  broken,  or  be  her- 
sell"  capsized  by  the  direct  impulsion  of  the  wind  npon  the  sail  and 
upon  the  hull  of  the  ship. 

Many  examples  of  disposition  of  sails  might  be  given.  Their  dis- 
position is  always  mode  to  satisfy  the  conditions  tliat  as  much  sail  as 
j/<-ssible  is  required,  but  if  tlie  vessel  is  small  it  must  be  capable  of 
Deing  instantly  let  go  in  a  squall,  or  when  the  wind  is  gusty. 
Otherwise,  where  it  cannot  be  rcndily  let  go,  its  area  should  be 
capable  of  reduction  jn  squally  weather,  still  retaining  its  efficiency, 
so  that  no  pressure  of  the  wind  should  be  capable  of  upsetting  the 
ehip.  If  a  sudden  violent  squall  should  strike  the  ship  she  should 
find  relief,  not  by  a  large  inclination,  but  by  the  blowing  away  of 
the  sails  out  of  the  bolt-ropes,  or  tlie  carrying  aivay  of  the  masts. 
One  or  other  of  these  must  of  course  happen  if  the  area  of  canvas  nnd 
the  strength  of  the  sails  and  of  the  spars  are  so  proportioned  at  the 
moment  the  squall  strikes  the  ship  as  to  be  less  than  the  resistance 
offered  by  the  stability  of  the  ship  to  a' large  inclination.  Sliips 
are  sometimes,  when  stnick  by  a  squall,  blown  over  on  to  their  sides, 
the  sails  being  in  the  'i.ater.  If  tho  sails  or  spars  are  then  cut 
away  or  otherwise  got  rid  of  the  ship  may  right  herself. 

In  the  Tramactio7i3  o(  the  Institution  of  Naval  Arclitects  for 
1881,  Mr  W.  H.  White  says  :— 

"Any  invcfltipatton  of  tho  behaviour  of  sailhig  ehipa  at  &er.  nmst  take 
account  of  the  cc<inlitlonfl  belonging  to  the  diHcussion  of  tbclr  rjllhig  when 
no  flail  is  set,  and  must  superpose  upon  those  conJitions  the  o*her  and  no 
IcM  difficult  conditions  rel.itins  to  the  action  of  the  wind  upon  the  aaih,  the 
hilluence  of  heaving  motions  upon  tho  stftbility,  and  the  steadying  effect  of 
eail-sprcad. 

"It  may  fairly  be  assumed  that  tho  labours  of  the  late  Mr  W.  I'rondo 
liave  rnadc  It  posaibVo  to  predict,  with  close  approximation  to  truth,  the 
tuhaviour  of  a  sbip  whose  qualities  ars  known  antl  which  has  no  sails  set, 
ivlicn  rolling  among  waves  of  any  a5anmed  dimensions.  liy  ft.  hn])py  coni- 
Ijin.itlon  of  experimental  invcstlKation  and  mathematical  procedure,  Vr 
Froude  aucccedcd  in  tracing  the  motion  from  instant  to  instaut,  and  checked 
the  results  thus  obtained  by  comparison  with  tl";  actual  ob3er\'atious  made 
111  a  sea-way  on  the  behaviour  of  tho  'Devastation.'  Tlio  details  of  his 
method,  and  examploa  of  Its  application,  will  be  found  in  the  TraJisactions 
JorlS75,  and  fn  tho  appendix  to  the  report  of  tho  'Iiifiexibre'  romniittce. 

"The  conclusion  I  have  reached,  altera  careful  study  of  tho  fiubjoct,  Is 
that  wo  need  very  consldonible  extensions  of  our  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
■wlnd-prcMure  bcforo  more  exact  InvcBtigatlons  will  be  possible  so  as  to 
enable  us  to  pronounce  npon  the  safety  or  danger  of  a  aalling  ship.  Nor 
must  It  be  overlooked  that  sailing  ships  are  not  to  be  trcat.-d  aa  machines 
worked  under  certain  nxed  roii'liti-.ns.  Their  safety  dep'-nds  at  le.T5t  as 
much  upon  seamanship  and  skilful  management  as  upon  tho  (luaUties  wi^h 
.which  they  are  endowed  by  their  dcslsuera.    Moreover,  it  Ls  idle  to  protcud 


that,  in  determining  what  sail-spread  can  be  safely  given  to  a  ship,  the  naval 
architect  proceeds  in  accordance  witli  exact  or  purely  scientific  methods. 
He  is  largely  inilaenced  by  the  results  of  experience  with  other  ships,  and 
thus  proceeds  by  comparison  rather  than  by  direct  investigation  from  ilrst 
principles.  Certain  scienttftc  methods  are  employed,  of  course,  in  making 
these  comparisons.  For  example,  the  righting  moment  at  different  angles 
of  inclination  is  usually  compared  with  the  corresponding  'sail-moment*; 
but  even  here  certain  assumptionihave  to  be  made  as  to  the  amount  of  sail 
to  be  reckoned  in  the  calculation,  and  as  to  the  ciTective  wind-pressure  iier 
unit  of  sail-area.  Uetween  ship  and  ship  these  assumptions  are  unobjection- 
able, hut  they  are  not  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  strictly  true. 

"The  calculations  of  curves  of  etability  and  the  determination  of  tho 
ranges  of  stability  for  ships  form  important  extensions  of  earner  prpctice. 
Uut,  even  when  possessed  of  this  additional  information,  the  naval  architect 
must  resort  to  experience  in  oi"der  to  appreciate  fairly  tho  inllneuce  of  sea- 
manship and  the  relative  manageability  of  Ehips  and  sails  of  different  sizes. 
There  can  be  no  question  but  tliat  a  good  range  and  large  area  of  a  curve  of 
etability  denote  conditions  very  favourable  to  the  safety  of  a  sliip  against 
capsizing.  Cut,  in  practice,  it  frequently  happens  that  such  favourable 
conditions  can  scarcely  be  eecured  iu  association  with  otiicr  important 
qualities,  and  a  comparatively  moderate  range  and  area  of  the  curve  of 
stability  have  to  be  considered  when  the  designer  attempts  to  decide  whtther 
sufficient  stability  has  been  provided.  Under  these  circumstances  expciience 
Is  of  tlie  greatest  value ;  a  priori  reasoning  cannot  take  the  place  of  cxperi- 
euLc,  because  (as  remarked  above)  the  worst  combination  of  circumstances 
cannot  be  fixed,  and  because  some  important  conditions  in  tha  problem  are 
yet  unsettled.  Certain  arbitrary  standards  may  bo  set  up,  and  sliips  may 
be  pronounced  safe  or  unsafe ;  but  this  is  no  sohition  of  the  problem.  ,  'Jhcro 
arc  classes  of  ships  in  existence  which  have  been  navigated  in  all  weatlieia, 
under  sail,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  which  might  bo  pronounced  unsafe 
if  tested  by  some  of  the  standards  that  have  been  proposed;  but  the  fact 
that  not  a  single  vessel  of  that  class  has  been  capsized  or  lost  at  sea  during 
many  years  will  probably  be  accepted,  inmost  quarters,  assutlicient  evidence 
of  tlie  seaworthiness  of  these  classes,  and  as  an  indication  of  the  dnnbtful 
authority  of  the  proposed  standards." 

For  the  dilferent  kinds  of  sails,  and  for  sailmaking,  see  Sail. 

The  "Comet"  was  the  first  steam-vessel  built  in  Europe  that  Sfce&tU' 
plied  with  success  in  any  river  or  open  sea.  She  was  built  in- 
Scotland  in  1811-12  for  Jlr  Henry  lieli,  of  Helensburgh,  having 
been  designed  as  well  as  built  by  Mr  John  Wood,  at  Tort- 
Glasgow.  The  little  vessel  was  42  feet  long  and  11  i"ect  wide. 
Her  engine  was  of  about  four  horse-power,  with  a  single  vertical 
cylinder.  She  made  her  first  voyage  in  January  1812,  and  plied 
regularly  between  Glasgow  and  Greenock  at  about  5  miles  an 
liour.  There  had  been  an  earlier  comnicrcial  success  than  this 
with  a  steam  vessel  in  the  United  States,  for  a  steamer  called  the 
"Clermont"  was  built  in  1807,  and  plied  successfully  on  the  Hud- 
son River.  This  boat,  built  for  Fulton,  was  engined  by  the 
English  firm  of  Buultou  &  Watt.  The  reason  for  this  choice  of 
engineers  by  Fulton  appears  to  have  been  that  Fulton  had  seen 
a  still  earlier  steamboat  for  towing  in  canals,  also  built  in  Scotland, 
in  1801,  for  Lord  Dun^as,  and  having  an  engine  on  "Watt's  tlouble- 
acting  principle,  working  by  means  of  a  connecting  rod  and  crank 
and  single  stern  wheel.  This  vessel,  the  "  Charlotte  Dundas,"  waa 
successful  so  far  as  propulsion  was  concerned,  but  was  not  regularly 
employed  because  of  the  destructive  effect -j  of  the  propeller  upon 
the  banks  of  the  canals.  The  engine  of  the  canal  boat  was  made 
by  Mr  William  Symington,  and  lio  had  previously  made  a  marine 
engine  for  Mr  Patrick  Miller,  of  Dalswintcn,  Dumfriesshire.  This 
last-named  engine,  made  in  Edinburgh  in  1788,  marks,  it  is  said, 
the  first  really  satisfactory  attempt  at  :.team  navigation  iu  the 
world.  It  was  employed  to  drive  two  central  paddle-wheels  in  a 
twin  pleasure-boat  (a  sort  of  "Castalia")  on  Dalswinton  Loch. 
The  cylinders  were  only  4  inches   in  diameter,    but  a  speed  of 

5  miles  an  hour  was  attained  iu  a  boat  25  feet  long  and 
7  feet  broad.  The  first  steam  vessel  built  in  a  royal  dockyai-d 
was  also  called  the  "Comet."  She  a;  ;cars  to  have  been  built 
about  the  year  1822,  and  was  engined  by  Boulton  &  Watt. 
This  ship  had  two  engines  of  ."orty  horse-power  each,  to  be  worked 
in  pairs  on  tho  plan  understood  to  have  been  introduced  by  the 
same  firm  in  1814.  In  1S38  the  "Sinus"  and  "Great  Western  '* 
commenced  the  regular  Atlantic  passage  under  steam.  The  latter 
vessel,  proposed  by  I.  K.  Drnnel,  and  engined  by  Maudslay  Sons 

6  Field,  made  the  passage  at  about  8  or  9  knots  per  hour.'    One 

year   earlier   (1837)   Captain   Ericsson,    a   scientific   veteran   who  Scww 
is  still  amon^  us  (1886),  towed   the  Admiralty  bnrgc  with   their  pro- 
lordships  on  board  from  Somerset  House  to  lilackwall  and  back  pel!er3. 
at  the  rate  of  10  miles  an  hour  in  a  small  steam  vessel  driven  by 
a  screw. 

Tho  screw  did  not  come  rapidly  into  favour  ^ith  tho  Admiralty, 
and  it  was  not  until  1842  that  they  first  became  possessed  of  a 
screw  vessel.  This  vessel,  first  called  tho  "  J^fermaid "  and 
afterwards  the  "Dwarf,"  was  designed  and  built  by  the  lato  Mr 
Ditcliburn,  and  engined  by  Messrs  Rennio*  In  1841-3  the 
"Itattlcr,"  tlie  first  ship-of-war  propelled  by  a  sci-ew,  was  built 
for  and  by  the  Admiralty  under  tho  general  superintendence 
of  Brunei,  who  was  also  superintending  at  the  same  time  tho 
constriittion  of  the  "  Great  Britain,"  built  of  iron.  The  engines 
of  tho  "Rattler,"  of  200  nominal  horsc-iiower,  were  made  by 
Messrs  Maudslay.  They  were  constructed,  like  tho  paddle-wheel 
engines  of  that  day,  with  vertical  cylinders  and  overhead  crank- 
shaft, with  wheel  gearing  to  give  the  required  speed  to  the  screw. 
The  next  screw  engines  made  for  the  Royal  Navy  were  those  of  the 
"Amphion,"  300  nominal  horse-power,  made  in  1.844  by  Miller 
and-  llavouhilL     Iu    these    the    cylinder    took    the    horizoutjj 


824 


SHIPBUILDING 


position,  and  they  became  the  typo  of  screw  engines  in  general  nse.  ' 
This  ship  had  a  screw-well  and  hoisting  gear  for  the  screw.  In 
1845  tbo  importanco  of  the  screw  propeller  for  shi[>s  of  war 
became  fully  recognised,  and  designs  and  tenders  were  invited 
from  all  the  principal  marine  engineers  in  the  kingdom.  The 
Government  of  that  day  then  took  the  bold  step  of  ordering  at 
once  nineteen  sets  of  screw  engines.  Six  of  tb-ese  had  wheel 
gearing;  in  all  the  rest  the  engines  were  direct-acting.  The  steam 
pressure  in  the  boilers  was  from  5  to  10  lb  only  above  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  if  the  engines  indicated  twice  tlie  nominal  power  it 
was  considered  a  good  performance.  The  most  successful  enmnes 
were  those  of  the  *' Arrogant  "  and  "  Encounter  "  of  Messrs  renn. 
They  had  a  higher  speed  of  piston  than  the  others,  and  the  air- 
pumps  were  worked  direct  from  the  pistons,  and  had  the  same 
length  of  stroke.  These  engines  developed  more  power  for  a  given 
amount  of  weight  than  other  engines  of  their  day,  and  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  many  excellent  engines  on  the  double-trunk 
plan  made  by  this  firm  for  the  navj'.  The  engines  with  wheel- 
gearing  for  the  screws  were  lieavier,  occupied  more  space,  and  were 
not  so  successful  as  the  others,  and  no  more  of  that  description 
were  ordered  for  the  British  navy. 
Ecooo-  Up  to  ISGO  neither  surface-condensers  nor  superheaters  were 
mical  used  in  tiie  navy.  Tho  consumption  of  fuel  was  about  43^  lb  per 
engines,  one  horse-power  per  hoar,  in  that  year  (1860)  three  ships,  the 
"Arethusa,"  "Octavia,"  and  "Constance,"  were  fitted  respectively 
by  Messrs  Penn,  Messrs  Maudslay,  and  Messrs  Elder,  with  engines 
of  large  cylinder  capacity  to  admit  of  great  expansion,  with  sur- 
face-condensers and  superheaters  to  the  boilers.  Those  of  tlie 
•* Arethusa"  were  double-trunk,  with  two  cylinders  ;  those  of  the 
**Octavia"  were  three-cylinder  engines  ;  and  those  Oif  tho  "Con- 
stance "  were  compound  engines  with  six  cylinders  ;  the  first  two 
were  worked  with  steam  of  25  lb  pressure  per  square  inch,  and  the 
last  with  steam  of  32  lb  pressure.  AH  these  engines  gave  good 
results  as  to  economy  of  fuel,  but  those  of  the  **  Constance  *'  were 
the  best,  giving  one  indicated  horse-power  with  2j  lb  of  fuel.  But 
the  engines  of  tiie  "Constance"'  were  excessively  complicated  aud 
heavy.  They  weighed,  including  water  in  boilers  and  fittings, 
about  5J  cwts.  per  maximum  indicated  horse-power,  whereas  ordi- 
nary engines  varied  between  3|  and  4^  cwts. 

For  the  next  ten  years  engines  with  low-pressure  steam,  surface- 
condensers,    and   largo   cylinder   capacity  were   employed  almost 
exclusively  in  the  ships  of  the  Royal  Navy.     A  few  compound 
engines,   ■with  steam  of  30  lb  pressure,  were  used  in  this  period 
with  good  results  as  to  economy,  but  they  gave  trouble  in  some 
of  the   working  parts.      Compound   engines,   with  high-pressure 
steam  (55  lb),   were  first  used   in   the  Royal  Navy  in   1867,   on 
Messrs  Maudslay's  plan,  in  the  "Sirius."     These  have  been  very 
successful.      In  the    Royal    Navy   as  well   as  in  the  mercantile 
marine,  the  compound   engiuo  is  now  generally  adopted.     They 
have  been  made  rather  heavier  than  the  engines  which  immediately 
preceded  them,  but  they  are  about  25  per  cent  more  economical 
in  fuel,  and,  taking  a  total  weight  of  machinery  and  fuel  together, 
there  is  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  gain  iu  the  distance  i-un  with  a 
given  weight 
Rednc-         Wrought-iron  is  largely  used  in  the  framing  in  the  place  of  cast- 
tion  in     iron,  and  hollow  propeller  shafts  made  of  Whitworth  steel.     By 
weight      tlieso  means  the  weight  is  being  reduced,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
of  that  a  still  further  reduction  may  yet  be  made  by  the  use  of  high- 

engines,    class  materials  in  the  engines  and  steel  in  the  boilers. 

Mr  Thornycroft,  of  Chiswick,  and  others,  by  means  of  high  rate  of 
revolution,  forced  combustion,  and'the  judicious  use  of  steel,  have 
obtained  as  much  as  455  indicated  horse-power  with  a  total  weight 
of  machinery  of  ]  1 2  tons,  including  water  in  boilers.  The  ordinary 
weight  of  a  seagoing  marine  engine  of  large  size,  with  economical 
consumption  of  fuel,  excepting  a  few  of  very  recent  construction, 
would  be  six  or  seven  times  as  great.  By  closing  in  the  stoke- 
holes and  employing  fans  to  create  a  pressure  of  air  in  them 
capable  of  sustaining  from  one  to  two  inches  of  water  in  the  gauges 
the  consumption  of  coal  per  sqnar^  foot  of  fire-grate  per  hour  may 
be  raised  to  130  lb  and  upwards.  The  indicated  horse-power 
which  can  be  obtained  in  ordinary  cases  with  the  steam-blast  in 
the  qhimney  to  quicken  consumption  does  not  exceed  ten.  But 
by  the  forced  draft  above  described  it  can  bo  raised  with  ordinary 
boilers  to  17  to  18  indicated  horse-power  per  square  foot  of  fire- 
grate. In  torpedo  boats  with  locomotive  boilers  overi23  horse- 
power per  foot  of  fire-grate  is  attainable. 
EfE-  The  following  observations  on  efficiency  are  taken^from  the  work 

ciency       of  Mr  Sennett  on  The  Marine  Steam  Engine  : — 

"  In  every  machine  there  are  always  certain  causes  acting  that 
produce  waste  of  work,  so  that  the  whole  work  done  by  the  machine 
is  not  usefully  employed,  some  of  it  being  exerted  in  overcoming 
the  friction  of  the  mechanism,  and  some  wasted  in  various  other 
ways.  The  fraction  representing  the  ratio  that  the  useful  work 
done  bears  to  the  total  power  expended  by  tho  machine  is  called  the 
efficiency  of  tlie  machine  ;  or — 

_,_  ,  Useful  work  done. 

Efficiency  =  ;^r-—. T--r 

'       Total  power  f  »peDdi^. 


Tn  the  marine  steam  engine,  in  which  the  useful  work  is  measured 
by  its  propelling  cfl"ect  on  the  ship,  there  are  four  successive  stages^ 
in  each  of  which  a  portion  of  the  initial  energy  is  wasted,  and  these 
four  causes  all  tend  to  decrease  tlie  efficiency  of  tho  engine  as  a 
whole. 

"  In  the  first  place,  only  a  portion  of  the  heat  yielded  by  tlie 
combustion  of  tho  coal  in  the  furnaces  is  communicated  to  the 
water  iu  the  boiler,  the  remainder  being  wasted  in  various  ways. 
The  fraction  of  the  total  heat  evolved  by  the  combustion  of  tho 
coal,  that  is,  transmitted  to-the  water  in  the  boiler,  is  in  ordinary 
cases  not  more  than  from  -^^  to  ■^.  This  fraction  is  called  the 
efficiency  of  the  boiler. 

"  Secondly,  the  steam,  after  leaving  the  boiler,  ha^  to  perform 
mechanical  work  on  the  piston  of  the  engine  ;  but  this  work, 
in  consequence  of  the  narrow  limits  of  temperature  between  whicU 
the  engine  is  worked,  is  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  heat 
contained  in  tho  steam — say  from  \  to  -^^  according  to  the  kind 
of  engine  and  rate  of  expansion  employed.  This  fraction,  repre- 
senting tho  ratio  of  the  mechanical  work  done  by  the  steam  to  tho 
total  amount  of  heat  contained  in  it,  is  called  tho  efficiency  of  the 
steam. 

"  Thirdly,  in  the  engine  itself  a  part  of  the  work  actually  per- 
formed by  the  steam  on  the  pistons  is  wasted  in  overcoming  tho 
friction  of  the  working  parts  of  the  machinery  and  iu  working  tho 
pumps,  &c.  The  remainder  is  turned  into  useful  work  in  driving 
the  propeller.  The  fraction  representing  the  ratio  that  this  useful 
work  bears  to  the  total  power  exerted  by  the  pistons  is  called  the 
efficiency  of  the  mechanism. 

"  Fourthly,  the  propeller,  in'additiou  to  driving  the  ship  ahead, 
expends  some  of  the  power  transmitted  to  it  in  agitating  and 
churning  the  water  in  which,  it  acts,  and  the  work  thus  performed 
is  wasted, — the  only  useful  work  being  that  employed  in  overcoming 
the  resistance  of  the  ship  and  driving  her  ahead.  The  ratio  of  this 
useful  work  to  the  total  power  expended  by  the  propeller  is  called 
the  efficiency  of  the  propeller. 

"  Tlie  resultant  efficiency  of  the  marine  stearn  engine  is  made  up 
of  the  four  efficiencies  just  stated,  and  is  given  by  the  product 
of  the  four  factors  representing  respectively  the  efficiencies  of 
the  boiler,  the  steam,  the  mechanism,  and  the  propeller.  Any 
improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  tho  marine  steam  engine,  aud, 
consequently,  iu  the  economy  of  its  performance,  is  therefore  due 
to  an  increase  in  one  or  more  of  these  elements." 

Under  Steam  Enoike  will  be  found  a  discussion  of  the  first 
three  of  the  efficiencies  enumerated  above.  Propulsion  and  pro- 
pellers have  to  be  considered  here, 

*'The  principle  upon  which  nearly  all  marine  propellers  work,"  Fro- 
says  Mr  Sydney  Barnaby,  "is  the  projection  of  a  mass  of  water  in  psUerai 
a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  required  motion  of  the  vessel.  " 
When  a  vessel  is  in  motion  at  a  regular  speed  the  reaction  of  tho 
mass  of  water  projected  backwards  by  the  propeller  is  exactly  equal 
to  the  resistance  experienced  by  the  vessel  When  it  is  clearly 
understood  that  propulsion  is  obtained  by  the  reaction  of  a  mas^ 
of  water  projected  stcrnwards  with  a  velocity  relative  to  smooth 
■water,  the  absurdity  is  at  once  seen  of  attempting  to  get  a  pro- 
peller to  work  without  slip.  If  there  is  no  slip  there  is  no  resultant 
propelling  reaction  except  in  the  limiting  case  where  the  mass  of 
water  acted  upon  is  infinite.  The  whole  problem  therefore  resolves 
itself  into  this — AVhat  is  the  best  proportion  between  the  mass  of 
water  thrown  astern  and  the  velocity  with  which  it  is  projected, 
that  is,  if  the  screw  propeller  is  under  consideration,  the  ratio 
between  its  diameter  and  its  pitch  ?" 

*' There  are  four  different  kinds  ff)  propellers  apart  from  sai la- 
the oar,  the  paddle-wheel,  the  screw,  and  the  water  jet. 

'*The  first  and  oldest  of  them— the  oar — maybe  used  in  t.wO' 
ways.  The  action  may  bo  intermittent,  as  in  rowing,  when 
water  is  driven  astern  during  half  the  stroke  and  the  instru"ment 
brought  back  above  tho  water  ;  or  its  action  may  be  continuous,  as 
in  sculling.  When  used  as  in  rowing  it  is  exactly  analogous  to  a 
paddle-wheel,  while  the  action  of  the  scull  closely  resembles  that 
of  the  screw.  It  is  supposed  that  in  the  ancient  galleys,  which 
were  propelled  by  a  large  number  of  oars  in  several  tiers  or  banks, 
tho  oars  hung  vertically  and  worked  inwards  and  outwards  v.ith  a. 
sculling  action.  They  were  not  removed  from  tho  water,  but 
served  as  props  when  the  vessel  was  aground- ■  The  oars  were 
always  propelling  tho  vessel,  in  both  parts  of  the  stroke.  Th© 
rowers  generally  sat  with  their  faces  outwards  and  forwards.  Thens 
was  great  overhang  of  the  sides  to  allow  of  several  tiers  of  rowers 
one  above  another.  Tho  oar  as  msed  for  rowing  is  a  very  efficient 
instrument  To  obtain  the  maximum  efficiency  out  ol  it  a  con- 
stant pressure  Should  be  maintained  upon  the  oar,  so  that  the  water 
is  started  gradually  from  rest,  and  the  acceleration  uniformly  in- 
creased throughout 'the  whole  of  tho  stroke.  A  glance  at  a  univer- 
sity crew  will  show  that  the  stroke  is  kept  up  with  a  uniform 
pressure  aud  without  any  jeik." 

Speaking  of  the  screw  propeller,  Mr  S.  Barnaby  says: — "The 
speed  with  which  water  can  follov/  up  the  blades  of  a  screw  depends- 
upon  the  head  of  water  over  it,  but  when  the  immersion  is  sufii- 


SHIPBUILDING 


825 


*ient  to  exclude  air  a  head  of  water  equivalent  to  30  feet  is  sup- 
plied by  the  atmosphere,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Osborno 
Keynolda.  Experiments  on  the  model  of  the  Thornycroft  sorew 
have  shown  that  the  efficiency,  which  is  as  much  as  70  per  cent. 
"when  properly  immersed,  falls  to  about  50  percent,  when  breaking 
ihe  surface  of  the  water.  As  a  result  of  a  change  from  a  diameter 
of  5  feet  10  inches  to  4  feet  6  inches  the  speed  of  the  first-class 
torpedo  boat  was  raised  from  18  to  20  knots,  other  conditions  re- 
inaming  the  same. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  stem  is  the  best  position  for  the 
ficrew.  As  a  vessel  passes  through  the  water  the  friction  imparts 
motion  to  the  layer  of  water  rubbing  against  the  side.  This  layer 
increases  in  thickness  towards  ,the  stern,  so  that,  after  the  vessel 
lias  passed  through,  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  is  left  with  a 
motion  in  the  same  direction  as  the  vessel.  If  the  screw  works  in 
this  water  it  is  able  to  recover  some  of  the  energy  which  has  been 
expended  by  the  ship  in  giving  it  motion.  The  speed  of  this 
water,  which  Rankine  estimates  may  be  as  much  as  one-tenth  of 
the  speed  of  the  vessel,  does  not  depend  upon  the  form  but  upon 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  surface.  As  it  is  a  necessity  that 
there  should  be  such  a  wake,  it  is  a  distinct  advantage  to  place 
the  propeller  in  it  and  allow  it  to  utilii:e  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  energy  it  finds  there.  It  is  important  not  to  confound  this 
Tvater,  which  has  had  motion  given  to  it  by  the  side  and  bottom 
■of  the  slf^,  with  the  wave  of  replacement,  that  is,  the  water  filling 
in  behind  the  ship.  It  should  be  the  aim  to  interfere  as  little  as 
possible  with  this  motion,  as  such  interference  augments  the  resist- 
ance of  the  ship  very  considerably,  even  in  well-formed  ships. 
The  propeller  should  therefore  be  kept  aa  far  away  from  the  stern 
as  nossilile. 

'•  In  the  small  high-speed  stern  launches  the  propeller  has  been 
Icept  outside  the  rudder,  with  advantage  to  the  speed.  "What  is 
required  is  that  before  reaching  the  screw  the  water  shall  have 
given  out  upon  the  stern  of  the  ship  the  energy  put  into  it  by  the 
DOW.  If  a  screw  propeller  is  placed  behind  a  bluff  stern  so  that  its 
supply  of  water  is  imperfect  it  will  draw  in  water  at  the  centre  of 
the  driving  face,  and  throw  it  off  round  the  tips  of  the  blades,  like 
A  centrifugal  pump,  thus  producing  a  loss  of  pressure  upon  the 
Atern  of  the  vessel.  For  very  high  speed  vessels  several  propellers 
wrfuld  enable  the  weight  of  the  machinery  to  be  kept  down.  The 
weight  of  an  engine  of  a  given  type  per  indicated  horse-power 
■caries  inversely  as  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  ;  that  is, 
the  greater  the  number  of  revolutions  the  less  the  weight  per 
Indicated  horse-power. 

"There  is  a  certain  quantity  of  work  which  must  be  lost  with 
any  propeller,  and  it  is  equal  to  the  actual  energy  of  the  discharged 
water  moving  astern  of  the  propeller  with  a  velocity  relative  to 
still  water.  As  this  energy  varies  as  the  weight  multiplied  by  the 
aquaro  of  the  velocity,  if  we  double  the  quantity  of  water  acted 
upon  we  double  the  loss  from  this  cause,  but  if  we  double  the 
velocity  with  which  the  water  is  discharged  we  increase  the  loss 
fourfold.  This  shows  the  advantage  of  acting  upon  a  large  column 
of  water,  and  leaving  it  with  as  small  a  speed  as  possible  relative 
to  still  water.  For  this  reason  the  screw  is  a  more  efficient  instru- 
ment than  a  paddle-wheel,  and  the  jet  propeller,  with  its  small 
area  of  jet,  is  so  much  inferior  to  the  screw.  From  the  above  con- 
eideratioDS  it  would  appear  that  the  larger  the  diameter  of  a  screw 
and  the  smaller  the  slip  the  greater  the  efficiency  would  be. 
There  i^,  however,  another  element  of  loss  which  has  to  be  con- 
sidered, which  imposes  a  limit  to  the  size  of  a  screw  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  efficiency.  This  element  is  the  friction  of  the 
screw  blades.  How  large  the  effect  of  this  element  may  be  is 
«hown  by  the  case  of  K.M.S.  'Iris.'  This  ship  was  originally 
fitted  with  two  four-bl.i<led  propellers,  18  feet  in  diameter,  and 
with  18  feet  pitch  or  Tolocity  of  advance  per  revolution.  She 
obtained  a  speed  with  these  propellers  of  IDJ  knots  with  an  ex- 
penditure of  6369  horse-power.  Two  blades  were  then  taken 
from  each  propeller,  reducing  the  total  number  from  eight  to 
four.  The  indicated  horse-power  then  required  for  the  same 
Bpeed  was  4369,  or  two  thousand  less  horse-powcr.  T.us  amount 
had  been  lost  in  driving  the  four  additional  blades." 
^n3«s  "The  causes  of  loss  of  work  incidental  to  propellers  of  different 
sfineffi*  kinds  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:^!)  Suddenness  of  change 
tiency,  from  velocity  of  feed  to  velocity  of  discharge.  Propellers  which 
suffer  from  this  cause  are  the  radial  paddle-wheel  and  the  common 
uniform  pitch  screw  ;  while  those  which  in  varying  degree  avoid 
it  are  the  gaining  pitch  screw,  the  feathering  paddle-wheel, 
Ruthven's  form  of  centrifugal  pump,  and  the  oar.  (2)  Transverse 
motion  impressed  on  the  water.  Propellers  which  lose  in  efficiency 
from  this  cause  are  ordinary  screw-propellers,  which  impart  rotary 
motion,  radial  wheels,  which  give  both  downward  aTid  upward 
motion  on  entering  and  leaving  the  water,  and  oars,  which  impact 
outward  and  inward  motion  atthe  commencement  and  end  of  the 
stroke  respectively.  This  loss  is  greatly  reduced  in  the  guidc- 
propcllcr,  as  the  guides  take  the  rotary  motion  out  of  the  water  and 
utilise  it  in  so  doing.  (3)  M'aste  of  energy  of  the  feed  water.  This 
ia  experienced  in  the  jet  propeller  as  generally  applied." 


The  present  condition  of  the  case  of  screw  steamship  propulsion 
appears,  according  to  Mr  Fronde's  estimate,  to  be  that,  calling  the 
cff<--ctive  horse-power  (that  is,  the  power  due  to  the  net  resistance) 
100,  then  at  the  highest  speeds  the  horse-power  required  to  over- 
come the  induced  negative  pressure  under  the  stem  consequent  on 
the  thrust  of  the  screw  is  40  more ;  the  friction  of  the  screw  in  the 
watet  is  10  more  ;  the  friction  in  the  machinery  67  more  ;  and  air- 
pump  resistance  perhaps  13  more  ;  add  to  this  23  for  slip  of  screw, 
and  we  find  that,  in  addition  to  the  power  required  to  overcome  the 
net  resistance  =  100,  we  need  40 -H 10  +  67  + IS -f  23,  making  in  all 
255:  i.e.,  at  maximum  speeds  the  indicated  power  of  the  engines 
needs  to  be  more  than  two-and-a-half  times  that  which  is  directly 
effective  in  propulsion.  {N.  B.) 

Boatbuilding. 

The  foregoing  article  may  be  supplemented  by  a  brief  account  of 
boatbuilding.  The  distinction  between  this  and  shipbuilding  is 
not  of  a  marked  character  and  cannot  be  sharply  defined.  But 
for  all  practical  purposes  the  builder  of  a  vessel  without  a  deck, 
or  but  partially  decked,  and  propelled  partly  by  sails  and  partly 
by  oai-s,  or  wholly  by  oars,  may  be  defined  as  a  boatbuilder. 

The  boats  in  general  use  at  present  may  be  classified  as  racing 
boats,  pleasure  boats,  or  boaU  used  for  commercial  purposes. 
Racing  boats  (compare  Rowikg)  are  generally  built  of  mahogany, 
and  are  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  tlie  boatbuilder's  ait.  The  out 
rigger  sculling  boat  measures  from  30  to  35  feet  long,  12  to  14  inches 
in  breadth,  and  9  inches  in  depth,  weighing  only  from  35  to  45  lb, 
and  the  eight-oared  outrigger,  being  from  55  to  65  feet  long  by  2 
feet  2  inches  to  2  feet  5  inches  in  breadth,  weighs  about  300  B>. 
Pleasure  boats  vary  in  form  and  dimensions,  from  the  15-feet  row- 
ing boat  used  on  the'sea-coast  to  the  gondola  type  found  principally 
on  the  canals  of  Venice  and  used  occasionally  on  the  Thames,  &c., 
for  ceremonial  pageants.  Boats  used  for  commercial  purposes 
embrace  fishing,  canal,  and  ships'  boats.  Fishing  boats  (compare 
Fisheries)  are  gradually  passing  from  the  sphere  of  the  boat- 
builder  to  that  of  the  shipbuilder, — the  open  boats  of  former  years 
being  in  many  cases  replaced  by  large,  strong,  decked  craft  more  able 
to  withstand  the  gales  of  the  British  coasts.  Canal  boats  are  gene- 
rally long,  narrow,  and  shallow,  from  50  to  70  feet  long  by  8  to  10 
feet  in  breadth,  and  from  4  to  5  feet  in  depth.  All  sea-going 
vessels  are  requii-ed  by  statute  to  bo  provided  with  boats  fully 
equipped  fc-**  use,  not  fewer  in  number  nor  less  in  their  cubical 
contents  than  what  is  specified  for  the  class  to  which  the  ship 
belongs.  The  boats  vary  considerably  in  form  and  dimensions  as  well 
as  in  material  and  construction,  according  to  the  service  intended. 
The  number  of  boats  a  passenger  steamer  of  1000  tons  and  upwards 
is  required  to  carry  is  six  or  seven,  accordirg  to  the  dimensions  of 
the  boats.  In  either  caso  two  of  the  largest  boats  must  bo  fitted  as 
lifeboats.  If  the  smaller  number  is  carried,  the  set  will  consist  of 
two  lifeboats,  one  launch,  two  cutters  or  yinnaces,  and  one  gig. 

Lifeboats  are  built  both  cuds  alike,  having  a  sheer  or  rise  from 
midships -towards  stem  and  stern  of  ^  ii.ch  to  ^  inch  per  foot  of 
length.  They  have  air-cases  of  copper  or  yellow  metal  fitted  in 
the  ends  and  along  the  sidcis  of  the  boat,  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
give  each  person  carried  in  tlio  boat  one  and  a  half  cubic  feet  of 
strong  enclosed  air-space  (compare  vol.  xiv,  p.  570).  Cutters  are 
similar  in  form  but  of  smaller  dimensions  than  lifeboats  ;  pinnaces 
are  about  the  same  dimensions  as  cutters,  but  have  square  sterns. 
Gigs  are  of  lighter  construction  and  finer  form  than  pinnaces. 
A  service  boat  called  a  dingy  is  also  carried,  for  the  conveyance  of 
light  stores  between  the  shore  and  the  vessel.  Boats,  when  carried 
so  close  to  the  funnel  of  a  steamer  as  to  be  injuriously  affected  by 
the  heat  therefrom,  have  of  late  years  been  built  of  zinc,  iron,  or 
steel.  Those  built  of  steel  have  plates  ^^  inch  thick  and  galvan- 
ized, the  keel,  stem,  stei^,  and  dradwood  knees  being  of  wood, 
to  which  the  plating  is  attached. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  method  of  constniction.  Tlio 
designer  lays  down  on  paper  the  linea  and  body-plan  of  the  craft, 
which  arc  afterwards  traced  full  size  on  the  floor  of  tho  drawiug- 
loft.  From  these  full-sized  sections  moulds  are  njadc.  The  stem 
and  stern  posts,  having  been  cut  out  to  the  shape  designed,  are 
tenoned  into  mortices  in  tho  keel.  Two  kncfs  overlap,  and  bind 
the  stem  and  stern  posts  to  the  keel,  and  are  bolted  with  through 
bolts  and  clenched  outside  over  a  ring  or  washer.  A  stout  batten 
of  wood  is  then  nailed  between  tho  stem  and  sternpost  heads  to 
connect  them  together,  and  a  line  is  then  stretched  from  stem  to 
sternpost  to  represent  the  water-line.  The  keel,  stem,  and  stern 
posts  being  in  position  on  tho  stocks,  the  stem  and  stern  posts  arc 
then  plumbed  and  secured  by  stays  of  wood.  The  rabbets  in  tho 
keel,  stem,  and  stern  posts  are  tricn  cut  out  with  a  chisel,  after 
which  the  moulds  are  put  into  their  proper  places,  plumbed  with 
the  water-line,  and  kept  in  position  by  stays.  Tho  planking  is 
then  proceeded  with,  strake  after  strake,  and  when  the  boat  is 
planked  up  to  the  top  strake  the  floors  and  timbers  are  put  iu. 
The  floor  extends  across  the  keel  and  up  to  the  turn  of  the  bilge. 
They  are  fastened  through  tho  keel  with  copjxir  or  yellow  metal 
bolts  and  to  the  planking  with  copper  uaila. 

XXL  —  J*04 


826 


«  H  1  — S  H  1 


The  timbers  gencr.iUy  are  about  1  inch  by  J  incli,  and  are  sawn 
out  of  a  clean  piece  of  American  elm,  then  planed  and  rounded. 
Aftor_ being  steamed  they  are  fitted  into  the  boat,  and  as  soon  as 
each  is  in  position,  nnd  before  it  eooii,  it  is  nailed  fcst  with  copper 
nails.  Tlio  gunw,alc  is  nc.i;t  fitted,  a  piece  of  American  elm  .about  2 
inches  sipiare  ;  a  brc.ist-hook  is  fitted  forward,  binding  the  gunwale, 
top  strake,  stern,  and  apron  together  ;  and  aft  the  gunwale  ami  top 
strake  are  secured  to  tlie  tranwm  by  cither  a  wooden  or  iron  knee. 
A  waring  or  stringer,  about  3  inches  by  a  inch,  of  Anieric.m  elm, 
is  then  fitted  on  both  sides  of  the  boat,  about  S  to  9  inches  below 
the  gunwale,  on  the  top  of  which  the  thwarts  or  seats  rest.  The 
thwarts  arc  secured  by  knees,  which  are  fastened  with  clench  bolts 


through  the  gunwale  and  top  strake  and  also  through  tho  thwart 
and  knee.  The  boat  generally  receives  threo  coats  of  paint  and  ia 
then  ready  for  ^rvice. 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  boats  in  the  British  merchant 
service : — 


1         Length.        1        Brcudth. 

t)cp!h. 

8  ft.  C  In. 

7rt. 

e  ft.  C  ill. 
5  ft.  C  in. 
fi  It  6  iJi. 

3  ft.  C  In. 
3  ft. 

?  ft.  S  in. 
2  ft.  S  in. 
2  ft.  3  iii. 

Cultcj...'. 

'         2G  ft 

24  ft. 

Gig 

18  ft. 

E>iigy 

™...J        IG IL 

SHIPLEY,  a  town  of  Englana,  in  the  West  Riding  of  I 
Yorkshire,  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Aire,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  a  picturesque  pastoral  country,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Leeds  and  Bradford  Railway  with  the 
Bradford,  Skipton,  and  Colne  line,  3  miles  north  of  Brad- 
ford. The  church  of  St  Paul,  an  elegant  structure  in  the 
GrOthic  style  erected  in  1S20,  was  altered  and  improved 
in  187G.  The  manufacture  of  worsted  is  tlie  principal 
industry,  and  there  are  large  stone  quarries  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. A  local  board  was  estailished  in  1853.  The 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  1406  acres) 
in-  1871  was  11,757  and  in  ISSl  it  was  1.5,09,3. 

SHIPPING.  The  island  of  Britain  (to  the  shipping  of 
wtich  the  present  historical  notice  is  mainly  restricted)  is 
well  fitted  to  serve  as  a  commercial  depot,  both  by  the 
anmber  of  its  natural  harbours  and  the  variety  of  its  prc>- 
ducts.  There  is  evidence  tliat  Phcenician  traders  visited 
it  for  tin,  and  in  after  times  it  served  as  one  of-  the 
granaries  of  tho  Roman  empire.  On  the  other  hand  raw 
wool  was  the  staple  article  of  commerce  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  while  the  supremacy  of  English  manufactures  in 
modern  days  has  contributed  to  the  development  of  British 
shipping  till  it  lias  grown  out  of  all  comparison  with  any- 
thing in  ancient  or  medi;eval  times. 

Britain  must  have  been  one  of  the  most  distant  points 
that  was  visited  by  Phoenician  or  Carthaginian  ships. 
Adventurous  as  their  sailors  were  when  compared  with 
those  of  other  races,  and  ready  as  they  were  to  carry  on 
trading  on  behalf  of  neighbouring  states,  it  is  not  clear 
that  they  ever  sailed  across  the  Indian  Oeean  or  ven- 
tured beyond  the  Persian  Gulf,  even  in  the  service  of  -the 
Egyptians  (Brugsch).  Their  coasting  habits  led  to  the 
settlement  of  a  chain  of  colonies  along  the  Mediterranean 
shores,  and  that  sea  was  wide  enough  to  form  a  convenient 
barrier  between  the  Greek  and  the  Carthaginian  settle- 
ments. When  their  empire  w'as  at  length  destroyed  the 
Romans  became  the  heirs  of  their  enterprise,  but  do  not 
appear  to  have  pushed  maritime  adventure  much  further 
or  opened  out  many  new  commercial  connexions. 

Though  the  Angle  and  Saxon  tribes  were  doubtless 
skilled  both  in  shipbuilding  and  in  the  management  of 
their  vessels  at  the  time  when  they  conquered  Britain, 
these  arts  had  greatly  decayed  during  the  four  centuries 
that  elapsed  before  the  time  of  Alfred,  who  .endeavoured 
to  improve  on  existing  models  (Enff.  C/trmi.,  897).  Hence 
the  necessity  of  resisting  the  Danes,  with  the  subsequent 
fusion  pf  Danish  and  other  elements  in  our  nationality, 
may  be  taken  as  marking  the  period  when  English  shipping 
had  its  rise.  Apart  from  incidental  notices  of  communi- 
cation with  other  lands,  there  is  clear  evidence,  from  the 
early  English  laws,  of  efforts  to  encourage  commerce,  par- 
ticularly in  the  status  which  was  accorded  to  traders  and 
the  protection  afforded  to  merchant  ships.  The  whole  of 
these  arrangertvents  seem  to  imply  that  the  merchant  was 
the  owner  of  the  vessel,  who  "adventured"  with  his  car^o, 
and  sailed  in  his  ship  himself ;  but  these  vo3'3ge3  were 
probably  undertaken  for  tlie  most  part  to  ports  on  tho 


other  side   of  the  Channel,   as   it  docs  not  appear  tlia^   • 
English    ships   penetrated  to    the    Mediterranean  til!  the 
time  of  the  crusades. 

The  steady  development  of  English  shipping  during  the 
Norman  and  early  Plantagenet  reigns  may  be  inferred 
from  the  more  frequent  intercommunication  with  the 
Continent  and  the  many  evidences  of  the  increasing 
importance  of  the  commercial  classes  and  trading  towns. 
In  the  time  of  Edward  III.  the  shipping  interest  suffered 
a  temporary  check  from  the  removal  of  the  staple  to 
England,  a  step  which  was  taken  with  tho  view  of  attract- 
ing foreign  merchants  to  visit  England  (1353J.  This 
policy,  however,  was  soon  reversed,  and  the  reign  of  that 
monarch  was  on  the  whole  favourable  to  the  development 
of  shipping.  He  was  himself  fond  of  the  sea,  and  com-' 
manded  in  'jusrsou  in  naval  engagements,  and  by  taking 
possession,  of  Calais  and  enforcing  his  sovereignty  over 
tho  nar.ow  seas  he  rendered  the  times  more  favourable 
for  the  .'evelopment  of  commerce.  More  than  one  of  the 
noble  fai  Uies  of  England  have  descended  from  the  mer- 
chant pri  ces  of  tho  14th  century.  By  this  time  also  the 
compass,  .-hich  had  been  introduced  in  a  rude  form  as 
early  as  tie  12th  century,  had  been  improved  and  had 
come  into  common  use.  But  many  years  were  to  elapse 
before  the  enterprise  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  made 
the  most  of  the  new  facilities  for  undertaking  long  voy- 
ages ;  and  the  fortunes  of  English  shipping,  as  depicted 
by  a  contemporary  (Libell  of  Englishe  Policy,  1436),  con- 
tinued to  vary  according  to  the  state  of  political  con- 
nexions with  the  Continent  and  the  success  of  English 
monarchs  in  '■'  keeping  the  narro.w  seas "  free  from  the 
ravages  of  pirates.  During  this  century,  too,  we  hear  far 
more  of  organizations  of  merchants  to  foreign  parts,  and 
of  struggles  between  different  bodies  of  traders.  .  The 
"Merchants  of  the  Staple"  dealt  in  raw  wool  and  the 
other  staple  commodities  of  the  realm,  which  they  exported 
to  Calais  ;  the  "Merchant  Adventurers,"  a  powerful  asso- 
ciation which  had  developed  out  of  a  religioiK  guild,  dealt 
chiefly  in  woollen  cloths,  but  they  traded  with  any  port 
where  they  could  get  a  footing.  This  brought  them  into 
frequent  collision  with  the  "Merchants  of  the  House," 
who  had  had  a  footing  in  London  since  before  the  Con- 
quest. The  chief  attempt  at  accommodation  took  place  ia 
tho  time  of  Edward  IV.  (1474),  but  the  quarrels  and  re- 
prisals continued  till  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  had 
revolutionized  trade,  and  the  Hanse  League,  expelled  by 
Elizabeth,  were  unable  either  to  injure  or  to  compete  with 
English  shipping.  , 

Considering  the  interest  which  all  the  Tudor  monarchs 
showed  in  developing  shipping,^  and  the  proverbial  bold- 
ness and  enterprise  of  the  Cabots,  Pi.aleigh,  Drake,  and 
other  sailors,  it  is  remarkable  that  England  obtained  so 
little  footing  at  first  in  the  new  lands  which  were  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  (1492)  or  along  the  route  that  was 

^  The  estabUzbment  of  Tiiiiity  House  by  Henry  VIIL  .for  looking 
1  after  pilots,  buoys,  &e.,  in  1512,  is  the  most  importaiHTtfeault  of  faia 
care  for  shipping. 


SHIPPING 


827 


opened  up  by  Vasco  da  Gama  (149C).  Eventually  she 
inherited  much  of  the  commercial  empires  of  Spain, 
Portugal,  Holland,  and  France,  but  there  was  still  com- 
paratively little  permanent  acquisition,  or  establishment  of 
trading  factories,  at  the  close  of  the  16  th  century.  The 
fact  was  that  such  undertakings  were  beyond  the  power  of 
private  traders,  and  that  Elizabeth  was  too  penurious  to 
make  an  attempt  on  such  a  scale  as  to  command  success. 
It  was  by  the  formation  of  companies  that  the  difficulty 
was  at  length  overcome,  and  that  associated  traders,  or 
traders  working  on  a  joint  stock,  were  able  to  establish 
factories  in  foreign  parts,  and  thus  to  give  a  new  impetus 
to  English  shipping.  The  African  Company  and  others 
were  failures,  but  there  were  many  which  had  a  long  and 
successful  career.  The  Levant  Company  was  established  in 
1581,  and  had  factories  at  Smyrna.  The  Eastland  Com- 
pany traded  with  the  Baltic  ;  it  was  established  in  1 579,  and 
had  factories  in  Prussia.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  is 
much  more  recent,  and  only  dates  from  1670.  But  by  far 
the  greatest  of  these  undertakings  was  the  East  India 
Company,  which  was  founded  in  1600,  and  which,  after  a 
long  struggle  with  commercial  rivals  at  home  and  Dutch 
competitors  abroad,  attained  at  length  to  the  sovereignty 
of  a  large  empire.  The  chief  cause  of  complaint  against 
this  company  in  the  early  stages  of  its  existence  lay  in  the 
'.fact  that  it  was  a  joint-stock  company,  and  that  therefore 
the  proprietors  had  a  monopoly  of  a  valuable  trade  ;  the 
greater  part  of  the  other  companies  were  regulated  com- 
panies, and  membership  was  qpen  to  any  Britisti  subject 
who  liked  to  pay  the  entrance  fees  and  join  with  other 
merchants.  The  merchants  thus  associated  agreed  to 
abide  by  certain  specified  conditions,  so  as  not  to  spoil 
the  markets  for  one  another,  but  develop  the  trade  in 
which  all  were  interested  In  a  manner  which  should  be 
advantageous  to  all.  The  Levant  Company  and  Merchant 
Adventurers  were  regulated  companies,  and  they  led  the 
attack  on  the  East  India  Company  as  the  monopoly  of  a 
few  which  injured  the  trade  of  other  merchants.  The 
controversy  raged  during  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.,  and  many  of  the  leading  merchants  of  the 
time — Mun,  Malynes,  Misselden,  as  well  as  \Vheeler,  the 
secretary  of  the  Merchant  Adventurers — took  part  in  it. 
The  advocates  of  the  East  India  trade  argued  tliat,  owing 
lo  the  immense  distance  of  .their  factories  and  the  special 
difficulties  of  maintaining  their  position  abroad,  it  was 
impossible  to  carry  on  their  trade  except  on  the  joint- 
stock  principle,  and  their  plea  prevailed  in  the  long  run. 

The  Merchant  Adventurers  and  the  whole  system  of 
regulated  companies  is  less  familiar  to  us  in  the  present 
day,  and  it  may  be  worth  while  to  indicate  the  sort  of 
regulations  which  were  imposed  on  the  members.  One 
•eries  of  rules  was  directed  at  regulating  the  total  export 
trade  of  certain  classes  of  goods  to  the  chief  Continental 
ports,  EO  that  the  markets  abroad  might  not  be  over- 
stocked, and  that  they  might  always  bo  able  to  get 
remunerative  prices.  Other  regulations  allotted  the  pro- 
portion of  goods  which  each  member  of  the  company 
should  export,  and  the  terms  as  to  credit  and  so  forth  on 
which  he  should  deal  Each  factory  was  carefully  regu- 
lated so  as  to  secure  a  respectable  aad  orderly  life  among 
the  merchants  resident  abroad ;  none  of  them  were  to  do 
business  during  the  times  of  public  preaching  or  on  fast- 
days  ;  and  there  was  a  curious  administrative  system  by 
which  the  compliance  of  the  members  with  these  regula- 
tions was  enforced.' 

Those  English  merchants  wno  traded  to  towns  where 
the  Adventurers  had  a  factory,  but  did  not  comply  with 
their  regulations,  were  stigmatized  as  "  interlopers,"  and 
they  were  greatly  disliked  by  the  regular  traders,  as  they 


"  Wheeler  in  Brit.  Mas.  Add.  MS.  18913. 


were  accused  of  spoiling  the  market  in  various  ways  and, 
generally  speaking,  trading  on  any  terms  for  an  immediate 
advantage  without  regard  to  the  steady  and  regular  devel- 
opment of  commerce.  At  a  later  time,  there  were  inter-, 
lopers  within  the  East  India  Company's  territories  also 

The  formation  of  these  largo  companies  for  the  purpose 
of  undertaking  long  voyages  marks  a  great  revolution  in 
the  shipping  of  the  country.  The  differentiation  of  the 
.mercantile  and  defensive  navy  became  more  complete. 
There  had  of  course  been  a  certain  number  of  royal  ships 
from  a  very  early  time  (see  Navy),  but  the  fleet  had  not 
been  regularly  maintained  in  the  15th  century,  and  the 
defence  of  the  realm  was  practically  left  to  individuals  or 
associations.  As  late  as  the  time  of  Elizabeth  we  find 
that  the  same  thing  was  the  case,  and  that  the  fleet  which 
harassed  the  Armada  consisted  very  largely  of  merchant 
ships.  In  the  time  of  the  uaval  wars  with  Holland,  how- 
ever, this  is  greatly  changed,  and  the  navy  was  much 
more  effectively  organized  and  regularly  maintained.  But 
even  when  the  royal  navy  was  thus  organized  it  was  felt 
that  its  continued  effectiveness  must  depend  on  the 
maintenance  of  merchant  shipping.  The  two  were  still 
interconnected,  and  just  because  special  importance  was 
attached  to  this  arm  as  a  means  of  defence  there  was  a 
great  deal  of  legislation  for  the  purpose  of  indirectly 
promoting  shipping  and  providing  seamen.  This  was  one 
of  the  aspects  in  which  the  prosperity  of  British  fisheries 
was  specially  attended  to ;  the  consumption  of  fish  was 
stimulated  by  insisting  on  the  observance  of  Lent  and 
of  weekly  fasts  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  when  "  the 
eating  of  fish  was  required  politically  and  not  spiritually  "; 
5  Eliz.  c.  5,  §  13,  1  Jas.  L  c.  29),  and  this  was  principally, 
done  as  a  means  of  inducing  men  to  take  to  a  seafariugl 
life,  and  so  to  fit  themselves  for  the  defence  of  the 
country  and  for  the  manning  of  our  merchant  ships. 

Considerable  progress  had  also  been  made  both  in  the 
art  of  sailing  and  in  the  building  of  ships.  The  vessels 
which  composed  the  fleets  of  the  crusaders  appear  to  have 
been  for  the  most  part  galleys,  provided  with  a  double 
row  of  oars  ;  the  huge  prows  v/hich  gave  a  superiority  in 
hand-to-hand  fighting  with  a  grappled  vessel  were  of  no 
advantage  when  the  use  of  cannon  had  revolutionized 
naval  warfare.  We  thus  find  that  the  ships  of  this  period 
were  built  on  a  different  model,  and  many  inducements 
were  held  out  to  those  who  built  large  ships.  Both 
Elizabeth  and  Charles  offered  bountias  for  the  building: 
of  larger  craft  (100  and  200  tons) ;  in  1597  800  tons 
was  the  largest  vessel  that  an  English  yard  turned  out.. 
The  legislature  also  was  most  assiduous  in  endeavouring; 
to  encourage  this  industry.  The  importation  of  naval 
stores  of  all  kinds,  the  growth  of  hemp  for  cordage  and" 
of  timber,  were  matters  of  constant  cate,  bot'a  in  England 
itself  and  in  the  policy  which  was  dictated  to  her  colonies. 

It  13  easy  enou;;h  to  sco  that  in  these  cisps  the  encouragement 
of  shipping  was  undertaken  as  an  indirect  means  ot'  increasing  the 
power  of  the  country',  and  the  same  tiling  is  trlie  of  the  compli* 
cated  arrangements  that  were  made  for  giving  special  inducements 
to  trade  in  particular  articles  or  with  jiarticular  ccuntries.  Every) 
one  is  of  course  familiar  with  the  fact  that  during  the  I7th  and 
18th  centuries  efforts  were  made  to  regulate  trade  so  that  gold  and 
silver  might  bo  brought  into  Knglau'J.  It  is  unnecessary  to  cnunie- 
rato  the  expedients  that  were  adopted  at  different  times,  or  to  dis- 
cuss the  vexed  question  as  to  how  far  those  ivl.o  advocated  the 
system  were  in  error.  "Therf  can  bo  no  doubt  that  the  possessiou 
of  a  treasure  was  va.stly  important  for  political  i  urposcs,  and  that 
trade  was  the  only  nicani  by  wliicli  a  state  which  po.ssessed  no 
mines  couhl  procure  treasure;  and  it  is  of  course  jossiblo  that  some 
of  the  mercantilists  laid  too  much  stress  on  tlio  desirability  for 
political  purposes  of  ama.ssing  wealth  in  thi)  form.  But  tho 
fundamental  principle  of  this  system  of  commtrcial  policy  lay  in 
the  connexion  wliictl  was  felt  to  exist  between  trade  apJ  'ndilstry. 
Trade,  it  was  said,  stimulated  industry  by  prov.ding  anew  market 
for  its  products.  If  two  countries  trade  t.igcthcr,  each  will 
stimulate  tho  trade  of  tlio  other  to  some  extent,  but,  if  Englanil 


828 


SKIPPING 


buys  raw  proJiicts  from  Portugal  amlTortugal  bays  manufacturei 
cloth  from  England,  then  the  operation  of  trado  between  them  is 
such  that  Portugal  stimulates  English  industry  and  sets  English 
labour  in  motion  to  a  far  larger  extent  than  English  consumption 
stimulates  that  of  Portugal  ;  it  was  believed  that  this  relative 
stirauiir  might  be  detected  by  examining  the  balance  of  trade, 
and  that,  if  by  an  ingenious  adjustment  of  duties  the  balance  could 
,bekepti  in  hor  favour,  the  trade  would  bo  benefiting  England  more 
than  it  stimulated  the  progress  of  her  possible  rivals.  In  the 
prcse].;  day  we  look  at  the  volume  of  trade  and  trust  that  both  are 
gaiuei-s  ;  in  those  centuries  they  looked  at  the  kind  of  gain  that 
accrued  and  tried  to  ensure  that  England  gained  more  than  her 
possible  enemies.  Thus  it  was  generally  held  that  by  commercial 
intercourse  between  England  and  France  the  French  gained  rela- 
tively more  than  the  English;  to  the  legislators  of  the  time  it  seemed 
tiesirable  to  impose  such  conditions  as  should  alter  this  state  of 
atiairs,  or,  if  no  agreement  could  be  come  to  on  the  terms  of  a 
treaty,  the  trade  should  be  stopped  altogether,  lest  by  continuing 
to  overbalance  England  in  trade  the  French  should  be  enabled  to 
overbalance  her  ill  power.  These  ideas  of  commercial  policy 
dominated  the  whole  of  British  legislation  for  shipping'  from  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  till  after  the  Napoleonic  wars  ;  the 

iireference  which  was  given  to  English  ships,  English  built  and 
Lnflish  manned,  was  enforced  in  a  manner  that  was  prejudicial  to 
the°  development  of  the  colonies  by  the  Navigation  Act  of  1651, 
aud  was  subsequently  embodied  in  the  orders  in  council.  But 
these  ideas  are  expressed  most  clearly  in  such  discussions  as  those 
regarding  the  Mothven  treaty  with  Portugal  AVithout  attempting 
to  advocate  a  system  of  which  tiie  unwisdom  has  become  patent  in 
our  own  day,  it  may  yet  be  worth  while  to  note  that  it  w.is  during 
this  regime  that  England  acquired  her  position  as  the  great  ship- 
liing  nation  of  the  world,  and  passed  the  Dutch  and  French  in  the 
struggle  for  naval  supremacy.  Napoleon  gave  uncopocious  testi- 
mony to  the  effectiveness  of  the  commercial  policy  for  building 
lip  the  strength  of  the  nation  when  he  sought  to  humble  England, 
not  tiy  direct  attack,  but  by  destroying  the  trade  anil  shipping  by 
jneans  of  which  she  had  raised  herself  to  power. 

This  policy  of  subordinating  the  interests  of  sliiiiping  as  a  trade 
and  means  by  which  merchants  acquired  wealth  in  the  policy  and 
power  of  the  nation  as  a  whole  had  another  sii^e,  Kevenue  for 
«var  expenses  was  furnislied  almost  enliiely  by  the  mother  country ; 
Sjeithcr  Ireland  nor  the  colonics  contributed  at  all  largely  to  the 
Ibnrden  of  maintaijiing  the  national  struggle  with  Continental 
livals..  Hence  it  was  undesirable  that  these  dependencies  should 
develop  at  the  expense  of  the  mother  country,  as  by  so  doing  they 
ivould  reduce  the  fund  from  which  parliament  drew  for  the 
expenses  of  the  realm.  Hence,  while  England  was  always  willing 
to  develop  resources  or  industries — like  tlie  linen  trade  in  Ireland 
—which  did  not  compete  with  and  could  not  undersell  existing 
English  manufactures,  her  politicians  were  unwilling  to  allow  her 
dependencies  to  become  her  competitors  in  trade  so  long  as  they 
did  not  co-operate  in  maintaining  power.  Hence  the  galling 
restrictions  to  which  the  Irish  and  the  colonists  were  subjected, 
both  with  regard  to  the  development  of  some  of  their  resources  and 
the  caiTying°on  of  profitable  trade  with  other  colonies  or  foreign 
countries.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  English  merchants 
suffered  in  the  same  sort  of  way,  as  changes  of  political  relations 
at  once  brought  about  changes  in  the  conditions  of  trade,  and  that 
in  at  least  one  case  the  interests  of  enterprising  farmers  at  home 
iwere  set  asiilo  in  favour  of  protecting  an  established  industry  in 
the  colonics.  The  subordination  of  the  craftsman  and  trader 
interest  to  tlie  public  policy  of  the  realm  brought  about  a  system 
of  g.alling  regulations  which  pressed  hardly  on  many  persons, 
tliough  tbey  weie  most  obviously  baneful  to  Ireland  and  the 
colonists,  who  had  not  so  much  interest  in  the  political  objects  for 
which  tlifcir  wealth  was  sacrificed. 

It  13  unnecessary  to  attempt  to  illustrate  in  detail  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles;  it  only  remains  to  add  that,  whether  in 
spite  of  these  regulations  or  because  of  them,  the  shipping  of 
England  increased  vastly  during  the  18th  century.  This  was 
liartly  due  to  the  greater  facilities  which  Were  granted  for  procur- 
ing cajiital  for  trading  ventures.  In  mcdiseval  times  a  merchant 
'could  liardly  obtain  the  command  of  additional  capital,  unless  by 
ine.ins  of  a  temporary  partnership,  or  loans  on  bottomry  ;  but  the 
objection  to  usury  was  fast  giving  way,  and  the  public  were  willing 
to  lend  capital  and  to  share  in  the  profits  of  trading.  The  practice 
of  trading  on  borrowed  capital,  and  of  obtaining  temporary  loans 
from  goldsmiths,  was  common  enough  all  through  the  17th  century, 
hut  the  development  of  the  banking  system  and  the  new  forms  of 
credit  which  thus  became  available  gave  still  greater  scope  to  the 
enterprising  shipper.  The  full  fruits  of  the  new  power  were  only 
shown,  however,  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  when  the 
rivalry  of  the  Old  and  New  East  India  Companies  and  the  story  of 

"  ^  It  was  pursued,  but  less  systematically,  all  through  the  Tudor 
reigns  or  even  earlier.  Comp.aro  1  H.  VII.  c.  8,  32  H.  VIII.  c.  14, 
'.1  El,  c.  13,  also  the  Assize  of  Arms  in  1131. 


the  Darien  expedition  and  the  South  Sea  Bubb'.o  show  how  wiUfng 
the  British  public  were  to  pour  their  capital  into  tradir.g  under- 
takings. Among  the  companies  which  were  started  about  this 
period  there  were  two  which  have  exercised  a  most  salutary 
influence  on  British  shipjiijig.  The  Royal  Exchange  Assurance 
(6  Geo.  I.  c.  18)  and  the  London  Assurance  revolutionized  the  whole 
system  of  marine  assurance,  and  did  so  much  to  relieve  sk'ppera 
from  the  losses  they  suffered  through  the  risks  of  commerce  as  to 
give  considerable  encouragement  to  the  business.  The  plantations 
were  developing  into  important  settlements ;  the  British  merchant 
had  outdone  bis  Dutch  rivals ;  and  the  East  India  Company  was 
})ur3uing  its  course  of  progress  in  the  East.  There  can  be  no 
wonder  that,  with  so  many  opportuaitics  for  trading,  and  such 
new  facilities  for  obtaining  capital  and  assuring  against  risk,  the 
shipping  of  the  country  develojied  during  the  18th  century.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  dwell  on  the  shocks  it  received  at  the  time  whea 
the  American  colonies  asserted  their  independence  (27  and  28  Gea 
III.)  or  in  the  life  and  death  struggle  of  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
The  diliieulty  of  recasting  the  restrictive  system  under  which 
English  merchants  plied  their  trade  was  very  great,  and  when  it 
broke  down  in  regard  to  America  and  Ireland  (20  Geo.  III.  cc.  6, 
10)  it  was  becoming  apparent  that  its  days  were  numbered.  Th» 
doctrines  preached  by  Adam  Smith  soon  began  to  bear  fruit  ;^  the 
practical  difficulty  of  regulating  commerce  rendered  politicians 
more  willing  to  let  it  regulate  itself ;  and  the  controversy  betweeB 
the  exclusive  companies  and  the  interlopers  or  independent  mer- 
chants once  more  came  to  the  front.  It  was  during  the  reign  of 
George  IV.  that,^hft  old  system  was  practically  abandoned  and  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  old  companies  were  dissolved,  and  trade  t« 
all  parts  of  Africa,  to  the  Levant,  and  to  China  became  open  to  ajl 
British  subjects.  The  East  India  Company  maintained  its  posi- 
tion in  part  despite  its  many  critics  for  another  half  century, 
aud  the  jieculiar  conditions  of  the  trade  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  have  made  it  desirable  to  maintain  that  privileged  cor- 
poration till  the  present  time. 

It  became  still  more  obvious  that  the  old  policy  of  regulating 
the  commerce  of  the  country  in  the  supposed  interests  of  ita 
power  was  being  abandoned  when  Huskisson  reformed  the  tarifl 
in  1825.  The  measure  he  succeeded  in  carrying  was  not  s* 
thoroughgoing  as  the  one  he  proposed,  but  its  principle  was  thai 
the  customs  duties  should  be  levied  for  revenue  objects  only,  ani 
not  with  the  view  of  maintaining  British  merchants  in  one  parti- 
cular employment  of  their  capital.  Later  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws 
(1840)  and  navigation  laws  (1849)  removed  the  last  vestiges  of  the 
old  commercial  policy  which  had  ruled  over  the  development  ot 
British  shipping  almost  from  the  earliest  times,  but  which  had  bee» 
steadily  and  systematically  pursued  for  three  hundred  years. 

It  was  thus  that  Adam  Smith's  criticisms  worked  so  effectively 
as  to  realizo  his  dreams  at  no  great  inter\'al  of  time.  His  dcepci 
reasons  for  objecting  to  the  commercial  system  of  the  ISth  century 
lay  in  the  fact  that  the  colonial  trade  and  shipping  altogothei 
seemed  to  him  to  have  received  an  unhealthy  stimulus,  and  that 
the  country  would  be  in  a  sounder  economic  position  if  capital 
were  employed  at  home  in  developing  native  resources,  and  foreign 
trade  bmlt  upon  a  foundation  of  highly  developed  native  indnstry- 
But  the  removal  of  the  stimulus  did  not  have  the  effect  he  antici- 
pated, or  restore  the  "balance"  between  industry  and  shipping. 
England  is  far  more  dependent  than  ever  before  on  her  relations 
with  foreign  countries,  ^nd  therefore  on  her  shipping,  for  tlit 
materials  of  her  manufat^ire  and  her  food,  as  well  as  for  markets 
for  her  products.  Sho  is  further  removed  than  ever  from  that 
condition  of  "opulence"  which  has,  according  to  Adam  Smith, 
the  greatest  promise  of  stability  and  progress. 

This  has  undoubtedly  been  due  to  the  immense  developments  in 
manufacturing  in  which  England,  with  her  wealth  of  coal  and  iron, 
led  the  way.  This  reacted  on  shipping  in  many  ways.  England 
came  to  be  the  workshop  of  the  world,  and  her  shipping  was 
freighted  with  soft  goods  from  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire,  and 
with  hardware  and  machinery,  to  be  conveyed  to  the  most  distant 
parts  of  the  globe.  But  not  only  were  the  opportunities  for  trading 
immensely  increased;  the  application  of  the  steam  engine  t« 
transit  by  water  has  accelerated  communication,  and  rendered  il 
so  regular  and  certain  as  to  give  an  extraordinary  stimulus  tc 
foreign  trade.  The  first  steamboat  that  was  more  than  a  mere 
toy  mado  its  trial  in  1807,  and  since  that  time  steam  shipping 
has  been  more  and  more  substituted  for  the  old  sailing  vesscla 
Still  more  recently  there  has  been  a  considerable  change  in  tlu 
construction  of  ships,  from  the  success  which  has  attended  iron 
shipbuilding.  The  first  experiment,  which  was  generally  deemed 
exceedingly  rash,  was  made  in  1851. 

It  is  impossible  to  get  satisfactory  data  for  a  comparison  of  the 
relative  importance  of  English  and  foreign  shipping  for  a  long 
period;  but  it  maybe  assumed  that  the  shipping  of  the  Italian 
republics  aud  of  the  Hanse  League  excelled  that  of  England  during 
the  Middio  Ages,  that  in  the  I'eth  century  Spain  was  far  ahead  of 
her  when  she  could  send  such  fleets  to  the  West  and  fit  out  a 
Spaiish  Armada,  aud  that  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  respect- 


B  H  I  — S  H  I 


829 


irely  England  was  much  in  the  same  position  as  tha  great  rivals 
— Holland  and  France — with  which  she  had  to  compete  so  keenly. 
We  may  compare  the  present  position  {ind  the  relative  growth  of 
tonnage  dm-ing  the  last  century,  so  far  ag  figures  are  available  for 
the  purpose :— 


1790. 

1880. 

1790. 

1880. 

1,511,411 

6,574,513 

657,320 

1,000,000 

1,300,000 

502ii46 

969,128 

349,000 

4,000,000 

SpaiD 

Holland 

Italy 

Uuited  Slates... 

The  following  aggregates  show  tho  growth  of  tho  tonnage  of 
British  shipping  : — in  1588,  12,£00  tons  (excluding  iishing  boats) ; 
in  1770,  682,811  (Kngland  and  Scotland) ;  in  1791,  1,511,101  (in- 
cluding colonies);  in  1830,  2,199,959  (excluding  colonies);  in  1840, 
2,768,2621  in  1850,  3,565,133;  in  18C0,  4,658,687;  in  1870, 
5,690,789;  in  1880,  6,574,513. 

See  Macpherson,  Annah  fif  Commerce;  Lindsay,  Hisioryo/ Merchant  Shippinf^, 
For  earlier  periods  see  Schanz,  Englische  Uandets-Folitik,  and  for  later  periods 
Leone  Levi,  llislory  of  Briiiih  Commerce,  (W.  CU.) 

SHIR  A  Z,  a  celebrated  city  in  Persia,  capital  of  Fars, 
from  its  site  and  thoroughly  Iranian  population  may  be 
considered  the  central  point,  as  it  were,  of  Farsi  or  Parsi 
(otherwise  Persian)  nationality.  Owing  to  the  pasture  land 
in  its  vicinity  some  derive  the  name  from  the  nativu  word 
$hir,  "  milk ; "  others  again,  asserting  tha  number  and 
physical  powers  of  its  inhabitants,  accept  the  same  word 
in  its  sense  of  "  lion,"  or  take  the  whole  dissyllable  as  an 
obsolete  word  meaning  tho  "lion's  paunclL"  To  this 
effect  is  cited  a  local  saying  to  the  effect  that,  "  like  the 
lion,  it  devours  all  they  bring  into  it."  ShirAz  is  situated 
in  29°  36'  30"  N.  lat.  and  52"  32'  9"  E.  long.,  in  a  high 
plain  or  valley  more  than  20  miles  long  and  less  than  half 
as  broad,  and  is  approached  on  the  south  from  the  sea — a 
distance  of  170  miles^ — through  lofty  mountain  passes 
reaching  some  7000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  waters  of 
the  Persian  Gulf.  On  the  north  the  approach  is  also  through 
chains  of  mountains  separating  the  jjlains  of  Shirdz  from 
the  valley  of  the  Marv  Dasht,  intersecting  which  is  the 
Band  Amir  river,  more  poetically  than  accurately  described 
in  Lalla  Rookh.  At  Kodiyan,  a  few  miles  to  the  north- 
west of  Shirdz,  is  the  source  of  another  river,  which, 
crossing  the  high  road  south  of  the  town  under  the  name  of 
the  "  KAra  Agatch,"  falls  into  the  sea  about  70  miles  be'.>:.w 
Bu-shahr  (Bushire),  after  a  tortuous  course  of  300  miles. 
The  city  has  a  handsome  bazaar  and  some  good  private 
residences;  but  its  unattractive  streets  are  narrow,  and, 
though  not  so  crowded  with  beggars  as  Ispahan,  contain 
many  living  objects  distressing  to  the  eye.  The  mosques 
and  minarets,  albeit  of  local  repute,  look -more  picturesque 
to  the  stranger  in  the  distance  than  under  close  inspection. 
One  fine  view  of  the  town  is  that  on  the  north,  at  the  pass 
between  the  mountains  called  "  Allah  Hu  Akbar  "• —  so 
named,  it  is  conceived,  because  this  would  be  the  traveller's 
exclamation  of  delight  when  the  landscape  first  opened 
out  upon  him.  The  country  in  this  direction  is  studded 
■with  pleasant  gardens.  Besides  these  there  are  the  tombs 
of  the  poets  Hafiz  a:id  Sa'di — both  within  easy  reach  of 
tho  city.  The  first — a  fine  marble  monument  with  a 
beautifully  inscribed  ode  and  other  writing^  upon  it — is 
not  a  mile  from  the  gate,  and  is  situated  in  an  enclosure 
bearing  tho  name  Hdfiziya.  The  most  noted  product  of 
Shfriz  is  its  wine,  on  the  merits  of  which,  however,  there 
is  much  difference  of  opinion  from  outside  judges.  Dr 
Wills  gives  an  original  account  of  an  experiment  of  his 
own  in  making  the  wine  of  ShlrAz.  Its  cost  in  the  pro- 
duction was  5 Id.  a  bottle,  and  it  sold  a  year  after  at  more 
than  three  times  that  amount.  ShfrAz  is  moreover  famous 
for  inlaid  work  (wood  and  metal)  called  khdtam  handi 
(from  Ihdtam,  a  seal).  The  poinilation  of  the  city  is 
estimated  under  30,000.  The  ordinary  diseases  are  inter- 
mittent fever,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  typhoid,  guinea-worm. 
cholera,  diphtheria,  small-pox,  and  ophthalmia. 

'  As  the  crow  flies,  it  is  only  115  miles  N.E.  by  E.  of  Bushahr. 


Although  the  praises  of  Shfriz,  its  produce,  inhabitants,  climate, 
and  surroundings  of  every  kind,  have  been  sung  by  poets  for 
centuries,  and  are  never  disputed  by  Persians  who  are  not  Shlrizis, 
yet  it  is  inipossible  for  tho  sober  European  traveller  to  deny  that 
the  reality  falls  far  below  the  picture.  Wo  may  feel  thankful  for 
the  wine  and  the  water,  tho  gardens  and  the  monuments,  the  fruits 
and  the  flowers  (abundant  here  as  in  many  other  an  oasis  in  th« 
Shah's  dominions)  ;  we  may  sympathize  with  the  national  pride 
in  the  possession  of  a  Hafiz  and  a  Sa'di  ;  we  may  believe  that  tho 
ladies  of  yore  had  "  eyes  brighter  than  the  antelope's,  hair  cluster- 
ing like  their  own  dark  grapes,  and  forms  fairer  aud  sweetej  than 
the  virgin  rose,"  and  that  those  of  the  present  day  would,  if 
unveiled,  strike  the  spectator  with  wonder  ;  but  one  fact  remains, 
— the  modern  town  of  Shiriz  is  not  a  paradise  for  those  whoso 
personal  experieuce  enables  them  to  comparo  it  with  tlio  ordinary 
cities  of  Europe. 

According  to  Eastern  authorities,  Slii'raz  w.is  founded  (or  re- 
founded,  for  some  accounts  ascribe  to  it  a  fabulous  antiquity)  by 
a  brother  of  the  famous  Hajj.ij  about  the  beginning  of  the  8lh 
century,  or  rather  by  a  cousin  of  Hajjtij  called  Mohammed  b. 
Kasim  b.  Abu  'Okail.  Six  hundred  years  later  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  Mnzalfar  dynasty  of  princes,  when  it  fell  to  tho  arms  of 
Timur.  Hut  it  attained  its  greatest  reputation  in  the  reign  of 
liarim  Khan,  who  embcllislied  the  city  greatly  and  made  it  the 
special  object  of  his  care.  On  the  downfall  of  this  monarch  it  was 
sacked  and  laid  waste  by  the  cruel  Agha  Mohammed. 

Shiraz  has  been  _often  described  by  native  geographers  and 
European  writers  of  travel.  Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned 
Pietro  della  Valie,  Herbert,  Tavemier,  Deslandes,  and  Chardin,  in 
the  17lh  century,  and  in  the  present  century  Ouscley,  Porter,  Moricr, 
Scott-Waring,  Forster,  Binning,  and  many  quite  recent  travellers. 
Neither  in  his  serious  history  nor  lighter  sketches  does  Sir  John 
Malcolm  give  any  detailed  account  of  Shiraz  as  a  city,  but  his  notes 
on  its  climate  may  be  cited.  On  one  of  the  hottest  days  of  June 
J800  the  thermometer  registered  94°  F.  in  the  house  and  100°  in  a 
tent.  In  I^lay  1810  it  never  rose  at  noon  above  88^  nor  fell  helow 
74°.  In  the  morning,  at  eight  o'clock,  it  generally  stood  about  60°. 
In  autumn  the  heat  continued,  but  in  winter  it  was  seen  to  fall 
considerably  below  the  freezing  point.  As  late  as  Jlarch  there  is 
often  a  hoar  frost  on  the  grouuJ.  April,  he  adds,  is  a  delightful 
month,  the  tiiermometer  at  sunrise  being  generally  from  50°  to  55% 
at  two  r.M.  80°  to  8i°,  and  at  nine  P.M.  about  64°. 

SHIRE.     See  County. 

SHIRLEY,  a  town  of  Hampshire,  consists  chiefly  of 
comfortable  houses  occupied  by  persons  in  business  in 
Southampton  (2  miles  south-east),  of  which  it  is  practi- 
cally a  suburb.  Within  its  limits  are  the  Barlow  home 
(1840),  the  EUyet  home  (1879),  and  the  children's  hos- 
pital  and  dispensary  for  women  (1884).  The  urban 
sanitary  district  of  Shirley,  formed  in  185i5,  was  extended 
by  an  Act  which  came  into  operation  29th  September 
ISSl,  the  name  being  also  changed  to  Shirley  and  Free- 
mantle.  The  population  of  the  old  district  (area  1198 
acres)  in  1871  was  5339  and  in  1881  it  was  7856.  The 
population  of  the  new  district  (area  1392  acres)  in  1871 
was  9909  and  in  1881  it  was  12,939. 

SHIRLEY,  James  (1590-1666),  dramatist,  belonged  to 
the  great  period  of  our  dramatic  literature,  but,  in  Lamb's 
words,  he  "  claims  a  place  among  the  wcrthies  of  this 
period,  not  so  much  for  any  transcendent  genius  in  himself, 
as  that  he  was  the  last  of  a  great  race,  all  of  whom  spoke 
nearly  the  same  language  and  had  a  set  of  moral  feelings 
and  notions  in  common."  His  career  of  playwriting 
extended  from  1025  to  tho  suppression  of  stage  plays 
by  parliament  in  1042.  Born  in  London  in  1596,  he  had 
been  educated  for  a  profession — at  Merchant  Taylors' 
school,  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  and  Catherine  Hall, 
Cambridge.  Tho  church  was  his  destinatii^n,  but  ho 
turned  Roman  Catholic,  and  made  a  living  for  two  years 
as  a  schoolmaster.  His  first  play.  Love  Tricks,  seems  to 
have  been  accepted  while  he  was  teach'.ng  at  St  Alban.s, 
and  for  eighteen  years  from  that  time  he  was  a  prolific 
writer  for  tho  stage,  producing  more  than  thirty  regular 
plays,  tragedies,  and  comedies,  and  Showing  no  sign  of 
exhaustion  when  a  stop  was  put  to  his  occupation  by  the 
Puritan  edict.  lie  turned  again  to  t'jiaching  for  a  Uvcli- 
bpod  and  prospered,  publishing  some  educational  works 
under   the  Commonwealth.      Besides  these  he  published 


830 


S  H  O  — S  H  O 


Qining  the  period  ot  aramatic  eclipse  three  small  volumes 
of  poems  and  masques,  in  1646,  1653,  and  1659.  He 
survived  into  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  but,  though  some 
of  his  comedies  were  revived,  he  did  not  again  attempt 
to  write  for  the  stage.  It  is  said  that  he  and  his  second 
wife  died  of  the  fright  caused  by  the  great  fire  of  1666. 

There  is  little  original  force  but  much  stage-craft  and 
manipulative'  dexterity  in  Shirley's  plays.  He  was  born 
to  great  dramatic  W(;alth,  and  he  handled  it  freely.  It 
has  been  remarked  that  ho  did  not.  Like  some  of  his  great 
predecessors,  take  his  plots  from  narrative  fiction  or  history, 
but  constructed  them  for  himself.  This  is  true ;  but  he 
constructed  them  out  of  the  abimdanco  of  materials  that 
had  been  accumulated  by  more  originative  men  during 
thirty  years  of  unexampled  dramatic  activity.  He  did 
not  strain  after  novelty  of  situation  or  character,  but 
worked  with  confident  ease  and  buoyant  copiousness  on 
the  familiar  lines,  contriving  situations  and  exhibiting 
characters  after  types,  whoso  effectiveness  on  the  stage  had 
been  proved  by  ample  experience.  He  spoke  the  same 
language  with  the  great  dramatists,  it  is  true,  but  this 
grand  style  appears  in  him  as  the  mechanical  knack  of  an 
able  and  clever  workman.  It  is  often  employed  for  the 
artificial  elevation  of  commonplace  thought.  "  Clear  as 
day"  becomes  in  this  manner  "day  is  not  more  con- 
spicuous than  this  cunning";  while  the  proverb  "StiD 
waters  run  deep  "  is  ennobled  into — 

The  shallow  rivers  gUdo  avaj  with  uoise — 
The  deep  are  silent. 

15ut  it  cannot  be  denied  that  ho  uses  the  poetic  diction  of 
liis  predecessors  with  ease,  spirit,  and  judgment.  His 
scenes  are  ingeniously  conceived,  his  characters  boldly  and 
•clearly  drawn ;  and  he  never  falls  beneath  a  uigh  level  of 
stage  effect. 

His  clilef  plays  Tvere — Love  TricJcs,  a  comedy,  1625 ;  The 
-Maid's  Keiviir/c,  a  tragedy,  1626  ;  The  Brolhcrs,  a  comedy,  1626  ; 
The  Witty  Fair  One,  a  comedy,  1628  ;  The  Wedding,  a  comedy, 
1628;  The  Grateful  Servant,  a  tragi-coraedy,  1629;  The  Changes, 
or  Love  in  a  Haze,  1632;  Tlie  Gamester,  a  comedy,  I'QZZ  ;,  The 
JExamplc  (containing  an  imitation  of  Beu  Jousou's  Humour^, 
1634  ;  Tlie  Oi>portunitij,  1634  ;  Tlie  Traitor,  a  tragedy  {iierliapa 
Shirley's  hcst),  1635  ;  Tlic  Ladtj  of  Pleasure  (perhaps  the  best  of 
Ilia  comedies),  1635  ;  TJie  Cardinal,  a  tragedy  (an  attempt  to 
compete  with  'Webster's  Duehcss  of  Malfi),  1641.  An  edition  of 
liis  works  in  si,i:  volumes,  with  notes  by  Dyce  and  Giiford,  was 
published  in  1BS3. 

SHODDY.     See  Wool. 

SHOEMAKING.  ■  The  simplest  foot -protector  is  the 
.sandal,  which  consists  merely  of  a  sole  attached  to  the  foot, 
usually  by  leather  thongs.  The  use  of  this  the  archae- 
ologist can  trace  back  to  a  very  early  period ;  and  the 
sandal  of  plaited  grass,  palm  fronds,  leather,  or  other 
material  stiU  continues  to  be  the  most  common  foot-cover- 
ing among  Oriental  races.  AVhere  climate  demanded  greater 
protection  for  the  foot,  the  primitive  races  shaped  a  rude 
shoe  out  of  a  single  piece  of  untanned  hide  ;  this  was  laced 
with  a  thong,  and  so  made  a  complete  covering.  Out  of 
these  two  elements — sole  without  upper  and  upper  without 
gole — arose  the  perfected  shoe  and  boot,  which  consist  of 
a  combination  of  both.  A  collection  illustrating  the  numer- 
ous forms  and  varieties  of  foot-covering,  formed  by  JI. 
Jules  Jacquemart,  is  now  in  the  Cluny  Museum  in  Paris. 
It  embraces  upwards  of  300  specimens  of  ancient,  mediaeval, 
and  modern  times,  with  a  special  series  illustrating  the 
artistic  and  historical  side  of  the  subject  in  France  from 
the  15th  century,  and  contains  cxam.ples  of  the  many  varie- 
ties of  foot-covering  in  use,  esijecially  in  the  East,  at  the 
present  day.     (Compare  Costume.) 

Wooden  Shoes.— T'ae  simplest  foot-covering,  largely  uSed  through- 
out Europe,  is  the  wooden  shoe,  made  from  a  single  jnece  of  wood 
roughly  cut  into  shoo  form.  The  towns  of  llende  and  Villefort 
(dep.  Lozire)  are  the  headquarters  of  the  Wooden  shoe  trade  in 
franoe,  about  1700  persons  there  finding  employment  in  the  manu- 


factuic.  Analogous  to  this  industry  is  the  clog-making  trade  oT 
the  midland  counties  of  England.  Clogs,  known  also  as  pattens, 
are  wooden  solos  to  which  shoe  or  boot  uppers  are  attached.  Sola 
and  heel  are  made  of  one  piece  from  a  block  of  mafile  or  ash  two 
inches  thick,  and  a  littlo  longer  and  broader  than  the  desired  size 
of  shoe.  The  outer  side  of  the  sole  and  heel  is  fashioned  with  a 
long  chisel-edged  implement,  called  the  dogger's  knife  or  stock  ; 
a  sccoud  implement,  called  the  groover,  makes  a  groove  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  deep  and  wide  round  the  side  of  the  sole  ;  and  by 
means  of  a  hollower  thd  contour  of  the  inner  fat£  of  the  sole  is 
adapted  to  the  shapo  of  the  foot.  The  uppers  of  heavy  leather, 
machine  sewed  or  riveted,  are  fitted  closely  to  the  groove  around  the 
sole,  and  a  thin  piec^  of  leather-binding  is  nailed  on  all  round  the 
edges,  the  nails  being  placed  very  ciose,  so  as  to  give  a  firm  durable 
fastening.  These  clogs  are  of  great  advantage  to  all  who  work  in 
damp  sloppy  places,  keeping  the  feet  dry  and  comfortable  in  a 
manner  impossible  with  either  leather  or  india-rubber.  They  are 
consequently  largely  used  on  the  Continent  by  agi-icultural  and 
forest  labourers,  and  in  England  and  the  United  States  by  dyers, 
bleachers,  tanners,  workers  in  sugar -factories,  chemical  works, 
provision  packing  warehouses,  &c.  There  is  also  a  considerablo 
demand  for  expensive  clogs,  with  finely  trimmed  soles  and  fancy 
uppers,  for  uso  by  clog-dancers  and  others  on  the  stage. 

Manufaeiiire  of  Leather  Shoes.- — There  are  two  main  divisions  of 
work  comprised  in  ordinary  shoeniaking.  The  minor  division — 
the  making  of  "  tura  shoes  " — embraces  all  work  in  which  there  is 
only  one  thin  flexible  sole,  which  is  sewed  to  the  upper  while  out- 
side in  and  turned  over  when  completed.  Slippers  and  ladies'  thin 
house  boots  are  examples  of  this  class  of  work.  In  the  other  divi- 
sion the  upper  .is  united  to  an  insole  and  at  least  one  outsole,  with 
a  raised  heel.  In  this  are  com-prised  all  classes,  shapes,  and 
qualities  of  goods,  from  shoes  up  to  long-top  or  riding  boots  which 
reach  to  the  knee,  with  all  their  variations  of  lacing,  buttoning, 
elastic-web  side  gusseta,  &c  The  accompanying  cuts  (figs.  1  and 
2)  show  the  parts  and  trade  names  of  a  riding  boot,  which  is  the 
supreme  product  of  the  craft. 

Till  within  recent  times  shoeniaking  was  a  pure  hanilicraft ; 
but  now  machinery  effects  almost  every  operation  in  the  art.  On 
the  factory  system  all  human  feet 
are  treated  alike  ;  iu  the  handi- 
craft, the  shoemaker  deals  with 
the  individual  foot,  and  he  should 
produce  a  boot  which  for  fit,  com- 
fort, flexibility,  and  strength  can- 
not be  approached,  by  the  product 
of  machinery. 

The  shoemaker,  after  measuring 
the  feet,  cuts  out  upper  leathers 
acconling  to  thosize  and  pattern. 
These  i)arts  are  fitted  and  stitcheJ 
together  by  the  "boot  -  closers  " ; 


>^ 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

Fjo.  1.— Parts  of  a.  boot,  oo,  the"exien8ion  ;  a,  tbe  front ;  &,  tho  side  scam  ; 
c,  the  back  ;  d,  the  strap;  e,  the  instep  ;  /,  the  vainp  or  front;  p,  the  quarter 
or  counter  ;  h,  the  rand  ;  i.  the  heel, — the  fi-ont  is  the  breast,  tlie  bottom  the 
face  ;  J,  the  lilts  of  the  heel ;  k,  the  shank  or  ivatst ;  I,  the  welt ;  m,  tUe  sole. 

Fia.  2.--Section  of  boot,  a,  the  npper ;  b,  the  insole  ;  c,  the  outsole  ;  d,  the 
welt ;  €,  the  Bti telling  of  the  Bole  to  the  welt:  ^  the  Btitchjng  of  the  upper  to 
the  welt. 

but  little  of  this  closing  is  now  done  by  hand.  The  sole  "stuff" 
is  next  cut  out  and  assembled,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  inner  soles 
of  soft  leather,  a  pair  of  outer  soles  of  firmer  texture,  a  pair  of  Arelts 
or  bands  about  one  inch  broad,  of  flexible  leather,  aud  lifts  and 
top-pieces  for  the  heels.  These  the  "  maker"  mellows  by  steeping 
in  water.  He  attaches  the  insoles  ttJ  the  bottom  of  a  pair  of  wooden 
lasts,  which  are  blocks  the  form  and  size  of  the  boots  to  be  made, 
fastens  the  leather  down  with  lasting  tacks,  and,  when  dried,  draws 
it  out  with  pincers  till  it  takes  the  exact  form  of  the  last  bottom. 
Then  he  "rounds  the  soles,"  by  paring  do^ra  the  edges  close  to  the 
last,  and  forms  round  these  edges  a  small  channel  or  feather  cut 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  the  leather.  Next  he  pierces  tho 
insoles  all  round  with  a  bent  awl,  which  bites  into,  but  not  through, 
the  leather,  and  comes  out  at  the  channel  or  feather.  Tho  boots 
are  then  "  lasted,"  by  placing  the  uppers  on  the  lasts,  drawing  their 
edges  tightly  round  the  edge  of  the  insoles,  and  fastening  them  in 
position  with  lasting  tacks.  Lasting  is  a  crucial  operation,  for,  unless 
the  upper  is  drawn  Smoothly  and  equally  over  the  last,  leaving 
neither  crease  nor  wrinkle,  the  fprm  of  the  boot  will  be  bad.  The- 
welt,  having  ono  edge  pared  or  chamfered,  is  put  in  position  roun4 


S  H  O  — S  H  O 


631 


tie  sides,  np  to  the  heei  or  "seat,"  and  the  maker  proceeds  to  '"in- 
seam  '  by  passing  his  awl  through  the  holes  already  made  in  the 
insole,  catching  with  it  the  edge  of  the  upper  and  the  thin  edge  of 
the  welt,  and  sewing  all  three  together  in  one  flat  seam,  with  a 
■waxed  thread.  He  then  pares  otf  inequalities  and  "  levels  the 
■bottoms,"  by  filling  up  the  depressed  part  iu  the  centre  with  a  piece 
of  tarred  felt ;  and,  that  done,  the^boots  are  ready  for  the  outsoles. 
After  the  leather  for  them  has  been  thoroughly  condensed  by  hain- 
mering  on  the  "lap-stone,"  they  are  fastened  through  the  insolo 
■with  steel  tacks,  their  sides  are  pared,  and  a  narrow  channel  is  cut 
round  their  edges ;  and  through  this  channel  they  pre  stitched  to 
the  welt,  about  twelve  stitches  of  strong  waxed  thread  being  made 
to  the  inch.  The  soles  are  now  hammered  into  shape  ;  the  heel  lifts 
are  put  on  and  attached  with  wooden  pegs,  then  sewed  tluough  the 
stitches  of  the  insole  ;  and  the  top- pieces,  similar  to  the  outsoles, 
'are  jiut  on  and  naUed  down  to  the  lifts.  The  finishing  operations 
embrace  pinning  ^p  the  edge  of  the  heel,  paring,  rasping,  scraping, 
smoothing,  blacking,  and  burnishing  the  edges  of  soles  and  heels, 
scraping,  sand-papering,  and  burnishing  the  soles,  withdrawing  the 
lasts,  and  cleaning  out  any  pegs  which  may  have  pierced  through 
the  inner  sole.  Of  course,  there  are  numerous  minor  operations 
connected  with  forwarding  and  finishing  in  various  materials,  such 
as  punching  lace-holes,  inserting  eyelets,  applying  heel  and  toe 
irons,  hob-nailing,  kc.  To  make  a  pair  of  common  stout  lacing 
boots  occupies  an  expert  workman  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  hours. 

Tlie  principal  difficulties  to  overcome  in  applying  machinery  to 
shoemaking  were  encountered  in  the  operation  of  fastening  togctlier 
the  soles  and  uppers.  The  fii'st  success  in  this  important  operation 
■was  effected  when  means  other  than  sewing  were  devised.  In  1S09 
David  Meade  Randolph  obtained  a  patent  for  fastening  tlie  soles 
and  heels  to  the  inner  soles  by  means  of  little  nails,  &c.  The 
lasts  he  used  were  covered  at  the  bottom  with  plates  of  metal,  and 
the  nails,  when  driven  through  the  inner  soles,  were  turned  and 
clinched  by  coming  against  the  nietal  plates.  To  fix  the  soles  to 
the  lasts  during  the  operation  the  metal  plates  were  each  perforated 
with  three  holes,  in  whioh  wooden  plugs  were  inserted,  and  to  these 
the  insoles  were  nailed.  This  invention  may  be  said  to  have  laid 
the  foundation  of  machine  boot-making.  In  the  following  year 
(ISIO)  the  inventor  II.  I.  Brunei  patented  a  range  of  machinery 
for  fastening  soles  to  upjiers  by  means  of  metallic  pins  or  nails,  and 
the  use  of  screws  and  staples  was  patented  by  lUchard  Woodman  in 
the  game  yeai\ 

Apart  from  se'^ving  by  machine  or  hand,  three  principal  methods 
of  attaching  soles  to  uppers  are  in  use  at  present.  The  first  is 
** pegging"  with  small  wooden  pins  or  pegs  driven  through  outsole 
and  insole,  catching  between  thera  the  edges  c£  the  upper.  The 
points  of  the  pegs  which  ■  project  through  the  insole  are  cut  aw.iy 
and  smoothed  level  with  the  leather  either  by  hand  or  by  a  machine 
pegging  rasp.  The  second  is  the  system  of  '"'  riveting  or  cUncliing  " 
with  iron  or  brass  nails,  the  points  of  the  nails  being  turned  or 
clinched  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  iron  last  used.  The  third 
method,  screwing,  has  come  into  extensive  use  since  the  standard 
screwing  machine  was  introduced  in  America  by  the  Mackay  Associa- 
tion of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  and  in  Europe  by  the  Blake  k  Good- 
year Company  of  London.  The  standard  screw  machine,  which 
is  an  American  invention,  is  provided  vnth.  a  reel  of  stout  screw- 
threaded  brass  vrire,  which  by  the  revolution  of  the  reel  is  inserted 
iiito  and  screwed  through  outsole,  npper  edM,  and  fnsole.  Within 
the  upper  a  head  presses  against  the  insolo  directly  opposite  the 
point  of  the  screw,  and  the  instant  screw  and  head  touch  the  wire 
is  cut  level  with  the  outsole.  The  screw,  making  its  own  hole,  fits 
tightly  in  the  leather,  and  the  two  soles,  being  both  compressed 
and  screwed  firmly  together,  make  a  perfectly  water-tight^nd  solid 
shoe.  The  surface  of  the  insole  is  quite  level  and  even,  and  as  the 
■work  is  really  screwed  the  screws  arc  steady  in  their  position,  and 
they  add  materially  to  the  durability  of  the  soics.  Tlic  principal 
disadvantage  in  the  use  of  standard  screwed  soles  is  the  gi-cat  diffi- 
culty met  with  in  removing  and  levelling  down  the  remains  of  an 
old  sole  when  repairs  are  necessary. 

The  various  forms  of  sewing-machine  by  which  uppers  are  closed, 
and  their  imiiortant  modifications  for  uniting  soles  and  uppers,  aro 
also  principally  of  Amerioau  origin.  But  the  first  suggestion  of 
machine  sowing  was  an  English  idea.  The  patent  secured  by 
Thomas  Saint  in  the  English  Patent  Office  in  1790,  while  it  fore- 
shadowed the  most  important  features  of  the  modern  sewing- 
machine,  indieated  more  particularly  the  devices  now  adopted  in 
the  sewing  of  leather.  After  the  introduction  of  the  sewing-machine 
for  cloth  work  its  adaptation  to  stitching  leather  both  with  plain 
thread  and  with  heated  waxed  thread  was  a  comparatively  simple 
task.  The  first  important  step  in  the  more  difficult  problem  of 
sowing  together  soles  and  uppers  by  a  machine  was  taken  in  the 
United  SUtes  by  Lyman  R.  Blake  in  1858.  Blako'a  machine  wag 
ultimately  perfected  as  the  Mackay  sole-sewing  machine,— one  of  the 
most  successful  and  lucrative  inventions  of  modem  times.  Blake 
secured  his  first  English  patent  in  1859,  his  invention  being  thus 
described:  "This  machine  is  a  chain-stitch  seiving-machine.  The 
hooked  needle  works  through  a  rest  or  supporting  surface  of  the 


upper  part  of  a  long  curved  arm  which  projects  upwards  from  tht 
table  of  the  machine.  This  arm  should  have  such  a  form  a*  to  bn 
capable  of  entering  a  shoe  so  as  to  carry  the  rest  into  tlie  toe  pail 
as  well  as  any  other  part  of  the  interior  of  it ;  it  carries  at  its  front 
end  and  directly  under  tlie  rest  a  looper,  which  is  supjiorted  within 
the  end  of  the  arm  so  as  to  be  capable  of  rotating  or  partially  rotat- 
ing round  the  needle,  while  tlie  said  needle  may  extend  into  and 
through  the  eye  of  the  looper,  such  eye  being  jilnccd  in  the  path 
of  the  needle.  The  thread  is  led  from  a  bobbin  by  suitable  guidea 
along  in  the  curved  arm,  thence  through  a  tension  s]iring  applied  to 
the  arm,  and  thence  upwards  through  the  notch  of  tlie  looper.  The 
needle  carrier  extends  upwards  with  a  cylindrical  block  which  can 
be  turned  round  concentrically  with  it  by  means  of  a  handle.  The 
feed  wheel  by  which  the  shoe  is  moved  along  the  curved  arm  durin" 
the  process  of  sewing  is  supported  by  a  slider  extending  downwards 
from  the  block,  and  ajiplied  thereto  so  as  to  bo  capable  of  sliding  nji 
and  down  therein.  Tiie  shoe  is  placed  on  the  arm  with  the  solo 
upwards.  The  feed  wheel  is  made  to  rest  on  tlio  sole."  Blake's 
original  machine  was  very  imperfect  and  wr.s  incapable  of  sewing 
round  the  toe  of  a  shoe  ;  but  a  i^rincipal  interest  in  it  coming  into 
the  hands  of  Gordon  Mackay,  he  in  coiijunctiou  with  Blake  clfccted 
most  important  improvements  in  the  mechanism,  and  they  jointly 
in  18G0  procured  United  States  patents  which  secured  to  tliein  tha 
monopoly  of  wholly  machine-made  boots  and  shoes  for  twenty-one 
years.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  America  a  great  demand 
arose  for  boots,  and,  there  being  simultaneously  much  labour  with- 
drawn from  the  market,  a  profitable  field  was  opened  for  the  use  of 
the  machine,  which  was  now  cajiable  of  sewing  a  sole  right  round. 
Machines  were  leased  out  to  manufacturers  by  the  JIackay  Company 
at  a  royalty  of  from  i  to  3  cents  ou  every  jiair  of  soles  sewed,  the 
machines  themselves  registering  the  work  done.  The  income  of  the 
association  from  royalties  in  the  United  States  alone  increased  from 
?3S,746  in  1863  to  SiS9,9?3  in  1873,  and  continued  to  rise  till  the 
main  patents  expired  in  ISSI,  when  there  ■nere  in  use  in  the  United 
States  about  1800  Blake-Mackay  machines  sewing  50,000,000  pairs 
of  boots  and  shoes  yearly.  The  monopoly  secured  by  the  Mackay 
Company  barred  for  the  time  tlie  progress  of  invention,  notwith- 
standing which  many  other  sole-sewing  machines  were  patented. 
Among  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  Goodyear  k  Mackay 
machines  for  welted  shoes, — the  first  mechanism  adapted  for  sewing 
soles  on  lasted  boots  and  shoes.  These  machines  originated  in  a 
patent  obtained  in  1862  in  the  United  States  by  August  Destory  for 
a  curved-needle  machine  for  sewing  outsoles  to  welts,  but  the  mechan- 
ism was  not  successful  till  taken  in  hand  by  Charles  Goodyear,  son 
of  the  well-known  inventor  in  india-rubber  fabrics.  The  Goodyeai* 
&  Mackay  Company  make  two  machines  for  welted  goods,  one  for 
seeing  the  inseam  and  the  second  for  stitching  on  the  outsole.  A 
large  number  of  the  latter  form  of  machine  are  in  use,  many  manu- 
facturers preferring  to  secure  the  welt  or  a  midsole  by  the  standard 
screw  machine,  sewing  to  that  the  outsole  with  the  Goodyear-Mackay 
machine.  The  same  company  adapt  a  circular-needle  machine  to 
the  sewing  of  turn  shoes,  and  this,  with  other  similar  machines,  is 
in  extensivie  use. 

The  range  of  machinery  used  in  a  well-equipped  shoe-factory  is 
very  extensive,  embracing  machines  for  cutting  leather,  pressing 
rollers  for  sole  leather,  and  presses  with  cutting-dies  for  stamping 
out  sole  and  heel  pieces.  There  are  also,  in  addition  to  many  kinds 
of  sewing-machine,  blocking  or  crimping  appliances  for  moulding 
uppera  or  vamps,  vamp -folding  machines,  eyeleting  machines, 
lasting  machines,  trimming  and  paring  machines  for  planing  and 
smoothing  the  edges  of  soles  and  heels.  For  finishing  there  are 
scouring,  sand-papering,  and  burnishing  machines  for  the  soles, 
and  stamping  machines  for  marks  and  monograms,  with  peg-cutting 
and  nail-rasping  machines  for  smoothing,  cleaning  out,  and  dress- 
ing the  surface  of  the  insole.  In  short,  there  is  not  a  single  opera- 
tion necessary  in  shoemaking,  however  insignificant,  lor  which 
machinery  Has  not  been  devised. 

The  manufacture  of  india-rubber  goloshes,  shoes,  and  fishing- 
boots,  &c.,  forms  an  important  branch  of  the  india-rubber  industry 
rather  than  a  department  of  shoemaking  (see  India-rubbek,  vol. 
■xii.  p.  842).  A  very  considerable  trade  exists  in  boots  and  shoes 
with  outer  soles  of  gutta-percha  (see  vol.  xi.  p.  339)  in  place  of 
leather,  the  headquarters  of  that  trade  being  in  Gla.sgow.    (J.  PA.) 

SHOES,  Horse.  Tho  horny  ca.sing  of  the  foot  of  the 
horse  and  otlier  Solidungul,ite.s,  ■while  quite  sufficient  to 
protect  tho  extremity  of  the  limb  under  natural  conditions, 
is  found  to  wear  away  and  break,  especially  in  moist 
climates,  ■nlien  tho  animal  is  subjected  to  hard  ■work  of 
any  kind.  Tlii.s,  iiowever,  can  be  obviated  by  attaching 
to  the  hoof  a  rim  of  iron — a  simple  device  which  has  been 
probably  not  surpassed  in  its  beneficial  effects  by  the  intro- 
duction of  .stoaiii-]Kiwer  locomotion.  The  animal  itself  has 
been  in  a  very  marked  manner  modified  l)y  shoeing,  for 
without  this  we  could  have  had  neither  tlio  lieet  racers  nor 


832 


S  H  O  — S  H  O 


the  heavy  and  powerful  cart-horses  of  the  present  day. 
Shoeing  does  not  appear  to  have  been  practised  by  eitb.er 
Greeks  or  Romans ;  but  there  is  evidence  that  the  art  was 
knowTi  to  the  Celts,  and  that  the  practice  became  common 
after  the  overthrow  of  theWestern  empire  towards  the  close 
of  the  5th  century.  It  is  only  recently  that  horse-shoeing 
was  introduced  in  Japan,  where  the  former  practice  was 
to  attach  to  the  horse's  feet  slippers  of  straw,  which  were 
renewed  when  necessary.  In  modern  times  much  attention 
has  been  devoted  to  horse-shoeing,  with  the  result  of  show- 
ing that  methods  formerly  adopted  caused  cruel  injury  to 
horses  and  serious  loss  to  their  owners.  The  evils  as  sum- 
marized by  Mr  George  Fleming,  army  (British)  veterinary 
inspector,  were  caused  by  (1)  paring  the  sole  and  frog; 
(2)  applying  shoes  too  heavy  and  of  faulty  shape  ;  (3)  em- 
ploying too  many  and  too  large  nails  ;  (4)  applying  shoes 
too  small  and  removing  the  wall  of  the  hoof  to  make  the 
feet  fit  the  shoes ;  and  (5)  rasping-  the  front  of  the  hoof. 
According  to  modern  principles  (1)  shoes  should  be  as  light 
as  compatiblo  with  the  wear  demanded  of  them ;  (2)  the 
ground  face  of  the  shoe  should  be  concave,  and  the  face 
applied  to  the  foot  plain  ;  (3)  heavy  draught  horses  alone 
should  have  toe  and  heel  calks  on  their  shoes  to  increase 
foothold  ;  (4)  the  excess  growth  of  the  wall  or  outer  por- 
tion of  horny  matter  should  only  be  removed  in  re-shoeing, 
care  being  taken  to  keep  both  sides  of  the  hoof  of  equal 
height ;  (5)  the  shoe  should  fit  accurately  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  hoof,  and  project  slightly  beyond  the  heel ; 
(6)  the  shoes  should  be  fixed  with  as  few  nails  as  possible, 
six  or  seven  in  fore-shoes  and  eight  in  hind-shoes ;  and  (7) 
the  nails  should  take  a  short  thick  hold  of  the  wall,  so 
that  old  nail-holes  may  be  removed  with  the  natural  growth 
and  paring  of  thr  horny  matter.  Horse  shoes  and  nails 
are  now  made  with  great  economy  by  machinery.  In  rural 
<listricts,  where  the  art  of  the  farrier  is  sometimes  'combined 
with  blacksmith  work,  too  Utile  attention  is,  in  general, 
given  to  coneiderations  which  have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  comfort,  usefulness,  and  life  of  the  horse. 

SHOLAPUR,  a  British  disirict  of  India,  in  the  Deccan 
division  of  the  Bombay  presidency,  with  an  area  of  4521 
square  miles,  lying  between  17°  13'  and  18°  35'  N.  lat. 
and  74°  39'  and  76°  11'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  Ahmadnagar  district,  on  the  E.  by  the  nizam's  territory 
and  Akalkot  state,  on  the  S.  by  Kahidgi  district  and  sonle 
of  the  Patvardhan  states,  and  on  the  W.  by  Sdtdra  and 
Poena  districts  and  the  states  of  Phaltan  and  Fanth 
Pratinidhi.  Except  in  Karmala  and  Barsi  subdivisions, 
situated  in  the  north  and  east,  where  there  is  a  good  deal 
of  hilly  ground,  the  district  is  generally  flat  or  undulating  ; 
but  it  is  very  bare  of  vegetation,  and  presents  everywhere 
a  bleak  treeless  appearance.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Bhima  and  its  tributaries — the  Min,  the  Nira,  and  the 
Sina — all  flowing  towards  the  south-east.  Besides  these 
there  are  several  smaller  streams.  Lying  in  a  tract  of  un- 
certain rainfall,  Sholapur  is  peculiarly  liable  to  seasons  of 
scarcity ;  much,  however,  has  been  done  by  the  opening 
of  canals  and  ponds,  such  as  the  Ekriik  and  Ashti  tanks, 
to  secure  a  better  water-supply.  The  Great  Indian  Penin- 
sular Railway  enters  the  district  at  I  omalvddi  in  the  north- 
west corner  and  crosses  it  in  a  souva-easterly  direction,  a 
distance  of  nearly  150  miles.  Sholapur  has  recently  been 
connected  with  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway. 
The  population  of  Shol.ipur  district  in  18S1  was  582, -187  (294,814 
males  and  287, 5"3  females).  Hindijs  numbered  530,121,  Moliam. 
medans  43,967,  and  Christians  625.  There  are  three  towns  with 
populations  exceeding  10,000  each,  viz.,  Sholapur  (q.v.),  Pan- 
dharpur  (16,910),  Barsi  (16,126).  In  1883-84  there  were  1,763,340 
acres  under  cultivation,  of  which  22,282  were  twice  cropped,  besides 
325,987  acres  of  fallow  or  grass  land.  Joar,  which  forms  the  staple 
food  of  the  people,  occupied  923,706  acres,  bajri  298,239,  wheat 
65,504,  rl-e  25,027,  pulses  185,528,  and  oil-seeds  147,914  acres. 
The  producb  of  the  district  finds  an  easy  outlet  by  the  railway  to 


Poona  and  Bomtay.  The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  which  comea) 
from  the  nizam's  dominions,  ci!,  oil-seeds,  ghi,  turmeric,  and 
cotton  cloth ;  imports  include  salt,  piece-goods,  yarn,  giinney  hags^ 
and  iron  ware.  The  chief  industries  are  spinning,  weaving,  and 
dyeing.  The  silks  and  finer  sorts  of  cotton  cloth  prepared  in 
Sholapur  bear  a  good  nanio  ;  blankets  are  also  woven  in  largo 
numbers.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  amounted 
to  £129,429,  of  which  the  land-tax  yielded  £98,963 

Sholapur  district  passed  from  the  Bahmani  to  the  Bijapur  king* 
and  from  them  to  the  Marathas.  In  1818,  on  the  fall  of  the  Peshwa* 
it  was  ceded  to  the  British,  when  it  formed  part  of  the  Poona  col. 
lectorate,  but  in  1838  it  was  made  a  separate  collectorate.  Sinct 
then  its  progress  has  been  rapid 

SHOLAPUR,  chief  town  and  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  above  district,  h  situated  in  17°  40'  18" 
N.  lat.  and  75°  56'  38"  E.  long.,  on  the  plain  of  the  Sina. 
Its  convenient  situation  between  Poona  and  HaidarAbid 
(Hyderabad),  with  a  station  on  the  Great  Indian  Penin- 
sular Railway,  has  made  it  the  centre  for  the  collection 
and  distribution  of  goods  over  a  large  extent  of  country. 
The  town  contained  in  ISSl  a  population  of  59,890  (males 
30,410,  females  29,480). 

SHOOTING  for  sporting  purposes  requires  in  the  uss 
of  firearms  two  fundamental  principles  on  which  rests  the 
attainment  of  dexterity.  These  are,  first,  that  the  weight 'WeigliR 
of  the  weapon  be  such  that  the  sportsman  can  carry  and "'  E""-. 
wield  it  wifh  ease ;  and,  secondly — of  still  greater  ir.iport- 
ance — that  the  weapon  be  so  adapted  to  his  chest,  arm, 
and  eye  that  when  it  is  raised  and  levelled  in  the  act  of 
taking  aim  it  may  be  as  part  of  his  own  body.  An  over- 
heavy  gun  may  be  virtually  lightened  by  being  carried  by 
an  attendant  and  only  handed  to  the  sportsman  when  re- 
quired; but  a  gun  not  ex.actly  "fitting  the  shoulder,"  can- 
not possibly  serve  its  user  with  accuracy.  The  reason  is 
plain.  The  slight  divergence  of  his  line  of  aim  from  tha 
axis  of  the  barrel,  due  to  the  shape  of  the  gun  not  permit- 
ting the  coincidence  of  the  two  when  the  weapon  is  used 
rapidly,  creates  a  far  from  slight  divergence  of  the  pellets 
at  any  range  beyond  a  few  yards,  and  the  object  fired  at, 
if  struck  at  all,  is  only  struck  by  the  outer  and  weaker 
pellets.  The  increasing  wildness  of  game-birds,  in  Great 
Britain  at  least,  especially  of  partridges,  through  the 
modern  system  of  cutting  grain  close  to  the  ground  and 
so  leaving  no  sheltering  stubble,  demands  rapid  aim  and 
discharge  of  the  gun,  and  in  consequence  the  efforts  of  gun- 
makers  have  been  directed  to  the  production  of  weapons 
of  great  lightne.s3  combined  with  power  and  precision. 
How  different  were  the  conceptions  of  our  immediate  pre- 
decessors is  exemplified  in  such  statements  as  "  a  few  addi- 
tional pounds  in  the  weight  of  a  gun  makes  a  deal  of  differ- 
ence," and  "the  most  approved  gtins"  are  those  "weighing, 
according  to  the  fancy  of  the  shooter,  from  six  to  ninq 
pounds."  The  most  approved  guns  now  vary  in  weight  by 
a  few  ounces  only,  and  their  configuration  not  by  inclies, 
but  by  eighths  and  even  sixteenths  of  an  inch.  Ther& 
are  also  fine  lines  in  their  modelling  which,  while  of  great 
consequence,  are  imperceptible  to  the  eye,  and  can  only 
be  demonstrated  by  the  application  of  exact  and  delicata 
instruments.  Yet  each  of  these  lines  has  an  important 
purpose,  and  their  combination  produces  the  perfect 
weapon.  An  experienced  gunsmith  who  has  studied  this 
branch  of  his  business  can  catch  the  salient  lines  of  a 
sportsman's  figure  with  the  eye  of  an  artist,  and  by  tha 
further  aid  of  tests  and  measurements  can  construct  for 
him  a  proper  gun,  and  thus  lay  the  foundation  of  a  correct 
style  of  shooting.  On  the  other  hand,  an  unsuitable  gun 
can  only  be  aimed  correctly  with  slowness,  and  by  somo 
straining  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck.  Under  such  condi- 
tions correct  and  rapid  shooting  is  at  least  improbable  ; 
the  spread  of  the  shot  alone  prevents  a  complete  miss.  It 
is  the  correct  configuration  of  the  gun  which  brings  into 
full  effect  the  elaborate  boring  of  the  barrel,  and  p'vej 


SHOOTING 


833 


those  long  shots  oi  which  sportsmen  are  so  proud,  and 
■which  are  due  to  the  central  pellets  flying  straight  to  a 
very  considerable  distance,  much  beyond  that  of  the  outer 
pellets. 

Salanee.  The  next  point  in  a  gun  is  balance  ;  that  is,  the  metal 
in  the  barrels  must  be  so  apportioned  and  the  general  con- 
struction be  so  arranged  that  there  is  no  tendency  in  the 
muzzle  to  droop  at  the  moment  of  discharge,  just  when 
the  faculties  of  the  sportsman  are  absorbed  in  taking  aim 
and  his  muscular  energies  are  in  abeyance.  The  gun  should 
balance  at  a  point  a  Jittle  in  front  of  the  trigger-guird. 
The  centre  of  gravity  should  also  be  low.  so  that  there 
may  be  nothing  of  what  may  be  caUed  "  top-hamper," — in 
other  words,  that  his  gun  may  not  roll  in  his  hand,  but  may 
keep  on  an  even  keel,  as  it  were,  while  he  is  taking  aim. 
If  we  weigh  in  the  scales  two  guns  of  nearly  the  same 
weight,  the  one  well  the  other  ill  balanced,  the  former, 
although  feeling  quite  light  in  the  hand,  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  really  heavier  than  the  latter, — a  fact  which 
is  frequently  the  cause  of  much  surprise  to  sportsmen. 
When  properly  balanced,  a  gun  can  be  carried  with  much 
'ess  fatigue. 

OaBtmL  The  calibre — a  much  disputed  point — is,  within  the 
bounds  commonly  used,  a  question  more  of  the  capability 
of  the  sportsman  to  carry  weight  than  one  touching  his 
effectiveness  in  the  field.  It  has  been  plausibly  argued 
that  it  matters  little  how  narrow  the  calibre  of  a  fowling- 
piece  is,  and  that  even  gauge  "35"  (•■510  inch)  is  wide 
enough.  It  certainly  would  throw  a  few  pellets  of  swan- 
shot  effectively,  especially  if  the  barrel  was  not  less  than 
40  inches  long.  But  for  all  common  purposes  the  most 
nsc-iul  calibre  is  the  twelve-bore,  if  the  weight  is  not  under 
CJ  E),  or  somewhat  less  for  hammerless  guns.  AVhea  a 
less  weight  is  required,  "16"  gauge  (which  in  breech- 
loaders is  really  "  1 5  ")  is  preferable.  Calibre  "  20  "  belongs 
to  toy-weapons,  such  guns  being  also  uncertain  in  their 
delivery  j  and,  as  strong  and  effective  "16"  double-barrelled 
guns  can  now  be  made  weighing  only  6  lb,  a  smaller  calibre 
can  hardly  be  required,  except  vmder  peculiar  conditions. 
Against  the  advantage  of  less  weight  has  to  be  set  the 
important  matter  of  recoil,  and  one  cause  of  recoil  is  the 
elongation  of  the  body  of  the  shot  (and  especially  of  the 
small-sized  shot  used  in  such  guns)  when  placed  in  the 
barrel  or  cartridge.  The  longer  that  body,  and  the  smaller 
the  shot,  the  greater  the  difficulty  in  starting  it ;  hence, 
to  bring  a  "  20  "  as  regards  recoil  to  an  equality  with  a 
"12,"  the  weight  of  the  charge  of  shot  must  be  unduly 
reduced,  with  a  more  than  proportionate  reduction  of  the 
probability  of  killing,  save  in  the  exceptional  cases  where 
the  size  is  not  larger  than  snipe-shot.  The  shot  in  a  "12" 
has  no  part  at  any  appreciable  distance  from  the  v»adding 
over  the  powder,  and  every  pellet  may  fairly  be  said  to 
receive  a  direct  impetus  from  the  explosion.  An  exceed- 
ingly light  gun  has  also  the  fault  of  causing  unsteadiness 
when  the  sportsman  takes  aim. 

I/cSigth        The  length  of  the  barrels  need  not  exceed  30  inches. 

of  barrel.  j{  ^  sportsman  possesses  a  remarkably  correct  eye,  he  may 
safely  go  down  to  26  inches  or  even  less ;  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  shorter  the  barre'  the  greater  the 
necessity  for  a  perfectly  correct  aim.  Any  divergence  on 
a  barrel  under  26  inches  is  vastly  increased  at  30  or  40 
yards.  On  the  other  hand,  aim  is  more  quickly  taken 
with  short  barrels.     Thirty  inches  is  a  sound  medium. 

BotK  Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  run  on  what  are  termed 

"choke-bores"  (see  Guxmaki.vg,  vol.  xi.  p.  281).  But 
unless  the  choking  is  most  mathematically  true  the  flight 
of  the  shot  will  not  be  coincident  with  the  axis  of  the 
barrel  or  the  line  of  aim,  but  will  "train  off"  in  some  oblique 
direction ;  and  this  obliquity  will  also  be  more  or  less 
affected  by  any  required  modifications  oi  the  charge.  A 
•H— 31 


choke-bore,  therefore,  restricts  its  user  to  narrow  conditions 
in  loading  it.  The  velocity  of  the  shot  is  also  consider- 
ably reduced,  the  killing  power  depending  less  on  that 
than  on  the  object  aimed  at  being  struck  with  a  greater 
number  of  pellets.  Neither  do  all  the  pellets  fly  with 
equal  velocity,  so  that,  as  was  proved  several  years  ago  by 
ingenious  experimentation  (first  announced  by  the  present 
wi'iter),  these  advance,  as  it  were,  m  a  narrow  and  pro- 
longed column,  whereas  a  properly  bored  "friction  and 
relief  "  barrel  throws  its  shot  in  the  figure  of  a  broad  disk, 
with  all  the  pellets  travelling  practically  at  the  same  rate, — 
the  inner  or  central  ones  having,  however,  more  sustained 
killing  power,  their  "  quality  of  motion  "  being  of  a  higher 
degree  and  greatly  prolonging  the  range.  A  weapon 
bored  on  the  friction  and  relief  method  certainly  puts  the 
sportsman  in  a  better  position  for  all  kinds  of  common 
game  at  fair  sporting  ranges ;  but  since  the  introduction 
of  breech-loaders  barrels  so  bored  have  (undeservedly) 
fallen  so  greatly  into  disuse  that  the  delicate  art  of  friction 
and  relief  boring  has  nearly  been  lost.  A  purely  cylindrical 
barrel  only  shoots  well  when  perfectly  clean, — a  condition 
that  every  discharge  impairs. 

■With  a  weapon  that  suits  liim,  the  sportsman  will  find  that,  or  ^Uming, 
lifting  it  quickly  to  his  shoulder,  keeping  both  eyes  open,  and  fixin"  " 
them  on  any  small  object  at  some  distance  oS^  the  barrels  will  be 
directly  pointed  towards  that  object  without  his  having  taken  any 
slow  or  e.-cact  aim.  To  verify  this,  let  him  keep  the  gun  in  positinti 
and  shut  his  left  eye,  when  he  will  find  stiU  more  plainly  tliat  his 
aim  is  true.  The  gun  has  been  so  constructed  as  to  brinf  the  rib 
between  the  barrels  (for  double-barrelled  guns  are  always  under- 
stood) right  in  front  of  his  line  of  vision.  In  other  words,  tho 
barrels  and  stock  have  been  so  constructed,  inclusive  of  the' fine 
lines  already  referred  to,  that,  so  far  as  the  required  purpose  is  con-, 
cerned,  the  whole  piece  may  be  said  to  form  an  integral  part  of  hii 
own  body.  A  few  minutes'  daily  practice  in  so  pointing  a  gun  a? 
any  small  object,  althougli  in  a  room,  will  give  the  sportsmatt 
dexterity  in  its  use  even  before  he  has  burned  powder  in  it.  Ho«( 
the  shutting  of  one  eye  (unknown  in  billiards  and  similar  games) 
in  taking  aim  came  to  be  practised  in  using  firearms  seems  incxpli' 
cable  to  those  who  know  how  detrimental  it  is.  The  keeping  oS 
both  eyes  open  was  formerly  not  quite  unknown,  but  was  so  littlo 
practised  that,  when  the  present  \^ter  took  the  matter  up  some 
thirty  years  ago  and  publicly  advocated  it,  he  was  looked  upon  as 
being  quite  in  error  ;  but  now  his  correctness  is  acknowledged, 
and  what  is  termed  the  "  two-eye "  system  is  coming  mora  and 
mors  into  use.  There  are  still  many  uncertain  "shots"  who  are 
not  aware  that  their  frequently  unaccountable  misses  are  caused  by 
the  scientific  fact  that  shutting  one  eye  deprives  them  of  the  power 
of  measuring  distances,  and  also  of  watching  the  movement  of  a 
running  or  flying  object.  As  a  rule,  whilst  the  right  eye  is  actually 
taking  aim,  the  left  is  acting  subsidiarily  and  showing  the  right 
whether  or  not  it  is  taking  it  correctly.  It  may  be  noted  that 
almost  all  exceptionally  good  shots  have  the  eyes  set  wide  apart, 
and  so  take  their  observation  from  a  broader  base. 

The  attitude  in  taking  aim  should  be  free  and  upright,  with  the 
left  foot  somewhat  advanced.  The  right  elbow  should  never  bo 
raised  to  a  horizontal  level  with  the  shoulder, — a  common  but  bad 
practice.  The  gun  should  be  lifted  directly  upwards,  the  but-ciid 
just  grazing  the  right  front  of  the  chest  when  Teacliing  its  final 
position,  the  eyes  all  the  while  looking  fi.xcdly  upon  the  object. 
To  illustrate  this  by  way  of  contrast,  there  is  another  bad  style  of 
throwing  t'.ie  gun  forward,  the  shooter  all  the  while  trj'ing  to  look 
along  the  rib  (which  cranes  the  neck),  and  then  bringing  it  back 
against  the  shoulder  before  firing.  This,  however,  is  a  waste  of 
muscular  power  and  quite  throws  out  the  adaptation  of  the  stock 
to  the  shoulder,  because  it  is  impossible  to  bring  back  the  gun  quito 
correctly,  and  it  has  therefore  to  be  readjusted  (whrch  can  hardly 
be  accomplished)  before  firing.  Besides,  all  this  consumes  time,  for 
whifh  game  will  not  tarry.  In  military  phrase,  three  "  motions  " 
are  required  ;  with  the  proper  style  there  is  only  one. 

The  question  how  far  the  left  hand  should  be  e.^tended  in  taking  rtse  of 
aim  is  much  disputed,  but  is  really  of  secondary  consequence.  Ufl  han^l 
Pigeon-shooters  extend  it  as  far  as  they  well  can,  because  their 
great  object  is  to  prevent  tho  muzzle  from  drooping  at  the  moment 
of  discharge ;  but  from  this,  and  also  from  their  custom  of  planting 
their  feet  firmly  and  squarely  upon  the  ground,  so  3°  to  stand  with 
their  full  front  to  their  probable  line  of  aim,  no  lesson  in  shooting 
game  need  bo  taken.  Good  game  shots  are  not  unfrequcntly  poor 
shots  at  pigeons,  and  vice  versa  ;  to  be  expert  at  the  former  depends 
upon  the  acquisition  of  a  certain  knack,  and  above  all  of  calculatiou 
in  time,  i.e.,  of  the  power  of  estimating  the  average  time  from  tha 

XXL  r-    los 


834 


SHOOTING 


etock  cf 
gun. 


Treai,- 
ment  of 
gnus. 


Rabbits. 


Hares. 


Roedeer. 


Sfoose. 


sbootei''s  cry  of  the  word  '*^  M*'  to  the  openin;;  of  the  trap  and 
flight  of  tho  bird.  This  is  so  much  the  case  that  not  unfrequently 
the  gun  is  fired  solely  by  calculation  of  time,  and  before  a  sluggish 
bird  has  flown.  In  game -shooting  the  bird  may  rise  in  front  or  at 
either  side  of  the  shooter,  or  even  behiad  him.  Very  rapid  lateral 
movement  of  the  gnn  may  therefore  be  required,  and  it  appears  not 
only  probable  in  itself  but  experimentally  true  that  this  can  best 
bo  made  by  tho  left  arm  when  it  has  to  describe  a  circle  of  the 
shortest  diameter.  For  this  the  best  and  safest  position  is  when 
the  left  hand  grasps  the  gun  immediately  in  front  of  the  trigger- 
guard.  In  pulling  tho  trigger  the  finger  should  be  well  crooked, 
so  that  the  pressure  may  be  directly  backwards,  and  no  lateral  dis- 
turbance may  interftrre  with  the  aim  at  the  most  critical  moment 

If  the  eye  takes  in  all  the  rib  of  the  gun  when  raised  to  the 
shoulder  in  position  for  firing,  so  that  the  full  length  of  its  surface 
is  seen,  the  stock  is  too  straight.  If  the  rib  is  not  seen  at  all,  the 
stock  is  too  crooked.  When  a  stock  is  of  the  proper  curve,  the 
eye  will  catch  the  rib  about  one-lhird  of  its  length  from  the  muzzle, 
i.c.y  all  the  rib  in  front  of  that  point  will  be  visible,  and  all  behind 
it  out  of  sight.  A  straight  stock  is,  however,  preferable  to  a 
crooked  one,  which  makes  the  gun  shoot  low, — a  bad  fault  It  is 
of  first-rate  importance  that  the  delicate  lateral  setting  of  the  stock, 
as  distinguished  from  the  perpendicular  curvej  should  bring  the 
centre  of  the  rib  exactly  into  the  line  of  sight  This  fine  desidera- 
tum may  be  arrived  at  conjointly  by  tho  sportsman  and  the  maker 
of  tho  gun  ;  the  latter  can  be  guided  by  information  as  to  the  sports- 
man's height,  length  of  arm,  and  breadth  of  chest  If  this  point 
is  satisfactory  it  is  immaterial  whether  a  bird  flies  to  the  right 
hand  or  to  the  left,  and  the  neglect  of  it  is  the  reason  why  some 
sportsmen  are  good  shots  in  one  only  of  tnese  directions. 

In  cleaning  breechloaders,  including  the  inside  of  the  barrels, 
neither  oil  nor  water  should  be  used,  but  solely  spirits  of  turpentine. 
The  gun  should  never  be  laid  aside  ou  fuU-caclfrj  as  this  weakens 
the  mainsprings.  As  hammerless  guns  are  necessarily  on  full-cock 
when  taken  down,  the  triggers  should  be  draL'n,  but  with  the  care- 
ful proviso  that  the  points  of  the  hammers  strike  upon  a  block  of 
ha»d  wood  held  firmly  in  front  of  them.  The  lock  should  never  be 
snapped  unless  there  is  a  discharged  or  a  "dummy"  cartridge  in 
the  barrel.  No  hammer  can  l>c  made,  of  any  metal  or  form  Of  con- 
struction, that  vail  not  probably  crack  if  it  falls  without  something 
in  front  less  tiying  than  the  hard  and  impassive  breech.  Ou  sea 
voyages  and  in  damp  climates  the  barrels  should  be  kept  from  the 
atmosphere  by  inserting  into  them  wooden  rods  covered  with  woollen 
cloth,  and  in  such  cases  the  free  applicatiou  of  turpentine  will  bo 
found  invaluable.  Failing  these  rods,  each  end  may  be  closed  with 
wadding  or  corks.  For  oiling  the  locks  the  finest  chronometer  oil 
should  be  used,  and  only  applied  in  minute  quantities  to  the  points 
of  friction,  not  over  all :  oil  dries  up  and  if  applied  copiously 
frustrates  the  desired  purpose.  Raw  linseed  oil,  frequently  rubbed 
into  a  stock,  hardens  and  preeerves  it.  Explorers  and  travellers, 
whose  lives  may  depend  on  their  firearms,  may  usefully  strengthen 
the  weakest  part  of  every  gun,  the  handle  of  the  stock,  by  wrapping 
it  tightly  round  with  whip-cord. 

Shooting  Game. — Space  forbids  entering  at  length  on  the  modes 
of  shooting  the  several  varieties  of  game.  All  that  is  here  possible 
is  briefly  to  touch  upon  some  of  tSie  salient  points  iu  the  pursuit 
of  the  more  common  varieties. 

Rabbits,  on  which  young  sportsmen  generally  first  essay  their 
"  'prentice  hand,"  dash  oft  for  the  nearest  shelter  with  great  rapidity, 
and  should  be  instantaneously  fired  at,  the  aim  being  taken  slightly 
in  advance.  If  a  rabbit  has  disappeared  among  brushwood,  it  may 
be  not  unavailing  to  fire  right  in  front  of  the  line  it  was  seen  to 
take.  In  "fen-eting"  the  sportsman  should  stand  clear  of  the 
burrow  (over  which  he  should  never  tread),  and  never  fire  at  a 
rabbit  until  it  is  well  away  from  the  "bolt-hole."  Hares  are  less 
tenacious  of  life  than  rabbits,  and,  as  it  is  an  object  not  to  mangle 
V:c  body  and  so  cause  an  efi'usion  of  blood,  the  eyes  of  the  sports- 
{.  an  should  bo  fixed  solely  on  the  tips  of  the  ears  in  whatever 
di:'cction  the  animal  is  going,  when  the  shot  is  instantaneously 
ibtal.  A  hare  coming  straight  towards  a  sportsman  should  not  be 
pred  at ;  he  should  stand  quite  motionless  until  it  comes  within  30 
Jparda,  when  on  his  making  a  slight  sound  or  movement  it  will  turn 
a:!de  and  give  an  easy  shot  No  other  direction  need  bo  given  on 
this  head  (save  possibly  that  the  shot  is  more  easy  when  a  hare  is 
iscending  a  ridge  across  which  it  may  be  running  than  when  it  is 
descending  from  the  crown  to  the  furrow),  seeing  that  the  one 
principle  of  firing  solely  at  the  ears  involves  everything.  Roedeer 
are  usually  killed  with  buckshot— although  a  small  rifle  is  pre- 
ferable—the "guns"  being  posted  at  the  likely  passes.  The  neck 
or  shoulder  should  be  fired  at  They  are  easily  killed  when  within 
fair  distance,  but  are  exceedingly  clever  in  keeping  out  of  range 
and  in  detecting  the  presence  of  the  lurking  sportsman.  They  also 
have  the  trick,  in  common  with  the  elephant,  of  doubling  back  and 
passing  round  any  knoll,  coming  out  on  its  other  side  and  then 
continuing  their  intended  course.  Of  this  instinctive  habit  the 
sportsman  should  avail  himself. 

Success  iu  grouse -shoo  ting,  probably  the  finest  of  all  sports  from 


every  point  of  view,  depend3  mainly  on  vigilance  and  careful  atten^ 
tion  to  the  movements  of  the  dogs,  and  following  them  well  up  as 
soon  as  there  are  indications  of  game  being  in  front  Save  that  a 
cunning  old  cock  will  after  rising  immediately  dip  down  to  nearly 
the  level  of  the  heather  and  go  otf  with  wondrously  baffling  speed,' 
there  is  no  peculiarity  in  the  flight  of  grouse  calling  for  si>eciai' 
remark.  Like  partridges,  thc^y  generally  fly  straight  and  neai-ly 
horizontally.  As  the  season  advances,  their  wariness  and  the 
matured  strength  of  the  30ung  birds  make  their  pursuit  more 
diflicult,  but  otherwise  they  afi^ord  fair  shots,  "  Driving"  is  now 
quite  a  recognized  branch  of  grouse-shooting.  The  "gims"  being 
posted  in  artificial  places  of  concealment  in  the  line  of  flight  known 
to  be  usually  taken  by  the  birds  on  being  disturbed  by  beaters,  the 
shots  are  taken  as  the  birds  are  coming  overhead.  Their  speed  ia 
so  great  that  it  is  needless  to  fire  if  they  have  once  passed  the 
shooter,  seeing  that  the  aim  must  be  taken  some  feet  in  front' 
It  has  been  found  useful  for  the  sportsman  to  crouch  without 
motion  until  the  birds  are  comiug  within  distance,  when,  suddenly 
showing  himself,  they  are  startled  and  throw  their  heads  up,  thua 
breaking  their  flight  and  giving  the  gun  a  fair  chance.  Perhaps 
the  easiest  and  most  fatal  shots  are  at  single  birds  coming  straight 
towards  the  sportsman,  taken  at  about  30  yards.  The  aim  should 
be  high,  and  it  is  aided  by  the  recoil  of  a  gun  when  fired,  which 
throws  the  muzzle  up  in  the  line  of  flight.  The  pellets  also  strike 
the  head  and  neck,  and  with  such  force  that,  when  meeting  the  bird. 
No.  7  shot  is  most  deadly  when  so  discharged.  The  recoil  of  a  gun 
when  fired  "high"  is  also  useful  in  shooting  with  a  rifle  any  large 
bird  passing  overhead  ;  the  shooter  should  face  the  bird.  Driving 
is  severe  work  if  thoroughly  carried  out,  as  the  sportsmen,  as  soon 
as  one  beat  is  over,  have  to  find  their  way  rapidly  to  the  nest 
position.  It  is  therefore  not  an  efi"eminate  sport,  and  it  probably 
indirectly  maintains  the  number  of  the  stock -birds  by  killing  off 
the  old  leading  cocks  (which  virtually  are  vetmin).  Setters  are 
the  proper  dogs  for  giouse -shoo ting,  their  hairy  feet  being  well 
protected  from  the  heather  ;  hence  to  maintain  vigour  they  require 
to  drink  water  freqiwntly  and  even  to  squat  in  shallow  pools, 
pointers  are  preferable  for  dry  moors,  particularly  in  hot  weather. 

Partridge-shooting  is  akin  to  grouse-shooting  in  respect  of  the  Par- 
mode  of  pursuit,  the  difi"erence  lying  in  its  being  carried  on  mostly  tridgev 
upon  cultivated  or  enclosed  land.  Both  in  partridge-shooting  and 
in  gi'ouse -shoo ting  one  bird  only  ought  to  be  singled  out  and  shot 
at;  no  success  will  follow  firing  into  the  "brown"  of  a  covey. 
Old  sportsmen  regret  that  shooting  over  dogs  (pointers  being  pre- 
ferable to  the  swifter  and  more  dashing  settei-s)  is  goin^  out  of 
ftractice  ;  but  the  close  cutting  of  the  grain  crops  now  m  vogue 
eaves  so  little  stubble  that  the  approach  of  the  dogs  is  seen  by  the 
birds,  which,  generally  rising  wild,  afford  few  "shots  to  points." 
Hence  the  system  of  sportsmen  walking  in  line  (with  no  dogs  save 
retrievers)  and  taking  what  birds  rise  before  them,  and  so  driving 
them  into  turnips  or  other  covert,  or  of  having  them  "driven  , 
by  beaters,  is  almost  enforced.  "When  driven  into  such  coverts  the- 
birds  are  apt  to  run  before  the  shooters  and  take  their  flight  from 
the  far  end  of  the  field.  This  may  be  prevented  by  the  sportsmau 
not  advancing  directly,  but  in  a  series  of  circuits  ;  then  the  birds, 
becoming  uncertain  as  to  which  way  they  should  run,  sit  close  and 
only  rise  on  his  very  near  approach.  Of  coxirse  this  excellent  but 
almost  unkno\\Ti  system  can  only  be  well  carried  out  by  a  single 
shooter,  or  by  two  at  the  most  In  "driving"  the  "guns"  are 
posted  in  a  line  at  some  distance  from  each  other,  under  the  con- 
cealment of  a  hedge  some  20  yards  in  their  front.  Towards  this 
the  beaters  (with  a  fugleman  on  horseback,  if  necessary)  drive  the 
birds.  The  shots  are  generally  very  difficult,  the  birds  flying  witk 
remarkable  speed,  and  the  shooter  being  also  often  bewildered  by 
the  number  of  smaller  birds,  such  as  the  various  kinds  of  thrushes, 
which  precede  or  accompany  the  partridges  ;  their  suddan  appear- 
ance on  coming  over  the  hedge  is  also  trying,  whereas  the  approach 
of  grouse  can  be  seen.  These  two  systems — "driving"  and  the 
circular  progression  in  covert  —  are  of  recent  introductiom  The 
former  has  developed  greater  skill  in  shooting.  *     •  . 

The  art  of  shooting  pheasants  depends  upon  the  fact  that,  unlike  Phea< 
partridges  or  grouse,  the  birds  generally  ste-adUy  ascend  in  their  santa, 
flight ;  hence  the  tendency  is  to  shoot  under  them.  This  upward 
flight  is  gi'eatest  in  coverts,  until  it  sometimes  becomes  alihost 
perpendicular,  birds  rising  in  this  way  being  called  "rocketers." 
The  inexperienced  shooter  is  also  misled  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  tail  is  spread  out  like  a  fan,  concealing  the  body,  and  thus 
diverting  the  aim  from  the  body  upon  the  tail  feathers.  To  aim 
high,  therefore,  is  the  golden  rule.  The  shooter  should  face  birds 
which  fly  rapidly  cverhead.  in  the  way  described  above.    _ 

To  kill  snipe  well  one  must  hunt  down  the  wind — an  except  ion  al^Stipd- 
practice — and  on  the  bird  rising  fire  at  once,  or,  failing  that,  give  it 
time  to  change  its  few  preliminary  zigzag  motions  into  a  steady  flight 


1  A  carrier  pigeon  can  fly  a  little  over  4  miles  5  fiirlongg  in  four  uiinntes, — 
an  average  of  nearly  102  feet  a  second.  Assuming  the  distance  to  bu  (0  yards 
(a  long  shot),  the  aim  taken  at  a  bird  flying  ncross  the  shooter  at  that  speed 
Bhould  be  more  than  5  feet  in  advance;,  the  flight  uf  the  shot  to  a  distance  oL 
40  yards  requiring  OQO-aiDeteeQtli  of  a  ^coDd. 


S  H  O  — S  H  O 


835 


As  the  least  toccli  of  shot  bi-ings  a  snipe  down,  it  is  very  unlikely  to 
have  passed  out  pf  range  before  the  dii'ect  lino  of  flight  is  assumed. 
This  is  the  only  sport  followed  on  land  "down  wind."     Shot  No. 
it  or  10  should  be  used. 
Bladt-  Although  gi-eatly  different  in  character,  black -game  and  wood- 

cock        cock  may  be  well  coupled  together  as  being  eccentric  in  their  move- 
and  ments.     The  former  are  most  easily  shot  very  early  in  the  season, 

wood-  especially  over  a  steady  old  pointer,  when  the  broods  are  yet  on 
sock.  the  more  open  ground,  under  the  maternal  charge,  like  so  many 
domestic  cMckeus  ;  but,  when  they  have  broken  up  the  famUy  ties, 
congregated,  and  betaken  themselves  to  the  coppices,  'they  become 
so  irregular  in  their  habits  and  uncertain  in  their  mode  of  taking 
flight  that  no  e.tact  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  their  pursuit.  The 
sportsman,  using  one  steady  old  pointer  and  a  retriever,  had  best 
Im  guided  by  an  experienced  attendant,  who  should  take  care  to 
beat  out  any  bird  lurking  in  a  thick  bush  from  the  opposite  side 
and  towards  the  gun.  A  few  shots  may  also  be  got  at  the  dawn 
of  day  on  the  edges  of  stubble-fields  ;  but  black-game  shooting  is 
generally  disappointing.  The  female  birds,  "grey  hens,"  are  not 
shot  at ;  the  young  males,  which  greatly  resemble  them,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  the  white  feathers  in  the  taiL  A  solitary 
blackcock  may  often  be  seen  to  take  up  a  prominent  position,  usu- 
ally in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  small  fields  to  be  found  on  the  side 
of  hilly  ground,  where  he  maintains  a  vigilant  watch.  With  some 
experience  in  shooting  matters,  the  present  writer  knows  no  pursuit 
more  interesting  and  invigorating  than  stalking  such  a  bird  :  with- 
out causing  undue  fatigue,  it  exercises  one's  patience,  vigilance,  and 
coolness  of  nerve.  Shot  for  this  purpose  should  not  be  of  a  smaller 
size  than  No.  4.  Woodcock  newly  arrived  may  be  readily  killed, 
especially  near  the  sea-coast.  After  recruiting,  they  frequently 
betake  themselves  to  heathery  moors  if  there  are  such  near  at 
hand,  where  they  frequent  the  sides  of  rivulets  and  gorges.  There 
they  may  be  readily  brought  down  ;  but  in  woods  they  have  a  knack 
of  twisting,  as  it  were,  round  the  younger  trees,  in  the  branches  of 
•which  they  are  mostly  found,  and  so  disconcert  the  aim.  Being  of 
nocturnal  habits,  their  eyes  are  weak  in  the  full  glare  of  day,  and 
they  are  fond  of  the  sheltering  shade  of  thickly  foliaged  trees,  such 
as  the  holly.  The  only  advice  that  can  be  given  on  this  sport  is 
to  risk  the  shot  at  the  merest  glimpse  of  the  bii-d  through  the 
branches,  and  trust  to  the  spread  of  the  pellets  to  kUl,  for  the 
"Woodcock,  like  its  congener  the  snipe,  will  fall  with  a  touch,  and 
even  (apparently)  through  mere  fright  on  b^ing  fired  at.  without 
being  touched  at  all.  The  best  shot  to  use"  is  No.  8.  " 
Ammu-  Ammuniticn. — In  former  times  sportsmen  carefully  adjusted 
pition.  their  ch.argcs  of  powder  and  shot  to  suit  the  wfather  (which  affected 
the  strength  of  the  former)  and  the  sport  in  hand.  Now,  almost 
everything  is  left  to  the  purveyor  of  cartridges,  which  are  usually 
charged  on  avei-age  proportions,  The  sportsman  should  be  careful, 
therefore,  to  ascertain  the  charge  best  suited  to  his  weapon,  and  to 
bave  his  cartridges  so  loaded.  When  a  gun  recoils  the  charge  of 
shot — not  of  powder,  as  is  generally  supposed — should  be  reduced  ; 
and  it  is  always  safer  to  use  a  hght  charge  of  shot.  Breechloaders 
require  large-grained  powder,  Messrs  Curtis  &  Harvey's  No.  6  being 
the  typical  size.  Pyroxyline  explosives,  of  which  Schultze  powder^ 
is  the  normal  type,  are  now  largely  used,  especially  in  the  first 
barrel,  the  other  being  charged  with  black  powder.  For  almost 
all  reguhir  sport  No.  6  shot  is  the  best  size  ;  and  it  is  better  to  use 
No.  7  iu  a  smaller  quantity  than  No.  5  for  grouse  and  partridges. 
For  pheasants  and  black  game  use  No.  5,  but  of  1|  oz.  in  weight, 
with  a  some'.vhat  reduced  charge  of  powder.  One  oz.  or  at  most 
IJ  o7.  of  No.  6  is  ample  ;  the  former  will  travel  with  marvellous 
and  far-reaching  velocity.  Any  excess  of  shot  merely  falls  to  the 
ground,  as  may  be  seen  by  firing  over  a  sheet  of  smooth  v.-ater.  For 
dncfc -shooting  (for  which  tlie  barrels  should  be  of  "10"  gauge  and 
32  inches  'long)  No.  4  shot  is  a  good  size ;  and  for  this  sport  it  is 
well  to  reduce  the  weight  of  the  shot  and  increase  very  considerably 
that  of  the  powder,  velocity  being  everything. 
Btflc-  mjle-shooting. — The  propriety  of  shooting  with  both  eyes  open 

shooting,  is,  if  |x>ssible,  more  imperative  in  rifle. shooting  than  in  shooting 
game,  if  rapidity  is  valued,  as  it  must  be.  Firearms  immediately 
followed  the  long  bow  and  the  cross-bow,  and  it  has  never  been 
supposed  that  the  archer  discharged  these  with  one  eye  closed.  With 
both  eyes  open  the  "back  sight"  virtually  becomes  transparent, 
and  forms  no  obstacle  to  the  aim,  while  with  one  eye  closed  it  cer- 
tainly docs,  for,  as  the  head  and  eyes-  must  bo  kept  fairly  up  in 
firing  a  shot  gun,  they  must  be  kept  well  down  in  firing  a  rifle. 
The  "express"  rifle  is  the  chcf-dctuvre  of  modern  weapons,  and 
■when  properly  made  will  throw  its  bullet  up  to  200  yards  without 
perceptible  curve  from  one  sight.     This  result  is  attained  mostly  by 

'  Tliis  explosive  is  the  invention  of  Colonel  J.  F.  E,  Schultze,  of 
the  PrussLin  ar'illcry  service,  and  was  introduced  about  1866  into  the 
United  Kingdom  by  Mr  J.  D.  Dougall.  It  is  now  being  manufactured 
in  Great  Britirin  as  well  as  on  the  Continent  The  adv.mtagcs  claimed 
for  it  are  that  it  does  not  require  any  special  losing,  such  as  hard 
ramming,  there  is  a  smaller  reiojl  than  with  black  gunpowder,  and 
-H  has  great  propulsive  power,  with  little  or  no  fouling  of  the  firearm. 


an  inordinately  large  charge  of  powder  to  a  light  and  pattly  hollow 
bullet  (see  GUNMAKINO,  vol.  si  p.  282).  ITie  "pull"  on  the 
trigger  should  rather  be  a  pinch  than  a  direct  backward  pull,  i.e., 
the  trigger  should  be  pinched  between  the  forefinger  and  the  thumb 
which  grasps  the  handle  of  the  stock.  If  the  sportsman  has  the 
presence  of  mind  to  inflate  his  chest  with  a  long  inhalation  he  -will 
shoot  all  the  bettei-.  There  is  a  popular  opinion  that  a  single- 
barrelled  "express  "  shoots  more  truly  than  a  double-banelled  one. 
This  is  quite  a  mistake,  unless  the  barrel  of  the  former  is  made 
so  thick  and  heavy  at  the  muzzle  (to  prevent  the  metal  quivering 
when  the  bullet  leaves  it)  as  to  destroy  the  balance.  In  double- 
barrelled  rifles  the  one  bai'rel  braces  up  the  other,  and  they  are 
also  so  adjusted  as  to  shoot  jiarallel.  This  common  error  has  prob- 
ably arisen  from  confounding  "express"  TA-ith  long-range  matck 
rifles,  which  are  quite  another  thing.  The  '450  calibre  is  best 
adapted  for  dear  and  antelopes,  '500  for  mixed  shooting,  and  "57? 
for  dangerous  animals.  But  for  these  and  the  gi'cat  pachyderms  a 
"  12  "  gauge,  throwing  an  explosive  shell,  is  the  most  effective  of 
all  firearms,  the  larger  "  area  "  of  the  wound  telling  at  once. 

All  really  useful  information  on  the  subject  of  shooting  is  contained  in  J.  tl. 
Dongall's  Shooting,  its  Appliances,  itc.  (London,  2d  ed.  1S81);  General  W.  X. 
Hutchinson's  Dog'breaking  (London,  1876);  and  W.  Scrope's  Deer.Etnlki\^ 
(London,  1346).  (J.  D.  D.) 

SHORE,  Jane,  mistress  of  King  Edward  IV.,  would 
have  been  unkno"wn  by  name  even  to  the  studious  antiquary 
but  for  the  events  which  took  place  after  the  death  of  her 
royal  paramour.  She  was  the  first  of  three  concubines 
whom  he  described  respectively  as  the  merriest,  the  wilyest, 
and  the  holiest  harlot  in  his  realm.  A  handsome  woman 
of  moderate  stature,  round  face,  and  fair  complexion,  she 
was  more  captivating  by  her  wit  and  conversation  than  by 
her  beauty  ;  yet  §ir  Thomas  More;  writing  when  she  was 
still  alive,  but  old,  lean,  and  withered,  declares  that  even 
then  an  attentive  observer  might  have  discerned  in  her 
shrivelled  countenance  some  traces  of  its  lost  charms.  She 
was  born  in  London,  and  married  before  she  was  quite 
out  of  girlhood  to  a  citizen  named  William  Shore,  who, 
though  young,  handsome,  and  well-to-do,  never  really  woa 
her  affections ;  and  thus  she  yielded  the  more  readily  to 
the  solicitations  of  King  Edward.  Her  husband  on  this 
abandoned  her,  and  after  Edward%  death  she"  became  tho 
mistress  of  Lord  Hastings,  whom  Richard  III.,  then  duke  of 
Gloucester,  as  protector  diuring  the  minority  of  Edward  V., 
suddenly  ordered  to  be  beheaded  on  13th  June  1483. 
According  to  the  report  given  by  More,  Richard  had 
accused  Hastings  at  the  council  table  of  conspiring  against 
him  along  with  the  queen-dowager  and  Shore's  "svife,  who 
by  sorcery  and  witchcraft  had  given  him  a  withered  arm. 
So  having  got  rid  of  Hastings  he  caused  Jane  Shore  to  be 
committed  to  prison  and  spoiled  her  house,  containing 
property  to  the  value  of  2000  or  3000  marks,  equivalent 
to  a  sum  of  £20,000  or  £30,000  at  the  present  day. 
But  having  sought  in  the  first  place  to  charge  her  with 
conspiracy — a  charge  which  apparently  he  could  not  sub- 
stantiate— he  thought  better  afterwards  to  get  the  bishop 
of  London  to  put  her  to  open  penance  at  Paul's  Cross 
for  her  vicious  life.  She  accordingly  went  in  her  kirtlo 
through  the  streets  one  Sunday  with  a  taper  in  her  hand, 
her  beauty  really  enhanced  by  the  blush  which  hev  humilia- 
tion called  up  in  her  asually  pale  cheeks ;  and  many  who 
detested  her  mode  of  life  could  not  but  pity  her  as  the 
victim  of  a  hypocritical  tyranny.  The  penance  certainly 
did  not  induce  her  to  reform,  for  she  immediately  after- 
wards became  the  mistress  of  the  marquis  of  Dorset ;  and, 
what  is  still  more  extraordinary,  next  year,  having  becsn 
taken  again  into  custody,  and  her  hiLsband,  it  may  be 
presumed,  Ijeing  by  that  time  dead,  she  so  captivated  the 
king's  solicitor,  Thomas  Lynom,  that  he  actually  entered 
into  a  contract  of  marriage  with  her.  Tliis  we  know  from 
a  letter  of  King  Richard  to  his  chancellor  on  the  occasion, 
desiring  him  to  dissuade  Lynom  from  the  match,  as  far  as 
he  could,  by  argument,  but,  if  he  found  him  determined, 
then,  provided  it  was  not  against  the  laws  of  the  church, 
he  might  convey  the  king's  consent  and  meanwhile  deliver 
Jane  out  of  prison  to  her  father's  custody.     Conduct  so 


836 


S  H  O  — S  H  O 


unliko  his  previous  severity  shows  that  Eichard  knew  now 
to  be  gracious  as  well  as  despotic.  Whether  the  marriage 
actually  took  place  is  not  known.  Jane  certainly  lived 
to  the  year  1513,  when  More  wrote  his  history  of  Eichard 
m.,  but  how  much  later  we  cannot  tell. 

SHORTHAND,  or  Stenography,  Tachygkaphy,  &c., 
is  a  term  applied  to  all  systems  of  brief  handwriting  which 
are  intended  to  enable  a  person  to  write  legibly  at  the  rate 
of  speech.  (For  the  ancient  Latin  and  Greek  tachygraphy, 
see  the  last  part  of  the  article  on  PaLjEOgkaphY.)  In  the 
10th  century  all  practical  acquaintance  with  the  shorthand 
systems  of  Greece  and  Rome  faded  completely  a'way,  and 
not  till  the  beginning  of  the  17  th  can  the  art  be  said  to 
have  revived.  But  even  during  that  interval  systems  of 
writing  seem  to  have  been  practised  which  for  speed  ap- 
proximated to  modern  shorthand.^ 

Shorthand  in  English-sp'.akinij  Counlnes. — England  was 
the  birthplace  of  modern  Shorthand,  and  at  the  present 
time  there  is  no  country  in  Europe,  except  perhaps 
Germany  and  German  Switzerland,  where  the  art  is  so 
extensively  practised  as  in  England.  The  first  impulse  to 
its  cultivation  may  possibly  be  traced  to  the  Reformation. 
'When  the  principles  of  that  movement  were  being  pro- 
mulgated from  the  pulpit,  a  desire  to  preserve  the  dis- 
eourses  of  the  preacher  naturally  suggested  the  idea  of 
accelerated  writing.  It  is  certainly  striking  that  in  the 
early  systems  so  many  brief  arbitrary  signs  afe  provided  to 
denote  phrases  common  in  the  New  Testament  and  Pro- 
testant theology.  Up  to  the  present  time  (1886)  not  less 
than  483  professedly  distinct  systems  of  EngUsh  shorthand 
have  been  published,  and  doubtless  many  more  have  been 
invented  for  private  use.  It  is  impossible  here  to  notice 
even  by  name  more  than  a  very  few  of  them.  Indeed,  if 
we  reject  all  those  systems  which  are  imitations  or  repro- 
ductions of  earlier  ones,  and  systems  which  are  so  unpracti- 
cal as  to  be  little  better  than  elegant  toys,  and  a  multitude 
of  utterly  worthless  catchpenny  p\iblications,  only  a  few 
remain.  In  Dr  Timothy  Bright's-  Characterie  (1588)  and 
Peter  Bales's^  Arte  of  Brachyr/raphie,  contained  in  his 
Writing  Schoolemaster  (1590),  almost  every  word  in  the 
language  is  provided  with  an  arbitrary  sign.  Only  with 
gigantic  memory  and  by  unremitting  labour  could  one 
acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  such  methods.  The  first 
shorthand  system  worthy  of  the  name  which,  so  far  as  is 
known,  appeared  in  England  is  that  of  John  Willis,  whose 
Art  of  Stenoffrapfiie  (London,  13  editions''  from  1G02  to 


^  For  instances,  see  Zeibig's  Gcschichie  u.  Lit.  der  Gesckxinndschrcib- 
kunsi  (DreSJeo,  1878),  pp.  67-79.  For  J^hn  of  Tilbury's  system  (c. 
1175),  see  especially  Shorthand,  No.  5,  and  ITcrmes,  viii.  p.  303. 

^  The  Bodleiaii  Library  contains  tbe  only  known  copy  of  Bright*3 
book.  For  a  description  of  the  system,  see  Phonetic  Journal,  1S84, 
p.  86  ;  Circulars  of  Information  of  the  Bureau  of  Editcation  (Wash- 
ington), No.  2,  1884,  p.  8  ;  and  Notes  and  Queries,  2d  ser.,  vol.  ii,  p. 
394.  .^  is  represented  by  a  straight  line,  the  other  letters  of  the 
alphabet  by  a  straight  line  with  -hook,  circle,  or  tick  added  at  the 
beginning.  Each  alphabetic  sign  placed  in  various  positions,  and 
having  some  additional  mark  at  the  end,  was  used  to  indicate  arbi- 
trarily chosen  words  beginning  with  a,  b,  c,  d,  &c.  There  were  four 
slopes;  given  to  each  letter  and  twelve  ways  of  Varying  the  base,  so 
that  forty-eight  words  could  be  written  under  each  letter  of  the  alpha- 
bet if  necessary.  Thus  the  sign  for  b  with  different  terminal  marks 
and  written  in  four  different  directions  signified  a  number  of  words 
commencing  with  b  ;  537  such  signs  had  to  be  learned  by  heart.  By 
adding  certain  external  marks  these  signs  were  applied  to  other  words : 
thus  by  writing  a  dot  in  one  of  two  positions  with  respect  to  a  sign  the 
latter  was  made  to  represent  either  a  synonym  or  a  word  of  opposite 
meaning.  Under  tiiV  are  given  as  synonyms  breath,  exhalation,inict,  reek, 
steam,  vapour.  The  best  accoimt  of  Bright  is  given  in  the  Dictio^iary 
of  National  Biography,  vol.  vi.  (1886). 

^  Bales's  method  was  to  group  the  words  in  dozens,  each  dozen  headed 
by  a  Roman  letter,  v,'ith  certain  commas,  periods,  and  other  marks  to  be 
placed  about  each  letter  in  their  appropriate  situations,  so  as  to  distin- 
guish the  words  from  each  other.  P'or  an  account  of  B.-vles,  see  Tv  ood's 
Athf:n..Oxon.,\-a\.  i.  col.  655,  and  the  Diet,  of  Nat.Biog.,vo\.  iii.  (1885). 

'  The  first  edition,  published  anonymously,  is  entitled  The  Art,  of 


1644)  is  substantially  based  on  the  common  alphabet ;  but 
the  clumsiness  of  his  alphabetic  signs,  and  the  confused 
laborious  contrivainces  by  which  he  denotes  prefixes  and 
terminations,  involving  the  continual  lifting  of  the  pen 
would  seem  to  render  his  iuethcd  almost  as  slow  as  long 
hand.  *0f  the  201  systems  which  intervene  between  J. 
Willis's  and  Isaac  Pitman 'ssphonography  (1837)  nearly  all 
are  based,  like  Willis'?,  on  the  alphabet,  and  may  be  called 
a,  b,  c  systems.  But  seven  are,  like  phonography,  strictlj 
phonetic,  viz.,  those  by  Tifiin  (1750),  Lyle  (1762),  Holds- 
worth  and  Aldridge  (1766),  Eoe  (1802),  Phineas  Bailey 
(1819),  Towndrow  (1831),  and  De  Stains  (1839).  Of  the 
281  systems  which  have  appeared  since  phonography  a 
very  large  proportion  are  merely  imitations  of  that  system, 
or  proceed  on  the  same  lines. 

A  few  general  remarks  apply  i.rrgely  to  all  the  a,  b,  c  A,  b,  c 
systems.  Each  letter  is  designated  by  a  straight  line  or  systems- 
curve  (vertical,  horizontal,  or  sloping),  sometimes  with  the 
addition  of  a  hook  or  loop.  C  and  q  are  rejected,  h  being 
substituted  for  hard  c  and  q,  s  for  "soft  c.  Signs  are  pro- 
vided for  ch,  sh,  th.  G  and  j  are  classed  under  one  sigp, 
because  in  some  words  g  is  pronounced  as  j,  as  in  giant, 
gem.  Similarly  each  of  the  pairs/,  v  and  s,  z  has  only  one 
sign.  A  few  authors  make  the  signs  for  j,  v,  z  heavier  than 
those  for  g,  f  s.  Some  class  p  and  6,  t  and  d,  each  under 
one  sign.  The  stenographic  alphabet  is  therefore — a,  b,  d, 
■f,/M:.ff  0').  ^.  h  h  I, '«.  »,  o,p,  r,  s  (z),  t,  M,  w,  X,  y,  ch,  sk, 
th.  Letters  which  are  not  sounded  may  be  omitted.  Gh, 
ph  may  be  counted  as /in  such  words  as  cough,  Pkilip ;  but 
the  th  in  thiiig  is  never  distinguished  from  the  th  in  them. 
Thus  the  a,  b,  c  systems  are  largely  phonetic  with  respect 
to  consonant-sounds ;  it  is  rather  with  regard  to  the  vowels 
that  they  disregard  the  phonetic  prLuciple.  No  attempt  is 
made  to  provide  adequately  for  the  many  vowel-sounds  of 
the  language.  Thus  the  signs  for  lilce  and  lick,  for  rate  and 
rat,  &c.,  are  the  same.  In  the  case  of  vowel-sounds  denotec* 
by  two  letters,  that  vowel  is  to  be  written  which  best  repre 
sents  the  soimd.  Thus  in  meat  the  e  is  selected,  but  in 
great  the  a.  In  some  a,  b,  c  systems,  including  the  best  of 
(them  (Taylor's),  a  dot  ^placed  anywhere  does  duty  for  all 
the  vowels.  This  practice  is,  of  course,  a  fruitful  source 
of  error,  for  pauper  and  paper,  gas  and  goose,  and  hundreds 
of  other  pairs  of  words  would  according  to  this  plan  be 
written  alike.  In  the  early  systems  of  Willis  and  his  imi- 
tators the  vowels  are  mostly  written  either  by  joined  char- 
acters or  by  lifting  the  pen  and  writing  the  next  consonant 
in  a  certain  position  with  respect  to  the  preceding  one. 
Both  those  plans  are  bad ;  for  lifting  the  pen  involves  ex- 
penditure of  time,  and  vowels  expressed  by  joined  signs  and 
not  by  marks  external  to  ths  word  cannot  be  omitted,  as  is 
often  necessary  in  swift  writing,  without  changing  the 
general  appearance  of  the  word  and  forcing  the  eye'  and 
the  hand  to  accustom  themselves  to  two  sets  of  outlines, 
vocalized  and  unvocalized.  In  the  better  a,  b,  c  systems 
the  alphabetic  signs,  besides  combining  to  denote  words, 
mayyilso  stand  alone  to  designate  certain  short  common 
words,  prefixes,  and  suffixes.  Thus  in  Harding's  edition  of 
Taylor's  system  the  sign  for  d,  when  written  alone,  denotes 
do,  did,  the  prefixes  de-,  des-,  and  the  terminations  -dom, 
-aid,  -ened,  -ed.  ^  This  is  a  good  practice  if  the  words  are 
well  chosen  and  precautions  taken  to  avoid  ambiguities. 
Nimibers  of  symbolical  signs  and  rough  word-pictures,  and 
even  whoUy  arbitrary  marks,  are  employed  to  denote  words 
and  entire  phrases.  Symbolical  or  pictorial  signs,  if  suffi- 
ciently suggestive  and  not  very  numerous,  may  be  effective; 
but  the  use  of  "  arbitraries  "  is  objectionable  because  they 
are  so  difficult  to  remember.     In  many  shorthand  books 


Stcnegraphie  .  .  .  wherevnio  is  annexed  a  A-enj  easie  Direction  for 
Steganographie,  or  Secret  Writing,  printed/  at  London  in  16Q2  for 
Cuthbert  Burble.     The  only  knoT.-n  copy  is '"  tU  Codleiaa  Librai-tf.  i 


SHORTHAND 


837 


the  student  is  recommended  to  form  additional  ones  for 
Jiimself,  and  so  of  cours3  make  his  -writing  illegible  to  others. 
•The  raison  d'etre  of  such  signs  is  not  far  to  seek.  The 
■proper  shorthand  signs  for  many  common  words  were  so 
clumsy  or  ambiguous  that  this  method  was  resorted  to  in 
order  to  provide  them  with  clearer  and  easier  outlines.  For 
the  purpose'  of  verbatim  reporting  the  student  is  recom- 
mended to  omit  as  a  rule  all  vowels,  and  decipher  his  writ- 
ing with  the  aid  of  the  context.  But,  -when  vowels  are 
omitted,  hundreds  of  pairs  of  words  having  the  same  con- 
sonant skeleton  (such  as  minister  and  monastery,  frontier 
and  furniture,  libel  and  lahel)  are  written  exactly  alike. 
This  is  one  of  the  gravest  defects  of  the  a,  b,  c  systems. 
'olu  John  Willis's  system  was  largely  imitated  but  hardly 

'""^>  improved  by  Edmond  Willis  (1618),  T.  Shelton  <1620), 
Witt  (1630),  Dix  (1633),  Mawd  (1635),  and  TheophQus 
Metcalfe  (1635).  T.  Shelton's  system,  republished  a  great 
many  times  down  to  1687,  was  the  one  which  Samuel  Pepys 
used  in  writing  his  diary.'  It  was  adapted  to  German, 
Dutch,  and  Latin.-  An  advertisement  of  Shelton'c  work 
in  the  Mercurius  Politicus  of  3d  October  1650  is  «ne  of 
the  sarliest  business  advertisements  known.  The  book  of 
Psalms  in  metre  (206  pages,  2§  x  1|  inches)  was  engraved 
according  to  Shelton's  system  by  Thomas  Cross.  Metcalfe's 
Madio-Stenography,  or  Short-  Writing,  was  republished  again 
and  again  for  about  a  hundred  years.  The  35th  "  edition  " 
is  dated  1693,  and  a  55th  is  known  to  exist.  The  ineffi- 
-  :ciency  of  the  early  systems  seems  to  have  brought  the  art 
into  some  contempt.  Thus  Thomas  Heywood,  a  contem- 
porary of  Shakespeare,  says  in  a  prologue  ^  that  his  play  of 
Qwen  EliwhetK 

"  Did  throng  the  seats,  the  boxes,  and  the  stag*- 
So  much  that  some  by  stenography  drew 
A  plot,  put  it  in  print,  scarce  one  word  true." 

Shakespeare  critics  would  in  this  manner  explain  the 
badness  of  the  text  in  the  earliest  editions  of  Hamlet, 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  and  Henry  V.  Perhaps  a  study  of  J.  Willis's 
system  and  of  E.  Willis's  (which,  though  not  published  till 
after  Shakespeare's  death,  was  practised  long  before)  may 
shod  light  on  corrupt  readings  of  the  text  of  these  plays.* 

Rich.  Rich's  Bystem  (1646,  3.0th  edition  1792)  was  reproduced 
with  slight  alterations  by  many  other  persons,  including 
W.  Addy,  Stringer,  and  Dr  Philip  Doddridge  (1799  and 
three  times  since).  The  New  Testament  and  Psalms  were 
engraved  in  Rich's  characters  (1659,  596  pages,  2J  x  li 
inches,  2  vols.),  and  Addy  brought  out  the  whole  Bible 
cagraved  in  shorthand  ^  (London,«1687,  396  pp.).  Locke, 
in  his  Treatise  on  Education,  recommends  Rich's  system ; 
but  it  is  encumbered  with  more  than  300  symbolical  and 
arbitrary  signs.  In  1847  it  was  still  used  by  Mr  Plowman, 
a  most  accomplished  Oxford  reporter. 

Kaaon.  In  1672  WUliam  Mason,  the  best  shorthand  avrthor  of  the 
17th  century,  published  his  Pen  plucVd  from  an  Eagle's 
Wing.  The  alphabet  was  largely  taken  from  Rich's.  But 
in  his  Art's  Advancement  (1682)-  only  six  of  Rich's  letters 
are  retained,  and  in  his  Plume  Volanie  (1707)  further 
changes  are  made.  Initial  vowels  are  written  by  their 
alphabbtie  si.'nis,  final  vowels  by  dots  in  certain  positions 
(a,  e  at  the  beginning;  {,  y  at  the  middle;  o,,u  at  the 
end),  and  medial  vowels  by  lifting  the  pen  and  writing  the 
next  consonant  in  those  .same  three  positions  with  respect 
to  the  preceding  one.     Mason  employed  423  sjTnbols  and 

>  Sec  a  paper  by  J.  E.  Bailey,  "  On  the  Cipher  of  Pepys'  Biary,"  in 
Papers  of  the  MamJuster  Lilerary  Club,  vol.  iL  (1876). 

*  Sec  Zeibig's  GesJu  u.  Lit.  d.  Gachmndschrciblninst,  p.  195. 

•  Pleasant  Dialogues  and  Drammas  (London,  1637),  p.  249. 
•See  M.  Levy's  Shakspere  and  Shorthand  (London),  and  Phonetic 

Journal,  18.S5,  p.  34. 

'  This  curiosity  is  described  in  the  Phonetic  Journal,  1885,  pp.  153, 
1&9..    The  Bodleian  Library  has  a  copy. 


arbitraries.  He  was  the  first  to  discover  the  value  of  a 
small  circle  for  s  in  addition  to  its  proper  alphabetic  sign. 
Mason's  system  was  republished  by  Thomas  Gurney  in 
1740,  a  circumstance  which  has  perpetuated  its  use  to  the 
present  day,  for  in  1737  Gurney  was  appointed  shorthand- 
writer  to  the  Old  Bailey,  and  early  in  the  19th  century 
W.  B.  Gurney  was  appointed  shorthand -writer  to  both 
Houses  of  Parliament.  Gurney  reduced  Mason's  arbitraries 
to  about  a  hixndred,  inventing  a  few  specially  suitable  for 
parliamentary  reporting.  The  Gurneys  were  excellent 
writers  of  a  cumbrous  system.  Thomas  Gi'mey's  Brachy- 
graphy  passed  through  at  least  eighteen  editions,  but  the 
sale  of  the  book  has  now  almost  ceased. 

In  1767  was  published  at  Manchester  a  work  by  John  Byiocn. 
Byrom,  sometime  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  ' 
entitled  The  Universal  English  Shorthand,  distinguished  for 
its  precision,  elegance,  and  systematic  construction.  B)Tom 
had  died  in  1763.  Having  lost  his  fellowship  by  failing 
to  take  ordei-s,  he  made  a  living  by  teaching  shorthand 
in  London  and  Manchester,  and  among  his  pupils  were 
Horace  Walpole,  Lord  Conway,  Charles  Wesley,  Lord 
Chesterfiejd,  the  duke  of  pevonshire,  and  Lord  Camden. 
Shorthand,  it  is  said,  procured  him  admission  to  the  Royai 
Society.  He  founded  a  stenographic  club,  to  the  proceed' 
ings  of  which  his  journal,^  written  in  shorthand,  is  largely 
devoted.  In  the  strangers'  gallery  of  the  House  of  Com, 
mons  in  1728  BjTom  dared  to  write  shorthand  from  SL' 
R.  Walpole  and  others.  ■  In  1731,  when  called  upon  to  giv« 
evidence  before  a  parliamentarj'  committee,  he  took  short 
hand  notes,  and,  complaints  being  made,  he  said  that  L' 
those  attacks  on  the  liberties  of  shorthand  men  went  or 
he  "  must  have  a  petition  from  all  counties  where  our  dis' 
ciples  dwell,  and  Manchester  must  lead  the  way."  Thomas 
Jlolj-neux  popularised  the  system  by  publishing  seven 
cheap  editions  between  1793  and  1825.  Modifications  of 
Byrom's  system  were  issued  by  Palmer  (1774),  Nightingale 
(1811),  Adams  (1814),  Longmans  (1816),  Gawtress  (1819) 
Kelly  (1820),  Jones  '(1832),  and  Roffe  (1833).  BjTom's 
method  received  the  distinction  of  a  special  Act  of  Parliv 
ment  for  its  protection  (15  Geo.  II.  c.  23,  for  twenty-one 
years  from  24th  June  1742).  To  secure  hnaality  in  th^ 
writing  and  facility  in  consonantal  joinings  he  providao 
two  forms  for  6,  h,j,  u>,  x,  sh,  fh,  and  three  for  I.  A,  e. 
i,  0,  u,  he  represented  by  a  dot  in  five  positions  with  respeei 
to  a  consonant.  Practically  it  is  impossible  to  observe  mort 
than  three  (beginning,  middle,  and  end).  With  all  its 
merits,  the  system  lacks  rapidity,  the  continuat  recurrence 
of  tbfe  loop  seriously  retarding  the  pen. 

In  1786  was  published  An  Essay  intended  to  establish  at: flat 
Standard  for  a  Universal  System  of  Stenography,  by  Samuel 
Taylor  (London).  This  system  did  rnoro  than  any  of  its 
predecessors  to  establish  the  art'  in  England  and  abroad. 
Equal  to  Byrom's  in  brevity,  it  is  simpler  in  construction 
No  letter  has  rnore  than  one  sign,  except  w,  which  hai 
two.  Considering  that  five  vowel  places  about  a  consonant 
were  too  many,  Taylor  went  to  the  other  extreme,  and  ex- 
pressed all  the  vowels  alike  by  a  dot  placed  in  any  position. 
He  directs  that  vowels  are  not  to  be  expressed  except  when 
they  soimd  strong  at  the  begdnning  and  end  of  a  word. 
Arbitraries  he  discarded  altogether ;  but  Harding,  who  re- 
edited  his  system  in  1823,  introduced  a  few.  Each  letter 
when  standing  alone  represents  two  or  three  common  shor' 
words,  prefixes  and  suffixes.  But  the  list  was  badly  chosen 
thus  m  represents  my  and  many,  both  of  them  adjectives, 
and  therefore  liable  to  bo  confounded  in  many  sentences 
To  denote  in  and  on  by  the  same  sign  is  evidently  absurd, 
Taylor's  system  was  republished  again  and  again.     Tha 


^  Byi-om's  private  journal  and  literary  remains  have  been  published: 
by  the  Chetham  Society  of  Manchester.  Pec,  too,  a  paper  Jjy  J.  E- 
£ailey  in  the  Phojutic  Jovmal,  1876,  pp.  109,  1-21. 


838 


SHORTHAND 


latest  editions  are  those  of  J.  H.  Cooke  (London,  1865) 
and  A.  Janes  (London,  1882).  In  Harding's  edition  (1823 
and  at  least  twelve  times  since)  the  vowels  are  written  on 
an  improved  plan,  the  dot  in  three  positions  representing 
a,  e,  i,  and  a  ticli  in  two  positions  o,  n.  Several  other 
persons  brought  out  Taylor's  system,  m  particular  G.  Odell, 
whose  book  was  re-editcd  or  reprinted  not  less  than  ebcty- 
four  times,  the  later  republications  appearing  at  New  York. 
The  excellence  of  Taylor's  method  was  recognized  on  the 
Continent  :  the  system  came  into  use  in  France,  Italy, 
Holland,  Sweden,  Germany,  Portugal,  Roumania,  Hungary, 
&c.  In  England  at  the  present  day  no  method  excepting 
Pitman's  phonography  is  more  popular  than  Taylor's, 
although  the  systems  which  have  appeared  since  Taylor's 
are  far  more  numerous  than  those  which  preceded  it. 
Maror.  The  Universal  Sialography  of  William  JIavor  (1780 
and  nine  times  since)  is  a  very  neat  system,  and  differs 
from  Taylor's  in  the  alphabet  and  in  a  more  definite 
method  of  marking  the  vowels.  A,  e,  i,  are  indicated  by 
commas,  o,  ii,  y,  by  dots,  in  three  places  with  respect  to  a 
letter,  namely  beginning,  middle,  and  end.  Other  syslj^ms 
by  J.  H.  Lewis  (181 2)  "and  Moat  (1833)  are  still  used  to 
a  small  extent.  * 

The  vast  mass  of  a,  h,  c  systems  are  strikingly  devoid 
of  originality,  and  are  mostly  imitations  of  the  few  that 
have  been  mentioned.  Kearly  all  may  be  briefly  described 
ae  consisting  of  an  alphabet,  a  list  of  common  word%,  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes  expressed  by  single  letters,  a  list  of  ar- 
bitrary and  symbolical  signs,  a  table  showing  the  best  way 
of  joining  any  two  letters,  a  few  general  rules  for  writing, 
and  a  specimen  plate.' 
Kbnan's  Pitman's  phonography,  on  account  of  its  enormous  diffu- 
phono-  sion  in  Grfeat  Britain  and  the  colonies,  and  in  America, 
^P°y-  its  highly  organized  and  original  construction,  and  its  many 
jnherent  advantages,  merits  a  more  extended  notice  than 
has  been  given  to  the  systems  already  mentioned.  In  1837 
Isaac  Pitman,  then  teacher  of  a  British  school  at  Wotton- 
Hnder-Edge  and  an  excellent  writer  of  Taylor's  system, 
composed  at  the  invitation  of  Samuel  Bagster  a  short 
stenographic  treatise  of  his  own,  which  Bagster  published 
nnder  the  title  of  Stenographic  Sound-Hand.  The  price 
tras  fixed  at  fourpence,  for  the  author  had  determined 
to  place  shorthand  within  the  reach  of  everybody.  He 
had  won  the  friendship  of  the  Bible  publisher  by  volun- 
tarily verifying  the  half  a  million  references  in  the  Conir 
prehaisive  Bible,  and  Mr  Bagster  for  nine  years  published 
Mr  Pitman's  shorthand  books.  In  1840  a  second  edition 
appeared  in  the  form  of  a  penny  plate  bearing  the  title 
Phonography,  the  principal  feature  of  the  system  being 
that  it  was  constructed  on  a  purely  phonetic  basis.  The 
name  of  Bagster  helped  the  enterprise,  and  the  author  was 
indefatigable  in  spreading  the  knowledge  of  his  .system 
by  lectures  and  gratuitous  teaching  through  the  penny 
post,  then  just  established.  In  December  1841  the  first 
number  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Phonetic  Journal 
appeared  at  Manchester  in  a  lithographed  form.  It  was 
then  called  the  Phonographic  Journal,  and  subsequently 
in  turn  the  Phonotypic  Journal,  the  Phonetic  News,  and  the 
Phonetic  Journal.  The  chief  instruction  books  issued  by 
the  author  at  the  present  time  from  his  press  at  the 
Phonetic  Institute,  Bath,  are  the  Phonographic  Teacher, 
a  little  sixpenny  book  for  beginners,  of  which  1,030,000 
copies  have  been  published  ;  the  Manual  of  Phonography 
(470th  thousand),  in  which  the  art  is  sufficiently  developed 
for  the  purpose  of  correspondence,  private  memoranda, 
und  easy  reporting ;  and  the  Phonographic  Reporter  (133d 
thousand).  The  weekly  circulation  of  the  Phonetic  Journal 
is  about  20,000  copies.      A  part  of  it  is  printed  in  the 

*  For  early  English  systems,  see  especially  some  careful  papers  by 
Mr  A.  Paters.jn  to  Phonetic  Journal  (1886). 


phonographic  character  from  movable  types.  The  system . 
has  been  warmly  taken  up  in  America,  where  it  has  beeii 
republished  in  more  or  less  altered  forms,  especially  by 
the  author's  brother  Benn  Pitman,  and  by  Messrs  A.  3. 
Graham,  J.  E.  Munson,  E.  Longley,  and  Eliza  B.  Burns. 
A  large  number  of  periodicals  lithographed  in  phonogi"aphy 
are  published  in  England  and  America.  The  Shot-lhand 
Magazine,  monthly,  has  existed  since  1864.  Of  standard 
English  books  printed  or  lithographed  in  phonography- 
may  be  mentioned,  besides  the  Bible,  New  Testament, 
and  Prayer  Book,  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,  The  Vicar  of 
Walcejield,  Pickwick  Papers,  Tom  Broums  School-Days, 
Macaulay's  Essays  and  Biographies,  Gulliver's  Travels^. 
Blackie's  Selfcidtiirc,  Bacon's  Essays,  and  a  long  list  of 
tales  and  selections.  Numerous  societies  have  been  formed 
in  all  English-speaking  countries  for  the  dissemination  of 
phonography.  The  largest  is  the  Phonetic  Society  with 
3350  members,  who  have  all  certificates  of  a  knowledge  of 
the  art  and  engage  to  teach  through  the  post  gratuitously. 
Most  important  towns  in  the  United  Kingdom  have  a 
phonographic  association.  London  has  three.  Phono- 
graphy has  been  adapted  to  several  foreign  languages,  but 
not  so  successfully  as  Gabelsberger's  German  system.  Mr 
T.  A.  Heed's  French  Phonography  (1882)  is  intended  only 
for  English  phonographers  who  wish  to  report  French 
speeches.  Other  adaptations  to  French  are  by  A.  J. 
Lawson  and  J.  R.  Bruce^  A  society  for  the  adaptation  of 
phonography  to  Italian  was  organized  at  Rome  in  1883 
by  G.  Francini,  who  has  published  his  results.  (Rome, 
1883,  1886).  Phonography  adapted  to  Spanish  by  Parody 
(Buenos  Ayres,  1864)  is  practised  by  half  the  steno- 
gKiphers  employed  in  the  senate  and  chamber  at  Buenoa 
Ayres.  It  has  been  adapted  to  AYelsh  by  R.  H.  Morgan 
(Wrexham,  1876),  and  to  German  by  C.  L.  Driesslein 
(Chicago,  1884).  Phonography  is  steadily  driving  all  other 
English  systems  out  of  the  field.  Mr  T.  A.  Reed  stated  ia 
the  Phonetic  Journal,  1883,  p.  62,  that  of  the  61  writers 
employed  by  the  Times,  Standard,  Telegfap>h,  Morning  Post, 
and  the  Press  Association  31  were  using  phonography,  18 
Taylor's,  5  Gurney's  (i.e..  Mason's),  4  Lewis's,  and  3  other 
systems;  of  the  67  members  composing  the  Institute  of 
Shorthand  Writers,  chiefly  practitioners  in  the  la\y  courts, 
26  were  using  phonography,  29  Taylor's,  7  Gurney's  [i.e., 
Jilason's),  3  Mavor's,  and  2  Lewis's  ;  while  of  the  80  mem- 
bers of  the  London  Shorthand  Writers'  Association,  chiefly 
employed  in  business  offices,  at  least  five-sixths  were  phono- 
graphers. According  to  a  recent  (1882)  history  of  short- 
hand, of  291  professional  stenographers  in  London  134  used 
phonography,  89  Taylor's,  35  Gurney's,  8  Lewis's,  8  Mavor's, 
and  17  other  systems  (Pyrom's,  Graham's,  Moat's,  ic). 

The  main  features  of  Pitman '5  system  must  now  bo  described.  Pitman? 
The  alphabet  of  consonant-sounds  is — ;;,  b  ;  t,  d ;  ck  (as  in  chi^)),  sysie^ 
j  ;  k,  g  (as  in  gay) ; /,  v;  Ih  (as  in  thing),  dh  (as  in  them) ;  s,z;  sh, 
zh  (as  in  vision) ;  «i,  n^ng  (as  in  thing)  ;  l,r;  w,y,  h.     The  sounds 
p,  t,  ch,  k  aro  represented  respectively  by  the  four  straight  stvokea 

\  I  / —  ;  and  the  con  jsponding  voiced  sounds  b,  d,  j,  g  by  exactly 
the  same  signs  respectively  written  heavy.     F,  th  (as  in  thing),  s, 

sh  are  indicated  by  V,  U '  respectively  ;  the  same  signs  written 

heavy  and  tapering  to  tlie  ends  are  used  for  v,  dh,  z,  zh  respcct-i 

ively.     M,  n,  I,  r  are  denoted  by  ^-^- —  f        \  respectively.     R  is' 

also  represented  by written  upwards  and  in  a  more  slanting. 

direction  than  the  sign  for  ch.  The  signs  for  sh  and  I  may  bo  written 
up  or  down  when  in  combination,  but  standing  alone  sh  is  written 
downwards  and  I  upwards.     The  signs  for  w,  y,  h  a.ve  ^  c^  a^ , 

all  ivritten  upwards.  H  has  also  7  doT\Ti.  Kg,  mp  (or  mb),  rch  (or 
rj),  Ir,  are  represented  by  the  signs  for  li,  m,  r,  Zrespactively  written 
heavy.  Signs  are  provided  for  the  Scotch  guttural  eh  (as  in  lock), 
the  Welsh  U,  and  the  French  nasal  n.  S  is  generally  written  by  a 
small  circle.  ^  The  long-vowel  sounds  are  thus  classified— d  (as  in 
balm),  I  (as  ia  bait),  ce  (as  in  fed),  aio  (as  in  law),  5  (as  in  coal), 
a  (as  in  boot).  The  vowels  a,  l,  ee  are  marked  by  a  heavy  dot 
placed  respectively  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and  end  of  a  consonant^ 


SHORTHAND 


839 


sign ;  aw,  i.  So  by  a  hcivy  dash  in  tlia  same  ttre"  positions,  and 
generally  struck  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  consonant. 
The  short  vowels  are  a  (as  in  pal),  8  (as  in  pel),  I  (as  in  pit),  3  (as 
in  pot),  a  (as  in  but),  and  53  (as  in  put).  '  The  signs  for  these  are 
the  same  as  for  the  corresponding  long  vowels  just  enumerated, 
except  that  they  are.  written  light.  Sigiis  similarly  placed  are 
provided  for  the  diphthongs  oi  (as  in  boil),  6a  or  oi,  5!  (as  in  Boan- 
erges, poet,  coincide),  for  the  series  ya,  ye,  yee,  &o.,  and  for  the 
series  wS,  we,  wee,  &c.  The  "signs  for  ei  (as  in  bite)  and  ou  (as  in 
cow)  are  A,  and  may  be  placed  in  any  position  with  respect  to  a 
consonant.  A  straight  line  may  receive  four  hooks,  one  at  each 
side  of  the  beginning  and  end,  but  a  curve  only  two,  one  at  each 
end  in  the  direction  of  the  curve.  Hooks  applied  to  a  straight 
line  indicate  the  addition  of  r,  I,  n,  and/  or  v  respectively,  thus— 
"Xp".  \pl,\iPfoT pv,  and  \p>i;  c —  kr,  c —  11,  -^  Icf,  ^  Ten; 
^  rf  or  Tt,  '■^  m.  Hooks  applied  to  a  curve  denote  the  addition 
efr,  n  respectively,  thus— ^  /r,  V^/Jt;  <r^  mr,  '-»  mn.  Towel- 
Bi<Tis  placed  after  (or,  in  the  case  of  horizontal  strokes,  nnder)  a 
consonant  having  the  n  or/,  v  hook  are  read  between  the  consonant 
and  the  re  or/;  thus  r^  cough,  ^<s  fun,  but  =7~  croto,  \  pray. 
A  large  hook  at  the  commencement  of  a  curve  signifies  the  addi- 
tion of  J,  as  *?_  fi.     The  hooks  combine  easily  with  the  circle  s, 

thus— \  sp,  °\  spr  (where  the  hook  r  is  implied  or  included  in  the 

circle),  "K  spl,\  pns  (the  hook  n  being  included),  ^  pfs,  &c.  The 
halving  principle  is  one  of  the  happiest  devices  in  the  whole  history 
of  shorthand.  The  halving  of  a  light  stroke- that  is,  writing  it 
half  length — implies  the  addition  of  ( ;  the  halving  of  a  heavy  stroke 
that  of  d,  the  vowel  placed  after  (or  nnder)  the  halved  stroke  being 

read  between  the  consonant  and  the  added  t  or  d,  thus — •  /  saw, 
)~  sought,  I.  Dec,  I,  deed,  \  pit,  ~  cat,  ^  fat,  Y  note,  &c  By 
this  means  very  brief  signs  are  provided  for  hosts  of  syllables  ending 
in  t  and  d,  and  for  a  number  of  verbal  forms  ending  in  cd,  thus  — 
^-i-i  ended.  The  halving  of  a  heavy  stroke  may,  if  necessary,  add 
t,  and  that  of  a  light  stroke  d,  thus — V  beautify.     By  combining 

the  hook,  the  circle,  and  the  halving  principle,  two  or  three 
together,  exceedingly  brief  signs  are  obtained  for  a  number  of  con- 
sonantal series  consisting  of  the  combination  of  a  consonant  with 

one  or  more  of  the  sounds  s,  r,  I,  n,f,  t,  thus — N  sp,  N  spr,  <\  aprl, 
°\3  sprts ;  \  ;)Z,  "^  spl,  ^  spit,  %  splnij^  splnis ;  V-s  /»,  Va  /«*, 
Vo  fnt,  Va  fnts  ;  \o  fm,  ^  frnd,  &c.  As  a  vowel-mark  cannot 
conveniently  be  placed  to  a  hook  or  circle,  we  are  easily  led  to  a 
way  of  distinguishing  in  outline  between  such  words  as  i~°  cough 

and  i  V«  coffee,  \  pen  andXi^  penny,  ^  race  and  ^'i  racy, 
&c.  This  distinction  limits  the  number  of  possible  readings  of  an 
unvocalized  outline.  A  large  hook  at  the  end  of  a  stroke  indicates 
the  addition  of  -shon  (as  \n  fashion,  action,  ko.).     This  hook  easily 

combines  with  the  circle  s,  as  in         actions,    9  positions.     The 

circle  s  made  large  indicates  ss  or  c,  as  in  \i  pieces,  C  losses. 
The  vowel  between  s  and  s  (z)  may  be  marked  inside  the  circle,  as 

in  "TJ  exercise,  >0  subsistence.  The  circle  s  lengthened  to  a  loop 
signifies  s<,  as  in  \  step,  ^  post,  while  a  longer  loop  indicates  air,  as 
in  -Ts  miister,  ,—~o  minster.  The  loop  may  be  continued  through 
the  consonantal  stroke  and  terminate  in  a  circle  to  denote  sis  and 

sirs,  as  in  ^  boasts,  ^^t^  n^i^tst^rs.  The  loop  written  on  the  left 
or  lower  side  of  a  straight  stroke  implies  the  «  nook  "    .1  so  signifies 

nst,  as  in  =-<=>  -against,  i  danced.  A  curve  (or  a  straight  stroke 
with  a  final  hook)  written  double  length  implies  the  addition  of  tr, 

ir,  or  thr,  as  in  'v,^      father,  ^       lellcr,  "^     '  kinder, \^__^  fender, 

^^  render.  This  practice  is  quite  safe  in  the  case  of  curves,  but 
8  straight  stroke  should  not  bo  lengthened  in  this  way  when  there 
k  danger  of  reading  it  as  a  double  ktter.  The  lineal  consonant- 
signs  raay  stand  alone  to  represent  certain  short  and  common 
words  as  in  many  of  the  old  a,  b,  c  systems,  with  this  dilTcreirce, 
that  in  the  old  systems  each  letter  represents  several  words,  but  in 
phonography^  in  almost  every  case,  only  one.  By  writing  the 
Dorizoutal  strokes  in  two  positions  with  respect  to  the  line  (above 
and  on)  and  the  others  in  three  positions  (entirely  above,  resting 
on,  and  passing  through  the  line)  the  number  is  nearly  trebled,  and 
Very  brief  signs  are  obtained  for  some  seventy  or  eighty  common 
short  words  (e.g.,  be,  by,  in,  if,  at,  it,  my,  mc,  kc).  A  few  very 
•ommon  monosyllables  are  represented  by  their  vowel-marks,  as 

-    ,  -  -    .'■     (/ (remnant  of    V.>,    on  (rernnant  of  ^-' ). 


A  certain  number  of  longer  words  v.-hich  occur  frequently  are 
contracted,   generally  by  omitting   the  latter  part,  sometimes   a 

middle  part  of  the  word,  as  in  \  (i-sp)  cwect,  U  (rf/V)  danger-, 
{krk  sk)  characteristic,  \  (ndft)  indefatigable.  The  con- 
nective phrase  of  the  is  intimated  by  writing  the  words  between 
which  it  occurs  near  to  each  other.  The  is  often  expressed  by  a 
short  slauting  stroke  or  tick  joined  to  the  preceding  word  an4 
generally  struck  downwards,  thus         in  the,  \^  for  the. 

Three  principles  which  remain  to  be  noticed  are  of  such  import- 
ance and  advantage  that  any  one  of  them  would  go  far  to  place 
phonography  at  the  head  of  all  other  systems.  These  are  the 
plinciplcs^f  positional  writing,  similar  outlines,  and  pliraseography. 
(1)  The  first  slanting  stroke  of  a  word  can  generally  be.  written  so 
as  either  to  lie  entirely  above  the  liue,  or  rest  on  the  line,  or  run 

through  the  line,  thus — _^  \  V . ,  -^    1       1  _      ]  .    In  the  case  of 

words  composed  wholly  of  horizontal  strokes  the  last  two  positions 

(on  and  through  the  line)  coincide,  as  »^^^*     These  three 

positions  are  called  first,  second,  and  third  respectively.  The  first 
is  specially  connected  with  first-place  vowels  (a,  a;  aio,  3;  i ;  oi^, 
the  second  with  second-place  vowels  (e,  2;  o,  H),  and  the  third  with 
third-place  vowels  (ee,  i ;  00,  S6 ;  ou).  In  a  fully  vocalized  style 
position  is  not  employed,  but  in  the  reporting  style  it  is  of 
the  greatest  use.      Thus  the  outline  {tm)  %fritten  above  the  line 

(l-v )  must  be  read  either  time  or  Tom ;  when  written  resting  on  the 

line  (l-^)  toTne  or  tame;  when  struck  through  the  line  (L_-)  teem, 

team,  or  iemib.  By  this  method  the  number  of  possible  readings  of 
an  unvocalized  outline  is  greatly  reduced.  That  word  in  each  posi- 
tional group  which  occurs  the  most  frequently  need  not  be  vocalized, 
but  the  others  shoiald.  In  the  case  of  dissyllables  it  is  the  accented 
vowel  which  decides  the  position ;  thus  mcthought  should  be  written 

first  position  i'Zl.),  m^(/!od  second  posltion(^").  (2)  Another  way 
of  distinguishing  between  words  having  the  same  consonants  but 
different  vowels  is  to  vary  the  outline.  The  possibility  of  variety 
of  outline  arises  from  the  fact  that  many  consonant-sounds  have 
duplicate  or  even  tTiplicate  signs,  as  we  have  seen.  For  instance, 
r  has  two  lineal  signs  and  a  hook  sign,  and  so  each  of  the  words 
carter,  curator,  creature,  and  creator  obtains  a  distinct  outline.  A 
few  simple  rules  direct  the  student  to  a  proper  choice  of  outline, 
but  some  difference  of  practice  obtains  among  phonographers  in 
this  respect.  Lists  of  outlines  for  words  having  the  same  con- 
sonants are  given  in  the  iustruction  books ;  the  Reporter's  Assistant 
contains  the  outline  of  every  word  written  with  not  more  than  three 
strokes,  and  the  Phonographic  Dictionary  gives  the  vocalized  out- 
line of  ev.ery  word  in  the  language.  Aided  by  a  true  phonetic 
representation  of  sounds,  by  occasional  vocalization,  variety  of 
outline,  and  the  context,  the  phonographic  verbatim  reporter 
should  never  misread  a  word.^  (3)  Lastly,  phraseography.  It  has 
been  found  that  in  numberless  cases  two  or  more  words  may  be 
WTitten  without  lifting  the  pen.  A  judicious  u.se  of  this  practice 
promotes  legibility,  and  the  saving  of  time  is  very  considerable. 
Words  written  thus  should  be  closely  connected  in  sense  and  awk- 
ward joinings  avoided.  Such  phrases  are  /  am,  ^  /  have, 
f^^  you  art,  n-^  you  may,  I  it  would,  \_  it  would  not,  c^  we  are, 

^V  M«  have,  "'^v^  we  have  not,  ''^~~\_^  we  liave  never  been, 

Ij  my  dear  friends,       fi   in  a  very  short  time,      ^    as  far  as 

2}0ssible,j'~^  for  tlie  most  part,  and  many  thousands  of  others. 

For  the  sake  of  obtaining  a  good  phr.aseogram  for  a  common  phrase, 
it  is  often  advisable  to  omit  some  part  of  the  consonant  outline. 
Thus  the  phrase  yoit  must  recollect  that  may  very  well  be  written 


"OS  ^  {you  mus  recollec  that).  Lista  of  recommended  phrasoo- 
grams  are  given  in  the  Phonographic  Phrase  Book,  the  Legal  Phrase 
Book,  and  the  Baihoay  Phrase  Book. 

1  Phonography  is  eo  lepible  that  the  experiment  of  hnnding  the  shorth.ind 
notes  to  phonographic  compositors  lias  often  been  tried  with  complete  buccl'ss. 
A  speech  of  Richard  Cobden,  on  the  Corn  Laws,  delivered  at  Bath  on  17th 
September  1S45,  and  occupying  an  hour  and  a  quarter,  was  reported  almost 
verbatim,  and  the  notes,  with  a  few  vowels  filled  in,  handed  to  the  compositors 
of  the  Bath  .faurnat,  who  Bet  them  up  with  the  usual  accuracy.  A  notice  of 
the  occurrence  oiipfftred  the  next  day  in  the  Batli  Journnl,  and  was  immedi- 
ately transfrrrtd  to  the  columns  of  the  Times  and  other  nev.-spftperB.  Mr.  Heed 
lias  tried  the  same  experiment  with  equal  success,  the  notes  being  handed  to 
the  compositeurs  in  their  original  state  (Phanetic  Journal,  18S4,  p.  337).  In  Mr 
Pitman's  prinfing-ofllce  at  Bath  more  type-fiotting  is  done  from  shorthand 
copy  than  from  longhand.  Of  course  it  is  pcnemUy  unadvisable  to  print  a 
speech  verKitim,  but  mueh  time  W(Kild  be  saved  if  tlie  reporter  could  write  his 
copy  in  the  "corresponding"  or  less  brief  and  more  vupalij:ed  style  of  phono- 
graphy. Compo3itor«  could  acquire  the  lixcalty  of  reading  phoaograpby  la  a 
very  short  tip*' 


g40 


SHORTHAND 


Spccimer.s  of  phonography, 
Conesponc  1  i  n  g  Sty  le. 


^••b^ 


V 


\ 


^'      1      S      ^X         V     s_ 


Key.— If  all  the  feelings  of  apatriot  glow  in  onr  bosoms  onapernsal  ofthose 
(Eloquent  speeches  which  are  delivered  in  the  senate,  or  in  those  public  sssem- 
Iblies  where  the  people  are  frequently  convened  to  exercise  the  birthright  of 
!&-ttons— we  owe  it  to  shorthand.  If  new  fervour  be  added  to  our  devotion, 
and  an  additional  stimulus  he  imparted  to  our  exertions  as  Christians,  by  the 
eloquent  appeals  and  encouraging  statements  made  at  the  anniversaries  of  our 
"various  religious  societies— we  owe  it  to  shorthand.  If  we  have  an  opportunity 
In  interesting  judicial  casP3,  of  examining  the  evidence,  and  learning  the  pro- 
ceedings with  a3  much  certainty,  and  nearly  as  much  minuteness,  as  if  we  had 
■^cn  present  on  the  occasion— we  owe  it  to  shorthand. 

Reporting  Style. 


•/ 


Key  (the  pnraseograras  being  indicated  by  hyphen'^).— CniRACTERl3TTC3  OP 
S^E  Age.— Ihe  peculiar  and  distingcishing  characteristics  of  tho  present-age 
are -in  every  respect  remarkable.  Unquestionably  an  extraordinary  and  uni- 
■versal-change  has  commenced  in-the  internal  as-well-ts-the  external-world  — 
in-the-mind-or-man  as-well-as  in-the  habits  of  society,  the  one  indeed  being-the 
tieqessary-consequence  of  the  other.  A  rational  consideration  of  the  cLrcura- 
btances  in-which-mankind  are  at-prescnt  placed  must-show-us  that  influences 
lof  the  most-important  and  wonderful  character  have-been  and  are  operating  in- 
fiucha-manner-as-to  bring-about  if-not-a  reformation,  a  thorough  revolution  in- 
the-or;ranization  of  society.  Never  in-the-history-of-the-world  have  benevolent 
and  piiilanthropic  institutions  for-the  relief  of  domestic  and  public  affliction  ; 
societies  for-the  promotion  of  manufacturing,  commercial,  and  agricultural 
Interests ;  associations  for-the  instruction  of  the  masses,  the  advancement  of 
literature  and  science,  the  development  of-true  political-principles,  for-the 
extension  in-short  of-every  description  of  knowledge  and-the-bringing-about 
of-every  kindof  reform, — been-so  numerous,  so  efficient,  and  so  indefatigable 
in-their  operation  as  at-the-prescnt-da. 

Eyarems  Of  the  numerous  systems  published  since  the  invention 
sabse-  of  phonography  the  principal  are  A.  M.  Bell's  Steno- 
q'lentti  pj^Qnoyraphy  (Edinburgh,  1852),  Professor  J.  D.  Everett's 
^""'"''•(London,  1877),  PockneU's  Legible  Shorthand  (London, 
1881),  and  J.  M.  Sloan's  adaptation  of  the  French  system 
of  Duploy^  (1882).  Of  these  Professor  Everett's  must 
fee  pronounced  much  the  best.  The  author  claims  to  have 
adhered  to  the  phonetic  principle  more  strictly  than  Jlr 
f  itman.  Thus  he  distinguishes  the  o  Ln  home,  comb,  from 
that  in  so,  and  treats  ur,  er  as  a  diphthong.  The  alphabet 
is  very  like  Mr  Pitman's  in  construction,'  light  and  heavy 
sounds  being  represented  by  light  and  heavy  strokes. 
The  chief  feature  of  the  system  is  that  all  vowels  are 
marked  in.  This  is  done  by  joined  signs,  by  lengthening 
Ihe  preceding  consonant,  by  separating  the  preceding  from 
the  following  consonant,  by  lifting  the  pen  and  writing 
the  one  consonant  attached  to  the  other,  and  by  intersec- 
tion.    Mr  Pocknell,  in  hi"v  "^^^  ^what  bewildering  system, 


seeks  (like  Mr  MelviUe  ±5ell)  to  provide  a  n-elfiod  of  incU' 
eating  whether  a  consonant  is  preceded  or  followed  by  a 
vowel  or  vowels.  To  this  end  he  gives  to  each  consonant 
three  linear  signs  (two  curves  and  a  straight  line),  the 
requisite  number  of  signs  being  made  up  by  using  three 
lengths  of  stroke.  The  selection  of  the  right  sign  is  deter 
mined  by  the  length  and  class  of  the  words  represented 
Much  energy  is  devoted  to  indicate;  where  a  vowel  stands, 
but  not  to  v/hat  it  is.  The  vowels,  when  expressed,  are 
disjoined,  as  in  phonography  and  most  systems.  Though 
Mr  Bell's  too  elaborate  classification  of  vowels  is  adopted, 
the  phonetic  majthod  of  representing  consonants  is  fre- 
quently discarded  in  favour  of  the  alphabetic.  Thus,  no 
sign  is  provided  for  zh  (as  in  vision),  and  the  barliarous 
gk  (as  in  bright)  is  often  retained  "for  the  sake  of  legi- 
bility." Mr  Pocknell  goes  back  to  the  antiquated  device 
of  pictorial  and  arbitrary  signs.  The  Sloan -Duployan 
system,  which  has  been  vigorously  propagated,  and  which 
has  given  rise  to  considerable  discussion,  does  not  provide 
alphabetical  characters  for  all  the  vowels  and  consonants 
in  the  language,  contents  itself  with  representing  not 
actual  but  "approximate"  sounds,  does  not  always  in- 
dicate the  order  in  which  the  characters  should  be  read, 
recommends  the  frequent  omission  of  consonants  and 
syllables  at  the  "  discretion  "  of  the  student,  avoids  angles, 
and  introduces  three  slopes,  instead  of  one,  between  tb^- 
perpendicular  and  the  horizontal. 

A  considerable  number  of  American  systems,  as  well  as  .SjneKcan 
systems  based  on  Taylor's  and  Gurney's,  were  issued  dur-  sy^tsniBi 
ing  the  early  days  of  the  republic.  Since  the  introductiou 
of  phonography  into  the  States  in  1845,  the  dissemination 
of  the  art  has  gone  steadily  forward,  and  its  use  since  1880 
has  been  greatly  on  the  increase,  shorthand  being  now 
taught  in  a  large  number  of  schools.  From  elaborate 
statistics  given  in  Mr  Rockwell's  Circular  of  Information 
it  appears  that  during  1882  10,197  persons  received  in-< 
struction  in  schools  and  classes  and  2273  by  correspoiid< 
ence.  But  these  figures  probably  bear  no  proportion  to 
the  number  of  persons  studying  without  a  teacher.  In 
almost  every  case  phonography,  or  a  modification  of  i%, 
was  selected  for  instruction.  American  shorthand  societiet 
are  very  numerous,  most  of  them  having  been  formed 
since  1880.  Two  are  devoted  to  the  Stoljean  system. 
Of  the  fourteen  shorthand  magazines  which  Mr  Rockwell 
enumerates  eleven  are  phonographic. 

In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  phonography  will  be  founcl 
admirably  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  verbatim  reporting. 
But  to  be  legible  it  must  be  written  with  care.  This 
necessity  arises  from  its  brevity  and  its  use  of  light  and 
heavy,  halved  and  double-length  strokes.  Hence  a  clumsy 
scribe  may  find  a  longer  system,  such  as  Gurney'.s,  answer 
bis  purpose  better.  A  theoretical  knowledge  of  most 
systems  may  be  gained  in  a  few  hours.  Pitman's  method 
is  net  CO  easily  acquired,  but  an  intelligent  person  can 
master  its  details  in  a  few  weeks.  Shorthand  writing  is,' 
however,  mainly  a  matter  of  practice.  Few  can  make  any 
considerable  use  of  it  with  less  than  sis  months'  assiduous 
practice.  The  average- rate  of  public  speaking  is  very 
slightly  over  120  words  a  minute.  Some  speakers  average 
150.  The  slowest  utterance  is  now  and  then  exchanged 
for  a  rapid  flow  of  words,  and  180  or  200  words  a  minute 
is  no  uncommon  "speed  in  certain  styles  of  speech  such  aj 
the  conversational, — a  speed  which  many  persons  would 
never  acquire.^  Most  persons  of  average  intelligence  may 
^  Phenomenal  rates  of  speed  are  recorded  in  the  Phonetic  Journiil 
for  1885,  p.  338.  Mr  T.  A.  Reed,  the  veteran  phonographcr,  had  beru 
engaged  to  report  a  well-known  American  divine  preaching  at  West-  , 
minster  Abbey.  The  sermon  was  carefully  timed,  and  the  words  ia 
the  printed  report  counted.  The  average  came  out  at  213  words  a 
minute.  A  photographed  specimen  page  of  Mr  Reed's  notes  on  thia 
occasion' i3  gjvej'  ip  *he  Reporters'  Magazi-ne,  September  1885 


SHORTHAND 


841 


by  perseverance  write  with  certainty  at  150  words  a 
minute.  The  best  method  of  practice  in  the  early  period 
is  to  write  at  dictation  from  a  book ;  in  public  speaking 
ihe  frequent  pauses  help  the  writer  to  regain  lost  time. 
The  student  should  write  on  ruled  paper,  which  checks 
■he  tendency  to  a  large  sprawling  hand  when  following  a 
,-apid  speaker.  Taylor's,  Gurney'.s,  and  Lewis's  systems 
can  be  written  without  lines,  but  Pitman's  only  at  a  dis- 
advantage. Ink  is  preferable  to  pencil. 
,.  ;  iJ-  Shorthand  was  first  employed  officially  in  the  service 
njatar'y  of  Parliament  in  1802,  when  a  resolution  was  passed  that 
report-  „  ^^^  evidence  given  before  all  committees  inquiring  into 
the  election  of  members  should  or  might  be  reported  by  a 
person  well  skilled  in  the  art  of  writing  shorthand,"  and 
shortly  afterwards  W.  B.  Gurney  was  appointed  shorthand- 
writer  in  this  capacity  to  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  In 
1813  a  further  resolution  was  passed  by  both  Houses  that 
he  official  writer  "should  attend  by  himself  or  sufficient 
deputy  when  called  upon  to  take  minutes  of  evidence  at  the 
bar  of  this  House  or  in  committees,  of  the  same."  The 
lucrative  office  of  shorthand-writer  to  botb  Houses  of  Par- 
liament is  still  held  by  the  Gurney  family.  Of  course 
most  of  the  work  is  done  by  deputy.  Some  of  the  most 
efficient  members  of  Messrs  Gurney's  staff  are  phono- 
graphers ;  others  use  Taylor's  system.  The  amount  of 
evidence  given  in  the  course  of  a  tolerably  long  day's 
fitting  may  amount  to  400  or  500  folios  (72  words  make 
a  folio),  which  would  occupy  from  12  to  15  columns  of 
the  Times  in  small  type.  The  whole  must  often  be  tran- 
scribed and  delivered  to  the  printers  in  the  course  of  the 
night,  and  copies,  damp  from  the  press,  are  in  the  hands 
of  the  members  and  "  parties "  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sitting  on  the  following  day.  Since  parliament  abolished 
election-committees  and  committed  to  judges  the  duty  of 
inquiring  into  petitions  against  the  return  of  a  member, 
an  official  shorthand  writer  has  to  be-in  attendance  upon 
the  judge  appointed  to  hear  any  particular  case.  He  has 
often  a  small  staff  of  assistants.  Messrs  Gurney  or  their 
representatives  are  also  required  to  attend  the  sittings  of 
the  House  of  Lords  as  a  court  of  appeal  to  take  the  judg- 
ments of  the  law  lords.  Finally,  Government  shorthand- 
■writers  are  often  employed  in  taking  notes  of  important 
state-trials  and  inquiries  conducted  by  the  various  depart- 
ments of  Government,  as  well  as  of  the  proceedings  of  Royal 
Commissions,  whenever  the  evidence  of  witnesses  is  taken. ^ 
The  transcription  of  the  notes  may  be  accomplished  in 
several  ways,  as  by  dictating  from  different  parts  of  the 
notes  to  several  longhand -writers  simultaneously.^  Not 
all  the  newspaper  parliamentary  reporters  can  take  a 
perfect  note,  and  cases  occur  in  which  the  reporter  enters 
the  gallery  without  being  able  to  write  shorthand  at  alL 

Foreign  Shorthand  Systems. 
Tomga        German. — C.  A.  Ramsay's  Tachcographia  (Frankfort,  1679,  and 
Byst«nia>  eeveral  times  afterwards  until  1743)  was  an  adaptation  of  i'.  Shelton's 
English  system.    Mosengeil  (1797)  first  practically  introduced  sliort- 

'  There  is  no  full  official  report  of  tlie  debates  in  tlio  British  Parlia- 
roent  (as  in  most  other  countries),  and  technically  no  person  has  a  right 
to  report  them.  The  House  may  be  cleared  at  any  moment  of  all 
strangers,  including  representatives  of  the  press,  by  an  order  of  the 
House  as  a  whole.  On  seven  occisions  of  note  resolutions  have  been 
passed  prohibiting  the  reporting  of  the  proceedings  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  the  last  on  25th  March  1771.  But  times  have  changed,  and 
members  now  frequently  complain  that  their  speeches  are  not  reported. 
To  supply  the  deficiencies  of  the  newspapers  arrangements  have  been 
mado  by  the  House  with  Mr  Hansard  for  the  special  reporting  of 
Qebates  in  committee  and  those  occurring  at  an  early  hour  iu  the 
faioming,  which  are  given  only  in  the  most  summary  form  in  the  daily 
papers.  Formerly  all  Hansard's  reports  were  collected  from  thoso 
appearing  in  the  newspapers.  See  further  Mr  S.  Whitaker's  Parlia- 
mentary Ileportiny  in  Knijland,  FoTcirpi  Counlries,  and  the  Colonies, 
with  notes  on  Parliamentff.ry  Privilege  (Manchester,  1878). 

'  On  the  best  methods  of  transcribing  and  dictating,  sec  Mr  T.  A. 
E«cd'a  papers  in  the  Phmetie  Journal,  1886,  pp.  10,  33,  45. 


hand  writing  into  Germany  in  an  adaptation  of.  tne  Taylor-Bertiii 
method.  Reischl's  (1S08)  is  a  modification  of  Mosengeil's.  Ou 
Horstig's  (1797)  are  based  those  of  an  anonymous  -nTiter  (Xurcm- 
berg,  1798),  Heim  (1820),  Thon  (1525),  an  anonymous  author 
(Ttibmgen,  1830),  Nowack  (1830),  Ineiehen  (1831),  an  anonymous 
author  (Munich,  1831),  and  Binder  (1855).  Mosengeil  published 
a  second  system  (1819)  in  wliicli  Horstig's  alphabet  is  used.  On 
the  Mosengeil  -  Horstig  system  arc  based  Berthold's  (1819)  and 
Stark's  (1822).  On  Danzer's  (1800),  a  close  imitation  of  Taylor's, 
is  based  that  of  Ellison  v.  Nidlef  (1820).  Other  systems  aro 
thoso  of  Leichtlen  (1819)  ;  J.  Brcde  (1827) ;  Nowack  (1834),  a 
system  in  which  the  ellipse  is  employed  as  well  as  the  circle; 
Billharz  (1838) ;  Cammerer  (1848),  a  niodilicatjon  of  Sehvyn's 
phonography  (1847) ;  Schmitt  (1350) ;  Fischback  (1857),  a  reproduc-l 
tion  of  Taylor's;  and  that  of  an  anonymous  author  (1872),  based 
on  Horstig,  Jlosengeil,  and  Heim.  Nowack,  in  his  later  method 
of  1834,  makes  a  new  departure  in  avoiding  right  or  obtuse  angles, 
and  in  endeavouring  to  approiiniate  to  ordinary  writing.  This 
system  Gabelsberger  considered  to  be  the  best  which  had  appeared 
down  to  that  date.  F.  X.  Gabelsbcrger's  Jnlcitung  air  dciilsche 
Sedezeichenkunsl  (Municli,  1834)  is  the  most  important  of  tho 
German  systems.  The  author,  an  oflicial  attached  to  the  Bavarian 
ministry,  commenced  his  system  for  private  purposes,  but  was 
induced  to  perfect  it  on  account  of  the  summoning  of  a  parliament 
for  Bavaria  in  1819.  Submitted  to  public  examination  in  1829, 
it  was  pronounced  satisfactory,  the  report  stating  that  pupils 
taught  on  this  system  executed  their  trial  specimens  with  the 
required  speed,  and  read  what  they  had  written,  and  even  what 
others  had  written,  with  ease  and  certainty.  The  method  is  based 
on  modificatiqns  of  geometrical  forms,  designed  to  suit  the  position 
of  tlie  hand  in  ordinary  writing.  The  author  considered  that  a 
system  composed  of  simple  geometrical  strokes  forming  determi- 
nate angles  with  each  other  was  unadapted  to  rapid  writing.  He 
does  not  recognize  all  tlie  varieties  of  sound,  and  makes  some  dis^ 
tinctions  which  are  merely  orthographical.  Soft  sounds  have 
small,  light,  and  round  signs,  while  the  hard  sounds  have  large,! 
heavy,  and  straight  signs.  The  signs  too  are  derived  from  tho 
current  alphabet,  so  that  one  can  find  the  former  contained  iu  the 
latter.  Vowels  standing  between  consonants  are  not  literally 
inserted,  but  symbolically  indicated  by  either  position  or  shape  of 
the  surrounding  consonants,  without  however  leaving  the  straight 
writing  line.  The  proceedings  of  the  chambers  in  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Baden,  Wiirtemberg,  Saxony,  Saxe-Weiraar,  Coburg-Gotha,  Silesia, 
and  the  Rhine  ijrovinces  are  reported  solely  by  writers  of  this 
method,  and  hall  the  stenographers  in  the  German  reichstag  use 
it.  There  are  in  Germany  and  Austria  more  than  540  societies 
containing  over  20,000  members  devoted  to  it.  It  is  ofTicially 
taught  in  all  the  middle  class  schools  of  Bavaria,  Saxony,  t.nd 
Austria.  It  has  been  adapted  to  foreign  languages  to  such  an 
extent  that  legislative  proceedings  are  reported  by  it  in  Prague, 
Agi-am,  Pesth,  Sophia,  Athens,  Copenhagen,  Christiania,  Stock- 
holm, and  Heisingfors.  On  Gabelsbcrger's  system  is  Teased  that  of 
W.  Stolze  (1840).  There  are  nearly  400  Stolzesn  associations  \\ith 
over  8000  members.  The  system  is  oflicially  used  in  the  Prussian,' 
German,  and  Hungarian  parliaments,  in  the  last  two  along  with 
Gabelsbcrger's.  iaulmann  (Vienna,  1875)  attempted  in  his 
Phonographic  to  combine  the  two  methods.  While  Gabelsbcrger's 
system  has  remained  unchanged  in  principle,  Stolze'shas  split  into 
two  divisions,  the  old  and  the  new.  These  contain  many  smaller 
factions,  e.g.,  Velten's  (1876)  and  Adiefs  (1877).  Arends's  (18G0) 
is  copied  from  the  French  system  of  Fayet.  Roller's  (1874)  and 
Lehmann's  (1875)  are  offshoots  of  Arends's.  Many  other  methods 
have  appeared  and  as  rapidly  been  forgotten.  The  schools  of 
Gabelsberger  and  Stolze  can  boast  of  a  very  extensive  shortliand 
literature.  Gabelsbcrger's  system  has  been  adapted  to  Fnglish  by 
A.  Geiger  (Dresden,  1860  and  1873),  who  adhered  too  closely  to  tho 
German  original,  and  more  successfully  by  H,  Uichter  (London, 
1885),  and  Stolzc's  by  G.  Michaelis  (Berlin,  1863). 

French. — The  earliest  French  system  worthy  of  notice  is  that  of 
Coulon  dc  Tlievcnot  (1777),  in  which  the  vowels  are  disjoined  from 
tho  consonants.  The  methods  practised  at  the  present  day  may  bo 
divided  into  two  classes,  those  derived  from  Taylor's  English  system, 
translated  in  1791  by  T.  P.  Berlin,  and  thoso  invented  in  France. 
The  latter  are  (a)  Coulon  de  Thevcnot's  ;  (6)  systems  founded  on  tho 
principle  of  the  inclination  of  the  usual  writing, — tho  best  knov.-n 
being  those  of  Fayet  (1832)  and  Senoctl  (1842);  and  (c)  systems 
derived  from  tho  method  of  Conen  de  Prepean  (5  editions  from  1813 
to  1833).  Prevost,  who  till  1870  directed  the  stcnographicscrviceof 
the  senate,  produced  tho  best  modification  of  Taylor.  Alany  authors 
have  copied  and  spoilt  this  system  of  Prevost  The  best  known  are 
Plantier  (1841)  and  Tondeur  (1849).  Zeibig  thinks  well  of  A.' 
Delaunay's  improvements  on  Pri^vost's  system.  On  Concn's  arc 
ba-sed  those  of  Aime-Paris  (1822),  Cadri-s-Marmct  (1823),  Potel 
(1842),  tho  Duploye  brothers  (1868),  Gutnin,  &c.  Amon"  amateur 
writers  tho  Duployan  method  is  best  known,  owing  largely  to 
vigorous  n  tshing,  but  the  profession  class  it  among  tho  least  effi- 
cient of  all.     Of  tho  forty  writers  in  the  official  service  of  parliament 

XXT   —  -'; 


84f2 


S  fi  O  — S  H  O 


twenty-two  nae  Pt(ivost'3  and  those  founded  on  it  (al]  based  nlti- 
mately  on  Taylor's),  while  ton  employ  methods  based  on  Conen's. 

Spanish. — The  father  of  Spanish  stenography  was  Don  Francisce 
d«  Paula  Marti,  whose  system,  first  published  in  1803,  still  holds 
its  ground  against  all  rivals.  The  alphabet  is  a  combination  of 
Taylor's  and  Coulon's.     By  decree  of  21st  Novemher  1802  a  public 

Erofessorship  of  shorthand  was  founded  in  Sladrid,  Marti  being  the 
rst  professor.  Founded  on  Marti's  system  are  those  of  Serra  y 
Ginesta  (181C)  and  Xaraarillo  (ISU).  Of  the  thirty-two  Spanish 
systems  enumerated  by  Zeibig  many  are  merely  imitations  or  re- 
productions of  Marti's,  and  adaptations  of  Gabelsberger's,  Stolze's, 
and  Pitman's  systems.  That  of  Garriga  y  Maril  (1863)  has  attained 
some  popularity  in  Spain. 

Portuguese. — Marti  Si  son  carried  his  father's  system  to  Portugal, 
where  shorthand  is  still  entirely  unknown  except  in  the  parliament 
and  the  courts.  Of  the  twenty  reporters  in  the  senate  and  chamber 
at  Buenos  Ayres  ten  use  Pitman's  phonography,  six  Marti's,  and 
the  rest  Garriga's.  A  shorthand  society  was  organized  in  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1880.  The  systems  used  in  the  Brazilian  chambers  are 
those  of  Silva  Velho  (1852)  and  Garriga.  The  reporters  in  the 
assembly  of  Venezuela  use  S[;irti's  metliod. 

Italian. — Italian  translations  and  adaptations  of  Taylor's  system 
succeeded  one  another  in  considerable  numbers  from  Amanti  (1809) 
to  Bianchini  (1871).  Delpino's  (1819)  is  the  best.  The  Gabelsberger- 
Jfoe  system  (1863)  is  the  only  other  wnich  has  gained  many  followers. 
Since  1835  the  debates  of  the  senate  have  been  partly  reported  by 
the-Michela  stenographic  machine  with  fair  results. 

Dutch. ^}.  Reijner's  Dutch  method  (1673)  was  an  adaptation  of 
Shelton's  and  Bussuijt's  (1814)  of  Conen's  system.  Sommerhausen 
and  Bossaert  (1829)  received  prizes  from  the  Government  for  their 
productions.  The  twelve  stenographers  employed  in  the  parliament 
nse  the  system  of  Cornells  Steger  (1867),  president  of  the  bureau, 
who  translated  Taylor's  work  and  has  written  a  history  of  short- 
hand. Gabelsberger's  system  was  transferred  to  Dutch  by  Rietstap 
(1869)  and  Stolze's  by  Reinbold  (1881). 

Adaptations  of  Gabelsberger's  method  have  come  into  use  in  the 
jemaining  countries  of  Europe,  superseding  all  others. 

Numerous  mechanical  reporting  machines  have  been  invented. 
The  best  is  by  Michcla  mentioned  above.  For  a  description  of  such 
machines  see  PhorKtic  Journal  for  1881,  p.  274  ;  1884,  pp.  12,  34, 
35  ;  1885,  pp.  62,  268,  278,  291,  447 ;  1886,  p.  22.  They  take  as 
long  to  learn  as  a  shorthand  system,  cannot  easily  be  carried  about, 
are  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  make  a  noise. 

Sources  of  Information, — J.  W.  Zeibig's  GeschichU  u.  LUeratur  der  Geschvrind- 
ichreihkuTist  (Dresden,  1678)  coQtaiDS  an  historical  sketch  of  the  nse  of  short- 
hand in  ancient  and  moden:  times  (especially  in  Gennany),  a  full  bibliography 
of  shorthand  literature  in  all  languages,  a  number  of  lithographed  specimens, 
and  a  nseful  index-  Circulars  of  Information  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  2, 
1884  (Washington,  1SS5).  by  J.  E.  Rockwell,  contains  a  very  complete  and 
accurate  bibliography  of  English  and  American  shorthand  publication.s,  a 
chronological  list  of  4S3  English  and  American  shorthand  authors,  notices  on 
shorthand  in  the  United  States,  on  the  employment  of  stenographers  in  the 
American  courts,  on  American  shorthand  societies  and  magazines,  and  a  be^ia- 
tifully  engraved  sheet  of  112  shorthand  alphabets.  The  Phonetic  Journal, 
especially  the  recent  volumes,  contains  a  mass  of  Information  on  shorthand 
subjects.  Isaac  Pitman's  History  of  Shorthand  (reprinted  in  the  fhonelic 
Journal  of  1SS4)  reviews  the  principal  English  systems  previous  to  phono- 
graphy, and  a  few  foreign  ones.  The  author  draws  largely  on  J.  H.  Lewis's 
Sislorical  Account  of  the  Jiise  and  Progress  of  Stenography  (London,  ISl 6).  Other 
histories  of  shorthand  are  by  F.  X.  Gabelsberger  (prefixe-l  to  his  Anleitung 
2l(r  deutschen  Ilede:eichenJcu7ist,  Munich,  1834),  A.  Fosse  (prefixed  to  his  Cours 
IMorique  tt  pratique  de  Stenographic,  Paris,  1849),  Scott  de  Martinville  (Paris. 
1849),  M.  Levy  (London,  1S0'2),  and  T.  Anderson  (London,  1SS2).  Here  too 
should  be  mentioned  J.  Heger's  Bemerkenswerthes  iiiter  die  Slenographie  (Vienna, 
1841),  mainly  historical ;  J.  Anders's  Enlwurf  ciner  allgemein^n  Gesch.  n.  Lit. 
rf.  Stenographic  (Coeslin,  1855);  R  Fischer's  Die  Stenographie  imch  Geachichte, 
Wesen,  «.  Bedeutung  (Leipsic,  1860) ;  Krieg's  Kateckismus  der  Stenographie 
(Leipsic,  1876) ;  Dr  Westby-Gibson's  Early  Shorthand  Systems  (London,  1882) ; 
T.  Anderson's  Shorthand  Systems,  with  a  number  of  specimens  (London, 
1884);  T.  A.  Reed's  Reporter's  Guide  (London,  1885)  and  Lfaves  frcrrn  the  Kote- 
book  of  T.  A.  Peed  (London,  1385).  Mr  0.  Walford's  Statistical  Jleview  of  the 
Ziterai'-'.r^  of  Shorthand  (London,  1885)  contains  valuable  information  on  the 
circulation  of  shorthand  books  and  on  shorthand  libraries.  The  largest 
stenogi-cphic  library  in  the  world  Is  that  of  the  Eoyal  Stenographic  Institnte 
at  Dresden.  (L  G.  N.  K.-F.) 

SHORTSIGHT.     See  Ophthalmologt. 

SHOSHONG,  a  town  in  the  British  protectorate  of 
Bechuanaland,  the  chief  settlement  of  the  Eastern  Bamang- 
•watos,  is'  situated  in  a  glen  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of 
Primary  rocks  on  the  Shoshon,  a  periodically  flowing 
brook  ■which  flows  eastwards  into  the  Limpopo  or  Uri 
river.  It  lies  about  400  miles  north  of  Kimberley,  'with 
which  it  was  connected  by  road  and  telegraph  under  Sir 
Charles  Warren's  administration.  For  white  men  — 
traders,  hunters,  and  explorers — it  is  and  must  always 
be  a  place  of  primary  importance,  as  three  great  routes, 
from  Griqualand  West,  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  the 
Transvaal,  meet  at  this  point  and  again  branch  off  torth  to 
the  Zambesi,  north-east  to  the  Matabele  and  Mashona 
countries,  and  north-west  to  the  Western   Bamangwato 


and  Damaraland. ,  Shoshong  is  thus  a  main  gateway 
between  Southern  and  Central  Africa.  The  site  was  ori- 
ginally chosen  as  easily  defensible  against  the  Matabele. 
Water  is  scarce,  and  the  present  king,  Khama,  has  taken 
over  a  well  dug  by  one  of  the  traders,  the  use  of  which 
he  permits  on  the  payment  of  a  water-rate  of  £1  per 
month  per  family.  Altogether  there  are  7000  to  8000 
native  huts  in  Shoshong,  and  the  population  is  estimated 
at  from  15,000  to  30,000.  The  white  inhabitants— mostly 
English  traders— number  about  20.  A  flourishing  mission 
station  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  preceded  for 
many  years  by  a  station  of  Hermannsburg  Lutheran  Mis- 
sionary Society  was  founded  in  18G2,  and  has  exercised  a 
great  influence  on  the  history  of  the  town  and  tribe.  There 
is  a  brick-built  church,  erected  in  18C7. 

See  Mackenzie,  Ten  Fears  North  of  the  Orange  Hiver,  1871 ; 
Holnb,  Seven  Years  in  South  .Africa,  1881  ;  Further  Govermnent 
Correspondence  respecting  tlic  affairs  of  the  Transvaal,  1886. 

SHOVEL,  Sir  Clocbesley  (c.  1650-1707),  English 
admiral,  was  according  to  some  accounts  a  native  of  York- 
shire, but  the  most  commonly  accepted  statement  is  that 
he  was  born  of  poor  parents  about  1650  in  Clay,  a  fishing- 
viUage  of  Norfolk,  where  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker. Having  run  away  to  sea,  he  became  cabin-boy  on 
board  a  skip  commanded  by  Sir  Christopher  Mynns.  He 
set  himself  to  study  na'vigation,  an^,  owing  to  his  able  sea- 
manship and  brave  and  open-hearted  disposition,  became  a 
general  favourite  and  obtained  quick  promotion.  In  1674 
h«  served  as  lieutenant  under  Sir  John  Narborough  in  the 
Mediterranean,  where  he  burned  four  men-of-war  under 
the  castles  and  walls  of  Tripoli,  belonging  to  the  pirates 
of  that  place.  He  was  present  as  captain  of  the  "  Edgar  " 
at  the  first  fight  at  Bantry  Bay,  and  shortly  afterwards  was 
knighted.  In  1690  he  convoyed  William  III.  across  St 
Gexjrge's  Channel  to  Ireland ;  the  same  year  he  was  made 
rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Beachy  Head  on  10th  July.  In  1692  he  was  appointed 
rear-admiral  of  the  red,  and  joined  Admiral  RusseU,  imder 
■whom  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  La  Hogue,  having 
a  principal  share  in  burning  twenty  of  the  enemy's  men-of- 
war.  Not  long  after,  when  Admiral  Russell  was  dismissed 
from  the  service.  Shovel  was  put  in  joint  command  of  the 
fleet  with  Admiral  KiUigrew  and  Sir  Ralph  Delaval.  In 
1702  he  was  sent  to  bring  home  the  spoils  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  fleets  from  Vigo,  after  thtir  capture  by  Sir 
George  Rooke,  and  in  1704  he  served  under  Sir  George 
Rooke  in  the  Mediterranean.  In  January  1705  he  was 
named  rear-admiral  of  England,  and  shortly  afterwards  coln- 
mander-Ln-chief  of  the  British  fleets.  He  co-operated  in  the 
capture  of  Barcelona  along  with  the  earl  of  Peterborough 
in  1705,  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Toulon  in 
October  1707.  When  returning  with  the  fleet  to  England 
his  ship,  the  "Association,"  at  eight  o'clock  at  night  on  the 
22d  October,  struck  on  the  rocks  nearScilly,  and^as  seen 
by  those  on  board  the  "  St  George  "  to  go  do-n'n  in  three  or 
four  minutes'  time,  not  a  soul  being  saved  of  800  men  that 
were  on  board.  The  body  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  was  cast 
ashore  next  day,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

See  Life  and  Glorious  Actions  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  1707 ; 
Burnet's  Own  Times  ;  and  various  discussions  in  Notes  and  Queries, 
5th  series,  "vols.  i.  and  xi. 

SHOVELER,  formerly  spelt  Sho-vixae,  and  more  an- 
ciently Shotelakd,  a  word  by  which,  used  to  be  meant 
the  bird  now  almost  invariably  called  Spoonbill  (q.v.), 
but  Si  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century  transferred  to 
one  hitherto  generally,  and  in  these  days  locally,  kno^wn  as 
the  Spoon-billed  Duck — the  Anas  clypeata  of  Linnaeus  and 
Spatula  or  Ehyncha^pis  clypeata  of  modern  ■writers.  All 
these  .names  refer  to  the  shape  of  the  bird's  bill,  which, 
combined  with  the  remarkably  long  lamellx  (not  wholly 
incomparable   with   the   "  whalebone "   of    the   toothless 


S  H  R  — S  H  R 


843 


Cetaceans)  that  beset  both  maxilla  and  mandible,  has 
been  thought  sufficient  to  remove  the  species  from  the 
Linnosan  genus  Anas.  Except  for  the  extraordinary  for- 
mation of  this  feature,  which  carries  with  it  a  clumsy  look, 
the  male  Shoveler  would  pass  for  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  this  generally  beautiful  group  of  birds.  As  it  is,  for 
bright  and  variegated  colouring,  there  are  few  of  his  kindred 
to  whom  he  is  inferior.  His  golden  eye,  his  dark  green 
head,  surmounting  a  throat  of  pure  white  and  succeeded 
by  a  breast  and  flanks  of  rich  bay,  are  conspicuous ;  while 
his  deep  brown  back,  white  scapulars,  lesser  wing-coverts 
(often  miscalled  shoulders)  of  a  glaucous  blue,  and  glossy 
green  speculum  bordered  with  white  present  a  wonderful 
contrast  of  the  richest  tints,  heightened  again  by  his  bright 
orange  feet.  On  the  other  hand,  the  female,  excepting  the 
blue  wing-coverts  she  has  in  common  with  her  mate,  is 
habited  very  like  the  ordinary  Wild- Duck,  A.  boscas  (see  vol. 
vii.  p.  505).  The  Shoveler  is  not  an  abur  dant  species,  and 
in  Great  Britain  its  distribution  is  local ;  but  its  nimibers 
have  remarkably  increased  since  the  passing  of  the  Wild- 
Fowl  Protection  Act  in  1876,'  so  that  in  certain  districts  it 
has  regained  its  old  position  as  an  indigenous  member  of  the 
Fauna.  It  has  not  ordinarily  a  very  high  northern  range, 
but  inhabits  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
passing  southwards,  like  most  of  the .4  jianV/a;  towards  winter, 
constantly  reaching  India,  Ceylon,  Abyssinia,  the  Antilles, 
and  Central  America,  while  it  is  known  to  have  occurred 
at  that  season  in  New  Granada,  and.  according  to  Gould,  in 
Australia.  Generally  resembling  in  it3  habits  the  other 
freshwater  Ducks,  the  Shoveler  has  one  peculiarity  that 
has  been  rarely,  if  ever,  mentioned,  and  one  that  is  perhaps 
correlated  with  the  structure  of  its  bill.  It  seems  to  be 
especially  given  to  feeding  on  the  surface  of  the  water  im- 
mediately above  the  spot  fhere  Diving  Ducks  {Fuligulinx) 
are  employing  themselves  beneath.  On  such  occasions  a 
pair  of  Shovelers  may  be  watched,  almost  for  the  hour 
together,  swimming  in  a  circle,  about  a  yard  in  diameter, 
their  heads  turned  inwards  towards  its  centre,  their  bills 
immersed  vertically  in  the  water,  and  engaged  in  sifting, 
by  means  of  the  long  lamella  before  mentioned,  the  floating 
matters  that  are  disturbed  by  their  submerged  allies  and  rise 
to  the  top.  These  gyrations  are  executed  with  the  greatest 
ease,  each  Shoveler  of  the  pair  merely  using  the  outer  leg 
to  impel  it  on  its  circular  course,  and  to  the  observer  the 
prettiest  part  of  the  performance  is  the  precision  with  which 
each  preserves  its  relative  distance  from  its  comrade. 

?our  other  species  of  the  genus  Spaiida,  all  possessing  the 
chaj2cteristic  light  bine  "shoulders,"  have  been  described: — one, 
S.  platalca,  from  the  southern  parts  of  South  America,  having  the 
head,  neck,  and  upper  back  of  a  pale  reddish  brown,  freckled  or 
closely  spotted  with  dark  brown,  and  a  dull  bay  breast  with  in- 
terrupted bars  ;  a  second,  S.  capcTisis,  from  South  Africa,  much 
lighter  in  colour  than  the  female  of  S.  clypcuta  ;  a  third  and  a  fourth, 
S.  rhynchotis  and  ,5^.  variegnta,  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
lespectively, — these  lart  much  darker  in  gener.tl  coloration,  ai>d 
the  males  possessing  a  white  crescentio  mark  between  the  bill  and 
the  eye,  very  like  that  which  is  found  in  the  South- American 
IJlue -winged  Teal  {Qnerqivedula  q/aiwpUra),  but  so  much  resem- 
bling each  other  that  their  specific  distinctness  has  been  disputed 
by  good  authority.  In  these  last  two  the  sexual  difference  is  well 
marked  by  the  plumage  ;  but  in  the  South-American  and  South- 
African  species  it  would  seem  that  both  male  and  female  have 
much  tJie  same  appearance,  as  is  the  case  with  so  many  species  of 
the  restricted  genus  Anas,  though  this  cauuot  yet  be  asserted  with 
certainty.  (A.  N. ) 

SHREVEPORT,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Caddo  parish,  Louisiana,  on  the  west  bank  of  Red  River 
and  near  to  Sodo  Lake,  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 


Prior  to  that  year  there  was  perhaps  only  one  district  in  England 
wherein  the  Shoveler  could  be  said  to  breed  rcjjularly,  and  thereto  o.ily 
•  few  pau^  resorted.  In  1885  there  must  have  been 'a  dozen  counties  in 
vhich  it  nested,  and  in  some  of  them  the  pairs  breeding  might  be 
♦eckoned  by  the  score. 


Texas  Pacific  Railroad,  327  miles  by  rail  north-west  of 
New  Orleans,  with  which  it  has  regular  steamboat  com- 
munication. Situated  in  the  heart  of  a  very  fruitful 
cotton-growing  region,  it  is  one  of  the  principal  cotton- 
markets  in 'the  south-west  of  the  United  States,  and  is 
the  second  commercial  city  in  the  State.  It  exports 
annually  about  125,000  bales  of  cotton,  and  carries  on  a 
trade  likewise  in  hides,  wool,  and  tallow.  It  has  factories 
for  carriages,  cotton  gins,  cotton-seed  oil,  soap,  ice,  sashes 
and  blinds,  and  spokes  and  hubs,  also  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  a  planing  mill,  saw-mills,  and  breweries.  The  town 
possesses  among  public  buildings  a  handsome  court-house 
and  a  cotton  exchange.  Red  River  is  spanned  by  an  iron 
bridge  20  feet  wide  and  1200  long.  Shreveport,  which 
was  incorporated  in  1839,  had  a  population  of  4607  in 
1870  and  of  8009  in  1880;  in  1886  the  population  wai 
estimated  at  15,000. 

SHREW,  a  general  term  applied  to  the  species  of  ths 
family  Soricida:,  order  Inscclivora  (see  vol.  xv.  p.  403),  bat 
in  the  British  Isles  more  particularly  to  the  common  and  t« 
the  lesser  shrew  {Sorex  vulgaris,  L,  and  S.  pygmieus,  Pall.). 

The  common  shrew  is,  in  England  at  least,  by  far  the 
commoner  of  the  two.  It  is  a  small  animal  about  the  size 
of  the  common  mouse,  which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  tha 
shape  of  its  body,  tail,  and  feet.  But  here  the  resemblanca 
ends,  for,  unlike  the  mouse,  it  possesses  a  remarkably  long 
and  slender  muzzle,  with  prominent  nostrils,  which  project 
far  beyond  the  lower  lip ;  the  eyes  are  very  small  and  al- 
most concealed  by  the  fur ;  the  ears  are  wide  and  short, 
scarcely  rising  above  the  long  hairs  surrounding  them,  and 
are  provided  internally  with  a  pair  of  deep  folds,  capable, 
when  laid  forward,  of  closing  the  entrance ;  the  tail,  which 
is  slightly  shorter  than  the  body  (without  the  head),  is  quad- 
rangular in  shape  and  clothed  more  or  less  densely  with 
moderately  long  hairs,  terminating  in  a  short  pencil  (in 
old  individuals  these  hairs  become  worn  away,  so  that  in 
some  specimens  the  tail  is  almost  quite  naked) ;  the  feet  are 
five-toed,  the  toes  terminating  in  slender,  acutely  pointed, 
non-retractile  claws.     The  dentition  is  very  peculiar  and 


Common  Shrew  l^SoTcx  vulgaris,  L.). 

characteristic  :  there  are  in  all  thirty  two  teeth,  tipped  with 
deep  crimson ;  of  these  twelve  only  (the  number  is  charao 
teristic,  with  one  exception  only,  of  the  family)  belong  to  the 
lower  jaw ;  of  the  remaining  twenty  ten  occupy  each  side 
of  the  upper  jaw,  and  of  these  the  first  three,  as  they  are 
implanted  in  the  premaxillary  bone,  are  terftied  incisors. 
The  first  incisor  is  a  large  tooth  with  a  long  anterior  canino- 
like  cusp  and  a  small  posterior  one  ;  then  follow  two  small 
unicuspidatQ  teeth ;  these  are  succeeded  by  three  similar 
progressively  smaller  teeth,  whereof  the  first  has  been  called 
a  canine  and  the  other  two  premolars ;  the  next  tooth,  also 
a  premolar,  is  a  large  multicuspidate  tooth  ;  and  this  js 
followed  by  thrco  molars,  of  which  the  third  is  small  T.ith 
a  triangular  crown.  In  the  lower  jaw  we  find  on  each  side 
anteriorly  three  teeth  corresponding  to  the  seven  anterior 
teeth  above,  of  which  the  first  is  almost  horizontal  in  direc- 
tion, its  upper  surface  being  marked  by  three  notches,  which 


844 


S  H  K  E  W 


receive  the  points  of  tho  three  upper  front  teeth  ■with  which 
they  como  in  contact  when  the  jaws  are  closed ;  then  follow 
two  small  teeth  and  three  molars.  The  body  is  clothed  with 
closely  set  uniformly  long  fur,  very  soft  and  dense,  varying 
in  colour  from  light  reddish  to  dark  brown  above,  rarely 
speckled  over  or  spotted  or  even  banded  with  white.  The 
under  sm'face  of  both  the  body  and  the  tail  is  greyish  ;  the 
basal  four-fifths  of  all  the  hairs  above  and  beneath  are  dark 
bluish  grey ;  the  'hairs  of  the  tail  are  less  densely  set  and 
coarser.  On  each  side  of  the  body,  at  a  point  about  one- 
third  of  the  distance  between  the  elbow  and  the  knee,  may 
be  found,  especially  in  the  rutting  season,  a  cutaneous  gland 
covered  by  two  rows  of  coarse  inbent  hairs.  This  gland 
secretes  a  peculiar  fluid,  on  which  the  unpleasant  cheesy 
odour  of  the  animal  depends,  and  which  is  evidently  also 
protective,  rendering  it  secure  against  the  attacks  of  many 
predaceous  animals. 

The  lesser  shrew  (S.  pygmx^is)  is  much  less  abundant 
in  England  and  Scotland,  but  comparatively  common  in 
Ireland,  where  the  common  shrew  has  not  yet  been  found. 
It  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  a  diminutive  variant  of  that 
species,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  external  form.  It  was 
said  to  differ  in  h.aving  the  tail  longer  than  the  body 

i without  the  head),  whereas  in  the  common  shrew  the  body 
without  the  head)  is  longer  than  the  tail,  and  in  the  last 
tmicuspidate  upper  molar  tooth  being  comparatively  larger 
and  more  external  than  in  the  other  species.  But  the 
present  writer  has  found  these  characters  so  exceedingly 
liable  to  variation  as  to  be  almost  worthless ;  he  has  there- 
fore discovered  reliable  points  of  distinction  as  follows : — 
in  S.  pyymx'us  the  third  upper  incisor  (when  the  teeth  are 
unworn)  is  shorter,  or  at  least  not  longer  than  the  next 
following  tooth,  whereas  in  .S".  vulgaris  it  is  alv/ays  longer, 
and  the  length  of  the  forearm  and  hand  combined  is  very 
eonsta-ptly  13  m.m.  in  the  former  species,  while  in  the  latter 
it  is  17  m.m. 

The  habits  of  both  the  common  and  the  lesser  shrew 
eorrespond.  They  live  generally  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
woods,  making  their  nests  under  the  roots  of  trees  or  in 
any  slight  depression,  occasionally  even  in  the  midst  of 
open  fields,  inhabiting  the  disused  burrows  of  field-mice. 
Owing  to  their  very  small  size,  dark  colour,  rapid  move- 
ments, and  chiefly  nocturnal  habits  they  easily  escape 
observation.  They  seek  their  food,  wliich  consists  of 
insects,  insect  larvze,  small  worms,  and  slugs,  under  dead 
leaves,  fallen  trees,  and  in  grassy  places.  Like  the  mole, 
they  are  very  pugnacious,  and  if  two  or  more  are  confined 
together  in  a  limited  space  they  invariably  fight  fiercely, 
the  fallen  becoming  the  food  of  the  victorious.  They  also, 
Kke  the  mole,  are  exceedingly  voracious,  and  soon  die  if 
deprived  of  food ;  and  it  is  probably  to  insufliciency  of  food 
in  the  early  dry  autumnal  season  that  the  well-known  im- 
mense mortality  amongst  these  animals  at  that  time  of 
the  year  is  due.  The  breeding  season  extends  from  the 
end  of  April  to  the  beginning  of  August,  and  five  to  seven, 
more  rarely  ten,  young  may  be  found  in  their  nests ;  they 
are  naked,  blind,  and  toothless  at  bu-th,  but  soon  run  about 
snapping  at  everything  within  reach,  the  anterior  pair  of 
incisors  i»  both  jaws  quickly  piercing  the  gum,  followed 
by  the  last  pair  of  upper  premolars,  which  at  birth  form 
prominent  elevations  in  the  gum. 

The  alpine  shrew  {S.  alpinus,  Schinz),  restricted  to  the 
alpine  region  of  Central  Europe,  is  slightly  longer  than  the 
common  shrew  and  differs  from  it  conspicuously  in  its  much 
longer  tail,  which  exceeds  the  length  of  the  head  and. body, 
in  the  colour  of  the  fur,  which  is  dark  on  both  surfaces,  and 
in  the  large  size  of  the  upper  antepenultimate  premolar. 

The  water-shrew  {Crossopus  fodiens,  Pall.),  the  third  and 
last  species  inhabiting  England,  differs  from  the  common 
shrew   in  being  considerably  larger  with  a  shorter  and 


much  broader  muzzle,  comparatively  smaller  eyes,  and! 
larger  feet  adapted  for  swimming, — the  sides  of  the  feet 
and  toes  being  provided  with  coilib-like  fringes  of  stiff" 
hairs.  The  tail  is  longer  than  the  body  (without  the  head) 
and  possesses-  a  well-developed  swimming  fringe  of  moder- 
ately long  regularly  ranged  hairs,  which  extend  along  the 
middle  of  its  flat  under  surface  from  the  end  of  its  basal 
third  to  its  extremity.  The  fur  of  the  body  is  long  and, 
very  dense,  varying  milch  in  colour  in  different  individuals,, 
and  this  has  given  rise  to  descriptions  of  many  nominal 
species ;  the  prevailing  shades  are  dark,  almost  black, 
brown  above,  beneath  more  or  less  bright  ashy  tinged  witk 
yellowish;  occasionally,  sometimes  in  the  same  brood,  we 
find  some  individuals  with  the  under  surface  more  or  l^s 
dark  coloured.  In  the  number  as  well  as  in  the  shape  of 
the  teeth  the  water-shrew  differs  from  the  common  shrew  : 
there  is  a  premolar  less  on  each  side  above ;  the  bases  of 
the  teeth  are  much  more  prolonged  posteriorly ;  and  their 
cusps  are  much  less  stained  brown,  so  that  in  old  individuals 
with  worn  teeth  they  often  appear  altogether  white.  This 
species  resembles  the  otter  in  its  aquatic  habits,  swimming 
and  diving  with  great  agility.  It  frequents  rivers  and 
lakes,  making  its  burrows  in  the  overhanging  banks,  from 
which  when  di.1turbed  it  escapes  into  the  water.  Its  food 
consists  of  the  diflerent  species  of  water-insects  and  their 
larvie,  small  crustaceans,  and  probably  the  fry  of  small 
fishes.  It  is  generally  distributed  throughout  England, 
is  less  common  in  Scotland,  but  as  yet  it  has  not  been 
recorded  in  L-eland. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  common  shrew  is  exceedingly  wide, 
extending  eastwards  through  Europe  and  Asia  (north  of  the  Hima- 
layas) to  North  America.  The  lesser  shrew  extends  concomitantly 
through  Europe  and  Asia^  to  Saghaliu  Island  ;  and  specimens  of  tha 
water-shrew  have  been  brought  from  different  parts  of  Europe  and 
from  Asia  as  far  east  aa  the  Altai  range.  In  Siberia  the  common 
shrew  is  abundant  in  the  snow-clad  wastes  about  the  Olenek  river 
within  the  arctic  circle.  Indeed  the  hardiness  of  this  littlo 
animal,  as  well  as  of  other  species  of  red-toothed  shrews,  is  very 
remarkable.  In  Dr  C.  H.  Merriam's  Mammals  of  the  Adirondack 
Rt:gion  we  find  the  following  note  on  the  habits  of  a  common  North 
American  species  {BlaHna  brevicauda)  of  an  allied  genus  : — "  Tho 
rigors  of  our  nortlaern  winters  seem  to  have  no  effect  in  diminish- 
ing its  activity,  for  it  scampers  about  oa  the  snow  during  the 
severest  weather,  and  I  have  known  it  to  be  out  when  the  ther- 
mometer indicated  a  temperature  of-  20°  Falir.  It  makes  long  jour- 
neys over  tho  snow,  burrowing  down  whenever  it  comes  to  an  eleva- 
tion that  denotes  the  presence  of  a  log  or  stump,  and  I  am  inclined 
to  believe  that  at  this  season  it  must  feed  largely  upon  tho  chry- 
salides and  larvas  of  insects  that  are  always  to  be  found  in  such 
places."  Other  species  of  red-toothed  shrews  are  restricted  chiefly  to 
North  America,  where  they  are  found  in  much  greater  variety  than 
in  the  Old  World,  though  Crossopus  is  not  represented.  Its  place 
is  taken  by  two  species  of  the  genus  Sorex  {S.  palustris,  Richardson, 
east  of  the  Rocky  MounttJis,  and  S.  hr/drodromus,  Dobson,  from 
Unalaska  Island), 'provided,  liko  the  water-shrew,  with  pedal  swim- 
ming  fringes,  but  with  the  unfringed  tail  and  dentition  of  the 
common  shrew, — the  first-named  being  about  aa  large  as  the  water- 
shrew,  while  the  Unalaska  species  scarcely  exceeds  the  size  of  tha 
lesser  shrew.  Of  the  American  forms  S.  hcndiyi^  Merriam,  is  by 
far  the  largest  known  species  of  tlie  genus.  In  it,  as  in  many  others 
inhabiting  North  America,  the  canine  shows  a  tendency  to  diminish 
in  size,  which  is  more  pronounced  in  S.  richardsonii,  Bachm.,  and 
in  S.  vagraTis,  Cooper  ;  in  S.  hoyi,  Baird,  it  is  rudimentary,  and  ia 
S.  crawfordi,  Baird,  altogether  absent.  The  diminutive  S.  psrson- 
alus,  Geoff.,  widely  distributed  throughout  temperate  North 
America,  resembles  S.  pygmxus  in  its  small  size.  Other  red-toothed 
shrews  belonging  to  the  allied  genus  Blarina,  distinguished  from 
Sorex  by  their  dentition  and  by  the  remarkable  shortness  of  the  tail, 
are  very  common  on  and  characteristic  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent. All  the  red-toothed  shrews  (except  the  aquatic  forms)  cloeely 
resemble  one  another  in  habits,  and  Dr  Jlerriam  has  made  tho 
highly  interesting  discovery  that  tho  common  short-tailed  North 
American  shrew  supplements  its  insectivorous  fare  by  feeding  ou 
beech-nuts,  which  will  account  for  the  generally  very  worn  state  of 
the  teeth  in  this  species.  In  destroying  great  numbers  of  slugs, 
insects,  and  insect  larva  they  greatly  aid  the  farmer  in  the  pre- 
servation of  his  crops  and  merit  protection.  Although  their  pene- 
trating odour  renders  them  in  a  great  measure  safe  from  the  attacks 
of  rapacious  mammals,  they  are  destroyed  in  largo  numbers  by  noc- 
turnal birds  of  prey,  (G.  E.  D.) 


S  H  R  — S  H  R 


845 


■Shrewsbury,  an  oU  market-town,  a  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough,  and  tiie  county  and  assize  town 
of  Shropshire,  England,  is  situated  on  a  slightly  elevated 
peninsula  formed  by  a  bend  of  the  Severn,  and  on  various 
lailway  lines,  30  miles  south  of  Chester,  and  163  north- 
west of  London  by  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway, 
the  distance  by  the  Great  Western  being  171  miles.  The 
Severn  is  crossed  by  three  stone  bridges,— the  English 
bridge  (re-erected  1774),  on  the  east,  consisting  of  seven 
semicircular  arches;  the  Welsh  bridge  (re-erected  1795), 
of  five  arches,  on  the  west ;  and  the  Kingsland  bridge 
(opened  in  1882),  of  iron  on  the  bow  and  girder  principle. 
The  streets  are  hilly  and  irregular,  but  strikingly  pictur- 
esque from  their  number  of  antique  timber  houses,  among 
•which  may  be  mentioned  that  in  Butcher  Row  formerly 
the  town  residence  of  the  abbot  of  Lilleshall,  and  the  old 
-council-house  overlooking  the  Severn,  erected  in  1502  for 
the  presidents  of  the  council  of  the  Welsh  marches.  Of 
the  town  ramparts  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  the 
principal  remains  are  a  small  portion  on  the  north  side 
called  the  RoushiU  walls,  and  another  portion  on  the  south- 
■west,  used  as  a  public  walk,  on  which  stands  a  square 
embattled  tower.  The  castle  built  by  Roger  de  Montgomery 
was  dismantled  in  the  reign  of  James  XL,  but  there  still 
remain  the  archway  of  the  interior  gateway,  the  walls  of 
the  inner  court,  and  two  large  round  towers  of  the  time 
of  Edward  L  Roger  de  Montgomery  al^o  founded  in 
1083  the  abbey  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul,  which  was  of 
great  extent  and  very  richly  endowed.  At  the  dissolution 
it  was  destroyed,  except  part  of  the  nave  and  the  western 
tower  of  the  church,  which  have  been  converted  into  a 
parish  church,  under  the  name  of  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Cross.  The  other  churches  of  special  interest  are  St  Mary's, 
founded  in  the  10th  century,  a  fine  cruciform  structure 
with  a  tower  and  spire  222  feet  in  height,  displajdng 
examples  of  various  styles  of  architecture  from  Early 
Norman  to  Perpendicular, — the  base  of  the  tower,  the 
nave,  and  the  doorways  being  Norman,  the  transept  Early 
English,  and  the  aisles  loth  century,  while  the  interior  is 
opecially  worthy  of  notice  for  its  elaborate  details,  its 
stained  glass,  and  its  ancient  monuments ;  St  Julian's, 
originally  built  before  the  Conquest,  but  rebuilt  in  1748, 
except  the  tower,  the  older  portion  of  which  is  Norman 
and  the  upper  part  15th  century;  St  Alkmond's,  also 
dating  from  the  10th  century,  but  rebuilt  towards  the 
close  of  the  18th  century,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower 
and  spire ;  and  St  Giles's,  dating  from  the  time  of  Henry 
L,  much  altered  at  various  periods,  but  still  retaining  its 
ancient  nave  and  chancel.  The  old  church  of  St  Chad, 
supposed  to  have  occupied  the  site  of  a  palace  of  the 
princes  of  Powis,  was  destroyed  by  the  fall  of  the  tower 
in  1788,  and  of  the  ancient  building  the  bishop's  chancel 
alone  remains.  The  new  church  of  St  Chad  was  built  on 
another  site  in  1792.  There  are  still  slight  remains  of 
the  abbey  of  Greyfriars  founded  in  1291,  and  of  the  Augus- 
tine friary  founded  in  1255.  The  old  buildings  completed 
in  1630  for  the  free  grammar-school  of  Edward  VI.,  founded 
in  1551,  are  now  occupied  by  the  county  museum  and  free 
library,  the  school  having  been  removed  in  1882  to  new 
buildings  at  Kingsland.  Among  the  principal  secular 
buildings  of  the  town  are  the  fine  market-house  in  the 
Elizabethan  style  (completed  according  to  an  inscription 
over  the  northern  arch  in  1595),  the  shire  hall  (rebuilt  in 
_1837j  and  again,  after  a  fire,  in  1883),  the  music-hall  build- 
ings (1840),  the  general  market  and  corn  exchange  (1869), 
the  working-men's  hall  (1S63),  the  drapers'  hall  (an  old 
timbered  structure  dating  from  the  IGth  century),  the 
theatre  (1834),  and  the  post-office  (1877).  The  principal 
benevolent  institutions  are  the  county  infirmary  (1747), 
Willington's  hospital  (1734),  and  the  eye,  ear,  and  throat 


hospital  (1881).  A  monument  to  Lord  Clive  was  erected 
in  the  market-place  in  1860,  and  a  Doric  memorial  pillar 
to  General  Lord  Hill  in  1816  at  the  top  of  the  Abbey 
Foregate.  The  town  racecourse  occupies  a  portion  of  the 
."Soldiers'  Piece,"  where  Charles  I.  addressed  his  army  in 
1642.  To  the  south-west  of  the  town  is  a  fine  part,  23 
acres  in  extent,  known  as  the  Quarry,  adorned  by  a  beauti- 
ful avenue  of  lime  trees.  Formerly  Shrewsbury  was  one 
of  the  principal  marts  for  Welsh  flannel,  but  this  trade  has 
now  in  great  part  ceased.  Glass-staining,  the  spinnini'  of 
flax  and  linen  yarn,  iron-founding,  brewing,  malting,  the 
preparation  of  brawn,  and  the  manufacture  of  the  weU- 
knowu  Shrewsbury  cakes  are  now  the  principal  industries. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
(area,  3674  acres)  in  1871  was  23,406,  and  in  1881  it 
was  26,478. 

Shrewsbury,  anciently  called  Pengwerne,  was  founded  in  the  5lli 
century  as  a  defence  against  the  inroads  of  the  Saxons,  and  became 
the  seat  of  the  princes  of  Powis.  After  its  conquest  by  the  Saxons 
its  name  was  changed  to  Scrobbesbyrig,  altered  gradually  into 
Sloppesbury,  Shrewsbury,  and  Salop.  It  became  one  of  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  the  Saxon  kingdom,  and  a  mint  was  established  thera 
by  Athelstan  about  925.  After  the  Norman  Conquest  it  was  in- 
cluded In  the  earldom  of  Shrewsbury  bestowed  by  William  I.  on 
Roger  de  Montgomery,  who  erected  a  strong  castle  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Saxon  fortress.  But  in  1067  it  was  besieged  by  Owen 
Gwynedd,  prince  of  Wales,  till  relieved  by  William,  who  marched 
specially  to  its  assistance  from  York.  On  the  rebellion  of  Robert 
de  Belesme,  son  of  the  first  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  tlie  castle  and  town 
were  attacked  by  Henry  I.  and  surrendered  in  1102.  During  the 
wars  of  the  next  two  centuries  the  town  was  frequently  attacked 
and  plundered  by  the  Welsh,  being  captured  by  Llewelyn  in  1215, 
surrendered  to  the  English  in  1221,  plundered  by  the  earl  of  Pem- 
broke in  1223,  burnt  by  Llewelj-n  ap  Jorwerth  in  January  1234, 
taken  by  Si,mon  de  Montfort  in  1264,  and  restored  to  the  crown  in 
1265,  In  1267  Henry  III.  assembled  his  array  there,  to  threaten 
the  Welsh,  but  peace  was  restored  without  bloodshed,  after  whic^ 
he  strengthened  its  fortifications.  Edwaid  i.  in  1277  mado  it  the 
seat  of  his  government,  and  removed  to  it  the  Coui'ts  of  Exchequer 
andiKing's  Bench.  In  12S3  he  held  a  parliament  there  for  the  trial 
of  David,  the  last  of  the  royal  princes  of  Wales,  who  was  di'agged 
through  the  streets  of  the  town  and  aftenvards  hanged  and  quartered. 
At  a  parliament  held  in  Shrewsbury  in  January  1398  Richard  II. 
assumed  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chester.  Near  the  town  was  fought, 
23d  July  1403,  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  described  in  Shakespeare's 
Henry  IV.,  when  the  king  defeated  the  earl  of  Northumberland 
with  great  slaughter.  Hotspur,  the  earl's  son,  being  among  the  slain. 
It  became  the  headquarters  of  Charles  I.,  20th  September  1642,  but 
was  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians  in  February  1645.  The  town 
from  the  reign  of  William  I.  to  that  of  James  II.  received  no  less 
than  thirty-two  charters,  its  first  governing  charter  being  obtained 
from  Richard  I.  It  returned  two  members  to  parliament  from  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.  until  1885,  when  it  was  allowed  only  •ne. 

See  Phillips,  HUtory  and  Antiquities  of  Shrewsbury,  1779  ;  Owen  and  bll^- 
Day,  HistorvofShreu-stiurv,  1825;  Pidgeon,  ilcmoriais  of  Shrewsbury,  1857. 

SHREWSBURY,  Earls  of.     See  Talbot. 

SHRIKE,  a  bird's  name  so  given  by  Turner  (1544),  but 
solely  on  the  authority  of  Sir  Francis  Lovell,  for  Turner 
had  seen  the  bird  but  twice  in  England,  though  in  Ger- 
many often,  and  could  not  find  any  one  else  who  so  called 
it.  However,  the  word '  was  caught  up  by  succeeding 
WTiters;  and,  though  hardly  used  except  in  books — for 
Butcher-bird  is  its  vernacular  synonym — it  not  only  retains 
its  first  position  in  literary  English,  but  has  been  largely 
extended  so  as  to  apply  in  general  to  all  birds  of  the 
Family  Laniidee  and  others  besides.  The  name  Lanius, 
in  this  sense,  originated  with  Gesner^  (1555),  who  thought 
that  the  birds  to  which  he  gave  it  had  not  been  mentioned 
by  the  ancients.  Sundevall,  however,  considers  that  the 
Malacocraneus  of  Aristotle  was  one  of  them,  as  inde^ 
Turner  had  before  suggested,  though  repelling  the  lattgr's 


^  Few  birds  enjoy  such  a  wealth  of  local  names  as  the  Shrikes.  M. 
?toiland  {Faune  Pop.  de  la  Prance,  il  pp.  146-151)  enumerates  up- 
v.-ards  of  ninety  applied  to  them  in  France  and  Savoy ;  but  not  one 
of  these  has  any  affinity  to  our  word  "Shrilce." 

^  He  does  not  seem,  however,  to  have  known  that  Butcher-bird  was 
an  English  name  ;  indeed  it  may  not  have  been  so  at  the  time,  but 
subsequently  introduced. 


846 


S  H  R  — S  H  E, 


supposition   that   Aristotle's   Tyrannxis  was   another,  as 
.well  as  Belon's  reference  of  CoUyrioa. 

Tlie  species  dcbigiiated  Shrike  by  Turner  is  the  Zanius  excubitor 
of  LinncEus  and  nearly  all  sueceeding  authors,  nowadays^  commonly 
known  as  the  Greater  Butcher-bird,  Ash-coloured  or  Great  Grey 
Shrike, — a  bii-d  which  visits  the  British  Islands  pretty  regularly, 
though  not  numerously,  in  autumn  or  winter,  occasionally  prolong- 
ing its  stay  into  the  next  summer ;  but  it  has  never  been  ascertained 
to  breed  there,  though  often  assertetl  to  have  done  so.  This  is  the 
more  reniarkahlc  since  it  breeds  more  or  less  commonly  on  the  Conti- 
nent tVom  the  north  of  France  to  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Exceeding 
a  Song-Thrush  in  linear  measurements,  it  is  a  much  less  bulky  bird, 
of  a  p'-arlygrey  above  with  a  well-dertned  black  band  passing  from 
tiie  forehead  to  the  ear-coverts  ;  beneath  it  is  nearly  white,  or— 
and  this  is  particularly  observable  in  Eastern  examples  —  barred 
with  dusky.  The  quill-featliers  of  the  wings,  and  of  the  elongated 
tail,  are  variegated  with  black  and  white,  but  are  mostly  of  the 
former,  though  what  there  is  of  the  latter  shows  very  conspicuously, 
especially  at  the  base  of  the  remiges,  where  it  forms  either  a  single 
or  a  double  patch.-  Much  smaller  than  this  is  the  Ked-backed 
Shrike,  L.  collitrio,  the  best-known  species  in  Great  Britain,  where 
it  is  a  summer  visitor,  and,  though  its  distribution  is  rather  local, 
it  may  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  England  and  occasionally  reaches 
S.cotland.  The  cock  is  a  sightly  bird  with  liis  gi-ey  head  and  neck, 
black  cheek-band,  chestnut  back,  and  pale  red  breast,  while  the  hen 
is  ordinarily  of  a  dull  brown,  barred  on  the  lower  plumage.  A  more 
highly  coloured  species  is  called  the  ^Voodchat,  L.  anrimlaius  or 
riUilus,  with  a  bright  bay  crown  and  nape,  and  the  rest  of  its  plum- 
age black,  grey,  and  white.  This  is  an  accidental  visitor  to  England, 
but  breeds  commonly  throughout  Europe..  All  these  birds,  with 
many  others  included  in  the  genus  Lan  Ui3,  which  there  is  no  room 
here  to  specify,  have,  according  to  their  respective  power,  the  very 
remarkable  habit  (whence  they  have  earned  their  opprobrious  name) 
of  catching  insects,  frogs,  lizards,  or  small  birds  and  mammals,  and 
of  spitting  them  on  a  thorn  or  of  fixing  then}  in  a  forked  branch,  the 
more  conveniently  to  tear  them  in  pieces  and  eat  them. 

The  limits  of  t^ie  Family  Laniidx  have  been  very 
variously  regarded,  and  agreement  between  almost  any 
two  systematists  on  this  point  seems  at  present  out  of  the 
question.  The  latest  synopsis  is  that  by  Dr  Gadow  {Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Museum,  viii.  pp.  88-321),  who  frankly  states 
that  it  is  "  quite  impossible  to  give  a  concise  diagnosis  -o^ 
what  we  are  to  understand  by "  the  Family.  For  his 
purpose  he  makes  it  to  include  about  250  species  and 
divides  it  into  live  sub-families : — Gymnorhhiins,  Mala- 
tonotiyix,  Pachycephalinx,  Laniinx,  and  Vireoninie.  Of 
these  doubts  may  be  entertained  as  to  the  affinity  of  the 
first  and  especially  of  the  last.  He,  but  for  the  crude  plan 
to  which  he  was  compelled  to  conform,  would  not  have 
separated  Strepera  from  GymnorJdna  ;  but  the  former  had 

^  According  to  Willughby,  Rae,  and  Cliarleton,  it  was  in  their  day 
called  in  many  parts  of  England  "^Yieraugle"  (Germ.  Wiirgengel  and 
iWd-rger,  the  Strangler) ;  but  1t  is  hard  to  see  how  a  bird  which  few  people 
in  England  could  know  by  sight  should  have  a  popular  name,  though 
Chaucer  had  used  it  in  his  Asscmhhje  of  Foides. 

-  On  this  character  great  store  has  been  laid  by  some  recent  writers, 
who  maintain  that  the  birds  presenting  only  a  siugle  ^latch,  with  some 
ether  minor  distinctions,  as  the  barred  breast  above  mentioned,  come 
from  the  far  East  and  deserve  specific  recognition  as  the  Lanins  major 
of  Pallas.  But  it  is  admitted  that  every  intermediate  form  occurs,  and 
Prof  Col'iett  has  now  shown  (Ibis,  18S6,  pp.  30-40)  that  the  typical 
L.  excubitor  and  typical  L.  major  may  be  found  in  one  and  the  same 
brood,  and  also  that,  this  occasional  divergence  is  due  neither  to  age  nor 
sex.  That  it  does  depend  to  some  extent  on  locality  is  allowed  ;  for, 
though  examples  with  the  single  patch  {i.e.,L.  major)  occasionally  i-each 
Great  Britain,  it  is  asserted  that  nearly  all  the  specimens  from  Eastern 
Siberia  are  so  marked.  But  it  is  also  found  that  by  almost  insensible 
degrees  other  (and  soraetimes.^ore  important)  distinctions  are  mani- 
fested, and  the  extreme  terms  of  the  several  series  have  been  exalted 
to  the  rank  of  "species" — -or  at  least  local  races.  These  are  too  many 
to  be  here  enumerated,  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  Great  Grey 
Shrike  of  North  America,  which  oidinarily  has  the  lower  plumage 
strongly  barred,  and  is  usually  known  as  Z.  horealis,  seems  to  be  only 
one  of  these  divergent  forms,  though  perhaps  the  most  divergent,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  wholly  distinct  area  it  occupies.  Yet 
occasionally  examples  occur  in  the  Old  World,  which  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  have  an  American  origin,  indistingxiishable  from  the  typical 
L.  horealis,  and  an  uninterrupted  series  from  one  extreme  to  the  other 
:an  be  found.  The  differences  when  compared  with  those  observable 
in  other  animals  are,  as  a  whole,  too  slight  to  justify  the  epithet  "poly- 
morphic" to  L.  excubitor  as  a  species;  but  enough  has  been  said  to 
show  that  it  indicates  a  tendency  in  that  direction. 


been  already  included,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  latter,  among 
the  Corvidx,  and  even  placed  among  tlie  normal  Cormiee. 
The  need  of  exercising  reserve  on  this  matter  has  been  before 
stated  (Crow,  vol.  vi.  p.  G17) ;  but  the  number  of  ornitho- 
logists who  think  that  these  two  genera  should  be  placed  in 
different  Families  must  be  small.  The  view  taken  by  Prof. 
Parker  seems  to  be  the  most  reasonable :  these  genera — with 
others  doubtless  and  most  of  them  Australian' — are  morpho- 
logically inferior  to  the  Corvida:,  and  perhaps  deserve  some 
such  designation  as  that  of  "  J\'^o(o-Coracomo)-/j/ia;".suggested 
by  him  {Trans.  Zool.  Society,  ix.  p.  327).  At  the  same  time 
their  relationship  to  the  Laniidx  appears  to  be  evident, 
and  they  may  perhaps  be  best  regarded  as  the  less-altered 
descendants  of  an  old  type,  whence  both  the  true  Crows 
and  the  true  Shrikes  have  sprung,  each  to  develop  into 
higher  morphological  rank,  and  by  the  way  to  throw  out 
numerous  other  branches.  As  to  the  Vireos  it  would  seem 
almost  certain  that  they  have  little  or  no  connexion  with 
the  Laniida:.  (a.  N.) 

SHRIMP,  the  name  applied  to  two  species  of  Crus- 
taceans commonly  used  as  food  in  Great  Britairi.  One 
kind  after  boiling  is  brown  in  colour,  the  other  bright 
red.  The  brown  kind  belongs  to  the  species  Crangon 
vulgaris,  the  red-  to  the  species  Pandalus  annuHcornis. 
Both  these  species  belong  to  the  sub-order  Decapoda,  and 
to  that  division  of  it  which  is  distinguished  by  a  well- 
developed  abdomen  or  tail,  and  called  ilacroura.  The 
Crustaceans  placed  in  this  division  have  five  pairs  of  limbs 
adapted  for  crawling  on  the  sea-bottom  ;  usually  the  an- 
terior one  or  more  pairs  of  these  five  are  chelate  or  pincer- 
formed.  In  front  of  the  ambulatory  limbs  are  six  pairs 
of  limbs  whose  function  is  to  assist  in  the  conveyance  of 
food  to  the  mouth,  three  pairs  of  maxillipeds,  two  pairs 
of  maxilla?,  and  a  pair  of  mandibles.  In  front  of  these, 
again,  are  two  pairs  of  antennas  and  a  pair  of  eyes.  The 
latter  are  held  by  some  naturalists  to  represent  a  pair  oi 
limbs,  but  evidence  exists  which  is  in  opposition  to  this 
view.  Behind  the  ambulatory  limbs  are  six  segments  of 
the  body,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  limbs  adapted  for  swim- 
ming.  The  sixth  pair  of  these  abdominal  limbs  are  larger 
than  the  rest  and  expanded,  extending  backwards  in  the 
same  plane  as  the  flattened  terminal  segment  of  the  body 
or  telson,  and  the  three  together  form  a  powerful  organ 
of  locomotion  by  v.-hich  a  rapid  backward  movement  of 
the  whole  body  in  the  water  is  produced.  The  genua 
Crangon  is  the  type  of  a  family,  the  Crangonidx.  The 
most  conspicuous  characteristic  of  the.  genus  is  the  shape 
of  the  first  pair  of  ambulatory  limbs.  These  differ  less 
from  the  rest  than  is  tis^ially  the  case,  and  the  terminal 
pincer  apjiaratus  is  but  sTightly  developed.  The  terminal 
joint  is  small,  and  the  projection  of  the  second  joint  against 
which  it  acts  is  still  smaller,  so  that  the  cutting  edges  of 
the  pincer  are  transverse  to  the  rest  of  the  limb.  Tha 
second  pair  of  limbs  have  also  a  terminal  pincer  apparatus, 
and  both  the  second  and  the  third  are  slender.  The 
fourth  and  fifth  pairs  are  short  and  thick.  The  rostrum, 
the  median  projection  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  carapace, 
is  rudimentary.  The  line  joining  the  attachments  of  tlie  two 
pairs  of  antennje  are  transverse  to  the  axis  of  the  body.  The 
abdomen  is  large.    There  are  seven  branchias  on  each  side.' 

The  speci6c  characters  of  C.  vulgaris,  FabV.,  are  the  smoothness 
of  the  dorsal  surface,  the  carapace  presenting  only  three  small  spines, 
one  median  in  the  gastric  region  and  one  on  each  side  on  the  branchi- 
osfegite.  The  second  pair  of  ambulatory  limbs  are  nearly  as  long 
as  the  third.  The  size  of  the  adult  animal  is  about  2^  inches.  The 
species  is  abundant  on  sandy  shores  at  nearly  all  parts  of  the  British 
and  Irish  coasts,  and  is  captured  by  nets  which  have  a  semicircular 
month,  and  are  attached  to  a  pole  Avielded  by  a  fisherman  wading 
in  the  water  at  ebb-tide.  The  common  shrimp  is  an  exception  to 
the  general  rule  that  the  cuticle  of  Crustaceans  is  either  red  in  tha 
living  animal  oi*  becomes  so  on  boiling.  The  cuticle  of  C.  vulgaris 
in  the  living  state  is  light  brown  or  almost  white,  and  the  animal 


S  H  R  — IS  H  R 


847 


TB  Somewhat  translnoent.  Tho  colonr  closely  approximates  to  that 
of  the  sand  on  vhich  the  animal  is  found.  After  boiling  tho  cuticle 
assumes  its  well-known  bro^vn  colour.  Several  oth^ir  species  of 
Crangon  are  known  on  the  British  shores,  but  none  of  them  are  as. 
abundant  as  C.  vulgaris,  and  they  are  not  captured  as  food.  C 
vulgaris  is  common  on  the  east  cocrt  of  North  America  from  North 
Carolina  to  Labrador;  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  York  it  is 
used  as  food.  The  species  also  occurs  on  the  west  coast  of  America 
from  San  Diego  to  Alaska,  and  is  commonly  eaten  at  San  Francisco, 
as  also  is  another  species,  Crangoit  fraiiciscorum,  Stimpson. 

Tho  geuus  Pandahis,  first  defined  by  Leach  in  his  Malacologia 
' Britannica,  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  the  second 
pair  of  antennje,  which  are  longer  than  the  whole  body,  the  presence 
of  a  long  spiny  rostrum  curved  upwards,  the  total  absence  of  pincers 
on  the  first  pair  of  ambulatory  limbs,  and  the  great  length  of  the 
Becond  of  these  limbs  on  the  left  side.  The  ambulatory  limbs  aro 
all  long  and  slender,  and  the  first  pair  are  not  thicker  than  the 
rest.  The  second  pair  are  provided  with  a  very  small  pincer  ap- 
paratus. The  third  somite  of  tho  alxiomen  is  large  and  projects 
upwards,  so  that  the  body  has  a  hump-backed  appearance.  The 
serrated  upper  edge  of  the  rostrum  e-^teuds  backwards  along  the 
median  line  of  the  carapace,  half  way  to  its  posterior  border.  The 
specific  characters  of  the  species  Annulicornis  are  that  the  rostrum  is 
equal  in  length  to  the  carapace,  and  that  its  anterior  half  is  destitute 
of  teeth  above,  with  the  exception  of  one  small  tooth  near  the  apex. 
This  species  is  not  so  abundant  as  C.  vulgaris  and  is  an  inhabit- 
ant of  deeper  water.  It  is  taken  usually  for  the  market  on 
tho  east  and  south  coasts  of  Britain,  but  is  widely  distributed, 
occurring  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  Shetland,  and  Iceland.  In  colour 
it  is  when  alive  of  a  reddish  grey  with  spots  of  deeper  red  ;  when 
boiled  it  is  of  a  uniform  deep  red.  This  species  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  the  common  prawn  ;  but  it  never  reaches  tho  size  of 
the  prawn,  its  adult  length  being  2  to  2J  inches.  P.  annulicornis 
is  the  only  species  of  the  genus  occurring  in  Great  Britain.  The 
common  pra\vn  when  adult  is  above  4  inches  in  length.  It  belongs 
to  the  species  Paliemon  scrratus.  In  Palxmon  the  second  pair  of 
antennte  are  long,  as  in  Pandalus,  but  the  first  pair  arc  much  larger 
in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  In  Palfsmon  both  of  the  first  two 
pairs  of  ambulatory  limbs  are  didactyle  or  pincerformcd  ;  the  second 
pair  are  stronger  than  the  first,  and  the  left  not  longer  than  the 
right.  Some  of  the  smaller  species  of  Palmmon  are  used  as  food 
and  sometimes  called  shrimps.  At  Poole  in  Dorsetshire,  according 
to  Prof  Bell's  British  Crustacea,  Palismoji  sqnilla,  Fabr.,  P.  varians, 
Leach,  and  P.  leachii,  Bell,  are  all  taken,  and  sold  as  cup-shrimps. 

SHROPSHIRE,  or  Salop,  an  inland  county  of  England, 
on  the  borders  of  Wales,  lies  between  52°  20'  and  53°  M 
N.  lat.  and  2°  17'  and  3°  14'  W.  long.,  and  is  bounded  N. 
br  Cheshire  and  an  interpolated  portion  of  Flint,  E.  by 
Stafford,  S.E.  by  Worcester,  S.  by  Hereford,  S.W.  by. 
Radnor,  W.  by  Montgomery,  and  N.W.  by  Denbigh. 
The  total  area  in  1880  was  844,565  acres,  or  about  1319 
square  miles. 

Towards  the  west  Shropshire  partakes  of  the  hilly 
scenery  of  the  neighbouring  Wales,  from  which  several 
ranges  are  continued  into  it.  South  of  the  Severn  on  the 
borders  of  Montgomery  the  Breidden  Hills  of  Lower  Silurian 
formation  rise  abruptly  in  three  peaks,  of  which  Cefn-y- 
Castell,  about  1300  feet  high,  is  in  Shropshire;  and  in 
the  south-west  there  is  a  broad  range  of  rough  rounded 
hills  known  as  Clun  Forest,  extending  from  Radnor.  South 
and  west  of  the  Severn  there  are  four  other  principal  chains 
of  hills  extendiiig  from  ."outh-west  to  north-cast — the  Long 
Mynd  (1674  feet),  to  the  west  of  Church  Stretton,  of  Cam- 
brian formation ;  the  Caradoc  Hills,  a  little  to  the  north, 
which  cross  the  Severn,  terminating  in  the  isolated  sugar- 
loaf  peak  of  the  Wrekin  (1320  feet);  the  Wenlock  Edge, 
to  the  east  of  Church  Stretton,  a  sharp  ridge  extend- 
ing for  20  miles,  and  in  some  places  rising  above  1000 
feet;  and  the  Clee  Hills,  near  the  south-eastern  border 
(Brow-i  Cleo  Hill,  1805  feet;  Titterstono  Cleo  Hill,  1750 
feet).  The  remainder  of  the  countjf  is  for  the  most  part 
pleasantly  undulating,  finely  cultivated,  and  watered  by 
numerous  rivulets  and  streams.  It  may  bo  said  to  lie  in 
the  basin  of  the  Severn,  which  enters  the  county  near  its 
centre  from  Montgomery,  and  flows  eastwards  to  Shrews- 
bury, after  which  it  turns  south-eastwards  to  Ironbridge, 
and  then  continues  in  a  more  southerly  direction  past 
Bridgnorth,  entering  Worcester  near  Bewdley.    It  is  navi- 


gable to  Shrewsbury  and  has  connexion  with  the  Doning- 
ton,  the  Shropshire  Union,  the  Shrewsbury,  the  Birming- 
ham and  Liverpool,  and  the  Chester  and  EUesmere  Canals. 
Its  principal  tributaries  within  the  county  are — from  the 
right  the  Meol  (which  receives  the  Rea),  the  Cound,  the 
Mor,  and  the  Borle,  and  from  the  left  the  Vyrnwy  (dividing 
Shropshire  from  Montgomery),  the  Perry,  the  Tern  (which 
receives  the  Roden),  the  Bell,  and  the  Worf.  The  Dee 
touches  the  north-western  boundary  of  the  county  with 
Denbigh.  In  the  south  the  Teme,  which  receives  the  Clun, 
the  Onny,  and  the  Corve,  flows  near  the  borders  of  Here- 
ford, which  it  occasionally  touches  and  intersects.  Of  the 
numerous  lakes  and  pools  the  largest  is  EUesmere  (116 
acres)  near  the  borders  of  Denbigh.  The  Severn  forms 
the  boundary  between  the  Old  and  the  New  Red  Sandstone 
formations,  which  constitute  the  principal  strata  of  the 
county.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  rocks  lying  to  the  south 
and  west  of  the  river  are  bounded  and  deeply  interpene- 
trated by  Cambrian  and  Silurian  strata.  There  are  five 
separate  coal-fields  within  the  county, — the  Forest'of  Wyre, 
Coalbrookdale,  Shrewsbury,  Clee  Hills,  and  Oswestry.  Tho 
Forest  of  Wyre  field  on  the  borders  of  Worcester  rests 
directly  on  the  Devonian  rocks,  and  has  a  great  thickness 
of  measures,  but  comparativeiy  few  workable  seams.  The 
Coalbrookdale  embraces  an  area  of  28  square  miles,  and 
is  triangular  in  forrn,  with  its  base  resting  on  the  Severn 
and  its  northern  apex  at  Newport.  On  its  western  side  it 
is  bounded  partly  by  a  great  fault,  which  brings  in  the 
New  Red  Sandstone,  and  partly  by  the  Silurian  strata ; 
on  its  eastern  side  it  passes  beneath  tht  Permian  strata ; 
and  it  is  supposed  that  the  productive  measures  are  con- 
tinued towards  South  Staffordshire.  Its  general  dip  is 
eastwards,  and  the  strata  have  a  vertical  thickness  of  over 
1000  feet.  The  organic  remains  include  fishes,  crustaceans, 
and  moUuscs.  Mingled  with  the  coal  strata  are  several 
valuable  courses  of  ironstone.  The  original  quantity  of  coal 
in  the  field  is  estimated  to  have  been  about  43  million 
tons,  of  which  there  are  about  12  millions  now  remain- 
ing. Neither  the  Shrewsbury  nor  the  Clee  Hills  fields  are 
of  much  value.  The  Oswestry  field  is  small,  but  has  some 
workable  seams  adjoining  the  extensive  fie:d  of  Denbigh. 
In  1884  850,000  tons  of  coal,  valued  at  X286,000,  were 
raised  in  Shropshire  jrom  fifty-five  collieries,  while  198,700 
tons  of  iron  were  obtained  valued  at  £109,285.  Iron- 
casting  forms  one  of  the  most  important  industries  of  the 
county.  Lead  mining  is  carried  on  with  some  success  on 
the  Stiperstonee,  3788  tons  of  lead  oi'e  being  raised  in  188"4. 
The  other  principal  minerals  aro  iron  pyrites  (500  tons  in 
KS4,  valued  at  X250),  barytcs  (4939  tons,  worth  £7395), 
and  fire-clay  (56,000  tons,  worth  £8475).  There  are  also 
a  large  number  of  stone  and  lime  quarries. 

Manufactures, — With  the  exception  of  iron,  the  manufactures  of 
tho  county  are  comparatively  unimportant.  Bricks  and  tiles, 
earthen  and  china  ware,  and  tobacco  pipes  aro  largely  made  in 
various  districts.  At  Shrewsbury  there  aro  linen,  yarn,  and  thread 
mills,  and  in  several  districts  small  pa])cr-mills. 

Agriculture. — There  is  m.ii'h  furtilo  hand  suitable  for  all  kindo  of 
culture,  the  richest  soil  being  that  in  the  vicinity  of  tlio  Sovrn, 
including  the  Vale  of  Shrewsbury.  Much  of  tho  hilly  ground, 
including  Wenlock  Edge  and  tho  Cleo  Hills,  admits  of  tillage  ;  but 
a  portion  of  the  western  niountaino\is  region  is  of  oomparatively 
small  valuo  even  for  tho  pastnrnge  of  sheep.  Out  of  a  total  area  of 
844,505  acres  there  were  716,509  in  1885  under  culture,  of  which 
150,085  were  under  corn  crops,  61,101  under  green  crops,  426,859 
under  permanent  pasture,  71,470  under  rotation  grasses,  and  697S 
fallow.  The  area  under  woods  in  1881  was  45,641  acres,  and  in  1885 
the  area  under  orchards  was  4015.  Of  corn  crops  the  areas  under 
wheat  and  barley  were  in  1885  nearly  equal,  53,161  and  53,300  acrea 
respectively,  while  that  under  oats  amounted  to  34,445  acres,  rye 
to  848,  beans  4648,  and  pease  3683.  Nearly  five-sixths  of  the  area 
under  green  crops  were  occupied  by  turnips  and  swedes,  which- 
covered  47,119  acres,  the  area  under  potatoes  being  6374,  and  that 
under  mangold  wurzcl  4355.  Horses  iu  1885  numbefeJ  32,323,  of 
which  19,377  were  used  solely  for  purposes  of  agriculture;  cattlaj 


848 


S  H  B  ~  S  H  U 


(chit'fl.v  Herefords)  ]62,932,  of  which  60,976  wero  cows  and  heifers 
'n  milk  or  in  cnlf  and  69,865  animals  under  two  years  old  ;  sheep 
(mainly  Sliropsliire)  438,66i  ;  pigs  61,067;  and  poultry  369,890. 
In  the  northern  districts  Cheshire  cheese  is  largely  made.  Aocord- 
inf  to  the  latest  Laiidowncra'  Jteturti  for  England  Shropshire  was 
divided  among  12,119  owners,  possessing  791,941  acres  at  an  annual 
^alue  of  £1,434,833,  or  an  average  value  of  about  £1,  163.  8d.  per 
acre.  There  were  7281  proprietors  or  about  60  per  cent,  who  pos- 
sessed less  than  1  acre,  and  19,675  acres  were  common  land.  The 
following  possessed  over  8000  acres  each— Earl  of  Powis,  26,986 ; 
Duke  of  Cleveland,  25,604;  Earl  Brownlow,  20,233;  Dnke  of 
Sutherland,  17,495;  Lord  Hill.  16,290;  Lord  Forester,  14,891; 
Lord  "Windsor,  10,846  ;  Earl  of  Bradford,  10,515  ;  Sir  V.  R.  Corbet, 
9489;  W.  0.  Foster,  8517;  AV.  L.  ChilJe,  8430;  Lord  Boyne,  8424; 
LD.  Corbet,  8118. 

Adminislralion  and  Populallon.—ShTOYiahive  comprises  14  hun- 
dreds and  the  municipal  boroughs  of  Bridgnorth  (population,  5885 
in  J881),  Ludlow  (5035),  Oswestry  (7847),  Shrewsbury  (26,478),  and 
"■Vcnlock  (18,442).  For  parliamentary  purposes  the  county,  which 
was  formerly  shared  between  North  and  South  Shropshire,  was 
in  1885  divided  into  four  separate  divisions,— Mid  (Wellington), 
korth  (Newport),  South  (Ludlow),  and  West  (Oswestry),  each 
returning  one  member.  At  the  same  time  the  boroughs  of  Bridg- 
north, Wmlock,  and  Ludlow  were  merged  in  the  county  divisions 
to  which  they  severally  belong  ;  but  Shrewsbury  continues  to  return 
one  member.  Shropsliirr  contains  also  the  following  urban  sanitary 
districts  :—Broselcy  (population,  4458  in  1881),  Dawley  (9200), 
EUesmere  (1875),  MadeL-y  (9212),  Much  Wenlock  (2321),  Newport 
(3044),  Wellington  (0217),  and  Yi'hitchurch  and  Dodington  (3756). 
The  county  has  one  court  of  quarter  sessions,  and  is  divided  into 
nineteen  special  sessional  divisions.  All  the  boroughs  have  separate 
courts  of  quarter  sessions  and  commissions  o£.tho  peace.  The  county 
contains  252  civil  parishes  with  parts  of  six  others.  Ecclesiastically 
it  is  in  the  dioceses  of  Hereford,  Lichfield,  and  Bt  Asaph.  The 
population  (240,959  in  1861)  in  ISSl  was  248,014  (124,157  males 
nnd  123,857  females).  The  number  of  persons  to  an  acre  was  0-29 
and  of  acres  to  a  person  3"41. 

History  and  Antiquities.— The  British  tribes  inhabiting  Shrop- 
Ehire  at  the  time  of  the  Romans  were  named  by  them  the  Ordovices 
and  the  Cornavii.     It  was  withiu  its  boundaries  that  Caractacus 
(Caradoc)  struggled  against  Vesjiasian  in  51  A.D.      A  connected 
chain  of  militai^  works  was  erected  by  him  over  the  southern  and 
western  districts  of  the  county,  the  most  important  fortresses  be- 
ing Caer  Caradoc  (whero  ho  is  said  to  have  made  his  last  stand), 
occupying  a  commanding  position  in  the  forest  of  Clnn,  and  the 
earthwork  of  Hen  Dinas  at  Old  Oswestry,  consisting  of  four  or  five 
concentric  circles,  still  well  marked.     The  Roman  Watling  Street 
entered  Shropshire  near  AVeston-under-Lizard  in  Stafford  and  passed 
in  an  oblique  line  to  Leintwardine  in  Hereford.     Various  other 
Roman  roads  diverged  from  it  in  different  directions.     Wroxcter, 
a  little  to  the  west  of  the  Wrekin,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Roman  city  Uriconium,  of  which  a  portion  of  the  wall,  originally 
3  miles  in  circumference,  still  remains.     Explorations  made  on  the 
tite  of  the  city  have  revealed  many  interesting  features  of  its  con- 
struction, and  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  an  immense  variety  of 
remains.     By  some  authorities  the  Roman  Jlediolanum  is  placed 
near  Drayton  and  Rutunium  near  Wem  ;  but  the  evidence  in  both 
cases  is  doubtful.     Throughout  Shropshire  there  are  many  remains 
of  Roman  camps.    Under  the  Romans  it  was  included  in  the  province 
of  Flavia  Cresariensis.     After  their  departure  it  was.  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  the  Saxons  by  Offa,  who  about  765  caused  Watt's  dyke 
to  be  erected  to  guard  against  the  incursions  of  the  Welsh,  and 
later  erected  parallel  with  it,  2  miles  to  the  west,  the  entrenchment 
known  as  Offa's  dyke,  which,  extending  from  the  Wye  near  Hereford 
to   the   parish   oi"   ilold   in  Flintshire,  forms   in   some   places   a 
well-defined  boundary  between  Shropshire  and  Montgomery.     The 
greater  part  of  the  history  of  Shropshire  is  included  under  that  of 
Shrewsbury  {q.v.).     There  are  several  important  old  ecclesiastical 
ruins,  including  AVenlock  priory,  once  very  wealthy,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  St  Jlilburg,  grand-daughter  of  Penda,  king  of  the 
Mercians,  as  a  college  for  secular  priests,  and  changed  into  a  priory 
for  Cluniac  monks  by  Roger  de  Montgomery  about  1080  ;  Lilleshall 
abbey,  for  Augustinian  canons,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Stephen  ; 
Shrewsbury  abbey,  founded  in  1083  in  honour  of  St  Peter  and  St 
Paul ;  Buildwas  abbey,  one  of  the  finest  ruins  in  the  county,  founded 
in  1135  for  Cistercians  by  Roger  de  Clinton,  bishop  of  Cliester;  and 
Haughmond  abbey,  for  Augustinian  canons,  founded  by  William 
Fitzalan  about  1138.     Other  remains  of  less  consequence  are  those 
of  the  convent  of  White  Ladies  or  St  ]>onard's,  a  Norman  struc- 
ture, said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  rclgn  of  Richard  L  or  John  ; 
slight  traces  of  Wombridge  priory,  for  Augustinian  canons,  founded 
before  the  reign  of  Henry  J. ;  Alberbury  priory,  for  Benedictines, 
founded  by  Fulk  Fitzwarin  between  1220  and  1230  ;  and  Chirbury 
priory,  founded  towards  the  close  of  the  12th  century.    The  castles 
of  Biidgnorth  (see  Bp.idgekokth),  Ludlow,  and  Shrewsbury  are 
referred  to  iu<he  notices  of  these  to\vns,  and  in  addition  to  thes« 
may  be  mentioned  Clun  Castle,  which  after  a  long  siege  was  t.-kcn 


and  burnt  by  the  Welsh  prince  Rees  about  1196.  and  Boscobel 
House,  near  which  Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  been  sheltered  in  an  oak. 
Soo  Hartshome,  Satopia  Antiqua,  1841;  Eyton,  Anltqutliii  of  Shropshirt, 
12  vols.,  1S54-CO;  Anderson,  History  of  Skropshire,  1809;  Blakewav  Sheriff s  of 
Shropshire;  Duke,  Antiquities  o/ Shropshire.  (T,  F.  H.) 

SHKOVE  TUESDAY,  the  day  preceding  Asli  Wednes- 
day, or  the  first  day  of  Lent,  was  so  called  as  the  day  on 
■which  "shrift  "or  confession  was  made.  CorapareCAKNiVAL. 

SHUlilLA  (Bulg.  Skumen,  Turk.  Shvvina),  a  fortified 
lown  of  Bulgaria,  58  miles  south-south-west  of  Silistria  and 
in  that  paslialio  and  50  west  of  Varna.  The  town  is 
built  within  a  cluster  of  hills  which  curve  round  it  on 
the  west  and  north  in  the  shape  of  a  horse-shoe.  A  rugged  ' 
ravine  intersects  the  ground  longitudinally  within  tiie  horse- 
shoe ridge.  From  Shumla  roads  radiate  northwards  to  the 
Danubian  fortresses  of  Rustchukand  Silistria  and  those  in 
the  Dobrudja,  southwards  to  the  passes  of  the  Balkans,  and 
eastwards  to  Varna  and  Baltchik.  Shumla  is  therefore  one 
of  the  most  imiwrtant  military  positions  to  the  north  of 
Turkey,  while  it  ranks  as  the  third  largest  town  in  Bulgaria. 
Spread  over  a  large  extent  of  ground,  each  house  mostly 
isolated  in  the  midst  of  its  own  stables  and  cow-houses, 
Shumla  has  the  appearance  of  a  vast  village.  A  broad 
street  and  rivulet  divide  the  military  or  upper  quarter, 
Gorni-Mahl^,  from  the  lower  quarter,  Dolni-Mahle.  The 
latter,  dirty  and  unhealthy,  intersected  by  a  labyrinth  of 
lanes,  is  inhabited  mostly  by  Christians  and  Jews.  The 
Armenians  possess  a  small  church,  and  each  of  the  two 
Bulgarian  quarters  has  its  temple.  The  houses  of  the 
Gorni-'ilahle,  occupied  chiefly  by  Turks,  stand  pleasantly 
embowered  each  in  its  flower  and  fruit  garden.  Gorni- 
Mahl6  has  preserved  the  old  church  of  the  Resurrection: 
In  the  Dolni-Mahl^  is  the  new  church  of  St  Cyril,  a  fine 
basilica  adorned  witli  a  peristyle.  The  Bulgarian  com- 
munity possesses  two  boys'  and  two  girls'  schools,  giving 
instruction  superior  to  that  obtainable  at  the  primary 
Turkish  school.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  town  is  the 
magnificent  mausoleum  of  Jezairli  Hassan  Pasha,  who  is 
the  18th  century  enlarged  the  fortifications  of  Shumla.  The 
principal  mosque,  with  a  cupola  of  very  interesting  archi- 
tecture, forms  the  centre  of  the  Moslem  quarter.  At  the 
farther  end  of  the  town,  isolated  on  a  hill,  is  a  large 
military  hospital.  The  population  of  Shumla  in  1881  was 
23,093,  exclusive  of  the  garrison.  The  town  is  renowned 
for  its  manufacture  of  red  and  yellow  slippers,  ready-made 
clothes, 'richly  embroidered  dresses  for  females,  and  its 
copper  and  tin  wares.  It  also  rears  silk-worms,  spins  silk, 
and  carries  on  an  important  trade  in  graig  and  wine. 
The  branch  railway  from  Shumla  to  Kaspidjan,  9J  miles, 
to  connect  the  town  with  the  Rustchuk- Varna  Railway, 
though  commenced  in  1870,  was  not  finished  in  1886. 

In  SU  Shumla  was  burned  by  the  emperor  Nicephonis,  and  in 
1087  was  besieged  by  Alexius.  In  1388  the  sultan  Murad  I.  forced 
the  castle  to  surrender;  and  thence  tiU  the  17th  century  Shumla 
disappears  from  history.  In  the  18th  century  it  was  enlarged  and 
fortified.  Three  times— 1774, 1810,  nnd  1828— it  was  unsuccessfully 
attacked  by  Russian  armies.  The  Turks  consequently  gave  it  the 
name  of  Gazi  ("Victorious").  But  on  22d  June  1878  Shumla  capitu- 
lated to  the  Russians.  The  treaty  of  Berlin  stipulated  the  demoU- 
tion  of  the  fortifications ;  but  this  article  has  not  been  executed,  and 
Bult^rian  troops  garrison  the  fort. 

Se?  F.  Kamtz,  La  Eulgarie  Danviienne  (18S2) ;  H.  C.  Barkley,Bi/;jarfa  be/or. 
the  ll'or  ns:7)  and  Eelujetn  the  Danube  and  Black  Sea  (15.0) ;  S.  G.  B.  aM  C. 
A  St  Clir,  Residence  in  ISulgaria  (1S60);  J.  L.  Farley,  Nevi  Bulgaria  {im) : 
and  J.  G.  Minchin,  Bulgaria  since  the  Ifar  (ISSO). 

SHUSHA,  a  town,  formerly  a  fortress,  of  Russia,  in 
the  Caucasian  government  of  Elisabethpol,  lies  in  39°  46' 
N.  lat.  and  46°  25'  R  long.,  230  miles  south-east  of 
Tiflis,  on  an  isolated  rocky  eminence,  3860  feet  high. 
The  town,  which  is  accessible  only  on  one  side,  occupies 
but  a  small  part  of  the  plateau,  whence  there  is  a  splendid 
view  over  the  surrounding  mountain  gorges  and  defiles. 
In  1873  the  population  was  24,552  (males  13,666,  females 
10,886),  of  whom  13,504  were  Armenians  and  10,804 


S  H  U  — S  H  W 


849 


Tatars.  Instead  of  flat  earthen  roofs,  as  in  most  other 
towns  of  Transcaucasia,  the  houses  have  very  high  steep 
roofs,  covered  with  shingle.  The  streets  are  sinuous,  and 
are  intersected  by  ravines.  Shusha  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  khanate  of  Karabagh.  The  tcn-n.is  locally 
renowned  for  its  carpet  manufactnres,  and  the  district  for 
its  excellent  breed  of  Karabagh  horses. 

The  fortress,  formed  in  1789  by  Pana  Khan,  has  a  \vall  on  one 
sidfe,  and  is  defended  naturally  on  the  other  tliree  sides.  In  1795 
Shusha  successfully  withstood  a  siege  by  Agha  Mohammed  of  Persia, 
but  was  constrained  to  surrender  two  years  afterwards.  In  1806 
Ibrahim  Khan  of  Karabagh  invoked  the  protection  of  Russia, 
but  the  annexation  was  completed  only  in  1822.  The  present 
district  of  Shusha  (293-4  square  miles)  forms  only  a  part  of  the 
former  khanate  of  Karabagh.  In  1873  it  had  (exclusive  of  Shusha) 
a  population  of  80,913  (males  45,163,  females  35,750),  Armenians 
numbering  43,562  and  Tatars  37,351.  Agriculture  and  cattle- 
breeding  are  almost  the  sole  occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  Gen- 
eral culture  is  very  low  ;  there  is  no  enterprise,  and  hut  inadequate 
security  for  life  and  property. 

SHUSTAE,  or  Shi'star,  Shl^shtar  (Arab.  Tostar),  once 
a  flourishing  provincial  capital  of  Persia,  is  now  a  compara- 
tively unimportant  town  of  6000  inhabitants, — exclusive, 
however,  of  the  Bakhtiiris,  who  during  the  winter  months 
encamp  with  their  flocks  and  herds  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  It  is  situated  (32°  3'  30"  N.  lat.  and  48°  52'  E. 
long.)  at  the  foot  of  an  offshoot  of  the  BakhtiAri  Mountains 
in  the  north-west  of  KhuzistAn,  and  just  below  the  point 
in  the  Kirun  (Dojail  or  Little  Tigris)  where — the  main 
stream  running  westwards^a  cutting  of  70  feet  deep  has 
been  made  through  the  natural  rock  for  an  easterly  branch. 
Thence  the  two  streams,  enclosing  a  wide  alluvial  tract,  of 
which  Shustar  is  the  crown,  follow  independent  courses 
until  they  reunite  some  40  miles  to  the  south.  .According 
to  Lieutenant  Selby,  I.N.,  who  ascended  the  KAriin  from 
Muhamrah  (Mohamraera)  in  1842  by  the  Shutait  (or  main 
stream  on  the  west)  to  within  6  miles,  and  further  tested 
the  navigation  of  the  Ab-i-Gargar  (or  eastern  channel)  to 
within  1  mile,  of  Shustar,  the  town  is  built  on  a  small 
hill  which  rises  gradually  from  the  south-west  and  increases 
in  elevation  to  the  citadel,  which  presents  on  the  north- 
eastern side  an  abrupt  face  of  about  150  feet  in  length, 
having  the  river  immediately  beneath.  Mr  Loftus,  who 
visited  Shustar  some  eight  years  after  Lieutenant  Selby, 
gives  an  account  of  the  two  great  dams  thrown  across  the 
river, — the  "  Band-i-Miz,An  "  over  the  natural  course,  the 
"Band-i-Kaisar"  over  the  artificially  diverted  branch. 
About  a  mile  below  the  latter  is  a  similar  work  of  more 
recent  and  more  solid  and  substantial  construction,  called 
the  "Piil,"  or  bridge  of  Belaiti.  Legend  ascribes  these 
ancient  works  to  Shipur  L  and  his  captive  the  emperor 
Valerian.  In  1875,  and  again  in  1878,  Mr  Mackenzie 
visited  Shustar ;  he  speaks  of  the  town  as  being  in  a 
wretchedly  decayed  and  filtJiy  condition.  The  houses  are  ' 
of  stone,  some  few  good,  with  underground  rooms  (sarddbs 
or  zir  lamin)  excavated  to  a  depth  of  two  stories  below 
the  ground  level.  In  these  relief  is  obtained  from  the 
intense  summer  heat.  The  trafHo  of  the  bazaar,  which  is 
a  poor  one,  seemed  to  depend  chiefly  on  the  Iliydts  or 
wandering  tribes.  The  inhabitants — for  the  most  part 
Arabs  and  SAiyids — have  a  reputation  for  hospitality. 

Some  writers  have  identified  Shiishar  with  Susa  (Shushan  of  the 
Bible),  the  capital  of  Snsiana  and  a  residence  of  the  Achiemcnian 
kiugs.  The  true  site  of  the  latter,  however,  as  Loftus's  explora- 
tions showed,  is  at  Shush,  a  widely  spread  ruin  30  or  40  miles  t) 
the  north-west.  On  the  other  side  of  Shustar  is  the  locally  classic 
pi-ound  of  Ram  Hormuz.  In  fact,  of  the  whole  neighbourhood  Sir 
H.  Rawlinson  writes  that  it  "still  requires  elaborate  e.xploi-ation, 
and  would  well  repay  any  traveller  who  would  devote  six  months 
to  examining  the  ruins  and  carefully  copying  the  inscriptions." 

The  river  Kanin,  which  liscs  in  the  Bakhtiari  Mountains  and 
riasscs  down  the  broad Shattu 'l-'Arab,  joins  thcTigi  is  .ind  Euphrates. 
It  has  been  declared  by  many  and  tnistworthy  authorities  to  bo 
well  adapted  for  steam  navigation — save  as  regards  one  obstacle 
at  Ahwaz,  removable  at  little  cost — from  its  mouth  to  the  near 

21—32     . 


neighbourhood  of  Shustir.  Thence  to  Ispahan  the  land  journey 
would  be  shorter  than  from  Bushahr  (Bushire)  to  that  city  by 
200  miles. 

SHUYA,  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  the  cotton  industry 
in  middle  Russia,  is  a  district  town  in  the  government  of 
Vladimir,  68  miles  north-east  of  tlie  town  of  Vladinnr.  A 
branch  railway  connects  it  witli  the  Novki  station  of  the 
railway  from  Moscow  to  Nijni-Novgorod.  The  town  is 
built  on  the  high  left  bank  of  the  navigable  Te2a,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Klazma,  with  two  suburbs  ou  the  ri^ht  bank. 
Annalists  mention  princes  of  Shuya  in  1403.  Its  first 
linen  manufactures  were  established  in  1755;  but  in  1800 
its  population  did  not  exceed  1500.  Its  growtli  began 
only  with  the  development  of  the  cotton  industry  in  centra! 
Russia,  and  since  then  has  been  rapid;  iu  1882  it  had 
19,560  inhabitants,  as  against  10,440  in  1870.  Of  tliese 
about  10,000  live  by  the  manufactures,  and  only  a  few 
keep  to  agriculture  and  gardening.  In  1881  the  output 
of  twelve  cotton-mills  was  valued  at' £442,160  for 
various  cotton  stuffs  and  £48,000  for  cotton  yarn.  Tan- 
neries, especially  for  the  preparation  of  sheep-skins — widely 
renowned  throughout  Russia  —  still  maintain  their  im- 
portance, although  this  industry  has  migrated  to  a  great 
extent  to  the  country  districts.  The  products  of  its  manu- 
factories are  chiefly  sent  to  Moscow  and  Nijni-Novgorod. 
The  town  is  mainly  built  of  wood.  Its  cathedral  (1799) 
is  a  large  building,  with  five  gilt  cupolas.  Shuya  has  also 
two  gymnasia,  for  boys  and  girls,  besides  a  progj'mnasium 
for  girls,  and  several  secondary  and  primary  schools. 

The  surrounding  district  is  also  important  for  its  manufactures. 
The  village  of  Ivanovo-Voznesensk,  north  of  Shuya,  witli  a  popu- 
lation of  more  than  19,000  inhabitants,  employed  11,329  workmen: 
in  its  39  manufactories  in  ISSl,  and  showed  a  return  of  £1,939,950 
(£1,700,000  for  cottons  and  the  remainder  for  dtemicals  and  machi- 
nery). Teikovo  and  Kokhma  are  two  otlier  centres  of  manufacture, 
— the  whole  production  of  the  manufactories  witliin  tlie  district  (ex- 
clusive of  Shuya  and  Ivanovo)  being  estimated  at  £630,000.  These 
figures,  of  course,  do  not  include  any  statistics  of  the  petty  trades 
carried  on  side  by  side  with  agriculture.  Nearly  eveiy  village  has 
a  specialty  of  its  own, — bricks,  pottery  (ilenschikovo),  wheels,  toys 
packing-boxes,  looms  and  other  weaving  implements  house  furni- 
ture, sieves,  combs,  boots,  gloves,  felt  goods,  candle,  and  so  ou 
The  manufacture  of  linen  and  cotton  iu  villages,  as  well  as  the  pre- 
paration and  manufacture  of  sheepskins  and  rough  gloves,  occupies 
about  40,000  peasants.  The  jhuya  merdiauts  carry  on  an  active 
trade  in  these  products  all  over  Russia,  and  in  con.,  spirits,  salt, 
and  other  food  stuffs,  which  are  imported  to  a  great  extent.  In 
1880  the  imported  goods  reached  1,613,000  cwts.  (1,203,000  by  rail), 
and  the  exports  1,318,000  cwts.,  chiefly  by  the  Teza. 

SHWE-GYENG,  a  district  of  British  Burmah,  in  the 
Tenasserim  division,  containing  an  area  of  5567  scjuare 
miles,  and  lying  in  the  valley  of  the  Tsit-toung  (Sitoung) 
river.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Toung-gnu  district,  on 
the  E.  by  the  Poung-Ioung  Hills  and  the  Salwin  Hill  Tracts, 
on  the  S.  by  Amherst  district,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Pegu 
Yoma  Hills.  The  boundaries  have  more  than  once  been 
altered,  the  last  change  having  taken  place  in  1877.  The 
aspect  of  the  country  is  mountainous,  especially  in  the 
north.  The  Tsit-toung  is  navigable  throughout  its  entire 
length  in  the  district  by  large  boats  and  steam-launches. 
Shwe-gyeng  has  never  been  accurately  surveyed  fr"m  a 
geological  point  of  view,  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  rii  h  in 
minerals.  Gold  is  found  in  most  of  the  affluents  of  the 
river  Shwe-gyeng ;  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  coal  also  exist, 
but  are  not  worked.  Except  in  the  hills,  the  climate  is 
generally  healthy ;  the  average  annual  rainfall  at  Shwe- 
gyeng  station  is  144  inches. 

In  1881  the  population  of  the  district  was  171,144  (89,687  males 
and  81,457  females),  of  whom  Hindus  numbered  958,  ftlohammcdans 
855,  Buddhists  153,149,  and  Christians  1250.  The  only  town  with 
more  than  5000  inhabitants  is  Shwe-gj-eng,  the  capital  and  -head- 
quarters of  the  district,  which  was  founded  during  the  18th  century,, 
before  the  Burmese  conquest,  by  Alompra.  It  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Shwe-gyeng  with  the  Tsit-toung,  and  had  a  popula- 
tion of  7519  in  1881.  Only  187  square  miles  of  the  district  were; 
cultivated  in  1S83-84  ;  the  cultivated  area  i.s,  however,  gradually 

XXL  —  107 


850 


S  I  A  —  S  I  A 


extending,  and  tlievc  are  some  3474  square  miles  capable  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  principal  crop  is  rice,  ot  wliich  twenty-tire  ditierent 
kinds  are  grown  ;  other  products  are  cotton,  betel-nuts,  tobacco, 
and  sugar-cane.  Tlie  only  industries  are  potteries,  salt-making, 
and  silk-spinning.  In  1883-84  the  total  revenue  amounted  to 
£36,476,  of  which  the  land-tax  contributed  £15,i'G7. 

SIALKOT,  or  Sealkote,  a  district  ot  Britisli  India,  in 
the  Amritsar  divisioa  of  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the 
Punjab,  with  an  area  of  1959  scjuare  miles.  It  lies  between 
31°  41'  and  32"  50'  M.  lat.  and  74°  12'  and  75°  3'  E.  long., 
and  is  bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  the  JAmu  state  of  Kashmir, 
ion  the  N.W.  by  the  ChiSnab,  on  the  E.  by  Gurddspur, 
on  the  S.E.  by  the  RAvi,  and  on  the  W.  by 'Lahore  and 
Cujr.inwala.  Sidlkot  is  an  oblong  tract  of  .country  occupy- 
ing the  submontane  portion  of  the  Eechna  (RAvi-ChenAb) 
DoAb,  and  is  fringed  on  either  side  by  a  line  of  fresh  alluvial 
soU,  above  which  rise  the  high  banks  that  form  the  limits 
of  the  river-beds.  The  Degh,  which  rises  in  the  JAmu 
Hills,  traverses  the  district  parallel  to  the  RAvi,  and  is 
likewise  fringed  by  low  alluvial  soil.  The  north-eastern 
lioundary  of  SiAlkot  is  20  miles  distant  from  the  outer 
line  of  the  HimAlayas ;  but  about  midway  between  the 
JRAvi 'and  the  ChenAb  is  a  high  dorsal  tract,  extending 
■  from  beyond  the  border  and  stretching  far  into  the  district. 
SiAlkot  is  above  the  average  of  the  Punjab  in  fertility : 
three-fourths  of  its  area  have  already  been  brought  under 
the  plough,  and  a  third  of  the  remainder  is  reported  to  be 
capable  of  improvement.  The  upper  portion  of  the  district 
is  very  productive ;  but  the  southern  portion,  farther  re- 
moved from  the  infiuence  of  the  rains,  shows  a  marked 
decrease  of  fertility.  The  district  is  also  watered  by  numer- 
ous small  torrents;  and  several  swamps  or  jkils,  scattered 
over  the  face  of  the  country,  are  of  considerable  value 
as  reservoirs  of  surplus  water  for  purposes  of  irrigation. 
SiAlkot  is  reputed  to  be  healthy  ;  it  is  free  from  excessive 
ieat,  judged  by  the  common  standard  of  the  Punjab ;  and 
its  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  37  inches. 

The  district  possesses  a  total  length  of  790  miles  of  road  ;  and  a 
tranch  line  of  the  Punjab  Northern  State  Railway,  from  Wazira- 
l)ad  in  the  north -west  corner  of  the  dis'trict  to  Sialkot  town  (28 
miles),  was  opened  in  January  1884.  In  18S1  the  population  was 
1,012,148  (males  539,661,  females  47-2,487),  of  whom  Moham- 
medans Buipbered  669,712,  Hindus  299,311,  Sikhs  40,195,  and 
Christians  1535.  The  only  town  of  any  importance  is  SiAlkot 
■{q.v. ).  The  principal  agricultural  products  of  the  district  are  wheat, 
barley,  rice,  maize,  millets,  pulses,  cil-seeds,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and 
vegetables.  The  local  commerce  centres  in  the  town  of  Sialkot, 
^hich  gathers  into  its  bazaars  more  than  half  the  raw  produce  of  the 
clistrict.  Its  surplus  stock  finds  a  ready  outlet  in  the  markets  of 
Xahore  and  -Amritsar,  while  the  great  rivers  on  either  side  form 
"natural  channels  of  communication  with  the  lower  parts  of  the 
3''unjab.  The  native  manufactures  comprise  silk,  saddlery,  shawl- 
*dging,  coarse  chintzes,  pottery,  brass  vessels,  coimtry  cloth,  cutlery, 
and  paper.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  amounted 
to  £145,531, of  which  the  land-tax  contributed  £111,713. 

The  early  history  of  Sialkot  is  closely  interwoven  with  that  of 
■Jthe  rest  of  the  Punjab.  It  was  annexed  by  the  British  after  the 
ISecond  Sikh  \V"ar  in  1849  ;  since  then  its  area  has  been  considerably 
deduced,  assuming  its  present  proportions  in  1867..  During  the 
mutiny  of  1857  the  native  troops  stationed  in  the  cantonments  of 
Sialkot  besieged  the  European  residents  in  tiie  fort,  and  remained 
znasters  of  the  whole  district ;  they  also  plundered  the  treasuiy 
and  destroyed  all  the  records. 

SIALKOT,  the  capital  and  administrative  headquarters 

<o{  the  above  district,  is  Situated  in  32°  31'  N.  lat.  and  74° 

36'  E.  long.,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Aik  torrent.     It 

3s  an  extensive  city  with  handsome  and  weU-built  streets, 

and  contains  several  shrines  and  buildings  of  historical 

interest.     In  1881  its  population  was  39,613. 

ffiliitolX.     .SIAil.^     The  kingdom  of  Siam  embraces  the  greater 

jiart  of  the  Indo-Chinese  and  part  of  the  Malay  peninsula. 

TOTDd-    On   the    north-west   the  river  Salwin  separates  it  from 

a^i»       Karen-nee,  southwards  thence  the  river  Toon-gyeen ;  then, 

-from  the  Three  Pagodas  in  18°  15'  N.  lat.  down  to  the 

;Pak-chan  river  in   10°  N.  lat.,  the  principal  watershed 

"^  Conpare  Malay  Psi;i:<:i,'JU.,  also  Shans,  Laos,  and  Cambodia. 


separates  it  from  Pegu  and  Tena.Jserim.  Its  seaboard  on 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  extends  from  the  Pak-chan  river  to 
Wellcsley  Province  in  5°  30'  N.  lat. ;  but  the  islands  along 
the  coast  are  British.  On  the  other  (east)  side  of  the 
peninsula  the  territory  extends  to  4°  35'  ¥  lat.,  or,  if  the 
vassal  state  of  Pahang'  is  included,  to  Jotiore  in  about 
2°  30'  N.  lat.  On  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam  the 
frontier  line  (according  to  the  Siamese  authorities ;  cf. 
Plate  IX.)  starts  from  the  Bay  of  Compong  Som  in  103° 
20'  E.  long.,  and  runs  north  inland  to  Mount  Pang-chak, 
thence,  after  crossing  Tonle-sap  Lake,  east  across  the  Me- 
kong to  the  crests  of  the  range  which  separates  the  ile-kong 
valley  from  Anam.  It  then  follows  this  range  north,  in- 
cluding the  country  north-east  of  Luang  Prabang,  to  the 
frontiers  of  Tongking.  Thence  it  runs  west-south-west, 
separating  the  tributary  from  the  independent  or  Burmese 
Shan  states,  and  meets  the  Salwin  in  about  20°  N.  lat. 

The  great  natural  and  economical  centre  of  Siam  is  the  TAvc- 
delta  of  the  Me-nam  .river,  which  is  annually  flooded  lie- 
tween  June  and  November,  the  waters  attaining  their 
greatest  height  in  August.  The  inundation  covers  severai 
thousand  scjuare  miles,  so  that  the  .capacity  for  productiot 
of  rice,  which  furnishes  two-thirds  of  the  entire  exports, 
is  almost  unlimited,  but  is  very  partially  developed  both 
from  scarcity  of  population  and  want  of  means  of  trans- 
port, mills,  and  better  cultivation.  Irrigation  channels  are, 
however,  cut  above  the  point  where  the  creeks  naturally 
cease  by  some  of  the  small  Chinese  settlers.  The  bar 
formed  at  the  mouth  of  this  and  of  the  other  converging 
rivers — the  Tachim,  the  Me-klong,  and  the  Pechaburi  on 
the  west,  and  the  Kharayok  on  the  east — extends  right 
across  the  upper  end"  of  the  gulf,  and  has  12  or  13  feet  of 
watetat-  high  water.  The  yearly  encroachment  of  the  land 
on  the  sea  is  considerable,  and  the  entire  delta  from  Chein- 
nat  in  15°  20'  N.  lat.  downwards  has  probably  been  formrd 
in  comparatively  recent  times.  At  Bangkok  sea-shells  are 
found  20  feet  below  the  surface.  The  Tachim,  the  first  great 
branch  of  the  Me-nam,  joins  its  right  bank  above  Chein- 
nat ;  below  this  the  main  stream  anastomoses  naturally  or 
by  canals  freely,-  the  banks  of  the  different  channels  being 
densely  peopled.  Above  Chein-nat  the  Me-nam  continues 
deep  and  navigable  up  to  the  junction  of  the  Pak-nam  Pho, 
its  east  branch  being  formed  by  several  important  affluents 
from  the  north-east.  The  west  branch  of  the  Me-nam  is 
formed  mainly  by  two  affluents,  the  Me-wang  and  the  Mo- 
ping, which  flow  down  through  the  west  Laos  states,  some 
of  whose  chief  towns  are  situated  on  their  banks.  In  this 
more  elevated  regiort  the  hill  ranges,  with  a  general  north- 
south  direction,  ramify  widely,  rising  in  places  to  from 
6000  to  8000  feet,  while  the- valleys  between  them  widen 
out  into  great  fertile  plains  having  the  appearance  of 
former  lake-basins — a  view  which  coincides  with  ancient 
local  traditions.  On  the  west  frontier  the  rapid  and  broken 
stream  of  the  Toon-gyeen,  whose  tributary  valleys  on  tho 
Siamese  side  produce  valuable  teak  and  cinnamon,  flows 
from  a  mass  of  laterite,  south  of  which  the  central  range 
consists  of  granite,  with  syenite  and  Cjuartzose  rocks.  Its 
spurs  (6000  feet  high)  extending  in  every  direction,  of 
sandstones.  Carboniferous  limestones,  and  other  Secondary 
formations,  are  clothed  with  sappan  and  other  forest  trees, 
and  contain  probably  gold,  besides  argentiferous  lead,  tin, 
coal,  a,nd  iron,  the  latter  in  nodules  of  clay  oxide  and  brown 
hematite.  On  the  wost  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  as  far  south 
as  11°  N.  lat.,  is  a  dry  barren-  region,  enclosed  between 
two  ranges  which  intercept  the  rainfall  on  either  side,  but 
farther  south  are  luxuriant  damp  forests  containing  Bopea 
(wood-oil),  iron-wood,  &c.,  with  occasional  clearings  for 
cultivation,  and  many  rivers  with  wide  mouths,  but  be- 
coming mere  streams  higher  up. 

In  about  10°  30'  N.  lat.  the  Malay  peninsula  is  narrowed 


^  1  A  M 


851 


Wbions  by  a  river  at  either  side  to  a  widtii  of  only  27  miles, 
ci  Ki&.  and  there  a  survey  for  a  canal  has  been  made ;  the  maxi- 
mum height  of  the  section  is  250  feet,  the  mean  130; 
the  amount  of  excavation  is  estimated  at  84  million 
cubic  feet,  mostly  through  hard  rock,  and  the  cost  at 
jE20,000,000.  But  the  approaches  by  the  river-mouths 
on  both  sides  are  intricate  and  bad.  This  has  latterly  been 
the  chief  route  across  the  peninsula ;  but  there  are  other 
breaks  in  the  range  Trhich  forms  the  backbone  of  the 
peninsula,  and  the  Buddhist  propaganda  is  said  to  have 
crossed  by  the  isthmus  of  Ligor.  Here,  however — 
perhaps,  properly  speaking,  in  Junk  Ceylon  Island — is 
the  real  termination  of  the  great  range  which  comes 
down  unbroken  from  Yun-nan,  separating  the  Salwin  and 
the  Me-nam  valleys. 
Eastci  East  from  the  plain  of  the  Me-nam,  and  separating  it 
8iam.  from  the  Me-kong  valley,  a  plateau  rises  with  very  gradual 
ascent,  clothed  to  a  width  of  from  30  to  50  miles  with 
forest.  From  its  east  side  several  large  and  partly  navi- 
gable rivers  flow  towards  the  Me-kong  through  a  sandy 
and  for  the  tnost  part  arid  plain,  with  stunted  growth  of 
resinous  trees  and  bamboos,  brushwood  and  grass ;  but 
on  the  lower  courses  of  some  of  these  streams  are  rich 
irrigated  tracts,  producing  rice,  bananas,  sugar,-  maize,  and 
the  usual  tropical  vegetables.  The  whole  region  is  very 
unhealthy,  especially  in  the  wet  season.  Travelling 
would  hardly  be  possible  without  elephants,  of  which 
some  are  kept  in  every  village.  The  rocks  are  mostly 
calcareous  or  sandstone,  and  at  the  south  edge  of  the 
plateau  corals  and  recent  shells  at  a  slight  depth  show 
the  former  limits  of  the  land.  Farther  north  the  mountains 
of  Pechaboun  and  Lorn  are  rich  in  magnetic  iron  ore, 
argentiferous  copper,  antimony,  and  tin.  Only  the  first- 
named  is  worked  to  any  extent ;  and,  though  by  very 
primitive  methods,  a  large  quantity  of  tools  and  weapons 
are  manufactured.  From  the  south  of  the  plateau  a  range 
Bweeps  round  to  the  south-east  into  Cambodia,  outliers 
from  which  are  the  two  peaks  north  and  east  from  Chanta- 
boun,  the  latter  noted  for  its  emeralds,  topazes,  and 
sapphires.  Isolated  hills,  apparently  volcanic,  occur,  as 
the  sacred  Mount  Phrabat,  to  the  north-east  of  Ayuthia, 
where  there  are  hot  springs  and  a  famous  footprint  of  the 
Buddha,  and  the  conical  hills  at  Pechaburi  in  the  south- 
west, consisting  of  lavas,  scoriiE,  and  trachytic  rocks, 
abounding  in  caverns  elaborately  fitted  as  temples. 
Mincr.^i  Tin  is  extensively  distiibuted,  especially  throughout  the  Malay 
peninsula,  wbcre  it  is  worked  at  Bang-ta-phang  in  the  province  of 
Chumphon,  at  Chaija  and  Chalian^,  also  on  the  Me-klong,  at  Kan- 
buri,  and  at  RaprL  Gold  is  found  pretty  extensively  in  Tringanu 
andPahang;  there  are  mines  at  Bang-ta-phang ;  and  it  is  extracted 
in  the  Me-kong  valley  by  washing  or  with  mercury.  Most  of  it  is 
consumed  in  trinkets  and  presents  given  by  the  king, — gold  leaf 
being  imported  from  China  for  gilding  pagodas,  &c.  Iron  abounds 
in  the  east,  as  at  Lom  and  Mulu  Prey,  antimony  at  Rapri,  lead  at 
Pak-phrck  and  Suphan,  silver  in  the  Me-pik  valley.  Both  the  lead 
and  copper  ores  are  often  argentiferous. 
Cliuatc.  JIuch  of  the  natural  rainfall  in  Siam  is  intercepted  by  the  high 
lands  of  the  Malacca  peninsula  and  by  the  mountains  on  the  north- 
west and  north,  while  the  proximity  of  "the  Gulf  of  Siam  tempers 
the  heat.  The  rainfall  at  Bangkok  on  an  average  of  ten  years  is 
57-04  inches,  of  which  50-59  inches  fall  from  May  to  October  in- 
Slusivc.'  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  SO'-'l,  varying  from 
r4°-8  in  December  to  SS"-*  in  April ;  tiie  lowest  recorded  absolute 
minimum  was  57°  in  December  1866,  the  highest  recorded  absolute 
maximum  97°-5  in  May  186/.  The  north-east  monsoon  begins  to 
blow  early  in  November,  preceded  by  a  month  of  variable  weather. 
It  has  lost  half  its  force  in  Januarj-,  and  by  March  strong  south 
»nd  south-south-west  winds  have  sot  in,  the  south-west  monsoon 
blowing  then  steadily  and  strongly  till  September.  Thus  there  are 
three  seasons  of  four  months  each,— the  hot,  raiiiv,  and  cold. 

As  to  general  features,  the  fauna  of  Siam  is  id'entical  with  that 
of  Burmah  and  of  southern  China,  and  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the 
world.     Elephants  arc  very  numerous  in  tlio  south  and  east,  but 

./t^"'  °?no  '  f 'f*x»>ri°/.""g«s  the  faU  is,  at  Moulmain  241  inches, 
at  Tavoy  202,  at  Merirui  1S5.  ' 


are  not  found  so  far  north  as  in  India.  They  are  as  intelligent  as 
the  Indian,  but  usually  less  highly  trained.  White  (albino)  mon- 
keys are  sacred,  as  are  the  elephant,  an  iguana  which  lives  in  the 
house  and  kills  rats  and  other  vermin,  and  the  crow  ;  white  ants' 
nests  are  respected  as  resembling  pagodas,  so  that  libraries  are 
often  kept  in  tanks  to  escape  the  ants'  ravages. 

The  flora  is  very  similar  in  character  to  tnat  of  Burmah  and  has  Flori» 
much  in  common  with  the  Chinese,  the  transit'on  to  which  is 
almost  insensible.  The  coast  region  is  characterized  by  mangroves, 
pandanus,  rattans,  and  similar  pahns  with  long  flciible  stems,  and 
the  middle  region  by  the  great  rice -fields,  the  cocoa-nut'  and 
areca  palms,  and'  the  usual  tropical  plants  of  culture.  In  the 
temperate  uplands  of  the  interior,  as  about  Luang  Prabang,  Hima- 
layan and  Japanese  species  occur,  —  oaks,  pines,  chestnuts,  peach 
and  great  apple  trees,  raspberries,  honeysuckle,  vines,  saxifrage;, 
Cichoraceas,  anemones,  and  Violacese ;  there  are  many  valuable  tim- 
ber trees, — teak,  sappan,  eagle- wood,  wood-oil  (Hcrpea),  and  other 
Diptcrocarpaccm,  Ccdrdacese,  JHerocarpacem,  Xylia,  iron-wood,  and 
other  dye-woods  and  resinous  trees,  these  last  forming  in  many  dis- 
tricts a  large  proportion  of  the  more  open  forests,  with  an  under- 
growth of  bamboo. 

Numerous  caravans  of  cattle,  horses,  mul"s,  and  porters  pass 
annually  from  Yun-nan  (south-w-eet  China)  to  the  northern  (Siamese' 
Shan  states,  whence  many  of  them  proceed  via  Chieng-mai  to  Moul  • 
main  (Maulinain).  They  bring  from  China  silk  goods,  tea,  opiiun,  and 
brass  wares,  and  take  back  raw  cotton,  deer  and  rhinoceros  horns, 
ivory,  and  saltpetre.  The  northern  states,  which  are  a  great  breed- 
ing-ground for  cattle  and  ponies — elephants  coo  are  exported  inta 
Burmah — send  down  teak  and  other  produce.  The  proposed  rail- 
way from  Moulmain  OTaMyawaddi  to  Raheng,  and  thence  to  Kiang- 
sen,  190  miles  from  the  Chinese  frontier,  is  intended  to  stimulate 
not  only  the  tialSc  with  China  but  the  local  resources  (see  address 
by  Mr  Holt  HaUett,  C.E.,  inXonrfon  Chaviicr  of  Commerce  Journal, 
5th  May  1885).  The  eastern  states,  comprising  nearly  half  the  area 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  kingdom,  send  much 
produce  i-ia  Korat  to  Bangkok.  They  produce  cSiefly  China  grass 
{Bcehmeria  nivea),  sugar,  indigo,  silk,  cardamoms,  cotton,  tobacco, 
sisiet  (a  substitute  for  betel),  beeswax,  benzoin,  lac,  iron,  lime,  sul- 
phur, salt,  coarse  pottery,  mats,  hides,  tigers,  and  bones,  horns,  and 
tusks  of  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  and  boars.  European  cottons  and 
hardware  and  Chinese  goods  penetrate  everywhere,  the  chief  entre- 
p6ts  being  Nangkoi  in  the  east  and  Chieng-mai  in  the  west.  The 
eastern  plains  produce  alternate  crops  of  rice  and  salt.  The  rains 
dissolve  the  salt  in  the  soil  and  wash  it  down,  making  cultivation 
possible.  In  the  dry  season  the  salt  comes  up  again  and  is  swept 
up  from  the  surface.  Much  alcohol  is  distilled  and  consumed.  'Vast 
quantities  (6900  to  7900  tons)  of  dried  fish  are  prepared  at  Lake 
'ionle-sap,  and  at  fisheries  on  the  coast.^  Although  silk  has  been 
known  from  remote  antiquity,  it  is  produced  exclusively  by  the  Lao 
communities  settled  throughout  the  country,-  the  chief  cenbes 
being  Korat  and  Battampong.  The  export  in  1884  was  325  cwts.,  Espoits 
valued  at  £19,890 ;  but  the  best  quality  hardly  reaches  the  Bangkok  aud  iui- 
market,.  its  natural  bright  yellow  colour  making  it  difiicult  to  dye.  uorts. 
There  is,  how-ever,  not  much  of  it,  the  demand  for  the  better  kinds " 
being  supplied  from  Cambodia.  But  for  the  apathy  and  indolence  of 
the  people  the  production  might  be  largely  increased  ;  the  spinning 
and  reeling  apparatus  too  are  very  primitive,  though  some  bciutiful 
cloths  are  woven  at  Chieng-mai.  Much  of  the  trade  in  teak  and  cattle 
is  worked  by  Burmese ;  otherwise  almost  all  the  trade  of  the  country 
is  in  Chinese  hands.  In  some  of  the  remoter  districts  barter  is 
resorted  to,  beeswax,  salt,  lac,  and  bars  of  iron  being  mediums  of  ex- 
change ;  but  generally  silver  is  used,  and  sometimes  Indian  rupees. 
Civiliza'rion  increases  in  the  eastern  districts  as  the  frontier  of 
China  is  approached.  In  1884  419  vessels  cleared  from  Bangkok 
with  cargoes  valued  at  £27,170;  of  these  240  (tonnage,  151,984) 
were  British.  In  addition,  there  were  143  junks  (tonnage,  3350). 
The  total  value  of  the  exports  was  £2,262,240,  rice  being  the  prin- 
cipal item,  £1,444,200.  The  hnports  were  valued  at  £1,044,256, 
the  chief  items  being — grey  and  white  shirtings,  £161,997  ;  opium 
(704  chests),  £81,410  ;  chowls,  i.e.,  shawls,  a  cotton  cloth  from 
Bombay,  £105,264.  In  1885  the  exports  were  valued  at  J'l, 907,005 
and  the  imports  at  £1,380,233.  The  exports  being  in  excess 
of  the  imports,  the  difference  is  paid  in  Mexican  dollars,  which 
are  melted  down  and  re-coined,  —  the  silver  coinage  being  the 
standard  of  weight. 

The  money  and  weights  seem  to  be  the  same  as  the  Old  Cam-  Coinage 
bodian.     A  copper  coinage  has  replaced  the  cowries,  and  there  is  and 
also  a  silver  coinage,  viz.,  the  fuang  =  "i  cents,  the  salung  =  15  cents,  weifrhts. 
the  bat  or  tikal  =  60  cents  or  half  a  crown,  5  tikals  =  3  Mexican 
dollars.      From  the  tikal  upwards  these  coins  are  aLso  used  as 
measures  of  weight.      Thus  1    tikal  w-cigha  15  grammes  or  231 
grains,  4  tikals=l  tamlung,   20  tamlung3  =  l  cljang  or  catty,  or 
two  Chinese  catties,  =  3-2  It>.     There  arc  a  few  gold  coins,  but  pot 

'  During  the  floods  vast  quantities  of  fish  swarm  into  the  rice- 
grounds  and  are  caught  whoa  tho  wr'cr  recedes,  fufni^hing  a  valuable 
and  abnndant  food-suoolv. 


852 


S   1   A  M 


in  general  circulatiou.    Their  value  is  sisleen  times  their' weight 
in  silver. 
Paxa-  The  land-tax  u  fixed  at  ten  per  cent.,  the  first  person  who  clears 

tion.  land  being  entitled  to  hold  it.  The  tax  on  garden  produce  and  on 
fruit  trees  is  higher,  but  is  fixed  at  intervals  of  some  fifteen  years, 
or  at  the  beginning  of  a  rcigu.  Thrre  is  a  corvee  of  four  months  in 
the  year,  to  which  all  classes  except  the  nobles  and  thd  priesthood 
are  theoretically  liable,  but  it  may  be  commuted  for  a  poll-tax  of 
from  6  to  18  tikals,  payable  either  directly  in  money  to  Government 
or  to  the  feudal  superior,  for  all  except  the  nobility  are  thus  depend- 
ent on  a  superior  ;  in  the  provinces  it  is  payable  in  Vind  through 
the  governor.  A  smaller  amount,  IJ  tikals,  is  payable  by  masters 
for  their  slaves.  Biit  there  are  some  considerate  exceptions,  viz., 
persons  over  sixty  or  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  or  who  have  three 
sons  paying  the  tax,  and  cases  of  incurable  illness.  If  a  special 
demand  for  labour  be  made  there  is  exemption  from  poll-tax  for 
that  year.  The  Chinese  only  pay  4^  tikals  triennially,  and  Euro- 
peans are  exempted.  There  is  a  tax  on  houses,  on  amusements 
(theatricals,  dancers,  &c.),  and  on  fishing-boats,  nets,  and  other 
tackle.  There  is  a  royalty  on  tin,  and  the  sale  of  opium  and  of 
alcohol  is  a  Government  monopoly,  farmed  to  Chinese.  Three  per 
cent,  is  levied  by  treaty  on  British  and  other  foreign  imports,  export 
duties  on  a  great  number  of  raw  articles,  and  inland  or  transit  dues 
on  certain  tropical  products.  The  revenue  from  all  these  sources 
is  estimated  at  80,000  catties  (£800,000). 
**uiiimis«  The  head  of  the  administration  is  the  king,  with  five  ministers, — 
tratioa.  viz.,  of  war,  foreign  aflfairg,  northern  provinces,  agriculture,  justice, 
— and  some  thirty  councillors.  The  office  known  to  Europeans  as 
*  second  king"  (Siamese,  wang-na,  lit,  "front  palace")  is  difficult 
to  define,  as  the  share  taken  in  government  by  him  depends  very 
much  on  his  individual  character.  He  has  a  palace  and  an  official 
establishment,  and  a  few  soldiers  at  his  orders.  The  country  is 
divided  into  forty-one  provinces,  excluding  the  Laos  and  Malay 
states,  and  the  Cambodian  provinces.  The  provinces  are  of  different 
grades,  and  their  governors  have  very  different  degrees  of  authority. 
Speaking  generally,  they  have  cognizance  of  all  civil  cases, — though 
there  is  an  appeal  to  the  capital  (which  generally  reaches  its  destina- 
tion, as  the  governor's  council  act  as  spies), — and  of  minor  criminal 
cases.  The  graver  crimes,  as  murder  and  dacoity,  involving  a 
question  of  life  or  death  committed  in  Siam  proper,  are  referred  to 
a  special  department  in  the  capital.  Villages  are  governed  by  a 
head-man  {kamnan,  amjj'kon,  or  nakkon),  sometimes  with  a  small 
salary,  chosen  usually  in  accordance  with  the  popular  wish,  and 
dependent  on  the  provincial  capital.  The  Siamese  mandarins  in 
the  Lao  provinces  do  not  oppress  overmuch,  nor  do  the  native 
chiefs,  since  their  power  depends  on  their  popularity.  Besides  the 
lower  grades  there  are  always  four  principal  officials,  the  chao,  lord  or 
king,  the  uparat,rachava}igsa,  and  racAaiw;r(  the  first  title  of  Chinese, 
the  others  of  Indian  origin).  These  are  hereditary  in  one  or  two 
families,  any  disputed  succession  being  referred  to  Bangkok.  The 
Siamese  law  is  recognized,  but  the  national  "customs"  are  much 
regarded,  and  in  ordinary  cases  followed.  Civil  and  criminal  pro- 
cesses alike  end  usually  in  a  fine.  Besides  the  capitation  tax,  there 
is  a  duty  on  rice,  and  each  state  pays  tribute  to 'Bangkok.  The 
tie  between  Bangkok  'and  the  Malay  states  is  slighter,  being  con- 
fined usually  to  interference  in  cases  of  disputed  succession,  and  to 
a  triennial  tribute  of  a  gold  or  silver  tree  or  flower.     The  rules  of 

Erocedure  in  Siam  are  very  strict,  but  theoretically  there   is  no 
?reditary  rank. 
Lawc.  The.laws-of  Siam  are  ancient,  though  not  very  full  or  complete, 

a  great  part  having  been,  lost  at  the  sack  of  Ayuthia  in  1753. 
Generally  speaking,  they  are  referable  to  an  Indian  origin,  especi- 
ally as  regards  religious,  moral,  and  ceremonial  ordinances  ;  the 
-:ivil  and  criminal  codes  hear  the  impress  of  Chinese  influence. 
There  are  several  digests  of  the  law,  some  centuries  old,  under  sys- 
tematic headings,  e.g.,  of  the  civil  law,  real  and  personal  property, 
inheritance,  ranks,  evidence  and  ordeal,  marriage,  education, 
parental  authority,  slavery,  money,  weighis  and  measures,  contracts, 
and  of  the  penal  code,  crimes,  punishments,  police,  prisons.  The 
king  is  absolute,  but  claims  no  absolute  rights  over  the  land  Great 
attention  is  paid  to  precedents.  Among  the  peculiarities  of  the 
system  are  the  employment  of  ordeal — by  diving  or  chewing  rice, 
&c. — in  the  absence  of  witnesses,  and  the  rejection  of  the  evidence 
of  certain  classes,  viz.,  drunkards,  gamblers,  virgins,  executioners, 
beggars,  persons  who  cannot  read,  and  bad  characters.  When  a 
crime  is  committed  the  family  and  even  neighbours  of  the  accused 
can  be  held  responsible  for  his  appearance.  The  property  of  in- 
testates goes  to  the  king,  of  an  intestate  priest  to  his  monastery  ; 
but  the  neglect  of  the  heir  to  perform  funeral  rites  renders  his  claim 
to  property  invalid,— a  curious  relic  of  Hindu  feeling.  Another 
trace  of  this  may  bo  found  in  the  hereditary  professions,  though 
their  doctrinal  significance  as  castes  has  disappeared.  The  laws 
have  many  curious  and  not  inequitable  provisions  about  slavery 
(see  below),  t\ff.,  if  a  temporary  ('debtor)  slave  has  undergone  punish- 
ment or  suffering  for  his  master,  his  debt  shall  be  remitted  wholly 
or  in  part ;  but,  if  he  is  a  slave  absolutely,  his  master-  is  not  legally 
liable.     And  there  are  well-defined  rules  as  to  non-fnlfilment  of 


contract  with  a  slave,  his  maintenance  during  famine,  injury  hi 
accidents,  employment  as  a  substitute  in  war,  &c.  Slaves  who  are 
allowed  to  become  priests  or  nuns  are  free. 

All  men  are  liable  to  servo  in  war;  but  only  from  4000  to  5000,  AtttT 
taken  from  classes  specially  at  the  disposal  of  the  war  department,  and 
are  regularly  trained  under  European  officers.    The  capital  and  sur-  navy, 
rounding  forts  are  garrisoned,  and  there  is  a  body  of  palace  guards. 
The  fleet  consists  of  some  twenty  men-of-war  and  armed  steamers 
and  500  junks. 

The  population  is  estimated  by  the  Siamese  Govemm.ent  atPojiuZr 
6,000,000  for  Siam  proper,  3,000,000  Siamese  Laos,  and  1,000,000  tio 
Malays  ;  others  estimate  it  variously  at  from  6,000,000  to  8,000,000. 
There  are  besides  perhaps  from  1,500,000  to  2,000,000  Chinese.  In 
lower  Siam  the  population  is  clustered  along  the  rivers  and  canals  ; 
in  the  diversified  hill  and  plain  country  to  the  north  it  is  distributed 
more  generally.  In  character  the  Siamese  are  mild,  patient,  and 
submissive  to  authority.  They  are  hospitable  to  strangers  and  to 
the  poor  ;  quarrels,  violent  crimes,  and  suicide  are  rare.  But  they 
are  idle  and  apathetic  ;  much  time  is  devoted  to  amusements,  as 
festivals  and  processions,  boat  races,  games,  cock  and  dog  fighting, 
and  even  combats  between  fish.  The  position  of  women  is  good, 
although  girls  can  be  sold  as  wives.  The  Chinese  population  are 
energetic  and  industrious,  but  very  independent,  and  sometimes 
give  trouble,  so  that  their  increasing  numbers  and  organization 
through  their  secret  societies  are  a  source  of  anxiety.  The  Siamese 
are  of  medium  height,  well  formed,  with  olive  complexion,  darker 
than  Chinese,  but  fairer  and  handsomer  than  Malays,  eyes  well 
shaped,  nose  slightly  flattened,  lips  a  little  prominent,  the  face 
wide  across  the  check  bones,  top  of  forehead  pointed  and  chin 
short,  thus  giving  the  face  a  lozenge  shape,  beard  scanty  and  with 
hairs  pulled  out,  hair  of  head  coarse  and  black.  But  intermarriage 
during  many  ages  with  Peguans,  Laos,  and  Cambodians  (though 
in  many  cases  they  and  their  descendants  keep  themselves  apart), 
as  well  as  of  slaves  from  the  aboriginal  races,  has  produced  much 
variety  of  type.  Besides  the  Kareus,  who  are  the  remnant  of  a 
more  widely  extended  people,  and  who  are  found  on  the  borders  of 
Siam  and  Burmah  and  throughout  the  mountains  of  north  and  west 
Siam,  the  La  was  in  the  same  region,  and  the  Khongs,  a  settled  people 
inland  from  the  north-eastern  angle  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  many 
other  tribes  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  are  found  occupying  the 
whole  of  the  forest  region  on  both  sides  of  tbe.Me-kong,  and  known 
to  their  different  neighbours  by  various  names,  all  probably  mean- 
ing simply  "man,"  or  "savage,"  as  Kha,  Moi,  Pnom,  Lolo. 
These  eastern  tribes  more  or  less  resemble  each  other.  They  are 
shy  and  timid,  some  having  no  chiefs  or  social  organization,  and 
these  are  preyed  on  or  hunted  down  as  slaves  by  their  more  civil- 
ized fellows  in  combination  with  the  Laos,  One  division  of  these 
tribes,  the  Kouis  (the  name  recalls  the  savage  "Gueos"  of  the 
Portuguese),  amalgamates  readily  with  the  Laos  and  in  some  pro- 
vinces forms  the  bulk  of-the  population.  Tliey  live  by  cultivating 
rice,  by  collecting  honey,  beeswax,  and  rrsin,  or  by  the  chase. 
Their  women  are  absolutely  free  before  marriage,  but  adultery  is 
punished  with  death.  They  worship  ancestral  and  other  spirits 
and  can  hardly  be  called  Buddhists,  Yet  with  a  few  exceptions 
these  earlier  peoples  are  by  no  means  inferior  in  appearance  to 
the  Thai  or  Siamese,  but  often  the  contrary  ;  gome  ethnologists 
assign  them  a  Caucasian  origin,  and  identify  them  with  the  browa 
Polynesian  race. 

Slavery  is  general,  but  consists  mainly  of  bondage  for  debt,  aRlari.- 
debtor  being  able  to  sell  himself,  wife,  or  children,  or  nephews  ot 
nieces, — their  freedom  being  recoverable  on  payment  of  the  debt. 
But  the  present  enlightened  ruler  has  set  his  face  against  the 
practice,  and  decreed  its  abolition,  except  in  the  Laos  provinces  and 
in  the  eastern  states.  The  market  is  further  recruited,  first  by  the 
sale  of  offenders,  who  have  the  option  between  death  and  slavery, 
and  secondly  by  slave-hunting  raids,  made  in  combination  with  the 
Anamitcs,  on  the  villages  of  the  wilder  aborigines.  These  are  dis- 
posed of  on  the  spot  or  else  to  dealers  from  Cambodia  or  Siam  proper. 

Bangkok  (q.v.)  was  established  as  the  capital  in  1782  after  the  To^\ii3. 
sack  of  Ayuthia  by  the  Burmese,  Its  population  waS  estimated  at 
about  300,000  in  1886.  Ayuthia,  now  called  Krung-krao,  the  famous 
c^apital  founded  in  1351  and  half  destroyed  by  the  Burmese  in  1767, 
was  a  generation  ago  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  still  im- 
portant as  the  cntreput  of  the  trade  of  south  Laos.  Many  junks  and 
lashermen  come  up  from  Bangkok.  The  modern  town  is  chiefly  on 
the  water.  In  its  most  prosperous  days  in  the  16th  century  it  was 
three  leagues  in  circumference,  and  contained  distinct  quarters  for 
foreigners  of  different  nationalities  —  Chinese,  Peguans,  Malays, 
Malabars,  Japanese,  and  Portuguese.  Prominent  among  its  great 
buildings  is  the  pyiamidal  structure  called  the  Golden  Mount, 
some  400  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  dome  and  spire  ;  but  most  of 
them  are  now  crumbling  away  into  great  broken  masses  of  sculp- 
tured masonry,  statues,  and  spires,  half  buried  under  the  vegetation 
of  the  tropics.  Chantaburi,  near  the  Cambodian  frontier,  the  second 
port  of  the  kingdon>,  is  noted  for  its  shipbuilding  and  fisheries, 
and  has  an  active  export  trade  from  the  south-eastern  provinces. 
There  are  considerable  Chinese  and  Burmese  elements  in  the  popula- 


S  I  A  M 


853 


tion,  which  in  many  of  these  southern  towns  is  much  mixed. 
Paknam,  the  port  of  Bangkok,  3  miles  from  the  river's  mouth,  is 
fortified,  as  is  PakJat  Lang,  5  miles  higher  up,  which  is  inhabited 
chiefly  by  Peguans.  Various  canals  extend  hence  across  the  delta 
towards  the  ^Me-klong.  Near  its  mouth  is  the  town  of  Me-klong, 
peopled  by  Chinese  merchants,  fishermen,  and  gardeners.  Higher  up 
the  river,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  is  Prapri,  peopled  by  descendants  of 
Cambodian  captives.  Pechaburi,  a  little  to  the  south,  at  the  foot  of 
a  range  some  1500  feet  high,  where  the  king  has  a  palace,  is  built 
after  English  designs ;  its  inhabitants  are  Peguans.  Petriu,  on  the 
cast  side  of  tho  Gulf  of  Siani,  on  the  Kharayok  river,  has  sugar 
plantations  cultivated  by  Chinese.  At  Baugplasoi,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river,,  are  extensive  fisheries.  Raheng,  some  300  miles  up  the 
Me-nam,  possesses  docks,  and  ^here  a  good  many  teak  ships  are  built. 
In  the  Lao  or  Shan  country  to  the  north  Chieng-mai  (Zimme')  is  the 
most  important  tributary  state.  Its  capital,  Chieng-mai,  the  Jan- 
gomai  of  early  European  travellers,  is  the  principal  tou-n  of  that 
region,  with  broad  streets  of  good  teak-built  houses,  surrounded 
Tvith  gardens,  numerous  pagodas,  markets,  and  a  large  population. 
It  lies  in  the  wide  "fertile  valley  of  the  Me-ping,  and  is  a  gi-eat 
entrepot  of  trade  from  Bangkok  and  south-west  China  (Yuu-nan 
and  Ssmao),  which  finds  its  natural  outlet  thenco  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  The  rice,  timber,  &c.,  of  the  districts  through  which 
this  route  passes  are  considerable.  Lapong,  in  the  same  valley, 
and  Lagong,  on  a  neighbouring  tributary,  are  Lao  towns  of 
less  importance  and  subordinate  to  Chieng-mai,  as  were  formerly 
3^an  and  Pre,  fertile  teak  -  producing  valle}-s  to  the  east.  Kiang- 
hai  and  Kiang-sen,  ferther  north,  on  the  Me-kong,  were  old  Lao 
capitals  of  note  (see  Shans),  as  was  Luang  Prabang,  with  its  charm- 
ing capital,  which,  like  Chieng-mai,  still  retains  some  administra- 
tive indeptndent:e. '  The  extensive  fertile  and  partly  wooded  plains 
to  'the  north  and  east  support  great  herds  of  cattle.  With  Vien- 
chang,  a  little  lower  down  the  river,  Luang  Prabang  held  its  own  for 
centuries  against  both  Siam  and  Burmah.  On  the  destruction  of 
Vien-chang  in  1828,  Nangkoi,  25  miles  lower  down,  increased  in  size 
and  importance,  and  now  has  an  extensive  trade  in  English  and 
Cliinese  goods.  This  district  might  perhaps  without  much-dilficixlty 
be  opened  up  by  an  easy  route  starting  from  Lakhon,  only  130  miles 
distant  from  the  sea.  One  of  the  most  important  provincial  centres 
is  the  district  of  Korat,  on  the  eastern  plateau.  The  country  is  a 
series  of  fertile  oases  separated  by  tracts  of  waterless  forest,  contain- 
ing good  timber,  and  full  of  game.  The  town  is  fortified,  and  has 
about  thirty  pagodas  and  some  well-built  houses,  belonging  chiefly 
to  the  Chinese  merchants.  Cart  roads  converge  hither  with  the 
traffic  both  of  north  Laos  and  of  the  Cambodian  provinces  south 
and  east,  the  latter  passing  up  the  fertile  Moun  valley  on  its  way 
to  Bangkok.  The  whole  region  between  the  Dang-rek  Mountains 
and  the  Moun  river  is  full  of  splendid  ruins,  attesting  the  former 
Cambodian  influence  as  far  at  least  as  16°  north,  to  which  ]>mit, 
therefore,  the  southward  movement  of  the  Laos  may  be  supposed 
to  have  reached  at  the  date  of  these  buildings.  The  principal 
ruins  of  the  district  are  found  at  Korat,  Bassac,  Phimai,  and  Ku- 
khan.  The  character  of  this  wonderful  series  of  buildings,  the 
greatest  of  which,  those  of  Angkor,  are  on  Siamese  territory,  have 
been  touched  on  under  Cambodia  (q.v.),  to  which  they  properly 
belong  ;  but  it  may  be  mentioned  here  that  the  earliest  inscription 
yet  found,  relating  to  the  erection  of  a  Sivaito  linga,  is  interpreted 
as  belonging  to  589  saka  =  667  a.d.,  though  another,  undated,  refers 
to  three  generations  earlier.  The  earliest  references  indisputably 
Buddhist  that  have  been  found  are  three  centuries  later  than  this. 
Educa*  With  the  exception  of  a  few  schools  in  the  capital,  education 
Hon.  J3  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  the  boys  going  to  the  temples 
between  the  ages  of  eight  or  nine  and  thirteen.  The  teaching  is 
elementary,  and,  by  the  precepts  of  Buddhism,  must  be  gratuitous, 
the  pupils  repaying  it  by  menial  services  in  house  or  boat  or  garden, 
or  by  presents  of  food.  At  thirteen  the  boy  enters  on  a  novitiate, 
which  lasts  till  the  age  of  twenty-one  ;  but,  if  not  inclined  for 
study,  ho  may  give  it  up  after  three  or  four  months,— this  tem- 
porary consecration  symbolizing  a  separation  from  the  world.  At 
twenty-one,  if  so  disposed,  he  may  enter  the  priesthood  ;  but  there 
are  no  perpetual  vows.  Girls  are  taught,  if  at  all,  only  at  home, 
ty  parents  or  brothers.  There  are  no  educational  endowments  ;  but 
a  certain  number  of  persons  occupy  themselves  \vith  liierary  studies, 
as  history,  astrology,  or.  alchemy,  with  which  medicine  is  more  or 
less  combined.  Medical  practice,  indeed,  comprises  a  good  deal  of 
magic ;  but  there  is  also  considerable  knowledge  of  medicinal 
herbs,  and  ancient  medical  works  were  written  in  Pali.  Inocula- 
tion was  long  ago  introduced  by  the  Chinese,  and  vaccination 
lately  by  European  missionaries.  Women  after  childbirth  are 
exposed  for  some  time  to  the  heat  of  a  strong  fire,  the  result  being 
sometimes  fatal. 

Skill  is  shown  in  the  casting  of  large  metal  statues  50  feet  high 
or  more,  in  Tepous&£  work  in  gold  and  silver,  in  enamelling  on 
metals,  and  in  gold  and  silver  tissue  work.  Their  drawing  is 
'spirited,  but  strictly  conventional.  The  system  of  music  is  elabo- 
ate,  but  with  no  written  notation.  There  is  no  harmony,  but  all 
ihe  instniir.ents  of  the  orchestra  play  in  unison,  breaking  off  into 


variations  and  then  returning  to  the  air.  They  are  proud  of  their 
national  music,  and  both  men  and  women  play  and  sing  generally. 
Their  instruments  are — a  harmonicon  with  wooden  or  metal  bars 
struck  ^\•ith  a  hammer,  a  two-stringed  and  a  three-stringed  violin, 
flutes,  drums,  and  pipes,  also  the  Lao  "organ,"  the  tones  of  wjiich, 
produced  by  metal  tongues  in  the  pipes,  are  very  effective. 

The  Buddhism  of  Siam  is  the  same  as  that  of  Ceylon,  with  slight  Roli^'oa 
doctrinal  diff'erences,  much  insisted  on,  from  the  Burmese,  It  is, 
however,  professed  in  its  purity  by  very  few.  The  religious  re- 
form initiated  by  King  Plira  Mongkut,  himself  for  many  years  a^ 
priest,  has  divided  the  people  of  the  capital  into  two  sects, — the 
reformed,  kno'wn  as  Dhammayut,  and  the  older  ur  unreformed, 
Phra  Maha  Kikai.  The  former  attach  more  weight  to  the  obser- 
vance of  the.  canon  than  to  meditation.  The  otlier  sect  is  again 
divided  into  two  parties,  the  one  holding  more  to  meditation,  the 
other  to  the  study  of  the  scriptures.  The  only  Brahmauical 
temple  remaining  in  the  country  is  at  Bangkok,  and  its  priests  arc 
said  to  bo  of  Indian  descent.  Brahmans,  however,  are  constantly 
employed  in  divination,  in  fixing  the  fortunate  days  for  warlike 
expeditions,  business  transactions,  marriages,  and  the  like,  and  in 
arranging  festivals.  Buddhism  is  corrupted  by  a  general  worship 
or  propitiation  of  nats  or  phees  (spirits  or  demons) ;  superstition 
in  the  more  remote  districts  constitutes  practically  the  only  reli- 
gion. The  belief  in  these  spirits  informs  and  aS'ects  every  depart- 
ment of  life.  There  are  local  earth  divinities  to  whom  temples 
or  shrines  are  erected.  Others  with  human  or  animal  form  dwell 
in  the  water.  Others  cause  children  to  sicken  and  die.  Others 
wander  and  deceive  as  igncs  fatni.  "By  certain  spells  men  can 
become  tigers  or  were-wolves.  Bodies  of  the  dead  are  sometimes 
possessed,  and  they  are  carried  out  not  by  the  door  but  by  an 
extemporized  opening,  so  that  they  may  not*  be  able  to  find  their 
way  back.  The  numerous  offerings  and  honours  paid  to  these 
spirits  lead  to  drunkenness  and  to  killing  of  animals  in  sacrifice. 
Phallic  worship  prevails  to  a  considerable  extent,  notwithstanding 
the  efforts  of  the  king  to  put  it  down.  A  female  incarnation  of 
deity,  the  Nang  Tim,  is  found  in  one  or  two  villages  of  east  Laos. 
Pilgrimages  are '  frequently  made  to  sacred  places  with  Indian 
names  (all  the  chief  towns,  indeed,  have  an  official  Indian  name). 
Many  of  the  figures  and  designs  employed  in  the  ornamentation  of 
houses  are  really  talismans  intended  to  avert  evil.  The  temples, 
with  their  surrounding  monastic  establishments,  form  a  conspicuous 
feature  everywhere.  Some  are  very -extensive,  covering  altogether  an 
area  of  100  or  150  acres.  New  temples  are  often  built,  or  the  priests* 
quarters  in  the  existing  buildings  repaired,  by  rich  men  desirous 
of  "acquiring  merit."  '  The  temples  {wats)  hold  very  little  landed 
or  house  property  ;  but,  where  they  have  been  built  or  repaired  by 
the  king,  or  presented  to  him  by  some  high  official,  they  enjoy  a 
small  income  chargeable  on  the  revenues  of  the  district,  besides 
receiving  presents  from  the  king  wlien  he  visits  them  in  state. 
The  priests  of  such  temples  are  bound  in  retura  to  give  their 
services  at  state  ceremonies,  and  their  secular  affairs,  including 
repairs  of  temples  and  disciplinary  matters,  are  administered  by  a 
special  department  of  state.  There  remain  now  at  Bangkok  only 
two  communities  of  nuns,  who  are  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
temples,  and  are  allowed  to  receive  voluntary  offerings. 

The  numerous  public  festivals  are  partly  connected  ■with  religion,  FcstiTjj 
but  are  accompanied  with  much  rejoicing  and  amusement.  Among 
them  are  the  lunar  and  the  fiixed  New-Year's  Day,  and  the  festival 
of  agriculture,  when  the  plough  is  guided  by  the  minister,  the 
ladies  of  the  court  following  and  sowing  seeds,  which  are  picked 
up  by  the  people  to  add  to  their  usual  sowings.  At  the  ceremony 
at  which  the  king  and  his  ministers  pledge  themselves,  the  former 
to  administer  impartial  justice,  the  latter  to  be  faithful  and  loyal 
in  their  service,  the  oath  is  taken  by  drinking  water,  and  the  meet- 
ing of  the  king  and  nobles,  with  all  the  attendant  paraphernalia, 
forms  a  gorgeous  spectacle,  the  day  terminatiug  with  fireworks  ani\ 
processions  of  boats.  On  the  king's  state  visits  to  the  %cats  there 
are  festive  processions  of  boats  and  troops.  Other  festivals  are  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  the  rainy  season.  When  the  floods  begin 
to  subside  there  is  a  great  water  procession,  and  the  priests  commana 
the  waters  to  retire.  Even  the  cutting  of  the  -king's  hair  is  made  an 
occasion  for  rejoicing.  In  every  familj'  the  cutting,  at  the  age  Ov 
twelve  or  thirteen,  of  the  tuft  left  on  the  top  of  the  head  is  a  great 
ceremony ;  it  is  not  practised,  except  by  vr&y  of  imitation,  among  tha 
Laos.  Tlie  head  is  considered  very  sacred  (this  is  a  characteristid 
Papuan  notion) ;  no  one  must  touch  it,  nor  may  it  be  raided  abov» 
that  of  a  superior,  as  in  a  carriage  or  boat.  The  funeral  ceremonies 
of  a  prince  or  gicat  man,  often  delayed  for  some  months  after  death, 
are  also  attended  by  elaborate  feasting,  dancing,  and  other  amuse- 
ments in  temporary  buildings  erected  for  the  purpose.  •  The  dead, 
with  the  exception  of  the  poor,  wlmse  bodies  are  given  to  the  vul- 
tures and  wild  beasts,  and  women  who  die  in  childbirth,  are  usualh 
burned  within  the  wats,  the  ashes  being  preserved,  or  mixed  with 
lime  to  plaster  the  sacred  wall.'i.  A  rich  man  v/ill  often  bequeath 
a  limb  to  the  birds  and  beasts. 

The  Siar.icso  month  is  lunar,  and,  as  a  lunar  month  contains  29i  CaleLi-r. 
days,  they  give  iho  odd  mouths  29  and  tho  even  30.     This,  gives 


854 


S  1  A  M 


a  year  of  354  days,  and  to  make  up  the  deficiency  tlicy  intercalate 
seven  or  eight  months  in  nineteen  years,  and  add  besides  an  occa- 
sional day  to  tlw  seveuth  mouth.  The  years  are  denoted  by  a 
cycle  of  twelve  names  (of  animals)  taken  in  decades,  so  that  every 
sixtieth  year  the  year  of  a  given  name  returns,  to  the  same  plaqo 
in  tho  decade.  The  system  resembles  the  Indian  cycle  of  sixty 
years,  but  it  is  derived  from  China,  where  it  dates  from  2637  B.C. 
Two  eras  are  in  use,  tho  Putta  Sakarat  or  Buddhist,  used  in  rcU- 
{3:iou3  matters,  which  commences  543  E.o,,  and  the  civil  era  or 
Chula  Sakarat  {i.c.t  little  era),  said  to  commemorate  the  establish- 
ment of  Buddhism  iu  638  a.d.  The  ancient  Aryan  inscriptions 
usually  employ  the  Saka  (Salivahana)  era,  dating  from  79  a.d. 
Jiistory.  Jlistonj.— Tho  name  "Siam"  has  been  usually  derived  from  a 
Malay  word,  sajam,  "brown";  but  this  is  mere  conjecture.  They 
and  the  Shans  both  call  themselves  Thai  (Shan  Tai),  i.e.,  "free," 
and  the  Peguans  call  them  Shan  or  Shian,  which  seems  to  be  a 
translation  of  "Thai"  and  an  allied  word,  as  are  perhaps  Ahom=: 
Assam,  and  Sam  (Assamese  for  Shan).  The  obsolete  Siamese  word  is 
Siem  and  the  Chinese  Sien-lo,— the  Sien  being,  according  to  them,  a 
tribe  which  came  from  the  north  about  1341  and  united  with  the  Lo- 
hoh,  who  had  previously  occupied  the  shores  of  the  gulf,  and  were 
probably  Shans.  The  Siamese  call  the  Shans  Thai-tiTfai,  "  Great 
Thai,"  perhaps  as  having  preceded  them,  and  themselves  Thai-noi  or 
"Little  Thai."  They  are  probably  therefore  closely  related,  though 
1:1113  is  disputed  by  De  Rosny  and  others;  but  the  inferior  physique 
jf  the  Siamese  may  be  explained  as  due  to  intercourse  with  Malays 
and  other  southern  races  and  to  their  more  enervating  climate. 
Meanwhile  for  many  centuries  before  the  southward  move  above 
refeiTed  to  the  entire  south  as  well  as  eouth-^ast  of  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula  was  Cambodian.  The  town  of  Lapong  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  in  575,  and  flie  half-mythical  king,  Phra  Ruang,  to  have 
freed  the  Siamese  from  the  Cambodian  yoke  and  founded  Sang- 
kalok,  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Me-nam,  in  the  following  century. 
Buddhism  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  in  his  time,  but  Indian 
influences  had  penetrated  the  country  both  from  the  north  and 
from  the  south  long  before  this.  Other  Lao  towns  were  built  about 
the  7th  century,  and  during  th*  following  centuries  this  branch  of 
the  race  gradually  advanced  southwards,  driving  the  Karens,  Lawas, 
and  other  tribes  into  the  hills,  and  encroaching  on  what  had  hitherto 
been  Cambodian  territory.  Their  southward  progress  may  indeed 
almost  be  traced  by  their  successive  capitals,  several  of  which  are 
clustered  on  the  Me-nam  within  a  short  distance  of  each  other, 
viA,  Phitsalok,  Sukkothai,  and  Sangkalok  on  the  eastern  branch, 
Nakhon  Savau  at  the  junction,  and  Kamphong-pet,  the  immediate 
precursor  of  Ayuthia,  on  the  western  branch.  A  Sukkothai  inscrip- 
tion of  about  12S4  states  that  the  dominions  of  King  Rama  Kamheng 
extended  across  the  country  from  the  Me-kong  to  Pechaburi,  and 
thence  do^-n  the  Gulf  of  Siam  to  Ligor  ;  and  the  Malay  annals  say 
fiiat  the  Siamese  had  penetrated  to  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
before  the  first  Malay  colony  from  Menangkabu  founded  Singapore, 
t.f.,  about  1160.  The  ancestors  of  the  Siamese  were  then  on  the 
western  branch  of  the  Me-nara;  and  in  1351,  under  the  famous 
Phaya  Uthong  (afterwards  stj-led  Phra  Rama  Thibodi,  and  prob- 
ably of  a  Shan  family)  moved  down  from  Kamphong-pet,  where 
they  had  been  for  five  generations,  to  Chaliang  ;  and,  being  driven 
thence,  it  is  said,  by  a  pestilence,  they  established  themselves 
at  Ayuthia.  This  king's  sway  extended  to  Moulmain,  Tavoy, 
Tcnasserira,  and  the  whole  Malacca  peninsula  (where  amon^  the 
traders  from  the  "West  Siam  was  known  as  Sornau,  i.e.^  Shahr-i-nau 
or  Newtown,  probably  in  allusion  to  Ayuthia, — Yule's  Marco  Polo, 
ii.  260),  and  was  felt  even  in  Java.  This  is  corroborated  by  Javan 
records,  which  describe  a  "  Cambodian  "  invasion  about  1340  ;  but 
Cambodia  was  itself  invaded  about  this  time  by  tho  Siamese,  who 
took  Angkor  and  held  it  for  a  time,  carrying  off  90,000  captives. 
The  great  southward  expansion  here  recorded,  whether  of  one  or  of 
two  allied  Thai  tribes,  confirms  in  a  remarkable  way  the  Chinese 
statement  above  mentioned,  and  was  probably  a  consequence  or  a 
part  of  the  great  contemporaneous  activity  of  the  more  northern 
Shan  kingdom  of  Mau.  The  wars  with  Cambodia  continued  with 
varying  success  for  some  400  years,  but  Cambodia  gradually  lost 
ground  and  was  linalJy  shorn  of  several  provinces,  her  sovereign 
falling  entirely  under  Siamese  influence.  This,  however,  latterly 
became  displeasing  to  the  French,  now  in  Cochin  Chiua,  and  Siam 
has  been  obliged  to  recognize  the  protectorate  forced  on  Cambodia 
by  that  power.  Vigorous  attacks  were  also  made  during  this  period 
on  the  Lao  states  to  the  north-west  and  north-east,  followed  by 
vast  deportation  of  the  people,  and  Siamese  supremacy  was  pretty 
firmly  established  in  Chieng-mai  and  its  dependencies  by  the  end 
of  the  18th  centurj',  and  over  the  great  eastern  capitals,  Luang 
Prabang  and  Vien-chang,  about  1S28.  During  the  loth  and  16th 
centuries  Siam  was  frequently  invaded  by  the  Burmese  and  Peguans, 
who,  attracted  probably  by  the  great  wealth  of  Apithia,  besieged 
it  more  than  once  without  succtss,  tho  defenders  being  aided  by 
Portuguese  mercenaries,  till  about  1555,  when  the  city  was  taken 
and  Siam  reduced  to  dependence.  From  this  condition,  however, 
it  wa:5  rai.v.d  a  Tc^v  years  Utsr  by  the  greit  conqueijr  ard  national 
hero  Plira  Naretj  who  after  subduirg  l.aoa  and  C:-mbodia  invaded 


Pegu,  which  was  utterly  overthrown  in  the  nest  century  by  his- 
successors.  But  after  the  civil  wars  of  the  18th  century  the  Burmese 
having  previously  taken  Chieng-mai,  which  appealed  to  Siam  for 
help,  entered  Tenasserim  and  took  Mergui  and  Tavby  in  1764 
and  then  advancing  simultaneously  from  the  north  and  "he  west 
captured  and  destroyed  Ayuthia  after  a  two  years'  siege  (1767). 

The  intercourse  between  France  and  Siam  began  about  i580'under 
Phra  Narain,  who,  bj  the  advice  of  his  minister,  the  Cephalonian 
adventurer  Constantine  Phaulcon,  sent  an  embassy  to  Louis  XIV. 
"When  the  return  mission  arrived,  the  eagerness  of  the  ambassador 
for  the  king's  conversion  to  Christianity,  added  to  the  intrigues  of 
Phaulcon  with  the  Jesuits  with  the  supposed  iutention  of  establish- 
ing a  French  supremacy,  led  to  the  death  of  Phaulcon,  the  persecu- 
tion of  tho  Christians,  and  the  cessation  of  all  intercourse  with 
France.  An  interesting  episode  was  the  active  intercourse,  chiefly 
commtjrcial,  becween  the  Siamese  and  Japanese  Governments  from 
1592  to  1632.  Many  Japanese  settled  in  Siam,  where  they  were 
much  employed.'  They  were  dreaded  as  soldiers,  and  as  individuala 
commanded  a  position  resembling  that  of  Kuropeans  in  most  JJastem 
countries.  The  jealousy  of  their  ircreasing  influence  at  last  led  to 
a  massacre,  and  to  the  expulsion  or  absorption  of  the  survivors. 
Japan  was  soon  after  this,  in  1636,  closed  to  foreigners  ;  but  trade 
with  Siam  was  carried  on  at  all  events  down  to  1745  through  Dutch 
and  Chinese  and  occasional  English  tmders.  In  1752  an  embassy 
came  from  Ceylon,  desiring  to  renew  the  ancient  friendship  and  to 
discuss  reli^ous  matters.  During  recent  agitations  of  the  Buddhist 
priests  against  Christianity  in  Ceylon  they  received  much  active 
sympathy  from  Siam.  After  tho  fall  of  Ayuthia  a  great  general, 
Phaya  Takh  Sin,  collected  tho  remains  of  the  army  and  restored 
the  fortunes  of  the  kingdom,  establishing  his  capital  at  Bangkok ; 
but,  becoming  insane,  he  was  put  to  death,  and  was  succeeded  by 
another  successful  general,  Phaya  Chakkri,  who  founded  the  present 
dynasty.  Under  him  Tenasserim  was  invaded  and  Tavoy  held  for 
the  last  time  by  the  Siamese  in  1792,  though  in  1826,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  Burmese  difficulty  with  England,  they  bombarded  some 
of  the  towns  on  that  coast.  The  supremacy  of  China  is  indicated 
by  occasional  missions  sent,  as  on  the  founding  of  a  new  dynasty-, 
to  Peking,  to  bring  back  a  seal  and  a  calendar.  But  the  Siamese 
now  repudiate  this  supremacy,  and  have  sent  neither  mission 
nor  tribute  for  thirty  years,  and  yet  their  trading  vessels  are 
admitted  to  the  Chinese  free  ports,  like  those  of  any  other 
friendly  power.  The  late  sovereign,  Phra  Paramendr  Maha  Moug- 
kut,  was  a  very  accomplished  man,  an  enlightened  reformer, 
and  devoted  to  science  ;  his  death  indeed  was  caused  by  fatigua 
and  exposure  while  observing  an  eclipse.  Many  of  his  predo- 
cessors,  too,  were  men  of  different  fibre  from  the  ordinary  OrientiJ 
sovereign.  Chao  Dua,  the  adversary  of  Phaulcon,  went  about  seek- 
ing pugilistic  encounters.  He  is  reported  to  have  bean  a  cruel 
tyrant  and  debauchee  and  a  keen  sportsman  ;  but  the  ofifence  given 
to  bis  subjects  in  the  latter  character  and  the  evil  reports  of  the 
persecuted  French  missionaries  may  have  unduly  blackened  his 
reputation. 

Of  European  nations  the  Portuguese  first  established  intercourse 
with  Siam.  This  was  in  1511,  after  the  conquest  of  Malacca  by 
D'Albuquerque,  and  the  intimacy  lasted  over  a  century,  the  tra- 
dition of  their  greatness  having  hardly  yet  died  out.  They  were 
supplanted  gradually  in  the  17th  century  by  the  Dutch,  whose 
intercourse  also  lasted  for  a  similar  period  ;  but  they  have  left  no 
traces  of  their  presence  as  the  Portuguese  always  did  in  these 
countries  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  people.  Enghsh  traders 
were  in  Siam  very  early  in  the  17th  century  ;  there  was  a  friendly 
interchange  of  letters  between  James  I.  and  the  king  of  Siam,  who 
had  some  Englishmen  in  his  service,  and,  when  the  ships  visited 
"Sia"  (which  was  "as  great  a  city  as  London")  or  the  queen  of 
Patanj,  they  were  hospitably  received  and  accorded  privileges,— 
the  important  items  of  export  being,  as  now,  tin,  varnish,  deer- 
skins, and  "precious  drugs."  Later  on,  the  East  India  Company's 
servants,  jealous  at  the  employment  of  Englishmen  not  in  their 
service,  attacked  the  Siamese,  which  led  to  a  massacre  of  the  English 
at  Mergui  in  1687  ;  and  the  factory  at  Ayuthia  \\j,s  abandoned  in 
1688.  A  similar  attack  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  1719  by  the 
governor  of  Madras.  After  this  the  trade  was  neglected.  Penang, 
a  dependency  of  Quedah,  was  occupied  in  1786,  and  in  the  19th 
century  tho  stagnation  of  trade  led  to  the  missions  of  Crawford 
(1822),  Burney  (1826),  and  Sir  J,  Brooke  (1850);  but  they  were 
not  very -cordially  received,  and  effected  little.  Sir  J.  Bowring's 
treaty  in  1856,  however,  put  matters  on  a  different  footing,  and 
Europeans  can  now  reside  in  Siam,  buy  or  rent  houses,  and  lease 
land.  The  export  and  import  duties  are  also  fixed,  and  there  is  a 
vice-consular  court  at  Chieng-mai,  with  appeal  to  the  consular  court 
at  Bangkok,  held  from  time  to  time  by  a  judge  from  Singapore, 
with  which  place  there  are  extradition  arrangements.  Of  lata  years 
the  north-eastern  provinces  have  been  harassed  by  invasions  of  the 
Lu  and  Ho,  peoples  of  Chinese  extraction,  their  incursions  extend- 
ing down  the  3Ie-kong  as  far  a?  Nong-kai. 

Beblde:'  works  referred  to  at  the  end  of  article  Shans,  the  cblef  autboritiea 
3tc  tit  J-oubire,  Description  du  lioyaurr^'.  do  Siavi,  1714  (tho  best  cf  the  olrf 


S  I  A  M 


855 


writers) ;  P^Uc-oix,  Eoyauiu  That  ou  Siarri,  Paris,  1854  ;  Crawford,  Embassy  to 
Siam  ;  BoWTing,  The  Kiii^dom  and  People  of  Siam,  Lciidon,  1S57  ;  Bastian,  Die 
Volker  da  ostlichen  Asiens,  vols.  I.,  iii.,  Leipaic,  1867;  Gamier,  Voi/age  d' Explora- 
.tion  en  Indo-ChiTie,  Paris,  1873 ;  Mouhot,  TraveU  in  liido-ChiTia,  Ac.  ;  J(mrn. 
qflnd.  Archip.,  vols,  i.,  v. ;  Orphan,  Le  Boyauvu  de  Siarji,  Paris,  1870  ;  Reclua, 
Jfouvelle  Giograpkie  UniverselU,  vol.  viii.  ;  Bagge,  Report  on  the  Settlerunt  o/  the 
Boundary  betwten  Siam  and  British  Burmah,  1S68;  Satow,  Notes  of  the  Intercourse 
between  Japan  and  Siamin  the  17th  Century  ;  Aymonnier,  in,  Excursions  et  Becon- 
ncissances,  Nos.  20-22  (Saigon);-  Consular  Reports,  18S4-85.  (C.  T.) 

Language  and  Literature. 

I'-n-  The  Siamese  language  is  spoken  over  the  whole  of  Siam  proper. 

guage.  In  the  Malay  peninsula  the  boundary -line  comes  down  on  the  west 
coast  nearly  as  far  as  Quedah  and  Perlis,  and  includes  also  Junk 
Ceylon,  while  on  the  east  coast  the  population  is  mainly  Siamese 
as  far  as  Ligor  inclusivQ,  and  also  in  Singora  Siamese  appears  to 
be  the  ruling  language.  Its  boundary  towards  Burmah,  the  Shan 
and  Laos  states,  and  Antfm  and  Cambodia  cannot  be  defined  so 
precisely.  There  are  also  in  the  north-east  a  number  of  vnld  tribes 
■who  speak  languages  of  their  own.  The  name  by  which  the  Siamese 
themselves  call  their  language  is  pMsd  thai,  or  "language  of  the 
freemen  " ;  and  Jt  probably  dates  from  the  period  when  the  Siamese 
made  themselves  independent  of  Cambodian  rule  in  the  12th  century. 
The  Shan  tribes,  whose  language  (witi  those  of  the  Ahom,  Khamti, 
and  Laos)  is  closely  akin  to  Siamese,  also  use  the  term  tai  (only 
■with  the  unaspirated  ()  for  their  race  and  language. 

Both  in  Shan  and  Siamese  the  system  of  tones,  which  is  one  of 
the  main  features  of  all  the  languages  of  Indo-China,  has  attained 
its  greatest  development.  But,  while  in  Shan  the  tones  are  not 
marked  in  the  written  language,  in  Siamese  there  are  distinct  signs 
to  denote  at  least  four  of  the  five  simple  tones  (the  even  tone  not 
being  marked) ;  and  there  is  further  a  classification  of  the  con- 
sonants into  three  groups,  in  each  of  which  certain  tones  pre- 
dominate. It  is  always  the  initial  consonant  of  a  word  that  indi- 
cates, either  by  its  phonetic  power  or  by  the  tonic  accent  super- 
added or  by  a  combination  of  the  two,  the  tone  in  which  the  word 
is  to  be  uttered,  so  that,  e.g.,  a  word  beginning  with  a  letter  of  the 
second  class  in  which  the  even  tone  is  inherent,  and  which  has 
the  mark  of  the  ascending  tone  over  it,  is  to  be  pronounced 
■with  the  descending  tone.^  The  difficulties  caused  to  a  European 
student  of  the  spoken  language  by  the  tones  are  increased  by  the 
greatly  expanded  vowel-system.  In  addition  to  the  short  and 
long,  there  are  shortest  vowels,  sets  of  open  and  closed  Towels, 
Ac,  and  a  large  number  of  vowel  combinations.  Owing  to  the 
introduction  of  the  Indian  consonantal  system  and  the  incorpora- 
tion in  it  of  many  letters  to  express  certain  sounds  peculiar  to 
Siamese,  the  number  of  consonants  has  been  swelled  to  forty-three  ; 
but,  while  many  of  these  are  only  used  in  words  adopted  from 
the  Sanskrit  and  Pali,  Siamese  utterance  knows  no  more  than 
twenty  ;  kk,  g,  gh  are  all  pronounced  as  kh  ;  similarly  ^h,  h,  bh 
as  ph,  kc, — the  language  having  a  predilection  for  hard  letters, 
especially  aspirates.  The  only  compound  letters  at  the  beginning 
of  words  are  combinations  of  hard  letters  with  ?,  r,  w,  y,  while  the 
finals  are  confined  in  pronunciation  to  k,  t,  7),  h  (ng),  n,  m.  This 
causes  a  considerable  discrepancy  between  the  spelling  of  words 
(especially  loan  words)  and  their  pronunciation.  Thus  sampUrn  is 
pronounced  somhuri,  bkdshd — phdsd,  nagara — nakkon,  saddkaryna — 
satham,  kiiiala — kuson,  icsha — set^  vdra — van,  Magadha — Makhot. 
The  foreign  ingredients  in  Siamese  are  principally  Sanskrit,  mostly 
in  a  corrupted  form.  The  importation  of  Pali  words  dates  from 
about  the  12th  century,  when,  the  country  having  shaken  off  the 
yoke  of  Cambodia,  a  religious  intercourse  was  established  between 
Siam  and  Ceylon.  Besides  these,  there  are  some  Khmer  (Cam- 
bodian) and  Malay  words.*  Exclusive  of  those  foreign  importa- 
tions, Siamese  is  a  monosyllabic  language  in  -which  neither  the 
form  nor  the  accent  or  tone  of  a  word  determines  the  part  of 
speech  to  which  it  belongs.  Homonymous  words  abound  and  are 
only  distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  tones.  Compare  lan^ 
*' white";  U.n,  "to  relate";  tu.71,  "to  flatter";  Idn,  "to  smooth"; 
Idn,  "relation."  Words  are  unchangeable  and  incapable  of  inflexion. 
The  Siamese  are  fond  of  joining  two  words  the  second  of  which  is 
either  purely  synonymous  to  or  modifies  the  sense  of  the  first,  or  is 
only  a  jingling  addition.  There  is  no  article,  and  no  distinction  of 
gender,  number,  or  case.  These,  if  it  is  at  all  necessary  to  denote 
them,  are  expressed  by  explanatory  words  after  the  respective  nouns ; 
cnly  the  dative  and  ablative  are  denoted  by  subsidiary  words,  which 
rreoede  the  nouns,  the  nominative  being  marked  by  its  position 
before,  the  objective  by  its  position  after,  the  verb,  and  the  genitive 
(and  also  the  adjective)  by  its  place  after  the  noun  it  qualifies. 
Occasionally,  however,  auxiliary  nouns  serve  that  purpose.  Words 
like  "mother,"  "son,"  "water"  are  often  emploj-ed  in  forming 
compounds  to  express  ideas  for  which  the  Siamese  have  no  single 
words;  e.g.,  lOk  cdh,  "the  son  of  hire,"  a  labourer;  m^  mU,  "the 
mother  of  the  hand,"  the  thumb.  The  use  of  class  words  with 
numerals  obtains  in  Siamese  as  it  does  in  Chinese,  Burmese,  Anamcse, 

I  S««A.Ba3tlan,"Ucb«r(Iie8lamesi3chpnLaut-undTon-Acceute,"iii  JTomii*- 
Mr.  d.  k.  Akad.  d,  Wissensch.  ru  Berlin,  June  1867. 

lv'pa^r"3r208^2T"'"*'  ^^*  ^"*^^®'  *°^  ^'*°  ^^  Tnnl£.£ata;;j<A  Leesboek,  voL 


Malay,  and  many  other  Eastern  languages.  As  in  these,  so  in 
Siamese  the  personal  pronouns  are  mostly  represented  by  nouns 
espressi7e  of  the  various  shades  of  superior  or  lower  rank  according 
to  Eastern  etiquette.  The  verb  is,  like  the  noun,  perfectly  colour- 
less,—  person,  number,  tense,  and  mood  being  indicated  by  auxiliary  , 
■words  only  when  they  cannot  be  inferred  from  the  context.  Such  * 
auxiliary  words  are  yU,  "to  be,"  "to  dwell"  (present);  dai,  "to 
have,"  Uh,  "end"  (past);  cd,  "also"  (future) ;  the  first  and  third 
follow,  the  second  and  fourth  precede,  the  verb.  Mdi,  "to  give" 
(prefixed),  often  indicates  the  subjunctive.  As  there  are  compound 
nouns,  so  there  are  compound  verbs;  thus,  e.g.,  jJtxi,  "to  go,"  is 
joined  to  a  transitive  verb  to  convert  it  into  an  intransitive  or 
neuter  ;  and  thuk,  "to  touch,"  and  tdng,  "to  be  obliged,"  serve  to 
form  a  sort  of  passive  voice.*  The  number  of  adverbs,  single  and 
compound,  is  very  large.  The  prepositions  mostly  consist  of  nouns. 
The  order  of  the  words  in  a  single  sentence  is  subject,  verb,  object. 
All  attributes  (adjectives,  geaiiivcj  adverbs)  follow  the  word  to 
which  they  are  subordinated.  The  following  simple  sentence  may 
serve  as  an  example  of  Siamese  construction  and  diction  ;  mtla 
(time)  an  (read)  nansii  (book)  nt  (this)  Uo  (end,  done)  cot*  (should) 
fdk-vqi  (entrust)  ki  {to) phuenbdn  (neighbours)  Juii  (giTe,cause)A-Aaji 
(they)  an  (read),  i.e.y  "when  3'ou  have  read  this  book,  please  give 
it  to  your  neighbours  that  they  may  read  it."" 

The  current  Siamese  characters  are  derived  from  the  more  monu- 
mental Cambodian  alphabet,  which  again  owes  its  origin  to  the 
alphabet  of  the  inscriptions,  an  offshoot  of  the  character  found  ou 
the  stone  monuments  of  southern  India  in  the  6th  and  8fh  cen- 
turies. The  sacred  books  of  Siam  are  still  written  in  the  Cambodian 
character,  and  some  have  occasionally  an  interlinear  translation  in 
the  current  Siamese  hand. 

The  study  of  the  Siamese  language  was  initiated  in  Europe  by  La  Loubtrc 
(1687),  from  whom  Dr  J.  Leyden  ("The  Languages  and  Literature  of  the  Tuti-.- 
Chinese  Nations,"  in  Asiatiz.  Besearch.es,  vol.  x.  pp.  158-2S9,  reprinted  in  JS.'t.i- 
ceUancous  Papers  on  Indo-China,  vol.  i.,  18S6,  pp.  84-171)  has  derived  much 
of  his  information.  Leyden's  Comparative  Vocabulnry  0/  the  Barvia,  ilalayti, 
and  Thai  Languages  appeared  in  ISIO.  Tho  first  grammar  of  the  language  we 
owe  to  James  Low,  Calcutta,  1S2S.  Very  useful  Grammatical  Notices  of  the 
Siamese  Language,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Taylor  Jones,  appeared  at  Bangkok  in  1S42. 
The  Gramrruitica  Lingns  Tti.ai  of  J.  B.  Pallegcii,  Bangkok,  1850,  was  followed 
in  1854  by  his  great  hictionarixtm.  in  Siacaese,  Latin,  French,  and  English.  An 
analytical  account  of  the  language  was  attempted  by  Ad.  Bastian  in  his  Sprach- 
vergleichende  Studien,  1870,  pp.  191-220.  In  18S1  L.  Ewald  brought  out  at 
Leipsic  his  Grammatik  der  Tai'  oder  Siamesischen  Sprache.  Lastly,  Prof,  Fr. 
Muller  gave  a  summary  of  Siamese  grammar  in  his  GrumJriss  dcr  Sprachwi^S' 
enschaft,  voL  ii.  part  2,  Vienna,  1SS2,  pp.  367-376.  A  new  grammar,  by  tlje 
Kev.  S.  George,  is  in  progress.  Compare  also  W.  Schott,  Ueber  die  indo- 
chinesischen  Sprachen,  in^onderheit  das  Siamesische,  1856 ;  and  E.  Kuhn,  Veber 
Herkunft  tiTid  Sprache  der  transgangetischeri  Volker,  1S83.  An  English  grammar 
written  in  Siamese,  and  designed  for  use  in  schools,  appeared  at  Bangkok  in 
1837. 

There  are  no  records  in  Siamese  referring  to  the  time  antecedent  Liters- 
to  the  settlement  of  the  nation  in  their  present  locality,  or,  in  the  t':e. 
words  of  Mr  Ney  Ellas,  "  of  earlier  date  than  the  founding  of  their 
first  national  capital,  Ajmthia,  at  the  commencement  of  the  14th 
century."*  The  inscription  at  Sukkothai,  said  to  be  of  the  year 
671  of  the  Siamese  era,  nine  years  after  the  invention  of  the  present 
Siamese  characters,^  cannot  be  put  in  evidence  as  an  historical  record 
till  a  facsimile  and  revised  translation  shall  have  been  obtained. 
The  few  manuscript  annals  mentioned  by  Bishop  Pallegoix  have  not 
yet  been  critically  examined  ;  but  metrical  compositions,  contii_n- 
ing  legendary  tales  and  romances,  abound  and  are  eagerly  studied. 
The  subjects  are  mostly  taken  from  the  Indian  epics,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Rdma-klun  or  Ramayana,  more  rarely  from  Malay  or  Javanese 
legend,  such  as  the  drama  2-hnao.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
metres,  all  of  which  have  bgen  described  with  much  minuteness 
of  detail  by  Colonel  Low  in  his  arricle  on  Siamese  literature,  in 
Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xx.  pp.  351-373.^  In  their  romantic  poetry 
the  Siamese  have  a  greater  tendency  to  describe  than  to  relate  ; 
their  pictures  of  places  and  scenery  are  grand  and  striking  and 
form  the  best  part  of  their  poetical  conceptions.  The  great  blemish 
of  their  poetry  consists  in  tedious  embellishments  and  a  hankering 
after  indecent  and  often  gross  allusions,  from  which  but  few  «ork«, 
such  as  Sang  Sin  Chai  and  Samut  Niyai  Si  Mxtang,  may  be  said  to 
be  free.  The  titles  of  the  principal  romances  are  Hoi  Sang.  Nang 
Prathom,  Sang  Sin  Chai,  Thqyha  Lin  Thong,  Smvanna  Ihr  g.  Than 
Sawatthi  Richa,  Phra  Unarut,  Daj-a  Suriwojig,  Khxtn  Phai,  Nimg 
Sip  (San^, and  the  dramas /-^«ao  rfnd  Phra  Simiiang.  The^^'otsof 
some  of  these  have  been  given  by  Colonel  Low.  The  most  po^  'ilax 
of  the  religious  hooks,  all  of  which  arc  translations  or  ampliticatu!'!* 
from  Pali  originals,  is  called  Somanakhodom  (^ramana  Gautama), 
which  is  identical  with  tho  Wcssantara  Jdtaka.  In  miscellaneous 
literature  may  be  mentioned  Suphdsit,  consisting  of  229-  elegant 
sayings  in  the  accented  metre  called  Klong,  and  Wicta  Chindarnani 
(Vritta  Chintamani),  a  work  on  prosody  like  the  Pali  VnttodayXf 
but  treating  also  of  a  number  of  grammarical  questions.  The  fablo 
literature  is  of  course  largely  represented  ;  the  lists,  however,  aro 

3  See  "The  Passivn  V.^rb  of  tho  Thai  Language,"  by  F.  L.  W.  von  Bergen, 
Krunf?  Tlieph  Maha  Nakhon,  1874. 

4  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Sharu,  Calcutta.  1876,  p.  34. 

C  Bastian    In  Jour.  Ai.  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  xxxiv.  p.  27,  and  .■^rrOMriTBtlrtC'^r* 
Studien,  p.  227. 
«  See  also  Fallcgoii^  Gramm..  Lingua  Tkui,  pp.  120-129. 


856 


S  I  AM 


frequently  swelled  by  the  enumeration  >,f  single  fables  which  are 
but  parts  of  larger  collectio.. 

The  number  of  works  on  law  is  considerable  ;  and  it  Is  remark- 
able that,  while  ia  Burmah  many  Pali  codes  have  currency,  not  a 
single  Pali  text-book  on  law  should  have  been  discovered  in  Siam  ; 
all  that  we  meet  with  in  the  law  books  are  a  few  Pali  quotations 
here  and  there.  Laksana  Phra  Thammasat  Laksana  Phua  Mia,  an 
introduction  to  the  code  of  Siamese  laws,  founded  on  the  Dharma- 
9astra  and  on  royal  edicts,  was  completed  in  1804.  It  contains 
thirty  books,  at  the  head  of  which  stands  the  Phra  Thammasat, 
attributed  to  Manosara  or  Manu,  a  treatise  on  the  classification  of 
laws.  Next  comes  the  Intkaphat,  or  book  of  Indra,  a  guide  or 
exhortation  to  councillors  and  judges,  and  then  the  Phra  Thainnun, 
or  roles  for  the  general  conduct  of  judicial  business.  'Then  follow 
in  order  the  undermentioned  sections — disputes,  plaints  and  allega- 
tions, official  rank,  classification  of  people,  debt,  marriage,  criminal 
law,  abduction,  slavery,  disputes  connected  with  land,  evidence, 
inheritance,  examining  officers,  appeal,  disputes  as  to  classification 
of  people,  radius  of  responsibility  for  burglaries,  &c. ,  the  thirty-six 
laws,  the  royal  edicts,  trial  by  ordeal  of  water  and  fire,  laws  of  the 
palace,  laws  of  the  priesthood,  offences  against  the  king,  offences 
against  the  people,  rebellion,  ancient  statutes,  recent  statutes. 
Only  one  of  these  sections,  the  one  on  slavery,  has  been  translated 
into  English,  by  Dr  Bradley  ;  it  appeared  in  the  Bangkok  CaUndar. 
The  whole  work  has  been  printed  at  Bangkok  in  two  volumes. 
The  Kafhu,  Phra  Aiyakan,  another  compendium  of  laws,  contains 
edicts  principally  referring  to  assaults,  adultery,  and  the  appraise- 
mentof  fines.  Among  these  we  find  the  following:  "A  man  who 
strikes  another  with  a  blank  book  shall  be  fined  as  though  he  had 
struck  him  with  his  hand  ;  but  if  the  assault  is  committed  with  a 
book  of  the  classics  the  offender  shall  be  fined  twioe  as  much  as  he 
would  have  had  to  pay  for  assaulting  with  a  stick. "     The  Laksana 


Tat  Fong,  or  law  of  plaints  end  allegations,  and  of  the  institution 
and  summary  dismissal  of  suits,  appears  to  be  identical  with  the 
fifth  section  of  the  printed  code.  There  is  also  a  separate  work 
called  Phra  Thaninun,  which,  though  identical  in  name  with  the 
section  of  the  Laksana  Phra  Thammasat  above  described,  covers 
much  more  ground.  A  compendium  of  law  entitled  Piiang  Kot 
Mai  Muang  Thai,  or  Code  of  Laws  of  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,  in  twa 
volumes,  was  printed  at  Bangkok  in  1879.  Colonel  Low,  who  did 
not  touch  on  jurisprudence  in  his  essay  on  Siamese  literature,  made 
good  the  omission  in  a  separate  article  **0n  the  Laws  of  Siam,"* 
in  the  first  volume  of  Logan's  Journal  of  the  Indian  Archipelag'> 
(Singapore,  1847). 

Pallegoix,  in  his  "Catalogus  praecipuorum  librorum  lingum 
Thai  "  {Gravimatica,  pp.  172-180),  gives  the  titles  of  a  good  manj 
treatises  on  scientific  subjects,  medicine,  mathematics,  astrology  ; 
but  none  appear  to  have  been  critically  examined.  In  the  tirst 
volume  of  his  Description  du  royaume  Thai  (1854)  are  inserteil 
various  pieces  translated  from  Siamese  works.  See  also  on  thn 
Siamese  language  and  literature  generally  the  "Remarks"  by  thf^ 
Rev.  C.  Giitzlaff,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society, 
vol.  iii.  (1835),  pp.  291-304  ;  and  on  the  literature  Leyden's  *'Essay'" 
above  referred  to  {Miscellaneous  Papers,  vol.  i.  pp.  143-147).  It  is 
only  in  quite  recent  times  that  an  Anamese  influence  has  begun 
to  be  traceable  in  the  language  and  literature  of  the  Siamese. 

In  3810  Dr  Leyden  undertook,  at  the  instance  of  the  Calcutta 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society,  to  superintend  a  translation  of  the  foui 
Gospels  into  Siamese  ;  but  he  died  before  the  project  was  carried 
into  effect.  Subsequently  Messrs  Giitzlaff  and  Tomlin,  assisted  by 
learned  natives,  laboured  till  1833  at  a  trustworthy  translation  of 
the  new  Testament  into  Siamese.  Their  task  was  continued  and 
completed  by  Messrs  Jones  and  Robinson,  and  the  work  was  pub- 
lished in  1346.  (R.  R.) 


SNJ)  OF  VOLXmZ  XWENTT-FIESX. 


APPENDIX 


AMERICAN  REVISIONS  AND  ADDITIONS 


TO  THE 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA   BRITANNICA 

{NINTH  EDITION.) 


A  DICTIONARY  OF 

ARTS,  SCIENCES  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE 


BY 

W.  H.  DE  PUY,  DD.,  LLD., 

ASSISTED    BY   A    CORPS   OF   TRAINED   WRITERS. 


CHICAGO 
R  S.  PEALE  COMPANY 

1892 


COPYRIGHT,     1891, 

By    R.  S.   Peale  &  Co. 


American  Revisions  and  Additions,  Vol.  XXL 


ROTA-ROUMAXIA 


T)OTA,  a  town  in  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz, 
iX  six  miles  northwest  of  Cadiz,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  entrance  of  Cadiz  Bay.  Rota  wine  has 
acquired  some  celebrity,  and  is  brought  to  the  Brit- 
ish market.     Population,  8,000. 

ROTHENBURG,  a  small  ancient  town  of  Ba- 
varia, on  the  Tauber,  thirty-one  miles  southeast  of 
AViirzburg.  It  has  manufactories  of  woolen  cloth, 
paper,  and  gunpowder,  and  a  trade  in  corn  and 
cattle.     Population,  o,2'29. 

ROTPIERMEL,  Peter  Frederick,  painter,  born 
at  Nescopack,  Luzerne  County,  Pa.,  in  1S17.  L)ur- 
ing  1856-59  he  studied  historical  painting  and  por- 
trait painting  in  Italy,  France,  Germany,  England, 
and  Belgium,  residing  mostly  in  Rome.  Since  his 
return  he  lived  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  produced 
a  large  number  of  paintings. 

ROTTENBURG,  a  town  in  Wijrtemberg,  seven 
miles  southwest  from  Tiibingen,  on  the  Neckar. 
The  castle,  built  in  1216,  is  now  the  House  of  Cor- 
rection. In  the  neighborhood  are  extensive  hop- 
fields,  orchards,  and  vineyards.  The  Roman  sta- 
tion Sumelocennis  stood  on  the  site  of  Rottenburg 
and  remains  of  roads  and  viaducts  have  been  found. 
Population,  6,222. 

ROTTENSTONE,  a  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of 
alumina,  with  about  ten  per  cent,  of  carbonaceous 
matter,  and  a  little  silica.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
formed  by  decomposition  of  shale.  It  is  found  in 
Derbyshire,  England,  in  Wales,  and  near  Alabama, 
N.  Y.  It  is  brown,  either  grayish,  redish,  or  black- 
ish. It  is  soft,  and  easily  scraped  to  powder,  and 
is  v.-ell-known  to  housewives,  being  much  used  for 
cleaning  and  polishing  brass  and  other  metals. 

ROTTWEIL,  a  small  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  on  a 
declivity  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Upper  Neckar, 
thirty-eight  miles  northeast  of  Freiburg  in  Baden. 
Rottweil  is  the  site  of  an  ancient  Roman  colony, 
among  the  ruins  of  which  there  has  been  discov- 
ered, besides  a  large  number  of  other  valuable 
antiquities,  now  preserved  in  the  buildings  of  the 
gymnasium,  a  well-known  piece  of  mosaic  work. 

ROUGE,  Omver  Charles  Camim.e  Emmanuei., 
Vk.'dmte  DE,  a  French  Egyptoh>gist,  born  at  Paris 
in  1811,  died  at  Bois-Daiiphin  in  1872.  He  devoted 
himself  for  eight  years  to  the  investigation. of 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  In  1846  he  reviewed  Bun- 
sen's  work  on  Egypt ;  an''  in  1849  he  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  Egyptian  collections  in  the  Louvre. 
In  1854  he  became  professor  of  arch.-rology  at  the 
College  de  France. 

ROUGE  DRAGON,  the  title  of  a  pursuivancy 
founded  by  Henry  VII  on  the  day  before  his  coro- 
nation. The  name  is  taken  from  the  supposed  en- 
sign of  Cadwaladyr,  the  last  king  of  the  Britons, 
ancestor  of  that  monarch.  The  red  dragon  was  also 
sometimes  used  by  Henry  VII  as  a  supporter. 

ROUHER,  EudENE,  a  very  eminent  French 
statesman,  born  at  Riom  in  1814,  died  Feb.  3,  1884. 
He  first  distinguished  himself  as  an  advocate  at  the 
bar  of  his  native  town,  at  which  he  practiced  up  to 
1848.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  French 
senate,  June,  1856.    He  became  Grand  Otlicer  of 


the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1850,  and  gained  the  Grand 
Cross  in  January,  1860.  He  was  returned  to  the 
national  assembly  for  Corsica  in  1872,  after  hold- 
ing many  distinguished  positions  of  honor  and  in- 
tluenee. 

ROUMANIA.  For  general  article  on  Roimania 
see  Britannica,  VoL  XXI,  pp.  14-21.  The  area  and 
population  have  been  hitherto  known  only  by  esti- 
mates. The  total  actual  area  is  48,307  square  miles, 
and  the  estimated  po])ulation  (1887)  is  5,500,000. 
The  people  themselves,  though  of  mi.xed  origin, 
may  now  be  regarded  as  homogeneous.  Roumanians 
are  spread  extensively  in  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries—  Transylvania,  Hungary,  Servia,  Bulgaria; 
their  total  number  probably  reaches  9  millions. 
Included  in  the  population  of  Roumania  proper  are 
4I0  millions  Roumanians,  300,000  Jews,  200,000  Gip- 
sies, 100,000  Bulgarians,  50,000  Germans,  50,000 
Magyars,  15,000  Armenians,  2,000  French,  1,000  Eng- 
lish, besides  about  3,000  Italians,  Turks,  Poles, 
Tartars,  etc. 

The  constitution  in  force  in  1891  was  voted  by  a 
constituent'assembly,  elected  by  universal  suflfrage 
in  the  summer  of  1866.  It  has  twice  been  modified 
— the  last  time  in  1884.  The  senate  now  consists 
of  120  members,  elected  for  8  years,  including  2  for 
the  universities,  and  s  bishops.  The  chamlier  of 
deputies  consists  of  1.S3  members,  elected  for  4 
years.  A  senator  must  be  40  years  of  age,  and  a 
deputy  25.  Members  of  either  house  must  be 
Roumanians  by  birth  or  naturalization,  in  full  en- 
joyment of  civil  and  political  rights,  domiciled  in 
the  country.  For  the  senate  an  assured  income  of 
about  400/.  is  required.  All  citizens  of  full  age 
paying  taxes,  are  electors,  and  are  divided  into 
three  electoral  colleges.  For  the  chamber  of  dep- 
uties, electors  who  are  in  possession  of  property 
bringing  in  50/.  or  upwards  per  annum  vote  in  the 
first  college.  Those  paying  direct  taxes  to  the 
state  of  20  f r.  or  upwards  annually  vote  in  the  sec- 
ond college,  as  well  as  jiersons  exercising  the 
liberal  professions,  retired  otiicers,  state  pensioners 
and  those  who  have  lieen  through  the  primary 
course  of  education.  The  third  college  is  composed 
of  the  remaining  electors,  of  whom  those  not  know- 
ing how  to  read  or  write  vote  indirectly.  For  the 
senate  there  are  only  two  colleges.  The  first  con- 
sists of  those  electors  having  property  yielding 
annually  at  least  80/. ;  the  second,  of  those  persons 
otherwise  eligible,  but  whose  income  from  property 
is  from  .32/.  to  80/.  per  annum. 

Reigning  King  and  Royal  Kamm.v. — Carol  I, 
now  King  of  Roumania,  was  l)orn  Ajiril  20,  1839. 
He  is  son  of  I  lie  late  Prince  Karl,  of  Ilolienzollern- 
Sigmaringen.  He  was  elected  "Domnal,"  or  Lord 
of  Roumania,  April  20,  1866,  and  accepted  his  elec- 
tion May  22,  1860.  lie  was  proclaimed  King  of 
Roumania,  March  26,  1«81.  He  was  married  Nov. 
15,  1869,  to  Princess  Kli/.abeth  von  Neuwied,  born 
Dec.  29,  1843. 

The  succession  to  the  throne  of  Roumania,  in  the 
event  of  theking  remaining  childless,  was  settled, 
by     art.    83    of  the  constitution,    upon    his    elder 

f  1,357) 


1358 


R  0  U  N  D  H  E  A  T )  S  —  R  0  U  T  H 


brother,  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern-Sigma- 
ringen,  who  renounced  his  rights  in  favor  of  liis 
son.  Prince  AVilhelm,  the  act  having  Ijeen  regis- 
tered by  the  senate  in  October,  1880.  Prince  Wil- 
helni,  on  November  22,  1888,  renounced  his  rights 
to  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  brother,  Prince  Fer- 
dinand, born  August  24,  1865,  who,  by  a  decree  of 
the  king,  dated  ilarch  18,  1889,  was  created 
"Princ?"  of  Roumania." 

The  union  of  the  two  principalities  of  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia  was  publicly  proclaimed  at  Bucha- 
rest and  Jassy  on  Dec.  23,  1861,  the  present  name 
being  given  to  the  united  provinces.  The  first 
ruler  of  Roumania  was  Colonel  Couza,  who  had 
been  elected  "Hospodar,"  or  Lord,  of  AVallachia  and 
Moldavia  in  LS-Dil.  and  who  assumed  the  govern- 
ment under  the  title  of  Prince  Alexander  John  I. 
A  revolution  which  broke  out  in  Feb.  1866,  forced 
Prince  Alexander  .Tohn  to  abdicate,  and  led  to  the 
election  of  Prince  Carol  I.  The  representatives  of 
the  people,  assembled  at  Bucharest,  proclaimed 
Roumania's  independence  from  Turkey,  May  21, 
1877,  which  was  confirmed  by  Art.  4.3  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Berlin,  signed  July  13, 1878. 

The  king  has  an  allowance  of  1,185,185  lei,  or 
$237,000. 

Education  and  Religion'. — Education  is  free,  and 
compulsory  where  there  are  schools.  The  latest 
published  summaries  are  those  of  1883,at  which  date 
there  were  2,743  primary  schools,  with  124.130  pu- 
pils. There  were  eight  normal  schools,  and  fifty-four 
high-schools,  and  two  universities — the  latter  at 
Bucharest  and  Jassey. 

Of  the  total  population  of  Roumania  proper  4,- 
529,000  belong  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  114,- 
200  are  Roman  Catholics,  13,800  Protestants,  8,000 
Armenians,  6,000  Lipovani  (Russian  heretics),  400,- 
000  Jews,  2,000  Mahometans.  The  government  of 
the  Greek  Church  rests  with  two  archbishops,  the 
first  of  them  styled  the  Primate  of  Roumania,  and 
the  second  the  Archbishop  of  Moldavia.  There 
are,  besides,  six  bishops  of  the  National  Church,  and 
one  Roman  Catholic  bishop. 

Fi-VANCE. — The  chief  sources  of  revenue  consist 
in  direct  and  indirect  taxes,  and  the  profits  derived 
from  the  extensive  state  domains  and  valuable 
salt  mines,  and  from  the  salt  and  tobacco  monopo- 
lies. The  capitation  tax  is  4.<;.  9(/.  per  head.  There 
is  an  income  tax  of  6  per  cent,  on  houses.  5  per 
cent,  on  property  farmed  by  a  resident  owner,  6 
per  cent,  for  property  let  by  an  owner  resident  in 
Roumania,  and  12  per  cent,  for  estates  where  own- 
ers reside  abroad  ;  and  5  per  cent,  on  government 
salaries.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  for  the 
year  ending  March  31,  1889  (being  the  budget 
estimate),  were:  Revenue,  181,066,324  lei;  ex- 
penditure the  same.  The  lei  is  equivalent  to  a 
franc. 

The  public  debt  of  Roumania  amounted  on  April 
1,  1890,  to  851,412,5.54  lei.  Of  the  total  amount  more 
than  half  has  been  contracted  for  public  works, 
mainly  railways.  The  remainder  has  been  con- 
tracted to  cover  the  deficits,  reduce  unfunded 
debt,  and  pay  peasant  freeliolds.  The  debt  amounts 
to  about  5/.  sterling  per  head  of  population,  and 
the  interest  to  7s.  3d.  The  exports  average  1/.  16s. 
per  head  lei. 

Army  and  Navy. — 1.  The  strength  of  the  perma- 
nent army  and  navy  in  time  of  peace  is  2,666  of- 
ficers, 284  employes,  35,921  men,  8,124  horses,  and 
573  guns.  2.  Territorial  Army. — 33  regiments  of  in- 
fantry (Dorobanzi)  of  two  and  three  battalions,  12 
regiments  of  cavalry  (Calarashi)  of  four  squadrons 
each  ;  14  batteries  of  artillery,  with  six  guns  per 
battery  ;  these  latter  perform  the  duties  of  firemen 
>n  the  time  of  peace.      The   total   of  the  territorial 


army  is  81,843  men,  and  4,401  horses.  3.  The 
militia,  consisting  of  33  regiments  of  infantry.  4. 
Tlie  Civic  Guard  and  the  levee  en  masse,  the  strength 
of  which  is  not  definitely  fixed. 

Every  Roumanian  from  his  21st  to  his  46th  year 
is  obliged  to  serve  either  in  the  iiermanent  army 
three  years  of  active  service  and  five  in  the  re- 
serve, or  in  the  territorial  infantry  five  years  of 
active  service  and  three  in  the  reserve,  or  in  the 
territorial  cavalry  four  years  of  active  service  and 
four  in  the  reserve.  The  entry  into  the  permanent 
or  territorial  army  is  decided  by  lot.  All  young 
men  not  taken  for  the  conscription  form  part  of  the 
militia.  After  completing  their  service  in  the  per- 
manent or  territorial  army,  all  are  enrolled  in  the 
militia  until  their  36th  year. 

Roumania  has  in  the  navy  the  Eli zabet a,  launched 
at  Elswick  in  1887,  a  shot-protected  cruiser  of  1,320 
tons  displacement  and  4,500  horse-power,  3^2  inch 
armour  at  the  belt,  four  6-inch  and  eight  machine 
guns;  the  Mirrea,  a  composite  brig  of  350  Ions. 
There  are  besides  four  other  small  vessels,  two  tor- 
jiedo-boats,  three  gunboats,  each  of  45  tons,  and 
three  others  building  at  Blackwall.  There  are  46 
officers  and  1,480  sailors,  and  a  naval  reserve  of  200 
men. 

ROUNDHEADS,  a  name  given  by  the  adherents 
of  Charles  I.,  during  the  English  civil  war,  to  the 
Puritans,  or  friends  of  the  parliament,  who  dis- 
tinguished themselves  liy  having  their  hair  closely 
cut  to  the  head,  while  the  cavaliers  wore  theirs  in 
long  ringlets. 

ROL'SSEAU,  LovEi.L  Harrison,  an  American 
general,  born  in  Lincoln  county,  Ky.,  in  1818,  died 
at  New  Orlean,  La.,  in  1869.  He  studied  law  and 
was  in  1841  admitted  to  the  liar  at  Bloomfield,  Ind. 
During  the  Mexican  war  he  raised  a  company  of 
Indiana  troops,  and  did  good  service  as  captain 
under  Gen.  Taylor.  After  that  war  he  removed  to 
Looiisville,  Ky.,  where  he  became  a  successful 
criminal  lawyer.  In  ].v60,  as  a  member  of  the  Ken- 
tucky senate,  he  took  a  firm  stand  against  seces- 
sion and  later  on  against  the  proposed  neutrality 
of  the  State.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  raised 
the  5th  Kentucky  infantry  regiment,  of  which  he 
became  colonel,  September,  1861.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  April  7,  1862,  and 
afterwards  at  Perryville,  Ky.,  when  he  was  made 
major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1867  he  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army  and 
brevetted  major-general;  and  in  1868  he  was  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  department  of  Louis- 
iana, where  he  died  the  next  year. 

ROUT,  one  of  the  absurd  names  given  to  a  fash- 
ionable evening  assemlily  in  London  towards  the 
end  of  the  ISth  and  early  part  of  the  19th  century. 
At  these  entertainments,  as  many  as  2,000  to  3,000 
ladies  and  gentlemen  were  invited,  and  when  the 
apartments  were  not  sufiieiently  spacious  for  the 
company,  temporary  rooms,  were  erected  in  the 
rear  of  the  house,  and  elegantly  fitted  up.  Crowded 
assemblies  of  this  kind  are  now  known  as  "soirees," 
or  "at  homes." 

ROTTTH,  Martin  Joseph,  an  English  divine  and 
educator,  born  at  South  Elniham,  Suffolk,  Eng- 
land, in  17.55;  died  at  Oxford,  England  in  1854. 
After  graduating  at  Oxford  in  1774  he  held  various 
college  positions  until  he  became  president  of 
Magdalen  College  in  1791.  which  post  he  retained 
nearly  sixty-four  years.  In  1810  he  was  presented 
the  living  of  Tylchurst,  Berkshire.  Routh  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Plato's  Enthydemvs  et  Gorgkis; 
edited  Bruncts'  History  of  His  Own  Times;  and  a 
volume  of  Scriptoeiim  Ecch'siasticorum  Opvsriiln 
(■1832).  But  he  was  best  known  by  his  valuable 
collection    of    the    fragmentary    writings    of    the 


ROWAN  —  RUFFLE 


1359 


Christian  Fathers  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  centuries  un- 
der the  title,  Rtiiquia:  Sacrx  (4  vols.  1.S46— 18). 

ROWAN,  Stephen  Clegg,  American  vice-ad- 
miral, born  near  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  l.sus.  He  was 
brought  to  the  United  States  in  earlj'  life  and  ap- 
pointed midshipman  in  the  United  States  navy  in 
1826,  when  he  was  a  student  at  Oxford  College, 
Ohio.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Mexican 
war,  in  which  he  was  made  lieutenant.  In  1855  he 
was  promoted  to  commander.  Kowan  was  a  resi- 
dent of  Norfolk,  Va.,  where  he  had  married.  But 
notwithstanding  this,  and  his  affection  for  the 
South,  he  adhered  faithfully  to  the  National  gov- 
ernment. With  the  steam-sloop  "Pawnee"  he 
performed  efficient  service  on  the  Potomac,  and 
afterwards  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  where 
he  conducted  in  1862  several  successful  expeditions 
in  cooperation  with  Gen.  Burnside,  until  the  au- 
thority of  the  United  States  Government  was  com- 
pletely established  in  the  waters  of  North  Carolina. 
On  .luly  16,  1862,  Rowan  was  commissioned  captain, 
and  for  his  conspicuous  gallantry  he  was  also  pro- 
moted to  commodore  on  the  same  day.  lie  next 
commanded  the  "  New  Ironsides  "off  Charleston, 
S.  C,  and  in  many  months  of  constant  conflict  with 
the  enemy  increased  his  reputation.  In  the  spring 
of  1864  he  was  relieved.  He  received  a  vote  of 
thanks  from  Congress ;  and  in  .luly,  1866,  he  was 
promoted  to  rear-admiral  in  recognition  of  his 
eminent  services.  In  186(5-67  he  commanded  the 
Norfolk  navy-yard;  in  1868-70  he  was  commander 
of  the  Asiatic  squadron.  While  on  this  duty  he 
was  promoted  to  vice-admiral.  In  1872  to  1879  he 
was  in  command  of  the  naval  station  at  New  York  ; 
in  1879-81  he  was  president  of  the  l)oard  of  exam- 
iners ;  and  in  1882  he  became  superintendent  of 
the  naval  observatory.  After  January,  1883,  Ad- 
miral Rowan  was  chairman  of  the  light-house  board 
al  Washington,  D.  C.     He  died  in  1890. 

ROWELL,  .loN.iTiiAN  H.,  member  of  Congress, 
born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1833.  He  graduated  at 
Eureka  College,  Illinois,  and  at  the  Law  Depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Chicago  ;  is  by  profession 
a  lawyer;  was  State's  attorney  of  the  eighth  judi- 
cial circuit  of  Illinois,  1868-72;  and  was  a  member 
of  Congress  from"  1883  to  1891. 

ROWLAND,  Alfred,  an  American  soldier  and 
legislator,  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1844.  He  en- 
tered the  Confederate  army  in  1861  as  a  lieuten- 
ant ;  was  captured  in  the  battle  of  Spottsylvania 
Court-House ;  after  the  war  studied  law;  was  a 
member  of  the  general  assembly  of  North  Carolina 
in  1876-77,  and  again  in  1880-81 ;  and  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1887. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV, 
p.  836.  The  members  are  under  the  superintend- 
ence and  control  of  (^ueen  Victoria,  who  confirms 
all  appointments  and  by-laws.  Appended  is  the 
list  of  members,  Nov.  15,  1890,  with  the  year  of  ap- 
pointment: 

KOYAL   ACADEMICHNS. 

1879  Alma-Tndema,  L. 

1H72  Armltnge.  E. 

1879  Armsteud,  H.  H. 

1S*S2  Boehm,  Sir  J.  K.,Bart. 

18.S8  Burgess,  J.  B. 

l.H>17  Calderon,  P.  H.  (keeper) 

wm  Cole,  Vicat. 

1W17  Cooper,  T.  S. 

1S77  Davis,  W.  H.  B. 

1S71  Dobson,  W.  C.  T. 

isc.l  Va.aA,  T. 

18S7  Fields.  .9.  Luke. 

\X-S  Gilbert.  Sir  S. 

ixsjf  Goodall,  F. 

18K1  (iruhain.  P. 

181)0  Hcrkomer.  II. 

1879  Hodeson,  .1.  E.  (librarian) 

1860  Hook,  .1.  C. 

18t>l  Hor.^lev,  i.  C.  (treasurer) 

ISIW  Lclglito»..Slr  K.  Bart. 


IS7i;  Leslie.  H.  D. 

1881  Long.  E. 

1879  Marki.  H.  S. 

l.S(W  Millais.  Sir.!.  E..  Bart. 

1877  Orcharclsou.  W.  Q. 

1881  Ouless.  \V.  W. 

lS,sn  Pearson,  J.  I>. 

!87:s  Pettie.  J. 

1.870  Povuter,  E.J. 

18)*1  RiViere.  B. 

18(;9  Saiu,  .1. 

1877  Shaw.  R.  N. 
1871  .Stoeks.  L. 
1887  Stone.  .M. 

1889  Thornveroft.  W,  H. 
188.5  Waterliou-c.  A. 
18(17  Watts,  (i.  V. 
1870  Wells,  H.  T. 
1874  WooIner.T. 

1878  Yeanies,  W.  F. 


Retiued   Royal  Academicians. 


l&-)3  Fritli,  W.  F. 
1S.52  Marshall,  \V. 


C. 


118.57  Piokersgili.  F.  R. 
|lS(i()  Richmoud,G. 


Foreign  Academician.s. 


lsi;;i  Dupont.  L.  P. 

1.S.S3  Kuaus,  L. 

18«i  GiTome,  .1.  J. 

ISG9  Meissonor,  J.  L.  E. 

lS(iy  Guillaume,  C.  J. 

Associates. 

ISSO  Birch.  C.B. 

1883  Leader,  B.  W. 

1S8K  BlomBeld.  Sir  A. 

W. 

1886  Ijticaa,  J.  S. 

1,S82  Kodlev,  G.  F. 

1883  Macbeth.  R.  W. 

1879  BouKlitOU,  U.  H. 

1879  MacWhirter.  J. 

18.'<1  Brett,  J. 

188.5  Moore,  H. 

1S83  Brook,  T. 

1877  Morris,  P.  E. 

1SS5  Burne-Jones,  E. 

1879  Prinsep,  V,  C. 

1878  Crofts,  E. 

1888  Richmond,  W.  B. 

187fi  Crowe.  E, 

1880  Stacpnole,  F. 

1881  Dicksee,  F. 

1871)  Storey,  G.  A. 

1S.SS  Ford.  E.  O. 

is8."i  Watcihonse,  .T.  W. 

1.SS7  Gilbert.  A. 

18',il)  Waterlow,  E.  A. 

1881  Gow,  A.C. 

l.s.s:i  Woods.  H . 

1883  Gregory,  E.  J, 

1889  Wyiiie,.W.  L. 

1884  Hunter,  C. 

Fred.  A.  Eaton,  See 

RUBATO,  Tempo  :  in  music,  a  capricious  style 
of  performance  in  which  some  notes  are  prolonged 
beyond  tlieir  legitimate  time,  while  others  are  cur- 
tailed, the  aggregate  value  of  the  bar-  remaining 
unaltered.  It  is  a  style  of  performance  which  is 
very  apt  to  be  abused  by  inferior  players  and 
singers. 

RUBINSTEIN,  Axton  Gkigorievich,  a  Russian 
composer  and  pianist,  born  near  Jassy  in  1829.  His 
parents  were  Russian  Jews.  At  the  age  of  twelve 
he  played  in  London,  which  he  visited  again  in 
1857  and  on  later  occasions.  As  a  composer  Rubin- 
stein is  very  prolific;  his  Ocean  Syriiphony  is  the 
best  of  several  such  works  for  full  orchestra ;  and 
for  the  stage  he  has  composed  many  operas,  the 
most  popular  being  the  Demon;  Dimitri  Doiuhji,  and 
Nero.  He  founded  the  Conservatoire  of  Music  at 
St.  Petersburg  in  1S62,  of  which  he  is  the  present 
director.  The  Czar  ennobled  him,  1869.  The  juliilee 
of  his  public  service  was  celebrated  by  a  fete  at  St. 
Petersliurg,  Nov.  18.  1889.  It  was  stated  in  189C 
that  he  was  writing  a  musical  work. 

RUDENTURE,  the  moulding,  in  form  like  a  rope 
or  staff,  fillings  and  fiutings  of  columns,  usually 
one-third  of  the  height.  It  is  sometimes  plain,  and 
sometimes  ornamental. 

Rt'DESHEIM,  a  small  town  of  Germany,  in 
Nassau,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite 
Bingen,  sixteen  miles  southwest  of  Mainz.  In  the 
vicinity  is  grown  one  of  the  most  aromatic  and 
fiery  of  the  Rhine-wines,  called  the  Riide.slieinwr; 
about  650  casks  are  produced  yearly.  Population, 
3,087. 

RUDFER,  Frederick  William,  an  English  sci- 
entist, was  born  in  London  in  1840.  He  was  aji- 
pointed  curator  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geol- 
ogy in  1879  and  professor  of  natural  science  in  the 
University  College  of  Wales  from  1876  to  1879; 
president  of  the  anthropological  department  of 
the  British  association  at  Swansea,  1880;  director 
of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  and  editor  of  its 
"Journal;"  joint  editor  of  Ure's  Dictlonar;/,  and  o[ 
Stanford's  Kimipe;  [iresident  of  the  Geologists  As- 
sociation, 1889. 

RUDINI,  A.NTo.Mo,  ;\LM{(jt'iK  I'l,  Italian  premier, 
born  in  Sicily  in  1839,  of  an  ancient  noble  family. 
He  has  been  active  in  politics  since  18(ii.';  was  for  a 
time  mayor  of  I'alermo ;  sat  in  the  Italian  cham- 
bers for  many  sessions;  became  minister  of  the 
interior  in  1869;  and  was  called  to  form  a  cabinet, 
Feb.  6,  1,H<)1. 

RUFFLE,  a  low  vibrating  sound,  leas  loud  than 
a  roll  produced  by  a  drummer.  It  is  used  as  a 
compliment  to  general  ollicers  and  al  military 
funerals. 


1360 


R  U  F  F  N  E  R  —  Pv  U  S  K 


Rl'FrXER,  Henry,  D.  D.,  LL.D..  a  Prpshylerian 
minister  aiul  educator, born  in  Page  county,  Va.,  in 
17S9,  died  at  Maiden,  Kanawha  county,  A'a.,  in  ISBl. 
He  studied  theology  and  was  licensed  by  the  Pres- 
bytery of  Lexington  in  1S13.  After  liolding  several 
pastorates  in  the  vicinity,  he  was  made  professor  at 
Washington  College  (now  Wasliington  and  Lee 
L^niversity),  Lexington,  in  ]819.  In  IS37  he  became 
president  of  the  same  institution.  He  resigned  in 
1.S48,  and  retired  to  his  farm.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  Discourse  Upon  the  Duration  of  Future  Punish- 
ment; Judith  Ben-saddy,  a  liomanre,  a.nd  The  Fathers 
t)f  the  Desert,  or  an  Account  uf  the  Origin  and  Practice 
of  Monkery  (1850). 

RUGELEY.  a  market  town  in  the  county  of 
Stafford,  Eng.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Trent. 
There  are  iron-works  in  the  town,  and  collieries  in 
the  vicinity.     Population  about  5,000. 

RUMA,  a  small  town  of  Austria,  in  the  crown- 
land  of  the  Temeser  Banat  and  Servian  Wojwod- 
schaft,  on  an  afHuent  of  the  Sava,  thirty-five  miles 
northwest  of  Belgrade.  Thechief  industry  is  wine 
culture  and  the  rearing  of  horses.  Population, 
7,800. 

RUMSEY,  J.\MES,  the  inventor  of  steam  naviga- 
tion, born  at  Bohemia  ilanor,  Cecil  county,  Md., 
about  1743;  died  in  London,  Eng.,  in  1792.  He  was 
a  machinist  by  trade,  and  made  various  improve- 
ments in  the  mechanism  of  fiour-mills.  In  1784  he 
exhibited  on  the  Potomac  River,  in  the  presence  of 
Gen.  Washington,  a  boat  which  ascended  the  river 
by  mechanical  means.  Two  years  later  he  intro- 
duced a  steam-engine  of  his  own  construction  into 
tlie  boat.  It  produced  motion  by  the  force  of  a 
stream  of  water  thrown  out  by  a  pump  at  the  stern 
of  the  boat.  In  1788  he  organized,  at  Philadelphia, 
a  "Rumsey  society"  for  the  promotion  of  steam 
navigation.  Afterwards  he  went  to  England  and 
organized  there  a  similar  society.  He  built  a 
steamlioat  which  made  a  successful  trip  on  the 
Thames  in  December,  1792.  A  few  days  later  he 
suddenly  died  in  London.  Rumsey  had  obtained 
patents  for  steam  navigation  in  England,  France, 
and  Holland;  but  his  projects  expired  with  him, 
to  be  revived  by  Robert  Fulton. 

RUNNIMEDE,  a  long  stretch  of  green  meadow 
lying  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  from 
which  it  is  partly  concealed  by  plantations  of  wil- 
lows, twenty  miles  southwest  of  London.  Runni- 
mede  is  of  great  historical  interest,  from  the  fact 
that  Magna  Charta  was  signed  by  King  .John,  June 
19,  1215,  either  on  this  meadow,  or  on  Charter 
Island,  lying  a  short  distance  oflf  the  shore. 

RUPPIX,  Xet,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Brandenburg,  on  a  small  lake  of  the  same  name, 
which  communicates  by  water  with  the  Elbe, 
thirty-eight  miles  north  of  Potsdam.  It  contains  a 
castle  and  a  lunatic  asylum.  The  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  brewing,  spinning,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  linen  and  woollen  cloths.  Population, 
12,000. 

RURAL  DEAN,  an  official,  ordinarily  a  beneficed 
clergyman,  appointed  in  a  diocese  to  maintain  in  a 
certain  district,  called  a  deanery,  a  supervision 
over  the  condition  of  churches,  church  furniture, 
glebe  houses,  schools,  the  appliances  of  public  wor- 
ship, and  all  other  things  appertaining  to  the 
service,  and  to  report  on  all  to  the  bishop  as  occa- 
sion may  arise. 

RUSH,  Be.nm.\mi.v  (174.5-1813).  For  his  biography 
see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  (H2-(i3. 

RUSH,  J.\MEs,  ])hysieian,  born  at  Philadelphia  in 
1786,  died  therein  1869.  He  studied,  and  afterwards 
practiced  medicine  in  Philadelphia.  By  marrying 
the  daughter  of  Thomas  .Ridgway  he  acquired  a 
princely  fortune.    His  wife,  .\nn  I'hcebe  Rush,  was 


long  a  brilliant  leader  of  society,  while  he  devoted 
himself  to  literary  and  scientific  pursuits.  By  his 
will  he  left  his  estate,  worth  a  million  of  dollars, 
to  the  Philadelphia  Library  Company  for  the 
Ridgway  branch  of  the  Philadelphia  Library.  His 
pul)lications  include  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice; 
Analysis  of  the  Human  Intellect,  and  Phi/mes  of 
Contrast  oii  Wisdom  and  Folly  (1869). 

RUSH,RicH.\KD,an  American  statesman,  born  at 
Philadelphia  in  1780;  died  there  in  1809.  Hebe- 
came  a  distinguished  lawyer  at  Philadeljihia.  From 
1817  till  1825  he  was  I'nited  States  Minister  in  Eng- 
land. There  he  negotiated  the  treaties  regulating 
the  Xorth  Atlantic  fisheries  and  the  northeastern 
boundaries.  He  was  recalled  in  1825  to  accept  the 
portfolio  of  the  United  States  Treasury,  which  had 
been  offered  him  by  President  J.  Q.  Adams.  In 
1836  he  was  appointed  by  President  Jatkson  a  com- 
missioner to  secure  in  the  English  courts  the  legacy 
of  .James  Smithson,  amounting  to  over  half  a 
million  dollars,  which  sum  was  made  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington, 
D.  C.  From  1847  to  1.S49  he  was  United  States 
Minister  at  Paris.  His  publications  include  Codi- 
fication of  the  Lavs  of  tlie  United  States  {5  \o\s.) ; 
Narrative  of  a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  St.  James; 
Washington  in  Domestic  Life,  and  Occasional  Produc- 
tions, Political,  Diplomatic,  and  Miscellaneous  (1860). 

RUSK,  Hakry  Welles,  member  of  Congress, 
born  at  Baltimore,  in  1852.  He  graduated  from 
the  Maryland  University  Law  School  in  1872,  with 
the  degree  of  LL.  B. ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
has  ever  since  practiced  law  in  Baltimore ;  was  for 
six  years  a  member  of  the  ^laryland  House  of 
Delegates,  and  for  four  years  a  member  of  the 
ifaryland  Senate;  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1886; 
his  present  term  expires  in  1893. 

RUSK,  Jeremi.4h  JIcLain-,  an  American  soldier 
and  statesman,  rjorn  in  C»hio  in  18.30.  He  was 
brought  up  on  a  farm ;  removed  to  Wisconsin  in 
1853;  served  throughout  the  civil  war,  and  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  in  1865;  was  bank 
comptroller  of  Wisconsin  from  1866  to  1870; 
member  of  Congress  from  1871  to  1877 ;  gov- 
ernor of  Wisconsii)  from  1882  to  1889;  became 
secretary  in  1889  of  the  new  National  Department 
of  Agriculture.  The  secretary  of  agriculture  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  all  public  business 
relating  to  the  agricultural  industry.  He  appoints 
all  the  officers  and  employes  of  the  department 
with  the  exception  of  the  assistant  secretary,  who 
is  ajipointed  by  the  President,  and  directs  the 
management  of  all  the  divisions  and  sections  and 
the  bureaus  embraced  in  the  department.  He 
exercises  advisory  supervision  over  the  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations  deriving  support  from 
the  national  treasury,  and  has  control  of  the  quar' 
antine  stations  for  imported  cattle,  and  of  inter- 
state quarantine  rendered  necessary  by  contagious 
cattle  diseases.  Connected  with  this  department, 
and  under  the  general  supervision  of  its  secretary, 
are  also  divisions  and  bureaus  of  chemistry,  botany, 
entomology,  ornithology  and  mammalogy,  vege- 
table pathology,  promology,  microscopy,  forestry, 
seeds,  silks  and  gardens. 

RUSK,  Thomas  Jeffersox,  United  States  Sen- 
ator, liorn  at  Camden,  S.  C,  in  1802;  died  at  Nacog- 
doches, Tex.,  in  1856.  He  practiced  law  in  Georgia, 
and  in  1835  removed  to  Texas.  He  joined  the 
movement  for  attaching  Texas  to  the  L'nited  States. 
In  1836  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
declared  Texas  independent  of  Mexico,  and  became 
the  first  Texan  secretary  of  war.  After  Gen.  S. 
Houston  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto, 
Rusk  became  commander  of  the  army  and  held 
this  position  till  the  constitutional  government  of 


R  U  S  K  I  N  —  R  U  S  S  I  A  N    EMPIRE 


1361 


Texas  was  organized  in  October  1836.  From  1S3S-12 
tie  was  chief  justice  of  Texas.  He  was  president  of 
the  convention  that  consummated  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States  in  1845.  After  that  he 
was  United  States  Senator  for  ten  years.  In  a  fit 
of  insanity,  caused  by  domestic  troubles,  he  com- 
mitted suicide  in  1856. 

RUSKIN,  John,  an  eminent  English  author  and 
art-critic,  born  in  London,  1S19.  He  was  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  lie  gained  the 
Newdigate  prize.  Having  early  developed  a  taste 
for  art,  he  studied  with  great  success  under  Copley 
Fielding  and  Harding,  and  having  become  enam- 
oured of  Turner's  paintings,  then  but  little  appre- 
ciated, he  commenced  a  letter  in  defence  of  Tur- 
ner, in  response  to  an  attack  made  on  him  in 
'■  Blackwood's- Magazine."  This  developed  into  the 
first  volume  of  his  celebrated  Modern  Painters,  which 
obtained  a  great  success,  though  it  evoked  somn 
sharp  criticism  on  the  part  of  those  who  dissented 
from  his  views.  He  resided  for  some  time  in  Italy, 
and  subsequently  published  the  remaining  vol- 
umes of  Miideni  Painters  making  five.  Thesis  con- 
tained valuable  illustrations  by  himself.  He  had 
previously  written  The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture 
and  The  Stones  of  Venice.  He  had  also  written  ex- 
tensi.vely  on  economic  and  other  questions,  and  re- 
cently has  been  engaged  upon  his  autobiography, 
which  he  is  bringing  out  at  very  irregular  inter- 
vals under  the  title  of  Prxteria.  In  1887  he  pub- 
lished Hortus  Inclusns:  Letters  from  Mr.  Ri/.-nkin  to 
the  Ladies  of  the  Thwaite.  During  1890  his  ill-health 
impeded  his  literary  labors. 

RUSKIX  SOCIETY.  See  Rose,  Society  of  the, 
in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

RUSSELL,  Sir  Charles,  an  eminent  English 
lawyer,  born  in  183.3.  He  was  educated  at  Dublin  ; 
commenced  his  career  in  the  gallery  of  the  house 
of  commons  as  parliamentary  leader-writer  to  a 
Catholic  journal ;  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn;  appointed  Q.  C.  and  elected  Bencher  of  Lin- 
coln Inn  ;  returned  to  the  library  [interest  as  mem- 
ber of  parliament  since  1880;  attorney-general  in 
the  Gladstone  administration,  when  he  received 
the  honor  of  knighthood.  As  a  sound  lawyer,  acute 
cross-examiner,  and  persuasive  advocate  Sir 
Charles  Russell  is  without  a  rival  at  the  English 
bar.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  counsel  in  the 
Chetwynd  and  Durham  arbitration  case,  and  de- 
fended the  prisoner  in  the  famous  Maybrick  mur- 
der case  in  1889.  He  increased  his  reputation  in 
1889  by  his  masterly  oration  at  the  Parnell  Com- 
mission, where  he  appeared  as  counsel  for  Mr. 
Parnell. 

RUSSELL,  Charles  Annisov,  an  American  leg- 
islator, born  in  Massachusetts  in  1852.  He  grad- 
uated from  Yale  College  in  the  class  of  1873;  was 
aid-de-camp  on  Governor  Bigelow's  staff;  was  a 
member  of  the  house,  general  assemlily  of  Con- 
necticut, in  1883 ;  was  secretary  of  State  of  (Con- 
necticut, in  1885, '86;  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1887;  his  present  term  expires  1893. 

RUSSELL,  Leslie  \V.,  a  lawyer  and  member  of 
Congress,  born  in  Canton,  N'.  Y.,  .\pril  15,  1840.  He 
studied  law  in  .Vlbany,  N.  Y.,  and  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
and  entered  his  profession  in  May,  1S61  ;  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion of  1867;  district  attorney  of  St.  Lawrence 
County,  in  1869 — '72,  and  county  judge  of  the 
same  county,  in  1877 — '82;  in  1882  was  elected  at- 
torney-general of  the  State  of  New  York ;  was 
Regent  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
anda  member  of  the  State  judiciary  constitutional 
commission;  in  1890  was  elected  a  rejiresentative 
from  the  22nd  Congressional  District  of  New  York 
to  the  52nd  Congress. 
49 


RUSSELL,  W.  Clark,  novelist,  born  in  New 
Y'ork,  1844,  of  English  parentage,  being  the  son  of 
Henry  Russell,  author  of  Clucr,  Boys,  Cheer.  Went 
to  sea  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  as  a  midshipman,  and 
made  several  voyages  to  Australia,  India,  and 
China.  He  abandoned  a  naval  career  in  1865,  and 
ten  years  later  achieved  his  first  literary  success  in 
John  Holdsworth,  Chief  Mate.  The  warm  welcome 
given  to  this  book  led  him  to  draw  further  on  his 
nautical  experiences,  and  his  other  works  include 
The  Wreck  of  the  Grosvenor;  A  Sea  Queen,  and  Jack's 
Conrtship.  He  has  also  contributed  to  the  periodical 
press  many  sketclies  of  voyages  and  naval  inci- 
dents under  the  pseudonym  of  "A  Seafarer."  His 
latest  work  is  Mi/  Shijmiate  Louise,  published  in 
1.S90. 

RUSSELL,  William  Howard,  an  Irish  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Lily  Yale  in  1821.  He  entered 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  while  there  com- 
menced his  connection  with  the  "Times"  ;  called  to 
the  Englisli  bar  in  1850;  was  correspondent  of  the 
"Times"  in  the  Crimea  and  was  engaged  in  a  similar 
capacity  during  the  progress  of  the  Indian  mutiny, 
and  its  suppression,  which  afterwards  was  fully 
described  in  My  Diary  in.  India.  He  was  in  the 
United  States  as  correspondent  of  the  "Times  "  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  of  secession.  In  18(i6  he  correspond- 
ed with  the  "Times"  from  the  Austrian  headquarters 
daring  the  Austro- Prussian  war.  In  the  Franco- 
German  war  he  was  correspondent  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Crown  Prince.  In  1858  he  estab- 
lished the  "  Army  and  Navy  Gazette."  Many 
records  of  his  journeys  have  appeared,  including 
A  Visit  til  Chile  and  Ihe  Cold  Fields,  published  in  1890. 

RUSSIAN  EMPIKE.  For  general  article  on 
Russian,  and  the  Russia  Empire,  see  Britannica, 
Vol  XXI,  pp.  67-110. 

I'RESKNT  Empehor  AND  RoYAL  Family. — Alexan- 
er  III,  "Emperor  of  All  theRussias,"  was  born  Feb. 
26,  (New  Style,  March  10)  1845.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Alexander  II,  and  Princess  Maria,  daughter 
of  the  Grand-duke  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  (by  assassination,  March  13, 
1881)  he  was  crowned  at  Moscow,  May  i27,  1883.  He 
was  married,  Nov.  7, 1866,  to  Maria  Dagmar  (born 
Nov.  26,  1847)  daughter  of  King  Christian  IX,  of 
Denmark.  Hereldest  sister  is  the  Princess  Alex- 
andra, the  wife  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  England. 

Children  of  the  Emperor. — 1.  Grand-duke  Nicholas, 
heir-appareiit,  born  May  6  (Jlay  18),  1868. 

2.  Grand-duke  George,  born  April  27  (May  9), 
1871. 

3.  Grand-duchess  Xenia,  born  March  25  (April 
%;,  1875. 

4.  Grand-duke  Michael,  born  November  22 
(December  4),  1878. 

5.  Grand-duchess  Olga,  born  June  1  (June  13), 
1882. 

Brothers  and  Sister  of  the  Emperor. — 1.  Grand-duke 
Vladimir,  born  April  10  (April  22),  1847;  married 
August  16  (August  28),  1874,  to  Princess  Marie  ef 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  Offspring  of  the  union 
are  three  sons  and  oiie  daughter: — 1.  (!yril.  liorii 
September  30  (October  12),  1876.  2.  Boris,  liorn 
November  12  (November  24),  1877.  3.  Andreas, 
born  May  2  (May  14),  1879.  4.  Heleiie,  born  Janu- 
ary 17  (January  29),  1882. 

2.  (irand-duke  Alexis,  high-admiral,  born  Janu- 
ary 2  (January  14),  18.50. 

3.  Grand-duchess,  Marie,  born  October  5  (Octo- 
ber 17),  1S53;  married  January  21,  1874,  to  the  Duke 
of  Edinburgh,  son  of  Queen  Victoria  of  Great 
Britain. 

4.  Grand-duke  Sergius,  born  April  29  (May  11), 
18.57;  married  June  3  (June  15),  1884,  to  Princess 
Elizabeth  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 


13G2 


RUSSIAN    EMPIRE 


5.  Grand-duke  l^aul,  born  September  21  {October 
3),  IS60;  married,  Juno  5  (June  17),  1SS9,  to  Prin- 
cess Alexandra,  daughter  of  the  King  of  Greece. 
Offspring  ;  a  daughter,  Marie,  born  April  (3  (18)  18'J0. 

i'nclcs  and  Aunts  oj  the  Emporer. — I.  Grand- duke 
Constantine,  brother  of  the  late  Emporer  Alexan- 
der II;  born  September  9  (Septeml)er  21),  1827; 
higli-admiral  of  the  Russian  navy;  married  August 
30  (September  11),  1848,  to  Princess  Alexandra  of 
Saxe-Altenburg,  of  which  union  there  are  issue 
five  children  : — 1.  Nicholas,  born  February  2  (Feb- 
ruary 14),  1850.  2.  Olga,  born  August  22  (Septem- 
ber 3),  1851,  and  married  October  27,  1867,  to 
Georgios  I,  King  of  the  Hellenes.  3.  Vera,  born 
February  4  (February  16),  1854,  and  married  May 
8,  1874,  to  Prince  Eugene  of  Wiirtemberg ;  widow 
January  15,  1877.  4.  llonstantine,  Ijorii  August  10 
(August  22),  1858,  married  April  15  (April  27),  1884, 
to  Princess  Elizabeth  of  Saxe-.lltenburg,  Duchess 
of  Saxony,  three  children  : — John,  born  July  6.  1886; 
Gabriel,  born  July  15,  1.887 ;  Tatina,  born  January 
23,  18it0.     5.  Dimitri,  born  June  1  (June  13),  1860. 

II.  Grand-duke  Nicholas,  brother  of  the  preceed- 
icg,  born  July  27  (August  8),  1831 ;  field-marshal  in 
the  Russian  army  and  inspector-general  of  cavalry 
and  the  corps  of  engineers;  married  January  25 
(February  6),  18.56,  to  Princess  Alexandra  of  Olden- 
burg, of  which  marriage  there  are  two  sons: — 1. 
Nicholas,  born  November  6  (November  IS),  1856. 
2.  Peter,  born  January  10  (January  22),  1864;  mar- 
ried .fuly  26  (August  7),  1889,  to  the  Princess  iU\- 
itsa  of  Montenegro. 

III.  Grand-duke  Michael,  born  October  13  (Octo- 
ber 25),  1832;  fleld-marshal  in  the  Russian  army; 
married  August  16  (August  28),  1857,  to  the  Prin- 
cess Cecilia  of  Baden,  of  which  union  there  are 
issue  seven  children  ; — 1.  Nicholas,  born  April  14 
(April  26),  18.59.  2.  Anastasia,  born  July  16  (July 
28),  1860,  and  married  January  12  (January  24), 
1879,  to  Prince  Friedrich  Franz  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin.  3.  ilichael,  born  October  4  (October  16), 
1861.  4.  George,  born  August  11  (-\ugust  23),  1863. 
5.  Alexander,  born  April  1  (April  13),  1866.  6.  Ser- 
gius,  born  September  25  (October  7),  1869.  7.  Alexis, 
born  December  16  (December  28),  1875. 

IV.  Grand-duches  Olga,  sister  of  the  late  Em- 
porer Alexander  II ;  born  August  30  (September 
11),  1822;  married  July  1  (July  13),  1846,  to  Prince 
Karl,  then  heir-apparent,  now  King,  of  Wiirtem- 
berg. 

The  reigning  family  of  Russia  descend,  in  the 
female  line,  from  Michael  Romanof,  elected  Tsar 
in  1(;13,  after  the  extinction  of  the  House  of  Rurik; 
and  in  the  male  line  from  the  Duke  Karl  Friedrich 
of  IIolstein-Gottorp,  born  in  1701,  scion  of  the 
younger  branch  of  the  princely  family  of  Olden- 
burg. The  \inion  of  his  daughter  Anne  with  Duke 
Karl  Friedrich  of  Holstein-Gottory  formed  part  of 
the  great  reform  project  of  Peter  I,  intended  to 
bring  Russia  into  closer  contact  with  the  western 
states  of  Europe.  Peter  I.  was  succeeded  by  his 
second  wife,  Catherine,  the  daughter  of  a  Livonian 
peasant,  and  she  by  Peter  II.  the  grandson  of 
Peter,  with  whom  the  main  line  of  the  Romanofs 
terminated,  in  the  year  1730.  The  reign  of  the 
next  three  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Ann,  Ivan  VI,  and 
Elizabeth,  of  the  female  line  of  Romanof,  formed 
a  transition  period,  which  came  to  an  end  with  the 
accession  of  Peter  III.  of  the  house  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp.  All  subsequent  emporers,  without  ex- 
ception, connected  themselves  by  marriage  with 
German  families.  The  wife  and  successor  of  Peter 
III.  Catherine  II.  daughter  of  the  Prince  of  Anhalt 
Zerbst,  general  in  the  Prussian  army,  left  the 
crown  to  her  only  son,  Paul,  who  became  the  father 
of  two  emporers,  Alexander  I.  and  Nicholas,  and 


the  grandfather  of  a  third,  Alexander  II.  All 
these  sovereigns  married  German  princesses,  cre- 
ating intimate  family  alliances,  among  others,  with 
the  reigning  houses  of  Wiirtemberg,  Baden  and 
Prussia. 

The  emperor  is  in  possession  of  the  revenue  from 
the  Crown  domains,  consisting  of  more  than  a  mil- 
lion square  miles  of  cultivated  land  and  forests,  be- 
sides gold  and  other  mines  in  Siberia,  and  pro- 
ducing a  vast  revenue,  the  actual  amount  of  which 
is,  however,  unknown,  as  no  reference  to  the  subject 
is  made  in  the  budgets  or  finance  accounts,  the 
Crown  dom  ains  being  considered  the  private  prop- 
erty of  the  imperial  family. 

Constitution  and  Govkrnment. — A  complete 
list  of  the  emperors  of  Russia,  and  a  detailed  de- 
scription of  its  constitution  and  government  are 
given  in  the  Britannica.  The  title  emperor  was 
adopted  in  1721.  The  succession  to  the  throne  is 
j)rimogeniture,  preference  being  given  to  the  male 
heirs.  Another  fundamental  law  of  the  realm  is 
that  every  sovereign  of  Russia  with  his  consort  and 
children  must  be  a  member  of  the  Orthodox  Greek 
C'hurch.  The  princess  and  princesses  of  the  impe- 
rial house,  according  to  a  degree  of  Alexander 
I.,  must  obtain  tlie  consent  of  the  emperor  to  any 
marriage  they  may  contract ;  otherwise  the  .issue 
of  such  union  cannot  inherit  the  throne.  By  an 
ancient  law  of  Russia,  the  heir-apparent  is  held  to 
be  of  age  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  year ;  and  the 
other  members  of  the  reigning  family  with  the 
completed  twentieth  year. 

The  administration  of  the  empire  is  entrusted  to 
four  great  boards,  or  councils,  possessing  sepa- 
rate functions.  The  first  of  these  boards  is  the 
Cuuucil  iij  the  State,  established  in  its  present  form 
by  Alexander  I.,  in  the  year  of  1810.  It  consists  of 
a  president,  and  an  unlimited  number  of  members 
appointed  by  the  emperor.  In  1889  the  council 
consisted  of  60  members,  exclusive  of  the  ministers, 
wlio  have  a  seat  <'.'■  officio. 

The  chief  function  of  the  council  of  the  empire 
is  that  of  examining  into  the  projects  of  laws 
which  are  brought  before  it  by  theministers,  andof 
discussing  the  budget  and  all  the  expenditures  to 
be  made  during  the  year.  But  the  council  has  no 
power  of  proposing  alterations  and  modifications 
of  the  laws  of  realm  ;  it  is,  properly  speaking,  a 
consultative  institution  in  matters  of  legislation. 
A  special  department  is  intrusted  with  the  discus- 
sion of  the  requests  addressed  to  the  emperor 
against  the  decisions  of  the  senate. 

The  second  of  the  great  colleges  or  boards  of 
government  is  the  Utilhtg  Senate  or  "Pravitelst  vuyu- 
Bchiy  Senat."  The  functions  of  the  senate  are 
partly  deliberative  and  partly  executive  in  charac- 
ter. To  be  valid  a  law  must  be  proclaimed  by  the 
senate.  It  is  also  a  liigh  court  of  justice  for  the 
empire. 

The  third  college,  established  by  Peter  I.  in  the 
year  of  1721,  is  the  Holy  Syvod,  and  to  it  is  com- 
mitted the  superintendence  of  the  religious  afi'airs 
of  the  empire.  It  is  composed  of  the  three  metro- 
politans (St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  and  KieflF),  the 
archbishops. 

The  fourth  board  of  government  is  the  Committee 
of  Ministers.  It  consists  of  all  the  ministers,  who 
are — 

1.  The  Ministry  of  the  Imperial  House. — General 
Count  Vorontzoff-Dashkoff.  aide-de-camp  of  the 
emperor;  appointed  ]\Iinister  of  the  Imperial 
House,  in  succession  to  Count  Alexander  Adler- 
berg,  JIarch  20,  1881. 

2.  Tlie  Jlinistry  of  Foreign  Affairs. — Actual  Privy 
Councillor  Nicolas  Calovitch  DeGiers;  appointed 
^Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Anril.  1882. 


RUSSIAN    EMPIRE 


1363 


3.  The  Ministry  of  AVar. — General  Vannovski, 
aide-de-camp  of  the  Emperor;  appointed  Minister 
of  War,  March  l'9,  1881." 

•i.  The  Ministry  of  the  Navy. —  Vice-Admiral 
Tehikhatchoff,  appointed  December,  1888. 

5.  The  Ministry  of  the  Interior. — Actual  Privy 
Councillor  Durnovo,  appointed  May  18,  1889. 

6.  The  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction. — Actul 
Privy  Councillor  Delyanoff,  appointed  1882. 

7.  The  Ministry  of  Finance. — Privy  Councillor 
Vyshnegradsky,  appointed  1887. 

8.  The  Ministry  of  Justice. — Senator  Privy  Coun- 
cillor Manasein,  appointed  November  19,  1885. 

9.  The  Ministry  of  the  State's  Domains. — Actual 
Privy  Councillor  Ostrovsky,  appointed  1881. 

10.  The  Ministry  of  Public  Works  and  Kailways. 
— Pri\'7  Councillor  von  Hiibbenet, appointed  April, 
1889. 

11.  The  Department  of  General  Control. — Actual 
Privy  Councillor  Filipoff,  appointed  Comptroller- 
General,  1889. 

The  post  of  minister  and  state  secretary  for 
Finland  remains  vacant  since  the  death  of  Baron 
Brunn  (1888). 

Most  of  the  above  heads  of  departments  have 
assistant  ministers  who  supply  their  place  on  cer- 


During  the  years  1883-6  the  institutions  ot  the 
zoii^lro  were  in  force  in  34  provinces  (361  districts'; 
of  European  Russia.  The  number  of  electors  was: 
40.172  landowners,  48,091  urban  population,  and 
196,773  peasants.  As  to  the  number  of  votes  given 
to  the  above  electors,  it  appears  that  64  per  cent, 
of  all  votes  belong  to  peasants,  12  per  cent,  to 
nobles,  10  per  cent,  to  merchants,  5  per  cent,  to  the 
clergy,  and  4  per  cent,  to  artisans.  Of  the  13,196 
elected  memliers  of  the  assemblies  of  the  zeinstvos, 
35  per  cent,  belonged  to  the  noliility,  15  per  cent. 
to  the  class  of  the  "merchants,"  and  38  per  cent,  to 
the  peasantry.  The  executives  of  tlie  zetnstvos 
(the  "iipraras" )  ha.\e  1,263  members,  out  of  whom 
two-thirds  are  peasants  in  East  Russia,  while  in 
Middle  Russia  from  two-thirds  to  three-cjuarters  of 
the  members  are  nobles.  The  34  provincial  execu- 
tives have  137  members  (98  nobles,  21  officials,  9 
merchants,  3  artisans,  and  2  peasants). 

The  Baltic  provinces  have  some  institutions  for 
self  government  of  their  own.  These  have,  how- 
ever, been  gradually  curtailed ;  and  the  privileges 
of  the  provinces  in  police  and  school  matters, 
chiefly  vested  in  the  nol)ility,  have  been  taken 
away  by  a  law  of  June  21,  1888,  the  judicial  and 
police  rights  of   the  landlords  having  been  trans- 


Years 

European 
Russia 

Poland 

Finland 

Caucasus 

Central 
Asia 

Siberia 

Total 

1867 

1870-72t 

1882-83H 

1887 

Average  ) 

Yearly 
Increase ) 

63,658,934 
65,704,5.59 
77.879,521 
85,282,101 

5.705,607 
6.026,421 
7,0.1:^.475 
8,319,797 

1,794,911 
1,832,1:58 
2,142,093 
2,232,378 

4,583,040 
4.893,:«2 
6,.5:>t.S.53 
7,458,151 

2,626,246 
4,566,096 
5,237,:5.54 
5,.532,021 

3,.S27,627 
3,428,867 
4,093,5.35 
4,493,667 

81,690,905 
80,451,413 
102,970,8:a 
113,317,115 

1,081,158 

130,710 

21,873 

143,725+iT 

140,289+tt 

58,302 

1,581,0.57 

+  Finland,  1872;  Caucasus,  1871 ;  Russia,  Poland,  Siberia,  and  Central  Asia,  1870. 
+i  Finland,  1883;  Caucasus.  1883;  Russia.  Poland.  Siboria.  and  Central  Asia,  1882. 
•Ht  Increased  by  annexations  and  better  registration. 

tain  occasions.  They  all  communicate  directly 
with  the  sovereign. 

The  emperor  has  two  private  cabinets,  one  of 
which  is  occupied  with  charitable  affairs,  and  the 
other  is  devoted  to  public  instruction  of  girls  and 
to  the  administration  of  the  institutions  established 
by  the  late  Empress  Maria,  mother  of  the  Emperor 
Nicholas  I.  Besides,  there  is  the  imperial  head- 
quarters (Glavnaia  Kvartira),  anda  cabinet,  which 
is  entrusted  also  with  the  reception  of  petitions 
presented  to  the  emperor,  formerly  received  by  a 
special  court  of  requests  (abolished  in  1884).  Ac- 
cording to  a  law  ot  May  19,  1888,  a  special  imperial 
cabinet  having  four  sections  (administrative,  eco- 
nomical, agricultural  and  manufacturing,  and  leg- 
islative) has  been  created,  instead  of  the  same  de- 
partments in  the  ministry  of  imperial  house- 
hold. 

The  empire  is  divided  into  general  governments, 
or  vice-royalties,  governments  and  districts.  There 
are  at  present  in  European  Russia  (including  Po- 
land and  Finland)  sixty-eight  governments,  with 
635  districts  (uyi'zd),  two  oldjieh,  and  one  <)/it»,';,  also 
considered  as  separate  governments.  For  a  full 
description  of  the  local  governments  see  Britan- 
nica. 

The  local  administration  in  the  districts  or  prov- 
inces is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the zcm.'f'o.s elected 
by  the  peasantry,  the  householders  in  towns,  and 
the  landed  proprietors. 


ferred  to  functionaries  nominated  by  the  state. 
By  a  law  of  July  21,  1889,  the  last  vestiges  of  ma- 
norial justice  and  of  tribunals  under  the  German- 
speaking  nobility  have  been  abolished,  but  the  Law 
of  Justice  of  1,864,  which  is  in  force  in  Russia,  has 
been  but  partially  applied  to  the  province.s,  so  as 
to  maintain  the  administration  of  justice  under 
the  central  government.  The  Russian  language 
has  been  rendered  obligatory  in  the  ofiicial  cor- 
respondence of  all  parish,  municipal,  and  pro- 
vincial administration  ;  so  also  is  the  Dorpat  Uni- 
versity, which  was  deprived  in  Deceml>er,  18.S9,  of 
its  privileges  of  self-government,  and  the  gvmnasia 
in  1890. 

Area  and  Poi-i'lation. — The  Russian  Empire 
comprises  one-seventh  of  the  land-surface  of  the 
globe,  and  covers,  with  internal  waters,  an  area  of 
8,644,100  English  s<juar(>  miles.  Tliere  has  been  no 
general  census  of  the  [)opulation  since  1859,  but 
various  enumerations,  chiefly  made  by  the  statis- 
tical committees,  furnisli  an  approximately  cor- 
rect return  of  tlie  people.  According  to  these,  the 
total  population  of  the  empire  numbered  in  1887, 
113,354,649  inliabitants. 

The  growth  of  the  population  during  the  inter- 
vals of  tlie  official  estimates  since  18.59  is  shown  by 
the  above  table. 

The  following  table  shows  tlie  area  and  popula- 
tiofl  by  provinces,  as  rejiorted  in  the  ofiicial  esti- 
mates of  1887 : 


1364 


RUSSIAN    E  J\I  P  I  M  E 


Province. 


1.  European  Russia  (1885); 

Archangelsk 

Astrakhan 

Bessarabia 

Cheruigoff 

Courland 

Dou,  Region  of 

Ekaterinoslaf 

Esthonia 

<iro(Iuo 

Kalnga 

Kazan 

Kieff 

Kosbroma 

Kovno 

Kursk 

Kharkoff 

Kherson 

Livonia  

Minsk 

Moghilev 

Moscow 

Nijni-Novgorod 

Novgorod 

Olonetz 

Orel  ,: 

Orenburg 

Penza  

Perm 

Podolia 

Poltava 

Pskoft 

Ryazan 

St.  Petersburg 

Samara 

SaratoS 

Simbirsk 

Smolensk 

Tamboff 

Taurida 

Tula 

Tver 

Ufa 

Vilua 

Vitebsk 

Vladimir... 

A'olhynia 

Voloada 

Voronej 

Vyatka 

Yaroslav. 

Sea  of  Azov 

Total,  Russian  Provinces 

2.  Poland:— 

Kalisz 

Kielce 

Lomja 

Lublin    

Piotrkow 

Plock 

Radom 

Siedlce 

Suwaiki 

Warsaw 

Total,  Poland 

3.  Gyaad-Duchy  of  Finland 

Abo-Bjornebo'rg'. 

Kuopio 

Kvlaud 

-St.  Michel 

Tavastehus 

UleS-borg 

Viborg  

Vasa 

Finland 

Total.  Euroi^ean  Russia.. . 

1.  Russia  in  Asia: — 

Kuban 

Stavropol 

Terek 

Northern  Caucasia 


Area: 
English 
stjuare 

miles 


331,505 
91.327 
17,619 
20,2:53 
10,535 
61,886 
26,148 
7,818 
14,931 
11,942 
24,001 
19,691 
32,702 
15,692 
17,937 
21,041 
27,523 
18,1.58 
35,293 
18,551 
12,859 
19,797 
47,236 
.57,439 
18,042 
73.816 
14,997 

128,211 
16,224 
19.265 
17,069 
16,255 
20,760 
58,321 
32,624 
19,110 
21,638 
25,710 
24,539 
11,954 
25,225 
47,112 
16,421 
17,440 
18,8l')4 
27,743 

155,498 
25,443 
,59,117 
13,751 
14,478 


Popula- 
tion 


1,902,092 


.392 
.897 
,667 
499 
,729 
,200 
769 
,535 
,846 
.623 


49,157 


9.3:K 
16,499 
4,586 
8,819 
8,334 
63,971 
16,627 
16,084 


144,255 
2,095,.501 


36,439 
23,397 
26,822 


86,658 


340.251 

9:!2,5:^9 
1,588,329 
2.109.983 

676,582 
1,896,113 
1,874,162 

392.738 
1,354,425 
1.199,882 
2,113,954 
2,917,997 
1,354,162 
1,532,747 
2,666,573 
2,322.039 
2,026.8.53 
1,229,468 
1,680,615 
1,294.116 
2.210,791 
1..513,;«8 
1,213,058 

341,.568 
2,021.239 
1,306,539 
1.522,537 
2,713,987 
2,423.755 
2,794,739 

965,&55 
1,843,345 
1,680,275 
2.517,808 
2,311,220 
1, .579 ,847 
1,339,444 
2,7:30,145 
1.096,670 
1,445,600 
1,781,861 
1,942,491 
1,304.788 
1,275,954 
1,403,172 
2,264,867 
1,239,754 
2,-588,933 
2.914,-344 
1,126,891 


887,317 
692.:528 
608,683 
979,700 

1,091,282 
600.662 
716,164 
671,598 
656.932 

1.465,131 


8,319,797 


asfl,.501 
277.635 
227.:388 
175,110 
245,690 
2:M,015 
330,823 
399,750 


2,270,912 
95,870,810 


1,286,622 
667,511 
719,468 


1 

10 
90 

104 
64 
30 
71 
50 
90 

100 
85 

148 
41 
97 

148 

110 
73 
67 
47 
69 

171 
76 
25 
5 

112 
17 

101 
21 

149 

145 
56 

113 
80 
43 
70 
82 
61 

100 
44 

120 
70 
41 
79 
73 
74 
81 
7 

101 
49 

81 


190 
177 
130 
1.50 
230 
143 
150 
121 
135 
260 


Province. 

Area: 
English 
square 

miles 

Popula- 
tion 

a 

Baku                     ... 

15,177 
11,492 
17.041 
10,745 
7,200 
•     14,084 
17,223 

95,799 

182,457 

229,609 
184,631 
176,219 
139,168 
26,160 

744,9.30 
597,:«6 
7.53,395 
677,491 
237,114 
9.55.000 
819,204 

4, 784  ,.550 

7,4.58,151 

480,874 
57r.,578 
.343,485 
547,102 

49 

51 

EliV-abethi'Ol 

44 

63 

.32 

Kutais 

67 

TiHis 

18 

Trans-Caucasia 

■'49 

40 

Akmolinsk 

2 
3 

Turgai 

Uralsk 

1 
3 

755,793 

26,627 
35,654 
152.280 
194.853 

1,948,099 

680,135 

716,133 

671,878 

1,214,300 

2 

25 

Ferganah  (1885) 

20 

4 

fi 

Turkestan 

409,414 

214,237 
169,381 

3,282,446 
301,476 

Trans-Caspian      ...'  ... 

1 

Caspian  Sea 

Total,  Central  Asian  Dominions 

Tobolsk 

1,548,825 

539,6.59 
331,159 

5,532,021 

1,375,455 
1,256,792 

3 

2 

Western  Siberia    .   . 

870,818 

287,061 

2.36,868 

1,5:33,397 

987,186 

2,632,247 

421,187 
545,338 
266,(i71 
458,572 

Irkutsk            

1 

Yakutsk     

1 

Yeniseisk 

'4 

Eastern  Siberia    

3,044,512 

172,848 
715,982 

1,680,708 

63.221 
102,780 

■5 

Amur  (1886) ...' 

■3 
■1 

888,830 

106,007 

"1 

Sakhalin                

29,336 

14.645 

4 

Tota'   Siberia ' 

4,833,496 

4,493,667 
17,483,839 

Total.  Asiatic  dominions 

6,564,778 

2 

Grand  Total,  Russian  Empire 

8,660,282 

113,354,649 

13 

In  INIarch,  1888,  the  Chernomorsk  district  was 
annexed  to  the  province  of  Kuban;  the  Zakatly 
district  was  incorporated  into  the  province  of 
Kars ;  and  the  Zerafshan  district  was  added  to  the 
Amu-Daria  province  to  constitute  the  new  Samar- 
cand  province.  In  1889  the  island  of  Sakhalin  was 
separated  from  the  Primorsk  province  under  a 
separate  governor. 

The  internal  waters  (lakes  and  estuaries)  occupy 
the  following  areas,  in  square  miles : — In  European 
Russia,  25,804;  in  Finland,  18,471;  in  Siberia, 
18,863 ;  and  in  Central  Asia,  19,8.55.  The  Seas  of 
Azov,  Caspian  and  Lake  Aral  cover  an  aggregate 
surface  of  210,025  square  miles.  The  superficies  of 
all  Russian  provinces  have  been  carefully  revised 
by  General  Strelbitzky ;  his  figures  are  given  in 
the  above  for  Russia  in  Asia  ;  those  for  European 
Russia  very  slightly  differ  from  the  above,  the  to- 
tal area  of  the  Russian  provinces  of  European  Rus- 
sia, with  all  islands  and  deltas,  being  now  given  at 
1,902,227  English  square  miles. 

According  to  a  recent  partial  census,  the  Jews 
number  2,843,364  in  the  western  and  southwestern 
provinces  of  Russia  (2,261,863  in  towns),  that  is  11.3 


RUSSIAN    EMPIRE 


1365 


per  cent  of  the  aggregate  population  :  77,275  in  the 
three  townships  of  Odessa  (73,389,  i.  e.35.1  per  cent, 
of  population),  Kertch,  and  Sebastopol ;  and  481,800 
in  five  governments  only  of  Poland  out  of  ten  (U 
per  cent  of  population).  Their  aggregate  number 
in  Russia  would  thus  ^xceed  3'^  millions. 

Revenue  in  1890.— The  Russian  Budget  for  1890 
furnished  the  following  figures  as  to  the  amounts 
and  sources  of  the  revenues  for  that  year: 

Sources  of  Revenue  1890. 

1.    Ordinary  revenue :  Roubles 

Direct  taxes — 

Land  and  personal 42,822,184 

Trade  licenses ,.  32,7.W.U00 

On  capital 11,.>57,S00 

Total  direct  taxes 87,129,984 

Indirect  taxes- 
Excise  on   spirits 253.s:«,580 

"     tobacco ■. 20,708.000 

"     sugar 20,18,5.000 

•'     naphtha 9.029,500 

"     matches 5,829,000 

Customs  duties 121,47-1,000 

Stamp  duties 40,898,188 

Total  indirect  taxes 491,2.59,208 

Mint,  mines,  post  and  telegraphs 34,605,053 

State  Domaius 83,760,2.34 

Redemption  of  land;  State's  peasants 53,557,932 

Liberated  serfs 42,244,157 

■  Miscellaneous 96,275,423 

Total  ordinary  revenue 888,898,051 

II.  "  Recettes  d'Ordre  ' 2,593,257 

III.  Extraordinarv  revenue: 

War  contributions .3,439,.583 

Perpetual  deposits  at  the  Bank  of  Russia. .  600.000 

Re-imbursement  of  railway  loans 9.000,000 

Receipts  on  account  of  Eastern  loans  2,229,882 

Special  capitals  returning  to  Treasury 

Total  extraordinary  revenue 15,809,484 

Cost  for  covering  extraordinary  expenditure 40,.50S,466 

Grand  total  revenue  in  1880 947,869.239 

E-\PE.voiTURES  FOR  1.891. — The  following  are  the 
official  figures  as  printed  in  the  government  esti- 
mates for  1891 : 

Branches  of  Expenditure.  1891. 

I.  Ordinary  expenditure:  Roubles. 
Public  debt— 

(a)  Interest  and  capital,  state  debts 191,588,0.36 

(/>)         ''       railway  obligations 05,1.53,405 

Higher  institutions  of  the  State 2,081.300 

Holy  .Synod Il,:i5.5,914 

Ministry  of  the  Imperial  Household 10,.500.000 

"  Foreign  Affairs 4,9.50,031 

"  "  War •. 220.0.52,168 

'•  Navy , 4:j,7.59.924 

**  "  Finances     115,007.790 

"  ••  .State  Domains 25,914,902 

'•  "  Interior 80,206,885 

"  ■•  Public  Instruction 22,93.5,781 

"  '•  Wavs  and  Communication 57,367,310 

••  Justice a!.)01,999 

State  Control 4.29.3.798 

Direction  of  studs 1,219,948 

Unforseen ^ 8,000,000 

Total  ordinary  expenditure 895,330.395 

II.  "Di'^pcnses  d'Ordre  "  .    -   3,558,020 

III.  Extraordinary  expenditure: — 

For  Railways  and  ports 42,913,.500 

Reform  of  armament ■. 20,000.000 

Special  reserves  of  food  supplies .500,000 

Total  extraordinary  expenditure. . .  6.3,413,.500 

Prand  total  exnenditure  in  1891 962,302,521 


PcBi-ic  Debt,  .I.\n.  I,  1890. — Reckoning  the  pound 
sterling  as  equal  to  6r.  40c.  in  gold,  and  the  roul)le 
in  gold  as  equal  to  Ir.  70c.  in  paper  money,  tlie 
state's  control  gives  (in  the  Ojf.  .lA.ss.,  Dec.  17  .1890) 
all  liabilities  of  the  empire,  inclu.sive  of  the  debt 
for  the  redemption  of  land,  as  follows,  in  paper 
money  (roubles;,  on  .Jan.  1.  1890:- 


State  debt'  inclusive  of  the  :>aper  currency  (568,- 
.5.59.743  roubles)  and  50,000,000  roubles  to  the  Bank 

of  the  state  3,594,731,133 

Railway  obligations 1,405,379,243 

Redemption  of  laud 405,129,050 

Total  debt 5  525,240,020 

The  amount  of  money  in  the  treasury  on  Jan.  1, 
1890,  was  465,095,803  rouljles.  Deducting  this  sum 
from  the  debt  leaves  tlie  net  debt  on  Jan.  1,  1890, 
at  5,0(i0,144,197  roubles.  At  tliis  writing  (1891)  ten 
paper  roubles  are  e<iual  in  value  to  one  pound  ster- 
ling or  about  If5  in  United  States  currency. 

On  Feb.  8,  1890,  a  new  4  per  cent,  loan  was  con- 
cluded, through  ilie  International  and  Discount 
Bank,  to  the  amount  of  90,000,000  roubles  (360,000,- 
000  francs),  for  the  redemption  of  the  5  per  cent. 
The  bonds  are  redeemable  in  eighty  years,  and  are 
free  of  every  tax  or  duty.  The  price  of  issue  will 
be  93  per  cent.  Another  4  per  cent.  loan,  to  the 
amount  of  5,000,000  gold  roubles,  or  11,865,000?.,  was 
concluded  on  JNIarch  21,  1890,  for  the  redemption  of 
the  5  per  cent  loan  of  1862.  The  bonds  are  redeem- 
al)le  in  81  years. 

Defense — Army. — The  Russian  army  has  been 
entirely  reorganized  since  the  Turkish  war.  Since 
the  modification  of  the  laws,  June  26, 1888,  the  serv- 
ice has  been  organized  as  follows  : 

Out  of  more  tlian  .850,000  young  men  reaching 
every  year  their  21st  year,  about  250,000  are  taken 
into  the  active  army,  and  the  remainder  are  in- 
scribed partly  in  tlie  reserve  and  partly  in  tlie  2nd 
reserve,  or  "Zapas."  The  period  of  service  is,  in 
European  Russia,  five  years  in  the  active  army  (in 
reality  reduced  by  furloughs  to  4  years),  13  years 
in  the  reserve  and  5  years  in  the  "Zapas ;"  7  years  in 
active  army  and  6  years  in  the  reserve  in  the 
Asiatic  dominions;  and  3  years  in  the  active  army 
and  15  years  in  the  reserve  in  Caucasia.  In  case  of 
need  the  minister  of  war  has  the  right  of  keeping 
the  men  for  another  six  months  under  the  colors. 

Certain  privileges  are  granted  on  account  of  ed- 
ucation, and  clergymen  are  exempt,  as  also  doctors 
and  teachers. 

In  1888,  out  of  the  862,254  young  men  liable  to 
military  service,  19,.807  (4,024  .Jews)  did  not  appear ; 
143,737  were  found  too  weak  for  military  service ; 
about  200,000  inscribed  in  the  2nd  reserve  as  being 
single  workers  in  their  families,  and  249,087  were 
taken  into  the  army,  besides  2,400  Caucasian  na- 
tives, out  of  29,490  liable  to  service.  The  contin- 
gent for  1889  was  255.000  men,  besides  2,400 
Caucasians.  The  men  inscribed  in  the  reserve 
troops  are  convoked  for  drill  six  weeks  twice  a 
year. 

The  "Zapas,"  formerly  a  simple  militia,  was 
reorganized  in  1888,  and  the  dnration  of  the  serv- 
ice prolonged  to  43  years  instead  of  40.  It  is 
divided  into  two  jiarl's.  The  first  part  has  the 
character  of  reserve  troops,  and  inchides  all  those 
who  have  |)assed  through  active  service,  as  also 
those  who  have  not  been  taken  into  the  active 
army,  though  alilc-bodied.  It  is  intended  chiefly 
to  complete  the  active  troops  in  time  of  war,  and 
enables  Russia  to  coll  out,  in  case  of  need,  19 
classes  of  drilled  conscripts.  The  second  part,  or 
opoltchenie  (including  all  able-bodied  men  who 
have  served  in  the  first  division,  as  also  those  libe- 
rated from  service  as  not  fully  able-bodied,  or 
being  single  workers  in  their  families),  can  be 
called  out  only  by  an  imperial  manifesto  and  only 
for  <irg;uiizing  cnriis  of  niilitia. 

On  a  peace  footing  the  army  is  supposed  to  con- 
tain 1,920  field  officers,  ,865  officers  in  military 
schools,  and  812,078  men,  a  total  of  814,000  actual 
soldiers.  According  to  the  estimates  of  an  intelli- 
gent officer  of  high  rank  the  figures  now  represent- 


1366 


RUSSIAN     EMPIRE 


iiig  tlie  oflicial  suinniarit.'S  on  a  war-footing  may  be 
set  down  as  follows  : 


2 
o 

2 

s 
o 

Men. 

to 

O 

W 

1» 

Ha 
o  « 
O 

Si 

P 

P 
3 

Russia  in  Europe 

.36,778 
5,318 

441 
1,367 

849 

44,753 

4,3K7 
728 
66 
l.SO 
127 

5,4.S8 

1,770,206 
248,342 
20,257 
69,444 
41,415 

85,476 

15,196 

1,0.54 

4,545 

2,220 

:M3,488  3,380 
68,4111    300 

Trauscaspian        

Turkestan  aud  Omsk — 
Irkutsk  and  Amur 

4,573       30 
19,712     108 
7,718       58 

Total 

2,149,664 

108,491 

443,822  3,876 

The  Russian  Navy. — The  imperial  navy,  on 
Jan.  1,  1S91,  consisted  of  tlie  Baltic  fleet;  that  of 
the  Black  Sea;  the  fleets  of  the  Aral  and  Caspain 
seas ;  and  the  Siberian  fleet.  The  total  comprised 
208  armed  steam  vessels  (of  which  32  were  iron- 
clads, and  139  torpedo  boats)  with  an  armament  of 
1,348  guns.  The  navy  was  commanded  by  99  ad- 
mirals, vice-admirals,  rear-admiral,  and  generals, 
1,350  captains,  lieutenant,  and  mid-shipmen.  Be- 
sides the  above,  1,986  oflicers  of  various  grades 
belonging  to  special  branches  of  the  navy,  such  as 
pilots,  engineers,  artillerists,  were  borne  on  the 
active  list.  The  effective  number  of  sailors  of  the 
imperial  navy  during  the  same  period  serving 
afloat  was  27,096.  They  are,  like  the  soldiers  of 
the  army,  levied  by  recruitment.  The  period  of 
service  in  the  navy  is  ten  years,  seven  of  which 
must  be  spent  in  active  service  and  three  in  the 
service. 

Until  1886,  the  most  powerful  vessel  completed 
for  the  Russian  ironclad  fleet  was  the  mastless 
turret-ship  Peter  the  Great.  She  resembles  in  de- 
sign and  construction  the  great  mastless  turret- 
ships  of  the  British  navy,  more  -especially  the 
Dreadnought  of  the  British  navy,  though  of  larger 
size,  her  length  being  330  feet,  and  extreme  breadth 
63I4  feet.  The  three  ironclad  ships,  the  Tchesma, 
Catherine  II.,  and  Sinope,  are  still  more  powerful 
vessels  than  the  Peter  the  Great.  They  are  all  of 
the  same  dimensions,  which  are: — Length  between 
perpendiculars,  320  feet ;  extreme  breadth,  69  fe«t ; 
mean  draught,  26  feet.  The  armor  of  the  Sinope 
has  a  thickness  of  from  16  to  18  inches  above  the 
belt,  and  12  inches  in  the  casemates.  It  will  be 
armed  with  2  12-inch  guns  (50  tons),  the  range- -of 
which  is  supposed  to  be  13  miles.  The  Nicholas  I. 
and  the  Alexander  II.  are  also  formidable  vessels. 
Both  these  vessels  are  sister-ships,  326  feet  long  and 
67  feet  broad.  The  Nicholas  I.  is  protected  by  a  belt  8 
feet  wide  and  14  to  4  inches  thick,  with  a  12-inch 
backing  of  wood.  It  is  armed  with  2 12-inch,4  9-inch, 
and  8  6-inch  guns,  besides  10  2-inch  and  a  number 
of  smaller  rapid-firing  guns  and  torpedo-ejectors, 
and  has  a  steel  turret  with  10-inch  armor.  A  new 
sister-ship  to  both  these  was  begun  in  1887,  and  two 
others  in  1889,  at  Nikolaieff  and  Sebastopol. 

Next  to  these  ships  come  the  five  belted  cruisers. 
The  Duke  of  Edinburgh  and  the  General-Admiral 
are  each  270  feet  long  between  perpendiculars,  and 
48  feet  broad,  built  of  iron  sheathed  with  wood. 
The  battery  deck  of  these  cruisers  is  not  protected 
by  armor,  the  guns  being  so  arranged  as  to  fire  in 
all  directions.  The  Minin,  converted  into  an  ocean 
cruiser  in  1S78,  is  299  feet  long  and  49  feet  broad. 
The  Vladimir,  Monomakh  and  Dmitri  Donskoi,  are 
sister-ships,  and  are  295  feet  along  the  water-line. 
with  an  extreme  breadth  of  52  feet ;   draught  of 


water  at  stern  25  feet.  The  Admiral  Nakhimoff 
(14  guns)  has  been  found  needing  alterations, 
amounting  almost  to  complete  reconstruction. 

Next  in  the  list  of  sea-going  cruisers  stand  the 
four  ironclads  named  after  admirals — i.  e.  the 
Admiral  Tchitchagoff,  Admiral  Spiridoff,  Admiral 
Greig  and  Admiral  Lazareff. '  They  are  turret-ships 
of  the  type  of  the  I'rince  Albert  in  tlie  Royal  navy, 
the  turrets  being  encased  in  6-  and  4-incli  armour. 
The  Kniaz-l'ojarski  is  a  central-battery  belted  ship, 
272  feet  long,  49  feet  broad,  and  is  fully  rigged. 

The  belted  cruiser  Pamyat  Azova,  or  Remem- 
brance of  A/.off,  is  378  feet  long. 

In  18S9  a  new  ironclad  ship,  Navarin,  was  lieguii 
building  at  St.  l^etersburg,  as  well  as  two  ironclads 
on  the  Black  Sea,  Trekh  Svyatitelei  and  Twelve 
Apostles  ;  two  torpedo  boats,  Hocliland  and  Nargen, 
at  Abo;  the  torpedo-cruiser  Kazarsky  and  2  tor- 
pedo-boats, Adler  and  Anakria,  at  Elbing,  for  the 
Black  Sea  fleet.  The  Gangut,  built  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, has  a  length  of  278  feet  and  a  beam  of  62  feet, 
and  is  armed  with  9  big  guns. 

The  Volunteer  Fleet,  destined  for  commerce  and 
transport  of  exiles  to  Sakhalin  in  time  of  peace, 
and  for  war  purposes  in  time  of  war,  numbers  7 
cruisers. 

Commerce — Imports  akd  Exports. — In  1889,  the 
total  exports  were  valued  in  gold  at  766,300,000 
roubles;  imports,  436,987,000  roubles. 

The  sea-going  commercial  navy  (including  ves- 
sels of  100  tons  and  upwards)  of  Russia  consisted 
in  the  year  1890  of  236  steamers,  of  156,070  gross 
tons,  and  945  sailing  vessels,  of  271,265  net  tons. 
About  one-fourth  of  the  vessels  were  engaged  in 
trading  to  foreign  countries,  and  the  remainder 
coasting  vessels,  many  of  them  belonging  to 
Greeks,  sailing  under  the  Russian  flag. 

The  chief  Russian  fair  is  that  of  Nijni  Novgorod. 
In  1890  the  goods  shipped  to  the  fair  were  valued 
at  181,256.830  roubles,  as  against  193,371,165  roubles 
in  1888.  Of  that  there  remained  unsold  goods  to 
the  value  of  7,039,840  roubles  (13,914,632  roubles 
in  1888.)  The  chief  items  were:  Russian  cottons, 
28,713,500  roubles;  woolen  goods,  15,955,430  roubles; 
linen  and  hemp  goods,  4,235,375  roubles ;  silk  and 
silk  goods,  2,546,750  roubles;  furs,  8,443,605  rou- 
bles; leather  and  leather  ware,  7,660,915  roubles. 
Metals:  22,312,508  roubles ;  of  which;  brass  goods, 
1,782,100  roubles;  iron  and  steel,  15,395,224  roubles; 
iron  and  ste^-l  goods,  3,643,132  roubles;  glass  and 
earthenware,  (i,255,3.50  roubles. 

Agricultire. — The  number  of  foreign  landhold- 
ers in  Poland  reached  32,243  (29,370  Prussian)  in 
1885,  as  against  570  by  the  end  of  the  previous  dec- 
ade ;  their  aggregate  holdings  reached  2,361,000 
acres.  But,  according  to  a  law  passed  in  March, 
1887,  the  acquisition  of  land  in  Poland  and  South- 
western Russia  is  forbidden  to  aliens — the  aliens 
now  owning  land  there  being  bound  either  to  sell 
their  estate.s  in  five  years  to  l.'ussian  subjects,  or 
to  become  naturalized  Russian  subjects  them- 
selves. 

About  two-fifths  of  the  land  suitable  for  cul- 
tivation in  Russia  projier  is  held  by  the  Crown; 
one-fourth  by  landed  proprietors;  and  nearly  one- 
third  liy  the  peasantry.  Thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the 
population  are  landed  proprietors  ;  22,396,069  male 
peasants  held  in  village  communities  252,103,000 
acres  of  land  of  which  communities  had  purchased 
"2,0.59,268  acres;  moreover,  there  were  481,358  pri- 
vate land  proprietors,  holding  altogether  252,102,- 
000  acres  of  land,  distributed  as  follows  : — Nobility, 
114,480  landholders,  197,156,500  acres;  "merchants" 
and  artisans,  70,634  landholders,  31,.5ii9,700  acres; 
peasants.  278,179  landholders,  15,195,1(10  acres: 
various,    18,0(i5    landholders,  3,377,900  acres ;   and 


R  U  S  S  0  -  G  E  R  M  A  N  —  R  U  T  L  E  D  G  E 


1367 


various  private  companies,  4,792,800  acres.  In 
Poland  55  per  cent,  of  tlie  area  is  arable  land. 
One-half  of  tlie  total  area  is  private  property,  two- 
fifths  Ijeloug  to  peasants,  and  one-tenth  to  the 
State  and  various  institutions. 

The  state  of  the  redemption  operation  among 
the  liberated  serfs  is  seen  from  the  following  ac- 
counts up  till  January  1,  1889: 

.  Russia. 
Number  of  male  peasants  who  redeemed  the  land 

with  state  help 6,666,531 

Number  of  acres  redeemed 62,353,600 

Value  of  the  laud,  in  roubles 713,570,805 

Average  price  of  the  allotment 107r.  04c. 

Average  size  of  allotment,  in  acres 9-4 

Average  price  of  the  acre llr.  70c. 

Average  former  debt  of  the  landowner  to  the  state 

mortgage  bank,  per  allotment. 37r.  14c. 

Average  sum  paid  to  the  landlord,  per  allotment.  SHr.  90c. 

Moreover,  84,473  leaseholders  redeemed  their  al- 
lotments (1,734.076  acres)  for  the  sum  of  20,055,658 
roubles,  in  South  Russia  and  the  Western  Prov- 
inces, according  to  the  laws  of  1888,  which  recog- 
nize private  ownership  of  land. 

Mining  and  Metals. — As  the  soil  of  Russia  is 
rich  in  ores  of  many  kinds,  some  additional  statis- 
tics are  here  inserted.  The  latest  ofticial  returns 
for  mining  are  for  1887.  Tlie  following  products  for 
the  year  were  :  Gold,  .34,856  kilograms  ;  platinum, 
4,256  kilograms  ;  silver,  15,380  kilograms  ;  lead,  974 
tons;  copper,  3,567  tons;  pig-iron,  602,000  tons; 
iron,  354,000  tons  ;  steel,  213,000  tons  ;  coal,  4,462,000 
tons ;  naphtha,  2,690,000  tons ;  salt,  1,135,000  tons. 

Manuf.^ctures. — The  number  of  all  kinds  of 
manufactories,  mines  and  industrial  establishments 
in  European  Russia  (without  Poland  and  Finland) 
was  62,801  in  1885,  employing  994,787  work-people, 
and  producing  a  value  of  1,121,040,270  roubles.  The 
20,381  manufactories  of  Poland  employed  139,650 
workmen,  and  produced  a  value  of  185,822,200  rou- 
bles. The  Caucasus  had,  in  1884,  14,244  manufac- 
tories, mostly  small,  with  43,502  workmen,  producing 
a  value  of  34,759,000  roubles,  chiefly  in  silk;  while 
tlie  389  manufactories  of  Finland  yielded  £1,674,688. 
In  European  Russia  only  545  manufactures  have  a 
yearly  production  above  500,000  roubles,  and  2,417 
above  100,000  roubles. 

The  cotton  industry  is  rapidly  developing,  as  also 
that  of  wool  in  Southern  Russia. 

Of  the  people  employed  in  1887  there  were  19,063 
hoys,  8,311  girls,  184,144  women,  and  577,8.34  men. 
Besides,  the  small  manufactories  having  a  yearly 
production  of  less  than  1,000  rouliles  numbered  in 
1887,  54,486,  with  91,681  people  employed. 

Trade. — Ttie  chief  trade  of  the  empire  is  carried 
on  through  its  European  frontier,  as  seen  from  the 
following  table  in  thousands  of  roubles.  But  the 
European  frontier  does  not  include  the  Caucasus, 
80  that  the  rapidly  increasing  exports  of  grain, 
and  especially  of  naphtha,  from  the  ports  of  the 
Caucasus  appear  in  the  exports  from  the  Asiatic 
frontier,  although  both  are  exported  to  Europe. 
On  the  other  side,  the  arrivals  of  tea  from  China 
to  Odessa  or  St.  Petersburg  appear  in  the  imports 
to  the  European  frontier. 

Exports.  1888. 

^    ,                 ,                                                    1,000  Roubles 
Through  European  frontier 728,100 

™,     '1       ■  u'^'.'J."',-      .    "         •"'"^OO 

Trade  with  Finland 19,300 

Total 793,900 

Imports. 

From  European  frontier 832,300 

.\slatlc  ••        47,000 

Trade  with  Finland 11,400 

ToijJ  390,700 


If  the  trade  of  Northern  Caucasia  via  the  Black 
Sea  be  added  to  the  above  figures  for  1888  by  the 
European  frontier,  the  exports  would  be  758,297,528 
roubles,  and  the  imports  333,384,0-52  roubles. 

For  the  later  Religious,  R.\ilway  and  other  Sta- 
tistical Summaries  see  those  topics  in  these  Re- 
visions and  Additions. 

RUSSO-GERMAN  WAR,  the  name  given  by 
German  historians  to  the  last  stage  of  the  great 
European  war  against  Napoleon,  beginning  with 
the  Russian  campaign  of  1812  and  terminating  on 
the  field  of  Waterloo. 

RUST  INSECT.  Recent  investigations  show 
that  rust  in  oats  and  wheat  is  caused  liy  internal 
parasites,  which  so  injure  the  plant  as  to  destroy 
the  green  color  of  the  straw  and  shrivel  the  tissues. 
Bacteria  existing  in  the  trees  develop  in  certain 
conditions  in  soil  or  woody  fibre,  and  seem  to 
be  the  cause  of  the  widespread  evil.  If  this  is  the 
case,  the  disinfection  of  the  soil  becomes  a  matter 
of  necessity.  The  use  of  caustic  lime  as  a  fertil- 
izer has  long  been  considered  by  good  farmers  as 
preventive  of  rust  in  grain  crops.  And  in  this  con- 
nection it  may  be  readily  suggested  that  it  acted 
as  a  disinfectant  by  destroying  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease that  niiglit  be  present  in  the  soil,  or  rendering 
the  soil  an  unfavorable  medium  for  them. 

RUST,  the  name  given  to  a  disease  of  plants 
which  shows  itself  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  many 
plants,  and  on  the  ears  of  grasses  in  brown,  yellow, 
or  orange-colored  spots,  and  after  destroying  the 
epidermis  of  the  plant,  as-sumes  the  form  of  a  pow- 
der, which  soils  tlie  fingers  when  touched.  Rust 
seems  to  consist  at  first  of  a  small  fungi  of  one  cell, 
sometimes  divided  by  a  transverse  wall,  which,  final- 
ly, breaking  through  the  diseased  epidermis,  form 
a  colored  dust  consisting  of  microspores. 

RUSTOW,  Wn.iiEiM,  a  German  military  writer, 
born  in  Brandenburg  in  1821.  He  was  an  officer  of 
engineers  in  the  German  army,  when  in  1850  he 
was  indicted  for  publishing  a  work  on  the  military 
condition  of  Germany.  He  fled  to  Zurich,  and  was 
soon  made  a  major  in  the  Swiss  army.  In  I860  he 
took  part  in  Garibaldi  expedition  to  Sicily.  After- 
ward he  wrote  on  the  Greek  military  art ;  discussed 
the  campaigns  of  Caesar  and  Napoleon,  and  criti- 
cized the  Crimean  and  Franco-German  wars.  He 
published  a  Mililari/  Dirtidtiarn  and  several  techni- 
cal works  on  military  art.     He  died  in  1878. 

RUTGERS  COLLEGE.  See  Coi.le(!es  and  Uni- 
VKRsiTiES  IN  United  St.^tes  in  these  Revisions  and 
Additions. 

RUTH,  Book  OF,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp. 
110-112. 

RUTHIN,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough of  North  Wales,  in  the  county  of  Denbigh, 
eight  miles  southeast  of  the  town  of  that  name, 
stands  on  the  summit  and  slope  of  a  hill  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Clwyd.  The  site  of  the  ancient 
castle,  said  to  have  been  built  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  is  occupied  by  a  fine  modern  castellated 
edifice  in  Gotliic.     I'opnlation  in  l>i71, 3,299. 

RUTL.IND,  a  cify  of  Vermont.  Population  in 
1890,  11.760.     See   Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  114. 

RIJTLEDGE,  Edw.vrd,  statesman,  born  at  CJhar- 
leston,  S.  C,  in  1749,  died  there  in  1800.  He 
studied  law  at  the  Temjile,  London,  and  practiced 
it  at  Charleston.  He  was  chosen  to  the  first  Con- 
tinental (!ongres8,  and  was  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1776  he  was 
a  member  of  th(>  board  of  war.  When  the  British 
began  hostile  operations  in  South  ('arolina.  Rut- 
ledge  commanded  a  company  of  artillery.  But  in 
1780  he  was  captured  at  Charleston  and  remained 
a  prisoner  for  a  year.  After  his  exchange  he  re- 
sided at  Philadelphia.     When  theBritish  withdrew 


136S 


RUTLEDGE  —  RYSWICK 


from  Charleston  in  1782,  he  returned  home  and 
served  in  the  legislature.  In  1798  he  was  elected 
governor  of  South  Carolina,  but  he  died  before  his 
term  had  expired. 

RUTLEDGE.  Johx,  chief-justice  of  the  United 
States,  born  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1739,  died  there 
in  ISOO.  After  studying  law  at  the  Temple,  Lon- 
don, he  began  its  practice  at  Charleston  in  1761. 
In  1765  he  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Stamp- 
Act  Congress  in  New  York,  and  in  1774  of  the  first 
Continental  Congress  in  Philadelphia.  Patrick 
Henry  pronounced  him  "by  far  the  greatest  ora- 
tor" in  that  assembly.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  that  framed  a  constitution  for  South 
Carolina  in  1776.  and  became  the  first  governor  of 
that  state.  In  1784  he  was  made  State  chancellor. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  framed 
the  Federal  Constitution,  and  of  the  State  conven- 
tion which  ratified  it.  On  July  1.  179.5  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief-justic  of  the  Middle  States  supreme 
court.  He  presided  at  the  August  term.  But  when 
the  senate  met  in  December  his  mind  had  become 
diseased,  and  the  senate  did  not  confirm  his  ap- 
pointment. 

RUVO  IN  APULIA,  a  city  of  Southern  Italy, 
province  of  Bari,  and  twenty-two  miles  west  of  the 
city  of  that  name.  It  is  built  upon  a  rising 
ground,  contains  many  churches,  and  two  muse- 
ums of  Italo-Grecian  vases,  and  is  famous  for  its 
potteries.  The  staple  produce  is  grain,  pulse,  and 
dried  fruits.     Population,  1.5,133. 

RYAN,  Abraji,  Joseph,  an  American  poet,  born 
at  Norfolk,  Va..  in  1839;  died  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
in  1886.  He  was  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest 
just  as  the  war  broke  out,  and  soon  afterwards  be- 
came chaplain  in  the  confederate  army,  serving 
until  Lee  surrendered.  He  wrote  Tlie  Conquered 
Banner  as  an  expression  of  his  devotion  to  the 
Southern  cause.  In  1865  he  went  to  New  Orleans 
where  he  edited  the  "Star,"  a  weekly  Roman  Catho- 
lic paper.  From  New  Orleans  he  went  to  Knox-  I 
ville.  Tenn. :  thence  to  Augusta,  Ga;  thence  to 
Mobile.  Ala.,  where  he  had  charge  of  a  church  for 
some  years.  In  1880,  at  Baltimore,  he  published  a 
volume  of  his  Poemi,  Patriotic,  Eeligions,  and  Mis- 
eellaneoug,  which  had  a  wide  circulation.    There 


also,  he  delivered  his  first  lectures  on  "Modern 
civilization."  His  poems,  TTte  Lost  Cause;  The 
Sviird  ijf  Lee;  TJie  Flag  of  Erin,  and  Their  Story  Run- 
neth Thus  have  become  very  popular. 

RYDBERG,  Abraham  Victor,  a  Swedish  author, 
born  at  Jonkoping  Smaland,  Sweden,  in  182!i.  He 
became  literary  editor  of  a  daily  paper  at  Gotten- 
burg  in  1855.  In  1870  he  was  elected  to  the  Swed- 
ish parliament  from  Gottenburg :  and  in  1884  he 
was  made  professor  in  the  high-school  at  Stock- 
holm. Rydberg  published  a  number  of  romances, 
which  have  been  translated  into  English,  as  Tlie 
Freebooter  of  the  Baltic;  T)ie  Last  Athenian;  Adien- 
tures  of  Little  Vigg  ;  Roman  Legends,  etc.  He  also  pub- 
lished several  extremely  rationalistic  works  on  re- 
ligious and  Bible  subjects  as  Doctrine  of  the  Bible 
on  Christ;  Jehovah  Worship  Among  the  Hebrevs; 
Pre-existence  of  Man,  and  Etchatology  (1880).  His 
Poems  were  published  in  1882  and  his  investiga- 
tions  in   German  Mythology  in  1886. 

RYLE,  JoHX  Charles,  an  English  bishop,  born 
at  Macclesfield  in  1816.  He  was  ordained  a  priest 
of  the  English  Church  in  1841,  when  he  became 
curate  of  Exbury.  In  1844  he  was  made  rector  of 
Helmingham,and  in  1861  he  became  vicar  of  Strad- 
broke.  He  soon  became  widely  known  as  the  writer 
of  pithy,  forcible  tracts  of  decided  evangelical  sen- 
timent. In  1880,  Lord  Beaconsfield  called  him  to 
be  bishop  of  the  newly-founded  diocese  of  Liver- 
pool. Ryle  has  published  Ejpulsitory  Tlioughts  on 
the  Gospels  (6  vols.);  Plain  Speaking;  Christian  Lead- 
ers a  Hundred  Years  Ago;  Bishops  and  Clergy  of 
Other  Days  (1869),  and  Church-Reform.  Papers 
(1870).  Bishop  Ryle  is  an  extreme  Low-Church- 
man. 

RYOTWAR,  the  term  applied  to  the  revenue  set- 
tlement which  is  made  by  the  British  oflicers  in 
India  with  each  actual  cultivator  of  the  soil  for  a 
given  term,  at  a  stipulated  money  rent,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  third  party. 

RYSWICK,  Peace  of,  a  treaty  concluded  in 
1697,  at  Ryswick.  a  Dutch  village  between  Delft  and 
The  Hague,  which  was  signed  by  France,  England, 
Spain,  and  Germany.  It  put  an  end  to  the  .'san- 
guinary contest  in  which  England  had  been  en- 
gaged with  France. 


1369 


S 


SAALE-SADDENING 


SAALE,  a  river  of  Germany,  distinguished  from 
other  and  smaller  rivers  of  the  same  name  as  the 
Saxon  or  Thuringian  Saale.  It  rises  on  the  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Fichtelgebirge  (Bavaria),  and 
flowing  northward  through  several  minor  states, 
and  finally  across  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony, 
falls  into  the  Elbe,  about  twenty-five  miles  above 
Madgeburg,  after  a  course  of  two  hundred  miles. 
It  is  navigable  only  within  the  Prussian  dominions. 

SAARLOUIS,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  thirty- 
one  miles  southeast  of  Treves,  and  between  four 
and  five  miles  from  tlie  frontier  of  France.  It 
stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saar,  a  branch  of  the 
Moselle,  and  is  a  place  of  some  strength,  being 
walled,  and  containing  several  forts.  There  are 
manufactories  of  firearms  in  the  town,  and  lead 
and  iron  mines  in  the  neighborhood.  There  are 
also  wire-works. 

SABADELL,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Spain,  in 
Catalonia,  fourteen  miles  northwest  of  Barcelona. 
Woolen  and  cotton  fabrics  are  the  staple  manufac- 
tures.    Population,  about  1H,000. 

SABATIER,  Loi-is  Al-gi-ste,  a  French  Protestant 
theologian,  born  at  Yallon  in  1839.  He  studied 
theology  in  French  and  German  universities.  In 
1868  he  became  professor  of  French  literature  in 
the  normal  school  at  Strasburg.  In  1873  he  re- 
moved to  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  professor 
in  the  newly  elected  Protestant  faculty  of  the 
University  of  Paris.  His  publications  include  Le 
Temolgnage  cle  Jesus-Christ  sur  sa  personne  (1863) ; 
L'Aputre  Paul  (1870);  GulUaume  le  Tacitunie;  Del' 
Influence  des  Femmes  sur  la  Lilterature  Fran^nlse; 
La  notion  hebraique  de  I'  esprit  (1879),  and  De  I'  ori- 
gine  du  pe.chl:  dans  la  theologie  de  V  ap6tre  Paul  (1.S87). 

SABBATH.  For  general  article  on  the  S.vbbath, 
its  origin  and  observance  among  .Jews  and  Chris- 
tians, see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  124-127. 

The  Sabbath  law  'of  the  Jews  was  civil  as 
well  as  religious.  In  Christian  countries  the 
first  civil  recognition  of  the  weekly  rest-day 
was  made  by  the  Emperor  Constantiue,  a.  d. 
321.  To  his  first  statute  additions  were  made  by 
himself,  and  by  Theodosius,  a.  d.  .386.  These 
laws  prohibited  such  work  as  was  not  thought  to 
be  necessary,  arrested  military  spectacles  and 
heathen  shows,  and  closed  the  courts.  Additions 
were  still  made  to  them  in  the  6th  century  by  the 
Eastern  emperors.  As  early  as  the  close  of  the  7th 
century  similar  laws  began  to  be  enacted  by  the 
Saxon  kings  in  Britain.  These  met  with  additions 
and  modifications  under  successive  monarchs,  until 
in  1676  under  Charles  II.  the  statute,  which  in  sub- 
stance, continues  to  be  Englisli  law  was  enacted. 
From  this  sprang  the  laws  of  tlie  several  American 
colonies;  out  of  which  in  turn  liave  grovin  the 
present  laws  of  the  several  American  States. 
These,  avoiding  the  mistake  of  rec|uiring  acts  of 
worship,  into  which  the  spirit  of  their  day  led  some 
of  the  colonial  legislatures,  are  intent  cliiefly  on 
forbidding  unnecessary  labor  and  traffic  and  the 
noisy  amusements  which  would  disturb  public  wor- 
ship. In  addition  to  these  things,  however,  some 
American  legislatures  have  given  very  noticeable 
attention  to  the  opportunity  which  a  weekly  stop- 
page of  work  offers  to  those  trades  which  supply 
temptation  to  dangerous  appetites.     Of  the  forty- 


four  States  now  constituting  the  American  Union, 
forty  have  Sunday  laws.  While  all  these  provide 
against  the  sale  of  intoxicating  drinks  in  so  far  as 
they  are  kinds  of  merchandise  sold  in  shops, 
twenty-seven  States  make  further  express  pro- 
vision against  the  Sunday  sale  of  intoxicants.  The 
constitutionality  of  the  so-called  "Sunday  laws" 
has  been  abundantly  established  in  American 
courts. 

The  Sabbath  day  of  Christians  is  in  civil  legisla- 
tion always  called  "Sunday."  Church-people  often 
call  it  the  "Lord's  day,"  which  is  a  proper  and  sig- 
nificant name.  But  in  connection  with  all  secular 
matters  the  name  "Sunday"  is  universally  used. 

SABBIOXETTA,  a  city  of  Italy,  situated  in  a 
marshy  district,  which  affords  abundant  fodder  and 
pasturage.  It  was  at  one  time  a  place  of  some 
consequence ;  now  it  is  a  decaved  city.  Popula- 
tion, 6,623. 

SABIN,  Joseph,  bibliophile,  born  at  Braunston^ 
Northamptonshire,  England,  in  1821,  died  at  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  in  1881.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1848,  and  settled  in  Xew  York  City  as  an  anti- 
quarian bookseller  and  publisher.  He  prepared 
the  catalogues  of  most  of  the  valuable  libraries 
that  were  sold  at  auction  in  his  time.  Mr.  Sabiu' 
republished  in  limited  editions  several  curious  old 
works  of  American  history,  edited  and  published 
for  several  years  from  1869  The  American  Bihliopo- 
list,  a  Literary  Register  a7id  Monthly  Catalogue  of  Old 
and  New  Books;  contributed  to  the  American  Pub- 
lishers' Circidar,  and  undertook  the  publication  in 
parts  of  a  Dictionary  of  Books  Relating  to  America 
From  its  Discovery  to  the  Present  Time,  of  which  13 
volumes  were  issued.  He  was  engaged  upon  this, 
work  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

SABOTS,  a  species  of  wooden  shoes  much  used 
by  the  French  and  Belgian  peasantry,  especially 
by  those  wlio  inhabit  moist  and  marshy  districts, 
as  an  effectual  protective  of  the  feet  from  external 
moisture.  The  fabrication  of  sabots  forms  an  im- 
portant branch  of  French  industry. 

SACKETT'S  HARBOR,  a  village  and  port  of 
entry  in  Jefferson  county,  X.  Y.,  on  the  south  shore 
of  Black  River  Bay,  eight  miles  east  of  Lake  On- 
tario and  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles  northwest 
of  Albany,  having  a  navy-yard,  barracks,  mills,, 
etc.  It  is  the  best  harbor  on  the  lake  for  ship- 
building. In  the  war  of  1812  it  was  an  important 
port,  where  the  frigate  Superior,  o(  sixty-six  guns, 

was  built  in  eighty  days,  and  the  ^fadison  in  forty- 
five  days,  from  timber  standing  in  the  forest. 
SACO,   a   town   of   :\Iaine.     Population    in   1890, 

6,075.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  \>.  131. 

SACRAMEXTO,  a  city  of  California.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,26.386.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI.  p. 

132. 
SACRARTUM,   a  sacred   apartment   in    Roman 

houses. 
SACRIFICE.    See    Britannica,    Vol.    XXI,    pp. 

1.32-140. 
SACS  AND  FOXES.     See  I,ni>i.\ns,  North  Amkr- 

ic.\x,  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 
S.\DDEX1XG,   a   peculiar   method   of    apjilying 

certain  mordants  in  dyeing  and  printing  cloths,  so 

as   to  give  duller  shades  to  the  colors  employed 

than  those  they  ordinarily  produce. 


1370 


S  A  D  D  L  E  B  A  C  K  —  S  A  I  N  T    AUSTELL 


SADDLEBACK,  one  of  the  well-known  moun- 
tains of  Cumberland,  England,  situated  four  and  a 
half  miles  northeast  of  Keswick.  It  is  2,787  feet 
hij^h. 

S  A  FED,  a  small  town  of  Palestine,  in  the  pashalic 
of  Acre,  and  in  the  ancient  province  of  Galilee,  on 
a  mountain  2.500  feet  high,  twelve  miles  north  of 
Tiberias.  The  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  cloth  and  in  dyeing,  and  the  country 
in  the  vicinity  is  largely  productive  of  wine  and 
oil.  It  is  an  ardent  wish  of  the  Jews  to  die  here, 
because  they  believe  that  the  expected  Messiah 
will  make  this  place  his  capital.  Population 
aljout  5,000. 

SAFE  DEPOSIT  COMPANIES,  corporations  for 
the  safe  keeping  of  valuable  personal  propertj-,  as 
money,  bullion,  stocks,  bonds,  jewelry,  plate,  etc. 
.Such  companies  are  in  operation  in  many  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  United  States.  In  the  State  of 
New  York  they  are  organized  under  a  general  law 
enacted  in  1872.  This  law  authorizes  the  forma- 
tion of  stock  companies  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
and  receiving  upon  deposit -as  bailees,  for  safe- 
keeping and  storage  all  kinds  of  valuable  goods 
and  papers,  and  guaranteeing  their  safety  on  such 
terms  as  may  be  agreed  upon  between  them  and 
their  patrons.  It  also  authorizes  them  to  construct 
and  let  out  safes,  vaults  and  other  receptacles  nec- 
essary for  their  business  purposes.  The  affairs  of 
these  companies  are  managed  Ijy  trustees  elected 
annually  by  the  stockholders,  the  latter  being 
jointly  and  severally  liable  for  all  debts  equal  to  the 
par  value  of  their  stock.  These  corporations  are 
under  the  supervision  of  the  bank  superintendent. 
They  have  to  make  semi-annual  reports  to  the  lat- 
ter, and  are  subjected  to  annual  examinations  liy 
him.  On  January  1,  1888,  the  combined  capital  of 
the  safe  deposit  companies  in  the  State  of  New- 
York  amounted  to  three  millions  of  dollars.  In 
most  of  the  other  states  of  the  Union  such  com- 
panies are  created  by  special  legislative  enact- 
ments, but  their  business  is  carried  on  after  the 
same  general  plan  as  the  business  of  the  New 
York  companies. 

In  all  of  these  establishments  strong  fire-proof 
vaults  are  built.  These  are  constructed  of  steel 
and  iron  plates  welded  together.  Their  interiors 
are  fitted  up  with  tiers  of  safes  and  deposit  boxes 
of  sizes  suitable  for  all  requirements.  The  whole 
is  under  the  surveillance  of  armed  watchmen  both 
day  and  night.  Minute  personal  descriptions  of 
their  patrons  are  entered  into  books  kept  for  the 
purpose  of  identifying  them.  Private  passwords 
are  also  given  to  the  patrons  and  entered  upon 
the  books.  On  renting  a  safe  the  holder  is  furnished 
with  the  only  key  that  will  fit  its  lock,  no  two  keys 
being  alike.  The  renter  is  not  permitted  to  enter 
the  vault  until  identified,  nor  can  he  open  his  safe 
without  the  assistance  of  an  attendant,  who  first 
partially  unlocks  it  to  admit  the  key.  In  the  event 
of  the  death  of  a  safe-holder,  no  access  is  permit- 
ted to  his  safe,  except  on  the  production  of  a  per- 
mit from  the  proper  court.  This  affords  protec- 
tion to  the  interests  of  lawful  heirs.  As  a  rule  the 
officers  and  all  employes  of  safe  deposit  companies 
are  pledged  not  to  impart  any  information  re- 
specting their  patrons  or  their  transactions,  except 
under  compulsion  of  law.  This  privacy  and  the 
security  afforded  by  them  have  helped  these  com- 
panies to  a  large  business. 

SAGASTA,  SeSor  Pr.^.xedes  Mateo,  a  Spanish 
statesman,  born  in  1827  at  Torrecilla  de  Cameros. 
From  1854  to  1856  he  represented  the  town  of 
Zamora  in  the  Constituent  Cortes.  In  1856  he  was 
compelled  to  seek  shelter  on  French  territory, 
having  engaged   in  the   revolutionary  movement. 


He  returned  to  his  country  and  profession  on  an 
amnesty  being  proclaimed.  He  again  conspired 
in  1866,  and  was  again  compelled  to  fly.  He  be- 
came minister  of  state  in  J.S70,  and  in  1874  he  was 
successively  minister  for  foreign  affairs,  minister 
of  the  interior,  president  of  the  council,  and  prime 
minister  1881  to  1883.  His  ministry  was  followed 
by  the  premiership  of  Senor  Jose  Posado  Herrera. 
Sagasta,  on  the  resignation  ot  the  Canovas  ministry 
at  the  death  of  King  Alphonso,  resumed  oflice  as 
the  head  of  a  new  liberal  ministry;  but  reformed 
his  cabinet,  consequent  on  a  crises  in  1888.  He  re- 
tired from  office  in  1890. 

SAGINAW,  a  city  of  Michigan.  .  Population  in 
1890,  46,322.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  148. 

SAGINAW  BAY,  an  arm  of  Lake  Huron,  extend- 
ing southwest  and  forming  an  important  indenta- 
tion of  the  shore  of  Michigan.  It  is  sixty  miles 
long  by  thirty  wide,  with  several  fine  harbors  -and 
picturesque  islands.  The  water,  like  that  of  the 
whole  lake,  is  of  wonderful  clearness  and  purity. 
The  bay  is  named  from  the  river  Saginaw,  which 
falls  into  it. 

SAGOUIN  (r'a//('(/i /•(>),  a  genus  of  South  Ameri- 
can monkeys,  having  a  long  but  not  prehensile 
tail,  a  small  and  rounded  head,  short  muzzle  aud 
large  ears.  They  are  of  small  size  and  remarkably 
active  and  graceful  in  their  movements.  They  are 
sometimes  called  "squirrel  monkeys."  They  are  of 
very  gentle  disposition,  and  when  tamed,  become 
strongly  attached  to  their  masters.  Both  body  and 
tail  are  covered  with  beautiful  fur. 

SAC4UA-LA-GRANDE,  a  town  of  Cuba,  on  the 
river  Sagua,  about  twelve  miles  from  its  mouth, 
which  is  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island.  It  is  a 
town  of  considerable  importance,  and  is  connected 
by  railway  with  Villa  Clare  and  other  places.  Pop- 
ulation, 9,700. 

SAHARA  RAILWAY.  In  1890,  M.  Georges  Eolland, 
a  French  engineer,  addressed  the  Academie  des 
Sciences  on  the  subject  of  a  trans-Sahara  railway. 
The  conclusion  he  arrived  at  was  that  the  only 
practical  and  speedy  method  of  opening  up  the  Sa- 
hara was  to  construct  a  light  railway  of  the  Decau- 
ville  type  by  the  way  of  Ouargla  and  Amguid. 
Algeria  was  selected  as  the  starting-point  of  a  line, 
which  was  estimated  to  cost  .$17,500  a  mile,  and 
work  has  been  begun  undef  the  authority  of  the 
government,  and  it  is  hoped  to  tap  the  Soudan  and 
the  regions  watered  liy  the  Niger,  immediately 
connecting  them  with  the  Mediterranean.  The 
Department  Commission  of  the  General  Council  of 
Algiers  has  passed  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that, 
before  any  decision  be  come  to  as  to  the 
railway,  the  government  order  studies  to  be 
made  in  all  the  provinces  of  Algeria  of  the 
best  routes  of  communication  into  the  Sou- 
dan, and  that  caravans  of  natives  be  employed  for 
the  purpose. 

SAINT  AMAND,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Cher,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of 
that  name,  twenty-seven  miles  southeast  of  Bour- 
ges.  It  carries  on  a  trade  in  iron,  and  contains 
important  iron-works.     Population,  7,426. 

SAINT  AMAND,  a  town  of  France  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Nord,  eight  miles  northwest  of  Valencien- 
nes. The  town  contains  hot  sulphur  springs ;  flax 
of  a  superior  quality  is  cultivated;  and  lace,  clay- 
pipes  and  porcelain  are  manufactured.  Popula- 
tion, 7,211. 

SAINT  AUSTELL,  a  small  town  of  Cornwall, 
thirteen  miles  northeast  of  Truro  by  railway. 
Woolen  goods  are  manufactured,  and  at  the  bay  of 
Saint  Austell,  from  which  the  town  is  about  a  mile 
distant,  there  is  a  pilchard-fishery,  and  tin  and 
copper  are  exported.    Population,  3,803. 


SAINT    C  L  A  I  R  —  S  T.    PIE  11  II  E 


1371 


SAINT  CLAIR,  a  mining  town  of  Pennsylvania, 
about  three  miles  north  of  Pottsville.  It  has  rich 
mines  of  authricite  coal.  Population,  in  1890, 
6,950. 

ST.  CLAIR,  Arthur,  an  American  pioneer  and 
general,  born  at  Thurso,  Caitlmess,  Scotland,  in 
1734;  died  at  Greensburg,  Pa.,  in  1818.  In  1762  he 
resigned  his  commission  as  lieutenant  in  the  Brit- 
ish army,  and  in  1794  he  led  a  colony  of  Scotch 
settlers'to  the  Ligonier  Valley,  Pa.,  where  he  pur- 
chased land,  and  erected  mills  and  a  residence. 
On  Jan.  3,  1776,  he  became  colonel  of  the  2nd  Penn- 
sylvania regiment,  and,  being  ordered  to  Canada, 
he  joined  Gen.  John  Sullivan  after  the  disastrous 
affair  at  Three  Rivers,  and  aided  that  officer  by 
his  council,  saving  the  army  from  capture.  lie 
rendered  valuable  service  in  the  battles  of  Trenton 
and  Princeton.  In  February,  1777,  he  was  appointed 
major-general,  and,  after  a  while,  he  succeeded 
Gen.  Gates  in  the  command  at  Ticonderoga.  As 
his  force  consisted  of  only  2000  men,  poorly  armed, 
and  nearly  destitute  of  stores,  whilst  the  British 
force  opposing  him  had  7,000  men,  St.  Clair  evacu- 
ated that  post,  and  incurred  thereby  unpopularity 
and  retirement  from  his  command.  A  court-mar- 
tial acquitted  him  with  honor  of  the  charges 
against  him.  Afterwards  St.  Clair  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Southern  campaign  which  termin- 
ated at  Yorktown.  On  the  formation  of  the  North- 
western Territory  in  1789  he  was  made  its  first  gov- 
ernor, holding  this  office  until  1802.  He  made  a 
treaty  with  the  Indians  at  Fort  Harmar  in  1789, 
and  in  1790  he  fixed  the  seat  of  justice  at  Cincin- 
ati,  Ohio.  He  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  that  operated  against  the  Indians  on 
Miami  and  Wabash  Rivers  in  1791.  He  suffered  at 
the  time  severely  from  the  gout,  and  had  to  be 
carried  on  a  litter.  On  Nov.  4,  he  was  surprised 
near  the  Miami  villages  by  a  horde  of  Indians  and 
his  force  was  defeated,  losing  600  men  out  of  1400. 
After  this  he  resigned  his  commission ;  and  in 
November  1802  he  was  removed  from  the  governor- 
ship. He  then  settled  in  a  log-house  on  the  sum- 
mit of  Chestnut  Ridge,  near  Greensburg,  Pa., 
where  he  passed  his  remaining  years  in  poverty  and 
fruitless  efforts  to  effect  a  settlement  of  claims 
against  the  United  States,  but  receiving  a  small 
pension  both  from  the  national  and  State  govern- 
ments. He  published  a  Ndrrative  of  the  Campaigit 
of  1791  (1812). 

SAINT  CLOUD,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of  Sterns 
county,  INIinn.,  on  the  ^Iississippi,  about  two  miles 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Sauk  River.  It  has  an  ex- 
tensive water-power,  and  is  an  important  manu- 
facturing town.     Population  in  1890,  6,532. 

SAINTS'  DAYS,  days  set  apart  in  honor  of  par- 
ticular saints  and  martyrs.  The  practice  dates 
from  the  times  of  peisecution,  when  the  people 
were  wont  to  assemble  at  the  tombs  of  martyrs  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  martyrdom.  In  the  multi- 
plication of  such  celebrations,  a  record  of  the  days 
fixed  for  each  saint  or  martyr  became  necessary. 
This  was  called  calendarimn. 

SAINT  GAUDENS,  Augustus,  sculptor,  born  at 
Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1848.  He  was  lirought  to  New 
York  when  only  six  months  old.  In  1861  he  began 
to  draw  at  Cooper  Institute,  and  in  lS65-(i  he  was 
a  student  at  the  Academy  of  Design.  In,  1867  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  at  the  Kcole  des 
Beaux-Arts  until  1S70.  Then  he  went  to  Rome, 
and  there  produced  his  first  work,  Hiairatha.  In 
1872  he  returned  to  New  York,  where  lie  has  since 
resided.  He  has  since  executed  a  number  of  not- 
able works.  The  most  important  of  his  statues  are 
Ailmiral  Vnrraqnl,  in  New  York;  liohi'rt  H.  Rdtidall, 
at  Sailor's  Snug  Harbor,  Staten  Island,  N.    Y.;  Ah- 


raliiiiii  Linrtilii,  in  Cliicago  ;  The  Piirlldii,  a  statue  of 
Samuel  Chapin,  in  Springfield  Mass.;  the  portrait- 
busts  of  William  M.  Erartx;  Theodore  V.  Woolseij,  at 
Yale;  and  Gen.  Williinn  T.  Shiniiun  (1888).  'His 
statues  are  noted  for  vigorous  and  realistic  treat- 
ment and  striking  likeness  to  the  originals. 

SAINT  GEORGE,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of 
AVashington  county,  Utah.  It  is  the  chief  trade 
centre  in  the  rich  valley  of  the  Virgin  River. 

SAINT  HELENA,  a  town  of  California,  situated 
between  two  mountains  about  six  miles  north  of 
San  Fransisco.  It  is  surrounded  by  extensive 
vineyards,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  wine. 

SAINT  JOHN'S,  a  manufacturing  town,  the 
county-seat  of  Clinton  county,  Mich.,  twenty-two 
miles  north  of  Lansing.  It  produces  farming  imple- 
ments, carriages,  and  flour.  Population  in  1890, 
3,119. 

SAINT  JOSEPH,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
]\lichigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  Joseph,  on 
Lake  Michigan,  twenty-two  miles  north  of  Niles. 
It  is  engaged  in  the  production  of  lumber,  ma- 
chinery, and  flour,  and  in  shipping  fruit.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  :;,733. 

SAINT  NEOTS,  a  market-town  of  England, 
eight  miles  southwest  of  Huntington.  It  occupies 
low  ground  on  the  banks  of  the  Ouse,  by  which  it 
is  sometimes  partially  inundated.  Its  parish 
church,  with  a  tower  156  feet  high,  is  a  remarkably 
beautiful  building.    Population,  3,200. 

SAINT  PETER,  an  important  manufacturing 
town,  the  county-seat  of  Nicollet  county,  Minn., 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Minnesota,  seventy-five 
miles  southwest  of  St.  Paul.  It  is  the  seat  of  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  College  and  of  the  State  hospital 
for  the  insane.     Population  in  1890,  3.671. 

ST.  JOHN,  THE  BAPTIST,  Evk  of,  one  of  the 
festivals  of  Christendom  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
celebrated  at  midsummer.  Fires,  sometimes 
blessed  by  the  parish  priest,  were  kindled  in  the 
streets  and  market-places  of  the  towns,  and  the 
young  folks  danced  and  sang  around  them.  It  was 
a  Ijelief  of  the  Irish  peasantry  that  souls  on  this 
night  leave  their  liodies,  and  wander  to  the  ulti- 
mate place  of  death  by  land  or  sea.  In  England 
it  was  said  that  if  one  sat  up  all  night,  fasting,  in 
the  church  porch,  he  would  see  the  spirits  of  those 
who  were  to  die  in  the  parish  during  the  ensuing 
twelve  months. 

ST.  JOSEPH,  a  city  of  Missouri.  Population  in 
1890,  52,324.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXL,  p.  176. 

ST.  LAWRENCE  RIVER  BRIDGE.  A  project 
for  crossing  the  river  St.  Lawrence  at  Quebec  has 
long  been  talked  of,  and  in  1889  arrangements  were 
made  to  carry  it  out.  In  consideration  of  the 
ocean  traflie  to  Jlontreal,  it  was  necessary  to 
adopt  the  high  level  with  long  spans,  and  the 
depth  of  water  presented  another  difficulty.  Plans 
were,  however,  prejiared  for  a  cantilever  liridge  at 
an  estimate  cost  of  .$10,000,000.  The  bridge  will  ojien 
Tip  a  direct  communication  between  the  (Uinadian 
Pacific  line  and  the  Inter-colonial  Railway  from 
Quebec  to  St.  John  and  Halifax,  giving  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  an  uninterrujited  transcontinental 
line  trough  the  Canadian  territory  for  the  entire 
length. 

ST.  LOUIS,  a  city  of  IMissfiuri.  Population  in 
1890,451,770.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.    183. 

ST.  PAUL,  a  city  of  Minnesota.  Population  in 
1890,133.1.56.     See  Britannica,  \'ol.  XXI,  p.  188. 

ST.  PIERRE  AND  MUiliELON,  two  small 
islands  close  to  the  south  coast  of  Newfoundland. 
The  principal  business  is  cod-fishing,  chiefly  in 
ships  from  France;  total  value  in  1887,  1.3,439,532 
francs.  In  1887  the  two  islands  were  visited  by 
2,362  shijis  (356,970  tons);  value  of   exports    18,230.- 


1372 


S  A  K  A  T  A  Y  A  N  A  —  S  A  L  I  S  B  U  R  Y 


•2~'2  francs  (4,1:)4,S:I7  francs  to  foreign  countries,  the 
remainder  to  France  and  her  colonies),  and  im- 
ports 13,746,587  francs  (iMiSli,7U9  francs  from  Amer- 
ica and  other  foreign  countries).  Estimated  local 
revenue  (1889)  4t;o,ii7.S  francs;  expenditure  450,678 
francs;  expenditure  of  France  (budget  1890)333,- 
908  francs.     Population  in  1887,  5,992. 

SAKATAYAXA,  a  celebrated  Hindu  grammarian, 
who  preceded  Pilnini  and  Yasl<a.  His  grammatical 
work  seems  to  be  lost,  for  no  portion  of  it  has  as 
yet  been  forthcoming. 

SAKI,  a  kind  of  beer  made  by  the  Japanese  from 
rice.  It  is  the  common  alcoholic  liquor  of  .Japan. 
It  is  clear,  and  has  a  peculiar  taste,  which  Europe- 
ans generally  reckon  unpleasant. 

SALA,  George  AuGi-sTUs,  an  English  journalist 
and  author,  born  in  London  in  1828.  His  fatlier 
was  an  Italian  and  his  mother,  a  popular  singer, 
was  of  West  Indian  origin,  ilr.  Sala  began  his  lit- 
erary career  in  "Household  Words,"  under  the 
auspices  of  Charles  Dickens.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  "Temple  Bar"  magazine,  of  which  lie 
was  for  some  time  editor.  To  this  and  other  period- 
icals he  contributed  The  SVivn  Sons  of  Maiamnn; 
Captain  Dantj,r(iii>::  Tioice  Round  the  Clock,  and  many 
other  tales  and  sketches.  For  many  years  Mr. 
Sala  has  been  a  leader  writer  and  special  corre- 
spondent of  the  "Daily  Telegraph,"  which  journal 
he  has  represented  at  most  of  the  celebrations  of 
historical  importance  that  have  taken  place  in 
England,  Europe,  and  America.  He  married,  in 
1890,  Miss  Stannard.a  sister  of  the  authoress  known 
as  ".lohn  Strange  Winter." 

SALAAM,  the  general  term  of  salutation  among 
the  Mohammedans,  who  are  generally  very  formal 
in  their  social  manners,  although  their  demeanor 
and  conversation  are  unrestrained  enough,  both 
among  men  and  women.  Several  of  their  social 
usages  in  this  respect  are  founded  upon  religious 
precepts. 

SALEM,  a  city  of  Massachusetts.  Population  in 
1890.  30,801.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  210;  also 
XXIV.  p.  622. 

SALEM,  a  town  of  Xew  Jersey.  Population  in 
1890.  5,512.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  212. 

SALEM,  a  manufacturing  city  of  (Jregon,  capital 
of  the  State  and  county-seat  of  Marion  county. 
Population  in  1890,  4.515.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
XXI,  pp.  211 ;  Vol.  XVII,  825. 

SALEill.  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of 
Trapani,  thirty-nine  miles  southwest  from  Paler- 
mo.    Population  about  12,000. 

SALERNO,  Gulf  of  (ancient  Shins  Pxstanus,  on 
whose  shores,  in  early  times,  the  Greek  city  of 
Psestum  stood),  a  nearly  semi-circular  indentation 
on  the  western  shores  of  Southern  Italy,  southeast 
of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  promontory  ending  in  Point  Campannella. 
The  Gulf  is  thirty-six  miles  wide  at  its  entrance, 
and  sweeps  inland  for  twenty-four  miles.  On  its 
shores  are  the  towns  of  Amalfi  and  Salerno. 

SALSYER  ISLANDS,  The,  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  Indian  (Jcean,  to  the  south  of  Celebes.  Up- 
wards of  thirty  of  the  group  are  small,  hilly,  dense- 
ly wooded,  and  with  few  exceptions,  uninhabited. 
Great  Saleyer  is  upwards  of  forty  miles  in  length, 
and  seven  in  breadth,  the  area  being  336  square 
miles.  The  mountains  on  the  east  coast  rise 
abruptly  out  of  the  sea,  and  along  the  west  is  a 
slip  of  level  land  planted  with  cocoa-nut  trees. 
Great  Saleyer  and  the  smaller  islands  produce  fine 
timber,  including  ebony  and  teak.  Indigo,  coflfee, 
and  mustard  are  grown  ;  but  millet,  maize,  earth- 
fruits,  and  cotton  are  the  staple  cultures,  the 
grounds  being  carefully  fenced.  The  Saleyer  Is- 
lands  are   governed  by   fourteen  rajahs,   superin- 


tended by  a  Netherland's  agent.  The  natives  are 
Mohammedans,  each  large  village  having  a  mosque 
and  priest.     Population.  60,000. 

SALIFEROUS  SYSTEM,  the  name  given  by  the 
earlier  English  geologists  to  the  New  Red  Sand- 
stone formations,  because  the  deposits  of  salt  in 
England  occur  in  these  strata.  As,  however,  this 
substance  has  been  found  associated  with  strata  of 
all  ages  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  the  name 
has  been  given  up. 

SALINA,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of  Saline  county, 
Kans.,  on  the  Smoky  Hill  River,  about  thirty-eight 
miles  east  of  Ellsworth.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of 
salt  springs  and  gypsum  quarries,  and  manufac- 
tures flour.     Population  in  1890.  H.031. 

SALINE  PLANTS,  those  plants  which  require 
for  their  healthy  and  vigorous  growth  a  consider- 
able supply  of  clilofide  of  sodivni  (common  salt) 
and  other  salts,  and  which  are  therefore  limited  to 
peculiar  situations.  Few-  of  them  are  strictly 
aquatic  plants  except  the  marine  Alga?,  or  sea- 
weeds, which  grow  immersed  in  salt  water. 

SALINS.  a  town  of  the  department  of  Jura, 
France,  fifty-two  miles  from  Geneva,  on  the  Fur- 
ieuse,  a  feeder  of  the  Doubs.  It  is  situated  in  a 
narrow  rocky  gorge  between  two  lofty  hills,  looking 
upon  a  fertile  and  beautiful  valley.  It  derives  its 
importance  from  its  salt  works,  from  which  also  it 
has  its  name.  It  has  iron-works,  soda-factories, 
tanneries,  and  quarries  of  gypsum  in  its  immediate 
neighborhood.     Population,  11,350. 

SALISBURY,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of  Wiscom- 
ico county,  Md.,  on  the  Wiscomico  River,'  twenty- 
three  miles  west  of  Berlin.  It  exports  lumber, 
grain,  and  fruit,  and  manufactures  flour.  Popula- 
tion in  1,890,  2,905 

SALISBURY,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts near  the  Merrimac,  about  twenty-five 
miles  north  of  Salem.  It  contains  important  man- 
ufactories of  carriages.  Population  in  1890,  1,306. 
Three  miles  east  on  the  xitlantic,  is  Salisbury 
Beach,  a  popular  summer  resort. 

SALISBURY,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of  Rowan 
county,  N.  C.  about  forty-five  miles  north  of  Char- 
lotte. It  contains  several  iron-foundries,  and  is  an 
important  educational  centre.  Population  in  1890, 
4,436. 

SALISBT'RY,  Edw,\ed  Elbkidge,  American 
philologist,  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1814.  After 
taking  a  theological  course  at  Yale  C'oUege,  he 
spent  several  years  at  Paris  and  Berlin  in  studying 
eastern  languages.  A  professorship  of  Arabic  and 
Sanscrit  was  created  for  him  at  Yale  in  1841,  and 
after  spending  another  year  in  the  study  of  San- 
scrit at  Bonn,  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his 
professorship  with  the  delivery  of  an  Inaugund 
Discourse  on  Arabic  and  Sanscrit  Literature  (printed 
privately  in  1843).  In  1854  he  gave  up  the  chair  of 
Sanscrit  to  William  D.  Whitney,  but  taught  Arabic 
for  two  years  longer.  Then  he  spent  another  year 
in  Europe.  His  fine  Oriental  library  he  presented 
to  Yale  College,  and  also  endowed  the  professorship 
of  Sanscrit.  He  was  elected  member  of  numerous 
philological  societies,  and  has  published  three 
volumes  of  Cienecdngical  and  Biographical  Mono- 
graphs (18S5-18.S8).  His  degree  of  LL.  D.  was  con- 
ferred by  Yale  in  1869  and  by  Harvard  in  1886. 

SALISBURY,  Robert  Akthik  T-\lbot  Gascoyxe- 
Cecil,  M-\rquis  of,  an  English  statesman,  born  at 
Hatfield  in  1830.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
(Oxford,  sat  in  parliament  as  Lord  Robert  Cecil ; 
then  as  Viscount  Cranborne;  and  since  1868  under 
his  present  title;  was  secretary  of  state  for  India 
in  1866-67,  and  in  1874-78;  became  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs  in  1878;  represented  Great  Britain  at 
the  Berlin  congress ;  became  prime  minister  and 


S  A  L  L  O  W  —  S  A  L  M  0  N 


1373 


secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  1KS5;  prime 
minister  and  first  lord  of  the  treasurj-  in  1886;  and 
.foreign  secretary  in  1887.  Lord  Salisbury  was  an 
occasional  eontributer  in  his  younger  days  to  tiie 
"Quarterly  Review,"  but  he  now  seeks  relaxation 
from  the  cares  of  office  in  scientific  r;Uher  than  in 
literary  pursuits,  experimental  pliysics  being  his 
favorite  study.  He  spends  much  of  liis  time  in 
his  laboratory  at  Hatfield,  and  has  lately  interested 
himself  in  the  application  of  electricity  to  prac- 
tical purposes  on  his  estates.  Queen  Victoria, 
during  the  jubilee  year  of  her  reign,  went  in  per- 
son to  visit  Lord  Salisbury  at  Hatfield.  In  ISsS 
he  introduced  a  bill  into  the  house  of  lords  for  tlie 
reform  of  that  body  and  for  the  creation  of  life 
peers.  In  the  same  year  he  was  a  witness  in  the 
suit  of  Peters  vs.  Bradlaugh.  In  1889  an  action  for 
libel  was  brought  against  him  by  Mr.  AVilliam 
O'Brien.  In  March,  1890,  Lord  Salisbury  delivered 
a  vigorous  speech  in  parliament  in  favor  of  his 
resolution  that  the  report  of  the  Parnell  commis- 
sion be  adopted. 

SALLOW,  the  popular  name  of  a  number  of 
species  of  willow  trees  or  low  shrubs  with  downy 
hranches,  and  generally  ovate  or  obovate,  wrinkled 
leaves,  having  stipules. 

SALLY-PORT,  a  gate  or  passage  by  which  the 
garrison  of  a  fortress  may  make  a  sally  or  sudden 
attack  on  the  besiegers.  The  name  is  applied  to 
the  postern  leading  from  under  the  rampart  into 
the  ditch,  but  its  more  modern  application  is  to  a 
cutting  through  the  glacis,  by  which  a  sally  may 
be  made  from  the  covert-way.  When  not  in  use, 
sally-ports  are  closed  by  massive  gates  of  timber 
and  iron. 

SALMON.  For  general  article  on  the  .SalmonifLr, 
to  which  family  of  fishes  our  .-Vtlantis  and  Pacific 
salmons  belong,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI  pp. 
221-227.  A  very  natural  division  of  the  genus 
Salmo,  which  has  regard  tc  the  characters  really 
conspicuous  and  important,  is  the  simple  one  of 
Mr.  Pennell,  which  is  c  formal  recognition  of 
groups  practically  recognized  by  every  one  ac- 
quainted with  the  fishes  that  compose  them: 
1.  The  Silver,  or  Migratory  species  0'.  e.  those  mi- 
grating to  and  from  the  sea);  2.  The  Yellow,  or 
Non-migratory  species ;  3.  Tiie  Charrs,  or  Orange 
and  Red-colored  species.  The  common  salmon  is 
one  of  the  largest  species  of  the  genus,  having  been 
known  to  attain  the  weight  of  S.3  pounds.  No  fish 
is  more  symmetrical  or  beautiful  than  the  salmon  ; 
and  its  form  is  admirably  adapted  to  rapid  motion 
even  against  powerful  currents.  The  head  is  about 
one-fifth  of  the  whole  length  of  tlie  fisli.    The  under 

jaw  of  the  male  be- 
comes hooked  dur- 
ing the  breeding 
.reason  with  a  kind 
of  cartilaginous  ex- 
crescence, wliicli  is 
used  as  a  weapon 
in  the  combats  then 
frequent,  wounds  so  severe  being  inflicted  with  it 
that  death  sometimes  ensues.  The  salmon  is  found 
on  the  coasts  of  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  At- 
lantic, and  in  the  rivers  whicii  flow  into  that  ocean, 
as  far  soutli,  at  least,  as  the  Loire  on  the  Kuropean 
side,  and  the  Hudson  on  the  .\merican.  Tlie  sal- 
mon, after  its  first  migration  to  tlie  sea,  passes  a 
great  part  of  its  life  in  it.  although  under  the 
necessity  of  periodically  ascending  rivers  to  spawn. 
The  speed  with  which  it  glides  fhrougli  water  in 
its  most  rapid  movements  is  said  to  be  no  less 
than  1,500  feet  a  minute,  or  at  a  rate  of  -100  miles  a 
day.     The  perpendicular  height  which   the  salmon 


can  pass  over  by  leaping  seems  to  be  no  more  than 
12  to  14  feet.  As  the  time  of  spawning  approaches, 
salmon  undergo  considerable  changes  in  color. 
The  former  brilliancy  of  the  hues  gives  place  to  a 
general  darkness.  The  number  of  eggs  hatched  in 
ordinary  circumstances  must  be  small  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  deposited,  and  liy  far  the  great- 
est part  of  the  fry  perish  before  the  time  of  descent 
so  the  sea.  In  from  thirty  to  sixty  days  after  the 
deposition  of  the  eggs  in  the  sjiawning  bed,  they 
begin  to  show  signs  of  life,  and  the  eyes  appear  as 
small  specks.  The  young  fish  lies  coiled  up  in  the 
egg,  which  it  finally  bursts  in  its  struggles  to  be 
free,  and  it  issues  with  a  conical  bag  suspended 
under  the  belly,  which  affords  it  nourishment  dur- 
ing the  first  five  or  six  weeks. 

The  most  valuable  salmon  fisheries  now  existing 
are  those  of  the  Pacific  coast  region  of  North  Amer- 
ica, where  salmon  were  formerly  so  extraordinarily 
abundant  that  the  rivers  occasionally  became 
choked  with  the  multitudes  of  ascending  fish. 
Man's  injudicious  industry  has  succeeded  in  greatly 
reducing  the  numbers  of  migrating  salmon,  though 
the  fisheries  are  still  of  great  importance  and  the 
anntial  catch  of  high  value.  Tlie  Pacific  fish  com- 
prise several  species,  of  which  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  is  the  quinnat  or  king  salmon,  as  it  has 
been  well  named.  This  species  is  the  largest  of  the 
family,  averaging  in  weight  on  the  Columbia  22 
lbs.,  on  the  Sacramento  16  lbs.,  but  occasionally 
attaining  a  weight  of  from  60  to  90  lbs.  It  is 
found  along  the  coast  from  Lower  California  to 
Kamtohatka,  but  most  abundantly  in  the  Colum- 
bia, where  it  is  commonly  known  as  the  Chinook 
salmon. 

The  quinnat  is  a  beautiful  fish,  its  body  being 
silvery  in  hue,  the  back,  with  the  dorsal  and  caudal 
fins,  being  marked  with  black  spots.  In  the  fall  it 
becomes  black  or  dirty  red  in  color.  As  a  food  fish 
it  is  of  unsurpassed  excellence,  its  flesh  closely  re- 
semblin,-;  that  of  Suhua  salar  in  flavor.  It  does  not 
feed  in  fresh  water  and  dies  after  spawning,  except 
in  some  of  the  shorter  rivers. 

The  ColniL.bia  River,  during  the  six  years  ending 
in  1880,  yielded  nearly  200,000,000  lbs.  That  river 
is  being  fished  with  so  little  thought  of  the  future 
that  if  the  rate  of  destruction  is  continued  its  fish- 
eries must  become  valueless  before  many  years. 
Among  the  destructive  devices  adopted  is  that  of 
the  fish  wheel,  which  throws  the  fish  asliore  in 
shoals,  and  permits  scarcely  an  individual  to 
escape.  It  is  only  the  August  and  September  run 
of  salmon  which  now  keeps  up  the  supjily.  This  is 
not  molested,  l>ut  the  spring  run  is  almost  totally 
destroyed.  It  is  doubtful  if  this  amount  of  protec- 
tion is  sufficient,  and  other  means  need  to  be 
adopted  to  prevent  the  exhaustion  of  the  fish.  An 
efficient  salmon  hatchery  is  important  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  active  efforts  to  restock  the  river  in  this 
way  are  now  being  made  for  several  years.  In  1880 
about  1,500,000  fish  were  canned,  it  being  the  largest 
number  taken  to  that  time.  The  Sacramento  also 
yields  abundantly,  while  the  smaller  rivers  along 
the  coast  add  to  the  grand  total,  the  economic 
value  of  the  quinnat  fisheries  exceeding  that  of  all 
others  combined  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  total 
product  of  the  salmon  fisheries  of  the  United  States 
in  1880  is  given  at  52,000,000  lbs.,  of  which  Oregon 
yielded  39.500,000  lbs.  To  this  may  be  added  the 
catch  of  British  ("olumbia,  estimated  in  1881  at 
7,448,000  lbs.,  of  a  gross  value  of  ,£894,000.  The  value 
of  the  Fnited  States  canned  salmon  is  given  at 
.'f3,2.55,3(i5,  this  covering  31,453,000  pound-cans. 
Since  18,so  over-tishing  has  rendered  the  salmon 
industry  much  less  profitable.     In  1887  the  Oregon 


1S74 


SAL  M  0  N  —  S  A  L  T 


Fish  Coiiimission  reported  the  value  of  the  annual 
piR-k  in  that  State  at  $1',5UU,U0U,  and  the  total  pack 
of  tlie  I'acilic  coast  987,000  cases. 

SALMON,  (4EOKGE,an  Irish  clergyman  and  math- 
ematician, born  at  Dublin  in  1819.  lie  graduated 
in  ls30  as  senior  moderator  at  Trinity  Uollege, 
Dublin,  and  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  college  in 
1841.  and  regius  professor  of  divinity  in  1866.  His 
mathematical  works  on  Cunic  Scctivns;  Tin-  Higher 
Plane  Ciiri'fs,  Gconuiry  of  Three  Dlmeusions,  and 
Modern  Higher  Algelirnhuve  been  translated  into 
several  languages  and  have  obtained  for  him  the 
doctor's  degree  from  linth  Oxford  and  Caniliridge 
Universities.  liis  rehgious  works  consist  of  three 
series  of  Cullege  Seniio)is  (1861,  1873,  1881).  and  an 
Introduction  to  the  Neir  Testament  (1835). 

SALT.  For  general  article  on  Salt,  its  manu- 
facture, and  various  uses,  seeBritannica,  Vol.  XXI, 
pp.  L'.58-2:W. 

S.4LT  Wells. — Salt  occurs  in  great  aVjundance  in 
tlie  United  States,  most  of  that  in  common  use  be- 
ing obtained  from  the  waters  of  saline  springs  and 
wells.  It  is  evaporated  \>y  solar  hi  at  or  by  boiling. 
One  of  the  most  imi)ortant  brine  deposits  is  that  of 
the  Onondaga  district  of  Central  -New  York,  of 
which  the  city  of  Syracuse  ii.  the  center.  The  wells 
of  this  district  are  unusually  rich  both  in  the  qual- 
ity and  quantity  of  their  brine.  The  salt  water 
is  pumped  from  them  and  run  into  large  vats 
or  shallow  reservoirs,  where  it  is  exposed  to 
I  lie  solar  rays  and  evaporated.  There  are 
about  40,000  of  these  vats  used  there,  besides 
there  are  several  hundred  factories  in  which 
the  salt  is  obtained  from  the  brine  by  boiling.  The 
salt  wells  in  this  district  belong  to  the  State  of  New 
York.  The  lirine  is  pumped  by  the  State,  which 
charges  a  royalty  of  one  cent  per  bushel  of  salt. 
The  annual  product  of  the  saltworks  in  Onondaga 
county,  N.  Y.,is  about  ten  millions  of  bushels.  Sev- 
eral test  wells  have  been  sunk  in  the  State  reserva- 
tion at  Syracuse  for  the  purpose  of  securing  more 
and  stronger  brine,  but  thus  far  without  success. 
Outside  of  the  reservation,  within  a  few  miles  of 
Syracuse,  a  bore  has  been  made  through  735  feet  of 
shale,  then  500  feet  of  limestone,  when  underneath, 
at  a  depth  of  1,210  feet  from  the  surface,  the  salt 
was  found  "in  place."  It  is  proposed  that  this 
rock  salt  shall  be  converted  into  saturated  brine, 
and  brought  by  a  system  of  piping  to  the  City  of 
Syracuse.  Saturated  brine  can  lie  converted  into 
salt  for  market  at  38  per  cent,  less  cost  than  brine 
pumped  from  the  State  wells.  There  is  also  an  ad- 
vantage in  the  cost  of  fuel,  besides  a  saving  of  the 
State  duty. 

The  decline  of  the  salt  production  on  the  Syra- 
cuse reservation  is  not  only  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  salt  of  Michigan  is  produced  at  a  smaller  fuel 
expense;  but,  more  than  all,  to  the  fact  that  the 
mining  of  salt  in  Livingston,  Wyoming,  and  other 
counties  of  New  York  has  become  practicable.  The 
shaft  at  Piffard,  Livingston  county,  N.  Y.,  has 
reached  a  depth  of  1,140  feet;  but  in  the  last  150 
feet  there  was  a  total  of  83  feet  of  rock  salt,  two 
veins  of  whicli  were  respectively  22  and  53  feet, 
with  small  strips  of  shale  between. 

The  salt  district  of  Pennsylvania  is  found  along 
the  Allegheny  and  other  rivers  in  the  western  part 
of  the  State.  The  Pennsylvania  wells  yield  about 
200,000  bushels  of  salt  per  annum.  West  Virginia 
has  more  important  deposits  in  the  valley  of  the 
great  Kanawha.  These  wells  yield  now  I'.i  millions 
of  Ijushels  yearly.  Ohio  has  also  some  important 
salt-wells  which  yield  about  I'-i  millions  of  bush- 
els per  annum.  But  by  far  the  most  important  of 
our  salt-producing  states  is  Michigan,  whose  salines 


are  of  remarkable  richness.  The  wells  of  this  State 
are  in  the  vicinity  of  Saginaw  Bay.  They  have 
been  opened  in  large  numbers,  some  of  them  being 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  1,000  feet,  and  a  few  even  to 
1,900  feet  below  the  level  of  Lake  Michigan.  The 
strength  of  the  Michigan  brine  is  twice  as  great  as 
that  of  the  New  York  wells.  Besides  the  greater 
strength  of  the  brine  Michigan  has  the  advantage 
ofchea|)er  fuel.  These  two  advantages  have  pro- 
duced a  very  rapid  development  of  the  salt  indus- 
try in  Michigan. 

Saline  springs  and  salt  wells  are  common  in  the 
valley  of  the  Mississipjii ;  tliey  are  found  in  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  West  of  the 
river  they  occur  in  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Nebraska, 
and  Kansas,  the  latter  State  having  valuable  saline 
springs,  rich  in  salt,  in  the  valley  of  Solomon  River. 
In  Louisiana  salt  is  also  abundant.  In  the  north- 
western part  of  the  State  are  the  "licks,"  so 
named  from  the  haliit  of  forest  animals  to  resort 
there  to  lick  the  salt.  They  consist  of  springs  of 
weak  brine. 

Through  Kansas,  Western  Arkansas,  Indian  Ter- 
ritory, Northwest  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah, 
extends  a  vast  plain  of  Cretaceous  age,  in  nearly 
every  part  of  which  salt  lakes  and  incrustations 
ajipear  along  with  vast  masses  of  gyjisum.  Of  these 
lakes  much  the  most  extensive  and  famous  is  Great 
Salt  Lake,  about  75  miles  long  and  30  wide,  whose 
waters  contain  20.2  per  cent,  of  common  salt  and 
2  per  cent,  of  other  salts.  Northward  from  this 
region,  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  district,  salt  springs 
occur,  and  beds  of  rock  salt  of  great  extent  and 
purity  are  reported  in  the  Yellowstone  Valley. 

In  Eastern  Arizona  is  a  shallow  salt  lake  whose 
salt  is  precipitated  by  evaporation  at  one  season, 
while  salt  water  accumulates  again  at  another  sea- 
S(.in.  The  inhabitants  bring  their  wagons  here 
and  help  themselves  freely.  California  has  saline 
springs  and  salt  marshes  nearly  as  extensive  as 
those  of  Nevada,  but  obtains  its  principal  supply 
from  the  evaporation  of  sea-water  in  lagoons  along 
the  coast.  The  lagoons  of  the  Bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco yield  about  25,000  tons  annually.  There  is  a 
very  large  demand  for  salt  in  this  State  as  an  aid 
in  the  reduction  of  silver  ores  and  similar  opera- 
tions, which  consume  fully  30,000  tons  annually. 
The  remaining  States  and  Territories  of  the 
Pacific  slope  have  abundant  salt  within  their 
liorders  for  local  purposes.  The  United  States 
indeed  has  an  inexhaustible  quantity  of  this 
important  and  necessary  mineral,  while  the 
coast  region  affords  many  facilities  for  obtain- 
ing abundant  supplies  by  the  evaporation  of  sea 
water. 

Rock  Salt. — Near  the  Gulf  border  of  the  State 
of  Louisiana  on  an  island  in  a  sea  marsh  near 
New  Iberia,  named  Petite  Anse  or  Avery's  Island, 
is  an  immense  deposit  of  rock  salt  of  unusual 
purity.  This  salt  is  mined  by  the  aid  of  a  shaft 
sunk  to  the  depth  of  190  feet,  and  passing  through 
165  feet  of  solid  salt.  From  the  shaft  chambers  35 
feet  wide  and  65  feet  high  extend  in  various  direc- 
tions. Above  them  is  a  roof  of  rock  salt  55  to  60  feot 
thick  which  is  supported  by  columns  of  salt  4-  feet 
sijuare.  The  area  of  the  mass  is  144  acres,  and  its 
(|uantity  of  salt  is  estimated  at  28,600,000  net  tons. 
The  production  has  increased  from  25,550  tons  in 
1882  to  47,750  tons  in  1887.  The  latt  er  product  is 
valued  on  the  spot  at  if  118.700. 

In  the  State  of  New  York  a  large  bed  of  rock  salt 
was  discovered  in  1887  near  Ithaca  during  the 
work  of  boring  for  artesian  wells.  It  is  250  feet 
thick  and  lies  at  a  depth  of  2,600  feet.  In  South- 
west Virginia   such   beds   have   also  been    found. 


SALT    LAKE    C  I  T  Y  —  S  A  L  Y  A  D  0  R 


Large  deposits  of  rock-salt  occur  also  in  tlie  south- 
ern part  of  Utah  ;  their  supply  is  practically  un- 
limited. 

Nevada  is  credited  with  deposits  of  extraordi- 
nary extent.  On  Virgin  Kiver,  in  the  southeast 
part  of  the  State  there  is  a  bed  of  rock  salt  resting 
on  granite  which  extends  as  a  bluff  for  more  than 
25  miles  along  the  river,  being  in  some  places  sev- 
eral hundred  feet  high.  More  than  60  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  cliff  is  rock  salt  of  a  purity  of  DO  per 
cent.  This  remarkable  outcrop  is  of  a  pale  green 
color  and  ice-like  transparency.  Further  up  the 
river  on  its  west  side,  is  a  less  extensive  salt  hill  of 
a  dazzling  wliite  color.  These  beds  are  not  yet 
worked,  the  salt  needed  being  obtained  from  saline 
springs  and  from  an  extensive  saline  marsh  which 
deposits  an  incrustation  of  impure  salt  as  fast  as  it 
is  removed,  several  crops  being  obtained  in  a  year. 
This  is  used  in  metallurgical  processes. 

The  S.\LT  Beds  of  Wester.v  New  York  extend 
about  120  miles  from  east  to  west  and  about  fifty 
miles  from  north  to  south.  The  area  of  the  salt- 
bed  territory  is.  therefore,  nearly  5,000  square  miles, 
and  the  average  thickness  is  forty  feet.  This  means 
that  the  supply  is  practically  inexhaustible.  Some 
of  this  salt  is  now  sent  to  Syracuse  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  brine  on  the  State  reservation.  The 
brine  from  Western  New  York  holds  an  exception- 
ally small  proportion  of  the  chlorides  of  calcium 
and  magnesium.  This  has  made  it  possible  for  a 
ton  of  coal  to  produce  more  salt  in  the  Warsaw  re- 
gion than  can  be  produced  by  one  in  Syracuse. 
The  salt  fields  of  western  New  York  promise  to 
become  a  great  factor  in  the  market,  since  they  are 
near  the  City  of  New  York  and  are  penetrated  by 
railroads. 

The  total  product  of  salt  in  the  United  States  is 
now  about  40,000,000  of  bushels  per  annum.  Of 
this  total,  Michigan  furnishes  20,000,000  of  bushels : 
New  York,  10,000,000;  Louisiana,  Ohio,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  the  Territory  of  Utah,  one  and  a  half 
millions  each  ;  Virginia  and  Nevada  one -half  mill- 
ion each,  and  the  States  of  Pennsylvania,  Califor- 
nia, Kentucky,  Texas,  Kansas,  and  Wyoming 
supply  together  the  remaining  3,000.000  of  bushels. 
SALT  L.^KE  CITY,  a  city  of  Utah.  Population 
in  1 890,  44,843.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  235; 
also  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  827. 

SALT  OF  TIN,  the  term  employed  by  the  dyer 
and  calico-printer  for  protoohloride  of  tin,  which  is 
extensively  used  as  a  mordant,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  de-oxidizing  indigo  and  the  peroxides  of  iron  and 
manganese. 

SALT  RANGE,  or  K.^lahaor  Mou.ntains,  a  moun- 
tain range  in  the  Punjab,  India.  It  rises  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  .Ihelum,  runs  west  to  the  Indus, 
and  after  affording  a  passage  to  the  river,  re-ap- 
pears on  its  west  side  acl  pursues  the  same  direc- 
tion till  it  meets  with  the  Suleiman  Mountains. 
The  Salt  Range  is  about  200  miles  in  length,  and 
rises  to  the  height  of  2,500  feet.  Its  appearance  is 
exceedingly  bleak  and  barren.  Ro  ck-salt  is  found 
in  inexhaustilile  quantities,  and  so  pure  that  after 
being  pounded  it  is  ready  for  use.  Alum,  iron-ore, 
coal,  gypsum,  and  limestone  abound  ;  gold-dust  is 
washed  down  in  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  and  graph- 
ite is  also  found. 

S.\LVADOR,  REPtni.Tc  of.  For  general  arlicle 
on  Salvador  see  Britannica  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  268-<i9. 

The  area  of  the  Republic  is  estimated  at  7,225 
English  square  miles,  divided  into  14  departments. 
The  population,  according  to  a  census  of  .Tanuary 
1,  1886,  was  651,1.30,  giving  an  average  of  89  inhabi- 
tants to  the  sciuare  mile,  being  twenty  limes  that 
of  the  average  of  the  other  states  of  Central  Amer- 
ica.     An   official  estimate  for  1888  made  the   popu- 


lation 664.513.  Aboriginal  and  mixed  races 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  population,  among  whom 
live  about  10,000  whites  or  descendants  of  Euro- 
peans. The  capital  is  San  Salvador,  founded  in 
1528,  with  lfi,.327  inhabitants  (1888).  The  city  has 
often  been  destroyed  by  eartliquakes  and  volcanic 
eruptions,  the  last  time  on  April  16,  1854,  when  it 
was  overwhelmed  by  almost  total  ruin,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  most  of  the  inhabitants  erected 
new  dwellings  on  a  neighboring  site,  at  present 
called  Nueva  San  Salvador.  The  new  capital  again 
was  partly  destroyed  in  1873  by  a  series  of  earth- 
quakes and  eruptions,  and  suffered  again  severely 
in  1879. 

EincATioN  AND  JUSTICE. — Education  is  free  and 
obligatory.  In  1888  there  were  in  Salvador  732 
primary  schools,  with  27,000  pupils;  18  higher 
schools  (including  two  normal  and  one  polytechnic 
school)  with  1,293  pupils;  and  a  national  university 
with  faculties  of  jurisprudence,  medicine,  natural 
sciences,  and  engineering  attended  by  180  students. 
In  the  capital  is  a  national  library  and  museum, 
and  in  the  republic  13  newspapers  are  pul>lished. 
Justice  is  administered  by  the  supreme  court 
of  justice,  by  several  subordinate  courts,  and  by 
local  justices. 

Finance,  Reve.nue  and  Expenditure. — The  reve- 
nue in  1889  was  $4,070,342.  The  revenue  is  largely 
from  customs  and  monopolies.  Among  tlie  ex- 
penditures in  1SS9  were:  Public  debt,  $972,000; 
army,  $909,000;  public  works,  $555,000;  public  in- 
struction, $336,000. 

The  internal  debt  in  1889  aggregated  .$5,388,759  ; 
the  external  debt  about  $1,500,000. 

To  the  imports  in  1889  Great  Britain  contril)Uted 
$957,359;  the  United  States,  $219,206 ;  France,  $312,- 
295;  Germany,  $328,650.  Of  the  exports  $940,154 
went  to  Great  Britain;  $258,734  to  the  United 
States;  $1,027,980  to  Germany  ;  .$1,158,806  to  France. 
The  principal  imports  in  18S9  were:  Cotton  goods, 
.$982,500.  The  principal  exports  in  1889  were:  Cof- 
fee, $3,808,410;  indigo,  .$1,347,108. 

The  statistics  of  the  commercial  intercourse  of 
Salvador  with  the  United  Kingdom  are  not  given 
in  the  "Annual  Statement  of  the  Board  of  Trade," 
in  which  the  trade  of  the  Republic  is  thrown  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  States  of  Costa  Rica,  Guate- 
mala, Honduras,  and  Nicaragua,  under  the  general 
designation  of  "Central  America." 

In  1888,  343  vessels  entered  the  ports  of  tlie  Re- 
public, and  as  many  cleared. 

Internai.  Communications. — A  railway  connects 
the  port  of  Acajutla  with  the  inland  town  of  Ar- 
menia; when  the  system  is  completed  it  will  con- 
nect the  towns  of  Acajutla,  Sansonate,  Ateos,  San 
Salvador,  and  San  Tecla.  There  are  over  2,000 
miles  of  good  road  in  the  Republic.  Salvador 
joined  the  postal  union  in  1879.  In  1888  there 
were  48  principal  receiving  oflioes.  In  1887  713,305 
letters  and  printed  papers  were  transmitted.  In 
1888  there  were  in  Salvador  93  telegraph  stations 
and  a  network  of  1,440  miles.  The  teleplione  is  in 
operation  between  San  Salvador,  Santa  Anna,  and 
San  Tecle. 

ITisToKic  Note. — The  Eeiniblic  of  Salvador  is  gov- 
erned riominally  under  a  conslitution  proclaimed 
in  1864,  and  modified  in  188(',  I8s:;,  and  188{i. 

The  constitution  vests  the  legislative  power  in  a 
congress  of  70  deputies,  42  of  whom  are  proprie- 
tors. Tlie  election  is  by  suffrage  of  all  citizens  of 
the  republic.  The  reiiresentatives  are  chosen  for 
one  year.  The  executive  is  in  the  hands  of  a  jires- 
ident,  whose  tenure  of  otliee  is  limited  to  four  years. 
The  regular  elect  ion  of  the  president,  has  in  re- 
cent years  been  constantly  supersed  by  "  jironunci- 
amientos"and  military  nominations. 


1376 


S  A  L  V  A  T  I  0  N    A  11  M  Y  —  S  A  M  8  0  E 


The  administrative  afTairs  of  tlie  republic  are 
carried  on,  under  the  president.  l).y  a  ministry  of 
four  members,  liaving  charge  of  the  departments  of 
the  exterior,  justice  and  refiRion;  war  and  finance; 
interior;  and  public  instruction. 

The  army  numbers  2,500  men,  with  12,000  militia. 

Recent  Presidents:  Gen.  Francisco  ilent'ndez, 
provisionally  appointed  June  19,  18S5 ;  elected 
.'\Iarch  1, 1H87.  Gen.  Carlos  Ezeta,  elected  provision- 
ally Sept.  11.  1890  to  March  1,  l.'^Ol. 

.SALVATION  AR;MY,  a  religious  society  with 
a  <iuasi-military  organization,  having  for  its  object 
the  evangelization  of  the  masses,  whom  it  seeks  to 
reach  by  special  means,  including  out-door  pro- 
cessions accompanied  with  banners  and  music,  and 
by  addresses  in  liaUs,  theatres  and  other  public 
buildings.  Its  work  is  under  the  direction  of 
ottieers  of  both  sexes,  having  military  titles,  the 
cliief  of  whom  is  called  general.  See  Booth,  Rev. 
WiLM.\M,  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions.  In 
1S91  the  army  was  established  in  thirty-two  coun- 
tries or  colonies,  where,  under  the  leadership  of 
9,550  officers,  whose  lives  are  entirely  devoted  to  the 
work,  it  held  an  aggregate  of  about  210,000  religions 
meetings  every  week.  It  has  laid  literature  under 
heavy  contribution  to  the  success  which  has  at- 
tended its  efforts.  The  army  has  twenty-seven 
weekly  newspapers,  with  a  circulation  of  31,000,000 
copies;  fifteen  monthly  magazines,  with  a  circula- 
tion of  2,400,000 — the  total  annual  circulation  of 
army  literature  being  37,400,000.  Of  these  publi- 
cations the  "War  Cry"  is  best  known.  The  army 
has  accumulated  property  to  the  extent  of  about 
.$3,77.5,000,  and  pays  rentals  to  the  amount  of  .$1,- 
10'),000  per  annum.  Its  total  income,  from  all 
sources,  amounts  to  about  -$3,750,000.  The  United 
States  branch  was  established  in  1880.  In  1891 
there  were  in  this  country  445  corps  and  outposts 
and  1,125  officers,  with  1.5,000  adlierents;  value  of 
property  held  by  the  United  States  wing  of  the 
army,  .$50,000.  the  death  in  1890  of  Mrs.  Booth, 
the  "mother  of  the  army,"  to  wliom  is  generally 
accorded  the  honor  of  having  initiated  the  most 
successful  features  of  the  movement,  was  made  the 
occasion  of  many  popular  demonstrations  of  sym- 
pathy. The  publication  in  the  same  year  of  Gen- 
eral Booth's  In  Darkfst  England,  and  the  Wai/  Out, 
gave  rise  to  much  interest  in  the  methods  sug- 
gested therein  for  the  elevation  of  the  outcasts  of 
society. 

SALVE  REGIXA,  the  first  words  of  one  of  the 
most  popular  prayers  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  addressed  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  It 
forms  part  of  the  daily  office  of  the  Roman 
Breviary. 

SALVINI,  ToMMAso,  Italian  tragedian,  born  at 
Milan  in  1830.  His  father,  being  a  professor  of 
literature,  gave  him  an  excellent  education.  He 
was  at  first  connected  with  the  royal  theatre  at 
Naples,  and  afterwards  played  for  six  years  with 
anotlier  troupe  in  several  Italian  theatres.  For 
some  time  he  played  witli  Jladame  Ristori.  His 
greatest  success  was  at  Florence  in  1865  on  the 
600th  anniversary  of  Da!ite's  birth,  when  he  played 
the  part  of  Lancelotto  in  the  tragedy  Fi-aii£t'.<<ra  di 
Rimini,  Madam  Ristori  playing  Francesca.  Salvini 
played  his  nMe  with  such  astonishing  force  as  to 
attract  marked  attention  to  himself.  The  grateful 
city  of  Florence  presented  him  with  a  statuette  of 
Dante.  In  1875  Salvini  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  again  in  1881.  His  chief  parts  were  Othello. 
Hamlet,  Saul  and  Orosmanes.  His  personation  of 
Othello  especially  was  received  with  great  en- 
thusiam.  The  elements  of  his  success  are  his 
splendid  physique,  noble  liearing,  perfect  elocution, 
dranuitic  povi-er  and  velienient   passion.     When  in 


1868  he  performed  at  Madrid  in  La  Morte  Virile, 
the  audience,  carried  away  with  tiie  intense  realism 
of  the  death  he  enacted  before  them,  rushed  upon 
the  stage  to  see  if  the  actor  was  yet  alive.  Sal- 
vini's  last  appearance  in  England  was  in  18.S4.  He 
received  the  honor  of  knighthood  from  King 
Victor  Emanuel. 

SAL^'0  :  is  a  concentrated  fire  from  a  greater  or 
less  number  of  pieces  of  artillery.  Against  a  body 
of  men  a  salvo  is  generally  useless,  as  the  moral 
elTect  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  area  over 
which  devastation  is  spread  ;  but  with  fortifications 
the  case  is  otherwise.  F'or  the  purpose  of  breach- 
ing, the  simultaneous  concussion  of  a  number  of 
cannon  balls  on  masonry,  or  even  earth-work,  pro- 
duces a  very  destructive  result. 

SAMARIA  AND  SAMARITANS.  The  subjects 
are  fully  treated  in  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  243- 
246. 

SAMBOR,  New,  a  town  of  the  Austrian  Empire, 
in  the  jirovince  of  East  Galicia,  the  capital  of  a 
circle,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dniester,  forty-four 
miles  southwest  from  Lemberg.  It  is  a  thriving 
and  well-built  town,  with  manufactories  of  linens 
and  extensive  salt  works.    Population,  10,500. 

SAJIOA.  For  general  article  on  this  group  of 
fourteen  volcanic  islands  in  the  South  Pacific,  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  279. 

Area,  1,701  square  miles;  population,  36.0C0,  of 
which  16,600  in  Upolu,  12,500  in  Savaii,  3,750 in  Tutui- 
la.  The  natives  are  Polynesians,  and  there  are  about 
3(10  whites.  The  natives  are  all  Christians  (Protes- 
tants and  Roman  Catholics)  and  schools  are  at- 
tached to  the  churches.  The  trade  is  largely  in  the 
hands  of  German  firms.  Imports,  1885,  93,720?.; 
exports,  73,928/;  imports,  1887,  87,000/;  exports, 
71,340/.  Chief  imports:  Haberdashery,  trinkets, 
arms,  ammunition,  machinery  ;  chief  exports,  copra, 
cotton  and  coffee.  In  1888  371  vessels  (228  German) 
entered  the  port  of  Apia. 

At  a  Samoan  conference  at  Berlin  in  1889,  at 
which  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  the  United 
States  were  represented,  an  act  was  signed  (June 
14)  guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of  the  islands,  in 
which  the  citizens  of  tlie  three  signatory  powers 
have  equal  rights  of  residence,  trade  and  personal 
protection.  The  three  powers  recognize  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Samoan  government  and  the  free 
right  of  the  natives  to  elect  their  chief  or  king,  and 
elioose  the  form  of  government  according  to  their 
own  laws  and  customs.  A  supreme  court  is  estab- 
lished, consisting  of  one  judge,  who  shall  be  styled 
chief  justice  of  Samoa.  Mr,  Conrad  Cederkranz 
(late  assistant  judge  at  Stockholm)  has  been  ap- 
pointed by  the  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  as 
provided  by  the  treaty.  To  this  court  shall  be  re- 
ferred (1)  all  civil  suits  concerning  real  property 
situated  in  Samoa,  and  all  rights  affecting  the 
same;  (2)  all  civil  suits  of  any  kind  between  natives 
and  foreigners,  or  between  foreigners  of  different 
nationalities;  (3)  all  crimes  and  offenses  commit- 
ted by  natives  against  foreigners,  or  committed  bj' 
such  foreigners  as  are  not  subject  to  any  consular 
jurisdiction. 

All  future  alienation  of  lands  is  prohibited,  with 
certain  specified  exceptions.  A  local  administra- 
tion is  provided  for  the  municipal  district  of  Apia. 

Malietoa  was  restored  as  the  rightful  reigning 
king,  Nov.  9,  1889. 

SAMSOE,  a  small  Island  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Denmark,  situated  in  the  northern  entrance 
to  the  Great  Belt,  between  Zeeland  and  Jutland. 
Area.  40  square  miles.  There  are  no  towns,  and 
the  inhabitants  owe  the  considerable  comforts  they 
enjoy  entirely  to  the  unusual  fertility  of  their 
island.     Populal  ion. -5,500. 


S  A  M  S  0  N  —  S  A  N    D  0  xM  I  N  G  0 


1377 


SAMSON,  a  popular  Jewish  hero  of  vast  bodily 
strength,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  252. 

SAMUEL,  Books  of,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp. 
252-3. 

SAN  ANGELO,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of  Tom 
Green  county,  Texas.  It  is  in  the  centre  of  a  vast 
herding  region  near  the  head  waters  of  the  Colo- 
rado. 

SAN  ANTONIO,  a  city  of  Texas.  Population  in 
1890,  37,673.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  254;  also 
XXIII,  205. 

SAN  BERNARDINO,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of 
San  Bernardino  county,  Cal.,  beautifully  situated 
in  a  rich  valley  twenty  miles  east  of  Mount 
San  Bernardino  and  sixty  miles  east  of  Los  An- 
geles. It  is  surrounded  by  vineyards  and  orange 
groves. 

SAN  CASCIANO,  a  city  of  Central  Italy,  prov- 
ince of  Florence,  ten  miles  southwest  of  the  city  of 
that  name.  It  is  well  built.  The  lands  belonging 
to  it  produce  a  very  strong  wine,  highly  prized  in 
Italy  also  grain,  oil,  fruit  and  mulberries.  Popu- 
lation, 11,258. 

SANDALWOOD  ISLAND,  called  by  the  natives 
Tjindana,  Sumba  and  Tanah  Tjumlta,  lies  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  between  9°  18'— 10°  20'  south  lati- 
tude, and  118°  58'— 120°  43'  east  longitude,  and  has 
an  area  of  4,966  square  miles.  The  coast  is  steep 
and  rocky,  so  that,  except  at  the  west,  south  and 
east  corners,  ships  can  apitroach  quite  near.  The 
produce  consists  chiefly  of  dye-woods,  ebony,  tim- 
ber, cotton,  rice,  pepper,  cocoa,  maize,  coffee,  sugar, 
wild  cinnamon,  cocoa-nuts  and  various  fruits.  Lit- 
tle sandal-wood  is  exported,  though  abounding  in 
the  forests,  the  natives  refusing  to  cut  the  trees, 
which  they  believe  to  be  the  dwellings  of  their  an- 
cestors' souls.  Exports  are :  Horses,  timber,  cotton, 
pepper,  wax,  tortoise-shell,  tow  made  from  bark, 
maize,  and  edible  nests.  The  cliffs  swarm  with  the 
CoUocaUa  escnU-nta,  and  collecting  the  nests  is  a 
leading  occupation  of  the  men.  Sandalwood  Island 
is  nominally  subject  to  the  Netherlands,  but  the 
rajahs  and  regents  are  almost  independent  of  for- 
eign influence.     Population,  1,000,000. 

SANDERS,  Wilbur  F.,  United  States  Senator, 
born  in  Leon,  N.Y.,  in  1834.  He  taught  school  in  New 
York ;  studied  law  in  Akron,  Ohio,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1856;  recruited  a  company  of 
infantry  and  a  battery  in  the  summer  of  1861 ;  was 
acting  assistant  adjutant-general  on  the  staff  of 
General  James  W.  Forsyth ;  assisted  in  1862  in  the 
construction  of  defenses  along  the  railroads  south 
of  Nashville;  ill  health  compelled  li is  resignation, 
and  he  located  in  Idaho  (now  Montana),  where  he 
has  been  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law  and  in- 
terested in  mining  and  stock-raising;  was  selected 
to  prosecute  robbers  and  murderers  l)efi)re  popu- 
lar tribunals  organize^  to  maintain  public  order; 
was  a  member  of  the  legislative  assembly  of  Mon- 
tana from  1872  till  1880,  inclusive;  was  appointed 
United  States  Attorney  for  Montana  in  1872,  but 
declined  the  office ;  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1890;  his  term  of  service  expires 
in  1893. 

SAN  DIEGO,  a  city  of  California.  Population 
in  1890,  16.159.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p. 
2.59. 

SANDIVER,  a  product  of  the  glass  furnaces. 
When  the  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass  are  melted,  a  scum  arises  which  has  to  be  re- 
moved; this  is  called  sandiver,  and  is,  when  pow- 
dered, used  as  a  polishing  material,  and  formerly 
had  a  consideralile  reputation  as  a  t<ioth-powder. 
SAN  DOMINGO,  Repiblic  of.  I'or  general 
article  on  S.\n  Domingo,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XI, 
pp.  543-46.  The  area  which  embraces  tlie  eastern 
.'J 


part  of  the  Island  of  Haiti  (the  western  hall  form- 
ing tlie  Republic  of  Haiti),  is  estimated  at  18,045 
siiuare  miles,  with  a  population,  ollicially  estimated 
at  610,000  or  about  34  to  a  square  mile. 

The  republic  is  iu<\v  (1891)  divided  into  six 
provinces  and  five  maritime  districts.  The  popu- 
lation, like  that  of  the  neighboring  Haiti,  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  negroes  and  mulattoes,  but  the 
whites,  or  European-descended  inhabitants,  are 
comparatively  numerous,  and  owing  to  their  in- 
fluence the  Spanish  language  is  the  prevailing 
dialect,  though  in  the  towns  both  French  and 
English  are  spoken.  Capital  of  the  repuldic  is 
the  city  of  Santo  Domingo,  founded  1494,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Ozama,  with  25.000  inhabitants 
according  to  official  statement;  Puerto  Plato,  the 
chief  port,  has  15,000  inhaliitants. 

CON'STITUTION    AND    PrESE.NT    GOVERNMENT. — This 

republic,  founded  in  1884,  is  governed  under  a  con- 
stitution bearing  date  Nov.  l8,  1844,  reproclaimed, 
with  changes,  Nov.  14, 1865  (after  a  revolution  which 
expelled  the  troops  of  Spain,  who  held  possession 
of  the  country  for  the  two  previous  years),  and 
again  in  1879,  1880.  1881  and  1887.  By  the  terms  of 
the  constitution  the  legislative  power  of  the  repub- 
lic is  vested  in  a  national  congress  of  twenty-two 
deputies.  The  members  are  chosen  by  direct  pop- 
ular vote,  with  restricted  suffrage,  in  tl)e  ratio  of 
two  for  each  province  and  two  for  each  district,  for 
the  term  of  two  years.  But  the  powers  of  the  na- 
tional congress  only  embrace  the  general  affairs 
of  the  republic;  and  the  individual  states,  five  in 
number,  have  separate  legislatures. 

The  executive  of  the  republic  is  vested  in  a  presi- 
dent chosen  by  universal  suffrage  for  the  term  of 
four  years.  Constant  insurrections  have  allowed 
very  few  presidents  to  serve  the  full  term  of  office, 
but  during  the  past  few  years,  according  to  the 
British  consular  reports,  the  country  has  been 
going  on  prosperously,  and  become  comparatively 
quiet. 

President  of  the  Republic. — General.  Ulysses 
Heureaux,  elected  in  1886,  successor  to  Alejandro 
■\Vasey  Gil,  elected  in  1885. 

The  administrative  affairs  of  the  republic  are  in 
charge  of  a  ministry  appointed  by  the  president, 
with  the  approval  of  the  consego  conservador. 
The  ministry  js  comi)osed  of  the  heads  of  the  de- 
partments of  the  interior  and  police,  finance  and 
commerce,  justice  and  public  instruction,  war  and 
marine,  public  works,  and  foreign  affairs 

Each  province  and  district  is  administered  by  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  president.  The  various 
communes,  cantons,  and  sections  are  presided  over 
by  prefects  or  magistrates  appointed  by  the  gover- 
nors. The  communes  have  municipal  corporations 
elected  by  the  inhabitants. 

Education'  and  Justice. — Primary  instruction  is 
gratuitous  and  obligatory,  being  suiqxirtcd  by  the 
communes  and  by  central  aid.  The  public  or  state 
schools  are  primary,  superior,  technical  schools, 
normal  schools,  and  a  professorial  school  with  the 
character  of  a  university.  On  Dec.  31,  1.S84,  when 
the  last  school  census  was  taken,  there  were  201 
municipal  schools  for  primary  instru<!t  ion,  with 
7,708  |)Uiiils.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  300 
schools  with  about  10,000  pupils. 

There  are  several  literary  societies  in  the  capital 
and  other  towns;  and  in  the  republic  there  are 
published  about  forty  newspapers. 

The  chief  judicial  power  resides  in  the  supreme 
court  of  justice,  which  consists  of  a  president  and 
four  justices  chosen  by  Congress,  and  one  (ministro 
fiscal)  appointed  by  the  executive — all  these  nft- 
pointiiients  being  only  for  lli(>  presidential  period. 
The  territory  of  the  republic  is  divided  into  eleven 


1378 


S  A  N  I)  IM  P  E  S  —  S  A  N  I  T  A  R  Y    C  0  I\I  M  I  S  S  I  0  N 


judicial  (list.ricls,  each  liavini;  its  own  triliiiiial  or 
emirt  of  first  instance,  and  these  districts  are  sub- 
divided into  communes,  each  with  a  local  justice 
(alcalde),  a  secrefarj'  and  bailiff  (alguacil). 

Finance — Kuvenue  and  Expendittue. — The  reve- 
nue is  mainly  derived  from  customs  duties.  The 
estimaled  revenue  for  ISH!)  was  $1,531,284,  and  ex- 
penditure $1,40.S,543.  The  debt  of  the  republic  was 
oliicially  stated  to  consist  of  an  internal  debt,  re- 
turned (January,  1889)  at  !i;l,2S2,592;  a  "public 
deljt,"  also  internal,  amounting  at  same  date  to 
$1.1148,423;  and  an  international  debt  of  $234,250;  a 
foreign  debt  contracted  at  tlie  London  Stock  Ex- 
change in  1869.  The  foreign  debt  in  1889  amounted, 
according  to  the  oiiicial  statement  of  the  council  of 
foreign  bondholders,  to  $3,471 ,498,  with  unpaid  inter- 
est amounting  to  $3,324,995.  A  new  loan  of  $3,570,- 
500  has  been  contracted,  wherewith  to  pay  off  all 
outstanding  debts,  at  a  percentage  of  the  value, 
leaving  a  balance  of  $3,375,000  for  the  general  pur- 
poses of  the  government. 

Defense. — There  is  a  small  army  of  infantry, 
cavalry  and  artillery,  a  regiment  being  stationed 
in  the  capital  of  each  province.  There  are  also  re- 
serve corps,  and  universal  liability  to  serve  in  case 
of  foreign  war. 

SANDPIPE.S,  cylindrical  hollows  existing  in 
chalk  deposits.  They  descend  perpendicularly 
into  the  chalk  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  taper- 
ing downwards,  and  ending  in  a  point;  they  reach 
occasionally  a  depth  of  sixty  feet,  and  have  a 
diameter  varying  from  one  to  twelve  feet.  They 
are  most  probably  produced  by  the  chemical  action 
of  water,  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  which  exists 
more  or  less  in  all  rain-water,  and  is  especially 
abundant  in  water  that  has  been  in  contact  with 
decaying  organic  matter.  The  pipes  are  filled  with 
sand,  clay,  or  gravel  from  the  overlying  deposit. 

SANDUSKY,  a  city  of  Ohio.  Population  in  1890, 
18,471.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  2(i]. 

SANDWICH,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Illinois, 
eighteen  miles  west  of  Aurora.  It  produces  cheese, 
flour,  windmills,  and  agricultural  machinery. 
Population  in  1890,  2,505. 

SANDY  HILL,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of  Wash- 
ington county,  N.  Y.,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son, fifty-six  miles  aV)Ove  Albany.  It  has  an 
abundant  water-power,  and  produc(js  a  variety  of 
manufactures.     Population  in  1890,  3,li(i2. 

SAN  FELE,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Potenza,  seventeen  miles  northwest  from 
Potenza,  among  the  Appennines,  on  one  of  the 
head-waters  of  the  Ofanto.  It  has  an  ancient 
castle.     Population,  9,086. 

SANFORD,  .John,  born  at  Amsterdam,  N.  Y.,  in 
1B51.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1872; 
was  elected  to  Congress  in  1889 ;  his  present  term 
expires  in  1893. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  a  city  of  California.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  298,997.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p. 
262. 

SAN  FRATELLO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Messina,  fifty-three  miles  southwest  of 
^lessina.  It  stands  on  a  height,  about  five  miles 
from  the  sea.  At  the  base  of  the  hill  on  which  the 
town  stands  is  a  remarkable  cave,  discovered  in 
18.59,  and  containing  prodigious  quantities  of  bones 
of  mammals,  with  which  flint  implements  are 
mixed.     Population.  7,200. 

SANGIR  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  to  the 
north  of  Celebes,  upwards  of  fifty  in  number,  and 
nearly  all  inhabited.  Population,  30,000.  The 
three  largest  islands,  Great  Sangir,  Sjiauw,  and 
Tagolandang,  with  those  which  surround  each, 
form  as  it  were  separate  groups.  In  the  Sangir 
Islands   are   many   mountains,  which,  except   the 


volcanoes,  are  clothed  to  their  summits  with  a  rich 
vegetation.  Great  Sangir  lias  an  area  of  273  square 
miles,  and  is  divided  into  four  kingdoms.  In  tlic 
northwest  is  a  volcano,  called  Abu,  or  the  "Ash 
Mountain,"  which  has  frequently  caused  great 
devastation.  In  March,  1856,  the  streams  of  lava 
and  boiling  water  carried  away  tlie  rich  planta- 
tions, and  2,.S06  lives  were  lost.  In  all  the  islands, 
the  areng,  the  sago,  cocoa-nut,  and  the  finest  sorts 
of  timber-trees  abound.  IMaize,  rice,  katjang  (a 
species  of  bean),  tobacco,  cocoa,  and  the  sugar- 
cane are  cultivated. 

The  Sangirese  belong  to  the  IMalay  race,  are 
well  made  and  brave,  but  cunning,  lazy  and  dirty 
in  their  habits. 

SANITARY  COMMISSION,  THE  United  States, 
an  organization  which  had  its  rise  in  a  spontane- 
ous movement  of  the  women  in  various  parts  of 
New  England  to  do  what  they  could  to  aid  the 
hastily  gathered  armies,  mostly  composed  of  young 
men,  at  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war.  The 
Woman's  Central  Relief  Association,  organized  in 
New  York,  April  29,  1861,  sent  a  committee  to  con- 
fer with  the  Medical  Department  at  Washington, 
which  soon  discovered  that  the  latter  was  utterly 
inadequate  to  the  demands  likely  to  be  made  upon 
it,  and  knowing  that  a  civil  commission  with  power 
to  over-ride  the  medical  department  had  saved 
the  remnants  of  the  English  army  at  the  Crimea, 
laid  before  our  government  a  petition  for  the  cre- 
ation of  a  somewhat  similar  body  It  was.  however, 
found  possible  only  to  organize  a  semi-ofiicial  so- 
ciety which,  without  autliority  of  any  kind,  and 
with  no  dependence  for  pecuniary  support  except 
upon  the  better  sympathies  of  the  nation,  under- 
took the  double  task  of  the  prevention  of  disease 
and  the  relief  of  suffering  and  want.  The  action 
of  the  Sanitary  Commission  thus  organized  was 
guided  by  several  principles.  1st.  It  aimed  to 
support  and  stimulate  the  government  in  its  deal- 
ings with  the  army,  to  maintain  order  and  disci- 
pline, and  to  cooperate  with,  or  if  need  be,  lead, 
the  i\Iedical  Department  in  all  necessary  reforms. 
2nd.  It  recognized  that  xirevention  of  disease  was 
its  main  object,  which  it  accomplished  by  the  ap- 
]iointment  of  skilled  medical  inspectors  who  visited 
every  camp,  and  by  the  cultivation  of  a  friendly 
relation  with  the  physicians  and  tliose  in  charge, 
endeavored  to  introduce  better  ventilation,  drain- 
age, clothing,  cookery,  etc.  Among  the  successes 
of  the  Sanitary  Commission  may  lie  reckoned  the 
reformation  of  the  pcmmneJ  of  the  medical  bureau, 
the  erection  of  pavilion  hospitals  in  the  various 
camjis,  the  establishment  of  soldiers'  homes  at  the 
depots  at  which  troops  were  congregating,  the 
provision  of  hospital  steamers  and  cars  for  the 
transportation  of  sick  soldiers,  the  organization  of 
over  7,000  aid  societies,  wherein  the  women  of  the 
land  had  an  opportunity  of  providing  for  the  extra 
wants  of  the  sick  and  wounded  and  the  impartial 
distribution  of  the  supplies  thus  forwarded.  De- 
pots of  such  supplies  were  established  in  six  princi- 
pal cities,  and  the  people  were  kept  apprised  both  of 
the  wants  of  the  army  and  of  the  disposition  of 
their  liberality  by  periodicals  especially  devoted 
to  this  purpose.  The  Commission  also,  under  the 
name  of  a  Hospital  Directory,  endeavored  to  keep 
track  of  all  the  privates  who  passed  through  the 
hospitals,  for  the  benefit  of  their  homes  and  friends, 
and  established  a  Pension  Bureau  and  War  Claim 
Agency,  for  the  benefit  of  disabled  soldiers  and 
tlieir  orphans  and  widows,  and  carried  forward,  all 
through  the  war,  a  Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics,  of 
vast  importance  for  all  future  time.  The  entire 
money  receipts  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  from 
1861  to   1866  were   $4,924,480.99,  and  the  value   ol 


SANITARY    SCIENCE 


1379 


supplies  is  estimated  at  $15,000,000.  The  Commis- 
sion consisted  of  a  board  of  25  representative  gentle- 
men, of  which  Henry  Bellows,  D.  D..  of  New  York 
was  president. 

SANITARY  SCIENCE,  known  also  under  the 
names  of  Preventive  Medicine  and  Public  Health, 
has  been  variously  defined  by  different  writers. 
Dr.  Mapother's  is  perhaps  as  good  a  definition  as 
any.  In  the  first  of  his  Lectures  on  Public  Health  he 
describes  this  science  as  "an  application  of  the 
laws  of  physiology  and  general  pathology  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  health  and  life  of  communities, 
by  means  of  those  agencies  which  are  in  common 
and  constant  use."  The  Mosaic  code  of  laws  —  the 
most  ancient  on  record  —  contains  tliemost  minute 
directions  for  the  cleanliness  of  the  person,  the 
purification  of  the  dwelling  and  the  camp,  the 
selection  of  healthy,  and  the  avoidance  of  unwhole- 
some food,  the  seclusion  of  persons  with  contagious 
disorders,  the  regulation  of  sexual  intercourse, 
and  various  other  points  bearing  on  the  physical 
well-being  of  the  .Jewish  nation.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans,  although  not,  like  the  Jews,  making  hy- 
giene a  part  of  their  religious  duties,  were  far  from 
iieglecting  it.  The  importance  attached  by  all  the 
arreek  republics,  and  in  the  Platonic  ideal  policy, 
":o  physical  culture  is  well  known.  The  Roman 
people,  poor  and  apparently  rude,  as  it  was  in  its 
jrigin,  yet  found  time,  amidst  its  military  occupa- 
,ions,  to  construct  the  Cloaca  Majlnui,  as  an 
uidestructible  and  stupendous  memorial  of  its  at- 
tention to  the  drainage  and  sewerage  of  the  city  at 
a  very  early  period  of  its  history. 

In  the  United  States  and  other  countries  Boards 
of  Health  (constantly  increasing  in  numbers)  have 
been  organized  and  charged  with  making  such  in- 
vestigations and  reporting  such  directions  as  shall 
prevent  the  prevalence  of  disease.  Thus  after  the 
great  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  1853  the  New  Orleans 
Board  of  Health  appointed  a  commission  with  the 
following  instructions: 

1.  To  inquire  into  the  origin  and  mode  of  trans- 
mission of  the  late  epidemic  of  yellow  fever. 

2.  To  inquire  into  the  subject  of  sewerage  and 
common  drains,  their  adaptability  to  the  situation 
of  our  city  and  their  influence  on  health. 

3.  To  inquire  into  the  subject  of  quarantine,  its 
uses  and  applicability  here,  and  its  influence  in 
protecting  the  city  from  epidemic  and  contagious 
maladies,  and, 

4.  To  make  a  thorough  examination  into  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  city,  into  all  causes  in- 
fluencing it  in  present  and  previous  years,  and  to 
suggest  the  requisite  sanitary  measures  to  remove 
or  prevent  them,  and  to  the  causes  of  yellow  fever 
in  ports  in  other  localities  having  intercommunica- 
tion with  New  Orleans. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  by  this  commission 
were,  that  an  epidemic  is  caused  by  heat,  filth,  and 
moisture  combined;  that  prevenlina  is  the  work  to 
be  done;  and  that  this  can  only  be  accomplished 
by  a  thorough  sanitary  survey  or  inspection  of  tlie 
city,  which  includes  every  house,  lot,  and  back- 
yard, and  the  abatement  of  every  cause  of  disease. 
To  this  end  the  commission  prepared  an  ordinance 
for  establishing  a  health  department  for  New 
Orleans  with  ample  powers  to  effect  the  reforms 
suggested. 

In  186fi  the  >[etropolitan  Health  Board  of  New 
York  City  was  organized  with  tlie  n(>cossary  powers 
to  majie  such  sanitary  reforms  as  would  secure  the 
health  of  the  people.  In  18(59  Massachusetts  created 
a  State  Board  of  Health.  This  examjile  was  fol- 
lowed by  thfe  States  of  California  and  Virginia  in 
1871;  Minnesota  in  1872;  Louisiana  and  Michigan 
in  1873;  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  .Maryland  in  1.875; 


Colorado,  New  Jersey,  and  Wisconsin  in  1876; 
Illinois,  Mississippi,  and  Tennessee  in  1877;  Con- 
necticut, Kentucky,  Rhode  Island,  and  South  Car- 
olina in  1878;  Delaware  and  North  Carolina  in 
1879;  Iowa  and  New  York  in  1880;  Arkansas,  In- 
diana, New  Hampshire,  and  West  Virginia  in  1881  ; 
Texas  in  1882;  ^lissouri  in  1883;  Kansas,  ;\Iaine, 
and  Pennsylvania  in  1885;  Oliio  in  ]8sii;  and  Ver- 
mont in  1888.  A  Ijoard  of  health  for  tlie  District  of 
Columbia  was  organized  by  Congress  in  1871. 

The  public  agitation  of  the  preservation  of  health 
by  liygienic  measures,  and  the  interest  taken  in  the 
subject  by  tliose  in  authority,  led  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  American  Public  Health  Association  in 
1872,  whose  object  as  stated  by  its  constitution 
"shall  be  the  advancement  of  sanitary  science  and 
the  promotion  of  organizations  and  measures  for 
the  practical  application  of  public  hygiene,"  and 
its  "members  shall  be  selected  with  special  refer- 
ence to  their  acknowledged  interests  in,  or  devotion 
to,  sanitary  studies  and  allied  sciences,  and  to  the 
practical  application  of  the  same."  After  its  third 
annual  meeting  its  success  was  assured,  and  its 
influence  has  marked  the  progress  of  sanitary  work 
beyond  the  most  sanguine  hopes  of  its  projectors. 
Its  membership  numbers  over  1,000,  comprising 
many  of  the  brightest  minds  in  sanitary  work — 
doctors,  lawyers,  editors,  executive  officers  of  cities 
and  towns,  sanitary  engineers,  sanitary  plumbers, 
and  house-builders,  etc.  Its  reports  and  papers  are 
teeming  with  information  of  the  most  valuable  and 
varied  character. and  its  annual  meetings  continue, 
as  from  the  first,  to  stimulate  the  formation  of 
Ijoards  of  health,  sanitary  associations,  and  pulili- 
cations  diffusing  useful  publications  throughout  the 
country.  One  of  its  members,  IMr.  Henry  Lomb,  of 
Rochester,  New  York,  has  for  several  years  past 
given  prizes  aggregating  some  .$1,500  for  the  best 
essays  upon  sanitary  subjects,  such  as  "Healthy 
Homes  and  Foods  for  the  Working  Classes."  "The 
sanitary  conditions  and  necessities  of  school-houses 
and  school-life,"  "The  preventable  causes  of  dis- 
ease, injury,  and  death  in  American  mamifaetories 
and  workshops,  and  the  best  means  and  appliances 
for  preventing  and  avoiding  them,"  etc. 

In  1875  the  disinfection  of  houses  and  premises 
by  means  of  carbolic  acid  spray  or  steam  atomizer, 
and  of  streets  by  cart-tank  and  sprinkler,  was  prac- 
tised in  New  Orleans.  Ship's  holds  were  disinfected 
by  means  of  burning  brimstone  and  a  blower  which 
forced  the  sulphurous  gas  into  every  part  of  the 
the  vessel.  At  New  York  the  sanitary  inspection 
and  disinfection  of  vessels  and  care  of  the  sick  ar- 
riving in  them  had  long  been  substituted  for  deten- 
tion or  "quarantine."  In  1876,  during  the  "Centen- 
nial International  Medical  Congress,"  held  in 
Philadelphia,  hygiene  was  somewhat  discussed,  but 
no  great  progress  was  made  in  popularizing  sani- 
tary work,  though  the  "general  subject  of  quaran- 
tine, with  particular  reference  to  cholera  and  yel- 
low fever,"  was  presonfed  in  an  address  by  Surgp<in- 
GeneralJohn  M.  AVoodworth,  of  the  Marine  Hos- 
pital Service. 

The  progress  of  sanitary  science  in  the  United 
States  was  again  stimulated  and  advanced  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  ravages  of  yellow  fever  in  Memphis, 
Tenn.,  in  1878-79.  Jlany  bills  were  introduced  in 
Congress  at  that  time  with  a  view  to  preventing 
future  epidemics  by  national  sanitary  legislation, 
and  on  April  29.  1878,  "An  .\ct  to  prevent  the  in- 
troduction of  contagious  or  infectious  diseases  in 
the  TTnited  States"  became  a  law.  It  provided  that 
no  vessel  coming  from  a  foreign  port  where  con- 
tagious or  infectious  diseases  may  exist,  or  carrying 
persons,  merchandise,  or  animals  affected  with  such 
disease,  shall  enter  any  port  of  the  ITnilcd   States, 


1380 


SAN    J  A  C I N  T  0  —  S  A  N    Q  U  E  N  T 1 N 


contrary  to  the  quaraiiline  of  sucli  State,  excejit 
in  the  manner  to  be  prescribed  l)y  regulations;  re- 
quired consular  oHicers  or  other  agents  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  immediately  notify  the  surgeon-general 
of  the  Marine  Hospital  Service  of  the  departure  of 
such  vessel  from  an  infected  port  and  also  to  notify 
the  health  officer  at  port  of  destination;  required 
consular  officers  to  make  weekly  reports  of  the  san- 
itary condition  of  their  respective  ports.  Rules  and 
regulations  were  to  be  framed  by  the  surgeon-gen- 
eral, and  when  approved  by  the  President,  medical 
officers  of  the  Marine  Hospital  Service  and  custom 
officers  were  directed  to  aid  in  enforcing  the  same. 
Weekly  abstracts  were  to  be  made  by  the  surgeon- 
general  of  consular  sanitary  reports  and  other  per- 
tinent information  received  by  liim.  It  provided 
further,  that  officers  or  agents  of  State  or  munici- 
pal quarantine  systems,  on  application,  may  be 
autliorized  to  act  as  officers  or  agents  of  the  national 
quarantine  system. 

This  law  is  now  in  active  operation.  It  has  been 
perfected  by  additional  legislation  on  Aug.  1,  18SS, 
by  which  national  quarantine  stations  were  estab- 
lished at  the  following  points:  Ohandeleur  Island, 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  near  Key  West,  coast  of  Georgia, 
entrance  Chesapeake  Bay,  mouth  Delaware  Bay, 
San  Diego,  Gal.,  San  Francisco,  Port  Townsend, 
Oregon.  It  is  made  a  misdemeanor  punisliable  by 
fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  for  the  master,  pilot, 
or  owner  of  any  vessel  entering  a  port  of  the  United 
States  in  violation  of  the  act  or  regulations  framed 
under  it. 

Pltblic  Hyqie.ve^s  the  knowledge  and  art 
of  preserving  the  health  of  communities.  It  in- 
cludes "'domestic  hygiene"  as  its  fundamental 
principle,  because  a  healthy  community  can  only 
e.Kist  where  the  families  are  healthy.  Sanitary 
science  should,  therefore,  be  taught  and  practiced 
at  home  and  in  the  school  rooms;  it  should  begin 
with  the  care  of  the  infant  and  continue  to  that  of 
the  child,  youth  and  adult.  All  should  practice 
personal  cleanliness,  and  should  have  proper  food, 
drink,  apparel,  bodily  and  mental  exercise,  and 
healthy  dwellings. 

Public  hygiene  studies  also  the  climatic  condi- 
tions of  a  place,  that  is,  it  considers  the  means  how 
to  render  the  climatic  vicissitudes  less  harmful. 
Then  it  oonsiders  the  telluric  conditions,  or  the 
questions  of  drainage  and  sewerage,  how  to  render 
the  soil  dry  and  the  air  pure.  Xext  it  occupies 
itself  with  the  sanitation  of  dwellings,  their  heat- 
ing, lighting,  ventilation,  cleaning,  etc.  Another 
main  point  of  consideration  is  the  water  supply  of 
the  houses.  Then  comes  the  disposal  of  the  offal, 
slops,  excreta,  sewage,  etc.  Another  important 
point  in  public  hygiene,  is  the  prevention  of  the  in- 
troduction of  infections  diseases  by  means  of  quar- 
antines, isolation  of  the  patients,  disinfectants, 
fumigation,  etc.  On  all  these  subjects  the  Britan- 
nica  gives  valualjle  information  in  Vol.  XII,  pp. 
56(i-569. 

SAN  JACINTO,  Battle  of,  the  closing  battle  of 
the  war  of  Texan  independence,  fought  April  '2\, 
183ii,  near  the  village  of  San  Jacinto,  in  southeast- 
ern Texas.  It  lies  two  miles  southeast  of  tlie 
junction  of  San  Jacinto  River  and  Buffalo  Bayou, 
near  Galveston  Bay.  Gen.  Sam  Houston  who  was 
in  command  of  the  Texan  forces,  fell  gradually 
back  eastward,  before  the  superior  forces  of  Mexi- 
cans under  Gen.  Santa  Anna,  which  was  advancing 
from  the  west.  Houston's  object  was  to  reach  the 
river  and  hold  command  of  the  ferry  at  its  mouth  ; 
Santa  Anna's  object  was  to  cut  off  Houston's  re- 
treat and  capture  him.  They  reached  the  bay 
boundary  simultaneously,  and  took  position  within 
a  mile   of  each   other.     Houston     had    the    better 


knowledge  of  the  country,  but  only  783  men,  while 
the  Mexicans  numbered  over  2,000.  On  the  morning 
)f  April  21,  Houston  ordered  a  charge.  The  Texans 
threw  themselves  furiously  upon  the  Mexicans 
with  shouts  "  Rememl>er  Alamo !"  "  Remember 
Goliad!"  (Alamo  and  Goliad  are  places  where 
Santa  Anna  had  a  short  time  before  massacred  sev- 
eral hundred  captive  Texans.)  The  Texans  fought 
here  so  Ijravely  and  desperately  that  within  an 
hour  Santa  Anna  had  fled  and  his  whole  surviving 
army  had  surrendered.  The  Texans'  loss  was  only 
eight  killed  and  twenty-five  wounded,  while  of  the 
^Mexicans  li'iO  were  killed.  Gen.  Houston  was 
wounded  in  the  ankle.  When  Santa  Anna  was 
brought  in  a  prisoner,  the  Texans  clamored  for 
his  life,  but  Houston  spared  him  on  the  condition 
that  Santa  Anta  should  use  his  best  influence  to 
have  the  independence  of  Texas  acknowledged  by 
Mexico.  The  treacherous  Mexican  afterward  tried 
to  repudiate  his  word,  but  the  war  was  not  re- 
newed. 

SAN  JOAQITIK,  a  river  of  California,  rising  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  flowing  first  southwest  to 
its  junction  with  the  outlet  of  Lake  Tulare,  thence 
northwest  to  its  junction  with  the  Sacramento 
River,  fifty  miles  from  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco. 
It  receives  numerous  branches  from  both  the 
coast  range  of  mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Entire  length,  350  miles,  for  only  a  small  portion 
of  which    it^is  navigable  for  large  vessels. 

SAN  JOSE,  a  city  of  California:  population  in 
1890,  l,8ti0.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI.  p.  266. 

SANKEY,  Iea  David,  an  American  evangelist, 
born  at  Edinliurgh,  Pa.,  in  18-10-  He  was  for  many 
years  in  business  at  New  Castle;  is  the  author  of 
many  pojuilar  hymn  tunes;  joined  D.  L.  Moody  in 
1871 ;  labored  with  him  in  Gireat  Britain  in  187.3-5, 
in  America  in  1875-83,  in  Great  Britain  again  in 
the  latter  year.  He  gave  to  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  of  New  Castle,  a  handsome 
building  in  1886. 

SAN  LUIS  DE  LA  PUNTA,  the  chief  town  of 
the  province  of  San  Luis  in  the  Argentine  repub- 
lic, situated  445  mile.s  northwest  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
on  a  river,  which  falls  into  the  large  salt  lake  of 
Bevedero.  It  has  some  trade  in  horses,  hides,  and 
furs.     Population,  5,000. 

SAN  LUIS  OBISPO,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of 
San  Luis  Oliispo  county,  Cal..  about  ninety  miles 
northwest  of  Santa  Barbara,  and  eight  miles  from 
the  Pacific  C)cean.  It  is  the  trade-centre  of  a  rich 
mining,  agricultural  and  grazing  district.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  2,982. 

SAN  MARCO  IN  LAMIS.a  town  of  South  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Foggia,  eighteen  miles  north- 
east of  Foggia.  It  has  some  trade  in  corn,  wine, 
oil,  and  silk.     Population  about  15,000. 

SAN  :\IINIATO,  a  city  of  Central  Italy,  twenty- 
one  miles  southwest  of  Florence.  It  is  a  fine  old 
episcopal  city,  adorned  with  many  monuments, 
and  is  famous  in  the  history  of  the  Florentine  re- 
public.    Population.  16,187. 

SAN  NICANDRO  GARGANICO,  a  town  of 
Southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Capitanata, 
twenty-six  miles  north  of  Foggia.  It  is  situated 
on  Blount  Gargano,  and  is  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lous towns  among  those  mountains.  The  lands 
liclonging  to  it  are  very  fertile,  and  great  herds  of 
cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  there.  It  trades  in 
grain,  wool,  and  wine.     Population,  7,898. 

SAN  NICOLAS,  or  SAN  NICOLAO,  one  of  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  residence  of  the  bishop  of 
the  group. 

SAN  QUENTIN,  a  beautiful  manufacturing 
town  of  California,  eleven  miles  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco.    It  is  the  site  of  the  California  State  prison. 


SAN    RAFAEL— SARGENT 


1381 


SAN  RAFAEL,  a  town,  the  county  -  seat  of 
Clarion  county,  Cal.,  about  fifteen  miles  north  of 
San  Francisco.  It  contains  many  beautiful  'resi- 
dences and  several  academies,  and  is  surrounded 
by  an  excellent  grazing  region.  Population  in 
1890,  3,891. 

SAN  ROQUE,  a  town  in  Spain,  in  the  modern 
province  of  Cadiz,  on  the  bay  of  Gibraltar,  eight 
miles  northwest  of  the  town  of  that  name.  The 
salubrity  of  the  climate,  and  the  cheapness  of  liv- 
ing, have  attracted  hither  many  foreign  families, 
especially  English.    Population  about  7,000. 

SANSCTJLOTTES  ("without  breeches"),  the  name 
given  in  scorn,  at  the  beginning  of  the  French  rev- 
olution, by  the  court  party  to  the  democratic  "pro- 
letaires"  of  Paris.  The  latter  accepted  this  super- 
fine reproach  with  sardonic  pride,  and  the  term 
soon  became  the  distinctive  appellation  of  a  "good 
patriot,"  especially  as  such  a  one  often  made  a 
point  of  showing  his  contempt  for  the  rich  by  neg- 
lecting his  apparel,  and  cultivating  rough  and  cyn- 
ical manners. 

SAN  SEVERING,  a  city  of  Central  Italy,  prov- 
ince of  Macerata,  fifteen  miles  southwest  of  the 
city  of  that  name.  It  is  well  built  and  has  hand- 
some palaces,  the  finest  of  which  are  the  Palazzo 
Comunale,  and  that  of  the  bishop.  The  neighbor- 
hood produces  exquisite  wine,  oil  and  fruit,  and 
cattle  are  reared  on  the  pasture  grounds.  Popula- 
tion. 13,898. 

SANTA  BARBARA,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of 
Santa  Barbara  county,  Cal.  It  is  a  seaport,  and  is 
extensively  engaged  in  the  exportation  of  wool. 
Population  in  1890,  5,849. 

SANTA  CLARA,  a  thriving  town  of  California, 
charmingly  situated  in  the  fertile  Santa  Clara 
valley,  about  three  miles  west  of  San  Jos6  and 
forty-five  miles  south  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Santa  Clara  CoOege  and  the  University  of 
the  Pacific. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of  Santa 
Cruz  county,  Cal.,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  seventy  miles  south  of  San  Francisco. 
It  produces  a  variety  of  manufactures.  Population 
in  1890,  5,594. 

SANTA  CRUZE  DE  PALMA,  the  capital  of 
Palama,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands.  It  stands  on 
the  east  coast  of  Palma,  on  a  spacious  liay  from 
seven  to  ten  fathoms  deep.  Population  about  5,000, 
employed  partly  in  the  manufacture  of  silks  and 
hosiery. 

SANTA  FE,  a  town  of  New  Mexico.  Population 
in  1890,  5,982.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  L'9b'. 

SANTALIN,  or  S.^xtalic  Acid,  the  coloring 
matter  of  red  sandalwood,  readily  obtained  by  di- 
gesting the  rasped  wood  in  alcohol,  and  then  pre- 
cipitating the  santalin  by  free  addition  of  water. 

SANTA  MAIRTA.a  town  of  Colombia,  capital  of 
Magdalena,  on  a  bay  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  400 
miles  northeast  of  Panama.  There  is  a  good  har- 
bor, defended  by  a  castle  and  several  batteries. 
Population,  8,000. 

S.\NTA  ROSA,  a  manufacturing  city,  the  county- 
seat  of  Sonoma  county,  Cal.,  delightfully  situated 
in  a  fertile  valley  at  the  base  of  the  Coast  Range, 
about  sixty  miles  north  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Christian  College  and  the  Pacific  Meth- 
odist College.     Population  in  1890,  5,L'1(;. 

S.\NTLEY,  Ch,\rles,  an  eminent  Knglish  bari- 
tcne  singer,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1S,S4.  Ho  studied 
in  Italy;  appeared  in  London  in  1857,  and  achieved 
his  first  great  success  at  Convent  Garden  in  1860, 
in  the  part  of  Rhineberg  in  LvrUne. 

SAP:  in  military  engineering  a  narrow  ditch  or 
trench,  by  which  approach  is  made  from  the  fore- 
most parallel  towards  the  glacis  or  covert-way  of 


a  besieged  place.  The  sap  is  usually  made  by  four 
sappers,  whose  leading  man  rolls  a  larg(?  gabion 
before  him,  and  excavates  as  he  progresses,  filling 
smaller  gabins  with  the  earth  dug  out,  and  erect- 
ing them  on  one  or  both  sides  to  form  a  parapet. 
The  other  sappers  widen  and  deepen  the  sap, 
throwing  more  earth  on  to  the  parapet. 

SAPOblLLA  PLUM,  the  name  given  in  the  "West 
Indies  to  the  fruit  of  Arhrus  Sapota  and  other 
species  of  Arhras,  a  genus  of  the  natural  order 
Sapotaceie.  The  seeds  are  aperient  and  diuretic, 
but  an  overdose  is  dangerous.  The  pulp  of  the 
fruit  is  subacid  and  sweet,  and  it  is  much  esteemed 
for  the  dessert  in  the  \Vest  Indies. 

S.^RATOGA,  B.^TTLE  of,  a  battle  fought  Oct.  7, 
1777,  Burgoyne  in  command  of  the  British  forces, 
and  Gates  commanding  the  Americans;  Gen. 
Arnold,  who  had  been  relieved  of  his  command 
after  the  battle  of  Bemis  Heights,  re-assuming  it 
without  orders  and  behaving  with  reckless  bravery. 
The  result  was  tlie  surrender  of  Burgoyne  on  fav- 
orable terms,  which,  however,  were  not  ratified  by 
Congress,  the  larger  part  of  his  army,  5.752  men  in 
all,  being  held  as  prisoners  till  the  close  of  the 
war.  Burgoyne  and  several  other  officers  were  per- 
mitted to  depart  for  England.  About  4,500  mus- 
kets, 42  cannons,  and  a  large  store  of  ammunition 
were  among  the  valuable  captures. 

SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  a  town  of  New  York. 
Population  in  1890,  11,975.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
XXI,  p.  306 ;  also  X  VI,  43B. 

SARDE,  or  Sarda,  a  variety  of  quartz,  differing 
from  carnelian  only  in  its  deep  red  color,  blood- 
red  by  transmitted  light.  It  is  rare,  and  brings  a 
much  higher  price  than  common  carnelian.  The 
name  is  probably  from  Sardis. 

SARDONIC  SMILE  (rit^us  sardonicus),  a  term 
applied  by  the  older  medical  writers  to  a  convul- 
sive affection  of  the  muscles  of  the  face,-  somewhat 
resembling  laughter.  It  may  occur  in  tetanus  or 
lock-jaw,  and  other  convulsive  afTections,  or  may 
result  from  the  action  of  certain  vegetable  pois- 
ons. 

SARDOU,  ViCTOKiEN,  a  French  dramatist,  born 
at  Paris,  Sept.  7,  1831.  He  first  studied  medicine, 
but  afterwards  became  a  litterateur.  His  first 
dramatic  production,  La  Taverne  des  Etudiants,  was 
a  failure,  but  his  next  works.  Monsieur  Garat  and 
Leg  Pres-Sahtt  Gerrais,  which  he  wrote  for  Dejazet 
in  1860,  were  successes.  In  1861  his  comedy  Lis 
Pattes  de  Movche,  brought  him  prominently  before 
the  public.  He  also  wrote  for  Madame  Bernhardt 
Fi'dorn  and  Theodora ;  and  La  Toaca,  wliich  was 
brought  out  at  the  Port  Sainte  Martin  Theatre  in 
1887.  In  February,  1SS9,  his  comedy  entitled  Mar- 
quise was  produced  at  the  Vaudeville.  j\I.  Sardou 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1877. 

SARGENT,  Epes,  an  American  writer  of  popular 
hooks,  born  at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  1813,  died  at 
Boston,  in  1S80.  Ho  was  for  many  years  engaged 
as  a  journalist,  sometimes  in  New  York  and  \Vash- 
ington,  but  mostly  in  Boston.  lie  and  his  brother, 
.lohn  Osborne  Sargent,  were  active  in  the  interest 
of  the  Whig  iiarty.  Epes  wrote  also  for  the  stage. 
His  chief  plays  were  Tlir  Ilriile  of  Gcumi  0830); 
the  tragedies,  IV/o.-iro  (18.37)  :  and  Tlie  Priestess  ( 1855). 
They  were  successfully  rendered  at  Boston,  New 
York,  Washington  and  London.  In  his  later  years 
Sargent  prepared  readers,  speakers,  and  other 
school-books,  which,  by  their  excellence,  obtained 
wide  circulation.  He  also  wrote  some  books  of 
Adventure  hi/  Sea  and  Land,  and  published  Plan- 
chelte,  or  the  Despair  of  Seienre,  an  Aeroiott  of  Modern 
Spiritualism  (18(59),  in  which  he  was  then  a  be- 
liever.   At  various  times  he  published   volumes  of 


1382 


SARGENT  —  SAUCISSON 


verse.  His  Songs  of  the  Sea  (1849)  included  the 
well-kn6wii  souf^  A  Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave. 

SARGEXT,  Lucius  Manlius,  an  American  Tem- 
perance advocate,  Imrn  at  Boston  in  1786,  died  at 
West  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1867.  He  studied  law,  but 
did  not  practice  it,  being  possessed  of  ample  for- 
tune. His  antiquarian  sketches,  Dealings  with  the 
Dead,  by  a  Se.rton  of  the  Old  School,  were  republished 
in  1856.'  He  wrote  a  series  of  twenty-one  TfjHpt'rcnice 
Talcs,  which  were  translated  into  many  languages. 
He  also  wrote  Jicminiscences  of  Samuel  Deuter  (1858), 
and  The  Irrepressible  ConjUc't  (1861),  a  review  of 
Congressional  Discussions  on  Slavery. 

SARGENT,  WiN-THROP,  an  American  soldier, 
born  at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  175o,  died  on  a  voyage 
from  Natchez  to  Philadelphia  in  1820.  After  some 
experience  in  naval  life  he  entered  the  American 
army  in  1775,  and  served  in  the  artillery  through- 
out tlie  Revolutionary  war.  He  attained  the  rank 
of  major.  After  the  war  he  was  connected  with 
Gen.  Rufus  Putnam's  Ohio  Company,  and  in  1786 
lie  was  appointed  by  Congress  surveyor-general  of 
tlie  Northwest  Territory.  He  was  adjutant-gen- 
eral in  St.  Clair's  and  afterwards  in  Gen.  Mayne's 
expeditionary  armies  against  the  Miami  Indians 
(1791  and  1794)  ;  and  from  1798  till  1802  he  was  gov- 
ernor of  the  Mississippi  Territory. 

SARGENT,  WiNTHRop,  grandson  of  Major  Win- 
throp,  author,  born  at  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  1825;  died 
at  Paris,  France,  in  1870.  He  practiced  law  at 
Philadelphia,  and  subsequently  at  New  York.  He 
edited  The  History  of  Braddock  s  Expedition  against 
Fort  Durjuesne  (1855);  Loyalist  Poetry  of  the  Be- 
o/i/<iora  (1857),  and  was  the  author  of  Tlie  Life  and 
Career  of  Major  John  Andre,  Adjutant-general  of  the 
British  Army  in  Aynerica  (ISai),  a,  hook  of  extraor- 
dinary research. 

SARMIENTO,  Domingo  Faustino,  president  of 
the  Argentine  Republic,  was  born  in  San  .Juan, 
Feb.  13,  1811.  Sarmiento  might  properly  be  called 
the  educator  of  South  .-Vmerica.  He  received  Init 
a  limited  education,  and  in  1829  he  participated  in 
the  rising  against  Rossa  and  t^uiroga,  but  seeing 
the  inevitable  defeat  of  the  insurrectionists  he  took 
refuge  in  Chili.  Under  the  protection  of  Manuel 
!\Iontt  he  founded  the  first  normal  school  in  South 
America.  By  order  of  the  Chilian  (Toverninent  he 
traveled  through  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
Returning  home,  he  founded  a  paper  called  the  "La 
Cronica,"  and  in  it  he  advocated  the  establishment 
of  a  federal  republic.  He  went  to  Buenos  Ay  res  in 
1855,  and  there  founded  a  paper.  When  General 
Urquiza,  aided  by  Brazil  and  Uruguay,  revolted 
against  Rossa,  Sarmiento,  together  with  other 
exiles,  left  Chili  in  1851  and  took  part  in  the  cam- 
lialgn  that  ended  Feb.  3,  1852,  with  the  battle  of 
Monte  Caseros.  In  Buenos  Ayres  Sarmiento,"  in 
1855,  devoted  his  time  to  the  promotion  of  public 
instruction,  and  founded  another  paper.  In  1859 
he  was  elected  senator,  and  in  1860  minister  ofc  pub- 
lic instruction.  He  became  minister  of  the  interior 
in  1861.  and  minister  to  Chili  in  1864,  and  to  the 
United  States  in  1865.  While  there  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Argentine  Republic  in  1868.  Dur- 
ing his  administration  he  quelled  the  war  with 
Paraguav;  railways  and  telegraphs  were  con- 
structed.'    He  died  in  1888. 

SARZANA,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Genoa,  eight  miles  east  of  Spezia.  Its 
eathedral,  l)uilt  in  1200,  is  very  rich  in  paintings 
and  marbles.  There  is  also  an  ancient  fortress 
Iniilt  by  the  Pisans  in  1262.  It  is  the  birthplace  of 
Pope  Nicholas  V.     Population,  9,.535. 

SASKATCHEWAN,  a  large  important  river  of 
Canada,  which  draws  its  waters  from  the  Rocky 
^[ountains,    and    is   formed   by    two    head-waters 


called  the  South  Branch  or  Bow  River,  and  the 
North  Branch.  The  South  Branch  issues  from  a 
lake  about  four  miles  long,  fed  by  a  glacier  de- 
scending from  a  magnificent  nier  de  glace,  and  by  a 
group  of  springs  in  the  vicinity.  A  few  yards 
north  of  this  group  of  springs  is  another  group, 
from  which  the  North  Branch  takes  its  rise.  The 
height  above  the  sea  is  6,347  feet.  The  South 
Branch  flows  southeast  to  its  junction  with  the 
Belly  River  in  longitude  111  "^40'  west,  then  north- 
east to  its  junction  with  the  North  Branch  in 
longitude  105^  west.  Fed  mainly  from  the  same 
glacier  that  feeds  the  South  Branch,  the  North 
Branch  flows  north  past  Mount  ^Nlurchison,  15,789 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  one  of  the  highest  peaks 
of  the  Rocky  Jlountains,  north  through  Kutanie 
Plain,  a  tine  prairie  abounding  in  game,  and  then 
flows  in  a  general  eastern  direction  to  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  South  Brancli.  From  longitude  105 
west,  the  river  flows  east,  and  falls  into  Lake  Winni- 
peg. Entire  length  stated  at  1,732  miles.  From  its 
mouth  it  is  navigable  (on  the  North  Branch)  for  a 
distance  of  1,000  miles. 

SASSAFRAS,  a  genus  of  trees  or  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Lauraccce,  having  dia-cious  flowers, 
a  six-parted  membranous  perianth,  nine  stamens, 
a  succulent  fruit  placed  on  the  thick,  fleshy  apes 
of  the  fruit-stalk,  and  surrounded  by  the  unchanged 
perianth.  The  sassafras  tree  (sassafras  officinale)  is 
found  from  Canada  to  Florida,  has  deciduous 
leaves,  yellow  flowers,  which  appear  before  the 
leaves,  and  small  dark-ljlue  fruit.  The  wood  is 
soft,  light,  coarse  in  the  fiber,  dirty-white  and  red- 
dish-brown, with  a  strong  but  agreeable  smell,  re- 
sembling that  of  fennel,  and  an  aromatic,  rather 
pungent  and  sweetish  taste.  An  oil  which  is  highly 
fragrant  and  essential  is  extracted  from  the  root. 
The  sassafras  tree  has  early  attracted  people's  at- 
tention from  the  peculiarity  of  its  foliage  and  its 
medicinal  properties.  One  writer  called  it  the 
"ague  tree,"  and  its  products  once  commanded  an 
extravagant  price  for  medicine.  The  bark  of  the 
roots  is  still  so  used.  It  is  kept  in  small  fragments 
for  flavoring  officinal  preparations,  for  which  pur- 
pose the  sassafras  oil  is  distilled  to  the  amount  of 
abeut  15,000  pounds  annually. 

SATINET,  an  inferior  satin,  woven  much  thinner 
than  the  ordinary  kind.  The  term  is  also  occasion- 
ally applied  to  a  variety  of  cloth  woven  with  cotton 
warp  and  woolen'  weft. 

SATURNIAN  VERSE,  the  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  that  species  of  verse  in  which  their  old- 
est 'poetical  compositions,  and  more  particularly 
the  oldest  national  poety,  were  composed.  It  is 
applied  in  a  general  way  to  denote  the  rude  and 
unfixed  measures  of  the  ancient  Latin  ballad  and 
song,  and  perhaps  derived  its  name  from  being 
originally  employed  by  the  Latin  husbandmen  in 
their  harvest  songs  in  honor  of  the  God  Saturn. 
In  this  sense,  it  simply  means  old-fashioned,  and  is 
not  intended  to  determine  the  character  of  the 
metre.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  measure  used  by 
Nfevius,  and  a  common  opinion,  sanctioned  by  the 
great  name  of  Bentiy,  is,  that  it  was  Greek  metre 
introduced  by  him  into  Italy. 

SAUCISSON,  or  Sausage,  a  fascine  of  more 
than  the  usual  length  ;  but  the  principal  appli- 
cation of  the  term  is  to  the  apparatus  for  tiring 
a  military  mine.  This  consists  of  a  long  bag  or 
pipe  of  linen,  cloth,  or  leather,  from  one  inch  to 
one  and  a  half  inch  in  diameter,  and  charged 
with  gunpowder.  One  end  is  laid  in  the  mine  to 
be  exploded  ;  the  other  is  conducted  through  the 
galleries  to  a  place  where  the  engineers  can  tire 
it  in  safety.  'The  electric  spark  is  now  preferred 
to  the  saucisson. 


S  A  U  G  IT  S  —  S  A  V  I  N  G  S    B  A  N  K  S 


13S3 


SAUGUS,  a  lown  of  Massachusetts,  aliout  ten 
miles  north  of  Boston.  It  has  manufactories  of 
boots  and  shoes  and  fiannels.  Population  in  1890, 
3,671. 

SAURODONTIDAE,  a  family  of  fossil  fishes 
related  to  the  Herring  and  Salmon  families, 
whose  remains  occur  in  the  Cretaceous  forma- 
tions of  America  and  Europe.  There  are  three 
genera  which  are  predaceous,  the  teeth  of  the 
first  being  lancet-shaped;  in  the  last  two,  cylin- 
dric.  The  rays  of  the  tail  were  long  and  strong, 
and  beautifully  and  minutely  segmented. 

SAURY  PIKE,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  order 
Synentognathi,  family  Scomheresucidx,  having  the 
body  greatly  elongated,  and  covered  with  min- 
ute scales;  the  head  also  much  elongated,  and 
the  jaws  produced  into  a  long  beak,  as  in  the 
Garfish,  from  which,  however,  the  present  genus 
differs  in  the  divion  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  in- 
to finlets,  as  in  mackerels.  One  species  is  common 
on  the  American.coasts.  It  is  about  fifteen  inches 
long. 

SAVAGE,  James,  an  American  antiquarian,  born 
at  Boston  in  1784,  died  there  in  1873.  He  edited 
for  five  years  tlie  "Monthly  Anthology"  of  Boston  ; 
issued  genealogical,  historical,  and  controversial 
pamphlets,  and  compiled  A  Genealogical  Dictionary 
of  the  First  Selt/ers  of  i\ew  England  (4  vols.,  1860-62). 
He  rendered  many  public  services  and  filled  influ- 
ential positions. 

SAVAGE,  ^Ii.voT  JrnsoN,  an  American  preacher 
and  author,  born  at  Norridgewood,  Maine,  in  1841. 
After  graduating  at  Bangor  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  1864,  he  became  a  Congregational  home 
missionary  in  California.  In  18t)7  he  was  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Framingham,  Mass.,    and  in    1869 


of  a  church  at  Hannilial.  Mo.  His  theological 
views  then  underwent  a  change.  In  1873  he  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at  Chicago; 
and.  in  the  next  year  he  took  charge  of  the 
"Church  of  the  Unity,"  at  Boston.  Among  the 
books  he  wrote  are  (liriatianity, the  Science  of  Man- 
himd;  The  Religion  of  Erohilion;  Talks  about  Jesus, • 
B<  lief  in  God;  Beliefs  about  Man;  The  Modern  Sphinx; 
The  Religious  Life,  and  Social  I'roblema  (1886). 

SAVA'NNAH,  a  city  of  Georgia.  Population  in 
1890,  43,189.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  324. 

SAVANNAHS,  the  name  given  by  the  early 
Spanish  settlers  to  the  great  plains  or  prairies  of 
the  North  American  continent. 

SAVE,  a  river  of  the  south  of  Austria,  and  an  im- 
portant affluent  of  the  Danube,  formed  liy  two 
upper  waters,  which  rise  in  tlie  extreme  northwest 
of  Carniola.  and  unite  at  Kadmannsdorf  ],.5r,()  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  river  then  flows  southeast 
through  Carniola,  passing  Lail)ach  (at  which  point 
it  becomes  navigable),  and  forming  in  part  the 
boundary  between  Carniola  and  Styria,  after  which 
it  enters  and  traverses  Croatia;  and  at  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Unna,  first  touches  the  Turkish  do- 
minions, the  northern  lioundary  of  which  it 
continues  to  form  throughout  tlie  remainder  of  its 
course  to  its  junction  with  tlie  Danube  at  Bel- 
grade.    Entire  length,  644  miles. 

SAVELOY,  a  kind  of  sausage,  formerly  made  of 
brains,  but  now  only  differing  from  pork  sausages 
in  being  made  of  young  salted  pork  highly  sea- 
soned, a  little  saltpetre  being  added  to  give  the 
contents  a  red  color. 

SAVINGS  BANKS.  For  information  on  the 
general  subject  of  savings  banks  see  Britannica, 
Vol.  XXI,  pp.  327-331. 


Table,  by  States,  of  the  Aggregate  Deposits  of  Savings  Banks,  with  the  Ntmber  of  the  Depositors 
AND  the  Average  Amount  Due  to  Each,  i.\  1888-89  anmi  1889-90. 


States. 


Maine  

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

MassHChusetts 

Rhode  Island 

Connect  ion  t 

New  York 

New  .Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District  of  Columbia.. 

West  Virginia    

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Louisiana 

Texas . 


Tennessee 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinios 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Iowa 

Minnesota 

Nebraslca 

California 

Montana 

New  Mexico  Territory. 

Dakota 

Utah  Territory 

Washington 


Total. 


Number  of 
depositors. 


124. 
14.5, 

61 
988, 
123, 
287 
1,.%2, 
114 
213, 

15, 
322 

11, 
1, 

•s, 
la, 

•31, 


Ma 

,021 
,7.59 
,202 
,102 
,776 
,a52 
,627 
,133 
,0.50 
,887 
,0,59 
,850 
,001 
,,55(1 
,474 


1 

2, 
1, 
II 
*6.5, 
11, 
29, 
99, 

*43 

le 


.76.5 
,8K9 
,0i;9 
.7:!-l 
,109 
,69i; 

,i;o.5 

,2-15 
519 
,1169 
,797 


•114,0.34 


431 

5.05H 


Amount  of 
deposits. 


$40,969,663 

.57,30O,.590 

17,801,327 

315,185,070 

57.099,884 

105,8.50.078 

523,677.515 

:».fi9fi,.529 

64,968,033 

3,465,411 

31.203,241 

1.154,079 

.55,133 

223  ..SOI 

2,«97,2M 

1. '.137 .497 


236,108 

9M„5.55 

264.110 

1.289,.527 

25,396,712 

2.776,119 

7,620,982 

21,015,207 

47.704 

13,125,0,58 

3,979,436 


87,101,913 


23.927 
493(276 


.$W25,230,:!49 


.\verage  to 

eiicli    dejios- 

itor. 


$.328  91 
395  12 
288  24 
320  57 
468  71 
367  82 
38!  25 
267  79 
304  82 
2.30  26 
278  81 
104  :K 
29  .SO 
44  75 
199  06 
fil  56 


133  77 
316  .56 
247  flii 
109  .S9 
:i90  00 
2;i7  36 
2.57  42 
211  98 
91  91 
300  .56 
236  91 


763  82 


.55  51 
«I  45 


$354  40 


Number  of 
depositors. 


132.192 

1.59 .7.S2 

65,759 

1,029,694 

r27.,S98 

294, .S9r. 

1,420,997 

I1T..S.5:', 

221.613 

16.0110 

•123,814 

12,5:i4 

6.2:!0 

■1,043 

•21.8.55 

•43„S76 

467 


3,421 


13..577 

•73,335 

I3.0i;2 

42,1711 

121,('>IU 

615 

•4,l,.s:!8 

21,017 

l,s,.55,s 

•121.967 

3.233 

418 


•9,881 
S.IWt 


4,258,893 


Amount  of 
deposits. 


Average  to 
each  depos- 
itor. 


$43,977,085 

65.727.019 

19, 330  ..564 

332,723,688 

60,479,707 

110,370,962 

.5,50.06i;,657 

:;0.946..S78 

65  ,.582 .943 

3.603,531 

.35,924.111 

1,303,717 

30(>.22,s 

209.3ti3 

3,274,440 

2,637,(HS 

86,4i;2 


11,82,482 


1,650,940 

28.143.263 

3,078,608 

ll,19:;.40l 

27 ,237  ,.582 

67 .539 

16,336,787 

5..SI5,209 

2,032,970 

98,442  ,(Kj7 

344,599 

109,407 


1,512,580 
52:1,129 


$1,52.1,844  50G 


$332  68 
411  .3,5 
293  96 
323  13 
472  88 
374  27 
387  10 
262  .58 
295  93 
225  22 
290  15 
104  01 
48  19 
51  78 
149  82 
60  12 
183  00 


345  65 


121  60 
383  76 
2:i5  69 
265  43 
218  49 
109  81 
364  35 
278  12 
141  19 
787  74 
106  ,59 
261  74 


1.53  OS 
92  85 


$358  04 


1384 


SAVINGS    B  A  N  K  S 


Sa\'ings  Banks  in  the  United  States. — We  give 
here  the  report  of  the  L'.  8.  Comptroller  of  Cur- 
rency Dec.  1,  1890.  In  compliance  with  that  pro- 
vision of  the  law  which  contemplates  the  inclusion 
in  his  annual  report  to  Congress  of  a  statement  of 
the  condition  of  savings  banks  organized  under 
State  laws  the  Comptroller  of  Currency  has  secured 
through  the  courtesy  of  officers  in  35  States  the 
desired  information  relative  to  860  savings  banks. 
Of  tliese  banks  235  are  stock  associations  having 
now  :fL'2,453,198  capital,  $9,141,St)l  surplus  and  un- 
divided profits,  and  $192,635,519  deposits.  The  re- 
maining 625  banks  are  mutual  savings  associations. 
Their  deposits  amount  now  to  $1,268,309,742,  their 
liabilities  to  $1,-107,617,430,  and  their  surplus  and 
undivided  profits  to  $1.36,257,949.  Through  person- 
al correspondence  I  have  secured  information  from 
61  other  savings  banks.  They  have  now  deposits 
amounting  to  $S9,078,695,  and  their  aggregate  sur- 
plus and  undivided  profits  amount  to  $11,137,839. 

Of  banking  institutions  other  than  national  the 
greatest  interest  attaches  to  the  operations  of  sav- 
ing associations  the  aggregate  resources  of  which 
are  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  the  entire  assets  of  all 
State,  savings,  loan  and  trust  companies,  and  pri- 
vate banks  and  bankers  reports  which  have  been 
received  this  year.  Of  the  921  savings  banks  in- 
cluded in  this  report,  637  are  purely  mutual,  and  all 
but  11  of  the  latter  are  located  in  the  New  England 
States,  and  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  Maryland,  and  the  District  of 
Columbia.  The  aggregate  deposits  of  the  mutual 
savings  institutions  amount  to  $1,336,001,150  and 
the  average  rate  of  interest  paid  to  depositors  ap- 
pears to  b«  about  3.8  per  cent. ;  the  fact  that  the 
rate  is  not  given  in  three  States  from  which  reports 
have  been  received  makes  it  impossible  to  show 
tlie  actual  average  rate,  but  the  one  above  men- 
tioned is  douljtless  approximately  correct. 

The  284  stock  savings  banks  report  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $26,401,035,  commercial  deposits  $25,179,- 
450,  and  savings  deposits  of  $188,843,356.  Informa- 
tion relative  to  interest  paid  to  savings  depositors 
is  lacking  in  the  returns  from  such  institutions  in 
two  States,  but  an  estimate  based  on  practically 
complete  returns  from  the  others  indicate  that  the 
rate  is  about  4.17  per  cent.  The  location  of  all  but 
11  of  these  institutions  being  in  the  Middle,  South- 
ern, and  Western  States  where  money  commands  a 
higher  rate  of  interest  than  in  the  Eastern,  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  the  rate  of  interest  allowed  to 
savings  depositors  in  stock  associations  slightly  ex- 
ceeds that  paid  by  the  mutual  associations. 

The  following  table  shows  the  aggregate  re- 
sources and  liabilities  of  the  921  savings  banks, 
included  in  the  present  report  of  September  30, 
1S90: 

Resources. 

IjOan  on  real  estate $634,229,417 

Loans  on  collatoral  security  other  than  real  estate  70,227 .H05 

Other  loans  and  discounts 182,091 ,574 

Overdrafts :;in,316 

United  States  bonds        148,532,828 

State,  county  and  municipal  bonds 303,919,560 

Railroad  bonds  and  stocks 110,40.'j,678 

ISank  stocks „. , 43,735,762 

Other  bonds  and  stocks    111,875,177 

Due  from  other  banks  and  bankers 65.126,477 

Real  estate,  furniture  and  fixtures 30,211,272 

Current  expenses  and  taxes  paid 753,963 

Cash  and  cash  items 30,147,978 

Other  resources 11,356,193 

Total $1,742,617,001 

Liabilities. 

Capital  stock $  26.401,0,35 

Surplus  fund 133.762,883 

Other  undivided  profits 22,774,766 

Dividends  unpaid 123,298 


Individual  der'Osits 25,;79,450 

SaviuKS  deposits    1,624,844,506 

Due  to  other  banks  and  bankers 1,996,161 

Other  liabilities 7,534,902 

Total , $1,742,617,001 

Law  of  the  State  of  New  Yoek  Concerning 
Savings  Banks, — The  legislature  of  the  State  of 
New  York  enacted  in  1875  a  very  stringent  and 
complete  law  for  the  management  of  savings 
banks,  many  of  the  salient  features  of  this  law  have 
since  been  engrafted  into  the  laws  of  other  States. 
Since  this  law  contains  more  features  common  to 
the  laws  of  all  the  States  on  this  subject  we  give 
here  a  synopsis  of  its  provisions. 

Savings  banks  are  by  this  law  declared  to  be  cor- 
porations possessed  of  the  powers  and  functions  of 
corporations  generally,  as  such  they  rray  have  per- 
petual succession,  sue  and  be  sued,  c(anplain  and 
defend  in  any  court  of  law  or  equity,  appoint  such 
officers,  managers,  or  agents  as  the  business  of  the 
corporation  requires,  provide  for  the  nianagement 
of  its  property  and  the  regulation  of  its  affairs,  con- 
tract and  be  contracted  with,  receive  money  on  de- 
posit and  invest  the  same  and  exercise  any  addi- 
tional powers  incidental  to  the  business  of  a  sav- 
ings bank.  Not  less  than  thirteen  persons  can  or- 
ganize, each  of  whom  is  required  to  make  a  written 
declaration  that  he  will  accept  the  responsibilities 
and  faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  a  trustee  of 
the  institution  if  the  same  shall  be  authorized  by 
the  bank  superintendent.  This  officer  has  discre- 
tionary power  in  regard  to  the  creating  of  new 
banks,  being  required  to  determine  from  the  best 
sources  of  information  at  his  command,  whether 
greater  convenience  of  access  to  a  savings  bank 
will  be  afforded  to  any  considerable  number  of  de- 
positors by  opening  a  bank  at  the  place  designated, 
and  if  the  density  of  the  population  in  the  neigh- 
borhood and  in  the  surrounding  country  is  such  as 
to  afford  a  reasonable  promise  of  adequate  support 
to  the  enterprise,  and  also  whether  the  responsi- 
bility, character,  and  general  fitness  for  the  dis- 
charge of  the  duties  appertaining  to  such  trust  of 
the  persons  named  as  trustees  are  such  as  to  com- 
mand the  confidence  of  the  community  in  which 
the  savings  bank  is  proposed  to  be  located.  On 
authority  to  transact  business  being  granted  the 
persons  designated  as  trustees  have  the  entire 
management  and  control  of  the  affairs  of  the  cor- 
poration. Residents  of  the  State  alone  are  eligible 
as  trustees,  and  whenever  a  trustee  of  one  bank 
becomes  a  trustee,  officer,  clerk,  or  employ^  in  any 
other  savings  bank,  or  upon  borrowing,  directly  or 
indirectly,  any  of  the  funds  of  the  bank  of  which  he 
is  a  trustee,  or  becoming  a  surety  or  guarantor  for 
money  borrowed  of  or  a  loan  made  by  the  bank,  or 
ujion  failure  to  attend  regular  meetings  of  the 
board  or  to  perform  any  duties  devolved  upen  him 
as  a  trustee  for  sis  successive  months,  without 
having  previously  been  excused  by  the  board,  his 
office  becomes  vacant.  But  in  the  discretion  of  the 
board  such  trustees  are  eligible  for  reelection 
The  board  of  trustees  elect  from  their  number  a 
president  and  two  vice-presidents;  and  from  their 
number  or  otherwise,  elect  or  appoint  such  officers 
and  clerks,  whose  salaries  are  fixed  by  the  board, 
as  they  may  see  fit.  Vacancies  in  the  office  of  the 
trustee  are  filled  by  the  board,  which  has  power 
from  time  to  time  to  make  such  by-laws,  rules,  and 
regulations  as  may  be  thought  proper  for  the  elec- 
tion of  officers,  for  prescribing  their  respective 
powers  and  duties  and  the  manner  of  discharging 
the  same;  for  the  appointment  and  duties  of  com- 
mittees, and  generally  for  transacting,  managing, 
and  directing  the  affairs  of  the  corporation.  Reg- 
ular meetings  of  the  board  of  trustees  are  required 


SAVINGS    B  A  N  K  S 


1385 


to  beheld  as  often  as  once  in  each  month,  at  which 
at  least  seven  trustees  must  be  present.  Trustees 
are  prohibited  by  law  from  having  any  interest 
whatever,  direct  or  indirect,  in  the  gains  or  profits 
of  their  banks,  or  from,  directly  or  indirectly,  re- 
ceiving any  pay  or  emolument  for  their  services, 
except  that  trustees  acting  asofficers,  whose  duties 
require  and  receive  their  regular  and  faithful  at- 
tendance at  the  bank,  may  receive  such  compensa- 
tion as  in  the  opinion  of  a  majority  of  the  board  of 
trustees  shall  be  just  and  reasonable  ;  such  major- 
ity to  be  exclusive  of  any  trustee  to  whom  compen- 
sation is  voted ;  but  it  is  not  lafrful  to  pay  trustees, 
as  such,  for  attendance  at  board  meetings.  No 
trustee  or  officer,' for  himself  or  as  the  agent  or  part- 
ner of  others,  can  borrow  the  funds  or  deposits  of 
the  bank,  or  in  any  manner  use  the  same,  except 
to  make  current  and  necessary  payments  author- 
ized by  the  board  of  trustees,  nor  can  any  trustee 
or  officer  become  an  indorser  or  surety,  or  in  any 
manner  an  obligor  for  moneys  loaned  by  or  bor- 
rowed of  his  bank. 

Savings  banks  are  authorized  by  law  to  receive  on 
deposit  such  sums  of  money  as  may  be  offered  by 
individuals,  corporations,  or  societies;  invest  the 
same  and  pay  interest  or  dividends  thereon.  On 
making  first  deposit,  banks  furnish  to  each  deposi- 
tor a  pass-book  in  which  all  deposits  and  withdraw- 
als are  required  to  be  entered.  Such  pass-book 
contains  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  bank,  and 
is  legal  evidence  between  the  corporation  and  the 
depositor  as  to  the  terms  on  which  the  deposit  is 
made.  The  sums  deposited  together  with  the  ac- 
cumulations are  required  to  be  repaid  to  depositors 
or  their  legal  representatives,  after  demand,  in 
such  manner  and  at  such  times  and  after  such 
previous  notice,  and  under  such  regulations  as  the 
board  of  trustees  may  prescribe.  The  usual  pro- 
vision is  for  sixty  days'  notice,  which  is  only  de- 
manded in  time  of  panic  to  allay  excitement. 
While  depositors  are  not  restricted  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  banks  with  which  they  may  have  accounts, 
the  aggregate  amount  a  single  bank  can  hold  to 
the  credit  of  an  individual  is  limited  to  .'f3,000. 
Such  limitation  does  not  apply  to  deposits  made 
by  order  of  a  court  of  record  or  a  surrogate.  Banks 
may  refuse  to  receive  deposits,  or  at  any  time  re- 
turn all  or  any  portion  thereof.  Deposits  made 
by  minors  or  females  are  held  for  their  exclusive 
benefit,  free  from  control  or  lien  of  all  persons 
whatsoever,  except  creditors. 

It  is  made  the  duty  of  trustees  to  regulate  the 
rate  of  interest  or  dividends  on  deposits  not  to  ex- 
ceed 5  per  cent,  per  annnm,  in  such  manner  that 
depositors  shall  receive,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  all 
profits  of  the  corporation  after  deducting  necessary 
expenses,  and  reserving  such  amount  as  may  be 
deemed  expedient,  as  a  surplus  fund  for  the  secu- 
rity of  depositors,  whicli  to  the  amount  of  15  per 
cent,  of  deposits  tliey  are  aulliori/ed  to  gradually 
accumulate  and  hold,  to  meet  any  contingency  or 
loss  in  business  from  the  depreciation  of  securities 
or  otherwise.  When  surplus  exceeds  15  per  cent, 
of  deposits  extra  dividends  may  be  declared. 
Savings  banks  are  prohibited  from  declaring, 
crediting,  or  paying  dividends  or  interest  except 
on  authority  of  a  vote  of  the  board  of  trustees. 
Wlien  dividends  are  declared  and  credited  in  ex- 
cess of  the  earnings  of  a  savings  bank,  trustees 
voting  therefor  are  jointly  and  severally  liaDle  to 
the  bank  for  the  excess  so  declared. 

The  securities  in  which  investments  may  lawful- 
ly be  made  are  stocks  or  bonds  or  interest-bearing 
notes  or  obligations  of  the  United  States,  or  those 
for  which  its  faith  is  pledged ;  3.1)5  bonds  of  the 
District  of  Columbia;    interest-bearing  stocks    or 


bonds  of  the  State  of  New  York  and  those  issued 
by  cities,  counties,  towns,  or  villages  thereof,  and 
the  stocks  or  bonds  of  any  State  in  the  Union  that 
has  not,  within  ten  years,  defaulted  in  the  pay- 
ment of  any  part  of  either  principal  or  interest  of 
any  debt  authorized  by  any  legislature  of  such 
State  to  be  contracted.  In  bonds  and  mortgages 
on  unincumbered  real  estate,  situate  in  the  State, 
and  worth,  at  least,  twice  the  amount  loaned 
thereon,  but  not  to  exceed  liO  per  cent,  of  deposits 
can  be  so  loaned.  In  case  tlie  loan  is  on  unim- 
proved and  unproductive  real  estate  the  amount 
is  restricted  to  40  per  cent,  of  actual  value.  No 
loan  on. bond  and  mortgage  can  be  made  except 
upon  the  report  of  a  committee  charged  with  the 
duty  of  investigating  the  same,  wlio  certify  the 
value  of  tlie  premises  according  to  their  best 
judgment,  which  report  is  filed  and  preserved 
among  the  records  of  the  institution. 

Trustees  are  required  to  invest  the  moneys  de- 
posited with  them,  in  the  securities  enumerated,  as 
soon  as  practicable,  except  that,  for  the  purpose  of 
meeting  current  payments  and  expenses  in  excess 
of  receipts,  there  may  be  kept  an  available  fund  of 
not  exceeding  10  per  cent,  of  the  whole  amount  of 
deposits,  which  may  be  kept  on  hand  or  on  deposit 
with  banks  or  trust  companies  to  an  amount  not 
exceeding  25  per  cent,  of  their  paid  up  capital  and 
surplus.  Or  such  available  fund  or  any  part 
thereof  may  be  loaned  on  the  pledge  of  such  se- 
curities as  savings  banks  are  by  law  authorized  to 
invest  in.  The  real  estate  that  they  may  hold  and 
convey  is  such  as  may  be  requisite  for  a  banking 
house,  the  cost  of  which  is  limited  to  50  per  cent, 
of  the  surplus  cif  the  bank,  and  such  as  may  be 
purchased  at  sales  upon  foreclosure  of  mortgages 
owned  by  the  bank,  or  upon  judgments  or  decrees 
obtained  upon  del)ts  due  to  it,  or  in  settlements 
effected  to  secure  such  debts. 

Trustees  are  prohiljited  from  loaning  the  moneys 
deposited  with  them,  upon  notes,  bills  of  exchange, 
draft,  or  otlier  personal  securities,  and  it  is  unlaw- 
ful for  savings  banks  to  deal  or  trade  in  any  goods, 
wares,  merchandise,  or  commodities  whatever,  ex- 
cept as  expressly  authorized  ;  or  in  any  manner  to 
buy  or  sell  exchange,  gold  or  silver,  or  to  collect  or 
to  protest  promisory  notes,  or  time  bills  of  ex- 
change. And  no  savings  bank  can  lawfully  make 
or  issue  any  certificate  of  deposit,  payable  either 
on  demand  or  at  a  fixed  day,  nor  pay  any  interest 
except  regular  quarterly  or  semi-annual  dividends 
upon  any  deposits  or  balances,  nor  pay  any  interest 
or  deposits,  or  portion  of  a  deposit,  or  any  check 
drawn  upon  itself  by  a  depositor,  unless  the  pass- 
l)ook  of  the  depositor  be  produced,  and  the  proper 
entry  be  made  therein  at  the  time  of  the  trans- 
action. 

Every  savings  bank  is  required  to  make  a  fuil 
report  in  writing  of  its  condition  at  least  twice  in 
each  year,  verified  by  the  oaths  of  the  two  i>rinci- 
pal  officers  of  I  lie  bank.  The  reports  made  for 
January  and  July  are  based  on  examinations  of 
assests  and  liabilities  made  by  a  committee  of  nor 
less  than  tliree  trustees;  the  accuracy  of  tlie  ex- 
aminations is  required  to  lie  verified  by  the  oaths 
of  the  trustees  making  the  same.  An  accurate 
balance  of  the  depositor's  ledgers  is'also  reipiired 
to  be  taken  semi-aiuiually,  and  if  tliere  be  discrep- 
ancies between  them  and  the  general  ledger  of  the 
bank  the  fact  must  be  stated  in  the  semi-annual 
report. 

The  bank  superintendent  makes  annual  reports 
to  the  legislature  of  the  condition  of  all  the  savings 
banks  in  operation  in  the  State;  he  also,  at  least 
once  in  two  years,  either  personally  or  by  some 
competent  person,  visits  and   examines  each  sav- 


1386 


S  A  \\-  Y  E  11  —  S  A  X  E  -  C  0  B  U  K  G  -  G  0  T  H  A 


ings  bank  transactiiifj  business  in  the  State.  Tlie 
superintemient  may  cause  special  examinations  to 
be  made  whenever  he  deems  it  necessary  or  ex- 
pedient. On  suoli  examinations,  persons  whose 
testimony  is  required  may  be  compelled  to  appear 
and  testify.  If  at  any  time  it  appears  to  the  super- 
intendent, from  examinations  or  reports,  that  any 
savings  liank  has  committed  a  violation  of  its 
charter  or  of  law,  or  is  conducting  Imsiness  in  an 
unsafe  or  unautliorized  manner,  he  is  required  to 
direct  the  discontinuance  thereof,  and  whenever 
such  corporations  refuse  or  neglect  to  comply  witli 
his  order,  or  whenever  it  appears  that  it  is  unsafe 
or  inexpedient  for  any  such  corporation  to  continue 
to  transact  business,  or  that  any  trustee  or  otiicer 
of  a  savings  bank  has  abused  his  trust,  or  been 
guilty  of  misconduct  or  malversation  in  his  official 
position  injurious  to  the  bank,  or  to  its  depositors, 
the  superintendent  communicates  the  facts  to  the 
attorney-general,  who  institutes  such  proceedings 
as  the  nature  of  the  case  requires.  The  proceed- 
ings instituted  by  the  attorney-general  may  be  for 
the  removal  of  one  or  more  of  the  trustees,  or  for 
the  transfer  of  the  corporate  powers  to  other  per- 
sons, or  the  consolidation  and  merger  of  the  cor- 
poration with  any  other  savings  bank  that  may  be 
willing  to  accept  the  trust,  or  for  such  other  relief 
or  correction  as  the  particular  facts  communicated 
to  him  shall  seem  to  re(iuire.  In  the  event  of  a 
savings  bank  being  put  into  liquidation,  its  assets 
are  required  to  be  distributed  within  eighteen 
months.  The  advertising  as  savings  banks,  by  in- 
dividuals or  corporation,  without  lawful  authority, 
is  prohibited  under  heavy  penalties. 

SAWYER,  JoHX  Gilbert,  member  of  Congress, 
born  in  Vermont  in  1825.  He  was  educated  at 
Millville  Academy  ;  studied  law  ;  was  a  justice  of 
the  peace  from  1852  to  185S;  was  district  attorney 
of  Orleans  county,  N.  Y.,  from  1863  to  1866;  was 
judge  and  surrogate  of  Orleans  county  from 
1868  to  1884 ;  and  was  member  of  Congress  from 
1885  to  1891. 

SAWYER,  PiiiLKTus,  an  American  statesman, 
born  in  Vermont  in  1816;  was  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  of  AVisconsin  in  1857  and  '61 ;  was 
mayor  of  Oshkosh  in  1863  and  '64 ;  became  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1865;  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  to  succeed  Angus  Cameron  ; 
took  his  seat  1881,  and  was  reelected  1887.  His 
term  of  service  expires  in  1893. 

SAXE,  .John  Godfrey,  a  wit  and  poet,  born  at 
Highgate,  Vt.,  in  1816,  died  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1887.  He  studied  law  at  St.  Albans,  V^t.,  where 
in  1843  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  prac- 
ticed witli  success  in  Franklin  county  for  several 
years,  and  became  in  1850-1  State's  attorney  for 
Chittendon  county.  In  1847-8  he  was  also  super- 
intendent of  common  schools.  From  1850  to  1856 
he  edited  the  "Burlington  Sentinel."  After  that 
he  served  as  State's  attorney  of  Vermont  for  one 
year.  Saxe  was  the  author  of  several  volumes  of 
tumorous  Poiins.  He  was  much  in  request  as  a 
lecturer,  especially  at  college  commencements  and 
anniversaries  of  literary  societies.  On  such  oc- 
casions he  delivered  his  longer  poems  with  mueli 
eclat,  while  his  shorter,  mirth-provoking  poems 
were  published  in  the  "Knickerbocker  Magazine" 
and  various  journals.  In  later  years  he  contribu- 
ted verses  to  "Harper's  Magazine"  and  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly."  He  published  The  Money  King  and  other 
Poems  (1860)  ;  Clever  Stories  of  mriny  Nations  (1863) ; 
The  Masquerade  (ISdti)  •  Tables  and  Legends  of  Many 
Countries  (lfi-2);  TJie  Proud  Miss  McBride  (1873)'; 
Leisure  Day  Phymes  (1875),  and  numerous  other 
poetical  pieces.  More  than  40  editions  of  his  col- 
lected   poems     have    been  issued  in  the     United 


States  and  England.  In  his  later  years  Saxe, 
who  once  could  evoke  mirth  from  the  gravest 
themes,  liecame  a  victim  of  the  gravest  melan- 
choly. He  lived  in  seclusion  at  his  son's  house 
in  Albany,  N.  Y'.,  and  refused  to  receive  any 
company. 

SAXE-ALTENBURG.  For  general  article  on  this 
German  ducliy.  see  Britanuica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  347. 
Area, 517  square  miles;  population  (1885),  161,460; 
population  of  Altenburg,  the  chief  town,  29,1 10. 

Reigning  Duke  and  F.^mily.— Ernst  was  Ijora 
September  16,  1826.  He  is  the  son  of  Duke  Georg 
of  Saxe-Altenburg.  and  Princess  Marie  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
at  tlie  death  of  his  father,  August  3,  1853;  mar- 
ried, April  28,  1853,  to  Princess  Agnes,  of  A n halt- 
Dessau,  born  June  24,  1824.  Offspring:— Princess 
iMarie,  born  August  2,  1854;  married  April  19, 
1873,  to  Prince  Albrecht  of  Prussia,  Regent  of 
Brunswick.  Brother  of  the  Duke:  Prince  Jloritz, 
born  October  24,  1829  ;  married  October  15,  1862,  to 
Princess  Augusta  of  Saxe-ileiningen,  by  whom  he 
has  issue  three  daughters  and  a  son — 1.  ^MariaAnna, 
born  March  14, 1864,  married  April  16, 1882,  to  Prince 
George  of  Schanmburg-Lippe ;  2.  Elizabeth,  born 
January  25, 1865.  married  April  17,  1884,  to  Grand- 
duke  (Jonstantine  of  Russia  :  3.  Ernst,  born  August 
31,1871;  4.  Louise,  born  August]],  1873. 

The  duke  has  a  civil  list  of  143,000  thalers,  amount- 
ing to  above  one-fifth  of  the  revenue  of  the  whole 
country. 

Constitution  and  Revenue. — The  constitution, 
which  bears  date  in  1831,  vests  the  legislative  au- 
thority in  a  Chamber  composed  of  thirty  represen- 
tatives, of  whom  nine  are  chosen  by  the  highest 
taxed  inhabitants,  nine  by  the  inhabitants  of  towns, 
and  twelve  by  those  of  rural  districts.  The  chamber 
meets  every  three  years,  and  the  deputies  are 
elected  for  two  sessions. 

The  executive  is  divided  into  three  departments, 
namely — l,of  the  ducal  house,  foreign  and  home 
affairs;  2,  of  justice;  3,  of  finance.  The  budget 
is  voted  for  three  years,  the  estimates  of  the  last 
period,  1S87-S9.  exhibiting  an  annual  revenue  of 
2,735,974  marks,  and  an  expenditure  of  2,725,078 
marks.  Two-thirds  of  the  revenue  are  derived 
from  the  State  domains,  and  the  remainder  from 
indirect  taxes.  The  public  debt  in  July  1889 
amounted  to  957,941  marks,  covered  five  times  over 
by  the  active  funds  of  the  State. 

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA.  For  general  article 
on  this  German  duchy,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI. 
pp.  347-48.  Area,  765  square  miles ;  population  in 
1885,  198,829;  population  of  chief  towns:  Gotha, 
27,802;  Coburg,  16,210. 

Reigning  Duke  and  Family. — Ernst  II.,  born 
June  21,  1818,  is  the  son  of  Duke  Ernst  I.,  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Saalfeld  and  of  the  Duchess  Dorothea 
Luise,  Princess  Luise  of  Gotha-Altenburg.  He 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  January  29,  1844.  He  was  married  I\Iay  3, 
1842,  to  Princess  Alexandrine,  born  December  6, 
1820,  the  daughter  of  the  late  Grand-duke  Leopold 
of  Baden. 

The  Duke  being  cliildless,  the  heir-apparent  is  his 
nephew.  Prince  Alfred,  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  born 
August  6,  1844,  the  son  of  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe- 
Coiiurg-Gotha,  and  of  Victoria,  Queen  of  Great 
Britain. 

The  family  is  in  possession  of  a  large  private  for- 
tune, accumulated  chiefly  by  Duke  Ernst  I.,  to 
whom  the  Congress  of  Vienna  made  a  present  of 
the  principality  of  Lichtenberg.  This  principality 
he  sold,  September  22,  l.s.34,  to  the  king  of  Prussia, 
for  a  sum  of  two  million  thalers,  and  other  advan- 
tages.    Besides  a  vast  private  income,  Duke  Ernst 


S  A  X  E  -  M  E  I  X  I  N  G  E  N  — S  A  X  0  N  Y 


1387 


II.,  has,  as  reigning  duke,  a  civil  list  of  100,000 
marks  out  of  the  income  of  the  Gotha  domains,  and 
the  surplus  of  100,503  marks  is  paid  into  the  public 
exchequer,  while  tiie  rest  is  divided  between  the 
duke  and  the  state.  The  duke  further  receives 
one-half  of  the  excess  of  revenue  over  expenditure 
from  the  Coburg  domain  lands. 

Revenue. — The  annual  domain  revenue  for  Co- 
burg 1885-91  is  estimated  at  414,000  marks,  and  ex- 
penditure 238,000  marks;  revenue  for  Gotha 
1880-83,  2,032,693  marks,  expenditure,  1,191.680 
marks.  The  special  state-revenue  of  Coburg  and 
Gotha  for  each  of  the  years  1885-91  is  set  down  at 
1,647,800  marks,  and  expenditure  2,074,408  marks. 
The  public  debt,  in  1888,  amounted  to  3,918,898 
marks  for  Coburg,  and  to  839,549  marks  for  Gotha 
(1889),  both  being  largely  covered  by  productive 
investments. 

SAXE-IIEININGEN.  For  general  article  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  348-49.  In  18S5  tlie  area 
was  reported  at  964  square  miles ;  pojiulation, 
214,884;  population  of  the  chief  town,  Meiningen, 
11,448. 

George  II.,  born  April  2,  1826;  he  is  the  son  of 
Duke  Bernhard  I.  He  succeeded,  on  tlie  abdica- 
tion of  his  father,  Sept.  20,  1866.  Married,  JSIay  IS, 
1850,  to  Princess  Charlotte  of  Prussia,  who  died 
March  30,  1855;  he  was  married,  in  second  nuptials, 
Oct.  23,  1858,  to  Princess  Feodora  of  Hohenlohe- 
Langenburg,  born  July  7,  1839,  who  died  Feb.  10, 
1872;  married,  in  third  nuptials,  morganatically, 
March  18,  1873,  to  Ellen  Franz,  Baroness  von  Held- 
burg.  Ofifspring: — 1.  Prince  Bernliard,  born  April 
1,  1851 ;  married  Feb.  18,1878,  to  Princess  Charlotte, 
eldest  daughter  of  the  lafe  German  Emperor 
Friedrich  Wilhelm;  offspring  of  the  union  is  a 
daughter,  Feodora,  born  May  12,  1879.  2.  Princess 
Marie  Elizabeth  born  Sept.  23,  1853.  3.  Prince 
Ernst,  born  Sept.  27,  1857.  4.  Prince  Friedrich, 
born  Oct.  12,  1861. 

The  duke  has  a  civil  list  of  394,286  marks,  or 
19,714Z.,  paid  out  of  the  produce  of  the  state  do- 
mains. Besides  these  he  receives  the  half  of  the 
surplus,  which  amounts  to  302,290  marks  every 
year. 

CoNSTiTUTtoN  AND  REVENUE. — The  charter  of  the 
duchy  bears  date  Aug.  24,  1829,  and  is  supple- 
mented by  the  laws  of  1870  and  1873.  It  provides 
for  a  legislative  organization,  consisting  of  one 
chamber  of  twenty-four  representatives.  Four  of 
these  are  elected  l)y  those  wlio  pay  the  liighest 
land  and  pro])erty  tax,  and  four  by  those  vvho  pay 
income  tax  on  an  income  of  3,000  marks  or  more; 
sixteen  by  all  other  inhabitants.  The  chamber 
meets  as  often  as  necessary,  and  in  any  case  for 
the  arrangement  of  the  budget  every  three  years, 
and  new  elections  take  place  every  six. 

The  budget  estimates  "for  each  of  tlie  three  linan- 
eial  years  1887-89  stated  the  revenue  .at  5.24S.6.30 
marks,  and  the  expenditures  at  4,946,340  marks. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  revenue  is  drawn  from  state 
domains,  formerly  belonging  to  the  dncal  family. 
The  chief  items  of  expenditure  are  the  public  in- 
terest of  the  debt,  and  the  expenses  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  state.  The  debt,  on  Oct.  1,  1888, 
amounted  to  12,838,517  marks.  Most  of  the  debt  is 
covered  bv  productive  state  ca|)ital. 

SAXE-WEIMAU.  For  general  article  on  this 
state  of  the  German  empir(>.  see  P>ritannica,  Vol., 
XXI,  pp.  849-.50.  The  latest  published  census  re- 
port is  that  of  Dec.  1,  1885.  The  area  is  1.404  si)uare 
miles.  The  population  aggregated  313,!I4H  with  an 
increase  of  about  1.10   per  cent,  per  annum. 

Present  Gk.svd  ]')iike  .vnd  Family. —  Karl  Al- 
exander, Vjorn  .lune  24,  1818.  He  was  the  son  of 
Grand-duke    Kar'  Friedrich  and  of  (irand-duchess 


Marie,  daughter  of  the  late  Czar  I'aul  I.  of  Russia. 
He  succeeded  his  father  Julv  8.  1853;  was  married 
October  8.  1842,  to  Sophie"  born  April  8,  1824, 
daughter  of  the  late  King  Willeni  II.  of  the  Neth- 
erlands. Offspring: — 1.  Prince  Karl  August,  heir- 
apparent,  born  July  31,  1844  ;  married  August  26, 
1873,  to  Princess  Pauline,  born  July  25,  1852.  eldest 
daughter  of  Prince  Hermann  of  Saxe-Weimar,  (jf 
which  union  there  are  offspring  two  sons,  namely, 
Wilhelm  Ernst,  born  June  10,  1876,  and  Bernhart, 
born  April  18, 1878.  2,  Princess  Maria,  born  January 
20,  1849;  married  February  6,  187*5,  to  Prince 
Heinrich  VII.  of  Reuss-Schleiz-Ki'istritz  :  offspring. 
Heinrich  XXXII.,  born  March  4,  1878;  Heinricli 
XXXIII.,  born  July  26,  1879;  Sophie,  born  June  27 
1884;  Heinrich  XXXV.,  born  August  1,  1887.  3. 
Princess  Elizabeth,  born  February  28,  1854;  mar- 
ried Nov.  C-,  1886,  to  Johann,  Duke  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin. 

Cousins  of  tlie  Grand  2)i/^t.— Prince  Edward,  born 
October  ll",  1823,  the  son  of  the  late  Duke  Bern- 
hard  of  Saxe-Weimer;  major-general  in  the  British 
army;  married  Nov.  27.  1851,  to  I.ady  Augusta 
Catherine,  born  Jan.  14,  1827,  daughter  of  the  fifth 
Duke  of  Richmond. 

2.  Prince  Hermann,  born  August  4,  1825,  brother 
of  the  proceeding;  married  June  17.  1851,  to  Prin- 
cess Augusta,  liorn  October  4,  1826,  youngest 
daughter  of  King  Wilhelm  I.  of  AViirteniberg,  of 
which  union  there  are  offspring  six  children. 

3.  Prince  Gustave,  born  June  28.  ].'~27.  brother 
of  the  preceeding;  major-general  in  the  Austrian 
army;  married  February  14,  1870,  to  I'ierina  Mar- 
cochia.  Countess  von  Nenpurg. 

The  family  of  the  grand-duke  stands  at  the 
Ernestine  or  elder  line  of  the  princely  houses  of 
Saxony,  which  include  Saxe-Meinigen,  Saxe-Alten- 
burg,  and  Saxe-Coburg-Ciotha  ;  while  the  younger 
or  Albertine  line,  is  represented  by  the  kings  of 
Saxony  In  the  event  of  the  Albertine  line  becom- 
ing extinct,  the  grand-duke  of  Weimar  would  as- 
cend the  Saxon  throne.  Saxe-AVeimar  was  formed 
into  an  independent  principality  in  1640,  and  Eis- 
enach was  joined  to  it  in  16-14.  After  a  temporary 
subdivision  the  principality  was  finally  united  into 
a  compact  whole  under  Ernest  Augustus  (1728- 
1748),  who  introduced  the  principle  of  primogeni- 
ture. On  entering  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
the  princiiiality  (F-i'irxliiilhum)  became  a  dnchy 
(Ilerzoglhvni).  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna  a  consid- 
erable increase  of  territory,  tcgetlier  with  the  title 
of  Grand-duke,  was  a\(arde(l  to  Duke  Karl  Augnst. 
known  as  a  iiatron  of  (ierman  literature. 

The  grand-duke  has  a  large  private  fortune, 
part  of  which  he  obtained  in  dowry  with  his  con- 
sort, Princess  Sophie  of  the  Netherlands.  He 
has  also  a  civil  list  of  930,000  marks,  or  .1230,000, 
amounting  to  nearly  one-seventh  of  the  revenues 
of  Saxe-AA'eiinar. 

Finance.— Tlie  budget  of  1890  to  1892  an- 
nounced an  annual  income  and  expenditure  of 
7,696,040  marks.  I'hc  stale  forests  yield  a  large  in- 
come. There  isa  graduated  tax  on  all  incomes,  tlie 
estimates  for  which  are  based  on  a  total  income 
from  the  population  of  82.371,600  marks. 

The  public  debt  on  .Ian  1,  1890,  amounted  to 
5,756,054  marks. 

EjiuuATinN  ANO  Bbmhion. — There  were,  in  1891. 
472  schools  in  Saxe-AVeimar.  including  three  gym- 
nasia, two  realgymnasia,  two^  normal  schools,  two 
drawing-schools,  and  one  blind  asylum.  For  relig- 
ion see  Religions  oi  TME  A\'oK.'r)  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions. 

SAXONY.  For  general  article  on  SAXo^■Y  see 
Britannica,  A'ol.  XXI  p.  351-60.  The  area  of  Sax- 
ony is  reported  at  5856  square  miles.    The  popu- 


1388 


S  A  X  0  N  Y  —  SAY 


lation  in  1S.S5  was  :^,182,003.  Tlie  following  tabic 
gives  the  latest  reported  figures  by  chief  govern- 
mental divisions : 


Divisions. 

Area    Eng- 
lish sq. 
miles. 

Poll.  Dec. 
1885. 

Density 

per  sq". 

mile. 

Dresden  

Loipjif;  

J  .rm 

I.SIIi 

905 

1..HU4 

800,558 

774,li:-!0 

.-ftli.SOO 

1,19U,81'J 

508 
5.55 

:» 

Zwickau 

060 

Totul 

.5,a% 

,3,182,003 

543 

There  were  in  December,  1885,  nine  towns  with  a 
population  of  -O.UOO  or  over,  as  follows: 


Dresden   (  LSIVI) 226,035 

Leipzig   ( IS'JU) ;!53,272 

Chemnitz 110,817 

Plauen 42,848 

Zwickau 39,243 


Freiberg.  27,042 

Zittau 23,215 

Meerane 22  013 

Glauchau 21,715 


Of  the  total  population  about  sixty  per  cent- 
lived  in  the  larger  cities.' 

Reigning  King  and  Royal  FAMiLv.—King  Albert 
was  born  April  23, 1828.  He  was  eldest  son  of  King 
.Johann  and  of  Queen  Amelia,  daughter  of  King 
Maximilian  I.  of  Bavaria.  He  was  educated  for  a 
military  career,  and  entered  the  army  of  Saxony 
1843  and  of  Prussia  1867.  Commander  of  the  Ger- 
man army  of  the  Meuse  in  the  war  against  France. 
1870-71.  He  was  nominated  field-marshal  in  the 
German  army  1871.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne 
at  the  death  of  his  father,  Octolier  29,  1873.  He 
married  June  18,  1853,  to  Queen  Carola,  born 
August  5, 183.3,  daughter  of  Prince  Gustav  of  Vasa. 

Sister  and  Brother  of  the  King. — 1.  Princess  P^lisa- 
beth,  born  February  4,  1830,  married  April  22,  l.s.50, 
to  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Sardinia;  widow,  February 
10,  1855. 

2.  Prijice  Georg,  Duke  of  Saxony,  born  August 

1,  18.32;  married  May  11,  1859,  to  Infanta  ilaria 
Anna,  born  July  21,  1843  (died  Fel)ruary  5,  1884), 
daughter  of  King  Ferdinand  of  Portugal.  Nomi- 
nated field-marshal  in  the  German  army,  June  15, 
1888.  Offspring  of  the  union  are  six  children: — 1. 
Princess  Matilda,  liorn  March  19,  1863.  2.  Prince 
Friedrich  August,  born  May  25,  1865.  3.  Princess 
Maria  Josef  a,  born  May  31,  1867;  married  October 

2,  1886,  to  Archduke  Otto  of  Austria.  4.  Prince 
Johann  Georg,  born  July  10,  1869.  5.  Prince  Max, 
born  November  17,  1870.  6.  Prince  Albert,  born 
February  25,  1875. 

The  royal  house  of  Saxony  counts  amongst  the 
oldest  reigning  families  in  Europe.  It  gave  an  em- 
peror to  Germany  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
tenth  century;  but  the  house  subse<iueutly  spread 
into  numerous  branches,  the  elder  of  which,  called 
the  Ernestine  line,  is  represented  at  this  moment 
by  the  ducal  families  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha,  Saxe-Meiningen,  and  Saxe- Weimar; 
while  the  younger,  the  Albertine  line,  lives  in  the 
rulers  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  In  1806  the 
Elector  Frederich  Augustus  III.  (1763-1827),  on  en- 
tering the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  assumed 
the  title  of  King  of  Saxony,  which  was  confirmed 
in  1815. 

King  Albert  has  a  civil  list  of  2,940,000  marks  per 
annum.  Exclusive  of  this  sum  are  the  appanages, 
or  dotations  of  the  iirinces  and  princesses,  amount- 
ing to  392,036  marks^a  year.  The  formerly  royal 
domains,  consisting  chiefly  in  extensive  forests, 
became,  in  1830,  the  property  of  the  state. 

Constitution  and  Goveenment. — According  to 
the  terms  of  the  present  constitution  first  adopted 
in  1831,  but  largely  altered  since  that  date,  the 
crown   is  hereditary  in  the  male  line ;  but,  at  the 


extinction  of  the   latter,  also  in   the   female    line. 
The  sovereign    comes  of   age    at    the    completed 
eighteenth   year,  and,  during    his    minority,    the 
nearest  heir  to  the  throne  takes  the  regency.     The 
legislature   is   jointly  in  the  king   and  parliament, 
the  latter  consisting  of  two  chambers.     The  upper 
chamber  comprises  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal : 
the   proprietors  of  mediatized  domains,  now  held 
by  five  owners;  twelve    deputies    elected   by    tlie 
owners  of  other  nobiliary  estates;  ten  noble  projiri- 
etors   and  five  other   members  without  restriction 
nominated  by  the    king  for  life  ;  the  burgomasters 
of  eight  towns  ;  and  the  superintendents  and  depu- 
ties of  five  collegiate  institutions,  of  the  I'niversity 
of  Leipzig,  and  of  the  Roman   Catholic  chapter  of 
St.  Peter  at  Bautzen.    The  lower  chamber  i.s  made 
up  of  thirty-five   deputies  of  towns  and  forty-five 
representatives  of  rural  cfimmunes.     The  qualifi- 
cation    for  a  seat  in  the  upper   house,  as  well  as 
the  right  of  election  to  the  same,  is  the  possession 
of  a  landed  estate  worth  at  least   3,000  marks  a 
year;  which  qualification,  however,  is  not  required 
by  the  e.r-djfiiin  deputies  of  chapters  and  universi- 
t-es.    To  be  a  member  of  the  lower  house,  no  fixed 
income  is  required  ;  and  electors  are  all  men  above 
twenty-five  years  of  age  who  pay  three  marks  an- 
nual land  tax  or  other  direct  contributions,  or  who 
own  land  with  a  dwelling-house.     The  members  of 
both   houses,  with  the  exception  of  the  hereditary 
and  certain   of   the    ej-rjlirio  members,  are   each 
allowed  twelve  marks  per  day  during  the  sittings 
of  parlian.ent,  and  an  allowance  for  traveling  ex- 
penses.   Both    houses   have    the    right    to    make 
propositions  for  new  laws.    No  taxes  can  be  made, 
levied,   or   altered  without   the   sanction  of    both 
chambers. 

The  executive  is  in  the  king  and  a  council  of 
ministers,  namely,  the  ministers  of  justice,  of 
finance,  of  the  interior,  of  war,  of  foreign  affairs, 
of  education,  and  ecclesiastical  afl'airs. 

Instruction  and  Religion. — The  kingdom  is  now- 
divided  into  28  school  inspection  districts.  On 
Jan.  1,  1890,  there  were  in  Saxony  2,165  public 
Protestant,  and  4Q  Roman  Catholic  common 
schools;  90  private  and  chajjler  schools ;  and  1,934 
advanced  common  schools  (Fortbildungsschnlen), 
or  altogether  4,229  common  schools;  with  a  total 
attendance  of  661,464.  In  addition  there  were  1 
polytechnic  at  Dresden,  2  Landesschulen,  15  Gym- 
nasia, 10  Realgynmasia,  21  Realscluilen,  19  semin- 
aries, and  2  high  girls'  schools  and  S  private  high 
schools — altogether  78  educational  establishments, 
with  a  total  attendance  of  17,294.  exclusive  of  the 
University  and  a  large  number  of  industrial,  com- 
mercial, agricultural,  musical,  and  art  institutes. 

The  University  of  Leipzig,  founded  in  1409,  and 
attended  on  the  average  of  recent  years  by  3,000 
students,  is  the  third  largest  in  Germany. 

For  the  -religions  of  Saxony,  see  Religions  of 
Countries  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

Internal  Communication. — In  1890  there  were 
1,325  miles  of  railway  in  Saxony,  of  which  the  state 
ow-ned  1,322  miles.  With  226  miles  in  the  adjoining 
states,  the  total  length  of  the  Saxon  government 
lines  was  1 ,548  miles. 

Other  information  as  to  Saxony  may  be  found 
under  the  article  on  the  German  Empire. 

SAY,  Thom.\s,  American  naturalist,  born  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  in  1787;  died  at  New  Harmony,  Ind., 
in  1834.  AVhen  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
was  established  at  Philadelphia  in  1812,  Say  was 
made  curator  of  it  and  devoted  himself  with  such 
ardor  to  the  study  of  natural  sciences  that  he 
grudged  to  spend  the  time  for  eating.  In  1819-20 
he  accompanied  the  expedition  under  Major 
Stephen  H.  Long  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  as   chie^' 


S  A  Y  C  E  —  S  C  n  A  U  xM  B  U  R  G  -  L  1  P  P  E 


1389 


geologist,  and  in  1823  he  took  part  in  the  explora- 
tions of  the  St.  Peter's  Kiver.  now  called  the  Min- 
nesota. Robert  Owen  drew  Say  into  his  socialistic 
scheme  at  New  Harmonj-,  Ind.,  in  1825.  They  tried 
to  conduct  a  university  for  the  scientihe  training 
of  the  community.  Their  experiment  failed  within 
two  years.  There  he  wrote  his  chief  v-ork,  Ameri- 
can Entomologij  (3  vols.),  and  seven  numbers  of  his 
Conchology  of  the  United  Stateii.  Say  was  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  "Transactions"  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  the  Xew  York  "Lyceum," 
and  the  "American  .Tournal  of  Science."  He  dis- 
covered numerous  new  species  of  insects. 

S.WCE,  Archib.^i.d  HE.\Rv,a  distinguished  com- 
parative philologist  and  Orientalist,  was  liorn  at 
Shirehampton,  England,  in  1846.  He  was  educated 
at  Queen's  College,  Oxford ;  elected  a  Fellow  in 
1869  ;  and  subsfequently  became  Senior  Tutor.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament  Revision  Com- 
pany, and.  in  addition  to  his  works  on  comparative 
philology,  he  has  written  many  books,  embodying 
the  results  of  his  researches  in  the  languages  and 
literature  of  Assyria,  Babylonia  and  Chaldea. 

SAYERS,  Joseph  D.,  Memijer  of  Congress,  born 
in  Mississippi  in  1841 ;  removed  to  Texas  in  1851 ; 
entered  the  Confederate  army  in  1861  and  served 
until  1865;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1866;  served 
as  a  member  of  the  State  senate  in  1873 ;  was  Lieu- 
tenant-Grovernor  of  Texas  in  1879  and  1880;  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1885 ;  his  present  term  ex- 
pires 1893. 

SCABBARD,  the  sheath  for  a  sword  or  bayonet, 
designed  to  render  the  weapon  harmless  and  to 
protect  it  from  damp.  It  is  usually  made  of  steel, 
or  of  black  leather,  tipped,  mouthed,  and  ringed 
with  metal. 

SCAD,  a  fish  of  the  family  Scomberid.-e,  sometimes, 
called  Home  Mackerel,  because  of  its  resemblance 
to  the  mackerel,  and  its  comparative  coarseness. 
It  is  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  long,  of  a  dusky 
olive  color,  changing  to  a  resplendent  green,  waved 
with  a  blush  gloss,  the  head  and  lower  parts  sil- 
very, the  throat  black.  There  are  two  small  free 
spines  in  front  of  the  anal  fin.  As  many  as  20,000 
have  been  caught  in  a  net  at  one  time  off  the  coast 
of  Cornwall. 

SCAFELL,  a  double-peaked  mountain  in  Eng- 
land, thirteen  miles  southwest  of  Keswick,  a  chief 
feature  in  the  scenery  of  the  Lake  Country,  in  the 
heart  and  centre  of  which  it  stands.  Of  its  two 
peaks,  one  is  3229  feet,  the  other  3092  feet  in  height. 

SCALE-ARMOR,  small  plates  of  steel  riveted 
together  in  a  manner  resembling  the  scales  of  a 
fish.  From  the  small  size  of  the  plates,  it  possessed 
considerable  pliability,  and  was  tlierefore  a  favorite 
protection  for  the  neck,  in  the  form  of  a  curtain 
hanging  from  the  helmet.  It  is  now  obsolete,  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  among  s'>me  eastern  potentates. 

SCAMMELL.  .^T.Ex.vxnER,  colonel  in  the  .Vmeri- 
can  revolutionary  army,  born  at  Mendon.  now  Mil- 
ford,  Mass.,  in  1747,  died  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  in 
1781.  In  December,  1776,  he  became  colonel  of  the 
third  Xew  Hampshire  regiment.  He  served  in 
1777-8  under  Gen.  Yates,  and  fought  bravely  at 
Trenton,  Princeton  and  Saratoga.  At  the  last 
named  place  he  was  wounded.  In  March,  1778,  he 
was  again  given  command  of  an  infantry  regiment. 
At  thesiege  of  Yorktown,  while  reconnoitring  the 
enemy's  position,  he  was  captured  by  Hessian 
dragoons,  and  wounded  after  his  surrender.  On 
request  of  Gen.  Washington,  CornwalHs  permitted 
him  to  be  taken  to  Williamsburg,  Va.,  where  he 
died. 

SC.\PPLR,  a  kind  of  work  applied  lo  masonry. 
To  scapple  a  stone  is  to  work  the  surface  even 
without  making  it  smooth. 


SCAPULAR,  a  portion  of  the  monastic  habit 
which  consists  of  a  long  stripe  of  serge  or  stuflf 
wliose  center  passes  over  the  head,  one  flap  hang- 
ing down  in  front,  the  other  upon  the  back. 

SCARAMOUCH,  a  character  in  the  old  Italian 
comedy,  originally  derived  from  Spain,  represent- 
ing a  military  poltroon  and  liraggadocio.  He  was 
dressed  in  a  sort  of  Hispano-Neapolitan  costume, 
including  a  black  toque  and  mantle,  and  a  mask 
o])en  on  the  forehead,  cheeks  and  chin. 

SCARLET  FEVER,  Scariatix.\.  See  Britan- 
nica.  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  376-77. 

SCATTERY  ISLAKD,  a  small  islet  in  the  estuary 
of  the  Shannon,  three  miles  southwest  of  the  town 
of  Kilrush.  Besides  a  fort,  the  islet  contains  frag- 
ments of  several  small  churches,  and  an  ancient 
round  tower  120  feet  high. 

SCHAFF,  Philip,  clergyman,  born  at  Chur 
(French  Cdire),  the  capital  town  of  the  Swiss  Can- 
ton of  the  Orisons,  in  1819.  He  was  educated  at 
the  L^niversities  of  Tiibingen,  Halle  and  Berlin, 
and  began  to  lecture  on  theology  at  Berlin  in  1842. 
In  1844  he  came  to  America  to  till  a  professorship 
of  church  history  and  exegesis  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Mersersburg,  I'a.  It  1862  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  lecturer  at  Andover  Seminary,  and  in 
1870  he  was  made  professor  of  apologetics  and 
symbolics  in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  ISew 
York.  In  1872  he  was  transfered  to  tlje  chair  of 
Hebrew,  and  in  1875  to  that  of  sacred  literature. 
In  1877  he  visited  Palestine  and  other  Bible  lands. 
Dr.  Schaff  is  the  first  president  of  the  American 
Society  of  Church  History,  which  has  recently 
(1888)  been  organized  in  Xew  York.  He  has  writ- 
ten numerous  works  on  historical  and  exegetical 
subjects.  Among  his  most  important  publicatioBs 
we  mention  Hii^toni  of  the  Christian  f  7ri"r/n6  vols.) ; 
Tlie  Creeds  of  C/iWs/(»rfo?H  (3  vols.),  and  The  Schaff- 
lierzog  Dictionary  of  Keligion^  Knowledge  (8  vols., 
1884).  In  1886  he  became  editor  of  the  Select  Li- 
brary of  the  Niceve  and  Post-?>'iceiie  Fathers,  to  be 
completed  in  twenty-five  volumes.  Dr.  gchaflf  is 
now  generally  considered  as  the  foremost  represen- 
tative of  American  protestantism,  and  is  undoubt- 
edly the  greatest  master  of  German  theology  in 
this  country. 

SCHAUFFLER,  AViii.hm  Gottlieb,  missionary, 
born  at  Stuttgart.  Wiirtemberg.  in  1798,  died  at 
Kew  Y'ork  City  in  1883.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1827  with  no  projierly  but  his  clothes,  his 
tlute,  and  one  dollar  in  numey.  and  entered  An- 
dover Seminary,  where  he  siipiiorted  himself  for 
sometime  by  turning  wooden  bed  posts.  In  1831  he 
was  ordained  a  missionary  and  sent  to  Constanti- 
nopel  by  the  Ant  rican  Board  of  jMissions. 
During  his  missionary  service  of  forty-four  years, 
he  labored  diligently  an.onp  the. Jews  and  Armeni- 
ans of  Constantinople.  From  1839  till  1842  he  re- 
Bided  in  Vienna  where  he  Iranslated  the  Scriptures 
into  Helirew-Sjianish.  ^\'hile  in  Turkey  he  trans- 
lated the  Bible  into  the  Osmauli-Tnrkish  dialect. 
In  1857-8  he  visited  the  Unircd  Slates  and  returned 
to  that  country  in  1877.  after  he  had  retired  from 
active  work,  and  resided  with  liis  son  in  Xew  York 
City  till  his  death.  Dr.  Scl)anfiler  was  a  scholar  of 
fine  attainments,  being  able  to  speak  ten  lan- 
guages and  read  as  many  more.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  work  entitled  Meditations  of  the  Last 
Dans  nf  Christ. 

SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE.  For  general  article  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  683-84.  The  census  of 
1885  gave  to  this  (German  principality  an  area  of 
133  sciuare  miles,  and  a  (lopulation  of  37,204.  The 
residence  town  had  a  iiopulation  of  5,206. 

Keionixo  Pri.sck  anm)  Family:  Adolf,  born 
Aug.     1,   1817,   is   the  son   of  Prince    George.     He 


1390 


SCHBFFEL  —  SOHlAPAiiELLI 


siieeeeded  his  father  Nov.  21,  ISW);  married,  Oct.  25, 
!S24,  to  Priiicesss  Hermina,  born  Sept.  29,  1S27, 
(hiiighter  of  the  hite  I'rince  Georg  of  Wakleek. — 
Offspring — 1.  Princess  Hermina,  born  October  5, 
I.S45;  married,  Feb.  J ti,  1876,  to  Maximilian.  Duke 
of  Wiirtemberg.  2.  Prince  Georg,  born  October 
10,  l.S4ti;  married,  April  Iti,  1882,  to  Slaria  Anna, 
Duchess  of  Saxony;  offspring:  Adolf,  born  Feb.  2.3, 
1883;  George,  born  March  11,  1884;  Ernest  Wolrad, 
born  April  19,  1887.  3.  Prince  Hermann,  born 
May  19,  1848.  4.  Princess  Ida,  born  July  28,  1852; 
married,  Oct.  8,  1872,  to  lleinrich  XXII,  of  Reuss- 
Greiz.  5.  Prince  Otto,  born  Sept.  13,  1854.  6. 
Prince  Adolf,  born  July  20,  1859.  The  reigning 
house  of  Lippe  is  descended  from  a  count  of  the 
same  name  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  principality  has  a  constitution,  dated  No- 
vember 17,  18HS,  under  which  there  is  a  legislative 
diet  of  members,  two  of  wliom  are  appointed  by 
the  prince,  one  nominated  by  the  clergy,  one  by 
certain  functionaries,  and  the  rest  elected  by  the 
people.  To  the  prince  belongs  part  of  the  legisla- 
tive and  all  the  executive  authority. 

In  the  budget  estimate  for  the  financial  year 
1889-90  tlie  revenue  was  stated  at  736,240  marks, 
and  the  expenditure  at  704,714  marks.  There  was 
in  1S89  a  public  del)t  of  510,000  marks,  besides  90,- 
000  marks  as  sliare  of  the  paper-money  of  the 
emjiire. 

SOHEFFEL,  Jo.seph  Victor  von,  a  German  poet, 
born  at  Carlsruhe,  Baden,  in  1826,  died  there  in 
1886.  He  studied  science,  philology  and  literature 
in  Munich,  Heidelberg  and  Berlin.  His  first  suc- 
cessful epic  poem  was  The  Trumpeter  of  Sdchinyen 
(18.53)  ;  then  followed  his  historical  romance 
Ekkehard  (1855).  His  collection  of  Poems;  Frau 
Aventiiire;  Satigs  of  the  Times  of  Heiimch  von  Oster- 
Oingen  sound  like  an  echo  of  the  old  German  min- 
nesingers; while  Ills  Gaudeamus;  Songs  from  Far 
and  Near  delight  by  the  genial  humor  and  strike 
the  genuine  popular  note.  Other  productions  are 
his  Bergpsalmen;  ]Valdei>isamkeit  and  Waltarilied 
lerdetttscht.  Scheffel  was  an  original  poet  of  sound 
judgment  and  genuine  fancy.  In  1876  he  was  en- 
nobled bv  the  (irand  Duke  of  Baden. 

SCHELLENBERG,  a  village  in  the  southeast  of 
Upper  Bavaria,  six  miles  southwest  of  the  Aus- 
trian town  of  Salzburg,  near  which  occurred 
the  first  battle  of  the  "  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion." 

SCHEJI,  Alex.andek  J.^cob,  encyoloppedist,  born 
at  AViedenbriick,  Westplialia,  in  1826,  died  at  West 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  in  1881.  He  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  in  18,57  and  was  made  professor  of  modern 
languages  in  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in 
1854.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Methodist," 
and  of  the  "  Methodist  Quarterly  Review."  Having 
become  a  contributor  to  Appleton'»  New  American 
CU/rJojurilia  and  to  ,Julins(in'sCyclopxdia,he  removed 
in  1859  to  New  York  City,  and  was  there  busily 
employed  in  editing  and  contributing  to  newspa- 
pers and  cyclopaedias  until  his  death.  From  1874  he 
was  assistant  superintendent  of  public  schools  for 
New  York  City.  With  Henry  Kiddle  he  edited  a 
('t/clopiedia  of  Ediiration  (1877),  which  was  followed 
by  two  annual  supplements  called  the  Year-Bnok 
of  Ednralinii  (1878  and  1879). 

SCHEXCK,  Robert  Cumming,  an  American  gen- 
eral, Ijorn  at  Franklin,  O.,  in  1809,  died  in  1890.  He 
practiced  law  at  Dayton,  0. ;  served  in  Congress  in 
1833-51,  then  he  became  United  States  ]\Iinister  to 
Brazil.  Afterwards  he  was  employed  on  diplomatic 
missions  to  Buenos  Ayres,  Jlontevideo  and  Para- 
guay. Schenk  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  jNIay,  1861.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  31,  1861 ;  subse- 


quently he  served  in  western  and  northern  Vir- 
ginia. In  April,  1862,  he  engaged  in  the  battle  of 
Cross  Keys  and  maintained  the  ground  that  he 
had  won  until  he  was  ordered  to  retire.  At  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run  he  commanded  a  division  and 
had  his  right  arm  shattered  by  a  rifle  ball.  On 
Sept.  IS,  1802,  he  w-as  promoted  major-general,  and 
apjiointed  lo  the  command  of  Baltimore,  which  he 
protected  during  Le.e's  invasion.  In  December, 
lsti3,  he  resigned  from  the  army  and  resumed  his 
seat  in  Congress,  to  which  he  had  been  reelected. 
He  was  cliairmaii  of  the  committee  on  military 
affairs,  and  in  1868  was  at  he  head  of  the  commit- 
tee of  ways  and  means  and  of  the  ordnance  com- 
mittee. In  1871  Schenck  was  sent  as  United  States 
Minister  to  England.  He  resigned  tliis  post  in  1876 
and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  "Washington, 
D.  C. 

SCHENECTADY,  a  city  of  New  York.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  19,902;  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI, 
p.    393. 

SCHENKEL.  Daniel,  a  Swiss  liberal  theologian, 
born  at  Diigerlen,  canton  of  Ziirich,  in  1813,  died  at 
Heidelberg  in  1885.  After  studying  theology  at 
Basel  and  Gottingen,  he  began  to  lecture  at  Basel 
in  1837,  and  was  made  pastor  at  Schaffhausen  in 
1841.  In  1851  he  was  called  l>y  the  grand-duke  of 
Baden  to  be  chief  university  preacher  at  Heidel- 
berg and  church  councillor.  Schenkel  edited  the 
"Allgemeine  Kirchenzeitung"  (18.52-59),  and  stren- 
uously supported  the  liberal  movement  both  in 
theology  and  in  church  constitution.  His  noted 
work  T>as  ]]'esen  des  Proteslantisnuis  (3  vols.,  1846-51), 
while  aiming  at  a  reconciliation  of  modern  ration- 
alism with  the  spirit  of  the  reformation,  was  a 
wide  departure  from  the  orthodox  theology  and  its 
views  of  the  inspiration  of  the  scrijitures. 
Sckenkel's  free  thinking  culminated  in  his  Das 
Charoklerbild  Jesu  (1864),  which  passed  through 
several  editions  and  was  translated  into  English. 
The  most  important  of  Schenkel's  literary  works 
was  his  Bibel-Lexicon  (1867-75).  Among  his  later 
publications  was  Das  Christushild  der  Apostel  und 
der  naeh-apostelischen  Zcit  (1875).  He  was  one  of 
the  ablest  and  most  active  promoters  of  protestan- 
ism,  and  tried  his  best  to  harmonize  it  with  modern 
science  and  enlightened  thought.  At  the  great 
protestant  re-union  at  Worms,  Schenkel  was  the 
chief  orator,  and  his  report  was  adopted  by  20,000 
adherents. 

SCHERER,  Edmund  Henri  Adolphe,  a  French 
theologian  and  journalist,  born  at  Paris  in  1815, 
died  there  in  1889.  His  father  was  a  Swiss  by  birth. 
The  son  studied  theology  at  Strasburg  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  exegesis  at  Geneva  in  1845. 
His  views  on  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  having 
changed,  he  resigned  his  chair  in  1850,  and  settled 
in  Paris,  where  he  became  a  leader  of  the  liberal 
movement  within  the  Protestant  church.  Elected 
a  member  of  the  legislative  assembly  in  1871  he 
took  an  active  part  in  politics,  and  was  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  "Tem|is"  and  the  "National." 
He  was  also  connected  with  Colani's  Revue  de  The- 
ologie  el  de  Pliilosupliie  Chretieniie.  Scherer's  princi- 
pal theological  works  are  De  I'  Etat  Actuel  de  I'  Eglise 
en  France  (1844);  La  Critique  et  la  Foi  (1850);  Ale.r. 
andre  Vinet,  so  vie  et  ses  ecrits  ( 1853) ;  Etudes  Critiques 
siir  la  Literature  coiitemporaiyic  (1863-78),  and  MS- 
langes  d'Histoire  Peligieu'se  (1864). 

SCHERZO:  in  music,  a  passage  or  movement  of 
a  lively  and  sportive  character,  forming  part  of  a 
musical  composition  of  some  length,  as  a  symphony, 
ouartett,  or  sonata. 

SCHIAPARELLI.  Giovanni  Virginu's,  an  Ital- 
ian astronomer,  born  at  Savignano  in  1835.  He 
studied  mathematics  at  Turin   until  1S56,  when   he 


S  C  H  I  S  xM  —  S  C.  11  0  F  I  E  L  D 


1391 


went  to  Berlin  and  afterwards  to  Pulkowa  for  ob- 
servatory work.  In  I860  he  was  employed  in  the 
observatory  at  Milan,  and  in  1862  was  made  direct- 
or there.  His  observations  on  the  planet  Mars 
have  given  him  high  rank  among  living  astrono- 
mers. He  has  discovered  an  asteroid,  and  has 
published  treatises  on  comets  and  various  stars, 
also  on  Mars  and  some  of  the  Satallites.  He  has 
also  published  a  historical  work  on  The  Precursors  of 
Copernicus  in  Antiquity  (Milan,  1873). 

SCHISM,  Greek,  the  separation  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches,  which  originated  in  the 
9th,  and  was  completed  in  the  12th  century. 

SCHISMA,  the  name  given  to  one  of  the  very 
small  intervals  known  in  the  theory  of  music,  which 
amounts  to  the  difference  between  the  Comma  dilo- 
icum  and  Comma  siint(jnicum. 

SCHIST,  a  term' applied  somewhat  loosely  to  in- 
durated clays,  as  bituminous  schist  and  mica  schist. 
It  is  more  correctly  confined  to  tlie  metamorphic 
strata,  which  consist  of  plates  of  different  minerals, 
as  mica  schist,  made  up  of  layers  of  quartz  sepa- 
rated by  laminie  of  mica  ;  chlorite  schist,  a  green 
rock  in  whicii  the  layers  of  chlorite  are  separated 
by  plates  of  granite  or  felspar;  and  hornblende 
schist,  a  black  rock  composed  of  layers  of  hornblende 
and  felspar,  with  a  little  quartz. 

SCHLATTER,  Mich.\el,  a  Swiss  reformed  theo- 
logian, born  at  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  in  1716,  died 
near  Philadelphia,  Pa.^in  1790.  He  preached  for 
some  time  in  Switzerland.  In  1746  the  synod  of 
the  Reformed  Church  in  Holland  sent  him  to  Amer- 
ica with  directions  to  visit  the  scattered  Reformed 
churches  in  this  country,  to  establish  pastoral 
charges,  and  if  possible,  to  organize  a  ministerial 
conference.  In  this  work  he  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful. He  visited  the  German  settlers  scattered 
in  the  colonies  of  Pennsylvania,  New  .lersey,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia.  He  organized  many  churches, 
and  formed  the  first  American  synod  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformed  Church  in  Septemi)er,  1747.  At  the 
request  of  this  synod  Schlatter,  in  1751,  went  to 
Europe  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  the  cause  of 
the  destitute  German  churches  in  America.  His 
mission  was  very  successful,  especially  in  Holland. 
A  sum  of  money  amounting  to  .'flOO.OOO  was  col- 
lected and  invested  for  these  churches.  In  1752  he 
returned  to  America,  bringing  vvitli  him  six  young 
ministers.  In  1757  Schlatter  accompanied  the  ex- 
pedition to  Nova  Scotia  as  cliapiain  of  the  Royal 
American  regiment.  In  1777  he  suffered  impris- 
onment by  tlie  British  authorities  at  Pliiladelphia 
on  account  of  his  Revolutionary  services. 

SCHLIEMANN,  HEi.\'Ru:ir,  archieological  ex- 
plorer, born  at  Neu  -  Buckow,  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin  in  1822,  died  at  Berlin  in  1890.  In  1864 
he  set  out  on  a  journey  around  the  world,  which 
was  completed  in  lS6rt,  and  furnislied  material  for 
his  first  publication.  Two  years  later  he  went  to 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  to  visit  tlie  scenes  of 
Homer's  poems.  Having  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  site  of  ancient  Troy  was  at  Ilissarlick,  he 
determined  in  1870  to  explore  that  hill,  which  is  in 
Asia  Minor.  He  employed  151)  laborers  in  his  exca- 
vations, and  discovered  so  many  and  valuable 
arch;eological  treasures,  that  the  tax  to  the  Turkish 
government  amounted  to  $10,000.  In  1876  he  ex- 
plored the  site  of  Mycen.-i',  and  obtained  from  its 
tombs  a  large  amount  of  treasures.  In  1881-2  he 
excavated  the  treasury  of  Orchomenos,  in  ancient 
Bo;otia,  and  discovered  many  remains  of  prehis- 
toric art.  Finally,  in  1884-85,  he  explored  in  the 
same  way  the  site  of  Tiryns  and  brought  to  light 
the  palace  of  its  ancient  kings.  Dr.  Schliemann 
laid  his  discoveries  before  the  world  in  his  Trojii- 
nische  Alterthilmer  (1874);  .Vi/cc(in,',  with  its  introduc- 


tion by  Gladstone  ;  Jiios  (1881);  Orchomenos;  Troja 
(18S3),  and  Tiri/ns,  wiih  introduction  by  Felix  Adler 
(1886).  Most  of  these  works  were  issued  simulta- 
neously in  German,  Irench,  and  English.  The 
University  of  Rostock  liestowed  upon  Schliemann 
the  degree  of  Ph.  L.  in  1869,  and  the  University  of 
Oxford  that  of  LL.  D.  in  1883. 

SCHMUCKER,  S.^muel  Simon,  Lutheran  theo- 
logian, born  at  Hagersrown,  Md.,  in  1790,  died  at 
Gettysburg,  Pa.,  in  1873.  After  studying  theology 
at  Princeton  Seminary,  he  was  ordained  pasi;or  of  a 
church  at  Newmarket,  Va., in  1818,  and  at  Frederic, 
Md.,  in  1821.  In  1829  he  became  iiroft'ssor  of 
didactic  theology  in  the  Gettyslnirg  Theological 
Seminary,  and  retained  that  post  until  August, 
1864,  having  acted  for  many  years  as  presidenr  of 
the  seminary.  From  1864  to  his  death  he  was 
emeritus  professor.  He  was  the  author  of  over  100 
publications  on  Lutheran  theology,  both  in  English 
and  German. 

SCHNAASE,  Karl,  a  German  art  historian,  born 
at  Danzig  in  1798,  died  at  Wiesbaden  in  1875. 
After  studying  law  at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  he 
held  from  1819  to  1857  various  judicial  otlices  at 
Kijnigsberg,  Marienwerder,L)iisseldorf,  and  Berlin  ; 
but  traveled  much  at  the  same  time  in  Italy, 
France,  and  the  Netherlands.  In  all  these  coun- 
tries he  studied  art  with  great  enthusiasm.  In  1834 
he  published  his  Xirderlandische  BriiJ'e,  a.nd  irom 
1843  till  1864  appeared  his  Geschichle  <lrr  hildenden 
Kiiiiste  (7  vols.).  In  1858  he  commenced,  together 
with  Griineisen  and  Schnorr.the  publication  ol  "  Das 
Christliche  Kunstljlatt,"  which  he  edited  till  1867, 
when  he  settled  at  Wiesbaden. 

SCHOFIELD,  .loii.N  ^UAllister,  an  American 
general,  born  in  Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y.,  in  1831. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853;  and  in  1855-60 
he  was  assistant  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
there.  In  April,  1861,  at  the  opening  ol  the  civil 
war,  he  entered  the  volunteer  service  as  nuijor  of 
the  first  Missouri  volunteers,  and  was  ajipointed 
chief  of  staff  of  Gen.  Nath.  Lyon,  with  whom  he 
fought  the  battle  of  Wilson's  Creek,  in  wliich  battle 
Lyon  was  killed.  In  Novemlier,  1861,  he  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  was 
afterward  in  command  of  the  ]\Iitsouri  militia  till 
November,  1862,  and  of  the  Army  of  the  Frontier 
and  the  district  of  southwest  Missouri  from  that  • 
time  till  April,  1X63.  In  November,  1862,  he 
was  ajipointed  UHajor-general  of  vnlunteers.  As 
such  he  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the 
Missouri  from  May,  1863,  till  February,  1864,  and 
afterwards  of  the  Army  of  the  Ohio.  During  Sher- 
man's Georgia  campaign  Schoiield  commanded  the 
23d  army  corjis.  taking  part  in  most  of  the  llgliting, 
which  ended  with  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  Sept.  2, 
181)4.  On  Nov.  30,  1864,  he  defeated  Hood's  army  at 
Franklin,  Tenn..  and  soon  joined  (ien.  Thomas  at 
Nashville,  lie  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Nashville 
and  in  the  snbse<|uent  luirsuit  of  Hood's  ariny.  In 
Jaiuiary,  18(i5,  he  was  sent  to  North  Caroliila  with 
his  corps.  He  captured  Wilmington  F>b.  22;  was 
engaged  in  the  battle  of  Kingston,  March  10;  and 
joined  Sherman  at  Goldsboro,  March  22.  He  was 
presiMit  at  the  surrender  of  .lohnston's  army  and 
executed  the  details  of  the  ca|iitulation.  In  I.S()6-6S 
he  had  (■ommand  of  the  military  district  of  \irginia. 
,Iune  2.  1S6S,  (ien.  Scdiofield  succeeded  iMlwin  M. 
Stantcjn  as  secretary  of  war.  He  remained  in  this 
olhce  until  March  12,  IS68,  when  he  was  ajipointed 
major-general  of  the  United  States  Army,  and  was" 
ord(!red  to  the  Pejiartment  of  the  Missouri.  From 
1870  till  IS76  and  again  in  1882  and  1883  he  was  in 
command  of  the  Division  of  the  Pacific,  and  from 
18s;!  till  1.SS6  of  the  Division  of  the  Missouri.  In 
18Sii  lie  took  charge  of  the  Division  of  the  Atlanlii^ 


1392 


8  C  II  0  L  A  R  S  IJ  .1  i'  —  S  0  11  U  Y  L  E  R 


Scliolit'ld  is  now  (1891)  the  commanding  major- 
general  of  llie  United  States  Army  with  headquar- 
ters at  Washington,  D.  U. 

SCHOLAKSl'lIP,  a  benefaction,  generally  the 
annual  i)roceeds  of  a  bequest  permanently  in- 
vested, paid  tor  the  maintenance  of  a  student  at  a 
university. 

SCHOLTEN,  Johannes  Hendrik,  a  Dutch 
rationalist  theologian,  born  at  Leuten,  near  Ut- 
recht in  isll;  died  in  ISSfi.  After  studying  the- 
ology and  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Utrecht 
he  was  made  professor  of  tljeulogy  in  the  University 
of  Leyden  in  1843,  and  soon  became  the  leader  of 
a  liberal  movement  in  Dutch  theology,  which  spread 
all  over  Protestant  Kurope.  He  was  rector  of  the 
university  at  vari(jus  times,  and  retired  in  1881. 
Among  his  writings,  which  have  been  mostly  trans- 
lated into  tierman  and  French,  are  Doctrine  of  tlw 
Reformed  Cliurch  (2  vols.);  Historical  and  Critical 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament;  Comparative  His- 
tory of  Religion  and  Philosophy;  Free  Will  Critically 
Examined;  The  Gospel  of  John;  Supernaturalism  in 
Relation  to  the  Bible;  The  Pauline  Gospel  (1878),  and 
several  critical  treatises  on  the  four  gospels. 

S0H(3.MBURGK,  Sir  Robert  Hermann,  a  cele- 
brated traveler,  born  at  Freiburg  in  Prussian  Sax- 
ony, June,  5,  1S04;  died  in  1865.  He  began  at  an 
early  age  to  apply  himself  to  geographical  science 
and  natural  history.  He  was  charged  by  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society  with  the  survey  of  Guinea  in 
1835.  It  was  daring  this  exploration,  and  while  he 
was  ascending  the  Berbice  River,  that  he  discov- 
ered, January  1,  1837,  the  magnificent  aquatic 
plant  denominated  the  Victoria  rcgia.  He  was  the 
author  of  Tnirrh  and  Researches  in  BiitisJi,  Guinea 
in  1835-39,  a  work  which  has  largely  contributed  to 
almost  every  branch  of  natural  science;  the  De- 
scription of  British  Guinea,  and  a  History  of  Bnrhu- 
(loes.  In  1857  he  was  appointed  British  representa- 
tive to  the  Siamese  court  at  Bangkok. 

SCHOXBRUNN,  a  royal  palace  in  the  outskirts 
of  Vieniui,  the  summer  residence  of  the  imperial 
family. 

SCHOtJLS.  See  Common  Schools  of  the  United 
States  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

SCHOUWEN,  an  insular  portion  of  the  province 
af  Zealand,  bounded  on  the  soutli  by  the  Scheldt, 
on  the  north  by  the  most  southern  branch  of  the 
Maas,  and  on  the  west  by  the  North  Sea.  Area, 
sixty  square  miles.  Agriculture"  is  the  chief  em- 
ployment of  the  inhabitants.     Population,  15,600. 

SGHULZE-DEMTZSCH,  Hermann,  a  German 
economist,  born  at  Delitzsch,  Prussian  Saxony,  in 
1808,  died  in  1883.  After  studying  law  at  Leipzig 
and  Halle  he  held  various  judicial  positions,-  and 
sat  in  the  National  Assembly  at  Berlin  in  1848.  He 
was  made  chairman  of  a  committee  which  had  to 
investigate  the  condition  of  the  working  classes. 
As  the  Prussian  government  harassed  him  on  ac- 
count of  his  liberal  views,  he  resigned  his  office  in 
1853,  and  began  to  organize  trade-unions  in  his 
native  town.  For  instance,  all  the  shoemakers  of 
tlie  place  were  united  into' a  society  which  bought  all 
the  leather  the  trade  of  the  town  demanded  at 
wholesale  prices.  Similar  associations  for  the  pur- 
chase of  raw  materials,  provisions,  etc.,  were  soon 
establislied  by  other  trades  and  in  other  cities,  and 
exercised  in  connection  with  corresponding  loan 
institutions  and  savings  banks,  a  most  beneficial 
influence.  In  1878  there  were  in  Germany  948  of 
these  unions  with  4.80,500  members,  while  Belgium, 
France  and  other  countries  had  many  associations 
of  the  same  kind.  In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and 
afterward  in  the  Reichstag  he  advocated  the  per- 
fect freedom  of  association.  Among  the  publica- 
tions of  Schulze-Delitzsch  are  Das  Associationshiicli : 


Die  arheitenden  Klassen  und  das  Associatiunswesen; 
Die  Vorschuss-und  Creditvereine  als  Volksbanken;  Die 
Entiric.lce.lung  des  Genossenschaftswesens  (1870),  and 
treatises  on  political  economy. 

SCHULZE,  Franz  Eitlard,  a  German  zoologist, 
l)orn  at  Eldena,  near  Greifsvvald,  in  1840.  After 
studying  at  Rostock  and  at  Bonn  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  comparative  anatomy  at  Rostock,  and 
took  part  in  a  Prussian  scientific  expedition  to  the 
North  Sea.  In  1873  he  was  called  to  Gratz  as  pro- 
fessor of  zoiilogy,  and  in  1884  to  Berlin,  where  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Among 
his  writings  are  Die  Hauptsinnesorgctne  der  Fisclie  und 
Ainphibieu;  the  Codylophora  lacnstris,  and  other 
essays  on  the  lower  animals. 

SCHURZ,  Carl,  LL.  D.,  statesman  and  journal- 
ist, born  at  Liblar,  near  Cologne,  Prussia,  in  1829. 
In  1846-48  he  studied  at  the  University  of  Bonn. 
In  the  spring  of  1849  he  was  engaged  in  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  excite  an  insurrection  at  Bonn, 
and  took  part  in  the  defense  of  Rastadt,  a  fortified 
town  of  Baden,  then  occupied  by  the  Revolutionary 
party.  On  the  surrender  of  that  fortress  he  escaped 
to  Switzerland.  In  1852  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  resided  for  three  years  at  Philadelphia,  and 
then  settled  in  AVatertown.  Wis.  In  1859  he  re- 
moved to  jNlilwankee,  where  he  practiced  law.  He 
delivered  his  first  political  speech  in  English  dur- 
ing the  Senatorial  contest  between  Stephen  A. 
Douglas  and  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  was  a  promi- 
nent speaker  for  Lincoln  during  the  Presidential 
campaign  in  1860;  was  appointed  U.  S.  Minister  to 
Spain,  March,  1861,  but  resigned  that  post  in  De- 
cember of  the  same  year  to  enter  the  army.  In 
April,  1862,  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers;  and  in  May,  1863,  he  became  major- 
general.  Schurz  commanded  a  division  in  the  sec- 
ond battle  of  Bull  Run  and  also  in  the  battle  of 
Chancellorsville,  where  his  troops  were  surprised 
and  routed  by  Stonewall  Jackson.  At  Gettysburg 
and  at  Chattanooga  his  division  retrieved  its  repu- 
tation. After  the  war  President  Johnson  sent  him 
on  a  special  visit  to  the  Southern  States  (in  IR66) 
to  investigate  their  condition.  In  1867  he  became 
editor  of  the  "'VVestliche  Post,"  a  German  news- 
paper in  St.  Louis.  Mo.  In  1869he  was  chosen  United 
States  Senator  from  Missouri.  In  1877-81  he  was  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  under  President  Hayes. 
His  administration  of  this  office  was  marked  by 
energy,  integrity,  and  a  determination  to  enforce 
the  laws.  In  1881-84  he  edited  the  "New  York  Eve- 
ning Post,"  until  a  change  of  proprietorship  caused 
his  withdrawal  from  that  paper.  In  the  fall  of  1884 
he  was  conspicuous  for  his  opposition  to  Mr.  Blaine, 
the  presidential  nominee  of  the  Republican  party, 
and  was  a  leader  of  the  "Mugwumps,"  thus  assist- 
ing in  the  election  of  President  Cleveland.  In  1887 
he  was  in  Europe,  where  he  had  cordial  meetings 
with  Prince  Bismarck  and  other  political  leaders  in 
Germany.  Schurz  has  written  one  of  the  best  bi- 
ographies of  Henry  Clay. 

SCHUYLER,  Eugene,  an  American  author  and 
diplomatist,  a  descendant  of  Peter  Schuyler,  first 
mayor  of  Albany,  born  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  in  1840, 
died  in  1890.  He  was  consul  at  Moscow  in  1867-69; 
at  Reval  in  1869-70;  secretary  of  legation  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  1870-76;  traveled  extensively  in 
Russian  Turkestan, Khokan,  and  Bokhara;  became 
secretary  of  legation  and  consul-general  at  Con- 
stantinople in  1876;  consul  at  Birmingham  in  1878; 
consul-general  at  Bucharest  in  1880;  concluded 
our  treaty  with  Roumania  and  Servia  in  1881 ;  was 
consul-general  to  Greece.  Servia,  and  Roumania  in 
1882-84;  lectiired  in  the  United  States  in  1885,  and 
wrote  many  books  of  travel,  and  works  on  history, 
diplomacy,  and  commerce, 


S  C  H  U  Y  L  E  R  — S  C  H  W  E  I  N  F  U  R  1  H 


1393 


SCHUYIiER,  Pun,!!',  American  general,  born  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1733;  died  there  in  1804.  He  in- 
herited large  estates  from  his  father  and  increased 
his  wealth  by  marriage.  In  1755  and  175S  he 
served  in  the  British  army  against  the  Frencli, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major.  In  1775  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  that  con- 
vened in  Philadelphia,  and  in  June  of  the  same 
year  he  was  made  major-general  of  the  Eevolu- 
tionary  army.  In  August  he  went  to  Ticonderoga 
having  for  his  object,  the  placing  of  that  fort  and 
Crown  Point  in  a  state  of  defense.  Poor  health 
compelled  him  to  return  to  Albany,  where  he  ful- 
filled the  duties  of  quarter-master-general  and 
commissary-general.  In  1777  he  was  again  chosen 
to  represent  New  York  in  Congress,  and  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  military  in  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Soon  after  he  was  directed  to  proceed 
to  the  Northern  department  and  take  command 
there.  But  Gen.  Gates,  who  had  been  appointed 
to  cooperate  with  Schuyler,  undermined  him  in 
every  possible  way,  so  that  Congress,  yielding  to 
the  pressure  from  New  England,  sent  Gates  to 
supersede  Schuyler.  The  latter  gave  his  successful' 
rival  the  full  benefit  of  his  services  and  superior 
knowledge  of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants.  He 
was  present  at  Burgoyue's  surrender,  which  his 
own  wise  arrangements  had  greatly  helped  to 
bring  about.  In  April,  1779,  after  he  had  been  re- 
elected to  Congress,  he  resigned  from  the  army. 
He  aided  the  public  treasury  by  liberal  advances 
from  his  private  resources.  In  1789  and  again  in 
1797,  the  New  York  legislature  elected  him  United 
States  Senator.  Though  Gen.  Schuyler's  military 
career  was  marked  by  various  misfortunes,  he 
'always  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Gen.  Washing- 
ton. 

SCHUYLKILL  HAVEN,  a  town  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, on  the  Schuylkill,  four  miles  south  of  Potts- 
ville.  It  is  engaged  in  mining  and  shipping  coal, 
and  produces  various  manufactures.  Population 
in  1S90,  2,(i74. 

SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT.  For  general 
article  on  this  German  principality,  see  Britannica, 
Vol.  XXI,  p.  461.  In  1885  the  area  was  reported 
as  367  square  miles ;  population,  83,8.36;  population 
of  Rudolstadt,  the  chief  town,  10,562. 

Reigning  Prince. — Giinther,  born  August  21, 
1852,  and  succeeded  his  cousin.  Prince  Georg,  Jan. 
21,  1890. 

The  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  line  is  a  younger 
branch  of  the  house  of  Schwarzhurg,  being  des- 
cended from  Johann  Giinther,  who  died  in  tlie 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  present 
sovereign  has  a  civil  list  of  291,817  liiarks,  exclusive 
of  the  revenue  of  the  state  domains,  proi)erty  of 
the  reigning  family. 

Constitution  and  R^^vbnue. — Tlie  fundamental 
law  of  the  principality  is  the  constitution  of 
March  21,  1854,  modified  NovpmV)er  16,  1870.  For 
all  legislative  measures  tlie  prince  has  to  obtain 
the  consent  of  a  eliainber  of  representatives  of 
sixteen  members,  four  of  whom  are  elected  by  the 
highest  assessed  inhabitants,  and  the  rest  re- 
turned by  the  general  population.  The  deputies 
meet  every  three  years,  and  their  mandate  expires 
at  the  end  of  two  sessions. 

There  are  triennial  budgets.  For  the  period 
1888-90  the  annual  public  income  and  expenditure 
were  settled  at  2,203,200  marks  each.  Former 
financial  periods  sliowed  small  diticils.  There  is  a 
public  debt  of  4,246,000  marks,  nearly  three-fourths 
covered  by  productive  investments. 

SCHWARZBURG-  SONDERSHAUSEN.  For 
general  article  on  this  German  principality,  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  461-62.      The  census  of 


1885  gave  the  area  as  ,337  square  miles;  population, 
73,606;  population  of  chief  towns:  Sondershausen, 
6,336;  Arnstadc,  11,537. 

Reigning  Prince  .\nd  Family.— Karl  II.  was  born 
August  7,  1830;  succeeded  his  father,  Prince  Giin- 
ther II.,  July  17,1880;  and  was  married,  June  12, 
1S69,  to  Princess  Marie  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  born 
June  28,  1845. 

Fatlhi-  of  the  Prince. — Gtiiitlier  II.,  born  Sep- 
tember24,  1801;  succeeded  his  father.  Prince  Giin- 
ther I.,  August  19,  1835  ;  married,  in  first  nuptials, 
in  1827,  to  Princess  INlarie  of  Schwarxlmrg-Rndol- 
stadt,  who  died  in  18:^3;  and  secondly,  in  IKiri,  to 
Princess  ^Mathilda  of  Hohenlohe-Oehringen  (  died 
June  3, 1886),  from  whom  be  was  divorced  in  1852. 
Abdicated  July  17,  1880. 

Brother  mid  Sinti-rs  of  the  Priiin. — ],  Princess 
Elizabeth,  born  JIarch  22,1829.  2.  Prince  Leopold, 
born  July  2,  1832-.  Princess  Marie,  born  June  14, 
1837. 

The  princes  of  the  house  of  Schwarzbnrg  lielong 
to  a  very  ancient  and  wealthy  family.  Ilie  .--mari 
territory  of  the  house  was  left  undisturbed  at  the 
Congress  at  Vienna.  The  civil  list  of  the  Prince  of 
^chwarzburg-Sondershausen  amounts  to  25,826/., 
being  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  revenue  of  the 
country.  The  prince  is,  moreover,  in  possession  of 
averylarge  income  from  private  estates  in  Bo- 
hemia and  Blecklenburg. 

CoNSTiTiTioK  AND  EKVENVE.^The  jirincipalil y 
has  a  constitution,  granted  July  6,  1857,  under 
which  restricted  legislative  rights  are  given  to  a 
diet  composed  of  fifteen  members,  five  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  j  riiice,  fi^e  elected  by  certain 
highly-taxed  landowners  and  others,  and  five  elec- 
ted by  the  inhabitants  in  general.  The  sole  exec- 
utive and  part  of  the  legislative  power  is  in  tie 
hands  of  the  prince,  who  exercises  his  authority 
through  a  government  divided  into  three  depait- 
ments. 

The  budget  accounts  are  settled  for  the  term  of 
three  years.  In  the  period  1888-91  the  annual  rev- 
enue was  estimated  to  amount  to  2,432,049  marks. 
and  the  annual  expenditure  to  2.426.635  marks. 
There  is  a  public  debt  (1888)  of  3,686,382  marks. 

There  were  49  miles  of  railway  on  January  1, 
1890. 

SCHWATKA,  Frederick,  an  American  explor- 
er, born  at  Galena,  111.,  in  1849.  After  graduating 
at  West  Point, and  studying  law  and  medicine  in 
succession,  he  sailed  in  June  1878  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  command  of  a  Franklin  search  expedi- 
tion, and  buried  there  many  skeletons  of  Sir  John 
Franklin's  lost  party.  He  reiurned  in  September, 
1880.  In  1884 he  explored  the  Yukon  Kiverin  Al- 
aska, and  published  accounts  of  his  expedition.  He 
commanded  the  Alaskan  expedition  of  the  Kew 
York  "Times"  in  1886,  and  published  Cliildrcn  of  the 
Cold  in  the  same  year. 

SCHWEDT,  a  handsome  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Oder,  thirty-one 
miles  southwest  of  Stettin.  Weaving,  brewing, 
the  manufactures  of  starch  and  of  tobacco,  wliich  is 
here  extensively  grown  and  sold, are  the  princii>al 
branches  of  industry.       Population.  9,039. 

SCIIWKINFURT'H,  Geoug  Atoist,  a  German 
explorer  and  naturalist,  born  at  Riga,  Russia,  in 
1836.  After  being  educated  at  Riga  and  Heidel- 
berg he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  botary. 
and  made  scientific  excursions  in  Russia,  France 
and  Italy.  In  1.864,  I865-ii6,  and  1868-71  he  made 
three  journeys  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile  to  investi- 
gate the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  Nile  region'.;.  In 
1873-74  he  explored  the  great  oasis  in  the  Lil>yan 
desert,  and  was  appointed  by  the  Khedive  director 
of  the  Museum  of   Natural    llistory    at    Cairo.     In 


1394       SCHWEINITZ  — SCIENCE    AND    LITERATURE 


1870-78  he  explored  l.lie  country  between  the  Nile 
and  the  Red  Sea,  and  in  18S1  he  took  part  in  an  ex- 
ploration of  the  Island  of  Scotia.  He  has  since 
been  engaged  in  promoting  German  colonization 
in  equatorial  Africa.  Dr.  Schweinfurth  has  written 
Planlx  Qiucdam  Niloticx  (1862);  lieitrag  zur  Flora 
Aethiopienn  (1867)  ;  Relitjuix  Kotschyarie  (1868),  and 
/ot  Ilerzen  von  Afrika  (2  vols.  1874),  translated  into 
English  under  the  title  The  Heart  of  Africa  (1874). 
He  also  published  many  botanical  treatises,  and 
has  sent  rich  collections  of  natural  history  to 
Germany. 

SCHWEINITZ,  Edmund  Alex.\ndee  de,  a  Mora- 
vian bishop,  born  at  Betlilehem,  Pa.,  in  1825;  died 
there  in  1887.  He  studied  theology  at  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  and  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  Prussia.  From 
1850  till  1870  he  had  charge  successively  of  churches 
at  Lebanon,  Philadelphia,  Lititz   and  Bethlehem, 


SCIATIC  STAY :  in  merchant  vessels,  a  strong 
rope  fastened  between  the  main  and  foremast 
heads.  When  loading  or  unloading,  a  traveling 
tackle  is  suspended  to  it,  which  can  be  brought 
over  the  fore  or  main-hatchway  as  occasion 
demands. 

SCIENCE  AND  LITERATURE,  French  Acad- 
emy. This  institution,  familiarly  known  in  France 
as  the  Instilut  de  France  is  the  highest  of  the 
French  Academies.  It  was  founded  in  1635  by  the 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  reorganized  in  1816.  It  is 
composed  of  40  members,  elected  for  life,  after  per- 
sonal application  and  the  submission  of  their  nom- 
ination to  the  head  of  the  state.  It  meets  twice 
weekly,  and  is  "the  highest  authority  on  every- 
thing appertaining  to  the  niceties  of  the  French 
language,  to  grammar,  rhetoric  and  poetry,  and 
the     publication     of     the     French     classics."     A 


Year 

Elected 

1 

1855. . . 

2 

1862... 

i 

1865. . . 

4 

1870. . . 

b 

1870... 

6 

1871... 

7 

1871... 

» 

1874. . . 

9 

1874. . - 

10 

1875- , . 

11 

1876... 

in 

1876   . . 

IS 

1877   . . 

14 

1878.  .  . 

lb 

1878  . . 

16 

1878  . . 

17 

WSO. .  . 

IK 

1880,  .  . 

19 

1881... 

■<!(l 

1881... 

•21 

1881... 

JW 

1.S82  ... 

as 

1882  .. 

IH 

18S2. . . . 

ift 

1.884  ... 

as 

1.884... 

■27 

1884,... 

as 

1884  ... 

29 

1884. . . . 

■M 

1886... 

31 

1886..:. 

.S2 

1886.... 

:« 

1886.... 

M 

1888. , . . 

3.5 

18S8. . . . 

36 

1888. . . 

X! 

1888.... 

3fi 

1888. . . . 

39 

1890... 

40 

1891.    . 

Ernest  Wilfred  Gabriel  Bapti.ste  Legouv^ 

Jacques  Victor  Albe,  Due  de  Broglie 

Cliarles  Camille  Doucet 

Eniile  Ollivier 

Xavier  Marmier 

Heuri  Euffiiie  Orl^'ans,  Due  d'Aumale 

(-'amille  Felix  Michel  Rousset 

.\lfred  Jean  Francois  M6zi6res 

.'Vlexauder  Dumas _ 

John  Erailc  Lenioinne. ." 

Jiile.s  Francois  Simon. 

Marie  Louis  Antoiue  Boissier 

Victorieu  .Sardou. 

Joseph  Ernest  Renan 

Hippolyte  .\dolplie  Taine 

Edmon'd  Ariiiand.  Due  d'audlHret-Pasquier 

Maxime  Du  Camp. 

Aime  Joseph  IMmond  Rousse 

Rene  Francois  Armaud  Sully- I'rudhomme 

Louis  Pasteur 

Charles  Victor  Cherbullez. 

Adolphe  Louis  Albert  Per  rand 

Edouard  Jules  Henry  PaiUeron 

Louis  Charles  de  Mazade-Percin 

Francois  Edouard  Joachim  Copped 

Ferdinand  Marie  de  Lesseps 

Jean  Victor  Duruy  

Josei>h  Louis  Francois  Bertrand, .'. 

Ludovic  Halevy 

Jean  Baptiste  Leon  Say 

Charles  Marie  Leconte  de  Lisle 

Aimee  Marie  Edouard  Herv(!' 

Vallery  Clement  Octave  Grcard 

Othenin  Paul  de  Cleron,  Couite  d'Haussonville. 

Jeanne  Pierre  Jurien  de  la  GraviOre 

Jules  .\rnaud  Arsene  Clarette 

Menri  Meilhac      

EugO-ne  Marie  Melchior  Vicomte  de  VoguS 

Charles  Louis  de  Saulces  de  Freycinet 

Julien  Viaud 


Born. 


Paris,  1807 

Paris,  1821 

Paris,  1812 

Marseilles,  1825 

Pontarlier,  180s 

Paris,  1822 

Paris,  1S21 

Paris,  18'26 

Paris,  1824 

London,  1815 

Lorieut,  1814 

Nimes.1823 

Paris,  1831 

Tregnier,  1823 

Vouziers,  1826 

Paris,  1823 

Paris,  1822 

Paris,  1817 

Paris,  18:^9 

D61e,1822 

Geneva.  1829 

Lyons.  1828 

Paris,  1839 

Castelsarrazin,  1820.. 

Paris,  1842 

Versailles,  1.805 

Paris,  1811 

Paris,  1822 

Paris,  1834 

Paris,  1816 

Islede  Reunion,  1818. 
Islede  RC'union,  1885. 

Vire,  1828 

Gnrey.  1843 

Brest.  1.812 

Limoges.  1840 

Paris,  1830 


Predecessor. 


Foix,  1828 

Rochefort  -  sur  -  Mer, 
[185ll 


Anoelot. 

Lacordaire,  Pere. 

De  Viguy. 

De  Lamartine. 

De  I'ongerville. 

De  MonlaleniV)er. 

PrOvost-Paradol. 

St.  Marc-Girardin. 

Lebrun. 

Janin. 

De  Kemusat. 

Patin. 

Autran. 

Claude  Bernard. 

De  Lomenie. 

Dupauloup  (Bishop). 

St.  RenC-Tailliindier. 

Jules  Favre. 

Duvergier  de  Hauranue. 

Littre. 

Dufaure. 

August  Barbier. 

Charles  Blanc. 

Conite  de  Chanipagny. 

De  Laprade. 

Henri  Martin. 

Mignet. 

J.  B.  Dumas. 

Comte  d'Haussonville. 

Edmond  About. 

Victor  Hugo. 

Due  de  Noailles. 

Comte  de  Falloux. 

Caro. 

Viel-Castel. 

Cuvillier-Fleury. 

Labiche. 

D<'Sir<^  Nisard., 

Emile  Augier. 

Octave  Feuillet. 


all  in  Pennsylvania.  On  August  28,  1870,  he  was 
consecrated  bisliop,  and  thus  made  president  of  the 
Northern  Conference  of  the  Moravian  Church  in 
America.  From  1856  till  1866  he  edited  "The 
Moravian,"  a  weekly  journal  of  his  church.  He 
also  pul)lished  The  Moravian  Manual  (1859);  The 
Moraridn  Epinropate  (1865) ;  a  Life  of  Zeisberger  (2 
vols.  1S70),  and  The  Histori/  of  the  Church  Known 
as  the  I'liitax  Fnitnim  (1886).' 

SCHWIlIXITZ,  Lewis  David  von,  botanist,  born 
at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  in  1780;  died  there  in  18.34. 
Although  educated  for  the  ministry  he  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  botany.  He  was  a 
Moravian  pastor  at  Salem,  S.  C.  By  his  indefati- 
gable researches  he  discovered  over  1,400  new 
species  of  American  plants,  1,200  of  which  being 
fungi.  He  published  CataJaqiies  <if  the  Fungi  of 
North  Carolina  (1818),  and  'afterwards  of  North 
America  (1832).  His  other  publications  were  botan- 
ical monographs.  From  1821  till  his  death  he  re- 
sided at  Bethlehem. 


chair  in  the  Academy  is  the  highest  ambi- 
tion of  most  literary  Frenchmen.  The  other  acad- 
emies of  the  Institute  of  France  are :  The  Acad- 
en;y  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres,  with  4» 
members;  Academy  of  Sciences, with  66  members; 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  with  40  members  (as  fol- 
lows: Painting,  14;  sculpture,  8;  architecture,  8; 
engraving,  4;  musical  composition,  6),  and  Acad- 
emy of  Moral  and  Political  Science,  with  40  mem- 
ber's. See  France,  Britannica  Vol  IX,  p.  514.  All 
members  are  elected  for  life.  The  Academic  de 
Medecine  is  not  connected  with  this  Institution. 

The  above  table  is  a  complete  list  of  "  The 
Forty  Immortals"  composing  this  highest  of  the 
Academies,  (")ct.  1,  1891. 

The  election  of  M.  Viaud  in  1891,  after  a  spirited 
contest,  over  his  competitor,  M.  Emile  Zola,  excited 
intense  interest  in  Paris.  lie  is  the  youngest  of  all 
the  members,  and  suddenly  sprang  into  most  favor- 
able notoriety  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  literary 
works. 


1395 


SCIENCE,    RECENT    DISCOVERIES    IN. 


Astronomy  and  Mathematics. — To  observe  the 
Total  Eclipse  of  the  Sun  on  Dec.  22,  1889,  the  United 
States  Government  equipped  an  expedition  on  a 
scale  of  magnitude  vouchsafed  to  no  previous  one 
undertaken  by  any  government.  Secretary  Tracy 
placed  the  management  of  the  affair  in  the  hands 
©f  Prof.  David  P.  Todd,  director  of  the  observatory 
ef  Amherst  College,  and  several  astronomers  and 
scientists  made  up  the  7VCf!()y/»f7  of  tlie  expedition. 
The  instruments  were  placed  on  a  bald  liluff,  near 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  seventy-five  miles  south 
of  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  the  latitude  being  10°  south 
•f  the  equator.  Thirty  photographs  of  tlie  partially 
eclipsed  sun  were  secured.  A  cloud  frustrated  the 
photographing  of  the  totally  eclipsed  sun. 

Prof.  Holden  of  the  Lick  Observatory,  sent  Profs. 
Burnham  and  Scha?berle,  of  his  staff,  to  Cayenne, 
French  Guiana,  South  America,  for  the  observation 
•f  the  same  eclipse.  Clouds  with  rain  prevented 
the  first  contact  from  being  seen  ;  but  when  the 
8un  was  about  two-thirds  covered  by  the  advancing 
moon,  the  sky  suddenly  cleared.  The  party  se- 
cured twelve  negatives  during  the  total  phase,  and 
Prof.  Holden  considers  them  successful  and  of 
sufficient  number. 

Meteors. — A  remarkable  meteor,  from  which 
issued  a  shower  of  stones,  passed  over  the  States  of 
Iowa  and  Jlinnesota  between  five  and  six  o'clock 
p.  M.  on  May  2,  1890.  The  explosion  occurred 
eleven  miles  north  of  Forest  City,  Iowa,  and  the 
fragments  were  scattered  over  the  county  of  Win- 
nebago. The  largest  piece  weiglied  104  lbs.  An- 
other stone  fall  took  place  in  Washington  county, 
Kansas,  on  June  25,  1890.  at  12:  45  p.  m.  It  fell  in 
Farmington  township  on  a  farm  in  possession  of  J. 
H.  January,  who  saw  a  stone  strike  the  ground  a 
few  rods  distant  from  where  he  stood,  and  throw 
"jp  the  earth  to  a  height  of  forty  feet.  It  imbeded 
itself  to  a  depth  of  four  feet,  from  which  three 
hours  laters,  he  unearthed  it,  and  found  it  cold. 
The  stonc!  weighed  148  Uis.  and  was  found  to  be 
cracked.    It  was  an  entire  meteor. 

Double  Stars. — In  the  "Astronomische  Nach- 
riehten"  for  1889,  Mr.  Burnam,  of  Lick  Observatoryj 
published  a  list  of  fifty-four  double  stars  discov- 
ered with  the  thirty-six  inch  refractor,  together 
with  measurements  of  fifty  double  stars  previously 
catalogued.  Several  are  new  components  of  well- 
known  pairs,  thus  making  them  triple. 

XehuL-e. — Since  1887  tlie  director  of  the  Warner 
Observatory,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  has  published  three 
catalogues,  each  of  100  newly-discovered  nebuhi-. 
Tlie  majority  of  these  are  very  faint.  Nearly  S.OOO 
nebuhe  are  now  catalogued  in  all.  At  lieander 
McCormick  Observatory,  Va.,  Prof.  Stone  has  dis- 
covered several  hundred  nebuhf.  mostly  south  of 
the  equator.  Prof.  Barnard  has  found  150,  and  at 
the  Lick  Observatory,  Mr.  Burnham  discovered 
with  the  .36-inch  telescope  eighteen  nebuhe  In  a 
space  only  about  one-eight  of  tlie  apparent  size  of 
the  moon.  They  are  very  small  and  exceedingly 
faint. 

Cornels. — The  following  named  comets  have  very 
recently  been  discovered:  Comet  /"  was  detected 
•n  Nov.  IH,  ISS9  by  Dr.  Lewis  Swift  at  the  Warner 
Observatory,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  It  is  the  faintest  of 
all  the  periodic  comets. 

Comet  7  was  discovered  by  M.  Borelly  at  Mar- 
seillies,  France,  on  Doc.  12.  1889.  Though  it  was 
faint  at  discovery,  its  brightness  Increased  to  more 
than  23  times  its  original  brilliancy.     Us   motion 


was  rapidly  south,   and   It   was   soon  lost  to  view 
to  northern  observatories. 

Comet  ((  was  found  by  Prof.  W.  R.  Brooks,  direc- 
tor of  Smith  Observatory,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  on  March 
19,  1890.  It  was  faint  when  discovered,  but  in- 
creased in  brightness. 

Comet  ;<  was  discovered  by  M.  Coggia,  of  the 
Marseilles  01)servatory,  France,  on  July  19,  1890. 
It  was  of  fair  brilliancy  at  discovery,"  but  grew 
rapidly  fainter. 

Comet  ('  owes   its  discovery  to  William   F.  Den 
ning,  of  Bristol,  England,  on  July  23,  1890.     It  was 
both  faint  and   small,  but  gradually   increased  Ih 
brightness. 

Coir.et  d  was  discovered  on  Oct.  6,  1890,  by  Bar- 
hard.  Subsequent  observations  proved  it  to  be 
D'Arrest's  periodic  comet  for  which  astronomers 
had  been  searching  for  several  months. 

Synehroiiat  Revolution  and  Itolittiou  of  the  Planet 
Mercury. — Signor  Scliiaparelli,  of  the  Milan  Observ- 
atory, Italy,  has  given  astronomers  a  great  sur- 
prise lately  with  regard  to  the  planet  Jlercury. 
He  announces  that  Mercury  completes  but  one 
rotation  during  a  revolution  around  the  sun,  ex- 
actly as  the  moon  rotates  on  her  axis,  while  she 
revolves  around  the  earth.  As  the  result  of  seven 
years  of  observation  of  this  planet  Scliiaparelli 
concludes  that  Mercury  rotates  once  on  its  axis  in 
87,969  days,  which  Is  the  exact  time  of  its  period  of 
revolution  around  the  sun.  If  this  conclusion  is 
true, one  Mercurial  hemisphere  must  be  constantly 
bathed  In  sun-light,  while  the  other  Is  enveloped 
in  perpetual  darkness.  The  same  astronomer 
claims  to  possess  evidence  to  warrant  the  declara- 
tion that  Venus  also  rotates  on  her  axis  only  once 
during  the  revolution  around  the  sun,  or  In  2247 
days. 

Sun-Spots. — In  1889  the  sun  was  free  from  spots 
for  211  days,  the  longest  spotless  period  being  from 
Oct.  23  to  Dec.  11.  There  were  also  eight  others  of 
more  than  two  week's  duration.  The  mean  daily 
area,  however,  for  the  latter  half  of  the  year  was 
nearly  twice  as  great  as  for  the  earlier  half.  This 
indicates  the  middle  of  the  year  18x9  as  a  well- 
defined  date  of  sun-spots  minimum. 

Asteroides. — For  the  asteroides  discovered  during 
the  year  1890,  see  the  article  Astehoides  in  these 
Revisions  and  Additions. 

A  Snow-Storin  oii  Mars. — The  scientific  study  of 
the  "  starry  world  "  by  means  of  photography  fur- 
nishes some  unexpected  revelations.  I'rof.  Picker- 
ing describes,  in  the  "Sidereal  Messengi'r,"  fourteen 
photographs  of  the  jilanet  Mars,  which  were  taken 
on  two  successive  days,  the  9th  and  lOth  of  April, 
seven  on  each  day,  in  the  second  of  which  the 
southern  polar  white  spot  was  much  larger  than  In 
the  former  series.  In  the  first  day's  |iholograiihs 
the  spot  was  dimly  marked,  as  If  veiled  by  fog  or 
by  particles  too  small  tx)  be  represented  separately  ; 
but  on  the  second  day  the  region  was  brilliantly 
white.  The  date  of  the  event  corresponded  with 
the  end  of  the  southern  winter  of  Mars,  or  with  the 
middle  of  our  February;  the  event  itself  was  a 
snow-storm. 

Ohserriitoni  on  Mount  Iltanc. — Among  the  an- 
nouncements in  the  autumn  of  1891,  was  the 
statement  that  a  permanent  meteorological  ob- 
servatory is  to  be  erected  on  the  summit  of  Mont 
Blanc,  provided  the  difliculties  in  the  way  can  be 
surmounted,  the  ))riiiclpal  one  being  that  the  ob- 
servatory must  be  built  on  the  solid  rock  and  the 


1396 


SCIENCE,    RECENT    D  I  S  C  0  \"  E  R  I  E  S    IN 


top  of  -Mom  Blanc  is  covered  with  glacier  ice  of 
an  unknown  thickness.  There  has  been  for  several 
years  asijjnal  station  on  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak, 
wliicli  is  imt  slightly  lower  than  Mont  Blanc ;  but 
Die  climatic  conditions  of  Colorado  and  Savoy  are 
so  different  fliat  there  can  be  no  comparison  be- 
tween the  two  stations.  A  series  of  winter  observa- 
tions at  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc  would  be  of  the 
greatest  meteorological  interest  and  value,  and  it 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  enterprise  will  be  carried 
to  a  successful  conclusion. 

Chemistry  and  Physics. — Aliimliiiirin. — The  val- 
uable chemical  and  physical  properties  of 
this  metal  can  scarcely  fail  to  lead  to  applications 
so  widespread  as  to  render  it  indispensaWe  in  the 
industries  and  the  purposes  of  daily  life.  The  re- 
duction which  has  already  been  effected  in  the  cost 
of  production  has  certainly  not  yet  reached  its 
limit.  The  addition  of  small  quantities  of  alumin- 
ium to  fused  steel  and  to  malleable  iron  has  the 
effect  of  rendering  them  more  fluid,  and.  by  thus 
facilitating  the  escape  of  the  occluded  gases,  of 
assisting  in  the  production  of  soujid  castings 
without  any  injurious  effect  on  the  quality  of 
the  metal.  The  "Mitis"  castings  are  produced  in 
this  way. 

Tl>e  Damposcopc. — Prof.  Forbes  has  invented 
an  instrument  for  detecting  fire-damp  and 
determining  the  quantity  of  light  carburetted 
hydrogen  in  the  air,  which  he  calls  the  "dampo- 
scope."  Its  construction  is  very  simple.  Over  the 
mouth  of  a  straight  brass  tube  is  fixed  a  tuning- 
fork;  inside  the  brass  tube  slides  another  tube  of 
the  same  metal,  which  is  moved  by  a  regulating 
screw,  so  that  the  compound  tube  can  be  length- 
ened or  shortened  at  will,  and  this  movement  is 
registered  on.  a  dial.  To  ascertain  the  amount  of 
fire-damp  in  the  pit,  the  instrument  is  taken  to  the 
suspected  spot,  the  tuning-fork  is  set  vibrating, 
and  the  screw  is  turned  until  the  maximum  sound 
is  emitted.  The  index  is  then  read  off.  It  appears 
that  the  quantity  of  gas  can  be  determined  to 
within  one-half  per  cent. 

Mechanical  E'jniralent  of  Heat. — The  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat  has  been  re-determined 
by  C.  Miculesco,  by  an  improved  modifica- 
tion of  Joule's  original  method.  The  result  ob- 
tained was  777.7  foot-pounds,  comparing  quite 
closely  with  .Joule's  original  figures  (772  foot- 
pounds). In  other  words,  the  quantity  of  heat  by 
which  a  pound  of  water  is  raised  in  temperature 
through  one  Fahrenheit  degree  is  generated  by  the 
same  amount  of  work  which  would  raise  777.7 
pounds  one  foot  high,  or  one  pound  777.7  feet  high. 
The  determination  is  an  important  one,  and  con- 
firms the  accuracy  of  the  first  experiments. 

Safety  Electric  Current  Breaker. — In  order  to 
reduce  as  tar  as  possible  the  danger  attend- 
ing the  use  of  electric  lights  or  other  elec- 
tric apparatus  in  proximity  to  inflammable  sub- 
stances, a  new  device  was  devised  in  1891.  The 
current  breaker  here  shown  is  so  arranged  that 
the  rupture  of  the  circuit  and  the  passage  of  the 
spark  take  place  in  an  air-tight  rubber  bulb,  and 
its  construction  is  rendered  sufficiently  clear  by 
the  engraving.  The  insulated  wires  forming  the 
electrical  circuit  are  enclosed  in  a  flexible  tube,  to 
one  end  of  which  is  attached  a  rubber  bulb  half 
filled  with  mercury.  The  ends  of  the  wires,  from 
which  the  insulating  covering  is  removed,  are 
sealed  into  the  lower  end  of  the  bulb.  When  the 
tube  is  bent  upwards  in  the  position  B  or  C,  the 
mercury  surrounds  the  wires,  completing  the  elec- 
tric circuit  and  allowing  the 'current  to  pass.  To 
break  the  circuit  it  is  only  necessary  to  unhook 
the  end  of  the  tube  and  allow  it  to  hang  straight 


down  in  the  position  of  \  or  D.  The  current  is  at 
once  broken,  and  any  spark  that  may  pass  between 
the  wires  is  completely  cut  off  from  the  outside 
air  and  rendered  harmless. 

This  current-breaker  may  also  be  used  to  good 
advantage  as  an  automatic  fire  alarm  by  making 
the  hook  to  which  the  bulb  is  hung  of  fusible 
metal,  or  even  tying  it  with  a  piece  of  light  cotton 
thread.  When  the  temperature  rises  sufliciently 
to  melt  the  fusible  metal,  or  if  a  flame  occurs  so 
as  to  burn  the  thread,  the  bulb  will  fall  down, 
breaking  the. circuit  and  sounding  an  electric  bell 
or  other  alarm. 

As  shown  in  the  engraving,  the  apparatus  is  de- 
signed to  be  used  on  a  closed  circuit,  that  is,  one 
where  the  current  is  continually  passing.  If  used 
on  an  open  circuit,  it  is  only  necessary  to  seal  the 
wires   into  the   opjiosite  end  of  the  bulb,  so   that 


when  it  is  released  from  the  hook,  the  mercury  will 
surround  the  wires,  thus  completing  the  circuit. 

Chromo  Steel. — The  importance  of  manganese 
in  connection  with  the  metallurgy  of  iron  and  steel 
is  finding  a  rival  in  the  metal  chromium.  Its  in- 
fluence upon  the  character  of  steel  differs  in  sev- 
eral marked  respects  from  that  exercised  by 
manganese  ;  for  example,  chrome  steels  weld  badly, 
while  manganese  steels  do  so  easily,  even  better 
than  ordinary  carbon  steels ;  again  :  the  remarkable 
influence  of  manganese  upon  the  magneticproper- 
ties  of  iron  and  steel  is  not  shared  by  chromium. 
The  very  highest  qualities  of  tool  steels  and  of 
JIushet's  tungsten  steel  have  found  in  chrome  steel 
a  formidable  rival.  The  great  hardness,  high 
tenacity,  and  exceeding  closeness  of  structure  pos- 
sessed by  suitable  tempered  steel  containing  from 
1  to  1.5  per  cent,  of  chromium,  and  from  .8  to  1  per 
cent,  of  carbon  render  this  material  valuable  for 
war  purposes;  cast  projectiles  have  penetrated 
over  nine  inches  of  compouijd  ste«l  and  iron  plates, 
such  ai.-;  are  used  on  armored  warships.  The  em- 
ployment of  chromium  as  a  constituent  of  steel 
plates  for  armor  has  been  commenced. 

Electric  Weldixg. — The  Thompson  process  of 
electric  welding  is  a  most  important  advance  in 
mechanical  engineering,  and  though  over  thirty 
years  ago  .Joule  successfully  experimented  in  this 
direction,  yet  the    commercial  application  of  the 


SCIENCE,    RECENT    DISCOVEllIES    IN 


1397 


process  is  only  just  now  established  successfully. 
To  realize  the  importance  of  this  achievement  it 
must  be  recollected  that  the  ordinary  welding  pro- 
cess requires  the  greatest  skill  at  the  hands  of  the 
blacksmith,  to  heat  the  metals  to  the  proper  tem- 
perature and  at  the  required  spot,  at  the  same 
time  preventing  the  accumulation  of  cinder  and 
scale.  The  skillful  workman  may  succeed  in  weld- 
ing metals  having  high  melting  points  and  low  con- 
ductivity for  heat,  but  easily  fusible  metals  and 
especially  good  conductors,  cannot  be  treated  in 
the  usual  manner  for  welding,  and  these  have, 
therefore,  hitherto  been  practically  unweldable. 
The  electric  process  has  now  made  welding  com- 
mercially possible  to  all  metals,  to  metallic  alloys, 
and  to  various  combinations  of  metals,  the  auto- 
matic action  rendering  any  special  skill  unneces- 
sary. The  following  metals,  alloys  and  combina- 
tions have  been  actually  successfully  welded  by 
Professor  Elihu  Thompson's  process.  Mrtah: 
wrought-iron,  cast-iron,  malleable-iron,  wrought- 
copper,  cast-copper,  lead,  tin,  zinc, antimony,  cobalt, 
nickel,  bismuth,  aluminum,  silver,  platinum,  gold, 
manganese,  magnesium.  Alloys:  steels,  tool,  mild, 
castings,  chrome,  Mushet,  stubs,  crescent  and  Bes- 
semer, cast-brass,  gun-metal,  type-metal,  fusible- 
metal,  solder-metal,  German  silver,  aluminum  iron, 
aluminum  brass,  aluminum  bronze,  phosphor 
bronze,  silicon  bronze,  coin  silver,  gold  alloys. 
Combinations:  copper  to  brass,  iron,  (-rerman  silver, 
silver  and  gold.  Brass  to  German  silver, 
mild  steel,  wrought-iron  and  cast-iron.  Tin  to  zinc 
and  brass.  Gold  to  German  silver,  silver  and  pUiti- 
num.  Wrought-iron  to  cast-iron,  cast  steel,  mild 
steel,  tool  steel,  Mushet  steel,  Stubs  steel,  crescent 
steel,  cast  brass,  German  silver  and  nickel.  Silver 
to  platinum.    Tin  to  lead. 

The  method  of  welding  by  this  process  consists 
in  placing  the  two  pieces  required  to  be  joined  end 
to  end,  and  subjecting  them  to  moderate  pressure 
against  each  other,  the  pieces  being  held  by  clamps 
in  a  machine  of  suitable  construction.  A  very 
heavy  electric  current  is  then  passed  througli  the 
pieces,  and,  as  they  make  imperfect  contact  at  their 
opposing  surfaces,  considerable  resistance  is  there 
offered  to  the  passage  of  the  current,  and  a  very 
intense  heat  is  consequently  developed  at  the  point 
where  the  weld  is  required.  If  the  current  is  suf- 
ficiently strong  the  opposing  surfaces  get  white- 
hot,  and  being  pressed  together  they  unite  per- 
fectly, bulging  out  round  the  edges  of  the  join. 
The  pressure  required  varies  with  the  material, 
and  is  approximately  1,800  lbs.  for  steel,  1,200  lbs. 
for  iron,  and  600  lbs.  for  copper  per  square  inch. 
It  is  necessary  to  interrupt  the  current  as 
soon  as  the  weld  is  completed,  especially  witli  easily 
fused  metals.  Welds  made  by  this  process  worked 
automatically  have  attained  a  uniformity  in  result 
not  otherwise  obtained  even  with  skilled  operators. 
A  development  of  the  process  is  machinery  for 
welding  chain  links,  the  plain  rod  being  fed  into  a 
machine  at  one  end  and  the  complete  chain  coming 
out  at  the  other.  From  this  it  seems  that  tlie  weld- 
ing of  the  future  will  be  a  purely  automatic  me- 
chanical process.  In  wire  cable  for  use  on  a  cable 
railway  the  strength  of  these  electric  welds  has 
been  found  to  amount  to  87  per  cent.,  while  splic- 
ing gives  about  .SO  per  cent,  of  the  original  strength 
of  the  cable. 

Nickel  Alloi/x. — The  nses  of  nickel  have  greatly 
increased  during  the  last  few  years.  Amongst  other 
applications  it  has  been  found  possible  to  weld 
sheet  nickel  upon  sheets  of  iron  and  of  steel.  A 
new  alloy  of  nickel  and  iron  has  recently  been  in- 
vestigated by  Dr.  .T.  Ilopkinson,  F.  R.  S.,  coTisisting 
of  25  per  cent,  of  nickel  and  74  percent,  of  iron.  This 


material  possesses  some  remarkable  qualities;  it  is 
strong,  ductile,  and  can  be  readily  drawn  into  wire. 
The  wire  was  found  to  he  magnetizable,  but  this 
property  could  be  easily  eliminated  by  heating  to  a 
dull  red  and  cooling,  eitlier  rapidly  or  slowly.  In 
investigating  the  mechanical  strength  of  a  wire 
drawn  from  this  alloy  samples  of  both  magnetiz- 
able and  non-magnetizable  material  were  tested  ; 
it  was  noticed  that  the  hardness  was  greatly  af- 
fected by  the  beating  to  render  non-magnetizatile. 
which  rendered  the  samples  very  soft.  The  lireak- 
ing  stress  of  the  non-magnetizable  samples  was 
found  to  range  from  50.52  tons  per  square  inch 
(highest)  to  48.75  tons  per  square  inch  (lowest). 
The  extension  was  found  to  range  from  48.76  per 
cent,  to  33.3  jier  cent.  In  the  case  of  magnetizable 
samples  the  breaking  stress  ranged  from  88.12  tons 
per  square  inch  to  85.76  tons  per  square  inch.  The 
extension  ranged  from  8.83  per  cent,  to  6.70  per 
cent.  It  was  found  that  after  testijig  the  non-mag- 
netizable material  had  become  magnetizable.  The 
nature  of  this  alloy  is  greatly  modified  by  the  con- 
dition of  niagnetizability.  For  a  range  of  tempera- 
ture from  somewhat  below  freezing  to  580°  C.  it 
exists  in  two  states,  magnetic  and  non-magnetic, 
either  being  quite  stable.  It  clianges  from  non- 
magnetic to  magnetic  if  the  temperature  be  re- 
duced much  below  freezing,  l>utthe  magnetic  state 
is  not  changed  by  a  rise  of  temperature  until  about 
580°  C.  is  reached.  Thus  it  is  obvious  that  exposure 
to  frost  would  quite  change  the  character  of  the 
alloy,  which  new  character  it  would  retain  till  it 
hadbeen  heated  to  about  6C0°C.,  an  extraordinary 
character  inherent  to  this  alloy. 

Kiekel  products  have  been  obtained  analogous  to 
manganese  steel  in  many  imjiortant  respects.  The 
remarkable  difference  in  the  physical  properties  of 
the  manganese  alloys,  according  to  their  richness 
in  that  metal,  are  shared  by  the  nickel  alloys,  some 
being  possessed  of  very  valualjle  properties.  Thus 
a  particular  variety  of  nickel  steel  affords  a  ma- 
terial with  which  the  engineer  can  nearly  double 
his  boiler  pressure  without  altering  weights  or  di- 
mensions. A  small  quantity  of  manganese  exist- 
ing with  the  nickel  in  the  steel  has  been  found  to 
contribute  to  the  development  of  valuable  physi- 
cal properties  in  an  important  degree. 

]]'el(llcss  Tubes. — A  new  jirocess  of  making  steel 
tubing  is  now  in  successful  ii|:eration,  the  inven- 
tion of  the  brothers  Mannesmann.  In  this  machine 
conical  rollers  are  provided  with  spiral  grooves  and 
ridges,  which  are  placed  obliquely.  The  rollers 
move  in  different  directions,  causing  the  red-hot 
bar  between  them  to  lie  rotated  and  also  carried 
along  lengthways.  The  surface  of  the  bar  is  car- 
ried along  and  the  central  core  left  stationary,  the 
skin  being  thus  literally  drawn  over  the  end, and 
in  this  way  a  tube  is  produced.  Tlie  structure  of 
the  jMannesniann  tubes  is  peculiar  as  the  method 
of  making  greatly  increases  the  cohesion  of  every 
part  of  the  tube.  '  The  machine  operates  with  great 
force,  8.000  lo  10.000  horse  jiower  is  stored  up  in 
fly-wheels,  and  is  used  up  in  about  thirty  seconds 
in  making  a  tube  two  inches  in  diameter  aiid  about 
ten  feet  long.  The  metal  is  kneaded  like  a  soft 
mass,  and  the  resulting  tuV)(>  is  calculated  to  stand 
a  pressure  of  4,000  atmospheres. 

Smokihss  Anniiiinitidii. — The  importance  assumed 
by  machine  guns  and  (|uick-liring  guns  has 
made  it  very  desiral)le  that  comi>aratively  smoke- 
less i)owder  should  tie  used  with  them,  as  their 
elhciency  becomes  greatly  limited  if  after  firing  a 
few  times  the  objects  against  which  it  is  desired  to 
direct  the  (ire,  are  obscured  or  hidden  by  inter- 
posed smoke.  Consequently  much  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  product  ion  of  smokeless,  or  nearly 


1398 


S  C  1  E  N  C  E,    R  E  C  E  NT    DISCOVERIES    1  x\ 


smokloss,  powilers.  The  properties  of  ammonium 
nitrate,  wliieli,  l)eing  decomposed  by  heal,  produces 
water  vapor  and  gases  only,  liave  rendered  it  a 
tempting  material  for  the  purpose, but  itsdeliques- 
cent  character  has  proved  a  formidable  oljstacle. 
Mr.  Ileidemann,  a  German  powder-maker,  has 
produced  an  ammonium-nitrate  powder  possessing 
remarkable  liallistic  properties,  and  producing 
little  smoke,  wliich  speedily  disperses.  It  yields  a 
very  much  larger  volume  of  gas  and  water  vapor 
than  eidier  black  or  lirown  powder,  and  it  is  slower 
in  action  than  the  latter.  The  charge  required  to 
produce  equal  ballistic  results  is  less,  the  chamber- 
pressure  developed  is  lower,  but  the  pressures 
along  the  chase  of  tlie  gun  are  iiigher.  In  an  or- 
dinarily dry,  and  even  in  a  somewhat  moist  atmos- 
phere, it  lias  no  great  tendency  to  absorb  moisture, 
but  when  the  air  approaches  saturation  it  rapidly 
absorbs  water  ,  and  this  greatly  restricts  its  Use. 
The  powder  at  present  in  use  with  the  Lebel  re- 
peating rille  belongs  to  a  class  of  nitro- cellulose 
or  nitro-cotton  preparations,  several  varieties  of 
which  have  been  patented.  A  comparison  between 
the  chemical  changes  attending  the  burning  or  ex- 
plosion of  gunpowder  and  of  the  nitro-compounds 
explains  the  reasons  of  smoke  being  produced  by 
the  former  and  not  by  the  latter.  The  products  of 
explosion  of  the  nitro-compounds  consist  entirely 
of  gases  and  of  water-vapor ;  gunpowder  yields 
products  of  which  over  50  per  cent,  are  not  gaseous, 
even  at  high  temperatures,  and  which  are  in  part 
deposited  as  a  fused  solid,  which  forms  the  fouling 
in  a  fire-arm,  and  in  part  distributed  in  an  ex- 
tremely fine  state  of  division  through  the  gases 
and  vapours  developed  by  the  explosion,  thus  giv- 
ing to  these  as  they  escape  in  the  air,  tlie  appear- 
ance of  smoke.  If  smokelessness  were  alone  sought, 
gun-cotton,  or  other  varieties  of  nitro-cellulose, 
meet  the  requirement,  but  its  rate  of  combustion 
cannot  be  controlled  with  certainty  and  uniformity 
in  a  firearm.  If,  as  now  appears  to  be  certain,  the 
next  war  is  to  be  fought  with  smokeless  powders, 
the  absence  of  smoke  cannot  fail  to  affect  the  con- 
ditions which  have  hitherto  prevailed. 

A  liquid  which  can  be  used  to  propel  bullets, 
shot  and  shell,  without  producing  sound  or  smoke, 
has  been  discovered  by  M.  Paul  Giffard,  a  French 
scientist,  which  it  is  claimed  is  likely  to  revolu- 
tionize the  art  of  gunnery.  This  liquid  is  stored  in 
steel  containers ;  those  for  use  in  rifies  each  hold 
300  charges,  and  at  each  pull  of  the  trigger,  a 
charge,  that  is,  one  drop  of  the  lic|uid,  is  liberated, 
and  falls  into  the  rifle  barrel  Ijehind  the  bullet. 
There  contact  with  the  atmospheric  air  causes  it  to 
volatilize  instantaneously,  and  to  drive  out  the 
bullet  with  a  velocity  claimed  to  be  greater  than 
that  produced  with  gunpowder.  AVhen  one  con- 
tainer becomes  exhausted,  after  discharging  300 
bullets,  it  can  be  replaced  by  another  as  easily  as 
the  rifle  could  be  charged  with  a  cartridge  ordina- 
rily. The  value  of  this  invention  has  received  sub- 
stantial recognition  in  France,  and  a  limited  com- 
pany is  being  formed  to  work  it  here. 

The  iVp".!  Dauisli  Iiifanfni  Itijie  recently  adopted 
is  said  to  compare  favorably  with  any  in 
use.  It  is  a  repeater  having  the  following  dimen- 
sions: calibre,  8  mm.,  length  1.330  mm.,  weight  9.3 
lbs.  The  barrel  is  of  compressed  steel  840  mm, 
long,  encased  in  a  thin  steel  jacket,  which  is 
screwed  fast  to  the  barrel  at  the  breech  end  only, 
thereby  allowing  expansion  and  contraction. 

Bridge  Across  the  Bosphorus. — A  scheme  for 
thus  connecting  the  railway  systems  of  the  conti- 
nents of  Europe  and  Asia  is  under  consideration. 
And  an  offer  has  been  made  to  build  a  bridge  SOO 
metres  long  and  70   metres  In'gh   between    Romeli 


and  Anatoli    Hissar.     The   striking   feature   being 
that  the  bridge  would  consist  of  a  single  sjian. 

'I'hi  Schiseophone  is  an  instrument  devised  by 
Capt.  Du  Place,  which  may  be  employed  to  detect 
concealed  flaws  in  shafting,  &c.  It  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  Professor  Hughes' sonometer,  and  comprises 
a  striker  and  an  audiometer.  A  steel  rod  serving 
as  a  hammer  is  moved  to  and  fro  in  front  of  a  mi- 
crophone, periodically  striking  the  metal  under 
examination.  Two  coils  connected  resjiectively  to 
the  microphone  and  two  telephones  are  arranged 
so  that  the  telephones  are  silent  when  the  hammer 
strikes  a  solid  portion  of  the  metal.  The  hammer 
is  moved  along  the  object  under  examination,  and 
on  striking  a  flaw  part  the  increased  sound  given 
out  causes  more  powerful  currents  in  the  micro- 
phone circuit,  and  Ihe  telephones  speak.  This  in 
strument  is  an  important  step  towards  guarding 
against  the  employment  of  faulty  crank-shafts, 
axles,  &c.,  in  engines  and  machinery. 

Pneumatic  iJistriljutinn  <if  Pouer. — Birmingham, 
England,  now  has  a  system  of  air-powel-  de- 
livered by  pipes  laid  like  gas-pipes  over  four  miles 
of  streets.  The  air  is  compressed  to  a  pressure  of 
45  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and  the  loss  of  power  by 
friction  in  the  pipes  is  found  to  be  so  slight  I  hat 
practically  it  is  nil.  The  system  is  only  just  in 
operation,  but  consumers  are  using  engines  vary- 
ing from  lo-horse  power  to  .50-horse  power,  and  the 
indicated  power  is  found  to  equal  73  per  cent,  of 
the  indicated  power  at  the  compressing  station. 
The  satisfactory  results  of  the  trials  have  deter- 
mined the  Air  Compressing  Company  to  extend 
their  works. 

Qviirtz  Fibres. — Professor  C.  Vernon  Boys,  some 
three  years  ago,  contracted  a  radioniicrometer  to 
measure  the  difference  in  the  amounts  of  heat  ra- 
diated from  different  parts  of  the  discs  of  the  sun 
and  moon.  It  was  found  that  the  force  was  so  ex- 
ceedingly small  that  even  silk  fiber  was  too  coarse 
for  use  in  the  instrument,  though  the  force  re- 
quired to  twist  a  single  filire  from  the  cocoon  of  a 
silkworm  is  so  small  that  it  was  considered  to  be 
quite  negligiljle  in  the  physicists'  laboratory.  A 
thread  has  now  been  obtained,  by  drawing  from 
molten  quartz,  not  more  than  tt-ouTj  of  in  i"ch  in 
diameter,  and  which  will  show  an  appreciable  twist 
with  a  force  of  -rssainrirtjirt  of  a  grain  weight  applied 
at  the  end  of  a  lever  one  inch  long.  The  heat  radi- 
ated from  a  candle  2.50  feet  distant  showed  quite 
a  large  deflection  of  the  instrument.  Tlie  insulat- 
ing power  of  quartz  is  found  to  be  almost  perfect, 
an  electrified  body  retaining  its  charge,  even  in  a 
vapor-saturated  atmosphere,  when  suspended  by 
a  quartz  fiber,  although  glass  would  fail  under 
these  conditions. 

Explosires  in  Mines. — The  mining  public  are 
much  indebted  for  the  thorough  theoretical  and 
practical  investigations  that  have  lieen  made  in  re- 
gard to  the  prevention  of  accidental  ignition  of 
fire-damp  during  blasting  operations.  It  has  been 
concluded  that  fire-damp  and  air-mixtures  are  not 
ignited  by  the  firing  of  explosives  which  develop 
temperatures  lower  than  2,220°  C.  by  their  detona- 
tion. Ammonium-nitrate  does  not  develop  a  tem- 
perature higher  than  1,130°  C,  while  those  of  nitro- 
glycerine and  of  gun-cotton  are  respectively  3,170°  C. 
and  2,6.36°  C.  By  admixing  the  ammonium-nitrate 
with  either  of  these  in  sufficient  proportion  the 
temperature  of  detonation  is  reduced  to  within  safe 
limits.  These  explosives  can  therefore  be  employed 
in  the  presence  of  fire-damp  mixtures  without  risk 
of  accident,  and  they  are  safe  blasting  agents  in 
coal  mining. 

Oasrolumeter. — This  is  a  very  useful  apparatus 
invented  by  Lunge,  by  means  of  which  the  volume 


SCIENCE,    RECENT    D  I  S  C  0  V  E  II  1  E  S    IN 


1399 


at  normal  pressure  and  temperature  of  a  gas  set 
free  in  any  reaction  can  be  read  directly  without 
requiring  any  reduction. 

A  new  determination  of  the  density  of  fluorine 
was  made  —  the  mean  density  was  found  to  be 
1,265,  while  that  required  by  theory  is  1,310.  Also 
a  new  determination  of  the  atomic  weight  of  gold 
was  made  by  Mallet,  who  found  it  to  be  196.91. 

A  new  process  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Taylor,  of 
the  Agricultural  Department  at  Washington,  for 
detecting  oleomargarine  in  butter  and  cotton-seed 
oil  in  lard.  To  detect  oleomargarine  in  butter, 
dissolve  140  grammes  of  the  mixture  of  butter  and 
oleomargarine  in  20 cubic  centimetres  of  petroleum 
benzine;  heat  slightly  to  secure  perfect  solution  of 
the  fats.  Caseine  and  other  animal  tissues  may  be 
removed  by  filtering  while  warm.  Fill  a  test  tube 
with  the  filtered  solution,  and  place  it  in  ice  water. 
In  about  fifteen  minutes  the  oleo  fat  will  separate 
from  the  butter  fat  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tube,  being  insoluble  in  cold  benzine,  while  butter 
fat  remains  in  solution.  Separate  the  precipitate 
by  filtration,  and  remove  any  benzine  by  pressing 
between  layers  of  bibulous  paper,  after  which  the 
oleo  fat  may  be  removed  and  weighed  and  the  per- 
centage of  oleomargarine  in  the  sample  calculated. 
The  butter  may  be  recovered  by  evaporating  the 
benzine.  To  detect  cotton-seed  oil  in  lard,  operate 
with  the  same  quantities  and  in  precisely  the  same 
way.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  the  lard  will  be 
precipitated  by  reason  of  its  insolubility  in  cold  ben- 
zine, while  the  cotton-seed  oil  will  remain  in 
solution.  The  lard  and  cotton-seed  oil  can  be 
recovered  and  estimated  in  the  same  manner.  In 
view  of  the  extensive  adulterations  of  butter  and 
lard,  this  simple  test  is  of  great  practical  value. 
The  tests  heretofore  employed  were  the  very  com- 
plicated ones  of  Koettstorfer  and  Reichert,  and 
could  only  be  performed  by  the  expert  chemist. 

Dr.  F.  R.  .lapp  is  still  working  upon  the  reactions 
of  ketones,  diketones  and  allied  compounds,  the 
results  of  which  he  publishes  from  time  to  time. 
Valuable  work  is  being  carried  on  by  Prof.  W.  R. 
Dunstan  upon  the  connection  between  the  chemical 
constitution  of  certain  organic  nitrates  and  their 
physiological  action,  which  is  likely  to  prove  of 
very  great  interest  both  to  chemists  and  phys- 
iologists. Messrs.  Heycook  and  Neville's  paper  to 
the  Chemical  Society  on  the  molecular  weights  of 
metals  when  in  solution  is  of  value;  while  Dr. 
Alder  Wright  and  Mr.  Thompson  have  pulilished 
the  results  of  their  important  researches  upon  cer- 
tain ternary  alloys,  and  are  continuing  the  work. 
A  new  gas,  called  hydrazoic  acid,  a  compound  of 
nitrogen  and  hydrogen  (  HN3),  has  been  obtained 
by  Dr.  T.  Curtius,  a  foreign  chemist.  In  tlie 
autumn  considerable  stir  was  created  in  industrial 
chemical  circles  by  the  threatened  formation  of  a 
chemical  union  to  control  the  alkali  trade,  and  it 
subsequently  took  a  definite  shape.  A.  large 
amount  of  capital  has  been  invested  in  the  under- 
taking. 

Researches  carried  on  during  the  last  <]uarter  of 
a  century,  with  the  object  of  disco'-ering  the  nature 
of  electricity,  in  the  past  year  led  to  important  re- 
sults, whose  value  it  is  now  impossible  to  estimate. 
The  identification  of  electricity  and  light,  which 
science  had  for  some  time  suspected  and  .theory 
predicted,  has  been  finally  and  definitely  estab- 
lished and  made  perceptible  to  our  senses.  The 
domain  of  electricity  is  thus  seen  to  extend  over 
all  nature.  Every  luminous  body,  as  well  as  every 
opaque  body  radiating  heat,  is  a  manifestation  of 
electrical  phenomena.  If  electricity  were  sup- 
pressed the  universe  would  be  plunged  into  abso- 
lute darkness.     It  has  also  been   shown    that   the 


modes  of  propagation  of  light  and  electricity  are 
identical— viz.,  by  undulations  in  the  luminiferous 
ether  which  tills  all  space.  The  velocity  has  also 
been  measured,  and  found  to  be  identical  with  that 
obtained  for  light. 

Z)(j:ag  Litjlitniiu/. — Jlr.  Shelford  Bidwtll,  in  a 
lecture  in  1890  before  the  London  ln>titute,  argued 
that  after  careful  observation  ana  numerous  tests, 
it  is  now  known  that  the  zigzag  lightning-flash  of 
artists  has  no  existence  in  nature,  but  is  simply  an 
artistic  fiction  or  symbol ;  and  the  speaker  pro- 
duced photographs  to  prove  his  point,  asserting 
that  not  an  instance  of  the  zigzag  flash  could  be 
found  among  the  two  hundred  specimens  in  the 
collection  of  the  Meteorological  Society.  Mr.  Eric 
S.  Bruce  has  since  published  a  paper  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  how  the  zigzag  Hash,  which  is  really 
often  seen  by  observers  and  is  frequently  depicted 
by  artists,  may  have  a  counterpart  in  nature  con- 
sistent with  the  evidence  of  the  society's  photo- 
graphs. In  his  view,  the  appearance  is  not  the  flash 
itself,  but  is  the  optically  projected  image  of  the 
flash  formed  on  clouds,  not  of  a  smooth  surface,  but 
of  the  rocky  cumulus  type.  The  image  of  the  flash 
takes  the  angles  of  the  uneven  surface  and  be- 
comes zigzagged.  The  author  has  exemplified  this 
lirocess  by  casting  the  photograjih  of  a  lightning- 
flash,  by  means  of  the  opical  lantern,  on  model 
cumulus  clouds,  when  the  "streaming"  flash  be- 
came zigzagged. 

Aiithrrqiohigi/. — It  is  felt  that  anthropological 
research  should  now  be  largely  directed  to  securing 
a  full  record  of  the  various  races,  which,  by  the  ad- 
vance of  civilization,  arc  ra])idly  disappearing,  or  at 
least  losing  their  cliaracteristic  manners,  customs. 
and  beliefs.  The  Rev.  .1.  IMcDonald.  who  lived  for 
twelve  years  in  South  Africa,  and  was  a  close  ob- 
server of  the  natives,  has  contril)uted  to  the  An- 
thropological Institute  of  London,  two  papers  on 
these  peoples.  Mr.  A.  W.  Howitthas  read  before 
the  same  Institute  another  of  his  valiialile  papers 
on  Australian  ethnology,  dealing  this  time  with 
the  Dieri  tribe  of  Central  Australia.  Prof.  Haddon 
has  published  a  voluminous  paper  on  t  lie  western 
tribe  of  Torres  Strait,  and  has  transferred  to  the 
British  ^Museum  an  important  collection  of  objects 
of  ethnological  interest  collected  during  his  visit 
to  the  island  of  the  Strait.  Mr.  Ling  Roth  has  is- 
sued a  large  work  on  the  aborigines  of  Tasmania, 
in  which  he  has  collected  a  mass  of  matter  relating 
to  these  unfortunate  people,  now  entirely  e.xtinct. 
Dr.  ISIeyer,  of  Dresden,  has  published  a  fine  album 
of  about  250  photographs  of  the  natives  of  Celebes, 
an  island  scientifically  visited  a  short  time  ago  by 
Dr.  S.  Hickson.  The  galleries  illustrating  ethno- 
grapliy  and  prehistoric  archa/ology  in  the  British 
Museum  have  been  recently  extended  and  entirely 
re-arranged  by  I\Ir.  A.  W.  Franks  and  Mr.  C.  II. 
Reed.  Such  collection  will  ac<iuire  additional  in- 
terest, as  the  natives  in  most  parts  of  the  world  are 
abandoning  their  primitive  weapons  and  imple- 
ments for  tlie  manufactured  articles  nf  civilized 
countries. 

In  ])hysical  anthropology  much  attention  has 
been  directed  to  the  important  subject  of  color 
blindness;  and  an  investigation  into  this  physical 
defect  is  being  chronicled  by  a  committee  of  the 
Royal  Society. 

filiiilifi/iiKi  Cririiiiiiih  hi/  Mnifinr. — A  new  method 
of  identifying  criminals  has  lieen  introduced 
in  France,  and  is  strongly  recommended  tob(>used 
especially  in  eases  where  the  i)hotograph  fails  by 
the  care  of  the  culprit  in  changing  hie  appearance. 
The  basis  of  the  new  system  is  to  obtain  measure- 
ments of  those  bony  parts  of  the  body  which  under- 
go little  or  no  change  after  maturity,  and  can    be 


1400 


SCIENCE,    R  E  C  E  x\  T    D  T  S  V  0  V  E  HIES    IN 


measured  with  extreme  accuracy  to  within  a  very 
Milnute  tiifurc.  Those  ])arls  are  the  head,  foot, 
middle  lin_i;er,  and  (larts  of  them,  and  the  extended 
fnre-arni  from  the  elliow.  By  the  classification  of 
tliese  antliropometrical  coefficients,  a  list  including 
any  number  of  persons  of  whom  photographs  are 
obtained  can  l)e  divided  into  many  groups  con- 
taining a  small  number  of  individuals  each.  Stress 
is  laid  on  the  importance  of  the  hand  and  the  ear 
as  marks  of  recognition.  The  liand,  because  it  is 
the  organ  in  most  constant  use  in  every  calling, 
and  in  many  trades  and  professions  it  becomes 
modified  in  accordance  with  the  particular  charac- 
ter of  the  work  which  it  has  to  do.  The  ear  is  the 
precise  opposite  to  this.  It  clianges  very  slightly, 
if  at  all,  except  perhaps  in  the  case  of  prize-fight- 
ers, who  develope  a  peculiarity  which  is  easily 
recognized.  It  is,  tlierefore,  an  important  (jr- 
gan  to  measure,  inasmuch  as  the  results  are 
not  likely  to  be  nullified  by  a  change  in  the  con- 
formation. 

Petroleum.  Fuel. — After  the  volatile  or  lighter 
oils  have  been  driven  off  from  crude  pe- 
troleum, the  heavy  oil  left  is  known  as  restduum  in 
America  ;  in  Russia  it  is  called  astatki.  This  n^tatki 
or  heavy  petroleum  refuse  is  an  excellent  liquid 
fuel,  and  is  at  least  twice  as  good  as  ordinary  coal 
for  steam-raising  purposes.  The  light  lul>ricating 
oils,  intermediate  oils,  and  kerosine  or  ordinary 
lamp  oils  are  all  being  used  at  the  present;  time 
instead  of  coal-gas  in  the  cylinder  of  the  internal- 
combustion  engine.  In  some  cases  the  heavier  oils 
are  converted  into  an  oil-gas,  which,  when  cooled, 
is  admiralily  adapted  to  drive  gas-engines.  Other 
internal-combustion  engines,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Priestman,  Akroyd  and  Knight  engines,  use  com- 
mon burning  oils  directly,  and  act  as  their  own 
gas  generators.  Prof.  Robinson  urges  that  such 
dangerous  and  highly  volatile  hydrocarbons  as 
benzoline,  gasoline  and  petroleum  spirit  should  not 
be  used  as  fuel  in  gas-engines.  The  long  series  of 
accidents  so  frequently  attending  the  use  of  these 
light,  inflammable  vapors  have  dime  more  than  any 
other  one  thing  to  retard  the  development  of  this 
class  of  prime  motors,  by  prejudicing  the  public 
mind  against  the  appearance  of  oil  in  any  shape  or 
form.  This  volatile  spirit  inay,  however,  act  with 
safety  as  an  evaporating  agent  instead  of  steam, 
as  in  the  Yarrow  spirit  launches,  where  it  is  used 
in  the  internal  parts,  and  provision  is  made  against 
leakage,  while  ordinary  burning  oil  generates  the 
heat.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  liquid  hydrocar- 
bons, such  as  common  petroleum  oil,  may  be  em- 
ployed in  prime  nioters  as  a  substitute  for  either 
coal  or  steam  or  both.  It  is  beconiing  generally 
recognized  that  for  large  powers,  notwithstanding 
some  advantages,  the  ordinary  vaporizers  in  pe- 
troleum oil-engines  are  difficult  and  troublesome 
to  work  with.  In  fact,  for  large  engines  the  prac- 
tical plan  obviously  is  to  convert  oil  into  gas  by 
means  of  a  gas-producer.  Oil-gas,  when  cooled, 
can  be  used  with  safety. 

Oyster  Culture. — The  scientific  culture  of  the 
oyster  is  of  very  recent  date.  It  practically  began 
in  1879,  when  eflforts  were  put  forth  by  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  to  discover  the  young 
oyster  and  to  study  its  habits.  Previous  to  that 
date  the  young  oyster  was  .nought  for  between  its 
mother  shells  where  it  could  not  be  found.  It  is 
not  nursed  in  the  shell.  Prof.  P.rown,  who  made 
the  successful  search  for  it  in  the  waters  of  Ches- 
apeake Bay  discovered  that  it  shows  an  early  inde- 
pendence of  its  parental  home,  and  that  it  is  possible 
to  take  the  eggs  from  oysters  and  fertilize  and  rear 
them  artificially,  as  is  done  with  shad  and  trout. 
In   nature   tlie  oyster  eggs  are  thrown  out  into  the 


bay  by  the  mother  to  be  fertilized  at  random. 
This  discovery  made  a  new  starting-point  for  the 
study  of  the  oyster.  It  was  impossible  to  catch 
and  study  in  continuous  development  the  micro- 
scopic embryonic  oysters  scattered  throughout  the 
'Chesa|ieake  Bay ;  but,  once  we  could  hatch  the 
oyster  in  the  laboratory  and  study  its  growth  and 
life  conditions,  a  very  important  step  forward 
would  be  made.  It  was  proved  that  we  could  get 
young  oysters  in  incalculable  numbers  at  a  very 
small  cost,  and,  far  more  important,  an  opportuni- 
ty to  investigate  the  life  conditions  of  the  young 
oyster  would  be  given.  To  carry  on  the  growth  of 
the  artificially  hatched  young  oysters  a  steady  sup- 
ply of  fresh  sea  water  was  needed.  This  the  uni- 
versity provided  the  next  year  by  the  purchase  of 
a  smalU  steam  engine  and  a  complete  outfit  for  the 
breeding  of  young  oysters  on  a  small  scale."  Be- 
fore the  ]>arty  left  the  Bay,  in  July,  IS7!»,  they  had 
established  the  two  leading  facts  that  the  eggs  of 
the  Jlaryland  oyster  are  thrown  out  into  the  Bay 
to  be  fertilized  at  random,  and  that  it  is  possible 
to  fertilize  and  hatch  thousands  of  them  in  a 
watch-glass;  in  fact,  that  in  a  few  buckets  of  sea 
water  one  could  hatch  enougli  eggs  to  supply  spat 
for  the  whole  Chesajieake  Bay. 

Geoi.ocy  and  Exi'LoKATioN. — Amoiig  the  numer- 
ous geological  researches  that  were  carried  on  dur- 
ing the  year  may  be  mentioned  the  geological  and 
natural  history  survey  of  Minnesota,  and  especially 
the  iron  deposits  in  that  State;  an  investigation  of 
the  mercury  deposits  of  Colorado  and  California 
and  the  discovery  of  inexhaustible  quantities  of 
nickel  ore  near  Sudbury,  Ontario,  Canada. 

Deeji-sea  explorations  were  carried  on  chiefly  in 
the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  where  a  depth  of  4,530 
fathoms  was  found  to  the  southeast  of  the  Friendly 
Islands.  This  is  the  deepest  sounding  so  lar  found 
in  this  ocean.  Between  the  Pha?nix  and  Imion 
groups  of  islands  several  soundings  gave  from  2,680 
to  3,.Sl:i  fathoms,  the  temperature  at  the  liottom 
being  invarial>ly  34.5^  F.  Soundings  were  also 
made,  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States 
Coast. and  Geodetic  "Survey,  in  Lake  Champlain. 
whose  greatest  depth  was  found  to  be  402  feet,  and 
consequently  parts  of  its  bottom  are  300  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Atlantic. 

Explorations  in  Arabia  have  lately  thrown  a  sud- 
den unexpected  flood  of  light  on  the  archaeology  of 
a  land  which  has  until  very  recently  been  as  dark 
and  as  inaccessible  as  the  interior  of  Africa.  The 
historical  facts  disclosed  by  the  deciphering  of  the 
inscriptions  found  there  show  that  Arabia  once  ex- 
ercised an  important  influence  on  the  ancient  civ- 
ilized world,  and  that  it  possessed  an  alphabetic 
system  of  writing  many  ceti furies  before  the  Phosn- 
ician  alphabet  was  invented. 

Medical  Science. — An  Australian  scientist  made 
the  valuable  discovery  of  the  antidotal  power  of 
strychnia  over  the  poison  of  venomous  serpents. 
It  has  been  satisfactorily  demonstrated  that  the 
subcutaneous  injection  of  a  solution  of  strychnia 
of  definite  strength,  and  repeated  until  slight 
tetanic  spasms  occur,  is  a  certain  antidote  to  the 
deadly  snake  poison.  This  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant toxicological  discovery  hitherto  made  on 
this  subject. 

iV.'M!  yiew  of  "  Flat-foot." — The  conclusion  reached 
by  many  writers  that  "flat-foot"  is  due  to  a 
general  lack  of  tone  in  the  filirous  structure  of  the 
body,  is  now  disputed.  The  malformation  is  now 
traced  to  overstrain  of  the  ligaments  and  over- 
pressure upon  the  os  ealeix,  which  may  be  produced 
by  wearing  high  heels.  For  its  treatment  there 
are  recommended  good  food,  fresh  air,  ,and  as 
much  rest  as  possil)Ie,  with  a  radiciil  change  in  the 


SCIENCES 


1401 


construction  of  the  boot.  The  toe  and  heel  should 
change  places;  or  a  good  laced  boot  should  be 
worn,  Willi  the  sole  an  inch  thick  in  front  and  lining 
off  to  a  line  or  two  at  the  heel.  By  this  'means  the 
normal  inclination  of  the  os  calcis  could  be  main- 
tained, and  the  weight  of  the  body  properly  dis- 
posed of. 

Influenza  or  La  Grippe. — A  "  thorough  study," 
made  by  Dr.  Buchan  and  Sir  Arthur  Mitch- 
ell, of  London,  of  the  relations  of  tlie  weather  and 
influenza,  so  far  as  may  be  gained  from  the  reports 
of  the  British  Registrar-General's  reports  from 
1875  to  and  including  1890,  shows  some  interesting 
facts.  The  recurrence  of  a  strongly  marked  winter 
maximunj  and  an  equally  marked  summer  mini- 
mum through  the  whole  forty-five  years,  with  a 
small  secondary  maximum  running  from  the  mid- 
dle of  March  to  the  middle  of  .4pril,  indicate  tliat 
the  rate  of  deaths  from  influenza  is  inverse  to  the 
temperature.  The  curve  showing  their  distribu- 
tion is  congruent  with  that  for  diseases  of  tlie 
breathing  organs,  with  the  addition  of  a  slight  rise 
in  the  spring.  But  although  the  epidemics  oc- 
curred mostly  during  the  cold  season,  tliey  were 
not  connected  with  any  exceptionally  cold  weather 
at  that  season,  but  rather  with  exceptionally  warm 
weather,  whicli  manifested  itself  generally  both 
before  and  during  the  epidemic.  In  no  case  was 
any  exceptionally  cold  weather,  intercalated  in  the 
period  of  the  epidemic,  accompanied  witli  an  in- 
crease of  deaths  from  influenza,  or  even  with  an  ar- 
resting of  the  downward  course  of  the  curve  of 
mortality,  if  the  cold  occurred  at  the  time  the  epi- 
demic was  on  the  wane.  Other  diseases  which  ap- 
pear to  have  prevailed  most  extensively  during 
epidemics  of  influenza  are  diseases  of  the  l)reath- 
ing  organs,  phthisis,  diseases  of  the  circulatory 
system,  rheumatism,  and  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system.  The  diseases  which  yielded  a  mortality 
under  the  average  during  tlie  prevalence  of  the 
epidemic  were  diarrliiea  and  dysentery,  liver  dis- 
ease, measles,  scarlet  fever,  typhoid  fever,  and  ery- 
sipelas. The  death-rate  of  persons  above  twenty 
years  old  rose  considerably  above  the  average 
during  the  four  or  five  weeks  immediately  preced- 
ing the  beginning  of  the  registration  of  deaths  due 
to  the  epidemic.  In  studying  the  dissemination  of 
germs  of  the  disease  by  winds,  it  is  well  not  to 
confine  attention  to  surface  winds.  It  is  now 
found  that  atmospheric  circulation  takes  place 
largely  through  cyclones  and  anti-cyclones,  l)y 
means  of  which  the  levels  of  the  currents  are 
changed. 

Danijer  from  Diisl. — Recent  careful  biologic- 
al analyses  of  common  dust  show  that  such  dust 
after  becoming  stagnant  is  filled  with  innumer- 
able micro-organisms  hurtful  to  man.  The  experi- 
ments were  made  by  "filtration,"  and  tlie  easier 
"plate  method."  (Comparison  of  averages  oV)tained 
in  various  cities  and  in  the  different  localilies  in 
New  York  show  that  the  numlier  of  bacteria  in  a 
given  volume  of  air  varies  chiefly  according 
to  condition,  the  procss  of  street-cleaning 
summoning  the  greatest  number  of  germs,  .5.810  to 
a  disk  3%  inches  in  diameter.  Indoor  air  is,  how- 
ever, the  main  subject  of  investigation,  and  exper- 
iments prove  that  ventilatiort  which  comjilefely 
changes  the  atmosphere  three  times  an  hour  will 
not  appreciably  alf'-ct  the  ntmiber  of  bacteria  in 
an  appartment,  as  the  intruders  cling  obstinately 
to  the  carpets  and  upholstery.  Only  violent  cur- 
rents of  air  dislodge  theni :  while  sweeping  and 
cleansing  result  in  removing,  not  redistribut- 
ing the  dust.  Ordinarily  we  are  liable  to  take  in 
wilih  every  twenty  breaths  from  eleven  to  eight 
hundred  and  seventy-six  organisms. 


Among  the  disease-breeding  bacteria  Dr.  Prud- 
den,  in  his  new  book  on  "Dust  and  its  Dangers,"* 
selects  for  study  the  one  rumliering  most  victims, 
the  Biu-iHus  tuhirciilo-tls.  lie  points  out  that  pro- 
long;^d  drying  does  not  kill  it ;  that  it  does  not  exist 
ir  „ii,  lir  exhaled  from  consumptive  iungs,  but  in 
the  sputa  that  is  ignorant  ly  allowed  to  become 
part  of  the  dust.  It  results  that  "the  way  to  most 
efliciently  stop  this  distinctly  preventable  disease 
is  to  see  tliat  the  sputun  of  consumptives  is  prop- 
1    erly  disposed  of." 

Nfv  Profesaional  Reniedij  for  WItoopIng  Coviili. — In 
a  recent  number  of  a  Finnish  JIagiziiie  a 
well  known  physician  (DelS'eovius,  of  Joensun) 
announces  that  he  has  tried  the  wild  thyme 
{Tliijvnis  iiih/uris)  in  a  consideralile  number  of 
cases  of  epidemic  pertussis,  one  of  the  patients 
being  a  little  child  of  his,  aged  one  and  one-half 
years.  The  remedy  was  employed  in  the  form  of 
an  infusion,  made  of  one  hundred  grammes  of  the 
herli,  seven  hundred  of  water,  and  fifty  of  sjrup  of 
maWow  (Siirnjiin:  malva),  the  dose  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  child's  age.  from  a  teaspoonful  to  a 
tablespoonful,  from  eight  to  twelve  times  a  day. 
The  results,  olitained  from  the  single  treatment, 
surpassed  the  author's  highest  expectations,  every 
one  and  all  of  his  patients  making  a  rapid  and 
complete  recovery.  The  chief  corollaries  deduced 
by  him  from  the  observations  may  be  given  as 
follows : 

1.  The  thyme  affords  the  best  remedy  for  -whooping- 
cough  yet  known. 

2.  It  should  be  administered,  however,  iu  the  doses  stated 
above. 

3.  When  employed  in  suflicient  quantities,  the  remedy 
almost  invariably  brings  about  a  complete  cure  within 
fifteen  days. 

4.  AW  painful  symptoms,  accompaniring_  the  affection, 
subside  in  one  or  two  days  from  the  beginning  of  the  treat- 
ment. They  re-api-ear,  however,  if  the  administration  i.s 
suspended  before  the  end  of  a  fortnight. 

5.  While  rapidly  decreasing  tlie  violence  and  frequency  of 
cough  iiaroxysms,  and  cutting  short  the  course  of  pertussis, 
the  remedy  prevents  all  usual  intlaniroatory  complications 
or  sequels  of  the  disease. 

6.  It  never  ^ives  rise  to  any  disagreeable  acces^ory  effects, 
except  some  diarrhcpa  which  ii]!]  ems  regularly  on  the  sec- 
ond or  third  day  of  the  treat  men  1.  and  which,  after  all.  may 
depend  upon  the  mallow  syrup,  and  not  upon  the  thyme 
itself. 

7.  To  secure  the  beneficial  results,  8  perfectly  fresh  plant 
must  be  used. 

8.  As  to  the  active  or  curative  princi]>le  of  the  herb,  it  is 
just  possible  that  it  is  constituteii  liy  tl^iyniol. 

Dampness  and  Diphthrri n.^'Recent  oliservatioiis 
strongly  confirm  the  opinion  that  there  is  a  close 
connection  lietween  diiilit  heria  and  dampness  of 
dwelling  sites,  lir.  Voodl'ord.  of  England,  states 
that  after  a  very  careful  investigation  of  many 
cases,  he  is  forced  to  conclude  that  the  liability  to 
diphtheria  is  greatly  increasid,  by  the  stagnation 
and  dampness  caused  by  shutting  off  the  free  cir- 
culation of  the  atmosphere,  by  the  dense  foliage 
around  many  of  the  homes  of  (he  people.  lie  earn- 
estly advises  that  whatever  else  is  omitted  in  the 
selection  of  a  cott.-ige  site  (he  great  imiiorlaiice  of 
free  pure  air  should  nol  be  forg(>ttcn. 

SCIENCES.  The  National  Academy  of  the 
United  States  was  incorporated  by  act  of  Con- 
gress, March  3.  l.SliS.  The  charter  provides  that 
"the  Academy  shall,  whenever  called  upon  by 
any  departmimt  of  the  Government,  investigate, 
examini>.  experiment,  and  report  upon  any  subject 
of  science  or  art;  the  actual  expenses  of  such  in- 
vestigations, examinations,  experiments  and  re- 
ports to  be  paid  from  appropriations  which  may  be 
made  for  the  purpose."  The  .Academy  is  composed 
at   present    (ISi)l)  of  ninety-eight  members   three 

*I!y  S.  M.  Prudden,  M.  D.,  New  York,  1891. 


1402 


S  C  L  A  T  E  R  —  S  C  U  D  D  E  R 


honorary  members  and  twenty-three  foreign  asso- 
ciates. 

Offkehs.—^  Pri'.fident  —  Professor  O.  C.  Marsh, 
New  Haven',  Conn.  Vice-Premdenl  —  Samuel  P. 
Langley,  Washington,  D.  C.  Forehjn  Sfcri'tarij — 
Wolcott  Gibbs,  Newport,  R.  I.  Jlvme  Secretary — 
Asaph  Hall.  U.  S.  N.,  Washington,  D.  C  ;  Treasurer — 
Dr.  John  S.  Billings,  U.  S.  A.,  Washington,  D.  C. ; 
Council — George  J.  Brush,  New  Haven,  Conn.;  Ben- 
jamin A.  Gould,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  General  Mont- 
gomery C.  Jleigs,  U.  S.  A. ;  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Pro- 
fessor Simon  Newcomb,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Ira 
Remsen,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  General  Francis  A. 
Walker,  Boston,  Mass.,  and  the  officers  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy. 

SCLATER,  Philip  LuTLEY.an  English  ornitholo- 
gist, born  at  Hoddington  House,  Hants,  in  1829. 
In  1855  he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
and  in  1859  he  became  secretary  of  the  Zoulogical 
Society  at  London.  From  1875  to  1877  he  was  pri- 
vate secretary  of  his  brother,  George  Slater-Booth, 
who  was  then  president  of  the  local  government 
board,  .\fter\vard  he  was  general  secretary  of  the 
British  Association  for  the  advancement  of  Science 
until  1882,  when  he  was  made  vice-president  of 
that  association.  Among  his  publications  are 
Zoological  Sketches;  Catalogue  of  American  Birds, 
and  Guide  to  tiie  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London. 

SOLOPIS,  Frederioo,  Count,  Italian  jurist,  born 
at  Turin,  Italy,  in  1798 ;  died  there  in  1878.  In  1837 
he  gained  distinction  by  compiling  the  civil  code 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia.  In  1848  he  became 
minister  of  justice  and  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  in 
1860-(U  was  president  of  the  senate  of  Italy.  In 
1868  Victor  Emanuel  decorated  him  with  the  order 
of  the  Annunziata,  and  in  1872  he  appointed  Sclopis 
Italian  arbitrator  at  the  Congress  of  (Geneva  for 
settlement  of  tlie  Alabama  Claims.  He  was  made 
president  of  tlie  Geneva  court,  and  tlie  American 
government  presented  him  in  1874  with  a  valuable 
service  of  silver  plate,  as  a  token  of  its  sense  of  tlie 
ability  and  tact  witli  which  Sclopis  has  discharged 
the  duties  of  his  high  office.  He  pul)lished  several 
works,  but  the  principal  one  is  La  Storia  delta  Leg- 
islation' Italiana  (3  vols.  1840-57). 

SCGLYTUS,  a  genus  of  coleopterous  insects, 
typical  of  the  family  Scohilidie.  One  species,  a 
beetle  about  one-sixth  of  an  incli  in  length,  of  a 
dull  color,  with  short  antenn;e,  thickened  at  the 
extremity,  has  destroyed  great  numbers  of  tine 
elms  in  the  neighborhood  of  London  and  elsewhere 
in  England;  and  many  of  the  species,  of  which 
there  are  in  all  about  1,000,  have  done  immense 
damage  to  the  fruit  and  forest  trees  of  the  United 
States. 

SCORL/E,  the  cinders  and  slags  of  volcanoes, 
more  or  less  porous  from  the  expansion  of  the  gases 
contained  in  the  melted  materials. 

SCORPaENA,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the  family  of 
Scurjuenidie.  The  head  is  large  and  compressed, 
more  or  less  armed  with  spines  or  tubercles.  The 
body  is  of  a  somewhat  perch-like  form.  Some  of 
Scoriimnida;  are  remarkable  for  their  ugliness; 
some  exhibit  very  fine  colors.  They  are  numerous 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  widely  distributed  in 
the  seas  of  warm  climates.  The  liver  yields  a  use- 
ful oil. 

SCOTT,  TiioM.\s,  English  Bililical  commentator, 
born  at  Baycroft,  Lincolnshire,  in  1747,  died  at 
Aston  Sandford  in  1821.  In  his  early  life  he  was  a 
farm  laborer,  but  by  jierseverance  he  succeeded  in 
getting  a  good  education  and  took  orders  in  the 
church  of  England  in  1773.  He  became  curate  of 
Olney  in  1781.  A  few  years  later  he  was  chaplain 
of  a  hospital  in  London.     In  1807  he  became  vicar 


of  Aston  Sandtord,  Buckinghamshire,  where  he 
wrote  his  Notes  to  liis  Faiuily  Bihle  (5  vols.,  1788-92). 
These  Notes  have  passed  through  many  editions 
both  in  England  and  America. 

SCOTT,  William  Anderson,  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, born  at  Rock  Creek,  Bedford  county,  Tenn.,  in 
1813;  died  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  in  1885.  After 
studying  theology  at  Princeton,  he  became  a  mis- 
sionary in  Louisiana,  and  afterwards  pastor  of 
churclies  in  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  New  Orleans,  La.,  and 
San  Francisco,  Cal.  In  1861  he  went  to  England, 
becoming  for  a  time  pastor  of  a  church  at  Birming- 
ham. In  1863  Scott  took  charge  of  a  church  in 
New  York  City,  and  in  1870  he  returned  to  San 
Francisco.  There,  beside  being  pastor  of.St.  John's 
Church,  he  was  professor  of  mental  and  moral  phi- 
losophy and  systematic  theology  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  till  he  died.  His  publications  were  vol- 
umes of  sermons,  and  l)ai\ie>,  a  Model  for  Young 
Men  (1854);  Achan  m  £7  Dorado  (1855) ;  Trade  and 
Letters  (1856);  The  Giant  Judge  (1858);  The  Bible 
and  Politics  (1859);  The  Church  in  the  Ar-iny,  or  the 
Four  Ceuturious  of  the  Gospels  (1862);  Tlie  Christ  of 
the  Apostles'   Creed  (1867)  ;  and  several  other  works. 

SCRANTON,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania.  Population 
in  1890,  75,215.     See  Britannica.  Vol.  XXI,  p.  551. 

SCRANTON,  Joseph  A.,  member  of  Congress, 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1838.  He  removed  to  Penn- 
sylvania in  1847;  was  collector  of  Iijternal  Rev- 
enue in  1862-66;  was  postmaster  at  Scranton  in 
1874-81 ;  founded  the  "Scranton  Daily  Republican" 
in  1867,  and  has  since  maintained  its  sole  owner- 
ship and  control ;  was  a  member  of  Congress  1881- 
83,  1885-87  and  1889-91. 

SCRAP-METAL,  a  term  applied  to  fragments  of 
any  kind  of  metal,  which  are  only  of  use  for  re- 
working or  re-melting.  Copper  and  brass  scrap 
consist  of  the  turnings  from  the  lathe,  and  all  use- 
less and  worn  pieces.  Scrap-tin  consists  of  the 
clippings  and  fragments  of  tinned  iron  and  worn- 
out  tinned  vessels;  these  are  frequently  dipped 
into  hydrochloric  acid,  to  dissolve  off  the  tin-coating 
from  the  iron;  and  the  muriate  of  tin  so  formed  is 
of  commercial  value  for  dyeing  purposes.  Scrap- 
iron  consists  of  any  waste  pieces  ol  iron,  and  for 
many  purposes  it  is  jiarticularly  valuable:  wrought 
scrap-iron  being  of  superior  malleabilitv  and 
toughness. 

SCRIVENER,  Frederick  Henry  Ambrosw,  an 
P'nglish  scholar,  born  at  Bermondsey,  England,  in 
1813.  r>om  1846  till  1876  he  was  successful  rector 
of  Falmouth  and  St  Gerrans,  Cornwall  and  vicar 
of  Hendon.  From  1870  till  1882  he  worked  with 
others  in  revising  the  New  Testament.  His  publi- 
cations relate  chiefly  to  the  Greek  New  Tesianicrt 
(1860);  Plain  Introduction  to  tlie  Criticisms  of  tin 
Neie  Testament  (1851);  Full  Collation  of  tlie  Coda 
Sinaiticas  ivith  the  Perised  Text  of  the  Kev:  TestanierA 
(1863) ;  Codex  Bezs:  (1864) ;  and'the  Cambridge  Par- 
agraph Bible,  vnth  the  Text  Pevised-  and  a  Critical 
Introduction  Prefixed  (1873). 

SCROLL,  an  ornament  of  common  use  in  all 
styles  of  architecture.  It  consists  of  a  band  ar- 
ranged in  convolutions,  like  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
paper  rolled  up.  The  Greeks  used  it  in  their  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  Styles  ;  the  Romans  in  their  Com- 
posite; and  in  medieval  architecture  and  all  styles 
which  closely  copy  nature,  it  is  of  constant  occur- 
rence as  in  nature  itself. 

SCRLTPLE  (Lat.  scripvlum,  scriplum,  or  scriivu- 
Inm)  the  lowest  denomination  of  weight  among  the 
Romans,  being  .159  grams  lighter  than  our  apothe- 
caries' scruple  of  1.296  grams  or  20  grains. 

SCUDDER,  Horace  Elisua,  an  American  author, 
born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1838.  After  graduating 
at  Williams  College  in  1868  he  came  to   New   Yr^ 


SC UDDER  —  SCULPTURE 


1403 


City  where  he  taught  school  for  three  years.  His 
stories  for  children,  Seven  Little  People  and  thrir 
Friends  (1862),  proved  highly  successful,  and  de- 
cided him  to  follow  literature  exclusively.  His 
next  work  was  Dream  Children  (1863).  Then  he 
prepared  The  Life  and  Letters  of  David  Coil  Scudder 
(1864).  He  edited  "  The  Riverside  Magazine  for  Young 
People,"  from  1867  till  1870,  and  published  in'  its 
third  volume  Stories  from  Mg  Attic  (1869).  Among 
his  most  successful  books  for  children  are  the 
Bodley  Books  (8  vols.  1875-87);  Divellers  in  Five 
Sisters  Court;  Children's  Book  (1881),  and  a  History 
of  the  United  States  (1884). 

SCUDDER,  John,  an  American  missionary,  born 
at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  in  1793;  died  at  VVynberg,  near 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1855.  After  graduating 
and  practicingas  a  physician  he  felt  convinced  that 
it  was  his  duty  to  carry  the  gospel  to  the  heathens. 
In  1819  he  went  to  India  as  a  missionary  under 
the  direction  of  the  American  Board  of  Jlissions. 
He  was  ordained  there  to  the  ministry  of  the 
(Dutch)  Reformed  Church  in  1820,  settled  in 
Ceylon,  and  labored  there  for  19  years  in  the  double 
capacity  of  clergyman  and  physician.  He  estab- 
lished a  large  hospital,  of  which  he  was  physician 
in  chief.  He  also  founded  several  native  schools 
and  churches.  In  1839  he  was  tranferred  to  the 
Madras  station.  In  1842-46  he  was  in  the  United 
States;  but  returned  in  1847  to  India,  where  he 
labored  until  his  death.  He  died  while  he  was  on 
a  visit  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  for  the  sake  of 
his  health. 

SCUDDER,  S.i.MLEL  Hubbard,  an  American  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1837.  After  study- 
ing at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  of  Harvard 
College  he  became  assistant  to  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz 
in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  and  in 
1864  was  made  custodian  of  the  Boston  Society  of 
Natural  History,  of  which  he  was  president  in 
1880-87.  In  1886  he  became  paleontologist  of  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Surveys,  which  post  he  occupied  as  late 
as  July,  1889.  Mr.  Scudder  devofed  himself  chiefly 
to  entomology.  Among  his  publications  are  Fossil 
Butterflies  (1875);  Catalogue  of  Srientijic  Serials  of 
All  Countries  (IS79) ;  Butterflies  ( 1882) ;  Nomenrlator 
ZoUlogicus  (1882)  ;  and  Winnipeg  I'onntnj  (1886);  the 
last  being  a  sketch  of  his  adventures  with  a  solar 
eclipse  expedition  in  Manitoba. 

SCUDO,  an  Italian  silver  coin,  corresponding 
to  the  Spanish  paistre,  the  American  dollar,  and 
the  English  crown.  It  was  so  called  from  its  bear- 
ing the  heraldric  shield  of  the  prince  by  whose  au- 
thority it  was  struck,  and  differed  in  value  in  tlie 
different  stales  of  Italy. 

SCULL,  Enw.Mti),  member  of  Congress,  born  in 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1818.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1844;  was  appointed  Collector  of  Internal 
Revenue  by  President  Lincoln ;  was  removed  by 
President  Johnson  ;  was  appointed  Assessor  of  In- 
ternal Revenue  by  President  Grant  in  1S69;  and 
was  Collector  in  1873  ;  has  published  and  edited  the 
"Somerset  Herald"  since  18.52;  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1887;  his  present  term  exjiires  1893. 

SCULPTURE.  For  general  information  on  this 
Bubject  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XX],  pp.  .55t>-572,  and 
Vol.  II,  pp.  .343-368.  Sculpture  was  an  art  almost 
unknown  in  America  until  the  first  quarter  of  the 
present  century  had  passed.  Busts  of  Washington, 
Alexander  Hamilton,  and  other  prominent  Amer- 
icans were  executed  by  Gii'ski-pk  Cerr.accui,  a 
Corsiean,  who  came  to  Philadelphia  in  1791.  Jean 
.^^•TOI.^E  Houno.N,  a  Frenchman,  came  over  in  1785, 
and  executed  the  statue  of  Washington  m  tiicli  now 
stands  in  thecapitol  at  Richmond.  His  cast  of  the 
head  of  Washington  has  been  extremely  useful  to 
native  sculptors  of  lajer  date,  who  felt  it  their  duty 


to  produce  a  bust  or  statue  of  the  "Father  of    his 
Country." 

American  sculpture  took  its  birth  vfith  Hiram 
Powers  and  Thomas  Crawford.  Hiram  Powers 
(1805-73),  whose  biography  is  given  in  Britannica, 
Vol.  XIX,  p.  650,  produced  the  classic  statues  of 
the  Greek  Slave  (1843) ;  Eve  Before  the  Fall  and  Eve 
After  the  Fall  (1850) ;  The  Fisher-Boi/  (1846)  iAmerica 
(1854)  ;/i  Penseroso  (1856);  California  (1858);  and 
The  Last  of  the  Tribe,  also  known  as  the  Indian  Girl. 
Of  the  Greek  Slave  six  duplicates  in  marble  have 
been  made,  besides  many  casts  and  reduced  copies 
in  marble.  Powers'  Eve  Teiiipted  was  pronounced  a 
masterpiece  by  Thorwaldsen.  The  Fisher  Boy  was 
three  times  repeated  in  marble.  The  statue  of 
America  was  modelled  for  the  Crystal  Palace,  Syden- 
ham, England,  but  was  destroyed  by  tire  in  1866.  Of 
his  ideal  busts  the  best  known  are  Ginevra,  Proser- 
pine, Psyche,  I>iana,  Christ,  Faith,  Clytie,  Hope, 
and  C7K(r)<.!/  (1871).  The  greater  part  of  his  work 
consists  of  V)usts  of  distinguished  men,  includ- 
ing John  Quincy  Adams,  Andrew  Jackson, 
Daniel  Webster,  John  C.  Calhoun,  John  Mar- 
shall, Martin  Van  Buren,  Edward  Everett,  John 
Preston,  Henry  W.  Longfellow,  and  Philip  H. 
Sheridan  (1865).  He  also  executed  statues  of 
Washington  for  Louisiana,  of  Daniel  Webster  for  Mas- 
sachusetts, of  John  C.  ('alhiiun  for  South  Carolina, 
of  Benjamin  Franklin  and  'Thomas  Jefferson  (1863). 
In  all  his  works  Powers  showed  great  teclinical 
skill.  His  mechanical  talent  enabled  him  to  in- 
vent various  appliances  for  expediting  the  labors 
of  the  sculptor's  art,  especially  in  doing  away  with 
the  necessity  of  making  a  clay  model. 

Thomas  Crawford  (1814-57),  whose  biography 
will  be  found  in  Britannica,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  554-5, 
produced  the  majestic  equestrian  statue  of  Wash- 
ington at  Richmond,  Va.,  the  lironze  statue  of 
Beethoven,  now  in  the  Boston  Music  Hall;  the 
groups  Adatn  and  Eve;  Hebe  and  (janyinede,  now  in 
the  Boston  Art  Museum  ;  Babes  in  the  Wood,  now 
in  the  Lenox  Library,  New  York ;  Mercvry  and 
Psyi'he;  Flora;  Davcing  Jenny,  modeled  from  his 
own  daughter.  For  the  American  government  he 
executed  a  marble  pediment  bearing  life-size  fig- 
ures symljolieal  of  tlie  progress  of  American  civil- 
ization; a  bronze  figure  of  Liberty  v;hich  surmounts 
the  dome  of  the  capitol ;  and  lastly,  a  brcmze  xloor 
on  which  are  modeled  various  scenes  in  the  public 
life  of  Washington.  Prominent  among  Mr.  Craw- 
ford's works  was  his  first  ideal  group,  Orjdieus  and 
Cerberv-S,  Orpheus  entering  Hades  in  search  of 
Eurydice,  executed  in  1S39,  and  his  statue  of  an 
Indian  Chief,  whicli  was  much  admired  by  the 
English  sculptor,  (iilison,  who  projiosed  that  a 
bronze  copy  of  it  should  be  retained  in  K(ime  as  a 
lasting  monument.  (Vawford  had  less  mechanical 
skill  than  Powers,  and  perhaps  less  sentiment; 
but  still  there  is  something  grand  and  earnest  in 
all  of  his  Works,  and  his  versatility,  enthusiasm, 
and  untiring  industry  were  quite  remarkable. 

Another  noted  American  sculptor  contempo- 
raneous witli  Powers  and  Crawford  was 
Horatio  (-iKK.E.vorcn  ( 1805-52),  whose  biography 
will  be  found  in  Britannica  Vol.  XI,  p.  173.  He 
enjoyed,  as  did  Crawford  after  him,  the  instruction 
of  tlie  celebrated  sculptor,  ThoTwaldsen,  in  Rome. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College,  and  had 
a  decided  literary  vein  in  his  composition. 
Greenough's  Chanting  Chernbs,  ordered  by  J.  Ken- 
imore  Cooper,  was  tlie  first  group  in  marble  exe- 
cuted by  an  American.  As  a  youth  of  twenty 
years,  (ireenough  designed  the  present  Hanker  Hill 
}fo)inment.  His  best  work  is  the  colossal  statue  of 
Washington,  ordered  by  Congress.  It  w^as  com- 
pleted  in    1843,  and   stands   now   in   front   of  the 


1404 


SCULPTURE 


National  Capitol.  ]ii  sjieakiiifj  of  this  statue,  Ed- 
ward Kverett  wrote:  "I  regard  Greeuough's 
•Washington'  as  one  of  the  greatest  works  of 
S(Mil|)turp  of  modern  times.  I  do  not  know  the 
work  whicli  can  justly  be  preferred  to  it,  whether 
we  consider  the  purity  of  the  taste,  the  loftiness  of 
the  conception,  the  truth  of  the  character,  or  the 
accuracy  of  anatomical  study  and  mechanical 
skill."  Among  txreenough's  marble  busts  are 
those  of  John  Adams,  John  Quincy  Adams,  John 
Jacob  Astor,  James  Fenimore  Cooper,  Henry  Clay, 
Gen.  Lafayette,  John  Marshall  and  Josiah  (.Jnincy. 
His  ideal  sculptures  include,  beside  Tlw  Chuidinri 
Cherahs,  The  (liinrdian  Aiujel;  Mrilm-n;  Venus  Vic- 
tri.r;  Lucifer;  Venus  Coniending  Jar  the  Golden  Apple, 
and  The  Graces. 

,  Joel  T.  Hart  (lSlO-77)  was  a  Kentuokian  who 
earned  his  living  as  a  stone-cutter  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  where  he  began  to  model  busts  in  clay.  In 
1849,  in  Rome,  he  modeled  the  statue  of  Henri/ 
Cla;/,  which  is  now  in  Richmond,  Va.  His  next 
work  was  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Mr.  Clay, 
which  is  now  in  New  Orleans,  and  the  marble 
statue  of  that  statesman  which  is  now  in  the 
Louisville  court-house.  Thirty  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  in  Florence,  Italy.  During  this  time 
Hart  finished  busts  and  statues  of  many  distin- 
guished men.  Among  his  portrait-busts  are  those 
of  Jackson,  Taylor  and  Gov.  Crittenden,  all  char- 
acteristic and  truthful  likenesses.  His  best  ideal 
works  are  Clirn-iti/,  Aiif/eUna.  the  graceful  ^Y<J)nnn 
Triuntphaiit,  and  Peiiserosa.  In  all  of  them  he 
showed  a  delicate,  refined  fancy.  Hart  invented 
an  apparatus  for  obtaining  mechanically  the  out- 
line of  a  head  from  life.  It  consisted  of  a  metallic 
shell  which  surrounded  the  head,  with  a  space 
between,  perforated  for  a  large  number  of  pins. 
Each  pin  was  pushed  inward  till  it  touched  the 
head,  and  then  fastened  there.  The  shell  was 
afterwards  filled  with  plaster,  which  was  cut  away 
till  the  points  of  the  pins  were  reached,  thus  form- 
ing a  rough  model. 

Henry  Kirke  Brown  (1814-86),  whose  biography 
is  given  in  Vol.  I,  pp.  352-3  of  these  Revisions  and 
Additions,  executed,  beside  the  works  mentioned 
in  his  biography,  two  ideal  statues,  one  of  Hope, 
and  the  other  a  Diseoholas.  In  Italy,  from  1842  till 
184H,  he  produced  Ruth;  a  group  representing  a 
boy  and  a  dog,  now  owned  by  the  Historical  Society 
of  New  York  ;  a  Rebecca;  &nd  a  Darid,  which  was 
destroyed.  In  1848  he  went  among  the  Indians, 
and  modelled  many  interesting  subjects,  some  of 
which  were  reproduced  in  bronze.  In  18.55  he  fin- 
ished the  equestrian  statue  of  Wasliiuglon  in  Union 
Square,  New  York.  Mr.  Brown's  average  work 
suffers  by  comparison  with  tlie  highest  standards 
of  the  sculptor's  art.  But  his  best  efforts  evince 
earnestness,  dignity,  and  no  small  degree  of  artistic 
talent.  His  equestrian  statue  of  Gen.  Winfield  Scott, 
at  the  National  capitol,  is  considered  his  best 
work,  although  all  his  equestrian  statues  show  a 
decided  love  for  horses  and  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  their  finer  points. 

Cl.\rk  Mills  (1815-83)  was  no  artist  in  the 
higher  sense,  but  very  clever  and  skillful  in  the 
mechanical  execution  of  his  sculptures.  In  follow- 
ing the  stucco  business  he  discovered  in  1835  a  new 
method  of  taking  a  cast  from  the  living  face,  which 
enabled  him  to  make  busts  so  cheaply  that  he  soon 
had  as  much  work  to  do  as  he  could  attend  to.  He 
then  cut  a  bust  of  John  C.  Calhoun  in  marble,  for 
which  he  was  awarded  a  gold  medal  by  the  city 
council  of  Charleston,  S.  C.  It  was  placed  in  the 
city  hall  there.  Subsequently  he  executed  busts 
of  John  Preston,  Wade  Hampton,  and  other  emi- 
nent  South   Carolinians.      From    1848  till   1853  he 


made  an  equestrian  statue  of  Ge^i.  .Jackson,  which 
was  unveiled  at  Washington,  D.  C,  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  in  1853.  It 
stands  on  Lafayette  Square,  and  was  cast  from 
cannon  taken  ivinn  the  British  during  the  war  of 
1812.  Later  he  executed  a  colossal  statue  of  Wasli- 
inglou,  representing  a  scene  in  the  battle  of  Prince- 
ton'. Ft  was  dedicated  in  Washington,  D.  C,  on 
Feb.  22,  1860.  In  1.S60-1863  he  made  his  statue  of 
Freedom,  after  Crawford's  designs,  which  now 
stands  above  the  dome  of  the  cajntol. 

Thomas  Ball,  born  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  in 
1819,  took  up  modelling  in  1852.  He  made  a  min- 
iature bust  of  Jeiiiiij  Lind;  another  of  Daniel  Web- 
ster; and  also  a  life-size  statue  of  the  latter,  which 
is  in  New  York.  After  studying  in  Europe  for 
some  years  he  executed  an  equestrian  statue  of 
Washington,  now  in  Boston,  which  is  considered  his 
best  work.  His  later  works  are  the  statue  of 
Forrest  as  "  Coriolanus,"  of  heroic  size ;  Eie;  a 
statuette  of  Lincoln;  a  bust  of  Etiirard  Ererett; 
statues  of  Goe.  Andrew  of  Massachusetts,  Webster, 
Sumner,  Josiah  Qviney,  and  the  group  called  Emati- 
cipalion,  the  original  of  which  is  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  and  a  replica  in  Boston.  His  statue  of  Web- 
ster, in  the  Central  Park,  New  York,  is  his  noblest 
work.  It  was  placed  there  at  an  expense  of  $60,000 
through  the  munificence  of  a  New  York  merchant. 

Other  American  sculptors  of  the  middle  of  this 
century  are:  Benjamin  Paitl  Akeks  (1825-1861). 
He  was  highly  gifted,  but  died  too  young  for  the 
complete  unfolding  of  his  talents.  His  best-known 
works  are  Peace;  Una  and  the  Lion ;  Girl  Pressing 
Grapes;  Isaiah;  Schiller's  Diver;  Reindeer;  Diana  and 
Endijwion;  Pan!  and  Franeesca;  Milton, aud  the  Dead  ' 
Pearl  Direr.  His  statues  and  groups  show  a  tender, 
sympathetic,  and  strongly  wsthetic  nature,  as  well 
as  his  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  art. 
Of  the  other  sculptors  of  this  period  we  mention 
Henry  Dexter  (1806-76),  specially  successful  in 
portrait  busts;  Richard  S.  C4reenough  (born  in 
1819),  brother  of  Horatio,  whose  best  known  work 
is  the  statue  of  B.  Franklin,  in  Boston  ;  Leonhaed 
AV.  VoLK  (born  in  1828),  best  known  by  his  monu- 
ment to  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  in  Chicago;  Moses 
Jacob  Ezekiel  (born  in  1844),  who  made  the  group 
of  Religious  Lihrrlij,  in  Fairmount  Park,  Phila- 
delphia; and  Edward  V.  Valentine  (born  in  1828), 
who  has  executed  many  statues  of  Confederate 
heroes,  as,  for  instance,  Lee  Recumbent,  in  the 
Mausoleum  of  Washington  and  Lee  University, 
Lexington,  Va. 

A  sculptor  of  natural  talent  was  Edwakd  S. 
Bartholomew  (1822-58).  In  1850  he  went  to  Italy 
and  made  Rome  his  home.  Among  his  best  known 
works  are  Blind  Homer  Led  by  His  Daughter;  Ere; 
Camjiagna  Sheplierd  Boy;  Genius  of  Painting;  Youth 
and  Old  Age;  Evening  Star;  Eve  Repentant;  Wash- 
ington;  Flora;  Belisarius  at  the  Porta  Pincinia, 
and  Ganymede.  A  large  number  of  his  works  are 
in  the  Wadsworth  gallery,  Hartford,  Conn.  He 
showed  much  fancy  and  inventive  power  in  his 
works, 

William  AVetmore  Story  (born  in  1819),  first  a 
practicing  lawyer,  afterwards  a  poet,  and  lastly 
a  sculptor,  went  to  Italy  in  1848  to  study  the  plastic 
art,  and  has  ever  since  resided  there.  His  statue 
of  his  father  in  the  chapel  of  Mount  Auburn  ceme- 
tery;  Edward. Everett,  in  the  Boston  Public  Garden; 
busts  of  James  Russell  Lou  ell,  TJieodore  Parker  and 
Josiah  Quincy  are  well-known  examples  of  his  art. 
He  modelled  a  bronze  statue  of  George  Peabody, 
which  was  erected  in  London  in  1869.  Among  his 
historic  works  are  Sappho;  Said;  Delilah;  Helen; 
Judith;  Sardanapalus ;  Jerusalem  in  Her  Desolation; 
TJietis  and  Achilles  (1887-88),     Cleopatra  and  Semi- 


SCULPTURE 


3405 


ramis  are  now  in  the  ^Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 
in  New  York  City.  His  sculpture  is  well  thought 
out,  carefully  finished,  and  inspired  by  noble  and 
elevating  sentiments. 

WiM-iAM  H.  KixEHART  US25-74),  after  working  in 
a  marble-yard  at  Baltimore  for  some  years,  went 
to  Italy  in  1855  to  continue  liis  study  of  the  sculp- 
tor's art.  In  1858  he  settled  at  Rome.  During  tlie 
succeeding  eight  years  there  came  from  his  studio 
Hero;  Leander;  Indian  Girl;  St.  Cecilia;  Sleeping 
Babes;  Woma7i  of  Samaria;  Christ,  and  the  Angel  of 
Resurrection,  both  in  the  Loudon  cemetery,  and  the 
bronze  statue  Lejre  Reconciled  with  Death,  in  Green- 
mount  cemetery,  Baltimore.  Beside  those  already 
mentioned,  Rinehart's  ideal  works  include  Cbitie, 
which  he  called  his  masterpiece;  Nymph;  Antigone; 
Atalanta;  Latona  and  Her  Children;  Diana  and 
Apollo;  Endymion  (1874),  and  Rebecca,  in  the  Cor- 
coran gallery  at  Washington.  Rinehart  was  a 
truly  idealistic  sculptor. 

Randolph  Rogers  (1825-1892)  produced  Rath, 
an  ideal  bust;  Nydia;  Hoy  Skating;  Isaac  (full 
length),  and  the  statues  of  John  Adams,  In  Mt. 
Auburn  cemetery ;  of  Marshall;  Mason;  Nelson;  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  for  Philadelphia;  and  William 
Seward,  ioT 'Sew  York  City  ;  memorial  monuments 
for  Cincinnati,  Providence,  Detroit  and  Worcester, 
Mass.;  the  Lost  Pleiad;  (renins  oj  Connecticut,  on  the 
capitol  at  Hartford,  and  an  equestrian  group  of 
Indians,  in  bronze  (1881).  He  is  also  favorably 
known  by  the  eight  panels  for  the  bronze  doors  of 
the  capitol  at  Washington,  which  delineate  scenes 
in  the  life  of  Columbus. 

Erastus  Dow  Palmer  (born  in  1817)  executed 
his  first  work  in  marble  in  1849.  It  was  the  Infant 
f'eres,  modelled  from  one  of  his  own  children.  He 
is  a  true,  idealist,  with  a  clear  perception  of  the 
beautiful.  His  more  notable  works  include  The 
Indian  Captive,  representing  the  dawn  of  Chris- 
tianity on  the  savage  mind;  The  Wiite  Slave; 
Spring;  Tlie  Angel  at  The  Sepulchre,  a  monument  in 
Rural  Cemetery,  Albany,  N.  Y.  (1868) ;  The  Infant 
Flora;  The  Emigrant's  Children,  and  The  Landing  of 
The  Pilgrims,  a  group  comprising  sixteen  figures 
fifteen  inches  high.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that 
Palmer  did  not  study  abroad,  like  most  other 
American  sculptors,  but  acquired  all  his  knowledge 
of  art  and  technical  skill  in  his  native  state,  New 
York.  But  in  1873,  when  he  had  long  been  famous, 
he  visited  Italy  and  France.  In  1873-74,  in  Paris, 
he  executed  a  statue  of  Robert  R.  Livingston, 
which  was  placed  in  the  old  hall  of  representatives 
at  Washington  in  1875.  It  received  a  medal  of  the 
first  class  at  the  centennial  exhibition  (1876). 

JouK  QiriNcy  Adams  Ward  (born  in  1830)  has 
produced  some  of  the  finest  statues  that  adorn  our 
public  places.  His  Indian  Hunter,  completed  in 
1864,  is  in  the  Centra'.  Park,  New  York;  so  is  his 
statue  of  Shakespeare,  and  also  a  statue  of  a  citizen 
soldier.  On  the  steps  of  the  Sub-Treasury  liuilding 
in  Wall  street.  New  York,  there  is  his  colossal 
statue  of  Washington;  and  at  Broadway  and  35th 
street.  New  York,  there  is  his  statue  of  William 
E.  Dodge.  Of  his  portrait-statues  the  most  suc- 
cessful ones  are  an  equestrian  statue  of  Gen. 
George  H.  Thomas,  in  Washington,  D.  C.  and  of 
George  Washington  in  Newbury  port,  Mass.  His 
monument  to  James  A.  Garfield  in  Washington,  I). 
C,  is  a  finely  finished  piece  of  work.  His  statue 
of  Henry  Ward  Beeclier,  in  P.rooklyn,  N.  Y.,  was 
unveiled  with  elaborate  ceremonies  June  24,  1891. 

Lai'nt  TnoMi'so.N-  (horn  in  ]s;W)  is  a  pupil  of 
Erastus  1).  Palmer.  Il(^  showed  much  talent  for 
medallion  portraits,  and  made  a  large  number  of 
them.  His  bust  The  Trajiper  secured  his  election 
as  an  academician  in  New  York   in   1862.     Among 


his  works  are  Elaine,  a  bust;  Morning  Glory,  a  me- 
dallion ;  statues  of  .l^/-((/(f(m.  Pierson.  a.t  Yale  Col- 
lege; AV(/»./fo),  /.,  at  Milford,  Pa.;  Gen.  John  Scdq- 
tnrk,  at  West  Point;  Winfield  Scott,  at  the  Soldiers' 
Home,  Washington,  D.  C;  Charles  Morgan,  in  Clin- 
ton, Conn,  and  Gen.  Iiurnside,a.u  equestrian  statue, 
at  Providence,  R.  I.  (1887).  His  portrait  bust  of 
Uilliain  ('.  Bryant  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art,  N.  Y.  In  all  his  work  Thompson  evinces  a 
talent  for  portraiture  that  iseijualed  by  few  of  our 
sculptors. 

John  Rogers  (born  in  1829)  modelled  in  clay. 
He  delineated  the  humorous  and  pathetic  aspect-', 
of  every-day  life.  In  this  line  he  is  ijuite  unri- 
valled. His  Checker  Players  were  modelled  for  a 
charity  fair  in  Chicago  in  185!).  They  attracted 
much  attention.  He  produced  many  other  groups. 
The  Slave  Auction,  exhibited  in  New' York  in  l.S(iO, 
first  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  the  general 
public.  Then  came  his  war  statuettes,  which  in- 
cluded Tlie  Picket  Guard;  One  More  Shot  'l.St_i4l; 
Taking  the  Oath  and.  Drawing  Rations  (1865),  and 
Union  Refugees;  Wounded  Scout,  and  Council  of 
Haf  (1867-8).  Since  the  war  he  produced  works 
on  social  subjects,  which  also  have  become  very 
popular.  Among  these  are  Coming  to  the  Parson 
(1870) ;  Checkers  vp  at  the  Farm;  The  Charity  Patient; 
Fetcliiiig  the  Doctor,  and  Going  Jia-  the  Coivs  (1873). 
Mr.  Rogers  has  also  executed  about  50  statuettes 
in  illustration  of  passages  in  Shakesjieare,  Irving, 
etc.,  which  had  large  sales.  He  also  made  an 
e<iuestrian  statue  of  Gen.  John  F.  Keynolds  fl,s,sl-3), 
which  stands  before  the  city  hall,  Philadelphia; 
and  in  1887  he  exliiViited  Ichabod  Crane  and  The 
IJeadliss  Hrjrseman.  a  bronze  group.  There  is  no 
high  art  in  any  of  Rogers'  productions;  but  they 
appeal  to  popular  feeling  and  have  had  a  consider- 
able share  in  elevating  the  artistic  taste  of  the 
American  people. 

A  few  American  ladies  have  also  tried  their  hands 
at  sculpture.  The  foremost  among  these  is  Harriet 
Hosmcr,  born  at  Watertown,  Mass.,  in  1830.  She 
modelled  in  clay  at  an  early  age.  and,  in  1852,  went 
to  Rome,  and  there  entered  the  studio  of  John 
Gibson,  the  English  sculptor.  She  executed  ideal 
busts  of  Dapltne  and  Medusa,  which  attracted  some 
attention.  CEnone,  her  first  figure  of  full  size,  was 
completed  in  1855.  In  the  same  year  she  modelled 
a  statue  of  Pnck  in  a  style  so  spirited  and  original, 
that  30  copies  of  it  were  ordered.  Kext  followed 
the  Will-o'-the-Wisp;  and  the  reclining  statue  of 
Beatrice  Cenci,  for  the  St.  Louis  public  lil)rary.  On 
the  colossal  statue  of  Zenobia  she  worked  assidu- 
ously for  2  years  (1858-9),  then  followed  the  bronze 
statue  of  Thomas  H.  Benliai,  which  was  erected  in 
Lafayette  Park,  St.  Louis,  ]\lo.  Among  her  other 
works  are  a  Sleeping  Faun;  a  statue  ot  the  \iueen 
of  Naples  as  the  "Heroine  of  tiarta;"  a  monument 
to  Abrah.am  Lincoln  and  also  a  Waking  Faun.  Miss 
Hosmer's  works  are  not  up  to  the  highest  artistic 
ideals,  but  her  technique  is  good.  All  her  produc- 
tions show  a  strong  and  decided  individuality. 

Emma  STiiisiiiNs  (1815-S2;  the  friend  and  biogra- 
pher of  t!harlol  te  Cushman,  produced,  among  other 
works,  H  statue  of  Uoriu-e  .Moini  for  Boston,  and  a 
large  fountain  for  Central  I'ark,  New  York. 

Of  the  younger,  more  realistic  school  of  sculptor- 
we  mention  .^i-ocsTis  St.  Gatdens  (born  in  1848) 
as  the  most  prominent.  He  received  his  technical 
training  under  Jouffroy  in  Paris.  He  has  executed 
a  very  beautiful  bas-relief,  the  .idoration  of  the  Cross 
liy  Angels,  in  St.  Thomas'  Church,  New  York  City. 
In  his  statues  ot  /'resident  Lincoln  in  Chicago,  .!(/- 
iiiiral  Farragut  {1880}  in  Madison  S(|uare,  New  York 
City,  and  Robert  R.  l:andall  (18S4),  at  Sailors'  Snug 
Harbor,  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  and  the  busts  of  Hi/- 


1406 


S  C  U  R  V  Y  -  G  R  A  S  S  —  S  E  A  R  C  H 


Uam  M.  Emrts,  Theodorp  D.  n'oo/.<,-,/.  at  Yale,  and 
Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman  (1888),  we  have  excellent  exam- 
ples of  a  powerful,  realistic  and  unconventional 
style  in  portrait  sculpture.  He  has  freed  himself 
from  the  prevailing  tendency  of  imitating  the  clas- 
sical in  everything. 

William  Rudolf  O'Donovan  (born  in  1844),  has 
also  been  very  successful  in  his  portrait-busts, 
among  which  is  the  masterly  one  of  William  Page 
(1877).  Of  his  bas-reliefs  we  mention  Bayard  Tay- 
lor's, for  the  memorial  tablet  in  Cornell  University, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.  His  larger  works  include  the  Tarry- 
town  monument  to  the  Captors  of  Major  Andre;  a 
statue  of  ir(7s/ii'ngr/0K  for  tlie  government  of  Venez- 
uela; two  figures  for  the  ^Soldiers'  Monument  at 
Lawrence,  Mass. ;  two  bas-reliefs  for  the  monument 
in  Herkimer  county,  N.  Y.,  commemorating  the 
battle  of  Oriskany ;  and  a  statue  of  Wasliimjton  for 
the  monument  at  Newburg,  Orange  county,  N.  Y. 
(1886-7). 

Daniel  Chester  French  (born  in  1850), produced 
in  Florence,  Italy, The  Minnte  Man  of  Concord,  an  he- 
roic statue  in  bronze,  which  was  unveiled  in  Con- 
cord, Mass.,  in  1875;  Peace  and  War,  a  colossal 
group,  which  is  now  in  the  custom-house  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.;  The  May  Queen,  and  a  life-size  statue 
of  Gov.  Chase  of  Michigan,  for  the  National  Jlem- 
orial  Gallery  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

HowAKD  Roberts  (born  in  1843)  is  best  known 
by  bis  bold  and  striking  statuettes  of  Lol'.<!  Wife 
and  Hypatia,  and  his  statue  of  Robert  Fulton,  which 
is  in  the  capitol  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

Jonathan  Scott  Hartley  (born  in  1845),  an  orig- 
inal member  of  the  Salmagundi  Sketch  Club  of 
New  York,  produced  The  Young  Samaritan  ;  King 
Rene's  Daughter  (1872);  Tlie  Whirlwind  (1878);  a 
Statue  of  Miles  Morgan,  erected  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  in  lS8"i;  and  bas-reliefs  on  the  monument  at 
Saratoga  that  commemorates  tlie  defeat  of  Bur- 
goyne. 

Olin  Levi  Warner  (born  in  1844),  an  associate 
of  the  National  Academy  since  1888,  produced  the 
statuettes  May,  and  Tirilight  (1878);  a  colossal 
medallion  of  K'lirin  /•'o//r.s(,  which  was  exhibited  at 
Philadelphia  in  1876;  Dancing  Xyin/)h  (1879);  Di- 
ana (1888)  ;  portrait-statue  of  Gor.  WiUiaia  H.  Buck- 
ingham,vfhich  was  placed  in  the  capitol  at  Hartford 
in  1883;  and  William  Lloyd  Garrison  (1885)  in  Bos- 
ton ;  besides  numerous  portrait-busts,  among  which 
are  those  of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  owned  by  the 
Union  League  Club  in  New  York,  and  the  Rev. 
William  F.  Morgan,  D.  D.  (1887). 

Most  of  the  younger  American  sculptors  obtained 
their  artistic  training  in  Paris,  France.  They  are 
much  less  imitating  the  purely  classical  in  art  than 
the  older  sculptors.  Their  work  is  by  no  means 
entirely  faultless  in  an  idealistic  sense.  The  real- 
istic tendency  is  largely  predominant  just  now. 
But  several  of  these  sculptors  give  promise  of  a 
gradual  blending  of  the  idealistic  and  realistic  ten- 
dencies and  thereby  of  a  bright  future  of  the  plas- 
tic art  in  this  country. 

SCURVY-GRASS  (Cochlearia  officinalis),  a  genus 
of  plants  having  small  white  flowers,  and  turgid 
.  many-seeded  pouches ;  the  cotyledons  accumbent. 
The  species  are  annual  or  biennial,  rarely  peren- 
nial, plants;  of  humble  growth,  with  branched 
smooth  stems,  smooth  simple  leaves,  and  terminal 
racemes  of  flowers.  They  are  valuable  for  their 
antiscorbutic  properties. 

SE-\BURY,  Samuel,  first  bishop  of "  the  Episco- 
pal Church  in  America,  born  at  Groton,  Conn.,  in 
1729,  died  in  New  London,  Conn.,  in  1796. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  London  in  1753. 
Returning  home  he  became  rector  at  .Jamaica,  L. 
I.,  in  1757,  nnd  at  Westchester  N.  Y..  in  1767.  As  was 


the  case  with  most  of  the  Episcopal  clergy  at  the 
time,  his  sympathies  were  with  the  royalists,  and 
in  1778  he  acted  as  chaplin  of  the  King's  American 
regiment.  He  was  obnoxious  to  the  American 
party  on  account  of  his  authorship  of  a  series  of 
pamphlets  signed  A.  W.  Farmer,  and  entitled.  Fret 
Thoughts  on  the  Proceedings  of  Hie  Continental  Con- 
gress; Tlie  Congress  Canvassed,  and  A  Reriev  of  the 
Controversy  between  Great  Britain  and  her  Colonic) 
(1774).  The  Episcopal  ministers  of  Connecticut,  in 
session  at  Woodbury  on  March  25,  1783,  elected  L)i. 
Seabury  bishop  of  Connecticut.  The  English 
bishops  could  not  consecrate  him,  because  as  a  for- 
eigner he  could  not  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  pre- 
scribed by  law.  At  last  three  Scottish  bishops, 
who  were  not  State  officials,  consecrated  him  at 
Aberdeen,  Nov.  14,  1784.  Dr.  Seabury  published 
three  volumes  of  .SVn/)07!s  (1791  and  1798). 

SEAHAM  HARBOR,  a  thriving  sea-port  of 
England,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  six  miles  south 
of  Sunderland.  Its  harbor  is  furnished'  with 
wharfs,  quays,  and  jetties,  and  the  town  contains 
extensive  bottle-works,  blast-furnaces,  an  iron- 
foundry,  and  chemical  works.  It  communicates  by 
railway  with  collieries  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  export  are  coal  and  agricultural 
produce.    Population,  7,182. 

SEALSFIELD,  Charles,  author,  born  at  Pop- 
pitz,  Moravia,  in  1793,  died  at  Solothurn,  Switzer- 
land, in  1864.  His  real  name  was  Carl  Postel.  He 
entered  the  convent  of  the  Knights  of  the  Cross  at 
Prague,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  there.  In  1822 
he  escaped  from  the  convent  into  Switzerland  and 
thence  to  America,  where  he  assumed  the  name 
Sealsfield.  For  a  short  time  he  wasconnected  with 
"Courier  des  Etats-Uiiis"  in  New  York  City.  In  1820 
he  visited  Germany  and  England,  but  returned  to 
America  in  1827.  He  then  passed  several  years  in 
Louisiana,  ilesico,  and  Central  America.  He  then 
published  at  Philadelphia  a  novel,  Toheah,  or  Tlie 
White  Rose  (1828).  Afterwards  he  settled  in  Solo- 
thurn, Switzerland.  He  wrote  many  books,  mostly 
in  German,  but  they  were  soon  translated  into 
French  and  English.  Among  these  were  Transat- 
lantische  Reiscski::en  DerVircy  und  die  Aristokraten,& 
Mexican  novel ;  Lebenshilder  aus  beiden  Herhisph(ire7i; 
Kordemind  Siiden,  and  Morton,  oder  die  grosse  Tour. 

SEA  MOUSE  (Aphrodite),  a  genus  of  dorsi- 
branchiate  annelida,  of  the  family  Aphroditidse 
found  on  the  British  and  French  coasts.  They  are 
distinguished  by  two  longitudinal  ranges  of  broad 
membranous  scales  covering  the  back,  under  which 
are  the  gills  in  the  form  of  little  fleshy  crests.  The 
scales  move  up  and  down  as  the  animal  respires, 
and  are  concealed  by  a  substance  resembling  tow 
or  felt,  which  permits  the  access  of  water  but  ex- 
cludes mud  and  sand.  The  head  is  furnished  with 
tentacles;  some  have  two  eyes  and  some  four.  The 
body  is  edged  with  spines,  its  sides  are  covered  with 
flexible  bristles  or  silky  hairs,  which  give  to  these 
creatures  a  wonderful  beauty  of  color,  unsur- 
passed by  that  of  humming  birds  or  the  most 
brilliant  gems. 

SEARCH,  Right  of.  For  general  information  on 
the  right  of  a  nation  to  search  ships  of  another 
nation  on  the  high  seas,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI, 
p.  608.  It  is  agreed  by  all  maritime  nations  that 
the  right  of  search  is  a  belligerent  right  and  can  be 
exercised  only  in  time  of  war  or  when  a  vessel  is 
reasonably  suspected  of  piracy.  The  terms  upon 
which  cruisers  of  the  various  nations  could  inquire 
into  the  character  of  merchant  vessels  upon  the 
seas,  so  as  to  suppress  piracy  or  slave  trade,  were 
not  in  dispute.  It  was  also  conceded  that  during 
war  the  cruisers  of  the  belligerents  eould  visit  and 
search  the  vessels  of  neutral  powers    for    the  prop- 


SEARCH 


1407 


erty  of  the  enemy  or  for  contraband  of  war,  and  for 
purpose  of  rendering  blockades  effectual,  provid- 
ed that  this  right  was  exercised  in  a  reasonable 
manner.  But  in  the  time  of  peace  such  right  was 
strenuously  denied  by  the  powers  and  only  partly 
yielded  by  Great  Britain,  which  power  persistingly 
claimed  the  right  to  search  American  merchant 
ships  in  peace  times  for  the  purpose  of  taking  from 
them  British  subjects  either  claimed  as  deserters 
from  her  marine  or  needed  for  the  royal  navy,  and 
with  a  view  to  impressing  them  for  that  service. 
At  a  later  time  Great  Britain  pressed  the  recog- 
nition of  her  right  of  search  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
pressing the  African  slave  trade. 

As  it  regarded  the  right  claimed  over  American 
■vessels  with  a  view  to  furnish  theBritish  navy  with 
seamen,  the  United  States  stoutly  resisted  the 
claims  of  Great  Britain  as  not  covered  by  inter- 
national recognition  and  as  an  encroachment  upon 
the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States,  that  was  not 
to  be  tolerated  and  was  particularly  liable  to 
abuse  in  view  of  the  close  relations  between  the 
people  of  the  two  countries  and  their  habits  of 
national  and  local  interchange.  The  United  States 
claimed  that  the  right  of  visitation  and  search  was 
merely  a  belligerent  right  that  could  exist  only  as 
an  incident  of  war ;  they  also  claimed  that  even  as  a 
belligerent  right  it  could  not  be  exercised  against 
a  neutral  vessel  as  an  assertion  of  proprietorship 
over  her  cargo  in  behalf  of  a  belligerent  or  her 
subjects,  as  that  would  be  the  exercise  of  a  sover- 
eign function  under  tlie  flag  of  another  sovereign. 
Much  less  could  that  belligerent  right  be  made  to 
cover  the  exercise  of  authority  over  persons  under 
the  protection  of  the  sovereign  under  whose  flag 
they  were. 

Great  Britain  relied  upon  the  strength  of  lier 
navy  rather  than  upon  the  established  usages  of 
nations,  and  persisted  in  a  course  that  ultimately 
brought  on  war  between  the  two  countries.  Dur- 
ing the  Napoleonic  wars  in  1807  it  was  charged  tliat 
British  seamen,  deserters  from  her  naval  service, 
were  harbored  at  Norfolk,  Va.  Some  British  ves- 
sels of  war  were  in  that  vicinity.  The  American 
frigate  Chesapeake  was  at  this  port  fitting  for 
sea.  She  at  length  sailed,  but  the  British  man-of- 
war  Leopard  preceded  her  and  arrested  her  pro- 
gress, demanding  the  right  to  search  her  for 
British  deserters.  This  demand  being  refused,  the 
British  ship  opened  (ire  on  the  Chesapeake  and  the 
latter,  not  being  prepared  for  such  an  attack, 
hauled  down  her  colors.  Search  was  made  and 
several  persons  were  taken  from  the  Chesapeake 
as  deserters  and  carried  away  by  the  Leopard, 
which  now  asserted  against  the  Chesapeake  none 
of  the  rights  of  the  capture. 

Congress  and  tlie  country  at  large  were  incensed 
at  this  flagrant  violation  of  sovereign  right.  Con- 
gress placed  an  eml)argo  on  trade  witli  Great 
Britain  as  a  conse<|uence  of  this  act.  A  Britisli 
commiasioi\er  sent  to  this  country  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  same  year  to  treat  in  regard  to  the  atl'air  of 
the  Chesapeake,  was  disposed  to  negotiate  as  it 
regarded  the  question  of  the;  right  to  make  search 
in  national  vessels  for  deserters.  The  United 
States  were  unwilling  to  discuss  that  question 
apart  from  tlie  general  question  of  the  right 
to  search  merchant  vessels,  and  nothing  came 
of  the  attempt  to  negotiate.  The  Embargo  law 
was  repealed  upon  the  accession  of  Mr.  Mad- 
ison to  the  presidency,  and  a  non-intercourse  law 
substituted  in  itsphice.  Aggressions  having  in  the 
meantime  been  made  by  France  on  American  com- 
merce both  Kngland  and  France  were  included  in 
this  non-intercourse  act,  their  armed  vessels  being 
excluded    from    the    ports  of   the    United    States, 


until  the  violations  of  the  neutral  rights  by  those 
nations  should  cease.  The  exclusion  of  armed  ves- 
sels was  soon  revoked  as  against  France  upon  as- 
surances that  tlie  objectionable  Milan  decree 
would  be  revoked,  but  was  continued  against 
Great  Britain.  British  sliips  were  stationed  upon 
the  American  coast  that  searched  all  American 
vessels  and  made  captures. 

In  1811,  Congress  made  military  preparations  in 
view  of  the  anticipated  hostilities  with  Great 
Britain,  and  declared  war  against  her.  The  hostil- 
ities that  ensued  exhibited,  in  June,  1812,  both  in 
their  character  and  duration,  the  absence  from  the 
policy  of  Gireat  Britain  that  led  to  them  of  any 
principle  worthy  of  being  vindicated  by  war.  The 
war  was  terminated  in  1814  by  the  treaty  of  (ihent. 
The  remarkable  feature  of  this  treaty  is,  t  lint  it 
did  not  adjust  in  terms  the  matter  of  difference 
between  the  two  countries,  although  in  eft'ect  it 
produced  that  result.  Since  that  time  Great  Briiain 
has  made  no  assertion  against  the  L'nited  States  of 
any  right  to  search  American  vessels  for  deserters 
from  her  navy. 

Tlie  international  efforts  to  suppress  the  African 
slave  trade  re-ojiened  the  subject  of  visitation  and 
search  in  its  application  to  the  detection  of  shive 
ships,  but  the  differences  that  existed  between  the 
two  countries  as  to  the  limit  of  that  right  were 
confined  within  the  limits  of  negotiation.  Great 
Britain  urged  the  necessity  of  treaty  provisions 
that  would  open  to  search  by  the  national  vessels 
of  each  country  the  mercliant  vessels  of  the  re- 
spective countries.  Tlie  United  States,  while  sym- 
pathizing with  the  object  of  tlie  effort  to  suppress 
the  slave  trade,  were  unwilling  to  create  a  prece- 
dent that  might  lead  to  complications  tending  to 
impair  their  maritime  interests. 

After  a  prolonged  effort  to  arrive  at  some  mode 
of  exercising  maritime  police  for  the  purpose  of 
suppressing  the  African  slave  trade  a  treaty  was 
concluded  with  Great  Britain  in  18ti2,  by  which  a 
limited  and  regulated  right  was  conferred  by  each 
nation  upon  the  armed  vessels  of  the  other  to  ex- 
amine its  merchant  vessels  when  reasonable 
grounds  existed  for  a  suspicion  that  they  were  en- 
gaged in  or  fitted  for  the  slave  trade.  This  right 
was  only  to  be  exercised  by  vessels  of  war  duly 
authorized  for  that  particular  service  and  carrying 
instructions  that  formed  part  of  the  treaty,  and 
was  to  be  exercised  against  merchant  vessels  only. 
The  right  of  visitation  was  to  be  exercised  only 
within  200  miles  of  tlie  coast  of  Africa,  s<iuth  of  32° 
N.  lat.,  and  within  tliirty  leagues  of  Cuba.  It  was 
required  that  when  a  vessel  should  lie  visited.  I  lie 
instructions  carried  by  tlie  visiting  sliip  should  he 
exhibited,  and  a  certificate  of  the  fact  and  ground 
of  search  given  to  the  commander  of  t,li(>  vessel 
visited,  stating  the  vessel  making  the  search,  and 
the  name  and  rank  of  its  commander. 

Mixed  courts  were  established  in  the  United 
States  and  at  points  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
Great  Britain,  on  the  African  coast,  in  which  both 
nations  participated  for  the  trial  of  cases  arising 
under  tlie  treaty,  and  the  vessels  of  each  country 
subjected  to  detention  were  to  be  sent  to  the  tri- 
bunal of  the  country  to  which  they  belongeil  for 
trial.  The  features  of  the  outfit  of  a  vessel  that 
should  be  regarded  as  indicat  ing  an  intention  to 
be  employed  in  the  slave  trade  were  carefully  de- 
tailed in  the  treaty.  Provision  was  made  for 
awarding  damages  where  the  detention  was  not 
justi'ied  by  Ihe  treaty,  and  also  for  the  liberation 
of  negroes  found  in  condemned  vessels. 

In  the  next  year.  1863,  this  right  of  search  was 
territorially  extended.  In  1870,  by  treaty,  the 
mixed  courts  were  abolished,  and  the  proper  courts 


1408 


S  E  A  R  S  —  S  E  D  G  W  I  C  K 


of  the  respective  nations  substituted  therefor, 
Aniericjin  vessels  to  be  sent  to  American  courts 
and  British  vessels  to  British  courts. 

The  riifhts  of  search  thus  established  between 
the  Unit^'d  States  and  Great  Britain,  as  it  concerns 
the  sla.e  trade,  was  assimilated  to  that  which  ex- 
ists under  international  recognition  in  the  case  of 
piracy,  but  subject  to  the  specific  regulations  we 
have  mentioned. 

SE.VR."^,  F'iAR.N'As,  American  educator,  born  at 
Sandistield.  Mass.,  in  1S02,  died  at  Saratoga  Springs, 
in  IfvSO.  After  studying  theology  at  Newton  Cen- 
ter. Mass.,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1827.  In 
1829  he  was  chosen  professor  in  Madison  Univer- 
sity. Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1833  he  resigned  and 
went  to  Germany  to  continue  his  philosophical, 
historical,  and  theological  studies.  On  his  return 
from  Germany  in  1836  he  was  elected  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Newton  Theological 
Institution,  and  in  1839  he  was  made  professor  of 
Christian  theology  and  president  of  the  institution. 
In  1838—11  he  edited  the  "  Christian  Review,"  and 
in  1848-55  he  serve.d  as  secretary  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Board  of  Education.  In  1855  Dr.  Sears  was 
chosen  president  of  Brown  University,  Providence, 
R.  I.,  which  offic"  he  ably  tilled  for  twelve  years. 
In  1867  he  resig  led  to  accept  the  office  of  general 
agent  of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund.  In  the 
administration  of  this  great  trust,  for  which  na- 
ture, training,  experience,  and  tastes  preeminently 
fitted  him,  he  remained  until  his  death.  His  last 
years  were  spent  at  Staunton,  Va.  Dr.  Sears 
ranked  with  the  most  eminent  scholars  and  educa- 
tors of  his  day.  He  was  the  author  fwith  Edwards 
and  Felton)  of  Cln.-<nicril  Sludieg  (1843)  ;  Tlie  Cic'ro- 
nian  C1844),  which  set  forth  the  Prussian  method 
of  teaching  Latin  ;  and  The  Life  of  Martin  Latlier 
(1850).  He  also  edited  Nohden's  German  Grammar, 
with  additions ;  Select  Treatises  of  Luther,  in  Ger- 
man, with  notes  (1S46) ;  and  Roget's  Thesaurus  of 
Enaligli   ir.-n/.s-  and  Phrases  (1854). 

SE.ISIDE  GR.A.PE  (Coccoloba  urifera),  a  small 
tree,  of  the  natural  order  Poh/gotue,  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies.  It  grows  on  the  sea  coasts;  has  orb- 
icular, cordate,  leathery,  shining  leaves,  and  a 
pleasant,  subacid,  eatable  fruit.  The  extract  of 
the  wood  is  extremely  astringent.  Tlie  wood  itself 
is  heavy,  hard,  durable,  and  beautifully  veined. 

SEATGN,  WiLLi.\M  WiN'STO.v,  journaiist,  born  in 
King  William  county,  Va.,  in  178.5,died  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  in  1866.  At  an  early  age  he  engaged  in 
political  journalism.  In  1812  he  settled  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  and,  in  partnership  with  his  brother- 
in-law,  .loseph  Gales.  .Ir.,  he  founded  there  the 
"  National  Intelligencer,"  a  journal  long  conspicu- 
ous for  its  ability,  fairness,  and  courtesy.  The  pub- 
lishers also  compiled  a  Register  of  Debates,  extend- 
ing from  1824  to  1837.  and  Anaah  of  Congress  from 
1798  to  1824.  These  works  are  of  great  value  for 
American  history.  From  1840  to  1851  Seaton  was 
mayor  of  the  City  of  Washington,  D.  C. 

SEATTLE,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of  King  county. 
Wash.,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dwamish 
River,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Puget  Sound.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  L^niversity  of  Washington,  and  the 
trade-center  of  a  rich  coal  and  lumber  region. 
Population  in  1890.  42,837. 

SEBASTIANISTAS,  the  name  given  in  Portugal 
and  Brazil  to  persons  who  believe  in  the  future  re- 
turn to  earth  of  the  king  Dom  Sebastian,  who  fell 
in  the  battle  of  Alcazarquebir,  a.  d.  1578,  while  lead- 
ing on  his  armv  against  the  Moors. 

SEBESTEN.'or  Sehi.st.vn  Plum,  the  fruit  of  the 
Cordia  Mijra,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Cordiacece. 
a  native  of  the   East  Indies.    The  tree  has  ovate 


leaves  and  an  egg-shaped  fruit,  which  was  formerly 
an  article  of  the  European  materia  medica.  it  is 
believed  to  be  the  I'ersea  of  Dioscorides. 

SECESSION,  the  withdrawal  of  the  (formerly, 
slaveholding  States  of  the  Union  from  those  that 
adhered  to  the  Union  and  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  South  Carolina  declared  itself  out 
of  the  Union  in  1860,  and  was  followed  by  several 
other  slaveholding  States,  which  together  formed  a 
government  styled  '"  The  Confederate  States  of 
America."  This  movement  was  the  natural  out- 
come of  the  doctrine  of  "  States'  Rights,"  according 
to  which  every  State  has  the  right  to  interpret  the 
United  States  constitution  for  itself,  whatever  may 
be  the  decision  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
on  the  subject,  and,  so  interpreting,  retire  from  the 
LTnion.  Hence,  there  is  no  right  to  force  it  to  re- 
turn. It  is  anotlier  form  of  "  nullification,"  by 
which  South  Carolina  declared  in  1832  the  existing 
tariff  law  nidi,  roid,  and  no  law,  and  forbade  the 
payment  of  import  duties  within  its  jurisdiction. 
It  is  revolution  under  a  soft  name,  intended  to 
throw  a  disguise  over  the  proceeding.  No  stable 
government,  like  that  of  the  United  States,  will 
admit  the  right  of  secession,  as  our  late  civil  war 
has  clearly  shown. 

SE(;liET,  one  of  the  prayers  of  the  Mass,  of  the 
same  general  form  with  the  "collect,"  but  recited 
by  the  priest  in  so  low  a  voice  as  not  to  be  heard  by 
the  people.  It  follows  immediately  after  the  obla- 
tion of  the  Eucharistic  bread  and  wine.  This  use 
of  silent  prayer  in  the  public  service  has  been  a 
subject  of  controversy  between  Catholics  and  Pro- 

SEOROlE,  a  small  town  of  Bengal,  British  In- 
dia, three  miles  northwest  of  Benares.  It  contains 
most  of  the  civil  establishments,  the  military  can- 
tonments, and  the  residences  of  most  of  the  British 
population  connected  with  Benares.  Among  the 
public  buildings  area  Christian  church  and  chapel, 
a  court  of  justice,  the  treasury,  the  jail,  and  a  mint. 

SECURITY  :  in  law  a  deed  or  instrument  affect- 
ing real  or  personal  estate,  whose  object  is  to  secure 
the  payment  of  moiiey  or  other  primary  debt  or 
obligation.     Such  are  bonds  and  mortgages. 

SEDALIA,  a  city  of  Missouri.  Population  in 
1890,  14.068.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI.  p.  619. 

SEDAN  CHAIR,  a  portable  covered  vehicle 
which  carries  a  single  person  and  is  borne  on  two 
poles  by  two  men.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
town  of  Sedan,  in  the  north  of  France,  where  this 
species  of  conveyance  is  said  to  have  lieen  invented. 
Sedan  chairs  were  largely  used  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  18th  century,  but  they  are  now  seldom 
seen  except  for  the  transport  of  the  sick. 

SEDGWICK.  C.\Tii.\Ri.vE  Maki.\.  an  American  au- 
thoress, born  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  in  1789;  died  at 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1867.  After  her  father's  death 
in  1813,  she  undertook  the  management  of  a  pri- 
vate school  for  young  ladies,  which  she  conducted 
for  fifty  years.  In  1822  she  pul)lished  her  first 
work  of  fiction,  A  Nctr  England  Tab.  Its  success 
led  to  a  second  venture,  Eedtrood.  Both  of  these 
novels  were  anonymous.  Then  followed  Tlie  Trav- 
eller; Hope  Leslie,  or  Early  Times  in  Massachusetts; 
Clarence,  a  Tale  of  Our  Own  Times;  Le  Bossu,  one  of 
the  Tales  of  the  (rlauher.  Spa  and  The  Linwoods,  or 
Sixty  Years  Since  in.  America.  Then  followed,  The 
Poor  Rich  Man  and  Rich  Poor  Man;  Lire  and  Let 
Lire,  and  in  1838  A  Lore-Token  for  Children,  and 
Means  and  Ends,  or  Self-Training.  Her  last  book 
was  Letters  to  My  Pupils  (1862). 

SEDGWICK,  John,  an  American  general,  born 
at  Cornwall,  Conn.,  in  1813, died  near  Spottsylvania 
Court-House,  Va.,  in  1864.  Having  been  educated 
at  West  Point  he  took  part  in  the  Mexican  war, 


^  E  D  <>^^'  I  0  K  —  S  E  E  D     F  A  K  M  S 


1409 


fighting  at  Cerro  Gordo,  Churubusco,  ilolino  del 
Key,  Chapultepec,  and  at  the  capture  of  the  City 
of  Mexico.  In  August,  1861,  he  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and  assigned  for 
service  in  thearmy  of  the  Potomac.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  arriving  after  a 
toilsome  march,  just  in  time  to  decide  the  day.  At 
Antietam  he  bore  a  conspicuous  part,  leading  a  di- 
vision, and  exposing  himself  fearlessly.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1862,  he  was  promoted  major-general  of  volun- 
teers. He  fought  bravely  at  Fredericksburg, 
Chancellorsville,  Gettysburg,  Rappahannock  Sta- 
tion, and  in  the  Wilderness  campaign.  AtSpottsyl- 
vania  Court-House,  May  9, 1864.  while  placing  some 
cannon  in  the  entrenchments,  he  was  struck  in  the 
head  by  a  bullet  tired  by  a  Confederate  sharp- 
shooter and  instantly  killed.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  at  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point  in  1868. 

SEDGWICK,  Theodore,  an  American  stales- 
man,  l)orn  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1746,  died  at 
Boston,  in  1813.  In  1766  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  and  practiced  law  at  Great  Barrington,  Mass. ; 
but  he  soon  removed  to  Sheffield,  Mass.  In  1776 
he  was  aide  to  Gen.  .lohn  Thomas  in  his  espe,di- 
tion  to  Canada,  and  subsequently  he  was  active  in 
procuring  supplies  for  the  Continental  army.  In 
1785-6  he  was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress. In  tlie  winter  of  1787  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  suppression  of  Shay's  rebellion.  In 
1788  he  was  speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  house 
of  representatives  and  a  member  of  the  State  con- 
vention for  the  ratification  of  tlie  Federal  Consti- 
tution. In  1789-96,  and  again  in  1799-lSOl  he  was 
a  member  of  Congress,  and  from  1802  until  his 
death  he  was  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Massa- 
chusetts, .ludge  Sedgwick  was  a  laborious  and 
highly-accomplislied  statesman  and  jurist,  and  an 
enthusiastic  I'"ederalist.  In  17S0  he  defended  Eliz- 
abeth Freeman,  a  nesro  slave  who  had  tied  from 
her  master  for  cruel  treatment,  with  sucli  skill  that 
the  court  pronounced  her  free.  Afterwards,  while 
judge,  he  strengthened  the  decision  by  declaring 
that  "one  man  could  not  have  legitimate  property 
in  another." 

His  son,  Theodore  Sedgwick,  a  lawyer,  liorn  at 
Sheffield,  Mass.,  in  1780,  died  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  in 
1830,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1801,  and  practiced 
his  profession  with  great  success  at  Allnmy,  N.  Y., 
till  1822,  when  lie  removed  to  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
owing  to  impaired  health.  He  was  a  niomher  of 
the  Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1824-25  and 
again  in  1827.  In  the  last  named  year  he  carried 
through  a  bill  authorizing  the  construction  of  a 
railroad  from  Hoston  to  .VIbany,  \.  Y.,  through  the 
Green  Mountains.  He  was  an  earnest  opponent  of 
slavery,  and  an  advocate  of  temi)erance  and  free 
trade.  His  published  works  are  Hints  to  my 
CoHnin/meo  (1826),  and  Public  and  Private  Economy 
(3  vols."  1836-39). 

His  son,  Theodore  Sedgwick,  a  lawyer,  born  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1811,  died  at  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
in  1859,  after  graduating  at  (Jolnmbia  College,  X. 
Y.,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1S3:!.  He  then  be- 
came an  attach*"-  of  the  United  States  legation  at: 
Paris.  On  his  return  home  in  1835  he  practiced 
law  successfully  in  Xew  York  City  till  1850.  In 
1858  he  was  appointed  United  States  atloriH>y  for 
the  southern  district  of  Xew  York,  which  office  he 
held  till  his  death.  He  published  a  .Vcmr.i(r  o/  Gov. 
William  Livinrj«ton  n833);  a  Treatise  on  the  Measure 
of  Damages,,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  I'rinciples  which 
govern  the  Amount  of  Compensation  in.  Suits  at  Law 
(1847),  and  various  other  legal  papers. 

SEDITION',  the  incitement  of  discontent  against 
the   government    and  the   stirring  up  of  a  factions 


conmiotion,  without  eommittiug  any  overt  act,  as 
by  inflammatory  speeches  or  writings  which 
threaten  to  disturb  the  tranquility  of  the  state.  It 
does  not  amount  to  treason,  much  less  to  riot,  be- 
cause there  are  no  violent  acts.  At  the  present 
day  the  term  "sedition"  has  hardly  a  place  in  the 
law  language  of  the  United  Stales.  Its  only  use  in 
the  American  statutes  is  in  connection  with  the 
regulations  for  the  government  of  the  army  and 
navy  where  sedition  is  named  as  a  military  offense. 

The  right  of  the  people  to  assenilile  and  delib- 
erate upon  public  grievances  is  fixed  in  the  consti- 
tution of  tlie  United  States, and  those  of  the  States, 
so  that  the  popular  assembly,  whether  deliberating 
upon  changes  in  the  structure  or  operations  of  the 
government  or  on  the  conduct  of  tliose  adniiiiister- 
ing  it,  is  placed  upon  the  highest  ground  of 
privilege  beyond  the  control  of  the  law-making 
authority  so  long  as  its  deliberations  are  confined 
to  rational  methods  to  the  exclusion  of  turbulence 
and  violence. 

What  has  been  done  by  constitutional  authority 
to  conserve  the  formation  and  expression  of  collec- 
tive opinion  as  affecting  the  government  has  also 
been  done  for  the  protection  of  individual  opinion. 
The  liberty  of  speech  and  of  the  press  secured  by 
all  our  constitutions  assures  to  the  individual  im- 
munity in  the  free  expression  of  his  opinions, 
though  involving  in  condemnation  the  conduct  of 
the  government  or  of  its  officers,  placing  such  ex- 
pressions upon  the  ground  of  privilege  and  freeing 
him  from  responsibility  except  for  the  truth  of 
statements  prejudicial  to  personal  character. 

These  constitutional  riglits  preclude  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  upon  wliicli  the  doctrine  of 
sedition  rests  to  the  relation  between  the  citizen 
and  his  government  so  long  as  force  is  absent.  As 
the  doctrine  of  bygone  times  souglit  to  .shield  the 
government  from  popular  criticism,  the  modern 
constitutional  liberty,  on  the  other  hand,  invites 
that  criticism  and  bestows  upon  it  the  fullest  im- 
munity.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  619-620. 

SEED  FARMS  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES.* 
Seeds  of  all  staple  garden  and  farm  grains,  fruits, 
and  vegetables  have  been  in  steady  demand  since 
the  first  settlement  of  the  country.  In  early  times 
families  preserved  seed  supplies  from  their  own 
productions  from  year  to  year,  in  most  cases  from 
whatever  might  be  left  on  the  farm,  while  in  other 
cases  a  careful  selection  was  made  and  purer  and 
better  seeds  obtained,  which  not  only  furnish  the 
home  supply,  but  were  eagerly  sought  by  friends 
and  neighbors.  For  many  years  little  was  kn(]Wn 
of  seeds  as  a  commercial  product,  and  even  at  the 
present  time  in  many  rural  comnninities  some  of 
the  more  common  farm  seeds  are  freely  exclianged 
among  the  farmers. 

The  first  regular  seed  farm  of  those  now  in  the 
country,  as  far  as  we  have  any  record  was  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  nursery  luisiness  in 
Philadelphia  in    1781. 

The  general  gr<jwth  of  the  country,  the  great  in- 
crease of  population  in  cities  and  village.^  and  con- 
sequent establishment  of  market  gardens,  the  de- 
mand for  choice  seeds  and  often  the  inability  to 
procure  them,  induced  market  gardeners  to  grow 
and  save  seeds,  at -first  for  their  own  uses  only, 
later  to  sujiply  an  ever  increasing  demand,  until 
some  finally  drifted  into  seed  |)roduction  as  a  reg- 
ular business. 

This  branch  of  horticulture  has  never  before  been 
made  the  subject  of  census  inquiry.  Therefore, 
with  no  recorded  data  to  guide  in  the  work,  it  has 

♦Reported  by  J.  H.  Hale,  for  tlie  Census  of  1890,  alid  issued 
as  a  Census  Bulletin,  .September  Ibill. 


1410 


SEED    FARMS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


been  .somewhat  difficult  to  procure  even  the  few 
facts  ami  tiifures  of  tlie  tabh's  herewith  suljmitted. 

After  careful  iucjuiry  by  circular  letter  (often 
many  times  repeated)  to  each  and  every  seed  dealer 
in  tlie  I'nited  .States,  a  record  was  made  showing  a 
total  of  5!;Hi  farms  in  the  United  States  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  seed  production.  These  farms  occupy 
169,851  acres  of  land,  of  which  OH.SliTy  acres  were 
reported  as  devoted  to  seed  production  during  the 
census  year,  divided  as  follows :  1,437  acres  of  aspar- 
agus ;  12,905  of  beans  ;  919  of  beets  ;  1,268  of  cab- 
bage ;  569  of  carrots  ;  11  of  cauliflower  ;  one-half  of 
celeriac;  71  of  celery  ;  13  of  collards;  Po  of  corn 
salad  ;  15,004  of  sweet  corn  ;  16,322 of  lield  corn  ;  I'a 
of  cress  ;  10,219  of  cucumljers  ;  39''4'  of  dandelion  ; 
252  of  eggplants;  16  of  endive;  105  of  kale;  19  of 
kohl-ral)i;  13io  of  leek;  486I2  of  lettuce;  5,149  of 
muskmelons;  3,978  of  watermelons;  2  of  nastur- 
tium ;  13  of  okra  ;  3,560  of  onions  ;  352  of  onion  sets  ; 
75  of  parsley  ;  374  of  parsnips ;  7,971  of  peas ;  365  of 
pepper,  4,102  of  potatoes;  105  of  pumpkins;  662  of 
radislies;  25  of  rhubarb;  26  of  salsify;  150  of 
spinach  ;  4,356  of  tomatoes  ;  885  of  turnips  ;  4,663  of 
squashes,  and  SI  of  flower  seeds. 

Aside  from  these  special  seed  farms  which  have 
been  under  investigation,  there  are  a  number  of 
extensive  dealers  in  seeds  having  test  gardens  and 
farms,  where  side  by  side  all  new  and  old  varieties 
are  grown  for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  ( )n  these 
farms  are  also  tested  all  seeds  handled  by  these 
dealers,  whose  custom  it  is  to  secure  their  supplies 
by  importation  and  by  contracting  with  farmers  in 
various  favored  sections  of  this  country  to  grow 
any  particular  variety  of  seed,  best  adapted  to  that 
farmer's  land  or  locality.  Some  of  these  are  among 
the  regular  seed  farms  here  enumerated ;  others 
grow  one  or  more  varieties  of  seeds  each  year  only 
as  a  branch  of  their  other  farming  operations,  and 
as  no  special  note  of  their  productions  was  made  by 
the  regular  census  enumerator,  and  the  dealers  in 
some  instances  have  failed  or  refused  to  furnish 
the  names  of  these  farmers,  it  has  been  impossible 
to  get  at  them  by  special  schedule,  which  has  been 
the  medium  for  collecting  this  information.  There- 
fore, while  this  report  shows  the  extent  and  pro- 
duction of  the  seed  farms  proper,  the  total  of  garden 
seeds  produced  in  the  United  States  is  considerably 
in  excess  of  the  amount  here  given.  One  dealer 
reports  supplying  farmers  annually  1,000  bushels 
of  peas  and  2,000  bushels  of  beans  for  planting,  and 
then  buying  Ijack  all  the  seeds  that  can  be  grown 
from  this  stock,  which  amounts  to  about  10,000 
bushels  each  of  jieas  and  beans ;  and  as  many  other 
dealers  have  contracts  in  like  proportion  on  various 
other  seeds,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  garden  seed 
business  alone  is  assuming  great  importance  in  the 
agticulture  of  the  country. 

Again,  while  the  greater  amount  of  seed  grains, 
cotton,  tobacco,  etc.,  used  upon  farms  is  of  home 
and  neighljorhood  production  and  is  freely  ex- 
changed for  labor  or  for  other  products,  there  are 
in  nearly  every  county  one  or  more  successful 
farmers  who  by  a  careful  selection  of  seed  stock 
and  by  better  methods  secure  greater  returns  than 
iheir  neighbors  and  are  able  to  dispose  of  part  of 
their  productions  for  seed  purposes  at  advanced 
rates.  These  men  can  not  be  classed  as  seed  farm- 
ers, and  would  hardly  be  able  to  estimate  what  pro- 
portion of  their  crops  was  sold  for  seed  purposes 
annually  ;  Init  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  such  farmers 
produce  one-third  of  all  the  small  grains,  corn,  po- 
tatoes, tobacco,  and  cotton  seed  planted.  In  addi- 
tion to  these,  there  are  annually  sold  for  seed  pur- 
poses upward  of  1,000,000  bushels  of  selected  grains, 
both  of  the  standard  and  newer  varieties,  very  little 
of  which  is  produced  upon  regular  seed  farms.  The 


same  is  true  of  grass  seeds,  which  are  produced  in 
enormous  quantities  in  New  York.  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Michigan,  Min- 
nesota, Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  largely 
supplying  the  demands  of  the  country  as  well  as 
furnishing  a  considerable  surplus  for  export.  The 
quantity  and  value  of  this  production  will  be  shown 
in  the  final  census  reports. 

The  following  table  shows,  by  States,  the  num- 
ber of  seed  farms  in  the  United  States,  number  of 
acres  of  land  in  farms,  average  value  per  acre,  val- 
ue of  tools  and  implements  used,  and  total  value  of 
farms,  tools,  implements,  buildings,  etc : 


Geographical 
Divisions. 

=.St: 

0  a  . 

2"°  2 
^^1 

Value  of 
imple- 
ments. 

Total  value 
of  farjii.s. im- 
plements, 
and  builti- 
ings. 

The  I'nited  States 

,590 

fi  1 09 ,851 

$221 .7:«  90 

$18,325,935  8* 

North  Atlantic  . 

•-■5.S      47..S13 

^20  00 
.50  00 

87  50 
216  67 
200  00 

96  00 
HI  19 
200  00 
118  75 

121,212  61 

7,8.56,492  8« 

80  00 

625  00 

1,050  00 

13,750  00 

3,416  70 

44,806  25 

43.014  66 

4,800  00 

10,170  00 

23355  00 

6.594  0» 

24,543  75 

64,140  26 

809.448  0« 

141,i;i7  53 

1,501,653  56 

2,176,076  72 

2,333,066  68 

804,832  37 

400,698  64 

New   Hampshire. . 
Vermont.  

5 
6 
25 
5 
8.5 
78 
34 
18 

89 

225 
618 
3.000 
605 
12.665 
18.2.52 
6.272 
6,066 

4,958 

Massachusetts  — 

Rhode   Island 

Connecticut 

New  York . 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

South  Atlantic. . 

Maryland 

Dist.  of  Columbia. 
Virginia           

2 
1 
3 
1 
1 
4 
31 
46 

157 

212 
12(1 
249 
50 
180 
760 
2,627 
760 

88,096 

125  00 
200  00 

800  00 
100  00 

.S2,.S65  0« 
20.000  00 
15.000  0» 
4.00(J  00 
7.400  00 

82,100  oe 

177,000  00 
62333,64 

$7,095,665  42 

West  Virgrinia. .    .. 
North  Carolina... 
South  Carolina.... 

40  00             50  00 
".0  00,           100  00 
100  00|       1,300  00 
40  00        9,921  00 
45  OOi       t  584  no 

Florida    .       ... 

North  Central... 

$54,425  54 

Ohio    

32 

12 
21 
20 
21 

6 
18 

2 

1 
IS 

0 

57 

19,048 

7,092 

13  ,.357 

11.620 

'  2  919 

1,140 

11,152 

790 

60 

13,870 

6.048 

23.130 

$95  00 
80  00 

125  00 
40  71 
50  00 
32  50 
53  75 
SO  00 
30  00 
63  20 
50  00 

23,110  80 
3,800  00 
8,220  14 
4,500  00 
8,500  00 
1,200  00 
3,578  60 
400  00 
75  00 
9,675  00 
l,3fi0  00 

4.950  00 

2,110,000  0« 

600,918  oe 

1,717.432  25 
.527  .3.50  Oi 

Michig^an 

180,878  50 
47,787  oe 

033,923  67 
08.000  00 
3.000  0« 

Iowa 

North  Dakota 

298,680  0« 
1,015,200  0« 

South  Central(f-) 

2 
35 

2 
17 

1 

36 

2.50 

21,.560 

80 

1,200 

40 

6,854 

100  00 
40  00 
&5  00 
25  00 
30  00 

300  00 
3,500  00 

100  00 

1,000  00 

50  00 

17,793  75 

Tennessee    

Mississippi 

Texas 

937,500  0« 

4.900  0« 

42  ,.000  00 

Western 

1,951,878  94 

1 
2 
17 
15 

"Washington 

Oregon. 

California 

1.50 

289 

6,415 

100  00 
170  00 
287  .50 

100  00 

1.700  no 

15.993  75 

18,000  0« 

8(1  ONS  00 

1.853,290  94 

n  This  amount  represents  the  total  acreage  in  farms,  only 
a  portion  of  which  is  cultivated  for  seeds  any  one  year.  The 
balance  is  devoted  to  grass,  pasturage,  or  a  rotation  of  farm 
crops  in  preparation  for  seed  production.  Some  seed  farm- 
ers, however.  lease  a  consideral'le  area  of  land  or  contract 
to  have  seeds  grown  for  them  by  neighboring  farmers,  and 
so  show  a  greater  acreage  of  seed  production  than  the  total 
acreage  of  their  farms.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  North 
Atlantic  division. 

h  No  record  of  any  seed  farm  in  Alabama,  except  a  float- 
ing newspaper  paragraph,  which  credits  one  man  with  the 
production  of  32.000  pounds  of  garden  seeds,  which  were  sold 
to  northern  dealers. 

Of  the  59G  seed  farms  in  the  United  States,  258. 
or  nearly  one-half,  are  in  the  North  Atlantic  divis- 
ion, the  original  center  of  seed  production.  These 
farms  have  an  acreage  of  47.813,  or  an  average  of 
185  acres  per   farm,  while   in    the    North  Central 


SEEDLESS    FRUITS  — SEIR-FISH 


1411 


division  there  are  157  farms,  with  an  acreage  of 
87,096,  or  an  average  of  555  acres  per  farm.  The 
seed  farms  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  aver- 
•  age  142  acres  per  farm,  while  tiiose  of  Iowa  and 
Nebraska  are  695  acres  in  extent,andare  producing 
seeds  on  a  scale  of  equal  magnitude  to  the  other 
products  of  that  section  of  tlie  country.  Several 
of  these  seed-producing  farms  embrace  nearly  3,000 
acres  each. 

The  table  showing  date  of  establishment  as  seed 
farms  indicates  in  a  general  way  the  growth  and 
prosperity  of  the  business.  So  far  as  reported, 
there  were  but  2  seed  farms  in  the  country  previous 
to  1800  (one  of  these  was  established  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1784.  and  the  other  at  Enfield,  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  1795),  only  3  ia  1820,  6  in  18.30,  19  in  1840, 
34  in  leSO,  53  in  1860,  100  in  1870,  207  in  1880,  and 
200  more  were  established  between  1880  and  1890, 
leaving  189  unaccounted  for  as  to  date  of  establish- 
ment. But  as  the  proprietors  of  the  older  seed 
farms  take  great  pride  in  this  matter,  it  is  safe  to 
assume  that  90  per  cent,  of  the  unreported  farms 
have  come  into  existence  within  the  past  20   years. 

SEEDLESS  FRUITS.  Apples  without  seeds 
have  been  occasionally  found  during  the  entire 
history  of  the  fruit.  Dr.  E.  E.  Sturtevant  in  a 
recent  paper  states,  "The  better  varieties  of  the 
apple  usually  contain  some  abortive  seeds,  and 
they  are  sometimes  individually  to  be  found  seed- 
less. As  a  rule,  when  there  is  a  tendency  to  abor- 
tive seeds,  the  larger  and  flijer  the  apple,  the 
greater  the  number  of  abortive  seeds."  The  opinion 
has  been  ventured  by  some  distinguished  fruit 
culturist  that  apples  propagated  from  cuttings  of 
trees  bearing  seedless  fruit  are  to  be  preferred. 
The  banana,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  is 
one  of  the  best  illustrations  of  seedless  fruit,  though 
it  is  probably  true  that  the  wild  plants  were  seed- 
bearing.  The  so-called  "dried  currants"  are  seed- 
loss  grapes  from  Corinth.  In  California  these  grapes 
produce  seeds,  and  attempts  to  raise  the  standard 
article  have  failed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Sultana 
grape  of  California  is  seedless,  as  are  also  some 
vines  of  the  Black  Hamburg.  Among  citrus  fruits 
the  orange  and  lemon  are  prominent  for  lack  of 
seeds  in  some  sorts.  Cross-breeding  seems  to  have 
developed  this  sterile  condition,  for  example,  in 
the  "Washington  navel"  or  "Riverside"  orange, 
and  the  Mediterranean  sweet  there  are  l)ut  few 
seeds.  The  "Eureka"  variety  of  lemon  bears  but 
few  seeds,  and  one  of  the  best  of  lime  fruits  is  one 
without  seeds.  In  the  gourd  family  there  are  many 
varieties  with  few  seeds.  Thus  forced  cucumbers 
under  glass  have  a  solid  flesh,  and  are  not  con- 
sidered good  if  seed  bearing.  Melons  of  the  highest 
quality  are  not  "seedy,"  and  fine  varieties  of  garden 
pumpkins  are  propagated  by  slips  in  the  South. 
The  question  whetlier  or  not  the  best  Cumberland 
melon  seed  is  found  in  the  fruits  with  least  seeds 
is  worthy  of  extended  careful  investigation. 

SEELEY,  John  Robert,  an  English  author,  bon; 
in  London  in  1834.  He  was  made  professor  of  Latin 
in  University  College,  London,  in  1863,  and  professor 
of  modern  history  at  Cambridge  in  186!).  In  1865 
he  wrote  Ecce  Homo,  a  survey  of  the  life  and  work 
of  Christ,  which  produced  a  profound  sensation 
throughout  the  English-speaking  workl.  In  1882 
he  published  Nnlnrtd  Rr.U(jinv,  a  work  which  has  at- 
tracted much  less  attention  than  7iV,('  llmno.  His 
Life  and  Times  of  Stein  (3  vols.  1879)  lias  made 
known  in  England  the  true  source  of  the  recent 
greatness  of  the  CTPrman  empire;  while  the  Ex- 
pansion of  England  (IHH3),  is  a  graphic  representa- 
tion of  the  growth  of  the  British  empire.  His  Short 
ffintori)  of  Snpoleon  I.  (1886),  is  a  severi-  indictment 
of  the  French  emjpror  as  a  selfish  character. 


SEELYE,  Julius  Hawley,  educator,  born  at 
Bethel,  Conn.,  in  1824.  After  studying  theology  at 
Auburn,  N.  Y.,  and  Halle,  Germany,  he  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  first  Reformed  Church  at 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  until  1858. 
In  that  year  he  was  elected  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  at  Amherst  College.  In  1874  he 
was  chosen  to  Congress  and  served  till  1877.  Then 
he  was  installed  as  president  of  Amherst  College, 
which  office  he  held  for  twelve  years.  His  earnest 
christian  character  has  served  to  raise  the  stand- 
ard of  education,  of  public  opinion,  and  political 
action.  Seelye  lias  published  The  W(v.i,  The  Tnit/i 
and  the  Life  (1874),  and  Cheixtinn  Missiojis  (1875). 

His  brother,  Laukens  Clark  Seelye,  educator 
born  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  in  1837;  studied  theology  at 
Andover,  Jlass.,  and  at  Berlin  and  Heidelberg, 
Germany.  In  1863  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  a 
Congregational  church  at  Springfield,  Mass.  From 
1865  till  1873  he  was  professor  of  English  literature 
andoratory  at  Amherst  College,  and  in  1874  he  be- 
came president  of  Smith  College  for  young  women 
at  Northampton,  Mass,  The  degree  of  I).  I),  was 
conferred  on  him  by  Union  College,  Schenectady, N 
Y.,  in  1875. 

SEGGAR,  a  vessel  used  by  potters  to  protect  del- 
icate articles  from  the  too  fierce  acticn  of  the  Are 
in  the  kiln. 

SEGNO,  a  word  used  in  musical  nutation  in  con- 
nection with  marks  of  repetition.  AVhen  a  part  is 
to  be  repeated,  not  from  the  beginning,  but  from 
some  other  point,  the  mark  :  S:  is  placed  over  the 
point  where  the  repetition  is  to  commence,  and  the 
words  Dal  Segno  (or  d.n.)  are  written  at  the  close 
of  the  part  to  be  repeated. 

SEGORBE,  a  small  town  in  Spain,  in  the  modern 
province  of  Castellon,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pal- 
ancia,  in  a  valley  renowned  for  the  beauty  of  its 
scenery  and  for  its  amazing  fertility,  twenty  miles 
northwest  of  IMurviedro.  It  stands  on  a  hill  be- 
tween two  castles,  and  contains  stately  houses, 
numerous  churches  and  a  cathedral.  Brandy-dis- 
tilling is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent,  and  there 
are  flour  and  paper  mills.    Population,  6,200. 

SEGUIN,  Edouari),  physician,  born  at  Clamecy, 
France,  in  1812,  died  at  New  York  City  in  1880.  In 
studying  medicine  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
training  of  idiots,  and  thoroughly  investigated  the 
cause  and  philosophy  of  idiocy,  and  the  licst  means 
of  dealing  with  it.  In  M<3U  he  ojieiied  the  first 
school  for  young  idiots  in  the  Faubourg  St.  IMartin, 
Paris.  He  was  soon  able  to  obtain  remarkable  re- 
sults by  his  system  of  training.  In  1.844  a  commis- 
sion from  the  French  Academy  of  Science  exam- 
ined his  plan  of  training  idiotic  children  and 
reported  that  Dr.  Segnin  had  solved  this  problem. 
He  then  publislied  his  Traitement  Monil.  IJiii/iene  ,  t 
Edueatioii  des  Idiulx  (1846),  which  is  acec|i(cd  .'is  I  lie 
standard  authority.  After  the  revolution  of  1848 
I)r.  Segnin  emigrated  to  America.  Hero  he  visited 
the  schools  for  idiotic  children  in  South  Boston  and 
Barre,  Mass.,  and  Albany,  N.  Y.  After  re-visiting 
France  twice  he  settled  in  New  York  City  in  1863, 
where  he  later  on  established  the  Segnin  Physio- 
logical school  for  feeble-minded  children  which  si  ill 
exists.  He  also  enjoyed  a  high  repute  as  a  specialist 
in  nervous  diseases.  Among  his  publications  in 
English  were  Idioeii  and  its  Treatment  by  the  I'hys- 
io/ofiieal.  Method  (18(i6);  Medical  Therniometri/  (1871), 
and  Report  as  Commissioner  to  the  ]'icnna  Exposition 
to  the  Secretary  of  State  (1876). 

SEIR-FISH  {Cyhitim  ciiittaliin)),!i  fish  of  the  fam- 
ily Scomheridie,  having  iinlets  and  the  sides  of  the 
tail  k(>eled,  and  the  teeth  compressed  and  sharp. 
It  inliabils  the  seas  of  (he  East  Indies,  and  is  one 
of  their  most  valuable  fishes.    In  size  and  form  it  is 


1412 


SEISS  —  SENEGAS 


very  similar  to  tlie  salmon,  which  its  flesh  resem- 
bles ill  lirmness  and  flavor,  although  of  a  white 
color. 

SEISS,  Joseph  Augustus,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
born  at  Graceliam,  Frederick  county,  Md.,  in  1823. 
Having  studied  theology  he  became  pastor  at 
Wartinsburs,  V'a.,  in  1843.  Afterwards  he  had 
charge  of  churches  at  Cumberland,  Md.  (1847), 
Baltimore  {185u'),  and  at  Philadelphia  first  of  St. 
John's  (1858),  and  later  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Communion  (1874).  He  edited  the  "Prophetic 
Times."  a  monthly,  in  1863-75,  and  the  "Lutheran" 
in  1873-79.  Seiss  is  distinguished  as  a  preacher, 
and  as  the  author  of  a  number  of  books,  especially 
in  defense  of  millenarian  views.  His  Orispel  in  the 
Stars  (1882)  considers  the  constellations  to  be  a 
typical  display  of  Cliristian  truth.  Among  his 
later  writings  are  Luther  and  the  Reformation 
(1883);  Left II res  on  tlie  Epistles  of  the  Church  Year 
(1885);  I{i(iht  Life  (ISStij  ;  T/tc  Children  of  Silence, 
and  Christ's  Descent  into  Hell  (1887). 

SELBORNE,  Rouniiell  Palmer,  E.\rl  of,  an 
English  lawyer,  born  at  Mixbury,  England,  in  1812, 
In  1837  he  was  called  to  the  l)ar  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
and  in  1849  he  was  made  liueen's  counsel.  In  18(31 
he  became  solicitor-general  in  Lord  Palmerston's 
administration,  and  again  in  ]8(i3  under  Lord  .John 
Rnssell.  In  1871  he  was  counsel  for  Great  Britain 
before  the  Geneva  tribunal  of  arbitration.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1872,  he  was  appointed  Lord  Cliancellor  of 
England,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  l)y  the 
title  Baron  Selborne,  of  Selljorne.  He  retired  with 
Gladstone  in  February,  1874,  and  returned  to  his 
former  office  when  the  liberals  were  again  victo- 
rious in  1880.  In  December,  1882,  he  was  created 
Viscount  Woliner,  of  Blackmoor,  and  Earl  of  Sel- 
borne. He  retired  again  with  (lladstone  in  1885.  He 
is  noted  not  only  for  his  legal  labors  but  also  for 
his  literary  attainments.  In  1877  he  was  elected 
Lord  Rector  of  the  University  of  St.  Andrews. 

SELENE,  the  Greek  name  of  the  goddess  of  the 
moon.  Her  myth  is  differently  told,  but  the  most 
common  account  makes  her  a  daugliter  of  Hype- 
rion and  Theia,  and  sister  of  Helios  'the  Sun)  and 
Eos  (the  Dawn).  She  is  represented  by  the  poets 
with  long  wings  and  a  golden  diadem,  riding  across 
the  heavens  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  two  white 
horses,  cows,  or  mules. 

SELIMNO,  a  walled,  manufacturing  town  of 
European  Turkey,  in  Rumili,  at  the  southern  base 
of  the  Balkan  mountains,  seventy-eight  miles  north 
of  .\dria,nople.  Owing  to  its  far  inland  position, 
there  is  little  communication  between  tlie  town 
and  the  coast,  and  consequently  the  annual  fair 
held  here  is  of  very  great  importance.  Arms,  cloth, 
and  attar  of  roses  are  manufactured.  Population, 
16.000. 

SELMA,  a  citv  of  Alabama.  Population  in  1890, 
7,626.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  639. 

SELWYX.  George  Ai'gustus,  an  English  mis- 
sionary 1)ishop,  born  at  Richmond,  in  Surrey 
county,  England,  in  1809,  died  at  Lichfield,  Eng- 
land, in  1878.  After  studying  at  Eton  and  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  being  for  a  time 
curate  at  Windsor,  he  was  consecrated  first  bishop 
of  New  Zealand  in  1841,  and  in  this  post,  which  he 
filled  for  twenty-six  years,  he  won  great  reputation 
for  apostolic  zeal  and  efficiency.  In  his  own  small 
vessel,  "  The  Southern  Cross,"  he  visited  the  South 
Sea  Islands,  often  at  great  personal  risk,  and 
thence  brought  to  New  Zealand  native  youths 
whom  he  instructed  and  sent  back  as  missionaries. 
In  1867  he  was  recalled  to  England,  where  he  was 
appointed  l)ishop  at  Lichfield.  He  administered 
this  diocese  also  with  great  energy  and  success. 
His  publications  include  Are  Cathedral  Institutions 


Uselessf  Remarks  on  Cathedral  Reform ;  Sermons;  The 
Work  of  Christ  in  the  World,  a,ni  a  Verbal  Analysis 
of  the  Bible  (1855). 

SEMIT^T^I'VE :  in  music,  a  note  of  half  the  dura- 
tion of  the  breve  of  old  ecclesiastical  music,  but 
the  longest  note  in  use  in  modern  music. 

SEM.INOLES,  a  tribe  of  Indians.  See  Indians, 
North  American,  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 
SEMI-QUIETISM,  a  form  of  mystical  asceticism 
which,  while  it  adopts  the  theoretical  principle, 
that  the  most  perfect  state  of  the  soul  is  that  of 
passive  contemplation,  and  denies,  in  certain  con- 
ditions of  the  soul,  the  necessity  of  prayer  or  other 
active  manifestations  of  virtue,  yet  maintains  the 
incompatiliility  of  this  passive  contemplation  with 
any  externa!  sinful  or  sensual  action, 

SEMMERING,  a  mountain  on  the  borders  of 
Styria  and  Austria,  forty-four  English  miles  south- 
west of  Vienna,  and  4,416  feet  al)0ve  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  Vienna,  Griitz.  and  Triest  Railway 
has  been  carried  across  this  mountain  by  a  series 
of  ingenious  engineering  contrivances. 

SEMMES,  Rai'haei  ,  a  Confederate  naval  officer, 
born  in  Charles  county,  Md.,  in  1809, died  at  Mo- 
bile. Ala.,  in  1877.  He  was  seertitary  of  the  light- 
house lioard  in  1859-61,  but  resigned  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  civil  war,  and  joined  the  Confederate 
navy.  He  obtained  great  notoriety  by  his  exploits 
as  commander  of  the  sidewheel  steamer  "Sumter," 
with  which  he  captured  eighteen  merchantmen. 
In  August,  1863,  }ie  tool\  conjmand  of  the  fast 
steamer  "Alabama  "  at  the  Azores  Islands,  put  to 
sea,  and  captured  sixty-two  American  merchant- 
men, most  of  which  he  burnt  at  sea.  He  was  ap- 
pointed rear-admiral  in  1864,  and  ordered  to  the 
James  River  squadron,  with  which  he  guarded  the 
water  approaches  to  Richmond  until  the  city  was 
evacuated.  At  Greensborough.  K.  C,  on  May  1, 
1865,  he  participated  in  the  capitulation  of  Gen. 
Johnston's  army.  He  returned  to  Mobile,  and 
opened  a  law  oflSce.  There,  on  Dec.  15,  1865,  he 
was  arrested  by  order  of  Secretary  Welles  and  was 
inn)risoned  for  some  m.onths,  but  suVisequently  re- 
leased without  a  trial.  Semmes  was  afterwards  an 
editor  of  a  daily  paper  at  IMobile.  but  soon  be- 
came a  professor  in  the  Louisiana  military  insti- 
tute at  New  Crleans.  Later  he  returned  to  the 
jiractice  of  law  at  Mobile.  He  published  Service 
Jjtiiat  avd  Ashore  dvrivg  the  ih:iica7i  V\ar  (1851); 
Ciivipaign  of  Gen.  Scott  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico 
(1822);'37(«  Crxrise  of  the  Alabama  (1864),  and  Me- 
moir of  Service  Afloat  dvritirj  the  War  bitirceii  the 
States  (1869).  His  career  of  destruction  gave  oc- 
casion to  the  "Alabama  Claims."  (See  p.  68,  Vol. 
I,  of  these  Revisions  and  Additions). 

SENATUS  ACADEMICrS,  one  of  the  governing 
bodies  in  the  Scottish  universities,  consisting  of 
the  principal  and  professors.  It  is  charged  with  the 
suiierintendence  and  regulation  of  discipline,  and 
the  administration  of  the  university  property  and 
revenue,  which  last  function,  since  the  Universities 
Scotland  Act  of  1858,  the  Senatus  exercises  subject 
to  the  control  and  review  of  the  University  Court. 
SENECA,  M.  Annaeus,  the  rhetorician,  born  ?A 
Corduba  (Cordova)  in  Spain,  probably  about  51 
B.  c.  He  seems  to  have  been  in  Rome  during  the 
early  period  of  the  power  of  Augustus.  From  Rome 
he  returned  to  Spain,  wliere  he  married  Helvia, 
and  had  by  her  three  sons.  The  time  of  his  death 
is  uncertain  ;  but  he  probably  lived  till  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  died  in  Rome  or  Italy. 
His  extant  works  are  Controversiariim  Lihri  X,  and 
Svasoriarnm  Liber,  neither  of  which  is  complete. 

SENEGAS,  a  sub-tribe  of  the  Iroquois  Indians. 
See  Indians,  North  American,  in  these  Sevisions 
and  Additions. 


S  E  N  E  F  F  E  —  S  E  R  G  1  P  E 


1418 


SENEFFE,  or  Senef,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Hainault,  Belgium,  about  eleven  miles  northwest 
of  Charleroi.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  district  in  which 
manufactures  of  pottery  and  glass  are  extensively 
carried  on.  It  is  chiefly  notable  for  its  proximity 
to- the  battlefield  on  which  William  of  Orange,  at 
the  head  of  the  forces  of  the  coalition  against 
France,  was  defeated,  after  a  bloody  contest,  by 
the  great  Conde,  August  11,  1674.  Population,  be- 
tween 3,000  and  4,000. 

SENEGAL  AND  RIVIERES  DU  SUD.— The 
French  colony  of  Senegal,  or  Senegambia,  is 
claimed  by  the  French  to  extend  from  Cape  Blanco 
in  the  north  to  the  Liberian  boundary  in  the  south, 
with  the  exception  of  those  portions  of  territory 
which  belong  to  England  and  Portugal.  The 
northern  boundary  is  not  admitted  by  other  na- 
tions interested.  Inland,  the  territory  as  far  as  the 
Upper  Niger  is  claimed  by  France,  and  south  to  the 
limits  of  the  colonies  on  the  Gold  Coast.  By  an 
arrangement  signed  at  Paris,  August  10,  1889,  the 
precise  limits  between  Senegal  and  the  British 
colonies  of  Gambia  and  Sierra  Leone  are  defined, 
as  also  on  the  Gold  Coast  and  tlie  Slave  Coast. 
South  of  the  9th  degree  N.  lat.  the  French  sphere 
is  limited  in  the  east  by  a  line  which  intersects  the 
territory  of  Porto  Novo  at  the  Agarrah  Creek. 
From  January  1,  1890,  a  section  of  territory  under 
the  name  of  Rivieres  du  Sud  has  been  detached 
from  Senegal  and  formed  into  an  autonomous  ad- 
ministrative division,  under  the  authority  of  the 
Lieutenant-Governor-General  of  Senegal.  He  re- 
sides at  Konakry,  on  the  river  Dubreka.  The 
authority  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the 
Riviores  du  Sud  extends  to  the  establishments  on 
the  Gold  Coast  and  on  the  Bight  of  Benin,  although 
they  are  two  financially  and  administratively  dis- 
tinct colonies.  The  total  area  can  only  be  vaguely 
estimated.  The  settled  portion,  including  the 
Rivieres  du  Sud,  covers  about  140,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  181,(500  for  Senegal  proper  and 
43,898  for  the  Rivieres  du  Sud,  of  which  1,470  are 
whites.  Senegal  and  its  dependencies  are  tluis 
divided: — Senegal  proper  area  38,000  kilometres, 
population  181,601);  French  Soudan  131,600  kilo- 
metres, population  283,660;  protected  countries, 
population  2.53,400;  total  population  299,580.  This 
does  not  include  the  Thelba  States,  recently  an- 
nexed. The  chief  town  is  .St.  Louis;  population 
20,001).  Dakar  is  another  im|)ortant  centre,  with  a 
populatiim  of  2,000.  At  liigh  water  the  Senegal  is 
navigable  for  small  vessels  into  the  interior.  There 
are  161  miles  of  coast  railways;  and  94  miles  from 
Medina,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Senegal,  to 
Bafoulal)e,  the  object  lieing  to  carry  the  railway  on 
to  the  Niger.  Gum,  ground-nuts,  india-rubber, 
woods,  and  skins  are  the  princi[)al  exports;  foods, 
drinks,  and  textiles  are  ihe  chief  imports.  In  1886 
there  were  668,-500  hectares  under  cultivation,  the 
total  value  of  the  products  being  15,658,000  francs. 
The  total  value  of  the  imports  in  1887  was  24,.500.000 
francs  ( 1  ,.500,000  from  France),  and  of  exports  1 6,- 
500,000  francs  (14,500,000  to  France).  Local  budget, 
1889,  2,782,474  francs;  expenditure  of  Fra?ice, 
7,639,306  francs.  For  early  history  see  Britannica, 
Vol.  XXI,  pp.  660,63. 

SEPT.Vli[.\,  ovate  flattened  nodules  of  argilla- 
ceous limestone,  internally  divided  into  nuinerous 
angular  fragments  by  reticulating  fissures  radiat- 
ing from  the  center  to  the  circumference,  which 
are  filled  with  some  mineral  substance,  as  carbon- 
ate of  lime  or  sulphate  of  barytes,  that  has  been 
infilterated  subsequent  to  their  formation. 

SEPTUAGINT,  the  earliest  Greek  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament,  otherwise  called  rlie  .\lexan- 
drian  version.  See  Britannica, Vol.  XXI,  jip.  iii>7-670. 


SEPULCHRAL  MOUNDS,  mounds  of  earth  and 
stone  reared  over  the  resting  place  of  the  dead. 
Sepulchral  mounds  of  some  sort  seem  to  liave  been 
erected  among  all  the  nations  of  Asia  as  well  as 
of  Europe,  and  they  are  found  in  numbers  in 
America.  Some  of  the  larger  tumuli  or  moathills 
are  but  partially  artificial.  The  oldest  are  long, 
shaped,  and  in  the  form  of  gigantic  graves,  often 
depressed  in  the  center,  and  elevated  towards  one 
end.  Inside  the  tumulus,  the  body  was  laid  at  full 
length,  often  along  with  spear  anil  arrow-heads  of 
flint  and  bone.  The  sepulchral  mounds  which 
seem  to  be  of  latest  date  are  broad  and  low,  sur- 
rounded sometimes  by  an  earthen  vallum,  and 
sometimes,  particularly  in  Scotland  and  Scandi- 
navia, by  a  circle  of  standing  stones. 

SEQUIN  (Ital.  ztrcliiiiii,  from  ztcca,  the  name 
of  the  Venetian  mint),  a  gold  coin  first  struck  at 
Venice  about  the  end  of  the  13th  century.  It  was 
about  the  size  of  a  ducat,  and  was  equivalent  to 
about  $2.18.  Coins  of  the  same  name,  but  varying 
in  value,  were  issued  by  other  states. 

SEQUOIA,  the  "Redwood"  of  the  California 
woodsmen.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,   pp.  678-74. 

SEQUOYAH.  See  Gi'ess,  Geokge,  in  these  Re- 
visions and  Additions. 

SERAPHINE,  a  keyed  musical  instrument  in 
which  the  sounds  were  produced  l)y  the  action  of 
wind  on  free  vibratory  reeds.  It  was  the  precursor 
of  the  harmonium  and  reed-organ. 

SERASKIER,  or  Seri-asker  (Pers.  head  of 
the  army;,  the  name  given  by  the  Turks  to  every 
general  having  the  comn)and  of  a  separate  army, 
and,  in  particular,  to  the  commander-in-chief  or 
m.inister  of  war. 

SERENADE  (Ital.  s<n(o(o),  original  music  per- 
formed in  a  calm  night;  hence  an  entertainment 
of  music  given  by  a  lover  to  his  mistress,  under  her 
window.  Serenading  has  been  chiefly  practiced  in 
Spain  and  Italy.  It  is  common  among  the  students 
of  the  German  universities  to  assemble  at  night 
under  the  window  of  a  favorite  professor,  and  give 
him  a  musical  tribute. — A  piece  of  music  charac- 
terized by  the  soft  repose  which  is  supposed  to  be  in 
harmony  with  the  stillness  of  night,  is  called  a  sere- 
nade or  nocturne. 

SERGE,  a  kind  of  twilled  worsted  cloth  of  infer- 
ior quality.  There  is  also  a  coarse  kind  of  twilled 
silk  used  "for  lining  men's  coats  called  silk  serge. 

SERGEANT,  Joun,  an  American  lawyer,  born 
at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1779,  died  there  in  1852.  He 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia 
bar  in  1799.  He  was  theacknowleged  leader  of  the 
legal  profession  in  Philadelphia  for  more  than  half 
a  century.  He  was  in  Congress  in  181.5-23,1827-29, 
and  1837-42.  In  1820  he  was  active  in  securing  the 
passage  of  the  "IMissourit'omjiromise,"  In  is.'itihe 
was  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  Constitutional 
Convention.  His  last  iiublic  service  was  as  arbi- 
trator in  settling  a  long-jiending  controversy  be- 
tween the  Federal  government  and  the  State  of 
New  .lersey.  His  Si-Jr<-t  Sjucrhix  were  published  in 
1832. 

SERGIPr.,  a  maritime  state  of  Brazil,  b(jund(d 
on  the  north  by  the  Sao  Francisco,  which  separates 
it  from  Alagoa's;  on  tlie  west  and  south  by  Bahia; 
and  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic.  According  to  the 
most  recent  statements,  this  stale  is  the  smallest 
in  the  republic.  Area,  11,088  s(|uare  miles;  iio|)U- 
lat  ion,  275,000.  The  shores  are  low  and  sandy,  the 
interiormountainous.  The  east  jiart  is  fertile,  well 
wooded,  and  produces  sugar  and  tobacco;  the  west- 
ern districts  are  devoted  principally  to  the  rearing 
of  cattle.  The  chief  town  is  Sergipe  del  Rey,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  chief  river— the  Vasa  Barris— 
with  a  population  stated  at  9,000. 


1414 


S  E  R  P  A-P  1  i\  T  0  —  S  E  R  V  1  A 


SERPA-PINTO,  Alexandre  Alberto  de  Rocha, 
a  Portuguese  explorer  of  Africa,  born  at  the  Ten- 
daes,  in  Duuro,  Portugal,  in  1846.  He  entered  the 
Portuguese  infantry  in  1863,  and  served  as  lieuten- 
ant in  tlie  Zambesi  war  in  1869.  For  distinguished 
service  he  was  made  major  in  1877,  and  then  crossed 
Africa  from  Benguela  to  Durban  (in  Xatal).  His 
explorations  obtained  for  him  high  honors  from 
the  principal  geographical  societies  of  Europe  and 
from  the  King  of  Portugal.  In  1884  he  undertook, 
with  Cardoso,  an  expedition  tlirough  the  country 
between  Mozambique  and  Lake  Nyassa.  Their 
journey  was  rich  in  geographical  discoveries,  and 
extended  the  Portuguese  protectorate  over  many 
tribes  of  the  interior  of  Africa.  In  1887  Serpa- Pinto 
was  dispatched  on  diplomatic  missions  to  East 
Africa.  His  chief  work  is  How  I  Crossed  Africa 
(1881). 

SERPENT-CHARMING,  an  art  which  has  been 
practiced  in  Egypt  and  throughout  the  East 
from  remote  antiquity,  and  which  forms  the  pro- 
fession of  persons  who  emply  it  for  their  own 
gain,  and  for  the  amusement  of  others.  In  India, 
and  partly  if  not  entirely  in  other  countries,  this 
profession  is  hereditary.  Serpent-charmers  usually 
ascribe  their  power  to  some  constitutional  peculi- 
arity, and  represent  themselves  as  perfectly  safe 
from  injury  even  if  bitten  by  the  serpents  ;  but  it 
has  been  fully  ascertained  that  the  serpents  which 
they  carry  with  them,  although  of  the  most  veno- 
mous kinds,  have  been  at  least  deprived  of  their 
poison-fangs.  So  much,  however,  being  set  aside 
as  of  tlie  nature  of  a  mere  juggler's  trick,  much 
still  remains  which  is  interesting,  and  in  which 
there  is  unquestionable  reality.  There  are  several 
allusions  to  serpent-cliarming  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment: See  Psalm  LVin.,  4,5;  Eceles.  X.,  11; 
Jer.  VIII.,  17.  It  is  mentioned  also  by  some  of  the 
ancient  classics,  as  Pliny  and  Lucan. 

SERPULA,  a  genus  of  Annelida,  of  the  order 
Tubicolx,  forming  and  inhabiting  a  calcareous  tube 
like  that  of  molluscs,  and  therefore  described  in 
old  works  on  conchology.  The  serpuhi'  attach 
their  shells  to  rocks,  shells,  etc.,  in  the  sea.  The 
shell  is  variously  contorted,  and  some  of  the 
species  live  in  groups,  with  the  shells  intertwined. 
The  wider  end  of  the  shell  is  open,  and  from  it  the 
animal  protrudes  its  head  and  gills,  which  expand 
as  beautiful  fan-like  tufts.  They  are  in  general 
esquisitly  colored,  and  serpuhe  are  among  the 
most  interesting  and  beautiful  creatures  that  can 
be  placed  in  an  aquarium. 

SERR.\NO,  Y  DoHiN'ouEZ,  Francisco,  Duke  de  la 
Torre,  Marshal  of  Spain,  born  at  San  Fernando, 
near  Cadiz,  Spain,  in  1810,  died  at  Paris,  France,  in 
1885.  He  ^entered  on  a  military  career  at  an  early 
age.  Having  joined  the  party  of  Queen  Maria 
Christina,  he  was  by  lier  influence  made  general 
of  division  before  he  was  tliirty  years  old.  In  1845 
he  became  lieutenant-general  and  senator.  After 
the  marriage  of  Queen  IsaVjella  in  1846,  Serrano 
obtained  such  influence  over  the  young  queen  that 
trouble  arose  in  the  royal  household  and  much 
scandal  among  the  queen's  subjects.  In  1847  he 
was  made  governor-general  of  Granada.  This 
withdrew  him  from  the  court.  In  1854  he  was  im- 
plicated in  an  insurrection  at  Saragossa  and  was 
banished.  When  the  revolution  of  September, 
1868,  drove  Isabella  from  the  country,  Serrano 
hastened  to  Cadiz,  and  with  Gen.  Prim  seized  the 
direction  of  tlie  government.  He  became  presi- 
dent of  the  council  of  ministers  and  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army.  On  June  16,  1869,  the  Cortez  de- 
clared Serrano  regent  of  Spain.  He  quelled 
promptly  the  republican  insurrections  that  arose 
in  various  places  ;  and  arranged  with  Prince  Ama- 


deus,  son  of  the  king  of  Italy,  to  become  king  of 
Spain.  But  Amadeus  abdicated  the  royal  power 
very  soon,  and  the  republic  was  proclaimed  on 
Feb.  11, 1873.  In  February  1874  Serrano  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  executive  department. 
He  took  the  field  against  the  Carlists  several  times 
and  with  varying  success.  In  January,  1875,  he 
made  arrangements  for  proclaiming  Alfonso,  son 
of  ex-queen  Isabella,  king  of  Spain.  In  November, 
1883,  he  was  appointed  Spanish  ambassador  to 
France. 

SERRAVALLE,  a  city  of  northern  Italy,  in 
Venetia,  on  the  river  Aleschio,  thirty-five  miles 
north  of  Venice.  It  is  situated  in  a  valley,  and 
was  formerly  fortified.  The  cathedral  Serravalle 
Andrea  is  very  ancient.    Population,  5,714. 

SERVIA.  For  general  article  on  the  Kingdom 
OF  SE^iviA,  see  Britaunica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  68(5-92. 
The  present  area  is  19,050  square  miles.  In  admin- 
istration Servia  is  divided  at  present  into  twenty- 
one  provinces  and  the  capital,  Belgrade,  which  has 
its  own  administration.  According  to  the  new  con- 
stitution, Servia  will  have  only  fifteen  provinces. 
The  population  at  the  close  of  1884  was  1,937,172. 

The  following  table  shows  the  area  and  populatioe 
of  the  old  provinces  (in  which  the  census  was 
taken  J  according  to  the  provinces  according  to  the 
estimate  for  January  1890  :• — 


Province. 


Belgrade  Citjr 

^  aljt^vo 

Vranja 

Kra^ouy^vantz  .... 

Krama 

KrouclK^Tatz 

Pirot 

Podrinj^ 

Pozarevatz 

Roudnik 

Toplitza. 

Ouzitzi; 

Tzrnareka 

Morava 

Podnavji;  (Danube) 

Timok  

Nisch  City 

Total   ... 


Area  m 
sq.  m. 


4 
1,121 
1,620 

927 
1,257 
1,256 
1,214 
1,300 
1,404 
2,056 
1,400 
1.676 

555 
1,200 
1,246 

SIO 
4 


19,0.50 


Population. 


39,122 
112,125 
140,866 
135,977 

90,275 
145,889 
120,611 
174,213 
202,626 
148,933 
111,193 
137,271 

69,085 
155,506 
203,469 

90,688 

18,034 


Pop.   per 
sq.  m. 


9355 
95 
87 
148 
72 
116 
99 
134 
144 
74 
80 
82 
124 
130 
163 
112 
4.508 


2,096,043 


The  principal  towns  are  the  capital,  Belgrade, 
39,422  inhabitants;  Nisch,  18,034  :'Leskovatz,  10,870; 
Pozarevatz,  9,083;  Pirot,  8,832;  Smederevo,  6,578; 
Ouzitz^,  5,613;  Parachin,  5,164;  Krouch^vatz,  5,150; 
Alexinatz,  5,108. 

Present  King  and  Family. — Alexandra  I.,  King 
of  Servia,  born  August  24  (new  style),  1876;  son  of 
Milan  I.,  King  of  Servia,  born  August  22,  1854,  the 
son  of  Milos  Obrenovic,  grandson  of  Jefreni,  half- 
brother  of  Prince  Milos.  King  !Milan  succeeded  to 
the  throne  as  Prince  Milan  Obrenovic  IV.,  con- 
firmed by  the  election  of  the  Servian  National  As- 
sembly, after  the  assassination  of  his  uncle.  Prince 
:\Iichail  Obrenovic  III.,  June  10,  1868.  Crowned 
Prince  at  Belgrade,  and  assumed  the  government, 
August  22,1872;  proclaimed  king,  JIarch  6,1882; 
married  October  17,  1875,  to  Natalie,  born  1859, 
daughter  of  Colonel  Keschko,  of  the  Russian  im- 
perial guard ;  divorced  October  24,  1888.  King 
Milan  abdicated  JIarch  6,  1889,  and  proclaimed  his 
son  Alexander  king  of  Servia  under  a  regency 
until  he  attains  his  majority  (18  years). 

The  present  ruler  of  Servia  is  the  fifth  of  his  dy- 
nasty, which  was  founded  by  Milos  Todorovic  Ob- 
renovic, leader  of  Servians  in  the  war  of  insurrec- 
tion to  throw  off  the   yoke  of  Turkev,  which  had 


SEVEN    WISE    M  E  N  —  S  E  V  E  R  U  S 


1415 


lasted  since  1459.  The  war  lasted  from  1815  to 
1829,  when  the  Turkish  government  was  com- 
pelled to  grant  virtual  independence  to  Servia. 
By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  signed  September  14, 
1829,  Milos  T.  Obrenovic  was  acknowledged  Prince 
of  Servia,  and  by  a  subsequent  firman  of  the  sul- 
tan, dated  August  15,  1830,  the  dignity  was  made 
heredirarv  in  his  family. 

The  independence  of  Servia  from  Turkey  was  es- 
tablished by  article  34  of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin, 
signed  July  13,  1878,  and  was  solemnly  proclaimed 
by  Prince  (afterwards  King)  Milan  at  his  capital, 
August  22,  1878.  The  king's  civil  list  amounts  to  ' 
1,200,000  dinars,  at  present  shared  by  ex-king  and 
the  three  regents. 

New  Constitution  and  Government. — By  the 
constitution  voted  by  the  great  national  assembly 
Jan.  2,  1889  (Dec.  22,  1887,  old  style),  and  signed  by 
the  king  on  the  3d,  the  executive  power  is  vested 
in  the  king,  assisted  by  a  council  of  eight  ministers, 
who  are,  individually  and  collectively,  responsible 
to  the  nation.  The  legislative  authority  is  exer- 
cised by  the  king,  in  coniunction  with  the  national 
assembly,  or  "Narodna-Skupshtina." 

The  state  council,  or  senate,  consists  of  16 
members,  8  nominated  by  the  king,  and  8  chosen 
by  the  assembly;  it  examines  and  elaborates 
the  projects  of  law,  and  authorizes  extraordi- 
nary loans  for  the  municipalities.  This  body  is  al- 
ways sitting.  The  ordinary  national  assembly  is 
composed  of  deputies  elected  by  the  people,  indi- 
rectly and  by  ballot.  Each  county  can  elect  one 
deputy  to  every  4,500  tax-paying  males,  but  sliould 
the  surplus  be  over  3,000,  this  number  is  also  en- 
titled to  a  deputy.  The  voting  is  scriuin  de  liste. 
Each  county  must  be  represented  by  at  least  two 
deputies  holding  University  degrees,  and  are  called 
the  qualified  deputies.  Every  male  Servian  21 
years  of  age,  paying  15  dinars  in  direct  taxes,  is  en- 
titled to  vote  ;  and  every  Servian  of  30  years,  pay- 
ing 30  dinars  in  direct  taxes,  is  eligible  to  the  ordi- 
nary national  assembly.  The  ordinary  assembly 
meets  each  year  on  November  1,  and  elections  take 
place  every  third  year  on  September  14.  There  is 
also  a  great  national  assemV)ly,  which  meets  when 
it  is  necessary.  The  number  of  its  representatives 
is  double  the  number  fixed  for  the  ordinary 
Skupshtina,  and  the  restriction  as  to  University 
degrees  does  not  apply.  The  deputies  receive 
traveling  expenses  and  a  salary.  Personal  liberty. 
liberty  of  the  press  and  conscience  are  guaran- 
teed. 

Counties,  communes,  and  municipalities  have 
their  own  administrative  assemblies.  For  admin- 
istrative purposes,  according  to  the  new  constitu- 
tion, Servia  is  divided  into  15  provinces  or  counties, 
1,263  communes,  which  include  3,172  villages  and 
71  towns  or  cities. 

Religion  and  Education. — For  the  religion  of 
Servia  see  Religions  ok  the  Covntries  of  thk 
World  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

Elementary  education  is  compulsory  and  free  of 
charge. 

There  were  in  1889,  668  elementary  schools,  with 
1,194  teachers,  and  52,358  pupils.  There  were  also 
22  gymnasia,  2  normal  schools,  4  tecl]nical  schools, 
1  university,  1  military  academy,  1  theological 
Bchool,  1  girls'  high-school,  1  commercial  and  1  ag- 
ricultural school. 

There  are  in  Belgrade  a  national  lil)rary  and 
museum.  There  were  40 newspapers  (political  and 
otherwise)  in  1888.  About  258  books  were  pub- 
lished in  18SS. 

There  is  no  pauperism  in  Servia  in  tlie  sense  in 
which  it  is  understood  in  the  West;  the  poorest 
have  some  sort  of  freehold  property.    There  are  a 


few  poor  people  in  Belgrade,  but  neither  their 
property  nor  their  luiniber  have  necessitated  an 
institution  like  a  workhouse.  There  is  a  free  town 
hospital. 

Finance. — Revenue  and  E.rpcnditurc. — The  budget 
for  1891  estimated  the  revenue  at  54.219,700  dinars, 
and  the  expenditures  at  57,690,000  dinars. 

According  to  the  official  report  the  consolidated 
debt  of  Servia  in  1890  amounted  to  304,046,000 
dinars.    The  Servian  dinar  is  equal  to  one  franc. 

Present  Chief  Industries. — Servia  is  an  agricul- 
tural country,  and  has  almost  no  manuf.acluring 
industry.  There  are  no  large  estates  in  Servia; 
every  peasant  cultivates  his  own  freehold.  The 
holdings  vary  in  size  from  10  to  30  acres  mostly. 
■  According  to  a  return  of  1887,  of  the  total  area 
(over  12,000,000  acres)  6,125,931  acres  were  cornland 
and  vineyards,  1,456,132  woods  and  forests;  902,627 
fallow  laiid;  741,086  lands  reserved  fdr  public  roads 
and  state  forests,  the  total  occupied  area  being 
10,566,488  acres.  Of  the  area  under  cornland  and 
vineyards  a  large  proportion  is  occupied  ]>y  wheat 
and  Indian  corn  which  are  the  principal  cereal  ex- 
ports.    Oats,  barley,  and  rye  come  next. 

Defense. — There  are,  in  1891,  fortresses  at  Bel- 
grade, Semen dria,  Nisch,  Schobatz,  Kladova,  Bela 
Palanka,  and  Pirot. 

The  king  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army, 
which  in  time  of  peace  is  under  tiie direction  of  tlie 
minister  of  war.  The  army  is  divided  in  three 
classes:  the  standing  army  of  18,000  men,  with  a 
reserve  of  100,000  men;  tlie  second  class  (tliose  who 
have  served  in  the  active  army  from  the  age  of  28 
to  37),  55,000  men  ;  and  the  tliird  class  (from  37  to 
50  years  of  age;  of  about  55,000  men;  total  army 
228,000  men. 

SEVEN  WISE  MEN,  the  collective  designation 
of  a  number  of  C4reek  sages,  who  lived  about  620- 
548  B.  c,  and  devoted  themselves  to  the  cultivation 
of  practical  wisdom.  Their  moral  and  social  ex- 
perience was  embodied  in  brief  aphorisms,  some- 
times expressed  in  verse,  sometimes  in  prose.  The 
names  of  the  Seven,  as  usually  given,  are  Solon, 
Thales,  Pittacus,  Bias,  Chilon,  Cleobulus  and  I'ori- 
ander  of  Corinth  ;  but  there  is  not  alisoliite  unanim- 
ity among  the  ancients  either  as  regards  tlie 
names,  the  number,  the  history,  or  the  sayings  of 
these  famous  sages.  The  fragments  of  vi'isdom 
attributed  to  them  which  have  come  down  to  us 
are  to  be  found  in  Orelli's  Ojmscnla  Onvcm-nm 
Vrtrnm,  Sententiosa  ct  jt/oro/io,  and  haveVieen  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Dilthey  in  his  Fraqmenie  der 
niehen  Weisen. 

SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD,  in  an- 
cient times,  reckoned  to  be  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt, 
tlie  Hanging  Gardens  of  Semiramisat  Babylon,  tlie 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  the  Statue  of  Jupiter 
at  Athens  by  Phidias,  the  Mausoleum,  the  Colossus 
at  Rliodes,  and  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria,  This 
cycle  of  seven  wonders  originated  among  tlie 
Greeks  after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  (ircat,  and 
they  wi^re  described  in  a  special  work  by  Pliilo  of 
Byzantium. 

SEVI-'-lvUS,  Wall  of,  a  ramjKirt  of  stone  Iniilt 
by  tlie  Roman  EminTur  Severus  in  Britain, between 
the  Tyiie  and  the  Solway.  On  the  first  subjugation 
of  Britain  liy  the  Romans,  a  line  of  forts  had  been 
constructed  by  Agricola,  extending  from  the  Forth 
at  Edinburgh  to  thti  Clyde  at  I)umbart,on.  The 
Emperor  Hadrian,  on  visiting  Britain,  A.  D.  120, 
threw  up  for  the  protection  of  tlie  Roman  province 
a  wall  of  turf  extending  across  the  narrowest  part 
of  tlie  island,  between  Tyne  and  Solway.  Twenty 
years  later,  Antoninus  Pius,  wliose  lieutenant, 
Lollius  Urbicus,  had  gained  fresh  advanl.-iros  over 
th'-    northern    tribes,    endeavored    to    clieck    the 


1116 


S  E  W  A  L  L  —  S  II  A  D 


courts  for  the  territory  west  of  the  mountains.  He 
fought  the  Indians  in  numerous  short  battles.  On 
Oct.  7,  1780,  he  gained  a  signal  victory  also  over  the 
h;yalists  at  King's  .Mountain.  This  stemmed  the 
British  progress  northward  and  revived  the  patriot 
cause  in  North  Carolina.  On  March  1,  178.5,  Sevier 
became  governor  of  the  newly  organized  "Terri- 
tory south  of  the  Ohio  Itiver,"  and,  when  in  179(5 
this  territory  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  the 
State  of  Tennessee,  he  was  chosen  its  first  governor. 
He  served  for  two  terms,  then  retired.  But  in  1803 
he  was  again  chosen,  and  served  si.-c  years  more. 
In  1811  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  In  181.5  he 
accepted  a  commission  to  negotiate  with  the  Creek 
Indians.  While  engaged  in  this  business  he  died 
in  his  tent  near  Fort  Decatur,  Ala. 

SEWALL,  S.iMUKL,  Puritan,  chief-justice  of 
Massachusetts,  born  at  Bishopstoke,  England,  in 
1(552,  died  at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1730.  He  studied 
theology  at  Harvard ;  but  after  marrying  the 
(laughter  of  .lohn  Hull,  the  mint-master,  he  be- 
came an  assistant  of  his  father-in-law.  In  16S-1  he 
was  made  assistant-governor,  and  in  1692  a  judge 
and  also  a  member  of  the  executive  council.  As 
judge  he  presided  at  the  trials  of  some  of  the 
witches  then  burnt  at  Salem.  A  few  years  later  he 
was  convinced  of  his  error  in  these  cases,  and  made 
a  public  confession  in  church,  asking  pardon  of 
("yod  and  men  for  his  offence.  In  1700  he  published 
a  tract,  entitled  Tli''  S,}ling  of  Josepit,  in  which  he 
showed  up  the  crime  of  selling  human  beings  as 
slaves.  In  1718  he  was  promoted  to  be  chief-just- 
ice of  the  colony.  He  lield  this  office  ten  years. 
In  1727  he  published  ft  .sf/v'ption  of  thf  Xeiv  Hearen. 
Sewall  was  a  man  of  eminent  ability  and  sterling 
character. 

His  sun.  .IosEi'][  Sewall  (1688-1769),  was  an 
earnest  orthodox  preacher,  known  as  the  "'Weeping 
Prophet."  He  was  a  rigid  Calvinist  and  a  foe  to 
free  discussion  and  novel  opinions. 

Samuel's  great-grand-son.  Samtei.  Sewall  (1757 
-1814),  attained  to  some  liigh  ju<licial  position.  He 
practiced  law  at  Marblehead,  Mass.,  and  served  in 
Congress  from  May  15,  1797  till  .fan.  10,  1800,  when 
he  resigned  on  being  appointed  a  judge  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  Massachusetts.  He  became  cliief- 
justice  in  1813,  and  died  while  holding  court  at 
Wiscasset,  Elaine,  where  a  monument  was  erected 
to  his  memory. 

SEWICKLEY,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Ohio,  thirteen  miles  west  of  Pittsl)urg.  It  is 
beautifully  and  salubriously  situated,  contains 
many  handsome  residences,  and  is  the  seat  of  an 
academy.     Population  in  1890,  2,774. 

SEWING  .MACHINES.  See  Britannioa,  Vol. 
XXI,  pp.  718-720. 

SEXAGESIMA  SUNDAY,  the  second  Sunday 
before  Lent,  and  roughly  reckoned  the  sixtieth  day 
before  Easter. 

SEXTUPLET:  in  music,  when  a  note  is  divided 
into  six  parts  instead  of  the  usual  division  into 
four — as,  for  instance,  a  minim  into  six  quavers,  or 
a  crotchet  into  six  semicjuavers — the  group  is  called 
a  sextuplet,  and  the  figure  6  is  generally  placed 
above  it. 

SEYCHELLES  COCOA-NUT,  or  Double  Co- 
coa-Nut (Lodoicea  SciichelUirnm),  a  palm,  of 
which  the  fruit  has  some  resemblance  to  a  cocoa- 
nut,  although  it  belongs  to  a  different  tribe  of 
palms,  beiog  allied  to  the  Palmyra  palm.  It  is 
found  only  in  the  Seychelles  Islands.  The  tree 
grows  to  the  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  with  a 
tuft  of  immense  leaves.  The  wood  and  the  leaves 
are  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  like  those  of 
other  palms.  The  "  cabbage"  or  terminal  bud  is 
eaten.    The  fruit  is   often  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a 


half  long,  in  shape  like  a  melon,  its  outer  husk 
green,  the  interior  near  the  base  (livided  into  two 
j)arts.  at  first  filled  with  a  white  sweet  jelly,  which 
changes  into  a  white  horny  kernel.  The  shells  are 
used  for  making  vessels  "of  various  kinds,  often 
beautifully  carved  and  ornamented. 

SEYFFARTH,  Gustav,  an  American  archaiolo- 
gist  Und  divine,  born  in  Germany  in  1796,  died  in 
1885.  He  was  educated  at  Leipzig;  was  professor 
of  arclueology  there  for  many  years;  taught  in  a 
Lutheran  seminary  in  St.  Louis  in  1855-71  ;  resided 
thereafter  in  New  York  ;  and  wrote  many  works 
on  divinity,  mythology,  chronology,  history  and 
philology. 

SEYMOUR,  a  city  of  Indiana,  eighteen  miles 
south  of  Columbus.  It  has  manufactoriesof  woolens, 
machinery  and  lumber.     Population  in  18'90  5,337. 

SEYMOL'K,  Horatio,  governor  of  New  York, 
born  at  Pompey,  N.  Y.,  in  1810,  died  in  1886.  He 
was  elected  to  the  State  assembly  in  1841,  became 
its  speaker  in  1845;  and  was  governor  in  1853-55 
and  in  18(i2-(>4. 

SFOKZATc!)  {ItaX.  forced) :  in  music,  often  con- 
tracted ,<■/.  a  term  used  to  indicate  that  the  note 
over  or  under  which  it  is  placed  is  to  be  played 
with  strength  and  emphasis.  A  higher  degree  of 
emphasis  is  indicated  by  »ff,  or  nforzalo  assai. 

S1IAL">,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Clupeida^, 
differing  from  CJiijna,  (the  Herring,  etc)  in  hav- 
ing the  upper  jaw 
deeply  notched.  The 
teeth  are  very  small 
on  the  jaws  only,  and  * 
often  wanting,  at  least 
in  the  adult  fish.  The 
species  are  numerous, 
inhabiting  the  sea,  but  shad 

some  of  them  ascend- 
ing rivers  like  the  salmon,  and  spawning  there. 
They  are  very  like  herrings  in  form  and  appear- 
ance. The  Common  Shad,  or  Allice  Shad  is  rather 
thicker  and  deeper  in  proportion  to  its  length  than 
the  herring. 

The  shad  is  caught  in  drift  and  seine  nets  in  the 
Delaware,  Hudson,  and  other  rivers,  and  in  these 
localities  is  mostly  eaten  fresh,  it  being  of  delicious 
flavor,  though  the  numerous  small  liones  are  a  det- 
riment. The  fishery  is  of  considerable  importance 
in  the  rivers  of  the  British  provinces,  where  the 
bulk  of  the  catch  is  salted.  In  most  of  the  coast 
rivers  of  the  United  States  it  is  also  important, 
though  the  shad  has  been  driven  from  some,  and  is 
greatly  diminished  in  most  others  by  injudicious 
damming  and  overfishing.  Thus  from  being  a 
food-staple  it  has  become  to  some  degree  a  luxury, 
and  alarm  is  entertained  lest  this  important  fish 
may  suffer  the  fate  of  the  Atlantic  salmon.  Its 
spawning  habits,  the  vigor  of  the  young,  and  their 
descent  to  the  sea  have  enabled  the  shad  to  out- 
live the  conditions  which  have  deprived  us  of  the 
salmon.  Efforts  have  been  made,  therefore,  to 
assist  nature  in  the  preservation  of  this  valuable 
food-supply:  First,  by  the  construction  of  fish- 
ways  over  dams,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  shad  might 
ascend  to  their  native  spawning  grounds,  and  the 
removal  of  the  fish-weirs,  which  destroy  the  young 
shad  by  the  thousands.  Secondly,  efforts  were 
made  to  restrict  fishing  by  regulations,  in  which 
the  size  of  the  net  meshes  is  prescribed,  so  that 
young  fishes  may  escape;  Sunday  fishing  is  pro- 
hibited, leaving  the  fish  free  to  make  their  run  on 
that  day  ;  and  a  day  is  fixed  on  which  the  fishing 
season  must  end — this  being  June  10,  on  the  Del- 
aware. 

But  both  the  natural  preservatives  and  these  at- 
tempts to  assist  nature   have  proved  of  little  avail 


SHAFTESBURY  —  SHAW 


1417 


against  persistent  overfishing,  stimulated  by  com- 
mercial greed. 

In  the  lower  reaches  of  our  rivers,  which  are  still 
accessible  to  the  shad,  the  restricted  spawning 
grounds  are  industriously  and  assiduously  swept 
with  drift  net  and  seine,  and  innumerable  fyke 
nets  and  pounds  effectually  bar  all  approaches,  so 
that  natural  reproduction  is  in  a  great  measure 
impracticable  even  for  the  shad  that  find  their  way 
into  the  rivers  and  to  the  vicinity  of  their  spawn- 
ing grounds..  More  serious  than  all,  however,  has 
been  the  transfer  of  the  shad  fisheries  to  the  estu- 
aries of  the  rivers,  and  the  substitution  of  the 
pound  net  for  gill  net  and  seine.  In  consequence 
of  this  change  in  the  location  of  the  fishing  grounds 
the  larger  proportion  of  the  shad  captured  are  now 
taken  in  salt  or  brackish  water,  in  which  natural 
reproduction  cannot  be  accomplished.  Indeed,  so 
small  is  the  proportion  of  the  seasonal)le  run  of 
shad  which  succeed  in  making  their  way  into  and 
up  our  rivers  and  reaching  their  spawning  grounds 
that  natural  reproduction  has  ceased  to  be  a 
material  factor  in  influencing  the  conditions  af- 
fecting our  shad  fisheries. 

Resort  has  therefore  been  had,  finally,  to  arti- 
ficial shad-culture,  planting  the  streams  with 
multitudes  of  fry  and  young  shad.  This  lias  been 
the  work  chiefly  of  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission. In  1875  it  began  operations  with  a  view  to 
introducing  shad  in  those  river  basins  in  which 
that  species  was  not  indigenous.  But  the  census  of 
1880  and  other  investigations  having  proved  that 
the  shad  fisheries  of  the  Atlantic  coast  rivers  were 
rapidly  declining,  the  commissioners  advanced  to 
the  further  work  of  artificial  propagation  and  dis- 
tribution of  young  shad  in  those  very  rivers.  They 
undertook  to  rescue  from  waste  the  eggs  taken 
from  the  shad  captured  by  the  fishermen,  to  im- 
pregnate, hatch,  and  return  these  to  their  native 
waters.  The  conditions  were  shown  to  be  highly 
unfavorable,  but  the  commission  attueked  the 
problem  resolutely,  and  the  remarkable  results  in 
188.5  and  succeeding  years  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 


Year. 

Catch  in 
salt  and  brack- 
ish water. 

Catch  in 
the  rivers. 

Total 
catch. 

1880 

2..549,'>44 
3,-267.4il7 
3,098.768 
3,813,744 
5,010,101 

1,. 591 .424 

l,90(;.4:i4 

2.48.5.000 
2. 90 1, (ill  1 
2,650,.'i73 

4.140.968 

1885 

.5,172.931 

18«« 

1887  

1888 

5.,5S4,368 
6,715,405 
7,660,474 

As  the -average  weight  of  shad  is  four  pounds, 
this  table  sliows  an  adcJition  to  the  food-supply,  in 
1888,  of  3,.519,.50G  pounds  over  that  of  1880,  and  tlie 
money  value  of  the  increase  is  estimated  at  $704,- 
101.  The  increased  production  of  this  fishery  is  to 
be  attributed  to  the  piscicultural  work  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission.  Tlie  increased 
value  of  tiiia  fishery  is  a  measure  of  the  economic 
value  of  this  work  to  the  people  of  the  country. 

SHAFTESBURY,  commonly  called  Shast'on,  a 
very  ancient  town  of  England,  a  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  in  Dorsetshire,  twenty- 
seven  miles  northeast  of  Dorchester.  It  stands  on 
the  narrow  ridge  of  a  chalk  hill,  and  commands 
extensive  and  beautiful  views  of  the  counties  of 
Dorset,  Somerset,  and  Wilts.  The  date  of  its 
foundation  is  unknown,  but  it  seems  to  have  been 
a  Roman  station.  In  the  reign  of  Athelstan  (924- 
940)  it  contained  two  mints  and  an  abbey  of  Bene- 
dictine nuns.  Here  Canute  the  (xreat  died  in  103(i. 
Population  of  municipal  borough,  2,472. 


SHAH  NAMEH,  "Book  of  Kings,"  the  title  of 
several  Eastern  works,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
is  the  Persian  poem  nf  this  name  by  Firdusi,  con- 
taining the  history  of  the  ancient  Persian  kings  in 
about  (50,000  distichs,  and  written  by  the  order  of 
Sultan  Mahmud  of  Ghizni,  in  the  space  of  thirty 
years. 

SHAKOPEE,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of  Scott 
county,  Minn.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Minnesota, 
about  thirty  miles  west  of  Saint  Paul.  It  manu- 
factures fiour,  bricks,  lime,  and  machinery.  Pop- 
ulation in  1890,  1,748. 

SHALLON,  a  light  worsted  cloth,  said  to  have 
been  first  made  at  Chalons  in  France,  and  to  have 
derived  its  now  corrupted  name  from  that  place. 

SHAMOKIN,  a  town  of  Pennsvlvania.  Pop.  in 
1890,  14,403.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  771. 

SHAEI,  a  river  of  Africa,  the  principal  feeder  of 
Lake  Tsad  or  Tchad. 

SHARON,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania.  Population 
in  1890,  7,447.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  779. 

SHAEPSBUKCt,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Alleghany,  five  miles  nortlieast 
of  Pittsburgh.  It  contains  a  variety  of  manufac- 
tures.    Population  in  1890,  4,897. 

SHABPSHOOTEES,  an  old  term  ajijilied  in  the 
army  to  skilled  riflemen,  especially  to  thuse  who 
are  posted  on  the  skirmish-line  or  in  the  rifle-pits 
to  cut  off  outlying  parties  or  to  prevent  approach 
to  a  ford  or  other  important  place;  in  naval  use, 
to  the  men  stationed  in  the  top  to  annoy  those  on 
the  deck  of  an  enemy's  vessel. 

SHAKSWOOD,  GEORCiE,  American  jurist,  born  at 
Philadelphia  in  1810 ;  died  there  in  1883.  PJe  studied 
law  under  Joseph  R.  Ingersoll,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  of  Philadelphia  in  1831.  In  184.5  the 
governor  commissioned  him  associate-justice  of  the 
district  court  of  Philadelphia;  but  in  1848  he  be- 
came its  president.  He  continued  to  hold  this 
post  u?'*-il  1867,  when  he  was  elected  a  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania.  He  then  re- 
signed the  professorship  of  law  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  which  he  had  held  for  eighteen 
years.  In  1878  he  became  cliief-justice.  and  in 
1882,  when  his  term  of  office  expired,  he  retired 
from  the  supreme  bench.  Sharswood  was  the 
author  of  Professional  Ethics  (18.54);  I'lqtvlur  Lec- 
tures on  Common  Lair  (]85fi),  and  lilarlslone's  Com- 
mentaries (1859),  which  is  accepted  as  the  standard 
in  America.  He  also  published  Lectuns  on  Com- 
merrial  Lav  (1856),  and  conducted  the  "American 
Law  Magazine"  for  three  years.  ,Tudge  Sharswood 
was  one  of  the  most  eminent  American  jurists. 
His  urlianity  towards  the  bar  gave  him  a  jiopu- 
larity  that  has  never  been  surpassed  in  the  life  of 
any  jurist. 

SHAW,  Henry  W.,  an  American  humorist,  well- 
known  by  his  pen  name  of  .losii  Kim.ings,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1818,  died  in  California  in  1885. 
He  was  for  many  years  a  farmer  and  auctioneer  in 
the  West ;  was  an  auctioneer  in  Poughkeepsie  in 
1858;  began  to  publish  his  Inimorous  sketches  in 
1863,  and  became  popular  also  as  a  lecturer. 

SHAW,  Lkmiei,,  an  American  jurist,  born  at 
Barnstable,  Mass.,  in  17H1,  died  at  I'.ostoii  in  1861. 
After  studying  law,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of 
Boston  in  1804,  and  rose  gradually  to  eminence  in 
liis  [irofession.  In  1820  lie  was  a  member  of  tiie 
convention  for  revising  the  constitutiun  and  laws 
of  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  He  drafted  the 
charter  of  the  city  of  Boston  in  1822,  and  held 
various  town  offices.  He  was  also  State  senator  in 
1821-22  and  again  in  l,82S-.'30.  In  1830,  on  the  death 
of  chief-justice  Isaac  Parker,  Shaw  was  appointed 
his  successor,  though  he  had  lu'ver  held  any  judicial 
office  before.     He  lield  this  post  from   September 


1418 


S  H  A  Y  S  —  S  IT  E  L  I.  -  S  A  N  D 


1830,  till  his  resignation  on  August  ol,  18(i0.  He 
soon  gained  a  iiigli  reputation  for  judicial  aliility, 
and  is  regarded  ;is  one  of  I  he  foremost  jurists  New 
England  has  produced.  His  reported  decisions  are 
to  be  found  in  the  reports  of  Pickering,  Metcalf, 
Gushing  and  (iray,  constilufing  in  all  lifty  volumes. 
He  was  an  overseer  of  Harvard  College  for  twenty- 
two  years,  and  received  th(>  honorary  degree  of 
LL.  D.  from  it  in  1831,  and  from  Brown  University, 
Providence,  in  1850. 

SHAYS,  D.\.N'iEL,  insurgent,  born  at  Hopkinton, 
Mass.,  in  1747,  died  at  Sparta,  N.  Y.,  in  1825.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  war  be  attained  the  rank  of 
captain  in  the  Continental  army.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  the  people  of  Western  Massachusetts  found 
themselves  burdened  with  debts  and  taxes,  and 
complained  that  the  governor's  salary  was  too 
high,  the  senate  aristocratic,  the  lawyers  extorti- 
nate,  and  that  the  courts  were  instruments  of  op- 
pression, especially  in  the  collection  of  debts. 
They  demanded  the  removal  of  the  general  court 
from  Boston,  the  relief  of  debtors,  and  the  issue  of 
a  large  amount  of  paper  money.  Parties  of  armed 
men  interrupted  the  sessions  of  several  county 
courts.  Captain  Shays  was  chosen  as  the  chief 
leader.  At  the  head  of  1,000  insurgents  he  ap- 
peared at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  December,  1786,  to 
prevent  the  session  of  tlie  supreme  court  at  that 
place.  The  court  adjourned  without  having  trans- 
acted any  business.  In  January,  1787,  three  bodies 
of  insurgents  concentrated  upon  Springfield,  where 
they  hoped  to  capture  the  Continental  arsenal, 
which  was  defended  by  1,000  militia.  The  largest 
body,  under  Shays,  numbered  1,100  men,  and  ap- 
proached by  the  Boston  road.  Meanwhile  the 
State  government  liad  raised  and  equipi>ed  an 
army  of  4,000  men  under  Gen.  Benj.  Lincoln,  wliich 
army  was  then  two  days'  march  from  Springfield. 
On  .January  25,  Shay  attacked  the  arsenal,  but  was 
repelled  by  the  militia  which  fired  into  the  ranks 
of  the  insurgents,  killing  three  and  wounding  one. 
Shays'  attempt  to  rally  his  men  was  unsuccessful. 
They  fled  precipitately,  and  were  pursued  by  the 
State  troops  as  far  as  Petersham  (in  Worcester 
county  Mass.).  Here  they  were  overtaken  in  a 
blinding  snowstorm  and  made  little  resistance. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  were  captured,  and  the  rest 
dispersed.  This  ended  "Shays'  rebellion."  Several 
of  the  leaders  were  sentenced  to  be  hanged ;  but 
they  were  finally  pardoned.  Shays,  after  living  in 
Vermont  about  a  year,  asked  and  received  pardon, 
and  removed  to  Sparta,  N.  Y.  In  his  old  age  he 
was  allowed  a  pension  for  his  services  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary war. 

SHEA,  .John  D.^wson  Gilm .\ry,  an  American  his- 
torian, born  at  New  York  City,  in  1824.  He  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  York,  but 
he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  literature.  He  spent 
six  years  in  the  Society  of  .Jesus,  and  devoted  much 
attention  to  the  history  of  Jesuit  missions  in  Amer- 
ica. His  publications  include  Dixcoveri/  and  Explo- 
ration of  the  i\fississipp!  Vnllei/  (1853);  Catholic  Mis- 
sions among  the  Indian  Tribrs;  Bihliography  of  Amer- 
ican Catholic  Bibles,  a.ni  Early  Voi/ages  up  and  doirn 
the  Mississiopi  (1862).  He  issued  a  Bible  Dictionan/ 
(1873);  ChihVs  History  of  the  United  States,  Sind  yar- 
ious  school  text-books.     He  died  in  1892. 

SHEBOY'GAN,  a  city  of  AVisconsin.  Population 
in  1890,  16,359.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  782; 
XXIV,  p.  617. 

SBTECHINAH,  a  word  used  in  post-Biblical 
times  by  the  .Jews,  and  adopted  by  the  early  Chris- 
tian writers:  expressive  of  the  presence  of  the 
divine  majesty,  in  heaven,  among  the  people  of 
Israel,  or  in  the  sanctuary.  It  is  the  first  found 
used  in  the  Chaldee  versions  f  Targums)  as   a  kind 


of  periphrasis  for  the  person  of  God,  wherever  it  is 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  corporeal:  thus  being  a 
kind  of  spiritual  interpretation  of  anthropomorph- 
ism. The  j)articular  place  where  the  Shechinah 
was  supposed  to  dwell  was  the  "  mercy  seat  between 
the  cherubim." 

"SHEDD,  Wii.li.^mGreenough  Thayer, theologian 
and  author,  born  at  Acton,  Mass.,  in  1820.  After 
studying  theology  at  Andover  he  was,  in  1844,  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  at 
Brandon,  Vt.  la  1845  he  became  professor  of 
English  literature  in  the  University  of  Vermont, 
and  in  1852  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  in  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary.  Two  years  later  he  was 
made  professor  of  church  history  in  Andover 
Theological  Seminary.  In  1864  he  became  professor 
of  Biblical  literature  in  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, New  Y'ork  ;  and  in  1874  professor  of  syste- 
matic theology  in  the  same  school.  Shedd  edited 
Coleridge's  ]]'orks  (18.53),  and  Augustine's  Corfessions 
(1860);  translated  some  works  from  the  German ; 
published  Discourses  and  Essays  (1862)  ;  Lectures  on 
tlic  Ftiilosophy  of  History  (1&'62);  and  a  valuable 
History  of  Christian  Doctrine  (1864).  His  later  works 
are  Homiletics  and  Pastoral  Tlteology  (1867) ;  Sermons 
to  tlie  Natural  Man  (1871) ;  Commentary  on  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Romans  (1879) ;  Sermons  to  the  Spiritual  Man 
(1884);  Doctrine  of  Endless  Punishment  (1885),  and 
Dogwptic  Theology  (1888). 

SHEEP.  See  South  Down  Sheep  in  these  Revi- 
sions and  Additions. 

vSHELBY',  Isaac,  an  American  soldier,  born  near 
Hagerstown,  Md.,  in  1760,  died  near  Stanford,  Ky., 
in  1826.  In  the  Revolutionary  war  he  served  as 
captain,  commissary,  major,  and  finally  as  colonel, 
in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  His  most  noted  ex- 
ploit was  his  gathering  a  force  of  hardy  riflemen 
from  the  Watauga  settlements  and  leading  them 
across  the  mountains  against  the  disciplined  Tories 
under  ]\Iajor  Patrick  Ferguson,  whom  he  completely 
defeated  at  King's  Mountain,  Oct.  7,  17K0.  John 
Sevier  assisted  him  in  this  exploit.  In  1781  Shelby 
assisted  Marion,  and  Jed  500  men  to  the  aid  of  Gen. 
Greene.  In  1788  he  removed  to  Kentucky,  and 
took  part  in  framing  a  constitution  for  that  State 
on  its  separation  from  Virginia.  He  was  chosen 
its  first  governor  (1792-96),  and  was  again  called  to 
this  post  in  1812,  when  the  second  war  with  Great 
Britain  was  declared.  He  then  organized  a  body 
of  4,000  volunteers  and  led  them  to  the  reenforce- 
ment  of  Gen.  Harrison,  whom  he  joined  just  in  time 
to  profit  bj  the  victory  of  Perry  on  I>ake  Erie.  For 
liis  services  in  this  campaign  Shelby  received  a  gold 
medal  medal  from  Congress. 

SHELBYVILLE,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of  Shel- 
by county.  111.,  about  thirty  miles  south  ^f  Decatur. 
It  produces  a  variety  of  manufactures.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,3,162. 

SHELBYVILLE,  a  city,  the  county-seat  of  Shel- 
by county,  Ind,,  on  the  Blue  River,  about  twenty- 
seven  miles  southeast  of  Indianapolis.  It  has 
manufactories  of  lumber  and  furniture.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,5,449. 

SHELBYVILLE,  a  town,  the  county-seat  of  Shel- 
by county,  Ky.,  on  Clear  Creek,  between  Ijouisville 
and  Frankfort.  It  is  the  seat  of  Shelbyville  Fe- 
male College.     Population  in  1890,  2,676. 

SHELL-GUN,  a  gun  which  belongs  rather  to  the 
past  than  the  present,  as  in  modern  rifle  artillery 
all  guns  fire  shells.  Before  their  introduction,  how- 
ever, shells  were  fired  from  guns  of  large  bore  and 
proportionately  small  thicknesses  of  metal,  not 
differing  materially  from  howitzers,  except  that 
they  had  greater  length. 

SHELI^SAND,  sand  consisting  in  great  part  of 
fragments  of  shells,  and  often  containing  a  small 


S  H  E  L  T  0  N  —  S  H  E  R  I  F  V 


1419 


proportion  of  organic  matter.  It  is  a  very  use- 
ful manure,  particularly  for  clay  soils,  heavy 
loams,  and  newly-reclaimed  bogs.  It  is  also 
advantageously  applied  to  any  soil  deficient  in 
lime. 

SlIELTOX,  Frederick  William,  clergyman  and 
author,  born  at  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  in  1814,  died  at  Car- 
thage Landing,  X.Y.,  in  1881.  He  was  successively 
recior  of  the  Episcopal  churches  at  Huntington, 
L.  I.,  Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  and  Montpelier,  Vt.  He  wrote 
The  Rector  of  St.  Bardolpli's  (1852);  Up  the  Rirer 
(1853),  and  Peeps  From  a  Belfry  (1855).  All  of  these, 
exhibit  the  experience  and  reflections  of  a  rural 
clergyman.  His  Salander  and  the  Dragon  (1850;  is 
a  fairy  romance  with  a  moral;  and  The  Trollopiad, 
or  TraveUiiKj  Gentleman  i a  America,  -was  a  satirical 
poem  published  anonvmously  by  him. 

SHENANDOAH,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania.  Popu- 
lation in  1890,  15,944.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI, 
p.  794. 

SHEPARD,  Charles  Upham,  mineralogist,  born 
at  Little  Compton,  R.  I.  in  1804;  died  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C..  1886.  He  studied  botany  and  mineralogy 
at  Harvard,  and  at  the  same  time  gave  instructions 
in  these  branches  at  Boston.  In  1830  lie  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  on  natural  history  at  Yale.  He 
held  that  place  until  1847.  In  1854  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  Medical  College  of  the 
State  of  South  Carolina.  He  relin(juished  this 
chair  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war ;  l)ut  in  1865, 
upon  the  urgent  invitation  of  his  former  col- 
leagues, he  resumed  his  duties  for  a  few  years. 
While  at  Charleston  he  discovered  rich  deposits  of 
phosphate  of  lime  in  the  vicinity  of  that  place. 
From  1867  till  1877  he  delivered  lectures  on  natural 
history  at  .\mherst,  where  he  formed  the  finest 
collection  of  minerals  and  meteorites  in  the 
country.  Prof.  Shepard  was  the  author  of  a  Tvat- 
ise  on  Mineralogy  and  a  Report  on  the  Geology  of  Con- 
necticut (1855). 

His  son,  Charles  Upham  Shehard,  chemist, 
was  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1842.  He  stud- 
ied first  at  Yale  College,  and  then  at  Gottingen, 
Germany,  where  he  graduated  as  M.  D.  in  1867.  On 
his  return  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry 
in  the  Medical  College  of  the  State  of  Sputli  Caro- 
lina, which  chair  he  held  until  1883.  Since  that 
time  he  has  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  prac- 
tice of  analytical  chemistry.  In  1887  he  i)resented 
to  the  Amherst  College  the  second  collection  of 
minerals  left  by  his  fatlier,  wliich  numl^ered  over 
10,000  specimens.  His  own  cabinet  of-200  meleor- 
.  ites  he  deposited  in  the  U.  S.  National  :Museum  at 
Washington,  D.  C. 

SHEPLEV,  George  Forster,  American  judge 
and  general,  born  at  Saco,  Maine,  in  1819,  died  at 
Portland,  :\Ie.,  1878.  Ihi  studied  law  at  Ifarvard, 
and  began  his  practice  at  Bangor,  .Me.,  in  1S40.  In 
1844  he  removed  to  Portland.  From  1853  I  ill  1861  he 
was  United  States  district  attorney  for  Maine.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  was  commissioned 
colonel  otthe  12th  Maine  volunteers,  and  took  part 
in  Gen.  Butler's  expedition  against  New  Orleans. 
At  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  he  led  the  third 
brigade  of  the  army  of  the  Gulf.  On  the  occupa- 
tion of  that  city  he  was  appointed  military  com- 
mandant and  acting-major,  and  assigned  to  the 
command  of  its  defenses.  In  .lune  18()2  he  was 
made  military  governor  of  Louisiana,  serving  until 
1864.  He  was  at  the  same  time  promoted  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers.  From  1S64  till  the  close 
of  the  warShepley  was  chief  of  staff  to  Gen.  Weit- 
zel,  who  was  in  command  of  Eastern  Virginia.  On 
the  capture  of  Richmond  he  was  a|ipointed  first 
military  governor  of  that  city.  In  .Inly  IStio  lie  re- 
signed from  the  army,  and  in  1869  he  was  appointed 


United  States  circuit  judge  for  Maine,  which  office 
he   held  till  his  deatli. 

SHERBET,  an  Oriental  beverage,  much  used 
in  IVlohamniedan  countries,  wucre  stimulating 
drinks  are  forbidden.  It  coi;sists  of  the  juices  of 
various  fruits  diluted  with  water,  and  sweetened 
exactly  in  the  way  in  wliich  lemonade  is  made. 

SHERIDAN,  PiHLip  Henky,  an  American  gen- 
eral, born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1831,  died  in  1888. 
He  greatly  distinguished  himself  during  the  civil 
war  at  Murfreesboro,  Chickaniauga,  Chattanooga, 
Fisher's  Hill,  Cedar  Creek,  Five  Forks,  Appomattox 
Court  House.  His  raid.  Way  8-25,  18G4,  is  anKsr.g 
the  brilliant  points  of  the  war,  Vv'hose  close  it  greatly 
hastened,  and  "Sheridan's  ride"  before  the  battle 
of  Winchester  has  taken  its  place  in  history  and 
invaded  the  domain  of  poetry.  He  became  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1869;  general  in  1888,  in  'which 
year  he  publislied  his  Pergonal  Memoirs. 

SHERIFF.  For  the  duties  and  powers  of  Sher- 
iffs in  England,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  XXl,  pp.  800- 
801.  In  the  United  States  the  sheriff  is  the  county 
officer  who  represents  the  executive  or  adminis- 
trative power  of  the  State  within  hiscounty.  He  is 
usually  elected  by  the  people  lor  a  term  of  three 
years,  but  subject  to  removal  by  the  governor  of 
the  State  for  cause.  The  sheriff's  duty  is  to  pre- 
serve the  peace  of  the  county.  In  so  doing  he  may 
appreliend  and  commit  to  prison  all  persons 
caught  in  breaking  the  peace,  or  he  may  bind  tin  m 
over  to  keep  the  peace.  He  must  pursue  and  take 
all  murderers,  thieves,  robbers,  rioters,  escaped  fel- 
ons, etc.;  must  keep  the  county  jail  and  defend  it 
against  mobs  or  rioters.  For  all  these  purposes  he 
may  summon  the  inhabitants  of  the  county  to  his 
assistance.  AVhen  so  assembled,  they  form  the  poitse 
comilattts  (the  power  of  the  county;.  All  male 
persons  over  fifteen  years  of  age  are  bound  to  an- 
swer the  sheriff's  summons  under  pain  of  fine  and 
imprisonment.  The  sheriff  executes,  within  his 
county,  all  civil  processes  issuing  from  the  courts, 
such  as  the  serving  of  writs,  the  attaching,  seizing 
and  selling  of  projierty  to  sati.'^fy  judgments,  etc. 
In  criminal  cases  he  arrests  and  holds  the  accused, 
summons  the  jury  and  executes  the  sentence  im- 
posed by  the  court. 

The  sheriff's  authority  is  c<infined  to  his  own 
county.  But  when  commanded  by  a  writ  of  halnd^ 
corpus,  he  may  convey  a  prisoner  out  of  his  county. 
If  a  prisoner  escapes  from  his  custody,  he  may  pur- 
sue liini  into  anotlier  county  and  retake  hitii  there. 

The  sheriff  ajipoints  deputies  to  assist  him  in 
the  performance  of  his  duties.  He  is  responsible 
for  their  acts  as  well  as  for  his  own  ;  and  is  there- 
fore refiuir(  d  to  give  bond  to  the  commonwealth 
for  the  faithful  perl'orniance  of  hisand  their  duties, 
without  fraud,  deceit,  or  oppressic'ii.  The  sheriff's 
deputies  may  perform  all  his  ministerial  duties, 
such  as  the  serving  and  returning  of  writs,  etc. 
But  any  (|uasi-jndicial  duty,  such  as  the  execution 
of  a  writ  of  inquiry,  or  the  assessment  of  damages 
(M'ith  the  aid  of  a  jury)  cannot  be  performed  by 
deputy.  They  must  be  performed  by  the  .'sheriff 
in  person. 

The  sherifr  is  responsible  for  the  safe-keeping 
and  feeding  of  the  prisoners  in  the  county  jail.  To 
provide  for  riotous  attacks  on  the  jail  by  outside 
mobs  or  by  the  prisoners,  he  must  have  a  sullicient 
force  at  hand  in  order  to  jirevent  escapes.  For  ex- 
ecuting criminal  process,  as  making  arrests,  the 
sheriff  is  authorized  to  break  into  a  man's  house, 
if  admittance  has  been  refused  after  demanding  it. 
He  is  also  empowered  to  execute  such  process  on 
Sunday,  although  he  is  not  allowed  to  serve  civil 
process  on  .Sunday,  nor  to  enter  forcibly  into  a 
man's  dwelling  in  doing  it. 


U20 


«  11  E  R  M  A  N  —  S  II  I  E  [.  1)  S 


SHERMAN,  RunKK,  a  signer  of  the  DeoIariUion 
of  Indepciuleiice,  horn  at  Newton,  Mass.,  in  1  "I'l ,  died 
at  New  Haven.  Connecticut,  in  1793.  He  was  early 
apprenticed  to  a  slioeinaker,  and  continued  in  that 
husine.ss  until  lie  was  twenty-two  years  old.  But 
he  devoted  every  spare  minute  to  study.  In  17-13 
lie  removed  with  his  family  to  New  Milford,  Conn., 
performing  the  journey  on  foot,  and  taking  his 
shoemaker's  tools  with  him.  Here  he  engaged  in 
mercantile  business.  In  1745  he  was  appointed 
surveyor  of  lands,  and  soon  afterwards  lie  furnish- 
ed the  astronomical  calculations  for  an  almanac 
then  published  in  .\ew  York.  Meanwhile  he  also 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1754. 
In  17()(i  he  was  appuinted  Judge  of  the  superior 
court  of  Connecticut,  lie  held  this  office  till  1789. 
In  August,  1774,  Sherman  was  elected  a  delegate 
to  the  C!ontinental  Congress.  In  this  body  he  was 
one  of  the  most  active  members,  serving  on  many 
important  committees.  Together  with  Franklin, 
Adams,  .letTcrsini,  and  Livingston  he  was  a]!- 
pointeil  to  draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
to  which  document,  lie  subsequently  affixed  his  sig- 
nature. In  17.S4  he  was  chosen  mayor  of  New  Haven, 
which  office  he  continued  to  hold  until  his  death. 
In  1791  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate. 
Thomas  .fefferson  spoke  of  him  as  "a '  man  who 
never  said  a  foolisli  thing,"  and  Nathaniel  Macon 
said,  '■Sherman  had  morn  common  sense  than  any 
man  I  have  ever  known." 

vSHEHM.iN,  TiniM.\s  West,  American  general, 
born  at  Newport,  H.  [.,  in  1813;  died  there  in  1879. 
He  graduated  at  West  foint  in  1836.  In  the  Mex- 
ican war  he  w^as  breveted  major  for  gallant  and 
meritorious  conduct  at  Buena  Vista,  Feb.  !!;-(,  1S47. 
During  the  civil  war  he  participated  in  the  siege  of 
Corinth,  Miss. ;  commanded  a  division  in  the  De- 
partment of  the  Gulf  from  Sept.  18,  1;<()1'  till  Jan. 
9,  lS(i3,  and  in  the  tlcfense  of  New  Orleans  from 
.Ian.  9,  till  May  19,  l.S()3,  when  he  joined  the  expe- 
dition to  Port  Hudson,  La.,  commanding  the  2nd 
division  of  the  19th  army  corps,  which  formed  the 
left  wing  of  the  besieging  army.  Here,  while 
leading  a  column  to  the  assault  on  May  27,  he  lost 
his  right  leg,  and  was  in  conseniience  invalided 
until  Feb.  15,  18ti4.  After  this  he  commanded  a 
brigade  of  artillery  in  the  Department  of  the 
(rulf,  of  the  defenses  of  New  Orleans,  and  of  the 
southern  and  eastern  districts  of  Louisiana.  On 
March  13,  IStiS,  he  was  brevited  major-general  "for 
gallant  and  meritorious  services  during  the  war." 
After  the  war  he  commanded  the  Srd  artillery  at 
Fort  Adams.  R.  I.,  the  Department  of  the  East,  and 
the  post  of  Key  West,  Fla.  He  was  retired  from 
active  service  as  major-general  IT.  .A...  on  Dec.  31, 
1870.  for  disability. 

SHERMAN,  a  city  of  Texas.  Population  in 
1890.  7,320.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  802. 

SHERMAN,  a  town  of  Wyoming,  situated  on  the 
main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  nearly  8,250 
feet  above  sea-level,  thirty-three  miles  west  of 
Cheyenne.  It  commands  an  extensive  view  of 
Laramie  plains  and  its  charming  scenery. 

SHERMAN,  .loiiN,  an  American  statesman, 
brother  of  General  Sherman,  born  in  Ohio  in  1823. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1844;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  l.S,5i>-t>l  ;  United  States  Senator 
in  1861-77;  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  1877-81; 
became  United  States  senator  again  in  1881,  and 
was  president  /inj  inn  of  the  Senate  in  1885-87;  his 
present  term  expires  1892. 

SHERMAN.  AVii.i.nM  Ti^fi-MSEn,  an  American 
genea-al,  brother  of  Senator  Sherman,  born  in  Ohio 
in  1820,  died  in  IStil.  He  was  educated  for  the 
army  at  West  Point,  and  received  a  commission  as 
iirst'lieutenant  in    1841.       During    thn    war    with 


Mexico,  he  was  pronicjied  to  the  rank  of  captain. 
In  1860,  at  the  commencement  of  the  war,  he  offered 
his  service  to  the  Federal  Covernment,  and  was 
appointed  Colonel  of  Infantry.  Raised  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general,  he  succeeded  General 
Anderson  in  the  Department  of  Ohio,  from  which 
he  was  removed  for  declaring  that  it  would  require 
200,000  men  Co  hold  Kentucky,  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  and  as  major-gen- 
eral in  the  siege  of  VicksViurg.  Raised  to  an  inde- 
pendent command,  he  marched  across  the  State  of 
Mississippi  and  took  command  of  the  Army  of 
Georgia,  forced  General  Hood  to  evacuate  Atlanta, 
and  captured  Savannah  and  Charleston,  from 
which  point  he  moved  north,  and,  by  cutting  off 
the  resources  of  (jeneral  Lee,  compelled  the  evacu- 
ation of  Richmond,  and  the  surrender  of  General 
I^ee  to  General  (irant,  April  9,  1865.  The  surren- 
der of  the  army  of  General  Johnstone  to  General 
iShernian  in  North  Carolina,  a  few  days  later,  and 
that  of  General  Kirby  Smith,  closed  the  war.  No 
northern  general  acijuired  greater  popularity  than 
Sherman.  He  was  appointed  Lieutenant-General 
in  1866,  and  in  1869  General  of  the  U.  S.  Army. 
He  had  ample  justice  done  to  the  daring  origi- 
nality of  design,  the  fertility  of  resource,  the  bril- 
liant strategy,  and  untiring  energy,  that  made 
Gen.  Grant  pronounce  him  "the  best  field-officer 
the  war  had  juoduced."  He  traveled  in  Europe 
and  the  East  in  1871-72  ;  published  his  Mnnoiis  in 
1S75.  and  retired  in  1884. 

SHIBBOLETH.  (Hell.  .(((■  (/  <;,iii  or  Klriutii),the 
test-word  used  by  the  Gileadites,  under  Jexihtliah, 
after  their  victory  over  the  Ephraimites,  recorded 
in  Judges  xii.  6.  It  appears  that  the  latter  could 
not  |iriiiioiince  the  sli,  and,  by  saying  sibboleth,  be- 
trayed themselves,  and  were  slaughtered  merci- 
lessly. The  word  Shibboleth  is  used  in  modern 
languages  in  the  sense  indicated  :  viz.,  a  test  of 
speech  and  manners  of  a  certain  rank  or  class  of 
society. 

SHIEL,  IjOiii,  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  a  part  of 
the  boundary  between  the  counties  of  Argyle  and 
Inverness  separating  the  district  of  Moidart  on 
the  north  from  those  of  Sunart  and  Ardgower  on 
the  south.  The  head  of  the  loch  is  about  sixteen 
miles  west  of  Fort  'William.  It  is  fifteen  miles  long, 
and  about  one  mile  broad,  and  communicates  with 
the  sea  by  Sliiel  Water  and  Loch  Moidart. 

SHIELDS,  Charles  Woodrufp,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  born  at  New  Albany,  Ind.,  in  1825;  grad- 
uated at  the.  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1847  ;  was  jiastor  of  the  First  church  at  Hempstead, 
L.  1.,  in  1840-50;  of  the  Second  church  at  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  in  1850-65,  and  then  became  professor  at 
Princeton  to  teach  the  harmony  of  science  and  re- 
vealed religion.  In  1871  he  was  also  appointed 
lirofessor  of  modern  history,  but  he  soon  resigned 
ills  chair  in  order  to  pursue  his  life-work,  which  is 
the  unification  of  the  Christian  churches.  In  1861 
he  published  his  Philonnpjtia  Vltiina.  and  in  1875  his 
Rrliqiiiv  (iiitl  Scinii-i   hi  Their  Hfhilion  to   I'lilliisoj^hy. 

SHIELDS,  James,  general,  born  in  Diingannon, 
County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  1810,  died  at  Ottumwa, 
Iowa,  in  1879.  He  came  to  America  when  sixteen 
years  old.  In  1832  he  settled  at  Kaskaskia,  111., 
and  began  practice  as  a  lawyer.  In  1843  he  was 
elected  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Illinois;  and 
in  1845  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of  the 
United  States  land  office.  In  the  ^lexican  war  he 
served  as  brigadier-general,  and  was  shot  through 
the  body  at  Cerro  Gordo;  at  Chapultepec  he  was 
again  severely  wounded.  In  1848  he  was  chosen 
United  States'Senator  from  Illinois.  After  serving 
in  the  senate  till  1855  he  removed  to  Minnesota, 
and  on  its  being  constituted  a  state,  he   was  again 


S  II  I  L  L  A  B  E  K  —  S  H  I  P  -  B  U  I  L  DING 


142) 


returned  as  L'ni;.'<l  States  Senainr.  DuriiiK  the 
civil  war  he  served  as  brigadier-gi-neral  of  volun- 
teers, commanding  in  1S62  at  the  battles  of  Win- 
chester, Va.,  and  Port  Republic,  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  In  March,  1863,  he  resigned  his  commis- 
sion and  settled  first  in  California,  bur  soo;;  aitff 
at  Carrollton,  Mo.,  where  he  resumed  his  law  prac- 
tice. He  served  as  railroad  commissioner,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  legislature  in  1874  and  1S79. 

SHILLABER.  Benjamin'  Peniiallow,  an  Ameri- 
can humorist,  known  by  his  pen  name  as  Mks. 
Partington,  born  in  Xew  Hampshire  in  1814.  died 
in  1890.  He  worked  as  printer  in  his  native  state,  in 
South  America,  and  in  Boston ;  became  an  editor 
of  the  Boston  "Post"  in  1847 ;  of  the  "Pathfinder" 
and  of  the  "Carpet  Bag"  in  1850;  of  the  "Post" 
again  in  1S53  ;  of  the  "Saturday  Evening  Gazette" 
in  1856;  became  a  general  newspaper  contributor 
in  1866;  published  Rhipnes  vnth Reason nnd  WitJwut; 
Poems;  Life  (ind  Sayings  of  Mrs.  Partintjtou,  and 
KiiiUintj-  Work. 

SHILOH,  a  small  village  in  Tennessee,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  which  a  great  battle  was  fought 
April  6  and  7,  1862,  Gen  Grant  commanding  on  the 
Union  side.  Gen.  Johnston  on  that  of  the  Confed- 
erates. Gen.  Lew  Wallace,  directing  the  advance 
on  one  side,  was  surrounded  the  first  day,  and  the 
Confederates  succeeded  in  dislodging  the  Union 
forces,  but  Gen.  Johnston  having  fallen,  the  com- 
mand devolved  upon  Beauregard,  who  was  driven 
back  by  Gen.  Grant,  reinforced  by  Buell's  army, 
and  forced  to  retreat  to  Corinth.  The  loss  of  the 
Confederates  was  10,747,  of  the  Union  army  12,- 
617. 

SHINGLES,  flat  pieces  of  wood  largely  used  in 
rooting  in  most  new  countries,  and  familiar  in  all 
portions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  They 
are  split  or  sawed  from  various  kinds  of  wood,  and 
are  "laid"  by  overlapping  the  ends,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  water  from  running  through  the  roof 
of  which  the  shingles  form  the  outer  covering. 
Various  machines  for  sawing  shingles  are  in  use, 
but  forcutting  shingles  there  has  been  devised  a  ma- 
chine specially  adapted  for  use  in  manufacturing 
cedar  shingles.  Cedar  "bolts"  are  steamed  five 
hours,  then  run  through  a  trimmer,  after  which 
they  go  to  a  heavy  cutting  knife,  wliich  runs  at 
seventy  strokes  a  minute,  the  shingles  being  cut 
oEf  with  ease  at  this  rate,  and  coming  from  the 
machine  almost  too  quickly,  in  fact,  to  be  counted. 
They  are  hot  and  steaming  and  cut  smooth,  and  are 
afterward  treated  the  same  as  other  shingles.  It 
is  claimed  that  the  steaming  drives  out  all  sap  and 
prevents  all  liability  to  warping ;  there  is  also  no 
sawdust,  hence  no  waste.  The  highest  cut  made 
in  a  ten-hour's  run  is  stated  at  96,000. 

SHIP-BUILOIXG.  For  information  on  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  Siiip-BuiLniNO,  see  Britannica.  Vol. 
>CXI,  pp.  809-826. 

Before  1861  the  schooner  had  come  to  stay  as  the 
coasting  vessel.  Few  men  are  required  with  this 
rig,  and  it  can  be  worked  in  and  out  of  harbors 
more  easily  than  the  scjuare-rigged  vessel.  On  ac- 
count of  tlie  shallow  harbors  and  sand-bars  of  the 
eastern  coast,  the  greater  number  of  the  .Atlantic 
coasting  schooners  have  flat  bottoms,  and  are  fitted 
with  centerhoards.  The  lines  are  free,  the  beam 
large,  and  the  bow  sharp  and  long.  For  ocean  voy- 
ages and  for  the  Pacific  waters  most  of  the  schoon- 
ers are  built  with  keels.  In  our  coasting  trade, 
schooners  are  used  to  transport  lumber,  coal,  ores, 
and  ice,  and  for  fishing  purposes.  The  yards  in 
Maine  still  turn  out  a  number  of  large  schooners 
each  year.  The  fSoreriior  Amrs.  built  in  ISSSat 
AValdoboro,  is  one  of  the  largest  scliooners  afloat. 
The  length  of  the  keel  is  232  feet,  over  all  265  feet, 


beam  50  feet,  de[)t!!  L-1  feet,  lower  hold  13  feet,  be- 
tween decks  8  feet.  She  has  a  tonnage  registry  of 
about  1800,  and  will  be  able  to  carry  about  3,000 
tons  of  coal  on  a  draught  of  20  feet.  In  her  con- 
struction 460  tons  of  Virginia  white-oak  are  used  in 
the  framing.  The  planking  is  6  inches  thick,  at  the 
gunwale  7^.2  inches,  the  heaviest  planking  ever  put 
on  a  scl'.ooner.  The  oenterboard  is  33  feet  long,  15 
feet  deep,  and  9  inches  thick,  made  of  white-oak. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  bolt-iron  are  used  in 
her  fastenings.  She  has  nine  cargo  hatches,  25  feet 
across.  The  most  striking  point  about  this  great 
schooner  is  her  rig  of  five  towering  masts,  desig- 
nated respectively  the  foremast,  mainmast,  mizzen- 
niast,  jiggermast.  and  spankermast.  The  five  lower 
masts  are  each  115  feet  long  and  30  inches  in  diam- 
eter. The  topmasts  are  56  feet  in  height.  The  jib- 
boom  is  75  feet  long  and  22  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  bowsprit  cap.  She  will  spread  63,000  square 
feet  of  canvas. 

The  building  (.1  whaling  vessels,  now  almost  dis- 
continued, was  once  a  great  industry  in  New  Eng- 
land. These  vessels  were  not  large,  as  a  rule  not 
exceeding  400  tons  register.  The  largest  whaler 
was  the  George  AVashington,  of  600  tons.  The 
earlier  whalers,  built  for  use  and  not  for  show, 
were  clumsy  to  look  at  above  water,  but  under 
water  the  model  was  usually  very  good,  being 
sharp  on  floor  and  ends, deep, and  v.ith  thegreatest 
beam  forward  of  amidships.  Of  late  lighter  sterns 
and  more  shapely  V»>ws  have  been  introduced,  and 
the  whaler  looks  as  neat  as  any  of  her  sister  ves- 
sels of  the  merchant  fleet.  Ko  material  except  the 
very  best,  and  that  without  flaw  of  any  kind,  was 
put  into  a  whaler  Ity  the  bui'lders  of  >'ew  Bedford, 
New  London  and  Sag  Harbor.  Every  detail  was 
carefully  looked  out  for  with  a  care  not  known  in 
any  oilier  branch  of  ship-building.  Especial  care 
was  taken  in  calking  the  seams,  and  the  vessel  was 
often  hauled  down  on  one  side  to  open  the  seams 
on  the  other  for  calking.  The  George  Howlaiul 
and  the  Roman,  calked  in  this  way,  sailed  for  eigh- 
teen years  without  recalking.  The  result  of  care- 
ful building  is  shown  in  their  longevity,  vessels  be- 
ing serviceable  seventy-five  years  after  building. 
The  scantlings  and  fastenings  of  whalers  are  in  the 
main  heavier  than  are  required  by  underwriters 
for  insurance  in  the  merchant  navy. 

Steam-whalers  have  lately  come  into  use.  In 
1.S79  the  Mary  and  Helen  was  launched  at  Bath. 
Maine.  She  is  138  feet  long,  SOVj  feet  beam,  regis- 
ters 420,  carries  a  full  spread  of  canvas,  and  has  a 
screw  engine  capable  of  driving  her  from  six  to 
eight  nn'les  an  hour.  She  is  built  of  oak.  yellow  pine 
and  hackmatack,  and  cost  !f65,000.  Since  then  sev- 
eral others  have  been  built. 

The  sailing  fishing  lleet  of  the  United  States  is 
large,  and  many  difl'erent  classes  of  vessels  are 
used,  which  cannot  all  be  described  here.  The  rig 
and  shape  of  boat  is  such  as  is  best  adapted  to  the 
peoillar  conditions  of  service  required,  ranging 
from  the  Chesajieakc  Bay  canoe  and  bug-eye  to  the 
fisliing  schooners  of  the  North. 

OcKAN  .\.\i)  River  Steamers.  In  1857  the  govern- 
ment of  the  I  nited  Slates  deliberately  turned 
over  the  vast  mail,  express  freight,  and  passenger 
business  of  this  country  with  ThUirope  to  foreign 
ships.  In  1856  Mr.  Vanderbilt  started  a  line  to 
Havre,  but  soon  gave  it  up.  During  the  civil  war 
the  foreign  lines  got  a  very  strong  foothold.  In 
!S(i6  an  American  line  was  formed  in  Boston,  and 
two  large  oak-built  screw  steamers,  the  Erie  and 
Ontario,  were  started  to  run  between  Boston  and 
Liverpool.  The  I>nglish  steamers  immediately  cut 
rates,  and  soon  the  .\merican  ships  had  to  be  with- 
drawn.    K  line  was  afterward   started   from  Baiti- 


1122 


S  11 1  P  -  i]  L  1  L  L>  1  N  G 


more  in  connection  with  the  B.  &  O.  E.  R..  but  had 
only  a  l)rief  existence. 

An  Aniericiin  steamship  line  ivas  started  in  1S73 
to  run  from  Philadelphia  to  Liverpool,  and  it 
still,  lives;  but  few  American  lines  have  been 
started  at  other  points.  The  coasting  lines,  such 
as  the  Clydes  and  the  Red  D,  have  extended  their 
trade  to  Cuba  and  Mexico.  Commodore  Garrison 
ran  a  few  v.ooden  steamers  from  New  York  to 
Brazil  after  the  war,  aided  by  a  subsidy,  and  John 
Roach  ran  a  line  of  steamers  from  1878  to  1881. 
The  Pacific  Mail  has  sent  steamers  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  Japan,  China,  and  Australia. 

America  is  renowned  for  nothing  more  than  for 
her  river  steam-boats,  the  necessities  of  internal 
navigation  developing  this  class  of  vessels  earlier 
than  ocean  steamers."  As  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries  drain  a  region  of  1,250,000  square  miles 
in  extent,  emljracing  nineteen  States  rich  in  pro- 
ducts of  every  kind,  and  several  growing  Territories, 
using  the  streams  as  commercial  highways,  it  is 
•natural  that  there  should  he  a  great  demand  for 
vessels  to  traverse  them.  Certain  restrictions  were 
put  upon  builders  by  the  character  of  tlie  rivers  to 
be  navigated,  owing  to  the  light  draughts  neces- 
sary. The  western  boats  are  marvels  in  the  way  of 
light-draught  construction,  as  there  are  vessels 
which  on  six  feet  draught  of  water  carry  2,000  tons 
of  freight.  These  boats  to  ascend  the  river  against 
strong  currents  and  to  tow  a  large  number  of 
barges,  must  be  fitted  with  engines  of  great  power, 
and  the  weight  of  the  engine  has  been  greatly  re- 
duced on  this  account.  The  walking  beam  and  the 
condenser  was  soon  dispensed  with,  the  engines 
being  so  placed  as  t6  act  directly  on  the  paddle- 
shaft.  The  earlier  steamers  were  mostly  side 
wheelers,  but  after  1SI50  stern  wheelers  came  into 
favor,  and  they  now  outnumber  the  side  wheelers 
three  to  one. 

On  the  upper  part  of  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  Arkansas,  and  the  otiier  tributary  streams 
of-  the  West,  the  passenger,  freight,  and  towing 
boats  are  stern-wheelers.  The  boats  are  not  so 
wide,  and  for  shallow-water  tratBc  are  superior  to 
the  side-wheelers.  Naturally,  the  boats  are  differ- 
ent from  the  side-wheelers.  The  wheel-houses  and 
guards  are  dispensed  with,  the  cylinder  timbers  are 
carried  aft  and  project  about  25  feet  abaft  the  hull 
proper,  having  a  slight  sheer  upward.  The  paddle- 
wheel  shaft  rests  on  these  timbers,  and  the  system 
of  hog  chains  is  carried  aft  to  support  and  distribute 
the  weight  of  the  wheel.  The  lines  of  the  boat  aft 
are  completely  changed,  as  there  is  no  taper  to  the 
after-end.  The  after-body  is  carried  back  square. 
and  the  floor  is  brought  up  at  the  stern,  giving  an 
appearance  of  two  hulls  when  looked  at  from  the 
stern.  Three  or  four  rudders  are  used,  the  side 
ones  hung  on  the  upright  stern-posts,  while  the 
middle  ones  are  hung  on  stout  rudder-posts  and 
project  partly  under  the  boat,  being  balanced  rud- 
ders. The  passenger  and  freight  boats  of  this  class 
are  handsome  boats,  from  200  to  265  feet  long  and 
from  35  to  40  feet  beam. 

The  towing  boats  are  not  so  large  and  have  small 
cabins,  but  are  built  with  very  strong  bows.  The 
w-ay  in  which  tows  are  made  up  on  the  western 
rivers  is  different  from  the  methods  of  the  seaports. 
as  the  tow  is  not  towed  but  pushed.  The  barges 
are  arranged  in  groups,  often  eight  or  ten  boats 
wide  and  four  boats  long,  strongly  lashed  together, 
and  arranged  ahead  and  alongside  the  forward  end 
.  of  the  steamer,  about  one-fourth  the  steamer  being 
Imried  in  the  group.  The  deck  is  carried  out 
scjuare  to  the  bow,  ending  in  a  strong  chock  for 
pushing.    To  steer  such  a  fleet  around  the  bends  of 


swift  rivers  requires  a  great  deal  of  experience  and 
judgment. 

There  are  four  classes  of  barges  in  use  on  the 
Western  rivers.  The  smallest  is  the  flat-boat, 
about  90  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and  from  5  to  7 
feet  deep,  used  on  small  streams  iox  short  tri])s  for 
carrying  about  110  tons  of  coal,  stone,  or  other 
rough  freight.  Next,  the  coal-barge,  which  is  an 
open  boat,  strongly  built,  with  raking  ends,  about 
125  feet  long  by  25  feet  wide  by  8  feet  deep.  They 
are  mainly  employed  between  the  coal  mines  in 
Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  and  the  markets 
along  the  river  as  far  as  New  Orleans.  The  coal- 
boat  or  broad  horn,  is  a  flat-bottomed,  square-ended 
boat,  with  a  strong  bottom  but  light  sides,  about 
175  feet  long  by  25  feet  wide  by  9}'o  feet  deep.  The 
fourth  is  the  mode)  barge,  having  hulls  built  like 
steamers,  sharp  at  both  ends,  decked,  and  some- 
times having  a  house. 

Flat-boats  are  built  up  on  the  sides  of  four  or  five 
tiers  of  solid  white-pine  logs,  6  to  8  inches  thick, 
laid  one  above  the  other,  and  strongly  bolted 
through  the  edges  with  square  iron  spikes,  with 
sheer  pieces  on  the  top  at  each  end.  A  number  o1 
cross  timbers,  about  ti  by  12  inches  and  12  feet 
apart,  with  the  ends  tenoned  into  the  lowest  log. 
form  the  side.  L'nder  these  are  fastened  fore  and 
aft  streaks,  and  the  bottom  is  tlien  planked  across 
with  2  and  3-inch  hemlock,  while  pine  or  oak. 
Iron  straps  are  placed  at  the  corners.  Uprights  are 
let  into  each  end  of  the  floor  timbers  and  bolted  to 
the  sides,  and  bitts  are  provided  for  tow  ing.  These 
boats  cost  from  $500  to  $650,  the  labor  on  one  of 
them  amounts  to  about  .$100,  using  from  13,000  to 
18,000  feet  of  lumber  and  1,450  lbs.  of  iron. 

The  coal  barge  is  simply  a  large  barge,  the  side- 
pieces  being  in  several  pieces  about  20  to  50  feet  in 
length.  Jt  requires  about  34,000  feet  of  lumber 
and  3000  lbs.  of  iron  for  one.  They  cost  from  $1,000 
to  $1,200,  a'bout  $190  of  this  being  for  labor.  They 
weigh  about  forty-five  tons  net,  and  draw  about  5 
inches  of  water  light. 

The  coal-boat  or  broad  horn  has  a  large  bottom, 
with  one  side  log  about  9by  16 inches,  strengthened 
at  the  scarpLes  by  a  piece  inside  18  feet  long, about 
4  by  16  inches,  fastened  on  with  10  large  tree-nails, 
7  or  8  screw  bolts,  and  a  number  of  spikes.  A  row 
of  uprights.  6  by  2}.2  inches,  is  set  up  perpendicu- 
larly from  the  side  or  bilge-log  all  around  the  boat, 
and  the  side  planking  is  fastened  to  those.  It  is 
usually  IJ.j-inch  hemlock.  A  couple  of  threads  of 
oakum  are  driven  into  the  seams.  A  light  clamp  is 
nailed  around  on  the  inside  of  the  uprights  to  sup- 
port light  beams  or  braces,  about  4  by  4  inches, 
which  are  put  in  about  S  feet  apart.  These  lioats 
cost  from  $800  to  $900,  and.  while  having  about 
twice  the  capacity  of  a  barge,  contain  about  the 
some  amount  of  lumber. 

These  three  classes  of  boats  were  originally  pro- 
pelled w  ith  huge  paddle-wheels  or  sweeps,  consist- 
ing of  a  heavy  pole  with  a  stout  board  at  the  end. 
This  is  no  longer  done  on  freight  barges,  though 
the  sweep-propelled  boat  is  still  met  with  on  the 
southern  bayous  and  sluggish  rivers,  in  the  shape 
of  flats  that  have  been  decked  over  and  hous-ed, 
and  are  fitted  up  as  traveling  tin  shops,  black- 
smiths' shops,  and  trading  vessels. 

Of  the  modern  barges  there  are  four  sizes,  carry- 
ing 600,  800,  1,000  and  1,200  tons  of  cargo  respec- 
tively. They  are  sharp  at  both  ends,  and  are  built 
about  like  the  steamboat  hulls,  but  have  but  one 
hog  chain,  which  hooks  under  the  main  keelson  at 
the  bow  and  stern,  and  is  supported  on  four  or  five 
pine|posts.  Light  collision  bulkheads  are  built  at  the 
bow  and  stern  and  when  the  hold   is   intended  for 


S  II  I  P  -  B  U  I  L  D  1  N  ( i 


1423 


grain  or  packastes-  ir  is  ceiled  up  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  form  a  cargo  box,  with  an  air  space  of  as 
much  as  two  feet  between  the  ccilinf^  and  the 
frames.  A  barge, -00  feet  long,_3ti  feet  beam,  and 
614  feet  hold,  with  a  cargo  box'169  feet  by  33  feet 
by  1 1  feet,  costs  about  .HO,O00. 

Tlie  great  highway  of  travel  and  trade  in  Oregon 
is  the  Columbia  River,  ocean  steamers  from  San 
Francisco  ascending  the  river  as  far  as  Astoria  and 
Portland,  numerous  small  steamboats  carrying 
freigiit  and  passengers  furtlier  into  the  interior. 
The  earlier  boats  were  side-wheelers,  but  the  later 
ones  are  stern-wheelers,  which  are  better  adapted 
to  shallow  waters.  These  boats  are  difl'erent  from 
the  Mississippi  boats.  Tlieir  keel,  forward,  begins 
to  rise  b5  or  20  feet  from  the  bow  and  runs  into  a 
rocker  stem;  aft,  the  stern  is  not  divided  into  two 
parts,  but  the  bottom  begins  to  rise  20  or  30  feet 
from  the  rudder  and  nearly  reaches  the  surface  at 
the  stern,  which  is  cut  off  square  above  the  water. 
The  hulls  are  made  of  yellow  fir,  tlie  liouses  of  white 
cedar  and  fir.  The  central  masts  are  carried  high 
up  as  there  are  no  bridges  to  interfere. 

Th?  lake  steamers  now  use  mostly  screws  for  pro- 
pulsion. The  first  propeller  on  the  lakes  was  the 
Vandalia,  of  138  tons,  built  at  Oswego.  N.  Y.,  in  1841. 
Within  ten  years  53  screw  vessels  were  built,  rang- 
ing in  size  from  baO  to  700  tons.  The  vast  freight 
traffic  of  the  lakes  has  called  for  larger  vessels  and 
the  AVelland  Canal  has  twice  had  its  locks  increased. 
The  vessels  employed  exclusively  for  freight  are 
called  "steam  barges."  These  have  small  houses  for- 
ward and  aft,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  four  masts. 
These  vessels  carry  coal,  grain,  iron-ore  and  lum- 
ber. The  machinery  is  placed  aft  in  the  lake  pro- 
pellers. When  not  loaded  the  bow  is  high  up  out 
of  the  water.  The  rough  weather  of  the  lakes 
strains  the  vessel  wlien  unloaded.  For  this  reason 
the  hog  frame  was  early  adopted,  and  it  was  given 
the  form  of  an  arch  sweeping  in  a  long  curve  from 
end  to  end  of  the  ship,  the  top  cord  made  of  several 
thicknesses  of  6  to  8-inch  oak  breaking  joints. 
These  arches  being  in  the  way  in  handling  lumber, 
they  have  mostly  been  dropjjed  in  lumlier  boats, 
and  strength  is  now  secured  by  strapping  the  hulls 
on  the  outside  of  the  frames  and  ceiling  tliem 
heavily  with  oak. 

IitoN'  Siirc-Hrii.nixo. — The  earlier  iron  vessels 
were  framed  mucli  in  the  same  way  as  the  wooden 
ones ;  but  soon  tliey  took  a  distinctive  character 
very  different  from  the  wooden  vessel.  A  history 
of  iron  ship-building  is  mainly  a  history  of  the  ship- 
yards of  til  is  country.  The  names  of  Cramp  and 
Roach  are  known  the  world  over  as  the  greatest 
builders  of  American  steel  and  iron  vessels,  and 
William  R.  Webb  stands  at  the  front,  as  a  wooden 
ship-liuilder.  II(>  has  built  the  Ke  d'ltaiia  and  the 
Re  Don  Luigi  de  Fortugallo,  for  the  Italian  gov- 
ernment, and  the  iron-clad  Rochamlieau,  now 
owned  by  France.  In  Boston  the  Atlantic  works 
built  vessels  and  machinery  for  a  great  many  differ- 
ent nations  and  during  the  war  turned  out  a  number 
of  monitors.  In  ISijS,  there  was  quite  a  movement 
in  the  direction  of  iron  shipbuilding  in  \ew  York. 
The  side-wheel  steamer  .'^ucliil  was  launched  from 
Bell's  yard  in  43  <iays  after  the  keel  was  laid.  The 
Novelty  Iron  \\'iirks  built  a  large  iron  steamer  the 
same  year,  and  four  iron  screw  vessels  were  begun 
at  the  Morgan  Iron  Works.  Prices,  wages,  and 
taxes  are  now  against  the  building  of  iron  ships  at 
New  York,  though  there  a  numlier  of  large  shops 
are  devoted  almost  entirely  to  marine-engine 
work.  The.home  of  shiii-ljnilders  is  tlie  Delaware — 
the  Clyde  of  America.  Here  there  is  the  water- 
front, railroad  facilities,  trained  lalior.  good  cli- 
mate and  fresh   water,  with  coal  and  iron   almost 


within  her  reach.  It  is  but  natural  that  here  we 
should  find  the  liest  sliiji-yards  of  the  country.  One 
of  the  earliest  iron  boats,  after  the  Codorus,  was  a 
small  l)arge  built  by  .lesso  Sti,rr,  half  a  mile  from 
the  river  and  hauled  down  to  i.ne  water.  The  work 
was  mainly  done  by  the  large  boiler-makers,  t  he 
hulls  being  designed  and  laid  down  on  the  mould- 
loft  floor  by  practical  slrip-builders.  With  the  ear- 
lier vessels  there  was  a  great  waste  of  material, 
the  plates  being  ordered  from  the  girth  at  the 
greatest  section,  considered  as  carried  to  the  ends, 
and  the  first  to  suggest  and  carry  into  successful 
execution  the  measurement  of  the  .•^izes  of  each 
plate  from  a  model  of  the  vessel,  upon  which  the 
plates  were  drawn  out,  was  Charles  H.  Cramp,  of 
Philadelphia  ;  a  great  saving  was  effected,  and  this 
method  of  ordering  material  was  at  once  adopted. 

It  was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war, 
however,  that  Philadelphia  began  to  forge  ahead 
of  New  York;  but  large  ships  being  then  needed, 
Wm.  Cramp  fitted  up  his  wooden  ship-yard  with 
machinery  capable  of  making  iron  plates  and 
frames.  The  first  vessel  was  the  New  Ironsides,  an 
iron-clad  wooden  ship  (see  Ihonclads).  When  first 
contracted  for,  her  timbers  were  still  growing  in  the 
woods,  l)ut  she  was  completed  in  six  months;  and, 
due  to  the  foresight  of  her  builders,  she  \\ as  able 
to  carry  a  much  heavier  battery  than  was  first  in- 
tended. The  monitor  Yazoo  was  built  at  this  yard, 
and  a  great  deal  of  other  government  work.  The 
plant  was  gradually  improved,  and  in  1K72  a  con- 
tract was  entered  Into  for  the  construction  of  four 
steamers  for  the  American  line  for  $2,400,000. 
These  were  most  excellent  specimens  of  American 
workmanship,  and  were  so  well  built  as  to  obtain 
the  most  favorable  rating  in  the  linglish  insurance 
companies. 

After  the  completion  of  these  vessels  wooden 
sliipbuilding  was  given  up  by  the  Cramps,  and 
since  that  time  they  have  built  four  fast  cruisers 
for  the  Russian  government  and  a  cumber  of  large 
steamers  and  yachts,  the  best  known  of  the  latter 
being  the  Atlanta,  Corsair,  and  Stranger.  One  nf 
the  finest  freight  steamers  afloat,  the  Herman  Win- 
ters, was  built  by  this  firm;  and  the  twin-screw 
passenger  steamer  Monmouth  is  the  first  of  her 
class,  and  by  her  success  will  probably  cause  the 
paddle  to  give  ]ilace  to  the  screw  in  many  cases. 
The  large  coasting  steamer  Iroquois  is  an  excellent 
exampleof  a  well-built,  comfortable,  and  s[)eedy  ves- 
sel. During  President;  Cleveland's  administration 
the  secretary  of  the  navy,  Wm.  C.  Whitney, awarded 
the  contracts  for  five  vessels  to  the  Cramps.  Three 
of  these  are  large,  protected  steel  cruisers,  sup- 
plied with  every  modern  appliance  in  construction 
and  armament.  Theseare  Nevvaj-k, Baltimore,  and 
Philadelphia.  The  Yorktown  is  a  fast  steel  cruiser 
of  alxiut  1,700  tons  disjilacement.  Tlie  fifth  vessel 
is  the  \'esuvius,  a  dynan'.ile-gun  cruiser,  armed 
with  three  iri-inch  dynamite  guns  capalile  of  throw- 
ing l)rojectiles  containing  o(l()  pounds  of  dynamite 
a  distance  of  two  miles.  Twenty  knots  speed  were 
guaranled.  and  the  vessel  attained  on  her  official 
trial  trij)  21.65  knots,  or  about  twenty-five  miles  an 
hour. 

The  firm  of  Neafie  &  bevy  lias  been  engaged  in 
the  construction  of  iron  vessels  for  a  iiiiniber  of 
years.  They  have  turned  out  many  ships  and  a 
vast  number  of  marine  engines. 

At  Camden  a  number  of  iron  tugs  are  built  each 
year.  At  Chester  is  Roach's  liig  ship-yard,  cover- 
ing seventy  acres  and  having  a  frontage  of  2,500 
feet.  Roach  first  bought  the  Morgan  Iron  Works 
at  New  York,  and  in  IK72  bought  the  jiroperly  at 
Chester,  the  first  ship  being  launched  at  Cliester. 
Vessels  have  been  built    here  for  the  Pacific  Mail, 


1424 


S  H  I  R  L  A  W  —  SHI  \-  E  L  Y 


the  Brazilian  line,  and  the  coasting  trade;  also  a 
number  of  vessels  for  the  I'nited  States  (Tovern- 
nient,  a  number  of  tlie  small  single-turreted  moni- 
tors, the  double- turreled  monitors  Puritan  and 
Miantoiiomoh,  and  the  Chicago,  Boston,  Atlanta, 
and  Dolphin. 

At  Wilmington  is  the  Harlan  A  Hollingsworth 
Company,  which  built  the  first  iron  coasting 
steamer  in  the  United  States.  Tliis  yard  has 
turned  out  many  fine  vessels,  among  them  the 
monitors  Amphitrite,  Patapsco,  Saugus,  and  Napa. 
All  sorts  of  vessels,  from  yatchs  to  iron-clads,  have 
heen  built,  among  the  former  the  victorious  Puri- 
tan. 

The  Pusey  &  Jones  Company,  of  Wilmington,  has 
turned  out  over  a  hundred  iron  vessels,  of  all  types, 
a  feature  being  made  of  vessels  for  river  tratiio. 

Tliere  is  an  iron  ship-building  yard  at  f^ocust 
Point,  Baltimore,  the  Columbian  Iron  Works  and 
Dry  Dock  Company.  This  yard  does  a  great  deal 
of  repair  work,  and  has  built  several  large  ferry- 
boats, and  is  now  building  the  gun-boat  Petrel  for 
the  government. 

The  Union  Iron  Works  have  lately  been  estab- 
lished at  San  Francisco,  under  the  management  of 
Irving  M.  Scott.  They  are  thoroughly  well  equip- 
ped with  the  best  modern  tools,  and  have  already 
entered  into  competition  with  the  older  yards  of 
the  East  for  government  work,  and  have  olitained 
contracts  to  build  two  large  steel-protected  cruis- 
ers, the  Charleston  and  San  Francisco. 

There  are  iron  ship-yards  at  Pittsburg  and  St. 
Louis,  and  on  the  great  lakes  at  Buffalo,  Cleveland, 
and  Wyandotte,  the  lake  steamers  coniparing  favor- 
ably with  vessels  built  in  the  yards  on  the  coast. 
The  machinery  costs  much  less  in  the  lake  steam- 
ers, on  account  of  being  used  in  fresh  water. 

The  United  States  has  now  the  educated  labor 
and  the  necessary  plants,  in  private  yards,  to  turn 
out  vessels  second  to  none  in  the  world.  The  lib- 
eral spirit  of  Congress  has  provided  the  money,  and 
the  Navy  Department,  by  insisting  upon  having 
only  the  best,  in  material,  design,  and  workman- 
ship, has  advanced  the  art  of  sliip-Iniilding  in  this 
country  to  such  an  extent  that  we  lead  the  rest  of 
the  world  in  everything  except  the  construction  of 
heavy-armored  vessels. 

The  Government  has  ship-building  .yards  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Boston,  Mass.,  New  York,  Phil- 
adelphia, Norfolk,  and  Mare  Island,  Cal.  The  yards 
at  New  York,  Norfolk,  Philadelphia,  and  Mare 
Island  are  fitted  up  to  build  iron  vessels. 

The  building  of  the  vessels  for  the  navy  comes 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  Bureau  of  Construc- 
tion and  Repair.  The  head  of  this  bureau  is  Chief 
Naval  Constructor  T.  D.  Wilson,  U.  S.  N.  The 
machinery  comes  under  the  Bureau  of  Steam  En- 
gineering, presided  over  by  Engineer-in-Chief  Geo. 
W.  :\lelville,  U.  S.  N. 

The  capital  required  in  wooden  ship-building  is 
not  great.  Most  of  the  workmen  bring  their  own 
hand-tools,  consisting  of  broad'  axes,  adzes,  saws, 
bevels,  chisels,  calking  iron  mallets  and  rules,  the 
builder  furnishing  the  large  tools,  such  as  cross-cut 
saws,  augers,  and  belt  cutters.  In  case  the  yartl  is 
supplied  with  steam,  a  saw-mill  and  planer  are 
added.  There  are  yards  wliere  large  wooden  ves- 
sels are  built  where  the  tools  would  not  bring 
$500. 

With  iron  ships  it  is  different;  here  nearly  all 
the  tools  are  furnished  by  the  builder,  and  many 
of  them  are  very  expensive  and  require  to  be  run 
by  power.  A  yard  to  build  the  hull  of  a  ship  of 
about  2500  tons  in  a  year  could  be  established  for 
about  .$(50,000,  including  bviildings,  but  a  first-class 
modern  ship  and   engine    building  establishment. 


capable  of  turning  out  about  70,000  tons  of  shipping 
and  50,000  horse-power,  fitted  with  the  latest  and 
most  improved  labor  saving  niachinos  will  cost 
about  *1,L'00,000.  _ 

Much  judgment  and  business  ability  is  recjuired 
in  handling  a  large  ship-yard  ;  often  a  slight  modi- 
fication in  a  method  of  securing  a  small  part  may 
result  in  the  saving  of  thousands  of  dollars,  and 
naturally  only  those  succeed  in  ship-building  wiio 
attend  strictly  to  business. 

SHIRLAW,  Walter,  painter,  born  at  Paisley, 
Scotland,  in  1838.  His  parents  brought  him  to 
America  in  18-10.  He  followed  for  some  time  the 
occupation  of  bank-note  engraving,  but  later  took 
up  painting.  In  1868  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Chicago  Academy  of  Design.  Two  years  later 
he  went  to  Munich  where  he  spent  seven  years 
(1870-77)  in  study.  His  first  work  of  import- 
ance was  the  Toning  of  the  Bell  (1874),  which  was 
followed  by  Slieep-Sliearing  in  (lie  Bararian  Higlt- 
lands  (1876).  The  latter  painting  received  honor- 
able mention  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1878. 
Other  notable  works  from  his  easel  are  Good  Morn- 
ing, now  in  the  Buffalo  Academy;  Indian  Girl; 
Very  Old;  Gosoiip  (1884),  and  Jealousy  (1886),  owned 
by  t;he  New  York  Academy  of  Design,  r  On  his  re- 
turn from  Europe  he  took  charge  of  the  Art  Stu- 
dent's League,  New  Y'ork,  and  for  several  years 
taught  in  the  composition  class.  Since  1888  he  has 
been  a  member  of  tlie  National  academy. 

SHIRLEY,  William,  a '  colonial  governor  of 
Massachusets,  born  at  Preston,  Sussex.  England, 
in  16!)3.diedat  Roxbury,  iMass..  in  1771.  Hestudied 
law  in  England,  and  came  in  1734  to  Boston,  i\[ass,. 
where  he  practiced  his  profession.  He  was  em- 
ployed as  conuiiissioner  in  settling  the  boundary 
between  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island.  In  1741 
he  was  appointed  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts. 
He  planned  the  successful  exi)edition  against  Cajie 
Breston  in  1775,  in  which  Louisburg  was  captured. 
Afterwards  he  went  to  England  and  was  a  commis- 
sioner at  Paris  in  1750  to  settle  the  northeastern 
boundary  of  New  England.  In  1755,  when  the  war 
with  France  was  renewed,  he  was  made  command- 
er-in-chief of  all  the  British  forces  in  North  Amer- 
ica. In  1756  Gen.  Aliercrombie  superceded  Shirley, 
who  was,  however,  made  lieutenant-general  in  175W 
and  afterwards  governor  in  the  Bahamas.  In  1770 
he  returned  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  Imilt  a 
spacious  mansion  at  Roxbury. 

SHISDRA.  or  .Iishra,  a  town  of  European  Rus- 
sia, in  the  government  of  Kaluga,  eighty  miles 
southwest  of  Kaluga,  on  the  Shisdra,  a  branch  of 
the  Oka.  It  has  manufactories  of  woollen  clotli, 
glass-works,  iron-works,  tanneries, and  oil-factories. 
Population,  al>out  10,000. 

SHITTI3I-W00D.  It  is  not  certain  what  kind 
of  wood  is  meant  by  this  name  in  tlie  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  made  of  it, 
and  probably  it  was  a  kind  of  wood  distinguished 
both  for  beauty  and  duraliility.  It  has  generally 
been  supposed  to  be  the  wood  of  the  Araein  Nilolira, 
which,  however,  is  deficient  in  both  these  quali- 
ties. Another  supposition  is,  that  the  wood  of  a 
species  of  oliVe  is  meant,  Olea  sirnilh,  which  pos- 
sesses them  boil),  and  is  particularly  remarkable 
for  its  durability. 

SLIIVELY,  Ben.ia.min  F..  member  of  Congress, 
born  in  Indiana  iii  1S57.  He  taught  school  from 
1874  till  1880,  when  he  engaged  in  journalism;  was 
elected  to  the  4Sth  Congress  to  till  the  vacancy 
occasioned  by  the  resignation  of  William  H.  Calk- 
ins; graduated  in  law  from  the  Ann  Arbor  Uni- 
versity with  the  class  of  1886;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar;  was  elected  to  Congress  again  in  1887;  his 
present  term  expires  in  1S93. 


S  H  0  E  -  INI  A  K  I  N  G  —  S  H  0  R  E  H  A  M 


1425 


SHOE->IAKIX(t.  For  general  article  on  Shoe- 
Making,  see  Britanuica.  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  S30-31.  The 
greatest  centre  for  shoe-making  in  America  is  the 
city  Lynn,  in  Massachusetts.  But  the  shoes  of  Lynn 
are  mostly  women's  shoes,  the  uppers  being  made 
principally  of  lasting  or  serge,  though  many  are  of 
leather.  The  work  of  this  town  embraces  all  the 
light,  cheap,  machine-sewed  styles.  Haverhill, 
which  comes  next  in  importance,  produces  abetter 
<iuality  of  shoe,  and  turns  out  sewed  and  pegged 
work  of  every  kind.  Many  other  places  in  Massa- 
chusetts, Maine  and  New  Hampshire  are  exten- 
sively engaged  in  the  business,  Boston  being  their 
commercial  centre. 

New  York  is  second  to  Boston  as  a  slioe  distribut- 
ing centre.  It  has  long  been  famed  for  the  quality 
of  its  shoes.  Only  fine  goods  are  made  there,  and 
the  city  turns  out  the  best  factory-made  boots  and 
shoes  in  the  world.  Only  the  finest  grades  of  Eu- 
ropean calf  and  kid  skins  and  the  best  domestic 
morocco  leather  are  used,  with  oak-tanned  soles. 
Philadelphia  has  an  equal  reputation  for  the  qual- 
ity of  its  shoes,  while  the  business  has  developed 
in  other  towns  in  the  interior  of  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York.  At  present  the  value  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts product  is  said  to  be  sixty  per  cent. of  that 
of  the  entire  country.  New  York  about  twelve, 
Pennsylvania  about  eighc,  and  the  other  States  in 
much  lower  proportions. 

As  the  shoe-making  business  increased,  workmen 
began  to  divide  their  labor,  and  each  to  confine 
himself  to  some  department,  such  as  crimping, 
l)Ottoming,  heeling,  and  finishing.  Much  work 
was  done  by  associations  of  journeymen.  This  sys- 
tem proved  advantageous,  and  lias  made  Boston 
tiie  principal  centre  of  such  operations  and  the 
largest  shoe  market  in  the  world.  There  have  lieeii 
great  improvements  in  the  American  manufacture 
of  shoes,  due  largely  to  new  methods  of  splitting 
and  currying  leather,  by  which  softer  and  finer 
material  is  produced.  Remarkable  progress  has 
been  made  in  methods  of  manufacture,  the  inven- 
tion of  labor-saving  machinery  greatly  increasing 
the  rapidity  and  cheapness  of  production.  In  old 
times  all  shoes  were  hand-sewed.  In  ISIS  the  shoe 
peg  was  invented  by  J.  \V.  Hopkinton,  of  Massa- 
chusetts. The  pegs  were  at  first  made  by  hand, 
afterward  by  machinery,  and  at  present  some 
thirty  establishments  are  engaged  in  this  branch 
of  the  business.  There  is  a  shoe-pegging  machine 
in  use  that  is  remarbalile  in  its  operation,  making 
the  pegs  and  driving  them  into  tlie  shoes  at  one 
operation.  A  shoe  can  be  i)egged  in  ten  seconds  by 
this  machine.  A  iiarrow  riblxm  nf  wood,  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a  peg  and  as  wide  as  the  length  of  a  peg,  is 
reeled  on  a  macliine  to  the  lengtli  of  100  or  more 
feet.  One  end  is  pared  sharp  by  (he  machine.  A 
strong  awl  worked  by  the  machine  pierces  holes  in 
the  leatlier,  and  at  the  same  time  a  sharp  knife 
splits  a  peg  from  the  end  of  the  ribhon  of  wood. 
The  point  of  the  peg  is  guided  to  the  hole,  and  as 
the  awl  comes  out  the  peg  goes  in,  and  is  driven 
home  while  the  awl  makes  the  next  hole.  The  | 
operation  goes  on  with  great  rai>idity,  the  shoe 
needing  only  to  be  guided  and  turned.  Many 
other  machines  are  in  use,  no  industry  being  more 
benefited  in  this  particular. 

The  sewing-machine  was  utilized  in  shoemaking 
soon  after  its  invention,  it  being  operated  by 
steam,  and  used  in  all  large  shoe  factories.  There 
are  other  machines  for  smoothing  and  rounding 
the  soles  after  pegging,  for  last  making,  and  for 
other  departments  of  the  business,  the  necessary 
labor  on  each  shoe  being  much  lessened  and 
greatly  divided.  About  1000  cords  of  wood  are 
used  annuallv  for  making  shoe  pegs,  but  many    of 


these  are  e.xported.  One  thousand  seven  hundred 
pegging  machines  were  in  use  in  the  United  States 
in  1873,  and  where  formerly  only  the  coarsest  boots 
and  shoes  were  pegged,  now  great  quantities  of 
fine  pegged  work  are  made.  The  pegging  machine 
described  was  invented  in  1S51  by  A.  C.  Gallahue, 
but  has  been  much  improved  by  others.  Equally  im- 
portant is  the  McKay  sole  sewing-machine,  invented 
about  1858  l)y  L.  K.  Blake,  but  perfected  and  intro- 
duced by  Gordon  McKay.  By  this  machine  soles 
can  be  sewed  on  nearly  100  pairs  of  womes's  shoes 
in  an  hour;  SOO  pairs  in  10  hours  is  a  fair  day's 
work.  This  machine  is  in  very  general  use  in  the 
United  States,  and  many  are  used  in  England  and 
Europe.  There  are  two  other  sole  sewers,  the 
Goodyear  welt  machine  making  an  almost  perfect 
imitation  of  hand-sewed  work.  There  are  several 
machines  for  stitching,  chief  among  them  being 
the  Elias  Howe  and  the  Wheeler  and  Wilson. 
Other  machines  in  extensive  use  are  the  cable 
screw  wire  and  wire  tacking  machines.  There  are 
also  machines  to  set  and'  burnish  the  edges,  to 
make  and  trim  the  heels,  and  for  various  other 
purposes,  while  there  are  scores  of  minor  inven- 
tions, all  of  American  production.  No  other 
country  except,  perhaps.  England  is  so  well  pro- 
vided with  factory-njade  shoes  as  the  United 
States.  In  Euroj>e  hand-made  shoes  are  still  in  the 
ascendant.  The  wooden  shoes  so  generally  used 
by  the  peasantry  of  Europe  are  cheap  and  durable, 
and,  though  clumsy,  are  said  to  be  comfortable. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  manufacture  them  in  the 
United  States  on  a  large  scale  in  1803,  but  with  very 
little  success  in  sale.     A  few  are  now  made. 

A  highly  important  brancli  fif  the  shoe-making 
industry,  of  the  ]9h  century  introduction,  is  the 
India-rubber  shoe,  now  deemed  almost  indispensable 
in  cities  for  wet  weatherand  winter  wear.  Thefirst  of 
these  were  clumsy  water-proof  shoes  imported  from 
Para,  but  no  shoes  of  any  desiralile  value  were 
made  till  after  the  perfection  of  the  Goodyear  vul- 
canizing process.  The  India-ruliber  shoe  industry 
has  since  grown  to  large  proportions,  and  wide- 
spread as  are  the  uses  of  vulcanized  rubber,  the 
shoe  and  boot  manufacture  forms  one  of  the  larg- 
est branches  of  its  employment. 

The  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  is  at  present 
among  the  most  important  of  those  industries  car- 
ried on  at  once  in  large  factories  and  in  a  vast 
number  of  petty  shops.  The  boot  and  shoe  facto- 
ries reported  in  the  census  of  18S0  numbered  1959, 
with  a  product  valued  at  $16(i,050,354.  The  mate- 
rial consumed  included  6,831, (itil  sides  of  sole 
leather,  l.'l,147.<)5i;  sides  of  upper  leather,  and  32,- 
960,614  pounds  of  other  leatlier,  with  a  total  pro- 
duct of  30,590,8!i6  pairs  of  boots,  and  94,887,615  pairs 
shoes.  Of  the  factories,  Massachusetts  has  more 
more  than  half,  982,  with  a  total  product  of  if95,- 
900,510;  New  York,  a  product  of  .$18,97!),2.'")9 ;  I'enn- 
sylvania.  New  Hampshire,  and  Maine,  each  over 
$5,000,000;  the  remaining  product  being  divided 
among  many  States. 

In  addi'ion  to  the  factory  production,  that  of  the 
small  shojis  sums  up  to  a  considerable  amount.  In 
1880  there  were  over  Ki.OOO  such  shojis  employing 
22,667  hands,  and  producing  $31,000,000  worth  of 
boots  and  shoes.  The  total  product  of  the  United 
States  in  1880  summed  up  to  $206,000,000  worth  of 
boots  and  shoes  made  for  sale. 

SHORE,  in  shiji-huilding,  a  strong  l)rop  or 
stanchion  placed  under  the  liottom  <ir  against  the 
side  of  a  ship,  to  keep  her  steady  on  the  slip  or  in 
dock.  Shores  are  also  used  to  support  or  prop  up  a 
building  during  alterations. 

SHOREHAM,  New,  a  seaport  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  of  England,  on   the  left  bank  and  at 


1126 


S  H  0  S  II  0  N  E  S  —  S  I  A  M 


the  tiioiith  of  liie  Adiir,  six  miles  vest  of  ISriglilon. 
More  tlian  eighty  smacks,  each  manned  by  live 
liands,  are  eniiiloyod  in  tliis  parish  in  the  oyster 
trach".  Tlie  parliamentary  borough,  which  in- 
cludes the  iidpe  of  Bramber,  contains  32,622  inhab- 
itanls. 

SIKtSlIONES  (Snalie  Indians),  a  trilie  of  North 
American  Indians.  See  Indians,  North  American, 
in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

SHOTTS,  a  small  and  ancient  village  of  Scot- 
land, close  to  the  Kirk  of  Shotts,  about  sixteen 
miles  east  of  Glasgow.  Valualjle  coal  and  iron- 
stone al>ound  in  the  district,  and  many  hands  are 
employed  in  iron-making.  Sliotts  forms  the  half- 
way station  lietween  Kdinburg  and  Glasgow. 

SHOWKltS  OK  FISHEvS  have  occasionally  fall- 
en in  different  parts  of  the  world,  exciting  great 
astonisliment.  Tliey  occur  much  more  frequently 
in  those  tropical  countries  where  violent  storms, 
sudden  gusts  of  wind,  and  whirlwinds  are  most 
commom  In  India,  a  shower  of  fishes  varying 
from  a  pound  and  a  lialf  to  three  pounds  in  weiglu 
has  been  known  to  fall.  Sometimes  the  fislies  are 
living,  more  frequently  tliey  are  dead,  and  some- 
times dry  or  putrefying.  They  are  always  of  kinds 
abundant  in  the  sea  or  fresh  waters  of  the  neigh- 
borhood; and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  they  are 
carried  up  into  the  air  by  violent  winds  or  whirl- 
winds. 

SHEEYEPORT,  a  town  of  Louisana.  Popula- 
tion in  1890,  11,979.  See  Britannica,  Yol.  XXI,  p. 
84.3. 

SHREW  MOLE  (Scnlopg),  a  genus  of  insectivor- 
ous Mammalia,  of  tlie  family  Talpidx,  very  nearly 
allied  to  the  moles.  There  are  six  incisors,  two 
canine  teeth,  eight  false  molars,  and  six  true  mo- 
lars in  eacli  jaw.  The  ear  is  destitute  of  auricle; 
the  eyes  are  very  small,  and  mucli  concealed;  the 
feet  are  five-toed,  tlie  fore-feet  large,  as  in  tlie 
mole.  The  w-hole  figure,  and  also  the  habits,  re- 
semble those  of  the  mole.  There  are  several 
species,  all  natives  of  North  America. 

SHROUDS,  very  strong  ropes  passing  from  the 
heads  of  tlie  lower  masts  in  a  ship  to  the  chains  or 
channels  on  her  sides,  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
lateral  support.  They  are  crossed  by  thinner  ropes, 
called  ratlines,  to  form  steps  or  ladders.  The  top- 
mast shrouds  in  rigged  vessels  are  similar,  except 
that  they  terminate  in  a  row  of  dead-eves  on  the 
outside  of  the  tops. 

SHRUB,  a  kind  of  liquor  made  chiefly  in  the 
West  Indies.  It  consists  of  lime  or  lemon-juice 
and  sirup,  to  which  a  small  portion  of  rum  is 
added;  other  flavoring  materials  are  used  occasion- 
ally. 

SHUBRIOK,  AViLLiAM  Branpord,  United  States 
rear  admiral,    born   at   Charleston,   S.   C,  in  1790; 


died  at  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1874*.  He  entered  the 
United  States  navy  in  1806,  and  served  on  the  Con- 
stitution under  Stewart,  taking  part  in  several 
noled  ■  exploits.  In  1838  he  had  command  of  a 
squadron  in  tlie  West  Indies  and  in  1847  in  the 
Pacific.  At  a  later  date  he  captured  Mazatlan,  a 
Mexican  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  as- 
sisted in- establishing  United  States  authority  in 
California.  In  1858  he  had  command  of  the  Brazil- 
ian squadron,  and  in  1859  he  conducted  the  expedi- 
tion against  Paraguay.  In  1862  he  was  retired  with 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  but  he  served  as  cliair- 
nian  of  the  light-house  board  till  1870. 

SHUFELIiT,  Robert  AVilson,  United  States 
rear-admiral,  born  at  Red  Hook,  Dutchess  county, 
N.  Y.,  in  1822.  Entering  the  navy  as  midahipman 
in  1839  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  commander  in 
1853,  when  he  resigned  from  the  navy  and  became 
chief  oflicer  of  the  Collins  line  of  Liverpool  steam- 
ers. During  the  first  part  of  our  civil  war  he  was 
I'nited  States  consul-general  at  Havanna.  In 
Ajiril,  1863,  he  was  reinstated  in  the  navy  with  a 
commission  of  commander.  He  was  given  the 
steamship  "Coneniaiigh,"  on  the  blockade  of 
Cliarleston,  S.  C,  and  look  part  in  the  engagements 
on  Morris  Island.  In  186-1-66  he  commanded  the 
steamer  "Proteus,"  of  the  eastern  Gulf  blockading 
s(iuadron.  On  Dec.  31,  1869,  he  was  commissioned 
ca]itain,  and  commanded  the  monitor,  "'iliantono- 
moli"  in  1870,  after  which  he  had  charge  of  the 
Tehuantepec  and  Nicaraguan  surveying  expedi- 
tions of  1870-71.  In  1876  he  became  commodore. 
In  1879-80  he  sailed  to  Africa  and  the  East  Indies 
to  see  and  report  as  to  the  best  means  of  reviving 
American  trade  with  those  countries.  In  1883  he 
was  advanced  to  rear-admiral,  and  retired  from  the 
serviee  in  1884. 

STIUGSHUT,  a  smalltown  of  Turkey,  in  Asia,  in 
Anatolia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sakaria,  ninety- 
five  miles  southeast  of  Constantinople.  On  an  ad- 
jacent hill  is  the  tomb  of  Othman,  founder  of  the 
Ottoman  dynasty.  The  tomb  resembling  the 
handsomest  and  most  ancient  of  the  Turkish  Sepul- 
chres at  Constantinople, stands  amid  a  grove  of 
cypresses  and  evergreen  oaks.  Population  esti- 
mated at  about  5,000. 

SIAM,  Gii.F  OF,  an  important  arm  of  the  Chinese 
Sea,  liounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Siam,  on 
the  southwest  by  the  ]Malay  Peninsula,  and  on 
the  northeast  by  Cambodia.  At  its  entrance  be- 
tween Cambodia"  Point  and  the  Peninsula  of  Pa- 
taiii,  on  the  Malay  Peninsula,  it  is  235  miles  wide, 
and  from  the  line  drawn  between  these  two  points 
it  extends  inland  in  a  northwest  direction  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Jleinam,  a  distance  of  450  miles. 
Four  great  rivers,  navigable  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  their  mouths,  fall  inio  the  gulf. 


END  OF  AMERICAN  REVISIONS  AND  ADDITIONS,  VOL.  XXI. 


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